From 335515d3318eef4115f94f1f6f05ec995f2b2260 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Caleb Fontenot <CCF100@caleb.fontenot.lusfiber.net>
Date: Mon, 15 Jul 2019 09:16:41 -0700
Subject: [PATCH] add files

---
 Fwd: programming project.eml                  |   321 +
 madlibs.py                                    |    83 +
 python multiplier.py                          |     4 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/.buildinfo             |     4 +
 .../tzinfo_examples.py                        |   175 +
 .../_images/hashlib-blake2-tree.png           |   Bin 0 -> 11148 bytes
 .../_images/logging_flow.png                  |   Bin 0 -> 49648 bytes
 .../_images/pathlib-inheritance.png           |   Bin 0 -> 6431 bytes
 .../_images/turtle-star.png                   |   Bin 0 -> 39585 bytes
 .../_images/win_installer.png                 |   Bin 0 -> 48994 bytes
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/about.rst.txt |    39 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/bugs.rst.txt  |    92 +
 .../_sources/c-api/abstract.rst.txt           |    26 +
 .../_sources/c-api/allocation.rst.txt         |    71 +
 .../_sources/c-api/apiabiversion.rst.txt      |    39 +
 .../_sources/c-api/arg.rst.txt                |   676 +
 .../_sources/c-api/bool.rst.txt               |    46 +
 .../_sources/c-api/buffer.rst.txt             |   508 +
 .../_sources/c-api/bytearray.rst.txt          |    87 +
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 .../_sources/c-api/capsule.rst.txt            |   157 +
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 .../_sources/c-api/code.rst.txt               |    48 +
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 .../_sources/c-api/complex.rst.txt            |   132 +
 .../_sources/c-api/concrete.rst.txt           |   117 +
 .../_sources/c-api/contextvars.rst.txt        |   144 +
 .../_sources/c-api/conversion.rst.txt         |   131 +
 .../_sources/c-api/coro.rst.txt               |    34 +
 .../_sources/c-api/datetime.rst.txt           |   249 +
 .../_sources/c-api/descriptor.rst.txt         |    40 +
 .../_sources/c-api/dict.rst.txt               |   240 +
 .../_sources/c-api/exceptions.rst.txt         |  1032 +
 .../_sources/c-api/file.rst.txt               |    76 +
 .../_sources/c-api/float.rst.txt              |    79 +
 .../_sources/c-api/function.rst.txt           |   108 +
 .../_sources/c-api/gcsupport.rst.txt          |   159 +
 .../_sources/c-api/gen.rst.txt                |    44 +
 .../_sources/c-api/import.rst.txt             |   317 +
 .../_sources/c-api/index.rst.txt              |    26 +
 .../_sources/c-api/init.rst.txt               |  1576 +
 .../_sources/c-api/intro.rst.txt              |   725 +
 .../_sources/c-api/iter.rst.txt               |    46 +
 .../_sources/c-api/iterator.rst.txt           |    50 +
 .../_sources/c-api/list.rst.txt               |   151 +
 .../_sources/c-api/long.rst.txt               |   297 +
 .../_sources/c-api/mapping.rst.txt            |   103 +
 .../_sources/c-api/marshal.rst.txt            |    94 +
 .../_sources/c-api/memory.rst.txt             |   604 +
 .../_sources/c-api/memoryview.rst.txt         |    63 +
 .../_sources/c-api/method.rst.txt             |   100 +
 .../_sources/c-api/module.rst.txt             |   479 +
 .../_sources/c-api/none.rst.txt               |    26 +
 .../_sources/c-api/number.rst.txt             |   283 +
 .../_sources/c-api/objbuffer.rst.txt          |    55 +
 .../_sources/c-api/object.rst.txt             |   451 +
 .../_sources/c-api/objimpl.rst.txt            |    17 +
 .../_sources/c-api/refcounting.rst.txt        |    73 +
 .../_sources/c-api/reflection.rst.txt         |    49 +
 .../_sources/c-api/sequence.rst.txt           |   169 +
 .../_sources/c-api/set.rst.txt                |   166 +
 .../_sources/c-api/slice.rst.txt              |   122 +
 .../_sources/c-api/stable.rst.txt             |    38 +
 .../_sources/c-api/structures.rst.txt         |   376 +
 .../_sources/c-api/sys.rst.txt                |   329 +
 .../_sources/c-api/tuple.rst.txt              |   218 +
 .../_sources/c-api/type.rst.txt               |   118 +
 .../_sources/c-api/typeobj.rst.txt            |  1418 +
 .../_sources/c-api/unicode.rst.txt            |  1726 +
 .../_sources/c-api/utilities.rst.txt          |    21 +
 .../_sources/c-api/veryhigh.rst.txt           |   394 +
 .../_sources/c-api/weakref.rst.txt            |    69 +
 .../_sources/contents.rst.txt                 |    31 +
 .../_sources/copyright.rst.txt                |    19 +
 .../_sources/distributing/index.rst.txt       |   176 +
 .../_sources/distutils/apiref.rst.txt         |  2031 ++
 .../_sources/distutils/builtdist.rst.txt      |   459 +
 .../_sources/distutils/commandref.rst.txt     |   104 +
 .../_sources/distutils/configfile.rst.txt     |   142 +
 .../_sources/distutils/examples.rst.txt       |   338 +
 .../_sources/distutils/extending.rst.txt      |    96 +
 .../_sources/distutils/index.rst.txt          |    40 +
 .../_sources/distutils/introduction.rst.txt   |   212 +
 .../_sources/distutils/packageindex.rst.txt   |    16 +
 .../_sources/distutils/setupscript.rst.txt    |   711 +
 .../_sources/distutils/sourcedist.rst.txt     |   240 +
 .../_sources/distutils/uploading.rst.txt      |     8 +
 .../_sources/extending/building.rst.txt       |   167 +
 .../_sources/extending/embedding.rst.txt      |   336 +
 .../_sources/extending/extending.rst.txt      |  1365 +
 .../_sources/extending/index.rst.txt          |    74 +
 .../_sources/extending/newtypes.rst.txt       |   619 +
 .../extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst.txt       |   897 +
 .../_sources/extending/windows.rst.txt        |   137 +
 .../_sources/faq/design.rst.txt               |   808 +
 .../_sources/faq/extending.rst.txt            |   447 +
 .../_sources/faq/general.rst.txt              |   446 +
 .../_sources/faq/gui.rst.txt                  |   159 +
 .../_sources/faq/index.rst.txt                |    17 +
 .../_sources/faq/installed.rst.txt            |    53 +
 .../_sources/faq/library.rst.txt              |   839 +
 .../_sources/faq/programming.rst.txt          |  1903 +
 .../_sources/faq/windows.rst.txt              |   284 +
 .../_sources/glossary.rst.txt                 |  1146 +
 .../_sources/howto/argparse.rst.txt           |   765 +
 .../_sources/howto/clinic.rst.txt             |  1734 +
 .../_sources/howto/cporting.rst.txt           |   257 +
 .../_sources/howto/curses.rst.txt             |   552 +
 .../_sources/howto/descriptor.rst.txt         |   443 +
 .../_sources/howto/functional.rst.txt         |  1262 +
 .../_sources/howto/index.rst.txt              |    32 +
 .../_sources/howto/instrumentation.rst.txt    |   427 +
 .../_sources/howto/ipaddress.rst.txt          |   340 +
 .../_sources/howto/logging-cookbook.rst.txt   |  2551 ++
 .../_sources/howto/logging.rst.txt            |  1103 +
 .../_sources/howto/pyporting.rst.txt          |   452 +
 .../_sources/howto/regex.rst.txt              |  1386 +
 .../_sources/howto/sockets.rst.txt            |   383 +
 .../_sources/howto/sorting.rst.txt            |   293 +
 .../_sources/howto/unicode.rst.txt            |   763 +
 .../_sources/howto/urllib2.rst.txt            |   605 +
 .../_sources/install/index.rst.txt            |  1117 +
 .../_sources/installing/index.rst.txt         |   246 +
 .../_sources/library/2to3.rst.txt             |   474 +
 .../_sources/library/__future__.rst.txt       |   103 +
 .../_sources/library/__main__.rst.txt         |    25 +
 .../_sources/library/_dummy_thread.rst.txt    |    22 +
 .../_sources/library/_thread.rst.txt          |   193 +
 .../_sources/library/abc.rst.txt              |   342 +
 .../_sources/library/aifc.rst.txt             |   239 +
 .../_sources/library/allos.rst.txt            |    29 +
 .../_sources/library/archiving.rst.txt        |    20 +
 .../_sources/library/argparse.rst.txt         |  2089 ++
 .../_sources/library/array.rst.txt            |   278 +
 .../_sources/library/ast.rst.txt              |   274 +
 .../_sources/library/asynchat.rst.txt         |   213 +
 .../library/asyncio-api-index.rst.txt         |   218 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-dev.rst.txt      |   237 +
 .../library/asyncio-eventloop.rst.txt         |  1625 +
 .../library/asyncio-exceptions.rst.txt        |    91 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-future.rst.txt   |   250 +
 .../library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst.txt       |   510 +
 .../library/asyncio-platforms.rst.txt         |   106 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-policy.rst.txt   |   221 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-protocol.rst.txt |  1041 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-queue.rst.txt    |   200 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-stream.rst.txt   |   470 +
 .../library/asyncio-subprocess.rst.txt        |   356 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-sync.rst.txt     |   332 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio-task.rst.txt     |   908 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncio.rst.txt          |    93 +
 .../_sources/library/asyncore.rst.txt         |   360 +
 .../_sources/library/atexit.rst.txt           |   112 +
 .../_sources/library/audioop.rst.txt          |   282 +
 .../_sources/library/base64.rst.txt           |   290 +
 .../_sources/library/bdb.rst.txt              |   372 +
 .../_sources/library/binary.rst.txt           |    23 +
 .../_sources/library/binascii.rst.txt         |   194 +
 .../_sources/library/binhex.rst.txt           |    57 +
 .../_sources/library/bisect.rst.txt           |   149 +
 .../_sources/library/builtins.rst.txt         |    42 +
 .../_sources/library/bz2.rst.txt              |   326 +
 .../_sources/library/calendar.rst.txt         |   420 +
 .../_sources/library/cgi.rst.txt              |   545 +
 .../_sources/library/cgitb.rst.txt            |    84 +
 .../_sources/library/chunk.rst.txt            |   137 +
 .../_sources/library/cmath.rst.txt            |   316 +
 .../_sources/library/cmd.rst.txt              |   381 +
 .../_sources/library/code.rst.txt             |   184 +
 .../_sources/library/codecs.rst.txt           |  1502 +
 .../_sources/library/codeop.rst.txt           |    72 +
 .../_sources/library/collections.abc.rst.txt  |   306 +
 .../_sources/library/collections.rst.txt      |  1251 +
 .../_sources/library/colorsys.rst.txt         |    65 +
 .../_sources/library/compileall.rst.txt       |   267 +
 .../_sources/library/concurrency.rst.txt      |    31 +
 .../library/concurrent.futures.rst.txt        |   494 +
 .../_sources/library/concurrent.rst.txt       |     6 +
 .../_sources/library/configparser.rst.txt     |  1314 +
 .../_sources/library/constants.rst.txt        |   100 +
 .../_sources/library/contextlib.rst.txt       |   872 +
 .../_sources/library/contextvars.rst.txt      |   281 +
 .../_sources/library/copy.rst.txt             |    95 +
 .../_sources/library/copyreg.rst.txt          |    65 +
 .../_sources/library/crypt.rst.txt            |   173 +
 .../_sources/library/crypto.rst.txt           |    19 +
 .../_sources/library/csv.rst.txt              |   550 +
 .../_sources/library/ctypes.rst.txt           |  2486 ++
 .../_sources/library/curses.ascii.rst.txt     |   229 +
 .../_sources/library/curses.panel.rst.txt     |   120 +
 .../_sources/library/curses.rst.txt           |  1835 +
 .../_sources/library/custominterp.rst.txt     |    19 +
 .../_sources/library/dataclasses.rst.txt      |   593 +
 .../_sources/library/datatypes.rst.txt        |    33 +
 .../_sources/library/datetime.rst.txt         |  2285 ++
 .../_sources/library/dbm.rst.txt              |   375 +
 .../_sources/library/debug.rst.txt            |    18 +
 .../_sources/library/decimal.rst.txt          |  2137 ++
 .../_sources/library/development.rst.txt      |    29 +
 .../_sources/library/difflib.rst.txt          |   746 +
 .../_sources/library/dis.rst.txt              |  1265 +
 .../_sources/library/distribution.rst.txt     |    15 +
 .../_sources/library/distutils.rst.txt        |    44 +
 .../_sources/library/doctest.rst.txt          |  1868 +
 .../_sources/library/dummy_threading.rst.txt  |    20 +
 .../_sources/library/email.charset.rst.txt    |   247 +
 .../library/email.compat32-message.rst.txt    |   759 +
 .../library/email.contentmanager.rst.txt      |   198 +
 .../_sources/library/email.encoders.rst.txt   |    75 +
 .../_sources/library/email.errors.rst.txt     |   114 +
 .../_sources/library/email.examples.rst.txt   |    67 +
 .../_sources/library/email.generator.rst.txt  |   279 +
 .../_sources/library/email.header.rst.txt     |   205 +
 .../library/email.headerregistry.rst.txt      |   455 +
 .../_sources/library/email.iterators.rst.txt  |    83 +
 .../_sources/library/email.message.rst.txt    |   751 +
 .../_sources/library/email.mime.rst.txt       |   259 +
 .../_sources/library/email.parser.rst.txt     |   320 +
 .../_sources/library/email.policy.rst.txt     |   651 +
 .../_sources/library/email.rst.txt            |   152 +
 .../_sources/library/email.utils.rst.txt      |   218 +
 .../_sources/library/ensurepip.rst.txt        |   133 +
 .../_sources/library/enum.rst.txt             |  1124 +
 .../_sources/library/errno.rst.txt            |   639 +
 .../_sources/library/exceptions.rst.txt       |   748 +
 .../_sources/library/faulthandler.rst.txt     |   172 +
 .../_sources/library/fcntl.rst.txt            |   170 +
 .../_sources/library/filecmp.rst.txt          |   198 +
 .../_sources/library/fileformats.rst.txt      |    17 +
 .../_sources/library/fileinput.rst.txt        |   208 +
 .../_sources/library/filesys.rst.txt          |    39 +
 .../_sources/library/fnmatch.rst.txt          |   102 +
 .../_sources/library/formatter.rst.txt        |   351 +
 .../_sources/library/fractions.rst.txt        |   183 +
 .../_sources/library/frameworks.rst.txt       |    18 +
 .../_sources/library/ftplib.rst.txt           |   442 +
 .../_sources/library/functional.rst.txt       |    15 +
 .../_sources/library/functions.rst.txt        |  1729 +
 .../_sources/library/functools.rst.txt        |   505 +
 .../_sources/library/gc.rst.txt               |   297 +
 .../_sources/library/getopt.rst.txt           |   164 +
 .../_sources/library/getpass.rst.txt          |    51 +
 .../_sources/library/gettext.rst.txt          |   660 +
 .../_sources/library/glob.rst.txt             |   111 +
 .../_sources/library/grp.rst.txt              |    68 +
 .../_sources/library/gzip.rst.txt             |   213 +
 .../_sources/library/hashlib.rst.txt          |   739 +
 .../_sources/library/heapq.rst.txt            |   322 +
 .../_sources/library/hmac.rst.txt             |   138 +
 .../_sources/library/html.entities.rst.txt    |    47 +
 .../_sources/library/html.parser.rst.txt      |   340 +
 .../_sources/library/html.rst.txt             |    39 +
 .../_sources/library/http.client.rst.txt      |   571 +
 .../_sources/library/http.cookiejar.rst.txt   |   760 +
 .../_sources/library/http.cookies.rst.txt     |   286 +
 .../_sources/library/http.rst.txt             |   128 +
 .../_sources/library/http.server.rst.txt      |   472 +
 .../_sources/library/i18n.rst.txt             |    18 +
 .../_sources/library/idle.rst.txt             |   901 +
 .../_sources/library/imaplib.rst.txt          |   609 +
 .../_sources/library/imghdr.rst.txt           |    81 +
 .../_sources/library/imp.rst.txt              |   412 +
 .../_sources/library/importlib.rst.txt        |  1747 +
 .../_sources/library/index.rst.txt            |    79 +
 .../_sources/library/inspect.rst.txt          |  1385 +
 .../_sources/library/internet.rst.txt         |    48 +
 .../_sources/library/intro.rst.txt            |    62 +
 .../_sources/library/io.rst.txt               |  1049 +
 .../_sources/library/ipaddress.rst.txt        |   920 +
 .../_sources/library/ipc.rst.txt              |    28 +
 .../_sources/library/itertools.rst.txt        |   904 +
 .../_sources/library/json.rst.txt             |   731 +
 .../_sources/library/keyword.rst.txt          |    23 +
 .../_sources/library/language.rst.txt         |    28 +
 .../_sources/library/linecache.rst.txt        |    64 +
 .../_sources/library/locale.rst.txt           |   588 +
 .../_sources/library/logging.config.rst.txt   |   818 +
 .../_sources/library/logging.handlers.rst.txt |  1108 +
 .../_sources/library/logging.rst.txt          |  1280 +
 .../_sources/library/lzma.rst.txt             |   434 +
 .../_sources/library/macpath.rst.txt          |    21 +
 .../_sources/library/mailbox.rst.txt          |  1593 +
 .../_sources/library/mailcap.rst.txt          |    76 +
 .../_sources/library/markup.rst.txt           |    27 +
 .../_sources/library/marshal.rst.txt          |   118 +
 .../_sources/library/math.rst.txt             |   507 +
 .../_sources/library/mimetypes.rst.txt        |   269 +
 .../_sources/library/misc.rst.txt             |    13 +
 .../_sources/library/mm.rst.txt               |    22 +
 .../_sources/library/mmap.rst.txt             |   290 +
 .../_sources/library/modulefinder.rst.txt     |   114 +
 .../_sources/library/modules.rst.txt          |    19 +
 .../_sources/library/msilib.rst.txt           |   563 +
 .../_sources/library/msvcrt.rst.txt           |   154 +
 .../_sources/library/multiprocessing.rst.txt  |  2862 ++
 .../_sources/library/netdata.rst.txt          |    23 +
 .../_sources/library/netrc.rst.txt            |    90 +
 .../_sources/library/nis.rst.txt              |    65 +
 .../_sources/library/nntplib.rst.txt          |   567 +
 .../_sources/library/numbers.rst.txt          |   223 +
 .../_sources/library/numeric.rst.txt          |    26 +
 .../_sources/library/operator.rst.txt         |   557 +
 .../_sources/library/optparse.rst.txt         |  2037 ++
 .../_sources/library/os.path.rst.txt          |   462 +
 .../_sources/library/os.rst.txt               |  4197 +++
 .../_sources/library/ossaudiodev.rst.txt      |   448 +
 .../_sources/library/othergui.rst.txt         |    56 +
 .../_sources/library/parser.rst.txt           |   356 +
 .../_sources/library/pathlib.rst.txt          |  1114 +
 .../_sources/library/pdb.rst.txt              |   536 +
 .../_sources/library/persistence.rst.txt      |    23 +
 .../_sources/library/pickle.rst.txt           |   937 +
 .../_sources/library/pickletools.rst.txt      |   110 +
 .../_sources/library/pipes.rst.txt            |    95 +
 .../_sources/library/pkgutil.rst.txt          |   229 +
 .../_sources/library/platform.rst.txt         |   284 +
 .../_sources/library/plistlib.rst.txt         |   226 +
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 .../_sources/library/pprint.rst.txt           |   374 +
 .../_sources/library/profile.rst.txt          |   669 +
 .../_sources/library/pty.rst.txt              |   114 +
 .../_sources/library/pwd.rst.txt              |    76 +
 .../_sources/library/py_compile.rst.txt       |   138 +
 .../_sources/library/pyclbr.rst.txt           |   153 +
 .../_sources/library/pydoc.rst.txt            |   109 +
 .../_sources/library/pyexpat.rst.txt          |   876 +
 .../_sources/library/python.rst.txt           |    27 +
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 .../_sources/library/quopri.rst.txt           |    63 +
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 .../_sources/library/rlcompleter.rst.txt      |    61 +
 .../_sources/library/runpy.rst.txt            |   179 +
 .../_sources/library/sched.rst.txt            |   137 +
 .../_sources/library/secrets.rst.txt          |   198 +
 .../_sources/library/select.rst.txt           |   646 +
 .../_sources/library/selectors.rst.txt        |   277 +
 .../_sources/library/shelve.rst.txt           |   203 +
 .../_sources/library/shlex.rst.txt            |   418 +
 .../_sources/library/shutil.rst.txt           |   659 +
 .../_sources/library/signal.rst.txt           |   529 +
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 .../_sources/library/smtpd.rst.txt            |   277 +
 .../_sources/library/smtplib.rst.txt          |   586 +
 .../_sources/library/sndhdr.rst.txt           |    51 +
 .../_sources/library/socket.rst.txt           |  1876 +
 .../_sources/library/socketserver.rst.txt     |   660 +
 .../_sources/library/spwd.rst.txt             |    75 +
 .../_sources/library/sqlite3.rst.txt          |  1103 +
 .../_sources/library/ssl.rst.txt              |  2724 ++
 .../_sources/library/stat.rst.txt             |   427 +
 .../_sources/library/statistics.rst.txt       |   454 +
 .../_sources/library/stdtypes.rst.txt         |  4744 +++
 .../_sources/library/string.rst.txt           |   845 +
 .../_sources/library/stringprep.rst.txt       |   143 +
 .../_sources/library/struct.rst.txt           |   474 +
 .../_sources/library/subprocess.rst.txt       |  1401 +
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 .../_sources/library/sysconfig.rst.txt        |   258 +
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 .../_sources/library/test.rst.txt             |  1406 +
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 .../_sources/library/threading.rst.txt        |   998 +
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 .../_sources/library/timeit.rst.txt           |   371 +
 .../_sources/library/tk.rst.txt               |    46 +
 .../_sources/library/tkinter.rst.txt          |   863 +
 .../library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst.txt      |    36 +
 .../_sources/library/tkinter.tix.rst.txt      |   583 +
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 .../_sources/library/tracemalloc.rst.txt      |   693 +
 .../_sources/library/tty.rst.txt              |    41 +
 .../_sources/library/turtle.rst.txt           |  2440 ++
 .../_sources/library/types.rst.txt            |   374 +
 .../_sources/library/typing.rst.txt           |  1143 +
 .../_sources/library/undoc.rst.txt            |    26 +
 .../_sources/library/unicodedata.rst.txt      |   173 +
 .../library/unittest.mock-examples.rst.txt    |  1266 +
 .../_sources/library/unittest.mock.rst.txt    |  2426 ++
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 .../_sources/library/urllib.error.rst.txt     |    66 +
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 .../_sources/reference/compound_stmts.rst.txt |   853 +
 .../_sources/reference/datamodel.rst.txt      |  2727 ++
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 .../_sources/whatsnew/2.2.rst.txt             |  1269 +
 .../_sources/whatsnew/2.3.rst.txt             |  2086 ++
 .../_sources/whatsnew/2.4.rst.txt             |  1565 +
 .../_sources/whatsnew/2.5.rst.txt             |  2289 ++
 .../_sources/whatsnew/2.6.rst.txt             |  3315 ++
 .../_sources/whatsnew/2.7.rst.txt             |  2799 ++
 .../_sources/whatsnew/3.0.rst.txt             |   929 +
 .../_sources/whatsnew/3.1.rst.txt             |   552 +
 .../_sources/whatsnew/3.2.rst.txt             |  2739 ++
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 .../_sources/whatsnew/changelog.rst.txt       |     7 +
 .../_sources/whatsnew/index.rst.txt           |    39 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/doctools.js    |   314 +
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 .../_static/jquery-3.2.1.js                   | 10253 ++++++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/jquery.js      |     4 +
 .../_static/language_data.js                  |   297 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/iterator.html    |   232 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/list.html        |   342 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/mapping.html     |   287 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/marshal.html     |   268 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/memory.html      |   814 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/memoryview.html  |   246 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/method.html      |   284 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/module.html      |   709 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/number.html      |   487 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objbuffer.html   |   235 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/object.html      |   639 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objimpl.html     |   196 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/refcounting.html |   245 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/reflection.html  |   234 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/sequence.html    |   363 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/set.html         |   349 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/slice.html       |   311 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/stable.html      |   207 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/structures.html  |   672 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/sys.html         |   536 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/tuple.html       |   459 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/type.html        |   317 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/typeobj.html     |  1678 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/unicode.html     |  2020 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/utilities.html   |   211 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/veryhigh.html    |   597 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/weakref.html     |   252 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/contents.html          |  5743 +++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/copyright.html         |   187 +
 .../distributing/index.html                   |   326 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/apiref.html  |  2095 ++
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/extending.html     |   601 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/programming.html   |  1967 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/windows.html       |   434 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-A.html        |  1315 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-B.html        |   948 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-C.html        |  2327 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-D.html        |  1301 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-E.html        |  1639 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-F.html        |  1345 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-L.html        |   956 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-M.html        |  1203 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-N.html        |   782 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-O.html        |   867 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-P.html        |  4592 +++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Q.html        |   264 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-R.html        |  1882 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-S.html        |  2999 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Symbols.html  |  1723 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-T.html        |  1249 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-U.html        |   838 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Z.html        |   243 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-_.html        |  1090 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-all.html      | 29854 ++++++++++++++++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex.html          |   184 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/glossary.html          |  1132 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/argparse.html    |   888 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/clinic.html      |  1806 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/cporting.html    |   564 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/curses.html      |   729 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/descriptor.html  |   636 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/functional.html  |  1350 +
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 .../howto/instrumentation.html                |   598 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/ipaddress.html   |   510 +
 .../howto/logging-cookbook.html               |  2589 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/logging.html     |  1233 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/pyporting.html   |   594 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/regex.html       |  1564 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/sorting.html     |   473 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/unicode.html     |   878 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/urllib2.html     |   770 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/install/index.html     |  1293 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/abc.html       |   512 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/aifc.html      |   426 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/allos.html     |   420 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/archiving.html |   231 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/argparse.html  |  2240 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/array.html     |   536 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ast.html       |   592 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asynchat.html  |   405 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncore.html  |   560 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/atexit.html    |   289 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/audioop.html   |   466 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/base64.html    |   464 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bdb.html       |   619 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binary.html    |   236 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binascii.html  |   379 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binhex.html    |   236 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/builtins.html  |   216 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/chunk.html     |   324 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/cmd.html       |   554 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/code.html      |   369 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/codeop.html    |   243 +
 .../library/collections.abc.html              |   633 +
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 .../library/concurrent.futures.html           |   712 +
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 .../library/configparser.html                 |  1442 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/constants.html |   293 +
 .../library/contextlib.html                   |  1053 +
 .../library/contextvars.html                  |   489 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/copy.html      |   258 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/copyreg.html   |   244 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/crypt.html     |   353 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/crypto.html    |   221 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/csv.html       |   735 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ctypes.html    |  2646 ++
 .../library/curses.ascii.html                 |   456 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/curses.html    |  2441 ++
 .../library/curses.panel.html                 |   309 +
 .../library/custominterp.html                 |   197 +
 .../library/dataclasses.html                  |   769 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/datatypes.html |   320 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/datetime.html  |  2814 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/dbm.html       |   593 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/debug.html     |   253 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/decimal.html   |  2419 ++
 .../library/development.html                  |   350 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/difflib.html   |   970 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/dis.html       |  1613 +
 .../library/distribution.html                 |   215 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/distutils.html |   216 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/doctest.html   |  1890 +
 .../library/dummy_threading.html              |   194 +
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 .../library/email.headerregistry.html         |   696 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.html     |   316 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ensurepip.html |   309 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/enum.html      |  1328 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/errno.html     |   936 +
 .../library/exceptions.html                   |  1075 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fcntl.html     |   329 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filecmp.html   |   392 +
 .../library/fileformats.html                  |   223 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fileinput.html |   376 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filesys.html   |   247 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fnmatch.html   |   280 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/formatter.html |   551 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fractions.html |   372 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/i18n.html      |   215 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/idle.html      |   950 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imaplib.html   |   812 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imghdr.html    |   274 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imp.html       |   593 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/importlib.html |  2105 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/index.html     |   587 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/inspect.html   |  1801 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/internet.html  |   397 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/intro.html     |   235 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/io.html        |  1304 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ipaddress.html |  1399 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ipc.html       |   200 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/itertools.html |  1202 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/lzma.html      |   627 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/macpath.html   |   195 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mailbox.html   |  2115 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mailcap.html   |   246 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/markup.html    |   295 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/marshal.html   |   284 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/msvcrt.html    |   345 +
 .../library/multiprocessing.html              |  3397 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/netdata.html   |   265 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nis.html       |   232 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nntplib.html   |   773 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/numeric.html   |   258 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/operator.html  |   906 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/optparse.html  |  2047 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/os.html        |  4412 +++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/os.path.html   |   642 +
 .../library/ossaudiodev.html                  |   638 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/othergui.html  |   228 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/parser.html    |   510 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pathlib.html   |  1428 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pdb.html       |   757 +
 .../library/persistence.html                  |   257 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pickle.html    |  1122 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pipes.html     |   274 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pkgutil.html   |   398 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/platform.html  |   473 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/plistlib.html  |   403 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/poplib.html    |   437 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/posix.html     |   259 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pprint.html    |   546 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/profile.html   |   856 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyclbr.html    |   348 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pydoc.html     |   266 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyexpat.html   |  1103 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/python.html    |   273 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/queue.html     |   478 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/quopri.html    |   238 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/random.html    |   675 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/re.html        |  1839 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/readline.html  |   556 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/runpy.html     |   331 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sched.html     |   318 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/secrets.html   |   363 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/select.html    |   966 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/shelve.html    |   377 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sndhdr.html    |   220 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/socket.html    |  2170 ++
 .../library/socketserver.html                 |   838 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/spwd.html      |   277 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sqlite3.html   |  1729 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ssl.html       |  3252 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/stat.html      |   721 +
 .../library/statistics.html                   |   613 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/stdtypes.html  |  4946 +++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/string.html    |  1054 +
 .../library/stringprep.html                   |   330 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/struct.html    |   737 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tabnanny.html  |   239 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tarfile.html   |  1100 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/telnetlib.html |   430 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/termios.html   |   284 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/test.html      |  1673 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/threading.html |  1151 +
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 .../library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html         |   208 +
 .../library/tkinter.tix.html                  |   655 +
 .../library/tkinter.ttk.html                  |  2009 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/token.html     |   371 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tokenize.html  |   436 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/trace.html     |   437 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tty.html       |   212 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/turtle.html    |  2925 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/types.html     |   606 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/typing.html    |  1453 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/undoc.html     |   206 +
 .../library/unicodedata.html                  |   347 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/unittest.html  |  2665 ++
 .../library/unittest.mock-examples.html       |  1399 +
 .../library/unittest.mock.html                |  2580 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/unix.html      |   230 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/venv.html      |   780 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/windows.html   |   220 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winreg.html    |   947 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winsound.html  |   362 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/wsgiref.html   |   938 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.html       |   340 +
 .../library/xml.sax.handler.html              |   612 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.sax.html   |   346 +
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 .../library/xml.sax.utils.html                |   266 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xmlrpc.html    |   192 +
 .../library/xmlrpc.server.html                |   626 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipapp.html    |   597 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipfile.html   |   953 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipimport.html |   349 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zlib.html      |   491 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/license.html           |  1144 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/objects.inv            |   Bin 0 -> 103237 bytes
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/py-modindex.html       |  2052 ++
 .../reference/compound_stmts.html             |   820 +
 .../reference/datamodel.html                  |  2440 ++
 .../reference/executionmodel.html             |   368 +
 .../reference/expressions.html                |  1557 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/grammar.html |   335 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/import.html  |  1135 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/venv.html     |   364 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/using/cmdline.html     |  1124 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/using/windows.html     |  1237 +
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 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.2.html      |  1303 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.3.html      |  2038 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.4.html      |  1570 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.5.html      |  2192 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.6.html      |  3171 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.7.html      |  2622 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.0.html      |   975 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.1.html      |   678 +
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.2.html      |  2724 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.3.html      |  2527 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.4.html      |  2332 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.5.html      |  2421 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.6.html      |  2265 ++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.7.html      |  2356 ++
 .../whatsnew/changelog.html                   | 14343 ++++++++
 python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/index.html    |   564 +
 stories.txt                                   |     2 +
 storyCount.txt                                |     1 +
 test.py                                       |    28 +
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 create mode 100644 madlibs.py
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 create mode 100644 python-3.7.4-docs-html/_downloads/6bc7a57013e3076d5e194caa123fe59c/tzinfo_examples.py
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diff --git a/Fwd: programming project.eml b/Fwd: programming project.eml
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+References: <CAKC1GZMw27BuUN8oXwD2TvbOH3BW4EfDnz_ATZrX1phXk6Z0yg@mail.gmail.com>
+ <BD8BCA5E-FACB-45F8-8AF7-94EEF2371B19@pediatrictlc.com> <CAKC1GZMJMe92ftWbG1cpOyzOvZPmYkG6BtwYz2XWOvzM7_SH6A@mail.gmail.com>
+In-Reply-To: <CAKC1GZMJMe92ftWbG1cpOyzOvZPmYkG6BtwYz2XWOvzM7_SH6A@mail.gmail.com>
+From: Allison LeBouef <allison@pediatrictlc.com>
+Date: Thu, 27 Jun 2019 14:38:46 -0500
+Message-ID: <CAEuKE+65LdbHaTHnXVXb5ZK6XLsHQgqxT1QSdQh=Zm2m6dDqNA@mail.gmail.com>
+Subject: Fwd: programming project
+To: foley2431@gmail.com
+Content-Type: multipart/alternative; boundary="0000000000002d3380058c535034"
+
+--0000000000002d3380058c535034
+Content-Type: text/plain; charset="UTF-8"
+Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
+
+---------- Forwarded message ---------
+From: Andy LeGoullon <andylegoullon@gmail.com>
+Date: Thu, Jun 20, 2019 at 12:14 AM
+Subject: Re: programming project
+To: Allison LeBouef <allison@pediatrictlc.com>
+
+
+Here's the MadLibs project I give to my students. If Caleb wants to do this
+project, have him do as much as he can on his own and then he can email me
+with questions when he gets stuck. If he'd rather do some other project
+that he thinks up, I could help him with that too.
+
+Andy
+
+Programming Project: MadLibs
+
+
+   1.
+
+   Write a MadLibs story containing 10 or so prompts (words you will ask
+   the user to enter, for example a noun, a country, a snack food, etc). Th=
+e
+   story can be about anything you want: How to catch a fish, how to bake a
+   cake, what happens during a trip to Disney World, etc.
+   2.
+
+   Make a file called madlibs.py. This file will contain all the python
+   code to play your Madlibs. Add code to this file that does the following=
+:
+   1.
+
+      Asks the first prompt, for example, "Enter the name of a vegetable"
+      2.
+
+      Store the user's entered word in a variable.
+      3.
+
+      Repeat these two tasks for all the remaining prompts.
+      4.
+
+      Print out the completed MadLibs story, replacing the prompts with the
+      words stored in the variables.
+      3.
+
+   Run your program and make sure it works correctly.
+
+
+
+On Fri, Jun 14, 2019 at 9:48 AM Allison LeBouef <allison@pediatrictlc.com>
+wrote:
+
+> I love Madlibs! I like the idea of getting him to formulate the questions
+> he needs to ask too. Let=E2=80=99s try it and see what happens! Thanks so=
+ much for
+> helping me with this
+> Allison
+>
+> Sent from my iPhone
+>
+> > On Jun 14, 2019, at 8:55 AM, Andy LeGoullon <andylegoullon@gmail.com>
+> wrote:
+> >
+> > Are you familiar with Madlibs? I was thinking of having Caleb make a
+> computer program version of Madlibs as his first project. It's more of an
+> intermediate level project, but not impossible for someone starting out a=
+nd
+> it sounds like he's looking for a challenge. I can give you the project
+> details if you think this would work out.
+> >
+> > He would definitely need some assistance on it at times, but it would
+> give him good experience asking for help. I could help him out via
+> email/phone. Or I can come in if he is getting very frustrated. Anna know=
+s
+> Python and may also be willing to help.
+> >
+> > Andy
+>
+
+
+--=20
+Allison LeBouef, LOTR/ OT supervisor
+Pediatric Therapy and Learning Center, LLC
+108 Energy Pkwy
+Lafayette, LA  70508
+(337)504-4244
+fax (337)706-7612
+www.pediatrictlc.com
+
+*Important Confidentiality Information:*
+
+The information contained in this transmission may contain privileged and
+confidential information, including patient information protected by
+federal and state privacy laws. It is intended only for the use of the
+person(s) named above. If you are not the intended recipient, any review,
+dissemination, distribution, or duplication of this communication is
+strictly prohibited. If you are not the intended recipient, please contact
+the sender by calling 337-504-4244 <(337)%20504-4244>.  Feel free to leave
+a voice message stating the sender and the subject line. Please destroy all
+copies of the original message.
+
+Clients: Please note that this is not an encrypted email which means that
+the e-mail and any information it contains could be unknowingly
+intercepted.  Please consider this in all future correspondence.
+
+--0000000000002d3380058c535034
+Content-Type: text/html; charset="UTF-8"
+Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
+
+<div dir=3D"ltr"><br><br><div class=3D"gmail_quote"><div dir=3D"ltr" class=
+=3D"gmail_attr">---------- Forwarded message ---------<br>From: <strong cla=
+ss=3D"gmail_sendername" dir=3D"auto">Andy LeGoullon</strong> <span dir=3D"a=
+uto">&lt;<a href=3D"mailto:andylegoullon@gmail.com">andylegoullon@gmail.com=
+</a>&gt;</span><br>Date: Thu, Jun 20, 2019 at 12:14 AM<br>Subject: Re: prog=
+ramming project<br>To: Allison LeBouef &lt;<a href=3D"mailto:allison@pediat=
+rictlc.com">allison@pediatrictlc.com</a>&gt;<br></div><br><br><div dir=3D"l=
+tr">Here&#39;s the MadLibs project I give to my students. If Caleb wants to=
+ do this project, have him do as much as he can on his own and then he can =
+email me with questions when he gets stuck. If he&#39;d rather do some othe=
+r project that he thinks up, I could help him with that too.=C2=A0<div><br>=
+</div><div>Andy</div><div><br></div><div><span id=3D"m_-3611317769460724002=
+gmail-docs-internal-guid-61d5ccb3-7fff-4947-19e4-7ad848c11bb7"><p dir=3D"lt=
+r" style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt;text-align:ce=
+nter"><span style=3D"font-size:11pt;font-family:Arial;color:rgb(0,0,0);back=
+ground-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-v=
+ariant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Prog=
+ramming Project: MadLibs</span></p><br><ol style=3D"margin-top:0pt;margin-b=
+ottom:0pt"><li dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"list-style-type:decimal;font-size:10pt;=
+font-family:Arial;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-varian=
+t-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;whi=
+te-space:pre-wrap"><p dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;=
+margin-bottom:0pt"><span style=3D"font-size:10pt;background-color:transpare=
+nt;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-alig=
+n:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Write a MadLibs story containing 10 or so =
+prompts (words you will ask the user to enter, for example a noun, a countr=
+y, a snack food, etc). The story can be about anything you want: How to cat=
+ch a fish, how to bake a cake, what happens during a trip to Disney World, =
+etc.</span></p></li><li dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"list-style-type:decimal;font-s=
+ize:10pt;font-family:Arial;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;fo=
+nt-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:bas=
+eline;white-space:pre-wrap"><p dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin=
+-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style=3D"font-size:10pt;background-color:=
+transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vert=
+ical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Make a file called </span><span s=
+tyle=3D"font-size:10pt;background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-va=
+riant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline=
+;white-space:pre-wrap">madlibs.py</span><span style=3D"font-size:10pt;backg=
+round-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian=
+:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">. This file will cont=
+ain all the python code to play your Madlibs. Add code to this file that do=
+es the following:</span></p></li><ol style=3D"margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:=
+0pt"><li dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"list-style-type:lower-alpha;font-size:10pt;fo=
+nt-family:Arial;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-=
+numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white=
+-space:pre-wrap"><p dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;ma=
+rgin-bottom:0pt"><span style=3D"font-size:10pt;background-color:transparent=
+;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:=
+baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Asks the first prompt, for example, &quot;En=
+ter the name of a vegetable&quot;</span></p></li><li dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"l=
+ist-style-type:lower-alpha;font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;color:rgb(0,0,0=
+);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-eas=
+t-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"><p dir=3D"ltr"=
+ style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style=3D=
+"font-size:10pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;fo=
+nt-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">=
+Store the user&#39;s entered word in a variable.</span></p></li><li dir=3D"=
+ltr" style=3D"list-style-type:lower-alpha;font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;=
+color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;f=
+ont-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"=
+><p dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"=
+><span style=3D"font-size:10pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-nu=
+meric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-s=
+pace:pre-wrap">Repeat these two tasks for all the remaining prompts.</span>=
+</p></li><li dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"list-style-type:lower-alpha;font-size:10p=
+t;font-family:Arial;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-vari=
+ant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;w=
+hite-space:pre-wrap"><p dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin-top:0p=
+t;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style=3D"font-size:10pt;background-color:transpa=
+rent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-al=
+ign:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Print out the completed MadLibs story, r=
+eplacing the prompts with the words stored in the variables.</span></p></li=
+></ol><li dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"list-style-type:decimal;font-size:10pt;font-=
+family:Arial;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-num=
+eric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-sp=
+ace:pre-wrap"><p dir=3D"ltr" style=3D"line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margi=
+n-bottom:0pt"><span style=3D"font-size:10pt;background-color:transparent;fo=
+nt-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:bas=
+eline;white-space:pre-wrap">Run your program and make sure it works correct=
+ly.</span></p></li></ol></span></div><div><br></div></div><br><div class=3D=
+"gmail_quote"><div dir=3D"ltr" class=3D"gmail_attr">On Fri, Jun 14, 2019 at=
+ 9:48 AM Allison LeBouef &lt;<a href=3D"mailto:allison@pediatrictlc.com" ta=
+rget=3D"_blank">allison@pediatrictlc.com</a>&gt; wrote:<br></div><blockquot=
+e class=3D"gmail_quote" style=3D"margin:0px 0px 0px 0.8ex;border-left:1px s=
+olid rgb(204,204,204);padding-left:1ex">I love Madlibs! I like the idea of =
+getting him to formulate the questions he needs to ask too. Let=E2=80=99s t=
+ry it and see what happens! Thanks so much for helping me with this<br>
+Allison<br>
+<br>
+Sent from my iPhone<br>
+<br>
+&gt; On Jun 14, 2019, at 8:55 AM, Andy LeGoullon &lt;<a href=3D"mailto:andy=
+legoullon@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank">andylegoullon@gmail.com</a>&gt; wrot=
+e:<br>
+&gt; <br>
+&gt; Are you familiar with Madlibs? I was thinking of having Caleb make a c=
+omputer program version of Madlibs as his first project. It&#39;s more of a=
+n intermediate level project, but not impossible for someone starting out a=
+nd it sounds like he&#39;s looking for a challenge. I can give you the proj=
+ect details if you think this would work out.<br>
+&gt; <br>
+&gt; He would definitely need some assistance on it at times, but it would =
+give him good experience asking for help. I could help him out via email/ph=
+one. Or I can come in if he is getting very frustrated. Anna knows Python a=
+nd may also be willing to help. <br>
+&gt; <br>
+&gt; Andy<br>
+</blockquote></div>
+</div><br clear=3D"all"><div><br></div>-- <br><div dir=3D"ltr" class=3D"gma=
+il_signature" data-smartmail=3D"gmail_signature"><div dir=3D"ltr"><div><div=
+ dir=3D"ltr"><div dir=3D"ltr"><div dir=3D"ltr"><div><span style=3D"font-siz=
+e:12.8px">Allison LeBouef, LOTR/ OT supervisor</span><br></div>
+<div>Pediatric Therapy and Learning Center, LLC</div>
+<div>108 Energy Pkwy</div>
+<div>Lafayette, LA=C2=A0 70508</div><div>(337)504-4244</div><div>fax (337)7=
+06-7612</div><div><a href=3D"http://www.pediatrictlc.com" target=3D"_blank"=
+>www.pediatrictlc.com</a></div><div><br></div><div><p style=3D"font-family:=
+arial,&quot;san serif&quot;;font-size:12.8px"><strong>Important Confidentia=
+lity Information:</strong></p><p style=3D"font-family:arial,&quot;san serif=
+&quot;;font-size:12.8px">The information contained in this transmission may=
+ contain privileged and confidential information, including patient informa=
+tion protected by federal and state privacy laws. It is intended only for t=
+he use of the person(s) named above. If you are not the intended recipient,=
+ any review, dissemination, distribution, or duplication of this communicat=
+ion is strictly prohibited. If you are not the intended recipient, please c=
+ontact the sender by calling=C2=A0<a href=3D"tel:(337)%20504-4244" value=3D=
+"+13375044244" style=3D"color:rgb(17,85,204)" target=3D"_blank">337-504-424=
+4</a>.=C2=A0 Feel free to leave a voice message stating the sender and the =
+subject line. Please destroy all copies of the original message.</p><p styl=
+e=3D"font-family:arial,&quot;san serif&quot;;font-size:12.8px">Clients: Ple=
+ase note that this is not an encrypted email which means that the e-mail an=
+d any information it contains could be unknowingly intercepted.=C2=A0 Pleas=
+e consider this in all future correspondence.=C2=A0</p></div></div></div></=
+div></div></div></div></div>
+
+--0000000000002d3380058c535034--
diff --git a/madlibs.py b/madlibs.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1434ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/madlibs.py
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+# Toggle me for debugging
+debug = 1
+
+# Import the libraries we will use
+import re
+import sys
+import random
+import platform
+import argparse
+# check to see if termcolor is installed, we need it for color to xwork
+try:
+	from termcolor import colored
+except ImportError:
+	print("termcolor is not installed! Please install termcolor with" '\n', '\n', "pip install termcolor", '\n','\n'+"Note: You may need to run pip as root")
+	exit()
+if debug == 1: 
+	print("termcolor is installed!")
+# If we are on Windows, we need to do a little more to get color to work
+if platform.system() == 'Windows':
+	import os
+	os.system('color')
+# ArgSparce
+parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+parser.add_argument("-s", "--setup", help="Explains how to setup .txt file", action="store_true")
+parser.add_argument("-c", "--story", type=int, help="Write story count to file")
+args = parser.parse_args()
+# convert the integer to a string because pickiness
+StoryCount = str(args.story)
+
+#if statements for ArgSparce
+
+# line 35 fails if args.story reads as "None", so we need to clear that string if it reads as such.
+if args.story == None:
+	exec('args.story = int(0)')
+# args.story should now read as 0
+if args.story > 0:
+	f = open('storyCount.txt', 'w')
+	f.write(StoryCount)
+	f.close()
+	exit()
+	print("Writing", StoryCount, "to txt file!")
+if args.setup == True:
+	sys.exit("If you want to include your own MadLibs story, you need to do the following:"+'\n')
+# Linux easter egg
+if platform.system() == 'Linux':
+	print('Linux master race! XD')
+# Introduce yourself
+print (colored("<<madlibs.", 'red')+colored("p", 'yellow')+colored("y", 'blue'), colored("- Written by Caleb Fontenot>>", 'red'), '\n' "Built on July 13, 2019")
+print("I pull txt files in the directory you place me in for stories!" '\n' '\n' "Run me with the --setup flag for instructions on setting a story up!" '\n')
+
+# Notify if verbose
+if debug == 1:
+	print("Debug mode is enabled! Being verbose!", '\n')
+else:
+	print('\n')
+# Now on to business!
+# Load files
+f = open('storyCount.txt', 'r')
+StoryCount = f.read()
+IntStoryCount = int(StoryCount)
+print("Detected", IntStoryCount, "stories")
+# Count stories
+
+# Randomly pick what story we will use
+story = random.randint(1, IntStoryCount)
+
+# Alright, let's get the data from stories.txt
+f = open('stories.txt', 'r')
+# This pulls the title from stories.txt
+storyName = f.readline()
+# This pulls the story from stories.txt
+storyContent = f.readline()
+# todo: remove characters from story identifier and make every even number be recognized as a story, and every odd as it's title
+
+
+# Hacky shenanigans
+#selectedStoryName = storyName[story - 1]
+
+# Print current story
+print("Current story title is", '"'+storyName+'"')
+re.findall(
+
+print(storyContent)
diff --git a/python multiplier.py b/python multiplier.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac5d3b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python multiplier.py	
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+x = 5
+for x in range(1000):
+	x*5
+	print(x)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/.buildinfo b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/.buildinfo
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8244ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/.buildinfo
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+# Sphinx build info version 1
+# This file hashes the configuration used when building these files. When it is not found, a full rebuild will be done.
+config: 72ca452eb08562a9e15d01cdfbf2860a
+tags: 645f666f9bcd5a90fca523b33c5a78b7
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_downloads/6bc7a57013e3076d5e194caa123fe59c/tzinfo_examples.py b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_downloads/6bc7a57013e3076d5e194caa123fe59c/tzinfo_examples.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b9e32a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_downloads/6bc7a57013e3076d5e194caa123fe59c/tzinfo_examples.py
@@ -0,0 +1,175 @@
+from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
+
+ZERO = timedelta(0)
+HOUR = timedelta(hours=1)
+SECOND = timedelta(seconds=1)
+
+# A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
+# (May result in wrong values on historical times in
+#  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
+#  changed in the past.)
+import time as _time
+
+STDOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.timezone)
+if _time.daylight:
+    DSTOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.altzone)
+else:
+    DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET
+
+DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET
+
+class LocalTimezone(tzinfo):
+
+    def fromutc(self, dt):
+        assert dt.tzinfo is self
+        stamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
+        args = _time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
+        dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
+        # Detect fold
+        fold = (args == _time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
+        return datetime(*args, microsecond=dt.microsecond,
+                        tzinfo=self, fold=fold)
+
+    def utcoffset(self, dt):
+        if self._isdst(dt):
+            return DSTOFFSET
+        else:
+            return STDOFFSET
+
+    def dst(self, dt):
+        if self._isdst(dt):
+            return DSTDIFF
+        else:
+            return ZERO
+
+    def tzname(self, dt):
+        return _time.tzname[self._isdst(dt)]
+
+    def _isdst(self, dt):
+        tt = (dt.year, dt.month, dt.day,
+              dt.hour, dt.minute, dt.second,
+              dt.weekday(), 0, 0)
+        stamp = _time.mktime(tt)
+        tt = _time.localtime(stamp)
+        return tt.tm_isdst > 0
+
+Local = LocalTimezone()
+
+
+# A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.
+
+def first_sunday_on_or_after(dt):
+    days_to_go = 6 - dt.weekday()
+    if days_to_go:
+        dt += timedelta(days_to_go)
+    return dt
+
+
+# US DST Rules
+#
+# This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US
+# DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules
+# and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):
+# http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm
+# http://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)
+#
+# In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
+# Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
+DSTSTART_2007 = datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
+# and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
+DSTEND_2007 = datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
+# From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
+# Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
+# Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
+DSTSTART_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
+DSTEND_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
+# From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
+# Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
+# on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
+# on or after Oct 25.
+DSTSTART_1967_1986 = datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
+DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006
+
+def us_dst_range(year):
+    # Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
+    # start = end for no DST.
+    if 2006 < year:
+        dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_2007, DSTEND_2007
+    elif 1986 < year < 2007:
+        dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1987_2006, DSTEND_1987_2006
+    elif 1966 < year < 1987:
+        dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
+    else:
+        return (datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2
+
+    start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
+    end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
+    return start, end
+
+
+class USTimeZone(tzinfo):
+
+    def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
+        self.stdoffset = timedelta(hours=hours)
+        self.reprname = reprname
+        self.stdname = stdname
+        self.dstname = dstname
+
+    def __repr__(self):
+        return self.reprname
+
+    def tzname(self, dt):
+        if self.dst(dt):
+            return self.dstname
+        else:
+            return self.stdname
+
+    def utcoffset(self, dt):
+        return self.stdoffset + self.dst(dt)
+
+    def dst(self, dt):
+        if dt is None or dt.tzinfo is None:
+            # An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
+            # It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default
+            # fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
+            # implementation) passes a datetime with dt.tzinfo is self.
+            return ZERO
+        assert dt.tzinfo is self
+        start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
+        # Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
+        # dt first.
+        dt = dt.replace(tzinfo=None)
+        if start + HOUR <= dt < end - HOUR:
+            # DST is in effect.
+            return HOUR
+        if end - HOUR <= dt < end:
+            # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use dt.fold to disambiguate.
+            return ZERO if dt.fold else HOUR
+        if start <= dt < start + HOUR:
+            # Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
+            return HOUR if dt.fold else ZERO
+        # DST is off.
+        return ZERO
+
+    def fromutc(self, dt):
+        assert dt.tzinfo is self
+        start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
+        start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
+        end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
+        std_time = dt + self.stdoffset
+        dst_time = std_time + HOUR
+        if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
+            # Repeated hour
+            return std_time.replace(fold=1)
+        if std_time < start or dst_time >= end:
+            # Standard time
+            return std_time
+        if start <= std_time < end - HOUR:
+            # Daylight saving time
+            return dst_time
+
+
+Eastern  = USTimeZone(-5, "Eastern",  "EST", "EDT")
+Central  = USTimeZone(-6, "Central",  "CST", "CDT")
+Mountain = USTimeZone(-7, "Mountain", "MST", "MDT")
+Pacific  = USTimeZone(-8, "Pacific",  "PST", "PDT")
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_images/hashlib-blake2-tree.png b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_images/hashlib-blake2-tree.png
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/about.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/about.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ea311f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/about.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+=====================
+About these documents
+=====================
+
+
+These documents are generated from `reStructuredText`_ sources by `Sphinx`_, a
+document processor specifically written for the Python documentation.
+
+.. _reStructuredText: http://docutils.sourceforge.net/rst.html
+.. _Sphinx: http://sphinx-doc.org/
+
+.. In the online version of these documents, you can submit comments and suggest
+   changes directly on the documentation pages.
+
+Development of the documentation and its toolchain is an entirely volunteer
+effort, just like Python itself.  If you want to contribute, please take a
+look at the :ref:`reporting-bugs` page for information on how to do so.  New
+volunteers are always welcome!
+
+Many thanks go to:
+
+* Fred L. Drake, Jr., the creator of the original Python documentation toolset
+  and writer of much of the content;
+* the `Docutils <http://docutils.sourceforge.net/>`_ project for creating
+  reStructuredText and the Docutils suite;
+* Fredrik Lundh for his `Alternative Python Reference
+  <http://effbot.org/zone/pyref.htm>`_ project from which Sphinx got many good
+  ideas.
+
+
+Contributors to the Python Documentation
+----------------------------------------
+
+Many people have contributed to the Python language, the Python standard
+library, and the Python documentation.  See :source:`Misc/ACKS` in the Python
+source distribution for a partial list of contributors.
+
+It is only with the input and contributions of the Python community
+that Python has such wonderful documentation -- Thank You!
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/bugs.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/bugs.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c449ba2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/bugs.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+.. _reporting-bugs:
+
+*****************
+Dealing with Bugs
+*****************
+
+Python is a mature programming language which has established a reputation for
+stability.  In order to maintain this reputation, the developers would like to
+know of any deficiencies you find in Python.
+
+It can be sometimes faster to fix bugs yourself and contribute patches to
+Python as it streamlines the process and involves less people. Learn how to
+:ref:`contribute <contributing-to-python>`.
+
+Documentation bugs
+==================
+
+If you find a bug in this documentation or would like to propose an improvement,
+please submit a bug report on the :ref:`tracker <using-the-tracker>`.  If you
+have a suggestion on how to fix it, include that as well.
+
+If you're short on time, you can also email documentation bug reports to
+docs@python.org (behavioral bugs can be sent to python-list@python.org).
+'docs@' is a mailing list run by volunteers; your request will be noticed,
+though it may take a while to be processed.
+
+.. seealso::
+   `Documentation bugs`_ on the Python issue tracker
+
+.. _using-the-tracker:
+
+Using the Python issue tracker
+==============================
+
+Bug reports for Python itself should be submitted via the Python Bug Tracker
+(https://bugs.python.org/).  The bug tracker offers a Web form which allows
+pertinent information to be entered and submitted to the developers.
+
+The first step in filing a report is to determine whether the problem has
+already been reported.  The advantage in doing so, aside from saving the
+developers time, is that you learn what has been done to fix it; it may be that
+the problem has already been fixed for the next release, or additional
+information is needed (in which case you are welcome to provide it if you can!).
+To do this, search the bug database using the search box on the top of the page.
+
+If the problem you're reporting is not already in the bug tracker, go back to
+the Python Bug Tracker and log in.  If you don't already have a tracker account,
+select the "Register" link or, if you use OpenID, one of the OpenID provider
+logos in the sidebar.  It is not possible to submit a bug report anonymously.
+
+Being now logged in, you can submit a bug.  Select the "Create New" link in the
+sidebar to open the bug reporting form.
+
+The submission form has a number of fields.  For the "Title" field, enter a
+*very* short description of the problem; less than ten words is good.  In the
+"Type" field, select the type of your problem; also select the "Component" and
+"Versions" to which the bug relates.
+
+In the "Comment" field, describe the problem in detail, including what you
+expected to happen and what did happen.  Be sure to include whether any
+extension modules were involved, and what hardware and software platform you
+were using (including version information as appropriate).
+
+Each bug report will be assigned to a developer who will determine what needs to
+be done to correct the problem.  You will receive an update each time action is
+taken on the bug.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `How to Report Bugs Effectively <https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html>`_
+      Article which goes into some detail about how to create a useful bug report.
+      This describes what kind of information is useful and why it is useful.
+
+   `Bug Writing Guidelines <https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Mozilla/QA/Bug_writing_guidelines>`_
+      Information about writing a good bug report.  Some of this is specific to the
+      Mozilla project, but describes general good practices.
+
+.. _contributing-to-python:
+
+Getting started contributing to Python yourself
+===============================================
+
+Beyond just reporting bugs that you find, you are also welcome to submit
+patches to fix them.  You can find more information on how to get started
+patching Python in the `Python Developer's Guide`_.  If you have questions,
+the `core-mentorship mailing list`_ is a friendly place to get answers to
+any and all questions pertaining to the process of fixing issues in Python.
+
+.. _Documentation bugs: https://bugs.python.org/issue?@filter=status&@filter=components&components=4&status=1&@columns=id,activity,title,status&@sort=-activity
+.. _Python Developer's Guide: https://devguide.python.org/
+.. _core-mentorship mailing list: https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/abstract.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/abstract.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad53881
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/abstract.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _abstract:
+
+**********************
+Abstract Objects Layer
+**********************
+
+The functions in this chapter interact with Python objects regardless of their
+type, or with wide classes of object types (e.g. all numerical types, or all
+sequence types).  When used on object types for which they do not apply, they
+will raise a Python exception.
+
+It is not possible to use these functions on objects that are not properly
+initialized, such as a list object that has been created by :c:func:`PyList_New`,
+but whose items have not been set to some non-\ ``NULL`` value yet.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   object.rst
+   number.rst
+   sequence.rst
+   mapping.rst
+   iter.rst
+   buffer.rst
+   objbuffer.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/allocation.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/allocation.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5e548d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/allocation.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _allocating-objects:
+
+Allocating Objects on the Heap
+==============================
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* _PyObject_New(PyTypeObject *type)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyVarObject* _PyObject_NewVar(PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Init(PyObject *op, PyTypeObject *type)
+
+   Initialize a newly-allocated object *op* with its type and initial
+   reference.  Returns the initialized object.  If *type* indicates that the
+   object participates in the cyclic garbage detector, it is added to the
+   detector's set of observed objects. Other fields of the object are not
+   affected.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyVarObject* PyObject_InitVar(PyVarObject *op, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   This does everything :c:func:`PyObject_Init` does, and also initializes the
+   length information for a variable-size object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: TYPE* PyObject_New(TYPE, PyTypeObject *type)
+
+   Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type *TYPE* and the
+   Python type object *type*.  Fields not defined by the Python object header
+   are not initialized; the object's reference count will be one.  The size of
+   the memory allocation is determined from the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` field of
+   the type object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: TYPE* PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type *TYPE* and the
+   Python type object *type*.  Fields not defined by the Python object header
+   are not initialized.  The allocated memory allows for the *TYPE* structure
+   plus *size* fields of the size given by the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` field of
+   *type*.  This is useful for implementing objects like tuples, which are
+   able to determine their size at construction time.  Embedding the array of
+   fields into the same allocation decreases the number of allocations,
+   improving the memory management efficiency.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyObject_Del(void *op)
+
+   Releases memory allocated to an object using :c:func:`PyObject_New` or
+   :c:func:`PyObject_NewVar`.  This is normally called from the
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` handler specified in the object's type.  The fields of
+   the object should not be accessed after this call as the memory is no
+   longer a valid Python object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject _Py_NoneStruct
+
+   Object which is visible in Python as ``None``.  This should only be accessed
+   using the :c:macro:`Py_None` macro, which evaluates to a pointer to this
+   object.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :c:func:`PyModule_Create`
+      To allocate and create extension modules.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/apiabiversion.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/apiabiversion.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..890a038
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/apiabiversion.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _apiabiversion:
+
+***********************
+API and ABI Versioning
+***********************
+
+``PY_VERSION_HEX`` is the Python version number encoded in a single integer.
+
+For example if the ``PY_VERSION_HEX`` is set to ``0x030401a2``, the underlying
+version information can be found by treating it as a 32 bit number in
+the following manner:
+
+   +-------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+   | Bytes | Bits (big endian order) | Meaning                                        |
+   +=======+=========================+================================================+
+   | ``1`` |       ``1-8``           |  ``PY_MAJOR_VERSION`` (the ``3`` in            |
+   |       |                         |  ``3.4.1a2``)                                  |
+   +-------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``2`` |       ``9-16``          |  ``PY_MINOR_VERSION`` (the ``4`` in            |
+   |       |                         |  ``3.4.1a2``)                                  |
+   +-------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``3`` |       ``17-24``         |  ``PY_MICRO_VERSION`` (the ``1`` in            |
+   |       |                         |  ``3.4.1a2``)                                  |
+   +-------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``4`` |       ``25-28``         |  ``PY_RELEASE_LEVEL`` (``0xA`` for alpha,      |
+   |       |                         |  ``0xB`` for beta, ``0xC`` for release         |
+   |       |                         |  candidate and ``0xF`` for final), in this     |
+   |       |                         |  case it is alpha.                             |
+   +-------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+   |       |       ``29-32``         |  ``PY_RELEASE_SERIAL`` (the ``2`` in           |
+   |       |                         |  ``3.4.1a2``, zero for final releases)         |
+   +-------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+
+Thus ``3.4.1a2`` is hexversion ``0x030401a2``.
+
+All the given macros are defined in :source:`Include/patchlevel.h`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/arg.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/arg.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b41130e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/arg.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,676 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _arg-parsing:
+
+Parsing arguments and building values
+=====================================
+
+These functions are useful when creating your own extensions functions and
+methods.  Additional information and examples are available in
+:ref:`extending-index`.
+
+The first three of these functions described, :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`,
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords`, and :c:func:`PyArg_Parse`, all use *format
+strings* which are used to tell the function about the expected arguments.  The
+format strings use the same syntax for each of these functions.
+
+-----------------
+Parsing arguments
+-----------------
+
+A format string consists of zero or more "format units."  A format unit
+describes one Python object; it is usually a single character or a parenthesized
+sequence of format units.  With a few exceptions, a format unit that is not a
+parenthesized sequence normally corresponds to a single address argument to
+these functions.  In the following description, the quoted form is the format
+unit; the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that matches
+the format unit; and the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C
+variable(s) whose address should be passed.
+
+Strings and buffers
+-------------------
+
+These formats allow accessing an object as a contiguous chunk of memory.
+You don't have to provide raw storage for the returned unicode or bytes
+area.
+
+In general, when a format sets a pointer to a buffer, the buffer is
+managed by the corresponding Python object, and the buffer shares
+the lifetime of this object.  You won't have to release any memory yourself.
+The only exceptions are ``es``, ``es#``, ``et`` and ``et#``.
+
+However, when a :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure gets filled, the underlying
+buffer is locked so that the caller can subsequently use the buffer even
+inside a :c:type:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS` block without the risk of mutable data
+being resized or destroyed.  As a result, **you have to call**
+:c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` after you have finished processing the data (or
+in any early abort case).
+
+Unless otherwise stated, buffers are not NUL-terminated.
+
+Some formats require a read-only :term:`bytes-like object`, and set a
+pointer instead of a buffer structure.  They work by checking that
+the object's :c:member:`PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer` field is *NULL*,
+which disallows mutable objects such as :class:`bytearray`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   For all ``#`` variants of formats (``s#``, ``y#``, etc.), the type of
+   the length argument (int or :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`) is controlled by
+   defining the macro :c:macro:`PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN` before including
+   :file:`Python.h`.  If the macro was defined, length is a
+   :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` rather than an :c:type:`int`. This behavior will change
+   in a future Python version to only support :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` and
+   drop :c:type:`int` support. It is best to always define :c:macro:`PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN`.
+
+
+``s`` (:class:`str`) [const char \*]
+   Convert a Unicode object to a C pointer to a character string.
+   A pointer to an existing string is stored in the character pointer
+   variable whose address you pass.  The C string is NUL-terminated.
+   The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it does,
+   a :exc:`ValueError` exception is raised. Unicode objects are converted
+   to C strings using ``'utf-8'`` encoding. If this conversion fails, a
+   :exc:`UnicodeError` is raised.
+
+   .. note::
+      This format does not accept :term:`bytes-like objects
+      <bytes-like object>`.  If you want to accept
+      filesystem paths and convert them to C character strings, it is
+      preferable to use the ``O&`` format with :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSConverter`
+      as *converter*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Previously, :exc:`TypeError` was raised when embedded null code points
+      were encountered in the Python string.
+
+``s*`` (:class:`str` or :term:`bytes-like object`) [Py_buffer]
+   This format accepts Unicode objects as well as bytes-like objects.
+   It fills a :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure provided by the caller.
+   In this case the resulting C string may contain embedded NUL bytes.
+   Unicode objects are converted to C strings using ``'utf-8'`` encoding.
+
+``s#`` (:class:`str`, read-only :term:`bytes-like object`) [const char \*, int or :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`]
+   Like ``s*``, except that it doesn't accept mutable objects.
+   The result is stored into two C variables,
+   the first one a pointer to a C string, the second one its length.
+   The string may contain embedded null bytes. Unicode objects are converted
+   to C strings using ``'utf-8'`` encoding.
+
+``z`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const char \*]
+   Like ``s``, but the Python object may also be ``None``, in which case the C
+   pointer is set to *NULL*.
+
+``z*`` (:class:`str`, :term:`bytes-like object` or ``None``) [Py_buffer]
+   Like ``s*``, but the Python object may also be ``None``, in which case the
+   ``buf`` member of the :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure is set to *NULL*.
+
+``z#`` (:class:`str`, read-only :term:`bytes-like object` or ``None``) [const char \*, int]
+   Like ``s#``, but the Python object may also be ``None``, in which case the C
+   pointer is set to *NULL*.
+
+``y`` (read-only :term:`bytes-like object`) [const char \*]
+   This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a character
+   string; it does not accept Unicode objects.  The bytes buffer must not
+   contain embedded null bytes; if it does, a :exc:`ValueError`
+   exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Previously, :exc:`TypeError` was raised when embedded null bytes were
+      encountered in the bytes buffer.
+
+``y*`` (:term:`bytes-like object`) [Py_buffer]
+   This variant on ``s*`` doesn't accept Unicode objects, only
+   bytes-like objects.  **This is the recommended way to accept
+   binary data.**
+
+``y#`` (read-only :term:`bytes-like object`) [const char \*, int]
+   This variant on ``s#`` doesn't accept Unicode objects, only bytes-like
+   objects.
+
+``S`` (:class:`bytes`) [PyBytesObject \*]
+   Requires that the Python object is a :class:`bytes` object, without
+   attempting any conversion.  Raises :exc:`TypeError` if the object is not
+   a bytes object.  The C variable may also be declared as :c:type:`PyObject\*`.
+
+``Y`` (:class:`bytearray`) [PyByteArrayObject \*]
+   Requires that the Python object is a :class:`bytearray` object, without
+   attempting any conversion.  Raises :exc:`TypeError` if the object is not
+   a :class:`bytearray` object. The C variable may also be declared as :c:type:`PyObject\*`.
+
+``u`` (:class:`str`) [const Py_UNICODE \*]
+   Convert a Python Unicode object to a C pointer to a NUL-terminated buffer of
+   Unicode characters.  You must pass the address of a :c:type:`Py_UNICODE`
+   pointer variable, which will be filled with the pointer to an existing
+   Unicode buffer.  Please note that the width of a :c:type:`Py_UNICODE`
+   character depends on compilation options (it is either 16 or 32 bits).
+   The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it does,
+   a :exc:`ValueError` exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Previously, :exc:`TypeError` was raised when embedded null code points
+      were encountered in the Python string.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString`.
+
+``u#`` (:class:`str`) [const Py_UNICODE \*, int]
+   This variant on ``u`` stores into two C variables, the first one a pointer to a
+   Unicode data buffer, the second one its length.  This variant allows
+   null code points.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString`.
+
+``Z`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const Py_UNICODE \*]
+   Like ``u``, but the Python object may also be ``None``, in which case the
+   :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` pointer is set to *NULL*.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString`.
+
+``Z#`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const Py_UNICODE \*, int]
+   Like ``u#``, but the Python object may also be ``None``, in which case the
+   :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` pointer is set to *NULL*.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString`.
+
+``U`` (:class:`str`) [PyObject \*]
+   Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without attempting
+   any conversion.  Raises :exc:`TypeError` if the object is not a Unicode
+   object.  The C variable may also be declared as :c:type:`PyObject\*`.
+
+``w*`` (read-write :term:`bytes-like object`) [Py_buffer]
+   This format accepts any object which implements the read-write buffer
+   interface. It fills a :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure provided by the caller.
+   The buffer may contain embedded null bytes. The caller have to call
+   :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` when it is done with the buffer.
+
+``es`` (:class:`str`) [const char \*encoding, char \*\*buffer]
+   This variant on ``s`` is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer.
+   It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes.
+
+   This format requires two arguments.  The first is only used as input, and
+   must be a :c:type:`const char\*` which points to the name of an encoding as a
+   NUL-terminated string, or *NULL*, in which case ``'utf-8'`` encoding is used.
+   An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python.  The
+   second argument must be a :c:type:`char\*\*`; the value of the pointer it
+   references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text.
+   The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.
+
+   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` will allocate a buffer of the needed size, copy the
+   encoded data into this buffer and adjust *\*buffer* to reference the newly
+   allocated storage.  The caller is responsible for calling :c:func:`PyMem_Free` to
+   free the allocated buffer after use.
+
+``et`` (:class:`str`, :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`) [const char \*encoding, char \*\*buffer]
+   Same as ``es`` except that byte string objects are passed through without
+   recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses
+   the encoding passed in as parameter.
+
+``es#`` (:class:`str`) [const char \*encoding, char \*\*buffer, int \*buffer_length]
+   This variant on ``s#`` is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer.
+   Unlike the ``es`` format, this variant allows input data which contains NUL
+   characters.
+
+   It requires three arguments.  The first is only used as input, and must be a
+   :c:type:`const char\*` which points to the name of an encoding as a
+   NUL-terminated string, or *NULL*, in which case ``'utf-8'`` encoding is used.
+   An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python.  The
+   second argument must be a :c:type:`char\*\*`; the value of the pointer it
+   references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text.
+   The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.
+   The third argument must be a pointer to an integer; the referenced integer
+   will be set to the number of bytes in the output buffer.
+
+   There are two modes of operation:
+
+   If *\*buffer* points a *NULL* pointer, the function will allocate a buffer of
+   the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and set *\*buffer* to
+   reference the newly allocated storage.  The caller is responsible for calling
+   :c:func:`PyMem_Free` to free the allocated buffer after usage.
+
+   If *\*buffer* points to a non-*NULL* pointer (an already allocated buffer),
+   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` will use this location as the buffer and interpret the
+   initial value of *\*buffer_length* as the buffer size.  It will then copy the
+   encoded data into the buffer and NUL-terminate it.  If the buffer is not large
+   enough, a :exc:`ValueError` will be set.
+
+   In both cases, *\*buffer_length* is set to the length of the encoded data
+   without the trailing NUL byte.
+
+``et#`` (:class:`str`, :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`) [const char \*encoding, char \*\*buffer, int \*buffer_length]
+   Same as ``es#`` except that byte string objects are passed through without recoding
+   them. Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses the
+   encoding passed in as parameter.
+
+Numbers
+-------
+
+``b`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned char]
+   Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny int, stored in a C
+   :c:type:`unsigned char`.
+
+``B`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned char]
+   Convert a Python integer to a tiny int without overflow checking, stored in a C
+   :c:type:`unsigned char`.
+
+``h`` (:class:`int`) [short int]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`short int`.
+
+``H`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned short int]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`unsigned short int`, without overflow
+   checking.
+
+``i`` (:class:`int`) [int]
+   Convert a Python integer to a plain C :c:type:`int`.
+
+``I`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned int]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`unsigned int`, without overflow
+   checking.
+
+``l`` (:class:`int`) [long int]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`long int`.
+
+``k`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned long]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`unsigned long` without
+   overflow checking.
+
+``L`` (:class:`int`) [long long]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`long long`.
+
+``K`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned long long]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`unsigned long long`
+   without overflow checking.
+
+``n`` (:class:`int`) [Py_ssize_t]
+   Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.
+
+``c`` (:class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` of length 1) [char]
+   Convert a Python byte, represented as a :class:`bytes` or
+   :class:`bytearray` object of length 1, to a C :c:type:`char`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Allow :class:`bytearray` objects.
+
+``C`` (:class:`str` of length 1) [int]
+   Convert a Python character, represented as a :class:`str` object of
+   length 1, to a C :c:type:`int`.
+
+``f`` (:class:`float`) [float]
+   Convert a Python floating point number to a C :c:type:`float`.
+
+``d`` (:class:`float`) [double]
+   Convert a Python floating point number to a C :c:type:`double`.
+
+``D`` (:class:`complex`) [Py_complex]
+   Convert a Python complex number to a C :c:type:`Py_complex` structure.
+
+Other objects
+-------------
+
+``O`` (object) [PyObject \*]
+   Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object pointer.  The C
+   program thus receives the actual object that was passed.  The object's reference
+   count is not increased.  The pointer stored is not *NULL*.
+
+``O!`` (object) [*typeobject*, PyObject \*]
+   Store a Python object in a C object pointer.  This is similar to ``O``, but
+   takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a Python type object, the
+   second is the address of the C variable (of type :c:type:`PyObject\*`) into which
+   the object pointer is stored.  If the Python object does not have the required
+   type, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+.. _o_ampersand:
+
+``O&`` (object) [*converter*, *anything*]
+   Convert a Python object to a C variable through a *converter* function.  This
+   takes two arguments: the first is a function, the second is the address of a C
+   variable (of arbitrary type), converted to :c:type:`void \*`.  The *converter*
+   function in turn is called as follows::
+
+      status = converter(object, address);
+
+   where *object* is the Python object to be converted and *address* is the
+   :c:type:`void\*` argument that was passed to the :c:func:`PyArg_Parse\*` function.
+   The returned *status* should be ``1`` for a successful conversion and ``0`` if
+   the conversion has failed.  When the conversion fails, the *converter* function
+   should raise an exception and leave the content of *address* unmodified.
+
+   If the *converter* returns ``Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED``, it may get called a
+   second time if the argument parsing eventually fails, giving the converter a
+   chance to release any memory that it had already allocated. In this second
+   call, the *object* parameter will be NULL; *address* will have the same value
+   as in the original call.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      ``Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED`` was added.
+
+``p`` (:class:`bool`) [int]
+   Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean **p**\ redicate) and converts
+   the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value.
+   Sets the int to ``1`` if the expression was true and ``0`` if it was false.
+   This accepts any valid Python value.  See :ref:`truth` for more
+   information about how Python tests values for truth.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+``(items)`` (:class:`tuple`) [*matching-items*]
+   The object must be a Python sequence whose length is the number of format units
+   in *items*.  The C arguments must correspond to the individual format units in
+   *items*.  Format units for sequences may be nested.
+
+It is possible to pass "long" integers (integers whose value exceeds the
+platform's :const:`LONG_MAX`) however no proper range checking is done --- the
+most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is too
+small to receive the value (actually, the semantics are inherited from downcasts
+in C --- your mileage may vary).
+
+A few other characters have a meaning in a format string.  These may not occur
+inside nested parentheses.  They are:
+
+``|``
+   Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are optional.
+   The C variables corresponding to optional arguments should be initialized to
+   their default value --- when an optional argument is not specified,
+   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` does not touch the contents of the corresponding C
+   variable(s).
+
+``$``
+   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` only:
+   Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are
+   keyword-only.  Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional
+   arguments, so ``|`` must always be specified before ``$`` in the format
+   string.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+``:``
+   The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is used as the
+   function name in error messages (the "associated value" of the exception that
+   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` raises).
+
+``;``
+   The list of format units ends here; the string after the semicolon is used as
+   the error message *instead* of the default error message.  ``:`` and ``;``
+   mutually exclude each other.
+
+Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are
+*borrowed* references; do not decrement their reference count!
+
+Additional arguments passed to these functions must be addresses of variables
+whose type is determined by the format string; these are used to store values
+from the input tuple.  There are a few cases, as described in the list of format
+units above, where these parameters are used as input values; they should match
+what is specified for the corresponding format unit in that case.
+
+For the conversion to succeed, the *arg* object must match the format
+and the format must be exhausted.  On success, the
+:c:func:`PyArg_Parse\*` functions return true, otherwise they return
+false and raise an appropriate exception. When the
+:c:func:`PyArg_Parse\*` functions fail due to conversion failure in one
+of the format units, the variables at the addresses corresponding to that
+and the following format units are left untouched.
+
+API Functions
+-------------
+
+.. c:function:: int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *args, const char *format, ...)
+
+   Parse the parameters of a function that takes only positional parameters into
+   local variables.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and
+   raises the appropriate exception.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyArg_VaParse(PyObject *args, const char *format, va_list vargs)
+
+   Identical to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`, except that it accepts a va_list rather
+   than a variable number of arguments.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *args, PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *keywords[], ...)
+
+   Parse the parameters of a function that takes both positional and keyword
+   parameters into local variables.  The *keywords* argument is a
+   *NULL*-terminated array of keyword parameter names.  Empty names denote
+   :ref:`positional-only parameters <positional-only_parameter>`.
+   Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the
+   appropriate exception.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added support for :ref:`positional-only parameters
+      <positional-only_parameter>`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *args, PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *keywords[], va_list vargs)
+
+   Identical to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords`, except that it accepts a
+   va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(PyObject *)
+
+   Ensure that the keys in the keywords argument dictionary are strings.  This
+   is only needed if :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` is not used, since the
+   latter already does this check.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. XXX deprecated, will be removed
+.. c:function:: int PyArg_Parse(PyObject *args, const char *format, ...)
+
+   Function used to deconstruct the argument lists of "old-style" functions ---
+   these are functions which use the :const:`METH_OLDARGS` parameter parsing
+   method, which has been removed in Python 3.  This is not recommended for use
+   in parameter parsing in new code, and most code in the standard interpreter
+   has been modified to no longer use this for that purpose.  It does remain a
+   convenient way to decompose other tuples, however, and may continue to be
+   used for that purpose.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyArg_UnpackTuple(PyObject *args, const char *name, Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...)
+
+   A simpler form of parameter retrieval which does not use a format string to
+   specify the types of the arguments.  Functions which use this method to retrieve
+   their parameters should be declared as :const:`METH_VARARGS` in function or
+   method tables.  The tuple containing the actual parameters should be passed as
+   *args*; it must actually be a tuple.  The length of the tuple must be at least
+   *min* and no more than *max*; *min* and *max* may be equal.  Additional
+   arguments must be passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a
+   :c:type:`PyObject\*` variable; these will be filled in with the values from
+   *args*; they will contain borrowed references.  The variables which correspond
+   to optional parameters not given by *args* will not be filled in; these should
+   be initialized by the caller. This function returns true on success and false if
+   *args* is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an exception
+   will be set if there was a failure.
+
+   This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the sources for the
+   :mod:`_weakref` helper module for weak references::
+
+      static PyObject *
+      weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+      {
+          PyObject *object;
+          PyObject *callback = NULL;
+          PyObject *result = NULL;
+
+          if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) {
+              result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback);
+          }
+          return result;
+      }
+
+   The call to :c:func:`PyArg_UnpackTuple` in this example is entirely equivalent to
+   this call to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`::
+
+      PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback)
+
+
+---------------
+Building values
+---------------
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...)
+
+   Create a new value based on a format string similar to those accepted by the
+   :c:func:`PyArg_Parse\*` family of functions and a sequence of values.  Returns
+   the value or *NULL* in the case of an error; an exception will be raised if
+   *NULL* is returned.
+
+   :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` does not always build a tuple.  It builds a tuple only if
+   its format string contains two or more format units.  If the format string is
+   empty, it returns ``None``; if it contains exactly one format unit, it returns
+   whatever object is described by that format unit.  To force it to return a tuple
+   of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.
+
+   When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to build objects, as
+   for the ``s`` and ``s#`` formats, the required data is copied.  Buffers provided
+   by the caller are never referenced by the objects created by
+   :c:func:`Py_BuildValue`.  In other words, if your code invokes :c:func:`malloc`
+   and passes the allocated memory to :c:func:`Py_BuildValue`, your code is
+   responsible for calling :c:func:`free` for that memory once
+   :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` returns.
+
+   In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in
+   (round) parentheses is the Python object type that the format unit will return;
+   and the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C value(s) to be passed.
+
+   The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format strings (but
+   not within format units such as ``s#``).  This can be used to make long format
+   strings a tad more readable.
+
+   ``s`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const char \*]
+      Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python :class:`str` object using ``'utf-8'``
+      encoding. If the C string pointer is *NULL*, ``None`` is used.
+
+   ``s#`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const char \*, int]
+      Convert a C string and its length to a Python :class:`str` object using ``'utf-8'``
+      encoding. If the C string pointer is *NULL*, the length is ignored and
+      ``None`` is returned.
+
+   ``y`` (:class:`bytes`) [const char \*]
+      This converts a C string to a Python :class:`bytes` object.  If the C
+      string pointer is *NULL*, ``None`` is returned.
+
+   ``y#`` (:class:`bytes`) [const char \*, int]
+      This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object.  If the C
+      string pointer is *NULL*, ``None`` is returned.
+
+   ``z`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const char \*]
+      Same as ``s``.
+
+   ``z#`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const char \*, int]
+      Same as ``s#``.
+
+   ``u`` (:class:`str`) [const wchar_t \*]
+      Convert a null-terminated :c:type:`wchar_t` buffer of Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4)
+      data to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode buffer pointer is *NULL*,
+      ``None`` is returned.
+
+   ``u#`` (:class:`str`) [const wchar_t \*, int]
+      Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length to a Python
+      Unicode object.   If the Unicode buffer pointer is *NULL*, the length is ignored
+      and ``None`` is returned.
+
+   ``U`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const char \*]
+      Same as ``s``.
+
+   ``U#`` (:class:`str` or ``None``) [const char \*, int]
+      Same as ``s#``.
+
+   ``i`` (:class:`int`) [int]
+      Convert a plain C :c:type:`int` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``b`` (:class:`int`) [char]
+      Convert a plain C :c:type:`char` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``h`` (:class:`int`) [short int]
+      Convert a plain C :c:type:`short int` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``l`` (:class:`int`) [long int]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`long int` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``B`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned char]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`unsigned char` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``H`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned short int]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`unsigned short int` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``I`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned int]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`unsigned int` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``k`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned long]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`unsigned long` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``L`` (:class:`int`) [long long]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`long long` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``K`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned long long]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`unsigned long long` to a Python integer object.
+
+   ``n`` (:class:`int`) [Py_ssize_t]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` to a Python integer.
+
+   ``c`` (:class:`bytes` of length 1) [char]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`int` representing a byte to a Python :class:`bytes` object of
+      length 1.
+
+   ``C`` (:class:`str` of length 1) [int]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`int` representing a character to Python :class:`str`
+      object of length 1.
+
+   ``d`` (:class:`float`) [double]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`double` to a Python floating point number.
+
+   ``f`` (:class:`float`) [float]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`float` to a Python floating point number.
+
+   ``D`` (:class:`complex`) [Py_complex \*]
+      Convert a C :c:type:`Py_complex` structure to a Python complex number.
+
+   ``O`` (object) [PyObject \*]
+      Pass a Python object untouched (except for its reference count, which is
+      incremented by one).  If the object passed in is a *NULL* pointer, it is assumed
+      that this was caused because the call producing the argument found an error and
+      set an exception. Therefore, :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` will return *NULL* but won't
+      raise an exception.  If no exception has been raised yet, :exc:`SystemError` is
+      set.
+
+   ``S`` (object) [PyObject \*]
+      Same as ``O``.
+
+   ``N`` (object) [PyObject \*]
+      Same as ``O``, except it doesn't increment the reference count on the object.
+      Useful when the object is created by a call to an object constructor in the
+      argument list.
+
+   ``O&`` (object) [*converter*, *anything*]
+      Convert *anything* to a Python object through a *converter* function.  The
+      function is called with *anything* (which should be compatible with :c:type:`void
+      \*`) as its argument and should return a "new" Python object, or *NULL* if an
+      error occurred.
+
+   ``(items)`` (:class:`tuple`) [*matching-items*]
+      Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same number of items.
+
+   ``[items]`` (:class:`list`) [*matching-items*]
+      Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same number of items.
+
+   ``{items}`` (:class:`dict`) [*matching-items*]
+      Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary.  Each pair of consecutive
+      C values adds one item to the dictionary, serving as key and value,
+      respectively.
+
+   If there is an error in the format string, the :exc:`SystemError` exception is
+   set and *NULL* returned.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* Py_VaBuildValue(const char *format, va_list vargs)
+
+   Identical to :c:func:`Py_BuildValue`, except that it accepts a va_list
+   rather than a variable number of arguments.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bool.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bool.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9fb342
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bool.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _boolobjects:
+
+Boolean Objects
+---------------
+
+Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers.  There are only
+two booleans, :const:`Py_False` and :const:`Py_True`.  As such, the normal
+creation and deletion functions don't apply to booleans.  The following macros
+are available, however.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyBool_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if *o* is of type :c:data:`PyBool_Type`.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject* Py_False
+
+   The Python ``False`` object.  This object has no methods.  It needs to be
+   treated just like any other object with respect to reference counts.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject* Py_True
+
+   The Python ``True`` object.  This object has no methods.  It needs to be treated
+   just like any other object with respect to reference counts.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_RETURN_FALSE
+
+   Return :const:`Py_False` from a function, properly incrementing its reference
+   count.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_RETURN_TRUE
+
+   Return :const:`Py_True` from a function, properly incrementing its reference
+   count.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyBool_FromLong(long v)
+
+   Return a new reference to :const:`Py_True` or :const:`Py_False` depending on the
+   truth value of *v*.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/buffer.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/buffer.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7c1e3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/buffer.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,508 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. index::
+   single: buffer protocol
+   single: buffer interface; (see buffer protocol)
+   single: buffer object; (see buffer protocol)
+
+.. _bufferobjects:
+
+Buffer Protocol
+---------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Greg Stein <gstein@lyra.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson
+.. sectionauthor:: Stefan Krah
+
+
+Certain objects available in Python wrap access to an underlying memory
+array or *buffer*.  Such objects include the built-in :class:`bytes` and
+:class:`bytearray`, and some extension types like :class:`array.array`.
+Third-party libraries may define their own types for special purposes, such
+as image processing or numeric analysis.
+
+While each of these types have their own semantics, they share the common
+characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer.  It is
+then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly and
+without intermediate copying.
+
+Python provides such a facility at the C level in the form of the :ref:`buffer
+protocol <bufferobjects>`.  This protocol has two sides:
+
+.. index:: single: PyBufferProcs
+
+- on the producer side, a type can export a "buffer interface" which allows
+  objects of that type to expose information about their underlying buffer.
+  This interface is described in the section :ref:`buffer-structs`;
+
+- on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a pointer to
+  the raw underlying data of an object (for example a method parameter).
+
+Simple objects such as :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray` expose their
+underlying buffer in byte-oriented form.  Other forms are possible; for example,
+the elements exposed by an :class:`array.array` can be multi-byte values.
+
+An example consumer of the buffer interface is the :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.write`
+method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes through
+the buffer interface can be written to a file.  While :meth:`write` only
+needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object passed to it,
+other methods such as :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.readinto` need write access
+to the contents of their argument.  The buffer interface allows objects to
+selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and read-only buffers.
+
+There are two ways for a consumer of the buffer interface to acquire a buffer
+over a target object:
+
+* call :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` with the right parameters;
+
+* call :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` (or one of its siblings) with one of the
+  ``y*``, ``w*`` or ``s*`` :ref:`format codes <arg-parsing>`.
+
+In both cases, :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` must be called when the buffer
+isn't needed anymore.  Failure to do so could lead to various issues such as
+resource leaks.
+
+
+.. _buffer-structure:
+
+Buffer structure
+================
+
+Buffer structures (or simply "buffers") are useful as a way to expose the
+binary data from another object to the Python programmer.  They can also be
+used as a zero-copy slicing mechanism.  Using their ability to reference a
+block of memory, it is possible to expose any data to the Python programmer
+quite easily.  The memory could be a large, constant array in a C extension,
+it could be a raw block of memory for manipulation before passing to an
+operating system library, or it could be used to pass around structured data
+in its native, in-memory format.
+
+Contrary to most data types exposed by the Python interpreter, buffers
+are not :c:type:`PyObject` pointers but rather simple C structures.  This
+allows them to be created and copied very simply.  When a generic wrapper
+around a buffer is needed, a :ref:`memoryview <memoryview-objects>` object
+can be created.
+
+For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see
+:ref:`Buffer Object Structures <buffer-structs>`. For obtaining
+a buffer, see :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`.
+
+.. c:type:: Py_buffer
+
+   .. c:member:: void \*buf
+
+      A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by the buffer
+      fields. This can be any location within the underlying physical memory
+      block of the exporter. For example, with negative :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides`
+      the value may point to the end of the memory block.
+
+      For :term:`contiguous` arrays, the value points to the beginning of
+      the memory block.
+
+   .. c:member:: void \*obj
+
+      A new reference to the exporting object. The reference is owned by
+      the consumer and automatically decremented and set to *NULL* by
+      :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release`. The field is the equivalent of the return
+      value of any standard C-API function.
+
+      As a special case, for *temporary* buffers that are wrapped by
+      :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromBuffer` or :c:func:`PyBuffer_FillInfo`
+      this field is *NULL*. In general, exporting objects MUST NOT
+      use this scheme.
+
+   .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t len
+
+      ``product(shape) * itemsize``. For contiguous arrays, this is the length
+      of the underlying memory block. For non-contiguous arrays, it is the length
+      that the logical structure would have if it were copied to a contiguous
+      representation.
+
+      Accessing ``((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1]`` is only valid
+      if the buffer has been obtained by a request that guarantees contiguity. In
+      most cases such a request will be :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE` or :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE`.
+
+   .. c:member:: int readonly
+
+      An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only. This field is controlled
+      by the :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` flag.
+
+   .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t itemsize
+
+      Item size in bytes of a single element. Same as the value of :func:`struct.calcsize`
+      called on non-NULL :c:member:`~Py_buffer.format` values.
+
+      Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without the
+      :c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` flag, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.format` will
+      be set to  *NULL*,  but :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` still has
+      the value for the original format.
+
+      If :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape` is present, the equality
+      ``product(shape) * itemsize == len`` still holds and the consumer
+      can use :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` to navigate the buffer.
+
+      If :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape` is *NULL* as a result of a :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE`
+      or a :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` request, the consumer must disregard
+      :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` and assume ``itemsize == 1``.
+
+   .. c:member:: const char \*format
+
+      A *NUL* terminated string in :mod:`struct` module style syntax describing
+      the contents of a single item. If this is *NULL*, ``"B"`` (unsigned bytes)
+      is assumed.
+
+      This field is controlled by the :c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` flag.
+
+   .. c:member:: int ndim
+
+      The number of dimensions the memory represents as an n-dimensional array.
+      If it is ``0``, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf` points to a single item representing
+      a scalar. In this case, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides`
+      and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.suboffsets` MUST be *NULL*.
+
+      The macro :c:macro:`PyBUF_MAX_NDIM` limits the maximum number of dimensions
+      to 64. Exporters MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional
+      buffers SHOULD be able to handle up to :c:macro:`PyBUF_MAX_NDIM` dimensions.
+
+   .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t \*shape
+
+      An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` of length :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`
+      indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array. Note that
+      ``shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize`` MUST be equal to
+      :c:member:`~Py_buffer.len`.
+
+      Shape values are restricted to ``shape[n] >= 0``. The case
+      ``shape[n] == 0`` requires special attention. See `complex arrays`_
+      for further information.
+
+      The shape array is read-only for the consumer.
+
+   .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t \*strides
+
+      An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` of length :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`
+      giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in each
+      dimension.
+
+      Stride values can be any integer. For regular arrays, strides are
+      usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle the case
+      ``strides[n] <= 0``. See `complex arrays`_ for further information.
+
+      The strides array is read-only for the consumer.
+
+   .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t \*suboffsets
+
+      An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` of length :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`.
+      If ``suboffsets[n] >= 0``, the values stored along the nth dimension are
+      pointers and the suboffset value dictates how many bytes to add to each
+      pointer after de-referencing. A suboffset value that is negative
+      indicates that no de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous
+      memory block).
+
+      If all suboffsets are negative (i.e. no de-referencing is needed), then
+      this field must be NULL (the default value).
+
+      This type of array representation is used by the Python Imaging Library
+      (PIL). See `complex arrays`_ for further information how to access elements
+      of such an array.
+
+      The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer.
+
+   .. c:member:: void \*internal
+
+      This is for use internally by the exporting object. For example, this
+      might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter and used to store flags
+      about whether or not the shape, strides, and suboffsets arrays must be
+      freed when the buffer is released. The consumer MUST NOT alter this
+      value.
+
+.. _buffer-request-types:
+
+Buffer request types
+====================
+
+Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting
+object via :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`. Since the complexity of the logical
+structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses the *flags*
+argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle.
+
+All :c:data:`Py_buffer` fields are unambiguously defined by the request
+type.
+
+request-independent fields
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+The following fields are not influenced by *flags* and must always be filled in
+with the correct values: :c:member:`~Py_buffer.obj`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf`,
+:c:member:`~Py_buffer.len`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`.
+
+
+readonly, format
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+   .. c:macro:: PyBUF_WRITABLE
+
+      Controls the :c:member:`~Py_buffer.readonly` field. If set, the exporter
+      MUST provide a writable buffer or else report failure. Otherwise, the
+      exporter MAY provide either a read-only or writable buffer, but the choice
+      MUST be consistent for all consumers.
+
+   .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FORMAT
+
+      Controls the :c:member:`~Py_buffer.format` field. If set, this field MUST
+      be filled in correctly. Otherwise, this field MUST be *NULL*.
+
+
+:c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` can be \|'d to any of the flags in the next section.
+Since :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE` is defined as 0, :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE`
+can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a simple writable buffer.
+
+:c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` can be \|'d to any of the flags except :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE`.
+The latter already implies format ``B`` (unsigned bytes).
+
+
+shape, strides, suboffsets
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed
+in decreasing order of complexity. Note that each flag contains all bits
+of the flags below it.
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |p{0.35\linewidth}|l|l|l|
+
++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+
+|  Request                    | shape | strides | suboffsets |
++=============================+=======+=========+============+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_INDIRECT |  yes  |   yes   | if needed  |
++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDES  |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    |
++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_ND       |  yes  |   NULL  |    NULL    |
++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_SIMPLE   |  NULL |   NULL  |    NULL    |
++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+
+
+
+.. index:: contiguous, C-contiguous, Fortran contiguous
+
+contiguity requests
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+C or Fortran :term:`contiguity <contiguous>` can be explicitly requested,
+with and without stride information. Without stride information, the buffer
+must be C-contiguous.
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |p{0.35\linewidth}|l|l|l|l|
+
++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+
+|  Request                          | shape | strides | suboffsets | contig |
++===================================+=======+=========+============+========+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS   |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    |   C    |
++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS   |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    |   F    |
++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    | C or F |
++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_ND             |  yes  |   NULL  |    NULL    |   C    |
++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+
+
+
+compound requests
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags in
+the previous section. For convenience, the buffer protocol provides frequently
+used combinations as single flags.
+
+In the following table *U* stands for undefined contiguity. The consumer would
+have to call :c:func:`PyBuffer_IsContiguous` to determine contiguity.
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |p{0.35\linewidth}|l|l|l|l|l|l|
+
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+|  Request                      | shape | strides | suboffsets | contig | readonly | format |
++===============================+=======+=========+============+========+==========+========+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FULL       |  yes  |   yes   | if needed  |   U    |     0    |  yes   |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FULL_RO    |  yes  |   yes   | if needed  |   U    |  1 or 0  |  yes   |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_RECORDS    |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    |   U    |     0    |  yes   |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    |   U    |  1 or 0  |  yes   |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDED    |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    |   U    |     0    |  NULL  |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO |  yes  |   yes   |    NULL    |   U    |  1 or 0  |  NULL  |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_CONTIG     |  yes  |   NULL  |    NULL    |   C    |     0    |  NULL  |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO  |  yes  |   NULL  |    NULL    |   C    |  1 or 0  |  NULL  |
++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+
+
+
+Complex arrays
+==============
+
+NumPy-style: shape and strides
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize`,
+:c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape` and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides`.
+
+If ``ndim == 0``, the memory location pointed to by :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf` is
+interpreted as a scalar of size :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize`. In that case,
+both :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape` and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides` are *NULL*.
+
+If :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides` is *NULL*, the array is interpreted as
+a standard n-dimensional C-array. Otherwise, the consumer must access an
+n-dimensional array as follows:
+
+   ``ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1]``
+   ``item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);``
+
+
+As noted above, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf` can point to any location within
+the actual memory block. An exporter can check the validity of a buffer with
+this function:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+   def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset):
+       """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within
+          the bounds of the allocated memory:
+              char *mem: start of the physical memory block
+              memlen: length of the physical memory block
+              offset: (char *)buf - mem
+       """
+       if offset % itemsize:
+           return False
+       if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen:
+           return False
+       if any(v % itemsize for v in strides):
+           return False
+
+       if ndim <= 0:
+           return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides
+       if 0 in shape:
+           return True
+
+       imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
+                  if strides[j] <= 0)
+       imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
+                  if strides[j] > 0)
+
+       return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen
+
+
+PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers
+that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a dimension.
+For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array ``char v[2][2][3]`` can
+also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2 two-dimensional arrays:
+``char (*v[2])[2][3]``. In suboffsets representation, those two pointers
+can be embedded at the start of :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf`, pointing
+to two ``char x[2][3]`` arrays that can be located anywhere in memory.
+
+
+Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array
+pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-NULL strides
+and suboffsets::
+
+   void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides,
+                          Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) {
+       char *pointer = (char*)buf;
+       int i;
+       for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) {
+           pointer += strides[i] * indices[i];
+           if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) {
+               pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i];
+           }
+       }
+       return (void*)pointer;
+   }
+
+
+Buffer-related functions
+========================
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_CheckBuffer(PyObject *obj)
+
+   Return ``1`` if *obj* supports the buffer interface otherwise ``0``.  When ``1`` is
+   returned, it doesn't guarantee that :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` will
+   succeed.  This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags)
+
+   Send a request to *exporter* to fill in *view* as specified by  *flags*.
+   If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST raise
+   :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError`, set :c:member:`view->obj` to *NULL* and
+   return ``-1``.
+
+   On success, fill in *view*, set :c:member:`view->obj` to a new reference
+   to *exporter* and return 0. In the case of chained buffer providers
+   that redirect requests to a single object, :c:member:`view->obj` MAY
+   refer to this object instead of *exporter* (See :ref:`Buffer Object Structures <buffer-structs>`).
+
+   Successful calls to :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` must be paired with calls
+   to :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release`, similar to :c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free`.
+   Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer, :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release`
+   must be called exactly once.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)
+
+   Release the buffer *view* and decrement the reference count for
+   :c:member:`view->obj`. This function MUST be called when the buffer
+   is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur.
+
+   It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not obtained via
+   :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(const char *)
+
+   Return the implied :c:data:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` from :c:data:`~Py_buffer.format`.
+   This function is not yet implemented.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous(Py_buffer *view, char order)
+
+   Return ``1`` if the memory defined by the *view* is C-style (*order* is
+   ``'C'``) or Fortran-style (*order* is ``'F'``) :term:`contiguous` or either one
+   (*order* is ``'A'``).  Return ``0`` otherwise.  This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyBuffer_ToContiguous(void *buf, Py_buffer *src, Py_ssize_t len, char order)
+
+   Copy *len* bytes from *src* to its contiguous representation in *buf*.
+   *order* can be ``'C'`` or ``'F'`` (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering).
+   ``0`` is returned on success, ``-1`` on error.
+
+   This function fails if *len* != *src->len*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(int ndims, Py_ssize_t *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char order)
+
+   Fill the *strides* array with byte-strides of a :term:`contiguous` (C-style if
+   *order* is ``'C'`` or Fortran-style if *order* is ``'F'``) array of the
+   given shape with the given number of bytes per element.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyBuffer_FillInfo(Py_buffer *view, PyObject *exporter, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags)
+
+   Handle buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose *buf* of size *len*
+   with writability set according to *readonly*. *buf* is interpreted as a sequence
+   of unsigned bytes.
+
+   The *flags* argument indicates the request type. This function always fills in
+   *view* as specified by flags, unless *buf* has been designated as read-only
+   and :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` is set in *flags*.
+
+   On success, set :c:member:`view->obj` to a new reference to *exporter* and
+   return 0. Otherwise, raise :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError`, set
+   :c:member:`view->obj` to *NULL* and return ``-1``;
+
+   If this function is used as part of a :ref:`getbufferproc <buffer-structs>`,
+   *exporter* MUST be set to the exporting object and *flags* must be passed
+   unmodified. Otherwise, *exporter* MUST be NULL.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bytearray.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bytearray.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41b6e3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bytearray.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _bytearrayobjects:
+
+Byte Array Objects
+------------------
+
+.. index:: object: bytearray
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyByteArrayObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python bytearray object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyByteArray_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python bytearray type;
+   it is the same object as :class:`bytearray` in the Python layer.
+
+
+Type check macros
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. c:function:: int PyByteArray_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a bytearray object or an instance of a
+   subtype of the bytearray type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyByteArray_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a bytearray object, but not an instance of a
+   subtype of the bytearray type.
+
+
+Direct API functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyByteArray_FromObject(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return a new bytearray object from any object, *o*, that implements the
+   :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`.
+
+   .. XXX expand about the buffer protocol, at least somewhere
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(const char *string, Py_ssize_t len)
+
+   Create a new bytearray object from *string* and its length, *len*.  On
+   failure, *NULL* is returned.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyByteArray_Concat(PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
+
+   Concat bytearrays *a* and *b* and return a new bytearray with the result.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyByteArray_Size(PyObject *bytearray)
+
+   Return the size of *bytearray* after checking for a *NULL* pointer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: char* PyByteArray_AsString(PyObject *bytearray)
+
+   Return the contents of *bytearray* as a char array after checking for a
+   *NULL* pointer.  The returned array always has an extra
+   null byte appended.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyByteArray_Resize(PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t len)
+
+   Resize the internal buffer of *bytearray* to *len*.
+
+Macros
+^^^^^^
+
+These macros trade safety for speed and they don't check pointers.
+
+.. c:function:: char* PyByteArray_AS_STRING(PyObject *bytearray)
+
+   Macro version of :c:func:`PyByteArray_AsString`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyByteArray_GET_SIZE(PyObject *bytearray)
+
+   Macro version of :c:func:`PyByteArray_Size`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bytes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bytes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b9ebf6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/bytes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,205 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _bytesobjects:
+
+Bytes Objects
+-------------
+
+These functions raise :exc:`TypeError` when expecting a bytes parameter and are
+called with a non-bytes parameter.
+
+.. index:: object: bytes
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyBytesObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python bytes object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyBytes_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python bytes type; it
+   is the same object as :class:`bytes` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyBytes_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a bytes object or an instance of a subtype
+   of the bytes type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyBytes_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a bytes object, but not an instance of a
+   subtype of the bytes type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyBytes_FromString(const char *v)
+
+   Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string *v* as value on success,
+   and *NULL* on failure.  The parameter *v* must not be *NULL*; it will not be
+   checked.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(const char *v, Py_ssize_t len)
+
+   Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string *v* as value and length
+   *len* on success, and *NULL* on failure.  If *v* is *NULL*, the contents of
+   the bytes object are uninitialized.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyBytes_FromFormat(const char *format, ...)
+
+   Take a C :c:func:`printf`\ -style *format* string and a variable number of
+   arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python bytes object and return
+   a bytes object with the values formatted into it.  The variable arguments
+   must be C types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the
+   *format* string.  The following format characters are allowed:
+
+   .. % XXX: This should be exactly the same as the table in PyErr_Format.
+   .. % One should just refer to the other.
+   .. % XXX: The descriptions for %zd and %zu are wrong, but the truth is complicated
+   .. % because not all compilers support the %z width modifier -- we fake it
+   .. % when necessary via interpolating PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|l|L|
+
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | Format Characters | Type          | Comment                        |
+   +===================+===============+================================+
+   | :attr:`%%`        | *n/a*         | The literal % character.       |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%c`        | int           | A single byte,                 |
+   |                   |               | represented as a C int.        |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%d`        | int           | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%d")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%u`        | unsigned int  | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%u")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%ld`       | long          | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%ld")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%lu`       | unsigned long | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%lu")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%zd`       | Py_ssize_t    | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%zd")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%zu`       | size_t        | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%zu")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%i`        | int           | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%i")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%x`        | int           | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%x")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%s`        | const char\*  | A null-terminated C character  |
+   |                   |               | array.                         |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%p`        | const void\*  | The hex representation of a C  |
+   |                   |               | pointer. Mostly equivalent to  |
+   |                   |               | ``printf("%p")`` except that   |
+   |                   |               | it is guaranteed to start with |
+   |                   |               | the literal ``0x`` regardless  |
+   |                   |               | of what the platform's         |
+   |                   |               | ``printf`` yields.             |
+   +-------------------+---------------+--------------------------------+
+
+   An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be
+   copied as-is to the result object, and any extra arguments discarded.
+
+   .. [1] For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion
+      flag has effect even when a precision is given.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyBytes_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs)
+
+   Identical to :c:func:`PyBytes_FromFormat` except that it takes exactly two
+   arguments.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyBytes_FromObject(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the bytes representation of object *o* that implements the buffer
+   protocol.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyBytes_Size(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the length of the bytes in bytes object *o*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyBytes_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o)
+
+   Macro form of :c:func:`PyBytes_Size` but without error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: char* PyBytes_AsString(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return a pointer to the contents of *o*.  The pointer
+   refers to the internal buffer of *o*, which consists of ``len(o) + 1``
+   bytes.  The last byte in the buffer is always null, regardless of
+   whether there are any other null bytes.  The data must not be
+   modified in any way, unless the object was just created using
+   ``PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)``. It must not be deallocated.  If
+   *o* is not a bytes object at all, :c:func:`PyBytes_AsString` returns *NULL*
+   and raises :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: char* PyBytes_AS_STRING(PyObject *string)
+
+   Macro form of :c:func:`PyBytes_AsString` but without error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(PyObject *obj, char **buffer, Py_ssize_t *length)
+
+   Return the null-terminated contents of the object *obj*
+   through the output variables *buffer* and *length*.
+
+   If *length* is *NULL*, the bytes object
+   may not contain embedded null bytes;
+   if it does, the function returns ``-1`` and a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   The buffer refers to an internal buffer of *obj*, which includes an
+   additional null byte at the end (not counted in *length*).  The data
+   must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just created using
+   ``PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)``.  It must not be deallocated.  If
+   *obj* is not a bytes object at all, :c:func:`PyBytes_AsStringAndSize`
+   returns ``-1`` and raises :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Previously, :exc:`TypeError` was raised when embedded null bytes were
+      encountered in the bytes object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyBytes_Concat(PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)
+
+   Create a new bytes object in *\*bytes* containing the contents of *newpart*
+   appended to *bytes*; the caller will own the new reference.  The reference to
+   the old value of *bytes* will be stolen.  If the new object cannot be
+   created, the old reference to *bytes* will still be discarded and the value
+   of *\*bytes* will be set to *NULL*; the appropriate exception will be set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)
+
+   Create a new bytes object in *\*bytes* containing the contents of *newpart*
+   appended to *bytes*.  This version decrements the reference count of
+   *newpart*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int _PyBytes_Resize(PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t newsize)
+
+   A way to resize a bytes object even though it is "immutable". Only use this
+   to build up a brand new bytes object; don't use this if the bytes may already
+   be known in other parts of the code.  It is an error to call this function if
+   the refcount on the input bytes object is not one. Pass the address of an
+   existing bytes object as an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size
+   desired.  On success, *\*bytes* holds the resized bytes object and ``0`` is
+   returned; the address in *\*bytes* may differ from its input value.  If the
+   reallocation fails, the original bytes object at *\*bytes* is deallocated,
+   *\*bytes* is set to *NULL*, :exc:`MemoryError` is set, and ``-1`` is
+   returned.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/capsule.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/capsule.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8eb6695
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/capsule.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _capsules:
+
+Capsules
+--------
+
+.. index:: object: Capsule
+
+Refer to :ref:`using-capsules` for more information on using these objects.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyCapsule
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents an opaque value, useful for C
+   extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as a :c:type:`void\*`
+   pointer) through Python code to other C code.  It is often used to make a C
+   function pointer defined in one module available to other modules, so the
+   regular import mechanism can be used to access C APIs defined in dynamically
+   loaded modules.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyCapsule_Destructor
+
+   The type of a destructor callback for a capsule.  Defined as::
+
+      typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *);
+
+   See :c:func:`PyCapsule_New` for the semantics of PyCapsule_Destructor
+   callbacks.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCapsule_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if its argument is a :c:type:`PyCapsule`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCapsule_New(void *pointer, const char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
+
+   Create a :c:type:`PyCapsule` encapsulating the *pointer*.  The *pointer*
+   argument may not be *NULL*.
+
+   On failure, set an exception and return *NULL*.
+
+   The *name* string may either be *NULL* or a pointer to a valid C string.  If
+   non-*NULL*, this string must outlive the capsule.  (Though it is permitted to
+   free it inside the *destructor*.)
+
+   If the *destructor* argument is not *NULL*, it will be called with the
+   capsule as its argument when it is destroyed.
+
+   If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the *name* should
+   be specified as ``modulename.attributename``.  This will enable other modules
+   to import the capsule using :c:func:`PyCapsule_Import`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyCapsule_GetPointer(PyObject *capsule, const char *name)
+
+   Retrieve the *pointer* stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception
+   and return *NULL*.
+
+   The *name* parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the capsule.
+   If the name stored in the capsule is *NULL*, the *name* passed in must also
+   be *NULL*.  Python uses the C function :c:func:`strcmp` to compare capsule
+   names.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyCapsule_Destructor PyCapsule_GetDestructor(PyObject *capsule)
+
+   Return the current destructor stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an
+   exception and return *NULL*.
+
+   It is legal for a capsule to have a *NULL* destructor.  This makes a *NULL*
+   return code somewhat ambiguous; use :c:func:`PyCapsule_IsValid` or
+   :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyCapsule_GetContext(PyObject *capsule)
+
+   Return the current context stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an
+   exception and return *NULL*.
+
+   It is legal for a capsule to have a *NULL* context.  This makes a *NULL*
+   return code somewhat ambiguous; use :c:func:`PyCapsule_IsValid` or
+   :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyCapsule_GetName(PyObject *capsule)
+
+   Return the current name stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception
+   and return *NULL*.
+
+   It is legal for a capsule to have a *NULL* name.  This makes a *NULL* return
+   code somewhat ambiguous; use :c:func:`PyCapsule_IsValid` or
+   :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyCapsule_Import(const char *name, int no_block)
+
+   Import a pointer to a C object from a capsule attribute in a module.  The
+   *name* parameter should specify the full name to the attribute, as in
+   ``module.attribute``.  The *name* stored in the capsule must match this
+   string exactly.  If *no_block* is true, import the module without blocking
+   (using :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock`).  If *no_block* is false,
+   import the module conventionally (using :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`).
+
+   Return the capsule's internal *pointer* on success.  On failure, set an
+   exception and return *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCapsule_IsValid(PyObject *capsule, const char *name)
+
+   Determines whether or not *capsule* is a valid capsule.  A valid capsule is
+   non-*NULL*, passes :c:func:`PyCapsule_CheckExact`, has a non-*NULL* pointer
+   stored in it, and its internal name matches the *name* parameter.  (See
+   :c:func:`PyCapsule_GetPointer` for information on how capsule names are
+   compared.)
+
+   In other words, if :c:func:`PyCapsule_IsValid` returns a true value, calls to
+   any of the accessors (any function starting with :c:func:`PyCapsule_Get`) are
+   guaranteed to succeed.
+
+   Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name passed in.
+   Return ``0`` otherwise.  This function will not fail.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCapsule_SetContext(PyObject *capsule, void *context)
+
+   Set the context pointer inside *capsule* to *context*.
+
+   Return ``0`` on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCapsule_SetDestructor(PyObject *capsule, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
+
+   Set the destructor inside *capsule* to *destructor*.
+
+   Return ``0`` on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCapsule_SetName(PyObject *capsule, const char *name)
+
+   Set the name inside *capsule* to *name*.  If non-*NULL*, the name must
+   outlive the capsule.  If the previous *name* stored in the capsule was not
+   *NULL*, no attempt is made to free it.
+
+   Return ``0`` on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCapsule_SetPointer(PyObject *capsule, void *pointer)
+
+   Set the void pointer inside *capsule* to *pointer*.  The pointer may not be
+   *NULL*.
+
+   Return ``0`` on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/cell.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/cell.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..427259c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/cell.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _cell-objects:
+
+Cell Objects
+------------
+
+"Cell" objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple scopes.
+For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the value; the local
+variables of each stack frame that references the value contains a reference to
+the cells from outer scopes which also use that variable.  When the value is
+accessed, the value contained in the cell is used instead of the cell object
+itself.  This de-referencing of the cell object requires support from the
+generated byte-code; these are not automatically de-referenced when accessed.
+Cell objects are not likely to be useful elsewhere.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyCellObject
+
+   The C structure used for cell objects.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCell_Type
+
+   The type object corresponding to cell objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCell_Check(ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is a cell object; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCell_New(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Create and return a new cell object containing the value *ob*. The parameter may
+   be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCell_Get(PyObject *cell)
+
+   Return the contents of the cell *cell*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCell_GET(PyObject *cell)
+
+   Return the contents of the cell *cell*, but without checking that *cell* is
+   non-*NULL* and a cell object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCell_Set(PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)
+
+   Set the contents of the cell object *cell* to *value*.  This releases the
+   reference to any current content of the cell. *value* may be *NULL*.  *cell*
+   must be non-*NULL*; if it is not a cell object, ``-1`` will be returned.  On
+   success, ``0`` will be returned.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyCell_SET(PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)
+
+   Sets the value of the cell object *cell* to *value*.  No reference counts are
+   adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; *cell* must be non-*NULL* and must
+   be a cell object.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/code.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/code.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10d89f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/code.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _codeobjects:
+
+.. index:: object; code, code object
+
+Code Objects
+------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Jeffrey Yasskin <jyasskin@gmail.com>
+
+Code objects are a low-level detail of the CPython implementation.
+Each one represents a chunk of executable code that hasn't yet been
+bound into a function.
+
+.. c:type:: PyCodeObject
+
+   The C structure of the objects used to describe code objects.  The
+   fields of this type are subject to change at any time.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCode_Type
+
+   This is an instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` representing the Python
+   :class:`code` type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCode_Check(PyObject *co)
+
+   Return true if *co* is a :class:`code` object.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCode_GetNumFree(PyCodeObject *co)
+
+   Return the number of free variables in *co*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyCodeObject* PyCode_New(int argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, int firstlineno, PyObject *lnotab)
+
+   Return a new code object.  If you need a dummy code object to
+   create a frame, use :c:func:`PyCode_NewEmpty` instead.  Calling
+   :c:func:`PyCode_New` directly can bind you to a precise Python
+   version since the definition of the bytecode changes often.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyCodeObject* PyCode_NewEmpty(const char *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno)
+
+   Return a new empty code object with the specified filename,
+   function name, and first line number.  It is illegal to
+   :func:`exec` or :func:`eval` the resulting code object.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/codec.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/codec.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c55f199
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/codec.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,123 @@
+.. _codec-registry:
+
+Codec registry and support functions
+====================================
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCodec_Register(PyObject *search_function)
+
+   Register a new codec search function.
+
+   As side effect, this tries to load the :mod:`encodings` package, if not yet
+   done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of search functions.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCodec_KnownEncoding(const char *encoding)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether there is a registered codec for
+   the given *encoding*.  This function always succeeds.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_Encode(PyObject *object, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Generic codec based encoding API.
+
+   *object* is passed through the encoder function found for the given
+   *encoding* using the error handling method defined by *errors*.  *errors* may
+   be *NULL* to use the default method defined for the codec.  Raises a
+   :exc:`LookupError` if no encoder can be found.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_Decode(PyObject *object, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Generic codec based decoding API.
+
+   *object* is passed through the decoder function found for the given
+   *encoding* using the error handling method defined by *errors*.  *errors* may
+   be *NULL* to use the default method defined for the codec.  Raises a
+   :exc:`LookupError` if no encoder can be found.
+
+
+Codec lookup API
+----------------
+
+In the following functions, the *encoding* string is looked up converted to all
+lower-case characters, which makes encodings looked up through this mechanism
+effectively case-insensitive.  If no codec is found, a :exc:`KeyError` is set
+and *NULL* returned.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_Encoder(const char *encoding)
+
+   Get an encoder function for the given *encoding*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_Decoder(const char *encoding)
+
+   Get a decoder function for the given *encoding*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Get an :class:`~codecs.IncrementalEncoder` object for the given *encoding*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Get an :class:`~codecs.IncrementalDecoder` object for the given *encoding*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_StreamReader(const char *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
+
+   Get a :class:`~codecs.StreamReader` factory function for the given *encoding*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_StreamWriter(const char *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
+
+   Get a :class:`~codecs.StreamWriter` factory function for the given *encoding*.
+
+
+Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers
+------------------------------------------------
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCodec_RegisterError(const char *name, PyObject *error)
+
+   Register the error handling callback function *error* under the given *name*.
+   This callback function will be called by a codec when it encounters
+   unencodable characters/undecodable bytes and *name* is specified as the error
+   parameter in the call to the encode/decode function.
+
+   The callback gets a single argument, an instance of
+   :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError`, :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError` or
+   :exc:`UnicodeTranslateError` that holds information about the problematic
+   sequence of characters or bytes and their offset in the original string (see
+   :ref:`unicodeexceptions` for functions to extract this information).  The
+   callback must either raise the given exception, or return a two-item tuple
+   containing the replacement for the problematic sequence, and an integer
+   giving the offset in the original string at which encoding/decoding should be
+   resumed.
+
+   Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on error.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_LookupError(const char *name)
+
+   Lookup the error handling callback function registered under *name*.  As a
+   special case *NULL* can be passed, in which case the error handling callback
+   for "strict" will be returned.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_StrictErrors(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Raise *exc* as an exception.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Ignore the unicode error, skipping the faulty input.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Replace the unicode encode error with ``?`` or ``U+FFFD``.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Replace the unicode encode error with XML character references.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Replace the unicode encode error with backslash escapes (``\x``, ``\u`` and
+   ``\U``).
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Replace the unicode encode error with ``\N{...}`` escapes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/complex.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/complex.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc63b57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/complex.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _complexobjects:
+
+Complex Number Objects
+----------------------
+
+.. index:: object: complex number
+
+Python's complex number objects are implemented as two distinct types when
+viewed from the C API:  one is the Python object exposed to Python programs, and
+the other is a C structure which represents the actual complex number value.
+The API provides functions for working with both.
+
+
+Complex Numbers as C Structures
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Note that the functions which accept these structures as parameters and return
+them as results do so *by value* rather than dereferencing them through
+pointers.  This is consistent throughout the API.
+
+
+.. c:type:: Py_complex
+
+   The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python complex
+   number object.  Most of the functions for dealing with complex number objects
+   use structures of this type as input or output values, as appropriate.  It is
+   defined as::
+
+      typedef struct {
+         double real;
+         double imag;
+      } Py_complex;
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_complex _Py_c_sum(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)
+
+   Return the sum of two complex numbers, using the C :c:type:`Py_complex`
+   representation.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_complex _Py_c_diff(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)
+
+   Return the difference between two complex numbers, using the C
+   :c:type:`Py_complex` representation.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_complex _Py_c_neg(Py_complex complex)
+
+   Return the negation of the complex number *complex*, using the C
+   :c:type:`Py_complex` representation.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_complex _Py_c_prod(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)
+
+   Return the product of two complex numbers, using the C :c:type:`Py_complex`
+   representation.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_complex _Py_c_quot(Py_complex dividend, Py_complex divisor)
+
+   Return the quotient of two complex numbers, using the C :c:type:`Py_complex`
+   representation.
+
+   If *divisor* is null, this method returns zero and sets
+   :c:data:`errno` to :c:data:`EDOM`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_complex _Py_c_pow(Py_complex num, Py_complex exp)
+
+   Return the exponentiation of *num* by *exp*, using the C :c:type:`Py_complex`
+   representation.
+
+   If *num* is null and *exp* is not a positive real number,
+   this method returns zero and sets :c:data:`errno` to :c:data:`EDOM`.
+
+
+Complex Numbers as Python Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyComplexObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python complex number object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyComplex_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python complex number
+   type. It is the same object as :class:`complex` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyComplex_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if its argument is a :c:type:`PyComplexObject` or a subtype of
+   :c:type:`PyComplexObject`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyComplex_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if its argument is a :c:type:`PyComplexObject`, but not a subtype of
+   :c:type:`PyComplexObject`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyComplex_FromCComplex(Py_complex v)
+
+   Create a new Python complex number object from a C :c:type:`Py_complex` value.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyComplex_FromDoubles(double real, double imag)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyComplexObject` object from *real* and *imag*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the real part of *op* as a C :c:type:`double`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the imaginary part of *op* as a C :c:type:`double`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_complex PyComplex_AsCComplex(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the :c:type:`Py_complex` value of the complex number *op*.
+
+   If *op* is not a Python complex number object but has a :meth:`__complex__`
+   method, this method will first be called to convert *op* to a Python complex
+   number object. Upon failure, this method returns ``-1.0`` as a real value.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/concrete.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/concrete.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9558a4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/concrete.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _concrete:
+
+**********************
+Concrete Objects Layer
+**********************
+
+The functions in this chapter are specific to certain Python object types.
+Passing them an object of the wrong type is not a good idea; if you receive an
+object from a Python program and you are not sure that it has the right type,
+you must perform a type check first; for example, to check that an object is a
+dictionary, use :c:func:`PyDict_Check`.  The chapter is structured like the
+"family tree" of Python object types.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   While the functions described in this chapter carefully check the type of the
+   objects which are passed in, many of them do not check for *NULL* being passed
+   instead of a valid object.  Allowing *NULL* to be passed in can cause memory
+   access violations and immediate termination of the interpreter.
+
+
+.. _fundamental:
+
+Fundamental Objects
+===================
+
+This section describes Python type objects and the singleton object ``None``.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   type.rst
+   none.rst
+
+
+.. _numericobjects:
+
+Numeric Objects
+===============
+
+.. index:: object: numeric
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   long.rst
+   bool.rst
+   float.rst
+   complex.rst
+
+
+.. _sequenceobjects:
+
+Sequence Objects
+================
+
+.. index:: object: sequence
+
+Generic operations on sequence objects were discussed in the previous chapter;
+this section deals with the specific kinds of sequence objects that are
+intrinsic to the Python language.
+
+.. XXX sort out unicode, str, bytes and bytearray
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   bytes.rst
+   bytearray.rst
+   unicode.rst
+   tuple.rst
+   list.rst
+
+
+.. _mapobjects:
+
+Container Objects
+=================
+
+.. index:: object: mapping
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   dict.rst
+   set.rst
+
+
+.. _otherobjects:
+
+Function Objects
+================
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   function.rst
+   method.rst
+   cell.rst
+   code.rst
+
+
+Other Objects
+=============
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   file.rst
+   module.rst
+   iterator.rst
+   descriptor.rst
+   slice.rst
+   memoryview.rst
+   weakref.rst
+   capsule.rst
+   gen.rst
+   coro.rst
+   contextvars.rst
+   datetime.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/contextvars.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/contextvars.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c344c8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/contextvars.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _contextvarsobjects:
+
+Context Variables Objects
+-------------------------
+
+.. _contextvarsobjects_pointertype_change:
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
+
+   .. note::
+
+      In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables
+      C APIs were **changed** to use :c:type:`PyObject` pointers instead
+      of :c:type:`PyContext`, :c:type:`PyContextVar`, and
+      :c:type:`PyContextToken`, e.g.::
+
+         // in 3.7.0:
+         PyContext *PyContext_New(void);
+
+         // in 3.7.1+:
+         PyObject *PyContext_New(void);
+
+      See :issue:`34762` for more details.
+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+This section details the public C API for the :mod:`contextvars` module.
+
+.. c:type:: PyContext
+
+   The C structure used to represent a :class:`contextvars.Context`
+   object.
+
+.. c:type:: PyContextVar
+
+   The C structure used to represent a :class:`contextvars.ContextVar`
+   object.
+
+.. c:type:: PyContextToken
+
+   The C structure used to represent a :class:`contextvars.Token` object.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyContext_Type
+
+   The type object representing the *context* type.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyContextVar_Type
+
+   The type object representing the *context variable* type.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyContextToken_Type
+
+   The type object representing the *context variable token* type.
+
+
+Type-check macros:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContext_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if *o* is of type :c:data:`PyContext_Type`. *o* must not be
+   *NULL*.  This function always succeeds.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContextVar_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if *o* is of type :c:data:`PyContextVar_Type`. *o* must not be
+   *NULL*.  This function always succeeds.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContextToken_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if *o* is of type :c:data:`PyContextToken_Type`.
+   *o* must not be *NULL*.  This function always succeeds.
+
+
+Context object management functions:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyContext_New(void)
+
+   Create a new empty context object.  Returns ``NULL`` if an error
+   has occurred.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyContext_Copy(PyObject *ctx)
+
+   Create a shallow copy of the passed *ctx* context object.
+   Returns ``NULL`` if an error has occurred.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyContext_CopyCurrent(void)
+
+   Create a shallow copy of the current thread context.
+   Returns ``NULL`` if an error has occurred.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContext_Enter(PyObject *ctx)
+
+   Set *ctx* as the current context for the current thread.
+   Returns ``0`` on success, and ``-1`` on error.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContext_Exit(PyObject *ctx)
+
+   Deactivate the *ctx* context and restore the previous context as the
+   current context for the current thread.  Returns ``0`` on success,
+   and ``-1`` on error.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContext_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the context variable free list. Return the total number of
+   freed items.  This function always succeeds.
+
+
+Context variable functions:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyContextVar_New(const char *name, PyObject *def)
+
+   Create a new ``ContextVar`` object.  The *name* parameter is used
+   for introspection and debug purposes.  The *def* parameter may optionally
+   specify the default value for the context variable.  If an error has
+   occurred, this function returns ``NULL``.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContextVar_Get(PyObject *var, PyObject *default_value, PyObject **value)
+
+   Get the value of a context variable.  Returns ``-1`` if an error has
+   occurred during lookup, and ``0`` if no error occurred, whether or not
+   a value was found.
+
+   If the context variable was found, *value* will be a pointer to it.
+   If the context variable was *not* found, *value* will point to:
+
+   - *default_value*, if not ``NULL``;
+   - the default value of *var*, if not ``NULL``;
+   - ``NULL``
+
+   If the value was found, the function will create a new reference to it.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyContextVar_Set(PyObject *var, PyObject *value)
+
+   Set the value of *var* to *value* in the current context.  Returns a
+   pointer to a :c:type:`PyObject` object, or ``NULL`` if an error
+   has occurred.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyContextVar_Reset(PyObject *var, PyObject *token)
+
+   Reset the state of the *var* context variable to that it was in before
+   :c:func:`PyContextVar_Set` that returned the *token* was called.
+   This function returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on error.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/conversion.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/conversion.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c46722d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/conversion.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _string-conversion:
+
+String conversion and formatting
+================================
+
+Functions for number conversion and formatted string output.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_snprintf(char *str, size_t size,  const char *format, ...)
+
+   Output not more than *size* bytes to *str* according to the format string
+   *format* and the extra arguments. See the Unix man page :manpage:`snprintf(2)`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_vsnprintf(char *str, size_t size, const char *format, va_list va)
+
+   Output not more than *size* bytes to *str* according to the format string
+   *format* and the variable argument list *va*. Unix man page
+   :manpage:`vsnprintf(2)`.
+
+:c:func:`PyOS_snprintf` and :c:func:`PyOS_vsnprintf` wrap the Standard C library
+functions :c:func:`snprintf` and :c:func:`vsnprintf`. Their purpose is to
+guarantee consistent behavior in corner cases, which the Standard C functions do
+not.
+
+The wrappers ensure that *str*[*size*-1] is always ``'\0'`` upon return. They
+never write more than *size* bytes (including the trailing ``'\0'``) into str.
+Both functions require that ``str != NULL``, ``size > 0`` and ``format !=
+NULL``.
+
+If the platform doesn't have :c:func:`vsnprintf` and the buffer size needed to
+avoid truncation exceeds *size* by more than 512 bytes, Python aborts with a
+*Py_FatalError*.
+
+The return value (*rv*) for these functions should be interpreted as follows:
+
+* When ``0 <= rv < size``, the output conversion was successful and *rv*
+  characters were written to *str* (excluding the trailing ``'\0'`` byte at
+  *str*[*rv*]).
+
+* When ``rv >= size``, the output conversion was truncated and a buffer with
+  ``rv + 1`` bytes would have been needed to succeed. *str*[*size*-1] is ``'\0'``
+  in this case.
+
+* When ``rv < 0``, "something bad happened." *str*[*size*-1] is ``'\0'`` in
+  this case too, but the rest of *str* is undefined. The exact cause of the error
+  depends on the underlying platform.
+
+The following functions provide locale-independent string to number conversions.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyOS_string_to_double(const char *s, char **endptr, PyObject *overflow_exception)
+
+   Convert a string ``s`` to a :c:type:`double`, raising a Python
+   exception on failure.  The set of accepted strings corresponds to
+   the set of strings accepted by Python's :func:`float` constructor,
+   except that ``s`` must not have leading or trailing whitespace.
+   The conversion is independent of the current locale.
+
+   If ``endptr`` is ``NULL``, convert the whole string.  Raise
+   :exc:`ValueError` and return ``-1.0`` if the string is not a valid
+   representation of a floating-point number.
+
+   If endptr is not ``NULL``, convert as much of the string as
+   possible and set ``*endptr`` to point to the first unconverted
+   character.  If no initial segment of the string is the valid
+   representation of a floating-point number, set ``*endptr`` to point
+   to the beginning of the string, raise ValueError, and return
+   ``-1.0``.
+
+   If ``s`` represents a value that is too large to store in a float
+   (for example, ``"1e500"`` is such a string on many platforms) then
+   if ``overflow_exception`` is ``NULL`` return ``Py_HUGE_VAL`` (with
+   an appropriate sign) and don't set any exception.  Otherwise,
+   ``overflow_exception`` must point to a Python exception object;
+   raise that exception and return ``-1.0``.  In both cases, set
+   ``*endptr`` to point to the first character after the converted value.
+
+   If any other error occurs during the conversion (for example an
+   out-of-memory error), set the appropriate Python exception and
+   return ``-1.0``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. c:function:: char* PyOS_double_to_string(double val, char format_code, int precision, int flags, int *ptype)
+
+   Convert a :c:type:`double` *val* to a string using supplied
+   *format_code*, *precision*, and *flags*.
+
+   *format_code* must be one of ``'e'``, ``'E'``, ``'f'``, ``'F'``,
+   ``'g'``, ``'G'`` or ``'r'``.  For ``'r'``, the supplied *precision*
+   must be 0 and is ignored.  The ``'r'`` format code specifies the
+   standard :func:`repr` format.
+
+   *flags* can be zero or more of the values *Py_DTSF_SIGN*,
+   *Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0*, or *Py_DTSF_ALT*, or-ed together:
+
+   * *Py_DTSF_SIGN* means to always precede the returned string with a sign
+     character, even if *val* is non-negative.
+
+   * *Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0* means to ensure that the returned string will not look
+     like an integer.
+
+   * *Py_DTSF_ALT* means to apply "alternate" formatting rules.  See the
+     documentation for the :c:func:`PyOS_snprintf` ``'#'`` specifier for
+     details.
+
+   If *ptype* is non-NULL, then the value it points to will be set to one of
+   *Py_DTST_FINITE*, *Py_DTST_INFINITE*, or *Py_DTST_NAN*, signifying that
+   *val* is a finite number, an infinite number, or not a number, respectively.
+
+   The return value is a pointer to *buffer* with the converted string or
+   *NULL* if the conversion failed. The caller is responsible for freeing the
+   returned string by calling :c:func:`PyMem_Free`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_stricmp(const char *s1, const char *s2)
+
+   Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost
+   identically to :c:func:`strcmp` except that it ignores the case.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_strnicmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, Py_ssize_t  size)
+
+   Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost
+   identically to :c:func:`strncmp` except that it ignores the case.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/coro.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/coro.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fe50b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/coro.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _coro-objects:
+
+Coroutine Objects
+-----------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+Coroutine objects are what functions declared with an ``async`` keyword
+return.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyCoroObject
+
+   The C structure used for coroutine objects.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCoro_Type
+
+   The type object corresponding to coroutine objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCoro_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob*'s type is *PyCoro_Type*; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCoro_New(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
+
+   Create and return a new coroutine object based on the *frame* object,
+   with ``__name__`` and ``__qualname__`` set to *name* and *qualname*.
+   A reference to *frame* is stolen by this function.  The *frame* argument
+   must not be *NULL*.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/datetime.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/datetime.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77b1b21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/datetime.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _datetimeobjects:
+
+DateTime Objects
+----------------
+
+Various date and time objects are supplied by the :mod:`datetime` module.
+Before using any of these functions, the header file :file:`datetime.h` must be
+included in your source (note that this is not included by :file:`Python.h`),
+and the macro :c:macro:`PyDateTime_IMPORT` must be invoked, usually as part of
+the module initialisation function.  The macro puts a pointer to a C structure
+into a static variable, :c:data:`PyDateTimeAPI`, that is used by the following
+macros.
+
+Macro for access to the UTC singleton:
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject* PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC
+
+   Returns the time zone singleton representing UTC, the same object as
+   :attr:`datetime.timezone.utc`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Type-check macros:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDate_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_DateType` or a subtype of
+   :c:data:`PyDateTime_DateType`.  *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDate_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_DateType`. *ob* must not be
+   *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_DateTimeType` or a subtype of
+   :c:data:`PyDateTime_DateTimeType`.  *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_DateTimeType`. *ob* must not
+   be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTime_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_TimeType` or a subtype of
+   :c:data:`PyDateTime_TimeType`.  *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTime_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_TimeType`. *ob* must not be
+   *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDelta_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_DeltaType` or a subtype of
+   :c:data:`PyDateTime_DeltaType`.  *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDelta_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_DeltaType`. *ob* must not be
+   *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTZInfo_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_TZInfoType` or a subtype of
+   :c:data:`PyDateTime_TZInfoType`.  *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is of type :c:data:`PyDateTime_TZInfoType`. *ob* must not be
+   *NULL*.
+
+
+Macros to create objects:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDate_FromDate(int year, int month, int day)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.date` object with the specified year, month and day.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime(int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.datetime` object with the specified year, month, day, hour,
+   minute, second and microsecond.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold(int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.datetime` object with the specified year, month, day, hour,
+   minute, second, microsecond and fold.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTime_FromTime(int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.time` object with the specified hour, minute, second and
+   microsecond.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTime_FromTimeAndFold(int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.time` object with the specified hour, minute, second,
+   microsecond and fold.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDelta_FromDSU(int days, int seconds, int useconds)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.timedelta` object representing the given number
+   of days, seconds and microseconds.  Normalization is performed so that the
+   resulting number of microseconds and seconds lie in the ranges documented for
+   :class:`datetime.timedelta` objects.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTimeZone_FromOffset(PyDateTime_DeltaType* offset)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.timezone` object with an unnamed fixed offset
+   represented by the *offset* argument.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName(PyDateTime_DeltaType* offset, PyUnicode* name)
+
+   Return a :class:`datetime.timezone` object with a fixed offset represented
+   by the *offset* argument and with tzname *name*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Macros to extract fields from date objects.  The argument must be an instance of
+:c:data:`PyDateTime_Date`, including subclasses (such as
+:c:data:`PyDateTime_DateTime`).  The argument must not be *NULL*, and the type is
+not checked:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR(PyDateTime_Date *o)
+
+   Return the year, as a positive int.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH(PyDateTime_Date *o)
+
+   Return the month, as an int from 1 through 12.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY(PyDateTime_Date *o)
+
+   Return the day, as an int from 1 through 31.
+
+
+Macros to extract fields from datetime objects.  The argument must be an
+instance of :c:data:`PyDateTime_DateTime`, including subclasses. The argument
+must not be *NULL*, and the type is not checked:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+   Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+   Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+   Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)
+
+   Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.
+
+
+Macros to extract fields from time objects.  The argument must be an instance of
+:c:data:`PyDateTime_Time`, including subclasses. The argument must not be *NULL*,
+and the type is not checked:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+   Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+   Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+   Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND(PyDateTime_Time *o)
+
+   Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.
+
+
+Macros to extract fields from time delta objects.  The argument must be an
+instance of :c:data:`PyDateTime_Delta`, including subclasses. The argument must
+not be *NULL*, and the type is not checked:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS(PyDateTime_Delta *o)
+
+   Return the number of days, as an int from -999999999 to 999999999.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS(PyDateTime_Delta *o)
+
+   Return the number of seconds, as an int from 0 through 86399.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS(PyDateTime_Delta *o)
+
+   Return the number of microseconds, as an int from 0 through 999999.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)
+
+   Create and return a new :class:`datetime.datetime` object given an argument
+   tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp()`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDate_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)
+
+   Create and return a new :class:`datetime.date` object given an argument
+   tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`datetime.date.fromtimestamp()`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/descriptor.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/descriptor.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8f6fa5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/descriptor.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _descriptor-objects:
+
+Descriptor Objects
+------------------
+
+"Descriptors" are objects that describe some attribute of an object. They are
+found in the dictionary of type objects.
+
+.. XXX document these!
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyProperty_Type
+
+   The type object for the built-in descriptor types.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewGetSet(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewMember(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMemberDef *meth)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewMethod(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewWrapper(PyTypeObject *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewClassMethod(PyTypeObject *type, PyMethodDef *method)
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDescr_IsData(PyObject *descr)
+
+   Return true if the descriptor objects *descr* describes a data attribute, or
+   false if it describes a method.  *descr* must be a descriptor object; there is
+   no error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWrapper_New(PyObject *, PyObject *)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/dict.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/dict.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ced5a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/dict.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,240 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _dictobjects:
+
+Dictionary Objects
+------------------
+
+.. index:: object: dictionary
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyDictObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python dictionary object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDict_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python dictionary
+   type.  This is the same object as :class:`dict` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a dict object or an instance of a subtype of the dict
+   type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a dict object, but not an instance of a subtype of
+   the dict type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_New()
+
+   Return a new empty dictionary, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDictProxy_New(PyObject *mapping)
+
+   Return a :class:`types.MappingProxyType` object for a mapping which
+   enforces read-only behavior.  This is normally used to create a view to
+   prevent modification of the dictionary for non-dynamic class types.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyDict_Clear(PyObject *p)
+
+   Empty an existing dictionary of all key-value pairs.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_Contains(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
+
+   Determine if dictionary *p* contains *key*.  If an item in *p* is matches
+   *key*, return ``1``, otherwise return ``0``.  On error, return ``-1``.
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``key in p``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_Copy(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return a new dictionary that contains the same key-value pairs as *p*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_SetItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *val)
+
+   Insert *value* into the dictionary *p* with a key of *key*.  *key* must be
+   :term:`hashable`; if it isn't, :exc:`TypeError` will be raised. Return
+   ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_SetItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject *val)
+
+   .. index:: single: PyUnicode_FromString()
+
+   Insert *value* into the dictionary *p* using *key* as a key. *key* should
+   be a :c:type:`const char\*`.  The key object is created using
+   ``PyUnicode_FromString(key)``.  Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on
+   failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_DelItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
+
+   Remove the entry in dictionary *p* with key *key*. *key* must be hashable;
+   if it isn't, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.  Return ``0`` on success or ``-1``
+   on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_DelItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key)
+
+   Remove the entry in dictionary *p* which has a key specified by the string
+   *key*.  Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_GetItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
+
+   Return the object from dictionary *p* which has a key *key*.  Return *NULL*
+   if the key *key* is not present, but *without* setting an exception.
+
+   Note that exceptions which occur while calling :meth:`__hash__` and
+   :meth:`__eq__` methods will get suppressed.
+   To get error reporting use :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemWithError()` instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_GetItemWithError(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
+
+   Variant of :c:func:`PyDict_GetItem` that does not suppress
+   exceptions. Return *NULL* **with** an exception set if an exception
+   occurred.  Return *NULL* **without** an exception set if the key
+   wasn't present.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_GetItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key)
+
+   This is the same as :c:func:`PyDict_GetItem`, but *key* is specified as a
+   :c:type:`const char\*`, rather than a :c:type:`PyObject\*`.
+
+   Note that exceptions which occur while calling :meth:`__hash__` and
+   :meth:`__eq__` methods and creating a temporary string object
+   will get suppressed.
+   To get error reporting use :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemWithError()` instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_SetDefault(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj)
+
+   This is the same as the Python-level :meth:`dict.setdefault`.  If present, it
+   returns the value corresponding to *key* from the dictionary *p*.  If the key
+   is not in the dict, it is inserted with value *defaultobj* and *defaultobj*
+   is returned.  This function evaluates the hash function of *key* only once,
+   instead of evaluating it independently for the lookup and the insertion.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_Items(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return a :c:type:`PyListObject` containing all the items from the dictionary.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_Keys(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return a :c:type:`PyListObject` containing all the keys from the dictionary.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDict_Values(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return a :c:type:`PyListObject` containing all the values from the dictionary
+   *p*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyDict_Size(PyObject *p)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: len
+
+   Return the number of items in the dictionary.  This is equivalent to
+   ``len(p)`` on a dictionary.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_Next(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
+
+   Iterate over all key-value pairs in the dictionary *p*.  The
+   :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` referred to by *ppos* must be initialized to ``0``
+   prior to the first call to this function to start the iteration; the
+   function returns true for each pair in the dictionary, and false once all
+   pairs have been reported.  The parameters *pkey* and *pvalue* should either
+   point to :c:type:`PyObject\*` variables that will be filled in with each key
+   and value, respectively, or may be *NULL*.  Any references returned through
+   them are borrowed.  *ppos* should not be altered during iteration. Its
+   value represents offsets within the internal dictionary structure, and
+   since the structure is sparse, the offsets are not consecutive.
+
+   For example::
+
+      PyObject *key, *value;
+      Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
+
+      while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
+          /* do something interesting with the values... */
+          ...
+      }
+
+   The dictionary *p* should not be mutated during iteration.  It is safe to
+   modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the dictionary, but only
+   so long as the set of keys does not change.  For example::
+
+      PyObject *key, *value;
+      Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
+
+      while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
+          long i = PyLong_AsLong(value);
+          if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
+              return -1;
+          }
+          PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1);
+          if (o == NULL)
+              return -1;
+          if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
+              Py_DECREF(o);
+              return -1;
+          }
+          Py_DECREF(o);
+      }
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_Merge(PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)
+
+   Iterate over mapping object *b* adding key-value pairs to dictionary *a*.
+   *b* may be a dictionary, or any object supporting :c:func:`PyMapping_Keys`
+   and :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem`. If *override* is true, existing pairs in *a*
+   will be replaced if a matching key is found in *b*, otherwise pairs will
+   only be added if there is not a matching key in *a*. Return ``0`` on
+   success or ``-1`` if an exception was raised.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_Update(PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
+
+   This is the same as ``PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1)`` in C, and is similar to
+   ``a.update(b)`` in Python except that :c:func:`PyDict_Update` doesn't fall
+   back to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second
+   argument has no "keys" attribute.  Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` if an
+   exception was raised.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2, int override)
+
+   Update or merge into dictionary *a*, from the key-value pairs in *seq2*.
+   *seq2* must be an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2,
+   viewed as key-value pairs.  In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if
+   *override* is true, else the first wins. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1``
+   if an exception was raised. Equivalent Python (except for the return
+   value)::
+
+      def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
+          for key, value in seq2:
+              if override or key not in a:
+                  a[key] = value
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDict_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/exceptions.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/exceptions.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14ca2b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/exceptions.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1032 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _exceptionhandling:
+
+******************
+Exception Handling
+******************
+
+The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise Python
+exceptions.  It is important to understand some of the basics of Python
+exception handling.  It works somewhat like the POSIX :c:data:`errno` variable:
+there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error that occurred.  Most
+C API functions don't clear this on success, but will set it to indicate the
+cause of the error on failure.  Most C API functions also return an error
+indicator, usually *NULL* if they are supposed to return a pointer, or ``-1``
+if they return an integer (exception: the :c:func:`PyArg_\*` functions
+return ``1`` for success and ``0`` for failure).
+
+Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the
+exception's type, the exception's value, and the traceback object.  Any
+of those pointers can be NULL if non-set (although some combinations are
+forbidden, for example you can't have a non-NULL traceback if the exception
+type is NULL).
+
+When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it generally
+doesn't set the error indicator; the function it called already set it.  It is
+responsible for either handling the error and clearing the exception or
+returning after cleaning up any resources it holds (such as object references or
+memory allocations); it should *not* continue normally if it is not prepared to
+handle the error.  If returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to
+the caller that an error has been set.  If the error is not handled or carefully
+propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as intended
+and may fail in mysterious ways.
+
+.. note::
+   The error indicator is **not** the result of :func:`sys.exc_info()`.
+   The former corresponds to an exception that is not yet caught (and is
+   therefore still propagating), while the latter returns an exception after
+   it is caught (and has therefore stopped propagating).
+
+
+Printing and clearing
+=====================
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_Clear()
+
+   Clear the error indicator.  If the error indicator is not set, there is no
+   effect.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_PrintEx(int set_sys_last_vars)
+
+   Print a standard traceback to ``sys.stderr`` and clear the error indicator.
+   **Unless** the error is a ``SystemExit``.  In that case the no traceback
+   is printed and Python process will exit with the error code specified by
+   the ``SystemExit`` instance.
+
+   Call this function **only** when the error indicator is set.  Otherwise it
+   will cause a fatal error!
+
+   If *set_sys_last_vars* is nonzero, the variables :data:`sys.last_type`,
+   :data:`sys.last_value` and :data:`sys.last_traceback` will be set to the
+   type, value and traceback of the printed exception, respectively.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_Print()
+
+   Alias for ``PyErr_PrintEx(1)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_WriteUnraisable(PyObject *obj)
+
+   This utility function prints a warning message to ``sys.stderr`` when an
+   exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter to actually
+   raise the exception.  It is used, for example, when an exception occurs in an
+   :meth:`__del__` method.
+
+   The function is called with a single argument *obj* that identifies the context
+   in which the unraisable exception occurred. If possible,
+   the repr of *obj* will be printed in the warning message.
+
+   An exception must be set when calling this function.
+
+
+Raising exceptions
+==================
+
+These functions help you set the current thread's error indicator.
+For convenience, some of these functions will always return a
+NULL pointer for use in a ``return`` statement.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetString(PyObject *type, const char *message)
+
+   This is the most common way to set the error indicator.  The first argument
+   specifies the exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions,
+   e.g. :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeError`.  You need not increment its reference count.
+   The second argument is an error message; it is decoded from ``'utf-8``'.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetObject(PyObject *type, PyObject *value)
+
+   This function is similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetString` but lets you specify an
+   arbitrary Python object for the "value" of the exception.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_Format(PyObject *exception, const char *format, ...)
+
+   This function sets the error indicator and returns *NULL*.  *exception*
+   should be a Python exception class.  The *format* and subsequent
+   parameters help format the error message; they have the same meaning and
+   values as in :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat`. *format* is an ASCII-encoded
+   string.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_FormatV(PyObject *exception, const char *format, va_list vargs)
+
+   Same as :c:func:`PyErr_Format`, but taking a :c:type:`va_list` argument rather
+   than a variable number of arguments.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetNone(PyObject *type)
+
+   This is a shorthand for ``PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_BadArgument()
+
+   This is a shorthand for ``PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message)``, where
+   *message* indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal
+   argument.  It is mostly for internal use.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_NoMemory()
+
+   This is a shorthand for ``PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)``; it returns *NULL*
+   so an object allocation function can write ``return PyErr_NoMemory();`` when it
+   runs out of memory.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetFromErrno(PyObject *type)
+
+   .. index:: single: strerror()
+
+   This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C library function
+   has returned an error and set the C variable :c:data:`errno`.  It constructs a
+   tuple object whose first item is the integer :c:data:`errno` value and whose
+   second item is the corresponding error message (gotten from :c:func:`strerror`),
+   and then calls ``PyErr_SetObject(type, object)``.  On Unix, when the
+   :c:data:`errno` value is :const:`EINTR`, indicating an interrupted system call,
+   this calls :c:func:`PyErr_CheckSignals`, and if that set the error indicator,
+   leaves it set to that.  The function always returns *NULL*, so a wrapper
+   function around a system call can write ``return PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);``
+   when the system call returns an error.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromErrno`, with the additional behavior that if
+   *filenameObject* is not *NULL*, it is passed to the constructor of *type* as
+   a third parameter.  In the case of :exc:`OSError` exception,
+   this is used to define the :attr:`filename` attribute of the
+   exception instance.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject *filenameObject2)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject`, but takes a second
+   filename object, for raising errors when a function that takes two filenames
+   fails.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(PyObject *type, const char *filename)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject`, but the filename
+   is given as a C string.  *filename* is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+   (:func:`os.fsdecode`).
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(int ierr)
+
+   This is a convenience function to raise :exc:`WindowsError`. If called with
+   *ierr* of :c:data:`0`, the error code returned by a call to :c:func:`GetLastError`
+   is used instead.  It calls the Win32 function :c:func:`FormatMessage` to retrieve
+   the Windows description of error code given by *ierr* or :c:func:`GetLastError`,
+   then it constructs a tuple object whose first item is the *ierr* value and whose
+   second item is the corresponding error message (gotten from
+   :c:func:`FormatMessage`), and then calls ``PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_WindowsError,
+   object)``. This function always returns *NULL*.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(PyObject *type, int ierr)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr`, with an additional parameter
+   specifying the exception type to be raised.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(int ierr, const char *filename)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject`, but the
+   filename is given as a C string.  *filename* is decoded from the filesystem
+   encoding (:func:`os.fsdecode`).
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(PyObject *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject`, with an
+   additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(PyObject *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject`,
+   but accepts a second filename object.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(PyObject *type, int ierr, const char *filename)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename`, with an additional
+   parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetImportError(PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
+
+   This is a convenience function to raise :exc:`ImportError`. *msg* will be
+   set as the exception's message string. *name* and *path*, both of which can
+   be ``NULL``, will be set as the :exc:`ImportError`'s respective ``name``
+   and ``path`` attributes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(PyObject *filename, int lineno, int col_offset)
+
+   Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception.  If the
+   current exception is not a :exc:`SyntaxError`, then it sets additional
+   attributes, which make the exception printing subsystem think the exception
+   is a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(const char *filename, int lineno, int col_offset)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject`, but *filename* is a byte string
+   decoded from the filesystem encoding (:func:`os.fsdecode`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation(const char *filename, int lineno)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx`, but the col_offset parameter is
+   omitted.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_BadInternalCall()
+
+   This is a shorthand for ``PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message)``,
+   where *message* indicates that an internal operation (e.g. a Python/C API
+   function) was invoked with an illegal argument.  It is mostly for internal
+   use.
+
+
+Issuing warnings
+================
+
+Use these functions to issue warnings from C code.  They mirror similar
+functions exported by the Python :mod:`warnings` module.  They normally
+print a warning message to *sys.stderr*; however, it is
+also possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into
+errors, and in that case they will raise an exception.  It is also possible that
+the functions raise an exception because of a problem with the warning machinery.
+The return value is ``0`` if no exception is raised, or ``-1`` if an exception
+is raised.  (It is not possible to determine whether a warning message is
+actually printed, nor what the reason is for the exception; this is
+intentional.)  If an exception is raised, the caller should do its normal
+exception handling (for example, :c:func:`Py_DECREF` owned references and return
+an error value).
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_WarnEx(PyObject *category, const char *message, Py_ssize_t stack_level)
+
+   Issue a warning message.  The *category* argument is a warning category (see
+   below) or *NULL*; the *message* argument is a UTF-8 encoded string.  *stack_level* is a
+   positive number giving a number of stack frames; the warning will be issued from
+   the  currently executing line of code in that stack frame.  A *stack_level* of 1
+   is the function calling :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx`, 2 is  the function above that,
+   and so forth.
+
+   Warning categories must be subclasses of :c:data:`PyExc_Warning`;
+   :c:data:`PyExc_Warning` is a subclass of :c:data:`PyExc_Exception`;
+   the default warning category is :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeWarning`. The standard
+   Python warning categories are available as global variables whose names are
+   enumerated at :ref:`standardwarningcategories`.
+
+   For information about warning control, see the documentation for the
+   :mod:`warnings` module and the :option:`-W` option in the command line
+   documentation.  There is no C API for warning control.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(PyObject *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
+
+   Much like :c:func:`PyErr_SetImportError` but this function allows for
+   specifying a subclass of :exc:`ImportError` to raise.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(PyObject *category, PyObject *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject *module, PyObject *registry)
+
+   Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning attributes.  This
+   is a straightforward wrapper around the Python function
+   :func:`warnings.warn_explicit`, see there for more information.  The *module*
+   and *registry* arguments may be set to *NULL* to get the default effect
+   described there.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_WarnExplicit(PyObject *category, const char *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char *module, PyObject *registry)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_WarnExplicitObject` except that *message* and
+   *module* are UTF-8 encoded strings, and *filename* is decoded from the
+   filesystem encoding (:func:`os.fsdecode`).
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_WarnFormat(PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...)
+
+   Function similar to :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx`, but use
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` to format the warning message.  *format* is
+   an ASCII-encoded string.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_ResourceWarning(PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...)
+
+   Function similar to :c:func:`PyErr_WarnFormat`, but *category* is
+   :exc:`ResourceWarning` and pass *source* to :func:`warnings.WarningMessage`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+Querying the error indicator
+============================
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_Occurred()
+
+   Test whether the error indicator is set.  If set, return the exception *type*
+   (the first argument to the last call to one of the :c:func:`PyErr_Set\*`
+   functions or to :c:func:`PyErr_Restore`).  If not set, return *NULL*.  You do not
+   own a reference to the return value, so you do not need to :c:func:`Py_DECREF`
+   it.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Do not compare the return value to a specific exception; use
+      :c:func:`PyErr_ExceptionMatches` instead, shown below.  (The comparison could
+      easily fail since the exception may be an instance instead of a class, in the
+      case of a class exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected exception.)
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Equivalent to ``PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)``.  This
+   should only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access
+   violation will occur if no exception has been raised.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyObject *given, PyObject *exc)
+
+   Return true if the *given* exception matches the exception type in *exc*.  If
+   *exc* is a class object, this also returns true when *given* is an instance
+   of a subclass.  If *exc* is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple (and
+   recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_Fetch(PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)
+
+   Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses are passed.
+   If the error indicator is not set, set all three variables to *NULL*.  If it is
+   set, it will be cleared and you own a reference to each object retrieved.  The
+   value and traceback object may be *NULL* even when the type object is not.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is normally only used by code that needs to catch exceptions or
+      by code that needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily, e.g.::
+
+         {
+            PyObject *type, *value, *traceback;
+            PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback);
+
+            /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */
+
+            PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback);
+         }
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_Restore(PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback)
+
+   Set  the error indicator from the three objects.  If the error indicator is
+   already set, it is cleared first.  If the objects are *NULL*, the error
+   indicator is cleared.  Do not pass a *NULL* type and non-*NULL* value or
+   traceback.  The exception type should be a class.  Do not pass an invalid
+   exception type or value. (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems
+   later.)  This call takes away a reference to each object: you must own a
+   reference to each object before the call and after the call you no longer own
+   these references.  (If you don't understand this, don't use this function.  I
+   warned you.)
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is normally only used by code that needs to save and restore the
+      error indicator temporarily.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Fetch` to save the current
+      error indicator.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_NormalizeException(PyObject**exc, PyObject**val, PyObject**tb)
+
+   Under certain circumstances, the values returned by :c:func:`PyErr_Fetch` below
+   can be "unnormalized", meaning that ``*exc`` is a class object but ``*val`` is
+   not an instance of the  same class.  This function can be used to instantiate
+   the class in that case.  If the values are already normalized, nothing happens.
+   The delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function *does not* implicitly set the ``__traceback__``
+      attribute on the exception value. If setting the traceback
+      appropriately is desired, the following additional snippet is needed::
+
+         if (tb != NULL) {
+           PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb);
+         }
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_GetExcInfo(PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)
+
+   Retrieve the exception info, as known from ``sys.exc_info()``.  This refers
+   to an exception that was *already caught*, not to an exception that was
+   freshly raised.  Returns new references for the three objects, any of which
+   may be *NULL*.  Does not modify the exception info state.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions.
+      Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception
+      state temporarily.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_SetExcInfo` to restore or clear the
+      exception state.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetExcInfo(PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback)
+
+   Set the exception info, as known from ``sys.exc_info()``.  This refers
+   to an exception that was *already caught*, not to an exception that was
+   freshly raised.  This function steals the references of the arguments.
+   To clear the exception state, pass *NULL* for all three arguments.
+   For general rules about the three arguments, see :c:func:`PyErr_Restore`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions.
+      Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception
+      state temporarily.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_GetExcInfo` to read the exception
+      state.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+Signal Handling
+===============
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_CheckSignals()
+
+   .. index::
+      module: signal
+      single: SIGINT
+      single: KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception)
+
+   This function interacts with Python's signal handling.  It checks whether a
+   signal has been sent to the processes and if so, invokes the corresponding
+   signal handler.  If the :mod:`signal` module is supported, this can invoke a
+   signal handler written in Python.  In all cases, the default effect for
+   :const:`SIGINT` is to raise the  :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception.  If an
+   exception is raised the error indicator is set and the function returns ``-1``;
+   otherwise the function returns ``0``.  The error indicator may or may not be
+   cleared if it was previously set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetInterrupt()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: SIGINT
+      single: KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception)
+
+   Simulate the effect of a :const:`SIGINT` signal arriving. The next time
+   :c:func:`PyErr_CheckSignals` is called,  the Python signal handler for
+   :const:`SIGINT` will be called.
+
+   If :const:`SIGINT` isn't handled by Python (it was set to
+   :data:`signal.SIG_DFL` or :data:`signal.SIG_IGN`), this function does
+   nothing.
+
+.. c:function:: int PySignal_SetWakeupFd(int fd)
+
+   This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the signal number
+   is written as a single byte whenever a signal is received. *fd* must be
+   non-blocking. It returns the previous such file descriptor.
+
+   The value ``-1`` disables the feature; this is the initial state.
+   This is equivalent to :func:`signal.set_wakeup_fd` in Python, but without any
+   error checking.  *fd* should be a valid file descriptor.  The function should
+   only be called from the main thread.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      On Windows, the function now also supports socket handles.
+
+
+Exception Classes
+=================
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_NewException(const char *name, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
+
+   This utility function creates and returns a new exception class. The *name*
+   argument must be the name of the new exception, a C string of the form
+   ``module.classname``.  The *base* and *dict* arguments are normally *NULL*.
+   This creates a class object derived from :exc:`Exception` (accessible in C as
+   :c:data:`PyExc_Exception`).
+
+   The :attr:`__module__` attribute of the new class is set to the first part (up
+   to the last dot) of the *name* argument, and the class name is set to the last
+   part (after the last dot).  The *base* argument can be used to specify alternate
+   base classes; it can either be only one class or a tuple of classes. The *dict*
+   argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and methods.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(const char *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
+
+   Same as :c:func:`PyErr_NewException`, except that the new exception class can
+   easily be given a docstring: If *doc* is non-*NULL*, it will be used as the
+   docstring for the exception class.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+Exception Objects
+=================
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyException_GetTraceback(PyObject *ex)
+
+   Return the traceback associated with the exception as a new reference, as
+   accessible from Python through :attr:`__traceback__`.  If there is no
+   traceback associated, this returns *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyException_SetTraceback(PyObject *ex, PyObject *tb)
+
+   Set the traceback associated with the exception to *tb*.  Use ``Py_None`` to
+   clear it.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyException_GetContext(PyObject *ex)
+
+   Return the context (another exception instance during whose handling *ex* was
+   raised) associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from
+   Python through :attr:`__context__`.  If there is no context associated, this
+   returns *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyException_SetContext(PyObject *ex, PyObject *ctx)
+
+   Set the context associated with the exception to *ctx*.  Use *NULL* to clear
+   it.  There is no type check to make sure that *ctx* is an exception instance.
+   This steals a reference to *ctx*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyException_GetCause(PyObject *ex)
+
+   Return the cause (either an exception instance, or :const:`None`,
+   set by ``raise ... from ...``) associated with the exception as a new
+   reference, as accessible from Python through :attr:`__cause__`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyException_SetCause(PyObject *ex, PyObject *cause)
+
+   Set the cause associated with the exception to *cause*.  Use *NULL* to clear
+   it.  There is no type check to make sure that *cause* is either an exception
+   instance or :const:`None`.  This steals a reference to *cause*.
+
+   :attr:`__suppress_context__` is implicitly set to ``True`` by this function.
+
+
+.. _unicodeexceptions:
+
+Unicode Exception Objects
+=========================
+
+The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions from C.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(const char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
+
+   Create a :class:`UnicodeDecodeError` object with the attributes *encoding*,
+   *object*, *length*, *start*, *end* and *reason*. *encoding* and *reason* are
+   UTF-8 encoded strings.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create(const char *encoding, const Py_UNICODE *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
+
+   Create a :class:`UnicodeEncodeError` object with the attributes *encoding*,
+   *object*, *length*, *start*, *end* and *reason*. *encoding* and *reason* are
+   UTF-8 encoded strings.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create(const Py_UNICODE *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
+
+   Create a :class:`UnicodeTranslateError` object with the attributes *object*,
+   *length*, *start*, *end* and *reason*. *reason* is a UTF-8 encoded string.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(PyObject *exc)
+                PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Return the *encoding* attribute of the given exception object.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)
+                PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)
+                PyObject* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Return the *object* attribute of the given exception object.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)
+                int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)
+                int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)
+
+   Get the *start* attribute of the given exception object and place it into
+   *\*start*.  *start* must not be *NULL*.  Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on
+   failure.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)
+                int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)
+                int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)
+
+   Set the *start* attribute of the given exception object to *start*.  Return
+   ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on failure.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)
+                int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)
+                int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)
+
+   Get the *end* attribute of the given exception object and place it into
+   *\*end*.  *end* must not be *NULL*.  Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on
+   failure.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)
+                int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)
+                int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)
+
+   Set the *end* attribute of the given exception object to *end*.  Return ``0``
+   on success, ``-1`` on failure.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)
+                PyObject* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)
+                PyObject* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)
+
+   Return the *reason* attribute of the given exception object.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)
+                int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)
+                int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)
+
+   Set the *reason* attribute of the given exception object to *reason*.  Return
+   ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+Recursion Control
+=================
+
+These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the C
+level, both in the core and in extension modules.  They are needed if the
+recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks its
+recursion depth automatically).
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_EnterRecursiveCall(const char *where)
+
+   Marks a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed.
+
+   If :const:`USE_STACKCHECK` is defined, this function checks if the OS
+   stack overflowed using :c:func:`PyOS_CheckStack`.  In this is the case, it
+   sets a :exc:`MemoryError` and returns a nonzero value.
+
+   The function then checks if the recursion limit is reached.  If this is the
+   case, a :exc:`RecursionError` is set and a nonzero value is returned.
+   Otherwise, zero is returned.
+
+   *where* should be a string such as ``" in instance check"`` to be
+   concatenated to the :exc:`RecursionError` message caused by the recursion
+   depth limit.
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall()
+
+   Ends a :c:func:`Py_EnterRecursiveCall`.  Must be called once for each
+   *successful* invocation of :c:func:`Py_EnterRecursiveCall`.
+
+Properly implementing :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` for container types requires
+special recursion handling.  In addition to protecting the stack,
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` also needs to track objects to prevent cycles.  The
+following two functions facilitate this functionality.  Effectively,
+these are the C equivalent to :func:`reprlib.recursive_repr`.
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_ReprEnter(PyObject *object)
+
+   Called at the beginning of the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` implementation to
+   detect cycles.
+
+   If the object has already been processed, the function returns a
+   positive integer.  In that case the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` implementation
+   should return a string object indicating a cycle.  As examples,
+   :class:`dict` objects return ``{...}`` and :class:`list` objects
+   return ``[...]``.
+
+   The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit
+   is reached.  In that case the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` implementation should
+   typically return ``NULL``.
+
+   Otherwise, the function returns zero and the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr`
+   implementation can continue normally.
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_ReprLeave(PyObject *object)
+
+   Ends a :c:func:`Py_ReprEnter`.  Must be called once for each
+   invocation of :c:func:`Py_ReprEnter` that returns zero.
+
+
+.. _standardexceptions:
+
+Standard Exceptions
+===================
+
+All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose names are
+``PyExc_`` followed by the Python exception name.  These have the type
+:c:type:`PyObject\*`; they are all class objects.  For completeness, here are all
+the variables:
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyExc_BaseException
+   single: PyExc_Exception
+   single: PyExc_ArithmeticError
+   single: PyExc_AssertionError
+   single: PyExc_AttributeError
+   single: PyExc_BlockingIOError
+   single: PyExc_BrokenPipeError
+   single: PyExc_BufferError
+   single: PyExc_ChildProcessError
+   single: PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError
+   single: PyExc_ConnectionError
+   single: PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError
+   single: PyExc_ConnectionResetError
+   single: PyExc_EOFError
+   single: PyExc_FileExistsError
+   single: PyExc_FileNotFoundError
+   single: PyExc_FloatingPointError
+   single: PyExc_GeneratorExit
+   single: PyExc_ImportError
+   single: PyExc_IndentationError
+   single: PyExc_IndexError
+   single: PyExc_InterruptedError
+   single: PyExc_IsADirectoryError
+   single: PyExc_KeyError
+   single: PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt
+   single: PyExc_LookupError
+   single: PyExc_MemoryError
+   single: PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError
+   single: PyExc_NameError
+   single: PyExc_NotADirectoryError
+   single: PyExc_NotImplementedError
+   single: PyExc_OSError
+   single: PyExc_OverflowError
+   single: PyExc_PermissionError
+   single: PyExc_ProcessLookupError
+   single: PyExc_RecursionError
+   single: PyExc_ReferenceError
+   single: PyExc_RuntimeError
+   single: PyExc_StopAsyncIteration
+   single: PyExc_StopIteration
+   single: PyExc_SyntaxError
+   single: PyExc_SystemError
+   single: PyExc_SystemExit
+   single: PyExc_TabError
+   single: PyExc_TimeoutError
+   single: PyExc_TypeError
+   single: PyExc_UnboundLocalError
+   single: PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError
+   single: PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError
+   single: PyExc_UnicodeError
+   single: PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError
+   single: PyExc_ValueError
+   single: PyExc_ZeroDivisionError
+
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| C Name                                  | Python Name                     | Notes    |
++=========================================+=================================+==========+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_BaseException`           | :exc:`BaseException`            | \(1)     |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_Exception`               | :exc:`Exception`                | \(1)     |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ArithmeticError`         | :exc:`ArithmeticError`          | \(1)     |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_AssertionError`          | :exc:`AssertionError`           |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_AttributeError`          | :exc:`AttributeError`           |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_BlockingIOError`         | :exc:`BlockingIOError`          |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_BrokenPipeError`         | :exc:`BrokenPipeError`          |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError`             | :exc:`BufferError`              |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ChildProcessError`       | :exc:`ChildProcessError`        |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError`  | :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError`   |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionError`         | :exc:`ConnectionError`          |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError`  | :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError`   |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionResetError`    | :exc:`ConnectionResetError`     |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_EOFError`                | :exc:`EOFError`                 |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_FileExistsError`         | :exc:`FileExistsError`          |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_FileNotFoundError`       | :exc:`FileNotFoundError`        |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_FloatingPointError`      | :exc:`FloatingPointError`       |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_GeneratorExit`           | :exc:`GeneratorExit`            |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ImportError`             | :exc:`ImportError`              |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_IndentationError`        | :exc:`IndentationError`         |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_IndexError`              | :exc:`IndexError`               |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_InterruptedError`        | :exc:`InterruptedError`         |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_IsADirectoryError`       | :exc:`IsADirectoryError`        |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyError`                | :exc:`KeyError`                 |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt`       | :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`        |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_LookupError`             | :exc:`LookupError`              | \(1)     |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_MemoryError`             | :exc:`MemoryError`              |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError`     | :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError`      |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_NameError`               | :exc:`NameError`                |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_NotADirectoryError`      | :exc:`NotADirectoryError`       |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_NotImplementedError`     | :exc:`NotImplementedError`      |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_OSError`                 | :exc:`OSError`                  | \(1)     |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_OverflowError`           | :exc:`OverflowError`            |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_PermissionError`         | :exc:`PermissionError`          |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ProcessLookupError`      | :exc:`ProcessLookupError`       |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_RecursionError`          | :exc:`RecursionError`           |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ReferenceError`          | :exc:`ReferenceError`           | \(2)     |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeError`            | :exc:`RuntimeError`             |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_StopAsyncIteration`      | :exc:`StopAsyncIteration`       |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_StopIteration`           | :exc:`StopIteration`            |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_SyntaxError`             | :exc:`SyntaxError`              |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemError`             | :exc:`SystemError`              |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemExit`              | :exc:`SystemExit`               |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_TabError`                | :exc:`TabError`                 |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_TimeoutError`            | :exc:`TimeoutError`             |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_TypeError`               | :exc:`TypeError`                |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_UnboundLocalError`       | :exc:`UnboundLocalError`        |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError`      | :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError`       |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError`      | :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError`       |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeError`            | :exc:`UnicodeError`             |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError`   | :exc:`UnicodeTranslateError`    |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ValueError`              | :exc:`ValueError`               |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError`       | :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`        |          |
++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+   :c:data:`PyExc_BlockingIOError`, :c:data:`PyExc_BrokenPipeError`,
+   :c:data:`PyExc_ChildProcessError`, :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionError`,
+   :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError`, :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError`,
+   :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionResetError`, :c:data:`PyExc_FileExistsError`,
+   :c:data:`PyExc_FileNotFoundError`, :c:data:`PyExc_InterruptedError`,
+   :c:data:`PyExc_IsADirectoryError`, :c:data:`PyExc_NotADirectoryError`,
+   :c:data:`PyExc_PermissionError`, :c:data:`PyExc_ProcessLookupError`
+   and :c:data:`PyExc_TimeoutError` were introduced following :pep:`3151`.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+   :c:data:`PyExc_StopAsyncIteration` and :c:data:`PyExc_RecursionError`.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+   :c:data:`PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError`.
+
+These are compatibility aliases to :c:data:`PyExc_OSError`:
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyExc_EnvironmentError
+   single: PyExc_IOError
+   single: PyExc_WindowsError
+
++-------------------------------------+----------+
+| C Name                              | Notes    |
++=====================================+==========+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_EnvironmentError`    |          |
++-------------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_IOError`             |          |
++-------------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_WindowsError`        | \(3)     |
++-------------------------------------+----------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   These aliases used to be separate exception types.
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   This is a base class for other standard exceptions.
+
+(2)
+   This is the same as :exc:`weakref.ReferenceError`.
+
+(3)
+   Only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing that the
+   preprocessor macro ``MS_WINDOWS`` is defined.
+
+.. _standardwarningcategories:
+
+Standard Warning Categories
+===========================
+
+All standard Python warning categories are available as global variables whose
+names are ``PyExc_`` followed by the Python exception name. These have the type
+:c:type:`PyObject\*`; they are all class objects. For completeness, here are all
+the variables:
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyExc_Warning
+   single: PyExc_BytesWarning
+   single: PyExc_DeprecationWarning
+   single: PyExc_FutureWarning
+   single: PyExc_ImportWarning
+   single: PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning
+   single: PyExc_ResourceWarning
+   single: PyExc_RuntimeWarning
+   single: PyExc_SyntaxWarning
+   single: PyExc_UnicodeWarning
+   single: PyExc_UserWarning
+
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| C Name                                   | Python Name                     | Notes    |
++==========================================+=================================+==========+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_Warning`                  | :exc:`Warning`                  | \(1)     |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_BytesWarning`             | :exc:`BytesWarning`             |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_DeprecationWarning`       | :exc:`DeprecationWarning`       |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_FutureWarning`            | :exc:`FutureWarning`            |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ImportWarning`            | :exc:`ImportWarning`            |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning`| :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`|          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_ResourceWarning`          | :exc:`ResourceWarning`          |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeWarning`           | :exc:`RuntimeWarning`           |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_SyntaxWarning`            | :exc:`SyntaxWarning`            |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeWarning`           | :exc:`UnicodeWarning`           |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+| :c:data:`PyExc_UserWarning`              | :exc:`UserWarning`              |          |
++------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+   :c:data:`PyExc_ResourceWarning`.
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   This is a base class for other standard warning categories.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/file.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/file.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f2ecee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/file.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _fileobjects:
+
+File Objects
+------------
+
+.. index:: object: file
+
+These APIs are a minimal emulation of the Python 2 C API for built-in file
+objects, which used to rely on the buffered I/O (:c:type:`FILE\*`) support
+from the C standard library.  In Python 3, files and streams use the new
+:mod:`io` module, which defines several layers over the low-level unbuffered
+I/O of the operating system.  The functions described below are
+convenience C wrappers over these new APIs, and meant mostly for internal
+error reporting in the interpreter; third-party code is advised to access
+the :mod:`io` APIs instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyFile_FromFd(int fd, const char *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding, const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd)
+
+   Create a Python file object from the file descriptor of an already
+   opened file *fd*.  The arguments *name*, *encoding*, *errors* and *newline*
+   can be *NULL* to use the defaults; *buffering* can be *-1* to use the
+   default. *name* is ignored and kept for backward compatibility. Return
+   *NULL* on failure. For a more comprehensive description of the arguments,
+   please refer to the :func:`io.open` function documentation.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+     Since Python streams have their own buffering layer, mixing them with
+     OS-level file descriptors can produce various issues (such as unexpected
+     ordering of data).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Ignore *name* attribute.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return the file descriptor associated with *p* as an :c:type:`int`.  If the
+   object is an integer, its value is returned.  If not, the
+   object's :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method is called if it exists; the
+   method must return an integer, which is returned as the file descriptor
+   value.  Sets an exception and returns ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFile_GetLine(PyObject *p, int n)
+
+   .. index:: single: EOFError (built-in exception)
+
+   Equivalent to ``p.readline([n])``, this function reads one line from the
+   object *p*.  *p* may be a file object or any object with a
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline`
+   method.  If *n* is ``0``, exactly one line is read, regardless of the length of
+   the line.  If *n* is greater than ``0``, no more than *n* bytes will be read
+   from the file; a partial line can be returned.  In both cases, an empty string
+   is returned if the end of the file is reached immediately.  If *n* is less than
+   ``0``, however, one line is read regardless of length, but :exc:`EOFError` is
+   raised if the end of the file is reached immediately.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFile_WriteObject(PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int flags)
+
+   .. index:: single: Py_PRINT_RAW
+
+   Write object *obj* to file object *p*.  The only supported flag for *flags* is
+   :const:`Py_PRINT_RAW`; if given, the :func:`str` of the object is written
+   instead of the :func:`repr`.  Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure; the
+   appropriate exception will be set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFile_WriteString(const char *s, PyObject *p)
+
+   Write string *s* to file object *p*.  Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on
+   failure; the appropriate exception will be set.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/float.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/float.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27a75e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/float.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _floatobjects:
+
+Floating Point Objects
+----------------------
+
+.. index:: object: floating point
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyFloatObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python floating point object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyFloat_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python floating point
+   type.  This is the same object as :class:`float` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFloat_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if its argument is a :c:type:`PyFloatObject` or a subtype of
+   :c:type:`PyFloatObject`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFloat_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if its argument is a :c:type:`PyFloatObject`, but not a subtype of
+   :c:type:`PyFloatObject`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFloat_FromString(PyObject *str)
+
+   Create a :c:type:`PyFloatObject` object based on the string value in *str*, or
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFloat_FromDouble(double v)
+
+   Create a :c:type:`PyFloatObject` object from *v*, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyFloat_AsDouble(PyObject *pyfloat)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`double` representation of the contents of *pyfloat*.  If
+   *pyfloat* is not a Python floating point object but has a :meth:`__float__`
+   method, this method will first be called to convert *pyfloat* into a float.
+   This method returns ``-1.0`` upon failure, so one should call
+   :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to check for errors.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE(PyObject *pyfloat)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`double` representation of the contents of *pyfloat*, but
+   without error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFloat_GetInfo(void)
+
+   Return a structseq instance which contains information about the
+   precision, minimum and maximum values of a float. It's a thin wrapper
+   around the header file :file:`float.h`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyFloat_GetMax()
+
+   Return the maximum representable finite float *DBL_MAX* as C :c:type:`double`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyFloat_GetMin()
+
+   Return the minimum normalized positive float *DBL_MIN* as C :c:type:`double`.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFloat_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the float free list. Return the number of items that could not
+   be freed.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/function.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/function.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17279c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/function.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _function-objects:
+
+Function Objects
+----------------
+
+.. index:: object: function
+
+There are a few functions specific to Python functions.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyFunctionObject
+
+   The C structure used for functions.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyFunction_Type
+
+   .. index:: single: MethodType (in module types)
+
+   This is an instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` and represents the Python function
+   type.  It is exposed to Python programmers as ``types.FunctionType``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFunction_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if *o* is a function object (has type :c:data:`PyFunction_Type`).
+   The parameter must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_New(PyObject *code, PyObject *globals)
+
+   Return a new function object associated with the code object *code*. *globals*
+   must be a dictionary with the global variables accessible to the function.
+
+   The function's docstring and name are retrieved from the code object. *__module__*
+   is retrieved from *globals*. The argument defaults, annotations and closure are
+   set to *NULL*. *__qualname__* is set to the same value as the function's name.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_NewWithQualName(PyObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname)
+
+   As :c:func:`PyFunction_New`, but also allows setting the function object's
+   ``__qualname__`` attribute.  *qualname* should be a unicode object or NULL;
+   if NULL, the ``__qualname__`` attribute is set to the same value as its
+   ``__name__`` attribute.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetCode(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the code object associated with the function object *op*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetGlobals(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the globals dictionary associated with the function object *op*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetModule(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the *__module__* attribute of the function object *op*. This is normally
+   a string containing the module name, but can be set to any other object by
+   Python code.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetDefaults(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the argument default values of the function object *op*. This can be a
+   tuple of arguments or *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFunction_SetDefaults(PyObject *op, PyObject *defaults)
+
+   Set the argument default values for the function object *op*. *defaults* must be
+   *Py_None* or a tuple.
+
+   Raises :exc:`SystemError` and returns ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetClosure(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the closure associated with the function object *op*. This can be *NULL*
+   or a tuple of cell objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFunction_SetClosure(PyObject *op, PyObject *closure)
+
+   Set the closure associated with the function object *op*. *closure* must be
+   *Py_None* or a tuple of cell objects.
+
+   Raises :exc:`SystemError` and returns ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyFunction_GetAnnotations(PyObject *op)
+
+   Return the annotations of the function object *op*. This can be a
+   mutable dictionary or *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFunction_SetAnnotations(PyObject *op, PyObject *annotations)
+
+   Set the annotations for the function object *op*. *annotations*
+   must be a dictionary or *Py_None*.
+
+   Raises :exc:`SystemError` and returns ``-1`` on failure.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/gcsupport.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/gcsupport.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..472cd93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/gcsupport.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _supporting-cycle-detection:
+
+Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection
+====================================
+
+Python's support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves circular
+references requires support from object types which are "containers" for other
+objects which may also be containers.  Types which do not store references to
+other objects, or which only store references to atomic types (such as numbers
+or strings), do not need to provide any explicit support for garbage
+collection.
+
+To create a container type, the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` field of the type object must
+include the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` and provide an implementation of the
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler.  If instances of the type are mutable, a
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` implementation must also be provided.
+
+
+.. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC
+   :noindex:
+
+   Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules
+   documented here.  For convenience these objects will be referred to as
+   container objects.
+
+Constructors for container types must conform to two rules:
+
+#. The memory for the object must be allocated using :c:func:`PyObject_GC_New`
+   or :c:func:`PyObject_GC_NewVar`.
+
+#. Once all the fields which may contain references to other containers are
+   initialized, it must call :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Track`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: TYPE* PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, PyTypeObject *type)
+
+   Analogous to :c:func:`PyObject_New` but for container objects with the
+   :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: TYPE* PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Analogous to :c:func:`PyObject_NewVar` but for container objects with the
+   :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: TYPE* PyObject_GC_Resize(TYPE, PyVarObject *op, Py_ssize_t newsize)
+
+   Resize an object allocated by :c:func:`PyObject_NewVar`.  Returns the
+   resized object or *NULL* on failure.  *op* must not be tracked by the collector yet.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyObject_GC_Track(PyObject *op)
+
+   Adds the object *op* to the set of container objects tracked by the
+   collector.  The collector can run at unexpected times so objects must be
+   valid while being tracked.  This should be called once all the fields
+   followed by the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler become valid, usually near the
+   end of the constructor.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void _PyObject_GC_TRACK(PyObject *op)
+
+   A macro version of :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Track`.  It should not be used for
+   extension modules.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+      This macro is removed from Python 3.8.
+
+Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair of
+rules:
+
+#. Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated,
+   :c:func:`PyObject_GC_UnTrack` must be called.
+
+#. The object's memory must be deallocated using :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Del`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyObject_GC_Del(void *op)
+
+   Releases memory allocated to an object using :c:func:`PyObject_GC_New` or
+   :c:func:`PyObject_GC_NewVar`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyObject_GC_UnTrack(void *op)
+
+   Remove the object *op* from the set of container objects tracked by the
+   collector.  Note that :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Track` can be called again on
+   this object to add it back to the set of tracked objects.  The deallocator
+   (:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` handler) should call this for the object before any of
+   the fields used by the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler become invalid.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void _PyObject_GC_UNTRACK(PyObject *op)
+
+   A macro version of :c:func:`PyObject_GC_UnTrack`.  It should not be used for
+   extension modules.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+      This macro is removed from Python 3.8.
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler accepts a function parameter of this type:
+
+
+.. c:type:: int (*visitproc)(PyObject *object, void *arg)
+
+   Type of the visitor function passed to the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler.
+   The function should be called with an object to traverse as *object* and
+   the third parameter to the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler as *arg*.  The
+   Python core uses several visitor functions to implement cyclic garbage
+   detection; it's not expected that users will need to write their own
+   visitor functions.
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler must have the following type:
+
+
+.. c:type:: int (*traverseproc)(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
+
+   Traversal function for a container object.  Implementations must call the
+   *visit* function for each object directly contained by *self*, with the
+   parameters to *visit* being the contained object and the *arg* value passed
+   to the handler.  The *visit* function must not be called with a *NULL*
+   object argument.  If *visit* returns a non-zero value that value should be
+   returned immediately.
+
+To simplify writing :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handlers, a :c:func:`Py_VISIT` macro is
+provided.  In order to use this macro, the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` implementation
+must name its arguments exactly *visit* and *arg*:
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_VISIT(PyObject *o)
+
+   If *o* is not *NULL*, call the *visit* callback, with arguments *o*
+   and *arg*.  If *visit* returns a non-zero value, then return it.
+   Using this macro, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handlers
+   look like::
+
+      static int
+      my_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
+      {
+          Py_VISIT(self->foo);
+          Py_VISIT(self->bar);
+          return 0;
+      }
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` handler must be of the :c:type:`inquiry` type, or *NULL*
+if the object is immutable.
+
+
+.. c:type:: int (*inquiry)(PyObject *self)
+
+   Drop references that may have created reference cycles.  Immutable objects
+   do not have to define this method since they can never directly create
+   reference cycles.  Note that the object must still be valid after calling
+   this method (don't just call :c:func:`Py_DECREF` on a reference).  The
+   collector will call this method if it detects that this object is involved
+   in a reference cycle.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/gen.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/gen.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1efbae4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/gen.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _gen-objects:
+
+Generator Objects
+-----------------
+
+Generator objects are what Python uses to implement generator iterators. They
+are normally created by iterating over a function that yields values, rather
+than explicitly calling :c:func:`PyGen_New` or :c:func:`PyGen_NewWithQualName`.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyGenObject
+
+   The C structure used for generator objects.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyGen_Type
+
+   The type object corresponding to generator objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyGen_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is a generator object; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyGen_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob*'s type is *PyGen_Type*; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyGen_New(PyFrameObject *frame)
+
+   Create and return a new generator object based on the *frame* object.
+   A reference to *frame* is stolen by this function. The argument must not be
+   *NULL*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyGen_NewWithQualName(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
+
+   Create and return a new generator object based on the *frame* object,
+   with ``__name__`` and ``__qualname__`` set to *name* and *qualname*.
+   A reference to *frame* is stolen by this function.  The *frame* argument
+   must not be *NULL*.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/import.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/import.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cdc256
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/import.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,317 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _importing:
+
+Importing Modules
+=================
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModule(const char *name)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: package variable; __all__
+      single: __all__ (package variable)
+      single: modules (in module sys)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleEx` below,
+   leaving the *globals* and *locals* arguments set to *NULL* and *level* set
+   to 0.  When the *name*
+   argument contains a dot (when it specifies a submodule of a package), the
+   *fromlist* argument is set to the list ``['*']`` so that the return value is the
+   named module rather than the top-level package containing it as would otherwise
+   be the case.  (Unfortunately, this has an additional side effect when *name* in
+   fact specifies a subpackage instead of a submodule: the submodules specified in
+   the package's ``__all__`` variable are  loaded.)  Return a new reference to the
+   imported module, or *NULL* with an exception set on failure.  A failing
+   import of a module doesn't leave the module in :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+   This function always uses absolute imports.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(const char *name)
+
+   This function is a deprecated alias of :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This function used to fail immediately when the import lock was held
+      by another thread.  In Python 3.3 though, the locking scheme switched
+      to per-module locks for most purposes, so this function's special
+      behaviour isn't needed anymore.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleEx(const char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: __import__
+
+   Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the built-in Python
+   function :func:`__import__`.
+
+   The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level
+   package, or *NULL* with an exception set on failure.  Like for
+   :func:`__import__`, the return value when a submodule of a package was
+   requested is normally the top-level package, unless a non-empty *fromlist*
+   was given.
+
+   Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with
+   :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level)
+
+   Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the built-in Python
+   function :func:`__import__`, as the standard :func:`__import__` function calls
+   this function directly.
+
+   The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level package,
+   or *NULL* with an exception set on failure.  Like for :func:`__import__`,
+   the return value when a submodule of a package was requested is normally the
+   top-level package, unless a non-empty *fromlist* was given.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(const char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject`, but the name is a
+   UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Negative values for *level* are no longer accepted.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_Import(PyObject *name)
+
+   This is a higher-level interface that calls the current "import hook
+   function" (with an explicit *level* of 0, meaning absolute import).  It
+   invokes the :func:`__import__` function from the ``__builtins__`` of the
+   current globals.  This means that the import is done using whatever import
+   hooks are installed in the current environment.
+
+   This function always uses absolute imports.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ReloadModule(PyObject *m)
+
+   Reload a module.  Return a new reference to the reloaded module, or *NULL* with
+   an exception set on failure (the module still exists in this case).
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_AddModuleObject(PyObject *name)
+
+   Return the module object corresponding to a module name.  The *name* argument
+   may be of the form ``package.module``. First check the modules dictionary if
+   there's one there, and if not, create a new one and insert it in the modules
+   dictionary. Return *NULL* with an exception set on failure.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function does not load or import the module; if the module wasn't already
+      loaded, you will get an empty module object. Use :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`
+      or one of its variants to import a module.  Package structures implied by a
+      dotted name for *name* are not created if not already present.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_AddModule(const char *name)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyImport_AddModuleObject`, but the name is a UTF-8
+   encoded string instead of a Unicode object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModule(const char *name, PyObject *co)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: compile
+
+   Given a module name (possibly of the form ``package.module``) and a code object
+   read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the built-in function
+   :func:`compile`, load the module.  Return a new reference to the module object,
+   or *NULL* with an exception set if an error occurred.  *name*
+   is removed from :attr:`sys.modules` in error cases, even if *name* was already
+   in :attr:`sys.modules` on entry to :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModule`.  Leaving
+   incompletely initialized modules in :attr:`sys.modules` is dangerous, as imports of
+   such modules have no way to know that the module object is an unknown (and
+   probably damaged with respect to the module author's intents) state.
+
+   The module's :attr:`__spec__` and :attr:`__loader__` will be set, if
+   not set already, with the appropriate values.  The spec's loader will
+   be set to the module's ``__loader__`` (if set) and to an instance of
+   :class:`SourceFileLoader` otherwise.
+
+   The module's :attr:`__file__` attribute will be set to the code object's
+   :c:member:`co_filename`.  If applicable, :attr:`__cached__` will also
+   be set.
+
+   This function will reload the module if it was already imported.  See
+   :c:func:`PyImport_ReloadModule` for the intended way to reload a module.
+
+   If *name* points to a dotted name of the form ``package.module``, any package
+   structures not already created will still not be created.
+
+   See also :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx` and
+   :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModule`, but the :attr:`__file__` attribute of
+   the module object is set to *pathname* if it is non-``NULL``.
+
+   See also :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject *cpathname)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx`, but the :attr:`__cached__`
+   attribute of the module object is set to *cpathname* if it is
+   non-``NULL``.  Of the three functions, this is the preferred one to use.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const char *cpathname)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject`, but *name*, *pathname* and
+   *cpathname* are UTF-8 encoded strings. Attempts are also made to figure out
+   what the value for *pathname* should be from *cpathname* if the former is
+   set to ``NULL``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Uses :func:`imp.source_from_cache()` in calculating the source path if
+      only the bytecode path is provided.
+
+
+.. c:function:: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber()
+
+   Return the magic number for Python bytecode files (a.k.a. :file:`.pyc` file).
+   The magic number should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode
+   file, in little-endian byte order. Returns ``-1`` on error.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Return value of ``-1`` upon failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char * PyImport_GetMagicTag()
+
+   Return the magic tag string for :pep:`3147` format Python bytecode file
+   names.  Keep in mind that the value at ``sys.implementation.cache_tag`` is
+   authoritative and should be used instead of this function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_GetModuleDict()
+
+   Return the dictionary used for the module administration (a.k.a.
+   ``sys.modules``).  Note that this is a per-interpreter variable.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_GetModule(PyObject *name)
+
+   Return the already imported module with the given name.  If the
+   module has not been imported yet then returns NULL but does not set
+   an error.  Returns NULL and sets an error if the lookup failed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_GetImporter(PyObject *path)
+
+   Return a finder object for a :data:`sys.path`/:attr:`pkg.__path__` item
+   *path*, possibly by fetching it from the :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`
+   dict.  If it wasn't yet cached, traverse :data:`sys.path_hooks` until a hook
+   is found that can handle the path item.  Return ``None`` if no hook could;
+   this tells our caller that the :term:`path based finder` could not find a
+   finder for this path item. Cache the result in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`.
+   Return a new reference to the finder object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void _PyImport_Init()
+
+   Initialize the import mechanism.  For internal use only.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyImport_Cleanup()
+
+   Empty the module table.  For internal use only.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void _PyImport_Fini()
+
+   Finalize the import mechanism.  For internal use only.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(PyObject *name)
+
+   Load a frozen module named *name*.  Return ``1`` for success, ``0`` if the
+   module is not found, and ``-1`` with an exception set if the initialization
+   failed.  To access the imported module on a successful load, use
+   :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`.  (Note the misnomer --- this function would
+   reload the module if it was already imported.)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The ``__file__`` attribute is no longer set on the module.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(const char *name)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject`, but the name is a
+   UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.
+
+
+.. c:type:: struct _frozen
+
+   .. index:: single: freeze utility
+
+   This is the structure type definition for frozen module descriptors, as
+   generated by the :program:`freeze` utility (see :file:`Tools/freeze/` in the
+   Python source distribution).  Its definition, found in :file:`Include/import.h`,
+   is::
+
+      struct _frozen {
+          const char *name;
+          const unsigned char *code;
+          int size;
+      };
+
+
+.. c:var:: const struct _frozen* PyImport_FrozenModules
+
+   This pointer is initialized to point to an array of :c:type:`struct _frozen`
+   records, terminated by one whose members are all *NULL* or zero.  When a frozen
+   module is imported, it is searched in this table.  Third-party code could play
+   tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyImport_AppendInittab(const char *name, PyObject* (*initfunc)(void))
+
+   Add a single module to the existing table of built-in modules.  This is a
+   convenience wrapper around :c:func:`PyImport_ExtendInittab`, returning ``-1`` if
+   the table could not be extended.  The new module can be imported by the name
+   *name*, and uses the function *initfunc* as the initialization function called
+   on the first attempted import.  This should be called before
+   :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+
+.. c:type:: struct _inittab
+
+   Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in modules.  Each of
+   these structures gives the name and initialization function for a module built
+   into the interpreter.  The name is an ASCII encoded string.  Programs which
+   embed Python may use an array of these structures in conjunction with
+   :c:func:`PyImport_ExtendInittab` to provide additional built-in modules.
+   The structure is defined in :file:`Include/import.h` as::
+
+      struct _inittab {
+          const char *name;           /* ASCII encoded string */
+          PyObject* (*initfunc)(void);
+      };
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyImport_ExtendInittab(struct _inittab *newtab)
+
+   Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules.  The *newtab*
+   array must end with a sentinel entry which contains *NULL* for the :attr:`name`
+   field; failure to provide the sentinel value can result in a memory fault.
+   Returns ``0`` on success or ``-1`` if insufficient memory could be allocated to
+   extend the internal table.  In the event of failure, no modules are added to the
+   internal table.  This should be called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3bfbaf4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. _c-api-index:
+
+##################################
+  Python/C API Reference Manual
+##################################
+
+This manual documents the API used by C and C++ programmers who want to write
+extension modules or embed Python.  It is a companion to :ref:`extending-index`,
+which describes the general principles of extension writing but does not
+document the API functions in detail.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+
+   intro.rst
+   stable.rst
+   veryhigh.rst
+   refcounting.rst
+   exceptions.rst
+   utilities.rst
+   abstract.rst
+   concrete.rst
+   init.rst
+   memory.rst
+   objimpl.rst
+   apiabiversion.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/init.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/init.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93fcfe6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/init.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1576 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _initialization:
+
+*****************************************
+Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
+*****************************************
+
+.. _pre-init-safe:
+
+Before Python Initialization
+============================
+
+In an application embedding  Python, the :c:func:`Py_Initialize` function must
+be called before using any other Python/C API functions; with the exception of
+a few functions and the :ref:`global configuration variables
+<global-conf-vars>`.
+
+The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized:
+
+* Configuration functions:
+
+  * :c:func:`PyImport_AppendInittab`
+  * :c:func:`PyImport_ExtendInittab`
+  * :c:func:`PyInitFrozenExtensions`
+  * :c:func:`PyMem_SetAllocator`
+  * :c:func:`PyMem_SetupDebugHooks`
+  * :c:func:`PyObject_SetArenaAllocator`
+  * :c:func:`Py_SetPath`
+  * :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName`
+  * :c:func:`Py_SetPythonHome`
+  * :c:func:`Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding`
+  * :c:func:`PySys_AddWarnOption`
+  * :c:func:`PySys_AddXOption`
+  * :c:func:`PySys_ResetWarnOptions`
+
+* Informative functions:
+
+  * :c:func:`Py_IsInitialized`
+  * :c:func:`PyMem_GetAllocator`
+  * :c:func:`PyObject_GetArenaAllocator`
+  * :c:func:`Py_GetBuildInfo`
+  * :c:func:`Py_GetCompiler`
+  * :c:func:`Py_GetCopyright`
+  * :c:func:`Py_GetPlatform`
+  * :c:func:`Py_GetVersion`
+
+* Utilities:
+
+  * :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale`
+
+* Memory allocators:
+
+  * :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc`
+  * :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc`
+  * :c:func:`PyMem_RawCalloc`
+  * :c:func:`PyMem_RawFree`
+
+.. note::
+
+   The following functions **should not be called** before
+   :c:func:`Py_Initialize`: :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale`, :c:func:`Py_GetPath`,
+   :c:func:`Py_GetPrefix`, :c:func:`Py_GetExecPrefix`,
+   :c:func:`Py_GetProgramFullPath`, :c:func:`Py_GetPythonHome`,
+   :c:func:`Py_GetProgramName` and :c:func:`PyEval_InitThreads`.
+
+
+.. _global-conf-vars:
+
+Global configuration variables
+==============================
+
+Python has variables for the global configuration to control different features
+and options. By default, these flags are controlled by :ref:`command line
+options <using-on-interface-options>`.
+
+When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of times
+that the option was set. For example, ``-b`` sets :c:data:`Py_BytesWarningFlag`
+to 1 and ``-bb`` sets :c:data:`Py_BytesWarningFlag` to 2.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_BytesWarningFlag
+
+   Issue a warning when comparing :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` with
+   :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` with :class:`int`.  Issue an error if greater
+   or equal to ``2``.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-b` option.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_DebugFlag
+
+   Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
+   options).
+
+   Set by the :option:`-d` option and the :envvar:`PYTHONDEBUG` environment
+   variable.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag
+
+   If set to non-zero, Python won't try to write ``.pyc`` files on the
+   import of source modules.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-B` option and the :envvar:`PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE`
+   environment variable.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_FrozenFlag
+
+   Suppress error messages when calculating the module search path in
+   :c:func:`Py_GetPath`.
+
+   Private flag used by ``_freeze_importlib`` and ``frozenmain`` programs.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_HashRandomizationFlag
+
+   Set to ``1`` if the :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` environment variable is set to
+   a non-empty string.
+
+   If the flag is non-zero, read the :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` environment
+   variable to initialize the secret hash seed.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag
+
+   Ignore all :envvar:`PYTHON*` environment variables, e.g.
+   :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` and :envvar:`PYTHONHOME`, that might be set.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-E` and :option:`-I` options.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_InspectFlag
+
+   When a script is passed as first argument or the :option:`-c` option is used,
+   enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when
+   :data:`sys.stdin` does not appear to be a terminal.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-i` option and the :envvar:`PYTHONINSPECT` environment
+   variable.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_InteractiveFlag
+
+   Set by the :option:`-i` option.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_IsolatedFlag
+
+   Run Python in isolated mode. In isolated mode :data:`sys.path` contains
+   neither the script's directory nor the user's site-packages directory.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-I` option.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. c:var:: Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag
+
+   If the flag is non-zero, use the ``mbcs`` encoding instead of the UTF-8
+   encoding for the filesystem encoding.
+
+   Set to ``1`` if the :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING` environment
+   variable is set to a non-empty string.
+
+   See :pep:`529` for more details.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag
+
+   If the flag is non-zero, use :class:`io.FileIO` instead of
+   :class:`WindowsConsoleIO` for :mod:`sys` standard streams.
+
+   Set to ``1`` if the :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO` environment
+   variable is set to a non-empty string.
+
+   See :pep:`528` for more details.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_NoSiteFlag
+
+   Disable the import of the module :mod:`site` and the site-dependent
+   manipulations of :data:`sys.path` that it entails.  Also disable these
+   manipulations if :mod:`site` is explicitly imported later (call
+   :func:`site.main` if you want them to be triggered).
+
+   Set by the :option:`-S` option.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_NoUserSiteDirectory
+
+   Don't add the :data:`user site-packages directory <site.USER_SITE>` to
+   :data:`sys.path`.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-s` and :option:`-I` options, and the
+   :envvar:`PYTHONNOUSERSITE` environment variable.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_OptimizeFlag
+
+   Set by the :option:`-O` option and the :envvar:`PYTHONOPTIMIZE` environment
+   variable.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_QuietFlag
+
+   Don't display the copyright and version messages even in interactive mode.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-q` option.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. c:var:: Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag
+
+   Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-u` option and the :envvar:`PYTHONUNBUFFERED`
+   environment variable.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_VerboseFlag
+
+   Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the place
+   (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  If greater or equal
+   to ``2``, print a message for each file that is checked for when
+   searching for a module. Also provides information on module cleanup at exit.
+
+   Set by the :option:`-v` option and the :envvar:`PYTHONVERBOSE` environment
+   variable.
+
+
+Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
+===========================================
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_Initialize()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Py_SetProgramName()
+      single: PyEval_InitThreads()
+      single: modules (in module sys)
+      single: path (in module sys)
+      module: builtins
+      module: __main__
+      module: sys
+      triple: module; search; path
+      single: PySys_SetArgv()
+      single: PySys_SetArgvEx()
+      single: Py_FinalizeEx()
+
+   Initialize the Python interpreter.  In an application embedding  Python,
+   this should be called before using any other Python/C API functions; see
+   :ref:`Before Python Initialization <pre-init-safe>` for the few exceptions.
+
+   This initializes
+   the table of loaded modules (``sys.modules``), and creates the fundamental
+   modules :mod:`builtins`, :mod:`__main__` and :mod:`sys`.  It also initializes
+   the module search path (``sys.path``). It does not set ``sys.argv``; use
+   :c:func:`PySys_SetArgvEx` for that.  This is a no-op when called for a second time
+   (without calling :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` first).  There is no return value; it is a
+   fatal error if the initialization fails.
+
+   .. note::
+      On Windows, changes the console mode from ``O_TEXT`` to ``O_BINARY``, which will
+      also affect non-Python uses of the console using the C Runtime.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_InitializeEx(int initsigs)
+
+   This function works like :c:func:`Py_Initialize` if *initsigs* is ``1``. If
+   *initsigs* is ``0``, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which
+   might be useful when Python is embedded.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_IsInitialized()
+
+   Return true (nonzero) when the Python interpreter has been initialized, false
+   (zero) if not.  After :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` is called, this returns false until
+   :c:func:`Py_Initialize` is called again.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_FinalizeEx()
+
+   Undo all initializations made by :c:func:`Py_Initialize` and subsequent use of
+   Python/C API functions, and destroy all sub-interpreters (see
+   :c:func:`Py_NewInterpreter` below) that were created and not yet destroyed since
+   the last call to :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.  Ideally, this frees all memory
+   allocated by the Python interpreter.  This is a no-op when called for a second
+   time (without calling :c:func:`Py_Initialize` again first).  Normally the
+   return value is ``0``.  If there were errors during finalization
+   (flushing buffered data), ``-1`` is returned.
+
+   This function is provided for a number of reasons.  An embedding application
+   might want to restart Python without having to restart the application itself.
+   An application that has loaded the Python interpreter from a dynamically
+   loadable library (or DLL) might want to free all memory allocated by Python
+   before unloading the DLL. During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a
+   developer might want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from
+   the application.
+
+   **Bugs and caveats:** The destruction of modules and objects in modules is done
+   in random order; this may cause destructors (:meth:`__del__` methods) to fail
+   when they depend on other objects (even functions) or modules.  Dynamically
+   loaded extension modules loaded by Python are not unloaded.  Small amounts of
+   memory allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a leak,
+   please report it).  Memory tied up in circular references between objects is not
+   freed.  Some memory allocated by extension modules may not be freed.  Some
+   extensions may not work properly if their initialization routine is called more
+   than once; this can happen if an application calls :c:func:`Py_Initialize` and
+   :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` more than once.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_Finalize()
+
+   This is a backwards-compatible version of :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` that
+   disregards the return value.
+
+
+Process-wide parameters
+=======================
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Py_Initialize()
+      single: main()
+      triple: stdin; stdout; sdterr
+
+   This function should be called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize`, if it is
+   called at all. It specifies which encoding and error handling to use
+   with standard IO, with the same meanings as in :func:`str.encode`.
+
+   It overrides :envvar:`PYTHONIOENCODING` values, and allows embedding code
+   to control IO encoding when the environment variable does not work.
+
+   ``encoding`` and/or ``errors`` may be NULL to use
+   :envvar:`PYTHONIOENCODING` and/or default values (depending on other
+   settings).
+
+   Note that :data:`sys.stderr` always uses the "backslashreplace" error
+   handler, regardless of this (or any other) setting.
+
+   If :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` is called, this function will need to be called
+   again in order to affect subsequent calls to :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+   Returns ``0`` if successful, a nonzero value on error (e.g. calling after the
+   interpreter has already been initialized).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_SetProgramName(const wchar_t *name)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Py_Initialize()
+      single: main()
+      single: Py_GetPath()
+
+   This function should be called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize` is called for
+   the first time, if it is called at all.  It tells the interpreter the value
+   of the ``argv[0]`` argument to the :c:func:`main` function of the program
+   (converted to wide characters).
+   This is used by :c:func:`Py_GetPath` and some other functions below to find
+   the Python run-time libraries relative to the interpreter executable.  The
+   default value is ``'python'``.  The argument should point to a
+   zero-terminated wide character string in static storage whose contents will not
+   change for the duration of the program's execution.  No code in the Python
+   interpreter will change the contents of this storage.
+
+   Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
+   :c:type:`wchar_*` string.
+
+
+.. c:function:: wchar* Py_GetProgramName()
+
+   .. index:: single: Py_SetProgramName()
+
+   Return the program name set with :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName`, or the default.
+   The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+   value.
+
+
+.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_GetPrefix()
+
+   Return the *prefix* for installed platform-independent files. This is derived
+   through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with
+   :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName` and some environment variables; for example, if the
+   program name is ``'/usr/local/bin/python'``, the prefix is ``'/usr/local'``. The
+   returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+   value.  This corresponds to the :makevar:`prefix` variable in the top-level
+   :file:`Makefile` and the ``--prefix`` argument to the :program:`configure`
+   script at build time.  The value is available to Python code as ``sys.prefix``.
+   It is only useful on Unix.  See also the next function.
+
+
+.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_GetExecPrefix()
+
+   Return the *exec-prefix* for installed platform-*dependent* files.  This is
+   derived through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with
+   :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName` and some environment variables; for example, if the
+   program name is ``'/usr/local/bin/python'``, the exec-prefix is
+   ``'/usr/local'``.  The returned string points into static storage; the caller
+   should not modify its value.  This corresponds to the :makevar:`exec_prefix`
+   variable in the top-level :file:`Makefile` and the ``--exec-prefix``
+   argument to the :program:`configure` script at build  time.  The value is
+   available to Python code as ``sys.exec_prefix``.  It is only useful on Unix.
+
+   Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform dependent
+   files (such as executables and shared libraries) are installed in a different
+   directory tree.  In a typical installation, platform dependent files may be
+   installed in the :file:`/usr/local/plat` subtree while platform independent may
+   be installed in :file:`/usr/local`.
+
+   Generally speaking, a platform is a combination of hardware and software
+   families, e.g.  Sparc machines running the Solaris 2.x operating system are
+   considered the same platform, but Intel machines running Solaris 2.x are another
+   platform, and Intel machines running Linux are yet another platform.  Different
+   major revisions of the same operating system generally also form different
+   platforms.  Non-Unix operating systems are a different story; the installation
+   strategies on those systems are so different that the prefix and exec-prefix are
+   meaningless, and set to the empty string. Note that compiled Python bytecode
+   files are platform independent (but not independent from the Python version by
+   which they were compiled!).
+
+   System administrators will know how to configure the :program:`mount` or
+   :program:`automount` programs to share :file:`/usr/local` between platforms
+   while having :file:`/usr/local/plat` be a different filesystem for each
+   platform.
+
+
+.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_GetProgramFullPath()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Py_SetProgramName()
+      single: executable (in module sys)
+
+   Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is  computed as a
+   side-effect of deriving the default module search path  from the program name
+   (set by :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName` above). The returned string points into
+   static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value is available
+   to Python code as ``sys.executable``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_GetPath()
+
+   .. index::
+      triple: module; search; path
+      single: path (in module sys)
+      single: Py_SetPath()
+
+   Return the default module search path; this is computed from the program name
+   (set by :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName` above) and some environment variables.
+   The returned string consists of a series of directory names separated by a
+   platform dependent delimiter character.  The delimiter character is ``':'``
+   on Unix and Mac OS X, ``';'`` on Windows.  The returned string points into
+   static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The list
+   :data:`sys.path` is initialized with this value on interpreter startup; it
+   can be (and usually is) modified later to change the search path for loading
+   modules.
+
+   .. XXX should give the exact rules
+
+
+.. c:function::  void Py_SetPath(const wchar_t *)
+
+   .. index::
+      triple: module; search; path
+      single: path (in module sys)
+      single: Py_GetPath()
+
+   Set the default module search path.  If this function is called before
+   :c:func:`Py_Initialize`, then :c:func:`Py_GetPath` won't attempt to compute a
+   default search path but uses the one provided instead.  This is useful if
+   Python is embedded by an application that has full knowledge of the location
+   of all modules.  The path components should be separated by the platform
+   dependent delimiter character, which is ``':'`` on Unix and Mac OS X, ``';'``
+   on Windows.
+
+   This also causes :data:`sys.executable` to be set only to the raw program
+   name (see :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName`) and for :data:`sys.prefix` and
+   :data:`sys.exec_prefix` to be empty.  It is up to the caller to modify these
+   if required after calling :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+   Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
+   :c:type:`wchar_*` string.
+
+   The path argument is copied internally, so the caller may free it after the
+   call completes.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* Py_GetVersion()
+
+   Return the version of this Python interpreter.  This is a string that looks
+   something like ::
+
+      "3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]"
+
+   .. index:: single: version (in module sys)
+
+   The first word (up to the first space character) is the current Python version;
+   the first three characters are the major and minor version separated by a
+   period.  The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not
+   modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as :data:`sys.version`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* Py_GetPlatform()
+
+   .. index:: single: platform (in module sys)
+
+   Return the platform identifier for the current platform.  On Unix, this is
+   formed from the "official" name of the operating system, converted to lower
+   case, followed by the major revision number; e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is
+   also known as SunOS 5.x, the value is ``'sunos5'``.  On Mac OS X, it is
+   ``'darwin'``.  On Windows, it is ``'win'``.  The returned string points into
+   static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value is available
+   to Python code as ``sys.platform``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* Py_GetCopyright()
+
+   Return the official copyright string for the current Python version, for example
+
+   ``'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'``
+
+   .. index:: single: copyright (in module sys)
+
+   The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+   value.  The value is available to Python code as ``sys.copyright``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* Py_GetCompiler()
+
+   Return an indication of the compiler used to build the current Python version,
+   in square brackets, for example::
+
+      "[GCC 2.7.2.2]"
+
+   .. index:: single: version (in module sys)
+
+   The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+   value.  The value is available to Python code as part of the variable
+   ``sys.version``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* Py_GetBuildInfo()
+
+   Return information about the sequence number and build date and time  of the
+   current Python interpreter instance, for example ::
+
+      "#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28"
+
+   .. index:: single: version (in module sys)
+
+   The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+   value.  The value is available to Python code as part of the variable
+   ``sys.version``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_SetArgvEx(int argc, wchar_t **argv, int updatepath)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: main()
+      single: Py_FatalError()
+      single: argv (in module sys)
+
+   Set :data:`sys.argv` based on *argc* and *argv*.  These parameters are
+   similar to those passed to the program's :c:func:`main` function with the
+   difference that the first entry should refer to the script file to be
+   executed rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter.  If there
+   isn't a script that will be run, the first entry in *argv* can be an empty
+   string.  If this function fails to initialize :data:`sys.argv`, a fatal
+   condition is signalled using :c:func:`Py_FatalError`.
+
+   If *updatepath* is zero, this is all the function does.  If *updatepath*
+   is non-zero, the function also modifies :data:`sys.path` according to the
+   following algorithm:
+
+   - If the name of an existing script is passed in ``argv[0]``, the absolute
+     path of the directory where the script is located is prepended to
+     :data:`sys.path`.
+   - Otherwise (that is, if *argc* is ``0`` or ``argv[0]`` doesn't point
+     to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended to
+     :data:`sys.path`, which is the same as prepending the current working
+     directory (``"."``).
+
+   Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
+   :c:type:`wchar_*` string.
+
+   .. note::
+      It is recommended that applications embedding the Python interpreter
+      for purposes other than executing a single script pass ``0`` as *updatepath*,
+      and update :data:`sys.path` themselves if desired.
+      See `CVE-2008-5983 <https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2008-5983>`_.
+
+      On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by manually
+      popping the first :data:`sys.path` element after having called
+      :c:func:`PySys_SetArgv`, for example using::
+
+         PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n");
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1.3
+
+   .. XXX impl. doesn't seem consistent in allowing ``0``/``NULL`` for the params;
+      check w/ Guido.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_SetArgv(int argc, wchar_t **argv)
+
+   This function works like :c:func:`PySys_SetArgvEx` with *updatepath* set
+   to ``1`` unless the :program:`python` interpreter was started with the
+   :option:`-I`.
+
+   Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
+   :c:type:`wchar_*` string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4 The *updatepath* value depends on :option:`-I`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_SetPythonHome(const wchar_t *home)
+
+   Set the default "home" directory, that is, the location of the standard
+   Python libraries.  See :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` for the meaning of the
+   argument string.
+
+   The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in static
+   storage whose contents will not change for the duration of the program's
+   execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will change the contents of
+   this storage.
+
+   Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
+   :c:type:`wchar_*` string.
+
+
+.. c:function:: w_char* Py_GetPythonHome()
+
+   Return the default "home", that is, the value set by a previous call to
+   :c:func:`Py_SetPythonHome`, or the value of the :envvar:`PYTHONHOME`
+   environment variable if it is set.
+
+
+.. _threads:
+
+Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
+============================================
+
+.. index::
+   single: global interpreter lock
+   single: interpreter lock
+   single: lock, interpreter
+
+The Python interpreter is not fully thread-safe.  In order to support
+multi-threaded Python programs, there's a global lock, called the :term:`global
+interpreter lock` or :term:`GIL`, that must be held by the current thread before
+it can safely access Python objects. Without the lock, even the simplest
+operations could cause problems in a multi-threaded program: for example, when
+two threads simultaneously increment the reference count of the same object, the
+reference count could end up being incremented only once instead of twice.
+
+.. index:: single: setswitchinterval() (in module sys)
+
+Therefore, the rule exists that only the thread that has acquired the
+:term:`GIL` may operate on Python objects or call Python/C API functions.
+In order to emulate concurrency of execution, the interpreter regularly
+tries to switch threads (see :func:`sys.setswitchinterval`).  The lock is also
+released around potentially blocking I/O operations like reading or writing
+a file, so that other Python threads can run in the meantime.
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyThreadState
+   single: PyThreadState
+
+The Python interpreter keeps some thread-specific bookkeeping information
+inside a data structure called :c:type:`PyThreadState`.  There's also one
+global variable pointing to the current :c:type:`PyThreadState`: it can
+be retrieved using :c:func:`PyThreadState_Get`.
+
+Releasing the GIL from extension code
+-------------------------------------
+
+Most extension code manipulating the :term:`GIL` has the following simple
+structure::
+
+   Save the thread state in a local variable.
+   Release the global interpreter lock.
+   ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
+   Reacquire the global interpreter lock.
+   Restore the thread state from the local variable.
+
+This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it::
+
+   Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
+   ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
+   Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
+
+.. index::
+   single: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
+   single: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
+
+The :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS` macro opens a new block and declares a
+hidden local variable; the :c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS` macro closes the
+block.
+
+The block above expands to the following code::
+
+   PyThreadState *_save;
+
+   _save = PyEval_SaveThread();
+   ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
+   PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyEval_RestoreThread()
+   single: PyEval_SaveThread()
+
+Here is how these functions work: the global interpreter lock is used to protect the pointer to the
+current thread state.  When releasing the lock and saving the thread state,
+the current thread state pointer must be retrieved before the lock is released
+(since another thread could immediately acquire the lock and store its own thread
+state in the global variable). Conversely, when acquiring the lock and restoring
+the thread state, the lock must be acquired before storing the thread state
+pointer.
+
+.. note::
+   Calling system I/O functions is the most common use case for releasing
+   the GIL, but it can also be useful before calling long-running computations
+   which don't need access to Python objects, such as compression or
+   cryptographic functions operating over memory buffers.  For example, the
+   standard :mod:`zlib` and :mod:`hashlib` modules release the GIL when
+   compressing or hashing data.
+
+
+.. _gilstate:
+
+Non-Python created threads
+--------------------------
+
+When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the
+:mod:`threading` module), a thread state is automatically associated to them
+and the code showed above is therefore correct.  However, when threads are
+created from C (for example by a third-party library with its own thread
+management), they don't hold the GIL, nor is there a thread state structure
+for them.
+
+If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be part
+of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party library),
+you must first register these threads with the interpreter by
+creating a thread state data structure, then acquiring the GIL, and finally
+storing their thread state pointer, before you can start using the Python/C
+API.  When you are done, you should reset the thread state pointer, release
+the GIL, and finally free the thread state data structure.
+
+The :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` and :c:func:`PyGILState_Release` functions do
+all of the above automatically.  The typical idiom for calling into Python
+from a C thread is::
+
+   PyGILState_STATE gstate;
+   gstate = PyGILState_Ensure();
+
+   /* Perform Python actions here. */
+   result = CallSomeFunction();
+   /* evaluate result or handle exception */
+
+   /* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */
+   PyGILState_Release(gstate);
+
+Note that the :c:func:`PyGILState_\*` functions assume there is only one global
+interpreter (created automatically by :c:func:`Py_Initialize`).  Python
+supports the creation of additional interpreters (using
+:c:func:`Py_NewInterpreter`), but mixing multiple interpreters and the
+:c:func:`PyGILState_\*` API is unsupported.
+
+Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the face
+of the C :c:func:`fork` call. On most systems with :c:func:`fork`, after a
+process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist. That also
+means any locks held by other threads will never be released. Python solves
+this for :func:`os.fork` by acquiring the locks it uses internally before
+the fork, and releasing them afterwards. In addition, it resets any
+:ref:`lock-objects` in the child. When extending or embedding Python, there
+is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that need to be
+acquired before or reset after a fork. OS facilities such as
+:c:func:`pthread_atfork` would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
+Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling :c:func:`fork`
+directly rather than through :func:`os.fork` (and returning to or calling
+into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python's internal locks
+being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.
+:c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child` tries to reset the necessary locks, but is not
+always able to.
+
+
+High-level API
+--------------
+
+These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing C extension
+code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:
+
+.. c:type:: PyInterpreterState
+
+   This data structure represents the state shared by a number of cooperating
+   threads.  Threads belonging to the same interpreter share their module
+   administration and a few other internal items. There are no public members in
+   this structure.
+
+   Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share nothing, except
+   process state like available memory, open file descriptors and such.  The global
+   interpreter lock is also shared by all threads, regardless of to which
+   interpreter they belong.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyThreadState
+
+   This data structure represents the state of a single thread.  The only public
+   data member is :c:type:`PyInterpreterState \*`:attr:`interp`, which points to
+   this thread's interpreter state.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_InitThreads()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: PyEval_AcquireThread()
+      single: PyEval_ReleaseThread()
+      single: PyEval_SaveThread()
+      single: PyEval_RestoreThread()
+
+   Initialize and acquire the global interpreter lock.  It should be called in the
+   main thread before creating a second thread or engaging in any other thread
+   operations such as ``PyEval_ReleaseThread(tstate)``. It is not needed before
+   calling :c:func:`PyEval_SaveThread` or :c:func:`PyEval_RestoreThread`.
+
+   This is a no-op when called for a second time.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      This function is now called by :c:func:`Py_Initialize()`, so you don't
+      have to call it yourself anymore.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      This function cannot be called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize()` anymore.
+
+   .. index:: module: _thread
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()
+
+   Returns a non-zero value if :c:func:`PyEval_InitThreads` has been called.  This
+   function can be called without holding the GIL, and therefore can be used to
+   avoid calls to the locking API when running single-threaded.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The :term:`GIL` is now initialized by :c:func:`Py_Initialize()`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyEval_SaveThread()
+
+   Release the global interpreter lock (if it has been created and thread
+   support is enabled) and reset the thread state to *NULL*, returning the
+   previous thread state (which is not *NULL*).  If the lock has been created,
+   the current thread must have acquired it.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_RestoreThread(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   Acquire the global interpreter lock (if it has been created and thread
+   support is enabled) and set the thread state to *tstate*, which must not be
+   *NULL*.  If the lock has been created, the current thread must not have
+   acquired it, otherwise deadlock ensues.
+
+   .. note::
+      Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing
+      will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python.
+      You can use :c:func:`_Py_IsFinalizing` or :func:`sys.is_finalizing` to
+      check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
+      this function to avoid unwanted termination.
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyThreadState_Get()
+
+   Return the current thread state.  The global interpreter lock must be held.
+   When the current thread state is *NULL*, this issues a fatal error (so that
+   the caller needn't check for *NULL*).
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyThreadState_Swap(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   Swap the current thread state with the thread state given by the argument
+   *tstate*, which may be *NULL*.  The global interpreter lock must be held
+   and is not released.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_ReInitThreads()
+
+   This function is called from :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child` to ensure
+   that newly created child processes don't hold locks referring to threads
+   which are not running in the child process.
+
+
+The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible
+with sub-interpreters:
+
+.. c:function:: PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure()
+
+   Ensure that the current thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless
+   of the current state of Python, or of the global interpreter lock. This may
+   be called as many times as desired by a thread as long as each call is
+   matched with a call to :c:func:`PyGILState_Release`. In general, other
+   thread-related APIs may be used between :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` and
+   :c:func:`PyGILState_Release` calls as long as the thread state is restored to
+   its previous state before the Release().  For example, normal usage of the
+   :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS` and :c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS` macros is
+   acceptable.
+
+   The return value is an opaque "handle" to the thread state when
+   :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` was called, and must be passed to
+   :c:func:`PyGILState_Release` to ensure Python is left in the same state. Even
+   though recursive calls are allowed, these handles *cannot* be shared - each
+   unique call to :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` must save the handle for its call
+   to :c:func:`PyGILState_Release`.
+
+   When the function returns, the current thread will hold the GIL and be able
+   to call arbitrary Python code.  Failure is a fatal error.
+
+   .. note::
+      Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing
+      will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python.
+      You can use :c:func:`_Py_IsFinalizing` or :func:`sys.is_finalizing` to
+      check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
+      this function to avoid unwanted termination.
+
+.. c:function:: void PyGILState_Release(PyGILState_STATE)
+
+   Release any resources previously acquired.  After this call, Python's state will
+   be the same as it was prior to the corresponding :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` call
+   (but generally this state will be unknown to the caller, hence the use of the
+   GILState API).
+
+   Every call to :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` must be matched by a call to
+   :c:func:`PyGILState_Release` on the same thread.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()
+
+   Get the current thread state for this thread.  May return ``NULL`` if no
+   GILState API has been used on the current thread.  Note that the main thread
+   always has such a thread-state, even if no auto-thread-state call has been
+   made on the main thread.  This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyGILState_Check()
+
+   Return ``1`` if the current thread is holding the GIL and ``0`` otherwise.
+   This function can be called from any thread at any time.
+   Only if it has had its Python thread state initialized and currently is
+   holding the GIL will it return ``1``.
+   This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function.  It can be useful
+   for example in callback contexts or memory allocation functions when
+   knowing that the GIL is locked can allow the caller to perform sensitive
+   actions or otherwise behave differently.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon; look for
+example usage in the Python source distribution.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
+
+   This macro expands to ``{ PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();``.
+   Note that it contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following
+   :c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS` macro.  See above for further discussion of this
+   macro.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
+
+   This macro expands to ``PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }``. Note that it contains
+   a closing brace; it must be matched with an earlier
+   :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS` macro.  See above for further discussion of
+   this macro.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_BLOCK_THREADS
+
+   This macro expands to ``PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);``: it is equivalent to
+   :c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS` without the closing brace.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
+
+   This macro expands to ``_save = PyEval_SaveThread();``: it is equivalent to
+   :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS` without the opening brace and variable
+   declaration.
+
+
+Low-level API
+-------------
+
+All of the following functions must be called after :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   :c:func:`Py_Initialize()` now initializes the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyInterpreterState* PyInterpreterState_New()
+
+   Create a new interpreter state object.  The global interpreter lock need not
+   be held, but may be held if it is necessary to serialize calls to this
+   function.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyInterpreterState_Clear(PyInterpreterState *interp)
+
+   Reset all information in an interpreter state object.  The global interpreter
+   lock must be held.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyInterpreterState_Delete(PyInterpreterState *interp)
+
+   Destroy an interpreter state object.  The global interpreter lock need not be
+   held.  The interpreter state must have been reset with a previous call to
+   :c:func:`PyInterpreterState_Clear`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyThreadState_New(PyInterpreterState *interp)
+
+   Create a new thread state object belonging to the given interpreter object.
+   The global interpreter lock need not be held, but may be held if it is
+   necessary to serialize calls to this function.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyThreadState_Clear(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   Reset all information in a thread state object.  The global interpreter lock
+   must be held.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyThreadState_Delete(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   Destroy a thread state object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held.
+   The thread state must have been reset with a previous call to
+   :c:func:`PyThreadState_Clear`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PY_INT64_T PyInterpreterState_GetID(PyInterpreterState *interp)
+
+   Return the interpreter's unique ID.  If there was any error in doing
+   so then ``-1`` is returned and an error is set.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyThreadState_GetDict()
+
+   Return a dictionary in which extensions can store thread-specific state
+   information.  Each extension should use a unique key to use to store state in
+   the dictionary.  It is okay to call this function when no current thread state
+   is available. If this function returns *NULL*, no exception has been raised and
+   the caller should assume no current thread state is available.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(unsigned long id, PyObject *exc)
+
+   Asynchronously raise an exception in a thread. The *id* argument is the thread
+   id of the target thread; *exc* is the exception object to be raised. This
+   function does not steal any references to *exc*. To prevent naive misuse, you
+   must write your own C extension to call this.  Must be called with the GIL held.
+   Returns the number of thread states modified; this is normally one, but will be
+   zero if the thread id isn't found.  If *exc* is :const:`NULL`, the pending
+   exception (if any) for the thread is cleared. This raises no exceptions.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The type of the *id* parameter changed from :c:type:`long` to
+      :c:type:`unsigned long`.
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_AcquireThread(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   Acquire the global interpreter lock and set the current thread state to
+   *tstate*, which should not be *NULL*.  The lock must have been created earlier.
+   If this thread already has the lock, deadlock ensues.
+
+   :c:func:`PyEval_RestoreThread` is a higher-level function which is always
+   available (even when threads have not been initialized).
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_ReleaseThread(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   Reset the current thread state to *NULL* and release the global interpreter
+   lock.  The lock must have been created earlier and must be held by the current
+   thread.  The *tstate* argument, which must not be *NULL*, is only used to check
+   that it represents the current thread state --- if it isn't, a fatal error is
+   reported.
+
+   :c:func:`PyEval_SaveThread` is a higher-level function which is always
+   available (even when threads have not been initialized).
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_AcquireLock()
+
+   Acquire the global interpreter lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.
+   If this thread already has the lock, a deadlock ensues.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+      This function does not update the current thread state.  Please use
+      :c:func:`PyEval_RestoreThread` or :c:func:`PyEval_AcquireThread`
+      instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_ReleaseLock()
+
+   Release the global interpreter lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+      This function does not update the current thread state.  Please use
+      :c:func:`PyEval_SaveThread` or :c:func:`PyEval_ReleaseThread`
+      instead.
+
+
+.. _sub-interpreter-support:
+
+Sub-interpreter support
+=======================
+
+While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter, there
+are cases where you need to create several independent interpreters in the
+same process and perhaps even in the same thread.  Sub-interpreters allow
+you to do that.  You can switch between sub-interpreters using the
+:c:func:`PyThreadState_Swap` function.  You can create and destroy them
+using the following functions:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState* Py_NewInterpreter()
+
+   .. index::
+      module: builtins
+      module: __main__
+      module: sys
+      single: stdout (in module sys)
+      single: stderr (in module sys)
+      single: stdin (in module sys)
+
+   Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is an (almost) totally separate environment
+   for the execution of Python code.  In particular, the new interpreter has
+   separate, independent versions of all imported modules, including the
+   fundamental modules :mod:`builtins`, :mod:`__main__` and :mod:`sys`.  The
+   table of loaded modules (``sys.modules``) and the module search path
+   (``sys.path``) are also separate.  The new environment has no ``sys.argv``
+   variable.  It has new standard I/O stream file objects ``sys.stdin``,
+   ``sys.stdout`` and ``sys.stderr`` (however these refer to the same underlying
+   file descriptors).
+
+   The return value points to the first thread state created in the new
+   sub-interpreter.  This thread state is made in the current thread state.
+   Note that no actual thread is created; see the discussion of thread states
+   below.  If creation of the new interpreter is unsuccessful, *NULL* is
+   returned; no exception is set since the exception state is stored in the
+   current thread state and there may not be a current thread state.  (Like all
+   other Python/C API functions, the global interpreter lock must be held before
+   calling this function and is still held when it returns; however, unlike most
+   other Python/C API functions, there needn't be a current thread state on
+   entry.)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Py_FinalizeEx()
+      single: Py_Initialize()
+
+   Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows: the first
+   time a particular extension is imported, it is initialized normally, and a
+   (shallow) copy of its module's dictionary is squirreled away.  When the same
+   extension is imported by another (sub-)interpreter, a new module is initialized
+   and filled with the contents of this copy; the extension's ``init`` function is
+   not called.  Note that this is different from what happens when an extension is
+   imported after the interpreter has been completely re-initialized by calling
+   :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` and :c:func:`Py_Initialize`; in that case, the extension's
+   ``initmodule`` function *is* called again.
+
+   .. index:: single: close() (in module os)
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_EndInterpreter(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   .. index:: single: Py_FinalizeEx()
+
+   Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread state. The given
+   thread state must be the current thread state.  See the discussion of thread
+   states below.  When the call returns, the current thread state is *NULL*.  All
+   thread states associated with this interpreter are destroyed.  (The global
+   interpreter lock must be held before calling this function and is still held
+   when it returns.)  :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` will destroy all sub-interpreters that
+   haven't been explicitly destroyed at that point.
+
+
+Bugs and caveats
+----------------
+
+Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same
+process, the insulation between them isn't perfect --- for example, using
+low-level file operations like  :func:`os.close` they can
+(accidentally or maliciously) affect each other's open files.  Because of the
+way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some extensions may not
+work properly; this is especially likely when the extension makes use of
+(static) global variables, or when the extension manipulates its module's
+dictionary after its initialization.  It is possible to insert objects created
+in one sub-interpreter into a namespace of another sub-interpreter; this should
+be done with great care to avoid sharing user-defined functions, methods,
+instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import operations executed
+by such objects may affect the wrong (sub-)interpreter's dictionary of loaded
+modules.
+
+Also note that combining this functionality with :c:func:`PyGILState_\*` APIs
+is delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread states
+and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of sub-interpreters.
+It is highly recommended that you don't switch sub-interpreters between a pair
+of matching :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` and :c:func:`PyGILState_Release` calls.
+Furthermore, extensions (such as :mod:`ctypes`) using these APIs to allow calling
+of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken when using
+sub-interpreters.
+
+
+Asynchronous Notifications
+==========================
+
+A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
+interpreter thread.  These notifications take the form of a function
+pointer and a void pointer argument.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_AddPendingCall(int (*func)(void *), void *arg)
+
+   .. index:: single: Py_AddPendingCall()
+
+   Schedule a function to be called from the main interpreter thread.  On
+   success, ``0`` is returned and *func* is queued for being called in the
+   main thread.  On failure, ``-1`` is returned without setting any exception.
+
+   When successfully queued, *func* will be *eventually* called from the
+   main interpreter thread with the argument *arg*.  It will be called
+   asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code, but with
+   both these conditions met:
+
+   * on a :term:`bytecode` boundary;
+   * with the main thread holding the :term:`global interpreter lock`
+     (*func* can therefore use the full C API).
+
+   *func* must return ``0`` on success, or ``-1`` on failure with an exception
+   set.  *func* won't be interrupted to perform another asynchronous
+   notification recursively, but it can still be interrupted to switch
+   threads if the global interpreter lock is released.
+
+   This function doesn't need a current thread state to run, and it doesn't
+   need the global interpreter lock.
+
+   .. warning::
+      This is a low-level function, only useful for very special cases.
+      There is no guarantee that *func* will be called as quick as
+      possible.  If the main thread is busy executing a system call,
+      *func* won't be called before the system call returns.  This
+      function is generally **not** suitable for calling Python code from
+      arbitrary C threads.  Instead, use the :ref:`PyGILState API<gilstate>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+.. _profiling:
+
+Profiling and Tracing
+=====================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+
+The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching profiling
+and execution tracing facilities.  These are used for profiling, debugging, and
+coverage analysis tools.
+
+This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the overhead of
+calling through Python-level callable objects, making a direct C function call
+instead.  The essential attributes of the facility have not changed; the
+interface allows trace functions to be installed per-thread, and the basic
+events reported to the trace function are the same as had been reported to the
+Python-level trace functions in previous versions.
+
+
+.. c:type:: int (*Py_tracefunc)(PyObject *obj, PyFrameObject *frame, int what, PyObject *arg)
+
+   The type of the trace function registered using :c:func:`PyEval_SetProfile` and
+   :c:func:`PyEval_SetTrace`. The first parameter is the object passed to the
+   registration function as *obj*, *frame* is the frame object to which the event
+   pertains, *what* is one of the constants :const:`PyTrace_CALL`,
+   :const:`PyTrace_EXCEPTION`, :const:`PyTrace_LINE`, :const:`PyTrace_RETURN`,
+   :const:`PyTrace_C_CALL`, :const:`PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION`, :const:`PyTrace_C_RETURN`,
+   or :const:`PyTrace_OPCODE`, and *arg* depends on the value of *what*:
+
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | Value of *what*              | Meaning of *arg*                     |
+   +==============================+======================================+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_CALL`        | Always :c:data:`Py_None`.            |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_EXCEPTION`   | Exception information as returned by |
+   |                              | :func:`sys.exc_info`.                |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_LINE`        | Always :c:data:`Py_None`.            |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_RETURN`      | Value being returned to the caller,  |
+   |                              | or *NULL* if caused by an exception. |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_C_CALL`      | Function object being called.        |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION` | Function object being called.        |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_C_RETURN`    | Function object being called.        |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`PyTrace_OPCODE`      | Always :c:data:`Py_None`.            |
+   +------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_CALL
+
+   The value of the *what* parameter to a :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` function when a new
+   call to a function or method is being reported, or a new entry into a generator.
+   Note that the creation of the iterator for a generator function is not reported
+   as there is no control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding
+   frame.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_EXCEPTION
+
+   The value of the *what* parameter to a :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` function when an
+   exception has been raised.  The callback function is called with this value for
+   *what* when after any bytecode is processed after which the exception becomes
+   set within the frame being executed.  The effect of this is that as exception
+   propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is called upon
+   return to each frame as the exception propagates.  Only trace functions receives
+   these events; they are not needed by the profiler.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_LINE
+
+   The value passed as the *what* parameter to a :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` function
+   (but not a profiling function) when a line-number event is being reported.
+   It may be disabled for a frame by setting :attr:`f_trace_lines` to *0* on that frame.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_RETURN
+
+   The value for the *what* parameter to :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` functions when a
+   call is about to return.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_C_CALL
+
+   The value for the *what* parameter to :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` functions when a C
+   function is about to be called.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION
+
+   The value for the *what* parameter to :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` functions when a C
+   function has raised an exception.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_C_RETURN
+
+   The value for the *what* parameter to :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` functions when a C
+   function has returned.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int PyTrace_OPCODE
+
+   The value for the *what* parameter to :c:type:`Py_tracefunc` functions (but not
+   profiling functions) when a new opcode is about to be executed.  This event is
+   not emitted by default: it must be explicitly requested by setting
+   :attr:`f_trace_opcodes` to *1* on the frame.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_SetProfile(Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)
+
+   Set the profiler function to *func*.  The *obj* parameter is passed to the
+   function as its first parameter, and may be any Python object, or *NULL*.  If
+   the profile function needs to maintain state, using a different value for *obj*
+   for each thread provides a convenient and thread-safe place to store it.  The
+   profile function is called for all monitored events except :const:`PyTrace_LINE`
+   :const:`PyTrace_OPCODE` and :const:`PyTrace_EXCEPTION`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyEval_SetTrace(Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)
+
+   Set the tracing function to *func*.  This is similar to
+   :c:func:`PyEval_SetProfile`, except the tracing function does receive line-number
+   events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any event related to C function
+   objects being called.  Any trace function registered using :c:func:`PyEval_SetTrace`
+   will not receive :const:`PyTrace_C_CALL`, :const:`PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION` or
+   :const:`PyTrace_C_RETURN` as a value for the *what* parameter.
+
+.. _advanced-debugging:
+
+Advanced Debugger Support
+=========================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+
+These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging tools.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyInterpreterState* PyInterpreterState_Head()
+
+   Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all such objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyInterpreterState* PyInterpreterState_Main()
+
+   Return the main interpreter state object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyInterpreterState* PyInterpreterState_Next(PyInterpreterState *interp)
+
+   Return the next interpreter state object after *interp* from the list of all
+   such objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState * PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(PyInterpreterState *interp)
+
+   Return the pointer to the first :c:type:`PyThreadState` object in the list of
+   threads associated with the interpreter *interp*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyThreadState_Next(PyThreadState *tstate)
+
+   Return the next thread state object after *tstate* from the list of all such
+   objects belonging to the same :c:type:`PyInterpreterState` object.
+
+
+.. _thread-local-storage:
+
+Thread Local Storage Support
+============================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Masayuki Yamamoto <ma3yuki.8mamo10@gmail.com>
+
+The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local storage
+(TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to support the
+Python-level thread local storage API (:class:`threading.local`).  The
+CPython C level APIs are similar to those offered by pthreads and Windows:
+use a thread key and functions to associate a :c:type:`void\*` value per
+thread.
+
+The GIL does *not* need to be held when calling these functions; they supply
+their own locking.
+
+Note that :file:`Python.h` does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs,
+you need to include :file:`pythread.h` to use thread-local storage.
+
+.. note::
+   None of these API functions handle memory management on behalf of the
+   :c:type:`void\*` values.  You need to allocate and deallocate them yourself.
+   If the :c:type:`void\*` values happen to be :c:type:`PyObject\*`, these
+   functions don't do refcount operations on them either.
+
+.. _thread-specific-storage-api:
+
+Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API
+---------------------------------
+
+TSS API is introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API within the
+CPython interpreter.  This API uses a new type :c:type:`Py_tss_t` instead of
+:c:type:`int` to represent thread keys.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. seealso:: "A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython" (:pep:`539`)
+
+
+.. c:type:: Py_tss_t
+
+   This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the definition of
+   which may depend on the underlying TLS implementation, and it has an
+   internal field representing the key's initialization state.  There are no
+   public members in this structure.
+
+   When :ref:`Py_LIMITED_API <stable>` is not defined, static allocation of
+   this type by :c:macro:`Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT` is allowed.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT
+
+   This macro expands to the initializer for :c:type:`Py_tss_t` variables.
+   Note that this macro won't be defined with :ref:`Py_LIMITED_API <stable>`.
+
+
+Dynamic Allocation
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Dynamic allocation of the :c:type:`Py_tss_t`, required in extension modules
+built with :ref:`Py_LIMITED_API <stable>`, where static allocation of this type
+is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at build time.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_tss_t* PyThread_tss_alloc()
+
+   Return a value which is the same state as a value initialized with
+   :c:macro:`Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT`, or *NULL* in the case of dynamic allocation
+   failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_tss_free(Py_tss_t *key)
+
+   Free the given *key* allocated by :c:func:`PyThread_tss_alloc`, after
+   first calling :c:func:`PyThread_tss_delete` to ensure any associated
+   thread locals have been unassigned. This is a no-op if the *key*
+   argument is `NULL`.
+
+   .. note::
+      A freed key becomes a dangling pointer, you should reset the key to
+      `NULL`.
+
+
+Methods
+~~~~~~~
+
+The parameter *key* of these functions must not be *NULL*.  Moreover, the
+behaviors of :c:func:`PyThread_tss_set` and :c:func:`PyThread_tss_get` are
+undefined if the given :c:type:`Py_tss_t` has not been initialized by
+:c:func:`PyThread_tss_create`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_tss_is_created(Py_tss_t *key)
+
+   Return a non-zero value if the given :c:type:`Py_tss_t` has been initialized
+   by :c:func:`PyThread_tss_create`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_tss_create(Py_tss_t *key)
+
+   Return a zero value on successful initialization of a TSS key.  The behavior
+   is undefined if the value pointed to by the *key* argument is not
+   initialized by :c:macro:`Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT`.  This function can be called
+   repeatedly on the same key -- calling it on an already initialized key is a
+   no-op and immediately returns success.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_tss_delete(Py_tss_t *key)
+
+   Destroy a TSS key to forget the values associated with the key across all
+   threads, and change the key's initialization state to uninitialized.  A
+   destroyed key is able to be initialized again by
+   :c:func:`PyThread_tss_create`. This function can be called repeatedly on
+   the same key -- calling it on an already destroyed key is a no-op.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_tss_set(Py_tss_t *key, void *value)
+
+   Return a zero value to indicate successfully associating a :c:type:`void\*`
+   value with a TSS key in the current thread.  Each thread has a distinct
+   mapping of the key to a :c:type:`void\*` value.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyThread_tss_get(Py_tss_t *key)
+
+   Return the :c:type:`void\*` value associated with a TSS key in the current
+   thread.  This returns *NULL* if no value is associated with the key in the
+   current thread.
+
+
+.. _thread-local-storage-api:
+
+Thread Local Storage (TLS) API
+------------------------------
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.7
+   This API is superseded by
+   :ref:`Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API <thread-specific-storage-api>`.
+
+.. note::
+   This version of the API does not support platforms where the native TLS key
+   is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to ``int``.  On such platforms,
+   :c:func:`PyThread_create_key` will return immediately with a failure status,
+   and the other TLS functions will all be no-ops on such platforms.
+
+Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API should not
+be used in new code.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_create_key()
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_delete_key(int key)
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_set_key_value(int key, void *value)
+.. c:function:: void* PyThread_get_key_value(int key)
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_delete_key_value(int key)
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_ReInitTLS()
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/intro.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/intro.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..330871b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/intro.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,725 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _api-intro:
+
+************
+Introduction
+************
+
+The Application Programmer's Interface to Python gives C and C++ programmers
+access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels.  The API is equally
+usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally referred to as the Python/C
+API.  There are two fundamentally different reasons for using the Python/C API.
+The first reason is to write *extension modules* for specific purposes; these
+are C modules that extend the Python interpreter.  This is probably the most
+common use.  The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger
+application; this technique is generally referred to as :dfn:`embedding` Python
+in an application.
+
+Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process, where a
+"cookbook" approach works well.  There are several tools that automate the
+process to some extent.  While people have embedded Python in other
+applications since its early existence, the process of embedding Python is
+less straightforward than writing an extension.
+
+Many API functions are useful independent of whether you're embedding  or
+extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python  will need to
+provide a custom extension as well, so it's probably a  good idea to become
+familiar with writing an extension before  attempting to embed Python in a real
+application.
+
+
+Coding standards
+================
+
+If you're writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you **must** follow the
+guidelines and standards defined in :PEP:`7`.  These guidelines apply
+regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to.  Following these
+conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension modules,
+unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python.
+
+
+.. _api-includes:
+
+Include Files
+=============
+
+All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API are
+included in your code by the following line::
+
+   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: ``<stdio.h>``,
+``<string.h>``, ``<errno.h>``, ``<limits.h>``, ``<assert.h>`` and ``<stdlib.h>``
+(if available).
+
+.. note::
+
+   Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard
+   headers on some systems, you *must* include :file:`Python.h` before any standard
+   headers are included.
+
+   It is recommended to always define ``PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN`` before including
+   ``Python.h``.  See :ref:`arg-parsing` for a description of this macro.
+
+All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the included
+standard headers) have one of the prefixes ``Py`` or ``_Py``.  Names beginning
+with ``_Py`` are for internal use by the Python implementation and should not be
+used by extension writers. Structure member names do not have a reserved prefix.
+
+**Important:** user code should never define names that begin with ``Py`` or
+``_Py``.  This confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the portability of the user
+code to future Python versions, which may define additional names beginning with
+one of these prefixes.
+
+The header files are typically installed with Python.  On Unix, these  are
+located in the directories :file:`{prefix}/include/pythonversion/` and
+:file:`{exec_prefix}/include/pythonversion/`, where :envvar:`prefix` and
+:envvar:`exec_prefix` are defined by the corresponding parameters to Python's
+:program:`configure` script and *version* is
+``'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]``.  On Windows, the headers are installed
+in :file:`{prefix}/include`, where :envvar:`prefix` is the installation
+directory specified to the installer.
+
+To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your compiler's
+search path for includes.  Do *not* place the parent directories on the search
+path and then use ``#include <pythonX.Y/Python.h>``; this will break on
+multi-platform builds since the platform independent headers under
+:envvar:`prefix` include the platform specific headers from
+:envvar:`exec_prefix`.
+
+C++ users should note that though the API is defined entirely using C, the
+header files do properly declare the entry points to be ``extern "C"``, so there
+is no need to do anything special to use the API from C++.
+
+
+Useful macros
+=============
+
+Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files.  Many are
+defined closer to where they are useful (e.g. :c:macro:`Py_RETURN_NONE`).
+Others of a more general utility are defined here.  This is not necessarily a
+complete listing.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_UNREACHABLE()
+
+   Use this when you have a code path that you do not expect to be reached.
+   For example, in the ``default:`` clause in a ``switch`` statement for which
+   all possible values are covered in ``case`` statements.  Use this in places
+   where you might be tempted to put an ``assert(0)`` or ``abort()`` call.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ABS(x)
+
+   Return the absolute value of ``x``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MIN(x, y)
+
+   Return the minimum value between ``x`` and ``y``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MAX(x, y)
+
+   Return the maximum value between ``x`` and ``y``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_STRINGIFY(x)
+
+   Convert ``x`` to a C string.  E.g. ``Py_STRINGIFY(123)`` returns
+   ``"123"``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MEMBER_SIZE(type, member)
+
+   Return the size of a structure (``type``) ``member`` in bytes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_CHARMASK(c)
+
+   Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127] or [0,
+   255].  This macro returns ``c`` cast to an ``unsigned char``.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_GETENV(s)
+
+   Like ``getenv(s)``, but returns *NULL* if :option:`-E` was passed on the
+   command line (i.e. if ``Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag`` is set).
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_UNUSED(arg)
+
+   Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence compiler
+   warnings, e.g. ``PyObject* func(PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. _api-objects:
+
+Objects, Types and Reference Counts
+===================================
+
+.. index:: object: type
+
+Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a return value
+of type :c:type:`PyObject\*`.  This type is a pointer to an opaque data type
+representing an arbitrary Python object.  Since all Python object types are
+treated the same way by the Python language in most situations (e.g.,
+assignments, scope rules, and argument passing), it is only fitting that they
+should be represented by a single C type.  Almost all Python objects live on the
+heap: you never declare an automatic or static variable of type
+:c:type:`PyObject`, only pointer variables of type :c:type:`PyObject\*` can  be
+declared.  The sole exception are the type objects; since these must never be
+deallocated, they are typically static :c:type:`PyTypeObject` objects.
+
+All Python objects (even Python integers) have a :dfn:`type` and a
+:dfn:`reference count`.  An object's type determines what kind of object it is
+(e.g., an integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as
+explained in :ref:`types`).  For each of the well-known types there is a macro
+to check whether an object is of that type; for instance, ``PyList_Check(a)`` is
+true if (and only if) the object pointed to by *a* is a Python list.
+
+
+.. _api-refcounts:
+
+Reference Counts
+----------------
+
+The reference count is important because today's computers have a  finite (and
+often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many  different places there
+are that have a reference to an object.  Such a  place could be another object,
+or a global (or static) C variable, or  a local variable in some C function.
+When an object's reference count  becomes zero, the object is deallocated.  If
+it contains references to  other objects, their reference count is decremented.
+Those other  objects may be deallocated in turn, if this decrement makes their
+reference count become zero, and so on.  (There's an obvious problem  with
+objects that reference each other here; for now, the solution is  "don't do
+that.")
+
+.. index::
+   single: Py_INCREF()
+   single: Py_DECREF()
+
+Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly.  The normal way is  to use
+the macro :c:func:`Py_INCREF` to increment an object's reference count by one,
+and :c:func:`Py_DECREF` to decrement it by   one.  The :c:func:`Py_DECREF` macro
+is considerably more complex than the incref one, since it must check whether
+the reference count becomes zero and then cause the object's deallocator to be
+called. The deallocator is a function pointer contained in the object's type
+structure.  The type-specific deallocator takes care of decrementing the
+reference counts for other objects contained in the object if this is a compound
+object type, such as a list, as well as performing any additional finalization
+that's needed.  There's no chance that the reference count can overflow; at
+least as many bits are used to hold the reference count as there are distinct
+memory locations in virtual memory (assuming ``sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)``).
+Thus, the reference count increment is a simple operation.
+
+It is not necessary to increment an object's reference count for every  local
+variable that contains a pointer to an object.  In theory, the  object's
+reference count goes up by one when the variable is made to  point to it and it
+goes down by one when the variable goes out of  scope.  However, these two
+cancel each other out, so at the end the  reference count hasn't changed.  The
+only real reason to use the  reference count is to prevent the object from being
+deallocated as  long as our variable is pointing to it.  If we know that there
+is at  least one other reference to the object that lives at least as long as
+our variable, there is no need to increment the reference count  temporarily.
+An important situation where this arises is in objects  that are passed as
+arguments to C functions in an extension module  that are called from Python;
+the call mechanism guarantees to hold a  reference to every argument for the
+duration of the call.
+
+However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold on to it
+for a while without incrementing its reference count. Some other operation might
+conceivably remove the object from the list, decrementing its reference count
+and possible deallocating it. The real danger is that innocent-looking
+operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could do this; there is a code
+path which allows control to flow back to the user from a :c:func:`Py_DECREF`, so
+almost any operation is potentially dangerous.
+
+A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions  whose name
+begins with ``PyObject_``, ``PyNumber_``, ``PySequence_`` or ``PyMapping_``).
+These operations always increment the reference count of the object they return.
+This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call :c:func:`Py_DECREF` when
+they are done with the result; this soon becomes second nature.
+
+
+.. _api-refcountdetails:
+
+Reference Count Details
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best  explained
+in terms of *ownership of references*.  Ownership pertains to references, never
+to objects (objects are not owned: they are always shared).  "Owning a
+reference" means being responsible for calling Py_DECREF on it when the
+reference is no longer needed.  Ownership can also be transferred, meaning that
+the code that receives ownership of the reference then becomes responsible for
+eventually decref'ing it by calling :c:func:`Py_DECREF` or :c:func:`Py_XDECREF`
+when it's no longer needed---or passing on this responsibility (usually to its
+caller). When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its caller, the
+caller is said to receive a *new* reference.  When no ownership is transferred,
+the caller is said to *borrow* the reference. Nothing needs to be done for a
+borrowed reference.
+
+Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an  object, there
+are two possibilities: the function *steals* a  reference to the object, or it
+does not.  *Stealing a reference* means that when you pass a reference to a
+function, that function assumes that it now owns that reference, and you are not
+responsible for it any longer.
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyList_SetItem()
+   single: PyTuple_SetItem()
+
+Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are
+:c:func:`PyList_SetItem` and :c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem`, which  steal a reference
+to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item is put!).  These
+functions were designed to steal a reference because of a common idiom for
+populating a tuple or list with newly created objects; for example, the code to
+create the tuple ``(1, 2, "three")`` could look like this (forgetting about
+error handling for the moment; a better way to code this is shown below)::
+
+   PyObject *t;
+
+   t = PyTuple_New(3);
+   PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));
+   PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));
+   PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));
+
+Here, :c:func:`PyLong_FromLong` returns a new reference which is immediately
+stolen by :c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem`.  When you want to keep using an object
+although the reference to it will be stolen, use :c:func:`Py_INCREF` to grab
+another reference before calling the reference-stealing function.
+
+Incidentally, :c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem` is the *only* way to set tuple items;
+:c:func:`PySequence_SetItem` and :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem` refuse to do this
+since tuples are an immutable data type.  You should only use
+:c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem` for tuples that you are creating yourself.
+
+Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using :c:func:`PyList_New`
+and :c:func:`PyList_SetItem`.
+
+However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and populating
+a tuple or list.  There's a generic function, :c:func:`Py_BuildValue`, that can
+create most common objects from C values, directed by a :dfn:`format string`.
+For example, the above two blocks of code could be replaced by the following
+(which also takes care of the error checking)::
+
+   PyObject *tuple, *list;
+
+   tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");
+   list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");
+
+It is much more common to use :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem` and friends with items
+whose references you are only borrowing, like arguments that were passed in to
+the function you are writing.  In that case, their behaviour regarding reference
+counts is much saner, since you don't have to increment a reference count so you
+can give a reference away ("have it be stolen").  For example, this function
+sets all items of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item::
+
+   int
+   set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)
+   {
+       Py_ssize_t i, n;
+
+       n = PyObject_Length(target);
+       if (n < 0)
+           return -1;
+       for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+           PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);
+           if (!index)
+               return -1;
+           if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {
+               Py_DECREF(index);
+               return -1;
+           }
+           Py_DECREF(index);
+       }
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+.. index:: single: set_all()
+
+The situation is slightly different for function return values.   While passing
+a reference to most functions does not change your  ownership responsibilities
+for that reference, many functions that  return a reference to an object give
+you ownership of the reference. The reason is simple: in many cases, the
+returned object is created  on the fly, and the reference you get is the only
+reference to the  object.  Therefore, the generic functions that return object
+references, like :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem` and  :c:func:`PySequence_GetItem`,
+always return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference).
+
+It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned  by a
+function depends on which function you call only --- *the plumage* (the type of
+the object passed as an argument to the function) *doesn't enter into it!*
+Thus, if you  extract an item from a list using :c:func:`PyList_GetItem`, you
+don't own the reference --- but if you obtain the same item from the same list
+using :c:func:`PySequence_GetItem` (which happens to take exactly the same
+arguments), you do own a reference to the returned object.
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyList_GetItem()
+   single: PySequence_GetItem()
+
+Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the sum of
+the items in a list of integers; once using  :c:func:`PyList_GetItem`, and once
+using :c:func:`PySequence_GetItem`. ::
+
+   long
+   sum_list(PyObject *list)
+   {
+       Py_ssize_t i, n;
+       long total = 0, value;
+       PyObject *item;
+
+       n = PyList_Size(list);
+       if (n < 0)
+           return -1; /* Not a list */
+       for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+           item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */
+           if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */
+           value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
+           if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
+               /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
+               return -1;
+           total += value;
+       }
+       return total;
+   }
+
+.. index:: single: sum_list()
+
+::
+
+   long
+   sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)
+   {
+       Py_ssize_t i, n;
+       long total = 0, value;
+       PyObject *item;
+       n = PySequence_Length(sequence);
+       if (n < 0)
+           return -1; /* Has no length */
+       for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+           item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);
+           if (item == NULL)
+               return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */
+           if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
+               value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
+               Py_DECREF(item);
+               if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
+                   /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
+                   return -1;
+               total += value;
+           }
+           else {
+               Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */
+           }
+       }
+       return total;
+   }
+
+.. index:: single: sum_sequence()
+
+
+.. _api-types:
+
+Types
+-----
+
+There are few other data types that play a significant role in  the Python/C
+API; most are simple C types such as :c:type:`int`,  :c:type:`long`,
+:c:type:`double` and :c:type:`char\*`.  A few structure types  are used to
+describe static tables used to list the functions exported  by a module or the
+data attributes of a new object type, and another is used to describe the value
+of a complex number.  These will  be discussed together with the functions that
+use them.
+
+
+.. _api-exceptions:
+
+Exceptions
+==========
+
+The Python programmer only needs to deal with exceptions if specific  error
+handling is required; unhandled exceptions are automatically  propagated to the
+caller, then to the caller's caller, and so on, until they reach the top-level
+interpreter, where they are reported to the  user accompanied by a stack
+traceback.
+
+.. index:: single: PyErr_Occurred()
+
+For C programmers, however, error checking always has to be explicit.  All
+functions in the Python/C API can raise exceptions, unless an explicit claim is
+made otherwise in a function's documentation.  In general, when a function
+encounters an error, it sets an exception, discards any object references that
+it owns, and returns an error indicator.  If not documented otherwise, this
+indicator is either *NULL* or ``-1``, depending on the function's return type.
+A few functions return a Boolean true/false result, with false indicating an
+error.  Very few functions return no explicit error indicator or have an
+ambiguous return value, and require explicit testing for errors with
+:c:func:`PyErr_Occurred`.  These exceptions are always explicitly documented.
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyErr_SetString()
+   single: PyErr_Clear()
+
+Exception state is maintained in per-thread storage (this is  equivalent to
+using global storage in an unthreaded application).  A  thread can be in one of
+two states: an exception has occurred, or not. The function
+:c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` can be used to check for this: it returns a borrowed
+reference to the exception type object when an exception has occurred, and
+*NULL* otherwise.  There are a number of functions to set the exception state:
+:c:func:`PyErr_SetString` is the most common (though not the most general)
+function to set the exception state, and :c:func:`PyErr_Clear` clears the
+exception state.
+
+The full exception state consists of three objects (all of which can  be
+*NULL*): the exception type, the corresponding exception  value, and the
+traceback.  These have the same meanings as the Python result of
+``sys.exc_info()``; however, they are not the same: the Python objects represent
+the last exception being handled by a Python  :keyword:`try` ...
+:keyword:`except` statement, while the C level exception state only exists while
+an exception is being passed on between C functions until it reaches the Python
+bytecode interpreter's  main loop, which takes care of transferring it to
+``sys.exc_info()`` and friends.
+
+.. index:: single: exc_info() (in module sys)
+
+Note that starting with Python 1.5, the preferred, thread-safe way to access the
+exception state from Python code is to call the function :func:`sys.exc_info`,
+which returns the per-thread exception state for Python code.  Also, the
+semantics of both ways to access the exception state have changed so that a
+function which catches an exception will save and restore its thread's exception
+state so as to preserve the exception state of its caller.  This prevents common
+bugs in exception handling code caused by an innocent-looking function
+overwriting the exception being handled; it also reduces the often unwanted
+lifetime extension for objects that are referenced by the stack frames in the
+traceback.
+
+As a general principle, a function that calls another function to  perform some
+task should check whether the called function raised an  exception, and if so,
+pass the exception state on to its caller.  It  should discard any object
+references that it owns, and return an  error indicator, but it should *not* set
+another exception --- that would overwrite the exception that was just raised,
+and lose important information about the exact cause of the error.
+
+.. index:: single: sum_sequence()
+
+A simple example of detecting exceptions and passing them on is shown in the
+:c:func:`sum_sequence` example above.  It so happens that this example doesn't
+need to clean up any owned references when it detects an error.  The following
+example function shows some error cleanup.  First, to remind you why you like
+Python, we show the equivalent Python code::
+
+   def incr_item(dict, key):
+       try:
+           item = dict[key]
+       except KeyError:
+           item = 0
+       dict[key] = item + 1
+
+.. index:: single: incr_item()
+
+Here is the corresponding C code, in all its glory::
+
+   int
+   incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key)
+   {
+       /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */
+       PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL;
+       int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */
+
+       item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key);
+       if (item == NULL) {
+           /* Handle KeyError only: */
+           if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError))
+               goto error;
+
+           /* Clear the error and use zero: */
+           PyErr_Clear();
+           item = PyLong_FromLong(0L);
+           if (item == NULL)
+               goto error;
+       }
+       const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L);
+       if (const_one == NULL)
+           goto error;
+
+       incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one);
+       if (incremented_item == NULL)
+           goto error;
+
+       if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0)
+           goto error;
+       rv = 0; /* Success */
+       /* Continue with cleanup code */
+
+    error:
+       /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */
+
+       /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */
+       Py_XDECREF(item);
+       Py_XDECREF(const_one);
+       Py_XDECREF(incremented_item);
+
+       return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */
+   }
+
+.. index:: single: incr_item()
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyErr_ExceptionMatches()
+   single: PyErr_Clear()
+   single: Py_XDECREF()
+
+This example represents an endorsed use of the ``goto`` statement  in C!
+It illustrates the use of :c:func:`PyErr_ExceptionMatches` and
+:c:func:`PyErr_Clear` to handle specific exceptions, and the use of
+:c:func:`Py_XDECREF` to dispose of owned references that may be *NULL* (note the
+``'X'`` in the name; :c:func:`Py_DECREF` would crash when confronted with a
+*NULL* reference).  It is important that the variables used to hold owned
+references are initialized to *NULL* for this to work; likewise, the proposed
+return value is initialized to ``-1`` (failure) and only set to success after
+the final call made is successful.
+
+
+.. _api-embedding:
+
+Embedding Python
+================
+
+The one important task that only embedders (as opposed to extension writers) of
+the Python interpreter have to worry about is the initialization, and possibly
+the finalization, of the Python interpreter.  Most functionality of the
+interpreter can only be used after the interpreter has been initialized.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Py_Initialize()
+   module: builtins
+   module: __main__
+   module: sys
+   triple: module; search; path
+   single: path (in module sys)
+
+The basic initialization function is :c:func:`Py_Initialize`. This initializes
+the table of loaded modules, and creates the fundamental modules
+:mod:`builtins`, :mod:`__main__`, and :mod:`sys`.  It also
+initializes the module search path (``sys.path``).
+
+.. index:: single: PySys_SetArgvEx()
+
+:c:func:`Py_Initialize` does not set the "script argument list"  (``sys.argv``).
+If this variable is needed by Python code that will be executed later, it must
+be set explicitly with a call to  ``PySys_SetArgvEx(argc, argv, updatepath)``
+after the call to :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+On most systems (in particular, on Unix and Windows, although the details are
+slightly different), :c:func:`Py_Initialize` calculates the module search path
+based upon its best guess for the location of the standard Python interpreter
+executable, assuming that the Python library is found in a fixed location
+relative to the Python interpreter executable.  In particular, it looks for a
+directory named :file:`lib/python{X.Y}` relative to the parent directory
+where the executable named :file:`python` is found on the shell command search
+path (the environment variable :envvar:`PATH`).
+
+For instance, if the Python executable is found in
+:file:`/usr/local/bin/python`, it will assume that the libraries are in
+:file:`/usr/local/lib/python{X.Y}`.  (In fact, this particular path is also
+the "fallback" location, used when no executable file named :file:`python` is
+found along :envvar:`PATH`.)  The user can override this behavior by setting the
+environment variable :envvar:`PYTHONHOME`, or insert additional directories in
+front of the standard path by setting :envvar:`PYTHONPATH`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Py_SetProgramName()
+   single: Py_GetPath()
+   single: Py_GetPrefix()
+   single: Py_GetExecPrefix()
+   single: Py_GetProgramFullPath()
+
+The embedding application can steer the search by calling
+``Py_SetProgramName(file)`` *before* calling  :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.  Note that
+:envvar:`PYTHONHOME` still overrides this and :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` is still
+inserted in front of the standard path.  An application that requires total
+control has to provide its own implementation of :c:func:`Py_GetPath`,
+:c:func:`Py_GetPrefix`, :c:func:`Py_GetExecPrefix`, and
+:c:func:`Py_GetProgramFullPath` (all defined in :file:`Modules/getpath.c`).
+
+.. index:: single: Py_IsInitialized()
+
+Sometimes, it is desirable to "uninitialize" Python.  For instance,  the
+application may want to start over (make another call to
+:c:func:`Py_Initialize`) or the application is simply done with its  use of
+Python and wants to free memory allocated by Python.  This can be accomplished
+by calling :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx`.  The function :c:func:`Py_IsInitialized` returns
+true if Python is currently in the initialized state.  More information about
+these functions is given in a later chapter. Notice that :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx`
+does *not* free all memory allocated by the Python interpreter, e.g. memory
+allocated by extension modules currently cannot be released.
+
+
+.. _api-debugging:
+
+Debugging Builds
+================
+
+Python can be built with several macros to enable extra checks of the
+interpreter and extension modules.  These checks tend to add a large amount of
+overhead to the runtime so they are not enabled by default.
+
+A full list of the various types of debugging builds is in the file
+:file:`Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt` in the Python source distribution. Builds are
+available that support tracing of reference counts, debugging the memory
+allocator, or low-level profiling of the main interpreter loop.  Only the most
+frequently-used builds will be described in the remainder of this section.
+
+Compiling the interpreter with the :c:macro:`Py_DEBUG` macro defined produces
+what is generally meant by "a debug build" of Python. :c:macro:`Py_DEBUG` is
+enabled in the Unix build by adding ``--with-pydebug`` to the
+:file:`./configure` command.  It is also implied by the presence of the
+not-Python-specific :c:macro:`_DEBUG` macro.  When :c:macro:`Py_DEBUG` is enabled
+in the Unix build, compiler optimization is disabled.
+
+In addition to the reference count debugging described below, the following
+extra checks are performed:
+
+* Extra checks are added to the object allocator.
+
+* Extra checks are added to the parser and compiler.
+
+* Downcasts from wide types to narrow types are checked for loss of information.
+
+* A number of assertions are added to the dictionary and set implementations.
+  In addition, the set object acquires a :meth:`test_c_api` method.
+
+* Sanity checks of the input arguments are added to frame creation.
+
+* The storage for ints is initialized with a known invalid pattern to catch
+  reference to uninitialized digits.
+
+* Low-level tracing and extra exception checking are added to the runtime
+  virtual machine.
+
+* Extra checks are added to the memory arena implementation.
+
+* Extra debugging is added to the thread module.
+
+There may be additional checks not mentioned here.
+
+Defining :c:macro:`Py_TRACE_REFS` enables reference tracing.  When defined, a
+circular doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra
+fields to every :c:type:`PyObject`.  Total allocations are tracked as well.  Upon
+exit, all existing references are printed.  (In interactive mode this happens
+after every statement run by the interpreter.)  Implied by :c:macro:`Py_DEBUG`.
+
+Please refer to :file:`Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt` in the Python source distribution
+for more detailed information.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/iter.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/iter.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ba444d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/iter.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _iterator:
+
+Iterator Protocol
+=================
+
+There are two functions specifically for working with iterators.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyIter_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* supports the iterator protocol.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyIter_Next(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the next value from the iteration *o*.  The object must be an iterator
+   (it is up to the caller to check this).  If there are no remaining values,
+   returns *NULL* with no exception set.  If an error occurs while retrieving
+   the item, returns *NULL* and passes along the exception.
+
+To write a loop which iterates over an iterator, the C code should look
+something like this::
+
+   PyObject *iterator = PyObject_GetIter(obj);
+   PyObject *item;
+
+   if (iterator == NULL) {
+       /* propagate error */
+   }
+
+   while (item = PyIter_Next(iterator)) {
+       /* do something with item */
+       ...
+       /* release reference when done */
+       Py_DECREF(item);
+   }
+
+   Py_DECREF(iterator);
+
+   if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
+       /* propagate error */
+   }
+   else {
+       /* continue doing useful work */
+   }
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/iterator.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/iterator.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82cb4eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/iterator.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _iterator-objects:
+
+Iterator Objects
+----------------
+
+Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects.  The first, a sequence
+iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the :meth:`__getitem__`
+method.  The second works with a callable object and a sentinel value, calling
+the callable for each item in the sequence, and ending the iteration when the
+sentinel value is returned.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PySeqIter_Type
+
+   Type object for iterator objects returned by :c:func:`PySeqIter_New` and the
+   one-argument form of the :func:`iter` built-in function for built-in sequence
+   types.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySeqIter_Check(op)
+
+   Return true if the type of *op* is :c:data:`PySeqIter_Type`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySeqIter_New(PyObject *seq)
+
+   Return an iterator that works with a general sequence object, *seq*.  The
+   iteration ends when the sequence raises :exc:`IndexError` for the subscripting
+   operation.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCallIter_Type
+
+   Type object for iterator objects returned by :c:func:`PyCallIter_New` and the
+   two-argument form of the :func:`iter` built-in function.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCallIter_Check(op)
+
+   Return true if the type of *op* is :c:data:`PyCallIter_Type`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCallIter_New(PyObject *callable, PyObject *sentinel)
+
+   Return a new iterator.  The first parameter, *callable*, can be any Python
+   callable object that can be called with no parameters; each call to it should
+   return the next item in the iteration.  When *callable* returns a value equal to
+   *sentinel*, the iteration will be terminated.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/list.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/list.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5cd634
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/list.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _listobjects:
+
+List Objects
+------------
+
+.. index:: object: list
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyListObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python list object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyList_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python list type.
+   This is the same object as :class:`list` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a list object or an instance of a subtype of the list
+   type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a list object, but not an instance of a subtype of
+   the list type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyList_New(Py_ssize_t len)
+
+   Return a new list of length *len* on success, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If *len* is greater than zero, the returned list object's items are
+      set to ``NULL``.  Thus you cannot use abstract API functions such as
+      :c:func:`PySequence_SetItem`  or expose the object to Python code before
+      setting all items to a real object with :c:func:`PyList_SetItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyList_Size(PyObject *list)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: len
+
+   Return the length of the list object in *list*; this is equivalent to
+   ``len(list)`` on a list object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyList_GET_SIZE(PyObject *list)
+
+   Macro form of :c:func:`PyList_Size` without error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyList_GetItem(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index)
+
+   Return the object at position *index* in the list pointed to by *list*.  The
+   position must be non-negative; indexing from the end of the list is not
+   supported.  If *index* is out of bounds (<0 or >=len(list)),
+   return *NULL* and set an :exc:`IndexError` exception.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyList_GET_ITEM(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i)
+
+   Macro form of :c:func:`PyList_GetItem` without error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_SetItem(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item)
+
+   Set the item at index *index* in list to *item*.  Return ``0`` on success
+   or ``-1`` on failure.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function "steals" a reference to *item* and discards a reference to
+      an item already in the list at the affected position.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyList_SET_ITEM(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *o)
+
+   Macro form of :c:func:`PyList_SetItem` without error checking. This is
+   normally only used to fill in new lists where there is no previous content.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This macro "steals" a reference to *item*, and, unlike
+      :c:func:`PyList_SetItem`, does *not* discard a reference to any item that
+      is being replaced; any reference in *list* at position *i* will be
+      leaked.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_Insert(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item)
+
+   Insert the item *item* into list *list* in front of index *index*.  Return
+   ``0`` if successful; return ``-1`` and set an exception if unsuccessful.
+   Analogous to ``list.insert(index, item)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_Append(PyObject *list, PyObject *item)
+
+   Append the object *item* at the end of list *list*. Return ``0`` if
+   successful; return ``-1`` and set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous
+   to ``list.append(item)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyList_GetSlice(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
+
+   Return a list of the objects in *list* containing the objects *between* *low*
+   and *high*.  Return *NULL* and set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous
+   to ``list[low:high]``.  Negative indices, as when slicing from Python, are not
+   supported.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_SetSlice(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)
+
+   Set the slice of *list* between *low* and *high* to the contents of
+   *itemlist*.  Analogous to ``list[low:high] = itemlist``. The *itemlist* may
+   be *NULL*, indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice deletion).
+   Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on failure.  Negative indices, as when
+   slicing from Python, are not supported.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_Sort(PyObject *list)
+
+   Sort the items of *list* in place.  Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on
+   failure.  This is equivalent to ``list.sort()``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_Reverse(PyObject *list)
+
+   Reverse the items of *list* in place.  Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of ``list.reverse()``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyList_AsTuple(PyObject *list)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: tuple
+
+   Return a new tuple object containing the contents of *list*; equivalent to
+   ``tuple(list)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyList_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/long.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/long.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..71144f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/long.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,297 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _longobjects:
+
+Integer Objects
+---------------
+
+.. index:: object: long integer
+           object: integer
+
+All integers are implemented as "long" integer objects of arbitrary size.
+
+On error, most ``PyLong_As*`` APIs return ``(return type)-1`` which cannot be
+distinguished from a number.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+.. c:type:: PyLongObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python integer object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyLong_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python integer type.
+   This is the same object as :class:`int` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyLong_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if its argument is a :c:type:`PyLongObject` or a subtype of
+   :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyLong_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if its argument is a :c:type:`PyLongObject`, but not a subtype of
+   :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromLong(long v)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from *v*, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+   The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers
+   between ``-5`` and ``256``, when you create an int in that range you actually
+   just get back a reference to the existing object. So it should be possible to
+   change the value of ``1``.  I suspect the behaviour of Python in this case is
+   undefined. :-)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(unsigned long v)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from a C :c:type:`unsigned long`, or
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromSsize_t(Py_ssize_t v)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from a C :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`, or
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromSize_t(size_t v)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from a C :c:type:`size_t`, or
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromLongLong(long long v)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from a C :c:type:`long long`, or *NULL*
+   on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(unsigned long long v)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from a C :c:type:`unsigned long long`,
+   or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromDouble(double v)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from the integer part of *v*, or
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromString(const char *str, char **pend, int base)
+
+   Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` based on the string value in *str*, which
+   is interpreted according to the radix in *base*.  If *pend* is non-*NULL*,
+   *\*pend* will point to the first character in *str* which follows the
+   representation of the number.  If *base* is ``0``, *str* is interpreted using
+   the :ref:`integers` definition; in this case, leading zeros in a
+   non-zero decimal number raises a :exc:`ValueError`. If *base* is not ``0``,
+   it must be between ``2`` and ``36``, inclusive.  Leading spaces and single
+   underscores after a base specifier and between digits are ignored.  If there
+   are no digits, :exc:`ValueError` will be raised.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnicode(Py_UNICODE *u, Py_ssize_t length, int base)
+
+   Convert a sequence of Unicode digits to a Python integer value.  The Unicode
+   string is first encoded to a byte string using :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal`
+   and then converted using :c:func:`PyLong_FromString`.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyLong_FromUnicodeObject`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(PyObject *u, int base)
+
+   Convert a sequence of Unicode digits in the string *u* to a Python integer
+   value.  The Unicode string is first encoded to a byte string using
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal` and then converted using
+   :c:func:`PyLong_FromString`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromVoidPtr(void *p)
+
+   Create a Python integer from the pointer *p*. The pointer value can be
+   retrieved from the resulting value using :c:func:`PyLong_AsVoidPtr`.
+
+
+.. XXX alias PyLong_AS_LONG (for now)
+.. c:function:: long PyLong_AsLong(PyObject *obj)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: LONG_MAX
+      single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`long` representation of *obj*.  If *obj* is not an
+   instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`, first call its :meth:`__int__` method
+   (if present) to convert it to a :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   Raise :exc:`OverflowError` if the value of *obj* is out of range for a
+   :c:type:`long`.
+
+   Returns ``-1`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(PyObject *obj, int *overflow)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`long` representation of *obj*.  If *obj* is not an
+   instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`, first call its :meth:`__int__` method
+   (if present) to convert it to a :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   If the value of *obj* is greater than :const:`LONG_MAX` or less than
+   :const:`LONG_MIN`, set *\*overflow* to ``1`` or ``-1``, respectively, and
+   return ``-1``; otherwise, set *\*overflow* to ``0``.  If any other exception
+   occurs set *\*overflow* to ``0`` and return ``-1`` as usual.
+
+   Returns ``-1`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: long long PyLong_AsLongLong(PyObject *obj)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`long long` representation of *obj*.  If *obj* is not an
+   instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`, first call its :meth:`__int__` method
+   (if present) to convert it to a :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   Raise :exc:`OverflowError` if the value of *obj* is out of range for a
+   :c:type:`long`.
+
+   Returns ``-1`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(PyObject *obj, int *overflow)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`long long` representation of *obj*.  If *obj* is not an
+   instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`, first call its :meth:`__int__` method
+   (if present) to convert it to a :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   If the value of *obj* is greater than :const:`PY_LLONG_MAX` or less than
+   :const:`PY_LLONG_MIN`, set *\*overflow* to ``1`` or ``-1``, respectively,
+   and return ``-1``; otherwise, set *\*overflow* to ``0``.  If any other
+   exception occurs set *\*overflow* to ``0`` and return ``-1`` as usual.
+
+   Returns ``-1`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyLong_AsSsize_t(PyObject *pylong)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: PY_SSIZE_T_MAX
+      single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` representation of *pylong*.  *pylong* must
+   be an instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   Raise :exc:`OverflowError` if the value of *pylong* is out of range for a
+   :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.
+
+   Returns ``-1`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(PyObject *pylong)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: ULONG_MAX
+      single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`unsigned long` representation of *pylong*.  *pylong*
+   must be an instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   Raise :exc:`OverflowError` if the value of *pylong* is out of range for a
+   :c:type:`unsigned long`.
+
+   Returns ``(unsigned long)-1`` on error.
+   Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: size_t PyLong_AsSize_t(PyObject *pylong)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: SIZE_MAX
+      single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`size_t` representation of *pylong*.  *pylong* must be
+   an instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   Raise :exc:`OverflowError` if the value of *pylong* is out of range for a
+   :c:type:`size_t`.
+
+   Returns ``(size_t)-1`` on error.
+   Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(PyObject *pylong)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: OverflowError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`unsigned long long` representation of *pylong*.  *pylong*
+   must be an instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   Raise :exc:`OverflowError` if the value of *pylong* is out of range for an
+   :c:type:`unsigned long long`.
+
+   Returns ``(unsigned long long)-1`` on error.
+   Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      A negative *pylong* now raises :exc:`OverflowError`, not :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(PyObject *obj)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`unsigned long` representation of *obj*.  If *obj*
+   is not an instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`, first call its :meth:`__int__`
+   method (if present) to convert it to a :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   If the value of *obj* is out of range for an :c:type:`unsigned long`,
+   return the reduction of that value modulo ``ULONG_MAX + 1``.
+
+   Returns ``(unsigned long)-1`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to
+   disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(PyObject *obj)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`unsigned long long` representation of *obj*.  If *obj*
+   is not an instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`, first call its :meth:`__int__`
+   method (if present) to convert it to a :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   If the value of *obj* is out of range for an :c:type:`unsigned long long`,
+   return the reduction of that value modulo ``PY_ULLONG_MAX + 1``.
+
+   Returns ``(unsigned long long)-1`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred`
+   to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double PyLong_AsDouble(PyObject *pylong)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`double` representation of *pylong*.  *pylong* must be
+   an instance of :c:type:`PyLongObject`.
+
+   Raise :exc:`OverflowError` if the value of *pylong* is out of range for a
+   :c:type:`double`.
+
+   Returns ``-1.0`` on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyLong_AsVoidPtr(PyObject *pylong)
+
+   Convert a Python integer *pylong* to a C :c:type:`void` pointer.
+   If *pylong* cannot be converted, an :exc:`OverflowError` will be raised.  This
+   is only assured to produce a usable :c:type:`void` pointer for values created
+   with :c:func:`PyLong_FromVoidPtr`.
+
+   Returns *NULL* on error.  Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/mapping.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/mapping.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e37dec9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/mapping.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _mapping:
+
+Mapping Protocol
+================
+
+See also :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem`, :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem` and
+:c:func:`PyObject_DelItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMapping_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return ``1`` if the object provides mapping protocol or supports slicing,
+   and ``0`` otherwise.  Note that it returns ``1`` for Python classes with
+   a :meth:`__getitem__` method since in general case it is impossible to
+   determine what the type of keys it supports.  This function always
+   succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyMapping_Size(PyObject *o)
+               Py_ssize_t PyMapping_Length(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: len
+
+   Returns the number of keys in object *o* on success, and ``-1`` on failure.
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``len(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMapping_GetItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key)
+
+   Return element of *o* corresponding to the string *key* or *NULL* on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o[key]``.
+   See also :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMapping_SetItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key, PyObject *v)
+
+   Map the string *key* to the value *v* in object *o*.  Returns ``-1`` on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ``o[key] = v``.
+   See also :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMapping_DelItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
+
+   Remove the mapping for the object *key* from the object *o*.  Return ``-1``
+   on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python statement ``del o[key]``.
+   This is an alias of :c:func:`PyObject_DelItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMapping_DelItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key)
+
+   Remove the mapping for the string *key* from the object *o*.  Return ``-1``
+   on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python statement ``del o[key]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMapping_HasKey(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
+
+   Return ``1`` if the mapping object has the key *key* and ``0`` otherwise.
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``key in o``.
+   This function always succeeds.
+
+   Note that exceptions which occur while calling the :meth:`__getitem__`
+   method will get suppressed.
+   To get error reporting use :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem()` instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMapping_HasKeyString(PyObject *o, const char *key)
+
+   Return ``1`` if the mapping object has the key *key* and ``0`` otherwise.
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``key in o``.
+   This function always succeeds.
+
+   Note that exceptions which occur while calling the :meth:`__getitem__`
+   method and creating a temporary string object will get suppressed.
+   To get error reporting use :c:func:`PyMapping_GetItemString()` instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMapping_Keys(PyObject *o)
+
+   On success, return a list of the keys in object *o*.  On failure, return
+   *NULL*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMapping_Values(PyObject *o)
+
+   On success, return a list of the values in object *o*.  On failure, return
+   *NULL*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMapping_Items(PyObject *o)
+
+   On success, return a list of the items in object *o*, where each item is a
+   tuple containing a key-value pair.  On failure, return *NULL*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/marshal.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/marshal.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17ec621
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/marshal.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _marshalling-utils:
+
+Data marshalling support
+========================
+
+These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the same
+data format as the :mod:`marshal` module.  There are functions to write data
+into the serialization format, and additional functions that can be used to
+read the data back.  Files used to store marshalled data must be opened in
+binary mode.
+
+Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.
+
+The module supports two versions of the data format: version 0 is the
+historical version, version 1 shares interned strings in the file, and upon
+unmarshalling.  Version 2 uses a binary format for floating point numbers.
+*Py_MARSHAL_VERSION* indicates the current file format (currently 2).
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(long value, FILE *file, int version)
+
+   Marshal a :c:type:`long` integer, *value*, to *file*.  This will only write
+   the least-significant 32 bits of *value*; regardless of the size of the
+   native :c:type:`long` type.  *version* indicates the file format.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(PyObject *value, FILE *file, int version)
+
+   Marshal a Python object, *value*, to *file*.
+   *version* indicates the file format.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(PyObject *value, int version)
+
+   Return a bytes object containing the marshalled representation of *value*.
+   *version* indicates the file format.
+
+
+The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.
+
+
+.. c:function:: long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile(FILE *file)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`long` from the data stream in a :c:type:`FILE\*` opened
+   for reading.  Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function,
+   regardless of the native size of :c:type:`long`.
+
+   On error, sets the appropriate exception (:exc:`EOFError`) and returns
+   ``-1``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile(FILE *file)
+
+   Return a C :c:type:`short` from the data stream in a :c:type:`FILE\*` opened
+   for reading.  Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function,
+   regardless of the native size of :c:type:`short`.
+
+   On error, sets the appropriate exception (:exc:`EOFError`) and returns
+   ``-1``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(FILE *file)
+
+   Return a Python object from the data stream in a :c:type:`FILE\*` opened for
+   reading.
+
+   On error, sets the appropriate exception (:exc:`EOFError`, :exc:`ValueError`
+   or :exc:`TypeError`) and returns *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile(FILE *file)
+
+   Return a Python object from the data stream in a :c:type:`FILE\*` opened for
+   reading.  Unlike :c:func:`PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile`, this function
+   assumes that no further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to
+   aggressively load file data into memory so that the de-serialization can
+   operate from data in memory rather than reading a byte at a time from the
+   file.  Only use these variant if you are certain that you won't be reading
+   anything else from the file.
+
+   On error, sets the appropriate exception (:exc:`EOFError`, :exc:`ValueError`
+   or :exc:`TypeError`) and returns *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(const char *data, Py_ssize_t len)
+
+   Return a Python object from the data stream in a byte buffer
+   containing *len* bytes pointed to by *data*.
+
+   On error, sets the appropriate exception (:exc:`EOFError`, :exc:`ValueError`
+   or :exc:`TypeError`) and returns *NULL*.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/memory.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/memory.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01f7f42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/memory.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,604 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _memory:
+
+*****************
+Memory Management
+*****************
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Vladimir Marangozov <Vladimir.Marangozov@inrialpes.fr>
+
+
+
+.. _memoryoverview:
+
+Overview
+========
+
+Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all Python
+objects and data structures. The management of this private heap is ensured
+internally by the *Python memory manager*.  The Python memory manager has
+different components which deal with various dynamic storage management aspects,
+like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or caching.
+
+At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough room in
+the private heap for storing all Python-related data by interacting with the
+memory manager of the operating system. On top of the raw memory allocator,
+several object-specific allocators operate on the same heap and implement
+distinct memory management policies adapted to the peculiarities of every object
+type. For example, integer objects are managed differently within the heap than
+strings, tuples or dictionaries because integers imply different storage
+requirements and speed/space tradeoffs. The Python memory manager thus delegates
+some of the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter
+operate within the bounds of the private heap.
+
+It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is
+performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control over it,
+even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory blocks inside that
+heap.  The allocation of heap space for Python objects and other internal
+buffers is performed on demand by the Python memory manager through the Python/C
+API functions listed in this document.
+
+.. index::
+   single: malloc()
+   single: calloc()
+   single: realloc()
+   single: free()
+
+To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to operate on
+Python objects with the functions exported by the C library: :c:func:`malloc`,
+:c:func:`calloc`, :c:func:`realloc` and :c:func:`free`.  This will result in  mixed
+calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with fatal
+consequences, because they implement different algorithms and operate on
+different heaps.  However, one may safely allocate and release memory blocks
+with the C library allocator for individual purposes, as shown in the following
+example::
+
+   PyObject *res;
+   char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */
+
+   if (buf == NULL)
+       return PyErr_NoMemory();
+   ...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
+   res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
+   free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
+   return res;
+
+In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the C
+library allocator. The Python memory manager is involved only in the allocation
+of the bytes object returned as a result.
+
+In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from the
+Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the Python
+memory manager. For example, this is required when the interpreter is extended
+with new object types written in C. Another reason for using the Python heap is
+the desire to *inform* the Python memory manager about the memory needs of the
+extension module. Even when the requested memory is used exclusively for
+internal, highly-specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python
+memory manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
+memory footprint as a whole. Consequently, under certain circumstances, the
+Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions, like garbage
+collection, memory compaction or other preventive procedures. Note that by using
+the C library allocator as shown in the previous example, the allocated memory
+for the I/O buffer escapes completely the Python memory manager.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable can be used to configure
+   the memory allocators used by Python.
+
+   The :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOCSTATS` environment variable can be used to print
+   statistics of the :ref:`pymalloc memory allocator <pymalloc>` every time a
+   new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.
+
+
+Raw Memory Interface
+====================
+
+The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator. These
+functions are thread-safe, the :term:`GIL <global interpreter lock>` does not
+need to be held.
+
+The :ref:`default raw memory allocator <default-memory-allocators>` uses
+the following functions: :c:func:`malloc`, :c:func:`calloc`, :c:func:`realloc`
+and :c:func:`free`; call ``malloc(1)`` (or ``calloc(1, 1)``) when requesting
+zero bytes.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyMem_RawMalloc(size_t n)
+
+   Allocates *n* bytes and returns a pointer of type :c:type:`void\*` to the
+   allocated memory, or *NULL* if the request fails.
+
+   Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-*NULL* pointer if possible, as
+   if ``PyMem_RawMalloc(1)`` had been called instead. The memory will not have
+   been initialized in any way.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyMem_RawCalloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
+
+   Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and returns
+   a pointer of type :c:type:`void\*` to the allocated memory, or *NULL* if the
+   request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
+
+   Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
+   non-*NULL* pointer if possible, as if ``PyMem_RawCalloc(1, 1)`` had been
+   called instead.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyMem_RawRealloc(void *p, size_t n)
+
+   Resizes the memory block pointed to by *p* to *n* bytes. The contents will
+   be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.
+
+   If *p* is *NULL*, the call is equivalent to ``PyMem_RawMalloc(n)``; else if
+   *n* is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
+   returned pointer is non-*NULL*.
+
+   Unless *p* is *NULL*, it must have been returned by a previous call to
+   :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc`, :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc` or
+   :c:func:`PyMem_RawCalloc`.
+
+   If the request fails, :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc` returns *NULL* and *p*
+   remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMem_RawFree(void *p)
+
+   Frees the memory block pointed to by *p*, which must have been returned by a
+   previous call to :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc`, :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc` or
+   :c:func:`PyMem_RawCalloc`.  Otherwise, or if ``PyMem_RawFree(p)`` has been
+   called before, undefined behavior occurs.
+
+   If *p* is *NULL*, no operation is performed.
+
+
+.. _memoryinterface:
+
+Memory Interface
+================
+
+The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying
+behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing
+memory from the Python heap.
+
+The :ref:`default memory allocator <default-memory-allocators>` uses the
+:ref:`pymalloc memory allocator <pymalloc>`.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :term:`GIL <global interpreter lock>` must be held when using these
+   functions.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+   The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of system :c:func:`malloc`.
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyMem_Malloc(size_t n)
+
+   Allocates *n* bytes and returns a pointer of type :c:type:`void\*` to the
+   allocated memory, or *NULL* if the request fails.
+
+   Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-*NULL* pointer if possible, as
+   if ``PyMem_Malloc(1)`` had been called instead. The memory will not have
+   been initialized in any way.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyMem_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
+
+   Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and returns
+   a pointer of type :c:type:`void\*` to the allocated memory, or *NULL* if the
+   request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
+
+   Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
+   non-*NULL* pointer if possible, as if ``PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)`` had been called
+   instead.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyMem_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)
+
+   Resizes the memory block pointed to by *p* to *n* bytes. The contents will be
+   unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.
+
+   If *p* is *NULL*, the call is equivalent to ``PyMem_Malloc(n)``; else if *n*
+   is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
+   returned pointer is non-*NULL*.
+
+   Unless *p* is *NULL*, it must have been returned by a previous call to
+   :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`, :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc` or :c:func:`PyMem_Calloc`.
+
+   If the request fails, :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc` returns *NULL* and *p* remains
+   a valid pointer to the previous memory area.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMem_Free(void *p)
+
+   Frees the memory block pointed to by *p*, which must have been returned by a
+   previous call to :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`, :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc` or
+   :c:func:`PyMem_Calloc`.  Otherwise, or if ``PyMem_Free(p)`` has been called
+   before, undefined behavior occurs.
+
+   If *p* is *NULL*, no operation is performed.
+
+The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience.  Note  that
+*TYPE* refers to any C type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: TYPE* PyMem_New(TYPE, size_t n)
+
+   Same as :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`, but allocates ``(n * sizeof(TYPE))`` bytes of
+   memory.  Returns a pointer cast to :c:type:`TYPE\*`.  The memory will not have
+   been initialized in any way.
+
+
+.. c:function:: TYPE* PyMem_Resize(void *p, TYPE, size_t n)
+
+   Same as :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc`, but the memory block is resized to ``(n *
+   sizeof(TYPE))`` bytes.  Returns a pointer cast to :c:type:`TYPE\*`. On return,
+   *p* will be a pointer to the new memory area, or *NULL* in the event of
+   failure.
+
+   This is a C preprocessor macro; *p* is always reassigned.  Save the original
+   value of *p* to avoid losing memory when handling errors.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMem_Del(void *p)
+
+   Same as :c:func:`PyMem_Free`.
+
+In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the Python memory
+allocator directly, without involving the C API functions listed above. However,
+note that their use does not preserve binary compatibility across Python
+versions and is therefore deprecated in extension modules.
+
+* ``PyMem_MALLOC(size)``
+* ``PyMem_NEW(type, size)``
+* ``PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)``
+* ``PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)``
+* ``PyMem_FREE(ptr)``
+* ``PyMem_DEL(ptr)``
+
+
+Object allocators
+=================
+
+The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying
+behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing
+memory from the Python heap.
+
+The :ref:`default object allocator <default-memory-allocators>` uses the
+:ref:`pymalloc memory allocator <pymalloc>`.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :term:`GIL <global interpreter lock>` must be held when using these
+   functions.
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyObject_Malloc(size_t n)
+
+   Allocates *n* bytes and returns a pointer of type :c:type:`void\*` to the
+   allocated memory, or *NULL* if the request fails.
+
+   Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-*NULL* pointer if possible, as
+   if ``PyObject_Malloc(1)`` had been called instead. The memory will not have
+   been initialized in any way.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyObject_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
+
+   Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and returns
+   a pointer of type :c:type:`void\*` to the allocated memory, or *NULL* if the
+   request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
+
+   Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
+   non-*NULL* pointer if possible, as if ``PyObject_Calloc(1, 1)`` had been called
+   instead.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyObject_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)
+
+   Resizes the memory block pointed to by *p* to *n* bytes. The contents will be
+   unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.
+
+   If *p* is *NULL*, the call is equivalent to ``PyObject_Malloc(n)``; else if *n*
+   is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
+   returned pointer is non-*NULL*.
+
+   Unless *p* is *NULL*, it must have been returned by a previous call to
+   :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`, :c:func:`PyObject_Realloc` or :c:func:`PyObject_Calloc`.
+
+   If the request fails, :c:func:`PyObject_Realloc` returns *NULL* and *p* remains
+   a valid pointer to the previous memory area.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyObject_Free(void *p)
+
+   Frees the memory block pointed to by *p*, which must have been returned by a
+   previous call to :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`, :c:func:`PyObject_Realloc` or
+   :c:func:`PyObject_Calloc`.  Otherwise, or if ``PyObject_Free(p)`` has been called
+   before, undefined behavior occurs.
+
+   If *p* is *NULL*, no operation is performed.
+
+
+.. _default-memory-allocators:
+
+Default Memory Allocators
+=========================
+
+Default memory allocators:
+
+===============================  ====================  ==================  =====================  ====================
+Configuration                    Name                  PyMem_RawMalloc     PyMem_Malloc           PyObject_Malloc
+===============================  ====================  ==================  =====================  ====================
+Release build                    ``"pymalloc"``        ``malloc``          ``pymalloc``           ``pymalloc``
+Debug build                      ``"pymalloc_debug"``  ``malloc`` + debug  ``pymalloc`` + debug   ``pymalloc`` + debug
+Release build, without pymalloc  ``"malloc"``          ``malloc``          ``malloc``             ``malloc``
+Debug build, without pymalloc    ``"malloc_debug"``    ``malloc`` + debug  ``malloc`` + debug     ``malloc`` + debug
+===============================  ====================  ==================  =====================  ====================
+
+Legend:
+
+* Name: value for :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable
+* ``malloc``: system allocators from the standard C library, C functions:
+  :c:func:`malloc`, :c:func:`calloc`, :c:func:`realloc` and :c:func:`free`
+* ``pymalloc``: :ref:`pymalloc memory allocator <pymalloc>`
+* "+ debug": with debug hooks installed by :c:func:`PyMem_SetupDebugHooks`
+
+
+Customize Memory Allocators
+===========================
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. c:type:: PyMemAllocatorEx
+
+   Structure used to describe a memory block allocator. The structure has
+   four fields:
+
+   +----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | Field                                                    | Meaning                               |
+   +==========================================================+=======================================+
+   | ``void *ctx``                                            | user context passed as first argument |
+   +----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | ``void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)``                 | allocate a memory block               |
+   +----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | ``void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)`` | allocate a memory block initialized   |
+   |                                                          | with zeros                            |
+   +----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | ``void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)`` | allocate or resize a memory block     |
+   +----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | ``void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)``                      | free a memory block                   |
+   +----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The :c:type:`PyMemAllocator` structure was renamed to
+      :c:type:`PyMemAllocatorEx` and a new ``calloc`` field was added.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyMemAllocatorDomain
+
+   Enum used to identify an allocator domain. Domains:
+
+   .. c:var:: PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW
+
+      Functions:
+
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_RawCalloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_RawFree`
+
+   .. c:var:: PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM
+
+      Functions:
+
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`,
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_Calloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyMem_Free`
+
+   .. c:var:: PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ
+
+      Functions:
+
+      * :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyObject_Realloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyObject_Calloc`
+      * :c:func:`PyObject_Free`
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMem_GetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)
+
+   Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMem_SetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)
+
+   Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.
+
+   The new allocator must return a distinct non-NULL pointer when requesting
+   zero bytes.
+
+   For the :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW` domain, the allocator must be
+   thread-safe: the :term:`GIL <global interpreter lock>` is not held when the
+   allocator is called.
+
+   If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous allocator),
+   the :c:func:`PyMem_SetupDebugHooks` function must be called to reinstall the
+   debug hooks on top on the new allocator.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(void)
+
+   Setup hooks to detect bugs in the Python memory allocator functions.
+
+   Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ``0xCD`` (``CLEANBYTE``),
+   freed memory is filled with the byte ``0xDD`` (``DEADBYTE``). Memory blocks
+   are surrounded by "forbidden bytes" (``FORBIDDENBYTE``: byte ``0xFD``).
+
+   Runtime checks:
+
+   - Detect API violations, ex: :c:func:`PyObject_Free` called on a buffer
+     allocated by :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`
+   - Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow)
+   - Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow)
+   - Check that the :term:`GIL <global interpreter lock>` is held when
+     allocator functions of :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ` (ex:
+     :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`) and :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM` (ex:
+     :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`) domains are called
+
+   On error, the debug hooks use the :mod:`tracemalloc` module to get the
+   traceback where a memory block was allocated. The traceback is only
+   displayed if :mod:`tracemalloc` is tracing Python memory allocations and the
+   memory block was traced.
+
+   These hooks are :ref:`installed by default <default-memory-allocators>` if
+   Python is compiled in debug
+   mode. The :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable can be used to install
+   debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      This function now also works on Python compiled in release mode.
+      On error, the debug hooks now use :mod:`tracemalloc` to get the traceback
+      where a memory block was allocated. The debug hooks now also check
+      if the GIL is held when functions of :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ` and
+      :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM` domains are called.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.3
+      Byte patterns ``0xCB`` (``CLEANBYTE``), ``0xDB`` (``DEADBYTE``) and
+      ``0xFB`` (``FORBIDDENBYTE``) have been replaced with ``0xCD``, ``0xDD``
+      and ``0xFD`` to use the same values than Windows CRT debug ``malloc()``
+      and ``free()``.
+
+
+.. _pymalloc:
+
+The pymalloc allocator
+======================
+
+Python has a *pymalloc* allocator optimized for small objects (smaller or equal
+to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime. It uses memory mappings called "arenas"
+with a fixed size of 256 KiB. It falls back to :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc` and
+:c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc` for allocations larger than 512 bytes.
+
+*pymalloc* is the :ref:`default allocator <default-memory-allocators>` of the
+:c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM` (ex: :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`) and
+:c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ` (ex: :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`) domains.
+
+The arena allocator uses the following functions:
+
+* :c:func:`VirtualAlloc` and :c:func:`VirtualFree` on Windows,
+* :c:func:`mmap` and :c:func:`munmap` if available,
+* :c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free` otherwise.
+
+Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
+----------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. c:type:: PyObjectArenaAllocator
+
+   Structure used to describe an arena allocator. The structure has
+   three fields:
+
+   +--------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | Field                                            | Meaning                               |
+   +==================================================+=======================================+
+   | ``void *ctx``                                    | user context passed as first argument |
+   +--------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | ``void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)``          | allocate an arena of size bytes       |
+   +--------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+   | ``void free(void *ctx, size_t size, void *ptr)`` | free an arena                         |
+   +--------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)
+
+   Get the arena allocator.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)
+
+   Set the arena allocator.
+
+
+tracemalloc C API
+=================
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. c:function: int PyTraceMalloc_Track(unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr, size_t size)
+
+   Track an allocated memory block in the :mod:`tracemalloc` module.
+
+   Return ``0`` on success, return ``-1`` on error (failed to allocate memory to
+   store the trace). Return ``-2`` if tracemalloc is disabled.
+
+   If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace.
+
+.. c:function: int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr)
+
+   Untrack an allocated memory block in the :mod:`tracemalloc` module.
+   Do nothing if the block was not tracked.
+
+   Return ``-2`` if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return ``0``.
+
+
+.. _memoryexamples:
+
+Examples
+========
+
+Here is the example from section :ref:`memoryoverview`, rewritten so that the
+I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first function set::
+
+   PyObject *res;
+   char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */
+
+   if (buf == NULL)
+       return PyErr_NoMemory();
+   /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
+   res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
+   PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
+   return res;
+
+The same code using the type-oriented function set::
+
+   PyObject *res;
+   char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */
+
+   if (buf == NULL)
+       return PyErr_NoMemory();
+   /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
+   res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
+   PyMem_Del(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
+   return res;
+
+Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated via
+functions belonging to the same set. Indeed, it is required to use the same
+memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of mixing different
+allocators is reduced to a minimum. The following code sequence contains two
+errors, one of which is labeled as *fatal* because it mixes two different
+allocators operating on different heaps. ::
+
+   char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
+   char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
+   char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
+   ...
+   PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
+   free(buf2);       /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
+   free(buf1);       /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del()  */
+
+In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from the Python
+heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with :c:func:`PyObject_New`,
+:c:func:`PyObject_NewVar` and :c:func:`PyObject_Del`.
+
+These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing new
+object types in C.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/memoryview.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/memoryview.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f6bfd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/memoryview.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _memoryview-objects:
+
+.. index::
+   object: memoryview
+
+MemoryView objects
+------------------
+
+A :class:`memoryview` object exposes the C level :ref:`buffer interface
+<bufferobjects>` as a Python object which can then be passed around like
+any other object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromObject(PyObject *obj)
+
+   Create a memoryview object from an object that provides the buffer interface.
+   If *obj* supports writable buffer exports, the memoryview object will be
+   read/write, otherwise it may be either read-only or read/write at the
+   discretion of the exporter.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromMemory(char *mem, Py_ssize_t size, int flags)
+
+   Create a memoryview object using *mem* as the underlying buffer.
+   *flags* can be one of :c:macro:`PyBUF_READ` or :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITE`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(Py_buffer *view)
+
+   Create a memoryview object wrapping the given buffer structure *view*.
+   For simple byte buffers, :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromMemory` is the preferred
+   function.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(PyObject *obj, int buffertype, char order)
+
+   Create a memoryview object to a :term:`contiguous` chunk of memory (in either
+   'C' or 'F'ortran *order*) from an object that defines the buffer
+   interface. If memory is contiguous, the memoryview object points to the
+   original memory. Otherwise, a copy is made and the memoryview points to a
+   new bytes object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMemoryView_Check(PyObject *obj)
+
+   Return true if the object *obj* is a memoryview object.  It is not
+   currently allowed to create subclasses of :class:`memoryview`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_buffer *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER(PyObject *mview)
+
+   Return a pointer to the memoryview's private copy of the exporter's buffer.
+   *mview* **must** be a memoryview instance; this macro doesn't check its type,
+   you must do it yourself or you will risk crashes.
+
+.. c:function:: Py_buffer *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE(PyObject *mview)
+
+   Return either a pointer to the exporting object that the memoryview is based
+   on or *NULL* if the memoryview has been created by one of the functions
+   :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromMemory` or :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromBuffer`.
+   *mview* **must** be a memoryview instance.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/method.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/method.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a2a84f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/method.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _instancemethod-objects:
+
+Instance Method Objects
+-----------------------
+
+.. index:: object: instancemethod
+
+An instance method is a wrapper for a :c:data:`PyCFunction` and the new way
+to bind a :c:data:`PyCFunction` to a class object. It replaces the former call
+``PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class)``.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyInstanceMethod_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python instance
+   method type. It is not exposed to Python programs.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyInstanceMethod_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if *o* is an instance method object (has type
+   :c:data:`PyInstanceMethod_Type`).  The parameter must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyInstanceMethod_New(PyObject *func)
+
+   Return a new instance method object, with *func* being any callable object
+   *func* is the function that will be called when the instance method is
+   called.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyInstanceMethod_Function(PyObject *im)
+
+   Return the function object associated with the instance method *im*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION(PyObject *im)
+
+   Macro version of :c:func:`PyInstanceMethod_Function` which avoids error checking.
+
+
+.. _method-objects:
+
+Method Objects
+--------------
+
+.. index:: object: method
+
+Methods are bound function objects. Methods are always bound to an instance of
+a user-defined class. Unbound methods (methods bound to a class object) are
+no longer available.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyMethod_Type
+
+   .. index:: single: MethodType (in module types)
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python method type.  This
+   is exposed to Python programs as ``types.MethodType``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMethod_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if *o* is a method object (has type :c:data:`PyMethod_Type`).  The
+   parameter must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMethod_New(PyObject *func, PyObject *self)
+
+   Return a new method object, with *func* being any callable object and *self*
+   the instance the method should be bound. *func* is the function that will
+   be called when the method is called. *self* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMethod_Function(PyObject *meth)
+
+   Return the function object associated with the method *meth*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION(PyObject *meth)
+
+   Macro version of :c:func:`PyMethod_Function` which avoids error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMethod_Self(PyObject *meth)
+
+   Return the instance associated with the method *meth*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyMethod_GET_SELF(PyObject *meth)
+
+   Macro version of :c:func:`PyMethod_Self` which avoids error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMethod_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/module.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/module.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..017b656
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/module.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,479 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _moduleobjects:
+
+Module Objects
+--------------
+
+.. index:: object: module
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyModule_Type
+
+   .. index:: single: ModuleType (in module types)
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python module type.  This
+   is exposed to Python programs as ``types.ModuleType``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a module object, or a subtype of a module object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a module object, but not a subtype of
+   :c:data:`PyModule_Type`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_NewObject(PyObject *name)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: __name__ (module attribute)
+      single: __doc__ (module attribute)
+      single: __file__ (module attribute)
+      single: __package__ (module attribute)
+      single: __loader__ (module attribute)
+
+   Return a new module object with the :attr:`__name__` attribute set to *name*.
+   The module's :attr:`__name__`, :attr:`__doc__`, :attr:`__package__`, and
+   :attr:`__loader__` attributes are filled in (all but :attr:`__name__` are set
+   to ``None``); the caller is responsible for providing a :attr:`__file__`
+   attribute.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      :attr:`__package__` and :attr:`__loader__` are set to ``None``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_New(const char *name)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_NewObject`, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded
+   string instead of a Unicode object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetDict(PyObject *module)
+
+   .. index:: single: __dict__ (module attribute)
+
+   Return the dictionary object that implements *module*'s namespace; this object
+   is the same as the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute of the module object.
+   If *module* is not a module object (or a subtype of a module object),
+   :exc:`SystemError` is raised and *NULL* is returned.
+
+   It is recommended extensions use other :c:func:`PyModule_\*` and
+   :c:func:`PyObject_\*` functions rather than directly manipulate a module's
+   :attr:`~object.__dict__`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetNameObject(PyObject *module)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: __name__ (module attribute)
+      single: SystemError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return *module*'s :attr:`__name__` value.  If the module does not provide one,
+   or if it is not a string, :exc:`SystemError` is raised and *NULL* is returned.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyModule_GetName(PyObject *module)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_GetNameObject` but return the name encoded to
+   ``'utf-8'``.
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyModule_GetState(PyObject *module)
+
+   Return the "state" of the module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory
+   allocated at module creation time, or *NULL*.  See
+   :c:member:`PyModuleDef.m_size`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyModuleDef* PyModule_GetDef(PyObject *module)
+
+   Return a pointer to the :c:type:`PyModuleDef` struct from which the module was
+   created, or *NULL* if the module wasn't created from a definition.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetFilenameObject(PyObject *module)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: __file__ (module attribute)
+      single: SystemError (built-in exception)
+
+   Return the name of the file from which *module* was loaded using *module*'s
+   :attr:`__file__` attribute.  If this is not defined, or if it is not a
+   unicode string, raise :exc:`SystemError` and return *NULL*; otherwise return
+   a reference to a Unicode object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyModule_GetFilename(PyObject *module)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` but return the filename
+   encoded to 'utf-8'.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+      :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilename` raises :c:type:`UnicodeEncodeError` on
+      unencodable filenames, use :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` instead.
+
+
+.. _initializing-modules:
+
+Initializing C modules
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Modules objects are usually created from extension modules (shared libraries
+which export an initialization function), or compiled-in modules
+(where the initialization function is added using :c:func:`PyImport_AppendInittab`).
+See :ref:`building` or :ref:`extending-with-embedding` for details.
+
+The initialization function can either pass a module definition instance
+to :c:func:`PyModule_Create`, and return the resulting module object,
+or request "multi-phase initialization" by returning the definition struct itself.
+
+.. c:type:: PyModuleDef
+
+   The module definition struct, which holds all information needed to create
+   a module object. There is usually only one statically initialized variable
+   of this type for each module.
+
+   .. c:member:: PyModuleDef_Base m_base
+
+      Always initialize this member to :const:`PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT`.
+
+   .. c:member:: const char *m_name
+
+      Name for the new module.
+
+   .. c:member:: const char *m_doc
+
+      Docstring for the module; usually a docstring variable created with
+      :c:func:`PyDoc_STRVAR` is used.
+
+   .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t m_size
+
+      Module state may be kept in a per-module memory area that can be
+      retrieved with :c:func:`PyModule_GetState`, rather than in static globals.
+      This makes modules safe for use in multiple sub-interpreters.
+
+      This memory area is allocated based on *m_size* on module creation,
+      and freed when the module object is deallocated, after the
+      :c:member:`m_free` function has been called, if present.
+
+      Setting ``m_size`` to ``-1`` means that the module does not support
+      sub-interpreters, because it has global state.
+
+      Setting it to a non-negative value means that the module can be
+      re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of memory it requires
+      for its state. Non-negative ``m_size`` is required for multi-phase
+      initialization.
+
+      See :PEP:`3121` for more details.
+
+   .. c:member:: PyMethodDef* m_methods
+
+      A pointer to a table of module-level functions, described by
+      :c:type:`PyMethodDef` values.  Can be *NULL* if no functions are present.
+
+   .. c:member:: PyModuleDef_Slot* m_slots
+
+      An array of slot definitions for multi-phase initialization, terminated by
+      a ``{0, NULL}`` entry.
+      When using single-phase initialization, *m_slots* must be *NULL*.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+         Prior to version 3.5, this member was always set to *NULL*,
+         and was defined as:
+
+           .. c:member:: inquiry m_reload
+
+   .. c:member:: traverseproc m_traverse
+
+      A traversal function to call during GC traversal of the module object, or
+      *NULL* if not needed. This function may be called before module state
+      is allocated (:c:func:`PyModule_GetState()` may return `NULL`),
+      and before the :c:member:`Py_mod_exec` function is executed.
+
+   .. c:member:: inquiry m_clear
+
+      A clear function to call during GC clearing of the module object, or
+      *NULL* if not needed. This function may be called before module state
+      is allocated (:c:func:`PyModule_GetState()` may return `NULL`),
+      and before the :c:member:`Py_mod_exec` function is executed.
+
+   .. c:member:: freefunc m_free
+
+      A function to call during deallocation of the module object, or *NULL* if
+      not needed. This function may be called before module state
+      is allocated (:c:func:`PyModule_GetState()` may return `NULL`),
+      and before the :c:member:`Py_mod_exec` function is executed.
+
+Single-phase initialization
+...........................
+
+The module initialization function may create and return the module object
+directly. This is referred to as "single-phase initialization", and uses one
+of the following two module creation functions:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_Create(PyModuleDef *def)
+
+   Create a new module object, given the definition in *def*.  This behaves
+   like :c:func:`PyModule_Create2` with *module_api_version* set to
+   :const:`PYTHON_API_VERSION`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_Create2(PyModuleDef *def, int module_api_version)
+
+   Create a new module object, given the definition in *def*, assuming the
+   API version *module_api_version*.  If that version does not match the version
+   of the running interpreter, a :exc:`RuntimeWarning` is emitted.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Most uses of this function should be using :c:func:`PyModule_Create`
+      instead; only use this if you are sure you need it.
+
+Before it is returned from in the initialization function, the resulting module
+object is typically populated using functions like :c:func:`PyModule_AddObject`.
+
+.. _multi-phase-initialization:
+
+Multi-phase initialization
+..........................
+
+An alternate way to specify extensions is to request "multi-phase initialization".
+Extension modules created this way behave more like Python modules: the
+initialization is split between the *creation phase*, when the module object
+is created, and the *execution phase*, when it is populated.
+The distinction is similar to the :py:meth:`__new__` and :py:meth:`__init__` methods
+of classes.
+
+Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules are not
+singletons: if the *sys.modules* entry is removed and the module is re-imported,
+a new module object is created, and the old module is subject to normal garbage
+collection -- as with Python modules.
+By default, multiple modules created from the same definition should be
+independent: changes to one should not affect the others.
+This means that all state should be specific to the module object (using e.g.
+using :c:func:`PyModule_GetState`), or its contents (such as the module's
+:attr:`__dict__` or individual classes created with :c:func:`PyType_FromSpec`).
+
+All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to support
+:ref:`sub-interpreters <sub-interpreter-support>`. Making sure multiple modules
+are independent is typically enough to achieve this.
+
+To request multi-phase initialization, the initialization function
+(PyInit_modulename) returns a :c:type:`PyModuleDef` instance with non-empty
+:c:member:`~PyModuleDef.m_slots`. Before it is returned, the ``PyModuleDef``
+instance must be initialized with the following function:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModuleDef_Init(PyModuleDef *def)
+
+   Ensures a module definition is a properly initialized Python object that
+   correctly reports its type and reference count.
+
+   Returns *def* cast to ``PyObject*``, or *NULL* if an error occurred.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+The *m_slots* member of the module definition must point to an array of
+``PyModuleDef_Slot`` structures:
+
+.. c:type:: PyModuleDef_Slot
+
+   .. c:member:: int slot
+
+      A slot ID, chosen from the available values explained below.
+
+   .. c:member:: void* value
+
+      Value of the slot, whose meaning depends on the slot ID.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+The *m_slots* array must be terminated by a slot with id 0.
+
+The available slot types are:
+
+.. c:var:: Py_mod_create
+
+   Specifies a function that is called to create the module object itself.
+   The *value* pointer of this slot must point to a function of the signature:
+
+   .. c:function:: PyObject* create_module(PyObject *spec, PyModuleDef *def)
+
+   The function receives a :py:class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec`
+   instance, as defined in :PEP:`451`, and the module definition.
+   It should return a new module object, or set an error
+   and return *NULL*.
+
+   This function should be kept minimal. In particular, it should not
+   call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module again may
+   result in an infinite loop.
+
+   Multiple ``Py_mod_create`` slots may not be specified in one module
+   definition.
+
+   If ``Py_mod_create`` is not specified, the import machinery will create
+   a normal module object using :c:func:`PyModule_New`. The name is taken from
+   *spec*, not the definition, to allow extension modules to dynamically adjust
+   to their place in the module hierarchy and be imported under different
+   names through symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition.
+
+   There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance of
+   :c:type:`PyModule_Type`. Any type can be used, as long as it supports
+   setting and getting import-related attributes.
+   However, only ``PyModule_Type`` instances may be returned if the
+   ``PyModuleDef`` has non-*NULL* ``m_traverse``, ``m_clear``,
+   ``m_free``; non-zero ``m_size``; or slots other than ``Py_mod_create``.
+
+.. c:var:: Py_mod_exec
+
+   Specifies a function that is called to *execute* the module.
+   This is equivalent to executing the code of a Python module: typically,
+   this function adds classes and constants to the module.
+   The signature of the function is:
+
+   .. c:function:: int exec_module(PyObject* module)
+
+   If multiple ``Py_mod_exec`` slots are specified, they are processed in the
+   order they appear in the *m_slots* array.
+
+See :PEP:`489` for more details on multi-phase initialization.
+
+Low-level module creation functions
+...................................
+
+The following functions are called under the hood when using multi-phase
+initialization. They can be used directly, for example when creating module
+objects dynamically. Note that both ``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec`` and
+``PyModule_ExecDef`` must be called to fully initialize a module.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject * PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec)
+
+   Create a new module object, given the definition in *module* and the
+   ModuleSpec *spec*.  This behaves like :c:func:`PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2`
+   with *module_api_version* set to :const:`PYTHON_API_VERSION`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject * PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version)
+
+   Create a new module object, given the definition in *module* and the
+   ModuleSpec *spec*, assuming the API version *module_api_version*.
+   If that version does not match the version of the running interpreter,
+   a :exc:`RuntimeWarning` is emitted.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Most uses of this function should be using :c:func:`PyModule_FromDefAndSpec`
+      instead; only use this if you are sure you need it.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_ExecDef(PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
+
+   Process any execution slots (:c:data:`Py_mod_exec`) given in *def*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_SetDocString(PyObject *module, const char *docstring)
+
+   Set the docstring for *module* to *docstring*.
+   This function is called automatically when creating a module from
+   ``PyModuleDef``, using either ``PyModule_Create`` or
+   ``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddFunctions(PyObject *module, PyMethodDef *functions)
+
+   Add the functions from the *NULL* terminated *functions* array to *module*.
+   Refer to the :c:type:`PyMethodDef` documentation for details on individual
+   entries (due to the lack of a shared module namespace, module level
+   "functions" implemented in C typically receive the module as their first
+   parameter, making them similar to instance methods on Python classes).
+   This function is called automatically when creating a module from
+   ``PyModuleDef``, using either ``PyModule_Create`` or
+   ``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+Support functions
+.................
+
+The module initialization function (if using single phase initialization) or
+a function called from a module execution slot (if using multi-phase
+initialization), can use the following functions to help initialize the module
+state:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddObject(PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value)
+
+   Add an object to *module* as *name*.  This is a convenience function which can
+   be used from the module's initialization function.  This steals a reference to
+   *value*.  Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddIntConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, long value)
+
+   Add an integer constant to *module* as *name*.  This convenience function can be
+   used from the module's initialization function. Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on
+   success.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddStringConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, const char *value)
+
+   Add a string constant to *module* as *name*.  This convenience function can be
+   used from the module's initialization function.  The string *value* must be
+   *NULL*-terminated.  Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddIntMacro(PyObject *module, macro)
+
+   Add an int constant to *module*. The name and the value are taken from
+   *macro*. For example ``PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)`` adds the int
+   constant *AF_INET* with the value of *AF_INET* to *module*.
+   Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddStringMacro(PyObject *module, macro)
+
+   Add a string constant to *module*.
+
+
+Module lookup
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Single-phase initialization creates singleton modules that can be looked up
+in the context of the current interpreter. This allows the module object to be
+retrieved later with only a reference to the module definition.
+
+These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase initialization,
+since multiple such modules can be created from a single definition.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyState_FindModule(PyModuleDef *def)
+
+   Returns the module object that was created from *def* for the current interpreter.
+   This method requires that the module object has been attached to the interpreter state with
+   :c:func:`PyState_AddModule` beforehand. In case the corresponding module object is not
+   found or has not been attached to the interpreter state yet, it returns *NULL*.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyState_AddModule(PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
+
+   Attaches the module object passed to the function to the interpreter state. This allows
+   the module object to be accessible via :c:func:`PyState_FindModule`.
+
+   Only effective on modules created using single-phase initialization.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. c:function:: int PyState_RemoveModule(PyModuleDef *def)
+
+   Removes the module object created from *def* from the interpreter state.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/none.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/none.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45568fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/none.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _noneobject:
+
+The ``None`` Object
+-------------------
+
+.. index:: object: None
+
+Note that the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` for ``None`` is not directly exposed in the
+Python/C API.  Since ``None`` is a singleton, testing for object identity (using
+``==`` in C) is sufficient. There is no :c:func:`PyNone_Check` function for the
+same reason.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject* Py_None
+
+   The Python ``None`` object, denoting lack of value.  This object has no methods.
+   It needs to be treated just like any other object with respect to reference
+   counts.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_RETURN_NONE
+
+   Properly handle returning :c:data:`Py_None` from within a C function (that is,
+   increment the reference count of ``None`` and return it.)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/number.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/number.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..296b21c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/number.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,283 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _number:
+
+Number Protocol
+===============
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyNumber_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns ``1`` if the object *o* provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise.
+   This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Add(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of adding *o1* and *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 + o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Subtract(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of subtracting *o2* from *o1*, or *NULL* on failure.  This is
+   the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 - o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Multiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of multiplying *o1* and *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  This is
+   the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 * o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of matrix multiplication on *o1* and *o2*, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 @ o2``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_FloorDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Return the floor of *o1* divided by *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  This is
+   equivalent to the "classic" division of integers.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_TrueDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of *o1* divided by
+   *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  The return value is "approximate" because binary
+   floating point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
+   numbers in base two.  This function can return a floating point value when
+   passed two integers.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Remainder(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the remainder of dividing *o1* by *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  This is
+   the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 % o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Divmod(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: divmod
+
+   See the built-in function :func:`divmod`. Returns *NULL* on failure.  This is
+   the equivalent of the Python expression ``divmod(o1, o2)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Power(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: pow
+
+   See the built-in function :func:`pow`. Returns *NULL* on failure.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python expression ``pow(o1, o2, o3)``, where *o3* is optional.
+   If *o3* is to be ignored, pass :c:data:`Py_None` in its place (passing *NULL* for
+   *o3* would cause an illegal memory access).
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Negative(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns the negation of *o* on success, or *NULL* on failure. This is the
+   equivalent of the Python expression ``-o``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Positive(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns *o* on success, or *NULL* on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
+   Python expression ``+o``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Absolute(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: abs
+
+   Returns the absolute value of *o*, or *NULL* on failure.  This is the equivalent
+   of the Python expression ``abs(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Invert(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns the bitwise negation of *o* on success, or *NULL* on failure.  This is
+   the equivalent of the Python expression ``~o``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Lshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of left shifting *o1* by *o2* on success, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 << o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Rshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of right shifting *o1* by *o2* on success, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 >> o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_And(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the "bitwise and" of *o1* and *o2* on success and *NULL* on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 & o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Xor(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the "bitwise exclusive or" of *o1* by *o2* on success, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 ^ o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Or(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the "bitwise or" of *o1* and *o2* on success, or *NULL* on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 | o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of adding *o1* and *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  The operation
+   is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
+   statement ``o1 += o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of subtracting *o2* from *o1*, or *NULL* on failure.  The
+   operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+   the Python statement ``o1 -= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of multiplying *o1* and *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  The
+   operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+   the Python statement ``o1 *= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of matrix multiplication on *o1* and *o2*, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is
+   the equivalent of the Python statement ``o1 @= o2``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the mathematical floor of dividing *o1* by *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.
+   The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent
+   of the Python statement ``o1 //= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of *o1* divided by
+   *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  The return value is "approximate" because binary
+   floating point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
+   numbers in base two.  This function can return a floating point value when
+   passed two integers.  The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the remainder of dividing *o1* by *o2*, or *NULL* on failure.  The
+   operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+   the Python statement ``o1 %= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlacePower(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: pow
+
+   See the built-in function :func:`pow`. Returns *NULL* on failure.  The operation
+   is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
+   statement ``o1 **= o2`` when o3 is :c:data:`Py_None`, or an in-place variant of
+   ``pow(o1, o2, o3)`` otherwise. If *o3* is to be ignored, pass :c:data:`Py_None`
+   in its place (passing *NULL* for *o3* would cause an illegal memory access).
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of left shifting *o1* by *o2* on success, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python statement ``o1 <<= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the result of right shifting *o1* by *o2* on success, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python statement ``o1 >>= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the "bitwise and" of *o1* and *o2* on success and *NULL* on failure. The
+   operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+   the Python statement ``o1 &= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceXor(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the "bitwise exclusive or" of *o1* by *o2* on success, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python statement ``o1 ^= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_InPlaceOr(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Returns the "bitwise or" of *o1* and *o2* on success, or *NULL* on failure.  The
+   operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+   the Python statement ``o1 |= o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Long(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: int
+
+   Returns the *o* converted to an integer object on success, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``int(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Float(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: float
+
+   Returns the *o* converted to a float object on success, or *NULL* on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``float(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_Index(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns the *o* converted to a Python int on success or *NULL* with a
+   :exc:`TypeError` exception raised on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyNumber_ToBase(PyObject *n, int base)
+
+   Returns the integer *n* converted to base *base* as a string.  The *base*
+   argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16.  For base 2, 8, or 16, the
+   returned string is prefixed with a base marker of ``'0b'``, ``'0o'``, or
+   ``'0x'``, respectively.  If *n* is not a Python int, it is converted with
+   :c:func:`PyNumber_Index` first.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyNumber_AsSsize_t(PyObject *o, PyObject *exc)
+
+   Returns *o* converted to a Py_ssize_t value if *o* can be interpreted as an
+   integer.  If the call fails, an exception is raised and ``-1`` is returned.
+
+   If *o* can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to
+   convert to a Py_ssize_t value would raise an :exc:`OverflowError`, then the
+   *exc* argument is the type of exception that will be raised (usually
+   :exc:`IndexError` or :exc:`OverflowError`).  If *exc* is *NULL*, then the
+   exception is cleared and the value is clipped to *PY_SSIZE_T_MIN* for a negative
+   integer or *PY_SSIZE_T_MAX* for a positive integer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyIndex_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns ``1`` if *o* is an index integer (has the nb_index slot of  the
+   tp_as_number structure filled in), and ``0`` otherwise.
+   This function always succeeds.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/objbuffer.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/objbuffer.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3572564
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/objbuffer.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+Old Buffer Protocol
+-------------------
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.0
+
+These functions were part of the "old buffer protocol" API in Python 2.
+In Python 3, this protocol doesn't exist anymore but the functions are still
+exposed to ease porting 2.x code.  They act as a compatibility wrapper
+around the :ref:`new buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`, but they don't give
+you control over the lifetime of the resources acquired when a buffer is
+exported.
+
+Therefore, it is recommended that you call :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`
+(or the ``y*`` or ``w*`` :ref:`format codes <arg-parsing>` with the
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` family of functions) to get a buffer view over
+an object, and :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` when the buffer view can be released.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_AsCharBuffer(PyObject *obj, const char **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
+
+   Returns a pointer to a read-only memory location usable as character-based
+   input.  The *obj* argument must support the single-segment character buffer
+   interface.  On success, returns ``0``, sets *buffer* to the memory location
+   and *buffer_len* to the buffer length.  Returns ``-1`` and sets a
+   :exc:`TypeError` on error.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_AsReadBuffer(PyObject *obj, const void **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
+
+   Returns a pointer to a read-only memory location containing arbitrary data.
+   The *obj* argument must support the single-segment readable buffer
+   interface.  On success, returns ``0``, sets *buffer* to the memory location
+   and *buffer_len* to the buffer length.  Returns ``-1`` and sets a
+   :exc:`TypeError` on error.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_CheckReadBuffer(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns ``1`` if *o* supports the single-segment readable buffer interface.
+   Otherwise returns ``0``.  This function always succeeds.
+
+   Note that this function tries to get and release a buffer, and exceptions
+   which occur while calling corresponding functions will get suppressed.
+   To get error reporting use :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer()` instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_AsWriteBuffer(PyObject *obj, void **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
+
+   Returns a pointer to a writable memory location.  The *obj* argument must
+   support the single-segment, character buffer interface.  On success,
+   returns ``0``, sets *buffer* to the memory location and *buffer_len* to the
+   buffer length.  Returns ``-1`` and sets a :exc:`TypeError` on error.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/object.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/object.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c09d97a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/object.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,451 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _object:
+
+Object Protocol
+===============
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject* Py_NotImplemented
+
+   The ``NotImplemented`` singleton, used to signal that an operation is
+   not implemented for the given type combination.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED
+
+   Properly handle returning :c:data:`Py_NotImplemented` from within a C
+   function (that is, increment the reference count of NotImplemented and
+   return it).
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_Print(PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags)
+
+   Print an object *o*, on file *fp*.  Returns ``-1`` on error.  The flags argument
+   is used to enable certain printing options.  The only option currently supported
+   is :const:`Py_PRINT_RAW`; if given, the :func:`str` of the object is written
+   instead of the :func:`repr`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_HasAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
+
+   Returns ``1`` if *o* has the attribute *attr_name*, and ``0`` otherwise.  This
+   is equivalent to the Python expression ``hasattr(o, attr_name)``.  This function
+   always succeeds.
+
+   Note that exceptions which occur while calling :meth:`__getattr__` and
+   :meth:`__getattribute__` methods will get suppressed.
+   To get error reporting use :c:func:`PyObject_GetAttr()` instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_HasAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)
+
+   Returns ``1`` if *o* has the attribute *attr_name*, and ``0`` otherwise.  This
+   is equivalent to the Python expression ``hasattr(o, attr_name)``.  This function
+   always succeeds.
+
+   Note that exceptions which occur while calling :meth:`__getattr__` and
+   :meth:`__getattribute__` methods and creating a temporary string object
+   will get suppressed.
+   To get error reporting use :c:func:`PyObject_GetAttrString()` instead.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
+
+   Retrieve an attribute named *attr_name* from object *o*. Returns the attribute
+   value on success, or *NULL* on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
+   expression ``o.attr_name``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GetAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)
+
+   Retrieve an attribute named *attr_name* from object *o*. Returns the attribute
+   value on success, or *NULL* on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python
+   expression ``o.attr_name``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GenericGetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *name)
+
+   Generic attribute getter function that is meant to be put into a type
+   object's ``tp_getattro`` slot.  It looks for a descriptor in the dictionary
+   of classes in the object's MRO as well as an attribute in the object's
+   :attr:`~object.__dict__` (if present).  As outlined in :ref:`descriptors`,
+   data descriptors take preference over instance attributes, while non-data
+   descriptors don't.  Otherwise, an :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_SetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name, PyObject *v)
+
+   Set the value of the attribute named *attr_name*, for object *o*, to the value
+   *v*. Raise an exception and return ``-1`` on failure;
+   return ``0`` on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
+   ``o.attr_name = v``.
+
+   If *v* is *NULL*, the attribute is deleted, however this feature is
+   deprecated in favour of using :c:func:`PyObject_DelAttr`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_SetAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name, PyObject *v)
+
+   Set the value of the attribute named *attr_name*, for object *o*, to the value
+   *v*. Raise an exception and return ``-1`` on failure;
+   return ``0`` on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
+   ``o.attr_name = v``.
+
+   If *v* is *NULL*, the attribute is deleted, however this feature is
+   deprecated in favour of using :c:func:`PyObject_DelAttrString`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *name, PyObject *value)
+
+   Generic attribute setter and deleter function that is meant
+   to be put into a type object's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro`
+   slot.  It looks for a data descriptor in the
+   dictionary of classes in the object's MRO, and if found it takes preference
+   over setting or deleting the attribute in the instance dictionary. Otherwise, the
+   attribute is set or deleted in the object's :attr:`~object.__dict__` (if present).
+   On success, ``0`` is returned, otherwise an :exc:`AttributeError`
+   is raised and ``-1`` is returned.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_DelAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
+
+   Delete attribute named *attr_name*, for object *o*. Returns ``-1`` on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python statement ``del o.attr_name``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_DelAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)
+
+   Delete attribute named *attr_name*, for object *o*. Returns ``-1`` on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python statement ``del o.attr_name``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GenericGetDict(PyObject *o, void *context)
+
+   A generic implementation for the getter of a ``__dict__`` descriptor. It
+   creates the dictionary if necessary.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_GenericSetDict(PyObject *o, void *context)
+
+   A generic implementation for the setter of a ``__dict__`` descriptor. This
+   implementation does not allow the dictionary to be deleted.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_RichCompare(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid)
+
+   Compare the values of *o1* and *o2* using the operation specified by *opid*,
+   which must be one of :const:`Py_LT`, :const:`Py_LE`, :const:`Py_EQ`,
+   :const:`Py_NE`, :const:`Py_GT`, or :const:`Py_GE`, corresponding to ``<``,
+   ``<=``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>``, or ``>=`` respectively. This is the equivalent of
+   the Python expression ``o1 op o2``, where ``op`` is the operator corresponding
+   to *opid*. Returns the value of the comparison on success, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_RichCompareBool(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid)
+
+   Compare the values of *o1* and *o2* using the operation specified by *opid*,
+   which must be one of :const:`Py_LT`, :const:`Py_LE`, :const:`Py_EQ`,
+   :const:`Py_NE`, :const:`Py_GT`, or :const:`Py_GE`, corresponding to ``<``,
+   ``<=``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>``, or ``>=`` respectively. Returns ``-1`` on error,
+   ``0`` if the result is false, ``1`` otherwise. This is the equivalent of the
+   Python expression ``o1 op o2``, where ``op`` is the operator corresponding to
+   *opid*.
+
+.. note::
+   If *o1* and *o2* are the same object, :c:func:`PyObject_RichCompareBool`
+   will always return ``1`` for :const:`Py_EQ` and ``0`` for :const:`Py_NE`.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Repr(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: repr
+
+   Compute a string representation of object *o*.  Returns the string
+   representation on success, *NULL* on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
+   Python expression ``repr(o)``.  Called by the :func:`repr` built-in function.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
+      does not silently discard an active exception.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_ASCII(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: ascii
+
+   As :c:func:`PyObject_Repr`, compute a string representation of object *o*, but
+   escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by
+   :c:func:`PyObject_Repr` with ``\x``, ``\u`` or ``\U`` escapes.  This generates
+   a string similar to that returned by :c:func:`PyObject_Repr` in Python 2.
+   Called by the :func:`ascii` built-in function.
+
+   .. index:: string; PyObject_Str (C function)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Str(PyObject *o)
+
+   Compute a string representation of object *o*.  Returns the string
+   representation on success, *NULL* on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
+   Python expression ``str(o)``.  Called by the :func:`str` built-in function
+   and, therefore, by the :func:`print` function.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
+      does not silently discard an active exception.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Bytes(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: bytes
+
+   Compute a bytes representation of object *o*.  *NULL* is returned on
+   failure and a bytes object on success.  This is equivalent to the Python
+   expression ``bytes(o)``, when *o* is not an integer.  Unlike ``bytes(o)``,
+   a TypeError is raised when *o* is an integer instead of a zero-initialized
+   bytes object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_IsSubclass(PyObject *derived, PyObject *cls)
+
+   Return ``1`` if the class *derived* is identical to or derived from the class
+   *cls*, otherwise return ``0``.  In case of an error, return ``-1``.
+
+   If *cls* is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in *cls*.
+   The result will be ``1`` when at least one of the checks returns ``1``,
+   otherwise it will be ``0``.
+
+   If *cls* has a :meth:`~class.__subclasscheck__` method, it will be called to
+   determine the subclass status as described in :pep:`3119`.  Otherwise,
+   *derived* is a subclass of *cls* if it is a direct or indirect subclass,
+   i.e. contained in ``cls.__mro__``.
+
+   Normally only class objects, i.e. instances of :class:`type` or a derived
+   class, are considered classes.  However, objects can override this by having
+   a :attr:`__bases__` attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes).
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_IsInstance(PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)
+
+   Return ``1`` if *inst* is an instance of the class *cls* or a subclass of
+   *cls*, or ``0`` if not.  On error, returns ``-1`` and sets an exception.
+
+   If *cls* is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in *cls*.
+   The result will be ``1`` when at least one of the checks returns ``1``,
+   otherwise it will be ``0``.
+
+   If *cls* has a :meth:`~class.__instancecheck__` method, it will be called to
+   determine the subclass status as described in :pep:`3119`.  Otherwise, *inst*
+   is an instance of *cls* if its class is a subclass of *cls*.
+
+   An instance *inst* can override what is considered its class by having a
+   :attr:`__class__` attribute.
+
+   An object *cls* can override if it is considered a class, and what its base
+   classes are, by having a :attr:`__bases__` attribute (which must be a tuple
+   of base classes).
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCallable_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Determine if the object *o* is callable.  Return ``1`` if the object is callable
+   and ``0`` otherwise.  This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)
+
+   Call a callable Python object *callable*, with arguments given by the
+   tuple *args*, and named arguments given by the dictionary *kwargs*.
+
+   *args* must not be *NULL*, use an empty tuple if no arguments are needed.
+   If no named arguments are needed, *kwargs* can be *NULL*.
+
+   Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression:
+   ``callable(*args, **kwargs)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_CallObject(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args)
+
+   Call a callable Python object *callable*, with arguments given by the
+   tuple *args*.  If no arguments are needed, then *args* can be *NULL*.
+
+   Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ``callable(*args)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_CallFunction(PyObject *callable, const char *format, ...)
+
+   Call a callable Python object *callable*, with a variable number of C arguments.
+   The C arguments are described using a :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` style format
+   string.  The format can be *NULL*, indicating that no arguments are provided.
+
+   Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ``callable(*args)``.
+
+   Note that if you only pass :c:type:`PyObject \*` args,
+   :c:func:`PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs` is a faster alternative.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The type of *format* was changed from ``char *``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *obj, const char *name, const char *format, ...)
+
+   Call the method named *name* of object *obj* with a variable number of C
+   arguments.  The C arguments are described by a :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` format
+   string that should  produce a tuple.
+
+   The format can be *NULL*, indicating that no arguments are provided.
+
+   Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression:
+   ``obj.name(arg1, arg2, ...)``.
+
+   Note that if you only pass :c:type:`PyObject \*` args,
+   :c:func:`PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs` is a faster alternative.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The types of *name* and *format* were changed from ``char *``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(PyObject *callable, ..., NULL)
+
+   Call a callable Python object *callable*, with a variable number of
+   :c:type:`PyObject\*` arguments.  The arguments are provided as a variable number
+   of parameters followed by *NULL*.
+
+   Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression:
+   ``callable(arg1, arg2, ...)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, ..., NULL)
+
+   Calls a method of the Python object *obj*, where the name of the method is given as a
+   Python string object in *name*.  It is called with a variable number of
+   :c:type:`PyObject\*` arguments.  The arguments are provided as a variable number
+   of parameters followed by *NULL*.
+
+   Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+   *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_hash_t PyObject_Hash(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: hash
+
+   Compute and return the hash value of an object *o*.  On failure, return ``-1``.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``hash(o)``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The return type is now Py_hash_t.  This is a signed integer the same size
+      as Py_ssize_t.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_hash_t PyObject_HashNotImplemented(PyObject *o)
+
+   Set a :exc:`TypeError` indicating that ``type(o)`` is not hashable and return ``-1``.
+   This function receives special treatment when stored in a ``tp_hash`` slot,
+   allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the interpreter that it is not
+   hashable.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_IsTrue(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns ``1`` if the object *o* is considered to be true, and ``0`` otherwise.
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``not not o``.  On failure, return
+   ``-1``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_Not(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns ``0`` if the object *o* is considered to be true, and ``1`` otherwise.
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``not o``.  On failure, return
+   ``-1``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Type(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: type
+
+   When *o* is non-*NULL*, returns a type object corresponding to the object type
+   of object *o*. On failure, raises :exc:`SystemError` and returns *NULL*.  This
+   is equivalent to the Python expression ``type(o)``. This function increments the
+   reference count of the return value. There's really no reason to use this
+   function instead of the common expression ``o->ob_type``, which returns a
+   pointer of type :c:type:`PyTypeObject\*`, except when the incremented reference
+   count is needed.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_TypeCheck(PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is of type *type* or a subtype of *type*.  Both
+   parameters must be non-*NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyObject_Size(PyObject *o)
+               Py_ssize_t PyObject_Length(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: len
+
+   Return the length of object *o*.  If the object *o* provides either the sequence
+   and mapping protocols, the sequence length is returned.  On error, ``-1`` is
+   returned.  This is the equivalent to the Python expression ``len(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyObject_LengthHint(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t default)
+
+   Return an estimated length for the object *o*. First try to return its
+   actual length, then an estimate using :meth:`~object.__length_hint__`, and
+   finally return the default value. On error return ``-1``. This is the
+   equivalent to the Python expression ``operator.length_hint(o, default)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GetItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
+
+   Return element of *o* corresponding to the object *key* or *NULL* on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o[key]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_SetItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key, PyObject *v)
+
+   Map the object *key* to the value *v*.  Raise an exception and
+   return ``-1`` on failure; return ``0`` on success.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python statement ``o[key] = v``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_DelItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
+
+   Remove the mapping for the object *key* from the object *o*.  Return ``-1``
+   on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python statement ``del o[key]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Dir(PyObject *o)
+
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``dir(o)``, returning a (possibly
+   empty) list of strings appropriate for the object argument, or *NULL* if there
+   was an error.  If the argument is *NULL*, this is like the Python ``dir()``,
+   returning the names of the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame
+   is active then *NULL* is returned but :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` will return false.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GetIter(PyObject *o)
+
+   This is equivalent to the Python expression ``iter(o)``. It returns a new
+   iterator for the object argument, or the object  itself if the object is already
+   an iterator.  Raises :exc:`TypeError` and returns *NULL* if the object cannot be
+   iterated.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/objimpl.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/objimpl.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7023e51
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/objimpl.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _newtypes:
+
+*****************************
+Object Implementation Support
+*****************************
+
+This chapter describes the functions, types, and macros used when defining new
+object types.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   allocation.rst
+   structures.rst
+   typeobj.rst
+   gcsupport.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/refcounting.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/refcounting.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f512ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/refcounting.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _countingrefs:
+
+******************
+Reference Counting
+******************
+
+The macros in this section are used for managing reference counts of Python
+objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_INCREF(PyObject *o)
+
+   Increment the reference count for object *o*.  The object must not be *NULL*; if
+   you aren't sure that it isn't *NULL*, use :c:func:`Py_XINCREF`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_XINCREF(PyObject *o)
+
+   Increment the reference count for object *o*.  The object may be *NULL*, in
+   which case the macro has no effect.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_DECREF(PyObject *o)
+
+   Decrement the reference count for object *o*.  The object must not be *NULL*; if
+   you aren't sure that it isn't *NULL*, use :c:func:`Py_XDECREF`.  If the reference
+   count reaches zero, the object's type's deallocation function (which must not be
+   *NULL*) is invoked.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      The deallocation function can cause arbitrary Python code to be invoked (e.g.
+      when a class instance with a :meth:`__del__` method is deallocated).  While
+      exceptions in such code are not propagated, the executed code has free access to
+      all Python global variables.  This means that any object that is reachable from
+      a global variable should be in a consistent state before :c:func:`Py_DECREF` is
+      invoked.  For example, code to delete an object from a list should copy a
+      reference to the deleted object in a temporary variable, update the list data
+      structure, and then call :c:func:`Py_DECREF` for the temporary variable.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_XDECREF(PyObject *o)
+
+   Decrement the reference count for object *o*.  The object may be *NULL*, in
+   which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the effect is the same as for
+   :c:func:`Py_DECREF`, and the same warning applies.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_CLEAR(PyObject *o)
+
+   Decrement the reference count for object *o*.  The object may be *NULL*, in
+   which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the effect is the same as for
+   :c:func:`Py_DECREF`, except that the argument is also set to *NULL*.  The warning
+   for :c:func:`Py_DECREF` does not apply with respect to the object passed because
+   the macro carefully uses a temporary variable and sets the argument to *NULL*
+   before decrementing its reference count.
+
+   It is a good idea to use this macro whenever decrementing the value of a
+   variable that might be traversed during garbage collection.
+
+
+The following functions are for runtime dynamic embedding of Python:
+``Py_IncRef(PyObject *o)``, ``Py_DecRef(PyObject *o)``. They are
+simply exported function versions of :c:func:`Py_XINCREF` and
+:c:func:`Py_XDECREF`, respectively.
+
+The following functions or macros are only for use within the interpreter core:
+:c:func:`_Py_Dealloc`, :c:func:`_Py_ForgetReference`, :c:func:`_Py_NewReference`,
+as well as the global variable :c:data:`_Py_RefTotal`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/reflection.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/reflection.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9689365
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/reflection.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _reflection:
+
+Reflection
+==========
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetBuiltins()
+
+   Return a dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame,
+   or the interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently executing.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetLocals()
+
+   Return a dictionary of the local variables in the current execution frame,
+   or *NULL* if no frame is currently executing.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetGlobals()
+
+   Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame,
+   or *NULL* if no frame is currently executing.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyFrameObject* PyEval_GetFrame()
+
+   Return the current thread state's frame, which is *NULL* if no frame is
+   currently executing.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber(PyFrameObject *frame)
+
+   Return the line number that *frame* is currently executing.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyEval_GetFuncName(PyObject *func)
+
+   Return the name of *func* if it is a function, class or instance object, else the
+   name of *func*\s type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyEval_GetFuncDesc(PyObject *func)
+
+   Return a description string, depending on the type of *func*.
+   Return values include "()" for functions and methods, " constructor",
+   " instance", and " object".  Concatenated with the result of
+   :c:func:`PyEval_GetFuncName`, the result will be a description of
+   *func*.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/sequence.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/sequence.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d22f35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/sequence.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _sequence:
+
+Sequence Protocol
+=================
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySequence_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return ``1`` if the object provides sequence protocol, and ``0`` otherwise.
+   Note that it returns ``1`` for Python classes with a :meth:`__getitem__`
+   method unless they are :class:`dict` subclasses since in general case it
+   is impossible to determine what the type of keys it supports.  This
+   function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PySequence_Size(PyObject *o)
+               Py_ssize_t PySequence_Length(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: len
+
+   Returns the number of objects in sequence *o* on success, and ``-1`` on
+   failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ``len(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_Concat(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Return the concatenation of *o1* and *o2* on success, and *NULL* on failure.
+   This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 + o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_Repeat(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t count)
+
+   Return the result of repeating sequence object *o* *count* times, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o * count``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_InPlaceConcat(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
+
+   Return the concatenation of *o1* and *o2* on success, and *NULL* on failure.
+   The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.  This is the equivalent
+   of the Python expression ``o1 += o2``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t count)
+
+   Return the result of repeating sequence object *o* *count* times, or *NULL* on
+   failure.  The operation is done *in-place* when *o* supports it.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python expression ``o *= count``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_GetItem(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
+
+   Return the *i*\ th element of *o*, or *NULL* on failure. This is the equivalent of
+   the Python expression ``o[i]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_GetSlice(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)
+
+   Return the slice of sequence object *o* between *i1* and *i2*, or *NULL* on
+   failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o[i1:i2]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySequence_SetItem(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *v)
+
+   Assign object *v* to the *i*\ th element of *o*.  Raise an exception
+   and return ``-1`` on failure; return ``0`` on success.  This
+   is the equivalent of the Python statement ``o[i] = v``.  This function *does
+   not* steal a reference to *v*.
+
+   If *v* is *NULL*, the element is deleted, however this feature is
+   deprecated in favour of using :c:func:`PySequence_DelItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySequence_DelItem(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
+
+   Delete the *i*\ th element of object *o*.  Returns ``-1`` on failure.  This is the
+   equivalent of the Python statement ``del o[i]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySequence_SetSlice(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v)
+
+   Assign the sequence object *v* to the slice in sequence object *o* from *i1* to
+   *i2*.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ``o[i1:i2] = v``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySequence_DelSlice(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)
+
+   Delete the slice in sequence object *o* from *i1* to *i2*.  Returns ``-1`` on
+   failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ``del o[i1:i2]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PySequence_Count(PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
+
+   Return the number of occurrences of *value* in *o*, that is, return the number
+   of keys for which ``o[key] == value``.  On failure, return ``-1``.  This is
+   equivalent to the Python expression ``o.count(value)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySequence_Contains(PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
+
+   Determine if *o* contains *value*.  If an item in *o* is equal to *value*,
+   return ``1``, otherwise return ``0``. On error, return ``-1``.  This is
+   equivalent to the Python expression ``value in o``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PySequence_Index(PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
+
+   Return the first index *i* for which ``o[i] == value``.  On error, return
+   ``-1``.    This is equivalent to the Python expression ``o.index(value)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_List(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return a list object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable *o*,
+   or *NULL* on failure.  The returned list is guaranteed to be new.  This is
+   equivalent to the Python expression ``list(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_Tuple(PyObject *o)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: tuple
+
+   Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable *o*,
+   or *NULL* on failure.  If *o* is a tuple, a new reference will be returned,
+   otherwise a tuple will be constructed with the appropriate contents.  This is
+   equivalent to the Python expression ``tuple(o)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_Fast(PyObject *o, const char *m)
+
+   Return the sequence or iterable *o* as a list, unless it is already a tuple or list, in
+   which case *o* is returned.  Use :c:func:`PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM` to access
+   the members of the result.  Returns *NULL* on failure.  If the object is not
+   a sequence or iterable, raises :exc:`TypeError` with *m* as the message text.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o)
+
+   Returns the length of *o*, assuming that *o* was returned by
+   :c:func:`PySequence_Fast` and that *o* is not *NULL*.  The size can also be
+   gotten by calling :c:func:`PySequence_Size` on *o*, but
+   :c:func:`PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE` is faster because it can assume *o* is a list
+   or tuple.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
+
+   Return the *i*\ th element of *o*, assuming that *o* was returned by
+   :c:func:`PySequence_Fast`, *o* is not *NULL*, and that *i* is within bounds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject** PySequence_Fast_ITEMS(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers.  Assumes that *o* was returned
+   by :c:func:`PySequence_Fast` and *o* is not *NULL*.
+
+   Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the items array.
+   So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts where the sequence
+   cannot change.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySequence_ITEM(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
+
+   Return the *i*\ th element of *o* or *NULL* on failure. Macro form of
+   :c:func:`PySequence_GetItem` but without checking that
+   :c:func:`PySequence_Check` on *o* is true and without adjustment for negative
+   indices.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/set.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/set.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64b6dde
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/set.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _setobjects:
+
+Set Objects
+-----------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond D. Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+
+
+.. index::
+   object: set
+   object: frozenset
+
+This section details the public API for :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset`
+objects.  Any functionality not listed below is best accessed using the either
+the abstract object protocol (including :c:func:`PyObject_CallMethod`,
+:c:func:`PyObject_RichCompareBool`, :c:func:`PyObject_Hash`,
+:c:func:`PyObject_Repr`, :c:func:`PyObject_IsTrue`, :c:func:`PyObject_Print`, and
+:c:func:`PyObject_GetIter`) or the abstract number protocol (including
+:c:func:`PyNumber_And`, :c:func:`PyNumber_Subtract`, :c:func:`PyNumber_Or`,
+:c:func:`PyNumber_Xor`, :c:func:`PyNumber_InPlaceAnd`,
+:c:func:`PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract`, :c:func:`PyNumber_InPlaceOr`, and
+:c:func:`PyNumber_InPlaceXor`).
+
+
+.. c:type:: PySetObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` is used to hold the internal data for both
+   :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` objects.  It is like a :c:type:`PyDictObject`
+   in that it is a fixed size for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will
+   point to a separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized
+   sets (much like list storage). None of the fields of this structure should be
+   considered public and are subject to change.  All access should be done through
+   the documented API rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PySet_Type
+
+   This is an instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` representing the Python
+   :class:`set` type.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyFrozenSet_Type
+
+   This is an instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` representing the Python
+   :class:`frozenset` type.
+
+The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object. Likewise,
+the constructor functions work with any iterable Python object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySet_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a :class:`set` object or an instance of a subtype.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFrozenSet_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a :class:`frozenset` object or an instance of a
+   subtype.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyAnySet_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a :class:`set` object, a :class:`frozenset` object, or an
+   instance of a subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyAnySet_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a :class:`set` object or a :class:`frozenset` object but
+   not an instance of a subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a :class:`frozenset` object but not an instance of a
+   subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySet_New(PyObject *iterable)
+
+   Return a new :class:`set` containing objects returned by the *iterable*.  The
+   *iterable* may be *NULL* to create a new empty set.  Return the new set on
+   success or *NULL* on failure.  Raise :exc:`TypeError` if *iterable* is not
+   actually iterable.  The constructor is also useful for copying a set
+   (``c=set(s)``).
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFrozenSet_New(PyObject *iterable)
+
+   Return a new :class:`frozenset` containing objects returned by the *iterable*.
+   The *iterable* may be *NULL* to create a new empty frozenset.  Return the new
+   set on success or *NULL* on failure.  Raise :exc:`TypeError` if *iterable* is
+   not actually iterable.
+
+
+The following functions and macros are available for instances of :class:`set`
+or :class:`frozenset` or instances of their subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PySet_Size(PyObject *anyset)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: len
+
+   Return the length of a :class:`set` or :class:`frozenset` object. Equivalent to
+   ``len(anyset)``.  Raises a :exc:`PyExc_SystemError` if *anyset* is not a
+   :class:`set`, :class:`frozenset`, or an instance of a subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PySet_GET_SIZE(PyObject *anyset)
+
+   Macro form of :c:func:`PySet_Size` without error checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySet_Contains(PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)
+
+   Return ``1`` if found, ``0`` if not found, and ``-1`` if an error is encountered.  Unlike
+   the Python :meth:`__contains__` method, this function does not automatically
+   convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets.  Raise a :exc:`TypeError` if
+   the *key* is unhashable. Raise :exc:`PyExc_SystemError` if *anyset* is not a
+   :class:`set`, :class:`frozenset`, or an instance of a subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySet_Add(PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
+
+   Add *key* to a :class:`set` instance.  Also works with :class:`frozenset`
+   instances (like :c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem` it can be used to fill-in the values
+   of brand new frozensets before they are exposed to other code).  Return ``0`` on
+   success or ``-1`` on failure. Raise a :exc:`TypeError` if the *key* is
+   unhashable. Raise a :exc:`MemoryError` if there is no room to grow.  Raise a
+   :exc:`SystemError` if *set* is not an instance of :class:`set` or its
+   subtype.
+
+
+The following functions are available for instances of :class:`set` or its
+subtypes but not for instances of :class:`frozenset` or its subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySet_Discard(PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
+
+   Return ``1`` if found and removed, ``0`` if not found (no action taken), and ``-1`` if an
+   error is encountered.  Does not raise :exc:`KeyError` for missing keys.  Raise a
+   :exc:`TypeError` if the *key* is unhashable.  Unlike the Python :meth:`~set.discard`
+   method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into
+   temporary frozensets. Raise :exc:`PyExc_SystemError` if *set* is not an
+   instance of :class:`set` or its subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySet_Pop(PyObject *set)
+
+   Return a new reference to an arbitrary object in the *set*, and removes the
+   object from the *set*.  Return *NULL* on failure.  Raise :exc:`KeyError` if the
+   set is empty. Raise a :exc:`SystemError` if *set* is not an instance of
+   :class:`set` or its subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySet_Clear(PyObject *set)
+
+   Empty an existing set of all elements.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySet_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/slice.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/slice.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ad9a29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/slice.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _slice-objects:
+
+Slice Objects
+-------------
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PySlice_Type
+
+   The type object for slice objects.  This is the same as :class:`slice` in the
+   Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySlice_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is a slice object; *ob* must not be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PySlice_New(PyObject *start, PyObject *stop, PyObject *step)
+
+   Return a new slice object with the given values.  The *start*, *stop*, and
+   *step* parameters are used as the values of the slice object attributes of
+   the same names.  Any of the values may be *NULL*, in which case the
+   ``None`` will be used for the corresponding attribute.  Return *NULL* if
+   the new object could not be allocated.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySlice_GetIndices(PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
+
+   Retrieve the start, stop and step indices from the slice object *slice*,
+   assuming a sequence of length *length*. Treats indices greater than
+   *length* as errors.
+
+   Returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on error with no exception set (unless one of
+   the indices was not :const:`None` and failed to be converted to an integer,
+   in which case ``-1`` is returned with an exception set).
+
+   You probably do not want to use this function.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The parameter type for the *slice* parameter was ``PySliceObject*``
+      before.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx(PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step, Py_ssize_t *slicelength)
+
+   Usable replacement for :c:func:`PySlice_GetIndices`.  Retrieve the start,
+   stop, and step indices from the slice object *slice* assuming a sequence of
+   length *length*, and store the length of the slice in *slicelength*.  Out
+   of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of
+   normal slices.
+
+   Returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on error with exception set.
+
+   .. note::
+      This function is considered not safe for resizable sequences.
+      Its invocation should be replaced by a combination of
+      :c:func:`PySlice_Unpack` and :c:func:`PySlice_AdjustIndices` where ::
+
+         if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
+             // return error
+         }
+
+      is replaced by ::
+
+         if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) {
+             // return error
+         }
+         slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step);
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The parameter type for the *slice* parameter was ``PySliceObject*``
+      before.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.1
+      If ``Py_LIMITED_API`` is not set or set to the value between ``0x03050400``
+      and ``0x03060000`` (not including) or ``0x03060100`` or higher
+      :c:func:`!PySlice_GetIndicesEx` is implemented as a macro using
+      :c:func:`!PySlice_Unpack` and :c:func:`!PySlice_AdjustIndices`.
+      Arguments *start*, *stop* and *step* are evaluated more than once.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6.1
+      If ``Py_LIMITED_API`` is set to the value less than ``0x03050400`` or
+      between ``0x03060000`` and ``0x03060100`` (not including)
+      :c:func:`!PySlice_GetIndicesEx` is a deprecated function.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PySlice_Unpack(PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
+
+   Extract the start, stop and step data members from a slice object as
+   C integers.  Silently reduce values larger than ``PY_SSIZE_T_MAX`` to
+   ``PY_SSIZE_T_MAX``, silently boost the start and stop values less than
+   ``PY_SSIZE_T_MIN`` to ``PY_SSIZE_T_MIN``, and silently boost the step
+   values less than ``-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX`` to ``-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX``.
+
+   Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.1
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PySlice_AdjustIndices(Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t step)
+
+   Adjust start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified length.
+   Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling
+   of normal slices.
+
+   Return the length of the slice.  Always successful.  Doesn't call Python
+   code.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.1
+
+
+Ellipsis Object
+---------------
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject *Py_Ellipsis
+
+   The Python ``Ellipsis`` object.  This object has no methods.  It needs to be
+   treated just like any other object with respect to reference counts.  Like
+   :c:data:`Py_None` it is a singleton object.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/stable.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/stable.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b771dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/stable.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _stable:
+
+***********************************
+Stable Application Binary Interface
+***********************************
+
+Traditionally, the C API of Python will change with every release.  Most changes
+will be source-compatible, typically by only adding API, rather than changing
+existing API or removing API (although some interfaces do get removed after
+being deprecated first).
+
+Unfortunately, the API compatibility does not extend to binary compatibility
+(the ABI). The reason is primarily the evolution of struct definitions, where
+addition of a new field, or changing the type of a field, might not break the
+API, but can break the ABI.  As a consequence, extension modules need to be
+recompiled for every Python release (although an exception is possible on Unix
+when none of the affected interfaces are used). In addition, on Windows,
+extension modules link with a specific pythonXY.dll and need to be recompiled to
+link with a newer one.
+
+Since Python 3.2, a subset of the API has been declared to guarantee a stable
+ABI. Extension modules wishing to use this API (called "limited API") need to
+define ``Py_LIMITED_API``. A number of interpreter details then become hidden
+from the extension module; in return, a module is built that works on any 3.x
+version (x>=2) without recompilation.
+
+In some cases, the stable ABI needs to be extended with new functions.
+Extension modules wishing to use these new APIs need to set ``Py_LIMITED_API``
+to the ``PY_VERSION_HEX`` value (see :ref:`apiabiversion`) of the minimum Python
+version they want to support (e.g. ``0x03030000`` for Python 3.3). Such modules
+will work on all subsequent Python releases, but fail to load (because of
+missing symbols) on the older releases.
+
+As of Python 3.2, the set of functions available to the limited API is
+documented in :pep:`384`.  In the C API documentation, API elements that are not
+part of the limited API are marked as "Not part of the limited API."
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/structures.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/structures.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..274beee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/structures.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,376 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _common-structs:
+
+Common Object Structures
+========================
+
+There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition of
+object types for Python.  This section describes these structures and how they
+are used.
+
+All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the beginning
+of the object's representation in memory.  These are represented by the
+:c:type:`PyObject` and :c:type:`PyVarObject` types, which are defined, in turn,
+by the expansions of some macros also used, whether directly or indirectly, in
+the definition of all other Python objects.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyObject
+
+   All object types are extensions of this type.  This is a type which
+   contains the information Python needs to treat a pointer to an object as an
+   object.  In a normal "release" build, it contains only the object's
+   reference count and a pointer to the corresponding type object.
+   Nothing is actually declared to be a :c:type:`PyObject`, but every pointer
+   to a Python object can be cast to a :c:type:`PyObject*`.  Access to the
+   members must be done by using the macros :c:macro:`Py_REFCNT` and
+   :c:macro:`Py_TYPE`.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyVarObject
+
+   This is an extension of :c:type:`PyObject` that adds the :attr:`ob_size`
+   field.  This is only used for objects that have some notion of *length*.
+   This type does not often appear in the Python/C API.
+   Access to the members must be done by using the macros
+   :c:macro:`Py_REFCNT`, :c:macro:`Py_TYPE`, and :c:macro:`Py_SIZE`.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyObject_HEAD
+
+   This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects
+   without a varying length.  The PyObject_HEAD macro expands to::
+
+      PyObject ob_base;
+
+   See documentation of :c:type:`PyObject` above.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyObject_VAR_HEAD
+
+   This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects
+   with a length that varies from instance to instance.
+   The PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to::
+
+      PyVarObject ob_base;
+
+   See documentation of :c:type:`PyVarObject` above.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_TYPE(o)
+
+   This macro is used to access the :attr:`ob_type` member of a Python object.
+   It expands to::
+
+      (((PyObject*)(o))->ob_type)
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_REFCNT(o)
+
+   This macro is used to access the :attr:`ob_refcnt` member of a Python
+   object.
+   It expands to::
+
+      (((PyObject*)(o))->ob_refcnt)
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_SIZE(o)
+
+   This macro is used to access the :attr:`ob_size` member of a Python object.
+   It expands to::
+
+      (((PyVarObject*)(o))->ob_size)
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyObject_HEAD_INIT(type)
+
+   This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
+   :c:type:`PyObject` type.  This macro expands to::
+
+      _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
+      1, type,
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(type, size)
+
+   This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
+   :c:type:`PyVarObject` type, including the :attr:`ob_size` field.
+   This macro expands to::
+
+      _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
+      1, type, size,
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyCFunction
+
+   Type of the functions used to implement most Python callables in C.
+   Functions of this type take two :c:type:`PyObject\*` parameters and return
+   one such value.  If the return value is *NULL*, an exception shall have
+   been set.  If not *NULL*, the return value is interpreted as the return
+   value of the function as exposed in Python.  The function must return a new
+   reference.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyCFunctionWithKeywords
+
+   Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C
+   with signature :const:`METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS`.
+
+
+.. c:type:: _PyCFunctionFast
+
+   Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C
+   with signature :const:`METH_FASTCALL`.
+
+
+.. c:type:: _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords
+
+   Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C
+   with signature :const:`METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS`.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyMethodDef
+
+   Structure used to describe a method of an extension type.  This structure has
+   four fields:
+
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | Field            | C Type        | Meaning                       |
+   +==================+===============+===============================+
+   | :attr:`ml_name`  | const char \* | name of the method            |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`ml_meth`  | PyCFunction   | pointer to the C              |
+   |                  |               | implementation                |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`ml_flags` | int           | flag bits indicating how the  |
+   |                  |               | call should be constructed    |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`ml_doc`   | const char \* | points to the contents of the |
+   |                  |               | docstring                     |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+
+The :attr:`ml_meth` is a C function pointer.  The functions may be of different
+types, but they always return :c:type:`PyObject\*`.  If the function is not of
+the :c:type:`PyCFunction`, the compiler will require a cast in the method table.
+Even though :c:type:`PyCFunction` defines the first parameter as
+:c:type:`PyObject\*`, it is common that the method implementation uses the
+specific C type of the *self* object.
+
+The :attr:`ml_flags` field is a bitfield which can include the following flags.
+The individual flags indicate either a calling convention or a binding
+convention.
+
+There are four basic calling conventions for positional arguments
+and two of them can be combined with :const:`METH_KEYWORDS` to support
+also keyword arguments.  So there are a total of 6 calling conventions:
+
+.. data:: METH_VARARGS
+
+   This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the type
+   :c:type:`PyCFunction`. The function expects two :c:type:`PyObject\*` values.
+   The first one is the *self* object for methods; for module functions, it is
+   the module object.  The second parameter (often called *args*) is a tuple
+   object representing all arguments. This parameter is typically processed
+   using :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` or :c:func:`PyArg_UnpackTuple`.
+
+
+.. data:: METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS
+
+   Methods with these flags must be of type :c:type:`PyCFunctionWithKeywords`.
+   The function expects three parameters: *self*, *args*, *kwargs* where
+   *kwargs* is a dictionary of all the keyword arguments or possibly *NULL*
+   if there are no keyword arguments.  The parameters are typically processed
+   using :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords`.
+
+
+.. data:: METH_FASTCALL
+
+   Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments.
+   The methods have the type :c:type:`_PyCFunctionFast`.
+   The first parameter is *self*, the second parameter is a C array
+   of :c:type:`PyObject\*` values indicating the arguments and the third
+   parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).
+
+   This is not part of the :ref:`limited API <stable>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS
+
+   Extension of :const:`METH_FASTCALL` supporting also keyword arguments,
+   with methods of type :c:type:`_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords`.
+   Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the vectorcall protocol:
+   there is an additional fourth :c:type:`PyObject\*` parameter
+   which is a tuple representing the names of the keyword arguments
+   or possibly *NULL* if there are no keywords.  The values of the keyword
+   arguments are stored in the *args* array, after the positional arguments.
+
+   This is not part of the :ref:`limited API <stable>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: METH_NOARGS
+
+   Methods without parameters don't need to check whether arguments are given if
+   they are listed with the :const:`METH_NOARGS` flag.  They need to be of type
+   :c:type:`PyCFunction`.  The first parameter is typically named *self* and will
+   hold a reference to the module or object instance.  In all cases the second
+   parameter will be *NULL*.
+
+
+.. data:: METH_O
+
+   Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the :const:`METH_O`
+   flag, instead of invoking :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` with a ``"O"`` argument.
+   They have the type :c:type:`PyCFunction`, with the *self* parameter, and a
+   :c:type:`PyObject\*` parameter representing the single argument.
+
+
+These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but the
+binding when use with methods of classes.  These may not be used for functions
+defined for modules.  At most one of these flags may be set for any given
+method.
+
+
+.. data:: METH_CLASS
+
+   .. index:: builtin: classmethod
+
+   The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter rather
+   than an instance of the type.  This is used to create *class methods*,
+   similar to what is created when using the :func:`classmethod` built-in
+   function.
+
+
+.. data:: METH_STATIC
+
+   .. index:: builtin: staticmethod
+
+   The method will be passed *NULL* as the first parameter rather than an
+   instance of the type.  This is used to create *static methods*, similar to
+   what is created when using the :func:`staticmethod` built-in function.
+
+One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of another
+definition with the same method name.
+
+
+.. data:: METH_COEXIST
+
+   The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions.  Without
+   *METH_COEXIST*, the default is to skip repeated definitions.  Since slot
+   wrappers are loaded before the method table, the existence of a
+   *sq_contains* slot, for example, would generate a wrapped method named
+   :meth:`__contains__` and preclude the loading of a corresponding
+   PyCFunction with the same name.  With the flag defined, the PyCFunction
+   will be loaded in place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the
+   slot.  This is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more
+   than wrapper object calls.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyMemberDef
+
+   Structure which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds to a C
+   struct member.  Its fields are:
+
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | Field            | C Type        | Meaning                       |
+   +==================+===============+===============================+
+   | :attr:`name`     | const char \* | name of the member            |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`!type`    | int           | the type of the member in the |
+   |                  |               | C struct                      |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`offset`   | Py_ssize_t    | the offset in bytes that the  |
+   |                  |               | member is located on the      |
+   |                  |               | type's object struct          |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`flags`    | int           | flag bits indicating if the   |
+   |                  |               | field should be read-only or  |
+   |                  |               | writable                      |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`doc`      | const char \* | points to the contents of the |
+   |                  |               | docstring                     |
+   +------------------+---------------+-------------------------------+
+
+   :attr:`!type` can be one of many ``T_`` macros corresponding to various C
+   types.  When the member is accessed in Python, it will be converted to the
+   equivalent Python type.
+
+   =============== ==================
+   Macro name      C type
+   =============== ==================
+   T_SHORT         short
+   T_INT           int
+   T_LONG          long
+   T_FLOAT         float
+   T_DOUBLE        double
+   T_STRING        const char \*
+   T_OBJECT        PyObject \*
+   T_OBJECT_EX     PyObject \*
+   T_CHAR          char
+   T_BYTE          char
+   T_UBYTE         unsigned char
+   T_UINT          unsigned int
+   T_USHORT        unsigned short
+   T_ULONG         unsigned long
+   T_BOOL          char
+   T_LONGLONG      long long
+   T_ULONGLONG     unsigned long long
+   T_PYSSIZET      Py_ssize_t
+   =============== ==================
+
+   :c:macro:`T_OBJECT` and :c:macro:`T_OBJECT_EX` differ in that
+   :c:macro:`T_OBJECT` returns ``None`` if the member is *NULL* and
+   :c:macro:`T_OBJECT_EX` raises an :exc:`AttributeError`.  Try to use
+   :c:macro:`T_OBJECT_EX` over :c:macro:`T_OBJECT` because :c:macro:`T_OBJECT_EX`
+   handles use of the :keyword:`del` statement on that attribute more correctly
+   than :c:macro:`T_OBJECT`.
+
+   :attr:`flags` can be ``0`` for write and read access or :c:macro:`READONLY` for
+   read-only access.  Using :c:macro:`T_STRING` for :attr:`type` implies
+   :c:macro:`READONLY`.  :c:macro:`T_STRING` data is interpreted as UTF-8.
+   Only :c:macro:`T_OBJECT` and :c:macro:`T_OBJECT_EX`
+   members can be deleted.  (They are set to *NULL*).
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyGetSetDef
+
+   Structure to define property-like access for a type. See also description of
+   the :c:member:`PyTypeObject.tp_getset` slot.
+
+   +-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+
+   | Field       | C Type           | Meaning                           |
+   +=============+==================+===================================+
+   | name        | const char \*    | attribute name                    |
+   +-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+
+   | get         | getter           | C Function to get the attribute   |
+   +-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+
+   | set         | setter           | optional C function to set or     |
+   |             |                  | delete the attribute, if omitted  |
+   |             |                  | the attribute is readonly         |
+   +-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+
+   | doc         | const char \*    | optional docstring                |
+   +-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+
+   | closure     | void \*          | optional function pointer,        |
+   |             |                  | providing additional data for     |
+   |             |                  | getter and setter                 |
+   +-------------+------------------+-----------------------------------+
+
+   The ``get`` function takes one :c:type:`PyObject\*` parameter (the
+   instance) and a function pointer (the associated ``closure``)::
+
+      typedef PyObject *(*getter)(PyObject *, void *);
+
+   It should return a new reference on success or *NULL* with a set exception
+   on failure.
+
+   ``set`` functions take two :c:type:`PyObject\*` parameters (the instance and
+   the value to be set) and a function pointer (the associated ``closure``)::
+
+      typedef int (*setter)(PyObject *, PyObject *, void *);
+
+   In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is *NULL*.
+   Should return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` with a set exception on failure.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/sys.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/sys.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..994509a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/sys.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,329 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _os:
+
+Operating System Utilities
+==========================
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyOS_FSPath(PyObject *path)
+
+   Return the file system representation for *path*. If the object is a
+   :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object, then its reference count is
+   incremented. If the object implements the :class:`os.PathLike` interface,
+   then :meth:`~os.PathLike.__fspath__` is returned as long as it is a
+   :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object. Otherwise :exc:`TypeError` is raised
+   and ``NULL`` is returned.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_FdIsInteractive(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
+
+   Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file *fp* with name *filename* is
+   deemed interactive.  This is the case for files for which ``isatty(fileno(fp))``
+   is true.  If the global flag :c:data:`Py_InteractiveFlag` is true, this function
+   also returns true if the *filename* pointer is *NULL* or if the name is equal to
+   one of the strings ``'<stdin>'`` or ``'???'``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyOS_BeforeFork()
+
+   Function to prepare some internal state before a process fork.  This
+   should be called before calling :c:func:`fork` or any similar function
+   that clones the current process.
+   Only available on systems where :c:func:`fork` is defined.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()
+
+   Function to update some internal state after a process fork.  This
+   should be called from the parent process after calling :c:func:`fork`
+   or any similar function that clones the current process, regardless
+   of whether process cloning was successful.
+   Only available on systems where :c:func:`fork` is defined.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyOS_AfterFork_Child()
+
+   Function to update internal interpreter state after a process fork.
+   This must be called from the child process after calling :c:func:`fork`,
+   or any similar function that clones the current process, if there is
+   any chance the process will call back into the Python interpreter.
+   Only available on systems where :c:func:`fork` is defined.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :func:`os.register_at_fork` allows registering custom Python functions
+      to be called by :c:func:`PyOS_BeforeFork()`,
+      :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Parent` and  :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyOS_AfterFork()
+
+   Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this should be
+   called in the new process if the Python interpreter will continue to be used.
+   If a new executable is loaded into the new process, this function does not need
+   to be called.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      This function is superseded by :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child()`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_CheckStack()
+
+   Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space.  This is a reliable
+   check, but is only available when :const:`USE_STACKCHECK` is defined (currently
+   on Windows using the Microsoft Visual C++ compiler).  :const:`USE_STACKCHECK`
+   will be defined automatically; you should never change the definition in your
+   own code.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyOS_sighandler_t PyOS_getsig(int i)
+
+   Return the current signal handler for signal *i*.  This is a thin wrapper around
+   either :c:func:`sigaction` or :c:func:`signal`.  Do not call those functions
+   directly! :c:type:`PyOS_sighandler_t` is a typedef alias for :c:type:`void
+   (\*)(int)`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyOS_sighandler_t PyOS_setsig(int i, PyOS_sighandler_t h)
+
+   Set the signal handler for signal *i* to be *h*; return the old signal handler.
+   This is a thin wrapper around either :c:func:`sigaction` or :c:func:`signal`.  Do
+   not call those functions directly!  :c:type:`PyOS_sighandler_t` is a typedef
+   alias for :c:type:`void (\*)(int)`.
+
+.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_DecodeLocale(const char* arg, size_t *size)
+
+   Decode a byte string from the locale encoding with the :ref:`surrogateescape
+   error handler <surrogateescape>`: undecodable bytes are decoded as
+   characters in range U+DC80..U+DCFF. If a byte sequence can be decoded as a
+   surrogate character, escape the bytes using the surrogateescape error
+   handler instead of decoding them.
+
+   Encoding, highest priority to lowest priority:
+
+   * ``UTF-8`` on macOS and Android;
+   * ``UTF-8`` if the Python UTF-8 mode is enabled;
+   * ``ASCII`` if the ``LC_CTYPE`` locale is ``"C"``,
+     ``nl_langinfo(CODESET)`` returns the ``ASCII`` encoding (or an alias),
+     and :c:func:`mbstowcs` and :c:func:`wcstombs` functions uses the
+     ``ISO-8859-1`` encoding.
+   * the current locale encoding.
+
+   Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use
+   :c:func:`PyMem_RawFree` to free the memory. If size is not ``NULL``, write
+   the number of wide characters excluding the null character into ``*size``
+
+   Return ``NULL`` on decoding error or memory allocation error. If *size* is
+   not ``NULL``, ``*size`` is set to ``(size_t)-1`` on memory error or set to
+   ``(size_t)-2`` on decoding error.
+
+   Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C
+   library.
+
+   Use the :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale` function to encode the character string
+   back to a byte string.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize` and
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize` functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the UTF-8 mode.
+
+
+.. c:function:: char* Py_EncodeLocale(const wchar_t *text, size_t *error_pos)
+
+   Encode a wide character string to the locale encoding with the
+   :ref:`surrogateescape error handler <surrogateescape>`: surrogate characters
+   in the range U+DC80..U+DCFF are converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF.
+
+   Encoding, highest priority to lowest priority:
+
+   * ``UTF-8`` on macOS and Android;
+   * ``UTF-8`` if the Python UTF-8 mode is enabled;
+   * ``ASCII`` if the ``LC_CTYPE`` locale is ``"C"``,
+     ``nl_langinfo(CODESET)`` returns the ``ASCII`` encoding (or an alias),
+     and :c:func:`mbstowcs` and :c:func:`wcstombs` functions uses the
+     ``ISO-8859-1`` encoding.
+   * the current locale encoding.
+
+   The function uses the UTF-8 encoding in the Python UTF-8 mode.
+
+   Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use :c:func:`PyMem_Free`
+   to free the memory. Return ``NULL`` on encoding error or memory allocation
+   error
+
+   If error_pos is not ``NULL``, ``*error_pos`` is set to ``(size_t)-1`` on
+   success,  or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding error.
+
+   Use the :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` function to decode the bytes string back
+   to a wide character string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the UTF-8 mode.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault` and
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeLocale` functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function now supports the UTF-8 mode.
+
+
+.. _systemfunctions:
+
+System Functions
+================
+
+These are utility functions that make functionality from the :mod:`sys` module
+accessible to C code.  They all work with the current interpreter thread's
+:mod:`sys` module's dict, which is contained in the internal thread state structure.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PySys_GetObject(const char *name)
+
+   Return the object *name* from the :mod:`sys` module or *NULL* if it does
+   not exist, without setting an exception.
+
+.. c:function:: int PySys_SetObject(const char *name, PyObject *v)
+
+   Set *name* in the :mod:`sys` module to *v* unless *v* is *NULL*, in which
+   case *name* is deleted from the sys module. Returns ``0`` on success, ``-1``
+   on error.
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_ResetWarnOptions()
+
+   Reset :data:`sys.warnoptions` to an empty list. This function may be
+   called prior to :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_AddWarnOption(const wchar_t *s)
+
+   Append *s* to :data:`sys.warnoptions`. This function must be called prior
+   to :c:func:`Py_Initialize` in order to affect the warnings filter list.
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Append *unicode* to :data:`sys.warnoptions`.
+
+   Note: this function is not currently usable from outside the CPython
+   implementation, as it must be called prior to the implicit import of
+   :mod:`warnings` in :c:func:`Py_Initialize` to be effective, but can't be
+   called until enough of the runtime has been initialized to permit the
+   creation of Unicode objects.
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_SetPath(const wchar_t *path)
+
+   Set :data:`sys.path` to a list object of paths found in *path* which should
+   be a list of paths separated with the platform's search path delimiter
+   (``:`` on Unix, ``;`` on Windows).
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_WriteStdout(const char *format, ...)
+
+   Write the output string described by *format* to :data:`sys.stdout`.  No
+   exceptions are raised, even if truncation occurs (see below).
+
+   *format* should limit the total size of the formatted output string to
+   1000 bytes or less -- after 1000 bytes, the output string is truncated.
+   In particular, this means that no unrestricted "%s" formats should occur;
+   these should be limited using "%.<N>s" where <N> is a decimal number
+   calculated so that <N> plus the maximum size of other formatted text does not
+   exceed 1000 bytes.  Also watch out for "%f", which can print hundreds of
+   digits for very large numbers.
+
+   If a problem occurs, or :data:`sys.stdout` is unset, the formatted message
+   is written to the real (C level) *stdout*.
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_WriteStderr(const char *format, ...)
+
+   As :c:func:`PySys_WriteStdout`, but write to :data:`sys.stderr` or *stderr*
+   instead.
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_FormatStdout(const char *format, ...)
+
+   Function similar to PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormatV` and don't truncate the message to an
+   arbitrary length.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_FormatStderr(const char *format, ...)
+
+   As :c:func:`PySys_FormatStdout`, but write to :data:`sys.stderr` or *stderr*
+   instead.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. c:function:: void PySys_AddXOption(const wchar_t *s)
+
+   Parse *s* as a set of :option:`-X` options and add them to the current
+   options mapping as returned by :c:func:`PySys_GetXOptions`. This function
+   may be called prior to :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PySys_GetXOptions()
+
+   Return the current dictionary of :option:`-X` options, similarly to
+   :data:`sys._xoptions`.  On error, *NULL* is returned and an exception is
+   set.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. _processcontrol:
+
+Process Control
+===============
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_FatalError(const char *message)
+
+   .. index:: single: abort()
+
+   Print a fatal error message and kill the process.  No cleanup is performed.
+   This function should only be invoked when a condition is detected that would
+   make it dangerous to continue using the Python interpreter; e.g., when the
+   object administration appears to be corrupted.  On Unix, the standard C library
+   function :c:func:`abort` is called which will attempt to produce a :file:`core`
+   file.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_Exit(int status)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Py_FinalizeEx()
+      single: exit()
+
+   Exit the current process.  This calls :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` and then calls the
+   standard C library function ``exit(status)``.  If :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx`
+   indicates an error, the exit status is set to 120.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Errors from finalization no longer ignored.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_AtExit(void (*func) ())
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Py_FinalizeEx()
+      single: cleanup functions
+
+   Register a cleanup function to be called by :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx`.  The cleanup
+   function will be called with no arguments and should return no value.  At most
+   32 cleanup functions can be registered.  When the registration is successful,
+   :c:func:`Py_AtExit` returns ``0``; on failure, it returns ``-1``.  The cleanup
+   function registered last is called first. Each cleanup function will be called
+   at most once.  Since Python's internal finalization will have completed before
+   the cleanup function, no Python APIs should be called by *func*.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/tuple.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/tuple.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20bf9f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/tuple.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _tupleobjects:
+
+Tuple Objects
+-------------
+
+.. index:: object: tuple
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyTupleObject
+
+   This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python tuple object.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyTuple_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python tuple type; it
+   is the same object as :class:`tuple` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTuple_Check(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of the tuple
+   type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTuple_CheckExact(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return true if *p* is a tuple object, but not an instance of a subtype of the
+   tuple type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_New(Py_ssize_t len)
+
+   Return a new tuple object of size *len*, or *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_Pack(Py_ssize_t n, ...)
+
+   Return a new tuple object of size *n*, or *NULL* on failure. The tuple values
+   are initialized to the subsequent *n* C arguments pointing to Python objects.
+   ``PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)`` is equivalent to ``Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b)``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyTuple_Size(PyObject *p)
+
+   Take a pointer to a tuple object, and return the size of that tuple.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyTuple_GET_SIZE(PyObject *p)
+
+   Return the size of the tuple *p*, which must be non-*NULL* and point to a tuple;
+   no error checking is performed.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_GetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
+
+   Return the object at position *pos* in the tuple pointed to by *p*.  If *pos* is
+   out of bounds, return *NULL* and sets an :exc:`IndexError` exception.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_GET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyTuple_GetItem`, but does no checking of its arguments.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_GetSlice(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
+
+   Take a slice of the tuple pointed to by *p* from *low* to *high* and return it
+   as a new tuple.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTuple_SetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)
+
+   Insert a reference to object *o* at position *pos* of the tuple pointed to by
+   *p*. Return ``0`` on success.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function "steals" a reference to *o*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem`, but does no error checking, and should *only* be
+   used to fill in brand new tuples.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function "steals" a reference to *o*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int _PyTuple_Resize(PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)
+
+   Can be used to resize a tuple.  *newsize* will be the new length of the tuple.
+   Because tuples are *supposed* to be immutable, this should only be used if there
+   is only one reference to the object.  Do *not* use this if the tuple may already
+   be known to some other part of the code.  The tuple will always grow or shrink
+   at the end.  Think of this as destroying the old tuple and creating a new one,
+   only more efficiently.  Returns ``0`` on success. Client code should never
+   assume that the resulting value of ``*p`` will be the same as before calling
+   this function. If the object referenced by ``*p`` is replaced, the original
+   ``*p`` is destroyed.  On failure, returns ``-1`` and sets ``*p`` to *NULL*, and
+   raises :exc:`MemoryError` or :exc:`SystemError`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTuple_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.
+
+
+Struct Sequence Objects
+-----------------------
+
+Struct sequence objects are the C equivalent of :func:`~collections.namedtuple`
+objects, i.e. a sequence whose items can also be accessed through attributes.
+To create a struct sequence, you first have to create a specific struct sequence
+type.
+
+.. c:function:: PyTypeObject* PyStructSequence_NewType(PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
+
+   Create a new struct sequence type from the data in *desc*, described below. Instances
+   of the resulting type can be created with :c:func:`PyStructSequence_New`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyStructSequence_InitType(PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
+
+   Initializes a struct sequence type *type* from *desc* in place.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyStructSequence_InitType2(PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
+
+   The same as ``PyStructSequence_InitType``, but returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on
+   failure.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyStructSequence_Desc
+
+   Contains the meta information of a struct sequence type to create.
+
+   +-------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------------+
+   | Field             | C Type                       | Meaning                            |
+   +===================+==============================+====================================+
+   | ``name``          | ``const char *``             | name of the struct sequence type   |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------------+
+   | ``doc``           | ``const char *``             | pointer to docstring for the type  |
+   |                   |                              | or NULL to omit                    |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------------+
+   | ``fields``        | ``PyStructSequence_Field *`` | pointer to *NULL*-terminated array |
+   |                   |                              | with field names of the new type   |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------------+
+   | ``n_in_sequence`` | ``int``                      | number of fields visible to the    |
+   |                   |                              | Python side (if used as tuple)     |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyStructSequence_Field
+
+   Describes a field of a struct sequence. As a struct sequence is modeled as a
+   tuple, all fields are typed as :c:type:`PyObject\*`.  The index in the
+   :attr:`fields` array of the :c:type:`PyStructSequence_Desc` determines which
+   field of the struct sequence is described.
+
+   +-----------+------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | Field     | C Type           | Meaning                              |
+   +===========+==================+======================================+
+   | ``name``  | ``const char *`` | name for the field or *NULL* to end  |
+   |           |                  | the list of named fields, set to     |
+   |           |                  | PyStructSequence_UnnamedField to     |
+   |           |                  | leave unnamed                        |
+   +-----------+------------------+--------------------------------------+
+   | ``doc``   | ``const char *`` | field docstring or *NULL* to omit    |
+   +-----------+------------------+--------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. c:var:: char* PyStructSequence_UnnamedField
+
+   Special value for a field name to leave it unnamed.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyStructSequence_New(PyTypeObject *type)
+
+   Creates an instance of *type*, which must have been created with
+   :c:func:`PyStructSequence_NewType`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyStructSequence_GetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
+
+   Return the object at position *pos* in the struct sequence pointed to by *p*.
+   No bounds checking is performed.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
+
+   Macro equivalent of :c:func:`PyStructSequence_GetItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyStructSequence_SetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)
+
+   Sets the field at index *pos* of the struct sequence *p* to value *o*.  Like
+   :c:func:`PyTuple_SET_ITEM`, this should only be used to fill in brand new
+   instances.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function "steals" a reference to *o*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *pos, PyObject *o)
+
+   Macro equivalent of :c:func:`PyStructSequence_SetItem`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function "steals" a reference to *o*.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/type.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/type.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4dfd53f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/type.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _typeobjects:
+
+Type Objects
+------------
+
+.. index:: object: type
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyTypeObject
+
+   The C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyObject* PyType_Type
+
+   This is the type object for type objects; it is the same object as
+   :class:`type` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyType_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a type object, including instances of types
+   derived from the standard type object.  Return false in all other cases.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyType_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a type object, but not a subtype of the
+   standard type object.  Return false in all other cases.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned int PyType_ClearCache()
+
+   Clear the internal lookup cache. Return the current version tag.
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long PyType_GetFlags(PyTypeObject* type)
+
+   Return the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` member of *type*. This function is primarily
+   meant for use with `Py_LIMITED_API`; the individual flag bits are
+   guaranteed to be stable across Python releases, but access to
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` itself is not part of the limited API.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The return type is now ``unsigned long`` rather than ``long``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyType_Modified(PyTypeObject *type)
+
+   Invalidate the internal lookup cache for the type and all of its
+   subtypes.  This function must be called after any manual
+   modification of the attributes or base classes of the type.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyType_HasFeature(PyTypeObject *o, int feature)
+
+   Return true if the type object *o* sets the feature *feature*.  Type features
+   are denoted by single bit flags.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyType_IS_GC(PyTypeObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle detector; this
+   tests the type flag :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyType_IsSubtype(PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)
+
+   Return true if *a* is a subtype of *b*.
+
+   This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that
+   :meth:`~class.__subclasscheck__` is not called on *b*.  Call
+   :c:func:`PyObject_IsSubclass` to do the same check that :func:`issubclass`
+   would do.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GenericAlloc(PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)
+
+   Generic handler for the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc` slot of a type object.  Use
+   Python's default memory allocation mechanism to allocate a new instance and
+   initialize all its contents to *NULL*.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GenericNew(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+
+   Generic handler for the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` slot of a type object.  Create a
+   new instance using the type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc` slot.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyType_Ready(PyTypeObject *type)
+
+   Finalize a type object.  This should be called on all type objects to finish
+   their initialization.  This function is responsible for adding inherited slots
+   from a type's base class.  Return ``0`` on success, or return ``-1`` and sets an
+   exception on error.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_FromSpec(PyType_Spec *spec)
+
+   Creates and returns a heap type object from the *spec* passed to the function.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_FromSpecWithBases(PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
+
+   Creates and returns a heap type object from the *spec*. In addition to that,
+   the created heap type contains all types contained by the *bases* tuple as base
+   types. This allows the caller to reference other heap types as base types.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyType_GetSlot(PyTypeObject *type, int slot)
+
+   Return the function pointer stored in the given slot. If the
+   result is *NULL*, this indicates that either the slot is *NULL*,
+   or that the function was called with invalid parameters.
+   Callers will typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate
+   function type.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/typeobj.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/typeobj.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..532508e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/typeobj.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1418 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _type-structs:
+
+Type Objects
+============
+
+Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system is the
+structure that defines a new type: the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` structure.  Type
+objects can be handled using any of the :c:func:`PyObject_\*` or
+:c:func:`PyType_\*` functions, but do not offer much that's interesting to most
+Python applications. These objects are fundamental to how objects behave, so
+they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any extension module
+that implements new types.
+
+Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types. The reason
+for the size is that each type object stores a large number of values, mostly C
+function pointers, each of which implements a small part of the type's
+functionality.  The fields of the type object are examined in detail in this
+section.  The fields will be described in the order in which they occur in the
+structure.
+
+Typedefs: unaryfunc, binaryfunc, ternaryfunc, inquiry, intargfunc,
+intintargfunc, intobjargproc, intintobjargproc, objobjargproc, destructor,
+freefunc, printfunc, getattrfunc, getattrofunc, setattrfunc, setattrofunc,
+reprfunc, hashfunc
+
+The structure definition for :c:type:`PyTypeObject` can be found in
+:file:`Include/object.h`.  For convenience of reference, this repeats the
+definition found there:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/typestruct.h
+
+
+The type object structure extends the :c:type:`PyVarObject` structure. The
+:attr:`ob_size` field is used for dynamic types (created by  :func:`type_new`,
+usually called from a class statement). Note that :c:data:`PyType_Type` (the
+metatype) initializes :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize`, which means that its instances (i.e.
+type objects) *must* have the :attr:`ob_size` field.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyObject* PyObject._ob_next
+             PyObject* PyObject._ob_prev
+
+   These fields are only present when the macro ``Py_TRACE_REFS`` is defined.
+   Their initialization to *NULL* is taken care of by the ``PyObject_HEAD_INIT``
+   macro.  For statically allocated objects, these fields always remain *NULL*.
+   For dynamically allocated objects, these two fields are used to link the object
+   into a doubly-linked list of *all* live objects on the heap.  This could be used
+   for various debugging purposes; currently the only use is to print the objects
+   that are still alive at the end of a run when the environment variable
+   :envvar:`PYTHONDUMPREFS` is set.
+
+   These fields are not inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyObject.ob_refcnt
+
+   This is the type object's reference count, initialized to ``1`` by the
+   ``PyObject_HEAD_INIT`` macro.  Note that for statically allocated type objects,
+   the type's instances (objects whose :attr:`ob_type` points back to the type) do
+   *not* count as references.  But for dynamically allocated type objects, the
+   instances *do* count as references.
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyTypeObject* PyObject.ob_type
+
+   This is the type's type, in other words its metatype.  It is initialized by the
+   argument to the ``PyObject_HEAD_INIT`` macro, and its value should normally be
+   ``&PyType_Type``.  However, for dynamically loadable extension modules that must
+   be usable on Windows (at least), the compiler complains that this is not a valid
+   initializer.  Therefore, the convention is to pass *NULL* to the
+   ``PyObject_HEAD_INIT`` macro and to initialize this field explicitly at the
+   start of the module's initialization function, before doing anything else.  This
+   is typically done like this::
+
+      Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;
+
+   This should be done before any instances of the type are created.
+   :c:func:`PyType_Ready` checks if :attr:`ob_type` is *NULL*, and if so,
+   initializes it to the :attr:`ob_type` field of the base class.
+   :c:func:`PyType_Ready` will not change this field if it is non-zero.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyVarObject.ob_size
+
+   For statically allocated type objects, this should be initialized to zero.  For
+   dynamically allocated type objects, this field has a special internal meaning.
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: const char* PyTypeObject.tp_name
+
+   Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type. For types
+   that are accessible as module globals, the string should be the full module
+   name, followed by a dot, followed by the type name; for built-in types, it
+   should be just the type name.  If the module is a submodule of a package, the
+   full package name is part of the full module name.  For example, a type named
+   :class:`T` defined in module :mod:`M` in subpackage :mod:`Q` in package :mod:`P`
+   should have the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_name` initializer ``"P.Q.M.T"``.
+
+   For dynamically allocated type objects, this should just be the type name, and
+   the module name explicitly stored in the type dict as the value for key
+   ``'__module__'``.
+
+   For statically allocated type objects, the tp_name field should contain a dot.
+   Everything before the last dot is made accessible as the :attr:`__module__`
+   attribute, and everything after the last dot is made accessible as the
+   :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute.
+
+   If no dot is present, the entire :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_name` field is made accessible as the
+   :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute, and the :attr:`__module__` attribute is undefined
+   (unless explicitly set in the dictionary, as explained above).  This means your
+   type will be impossible to pickle.  Additionally, it will not be listed in
+   module documentations created with pydoc.
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize
+             Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize
+
+   These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of the type.
+
+   There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances have a zero
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` field, types with variable-length instances have a non-zero
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` field.  For a type with fixed-length instances, all
+   instances have the same size, given in :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize`.
+
+   For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have an
+   :attr:`ob_size` field, and the instance size is :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` plus N
+   times :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize`, where N is the "length" of the object.  The value of
+   N is typically stored in the instance's :attr:`ob_size` field.  There are
+   exceptions:  for example, ints use a negative :attr:`ob_size` to indicate a
+   negative number, and N is ``abs(ob_size)`` there.  Also, the presence of an
+   :attr:`ob_size` field in the instance layout doesn't mean that the instance
+   structure is variable-length (for example, the structure for the list type has
+   fixed-length instances, yet those instances have a meaningful :attr:`ob_size`
+   field).
+
+   The basic size includes the fields in the instance declared by the macro
+   :c:macro:`PyObject_HEAD` or :c:macro:`PyObject_VAR_HEAD` (whichever is used to
+   declare the instance struct) and this in turn includes the :attr:`_ob_prev` and
+   :attr:`_ob_next` fields if they are present.  This means that the only correct
+   way to get an initializer for the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` is to use the
+   ``sizeof`` operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.
+   The basic size does not include the GC header size.
+
+   These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.  If the base type has a
+   non-zero :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize`, it is generally not safe to set
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` to a different non-zero value in a subtype (though this
+   depends on the implementation of the base type).
+
+   A note about alignment: if the variable items require a particular alignment,
+   this should be taken care of by the value of :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize`.  Example:
+   suppose a type implements an array of ``double``. :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` is
+   ``sizeof(double)``. It is the programmer's responsibility that
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` is a multiple of ``sizeof(double)`` (assuming this is the
+   alignment requirement for ``double``).
+
+
+.. c:member:: destructor PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc
+
+   A pointer to the instance destructor function.  This function must be defined
+   unless the type guarantees that its instances will never be deallocated (as is
+   the case for the singletons ``None`` and ``Ellipsis``).
+
+   The destructor function is called by the :c:func:`Py_DECREF` and
+   :c:func:`Py_XDECREF` macros when the new reference count is zero.  At this point,
+   the instance is still in existence, but there are no references to it.  The
+   destructor function should free all references which the instance owns, free all
+   memory buffers owned by the instance (using the freeing function corresponding
+   to the allocation function used to allocate the buffer), and finally (as its
+   last action) call the type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_free` function.  If the type is not
+   subtypable (doesn't have the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE` flag bit set), it is
+   permissible to call the object deallocator directly instead of via
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_free`.  The object deallocator should be the one used to allocate the
+   instance; this is normally :c:func:`PyObject_Del` if the instance was allocated
+   using :c:func:`PyObject_New` or :c:func:`PyObject_VarNew`, or
+   :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Del` if the instance was allocated using
+   :c:func:`PyObject_GC_New` or :c:func:`PyObject_GC_NewVar`.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: printfunc PyTypeObject.tp_print
+
+   Reserved slot, formerly used for print formatting in Python 2.x.
+
+
+.. c:member:: getattrfunc PyTypeObject.tp_getattr
+
+   An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.
+
+   This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a function
+   that acts the same as the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattro` function, but taking a C string
+   instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name.  The signature is ::
+
+      PyObject * tp_getattr(PyObject *o, char *attr_name);
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattro`: a subtype
+   inherits both :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattro` from its base type when
+   the subtype's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattro` are both *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:member:: setattrfunc PyTypeObject.tp_setattr
+
+   An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.
+
+   This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a function
+   that acts the same as the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro` function, but taking a C string
+   instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name.  The signature is ::
+
+      PyObject * tp_setattr(PyObject *o, char *attr_name, PyObject *v);
+
+   The *v* argument is set to *NULL* to delete the attribute.
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro`: a subtype
+   inherits both :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro` from its base type when
+   the subtype's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro` are both *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyAsyncMethods* tp_as_async
+
+   Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+   objects which implement :term:`awaitable` and :term:`asynchronous iterator`
+   protocols at the C-level.  See :ref:`async-structs` for details.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      Formerly known as ``tp_compare`` and ``tp_reserved``.
+
+
+.. c:member:: reprfunc PyTypeObject.tp_repr
+
+   .. index:: builtin: repr
+
+   An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function
+   :func:`repr`.
+
+   The signature is the same as for :c:func:`PyObject_Repr`; it must return a string
+   or a Unicode object.  Ideally, this function should return a string that, when
+   passed to :func:`eval`, given a suitable environment, returns an object with the
+   same value.  If this is not feasible, it should return a string starting with
+   ``'<'`` and ending with ``'>'`` from which both the type and the value of the
+   object can be deduced.
+
+   When this field is not set, a string of the form ``<%s object at %p>`` is
+   returned, where ``%s`` is replaced by the type name, and ``%p`` by the object's
+   memory address.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+.. c:member:: PyNumberMethods* tp_as_number
+
+   Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+   objects which implement the number protocol.  These fields are documented in
+   :ref:`number-structs`.
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_number` field is not inherited, but the contained fields are
+   inherited individually.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PySequenceMethods* tp_as_sequence
+
+   Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+   objects which implement the sequence protocol.  These fields are documented
+   in :ref:`sequence-structs`.
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence` field is not inherited, but the contained fields
+   are inherited individually.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyMappingMethods* tp_as_mapping
+
+   Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+   objects which implement the mapping protocol.  These fields are documented in
+   :ref:`mapping-structs`.
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping` field is not inherited, but the contained fields
+   are inherited individually.
+
+
+.. c:member:: hashfunc PyTypeObject.tp_hash
+
+   .. index:: builtin: hash
+
+   An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function
+   :func:`hash`.
+
+   The signature is the same as for :c:func:`PyObject_Hash`; it must return a
+   value of the type Py_hash_t.  The value ``-1`` should not be returned as a
+   normal return value; when an error occurs during the computation of the hash
+   value, the function should set an exception and return ``-1``.
+
+   This field can be set explicitly to :c:func:`PyObject_HashNotImplemented` to
+   block inheritance of the hash method from a parent type. This is interpreted
+   as the equivalent of ``__hash__ = None`` at the Python level, causing
+   ``isinstance(o, collections.Hashable)`` to correctly return ``False``. Note
+   that the converse is also true - setting ``__hash__ = None`` on a class at
+   the Python level will result in the ``tp_hash`` slot being set to
+   :c:func:`PyObject_HashNotImplemented`.
+
+   When this field is not set, an attempt to take the hash of the
+   object raises :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare`: a subtype inherits both of
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_hash`, when the subtype's
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_hash` are both *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:member:: ternaryfunc PyTypeObject.tp_call
+
+   An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the object.  This
+   should be *NULL* if the object is not callable.  The signature is the same as
+   for :c:func:`PyObject_Call`.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: reprfunc PyTypeObject.tp_str
+
+   An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in operation
+   :func:`str`.  (Note that :class:`str` is a type now, and :func:`str` calls the
+   constructor for that type.  This constructor calls :c:func:`PyObject_Str` to do
+   the actual work, and :c:func:`PyObject_Str` will call this handler.)
+
+   The signature is the same as for :c:func:`PyObject_Str`; it must return a string
+   or a Unicode object.  This function should return a "friendly" string
+   representation of the object, as this is the representation that will be used,
+   among other things, by the :func:`print` function.
+
+   When this field is not set, :c:func:`PyObject_Repr` is called to return a string
+   representation.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: getattrofunc PyTypeObject.tp_getattro
+
+   An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.
+
+   The signature is the same as for :c:func:`PyObject_GetAttr`.  It is usually
+   convenient to set this field to :c:func:`PyObject_GenericGetAttr`, which
+   implements the normal way of looking for object attributes.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattr`: a subtype
+   inherits both :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattro` from its base type when
+   the subtype's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattro` are both *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:member:: setattrofunc PyTypeObject.tp_setattro
+
+   An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.
+
+   The signature is the same as for :c:func:`PyObject_SetAttr`, but setting
+   *v* to *NULL* to delete an attribute must be supported.  It is usually
+   convenient to set this field to :c:func:`PyObject_GenericSetAttr`, which
+   implements the normal way of setting object attributes.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattr`: a subtype
+   inherits both :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro` from its base type when
+   the subtype's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattr` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro` are both *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyBufferProcs* PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer
+
+   Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects
+   which implement the buffer interface.  These fields are documented in
+   :ref:`buffer-structs`.
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer` field is not inherited, but the contained fields are
+   inherited individually.
+
+
+.. c:member:: unsigned long PyTypeObject.tp_flags
+
+   This field is a bit mask of various flags.  Some flags indicate variant
+   semantics for certain situations; others are used to indicate that certain
+   fields in the type object (or in the extension structures referenced via
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_number`, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence`, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping`, and
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer`) that were historically not always present are valid; if
+   such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must not be accessed and
+   must be considered to have a zero or *NULL* value instead.
+
+   Inheritance of this field is complicated.  Most flag bits are inherited
+   individually, i.e. if the base type has a flag bit set, the subtype inherits
+   this flag bit.  The flag bits that pertain to extension structures are strictly
+   inherited if the extension structure is inherited, i.e. the base type's value of
+   the flag bit is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension
+   structure.  The :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit is inherited together with
+   the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` fields, i.e. if the
+   :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit is clear in the subtype and the
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` fields in the subtype exist and have
+   *NULL* values.
+
+   The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed together using
+   the ``|`` operator to form the value of the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` field.  The macro
+   :c:func:`PyType_HasFeature` takes a type and a flags value, *tp* and *f*, and
+   checks whether ``tp->tp_flags & f`` is non-zero.
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE
+
+      This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on the heap.  In this
+      case, the :attr:`ob_type` field of its instances is considered a reference to
+      the type, and the type object is INCREF'ed when a new instance is created, and
+      DECREF'ed when an instance is destroyed (this does not apply to instances of
+      subtypes; only the type referenced by the instance's ob_type gets INCREF'ed or
+      DECREF'ed).
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE
+
+      This bit is set when the type can be used as the base type of another type.  If
+      this bit is clear, the type cannot be subtyped (similar to a "final" class in
+      Java).
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_READY
+
+      This bit is set when the type object has been fully initialized by
+      :c:func:`PyType_Ready`.
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_READYING
+
+      This bit is set while :c:func:`PyType_Ready` is in the process of initializing
+      the type object.
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC
+
+      This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection.  If this bit
+      is set, instances must be created using :c:func:`PyObject_GC_New` and
+      destroyed using :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Del`.  More information in section
+      :ref:`supporting-cycle-detection`.  This bit also implies that the
+      GC-related fields :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` are present in
+      the type object.
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT
+
+      This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the existence of certain
+      fields in the type object and its extension structures. Currently, it includes
+      the following bits: :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION`,
+      :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG`.
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS
+
+      These flags are used by functions such as
+      :c:func:`PyLong_Check` to quickly determine if a type is a subclass
+      of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster than a generic
+      check, like :c:func:`PyObject_IsInstance`. Custom types that inherit
+      from built-ins should have their :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags`
+      set appropriately, or the code that interacts with such types
+      will behave differently depending on what kind of check is used.
+
+
+   .. data:: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE
+
+      This bit is set when the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_finalize` slot is present in the
+      type structure.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:member:: const char* PyTypeObject.tp_doc
+
+   An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the docstring for this
+   type object.  This is exposed as the :attr:`__doc__` attribute on the type and
+   instances of the type.
+
+   This field is *not* inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: traverseproc PyTypeObject.tp_traverse
+
+   An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage collector.  This is
+   only used if the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit is set.  More information
+   about Python's garbage collection scheme can be found in section
+   :ref:`supporting-cycle-detection`.
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` pointer is used by the garbage collector to detect
+   reference cycles. A typical implementation of a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` function
+   simply calls :c:func:`Py_VISIT` on each of the instance's members that are Python
+   objects.  For example, this is function :c:func:`local_traverse` from the
+   :mod:`_thread` extension module::
+
+      static int
+      local_traverse(localobject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
+      {
+          Py_VISIT(self->args);
+          Py_VISIT(self->kw);
+          Py_VISIT(self->dict);
+          return 0;
+      }
+
+   Note that :c:func:`Py_VISIT` is called only on those members that can participate
+   in reference cycles.  Although there is also a ``self->key`` member, it can only
+   be *NULL* or a Python string and therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle.
+
+   On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part of a cycle, as a
+   debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway just so the :mod:`gc` module's
+   :func:`~gc.get_referents` function will include it.
+
+   Note that :c:func:`Py_VISIT` requires the *visit* and *arg* parameters to
+   :c:func:`local_traverse` to have these specific names; don't name them just
+   anything.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` and the
+   :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit: the flag bit, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse`, and
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in
+   the subtype.
+
+
+.. c:member:: inquiry PyTypeObject.tp_clear
+
+   An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector. This is only
+   used if the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit is set.
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` member function is used to break reference cycles in cyclic
+   garbage detected by the garbage collector.  Taken together, all :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear`
+   functions in the system must combine to break all reference cycles.  This is
+   subtle, and if in any doubt supply a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` function.  For example,
+   the tuple type does not implement a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` function, because it's
+   possible to prove that no reference cycle can be composed entirely of tuples.
+   Therefore the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` functions of other types must be sufficient to
+   break any cycle containing a tuple.  This isn't immediately obvious, and there's
+   rarely a good reason to avoid implementing :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear`.
+
+   Implementations of :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` should drop the instance's references to
+   those of its members that may be Python objects, and set its pointers to those
+   members to *NULL*, as in the following example::
+
+      static int
+      local_clear(localobject *self)
+      {
+          Py_CLEAR(self->key);
+          Py_CLEAR(self->args);
+          Py_CLEAR(self->kw);
+          Py_CLEAR(self->dict);
+          return 0;
+      }
+
+   The :c:func:`Py_CLEAR` macro should be used, because clearing references is
+   delicate:  the reference to the contained object must not be decremented until
+   after the pointer to the contained object is set to *NULL*.  This is because
+   decrementing the reference count may cause the contained object to become trash,
+   triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include invoking arbitrary
+   Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref callbacks, associated with the
+   contained object). If it's possible for such code to reference *self* again,
+   it's important that the pointer to the contained object be *NULL* at that time,
+   so that *self* knows the contained object can no longer be used.  The
+   :c:func:`Py_CLEAR` macro performs the operations in a safe order.
+
+   Because the goal of :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` functions is to break reference cycles,
+   it's not necessary to clear contained objects like Python strings or Python
+   integers, which can't participate in reference cycles. On the other hand, it may
+   be convenient to clear all contained Python objects, and write the type's
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` function to invoke :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear`.
+
+   More information about Python's garbage collection scheme can be found in
+   section :ref:`supporting-cycle-detection`.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` and the
+   :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit: the flag bit, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse`, and
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear` are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in
+   the subtype.
+
+
+.. c:member:: richcmpfunc PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare
+
+   An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose signature is
+   ``PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int op)``. The first
+   parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type that is defined
+   by :c:type:`PyTypeObject`.
+
+   The function should return the result of the comparison (usually ``Py_True``
+   or ``Py_False``).  If the comparison is undefined, it must return
+   ``Py_NotImplemented``, if another error occurred it must return ``NULL`` and
+   set an exception condition.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If you want to implement a type for which only a limited set of
+      comparisons makes sense (e.g. ``==`` and ``!=``, but not ``<`` and
+      friends), directly raise :exc:`TypeError` in the rich comparison function.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes together with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_hash`:
+   a subtype inherits :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_hash` when
+   the subtype's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_hash` are both
+   *NULL*.
+
+   The following constants are defined to be used as the third argument for
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare` and for :c:func:`PyObject_RichCompare`:
+
+   +----------------+------------+
+   | Constant       | Comparison |
+   +================+============+
+   | :const:`Py_LT` | ``<``      |
+   +----------------+------------+
+   | :const:`Py_LE` | ``<=``     |
+   +----------------+------------+
+   | :const:`Py_EQ` | ``==``     |
+   +----------------+------------+
+   | :const:`Py_NE` | ``!=``     |
+   +----------------+------------+
+   | :const:`Py_GT` | ``>``      |
+   +----------------+------------+
+   | :const:`Py_GE` | ``>=``     |
+   +----------------+------------+
+
+   The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison functions:
+
+   .. c:function:: PyObject *Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE(VAL_A, VAL_B, int op)
+
+      Return ``Py_True`` or ``Py_False`` from the function, depending on the
+      result of a comparison.
+      VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable by C comparison operators (for example,
+      they may be C ints or floats). The third argument specifies the requested
+      operation, as for :c:func:`PyObject_RichCompare`.
+
+      The return value's reference count is properly incremented.
+
+      On error, sets an exception and returns NULL from the function.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset
+
+   If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field is greater
+   than zero and contains the offset in the instance structure of the weak
+   reference list head (ignoring the GC header, if present); this offset is used by
+   :c:func:`PyObject_ClearWeakRefs` and the :c:func:`PyWeakref_\*` functions.  The
+   instance structure needs to include a field of type :c:type:`PyObject\*` which is
+   initialized to *NULL*.
+
+   Do not confuse this field with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist`; that is the list head for
+   weak references to the type object itself.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed below. A subtype
+   may override this offset; this means that the subtype uses a different weak
+   reference list head than the base type.  Since the list head is always found via
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset`, this should not be a problem.
+
+   When a type defined by a class statement has no :attr:`~object.__slots__` declaration,
+   and none of its base types are weakly referenceable, the type is made weakly
+   referenceable by adding a weak reference list head slot to the instance layout
+   and setting the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset` of that slot's offset.
+
+   When a type's :attr:`__slots__` declaration contains a slot named
+   :attr:`__weakref__`, that slot becomes the weak reference list head for
+   instances of the type, and the slot's offset is stored in the type's
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset`.
+
+   When a type's :attr:`__slots__` declaration does not contain a slot named
+   :attr:`__weakref__`, the type inherits its :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset` from its
+   base type.
+
+.. c:member:: getiterfunc PyTypeObject.tp_iter
+
+   An optional pointer to a function that returns an iterator for the object.  Its
+   presence normally signals that the instances of this type are iterable (although
+   sequences may be iterable without this function).
+
+   This function has the same signature as :c:func:`PyObject_GetIter`.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: iternextfunc PyTypeObject.tp_iternext
+
+   An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an iterator.
+   When the iterator is exhausted, it must return *NULL*; a :exc:`StopIteration`
+   exception may or may not be set.  When another error occurs, it must return
+   *NULL* too.  Its presence signals that the instances of this type are
+   iterators.
+
+   Iterator types should also define the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter` function, and that
+   function should return the iterator instance itself (not a new iterator
+   instance).
+
+   This function has the same signature as :c:func:`PyIter_Next`.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: struct PyMethodDef* PyTypeObject.tp_methods
+
+   An optional pointer to a static *NULL*-terminated array of :c:type:`PyMethodDef`
+   structures, declaring regular methods of this type.
+
+   For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's dictionary (see
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dict` below) containing a method descriptor.
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited through a
+   different mechanism).
+
+
+.. c:member:: struct PyMemberDef* PyTypeObject.tp_members
+
+   An optional pointer to a static *NULL*-terminated array of :c:type:`PyMemberDef`
+   structures, declaring regular data members (fields or slots) of instances of
+   this type.
+
+   For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's dictionary (see
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dict` below) containing a member descriptor.
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited through a
+   different mechanism).
+
+
+.. c:member:: struct PyGetSetDef* PyTypeObject.tp_getset
+
+   An optional pointer to a static *NULL*-terminated array of :c:type:`PyGetSetDef`
+   structures, declaring computed attributes of instances of this type.
+
+   For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's dictionary (see
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dict` below) containing a getset descriptor.
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are inherited
+   through a different mechanism).
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyTypeObject* PyTypeObject.tp_base
+
+   An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are inherited.  At
+   this level, only single inheritance is supported; multiple inheritance require
+   dynamically creating a type object by calling the metatype.
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously), but it defaults to
+   ``&PyBaseObject_Type`` (which to Python programmers is known as the type
+   :class:`object`).
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyObject* PyTypeObject.tp_dict
+
+   The type's dictionary is stored here by :c:func:`PyType_Ready`.
+
+   This field should normally be initialized to *NULL* before PyType_Ready is
+   called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary containing initial attributes
+   for the type.  Once :c:func:`PyType_Ready` has initialized the type, extra
+   attributes for the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don't
+   correspond to overloaded operations (like :meth:`__add__`).
+
+   This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes defined in here
+   are inherited through a different mechanism).
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      It is not safe to use :c:func:`PyDict_SetItem` on or otherwise modify
+      :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dict` with the dictionary C-API.
+
+
+.. c:member:: descrgetfunc PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get
+
+   An optional pointer to a "descriptor get" function.
+
+   The function signature is ::
+
+      PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type);
+
+   .. XXX explain.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: descrsetfunc PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set
+
+   An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting
+   a descriptor's value.
+
+   The function signature is ::
+
+      int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value);
+
+   The *value* argument is set to *NULL* to delete the value.
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+   .. XXX explain.
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset
+
+   If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance variables,
+   this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the instances of the type of
+   the instance variable dictionary; this offset is used by
+   :c:func:`PyObject_GenericGetAttr`.
+
+   Do not confuse this field with :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dict`; that is the dictionary for
+   attributes of the type object itself.
+
+   If the value of this field is greater than zero, it specifies the offset from
+   the start of the instance structure.  If the value is less than zero, it
+   specifies the offset from the *end* of the instance structure.  A negative
+   offset is more expensive to use, and should only be used when the instance
+   structure contains a variable-length part.  This is used for example to add an
+   instance variable dictionary to subtypes of :class:`str` or :class:`tuple`. Note
+   that the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` field should account for the dictionary added to
+   the end in that case, even though the dictionary is not included in the basic
+   object layout.  On a system with a pointer size of 4 bytes,
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset` should be set to ``-4`` to indicate that the dictionary is
+   at the very end of the structure.
+
+   The real dictionary offset in an instance can be computed from a negative
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset` as follows::
+
+      dictoffset = tp_basicsize + abs(ob_size)*tp_itemsize + tp_dictoffset
+      if dictoffset is not aligned on sizeof(void*):
+          round up to sizeof(void*)
+
+   where :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize`, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset` are
+   taken from the type object, and :attr:`ob_size` is taken from the instance.  The
+   absolute value is taken because ints use the sign of :attr:`ob_size` to
+   store the sign of the number.  (There's never a need to do this calculation
+   yourself; it is done for you by :c:func:`_PyObject_GetDictPtr`.)
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed below. A subtype
+   may override this offset; this means that the subtype instances store the
+   dictionary at a difference offset than the base type.  Since the dictionary is
+   always found via :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset`, this should not be a problem.
+
+   When a type defined by a class statement has no :attr:`~object.__slots__` declaration,
+   and none of its base types has an instance variable dictionary, a dictionary
+   slot is added to the instance layout and the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset` is set to
+   that slot's offset.
+
+   When a type defined by a class statement has a :attr:`__slots__` declaration,
+   the type inherits its :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset` from its base type.
+
+   (Adding a slot named :attr:`~object.__dict__` to the :attr:`__slots__` declaration does
+   not have the expected effect, it just causes confusion.  Maybe this should be
+   added as a feature just like :attr:`__weakref__` though.)
+
+
+.. c:member:: initproc PyTypeObject.tp_init
+
+   An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.
+
+   This function corresponds to the :meth:`__init__` method of classes.  Like
+   :meth:`__init__`, it is possible to create an instance without calling
+   :meth:`__init__`, and it is possible to reinitialize an instance by calling its
+   :meth:`__init__` method again.
+
+   The function signature is ::
+
+      int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+
+   The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the *args* and *kwds*
+   arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to
+   :meth:`__init__`.
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init` function, if not *NULL*, is called when an instance is
+   created normally by calling its type, after the type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` function
+   has returned an instance of the type.  If the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` function returns an
+   instance of some other type that is not a subtype of the original type, no
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init` function is called; if :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` returns an instance of a
+   subtype of the original type, the subtype's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init` is called.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: allocfunc PyTypeObject.tp_alloc
+
+   An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.
+
+   The function signature is ::
+
+      PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems)
+
+   The purpose of this function is to separate memory allocation from memory
+   initialization.  It should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate
+   length for the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with
+   :attr:`ob_refcnt` set to ``1`` and :attr:`ob_type` set to the type argument.  If
+   the type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` is non-zero, the object's :attr:`ob_size` field
+   should be initialized to *nitems* and the length of the allocated memory block
+   should be ``tp_basicsize + nitems*tp_itemsize``, rounded up to a multiple of
+   ``sizeof(void*)``; otherwise, *nitems* is not used and the length of the block
+   should be :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize`.
+
+   Do not use this function to do any other instance initialization, not even to
+   allocate additional memory; that should be done by :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new`.
+
+   This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic subtypes
+   (subtypes created by a class statement); in the latter, this field is always set
+   to :c:func:`PyType_GenericAlloc`, to force a standard heap allocation strategy.
+   That is also the recommended value for statically defined types.
+
+
+.. c:member:: newfunc PyTypeObject.tp_new
+
+   An optional pointer to an instance creation function.
+
+   If this function is *NULL* for a particular type, that type cannot be called to
+   create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create instances,
+   like a factory function.
+
+   The function signature is ::
+
+      PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+
+   The subtype argument is the type of the object being created; the *args* and
+   *kwds* arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to the
+   type.  Note that subtype doesn't have to equal the type whose :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new`
+   function is called; it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated
+   type).
+
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` function should call ``subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems)``
+   to allocate space for the object, and then do only as much further
+   initialization as is absolutely necessary.  Initialization that can safely be
+   ignored or repeated should be placed in the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init` handler.  A good
+   rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization should take place
+   in :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new`, while for mutable types, most initialization should be
+   deferred to :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init`.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by static types
+   whose :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_base` is *NULL* or ``&PyBaseObject_Type``.
+
+
+.. c:member:: destructor PyTypeObject.tp_free
+
+   An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function.  Its signature is
+   :c:type:`freefunc`::
+
+      void tp_free(void *)
+
+   An initializer that is compatible with this signature is :c:func:`PyObject_Free`.
+
+   This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic subtypes
+   (subtypes created by a class statement); in the latter, this field is set to a
+   deallocator suitable to match :c:func:`PyType_GenericAlloc` and the value of the
+   :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit.
+
+
+.. c:member:: inquiry PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc
+
+   An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.
+
+   The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is collectible
+   or not.  Normally, it is sufficient to look at the object's type's
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` field, and check the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit.  But
+   some types have a mixture of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and
+   the statically allocated instances are not collectible.  Such types should
+   define this function; it should return ``1`` for a collectible instance, and
+   ``0`` for a non-collectible instance. The signature is ::
+
+      int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self)
+
+   (The only example of this are types themselves.  The metatype,
+   :c:data:`PyType_Type`, defines this function to distinguish between statically
+   and dynamically allocated types.)
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyObject* PyTypeObject.tp_bases
+
+   Tuple of base types.
+
+   This is set for types created by a class statement.  It should be *NULL* for
+   statically defined types.
+
+   This field is not inherited.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyObject* PyTypeObject.tp_mro
+
+   Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the type itself
+   and ending with :class:`object`, in Method Resolution Order.
+
+   This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by :c:func:`PyType_Ready`.
+
+
+.. c:member:: destructor PyTypeObject.tp_finalize
+
+   An optional pointer to an instance finalization function.  Its signature is
+   :c:type:`destructor`::
+
+      void tp_finalize(PyObject *)
+
+   If :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_finalize` is set, the interpreter calls it once when
+   finalizing an instance.  It is called either from the garbage
+   collector (if the instance is part of an isolated reference cycle) or
+   just before the object is deallocated.  Either way, it is guaranteed
+   to be called before attempting to break reference cycles, ensuring
+   that it finds the object in a sane state.
+
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_finalize` should not mutate the current exception status;
+   therefore, a recommended way to write a non-trivial finalizer is::
+
+      static void
+      local_finalize(PyObject *self)
+      {
+          PyObject *error_type, *error_value, *error_traceback;
+
+          /* Save the current exception, if any. */
+          PyErr_Fetch(&error_type, &error_value, &error_traceback);
+
+          /* ... */
+
+          /* Restore the saved exception. */
+          PyErr_Restore(error_type, error_value, error_traceback);
+      }
+
+   For this field to be taken into account (even through inheritance),
+   you must also set the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE` flags bit.
+
+   This field is inherited by subtypes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. seealso:: "Safe object finalization" (:pep:`442`)
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyObject* PyTypeObject.tp_cache
+
+   Unused.  Not inherited.  Internal use only.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyObject* PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses
+
+   List of weak references to subclasses.  Not inherited.  Internal use only.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyObject* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist
+
+   Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object.  Not
+   inherited.  Internal use only.
+
+The remaining fields are only defined if the feature test macro
+:const:`COUNT_ALLOCS` is defined, and are for internal use only. They are
+documented here for completeness.  None of these fields are inherited by
+subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_allocs
+
+   Number of allocations.
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_frees
+
+   Number of frees.
+
+
+.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc
+
+   Maximum simultaneously allocated objects.
+
+
+.. c:member:: PyTypeObject* PyTypeObject.tp_next
+
+   Pointer to the next type object with a non-zero :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_allocs` field.
+
+Also, note that, in a garbage collected Python, tp_dealloc may be called from
+any Python thread, not just the thread which created the object (if the object
+becomes part of a refcount cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage
+collection on any thread).  This is not a problem for Python API calls, since
+the thread on which tp_dealloc is called will own the Global Interpreter Lock
+(GIL). However, if the object being destroyed in turn destroys objects from some
+other C or C++ library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those
+objects on the thread which called tp_dealloc will not violate any assumptions
+of the library.
+
+
+.. _number-structs:
+
+Number Object Structures
+========================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyNumberMethods
+
+   This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to
+   implement the number protocol.  Each function is used by the function of
+   similar name documented in the :ref:`number` section.
+
+   Here is the structure definition::
+
+       typedef struct {
+            binaryfunc nb_add;
+            binaryfunc nb_subtract;
+            binaryfunc nb_multiply;
+            binaryfunc nb_remainder;
+            binaryfunc nb_divmod;
+            ternaryfunc nb_power;
+            unaryfunc nb_negative;
+            unaryfunc nb_positive;
+            unaryfunc nb_absolute;
+            inquiry nb_bool;
+            unaryfunc nb_invert;
+            binaryfunc nb_lshift;
+            binaryfunc nb_rshift;
+            binaryfunc nb_and;
+            binaryfunc nb_xor;
+            binaryfunc nb_or;
+            unaryfunc nb_int;
+            void *nb_reserved;
+            unaryfunc nb_float;
+
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_add;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder;
+            ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_and;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_or;
+
+            binaryfunc nb_floor_divide;
+            binaryfunc nb_true_divide;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide;
+
+            unaryfunc nb_index;
+
+            binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply;
+            binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply;
+       } PyNumberMethods;
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Binary and ternary functions must check the type of all their operands,
+      and implement the necessary conversions (at least one of the operands is
+      an instance of the defined type).  If the operation is not defined for the
+      given operands, binary and ternary functions must return
+      ``Py_NotImplemented``, if another error occurred they must return ``NULL``
+      and set an exception.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :c:data:`nb_reserved` field should always be ``NULL``.  It
+      was previously called :c:data:`nb_long`, and was renamed in
+      Python 3.0.1.
+
+
+.. _mapping-structs:
+
+Mapping Object Structures
+=========================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyMappingMethods
+
+   This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to
+   implement the mapping protocol.  It has three members:
+
+.. c:member:: lenfunc PyMappingMethods.mp_length
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PyMapping_Size` and
+   :c:func:`PyObject_Size`, and has the same signature.  This slot may be set to
+   *NULL* if the object has no defined length.
+
+.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem` and
+   :c:func:`PySequence_GetSlice`, and has the same signature as
+   :c:func:`!PyObject_GetItem`.  This slot must be filled for the
+   :c:func:`PyMapping_Check` function to return ``1``, it can be *NULL*
+   otherwise.
+
+.. c:member:: objobjargproc PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem`,
+   :c:func:`PyObject_DelItem`, :c:func:`PyObject_SetSlice` and
+   :c:func:`PyObject_DelSlice`.  It has the same signature as
+   :c:func:`!PyObject_SetItem`, but *v* can also be set to *NULL* to delete
+   an item.  If this slot is *NULL*, the object does not support item
+   assignment and deletion.
+
+
+.. _sequence-structs:
+
+Sequence Object Structures
+==========================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc
+
+
+.. c:type:: PySequenceMethods
+
+   This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to
+   implement the sequence protocol.
+
+.. c:member:: lenfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_length
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_Size` and
+   :c:func:`PyObject_Size`, and has the same signature.  It is also used for
+   handling negative indices via the :c:member:`~PySequenceMethods.sq_item`
+   and the :c:member:`~PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item` slots.
+
+.. c:member:: binaryfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_concat
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_Concat` and has the same
+   signature.  It is also used by the ``+`` operator, after trying the numeric
+   addition via the :c:member:`~PyNumberMethods.nb_add` slot.
+
+.. c:member:: ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_Repeat` and has the same
+   signature.  It is also used by the ``*`` operator, after trying numeric
+   multiplication via the :c:member:`~PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply` slot.
+
+.. c:member:: ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_item
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_GetItem` and has the same
+   signature.  It is also used by :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem`, after trying
+   the subscription via the :c:member:`~PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript` slot.
+   This slot must be filled for the :c:func:`PySequence_Check`
+   function to return ``1``, it can be *NULL* otherwise.
+
+   Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the :attr:`sq_length` slot is
+   filled, it is called and the sequence length is used to compute a positive
+   index which is passed to :attr:`sq_item`.  If :attr:`sq_length` is *NULL*,
+   the index is passed as is to the function.
+
+.. c:member:: ssizeobjargproc PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_SetItem` and has the same
+   signature.  It is also used by :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem` and
+   :c:func:`PyObject_DelItem`, after trying the item assignment and deletion
+   via the :c:member:`~PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript` slot.
+   This slot may be left to *NULL* if the object does not support
+   item assignment and deletion.
+
+.. c:member:: objobjproc PySequenceMethods.sq_contains
+
+   This function may be used by :c:func:`PySequence_Contains` and has the same
+   signature.  This slot may be left to *NULL*, in this case
+   :c:func:`!PySequence_Contains` simply traverses the sequence until it
+   finds a match.
+
+.. c:member:: binaryfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_InPlaceConcat` and has the same
+   signature.  It should modify its first operand, and return it.  This slot
+   may be left to *NULL*, in this case :c:func:`!PySequence_InPlaceConcat`
+   will fall back to :c:func:`PySequence_Concat`.  It is also used by the
+   augmented assignment ``+=``, after trying numeric in-place addition
+   via the :c:member:`~PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add` slot.
+
+.. c:member:: ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat
+
+   This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_InPlaceRepeat` and has the same
+   signature.  It should modify its first operand, and return it.  This slot
+   may be left to *NULL*, in this case :c:func:`!PySequence_InPlaceRepeat`
+   will fall back to :c:func:`PySequence_Repeat`.  It is also used by the
+   augmented assignment ``*=``, after trying numeric in-place multiplication
+   via the :c:member:`~PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply` slot.
+
+
+.. _buffer-structs:
+
+Buffer Object Structures
+========================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Greg J. Stein <greg@lyra.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson
+.. sectionauthor:: Stefan Krah
+
+.. c:type:: PyBufferProcs
+
+   This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the
+   :ref:`Buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`. The protocol defines how
+   an exporter object can expose its internal data to consumer objects.
+
+.. c:member:: getbufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer
+
+   The signature of this function is::
+
+       int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);
+
+   Handle a request to *exporter* to fill in *view* as specified by *flags*.
+   Except for point (3), an implementation of this function MUST take these
+   steps:
+
+   (1) Check if the request can be met. If not, raise :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError`,
+       set :c:data:`view->obj` to *NULL* and return ``-1``.
+
+   (2) Fill in the requested fields.
+
+   (3) Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.
+
+   (4) Set :c:data:`view->obj` to *exporter* and increment :c:data:`view->obj`.
+
+   (5) Return ``0``.
+
+   If *exporter* is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two main
+   schemes can be used:
+
+   * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting object and
+     sets :c:data:`view->obj` to a new reference to itself.
+
+   * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object of the
+     tree. Here, :c:data:`view->obj` will be a new reference to the root
+     object.
+
+   The individual fields of *view* are described in section
+   :ref:`Buffer structure <buffer-structure>`, the rules how an exporter
+   must react to specific requests are in section
+   :ref:`Buffer request types <buffer-request-types>`.
+
+   All memory pointed to in the :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure belongs to
+   the exporter and must remain valid until there are no consumers left.
+   :c:member:`~Py_buffer.format`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape`,
+   :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.suboffsets`
+   and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.internal`
+   are read-only for the consumer.
+
+   :c:func:`PyBuffer_FillInfo` provides an easy way of exposing a simple
+   bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types.
+
+   :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` is the interface for the consumer that
+   wraps this function.
+
+.. c:member:: releasebufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer
+
+   The signature of this function is::
+
+       void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);
+
+   Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer. If no resources
+   need to be released, :c:member:`PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer` may be
+   *NULL*. Otherwise, a standard implementation of this function will take
+   these optional steps:
+
+   (1) Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports.
+
+   (2) If the counter is ``0``, free all memory associated with *view*.
+
+   The exporter MUST use the :c:member:`~Py_buffer.internal` field to keep
+   track of buffer-specific resources. This field is guaranteed to remain
+   constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer as the
+   *view* argument.
+
+
+   This function MUST NOT decrement :c:data:`view->obj`, since that is
+   done automatically in :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` (this scheme is
+   useful for breaking reference cycles).
+
+
+   :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` is the interface for the consumer that
+   wraps this function.
+
+
+.. _async-structs:
+
+
+Async Object Structures
+=======================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Yury Selivanov <yselivanov@sprymix.com>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. c:type:: PyAsyncMethods
+
+   This structure holds pointers to the functions required to implement
+   :term:`awaitable` and :term:`asynchronous iterator` objects.
+
+   Here is the structure definition::
+
+        typedef struct {
+            unaryfunc am_await;
+            unaryfunc am_aiter;
+            unaryfunc am_anext;
+        } PyAsyncMethods;
+
+.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_await
+
+   The signature of this function is::
+
+      PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self)
+
+   The returned object must be an iterator, i.e. :c:func:`PyIter_Check` must
+   return ``1`` for it.
+
+   This slot may be set to *NULL* if an object is not an :term:`awaitable`.
+
+.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter
+
+   The signature of this function is::
+
+      PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self)
+
+   Must return an :term:`awaitable` object.  See :meth:`__anext__` for details.
+
+   This slot may be set to *NULL* if an object does not implement
+   asynchronous iteration protocol.
+
+.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_anext
+
+   The signature of this function is::
+
+      PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self)
+
+   Must return an :term:`awaitable` object.  See :meth:`__anext__` for details.
+   This slot may be set to *NULL*.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/unicode.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/unicode.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d724a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/unicode.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1726 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _unicodeobjects:
+
+Unicode Objects and Codecs
+--------------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Marc-André Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Georg Brandl <georg@python.org>
+
+Unicode Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Since the implementation of :pep:`393` in Python 3.3, Unicode objects internally
+use a variety of representations, in order to allow handling the complete range
+of Unicode characters while staying memory efficient.  There are special cases
+for strings where all code points are below 128, 256, or 65536; otherwise, code
+points must be below 1114112 (which is the full Unicode range).
+
+:c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` and UTF-8 representations are created on demand and cached
+in the Unicode object.  The :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` representation is deprecated
+and inefficient; it should be avoided in performance- or memory-sensitive
+situations.
+
+Due to the transition between the old APIs and the new APIs, Unicode objects
+can internally be in two states depending on how they were created:
+
+* "canonical" Unicode objects are all objects created by a non-deprecated
+  Unicode API.  They use the most efficient representation allowed by the
+  implementation.
+
+* "legacy" Unicode objects have been created through one of the deprecated
+  APIs (typically :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromUnicode`) and only bear the
+  :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` representation; you will have to call
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY` on them before calling any other API.
+
+
+Unicode Type
+""""""""""""
+
+These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode implementation in
+Python:
+
+.. c:type:: Py_UCS4
+            Py_UCS2
+            Py_UCS1
+
+   These types are typedefs for unsigned integer types wide enough to contain
+   characters of 32 bits, 16 bits and 8 bits, respectively.  When dealing with
+   single Unicode characters, use :c:type:`Py_UCS4`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:type:: Py_UNICODE
+
+   This is a typedef of :c:type:`wchar_t`, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit type
+   depending on the platform.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      In previous versions, this was a 16-bit type or a 32-bit type depending on
+      whether you selected a "narrow" or "wide" Unicode version of Python at
+      build time.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyASCIIObject
+            PyCompactUnicodeObject
+            PyUnicodeObject
+
+   These subtypes of :c:type:`PyObject` represent a Python Unicode object.  In
+   almost all cases, they shouldn't be used directly, since all API functions
+   that deal with Unicode objects take and return :c:type:`PyObject` pointers.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyUnicode_Type
+
+   This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python Unicode type.  It
+   is exposed to Python code as ``str``.
+
+
+The following APIs are really C macros and can be used to do fast checks and to
+access internal read-only data of Unicode objects:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a Unicode object or an instance of a Unicode
+   subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_CheckExact(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return true if the object *o* is a Unicode object, but not an instance of a
+   subtype.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_READY(PyObject *o)
+
+   Ensure the string object *o* is in the "canonical" representation.  This is
+   required before using any of the access macros described below.
+
+   .. XXX expand on when it is not required
+
+   Returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` with an exception set on failure, which in
+   particular happens if memory allocation fails.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points.  *o* has to be a
+   Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not checked).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS1* PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(PyObject *o)
+                Py_UCS2* PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(PyObject *o)
+                Py_UCS4* PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2 or UCS4
+   integer types for direct character access.  No checks are performed if the
+   canonical representation has the correct character size; use
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND` to select the right macro.  Make sure
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY` has been called before accessing this.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND
+             PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
+             PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
+             PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND
+
+   Return values of the :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND` macro.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_KIND(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that indicate how many
+   bytes per character this Unicode object uses to store its data.  *o* has to
+   be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not checked).
+
+   .. XXX document "0" return value?
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: void* PyUnicode_DATA(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer.  *o* has to be a Unicode
+   object in the "canonical" representation (not checked).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyUnicode_WRITE(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index, \
+                                     Py_UCS4 value)
+
+   Write into a canonical representation *data* (as obtained with
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_DATA`).  This macro does not do any sanity checks and is
+   intended for usage in loops.  The caller should cache the *kind* value and
+   *data* pointer as obtained from other macro calls.  *index* is the index in
+   the string (starts at 0) and *value* is the new code point value which should
+   be written to that location.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_READ(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index)
+
+   Read a code point from a canonical representation *data* (as obtained with
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_DATA`).  No checks or ready calls are performed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t index)
+
+   Read a character from a Unicode object *o*, which must be in the "canonical"
+   representation.  This is less efficient than :c:func:`PyUnicode_READ` if you
+   do multiple consecutive reads.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another string
+   based on *o*, which must be in the "canonical" representation.  This is
+   always an approximation but more efficient than iterating over the string.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()
+
+   Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the size of the deprecated :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation, in
+   code units (this includes surrogate pairs as 2 units).  *o* has to be a
+   Unicode object (not checked).
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return the size of the deprecated :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation in
+   bytes.  *o* has to be a Unicode object (not checked).
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(PyObject *o)
+                const char* PyUnicode_AS_DATA(PyObject *o)
+
+   Return a pointer to a :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation of the object.  The
+   returned buffer is always terminated with an extra null code point.  It
+   may also contain embedded null code points, which would cause the string
+   to be truncated when used in most C functions.  The ``AS_DATA`` form
+   casts the pointer to :c:type:`const char *`.  The *o* argument has to be
+   a Unicode object (not checked).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This macro is now inefficient -- because in many cases the
+      :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation does not exist and needs to be created
+      -- and can fail (return *NULL* with an exception set).  Try to port the
+      code to use the new :c:func:`PyUnicode_nBYTE_DATA` macros or use
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_WRITE` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_READ`.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using the
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_nBYTE_DATA` family of macros.
+
+
+Unicode Character Properties
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Unicode provides many different character properties. The most often needed ones
+are available through these macros which are mapped to C functions depending on
+the Python configuration.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a whitespace character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a lowercase character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is an uppercase character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a titlecase character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a linebreak character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a decimal character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a digit character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a numeric character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is an alphabetic character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is an alphanumeric character.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a printable character.
+   Nonprintable characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
+   database as "Other" or "Separator", excepting the ASCII space (0x20) which is
+   considered printable.  (Note that printable characters in this context are
+   those which should not be escaped when :func:`repr` is invoked on a string.
+   It has no bearing on the handling of strings written to :data:`sys.stdout` or
+   :data:`sys.stderr`.)
+
+
+These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return the character *ch* converted to lower case.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      This function uses simple case mappings.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return the character *ch* converted to upper case.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      This function uses simple case mappings.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return the character *ch* converted to title case.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      This function uses simple case mappings.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return the character *ch* converted to a decimal positive integer.  Return
+   ``-1`` if this is not possible.  This macro does not raise exceptions.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return the character *ch* converted to a single digit integer. Return ``-1`` if
+   this is not possible.  This macro does not raise exceptions.
+
+
+.. c:function:: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC(Py_UNICODE ch)
+
+   Return the character *ch* converted to a double. Return ``-1.0`` if this is not
+   possible.  This macro does not raise exceptions.
+
+
+These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE(ch)
+
+   Check if *ch* is a surrogate (``0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF``).
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(ch)
+
+   Check if *ch* is a high surrogate (``0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF``).
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(ch)
+
+   Check if *ch* is a low surrogate (``0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF``).
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(high, low)
+
+   Join two surrogate characters and return a single Py_UCS4 value.
+   *high* and *low* are respectively the leading and trailing surrogates in a
+   surrogate pair.
+
+
+Creating and accessing Unicode strings
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties, use these
+APIs:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_New(Py_ssize_t size, Py_UCS4 maxchar)
+
+   Create a new Unicode object.  *maxchar* should be the true maximum code point
+   to be placed in the string.  As an approximation, it can be rounded up to the
+   nearest value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111.
+
+   This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object.  Objects
+   created using this function are not resizable.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(int kind, const void *buffer, \
+                                                    Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Create a new Unicode object with the given *kind* (possible values are
+   :c:macro:`PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND` etc., as returned by
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND`).  The *buffer* must point to an array of *size*
+   units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the kind.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(const char *u, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Create a Unicode object from the char buffer *u*.  The bytes will be
+   interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded.  The buffer is copied into the new
+   object. If the buffer is not *NULL*, the return value might be a shared
+   object, i.e. modification of the data is not allowed.
+
+   If *u* is *NULL*, this function behaves like :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromUnicode`
+   with the buffer set to *NULL*.  This usage is deprecated in favor of
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_New`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyUnicode_FromString(const char *u)
+
+   Create a Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded null-terminated char buffer
+   *u*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromFormat(const char *format, ...)
+
+   Take a C :c:func:`printf`\ -style *format* string and a variable number of
+   arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python Unicode string and return
+   a string with the values formatted into it.  The variable arguments must be C
+   types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the *format*
+   ASCII-encoded string. The following format characters are allowed:
+
+   .. % This should be exactly the same as the table in PyErr_Format.
+   .. % The descriptions for %zd and %zu are wrong, but the truth is complicated
+   .. % because not all compilers support the %z width modifier -- we fake it
+   .. % when necessary via interpolating PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T.
+   .. % Similar comments apply to the %ll width modifier and
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|l|L|
+
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | Format Characters | Type                | Comment                        |
+   +===================+=====================+================================+
+   | :attr:`%%`        | *n/a*               | The literal % character.       |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%c`        | int                 | A single character,            |
+   |                   |                     | represented as a C int.        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%d`        | int                 | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%d")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%u`        | unsigned int        | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%u")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%ld`       | long                | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%ld")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%li`       | long                | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%li")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%lu`       | unsigned long       | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%lu")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%lld`      | long long           | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%lld")``. [1]_       |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%lli`      | long long           | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%lli")``. [1]_       |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%llu`      | unsigned long long  | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%llu")``. [1]_       |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%zd`       | Py_ssize_t          | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%zd")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%zi`       | Py_ssize_t          | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%zi")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%zu`       | size_t              | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%zu")``. [1]_        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%i`        | int                 | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%i")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%x`        | int                 | Equivalent to                  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%x")``. [1]_         |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%s`        | const char\*        | A null-terminated C character  |
+   |                   |                     | array.                         |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%p`        | const void\*        | The hex representation of a C  |
+   |                   |                     | pointer. Mostly equivalent to  |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf("%p")`` except that   |
+   |                   |                     | it is guaranteed to start with |
+   |                   |                     | the literal ``0x`` regardless  |
+   |                   |                     | of what the platform's         |
+   |                   |                     | ``printf`` yields.             |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%A`        | PyObject\*          | The result of calling          |
+   |                   |                     | :func:`ascii`.                 |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%U`        | PyObject\*          | A Unicode object.              |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%V`        | PyObject\*,         | A Unicode object (which may be |
+   |                   | const char\*        | *NULL*) and a null-terminated  |
+   |                   |                     | C character array as a second  |
+   |                   |                     | parameter (which will be used, |
+   |                   |                     | if the first parameter is      |
+   |                   |                     | *NULL*).                       |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%S`        | PyObject\*          | The result of calling          |
+   |                   |                     | :c:func:`PyObject_Str`.        |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`%R`        | PyObject\*          | The result of calling          |
+   |                   |                     | :c:func:`PyObject_Repr`.       |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+
+
+   An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be
+   copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded.
+
+   .. note::
+      The width formatter unit is number of characters rather than bytes.
+      The precision formatter unit is number of bytes for ``"%s"`` and
+      ``"%V"`` (if the ``PyObject*`` argument is NULL), and a number of
+      characters for ``"%A"``, ``"%U"``, ``"%S"``, ``"%R"`` and ``"%V"``
+      (if the ``PyObject*`` argument is not NULL).
+
+   .. [1] For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, li, lu, lld, lli, llu, zd, zi,
+      zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Support for ``"%lld"`` and ``"%llu"`` added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Support for ``"%li"``, ``"%lli"`` and ``"%zi"`` added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Support width and precision formatter for ``"%s"``, ``"%A"``, ``"%U"``,
+      ``"%V"``, ``"%S"``, ``"%R"`` added.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs)
+
+   Identical to :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` except that it takes exactly two
+   arguments.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(PyObject *obj, \
+                               const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Decode an encoded object *obj* to a Unicode object.
+
+   :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray` and other
+   :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`
+   are decoded according to the given *encoding* and using the error handling
+   defined by *errors*. Both can be *NULL* to have the interface use the default
+   values (see :ref:`builtincodecs` for details).
+
+   All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a :exc:`TypeError` to be
+   set.
+
+   The API returns *NULL* if there was an error.  The caller is responsible for
+   decref'ing the returned objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GetLength(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Return the length of the Unicode object, in code points.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(PyObject *to, \
+                                                    Py_ssize_t to_start, \
+                                                    PyObject *from, \
+                                                    Py_ssize_t from_start, \
+                                                    Py_ssize_t how_many)
+
+   Copy characters from one Unicode object into another.  This function performs
+   character conversion when necessary and falls back to :c:func:`memcpy` if
+   possible.  Returns ``-1`` and sets an exception on error, otherwise returns
+   the number of copied characters.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Fill(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, \
+                        Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 fill_char)
+
+   Fill a string with a character: write *fill_char* into
+   ``unicode[start:start+length]``.
+
+   Fail if *fill_char* is bigger than the string maximum character, or if the
+   string has more than 1 reference.
+
+   Return the number of written character, or return ``-1`` and raise an
+   exception on error.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_WriteChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index, \
+                                        Py_UCS4 character)
+
+   Write a character to a string.  The string must have been created through
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_New`.  Since Unicode strings are supposed to be immutable,
+   the string must not be shared, or have been hashed yet.
+
+   This function checks that *unicode* is a Unicode object, that the index is
+   not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified safely (i.e. that it
+   its reference count is one).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_ReadChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)
+
+   Read a character from a string.  This function checks that *unicode* is a
+   Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to the macro
+   version :c:func:`PyUnicode_READ_CHAR`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Substring(PyObject *str, Py_ssize_t start, \
+                                              Py_ssize_t end)
+
+   Return a substring of *str*, from character index *start* (included) to
+   character index *end* (excluded).  Negative indices are not supported.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS4* PyUnicode_AsUCS4(PyObject *u, Py_UCS4 *buffer, \
+                                          Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null)
+
+   Copy the string *u* into a UCS4 buffer, including a null character, if
+   *copy_null* is set.  Returns *NULL* and sets an exception on error (in
+   particular, a :exc:`SystemError` if *buflen* is smaller than the length of
+   *u*).  *buffer* is returned on success.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS4* PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(PyObject *u)
+
+   Copy the string *u* into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using
+   :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`.  If this fails, *NULL* is returned with a
+   :exc:`MemoryError` set.  The returned buffer always has an extra
+   null code point appended.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+
+These API functions are deprecated with the implementation of :pep:`393`.
+Extension modules can continue using them, as they will not be removed in Python
+3.x, but need to be aware that their use can now cause performance and memory hits.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromUnicode(const Py_UNICODE *u, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Create a Unicode object from the Py_UNICODE buffer *u* of the given size. *u*
+   may be *NULL* which causes the contents to be undefined. It is the user's
+   responsibility to fill in the needed data.  The buffer is copied into the new
+   object.
+
+   If the buffer is not *NULL*, the return value might be a shared object.
+   Therefore, modification of the resulting Unicode object is only allowed when
+   *u* is *NULL*.
+
+   If the buffer is *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY` must be called once the
+   string content has been filled before using any of the access macros such as
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND`.
+
+   Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromKindAndData`,
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromWideChar` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_New`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicode(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Return a read-only pointer to the Unicode object's internal
+   :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer, or *NULL* on error. This will create the
+   :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` representation of the object if it is not yet
+   available. The buffer is always terminated with an extra null code point.
+   Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` string may also contain
+   embedded null code points, which would cause the string to be truncated when
+   used in most C functions.
+
+   Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4`,
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideChar`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_ReadChar` or similar new
+   APIs.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII(Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by replacing all decimal digits in
+   :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* by ASCII digits 0--9
+   according to their decimal value.  Return *NULL* if an exception occurs.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size)
+
+   Like :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicode`, but also saves the :c:func:`Py_UNICODE`
+   array length (excluding the extra null terminator) in *size*.
+   Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` string
+   may contain embedded null code points, which would cause the string to be
+   truncated when used in most C functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Create a copy of a Unicode string ending with a null code point. Return *NULL*
+   and raise a :exc:`MemoryError` exception on memory allocation failure,
+   otherwise return a new allocated buffer (use :c:func:`PyMem_Free` to free
+   the buffer). Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` string may
+   contain embedded null code points, which would cause the string to be
+   truncated when used in most C functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy` or similar new APIs.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GetSize(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Return the size of the deprecated :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation, in
+   code units (this includes surrogate pairs as 2 units).
+
+   Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromObject(PyObject *obj)
+
+   Copy an instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true Unicode object if
+   necessary. If *obj* is already a true Unicode object (not a subtype),
+   return the reference with incremented refcount.
+
+   Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+Locale Encoding
+"""""""""""""""
+
+The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the operating
+system.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(const char *str, \
+                                                        Py_ssize_t len, \
+                                                        const char *errors)
+
+   Decode a string from UTF-8 on Android, or from the current locale encoding
+   on other platforms. The supported
+   error handlers are ``"strict"`` and ``"surrogateescape"``
+   (:pep:`383`). The decoder uses ``"strict"`` error handler if
+   *errors* is ``NULL``.  *str* must end with a null character but
+   cannot contain embedded null characters.
+
+   Use :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize` to decode a string from
+   :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` (the locale encoding read at
+   Python startup).
+
+   This function ignores the Python UTF-8 mode.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the
+      ``surrogateescape`` error handler, except on Android. Previously, :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale`
+      was used for the ``surrogateescape``, and the current locale encoding was
+      used for ``strict``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(const char *str, const char *errors)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize`, but compute the string
+   length using :c:func:`strlen`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8 on Android, or to the current locale
+   encoding on other platforms. The
+   supported error handlers are ``"strict"`` and ``"surrogateescape"``
+   (:pep:`383`). The encoder uses ``"strict"`` error handler if
+   *errors* is ``NULL``. Return a :class:`bytes` object. *unicode* cannot
+   contain embedded null characters.
+
+   Use :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault` to encode a string to
+   :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` (the locale encoding read at
+   Python startup).
+
+   This function ignores the Python UTF-8 mode.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale` function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the
+      ``surrogateescape`` error handler, except on Android. Previously,
+      :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale`
+      was used for the ``surrogateescape``, and the current locale encoding was
+      used for ``strict``.
+
+
+File System Encoding
+""""""""""""""""""""
+
+To encode and decode file names and other environment strings,
+:c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` should be used as the encoding, and
+:c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors` should be used as the error handler
+(:pep:`383` and :pep:`529`). To encode file names to :class:`bytes` during
+argument parsing, the ``"O&"`` converter should be used, passing
+:c:func:`PyUnicode_FSConverter` as the conversion function:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_FSConverter(PyObject* obj, void* result)
+
+   ParseTuple converter: encode :class:`str` objects -- obtained directly or
+   through the :class:`os.PathLike` interface -- to :class:`bytes` using
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault`; :class:`bytes` objects are output as-is.
+   *result* must be a :c:type:`PyBytesObject*` which must be released when it is
+   no longer used.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+To decode file names to :class:`str` during argument parsing, the ``"O&"``
+converter should be used, passing :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSDecoder` as the
+conversion function:
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder(PyObject* obj, void* result)
+
+   ParseTuple converter: decode :class:`bytes` objects -- obtained either
+   directly or indirectly through the :class:`os.PathLike` interface -- to
+   :class:`str` using :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize`; :class:`str`
+   objects are output as-is. *result* must be a :c:type:`PyUnicodeObject*` which
+   must be released when it is no longer used.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Decode a string using :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` and the
+   :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors` error handler.
+
+   If :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is not set, fall back to the
+   locale encoding.
+
+   :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is initialized at startup from the
+   locale encoding and cannot be modified later. If you need to decode a string
+   from the current locale encoding, use
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` function.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Use :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors` error handler.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(const char *s)
+
+   Decode a null-terminated string using :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding`
+   and the :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors` error handler.
+
+   If :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is not set, fall back to the
+   locale encoding.
+
+   Use :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize` if you know the string length.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Use :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors` error handler.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object to :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` with the
+   :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors` error handler, and return
+   :class:`bytes`. Note that the resulting :class:`bytes` object may contain
+   null bytes.
+
+   If :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is not set, fall back to the
+   locale encoding.
+
+   :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is initialized at startup from the
+   locale encoding and cannot be modified later. If you need to encode a string
+   to the current locale encoding, use :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeLocale`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale` function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Use :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors` error handler.
+
+wchar_t Support
+"""""""""""""""
+
+:c:type:`wchar_t` support for platforms which support it:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromWideChar(const wchar_t *w, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Create a Unicode object from the :c:type:`wchar_t` buffer *w* of the given *size*.
+   Passing ``-1`` as the *size* indicates that the function must itself compute the length,
+   using wcslen.
+   Return *NULL* on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_AsWideChar(PyObject *unicode, wchar_t *w, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Copy the Unicode object contents into the :c:type:`wchar_t` buffer *w*.  At most
+   *size* :c:type:`wchar_t` characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing
+   null termination character).  Return the number of :c:type:`wchar_t` characters
+   copied or ``-1`` in case of an error.  Note that the resulting :c:type:`wchar_t*`
+   string may or may not be null-terminated.  It is the responsibility of the caller
+   to make sure that the :c:type:`wchar_t*` string is null-terminated in case this is
+   required by the application. Also, note that the :c:type:`wchar_t*` string
+   might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated
+   when used with most C functions.
+
+
+.. c:function:: wchar_t* PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size)
+
+   Convert the Unicode object to a wide character string. The output string
+   always ends with a null character. If *size* is not *NULL*, write the number
+   of wide characters (excluding the trailing null termination character) into
+   *\*size*. Note that the resulting :c:type:`wchar_t` string might contain
+   null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with
+   most C functions. If *size* is *NULL* and the :c:type:`wchar_t*` string
+   contains null characters a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   Returns a buffer allocated by :c:func:`PyMem_Alloc` (use
+   :c:func:`PyMem_Free` to free it) on success. On error, returns *NULL*
+   and *\*size* is undefined. Raises a :exc:`MemoryError` if memory allocation
+   is failed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if *size* is *NULL* and the :c:type:`wchar_t*`
+      string contains null characters.
+
+
+.. _builtincodecs:
+
+Built-in Codecs
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for speed. All of
+these codecs are directly usable via the following functions.
+
+Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and they
+have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in :func:`str` string object
+constructor.
+
+Setting encoding to *NULL* causes the default encoding to be used
+which is ASCII.  The file system calls should use
+:c:func:`PyUnicode_FSConverter` for encoding file names. This uses the
+variable :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` internally. This
+variable should be treated as read-only: on some systems, it will be a
+pointer to a static string, on others, it will change at run-time
+(such as when the application invokes setlocale).
+
+Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to *NULL* meaning to use
+the default handling defined for the codec.  Default error handling for all
+built-in codecs is "strict" (:exc:`ValueError` is raised).
+
+The codecs all use a similar interface.  Only deviation from the following
+generic ones are documented for simplicity.
+
+
+Generic Codecs
+""""""""""""""
+
+These are the generic codec APIs:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Decode(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the encoded string *s*.
+   *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name
+   in the :func:`str` built-in function.  The codec to be used is looked up
+   using the Python codec registry.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+   the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(PyObject *unicode, \
+                              const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python bytes object.
+   *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters of the same
+   name in the Unicode :meth:`~str.encode` method. The codec to be used is looked up
+   using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+   the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Encode(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *encoding, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer *s* of the given *size* and return a Python
+   bytes object.  *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the
+   parameters of the same name in the Unicode :meth:`~str.encode` method.  The codec
+   to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry.  Return *NULL* if an
+   exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+UTF-8 Codecs
+""""""""""""
+
+These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the UTF-8 encoded string
+   *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+   If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8`. If
+   *consumed* is not *NULL*, trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be
+   treated as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
+   that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as Python bytes
+   object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return *NULL* if an exception was
+   raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size)
+
+   Return a pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and
+   store the size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in *size*.  The
+   *size* argument can be *NULL*; in this case no size will be stored.  The
+   returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended (not included in
+   *size*), regardless of whether there are any other null code points.
+
+   In the case of an error, *NULL* is returned with an exception set and no
+   *size* is stored.
+
+   This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode object, and
+   subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same buffer.  The caller is not
+   responsible for deallocating the buffer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The return type is now ``const char *`` rather of ``char *``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyUnicode_AsUTF8(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   As :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize`, but does not store the size.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The return type is now ``const char *`` rather of ``char *``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer *s* of the given *size* using UTF-8 and
+   return a Python bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+   the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8String`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize` or
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+UTF-32 Codecs
+"""""""""""""
+
+These are the UTF-32 codec APIs:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, int *byteorder)
+
+   Decode *size* bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and return the
+   corresponding Unicode object.  *errors* (if non-*NULL*) defines the error
+   handling. It defaults to "strict".
+
+   If *byteorder* is non-*NULL*, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte
+   order::
+
+      *byteorder == -1: little endian
+      *byteorder == 0:  native order
+      *byteorder == 1:  big endian
+
+   If ``*byteorder`` is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data are a
+   byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is
+   not copied into the resulting Unicode string.  If ``*byteorder`` is ``-1`` or
+   ``1``, any byte order mark is copied to the output.
+
+   After completion, *\*byteorder* is set to the current byte order at the end
+   of input data.
+
+   If *byteorder* is *NULL*, the codec starts in native order mode.
+
+   Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+   If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32`. If
+   *consumed* is not *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful` will not treat
+   trailing incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not divisible
+   by four) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
+   that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in native byte
+   order. The string always starts with a BOM mark.  Error handling is "strict".
+   Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, int byteorder)
+
+   Return a Python bytes object holding the UTF-32 encoded value of the Unicode
+   data in *s*.  Output is written according to the following byte order::
+
+      byteorder == -1: little endian
+      byteorder == 0:  native byte order (writes a BOM mark)
+      byteorder == 1:  big endian
+
+   If byteorder is ``0``, the output string will always start with the Unicode BOM
+   mark (U+FEFF). In the other two modes, no BOM mark is prepended.
+
+   If *Py_UNICODE_WIDE* is not defined, surrogate pairs will be output
+   as a single code point.
+
+   Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF32String` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+UTF-16 Codecs
+"""""""""""""
+
+These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, int *byteorder)
+
+   Decode *size* bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and return the
+   corresponding Unicode object.  *errors* (if non-*NULL*) defines the error
+   handling. It defaults to "strict".
+
+   If *byteorder* is non-*NULL*, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte
+   order::
+
+      *byteorder == -1: little endian
+      *byteorder == 0:  native order
+      *byteorder == 1:  big endian
+
+   If ``*byteorder`` is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data are a
+   byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is
+   not copied into the resulting Unicode string.  If ``*byteorder`` is ``-1`` or
+   ``1``, any byte order mark is copied to the output (where it will result in
+   either a ``\ufeff`` or a ``\ufffe`` character).
+
+   After completion, *\*byteorder* is set to the current byte order at the end
+   of input data.
+
+   If *byteorder* is *NULL*, the codec starts in native order mode.
+
+   Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+   If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16`. If
+   *consumed* is not *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful` will not treat
+   trailing incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or a
+   split surrogate pair) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the
+   number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte
+   order. The string always starts with a BOM mark.  Error handling is "strict".
+   Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, int byteorder)
+
+   Return a Python bytes object holding the UTF-16 encoded value of the Unicode
+   data in *s*.  Output is written according to the following byte order::
+
+      byteorder == -1: little endian
+      byteorder == 0:  native byte order (writes a BOM mark)
+      byteorder == 1:  big endian
+
+   If byteorder is ``0``, the output string will always start with the Unicode BOM
+   mark (U+FEFF). In the other two modes, no BOM mark is prepended.
+
+   If *Py_UNICODE_WIDE* is defined, a single :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` value may get
+   represented as a surrogate pair. If it is not defined, each :c:type:`Py_UNICODE`
+   values is interpreted as a UCS-2 character.
+
+   Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF16String` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+UTF-7 Codecs
+""""""""""""
+
+These are the UTF-7 codec APIs:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the UTF-7 encoded string
+   *s*.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+   If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7`.  If
+   *consumed* is not *NULL*, trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not
+   be treated as an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of
+   bytes that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              int base64SetO, int base64WhiteSpace, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using UTF-7 and
+   return a Python bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+   the codec.
+
+   If *base64SetO* is nonzero, "Set O" (punctuation that has no otherwise
+   special meaning) will be encoded in base-64.  If *base64WhiteSpace* is
+   nonzero, whitespace will be encoded in base-64.  Both are set to zero for the
+   Python "utf-7" codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+Unicode-Escape Codecs
+"""""""""""""""""""""
+
+These are the "Unicode Escape" codec APIs:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(const char *s, \
+                              Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Unicode-Escape encoded
+   string *s*.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the result as a
+   bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return *NULL* if an exception was
+   raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using Unicode-Escape and
+   return a bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString`.
+
+
+Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+These are the "Raw Unicode Escape" codec APIs:
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(const char *s, \
+                              Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Raw-Unicode-Escape
+   encoded string *s*.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return the result as
+   a bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return *NULL* if an exception
+   was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s, \
+                              Py_ssize_t size)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using Raw-Unicode-Escape
+   and return a bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString` or
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+Latin-1 Codecs
+""""""""""""""
+
+These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256 Unicode
+ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during encoding.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Latin-1 encoded string
+   *s*.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result as Python bytes
+   object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return *NULL* if an exception was
+   raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using Latin-1 and
+   return a Python bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+   the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsLatin1String` or
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+ASCII Codecs
+""""""""""""
+
+These are the ASCII codec APIs.  Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted. All other
+codes generate errors.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the ASCII encoded string
+   *s*.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as Python bytes
+   object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return *NULL* if an exception was
+   raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeASCII(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using ASCII and
+   return a Python bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by
+   the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsASCIIString` or
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+Character Map Codecs
+""""""""""""""""""""
+
+This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different codecs
+(and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard codecs
+included in the :mod:`encodings` package). The codec uses mapping to encode and
+decode characters.  The mapping objects provided must support the
+:meth:`__getitem__` mapping interface; dictionaries and sequences work well.
+
+These are the mapping codec APIs:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(const char *data, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              PyObject *mapping, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the encoded string *s*
+   using the given *mapping* object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised
+   by the codec.
+
+   If *mapping* is *NULL*, Latin-1 decoding will be applied.  Else
+   *mapping* must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to 255)
+   to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as Unicode
+   ordinals) or ``None``.  Unmapped data bytes -- ones which cause a
+   :exc:`LookupError`, as well as ones which get mapped to ``None``,
+   ``0xFFFE`` or ``'\ufffe'``, are treated as undefined mappings and cause
+   an error.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *mapping)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object using the given *mapping* object and return the
+   result as a bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return *NULL* if an
+   exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   The *mapping* object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes objects,
+   integers in the range from 0 to 255 or ``None``.  Unmapped character
+   ordinals (ones which cause a :exc:`LookupError`) as well as mapped to
+   ``None`` are treated as "undefined mapping" and cause an error.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              PyObject *mapping, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using the given
+   *mapping* object and return the result as a bytes object.  Return *NULL* if
+   an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsCharmapString` or
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Translate(PyObject *unicode, \
+                              PyObject *mapping, const char *errors)
+
+   Translate a Unicode object using the given *mapping* object and return the
+   resulting Unicode object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the
+   codec.
+
+   The *mapping* object must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode strings,
+   integers (which are then interpreted as Unicode ordinals) or ``None``
+   (causing deletion of the character).  Unmapped character ordinals (ones
+   which cause a :exc:`LookupError`) are left untouched and are copied as-is.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              PyObject *mapping, const char *errors)
+
+   Translate a :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* by applying a
+   character *mapping* table to it and return the resulting Unicode object.
+   Return *NULL* when an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_Translate`. or :ref:`generic codec based API
+      <codec-registry>`
+
+
+MBCS codecs for Windows
+"""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+These are the MBCS codec APIs. They are currently only available on Windows and
+use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions.  Note that MBCS (or
+DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one.  The target encoding is defined by
+the user settings on the machine running the codec.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the MBCS encoded string *s*.
+   Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \
+                              const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+   If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS`. If
+   *consumed* is not *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful` will not decode
+   trailing lead byte and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored
+   in *consumed*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(PyObject *unicode)
+
+   Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes
+   object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return *NULL* if an exception was
+   raised by the codec.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(int code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the Unicode object using the specified code page and return a Python
+   bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. Use
+   :c:data:`CP_ACP` code page to get the MBCS encoder.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
+
+   Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using MBCS and return
+   a Python bytes object.  Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the
+   codec.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+      Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsMBCSString`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage` or
+      :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`.
+
+
+Methods & Slots
+"""""""""""""""
+
+
+.. _unicodemethodsandslots:
+
+Methods and Slot Functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings on input
+(we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return Unicode objects or
+integers as appropriate.
+
+They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Concat(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
+
+   Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Split(PyObject *s, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
+
+   Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings.  If *sep* is *NULL*, splitting
+   will be done at all whitespace substrings.  Otherwise, splits occur at the given
+   separator.  At most *maxsplit* splits will be done.  If negative, no limit is
+   set.  Separators are not included in the resulting list.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Splitlines(PyObject *s, int keepend)
+
+   Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of Unicode strings.
+   CRLF is considered to be one line break.  If *keepend* is ``0``, the Line break
+   characters are not included in the resulting strings.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Translate(PyObject *str, PyObject *table, \
+                              const char *errors)
+
+   Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to it and return the
+   resulting Unicode object.
+
+   The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode ordinal integers
+   or ``None`` (causing deletion of the character).
+
+   Mapping tables need only provide the :meth:`__getitem__` interface; dictionaries
+   and sequences work well.  Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a
+   :exc:`LookupError`) are left untouched and are copied as-is.
+
+   *errors* has the usual meaning for codecs. It may be *NULL* which indicates to
+   use the default error handling.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Join(PyObject *separator, PyObject *seq)
+
+   Join a sequence of strings using the given *separator* and return the resulting
+   Unicode string.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Tailmatch(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \
+                        Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)
+
+   Return ``1`` if *substr* matches ``str[start:end]`` at the given tail end
+   (*direction* == ``-1`` means to do a prefix match, *direction* == ``1`` a suffix match),
+   ``0`` otherwise. Return ``-1`` if an error occurred.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Find(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \
+                               Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)
+
+   Return the first position of *substr* in ``str[start:end]`` using the given
+   *direction* (*direction* == ``1`` means to do a forward search, *direction* == ``-1`` a
+   backward search).  The return value is the index of the first match; a value of
+   ``-1`` indicates that no match was found, and ``-2`` indicates that an error
+   occurred and an exception has been set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_FindChar(PyObject *str, Py_UCS4 ch, \
+                               Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)
+
+   Return the first position of the character *ch* in ``str[start:end]`` using
+   the given *direction* (*direction* == ``1`` means to do a forward search,
+   *direction* == ``-1`` a backward search).  The return value is the index of the
+   first match; a value of ``-1`` indicates that no match was found, and ``-2``
+   indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been set.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      *start* and *end* are now adjusted to behave like ``str[start:end]``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Count(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \
+                               Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
+
+   Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of *substr* in
+   ``str[start:end]``.  Return ``-1`` if an error occurred.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Replace(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \
+                              PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount)
+
+   Replace at most *maxcount* occurrences of *substr* in *str* with *replstr* and
+   return the resulting Unicode object. *maxcount* == ``-1`` means replace all
+   occurrences.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_Compare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
+
+   Compare two strings and return ``-1``, ``0``, ``1`` for less than, equal, and greater than,
+   respectively.
+
+   This function returns ``-1`` upon failure, so one should call
+   :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to check for errors.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(PyObject *uni, const char *string)
+
+   Compare a Unicode object, *uni*, with *string* and return ``-1``, ``0``, ``1`` for less
+   than, equal, and greater than, respectively. It is best to pass only
+   ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string as
+   ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters.
+
+   This function does not raise exceptions.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_RichCompare(PyObject *left,  PyObject *right,  int op)
+
+   Rich compare two Unicode strings and return one of the following:
+
+   * ``NULL`` in case an exception was raised
+   * :const:`Py_True` or :const:`Py_False` for successful comparisons
+   * :const:`Py_NotImplemented` in case the type combination is unknown
+
+   Possible values for *op* are :const:`Py_GT`, :const:`Py_GE`, :const:`Py_EQ`,
+   :const:`Py_NE`, :const:`Py_LT`, and :const:`Py_LE`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Format(PyObject *format, PyObject *args)
+
+   Return a new string object from *format* and *args*; this is analogous to
+   ``format % args``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_Contains(PyObject *container, PyObject *element)
+
+   Check whether *element* is contained in *container* and return true or false
+   accordingly.
+
+   *element* has to coerce to a one element Unicode string. ``-1`` is returned
+   if there was an error.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace(PyObject **string)
+
+   Intern the argument *\*string* in place.  The argument must be the address of a
+   pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object.  If there is an
+   existing interned string that is the same as *\*string*, it sets *\*string* to
+   it (decrementing the reference count of the old string object and incrementing
+   the reference count of the interned string object), otherwise it leaves
+   *\*string* alone and interns it (incrementing its reference count).
+   (Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about reference counts, think
+   of this function as reference-count-neutral; you own the object after the call
+   if and only if you owned it before the call.)
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_InternFromString(const char *v)
+
+   A combination of :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` and
+   :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternInPlace`, returning either a new Unicode string
+   object that has been interned, or a new ("owned") reference to an earlier
+   interned string object with the same value.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/utilities.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/utilities.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d4484fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/utilities.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _utilities:
+
+*********
+Utilities
+*********
+
+The functions in this chapter perform various utility tasks, ranging from
+helping C code be more portable across platforms, using Python modules from C,
+and parsing function arguments and constructing Python values from C values.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   sys.rst
+   import.rst
+   marshal.rst
+   arg.rst
+   conversion.rst
+   reflection.rst
+   codec.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/veryhigh.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/veryhigh.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..317093e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/veryhigh.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,394 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _veryhigh:
+
+*************************
+The Very High Level Layer
+*************************
+
+The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code given in a
+file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a more detailed way with
+the interpreter.
+
+Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a
+parameter.  The available start symbols are :const:`Py_eval_input`,
+:const:`Py_file_input`, and :const:`Py_single_input`.  These are described
+following the functions which accept them as parameters.
+
+Note also that several of these functions take :c:type:`FILE\*` parameters.  One
+particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the :c:type:`FILE`
+structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible.  Under
+Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked extensions to actually
+use different libraries, so care should be taken that :c:type:`FILE\*` parameters
+are only passed to these functions if it is certain that they were created by
+the same library that the Python runtime is using.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_Main(int argc, wchar_t **argv)
+
+   The main program for the standard interpreter.  This is made available for
+   programs which embed Python.  The *argc* and *argv* parameters should be
+   prepared exactly as those which are passed to a C program's :c:func:`main`
+   function (converted to wchar_t according to the user's locale).  It is
+   important to note that the argument list may be modified (but the contents of
+   the strings pointed to by the argument list are not). The return value will
+   be ``0`` if the interpreter exits normally (i.e., without an exception),
+   ``1`` if the interpreter exits due to an exception, or ``2`` if the parameter
+   list does not represent a valid Python command line.
+
+   Note that if an otherwise unhandled :exc:`SystemExit` is raised, this
+   function will not return ``1``, but exit the process, as long as
+   ``Py_InspectFlag`` is not set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_AnyFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_AnyFileExFlags` below, leaving
+   *closeit* set to ``0`` and *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_AnyFileFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_AnyFileExFlags` below, leaving
+   the *closeit* argument set to ``0``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_AnyFileEx(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_AnyFileExFlags` below, leaving
+   the *flags* argument set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   If *fp* refers to a file associated with an interactive device (console or
+   terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the value of
+   :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveLoop`, otherwise return the result of
+   :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleFile`.  *filename* is decoded from the filesystem
+   encoding (:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`).  If *filename* is *NULL*, this
+   function uses ``"???"`` as the filename.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_SimpleString(const char *command)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleStringFlags` below,
+   leaving the *PyCompilerFlags\** argument set to NULL.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(const char *command, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   Executes the Python source code from *command* in the :mod:`__main__` module
+   according to the *flags* argument. If :mod:`__main__` does not already exist, it
+   is created.  Returns ``0`` on success or ``-1`` if an exception was raised.  If
+   there was an error, there is no way to get the exception information. For the
+   meaning of *flags*, see below.
+
+   Note that if an otherwise unhandled :exc:`SystemExit` is raised, this
+   function will not return ``-1``, but exit the process, as long as
+   ``Py_InspectFlag`` is not set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_SimpleFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags` below,
+   leaving *closeit* set to ``0`` and *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags` below,
+   leaving *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleStringFlags`, but the Python source code is read
+   from *fp* instead of an in-memory string. *filename* should be the name of
+   the file, it is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+   (:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`).  If *closeit* is true, the file is
+   closed before PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags returns.
+
+   .. note::
+      On Windows, *fp* should be opened as binary mode (e.g. ``fopen(filename, "rb")``.
+      Otherwise, Python may not handle script file with LF line ending correctly.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveOne(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags` below,
+   leaving *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an
+   interactive device according to the *flags* argument.  The user will be
+   prompted using ``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2``.  *filename* is decoded from the
+   filesystem encoding (:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`).
+
+   Returns ``0`` when the input was
+   executed successfully, ``-1`` if there was an exception, or an error code
+   from the :file:`errcode.h` include file distributed as part of Python if
+   there was a parse error.  (Note that :file:`errcode.h` is not included by
+   :file:`Python.h`, so must be included specifically if needed.)
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags` below,
+   leaving *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   Read and execute statements from a file associated with an interactive device
+   until EOF is reached.  The user will be prompted using ``sys.ps1`` and
+   ``sys.ps2``.  *filename* is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+   (:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`).  Returns ``0`` at EOF or a negative
+   number upon failure.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void)
+
+   Can be set to point to a function with the prototype
+   ``int func(void)``.  The function will be called when Python's
+   interpreter prompt is about to become idle and wait for user input
+   from the terminal.  The return value is ignored.  Overriding this
+   hook can be used to integrate the interpreter's prompt with other
+   event loops, as done in the :file:`Modules/_tkinter.c` in the
+   Python source code.
+
+
+.. c:var:: char* (*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE *, FILE *, const char *)
+
+   Can be set to point to a function with the prototype
+   ``char *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt)``,
+   overriding the default function used to read a single line of input
+   at the interpreter's prompt.  The function is expected to output
+   the string *prompt* if it's not *NULL*, and then read a line of
+   input from the provided standard input file, returning the
+   resulting string.  For example, The :mod:`readline` module sets
+   this hook to provide line-editing and tab-completion features.
+
+   The result must be a string allocated by :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc` or
+   :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc`, or *NULL* if an error occurred.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The result must be allocated by :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc` or
+      :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc`, instead of being allocated by
+      :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc` or :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: struct _node* PyParser_SimpleParseString(const char *str, int start)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to
+   :c:func:`PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename` below, leaving  *filename* set
+   to *NULL* and *flags* set to ``0``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: struct _node* PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags( const char *str, int start, int flags)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to
+   :c:func:`PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename` below, leaving  *filename* set
+   to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: struct _node* PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename( const char *str, const char *filename, int start, int flags)
+
+   Parse Python source code from *str* using the start token *start* according to
+   the *flags* argument.  The result can be used to create a code object which can
+   be evaluated efficiently. This is useful if a code fragment must be evaluated
+   many times. *filename* is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+   (:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`).
+
+
+.. c:function:: struct _node* PyParser_SimpleParseFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags` below,
+   leaving *flags* set to ``0``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: struct _node* PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, int flags)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename`, but the Python
+   source code is read from *fp* instead of an in-memory string.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyRun_String(const char *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_StringFlags` below, leaving
+   *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyRun_StringFlags(const char *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   Execute Python source code from *str* in the context specified by the
+   objects *globals* and *locals* with the compiler flags specified by
+   *flags*.  *globals* must be a dictionary; *locals* can be any object
+   that implements the mapping protocol.  The parameter *start* specifies
+   the start token that should be used to parse the source code.
+
+   Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or *NULL* if an
+   exception was raised.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyRun_File(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_FileExFlags` below, leaving
+   *closeit* set to ``0`` and *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyRun_FileEx(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int closeit)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_FileExFlags` below, leaving
+   *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyRun_FileFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_FileExFlags` below, leaving
+   *closeit* set to ``0``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyRun_FileExFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyRun_StringFlags`, but the Python source code is read from
+   *fp* instead of an in-memory string. *filename* should be the name of the file,
+   it is decoded from the filesystem encoding (:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`).
+   If *closeit* is true, the file is closed before :c:func:`PyRun_FileExFlags`
+   returns.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* Py_CompileString(const char *str, const char *filename, int start)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`Py_CompileStringFlags` below, leaving
+   *flags* set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* Py_CompileStringFlags(const char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`Py_CompileStringExFlags` below, with
+   *optimize* set to ``-1``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* Py_CompileStringObject(const char *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags, int optimize)
+
+   Parse and compile the Python source code in *str*, returning the resulting code
+   object.  The start token is given by *start*; this can be used to constrain the
+   code which can be compiled and should be :const:`Py_eval_input`,
+   :const:`Py_file_input`, or :const:`Py_single_input`.  The filename specified by
+   *filename* is used to construct the code object and may appear in tracebacks or
+   :exc:`SyntaxError` exception messages.  This returns *NULL* if the code
+   cannot be parsed or compiled.
+
+   The integer *optimize* specifies the optimization level of the compiler; a
+   value of ``-1`` selects the optimization level of the interpreter as given by
+   :option:`-O` options.  Explicit levels are ``0`` (no optimization;
+   ``__debug__`` is true), ``1`` (asserts are removed, ``__debug__`` is false)
+   or ``2`` (docstrings are removed too).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* Py_CompileStringExFlags(const char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags, int optimize)
+
+   Like :c:func:`Py_CompileStringObject`, but *filename* is a byte string
+   decoded from the filesystem encoding (:func:`os.fsdecode`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_EvalCode(PyObject *co, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
+
+   This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyEval_EvalCodeEx`, with just
+   the code object, and global and local variables.  The other arguments are
+   set to *NULL*.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_EvalCodeEx(PyObject *co, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args, int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject *closure)
+
+   Evaluate a precompiled code object, given a particular environment for its
+   evaluation.  This environment consists of a dictionary of global variables,
+   a mapping object of local variables, arrays of arguments, keywords and
+   defaults, a dictionary of default values for :ref:`keyword-only
+   <keyword-only_parameter>` arguments and a closure tuple of cells.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyFrameObject
+
+   The C structure of the objects used to describe frame objects. The
+   fields of this type are subject to change at any time.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_EvalFrame(PyFrameObject *f)
+
+   Evaluate an execution frame.  This is a simplified interface to
+   :c:func:`PyEval_EvalFrameEx`, for backward compatibility.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_EvalFrameEx(PyFrameObject *f, int throwflag)
+
+   This is the main, unvarnished function of Python interpretation.  It is
+   literally 2000 lines long.  The code object associated with the execution
+   frame *f* is executed, interpreting bytecode and executing calls as needed.
+   The additional *throwflag* parameter can mostly be ignored - if true, then
+   it causes an exception to immediately be thrown; this is used for the
+   :meth:`~generator.throw` methods of generator objects.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
+      does not silently discard an active exception.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags(PyCompilerFlags *cf)
+
+   This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame, and returns
+   true on success, false on failure.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int Py_eval_input
+
+   .. index:: single: Py_CompileString()
+
+   The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions; for use with
+   :c:func:`Py_CompileString`.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int Py_file_input
+
+   .. index:: single: Py_CompileString()
+
+   The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of statements as read
+   from a file or other source; for use with :c:func:`Py_CompileString`.  This is
+   the symbol to use when compiling arbitrarily long Python source code.
+
+
+.. c:var:: int Py_single_input
+
+   .. index:: single: Py_CompileString()
+
+   The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement; for use with
+   :c:func:`Py_CompileString`. This is the symbol used for the interactive
+   interpreter loop.
+
+
+.. c:type:: struct PyCompilerFlags
+
+   This is the structure used to hold compiler flags.  In cases where code is only
+   being compiled, it is passed as ``int flags``, and in cases where code is being
+   executed, it is passed as ``PyCompilerFlags *flags``.  In this case, ``from
+   __future__ import`` can modify *flags*.
+
+   Whenever ``PyCompilerFlags *flags`` is *NULL*, :attr:`cf_flags` is treated as
+   equal to ``0``, and any modification due to ``from __future__ import`` is
+   discarded.  ::
+
+      struct PyCompilerFlags {
+          int cf_flags;
+      }
+
+
+.. c:var:: int CO_FUTURE_DIVISION
+
+   This bit can be set in *flags* to cause division operator ``/`` to be
+   interpreted as "true division" according to :pep:`238`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/weakref.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/weakref.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cb3e33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/c-api/weakref.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _weakrefobjects:
+
+Weak Reference Objects
+----------------------
+
+Python supports *weak references* as first-class objects.  There are two
+specific object types which directly implement weak references.  The first is a
+simple reference object, and the second acts as a proxy for the original object
+as much as it can.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyWeakref_Check(ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is either a reference or proxy object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyWeakref_CheckRef(ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is a reference object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy(ob)
+
+   Return true if *ob* is a proxy object.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWeakref_NewRef(PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback)
+
+   Return a weak reference object for the object *ob*.  This will always return
+   a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an existing
+   reference object may be returned.  The second parameter, *callback*, can be a
+   callable object that receives notification when *ob* is garbage collected; it
+   should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
+   itself. *callback* may also be ``None`` or *NULL*.  If *ob* is not a
+   weakly-referencable object, or if *callback* is not callable, ``None``, or
+   *NULL*, this will return *NULL* and raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWeakref_NewProxy(PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback)
+
+   Return a weak reference proxy object for the object *ob*.  This will always
+   return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an
+   existing proxy object may be returned.  The second parameter, *callback*, can
+   be a callable object that receives notification when *ob* is garbage
+   collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak
+   reference object itself. *callback* may also be ``None`` or *NULL*.  If *ob*
+   is not a weakly-referencable object, or if *callback* is not callable,
+   ``None``, or *NULL*, this will return *NULL* and raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWeakref_GetObject(PyObject *ref)
+
+   Return the referenced object from a weak reference, *ref*.  If the referent is
+   no longer live, returns :const:`Py_None`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function returns a **borrowed reference** to the referenced object.
+      This means that you should always call :c:func:`Py_INCREF` on the object
+      except if you know that it cannot be destroyed while you are still
+      using it.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(PyObject *ref)
+
+   Similar to :c:func:`PyWeakref_GetObject`, but implemented as a macro that does no
+   error checking.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/contents.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/contents.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8690de7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/contents.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+ Python Documentation contents
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   whatsnew/index.rst
+   tutorial/index.rst
+   using/index.rst
+   reference/index.rst
+   library/index.rst
+   extending/index.rst
+   c-api/index.rst
+   distributing/index.rst
+   installing/index.rst
+   howto/index.rst
+   faq/index.rst
+   glossary.rst
+
+   about.rst
+   bugs.rst
+   copyright.rst
+   license.rst
+
+.. to include legacy packaging docs in build
+
+.. toctree::
+   :hidden:
+
+   distutils/index.rst
+   install/index.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/copyright.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/copyright.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..393a1f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/copyright.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+*********
+Copyright
+*********
+
+Python and this documentation is:
+
+Copyright © 2001-2019 Python Software Foundation. All rights reserved.
+
+Copyright © 2000 BeOpen.com. All rights reserved.
+
+Copyright © 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives. All rights
+reserved.
+
+Copyright © 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum. All rights reserved.
+
+-------
+
+See :ref:`history-and-license` for complete license and permissions information.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distributing/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distributing/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e46c7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distributing/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+.. _distributing-index:
+
+###############################
+  Distributing Python Modules
+###############################
+
+:Email: distutils-sig@python.org
+
+
+As a popular open source development project, Python has an active
+supporting community of contributors and users that also make their software
+available for other Python developers to use under open source license terms.
+
+This allows Python users to share and collaborate effectively, benefiting
+from the solutions others have already created to common (and sometimes
+even rare!) problems, as well as potentially contributing their own
+solutions to the common pool.
+
+This guide covers the distribution part of the process. For a guide to
+installing other Python projects, refer to the
+:ref:`installation guide <installing-index>`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   For corporate and other institutional users, be aware that many
+   organisations have their own policies around using and contributing to
+   open source software. Please take such policies into account when making
+   use of the distribution and installation tools provided with Python.
+
+
+Key terms
+=========
+
+* the `Python Packaging Index <https://pypi.org>`__ is a public
+  repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by
+  other Python users
+* the `Python Packaging Authority
+  <https://www.pypa.io/>`__ are the group of
+  developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and
+  evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
+  file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation
+  and issue trackers on both `GitHub <https://github.com/pypa>`__ and
+  `BitBucket <https://bitbucket.org/pypa/>`__.
+* :mod:`distutils` is the original build and distribution system first added
+  to the Python standard library in 1998. While direct use of :mod:`distutils`
+  is being phased out, it still laid the foundation for the current packaging
+  and distribution infrastructure, and it not only remains part of the
+  standard library, but its name lives on in other ways (such as the name
+  of the mailing list used to coordinate Python packaging standards
+  development).
+* `setuptools`_ is a (largely) drop-in replacement for :mod:`distutils` first
+  published in 2004. Its most notable addition over the unmodified
+  :mod:`distutils` tools was the ability to declare dependencies on other
+  packages. It is currently recommended as a more regularly updated
+  alternative to :mod:`distutils` that offers consistent support for more
+  recent packaging standards across a wide range of Python versions.
+* `wheel`_ (in this context) is a project that adds the ``bdist_wheel``
+  command to :mod:`distutils`/`setuptools`_. This produces a cross platform
+  binary packaging format (called "wheels" or "wheel files" and defined in
+  :pep:`427`) that allows Python libraries, even those including binary
+  extensions, to be installed on a system without needing to be built
+  locally.
+
+.. _setuptools: https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/
+.. _wheel: https://wheel.readthedocs.io/
+
+Open source licensing and collaboration
+=======================================
+
+In most parts of the world, software is automatically covered by copyright.
+This means that other developers require explicit permission to copy, use,
+modify and redistribute the software.
+
+Open source licensing is a way of explicitly granting such permission in a
+relatively consistent way, allowing developers to share and collaborate
+efficiently by making common solutions to various problems freely available.
+This leaves many developers free to spend more time focusing on the problems
+that are relatively unique to their specific situation.
+
+The distribution tools provided with Python are designed to make it
+reasonably straightforward for developers to make their own contributions
+back to that common pool of software if they choose to do so.
+
+The same distribution tools can also be used to distribute software within
+an organisation, regardless of whether that software is published as open
+source software or not.
+
+
+Installing the tools
+====================
+
+The standard library does not include build tools that support modern
+Python packaging standards, as the core development team has found that it
+is important to have standard tools that work consistently, even on older
+versions of Python.
+
+The currently recommended build and distribution tools can be installed
+by invoking the ``pip`` module at the command line::
+
+    python -m pip install setuptools wheel twine
+
+.. note::
+
+   For POSIX users (including Mac OS X and Linux users), these instructions
+   assume the use of a :term:`virtual environment`.
+
+   For Windows users, these instructions assume that the option to
+   adjust the system PATH environment variable was selected when installing
+   Python.
+
+The Python Packaging User Guide includes more details on the `currently
+recommended tools`_.
+
+.. _currently recommended tools: https://packaging.python.org/guides/tool-recommendations/#packaging-tool-recommendations
+
+.. index::
+   single: Python Package Index (PyPI)
+   single: PyPI; (see Python Package Index (PyPI))
+
+.. _publishing-python-packages:
+
+Reading the Python Packaging User Guide
+=======================================
+
+The Python Packaging User Guide covers the various key steps and elements
+involved in creating and publishing a project:
+
+* `Project structure`_
+* `Building and packaging the project`_
+* `Uploading the project to the Python Packaging Index`_
+
+.. _Project structure: \
+    https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/
+.. _Building and packaging the project: \
+   https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/#packaging-your-project
+.. _Uploading the project to the Python Packaging Index: \
+   https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/#uploading-your-project-to-pypi
+
+
+How do I...?
+============
+
+These are quick answers or links for some common tasks.
+
+... choose a name for my project?
+---------------------------------
+
+This isn't an easy topic, but here are a few tips:
+
+* check the Python Packaging Index to see if the name is already in use
+* check popular hosting sites like GitHub, BitBucket, etc to see if there
+  is already a project with that name
+* check what comes up in a web search for the name you're considering
+* avoid particularly common words, especially ones with multiple meanings,
+  as they can make it difficult for users to find your software when
+  searching for it
+
+
+... create and distribute binary extensions?
+--------------------------------------------
+
+This is actually quite a complex topic, with a variety of alternatives
+available depending on exactly what you're aiming to achieve. See the
+Python Packaging User Guide for more information and recommendations.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions
+   <https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/>`__
+
+.. other topics:
+
+   Once the Development & Deployment part of PPUG is fleshed out, some of
+   those sections should be linked from new questions here (most notably,
+   we should have a question about avoiding depending on PyPI that links to
+   https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/mirrors/)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/apiref.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/apiref.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8efeffb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/apiref.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2031 @@
+.. _api-reference:
+
+*************
+API Reference
+*************
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.core` --- Core Distutils functionality
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.core
+   :synopsis: The core Distutils functionality
+
+
+The :mod:`distutils.core` module is the only module that needs to be installed
+to use the Distutils. It provides the :func:`setup` (which is called from the
+setup script). Indirectly provides the  :class:`distutils.dist.Distribution` and
+:class:`distutils.cmd.Command` class.
+
+
+.. function:: setup(arguments)
+
+   The basic do-everything function that does most everything you could ever ask
+   for from a Distutils method.
+
+   The setup function takes a large number of arguments. These are laid out in the
+   following table.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|L|
+
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | argument name      | value                          | type                                                        |
+   +====================+================================+=============================================================+
+   | *name*             | The name of the package        | a string                                                    |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *version*          | The version number of the      | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | package; see                   |                                                             |
+   |                    | :mod:`distutils.version`       |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *description*      | A single line describing the   | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | package                        |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *long_description* | Longer description of the      | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | package                        |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *author*           | The name of the package author | a string                                                    |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *author_email*     | The email address of the       | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | package author                 |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *maintainer*       | The name of the current        | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | maintainer, if different from  |                                                             |
+   |                    | the author. Note that if       |                                                             |
+   |                    | the maintainer is provided,    |                                                             |
+   |                    | distutils will use it as the   |                                                             |
+   |                    | author in :file:`PKG-INFO`     |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *maintainer_email* | The email address of the       | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | current maintainer, if         |                                                             |
+   |                    | different from the author      |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *url*              | A URL for the package          | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | (homepage)                     |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *download_url*     | A URL to download the package  | a string                                                    |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *packages*         | A list of Python packages that | a list of strings                                           |
+   |                    | distutils will manipulate      |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *py_modules*       | A list of Python modules that  | a list of strings                                           |
+   |                    | distutils will manipulate      |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *scripts*          | A list of standalone script    | a list of strings                                           |
+   |                    | files to be built and          |                                                             |
+   |                    | installed                      |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *ext_modules*      | A list of Python extensions to | a list of instances of                                      |
+   |                    | be built                       | :class:`distutils.core.Extension`                           |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *classifiers*      | A list of categories for the   | a list of strings; valid classifiers are listed on `PyPI    |
+   |                    | package                        | <https://pypi.org/classifiers>`_.                           |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *distclass*        | the :class:`Distribution`      | a subclass of                                               |
+   |                    | class to use                   | :class:`distutils.core.Distribution`                        |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *script_name*      | The name of the setup.py       | a string                                                    |
+   |                    | script - defaults to           |                                                             |
+   |                    | ``sys.argv[0]``                |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *script_args*      | Arguments to supply to the     | a list of strings                                           |
+   |                    | setup script                   |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *options*          | default options for the setup  | a dictionary                                                |
+   |                    | script                         |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *license*          | The license for the package    | a string                                                    |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *keywords*         | Descriptive meta-data, see     | a list of strings or a comma-separated string               |
+   |                    | :pep:`314`                     |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *platforms*        |                                | a list of strings or a comma-separated string               |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *cmdclass*         | A mapping of command names to  | a dictionary                                                |
+   |                    | :class:`Command` subclasses    |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *data_files*       | A list of data files to        | a list                                                      |
+   |                    | install                        |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | *package_dir*      | A mapping of package to        | a dictionary                                                |
+   |                    | directory names                |                                                             |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+.. function:: run_setup(script_name[, script_args=None, stop_after='run'])
+
+   Run a setup script in a somewhat controlled environment, and return  the
+   :class:`distutils.dist.Distribution` instance that drives things.   This is
+   useful if you need to find out the distribution meta-data  (passed as keyword
+   args from *script* to :func:`setup`), or  the contents of the config files or
+   command-line.
+
+   *script_name* is a file that will be read and run with :func:`exec`.  ``sys.argv[0]``
+   will be replaced with *script* for the duration of the call.  *script_args* is a
+   list of strings; if supplied, ``sys.argv[1:]`` will be replaced by *script_args*
+   for the duration  of the call.
+
+   *stop_after* tells :func:`setup` when to stop processing; possible  values:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | value         | description                                 |
+   +===============+=============================================+
+   | *init*        | Stop after the :class:`Distribution`        |
+   |               | instance has been created  and populated    |
+   |               | with the keyword arguments to :func:`setup` |
+   +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *config*      | Stop after config files have been parsed    |
+   |               | (and their data stored in the               |
+   |               | :class:`Distribution` instance)             |
+   +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *commandline* | Stop after the command-line                 |
+   |               | (``sys.argv[1:]`` or  *script_args*) have   |
+   |               | been parsed (and the data stored in the     |
+   |               | :class:`Distribution` instance.)            |
+   +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *run*         | Stop after all commands have been run (the  |
+   |               | same as  if :func:`setup` had been called   |
+   |               | in the usual way). This is the default      |
+   |               | value.                                      |
+   +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+In addition, the :mod:`distutils.core` module exposed a number of  classes that
+live elsewhere.
+
+* :class:`~distutils.extension.Extension` from :mod:`distutils.extension`
+
+* :class:`~distutils.cmd.Command` from :mod:`distutils.cmd`
+
+* :class:`~distutils.dist.Distribution` from :mod:`distutils.dist`
+
+A short description of each of these follows, but see the relevant module for
+the full reference.
+
+
+.. class:: Extension
+
+   The Extension class describes a single C or C++ extension module in a setup
+   script. It accepts the following keyword arguments in its constructor:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|l|
+
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | argument name          | value                          | type                      |
+   +========================+================================+===========================+
+   | *name*                 | the full name of the           | a string                  |
+   |                        | extension, including any       |                           |
+   |                        | packages --- ie. *not* a       |                           |
+   |                        | filename or pathname, but      |                           |
+   |                        | Python dotted name             |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *sources*              | list of source filenames,      | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | relative to the distribution   |                           |
+   |                        | root (where the setup script   |                           |
+   |                        | lives), in Unix form           |                           |
+   |                        | (slash-separated) for          |                           |
+   |                        | portability.                   |                           |
+   |                        | Source files may be C, C++,    |                           |
+   |                        | SWIG (.i), platform-specific   |                           |
+   |                        | resource files, or whatever    |                           |
+   |                        | else is recognized by the      |                           |
+   |                        | :command:`build_ext` command   |                           |
+   |                        | as source for a Python         |                           |
+   |                        | extension.                     |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *include_dirs*         | list of directories to search  | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | for C/C++ header files (in     |                           |
+   |                        | Unix form for portability)     |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *define_macros*        | list of macros to define; each | a list of tuples          |
+   |                        | macro is defined using a       |                           |
+   |                        | 2-tuple ``(name, value)``,     |                           |
+   |                        | where *value* is               |                           |
+   |                        | either the string to define it |                           |
+   |                        | to or ``None`` to define it    |                           |
+   |                        | without a particular value     |                           |
+   |                        | (equivalent of ``#define FOO`` |                           |
+   |                        | in source or :option:`!-DFOO`  |                           |
+   |                        | on Unix C compiler command     |                           |
+   |                        | line)                          |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *undef_macros*         | list of macros to undefine     | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | explicitly                     |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *library_dirs*         | list of directories to search  | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | for C/C++ libraries at link    |                           |
+   |                        | time                           |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *libraries*            | list of library names (not     | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | filenames or paths) to link    |                           |
+   |                        | against                        |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *runtime_library_dirs* | list of directories to search  | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | for C/C++ libraries at run     |                           |
+   |                        | time (for shared extensions,   |                           |
+   |                        | this is when the extension is  |                           |
+   |                        | loaded)                        |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *extra_objects*        | list of extra files to link    | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | with (eg. object files not     |                           |
+   |                        | implied by 'sources', static   |                           |
+   |                        | library that must be           |                           |
+   |                        | explicitly specified, binary   |                           |
+   |                        | resource files, etc.)          |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *extra_compile_args*   | any extra platform- and        | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | compiler-specific information  |                           |
+   |                        | to use when compiling the      |                           |
+   |                        | source files in 'sources'. For |                           |
+   |                        | platforms and compilers where  |                           |
+   |                        | a command line makes sense,    |                           |
+   |                        | this is typically a list of    |                           |
+   |                        | command-line arguments, but    |                           |
+   |                        | for other platforms it could   |                           |
+   |                        | be anything.                   |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *extra_link_args*      | any extra platform- and        | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | compiler-specific information  |                           |
+   |                        | to use when linking object     |                           |
+   |                        | files together to create the   |                           |
+   |                        | extension (or to create a new  |                           |
+   |                        | static Python interpreter).    |                           |
+   |                        | Similar interpretation as for  |                           |
+   |                        | 'extra_compile_args'.          |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *export_symbols*       | list of symbols to be exported | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | from a shared extension. Not   |                           |
+   |                        | used on all platforms, and not |                           |
+   |                        | generally necessary for Python |                           |
+   |                        | extensions, which typically    |                           |
+   |                        | export exactly one symbol:     |                           |
+   |                        | ``init`` + extension_name.     |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *depends*              | list of files that the         | a list of strings         |
+   |                        | extension depends on           |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *language*             | extension language (i.e.       | a string                  |
+   |                        | ``'c'``, ``'c++'``,            |                           |
+   |                        | ``'objc'``). Will be detected  |                           |
+   |                        | from the source extensions if  |                           |
+   |                        | not provided.                  |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+   | *optional*             | specifies that a build failure | a boolean                 |
+   |                        | in the extension should not    |                           |
+   |                        | abort the build process, but   |                           |
+   |                        | simply skip the extension.     |                           |
+   +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+
+
+
+.. class:: Distribution
+
+   A :class:`Distribution` describes how to build, install and package up a Python
+   software package.
+
+   See the :func:`setup` function for a list of keyword arguments accepted  by the
+   Distribution constructor. :func:`setup` creates a Distribution instance.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      :class:`~distutils.core.Distribution` now warns if ``classifiers``,
+      ``keywords`` and ``platforms`` fields are not specified as a list or
+      a string.
+
+.. class:: Command
+
+   A :class:`Command` class (or rather, an instance of one of its subclasses)
+   implement a single distutils command.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.ccompiler` --- CCompiler base class
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.ccompiler
+   :synopsis: Abstract CCompiler class
+
+
+This module provides the abstract base class for the :class:`CCompiler`
+classes.  A :class:`CCompiler` instance can be used for all the compile  and
+link steps needed to build a single project. Methods are provided to  set
+options for the compiler --- macro definitions, include directories,  link path,
+libraries and the like.
+
+This module provides the following functions.
+
+
+.. function:: gen_lib_options(compiler, library_dirs, runtime_library_dirs, libraries)
+
+   Generate linker options for searching library directories and linking with
+   specific libraries.  *libraries* and *library_dirs* are, respectively, lists of
+   library names (not filenames!) and search directories.  Returns a list of
+   command-line options suitable for use with some compiler (depending on the two
+   format strings passed in).
+
+
+.. function:: gen_preprocess_options(macros, include_dirs)
+
+   Generate C pre-processor options (:option:`!-D`, :option:`!-U`, :option:`!-I`) as
+   used by at least two types of compilers: the typical Unix compiler and Visual
+   C++. *macros* is the usual thing, a list of 1- or 2-tuples, where ``(name,)``
+   means undefine (:option:`!-U`) macro *name*, and ``(name, value)`` means define
+   (:option:`!-D`) macro *name* to *value*.  *include_dirs* is just a list of
+   directory names to be added to the header file search path (:option:`!-I`).
+   Returns a list of command-line options suitable for either Unix compilers or
+   Visual C++.
+
+
+.. function:: get_default_compiler(osname, platform)
+
+   Determine the default compiler to use for the given platform.
+
+   *osname* should be one of the standard Python OS names (i.e. the ones returned
+   by ``os.name``) and *platform* the common value returned by ``sys.platform`` for
+   the platform in question.
+
+   The default values are ``os.name`` and ``sys.platform`` in case the parameters
+   are not given.
+
+
+.. function:: new_compiler(plat=None, compiler=None, verbose=0, dry_run=0, force=0)
+
+   Factory function to generate an instance of some CCompiler subclass for the
+   supplied platform/compiler combination. *plat* defaults to ``os.name`` (eg.
+   ``'posix'``, ``'nt'``), and *compiler*  defaults to the default compiler for
+   that platform. Currently only ``'posix'`` and ``'nt'`` are supported, and the
+   default compilers are "traditional Unix interface" (:class:`UnixCCompiler`
+   class) and Visual C++ (:class:`MSVCCompiler` class).  Note that it's perfectly
+   possible to ask for a Unix compiler object under Windows, and a Microsoft
+   compiler object under Unix---if you supply a value for *compiler*, *plat* is
+   ignored.
+
+   .. % Is the posix/nt only thing still true? Mac OS X seems to work, and
+   .. % returns a UnixCCompiler instance. How to document this... hmm.
+
+
+.. function:: show_compilers()
+
+   Print list of available compilers (used by the :option:`!--help-compiler` options
+   to :command:`build`, :command:`build_ext`, :command:`build_clib`).
+
+
+.. class:: CCompiler([verbose=0, dry_run=0, force=0])
+
+   The abstract base class :class:`CCompiler` defines the interface that  must be
+   implemented by real compiler classes.  The class also has  some utility methods
+   used by several compiler classes.
+
+   The basic idea behind a compiler abstraction class is that each instance can be
+   used for all the compile/link steps in building a single project.  Thus,
+   attributes common to all of those compile and link steps --- include
+   directories, macros to define, libraries to link against, etc. --- are
+   attributes of the compiler instance.  To allow for variability in how individual
+   files are treated, most of those attributes may be varied on a per-compilation
+   or per-link basis.
+
+   The constructor for each subclass creates an instance of the Compiler object.
+   Flags are *verbose* (show verbose output), *dry_run* (don't actually execute the
+   steps) and *force* (rebuild everything, regardless of dependencies). All of
+   these flags default to ``0`` (off). Note that you probably don't want to
+   instantiate :class:`CCompiler` or one of its subclasses directly - use the
+   :func:`distutils.CCompiler.new_compiler` factory function instead.
+
+   The following methods allow you to manually alter compiler options for  the
+   instance of the Compiler class.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.add_include_dir(dir)
+
+      Add *dir* to the list of directories that will be searched for header files.
+      The compiler is instructed to search directories in the order in which they are
+      supplied by successive calls to :meth:`add_include_dir`.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.set_include_dirs(dirs)
+
+      Set the list of directories that will be searched to *dirs* (a list of strings).
+      Overrides any preceding calls to :meth:`add_include_dir`; subsequent calls to
+      :meth:`add_include_dir` add to the list passed to :meth:`set_include_dirs`.
+      This does not affect any list of standard include directories that the compiler
+      may search by default.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.add_library(libname)
+
+      Add *libname* to the list of libraries that will be included in all links driven
+      by this compiler object.  Note that *libname* should \*not\* be the name of a
+      file containing a library, but the name of the library itself: the actual
+      filename will be inferred by the linker, the compiler, or the compiler class
+      (depending on the platform).
+
+      The linker will be instructed to link against libraries in the order they were
+      supplied to :meth:`add_library` and/or :meth:`set_libraries`.  It is perfectly
+      valid to duplicate library names; the linker will be instructed to link against
+      libraries as many times as they are mentioned.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.set_libraries(libnames)
+
+      Set the list of libraries to be included in all links driven by this compiler
+      object to *libnames* (a list of strings).  This does not affect any standard
+      system libraries that the linker may include by default.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.add_library_dir(dir)
+
+      Add *dir* to the list of directories that will be searched for libraries
+      specified to :meth:`add_library` and :meth:`set_libraries`.  The linker will be
+      instructed to search for libraries in the order they are supplied to
+      :meth:`add_library_dir` and/or :meth:`set_library_dirs`.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.set_library_dirs(dirs)
+
+      Set the list of library search directories to *dirs* (a list of strings).  This
+      does not affect any standard library search path that the linker may search by
+      default.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.add_runtime_library_dir(dir)
+
+      Add *dir* to the list of directories that will be searched for shared libraries
+      at runtime.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.set_runtime_library_dirs(dirs)
+
+      Set the list of directories to search for shared libraries at runtime to *dirs*
+      (a list of strings).  This does not affect any standard search path that the
+      runtime linker may search by default.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.define_macro(name[, value=None])
+
+      Define a preprocessor macro for all compilations driven by this compiler object.
+      The optional parameter *value* should be a string; if it is not supplied, then
+      the macro will be defined without an explicit value and the exact outcome
+      depends on the compiler used.
+
+      .. XXX true? does ANSI say anything about this?
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.undefine_macro(name)
+
+      Undefine a preprocessor macro for all compilations driven by this compiler
+      object.  If the same macro is defined by :meth:`define_macro` and
+      undefined by :meth:`undefine_macro` the last call takes precedence
+      (including multiple redefinitions or undefinitions).  If the macro is
+      redefined/undefined on a per-compilation basis (ie. in the call to
+      :meth:`compile`), then that takes precedence.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.add_link_object(object)
+
+      Add *object* to the list of object files (or analogues, such as explicitly named
+      library files or the output of "resource compilers") to be included in every
+      link driven by this compiler object.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.set_link_objects(objects)
+
+      Set the list of object files (or analogues) to be included in every link to
+      *objects*.  This does not affect any standard object files that the linker may
+      include by default (such as system libraries).
+
+   The following methods implement methods for autodetection of compiler  options,
+   providing some functionality similar to GNU :program:`autoconf`.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.detect_language(sources)
+
+      Detect the language of a given file, or list of files. Uses the  instance
+      attributes :attr:`language_map` (a dictionary), and  :attr:`language_order` (a
+      list) to do the job.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.find_library_file(dirs, lib[, debug=0])
+
+      Search the specified list of directories for a static or shared library file
+      *lib* and return the full path to that file.  If *debug* is true, look for a
+      debugging version (if that makes sense on the current platform).  Return
+      ``None`` if *lib* wasn't found in any of the specified directories.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.has_function(funcname [, includes=None, include_dirs=None, libraries=None, library_dirs=None])
+
+      Return a boolean indicating whether *funcname* is supported on the current
+      platform.  The optional arguments can be used to augment the compilation
+      environment by providing additional include files and paths and libraries and
+      paths.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.library_dir_option(dir)
+
+      Return the compiler option to add *dir* to the list of directories searched for
+      libraries.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.library_option(lib)
+
+      Return the compiler option to add *lib* to the list of libraries linked into the
+      shared library or executable.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.runtime_library_dir_option(dir)
+
+      Return the compiler option to add *dir* to the list of directories searched for
+      runtime libraries.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.set_executables(**args)
+
+      Define the executables (and options for them) that will be run to perform the
+      various stages of compilation.  The exact set of executables that may be
+      specified here depends on the compiler class (via the 'executables' class
+      attribute), but most will have:
+
+      +--------------+------------------------------------------+
+      | attribute    | description                              |
+      +==============+==========================================+
+      | *compiler*   | the C/C++ compiler                       |
+      +--------------+------------------------------------------+
+      | *linker_so*  | linker used to create shared objects and |
+      |              | libraries                                |
+      +--------------+------------------------------------------+
+      | *linker_exe* | linker used to create binary executables |
+      +--------------+------------------------------------------+
+      | *archiver*   | static library creator                   |
+      +--------------+------------------------------------------+
+
+      On platforms with a command-line (Unix, DOS/Windows), each of these is a string
+      that will be split into executable name and (optional) list of arguments.
+      (Splitting the string is done similarly to how Unix shells operate: words are
+      delimited by spaces, but quotes and backslashes can override this.  See
+      :func:`distutils.util.split_quoted`.)
+
+   The following methods invoke stages in the build process.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.compile(sources[, output_dir=None, macros=None, include_dirs=None, debug=0, extra_preargs=None, extra_postargs=None, depends=None])
+
+      Compile one or more source files. Generates object files (e.g.  transforms a
+      :file:`.c` file to a :file:`.o` file.)
+
+      *sources* must be a list of filenames, most likely C/C++ files, but in reality
+      anything that can be handled by a particular compiler and compiler class (eg.
+      :class:`MSVCCompiler` can handle resource files in *sources*).  Return a list of
+      object filenames, one per source filename in *sources*.  Depending on the
+      implementation, not all source files will necessarily be compiled, but all
+      corresponding object filenames will be returned.
+
+      If *output_dir* is given, object files will be put under it, while retaining
+      their original path component.  That is, :file:`foo/bar.c` normally compiles to
+      :file:`foo/bar.o` (for a Unix implementation); if *output_dir* is *build*, then
+      it would compile to :file:`build/foo/bar.o`.
+
+      *macros*, if given, must be a list of macro definitions.  A macro definition is
+      either a ``(name, value)`` 2-tuple or a ``(name,)`` 1-tuple. The former defines
+      a macro; if the value is ``None``, the macro is defined without an explicit
+      value.  The 1-tuple case undefines a macro.  Later
+      definitions/redefinitions/undefinitions take precedence.
+
+      *include_dirs*, if given, must be a list of strings, the directories to add to
+      the default include file search path for this compilation only.
+
+      *debug* is a boolean; if true, the compiler will be instructed to output debug
+      symbols in (or alongside) the object file(s).
+
+      *extra_preargs* and *extra_postargs* are implementation-dependent. On platforms
+      that have the notion of a command-line (e.g. Unix, DOS/Windows), they are most
+      likely lists of strings: extra command-line arguments to prepend/append to the
+      compiler command line.  On other platforms, consult the implementation class
+      documentation.  In any event, they are intended as an escape hatch for those
+      occasions when the abstract compiler framework doesn't cut the mustard.
+
+      *depends*, if given, is a list of filenames that all targets depend on.  If a
+      source file is older than any file in depends, then the source file will be
+      recompiled.  This supports dependency tracking, but only at a coarse
+      granularity.
+
+      Raises :exc:`CompileError` on failure.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.create_static_lib(objects, output_libname[, output_dir=None, debug=0, target_lang=None])
+
+      Link a bunch of stuff together to create a static library file. The "bunch of
+      stuff" consists of the list of object files supplied as *objects*, the extra
+      object files supplied to :meth:`add_link_object` and/or
+      :meth:`set_link_objects`, the libraries supplied to :meth:`add_library` and/or
+      :meth:`set_libraries`, and the libraries supplied as *libraries* (if any).
+
+      *output_libname* should be a library name, not a filename; the filename will be
+      inferred from the library name.  *output_dir* is the directory where the library
+      file will be put.
+
+      .. XXX defaults to what?
+
+      *debug* is a boolean; if true, debugging information will be included in the
+      library (note that on most platforms, it is the compile step where this matters:
+      the *debug* flag is included here just for consistency).
+
+      *target_lang* is the target language for which the given objects are being
+      compiled. This allows specific linkage time treatment of certain languages.
+
+      Raises :exc:`LibError` on failure.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.link(target_desc, objects, output_filename[, output_dir=None, libraries=None, library_dirs=None, runtime_library_dirs=None, export_symbols=None, debug=0, extra_preargs=None, extra_postargs=None, build_temp=None, target_lang=None])
+
+      Link a bunch of stuff together to create an executable or shared library file.
+
+      The "bunch of stuff" consists of the list of object files supplied as *objects*.
+      *output_filename* should be a filename.  If *output_dir* is supplied,
+      *output_filename* is relative to it (i.e. *output_filename* can provide
+      directory components if needed).
+
+      *libraries* is a list of libraries to link against.  These are library names,
+      not filenames, since they're translated into filenames in a platform-specific
+      way (eg. *foo* becomes :file:`libfoo.a` on Unix and :file:`foo.lib` on
+      DOS/Windows).  However, they can include a directory component, which means the
+      linker will look in that specific directory rather than searching all the normal
+      locations.
+
+      *library_dirs*, if supplied, should be a list of directories to search for
+      libraries that were specified as bare library names (ie. no directory
+      component).  These are on top of the system default and those supplied to
+      :meth:`add_library_dir` and/or :meth:`set_library_dirs`.  *runtime_library_dirs*
+      is a list of directories that will be embedded into the shared library and used
+      to search for other shared libraries that \*it\* depends on at run-time.  (This
+      may only be relevant on Unix.)
+
+      *export_symbols* is a list of symbols that the shared library will export.
+      (This appears to be relevant only on Windows.)
+
+      *debug* is as for :meth:`compile` and :meth:`create_static_lib`,  with the
+      slight distinction that it actually matters on most platforms (as opposed to
+      :meth:`create_static_lib`, which includes a *debug* flag mostly for form's
+      sake).
+
+      *extra_preargs* and *extra_postargs* are as for :meth:`compile`  (except of
+      course that they supply command-line arguments for the particular linker being
+      used).
+
+      *target_lang* is the target language for which the given objects are being
+      compiled. This allows specific linkage time treatment of certain languages.
+
+      Raises :exc:`LinkError` on failure.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.link_executable(objects, output_progname[, output_dir=None, libraries=None, library_dirs=None, runtime_library_dirs=None, debug=0, extra_preargs=None, extra_postargs=None, target_lang=None])
+
+      Link an executable.  *output_progname* is the name of the file executable, while
+      *objects* are a list of object filenames to link in. Other arguments  are as for
+      the :meth:`link` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.link_shared_lib(objects, output_libname[, output_dir=None, libraries=None, library_dirs=None, runtime_library_dirs=None, export_symbols=None, debug=0, extra_preargs=None, extra_postargs=None, build_temp=None, target_lang=None])
+
+      Link a shared library. *output_libname* is the name of the output  library,
+      while *objects* is a list of object filenames to link in.  Other arguments are
+      as for the :meth:`link` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.link_shared_object(objects, output_filename[, output_dir=None, libraries=None, library_dirs=None, runtime_library_dirs=None, export_symbols=None, debug=0, extra_preargs=None, extra_postargs=None, build_temp=None, target_lang=None])
+
+      Link a shared object. *output_filename* is the name of the shared object that
+      will be created, while *objects* is a list of object filenames  to link in.
+      Other arguments are as for the :meth:`link` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.preprocess(source[, output_file=None, macros=None, include_dirs=None, extra_preargs=None, extra_postargs=None])
+
+      Preprocess a single C/C++ source file, named in *source*. Output will be written
+      to file named *output_file*, or *stdout* if *output_file* not supplied.
+      *macros* is a list of macro definitions as for :meth:`compile`, which will
+      augment the macros set with :meth:`define_macro` and :meth:`undefine_macro`.
+      *include_dirs* is a list of directory names that will be added to the  default
+      list, in the same way as :meth:`add_include_dir`.
+
+      Raises :exc:`PreprocessError` on failure.
+
+   The following utility methods are defined by the :class:`CCompiler` class, for
+   use by the various concrete subclasses.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.executable_filename(basename[, strip_dir=0, output_dir=''])
+
+      Returns the filename of the executable for the given *basename*.  Typically for
+      non-Windows platforms this is the same as the basename,  while Windows will get
+      a :file:`.exe` added.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.library_filename(libname[, lib_type='static', strip_dir=0, output_dir=''])
+
+      Returns the filename for the given library name on the current platform. On Unix
+      a library with *lib_type* of ``'static'`` will typically  be of the form
+      :file:`liblibname.a`, while a *lib_type* of ``'dynamic'``  will be of the form
+      :file:`liblibname.so`.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.object_filenames(source_filenames[, strip_dir=0, output_dir=''])
+
+      Returns the name of the object files for the given source files.
+      *source_filenames* should be a list of filenames.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.shared_object_filename(basename[, strip_dir=0, output_dir=''])
+
+      Returns the name of a shared object file for the given file name *basename*.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.execute(func, args[, msg=None, level=1])
+
+      Invokes :func:`distutils.util.execute`. This method invokes a  Python function
+      *func* with the given arguments *args*, after  logging and taking into account
+      the *dry_run* flag.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.spawn(cmd)
+
+      Invokes :func:`distutils.util.spawn`. This invokes an external  process to run
+      the given command.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.mkpath(name[, mode=511])
+
+      Invokes :func:`distutils.dir_util.mkpath`. This creates a directory  and any
+      missing ancestor directories.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.move_file(src, dst)
+
+      Invokes :meth:`distutils.file_util.move_file`. Renames *src* to  *dst*.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.announce(msg[, level=1])
+
+      Write a message using :func:`distutils.log.debug`.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.warn(msg)
+
+      Write a warning message *msg* to standard error.
+
+
+   .. method:: CCompiler.debug_print(msg)
+
+      If the *debug* flag is set on this :class:`CCompiler` instance, print  *msg* to
+      standard output, otherwise do nothing.
+
+.. % \subsection{Compiler-specific modules}
+.. %
+.. % The following modules implement concrete subclasses of the abstract
+.. % \class{CCompiler} class. They should not be instantiated directly, but should
+.. % be created using \function{distutils.ccompiler.new_compiler()} factory
+.. % function.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.unixccompiler` --- Unix C Compiler
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.unixccompiler
+   :synopsis: UNIX C Compiler
+
+
+This module provides the :class:`UnixCCompiler` class, a subclass of
+:class:`CCompiler` that handles the typical Unix-style command-line  C compiler:
+
+* macros defined with :option:`!-Dname[=value]`
+
+* macros undefined with :option:`!-Uname`
+
+* include search directories specified with :option:`!-Idir`
+
+* libraries specified with :option:`!-llib`
+
+* library search directories specified with :option:`!-Ldir`
+
+* compile handled by :program:`cc` (or similar) executable with :option:`!-c`
+  option: compiles :file:`.c` to :file:`.o`
+
+* link static library handled by :program:`ar` command (possibly with
+  :program:`ranlib`)
+
+* link shared library handled by :program:`cc` :option:`!-shared`
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.msvccompiler` --- Microsoft Compiler
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.msvccompiler
+   :synopsis: Microsoft Compiler
+
+.. XXX: This is *waaaaay* out of date!
+
+This module provides :class:`MSVCCompiler`, an implementation of the abstract
+:class:`CCompiler` class for Microsoft Visual Studio. Typically, extension
+modules need to be compiled with the same compiler that was used to compile
+Python. For Python 2.3 and earlier, the compiler was Visual Studio 6. For Python
+2.4 and 2.5, the compiler is Visual Studio .NET 2003.
+
+:class:`MSVCCompiler` will normally choose the right compiler, linker etc. on
+its own. To override this choice, the environment variables *DISTUTILS_USE_SDK*
+and *MSSdk* must be both set. *MSSdk* indicates that the current environment has
+been setup by the SDK's ``SetEnv.Cmd`` script, or that the environment variables
+had been registered when the SDK was installed; *DISTUTILS_USE_SDK* indicates
+that the distutils user has made an explicit choice to override the compiler
+selection by :class:`MSVCCompiler`.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.bcppcompiler` --- Borland Compiler
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.bcppcompiler
+
+
+This module provides :class:`BorlandCCompiler`, a subclass of the abstract
+:class:`CCompiler` class for the Borland C++ compiler.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.cygwincompiler` --- Cygwin Compiler
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.cygwinccompiler
+
+
+This module provides the :class:`CygwinCCompiler` class, a subclass of
+:class:`UnixCCompiler` that handles the Cygwin port of the GNU C compiler to
+Windows.  It also contains the Mingw32CCompiler class which handles the mingw32
+port of GCC (same as cygwin in no-cygwin mode).
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.archive_util` ---  Archiving utilities
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.archive_util
+   :synopsis: Utility functions for creating archive files (tarballs, zip files, ...)
+
+
+This module provides a few functions for creating archive files, such as
+tarballs or zipfiles.
+
+
+.. function:: make_archive(base_name, format[, root_dir=None, base_dir=None, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Create an archive file (eg. ``zip`` or ``tar``).  *base_name*  is the name of
+   the file to create, minus any format-specific extension;  *format* is the
+   archive format: one of ``zip``, ``tar``, ``gztar``, ``bztar``, ``xztar``, or
+   ``ztar``. *root_dir* is a directory that will be the root directory of the
+   archive; ie. we typically ``chdir`` into *root_dir* before  creating the
+   archive.  *base_dir* is the directory where we start  archiving from; ie.
+   *base_dir* will be the common prefix of all files and directories in the
+   archive.  *root_dir* and *base_dir* both default to the current directory.
+   Returns the name of the archive file.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for the ``xztar`` format.
+
+
+.. function:: make_tarball(base_name, base_dir[, compress='gzip', verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   'Create an (optional compressed) archive as a tar file from all files in and
+   under *base_dir*. *compress* must be ``'gzip'`` (the default),
+   ``'bzip2'``, ``'xz'``, ``'compress'``, or ``None``.  For the ``'compress'``
+   method the compression utility named by :program:`compress` must be on the
+   default program search path, so this is probably Unix-specific.  The output
+   tar file will be named :file:`base_dir.tar`, possibly plus the appropriate
+   compression extension (``.gz``, ``.bz2``, ``.xz`` or ``.Z``).  Return the
+   output filename.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for the ``xz`` compression.
+
+
+.. function:: make_zipfile(base_name, base_dir[, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Create a zip file from all files in and under *base_dir*.  The output zip file
+   will be named *base_name* + :file:`.zip`.  Uses either the  :mod:`zipfile` Python
+   module (if available) or the InfoZIP :file:`zip`  utility (if installed and
+   found on the default search path).  If neither  tool is available, raises
+   :exc:`DistutilsExecError`.   Returns the name of the output zip file.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.dep_util` --- Dependency checking
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.dep_util
+   :synopsis: Utility functions for simple dependency checking
+
+
+This module provides functions for performing simple, timestamp-based
+dependency of files and groups of files; also, functions based entirely  on such
+timestamp dependency analysis.
+
+
+.. function:: newer(source, target)
+
+   Return true if *source* exists and is more recently modified than *target*, or
+   if *source* exists and *target* doesn't. Return false if both exist and *target*
+   is the same age or newer  than *source*. Raise :exc:`DistutilsFileError` if
+   *source* does not exist.
+
+
+.. function:: newer_pairwise(sources, targets)
+
+   Walk two filename lists in parallel, testing if each source is newer than its
+   corresponding target.  Return a pair of lists (*sources*, *targets*) where
+   source is newer than target, according to the semantics of :func:`newer`.
+
+   .. % % equivalent to a listcomp...
+
+
+.. function:: newer_group(sources, target[, missing='error'])
+
+   Return true if *target* is out-of-date with respect to any file listed in
+   *sources*.  In other words, if *target* exists and is newer than every file in
+   *sources*, return false; otherwise return true. *missing* controls what we do
+   when a source file is missing; the default (``'error'``) is to blow up with an
+   :exc:`OSError` from  inside :func:`os.stat`; if it is ``'ignore'``, we silently
+   drop any missing source files; if it is ``'newer'``, any missing source files
+   make us assume that *target* is out-of-date (this is handy in "dry-run" mode:
+   it'll make you pretend to carry out commands that wouldn't work because inputs
+   are missing, but that doesn't matter because you're not actually going to run
+   the commands).
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.dir_util` --- Directory tree operations
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.dir_util
+   :synopsis: Utility functions for operating on directories and directory trees
+
+
+This module provides functions for operating on directories and trees of
+directories.
+
+
+.. function:: mkpath(name[, mode=0o777, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Create a directory and any missing ancestor directories.  If the directory
+   already exists (or if *name* is the empty string, which means the current
+   directory, which of course exists), then do nothing.  Raise
+   :exc:`DistutilsFileError` if unable to create some directory along the way (eg.
+   some sub-path exists, but is a file rather than a directory).  If *verbose* is
+   true, print a one-line summary of each mkdir to stdout.  Return the list of
+   directories actually created.
+
+
+.. function:: create_tree(base_dir, files[, mode=0o777, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Create all the empty directories under *base_dir* needed to put *files* there.
+   *base_dir* is just the name of a directory which doesn't necessarily exist
+   yet; *files* is a list of filenames to be interpreted relative to *base_dir*.
+   *base_dir* + the directory portion of every file in *files* will be created if
+   it doesn't already exist.  *mode*, *verbose* and *dry_run* flags  are as for
+   :func:`mkpath`.
+
+
+.. function:: copy_tree(src, dst[, preserve_mode=1, preserve_times=1, preserve_symlinks=0, update=0, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Copy an entire directory tree *src* to a new location *dst*.  Both *src* and
+   *dst* must be directory names.  If *src* is not a directory, raise
+   :exc:`DistutilsFileError`.  If *dst* does  not exist, it is created with
+   :func:`mkpath`.  The end result of the  copy is that every file in *src* is
+   copied to *dst*, and  directories under *src* are recursively copied to *dst*.
+   Return the list of files that were copied or might have been copied, using their
+   output name. The return value is unaffected by *update* or *dry_run*: it is
+   simply the list of all files under *src*, with the names changed to be under
+   *dst*.
+
+   *preserve_mode* and *preserve_times* are the same as for
+   :func:`distutils.file_util.copy_file`; note that they only apply to
+   regular files, not to
+   directories.  If *preserve_symlinks* is true, symlinks will be copied as
+   symlinks (on platforms that support them!); otherwise (the default), the
+   destination of the symlink will be copied.  *update* and *verbose* are the same
+   as for :func:`copy_file`.
+
+   Files in *src* that begin with :file:`.nfs` are skipped (more information on
+   these files is available in answer D2 of the `NFS FAQ page
+   <http://nfs.sourceforge.net/#section_d>`_).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3.1
+      NFS files are ignored.
+
+.. function:: remove_tree(directory[, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Recursively remove *directory* and all files and directories underneath it. Any
+   errors are ignored (apart from being reported to ``sys.stdout`` if *verbose* is
+   true).
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.file_util` --- Single file operations
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.file_util
+   :synopsis: Utility functions for operating on single files
+
+
+This module contains some utility functions for operating on individual files.
+
+
+.. function:: copy_file(src, dst[, preserve_mode=1, preserve_times=1, update=0, link=None, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Copy file *src* to *dst*. If *dst* is a directory, then *src* is copied there
+   with the same name; otherwise, it must be a filename. (If the file exists, it
+   will be ruthlessly clobbered.) If *preserve_mode* is true (the default), the
+   file's mode (type and permission bits, or whatever is analogous on the
+   current platform) is copied. If *preserve_times* is true (the default), the
+   last-modified and last-access times are copied as well. If *update* is true,
+   *src* will only be copied if *dst* does not exist, or if *dst* does exist but
+   is older than *src*.
+
+   *link* allows you to make hard links (using :func:`os.link`) or symbolic links
+   (using :func:`os.symlink`) instead of copying: set it to ``'hard'`` or
+   ``'sym'``; if it is ``None`` (the default), files are copied. Don't set *link*
+   on systems that don't support it: :func:`copy_file` doesn't check if hard or
+   symbolic linking is available.  It uses :func:`_copy_file_contents` to copy file
+   contents.
+
+   Return a tuple ``(dest_name, copied)``: *dest_name* is the actual  name of the
+   output file, and *copied* is true if the file was copied  (or would have been
+   copied, if *dry_run* true).
+
+   .. % XXX if the destination file already exists, we clobber it if
+   .. % copying, but blow up if linking.  Hmmm.  And I don't know what
+   .. % macostools.copyfile() does.  Should definitely be consistent, and
+   .. % should probably blow up if destination exists and we would be
+   .. % changing it (ie. it's not already a hard/soft link to src OR
+   .. % (not update) and (src newer than dst)).
+
+
+.. function:: move_file(src, dst[, verbose, dry_run])
+
+   Move file *src* to *dst*. If *dst* is a directory, the file will be moved into
+   it with the same name; otherwise, *src* is just renamed to *dst*.  Returns the
+   new full name of the file.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Handles cross-device moves on Unix using :func:`copy_file`.  What about
+      other systems?
+
+
+.. function:: write_file(filename, contents)
+
+   Create a file called *filename* and write *contents* (a sequence of strings
+   without line terminators) to it.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.util` --- Miscellaneous other utility functions
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.util
+   :synopsis: Miscellaneous other utility functions
+
+
+This module contains other assorted bits and pieces that don't fit into  any
+other utility module.
+
+
+.. function:: get_platform()
+
+   Return a string that identifies the current platform.  This is used mainly to
+   distinguish platform-specific build directories and platform-specific built
+   distributions.  Typically includes the OS name and version and the
+   architecture (as supplied by 'os.uname()'), although the exact information
+   included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version isn't
+   particularly important.
+
+   Examples of returned values:
+
+   * ``linux-i586``
+   * ``linux-alpha``
+   * ``solaris-2.6-sun4u``
+
+   For non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns ``sys.platform``.
+
+   For Mac OS X systems the OS version reflects the minimal version on which
+   binaries will run (that is, the value of ``MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET``
+   during the build of Python), not the OS version of the current system.
+
+   For universal binary builds on Mac OS X the architecture value reflects
+   the universal binary status instead of the architecture of the current
+   processor. For 32-bit universal binaries the architecture is ``fat``,
+   for 64-bit universal binaries the architecture is ``fat64``, and
+   for 4-way universal binaries the architecture is ``universal``. Starting
+   from Python 2.7 and Python 3.2 the architecture ``fat3`` is used for
+   a 3-way universal build (ppc, i386, x86_64) and ``intel`` is used for
+   a universal build with the i386 and x86_64 architectures
+
+   Examples of returned values on Mac OS X:
+
+   * ``macosx-10.3-ppc``
+
+   * ``macosx-10.3-fat``
+
+   * ``macosx-10.5-universal``
+
+   * ``macosx-10.6-intel``
+
+
+.. function:: convert_path(pathname)
+
+   Return 'pathname' as a name that will work on the native filesystem, i.e. split
+   it on '/' and put it back together again using the current directory separator.
+   Needed because filenames in the setup script are always supplied in Unix style,
+   and have to be converted to the local convention before we can actually use them
+   in the filesystem.  Raises :exc:`ValueError` on non-Unix-ish systems if
+   *pathname* either  starts or ends with a slash.
+
+
+.. function:: change_root(new_root, pathname)
+
+   Return *pathname* with *new_root* prepended.  If *pathname* is relative, this is
+   equivalent to ``os.path.join(new_root,pathname)`` Otherwise, it requires making
+   *pathname* relative and then joining the two, which is tricky on DOS/Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: check_environ()
+
+   Ensure that 'os.environ' has all the environment variables we guarantee that
+   users can use in config files, command-line options, etc.  Currently this
+   includes:
+
+   * :envvar:`HOME` - user's home directory (Unix only)
+   * :envvar:`PLAT` - description of the current platform, including hardware and
+     OS (see :func:`get_platform`)
+
+
+.. function:: subst_vars(s, local_vars)
+
+   Perform shell/Perl-style variable substitution on *s*.  Every occurrence of
+   ``$`` followed by a name is considered a variable, and variable is substituted
+   by the value found in the *local_vars* dictionary, or in ``os.environ`` if it's
+   not in *local_vars*. *os.environ* is first checked/augmented to guarantee that
+   it contains certain values: see :func:`check_environ`.  Raise :exc:`ValueError`
+   for any variables not found in either *local_vars* or ``os.environ``.
+
+   Note that this is not a fully-fledged string interpolation function. A valid
+   ``$variable`` can consist only of upper and lower case letters, numbers and an
+   underscore. No { } or ( ) style quoting is available.
+
+
+.. function:: split_quoted(s)
+
+   Split a string up according to Unix shell-like rules for quotes and backslashes.
+   In short: words are delimited by spaces, as long as those spaces are not escaped
+   by a backslash, or inside a quoted string. Single and double quotes are
+   equivalent, and the quote characters can be backslash-escaped.  The backslash is
+   stripped from any two-character escape sequence, leaving only the escaped
+   character.  The quote characters are stripped from any quoted string.  Returns a
+   list of words.
+
+   .. % Should probably be moved into the standard library.
+
+
+.. function:: execute(func, args[, msg=None, verbose=0, dry_run=0])
+
+   Perform some action that affects the outside world (for instance, writing to the
+   filesystem).  Such actions are special because they are disabled by the
+   *dry_run* flag.  This method takes  care of all that bureaucracy for you; all
+   you have to do is supply the function to call and an argument tuple for it (to
+   embody the "external action" being performed), and an optional message to print.
+
+
+.. function:: strtobool(val)
+
+   Convert a string representation of truth to true (1) or false (0).
+
+   True values are ``y``, ``yes``, ``t``, ``true``, ``on``  and ``1``; false values
+   are ``n``, ``no``, ``f``, ``false``,  ``off`` and ``0``.  Raises
+   :exc:`ValueError` if *val*  is anything else.
+
+
+.. function:: byte_compile(py_files[, optimize=0, force=0, prefix=None, base_dir=None, verbose=1, dry_run=0, direct=None])
+
+   Byte-compile a collection of Python source files to :file:`.pyc` files in a
+   :file:`__pycache__` subdirectory (see :pep:`3147` and :pep:`488`).
+   *py_files* is a list of files to compile; any files that don't end in
+   :file:`.py` are silently skipped.  *optimize* must be one of the following:
+
+   * ``0`` - don't optimize
+   * ``1`` - normal optimization (like ``python -O``)
+   * ``2`` - extra optimization (like ``python -OO``)
+
+   If *force* is true, all files are recompiled regardless of timestamps.
+
+   The source filename encoded in each :term:`bytecode` file defaults to the filenames
+   listed in *py_files*; you can modify these with *prefix* and *basedir*.
+   *prefix* is a string that will be stripped off of each source filename, and
+   *base_dir* is a directory name that will be prepended (after *prefix* is
+   stripped).  You can supply either or both (or neither) of *prefix* and
+   *base_dir*, as you wish.
+
+   If *dry_run* is true, doesn't actually do anything that would affect the
+   filesystem.
+
+   Byte-compilation is either done directly in this interpreter process with the
+   standard :mod:`py_compile` module, or indirectly by writing a temporary script
+   and executing it.  Normally, you should let :func:`byte_compile` figure out to
+   use direct compilation or not (see the source for details).  The *direct* flag
+   is used by the script generated in indirect mode; unless you know what you're
+   doing, leave it set to ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2.3
+      Create ``.pyc`` files with an :func:`import magic tag
+      <imp.get_tag>` in their name, in a :file:`__pycache__` subdirectory
+      instead of files without tag in the current directory.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Create ``.pyc`` files according to :pep:`488`.
+
+
+.. function:: rfc822_escape(header)
+
+   Return a version of *header* escaped for inclusion in an :rfc:`822` header, by
+   ensuring there are 8 spaces space after each newline. Note that it does no other
+   modification of the string.
+
+   .. % this _can_ be replaced
+
+.. % \subsection{Distutils objects}
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.dist` --- The Distribution class
+================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.dist
+   :synopsis: Provides the Distribution class, which represents the module distribution being
+              built/installed/distributed
+
+
+This module provides the :class:`~distutils.core.Distribution` class, which
+represents the module distribution being built/installed/distributed.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.extension` --- The Extension class
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.extension
+   :synopsis: Provides the Extension class, used to describe C/C++ extension modules in setup
+              scripts
+
+
+This module provides the :class:`Extension` class, used to describe C/C++
+extension modules in setup scripts.
+
+.. % \subsection{Ungrouped modules}
+.. % The following haven't been moved into a more appropriate section yet.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.debug` --- Distutils debug mode
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.debug
+   :synopsis: Provides the debug flag for distutils
+
+
+This module provides the DEBUG flag.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.errors` --- Distutils exceptions
+================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.errors
+   :synopsis: Provides standard distutils exceptions
+
+
+Provides exceptions used by the Distutils modules.  Note that Distutils modules
+may raise standard exceptions; in particular, SystemExit is usually raised for
+errors that are obviously the end-user's fault (eg. bad command-line arguments).
+
+This module is safe to use in ``from ... import *`` mode; it only exports
+symbols whose names start with ``Distutils`` and end with ``Error``.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.fancy_getopt` --- Wrapper around the standard getopt module
+===========================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.fancy_getopt
+   :synopsis: Additional getopt functionality
+
+
+This module provides a wrapper around the standard :mod:`getopt`  module that
+provides the following additional features:
+
+* short and long options are tied together
+
+* options have help strings, so :func:`fancy_getopt` could potentially  create a
+  complete usage summary
+
+* options set attributes of a passed-in object
+
+* boolean options can have "negative aliases" --- eg. if :option:`!--quiet` is
+  the "negative alias" of :option:`!--verbose`, then :option:`!--quiet` on the
+  command line sets *verbose* to false.
+
+.. function:: fancy_getopt(options, negative_opt, object, args)
+
+   Wrapper function. *options* is a list of ``(long_option, short_option,
+   help_string)`` 3-tuples as described in the constructor for
+   :class:`FancyGetopt`. *negative_opt* should be a dictionary mapping option names
+   to option names, both the key and value should be in the *options* list.
+   *object* is an object which will be used to store values (see the :meth:`getopt`
+   method of the :class:`FancyGetopt` class). *args* is the argument list. Will use
+   ``sys.argv[1:]`` if you  pass ``None`` as *args*.
+
+
+.. function:: wrap_text(text, width)
+
+   Wraps *text* to less than *width* wide.
+
+
+.. class:: FancyGetopt([option_table=None])
+
+   The option_table is a list of 3-tuples: ``(long_option, short_option,
+   help_string)``
+
+   If an option takes an argument, its *long_option* should have ``'='`` appended;
+   *short_option* should just be a single character, no ``':'`` in any case.
+   *short_option* should be ``None`` if a *long_option*  doesn't have a
+   corresponding *short_option*. All option tuples must have long options.
+
+The :class:`FancyGetopt` class provides the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: FancyGetopt.getopt([args=None, object=None])
+
+   Parse command-line options in args. Store as attributes on *object*.
+
+   If *args* is ``None`` or not supplied, uses ``sys.argv[1:]``.  If *object* is
+   ``None`` or not supplied, creates a new :class:`OptionDummy` instance, stores
+   option values there, and returns a tuple ``(args, object)``.  If *object* is
+   supplied, it is modified in place and :func:`getopt` just returns *args*; in
+   both cases, the returned *args* is a modified copy of the passed-in *args* list,
+   which is left untouched.
+
+   .. % and args returned are?
+
+
+.. method:: FancyGetopt.get_option_order()
+
+   Returns the list of ``(option, value)`` tuples processed by the previous run of
+   :meth:`getopt`  Raises :exc:`RuntimeError` if :meth:`getopt` hasn't been called
+   yet.
+
+
+.. method:: FancyGetopt.generate_help([header=None])
+
+   Generate help text (a list of strings, one per suggested line of output) from
+   the option table for this :class:`FancyGetopt` object.
+
+   If supplied, prints the supplied *header* at the top of the help.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.filelist` --- The FileList class
+================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.filelist
+   :synopsis: The FileList class, used for poking about the file system and
+              building lists of files.
+
+
+This module provides the :class:`FileList` class, used for poking about the
+filesystem and building lists of files.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.log` --- Simple PEP 282-style logging
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.log
+   :synopsis: A simple logging mechanism, 282-style
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.spawn` --- Spawn a sub-process
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.spawn
+   :synopsis: Provides the spawn() function
+
+
+This module provides the :func:`spawn` function, a front-end to  various
+platform-specific functions for launching another program in a  sub-process.
+Also provides :func:`find_executable` to search the path for a given executable
+name.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.sysconfig` --- System configuration information
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.sysconfig
+   :synopsis: Low-level access to configuration information of the Python interpreter.
+.. moduleauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. moduleauthor:: Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+
+The :mod:`distutils.sysconfig` module provides access to Python's low-level
+configuration information.  The specific configuration variables available
+depend heavily on the platform and configuration. The specific variables depend
+on the build process for the specific version of Python being run; the variables
+are those found in the :file:`Makefile` and configuration header that are
+installed with Python on Unix systems.  The configuration header is called
+:file:`pyconfig.h` for Python versions starting with 2.2, and :file:`config.h`
+for earlier versions of Python.
+
+Some additional functions are provided which perform some useful manipulations
+for other parts of the :mod:`distutils` package.
+
+
+.. data:: PREFIX
+
+   The result of ``os.path.normpath(sys.prefix)``.
+
+
+.. data:: EXEC_PREFIX
+
+   The result of ``os.path.normpath(sys.exec_prefix)``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_config_var(name)
+
+   Return the value of a single variable.  This is equivalent to
+   ``get_config_vars().get(name)``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_config_vars(...)
+
+   Return a set of variable definitions.  If there are no arguments, this returns a
+   dictionary mapping names of configuration variables to values.  If arguments are
+   provided, they should be strings, and the return value will be a sequence giving
+   the associated values. If a given name does not have a corresponding value,
+   ``None`` will be included for that variable.
+
+
+.. function:: get_config_h_filename()
+
+   Return the full path name of the configuration header.  For Unix, this will be
+   the header generated by the :program:`configure` script; for other platforms the
+   header will have been supplied directly by the Python source distribution.  The
+   file is a platform-specific text file.
+
+
+.. function:: get_makefile_filename()
+
+   Return the full path name of the :file:`Makefile` used to build Python.  For
+   Unix, this will be a file generated by the :program:`configure` script; the
+   meaning for other platforms will vary.  The file is a platform-specific text
+   file, if it exists. This function is only useful on POSIX platforms.
+
+
+.. function:: get_python_inc([plat_specific[, prefix]])
+
+   Return the directory for either the general or platform-dependent C include
+   files.  If *plat_specific* is true, the platform-dependent include directory is
+   returned; if false or omitted, the platform-independent directory is returned.
+   If *prefix* is given, it is used as either the prefix instead of
+   :const:`PREFIX`, or as the exec-prefix instead of :const:`EXEC_PREFIX` if
+   *plat_specific* is true.
+
+
+.. function:: get_python_lib([plat_specific[, standard_lib[, prefix]]])
+
+   Return the directory for either the general or platform-dependent library
+   installation.  If *plat_specific* is true, the platform-dependent include
+   directory is returned; if false or omitted, the platform-independent directory
+   is returned.  If *prefix* is given, it is used as either the prefix instead of
+   :const:`PREFIX`, or as the exec-prefix instead of :const:`EXEC_PREFIX` if
+   *plat_specific* is true.  If *standard_lib* is true, the directory for the
+   standard library is returned rather than the directory for the installation of
+   third-party extensions.
+
+The following function is only intended for use within the :mod:`distutils`
+package.
+
+
+.. function:: customize_compiler(compiler)
+
+   Do any platform-specific customization of a
+   :class:`distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler` instance.
+
+   This function is only needed on Unix at this time, but should be called
+   consistently to support forward-compatibility.  It inserts the information that
+   varies across Unix flavors and is stored in Python's :file:`Makefile`.  This
+   information includes the selected compiler, compiler and linker options, and the
+   extension used by the linker for shared objects.
+
+This function is even more special-purpose, and should only be used from
+Python's own build procedures.
+
+
+.. function:: set_python_build()
+
+   Inform the :mod:`distutils.sysconfig` module that it is being used as part of
+   the build process for Python.  This changes a lot of relative locations for
+   files, allowing them to be located in the build area rather than in an installed
+   Python.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.text_file` --- The TextFile class
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.text_file
+   :synopsis: provides the TextFile class, a simple interface to text files
+
+
+This module provides the :class:`TextFile` class, which gives an interface  to
+text files that (optionally) takes care of stripping comments, ignoring  blank
+lines, and joining lines with backslashes.
+
+
+.. class:: TextFile([filename=None, file=None, **options])
+
+   This class provides a file-like object that takes care of all  the things you
+   commonly want to do when processing a text file  that has some line-by-line
+   syntax: strip comments (as long as ``#``  is your comment character), skip blank
+   lines, join adjacent lines by escaping the newline (ie. backslash at end of
+   line), strip leading and/or trailing whitespace.  All of these are optional and
+   independently controllable.
+
+   The class provides a :meth:`warn` method so you can generate  warning messages
+   that report physical line number, even if the  logical line in question spans
+   multiple physical lines.  Also  provides :meth:`unreadline` for implementing
+   line-at-a-time lookahead.
+
+   :class:`TextFile` instances are create with either *filename*, *file*, or both.
+   :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised if both are ``None``. *filename* should be a
+   string, and *file* a file object (or something that provides :meth:`readline`
+   and :meth:`close`  methods).  It is recommended that you supply at least
+   *filename*,  so that :class:`TextFile` can include it in warning messages.  If
+   *file* is not supplied, :class:`TextFile` creates its own using the
+   :func:`open` built-in function.
+
+   The options are all boolean, and affect the values returned by :meth:`readline`
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|l|
+
+   +------------------+--------------------------------+---------+
+   | option name      | description                    | default |
+   +==================+================================+=========+
+   | *strip_comments* | strip from ``'#'`` to          | true    |
+   |                  | end-of-line, as well as any    |         |
+   |                  | whitespace leading up to the   |         |
+   |                  | ``'#'``\ ---unless it is       |         |
+   |                  | escaped by a backslash         |         |
+   +------------------+--------------------------------+---------+
+   | *lstrip_ws*      | strip leading whitespace from  | false   |
+   |                  | each line before returning it  |         |
+   +------------------+--------------------------------+---------+
+   | *rstrip_ws*      | strip trailing whitespace      | true    |
+   |                  | (including line terminator!)   |         |
+   |                  | from each line before          |         |
+   |                  | returning it.                  |         |
+   +------------------+--------------------------------+---------+
+   | *skip_blanks*    | skip lines that are empty      | true    |
+   |                  | \*after\* stripping comments   |         |
+   |                  | and whitespace.  (If both      |         |
+   |                  | lstrip_ws and rstrip_ws are    |         |
+   |                  | false, then some lines may     |         |
+   |                  | consist of solely whitespace:  |         |
+   |                  | these will \*not\* be skipped, |         |
+   |                  | even if *skip_blanks* is       |         |
+   |                  | true.)                         |         |
+   +------------------+--------------------------------+---------+
+   | *join_lines*     | if a backslash is the last     | false   |
+   |                  | non-newline character on a     |         |
+   |                  | line after stripping comments  |         |
+   |                  | and whitespace, join the       |         |
+   |                  | following line to it to form   |         |
+   |                  | one logical line; if N         |         |
+   |                  | consecutive lines end with a   |         |
+   |                  | backslash, then N+1 physical   |         |
+   |                  | lines will be joined to form   |         |
+   |                  | one logical line.              |         |
+   +------------------+--------------------------------+---------+
+   | *collapse_join*  | strip leading whitespace from  | false   |
+   |                  | lines that are joined to their |         |
+   |                  | predecessor; only matters if   |         |
+   |                  | ``(join_lines and not          |         |
+   |                  | lstrip_ws)``                   |         |
+   +------------------+--------------------------------+---------+
+
+   Note that since *rstrip_ws* can strip the trailing newline, the semantics of
+   :meth:`readline` must differ from those of the built-in file object's
+   :meth:`readline` method!  In particular, :meth:`readline`  returns ``None`` for
+   end-of-file: an empty string might just be a  blank line (or an all-whitespace
+   line), if *rstrip_ws* is true  but *skip_blanks* is not.
+
+
+   .. method:: TextFile.open(filename)
+
+      Open a new file *filename*.  This overrides any *file* or *filename*
+      constructor arguments.
+
+
+   .. method:: TextFile.close()
+
+      Close the current file and forget everything we know about it (including the
+      filename and the current line number).
+
+
+   .. method:: TextFile.warn(msg[,line=None])
+
+      Print (to stderr) a warning message tied to the current logical line in the
+      current file.  If the current logical line in the file spans multiple physical
+      lines, the warning refers to the whole range, such as ``"lines 3-5"``.  If
+      *line* is supplied,  it overrides the current line number; it may be a list or
+      tuple  to indicate a range of physical lines, or an integer for a  single
+      physical line.
+
+
+   .. method:: TextFile.readline()
+
+      Read and return a single logical line from the current file (or from an internal
+      buffer if lines have previously been "unread" with :meth:`unreadline`).  If the
+      *join_lines* option  is true, this may involve reading multiple physical lines
+      concatenated into a single string.  Updates the current line number,  so calling
+      :meth:`warn` after :meth:`readline` emits a warning  about the physical line(s)
+      just read.  Returns ``None`` on end-of-file,  since the empty string can occur
+      if *rstrip_ws* is true but  *strip_blanks* is not.
+
+
+   .. method:: TextFile.readlines()
+
+      Read and return the list of all logical lines remaining in the current file.
+      This updates the current line number to the last line of the file.
+
+
+   .. method:: TextFile.unreadline(line)
+
+      Push *line* (a string) onto an internal buffer that will be checked by future
+      :meth:`readline` calls.  Handy for implementing a parser with line-at-a-time
+      lookahead. Note that lines that are "unread" with :meth:`unreadline` are not
+      subsequently re-cleansed (whitespace  stripped, or whatever) when read with
+      :meth:`readline`. If multiple calls are made to :meth:`unreadline` before a call
+      to :meth:`readline`, the lines will be returned most in most recent first order.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.version` --- Version number classes
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.version
+   :synopsis: implements classes that represent module version numbers.
+
+
+.. % todo
+.. % \section{Distutils Commands}
+.. %
+.. % This part of Distutils implements the various Distutils commands, such
+.. % as \code{build}, \code{install} \&c. Each command is implemented as a
+.. % separate module, with the command name as the name of the module.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.cmd` --- Abstract base class for Distutils commands
+===================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.cmd
+   :synopsis: This module provides the abstract base class Command. This class
+              is subclassed by the modules in the distutils.command subpackage.
+
+
+This module supplies the abstract base class :class:`Command`.
+
+
+.. class:: Command(dist)
+
+   Abstract base class for defining command classes, the "worker bees" of the
+   Distutils.  A useful analogy for command classes is to think of them as
+   subroutines with local variables called *options*.  The options are declared
+   in :meth:`initialize_options` and defined (given their final values) in
+   :meth:`finalize_options`, both of which must be defined by every command
+   class.  The distinction between the two is necessary because option values
+   might come from the outside world (command line, config file, ...), and any
+   options dependent on other options must be computed after these outside
+   influences have been processed --- hence :meth:`finalize_options`.  The body
+   of the subroutine, where it does all its work based on the values of its
+   options, is the :meth:`run` method, which must also be implemented by every
+   command class.
+
+   The class constructor takes a single argument *dist*, a
+   :class:`~distutils.core.Distribution` instance.
+
+
+Creating a new Distutils command
+================================
+
+This section outlines the steps to create a new Distutils command.
+
+A new command lives in a module in the :mod:`distutils.command` package. There
+is a sample template in that directory called :file:`command_template`.  Copy
+this file to a new module with the same name as the new command you're
+implementing.  This module should implement a class with the same name as the
+module (and the command).  So, for instance, to create the command
+``peel_banana`` (so that users can run ``setup.py peel_banana``), you'd copy
+:file:`command_template` to :file:`distutils/command/peel_banana.py`, then edit
+it so that it's implementing the class :class:`peel_banana`, a subclass of
+:class:`distutils.cmd.Command`.
+
+Subclasses of :class:`Command` must define the following methods.
+
+.. method:: Command.initialize_options()
+
+   Set default values for all the options that this command supports.  Note that
+   these defaults may be overridden by other commands, by the setup script, by
+   config files, or by the command-line.  Thus, this is not the place to code
+   dependencies between options; generally, :meth:`initialize_options`
+   implementations are just a bunch of ``self.foo = None`` assignments.
+
+
+.. method:: Command.finalize_options()
+
+   Set final values for all the options that this command supports. This is
+   always called as late as possible, ie.  after any option assignments from the
+   command-line or from other commands have been done.  Thus, this is the place
+   to code option dependencies: if *foo* depends on *bar*, then it is safe to
+   set *foo* from *bar* as long as *foo* still has the same value it was
+   assigned in :meth:`initialize_options`.
+
+
+.. method:: Command.run()
+
+   A command's raison d'etre: carry out the action it exists to perform, controlled
+   by the options initialized in :meth:`initialize_options`, customized by other
+   commands, the setup script, the command-line, and config files, and finalized in
+   :meth:`finalize_options`.  All terminal output and filesystem interaction should
+   be done by :meth:`run`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Command.sub_commands
+
+   *sub_commands* formalizes the notion of a "family" of commands,
+   e.g. ``install`` as the parent with sub-commands ``install_lib``,
+   ``install_headers``, etc.  The parent of a family of commands defines
+   *sub_commands* as a class attribute; it's a list of 2-tuples ``(command_name,
+   predicate)``, with *command_name* a string and *predicate* a function, a
+   string or ``None``.  *predicate* is a method of the parent command that
+   determines whether the corresponding command is applicable in the current
+   situation.  (E.g. ``install_headers`` is only applicable if we have any C
+   header files to install.)  If *predicate* is ``None``, that command is always
+   applicable.
+
+   *sub_commands* is usually defined at the *end* of a class, because
+   predicates can be methods of the class, so they must already have been
+   defined.  The canonical example is the :command:`install` command.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command` --- Individual Distutils commands
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command
+   :synopsis: This subpackage contains one module for each standard Distutils command.
+
+
+.. % \subsubsection{Individual Distutils commands}
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.bdist` --- Build a binary installer
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.bdist
+   :synopsis: Build a binary installer for a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.bdist_packager` --- Abstract base class for packagers
+=============================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.bdist_packager
+   :synopsis: Abstract base class for packagers
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.bdist_dumb` --- Build a "dumb" installer
+================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.bdist_dumb
+   :synopsis: Build a "dumb" installer - a simple archive of files
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.bdist_msi` --- Build a Microsoft Installer binary package
+=================================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.bdist_msi
+   :synopsis: Build a binary distribution as a Windows MSI file
+
+.. class:: bdist_msi
+
+   Builds a `Windows Installer`_ (.msi) binary package.
+
+   .. _Windows Installer: https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc185688(VS.85).aspx
+
+   In most cases, the ``bdist_msi`` installer is a better choice than the
+   ``bdist_wininst`` installer, because it provides better support for
+   Win64 platforms, allows administrators to perform non-interactive
+   installations, and allows installation through group policies.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.bdist_rpm` --- Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM
+===========================================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.bdist_rpm
+   :synopsis: Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.bdist_wininst` --- Build a Windows installer
+====================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.bdist_wininst
+   :synopsis: Build a Windows installer
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.sdist` --- Build a source distribution
+==============================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.sdist
+   :synopsis: Build a source distribution
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.build` --- Build all files of a package
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.build
+   :synopsis: Build all files of a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.build_clib` --- Build any C libraries in a package
+==========================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.build_clib
+   :synopsis: Build any C libraries in a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.build_ext` --- Build any extensions in a package
+========================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.build_ext
+   :synopsis: Build any extensions in a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.build_py` --- Build the .py/.pyc files of a package
+===========================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.build_py
+   :synopsis: Build the .py/.pyc files of a package
+
+
+.. class:: build_py
+
+.. class:: build_py_2to3
+
+   Alternative implementation of build_py which also runs the
+   2to3 conversion library on each .py file that is going to be
+   installed. To use this in a setup.py file for a distribution
+   that is designed to run with both Python 2.x and 3.x, add::
+
+     try:
+         from distutils.command.build_py import build_py_2to3 as build_py
+     except ImportError:
+         from distutils.command.build_py import build_py
+
+   to your setup.py, and later::
+
+      cmdclass = {'build_py': build_py}
+
+   to the invocation of setup().
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.build_scripts` --- Build the scripts of a package
+=========================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.build_scripts
+   :synopsis: Build the scripts of a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.clean` --- Clean a package build area
+=============================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.clean
+   :synopsis: Clean a package build area
+
+This command removes the temporary files created by :command:`build`
+and its subcommands, like intermediary compiled object files.  With
+the ``--all`` option, the complete build directory will be removed.
+
+Extension modules built :ref:`in place <distutils-build-ext-inplace>`
+will not be cleaned, as they are not in the build directory.
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.config` --- Perform package configuration
+=================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.config
+   :synopsis: Perform package configuration
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.install` --- Install a package
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.install
+   :synopsis: Install a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.install_data` --- Install data files from a package
+===========================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.install_data
+   :synopsis: Install data files from a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.install_headers` --- Install C/C++ header files from a package
+======================================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.install_headers
+   :synopsis: Install C/C++ header files from a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.install_lib` --- Install library files from a package
+=============================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.install_lib
+   :synopsis: Install library files from a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.install_scripts` --- Install script files from a package
+================================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.install_scripts
+   :synopsis: Install script files from a package
+
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.register` --- Register a module with the Python Package Index
+=====================================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.register
+   :synopsis: Register a module with the Python Package Index
+
+
+The ``register`` command registers the package with the Python Package  Index.
+This is described in more detail in :pep:`301`.
+
+.. % todo
+
+
+:mod:`distutils.command.check` --- Check the meta-data of a package
+===================================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils.command.check
+   :synopsis: Check the metadata of a package
+
+
+The ``check`` command performs some tests on the meta-data of a package.
+For example, it verifies that all required meta-data are provided as
+the arguments passed to the :func:`setup` function.
+
+.. % todo
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/builtdist.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/builtdist.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a83f8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/builtdist.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,459 @@
+.. _built-dist:
+
+****************************
+Creating Built Distributions
+****************************
+
+A "built distribution" is what you're probably used to thinking of either as a
+"binary package" or an "installer" (depending on your background).  It's not
+necessarily binary, though, because it might contain only Python source code
+and/or byte-code; and we don't call it a package, because that word is already
+spoken for in Python.  (And "installer" is a term specific to the world of
+mainstream desktop systems.)
+
+A built distribution is how you make life as easy as possible for installers of
+your module distribution: for users of RPM-based Linux systems, it's a binary
+RPM; for Windows users, it's an executable installer; for Debian-based Linux
+users, it's a Debian package; and so forth.  Obviously, no one person will be
+able to create built distributions for every platform under the sun, so the
+Distutils are designed to enable module developers to concentrate on their
+specialty---writing code and creating source distributions---while an
+intermediary species called *packagers* springs up to turn source distributions
+into built distributions for as many platforms as there are packagers.
+
+Of course, the module developer could be their own packager; or the packager could
+be a volunteer "out there" somewhere who has access to a platform which the
+original developer does not; or it could be software periodically grabbing new
+source distributions and turning them into built distributions for as many
+platforms as the software has access to.  Regardless of who they are, a packager
+uses the setup script and the :command:`bdist` command family to generate built
+distributions.
+
+As a simple example, if I run the following command in the Distutils source
+tree::
+
+   python setup.py bdist
+
+then the Distutils builds my module distribution (the Distutils itself in this
+case), does a "fake" installation (also in the :file:`build` directory), and
+creates the default type of built distribution for my platform.  The default
+format for built distributions is a "dumb" tar file on Unix, and a simple
+executable installer on Windows.  (That tar file is considered "dumb" because it
+has to be unpacked in a specific location to work.)
+
+Thus, the above command on a Unix system creates
+:file:`Distutils-1.0.{plat}.tar.gz`; unpacking this tarball from the right place
+installs the Distutils just as though you had downloaded the source distribution
+and run ``python setup.py install``.  (The "right place" is either the root of
+the filesystem or  Python's :file:`{prefix}` directory, depending on the options
+given to the :command:`bdist_dumb` command; the default is to make dumb
+distributions relative to :file:`{prefix}`.)
+
+Obviously, for pure Python distributions, this isn't any simpler than just
+running ``python setup.py install``\ ---but for non-pure distributions, which
+include extensions that would need to be compiled, it can mean the difference
+between someone being able to use your extensions or not.  And creating "smart"
+built distributions, such as an RPM package or an executable installer for
+Windows, is far more convenient for users even if your distribution doesn't
+include any extensions.
+
+The :command:`bdist` command has a :option:`!--formats` option, similar to the
+:command:`sdist` command, which you can use to select the types of built
+distribution to generate: for example, ::
+
+   python setup.py bdist --format=zip
+
+would, when run on a Unix system, create
+:file:`Distutils-1.0.{plat}.zip`\ ---again, this archive would be unpacked
+from the root directory to install the Distutils.
+
+The available formats for built distributions are:
+
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| Format      | Description                  | Notes   |
++=============+==============================+=========+
+| ``gztar``   | gzipped tar file             | \(1)    |
+|             | (:file:`.tar.gz`)            |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``bztar``   | bzipped tar file             |         |
+|             | (:file:`.tar.bz2`)           |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``xztar``   | xzipped tar file             |         |
+|             | (:file:`.tar.xz`)            |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``ztar``    | compressed tar file          | \(3)    |
+|             | (:file:`.tar.Z`)             |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``tar``     | tar file (:file:`.tar`)      |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``zip``     | zip file (:file:`.zip`)      | (2),(4) |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``rpm``     | RPM                          | \(5)    |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``pkgtool`` | Solaris :program:`pkgtool`   |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``sdux``    | HP-UX :program:`swinstall`   |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``wininst`` | self-extracting ZIP file for | \(4)    |
+|             | Windows                      |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+| ``msi``     | Microsoft Installer.         |         |
++-------------+------------------------------+---------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Added support for the ``xztar`` format.
+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   default on Unix
+
+(2)
+   default on Windows
+
+(3)
+   requires external :program:`compress` utility.
+
+(4)
+   requires either external :program:`zip` utility or :mod:`zipfile` module (part
+   of the standard Python library since Python 1.6)
+
+(5)
+   requires external :program:`rpm` utility, version 3.0.4 or better (use ``rpm
+   --version`` to find out which version you have)
+
+You don't have to use the :command:`bdist` command with the :option:`!--formats`
+option; you can also use the command that directly implements the format you're
+interested in.  Some of these :command:`bdist` "sub-commands" actually generate
+several similar formats; for instance, the :command:`bdist_dumb` command
+generates all the "dumb" archive formats (``tar``, ``gztar``, ``bztar``,
+``xztar``, ``ztar``, and ``zip``), and :command:`bdist_rpm` generates both
+binary and source RPMs.  The :command:`bdist` sub-commands, and the formats
+generated by each, are:
+
++--------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| Command                  | Formats                             |
++==========================+=====================================+
+| :command:`bdist_dumb`    | tar, gztar, bztar, xztar, ztar, zip |
++--------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :command:`bdist_rpm`     | rpm, srpm                           |
++--------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :command:`bdist_wininst` | wininst                             |
++--------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :command:`bdist_msi`     | msi                                 |
++--------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+
+The following sections give details on the individual :command:`bdist_\*`
+commands.
+
+
+.. .. _creating-dumb:
+
+.. Creating dumb built distributions
+.. =================================
+
+.. XXX Need to document absolute vs. prefix-relative packages here, but first
+   I have to implement it!
+
+
+.. _creating-rpms:
+
+Creating RPM packages
+=====================
+
+The RPM format is used by many popular Linux distributions, including Red Hat,
+SuSE, and Mandrake.  If one of these (or any of the other RPM-based Linux
+distributions) is your usual environment, creating RPM packages for other users
+of that same distribution is trivial. Depending on the complexity of your module
+distribution and differences between Linux distributions, you may also be able
+to create RPMs that work on different RPM-based distributions.
+
+The usual way to create an RPM of your module distribution is to run the
+:command:`bdist_rpm` command::
+
+   python setup.py bdist_rpm
+
+or the :command:`bdist` command with the :option:`!--format` option::
+
+   python setup.py bdist --formats=rpm
+
+The former allows you to specify RPM-specific options; the latter allows  you to
+easily specify multiple formats in one run.  If you need to do both, you can
+explicitly specify multiple :command:`bdist_\*` commands and their options::
+
+   python setup.py bdist_rpm --packager="John Doe <jdoe@example.org>" \
+                   bdist_wininst --target-version="2.0"
+
+Creating RPM packages is driven by a :file:`.spec` file, much as using the
+Distutils is driven by the setup script.  To make your life easier, the
+:command:`bdist_rpm` command normally creates a :file:`.spec` file based on the
+information you supply in the setup script, on the command line, and in any
+Distutils configuration files.  Various options and sections in the
+:file:`.spec` file are derived from options in the setup script as follows:
+
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| RPM :file:`.spec` file option or section | Distutils setup script option                |
++==========================================+==============================================+
+| Name                                     | ``name``                                     |
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Summary (in preamble)                    | ``description``                              |
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Version                                  | ``version``                                  |
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Vendor                                   | ``author`` and ``author_email``,             |
+|                                          | or  --- & ``maintainer`` and                 |
+|                                          | ``maintainer_email``                         |
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Copyright                                | ``license``                                  |
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Url                                      | ``url``                                      |
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| %description (section)                   | ``long_description``                         |
++------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+Additionally, there are many options in :file:`.spec` files that don't have
+corresponding options in the setup script.  Most of these are handled through
+options to the :command:`bdist_rpm` command as follows:
+
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| RPM :file:`.spec` file option | :command:`bdist_rpm` option | default value           |
+| or section                    |                             |                         |
++===============================+=============================+=========================+
+| Release                       | ``release``                 | "1"                     |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Group                         | ``group``                   | "Development/Libraries" |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Vendor                        | ``vendor``                  | (see above)             |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Packager                      | ``packager``                | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Provides                      | ``provides``                | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Requires                      | ``requires``                | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Conflicts                     | ``conflicts``               | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Obsoletes                     | ``obsoletes``               | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Distribution                  | ``distribution_name``       | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| BuildRequires                 | ``build_requires``          | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+| Icon                          | ``icon``                    | (none)                  |
++-------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+
+
+Obviously, supplying even a few of these options on the command-line would be
+tedious and error-prone, so it's usually best to put them in the setup
+configuration file, :file:`setup.cfg`\ ---see section :ref:`setup-config`.  If
+you distribute or package many Python module distributions, you might want to
+put options that apply to all of them in your personal Distutils configuration
+file (:file:`~/.pydistutils.cfg`).  If you want to temporarily disable
+this file, you can pass the :option:`!--no-user-cfg` option to :file:`setup.py`.
+
+There are three steps to building a binary RPM package, all of which are
+handled automatically by the Distutils:
+
+#. create a :file:`.spec` file, which describes the package (analogous  to the
+   Distutils setup script; in fact, much of the information in the  setup script
+   winds up in the :file:`.spec` file)
+
+#. create the source RPM
+
+#. create the "binary" RPM (which may or may not contain binary code, depending
+   on whether your module distribution contains Python extensions)
+
+Normally, RPM bundles the last two steps together; when you use the Distutils,
+all three steps are typically bundled together.
+
+If you wish, you can separate these three steps.  You can use the
+:option:`!--spec-only` option to make :command:`bdist_rpm` just create the
+:file:`.spec` file and exit; in this case, the :file:`.spec` file will be
+written to the "distribution directory"---normally :file:`dist/`, but
+customizable with the :option:`!--dist-dir` option.  (Normally, the :file:`.spec`
+file winds up deep in the "build tree," in a temporary directory created by
+:command:`bdist_rpm`.)
+
+.. % \XXX{this isn't implemented yet---is it needed?!}
+.. % You can also specify a custom \file{.spec} file with the
+.. % \longprogramopt{spec-file} option; used in conjunction with
+.. % \longprogramopt{spec-only}, this gives you an opportunity to customize
+.. % the \file{.spec} file manually:
+.. %
+.. % \ begin{verbatim}
+.. % > python setup.py bdist_rpm --spec-only
+.. % # ...edit dist/FooBar-1.0.spec
+.. % > python setup.py bdist_rpm --spec-file=dist/FooBar-1.0.spec
+.. % \ end{verbatim}
+.. %
+.. % (Although a better way to do this is probably to override the standard
+.. % \command{bdist\_rpm} command with one that writes whatever else you want
+.. % to the \file{.spec} file.)
+
+
+.. _creating-wininst:
+
+Creating Windows Installers
+===========================
+
+Executable installers are the natural format for binary distributions on
+Windows.  They display a nice graphical user interface, display some information
+about the module distribution to be installed taken from the metadata in the
+setup script, let the user select a few options, and start or cancel the
+installation.
+
+Since the metadata is taken from the setup script, creating Windows installers
+is usually as easy as running::
+
+   python setup.py bdist_wininst
+
+or the :command:`bdist` command with the :option:`!--formats` option::
+
+   python setup.py bdist --formats=wininst
+
+If you have a pure module distribution (only containing pure Python modules and
+packages), the resulting installer will be version independent and have a name
+like :file:`foo-1.0.win32.exe`. Note that creating ``wininst`` binary
+distributions in only supported on Windows systems.
+
+If you have a non-pure distribution, the extensions can only be created on a
+Windows platform, and will be Python version dependent. The installer filename
+will reflect this and now has the form :file:`foo-1.0.win32-py2.0.exe`.  You
+have to create a separate installer for every Python version you want to
+support.
+
+The installer will try to compile pure modules into :term:`bytecode` after installation
+on the target system in normal and optimizing mode.  If you don't want this to
+happen for some reason, you can run the :command:`bdist_wininst` command with
+the :option:`!--no-target-compile` and/or the :option:`!--no-target-optimize`
+option.
+
+By default the installer will display the cool "Python Powered" logo when it is
+run, but you can also supply your own 152x261 bitmap which must be a Windows
+:file:`.bmp` file with the :option:`!--bitmap` option.
+
+The installer will also display a large title on the desktop background window
+when it is run, which is constructed from the name of your distribution and the
+version number.  This can be changed to another text by using the
+:option:`!--title` option.
+
+The installer file will be written to the "distribution directory" --- normally
+:file:`dist/`, but customizable with the :option:`!--dist-dir` option.
+
+.. _cross-compile-windows:
+
+Cross-compiling on Windows
+==========================
+
+Starting with Python 2.6, distutils is capable of cross-compiling between
+Windows platforms.  In practice, this means that with the correct tools
+installed, you can use a 32bit version of Windows to create 64bit extensions
+and vice-versa.
+
+To build for an alternate platform, specify the :option:`!--plat-name` option
+to the build command.  Valid values are currently 'win32', and  'win-amd64'.
+For example, on a 32bit version of Windows, you could execute::
+
+   python setup.py build --plat-name=win-amd64
+
+to build a 64bit version of your extension.  The Windows Installers also
+support this option, so the command::
+
+   python setup.py build --plat-name=win-amd64 bdist_wininst
+
+would create a 64bit installation executable on your 32bit version of Windows.
+
+To cross-compile, you must download the Python source code and cross-compile
+Python itself for the platform you are targeting - it is not possible from a
+binary installation of Python (as the .lib etc file for other platforms are
+not included.)  In practice, this means the user of a 32 bit operating
+system will need to use Visual Studio 2008 to open the
+:file:`PCbuild/PCbuild.sln` solution in the Python source tree and build the
+"x64" configuration of the 'pythoncore' project before cross-compiling
+extensions is possible.
+
+Note that by default, Visual Studio 2008 does not install 64bit compilers or
+tools.  You may need to reexecute the Visual Studio setup process and select
+these tools (using Control Panel->[Add/Remove] Programs is a convenient way to
+check or modify your existing install.)
+
+.. _postinstallation-script:
+
+The Postinstallation script
+---------------------------
+
+Starting with Python 2.3, a postinstallation script can be specified with the
+:option:`!--install-script` option.  The basename of the script must be
+specified, and the script filename must also be listed in the scripts argument
+to the setup function.
+
+This script will be run at installation time on the target system after all the
+files have been copied, with ``argv[1]`` set to :option:`!-install`, and again at
+uninstallation time before the files are removed with ``argv[1]`` set to
+:option:`!-remove`.
+
+The installation script runs embedded in the windows installer, every output
+(``sys.stdout``, ``sys.stderr``) is redirected into a buffer and will be
+displayed in the GUI after the script has finished.
+
+Some functions especially useful in this context are available as additional
+built-in functions in the installation script.
+
+
+.. function:: directory_created(path)
+              file_created(path)
+
+   These functions should be called when a directory or file is created by the
+   postinstall script at installation time.  It will register *path* with the
+   uninstaller, so that it will be removed when the distribution is uninstalled.
+   To be safe, directories are only removed if they are empty.
+
+
+.. function:: get_special_folder_path(csidl_string)
+
+   This function can be used to retrieve special folder locations on Windows like
+   the Start Menu or the Desktop.  It returns the full path to the folder.
+   *csidl_string* must be one of the following strings::
+
+      "CSIDL_APPDATA"
+
+      "CSIDL_COMMON_STARTMENU"
+      "CSIDL_STARTMENU"
+
+      "CSIDL_COMMON_DESKTOPDIRECTORY"
+      "CSIDL_DESKTOPDIRECTORY"
+
+      "CSIDL_COMMON_STARTUP"
+      "CSIDL_STARTUP"
+
+      "CSIDL_COMMON_PROGRAMS"
+      "CSIDL_PROGRAMS"
+
+      "CSIDL_FONTS"
+
+   If the folder cannot be retrieved, :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+   Which folders are available depends on the exact Windows version, and probably
+   also the configuration.  For details refer to Microsoft's documentation of the
+   :c:func:`SHGetSpecialFolderPath` function.
+
+
+.. function:: create_shortcut(target, description, filename[, arguments[, workdir[, iconpath[, iconindex]]]])
+
+   This function creates a shortcut. *target* is the path to the program to be
+   started by the shortcut. *description* is the description of the shortcut.
+   *filename* is the title of the shortcut that the user will see. *arguments*
+   specifies the command line arguments, if any. *workdir* is the working directory
+   for the program. *iconpath* is the file containing the icon for the shortcut,
+   and *iconindex* is the index of the icon in the file *iconpath*.  Again, for
+   details consult the Microsoft documentation for the :class:`IShellLink`
+   interface.
+
+
+Vista User Access Control (UAC)
+===============================
+
+Starting with Python 2.6, bdist_wininst supports a :option:`!--user-access-control`
+option.  The default is 'none' (meaning no UAC handling is done), and other
+valid values are 'auto' (meaning prompt for UAC elevation if Python was
+installed for all users) and 'force' (meaning always prompt for elevation).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/commandref.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/commandref.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a2ac96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/commandref.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+.. _reference:
+
+*****************
+Command Reference
+*****************
+
+.. % \section{Building modules: the \protect\command{build} command family}
+.. % \label{build-cmds}
+.. % \subsubsection{\protect\command{build}}
+.. % \label{build-cmd}
+.. % \subsubsection{\protect\command{build\_py}}
+.. % \label{build-py-cmd}
+.. % \subsubsection{\protect\command{build\_ext}}
+.. % \label{build-ext-cmd}
+.. % \subsubsection{\protect\command{build\_clib}}
+.. % \label{build-clib-cmd}
+
+
+.. _install-cmd:
+
+Installing modules: the :command:`install` command family
+=========================================================
+
+The install command ensures that the build commands have been run and then runs
+the subcommands :command:`install_lib`, :command:`install_data` and
+:command:`install_scripts`.
+
+.. % \subsubsection{\protect\command{install\_lib}}
+.. % \label{install-lib-cmd}
+
+
+.. _install-data-cmd:
+
+:command:`install_data`
+-----------------------
+
+This command installs all data files provided with the distribution.
+
+
+.. _install-scripts-cmd:
+
+:command:`install_scripts`
+--------------------------
+
+This command installs all (Python) scripts in the distribution.
+
+.. % \subsection{Cleaning up: the \protect\command{clean} command}
+.. % \label{clean-cmd}
+
+
+.. _sdist-cmd:
+
+Creating a source distribution: the :command:`sdist` command
+============================================================
+
+.. XXX fragment moved down from above: needs context!
+
+The manifest template commands are:
+
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Command                                   | Description                                   |
++===========================================+===============================================+
+| :command:`include pat1 pat2 ...`          | include all files matching any of the listed  |
+|                                           | patterns                                      |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :command:`exclude pat1 pat2 ...`          | exclude all files matching any of the listed  |
+|                                           | patterns                                      |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :command:`recursive-include dir pat1 pat2 | include all files under *dir* matching any of |
+| ...`                                      | the listed patterns                           |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :command:`recursive-exclude dir pat1 pat2 | exclude all files under *dir* matching any of |
+| ...`                                      | the listed patterns                           |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :command:`global-include pat1 pat2 ...`   | include all files anywhere in the source tree |
+|                                           | matching --- & any of the listed patterns     |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :command:`global-exclude pat1 pat2 ...`   | exclude all files anywhere in the source tree |
+|                                           | matching --- & any of the listed patterns     |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :command:`prune dir`                      | exclude all files under *dir*                 |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :command:`graft dir`                      | include all files under *dir*                 |
++-------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+The patterns here are Unix-style "glob" patterns: ``*`` matches any sequence of
+regular filename characters, ``?`` matches any single regular filename
+character, and ``[range]`` matches any of the characters in *range* (e.g.,
+``a-z``, ``a-zA-Z``, ``a-f0-9_.``).  The definition of "regular filename
+character" is platform-specific: on Unix it is anything except slash; on Windows
+anything except backslash or colon.
+
+.. XXX Windows support not there yet
+
+.. % \section{Creating a built distribution: the
+.. % \protect\command{bdist} command family}
+.. % \label{bdist-cmds}
+
+.. % \subsection{\protect\command{bdist}}
+.. % \subsection{\protect\command{bdist\_dumb}}
+.. % \subsection{\protect\command{bdist\_rpm}}
+.. % \subsection{\protect\command{bdist\_wininst}}
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/configfile.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/configfile.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0874d05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/configfile.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+.. _setup-config:
+
+************************************
+Writing the Setup Configuration File
+************************************
+
+Often, it's not possible to write down everything needed to build a distribution
+*a priori*: you may need to get some information from the user, or from the
+user's system, in order to proceed.  As long as that information is fairly
+simple---a list of directories to search for C header files or libraries, for
+example---then providing a configuration file, :file:`setup.cfg`, for users to
+edit is a cheap and easy way to solicit it.  Configuration files also let you
+provide default values for any command option, which the installer can then
+override either on the command-line or by editing the config file.
+
+The setup configuration file is a useful middle-ground between the setup
+script---which, ideally, would be opaque to installers [#]_---and the command-line to
+the setup script, which is outside of your control and entirely up to the
+installer.  In fact, :file:`setup.cfg` (and any other Distutils configuration
+files present on the target system) are processed after the contents of the
+setup script, but before the command-line.  This has  several useful
+consequences:
+
+.. % (If you have more advanced needs, such as determining which extensions
+.. % to build based on what capabilities are present on the target system,
+.. % then you need the Distutils ``auto-configuration'' facility.  This
+.. % started to appear in Distutils 0.9 but, as of this writing, isn't mature
+.. % or stable enough yet for real-world use.)
+
+* installers can override some of what you put in :file:`setup.py` by editing
+  :file:`setup.cfg`
+
+* you can provide non-standard defaults for options that are not easily set in
+  :file:`setup.py`
+
+* installers can override anything in :file:`setup.cfg` using the command-line
+  options to :file:`setup.py`
+
+The basic syntax of the configuration file is simple:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [command]
+   option=value
+   ...
+
+where *command* is one of the Distutils commands (e.g. :command:`build_py`,
+:command:`install`), and *option* is one of the options that command supports.
+Any number of options can be supplied for each command, and any number of
+command sections can be included in the file.  Blank lines are ignored, as are
+comments, which run from a ``'#'`` character until the end of the line.  Long
+option values can be split across multiple lines simply by indenting the
+continuation lines.
+
+You can find out the list of options supported by a particular command with the
+universal :option:`!--help` option, e.g.
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python setup.py --help build_ext
+   [...]
+   Options for 'build_ext' command:
+     --build-lib (-b)     directory for compiled extension modules
+     --build-temp (-t)    directory for temporary files (build by-products)
+     --inplace (-i)       ignore build-lib and put compiled extensions into the
+                          source directory alongside your pure Python modules
+     --include-dirs (-I)  list of directories to search for header files
+     --define (-D)        C preprocessor macros to define
+     --undef (-U)         C preprocessor macros to undefine
+     --swig-opts          list of SWIG command line options
+   [...]
+
+Note that an option spelled :option:`!--foo-bar` on the command-line  is spelled
+``foo_bar`` in configuration files.
+
+.. _distutils-build-ext-inplace:
+
+For example, say you want your extensions to be built "in-place"---that is, you
+have an extension :mod:`pkg.ext`, and you want the compiled extension file
+(:file:`ext.so` on Unix, say) to be put in the same source directory as your
+pure Python modules :mod:`pkg.mod1` and :mod:`pkg.mod2`.  You can always use the
+:option:`!--inplace` option on the command-line to ensure this:
+
+.. code-block:: sh
+
+   python setup.py build_ext --inplace
+
+But this requires that you always specify the :command:`build_ext` command
+explicitly, and remember to provide :option:`!--inplace`. An easier way is to
+"set and forget" this option, by encoding it in :file:`setup.cfg`, the
+configuration file for this distribution:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [build_ext]
+   inplace=1
+
+This will affect all builds of this module distribution, whether or not you
+explicitly specify :command:`build_ext`.  If you include :file:`setup.cfg` in
+your source distribution, it will also affect end-user builds---which is
+probably a bad idea for this option, since always building extensions in-place
+would break installation of the module distribution.  In certain peculiar cases,
+though, modules are built right in their installation directory, so this is
+conceivably a useful ability.  (Distributing extensions that expect to be built
+in their installation directory is almost always a bad idea, though.)
+
+Another example: certain commands take a lot of options that don't change from
+run to run; for example, :command:`bdist_rpm` needs to know everything required
+to generate a "spec" file for creating an RPM distribution.  Some of this
+information comes from the setup script, and some is automatically generated by
+the Distutils (such as the list of files installed).  But some of it has to be
+supplied as options to :command:`bdist_rpm`, which would be very tedious to do
+on the command-line for every run.  Hence, here is a snippet from the Distutils'
+own :file:`setup.cfg`:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [bdist_rpm]
+   release = 1
+   packager = Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
+   doc_files = CHANGES.txt
+               README.txt
+               USAGE.txt
+               doc/
+               examples/
+
+Note that the ``doc_files`` option is simply a whitespace-separated string
+split across multiple lines for readability.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`inst-config-syntax` in "Installing Python Modules"
+      More information on the configuration files is available in the manual for
+      system administrators.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] This ideal probably won't be achieved until auto-configuration is fully
+   supported by the Distutils.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/examples.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/examples.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e2761d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/examples.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,338 @@
+.. _examples:
+
+********
+Examples
+********
+
+This chapter provides a number of basic examples to help get started with
+distutils.  Additional information about using distutils can be found in the
+Distutils Cookbook.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Distutils Cookbook <https://wiki.python.org/moin/Distutils/Cookbook>`_
+      Collection of recipes showing how to achieve more control over distutils.
+
+
+.. _pure-mod:
+
+Pure Python distribution (by module)
+====================================
+
+If you're just distributing a couple of modules, especially if they don't live
+in a particular package, you can specify them individually using the
+``py_modules`` option in the setup script.
+
+In the simplest case, you'll have two files to worry about: a setup script and
+the single module you're distributing, :file:`foo.py` in this example::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           foo.py
+
+(In all diagrams in this section, *<root>* will refer to the distribution root
+directory.)  A minimal setup script to describe this situation would be::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foo',
+         version='1.0',
+         py_modules=['foo'],
+         )
+
+Note that the name of the distribution is specified independently with the
+``name`` option, and there's no rule that says it has to be the same as
+the name of the sole module in the distribution (although that's probably a good
+convention to follow).  However, the distribution name is used to generate
+filenames, so you should stick to letters, digits, underscores, and hyphens.
+
+Since ``py_modules`` is a list, you can of course specify multiple
+modules, eg. if you're distributing modules :mod:`foo` and :mod:`bar`, your
+setup might look like this::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           foo.py
+           bar.py
+
+and the setup script might be  ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         py_modules=['foo', 'bar'],
+         )
+
+You can put module source files into another directory, but if you have enough
+modules to do that, it's probably easier to specify modules by package rather
+than listing them individually.
+
+
+.. _pure-pkg:
+
+Pure Python distribution (by package)
+=====================================
+
+If you have more than a couple of modules to distribute, especially if they are
+in multiple packages, it's probably easier to specify whole packages rather than
+individual modules.  This works even if your modules are not in a package; you
+can just tell the Distutils to process modules from the root package, and that
+works the same as any other package (except that you don't have to have an
+:file:`__init__.py` file).
+
+The setup script from the last example could also be written as  ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         packages=[''],
+         )
+
+(The empty string stands for the root package.)
+
+If those two files are moved into a subdirectory, but remain in the root
+package, e.g.::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           src/      foo.py
+                     bar.py
+
+then you would still specify the root package, but you have to tell the
+Distutils where source files in the root package live::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         package_dir={'': 'src'},
+         packages=[''],
+         )
+
+More typically, though, you will want to distribute multiple modules in the same
+package (or in sub-packages).  For example, if the :mod:`foo`  and :mod:`bar`
+modules belong in package :mod:`foobar`, one way to layout your source tree is
+::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           foobar/
+                    __init__.py
+                    foo.py
+                    bar.py
+
+This is in fact the default layout expected by the Distutils, and the one that
+requires the least work to describe in your setup script::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         packages=['foobar'],
+         )
+
+If you want to put modules in directories not named for their package, then you
+need to use the ``package_dir`` option again.  For example, if the
+:file:`src` directory holds modules in the :mod:`foobar` package::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           src/
+                    __init__.py
+                    foo.py
+                    bar.py
+
+an appropriate setup script would be  ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         package_dir={'foobar': 'src'},
+         packages=['foobar'],
+         )
+
+Or, you might put modules from your main package right in the distribution
+root::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           __init__.py
+           foo.py
+           bar.py
+
+in which case your setup script would be  ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         package_dir={'foobar': ''},
+         packages=['foobar'],
+         )
+
+(The empty string also stands for the current directory.)
+
+If you have sub-packages, they must be explicitly listed in ``packages``,
+but any entries in ``package_dir`` automatically extend to sub-packages.
+(In other words, the Distutils does *not* scan your source tree, trying to
+figure out which directories correspond to Python packages by looking for
+:file:`__init__.py` files.)  Thus, if the default layout grows a sub-package::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           foobar/
+                    __init__.py
+                    foo.py
+                    bar.py
+                    subfoo/
+                              __init__.py
+                              blah.py
+
+then the corresponding setup script would be  ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         packages=['foobar', 'foobar.subfoo'],
+         )
+
+
+.. _single-ext:
+
+Single extension module
+=======================
+
+Extension modules are specified using the ``ext_modules`` option.
+``package_dir`` has no effect on where extension source files are found;
+it only affects the source for pure Python modules.  The simplest  case, a
+single extension module in a single C source file, is::
+
+   <root>/
+           setup.py
+           foo.c
+
+If the :mod:`foo` extension belongs in the root package, the setup script for
+this could be  ::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   from distutils.extension import Extension
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         ext_modules=[Extension('foo', ['foo.c'])],
+         )
+
+If the extension actually belongs in a package, say :mod:`foopkg`, then
+
+With exactly the same source tree layout, this extension can be put in the
+:mod:`foopkg` package simply by changing the name of the extension::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   from distutils.extension import Extension
+   setup(name='foobar',
+         version='1.0',
+         ext_modules=[Extension('foopkg.foo', ['foo.c'])],
+         )
+
+Checking a package
+==================
+
+The ``check`` command allows you to verify if your package meta-data
+meet the minimum requirements to build a distribution.
+
+To run it, just call it using your :file:`setup.py` script. If something is
+missing, ``check`` will display a warning.
+
+Let's take an example with a simple script::
+
+    from distutils.core import setup
+
+    setup(name='foobar')
+
+Running the ``check`` command will display some warnings:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python setup.py check
+    running check
+    warning: check: missing required meta-data: version, url
+    warning: check: missing meta-data: either (author and author_email) or
+             (maintainer and maintainer_email) must be supplied
+
+
+If you use the reStructuredText syntax in the ``long_description`` field and
+`docutils`_  is installed you can check if the syntax is fine with the
+``check`` command, using the ``restructuredtext`` option.
+
+For example, if the :file:`setup.py` script is changed like this::
+
+    from distutils.core import setup
+
+    desc = """\
+    My description
+    ==============
+
+    This is the description of the ``foobar`` package.
+    """
+
+    setup(name='foobar', version='1', author='tarek',
+        author_email='tarek@ziade.org',
+        url='http://example.com', long_description=desc)
+
+Where the long description is broken, ``check`` will be able to detect it
+by using the :mod:`docutils` parser:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python setup.py check --restructuredtext
+    running check
+    warning: check: Title underline too short. (line 2)
+    warning: check: Could not finish the parsing.
+
+Reading the metadata
+=====================
+
+The :func:`distutils.core.setup` function provides a command-line interface
+that allows you to query the metadata fields of a project through the
+``setup.py`` script of a given project:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python setup.py --name
+    distribute
+
+This call reads the ``name`` metadata by running the
+:func:`distutils.core.setup`  function. Although, when a source or binary
+distribution is created with Distutils, the metadata fields are written
+in a static file called :file:`PKG-INFO`. When a Distutils-based project is
+installed in Python, the :file:`PKG-INFO` file is copied alongside the modules
+and packages of the distribution under :file:`NAME-VERSION-pyX.X.egg-info`,
+where ``NAME`` is the name of the project, ``VERSION`` its version as defined
+in the Metadata, and ``pyX.X`` the major and minor version of Python like
+``2.7`` or ``3.2``.
+
+You can read back this static file, by using the
+:class:`distutils.dist.DistributionMetadata` class and its
+:func:`read_pkg_file` method::
+
+    >>> from distutils.dist import DistributionMetadata
+    >>> metadata = DistributionMetadata()
+    >>> metadata.read_pkg_file(open('distribute-0.6.8-py2.7.egg-info'))
+    >>> metadata.name
+    'distribute'
+    >>> metadata.version
+    '0.6.8'
+    >>> metadata.description
+    'Easily download, build, install, upgrade, and uninstall Python packages'
+
+Notice that the class can also be instantiated with a metadata file path to
+loads its values::
+
+    >>> pkg_info_path = 'distribute-0.6.8-py2.7.egg-info'
+    >>> DistributionMetadata(pkg_info_path).name
+    'distribute'
+
+
+.. % \section{Multiple extension modules}
+.. % \label{multiple-ext}
+
+.. % \section{Putting it all together}
+
+
+.. _docutils: http://docutils.sourceforge.net
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/extending.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/extending.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..501fd7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/extending.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+.. _extending-distutils:
+
+*******************
+Extending Distutils
+*******************
+
+Distutils can be extended in various ways.  Most extensions take the form of new
+commands or replacements for existing commands.  New commands may be written to
+support new types of platform-specific packaging, for example, while
+replacements for existing commands may be made to modify details of how the
+command operates on a package.
+
+Most extensions of the distutils are made within :file:`setup.py` scripts that
+want to modify existing commands; many simply add a few file extensions that
+should be copied into packages in addition to :file:`.py` files as a
+convenience.
+
+Most distutils command implementations are subclasses of the
+:class:`distutils.cmd.Command` class.  New commands may directly inherit from
+:class:`Command`, while replacements often derive from :class:`Command`
+indirectly, directly subclassing the command they are replacing.  Commands are
+required to derive from :class:`Command`.
+
+.. % \section{Extending existing commands}
+.. % \label{extend-existing}
+
+.. % \section{Writing new commands}
+.. % \label{new-commands}
+.. % \XXX{Would an uninstall command be a good example here?}
+
+
+Integrating new commands
+========================
+
+There are different ways to integrate new command implementations into
+distutils.  The most difficult is to lobby for the inclusion of the new features
+in distutils itself, and wait for (and require) a version of Python that
+provides that support.  This is really hard for many reasons.
+
+The most common, and possibly the most reasonable for most needs, is to include
+the new implementations with your :file:`setup.py` script, and cause the
+:func:`distutils.core.setup` function use them::
+
+   from distutils.command.build_py import build_py as _build_py
+   from distutils.core import setup
+
+   class build_py(_build_py):
+       """Specialized Python source builder."""
+
+       # implement whatever needs to be different...
+
+   setup(cmdclass={'build_py': build_py},
+         ...)
+
+This approach is most valuable if the new implementations must be used to use a
+particular package, as everyone interested in the package will need to have the
+new command implementation.
+
+Beginning with Python 2.4, a third option is available, intended to allow new
+commands to be added which can support existing :file:`setup.py` scripts without
+requiring modifications to the Python installation.  This is expected to allow
+third-party extensions to provide support for additional packaging systems, but
+the commands can be used for anything distutils commands can be used for.  A new
+configuration option, ``command_packages`` (command-line option
+:option:`!--command-packages`), can be used to specify additional packages to be
+searched for modules implementing commands.  Like all distutils options, this
+can be specified on the command line or in a configuration file.  This option
+can only be set in the ``[global]`` section of a configuration file, or before
+any commands on the command line.  If set in a configuration file, it can be
+overridden from the command line; setting it to an empty string on the command
+line causes the default to be used.  This should never be set in a configuration
+file provided with a package.
+
+This new option can be used to add any number of packages to the list of
+packages searched for command implementations; multiple package names should be
+separated by commas.  When not specified, the search is only performed in the
+:mod:`distutils.command` package.  When :file:`setup.py` is run with the option
+``--command-packages distcmds,buildcmds``, however, the packages
+:mod:`distutils.command`, :mod:`distcmds`, and :mod:`buildcmds` will be searched
+in that order.  New commands are expected to be implemented in modules of the
+same name as the command by classes sharing the same name.  Given the example
+command line option above, the command :command:`bdist_openpkg` could be
+implemented by the class :class:`distcmds.bdist_openpkg.bdist_openpkg` or
+:class:`buildcmds.bdist_openpkg.bdist_openpkg`.
+
+
+Adding new distribution types
+=============================
+
+Commands that create distributions (files in the :file:`dist/` directory) need
+to add ``(command, filename)`` pairs to ``self.distribution.dist_files`` so that
+:command:`upload` can upload it to PyPI.  The *filename* in the pair contains no
+path information, only the name of the file itself.  In dry-run mode, pairs
+should still be added to represent what would have been created.
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aaf4536
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+.. _distutils-index:
+
+##############################################
+  Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)
+##############################################
+
+:Authors: Greg Ward, Anthony Baxter
+:Email: distutils-sig@python.org
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`distributing-index`
+      The up to date module distribution documentations
+
+This document describes the Python Distribution Utilities ("Distutils") from
+the module developer's point of view, describing how to use the Distutils to
+make Python modules and extensions easily available to a wider audience with
+very little overhead for build/release/install mechanics.
+
+.. note::
+
+   This guide only covers the basic tools for building and distributing
+   extensions that are provided as part of this version of Python. Third party
+   tools offer easier to use and more secure alternatives. Refer to the `quick
+   recommendations section <https://packaging.python.org/guides/tool-recommendations/>`__
+   in the Python Packaging User Guide for more information.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+   :numbered:
+
+   introduction.rst
+   setupscript.rst
+   configfile.rst
+   sourcedist.rst
+   builtdist.rst
+   examples.rst
+   extending.rst
+   commandref.rst
+   apiref.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/introduction.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/introduction.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7721484
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/introduction.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+.. _distutils-intro:
+
+****************************
+An Introduction to Distutils
+****************************
+
+This document covers using the Distutils to distribute your Python modules,
+concentrating on the role of developer/distributor: if you're looking for
+information on installing Python modules, you should refer to the
+:ref:`install-index` chapter.
+
+
+.. _distutils-concepts:
+
+Concepts & Terminology
+======================
+
+Using the Distutils is quite simple, both for module developers and for
+users/administrators installing third-party modules.  As a developer, your
+responsibilities (apart from writing solid, well-documented and well-tested
+code, of course!) are:
+
+* write a setup script (:file:`setup.py` by convention)
+
+* (optional) write a setup configuration file
+
+* create a source distribution
+
+* (optional) create one or more built (binary) distributions
+
+Each of these tasks is covered in this document.
+
+Not all module developers have access to a multitude of platforms, so it's not
+always feasible to expect them to create a multitude of built distributions.  It
+is hoped that a class of intermediaries, called *packagers*, will arise to
+address this need.  Packagers will take source distributions released by module
+developers, build them on one or more platforms, and release the resulting built
+distributions.  Thus, users on the most popular platforms will be able to
+install most popular Python module distributions in the most natural way for
+their platform, without having to run a single setup script or compile a line of
+code.
+
+
+.. _distutils-simple-example:
+
+A Simple Example
+================
+
+The setup script is usually quite simple, although since it's written in Python,
+there are no arbitrary limits to what you can do with it, though you should be
+careful about putting arbitrarily expensive operations in your setup script.
+Unlike, say, Autoconf-style configure scripts, the setup script may be run
+multiple times in the course of building and installing your module
+distribution.
+
+If all you want to do is distribute a module called :mod:`foo`, contained in a
+file :file:`foo.py`, then your setup script can be as simple as this::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup(name='foo',
+         version='1.0',
+         py_modules=['foo'],
+         )
+
+Some observations:
+
+* most information that you supply to the Distutils is supplied as keyword
+  arguments to the :func:`setup` function
+
+* those keyword arguments fall into two categories: package metadata (name,
+  version number) and information about what's in the package (a list of pure
+  Python modules, in this case)
+
+* modules are specified by module name, not filename (the same will hold true
+  for packages and extensions)
+
+* it's recommended that you supply a little more metadata, in particular your
+  name, email address and a URL for the project (see section :ref:`setup-script`
+  for an example)
+
+To create a source distribution for this module, you would create a setup
+script, :file:`setup.py`, containing the above code, and run this command from a
+terminal::
+
+   python setup.py sdist
+
+For Windows, open a command prompt window (:menuselection:`Start -->
+Accessories`) and change the command to::
+
+   setup.py sdist
+
+:command:`sdist` will create an archive file (e.g., tarball on Unix, ZIP file on Windows)
+containing your setup script :file:`setup.py`, and your module :file:`foo.py`.
+The archive file will be named :file:`foo-1.0.tar.gz` (or :file:`.zip`), and
+will unpack into a directory :file:`foo-1.0`.
+
+If an end-user wishes to install your :mod:`foo` module, all they have to do is
+download :file:`foo-1.0.tar.gz` (or :file:`.zip`), unpack it, and---from the
+:file:`foo-1.0` directory---run ::
+
+   python setup.py install
+
+which will ultimately copy :file:`foo.py` to the appropriate directory for
+third-party modules in their Python installation.
+
+This simple example demonstrates some fundamental concepts of the Distutils.
+First, both developers and installers have the same basic user interface, i.e.
+the setup script.  The difference is which Distutils *commands* they use: the
+:command:`sdist` command is almost exclusively for module developers, while
+:command:`install` is more often for installers (although most developers will
+want to install their own code occasionally).
+
+If you want to make things really easy for your users, you can create one or
+more built distributions for them.  For instance, if you are running on a
+Windows machine, and want to make things easy for other Windows users, you can
+create an executable installer (the most appropriate type of built distribution
+for this platform) with the :command:`bdist_wininst` command.  For example::
+
+   python setup.py bdist_wininst
+
+will create an executable installer, :file:`foo-1.0.win32.exe`, in the current
+directory.
+
+Other useful built distribution formats are RPM, implemented by the
+:command:`bdist_rpm` command, Solaris :program:`pkgtool`
+(:command:`bdist_pkgtool`), and HP-UX :program:`swinstall`
+(:command:`bdist_sdux`).  For example, the following command will create an RPM
+file called :file:`foo-1.0.noarch.rpm`::
+
+   python setup.py bdist_rpm
+
+(The :command:`bdist_rpm` command uses the :command:`rpm` executable, therefore
+this has to be run on an RPM-based system such as Red Hat Linux, SuSE Linux, or
+Mandrake Linux.)
+
+You can find out what distribution formats are available at any time by running
+::
+
+   python setup.py bdist --help-formats
+
+
+.. _python-terms:
+
+General Python terminology
+==========================
+
+If you're reading this document, you probably have a good idea of what modules,
+extensions, and so forth are.  Nevertheless, just to be sure that everyone is
+operating from a common starting point, we offer the following glossary of
+common Python terms:
+
+module
+   the basic unit of code reusability in Python: a block of code imported by some
+   other code.  Three types of modules concern us here: pure Python modules,
+   extension modules, and packages.
+
+pure Python module
+   a module written in Python and contained in a single :file:`.py` file (and
+   possibly associated :file:`.pyc` files).  Sometimes referred to as a
+   "pure module."
+
+extension module
+   a module written in the low-level language of the Python implementation: C/C++
+   for Python, Java for Jython. Typically contained in a single dynamically
+   loadable pre-compiled file, e.g. a shared object (:file:`.so`) file for Python
+   extensions on Unix, a DLL (given the :file:`.pyd` extension) for Python
+   extensions on Windows, or a Java class file for Jython extensions.  (Note that
+   currently, the Distutils only handles C/C++ extensions for Python.)
+
+package
+   a module that contains other modules; typically contained in a directory in the
+   filesystem and distinguished from other directories by the presence of a file
+   :file:`__init__.py`.
+
+root package
+   the root of the hierarchy of packages.  (This isn't really a package, since it
+   doesn't have an :file:`__init__.py` file.  But we have to call it something.)
+   The vast majority of the standard library is in the root package, as are many
+   small, standalone third-party modules that don't belong to a larger module
+   collection. Unlike regular packages, modules in the root package can be found in
+   many directories: in fact, every directory listed in ``sys.path`` contributes
+   modules to the root package.
+
+
+.. _distutils-term:
+
+Distutils-specific terminology
+==============================
+
+The following terms apply more specifically to the domain of distributing Python
+modules using the Distutils:
+
+module distribution
+   a collection of Python modules distributed together as a single downloadable
+   resource and meant to be installed *en masse*.  Examples of some well-known
+   module distributions are NumPy, SciPy, Pillow,
+   or mxBase.  (This would be called a *package*, except that term is
+   already taken in the Python context: a single module distribution may contain
+   zero, one, or many Python packages.)
+
+pure module distribution
+   a module distribution that contains only pure Python modules and packages.
+   Sometimes referred to as a "pure distribution."
+
+non-pure module distribution
+   a module distribution that contains at least one extension module.  Sometimes
+   referred to as a "non-pure distribution."
+
+distribution root
+   the top-level directory of your source tree (or  source distribution); the
+   directory where :file:`setup.py` exists.  Generally  :file:`setup.py` will be
+   run from this directory.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/packageindex.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/packageindex.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ccb9a59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/packageindex.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+:orphan:
+
+.. _package-index:
+
+*******************************
+The Python Package Index (PyPI)
+*******************************
+
+The `Python Package Index (PyPI)`_ stores metadata describing distributions
+packaged with distutils and other publishing tools, as well the distribution
+archives themselves.
+
+References to up to date PyPI documentation can be found at
+:ref:`publishing-python-packages`.
+
+.. _Python Package Index (PyPI): https://pypi.org
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/setupscript.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/setupscript.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f99f62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/setupscript.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,711 @@
+.. _setup-script:
+
+************************
+Writing the Setup Script
+************************
+
+The setup script is the centre of all activity in building, distributing, and
+installing modules using the Distutils.  The main purpose of the setup script is
+to describe your module distribution to the Distutils, so that the various
+commands that operate on your modules do the right thing.  As we saw in section
+:ref:`distutils-simple-example` above, the setup script consists mainly of a call to
+:func:`setup`, and most information supplied to the Distutils by the module
+developer is supplied as keyword arguments to :func:`setup`.
+
+Here's a slightly more involved example, which we'll follow for the next couple
+of sections: the Distutils' own setup script.  (Keep in mind that although the
+Distutils are included with Python 1.6 and later, they also have an independent
+existence so that Python 1.5.2 users can use them to install other module
+distributions.  The Distutils' own setup script, shown here, is used to install
+the package into Python 1.5.2.) ::
+
+    #!/usr/bin/env python
+
+    from distutils.core import setup
+
+    setup(name='Distutils',
+          version='1.0',
+          description='Python Distribution Utilities',
+          author='Greg Ward',
+          author_email='gward@python.net',
+          url='https://www.python.org/sigs/distutils-sig/',
+          packages=['distutils', 'distutils.command'],
+         )
+
+There are only two differences between this and the trivial one-file
+distribution presented in section :ref:`distutils-simple-example`: more metadata, and the
+specification of pure Python modules by package, rather than by module.  This is
+important since the Distutils consist of a couple of dozen modules split into
+(so far) two packages; an explicit list of every module would be tedious to
+generate and difficult to maintain.  For more information on the additional
+meta-data, see section :ref:`meta-data`.
+
+Note that any pathnames (files or directories) supplied in the setup script
+should be written using the Unix convention, i.e. slash-separated.  The
+Distutils will take care of converting this platform-neutral representation into
+whatever is appropriate on your current platform before actually using the
+pathname.  This makes your setup script portable across operating systems, which
+of course is one of the major goals of the Distutils.  In this spirit, all
+pathnames in this document are slash-separated.
+
+This, of course, only applies to pathnames given to Distutils functions.  If
+you, for example, use standard Python functions such as :func:`glob.glob` or
+:func:`os.listdir` to specify files, you should be careful to write portable
+code instead of hardcoding path separators::
+
+    glob.glob(os.path.join('mydir', 'subdir', '*.html'))
+    os.listdir(os.path.join('mydir', 'subdir'))
+
+
+.. _listing-packages:
+
+Listing whole packages
+======================
+
+The ``packages`` option tells the Distutils to process (build, distribute,
+install, etc.) all pure Python modules found in each package mentioned in the
+``packages`` list.  In order to do this, of course, there has to be a
+correspondence between package names and directories in the filesystem.  The
+default correspondence is the most obvious one, i.e. package :mod:`distutils` is
+found in the directory :file:`distutils` relative to the distribution root.
+Thus, when you say ``packages = ['foo']`` in your setup script, you are
+promising that the Distutils will find a file :file:`foo/__init__.py` (which
+might be spelled differently on your system, but you get the idea) relative to
+the directory where your setup script lives.  If you break this promise, the
+Distutils will issue a warning but still process the broken package anyway.
+
+If you use a different convention to lay out your source directory, that's no
+problem: you just have to supply the ``package_dir`` option to tell the
+Distutils about your convention.  For example, say you keep all Python source
+under :file:`lib`, so that modules in the "root package" (i.e., not in any
+package at all) are in :file:`lib`, modules in the :mod:`foo` package are in
+:file:`lib/foo`, and so forth.  Then you would put ::
+
+    package_dir = {'': 'lib'}
+
+in your setup script.  The keys to this dictionary are package names, and an
+empty package name stands for the root package.  The values are directory names
+relative to your distribution root.  In this case, when you say ``packages =
+['foo']``, you are promising that the file :file:`lib/foo/__init__.py` exists.
+
+Another possible convention is to put the :mod:`foo` package right in
+:file:`lib`, the :mod:`foo.bar` package in :file:`lib/bar`, etc.  This would be
+written in the setup script as ::
+
+    package_dir = {'foo': 'lib'}
+
+A ``package: dir`` entry in the ``package_dir`` dictionary implicitly
+applies to all packages below *package*, so the :mod:`foo.bar` case is
+automatically handled here.  In this example, having ``packages = ['foo',
+'foo.bar']`` tells the Distutils to look for :file:`lib/__init__.py` and
+:file:`lib/bar/__init__.py`.  (Keep in mind that although ``package_dir``
+applies recursively, you must explicitly list all packages in
+``packages``: the Distutils will *not* recursively scan your source tree
+looking for any directory with an :file:`__init__.py` file.)
+
+
+.. _listing-modules:
+
+Listing individual modules
+==========================
+
+For a small module distribution, you might prefer to list all modules rather
+than listing packages---especially the case of a single module that goes in the
+"root package" (i.e., no package at all).  This simplest case was shown in
+section :ref:`distutils-simple-example`; here is a slightly more involved example::
+
+    py_modules = ['mod1', 'pkg.mod2']
+
+This describes two modules, one of them in the "root" package, the other in the
+:mod:`pkg` package.  Again, the default package/directory layout implies that
+these two modules can be found in :file:`mod1.py` and :file:`pkg/mod2.py`, and
+that :file:`pkg/__init__.py` exists as well. And again, you can override the
+package/directory correspondence using the ``package_dir`` option.
+
+
+.. _describing-extensions:
+
+Describing extension modules
+============================
+
+Just as writing Python extension modules is a bit more complicated than writing
+pure Python modules, describing them to the Distutils is a bit more complicated.
+Unlike pure modules, it's not enough just to list modules or packages and expect
+the Distutils to go out and find the right files; you have to specify the
+extension name, source file(s), and any compile/link requirements (include
+directories, libraries to link with, etc.).
+
+.. XXX read over this section
+
+All of this is done through another keyword argument to :func:`setup`, the
+``ext_modules`` option.  ``ext_modules`` is just a list of
+:class:`~distutils.core.Extension` instances, each of which describes a
+single extension module.
+Suppose your distribution includes a single extension, called :mod:`foo` and
+implemented by :file:`foo.c`.  If no additional instructions to the
+compiler/linker are needed, describing this extension is quite simple::
+
+    Extension('foo', ['foo.c'])
+
+The :class:`Extension` class can be imported from :mod:`distutils.core` along
+with :func:`setup`.  Thus, the setup script for a module distribution that
+contains only this one extension and nothing else might be::
+
+    from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+    setup(name='foo',
+          version='1.0',
+          ext_modules=[Extension('foo', ['foo.c'])],
+          )
+
+The :class:`Extension` class (actually, the underlying extension-building
+machinery implemented by the :command:`build_ext` command) supports a great deal
+of flexibility in describing Python extensions, which is explained in the
+following sections.
+
+
+Extension names and packages
+----------------------------
+
+The first argument to the :class:`~distutils.core.Extension` constructor is
+always the name of the extension, including any package names.  For example, ::
+
+    Extension('foo', ['src/foo1.c', 'src/foo2.c'])
+
+describes an extension that lives in the root package, while ::
+
+    Extension('pkg.foo', ['src/foo1.c', 'src/foo2.c'])
+
+describes the same extension in the :mod:`pkg` package.  The source files and
+resulting object code are identical in both cases; the only difference is where
+in the filesystem (and therefore where in Python's namespace hierarchy) the
+resulting extension lives.
+
+If you have a number of extensions all in the same package (or all under the
+same base package), use the ``ext_package`` keyword argument to
+:func:`setup`.  For example, ::
+
+    setup(...,
+          ext_package='pkg',
+          ext_modules=[Extension('foo', ['foo.c']),
+                       Extension('subpkg.bar', ['bar.c'])],
+         )
+
+will compile :file:`foo.c` to the extension :mod:`pkg.foo`, and :file:`bar.c` to
+:mod:`pkg.subpkg.bar`.
+
+
+Extension source files
+----------------------
+
+The second argument to the :class:`~distutils.core.Extension` constructor is
+a list of source
+files.  Since the Distutils currently only support C, C++, and Objective-C
+extensions, these are normally C/C++/Objective-C source files.  (Be sure to use
+appropriate extensions to distinguish C++ source files: :file:`.cc` and
+:file:`.cpp` seem to be recognized by both Unix and Windows compilers.)
+
+However, you can also include SWIG interface (:file:`.i`) files in the list; the
+:command:`build_ext` command knows how to deal with SWIG extensions: it will run
+SWIG on the interface file and compile the resulting C/C++ file into your
+extension.
+
+.. XXX SWIG support is rough around the edges and largely untested!
+
+This warning notwithstanding, options to SWIG can be currently passed like
+this::
+
+    setup(...,
+          ext_modules=[Extension('_foo', ['foo.i'],
+                                 swig_opts=['-modern', '-I../include'])],
+          py_modules=['foo'],
+         )
+
+Or on the commandline like this::
+
+    > python setup.py build_ext --swig-opts="-modern -I../include"
+
+On some platforms, you can include non-source files that are processed by the
+compiler and included in your extension.  Currently, this just means Windows
+message text (:file:`.mc`) files and resource definition (:file:`.rc`) files for
+Visual C++. These will be compiled to binary resource (:file:`.res`) files and
+linked into the executable.
+
+
+Preprocessor options
+--------------------
+
+Three optional arguments to :class:`~distutils.core.Extension` will help if
+you need to specify include directories to search or preprocessor macros to
+define/undefine: ``include_dirs``, ``define_macros``, and ``undef_macros``.
+
+For example, if your extension requires header files in the :file:`include`
+directory under your distribution root, use the ``include_dirs`` option::
+
+    Extension('foo', ['foo.c'], include_dirs=['include'])
+
+You can specify absolute directories there; if you know that your extension will
+only be built on Unix systems with X11R6 installed to :file:`/usr`, you can get
+away with ::
+
+    Extension('foo', ['foo.c'], include_dirs=['/usr/include/X11'])
+
+You should avoid this sort of non-portable usage if you plan to distribute your
+code: it's probably better to write C code like  ::
+
+    #include <X11/Xlib.h>
+
+If you need to include header files from some other Python extension, you can
+take advantage of the fact that header files are installed in a consistent way
+by the Distutils :command:`install_headers` command.  For example, the Numerical
+Python header files are installed (on a standard Unix installation) to
+:file:`/usr/local/include/python1.5/Numerical`. (The exact location will differ
+according to your platform and Python installation.)  Since the Python include
+directory---\ :file:`/usr/local/include/python1.5` in this case---is always
+included in the search path when building Python extensions, the best approach
+is to write C code like  ::
+
+    #include <Numerical/arrayobject.h>
+
+If you must put the :file:`Numerical` include directory right into your header
+search path, though, you can find that directory using the Distutils
+:mod:`distutils.sysconfig` module::
+
+    from distutils.sysconfig import get_python_inc
+    incdir = os.path.join(get_python_inc(plat_specific=1), 'Numerical')
+    setup(...,
+          Extension(..., include_dirs=[incdir]),
+          )
+
+Even though this is quite portable---it will work on any Python installation,
+regardless of platform---it's probably easier to just write your C code in the
+sensible way.
+
+You can define and undefine pre-processor macros with the ``define_macros`` and
+``undef_macros`` options. ``define_macros`` takes a list of ``(name, value)``
+tuples, where ``name`` is the name of the macro to define (a string) and
+``value`` is its value: either a string or ``None``.  (Defining a macro ``FOO``
+to ``None`` is the equivalent of a bare ``#define FOO`` in your C source: with
+most compilers, this sets ``FOO`` to the string ``1``.)  ``undef_macros`` is
+just a list of macros to undefine.
+
+For example::
+
+    Extension(...,
+              define_macros=[('NDEBUG', '1'),
+                             ('HAVE_STRFTIME', None)],
+              undef_macros=['HAVE_FOO', 'HAVE_BAR'])
+
+is the equivalent of having this at the top of every C source file::
+
+    #define NDEBUG 1
+    #define HAVE_STRFTIME
+    #undef HAVE_FOO
+    #undef HAVE_BAR
+
+
+Library options
+---------------
+
+You can also specify the libraries to link against when building your extension,
+and the directories to search for those libraries.  The ``libraries`` option is
+a list of libraries to link against, ``library_dirs`` is a list of directories
+to search for libraries at  link-time, and ``runtime_library_dirs`` is a list of
+directories to  search for shared (dynamically loaded) libraries at run-time.
+
+For example, if you need to link against libraries known to be in the standard
+library search path on target systems ::
+
+    Extension(...,
+              libraries=['gdbm', 'readline'])
+
+If you need to link with libraries in a non-standard location, you'll have to
+include the location in ``library_dirs``::
+
+    Extension(...,
+              library_dirs=['/usr/X11R6/lib'],
+              libraries=['X11', 'Xt'])
+
+(Again, this sort of non-portable construct should be avoided if you intend to
+distribute your code.)
+
+.. XXX Should mention clib libraries here or somewhere else!
+
+
+Other options
+-------------
+
+There are still some other options which can be used to handle special cases.
+
+The ``optional`` option is a boolean; if it is true,
+a build failure in the extension will not abort the build process, but
+instead simply not install the failing extension.
+
+The ``extra_objects`` option is a list of object files to be passed to the
+linker. These files must not have extensions, as the default extension for the
+compiler is used.
+
+``extra_compile_args`` and ``extra_link_args`` can be used to
+specify additional command line options for the respective compiler and linker
+command lines.
+
+``export_symbols`` is only useful on Windows.  It can contain a list of
+symbols (functions or variables) to be exported. This option is not needed when
+building compiled extensions: Distutils  will automatically add ``initmodule``
+to the list of exported symbols.
+
+The ``depends`` option is a list of files that the extension depends on
+(for example header files). The build command will call the compiler on the
+sources to rebuild extension if any on this files has been modified since the
+previous build.
+
+Relationships between Distributions and Packages
+================================================
+
+A distribution may relate to packages in three specific ways:
+
+#. It can require packages or modules.
+
+#. It can provide packages or modules.
+
+#. It can obsolete packages or modules.
+
+These relationships can be specified using keyword arguments to the
+:func:`distutils.core.setup` function.
+
+Dependencies on other Python modules and packages can be specified by supplying
+the *requires* keyword argument to :func:`setup`. The value must be a list of
+strings.  Each string specifies a package that is required, and optionally what
+versions are sufficient.
+
+To specify that any version of a module or package is required, the string
+should consist entirely of the module or package name. Examples include
+``'mymodule'`` and ``'xml.parsers.expat'``.
+
+If specific versions are required, a sequence of qualifiers can be supplied in
+parentheses.  Each qualifier may consist of a comparison operator and a version
+number.  The accepted comparison operators are::
+
+    <    >    ==
+    <=   >=   !=
+
+These can be combined by using multiple qualifiers separated by commas (and
+optional whitespace).  In this case, all of the qualifiers must be matched; a
+logical AND is used to combine the evaluations.
+
+Let's look at a bunch of examples:
+
++-------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Requires Expression     | Explanation                                  |
++=========================+==============================================+
+| ``==1.0``               | Only version ``1.0`` is compatible           |
++-------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``>1.0, !=1.5.1, <2.0`` | Any version after ``1.0`` and before ``2.0`` |
+|                         | is compatible, except ``1.5.1``              |
++-------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+Now that we can specify dependencies, we also need to be able to specify what we
+provide that other distributions can require.  This is done using the *provides*
+keyword argument to :func:`setup`. The value for this keyword is a list of
+strings, each of which names a Python module or package, and optionally
+identifies the version.  If the version is not specified, it is assumed to match
+that of the distribution.
+
+Some examples:
+
++---------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Provides Expression | Explanation                                  |
++=====================+==============================================+
+| ``mypkg``           | Provide ``mypkg``, using the distribution    |
+|                     | version                                      |
++---------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``mypkg (1.1)``     | Provide ``mypkg`` version 1.1, regardless of |
+|                     | the distribution version                     |
++---------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+A package can declare that it obsoletes other packages using the *obsoletes*
+keyword argument.  The value for this is similar to that of the *requires*
+keyword: a list of strings giving module or package specifiers.  Each specifier
+consists of a module or package name optionally followed by one or more version
+qualifiers.  Version qualifiers are given in parentheses after the module or
+package name.
+
+The versions identified by the qualifiers are those that are obsoleted by the
+distribution being described.  If no qualifiers are given, all versions of the
+named module or package are understood to be obsoleted.
+
+.. _distutils-installing-scripts:
+
+Installing Scripts
+==================
+
+So far we have been dealing with pure and non-pure Python modules, which are
+usually not run by themselves but imported by scripts.
+
+Scripts are files containing Python source code, intended to be started from the
+command line.  Scripts don't require Distutils to do anything very complicated.
+The only clever feature is that if the first line of the script starts with
+``#!`` and contains the word "python", the Distutils will adjust the first line
+to refer to the current interpreter location. By default, it is replaced with
+the current interpreter location.  The :option:`!--executable` (or :option:`!-e`)
+option will allow the interpreter path to be explicitly overridden.
+
+The ``scripts`` option simply is a list of files to be handled in this
+way.  From the PyXML setup script::
+
+    setup(...,
+          scripts=['scripts/xmlproc_parse', 'scripts/xmlproc_val']
+          )
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   All the scripts will also be added to the ``MANIFEST`` file if no template is
+   provided.  See :ref:`manifest`.
+
+
+.. _distutils-installing-package-data:
+
+Installing Package Data
+=======================
+
+Often, additional files need to be installed into a package.  These files are
+often data that's closely related to the package's implementation, or text files
+containing documentation that might be of interest to programmers using the
+package.  These files are called :dfn:`package data`.
+
+Package data can be added to packages using the ``package_data`` keyword
+argument to the :func:`setup` function.  The value must be a mapping from
+package name to a list of relative path names that should be copied into the
+package.  The paths are interpreted as relative to the directory containing the
+package (information from the ``package_dir`` mapping is used if appropriate);
+that is, the files are expected to be part of the package in the source
+directories. They may contain glob patterns as well.
+
+The path names may contain directory portions; any necessary directories will be
+created in the installation.
+
+For example, if a package should contain a subdirectory with several data files,
+the files can be arranged like this in the source tree::
+
+    setup.py
+    src/
+        mypkg/
+            __init__.py
+            module.py
+            data/
+                tables.dat
+                spoons.dat
+                forks.dat
+
+The corresponding call to :func:`setup` might be::
+
+    setup(...,
+          packages=['mypkg'],
+          package_dir={'mypkg': 'src/mypkg'},
+          package_data={'mypkg': ['data/*.dat']},
+          )
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   All the files that match ``package_data`` will be added to the ``MANIFEST``
+   file if no template is provided.  See :ref:`manifest`.
+
+
+.. _distutils-additional-files:
+
+Installing Additional Files
+===========================
+
+The ``data_files`` option can be used to specify additional files needed
+by the module distribution: configuration files, message catalogs, data files,
+anything which doesn't fit in the previous categories.
+
+``data_files`` specifies a sequence of (*directory*, *files*) pairs in the
+following way::
+
+    setup(...,
+          data_files=[('bitmaps', ['bm/b1.gif', 'bm/b2.gif']),
+                      ('config', ['cfg/data.cfg'])],
+         )
+
+Each (*directory*, *files*) pair in the sequence specifies the installation
+directory and the files to install there.
+
+Each file name in *files* is interpreted relative to the :file:`setup.py`
+script at the top of the package source distribution. Note that you can
+specify the directory where the data files will be installed, but you cannot
+rename the data files themselves.
+
+The *directory* should be a relative path. It is interpreted relative to the
+installation prefix (Python's ``sys.prefix`` for system installations;
+``site.USER_BASE`` for user installations). Distutils allows *directory* to be
+an absolute installation path, but this is discouraged since it is
+incompatible with the wheel packaging format. No directory information from
+*files* is used to determine the final location of the installed file; only
+the name of the file is used.
+
+You can specify the ``data_files`` options as a simple sequence of files
+without specifying a target directory, but this is not recommended, and the
+:command:`install` command will print a warning in this case. To install data
+files directly in the target directory, an empty string should be given as the
+directory.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   All the files that match ``data_files`` will be added to the ``MANIFEST``
+   file if no template is provided.  See :ref:`manifest`.
+
+
+.. _meta-data:
+
+Additional meta-data
+====================
+
+The setup script may include additional meta-data beyond the name and version.
+This information includes:
+
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| Meta-Data            | Description               | Value           | Notes  |
++======================+===========================+=================+========+
+| ``name``             | name of the package       | short string    | \(1)   |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``version``          | version of this release   | short string    | (1)(2) |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``author``           | package author's name     | short string    | \(3)   |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``author_email``     | email address of the      | email address   | \(3)   |
+|                      | package author            |                 |        |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``maintainer``       | package maintainer's name | short string    | \(3)   |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``maintainer_email`` | email address of the      | email address   | \(3)   |
+|                      | package maintainer        |                 |        |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``url``              | home page for the package | URL             | \(1)   |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``description``      | short, summary            | short string    |        |
+|                      | description of the        |                 |        |
+|                      | package                   |                 |        |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``long_description`` | longer description of the | long string     | \(4)   |
+|                      | package                   |                 |        |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``download_url``     | location where the        | URL             |        |
+|                      | package may be downloaded |                 |        |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``classifiers``      | a list of classifiers     | list of strings | (6)(7) |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``platforms``        | a list of platforms       | list of strings | (6)(8) |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``keywords``         | a list of keywords        | list of strings | (6)(8) |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+| ``license``          | license for the package   | short string    | \(5)   |
++----------------------+---------------------------+-----------------+--------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+    These fields are required.
+
+(2)
+    It is recommended that versions take the form *major.minor[.patch[.sub]]*.
+
+(3)
+    Either the author or the maintainer must be identified. If maintainer is
+    provided, distutils lists it as the author in :file:`PKG-INFO`.
+
+(4)
+    The ``long_description`` field is used by PyPI when you publish a package,
+    to build its project page.
+
+(5)
+    The ``license`` field is a text indicating the license covering the
+    package where the license is not a selection from the "License" Trove
+    classifiers. See the ``Classifier`` field. Notice that
+    there's a ``licence`` distribution option which is deprecated but still
+    acts as an alias for ``license``.
+
+(6)
+    This field must be a list.
+
+(7)
+    The valid classifiers are listed on
+    `PyPI <https://pypi.org/classifiers>`_.
+
+(8)
+    To preserve backward compatibility, this field also accepts a string. If
+    you pass a comma-separated string ``'foo, bar'``, it will be converted to
+    ``['foo', 'bar']``, Otherwise, it will be converted to a list of one
+    string.
+
+'short string'
+    A single line of text, not more than 200 characters.
+
+'long string'
+    Multiple lines of plain text in reStructuredText format (see
+    http://docutils.sourceforge.net/).
+
+'list of strings'
+    See below.
+
+Encoding the version information is an art in itself. Python packages generally
+adhere to the version format *major.minor[.patch][sub]*. The major number is 0
+for initial, experimental releases of software. It is incremented for releases
+that represent major milestones in a package. The minor number is incremented
+when important new features are added to the package. The patch number
+increments when bug-fix releases are made. Additional trailing version
+information is sometimes used to indicate sub-releases.  These are
+"a1,a2,...,aN" (for alpha releases, where functionality and API may change),
+"b1,b2,...,bN" (for beta releases, which only fix bugs) and "pr1,pr2,...,prN"
+(for final pre-release release testing). Some examples:
+
+0.1.0
+    the first, experimental release of a package
+
+1.0.1a2
+    the second alpha release of the first patch version of 1.0
+
+``classifiers`` must be specified in a list::
+
+    setup(...,
+          classifiers=[
+              'Development Status :: 4 - Beta',
+              'Environment :: Console',
+              'Environment :: Web Environment',
+              'Intended Audience :: End Users/Desktop',
+              'Intended Audience :: Developers',
+              'Intended Audience :: System Administrators',
+              'License :: OSI Approved :: Python Software Foundation License',
+              'Operating System :: MacOS :: MacOS X',
+              'Operating System :: Microsoft :: Windows',
+              'Operating System :: POSIX',
+              'Programming Language :: Python',
+              'Topic :: Communications :: Email',
+              'Topic :: Office/Business',
+              'Topic :: Software Development :: Bug Tracking',
+              ],
+          )
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   :class:`~distutils.core.setup` now warns when ``classifiers``, ``keywords``
+   or ``platforms`` fields are not specified as a list or a string.
+
+.. _debug-setup-script:
+
+Debugging the setup script
+==========================
+
+Sometimes things go wrong, and the setup script doesn't do what the developer
+wants.
+
+Distutils catches any exceptions when running the setup script, and print a
+simple error message before the script is terminated.  The motivation for this
+behaviour is to not confuse administrators who don't know much about Python and
+are trying to install a package.  If they get a big long traceback from deep
+inside the guts of Distutils, they may think the package or the Python
+installation is broken because they don't read all the way down to the bottom
+and see that it's a permission problem.
+
+On the other hand, this doesn't help the developer to find the cause of the
+failure. For this purpose, the :envvar:`DISTUTILS_DEBUG` environment variable can be set
+to anything except an empty string, and distutils will now print detailed
+information about what it is doing, dump the full traceback when an exception
+occurs, and print the whole command line when an external program (like a C
+compiler) fails.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/sourcedist.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/sourcedist.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ac8ef4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/sourcedist.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,240 @@
+.. _source-dist:
+
+******************************
+Creating a Source Distribution
+******************************
+
+As shown in section :ref:`distutils-simple-example`, you use the :command:`sdist` command
+to create a source distribution.  In the simplest case, ::
+
+   python setup.py sdist
+
+(assuming you haven't specified any :command:`sdist` options in the setup script
+or config file), :command:`sdist` creates the archive of the default format for
+the current platform.  The default format is a gzip'ed tar file
+(:file:`.tar.gz`) on Unix, and ZIP file on Windows.
+
+You can specify as many formats as you like using the :option:`!--formats`
+option, for example::
+
+   python setup.py sdist --formats=gztar,zip
+
+to create a gzipped tarball and a zip file.  The available formats are:
+
++-----------+-------------------------+---------+
+| Format    | Description             | Notes   |
++===========+=========================+=========+
+| ``zip``   | zip file (:file:`.zip`) | (1),(3) |
++-----------+-------------------------+---------+
+| ``gztar`` | gzip'ed tar file        | \(2)    |
+|           | (:file:`.tar.gz`)       |         |
++-----------+-------------------------+---------+
+| ``bztar`` | bzip2'ed tar file       |         |
+|           | (:file:`.tar.bz2`)      |         |
++-----------+-------------------------+---------+
+| ``xztar`` | xz'ed tar file          |         |
+|           | (:file:`.tar.xz`)       |         |
++-----------+-------------------------+---------+
+| ``ztar``  | compressed tar file     | \(4)    |
+|           | (:file:`.tar.Z`)        |         |
++-----------+-------------------------+---------+
+| ``tar``   | tar file (:file:`.tar`) |         |
++-----------+-------------------------+---------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Added support for the ``xztar`` format.
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   default on Windows
+
+(2)
+   default on Unix
+
+(3)
+   requires either external :program:`zip` utility or :mod:`zipfile` module (part
+   of the standard Python library since Python 1.6)
+
+(4)
+   requires the :program:`compress` program. Notice that this format is now
+   pending for deprecation and will be removed in the future versions of Python.
+
+When using any ``tar`` format (``gztar``, ``bztar``, ``xztar``, ``ztar`` or
+``tar``), under Unix you can specify the ``owner`` and ``group`` names
+that will be set for each member of the archive.
+
+For example, if you want all files of the archive to be owned by root::
+
+    python setup.py sdist --owner=root --group=root
+
+
+.. _manifest:
+
+Specifying the files to distribute
+==================================
+
+If you don't supply an explicit list of files (or instructions on how to
+generate one), the :command:`sdist` command puts a minimal default set into the
+source distribution:
+
+* all Python source files implied by the ``py_modules`` and
+  ``packages`` options
+
+* all C source files mentioned in the ``ext_modules`` or
+  ``libraries`` options
+
+  .. XXX getting C library sources currently broken---no
+         :meth:`get_source_files` method in :file:`build_clib.py`!
+
+* scripts identified by the ``scripts`` option
+  See :ref:`distutils-installing-scripts`.
+
+* anything that looks like a test script: :file:`test/test\*.py` (currently, the
+  Distutils don't do anything with test scripts except include them in source
+  distributions, but in the future there will be a standard for testing Python
+  module distributions)
+
+* Any of the standard README files (:file:`README`, :file:`README.txt`,
+  or :file:`README.rst`), :file:`setup.py` (or whatever you called your setup
+  script), and :file:`setup.cfg`.
+
+* all files that matches the ``package_data`` metadata.
+  See :ref:`distutils-installing-package-data`.
+
+* all files that matches the ``data_files`` metadata.
+  See :ref:`distutils-additional-files`.
+
+Sometimes this is enough, but usually you will want to specify additional files
+to distribute.  The typical way to do this is to write a *manifest template*,
+called :file:`MANIFEST.in` by default.  The manifest template is just a list of
+instructions for how to generate your manifest file, :file:`MANIFEST`, which is
+the exact list of files to include in your source distribution.  The
+:command:`sdist` command processes this template and generates a manifest based
+on its instructions and what it finds in the filesystem.
+
+If you prefer to roll your own manifest file, the format is simple: one filename
+per line, regular files (or symlinks to them) only.  If you do supply your own
+:file:`MANIFEST`, you must specify everything: the default set of files
+described above does not apply in this case.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   An existing generated :file:`MANIFEST` will be regenerated without
+   :command:`sdist` comparing its modification time to the one of
+   :file:`MANIFEST.in` or :file:`setup.py`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1.3
+   :file:`MANIFEST` files start with a comment indicating they are generated.
+   Files without this comment are not overwritten or removed.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2.2
+   :command:`sdist` will read a :file:`MANIFEST` file if no :file:`MANIFEST.in`
+   exists, like it used to do.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   :file:`README.rst` is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs.
+
+
+The manifest template has one command per line, where each command specifies a
+set of files to include or exclude from the source distribution.  For an
+example, again we turn to the Distutils' own manifest template:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   include *.txt
+   recursive-include examples *.txt *.py
+   prune examples/sample?/build
+
+The meanings should be fairly clear: include all files in the distribution root
+matching :file:`\*.txt`, all files anywhere under the :file:`examples` directory
+matching :file:`\*.txt` or :file:`\*.py`, and exclude all directories matching
+:file:`examples/sample?/build`.  All of this is done *after* the standard
+include set, so you can exclude files from the standard set with explicit
+instructions in the manifest template.  (Or, you can use the
+:option:`!--no-defaults` option to disable the standard set entirely.)  There are
+several other commands available in the manifest template mini-language; see
+section :ref:`sdist-cmd`.
+
+The order of commands in the manifest template matters: initially, we have the
+list of default files as described above, and each command in the template adds
+to or removes from that list of files.  Once we have fully processed the
+manifest template, we remove files that should not be included in the source
+distribution:
+
+* all files in the Distutils "build" tree (default :file:`build/`)
+
+* all files in directories named :file:`RCS`, :file:`CVS`, :file:`.svn`,
+  :file:`.hg`, :file:`.git`, :file:`.bzr` or :file:`_darcs`
+
+Now we have our complete list of files, which is written to the manifest for
+future reference, and then used to build the source distribution archive(s).
+
+You can disable the default set of included files with the
+:option:`!--no-defaults` option, and you can disable the standard exclude set
+with :option:`!--no-prune`.
+
+Following the Distutils' own manifest template, let's trace how the
+:command:`sdist` command builds the list of files to include in the Distutils
+source distribution:
+
+#. include all Python source files in the :file:`distutils` and
+   :file:`distutils/command` subdirectories (because packages corresponding to
+   those two directories were mentioned in the ``packages`` option in the
+   setup script---see section :ref:`setup-script`)
+
+#. include :file:`README.txt`, :file:`setup.py`, and :file:`setup.cfg` (standard
+   files)
+
+#. include :file:`test/test\*.py` (standard files)
+
+#. include :file:`\*.txt` in the distribution root (this will find
+   :file:`README.txt` a second time, but such redundancies are weeded out later)
+
+#. include anything matching :file:`\*.txt` or :file:`\*.py` in the sub-tree
+   under :file:`examples`,
+
+#. exclude all files in the sub-trees starting at directories matching
+   :file:`examples/sample?/build`\ ---this may exclude files included by the
+   previous two steps, so it's important that the ``prune`` command in the manifest
+   template comes after the ``recursive-include`` command
+
+#. exclude the entire :file:`build` tree, and any :file:`RCS`, :file:`CVS`,
+   :file:`.svn`, :file:`.hg`, :file:`.git`, :file:`.bzr` and :file:`_darcs`
+   directories
+
+Just like in the setup script, file and directory names in the manifest template
+should always be slash-separated; the Distutils will take care of converting
+them to the standard representation on your platform. That way, the manifest
+template is portable across operating systems.
+
+
+.. _manifest-options:
+
+Manifest-related options
+========================
+
+The normal course of operations for the :command:`sdist` command is as follows:
+
+* if the manifest file (:file:`MANIFEST` by default) exists and the first line
+  does not have a comment indicating it is generated from :file:`MANIFEST.in`,
+  then it is used as is, unaltered
+
+* if the manifest file doesn't exist or has been previously automatically
+  generated, read :file:`MANIFEST.in` and create the manifest
+
+* if neither :file:`MANIFEST` nor :file:`MANIFEST.in` exist, create a manifest
+  with just the default file set
+
+* use the list of files now in :file:`MANIFEST` (either just generated or read
+  in) to create the source distribution archive(s)
+
+There are a couple of options that modify this behaviour.  First, use the
+:option:`!--no-defaults` and :option:`!--no-prune` to disable the standard
+"include" and "exclude" sets.
+
+Second, you might just want to (re)generate the manifest, but not create a source
+distribution::
+
+   python setup.py sdist --manifest-only
+
+:option:`!-o` is a shortcut for :option:`!--manifest-only`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/uploading.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/uploading.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c391ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/distutils/uploading.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+:orphan:
+
+***************************************
+Uploading Packages to the Package Index
+***************************************
+
+References to up to date PyPI documentation can be found at
+:ref:`publishing-python-packages`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/building.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/building.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fe12c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/building.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _building:
+
+*****************************
+Building C and C++ Extensions
+*****************************
+
+A C extension for CPython is a shared library (e.g. a ``.so`` file on Linux,
+``.pyd`` on Windows), which exports an *initialization function*.
+
+To be importable, the shared library must be available on :envvar:`PYTHONPATH`,
+and must be named after the module name, with an appropriate extension.
+When using distutils, the correct filename is generated automatically.
+
+The initialization function has the signature:
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyInit_modulename(void)
+
+It returns either a fully-initialized module, or a :c:type:`PyModuleDef`
+instance. See :ref:`initializing-modules` for details.
+
+.. highlightlang:: python
+
+For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must be named
+``PyInit_<modulename>``, with ``<modulename>`` replaced by the name of the
+module. When using :ref:`multi-phase-initialization`, non-ASCII module names
+are allowed. In this case, the initialization function name is
+``PyInitU_<modulename>``, with ``<modulename>`` encoded using Python's
+*punycode* encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores. In Python::
+
+    def initfunc_name(name):
+        try:
+            suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii')
+        except UnicodeEncodeError:
+            suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_')
+        return b'PyInit' + suffix
+
+It is possible to export multiple modules from a single shared library by
+defining multiple initialization functions. However, importing them requires
+using symbolic links or a custom importer, because by default only the
+function corresponding to the filename is found.
+See the *"Multiple modules in one library"* section in :pep:`489` for details.
+
+
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils
+============================================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+Extension modules can be built using distutils,  which is included in Python.
+Since distutils also supports creation of binary packages, users don't
+necessarily need a compiler and distutils to install the extension.
+
+A distutils package contains a driver script, :file:`setup.py`. This is a plain
+Python file, which, in the most simple case, could look like this:
+
+.. code-block:: python3
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+
+   module1 = Extension('demo',
+                       sources = ['demo.c'])
+
+   setup (name = 'PackageName',
+          version = '1.0',
+          description = 'This is a demo package',
+          ext_modules = [module1])
+
+
+With this :file:`setup.py`, and a file :file:`demo.c`, running ::
+
+   python setup.py build
+
+will compile :file:`demo.c`, and produce an extension module named ``demo`` in
+the :file:`build` directory. Depending on the system, the module file will end
+up in a subdirectory :file:`build/lib.system`, and may have a name like
+:file:`demo.so` or :file:`demo.pyd`.
+
+In the :file:`setup.py`, all execution is performed by calling the ``setup``
+function. This takes a variable number of keyword arguments, of which the
+example above uses only a subset. Specifically, the example specifies
+meta-information to build packages, and it specifies the contents of the
+package.  Normally, a package will contain additional modules, like Python
+source modules, documentation, subpackages, etc. Please refer to the distutils
+documentation in :ref:`distutils-index` to learn more about the features of
+distutils; this section explains building extension modules only.
+
+It is common to pre-compute arguments to :func:`setup`, to better structure the
+driver script. In the example above, the ``ext_modules`` argument to
+:func:`~distutils.core.setup` is a list of extension modules, each of which is
+an instance of
+the :class:`~distutils.extension.Extension`. In the example, the instance
+defines an extension named ``demo`` which is build by compiling a single source
+file, :file:`demo.c`.
+
+In many cases, building an extension is more complex, since additional
+preprocessor defines and libraries may be needed. This is demonstrated in the
+example below.
+
+.. code-block:: python3
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+
+   module1 = Extension('demo',
+                       define_macros = [('MAJOR_VERSION', '1'),
+                                        ('MINOR_VERSION', '0')],
+                       include_dirs = ['/usr/local/include'],
+                       libraries = ['tcl83'],
+                       library_dirs = ['/usr/local/lib'],
+                       sources = ['demo.c'])
+
+   setup (name = 'PackageName',
+          version = '1.0',
+          description = 'This is a demo package',
+          author = 'Martin v. Loewis',
+          author_email = 'martin@v.loewis.de',
+          url = 'https://docs.python.org/extending/building',
+          long_description = '''
+   This is really just a demo package.
+   ''',
+          ext_modules = [module1])
+
+
+In this example, :func:`~distutils.core.setup` is called with additional
+meta-information, which
+is recommended when distribution packages have to be built. For the extension
+itself, it specifies preprocessor defines, include directories, library
+directories, and libraries. Depending on the compiler, distutils passes this
+information in different ways to the compiler. For example, on Unix, this may
+result in the compilation commands ::
+
+   gcc -DNDEBUG -g -O3 -Wall -Wstrict-prototypes -fPIC -DMAJOR_VERSION=1 -DMINOR_VERSION=0 -I/usr/local/include -I/usr/local/include/python2.2 -c demo.c -o build/temp.linux-i686-2.2/demo.o
+
+   gcc -shared build/temp.linux-i686-2.2/demo.o -L/usr/local/lib -ltcl83 -o build/lib.linux-i686-2.2/demo.so
+
+These lines are for demonstration purposes only; distutils users should trust
+that distutils gets the invocations right.
+
+
+.. _distributing:
+
+Distributing your extension modules
+===================================
+
+When an extension has been successfully build, there are three ways to use it.
+
+End-users will typically want to install the module, they do so by running ::
+
+   python setup.py install
+
+Module maintainers should produce source packages; to do so, they run ::
+
+   python setup.py sdist
+
+In some cases, additional files need to be included in a source distribution;
+this is done through a :file:`MANIFEST.in` file; see :ref:`manifest` for details.
+
+If the source distribution has been build successfully, maintainers can also
+create binary distributions. Depending on the platform, one of the following
+commands can be used to do so. ::
+
+   python setup.py bdist_wininst
+   python setup.py bdist_rpm
+   python setup.py bdist_dumb
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/embedding.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/embedding.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13d83b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/embedding.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,336 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _embedding:
+
+***************************************
+Embedding Python in Another Application
+***************************************
+
+The previous chapters discussed how to extend Python, that is, how to extend the
+functionality of Python by attaching a library of C functions to it.  It is also
+possible to do it the other way around: enrich your C/C++ application by
+embedding Python in it.  Embedding provides your application with the ability to
+implement some of the functionality of your application in Python rather than C
+or C++. This can be used for many purposes; one example would be to allow users
+to tailor the application to their needs by writing some scripts in Python.  You
+can also use it yourself if some of the functionality can be written in Python
+more easily.
+
+Embedding Python is similar to extending it, but not quite.  The difference is
+that when you extend Python, the main program of the application is still the
+Python interpreter, while if you embed Python, the main program may have nothing
+to do with Python --- instead, some parts of the application occasionally call
+the Python interpreter to run some Python code.
+
+So if you are embedding Python, you are providing your own main program.  One of
+the things this main program has to do is initialize the Python interpreter.  At
+the very least, you have to call the function :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.  There are
+optional calls to pass command line arguments to Python.  Then later you can
+call the interpreter from any part of the application.
+
+There are several different ways to call the interpreter: you can pass a string
+containing Python statements to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleString`, or you can pass a
+stdio file pointer and a file name (for identification in error messages only)
+to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleFile`.  You can also call the lower-level operations
+described in the previous chapters to construct and use Python objects.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`c-api-index`
+      The details of Python's C interface are given in this manual. A great deal of
+      necessary information can be found here.
+
+
+.. _high-level-embedding:
+
+Very High Level Embedding
+=========================
+
+The simplest form of embedding Python is the use of the very high level
+interface. This interface is intended to execute a Python script without needing
+to interact with the application directly. This can for example be used to
+perform some operation on a file. ::
+
+   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+   int
+   main(int argc, char *argv[])
+   {
+       wchar_t *program = Py_DecodeLocale(argv[0], NULL);
+       if (program == NULL) {
+           fprintf(stderr, "Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]\n");
+           exit(1);
+       }
+       Py_SetProgramName(program);  /* optional but recommended */
+       Py_Initialize();
+       PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
+                          "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n");
+       if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
+           exit(120);
+       }
+       PyMem_RawFree(program);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+The :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName` function should be called before
+:c:func:`Py_Initialize` to inform the interpreter about paths to Python run-time
+libraries.  Next, the Python interpreter is initialized with
+:c:func:`Py_Initialize`, followed by the execution of a hard-coded Python script
+that prints the date and time.  Afterwards, the :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` call shuts
+the interpreter down, followed by the end of the program.  In a real program,
+you may want to get the Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor
+routine, a file, or a database.  Getting the Python code from a file can better
+be done by using the :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleFile` function, which saves you the
+trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file contents.
+
+
+.. _lower-level-embedding:
+
+Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview
+=============================================
+
+The high level interface gives you the ability to execute arbitrary pieces of
+Python code from your application, but exchanging data values is quite
+cumbersome to say the least. If you want that, you should use lower level calls.
+At the cost of having to write more C code, you can achieve almost anything.
+
+It should be noted that extending Python and embedding Python is quite the same
+activity, despite the different intent. Most topics discussed in the previous
+chapters are still valid. To show this, consider what the extension code from
+Python to C really does:
+
+#. Convert data values from Python to C,
+
+#. Perform a function call to a C routine using the converted values, and
+
+#. Convert the data values from the call from C to Python.
+
+When embedding Python, the interface code does:
+
+#. Convert data values from C to Python,
+
+#. Perform a function call to a Python interface routine using the converted
+   values, and
+
+#. Convert the data values from the call from Python to C.
+
+As you can see, the data conversion steps are simply swapped to accommodate the
+different direction of the cross-language transfer. The only difference is the
+routine that you call between both data conversions. When extending, you call a
+C routine, when embedding, you call a Python routine.
+
+This chapter will not discuss how to convert data from Python to C and vice
+versa.  Also, proper use of references and dealing with errors is assumed to be
+understood.  Since these aspects do not differ from extending the interpreter,
+you can refer to earlier chapters for the required information.
+
+
+.. _pure-embedding:
+
+Pure Embedding
+==============
+
+The first program aims to execute a function in a Python script. Like in the
+section about the very high level interface, the Python interpreter does not
+directly interact with the application (but that will change in the next
+section).
+
+The code to run a function defined in a Python script is:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/run-func.c
+
+
+This code loads a Python script using ``argv[1]``, and calls the function named
+in ``argv[2]``.  Its integer arguments are the other values of the ``argv``
+array.  If you :ref:`compile and link <compiling>` this program (let's call
+the finished executable :program:`call`), and use it to execute a Python
+script, such as:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+   def multiply(a,b):
+       print("Will compute", a, "times", b)
+       c = 0
+       for i in range(0, a):
+           c = c + b
+       return c
+
+then the result should be:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ call multiply multiply 3 2
+   Will compute 3 times 2
+   Result of call: 6
+
+Although the program is quite large for its functionality, most of the code is
+for data conversion between Python and C, and for error reporting.  The
+interesting part with respect to embedding Python starts with ::
+
+   Py_Initialize();
+   pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
+   /* Error checking of pName left out */
+   pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
+
+After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using
+:c:func:`PyImport_Import`.  This routine needs a Python string as its argument,
+which is constructed using the :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` data conversion
+routine. ::
+
+   pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
+   /* pFunc is a new reference */
+
+   if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
+       ...
+   }
+   Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
+
+Once the script is loaded, the name we're looking for is retrieved using
+:c:func:`PyObject_GetAttrString`.  If the name exists, and the object returned is
+callable, you can safely assume that it is a function.  The program then
+proceeds by constructing a tuple of arguments as normal.  The call to the Python
+function is then made with::
+
+   pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
+
+Upon return of the function, ``pValue`` is either *NULL* or it contains a
+reference to the return value of the function.  Be sure to release the reference
+after examining the value.
+
+
+.. _extending-with-embedding:
+
+Extending Embedded Python
+=========================
+
+Until now, the embedded Python interpreter had no access to functionality from
+the application itself.  The Python API allows this by extending the embedded
+interpreter.  That is, the embedded interpreter gets extended with routines
+provided by the application. While it sounds complex, it is not so bad.  Simply
+forget for a while that the application starts the Python interpreter.  Instead,
+consider the application to be a set of subroutines, and write some glue code
+that gives Python access to those routines, just like you would write a normal
+Python extension.  For example::
+
+   static int numargs=0;
+
+   /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
+   static PyObject*
+   emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
+           return NULL;
+       return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
+   }
+
+   static PyMethodDef EmbMethods[] = {
+       {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
+        "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
+       {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
+   };
+
+   static PyModuleDef EmbModule = {
+       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, "emb", NULL, -1, EmbMethods,
+       NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL
+   };
+
+   static PyObject*
+   PyInit_emb(void)
+   {
+       return PyModule_Create(&EmbModule);
+   }
+
+Insert the above code just above the :c:func:`main` function. Also, insert the
+following two statements before the call to :c:func:`Py_Initialize`::
+
+   numargs = argc;
+   PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb);
+
+These two lines initialize the ``numargs`` variable, and make the
+:func:`emb.numargs` function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter.
+With these extensions, the Python script can do things like
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+   import emb
+   print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs())
+
+In a real application, the methods will expose an API of the application to
+Python.
+
+.. TODO: threads, code examples do not really behave well if errors happen
+   (what to watch out for)
+
+
+.. _embeddingincplusplus:
+
+Embedding Python in C++
+=======================
+
+It is also possible to embed Python in a C++ program; precisely how this is done
+will depend on the details of the C++ system used; in general you will need to
+write the main program in C++, and use the C++ compiler to compile and link your
+program.  There is no need to recompile Python itself using C++.
+
+
+.. _compiling:
+
+Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems
+=============================================
+
+It is not necessarily trivial to find the right flags to pass to your
+compiler (and linker) in order to embed the Python interpreter into your
+application, particularly because Python needs to load library modules
+implemented as C dynamic extensions (:file:`.so` files) linked against
+it.
+
+To find out the required compiler and linker flags, you can execute the
+:file:`python{X.Y}-config` script which is generated as part of the
+installation process (a :file:`python3-config` script may also be
+available).  This script has several options, of which the following will
+be directly useful to you:
+
+* ``pythonX.Y-config --cflags`` will give you the recommended flags when
+  compiling:
+
+  .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+     $ /opt/bin/python3.4-config --cflags
+     -I/opt/include/python3.4m -I/opt/include/python3.4m -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall -Wstrict-prototypes
+
+* ``pythonX.Y-config --ldflags`` will give you the recommended flags when
+  linking:
+
+  .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+     $ /opt/bin/python3.4-config --ldflags
+     -L/opt/lib/python3.4/config-3.4m -lpthread -ldl -lutil -lm -lpython3.4m -Xlinker -export-dynamic
+
+.. note::
+   To avoid confusion between several Python installations (and especially
+   between the system Python and your own compiled Python), it is recommended
+   that you use the absolute path to :file:`python{X.Y}-config`, as in the above
+   example.
+
+If this procedure doesn't work for you (it is not guaranteed to work for
+all Unix-like platforms; however, we welcome :ref:`bug reports <reporting-bugs>`)
+you will have to read your system's documentation about dynamic linking and/or
+examine Python's :file:`Makefile` (use :func:`sysconfig.get_makefile_filename`
+to find its location) and compilation
+options.  In this case, the :mod:`sysconfig` module is a useful tool to
+programmatically extract the configuration values that you will want to
+combine together.  For example:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> import sysconfig
+   >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS')
+   '-lpthread -ldl  -lutil'
+   >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
+   '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'
+
+
+.. XXX similar documentation for Windows missing
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/extending.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/extending.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..afed3aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/extending.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1365 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _extending-intro:
+
+******************************
+Extending Python with C or C++
+******************************
+
+It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know how to
+program in C.  Such :dfn:`extension modules` can do two things that can't be
+done directly in Python: they can implement new built-in object types, and they
+can call C library functions and system calls.
+
+To support extensions, the Python API (Application Programmers Interface)
+defines a set of functions, macros and variables that provide access to most
+aspects of the Python run-time system.  The Python API is incorporated in a C
+source file by including the header ``"Python.h"``.
+
+The compilation of an extension module depends on its intended use as well as on
+your system setup; details are given in later chapters.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The C extension interface is specific to CPython, and extension modules do
+   not work on other Python implementations.  In many cases, it is possible to
+   avoid writing C extensions and preserve portability to other implementations.
+   For example, if your use case is calling C library functions or system calls,
+   you should consider using the :mod:`ctypes` module or the `cffi
+   <https://cffi.readthedocs.io/>`_ library rather than writing
+   custom C code.
+   These modules let you write Python code to interface with C code and are more
+   portable between implementations of Python than writing and compiling a C
+   extension module.
+
+
+.. _extending-simpleexample:
+
+A Simple Example
+================
+
+Let's create an extension module called ``spam`` (the favorite food of Monty
+Python fans...) and let's say we want to create a Python interface to the C
+library function :c:func:`system` [#]_. This function takes a null-terminated
+character string as argument and returns an integer.  We want this function to
+be callable from Python as follows:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> import spam
+   >>> status = spam.system("ls -l")
+
+Begin by creating a file :file:`spammodule.c`.  (Historically, if a module is
+called ``spam``, the C file containing its implementation is called
+:file:`spammodule.c`; if the module name is very long, like ``spammify``, the
+module name can be just :file:`spammify.c`.)
+
+The first two lines of our file can be::
+
+   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+which pulls in the Python API (you can add a comment describing the purpose of
+the module and a copyright notice if you like).
+
+.. note::
+
+   Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard
+   headers on some systems, you *must* include :file:`Python.h` before any standard
+   headers are included.
+
+   It is recommended to always define ``PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN`` before including
+   ``Python.h``.  See :ref:`parsetuple` for a description of this macro.
+
+All user-visible symbols defined by :file:`Python.h` have a prefix of ``Py`` or
+``PY``, except those defined in standard header files. For convenience, and
+since they are used extensively by the Python interpreter, ``"Python.h"``
+includes a few standard header files: ``<stdio.h>``, ``<string.h>``,
+``<errno.h>``, and ``<stdlib.h>``.  If the latter header file does not exist on
+your system, it declares the functions :c:func:`malloc`, :c:func:`free` and
+:c:func:`realloc` directly.
+
+The next thing we add to our module file is the C function that will be called
+when the Python expression ``spam.system(string)`` is evaluated (we'll see
+shortly how it ends up being called)::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       const char *command;
+       int sts;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
+           return NULL;
+       sts = system(command);
+       return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
+   }
+
+There is a straightforward translation from the argument list in Python (for
+example, the single expression ``"ls -l"``) to the arguments passed to the C
+function.  The C function always has two arguments, conventionally named *self*
+and *args*.
+
+The *self* argument points to the module object for module-level functions;
+for a method it would point to the object instance.
+
+The *args* argument will be a pointer to a Python tuple object containing the
+arguments.  Each item of the tuple corresponds to an argument in the call's
+argument list.  The arguments are Python objects --- in order to do anything
+with them in our C function we have to convert them to C values.  The function
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` in the Python API checks the argument types and
+converts them to C values.  It uses a template string to determine the required
+types of the arguments as well as the types of the C variables into which to
+store the converted values.  More about this later.
+
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` returns true (nonzero) if all arguments have the right
+type and its components have been stored in the variables whose addresses are
+passed.  It returns false (zero) if an invalid argument list was passed.  In the
+latter case it also raises an appropriate exception so the calling function can
+return *NULL* immediately (as we saw in the example).
+
+
+.. _extending-errors:
+
+Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
+=================================
+
+An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the following: when
+a function fails, it should set an exception condition and return an error value
+(usually a *NULL* pointer).  Exceptions are stored in a static global variable
+inside the interpreter; if this variable is *NULL* no exception has occurred.  A
+second global variable stores the "associated value" of the exception (the
+second argument to :keyword:`raise`).  A third variable contains the stack
+traceback in case the error originated in Python code.  These three variables
+are the C equivalents of the result in Python of :meth:`sys.exc_info` (see the
+section on module :mod:`sys` in the Python Library Reference).  It is important
+to know about them to understand how errors are passed around.
+
+The Python API defines a number of functions to set various types of exceptions.
+
+The most common one is :c:func:`PyErr_SetString`.  Its arguments are an exception
+object and a C string.  The exception object is usually a predefined object like
+:c:data:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError`.  The C string indicates the cause of the error
+and is converted to a Python string object and stored as the "associated value"
+of the exception.
+
+Another useful function is :c:func:`PyErr_SetFromErrno`, which only takes an
+exception argument and constructs the associated value by inspection of the
+global variable :c:data:`errno`.  The most general function is
+:c:func:`PyErr_SetObject`, which takes two object arguments, the exception and
+its associated value.  You don't need to :c:func:`Py_INCREF` the objects passed
+to any of these functions.
+
+You can test non-destructively whether an exception has been set with
+:c:func:`PyErr_Occurred`.  This returns the current exception object, or *NULL*
+if no exception has occurred.  You normally don't need to call
+:c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to see whether an error occurred in a function call,
+since you should be able to tell from the return value.
+
+When a function *f* that calls another function *g* detects that the latter
+fails, *f* should itself return an error value (usually *NULL* or ``-1``).  It
+should *not* call one of the :c:func:`PyErr_\*` functions --- one has already
+been called by *g*. *f*'s caller is then supposed to also return an error
+indication to *its* caller, again *without* calling :c:func:`PyErr_\*`, and so on
+--- the most detailed cause of the error was already reported by the function
+that first detected it.  Once the error reaches the Python interpreter's main
+loop, this aborts the currently executing Python code and tries to find an
+exception handler specified by the Python programmer.
+
+(There are situations where a module can actually give a more detailed error
+message by calling another :c:func:`PyErr_\*` function, and in such cases it is
+fine to do so.  As a general rule, however, this is not necessary, and can cause
+information about the cause of the error to be lost: most operations can fail
+for a variety of reasons.)
+
+To ignore an exception set by a function call that failed, the exception
+condition must be cleared explicitly by calling :c:func:`PyErr_Clear`.  The only
+time C code should call :c:func:`PyErr_Clear` is if it doesn't want to pass the
+error on to the interpreter but wants to handle it completely by itself
+(possibly by trying something else, or pretending nothing went wrong).
+
+Every failing :c:func:`malloc` call must be turned into an exception --- the
+direct caller of :c:func:`malloc` (or :c:func:`realloc`) must call
+:c:func:`PyErr_NoMemory` and return a failure indicator itself.  All the
+object-creating functions (for example, :c:func:`PyLong_FromLong`) already do
+this, so this note is only relevant to those who call :c:func:`malloc` directly.
+
+Also note that, with the important exception of :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` and
+friends, functions that return an integer status usually return a positive value
+or zero for success and ``-1`` for failure, like Unix system calls.
+
+Finally, be careful to clean up garbage (by making :c:func:`Py_XDECREF` or
+:c:func:`Py_DECREF` calls for objects you have already created) when you return
+an error indicator!
+
+The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours.  There are predeclared
+C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions, such as
+:c:data:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError`, which you can use directly. Of course, you
+should choose exceptions wisely --- don't use :c:data:`PyExc_TypeError` to mean
+that a file couldn't be opened (that should probably be :c:data:`PyExc_IOError`).
+If something's wrong with the argument list, the :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`
+function usually raises :c:data:`PyExc_TypeError`.  If you have an argument whose
+value must be in a particular range or must satisfy other conditions,
+:c:data:`PyExc_ValueError` is appropriate.
+
+You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module. For this, you
+usually declare a static object variable at the beginning of your file::
+
+   static PyObject *SpamError;
+
+and initialize it in your module's initialization function (:c:func:`PyInit_spam`)
+with an exception object (leaving out the error checking for now)::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   PyInit_spam(void)
+   {
+       PyObject *m;
+
+       m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
+       if (m == NULL)
+           return NULL;
+
+       SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
+       Py_INCREF(SpamError);
+       PyModule_AddObject(m, "error", SpamError);
+       return m;
+   }
+
+Note that the Python name for the exception object is :exc:`spam.error`.  The
+:c:func:`PyErr_NewException` function may create a class with the base class
+being :exc:`Exception` (unless another class is passed in instead of *NULL*),
+described in :ref:`bltin-exceptions`.
+
+Note also that the :c:data:`SpamError` variable retains a reference to the newly
+created exception class; this is intentional!  Since the exception could be
+removed from the module by external code, an owned reference to the class is
+needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing :c:data:`SpamError` to
+become a dangling pointer. Should it become a dangling pointer, C code which
+raises the exception could cause a core dump or other unintended side effects.
+
+We discuss the use of ``PyMODINIT_FUNC`` as a function return type later in this
+sample.
+
+The :exc:`spam.error` exception can be raised in your extension module using a
+call to :c:func:`PyErr_SetString` as shown below::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       const char *command;
+       int sts;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
+           return NULL;
+       sts = system(command);
+       if (sts < 0) {
+           PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed");
+           return NULL;
+       }
+       return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
+   }
+
+
+.. _backtoexample:
+
+Back to the Example
+===================
+
+Going back to our example function, you should now be able to understand this
+statement::
+
+   if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
+       return NULL;
+
+It returns *NULL* (the error indicator for functions returning object pointers)
+if an error is detected in the argument list, relying on the exception set by
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`.  Otherwise the string value of the argument has been
+copied to the local variable :c:data:`command`.  This is a pointer assignment and
+you are not supposed to modify the string to which it points (so in Standard C,
+the variable :c:data:`command` should properly be declared as ``const char
+*command``).
+
+The next statement is a call to the Unix function :c:func:`system`, passing it
+the string we just got from :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`::
+
+   sts = system(command);
+
+Our :func:`spam.system` function must return the value of :c:data:`sts` as a
+Python object.  This is done using the function :c:func:`PyLong_FromLong`. ::
+
+   return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
+
+In this case, it will return an integer object.  (Yes, even integers are objects
+on the heap in Python!)
+
+If you have a C function that returns no useful argument (a function returning
+:c:type:`void`), the corresponding Python function must return ``None``.   You
+need this idiom to do so (which is implemented by the :c:macro:`Py_RETURN_NONE`
+macro)::
+
+   Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+   return Py_None;
+
+:c:data:`Py_None` is the C name for the special Python object ``None``.  It is a
+genuine Python object rather than a *NULL* pointer, which means "error" in most
+contexts, as we have seen.
+
+
+.. _methodtable:
+
+The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function
+=====================================================
+
+I promised to show how :c:func:`spam_system` is called from Python programs.
+First, we need to list its name and address in a "method table"::
+
+   static PyMethodDef SpamMethods[] = {
+       ...
+       {"system",  spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
+        "Execute a shell command."},
+       ...
+       {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+Note the third entry (``METH_VARARGS``).  This is a flag telling the interpreter
+the calling convention to be used for the C function.  It should normally always
+be ``METH_VARARGS`` or ``METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS``; a value of ``0`` means
+that an obsolete variant of :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` is used.
+
+When using only ``METH_VARARGS``, the function should expect the Python-level
+parameters to be passed in as a tuple acceptable for parsing via
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`; more information on this function is provided below.
+
+The :const:`METH_KEYWORDS` bit may be set in the third field if keyword
+arguments should be passed to the function.  In this case, the C function should
+accept a third ``PyObject *`` parameter which will be a dictionary of keywords.
+Use :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` to parse the arguments to such a
+function.
+
+The method table must be referenced in the module definition structure::
+
+   static struct PyModuleDef spammodule = {
+       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+       "spam",   /* name of module */
+       spam_doc, /* module documentation, may be NULL */
+       -1,       /* size of per-interpreter state of the module,
+                    or -1 if the module keeps state in global variables. */
+       SpamMethods
+   };
+
+This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the module's
+initialization function.  The initialization function must be named
+:c:func:`PyInit_name`, where *name* is the name of the module, and should be the
+only non-\ ``static`` item defined in the module file::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   PyInit_spam(void)
+   {
+       return PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
+   }
+
+Note that PyMODINIT_FUNC declares the function as ``PyObject *`` return type,
+declares any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for C++
+declares the function as ``extern "C"``.
+
+When the Python program imports module :mod:`spam` for the first time,
+:c:func:`PyInit_spam` is called. (See below for comments about embedding Python.)
+It calls :c:func:`PyModule_Create`, which returns a module object, and
+inserts built-in function objects into the newly created module based upon the
+table (an array of :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structures) found in the module definition.
+:c:func:`PyModule_Create` returns a pointer to the module object
+that it creates.  It may abort with a fatal error for
+certain errors, or return *NULL* if the module could not be initialized
+satisfactorily. The init function must return the module object to its caller,
+so that it then gets inserted into ``sys.modules``.
+
+When embedding Python, the :c:func:`PyInit_spam` function is not called
+automatically unless there's an entry in the :c:data:`PyImport_Inittab` table.
+To add the module to the initialization table, use :c:func:`PyImport_AppendInittab`,
+optionally followed by an import of the module::
+
+   int
+   main(int argc, char *argv[])
+   {
+       wchar_t *program = Py_DecodeLocale(argv[0], NULL);
+       if (program == NULL) {
+           fprintf(stderr, "Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]\n");
+           exit(1);
+       }
+
+       /* Add a built-in module, before Py_Initialize */
+       PyImport_AppendInittab("spam", PyInit_spam);
+
+       /* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */
+       Py_SetProgramName(program);
+
+       /* Initialize the Python interpreter.  Required. */
+       Py_Initialize();
+
+       /* Optionally import the module; alternatively,
+          import can be deferred until the embedded script
+          imports it. */
+       PyImport_ImportModule("spam");
+
+       ...
+
+       PyMem_RawFree(program);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+.. note::
+
+   Removing entries from ``sys.modules`` or importing compiled modules into
+   multiple interpreters within a process (or following a :c:func:`fork` without an
+   intervening :c:func:`exec`) can create problems for some extension modules.
+   Extension module authors should exercise caution when initializing internal data
+   structures.
+
+A more substantial example module is included in the Python source distribution
+as :file:`Modules/xxmodule.c`.  This file may be used as a  template or simply
+read as an example.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Unlike our ``spam`` example, ``xxmodule`` uses *multi-phase initialization*
+   (new in Python 3.5), where a PyModuleDef structure is returned from
+   ``PyInit_spam``, and creation of the module is left to the import machinery.
+   For details on multi-phase initialization, see :PEP:`489`.
+
+
+.. _compilation:
+
+Compilation and Linkage
+=======================
+
+There are two more things to do before you can use your new extension: compiling
+and linking it with the Python system.  If you use dynamic loading, the details
+may depend on the style of dynamic loading your system uses; see the chapters
+about building extension modules (chapter :ref:`building`) and additional
+information that pertains only to building on Windows (chapter
+:ref:`building-on-windows`) for more information about this.
+
+If you can't use dynamic loading, or if you want to make your module a permanent
+part of the Python interpreter, you will have to change the configuration setup
+and rebuild the interpreter.  Luckily, this is very simple on Unix: just place
+your file (:file:`spammodule.c` for example) in the :file:`Modules/` directory
+of an unpacked source distribution, add a line to the file
+:file:`Modules/Setup.local` describing your file:
+
+.. code-block:: sh
+
+   spam spammodule.o
+
+and rebuild the interpreter by running :program:`make` in the toplevel
+directory.  You can also run :program:`make` in the :file:`Modules/`
+subdirectory, but then you must first rebuild :file:`Makefile` there by running
+':program:`make` Makefile'.  (This is necessary each time you change the
+:file:`Setup` file.)
+
+If your module requires additional libraries to link with, these can be listed
+on the line in the configuration file as well, for instance:
+
+.. code-block:: sh
+
+   spam spammodule.o -lX11
+
+
+.. _callingpython:
+
+Calling Python Functions from C
+===============================
+
+So far we have concentrated on making C functions callable from Python.  The
+reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is especially the
+case for libraries that support so-called "callback" functions.  If a C
+interface makes use of callbacks, the equivalent Python often needs to provide a
+callback mechanism to the Python programmer; the implementation will require
+calling the Python callback functions from a C callback.  Other uses are also
+imaginable.
+
+Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and there is a
+standard interface to call a Python function.  (I won't dwell on how to call the
+Python parser with a particular string as input --- if you're interested, have a
+look at the implementation of the :option:`-c` command line option in
+:file:`Modules/main.c` from the Python source code.)
+
+Calling a Python function is easy.  First, the Python program must somehow pass
+you the Python function object.  You should provide a function (or some other
+interface) to do this.  When this function is called, save a pointer to the
+Python function object (be careful to :c:func:`Py_INCREF` it!) in a global
+variable --- or wherever you see fit. For example, the following function might
+be part of a module definition::
+
+   static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;
+
+   static PyObject *
+   my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       PyObject *result = NULL;
+       PyObject *temp;
+
+       if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
+           if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
+               PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
+               return NULL;
+           }
+           Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* Add a reference to new callback */
+           Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* Dispose of previous callback */
+           my_callback = temp;       /* Remember new callback */
+           /* Boilerplate to return "None" */
+           Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+           result = Py_None;
+       }
+       return result;
+   }
+
+This function must be registered with the interpreter using the
+:const:`METH_VARARGS` flag; this is described in section :ref:`methodtable`.  The
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` function and its arguments are documented in section
+:ref:`parsetuple`.
+
+The macros :c:func:`Py_XINCREF` and :c:func:`Py_XDECREF` increment/decrement the
+reference count of an object and are safe in the presence of *NULL* pointers
+(but note that *temp* will not be  *NULL* in this context).  More info on them
+in section :ref:`refcounts`.
+
+.. index:: single: PyObject_CallObject()
+
+Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
+:c:func:`PyObject_CallObject`.  This function has two arguments, both pointers to
+arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the argument list.  The
+argument list must always be a tuple object, whose length is the number of
+arguments.  To call the Python function with no arguments, pass in NULL, or
+an empty tuple; to call it with one argument, pass a singleton tuple.
+:c:func:`Py_BuildValue` returns a tuple when its format string consists of zero
+or more format codes between parentheses.  For example::
+
+   int arg;
+   PyObject *arglist;
+   PyObject *result;
+   ...
+   arg = 123;
+   ...
+   /* Time to call the callback */
+   arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
+   result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
+   Py_DECREF(arglist);
+
+:c:func:`PyObject_CallObject` returns a Python object pointer: this is the return
+value of the Python function.  :c:func:`PyObject_CallObject` is
+"reference-count-neutral" with respect to its arguments.  In the example a new
+tuple was created to serve as the argument list, which is
+:c:func:`Py_DECREF`\ -ed immediately after the :c:func:`PyObject_CallObject`
+call.
+
+The return value of :c:func:`PyObject_CallObject` is "new": either it is a brand
+new object, or it is an existing object whose reference count has been
+incremented.  So, unless you want to save it in a global variable, you should
+somehow :c:func:`Py_DECREF` the result, even (especially!) if you are not
+interested in its value.
+
+Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return value
+isn't *NULL*.  If it is, the Python function terminated by raising an exception.
+If the C code that called :c:func:`PyObject_CallObject` is called from Python, it
+should now return an error indication to its Python caller, so the interpreter
+can print a stack trace, or the calling Python code can handle the exception.
+If this is not possible or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling
+:c:func:`PyErr_Clear`.  For example::
+
+   if (result == NULL)
+       return NULL; /* Pass error back */
+   ...use result...
+   Py_DECREF(result);
+
+Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you may also
+have to provide an argument list to :c:func:`PyObject_CallObject`.  In some cases
+the argument list is also provided by the Python program, through the same
+interface that specified the callback function.  It can then be saved and used
+in the same manner as the function object.  In other cases, you may have to
+construct a new tuple to pass as the argument list.  The simplest way to do this
+is to call :c:func:`Py_BuildValue`.  For example, if you want to pass an integral
+event code, you might use the following code::
+
+   PyObject *arglist;
+   ...
+   arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
+   result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
+   Py_DECREF(arglist);
+   if (result == NULL)
+       return NULL; /* Pass error back */
+   /* Here maybe use the result */
+   Py_DECREF(result);
+
+Note the placement of ``Py_DECREF(arglist)`` immediately after the call, before
+the error check!  Also note that strictly speaking this code is not complete:
+:c:func:`Py_BuildValue` may run out of memory, and this should be checked.
+
+You may also call a function with keyword arguments by using
+:c:func:`PyObject_Call`, which supports arguments and keyword arguments.  As in
+the above example, we use :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` to construct the dictionary. ::
+
+   PyObject *dict;
+   ...
+   dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
+   result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
+   Py_DECREF(dict);
+   if (result == NULL)
+       return NULL; /* Pass error back */
+   /* Here maybe use the result */
+   Py_DECREF(result);
+
+
+.. _parsetuple:
+
+Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
+============================================
+
+.. index:: single: PyArg_ParseTuple()
+
+The :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` function is declared as follows::
+
+   int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...);
+
+The *arg* argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list passed
+from Python to a C function.  The *format* argument must be a format string,
+whose syntax is explained in :ref:`arg-parsing` in the Python/C API Reference
+Manual.  The remaining arguments must be addresses of variables whose type is
+determined by the format string.
+
+Note that while :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` checks that the Python arguments have
+the required types, it cannot check the validity of the addresses of C variables
+passed to the call: if you make mistakes there, your code will probably crash or
+at least overwrite random bits in memory.  So be careful!
+
+Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are
+*borrowed* references; do not decrement their reference count!
+
+Some example calls::
+
+   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  /* Make "s#" use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+::
+
+   int ok;
+   int i, j;
+   long k, l;
+   const char *s;
+   Py_ssize_t size;
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* No arguments */
+       /* Python call: f() */
+
+::
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */
+       /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */
+
+::
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */
+       /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */
+
+::
+
+   ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
+       /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */
+       /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */
+
+::
+
+   {
+       const char *file;
+       const char *mode = "r";
+       int bufsize = 0;
+       ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
+       /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */
+       /* Possible Python calls:
+          f('spam')
+          f('spam', 'w')
+          f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
+   }
+
+::
+
+   {
+       int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
+       ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
+                &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
+       /* A rectangle and a point */
+       /* Possible Python call:
+          f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
+   }
+
+::
+
+   {
+       Py_complex c;
+       ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
+       /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */
+       /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */
+   }
+
+
+.. _parsetupleandkeywords:
+
+Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
+==========================================
+
+.. index:: single: PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()
+
+The :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` function is declared as follows::
+
+   int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
+                                   const char *format, char *kwlist[], ...);
+
+The *arg* and *format* parameters are identical to those of the
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` function.  The *kwdict* parameter is the dictionary of
+keywords received as the third parameter from the Python runtime.  The *kwlist*
+parameter is a *NULL*-terminated list of strings which identify the parameters;
+the names are matched with the type information from *format* from left to
+right.  On success, :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` returns true, otherwise
+it returns false and raises an appropriate exception.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Nested tuples cannot be parsed when using keyword arguments!  Keyword parameters
+   passed in which are not present in the *kwlist* will cause :exc:`TypeError` to
+   be raised.
+
+.. index:: single: Philbrick, Geoff
+
+Here is an example module which uses keywords, based on an example by Geoff
+Philbrick (philbrick@hks.com)::
+
+   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  /* Make "s#" use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+   static PyObject *
+   keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
+   {
+       int voltage;
+       const char *state = "a stiff";
+       const char *action = "voom";
+       const char *type = "Norwegian Blue";
+
+       static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist,
+                                        &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
+           return NULL;
+
+       printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n",
+              action, voltage);
+       printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);
+
+       Py_RETURN_NONE;
+   }
+
+   static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
+       /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
+        * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
+        * three.
+        */
+       {"parrot", (PyCFunction)keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
+        "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
+       {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
+   };
+
+   static struct PyModuleDef keywdargmodule = {
+       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+       "keywdarg",
+       NULL,
+       -1,
+       keywdarg_methods
+   };
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   PyInit_keywdarg(void)
+   {
+       return PyModule_Create(&keywdargmodule);
+   }
+
+
+.. _buildvalue:
+
+Building Arbitrary Values
+=========================
+
+This function is the counterpart to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`.  It is declared
+as follows::
+
+   PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...);
+
+It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by
+:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`, but the arguments (which are input to the function,
+not output) must not be pointers, just values.  It returns a new Python object,
+suitable for returning from a C function called from Python.
+
+One difference with :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`: while the latter requires its
+first argument to be a tuple (since Python argument lists are always represented
+as tuples internally), :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` does not always build a tuple.  It
+builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more format units. If
+the format string is empty, it returns ``None``; if it contains exactly one
+format unit, it returns whatever object is described by that format unit.  To
+force it to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.
+
+Examples (to the left the call, to the right the resulting Python value):
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   Py_BuildValue("")                        None
+   Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
+   Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
+   Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
+   Py_BuildValue("y", "hello")              b'hello'
+   Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
+   Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
+   Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4)          b'hell'
+   Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
+   Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
+   Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
+   Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
+   Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
+   Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
+                 "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
+   Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
+                 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))
+
+
+.. _refcounts:
+
+Reference Counts
+================
+
+In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic allocation
+and deallocation of memory on the heap.  In C, this is done using the functions
+:c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free`.  In C++, the operators ``new`` and
+``delete`` are used with essentially the same meaning and we'll restrict
+the following discussion to the C case.
+
+Every block of memory allocated with :c:func:`malloc` should eventually be
+returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to :c:func:`free`.
+It is important to call :c:func:`free` at the right time.  If a block's address
+is forgotten but :c:func:`free` is not called for it, the memory it occupies
+cannot be reused until the program terminates.  This is called a :dfn:`memory
+leak`.  On the other hand, if a program calls :c:func:`free` for a block and then
+continues to use the block, it creates a conflict with re-use of the block
+through another :c:func:`malloc` call.  This is called :dfn:`using freed memory`.
+It has the same bad consequences as referencing uninitialized data --- core
+dumps, wrong results, mysterious crashes.
+
+Common causes of memory leaks are unusual paths through the code.  For instance,
+a function may allocate a block of memory, do some calculation, and then free
+the block again.  Now a change in the requirements for the function may add a
+test to the calculation that detects an error condition and can return
+prematurely from the function.  It's easy to forget to free the allocated memory
+block when taking this premature exit, especially when it is added later to the
+code.  Such leaks, once introduced, often go undetected for a long time: the
+error exit is taken only in a small fraction of all calls, and most modern
+machines have plenty of virtual memory, so the leak only becomes apparent in a
+long-running process that uses the leaking function frequently.  Therefore, it's
+important to prevent leaks from happening by having a coding convention or
+strategy that minimizes this kind of errors.
+
+Since Python makes heavy use of :c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free`, it needs a
+strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory.  The chosen
+method is called :dfn:`reference counting`.  The principle is simple: every
+object contains a counter, which is incremented when a reference to the object
+is stored somewhere, and which is decremented when a reference to it is deleted.
+When the counter reaches zero, the last reference to the object has been deleted
+and the object is freed.
+
+An alternative strategy is called :dfn:`automatic garbage collection`.
+(Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage collection
+strategy, hence my use of "automatic" to distinguish the two.)  The big
+advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the user doesn't need to call
+:c:func:`free` explicitly.  (Another claimed advantage is an improvement in speed
+or memory usage --- this is no hard fact however.)  The disadvantage is that for
+C, there is no truly portable automatic garbage collector, while reference
+counting can be implemented portably (as long as the functions :c:func:`malloc`
+and :c:func:`free` are available --- which the C Standard guarantees). Maybe some
+day a sufficiently portable automatic garbage collector will be available for C.
+Until then, we'll have to live with reference counts.
+
+While Python uses the traditional reference counting implementation, it also
+offers a cycle detector that works to detect reference cycles.  This allows
+applications to not worry about creating direct or indirect circular references;
+these are the weakness of garbage collection implemented using only reference
+counting.  Reference cycles consist of objects which contain (possibly indirect)
+references to themselves, so that each object in the cycle has a reference count
+which is non-zero.  Typical reference counting implementations are not able to
+reclaim the memory belonging to any objects in a reference cycle, or referenced
+from the objects in the cycle, even though there are no further references to
+the cycle itself.
+
+The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim them.
+The :mod:`gc` module exposes a way to run the detector (the
+:func:`~gc.collect` function), as well as configuration
+interfaces and the ability to disable the detector at runtime.  The cycle
+detector is considered an optional component; though it is included by default,
+it can be disabled at build time using the :option:`!--without-cycle-gc` option
+to the :program:`configure` script on Unix platforms (including Mac OS X).  If
+the cycle detector is disabled in this way, the :mod:`gc` module will not be
+available.
+
+
+.. _refcountsinpython:
+
+Reference Counting in Python
+----------------------------
+
+There are two macros, ``Py_INCREF(x)`` and ``Py_DECREF(x)``, which handle the
+incrementing and decrementing of the reference count. :c:func:`Py_DECREF` also
+frees the object when the count reaches zero. For flexibility, it doesn't call
+:c:func:`free` directly --- rather, it makes a call through a function pointer in
+the object's :dfn:`type object`.  For this purpose (and others), every object
+also contains a pointer to its type object.
+
+The big question now remains: when to use ``Py_INCREF(x)`` and ``Py_DECREF(x)``?
+Let's first introduce some terms.  Nobody "owns" an object; however, you can
+:dfn:`own a reference` to an object.  An object's reference count is now defined
+as the number of owned references to it.  The owner of a reference is
+responsible for calling :c:func:`Py_DECREF` when the reference is no longer
+needed.  Ownership of a reference can be transferred.  There are three ways to
+dispose of an owned reference: pass it on, store it, or call :c:func:`Py_DECREF`.
+Forgetting to dispose of an owned reference creates a memory leak.
+
+It is also possible to :dfn:`borrow` [#]_ a reference to an object.  The
+borrower of a reference should not call :c:func:`Py_DECREF`.  The borrower must
+not hold on to the object longer than the owner from which it was borrowed.
+Using a borrowed reference after the owner has disposed of it risks using freed
+memory and should be avoided completely [#]_.
+
+The advantage of borrowing over owning a reference is that you don't need to
+take care of disposing of the reference on all possible paths through the code
+--- in other words, with a borrowed reference you don't run the risk of leaking
+when a premature exit is taken.  The disadvantage of borrowing over owning is
+that there are some subtle situations where in seemingly correct code a borrowed
+reference can be used after the owner from which it was borrowed has in fact
+disposed of it.
+
+A borrowed reference can be changed into an owned reference by calling
+:c:func:`Py_INCREF`.  This does not affect the status of the owner from which the
+reference was borrowed --- it creates a new owned reference, and gives full
+owner responsibilities (the new owner must dispose of the reference properly, as
+well as the previous owner).
+
+
+.. _ownershiprules:
+
+Ownership Rules
+---------------
+
+Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is part of
+the function's interface specification whether ownership is transferred with the
+reference or not.
+
+Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownership with the
+reference.  In particular, all functions whose function it is to create a new
+object, such as :c:func:`PyLong_FromLong` and :c:func:`Py_BuildValue`, pass
+ownership to the receiver.  Even if the object is not actually new, you still
+receive ownership of a new reference to that object.  For instance,
+:c:func:`PyLong_FromLong` maintains a cache of popular values and can return a
+reference to a cached item.
+
+Many functions that extract objects from other objects also transfer ownership
+with the reference, for instance :c:func:`PyObject_GetAttrString`.  The picture
+is less clear, here, however, since a few common routines are exceptions:
+:c:func:`PyTuple_GetItem`, :c:func:`PyList_GetItem`, :c:func:`PyDict_GetItem`, and
+:c:func:`PyDict_GetItemString` all return references that you borrow from the
+tuple, list or dictionary.
+
+The function :c:func:`PyImport_AddModule` also returns a borrowed reference, even
+though it may actually create the object it returns: this is possible because an
+owned reference to the object is stored in ``sys.modules``.
+
+When you pass an object reference into another function, in general, the
+function borrows the reference from you --- if it needs to store it, it will use
+:c:func:`Py_INCREF` to become an independent owner.  There are exactly two
+important exceptions to this rule: :c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem` and
+:c:func:`PyList_SetItem`.  These functions take over ownership of the item passed
+to them --- even if they fail!  (Note that :c:func:`PyDict_SetItem` and friends
+don't take over ownership --- they are "normal.")
+
+When a C function is called from Python, it borrows references to its arguments
+from the caller.  The caller owns a reference to the object, so the borrowed
+reference's lifetime is guaranteed until the function returns.  Only when such a
+borrowed reference must be stored or passed on, it must be turned into an owned
+reference by calling :c:func:`Py_INCREF`.
+
+The object reference returned from a C function that is called from Python must
+be an owned reference --- ownership is transferred from the function to its
+caller.
+
+
+.. _thinice:
+
+Thin Ice
+--------
+
+There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed reference
+can lead to problems.  These all have to do with implicit invocations of the
+interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference to dispose of it.
+
+The first and most important case to know about is using :c:func:`Py_DECREF` on
+an unrelated object while borrowing a reference to a list item.  For instance::
+
+   void
+   bug(PyObject *list)
+   {
+       PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
+
+       PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
+       PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
+   }
+
+This function first borrows a reference to ``list[0]``, then replaces
+``list[1]`` with the value ``0``, and finally prints the borrowed reference.
+Looks harmless, right?  But it's not!
+
+Let's follow the control flow into :c:func:`PyList_SetItem`.  The list owns
+references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it has to dispose of
+the original item 1.  Now let's suppose the original item 1 was an instance of a
+user-defined class, and let's further suppose that the class defined a
+:meth:`__del__` method.  If this class instance has a reference count of 1,
+disposing of it will call its :meth:`__del__` method.
+
+Since it is written in Python, the :meth:`__del__` method can execute arbitrary
+Python code.  Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the reference to
+``item`` in :c:func:`bug`?  You bet!  Assuming that the list passed into
+:c:func:`bug` is accessible to the :meth:`__del__` method, it could execute a
+statement to the effect of ``del list[0]``, and assuming this was the last
+reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it, thereby
+invalidating ``item``.
+
+The solution, once you know the source of the problem, is easy: temporarily
+increment the reference count.  The correct version of the function reads::
+
+   void
+   no_bug(PyObject *list)
+   {
+       PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
+
+       Py_INCREF(item);
+       PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
+       PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
+       Py_DECREF(item);
+   }
+
+This is a true story.  An older version of Python contained variants of this bug
+and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger to figure out
+why his :meth:`__del__` methods would fail...
+
+The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant involving
+threads.  Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter can't get in each
+other's way, because there is a global lock protecting Python's entire object
+space.  However, it is possible to temporarily release this lock using the macro
+:c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS`, and to re-acquire it using
+:c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS`.  This is common around blocking I/O calls, to
+let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to complete.
+Obviously, the following function has the same problem as the previous one::
+
+   void
+   bug(PyObject *list)
+   {
+       PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
+       Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
+       ...some blocking I/O call...
+       Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
+       PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
+   }
+
+
+.. _nullpointers:
+
+NULL Pointers
+-------------
+
+In general, functions that take object references as arguments do not expect you
+to pass them *NULL* pointers, and will dump core (or cause later core dumps) if
+you do so.  Functions that return object references generally return *NULL* only
+to indicate that an exception occurred.  The reason for not testing for *NULL*
+arguments is that functions often pass the objects they receive on to other
+function --- if each function were to test for *NULL*, there would be a lot of
+redundant tests and the code would run more slowly.
+
+It is better to test for *NULL* only at the "source:" when a pointer that may be
+*NULL* is received, for example, from :c:func:`malloc` or from a function that
+may raise an exception.
+
+The macros :c:func:`Py_INCREF` and :c:func:`Py_DECREF` do not check for *NULL*
+pointers --- however, their variants :c:func:`Py_XINCREF` and :c:func:`Py_XDECREF`
+do.
+
+The macros for checking for a particular object type (``Pytype_Check()``) don't
+check for *NULL* pointers --- again, there is much code that calls several of
+these in a row to test an object against various different expected types, and
+this would generate redundant tests.  There are no variants with *NULL*
+checking.
+
+The C function calling mechanism guarantees that the argument list passed to C
+functions (``args`` in the examples) is never *NULL* --- in fact it guarantees
+that it is always a tuple [#]_.
+
+It is a severe error to ever let a *NULL* pointer "escape" to the Python user.
+
+.. Frank Stajano:
+   A pedagogically buggy example, along the lines of the previous listing, would
+   be helpful here -- showing in more concrete terms what sort of actions could
+   cause the problem. I can't very well imagine it from the description.
+
+
+.. _cplusplus:
+
+Writing Extensions in C++
+=========================
+
+It is possible to write extension modules in C++.  Some restrictions apply.  If
+the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and linked by the C
+compiler, global or static objects with constructors cannot be used.  This is
+not a problem if the main program is linked by the C++ compiler.  Functions that
+will be called by the Python interpreter (in particular, module initialization
+functions) have to be declared using ``extern "C"``. It is unnecessary to
+enclose the Python header files in ``extern "C" {...}`` --- they use this form
+already if the symbol ``__cplusplus`` is defined (all recent C++ compilers
+define this symbol).
+
+
+.. _using-capsules:
+
+Providing a C API for an Extension Module
+=========================================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Konrad Hinsen <hinsen@cnrs-orleans.fr>
+
+
+Many extension modules just provide new functions and types to be used from
+Python, but sometimes the code in an extension module can be useful for other
+extension modules. For example, an extension module could implement a type
+"collection" which works like lists without order. Just like the standard Python
+list type has a C API which permits extension modules to create and manipulate
+lists, this new collection type should have a set of C functions for direct
+manipulation from other extension modules.
+
+At first sight this seems easy: just write the functions (without declaring them
+``static``, of course), provide an appropriate header file, and document
+the C API. And in fact this would work if all extension modules were always
+linked statically with the Python interpreter. When modules are used as shared
+libraries, however, the symbols defined in one module may not be visible to
+another module. The details of visibility depend on the operating system; some
+systems use one global namespace for the Python interpreter and all extension
+modules (Windows, for example), whereas others require an explicit list of
+imported symbols at module link time (AIX is one example), or offer a choice of
+different strategies (most Unices). And even if symbols are globally visible,
+the module whose functions one wishes to call might not have been loaded yet!
+
+Portability therefore requires not to make any assumptions about symbol
+visibility. This means that all symbols in extension modules should be declared
+``static``, except for the module's initialization function, in order to
+avoid name clashes with other extension modules (as discussed in section
+:ref:`methodtable`). And it means that symbols that *should* be accessible from
+other extension modules must be exported in a different way.
+
+Python provides a special mechanism to pass C-level information (pointers) from
+one extension module to another one: Capsules. A Capsule is a Python data type
+which stores a pointer (:c:type:`void \*`).  Capsules can only be created and
+accessed via their C API, but they can be passed around like any other Python
+object. In particular,  they can be assigned to a name in an extension module's
+namespace. Other extension modules can then import this module, retrieve the
+value of this name, and then retrieve the pointer from the Capsule.
+
+There are many ways in which Capsules can be used to export the C API of an
+extension module. Each function could get its own Capsule, or all C API pointers
+could be stored in an array whose address is published in a Capsule. And the
+various tasks of storing and retrieving the pointers can be distributed in
+different ways between the module providing the code and the client modules.
+
+Whichever method you choose, it's important to name your Capsules properly.
+The function :c:func:`PyCapsule_New` takes a name parameter
+(:c:type:`const char \*`); you're permitted to pass in a *NULL* name, but
+we strongly encourage you to specify a name.  Properly named Capsules provide
+a degree of runtime type-safety; there is no feasible way to tell one unnamed
+Capsule from another.
+
+In particular, Capsules used to expose C APIs should be given a name following
+this convention::
+
+    modulename.attributename
+
+The convenience function :c:func:`PyCapsule_Import` makes it easy to
+load a C API provided via a Capsule, but only if the Capsule's name
+matches this convention.  This behavior gives C API users a high degree
+of certainty that the Capsule they load contains the correct C API.
+
+The following example demonstrates an approach that puts most of the burden on
+the writer of the exporting module, which is appropriate for commonly used
+library modules. It stores all C API pointers (just one in the example!) in an
+array of :c:type:`void` pointers which becomes the value of a Capsule. The header
+file corresponding to the module provides a macro that takes care of importing
+the module and retrieving its C API pointers; client modules only have to call
+this macro before accessing the C API.
+
+The exporting module is a modification of the :mod:`spam` module from section
+:ref:`extending-simpleexample`. The function :func:`spam.system` does not call
+the C library function :c:func:`system` directly, but a function
+:c:func:`PySpam_System`, which would of course do something more complicated in
+reality (such as adding "spam" to every command). This function
+:c:func:`PySpam_System` is also exported to other extension modules.
+
+The function :c:func:`PySpam_System` is a plain C function, declared
+``static`` like everything else::
+
+   static int
+   PySpam_System(const char *command)
+   {
+       return system(command);
+   }
+
+The function :c:func:`spam_system` is modified in a trivial way::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
+   {
+       const char *command;
+       int sts;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
+           return NULL;
+       sts = PySpam_System(command);
+       return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
+   }
+
+In the beginning of the module, right after the line ::
+
+   #include <Python.h>
+
+two more lines must be added::
+
+   #define SPAM_MODULE
+   #include "spammodule.h"
+
+The ``#define`` is used to tell the header file that it is being included in the
+exporting module, not a client module. Finally, the module's initialization
+function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   PyInit_spam(void)
+   {
+       PyObject *m;
+       static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
+       PyObject *c_api_object;
+
+       m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
+       if (m == NULL)
+           return NULL;
+
+       /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
+       PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;
+
+       /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */
+       c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);
+
+       if (c_api_object != NULL)
+           PyModule_AddObject(m, "_C_API", c_api_object);
+       return m;
+   }
+
+Note that ``PySpam_API`` is declared ``static``; otherwise the pointer
+array would disappear when :func:`PyInit_spam` terminates!
+
+The bulk of the work is in the header file :file:`spammodule.h`, which looks
+like this::
+
+   #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
+   #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
+   #ifdef __cplusplus
+   extern "C" {
+   #endif
+
+   /* Header file for spammodule */
+
+   /* C API functions */
+   #define PySpam_System_NUM 0
+   #define PySpam_System_RETURN int
+   #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)
+
+   /* Total number of C API pointers */
+   #define PySpam_API_pointers 1
+
+
+   #ifdef SPAM_MODULE
+   /* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */
+
+   static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;
+
+   #else
+   /* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */
+
+   static void **PySpam_API;
+
+   #define PySpam_System \
+    (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])
+
+   /* Return -1 on error, 0 on success.
+    * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there's an error.
+    */
+   static int
+   import_spam(void)
+   {
+       PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0);
+       return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
+   }
+
+   #endif
+
+   #ifdef __cplusplus
+   }
+   #endif
+
+   #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */
+
+All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
+:c:func:`PySpam_System` is to call the function (or rather macro)
+:c:func:`import_spam` in its initialization function::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   PyInit_client(void)
+   {
+       PyObject *m;
+
+       m = PyModule_Create(&clientmodule);
+       if (m == NULL)
+           return NULL;
+       if (import_spam() < 0)
+           return NULL;
+       /* additional initialization can happen here */
+       return m;
+   }
+
+The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file :file:`spammodule.h` is
+rather complicated. However, the basic structure is the same for each function
+that is exported, so it has to be learned only once.
+
+Finally it should be mentioned that Capsules offer additional functionality,
+which is especially useful for memory allocation and deallocation of the pointer
+stored in a Capsule. The details are described in the Python/C API Reference
+Manual in the section :ref:`capsules` and in the implementation of Capsules (files
+:file:`Include/pycapsule.h` and :file:`Objects/pycapsule.c` in the Python source
+code distribution).
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] An interface for this function already exists in the standard module :mod:`os`
+   --- it was chosen as a simple and straightforward example.
+
+.. [#] The metaphor of "borrowing" a reference is not completely correct: the owner
+   still has a copy of the reference.
+
+.. [#] Checking that the reference count is at least 1 **does not work** --- the
+   reference count itself could be in freed memory and may thus be reused for
+   another object!
+
+.. [#] These guarantees don't hold when you use the "old" style calling convention ---
+   this is still found in much existing code.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+.. _extending-index:
+
+##################################################
+  Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
+##################################################
+
+This document describes how to write modules in C or C++ to extend the Python
+interpreter with new modules.  Those modules can not only define new functions
+but also new object types and their methods.  The document also describes how
+to embed the Python interpreter in another application, for use as an extension
+language.  Finally, it shows how to compile and link extension modules so that
+they can be loaded dynamically (at run time) into the interpreter, if the
+underlying operating system supports this feature.
+
+This document assumes basic knowledge about Python.  For an informal
+introduction to the language, see :ref:`tutorial-index`.  :ref:`reference-index`
+gives a more formal definition of the language.  :ref:`library-index` documents
+the existing object types, functions and modules (both built-in and written in
+Python) that give the language its wide application range.
+
+For a detailed description of the whole Python/C API, see the separate
+:ref:`c-api-index`.
+
+
+Recommended third party tools
+=============================
+
+This guide only covers the basic tools for creating extensions provided
+as part of this version of CPython. Third party tools like
+`Cython <http://cython.org/>`_, `cffi <https://cffi.readthedocs.io>`_,
+`SWIG <http://www.swig.org>`_ and `Numba <https://numba.pydata.org/>`_
+offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++
+extensions for Python.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions <https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/>`_
+      The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available
+      tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also
+      discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may be
+      desirable in the first place.
+
+
+Creating extensions without third party tools
+=============================================
+
+This section of the guide covers creating C and C++ extensions without
+assistance from third party tools. It is intended primarily for creators
+of those tools, rather than being a recommended way to create your own
+C extensions.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+   :numbered:
+
+   extending.rst
+   newtypes_tutorial.rst
+   newtypes.rst
+   building.rst
+   windows.rst
+
+Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application
+=====================================================
+
+Sometimes, rather than creating an extension that runs inside the Python
+interpreter as the main application, it is desirable to instead embed
+the CPython runtime inside a larger application. This section covers
+some of the details involved in doing that successfully.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+   :numbered:
+
+   embedding.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/newtypes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/newtypes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0d2ec1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/newtypes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,619 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+*****************************************
+Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics
+*****************************************
+
+.. _dnt-type-methods:
+
+This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods you can
+implement and what they do.
+
+Here is the definition of :c:type:`PyTypeObject`, with some fields only used in
+debug builds omitted:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/typestruct.h
+
+
+Now that's a *lot* of methods.  Don't worry too much though -- if you have
+a type you want to define, the chances are very good that you will only
+implement a handful of these.
+
+As you probably expect by now, we're going to go over this and give more
+information about the various handlers.  We won't go in the order they are
+defined in the structure, because there is a lot of historical baggage that
+impacts the ordering of the fields.  It's often easiest to find an example
+that includes the fields you need and then change the values to suit your new
+type. ::
+
+   const char *tp_name; /* For printing */
+
+The name of the type -- as mentioned in the previous chapter, this will appear in
+various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes. Try to choose something
+that will be helpful in such a situation! ::
+
+   Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */
+
+These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new objects of
+this type are created.  Python has some built-in support for variable length
+structures (think: strings, tuples) which is where the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` field
+comes in.  This will be dealt with later. ::
+
+   const char *tp_doc;
+
+Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when the
+Python script references ``obj.__doc__`` to retrieve the doc string.
+
+Now we come to the basic type methods -- the ones most extension types will
+implement.
+
+
+Finalization and De-allocation
+------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: object; deallocation
+   single: deallocation, object
+   single: object; finalization
+   single: finalization, of objects
+
+::
+
+   destructor tp_dealloc;
+
+This function is called when the reference count of the instance of your type is
+reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to reclaim it.  If your type
+has memory to free or other clean-up to perform, you can put it here.  The
+object itself needs to be freed here as well.  Here is an example of this
+function::
+
+   static void
+   newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
+   {
+       free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
+       Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free(obj);
+   }
+
+.. index::
+   single: PyErr_Fetch()
+   single: PyErr_Restore()
+
+One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it leaves any
+pending exceptions alone.  This is important since deallocators are frequently
+called as the interpreter unwinds the Python stack; when the stack is unwound
+due to an exception (rather than normal returns), nothing is done to protect the
+deallocators from seeing that an exception has already been set.  Any actions
+which a deallocator performs which may cause additional Python code to be
+executed may detect that an exception has been set.  This can lead to misleading
+errors from the interpreter.  The proper way to protect against this is to save
+a pending exception before performing the unsafe action, and restoring it when
+done.  This can be done using the :c:func:`PyErr_Fetch` and
+:c:func:`PyErr_Restore` functions::
+
+   static void
+   my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
+   {
+       MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
+       PyObject *cbresult;
+
+       if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
+           PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;
+
+           /* This saves the current exception state */
+           PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);
+
+           cbresult = PyObject_CallObject(self->my_callback, NULL);
+           if (cbresult == NULL)
+               PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
+           else
+               Py_DECREF(cbresult);
+
+           /* This restores the saved exception state */
+           PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);
+
+           Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
+       }
+       Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
+   }
+
+.. note::
+   There are limitations to what you can safely do in a deallocator function.
+   First, if your type supports garbage collection (using :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse`
+   and/or :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_clear`), some of the object's members can have been
+   cleared or finalized by the time :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` is called.  Second, in
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc`, your object is in an unstable state: its reference
+   count is equal to zero.  Any call to a non-trivial object or API (as in the
+   example above) might end up calling :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` again, causing a
+   double free and a crash.
+
+   Starting with Python 3.4, it is recommended not to put any complex
+   finalization code in :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc`, and instead use the new
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_finalize` type method.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :pep:`442` explains the new finalization scheme.
+
+.. index::
+   single: string; object representation
+   builtin: repr
+
+Object Presentation
+-------------------
+
+In Python, there are two ways to generate a textual representation of an object:
+the :func:`repr` function, and the :func:`str` function.  (The :func:`print`
+function just calls :func:`str`.)  These handlers are both optional.
+
+::
+
+   reprfunc tp_repr;
+   reprfunc tp_str;
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` handler should return a string object containing a
+representation of the instance for which it is called.  Here is a simple
+example::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject * obj)
+   {
+       return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
+                                   obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
+   }
+
+If no :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` handler is specified, the interpreter will supply a
+representation that uses the type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_name` and a uniquely-identifying
+value for the object.
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_str` handler is to :func:`str` what the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` handler
+described above is to :func:`repr`; that is, it is called when Python code calls
+:func:`str` on an instance of your object.  Its implementation is very similar
+to the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` function, but the resulting string is intended for human
+consumption.  If :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_str` is not specified, the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` handler is
+used instead.
+
+Here is a simple example::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject * obj)
+   {
+       return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
+                                   obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
+   }
+
+
+
+Attribute Management
+--------------------
+
+For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type must
+provide the functions that control how the attributes are resolved.  There needs
+to be a function which can retrieve attributes (if any are defined), and another
+to set attributes (if setting attributes is allowed).  Removing an attribute is
+a special case, for which the new value passed to the handler is *NULL*.
+
+Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports attributes
+only needs to implement the functions for one pair.  The difference is that one
+pair takes the name of the attribute as a :c:type:`char\*`, while the other
+accepts a :c:type:`PyObject\*`.  Each type can use whichever pair makes more
+sense for the implementation's convenience. ::
+
+   getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
+   setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
+   /* ... */
+   getattrofunc tp_getattro;       /* PyObject * version */
+   setattrofunc tp_setattro;
+
+If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation (this will be
+explained shortly), there are generic implementations which can be used to
+provide the :c:type:`PyObject\*` version of the attribute management functions.
+The actual need for type-specific attribute handlers almost completely
+disappeared starting with Python 2.2, though there are many examples which have
+not been updated to use some of the new generic mechanism that is available.
+
+
+.. _generic-attribute-management:
+
+Generic Attribute Management
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Most extension types only use *simple* attributes.  So, what makes the
+attributes simple?  There are only a couple of conditions that must be met:
+
+#. The name of the attributes must be known when :c:func:`PyType_Ready` is
+   called.
+
+#. No special processing is needed to record that an attribute was looked up or
+   set, nor do actions need to be taken based on the value.
+
+Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of the
+attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is stored.
+
+When :c:func:`PyType_Ready` is called, it uses three tables referenced by the
+type object to create :term:`descriptor`\s which are placed in the dictionary of the
+type object.  Each descriptor controls access to one attribute of the instance
+object.  Each of the tables is optional; if all three are *NULL*, instances of
+the type will only have attributes that are inherited from their base type, and
+should leave the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattro` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro` fields *NULL* as
+well, allowing the base type to handle attributes.
+
+The tables are declared as three fields of the type object::
+
+   struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
+   struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
+   struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
+
+If :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_methods` is not *NULL*, it must refer to an array of
+:c:type:`PyMethodDef` structures.  Each entry in the table is an instance of this
+structure::
+
+   typedef struct PyMethodDef {
+       const char  *ml_name;       /* method name */
+       PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
+       int          ml_flags;      /* flags */
+       const char  *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
+   } PyMethodDef;
+
+One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no entries are
+needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One additional entry is needed
+at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the end of the array.  The
+:attr:`ml_name` field of the sentinel must be *NULL*.
+
+The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data stored
+in the instance.  A variety of primitive C types are supported, and access may
+be read-only or read-write.  The structures in the table are defined as::
+
+   typedef struct PyMemberDef {
+       const char *name;
+       int         type;
+       int         offset;
+       int         flags;
+       const char *doc;
+   } PyMemberDef;
+
+For each entry in the table, a :term:`descriptor` will be constructed and added to the
+type which will be able to extract a value from the instance structure.  The
+:attr:`type` field should contain one of the type codes defined in the
+:file:`structmember.h` header; the value will be used to determine how to
+convert Python values to and from C values.  The :attr:`flags` field is used to
+store flags which control how the attribute can be accessed.
+
+The following flag constants are defined in :file:`structmember.h`; they may be
+combined using bitwise-OR.
+
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Constant                  | Meaning                                      |
++===========================+==============================================+
+| :const:`READONLY`         | Never writable.                              |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`READ_RESTRICTED`  | Not readable in restricted mode.             |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`WRITE_RESTRICTED` | Not writable in restricted mode.             |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`RESTRICTED`       | Not readable or writable in restricted mode. |
++---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+.. index::
+   single: READONLY
+   single: READ_RESTRICTED
+   single: WRITE_RESTRICTED
+   single: RESTRICTED
+
+An interesting advantage of using the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_members` table to build
+descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined this way can
+have an associated doc string simply by providing the text in the table.  An
+application can use the introspection API to retrieve the descriptor from the
+class object, and get the doc string using its :attr:`__doc__` attribute.
+
+As with the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_methods` table, a sentinel entry with a :attr:`name` value
+of *NULL* is required.
+
+.. XXX Descriptors need to be explained in more detail somewhere, but not here.
+
+   Descriptor objects have two handler functions which correspond to the
+   \member{tp_getattro} and \member{tp_setattro} handlers.  The
+   \method{__get__()} handler is a function which is passed the descriptor,
+   instance, and type objects, and returns the value of the attribute, or it
+   returns \NULL{} and sets an exception.  The \method{__set__()} handler is
+   passed the descriptor, instance, type, and new value;
+
+
+Type-specific Attribute Management
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+For simplicity, only the :c:type:`char\*` version will be demonstrated here; the
+type of the name parameter is the only difference between the :c:type:`char\*`
+and :c:type:`PyObject\*` flavors of the interface. This example effectively does
+the same thing as the generic example above, but does not use the generic
+support added in Python 2.2.  It explains how the handler functions are
+called, so that if you do need to extend their functionality, you'll understand
+what needs to be done.
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getattr` handler is called when the object requires an attribute
+look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the :meth:`__getattr__`
+method of a class would be called.
+
+Here is an example::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name)
+   {
+       if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0)
+       {
+           return PyLong_FromLong(obj->data);
+       }
+
+       PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError,
+                    "'%.50s' object has no attribute '%.400s'",
+                    tp->tp_name, name);
+       return NULL;
+   }
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattr` handler is called when the :meth:`__setattr__` or
+:meth:`__delattr__` method of a class instance would be called.  When an
+attribute should be deleted, the third parameter will be *NULL*.  Here is an
+example that simply raises an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattr` handler should be set to *NULL*. ::
+
+   static int
+   newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v)
+   {
+       PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name);
+       return -1;
+   }
+
+Object Comparison
+-----------------
+
+::
+
+   richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare` handler is called when comparisons are needed.  It is
+analogous to the :ref:`rich comparison methods <richcmpfuncs>`, like
+:meth:`__lt__`, and also called by :c:func:`PyObject_RichCompare` and
+:c:func:`PyObject_RichCompareBool`.
+
+This function is called with two Python objects and the operator as arguments,
+where the operator is one of ``Py_EQ``, ``Py_NE``, ``Py_LE``, ``Py_GT``,
+``Py_LT`` or ``Py_GT``.  It should compare the two objects with respect to the
+specified operator and return ``Py_True`` or ``Py_False`` if the comparison is
+successful, ``Py_NotImplemented`` to indicate that comparison is not
+implemented and the other object's comparison method should be tried, or *NULL*
+if an exception was set.
+
+Here is a sample implementation, for a datatype that is considered equal if the
+size of an internal pointer is equal::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_richcmp(PyObject *obj1, PyObject *obj2, int op)
+   {
+       PyObject *result;
+       int c, size1, size2;
+
+       /* code to make sure that both arguments are of type
+          newdatatype omitted */
+
+       size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
+       size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
+
+       switch (op) {
+       case Py_LT: c = size1 <  size2; break;
+       case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break;
+       case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break;
+       case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break;
+       case Py_GT: c = size1 >  size2; break;
+       case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break;
+       }
+       result = c ? Py_True : Py_False;
+       Py_INCREF(result);
+       return result;
+    }
+
+
+Abstract Protocol Support
+-------------------------
+
+Python supports a variety of *abstract* 'protocols;' the specific interfaces
+provided to use these interfaces are documented in :ref:`abstract`.
+
+
+A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the development of
+the Python implementation.  In particular, the number, mapping, and sequence
+protocols have been part of Python since the beginning.  Other protocols have
+been added over time.  For protocols which depend on several handler routines
+from the type implementation, the older protocols have been defined as optional
+blocks of handlers referenced by the type object.  For newer protocols there are
+additional slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being set to indicate
+that the slots are present and should be checked by the interpreter.  (The flag
+bit does not indicate that the slot values are non-*NULL*. The flag may be set
+to indicate the presence of a slot, but a slot may still be unfilled.) ::
+
+   PyNumberMethods   *tp_as_number;
+   PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
+   PyMappingMethods  *tp_as_mapping;
+
+If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence, or a
+mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that implements the C
+type :c:type:`PyNumberMethods`, :c:type:`PySequenceMethods`, or
+:c:type:`PyMappingMethods`, respectively. It is up to you to fill in this
+structure with appropriate values. You can find examples of the use of each of
+these in the :file:`Objects` directory of the Python source distribution. ::
+
+   hashfunc tp_hash;
+
+This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash number for an
+instance of your data type. Here is a simple example::
+
+   static Py_hash_t
+   newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj)
+   {
+       Py_hash_t result;
+       result = obj->some_size + 32767 * obj->some_number;
+       if (result == -1)
+          result = -2;
+       return result;
+   }
+
+:c:type:`Py_hash_t` is a signed integer type with a platform-varying width.
+Returning ``-1`` from :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_hash` indicates an error,
+which is why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash computation
+is successful, as seen above.
+
+::
+
+   ternaryfunc tp_call;
+
+This function is called when an instance of your data type is "called", for
+example, if ``obj1`` is an instance of your data type and the Python script
+contains ``obj1('hello')``, the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_call` handler is invoked.
+
+This function takes three arguments:
+
+#. *self* is the instance of the data type which is the subject of the call.
+   If the call is ``obj1('hello')``, then *self* is ``obj1``.
+
+#. *args* is a tuple containing the arguments to the call.  You can use
+   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` to extract the arguments.
+
+#. *kwds* is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed. If this is
+   non-*NULL* and you support keyword arguments, use
+   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` to extract the arguments.  If you
+   do not want to support keyword arguments and this is non-*NULL*, raise a
+   :exc:`TypeError` with a message saying that keyword arguments are not supported.
+
+Here is a toy ``tp_call`` implementation::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       PyObject *result;
+       const char *arg1;
+       const char *arg2;
+       const char *arg3;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
+           return NULL;
+       }
+       result = PyUnicode_FromFormat(
+           "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n",
+           obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
+           arg1, arg2, arg3);
+       return result;
+   }
+
+::
+
+   /* Iterators */
+   getiterfunc tp_iter;
+   iternextfunc tp_iternext;
+
+These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Both handlers
+take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are being called,
+and return a new reference.  In the case of an error, they should set an
+exception and return *NULL*.  :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter` corresponds
+to the Python :meth:`__iter__` method, while :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext`
+corresponds to the Python :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method.
+
+Any :term:`iterable` object must implement the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter`
+handler, which must return an :term:`iterator` object.  Here the same guidelines
+apply as for Python classes:
+
+* For collections (such as lists and tuples) which can support multiple
+  independent iterators, a new iterator should be created and returned by
+  each call to :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter`.
+* Objects which can only be iterated over once (usually due to side effects of
+  iteration, such as file objects) can implement :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter`
+  by returning a new reference to themselves -- and should also therefore
+  implement the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext`  handler.
+
+Any :term:`iterator` object should implement both :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter`
+and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext`.  An iterator's
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter` handler should return a new reference
+to the iterator.  Its :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext` handler should
+return a new reference to the next object in the iteration, if there is one.
+If the iteration has reached the end, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext`
+may return *NULL* without setting an exception, or it may set
+:exc:`StopIteration` *in addition* to returning *NULL*; avoiding
+the exception can yield slightly better performance.  If an actual error
+occurs, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext` should always set an exception
+and return *NULL*.
+
+
+.. _weakref-support:
+
+Weak Reference Support
+----------------------
+
+One of the goals of Python's weak reference implementation is to allow any type
+to participate in the weak reference mechanism without incurring the overhead on
+performance-critical objects (such as numbers).
+
+.. seealso::
+   Documentation for the :mod:`weakref` module.
+
+For an object to be weakly referencable, the extension type must do two things:
+
+#. Include a :c:type:`PyObject\*` field in the C object structure dedicated to
+   the weak reference mechanism.  The object's constructor should leave it
+   *NULL* (which is automatic when using the default
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc`).
+
+#. Set the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset` type member
+   to the offset of the aforementioned field in the C object structure,
+   so that the interpreter knows how to access and modify that field.
+
+Concretely, here is how a trivial object structure would be augmented
+with the required field::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+       PyObject *weakreflist;  /* List of weak references */
+   } TrivialObject;
+
+And the corresponding member in the statically-declared type object::
+
+   static PyTypeObject TrivialType = {
+       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
+       /* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */
+       .tp_weaklistoffset = offsetof(TrivialObject, weakreflist),
+   };
+
+The only further addition is that ``tp_dealloc`` needs to clear any weak
+references (by calling :c:func:`PyObject_ClearWeakRefs`) if the field is
+non-*NULL*::
+
+   static void
+   Trivial_dealloc(TrivialObject *self)
+   {
+       /* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */
+       if (self->weakreflist != NULL)
+           PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject *) self);
+       /* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */
+       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
+   }
+
+
+More Suggestions
+----------------
+
+In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new data type,
+get the :term:`CPython` source code.  Go to the :file:`Objects` directory,
+then search the C source files for ``tp_`` plus the function you want
+(for example, ``tp_richcompare``).  You will find examples of the function
+you want to implement.
+
+When you need to verify that an object is a concrete instance of the type you
+are implementing, use the :c:func:`PyObject_TypeCheck` function.  A sample of
+its use might be something like the following::
+
+   if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
+       PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
+       return NULL;
+   }
+
+.. seealso::
+   Download CPython source releases.
+      https://www.python.org/downloads/source/
+
+   The CPython project on GitHub, where the CPython source code is developed.
+      https://github.com/python/cpython
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07c2ef7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,897 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _defining-new-types:
+
+**********************************
+Defining Extension Types: Tutorial
+**********************************
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Michael Hudson <mwh@python.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Dave Kuhlman <dkuhlman@rexx.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Jim Fulton <jim@zope.com>
+
+
+Python allows the writer of a C extension module to define new types that
+can be manipulated from Python code, much like the built-in :class:`str`
+and :class:`list` types.  The code for all extension types follows a
+pattern, but there are some details that you need to understand before you
+can get started.  This document is a gentle introduction to the topic.
+
+
+.. _dnt-basics:
+
+The Basics
+==========
+
+The :term:`CPython` runtime sees all Python objects as variables of type
+:c:type:`PyObject\*`, which serves as a "base type" for all Python objects.
+The :c:type:`PyObject` structure itself only contains the object's
+:term:`reference count` and a pointer to the object's "type object".
+This is where the action is; the type object determines which (C) functions
+get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an attribute gets looked up
+on an object, a method called, or it is multiplied by another object.  These
+C functions are called "type methods".
+
+So, if you want to define a new extension type, you need to create a new type
+object.
+
+This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here's a minimal, but
+complete, module that defines a new type named :class:`Custom` inside a C
+extension module :mod:`custom`:
+
+.. note::
+   What we're showing here is the traditional way of defining *static*
+   extension types.  It should be adequate for most uses.  The C API also
+   allows defining heap-allocated extension types using the
+   :c:func:`PyType_FromSpec` function, which isn't covered in this tutorial.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/custom.c
+
+Now that's quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem familiar
+from the previous chapter.  This file defines three things:
+
+#. What a :class:`Custom` **object** contains: this is the ``CustomObject``
+   struct, which is allocated once for each :class:`Custom` instance.
+#. How the :class:`Custom` **type** behaves: this is the ``CustomType`` struct,
+   which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the interpreter
+   inspects when specific operations are requested.
+#. How to initialize the :mod:`custom` module: this is the ``PyInit_custom``
+   function and the associated ``custommodule`` struct.
+
+The first bit is::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+   } CustomObject;
+
+This is what a Custom object will contain.  ``PyObject_HEAD`` is mandatory
+at the start of each object struct and defines a field called ``ob_base``
+of type :c:type:`PyObject`, containing a pointer to a type object and a
+reference count (these can be accessed using the macros :c:macro:`Py_REFCNT`
+and :c:macro:`Py_TYPE` respectively).  The reason for the macro is to
+abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in debug builds.
+
+.. note::
+   There is no semicolon above after the :c:macro:`PyObject_HEAD` macro.
+   Be wary of adding one by accident: some compilers will complain.
+
+Of course, objects generally store additional data besides the standard
+``PyObject_HEAD`` boilerplate; for example, here is the definition for
+standard Python floats::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+       double ob_fval;
+   } PyFloatObject;
+
+The second bit is the definition of the type object. ::
+
+   static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
+       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
+       .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
+       .tp_doc = "Custom objects",
+       .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
+       .tp_itemsize = 0,
+       .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
+       .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
+   };
+
+.. note::
+   We recommend using C99-style designated initializers as above, to
+   avoid listing all the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` fields that you don't care
+   about and also to avoid caring about the fields' declaration order.
+
+The actual definition of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` in :file:`object.h` has
+many more :ref:`fields <type-structs>` than the definition above.  The
+remaining fields will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and it's
+common practice to not specify them explicitly unless you need them.
+
+We're going to pick it apart, one field at a time::
+
+   PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
+
+This line is mandatory boilerplate to initialize the ``ob_base``
+field mentioned above. ::
+
+   .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
+
+The name of our type.  This will appear in the default textual representation of
+our objects and in some error messages, for example:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> "" + custom.Custom()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str
+
+Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name and the
+name of the type within the module. The module in this case is :mod:`custom` and
+the type is :class:`Custom`, so we set the type name to :class:`custom.Custom`.
+Using the real dotted import path is important to make your type compatible
+with the :mod:`pydoc` and :mod:`pickle` modules. ::
+
+   .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
+   .tp_itemsize = 0,
+
+This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
+new :class:`Custom` instances.  :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` is
+only used for variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.
+
+.. note::
+
+   If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type has the same
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` as its base type, you may have problems with multiple
+   inheritance.  A Python subclass of your type will have to list your type first
+   in its :attr:`~class.__bases__`, or else it will not be able to call your type's
+   :meth:`__new__` method without getting an error.  You can avoid this problem by
+   ensuring that your type has a larger value for :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` than its
+   base type does.  Most of the time, this will be true anyway, because either your
+   base type will be :class:`object`, or else you will be adding data members to
+   your base type, and therefore increasing its size.
+
+We set the class flags to :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT`. ::
+
+   .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
+
+All types should include this constant in their flags.  It enables all of the
+members defined until at least Python 3.3.  If you need further members,
+you will need to OR the corresponding flags.
+
+We provide a doc string for the type in :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_doc`. ::
+
+   .tp_doc = "Custom objects",
+
+To enable object creation, we have to provide a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new`
+handler.  This is the equivalent of the Python method :meth:`__new__`, but
+has to be specified explicitly.  In this case, we can just use the default
+implementation provided by the API function :c:func:`PyType_GenericNew`. ::
+
+   .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
+
+Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
+:c:func:`PyInit_custom`::
+
+   if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
+       return;
+
+This initializes the :class:`Custom` type, filling in a number of members
+to the appropriate default values, including :attr:`ob_type` that we initially
+set to *NULL*. ::
+
+   PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType);
+
+This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
+:class:`Custom` instances by calling the :class:`Custom` class:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> import custom
+   >>> mycustom = custom.Custom()
+
+That's it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a file called
+:file:`custom.c` and:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+   setup(name="custom", version="1.0",
+         ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])
+
+in a file called :file:`setup.py`; then typing
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python setup.py build
+
+at a shell should produce a file :file:`custom.so` in a subdirectory; move to
+that directory and fire up Python --- you should be able to ``import custom`` and
+play around with Custom objects.
+
+That wasn't so hard, was it?
+
+Of course, the current Custom type is pretty uninteresting. It has no data and
+doesn't do anything. It can't even be subclassed.
+
+.. note::
+   While this documentation showcases the standard :mod:`distutils` module
+   for building C extensions, it is recommended in real-world use cases to
+   use the newer and better-maintained ``setuptools`` library.  Documentation
+   on how to do this is out of scope for this document and can be found in
+   the `Python Packaging User's Guide <https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/>`_.
+
+
+Adding data and methods to the Basic example
+============================================
+
+Let's extend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let's also make
+the type usable as a base class. We'll create a new module, :mod:`custom2` that
+adds these capabilities:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/custom2.c
+
+
+This version of the module has a number of changes.
+
+We've added an extra include::
+
+   #include <structmember.h>
+
+This include provides declarations that we use to handle attributes, as
+described a bit later.
+
+The  :class:`Custom` type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
+*first*, *last*, and *number*.  The *first* and *last* variables are Python
+strings containing first and last names.  The *number* attribute is a C integer.
+
+The object structure is updated accordingly::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyObject_HEAD
+       PyObject *first; /* first name */
+       PyObject *last;  /* last name */
+       int number;
+   } CustomObject;
+
+Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about object
+allocation and deallocation.  At a minimum, we need a deallocation method::
+
+   static void
+   Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
+   {
+       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
+       Py_XDECREF(self->last);
+       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
+   }
+
+which is assigned to the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` member::
+
+   .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
+
+This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python attributes.
+:c:func:`Py_XDECREF` correctly handles the case where its argument is
+*NULL* (which might happen here if ``tp_new`` failed midway).  It then
+calls the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_free` member of the object's type
+(computed by ``Py_TYPE(self)``) to free the object's memory.  Note that
+the object's type might not be :class:`CustomType`, because the object may
+be an instance of a subclass.
+
+.. note::
+   The explicit cast to ``destructor`` above is needed because we defined
+   ``Custom_dealloc`` to take a ``CustomObject *`` argument, but the ``tp_dealloc``
+   function pointer expects to receive a ``PyObject *`` argument.  Otherwise,
+   the compiler will emit a warning.  This is object-oriented polymorphism,
+   in C!
+
+We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to empty
+strings, so we provide a ``tp_new`` implementation::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       CustomObject *self;
+       self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
+       if (self != NULL) {
+           self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
+           if (self->first == NULL) {
+               Py_DECREF(self);
+               return NULL;
+           }
+           self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
+           if (self->last == NULL) {
+               Py_DECREF(self);
+               return NULL;
+           }
+           self->number = 0;
+       }
+       return (PyObject *) self;
+   }
+
+and install it in the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` member::
+
+   .tp_new = Custom_new,
+
+The ``tp_new`` handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to initializing)
+objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the :meth:`__new__` method.
+It is not required to define a ``tp_new`` member, and indeed many extension
+types will simply reuse :c:func:`PyType_GenericNew` as done in the first
+version of the ``Custom`` type above.  In this case, we use the ``tp_new``
+handler to initialize the ``first`` and ``last`` attributes to non-*NULL*
+default values.
+
+``tp_new`` is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily ``CustomType``,
+if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed when the type was
+called, and is expected to return the instance created.  ``tp_new`` handlers
+always accept positional and keyword arguments, but they often ignore the
+arguments, leaving the argument handling to initializer (a.k.a. ``tp_init``
+in C or ``__init__`` in Python) methods.
+
+.. note::
+   ``tp_new`` shouldn't call ``tp_init`` explicitly, as the interpreter
+   will do it itself.
+
+The ``tp_new`` implementation calls the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc`
+slot to allocate memory::
+
+   self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
+
+Since memory allocation may fail, we must check the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc`
+result against *NULL* before proceeding.
+
+.. note::
+   We didn't fill the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc` slot ourselves. Rather
+   :c:func:`PyType_Ready` fills it for us by inheriting it from our base class,
+   which is :class:`object` by default.  Most types use the default allocation
+   strategy.
+
+.. note::
+   If you are creating a co-operative :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` (one
+   that calls a base type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` or :meth:`__new__`),
+   you must *not* try to determine what method to call using method resolution
+   order at runtime.  Always statically determine what type you are going to
+   call, and call its :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` directly, or via
+   ``type->tp_base->tp_new``.  If you do not do this, Python subclasses of your
+   type that also inherit from other Python-defined classes may not work correctly.
+   (Specifically, you may not be able to create instances of such subclasses
+   without getting a :exc:`TypeError`.)
+
+We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to provide
+initial values for our instance::
+
+   static int
+   Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
+       PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
+                                        &first, &last,
+                                        &self->number))
+           return -1;
+
+       if (first) {
+           tmp = self->first;
+           Py_INCREF(first);
+           self->first = first;
+           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
+       }
+       if (last) {
+           tmp = self->last;
+           Py_INCREF(last);
+           self->last = last;
+           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
+       }
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+by filling the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init` slot. ::
+
+   .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
+
+The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init` slot is exposed in Python as the
+:meth:`__init__` method.  It is used to initialize an object after it's
+created.  Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
+and they should return either ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on error.
+
+Unlike the ``tp_new`` handler, there is no guarantee that ``tp_init``
+is called at all (for example, the :mod:`pickle` module by default
+doesn't call :meth:`__init__` on unpickled instances).  It can also be
+called multiple times.  Anyone can call the :meth:`__init__` method on
+our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when assigning
+the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to assign the
+``first`` member like this::
+
+   if (first) {
+       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
+       Py_INCREF(first);
+       self->first = first;
+   }
+
+But this would be risky.  Our type doesn't restrict the type of the
+``first`` member, so it could be any kind of object.  It could have a
+destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
+``first`` member; or that destructor could release the
+:term:`Global interpreter Lock` and let arbitrary code run in other
+threads that accesses and modifies our object.
+
+To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we almost
+always reassign members before decrementing their reference counts.  When
+don't we have to do this?
+
+* when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1;
+
+* when we know that deallocation of the object [#]_ will neither release
+  the :term:`GIL` nor cause any calls back into our type's code;
+
+* when decrementing a reference count in a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc`
+  handler on a type which doesn't support cyclic garbage collection [#]_.
+
+We want to expose our instance variables as attributes. There are a
+number of ways to do that. The simplest way is to define member definitions::
+
+   static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
+       {"first", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
+        "first name"},
+       {"last", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
+        "last name"},
+       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
+        "custom number"},
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+and put the definitions in the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_members` slot::
+
+   .tp_members = Custom_members,
+
+Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and
+documentation string.  See the :ref:`Generic-Attribute-Management` section
+below for details.
+
+A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn't provide a way to restrict the
+types of objects that can be assigned to the Python attributes.  We expect the
+first and last names to be strings, but any Python objects can be assigned.
+Further, the attributes can be deleted, setting the C pointers to *NULL*.  Even
+though we can make sure the members are initialized to non-*NULL* values, the
+members can be set to *NULL* if the attributes are deleted.
+
+We define a single method, :meth:`Custom.name()`, that outputs the objects name as the
+concatenation of the first and last names. ::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   Custom_name(CustomObject *self)
+   {
+       if (self->first == NULL) {
+           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
+           return NULL;
+       }
+       if (self->last == NULL) {
+           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
+           return NULL;
+       }
+       return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
+   }
+
+The method is implemented as a C function that takes a :class:`Custom` (or
+:class:`Custom` subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take an
+instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional and keyword
+arguments as well, but in this case we don't take any and don't need to accept
+a positional argument tuple or keyword argument dictionary. This method is
+equivalent to the Python method:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+   def name(self):
+       return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)
+
+Note that we have to check for the possibility that our :attr:`first` and
+:attr:`last` members are *NULL*.  This is because they can be deleted, in which
+case they are set to *NULL*.  It would be better to prevent deletion of these
+attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be strings.  We'll see how to
+do that in the next section.
+
+Now that we've defined the method, we need to create an array of method
+definitions::
+
+   static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
+       {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
+        "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
+       },
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+(note that we used the :const:`METH_NOARGS` flag to indicate that the method
+is expecting no arguments other than *self*)
+
+and assign it to the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_methods` slot::
+
+   .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
+
+Finally, we'll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing.  We've
+written our methods carefully so far so that they don't make any assumptions
+about the type of the object being created or used, so all we need to do is
+to add the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE` to our class flag definition::
+
+   .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
+
+We rename :c:func:`PyInit_custom` to :c:func:`PyInit_custom2`, update the
+module name in the :c:type:`PyModuleDef` struct, and update the full class
+name in the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` struct.
+
+Finally, we update our :file:`setup.py` file to build the new module:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+   setup(name="custom", version="1.0",
+         ext_modules=[
+            Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
+            Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
+            ])
+
+
+Providing finer control over data attributes
+============================================
+
+In this section, we'll provide finer control over how the :attr:`first` and
+:attr:`last` attributes are set in the :class:`Custom` example. In the previous
+version of our module, the instance variables :attr:`first` and :attr:`last`
+could be set to non-string values or even deleted. We want to make sure that
+these attributes always contain strings.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/custom3.c
+
+
+To provide greater control, over the :attr:`first` and :attr:`last` attributes,
+we'll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions for
+getting and setting the :attr:`first` attribute::
+
+   static PyObject *
+   Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
+   {
+       Py_INCREF(self->first);
+       return self->first;
+   }
+
+   static int
+   Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
+   {
+       PyObject *tmp;
+       if (value == NULL) {
+           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
+           return -1;
+       }
+       if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
+           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
+                           "The first attribute value must be a string");
+           return -1;
+       }
+       tmp = self->first;
+       Py_INCREF(value);
+       self->first = value;
+       Py_DECREF(tmp);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+The getter function is passed a :class:`Custom` object and a "closure", which is
+a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The closure supports an
+advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the getter and setter. This
+could, for example, be used to allow a single set of getter and setter functions
+that decide the attribute to get or set based on data in the closure.)
+
+The setter function is passed the :class:`Custom` object, the new value, and the
+closure.  The new value may be *NULL*, in which case the attribute is being
+deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is deleted or if its
+new value is not a string.
+
+We create an array of :c:type:`PyGetSetDef` structures::
+
+   static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
+       {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
+        "first name", NULL},
+       {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
+        "last name", NULL},
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+and register it in the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getset` slot::
+
+   .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
+
+The last item in a :c:type:`PyGetSetDef` structure is the "closure" mentioned
+above.  In this case, we aren't using a closure, so we just pass *NULL*.
+
+We also remove the member definitions for these attributes::
+
+   static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
+       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
+        "custom number"},
+       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
+   };
+
+We also need to update the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_init` handler to only
+allow strings [#]_ to be passed::
+
+   static int
+   Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
+       PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
+                                        &first, &last,
+                                        &self->number))
+           return -1;
+
+       if (first) {
+           tmp = self->first;
+           Py_INCREF(first);
+           self->first = first;
+           Py_DECREF(tmp);
+       }
+       if (last) {
+           tmp = self->last;
+           Py_INCREF(last);
+           self->last = last;
+           Py_DECREF(tmp);
+       }
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+With these changes, we can assure that the ``first`` and ``last`` members are
+never *NULL* so we can remove checks for *NULL* values in almost all cases.
+This means that most of the :c:func:`Py_XDECREF` calls can be converted to
+:c:func:`Py_DECREF` calls.  The only place we can't change these calls is in
+the ``tp_dealloc`` implementation, where there is the possibility that the
+initialization of these members failed in ``tp_new``.
+
+We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the
+initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra definition to the
+:file:`setup.py` file.
+
+
+Supporting cyclic garbage collection
+====================================
+
+Python has a :term:`cyclic garbage collector (GC) <garbage collection>` that
+can identify unneeded objects even when their reference counts are not zero.
+This can happen when objects are involved in cycles.  For example, consider:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> l = []
+   >>> l.append(l)
+   >>> del l
+
+In this example, we create a list that contains itself. When we delete it, it
+still has a reference from itself. Its reference count doesn't drop to zero.
+Fortunately, Python's cyclic garbage collector will eventually figure out that
+the list is garbage and free it.
+
+In the second version of the :class:`Custom` example, we allowed any kind of
+object to be stored in the :attr:`first` or :attr:`last` attributes [#]_.
+Besides, in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing
+:class:`Custom`, and subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of
+those two reasons, :class:`Custom` objects can participate in cycles:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> import custom3
+   >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
+   ...
+   >>> n = Derived()
+   >>> n.some_attribute = n
+
+To allow a :class:`Custom` instance participating in a reference cycle to
+be properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our :class:`Custom` type
+needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables these slots:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/custom4.c
+
+
+First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects that could
+participate in cycles::
+
+   static int
+   Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
+   {
+       int vret;
+       if (self->first) {
+           vret = visit(self->first, arg);
+           if (vret != 0)
+               return vret;
+       }
+       if (self->last) {
+           vret = visit(self->last, arg);
+           if (vret != 0)
+               return vret;
+       }
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
+:c:func:`visit` function, which is passed to the traversal method. The
+:c:func:`visit` function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra argument
+*arg* passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer value that must be
+returned if it is non-zero.
+
+Python provides a :c:func:`Py_VISIT` macro that automates calling visit
+functions.  With :c:func:`Py_VISIT`, we can minimize the amount of boilerplate
+in ``Custom_traverse``::
+
+   static int
+   Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
+   {
+       Py_VISIT(self->first);
+       Py_VISIT(self->last);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+.. note::
+   The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` implementation must name its
+   arguments exactly *visit* and *arg* in order to use :c:func:`Py_VISIT`.
+
+Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can
+participate in cycles::
+
+   static int
+   Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
+   {
+       Py_CLEAR(self->first);
+       Py_CLEAR(self->last);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+Notice the use of the :c:func:`Py_CLEAR` macro.  It is the recommended and safe
+way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types while decrementing
+their reference counts.  If you were to call :c:func:`Py_XDECREF` instead
+on the attribute before setting it to *NULL*, there is a possibility
+that the attribute's destructor would call back into code that reads the
+attribute again (*especially* if there is a reference cycle).
+
+.. note::
+   You could emulate :c:func:`Py_CLEAR` by writing::
+
+      PyObject *tmp;
+      tmp = self->first;
+      self->first = NULL;
+      Py_XDECREF(tmp);
+
+   Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always
+   use :c:func:`Py_CLEAR` when deleting an attribute.  Don't
+   try to micro-optimize at the expense of robustness!
+
+The deallocator ``Custom_dealloc`` may call arbitrary code when clearing
+attributes.  It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the function.
+Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to untrack the object
+from the GC by calling :c:func:`PyObject_GC_UnTrack` before clearing members.
+Here is our reimplemented deallocator using :c:func:`PyObject_GC_UnTrack`
+and ``Custom_clear``::
+
+   static void
+   Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
+   {
+       PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
+       Custom_clear(self);
+       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
+   }
+
+Finally, we add the :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag to the class flags::
+
+   .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
+
+That's pretty much it.  If we had written custom :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc` or
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_free` handlers, we'd need to modify them for cyclic
+garbage collection.  Most extensions will use the versions automatically provided.
+
+
+Subclassing other types
+=======================
+
+It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from existing
+types. It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since an extension can
+easily use the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` it needs. It can be difficult to share
+these :c:type:`PyTypeObject` structures between extension modules.
+
+In this example we will create a :class:`SubList` type that inherits from the
+built-in :class:`list` type. The new type will be completely compatible with
+regular lists, but will have an additional :meth:`increment` method that
+increases an internal counter:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> import sublist
+   >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
+   >>> s.extend(s)
+   >>> print(len(s))
+   6
+   >>> print(s.increment())
+   1
+   >>> print(s.increment())
+   2
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sublist.c
+
+
+As you can see, the source code closely resembles the :class:`Custom` examples in
+previous sections. We will break down the main differences between them. ::
+
+   typedef struct {
+       PyListObject list;
+       int state;
+   } SubListObject;
+
+The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type's
+object structure must be the first value.  The base type will already include
+the :c:func:`PyObject_HEAD` at the beginning of its structure.
+
+When a Python object is a :class:`SubList` instance, its ``PyObject *`` pointer
+can be safely cast to both ``PyListObject *`` and ``SubListObject *``::
+
+   static int
+   SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
+   {
+       if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
+           return -1;
+       self->state = 0;
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+We see above how to call through to the :attr:`__init__` method of the base
+type.
+
+This pattern is important when writing a type with custom
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc`
+members.  The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` handler should not actually
+create the memory for the object with its :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc`,
+but let the base class handle it by calling its own :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new`.
+
+The :c:type:`PyTypeObject` struct supports a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_base`
+specifying the type's concrete base class.  Due to cross-platform compiler
+issues, you can't fill that field directly with a reference to
+:c:type:`PyList_Type`; it should be done later in the module initialization
+function::
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   PyInit_sublist(void)
+   {
+       PyObject* m;
+       SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
+       if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
+           return NULL;
+
+       m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
+       if (m == NULL)
+           return NULL;
+
+       Py_INCREF(&SubListType);
+       PyModule_AddObject(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType);
+       return m;
+   }
+
+Before calling :c:func:`PyType_Ready`, the type structure must have the
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_base` slot filled in.  When we are deriving an
+existing type, it is not necessary to fill out the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc`
+slot with :c:func:`PyType_GenericNew` -- the allocation function from the base
+type will be inherited.
+
+After that, calling :c:func:`PyType_Ready` and adding the type object to the
+module is the same as with the basic :class:`Custom` examples.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a string or a
+   float.
+
+.. [#] We relied on this in the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` handler
+   in this example, because our type doesn't support garbage collection.
+
+.. [#] We now know that the first and last members are strings, so perhaps we
+   could be less careful about decrementing their reference counts, however,
+   we accept instances of string subclasses.  Even though deallocating normal
+   strings won't call back into our objects, we can't guarantee that deallocating
+   an instance of a string subclass won't call back into our objects.
+
+.. [#] Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances, the user
+   could pass arbitrary :class:`str` subclasses and therefore still create
+   reference cycles.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/windows.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/windows.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67bdd47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/extending/windows.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+
+.. _building-on-windows:
+
+****************************************
+Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
+****************************************
+
+This chapter briefly explains how to create a Windows extension module for
+Python using Microsoft Visual C++, and follows with more detailed background
+information on how it works.  The explanatory material is useful for both the
+Windows programmer learning to build Python extensions and the Unix programmer
+interested in producing software which can be successfully built on both Unix
+and Windows.
+
+Module authors are encouraged to use the distutils approach for building
+extension modules, instead of the one described in this section. You will still
+need the C compiler that was used to build Python; typically Microsoft Visual
+C++.
+
+.. note::
+
+   This chapter mentions a number of filenames that include an encoded Python
+   version number.  These filenames are represented with the version number shown
+   as ``XY``; in practice, ``'X'`` will be the major version number and ``'Y'``
+   will be the minor version number of the Python release you're working with.  For
+   example, if you are using Python 2.2.1, ``XY`` will actually be ``22``.
+
+
+.. _win-cookbook:
+
+A Cookbook Approach
+===================
+
+There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just as there
+are on Unix: use the :mod:`distutils` package to control the build process, or
+do things manually.  The distutils approach works well for most extensions;
+documentation on using :mod:`distutils` to build and package extension modules
+is available in :ref:`distutils-index`.  If you find you really need to do
+things manually, it may be instructive to study the project file for the
+:source:`winsound <PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj>` standard library module.
+
+
+.. _dynamic-linking:
+
+Differences Between Unix and Windows
+====================================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Chris Phoenix <cphoenix@best.com>
+
+
+Unix and Windows use completely different paradigms for run-time loading of
+code.  Before you try to build a module that can be dynamically loaded, be aware
+of how your system works.
+
+In Unix, a shared object (:file:`.so`) file contains code to be used by the
+program, and also the names of functions and data that it expects to find in the
+program.  When the file is joined to the program, all references to those
+functions and data in the file's code are changed to point to the actual
+locations in the program where the functions and data are placed in memory.
+This is basically a link operation.
+
+In Windows, a dynamic-link library (:file:`.dll`) file has no dangling
+references.  Instead, an access to functions or data goes through a lookup
+table.  So the DLL code does not have to be fixed up at runtime to refer to the
+program's memory; instead, the code already uses the DLL's lookup table, and the
+lookup table is modified at runtime to point to the functions and data.
+
+In Unix, there is only one type of library file (:file:`.a`) which contains code
+from several object files (:file:`.o`).  During the link step to create a shared
+object file (:file:`.so`), the linker may find that it doesn't know where an
+identifier is defined.  The linker will look for it in the object files in the
+libraries; if it finds it, it will include all the code from that object file.
+
+In Windows, there are two types of library, a static library and an import
+library (both called :file:`.lib`).  A static library is like a Unix :file:`.a`
+file; it contains code to be included as necessary. An import library is
+basically used only to reassure the linker that a certain identifier is legal,
+and will be present in the program when the DLL is loaded.  So the linker uses
+the information from the import library to build the lookup table for using
+identifiers that are not included in the DLL.  When an application or a DLL is
+linked, an import library may be generated, which will need to be used for all
+future DLLs that depend on the symbols in the application or DLL.
+
+Suppose you are building two dynamic-load modules, B and C, which should share
+another block of code A.  On Unix, you would *not* pass :file:`A.a` to the
+linker for :file:`B.so` and :file:`C.so`; that would cause it to be included
+twice, so that B and C would each have their own copy.  In Windows, building
+:file:`A.dll` will also build :file:`A.lib`.  You *do* pass :file:`A.lib` to the
+linker for B and C.  :file:`A.lib` does not contain code; it just contains
+information which will be used at runtime to access A's code.
+
+In Windows, using an import library is sort of like using ``import spam``; it
+gives you access to spam's names, but does not create a separate copy.  On Unix,
+linking with a library is more like ``from spam import *``; it does create a
+separate copy.
+
+
+.. _win-dlls:
+
+Using DLLs in Practice
+======================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Chris Phoenix <cphoenix@best.com>
+
+
+Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual C++; using other compilers may or
+may not work (though Borland seems to).  The rest of this section is MSVC++
+specific.
+
+When creating DLLs in Windows, you must pass :file:`pythonXY.lib` to the linker.
+To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in spam), you could
+use these commands::
+
+   cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
+   cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib
+
+The first command created three files: :file:`spam.obj`, :file:`spam.dll` and
+:file:`spam.lib`.  :file:`Spam.dll` does not contain any Python functions (such
+as :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`), but it does know how to find the Python code
+thanks to :file:`pythonXY.lib`.
+
+The second command created :file:`ni.dll` (and :file:`.obj` and :file:`.lib`),
+which knows how to find the necessary functions from spam, and also from the
+Python executable.
+
+Not every identifier is exported to the lookup table.  If you want any other
+modules (including Python) to be able to see your identifiers, you have to say
+``_declspec(dllexport)``, as in ``void _declspec(dllexport) initspam(void)`` or
+``PyObject _declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void)``.
+
+Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not really
+need, adding about 100K to your executable.  To get rid of them, use the Project
+Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify *ignore default libraries*.  Add the
+correct :file:`msvcrtxx.lib` to the list of libraries.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/design.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/design.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2d63a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/design.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,808 @@
+======================
+Design and History FAQ
+======================
+
+.. only:: html
+
+   .. contents::
+
+
+Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+Guido van Rossum believes that using indentation for grouping is extremely
+elegant and contributes a lot to the clarity of the average Python program.
+Most people learn to love this feature after a while.
+
+Since there are no begin/end brackets there cannot be a disagreement between
+grouping perceived by the parser and the human reader.  Occasionally C
+programmers will encounter a fragment of code like this::
+
+   if (x <= y)
+           x++;
+           y--;
+   z++;
+
+Only the ``x++`` statement is executed if the condition is true, but the
+indentation leads you to believe otherwise.  Even experienced C programmers will
+sometimes stare at it a long time wondering why ``y`` is being decremented even
+for ``x > y``.
+
+Because there are no begin/end brackets, Python is much less prone to
+coding-style conflicts.  In C there are many different ways to place the braces.
+If you're used to reading and writing code that uses one style, you will feel at
+least slightly uneasy when reading (or being required to write) another style.
+
+Many coding styles place begin/end brackets on a line by themselves.  This makes
+programs considerably longer and wastes valuable screen space, making it harder
+to get a good overview of a program.  Ideally, a function should fit on one
+screen (say, 20--30 lines).  20 lines of Python can do a lot more work than 20
+lines of C.  This is not solely due to the lack of begin/end brackets -- the
+lack of declarations and the high-level data types are also responsible -- but
+the indentation-based syntax certainly helps.
+
+
+Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+See the next question.
+
+
+Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Users are often surprised by results like this::
+
+    >>> 1.2 - 1.0
+    0.19999999999999996
+
+and think it is a bug in Python.  It's not.  This has little to do with Python,
+and much more to do with how the underlying platform handles floating-point
+numbers.
+
+The :class:`float` type in CPython uses a C ``double`` for storage.  A
+:class:`float` object's value is stored in binary floating-point with a fixed
+precision (typically 53 bits) and Python uses C operations, which in turn rely
+on the hardware implementation in the processor, to perform floating-point
+operations. This means that as far as floating-point operations are concerned,
+Python behaves like many popular languages including C and Java.
+
+Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be expressed
+exactly in binary floating-point.  For example, after::
+
+    >>> x = 1.2
+
+the value stored for ``x`` is a (very good) approximation to the decimal value
+``1.2``, but is not exactly equal to it.  On a typical machine, the actual
+stored value is::
+
+    1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (binary)
+
+which is exactly::
+
+    1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (decimal)
+
+The typical precision of 53 bits provides Python floats with 15--16
+decimal digits of accuracy.
+
+For a fuller explanation, please see the :ref:`floating point arithmetic
+<tut-fp-issues>` chapter in the Python tutorial.
+
+
+Why are Python strings immutable?
+---------------------------------
+
+There are several advantages.
+
+One is performance: knowing that a string is immutable means we can allocate
+space for it at creation time, and the storage requirements are fixed and
+unchanging.  This is also one of the reasons for the distinction between tuples
+and lists.
+
+Another advantage is that strings in Python are considered as "elemental" as
+numbers.  No amount of activity will change the value 8 to anything else, and in
+Python, no amount of activity will change the string "eight" to anything else.
+
+
+.. _why-self:
+
+Why must 'self' be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The idea was borrowed from Modula-3.  It turns out to be very useful, for a
+variety of reasons.
+
+First, it's more obvious that you are using a method or instance attribute
+instead of a local variable.  Reading ``self.x`` or ``self.meth()`` makes it
+absolutely clear that an instance variable or method is used even if you don't
+know the class definition by heart.  In C++, you can sort of tell by the lack of
+a local variable declaration (assuming globals are rare or easily recognizable)
+-- but in Python, there are no local variable declarations, so you'd have to
+look up the class definition to be sure.  Some C++ and Java coding standards
+call for instance attributes to have an ``m_`` prefix, so this explicitness is
+still useful in those languages, too.
+
+Second, it means that no special syntax is necessary if you want to explicitly
+reference or call the method from a particular class.  In C++, if you want to
+use a method from a base class which is overridden in a derived class, you have
+to use the ``::`` operator -- in Python you can write
+``baseclass.methodname(self, <argument list>)``.  This is particularly useful
+for :meth:`__init__` methods, and in general in cases where a derived class
+method wants to extend the base class method of the same name and thus has to
+call the base class method somehow.
+
+Finally, for instance variables it solves a syntactic problem with assignment:
+since local variables in Python are (by definition!) those variables to which a
+value is assigned in a function body (and that aren't explicitly declared
+global), there has to be some way to tell the interpreter that an assignment was
+meant to assign to an instance variable instead of to a local variable, and it
+should preferably be syntactic (for efficiency reasons).  C++ does this through
+declarations, but Python doesn't have declarations and it would be a pity having
+to introduce them just for this purpose.  Using the explicit ``self.var`` solves
+this nicely.  Similarly, for using instance variables, having to write
+``self.var`` means that references to unqualified names inside a method don't
+have to search the instance's directories.  To put it another way, local
+variables and instance variables live in two different namespaces, and you need
+to tell Python which namespace to use.
+
+
+Why can't I use an assignment in an expression?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+Many people used to C or Perl complain that they want to use this C idiom:
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+   while (line = readline(f)) {
+       // do something with line
+   }
+
+where in Python you're forced to write this::
+
+   while True:
+       line = f.readline()
+       if not line:
+           break
+       ...  # do something with line
+
+The reason for not allowing assignment in Python expressions is a common,
+hard-to-find bug in those other languages, caused by this construct:
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    if (x = 0) {
+        // error handling
+    }
+    else {
+        // code that only works for nonzero x
+    }
+
+The error is a simple typo: ``x = 0``, which assigns 0 to the variable ``x``,
+was written while the comparison ``x == 0`` is certainly what was intended.
+
+Many alternatives have been proposed.  Most are hacks that save some typing but
+use arbitrary or cryptic syntax or keywords, and fail the simple criterion for
+language change proposals: it should intuitively suggest the proper meaning to a
+human reader who has not yet been introduced to the construct.
+
+An interesting phenomenon is that most experienced Python programmers recognize
+the ``while True`` idiom and don't seem to be missing the assignment in
+expression construct much; it's only newcomers who express a strong desire to
+add this to the language.
+
+There's an alternative way of spelling this that seems attractive but is
+generally less robust than the "while True" solution::
+
+   line = f.readline()
+   while line:
+       ...  # do something with line...
+       line = f.readline()
+
+The problem with this is that if you change your mind about exactly how you get
+the next line (e.g. you want to change it into ``sys.stdin.readline()``) you
+have to remember to change two places in your program -- the second occurrence
+is hidden at the bottom of the loop.
+
+The best approach is to use iterators, making it possible to loop through
+objects using the ``for`` statement.  For example, :term:`file objects
+<file object>` support the iterator protocol, so you can write simply::
+
+   for line in f:
+       ...  # do something with line...
+
+
+
+Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+As Guido said:
+
+    (a) For some operations, prefix notation just reads better than
+    postfix -- prefix (and infix!) operations have a long tradition in
+    mathematics which likes notations where the visuals help the
+    mathematician thinking about a problem. Compare the easy with which we
+    rewrite a formula like x*(a+b) into x*a + x*b to the clumsiness of
+    doing the same thing using a raw OO notation.
+
+    (b) When I read code that says len(x) I *know* that it is asking for
+    the length of something. This tells me two things: the result is an
+    integer, and the argument is some kind of container. To the contrary,
+    when I read x.len(), I have to already know that x is some kind of
+    container implementing an interface or inheriting from a class that
+    has a standard len(). Witness the confusion we occasionally have when
+    a class that is not implementing a mapping has a get() or keys()
+    method, or something that isn't a file has a write() method.
+
+    -- https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html
+
+
+Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Strings became much more like other standard types starting in Python 1.6, when
+methods were added which give the same functionality that has always been
+available using the functions of the string module.  Most of these new methods
+have been widely accepted, but the one which appears to make some programmers
+feel uncomfortable is::
+
+   ", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16'])
+
+which gives the result::
+
+   "1, 2, 4, 8, 16"
+
+There are two common arguments against this usage.
+
+The first runs along the lines of: "It looks really ugly using a method of a
+string literal (string constant)", to which the answer is that it might, but a
+string literal is just a fixed value. If the methods are to be allowed on names
+bound to strings there is no logical reason to make them unavailable on
+literals.
+
+The second objection is typically cast as: "I am really telling a sequence to
+join its members together with a string constant".  Sadly, you aren't.  For some
+reason there seems to be much less difficulty with having :meth:`~str.split` as
+a string method, since in that case it is easy to see that ::
+
+   "1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ")
+
+is an instruction to a string literal to return the substrings delimited by the
+given separator (or, by default, arbitrary runs of white space).
+
+:meth:`~str.join` is a string method because in using it you are telling the
+separator string to iterate over a sequence of strings and insert itself between
+adjacent elements.  This method can be used with any argument which obeys the
+rules for sequence objects, including any new classes you might define yourself.
+Similar methods exist for bytes and bytearray objects.
+
+
+How fast are exceptions?
+------------------------
+
+A try/except block is extremely efficient if no exceptions are raised.  Actually
+catching an exception is expensive.  In versions of Python prior to 2.0 it was
+common to use this idiom::
+
+   try:
+       value = mydict[key]
+   except KeyError:
+       mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
+       value = mydict[key]
+
+This only made sense when you expected the dict to have the key almost all the
+time.  If that wasn't the case, you coded it like this::
+
+   if key in mydict:
+       value = mydict[key]
+   else:
+       value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
+
+For this specific case, you could also use ``value = dict.setdefault(key,
+getvalue(key))``, but only if the ``getvalue()`` call is cheap enough because it
+is evaluated in all cases.
+
+
+Why isn't there a switch or case statement in Python?
+-----------------------------------------------------
+
+You can do this easily enough with a sequence of ``if... elif... elif... else``.
+There have been some proposals for switch statement syntax, but there is no
+consensus (yet) on whether and how to do range tests.  See :pep:`275` for
+complete details and the current status.
+
+For cases where you need to choose from a very large number of possibilities,
+you can create a dictionary mapping case values to functions to call.  For
+example::
+
+   def function_1(...):
+       ...
+
+   functions = {'a': function_1,
+                'b': function_2,
+                'c': self.method_1, ...}
+
+   func = functions[value]
+   func()
+
+For calling methods on objects, you can simplify yet further by using the
+:func:`getattr` built-in to retrieve methods with a particular name::
+
+   def visit_a(self, ...):
+       ...
+   ...
+
+   def dispatch(self, value):
+       method_name = 'visit_' + str(value)
+       method = getattr(self, method_name)
+       method()
+
+It's suggested that you use a prefix for the method names, such as ``visit_`` in
+this example.  Without such a prefix, if values are coming from an untrusted
+source, an attacker would be able to call any method on your object.
+
+
+Can't you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Answer 1: Unfortunately, the interpreter pushes at least one C stack frame for
+each Python stack frame.  Also, extensions can call back into Python at almost
+random moments.  Therefore, a complete threads implementation requires thread
+support for C.
+
+Answer 2: Fortunately, there is `Stackless Python <https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki>`_,
+which has a completely redesigned interpreter loop that avoids the C stack.
+
+
+Why can't lambda expressions contain statements?
+------------------------------------------------
+
+Python lambda expressions cannot contain statements because Python's syntactic
+framework can't handle statements nested inside expressions.  However, in
+Python, this is not a serious problem.  Unlike lambda forms in other languages,
+where they add functionality, Python lambdas are only a shorthand notation if
+you're too lazy to define a function.
+
+Functions are already first class objects in Python, and can be declared in a
+local scope.  Therefore the only advantage of using a lambda instead of a
+locally-defined function is that you don't need to invent a name for the
+function -- but that's just a local variable to which the function object (which
+is exactly the same type of object that a lambda expression yields) is assigned!
+
+
+Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
+-----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+`Cython <http://cython.org/>`_ compiles a modified version of Python with
+optional annotations into C extensions.  `Nuitka <http://www.nuitka.net/>`_ is
+an up-and-coming compiler of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full
+Python language. For compiling to Java you can consider
+`VOC <https://voc.readthedocs.io>`_.
+
+
+How does Python manage memory?
+------------------------------
+
+The details of Python memory management depend on the implementation.  The
+standard implementation of Python, :term:`CPython`, uses reference counting to
+detect inaccessible objects, and another mechanism to collect reference cycles,
+periodically executing a cycle detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible
+cycles and deletes the objects involved. The :mod:`gc` module provides functions
+to perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tune the
+collector's parameters.
+
+Other implementations (such as `Jython <http://www.jython.org>`_ or
+`PyPy <http://www.pypy.org>`_), however, can rely on a different mechanism
+such as a full-blown garbage collector.  This difference can cause some
+subtle porting problems if your Python code depends on the behavior of the
+reference counting implementation.
+
+In some Python implementations, the following code (which is fine in CPython)
+will probably run out of file descriptors::
+
+   for file in very_long_list_of_files:
+       f = open(file)
+       c = f.read(1)
+
+Indeed, using CPython's reference counting and destructor scheme, each new
+assignment to *f* closes the previous file.  With a traditional GC, however,
+those file objects will only get collected (and closed) at varying and possibly
+long intervals.
+
+If you want to write code that will work with any Python implementation,
+you should explicitly close the file or use the :keyword:`with` statement;
+this will work regardless of memory management scheme::
+
+   for file in very_long_list_of_files:
+       with open(file) as f:
+           c = f.read(1)
+
+
+Why doesn't CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?
+---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+For one thing, this is not a C standard feature and hence it's not portable.
+(Yes, we know about the Boehm GC library.  It has bits of assembler code for
+*most* common platforms, not for all of them, and although it is mostly
+transparent, it isn't completely transparent; patches are required to get
+Python to work with it.)
+
+Traditional GC also becomes a problem when Python is embedded into other
+applications.  While in a standalone Python it's fine to replace the standard
+malloc() and free() with versions provided by the GC library, an application
+embedding Python may want to have its *own* substitute for malloc() and free(),
+and may not want Python's.  Right now, CPython works with anything that
+implements malloc() and free() properly.
+
+
+Why isn't all memory freed when CPython exits?
+----------------------------------------------
+
+Objects referenced from the global namespaces of Python modules are not always
+deallocated when Python exits.  This may happen if there are circular
+references.  There are also certain bits of memory that are allocated by the C
+library that are impossible to free (e.g. a tool like Purify will complain about
+these).  Python is, however, aggressive about cleaning up memory on exit and
+does try to destroy every single object.
+
+If you want to force Python to delete certain things on deallocation use the
+:mod:`atexit` module to run a function that will force those deletions.
+
+
+Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+Lists and tuples, while similar in many respects, are generally used in
+fundamentally different ways.  Tuples can be thought of as being similar to
+Pascal records or C structs; they're small collections of related data which may
+be of different types which are operated on as a group.  For example, a
+Cartesian coordinate is appropriately represented as a tuple of two or three
+numbers.
+
+Lists, on the other hand, are more like arrays in other languages.  They tend to
+hold a varying number of objects all of which have the same type and which are
+operated on one-by-one.  For example, ``os.listdir('.')`` returns a list of
+strings representing the files in the current directory.  Functions which
+operate on this output would generally not break if you added another file or
+two to the directory.
+
+Tuples are immutable, meaning that once a tuple has been created, you can't
+replace any of its elements with a new value.  Lists are mutable, meaning that
+you can always change a list's elements.  Only immutable elements can be used as
+dictionary keys, and hence only tuples and not lists can be used as keys.
+
+
+How are lists implemented in CPython?
+-------------------------------------
+
+CPython's lists are really variable-length arrays, not Lisp-style linked lists.
+The implementation uses a contiguous array of references to other objects, and
+keeps a pointer to this array and the array's length in a list head structure.
+
+This makes indexing a list ``a[i]`` an operation whose cost is independent of
+the size of the list or the value of the index.
+
+When items are appended or inserted, the array of references is resized.  Some
+cleverness is applied to improve the performance of appending items repeatedly;
+when the array must be grown, some extra space is allocated so the next few
+times don't require an actual resize.
+
+
+How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?
+--------------------------------------------
+
+CPython's dictionaries are implemented as resizable hash tables.  Compared to
+B-trees, this gives better performance for lookup (the most common operation by
+far) under most circumstances, and the implementation is simpler.
+
+Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the dictionary
+using the :func:`hash` built-in function.  The hash code varies widely depending
+on the key and a per-process seed; for example, "Python" could hash to
+-539294296 while "python", a string that differs by a single bit, could hash
+to 1142331976.  The hash code is then used to calculate a location in an
+internal array where the value will be stored.  Assuming that you're storing
+keys that all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take
+constant time -- O(1), in Big-O notation -- to retrieve a key.
+
+
+Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
+--------------------------------------
+
+The hash table implementation of dictionaries uses a hash value calculated from
+the key value to find the key.  If the key were a mutable object, its value
+could change, and thus its hash could also change.  But since whoever changes
+the key object can't tell that it was being used as a dictionary key, it can't
+move the entry around in the dictionary.  Then, when you try to look up the same
+object in the dictionary it won't be found because its hash value is different.
+If you tried to look up the old value it wouldn't be found either, because the
+value of the object found in that hash bin would be different.
+
+If you want a dictionary indexed with a list, simply convert the list to a tuple
+first; the function ``tuple(L)`` creates a tuple with the same entries as the
+list ``L``.  Tuples are immutable and can therefore be used as dictionary keys.
+
+Some unacceptable solutions that have been proposed:
+
+- Hash lists by their address (object ID).  This doesn't work because if you
+  construct a new list with the same value it won't be found; e.g.::
+
+     mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'}
+     print(mydict[[1, 2]])
+
+  would raise a :exc:`KeyError` exception because the id of the ``[1, 2]`` used in the
+  second line differs from that in the first line.  In other words, dictionary
+  keys should be compared using ``==``, not using :keyword:`is`.
+
+- Make a copy when using a list as a key.  This doesn't work because the list,
+  being a mutable object, could contain a reference to itself, and then the
+  copying code would run into an infinite loop.
+
+- Allow lists as keys but tell the user not to modify them.  This would allow a
+  class of hard-to-track bugs in programs when you forgot or modified a list by
+  accident. It also invalidates an important invariant of dictionaries: every
+  value in ``d.keys()`` is usable as a key of the dictionary.
+
+- Mark lists as read-only once they are used as a dictionary key.  The problem
+  is that it's not just the top-level object that could change its value; you
+  could use a tuple containing a list as a key.  Entering anything as a key into
+  a dictionary would require marking all objects reachable from there as
+  read-only -- and again, self-referential objects could cause an infinite loop.
+
+There is a trick to get around this if you need to, but use it at your own risk:
+You can wrap a mutable structure inside a class instance which has both a
+:meth:`__eq__` and a :meth:`__hash__` method.  You must then make sure that the
+hash value for all such wrapper objects that reside in a dictionary (or other
+hash based structure), remain fixed while the object is in the dictionary (or
+other structure). ::
+
+   class ListWrapper:
+       def __init__(self, the_list):
+           self.the_list = the_list
+
+       def __eq__(self, other):
+           return self.the_list == other.the_list
+
+       def __hash__(self):
+           l = self.the_list
+           result = 98767 - len(l)*555
+           for i, el in enumerate(l):
+               try:
+                   result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i
+               except Exception:
+                   result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333
+           return result
+
+Note that the hash computation is complicated by the possibility that some
+members of the list may be unhashable and also by the possibility of arithmetic
+overflow.
+
+Furthermore it must always be the case that if ``o1 == o2`` (ie ``o1.__eq__(o2)
+is True``) then ``hash(o1) == hash(o2)`` (ie, ``o1.__hash__() == o2.__hash__()``),
+regardless of whether the object is in a dictionary or not.  If you fail to meet
+these restrictions dictionaries and other hash based structures will misbehave.
+
+In the case of ListWrapper, whenever the wrapper object is in a dictionary the
+wrapped list must not change to avoid anomalies.  Don't do this unless you are
+prepared to think hard about the requirements and the consequences of not
+meeting them correctly.  Consider yourself warned.
+
+
+Why doesn't list.sort() return the sorted list?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+In situations where performance matters, making a copy of the list just to sort
+it would be wasteful. Therefore, :meth:`list.sort` sorts the list in place. In
+order to remind you of that fact, it does not return the sorted list.  This way,
+you won't be fooled into accidentally overwriting a list when you need a sorted
+copy but also need to keep the unsorted version around.
+
+If you want to return a new list, use the built-in :func:`sorted` function
+instead.  This function creates a new list from a provided iterable, sorts
+it and returns it.  For example, here's how to iterate over the keys of a
+dictionary in sorted order::
+
+   for key in sorted(mydict):
+       ...  # do whatever with mydict[key]...
+
+
+How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+An interface specification for a module as provided by languages such as C++ and
+Java describes the prototypes for the methods and functions of the module.  Many
+feel that compile-time enforcement of interface specifications helps in the
+construction of large programs.
+
+Python 2.6 adds an :mod:`abc` module that lets you define Abstract Base Classes
+(ABCs).  You can then use :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass` to check
+whether an instance or a class implements a particular ABC.  The
+:mod:`collections.abc` module defines a set of useful ABCs such as
+:class:`~collections.abc.Iterable`, :class:`~collections.abc.Container`, and
+:class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping`.
+
+For Python, many of the advantages of interface specifications can be obtained
+by an appropriate test discipline for components.  There is also a tool,
+PyChecker, which can be used to find problems due to subclassing.
+
+A good test suite for a module can both provide a regression test and serve as a
+module interface specification and a set of examples.  Many Python modules can
+be run as a script to provide a simple "self test."  Even modules which use
+complex external interfaces can often be tested in isolation using trivial
+"stub" emulations of the external interface.  The :mod:`doctest` and
+:mod:`unittest` modules or third-party test frameworks can be used to construct
+exhaustive test suites that exercise every line of code in a module.
+
+An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex applications in
+Python as well as having interface specifications would.  In fact, it can be
+better because an interface specification cannot test certain properties of a
+program.  For example, the :meth:`append` method is expected to add new elements
+to the end of some internal list; an interface specification cannot test that
+your :meth:`append` implementation will actually do this correctly, but it's
+trivial to check this property in a test suite.
+
+Writing test suites is very helpful, and you might want to design your code with
+an eye to making it easily tested.  One increasingly popular technique,
+test-directed development, calls for writing parts of the test suite first,
+before you write any of the actual code.  Of course Python allows you to be
+sloppy and not write test cases at all.
+
+
+Why is there no goto?
+---------------------
+
+You can use exceptions to provide a "structured goto" that even works across
+function calls.  Many feel that exceptions can conveniently emulate all
+reasonable uses of the "go" or "goto" constructs of C, Fortran, and other
+languages.  For example::
+
+   class label(Exception): pass  # declare a label
+
+   try:
+       ...
+       if condition: raise label()  # goto label
+       ...
+   except label:  # where to goto
+       pass
+   ...
+
+This doesn't allow you to jump into the middle of a loop, but that's usually
+considered an abuse of goto anyway.  Use sparingly.
+
+
+Why can't raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
+-------------------------------------------------------
+
+More precisely, they can't end with an odd number of backslashes: the unpaired
+backslash at the end escapes the closing quote character, leaving an
+unterminated string.
+
+Raw strings were designed to ease creating input for processors (chiefly regular
+expression engines) that want to do their own backslash escape processing. Such
+processors consider an unmatched trailing backslash to be an error anyway, so
+raw strings disallow that.  In return, they allow you to pass on the string
+quote character by escaping it with a backslash.  These rules work well when
+r-strings are used for their intended purpose.
+
+If you're trying to build Windows pathnames, note that all Windows system calls
+accept forward slashes too::
+
+   f = open("/mydir/file.txt")  # works fine!
+
+If you're trying to build a pathname for a DOS command, try e.g. one of ::
+
+   dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\"
+   dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1]
+   dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"
+
+
+Why doesn't Python have a "with" statement for attribute assignments?
+---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Python has a 'with' statement that wraps the execution of a block, calling code
+on the entrance and exit from the block.  Some language have a construct that
+looks like this::
+
+   with obj:
+       a = 1               # equivalent to obj.a = 1
+       total = total + 1   # obj.total = obj.total + 1
+
+In Python, such a construct would be ambiguous.
+
+Other languages, such as Object Pascal, Delphi, and C++, use static types, so
+it's possible to know, in an unambiguous way, what member is being assigned
+to. This is the main point of static typing -- the compiler *always* knows the
+scope of every variable at compile time.
+
+Python uses dynamic types. It is impossible to know in advance which attribute
+will be referenced at runtime. Member attributes may be added or removed from
+objects on the fly. This makes it impossible to know, from a simple reading,
+what attribute is being referenced: a local one, a global one, or a member
+attribute?
+
+For instance, take the following incomplete snippet::
+
+   def foo(a):
+       with a:
+           print(x)
+
+The snippet assumes that "a" must have a member attribute called "x".  However,
+there is nothing in Python that tells the interpreter this. What should happen
+if "a" is, let us say, an integer?  If there is a global variable named "x",
+will it be used inside the with block?  As you see, the dynamic nature of Python
+makes such choices much harder.
+
+The primary benefit of "with" and similar language features (reduction of code
+volume) can, however, easily be achieved in Python by assignment.  Instead of::
+
+   function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21
+   function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42
+   function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63
+
+write this::
+
+   ref = function(args).mydict[index][index]
+   ref.a = 21
+   ref.b = 42
+   ref.c = 63
+
+This also has the side-effect of increasing execution speed because name
+bindings are resolved at run-time in Python, and the second version only needs
+to perform the resolution once.
+
+
+Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The colon is required primarily to enhance readability (one of the results of
+the experimental ABC language).  Consider this::
+
+   if a == b
+       print(a)
+
+versus ::
+
+   if a == b:
+       print(a)
+
+Notice how the second one is slightly easier to read.  Notice further how a
+colon sets off the example in this FAQ answer; it's a standard usage in English.
+
+Another minor reason is that the colon makes it easier for editors with syntax
+highlighting; they can look for colons to decide when indentation needs to be
+increased instead of having to do a more elaborate parsing of the program text.
+
+
+Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Python lets you add a trailing comma at the end of lists, tuples, and
+dictionaries::
+
+   [1, 2, 3,]
+   ('a', 'b', 'c',)
+   d = {
+       "A": [1, 5],
+       "B": [6, 7],  # last trailing comma is optional but good style
+   }
+
+
+There are several reasons to allow this.
+
+When you have a literal value for a list, tuple, or dictionary spread across
+multiple lines, it's easier to add more elements because you don't have to
+remember to add a comma to the previous line.  The lines can also be reordered
+without creating a syntax error.
+
+Accidentally omitting the comma can lead to errors that are hard to diagnose.
+For example::
+
+       x = [
+         "fee",
+         "fie"
+         "foo",
+         "fum"
+       ]
+
+This list looks like it has four elements, but it actually contains three:
+"fee", "fiefoo" and "fum".  Always adding the comma avoids this source of error.
+
+Allowing the trailing comma may also make programmatic code generation easier.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/extending.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/extending.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ad2765
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/extending.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,447 @@
+=======================
+Extending/Embedding FAQ
+=======================
+
+.. only:: html
+
+   .. contents::
+
+.. highlight:: c
+
+
+.. XXX need review for Python 3.
+
+
+Can I create my own functions in C?
+-----------------------------------
+
+Yes, you can create built-in modules containing functions, variables, exceptions
+and even new types in C.  This is explained in the document
+:ref:`extending-index`.
+
+Most intermediate or advanced Python books will also cover this topic.
+
+
+Can I create my own functions in C++?
+-------------------------------------
+
+Yes, using the C compatibility features found in C++.  Place ``extern "C" {
+... }`` around the Python include files and put ``extern "C"`` before each
+function that is going to be called by the Python interpreter.  Global or static
+C++ objects with constructors are probably not a good idea.
+
+
+.. _c-wrapper-software:
+
+Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
+----------------------------------------------
+
+There are a number of alternatives to writing your own C extensions, depending
+on what you're trying to do.
+
+.. XXX make sure these all work
+
+`Cython <http://cython.org>`_ and its relative `Pyrex
+<https://www.cosc.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/python/Pyrex/>`_ are compilers
+that accept a slightly modified form of Python and generate the corresponding
+C code.  Cython and Pyrex make it possible to write an extension without having
+to learn Python's C API.
+
+If you need to interface to some C or C++ library for which no Python extension
+currently exists, you can try wrapping the library's data types and functions
+with a tool such as `SWIG <http://www.swig.org>`_.  `SIP
+<https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/sip/intro>`__, `CXX
+<http://cxx.sourceforge.net/>`_ `Boost
+<http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html>`_, or `Weave
+<https://github.com/scipy/weave>`_ are also
+alternatives for wrapping C++ libraries.
+
+
+How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
+-----------------------------------------------------
+
+The highest-level function to do this is :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleString` which takes
+a single string argument to be executed in the context of the module
+``__main__`` and returns ``0`` for success and ``-1`` when an exception occurred
+(including :exc:`SyntaxError`).  If you want more control, use
+:c:func:`PyRun_String`; see the source for :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleString` in
+``Python/pythonrun.c``.
+
+
+How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+Call the function :c:func:`PyRun_String` from the previous question with the
+start symbol :c:data:`Py_eval_input`; it parses an expression, evaluates it and
+returns its value.
+
+
+How do I extract C values from a Python object?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+That depends on the object's type.  If it's a tuple, :c:func:`PyTuple_Size`
+returns its length and :c:func:`PyTuple_GetItem` returns the item at a specified
+index.  Lists have similar functions, :c:func:`PyListSize` and
+:c:func:`PyList_GetItem`.
+
+For bytes, :c:func:`PyBytes_Size` returns its length and
+:c:func:`PyBytes_AsStringAndSize` provides a pointer to its value and its
+length.  Note that Python bytes objects may contain null bytes so C's
+:c:func:`strlen` should not be used.
+
+To test the type of an object, first make sure it isn't *NULL*, and then use
+:c:func:`PyBytes_Check`, :c:func:`PyTuple_Check`, :c:func:`PyList_Check`, etc.
+
+There is also a high-level API to Python objects which is provided by the
+so-called 'abstract' interface -- read ``Include/abstract.h`` for further
+details.  It allows interfacing with any kind of Python sequence using calls
+like :c:func:`PySequence_Length`, :c:func:`PySequence_GetItem`, etc. as well
+as many other useful protocols such as numbers (:c:func:`PyNumber_Index` et
+al.) and mappings in the PyMapping APIs.
+
+
+How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+You can't.  Use :c:func:`PyTuple_Pack` instead.
+
+
+How do I call an object's method from C?
+----------------------------------------
+
+The :c:func:`PyObject_CallMethod` function can be used to call an arbitrary
+method of an object.  The parameters are the object, the name of the method to
+call, a format string like that used with :c:func:`Py_BuildValue`, and the
+argument values::
+
+   PyObject *
+   PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name,
+                       const char *arg_format, ...);
+
+This works for any object that has methods -- whether built-in or user-defined.
+You are responsible for eventually :c:func:`Py_DECREF`\ 'ing the return value.
+
+To call, e.g., a file object's "seek" method with arguments 10, 0 (assuming the
+file object pointer is "f")::
+
+   res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0);
+   if (res == NULL) {
+           ... an exception occurred ...
+   }
+   else {
+           Py_DECREF(res);
+   }
+
+Note that since :c:func:`PyObject_CallObject` *always* wants a tuple for the
+argument list, to call a function without arguments, pass "()" for the format,
+and to call a function with one argument, surround the argument in parentheses,
+e.g. "(i)".
+
+
+How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+In Python code, define an object that supports the ``write()`` method.  Assign
+this object to :data:`sys.stdout` and :data:`sys.stderr`.  Call print_error, or
+just allow the standard traceback mechanism to work. Then, the output will go
+wherever your ``write()`` method sends it.
+
+The easiest way to do this is to use the :class:`io.StringIO` class:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> import io, sys
+   >>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO()
+   >>> print('foo')
+   >>> print('hello world!')
+   >>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue())
+   foo
+   hello world!
+
+A custom object to do the same would look like this:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   >>> import io, sys
+   >>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase):
+   ...     def __init__(self):
+   ...         self.data = []
+   ...     def write(self, stuff):
+   ...         self.data.append(stuff)
+   ...
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher()
+   >>> print('foo')
+   >>> print('hello world!')
+   >>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data))
+   foo
+   hello world!
+
+
+How do I access a module written in Python from C?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+You can get a pointer to the module object as follows::
+
+   module = PyImport_ImportModule("<modulename>");
+
+If the module hasn't been imported yet (i.e. it is not yet present in
+:data:`sys.modules`), this initializes the module; otherwise it simply returns
+the value of ``sys.modules["<modulename>"]``.  Note that it doesn't enter the
+module into any namespace -- it only ensures it has been initialized and is
+stored in :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+You can then access the module's attributes (i.e. any name defined in the
+module) as follows::
+
+   attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "<attrname>");
+
+Calling :c:func:`PyObject_SetAttrString` to assign to variables in the module
+also works.
+
+
+How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
+----------------------------------------------
+
+Depending on your requirements, there are many approaches.  To do this manually,
+begin by reading :ref:`the "Extending and Embedding" document
+<extending-index>`.  Realize that for the Python run-time system, there isn't a
+whole lot of difference between C and C++ -- so the strategy of building a new
+Python type around a C structure (pointer) type will also work for C++ objects.
+
+For C++ libraries, see :ref:`c-wrapper-software`.
+
+
+I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Setup must end in a newline, if there is no newline there, the build process
+fails.  (Fixing this requires some ugly shell script hackery, and this bug is so
+minor that it doesn't seem worth the effort.)
+
+
+How do I debug an extension?
+----------------------------
+
+When using GDB with dynamically loaded extensions, you can't set a breakpoint in
+your extension until your extension is loaded.
+
+In your ``.gdbinit`` file (or interactively), add the command:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule
+
+Then, when you run GDB:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ gdb /local/bin/python
+   gdb) run myscript.py
+   gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded
+   gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded
+   gdb) br myfunction.c:50
+   gdb) continue
+
+I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Most packaged versions of Python don't include the
+:file:`/usr/lib/python2.{x}/config/` directory, which contains various files
+required for compiling Python extensions.
+
+For Red Hat, install the python-devel RPM to get the necessary files.
+
+For Debian, run ``apt-get install python-dev``.
+
+
+How do I tell "incomplete input" from "invalid input"?
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+Sometimes you want to emulate the Python interactive interpreter's behavior,
+where it gives you a continuation prompt when the input is incomplete (e.g. you
+typed the start of an "if" statement or you didn't close your parentheses or
+triple string quotes), but it gives you a syntax error message immediately when
+the input is invalid.
+
+In Python you can use the :mod:`codeop` module, which approximates the parser's
+behavior sufficiently.  IDLE uses this, for example.
+
+The easiest way to do it in C is to call :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveLoop` (perhaps
+in a separate thread) and let the Python interpreter handle the input for
+you. You can also set the :c:func:`PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer` to point at your
+custom input function. See ``Modules/readline.c`` and ``Parser/myreadline.c``
+for more hints.
+
+However sometimes you have to run the embedded Python interpreter in the same
+thread as your rest application and you can't allow the
+:c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveLoop` to stop while waiting for user input.  The one
+solution then is to call :c:func:`PyParser_ParseString` and test for ``e.error``
+equal to ``E_EOF``, which means the input is incomplete.  Here's a sample code
+fragment, untested, inspired by code from Alex Farber::
+
+   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
+   #include <Python.h>
+   #include <node.h>
+   #include <errcode.h>
+   #include <grammar.h>
+   #include <parsetok.h>
+   #include <compile.h>
+
+   int testcomplete(char *code)
+     /* code should end in \n */
+     /* return -1 for error, 0 for incomplete, 1 for complete */
+   {
+     node *n;
+     perrdetail e;
+
+     n = PyParser_ParseString(code, &_PyParser_Grammar,
+                              Py_file_input, &e);
+     if (n == NULL) {
+       if (e.error == E_EOF)
+         return 0;
+       return -1;
+     }
+
+     PyNode_Free(n);
+     return 1;
+   }
+
+Another solution is trying to compile the received string with
+:c:func:`Py_CompileString`. If it compiles without errors, try to execute the
+returned code object by calling :c:func:`PyEval_EvalCode`. Otherwise save the
+input for later. If the compilation fails, find out if it's an error or just
+more input is required - by extracting the message string from the exception
+tuple and comparing it to the string "unexpected EOF while parsing".  Here is a
+complete example using the GNU readline library (you may want to ignore
+**SIGINT** while calling readline())::
+
+   #include <stdio.h>
+   #include <readline.h>
+
+   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
+   #include <Python.h>
+   #include <object.h>
+   #include <compile.h>
+   #include <eval.h>
+
+   int main (int argc, char* argv[])
+   {
+     int i, j, done = 0;                          /* lengths of line, code */
+     char ps1[] = ">>> ";
+     char ps2[] = "... ";
+     char *prompt = ps1;
+     char *msg, *line, *code = NULL;
+     PyObject *src, *glb, *loc;
+     PyObject *exc, *val, *trb, *obj, *dum;
+
+     Py_Initialize ();
+     loc = PyDict_New ();
+     glb = PyDict_New ();
+     PyDict_SetItemString (glb, "__builtins__", PyEval_GetBuiltins ());
+
+     while (!done)
+     {
+       line = readline (prompt);
+
+       if (NULL == line)                          /* Ctrl-D pressed */
+       {
+         done = 1;
+       }
+       else
+       {
+         i = strlen (line);
+
+         if (i > 0)
+           add_history (line);                    /* save non-empty lines */
+
+         if (NULL == code)                        /* nothing in code yet */
+           j = 0;
+         else
+           j = strlen (code);
+
+         code = realloc (code, i + j + 2);
+         if (NULL == code)                        /* out of memory */
+           exit (1);
+
+         if (0 == j)                              /* code was empty, so */
+           code[0] = '\0';                        /* keep strncat happy */
+
+         strncat (code, line, i);                 /* append line to code */
+         code[i + j] = '\n';                      /* append '\n' to code */
+         code[i + j + 1] = '\0';
+
+         src = Py_CompileString (code, "<stdin>", Py_single_input);
+
+         if (NULL != src)                         /* compiled just fine - */
+         {
+           if (ps1  == prompt ||                  /* ">>> " or */
+               '\n' == code[i + j - 1])           /* "... " and double '\n' */
+           {                                               /* so execute it */
+             dum = PyEval_EvalCode (src, glb, loc);
+             Py_XDECREF (dum);
+             Py_XDECREF (src);
+             free (code);
+             code = NULL;
+             if (PyErr_Occurred ())
+               PyErr_Print ();
+             prompt = ps1;
+           }
+         }                                        /* syntax error or E_EOF? */
+         else if (PyErr_ExceptionMatches (PyExc_SyntaxError))
+         {
+           PyErr_Fetch (&exc, &val, &trb);        /* clears exception! */
+
+           if (PyArg_ParseTuple (val, "sO", &msg, &obj) &&
+               !strcmp (msg, "unexpected EOF while parsing")) /* E_EOF */
+           {
+             Py_XDECREF (exc);
+             Py_XDECREF (val);
+             Py_XDECREF (trb);
+             prompt = ps2;
+           }
+           else                                   /* some other syntax error */
+           {
+             PyErr_Restore (exc, val, trb);
+             PyErr_Print ();
+             free (code);
+             code = NULL;
+             prompt = ps1;
+           }
+         }
+         else                                     /* some non-syntax error */
+         {
+           PyErr_Print ();
+           free (code);
+           code = NULL;
+           prompt = ps1;
+         }
+
+         free (line);
+       }
+     }
+
+     Py_XDECREF(glb);
+     Py_XDECREF(loc);
+     Py_Finalize();
+     exit(0);
+   }
+
+
+How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+To dynamically load g++ extension modules, you must recompile Python, relink it
+using g++ (change LINKCC in the Python Modules Makefile), and link your
+extension module using g++ (e.g., ``g++ -shared -o mymodule.so mymodule.o``).
+
+
+Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes, you can inherit from built-in classes such as :class:`int`, :class:`list`,
+:class:`dict`, etc.
+
+The Boost Python Library (BPL, http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html)
+provides a way of doing this from C++ (i.e. you can inherit from an extension
+class written in C++ using the BPL).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/general.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/general.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ef553e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/general.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,446 @@
+:tocdepth: 2
+
+==================
+General Python FAQ
+==================
+
+.. only:: html
+
+   .. contents::
+
+
+General Information
+===================
+
+What is Python?
+---------------
+
+Python is an interpreted, interactive, object-oriented programming language.  It
+incorporates modules, exceptions, dynamic typing, very high level dynamic data
+types, and classes.  Python combines remarkable power with very clear syntax.
+It has interfaces to many system calls and libraries, as well as to various
+window systems, and is extensible in C or C++.  It is also usable as an
+extension language for applications that need a programmable interface.
+Finally, Python is portable: it runs on many Unix variants, on the Mac, and on
+Windows 2000 and later.
+
+To find out more, start with :ref:`tutorial-index`.  The `Beginner's Guide to
+Python <https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide>`_ links to other
+introductory tutorials and resources for learning Python.
+
+
+What is the Python Software Foundation?
+---------------------------------------
+
+The Python Software Foundation is an independent non-profit organization that
+holds the copyright on Python versions 2.1 and newer.  The PSF's mission is to
+advance open source technology related to the Python programming language and to
+publicize the use of Python.  The PSF's home page is at
+https://www.python.org/psf/.
+
+Donations to the PSF are tax-exempt in the US.  If you use Python and find it
+helpful, please contribute via `the PSF donation page
+<https://www.python.org/psf/donations/>`_.
+
+
+Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+You can do anything you want with the source, as long as you leave the
+copyrights in and display those copyrights in any documentation about Python
+that you produce.  If you honor the copyright rules, it's OK to use Python for
+commercial use, to sell copies of Python in source or binary form (modified or
+unmodified), or to sell products that incorporate Python in some form.  We would
+still like to know about all commercial use of Python, of course.
+
+See `the PSF license page <https://www.python.org/psf/license/>`_ to find further
+explanations and a link to the full text of the license.
+
+The Python logo is trademarked, and in certain cases permission is required to
+use it.  Consult `the Trademark Usage Policy
+<https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/>`__ for more information.
+
+
+Why was Python created in the first place?
+------------------------------------------
+
+Here's a *very* brief summary of what started it all, written by Guido van
+Rossum:
+
+   I had extensive experience with implementing an interpreted language in the
+   ABC group at CWI, and from working with this group I had learned a lot about
+   language design.  This is the origin of many Python features, including the
+   use of indentation for statement grouping and the inclusion of
+   very-high-level data types (although the details are all different in
+   Python).
+
+   I had a number of gripes about the ABC language, but also liked many of its
+   features.  It was impossible to extend the ABC language (or its
+   implementation) to remedy my complaints -- in fact its lack of extensibility
+   was one of its biggest problems.  I had some experience with using Modula-2+
+   and talked with the designers of Modula-3 and read the Modula-3 report.
+   Modula-3 is the origin of the syntax and semantics used for exceptions, and
+   some other Python features.
+
+   I was working in the Amoeba distributed operating system group at CWI.  We
+   needed a better way to do system administration than by writing either C
+   programs or Bourne shell scripts, since Amoeba had its own system call
+   interface which wasn't easily accessible from the Bourne shell.  My
+   experience with error handling in Amoeba made me acutely aware of the
+   importance of exceptions as a programming language feature.
+
+   It occurred to me that a scripting language with a syntax like ABC but with
+   access to the Amoeba system calls would fill the need.  I realized that it
+   would be foolish to write an Amoeba-specific language, so I decided that I
+   needed a language that was generally extensible.
+
+   During the 1989 Christmas holidays, I had a lot of time on my hand, so I
+   decided to give it a try.  During the next year, while still mostly working
+   on it in my own time, Python was used in the Amoeba project with increasing
+   success, and the feedback from colleagues made me add many early
+   improvements.
+
+   In February 1991, after just over a year of development, I decided to post to
+   USENET.  The rest is in the ``Misc/HISTORY`` file.
+
+
+What is Python good for?
+------------------------
+
+Python is a high-level general-purpose programming language that can be applied
+to many different classes of problems.
+
+The language comes with a large standard library that covers areas such as
+string processing (regular expressions, Unicode, calculating differences between
+files), Internet protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, XML-RPC, POP, IMAP, CGI
+programming), software engineering (unit testing, logging, profiling, parsing
+Python code), and operating system interfaces (system calls, filesystems, TCP/IP
+sockets).  Look at the table of contents for :ref:`library-index` to get an idea
+of what's available.  A wide variety of third-party extensions are also
+available.  Consult `the Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`_ to
+find packages of interest to you.
+
+
+How does the Python version numbering scheme work?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Python versions are numbered A.B.C or A.B.  A is the major version number -- it
+is only incremented for really major changes in the language.  B is the minor
+version number, incremented for less earth-shattering changes.  C is the
+micro-level -- it is incremented for each bugfix release.  See :pep:`6` for more
+information about bugfix releases.
+
+Not all releases are bugfix releases.  In the run-up to a new major release, a
+series of development releases are made, denoted as alpha, beta, or release
+candidate.  Alphas are early releases in which interfaces aren't yet finalized;
+it's not unexpected to see an interface change between two alpha releases.
+Betas are more stable, preserving existing interfaces but possibly adding new
+modules, and release candidates are frozen, making no changes except as needed
+to fix critical bugs.
+
+Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix.  The
+suffix for an alpha version is "aN" for some small number N, the suffix for a
+beta version is "bN" for some small number N, and the suffix for a release
+candidate version is "cN" for some small number N.  In other words, all versions
+labeled 2.0aN precede the versions labeled 2.0bN, which precede versions labeled
+2.0cN, and *those* precede 2.0.
+
+You may also find version numbers with a "+" suffix, e.g. "2.2+".  These are
+unreleased versions, built directly from the CPython development repository.  In
+practice, after a final minor release is made, the version is incremented to the
+next minor version, which becomes the "a0" version, e.g. "2.4a0".
+
+See also the documentation for :data:`sys.version`, :data:`sys.hexversion`, and
+:data:`sys.version_info`.
+
+
+How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?
+--------------------------------------------
+
+The latest Python source distribution is always available from python.org, at
+https://www.python.org/downloads/.  The latest development sources can be obtained
+at https://github.com/python/cpython/.
+
+The source distribution is a gzipped tar file containing the complete C source,
+Sphinx-formatted documentation, Python library modules, example programs, and
+several useful pieces of freely distributable software.  The source will compile
+and run out of the box on most UNIX platforms.
+
+Consult the `Getting Started section of the Python Developer's Guide
+<https://devguide.python.org/setup/>`__ for more
+information on getting the source code and compiling it.
+
+
+How do I get documentation on Python?
+-------------------------------------
+
+.. XXX mention py3k
+
+The standard documentation for the current stable version of Python is available
+at https://docs.python.org/3/.  PDF, plain text, and downloadable HTML versions are
+also available at https://docs.python.org/3/download.html.
+
+The documentation is written in reStructuredText and processed by `the Sphinx
+documentation tool <http://sphinx-doc.org/>`__.  The reStructuredText source for
+the documentation is part of the Python source distribution.
+
+
+I've never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+There are numerous tutorials and books available.  The standard documentation
+includes :ref:`tutorial-index`.
+
+Consult `the Beginner's Guide <https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide>`_ to
+find information for beginning Python programmers, including lists of tutorials.
+
+
+Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?
+-------------------------------------------------------
+
+There is a newsgroup, :newsgroup:`comp.lang.python`, and a mailing list,
+`python-list <https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list>`_.  The
+newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed into each other -- if you can read news
+it's unnecessary to subscribe to the mailing list.
+:newsgroup:`comp.lang.python` is high-traffic, receiving hundreds of postings
+every day, and Usenet readers are often more able to cope with this volume.
+
+Announcements of new software releases and events can be found in
+comp.lang.python.announce, a low-traffic moderated list that receives about five
+postings per day.  It's available as `the python-announce mailing list
+<https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-announce-list>`_.
+
+More info about other mailing lists and newsgroups
+can be found at https://www.python.org/community/lists/.
+
+
+How do I get a beta test version of Python?
+-------------------------------------------
+
+Alpha and beta releases are available from https://www.python.org/downloads/.  All
+releases are announced on the comp.lang.python and comp.lang.python.announce
+newsgroups and on the Python home page at https://www.python.org/; an RSS feed of
+news is available.
+
+You can also access the development version of Python through Git.  See
+`The Python Developer's Guide <https://devguide.python.org/>`_ for details.
+
+
+How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+To report a bug or submit a patch, please use the Roundup installation at
+https://bugs.python.org/.
+
+You must have a Roundup account to report bugs; this makes it possible for us to
+contact you if we have follow-up questions.  It will also enable Roundup to send
+you updates as we act on your bug. If you had previously used SourceForge to
+report bugs to Python, you can obtain your Roundup password through Roundup's
+`password reset procedure <https://bugs.python.org/user?@template=forgotten>`_.
+
+For more information on how Python is developed, consult `the Python Developer's
+Guide <https://devguide.python.org/>`_.
+
+
+Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+It's probably best to cite your favorite book about Python.
+
+The very first article about Python was written in 1991 and is now quite
+outdated.
+
+    Guido van Rossum and Jelke de Boer, "Interactively Testing Remote Servers
+    Using the Python Programming Language", CWI Quarterly, Volume 4, Issue 4
+    (December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283--303.
+
+
+Are there any books on Python?
+------------------------------
+
+Yes, there are many, and more are being published.  See the python.org wiki at
+https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks for a list.
+
+You can also search online bookstores for "Python" and filter out the Monty
+Python references; or perhaps search for "Python" and "language".
+
+
+Where in the world is www.python.org located?
+---------------------------------------------
+
+The Python project's infrastructure is located all over the world and is managed
+by the Python Infrastructure Team. Details `here <http://infra.psf.io>`__.
+
+
+Why is it called Python?
+------------------------
+
+When he began implementing Python, Guido van Rossum was also reading the
+published scripts from `"Monty Python's Flying Circus"
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python>`__, a BBC comedy series from the 1970s.  Van Rossum
+thought he needed a name that was short, unique, and slightly mysterious, so he
+decided to call the language Python.
+
+
+Do I have to like "Monty Python's Flying Circus"?
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+No, but it helps.  :)
+
+
+Python in the real world
+========================
+
+How stable is Python?
+---------------------
+
+Very stable.  New, stable releases have been coming out roughly every 6 to 18
+months since 1991, and this seems likely to continue.  Currently there are
+usually around 18 months between major releases.
+
+The developers issue "bugfix" releases of older versions, so the stability of
+existing releases gradually improves.  Bugfix releases, indicated by a third
+component of the version number (e.g. 3.5.3, 3.6.2), are managed for stability;
+only fixes for known problems are included in a bugfix release, and it's
+guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same throughout a series of bugfix
+releases.
+
+The latest stable releases can always be found on the `Python download page
+<https://www.python.org/downloads/>`_.  There are two production-ready versions
+of Python: 2.x and 3.x. The recommended version is 3.x, which is supported by
+most widely used libraries.  Although 2.x is still widely used, `it will not
+be maintained after January 1, 2020 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/>`_.
+
+How many people are using Python?
+---------------------------------
+
+There are probably tens of thousands of users, though it's difficult to obtain
+an exact count.
+
+Python is available for free download, so there are no sales figures, and it's
+available from many different sites and packaged with many Linux distributions,
+so download statistics don't tell the whole story either.
+
+The comp.lang.python newsgroup is very active, but not all Python users post to
+the group or even read it.
+
+
+Have any significant projects been done in Python?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+See https://www.python.org/about/success for a list of projects that use Python.
+Consulting the proceedings for `past Python conferences
+<https://www.python.org/community/workshops/>`_ will reveal contributions from many
+different companies and organizations.
+
+High-profile Python projects include `the Mailman mailing list manager
+<http://www.list.org>`_ and `the Zope application server
+<http://www.zope.org>`_.  Several Linux distributions, most notably `Red Hat
+<https://www.redhat.com>`_, have written part or all of their installer and
+system administration software in Python.  Companies that use Python internally
+include Google, Yahoo, and Lucasfilm Ltd.
+
+
+What new developments are expected for Python in the future?
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+See https://www.python.org/dev/peps/ for the Python Enhancement Proposals
+(PEPs). PEPs are design documents describing a suggested new feature for Python,
+providing a concise technical specification and a rationale.  Look for a PEP
+titled "Python X.Y Release Schedule", where X.Y is a version that hasn't been
+publicly released yet.
+
+New development is discussed on `the python-dev mailing list
+<https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-dev/>`_.
+
+
+Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+In general, no.  There are already millions of lines of Python code around the
+world, so any change in the language that invalidates more than a very small
+fraction of existing programs has to be frowned upon.  Even if you can provide a
+conversion program, there's still the problem of updating all documentation;
+many books have been written about Python, and we don't want to invalidate them
+all at a single stroke.
+
+Providing a gradual upgrade path is necessary if a feature has to be changed.
+:pep:`5` describes the procedure followed for introducing backward-incompatible
+changes while minimizing disruption for users.
+
+
+Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes.
+
+It is still common to start students with a procedural and statically typed
+language such as Pascal, C, or a subset of C++ or Java.  Students may be better
+served by learning Python as their first language.  Python has a very simple and
+consistent syntax and a large standard library and, most importantly, using
+Python in a beginning programming course lets students concentrate on important
+programming skills such as problem decomposition and data type design.  With
+Python, students can be quickly introduced to basic concepts such as loops and
+procedures.  They can probably even work with user-defined objects in their very
+first course.
+
+For a student who has never programmed before, using a statically typed language
+seems unnatural.  It presents additional complexity that the student must master
+and slows the pace of the course.  The students are trying to learn to think
+like a computer, decompose problems, design consistent interfaces, and
+encapsulate data.  While learning to use a statically typed language is
+important in the long term, it is not necessarily the best topic to address in
+the students' first programming course.
+
+Many other aspects of Python make it a good first language.  Like Java, Python
+has a large standard library so that students can be assigned programming
+projects very early in the course that *do* something.  Assignments aren't
+restricted to the standard four-function calculator and check balancing
+programs.  By using the standard library, students can gain the satisfaction of
+working on realistic applications as they learn the fundamentals of programming.
+Using the standard library also teaches students about code reuse.  Third-party
+modules such as PyGame are also helpful in extending the students' reach.
+
+Python's interactive interpreter enables students to test language features
+while they're programming.  They can keep a window with the interpreter running
+while they enter their program's source in another window.  If they can't
+remember the methods for a list, they can do something like this::
+
+   >>> L = []
+   >>> dir(L) # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+   ['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__',
+   '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
+   '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__',
+   '__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__',
+   '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
+   '__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__',
+   '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear',
+   'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove',
+   'reverse', 'sort']
+   >>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d]
+   ['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']
+
+   >>> help(L.append)
+   Help on built-in function append:
+   <BLANKLINE>
+   append(...)
+       L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end
+   <BLANKLINE>
+   >>> L.append(1)
+   >>> L
+   [1]
+
+With the interpreter, documentation is never far from the student as they are
+programming.
+
+There are also good IDEs for Python.  IDLE is a cross-platform IDE for Python
+that is written in Python using Tkinter.  PythonWin is a Windows-specific IDE.
+Emacs users will be happy to know that there is a very good Python mode for
+Emacs.  All of these programming environments provide syntax highlighting,
+auto-indenting, and access to the interactive interpreter while coding.  Consult
+`the Python wiki <https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors>`_ for a full list
+of Python editing environments.
+
+If you want to discuss Python's use in education, you may be interested in
+joining `the edu-sig mailing list
+<https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig>`_.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/gui.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/gui.rst.txt
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/gui.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+:tocdepth: 2
+
+==========================
+Graphic User Interface FAQ
+==========================
+
+.. only:: html
+
+   .. contents::
+
+.. XXX need review for Python 3.
+
+
+General GUI Questions
+=====================
+
+What platform-independent GUI toolkits exist for Python?
+========================================================
+
+Depending on what platform(s) you are aiming at, there are several.  Some
+of them haven't been ported to Python 3 yet.  At least `Tkinter`_ and `Qt`_
+are known to be Python 3-compatible.
+
+.. XXX check links
+
+Tkinter
+-------
+
+Standard builds of Python include an object-oriented interface to the Tcl/Tk
+widget set, called :ref:`tkinter <Tkinter>`.  This is probably the easiest to
+install (since it comes included with most
+`binary distributions <https://www.python.org/downloads/>`_ of Python) and use.
+For more info about Tk, including pointers to the source, see the
+`Tcl/Tk home page <https://www.tcl.tk>`_.  Tcl/Tk is fully portable to the
+Mac OS X, Windows, and Unix platforms.
+
+wxWidgets
+---------
+
+wxWidgets (https://www.wxwidgets.org) is a free, portable GUI class
+library written in C++ that provides a native look and feel on a
+number of platforms, with Windows, Mac OS X, GTK, X11, all listed as
+current stable targets.  Language bindings are available for a number
+of languages including Python, Perl, Ruby, etc.
+
+`wxPython <https://www.wxpython.org>`_ is the Python binding for
+wxwidgets.  While it often lags slightly behind the official wxWidgets
+releases, it also offers a number of features via pure Python
+extensions that are not available in other language bindings.  There
+is an active wxPython user and developer community.
+
+Both wxWidgets and wxPython are free, open source, software with
+permissive licences that allow their use in commercial products as
+well as in freeware or shareware.
+
+
+Qt
+---
+
+There are bindings available for the Qt toolkit (using either `PyQt
+<https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro>`_ or `PySide
+<https://wiki.qt.io/PySide>`_) and for KDE (`PyKDE4 <https://techbase.kde.org/Languages/Python/Using_PyKDE_4>`__).
+PyQt is currently more mature than PySide, but you must buy a PyQt license from
+`Riverbank Computing <https://www.riverbankcomputing.com/commercial/license-faq>`_
+if you want to write proprietary applications.  PySide is free for all applications.
+
+Qt 4.5 upwards is licensed under the LGPL license; also, commercial licenses
+are available from `The Qt Company <https://www.qt.io/licensing/>`_.
+
+Gtk+
+----
+
+The `GObject introspection bindings <https://wiki.gnome.org/Projects/PyGObject>`_
+for Python allow you to write GTK+ 3 applications.  There is also a
+`Python GTK+ 3 Tutorial <https://python-gtk-3-tutorial.readthedocs.io>`_.
+
+The older PyGtk bindings for the `Gtk+ 2 toolkit <https://www.gtk.org>`_ have
+been implemented by James Henstridge; see <http://www.pygtk.org>.
+
+Kivy
+----
+
+`Kivy <https://kivy.org/>`_ is a cross-platform GUI library supporting both
+desktop operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux) and mobile devices (Android,
+iOS).  It is written in Python and Cython, and can use a range of windowing
+backends.
+
+Kivy is free and open source software distributed under the MIT license.
+
+FLTK
+----
+
+Python bindings for `the FLTK toolkit <http://www.fltk.org>`_, a simple yet
+powerful and mature cross-platform windowing system, are available from `the
+PyFLTK project <http://pyfltk.sourceforge.net>`_.
+
+OpenGL
+------
+
+For OpenGL bindings, see `PyOpenGL <http://pyopengl.sourceforge.net>`_.
+
+
+What platform-specific GUI toolkits exist for Python?
+========================================================
+
+By installing the `PyObjc Objective-C bridge
+<https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/>`_, Python programs can use Mac OS X's
+Cocoa libraries.
+
+:ref:`Pythonwin <windows-faq>` by Mark Hammond includes an interface to the
+Microsoft Foundation Classes and a Python programming environment
+that's written mostly in Python using the MFC classes.
+
+
+Tkinter questions
+=================
+
+How do I freeze Tkinter applications?
+-------------------------------------
+
+Freeze is a tool to create stand-alone applications.  When freezing Tkinter
+applications, the applications will not be truly stand-alone, as the application
+will still need the Tcl and Tk libraries.
+
+One solution is to ship the application with the Tcl and Tk libraries, and point
+to them at run-time using the :envvar:`TCL_LIBRARY` and :envvar:`TK_LIBRARY`
+environment variables.
+
+To get truly stand-alone applications, the Tcl scripts that form the library
+have to be integrated into the application as well. One tool supporting that is
+SAM (stand-alone modules), which is part of the Tix distribution
+(http://tix.sourceforge.net/).
+
+Build Tix with SAM enabled, perform the appropriate call to
+:c:func:`Tclsam_init`, etc. inside Python's
+:file:`Modules/tkappinit.c`, and link with libtclsam and libtksam (you
+might include the Tix libraries as well).
+
+
+Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+On platforms other than Windows, yes, and you don't even
+need threads!  But you'll have to restructure your I/O
+code a bit.  Tk has the equivalent of Xt's :c:func:`XtAddInput()` call, which allows you
+to register a callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when
+I/O is possible on a file descriptor.  See :ref:`tkinter-file-handlers`.
+
+
+I can't get key bindings to work in Tkinter: why?
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+An often-heard complaint is that event handlers bound to events with the
+:meth:`bind` method don't get handled even when the appropriate key is pressed.
+
+The most common cause is that the widget to which the binding applies doesn't
+have "keyboard focus".  Check out the Tk documentation for the focus command.
+Usually a widget is given the keyboard focus by clicking in it (but not for
+labels; see the takefocus option).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/index.rst.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+.. _faq-index:
+
+###################################
+  Python Frequently Asked Questions
+###################################
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 1
+
+   general.rst
+   programming.rst
+   design.rst
+   library.rst
+   extending.rst
+   windows.rst
+   gui.rst
+   installed.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/installed.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/installed.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+=============================================
+"Why is Python Installed on my Computer?" FAQ
+=============================================
+
+What is Python?
+---------------
+
+Python is a programming language.  It's used for many different applications.
+It's used in some high schools and colleges as an introductory programming
+language because Python is easy to learn, but it's also used by professional
+software developers at places such as Google, NASA, and Lucasfilm Ltd.
+
+If you wish to learn more about Python, start with the `Beginner's Guide to
+Python <https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide>`_.
+
+
+Why is Python installed on my machine?
+--------------------------------------
+
+If you find Python installed on your system but don't remember installing it,
+there are several possible ways it could have gotten there.
+
+* Perhaps another user on the computer wanted to learn programming and installed
+  it; you'll have to figure out who's been using the machine and might have
+  installed it.
+* A third-party application installed on the machine might have been written in
+  Python and included a Python installation.  There are many such applications,
+  from GUI programs to network servers and administrative scripts.
+* Some Windows machines also have Python installed.  At this writing we're aware
+  of computers from Hewlett-Packard and Compaq that include Python.  Apparently
+  some of HP/Compaq's administrative tools are written in Python.
+* Many Unix-compatible operating systems, such as Mac OS X and some Linux
+  distributions, have Python installed by default; it's included in the base
+  installation.
+
+
+Can I delete Python?
+--------------------
+
+That depends on where Python came from.
+
+If someone installed it deliberately, you can remove it without hurting
+anything.  On Windows, use the Add/Remove Programs icon in the Control Panel.
+
+If Python was installed by a third-party application, you can also remove it,
+but that application will no longer work.  You should use that application's
+uninstaller rather than removing Python directly.
+
+If Python came with your operating system, removing it is not recommended.  If
+you remove it, whatever tools were written in Python will no longer run, and
+some of them might be important to you.  Reinstalling the whole system would
+then be required to fix things again.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/library.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/library.rst.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,839 @@
+:tocdepth: 2
+
+=========================
+Library and Extension FAQ
+=========================
+
+.. only:: html
+
+   .. contents::
+
+General Library Questions
+=========================
+
+How do I find a module or application to perform task X?
+--------------------------------------------------------
+
+Check :ref:`the Library Reference <library-index>` to see if there's a relevant
+standard library module.  (Eventually you'll learn what's in the standard
+library and will be able to skip this step.)
+
+For third-party packages, search the `Python Package Index
+<https://pypi.org>`_ or try `Google <https://www.google.com>`_ or
+another Web search engine.  Searching for "Python" plus a keyword or two for
+your topic of interest will usually find something helpful.
+
+
+Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?
+-------------------------------------------------------------
+
+If you can't find a source file for a module it may be a built-in or
+dynamically loaded module implemented in C, C++ or other compiled language.
+In this case you may not have the source file or it may be something like
+:file:`mathmodule.c`, somewhere in a C source directory (not on the Python Path).
+
+There are (at least) three kinds of modules in Python:
+
+1) modules written in Python (.py);
+2) modules written in C and dynamically loaded (.dll, .pyd, .so, .sl, etc);
+3) modules written in C and linked with the interpreter; to get a list of these,
+   type::
+
+      import sys
+      print(sys.builtin_module_names)
+
+
+How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+You need to do two things: the script file's mode must be executable and the
+first line must begin with ``#!`` followed by the path of the Python
+interpreter.
+
+The first is done by executing ``chmod +x scriptfile`` or perhaps ``chmod 755
+scriptfile``.
+
+The second can be done in a number of ways.  The most straightforward way is to
+write ::
+
+  #!/usr/local/bin/python
+
+as the very first line of your file, using the pathname for where the Python
+interpreter is installed on your platform.
+
+If you would like the script to be independent of where the Python interpreter
+lives, you can use the :program:`env` program.  Almost all Unix variants support
+the following, assuming the Python interpreter is in a directory on the user's
+:envvar:`PATH`::
+
+  #!/usr/bin/env python
+
+*Don't* do this for CGI scripts.  The :envvar:`PATH` variable for CGI scripts is
+often very minimal, so you need to use the actual absolute pathname of the
+interpreter.
+
+Occasionally, a user's environment is so full that the :program:`/usr/bin/env`
+program fails; or there's no env program at all.  In that case, you can try the
+following hack (due to Alex Rezinsky):
+
+.. code-block:: sh
+
+   #! /bin/sh
+   """:"
+   exec python $0 ${1+"$@"}
+   """
+
+The minor disadvantage is that this defines the script's __doc__ string.
+However, you can fix that by adding ::
+
+   __doc__ = """...Whatever..."""
+
+
+
+Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?
+---------------------------------------------
+
+.. XXX curses *is* built by default, isn't it?
+
+For Unix variants: The standard Python source distribution comes with a curses
+module in the :source:`Modules` subdirectory, though it's not compiled by default.
+(Note that this is not available in the Windows distribution -- there is no
+curses module for Windows.)
+
+The :mod:`curses` module supports basic curses features as well as many additional
+functions from ncurses and SYSV curses such as colour, alternative character set
+support, pads, and mouse support. This means the module isn't compatible with
+operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there don't seem to be any
+currently maintained OSes that fall into this category.
+
+For Windows: use `the consolelib module
+<http://effbot.org/zone/console-index.htm>`_.
+
+
+Is there an equivalent to C's onexit() in Python?
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`atexit` module provides a register function that is similar to C's
+:c:func:`onexit`.
+
+
+Why don't my signal handlers work?
+----------------------------------
+
+The most common problem is that the signal handler is declared with the wrong
+argument list.  It is called as ::
+
+   handler(signum, frame)
+
+so it should be declared with two arguments::
+
+   def handler(signum, frame):
+       ...
+
+
+Common tasks
+============
+
+How do I test a Python program or component?
+--------------------------------------------
+
+Python comes with two testing frameworks.  The :mod:`doctest` module finds
+examples in the docstrings for a module and runs them, comparing the output with
+the expected output given in the docstring.
+
+The :mod:`unittest` module is a fancier testing framework modelled on Java and
+Smalltalk testing frameworks.
+
+To make testing easier, you should use good modular design in your program.
+Your program should have almost all functionality
+encapsulated in either functions or class methods -- and this sometimes has the
+surprising and delightful effect of making the program run faster (because local
+variable accesses are faster than global accesses).  Furthermore the program
+should avoid depending on mutating global variables, since this makes testing
+much more difficult to do.
+
+The "global main logic" of your program may be as simple as ::
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       main_logic()
+
+at the bottom of the main module of your program.
+
+Once your program is organized as a tractable collection of functions and class
+behaviours you should write test functions that exercise the behaviours.  A test
+suite that automates a sequence of tests can be associated with each module.
+This sounds like a lot of work, but since Python is so terse and flexible it's
+surprisingly easy.  You can make coding much more pleasant and fun by writing
+your test functions in parallel with the "production code", since this makes it
+easy to find bugs and even design flaws earlier.
+
+"Support modules" that are not intended to be the main module of a program may
+include a self-test of the module. ::
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       self_test()
+
+Even programs that interact with complex external interfaces may be tested when
+the external interfaces are unavailable by using "fake" interfaces implemented
+in Python.
+
+
+How do I create documentation from doc strings?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`pydoc` module can create HTML from the doc strings in your Python
+source code.  An alternative for creating API documentation purely from
+docstrings is `epydoc <http://epydoc.sourceforge.net/>`_.  `Sphinx
+<http://sphinx-doc.org>`_ can also include docstring content.
+
+
+How do I get a single keypress at a time?
+-----------------------------------------
+
+For Unix variants there are several solutions.  It's straightforward to do this
+using curses, but curses is a fairly large module to learn.
+
+.. XXX this doesn't work out of the box, some IO expert needs to check why
+
+   Here's a solution without curses::
+
+   import termios, fcntl, sys, os
+   fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
+
+   oldterm = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
+   newattr = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
+   newattr[3] = newattr[3] & ~termios.ICANON & ~termios.ECHO
+   termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSANOW, newattr)
+
+   oldflags = fcntl.fcntl(fd, fcntl.F_GETFL)
+   fcntl.fcntl(fd, fcntl.F_SETFL, oldflags | os.O_NONBLOCK)
+
+   try:
+       while True:
+           try:
+               c = sys.stdin.read(1)
+               print("Got character", repr(c))
+           except OSError:
+               pass
+   finally:
+       termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSAFLUSH, oldterm)
+       fcntl.fcntl(fd, fcntl.F_SETFL, oldflags)
+
+   You need the :mod:`termios` and the :mod:`fcntl` module for any of this to
+   work, and I've only tried it on Linux, though it should work elsewhere.  In
+   this code, characters are read and printed one at a time.
+
+   :func:`termios.tcsetattr` turns off stdin's echoing and disables canonical
+   mode.  :func:`fcntl.fnctl` is used to obtain stdin's file descriptor flags
+   and modify them for non-blocking mode.  Since reading stdin when it is empty
+   results in an :exc:`OSError`, this error is caught and ignored.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *sys.stdin.read* used to raise :exc:`IOError`. Starting from Python 3.3
+      :exc:`IOError` is alias for :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+Threads
+=======
+
+How do I program using threads?
+-------------------------------
+
+Be sure to use the :mod:`threading` module and not the :mod:`_thread` module.
+The :mod:`threading` module builds convenient abstractions on top of the
+low-level primitives provided by the :mod:`_thread` module.
+
+Aahz has a set of slides from his threading tutorial that are helpful; see
+http://www.pythoncraft.com/OSCON2001/.
+
+
+None of my threads seem to run: why?
+------------------------------------
+
+As soon as the main thread exits, all threads are killed.  Your main thread is
+running too quickly, giving the threads no time to do any work.
+
+A simple fix is to add a sleep to the end of the program that's long enough for
+all the threads to finish::
+
+   import threading, time
+
+   def thread_task(name, n):
+       for i in range(n):
+           print(name, i)
+
+   for i in range(10):
+       T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
+       T.start()
+
+   time.sleep(10)  # <---------------------------!
+
+But now (on many platforms) the threads don't run in parallel, but appear to run
+sequentially, one at a time!  The reason is that the OS thread scheduler doesn't
+start a new thread until the previous thread is blocked.
+
+A simple fix is to add a tiny sleep to the start of the run function::
+
+   def thread_task(name, n):
+       time.sleep(0.001)  # <--------------------!
+       for i in range(n):
+           print(name, i)
+
+   for i in range(10):
+       T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
+       T.start()
+
+   time.sleep(10)
+
+Instead of trying to guess a good delay value for :func:`time.sleep`,
+it's better to use some kind of semaphore mechanism.  One idea is to use the
+:mod:`queue` module to create a queue object, let each thread append a token to
+the queue when it finishes, and let the main thread read as many tokens from the
+queue as there are threads.
+
+
+How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+The easiest way is to use the new :mod:`concurrent.futures` module,
+especially the :mod:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor` class.
+
+Or, if you want fine control over the dispatching algorithm, you can write
+your own logic manually.  Use the :mod:`queue` module to create a queue
+containing a list of jobs.  The :class:`~queue.Queue` class maintains a
+list of objects and has a ``.put(obj)`` method that adds items to the queue and
+a ``.get()`` method to return them.  The class will take care of the locking
+necessary to ensure that each job is handed out exactly once.
+
+Here's a trivial example::
+
+   import threading, queue, time
+
+   # The worker thread gets jobs off the queue.  When the queue is empty, it
+   # assumes there will be no more work and exits.
+   # (Realistically workers will run until terminated.)
+   def worker():
+       print('Running worker')
+       time.sleep(0.1)
+       while True:
+           try:
+               arg = q.get(block=False)
+           except queue.Empty:
+               print('Worker', threading.currentThread(), end=' ')
+               print('queue empty')
+               break
+           else:
+               print('Worker', threading.currentThread(), end=' ')
+               print('running with argument', arg)
+               time.sleep(0.5)
+
+   # Create queue
+   q = queue.Queue()
+
+   # Start a pool of 5 workers
+   for i in range(5):
+       t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1))
+       t.start()
+
+   # Begin adding work to the queue
+   for i in range(50):
+       q.put(i)
+
+   # Give threads time to run
+   print('Main thread sleeping')
+   time.sleep(5)
+
+When run, this will produce the following output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   Running worker
+   Running worker
+   Running worker
+   Running worker
+   Running worker
+   Main thread sleeping
+   Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 0
+   Worker <Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)> running with argument 1
+   Worker <Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)> running with argument 2
+   Worker <Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)> running with argument 3
+   Worker <Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)> running with argument 4
+   Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5
+   ...
+
+Consult the module's documentation for more details; the :class:`~queue.Queue`
+class provides a featureful interface.
+
+
+What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+A :term:`global interpreter lock` (GIL) is used internally to ensure that only one
+thread runs in the Python VM at a time.  In general, Python offers to switch
+among threads only between bytecode instructions; how frequently it switches can
+be set via :func:`sys.setswitchinterval`.  Each bytecode instruction and
+therefore all the C implementation code reached from each instruction is
+therefore atomic from the point of view of a Python program.
+
+In theory, this means an exact accounting requires an exact understanding of the
+PVM bytecode implementation.  In practice, it means that operations on shared
+variables of built-in data types (ints, lists, dicts, etc) that "look atomic"
+really are.
+
+For example, the following operations are all atomic (L, L1, L2 are lists, D,
+D1, D2 are dicts, x, y are objects, i, j are ints)::
+
+   L.append(x)
+   L1.extend(L2)
+   x = L[i]
+   x = L.pop()
+   L1[i:j] = L2
+   L.sort()
+   x = y
+   x.field = y
+   D[x] = y
+   D1.update(D2)
+   D.keys()
+
+These aren't::
+
+   i = i+1
+   L.append(L[-1])
+   L[i] = L[j]
+   D[x] = D[x] + 1
+
+Operations that replace other objects may invoke those other objects'
+:meth:`__del__` method when their reference count reaches zero, and that can
+affect things.  This is especially true for the mass updates to dictionaries and
+lists.  When in doubt, use a mutex!
+
+
+Can't we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?
+------------------------------------------------
+
+.. XXX link to dbeazley's talk about GIL?
+
+The :term:`global interpreter lock` (GIL) is often seen as a hindrance to Python's
+deployment on high-end multiprocessor server machines, because a multi-threaded
+Python program effectively only uses one CPU, due to the insistence that
+(almost) all Python code can only run while the GIL is held.
+
+Back in the days of Python 1.5, Greg Stein actually implemented a comprehensive
+patch set (the "free threading" patches) that removed the GIL and replaced it
+with fine-grained locking.  Adam Olsen recently did a similar experiment
+in his `python-safethread <https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread>`_
+project.  Unfortunately, both experiments exhibited a sharp drop in single-thread
+performance (at least 30% slower), due to the amount of fine-grained locking
+necessary to compensate for the removal of the GIL.
+
+This doesn't mean that you can't make good use of Python on multi-CPU machines!
+You just have to be creative with dividing the work up between multiple
+*processes* rather than multiple *threads*.  The
+:class:`~concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor` class in the new
+:mod:`concurrent.futures` module provides an easy way of doing so; the
+:mod:`multiprocessing` module provides a lower-level API in case you want
+more control over dispatching of tasks.
+
+Judicious use of C extensions will also help; if you use a C extension to
+perform a time-consuming task, the extension can release the GIL while the
+thread of execution is in the C code and allow other threads to get some work
+done.  Some standard library modules such as :mod:`zlib` and :mod:`hashlib`
+already do this.
+
+It has been suggested that the GIL should be a per-interpreter-state lock rather
+than truly global; interpreters then wouldn't be able to share objects.
+Unfortunately, this isn't likely to happen either.  It would be a tremendous
+amount of work, because many object implementations currently have global state.
+For example, small integers and short strings are cached; these caches would
+have to be moved to the interpreter state.  Other object types have their own
+free list; these free lists would have to be moved to the interpreter state.
+And so on.
+
+And I doubt that it can even be done in finite time, because the same problem
+exists for 3rd party extensions.  It is likely that 3rd party extensions are
+being written at a faster rate than you can convert them to store all their
+global state in the interpreter state.
+
+And finally, once you have multiple interpreters not sharing any state, what
+have you gained over running each interpreter in a separate process?
+
+
+Input and Output
+================
+
+How do I delete a file? (And other file questions...)
+-----------------------------------------------------
+
+Use ``os.remove(filename)`` or ``os.unlink(filename)``; for documentation, see
+the :mod:`os` module.  The two functions are identical; :func:`~os.unlink` is simply
+the name of the Unix system call for this function.
+
+To remove a directory, use :func:`os.rmdir`; use :func:`os.mkdir` to create one.
+``os.makedirs(path)`` will create any intermediate directories in ``path`` that
+don't exist. ``os.removedirs(path)`` will remove intermediate directories as
+long as they're empty; if you want to delete an entire directory tree and its
+contents, use :func:`shutil.rmtree`.
+
+To rename a file, use ``os.rename(old_path, new_path)``.
+
+To truncate a file, open it using ``f = open(filename, "rb+")``, and use
+``f.truncate(offset)``; offset defaults to the current seek position.  There's
+also ``os.ftruncate(fd, offset)`` for files opened with :func:`os.open`, where
+*fd* is the file descriptor (a small integer).
+
+The :mod:`shutil` module also contains a number of functions to work on files
+including :func:`~shutil.copyfile`, :func:`~shutil.copytree`, and
+:func:`~shutil.rmtree`.
+
+
+How do I copy a file?
+---------------------
+
+The :mod:`shutil` module contains a :func:`~shutil.copyfile` function.  Note
+that on MacOS 9 it doesn't copy the resource fork and Finder info.
+
+
+How do I read (or write) binary data?
+-------------------------------------
+
+To read or write complex binary data formats, it's best to use the :mod:`struct`
+module.  It allows you to take a string containing binary data (usually numbers)
+and convert it to Python objects; and vice versa.
+
+For example, the following code reads two 2-byte integers and one 4-byte integer
+in big-endian format from a file::
+
+   import struct
+
+   with open(filename, "rb") as f:
+       s = f.read(8)
+       x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s)
+
+The '>' in the format string forces big-endian data; the letter 'h' reads one
+"short integer" (2 bytes), and 'l' reads one "long integer" (4 bytes) from the
+string.
+
+For data that is more regular (e.g. a homogeneous list of ints or floats),
+you can also use the :mod:`array` module.
+
+.. note::
+
+   To read and write binary data, it is mandatory to open the file in
+   binary mode (here, passing ``"rb"`` to :func:`open`).  If you use
+   ``"r"`` instead (the default), the file will be open in text mode
+   and ``f.read()`` will return :class:`str` objects rather than
+   :class:`bytes` objects.
+
+
+I can't seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?
+---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:func:`os.read` is a low-level function which takes a file descriptor, a small
+integer representing the opened file.  :func:`os.popen` creates a high-level
+file object, the same type returned by the built-in :func:`open` function.
+Thus, to read *n* bytes from a pipe *p* created with :func:`os.popen`, you need to
+use ``p.read(n)``.
+
+
+.. XXX update to use subprocess. See the :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section.
+
+   How do I run a subprocess with pipes connected to both input and output?
+   ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+   Use the :mod:`popen2` module.  For example::
+
+      import popen2
+      fromchild, tochild = popen2.popen2("command")
+      tochild.write("input\n")
+      tochild.flush()
+      output = fromchild.readline()
+
+   Warning: in general it is unwise to do this because you can easily cause a
+   deadlock where your process is blocked waiting for output from the child
+   while the child is blocked waiting for input from you.  This can be caused
+   by the parent expecting the child to output more text than it does or
+   by data being stuck in stdio buffers due to lack of flushing.
+   The Python parent can of course explicitly flush the data it sends to the
+   child before it reads any output, but if the child is a naive C program it
+   may have been written to never explicitly flush its output, even if it is
+   interactive, since flushing is normally automatic.
+
+   Note that a deadlock is also possible if you use :func:`popen3` to read
+   stdout and stderr. If one of the two is too large for the internal buffer
+   (increasing the buffer size does not help) and you ``read()`` the other one
+   first, there is a deadlock, too.
+
+   Note on a bug in popen2: unless your program calls ``wait()`` or
+   ``waitpid()``, finished child processes are never removed, and eventually
+   calls to popen2 will fail because of a limit on the number of child
+   processes.  Calling :func:`os.waitpid` with the :data:`os.WNOHANG` option can
+   prevent this; a good place to insert such a call would be before calling
+   ``popen2`` again.
+
+   In many cases, all you really need is to run some data through a command and
+   get the result back.  Unless the amount of data is very large, the easiest
+   way to do this is to write it to a temporary file and run the command with
+   that temporary file as input.  The standard module :mod:`tempfile` exports a
+   :func:`~tempfile.mktemp` function to generate unique temporary file names. ::
+
+      import tempfile
+      import os
+
+      class Popen3:
+          """
+          This is a deadlock-safe version of popen that returns
+          an object with errorlevel, out (a string) and err (a string).
+          (capturestderr may not work under windows.)
+          Example: print(Popen3('grep spam','\n\nhere spam\n\n').out)
+          """
+          def __init__(self,command,input=None,capturestderr=None):
+              outfile=tempfile.mktemp()
+              command="( %s ) > %s" % (command,outfile)
+              if input:
+                  infile=tempfile.mktemp()
+                  open(infile,"w").write(input)
+                  command=command+" <"+infile
+              if capturestderr:
+                  errfile=tempfile.mktemp()
+                  command=command+" 2>"+errfile
+              self.errorlevel=os.system(command) >> 8
+              self.out=open(outfile,"r").read()
+              os.remove(outfile)
+              if input:
+                  os.remove(infile)
+              if capturestderr:
+                  self.err=open(errfile,"r").read()
+                  os.remove(errfile)
+
+   Note that many interactive programs (e.g. vi) don't work well with pipes
+   substituted for standard input and output.  You will have to use pseudo ttys
+   ("ptys") instead of pipes. Or you can use a Python interface to Don Libes'
+   "expect" library.  A Python extension that interfaces to expect is called
+   "expy" and available from http://expectpy.sourceforge.net.  A pure Python
+   solution that works like expect is `pexpect
+   <https://pypi.org/project/pexpect/>`_.
+
+
+How do I access the serial (RS232) port?
+----------------------------------------
+
+For Win32, POSIX (Linux, BSD, etc.), Jython:
+
+   http://pyserial.sourceforge.net
+
+For Unix, see a Usenet post by Mitch Chapman:
+
+   https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com
+
+
+Why doesn't closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?
+---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Python :term:`file objects <file object>` are a high-level layer of
+abstraction on low-level C file descriptors.
+
+For most file objects you create in Python via the built-in :func:`open`
+function, ``f.close()`` marks the Python file object as being closed from
+Python's point of view, and also arranges to close the underlying C file
+descriptor.  This also happens automatically in ``f``'s destructor, when
+``f`` becomes garbage.
+
+But stdin, stdout and stderr are treated specially by Python, because of the
+special status also given to them by C.  Running ``sys.stdout.close()`` marks
+the Python-level file object as being closed, but does *not* close the
+associated C file descriptor.
+
+To close the underlying C file descriptor for one of these three, you should
+first be sure that's what you really want to do (e.g., you may confuse
+extension modules trying to do I/O).  If it is, use :func:`os.close`::
+
+   os.close(stdin.fileno())
+   os.close(stdout.fileno())
+   os.close(stderr.fileno())
+
+Or you can use the numeric constants 0, 1 and 2, respectively.
+
+
+Network/Internet Programming
+============================
+
+What WWW tools are there for Python?
+------------------------------------
+
+See the chapters titled :ref:`internet` and :ref:`netdata` in the Library
+Reference Manual.  Python has many modules that will help you build server-side
+and client-side web systems.
+
+.. XXX check if wiki page is still up to date
+
+A summary of available frameworks is maintained by Paul Boddie at
+https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming\ .
+
+Cameron Laird maintains a useful set of pages about Python web technologies at
+http://phaseit.net/claird/comp.lang.python/web_python.
+
+
+How can I mimic CGI form submission (METHOD=POST)?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+I would like to retrieve web pages that are the result of POSTing a form. Is
+there existing code that would let me do this easily?
+
+Yes. Here's a simple example that uses urllib.request::
+
+   #!/usr/local/bin/python
+
+   import urllib.request
+
+   # build the query string
+   qs = "First=Josephine&MI=Q&Last=Public"
+
+   # connect and send the server a path
+   req = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.some-server.out-there'
+                                '/cgi-bin/some-cgi-script', data=qs)
+   with req:
+       msg, hdrs = req.read(), req.info()
+
+Note that in general for percent-encoded POST operations, query strings must be
+quoted using :func:`urllib.parse.urlencode`.  For example, to send
+``name=Guy Steele, Jr.``::
+
+   >>> import urllib.parse
+   >>> urllib.parse.urlencode({'name': 'Guy Steele, Jr.'})
+   'name=Guy+Steele%2C+Jr.'
+
+.. seealso:: :ref:`urllib-howto` for extensive examples.
+
+
+What module should I use to help with generating HTML?
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. XXX add modern template languages
+
+You can find a collection of useful links on the `Web Programming wiki page
+<https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming>`_.
+
+
+How do I send mail from a Python script?
+----------------------------------------
+
+Use the standard library module :mod:`smtplib`.
+
+Here's a very simple interactive mail sender that uses it.  This method will
+work on any host that supports an SMTP listener. ::
+
+   import sys, smtplib
+
+   fromaddr = input("From: ")
+   toaddrs  = input("To: ").split(',')
+   print("Enter message, end with ^D:")
+   msg = ''
+   while True:
+       line = sys.stdin.readline()
+       if not line:
+           break
+       msg += line
+
+   # The actual mail send
+   server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
+   server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
+   server.quit()
+
+A Unix-only alternative uses sendmail.  The location of the sendmail program
+varies between systems; sometimes it is ``/usr/lib/sendmail``, sometimes
+``/usr/sbin/sendmail``.  The sendmail manual page will help you out.  Here's
+some sample code::
+
+   import os
+
+   SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail"  # sendmail location
+   p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w")
+   p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n")
+   p.write("Subject: test\n")
+   p.write("\n")  # blank line separating headers from body
+   p.write("Some text\n")
+   p.write("some more text\n")
+   sts = p.close()
+   if sts != 0:
+       print("Sendmail exit status", sts)
+
+
+How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`select` module is commonly used to help with asynchronous I/O on
+sockets.
+
+To prevent the TCP connect from blocking, you can set the socket to non-blocking
+mode.  Then when you do the ``connect()``, you will either connect immediately
+(unlikely) or get an exception that contains the error number as ``.errno``.
+``errno.EINPROGRESS`` indicates that the connection is in progress, but hasn't
+finished yet.  Different OSes will return different values, so you're going to
+have to check what's returned on your system.
+
+You can use the ``connect_ex()`` method to avoid creating an exception.  It will
+just return the errno value.  To poll, you can call ``connect_ex()`` again later
+-- ``0`` or ``errno.EISCONN`` indicate that you're connected -- or you can pass this
+socket to select to check if it's writable.
+
+.. note::
+   The :mod:`asyncore` module presents a framework-like approach to the problem
+   of writing non-blocking networking code.
+   The third-party `Twisted <https://twistedmatrix.com/trac/>`_ library is
+   a popular and feature-rich alternative.
+
+
+Databases
+=========
+
+Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?
+--------------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes.
+
+Interfaces to disk-based hashes such as :mod:`DBM <dbm.ndbm>` and :mod:`GDBM
+<dbm.gnu>` are also included with standard Python.  There is also the
+:mod:`sqlite3` module, which provides a lightweight disk-based relational
+database.
+
+Support for most relational databases is available.  See the
+`DatabaseProgramming wiki page
+<https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming>`_ for details.
+
+
+How do you implement persistent objects in Python?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`pickle` library module solves this in a very general way (though you
+still can't store things like open files, sockets or windows), and the
+:mod:`shelve` library module uses pickle and (g)dbm to create persistent
+mappings containing arbitrary Python objects.
+
+
+Mathematics and Numerics
+========================
+
+How do I generate random numbers in Python?
+-------------------------------------------
+
+The standard module :mod:`random` implements a random number generator.  Usage
+is simple::
+
+   import random
+   random.random()
+
+This returns a random floating point number in the range [0, 1).
+
+There are also many other specialized generators in this module, such as:
+
+* ``randrange(a, b)`` chooses an integer in the range [a, b).
+* ``uniform(a, b)`` chooses a floating point number in the range [a, b).
+* ``normalvariate(mean, sdev)`` samples the normal (Gaussian) distribution.
+
+Some higher-level functions operate on sequences directly, such as:
+
+* ``choice(S)`` chooses random element from a given sequence
+* ``shuffle(L)`` shuffles a list in-place, i.e. permutes it randomly
+
+There's also a ``Random`` class you can instantiate to create independent
+multiple random number generators.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/programming.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/programming.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f14e8cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/programming.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1903 @@
+:tocdepth: 2
+
+===============
+Programming FAQ
+===============
+
+.. only:: html
+
+   .. contents::
+
+General Questions
+=================
+
+Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes.
+
+Several debuggers for Python are described below, and the built-in function
+:func:`breakpoint` allows you to drop into any of them.
+
+The pdb module is a simple but adequate console-mode debugger for Python. It is
+part of the standard Python library, and is :mod:`documented in the Library
+Reference Manual <pdb>`. You can also write your own debugger by using the code
+for pdb as an example.
+
+The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the standard
+Python distribution (normally available as Tools/scripts/idle), includes a
+graphical debugger.
+
+PythonWin is a Python IDE that includes a GUI debugger based on pdb.  The
+Pythonwin debugger colors breakpoints and has quite a few cool features such as
+debugging non-Pythonwin programs.  Pythonwin is available as part of the `Python
+for Windows Extensions <https://sourceforge.net/projects/pywin32/>`__ project and
+as a part of the ActivePython distribution (see
+https://www.activestate.com/activepython\ ).
+
+`Boa Constructor <http://boa-constructor.sourceforge.net/>`_ is an IDE and GUI
+builder that uses wxWidgets.  It offers visual frame creation and manipulation,
+an object inspector, many views on the source like object browsers, inheritance
+hierarchies, doc string generated html documentation, an advanced debugger,
+integrated help, and Zope support.
+
+`Eric <http://eric-ide.python-projects.org/>`_ is an IDE built on PyQt
+and the Scintilla editing component.
+
+Pydb is a version of the standard Python debugger pdb, modified for use with DDD
+(Data Display Debugger), a popular graphical debugger front end.  Pydb can be
+found at http://bashdb.sourceforge.net/pydb/ and DDD can be found at
+https://www.gnu.org/software/ddd.
+
+There are a number of commercial Python IDEs that include graphical debuggers.
+They include:
+
+* Wing IDE (https://wingware.com/)
+* Komodo IDE (https://komodoide.com/)
+* PyCharm (https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/)
+
+
+Is there a tool to help find bugs or perform static analysis?
+-------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes.
+
+PyChecker is a static analysis tool that finds bugs in Python source code and
+warns about code complexity and style.  You can get PyChecker from
+http://pychecker.sourceforge.net/.
+
+`Pylint <https://www.pylint.org/>`_ is another tool that checks
+if a module satisfies a coding standard, and also makes it possible to write
+plug-ins to add a custom feature.  In addition to the bug checking that
+PyChecker performs, Pylint offers some additional features such as checking line
+length, whether variable names are well-formed according to your coding
+standard, whether declared interfaces are fully implemented, and more.
+https://docs.pylint.org/ provides a full list of Pylint's features.
+
+Static type checkers such as `Mypy <http://mypy-lang.org/>`_,
+`Pyre <https://pyre-check.org/>`_, and
+`Pytype <https://github.com/google/pytype>`_ can check type hints in Python
+source code.
+
+
+How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+You don't need the ability to compile Python to C code if all you want is a
+stand-alone program that users can download and run without having to install
+the Python distribution first.  There are a number of tools that determine the
+set of modules required by a program and bind these modules together with a
+Python binary to produce a single executable.
+
+One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source tree as
+``Tools/freeze``. It converts Python byte code to C arrays; a C compiler you can
+embed all your modules into a new program, which is then linked with the
+standard Python modules.
+
+It works by scanning your source recursively for import statements (in both
+forms) and looking for the modules in the standard Python path as well as in the
+source directory (for built-in modules).  It then turns the bytecode for modules
+written in Python into C code (array initializers that can be turned into code
+objects using the marshal module) and creates a custom-made config file that
+only contains those built-in modules which are actually used in the program.  It
+then compiles the generated C code and links it with the rest of the Python
+interpreter to form a self-contained binary which acts exactly like your script.
+
+Obviously, freeze requires a C compiler.  There are several other utilities
+which don't. One is Thomas Heller's py2exe (Windows only) at
+
+    http://www.py2exe.org/
+
+Another tool is Anthony Tuininga's `cx_Freeze <https://anthony-tuininga.github.io/cx_Freeze/>`_.
+
+
+Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes.  The coding style required for standard library modules is documented as
+:pep:`8`.
+
+
+Core Language
+=============
+
+Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+It can be a surprise to get the UnboundLocalError in previously working
+code when it is modified by adding an assignment statement somewhere in
+the body of a function.
+
+This code:
+
+   >>> x = 10
+   >>> def bar():
+   ...     print(x)
+   >>> bar()
+   10
+
+works, but this code:
+
+   >>> x = 10
+   >>> def foo():
+   ...     print(x)
+   ...     x += 1
+
+results in an UnboundLocalError:
+
+   >>> foo()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment
+
+This is because when you make an assignment to a variable in a scope, that
+variable becomes local to that scope and shadows any similarly named variable
+in the outer scope.  Since the last statement in foo assigns a new value to
+``x``, the compiler recognizes it as a local variable.  Consequently when the
+earlier ``print(x)`` attempts to print the uninitialized local variable and
+an error results.
+
+In the example above you can access the outer scope variable by declaring it
+global:
+
+   >>> x = 10
+   >>> def foobar():
+   ...     global x
+   ...     print(x)
+   ...     x += 1
+   >>> foobar()
+   10
+
+This explicit declaration is required in order to remind you that (unlike the
+superficially analogous situation with class and instance variables) you are
+actually modifying the value of the variable in the outer scope:
+
+   >>> print(x)
+   11
+
+You can do a similar thing in a nested scope using the :keyword:`nonlocal`
+keyword:
+
+   >>> def foo():
+   ...    x = 10
+   ...    def bar():
+   ...        nonlocal x
+   ...        print(x)
+   ...        x += 1
+   ...    bar()
+   ...    print(x)
+   >>> foo()
+   10
+   11
+
+
+What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+In Python, variables that are only referenced inside a function are implicitly
+global.  If a variable is assigned a value anywhere within the function's body,
+it's assumed to be a local unless explicitly declared as global.
+
+Though a bit surprising at first, a moment's consideration explains this.  On
+one hand, requiring :keyword:`global` for assigned variables provides a bar
+against unintended side-effects.  On the other hand, if ``global`` was required
+for all global references, you'd be using ``global`` all the time.  You'd have
+to declare as global every reference to a built-in function or to a component of
+an imported module.  This clutter would defeat the usefulness of the ``global``
+declaration for identifying side-effects.
+
+
+Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Assume you use a for loop to define a few different lambdas (or even plain
+functions), e.g.::
+
+   >>> squares = []
+   >>> for x in range(5):
+   ...     squares.append(lambda: x**2)
+
+This gives you a list that contains 5 lambdas that calculate ``x**2``.  You
+might expect that, when called, they would return, respectively, ``0``, ``1``,
+``4``, ``9``, and ``16``.  However, when you actually try you will see that
+they all return ``16``::
+
+   >>> squares[2]()
+   16
+   >>> squares[4]()
+   16
+
+This happens because ``x`` is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in
+the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called --- not when it
+is defined.  At the end of the loop, the value of ``x`` is ``4``, so all the
+functions now return ``4**2``, i.e. ``16``.  You can also verify this by
+changing the value of ``x`` and see how the results of the lambdas change::
+
+   >>> x = 8
+   >>> squares[2]()
+   64
+
+In order to avoid this, you need to save the values in variables local to the
+lambdas, so that they don't rely on the value of the global ``x``::
+
+   >>> squares = []
+   >>> for x in range(5):
+   ...     squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2)
+
+Here, ``n=x`` creates a new variable ``n`` local to the lambda and computed
+when the lambda is defined so that it has the same value that ``x`` had at
+that point in the loop.  This means that the value of ``n`` will be ``0``
+in the first lambda, ``1`` in the second, ``2`` in the third, and so on.
+Therefore each lambda will now return the correct result::
+
+   >>> squares[2]()
+   4
+   >>> squares[4]()
+   16
+
+Note that this behaviour is not peculiar to lambdas, but applies to regular
+functions too.
+
+
+How do I share global variables across modules?
+------------------------------------------------
+
+The canonical way to share information across modules within a single program is
+to create a special module (often called config or cfg).  Just import the config
+module in all modules of your application; the module then becomes available as
+a global name.  Because there is only one instance of each module, any changes
+made to the module object get reflected everywhere.  For example:
+
+config.py::
+
+   x = 0   # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting
+
+mod.py::
+
+   import config
+   config.x = 1
+
+main.py::
+
+   import config
+   import mod
+   print(config.x)
+
+Note that using a module is also the basis for implementing the Singleton design
+pattern, for the same reason.
+
+
+What are the "best practices" for using import in a module?
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+In general, don't use ``from modulename import *``.  Doing so clutters the
+importer's namespace, and makes it much harder for linters to detect undefined
+names.
+
+Import modules at the top of a file.  Doing so makes it clear what other modules
+your code requires and avoids questions of whether the module name is in scope.
+Using one import per line makes it easy to add and delete module imports, but
+using multiple imports per line uses less screen space.
+
+It's good practice if you import modules in the following order:
+
+1. standard library modules -- e.g. ``sys``, ``os``, ``getopt``, ``re``
+2. third-party library modules (anything installed in Python's site-packages
+   directory) -- e.g. mx.DateTime, ZODB, PIL.Image, etc.
+3. locally-developed modules
+
+It is sometimes necessary to move imports to a function or class to avoid
+problems with circular imports.  Gordon McMillan says:
+
+   Circular imports are fine where both modules use the "import <module>" form
+   of import.  They fail when the 2nd module wants to grab a name out of the
+   first ("from module import name") and the import is at the top level.  That's
+   because names in the 1st are not yet available, because the first module is
+   busy importing the 2nd.
+
+In this case, if the second module is only used in one function, then the import
+can easily be moved into that function.  By the time the import is called, the
+first module will have finished initializing, and the second module can do its
+import.
+
+It may also be necessary to move imports out of the top level of code if some of
+the modules are platform-specific.  In that case, it may not even be possible to
+import all of the modules at the top of the file.  In this case, importing the
+correct modules in the corresponding platform-specific code is a good option.
+
+Only move imports into a local scope, such as inside a function definition, if
+it's necessary to solve a problem such as avoiding a circular import or are
+trying to reduce the initialization time of a module.  This technique is
+especially helpful if many of the imports are unnecessary depending on how the
+program executes.  You may also want to move imports into a function if the
+modules are only ever used in that function.  Note that loading a module the
+first time may be expensive because of the one time initialization of the
+module, but loading a module multiple times is virtually free, costing only a
+couple of dictionary lookups.  Even if the module name has gone out of scope,
+the module is probably available in :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+
+Why are default values shared between objects?
+----------------------------------------------
+
+This type of bug commonly bites neophyte programmers.  Consider this function::
+
+   def foo(mydict={}):  # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls
+       ... compute something ...
+       mydict[key] = value
+       return mydict
+
+The first time you call this function, ``mydict`` contains a single item.  The
+second time, ``mydict`` contains two items because when ``foo()`` begins
+executing, ``mydict`` starts out with an item already in it.
+
+It is often expected that a function call creates new objects for default
+values. This is not what happens. Default values are created exactly once, when
+the function is defined.  If that object is changed, like the dictionary in this
+example, subsequent calls to the function will refer to this changed object.
+
+By definition, immutable objects such as numbers, strings, tuples, and ``None``,
+are safe from change. Changes to mutable objects such as dictionaries, lists,
+and class instances can lead to confusion.
+
+Because of this feature, it is good programming practice to not use mutable
+objects as default values.  Instead, use ``None`` as the default value and
+inside the function, check if the parameter is ``None`` and create a new
+list/dictionary/whatever if it is.  For example, don't write::
+
+   def foo(mydict={}):
+       ...
+
+but::
+
+   def foo(mydict=None):
+       if mydict is None:
+           mydict = {}  # create a new dict for local namespace
+
+This feature can be useful.  When you have a function that's time-consuming to
+compute, a common technique is to cache the parameters and the resulting value
+of each call to the function, and return the cached value if the same value is
+requested again.  This is called "memoizing", and can be implemented like this::
+
+   # Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword
+   def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}):
+       if (arg1, arg2) in _cache:
+           return _cache[(arg1, arg2)]
+
+       # Calculate the value
+       result = ... expensive computation ...
+       _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result           # Store result in the cache
+       return result
+
+You could use a global variable containing a dictionary instead of the default
+value; it's a matter of taste.
+
+
+How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Collect the arguments using the ``*`` and ``**`` specifiers in the function's
+parameter list; this gives you the positional arguments as a tuple and the
+keyword arguments as a dictionary.  You can then pass these arguments when
+calling another function by using ``*`` and ``**``::
+
+   def f(x, *args, **kwargs):
+       ...
+       kwargs['width'] = '14.3c'
+       ...
+       g(x, *args, **kwargs)
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: argument; difference from parameter
+   single: parameter; difference from argument
+
+.. _faq-argument-vs-parameter:
+
+What is the difference between arguments and parameters?
+--------------------------------------------------------
+
+:term:`Parameters <parameter>` are defined by the names that appear in a
+function definition, whereas :term:`arguments <argument>` are the values
+actually passed to a function when calling it.  Parameters define what types of
+arguments a function can accept.  For example, given the function definition::
+
+   def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs):
+       pass
+
+*foo*, *bar* and *kwargs* are parameters of ``func``.  However, when calling
+``func``, for example::
+
+   func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar)
+
+the values ``42``, ``314``, and ``somevar`` are arguments.
+
+
+Why did changing list 'y' also change list 'x'?
+------------------------------------------------
+
+If you wrote code like::
+
+   >>> x = []
+   >>> y = x
+   >>> y.append(10)
+   >>> y
+   [10]
+   >>> x
+   [10]
+
+you might be wondering why appending an element to ``y`` changed ``x`` too.
+
+There are two factors that produce this result:
+
+1) Variables are simply names that refer to objects.  Doing ``y = x`` doesn't
+   create a copy of the list -- it creates a new variable ``y`` that refers to
+   the same object ``x`` refers to.  This means that there is only one object
+   (the list), and both ``x`` and ``y`` refer to it.
+2) Lists are :term:`mutable`, which means that you can change their content.
+
+After the call to :meth:`~list.append`, the content of the mutable object has
+changed from ``[]`` to ``[10]``.  Since both the variables refer to the same
+object, using either name accesses the modified value ``[10]``.
+
+If we instead assign an immutable object to ``x``::
+
+   >>> x = 5  # ints are immutable
+   >>> y = x
+   >>> x = x + 1  # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here
+   >>> x
+   6
+   >>> y
+   5
+
+we can see that in this case ``x`` and ``y`` are not equal anymore.  This is
+because integers are :term:`immutable`, and when we do ``x = x + 1`` we are not
+mutating the int ``5`` by incrementing its value; instead, we are creating a
+new object (the int ``6``) and assigning it to ``x`` (that is, changing which
+object ``x`` refers to).  After this assignment we have two objects (the ints
+``6`` and ``5``) and two variables that refer to them (``x`` now refers to
+``6`` but ``y`` still refers to ``5``).
+
+Some operations (for example ``y.append(10)`` and ``y.sort()``) mutate the
+object, whereas superficially similar operations (for example ``y = y + [10]``
+and ``sorted(y)``) create a new object.  In general in Python (and in all cases
+in the standard library) a method that mutates an object will return ``None``
+to help avoid getting the two types of operations confused.  So if you
+mistakenly write ``y.sort()`` thinking it will give you a sorted copy of ``y``,
+you'll instead end up with ``None``, which will likely cause your program to
+generate an easily diagnosed error.
+
+However, there is one class of operations where the same operation sometimes
+has different behaviors with different types:  the augmented assignment
+operators.  For example, ``+=`` mutates lists but not tuples or ints (``a_list
++= [1, 2, 3]`` is equivalent to ``a_list.extend([1, 2, 3])`` and mutates
+``a_list``, whereas ``some_tuple += (1, 2, 3)`` and ``some_int += 1`` create
+new objects).
+
+In other words:
+
+* If we have a mutable object (:class:`list`, :class:`dict`, :class:`set`,
+  etc.), we can use some specific operations to mutate it and all the variables
+  that refer to it will see the change.
+* If we have an immutable object (:class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`tuple`,
+  etc.), all the variables that refer to it will always see the same value,
+  but operations that transform that value into a new value always return a new
+  object.
+
+If you want to know if two variables refer to the same object or not, you can
+use the :keyword:`is` operator, or the built-in function :func:`id`.
+
+
+How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?
+---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python.  Since assignment
+just creates references to objects, there's no alias between an argument name in
+the caller and callee, and so no call-by-reference per se.  You can achieve the
+desired effect in a number of ways.
+
+1) By returning a tuple of the results::
+
+      def func2(a, b):
+          a = 'new-value'        # a and b are local names
+          b = b + 1              # assigned to new objects
+          return a, b            # return new values
+
+      x, y = 'old-value', 99
+      x, y = func2(x, y)
+      print(x, y)                # output: new-value 100
+
+   This is almost always the clearest solution.
+
+2) By using global variables.  This isn't thread-safe, and is not recommended.
+
+3) By passing a mutable (changeable in-place) object::
+
+      def func1(a):
+          a[0] = 'new-value'     # 'a' references a mutable list
+          a[1] = a[1] + 1        # changes a shared object
+
+      args = ['old-value', 99]
+      func1(args)
+      print(args[0], args[1])    # output: new-value 100
+
+4) By passing in a dictionary that gets mutated::
+
+      def func3(args):
+          args['a'] = 'new-value'     # args is a mutable dictionary
+          args['b'] = args['b'] + 1   # change it in-place
+
+      args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99}
+      func3(args)
+      print(args['a'], args['b'])
+
+5) Or bundle up values in a class instance::
+
+      class callByRef:
+          def __init__(self, **args):
+              for (key, value) in args.items():
+                  setattr(self, key, value)
+
+      def func4(args):
+          args.a = 'new-value'        # args is a mutable callByRef
+          args.b = args.b + 1         # change object in-place
+
+      args = callByRef(a='old-value', b=99)
+      func4(args)
+      print(args.a, args.b)
+
+
+   There's almost never a good reason to get this complicated.
+
+Your best choice is to return a tuple containing the multiple results.
+
+
+How do you make a higher order function in Python?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+You have two choices: you can use nested scopes or you can use callable objects.
+For example, suppose you wanted to define ``linear(a,b)`` which returns a
+function ``f(x)`` that computes the value ``a*x+b``.  Using nested scopes::
+
+   def linear(a, b):
+       def result(x):
+           return a * x + b
+       return result
+
+Or using a callable object::
+
+   class linear:
+
+       def __init__(self, a, b):
+           self.a, self.b = a, b
+
+       def __call__(self, x):
+           return self.a * x + self.b
+
+In both cases, ::
+
+   taxes = linear(0.3, 2)
+
+gives a callable object where ``taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2``.
+
+The callable object approach has the disadvantage that it is a bit slower and
+results in slightly longer code.  However, note that a collection of callables
+can share their signature via inheritance::
+
+   class exponential(linear):
+       # __init__ inherited
+       def __call__(self, x):
+           return self.a * (x ** self.b)
+
+Object can encapsulate state for several methods::
+
+   class counter:
+
+       value = 0
+
+       def set(self, x):
+           self.value = x
+
+       def up(self):
+           self.value = self.value + 1
+
+       def down(self):
+           self.value = self.value - 1
+
+   count = counter()
+   inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set
+
+Here ``inc()``, ``dec()`` and ``reset()`` act like functions which share the
+same counting variable.
+
+
+How do I copy an object in Python?
+----------------------------------
+
+In general, try :func:`copy.copy` or :func:`copy.deepcopy` for the general case.
+Not all objects can be copied, but most can.
+
+Some objects can be copied more easily.  Dictionaries have a :meth:`~dict.copy`
+method::
+
+   newdict = olddict.copy()
+
+Sequences can be copied by slicing::
+
+   new_l = l[:]
+
+
+How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+For an instance x of a user-defined class, ``dir(x)`` returns an alphabetized
+list of the names containing the instance attributes and methods and attributes
+defined by its class.
+
+
+How can my code discover the name of an object?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+Generally speaking, it can't, because objects don't really have names.
+Essentially, assignment always binds a name to a value; The same is true of
+``def`` and ``class`` statements, but in that case the value is a
+callable. Consider the following code::
+
+   >>> class A:
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> B = A
+   >>> a = B()
+   >>> b = a
+   >>> print(b)
+   <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
+   >>> print(a)
+   <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
+
+Arguably the class has a name: even though it is bound to two names and invoked
+through the name B the created instance is still reported as an instance of
+class A.  However, it is impossible to say whether the instance's name is a or
+b, since both names are bound to the same value.
+
+Generally speaking it should not be necessary for your code to "know the names"
+of particular values. Unless you are deliberately writing introspective
+programs, this is usually an indication that a change of approach might be
+beneficial.
+
+In comp.lang.python, Fredrik Lundh once gave an excellent analogy in answer to
+this question:
+
+   The same way as you get the name of that cat you found on your porch: the cat
+   (object) itself cannot tell you its name, and it doesn't really care -- so
+   the only way to find out what it's called is to ask all your neighbours
+   (namespaces) if it's their cat (object)...
+
+   ....and don't be surprised if you'll find that it's known by many names, or
+   no name at all!
+
+
+What's up with the comma operator's precedence?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+Comma is not an operator in Python.  Consider this session::
+
+    >>> "a" in "b", "a"
+    (False, 'a')
+
+Since the comma is not an operator, but a separator between expressions the
+above is evaluated as if you had entered::
+
+    ("a" in "b"), "a"
+
+not::
+
+    "a" in ("b", "a")
+
+The same is true of the various assignment operators (``=``, ``+=`` etc).  They
+are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment statements.
+
+
+Is there an equivalent of C's "?:" ternary operator?
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes, there is. The syntax is as follows::
+
+   [on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]
+
+   x, y = 50, 25
+   small = x if x < y else y
+
+Before this syntax was introduced in Python 2.5, a common idiom was to use
+logical operators::
+
+   [expression] and [on_true] or [on_false]
+
+However, this idiom is unsafe, as it can give wrong results when *on_true*
+has a false boolean value.  Therefore, it is always better to use
+the ``... if ... else ...`` form.
+
+
+Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?
+--------------------------------------------------------
+
+Yes.  Usually this is done by nesting :keyword:`lambda` within
+:keyword:`!lambda`.  See the following three examples, due to Ulf Bartelt::
+
+   from functools import reduce
+
+   # Primes < 1000
+   print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0,
+   map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000)))))
+
+   # First 10 Fibonacci numbers
+   print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1:
+   f(x,f), range(10))))
+
+   # Mandelbrot set
+   print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda y,
+   Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM,
+   Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,
+   i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y
+   >=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(
+   64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy
+   ))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24))
+   #    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen
+   #        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen
+   #        |          |      |__________ maximum of "iterations"
+   #        |          |_________________ range on y axis
+   #        |____________________________ range on x axis
+
+Don't try this at home, kids!
+
+
+.. _faq-positional-only-arguments:
+
+What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+A slash in the argument list of a function denotes that the parameters prior to
+it are positional-only.  Positional-only parameters are the ones without an
+externally-usable name.  Upon calling a function that accepts positional-only
+parameters, arguments are mapped to parameters based solely on their position.
+For example, :func:`pow` is a function that accepts positional-only parameters.
+Its documentation looks like this::
+
+   >>> help(pow)
+   Help on built-in function pow in module builtins:
+
+   pow(x, y, z=None, /)
+      Equivalent to x**y (with two arguments) or x**y % z (with three arguments)
+
+      Some types, such as ints, are able to use a more efficient algorithm when
+      invoked using the three argument form.
+
+The slash at the end of the parameter list means that all three parameters are
+positional-only. Thus, calling :func:`pow` with keyword aguments would lead to
+an error::
+
+   >>> pow(x=3, y=4)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: pow() takes no keyword arguments
+
+Note that as of this writing this is only documentational and no valid syntax
+in Python, although there is :pep:`570`, which proposes a syntax for
+position-only parameters in Python.
+
+
+Numbers and strings
+===================
+
+How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?
+------------------------------------------------
+
+To specify an octal digit, precede the octal value with a zero, and then a lower
+or uppercase "o".  For example, to set the variable "a" to the octal value "10"
+(8 in decimal), type::
+
+   >>> a = 0o10
+   >>> a
+   8
+
+Hexadecimal is just as easy.  Simply precede the hexadecimal number with a zero,
+and then a lower or uppercase "x".  Hexadecimal digits can be specified in lower
+or uppercase.  For example, in the Python interpreter::
+
+   >>> a = 0xa5
+   >>> a
+   165
+   >>> b = 0XB2
+   >>> b
+   178
+
+
+Why does -22 // 10 return -3?
+-----------------------------
+
+It's primarily driven by the desire that ``i % j`` have the same sign as ``j``.
+If you want that, and also want::
+
+    i == (i // j) * j + (i % j)
+
+then integer division has to return the floor.  C also requires that identity to
+hold, and then compilers that truncate ``i // j`` need to make ``i % j`` have
+the same sign as ``i``.
+
+There are few real use cases for ``i % j`` when ``j`` is negative.  When ``j``
+is positive, there are many, and in virtually all of them it's more useful for
+``i % j`` to be ``>= 0``.  If the clock says 10 now, what did it say 200 hours
+ago?  ``-190 % 12 == 2`` is useful; ``-190 % 12 == -10`` is a bug waiting to
+bite.
+
+
+How do I convert a string to a number?
+--------------------------------------
+
+For integers, use the built-in :func:`int` type constructor, e.g. ``int('144')
+== 144``.  Similarly, :func:`float` converts to floating-point,
+e.g. ``float('144') == 144.0``.
+
+By default, these interpret the number as decimal, so that ``int('0144') ==
+144`` and ``int('0x144')`` raises :exc:`ValueError`. ``int(string, base)`` takes
+the base to convert from as a second optional argument, so ``int('0x144', 16) ==
+324``.  If the base is specified as 0, the number is interpreted using Python's
+rules: a leading '0o' indicates octal, and '0x' indicates a hex number.
+
+Do not use the built-in function :func:`eval` if all you need is to convert
+strings to numbers.  :func:`eval` will be significantly slower and it presents a
+security risk: someone could pass you a Python expression that might have
+unwanted side effects.  For example, someone could pass
+``__import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME")`` which would erase your home
+directory.
+
+:func:`eval` also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python expressions,
+so that e.g. ``eval('09')`` gives a syntax error because Python does not allow
+leading '0' in a decimal number (except '0').
+
+
+How do I convert a number to a string?
+--------------------------------------
+
+To convert, e.g., the number 144 to the string '144', use the built-in type
+constructor :func:`str`.  If you want a hexadecimal or octal representation, use
+the built-in functions :func:`hex` or :func:`oct`.  For fancy formatting, see
+the :ref:`f-strings` and :ref:`formatstrings` sections,
+e.g. ``"{:04d}".format(144)`` yields
+``'0144'`` and ``"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)`` yields ``'0.333'``.
+
+
+How do I modify a string in place?
+----------------------------------
+
+You can't, because strings are immutable.  In most situations, you should
+simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to assemble
+it from.  However, if you need an object with the ability to modify in-place
+unicode data, try using an :class:`io.StringIO` object or the :mod:`array`
+module::
+
+   >>> import io
+   >>> s = "Hello, world"
+   >>> sio = io.StringIO(s)
+   >>> sio.getvalue()
+   'Hello, world'
+   >>> sio.seek(7)
+   7
+   >>> sio.write("there!")
+   6
+   >>> sio.getvalue()
+   'Hello, there!'
+
+   >>> import array
+   >>> a = array.array('u', s)
+   >>> print(a)
+   array('u', 'Hello, world')
+   >>> a[0] = 'y'
+   >>> print(a)
+   array('u', 'yello, world')
+   >>> a.tounicode()
+   'yello, world'
+
+
+How do I use strings to call functions/methods?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+There are various techniques.
+
+* The best is to use a dictionary that maps strings to functions.  The primary
+  advantage of this technique is that the strings do not need to match the names
+  of the functions.  This is also the primary technique used to emulate a case
+  construct::
+
+     def a():
+         pass
+
+     def b():
+         pass
+
+     dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b}  # Note lack of parens for funcs
+
+     dispatch[get_input()]()  # Note trailing parens to call function
+
+* Use the built-in function :func:`getattr`::
+
+     import foo
+     getattr(foo, 'bar')()
+
+  Note that :func:`getattr` works on any object, including classes, class
+  instances, modules, and so on.
+
+  This is used in several places in the standard library, like this::
+
+     class Foo:
+         def do_foo(self):
+             ...
+
+         def do_bar(self):
+             ...
+
+     f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname)
+     f()
+
+
+* Use :func:`locals` or :func:`eval` to resolve the function name::
+
+     def myFunc():
+         print("hello")
+
+     fname = "myFunc"
+
+     f = locals()[fname]
+     f()
+
+     f = eval(fname)
+     f()
+
+  Note: Using :func:`eval` is slow and dangerous.  If you don't have absolute
+  control over the contents of the string, someone could pass a string that
+  resulted in an arbitrary function being executed.
+
+Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+You can use ``S.rstrip("\r\n")`` to remove all occurrences of any line
+terminator from the end of the string ``S`` without removing other trailing
+whitespace.  If the string ``S`` represents more than one line, with several
+empty lines at the end, the line terminators for all the blank lines will
+be removed::
+
+   >>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n"
+   ...          "\r\n"
+   ...          "\r\n")
+   >>> lines.rstrip("\n\r")
+   'line 1 '
+
+Since this is typically only desired when reading text one line at a time, using
+``S.rstrip()`` this way works well.
+
+
+Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?
+------------------------------------------
+
+Not as such.
+
+For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the line into
+whitespace-delimited words using the :meth:`~str.split` method of string objects
+and then convert decimal strings to numeric values using :func:`int` or
+:func:`float`.  ``split()`` supports an optional "sep" parameter which is useful
+if the line uses something other than whitespace as a separator.
+
+For more complicated input parsing, regular expressions are more powerful
+than C's :c:func:`sscanf` and better suited for the task.
+
+
+What does 'UnicodeDecodeError' or 'UnicodeEncodeError' error  mean?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+See the :ref:`unicode-howto`.
+
+
+Performance
+===========
+
+My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?
+---------------------------------------------
+
+That's a tough one, in general.  First, here are a list of things to
+remember before diving further:
+
+* Performance characteristics vary across Python implementations.  This FAQ
+  focusses on :term:`CPython`.
+* Behaviour can vary across operating systems, especially when talking about
+  I/O or multi-threading.
+* You should always find the hot spots in your program *before* attempting to
+  optimize any code (see the :mod:`profile` module).
+* Writing benchmark scripts will allow you to iterate quickly when searching
+  for improvements (see the :mod:`timeit` module).
+* It is highly recommended to have good code coverage (through unit testing
+  or any other technique) before potentially introducing regressions hidden
+  in sophisticated optimizations.
+
+That being said, there are many tricks to speed up Python code.  Here are
+some general principles which go a long way towards reaching acceptable
+performance levels:
+
+* Making your algorithms faster (or changing to faster ones) can yield
+  much larger benefits than trying to sprinkle micro-optimization tricks
+  all over your code.
+
+* Use the right data structures.  Study documentation for the :ref:`bltin-types`
+  and the :mod:`collections` module.
+
+* When the standard library provides a primitive for doing something, it is
+  likely (although not guaranteed) to be faster than any alternative you
+  may come up with.  This is doubly true for primitives written in C, such
+  as builtins and some extension types.  For example, be sure to use
+  either the :meth:`list.sort` built-in method or the related :func:`sorted`
+  function to do sorting (and see the :ref:`sortinghowto` for examples
+  of moderately advanced usage).
+
+* Abstractions tend to create indirections and force the interpreter to work
+  more.  If the levels of indirection outweigh the amount of useful work
+  done, your program will be slower.  You should avoid excessive abstraction,
+  especially under the form of tiny functions or methods (which are also often
+  detrimental to readability).
+
+If you have reached the limit of what pure Python can allow, there are tools
+to take you further away.  For example, `Cython <http://cython.org>`_ can
+compile a slightly modified version of Python code into a C extension, and
+can be used on many different platforms.  Cython can take advantage of
+compilation (and optional type annotations) to make your code significantly
+faster than when interpreted.  If you are confident in your C programming
+skills, you can also :ref:`write a C extension module <extending-index>`
+yourself.
+
+.. seealso::
+   The wiki page devoted to `performance tips
+   <https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips>`_.
+
+.. _efficient_string_concatenation:
+
+What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:class:`str` and :class:`bytes` objects are immutable, therefore concatenating
+many strings together is inefficient as each concatenation creates a new
+object.  In the general case, the total runtime cost is quadratic in the
+total string length.
+
+To accumulate many :class:`str` objects, the recommended idiom is to place
+them into a list and call :meth:`str.join` at the end::
+
+   chunks = []
+   for s in my_strings:
+       chunks.append(s)
+   result = ''.join(chunks)
+
+(another reasonably efficient idiom is to use :class:`io.StringIO`)
+
+To accumulate many :class:`bytes` objects, the recommended idiom is to extend
+a :class:`bytearray` object using in-place concatenation (the ``+=`` operator)::
+
+   result = bytearray()
+   for b in my_bytes_objects:
+       result += b
+
+
+Sequences (Tuples/Lists)
+========================
+
+How do I convert between tuples and lists?
+------------------------------------------
+
+The type constructor ``tuple(seq)`` converts any sequence (actually, any
+iterable) into a tuple with the same items in the same order.
+
+For example, ``tuple([1, 2, 3])`` yields ``(1, 2, 3)`` and ``tuple('abc')``
+yields ``('a', 'b', 'c')``.  If the argument is a tuple, it does not make a copy
+but returns the same object, so it is cheap to call :func:`tuple` when you
+aren't sure that an object is already a tuple.
+
+The type constructor ``list(seq)`` converts any sequence or iterable into a list
+with the same items in the same order.  For example, ``list((1, 2, 3))`` yields
+``[1, 2, 3]`` and ``list('abc')`` yields ``['a', 'b', 'c']``.  If the argument
+is a list, it makes a copy just like ``seq[:]`` would.
+
+
+What's a negative index?
+------------------------
+
+Python sequences are indexed with positive numbers and negative numbers.  For
+positive numbers 0 is the first index 1 is the second index and so forth.  For
+negative indices -1 is the last index and -2 is the penultimate (next to last)
+index and so forth.  Think of ``seq[-n]`` as the same as ``seq[len(seq)-n]``.
+
+Using negative indices can be very convenient.  For example ``S[:-1]`` is all of
+the string except for its last character, which is useful for removing the
+trailing newline from a string.
+
+
+How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Use the :func:`reversed` built-in function, which is new in Python 2.4::
+
+   for x in reversed(sequence):
+       ...  # do something with x ...
+
+This won't touch your original sequence, but build a new copy with reversed
+order to iterate over.
+
+With Python 2.3, you can use an extended slice syntax::
+
+   for x in sequence[::-1]:
+       ...  # do something with x ...
+
+
+How do you remove duplicates from a list?
+-----------------------------------------
+
+See the Python Cookbook for a long discussion of many ways to do this:
+
+   https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/
+
+If you don't mind reordering the list, sort it and then scan from the end of the
+list, deleting duplicates as you go::
+
+   if mylist:
+       mylist.sort()
+       last = mylist[-1]
+       for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1):
+           if last == mylist[i]:
+               del mylist[i]
+           else:
+               last = mylist[i]
+
+If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (i.e. they are all
+:term:`hashable`) this is often faster ::
+
+   mylist = list(set(mylist))
+
+This converts the list into a set, thereby removing duplicates, and then back
+into a list.
+
+
+How do you make an array in Python?
+-----------------------------------
+
+Use a list::
+
+   ["this", 1, "is", "an", "array"]
+
+Lists are equivalent to C or Pascal arrays in their time complexity; the primary
+difference is that a Python list can contain objects of many different types.
+
+The ``array`` module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed types
+with compact representations, but they are slower to index than lists.  Also
+note that the Numeric extensions and others define array-like structures with
+various characteristics as well.
+
+To get Lisp-style linked lists, you can emulate cons cells using tuples::
+
+   lisp_list = ("like",  ("this",  ("example", None) ) )
+
+If mutability is desired, you could use lists instead of tuples.  Here the
+analogue of lisp car is ``lisp_list[0]`` and the analogue of cdr is
+``lisp_list[1]``.  Only do this if you're sure you really need to, because it's
+usually a lot slower than using Python lists.
+
+
+.. _faq-multidimensional-list:
+
+How do I create a multidimensional list?
+----------------------------------------
+
+You probably tried to make a multidimensional array like this::
+
+   >>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3
+
+This looks correct if you print it:
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   A = [[None] * 2] * 3
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> A
+   [[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]
+
+But when you assign a value, it shows up in multiple places:
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   A = [[None] * 2] * 3
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> A[0][0] = 5
+   >>> A
+   [[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]
+
+The reason is that replicating a list with ``*`` doesn't create copies, it only
+creates references to the existing objects.  The ``*3`` creates a list
+containing 3 references to the same list of length two.  Changes to one row will
+show in all rows, which is almost certainly not what you want.
+
+The suggested approach is to create a list of the desired length first and then
+fill in each element with a newly created list::
+
+   A = [None] * 3
+   for i in range(3):
+       A[i] = [None] * 2
+
+This generates a list containing 3 different lists of length two.  You can also
+use a list comprehension::
+
+   w, h = 2, 3
+   A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)]
+
+Or, you can use an extension that provides a matrix datatype; `NumPy
+<http://www.numpy.org/>`_ is the best known.
+
+
+How do I apply a method to a sequence of objects?
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+Use a list comprehension::
+
+   result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]
+
+.. _faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error:
+
+Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+This is because of a combination of the fact that augmented assignment
+operators are *assignment* operators, and the difference between mutable and
+immutable objects in Python.
+
+This discussion applies in general when augmented assignment operators are
+applied to elements of a tuple that point to mutable objects, but we'll use
+a ``list`` and ``+=`` as our exemplar.
+
+If you wrote::
+
+   >>> a_tuple = (1, 2)
+   >>> a_tuple[0] += 1
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+   TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
+
+The reason for the exception should be immediately clear: ``1`` is added to the
+object ``a_tuple[0]`` points to (``1``), producing the result object, ``2``,
+but when we attempt to assign the result of the computation, ``2``, to element
+``0`` of the tuple, we get an error because we can't change what an element of
+a tuple points to.
+
+Under the covers, what this augmented assignment statement is doing is
+approximately this::
+
+   >>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1
+   >>> a_tuple[0] = result
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
+
+It is the assignment part of the operation that produces the error, since a
+tuple is immutable.
+
+When you write something like::
+
+   >>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar')
+   >>> a_tuple[0] += ['item']
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
+
+The exception is a bit more surprising, and even more surprising is the fact
+that even though there was an error, the append worked::
+
+    >>> a_tuple[0]
+    ['foo', 'item']
+
+To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object implements an
+``__iadd__`` magic method, it gets called when the ``+=`` augmented assignment
+is executed, and its return value is what gets used in the assignment statement;
+and (b) for lists, ``__iadd__`` is equivalent to calling ``extend`` on the list
+and returning the list.  That's why we say that for lists, ``+=`` is a
+"shorthand" for ``list.extend``::
+
+    >>> a_list = []
+    >>> a_list += [1]
+    >>> a_list
+    [1]
+
+This is equivalent to::
+
+    >>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1])
+    >>> a_list = result
+
+The object pointed to by a_list has been mutated, and the pointer to the
+mutated object is assigned back to ``a_list``.  The end result of the
+assignment is a no-op, since it is a pointer to the same object that ``a_list``
+was previously pointing to, but the assignment still happens.
+
+Thus, in our tuple example what is happening is equivalent to::
+
+   >>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item'])
+   >>> a_tuple[0] = result
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
+
+The ``__iadd__`` succeeds, and thus the list is extended, but even though
+``result`` points to the same object that ``a_tuple[0]`` already points to,
+that final assignment still results in an error, because tuples are immutable.
+
+
+I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The technique, attributed to Randal Schwartz of the Perl community, sorts the
+elements of a list by a metric which maps each element to its "sort value". In
+Python, use the ``key`` argument for the :meth:`list.sort` method::
+
+   Isorted = L[:]
+   Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))
+
+
+How can I sort one list by values from another list?
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then pick
+out the element you want. ::
+
+   >>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
+   >>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
+   >>> pairs = zip(list1, list2)
+   >>> pairs = sorted(pairs)
+   >>> pairs
+   [("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')]
+   >>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs]
+   >>> result
+   ['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']
+
+
+An alternative for the last step is::
+
+   >>> result = []
+   >>> for p in pairs: result.append(p[1])
+
+If you find this more legible, you might prefer to use this instead of the final
+list comprehension.  However, it is almost twice as slow for long lists.  Why?
+First, the ``append()`` operation has to reallocate memory, and while it uses
+some tricks to avoid doing that each time, it still has to do it occasionally,
+and that costs quite a bit.  Second, the expression "result.append" requires an
+extra attribute lookup, and third, there's a speed reduction from having to make
+all those function calls.
+
+
+Objects
+=======
+
+What is a class?
+----------------
+
+A class is the particular object type created by executing a class statement.
+Class objects are used as templates to create instance objects, which embody
+both the data (attributes) and code (methods) specific to a datatype.
+
+A class can be based on one or more other classes, called its base class(es). It
+then inherits the attributes and methods of its base classes. This allows an
+object model to be successively refined by inheritance.  You might have a
+generic ``Mailbox`` class that provides basic accessor methods for a mailbox,
+and subclasses such as ``MboxMailbox``, ``MaildirMailbox``, ``OutlookMailbox``
+that handle various specific mailbox formats.
+
+
+What is a method?
+-----------------
+
+A method is a function on some object ``x`` that you normally call as
+``x.name(arguments...)``.  Methods are defined as functions inside the class
+definition::
+
+   class C:
+       def meth(self, arg):
+           return arg * 2 + self.attribute
+
+
+What is self?
+-------------
+
+Self is merely a conventional name for the first argument of a method.  A method
+defined as ``meth(self, a, b, c)`` should be called as ``x.meth(a, b, c)`` for
+some instance ``x`` of the class in which the definition occurs; the called
+method will think it is called as ``meth(x, a, b, c)``.
+
+See also :ref:`why-self`.
+
+
+How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Use the built-in function ``isinstance(obj, cls)``.  You can check if an object
+is an instance of any of a number of classes by providing a tuple instead of a
+single class, e.g. ``isinstance(obj, (class1, class2, ...))``, and can also
+check whether an object is one of Python's built-in types, e.g.
+``isinstance(obj, str)`` or ``isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex))``.
+
+Note that most programs do not use :func:`isinstance` on user-defined classes
+very often.  If you are developing the classes yourself, a more proper
+object-oriented style is to define methods on the classes that encapsulate a
+particular behaviour, instead of checking the object's class and doing a
+different thing based on what class it is.  For example, if you have a function
+that does something::
+
+   def search(obj):
+       if isinstance(obj, Mailbox):
+           ...  # code to search a mailbox
+       elif isinstance(obj, Document):
+           ...  # code to search a document
+       elif ...
+
+A better approach is to define a ``search()`` method on all the classes and just
+call it::
+
+   class Mailbox:
+       def search(self):
+           ...  # code to search a mailbox
+
+   class Document:
+       def search(self):
+           ...  # code to search a document
+
+   obj.search()
+
+
+What is delegation?
+-------------------
+
+Delegation is an object oriented technique (also called a design pattern).
+Let's say you have an object ``x`` and want to change the behaviour of just one
+of its methods.  You can create a new class that provides a new implementation
+of the method you're interested in changing and delegates all other methods to
+the corresponding method of ``x``.
+
+Python programmers can easily implement delegation.  For example, the following
+class implements a class that behaves like a file but converts all written data
+to uppercase::
+
+   class UpperOut:
+
+       def __init__(self, outfile):
+           self._outfile = outfile
+
+       def write(self, s):
+           self._outfile.write(s.upper())
+
+       def __getattr__(self, name):
+           return getattr(self._outfile, name)
+
+Here the ``UpperOut`` class redefines the ``write()`` method to convert the
+argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying
+``self.__outfile.write()`` method.  All other methods are delegated to the
+underlying ``self.__outfile`` object.  The delegation is accomplished via the
+``__getattr__`` method; consult :ref:`the language reference <attribute-access>`
+for more information about controlling attribute access.
+
+Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier. When attributes
+must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a :meth:`__setattr__`
+method too, and it must do so carefully.  The basic implementation of
+:meth:`__setattr__` is roughly equivalent to the following::
+
+   class X:
+       ...
+       def __setattr__(self, name, value):
+           self.__dict__[name] = value
+       ...
+
+Most :meth:`__setattr__` implementations must modify ``self.__dict__`` to store
+local state for self without causing an infinite recursion.
+
+
+How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that overrides it?
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Use the built-in :func:`super` function::
+
+   class Derived(Base):
+       def meth(self):
+           super(Derived, self).meth()
+
+For version prior to 3.0, you may be using classic classes: For a class
+definition such as ``class Derived(Base): ...`` you can call method ``meth()``
+defined in ``Base`` (or one of ``Base``'s base classes) as ``Base.meth(self,
+arguments...)``.  Here, ``Base.meth`` is an unbound method, so you need to
+provide the ``self`` argument.
+
+
+How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?
+----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+You could define an alias for the base class, assign the real base class to it
+before your class definition, and use the alias throughout your class.  Then all
+you have to change is the value assigned to the alias.  Incidentally, this trick
+is also handy if you want to decide dynamically (e.g. depending on availability
+of resources) which base class to use.  Example::
+
+   BaseAlias = <real base class>
+
+   class Derived(BaseAlias):
+       def meth(self):
+           BaseAlias.meth(self)
+           ...
+
+
+How do I create static class data and static class methods?
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+Both static data and static methods (in the sense of C++ or Java) are supported
+in Python.
+
+For static data, simply define a class attribute.  To assign a new value to the
+attribute, you have to explicitly use the class name in the assignment::
+
+   class C:
+       count = 0   # number of times C.__init__ called
+
+       def __init__(self):
+           C.count = C.count + 1
+
+       def getcount(self):
+           return C.count  # or return self.count
+
+``c.count`` also refers to ``C.count`` for any ``c`` such that ``isinstance(c,
+C)`` holds, unless overridden by ``c`` itself or by some class on the base-class
+search path from ``c.__class__`` back to ``C``.
+
+Caution: within a method of C, an assignment like ``self.count = 42`` creates a
+new and unrelated instance named "count" in ``self``'s own dict.  Rebinding of a
+class-static data name must always specify the class whether inside a method or
+not::
+
+   C.count = 314
+
+Static methods are possible::
+
+   class C:
+       @staticmethod
+       def static(arg1, arg2, arg3):
+           # No 'self' parameter!
+           ...
+
+However, a far more straightforward way to get the effect of a static method is
+via a simple module-level function::
+
+   def getcount():
+       return C.count
+
+If your code is structured so as to define one class (or tightly related class
+hierarchy) per module, this supplies the desired encapsulation.
+
+
+How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?
+-------------------------------------------------------
+
+This answer actually applies to all methods, but the question usually comes up
+first in the context of constructors.
+
+In C++ you'd write
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    class C {
+        C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
+        C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; }
+    }
+
+In Python you have to write a single constructor that catches all cases using
+default arguments.  For example::
+
+   class C:
+       def __init__(self, i=None):
+           if i is None:
+               print("No arguments")
+           else:
+               print("Argument is", i)
+
+This is not entirely equivalent, but close enough in practice.
+
+You could also try a variable-length argument list, e.g. ::
+
+   def __init__(self, *args):
+       ...
+
+The same approach works for all method definitions.
+
+
+I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.
+------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Variable names with double leading underscores are "mangled" to provide a simple
+but effective way to define class private variables.  Any identifier of the form
+``__spam`` (at least two leading underscores, at most one trailing underscore)
+is textually replaced with ``_classname__spam``, where ``classname`` is the
+current class name with any leading underscores stripped.
+
+This doesn't guarantee privacy: an outside user can still deliberately access
+the "_classname__spam" attribute, and private values are visible in the object's
+``__dict__``.  Many Python programmers never bother to use private variable
+names at all.
+
+
+My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+There are several possible reasons for this.
+
+The del statement does not necessarily call :meth:`__del__` -- it simply
+decrements the object's reference count, and if this reaches zero
+:meth:`__del__` is called.
+
+If your data structures contain circular links (e.g. a tree where each child has
+a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the reference counts
+will never go back to zero.  Once in a while Python runs an algorithm to detect
+such cycles, but the garbage collector might run some time after the last
+reference to your data structure vanishes, so your :meth:`__del__` method may be
+called at an inconvenient and random time. This is inconvenient if you're trying
+to reproduce a problem. Worse, the order in which object's :meth:`__del__`
+methods are executed is arbitrary.  You can run :func:`gc.collect` to force a
+collection, but there *are* pathological cases where objects will never be
+collected.
+
+Despite the cycle collector, it's still a good idea to define an explicit
+``close()`` method on objects to be called whenever you're done with them.  The
+``close()`` method can then remove attributes that refer to subobjects.  Don't
+call :meth:`__del__` directly -- :meth:`__del__` should call ``close()`` and
+``close()`` should make sure that it can be called more than once for the same
+object.
+
+Another way to avoid cyclical references is to use the :mod:`weakref` module,
+which allows you to point to objects without incrementing their reference count.
+Tree data structures, for instance, should use weak references for their parent
+and sibling references (if they need them!).
+
+.. XXX relevant for Python 3?
+
+   If the object has ever been a local variable in a function that caught an
+   expression in an except clause, chances are that a reference to the object
+   still exists in that function's stack frame as contained in the stack trace.
+   Normally, calling :func:`sys.exc_clear` will take care of this by clearing
+   the last recorded exception.
+
+Finally, if your :meth:`__del__` method raises an exception, a warning message
+is printed to :data:`sys.stderr`.
+
+
+How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+Python does not keep track of all instances of a class (or of a built-in type).
+You can program the class's constructor to keep track of all instances by
+keeping a list of weak references to each instance.
+
+
+Why does the result of ``id()`` appear to be not unique?
+--------------------------------------------------------
+
+The :func:`id` builtin returns an integer that is guaranteed to be unique during
+the lifetime of the object.  Since in CPython, this is the object's memory
+address, it happens frequently that after an object is deleted from memory, the
+next freshly created object is allocated at the same position in memory.  This
+is illustrated by this example:
+
+>>> id(1000) # doctest: +SKIP
+13901272
+>>> id(2000) # doctest: +SKIP
+13901272
+
+The two ids belong to different integer objects that are created before, and
+deleted immediately after execution of the ``id()`` call.  To be sure that
+objects whose id you want to examine are still alive, create another reference
+to the object:
+
+>>> a = 1000; b = 2000
+>>> id(a) # doctest: +SKIP
+13901272
+>>> id(b) # doctest: +SKIP
+13891296
+
+
+Modules
+=======
+
+How do I create a .pyc file?
+----------------------------
+
+When a module is imported for the first time (or when the source file has
+changed since the current compiled file was created) a ``.pyc`` file containing
+the compiled code should be created in a ``__pycache__`` subdirectory of the
+directory containing the ``.py`` file.  The ``.pyc`` file will have a
+filename that starts with the same name as the ``.py`` file, and ends with
+``.pyc``, with a middle component that depends on the particular ``python``
+binary that created it.  (See :pep:`3147` for details.)
+
+One reason that a ``.pyc`` file may not be created is a permissions problem
+with the directory containing the source file, meaning that the ``__pycache__``
+subdirectory cannot be created. This can happen, for example, if you develop as
+one user but run as another, such as if you are testing with a web server.
+
+Unless the :envvar:`PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE` environment variable is set,
+creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you're importing a module and Python
+has the ability (permissions, free space, etc...) to create a ``__pycache__``
+subdirectory and write the compiled module to that subdirectory.
+
+Running Python on a top level script is not considered an import and no
+``.pyc`` will be created.  For example, if you have a top-level module
+``foo.py`` that imports another module ``xyz.py``, when you run ``foo`` (by
+typing ``python foo.py`` as a shell command), a ``.pyc`` will be created for
+``xyz`` because ``xyz`` is imported, but no ``.pyc`` file will be created for
+``foo`` since ``foo.py`` isn't being imported.
+
+If you need to create a ``.pyc`` file for ``foo`` -- that is, to create a
+``.pyc`` file for a module that is not imported -- you can, using the
+:mod:`py_compile` and :mod:`compileall` modules.
+
+The :mod:`py_compile` module can manually compile any module.  One way is to use
+the ``compile()`` function in that module interactively::
+
+   >>> import py_compile
+   >>> py_compile.compile('foo.py')                 # doctest: +SKIP
+
+This will write the ``.pyc`` to a ``__pycache__`` subdirectory in the same
+location as ``foo.py`` (or you can override that with the optional parameter
+``cfile``).
+
+You can also automatically compile all files in a directory or directories using
+the :mod:`compileall` module.  You can do it from the shell prompt by running
+``compileall.py`` and providing the path of a directory containing Python files
+to compile::
+
+       python -m compileall .
+
+
+How do I find the current module name?
+--------------------------------------
+
+A module can find out its own module name by looking at the predefined global
+variable ``__name__``.  If this has the value ``'__main__'``, the program is
+running as a script.  Many modules that are usually used by importing them also
+provide a command-line interface or a self-test, and only execute this code
+after checking ``__name__``::
+
+   def main():
+       print('Running test...')
+       ...
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       main()
+
+
+How can I have modules that mutually import each other?
+-------------------------------------------------------
+
+Suppose you have the following modules:
+
+foo.py::
+
+   from bar import bar_var
+   foo_var = 1
+
+bar.py::
+
+   from foo import foo_var
+   bar_var = 2
+
+The problem is that the interpreter will perform the following steps:
+
+* main imports foo
+* Empty globals for foo are created
+* foo is compiled and starts executing
+* foo imports bar
+* Empty globals for bar are created
+* bar is compiled and starts executing
+* bar imports foo (which is a no-op since there already is a module named foo)
+* bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var
+
+The last step fails, because Python isn't done with interpreting ``foo`` yet and
+the global symbol dictionary for ``foo`` is still empty.
+
+The same thing happens when you use ``import foo``, and then try to access
+``foo.foo_var`` in global code.
+
+There are (at least) three possible workarounds for this problem.
+
+Guido van Rossum recommends avoiding all uses of ``from <module> import ...``,
+and placing all code inside functions.  Initializations of global variables and
+class variables should use constants or built-in functions only.  This means
+everything from an imported module is referenced as ``<module>.<name>``.
+
+Jim Roskind suggests performing steps in the following order in each module:
+
+* exports (globals, functions, and classes that don't need imported base
+  classes)
+* ``import`` statements
+* active code (including globals that are initialized from imported values).
+
+van Rossum doesn't like this approach much because the imports appear in a
+strange place, but it does work.
+
+Matthias Urlichs recommends restructuring your code so that the recursive import
+is not necessary in the first place.
+
+These solutions are not mutually exclusive.
+
+
+__import__('x.y.z') returns <module 'x'>; how do I get z?
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+Consider using the convenience function :func:`~importlib.import_module` from
+:mod:`importlib` instead::
+
+   z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')
+
+
+When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don't show up.  Why does this happen?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+For reasons of efficiency as well as consistency, Python only reads the module
+file on the first time a module is imported.  If it didn't, in a program
+consisting of many modules where each one imports the same basic module, the
+basic module would be parsed and re-parsed many times.  To force re-reading of a
+changed module, do this::
+
+   import importlib
+   import modname
+   importlib.reload(modname)
+
+Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof.  In particular, modules
+containing statements like ::
+
+   from modname import some_objects
+
+will continue to work with the old version of the imported objects.  If the
+module contains class definitions, existing class instances will *not* be
+updated to use the new class definition.  This can result in the following
+paradoxical behaviour::
+
+   >>> import importlib
+   >>> import cls
+   >>> c = cls.C()                # Create an instance of C
+   >>> importlib.reload(cls)
+   <module 'cls' from 'cls.py'>
+   >>> isinstance(c, cls.C)       # isinstance is false?!?
+   False
+
+The nature of the problem is made clear if you print out the "identity" of the
+class objects::
+
+   >>> hex(id(c.__class__))
+   '0x7352a0'
+   >>> hex(id(cls.C))
+   '0x4198d0'
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/windows.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/windows.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a92ec1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/faq/windows.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,284 @@
+:tocdepth: 2
+
+.. highlightlang:: none
+
+.. _windows-faq:
+
+=====================
+Python on Windows FAQ
+=====================
+
+.. only:: html
+
+   .. contents::
+
+.. XXX need review for Python 3.
+   XXX need review for Windows Vista/Seven?
+
+.. _faq-run-program-under-windows:
+
+
+How do I run a Python program under Windows?
+--------------------------------------------
+
+This is not necessarily a straightforward question. If you are already familiar
+with running programs from the Windows command line then everything will seem
+obvious; otherwise, you might need a little more guidance.
+
+Unless you use some sort of integrated development environment, you will end up
+*typing* Windows commands into what is variously referred to as a "DOS window"
+or "Command prompt window".  Usually you can create such a window from your
+search bar by searching for ``cmd``.  You should be able to recognize
+when you have started such a window because you will see a Windows "command
+prompt", which usually looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: doscon
+
+   C:\>
+
+The letter may be different, and there might be other things after it, so you
+might just as easily see something like:
+
+.. code-block:: doscon
+
+   D:\YourName\Projects\Python>
+
+depending on how your computer has been set up and what else you have recently
+done with it.  Once you have started such a window, you are well on the way to
+running Python programs.
+
+You need to realize that your Python scripts have to be processed by another
+program called the Python *interpreter*.  The interpreter reads your script,
+compiles it into bytecodes, and then executes the bytecodes to run your
+program. So, how do you arrange for the interpreter to handle your Python?
+
+First, you need to make sure that your command window recognises the word
+"py" as an instruction to start the interpreter.  If you have opened a
+command window, you should try entering the command ``py`` and hitting
+return:
+
+.. code-block:: doscon
+
+   C:\Users\YourName> py
+
+You should then see something like:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
+   Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
+   >>>
+
+You have started the interpreter in "interactive mode". That means you can enter
+Python statements or expressions interactively and have them executed or
+evaluated while you wait.  This is one of Python's strongest features.  Check it
+by entering a few expressions of your choice and seeing the results:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+    >>> print("Hello")
+    Hello
+    >>> "Hello" * 3
+    'HelloHelloHello'
+
+Many people use the interactive mode as a convenient yet highly programmable
+calculator.  When you want to end your interactive Python session,
+call the :func:`exit` function or hold the :kbd:`Ctrl` key down
+while you enter a :kbd:`Z`, then hit the ":kbd:`Enter`" key to get
+back to your Windows command prompt.
+
+You may also find that you have a Start-menu entry such as :menuselection:`Start
+--> Programs --> Python 3.x --> Python (command line)` that results in you
+seeing the ``>>>`` prompt in a new window.  If so, the window will disappear
+after you call the :func:`exit` function or enter the :kbd:`Ctrl-Z`
+character; Windows is running a single "python"
+command in the window, and closes it when you terminate the interpreter.
+
+Now that we know the ``py`` command is recognized, you can give your
+Python script to it. You'll have to give either an absolute or a
+relative path to the Python script. Let's say your Python script is
+located in your desktop and is named ``hello.py``, and your command
+prompt is nicely opened in your home directory so you're seeing something
+similar to::
+
+   C:\Users\YourName>
+
+So now you'll ask the ``py`` command to give your script to Python by
+typing ``py`` followed by your script path::
+
+
+   C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py
+   hello
+
+How do I make Python scripts executable?
+----------------------------------------
+
+On Windows, the standard Python installer already associates the .py
+extension with a file type (Python.File) and gives that file type an open
+command that runs the interpreter (``D:\Program Files\Python\python.exe "%1"
+%*``).  This is enough to make scripts executable from the command prompt as
+'foo.py'.  If you'd rather be able to execute the script by simple typing 'foo'
+with no extension you need to add .py to the PATHEXT environment variable.
+
+Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
+------------------------------------------------
+
+Usually Python starts very quickly on Windows, but occasionally there are bug
+reports that Python suddenly begins to take a long time to start up.  This is
+made even more puzzling because Python will work fine on other Windows systems
+which appear to be configured identically.
+
+The problem may be caused by a misconfiguration of virus checking software on
+the problem machine.  Some virus scanners have been known to introduce startup
+overhead of two orders of magnitude when the scanner is configured to monitor
+all reads from the filesystem.  Try checking the configuration of virus scanning
+software on your systems to ensure that they are indeed configured identically.
+McAfee, when configured to scan all file system read activity, is a particular
+offender.
+
+
+How do I make an executable from a Python script?
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+See `cx_Freeze <https://anthony-tuininga.github.io/cx_Freeze/>`_ for a distutils extension
+that allows you to create console and GUI executables from Python code.
+`py2exe <http://www.py2exe.org/>`_, the most popular extension for building
+Python 2.x-based executables, does not yet support Python 3 but a version that
+does is in development.
+
+
+Is a ``*.pyd`` file the same as a DLL?
+--------------------------------------
+
+Yes, .pyd files are dll's, but there are a few differences.  If you have a DLL
+named ``foo.pyd``, then it must have a function ``PyInit_foo()``.  You can then
+write Python "import foo", and Python will search for foo.pyd (as well as
+foo.py, foo.pyc) and if it finds it, will attempt to call ``PyInit_foo()`` to
+initialize it.  You do not link your .exe with foo.lib, as that would cause
+Windows to require the DLL to be present.
+
+Note that the search path for foo.pyd is PYTHONPATH, not the same as the path
+that Windows uses to search for foo.dll.  Also, foo.pyd need not be present to
+run your program, whereas if you linked your program with a dll, the dll is
+required.  Of course, foo.pyd is required if you want to say ``import foo``.  In
+a DLL, linkage is declared in the source code with ``__declspec(dllexport)``.
+In a .pyd, linkage is defined in a list of available functions.
+
+
+How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Embedding the Python interpreter in a Windows app can be summarized as follows:
+
+1. Do _not_ build Python into your .exe file directly.  On Windows, Python must
+   be a DLL to handle importing modules that are themselves DLL's.  (This is the
+   first key undocumented fact.)  Instead, link to :file:`python{NN}.dll`; it is
+   typically installed in ``C:\Windows\System``.  *NN* is the Python version, a
+   number such as "33" for Python 3.3.
+
+   You can link to Python in two different ways.  Load-time linking means
+   linking against :file:`python{NN}.lib`, while run-time linking means linking
+   against :file:`python{NN}.dll`.  (General note: :file:`python{NN}.lib` is the
+   so-called "import lib" corresponding to :file:`python{NN}.dll`.  It merely
+   defines symbols for the linker.)
+
+   Run-time linking greatly simplifies link options; everything happens at run
+   time.  Your code must load :file:`python{NN}.dll` using the Windows
+   ``LoadLibraryEx()`` routine.  The code must also use access routines and data
+   in :file:`python{NN}.dll` (that is, Python's C API's) using pointers obtained
+   by the Windows ``GetProcAddress()`` routine.  Macros can make using these
+   pointers transparent to any C code that calls routines in Python's C API.
+
+   Borland note: convert :file:`python{NN}.lib` to OMF format using Coff2Omf.exe
+   first.
+
+   .. XXX what about static linking?
+
+2. If you use SWIG, it is easy to create a Python "extension module" that will
+   make the app's data and methods available to Python.  SWIG will handle just
+   about all the grungy details for you.  The result is C code that you link
+   *into* your .exe file (!)  You do _not_ have to create a DLL file, and this
+   also simplifies linking.
+
+3. SWIG will create an init function (a C function) whose name depends on the
+   name of the extension module.  For example, if the name of the module is leo,
+   the init function will be called initleo().  If you use SWIG shadow classes,
+   as you should, the init function will be called initleoc().  This initializes
+   a mostly hidden helper class used by the shadow class.
+
+   The reason you can link the C code in step 2 into your .exe file is that
+   calling the initialization function is equivalent to importing the module
+   into Python! (This is the second key undocumented fact.)
+
+4. In short, you can use the following code to initialize the Python interpreter
+   with your extension module.
+
+   .. code-block:: c
+
+      #include "python.h"
+      ...
+      Py_Initialize();  // Initialize Python.
+      initmyAppc();  // Initialize (import) the helper class.
+      PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp");  // Import the shadow class.
+
+5. There are two problems with Python's C API which will become apparent if you
+   use a compiler other than MSVC, the compiler used to build pythonNN.dll.
+
+   Problem 1: The so-called "Very High Level" functions that take FILE *
+   arguments will not work in a multi-compiler environment because each
+   compiler's notion of a struct FILE will be different.  From an implementation
+   standpoint these are very _low_ level functions.
+
+   Problem 2: SWIG generates the following code when generating wrappers to void
+   functions:
+
+   .. code-block:: c
+
+      Py_INCREF(Py_None);
+      _resultobj = Py_None;
+      return _resultobj;
+
+   Alas, Py_None is a macro that expands to a reference to a complex data
+   structure called _Py_NoneStruct inside pythonNN.dll.  Again, this code will
+   fail in a mult-compiler environment.  Replace such code by:
+
+   .. code-block:: c
+
+      return Py_BuildValue("");
+
+   It may be possible to use SWIG's ``%typemap`` command to make the change
+   automatically, though I have not been able to get this to work (I'm a
+   complete SWIG newbie).
+
+6. Using a Python shell script to put up a Python interpreter window from inside
+   your Windows app is not a good idea; the resulting window will be independent
+   of your app's windowing system.  Rather, you (or the wxPythonWindow class)
+   should create a "native" interpreter window.  It is easy to connect that
+   window to the Python interpreter.  You can redirect Python's i/o to _any_
+   object that supports read and write, so all you need is a Python object
+   (defined in your extension module) that contains read() and write() methods.
+
+How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The FAQ does not recommend using tabs, and the Python style guide, :pep:`8`,
+recommends 4 spaces for distributed Python code; this is also the Emacs
+python-mode default.
+
+Under any editor, mixing tabs and spaces is a bad idea.  MSVC is no different in
+this respect, and is easily configured to use spaces: Take :menuselection:`Tools
+--> Options --> Tabs`, and for file type "Default" set "Tab size" and "Indent
+size" to 4, and select the "Insert spaces" radio button.
+
+Python raises :exc:`IndentationError` or :exc:`TabError` if mixed tabs
+and spaces are causing problems in leading whitespace.
+You may also run the :mod:`tabnanny` module to check a directory tree
+in batch mode.
+
+
+How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+Use the msvcrt module.  This is a standard Windows-specific extension module.
+It defines a function ``kbhit()`` which checks whether a keyboard hit is
+present, and ``getch()`` which gets one character without echoing it.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/glossary.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/glossary.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df6f6b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/glossary.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1146 @@
+.. _glossary:
+
+********
+Glossary
+********
+
+.. if you add new entries, keep the alphabetical sorting!
+
+.. glossary::
+
+   ``>>>``
+      The default Python prompt of the interactive shell.  Often seen for code
+      examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter.
+
+   ``...``
+      The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering the
+      code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and
+      right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple
+      quotes), or after specifying a decorator.
+
+   2to3
+      A tool that tries to convert Python 2.x code to Python 3.x code by
+      handling most of the incompatibilities which can be detected by parsing the
+      source and traversing the parse tree.
+
+      2to3 is available in the standard library as :mod:`lib2to3`; a standalone
+      entry point is provided as :file:`Tools/scripts/2to3`.  See
+      :ref:`2to3-reference`.
+
+   abstract base class
+      Abstract base classes complement :term:`duck-typing` by
+      providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like
+      :func:`hasattr` would be clumsy or subtly wrong (for example with
+      :ref:`magic methods <special-lookup>`).  ABCs introduce virtual
+      subclasses, which are classes that don't inherit from a class but are
+      still recognized by :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass`; see the
+      :mod:`abc` module documentation.  Python comes with many built-in ABCs for
+      data structures (in the :mod:`collections.abc` module), numbers (in the
+      :mod:`numbers` module), streams (in the :mod:`io` module), import finders
+      and loaders (in the :mod:`importlib.abc` module).  You can create your own
+      ABCs with the :mod:`abc` module.
+
+   annotation
+      A label associated with a variable, a class
+      attribute or a function parameter or return value,
+      used by convention as a :term:`type hint`.
+
+      Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but
+      annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions
+      are stored in the :attr:`__annotations__`
+      special attribute of modules, classes, and functions,
+      respectively.
+
+      See :term:`variable annotation`, :term:`function annotation`, :pep:`484`
+      and :pep:`526`, which describe this functionality.
+
+   argument
+      A value passed to a :term:`function` (or :term:`method`) when calling the
+      function.  There are two kinds of argument:
+
+      * :dfn:`keyword argument`: an argument preceded by an identifier (e.g.
+        ``name=``) in a function call or passed as a value in a dictionary
+        preceded by ``**``.  For example, ``3`` and ``5`` are both keyword
+        arguments in the following calls to :func:`complex`::
+
+           complex(real=3, imag=5)
+           complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5})
+
+      * :dfn:`positional argument`: an argument that is not a keyword argument.
+        Positional arguments can appear at the beginning of an argument list
+        and/or be passed as elements of an :term:`iterable` preceded by ``*``.
+        For example, ``3`` and ``5`` are both positional arguments in the
+        following calls::
+
+           complex(3, 5)
+           complex(*(3, 5))
+
+      Arguments are assigned to the named local variables in a function body.
+      See the :ref:`calls` section for the rules governing this assignment.
+      Syntactically, any expression can be used to represent an argument; the
+      evaluated value is assigned to the local variable.
+
+      See also the :term:`parameter` glossary entry, the FAQ question on
+      :ref:`the difference between arguments and parameters
+      <faq-argument-vs-parameter>`, and :pep:`362`.
+
+   asynchronous context manager
+      An object which controls the environment seen in an
+      :keyword:`async with` statement by defining :meth:`__aenter__` and
+      :meth:`__aexit__` methods.  Introduced by :pep:`492`.
+
+   asynchronous generator
+      A function which returns an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator`.  It
+      looks like a coroutine function defined with :keyword:`async def` except
+      that it contains :keyword:`yield` expressions for producing a series of
+      values usable in an :keyword:`async for` loop.
+
+      Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an
+      *asynchronous generator iterator* in some contexts.  In cases where the
+      intended meaning isn't clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.
+
+      An asynchronous generator function may contain :keyword:`await`
+      expressions as well as :keyword:`async for`, and :keyword:`async with`
+      statements.
+
+   asynchronous generator iterator
+      An object created by a :term:`asynchronous generator` function.
+
+      This is an :term:`asynchronous iterator` which when called using the
+      :meth:`__anext__` method returns an awaitable object which will execute
+      the body of the asynchronous generator function until the next
+      :keyword:`yield` expression.
+
+      Each :keyword:`yield` temporarily suspends processing, remembering the
+      location execution state (including local variables and pending
+      try-statements).  When the *asynchronous generator iterator* effectively
+      resumes with another awaitable returned by :meth:`__anext__`, it
+      picks up where it left off.  See :pep:`492` and :pep:`525`.
+
+   asynchronous iterable
+      An object, that can be used in an :keyword:`async for` statement.
+      Must return an :term:`asynchronous iterator` from its
+      :meth:`__aiter__` method.  Introduced by :pep:`492`.
+
+   asynchronous iterator
+      An object that implements the :meth:`__aiter__` and :meth:`__anext__`
+      methods.  ``__anext__`` must return an :term:`awaitable` object.
+      :keyword:`async for` resolves the awaitables returned by an asynchronous
+      iterator's :meth:`__anext__` method until it raises a
+      :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` exception.  Introduced by :pep:`492`.
+
+   attribute
+      A value associated with an object which is referenced by name using
+      dotted expressions.  For example, if an object *o* has an attribute
+      *a* it would be referenced as *o.a*.
+
+   awaitable
+      An object that can be used in an :keyword:`await` expression.  Can be
+      a :term:`coroutine` or an object with an :meth:`__await__` method.
+      See also :pep:`492`.
+
+   BDFL
+      Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a. `Guido van Rossum
+      <https://gvanrossum.github.io/>`_, Python's creator.
+
+   binary file
+      A :term:`file object` able to read and write
+      :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`.
+      Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode (``'rb'``,
+      ``'wb'`` or ``'rb+'``), :data:`sys.stdin.buffer`,
+      :data:`sys.stdout.buffer`, and instances of :class:`io.BytesIO` and
+      :class:`gzip.GzipFile`.
+
+      See also :term:`text file` for a file object able to read and write
+      :class:`str` objects.
+
+   bytes-like object
+      An object that supports the :ref:`bufferobjects` and can
+      export a C-:term:`contiguous` buffer. This includes all :class:`bytes`,
+      :class:`bytearray`, and :class:`array.array` objects, as well as many
+      common :class:`memoryview` objects.  Bytes-like objects can
+      be used for various operations that work with binary data; these include
+      compression, saving to a binary file, and sending over a socket.
+
+      Some operations need the binary data to be mutable.  The documentation
+      often refers to these as "read-write bytes-like objects".  Example
+      mutable buffer objects include :class:`bytearray` and a
+      :class:`memoryview` of a :class:`bytearray`.
+      Other operations require the binary data to be stored in
+      immutable objects ("read-only bytes-like objects"); examples
+      of these include :class:`bytes` and a :class:`memoryview`
+      of a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+   bytecode
+      Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation
+      of a Python program in the CPython interpreter.  The bytecode is also
+      cached in ``.pyc`` files so that executing the same file is
+      faster the second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be
+      avoided).  This "intermediate language" is said to run on a
+      :term:`virtual machine` that executes the machine code corresponding to
+      each bytecode. Do note that bytecodes are not expected to work between
+      different Python virtual machines, nor to be stable between Python
+      releases.
+
+      A list of bytecode instructions can be found in the documentation for
+      :ref:`the dis module <bytecodes>`.
+
+   class
+      A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions
+      normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the
+      class.
+
+   class variable
+      A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at
+      class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class).
+
+   coercion
+      The implicit conversion of an instance of one type to another during an
+      operation which involves two arguments of the same type.  For example,
+      ``int(3.15)`` converts the floating point number to the integer ``3``, but
+      in ``3+4.5``, each argument is of a different type (one int, one float),
+      and both must be converted to the same type before they can be added or it
+      will raise a :exc:`TypeError`.  Without coercion, all arguments of even
+      compatible types would have to be normalized to the same value by the
+      programmer, e.g., ``float(3)+4.5`` rather than just ``3+4.5``.
+
+   complex number
+      An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are
+      expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part.  Imaginary
+      numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of
+      ``-1``), often written ``i`` in mathematics or ``j`` in
+      engineering.  Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are
+      written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with a
+      ``j`` suffix, e.g., ``3+1j``.  To get access to complex equivalents of the
+      :mod:`math` module, use :mod:`cmath`.  Use of complex numbers is a fairly
+      advanced mathematical feature.  If you're not aware of a need for them,
+      it's almost certain you can safely ignore them.
+
+   context manager
+      An object which controls the environment seen in a :keyword:`with`
+      statement by defining :meth:`__enter__` and :meth:`__exit__` methods.
+      See :pep:`343`.
+
+   context variable
+      A variable which can have different values depending on its context.
+      This is similar to Thread-Local Storage in which each execution
+      thread may have a different value for a variable. However, with context
+      variables, there may be several contexts in one execution thread and the
+      main usage for context variables is to keep track of variables in
+      concurrent asynchronous tasks.
+      See :mod:`contextvars`.
+
+   contiguous
+      .. index:: C-contiguous, Fortran contiguous
+
+      A buffer is considered contiguous exactly if it is either
+      *C-contiguous* or *Fortran contiguous*.  Zero-dimensional buffers are
+      C and Fortran contiguous.  In one-dimensional arrays, the items
+      must be laid out in memory next to each other, in order of
+      increasing indexes starting from zero.  In multidimensional
+      C-contiguous arrays, the last index varies the fastest when
+      visiting items in order of memory address.  However, in
+      Fortran contiguous arrays, the first index varies the fastest.
+
+   coroutine
+      Coroutines is a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are
+      entered at one point and exited at another point.  Coroutines can be
+      entered, exited, and resumed at many different points.  They can be
+      implemented with the :keyword:`async def` statement.  See also
+      :pep:`492`.
+
+   coroutine function
+      A function which returns a :term:`coroutine` object.  A coroutine
+      function may be defined with the :keyword:`async def` statement,
+      and may contain :keyword:`await`, :keyword:`async for`, and
+      :keyword:`async with` keywords.  These were introduced
+      by :pep:`492`.
+
+   CPython
+      The canonical implementation of the Python programming language, as
+      distributed on `python.org <https://www.python.org>`_.  The term "CPython"
+      is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others
+      such as Jython or IronPython.
+
+   decorator
+      A function returning another function, usually applied as a function
+      transformation using the ``@wrapper`` syntax.  Common examples for
+      decorators are :func:`classmethod` and :func:`staticmethod`.
+
+      The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two
+      function definitions are semantically equivalent::
+
+         def f(...):
+             ...
+         f = staticmethod(f)
+
+         @staticmethod
+         def f(...):
+             ...
+
+      The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there.  See
+      the documentation for :ref:`function definitions <function>` and
+      :ref:`class definitions <class>` for more about decorators.
+
+   descriptor
+      Any object which defines the methods :meth:`__get__`, :meth:`__set__`, or
+      :meth:`__delete__`.  When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special
+      binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup.  Normally, using
+      *a.b* to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named *b* in
+      the class dictionary for *a*, but if *b* is a descriptor, the respective
+      descriptor method gets called.  Understanding descriptors is a key to a
+      deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features
+      including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods,
+      and reference to super classes.
+
+      For more information about descriptors' methods, see :ref:`descriptors`.
+
+   dictionary
+      An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values.  The
+      keys can be any object with :meth:`__hash__` and :meth:`__eq__` methods.
+      Called a hash in Perl.
+
+   dictionary view
+      The objects returned from :meth:`dict.keys`, :meth:`dict.values`, and
+      :meth:`dict.items` are called dictionary views. They provide a dynamic
+      view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary
+      changes, the view reflects these changes. To force the
+      dictionary view to become a full list use ``list(dictview)``.  See
+      :ref:`dict-views`.
+
+   docstring
+      A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class,
+      function or module.  While ignored when the suite is executed, it is
+      recognized by the compiler and put into the :attr:`__doc__` attribute
+      of the enclosing class, function or module.  Since it is available via
+      introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the
+      object.
+
+   duck-typing
+      A programming style which does not look at an object's type to determine
+      if it has the right interface; instead, the method or attribute is simply
+      called or used ("If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it
+      must be a duck.")  By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types,
+      well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic
+      substitution.  Duck-typing avoids tests using :func:`type` or
+      :func:`isinstance`.  (Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented
+      with :term:`abstract base classes <abstract base class>`.)  Instead, it
+      typically employs :func:`hasattr` tests or :term:`EAFP` programming.
+
+   EAFP
+      Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission.  This common Python coding
+      style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches
+      exceptions if the assumption proves false.  This clean and fast style is
+      characterized by the presence of many :keyword:`try` and :keyword:`except`
+      statements.  The technique contrasts with the :term:`LBYL` style
+      common to many other languages such as C.
+
+   expression
+      A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value.  In other words,
+      an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals,
+      names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a
+      value.  In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs
+      are expressions.  There are also :term:`statement`\s which cannot be used
+      as expressions, such as :keyword:`while`.  Assignments are also statements,
+      not expressions.
+
+   extension module
+      A module written in C or C++, using Python's C API to interact with the
+      core and with user code.
+
+   f-string
+      String literals prefixed with ``'f'`` or ``'F'`` are commonly called
+      "f-strings" which is short for
+      :ref:`formatted string literals <f-strings>`.  See also :pep:`498`.
+
+   file object
+      An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as
+      :meth:`read()` or :meth:`write()`) to an underlying resource.  Depending
+      on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real
+      on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device
+      (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes,
+      etc.).  File objects are also called :dfn:`file-like objects` or
+      :dfn:`streams`.
+
+      There are actually three categories of file objects: raw
+      :term:`binary files <binary file>`, buffered
+      :term:`binary files <binary file>` and :term:`text files <text file>`.
+      Their interfaces are defined in the :mod:`io` module.  The canonical
+      way to create a file object is by using the :func:`open` function.
+
+   file-like object
+      A synonym for :term:`file object`.
+
+   finder
+      An object that tries to find the :term:`loader` for a module that is
+      being imported.
+
+      Since Python 3.3, there are two types of finder: :term:`meta path finders
+      <meta path finder>` for use with :data:`sys.meta_path`, and :term:`path
+      entry finders <path entry finder>` for use with :data:`sys.path_hooks`.
+
+      See :pep:`302`, :pep:`420` and :pep:`451` for much more detail.
+
+   floor division
+      Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer.  The floor
+      division operator is ``//``.  For example, the expression ``11 // 4``
+      evaluates to ``2`` in contrast to the ``2.75`` returned by float true
+      division.  Note that ``(-11) // 4`` is ``-3`` because that is ``-2.75``
+      rounded *downward*. See :pep:`238`.
+
+   function
+      A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also
+      be passed zero or more :term:`arguments <argument>` which may be used in
+      the execution of the body. See also :term:`parameter`, :term:`method`,
+      and the :ref:`function` section.
+
+   function annotation
+      An :term:`annotation` of a function parameter or return value.
+
+      Function annotations are usually used for
+      :term:`type hints <type hint>`: for example, this function is expected to take two
+      :class:`int` arguments and is also expected to have an :class:`int`
+      return value::
+
+         def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int:
+            return a + b
+
+      Function annotation syntax is explained in section :ref:`function`.
+
+      See :term:`variable annotation` and :pep:`484`,
+      which describe this functionality.
+
+   __future__
+      A pseudo-module which programmers can use to enable new language features
+      which are not compatible with the current interpreter.
+
+      By importing the :mod:`__future__` module and evaluating its variables,
+      you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it
+      becomes the default::
+
+         >>> import __future__
+         >>> __future__.division
+         _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)
+
+   garbage collection
+      The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore.  Python
+      performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage
+      collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles.  The
+      garbage collector can be controlled using the :mod:`gc` module.
+
+      .. index:: single: generator
+
+   generator
+      A function which returns a :term:`generator iterator`.  It looks like a
+      normal function except that it contains :keyword:`yield` expressions
+      for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be
+      retrieved one at a time with the :func:`next` function.
+
+      Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a
+      *generator iterator* in some contexts.  In cases where the intended
+      meaning isn't clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.
+
+   generator iterator
+      An object created by a :term:`generator` function.
+
+      Each :keyword:`yield` temporarily suspends processing, remembering the
+      location execution state (including local variables and pending
+      try-statements).  When the *generator iterator* resumes, it picks up where
+      it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every
+      invocation).
+
+      .. index:: single: generator expression
+
+   generator expression
+      An expression that returns an iterator.  It looks like a normal expression
+      followed by a :keyword:`!for` clause defining a loop variable, range,
+      and an optional :keyword:`!if` clause.  The combined expression
+      generates values for an enclosing function::
+
+         >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))         # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81
+         285
+
+   generic function
+      A function composed of multiple functions implementing the same operation
+      for different types. Which implementation should be used during a call is
+      determined by the dispatch algorithm.
+
+      See also the :term:`single dispatch` glossary entry, the
+      :func:`functools.singledispatch` decorator, and :pep:`443`.
+
+
+   GIL
+      See :term:`global interpreter lock`.
+
+   global interpreter lock
+      The mechanism used by the :term:`CPython` interpreter to assure that
+      only one thread executes Python :term:`bytecode` at a time.
+      This simplifies the CPython implementation by making the object model
+      (including critical built-in types such as :class:`dict`) implicitly
+      safe against concurrent access.  Locking the entire interpreter
+      makes it easier for the interpreter to be multi-threaded, at the
+      expense of much of the parallelism afforded by multi-processor
+      machines.
+
+      However, some extension modules, either standard or third-party,
+      are designed so as to release the GIL when doing computationally-intensive
+      tasks such as compression or hashing.  Also, the GIL is always released
+      when doing I/O.
+
+      Past efforts to create a "free-threaded" interpreter (one which locks
+      shared data at a much finer granularity) have not been successful
+      because performance suffered in the common single-processor case. It
+      is believed that overcoming this performance issue would make the
+      implementation much more complicated and therefore costlier to maintain.
+
+
+   hash-based pyc
+      A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified
+      time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See
+      :ref:`pyc-invalidation`.
+
+   hashable
+      An object is *hashable* if it has a hash value which never changes during
+      its lifetime (it needs a :meth:`__hash__` method), and can be compared to
+      other objects (it needs an :meth:`__eq__` method).  Hashable objects which
+      compare equal must have the same hash value.
+
+      Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member,
+      because these data structures use the hash value internally.
+
+      Most of Python's immutable built-in objects are hashable; mutable
+      containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are not; immutable
+      containers (such as tuples and frozensets) are only hashable if
+      their elements are hashable.  Objects which are
+      instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default.  They all
+      compare unequal (except with themselves), and their hash value is derived
+      from their :func:`id`.
+
+   IDLE
+      An Integrated Development Environment for Python.  IDLE is a basic editor
+      and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of
+      Python.
+
+   immutable
+      An object with a fixed value.  Immutable objects include numbers, strings and
+      tuples.  Such an object cannot be altered.  A new object has to
+      be created if a different value has to be stored.  They play an important
+      role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key
+      in a dictionary.
+
+   import path
+      A list of locations (or :term:`path entries <path entry>`) that are
+      searched by the :term:`path based finder` for modules to import. During
+      import, this list of locations usually comes from :data:`sys.path`, but
+      for subpackages it may also come from the parent package's ``__path__``
+      attribute.
+
+   importing
+      The process by which Python code in one module is made available to
+      Python code in another module.
+
+   importer
+      An object that both finds and loads a module; both a
+      :term:`finder` and :term:`loader` object.
+
+   interactive
+      Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter
+      statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately
+      execute them and see their results.  Just launch ``python`` with no
+      arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer's main
+      menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect
+      modules and packages (remember ``help(x)``).
+
+   interpreted
+      Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one,
+      though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the
+      bytecode compiler.  This means that source files can be run directly
+      without explicitly creating an executable which is then run.
+      Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle
+      than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more
+      slowly.  See also :term:`interactive`.
+
+   interpreter shutdown
+      When asked to shut down, the Python interpreter enters a special phase
+      where it gradually releases all allocated resources, such as modules
+      and various critical internal structures.  It also makes several calls
+      to the :term:`garbage collector <garbage collection>`. This can trigger
+      the execution of code in user-defined destructors or weakref callbacks.
+      Code executed during the shutdown phase can encounter various
+      exceptions as the resources it relies on may not function anymore
+      (common examples are library modules or the warnings machinery).
+
+      The main reason for interpreter shutdown is that the ``__main__`` module
+      or the script being run has finished executing.
+
+   iterable
+      An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of
+      iterables include all sequence types (such as :class:`list`, :class:`str`,
+      and :class:`tuple`) and some non-sequence types like :class:`dict`,
+      :term:`file objects <file object>`, and objects of any classes you define
+      with an :meth:`__iter__` method or with a :meth:`__getitem__` method
+      that implements :term:`Sequence` semantics.
+
+      Iterables can be
+      used in a :keyword:`for` loop and in many other places where a sequence is
+      needed (:func:`zip`, :func:`map`, ...).  When an iterable object is passed
+      as an argument to the built-in function :func:`iter`, it returns an
+      iterator for the object.  This iterator is good for one pass over the set
+      of values.  When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call
+      :func:`iter` or deal with iterator objects yourself.  The ``for``
+      statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed
+      variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop.  See also
+      :term:`iterator`, :term:`sequence`, and :term:`generator`.
+
+   iterator
+      An object representing a stream of data.  Repeated calls to the iterator's
+      :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method (or passing it to the built-in function
+      :func:`next`) return successive items in the stream.  When no more data
+      are available a :exc:`StopIteration` exception is raised instead.  At this
+      point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its
+      :meth:`__next__` method just raise :exc:`StopIteration` again.  Iterators
+      are required to have an :meth:`__iter__` method that returns the iterator
+      object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most
+      places where other iterables are accepted.  One notable exception is code
+      which attempts multiple iteration passes.  A container object (such as a
+      :class:`list`) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the
+      :func:`iter` function or use it in a :keyword:`for` loop.  Attempting this
+      with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used
+      in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container.
+
+      More information can be found in :ref:`typeiter`.
+
+   key function
+      A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value
+      used for sorting or ordering.  For example, :func:`locale.strxfrm` is
+      used to produce a sort key that is aware of locale specific sort
+      conventions.
+
+      A number of tools in Python accept key functions to control how elements
+      are ordered or grouped.  They include :func:`min`, :func:`max`,
+      :func:`sorted`, :meth:`list.sort`, :func:`heapq.merge`,
+      :func:`heapq.nsmallest`, :func:`heapq.nlargest`, and
+      :func:`itertools.groupby`.
+
+      There are several ways to create a key function.  For example. the
+      :meth:`str.lower` method can serve as a key function for case insensitive
+      sorts.  Alternatively, a key function can be built from a
+      :keyword:`lambda` expression such as ``lambda r: (r[0], r[2])``.  Also,
+      the :mod:`operator` module provides three key function constructors:
+      :func:`~operator.attrgetter`, :func:`~operator.itemgetter`, and
+      :func:`~operator.methodcaller`.  See the :ref:`Sorting HOW TO
+      <sortinghowto>` for examples of how to create and use key functions.
+
+   keyword argument
+      See :term:`argument`.
+
+   lambda
+      An anonymous inline function consisting of a single :term:`expression`
+      which is evaluated when the function is called.  The syntax to create
+      a lambda function is ``lambda [parameters]: expression``
+
+   LBYL
+      Look before you leap.  This coding style explicitly tests for
+      pre-conditions before making calls or lookups.  This style contrasts with
+      the :term:`EAFP` approach and is characterized by the presence of many
+      :keyword:`if` statements.
+
+      In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a
+      race condition between "the looking" and "the leaping".  For example, the
+      code, ``if key in mapping: return mapping[key]`` can fail if another
+      thread removes *key* from *mapping* after the test, but before the lookup.
+      This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach.
+
+   list
+      A built-in Python :term:`sequence`.  Despite its name it is more akin
+      to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to
+      elements is O(1).
+
+   list comprehension
+      A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and
+      return a list with the results.  ``result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in
+      range(256) if x % 2 == 0]`` generates a list of strings containing
+      even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. The :keyword:`if`
+      clause is optional.  If omitted, all elements in ``range(256)`` are
+      processed.
+
+   loader
+      An object that loads a module. It must define a method named
+      :meth:`load_module`. A loader is typically returned by a
+      :term:`finder`. See :pep:`302` for details and
+      :class:`importlib.abc.Loader` for an :term:`abstract base class`.
+
+   magic method
+      .. index:: pair: magic; method
+
+      An informal synonym for :term:`special method`.
+
+   mapping
+      A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the
+      methods specified in the :class:`~collections.abc.Mapping` or
+      :class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping`
+      :ref:`abstract base classes <collections-abstract-base-classes>`.  Examples
+      include :class:`dict`, :class:`collections.defaultdict`,
+      :class:`collections.OrderedDict` and :class:`collections.Counter`.
+
+   meta path finder
+      A :term:`finder` returned by a search of :data:`sys.meta_path`.  Meta path
+      finders are related to, but different from :term:`path entry finders
+      <path entry finder>`.
+
+      See :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` for the methods that meta path
+      finders implement.
+
+   metaclass
+      The class of a class.  Class definitions create a class name, a class
+      dictionary, and a list of base classes.  The metaclass is responsible for
+      taking those three arguments and creating the class.  Most object oriented
+      programming languages provide a default implementation.  What makes Python
+      special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses.  Most users
+      never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide
+      powerful, elegant solutions.  They have been used for logging attribute
+      access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing
+      singletons, and many other tasks.
+
+      More information can be found in :ref:`metaclasses`.
+
+   method
+      A function which is defined inside a class body.  If called as an attribute
+      of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as
+      its first :term:`argument` (which is usually called ``self``).
+      See :term:`function` and :term:`nested scope`.
+
+   method resolution order
+      Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched
+      for a member during lookup. See `The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order
+      <https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/>`_ for details of the
+      algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release.
+
+   module
+      An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code.  Modules
+      have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects.  Modules are loaded
+      into Python by the process of :term:`importing`.
+
+      See also :term:`package`.
+
+   module spec
+      A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a
+      module. An instance of :class:`importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec`.
+
+   MRO
+      See :term:`method resolution order`.
+
+   mutable
+      Mutable objects can change their value but keep their :func:`id`.  See
+      also :term:`immutable`.
+
+   named tuple
+      Any tuple-like class whose indexable elements are also accessible using
+      named attributes (for example, :func:`time.localtime` returns a
+      tuple-like object where the *year* is accessible either with an
+      index such as ``t[0]`` or with a named attribute like ``t.tm_year``).
+
+      A named tuple can be a built-in type such as :class:`time.struct_time`,
+      or it can be created with a regular class definition.  A full featured
+      named tuple can also be created with the factory function
+      :func:`collections.namedtuple`.  The latter approach automatically
+      provides extra features such as a self-documenting representation like
+      ``Employee(name='jones', title='programmer')``.
+
+   namespace
+      The place where a variable is stored.  Namespaces are implemented as
+      dictionaries.  There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well
+      as nested namespaces in objects (in methods).  Namespaces support
+      modularity by preventing naming conflicts.  For instance, the functions
+      :func:`builtins.open <.open>` and :func:`os.open` are distinguished by
+      their namespaces.  Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by
+      making it clear which module implements a function.  For instance, writing
+      :func:`random.seed` or :func:`itertools.islice` makes it clear that those
+      functions are implemented by the :mod:`random` and :mod:`itertools`
+      modules, respectively.
+
+   namespace package
+      A :pep:`420` :term:`package` which serves only as a container for
+      subpackages.  Namespace packages may have no physical representation,
+      and specifically are not like a :term:`regular package` because they
+      have no ``__init__.py`` file.
+
+      See also :term:`module`.
+
+   nested scope
+      The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition.  For
+      instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to
+      variables in the outer function.  Note that nested scopes by default work
+      only for reference and not for assignment.  Local variables both read and
+      write in the innermost scope.  Likewise, global variables read and write
+      to the global namespace.  The :keyword:`nonlocal` allows writing to outer
+      scopes.
+
+   new-style class
+      Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects.  In
+      earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python's newer,
+      versatile features like :attr:`~object.__slots__`, descriptors,
+      properties, :meth:`__getattribute__`, class methods, and static methods.
+
+   object
+      Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior
+      (methods).  Also the ultimate base class of any :term:`new-style
+      class`.
+
+   package
+      A Python :term:`module` which can contain submodules or recursively,
+      subpackages.  Technically, a package is a Python module with an
+      ``__path__`` attribute.
+
+      See also :term:`regular package` and :term:`namespace package`.
+
+   parameter
+      A named entity in a :term:`function` (or method) definition that
+      specifies an :term:`argument` (or in some cases, arguments) that the
+      function can accept.  There are five kinds of parameter:
+
+      * :dfn:`positional-or-keyword`: specifies an argument that can be passed
+        either :term:`positionally <argument>` or as a :term:`keyword argument
+        <argument>`.  This is the default kind of parameter, for example *foo*
+        and *bar* in the following::
+
+           def func(foo, bar=None): ...
+
+      .. _positional-only_parameter:
+
+      * :dfn:`positional-only`: specifies an argument that can be supplied only
+        by position.  Python has no syntax for defining positional-only
+        parameters.  However, some built-in functions have positional-only
+        parameters (e.g. :func:`abs`).
+
+      .. _keyword-only_parameter:
+
+      * :dfn:`keyword-only`: specifies an argument that can be supplied only
+        by keyword.  Keyword-only parameters can be defined by including a
+        single var-positional parameter or bare ``*`` in the parameter list
+        of the function definition before them, for example *kw_only1* and
+        *kw_only2* in the following::
+
+           def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ...
+
+      * :dfn:`var-positional`: specifies that an arbitrary sequence of
+        positional arguments can be provided (in addition to any positional
+        arguments already accepted by other parameters).  Such a parameter can
+        be defined by prepending the parameter name with ``*``, for example
+        *args* in the following::
+
+           def func(*args, **kwargs): ...
+
+      * :dfn:`var-keyword`: specifies that arbitrarily many keyword arguments
+        can be provided (in addition to any keyword arguments already accepted
+        by other parameters).  Such a parameter can be defined by prepending
+        the parameter name with ``**``, for example *kwargs* in the example
+        above.
+
+      Parameters can specify both optional and required arguments, as well as
+      default values for some optional arguments.
+
+      See also the :term:`argument` glossary entry, the FAQ question on
+      :ref:`the difference between arguments and parameters
+      <faq-argument-vs-parameter>`, the :class:`inspect.Parameter` class, the
+      :ref:`function` section, and :pep:`362`.
+
+   path entry
+      A single location on the :term:`import path` which the :term:`path
+      based finder` consults to find modules for importing.
+
+   path entry finder
+      A :term:`finder` returned by a callable on :data:`sys.path_hooks`
+      (i.e. a :term:`path entry hook`) which knows how to locate modules given
+      a :term:`path entry`.
+
+      See :class:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder` for the methods that path entry
+      finders implement.
+
+   path entry hook
+      A callable on the :data:`sys.path_hook` list which returns a :term:`path
+      entry finder` if it knows how to find modules on a specific :term:`path
+      entry`.
+
+   path based finder
+      One of the default :term:`meta path finders <meta path finder>` which
+      searches an :term:`import path` for modules.
+
+   path-like object
+      An object representing a file system path. A path-like object is either
+      a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object representing a path, or an object
+      implementing the :class:`os.PathLike` protocol. An object that supports
+      the :class:`os.PathLike` protocol can be converted to a :class:`str` or
+      :class:`bytes` file system path by calling the :func:`os.fspath` function;
+      :func:`os.fsdecode` and :func:`os.fsencode` can be used to guarantee a
+      :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` result instead, respectively. Introduced
+      by :pep:`519`.
+
+   PEP
+      Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document
+      providing information to the Python community, or describing a new
+      feature for Python or its processes or environment. PEPs should
+      provide a concise technical specification and a rationale for proposed
+      features.
+
+      PEPs are intended to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new
+      features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting
+      the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is
+      responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting
+      dissenting opinions.
+
+      See :pep:`1`.
+
+   portion
+      A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file)
+      that contribute to a namespace package, as defined in :pep:`420`.
+
+   positional argument
+      See :term:`argument`.
+
+   provisional API
+      A provisional API is one which has been deliberately excluded from
+      the standard library's backwards compatibility guarantees.  While major
+      changes to such interfaces are not expected, as long as they are marked
+      provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal
+      of the interface) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers.  Such
+      changes will not be made gratuitously -- they will occur only if serious
+      fundamental flaws are uncovered that were missed prior to the inclusion
+      of the API.
+
+      Even for provisional APIs, backwards incompatible changes are seen as
+      a "solution of last resort" - every attempt will still be made to find
+      a backwards compatible resolution to any identified problems.
+
+      This process allows the standard library to continue to evolve over
+      time, without locking in problematic design errors for extended periods
+      of time.  See :pep:`411` for more details.
+
+   provisional package
+      See :term:`provisional API`.
+
+   Python 3000
+      Nickname for the Python 3.x release line (coined long ago when the
+      release of version 3 was something in the distant future.)  This is also
+      abbreviated "Py3k".
+
+   Pythonic
+      An idea or piece of code which closely follows the most common idioms
+      of the Python language, rather than implementing code using concepts
+      common to other languages.  For example, a common idiom in Python is
+      to loop over all elements of an iterable using a :keyword:`for`
+      statement.  Many other languages don't have this type of construct, so
+      people unfamiliar with Python sometimes use a numerical counter instead::
+
+          for i in range(len(food)):
+              print(food[i])
+
+      As opposed to the cleaner, Pythonic method::
+
+         for piece in food:
+             print(piece)
+
+   qualified name
+      A dotted name showing the "path" from a module's global scope to a
+      class, function or method defined in that module, as defined in
+      :pep:`3155`.  For top-level functions and classes, the qualified name
+      is the same as the object's name::
+
+         >>> class C:
+         ...     class D:
+         ...         def meth(self):
+         ...             pass
+         ...
+         >>> C.__qualname__
+         'C'
+         >>> C.D.__qualname__
+         'C.D'
+         >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
+         'C.D.meth'
+
+      When used to refer to modules, the *fully qualified name* means the
+      entire dotted path to the module, including any parent packages,
+      e.g. ``email.mime.text``::
+
+         >>> import email.mime.text
+         >>> email.mime.text.__name__
+         'email.mime.text'
+
+   reference count
+      The number of references to an object.  When the reference count of an
+      object drops to zero, it is deallocated.  Reference counting is
+      generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key element of the
+      :term:`CPython` implementation.  The :mod:`sys` module defines a
+      :func:`~sys.getrefcount` function that programmers can call to return the
+      reference count for a particular object.
+
+   regular package
+      A traditional :term:`package`, such as a directory containing an
+      ``__init__.py`` file.
+
+      See also :term:`namespace package`.
+
+   __slots__
+      A declaration inside a class that saves memory by pre-declaring space for
+      instance attributes and eliminating instance dictionaries.  Though
+      popular, the technique is somewhat tricky to get right and is best
+      reserved for rare cases where there are large numbers of instances in a
+      memory-critical application.
+
+   sequence
+      An :term:`iterable` which supports efficient element access using integer
+      indices via the :meth:`__getitem__` special method and defines a
+      :meth:`__len__` method that returns the length of the sequence.
+      Some built-in sequence types are :class:`list`, :class:`str`,
+      :class:`tuple`, and :class:`bytes`. Note that :class:`dict` also
+      supports :meth:`__getitem__` and :meth:`__len__`, but is considered a
+      mapping rather than a sequence because the lookups use arbitrary
+      :term:`immutable` keys rather than integers.
+
+      The :class:`collections.abc.Sequence` abstract base class
+      defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just
+      :meth:`__getitem__` and :meth:`__len__`, adding :meth:`count`,
+      :meth:`index`, :meth:`__contains__`, and
+      :meth:`__reversed__`. Types that implement this expanded
+      interface can be registered explicitly using
+      :func:`~abc.register`.
+
+   single dispatch
+      A form of :term:`generic function` dispatch where the implementation is
+      chosen based on the type of a single argument.
+
+   slice
+      An object usually containing a portion of a :term:`sequence`.  A slice is
+      created using the subscript notation, ``[]`` with colons between numbers
+      when several are given, such as in ``variable_name[1:3:5]``.  The bracket
+      (subscript) notation uses :class:`slice` objects internally.
+
+   special method
+      .. index:: pair: special; method
+
+      A method that is called implicitly by Python to execute a certain
+      operation on a type, such as addition.  Such methods have names starting
+      and ending with double underscores.  Special methods are documented in
+      :ref:`specialnames`.
+
+   statement
+      A statement is part of a suite (a "block" of code).  A statement is either
+      an :term:`expression` or one of several constructs with a keyword, such
+      as :keyword:`if`, :keyword:`while` or :keyword:`for`.
+
+   struct sequence
+      A tuple with named elements. Struct sequences expose an interface similar
+      to :term:`named tuple` in that elements can be accessed either by
+      index or as an attribute. However, they do not have any of the named tuple
+      methods like :meth:`~collections.somenamedtuple._make` or
+      :meth:`~collections.somenamedtuple._asdict`. Examples of struct sequences
+      include :data:`sys.float_info` and the return value of :func:`os.stat`.
+
+   text encoding
+      A codec which encodes Unicode strings to bytes.
+
+   text file
+      A :term:`file object` able to read and write :class:`str` objects.
+      Often, a text file actually accesses a byte-oriented datastream
+      and handles the :term:`text encoding` automatically.
+      Examples of text files are files opened in text mode (``'r'`` or ``'w'``),
+      :data:`sys.stdin`, :data:`sys.stdout`, and instances of
+      :class:`io.StringIO`.
+
+      See also :term:`binary file` for a file object able to read and write
+      :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`.
+
+   triple-quoted string
+      A string which is bound by three instances of either a quotation mark
+      (") or an apostrophe (').  While they don't provide any functionality
+      not available with single-quoted strings, they are useful for a number
+      of reasons.  They allow you to include unescaped single and double
+      quotes within a string and they can span multiple lines without the
+      use of the continuation character, making them especially useful when
+      writing docstrings.
+
+   type
+      The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is; every
+      object has a type.  An object's type is accessible as its
+      :attr:`~instance.__class__` attribute or can be retrieved with
+      ``type(obj)``.
+
+   type alias
+      A synonym for a type, created by assigning the type to an identifier.
+
+      Type aliases are useful for simplifying :term:`type hints <type hint>`.
+      For example::
+
+         from typing import List, Tuple
+
+         def remove_gray_shades(
+                 colors: List[Tuple[int, int, int]]) -> List[Tuple[int, int, int]]:
+             pass
+
+      could be made more readable like this::
+
+         from typing import List, Tuple
+
+         Color = Tuple[int, int, int]
+
+         def remove_gray_shades(colors: List[Color]) -> List[Color]:
+             pass
+
+      See :mod:`typing` and :pep:`484`, which describe this functionality.
+
+   type hint
+      An :term:`annotation` that specifies the expected type for a variable, a class
+      attribute, or a function parameter or return value.
+
+      Type hints are optional and are not enforced by Python but
+      they are useful to static type analysis tools, and aid IDEs with code
+      completion and refactoring.
+
+      Type hints of global variables, class attributes, and functions,
+      but not local variables, can be accessed using
+      :func:`typing.get_type_hints`.
+
+      See :mod:`typing` and :pep:`484`, which describe this functionality.
+
+   universal newlines
+      A manner of interpreting text streams in which all of the following are
+      recognized as ending a line: the Unix end-of-line convention ``'\n'``,
+      the Windows convention ``'\r\n'``, and the old Macintosh convention
+      ``'\r'``.  See :pep:`278` and :pep:`3116`, as well as
+      :func:`bytes.splitlines` for an additional use.
+
+   variable annotation
+      An :term:`annotation` of a variable or a class attribute.
+
+      When annotating a variable or a class attribute, assignment is optional::
+
+         class C:
+             field: 'annotation'
+
+      Variable annotations are usually used for
+      :term:`type hints <type hint>`: for example this variable is expected to take
+      :class:`int` values::
+
+         count: int = 0
+
+      Variable annotation syntax is explained in section :ref:`annassign`.
+
+      See :term:`function annotation`, :pep:`484`
+      and :pep:`526`, which describe this functionality.
+
+   virtual environment
+      A cooperatively isolated runtime environment that allows Python users
+      and applications to install and upgrade Python distribution packages
+      without interfering with the behaviour of other Python applications
+      running on the same system.
+
+      See also :mod:`venv`.
+
+   virtual machine
+      A computer defined entirely in software.  Python's virtual machine
+      executes the :term:`bytecode` emitted by the bytecode compiler.
+
+   Zen of Python
+      Listing of Python design principles and philosophies that are helpful in
+      understanding and using the language.  The listing can be found by typing
+      "``import this``" at the interactive prompt.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/argparse.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/argparse.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e78a022
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/argparse.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,765 @@
+*****************
+Argparse Tutorial
+*****************
+
+:author: Tshepang Lekhonkhobe
+
+.. _argparse-tutorial:
+
+This tutorial is intended to be a gentle introduction to :mod:`argparse`, the
+recommended command-line parsing module in the Python standard library.
+
+.. note::
+
+   There are two other modules that fulfill the same task, namely
+   :mod:`getopt` (an equivalent for :c:func:`getopt` from the C
+   language) and the deprecated :mod:`optparse`.
+   Note also that :mod:`argparse` is based on :mod:`optparse`,
+   and therefore very similar in terms of usage.
+
+
+Concepts
+========
+
+Let's show the sort of functionality that we are going to explore in this
+introductory tutorial by making use of the :command:`ls` command:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ ls
+   cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch
+   $ ls pypy
+   ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...
+   $ ls -l
+   total 20
+   drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython
+   drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide
+   -rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py
+   drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy
+   -rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch
+   $ ls --help
+   Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
+   List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
+   Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
+   ...
+
+A few concepts we can learn from the four commands:
+
+* The :command:`ls` command is useful when run without any options at all. It defaults
+  to displaying the contents of the current directory.
+
+* If we want beyond what it provides by default, we tell it a bit more. In
+  this case, we want it to display a different directory, ``pypy``.
+  What we did is specify what is known as a positional argument. It's named so
+  because the program should know what to do with the value, solely based on
+  where it appears on the command line. This concept is more relevant
+  to a command like :command:`cp`, whose most basic usage is ``cp SRC DEST``.
+  The first position is *what you want copied,* and the second
+  position is *where you want it copied to*.
+
+* Now, say we want to change behaviour of the program. In our example,
+  we display more info for each file instead of just showing the file names.
+  The ``-l`` in that case is known as an optional argument.
+
+* That's a snippet of the help text. It's very useful in that you can
+  come across a program you have never used before, and can figure out
+  how it works simply by reading its help text.
+
+
+The basics
+==========
+
+Let us start with a very simple example which does (almost) nothing::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.parse_args()
+
+Following is a result of running the code:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py
+   $ python3 prog.py --help
+   usage: prog.py [-h]
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+   $ python3 prog.py --verbose
+   usage: prog.py [-h]
+   prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose
+   $ python3 prog.py foo
+   usage: prog.py [-h]
+   prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo
+
+Here is what is happening:
+
+* Running the script without any options results in nothing displayed to
+  stdout. Not so useful.
+
+* The second one starts to display the usefulness of the :mod:`argparse`
+  module. We have done almost nothing, but already we get a nice help message.
+
+* The ``--help`` option, which can also be shortened to ``-h``, is the only
+  option we get for free (i.e. no need to specify it). Specifying anything
+  else results in an error. But even then, we do get a useful usage message,
+  also for free.
+
+
+Introducing Positional arguments
+================================
+
+An example::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("echo")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   print(args.echo)
+
+And running the code:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py
+   usage: prog.py [-h] echo
+   prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo
+   $ python3 prog.py --help
+   usage: prog.py [-h] echo
+
+   positional arguments:
+     echo
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+   $ python3 prog.py foo
+   foo
+
+Here is what's happening:
+
+* We've added the :meth:`add_argument` method, which is what we use to specify
+  which command-line options the program is willing to accept. In this case,
+  I've named it ``echo`` so that it's in line with its function.
+
+* Calling our program now requires us to specify an option.
+
+* The :meth:`parse_args` method actually returns some data from the
+  options specified, in this case, ``echo``.
+
+* The variable is some form of 'magic' that :mod:`argparse` performs for free
+  (i.e. no need to specify which variable that value is stored in).
+  You will also notice that its name matches the string argument given
+  to the method, ``echo``.
+
+Note however that, although the help display looks nice and all, it currently
+is not as helpful as it can be. For example we see that we got ``echo`` as a
+positional argument, but we don't know what it does, other than by guessing or
+by reading the source code. So, let's make it a bit more useful::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("echo", help="echo the string you use here")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   print(args.echo)
+
+And we get:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py -h
+   usage: prog.py [-h] echo
+
+   positional arguments:
+     echo        echo the string you use here
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+Now, how about doing something even more useful::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   print(args.square**2)
+
+Following is a result of running the code:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "prog.py", line 5, in <module>
+       print(args.square**2)
+   TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'
+
+That didn't go so well. That's because :mod:`argparse` treats the options we
+give it as strings, unless we tell it otherwise. So, let's tell
+:mod:`argparse` to treat that input as an integer::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number",
+                       type=int)
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   print(args.square**2)
+
+Following is a result of running the code:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4
+   16
+   $ python3 prog.py four
+   usage: prog.py [-h] square
+   prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: 'four'
+
+That went well. The program now even helpfully quits on bad illegal input
+before proceeding.
+
+
+Introducing Optional arguments
+==============================
+
+So far we have been playing with positional arguments. Let us
+have a look on how to add optional ones::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("--verbosity", help="increase output verbosity")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   if args.verbosity:
+       print("verbosity turned on")
+
+And the output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py --verbosity 1
+   verbosity turned on
+   $ python3 prog.py
+   $ python3 prog.py --help
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+     --verbosity VERBOSITY
+                           increase output verbosity
+   $ python3 prog.py --verbosity
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
+   prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument
+
+Here is what is happening:
+
+* The program is written so as to display something when ``--verbosity`` is
+  specified and display nothing when not.
+
+* To show that the option is actually optional, there is no error when running
+  the program without it. Note that by default, if an optional argument isn't
+  used, the relevant variable, in this case :attr:`args.verbosity`, is
+  given ``None`` as a value, which is the reason it fails the truth
+  test of the :keyword:`if` statement.
+
+* The help message is a bit different.
+
+* When using the ``--verbosity`` option, one must also specify some value,
+  any value.
+
+The above example accepts arbitrary integer values for ``--verbosity``, but for
+our simple program, only two values are actually useful, ``True`` or ``False``.
+Let's modify the code accordingly::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
+                       action="store_true")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   if args.verbose:
+       print("verbosity turned on")
+
+And the output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py --verbose
+   verbosity turned on
+   $ python3 prog.py --verbose 1
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
+   prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
+   $ python3 prog.py --help
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+     --verbose   increase output verbosity
+
+Here is what is happening:
+
+* The option is now more of a flag than something that requires a value.
+  We even changed the name of the option to match that idea.
+  Note that we now specify a new keyword, ``action``, and give it the value
+  ``"store_true"``. This means that, if the option is specified,
+  assign the value ``True`` to :data:`args.verbose`.
+  Not specifying it implies ``False``.
+
+* It complains when you specify a value, in true spirit of what flags
+  actually are.
+
+* Notice the different help text.
+
+
+Short options
+-------------
+
+If you are familiar with command line usage,
+you will notice that I haven't yet touched on the topic of short
+versions of the options. It's quite simple::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
+                       action="store_true")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   if args.verbose:
+       print("verbosity turned on")
+
+And here goes:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py -v
+   verbosity turned on
+   $ python3 prog.py --help
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help     show this help message and exit
+     -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity
+
+Note that the new ability is also reflected in the help text.
+
+
+Combining Positional and Optional arguments
+===========================================
+
+Our program keeps growing in complexity::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
+                       help="display a square of a given number")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true",
+                       help="increase output verbosity")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.square**2
+   if args.verbose:
+       print("the square of {} equals {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   else:
+       print(answer)
+
+And now the output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
+   prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square
+   $ python3 prog.py 4
+   16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 --verbose
+   the square of 4 equals 16
+   $ python3 prog.py --verbose 4
+   the square of 4 equals 16
+
+* We've brought back a positional argument, hence the complaint.
+
+* Note that the order does not matter.
+
+How about we give this program of ours back the ability to have
+multiple verbosity values, and actually get to use them::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
+                       help="display a square of a given number")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int,
+                       help="increase output verbosity")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.square**2
+   if args.verbosity == 2:
+       print("the square of {} equals {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   elif args.verbosity == 1:
+       print("{}^2 == {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   else:
+       print(answer)
+
+And the output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4
+   16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -v
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square
+   prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -v 1
+   4^2 == 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -v 2
+   the square of 4 equals 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -v 3
+   16
+
+These all look good except the last one, which exposes a bug in our program.
+Let's fix it by restricting the values the ``--verbosity`` option can accept::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
+                       help="display a square of a given number")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int, choices=[0, 1, 2],
+                       help="increase output verbosity")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.square**2
+   if args.verbosity == 2:
+       print("the square of {} equals {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   elif args.verbosity == 1:
+       print("{}^2 == {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   else:
+       print(answer)
+
+And the output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -v 3
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
+   prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -h
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
+
+   positional arguments:
+     square                display a square of a given number
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+     -v {0,1,2}, --verbosity {0,1,2}
+                           increase output verbosity
+
+Note that the change also reflects both in the error message as well as the
+help string.
+
+Now, let's use a different approach of playing with verbosity, which is pretty
+common. It also matches the way the CPython executable handles its own
+verbosity argument (check the output of ``python --help``)::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
+                       help="display the square of a given number")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
+                       help="increase output verbosity")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.square**2
+   if args.verbosity == 2:
+       print("the square of {} equals {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   elif args.verbosity == 1:
+       print("{}^2 == {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   else:
+       print(answer)
+
+We have introduced another action, "count",
+to count the number of occurrences of a specific optional arguments:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4
+   16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -v
+   4^2 == 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -vv
+   the square of 4 equals 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 --verbosity --verbosity
+   the square of 4 equals 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -v 1
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
+   prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -h
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
+
+   positional arguments:
+     square           display a square of a given number
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help       show this help message and exit
+     -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -vvv
+   16
+
+* Yes, it's now more of a flag (similar to ``action="store_true"``) in the
+  previous version of our script. That should explain the complaint.
+
+* It also behaves similar to "store_true" action.
+
+* Now here's a demonstration of what the "count" action gives. You've probably
+  seen this sort of usage before.
+
+* And if you don't specify the ``-v`` flag, that flag is considered to have
+  ``None`` value.
+
+* As should be expected, specifying the long form of the flag, we should get
+  the same output.
+
+* Sadly, our help output isn't very informative on the new ability our script
+  has acquired, but that can always be fixed by improving the documentation for
+  our script (e.g. via the ``help`` keyword argument).
+
+* That last output exposes a bug in our program.
+
+
+Let's fix::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
+                       help="display a square of a given number")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
+                       help="increase output verbosity")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.square**2
+
+   # bugfix: replace == with >=
+   if args.verbosity >= 2:
+       print("the square of {} equals {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   elif args.verbosity >= 1:
+       print("{}^2 == {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   else:
+       print(answer)
+
+And this is what it gives:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -vvv
+   the square of 4 equals 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 -vvvv
+   the square of 4 equals 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "prog.py", line 11, in <module>
+       if args.verbosity >= 2:
+   TypeError: '>=' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'int'
+
+
+* First output went well, and fixes the bug we had before.
+  That is, we want any value >= 2 to be as verbose as possible.
+
+* Third output not so good.
+
+Let's fix that bug::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
+                       help="display a square of a given number")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0,
+                       help="increase output verbosity")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.square**2
+   if args.verbosity >= 2:
+       print("the square of {} equals {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   elif args.verbosity >= 1:
+       print("{}^2 == {}".format(args.square, answer))
+   else:
+       print(answer)
+
+We've just introduced yet another keyword, ``default``.
+We've set it to ``0`` in order to make it comparable to the other int values.
+Remember that by default,
+if an optional argument isn't specified,
+it gets the ``None`` value, and that cannot be compared to an int value
+(hence the :exc:`TypeError` exception).
+
+And:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4
+   16
+
+You can go quite far just with what we've learned so far,
+and we have only scratched the surface.
+The :mod:`argparse` module is very powerful,
+and we'll explore a bit more of it before we end this tutorial.
+
+
+Getting a little more advanced
+==============================
+
+What if we wanted to expand our tiny program to perform other powers,
+not just squares::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
+   parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.x**args.y
+   if args.verbosity >= 2:
+       print("{} to the power {} equals {}".format(args.x, args.y, answer))
+   elif args.verbosity >= 1:
+       print("{}^{} == {}".format(args.x, args.y, answer))
+   else:
+       print(answer)
+
+Output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
+   prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y
+   $ python3 prog.py -h
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
+
+   positional arguments:
+     x                the base
+     y                the exponent
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help       show this help message and exit
+     -v, --verbosity
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2 -v
+   4^2 == 16
+
+
+Notice that so far we've been using verbosity level to *change* the text
+that gets displayed. The following example instead uses verbosity level
+to display *more* text instead::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
+   parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
+   parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.x**args.y
+   if args.verbosity >= 2:
+       print("Running '{}'".format(__file__))
+   if args.verbosity >= 1:
+       print("{}^{} == ".format(args.x, args.y), end="")
+   print(answer)
+
+Output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2
+   16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2 -v
+   4^2 == 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2 -vv
+   Running 'prog.py'
+   4^2 == 16
+
+
+Conflicting options
+-------------------
+
+So far, we have been working with two methods of an
+:class:`argparse.ArgumentParser` instance. Let's introduce a third one,
+:meth:`add_mutually_exclusive_group`. It allows for us to specify options that
+conflict with each other. Let's also change the rest of the program so that
+the new functionality makes more sense:
+we'll introduce the ``--quiet`` option,
+which will be the opposite of the ``--verbose`` one::
+
+   import argparse
+
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
+   group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
+   group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
+   parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
+   parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.x**args.y
+
+   if args.quiet:
+       print(answer)
+   elif args.verbose:
+       print("{} to the power {} equals {}".format(args.x, args.y, answer))
+   else:
+       print("{}^{} == {}".format(args.x, args.y, answer))
+
+Our program is now simpler, and we've lost some functionality for the sake of
+demonstration. Anyways, here's the output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2
+   4^2 == 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2 -q
+   16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2 -v
+   4 to the power 2 equals 16
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2 -vq
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
+   prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
+   $ python3 prog.py 4 2 -v --quiet
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
+   prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
+
+That should be easy to follow. I've added that last output so you can see the
+sort of flexibility you get, i.e. mixing long form options with short form
+ones.
+
+Before we conclude, you probably want to tell your users the main purpose of
+your program, just in case they don't know::
+
+   import argparse
+
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="calculate X to the power of Y")
+   group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
+   group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
+   group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
+   parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
+   parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   answer = args.x**args.y
+
+   if args.quiet:
+       print(answer)
+   elif args.verbose:
+       print("{} to the power {} equals {}".format(args.x, args.y, answer))
+   else:
+       print("{}^{} == {}".format(args.x, args.y, answer))
+
+Note that slight difference in the usage text. Note the ``[-v | -q]``,
+which tells us that we can either use ``-v`` or ``-q``,
+but not both at the same time:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 prog.py --help
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
+
+   calculate X to the power of Y
+
+   positional arguments:
+     x              the base
+     y              the exponent
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help     show this help message and exit
+     -v, --verbose
+     -q, --quiet
+
+
+Conclusion
+==========
+
+The :mod:`argparse` module offers a lot more than shown here.
+Its docs are quite detailed and thorough, and full of examples.
+Having gone through this tutorial, you should easily digest them
+without feeling overwhelmed.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/clinic.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/clinic.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..695fbb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/clinic.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1734 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+**********************
+Argument Clinic How-To
+**********************
+
+:author: Larry Hastings
+
+
+.. topic:: Abstract
+
+  Argument Clinic is a preprocessor for CPython C files.
+  Its purpose is to automate all the boilerplate involved
+  with writing argument parsing code for "builtins".
+  This document shows you how to convert your first C
+  function to work with Argument Clinic, and then introduces
+  some advanced topics on Argument Clinic usage.
+
+  Currently Argument Clinic is considered internal-only
+  for CPython.  Its use is not supported for files outside
+  CPython, and no guarantees are made regarding backwards
+  compatibility for future versions.  In other words: if you
+  maintain an external C extension for CPython, you're welcome
+  to experiment with Argument Clinic in your own code.  But the
+  version of Argument Clinic that ships with the next version
+  of CPython *could* be totally incompatible and break all your code.
+
+The Goals Of Argument Clinic
+============================
+
+Argument Clinic's primary goal
+is to take over responsibility for all argument parsing code
+inside CPython.  This means that, when you convert a function
+to work with Argument Clinic, that function should no longer
+do any of its own argument parsing—the code generated by
+Argument Clinic should be a "black box" to you, where CPython
+calls in at the top, and your code gets called at the bottom,
+with ``PyObject *args`` (and maybe ``PyObject *kwargs``)
+magically converted into the C variables and types you need.
+
+In order for Argument Clinic to accomplish its primary goal,
+it must be easy to use.  Currently, working with CPython's
+argument parsing library is a chore, requiring maintaining
+redundant information in a surprising number of places.
+When you use Argument Clinic, you don't have to repeat yourself.
+
+Obviously, no one would want to use Argument Clinic unless
+it's solving their problem—and without creating new problems of
+its own.
+So it's paramount that Argument Clinic generate correct code.
+It'd be nice if the code was faster, too, but at the very least
+it should not introduce a major speed regression.  (Eventually Argument
+Clinic *should* make a major speedup possible—we could
+rewrite its code generator to produce tailor-made argument
+parsing code, rather than calling the general-purpose CPython
+argument parsing library.  That would make for the fastest
+argument parsing possible!)
+
+Additionally, Argument Clinic must be flexible enough to
+work with any approach to argument parsing.  Python has
+some functions with some very strange parsing behaviors;
+Argument Clinic's goal is to support all of them.
+
+Finally, the original motivation for Argument Clinic was
+to provide introspection "signatures" for CPython builtins.
+It used to be, the introspection query functions would throw
+an exception if you passed in a builtin.  With Argument
+Clinic, that's a thing of the past!
+
+One idea you should keep in mind, as you work with
+Argument Clinic: the more information you give it, the
+better job it'll be able to do.
+Argument Clinic is admittedly relatively simple right
+now.  But as it evolves it will get more sophisticated,
+and it should be able to do many interesting and smart
+things with all the information you give it.
+
+
+Basic Concepts And Usage
+========================
+
+Argument Clinic ships with CPython; you'll find it in ``Tools/clinic/clinic.py``.
+If you run that script, specifying a C file as an argument:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python3 Tools/clinic/clinic.py foo.c
+
+Argument Clinic will scan over the file looking for lines that
+look exactly like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+
+When it finds one, it reads everything up to a line that looks
+exactly like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+Everything in between these two lines is input for Argument Clinic.
+All of these lines, including the beginning and ending comment
+lines, are collectively called an Argument Clinic "block".
+
+When Argument Clinic parses one of these blocks, it
+generates output.  This output is rewritten into the C file
+immediately after the block, followed by a comment containing a checksum.
+The Argument Clinic block now looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    ... clinic input goes here ...
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+    ... clinic output goes here ...
+    /*[clinic end generated code: checksum=...]*/
+
+If you run Argument Clinic on the same file a second time, Argument Clinic
+will discard the old output and write out the new output with a fresh checksum
+line.  However, if the input hasn't changed, the output won't change either.
+
+You should never modify the output portion of an Argument Clinic block.  Instead,
+change the input until it produces the output you want.  (That's the purpose of the
+checksum—to detect if someone changed the output, as these edits would be lost
+the next time Argument Clinic writes out fresh output.)
+
+For the sake of clarity, here's the terminology we'll use with Argument Clinic:
+
+* The first line of the comment (``/*[clinic input]``) is the *start line*.
+* The last line of the initial comment (``[clinic start generated code]*/``) is the *end line*.
+* The last line (``/*[clinic end generated code: checksum=...]*/``) is the *checksum line*.
+* In between the start line and the end line is the *input*.
+* In between the end line and the checksum line is the *output*.
+* All the text collectively, from the start line to the checksum line inclusively,
+  is the *block*.  (A block that hasn't been successfully processed by Argument
+  Clinic yet doesn't have output or a checksum line, but it's still considered
+  a block.)
+
+
+Converting Your First Function
+==============================
+
+The best way to get a sense of how Argument Clinic works is to
+convert a function to work with it.  Here, then, are the bare
+minimum steps you'd need to follow to convert a function to
+work with Argument Clinic.  Note that for code you plan to
+check in to CPython, you really should take the conversion farther,
+using some of the advanced concepts you'll see later on in
+the document (like "return converters" and "self converters").
+But we'll keep it simple for this walkthrough so you can learn.
+
+Let's dive in!
+
+0. Make sure you're working with a freshly updated checkout
+   of the CPython trunk.
+
+1. Find a Python builtin that calls either :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`
+   or :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords`, and hasn't been converted
+   to work with Argument Clinic yet.
+   For my example I'm using ``_pickle.Pickler.dump()``.
+
+2. If the call to the ``PyArg_Parse`` function uses any of the
+   following format units:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       O&
+       O!
+       es
+       es#
+       et
+       et#
+
+   or if it has multiple calls to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`,
+   you should choose a different function.  Argument Clinic *does*
+   support all of these scenarios.  But these are advanced
+   topics—let's do something simpler for your first function.
+
+   Also, if the function has multiple calls to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`
+   or :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` where it supports different
+   types for the same argument, or if the function uses something besides
+   PyArg_Parse functions to parse its arguments, it probably
+   isn't suitable for conversion to Argument Clinic.  Argument Clinic
+   doesn't support generic functions or polymorphic parameters.
+
+3. Add the following boilerplate above the function, creating our block::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+4. Cut the docstring and paste it in between the ``[clinic]`` lines,
+   removing all the junk that makes it a properly quoted C string.
+   When you're done you should have just the text, based at the left
+   margin, with no line wider than 80 characters.
+   (Argument Clinic will preserve indents inside the docstring.)
+
+   If the old docstring had a first line that looked like a function
+   signature, throw that line away.  (The docstring doesn't need it
+   anymore—when you use ``help()`` on your builtin in the future,
+   the first line will be built automatically based on the function's
+   signature.)
+
+   Sample::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+5. If your docstring doesn't have a "summary" line, Argument Clinic will
+   complain.  So let's make sure it has one.  The "summary" line should
+   be a paragraph consisting of a single 80-column line
+   at the beginning of the docstring.
+
+   (Our example docstring consists solely of a summary line, so the sample
+   code doesn't have to change for this step.)
+
+6. Above the docstring, enter the name of the function, followed
+   by a blank line.  This should be the Python name of the function,
+   and should be the full dotted path
+   to the function—it should start with the name of the module,
+   include any sub-modules, and if the function is a method on
+   a class it should include the class name too.
+
+   Sample::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+    Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+7. If this is the first time that module or class has been used with Argument
+   Clinic in this C file,
+   you must declare the module and/or class.  Proper Argument Clinic hygiene
+   prefers declaring these in a separate block somewhere near the
+   top of the C file, in the same way that include files and statics go at
+   the top.  (In our sample code we'll just show the two blocks next to
+   each other.)
+
+   The name of the class and module should be the same as the one
+   seen by Python.  Check the name defined in the :c:type:`PyModuleDef`
+   or :c:type:`PyTypeObject` as appropriate.
+
+   When you declare a class, you must also specify two aspects of its type
+   in C: the type declaration you'd use for a pointer to an instance of
+   this class, and a pointer to the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` for this class.
+
+   Sample::
+
+       /*[clinic input]
+       module _pickle
+       class _pickle.Pickler "PicklerObject *" "&Pickler_Type"
+       [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+       /*[clinic input]
+       _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+       Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+       [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+
+
+
+8. Declare each of the parameters to the function.  Each parameter
+   should get its own line.  All the parameter lines should be
+   indented from the function name and the docstring.
+
+   The general form of these parameter lines is as follows:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       name_of_parameter: converter
+
+   If the parameter has a default value, add that after the
+   converter:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       name_of_parameter: converter = default_value
+
+   Argument Clinic's support for "default values" is quite sophisticated;
+   please see :ref:`the section below on default values <default_values>`
+   for more information.
+
+   Add a blank line below the parameters.
+
+   What's a "converter"?  It establishes both the type
+   of the variable used in C, and the method to convert the Python
+   value into a C value at runtime.
+   For now you're going to use what's called a "legacy converter"—a
+   convenience syntax intended to make porting old code into Argument
+   Clinic easier.
+
+   For each parameter, copy the "format unit" for that
+   parameter from the ``PyArg_Parse()`` format argument and
+   specify *that* as its converter, as a quoted
+   string.  ("format unit" is the formal name for the one-to-three
+   character substring of the ``format`` parameter that tells
+   the argument parsing function what the type of the variable
+   is and how to convert it.  For more on format units please
+   see :ref:`arg-parsing`.)
+
+   For multicharacter format units like ``z#``, use the
+   entire two-or-three character string.
+
+   Sample::
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        module _pickle
+        class _pickle.Pickler "PicklerObject *" "&Pickler_Type"
+        [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+           obj: 'O'
+
+       Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+       [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+9. If your function has ``|`` in the format string, meaning some
+   parameters have default values, you can ignore it.  Argument
+   Clinic infers which parameters are optional based on whether
+   or not they have default values.
+
+   If your function has ``$`` in the format string, meaning it
+   takes keyword-only arguments, specify ``*`` on a line by
+   itself before the first keyword-only argument, indented the
+   same as the parameter lines.
+
+   (``_pickle.Pickler.dump`` has neither, so our sample is unchanged.)
+
+
+10. If the existing C function calls :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`
+    (as opposed to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords`), then all its
+    arguments are positional-only.
+
+    To mark all parameters as positional-only in Argument Clinic,
+    add a ``/`` on a line by itself after the last parameter,
+    indented the same as the parameter lines.
+
+    Currently this is all-or-nothing; either all parameters are
+    positional-only, or none of them are.  (In the future Argument
+    Clinic may relax this restriction.)
+
+    Sample::
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        module _pickle
+        class _pickle.Pickler "PicklerObject *" "&Pickler_Type"
+        [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+            obj: 'O'
+            /
+
+        Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+        [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+11. It's helpful to write a per-parameter docstring for each parameter.
+    But per-parameter docstrings are optional; you can skip this step
+    if you prefer.
+
+    Here's how to add a per-parameter docstring.  The first line
+    of the per-parameter docstring must be indented further than the
+    parameter definition.  The left margin of this first line establishes
+    the left margin for the whole per-parameter docstring; all the text
+    you write will be outdented by this amount.  You can write as much
+    text as you like, across multiple lines if you wish.
+
+    Sample::
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        module _pickle
+        class _pickle.Pickler "PicklerObject *" "&Pickler_Type"
+        [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+            obj: 'O'
+                The object to be pickled.
+            /
+
+        Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+        [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+12. Save and close the file, then run ``Tools/clinic/clinic.py`` on
+    it.  With luck everything worked---your block now has output, and
+    a ``.c.h`` file has been generated! Reopen the file in your
+    text editor to see::
+
+       /*[clinic input]
+       _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+           obj: 'O'
+               The object to be pickled.
+           /
+
+       Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+       [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+       static PyObject *
+       _pickle_Pickler_dump(PicklerObject *self, PyObject *obj)
+       /*[clinic end generated code: output=87ecad1261e02ac7 input=552eb1c0f52260d9]*/
+
+    Obviously, if Argument Clinic didn't produce any output, it's because
+    it found an error in your input.  Keep fixing your errors and retrying
+    until Argument Clinic processes your file without complaint.
+
+    For readability, most of the glue code has been generated to a ``.c.h``
+    file.  You'll need to include that in your original ``.c`` file,
+    typically right after the clinic module block::
+
+       #include "clinic/_pickle.c.h"
+
+13. Double-check that the argument-parsing code Argument Clinic generated
+    looks basically the same as the existing code.
+
+    First, ensure both places use the same argument-parsing function.
+    The existing code must call either
+    :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` or :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords`;
+    ensure that the code generated by Argument Clinic calls the
+    *exact* same function.
+
+    Second, the format string passed in to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` or
+    :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` should be *exactly* the same
+    as the hand-written one in the existing function, up to the colon
+    or semi-colon.
+
+    (Argument Clinic always generates its format strings
+    with a ``:`` followed by the name of the function.  If the
+    existing code's format string ends with ``;``, to provide
+    usage help, this change is harmless—don't worry about it.)
+
+    Third, for parameters whose format units require two arguments
+    (like a length variable, or an encoding string, or a pointer
+    to a conversion function), ensure that the second argument is
+    *exactly* the same between the two invocations.
+
+    Fourth, inside the output portion of the block you'll find a preprocessor
+    macro defining the appropriate static :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure for
+    this builtin::
+
+        #define __PICKLE_PICKLER_DUMP_METHODDEF    \
+        {"dump", (PyCFunction)__pickle_Pickler_dump, METH_O, __pickle_Pickler_dump__doc__},
+
+    This static structure should be *exactly* the same as the existing static
+    :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure for this builtin.
+
+    If any of these items differ in *any way*,
+    adjust your Argument Clinic function specification and rerun
+    ``Tools/clinic/clinic.py`` until they *are* the same.
+
+
+14. Notice that the last line of its output is the declaration
+    of your "impl" function.  This is where the builtin's implementation goes.
+    Delete the existing prototype of the function you're modifying, but leave
+    the opening curly brace.  Now delete its argument parsing code and the
+    declarations of all the variables it dumps the arguments into.
+    Notice how the Python arguments are now arguments to this impl function;
+    if the implementation used different names for these variables, fix it.
+
+    Let's reiterate, just because it's kind of weird.  Your code should now
+    look like this::
+
+        static return_type
+        your_function_impl(...)
+        /*[clinic end generated code: checksum=...]*/
+        {
+        ...
+
+    Argument Clinic generated the checksum line and the function prototype just
+    above it.  You should write the opening (and closing) curly braces for the
+    function, and the implementation inside.
+
+    Sample::
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        module _pickle
+        class _pickle.Pickler "PicklerObject *" "&Pickler_Type"
+        [clinic start generated code]*/
+        /*[clinic end generated code: checksum=da39a3ee5e6b4b0d3255bfef95601890afd80709]*/
+
+        /*[clinic input]
+        _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+            obj: 'O'
+                The object to be pickled.
+            /
+
+        Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+        [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+        PyDoc_STRVAR(__pickle_Pickler_dump__doc__,
+        "Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.\n"
+        "\n"
+        ...
+        static PyObject *
+        _pickle_Pickler_dump_impl(PicklerObject *self, PyObject *obj)
+        /*[clinic end generated code: checksum=3bd30745bf206a48f8b576a1da3d90f55a0a4187]*/
+        {
+            /* Check whether the Pickler was initialized correctly (issue3664).
+               Developers often forget to call __init__() in their subclasses, which
+               would trigger a segfault without this check. */
+            if (self->write == NULL) {
+                PyErr_Format(PicklingError,
+                             "Pickler.__init__() was not called by %s.__init__()",
+                             Py_TYPE(self)->tp_name);
+                return NULL;
+            }
+
+            if (_Pickler_ClearBuffer(self) < 0)
+                return NULL;
+
+            ...
+
+15. Remember the macro with the :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure for this
+    function?  Find the existing :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure for this
+    function and replace it with a reference to the macro.  (If the builtin
+    is at module scope, this will probably be very near the end of the file;
+    if the builtin is a class method, this will probably be below but relatively
+    near to the implementation.)
+
+    Note that the body of the macro contains a trailing comma.  So when you
+    replace the existing static :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure with the macro,
+    *don't* add a comma to the end.
+
+    Sample::
+
+        static struct PyMethodDef Pickler_methods[] = {
+            __PICKLE_PICKLER_DUMP_METHODDEF
+            __PICKLE_PICKLER_CLEAR_MEMO_METHODDEF
+            {NULL, NULL}                /* sentinel */
+        };
+
+
+16. Compile, then run the relevant portions of the regression-test suite.
+    This change should not introduce any new compile-time warnings or errors,
+    and there should be no externally-visible change to Python's behavior.
+
+    Well, except for one difference: ``inspect.signature()`` run on your function
+    should now provide a valid signature!
+
+    Congratulations, you've ported your first function to work with Argument Clinic!
+
+Advanced Topics
+===============
+
+Now that you've had some experience working with Argument Clinic, it's time
+for some advanced topics.
+
+
+Symbolic default values
+-----------------------
+
+The default value you provide for a parameter can't be any arbitrary
+expression.  Currently the following are explicitly supported:
+
+* Numeric constants (integer and float)
+* String constants
+* ``True``, ``False``, and ``None``
+* Simple symbolic constants like ``sys.maxsize``, which must
+  start with the name of the module
+
+In case you're curious, this is implemented in  ``from_builtin()``
+in ``Lib/inspect.py``.
+
+(In the future, this may need to get even more elaborate,
+to allow full expressions like ``CONSTANT - 1``.)
+
+
+Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument Clinic
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Argument Clinic automatically names the functions it generates for you.
+Occasionally this may cause a problem, if the generated name collides with
+the name of an existing C function.  There's an easy solution: override the names
+used for the C functions.  Just add the keyword ``"as"``
+to your function declaration line, followed by the function name you wish to use.
+Argument Clinic will use that function name for the base (generated) function,
+then add ``"_impl"`` to the end and use that for the name of the impl function.
+
+For example, if we wanted to rename the C function names generated for
+``pickle.Pickler.dump``, it'd look like this::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    pickle.Pickler.dump as pickler_dumper
+
+    ...
+
+The base function would now be named ``pickler_dumper()``,
+and the impl function would now be named ``pickler_dumper_impl()``.
+
+
+Similarly, you may have a problem where you want to give a parameter
+a specific Python name, but that name may be inconvenient in C.  Argument
+Clinic allows you to give a parameter different names in Python and in C,
+using the same ``"as"`` syntax::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+        obj: object
+        file as file_obj: object
+        protocol: object = NULL
+        *
+        fix_imports: bool = True
+
+Here, the name used in Python (in the signature and the ``keywords``
+array) would be ``file``, but the C variable would be named ``file_obj``.
+
+You can use this to rename the ``self`` parameter too!
+
+
+Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple
+--------------------------------------------
+
+To convert a function parsing its arguments with :c:func:`PyArg_UnpackTuple`,
+simply write out all the arguments, specifying each as an ``object``.  You
+may specify the ``type`` argument to cast the type as appropriate.  All
+arguments should be marked positional-only (add a ``/`` on a line by itself
+after the last argument).
+
+Currently the generated code will use :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`, but this
+will change soon.
+
+Optional Groups
+---------------
+
+Some legacy functions have a tricky approach to parsing their arguments:
+they count the number of positional arguments, then use a ``switch`` statement
+to call one of several different :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` calls depending on
+how many positional arguments there are.  (These functions cannot accept
+keyword-only arguments.)  This approach was used to simulate optional
+arguments back before :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` was created.
+
+While functions using this approach can often be converted to
+use :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords`, optional arguments, and default values,
+it's not always possible.  Some of these legacy functions have
+behaviors :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` doesn't directly support.
+The most obvious example is the builtin function ``range()``, which has
+an optional argument on the *left* side of its required argument!
+Another example is ``curses.window.addch()``, which has a group of two
+arguments that must always be specified together.  (The arguments are
+called ``x`` and ``y``; if you call the function passing in ``x``,
+you must also pass in ``y``—and if you don't pass in ``x`` you may not
+pass in ``y`` either.)
+
+In any case, the goal of Argument Clinic is to support argument parsing
+for all existing CPython builtins without changing their semantics.
+Therefore Argument Clinic supports
+this alternate approach to parsing, using what are called *optional groups*.
+Optional groups are groups of arguments that must all be passed in together.
+They can be to the left or the right of the required arguments.  They
+can *only* be used with positional-only parameters.
+
+.. note:: Optional groups are *only* intended for use when converting
+          functions that make multiple calls to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`!
+          Functions that use *any* other approach for parsing arguments
+          should *almost never* be converted to Argument Clinic using
+          optional groups.  Functions using optional groups currently
+          cannot have accurate signatures in Python, because Python just
+          doesn't understand the concept.  Please avoid using optional
+          groups wherever possible.
+
+To specify an optional group, add a ``[`` on a line by itself before
+the parameters you wish to group together, and a ``]`` on a line by itself
+after these parameters.  As an example, here's how ``curses.window.addch``
+uses optional groups to make the first two parameters and the last
+parameter optional::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+
+    curses.window.addch
+
+        [
+        x: int
+          X-coordinate.
+        y: int
+          Y-coordinate.
+        ]
+
+        ch: object
+          Character to add.
+
+        [
+        attr: long
+          Attributes for the character.
+        ]
+        /
+
+    ...
+
+
+Notes:
+
+* For every optional group, one additional parameter will be passed into the
+  impl function representing the group.  The parameter will be an int named
+  ``group_{direction}_{number}``,
+  where ``{direction}`` is either ``right`` or ``left`` depending on whether the group
+  is before or after the required parameters, and ``{number}`` is a monotonically
+  increasing number (starting at 1) indicating how far away the group is from
+  the required parameters.  When the impl is called, this parameter will be set
+  to zero if this group was unused, and set to non-zero if this group was used.
+  (By used or unused, I mean whether or not the parameters received arguments
+  in this invocation.)
+
+* If there are no required arguments, the optional groups will behave
+  as if they're to the right of the required arguments.
+
+* In the case of ambiguity, the argument parsing code
+  favors parameters on the left (before the required parameters).
+
+* Optional groups can only contain positional-only parameters.
+
+* Optional groups are *only* intended for legacy code.  Please do not
+  use optional groups for new code.
+
+
+Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of "legacy converters"
+---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+To save time, and to minimize how much you need to learn
+to achieve your first port to Argument Clinic, the walkthrough above tells
+you to use "legacy converters".  "Legacy converters" are a convenience,
+designed explicitly to make porting existing code to Argument Clinic
+easier.  And to be clear, their use is acceptable when porting code for
+Python 3.4.
+
+However, in the long term we probably want all our blocks to
+use Argument Clinic's real syntax for converters.  Why?  A couple
+reasons:
+
+* The proper converters are far easier to read and clearer in their intent.
+* There are some format units that are unsupported as "legacy converters",
+  because they require arguments, and the legacy converter syntax doesn't
+  support specifying arguments.
+* In the future we may have a new argument parsing library that isn't
+  restricted to what :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` supports; this flexibility
+  won't be available to parameters using legacy converters.
+
+Therefore, if you don't mind a little extra effort, please use the normal
+converters instead of legacy converters.
+
+In a nutshell, the syntax for Argument Clinic (non-legacy) converters
+looks like a Python function call.  However, if there are no explicit
+arguments to the function (all functions take their default values),
+you may omit the parentheses.  Thus ``bool`` and ``bool()`` are exactly
+the same converters.
+
+All arguments to Argument Clinic converters are keyword-only.
+All Argument Clinic converters accept the following arguments:
+
+  ``c_default``
+    The default value for this parameter when defined in C.
+    Specifically, this will be the initializer for the variable declared
+    in the "parse function".  See :ref:`the section on default values <default_values>`
+    for how to use this.
+    Specified as a string.
+
+  ``annotation``
+    The annotation value for this parameter.  Not currently supported,
+    because PEP 8 mandates that the Python library may not use
+    annotations.
+
+In addition, some converters accept additional arguments.  Here is a list
+of these arguments, along with their meanings:
+
+  ``accept``
+    A set of Python types (and possibly pseudo-types);
+    this restricts the allowable Python argument to values of these types.
+    (This is not a general-purpose facility; as a rule it only supports
+    specific lists of types as shown in the legacy converter table.)
+
+    To accept ``None``, add ``NoneType`` to this set.
+
+  ``bitwise``
+    Only supported for unsigned integers.  The native integer value of this
+    Python argument will be written to the parameter without any range checking,
+    even for negative values.
+
+  ``converter``
+    Only supported by the ``object`` converter.  Specifies the name of a
+    :ref:`C "converter function" <o_ampersand>`
+    to use to convert this object to a native type.
+
+  ``encoding``
+    Only supported for strings.  Specifies the encoding to use when converting
+    this string from a Python str (Unicode) value into a C ``char *`` value.
+
+
+  ``subclass_of``
+    Only supported for the ``object`` converter.  Requires that the Python
+    value be a subclass of a Python type, as expressed in C.
+
+  ``type``
+    Only supported for the ``object`` and ``self`` converters.  Specifies
+    the C type that will be used to declare the variable.  Default value is
+    ``"PyObject *"``.
+
+  ``zeroes``
+    Only supported for strings.  If true, embedded NUL bytes (``'\\0'``) are
+    permitted inside the value.  The length of the string will be passed in
+    to the impl function, just after the string parameter, as a parameter named
+    ``<parameter_name>_length``.
+
+Please note, not every possible combination of arguments will work.
+Usually these arguments are implemented by specific ``PyArg_ParseTuple``
+*format units*, with specific behavior.  For example, currently you cannot
+call ``unsigned_short`` without also specifying ``bitwise=True``.
+Although it's perfectly reasonable to think this would work, these semantics don't
+map to any existing format unit.  So Argument Clinic doesn't support it.  (Or, at
+least, not yet.)
+
+Below is a table showing the mapping of legacy converters into real
+Argument Clinic converters.  On the left is the legacy converter,
+on the right is the text you'd replace it with.
+
+=========   =================================================================================
+``'B'``     ``unsigned_char(bitwise=True)``
+``'b'``     ``unsigned_char``
+``'c'``     ``char``
+``'C'``     ``int(accept={str})``
+``'d'``     ``double``
+``'D'``     ``Py_complex``
+``'es'``    ``str(encoding='name_of_encoding')``
+``'es#'``   ``str(encoding='name_of_encoding', zeroes=True)``
+``'et'``    ``str(encoding='name_of_encoding', accept={bytes, bytearray, str})``
+``'et#'``   ``str(encoding='name_of_encoding', accept={bytes, bytearray, str}, zeroes=True)``
+``'f'``     ``float``
+``'h'``     ``short``
+``'H'``     ``unsigned_short(bitwise=True)``
+``'i'``     ``int``
+``'I'``     ``unsigned_int(bitwise=True)``
+``'k'``     ``unsigned_long(bitwise=True)``
+``'K'``     ``unsigned_long_long(bitwise=True)``
+``'l'``     ``long``
+``'L'``     ``long long``
+``'n'``     ``Py_ssize_t``
+``'O'``     ``object``
+``'O!'``    ``object(subclass_of='&PySomething_Type')``
+``'O&'``    ``object(converter='name_of_c_function')``
+``'p'``     ``bool``
+``'S'``     ``PyBytesObject``
+``'s'``     ``str``
+``'s#'``    ``str(zeroes=True)``
+``'s*'``    ``Py_buffer(accept={buffer, str})``
+``'U'``     ``unicode``
+``'u'``     ``Py_UNICODE``
+``'u#'``    ``Py_UNICODE(zeroes=True)``
+``'w*'``    ``Py_buffer(accept={rwbuffer})``
+``'Y'``     ``PyByteArrayObject``
+``'y'``     ``str(accept={bytes})``
+``'y#'``    ``str(accept={robuffer}, zeroes=True)``
+``'y*'``    ``Py_buffer``
+``'Z'``     ``Py_UNICODE(accept={str, NoneType})``
+``'Z#'``    ``Py_UNICODE(accept={str, NoneType}, zeroes=True)``
+``'z'``     ``str(accept={str, NoneType})``
+``'z#'``    ``str(accept={str, NoneType}, zeroes=True)``
+``'z*'``    ``Py_buffer(accept={buffer, str, NoneType})``
+=========   =================================================================================
+
+As an example, here's our sample ``pickle.Pickler.dump`` using the proper
+converter::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+        obj: object
+            The object to be pickled.
+        /
+
+    Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+Argument Clinic will show you all the converters it has
+available.  For each converter it'll show you all the parameters
+it accepts, along with the default value for each parameter.
+Just run ``Tools/clinic/clinic.py --converters`` to see the full list.
+
+Py_buffer
+---------
+
+When using the ``Py_buffer`` converter
+(or the ``'s*'``, ``'w*'``, ``'*y'``, or ``'z*'`` legacy converters),
+you *must* not call :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` on the provided buffer.
+Argument Clinic generates code that does it for you (in the parsing function).
+
+
+
+Advanced converters
+-------------------
+
+Remember those format units you skipped for your first
+time because they were advanced?  Here's how to handle those too.
+
+The trick is, all those format units take arguments—either
+conversion functions, or types, or strings specifying an encoding.
+(But "legacy converters" don't support arguments.  That's why we
+skipped them for your first function.)  The argument you specified
+to the format unit is now an argument to the converter; this
+argument is either ``converter`` (for ``O&``), ``subclass_of`` (for ``O!``),
+or ``encoding`` (for all the format units that start with ``e``).
+
+When using ``subclass_of``, you may also want to use the other
+custom argument for ``object()``: ``type``, which lets you set the type
+actually used for the parameter.  For example, if you want to ensure
+that the object is a subclass of ``PyUnicode_Type``, you probably want
+to use the converter ``object(type='PyUnicodeObject *', subclass_of='&PyUnicode_Type')``.
+
+One possible problem with using Argument Clinic: it takes away some possible
+flexibility for the format units starting with ``e``.  When writing a
+``PyArg_Parse`` call by hand, you could theoretically decide at runtime what
+encoding string to pass in to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`.   But now this string must
+be hard-coded at Argument-Clinic-preprocessing-time.  This limitation is deliberate;
+it made supporting this format unit much easier, and may allow for future optimizations.
+This restriction doesn't seem unreasonable; CPython itself always passes in static
+hard-coded encoding strings for parameters whose format units start with ``e``.
+
+
+.. _default_values:
+
+Parameter default values
+------------------------
+
+Default values for parameters can be any of a number of values.
+At their simplest, they can be string, int, or float literals:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    foo: str = "abc"
+    bar: int = 123
+    bat: float = 45.6
+
+They can also use any of Python's built-in constants:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    yep:  bool = True
+    nope: bool = False
+    nada: object = None
+
+There's also special support for a default value of ``NULL``, and
+for simple expressions, documented in the following sections.
+
+
+The ``NULL`` default value
+--------------------------
+
+For string and object parameters, you can set them to ``None`` to indicate
+that there's no default.  However, that means the C variable will be
+initialized to ``Py_None``.  For convenience's sakes, there's a special
+value called ``NULL`` for just this reason: from Python's perspective it
+behaves like a default value of ``None``, but the C variable is initialized
+with ``NULL``.
+
+Expressions specified as default values
+---------------------------------------
+
+The default value for a parameter can be more than just a literal value.
+It can be an entire expression, using math operators and looking up attributes
+on objects.  However, this support isn't exactly simple, because of some
+non-obvious semantics.
+
+Consider the following example:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    foo: Py_ssize_t = sys.maxsize - 1
+
+``sys.maxsize`` can have different values on different platforms.  Therefore
+Argument Clinic can't simply evaluate that expression locally and hard-code it
+in C.  So it stores the default in such a way that it will get evaluated at
+runtime, when the user asks for the function's signature.
+
+What namespace is available when the expression is evaluated?  It's evaluated
+in the context of the module the builtin came from.  So, if your module has an
+attribute called "``max_widgets``", you may simply use it:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    foo: Py_ssize_t = max_widgets
+
+If the symbol isn't found in the current module, it fails over to looking in
+``sys.modules``.  That's how it can find ``sys.maxsize`` for example.  (Since you
+don't know in advance what modules the user will load into their interpreter,
+it's best to restrict yourself to modules that are preloaded by Python itself.)
+
+Evaluating default values only at runtime means Argument Clinic can't compute
+the correct equivalent C default value.  So you need to tell it explicitly.
+When you use an expression, you must also specify the equivalent expression
+in C, using the ``c_default`` parameter to the converter:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    foo: Py_ssize_t(c_default="PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - 1") = sys.maxsize - 1
+
+Another complication: Argument Clinic can't know in advance whether or not the
+expression you supply is valid.  It parses it to make sure it looks legal, but
+it can't *actually* know.  You must be very careful when using expressions to
+specify values that are guaranteed to be valid at runtime!
+
+Finally, because expressions must be representable as static C values, there
+are many restrictions on legal expressions.  Here's a list of Python features
+you're not permitted to use:
+
+* Function calls.
+* Inline if statements (``3 if foo else 5``).
+* Automatic sequence unpacking (``*[1, 2, 3]``).
+* List/set/dict comprehensions and generator expressions.
+* Tuple/list/set/dict literals.
+
+
+
+Using a return converter
+------------------------
+
+By default the impl function Argument Clinic generates for you returns ``PyObject *``.
+But your C function often computes some C type, then converts it into the ``PyObject *``
+at the last moment.  Argument Clinic handles converting your inputs from Python types
+into native C types—why not have it convert your return value from a native C type
+into a Python type too?
+
+That's what a "return converter" does.  It changes your impl function to return
+some C type, then adds code to the generated (non-impl) function to handle converting
+that value into the appropriate ``PyObject *``.
+
+The syntax for return converters is similar to that of parameter converters.
+You specify the return converter like it was a return annotation on the
+function itself.  Return converters behave much the same as parameter converters;
+they take arguments, the arguments are all keyword-only, and if you're not changing
+any of the default arguments you can omit the parentheses.
+
+(If you use both ``"as"`` *and* a return converter for your function,
+the ``"as"`` should come before the return converter.)
+
+There's one additional complication when using return converters: how do you
+indicate an error has occurred?  Normally, a function returns a valid (non-``NULL``)
+pointer for success, and ``NULL`` for failure.  But if you use an integer return converter,
+all integers are valid.  How can Argument Clinic detect an error?  Its solution: each return
+converter implicitly looks for a special value that indicates an error.  If you return
+that value, and an error has been set (``PyErr_Occurred()`` returns a true
+value), then the generated code will propagate the error.  Otherwise it will
+encode the value you return like normal.
+
+Currently Argument Clinic supports only a few return converters:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    bool
+    int
+    unsigned int
+    long
+    unsigned int
+    size_t
+    Py_ssize_t
+    float
+    double
+    DecodeFSDefault
+
+None of these take parameters.  For the first three, return -1 to indicate
+error.  For ``DecodeFSDefault``, the return type is ``const char *``; return a NULL
+pointer to indicate an error.
+
+(There's also an experimental ``NoneType`` converter, which lets you
+return ``Py_None`` on success or ``NULL`` on failure, without having
+to increment the reference count on ``Py_None``.  I'm not sure it adds
+enough clarity to be worth using.)
+
+To see all the return converters Argument Clinic supports, along with
+their parameters (if any),
+just run ``Tools/clinic/clinic.py --converters`` for the full list.
+
+
+Cloning existing functions
+--------------------------
+
+If you have a number of functions that look similar, you may be able to
+use Clinic's "clone" feature.  When you clone an existing function,
+you reuse:
+
+* its parameters, including
+
+  * their names,
+
+  * their converters, with all parameters,
+
+  * their default values,
+
+  * their per-parameter docstrings,
+
+  * their *kind* (whether they're positional only,
+    positional or keyword, or keyword only), and
+
+* its return converter.
+
+The only thing not copied from the original function is its docstring;
+the syntax allows you to specify a new docstring.
+
+Here's the syntax for cloning a function::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    module.class.new_function [as c_basename] = module.class.existing_function
+
+    Docstring for new_function goes here.
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+(The functions can be in different modules or classes.  I wrote
+``module.class`` in the sample just to illustrate that you must
+use the full path to *both* functions.)
+
+Sorry, there's no syntax for partially-cloning a function, or cloning a function
+then modifying it.  Cloning is an all-or nothing proposition.
+
+Also, the function you are cloning from must have been previously defined
+in the current file.
+
+Calling Python code
+-------------------
+
+The rest of the advanced topics require you to write Python code
+which lives inside your C file and modifies Argument Clinic's
+runtime state.  This is simple: you simply define a Python block.
+
+A Python block uses different delimiter lines than an Argument
+Clinic function block.  It looks like this::
+
+    /*[python input]
+    # python code goes here
+    [python start generated code]*/
+
+All the code inside the Python block is executed at the
+time it's parsed.  All text written to stdout inside the block
+is redirected into the "output" after the block.
+
+As an example, here's a Python block that adds a static integer
+variable to the C code::
+
+    /*[python input]
+    print('static int __ignored_unused_variable__ = 0;')
+    [python start generated code]*/
+    static int __ignored_unused_variable__ = 0;
+    /*[python checksum:...]*/
+
+
+Using a "self converter"
+------------------------
+
+Argument Clinic automatically adds a "self" parameter for you
+using a default converter.  It automatically sets the ``type``
+of this parameter to the "pointer to an instance" you specified
+when you declared the type.  However, you can override
+Argument Clinic's converter and specify one yourself.
+Just add your own ``self`` parameter as the first parameter in a
+block, and ensure that its converter is an instance of
+``self_converter`` or a subclass thereof.
+
+What's the point?  This lets you override the type of ``self``,
+or give it a different default name.
+
+How do you specify the custom type you want to cast ``self`` to?
+If you only have one or two functions with the same type for ``self``,
+you can directly use Argument Clinic's existing ``self`` converter,
+passing in the type you want to use as the ``type`` parameter::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+
+    _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+      self: self(type="PicklerObject *")
+      obj: object
+      /
+
+    Write a pickled representation of the given object to the open file.
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+On the other hand, if you have a lot of functions that will use the same
+type for ``self``, it's best to create your own converter, subclassing
+``self_converter`` but overwriting the ``type`` member::
+
+    /*[python input]
+    class PicklerObject_converter(self_converter):
+        type = "PicklerObject *"
+    [python start generated code]*/
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+
+    _pickle.Pickler.dump
+
+      self: PicklerObject
+      obj: object
+      /
+
+    Write a pickled representation of the given object to the open file.
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+
+
+Writing a custom converter
+--------------------------
+
+As we hinted at in the previous section... you can write your own converters!
+A converter is simply a Python class that inherits from ``CConverter``.
+The main purpose of a custom converter is if you have a parameter using
+the ``O&`` format unit—parsing this parameter means calling
+a :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` "converter function".
+
+Your converter class should be named ``*something*_converter``.
+If the name follows this convention, then your converter class
+will be automatically registered with Argument Clinic; its name
+will be the name of your class with the ``_converter`` suffix
+stripped off.  (This is accomplished with a metaclass.)
+
+You shouldn't subclass ``CConverter.__init__``.  Instead, you should
+write a ``converter_init()`` function.  ``converter_init()``
+always accepts a ``self`` parameter; after that, all additional
+parameters *must* be keyword-only.  Any arguments passed in to
+the converter in Argument Clinic will be passed along to your
+``converter_init()``.
+
+There are some additional members of ``CConverter`` you may wish
+to specify in your subclass.  Here's the current list:
+
+``type``
+    The C type to use for this variable.
+    ``type`` should be a Python string specifying the type, e.g. ``int``.
+    If this is a pointer type, the type string should end with ``' *'``.
+
+``default``
+    The Python default value for this parameter, as a Python value.
+    Or the magic value ``unspecified`` if there is no default.
+
+``py_default``
+    ``default`` as it should appear in Python code,
+    as a string.
+    Or ``None`` if there is no default.
+
+``c_default``
+    ``default`` as it should appear in C code,
+    as a string.
+    Or ``None`` if there is no default.
+
+``c_ignored_default``
+    The default value used to initialize the C variable when
+    there is no default, but not specifying a default may
+    result in an "uninitialized variable" warning.  This can
+    easily happen when using option groups—although
+    properly-written code will never actually use this value,
+    the variable does get passed in to the impl, and the
+    C compiler will complain about the "use" of the
+    uninitialized value.  This value should always be a
+    non-empty string.
+
+``converter``
+    The name of the C converter function, as a string.
+
+``impl_by_reference``
+    A boolean value.  If true,
+    Argument Clinic will add a ``&`` in front of the name of
+    the variable when passing it into the impl function.
+
+``parse_by_reference``
+    A boolean value.  If true,
+    Argument Clinic will add a ``&`` in front of the name of
+    the variable when passing it into :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`.
+
+
+Here's the simplest example of a custom converter, from ``Modules/zlibmodule.c``::
+
+    /*[python input]
+
+    class ssize_t_converter(CConverter):
+        type = 'Py_ssize_t'
+        converter = 'ssize_t_converter'
+
+    [python start generated code]*/
+    /*[python end generated code: output=da39a3ee5e6b4b0d input=35521e4e733823c7]*/
+
+This block adds a converter to Argument Clinic named ``ssize_t``.  Parameters
+declared as ``ssize_t`` will be declared as type ``Py_ssize_t``, and will
+be parsed by the ``'O&'`` format unit, which will call the
+``ssize_t_converter`` converter function.  ``ssize_t`` variables
+automatically support default values.
+
+More sophisticated custom converters can insert custom C code to
+handle initialization and cleanup.
+You can see more examples of custom converters in the CPython
+source tree; grep the C files for the string ``CConverter``.
+
+Writing a custom return converter
+---------------------------------
+
+Writing a custom return converter is much like writing
+a custom converter.  Except it's somewhat simpler, because return
+converters are themselves much simpler.
+
+Return converters must subclass ``CReturnConverter``.
+There are no examples yet of custom return converters,
+because they are not widely used yet.  If you wish to
+write your own return converter, please read ``Tools/clinic/clinic.py``,
+specifically the implementation of ``CReturnConverter`` and
+all its subclasses.
+
+METH_O and METH_NOARGS
+----------------------------------------------
+
+To convert a function using ``METH_O``, make sure the function's
+single argument is using the ``object`` converter, and mark the
+arguments as positional-only::
+
+    /*[clinic input]
+    meth_o_sample
+
+         argument: object
+         /
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+
+
+To convert a function using ``METH_NOARGS``, just don't specify
+any arguments.
+
+You can still use a self converter, a return converter, and specify
+a ``type`` argument to the object converter for ``METH_O``.
+
+tp_new and tp_init functions
+----------------------------------------------
+
+You can convert ``tp_new`` and ``tp_init`` functions.  Just name
+them ``__new__`` or ``__init__`` as appropriate.  Notes:
+
+* The function name generated for ``__new__`` doesn't end in ``__new__``
+  like it would by default.  It's just the name of the class, converted
+  into a valid C identifier.
+
+* No ``PyMethodDef`` ``#define`` is generated for these functions.
+
+* ``__init__`` functions return ``int``, not ``PyObject *``.
+
+* Use the docstring as the class docstring.
+
+* Although ``__new__`` and ``__init__`` functions must always
+  accept both the ``args`` and ``kwargs`` objects, when converting
+  you may specify any signature for these functions that you like.
+  (If your function doesn't support keywords, the parsing function
+  generated will throw an exception if it receives any.)
+
+Changing and redirecting Clinic's output
+----------------------------------------
+
+It can be inconvenient to have Clinic's output interspersed with
+your conventional hand-edited C code.  Luckily, Clinic is configurable:
+you can buffer up its output for printing later (or earlier!), or write
+its output to a separate file.  You can also add a prefix or suffix to
+every line of Clinic's generated output.
+
+While changing Clinic's output in this manner can be a boon to readability,
+it may result in Clinic code using types before they are defined, or
+your code attempting to use Clinic-generated code before it is defined.
+These problems can be easily solved by rearranging the declarations in your file,
+or moving where Clinic's generated code goes.  (This is why the default behavior
+of Clinic is to output everything into the current block; while many people
+consider this hampers readability, it will never require rearranging your
+code to fix definition-before-use problems.)
+
+Let's start with defining some terminology:
+
+*field*
+  A field, in this context, is a subsection of Clinic's output.
+  For example, the ``#define`` for the ``PyMethodDef`` structure
+  is a field, called ``methoddef_define``.  Clinic has seven
+  different fields it can output per function definition:
+
+  .. code-block:: none
+
+      docstring_prototype
+      docstring_definition
+      methoddef_define
+      impl_prototype
+      parser_prototype
+      parser_definition
+      impl_definition
+
+  All the names are of the form ``"<a>_<b>"``,
+  where ``"<a>"`` is the semantic object represented (the parsing function,
+  the impl function, the docstring, or the methoddef structure) and ``"<b>"``
+  represents what kind of statement the field is.  Field names that end in
+  ``"_prototype"``
+  represent forward declarations of that thing, without the actual body/data
+  of the thing; field names that end in ``"_definition"`` represent the actual
+  definition of the thing, with the body/data of the thing.  (``"methoddef"``
+  is special, it's the only one that ends with ``"_define"``, representing that
+  it's a preprocessor #define.)
+
+*destination*
+  A destination is a place Clinic can write output to.  There are
+  five built-in destinations:
+
+  ``block``
+    The default destination: printed in the output section of
+    the current Clinic block.
+
+  ``buffer``
+    A text buffer where you can save text for later.  Text sent
+    here is appended to the end of any existing text.  It's an
+    error to have any text left in the buffer when Clinic finishes
+    processing a file.
+
+  ``file``
+    A separate "clinic file" that will be created automatically by Clinic.
+    The filename chosen for the file is ``{basename}.clinic{extension}``,
+    where ``basename`` and ``extension`` were assigned the output
+    from ``os.path.splitext()`` run on the current file.  (Example:
+    the ``file`` destination for ``_pickle.c`` would be written to
+    ``_pickle.clinic.c``.)
+
+    **Important: When using a** ``file`` **destination, you**
+    *must check in* **the generated file!**
+
+  ``two-pass``
+    A buffer like ``buffer``.  However, a two-pass buffer can only
+    be dumped once, and it prints out all text sent to it during
+    all processing, even from Clinic blocks *after* the dumping point.
+
+  ``suppress``
+    The text is suppressed—thrown away.
+
+
+Clinic defines five new directives that let you reconfigure its output.
+
+The first new directive is ``dump``:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   dump <destination>
+
+This dumps the current contents of the named destination into the output of
+the current block, and empties it.  This only works with ``buffer`` and
+``two-pass`` destinations.
+
+The second new directive is ``output``.  The most basic form of ``output``
+is like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    output <field> <destination>
+
+This tells Clinic to output *field* to *destination*.  ``output`` also
+supports a special meta-destination, called ``everything``, which tells
+Clinic to output *all* fields to that *destination*.
+
+``output`` has a number of other functions:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    output push
+    output pop
+    output preset <preset>
+
+
+``output push`` and ``output pop`` allow you to push and pop
+configurations on an internal configuration stack, so that you
+can temporarily modify the output configuration, then easily restore
+the previous configuration.  Simply push before your change to save
+the current configuration, then pop when you wish to restore the
+previous configuration.
+
+``output preset`` sets Clinic's output to one of several built-in
+preset configurations, as follows:
+
+  ``block``
+    Clinic's original starting configuration.  Writes everything
+    immediately after the input block.
+
+    Suppress the ``parser_prototype``
+    and ``docstring_prototype``, write everything else to ``block``.
+
+  ``file``
+    Designed to write everything to the "clinic file" that it can.
+    You then ``#include`` this file near the top of your file.
+    You may need to rearrange your file to make this work, though
+    usually this just means creating forward declarations for various
+    ``typedef`` and ``PyTypeObject`` definitions.
+
+    Suppress the ``parser_prototype``
+    and ``docstring_prototype``, write the ``impl_definition`` to
+    ``block``, and write everything else to ``file``.
+
+    The default filename is ``"{dirname}/clinic/{basename}.h"``.
+
+  ``buffer``
+    Save up most of the output from Clinic, to be written into
+    your file near the end.  For Python files implementing modules
+    or builtin types, it's recommended that you dump the buffer
+    just above the static structures for your module or
+    builtin type; these are normally very near the end.  Using
+    ``buffer`` may require even more editing than ``file``, if
+    your file has static ``PyMethodDef`` arrays defined in the
+    middle of the file.
+
+    Suppress the ``parser_prototype``, ``impl_prototype``,
+    and ``docstring_prototype``, write the ``impl_definition`` to
+    ``block``, and write everything else to ``file``.
+
+  ``two-pass``
+    Similar to the ``buffer`` preset, but writes forward declarations to
+    the ``two-pass`` buffer, and definitions to the ``buffer``.
+    This is similar to the ``buffer`` preset, but may require
+    less editing than ``buffer``.  Dump the ``two-pass`` buffer
+    near the top of your file, and dump the ``buffer`` near
+    the end just like you would when using the ``buffer`` preset.
+
+    Suppresses the ``impl_prototype``, write the ``impl_definition``
+    to ``block``, write ``docstring_prototype``, ``methoddef_define``,
+    and ``parser_prototype`` to ``two-pass``, write everything else
+    to ``buffer``.
+
+  ``partial-buffer``
+    Similar to the ``buffer`` preset, but writes more things to ``block``,
+    only writing the really big chunks of generated code to ``buffer``.
+    This avoids the definition-before-use problem of ``buffer`` completely,
+    at the small cost of having slightly more stuff in the block's output.
+    Dump the ``buffer`` near the end, just like you would when using
+    the ``buffer`` preset.
+
+    Suppresses the ``impl_prototype``, write the ``docstring_definition``
+    and ``parser_definition`` to ``buffer``, write everything else to ``block``.
+
+The third new directive is ``destination``:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    destination <name> <command> [...]
+
+This performs an operation on the destination named ``name``.
+
+There are two defined subcommands: ``new`` and ``clear``.
+
+The ``new`` subcommand works like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    destination <name> new <type>
+
+This creates a new destination with name ``<name>`` and type ``<type>``.
+
+There are five destination types:
+
+    ``suppress``
+        Throws the text away.
+
+    ``block``
+        Writes the text to the current block.  This is what Clinic
+        originally did.
+
+    ``buffer``
+        A simple text buffer, like the "buffer" builtin destination above.
+
+    ``file``
+        A text file.  The file destination takes an extra argument,
+        a template to use for building the filename, like so:
+
+            destination <name> new <type> <file_template>
+
+        The template can use three strings internally that will be replaced
+        by bits of the filename:
+
+            {path}
+                The full path to the file, including directory and full filename.
+            {dirname}
+                The name of the directory the file is in.
+            {basename}
+                Just the name of the file, not including the directory.
+            {basename_root}
+                Basename with the extension clipped off
+                (everything up to but not including the last '.').
+            {basename_extension}
+                The last '.' and everything after it.  If the basename
+                does not contain a period, this will be the empty string.
+
+        If there are no periods in the filename, {basename} and {filename}
+        are the same, and {extension} is empty.  "{basename}{extension}"
+        is always exactly the same as "{filename}"."
+
+    ``two-pass``
+        A two-pass buffer, like the "two-pass" builtin destination above.
+
+
+The ``clear`` subcommand works like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    destination <name> clear
+
+It removes all the accumulated text up to this point in the destination.
+(I don't know what you'd need this for, but I thought maybe it'd be
+useful while someone's experimenting.)
+
+The fourth new directive is ``set``:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    set line_prefix "string"
+    set line_suffix "string"
+
+``set`` lets you set two internal variables in Clinic.
+``line_prefix`` is a string that will be prepended to every line of Clinic's output;
+``line_suffix`` is a string that will be appended to every line of Clinic's output.
+
+Both of these support two format strings:
+
+  ``{block comment start}``
+    Turns into the string ``/*``, the start-comment text sequence for C files.
+
+  ``{block comment end}``
+    Turns into the string ``*/``, the end-comment text sequence for C files.
+
+The final new directive is one you shouldn't need to use directly,
+called ``preserve``:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    preserve
+
+This tells Clinic that the current contents of the output should be kept, unmodified.
+This is used internally by Clinic when dumping output into ``file`` files; wrapping
+it in a Clinic block lets Clinic use its existing checksum functionality to ensure
+the file was not modified by hand before it gets overwritten.
+
+
+The #ifdef trick
+----------------------------------------------
+
+If you're converting a function that isn't available on all platforms,
+there's a trick you can use to make life a little easier.  The existing
+code probably looks like this::
+
+    #ifdef HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME
+    static module_functionname(...)
+    {
+    ...
+    }
+    #endif /* HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME */
+
+And then in the ``PyMethodDef`` structure at the bottom the existing code
+will have:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    #ifdef HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME
+    {'functionname', ... },
+    #endif /* HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME */
+
+In this scenario, you should enclose the body of your impl function inside the ``#ifdef``,
+like so::
+
+    #ifdef HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME
+    /*[clinic input]
+    module.functionname
+    ...
+    [clinic start generated code]*/
+    static module_functionname(...)
+    {
+    ...
+    }
+    #endif /* HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME */
+
+Then, remove those three lines from the ``PyMethodDef`` structure,
+replacing them with the macro Argument Clinic generated:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF
+
+(You can find the real name for this macro inside the generated code.
+Or you can calculate it yourself: it's the name of your function as defined
+on the first line of your block, but with periods changed to underscores,
+uppercased, and ``"_METHODDEF"`` added to the end.)
+
+Perhaps you're wondering: what if ``HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME`` isn't defined?
+The ``MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF`` macro won't be defined either!
+
+Here's where Argument Clinic gets very clever.  It actually detects that the
+Argument Clinic block might be deactivated by the ``#ifdef``.  When that
+happens, it generates a little extra code that looks like this::
+
+    #ifndef MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF
+        #define MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF
+    #endif /* !defined(MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF) */
+
+That means the macro always works.  If the function is defined, this turns
+into the correct structure, including the trailing comma.  If the function is
+undefined, this turns into nothing.
+
+However, this causes one ticklish problem: where should Argument Clinic put this
+extra code when using the "block" output preset?  It can't go in the output block,
+because that could be deactivated by the ``#ifdef``.  (That's the whole point!)
+
+In this situation, Argument Clinic writes the extra code to the "buffer" destination.
+This may mean that you get a complaint from Argument Clinic:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Warning in file "Modules/posixmodule.c" on line 12357:
+    Destination buffer 'buffer' not empty at end of file, emptying.
+
+When this happens, just open your file, find the ``dump buffer`` block that
+Argument Clinic added to your file (it'll be at the very bottom), then
+move it above the ``PyMethodDef`` structure where that macro is used.
+
+
+
+Using Argument Clinic in Python files
+-------------------------------------
+
+It's actually possible to use Argument Clinic to preprocess Python files.
+There's no point to using Argument Clinic blocks, of course, as the output
+wouldn't make any sense to the Python interpreter.  But using Argument Clinic
+to run Python blocks lets you use Python as a Python preprocessor!
+
+Since Python comments are different from C comments, Argument Clinic
+blocks embedded in Python files look slightly different.  They look like this:
+
+.. code-block:: python3
+
+    #/*[python input]
+    #print("def foo(): pass")
+    #[python start generated code]*/
+    def foo(): pass
+    #/*[python checksum:...]*/
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/cporting.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/cporting.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cacb0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/cporting.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,257 @@
+.. highlightlang:: c
+
+.. _cporting-howto:
+
+*************************************
+Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
+*************************************
+
+:author: Benjamin Peterson
+
+
+.. topic:: Abstract
+
+   Although changing the C-API was not one of Python 3's objectives,
+   the many Python-level changes made leaving Python 2's API intact
+   impossible.  In fact, some changes such as :func:`int` and
+   :func:`long` unification are more obvious on the C level.  This
+   document endeavors to document incompatibilities and how they can
+   be worked around.
+
+
+Conditional compilation
+=======================
+
+The easiest way to compile only some code for Python 3 is to check
+if :c:macro:`PY_MAJOR_VERSION` is greater than or equal to 3. ::
+
+   #if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3
+   #define IS_PY3K
+   #endif
+
+API functions that are not present can be aliased to their equivalents within
+conditional blocks.
+
+
+Changes to Object APIs
+======================
+
+Python 3 merged together some types with similar functions while cleanly
+separating others.
+
+
+str/unicode Unification
+-----------------------
+
+Python 3's :func:`str` type is equivalent to Python 2's :func:`unicode`; the C
+functions are called ``PyUnicode_*`` for both.  The old 8-bit string type has become
+:func:`bytes`, with C functions called ``PyBytes_*``.  Python 2.6 and later provide a compatibility header,
+:file:`bytesobject.h`, mapping ``PyBytes`` names to ``PyString`` ones.  For best
+compatibility with Python 3, :c:type:`PyUnicode` should be used for textual data and
+:c:type:`PyBytes` for binary data.  It's also important to remember that
+:c:type:`PyBytes` and :c:type:`PyUnicode` in Python 3 are not interchangeable like
+:c:type:`PyString` and :c:type:`PyUnicode` are in Python 2.  The following example
+shows best practices with regards to :c:type:`PyUnicode`, :c:type:`PyString`,
+and :c:type:`PyBytes`. ::
+
+   #include "stdlib.h"
+   #include "Python.h"
+   #include "bytesobject.h"
+
+   /* text example */
+   static PyObject *
+   say_hello(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {
+       PyObject *name, *result;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "U:say_hello", &name))
+           return NULL;
+
+       result = PyUnicode_FromFormat("Hello, %S!", name);
+       return result;
+   }
+
+   /* just a forward */
+   static char * do_encode(PyObject *);
+
+   /* bytes example */
+   static PyObject *
+   encode_object(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {
+       char *encoded;
+       PyObject *result, *myobj;
+
+       if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:encode_object", &myobj))
+           return NULL;
+
+       encoded = do_encode(myobj);
+       if (encoded == NULL)
+           return NULL;
+       result = PyBytes_FromString(encoded);
+       free(encoded);
+       return result;
+   }
+
+
+long/int Unification
+--------------------
+
+Python 3 has only one integer type, :func:`int`.  But it actually
+corresponds to Python 2's :func:`long` type—the :func:`int` type
+used in Python 2 was removed.  In the C-API, ``PyInt_*`` functions
+are replaced by their ``PyLong_*`` equivalents.
+
+
+Module initialization and state
+===============================
+
+Python 3 has a revamped extension module initialization system.  (See
+:pep:`3121`.)  Instead of storing module state in globals, they should
+be stored in an interpreter specific structure.  Creating modules that
+act correctly in both Python 2 and Python 3 is tricky.  The following
+simple example demonstrates how. ::
+
+   #include "Python.h"
+
+   struct module_state {
+       PyObject *error;
+   };
+
+   #if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3
+   #define GETSTATE(m) ((struct module_state*)PyModule_GetState(m))
+   #else
+   #define GETSTATE(m) (&_state)
+   static struct module_state _state;
+   #endif
+
+   static PyObject *
+   error_out(PyObject *m) {
+       struct module_state *st = GETSTATE(m);
+       PyErr_SetString(st->error, "something bad happened");
+       return NULL;
+   }
+
+   static PyMethodDef myextension_methods[] = {
+       {"error_out", (PyCFunction)error_out, METH_NOARGS, NULL},
+       {NULL, NULL}
+   };
+
+   #if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3
+
+   static int myextension_traverse(PyObject *m, visitproc visit, void *arg) {
+       Py_VISIT(GETSTATE(m)->error);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+   static int myextension_clear(PyObject *m) {
+       Py_CLEAR(GETSTATE(m)->error);
+       return 0;
+   }
+
+
+   static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
+           PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+           "myextension",
+           NULL,
+           sizeof(struct module_state),
+           myextension_methods,
+           NULL,
+           myextension_traverse,
+           myextension_clear,
+           NULL
+   };
+
+   #define INITERROR return NULL
+
+   PyMODINIT_FUNC
+   PyInit_myextension(void)
+
+   #else
+   #define INITERROR return
+
+   void
+   initmyextension(void)
+   #endif
+   {
+   #if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3
+       PyObject *module = PyModule_Create(&moduledef);
+   #else
+       PyObject *module = Py_InitModule("myextension", myextension_methods);
+   #endif
+
+       if (module == NULL)
+           INITERROR;
+       struct module_state *st = GETSTATE(module);
+
+       st->error = PyErr_NewException("myextension.Error", NULL, NULL);
+       if (st->error == NULL) {
+           Py_DECREF(module);
+           INITERROR;
+       }
+
+   #if PY_MAJOR_VERSION >= 3
+       return module;
+   #endif
+   }
+
+
+CObject replaced with Capsule
+=============================
+
+The :c:type:`Capsule` object was introduced in Python 3.1 and 2.7 to replace
+:c:type:`CObject`.  CObjects were useful,
+but the :c:type:`CObject` API was problematic: it didn't permit distinguishing
+between valid CObjects, which allowed mismatched CObjects to crash the
+interpreter, and some of its APIs relied on undefined behavior in C.
+(For further reading on the rationale behind Capsules, please see :issue:`5630`.)
+
+If you're currently using CObjects, and you want to migrate to 3.1 or newer,
+you'll need to switch to Capsules.
+:c:type:`CObject` was deprecated in 3.1 and 2.7 and completely removed in
+Python 3.2.  If you only support 2.7, or 3.1 and above, you
+can simply switch to :c:type:`Capsule`.  If you need to support Python 3.0,
+or versions of Python earlier than 2.7,
+you'll have to support both CObjects and Capsules.
+(Note that Python 3.0 is no longer supported, and it is not recommended
+for production use.)
+
+The following example header file :file:`capsulethunk.h` may
+solve the problem for you.  Simply write your code against the
+:c:type:`Capsule` API and include this header file after
+:file:`Python.h`.  Your code will automatically use Capsules
+in versions of Python with Capsules, and switch to CObjects
+when Capsules are unavailable.
+
+:file:`capsulethunk.h` simulates Capsules using CObjects.  However,
+:c:type:`CObject` provides no place to store the capsule's "name".  As a
+result the simulated :c:type:`Capsule` objects created by :file:`capsulethunk.h`
+behave slightly differently from real Capsules.  Specifically:
+
+  * The name parameter passed in to :c:func:`PyCapsule_New` is ignored.
+
+  * The name parameter passed in to :c:func:`PyCapsule_IsValid` and
+    :c:func:`PyCapsule_GetPointer` is ignored, and no error checking
+    of the name is performed.
+
+  * :c:func:`PyCapsule_GetName` always returns NULL.
+
+  * :c:func:`PyCapsule_SetName` always raises an exception and
+    returns failure.  (Since there's no way to store a name
+    in a CObject, noisy failure of :c:func:`PyCapsule_SetName`
+    was deemed preferable to silent failure here.  If this is
+    inconvenient, feel free to modify your local
+    copy as you see fit.)
+
+You can find :file:`capsulethunk.h` in the Python source distribution
+as :source:`Doc/includes/capsulethunk.h`.  We also include it here for
+your convenience:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/capsulethunk.h
+
+
+
+Other options
+=============
+
+If you are writing a new extension module, you might consider `Cython
+<http://cython.org/>`_.  It translates a Python-like language to C.  The
+extension modules it creates are compatible with Python 3 and Python 2.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/curses.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/curses.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc4b478
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/curses.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,552 @@
+.. _curses-howto:
+
+**********************************
+  Curses Programming with Python
+**********************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond
+:Release: 2.04
+
+
+.. topic:: Abstract
+
+   This document describes how to use the :mod:`curses` extension
+   module to control text-mode displays.
+
+
+What is curses?
+===============
+
+The curses library supplies a terminal-independent screen-painting and
+keyboard-handling facility for text-based terminals; such terminals
+include VT100s, the Linux console, and the simulated terminal provided
+by various programs.  Display terminals support various control codes
+to perform common operations such as moving the cursor, scrolling the
+screen, and erasing areas.  Different terminals use widely differing
+codes, and often have their own minor quirks.
+
+In a world of graphical displays, one might ask "why bother"?  It's
+true that character-cell display terminals are an obsolete technology,
+but there are niches in which being able to do fancy things with them
+are still valuable.  One niche is on small-footprint or embedded
+Unixes that don't run an X server.  Another is tools such as OS
+installers and kernel configurators that may have to run before any
+graphical support is available.
+
+The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the
+programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple
+non-overlapping windows of text.  The contents of a window can be
+changed in various ways---adding text, erasing it, changing its
+appearance---and the curses library will figure out what control codes
+need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output.  curses
+doesn't provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons, checkboxes,
+or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user interface library such as
+`Urwid <https://pypi.org/project/urwid/>`_.
+
+The curses library was originally written for BSD Unix; the later System V
+versions of Unix from AT&T added many enhancements and new functions. BSD curses
+is no longer maintained, having been replaced by ncurses, which is an
+open-source implementation of the AT&T interface.  If you're using an
+open-source Unix such as Linux or FreeBSD, your system almost certainly uses
+ncurses.  Since most current commercial Unix versions are based on System V
+code, all the functions described here will probably be available.  The older
+versions of curses carried by some proprietary Unixes may not support
+everything, though.
+
+The Windows version of Python doesn't include the :mod:`curses`
+module.  A ported version called `UniCurses
+<https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses>`_ is available.  You could
+also try `the Console module <http://effbot.org/zone/console-index.htm>`_
+written by Fredrik Lundh, which doesn't
+use the same API as curses but provides cursor-addressable text output
+and full support for mouse and keyboard input.
+
+
+The Python curses module
+------------------------
+
+The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions provided by
+curses; if you're already familiar with curses programming in C, it's really
+easy to transfer that knowledge to Python.  The biggest difference is that the
+Python interface makes things simpler by merging different C functions such as
+:c:func:`addstr`, :c:func:`mvaddstr`, and :c:func:`mvwaddstr` into a single
+:meth:`~curses.window.addstr` method.  You'll see this covered in more
+detail later.
+
+This HOWTO is an introduction to writing text-mode programs with curses
+and Python. It doesn't attempt to be a complete guide to the curses API; for
+that, see the Python library guide's section on ncurses, and the C manual pages
+for ncurses.  It will, however, give you the basic ideas.
+
+
+Starting and ending a curses application
+========================================
+
+Before doing anything, curses must be initialized.  This is done by
+calling the :func:`~curses.initscr` function, which will determine the
+terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and
+create various internal data structures.  If successful,
+:func:`initscr` returns a window object representing the entire
+screen; this is usually called ``stdscr`` after the name of the
+corresponding C variable. ::
+
+   import curses
+   stdscr = curses.initscr()
+
+Usually curses applications turn off automatic echoing of keys to the
+screen, in order to be able to read keys and only display them under
+certain circumstances.  This requires calling the
+:func:`~curses.noecho` function. ::
+
+   curses.noecho()
+
+Applications will also commonly need to react to keys instantly,
+without requiring the Enter key to be pressed; this is called cbreak
+mode, as opposed to the usual buffered input mode. ::
+
+   curses.cbreak()
+
+Terminals usually return special keys, such as the cursor keys or navigation
+keys such as Page Up and Home, as a multibyte escape sequence.  While you could
+write your application to expect such sequences and process them accordingly,
+curses can do it for you, returning a special value such as
+:const:`curses.KEY_LEFT`.  To get curses to do the job, you'll have to enable
+keypad mode. ::
+
+   stdscr.keypad(True)
+
+Terminating a curses application is much easier than starting one. You'll need
+to call::
+
+   curses.nocbreak()
+   stdscr.keypad(False)
+   curses.echo()
+
+to reverse the curses-friendly terminal settings. Then call the
+:func:`~curses.endwin` function to restore the terminal to its original
+operating mode. ::
+
+   curses.endwin()
+
+A common problem when debugging a curses application is to get your terminal
+messed up when the application dies without restoring the terminal to its
+previous state.  In Python this commonly happens when your code is buggy and
+raises an uncaught exception.  Keys are no longer echoed to the screen when
+you type them, for example, which makes using the shell difficult.
+
+In Python you can avoid these complications and make debugging much easier by
+importing the :func:`curses.wrapper` function and using it like this::
+
+   from curses import wrapper
+
+   def main(stdscr):
+       # Clear screen
+       stdscr.clear()
+
+       # This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10.
+       for i in range(0, 11):
+           v = i-10
+           stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))
+
+       stdscr.refresh()
+       stdscr.getkey()
+
+   wrapper(main)
+
+The :func:`~curses.wrapper` function takes a callable object and does the
+initializations described above, also initializing colors if color
+support is present.  :func:`wrapper` then runs your provided callable.
+Once the callable returns, :func:`wrapper` will restore the original
+state of the terminal.  The callable is called inside a
+:keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except` that catches exceptions, restores
+the state of the terminal, and then re-raises the exception.  Therefore
+your terminal won't be left in a funny state on exception and you'll be
+able to read the exception's message and traceback.
+
+
+Windows and Pads
+================
+
+Windows are the basic abstraction in curses.  A window object represents a
+rectangular area of the screen, and supports methods to display text,
+erase it, allow the user to input strings, and so forth.
+
+The ``stdscr`` object returned by the :func:`~curses.initscr` function is a
+window object that covers the entire screen.  Many programs may need
+only this single window, but you might wish to divide the screen into
+smaller windows, in order to redraw or clear them separately. The
+:func:`~curses.newwin` function creates a new window of a given size,
+returning the new window object. ::
+
+   begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7
+   height = 5; width = 40
+   win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x)
+
+Note that the coordinate system used in curses is unusual.
+Coordinates are always passed in the order *y,x*, and the top-left
+corner of a window is coordinate (0,0).  This breaks the normal
+convention for handling coordinates where the *x* coordinate comes
+first.  This is an unfortunate difference from most other computer
+applications, but it's been part of curses since it was first written,
+and it's too late to change things now.
+
+Your application can determine the size of the screen by using the
+:data:`curses.LINES` and :data:`curses.COLS` variables to obtain the *y* and
+*x* sizes.  Legal coordinates will then extend from ``(0,0)`` to
+``(curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1)``.
+
+When you call a method to display or erase text, the effect doesn't
+immediately show up on the display.  Instead you must call the
+:meth:`~curses.window.refresh` method of window objects to update the
+screen.
+
+This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud
+terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the
+time required to redraw the screen was very important.  Instead curses
+accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most
+efficient manner when you call :meth:`refresh`.  For example, if your
+program displays some text in a window and then clears the window,
+there's no need to send the original text because they're never
+visible.
+
+In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn't
+really complicate programming with curses much. Most programs go into a flurry
+of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action on the
+part of the user.  All you have to do is to be sure that the screen has been
+redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first calling
+``stdscr.refresh()`` or the :meth:`refresh` method of some other relevant
+window.
+
+A pad is a special case of a window; it can be larger than the actual display
+screen, and only a portion of the pad displayed at a time. Creating a pad
+requires the pad's height and width, while refreshing a pad requires giving the
+coordinates of the on-screen area where a subsection of the pad will be
+displayed.  ::
+
+   pad = curses.newpad(100, 100)
+   # These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is
+   # explained in the next section
+   for y in range(0, 99):
+       for x in range(0, 99):
+           pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26)
+
+   # Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen.
+   # (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display.
+   # (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled
+   #         with pad content.
+   # (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be
+   #          : filled with pad content.
+   pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75)
+
+The :meth:`refresh` call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle
+extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the upper
+left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the pad.  Beyond
+that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and support the same
+methods.
+
+If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more
+efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker
+as each part of the screen gets updated.  :meth:`refresh` actually
+does two things:
+
+1) Calls the :meth:`~curses.window.noutrefresh` method of each window
+   to update an underlying data structure representing the desired
+   state of the screen.
+2) Calls the function :func:`~curses.doupdate` function to change the
+   physical screen to match the desired state recorded in the data structure.
+
+Instead you can call :meth:`noutrefresh` on a number of windows to
+update the data structure, and then call :func:`doupdate` to update
+the screen.
+
+
+Displaying Text
+===============
+
+From a C programmer's point of view, curses may sometimes look like a
+twisty maze of functions, all subtly different.  For example,
+:c:func:`addstr` displays a string at the current cursor location in
+the ``stdscr`` window, while :c:func:`mvaddstr` moves to a given y,x
+coordinate first before displaying the string. :c:func:`waddstr` is just
+like :c:func:`addstr`, but allows specifying a window to use instead of
+using ``stdscr`` by default. :c:func:`mvwaddstr` allows specifying both
+a window and a coordinate.
+
+Fortunately the Python interface hides all these details.  ``stdscr``
+is a window object like any other, and methods such as
+:meth:`~curses.window.addstr` accept multiple argument forms.  Usually there
+are four different forms.
+
++---------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Form                            | Description                                   |
++=================================+===============================================+
+| *str* or *ch*                   | Display the string *str* or character *ch* at |
+|                                 | the current position                          |
++---------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| *str* or *ch*, *attr*           | Display the string *str* or character *ch*,   |
+|                                 | using attribute *attr* at the current         |
+|                                 | position                                      |
++---------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| *y*, *x*, *str* or *ch*         | Move to position *y,x* within the window, and |
+|                                 | display *str* or *ch*                         |
++---------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| *y*, *x*, *str* or *ch*, *attr* | Move to position *y,x* within the window, and |
+|                                 | display *str* or *ch*, using attribute *attr* |
++---------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+Attributes allow displaying text in highlighted forms such as boldface,
+underline, reverse code, or in color.  They'll be explained in more detail in
+the next subsection.
+
+
+The :meth:`~curses.window.addstr` method takes a Python string or
+bytestring as the value to be displayed.  The contents of bytestrings
+are sent to the terminal as-is.  Strings are encoded to bytes using
+the value of the window's :attr:`encoding` attribute; this defaults to
+the default system encoding as returned by
+:func:`locale.getpreferredencoding`.
+
+The :meth:`~curses.window.addch` methods take a character, which can be
+either a string of length 1, a bytestring of length 1, or an integer.
+
+Constants are provided for extension characters; these constants are
+integers greater than 255.  For example, :const:`ACS_PLMINUS` is a +/-
+symbol, and :const:`ACS_ULCORNER` is the upper left corner of a box
+(handy for drawing borders).  You can also use the appropriate Unicode
+character.
+
+Windows remember where the cursor was left after the last operation, so if you
+leave out the *y,x* coordinates, the string or character will be displayed
+wherever the last operation left off.  You can also move the cursor with the
+``move(y,x)`` method.  Because some terminals always display a flashing cursor,
+you may want to ensure that the cursor is positioned in some location where it
+won't be distracting; it can be confusing to have the cursor blinking at some
+apparently random location.
+
+If your application doesn't need a blinking cursor at all, you can
+call ``curs_set(False)`` to make it invisible.  For compatibility
+with older curses versions, there's a ``leaveok(bool)`` function
+that's a synonym for :func:`~curses.curs_set`.  When *bool* is true, the
+curses library will attempt to suppress the flashing cursor, and you
+won't need to worry about leaving it in odd locations.
+
+
+Attributes and Color
+--------------------
+
+Characters can be displayed in different ways.  Status lines in a text-based
+application are commonly shown in reverse video, or a text viewer may need to
+highlight certain words.  curses supports this by allowing you to specify an
+attribute for each cell on the screen.
+
+An attribute is an integer, each bit representing a different
+attribute.  You can try to display text with multiple attribute bits
+set, but curses doesn't guarantee that all the possible combinations
+are available, or that they're all visually distinct.  That depends on
+the ability of the terminal being used, so it's safest to stick to the
+most commonly available attributes, listed here.
+
++----------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| Attribute            | Description                          |
++======================+======================================+
+| :const:`A_BLINK`     | Blinking text                        |
++----------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| :const:`A_BOLD`      | Extra bright or bold text            |
++----------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| :const:`A_DIM`       | Half bright text                     |
++----------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| :const:`A_REVERSE`   | Reverse-video text                   |
++----------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| :const:`A_STANDOUT`  | The best highlighting mode available |
++----------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| :const:`A_UNDERLINE` | Underlined text                      |
++----------------------+--------------------------------------+
+
+So, to display a reverse-video status line on the top line of the screen, you
+could code::
+
+   stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode",
+                 curses.A_REVERSE)
+   stdscr.refresh()
+
+The curses library also supports color on those terminals that provide it. The
+most common such terminal is probably the Linux console, followed by color
+xterms.
+
+To use color, you must call the :func:`~curses.start_color` function soon
+after calling :func:`~curses.initscr`, to initialize the default color set
+(the :func:`curses.wrapper` function does this automatically).  Once that's
+done, the :func:`~curses.has_colors` function returns TRUE if the terminal
+in use can
+actually display color.  (Note: curses uses the American spelling 'color',
+instead of the Canadian/British spelling 'colour'.  If you're used to the
+British spelling, you'll have to resign yourself to misspelling it for the sake
+of these functions.)
+
+The curses library maintains a finite number of color pairs, containing a
+foreground (or text) color and a background color.  You can get the attribute
+value corresponding to a color pair with the :func:`~curses.color_pair`
+function; this can be bitwise-OR'ed with other attributes such as
+:const:`A_REVERSE`, but again, such combinations are not guaranteed to work
+on all terminals.
+
+An example, which displays a line of text using color pair 1::
+
+   stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1))
+   stdscr.refresh()
+
+As I said before, a color pair consists of a foreground and background color.
+The ``init_pair(n, f, b)`` function changes the definition of color pair *n*, to
+foreground color f and background color b.  Color pair 0 is hard-wired to white
+on black, and cannot be changed.
+
+Colors are numbered, and :func:`start_color` initializes 8 basic
+colors when it activates color mode.  They are: 0:black, 1:red,
+2:green, 3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and 7:white.  The :mod:`curses`
+module defines named constants for each of these colors:
+:const:`curses.COLOR_BLACK`, :const:`curses.COLOR_RED`, and so forth.
+
+Let's put all this together. To change color 1 to red text on a white
+background, you would call::
+
+   curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE)
+
+When you change a color pair, any text already displayed using that color pair
+will change to the new colors.  You can also display new text in this color
+with::
+
+   stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1))
+
+Very fancy terminals can change the definitions of the actual colors to a given
+RGB value.  This lets you change color 1, which is usually red, to purple or
+blue or any other color you like.  Unfortunately, the Linux console doesn't
+support this, so I'm unable to try it out, and can't provide any examples.  You
+can check if your terminal can do this by calling
+:func:`~curses.can_change_color`, which returns ``True`` if the capability is
+there.  If you're lucky enough to have such a talented terminal, consult your
+system's man pages for more information.
+
+
+User Input
+==========
+
+The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms. Python's
+:mod:`curses` module adds a basic text-input widget.  (Other libraries
+such as `Urwid <https://pypi.org/project/urwid/>`_ have more extensive
+collections of widgets.)
+
+There are two methods for getting input from a window:
+
+* :meth:`~curses.window.getch` refreshes the screen and then waits for
+  the user to hit a key, displaying the key if :func:`~curses.echo` has been
+  called earlier.  You can optionally specify a coordinate to which
+  the cursor should be moved before pausing.
+
+* :meth:`~curses.window.getkey` does the same thing but converts the
+  integer to a string.  Individual characters are returned as
+  1-character strings, and special keys such as function keys return
+  longer strings containing a key name such as ``KEY_UP`` or ``^G``.
+
+It's possible to not wait for the user using the
+:meth:`~curses.window.nodelay` window method. After ``nodelay(True)``,
+:meth:`getch` and :meth:`getkey` for the window become
+non-blocking. To signal that no input is ready, :meth:`getch` returns
+``curses.ERR`` (a value of -1) and :meth:`getkey` raises an exception.
+There's also a :func:`~curses.halfdelay` function, which can be used to (in
+effect) set a timer on each :meth:`getch`; if no input becomes
+available within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second),
+curses raises an exception.
+
+The :meth:`getch` method returns an integer; if it's between 0 and 255, it
+represents the ASCII code of the key pressed.  Values greater than 255 are
+special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys. You can compare the
+value returned to constants such as :const:`curses.KEY_PPAGE`,
+:const:`curses.KEY_HOME`, or :const:`curses.KEY_LEFT`.  The main loop of
+your program may look something like this::
+
+   while True:
+       c = stdscr.getch()
+       if c == ord('p'):
+           PrintDocument()
+       elif c == ord('q'):
+           break  # Exit the while loop
+       elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
+           x = y = 0
+
+The :mod:`curses.ascii` module supplies ASCII class membership functions that
+take either integer or 1-character string arguments; these may be useful in
+writing more readable tests for such loops.  It also supplies
+conversion functions  that take either integer or 1-character-string arguments
+and return the same type.  For example, :func:`curses.ascii.ctrl` returns the
+control character corresponding to its argument.
+
+There's also a method to retrieve an entire string,
+:meth:`~curses.window.getstr`.  It isn't used very often, because its
+functionality is quite limited; the only editing keys available are
+the backspace key and the Enter key, which terminates the string.  It
+can optionally be limited to a fixed number of characters. ::
+
+   curses.echo()            # Enable echoing of characters
+
+   # Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line
+   s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)
+
+The :mod:`curses.textpad` module supplies a text box that supports an
+Emacs-like set of keybindings.  Various methods of the
+:class:`~curses.textpad.Textbox` class support editing with input
+validation and gathering the edit results either with or without
+trailing spaces.  Here's an example::
+
+   import curses
+   from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle
+
+   def main(stdscr):
+       stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)")
+
+       editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1)
+       rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1)
+       stdscr.refresh()
+
+       box = Textbox(editwin)
+
+       # Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck.
+       box.edit()
+
+       # Get resulting contents
+       message = box.gather()
+
+See the library documentation on :mod:`curses.textpad` for more details.
+
+
+For More Information
+====================
+
+This HOWTO doesn't cover some advanced topics, such as reading the
+contents of the screen or capturing mouse events from an xterm
+instance, but the Python library page for the :mod:`curses` module is now
+reasonably complete.  You should browse it next.
+
+If you're in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses
+functions, consult the manual pages for your curses implementation,
+whether it's ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor's.  The manual pages
+will document any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the
+functions, attributes, and :const:`ACS_\*` characters available to
+you.
+
+Because the curses API is so large, some functions aren't supported in
+the Python interface.  Often this isn't because they're difficult to
+implement, but because no one has needed them yet.  Also, Python
+doesn't yet support the menu library associated with ncurses.
+Patches adding support for these would be welcome; see
+`the Python Developer's Guide <https://devguide.python.org/>`_ to
+learn more about submitting patches to Python.
+
+* `Writing Programs with NCURSES <http://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html>`_:
+  a lengthy tutorial for C programmers.
+* `The ncurses man page <https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses>`_
+* `The ncurses FAQ <http://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html>`_
+* `"Use curses... don't swear" <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU>`_:
+  video of a PyCon 2013 talk on controlling terminals using curses or Urwid.
+* `"Console Applications with Urwid" <http://www.pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid>`_:
+  video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk demonstrating some applications written using
+  Urwid.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/descriptor.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/descriptor.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/descriptor.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,443 @@
+======================
+Descriptor HowTo Guide
+======================
+
+:Author: Raymond Hettinger
+:Contact: <python at rcn dot com>
+
+.. Contents::
+
+Abstract
+--------
+
+Defines descriptors, summarizes the protocol, and shows how descriptors are
+called.  Examines a custom descriptor and several built-in Python descriptors
+including functions, properties, static methods, and class methods.  Shows how
+each works by giving a pure Python equivalent and a sample application.
+
+Learning about descriptors not only provides access to a larger toolset, it
+creates a deeper understanding of how Python works and an appreciation for the
+elegance of its design.
+
+
+Definition and Introduction
+---------------------------
+
+In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with "binding behavior", one
+whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the descriptor
+protocol.  Those methods are :meth:`__get__`, :meth:`__set__`, and
+:meth:`__delete__`.  If any of those methods are defined for an object, it is
+said to be a descriptor.
+
+The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
+attribute from an object's dictionary.  For instance, ``a.x`` has a lookup chain
+starting with ``a.__dict__['x']``, then ``type(a).__dict__['x']``, and
+continuing through the base classes of ``type(a)`` excluding metaclasses. If the
+looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods, then Python
+may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor method instead.
+Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods
+were defined.
+
+Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol.  They are the mechanism
+behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and :func:`super()`.
+They are used throughout Python itself to implement the new style classes
+introduced in version 2.2.  Descriptors simplify the underlying C-code and offer
+a flexible set of new tools for everyday Python programs.
+
+
+Descriptor Protocol
+-------------------
+
+``descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None) -> value``
+
+``descr.__set__(self, obj, value) -> None``
+
+``descr.__delete__(self, obj) -> None``
+
+That is all there is to it.  Define any of these methods and an object is
+considered a descriptor and can override default behavior upon being looked up
+as an attribute.
+
+If an object defines both :meth:`__get__` and :meth:`__set__`, it is considered
+a data descriptor.  Descriptors that only define :meth:`__get__` are called
+non-data descriptors (they are typically used for methods but other uses are
+possible).
+
+Data and non-data descriptors differ in how overrides are calculated with
+respect to entries in an instance's dictionary.  If an instance's dictionary
+has an entry with the same name as a data descriptor, the data descriptor
+takes precedence.  If an instance's dictionary has an entry with the same
+name as a non-data descriptor, the dictionary entry takes precedence.
+
+To make a read-only data descriptor, define both :meth:`__get__` and
+:meth:`__set__` with the :meth:`__set__` raising an :exc:`AttributeError` when
+called.  Defining the :meth:`__set__` method with an exception raising
+placeholder is enough to make it a data descriptor.
+
+
+Invoking Descriptors
+--------------------
+
+A descriptor can be called directly by its method name.  For example,
+``d.__get__(obj)``.
+
+Alternatively, it is more common for a descriptor to be invoked automatically
+upon attribute access.  For example, ``obj.d`` looks up ``d`` in the dictionary
+of ``obj``.  If ``d`` defines the method :meth:`__get__`, then ``d.__get__(obj)``
+is invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.
+
+The details of invocation depend on whether ``obj`` is an object or a class.
+
+For objects, the machinery is in :meth:`object.__getattribute__` which
+transforms ``b.x`` into ``type(b).__dict__['x'].__get__(b, type(b))``.  The
+implementation works through a precedence chain that gives data descriptors
+priority over instance variables, instance variables priority over non-data
+descriptors, and assigns lowest priority to :meth:`__getattr__` if provided.
+The full C implementation can be found in :c:func:`PyObject_GenericGetAttr()` in
+:source:`Objects/object.c`.
+
+For classes, the machinery is in :meth:`type.__getattribute__` which transforms
+``B.x`` into ``B.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, B)``.  In pure Python, it looks
+like::
+
+    def __getattribute__(self, key):
+        "Emulate type_getattro() in Objects/typeobject.c"
+        v = object.__getattribute__(self, key)
+        if hasattr(v, '__get__'):
+            return v.__get__(None, self)
+        return v
+
+The important points to remember are:
+
+* descriptors are invoked by the :meth:`__getattribute__` method
+* overriding :meth:`__getattribute__` prevents automatic descriptor calls
+* :meth:`object.__getattribute__` and :meth:`type.__getattribute__` make
+  different calls to :meth:`__get__`.
+* data descriptors always override instance dictionaries.
+* non-data descriptors may be overridden by instance dictionaries.
+
+The object returned by ``super()`` also has a custom :meth:`__getattribute__`
+method for invoking descriptors.  The call ``super(B, obj).m()`` searches
+``obj.__class__.__mro__`` for the base class ``A`` immediately following ``B``
+and then returns ``A.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, B)``.  If not a descriptor,
+``m`` is returned unchanged.  If not in the dictionary, ``m`` reverts to a
+search using :meth:`object.__getattribute__`.
+
+The implementation details are in :c:func:`super_getattro()` in
+:source:`Objects/typeobject.c`.  and a pure Python equivalent can be found in
+`Guido's Tutorial`_.
+
+.. _`Guido's Tutorial`: https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation
+
+The details above show that the mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the
+:meth:`__getattribute__()` methods for :class:`object`, :class:`type`, and
+:func:`super`.  Classes inherit this machinery when they derive from
+:class:`object` or if they have a meta-class providing similar functionality.
+Likewise, classes can turn-off descriptor invocation by overriding
+:meth:`__getattribute__()`.
+
+
+Descriptor Example
+------------------
+
+The following code creates a class whose objects are data descriptors which
+print a message for each get or set.  Overriding :meth:`__getattribute__` is
+alternate approach that could do this for every attribute.  However, this
+descriptor is useful for monitoring just a few chosen attributes::
+
+    class RevealAccess(object):
+        """A data descriptor that sets and returns values
+           normally and prints a message logging their access.
+        """
+
+        def __init__(self, initval=None, name='var'):
+            self.val = initval
+            self.name = name
+
+        def __get__(self, obj, objtype):
+            print('Retrieving', self.name)
+            return self.val
+
+        def __set__(self, obj, val):
+            print('Updating', self.name)
+            self.val = val
+
+    >>> class MyClass(object):
+    ...     x = RevealAccess(10, 'var "x"')
+    ...     y = 5
+    ...
+    >>> m = MyClass()
+    >>> m.x
+    Retrieving var "x"
+    10
+    >>> m.x = 20
+    Updating var "x"
+    >>> m.x
+    Retrieving var "x"
+    20
+    >>> m.y
+    5
+
+The protocol is simple and offers exciting possibilities.  Several use cases are
+so common that they have been packaged into individual function calls.
+Properties, bound methods, static methods, and class methods are all
+based on the descriptor protocol.
+
+
+Properties
+----------
+
+Calling :func:`property` is a succinct way of building a data descriptor that
+triggers function calls upon access to an attribute.  Its signature is::
+
+    property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property attribute
+
+The documentation shows a typical use to define a managed attribute ``x``::
+
+    class C(object):
+        def getx(self): return self.__x
+        def setx(self, value): self.__x = value
+        def delx(self): del self.__x
+        x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")
+
+To see how :func:`property` is implemented in terms of the descriptor protocol,
+here is a pure Python equivalent::
+
+    class Property(object):
+        "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"
+
+        def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
+            self.fget = fget
+            self.fset = fset
+            self.fdel = fdel
+            if doc is None and fget is not None:
+                doc = fget.__doc__
+            self.__doc__ = doc
+
+        def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
+            if obj is None:
+                return self
+            if self.fget is None:
+                raise AttributeError("unreadable attribute")
+            return self.fget(obj)
+
+        def __set__(self, obj, value):
+            if self.fset is None:
+                raise AttributeError("can't set attribute")
+            self.fset(obj, value)
+
+        def __delete__(self, obj):
+            if self.fdel is None:
+                raise AttributeError("can't delete attribute")
+            self.fdel(obj)
+
+        def getter(self, fget):
+            return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
+
+        def setter(self, fset):
+            return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
+
+        def deleter(self, fdel):
+            return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)
+
+The :func:`property` builtin helps whenever a user interface has granted
+attribute access and then subsequent changes require the intervention of a
+method.
+
+For instance, a spreadsheet class may grant access to a cell value through
+``Cell('b10').value``. Subsequent improvements to the program require the cell
+to be recalculated on every access; however, the programmer does not want to
+affect existing client code accessing the attribute directly.  The solution is
+to wrap access to the value attribute in a property data descriptor::
+
+    class Cell(object):
+        . . .
+        def getvalue(self):
+            "Recalculate the cell before returning value"
+            self.recalc()
+            return self._value
+        value = property(getvalue)
+
+
+Functions and Methods
+---------------------
+
+Python's object oriented features are built upon a function based environment.
+Using non-data descriptors, the two are merged seamlessly.
+
+Class dictionaries store methods as functions.  In a class definition, methods
+are written using :keyword:`def` or :keyword:`lambda`, the usual tools for
+creating functions.  Methods only differ from regular functions in that the
+first argument is reserved for the object instance.  By Python convention, the
+instance reference is called *self* but may be called *this* or any other
+variable name.
+
+To support method calls, functions include the :meth:`__get__` method for
+binding methods during attribute access.  This means that all functions are
+non-data descriptors which return bound methods when they are invoked from an
+object.  In pure Python, it works like this::
+
+    class Function(object):
+        . . .
+        def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
+            "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c"
+            if obj is None:
+                return self
+            return types.MethodType(self, obj)
+
+Running the interpreter shows how the function descriptor works in practice::
+
+    >>> class D(object):
+    ...     def f(self, x):
+    ...         return x
+    ...
+    >>> d = D()
+
+    # Access through the class dictionary does not invoke __get__.
+    # It just returns the underlying function object.
+    >>> D.__dict__['f']
+    <function D.f at 0x00C45070>
+
+    # Dotted access from a class calls __get__() which just returns
+    # the underlying function unchanged.
+    >>> D.f
+    <function D.f at 0x00C45070>
+
+    # The function has a __qualname__ attribute to support introspection
+    >>> D.f.__qualname__
+    'D.f'
+
+    # Dotted access from an instance calls __get__() which returns the
+    # function wrapped in a bound method object
+    >>> d.f
+    <bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>>
+
+    # Internally, the bound method stores the underlying function,
+    # the bound instance, and the class of the bound instance.
+    >>> d.f.__func__
+    <function D.f at 0x1012e5ae8>
+    >>> d.f.__self__
+    <__main__.D object at 0x1012e1f98>
+    >>> d.f.__class__
+    <class 'method'>
+
+
+Static Methods and Class Methods
+--------------------------------
+
+Non-data descriptors provide a simple mechanism for variations on the usual
+patterns of binding functions into methods.
+
+To recap, functions have a :meth:`__get__` method so that they can be converted
+to a method when accessed as attributes.  The non-data descriptor transforms an
+``obj.f(*args)`` call into ``f(obj, *args)``.  Calling ``klass.f(*args)``
+becomes ``f(*args)``.
+
+This chart summarizes the binding and its two most useful variants:
+
+      +-----------------+----------------------+------------------+
+      | Transformation  | Called from an       | Called from a    |
+      |                 | Object               | Class            |
+      +=================+======================+==================+
+      | function        | f(obj, \*args)       | f(\*args)        |
+      +-----------------+----------------------+------------------+
+      | staticmethod    | f(\*args)            | f(\*args)        |
+      +-----------------+----------------------+------------------+
+      | classmethod     | f(type(obj), \*args) | f(klass, \*args) |
+      +-----------------+----------------------+------------------+
+
+Static methods return the underlying function without changes.  Calling either
+``c.f`` or ``C.f`` is the equivalent of a direct lookup into
+``object.__getattribute__(c, "f")`` or ``object.__getattribute__(C, "f")``. As a
+result, the function becomes identically accessible from either an object or a
+class.
+
+Good candidates for static methods are methods that do not reference the
+``self`` variable.
+
+For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for
+experimental data.  The class provides normal methods for computing the average,
+mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on the data. However,
+there may be useful functions which are conceptually related but do not depend
+on the data.  For instance, ``erf(x)`` is handy conversion routine that comes up
+in statistical work but does not directly depend on a particular dataset.
+It can be called either from an object or the class:  ``s.erf(1.5) --> .9332`` or
+``Sample.erf(1.5) --> .9332``.
+
+Since staticmethods return the underlying function with no changes, the example
+calls are unexciting::
+
+    >>> class E(object):
+    ...     def f(x):
+    ...         print(x)
+    ...     f = staticmethod(f)
+    ...
+    >>> E.f(3)
+    3
+    >>> E().f(3)
+    3
+
+Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of
+:func:`staticmethod` would look like this::
+
+    class StaticMethod(object):
+        "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"
+
+        def __init__(self, f):
+            self.f = f
+
+        def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
+            return self.f
+
+Unlike static methods, class methods prepend the class reference to the
+argument list before calling the function.  This format is the same
+for whether the caller is an object or a class::
+
+    >>> class E(object):
+    ...     def f(klass, x):
+    ...         return klass.__name__, x
+    ...     f = classmethod(f)
+    ...
+    >>> print(E.f(3))
+    ('E', 3)
+    >>> print(E().f(3))
+    ('E', 3)
+
+
+This behavior is useful whenever the function only needs to have a class
+reference and does not care about any underlying data.  One use for classmethods
+is to create alternate class constructors.  In Python 2.3, the classmethod
+:func:`dict.fromkeys` creates a new dictionary from a list of keys.  The pure
+Python equivalent is::
+
+    class Dict(object):
+        . . .
+        def fromkeys(klass, iterable, value=None):
+            "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c"
+            d = klass()
+            for key in iterable:
+                d[key] = value
+            return d
+        fromkeys = classmethod(fromkeys)
+
+Now a new dictionary of unique keys can be constructed like this::
+
+    >>> Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra')
+    {'a': None, 'r': None, 'b': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}
+
+Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of
+:func:`classmethod` would look like this::
+
+    class ClassMethod(object):
+        "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"
+
+        def __init__(self, f):
+            self.f = f
+
+        def __get__(self, obj, klass=None):
+            if klass is None:
+                klass = type(obj)
+            def newfunc(*args):
+                return self.f(klass, *args)
+            return newfunc
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/functional.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/functional.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f8f2aac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/functional.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1262 @@
+********************************
+  Functional Programming HOWTO
+********************************
+
+:Author: A. M. Kuchling
+:Release: 0.32
+
+In this document, we'll take a tour of Python's features suitable for
+implementing programs in a functional style.  After an introduction to the
+concepts of functional programming, we'll look at language features such as
+:term:`iterator`\s and :term:`generator`\s and relevant library modules such as
+:mod:`itertools` and :mod:`functools`.
+
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+This section explains the basic concept of functional programming; if
+you're just interested in learning about Python language features,
+skip to the next section on :ref:`functional-howto-iterators`.
+
+Programming languages support decomposing problems in several different ways:
+
+* Most programming languages are **procedural**: programs are lists of
+  instructions that tell the computer what to do with the program's input.  C,
+  Pascal, and even Unix shells are procedural languages.
+
+* In **declarative** languages, you write a specification that describes the
+  problem to be solved, and the language implementation figures out how to
+  perform the computation efficiently.  SQL is the declarative language you're
+  most likely to be familiar with; a SQL query describes the data set you want
+  to retrieve, and the SQL engine decides whether to scan tables or use indexes,
+  which subclauses should be performed first, etc.
+
+* **Object-oriented** programs manipulate collections of objects.  Objects have
+  internal state and support methods that query or modify this internal state in
+  some way. Smalltalk and Java are object-oriented languages.  C++ and Python
+  are languages that support object-oriented programming, but don't force the
+  use of object-oriented features.
+
+* **Functional** programming decomposes a problem into a set of functions.
+  Ideally, functions only take inputs and produce outputs, and don't have any
+  internal state that affects the output produced for a given input.  Well-known
+  functional languages include the ML family (Standard ML, OCaml, and other
+  variants) and Haskell.
+
+The designers of some computer languages choose to emphasize one
+particular approach to programming.  This often makes it difficult to
+write programs that use a different approach.  Other languages are
+multi-paradigm languages that support several different approaches.
+Lisp, C++, and Python are multi-paradigm; you can write programs or
+libraries that are largely procedural, object-oriented, or functional
+in all of these languages.  In a large program, different sections
+might be written using different approaches; the GUI might be
+object-oriented while the processing logic is procedural or
+functional, for example.
+
+In a functional program, input flows through a set of functions. Each function
+operates on its input and produces some output.  Functional style discourages
+functions with side effects that modify internal state or make other changes
+that aren't visible in the function's return value.  Functions that have no side
+effects at all are called **purely functional**.  Avoiding side effects means
+not using data structures that get updated as a program runs; every function's
+output must only depend on its input.
+
+Some languages are very strict about purity and don't even have assignment
+statements such as ``a=3`` or ``c = a + b``, but it's difficult to avoid all
+side effects.  Printing to the screen or writing to a disk file are side
+effects, for example.  For example, in Python a call to the :func:`print` or
+:func:`time.sleep` function both return no useful value; they're only called for
+their side effects of sending some text to the screen or pausing execution for a
+second.
+
+Python programs written in functional style usually won't go to the extreme of
+avoiding all I/O or all assignments; instead, they'll provide a
+functional-appearing interface but will use non-functional features internally.
+For example, the implementation of a function will still use assignments to
+local variables, but won't modify global variables or have other side effects.
+
+Functional programming can be considered the opposite of object-oriented
+programming.  Objects are little capsules containing some internal state along
+with a collection of method calls that let you modify this state, and programs
+consist of making the right set of state changes.  Functional programming wants
+to avoid state changes as much as possible and works with data flowing between
+functions.  In Python you might combine the two approaches by writing functions
+that take and return instances representing objects in your application (e-mail
+messages, transactions, etc.).
+
+Functional design may seem like an odd constraint to work under.  Why should you
+avoid objects and side effects?  There are theoretical and practical advantages
+to the functional style:
+
+* Formal provability.
+* Modularity.
+* Composability.
+* Ease of debugging and testing.
+
+
+Formal provability
+------------------
+
+A theoretical benefit is that it's easier to construct a mathematical proof that
+a functional program is correct.
+
+For a long time researchers have been interested in finding ways to
+mathematically prove programs correct.  This is different from testing a program
+on numerous inputs and concluding that its output is usually correct, or reading
+a program's source code and concluding that the code looks right; the goal is
+instead a rigorous proof that a program produces the right result for all
+possible inputs.
+
+The technique used to prove programs correct is to write down **invariants**,
+properties of the input data and of the program's variables that are always
+true.  For each line of code, you then show that if invariants X and Y are true
+**before** the line is executed, the slightly different invariants X' and Y' are
+true **after** the line is executed.  This continues until you reach the end of
+the program, at which point the invariants should match the desired conditions
+on the program's output.
+
+Functional programming's avoidance of assignments arose because assignments are
+difficult to handle with this technique; assignments can break invariants that
+were true before the assignment without producing any new invariants that can be
+propagated onward.
+
+Unfortunately, proving programs correct is largely impractical and not relevant
+to Python software. Even trivial programs require proofs that are several pages
+long; the proof of correctness for a moderately complicated program would be
+enormous, and few or none of the programs you use daily (the Python interpreter,
+your XML parser, your web browser) could be proven correct.  Even if you wrote
+down or generated a proof, there would then be the question of verifying the
+proof; maybe there's an error in it, and you wrongly believe you've proved the
+program correct.
+
+
+Modularity
+----------
+
+A more practical benefit of functional programming is that it forces you to
+break apart your problem into small pieces.  Programs are more modular as a
+result.  It's easier to specify and write a small function that does one thing
+than a large function that performs a complicated transformation.  Small
+functions are also easier to read and to check for errors.
+
+
+Ease of debugging and testing
+-----------------------------
+
+Testing and debugging a functional-style program is easier.
+
+Debugging is simplified because functions are generally small and clearly
+specified.  When a program doesn't work, each function is an interface point
+where you can check that the data are correct.  You can look at the intermediate
+inputs and outputs to quickly isolate the function that's responsible for a bug.
+
+Testing is easier because each function is a potential subject for a unit test.
+Functions don't depend on system state that needs to be replicated before
+running a test; instead you only have to synthesize the right input and then
+check that the output matches expectations.
+
+
+Composability
+-------------
+
+As you work on a functional-style program, you'll write a number of functions
+with varying inputs and outputs.  Some of these functions will be unavoidably
+specialized to a particular application, but others will be useful in a wide
+variety of programs.  For example, a function that takes a directory path and
+returns all the XML files in the directory, or a function that takes a filename
+and returns its contents, can be applied to many different situations.
+
+Over time you'll form a personal library of utilities.  Often you'll assemble
+new programs by arranging existing functions in a new configuration and writing
+a few functions specialized for the current task.
+
+
+.. _functional-howto-iterators:
+
+Iterators
+=========
+
+I'll start by looking at a Python language feature that's an important
+foundation for writing functional-style programs: iterators.
+
+An iterator is an object representing a stream of data; this object returns the
+data one element at a time.  A Python iterator must support a method called
+:meth:`~iterator.__next__` that takes no arguments and always returns the next
+element of the stream.  If there are no more elements in the stream,
+:meth:`~iterator.__next__` must raise the :exc:`StopIteration` exception.
+Iterators don't have to be finite, though; it's perfectly reasonable to write
+an iterator that produces an infinite stream of data.
+
+The built-in :func:`iter` function takes an arbitrary object and tries to return
+an iterator that will return the object's contents or elements, raising
+:exc:`TypeError` if the object doesn't support iteration.  Several of Python's
+built-in data types support iteration, the most common being lists and
+dictionaries.  An object is called :term:`iterable` if you can get an iterator
+for it.
+
+You can experiment with the iteration interface manually:
+
+    >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
+    >>> it = iter(L)
+    >>> it  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+    <...iterator object at ...>
+    >>> it.__next__()  # same as next(it)
+    1
+    >>> next(it)
+    2
+    >>> next(it)
+    3
+    >>> next(it)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    StopIteration
+    >>>
+
+Python expects iterable objects in several different contexts, the most
+important being the :keyword:`for` statement.  In the statement ``for X in Y``,
+Y must be an iterator or some object for which :func:`iter` can create an
+iterator.  These two statements are equivalent::
+
+
+    for i in iter(obj):
+        print(i)
+
+    for i in obj:
+        print(i)
+
+Iterators can be materialized as lists or tuples by using the :func:`list` or
+:func:`tuple` constructor functions:
+
+    >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
+    >>> iterator = iter(L)
+    >>> t = tuple(iterator)
+    >>> t
+    (1, 2, 3)
+
+Sequence unpacking also supports iterators: if you know an iterator will return
+N elements, you can unpack them into an N-tuple:
+
+    >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
+    >>> iterator = iter(L)
+    >>> a, b, c = iterator
+    >>> a, b, c
+    (1, 2, 3)
+
+Built-in functions such as :func:`max` and :func:`min` can take a single
+iterator argument and will return the largest or smallest element.  The ``"in"``
+and ``"not in"`` operators also support iterators: ``X in iterator`` is true if
+X is found in the stream returned by the iterator.  You'll run into obvious
+problems if the iterator is infinite; :func:`max`, :func:`min`
+will never return, and if the element X never appears in the stream, the
+``"in"`` and ``"not in"`` operators won't return either.
+
+Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there's no way to get the
+previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.  Iterator objects
+can optionally provide these additional capabilities, but the iterator protocol
+only specifies the :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method.  Functions may therefore
+consume all of the iterator's output, and if you need to do something different
+with the same stream, you'll have to create a new iterator.
+
+
+
+Data Types That Support Iterators
+---------------------------------
+
+We've already seen how lists and tuples support iterators.  In fact, any Python
+sequence type, such as strings, will automatically support creation of an
+iterator.
+
+Calling :func:`iter` on a dictionary returns an iterator that will loop over the
+dictionary's keys::
+
+    >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
+    ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
+    >>> for key in m:
+    ...     print(key, m[key])
+    Jan 1
+    Feb 2
+    Mar 3
+    Apr 4
+    May 5
+    Jun 6
+    Jul 7
+    Aug 8
+    Sep 9
+    Oct 10
+    Nov 11
+    Dec 12
+
+Note that starting with Python 3.7, dictionary iteration order is guaranteed
+to be the same as the insertion order. In earlier versions, the behaviour was
+unspecified and could vary between implementations.
+
+Applying :func:`iter` to a dictionary always loops over the keys, but
+dictionaries have methods that return other iterators.  If you want to iterate
+over values or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the
+:meth:`~dict.values` or :meth:`~dict.items` methods to get an appropriate
+iterator.
+
+The :func:`dict` constructor can accept an iterator that returns a finite stream
+of ``(key, value)`` tuples:
+
+    >>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')]
+    >>> dict(iter(L))
+    {'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'}
+
+Files also support iteration by calling the :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.readline`
+method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can read each
+line of a file like this::
+
+    for line in file:
+        # do something for each line
+        ...
+
+Sets can take their contents from an iterable and let you iterate over the set's
+elements::
+
+    S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
+    for i in S:
+        print(i)
+
+
+
+Generator expressions and list comprehensions
+=============================================
+
+Two common operations on an iterator's output are 1) performing some operation
+for every element, 2) selecting a subset of elements that meet some condition.
+For example, given a list of strings, you might want to strip off trailing
+whitespace from each line or extract all the strings containing a given
+substring.
+
+List comprehensions and generator expressions (short form: "listcomps" and
+"genexps") are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from the
+functional programming language Haskell (https://www.haskell.org/).  You can strip
+all the whitespace from a stream of strings with the following code::
+
+    line_list = ['  line 1\n', 'line 2  \n', ...]
+
+    # Generator expression -- returns iterator
+    stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list)
+
+    # List comprehension -- returns list
+    stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list]
+
+You can select only certain elements by adding an ``"if"`` condition::
+
+    stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list
+                     if line != ""]
+
+With a list comprehension, you get back a Python list; ``stripped_list`` is a
+list containing the resulting lines, not an iterator.  Generator expressions
+return an iterator that computes the values as necessary, not needing to
+materialize all the values at once.  This means that list comprehensions aren't
+useful if you're working with iterators that return an infinite stream or a very
+large amount of data.  Generator expressions are preferable in these situations.
+
+Generator expressions are surrounded by parentheses ("()") and list
+comprehensions are surrounded by square brackets ("[]").  Generator expressions
+have the form::
+
+    ( expression for expr in sequence1
+                 if condition1
+                 for expr2 in sequence2
+                 if condition2
+                 for expr3 in sequence3 ...
+                 if condition3
+                 for exprN in sequenceN
+                 if conditionN )
+
+Again, for a list comprehension only the outside brackets are different (square
+brackets instead of parentheses).
+
+The elements of the generated output will be the successive values of
+``expression``.  The ``if`` clauses are all optional; if present, ``expression``
+is only evaluated and added to the result when ``condition`` is true.
+
+Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, but the
+parentheses signalling a function call also count.  If you want to create an
+iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you can write::
+
+    obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())
+
+The ``for...in`` clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
+sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are iterated over from
+left to right, **not** in parallel.  For each element in ``sequence1``,
+``sequence2`` is looped over from the beginning.  ``sequence3`` is then looped
+over for each resulting pair of elements from ``sequence1`` and ``sequence2``.
+
+To put it another way, a list comprehension or generator expression is
+equivalent to the following Python code::
+
+    for expr1 in sequence1:
+        if not (condition1):
+            continue   # Skip this element
+        for expr2 in sequence2:
+            if not (condition2):
+                continue   # Skip this element
+            ...
+            for exprN in sequenceN:
+                if not (conditionN):
+                    continue   # Skip this element
+
+                # Output the value of
+                # the expression.
+
+This means that when there are multiple ``for...in`` clauses but no ``if``
+clauses, the length of the resulting output will be equal to the product of the
+lengths of all the sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output
+list is 9 elements long:
+
+    >>> seq1 = 'abc'
+    >>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3)
+    >>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]  #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3),
+     ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3),
+     ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]
+
+To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python's grammar, if ``expression`` is
+creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first list
+comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is correct::
+
+    # Syntax error
+    [x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
+    # Correct
+    [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
+
+
+Generators
+==========
+
+Generators are a special class of functions that simplify the task of writing
+iterators.  Regular functions compute a value and return it, but generators
+return an iterator that returns a stream of values.
+
+You're doubtless familiar with how regular function calls work in Python or C.
+When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables
+are created.  When the function reaches a ``return`` statement, the local
+variables are destroyed and the value is returned to the caller.  A later call
+to the same function creates a new private namespace and a fresh set of local
+variables. But, what if the local variables weren't thrown away on exiting a
+function?  What if you could later resume the function where it left off?  This
+is what generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.
+
+Here's the simplest example of a generator function:
+
+    >>> def generate_ints(N):
+    ...    for i in range(N):
+    ...        yield i
+
+Any function containing a :keyword:`yield` keyword is a generator function;
+this is detected by Python's :term:`bytecode` compiler which compiles the
+function specially as a result.
+
+When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value; instead it
+returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol.  On executing
+the ``yield`` expression, the generator outputs the value of ``i``, similar to a
+``return`` statement.  The big difference between ``yield`` and a ``return``
+statement is that on reaching a ``yield`` the generator's state of execution is
+suspended and local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the
+generator's :meth:`~generator.__next__` method, the function will resume
+executing.
+
+Here's a sample usage of the ``generate_ints()`` generator:
+
+    >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
+    >>> gen  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+    <generator object generate_ints at ...>
+    >>> next(gen)
+    0
+    >>> next(gen)
+    1
+    >>> next(gen)
+    2
+    >>> next(gen)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "stdin", line 1, in <module>
+      File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
+    StopIteration
+
+You could equally write ``for i in generate_ints(5)``, or ``a, b, c =
+generate_ints(3)``.
+
+Inside a generator function, ``return value`` causes ``StopIteration(value)``
+to be raised from the :meth:`~generator.__next__` method.  Once this happens, or
+the bottom of the function is reached, the procession of values ends and the
+generator cannot yield any further values.
+
+You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class
+and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables.  For
+example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting ``self.count`` to
+0, and having the :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method increment ``self.count`` and
+return it.
+However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class
+can be much messier.
+
+The test suite included with Python's library,
+:source:`Lib/test/test_generators.py`, contains
+a number of more interesting examples.  Here's one generator that implements an
+in-order traversal of a tree using generators recursively. ::
+
+    # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
+    def inorder(t):
+        if t:
+            for x in inorder(t.left):
+                yield x
+
+            yield t.label
+
+            for x in inorder(t.right):
+                yield x
+
+Two other examples in ``test_generators.py`` produce solutions for the N-Queens
+problem (placing N queens on an NxN chess board so that no queen threatens
+another) and the Knight's Tour (finding a route that takes a knight to every
+square of an NxN chessboard without visiting any square twice).
+
+
+
+Passing values into a generator
+-------------------------------
+
+In Python 2.4 and earlier, generators only produced output.  Once a generator's
+code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to pass any new
+information into the function when its execution is resumed.  You could hack
+together this ability by making the generator look at a global variable or by
+passing in some mutable object that callers then modify, but these approaches
+are messy.
+
+In Python 2.5 there's a simple way to pass values into a generator.
+:keyword:`yield` became an expression, returning a value that can be assigned to
+a variable or otherwise operated on::
+
+    val = (yield i)
+
+I recommend that you **always** put parentheses around a ``yield`` expression
+when you're doing something with the returned value, as in the above example.
+The parentheses aren't always necessary, but it's easier to always add them
+instead of having to remember when they're needed.
+
+(:pep:`342` explains the exact rules, which are that a ``yield``-expression must
+always be parenthesized except when it occurs at the top-level expression on the
+right-hand side of an assignment.  This means you can write ``val = yield i``
+but have to use parentheses when there's an operation, as in ``val = (yield i)
++ 12``.)
+
+Values are sent into a generator by calling its :meth:`send(value)
+<generator.send>` method.  This method resumes the generator's code and the
+``yield`` expression returns the specified value.  If the regular
+:meth:`~generator.__next__` method is called, the ``yield`` returns ``None``.
+
+Here's a simple counter that increments by 1 and allows changing the value of
+the internal counter.
+
+.. testcode::
+
+    def counter(maximum):
+        i = 0
+        while i < maximum:
+            val = (yield i)
+            # If value provided, change counter
+            if val is not None:
+                i = val
+            else:
+                i += 1
+
+And here's an example of changing the counter:
+
+    >>> it = counter(10)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    >>> next(it)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    0
+    >>> next(it)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    1
+    >>> it.send(8)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    8
+    >>> next(it)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    9
+    >>> next(it)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "t.py", line 15, in <module>
+        it.next()
+    StopIteration
+
+Because ``yield`` will often be returning ``None``, you should always check for
+this case.  Don't just use its value in expressions unless you're sure that the
+:meth:`~generator.send` method will be the only method used to resume your
+generator function.
+
+In addition to :meth:`~generator.send`, there are two other methods on
+generators:
+
+* :meth:`throw(type, value=None, traceback=None) <generator.throw>` is used to
+  raise an exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
+  ``yield`` expression where the generator's execution is paused.
+
+* :meth:`~generator.close` raises a :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception inside the
+  generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this exception, the
+  generator's code must either raise :exc:`GeneratorExit` or
+  :exc:`StopIteration`; catching the exception and doing anything else is
+  illegal and will trigger a :exc:`RuntimeError`.  :meth:`~generator.close`
+  will also be called by Python's garbage collector when the generator is
+  garbage-collected.
+
+  If you need to run cleanup code when a :exc:`GeneratorExit` occurs, I suggest
+  using a ``try: ... finally:`` suite instead of catching :exc:`GeneratorExit`.
+
+The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from one-way
+producers of information into both producers and consumers.
+
+Generators also become **coroutines**, a more generalized form of subroutines.
+Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point (the top of the
+function, and a ``return`` statement), but coroutines can be entered, exited,
+and resumed at many different points (the ``yield`` statements).
+
+
+Built-in functions
+==================
+
+Let's look in more detail at built-in functions often used with iterators.
+
+Two of Python's built-in functions, :func:`map` and :func:`filter` duplicate the
+features of generator expressions:
+
+:func:`map(f, iterA, iterB, ...) <map>` returns an iterator over the sequence
+ ``f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2], iterB[2]), ...``.
+
+    >>> def upper(s):
+    ...     return s.upper()
+
+    >>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment']))
+    ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
+    >>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']]
+    ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
+
+You can of course achieve the same effect with a list comprehension.
+
+:func:`filter(predicate, iter) <filter>` returns an iterator over all the
+sequence elements that meet a certain condition, and is similarly duplicated by
+list comprehensions.  A **predicate** is a function that returns the truth
+value of some condition; for use with :func:`filter`, the predicate must take a
+single value.
+
+    >>> def is_even(x):
+    ...     return (x % 2) == 0
+
+    >>> list(filter(is_even, range(10)))
+    [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
+
+
+This can also be written as a list comprehension:
+
+    >>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x))
+    [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
+
+
+:func:`enumerate(iter, start=0) <enumerate>` counts off the elements in the
+iterable returning 2-tuples containing the count (from *start*) and
+each element. ::
+
+    >>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']):
+    ...     print(item)
+    (0, 'subject')
+    (1, 'verb')
+    (2, 'object')
+
+:func:`enumerate` is often used when looping through a list and recording the
+indexes at which certain conditions are met::
+
+    f = open('data.txt', 'r')
+    for i, line in enumerate(f):
+        if line.strip() == '':
+            print('Blank line at line #%i' % i)
+
+:func:`sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False) <sorted>` collects all the
+elements of the iterable into a list, sorts the list, and returns the sorted
+result.  The *key* and *reverse* arguments are passed through to the
+constructed list's :meth:`~list.sort` method. ::
+
+    >>> import random
+    >>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)
+    >>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8)
+    >>> rand_list  #doctest: +SKIP
+    [769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]
+    >>> sorted(rand_list)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    [769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]
+    >>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True)  #doctest: +SKIP
+    [9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]
+
+(For a more detailed discussion of sorting, see the :ref:`sortinghowto`.)
+
+
+The :func:`any(iter) <any>` and :func:`all(iter) <all>` built-ins look at the
+truth values of an iterable's contents.  :func:`any` returns ``True`` if any element
+in the iterable is a true value, and :func:`all` returns ``True`` if all of the
+elements are true values:
+
+    >>> any([0, 1, 0])
+    True
+    >>> any([0, 0, 0])
+    False
+    >>> any([1, 1, 1])
+    True
+    >>> all([0, 1, 0])
+    False
+    >>> all([0, 0, 0])
+    False
+    >>> all([1, 1, 1])
+    True
+
+
+:func:`zip(iterA, iterB, ...) <zip>` takes one element from each iterable and
+returns them in a tuple::
+
+    zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
+      ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)
+
+It doesn't construct an in-memory list and exhaust all the input iterators
+before returning; instead tuples are constructed and returned only if they're
+requested.  (The technical term for this behaviour is `lazy evaluation
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation>`__.)
+
+This iterator is intended to be used with iterables that are all of the same
+length.  If the iterables are of different lengths, the resulting stream will be
+the same length as the shortest iterable. ::
+
+    zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
+      ('a', 1), ('b', 2)
+
+You should avoid doing this, though, because an element may be taken from the
+longer iterators and discarded.  This means you can't go on to use the iterators
+further because you risk skipping a discarded element.
+
+
+The itertools module
+====================
+
+The :mod:`itertools` module contains a number of commonly-used iterators as well
+as functions for combining several iterators.  This section will introduce the
+module's contents by showing small examples.
+
+The module's functions fall into a few broad classes:
+
+* Functions that create a new iterator based on an existing iterator.
+* Functions for treating an iterator's elements as function arguments.
+* Functions for selecting portions of an iterator's output.
+* A function for grouping an iterator's output.
+
+Creating new iterators
+----------------------
+
+:func:`itertools.count(start, step) <itertools.count>` returns an infinite
+stream of evenly spaced values.  You can optionally supply the starting number,
+which defaults to 0, and the interval between numbers, which defaults to 1::
+
+    itertools.count() =>
+      0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
+    itertools.count(10) =>
+      10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
+    itertools.count(10, 5) =>
+      10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ...
+
+:func:`itertools.cycle(iter) <itertools.cycle>` saves a copy of the contents of
+a provided iterable and returns a new iterator that returns its elements from
+first to last.  The new iterator will repeat these elements infinitely. ::
+
+    itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
+      1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
+
+:func:`itertools.repeat(elem, [n]) <itertools.repeat>` returns the provided
+element *n* times, or returns the element endlessly if *n* is not provided. ::
+
+    itertools.repeat('abc') =>
+      abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ...
+    itertools.repeat('abc', 5) =>
+      abc, abc, abc, abc, abc
+
+:func:`itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...) <itertools.chain>` takes an arbitrary
+number of iterables as input, and returns all the elements of the first
+iterator, then all the elements of the second, and so on, until all of the
+iterables have been exhausted. ::
+
+    itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
+      a, b, c, 1, 2, 3
+
+:func:`itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]) <itertools.islice>` returns
+a stream that's a slice of the iterator.  With a single *stop* argument, it
+will return the first *stop* elements.  If you supply a starting index, you'll
+get *stop-start* elements, and if you supply a value for *step*, elements
+will be skipped accordingly.  Unlike Python's string and list slicing, you can't
+use negative values for *start*, *stop*, or *step*. ::
+
+    itertools.islice(range(10), 8) =>
+      0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
+    itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) =>
+      2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
+    itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) =>
+      2, 4, 6
+
+:func:`itertools.tee(iter, [n]) <itertools.tee>` replicates an iterator; it
+returns *n* independent iterators that will all return the contents of the
+source iterator.
+If you don't supply a value for *n*, the default is 2.  Replicating iterators
+requires saving some of the contents of the source iterator, so this can consume
+significant memory if the iterator is large and one of the new iterators is
+consumed more than the others. ::
+
+        itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) =>
+           iterA, iterB
+
+        where iterA ->
+           0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
+
+        and   iterB ->
+           0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
+
+
+Calling functions on elements
+-----------------------------
+
+The :mod:`operator` module contains a set of functions corresponding to Python's
+operators.  Some examples are :func:`operator.add(a, b) <operator.add>` (adds
+two values), :func:`operator.ne(a, b)  <operator.ne>` (same as ``a != b``), and
+:func:`operator.attrgetter('id') <operator.attrgetter>`
+(returns a callable that fetches the ``.id`` attribute).
+
+:func:`itertools.starmap(func, iter) <itertools.starmap>` assumes that the
+iterable will return a stream of tuples, and calls *func* using these tuples as
+the arguments::
+
+    itertools.starmap(os.path.join,
+                      [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'),
+                       ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')])
+    =>
+      /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby
+
+
+Selecting elements
+------------------
+
+Another group of functions chooses a subset of an iterator's elements based on a
+predicate.
+
+:func:`itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter) <itertools.filterfalse>` is the
+opposite of :func:`filter`, returning all elements for which the predicate
+returns false::
+
+    itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
+      1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...
+
+:func:`itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter) <itertools.takewhile>` returns
+elements for as long as the predicate returns true.  Once the predicate returns
+false, the iterator will signal the end of its results. ::
+
+    def less_than_10(x):
+        return x < 10
+
+    itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
+      0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
+
+    itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
+      0
+
+:func:`itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter) <itertools.dropwhile>` discards
+elements while the predicate returns true, and then returns the rest of the
+iterable's results. ::
+
+    itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
+      10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
+
+    itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
+      1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...
+
+:func:`itertools.compress(data, selectors) <itertools.compress>` takes two
+iterators and returns only those elements of *data* for which the corresponding
+element of *selectors* is true, stopping whenever either one is exhausted::
+
+    itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) =>
+       1, 2, 5
+
+
+Combinatoric functions
+----------------------
+
+The :func:`itertools.combinations(iterable, r) <itertools.combinations>`
+returns an iterator giving all possible *r*-tuple combinations of the
+elements contained in *iterable*.  ::
+
+    itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
+      (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
+      (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
+      (3, 4), (3, 5),
+      (4, 5)
+
+    itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) =>
+      (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5),
+      (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5),
+      (3, 4, 5)
+
+The elements within each tuple remain in the same order as
+*iterable* returned them.  For example, the number 1 is always before
+2, 3, 4, or 5 in the examples above.  A similar function,
+:func:`itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None) <itertools.permutations>`,
+removes this constraint on the order, returning all possible
+arrangements of length *r*::
+
+    itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
+      (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
+      (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
+      (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5),
+      (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5),
+      (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)
+
+    itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
+      (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5),
+      ...
+      (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)
+
+If you don't supply a value for *r* the length of the iterable is used,
+meaning that all the elements are permuted.
+
+Note that these functions produce all of the possible combinations by
+position and don't require that the contents of *iterable* are unique::
+
+    itertools.permutations('aba', 3) =>
+      ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'),
+      ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a')
+
+The identical tuple ``('a', 'a', 'b')`` occurs twice, but the two 'a'
+strings came from different positions.
+
+The :func:`itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r) <itertools.combinations_with_replacement>`
+function relaxes a different constraint: elements can be repeated
+within a single tuple.  Conceptually an element is selected for the
+first position of each tuple and then is replaced before the second
+element is selected.  ::
+
+    itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
+      (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
+      (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
+      (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
+      (4, 4), (4, 5),
+      (5, 5)
+
+
+Grouping elements
+-----------------
+
+The last function I'll discuss, :func:`itertools.groupby(iter, key_func=None)
+<itertools.groupby>`, is the most complicated.  ``key_func(elem)`` is a function
+that can compute a key value for each element returned by the iterable.  If you
+don't supply a key function, the key is simply each element itself.
+
+:func:`~itertools.groupby` collects all the consecutive elements from the
+underlying iterable that have the same key value, and returns a stream of
+2-tuples containing a key value and an iterator for the elements with that key.
+
+::
+
+    city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'),
+                 ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'),
+                 ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'),
+                 ...
+                ]
+
+    def get_state(city_state):
+        return city_state[1]
+
+    itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) =>
+      ('AL', iterator-1),
+      ('AK', iterator-2),
+      ('AZ', iterator-3), ...
+
+    where
+    iterator-1 =>
+      ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL')
+    iterator-2 =>
+      ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK')
+    iterator-3 =>
+      ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ')
+
+:func:`~itertools.groupby` assumes that the underlying iterable's contents will
+already be sorted based on the key.  Note that the returned iterators also use
+the underlying iterable, so you have to consume the results of iterator-1 before
+requesting iterator-2 and its corresponding key.
+
+
+The functools module
+====================
+
+The :mod:`functools` module in Python 2.5 contains some higher-order functions.
+A **higher-order function** takes one or more functions as input and returns a
+new function.  The most useful tool in this module is the
+:func:`functools.partial` function.
+
+For programs written in a functional style, you'll sometimes want to construct
+variants of existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in.
+Consider a Python function ``f(a, b, c)``; you may wish to create a new function
+``g(b, c)`` that's equivalent to ``f(1, b, c)``; you're filling in a value for
+one of ``f()``'s parameters.  This is called "partial function application".
+
+The constructor for :func:`~functools.partial` takes the arguments
+``(function, arg1, arg2, ..., kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)``.  The resulting
+object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke ``function`` with the
+filled-in arguments.
+
+Here's a small but realistic example::
+
+    import functools
+
+    def log(message, subsystem):
+        """Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."""
+        print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message))
+        ...
+
+    server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
+    server_log('Unable to open socket')
+
+:func:`functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]) <functools.reduce>`
+cumulatively performs an operation on all the iterable's elements and,
+therefore, can't be applied to infinite iterables. *func* must be a function
+that takes two elements and returns a single value.  :func:`functools.reduce`
+takes the first two elements A and B returned by the iterator and calculates
+``func(A, B)``.  It then requests the third element, C, calculates
+``func(func(A, B), C)``, combines this result with the fourth element returned,
+and continues until the iterable is exhausted.  If the iterable returns no
+values at all, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.  If the initial value is
+supplied, it's used as a starting point and ``func(initial_value, A)`` is the
+first calculation. ::
+
+    >>> import operator, functools
+    >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C'])
+    'ABBC'
+    >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
+    >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
+    6
+    >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
+    1
+
+If you use :func:`operator.add` with :func:`functools.reduce`, you'll add up all the
+elements of the iterable.  This case is so common that there's a special
+built-in called :func:`sum` to compute it:
+
+    >>> import functools, operator
+    >>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0)
+    10
+    >>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
+    10
+    >>> sum([])
+    0
+
+For many uses of :func:`functools.reduce`, though, it can be clearer to just
+write the obvious :keyword:`for` loop::
+
+   import functools
+   # Instead of:
+   product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
+
+   # You can write:
+   product = 1
+   for i in [1, 2, 3]:
+       product *= i
+
+A related function is :func:`itertools.accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add)
+<itertools.accumulate>`.  It performs the same calculation, but instead of
+returning only the final result, :func:`accumulate` returns an iterator that
+also yields each partial result::
+
+    itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
+      1, 3, 6, 10, 15
+
+    itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) =>
+      1, 2, 6, 24, 120
+
+
+The operator module
+-------------------
+
+The :mod:`operator` module was mentioned earlier.  It contains a set of
+functions corresponding to Python's operators.  These functions are often useful
+in functional-style code because they save you from writing trivial functions
+that perform a single operation.
+
+Some of the functions in this module are:
+
+* Math operations: ``add()``, ``sub()``, ``mul()``, ``floordiv()``, ``abs()``, ...
+* Logical operations: ``not_()``, ``truth()``.
+* Bitwise operations: ``and_()``, ``or_()``, ``invert()``.
+* Comparisons: ``eq()``, ``ne()``, ``lt()``, ``le()``, ``gt()``, and ``ge()``.
+* Object identity: ``is_()``, ``is_not()``.
+
+Consult the operator module's documentation for a complete list.
+
+
+Small functions and the lambda expression
+=========================================
+
+When writing functional-style programs, you'll often need little functions that
+act as predicates or that combine elements in some way.
+
+If there's a Python built-in or a module function that's suitable, you don't
+need to define a new function at all::
+
+    stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines]
+    existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list)
+
+If the function you need doesn't exist, you need to write it.  One way to write
+small functions is to use the :keyword:`lambda` expression.  ``lambda`` takes a
+number of parameters and an expression combining these parameters, and creates
+an anonymous function that returns the value of the expression::
+
+    adder = lambda x, y: x+y
+
+    print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value)
+
+An alternative is to just use the ``def`` statement and define a function in the
+usual way::
+
+    def adder(x, y):
+        return x + y
+
+    def print_assign(name, value):
+        return name + '=' + str(value)
+
+Which alternative is preferable?  That's a style question; my usual course is to
+avoid using ``lambda``.
+
+One reason for my preference is that ``lambda`` is quite limited in the
+functions it can define.  The result has to be computable as a single
+expression, which means you can't have multiway ``if... elif... else``
+comparisons or ``try... except`` statements.  If you try to do too much in a
+``lambda`` statement, you'll end up with an overly complicated expression that's
+hard to read.  Quick, what's the following code doing? ::
+
+    import functools
+    total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1]
+
+You can figure it out, but it takes time to disentangle the expression to figure
+out what's going on.  Using a short nested ``def`` statements makes things a
+little bit better::
+
+    import functools
+    def combine(a, b):
+        return 0, a[1] + b[1]
+
+    total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1]
+
+But it would be best of all if I had simply used a ``for`` loop::
+
+     total = 0
+     for a, b in items:
+         total += b
+
+Or the :func:`sum` built-in and a generator expression::
+
+     total = sum(b for a, b in items)
+
+Many uses of :func:`functools.reduce` are clearer when written as ``for`` loops.
+
+Fredrik Lundh once suggested the following set of rules for refactoring uses of
+``lambda``:
+
+1. Write a lambda function.
+2. Write a comment explaining what the heck that lambda does.
+3. Study the comment for a while, and think of a name that captures the essence
+   of the comment.
+4. Convert the lambda to a def statement, using that name.
+5. Remove the comment.
+
+I really like these rules, but you're free to disagree
+about whether this lambda-free style is better.
+
+
+Revision History and Acknowledgements
+=====================================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Ian Bicking,
+Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond Hettinger, Jim Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro
+Lameiro, Jussi Salmela, Collin Winter, Blake Winton.
+
+Version 0.1: posted June 30 2006.
+
+Version 0.11: posted July 1 2006.  Typo fixes.
+
+Version 0.2: posted July 10 2006.  Merged genexp and listcomp sections into one.
+Typo fixes.
+
+Version 0.21: Added more references suggested on the tutor mailing list.
+
+Version 0.30: Adds a section on the ``functional`` module written by Collin
+Winter; adds short section on the operator module; a few other edits.
+
+
+References
+==========
+
+General
+-------
+
+**Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs**, by Harold Abelson and
+Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman.  Full text at
+https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/.  In this classic textbook of computer science,
+chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to organize the data
+flow inside a program.  The book uses Scheme for its examples, but many of the
+design approaches described in these chapters are applicable to functional-style
+Python code.
+
+http://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html: A general introduction to functional
+programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy historical introduction.
+
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming: General Wikipedia entry
+describing functional programming.
+
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine: Entry for coroutines.
+
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying: Entry for the concept of currying.
+
+Python-specific
+---------------
+
+http://gnosis.cx/TPiP/: The first chapter of David Mertz's book
+:title-reference:`Text Processing in Python` discusses functional programming
+for text processing, in the section titled "Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in
+Text Processing".
+
+Mertz also wrote a 3-part series of articles on functional programming
+for IBM's DeveloperWorks site; see
+`part 1 <https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-prog/index.html>`__,
+`part 2 <https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-prog2/index.html>`__, and
+`part 3 <https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-prog3/index.html>`__,
+
+
+Python documentation
+--------------------
+
+Documentation for the :mod:`itertools` module.
+
+Documentation for the :mod:`functools` module.
+
+Documentation for the :mod:`operator` module.
+
+:pep:`289`: "Generator Expressions"
+
+:pep:`342`: "Coroutines via Enhanced Generators" describes the new generator
+features in Python 2.5.
+
+.. comment
+
+    Handy little function for printing part of an iterator -- used
+    while writing this document.
+
+    import itertools
+    def print_iter(it):
+         slice = itertools.islice(it, 10)
+         for elem in slice[:-1]:
+             sys.stdout.write(str(elem))
+             sys.stdout.write(', ')
+        print(elem[-1])
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..593341c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+***************
+ Python HOWTOs
+***************
+
+Python HOWTOs are documents that cover a single, specific topic,
+and attempt to cover it fairly completely. Modelled on the Linux
+Documentation Project's HOWTO collection, this collection is an
+effort to foster documentation that's more detailed than the
+Python Library Reference.
+
+Currently, the HOWTOs are:
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 1
+
+   pyporting.rst
+   cporting.rst
+   curses.rst
+   descriptor.rst
+   functional.rst
+   logging.rst
+   logging-cookbook.rst
+   regex.rst
+   sockets.rst
+   sorting.rst
+   unicode.rst
+   urllib2.rst
+   argparse.rst
+   ipaddress.rst
+   clinic.rst
+   instrumentation.rst
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/instrumentation.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/instrumentation.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50cde35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/instrumentation.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,427 @@
+.. highlight:: shell-session
+
+.. _instrumentation:
+
+===============================================
+Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap
+===============================================
+
+:author: David Malcolm
+:author: Łukasz Langa
+
+DTrace and SystemTap are monitoring tools, each providing a way to inspect
+what the processes on a computer system are doing.  They both use
+domain-specific languages allowing a user to write scripts which:
+
+  - filter which processes are to be observed
+  - gather data from the processes of interest
+  - generate reports on the data
+
+As of Python 3.6, CPython can be built with embedded "markers", also
+known as "probes", that can be observed by a DTrace or SystemTap script,
+making it easier to monitor what the CPython processes on a system are
+doing.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   DTrace markers are implementation details of the CPython interpreter.
+   No guarantees are made about probe compatibility between versions of
+   CPython. DTrace scripts can stop working or work incorrectly without
+   warning when changing CPython versions.
+
+
+Enabling the static markers
+---------------------------
+
+macOS comes with built-in support for DTrace.  On Linux, in order to
+build CPython with the embedded markers for SystemTap, the SystemTap
+development tools must be installed.
+
+On a Linux machine, this can be done via::
+
+   $ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel
+
+or::
+
+   $ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev
+
+
+CPython must then be configured ``--with-dtrace``:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   checking for --with-dtrace... yes
+
+On macOS, you can list available DTrace probes by running a Python
+process in the background and listing all probes made available by the
+Python provider::
+
+   $ python3.6 -q &
+   $ sudo dtrace -l -P python$!  # or: dtrace -l -m python3.6
+
+      ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME
+   29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry
+   29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry
+   29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return
+   29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return
+   29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done
+   29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start
+   29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line
+   29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line
+
+On Linux, you can verify if the SystemTap static markers are present in
+the built binary by seeing if it contains a ".note.stapsdt" section.
+
+::
+
+   $ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt
+   [30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78
+
+If you've built Python as a shared library (with --enable-shared), you
+need to look instead within the shared library.  For example::
+
+   $ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt
+   [29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68
+
+Sufficiently modern readelf can print the metadata::
+
+    $ readelf -n ./python
+
+    Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:
+        Owner                 Data size          Description
+        GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)
+            OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32
+
+    Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:
+        Owner                 Data size          Description
+        GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)
+            Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670
+
+    Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:
+        Owner                 Data size          Description
+        stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
+            Provider: python
+            Name: gc__start
+            Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6
+            Arguments: -4@%ebx
+        stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
+            Provider: python
+            Name: gc__done
+            Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8
+            Arguments: -8@%rax
+        stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
+            Provider: python
+            Name: function__entry
+            Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8
+            Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
+        stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
+            Provider: python
+            Name: function__return
+            Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea
+            Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
+
+The above metadata contains information for SystemTap describing how it
+can patch strategically-placed machine code instructions to enable the
+tracing hooks used by a SystemTap script.
+
+
+Static DTrace probes
+--------------------
+
+The following example DTrace script can be used to show the call/return
+hierarchy of a Python script, only tracing within the invocation of
+a function called "start". In other words, import-time function
+invocations are not going to be listed:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    self int indent;
+
+    python$target:::function-entry
+    /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
+    {
+            self->trace = 1;
+    }
+
+    python$target:::function-entry
+    /self->trace/
+    {
+            printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
+            printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
+            printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
+            self->indent++;
+    }
+
+    python$target:::function-return
+    /self->trace/
+    {
+            self->indent--;
+            printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
+            printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
+            printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
+    }
+
+    python$target:::function-return
+    /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
+    {
+            self->trace = 0;
+    }
+
+It can be invoked like this::
+
+  $ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py"
+
+The output looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
+    156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
+    156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
+    156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
+    156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
+    156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
+    156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
+    156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
+    156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
+    156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
+    156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
+    156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
+    156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
+    156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
+    156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
+    156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
+    156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
+    156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28
+
+
+Static SystemTap markers
+------------------------
+
+The low-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use the static
+markers directly.  This requires you to explicitly state the binary file
+containing them.
+
+For example, this SystemTap script can be used to show the call/return
+hierarchy of a Python script:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
+        filename = user_string($arg1);
+        funcname = user_string($arg2);
+        lineno = $arg3;
+
+        printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n",
+               thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+   }
+
+   probe process("python").mark("function__return") {
+       filename = user_string($arg1);
+       funcname = user_string($arg2);
+       lineno = $arg3;
+
+       printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n",
+              thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+   }
+
+It can be invoked like this::
+
+   $ stap \
+     show-call-hierarchy.stp \
+     -c "./python test.py"
+
+The output looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   11408 python(8274):        => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
+   11414 python(8274):         => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
+   11418 python(8274):          => encode in Lib/os.py:490
+   11424 python(8274):          <= encode in Lib/os.py:493
+   11428 python(8274):         <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
+   11433 python(8274):        <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366
+
+where the columns are:
+
+  - time in microseconds since start of script
+
+  - name of executable
+
+  - PID of process
+
+and the remainder indicates the call/return hierarchy as the script executes.
+
+For a `--enable-shared` build of CPython, the markers are contained within the
+libpython shared library, and the probe's dotted path needs to reflect this. For
+example, this line from the above example:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
+
+should instead read:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") {
+
+(assuming a debug build of CPython 3.6)
+
+
+Available static markers
+------------------------
+
+.. I'm reusing the "c:function" type for markers
+
+.. c:function:: function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)
+
+   This marker indicates that execution of a Python function has begun.
+   It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.
+
+   The filename, function name, and line number are provided back to the
+   tracing script as positional arguments, which must be accessed using
+   ``$arg1``, ``$arg2``, ``$arg3``:
+
+       * ``$arg1`` : ``(const char *)`` filename, accessible using ``user_string($arg1)``
+
+       * ``$arg2`` : ``(const char *)`` function name, accessible using
+         ``user_string($arg2)``
+
+       * ``$arg3`` : ``int`` line number
+
+.. c:function:: function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)
+
+   This marker is the converse of :c:func:`function__entry`, and indicates that
+   execution of a Python function has ended (either via ``return``, or via an
+   exception).  It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.
+
+   The arguments are the same as for :c:func:`function__entry`
+
+.. c:function:: line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)
+
+   This marker indicates a Python line is about to be executed.  It is
+   the equivalent of line-by-line tracing with a Python profiler.  It is
+   not triggered within C functions.
+
+   The arguments are the same as for :c:func:`function__entry`.
+
+.. c:function:: gc__start(int generation)
+
+   Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection cycle.
+   ``arg0`` is the generation to scan, like :func:`gc.collect()`.
+
+.. c:function:: gc__done(long collected)
+
+   Fires when the Python interpreter finishes a garbage collection
+   cycle. ``arg0`` is the number of collected objects.
+
+.. c:function:: import__find__load__start(str modulename)
+
+   Fires before :mod:`importlib` attempts to find and load the module.
+   ``arg0`` is the module name.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. c:function:: import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found)
+
+   Fires after :mod:`importlib`'s find_and_load function is called.
+   ``arg0`` is the module name, ``arg1`` indicates if module was
+   successfully loaded.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+SystemTap Tapsets
+-----------------
+
+The higher-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use a "tapset":
+SystemTap's equivalent of a library, which hides some of the lower-level
+details of the static markers.
+
+Here is a tapset file, based on a non-shared build of CPython:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    /*
+       Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and
+       function__return markers:
+     \*/
+    probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry")
+    {
+        filename = user_string($arg1);
+        funcname = user_string($arg2);
+        lineno = $arg3;
+        frameptr = $arg4
+    }
+    probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return")
+    {
+        filename = user_string($arg1);
+        funcname = user_string($arg2);
+        lineno = $arg3;
+        frameptr = $arg4
+    }
+
+If this file is installed in SystemTap's tapset directory (e.g.
+``/usr/share/systemtap/tapset``), then these additional probepoints become
+available:
+
+.. c:function:: python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno, frameptr)
+
+   This probe point indicates that execution of a Python function has begun.
+   It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.
+
+.. c:function:: python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno, frameptr)
+
+   This probe point is the converse of :c:func:`python.function.return`, and
+   indicates that execution of a Python function has ended (either via
+   ``return``, or via an exception).  It is only triggered for pure-Python
+   (bytecode) functions.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+This SystemTap script uses the tapset above to more cleanly implement the
+example given above of tracing the Python function-call hierarchy, without
+needing to directly name the static markers:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    probe python.function.entry
+    {
+      printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n",
+             thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+    }
+
+    probe python.function.return
+    {
+      printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n",
+             thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+    }
+
+
+The following script uses the tapset above to provide a top-like view of all
+running CPython code, showing the top 20 most frequently-entered bytecode
+frames, each second, across the whole system:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    global fn_calls;
+
+    probe python.function.entry
+    {
+        fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
+    }
+
+    probe timer.ms(1000) {
+        printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/
+        printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n",
+               "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS")
+        foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
+            printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n",
+                pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
+                fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
+        }
+        delete fn_calls;
+    }
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/ipaddress.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/ipaddress.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..452e367
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/ipaddress.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,340 @@
+.. testsetup::
+
+   import ipaddress
+
+.. _ipaddress-howto:
+
+***************************************
+An introduction to the ipaddress module
+***************************************
+
+:author: Peter Moody
+:author: Nick Coghlan
+
+.. topic:: Overview
+
+   This document aims to provide a gentle introduction to the
+   :mod:`ipaddress` module. It is aimed primarily at users that aren't
+   already familiar with IP networking terminology, but may also be useful
+   to network engineers wanting an overview of how :mod:`ipaddress`
+   represents IP network addressing concepts.
+
+
+Creating Address/Network/Interface objects
+==========================================
+
+Since :mod:`ipaddress` is a module for inspecting and manipulating IP addresses,
+the first thing you'll want to do is create some objects.  You can use
+:mod:`ipaddress` to create objects from strings and integers.
+
+
+A Note on IP Versions
+---------------------
+
+For readers that aren't particularly familiar with IP addressing, it's
+important to know that the Internet Protocol is currently in the process
+of moving from version 4 of the protocol to version 6. This transition is
+occurring largely because version 4 of the protocol doesn't provide enough
+addresses to handle the needs of the whole world, especially given the
+increasing number of devices with direct connections to the internet.
+
+Explaining the details of the differences between the two versions of the
+protocol is beyond the scope of this introduction, but readers need to at
+least be aware that these two versions exist, and it will sometimes be
+necessary to force the use of one version or the other.
+
+
+IP Host Addresses
+-----------------
+
+Addresses, often referred to as "host addresses" are the most basic unit
+when working with IP addressing. The simplest way to create addresses is
+to use the :func:`ipaddress.ip_address` factory function, which automatically
+determines whether to create an IPv4 or IPv6 address based on the passed in
+value:
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1')
+   IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
+
+Addresses can also be created directly from integers. Values that will
+fit within 32 bits are assumed to be IPv4 addresses::
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561)
+   IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
+
+To force the use of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, the relevant classes can be
+invoked directly. This is particularly useful to force creation of IPv6
+addresses for small integers::
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1)
+   IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1)
+   IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1)
+   IPv6Address('::1')
+
+
+Defining Networks
+-----------------
+
+Host addresses are usually grouped together into IP networks, so
+:mod:`ipaddress` provides a way to create, inspect and manipulate network
+definitions. IP network objects are constructed from strings that define the
+range of host addresses that are part of that network. The simplest form
+for that information is a "network address/network prefix" pair, where the
+prefix defines the number of leading bits that are compared to determine
+whether or not an address is part of the network and the network address
+defines the expected value of those bits.
+
+As for addresses, a factory function is provided that determines the correct
+IP version automatically::
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
+   IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
+   IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')
+
+Network objects cannot have any host bits set.  The practical effect of this
+is that ``192.0.2.1/24`` does not describe a network.  Such definitions are
+referred to as interface objects since the ip-on-a-network notation is
+commonly used to describe network interfaces of a computer on a given network
+and are described further in the next section.
+
+By default, attempting to create a network object with host bits set will
+result in :exc:`ValueError` being raised. To request that the
+additional bits instead be coerced to zero, the flag ``strict=False`` can
+be passed to the constructor::
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+   ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False)
+   IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
+
+While the string form offers significantly more flexibility, networks can
+also be defined with integers, just like host addresses. In this case, the
+network is considered to contain only the single address identified by the
+integer, so the network prefix includes the entire network address::
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984)
+   IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560)
+   IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128')
+
+As with addresses, creation of a particular kind of network can be forced
+by calling the class constructor directly instead of using the factory
+function.
+
+
+Host Interfaces
+---------------
+
+As mentioned just above, if you need to describe an address on a particular
+network, neither the address nor the network classes are sufficient.
+Notation like ``192.0.2.1/24`` is commonly used by network engineers and the
+people who write tools for firewalls and routers as shorthand for "the host
+``192.0.2.1`` on the network ``192.0.2.0/24``", Accordingly, :mod:`ipaddress`
+provides a set of hybrid classes that associate an address with a particular
+network. The interface for creation is identical to that for defining network
+objects, except that the address portion isn't constrained to being a network
+address.
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
+   IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24')
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
+   IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96')
+
+Integer inputs are accepted (as with networks), and use of a particular IP
+version can be forced by calling the relevant constructor directly.
+
+
+Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects
+============================================
+
+You've gone to the trouble of creating an IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface)
+object, so you probably want to get information about it.  :mod:`ipaddress`
+tries to make doing this easy and intuitive.
+
+Extracting the IP version::
+
+   >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
+   >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1')
+   >>> addr6.version
+   6
+   >>> addr4.version
+   4
+
+Obtaining the network from an interface::
+
+   >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
+   >>> host4.network
+   IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
+   >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
+   >>> host6.network
+   IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')
+
+Finding out how many individual addresses are in a network::
+
+   >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
+   >>> net4.num_addresses
+   256
+   >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
+   >>> net6.num_addresses
+   4294967296
+
+Iterating through the "usable" addresses on a network::
+
+   >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
+   >>> for x in net4.hosts():
+   ...     print(x)  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+   192.0.2.1
+   192.0.2.2
+   192.0.2.3
+   192.0.2.4
+   ...
+   192.0.2.252
+   192.0.2.253
+   192.0.2.254
+
+
+Obtaining the netmask (i.e. set bits corresponding to the network prefix) or
+the hostmask (any bits that are not part of the netmask):
+
+   >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
+   >>> net4.netmask
+   IPv4Address('255.255.255.0')
+   >>> net4.hostmask
+   IPv4Address('0.0.0.255')
+   >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
+   >>> net6.netmask
+   IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::')
+   >>> net6.hostmask
+   IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff')
+
+
+Exploding or compressing the address::
+
+   >>> addr6.exploded
+   '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001'
+   >>> addr6.compressed
+   '2001:db8::1'
+   >>> net6.exploded
+   '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96'
+   >>> net6.compressed
+   '2001:db8::/96'
+
+While IPv4 doesn't support explosion or compression, the associated objects
+still provide the relevant properties so that version neutral code can
+easily ensure the most concise or most verbose form is used for IPv6
+addresses while still correctly handling IPv4 addresses.
+
+
+Networks as lists of Addresses
+==============================
+
+It's sometimes useful to treat networks as lists.  This means it is possible
+to index them like this::
+
+   >>> net4[1]
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
+   >>> net4[-1]
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.255')
+   >>> net6[1]
+   IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
+   >>> net6[-1]
+   IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff')
+
+
+It also means that network objects lend themselves to using the list
+membership test syntax like this::
+
+   if address in network:
+       # do something
+
+Containment testing is done efficiently based on the network prefix::
+
+   >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
+   >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
+   True
+   >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24')
+   False
+
+
+Comparisons
+===========
+
+:mod:`ipaddress` provides some simple, hopefully intuitive ways to compare
+objects, where it makes sense::
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2')
+   True
+
+A :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised if you try to compare objects of
+different versions or different types.
+
+
+Using IP Addresses with other modules
+=====================================
+
+Other modules that use IP addresses (such as :mod:`socket`) usually won't
+accept objects from this module directly. Instead, they must be coerced to
+an integer or string that the other module will accept::
+
+   >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
+   >>> str(addr4)
+   '192.0.2.1'
+   >>> int(addr4)
+   3221225985
+
+
+Getting more detail when instance creation fails
+================================================
+
+When creating address/network/interface objects using the version-agnostic
+factory functions, any errors will be reported as :exc:`ValueError` with
+a generic error message that simply says the passed in value was not
+recognized as an object of that type. The lack of a specific error is
+because it's necessary to know whether the value is *supposed* to be IPv4
+or IPv6 in order to provide more detail on why it has been rejected.
+
+To support use cases where it is useful to have access to this additional
+detail, the individual class constructors actually raise the
+:exc:`ValueError` subclasses :exc:`ipaddress.AddressValueError` and
+:exc:`ipaddress.NetmaskValueError` to indicate exactly which part of
+the definition failed to parse correctly.
+
+The error messages are significantly more detailed when using the
+class constructors directly. For example::
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256")
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256")
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256'
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64")
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64")
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask
+
+However, both of the module specific exceptions have :exc:`ValueError` as their
+parent class, so if you're not concerned with the particular type of error,
+you can still write code like the following::
+
+   try:
+       network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address)
+   except ValueError:
+       print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/logging-cookbook.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/logging-cookbook.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..105ae5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/logging-cookbook.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2551 @@
+.. _logging-cookbook:
+
+================
+Logging Cookbook
+================
+
+:Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>
+
+This page contains a number of recipes related to logging, which have been found
+useful in the past.
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+Using logging in multiple modules
+---------------------------------
+
+Multiple calls to ``logging.getLogger('someLogger')`` return a reference to the
+same logger object.  This is true not only within the same module, but also
+across modules as long as it is in the same Python interpreter process.  It is
+true for references to the same object; additionally, application code can
+define and configure a parent logger in one module and create (but not
+configure) a child logger in a separate module, and all logger calls to the
+child will pass up to the parent.  Here is a main module::
+
+    import logging
+    import auxiliary_module
+
+    # create logger with 'spam_application'
+    logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application')
+    logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+    # create file handler which logs even debug messages
+    fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
+    fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+    # create console handler with a higher log level
+    ch = logging.StreamHandler()
+    ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
+    # create formatter and add it to the handlers
+    formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
+    fh.setFormatter(formatter)
+    ch.setFormatter(formatter)
+    # add the handlers to the logger
+    logger.addHandler(fh)
+    logger.addHandler(ch)
+
+    logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
+    a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary()
+    logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
+    logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
+    a.do_something()
+    logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
+    logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()')
+    auxiliary_module.some_function()
+    logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()')
+
+Here is the auxiliary module::
+
+    import logging
+
+    # create logger
+    module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary')
+
+    class Auxiliary:
+        def __init__(self):
+            self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary')
+            self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary')
+
+        def do_something(self):
+            self.logger.info('doing something')
+            a = 1 + 1
+            self.logger.info('done doing something')
+
+    def some_function():
+        module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"')
+
+The output looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
+       creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
+       creating an instance of Auxiliary
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
+       created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
+       calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
+       doing something
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
+       done doing something
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
+       finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
+       calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
+       received a call to 'some_function'
+    2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
+       done with auxiliary_module.some_function()
+
+Logging from multiple threads
+-----------------------------
+
+Logging from multiple threads requires no special effort. The following example
+shows logging from the main (initial) thread and another thread::
+
+    import logging
+    import threading
+    import time
+
+    def worker(arg):
+        while not arg['stop']:
+            logging.debug('Hi from myfunc')
+            time.sleep(0.5)
+
+    def main():
+        logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s')
+        info = {'stop': False}
+        thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,))
+        thread.start()
+        while True:
+            try:
+                logging.debug('Hello from main')
+                time.sleep(0.75)
+            except KeyboardInterrupt:
+                info['stop'] = True
+                break
+        thread.join()
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        main()
+
+When run, the script should print something like the following:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+     0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+     3 MainThread Hello from main
+   505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+   755 MainThread Hello from main
+  1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+  1507 MainThread Hello from main
+  1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+  2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+  2258 MainThread Hello from main
+  2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+  3009 MainThread Hello from main
+  3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+  3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+  3761 MainThread Hello from main
+  4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+  4513 MainThread Hello from main
+  4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+
+This shows the logging output interspersed as one might expect. This approach
+works for more threads than shown here, of course.
+
+Multiple handlers and formatters
+--------------------------------
+
+Loggers are plain Python objects.  The :meth:`~Logger.addHandler` method has no
+minimum or maximum quota for the number of handlers you may add.  Sometimes it
+will be beneficial for an application to log all messages of all severities to a
+text file while simultaneously logging errors or above to the console.  To set
+this up, simply configure the appropriate handlers.  The logging calls in the
+application code will remain unchanged.  Here is a slight modification to the
+previous simple module-based configuration example::
+
+    import logging
+
+    logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
+    logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+    # create file handler which logs even debug messages
+    fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
+    fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+    # create console handler with a higher log level
+    ch = logging.StreamHandler()
+    ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
+    # create formatter and add it to the handlers
+    formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
+    ch.setFormatter(formatter)
+    fh.setFormatter(formatter)
+    # add the handlers to logger
+    logger.addHandler(ch)
+    logger.addHandler(fh)
+
+    # 'application' code
+    logger.debug('debug message')
+    logger.info('info message')
+    logger.warning('warn message')
+    logger.error('error message')
+    logger.critical('critical message')
+
+Notice that the 'application' code does not care about multiple handlers.  All
+that changed was the addition and configuration of a new handler named *fh*.
+
+The ability to create new handlers with higher- or lower-severity filters can be
+very helpful when writing and testing an application.  Instead of using many
+``print`` statements for debugging, use ``logger.debug``: Unlike the print
+statements, which you will have to delete or comment out later, the logger.debug
+statements can remain intact in the source code and remain dormant until you
+need them again.  At that time, the only change that needs to happen is to
+modify the severity level of the logger and/or handler to debug.
+
+.. _multiple-destinations:
+
+Logging to multiple destinations
+--------------------------------
+
+Let's say you want to log to console and file with different message formats and
+in differing circumstances. Say you want to log messages with levels of DEBUG
+and higher to file, and those messages at level INFO and higher to the console.
+Let's also assume that the file should contain timestamps, but the console
+messages should not. Here's how you can achieve this::
+
+   import logging
+
+   # set up logging to file - see previous section for more details
+   logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
+                       format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s',
+                       datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M',
+                       filename='/temp/myapp.log',
+                       filemode='w')
+   # define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr
+   console = logging.StreamHandler()
+   console.setLevel(logging.INFO)
+   # set a format which is simpler for console use
+   formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
+   # tell the handler to use this format
+   console.setFormatter(formatter)
+   # add the handler to the root logger
+   logging.getLogger('').addHandler(console)
+
+   # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
+   logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')
+
+   # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
+   # application:
+
+   logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
+   logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')
+
+   logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
+   logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
+   logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
+   logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')
+
+When you run this, on the console you will see
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
+   myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
+   myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
+   myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.
+
+and in the file you will see something like
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
+   10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
+   10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
+   10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
+   10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.
+
+As you can see, the DEBUG message only shows up in the file. The other messages
+are sent to both destinations.
+
+This example uses console and file handlers, but you can use any number and
+combination of handlers you choose.
+
+
+Configuration server example
+----------------------------
+
+Here is an example of a module using the logging configuration server::
+
+    import logging
+    import logging.config
+    import time
+    import os
+
+    # read initial config file
+    logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')
+
+    # create and start listener on port 9999
+    t = logging.config.listen(9999)
+    t.start()
+
+    logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')
+
+    try:
+        # loop through logging calls to see the difference
+        # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed
+        while True:
+            logger.debug('debug message')
+            logger.info('info message')
+            logger.warning('warn message')
+            logger.error('error message')
+            logger.critical('critical message')
+            time.sleep(5)
+    except KeyboardInterrupt:
+        # cleanup
+        logging.config.stopListening()
+        t.join()
+
+And here is a script that takes a filename and sends that file to the server,
+properly preceded with the binary-encoded length, as the new logging
+configuration::
+
+    #!/usr/bin/env python
+    import socket, sys, struct
+
+    with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f:
+        data_to_send = f.read()
+
+    HOST = 'localhost'
+    PORT = 9999
+    s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+    print('connecting...')
+    s.connect((HOST, PORT))
+    print('sending config...')
+    s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send)))
+    s.send(data_to_send)
+    s.close()
+    print('complete')
+
+
+Dealing with handlers that block
+--------------------------------
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging.handlers
+
+Sometimes you have to get your logging handlers to do their work without
+blocking the thread you're logging from. This is common in Web applications,
+though of course it also occurs in other scenarios.
+
+A common culprit which demonstrates sluggish behaviour is the
+:class:`SMTPHandler`: sending emails can take a long time, for a
+number of reasons outside the developer's control (for example, a poorly
+performing mail or network infrastructure). But almost any network-based
+handler can block: Even a :class:`SocketHandler` operation may do a
+DNS query under the hood which is too slow (and this query can be deep in the
+socket library code, below the Python layer, and outside your control).
+
+One solution is to use a two-part approach. For the first part, attach only a
+:class:`QueueHandler` to those loggers which are accessed from
+performance-critical threads. They simply write to their queue, which can be
+sized to a large enough capacity or initialized with no upper bound to their
+size. The write to the queue will typically be accepted quickly, though you
+will probably need to catch the :exc:`queue.Full` exception as a precaution
+in your code. If you are a library developer who has performance-critical
+threads in their code, be sure to document this (together with a suggestion to
+attach only ``QueueHandlers`` to your loggers) for the benefit of other
+developers who will use your code.
+
+The second part of the solution is :class:`QueueListener`, which has been
+designed as the counterpart to :class:`QueueHandler`.  A
+:class:`QueueListener` is very simple: it's passed a queue and some handlers,
+and it fires up an internal thread which listens to its queue for LogRecords
+sent from ``QueueHandlers`` (or any other source of ``LogRecords``, for that
+matter). The ``LogRecords`` are removed from the queue and passed to the
+handlers for processing.
+
+The advantage of having a separate :class:`QueueListener` class is that you
+can use the same instance to service multiple ``QueueHandlers``. This is more
+resource-friendly than, say, having threaded versions of the existing handler
+classes, which would eat up one thread per handler for no particular benefit.
+
+An example of using these two classes follows (imports omitted)::
+
+    que = queue.Queue(-1)  # no limit on size
+    queue_handler = QueueHandler(que)
+    handler = logging.StreamHandler()
+    listener = QueueListener(que, handler)
+    root = logging.getLogger()
+    root.addHandler(queue_handler)
+    formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s')
+    handler.setFormatter(formatter)
+    listener.start()
+    # The log output will display the thread which generated
+    # the event (the main thread) rather than the internal
+    # thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what
+    # you want to happen.
+    root.warning('Look out!')
+    listener.stop()
+
+which, when run, will produce:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    MainThread: Look out!
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Prior to Python 3.5, the :class:`QueueListener` always passed every message
+   received from the queue to every handler it was initialized with. (This was
+   because it was assumed that level filtering was all done on the other side,
+   where the queue is filled.) From 3.5 onwards, this behaviour can be changed
+   by passing a keyword argument ``respect_handler_level=True`` to the
+   listener's constructor. When this is done, the listener compares the level
+   of each message with the handler's level, and only passes a message to a
+   handler if it's appropriate to do so.
+
+.. _network-logging:
+
+Sending and receiving logging events across a network
+-----------------------------------------------------
+
+Let's say you want to send logging events across a network, and handle them at
+the receiving end. A simple way of doing this is attaching a
+:class:`SocketHandler` instance to the root logger at the sending end::
+
+   import logging, logging.handlers
+
+   rootLogger = logging.getLogger('')
+   rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+   socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
+                       logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
+   # don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as
+   # an unformatted pickle
+   rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler)
+
+   # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
+   logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')
+
+   # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
+   # application:
+
+   logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
+   logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')
+
+   logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
+   logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
+   logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
+   logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')
+
+At the receiving end, you can set up a receiver using the :mod:`socketserver`
+module. Here is a basic working example::
+
+   import pickle
+   import logging
+   import logging.handlers
+   import socketserver
+   import struct
+
+
+   class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
+       """Handler for a streaming logging request.
+
+       This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is
+       configured locally.
+       """
+
+       def handle(self):
+           """
+           Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,
+           followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record
+           according to whatever policy is configured locally.
+           """
+           while True:
+               chunk = self.connection.recv(4)
+               if len(chunk) < 4:
+                   break
+               slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0]
+               chunk = self.connection.recv(slen)
+               while len(chunk) < slen:
+                   chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk))
+               obj = self.unPickle(chunk)
+               record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj)
+               self.handleLogRecord(record)
+
+       def unPickle(self, data):
+           return pickle.loads(data)
+
+       def handleLogRecord(self, record):
+           # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one
+           # implied by the record.
+           if self.server.logname is not None:
+               name = self.server.logname
+           else:
+               name = record.name
+           logger = logging.getLogger(name)
+           # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle
+           # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want
+           # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting
+           # cycles and network bandwidth!
+           logger.handle(record)
+
+   class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer):
+       """
+       Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.
+       """
+
+       allow_reuse_address = True
+
+       def __init__(self, host='localhost',
+                    port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT,
+                    handler=LogRecordStreamHandler):
+           socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler)
+           self.abort = 0
+           self.timeout = 1
+           self.logname = None
+
+       def serve_until_stopped(self):
+           import select
+           abort = 0
+           while not abort:
+               rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()],
+                                          [], [],
+                                          self.timeout)
+               if rd:
+                   self.handle_request()
+               abort = self.abort
+
+   def main():
+       logging.basicConfig(
+           format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
+       tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver()
+       print('About to start TCP server...')
+       tcpserver.serve_until_stopped()
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       main()
+
+First run the server, and then the client. On the client side, nothing is
+printed on the console; on the server side, you should see something like:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   About to start TCP server...
+      59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
+      59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
+      69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
+      69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
+      69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.
+
+Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios. If
+these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by overriding
+the :meth:`~handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle` method and implementing your
+alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your alternative
+serialization.
+
+
+.. _context-info:
+
+Adding contextual information to your logging output
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Sometimes you want logging output to contain contextual information in
+addition to the parameters passed to the logging call. For example, in a
+networked application, it may be desirable to log client-specific information
+in the log (e.g. remote client's username, or IP address). Although you could
+use the *extra* parameter to achieve this, it's not always convenient to pass
+the information in this way. While it might be tempting to create
+:class:`Logger` instances on a per-connection basis, this is not a good idea
+because these instances are not garbage collected. While this is not a problem
+in practice, when the number of :class:`Logger` instances is dependent on the
+level of granularity you want to use in logging an application, it could
+be hard to manage if the number of :class:`Logger` instances becomes
+effectively unbounded.
+
+
+Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+An easy way in which you can pass contextual information to be output along
+with logging event information is to use the :class:`LoggerAdapter` class.
+This class is designed to look like a :class:`Logger`, so that you can call
+:meth:`debug`, :meth:`info`, :meth:`warning`, :meth:`error`,
+:meth:`exception`, :meth:`critical` and :meth:`log`. These methods have the
+same signatures as their counterparts in :class:`Logger`, so you can use the
+two types of instances interchangeably.
+
+When you create an instance of :class:`LoggerAdapter`, you pass it a
+:class:`Logger` instance and a dict-like object which contains your contextual
+information. When you call one of the logging methods on an instance of
+:class:`LoggerAdapter`, it delegates the call to the underlying instance of
+:class:`Logger` passed to its constructor, and arranges to pass the contextual
+information in the delegated call. Here's a snippet from the code of
+:class:`LoggerAdapter`::
+
+    def debug(self, msg, *args, **kwargs):
+        """
+        Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding
+        contextual information from this adapter instance.
+        """
+        msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
+        self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+The :meth:`~LoggerAdapter.process` method of :class:`LoggerAdapter` is where the
+contextual information is added to the logging output. It's passed the message
+and keyword arguments of the logging call, and it passes back (potentially)
+modified versions of these to use in the call to the underlying logger. The
+default implementation of this method leaves the message alone, but inserts
+an 'extra' key in the keyword argument whose value is the dict-like object
+passed to the constructor. Of course, if you had passed an 'extra' keyword
+argument in the call to the adapter, it will be silently overwritten.
+
+The advantage of using 'extra' is that the values in the dict-like object are
+merged into the :class:`LogRecord` instance's __dict__, allowing you to use
+customized strings with your :class:`Formatter` instances which know about
+the keys of the dict-like object. If you need a different method, e.g. if you
+want to prepend or append the contextual information to the message string,
+you just need to subclass :class:`LoggerAdapter` and override
+:meth:`~LoggerAdapter.process` to do what you need. Here is a simple example::
+
+    class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
+        """
+        This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a
+        'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.
+        """
+        def process(self, msg, kwargs):
+            return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs
+
+which you can use like this::
+
+    logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+    adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id})
+
+Then any events that you log to the adapter will have the value of
+``some_conn_id`` prepended to the log messages.
+
+Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+You don't need to pass an actual dict to a :class:`LoggerAdapter` - you could
+pass an instance of a class which implements ``__getitem__`` and ``__iter__`` so
+that it looks like a dict to logging. This would be useful if you want to
+generate values dynamically (whereas the values in a dict would be constant).
+
+
+.. _filters-contextual:
+
+Using Filters to impart contextual information
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+You can also add contextual information to log output using a user-defined
+:class:`Filter`. ``Filter`` instances are allowed to modify the ``LogRecords``
+passed to them, including adding additional attributes which can then be output
+using a suitable format string, or if needed a custom :class:`Formatter`.
+
+For example in a web application, the request being processed (or at least,
+the interesting parts of it) can be stored in a threadlocal
+(:class:`threading.local`) variable, and then accessed from a ``Filter`` to
+add, say, information from the request - say, the remote IP address and remote
+user's username - to the ``LogRecord``, using the attribute names 'ip' and
+'user' as in the ``LoggerAdapter`` example above. In that case, the same format
+string can be used to get similar output to that shown above. Here's an example
+script::
+
+    import logging
+    from random import choice
+
+    class ContextFilter(logging.Filter):
+        """
+        This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.
+
+        Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random
+        data in this demo.
+        """
+
+        USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila']
+        IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1']
+
+        def filter(self, record):
+
+            record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS)
+            record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS)
+            return True
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL)
+        logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
+                            format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s')
+        a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c')
+        a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f')
+
+        f = ContextFilter()
+        a1.addFilter(f)
+        a2.addFilter(f)
+        a1.debug('A debug message')
+        a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters')
+        for x in range(10):
+            lvl = choice(levels)
+            lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl)
+            a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters')
+
+which, when run, produces something like:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
+    2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters
+
+
+.. _multiple-processes:
+
+Logging to a single file from multiple processes
+------------------------------------------------
+
+Although logging is thread-safe, and logging to a single file from multiple
+threads in a single process *is* supported, logging to a single file from
+*multiple processes* is *not* supported, because there is no standard way to
+serialize access to a single file across multiple processes in Python. If you
+need to log to a single file from multiple processes, one way of doing this is
+to have all the processes log to a :class:`~handlers.SocketHandler`, and have a
+separate process which implements a socket server which reads from the socket
+and logs to file. (If you prefer, you can dedicate one thread in one of the
+existing processes to perform this function.)
+:ref:`This section <network-logging>` documents this approach in more detail and
+includes a working socket receiver which can be used as a starting point for you
+to adapt in your own applications.
+
+If you are using a recent version of Python which includes the
+:mod:`multiprocessing` module, you could write your own handler which uses the
+:class:`~multiprocessing.Lock` class from this module to serialize access to the
+file from your processes. The existing :class:`FileHandler` and subclasses do
+not make use of :mod:`multiprocessing` at present, though they may do so in the
+future. Note that at present, the :mod:`multiprocessing` module does not provide
+working lock functionality on all platforms (see
+https://bugs.python.org/issue3770).
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging.handlers
+
+Alternatively, you can use a ``Queue`` and a :class:`QueueHandler` to send
+all logging events to one of the processes in your multi-process application.
+The following example script demonstrates how you can do this; in the example
+a separate listener process listens for events sent by other processes and logs
+them according to its own logging configuration. Although the example only
+demonstrates one way of doing it (for example, you may want to use a listener
+thread rather than a separate listener process -- the implementation would be
+analogous) it does allow for completely different logging configurations for
+the listener and the other processes in your application, and can be used as
+the basis for code meeting your own specific requirements::
+
+    # You'll need these imports in your own code
+    import logging
+    import logging.handlers
+    import multiprocessing
+
+    # Next two import lines for this demo only
+    from random import choice, random
+    import time
+
+    #
+    # Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the
+    # listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable
+    # for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,
+    # which they use for communication.
+    #
+    # In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this
+    # simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.
+    # In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid
+    # sending events which would be filtered out between processes.
+    #
+    # The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.
+    def listener_configurer():
+        root = logging.getLogger()
+        h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10)
+        f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
+        h.setFormatter(f)
+        root.addHandler(h)
+
+    # This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events
+    # (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a
+    # LogRecord.
+    def listener_process(queue, configurer):
+        configurer()
+        while True:
+            try:
+                record = queue.get()
+                if record is None:  # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.
+                    break
+                logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
+                logger.handle(record)  # No level or filter logic applied - just do it!
+            except Exception:
+                import sys, traceback
+                print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr)
+                traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr)
+
+    # Arrays used for random selections in this demo
+
+    LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING,
+              logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL]
+
+    LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f']
+
+    MESSAGES = [
+        'Random message #1',
+        'Random message #2',
+        'Random message #3',
+    ]
+
+    # The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.
+    # Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process
+    # will run the logging configuration code when it starts.
+    def worker_configurer(queue):
+        h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)  # Just the one handler needed
+        root = logging.getLogger()
+        root.addHandler(h)
+        # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.
+        root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+
+    # This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with
+    # random intervening delays before terminating.
+    # The print messages are just so you know it's doing something!
+    def worker_process(queue, configurer):
+        configurer(queue)
+        name = multiprocessing.current_process().name
+        print('Worker started: %s' % name)
+        for i in range(10):
+            time.sleep(random())
+            logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS))
+            level = choice(LEVELS)
+            message = choice(MESSAGES)
+            logger.log(level, message)
+        print('Worker finished: %s' % name)
+
+    # Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start
+    # the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,
+    # then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.
+    def main():
+        queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)
+        listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process,
+                                           args=(queue, listener_configurer))
+        listener.start()
+        workers = []
+        for i in range(10):
+            worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
+                                             args=(queue, worker_configurer))
+            workers.append(worker)
+            worker.start()
+        for w in workers:
+            w.join()
+        queue.put_nowait(None)
+        listener.join()
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        main()
+
+A variant of the above script keeps the logging in the main process, in a
+separate thread::
+
+    import logging
+    import logging.config
+    import logging.handlers
+    from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
+    import random
+    import threading
+    import time
+
+    def logger_thread(q):
+        while True:
+            record = q.get()
+            if record is None:
+                break
+            logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
+            logger.handle(record)
+
+
+    def worker_process(q):
+        qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q)
+        root = logging.getLogger()
+        root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+        root.addHandler(qh)
+        levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
+                  logging.CRITICAL]
+        loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
+                   'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
+        for i in range(100):
+            lvl = random.choice(levels)
+            logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
+            logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        q = Queue()
+        d = {
+            'version': 1,
+            'formatters': {
+                'detailed': {
+                    'class': 'logging.Formatter',
+                    'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
+                }
+            },
+            'handlers': {
+                'console': {
+                    'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
+                    'level': 'INFO',
+                },
+                'file': {
+                    'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
+                    'filename': 'mplog.log',
+                    'mode': 'w',
+                    'formatter': 'detailed',
+                },
+                'foofile': {
+                    'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
+                    'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
+                    'mode': 'w',
+                    'formatter': 'detailed',
+                },
+                'errors': {
+                    'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
+                    'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
+                    'mode': 'w',
+                    'level': 'ERROR',
+                    'formatter': 'detailed',
+                },
+            },
+            'loggers': {
+                'foo': {
+                    'handlers': ['foofile']
+                }
+            },
+            'root': {
+                'level': 'DEBUG',
+                'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
+            },
+        }
+        workers = []
+        for i in range(5):
+            wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,))
+            workers.append(wp)
+            wp.start()
+        logging.config.dictConfig(d)
+        lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,))
+        lp.start()
+        # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own
+        # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...
+        for wp in workers:
+            wp.join()
+        # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too
+        q.put(None)
+        lp.join()
+
+This variant shows how you can e.g. apply configuration for particular loggers
+- e.g. the ``foo`` logger has a special handler which stores all events in the
+``foo`` subsystem in a file ``mplog-foo.log``. This will be used by the logging
+machinery in the main process (even though the logging events are generated in
+the worker processes) to direct the messages to the appropriate destinations.
+
+Using file rotation
+-------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Doug Hellmann, Vinay Sajip (changes)
+.. (see <https://pymotw.com/3/logging/>)
+
+Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a new
+file and log to that. You may want to keep a certain number of these files, and
+when that many files have been created, rotate the files so that the number of
+files and the size of the files both remain bounded. For this usage pattern, the
+logging package provides a :class:`~handlers.RotatingFileHandler`::
+
+   import glob
+   import logging
+   import logging.handlers
+
+   LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out'
+
+   # Set up a specific logger with our desired output level
+   my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger')
+   my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+
+   # Add the log message handler to the logger
+   handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(
+                 LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5)
+
+   my_logger.addHandler(handler)
+
+   # Log some messages
+   for i in range(20):
+       my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i)
+
+   # See what files are created
+   logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME)
+
+   for filename in logfiles:
+       print(filename)
+
+The result should be 6 separate files, each with part of the log history for the
+application:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   logging_rotatingfile_example.out
+   logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
+   logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
+   logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
+   logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
+   logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5
+
+The most current file is always :file:`logging_rotatingfile_example.out`,
+and each time it reaches the size limit it is renamed with the suffix
+``.1``. Each of the existing backup files is renamed to increment the suffix
+(``.1`` becomes ``.2``, etc.)  and the ``.6`` file is erased.
+
+Obviously this example sets the log length much too small as an extreme
+example.  You would want to set *maxBytes* to an appropriate value.
+
+.. _format-styles:
+
+Use of alternative formatting styles
+------------------------------------
+
+When logging was added to the Python standard library, the only way of
+formatting messages with variable content was to use the %-formatting
+method. Since then, Python has gained two new formatting approaches:
+:class:`string.Template` (added in Python 2.4) and :meth:`str.format`
+(added in Python 2.6).
+
+Logging (as of 3.2) provides improved support for these two additional
+formatting styles. The :class:`Formatter` class been enhanced to take an
+additional, optional keyword parameter named ``style``. This defaults to
+``'%'``, but other possible values are ``'{'`` and ``'$'``, which correspond
+to the other two formatting styles. Backwards compatibility is maintained by
+default (as you would expect), but by explicitly specifying a style parameter,
+you get the ability to specify format strings which work with
+:meth:`str.format` or :class:`string.Template`. Here's an example console
+session to show the possibilities:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+    >>> import logging
+    >>> root = logging.getLogger()
+    >>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+    >>> handler = logging.StreamHandler()
+    >>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}',
+    ...                        style='{')
+    >>> handler.setFormatter(bf)
+    >>> root.addHandler(handler)
+    >>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar')
+    >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
+    2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message
+    >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
+    2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
+    >>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message',
+    ...                        style='$')
+    >>> handler.setFormatter(df)
+    >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
+    2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message
+    >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
+    2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
+    >>>
+
+Note that the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs is
+completely independent of how an individual logging message is constructed.
+That can still use %-formatting, as shown here::
+
+    >>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message')
+    2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message
+    >>>
+
+Logging calls (``logger.debug()``, ``logger.info()`` etc.) only take
+positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with keyword
+parameters used only for determining options for how to handle the actual
+logging call (e.g. the ``exc_info`` keyword parameter to indicate that
+traceback information should be logged, or the ``extra`` keyword parameter
+to indicate additional contextual information to be added to the log). So
+you cannot directly make logging calls using :meth:`str.format` or
+:class:`string.Template` syntax, because internally the logging package
+uses %-formatting to merge the format string and the variable arguments.
+There would be no changing this while preserving backward compatibility, since
+all logging calls which are out there in existing code will be using %-format
+strings.
+
+There is, however, a way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to construct
+your individual log messages. Recall that for a message you can use an
+arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the logging package will
+call ``str()`` on that object to get the actual format string. Consider the
+following two classes::
+
+    class BraceMessage:
+        def __init__(self, fmt, *args, **kwargs):
+            self.fmt = fmt
+            self.args = args
+            self.kwargs = kwargs
+
+        def __str__(self):
+            return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)
+
+    class DollarMessage:
+        def __init__(self, fmt, **kwargs):
+            self.fmt = fmt
+            self.kwargs = kwargs
+
+        def __str__(self):
+            from string import Template
+            return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)
+
+Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
+$-formatting to be used to build the actual "message" part which appears in the
+formatted log output in place of "%(message)s" or "{message}" or "$message".
+It's a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you want to log
+something, but it's quite palatable if you use an alias such as __ (double
+underscore --- not to be confused with _, the single underscore used as a
+synonym/alias for :func:`gettext.gettext` or its brethren).
+
+The above classes are not included in Python, though they're easy enough to
+copy and paste into your own code. They can be used as follows (assuming that
+they're declared in a module called ``wherever``):
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+    >>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __
+    >>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders'))
+    Message with 2 placeholders
+    >>> class Point: pass
+    ...
+    >>> p = Point()
+    >>> p.x = 0.5
+    >>> p.y = 0.5
+    >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})',
+    ...       point=p))
+    Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
+    >>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __
+    >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
+    Message with 2 placeholders
+    >>>
+
+While the above examples use ``print()`` to show how the formatting works, you
+would of course use ``logger.debug()`` or similar to actually log using this
+approach.
+
+One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this
+approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but
+when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a
+handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the
+parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format
+string. That's because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor
+call to one of the XXXMessage classes.
+
+If you prefer, you can use a :class:`LoggerAdapter` to achieve a similar effect
+to the above, as in the following example::
+
+    import logging
+
+    class Message(object):
+        def __init__(self, fmt, args):
+            self.fmt = fmt
+            self.args = args
+
+        def __str__(self):
+            return self.fmt.format(*self.args)
+
+    class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
+        def __init__(self, logger, extra=None):
+            super(StyleAdapter, self).__init__(logger, extra or {})
+
+        def log(self, level, msg, *args, **kwargs):
+            if self.isEnabledFor(level):
+                msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
+                self.logger._log(level, Message(msg, args), (), **kwargs)
+
+    logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__))
+
+    def main():
+        logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!')
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
+        main()
+
+The above script should log the message ``Hello, world!`` when run with
+Python 3.2 or later.
+
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+.. _custom-logrecord:
+
+Customizing ``LogRecord``
+-------------------------
+
+Every logging event is represented by a :class:`LogRecord` instance.
+When an event is logged and not filtered out by a logger's level, a
+:class:`LogRecord` is created, populated with information about the event and
+then passed to the handlers for that logger (and its ancestors, up to and
+including the logger where further propagation up the hierarchy is disabled).
+Before Python 3.2, there were only two places where this creation was done:
+
+* :meth:`Logger.makeRecord`, which is called in the normal process of
+  logging an event. This invoked :class:`LogRecord` directly to create an
+  instance.
+* :func:`makeLogRecord`, which is called with a dictionary containing
+  attributes to be added to the LogRecord. This is typically invoked when a
+  suitable dictionary has been received over the network (e.g. in pickle form
+  via a :class:`~handlers.SocketHandler`, or in JSON form via an
+  :class:`~handlers.HTTPHandler`).
+
+This has usually meant that if you need to do anything special with a
+:class:`LogRecord`, you've had to do one of the following.
+
+* Create your own :class:`Logger` subclass, which overrides
+  :meth:`Logger.makeRecord`, and set it using :func:`~logging.setLoggerClass`
+  before any loggers that you care about are instantiated.
+* Add a :class:`Filter` to a logger or handler, which does the
+  necessary special manipulation you need when its
+  :meth:`~Filter.filter` method is called.
+
+The first approach would be a little unwieldy in the scenario where (say)
+several different libraries wanted to do different things. Each would attempt
+to set its own :class:`Logger` subclass, and the one which did this last would
+win.
+
+The second approach works reasonably well for many cases, but does not allow
+you to e.g. use a specialized subclass of :class:`LogRecord`. Library
+developers can set a suitable filter on their loggers, but they would have to
+remember to do this every time they introduced a new logger (which they would
+do simply by adding new packages or modules and doing ::
+
+   logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+at module level). It's probably one too many things to think about. Developers
+could also add the filter to a :class:`~logging.NullHandler` attached to their
+top-level logger, but this would not be invoked if an application developer
+attached a handler to a lower-level library logger --- so output from that
+handler would not reflect the intentions of the library developer.
+
+In Python 3.2 and later, :class:`~logging.LogRecord` creation is done through a
+factory, which you can specify. The factory is just a callable you can set with
+:func:`~logging.setLogRecordFactory`, and interrogate with
+:func:`~logging.getLogRecordFactory`. The factory is invoked with the same
+signature as the :class:`~logging.LogRecord` constructor, as :class:`LogRecord`
+is the default setting for the factory.
+
+This approach allows a custom factory to control all aspects of LogRecord
+creation. For example, you could return a subclass, or just add some additional
+attributes to the record once created, using a pattern similar to this::
+
+    old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()
+
+    def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
+        record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
+        record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
+        return record
+
+    logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)
+
+This pattern allows different libraries to chain factories together, and as
+long as they don't overwrite each other's attributes or unintentionally
+overwrite the attributes provided as standard, there should be no surprises.
+However, it should be borne in mind that each link in the chain adds run-time
+overhead to all logging operations, and the technique should only be used when
+the use of a :class:`Filter` does not provide the desired result.
+
+
+.. _zeromq-handlers:
+
+Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
+-------------------------------------------
+
+You can use a :class:`QueueHandler` subclass to send messages to other kinds
+of queues, for example a ZeroMQ 'publish' socket. In the example below,the
+socket is created separately and passed to the handler (as its 'queue')::
+
+    import zmq   # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ
+    import json  # for serializing records portably
+
+    ctx = zmq.Context()
+    sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB)  # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value
+    sock.bind('tcp://*:5556')        # or wherever
+
+    class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
+        def enqueue(self, record):
+            self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)
+
+
+    handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock)
+
+
+Of course there are other ways of organizing this, for example passing in the
+data needed by the handler to create the socket::
+
+    class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
+        def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None):
+            self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context()
+            socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype)
+            socket.bind(uri)
+            super().__init__(socket)
+
+        def enqueue(self, record):
+            self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)
+
+        def close(self):
+            self.queue.close()
+
+
+Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
+--------------------------------------------
+
+You can also subclass :class:`QueueListener` to get messages from other kinds
+of queues, for example a ZeroMQ 'subscribe' socket. Here's an example::
+
+    class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener):
+        def __init__(self, uri, *handlers, **kwargs):
+            self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context()
+            socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB)
+            socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '')  # subscribe to everything
+            socket.connect(uri)
+            super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)
+
+        def dequeue(self):
+            msg = self.queue.recv_json()
+            return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`logging`
+      API reference for the logging module.
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.config`
+      Configuration API for the logging module.
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.handlers`
+      Useful handlers included with the logging module.
+
+   :ref:`A basic logging tutorial <logging-basic-tutorial>`
+
+   :ref:`A more advanced logging tutorial <logging-advanced-tutorial>`
+
+
+An example dictionary-based configuration
+-----------------------------------------
+
+Below is an example of a logging configuration dictionary - it's taken from
+the `documentation on the Django project <https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.9/topics/logging/#configuring-logging>`_.
+This dictionary is passed to :func:`~config.dictConfig` to put the configuration into effect::
+
+    LOGGING = {
+        'version': 1,
+        'disable_existing_loggers': True,
+        'formatters': {
+            'verbose': {
+                'format': '%(levelname)s %(asctime)s %(module)s %(process)d %(thread)d %(message)s'
+            },
+            'simple': {
+                'format': '%(levelname)s %(message)s'
+            },
+        },
+        'filters': {
+            'special': {
+                '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter',
+                'foo': 'bar',
+            }
+        },
+        'handlers': {
+            'null': {
+                'level':'DEBUG',
+                'class':'django.utils.log.NullHandler',
+            },
+            'console':{
+                'level':'DEBUG',
+                'class':'logging.StreamHandler',
+                'formatter': 'simple'
+            },
+            'mail_admins': {
+                'level': 'ERROR',
+                'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler',
+                'filters': ['special']
+            }
+        },
+        'loggers': {
+            'django': {
+                'handlers':['null'],
+                'propagate': True,
+                'level':'INFO',
+            },
+            'django.request': {
+                'handlers': ['mail_admins'],
+                'level': 'ERROR',
+                'propagate': False,
+            },
+            'myproject.custom': {
+                'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'],
+                'level': 'INFO',
+                'filters': ['special']
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+For more information about this configuration, you can see the `relevant
+section <https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.9/topics/logging/#configuring-logging>`_
+of the Django documentation.
+
+.. _cookbook-rotator-namer:
+
+Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the following
+snippet, which shows zlib-based compression of the log file::
+
+    def namer(name):
+        return name + ".gz"
+
+    def rotator(source, dest):
+        with open(source, "rb") as sf:
+            data = sf.read()
+            compressed = zlib.compress(data, 9)
+            with open(dest, "wb") as df:
+                df.write(compressed)
+        os.remove(source)
+
+    rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(...)
+    rh.rotator = rotator
+    rh.namer = namer
+
+These are not "true" .gz files, as they are bare compressed data, with no
+"container" such as you’d find in an actual gzip file. This snippet is just
+for illustration purposes.
+
+A more elaborate multiprocessing example
+----------------------------------------
+
+The following working example shows how logging can be used with multiprocessing
+using configuration files. The configurations are fairly simple, but serve to
+illustrate how more complex ones could be implemented in a real multiprocessing
+scenario.
+
+In the example, the main process spawns a listener process and some worker
+processes. Each of the main process, the listener and the workers have three
+separate configurations (the workers all share the same configuration). We can
+see logging in the main process, how the workers log to a QueueHandler and how
+the listener implements a QueueListener and a more complex logging
+configuration, and arranges to dispatch events received via the queue to the
+handlers specified in the configuration. Note that these configurations are
+purely illustrative, but you should be able to adapt this example to your own
+scenario.
+
+Here's the script - the docstrings and the comments hopefully explain how it
+works::
+
+    import logging
+    import logging.config
+    import logging.handlers
+    from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process
+    import os
+    import random
+    import time
+
+    class MyHandler:
+        """
+        A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and
+        dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,
+        which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers
+        configured for those loggers.
+        """
+        def handle(self, record):
+            logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
+            # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener
+            # doing the logging to files and console
+            record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName)
+            logger.handle(record)
+
+    def listener_process(q, stop_event, config):
+        """
+        This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate
+        process for illustrative purposes.
+
+        This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
+        starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion
+        via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.
+        """
+        logging.config.dictConfig(config)
+        listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler())
+        listener.start()
+        if os.name == 'posix':
+            # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
+            # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
+            # dictConfig call.
+            # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
+            # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
+            # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
+            logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
+            logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
+        stop_event.wait()
+        listener.stop()
+
+    def worker_process(config):
+        """
+        A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In
+        practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than
+        ones which are identical to each other.
+
+        This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
+        and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected
+        loggers.
+
+        A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This
+        is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different
+        processes a bit more than if it's left out.
+        """
+        logging.config.dictConfig(config)
+        levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
+                  logging.CRITICAL]
+        loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
+                   'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
+        if os.name == 'posix':
+            # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
+            # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
+            # dictConfig call.
+            # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
+            # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
+            # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
+            logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
+            logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
+        for i in range(100):
+            lvl = random.choice(levels)
+            logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
+            logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
+            time.sleep(0.01)
+
+    def main():
+        q = Queue()
+        # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.
+        config_initial = {
+            'version': 1,
+            'formatters': {
+                'detailed': {
+                    'class': 'logging.Formatter',
+                    'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
+                }
+            },
+            'handlers': {
+                'console': {
+                    'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
+                    'level': 'INFO',
+                },
+            },
+            'root': {
+                'level': 'DEBUG',
+                'handlers': ['console']
+            },
+        }
+        # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the
+        # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.
+        # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
+        # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
+        # be there in the child following a fork().
+        config_worker = {
+            'version': 1,
+            'disable_existing_loggers': True,
+            'handlers': {
+                'queue': {
+                    'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler',
+                    'queue': q,
+                },
+            },
+            'root': {
+                'level': 'DEBUG',
+                'handlers': ['queue']
+            },
+        }
+        # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of
+        # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however
+        # you want.
+        # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
+        # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
+        # be there in the child following a fork().
+        config_listener = {
+            'version': 1,
+            'disable_existing_loggers': True,
+            'formatters': {
+                'detailed': {
+                    'class': 'logging.Formatter',
+                    'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
+                },
+                'simple': {
+                    'class': 'logging.Formatter',
+                    'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
+                }
+            },
+            'handlers': {
+                'console': {
+                    'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
+                    'level': 'INFO',
+                    'formatter': 'simple',
+                },
+                'file': {
+                    'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
+                    'filename': 'mplog.log',
+                    'mode': 'w',
+                    'formatter': 'detailed',
+                },
+                'foofile': {
+                    'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
+                    'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
+                    'mode': 'w',
+                    'formatter': 'detailed',
+                },
+                'errors': {
+                    'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
+                    'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
+                    'mode': 'w',
+                    'level': 'ERROR',
+                    'formatter': 'detailed',
+                },
+            },
+            'loggers': {
+                'foo': {
+                    'handlers': ['foofile']
+                }
+            },
+            'root': {
+                'level': 'DEBUG',
+                'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
+            },
+        }
+        # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works
+        # normally.
+        logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial)
+        logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
+        logger.info('About to create workers ...')
+        workers = []
+        for i in range(5):
+            wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1),
+                         args=(config_worker,))
+            workers.append(wp)
+            wp.start()
+            logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name)
+        logger.info('About to create listener ...')
+        stop_event = Event()
+        lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener',
+                     args=(q, stop_event, config_listener))
+        lp.start()
+        logger.info('Started listener')
+        # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.
+        for wp in workers:
+            wp.join()
+        # Workers all done, listening can now stop.
+        # Logging in the parent still works normally.
+        logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...')
+        stop_event.set()
+        lp.join()
+        logger.info('All done.')
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        main()
+
+
+Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
+-----------------------------------------------------
+
+:rfc:`5424` requires that a
+Unicode message be sent to a syslog daemon as a set of bytes which have the
+following structure: an optional pure-ASCII component, followed by a UTF-8 Byte
+Order Mark (BOM), followed by Unicode encoded using UTF-8. (See the
+:rfc:`relevant section of the specification <5424#section-6>`.)
+
+In Python 3.1, code was added to
+:class:`~logging.handlers.SysLogHandler` to insert a BOM into the message, but
+unfortunately, it was implemented incorrectly, with the BOM appearing at the
+beginning of the message and hence not allowing any pure-ASCII component to
+appear before it.
+
+As this behaviour is broken, the incorrect BOM insertion code is being removed
+from Python 3.2.4 and later. However, it is not being replaced, and if you
+want to produce :rfc:`5424`-compliant messages which include a BOM, an optional
+pure-ASCII sequence before it and arbitrary Unicode after it, encoded using
+UTF-8, then you need to do the following:
+
+#. Attach a :class:`~logging.Formatter` instance to your
+   :class:`~logging.handlers.SysLogHandler` instance, with a format string
+   such as::
+
+      'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section'
+
+   The Unicode code point U+FEFF, when encoded using UTF-8, will be
+   encoded as a UTF-8 BOM -- the byte-string ``b'\xef\xbb\xbf'``.
+
+#. Replace the ASCII section with whatever placeholders you like, but make sure
+   that the data that appears in there after substitution is always ASCII (that
+   way, it will remain unchanged after UTF-8 encoding).
+
+#. Replace the Unicode section with whatever placeholders you like; if the data
+   which appears there after substitution contains characters outside the ASCII
+   range, that's fine -- it will be encoded using UTF-8.
+
+The formatted message *will* be encoded using UTF-8 encoding by
+``SysLogHandler``. If you follow the above rules, you should be able to produce
+:rfc:`5424`-compliant messages. If you don't, logging may not complain, but your
+messages will not be RFC 5424-compliant, and your syslog daemon may complain.
+
+
+Implementing structured logging
+-------------------------------
+
+Although most logging messages are intended for reading by humans, and thus not
+readily machine-parseable, there might be circumstances where you want to output
+messages in a structured format which *is* capable of being parsed by a program
+(without needing complex regular expressions to parse the log message). This is
+straightforward to achieve using the logging package. There are a number of
+ways in which this could be achieved, but the following is a simple approach
+which uses JSON to serialise the event in a machine-parseable manner::
+
+    import json
+    import logging
+
+    class StructuredMessage(object):
+        def __init__(self, message, **kwargs):
+            self.message = message
+            self.kwargs = kwargs
+
+        def __str__(self):
+            return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs))
+
+    _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability
+
+    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
+    logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456))
+
+If the above script is run, it prints:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"}
+
+Note that the order of items might be different according to the version of
+Python used.
+
+If you need more specialised processing, you can use a custom JSON encoder,
+as in the following complete example::
+
+    from __future__ import unicode_literals
+
+    import json
+    import logging
+
+    # This next bit is to ensure the script runs unchanged on 2.x and 3.x
+    try:
+        unicode
+    except NameError:
+        unicode = str
+
+    class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder):
+        def default(self, o):
+            if isinstance(o, set):
+                return tuple(o)
+            elif isinstance(o, unicode):
+                return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii')
+            return super(Encoder, self).default(o)
+
+    class StructuredMessage(object):
+        def __init__(self, message, **kwargs):
+            self.message = message
+            self.kwargs = kwargs
+
+        def __str__(self):
+            s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs)
+            return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s)
+
+    _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability
+
+    def main():
+        logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
+        logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603'))
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        main()
+
+When the above script is run, it prints:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]}
+
+Note that the order of items might be different according to the version of
+Python used.
+
+
+.. _custom-handlers:
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging.config
+
+Customizing handlers with :func:`dictConfig`
+--------------------------------------------
+
+There are times when you want to customize logging handlers in particular ways,
+and if you use :func:`dictConfig` you may be able to do this without
+subclassing. As an example, consider that you may want to set the ownership of a
+log file. On POSIX, this is easily done using :func:`shutil.chown`, but the file
+handlers in the stdlib don't offer built-in support. You can customize handler
+creation using a plain function such as::
+
+    def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
+        if owner:
+            if not os.path.exists(filename):
+                open(filename, 'a').close()
+            shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
+        return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)
+
+You can then specify, in a logging configuration passed to :func:`dictConfig`,
+that a logging handler be created by calling this function::
+
+    LOGGING = {
+        'version': 1,
+        'disable_existing_loggers': False,
+        'formatters': {
+            'default': {
+                'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
+            },
+        },
+        'handlers': {
+            'file':{
+                # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
+                # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
+                # its formatter.
+                '()': owned_file_handler,
+                'level':'DEBUG',
+                'formatter': 'default',
+                # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
+                # as keyword arguments.
+                'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
+                'filename': 'chowntest.log',
+                'mode': 'w',
+                'encoding': 'utf-8',
+            },
+        },
+        'root': {
+            'handlers': ['file'],
+            'level': 'DEBUG',
+        },
+    }
+
+In this example I am setting the ownership using the ``pulse`` user and group,
+just for the purposes of illustration. Putting it together into a working
+script, ``chowntest.py``::
+
+    import logging, logging.config, os, shutil
+
+    def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
+        if owner:
+            if not os.path.exists(filename):
+                open(filename, 'a').close()
+            shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
+        return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)
+
+    LOGGING = {
+        'version': 1,
+        'disable_existing_loggers': False,
+        'formatters': {
+            'default': {
+                'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
+            },
+        },
+        'handlers': {
+            'file':{
+                # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
+                # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
+                # its formatter.
+                '()': owned_file_handler,
+                'level':'DEBUG',
+                'formatter': 'default',
+                # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
+                # as keyword arguments.
+                'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
+                'filename': 'chowntest.log',
+                'mode': 'w',
+                'encoding': 'utf-8',
+            },
+        },
+        'root': {
+            'handlers': ['file'],
+            'level': 'DEBUG',
+        },
+    }
+
+    logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
+    logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger')
+    logger.debug('A debug message')
+
+To run this, you will probably need to run as ``root``:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
+    $ cat chowntest.log
+    2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message
+    $ ls -l chowntest.log
+    -rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log
+
+Note that this example uses Python 3.3 because that's where :func:`shutil.chown`
+makes an appearance. This approach should work with any Python version that
+supports :func:`dictConfig` - namely, Python 2.7, 3.2 or later. With pre-3.3
+versions, you would need to implement the actual ownership change using e.g.
+:func:`os.chown`.
+
+In practice, the handler-creating function may be in a utility module somewhere
+in your project. Instead of the line in the configuration::
+
+    '()': owned_file_handler,
+
+you could use e.g.::
+
+    '()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler',
+
+where ``project.util`` can be replaced with the actual name of the package
+where the function resides. In the above working script, using
+``'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'`` should work. Here, the actual callable
+is resolved by :func:`dictConfig` from the ``ext://`` specification.
+
+This example hopefully also points the way to how you could implement other
+types of file change - e.g. setting specific POSIX permission bits - in the
+same way, using :func:`os.chmod`.
+
+Of course, the approach could also be extended to types of handler other than a
+:class:`~logging.FileHandler` - for example, one of the rotating file handlers,
+or a different type of handler altogether.
+
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+.. _formatting-styles:
+
+Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+In Python 3.2, the :class:`~logging.Formatter` gained a ``style`` keyword
+parameter which, while defaulting to ``%`` for backward compatibility, allowed
+the specification of ``{`` or ``$`` to support the formatting approaches
+supported by :meth:`str.format` and :class:`string.Template`. Note that this
+governs the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs, and is
+completely orthogonal to how an individual logging message is constructed.
+
+Logging calls (:meth:`~Logger.debug`, :meth:`~Logger.info` etc.) only take
+positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with keyword
+parameters used only for determining options for how to handle the logging call
+(e.g. the ``exc_info`` keyword parameter to indicate that traceback information
+should be logged, or the ``extra`` keyword parameter to indicate additional
+contextual information to be added to the log). So you cannot directly make
+logging calls using :meth:`str.format` or :class:`string.Template` syntax,
+because internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
+string and the variable arguments. There would no changing this while preserving
+backward compatibility, since all logging calls which are out there in existing
+code will be using %-format strings.
+
+There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific loggers,
+but that approach also runs into backward compatibility problems because any
+existing code could be using a given logger name and using %-formatting.
+
+For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and your
+code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of the
+individual logging call. This opens up a couple of ways in which alternative
+formatting styles can be accommodated.
+
+
+Using LogRecord factories
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In Python 3.2, along with the :class:`~logging.Formatter` changes mentioned
+above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set their own
+:class:`LogRecord` subclasses, using the :func:`setLogRecordFactory` function.
+You can use this to set your own subclass of :class:`LogRecord`, which does the
+Right Thing by overriding the :meth:`~LogRecord.getMessage` method. The base
+class implementation of this method is where the ``msg % args`` formatting
+happens, and where you can substitute your alternate formatting; however, you
+should be careful to support all formatting styles and allow %-formatting as
+the default, to ensure interoperability with other code. Care should also be
+taken to call ``str(self.msg)``, just as the base implementation does.
+
+Refer to the reference documentation on :func:`setLogRecordFactory` and
+:class:`LogRecord` for more information.
+
+
+Using custom message objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to
+construct your individual log messages. You may recall (from
+:ref:`arbitrary-object-messages`) that when logging you can use an arbitrary
+object as a message format string, and that the logging package will call
+:func:`str` on that object to get the actual format string. Consider the
+following two classes::
+
+    class BraceMessage(object):
+        def __init__(self, fmt, *args, **kwargs):
+            self.fmt = fmt
+            self.args = args
+            self.kwargs = kwargs
+
+        def __str__(self):
+            return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)
+
+    class DollarMessage(object):
+        def __init__(self, fmt, **kwargs):
+            self.fmt = fmt
+            self.kwargs = kwargs
+
+        def __str__(self):
+            from string import Template
+            return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)
+
+Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
+$-formatting to be used to build the actual "message" part which appears in the
+formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or “$message”.
+If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you want to log
+something, you can make it more palatable if you use an alias such as ``M`` or
+``_`` for the message (or perhaps ``__``, if you are using ``_`` for
+localization).
+
+Examples of this approach are given below. Firstly, formatting with
+:meth:`str.format`::
+
+    >>> __ = BraceMessage
+    >>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders'))
+    Message with 2 placeholders
+    >>> class Point: pass
+    ...
+    >>> p = Point()
+    >>> p.x = 0.5
+    >>> p.y = 0.5
+    >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p))
+    Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
+
+Secondly, formatting with :class:`string.Template`::
+
+    >>> __ = DollarMessage
+    >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
+    Message with 2 placeholders
+    >>>
+
+One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this
+approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but
+when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a
+handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the
+parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format
+string. That’s because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor
+call to one of the ``XXXMessage`` classes shown above.
+
+
+.. _filters-dictconfig:
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging.config
+
+Configuring filters with :func:`dictConfig`
+-------------------------------------------
+
+You *can* configure filters using :func:`~logging.config.dictConfig`, though it
+might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe). Since
+:class:`~logging.Filter` is the only filter class included in the standard
+library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it's only there as a
+base class), you will typically need to define your own :class:`~logging.Filter`
+subclass with an overridden :meth:`~logging.Filter.filter` method. To do this,
+specify the ``()`` key in the configuration dictionary for the filter,
+specifying a callable which will be used to create the filter (a class is the
+most obvious, but you can provide any callable which returns a
+:class:`~logging.Filter` instance). Here is a complete example::
+
+    import logging
+    import logging.config
+    import sys
+
+    class MyFilter(logging.Filter):
+        def __init__(self, param=None):
+            self.param = param
+
+        def filter(self, record):
+            if self.param is None:
+                allow = True
+            else:
+                allow = self.param not in record.msg
+            if allow:
+                record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg
+            return allow
+
+    LOGGING = {
+        'version': 1,
+        'filters': {
+            'myfilter': {
+                '()': MyFilter,
+                'param': 'noshow',
+            }
+        },
+        'handlers': {
+            'console': {
+                'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
+                'filters': ['myfilter']
+            }
+        },
+        'root': {
+            'level': 'DEBUG',
+            'handlers': ['console']
+        },
+    }
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
+        logging.debug('hello')
+        logging.debug('hello - noshow')
+
+This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable which
+constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters. When run, the above
+script will print:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    changed: hello
+
+which shows that the filter is working as configured.
+
+A couple of extra points to note:
+
+* If you can't refer to the callable directly in the configuration (e.g. if it
+  lives in a different module, and you can't import it directly where the
+  configuration dictionary is), you can use the form ``ext://...`` as described
+  in :ref:`logging-config-dict-externalobj`. For example, you could have used
+  the text ``'ext://__main__.MyFilter'`` instead of ``MyFilter`` in the above
+  example.
+
+* As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to configure custom
+  handlers and formatters. See :ref:`logging-config-dict-userdef` for more
+  information on how logging supports using user-defined objects in its
+  configuration, and see the other cookbook recipe :ref:`custom-handlers` above.
+
+
+.. _custom-format-exception:
+
+Customized exception formatting
+-------------------------------
+
+There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting - for
+argument's sake, let's say you want exactly one line per logged event, even
+when exception information is present. You can do this with a custom formatter
+class, as shown in the following example::
+
+    import logging
+
+    class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter):
+        def formatException(self, exc_info):
+            """
+            Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.
+            """
+            result = super(OneLineExceptionFormatter, self).formatException(exc_info)
+            return repr(result)  # or format into one line however you want to
+
+        def format(self, record):
+            s = super(OneLineExceptionFormatter, self).format(record)
+            if record.exc_text:
+                s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|'
+            return s
+
+    def configure_logging():
+        fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w')
+        f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|',
+                                      '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')
+        fh.setFormatter(f)
+        root = logging.getLogger()
+        root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+        root.addHandler(fh)
+
+    def main():
+        configure_logging()
+        logging.info('Sample message')
+        try:
+            x = 1 / 0
+        except ZeroDivisionError as e:
+            logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e)
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        main()
+
+When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
+    28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero'|
+
+While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how exception
+information can be formatted to your liking. The :mod:`traceback` module may be
+helpful for more specialized needs.
+
+.. _spoken-messages:
+
+Speaking logging messages
+-------------------------
+
+There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages rendered
+in an audible rather than a visible format. This is easy to do if you have
+text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system, even if it doesn't have
+a Python binding. Most TTS systems have a command line program you can run, and
+this can be invoked from a handler using :mod:`subprocess`. It's assumed here
+that TTS command line programs won't expect to interact with users or take a
+long time to complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so
+high as to swamp the user with messages, and that it's acceptable to have the
+messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example implementation
+below waits for one message to be spoken before the next is processed, and this
+might cause other handlers to be kept waiting. Here is a short example showing
+the approach, which assumes that the ``espeak`` TTS package is available::
+
+    import logging
+    import subprocess
+    import sys
+
+    class TTSHandler(logging.Handler):
+        def emit(self, record):
+            msg = self.format(record)
+            # Speak slowly in a female English voice
+            cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg]
+            p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
+                                 stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
+            # wait for the program to finish
+            p.communicate()
+
+    def configure_logging():
+        h = TTSHandler()
+        root = logging.getLogger()
+        root.addHandler(h)
+        # the default formatter just returns the message
+        root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+
+    def main():
+        logging.info('Hello')
+        logging.debug('Goodbye')
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        configure_logging()
+        sys.exit(main())
+
+When run, this script should say "Hello" and then "Goodbye" in a female voice.
+
+The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and even
+other systems altogether which can process messages via external programs run
+from a command line.
+
+
+.. _buffered-logging:
+
+Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary area
+and only output them if a certain condition occurs. For example, you may want to
+start logging debug events in a function, and if the function completes without
+errors, you don't want to clutter the log with the collected debug information,
+but if there is an error, you want all the debug information to be output as well
+as the error.
+
+Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator for your
+functions where you want logging to behave this way. It makes use of the
+:class:`logging.handlers.MemoryHandler`, which allows buffering of logged events
+until some condition occurs, at which point the buffered events are ``flushed``
+- passed to another handler (the ``target`` handler) for processing. By default,
+the ``MemoryHandler`` flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose
+level is greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen. You can use this
+recipe with a more specialised subclass of ``MemoryHandler`` if you want custom
+flushing behavior.
+
+The example script has a simple function, ``foo``, which just cycles through
+all the logging levels, writing to ``sys.stderr`` to say what level it's about
+to log at, and then actually logging a message at that level. You can pass a
+parameter to ``foo`` which, if true, will log at ERROR and CRITICAL levels -
+otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and WARNING levels.
+
+The script just arranges to decorate ``foo`` with a decorator which will do the
+conditional logging that's required. The decorator takes a logger as a parameter
+and attaches a memory handler for the duration of the call to the decorated
+function. The decorator can be additionally parameterised using a target handler,
+a level at which flushing should occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of
+records buffered). These default to a :class:`~logging.StreamHandler` which
+writes to ``sys.stderr``, ``logging.ERROR`` and ``100`` respectively.
+
+Here's the script::
+
+    import logging
+    from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler
+    import sys
+
+    logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+    logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())
+
+    def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None):
+        if target_handler is None:
+            target_handler = logging.StreamHandler()
+        if flush_level is None:
+            flush_level = logging.ERROR
+        if capacity is None:
+            capacity = 100
+        handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler)
+
+        def decorator(fn):
+            def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
+                logger.addHandler(handler)
+                try:
+                    return fn(*args, **kwargs)
+                except Exception:
+                    logger.exception('call failed')
+                    raise
+                finally:
+                    super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush()
+                    logger.removeHandler(handler)
+            return wrapper
+
+        return decorator
+
+    def write_line(s):
+        sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s)
+
+    def foo(fail=False):
+        write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...')
+        logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG')
+        write_line('about to log at INFO ...')
+        logger.info('Actually logged at INFO')
+        write_line('about to log at WARNING ...')
+        logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING')
+        if fail:
+            write_line('about to log at ERROR ...')
+            logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR')
+            write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...')
+            logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL')
+        return fail
+
+    decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo)
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+        write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False')
+        assert not foo(False)
+        write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True')
+        assert foo(True)
+        write_line('Calling decorated foo with False')
+        assert not decorated_foo(False)
+        write_line('Calling decorated foo with True')
+        assert decorated_foo(True)
+
+When this script is run, the following output should be observed:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Calling undecorated foo with False
+    about to log at DEBUG ...
+    about to log at INFO ...
+    about to log at WARNING ...
+    Calling undecorated foo with True
+    about to log at DEBUG ...
+    about to log at INFO ...
+    about to log at WARNING ...
+    about to log at ERROR ...
+    about to log at CRITICAL ...
+    Calling decorated foo with False
+    about to log at DEBUG ...
+    about to log at INFO ...
+    about to log at WARNING ...
+    Calling decorated foo with True
+    about to log at DEBUG ...
+    about to log at INFO ...
+    about to log at WARNING ...
+    about to log at ERROR ...
+    Actually logged at DEBUG
+    Actually logged at INFO
+    Actually logged at WARNING
+    Actually logged at ERROR
+    about to log at CRITICAL ...
+    Actually logged at CRITICAL
+
+As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is logged whose
+severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any previous events at lower
+severities are also logged.
+
+You can of course use the conventional means of decoration::
+
+    @log_if_errors(logger)
+    def foo(fail=False):
+        ...
+
+
+.. _utc-formatting:
+
+Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a class
+such as `UTCFormatter`, shown below::
+
+    import logging
+    import time
+
+    class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
+        converter = time.gmtime
+
+and you can then use the ``UTCFormatter`` in your code instead of
+:class:`~logging.Formatter`. If you want to do that via configuration, you can
+use the :func:`~logging.config.dictConfig` API with an approach illustrated by
+the following complete example::
+
+    import logging
+    import logging.config
+    import time
+
+    class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
+        converter = time.gmtime
+
+    LOGGING = {
+        'version': 1,
+        'disable_existing_loggers': False,
+        'formatters': {
+            'utc': {
+                '()': UTCFormatter,
+                'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
+            },
+            'local': {
+                'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
+            }
+        },
+        'handlers': {
+            'console1': {
+                'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
+                'formatter': 'utc',
+            },
+            'console2': {
+                'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
+                'formatter': 'local',
+            },
+        },
+        'root': {
+            'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'],
+       }
+    }
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
+        logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime())
+
+When this script is run, it should print something like:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
+    2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
+
+showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for each
+handler.
+
+
+.. _context-manager:
+
+Using a context manager for selective logging
+---------------------------------------------
+
+There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the logging
+configuration and revert it back after doing something. For this, a context
+manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring the logging context.
+Here is a simple example of such a context manager, which allows you to
+optionally change the logging level and add a logging handler purely in the
+scope of the context manager::
+
+    import logging
+    import sys
+
+    class LoggingContext(object):
+        def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True):
+            self.logger = logger
+            self.level = level
+            self.handler = handler
+            self.close = close
+
+        def __enter__(self):
+            if self.level is not None:
+                self.old_level = self.logger.level
+                self.logger.setLevel(self.level)
+            if self.handler:
+                self.logger.addHandler(self.handler)
+
+        def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb):
+            if self.level is not None:
+                self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level)
+            if self.handler:
+                self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler)
+            if self.handler and self.close:
+                self.handler.close()
+            # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions
+
+If you specify a level value, the logger's level is set to that value in the
+scope of the with block covered by the context manager. If you specify a
+handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and removed on exit
+from the block. You can also ask the manager to close the handler for you on
+block exit - you could do this if you don't need the handler any more.
+
+To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to the
+above::
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        logger = logging.getLogger('foo')
+        logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())
+        logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
+        logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.')
+        logger.debug('2. This should not appear.')
+        with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG):
+            logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.')
+        logger.debug('4. This should not appear.')
+        h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout)
+        with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True):
+            logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.')
+        logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.')
+        logger.debug('7. This should not appear.')
+
+We initially set the logger's level to ``INFO``, so message #1 appears and
+message #2 doesn't. We then change the level to ``DEBUG`` temporarily in the
+following ``with`` block, and so message #3 appears. After the block exits, the
+logger's level is restored to ``INFO`` and so message #4 doesn't appear. In the
+next ``with`` block, we set the level to ``DEBUG`` again but also add a handler
+writing to ``sys.stdout``. Thus, message #5 appears twice on the console (once
+via ``stderr`` and once via ``stdout``). After the ``with`` statement's
+completion, the status is as it was before so message #6 appears (like message
+#1) whereas message #7 doesn't (just like message #2).
+
+If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python logctx.py
+    1. This should appear just once on stderr.
+    3. This should appear once on stderr.
+    5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
+    5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
+    6. This should appear just once on stderr.
+
+If we run it again, but pipe ``stderr`` to ``/dev/null``, we see the following,
+which is the only message written to ``stdout``:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null
+    5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
+
+Once again, but piping ``stdout`` to ``/dev/null``, we get:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python logctx.py >/dev/null
+    1. This should appear just once on stderr.
+    3. This should appear once on stderr.
+    5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
+    6. This should appear just once on stderr.
+
+In this case, the message #5 printed to ``stdout`` doesn't appear, as expected.
+
+Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example to attach
+logging filters temporarily. Note that the above code works in Python 2 as well
+as Python 3.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/logging.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/logging.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a68ca8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/logging.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1103 @@
+=============
+Logging HOWTO
+=============
+
+:Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>
+
+.. _logging-basic-tutorial:
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+Basic Logging Tutorial
+----------------------
+
+Logging is a means of tracking events that happen when some software runs. The
+software's developer adds logging calls to their code to indicate that certain
+events have occurred. An event is described by a descriptive message which can
+optionally contain variable data (i.e. data that is potentially different for
+each occurrence of the event). Events also have an importance which the
+developer ascribes to the event; the importance can also be called the *level*
+or *severity*.
+
+When to use logging
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Logging provides a set of convenience functions for simple logging usage. These
+are :func:`debug`, :func:`info`, :func:`warning`, :func:`error` and
+:func:`critical`. To determine when to use logging, see the table below, which
+states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for it.
+
++-------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| Task you want to perform            | The best tool for the task           |
++=====================================+======================================+
+| Display console output for ordinary | :func:`print`                        |
+| usage of a command line script or   |                                      |
+| program                             |                                      |
++-------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| Report events that occur during     | :func:`logging.info` (or             |
+| normal operation of a program (e.g. | :func:`logging.debug` for very       |
+| for status monitoring or fault      | detailed output for diagnostic       |
+| investigation)                      | purposes)                            |
++-------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| Issue a warning regarding a         | :func:`warnings.warn` in library     |
+| particular runtime event            | code if the issue is avoidable and   |
+|                                     | the client application should be     |
+|                                     | modified to eliminate the warning    |
+|                                     |                                      |
+|                                     | :func:`logging.warning` if there is  |
+|                                     | nothing the client application can do|
+|                                     | about the situation, but the event   |
+|                                     | should still be noted                |
++-------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| Report an error regarding a         | Raise an exception                   |
+| particular runtime event            |                                      |
++-------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| Report suppression of an error      | :func:`logging.error`,               |
+| without raising an exception (e.g.  | :func:`logging.exception` or         |
+| error handler in a long-running     | :func:`logging.critical` as          |
+| server process)                     | appropriate for the specific error   |
+|                                     | and application domain               |
++-------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+
+The logging functions are named after the level or severity of the events
+they are used to track. The standard levels and their applicability are
+described below (in increasing order of severity):
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
++--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| Level        | When it's used                              |
++==============+=============================================+
+| ``DEBUG``    | Detailed information, typically of interest |
+|              | only when diagnosing problems.              |
++--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``INFO``     | Confirmation that things are working as     |
+|              | expected.                                   |
++--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``WARNING``  | An indication that something unexpected     |
+|              | happened, or indicative of some problem in  |
+|              | the near future (e.g. 'disk space low').    |
+|              | The software is still working as expected.  |
++--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``ERROR``    | Due to a more serious problem, the software |
+|              | has not been able to perform some function. |
++--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``CRITICAL`` | A serious error, indicating that the program|
+|              | itself may be unable to continue running.   |
++--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+The default level is ``WARNING``, which means that only events of this level
+and above will be tracked, unless the logging package is configured to do
+otherwise.
+
+Events that are tracked can be handled in different ways. The simplest way of
+handling tracked events is to print them to the console. Another common way
+is to write them to a disk file.
+
+
+.. _howto-minimal-example:
+
+A simple example
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A very simple example is::
+
+   import logging
+   logging.warning('Watch out!')  # will print a message to the console
+   logging.info('I told you so')  # will not print anything
+
+If you type these lines into a script and run it, you'll see:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   WARNING:root:Watch out!
+
+printed out on the console. The ``INFO`` message doesn't appear because the
+default level is ``WARNING``. The printed message includes the indication of
+the level and the description of the event provided in the logging call, i.e.
+'Watch out!'. Don't worry about the 'root' part for now: it will be explained
+later. The actual output can be formatted quite flexibly if you need that;
+formatting options will also be explained later.
+
+
+Logging to a file
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A very common situation is that of recording logging events in a file, so let's
+look at that next. Be sure to try the following in a newly-started Python
+interpreter, and don't just continue from the session described above::
+
+   import logging
+   logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log',level=logging.DEBUG)
+   logging.debug('This message should go to the log file')
+   logging.info('So should this')
+   logging.warning('And this, too')
+
+And now if we open the file and look at what we have, we should find the log
+messages:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   DEBUG:root:This message should go to the log file
+   INFO:root:So should this
+   WARNING:root:And this, too
+
+This example also shows how you can set the logging level which acts as the
+threshold for tracking. In this case, because we set the threshold to
+``DEBUG``, all of the messages were printed.
+
+If you want to set the logging level from a command-line option such as:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   --log=INFO
+
+and you have the value of the parameter passed for ``--log`` in some variable
+*loglevel*, you can use::
+
+   getattr(logging, loglevel.upper())
+
+to get the value which you'll pass to :func:`basicConfig` via the *level*
+argument. You may want to error check any user input value, perhaps as in the
+following example::
+
+   # assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the
+   # command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to
+   # specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug
+   numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None)
+   if not isinstance(numeric_level, int):
+       raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel)
+   logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...)
+
+The call to :func:`basicConfig` should come *before* any calls to :func:`debug`,
+:func:`info` etc. As it's intended as a one-off simple configuration facility,
+only the first call will actually do anything: subsequent calls are effectively
+no-ops.
+
+If you run the above script several times, the messages from successive runs
+are appended to the file *example.log*. If you want each run to start afresh,
+not remembering the messages from earlier runs, you can specify the *filemode*
+argument, by changing the call in the above example to::
+
+   logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG)
+
+The output will be the same as before, but the log file is no longer appended
+to, so the messages from earlier runs are lost.
+
+
+Logging from multiple modules
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If your program consists of multiple modules, here's an example of how you
+could organize logging in it::
+
+   # myapp.py
+   import logging
+   import mylib
+
+   def main():
+       logging.basicConfig(filename='myapp.log', level=logging.INFO)
+       logging.info('Started')
+       mylib.do_something()
+       logging.info('Finished')
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       main()
+
+::
+
+   # mylib.py
+   import logging
+
+   def do_something():
+       logging.info('Doing something')
+
+If you run *myapp.py*, you should see this in *myapp.log*:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   INFO:root:Started
+   INFO:root:Doing something
+   INFO:root:Finished
+
+which is hopefully what you were expecting to see. You can generalize this to
+multiple modules, using the pattern in *mylib.py*. Note that for this simple
+usage pattern, you won't know, by looking in the log file, *where* in your
+application your messages came from, apart from looking at the event
+description. If you want to track the location of your messages, you'll need
+to refer to the documentation beyond the tutorial level -- see
+:ref:`logging-advanced-tutorial`.
+
+
+Logging variable data
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To log variable data, use a format string for the event description message and
+append the variable data as arguments. For example::
+
+   import logging
+   logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!')
+
+will display:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   WARNING:root:Look before you leap!
+
+As you can see, merging of variable data into the event description message
+uses the old, %-style of string formatting. This is for backwards
+compatibility: the logging package pre-dates newer formatting options such as
+:meth:`str.format` and :class:`string.Template`. These newer formatting
+options *are* supported, but exploring them is outside the scope of this
+tutorial: see :ref:`formatting-styles` for more information.
+
+
+Changing the format of displayed messages
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To change the format which is used to display messages, you need to
+specify the format you want to use::
+
+   import logging
+   logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG)
+   logging.debug('This message should appear on the console')
+   logging.info('So should this')
+   logging.warning('And this, too')
+
+which would print:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
+   INFO:So should this
+   WARNING:And this, too
+
+Notice that the 'root' which appeared in earlier examples has disappeared. For
+a full set of things that can appear in format strings, you can refer to the
+documentation for :ref:`logrecord-attributes`, but for simple usage, you just
+need the *levelname* (severity), *message* (event description, including
+variable data) and perhaps to display when the event occurred. This is
+described in the next section.
+
+
+Displaying the date/time in messages
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To display the date and time of an event, you would place '%(asctime)s' in
+your format string::
+
+   import logging
+   logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s')
+   logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')
+
+which should print something like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.
+
+The default format for date/time display (shown above) is like ISO8601 or
+:rfc:`3339`. If you need more control over the formatting of the date/time, provide
+a *datefmt* argument to ``basicConfig``, as in this example::
+
+   import logging
+   logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
+   logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')
+
+which would display something like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.
+
+The format of the *datefmt* argument is the same as supported by
+:func:`time.strftime`.
+
+
+Next Steps
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+That concludes the basic tutorial. It should be enough to get you up and
+running with logging. There's a lot more that the logging package offers, but
+to get the best out of it, you'll need to invest a little more of your time in
+reading the following sections. If you're ready for that, grab some of your
+favourite beverage and carry on.
+
+If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to incorporate
+logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems or don't
+understand something, please post a question on the comp.lang.python Usenet
+group (available at https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/comp.lang.python) and you
+should receive help before too long.
+
+Still here? You can carry on reading the next few sections, which provide a
+slightly more advanced/in-depth tutorial than the basic one above. After that,
+you can take a look at the :ref:`logging-cookbook`.
+
+.. _logging-advanced-tutorial:
+
+
+Advanced Logging Tutorial
+-------------------------
+
+The logging library takes a modular approach and offers several categories
+of components: loggers, handlers, filters, and formatters.
+
+* Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.
+* Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the appropriate
+  destination.
+* Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log records
+  to output.
+* Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.
+
+Log event information is passed between loggers, handlers, filters and
+formatters in a :class:`LogRecord` instance.
+
+Logging is performed by calling methods on instances of the :class:`Logger`
+class (hereafter called :dfn:`loggers`). Each instance has a name, and they are
+conceptually arranged in a namespace hierarchy using dots (periods) as
+separators. For example, a logger named 'scan' is the parent of loggers
+'scan.text', 'scan.html' and 'scan.pdf'. Logger names can be anything you want,
+and indicate the area of an application in which a logged message originates.
+
+A good convention to use when naming loggers is to use a module-level logger,
+in each module which uses logging, named as follows::
+
+   logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+This means that logger names track the package/module hierarchy, and it's
+intuitively obvious where events are logged just from the logger name.
+
+The root of the hierarchy of loggers is called the root logger. That's the
+logger used by the functions :func:`debug`, :func:`info`, :func:`warning`,
+:func:`error` and :func:`critical`, which just call the same-named method of
+the root logger. The functions and the methods have the same signatures. The
+root logger's name is printed as 'root' in the logged output.
+
+It is, of course, possible to log messages to different destinations. Support
+is included in the package for writing log messages to files, HTTP GET/POST
+locations, email via SMTP, generic sockets, queues, or OS-specific logging
+mechanisms such as syslog or the Windows NT event log. Destinations are served
+by :dfn:`handler` classes. You can create your own log destination class if
+you have special requirements not met by any of the built-in handler classes.
+
+By default, no destination is set for any logging messages. You can specify
+a destination (such as console or file) by using :func:`basicConfig` as in the
+tutorial examples. If you call the functions  :func:`debug`, :func:`info`,
+:func:`warning`, :func:`error` and :func:`critical`, they will check to see
+if no destination is set; and if one is not set, they will set a destination
+of the console (``sys.stderr``) and a default format for the displayed
+message before delegating to the root logger to do the actual message output.
+
+The default format set by :func:`basicConfig` for messages is:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   severity:logger name:message
+
+You can change this by passing a format string to :func:`basicConfig` with the
+*format* keyword argument. For all options regarding how a format string is
+constructed, see :ref:`formatter-objects`.
+
+Logging Flow
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The flow of log event information in loggers and handlers is illustrated in the
+following diagram.
+
+.. image:: logging_flow.png
+
+Loggers
+^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`Logger` objects have a threefold job.  First, they expose several
+methods to application code so that applications can log messages at runtime.
+Second, logger objects determine which log messages to act upon based upon
+severity (the default filtering facility) or filter objects.  Third, logger
+objects pass along relevant log messages to all interested log handlers.
+
+The most widely used methods on logger objects fall into two categories:
+configuration and message sending.
+
+These are the most common configuration methods:
+
+* :meth:`Logger.setLevel` specifies the lowest-severity log message a logger
+  will handle, where debug is the lowest built-in severity level and critical
+  is the highest built-in severity.  For example, if the severity level is
+  INFO, the logger will handle only INFO, WARNING, ERROR, and CRITICAL messages
+  and will ignore DEBUG messages.
+
+* :meth:`Logger.addHandler` and :meth:`Logger.removeHandler` add and remove
+  handler objects from the logger object.  Handlers are covered in more detail
+  in :ref:`handler-basic`.
+
+* :meth:`Logger.addFilter` and :meth:`Logger.removeFilter` add and remove filter
+  objects from the logger object.  Filters are covered in more detail in
+  :ref:`filter`.
+
+You don't need to always call these methods on every logger you create. See the
+last two paragraphs in this section.
+
+With the logger object configured, the following methods create log messages:
+
+* :meth:`Logger.debug`, :meth:`Logger.info`, :meth:`Logger.warning`,
+  :meth:`Logger.error`, and :meth:`Logger.critical` all create log records with
+  a message and a level that corresponds to their respective method names. The
+  message is actually a format string, which may contain the standard string
+  substitution syntax of ``%s``, ``%d``, ``%f``, and so on.  The
+  rest of their arguments is a list of objects that correspond with the
+  substitution fields in the message.  With regard to ``**kwargs``, the
+  logging methods care only about a keyword of ``exc_info`` and use it to
+  determine whether to log exception information.
+
+* :meth:`Logger.exception` creates a log message similar to
+  :meth:`Logger.error`.  The difference is that :meth:`Logger.exception` dumps a
+  stack trace along with it.  Call this method only from an exception handler.
+
+* :meth:`Logger.log` takes a log level as an explicit argument.  This is a
+  little more verbose for logging messages than using the log level convenience
+  methods listed above, but this is how to log at custom log levels.
+
+:func:`getLogger` returns a reference to a logger instance with the specified
+name if it is provided, or ``root`` if not.  The names are period-separated
+hierarchical structures.  Multiple calls to :func:`getLogger` with the same name
+will return a reference to the same logger object.  Loggers that are further
+down in the hierarchical list are children of loggers higher up in the list.
+For example, given a logger with a name of ``foo``, loggers with names of
+``foo.bar``, ``foo.bar.baz``, and ``foo.bam`` are all descendants of ``foo``.
+
+Loggers have a concept of *effective level*. If a level is not explicitly set
+on a logger, the level of its parent is used instead as its effective level.
+If the parent has no explicit level set, *its* parent is examined, and so on -
+all ancestors are searched until an explicitly set level is found. The root
+logger always has an explicit level set (``WARNING`` by default). When deciding
+whether to process an event, the effective level of the logger is used to
+determine whether the event is passed to the logger's handlers.
+
+Child loggers propagate messages up to the handlers associated with their
+ancestor loggers. Because of this, it is unnecessary to define and configure
+handlers for all the loggers an application uses. It is sufficient to
+configure handlers for a top-level logger and create child loggers as needed.
+(You can, however, turn off propagation by setting the *propagate*
+attribute of a logger to ``False``.)
+
+
+.. _handler-basic:
+
+Handlers
+^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`~logging.Handler` objects are responsible for dispatching the
+appropriate log messages (based on the log messages' severity) to the handler's
+specified destination.  :class:`Logger` objects can add zero or more handler
+objects to themselves with an :meth:`~Logger.addHandler` method.  As an example
+scenario, an application may want to send all log messages to a log file, all
+log messages of error or higher to stdout, and all messages of critical to an
+email address. This scenario requires three individual handlers where each
+handler is responsible for sending messages of a specific severity to a specific
+location.
+
+The standard library includes quite a few handler types (see
+:ref:`useful-handlers`); the tutorials use mainly :class:`StreamHandler` and
+:class:`FileHandler` in its examples.
+
+There are very few methods in a handler for application developers to concern
+themselves with.  The only handler methods that seem relevant for application
+developers who are using the built-in handler objects (that is, not creating
+custom handlers) are the following configuration methods:
+
+* The :meth:`~Handler.setLevel` method, just as in logger objects, specifies the
+  lowest severity that will be dispatched to the appropriate destination.  Why
+  are there two :func:`setLevel` methods?  The level set in the logger
+  determines which severity of messages it will pass to its handlers.  The level
+  set in each handler determines which messages that handler will send on.
+
+* :meth:`~Handler.setFormatter` selects a Formatter object for this handler to
+  use.
+
+* :meth:`~Handler.addFilter` and :meth:`~Handler.removeFilter` respectively
+  configure and deconfigure filter objects on handlers.
+
+Application code should not directly instantiate and use instances of
+:class:`Handler`.  Instead, the :class:`Handler` class is a base class that
+defines the interface that all handlers should have and establishes some
+default behavior that child classes can use (or override).
+
+
+Formatters
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Formatter objects configure the final order, structure, and contents of the log
+message.  Unlike the base :class:`logging.Handler` class, application code may
+instantiate formatter classes, although you could likely subclass the formatter
+if your application needs special behavior.  The constructor takes three
+optional arguments -- a message format string, a date format string and a style
+indicator.
+
+.. method:: logging.Formatter.__init__(fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%')
+
+If there is no message format string, the default is to use the
+raw message.  If there is no date format string, the default date format is:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    %Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S
+
+with the milliseconds tacked on at the end. The ``style`` is one of `%`, '{'
+or '$'. If one of these is not specified, then '%' will be used.
+
+If the ``style`` is '%', the message format string uses
+``%(<dictionary key>)s`` styled string substitution; the possible keys are
+documented in :ref:`logrecord-attributes`. If the style is '{', the message
+format string is assumed to be compatible with :meth:`str.format` (using
+keyword arguments), while if the style is '$' then the message format string
+should conform to what is expected by :meth:`string.Template.substitute`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Added the ``style`` parameter.
+
+The following message format string will log the time in a human-readable
+format, the severity of the message, and the contents of the message, in that
+order::
+
+    '%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
+
+Formatters use a user-configurable function to convert the creation time of a
+record to a tuple. By default, :func:`time.localtime` is used; to change this
+for a particular formatter instance, set the ``converter`` attribute of the
+instance to a function with the same signature as :func:`time.localtime` or
+:func:`time.gmtime`. To change it for all formatters, for example if you want
+all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the ``converter`` attribute in the
+Formatter class (to ``time.gmtime`` for GMT display).
+
+
+Configuring Logging
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging.config
+
+Programmers can configure logging in three ways:
+
+1. Creating loggers, handlers, and formatters explicitly using Python
+   code that calls the configuration methods listed above.
+2. Creating a logging config file and reading it using the :func:`fileConfig`
+   function.
+3. Creating a dictionary of configuration information and passing it
+   to the :func:`dictConfig` function.
+
+For the reference documentation on the last two options, see
+:ref:`logging-config-api`.  The following example configures a very simple
+logger, a console handler, and a simple formatter using Python code::
+
+    import logging
+
+    # create logger
+    logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
+    logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+
+    # create console handler and set level to debug
+    ch = logging.StreamHandler()
+    ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
+
+    # create formatter
+    formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
+
+    # add formatter to ch
+    ch.setFormatter(formatter)
+
+    # add ch to logger
+    logger.addHandler(ch)
+
+    # 'application' code
+    logger.debug('debug message')
+    logger.info('info message')
+    logger.warning('warn message')
+    logger.error('error message')
+    logger.critical('critical message')
+
+Running this module from the command line produces the following output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python simple_logging_module.py
+    2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message
+    2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message
+    2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message
+    2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message
+    2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message
+
+The following Python module creates a logger, handler, and formatter nearly
+identical to those in the example listed above, with the only difference being
+the names of the objects::
+
+    import logging
+    import logging.config
+
+    logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')
+
+    # create logger
+    logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')
+
+    # 'application' code
+    logger.debug('debug message')
+    logger.info('info message')
+    logger.warning('warn message')
+    logger.error('error message')
+    logger.critical('critical message')
+
+Here is the logging.conf file:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+    [loggers]
+    keys=root,simpleExample
+
+    [handlers]
+    keys=consoleHandler
+
+    [formatters]
+    keys=simpleFormatter
+
+    [logger_root]
+    level=DEBUG
+    handlers=consoleHandler
+
+    [logger_simpleExample]
+    level=DEBUG
+    handlers=consoleHandler
+    qualname=simpleExample
+    propagate=0
+
+    [handler_consoleHandler]
+    class=StreamHandler
+    level=DEBUG
+    formatter=simpleFormatter
+    args=(sys.stdout,)
+
+    [formatter_simpleFormatter]
+    format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s
+    datefmt=
+
+The output is nearly identical to that of the non-config-file-based example:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python simple_logging_config.py
+    2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message
+    2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message
+    2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message
+    2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message
+    2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message
+
+You can see that the config file approach has a few advantages over the Python
+code approach, mainly separation of configuration and code and the ability of
+noncoders to easily modify the logging properties.
+
+.. warning:: The :func:`fileConfig` function takes a default parameter,
+   ``disable_existing_loggers``, which defaults to ``True`` for reasons of
+   backward compatibility. This may or may not be what you want, since it
+   will cause any non-root loggers existing before the :func:`fileConfig`
+   call to be disabled unless they (or an ancestor) are explicitly named in
+   the configuration. Please refer to the reference documentation for more
+   information, and specify ``False`` for this parameter if you wish.
+
+   The dictionary passed to :func:`dictConfig` can also specify a Boolean
+   value with key ``disable_existing_loggers``, which if not specified
+   explicitly in the dictionary also defaults to being interpreted as
+   ``True``. This leads to the logger-disabling behaviour described above,
+   which may not be what you want - in which case, provide the key
+   explicitly with a value of ``False``.
+
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+Note that the class names referenced in config files need to be either relative
+to the logging module, or absolute values which can be resolved using normal
+import mechanisms. Thus, you could use either
+:class:`~logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler` (relative to the logging module) or
+``mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler`` (for a class defined in package ``mypackage``
+and module ``mymodule``, where ``mypackage`` is available on the Python import
+path).
+
+In Python 3.2, a new means of configuring logging has been introduced, using
+dictionaries to hold configuration information. This provides a superset of the
+functionality of the config-file-based approach outlined above, and is the
+recommended configuration method for new applications and deployments. Because
+a Python dictionary is used to hold configuration information, and since you
+can populate that dictionary using different means, you have more options for
+configuration. For example, you can use a configuration file in JSON format,
+or, if you have access to YAML processing functionality, a file in YAML
+format, to populate the configuration dictionary. Or, of course, you can
+construct the dictionary in Python code, receive it in pickled form over a
+socket, or use whatever approach makes sense for your application.
+
+Here's an example of the same configuration as above, in YAML format for
+the new dictionary-based approach:
+
+.. code-block:: yaml
+
+    version: 1
+    formatters:
+      simple:
+        format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
+    handlers:
+      console:
+        class: logging.StreamHandler
+        level: DEBUG
+        formatter: simple
+        stream: ext://sys.stdout
+    loggers:
+      simpleExample:
+        level: DEBUG
+        handlers: [console]
+        propagate: no
+    root:
+      level: DEBUG
+      handlers: [console]
+
+For more information about logging using a dictionary, see
+:ref:`logging-config-api`.
+
+What happens if no configuration is provided
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a situation
+where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can be found to
+output the event. The behaviour of the logging package in these
+circumstances is dependent on the Python version.
+
+For versions of Python prior to 3.2, the behaviour is as follows:
+
+* If *logging.raiseExceptions* is ``False`` (production mode), the event is
+  silently dropped.
+
+* If *logging.raiseExceptions* is ``True`` (development mode), a message
+  'No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z' is printed once.
+
+In Python 3.2 and later, the behaviour is as follows:
+
+* The event is output using a 'handler of last resort', stored in
+  ``logging.lastResort``. This internal handler is not associated with any
+  logger, and acts like a :class:`~logging.StreamHandler` which writes the
+  event description message to the current value of ``sys.stderr`` (therefore
+  respecting any redirections which may be in effect). No formatting is
+  done on the message - just the bare event description message is printed.
+  The handler's level is set to ``WARNING``, so all events at this and
+  greater severities will be output.
+
+To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, ``logging.lastResort`` can be set to ``None``.
+
+.. _library-config:
+
+Configuring Logging for a Library
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+When developing a library which uses logging, you should take care to
+document how the library uses logging - for example, the names of loggers
+used. Some consideration also needs to be given to its logging configuration.
+If the using application does not use logging, and library code makes logging
+calls, then (as described in the previous section) events of severity
+``WARNING`` and greater will be printed to ``sys.stderr``. This is regarded as
+the best default behaviour.
+
+If for some reason you *don't* want these messages printed in the absence of
+any logging configuration, you can attach a do-nothing handler to the top-level
+logger for your library. This avoids the message being printed, since a handler
+will always be found for the library's events: it just doesn't produce any
+output. If the library user configures logging for application use, presumably
+that configuration will add some handlers, and if levels are suitably
+configured then logging calls made in library code will send output to those
+handlers, as normal.
+
+A do-nothing handler is included in the logging package:
+:class:`~logging.NullHandler` (since Python 3.1). An instance of this handler
+could be added to the top-level logger of the logging namespace used by the
+library (*if* you want to prevent your library's logged events being output to
+``sys.stderr`` in the absence of logging configuration). If all logging by a
+library *foo* is done using loggers with names matching 'foo.x', 'foo.x.y',
+etc. then the code::
+
+    import logging
+    logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler())
+
+should have the desired effect. If an organisation produces a number of
+libraries, then the logger name specified can be 'orgname.foo' rather than
+just 'foo'.
+
+.. note:: It is strongly advised that you *do not add any handlers other
+   than* :class:`~logging.NullHandler` *to your library's loggers*. This is
+   because the configuration of handlers is the prerogative of the application
+   developer who uses your library. The application developer knows their
+   target audience and what handlers are most appropriate for their
+   application: if you add handlers 'under the hood', you might well interfere
+   with their ability to carry out unit tests and deliver logs which suit their
+   requirements.
+
+
+Logging Levels
+--------------
+
+The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table. These are
+primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels, and need them to
+have specific values relative to the predefined levels. If you define a level
+with the same numeric value, it overwrites the predefined value; the predefined
+name is lost.
+
++--------------+---------------+
+| Level        | Numeric value |
++==============+===============+
+| ``CRITICAL`` | 50            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``ERROR``    | 40            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``WARNING``  | 30            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``INFO``     | 20            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``DEBUG``    | 10            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``NOTSET``   | 0             |
++--------------+---------------+
+
+Levels can also be associated with loggers, being set either by the developer or
+through loading a saved logging configuration. When a logging method is called
+on a logger, the logger compares its own level with the level associated with
+the method call. If the logger's level is higher than the method call's, no
+logging message is actually generated. This is the basic mechanism controlling
+the verbosity of logging output.
+
+Logging messages are encoded as instances of the :class:`~logging.LogRecord`
+class. When a logger decides to actually log an event, a
+:class:`~logging.LogRecord` instance is created from the logging message.
+
+Logging messages are subjected to a dispatch mechanism through the use of
+:dfn:`handlers`, which are instances of subclasses of the :class:`Handler`
+class. Handlers are responsible for ensuring that a logged message (in the form
+of a :class:`LogRecord`) ends up in a particular location (or set of locations)
+which is useful for the target audience for that message (such as end users,
+support desk staff, system administrators, developers). Handlers are passed
+:class:`LogRecord` instances intended for particular destinations. Each logger
+can have zero, one or more handlers associated with it (via the
+:meth:`~Logger.addHandler` method of :class:`Logger`). In addition to any
+handlers directly associated with a logger, *all handlers associated with all
+ancestors of the logger* are called to dispatch the message (unless the
+*propagate* flag for a logger is set to a false value, at which point the
+passing to ancestor handlers stops).
+
+Just as for loggers, handlers can have levels associated with them. A handler's
+level acts as a filter in the same way as a logger's level does. If a handler
+decides to actually dispatch an event, the :meth:`~Handler.emit` method is used
+to send the message to its destination. Most user-defined subclasses of
+:class:`Handler` will need to override this :meth:`~Handler.emit`.
+
+.. _custom-levels:
+
+Custom Levels
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Defining your own levels is possible, but should not be necessary, as the
+existing levels have been chosen on the basis of practical experience.
+However, if you are convinced that you need custom levels, great care should
+be exercised when doing this, and it is possibly *a very bad idea to define
+custom levels if you are developing a library*. That's because if multiple
+library authors all define their own custom levels, there is a chance that
+the logging output from such multiple libraries used together will be
+difficult for the using developer to control and/or interpret, because a
+given numeric value might mean different things for different libraries.
+
+.. _useful-handlers:
+
+Useful Handlers
+---------------
+
+In addition to the base :class:`Handler` class, many useful subclasses are
+provided:
+
+#. :class:`StreamHandler` instances send messages to streams (file-like
+   objects).
+
+#. :class:`FileHandler` instances send messages to disk files.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.BaseRotatingHandler` is the base class for handlers that
+   rotate log files at a certain point. It is not meant to be  instantiated
+   directly. Instead, use :class:`~handlers.RotatingFileHandler` or
+   :class:`~handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler`.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.RotatingFileHandler` instances send messages to disk
+   files, with support for maximum log file sizes and log file rotation.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler` instances send messages to
+   disk files, rotating the log file at certain timed intervals.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.SocketHandler` instances send messages to TCP/IP
+   sockets. Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.DatagramHandler` instances send messages to UDP
+   sockets. Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.SMTPHandler` instances send messages to a designated
+   email address.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.SysLogHandler` instances send messages to a Unix
+   syslog daemon, possibly on a remote machine.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.NTEventLogHandler` instances send messages to a
+   Windows NT/2000/XP event log.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.MemoryHandler` instances send messages to a buffer
+   in memory, which is flushed whenever specific criteria are met.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.HTTPHandler` instances send messages to an HTTP
+   server using either ``GET`` or ``POST`` semantics.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.WatchedFileHandler` instances watch the file they are
+   logging to. If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using the file
+   name. This handler is only useful on Unix-like systems; Windows does not
+   support the underlying mechanism used.
+
+#. :class:`~handlers.QueueHandler` instances send messages to a queue, such as
+   those implemented in the :mod:`queue` or :mod:`multiprocessing` modules.
+
+#. :class:`NullHandler` instances do nothing with error messages. They are used
+   by library developers who want to use logging, but want to avoid the 'No
+   handlers could be found for logger XXX' message which can be displayed if
+   the library user has not configured logging. See :ref:`library-config` for
+   more information.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.1
+   The :class:`NullHandler` class.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+   The :class:`~handlers.QueueHandler` class.
+
+The :class:`NullHandler`, :class:`StreamHandler` and :class:`FileHandler`
+classes are defined in the core logging package. The other handlers are
+defined in a sub-module, :mod:`logging.handlers`. (There is also another
+sub-module, :mod:`logging.config`, for configuration functionality.)
+
+Logged messages are formatted for presentation through instances of the
+:class:`Formatter` class. They are initialized with a format string suitable for
+use with the % operator and a dictionary.
+
+For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of
+:class:`~handlers.BufferingFormatter` can be used. In addition to the format
+string (which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for
+header and trailer format strings.
+
+When filtering based on logger level and/or handler level is not enough,
+instances of :class:`Filter` can be added to both :class:`Logger` and
+:class:`Handler` instances (through their :meth:`~Handler.addFilter` method).
+Before deciding to process a message further, both loggers and handlers consult
+all their filters for permission. If any filter returns a false value, the
+message is not processed further.
+
+The basic :class:`Filter` functionality allows filtering by specific logger
+name. If this feature is used, messages sent to the named logger and its
+children are allowed through the filter, and all others dropped.
+
+
+.. _logging-exceptions:
+
+Exceptions raised during logging
+--------------------------------
+
+The logging package is designed to swallow exceptions which occur while logging
+in production. This is so that errors which occur while handling logging events
+- such as logging misconfiguration, network or other similar errors - do not
+cause the application using logging to terminate prematurely.
+
+:class:`SystemExit` and :class:`KeyboardInterrupt` exceptions are never
+swallowed. Other exceptions which occur during the :meth:`~Handler.emit` method
+of a :class:`Handler` subclass are passed to its :meth:`~Handler.handleError`
+method.
+
+The default implementation of :meth:`~Handler.handleError` in :class:`Handler`
+checks to see if a module-level variable, :data:`raiseExceptions`, is set. If
+set, a traceback is printed to :data:`sys.stderr`. If not set, the exception is
+swallowed.
+
+.. note:: The default value of :data:`raiseExceptions` is ``True``. This is
+   because during development, you typically want to be notified of any
+   exceptions that occur. It's advised that you set :data:`raiseExceptions` to
+   ``False`` for production usage.
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+.. _arbitrary-object-messages:
+
+Using arbitrary objects as messages
+-----------------------------------
+
+In the preceding sections and examples, it has been assumed that the message
+passed when logging the event is a string. However, this is not the only
+possibility. You can pass an arbitrary object as a message, and its
+:meth:`~object.__str__` method will be called when the logging system needs to
+convert it to a string representation. In fact, if you want to, you can avoid
+computing a string representation altogether - for example, the
+:class:`~handlers.SocketHandler` emits an event by pickling it and sending it
+over the wire.
+
+
+Optimization
+------------
+
+Formatting of message arguments is deferred until it cannot be avoided.
+However, computing the arguments passed to the logging method can also be
+expensive, and you may want to avoid doing it if the logger will just throw
+away your event. To decide what to do, you can call the
+:meth:`~Logger.isEnabledFor` method which takes a level argument and returns
+true if the event would be created by the Logger for that level of call.
+You can write code like this::
+
+    if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
+        logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(),
+                                            expensive_func2())
+
+so that if the logger's threshold is set above ``DEBUG``, the calls to
+:func:`expensive_func1` and :func:`expensive_func2` are never made.
+
+.. note:: In some cases, :meth:`~Logger.isEnabledFor` can itself be more
+   expensive than you'd like (e.g. for deeply nested loggers where an explicit
+   level is only set high up in the logger hierarchy). In such cases (or if you
+   want to avoid calling a method in tight loops), you can cache the result of a
+   call to :meth:`~Logger.isEnabledFor` in a local or instance variable, and use
+   that instead of calling the method each time. Such a cached value would only
+   need to be recomputed when the logging configuration changes dynamically
+   while the application is running (which is not all that common).
+
+There are other optimizations which can be made for specific applications which
+need more precise control over what logging information is collected. Here's a
+list of things you can do to avoid processing during logging which you don't
+need:
+
++-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+| What you don't want to collect                | How to avoid collecting it             |
++===============================================+========================================+
+| Information about where calls were made from. | Set ``logging._srcfile`` to ``None``.  |
+|                                               | This avoids calling                    |
+|                                               | :func:`sys._getframe`, which may help  |
+|                                               | to speed up your code in environments  |
+|                                               | like PyPy (which can't speed up code   |
+|                                               | that uses :func:`sys._getframe`), if   |
+|                                               | and when PyPy supports Python 3.x.     |
++-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+| Threading information.                        | Set ``logging.logThreads`` to ``0``.   |
++-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+| Process information.                          | Set ``logging.logProcesses`` to ``0``. |
++-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+
+Also note that the core logging module only includes the basic handlers. If
+you don't import :mod:`logging.handlers` and :mod:`logging.config`, they won't
+take up any memory.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`logging`
+      API reference for the logging module.
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.config`
+      Configuration API for the logging module.
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.handlers`
+      Useful handlers included with the logging module.
+
+   :ref:`A logging cookbook <logging-cookbook>`
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/pyporting.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/pyporting.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3be6bb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/pyporting.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,452 @@
+.. _pyporting-howto:
+
+*********************************
+Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
+*********************************
+
+:author: Brett Cannon
+
+.. topic:: Abstract
+
+   With Python 3 being the future of Python while Python 2 is still in active
+   use, it is good to have your project available for both major releases of
+   Python. This guide is meant to help you figure out how best to support both
+   Python 2 & 3 simultaneously.
+
+   If you are looking to port an extension module instead of pure Python code,
+   please see :ref:`cporting-howto`.
+
+   If you would like to read one core Python developer's take on why Python 3
+   came into existence, you can read Nick Coghlan's `Python 3 Q & A`_ or
+   Brett Cannon's `Why Python 3 exists`_.
+
+   For help with porting, you can email the python-porting_ mailing list with
+   questions.
+
+The Short Explanation
+=====================
+
+To make your project be single-source Python 2/3 compatible, the basic steps
+are:
+
+#. Only worry about supporting Python 2.7
+#. Make sure you have good test coverage (coverage.py_ can help;
+   ``pip install coverage``)
+#. Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
+#. Use Futurize_ (or Modernize_) to update your code (e.g. ``pip install future``)
+#. Use Pylint_ to help make sure you don't regress on your Python 3 support
+   (``pip install pylint``)
+#. Use caniusepython3_ to find out which of your dependencies are blocking your
+   use of Python 3 (``pip install caniusepython3``)
+#. Once your dependencies are no longer blocking you, use continuous integration
+   to make sure you stay compatible with Python 2 & 3 (tox_ can help test
+   against multiple versions of Python; ``pip install tox``)
+#. Consider using optional static type checking to make sure your type usage
+   works in both Python 2 & 3 (e.g. use mypy_ to check your typing under both
+   Python 2 & Python 3).
+
+
+Details
+=======
+
+A key point about supporting Python 2 & 3 simultaneously is that you can start
+**today**! Even if your dependencies are not supporting Python 3 yet that does
+not mean you can't modernize your code **now** to support Python 3. Most changes
+required to support Python 3 lead to cleaner code using newer practices even in
+Python 2 code.
+
+Another key point is that modernizing your Python 2 code to also support
+Python 3 is largely automated for you. While you might have to make some API
+decisions thanks to Python 3 clarifying text data versus binary data, the
+lower-level work is now mostly done for you and thus can at least benefit from
+the automated changes immediately.
+
+Keep those key points in mind while you read on about the details of porting
+your code to support Python 2 & 3 simultaneously.
+
+
+Drop support for Python 2.6 and older
+-------------------------------------
+
+While you can make Python 2.5 work with Python 3, it is **much** easier if you
+only have to work with Python 2.7. If dropping Python 2.5 is not an
+option then the six_ project can help you support Python 2.5 & 3 simultaneously
+(``pip install six``). Do realize, though, that nearly all the projects listed
+in this HOWTO will not be available to you.
+
+If you are able to skip Python 2.5 and older, then the required changes
+to your code should continue to look and feel like idiomatic Python code. At
+worst you will have to use a function instead of a method in some instances or
+have to import a function instead of using a built-in one, but otherwise the
+overall transformation should not feel foreign to you.
+
+But you should aim for only supporting Python 2.7. Python 2.6 is no longer
+freely supported and thus is not receiving bugfixes. This means **you** will have
+to work around any issues you come across with Python 2.6. There are also some
+tools mentioned in this HOWTO which do not support Python 2.6 (e.g., Pylint_),
+and this will become more commonplace as time goes on. It will simply be easier
+for you if you only support the versions of Python that you have to support.
+
+
+Make sure you specify the proper version support in your ``setup.py`` file
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+In your ``setup.py`` file you should have the proper `trove classifier`_
+specifying what versions of Python you support. As your project does not support
+Python 3 yet you should at least have
+``Programming Language :: Python :: 2 :: Only`` specified. Ideally you should
+also specify each major/minor version of Python that you do support, e.g.
+``Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7``.
+
+
+Have good test coverage
+-----------------------
+
+Once you have your code supporting the oldest version of Python 2 you want it
+to, you will want to make sure your test suite has good coverage. A good rule of
+thumb is that if you want to be confident enough in your test suite that any
+failures that appear after having tools rewrite your code are actual bugs in the
+tools and not in your code. If you want a number to aim for, try to get over 80%
+coverage (and don't feel bad if you find it hard to get better than 90%
+coverage). If you don't already have a tool to measure test coverage then
+coverage.py_ is recommended.
+
+
+Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
+-------------------------------------------
+
+Once you have your code well-tested you are ready to begin porting your code to
+Python 3! But to fully understand how your code is going to change and what
+you want to look out for while you code, you will want to learn what changes
+Python 3 makes in terms of Python 2. Typically the two best ways of doing that
+is reading the `"What's New"`_ doc for each release of Python 3 and the
+`Porting to Python 3`_ book (which is free online). There is also a handy
+`cheat sheet`_ from the Python-Future project.
+
+
+Update your code
+----------------
+
+Once you feel like you know what is different in Python 3 compared to Python 2,
+it's time to update your code! You have a choice between two tools in porting
+your code automatically: Futurize_ and Modernize_. Which tool you choose will
+depend on how much like Python 3 you want your code to be. Futurize_ does its
+best to make Python 3 idioms and practices exist in Python 2, e.g. backporting
+the ``bytes`` type from Python 3 so that you have semantic parity between the
+major versions of Python. Modernize_,
+on the other hand, is more conservative and targets a Python 2/3 subset of
+Python, directly relying on six_ to help provide compatibility. As Python 3 is
+the future, it might be best to consider Futurize to begin adjusting to any new
+practices that Python 3 introduces which you are not accustomed to yet.
+
+Regardless of which tool you choose, they will update your code to run under
+Python 3 while staying compatible with the version of Python 2 you started with.
+Depending on how conservative you want to be, you may want to run the tool over
+your test suite first and visually inspect the diff to make sure the
+transformation is accurate. After you have transformed your test suite and
+verified that all the tests still pass as expected, then you can transform your
+application code knowing that any tests which fail is a translation failure.
+
+Unfortunately the tools can't automate everything to make your code work under
+Python 3 and so there are a handful of things you will need to update manually
+to get full Python 3 support (which of these steps are necessary vary between
+the tools). Read the documentation for the tool you choose to use to see what it
+fixes by default and what it can do optionally to know what will (not) be fixed
+for you and what you may have to fix on your own (e.g. using ``io.open()`` over
+the built-in ``open()`` function is off by default in Modernize). Luckily,
+though, there are only a couple of things to watch out for which can be
+considered large issues that may be hard to debug if not watched for.
+
+
+Division
+++++++++
+
+In Python 3, ``5 / 2 == 2.5`` and not ``2``; all division between ``int`` values
+result in a ``float``. This change has actually been planned since Python 2.2
+which was released in 2002. Since then users have been encouraged to add
+``from __future__ import division`` to any and all files which use the ``/`` and
+``//`` operators or to be running the interpreter with the ``-Q`` flag. If you
+have not been doing this then you will need to go through your code and do two
+things:
+
+#. Add ``from __future__ import division`` to your files
+#. Update any division operator as necessary to either use ``//`` to use floor
+   division or continue using ``/`` and expect a float
+
+The reason that ``/`` isn't simply translated to ``//`` automatically is that if
+an object defines a ``__truediv__`` method but not ``__floordiv__`` then your
+code would begin to fail (e.g. a user-defined class that uses ``/`` to
+signify some operation but not ``//`` for the same thing or at all).
+
+
+Text versus binary data
++++++++++++++++++++++++
+
+In Python 2 you could use the ``str`` type for both text and binary data.
+Unfortunately this confluence of two different concepts could lead to brittle
+code which sometimes worked for either kind of data, sometimes not. It also
+could lead to confusing APIs if people didn't explicitly state that something
+that accepted ``str`` accepted either text or binary data instead of one
+specific type. This complicated the situation especially for anyone supporting
+multiple languages as APIs wouldn't bother explicitly supporting ``unicode``
+when they claimed text data support.
+
+To make the distinction between text and binary data clearer and more
+pronounced, Python 3 did what most languages created in the age of the internet
+have done and made text and binary data distinct types that cannot blindly be
+mixed together (Python predates widespread access to the internet). For any code
+that deals only with text or only binary data, this separation doesn't pose an
+issue. But for code that has to deal with both, it does mean you might have to
+now care about when you are using text compared to binary data, which is why
+this cannot be entirely automated.
+
+To start, you will need to decide which APIs take text and which take binary
+(it is **highly** recommended you don't design APIs that can take both due to
+the difficulty of keeping the code working; as stated earlier it is difficult to
+do well). In Python 2 this means making sure the APIs that take text can work
+with ``unicode`` and those that work with binary data work with the
+``bytes`` type from Python 3 (which is a subset of ``str`` in Python 2 and acts
+as an alias for ``bytes`` type in Python 2). Usually the biggest issue is
+realizing which methods exist on which types in Python 2 & 3 simultaneously
+(for text that's ``unicode`` in Python 2 and ``str`` in Python 3, for binary
+that's ``str``/``bytes`` in Python 2 and ``bytes`` in Python 3). The following
+table lists the **unique** methods of each data type across Python 2 & 3
+(e.g., the ``decode()`` method is usable on the equivalent binary data type in
+either Python 2 or 3, but it can't be used by the textual data type consistently
+between Python 2 and 3 because ``str`` in Python 3 doesn't have the method). Do
+note that as of Python 3.5 the ``__mod__`` method was added to the bytes type.
+
+======================== =====================
+**Text data**            **Binary data**
+------------------------ ---------------------
+\                        decode
+------------------------ ---------------------
+encode
+------------------------ ---------------------
+format
+------------------------ ---------------------
+isdecimal
+------------------------ ---------------------
+isnumeric
+======================== =====================
+
+Making the distinction easier to handle can be accomplished by encoding and
+decoding between binary data and text at the edge of your code. This means that
+when you receive text in binary data, you should immediately decode it. And if
+your code needs to send text as binary data then encode it as late as possible.
+This allows your code to work with only text internally and thus eliminates
+having to keep track of what type of data you are working with.
+
+The next issue is making sure you know whether the string literals in your code
+represent text or binary data. You should add a ``b`` prefix to any
+literal that presents binary data. For text you should add a ``u`` prefix to
+the text literal. (there is a :mod:`__future__` import to force all unspecified
+literals to be Unicode, but usage has shown it isn't as effective as adding a
+``b`` or ``u`` prefix to all literals explicitly)
+
+As part of this dichotomy you also need to be careful about opening files.
+Unless you have been working on Windows, there is a chance you have not always
+bothered to add the ``b`` mode when opening a binary file (e.g., ``rb`` for
+binary reading).  Under Python 3, binary files and text files are clearly
+distinct and mutually incompatible; see the :mod:`io` module for details.
+Therefore, you **must** make a decision of whether a file will be used for
+binary access (allowing binary data to be read and/or written) or textual access
+(allowing text data to be read and/or written). You should also use :func:`io.open`
+for opening files instead of the built-in :func:`open` function as the :mod:`io`
+module is consistent from Python 2 to 3 while the built-in :func:`open` function
+is not (in Python 3 it's actually :func:`io.open`). Do not bother with the
+outdated practice of using :func:`codecs.open` as that's only necessary for
+keeping compatibility with Python 2.5.
+
+The constructors of both ``str`` and ``bytes`` have different semantics for the
+same arguments between Python 2 & 3. Passing an integer to ``bytes`` in Python 2
+will give you the string representation of the integer: ``bytes(3) == '3'``.
+But in Python 3, an integer argument to ``bytes`` will give you a bytes object
+as long as the integer specified, filled with null bytes:
+``bytes(3) == b'\x00\x00\x00'``. A similar worry is necessary when passing a
+bytes object to ``str``. In Python 2 you just get the bytes object back:
+``str(b'3') == b'3'``. But in Python 3 you get the string representation of the
+bytes object: ``str(b'3') == "b'3'"``.
+
+Finally, the indexing of binary data requires careful handling (slicing does
+**not** require any special handling). In Python 2,
+``b'123'[1] == b'2'`` while in Python 3 ``b'123'[1] == 50``. Because binary data
+is simply a collection of binary numbers, Python 3 returns the integer value for
+the byte you index on. But in Python 2 because ``bytes == str``, indexing
+returns a one-item slice of bytes. The six_ project has a function
+named ``six.indexbytes()`` which will return an integer like in Python 3:
+``six.indexbytes(b'123', 1)``.
+
+To summarize:
+
+#. Decide which of your APIs take text and which take binary data
+#. Make sure that your code that works with text also works with ``unicode`` and
+   code for binary data works with ``bytes`` in Python 2 (see the table above
+   for what methods you cannot use for each type)
+#. Mark all binary literals with a ``b`` prefix, textual literals with a ``u``
+   prefix
+#. Decode binary data to text as soon as possible, encode text as binary data as
+   late as possible
+#. Open files using :func:`io.open` and make sure to specify the ``b`` mode when
+   appropriate
+#. Be careful when indexing into binary data
+
+
+Use feature detection instead of version detection
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+
+Inevitably you will have code that has to choose what to do based on what
+version of Python is running. The best way to do this is with feature detection
+of whether the version of Python you're running under supports what you need.
+If for some reason that doesn't work then you should make the version check be
+against Python 2 and not Python 3. To help explain this, let's look at an
+example.
+
+Let's pretend that you need access to a feature of importlib_ that
+is available in Python's standard library since Python 3.3 and available for
+Python 2 through importlib2_ on PyPI. You might be tempted to write code to
+access e.g. the ``importlib.abc`` module by doing the following::
+
+  import sys
+
+  if sys.version_info[0] == 3:
+      from importlib import abc
+  else:
+      from importlib2 import abc
+
+The problem with this code is what happens when Python 4 comes out? It would
+be better to treat Python 2 as the exceptional case instead of Python 3 and
+assume that future Python versions will be more compatible with Python 3 than
+Python 2::
+
+  import sys
+
+  if sys.version_info[0] > 2:
+      from importlib import abc
+  else:
+      from importlib2 import abc
+
+The best solution, though, is to do no version detection at all and instead rely
+on feature detection. That avoids any potential issues of getting the version
+detection wrong and helps keep you future-compatible::
+
+  try:
+      from importlib import abc
+  except ImportError:
+      from importlib2 import abc
+
+
+Prevent compatibility regressions
+---------------------------------
+
+Once you have fully translated your code to be compatible with Python 3, you
+will want to make sure your code doesn't regress and stop working under
+Python 3. This is especially true if you have a dependency which is blocking you
+from actually running under Python 3 at the moment.
+
+To help with staying compatible, any new modules you create should have
+at least the following block of code at the top of it::
+
+    from __future__ import absolute_import
+    from __future__ import division
+    from __future__ import print_function
+
+You can also run Python 2 with the ``-3`` flag to be warned about various
+compatibility issues your code triggers during execution. If you turn warnings
+into errors with ``-Werror`` then you can make sure that you don't accidentally
+miss a warning.
+
+You can also use the Pylint_ project and its ``--py3k`` flag to lint your code
+to receive warnings when your code begins to deviate from Python 3
+compatibility. This also prevents you from having to run Modernize_ or Futurize_
+over your code regularly to catch compatibility regressions. This does require
+you only support Python 2.7 and Python 3.4 or newer as that is Pylint's
+minimum Python version support.
+
+
+Check which dependencies block your transition
+----------------------------------------------
+
+**After** you have made your code compatible with Python 3 you should begin to
+care about whether your dependencies have also been ported. The caniusepython3_
+project was created to help you determine which projects
+-- directly or indirectly -- are blocking you from supporting Python 3. There
+is both a command-line tool as well as a web interface at
+https://caniusepython3.com.
+
+The project also provides code which you can integrate into your test suite so
+that you will have a failing test when you no longer have dependencies blocking
+you from using Python 3. This allows you to avoid having to manually check your
+dependencies and to be notified quickly when you can start running on Python 3.
+
+
+Update your ``setup.py`` file to denote Python 3 compatibility
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Once your code works under Python 3, you should update the classifiers in
+your ``setup.py`` to contain ``Programming Language :: Python :: 3`` and to not
+specify sole Python 2 support. This will tell anyone using your code that you
+support Python 2 **and** 3. Ideally you will also want to add classifiers for
+each major/minor version of Python you now support.
+
+
+Use continuous integration to stay compatible
+---------------------------------------------
+
+Once you are able to fully run under Python 3 you will want to make sure your
+code always works under both Python 2 & 3. Probably the best tool for running
+your tests under multiple Python interpreters is tox_. You can then integrate
+tox with your continuous integration system so that you never accidentally break
+Python 2 or 3 support.
+
+You may also want to use the ``-bb`` flag with the Python 3 interpreter to
+trigger an exception when you are comparing bytes to strings or bytes to an int
+(the latter is available starting in Python 3.5). By default type-differing
+comparisons simply return ``False``, but if you made a mistake in your
+separation of text/binary data handling or indexing on bytes you wouldn't easily
+find the mistake. This flag will raise an exception when these kinds of
+comparisons occur, making the mistake much easier to track down.
+
+And that's mostly it! At this point your code base is compatible with both
+Python 2 and 3 simultaneously. Your testing will also be set up so that you
+don't accidentally break Python 2 or 3 compatibility regardless of which version
+you typically run your tests under while developing.
+
+
+Consider using optional static type checking
+--------------------------------------------
+
+Another way to help port your code is to use a static type checker like
+mypy_ or pytype_ on your code. These tools can be used to analyze your code as
+if it's being run under Python 2, then you can run the tool a second time as if
+your code is running under Python 3. By running a static type checker twice like
+this you can discover if you're e.g. misusing binary data type in one version
+of Python compared to another. If you add optional type hints to your code you
+can also explicitly state whether your APIs use textual or binary data, helping
+to make sure everything functions as expected in both versions of Python.
+
+
+.. _2to3: https://docs.python.org/3/library/2to3.html
+.. _caniusepython3: https://pypi.org/project/caniusepython3
+.. _cheat sheet: http://python-future.org/compatible_idioms.html
+.. _coverage.py: https://pypi.org/project/coverage
+.. _Futurize: http://python-future.org/automatic_conversion.html
+.. _importlib: https://docs.python.org/3/library/importlib.html#module-importlib
+.. _importlib2: https://pypi.org/project/importlib2
+.. _Modernize: https://python-modernize.readthedocs.io/
+.. _mypy: http://mypy-lang.org/
+.. _Porting to Python 3: http://python3porting.com/
+.. _Pylint: https://pypi.org/project/pylint
+
+.. _Python 3 Q & A: https://ncoghlan-devs-python-notes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/python3/questions_and_answers.html
+
+.. _pytype: https://github.com/google/pytype
+.. _python-future: http://python-future.org/
+.. _python-porting: https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-porting
+.. _six: https://pypi.org/project/six
+.. _tox: https://pypi.org/project/tox
+.. _trove classifier: https://pypi.org/classifiers
+
+.. _"What's New": https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/index.html
+
+.. _Why Python 3 exists: https://snarky.ca/why-python-3-exists
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/regex.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/regex.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d385d99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/regex.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1386 @@
+.. _regex-howto:
+
+****************************
+  Regular Expression HOWTO
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
+
+.. TODO:
+   Document lookbehind assertions
+   Better way of displaying a RE, a string, and what it matches
+   Mention optional argument to match.groups()
+   Unicode (at least a reference)
+
+
+.. topic:: Abstract
+
+   This document is an introductory tutorial to using regular expressions in Python
+   with the :mod:`re` module.  It provides a gentler introduction than the
+   corresponding section in the Library Reference.
+
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+Regular expressions (called REs, or regexes, or regex patterns) are essentially
+a tiny, highly specialized programming language embedded inside Python and made
+available through the :mod:`re` module. Using this little language, you specify
+the rules for the set of possible strings that you want to match; this set might
+contain English sentences, or e-mail addresses, or TeX commands, or anything you
+like.  You can then ask questions such as "Does this string match the pattern?",
+or "Is there a match for the pattern anywhere in this string?".  You can also
+use REs to modify a string or to split it apart in various ways.
+
+Regular expression patterns are compiled into a series of bytecodes which are
+then executed by a matching engine written in C.  For advanced use, it may be
+necessary to pay careful attention to how the engine will execute a given RE,
+and write the RE in a certain way in order to produce bytecode that runs faster.
+Optimization isn't covered in this document, because it requires that you have a
+good understanding of the matching engine's internals.
+
+The regular expression language is relatively small and restricted, so not all
+possible string processing tasks can be done using regular expressions.  There
+are also tasks that *can* be done with regular expressions, but the expressions
+turn out to be very complicated.  In these cases, you may be better off writing
+Python code to do the processing; while Python code will be slower than an
+elaborate regular expression, it will also probably be more understandable.
+
+
+Simple Patterns
+===============
+
+We'll start by learning about the simplest possible regular expressions.  Since
+regular expressions are used to operate on strings, we'll begin with the most
+common task: matching characters.
+
+For a detailed explanation of the computer science underlying regular
+expressions (deterministic and non-deterministic finite automata), you can refer
+to almost any textbook on writing compilers.
+
+
+Matching Characters
+-------------------
+
+Most letters and characters will simply match themselves.  For example, the
+regular expression ``test`` will match the string ``test`` exactly.  (You can
+enable a case-insensitive mode that would let this RE match ``Test`` or ``TEST``
+as well; more about this later.)
+
+There are exceptions to this rule; some characters are special
+:dfn:`metacharacters`, and don't match themselves.  Instead, they signal that
+some out-of-the-ordinary thing should be matched, or they affect other portions
+of the RE by repeating them or changing their meaning.  Much of this document is
+devoted to discussing various metacharacters and what they do.
+
+Here's a complete list of the metacharacters; their meanings will be discussed
+in the rest of this HOWTO.
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   . ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )
+
+The first metacharacters we'll look at are ``[`` and ``]``. They're used for
+specifying a character class, which is a set of characters that you wish to
+match.  Characters can be listed individually, or a range of characters can be
+indicated by giving two characters and separating them by a ``'-'``.  For
+example, ``[abc]`` will match any of the characters ``a``, ``b``, or ``c``; this
+is the same as ``[a-c]``, which uses a range to express the same set of
+characters.  If you wanted to match only lowercase letters, your RE would be
+``[a-z]``.
+
+Metacharacters are not active inside classes.  For example, ``[akm$]`` will
+match any of the characters ``'a'``, ``'k'``, ``'m'``, or ``'$'``; ``'$'`` is
+usually a metacharacter, but inside a character class it's stripped of its
+special nature.
+
+You can match the characters not listed within the class by :dfn:`complementing`
+the set.  This is indicated by including a ``'^'`` as the first character of the
+class. For example, ``[^5]`` will match any character except ``'5'``.  If the
+caret appears elsewhere in a character class, it does not have special meaning.
+For example: ``[5^]`` will match either a ``'5'`` or a ``'^'``.
+
+Perhaps the most important metacharacter is the backslash, ``\``.   As in Python
+string literals, the backslash can be followed by various characters to signal
+various special sequences.  It's also used to escape all the metacharacters so
+you can still match them in patterns; for example, if you need to match a ``[``
+or  ``\``, you can precede them with a backslash to remove their special
+meaning: ``\[`` or ``\\``.
+
+Some of the special sequences beginning with ``'\'`` represent
+predefined sets of characters that are often useful, such as the set
+of digits, the set of letters, or the set of anything that isn't
+whitespace.
+
+Let's take an example: ``\w`` matches any alphanumeric character.  If
+the regex pattern is expressed in bytes, this is equivalent to the
+class ``[a-zA-Z0-9_]``.  If the regex pattern is a string, ``\w`` will
+match all the characters marked as letters in the Unicode database
+provided by the :mod:`unicodedata` module.  You can use the more
+restricted definition of ``\w`` in a string pattern by supplying the
+:const:`re.ASCII` flag when compiling the regular expression.
+
+The following list of special sequences isn't complete. For a complete
+list of sequences and expanded class definitions for Unicode string
+patterns, see the last part of :ref:`Regular Expression Syntax
+<re-syntax>` in the Standard Library reference.  In general, the
+Unicode versions match any character that's in the appropriate
+category in the Unicode database.
+
+``\d``
+   Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to the class ``[0-9]``.
+
+``\D``
+   Matches any non-digit character; this is equivalent to the class ``[^0-9]``.
+
+``\s``
+   Matches any whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class ``[
+   \t\n\r\f\v]``.
+
+``\S``
+   Matches any non-whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class ``[^
+   \t\n\r\f\v]``.
+
+``\w``
+   Matches any alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class
+   ``[a-zA-Z0-9_]``.
+
+``\W``
+   Matches any non-alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class
+   ``[^a-zA-Z0-9_]``.
+
+These sequences can be included inside a character class.  For example,
+``[\s,.]`` is a character class that will match any whitespace character, or
+``','`` or ``'.'``.
+
+The final metacharacter in this section is ``.``.  It matches anything except a
+newline character, and there's an alternate mode (:const:`re.DOTALL`) where it will
+match even a newline.  ``.`` is often used where you want to match "any
+character".
+
+
+Repeating Things
+----------------
+
+Being able to match varying sets of characters is the first thing regular
+expressions can do that isn't already possible with the methods available on
+strings.  However, if that was the only additional capability of regexes, they
+wouldn't be much of an advance. Another capability is that you can specify that
+portions of the RE must be repeated a certain number of times.
+
+The first metacharacter for repeating things that we'll look at is ``*``.  ``*``
+doesn't match the literal character ``'*'``; instead, it specifies that the
+previous character can be matched zero or more times, instead of exactly once.
+
+For example, ``ca*t`` will match ``'ct'`` (0 ``'a'`` characters), ``'cat'`` (1 ``'a'``),
+``'caaat'`` (3 ``'a'`` characters), and so forth.
+
+Repetitions such as ``*`` are :dfn:`greedy`; when repeating a RE, the matching
+engine will try to repeat it as many times as possible. If later portions of the
+pattern don't match, the matching engine will then back up and try again with
+fewer repetitions.
+
+A step-by-step example will make this more obvious.  Let's consider the
+expression ``a[bcd]*b``.  This matches the letter ``'a'``, zero or more letters
+from the class ``[bcd]``, and finally ends with a ``'b'``.  Now imagine matching
+this RE against the string ``'abcbd'``.
+
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| Step | Matched   | Explanation                     |
++======+===========+=================================+
+| 1    | ``a``     | The ``a`` in the RE matches.    |
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 2    | ``abcbd`` | The engine matches ``[bcd]*``,  |
+|      |           | going as far as it can, which   |
+|      |           | is to the end of the string.    |
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 3    | *Failure* | The engine tries to match       |
+|      |           | ``b``, but the current position |
+|      |           | is at the end of the string, so |
+|      |           | it fails.                       |
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 4    | ``abcb``  | Back up, so that  ``[bcd]*``    |
+|      |           | matches one less character.     |
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 5    | *Failure* | Try ``b`` again, but the        |
+|      |           | current position is at the last |
+|      |           | character, which is a ``'d'``.  |
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 6    | ``abc``   | Back up again, so that          |
+|      |           | ``[bcd]*`` is only matching     |
+|      |           | ``bc``.                         |
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 6    | ``abcb``  | Try ``b`` again.  This time     |
+|      |           | the character at the            |
+|      |           | current position is ``'b'``, so |
+|      |           | it succeeds.                    |
++------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+
+The end of the RE has now been reached, and it has matched ``'abcb'``.  This
+demonstrates how the matching engine goes as far as it can at first, and if no
+match is found it will then progressively back up and retry the rest of the RE
+again and again.  It will back up until it has tried zero matches for
+``[bcd]*``, and if that subsequently fails, the engine will conclude that the
+string doesn't match the RE at all.
+
+Another repeating metacharacter is ``+``, which matches one or more times.  Pay
+careful attention to the difference between ``*`` and ``+``; ``*`` matches
+*zero* or more times, so whatever's being repeated may not be present at all,
+while ``+`` requires at least *one* occurrence.  To use a similar example,
+``ca+t`` will match ``'cat'`` (1 ``'a'``), ``'caaat'`` (3 ``'a'``\ s), but won't
+match ``'ct'``.
+
+There are two more repeating qualifiers.  The question mark character, ``?``,
+matches either once or zero times; you can think of it as marking something as
+being optional.  For example, ``home-?brew`` matches either ``'homebrew'`` or
+``'home-brew'``.
+
+The most complicated repeated qualifier is ``{m,n}``, where *m* and *n* are
+decimal integers.  This qualifier means there must be at least *m* repetitions,
+and at most *n*.  For example, ``a/{1,3}b`` will match ``'a/b'``, ``'a//b'``, and
+``'a///b'``.  It won't match ``'ab'``, which has no slashes, or ``'a////b'``, which
+has four.
+
+You can omit either *m* or *n*; in that case, a reasonable value is assumed for
+the missing value.  Omitting *m* is interpreted as a lower limit of 0, while
+omitting *n* results in an upper bound of infinity.
+
+Readers of a reductionist bent may notice that the three other qualifiers can
+all be expressed using this notation.  ``{0,}`` is the same as ``*``, ``{1,}``
+is equivalent to ``+``, and ``{0,1}`` is the same as ``?``.  It's better to use
+``*``, ``+``, or ``?`` when you can, simply because they're shorter and easier
+to read.
+
+
+Using Regular Expressions
+=========================
+
+Now that we've looked at some simple regular expressions, how do we actually use
+them in Python?  The :mod:`re` module provides an interface to the regular
+expression engine, allowing you to compile REs into objects and then perform
+matches with them.
+
+
+Compiling Regular Expressions
+-----------------------------
+
+Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have
+methods for various operations such as searching for pattern matches or
+performing string substitutions. ::
+
+   >>> import re
+   >>> p = re.compile('ab*')
+   >>> p
+   re.compile('ab*')
+
+:func:`re.compile` also accepts an optional *flags* argument, used to enable
+various special features and syntax variations.  We'll go over the available
+settings later, but for now a single example will do::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE)
+
+The RE is passed to :func:`re.compile` as a string.  REs are handled as strings
+because regular expressions aren't part of the core Python language, and no
+special syntax was created for expressing them.  (There are applications that
+don't need REs at all, so there's no need to bloat the language specification by
+including them.) Instead, the :mod:`re` module is simply a C extension module
+included with Python, just like the :mod:`socket` or :mod:`zlib` modules.
+
+Putting REs in strings keeps the Python language simpler, but has one
+disadvantage which is the topic of the next section.
+
+
+.. _the-backslash-plague:
+
+The Backslash Plague
+--------------------
+
+As stated earlier, regular expressions use the backslash character (``'\'``) to
+indicate special forms or to allow special characters to be used without
+invoking their special meaning. This conflicts with Python's usage of the same
+character for the same purpose in string literals.
+
+Let's say you want to write a RE that matches the string ``\section``, which
+might be found in a LaTeX file.  To figure out what to write in the program
+code, start with the desired string to be matched.  Next, you must escape any
+backslashes and other metacharacters by preceding them with a backslash,
+resulting in the string ``\\section``.  The resulting string that must be passed
+to :func:`re.compile` must be ``\\section``.  However, to express this as a
+Python string literal, both backslashes must be escaped *again*.
+
++-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| Characters        | Stage                                    |
++===================+==========================================+
+| ``\section``      | Text string to be matched                |
++-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``\\section``     | Escaped backslash for :func:`re.compile` |
++-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``"\\\\section"`` | Escaped backslashes for a string literal |
++-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+
+In short, to match a literal backslash, one has to write ``'\\\\'`` as the RE
+string, because the regular expression must be ``\\``, and each backslash must
+be expressed as ``\\`` inside a regular Python string literal.  In REs that
+feature backslashes repeatedly, this leads to lots of repeated backslashes and
+makes the resulting strings difficult to understand.
+
+The solution is to use Python's raw string notation for regular expressions;
+backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string literal prefixed with
+``'r'``, so ``r"\n"`` is a two-character string containing ``'\'`` and ``'n'``,
+while ``"\n"`` is a one-character string containing a newline. Regular
+expressions will often be written in Python code using this raw string notation.
+
+In addition, special escape sequences that are valid in regular expressions,
+but not valid as Python string literals, now result in a
+:exc:`DeprecationWarning` and will eventually become a :exc:`SyntaxError`,
+which means the sequences will be invalid if raw string notation or escaping
+the backslashes isn't used.
+
+
++-------------------+------------------+
+| Regular String    | Raw string       |
++===================+==================+
+| ``"ab*"``         | ``r"ab*"``       |
++-------------------+------------------+
+| ``"\\\\section"`` | ``r"\\section"`` |
++-------------------+------------------+
+| ``"\\w+\\s+\\1"`` | ``r"\w+\s+\1"``  |
++-------------------+------------------+
+
+
+Performing Matches
+------------------
+
+Once you have an object representing a compiled regular expression, what do you
+do with it?  Pattern objects have several methods and attributes.
+Only the most significant ones will be covered here; consult the :mod:`re` docs
+for a complete listing.
+
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Method/Attribute | Purpose                                       |
++==================+===============================================+
+| ``match()``      | Determine if the RE matches at the beginning  |
+|                  | of the string.                                |
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``search()``     | Scan through a string, looking for any        |
+|                  | location where this RE matches.               |
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``findall()``    | Find all substrings where the RE matches, and |
+|                  | returns them as a list.                       |
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``finditer()``   | Find all substrings where the RE matches, and |
+|                  | returns them as an :term:`iterator`.          |
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+:meth:`~re.Pattern.match` and :meth:`~re.Pattern.search` return ``None`` if no match can be found.  If
+they're successful, a :ref:`match object <match-objects>` instance is returned,
+containing information about the match: where it starts and ends, the substring
+it matched, and more.
+
+You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the :mod:`re`
+module.  If you have :mod:`tkinter` available, you may also want to look at
+:source:`Tools/demo/redemo.py`, a demonstration program included with the
+Python distribution.  It allows you to enter REs and strings, and displays
+whether the RE matches or fails. :file:`redemo.py` can be quite useful when
+trying to debug a complicated RE.
+
+This HOWTO uses the standard Python interpreter for its examples. First, run the
+Python interpreter, import the :mod:`re` module, and compile a RE::
+
+   >>> import re
+   >>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+')
+   >>> p
+   re.compile('[a-z]+')
+
+Now, you can try matching various strings against the RE ``[a-z]+``.  An empty
+string shouldn't match at all, since ``+`` means 'one or more repetitions'.
+:meth:`~re.Pattern.match` should return ``None`` in this case, which will cause the
+interpreter to print no output.  You can explicitly print the result of
+:meth:`!match` to make this clear. ::
+
+   >>> p.match("")
+   >>> print(p.match(""))
+   None
+
+Now, let's try it on a string that it should match, such as ``tempo``.  In this
+case, :meth:`~re.Pattern.match` will return a :ref:`match object <match-objects>`, so you
+should store the result in a variable for later use. ::
+
+   >>> m = p.match('tempo')
+   >>> m
+   <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'>
+
+Now you can query the :ref:`match object <match-objects>` for information
+about the matching string.  Match object instances
+also have several methods and attributes; the most important ones are:
+
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| Method/Attribute | Purpose                                    |
++==================+============================================+
+| ``group()``      | Return the string matched by the RE        |
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``start()``      | Return the starting position of the match  |
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``end()``        | Return the ending position of the match    |
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``span()``       | Return a tuple containing the (start, end) |
+|                  | positions  of the match                    |
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+Trying these methods will soon clarify their meaning::
+
+   >>> m.group()
+   'tempo'
+   >>> m.start(), m.end()
+   (0, 5)
+   >>> m.span()
+   (0, 5)
+
+:meth:`~re.Match.group` returns the substring that was matched by the RE.  :meth:`~re.Match.start`
+and :meth:`~re.Match.end` return the starting and ending index of the match. :meth:`~re.Match.span`
+returns both start and end indexes in a single tuple.  Since the :meth:`~re.Pattern.match`
+method only checks if the RE matches at the start of a string, :meth:`!start`
+will always be zero.  However, the :meth:`~re.Pattern.search` method of patterns
+scans through the string, so  the match may not start at zero in that
+case. ::
+
+   >>> print(p.match('::: message'))
+   None
+   >>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m)
+   <re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'>
+   >>> m.group()
+   'message'
+   >>> m.span()
+   (4, 11)
+
+In actual programs, the most common style is to store the
+:ref:`match object <match-objects>` in a variable, and then check if it was
+``None``.  This usually looks like::
+
+   p = re.compile( ... )
+   m = p.match( 'string goes here' )
+   if m:
+       print('Match found: ', m.group())
+   else:
+       print('No match')
+
+Two pattern methods return all of the matches for a pattern.
+:meth:`~re.Pattern.findall` returns a list of matching strings::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
+   >>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping')
+   ['12', '11', '10']
+
+The ``r`` prefix, making the literal a raw string literal, is needed in this
+example because escape sequences in a normal "cooked" string literal that are
+not recognized by Python, as opposed to regular expressions, now result in a
+:exc:`DeprecationWarning` and will eventually become a :exc:`SyntaxError`.  See
+:ref:`the-backslash-plague`.
+
+:meth:`~re.Pattern.findall` has to create the entire list before it can be returned as the
+result.  The :meth:`~re.Pattern.finditer` method returns a sequence of
+:ref:`match object <match-objects>` instances as an :term:`iterator`::
+
+   >>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...')
+   >>> iterator  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+   <callable_iterator object at 0x...>
+   >>> for match in iterator:
+   ...     print(match.span())
+   ...
+   (0, 2)
+   (22, 24)
+   (29, 31)
+
+
+Module-Level Functions
+----------------------
+
+You don't have to create a pattern object and call its methods; the
+:mod:`re` module also provides top-level functions called :func:`~re.match`,
+:func:`~re.search`, :func:`~re.findall`, :func:`~re.sub`, and so forth.  These functions
+take the same arguments as the corresponding pattern method with
+the RE string added as the first argument, and still return either ``None`` or a
+:ref:`match object <match-objects>` instance. ::
+
+   >>> print(re.match(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk'))
+   None
+   >>> re.match(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998')  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+   <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '>
+
+Under the hood, these functions simply create a pattern object for you
+and call the appropriate method on it.  They also store the compiled
+object in a cache, so future calls using the same RE won't need to
+parse the pattern again and again.
+
+Should you use these module-level functions, or should you get the
+pattern and call its methods yourself?  If you're accessing a regex
+within a loop, pre-compiling it will save a few function calls.
+Outside of loops, there's not much difference thanks to the internal
+cache.
+
+
+Compilation Flags
+-----------------
+
+Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions work.
+Flags are available in the :mod:`re` module under two names, a long name such as
+:const:`IGNORECASE` and a short, one-letter form such as :const:`I`.  (If you're
+familiar with Perl's pattern modifiers, the one-letter forms use the same
+letters; the short form of :const:`re.VERBOSE` is :const:`re.X`, for example.)
+Multiple flags can be specified by bitwise OR-ing them; ``re.I | re.M`` sets
+both the :const:`I` and :const:`M` flags, for example.
+
+Here's a table of the available flags, followed by a more detailed explanation
+of each one.
+
++---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| Flag                            | Meaning                                    |
++=================================+============================================+
+| :const:`ASCII`, :const:`A`      | Makes several escapes like ``\w``, ``\b``, |
+|                                 | ``\s`` and ``\d`` match only on ASCII      |
+|                                 | characters with the respective property.   |
++---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`DOTALL`, :const:`S`     | Make ``.`` match any character, including  |
+|                                 | newlines.                                  |
++---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`IGNORECASE`, :const:`I` | Do case-insensitive matches.               |
++---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`LOCALE`, :const:`L`     | Do a locale-aware match.                   |
++---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`MULTILINE`, :const:`M`  | Multi-line matching, affecting ``^`` and   |
+|                                 | ``$``.                                     |
++---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`VERBOSE`, :const:`X`    | Enable verbose REs, which can be organized |
+| (for 'extended')                | more cleanly and understandably.           |
++---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. data:: I
+          IGNORECASE
+   :noindex:
+
+   Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal strings will
+   match letters by ignoring case.  For example, ``[A-Z]`` will match lowercase
+   letters, too. Full Unicode matching also works unless the :const:`ASCII`
+   flag is used to disable non-ASCII matches.  When the Unicode patterns
+   ``[a-z]`` or ``[A-Z]`` are used in combination with the :const:`IGNORECASE`
+   flag, they will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII
+   letters: 'İ' (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131,
+   Latin small letter dotless i), 'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and
+   'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  ``Spam`` will match ``'Spam'``, ``'spam'``,
+   ``'spAM'``, or ``'ſpam'`` (the latter is matched only in Unicode mode).
+   This lowercasing doesn't take the current locale into account;
+   it will if you also set the :const:`LOCALE` flag.
+
+
+.. data:: L
+          LOCALE
+   :noindex:
+
+   Make ``\w``, ``\W``, ``\b``, ``\B`` and case-insensitive matching dependent
+   on the current locale instead of the Unicode database.
+
+   Locales are a feature of the C library intended to help in writing programs
+   that take account of language differences.  For example, if you're
+   processing encoded French text, you'd want to be able to write ``\w+`` to
+   match words, but ``\w`` only matches the character class ``[A-Za-z]`` in
+   bytes patterns; it won't match bytes corresponding to ``é`` or ``ç``.
+   If your system is configured properly and a French locale is selected,
+   certain C functions will tell the program that the byte corresponding to
+   ``é`` should also be considered a letter.
+   Setting the :const:`LOCALE` flag when compiling a regular expression will cause
+   the resulting compiled object to use these C functions for ``\w``; this is
+   slower, but also enables ``\w+`` to match French words as you'd expect.
+   The use of this flag is discouraged in Python 3 as the locale mechanism
+   is very unreliable, it only handles one "culture" at a time, and it only
+   works with 8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is already enabled by default
+   in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able to handle different
+   locales/languages.
+
+
+.. data:: M
+          MULTILINE
+   :noindex:
+
+   (``^`` and ``$`` haven't been explained yet;  they'll be introduced in section
+   :ref:`more-metacharacters`.)
+
+   Usually ``^`` matches only at the beginning of the string, and ``$`` matches
+   only at the end of the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the
+   end of the string. When this flag is specified, ``^`` matches at the beginning
+   of the string and at the beginning of each line within the string, immediately
+   following each newline.  Similarly, the ``$`` metacharacter matches either at
+   the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately preceding each
+   newline).
+
+
+.. data:: S
+          DOTALL
+   :noindex:
+
+   Makes the ``'.'`` special character match any character at all, including a
+   newline; without this flag, ``'.'`` will match anything *except* a newline.
+
+
+.. data:: A
+          ASCII
+   :noindex:
+
+   Make ``\w``, ``\W``, ``\b``, ``\B``, ``\s`` and ``\S`` perform ASCII-only
+   matching instead of full Unicode matching. This is only meaningful for
+   Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns.
+
+
+.. data:: X
+          VERBOSE
+   :noindex:
+
+   This flag allows you to write regular expressions that are more readable by
+   granting you more flexibility in how you can format them.  When this flag has
+   been specified, whitespace within the RE string is ignored, except when the
+   whitespace is in a character class or preceded by an unescaped backslash; this
+   lets you organize and indent the RE more clearly.  This flag also lets you put
+   comments within a RE that will be ignored by the engine; comments are marked by
+   a ``'#'`` that's neither in a character class or preceded by an unescaped
+   backslash.
+
+   For example, here's a RE that uses :const:`re.VERBOSE`; see how much easier it
+   is to read? ::
+
+      charref = re.compile(r"""
+       &[#]                # Start of a numeric entity reference
+       (
+           0[0-7]+         # Octal form
+         | [0-9]+          # Decimal form
+         | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # Hexadecimal form
+       )
+       ;                   # Trailing semicolon
+      """, re.VERBOSE)
+
+   Without the verbose setting, the RE would look like this::
+
+      charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+"
+                           "|[0-9]+"
+                           "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);")
+
+   In the above example, Python's automatic concatenation of string literals has
+   been used to break up the RE into smaller pieces, but it's still more difficult
+   to understand than the version using :const:`re.VERBOSE`.
+
+
+More Pattern Power
+==================
+
+So far we've only covered a part of the features of regular expressions.  In
+this section, we'll cover some new metacharacters, and how to use groups to
+retrieve portions of the text that was matched.
+
+
+.. _more-metacharacters:
+
+More Metacharacters
+-------------------
+
+There are some metacharacters that we haven't covered yet.  Most of them will be
+covered in this section.
+
+Some of the remaining metacharacters to be discussed are :dfn:`zero-width
+assertions`.  They don't cause the engine to advance through the string;
+instead, they consume no characters at all, and simply succeed or fail.  For
+example, ``\b`` is an assertion that the current position is located at a word
+boundary; the position isn't changed by the ``\b`` at all.  This means that
+zero-width assertions should never be repeated, because if they match once at a
+given location, they can obviously be matched an infinite number of times.
+
+``|``
+   Alternation, or the "or" operator.   If *A* and *B* are regular expressions,
+   ``A|B`` will match any string that matches either *A* or *B*. ``|`` has very
+   low precedence in order to make it work reasonably when you're alternating
+   multi-character strings. ``Crow|Servo`` will match either ``'Crow'`` or ``'Servo'``,
+   not ``'Cro'``, a ``'w'`` or an ``'S'``, and ``'ervo'``.
+
+   To match a literal ``'|'``, use ``\|``, or enclose it inside a character class,
+   as in ``[|]``.
+
+``^``
+   Matches at the beginning of lines.  Unless the :const:`MULTILINE` flag has been
+   set, this will only match at the beginning of the string.  In :const:`MULTILINE`
+   mode, this also matches immediately after each newline within the string.
+
+   For example, if you wish to match the word ``From`` only at the beginning of a
+   line, the RE to use is ``^From``. ::
+
+      >>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity'))  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+      <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'>
+      >>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory'))
+      None
+
+   To match a literal ``'^'``, use ``\^``.
+
+``$``
+   Matches at the end of a line, which is defined as either the end of the string,
+   or any location followed by a newline character.     ::
+
+      >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}'))  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+      <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
+      >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} '))
+      None
+      >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n'))  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+      <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
+
+   To match a literal ``'$'``, use ``\$`` or enclose it inside a character class,
+   as in  ``[$]``.
+
+``\A``
+   Matches only at the start of the string.  When not in :const:`MULTILINE` mode,
+   ``\A`` and ``^`` are effectively the same.  In :const:`MULTILINE` mode, they're
+   different: ``\A`` still matches only at the beginning of the string, but ``^``
+   may match at any location inside the string that follows a newline character.
+
+``\Z``
+   Matches only at the end of the string.
+
+``\b``
+   Word boundary.  This is a zero-width assertion that matches only at the
+   beginning or end of a word.  A word is defined as a sequence of alphanumeric
+   characters, so the end of a word is indicated by whitespace or a
+   non-alphanumeric character.
+
+   The following example matches ``class`` only when it's a complete word; it won't
+   match when it's contained inside another word. ::
+
+      >>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b')
+      >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
+      <re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'>
+      >>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm'))
+      None
+      >>> print(p.search('one subclass is'))
+      None
+
+   There are two subtleties you should remember when using this special sequence.
+   First, this is the worst collision between Python's string literals and regular
+   expression sequences.  In Python's string literals, ``\b`` is the backspace
+   character, ASCII value 8.  If you're not using raw strings, then Python will
+   convert the ``\b`` to a backspace, and your RE won't match as you expect it to.
+   The following example looks the same as our previous RE, but omits the ``'r'``
+   in front of the RE string. ::
+
+      >>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b')
+      >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
+      None
+      >>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b'))
+      <re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'>
+
+   Second, inside a character class, where there's no use for this assertion,
+   ``\b`` represents the backspace character, for compatibility with Python's
+   string literals.
+
+``\B``
+   Another zero-width assertion, this is the opposite of ``\b``, only matching when
+   the current position is not at a word boundary.
+
+
+Grouping
+--------
+
+Frequently you need to obtain more information than just whether the RE matched
+or not.  Regular expressions are often used to dissect strings by writing a RE
+divided into several subgroups which match different components of interest.
+For example, an RFC-822 header line is divided into a header name and a value,
+separated by a ``':'``, like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   From: author@example.com
+   User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
+   MIME-Version: 1.0
+   To: editor@example.com
+
+This can be handled by writing a regular expression which matches an entire
+header line, and has one group which matches the header name, and another group
+which matches the header's value.
+
+Groups are marked by the ``'('``, ``')'`` metacharacters. ``'('`` and ``')'``
+have much the same meaning as they do in mathematical expressions; they group
+together the expressions contained inside them, and you can repeat the contents
+of a group with a repeating qualifier, such as ``*``, ``+``, ``?``, or
+``{m,n}``.  For example, ``(ab)*`` will match zero or more repetitions of
+``ab``. ::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('(ab)*')
+   >>> print(p.match('ababababab').span())
+   (0, 10)
+
+Groups indicated with ``'('``, ``')'`` also capture the starting and ending
+index of the text that they match; this can be retrieved by passing an argument
+to :meth:`~re.Match.group`, :meth:`~re.Match.start`, :meth:`~re.Match.end`, and
+:meth:`~re.Match.span`.  Groups are
+numbered starting with 0.  Group 0 is always present; it's the whole RE, so
+:ref:`match object <match-objects>` methods all have group 0 as their default
+argument.  Later we'll see how to express groups that don't capture the span
+of text that they match. ::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('(a)b')
+   >>> m = p.match('ab')
+   >>> m.group()
+   'ab'
+   >>> m.group(0)
+   'ab'
+
+Subgroups are numbered from left to right, from 1 upward.  Groups can be nested;
+to determine the number, just count the opening parenthesis characters, going
+from left to right. ::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d')
+   >>> m = p.match('abcd')
+   >>> m.group(0)
+   'abcd'
+   >>> m.group(1)
+   'abc'
+   >>> m.group(2)
+   'b'
+
+:meth:`~re.Match.group` can be passed multiple group numbers at a time, in which case it
+will return a tuple containing the corresponding values for those groups. ::
+
+   >>> m.group(2,1,2)
+   ('b', 'abc', 'b')
+
+The :meth:`~re.Match.groups` method returns a tuple containing the strings for all the
+subgroups, from 1 up to however many there are. ::
+
+   >>> m.groups()
+   ('abc', 'b')
+
+Backreferences in a pattern allow you to specify that the contents of an earlier
+capturing group must also be found at the current location in the string.  For
+example, ``\1`` will succeed if the exact contents of group 1 can be found at
+the current position, and fails otherwise.  Remember that Python's string
+literals also use a backslash followed by numbers to allow including arbitrary
+characters in a string, so be sure to use a raw string when incorporating
+backreferences in a RE.
+
+For example, the following RE detects doubled words in a string. ::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b')
+   >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
+   'the the'
+
+Backreferences like this aren't often useful for just searching through a string
+--- there are few text formats which repeat data in this way --- but you'll soon
+find out that they're *very* useful when performing string substitutions.
+
+
+Non-capturing and Named Groups
+------------------------------
+
+Elaborate REs may use many groups, both to capture substrings of interest, and
+to group and structure the RE itself.  In complex REs, it becomes difficult to
+keep track of the group numbers.  There are two features which help with this
+problem.  Both of them use a common syntax for regular expression extensions, so
+we'll look at that first.
+
+Perl 5 is well known for its powerful additions to standard regular expressions.
+For these new features the Perl developers couldn't choose new single-keystroke metacharacters
+or new special sequences beginning with ``\`` without making Perl's regular
+expressions confusingly different from standard REs.  If they chose ``&`` as a
+new metacharacter, for example, old expressions would be assuming that ``&`` was
+a regular character and wouldn't have escaped it by writing ``\&`` or ``[&]``.
+
+The solution chosen by the Perl developers was to use ``(?...)`` as the
+extension syntax.  ``?`` immediately after a parenthesis was a syntax error
+because the ``?`` would have nothing to repeat, so this didn't introduce any
+compatibility problems.  The characters immediately after the ``?``  indicate
+what extension is being used, so ``(?=foo)`` is one thing (a positive lookahead
+assertion) and ``(?:foo)`` is something else (a non-capturing group containing
+the subexpression ``foo``).
+
+Python supports several of Perl's extensions and adds an extension
+syntax to Perl's extension syntax.  If the first character after the
+question mark is a ``P``, you know that it's an extension that's
+specific to Python.
+
+Now that we've looked at the general extension syntax, we can return
+to the features that simplify working with groups in complex REs.
+
+Sometimes you'll want to use a group to denote a part of a regular expression,
+but aren't interested in retrieving the group's contents. You can make this fact
+explicit by using a non-capturing group: ``(?:...)``, where you can replace the
+``...`` with any other regular expression. ::
+
+   >>> m = re.match("([abc])+", "abc")
+   >>> m.groups()
+   ('c',)
+   >>> m = re.match("(?:[abc])+", "abc")
+   >>> m.groups()
+   ()
+
+Except for the fact that you can't retrieve the contents of what the group
+matched, a non-capturing group behaves exactly the same as a capturing group;
+you can put anything inside it, repeat it with a repetition metacharacter such
+as ``*``, and nest it within other groups (capturing or non-capturing).
+``(?:...)`` is particularly useful when modifying an existing pattern, since you
+can add new groups without changing how all the other groups are numbered.  It
+should be mentioned that there's no performance difference in searching between
+capturing and non-capturing groups; neither form is any faster than the other.
+
+A more significant feature is named groups: instead of referring to them by
+numbers, groups can be referenced by a name.
+
+The syntax for a named group is one of the Python-specific extensions:
+``(?P<name>...)``.  *name* is, obviously, the name of the group.  Named groups
+behave exactly like capturing groups, and additionally associate a name
+with a group.  The :ref:`match object <match-objects>` methods that deal with
+capturing groups all accept either integers that refer to the group by number
+or strings that contain the desired group's name.  Named groups are still
+given numbers, so you can retrieve information about a group in two ways::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)')
+   >>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' )
+   >>> m.group('word')
+   'Lots'
+   >>> m.group(1)
+   'Lots'
+
+Named groups are handy because they let you use easily-remembered names, instead
+of having to remember numbers.  Here's an example RE from the :mod:`imaplib`
+module::
+
+   InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "'
+           r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-'
+           r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])'
+           r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])'
+           r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])'
+           r'"')
+
+It's obviously much easier to retrieve ``m.group('zonem')``, instead of having
+to remember to retrieve group 9.
+
+The syntax for backreferences in an expression such as ``(...)\1`` refers to the
+number of the group.  There's naturally a variant that uses the group name
+instead of the number. This is another Python extension: ``(?P=name)`` indicates
+that the contents of the group called *name* should again be matched at the
+current point.  The regular expression for finding doubled words,
+``\b(\w+)\s+\1\b`` can also be written as ``\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b``::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b')
+   >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
+   'the the'
+
+
+Lookahead Assertions
+--------------------
+
+Another zero-width assertion is the lookahead assertion.  Lookahead assertions
+are available in both positive and negative form, and  look like this:
+
+``(?=...)``
+   Positive lookahead assertion.  This succeeds if the contained regular
+   expression, represented here by ``...``, successfully matches at the current
+   location, and fails otherwise. But, once the contained expression has been
+   tried, the matching engine doesn't advance at all; the rest of the pattern is
+   tried right where the assertion started.
+
+``(?!...)``
+   Negative lookahead assertion.  This is the opposite of the positive assertion;
+   it succeeds if the contained expression *doesn't* match at the current position
+   in the string.
+
+To make this concrete, let's look at a case where a lookahead is useful.
+Consider a simple pattern to match a filename and split it apart into a base
+name and an extension, separated by a ``.``.  For example, in ``news.rc``,
+``news`` is the base name, and ``rc`` is the filename's extension.
+
+The pattern to match this is quite simple:
+
+``.*[.].*$``
+
+Notice that the ``.`` needs to be treated specially because it's a
+metacharacter, so it's inside a character class to only match that
+specific character.  Also notice the trailing ``$``; this is added to
+ensure that all the rest of the string must be included in the
+extension.  This regular expression matches ``foo.bar`` and
+``autoexec.bat`` and ``sendmail.cf`` and ``printers.conf``.
+
+Now, consider complicating the problem a bit; what if you want to match
+filenames where the extension is not ``bat``? Some incorrect attempts:
+
+``.*[.][^b].*$``  The first attempt above tries to exclude ``bat`` by requiring
+that the first character of the extension is not a ``b``.  This is wrong,
+because the pattern also doesn't match ``foo.bar``.
+
+``.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$``
+
+The expression gets messier when you try to patch up the first solution by
+requiring one of the following cases to match: the first character of the
+extension isn't ``b``; the second character isn't ``a``; or the third character
+isn't ``t``.  This accepts ``foo.bar`` and rejects ``autoexec.bat``, but it
+requires a three-letter extension and won't accept a filename with a two-letter
+extension such as ``sendmail.cf``.  We'll complicate the pattern again in an
+effort to fix it.
+
+``.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$``
+
+In the third attempt, the second and third letters are all made optional in
+order to allow matching extensions shorter than three characters, such as
+``sendmail.cf``.
+
+The pattern's getting really complicated now, which makes it hard to read and
+understand.  Worse, if the problem changes and you want to exclude both ``bat``
+and ``exe`` as extensions, the pattern would get even more complicated and
+confusing.
+
+A negative lookahead cuts through all this confusion:
+
+``.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$``  The negative lookahead means: if the expression ``bat``
+doesn't match at this point, try the rest of the pattern; if ``bat$`` does
+match, the whole pattern will fail.  The trailing ``$`` is required to ensure
+that something like ``sample.batch``, where the extension only starts with
+``bat``, will be allowed.  The ``[^.]*`` makes sure that the pattern works
+when there are multiple dots in the filename.
+
+Excluding another filename extension is now easy; simply add it as an
+alternative inside the assertion.  The following pattern excludes filenames that
+end in either ``bat`` or ``exe``:
+
+``.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$``
+
+
+Modifying Strings
+=================
+
+Up to this point, we've simply performed searches against a static string.
+Regular expressions are also commonly used to modify strings in various ways,
+using the following pattern methods:
+
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Method/Attribute | Purpose                                       |
++==================+===============================================+
+| ``split()``      | Split the string into a list, splitting it    |
+|                  | wherever the RE matches                       |
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``sub()``        | Find all substrings where the RE matches, and |
+|                  | replace them with a different string          |
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``subn()``       | Does the same thing as :meth:`!sub`,  but     |
+|                  | returns the new string and the number of      |
+|                  | replacements                                  |
++------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Splitting Strings
+-----------------
+
+The :meth:`~re.Pattern.split` method of a pattern splits a string apart
+wherever the RE matches, returning a list of the pieces. It's similar to the
+:meth:`~str.split` method of strings but provides much more generality in the
+delimiters that you can split by; string :meth:`!split` only supports splitting by
+whitespace or by a fixed string.  As you'd expect, there's a module-level
+:func:`re.split` function, too.
+
+
+.. method:: .split(string [, maxsplit=0])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Split *string* by the matches of the regular expression.  If capturing
+   parentheses are used in the RE, then their contents will also be returned as
+   part of the resulting list.  If *maxsplit* is nonzero, at most *maxsplit* splits
+   are performed.
+
+You can limit the number of splits made, by passing a value for *maxsplit*.
+When *maxsplit* is nonzero, at most *maxsplit* splits will be made, and the
+remainder of the string is returned as the final element of the list.  In the
+following example, the delimiter is any sequence of non-alphanumeric characters.
+::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
+   >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().')
+   ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', '']
+   >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3)
+   ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().']
+
+Sometimes you're not only interested in what the text between delimiters is, but
+also need to know what the delimiter was.  If capturing parentheses are used in
+the RE, then their values are also returned as part of the list.  Compare the
+following calls::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
+   >>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)')
+   >>> p.split('This... is a test.')
+   ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', '']
+   >>> p2.split('This... is a test.')
+   ['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', '']
+
+The module-level function :func:`re.split` adds the RE to be used as the first
+argument, but is otherwise the same.   ::
+
+   >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.')
+   ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
+   >>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.')
+   ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
+   >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
+   ['Words', 'words, words.']
+
+
+Search and Replace
+------------------
+
+Another common task is to find all the matches for a pattern, and replace them
+with a different string.  The :meth:`~re.Pattern.sub` method takes a replacement value,
+which can be either a string or a function, and the string to be processed.
+
+.. method:: .sub(replacement, string[, count=0])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Returns the string obtained by replacing the leftmost non-overlapping
+   occurrences of the RE in *string* by the replacement *replacement*.  If the
+   pattern isn't found, *string* is returned unchanged.
+
+   The optional argument *count* is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be
+   replaced; *count* must be a non-negative integer.  The default value of 0 means
+   to replace all occurrences.
+
+Here's a simple example of using the :meth:`~re.Pattern.sub` method.  It replaces colour
+names with the word ``colour``::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
+   >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
+   'colour socks and colour shoes'
+   >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1)
+   'colour socks and red shoes'
+
+The :meth:`~re.Pattern.subn` method does the same work, but returns a 2-tuple containing the
+new string value and the number of replacements  that were performed::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
+   >>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
+   ('colour socks and colour shoes', 2)
+   >>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all')
+   ('no colours at all', 0)
+
+Empty matches are replaced only when they're not adjacent to a previous empty match.
+::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('x*')
+   >>> p.sub('-', 'abxd')
+   '-a-b--d-'
+
+If *replacement* is a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.  That
+is, ``\n`` is converted to a single newline character, ``\r`` is converted to a
+carriage return, and so forth. Unknown escapes such as ``\&`` are left alone.
+Backreferences, such as ``\6``, are replaced with the substring matched by the
+corresponding group in the RE.  This lets you incorporate portions of the
+original text in the resulting replacement string.
+
+This example matches the word ``section`` followed by a string enclosed in
+``{``, ``}``, and changes ``section`` to ``subsection``::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
+   >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}')
+   'subsection{First} subsection{second}'
+
+There's also a syntax for referring to named groups as defined by the
+``(?P<name>...)`` syntax.  ``\g<name>`` will use the substring matched by the
+group named ``name``, and  ``\g<number>``  uses the corresponding group number.
+``\g<2>`` is therefore equivalent to ``\2``,  but isn't ambiguous in a
+replacement string such as ``\g<2>0``.  (``\20`` would be interpreted as a
+reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the literal
+character ``'0'``.)  The following substitutions are all equivalent, but use all
+three variations of the replacement string. ::
+
+   >>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
+   >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}')
+   'subsection{First}'
+   >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}')
+   'subsection{First}'
+   >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}')
+   'subsection{First}'
+
+*replacement* can also be a function, which gives you even more control.  If
+*replacement* is a function, the function is called for every non-overlapping
+occurrence of *pattern*.  On each call, the function is passed a
+:ref:`match object <match-objects>` argument for the match and can use this
+information to compute the desired replacement string and return it.
+
+In the following example, the replacement function translates decimals into
+hexadecimal::
+
+   >>> def hexrepl(match):
+   ...     "Return the hex string for a decimal number"
+   ...     value = int(match.group())
+   ...     return hex(value)
+   ...
+   >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
+   >>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.')
+   'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.'
+
+When using the module-level :func:`re.sub` function, the pattern is passed as
+the first argument.  The pattern may be provided as an object or as a string; if
+you need to specify regular expression flags, you must either use a
+pattern object as the first parameter, or use embedded modifiers in the
+pattern string, e.g. ``sub("(?i)b+", "x", "bbbb BBBB")`` returns ``'x x'``.
+
+
+Common Problems
+===============
+
+Regular expressions are a powerful tool for some applications, but in some ways
+their behaviour isn't intuitive and at times they don't behave the way you may
+expect them to.  This section will point out some of the most common pitfalls.
+
+
+Use String Methods
+------------------
+
+Sometimes using the :mod:`re` module is a mistake.  If you're matching a fixed
+string, or a single character class, and you're not using any :mod:`re` features
+such as the :const:`~re.IGNORECASE` flag, then the full power of regular expressions
+may not be required. Strings have several methods for performing operations with
+fixed strings and they're usually much faster, because the implementation is a
+single small C loop that's been optimized for the purpose, instead of the large,
+more generalized regular expression engine.
+
+One example might be replacing a single fixed string with another one; for
+example, you might replace ``word`` with ``deed``.  :func:`re.sub` seems like the
+function to use for this, but consider the :meth:`~str.replace` method.  Note that
+:meth:`!replace` will also replace ``word`` inside words, turning ``swordfish``
+into ``sdeedfish``, but the  naive RE ``word`` would have done that, too.  (To
+avoid performing the substitution on parts of words, the pattern would have to
+be ``\bword\b``, in order to require that ``word`` have a word boundary on
+either side.  This takes the job beyond  :meth:`!replace`'s abilities.)
+
+Another common task is deleting every occurrence of a single character from a
+string or replacing it with another single character.  You might do this with
+something like ``re.sub('\n', ' ', S)``, but :meth:`~str.translate` is capable of
+doing both tasks and will be faster than any regular expression operation can
+be.
+
+In short, before turning to the :mod:`re` module, consider whether your problem
+can be solved with a faster and simpler string method.
+
+
+match() versus search()
+-----------------------
+
+The :func:`~re.match` function only checks if the RE matches at the beginning of the
+string while :func:`~re.search` will scan forward through the string for a match.
+It's important to keep this distinction in mind.  Remember,  :func:`!match` will
+only report a successful match which will start at 0; if the match wouldn't
+start at zero,  :func:`!match` will *not* report it. ::
+
+   >>> print(re.match('super', 'superstition').span())
+   (0, 5)
+   >>> print(re.match('super', 'insuperable'))
+   None
+
+On the other hand, :func:`~re.search` will scan forward through the string,
+reporting the first match it finds. ::
+
+   >>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span())
+   (0, 5)
+   >>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span())
+   (2, 7)
+
+Sometimes you'll be tempted to keep using :func:`re.match`, and just add ``.*``
+to the front of your RE.  Resist this temptation and use :func:`re.search`
+instead.  The regular expression compiler does some analysis of REs in order to
+speed up the process of looking for a match.  One such analysis figures out what
+the first character of a match must be; for example, a pattern starting with
+``Crow`` must match starting with a ``'C'``.  The analysis lets the engine
+quickly scan through the string looking for the starting character, only trying
+the full match if a ``'C'`` is found.
+
+Adding ``.*`` defeats this optimization, requiring scanning to the end of the
+string and then backtracking to find a match for the rest of the RE.  Use
+:func:`re.search` instead.
+
+
+Greedy versus Non-Greedy
+------------------------
+
+When repeating a regular expression, as in ``a*``, the resulting action is to
+consume as much of the pattern as possible.  This fact often bites you when
+you're trying to match a pair of balanced delimiters, such as the angle brackets
+surrounding an HTML tag.  The naive pattern for matching a single HTML tag
+doesn't work because of the greedy nature of ``.*``. ::
+
+   >>> s = '<html><head><title>Title</title>'
+   >>> len(s)
+   32
+   >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).span())
+   (0, 32)
+   >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).group())
+   <html><head><title>Title</title>
+
+The RE matches the ``'<'`` in ``'<html>'``, and the ``.*`` consumes the rest of
+the string.  There's still more left in the RE, though, and the ``>`` can't
+match at the end of the string, so the regular expression engine has to
+backtrack character by character until it finds a match for the ``>``.   The
+final match extends from the ``'<'`` in ``'<html>'`` to the ``'>'`` in
+``'</title>'``, which isn't what you want.
+
+In this case, the solution is to use the non-greedy qualifiers ``*?``, ``+?``,
+``??``, or ``{m,n}?``, which match as *little* text as possible.  In the above
+example, the ``'>'`` is tried immediately after the first ``'<'`` matches, and
+when it fails, the engine advances a character at a time, retrying the ``'>'``
+at every step.  This produces just the right result::
+
+   >>> print(re.match('<.*?>', s).group())
+   <html>
+
+(Note that parsing HTML or XML with regular expressions is painful.
+Quick-and-dirty patterns will handle common cases, but HTML and XML have special
+cases that will break the obvious regular expression; by the time you've written
+a regular expression that handles all of the possible cases, the patterns will
+be *very* complicated.  Use an HTML or XML parser module for such tasks.)
+
+
+Using re.VERBOSE
+----------------
+
+By now you've probably noticed that regular expressions are a very compact
+notation, but they're not terribly readable.  REs of moderate complexity can
+become lengthy collections of backslashes, parentheses, and metacharacters,
+making them difficult to read and understand.
+
+For such REs, specifying the :const:`re.VERBOSE` flag when compiling the regular
+expression can be helpful, because it allows you to format the regular
+expression more clearly.
+
+The ``re.VERBOSE`` flag has several effects.  Whitespace in the regular
+expression that *isn't* inside a character class is ignored.  This means that an
+expression such as ``dog | cat`` is equivalent to the less readable ``dog|cat``,
+but ``[a b]`` will still match the characters ``'a'``, ``'b'``, or a space.  In
+addition, you can also put comments inside a RE; comments extend from a ``#``
+character to the next newline.  When used with triple-quoted strings, this
+enables REs to be formatted more neatly::
+
+   pat = re.compile(r"""
+    \s*                 # Skip leading whitespace
+    (?P<header>[^:]+)   # Header name
+    \s* :               # Whitespace, and a colon
+    (?P<value>.*?)      # The header's value -- *? used to
+                        # lose the following trailing whitespace
+    \s*$                # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line
+   """, re.VERBOSE)
+
+This is far more readable than::
+
+   pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P<header>[^:]+)\s*:(?P<value>.*?)\s*$")
+
+
+Feedback
+========
+
+Regular expressions are a complicated topic.  Did this document help you
+understand them?  Were there parts that were unclear, or Problems you
+encountered that weren't covered here?  If so, please send suggestions for
+improvements to the author.
+
+The most complete book on regular expressions is almost certainly Jeffrey
+Friedl's Mastering Regular Expressions, published by O'Reilly.  Unfortunately,
+it exclusively concentrates on Perl and Java's flavours of regular expressions,
+and doesn't contain any Python material at all, so it won't be useful as a
+reference for programming in Python.  (The first edition covered Python's
+now-removed :mod:`!regex` module, which won't help you much.)  Consider checking
+it out from your library.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/sockets.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/sockets.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc71d85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/sockets.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,383 @@
+.. _socket-howto:
+
+****************************
+  Socket Programming HOWTO
+****************************
+
+:Author: Gordon McMillan
+
+
+.. topic:: Abstract
+
+   Sockets are used nearly everywhere, but are one of the most severely
+   misunderstood technologies around. This is a 10,000 foot overview of sockets.
+   It's not really a tutorial - you'll still have work to do in getting things
+   operational. It doesn't cover the fine points (and there are a lot of them), but
+   I hope it will give you enough background to begin using them decently.
+
+
+Sockets
+=======
+
+I'm only going to talk about INET (i.e. IPv4) sockets, but they account for at least 99% of
+the sockets in use. And I'll only talk about STREAM (i.e. TCP) sockets - unless you really
+know what you're doing (in which case this HOWTO isn't for you!), you'll get
+better behavior and performance from a STREAM socket than anything else. I will
+try to clear up the mystery of what a socket is, as well as some hints on how to
+work with blocking and non-blocking sockets. But I'll start by talking about
+blocking sockets. You'll need to know how they work before dealing with
+non-blocking sockets.
+
+Part of the trouble with understanding these things is that "socket" can mean a
+number of subtly different things, depending on context. So first, let's make a
+distinction between a "client" socket - an endpoint of a conversation, and a
+"server" socket, which is more like a switchboard operator. The client
+application (your browser, for example) uses "client" sockets exclusively; the
+web server it's talking to uses both "server" sockets and "client" sockets.
+
+
+History
+-------
+
+Of the various forms of :abbr:`IPC (Inter Process Communication)`,
+sockets are by far the most popular.  On any given platform, there are
+likely to be other forms of IPC that are faster, but for
+cross-platform communication, sockets are about the only game in town.
+
+They were invented in Berkeley as part of the BSD flavor of Unix. They spread
+like wildfire with the Internet. With good reason --- the combination of sockets
+with INET makes talking to arbitrary machines around the world unbelievably easy
+(at least compared to other schemes).
+
+
+Creating a Socket
+=================
+
+Roughly speaking, when you clicked on the link that brought you to this page,
+your browser did something like the following::
+
+   # create an INET, STREAMing socket
+   s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+   # now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port
+   s.connect(("www.python.org", 80))
+
+When the ``connect`` completes, the socket ``s`` can be used to send
+in a request for the text of the page. The same socket will read the
+reply, and then be destroyed. That's right, destroyed. Client sockets
+are normally only used for one exchange (or a small set of sequential
+exchanges).
+
+What happens in the web server is a bit more complex. First, the web server
+creates a "server socket"::
+
+   # create an INET, STREAMing socket
+   serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+   # bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port
+   serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80))
+   # become a server socket
+   serversocket.listen(5)
+
+A couple things to notice: we used ``socket.gethostname()`` so that the socket
+would be visible to the outside world.  If we had used ``s.bind(('localhost',
+80))`` or ``s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80))`` we would still have a "server" socket,
+but one that was only visible within the same machine.  ``s.bind(('', 80))``
+specifies that the socket is reachable by any address the machine happens to
+have.
+
+A second thing to note: low number ports are usually reserved for "well known"
+services (HTTP, SNMP etc). If you're playing around, use a nice high number (4
+digits).
+
+Finally, the argument to ``listen`` tells the socket library that we want it to
+queue up as many as 5 connect requests (the normal max) before refusing outside
+connections. If the rest of the code is written properly, that should be plenty.
+
+Now that we have a "server" socket, listening on port 80, we can enter the
+mainloop of the web server::
+
+   while True:
+       # accept connections from outside
+       (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
+       # now do something with the clientsocket
+       # in this case, we'll pretend this is a threaded server
+       ct = client_thread(clientsocket)
+       ct.run()
+
+There's actually 3 general ways in which this loop could work - dispatching a
+thread to handle ``clientsocket``, create a new process to handle
+``clientsocket``, or restructure this app to use non-blocking sockets, and
+multiplex between our "server" socket and any active ``clientsocket``\ s using
+``select``. More about that later. The important thing to understand now is
+this: this is *all* a "server" socket does. It doesn't send any data. It doesn't
+receive any data. It just produces "client" sockets. Each ``clientsocket`` is
+created in response to some *other* "client" socket doing a ``connect()`` to the
+host and port we're bound to. As soon as we've created that ``clientsocket``, we
+go back to listening for more connections. The two "clients" are free to chat it
+up - they are using some dynamically allocated port which will be recycled when
+the conversation ends.
+
+
+IPC
+---
+
+If you need fast IPC between two processes on one machine, you should look into
+pipes or shared memory.  If you do decide to use AF_INET sockets, bind the
+"server" socket to ``'localhost'``. On most platforms, this will take a
+shortcut around a couple of layers of network code and be quite a bit faster.
+
+.. seealso::
+   The :mod:`multiprocessing` integrates cross-platform IPC into a higher-level
+   API.
+
+
+Using a Socket
+==============
+
+The first thing to note, is that the web browser's "client" socket and the web
+server's "client" socket are identical beasts. That is, this is a "peer to peer"
+conversation. Or to put it another way, *as the designer, you will have to
+decide what the rules of etiquette are for a conversation*. Normally, the
+``connect``\ ing socket starts the conversation, by sending in a request, or
+perhaps a signon. But that's a design decision - it's not a rule of sockets.
+
+Now there are two sets of verbs to use for communication. You can use ``send``
+and ``recv``, or you can transform your client socket into a file-like beast and
+use ``read`` and ``write``. The latter is the way Java presents its sockets.
+I'm not going to talk about it here, except to warn you that you need to use
+``flush`` on sockets. These are buffered "files", and a common mistake is to
+``write`` something, and then ``read`` for a reply. Without a ``flush`` in
+there, you may wait forever for the reply, because the request may still be in
+your output buffer.
+
+Now we come to the major stumbling block of sockets - ``send`` and ``recv`` operate
+on the network buffers. They do not necessarily handle all the bytes you hand
+them (or expect from them), because their major focus is handling the network
+buffers. In general, they return when the associated network buffers have been
+filled (``send``) or emptied (``recv``). They then tell you how many bytes they
+handled. It is *your* responsibility to call them again until your message has
+been completely dealt with.
+
+When a ``recv`` returns 0 bytes, it means the other side has closed (or is in
+the process of closing) the connection.  You will not receive any more data on
+this connection. Ever.  You may be able to send data successfully; I'll talk
+more about this later.
+
+A protocol like HTTP uses a socket for only one transfer. The client sends a
+request, then reads a reply.  That's it. The socket is discarded. This means that
+a client can detect the end of the reply by receiving 0 bytes.
+
+But if you plan to reuse your socket for further transfers, you need to realize
+that *there is no* :abbr:`EOT (End of Transfer)` *on a socket.* I repeat: if a socket
+``send`` or ``recv`` returns after handling 0 bytes, the connection has been
+broken.  If the connection has *not* been broken, you may wait on a ``recv``
+forever, because the socket will *not* tell you that there's nothing more to
+read (for now).  Now if you think about that a bit, you'll come to realize a
+fundamental truth of sockets: *messages must either be fixed length* (yuck), *or
+be delimited* (shrug), *or indicate how long they are* (much better), *or end by
+shutting down the connection*. The choice is entirely yours, (but some ways are
+righter than others).
+
+Assuming you don't want to end the connection, the simplest solution is a fixed
+length message::
+
+   class MySocket:
+       """demonstration class only
+         - coded for clarity, not efficiency
+       """
+
+       def __init__(self, sock=None):
+           if sock is None:
+               self.sock = socket.socket(
+                               socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+           else:
+               self.sock = sock
+
+       def connect(self, host, port):
+           self.sock.connect((host, port))
+
+       def mysend(self, msg):
+           totalsent = 0
+           while totalsent < MSGLEN:
+               sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:])
+               if sent == 0:
+                   raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
+               totalsent = totalsent + sent
+
+       def myreceive(self):
+           chunks = []
+           bytes_recd = 0
+           while bytes_recd < MSGLEN:
+               chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048))
+               if chunk == b'':
+                   raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
+               chunks.append(chunk)
+               bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk)
+           return b''.join(chunks)
+
+The sending code here is usable for almost any messaging scheme - in Python you
+send strings, and you can use ``len()`` to determine its length (even if it has
+embedded ``\0`` characters). It's mostly the receiving code that gets more
+complex. (And in C, it's not much worse, except you can't use ``strlen`` if the
+message has embedded ``\0``\ s.)
+
+The easiest enhancement is to make the first character of the message an
+indicator of message type, and have the type determine the length. Now you have
+two ``recv``\ s - the first to get (at least) that first character so you can
+look up the length, and the second in a loop to get the rest. If you decide to
+go the delimited route, you'll be receiving in some arbitrary chunk size, (4096
+or 8192 is frequently a good match for network buffer sizes), and scanning what
+you've received for a delimiter.
+
+One complication to be aware of: if your conversational protocol allows multiple
+messages to be sent back to back (without some kind of reply), and you pass
+``recv`` an arbitrary chunk size, you may end up reading the start of a
+following message. You'll need to put that aside and hold onto it, until it's
+needed.
+
+Prefixing the message with its length (say, as 5 numeric characters) gets more
+complex, because (believe it or not), you may not get all 5 characters in one
+``recv``. In playing around, you'll get away with it; but in high network loads,
+your code will very quickly break unless you use two ``recv`` loops - the first
+to determine the length, the second to get the data part of the message. Nasty.
+This is also when you'll discover that ``send`` does not always manage to get
+rid of everything in one pass. And despite having read this, you will eventually
+get bit by it!
+
+In the interests of space, building your character, (and preserving my
+competitive position), these enhancements are left as an exercise for the
+reader. Lets move on to cleaning up.
+
+
+Binary Data
+-----------
+
+It is perfectly possible to send binary data over a socket. The major problem is
+that not all machines use the same formats for binary data. For example, a
+Motorola chip will represent a 16 bit integer with the value 1 as the two hex
+bytes 00 01. Intel and DEC, however, are byte-reversed - that same 1 is 01 00.
+Socket libraries have calls for converting 16 and 32 bit integers - ``ntohl,
+htonl, ntohs, htons`` where "n" means *network* and "h" means *host*, "s" means
+*short* and "l" means *long*. Where network order is host order, these do
+nothing, but where the machine is byte-reversed, these swap the bytes around
+appropriately.
+
+In these days of 32 bit machines, the ascii representation of binary data is
+frequently smaller than the binary representation. That's because a surprising
+amount of the time, all those longs have the value 0, or maybe 1. The string "0"
+would be two bytes, while binary is four. Of course, this doesn't fit well with
+fixed-length messages. Decisions, decisions.
+
+
+Disconnecting
+=============
+
+Strictly speaking, you're supposed to use ``shutdown`` on a socket before you
+``close`` it.  The ``shutdown`` is an advisory to the socket at the other end.
+Depending on the argument you pass it, it can mean "I'm not going to send
+anymore, but I'll still listen", or "I'm not listening, good riddance!".  Most
+socket libraries, however, are so used to programmers neglecting to use this
+piece of etiquette that normally a ``close`` is the same as ``shutdown();
+close()``.  So in most situations, an explicit ``shutdown`` is not needed.
+
+One way to use ``shutdown`` effectively is in an HTTP-like exchange. The client
+sends a request and then does a ``shutdown(1)``. This tells the server "This
+client is done sending, but can still receive."  The server can detect "EOF" by
+a receive of 0 bytes. It can assume it has the complete request.  The server
+sends a reply. If the ``send`` completes successfully then, indeed, the client
+was still receiving.
+
+Python takes the automatic shutdown a step further, and says that when a socket
+is garbage collected, it will automatically do a ``close`` if it's needed. But
+relying on this is a very bad habit. If your socket just disappears without
+doing a ``close``, the socket at the other end may hang indefinitely, thinking
+you're just being slow. *Please* ``close`` your sockets when you're done.
+
+
+When Sockets Die
+----------------
+
+Probably the worst thing about using blocking sockets is what happens when the
+other side comes down hard (without doing a ``close``). Your socket is likely to
+hang. TCP is a reliable protocol, and it will wait a long, long time
+before giving up on a connection. If you're using threads, the entire thread is
+essentially dead. There's not much you can do about it. As long as you aren't
+doing something dumb, like holding a lock while doing a blocking read, the
+thread isn't really consuming much in the way of resources. Do *not* try to kill
+the thread - part of the reason that threads are more efficient than processes
+is that they avoid the overhead associated with the automatic recycling of
+resources. In other words, if you do manage to kill the thread, your whole
+process is likely to be screwed up.
+
+
+Non-blocking Sockets
+====================
+
+If you've understood the preceding, you already know most of what you need to
+know about the mechanics of using sockets. You'll still use the same calls, in
+much the same ways. It's just that, if you do it right, your app will be almost
+inside-out.
+
+In Python, you use ``socket.setblocking(0)`` to make it non-blocking. In C, it's
+more complex, (for one thing, you'll need to choose between the BSD flavor
+``O_NONBLOCK`` and the almost indistinguishable Posix flavor ``O_NDELAY``, which
+is completely different from ``TCP_NODELAY``), but it's the exact same idea. You
+do this after creating the socket, but before using it. (Actually, if you're
+nuts, you can switch back and forth.)
+
+The major mechanical difference is that ``send``, ``recv``, ``connect`` and
+``accept`` can return without having done anything. You have (of course) a
+number of choices. You can check return code and error codes and generally drive
+yourself crazy. If you don't believe me, try it sometime. Your app will grow
+large, buggy and suck CPU. So let's skip the brain-dead solutions and do it
+right.
+
+Use ``select``.
+
+In C, coding ``select`` is fairly complex. In Python, it's a piece of cake, but
+it's close enough to the C version that if you understand ``select`` in Python,
+you'll have little trouble with it in C::
+
+   ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \
+                  select.select(
+                     potential_readers,
+                     potential_writers,
+                     potential_errs,
+                     timeout)
+
+You pass ``select`` three lists: the first contains all sockets that you might
+want to try reading; the second all the sockets you might want to try writing
+to, and the last (normally left empty) those that you want to check for errors.
+You should note that a socket can go into more than one list. The ``select``
+call is blocking, but you can give it a timeout. This is generally a sensible
+thing to do - give it a nice long timeout (say a minute) unless you have good
+reason to do otherwise.
+
+In return, you will get three lists. They contain the sockets that are actually
+readable, writable and in error. Each of these lists is a subset (possibly
+empty) of the corresponding list you passed in.
+
+If a socket is in the output readable list, you can be
+as-close-to-certain-as-we-ever-get-in-this-business that a ``recv`` on that
+socket will return *something*. Same idea for the writable list. You'll be able
+to send *something*. Maybe not all you want to, but *something* is better than
+nothing.  (Actually, any reasonably healthy socket will return as writable - it
+just means outbound network buffer space is available.)
+
+If you have a "server" socket, put it in the potential_readers list. If it comes
+out in the readable list, your ``accept`` will (almost certainly) work. If you
+have created a new socket to ``connect`` to someone else, put it in the
+potential_writers list. If it shows up in the writable list, you have a decent
+chance that it has connected.
+
+Actually, ``select`` can be handy even with blocking sockets. It's one way of
+determining whether you will block - the socket returns as readable when there's
+something in the buffers.  However, this still doesn't help with the problem of
+determining whether the other end is done, or just busy with something else.
+
+**Portability alert**: On Unix, ``select`` works both with the sockets and
+files. Don't try this on Windows. On Windows, ``select`` works with sockets
+only. Also note that in C, many of the more advanced socket options are done
+differently on Windows. In fact, on Windows I usually use threads (which work
+very, very well) with my sockets.
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/sorting.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/sorting.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1280446
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/sorting.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,293 @@
+.. _sortinghowto:
+
+Sorting HOW TO
+**************
+
+:Author: Andrew Dalke and Raymond Hettinger
+:Release: 0.1
+
+
+Python lists have a built-in :meth:`list.sort` method that modifies the list
+in-place.  There is also a :func:`sorted` built-in function that builds a new
+sorted list from an iterable.
+
+In this document, we explore the various techniques for sorting data using Python.
+
+
+Sorting Basics
+==============
+
+A simple ascending sort is very easy: just call the :func:`sorted` function. It
+returns a new sorted list::
+
+    >>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4])
+    [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+
+You can also use the :meth:`list.sort` method. It modifies the list
+in-place (and returns ``None`` to avoid confusion). Usually it's less convenient
+than :func:`sorted` - but if you don't need the original list, it's slightly
+more efficient.
+
+    >>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4]
+    >>> a.sort()
+    >>> a
+    [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+
+Another difference is that the :meth:`list.sort` method is only defined for
+lists. In contrast, the :func:`sorted` function accepts any iterable.
+
+    >>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'})
+    [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+
+Key Functions
+=============
+
+Both :meth:`list.sort` and :func:`sorted` have a *key* parameter to specify a
+function to be called on each list element prior to making comparisons.
+
+For example, here's a case-insensitive string comparison:
+
+    >>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.lower)
+    ['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This']
+
+The value of the *key* parameter should be a function that takes a single argument
+and returns a key to use for sorting purposes. This technique is fast because
+the key function is called exactly once for each input record.
+
+A common pattern is to sort complex objects using some of the object's indices
+as keys. For example:
+
+    >>> student_tuples = [
+    ...     ('john', 'A', 15),
+    ...     ('jane', 'B', 12),
+    ...     ('dave', 'B', 10),
+    ... ]
+    >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2])   # sort by age
+    [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]
+
+The same technique works for objects with named attributes. For example:
+
+    >>> class Student:
+    ...     def __init__(self, name, grade, age):
+    ...         self.name = name
+    ...         self.grade = grade
+    ...         self.age = age
+    ...     def __repr__(self):
+    ...         return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age))
+
+    >>> student_objects = [
+    ...     Student('john', 'A', 15),
+    ...     Student('jane', 'B', 12),
+    ...     Student('dave', 'B', 10),
+    ... ]
+    >>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age)   # sort by age
+    [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]
+
+Operator Module Functions
+=========================
+
+The key-function patterns shown above are very common, so Python provides
+convenience functions to make accessor functions easier and faster. The
+:mod:`operator` module has :func:`~operator.itemgetter`,
+:func:`~operator.attrgetter`, and a :func:`~operator.methodcaller` function.
+
+Using those functions, the above examples become simpler and faster:
+
+    >>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter
+
+    >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2))
+    [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]
+
+    >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))
+    [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]
+
+The operator module functions allow multiple levels of sorting. For example, to
+sort by *grade* then by *age*:
+
+    >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2))
+    [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]
+
+    >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age'))
+    [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]
+
+Ascending and Descending
+========================
+
+Both :meth:`list.sort` and :func:`sorted` accept a *reverse* parameter with a
+boolean value. This is used to flag descending sorts. For example, to get the
+student data in reverse *age* order:
+
+    >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True)
+    [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]
+
+    >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True)
+    [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]
+
+Sort Stability and Complex Sorts
+================================
+
+Sorts are guaranteed to be `stable
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability>`_\. That means that
+when multiple records have the same key, their original order is preserved.
+
+    >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
+    >>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0))
+    [('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)]
+
+Notice how the two records for *blue* retain their original order so that
+``('blue', 1)`` is guaranteed to precede ``('blue', 2)``.
+
+This wonderful property lets you build complex sorts in a series of sorting
+steps. For example, to sort the student data by descending *grade* and then
+ascending *age*, do the *age* sort first and then sort again using *grade*:
+
+    >>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))     # sort on secondary key
+    >>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True)       # now sort on primary key, descending
+    [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]
+
+The `Timsort <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort>`_ algorithm used in Python
+does multiple sorts efficiently because it can take advantage of any ordering
+already present in a dataset.
+
+The Old Way Using Decorate-Sort-Undecorate
+==========================================
+
+This idiom is called Decorate-Sort-Undecorate after its three steps:
+
+* First, the initial list is decorated with new values that control the sort order.
+
+* Second, the decorated list is sorted.
+
+* Finally, the decorations are removed, creating a list that contains only the
+  initial values in the new order.
+
+For example, to sort the student data by *grade* using the DSU approach:
+
+    >>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)]
+    >>> decorated.sort()
+    >>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated]               # undecorate
+    [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]
+
+This idiom works because tuples are compared lexicographically; the first items
+are compared; if they are the same then the second items are compared, and so
+on.
+
+It is not strictly necessary in all cases to include the index *i* in the
+decorated list, but including it gives two benefits:
+
+* The sort is stable -- if two items have the same key, their order will be
+  preserved in the sorted list.
+
+* The original items do not have to be comparable because the ordering of the
+  decorated tuples will be determined by at most the first two items. So for
+  example the original list could contain complex numbers which cannot be sorted
+  directly.
+
+Another name for this idiom is
+`Schwartzian transform <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform>`_\,
+after Randal L. Schwartz, who popularized it among Perl programmers.
+
+Now that Python sorting provides key-functions, this technique is not often needed.
+
+
+The Old Way Using the *cmp* Parameter
+=====================================
+
+Many constructs given in this HOWTO assume Python 2.4 or later. Before that,
+there was no :func:`sorted` builtin and :meth:`list.sort` took no keyword
+arguments. Instead, all of the Py2.x versions supported a *cmp* parameter to
+handle user specified comparison functions.
+
+In Py3.0, the *cmp* parameter was removed entirely (as part of a larger effort to
+simplify and unify the language, eliminating the conflict between rich
+comparisons and the :meth:`__cmp__` magic method).
+
+In Py2.x, sort allowed an optional function which can be called for doing the
+comparisons. That function should take two arguments to be compared and then
+return a negative value for less-than, return zero if they are equal, or return
+a positive value for greater-than. For example, we can do:
+
+    >>> def numeric_compare(x, y):
+    ...     return x - y
+    >>> sorted([5, 2, 4, 1, 3], cmp=numeric_compare) # doctest: +SKIP
+    [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+
+Or you can reverse the order of comparison with:
+
+    >>> def reverse_numeric(x, y):
+    ...     return y - x
+    >>> sorted([5, 2, 4, 1, 3], cmp=reverse_numeric) # doctest: +SKIP
+    [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
+
+When porting code from Python 2.x to 3.x, the situation can arise when you have
+the user supplying a comparison function and you need to convert that to a key
+function. The following wrapper makes that easy to do::
+
+    def cmp_to_key(mycmp):
+        'Convert a cmp= function into a key= function'
+        class K:
+            def __init__(self, obj, *args):
+                self.obj = obj
+            def __lt__(self, other):
+                return mycmp(self.obj, other.obj) < 0
+            def __gt__(self, other):
+                return mycmp(self.obj, other.obj) > 0
+            def __eq__(self, other):
+                return mycmp(self.obj, other.obj) == 0
+            def __le__(self, other):
+                return mycmp(self.obj, other.obj) <= 0
+            def __ge__(self, other):
+                return mycmp(self.obj, other.obj) >= 0
+            def __ne__(self, other):
+                return mycmp(self.obj, other.obj) != 0
+        return K
+
+To convert to a key function, just wrap the old comparison function:
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+    from functools import cmp_to_key
+
+.. doctest::
+
+    >>> sorted([5, 2, 4, 1, 3], key=cmp_to_key(reverse_numeric))
+    [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
+
+In Python 3.2, the :func:`functools.cmp_to_key` function was added to the
+:mod:`functools` module in the standard library.
+
+Odd and Ends
+============
+
+* For locale aware sorting, use :func:`locale.strxfrm` for a key function or
+  :func:`locale.strcoll` for a comparison function.
+
+* The *reverse* parameter still maintains sort stability (so that records with
+  equal keys retain the original order). Interestingly, that effect can be
+  simulated without the parameter by using the builtin :func:`reversed` function
+  twice:
+
+    >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
+    >>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True)
+    >>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0))))
+    >>> assert standard_way == double_reversed
+    >>> standard_way
+    [('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)]
+
+* The sort routines are guaranteed to use :meth:`__lt__` when making comparisons
+  between two objects. So, it is easy to add a standard sort order to a class by
+  defining an :meth:`__lt__` method::
+
+    >>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age
+    >>> sorted(student_objects)
+    [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]
+
+* Key functions need not depend directly on the objects being sorted. A key
+  function can also access external resources. For instance, if the student grades
+  are stored in a dictionary, they can be used to sort a separate list of student
+  names:
+
+    >>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane']
+    >>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'}
+    >>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__)
+    ['jane', 'dave', 'john']
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/unicode.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/unicode.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d4b1b2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/unicode.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,763 @@
+.. _unicode-howto:
+
+*****************
+  Unicode HOWTO
+*****************
+
+:Release: 1.12
+
+This HOWTO discusses Python's support for the Unicode specification
+for representing textual data, and explains various problems that
+people commonly encounter when trying to work with Unicode.
+
+
+Introduction to Unicode
+=======================
+
+Definitions
+-----------
+
+Today's programs need to be able to handle a wide variety of
+characters.  Applications are often internationalized to display
+messages and output in a variety of user-selectable languages; the
+same program might need to output an error message in English, French,
+Japanese, Hebrew, or Russian.  Web content can be written in any of
+these languages and can also include a variety of emoji symbols.
+Python's string type uses the Unicode Standard for representing
+characters, which lets Python programs work with all these different
+possible characters.
+
+Unicode (https://www.unicode.org/) is a specification that aims to
+list every character used by human languages and give each character
+its own unique code.  The Unicode specifications are continually
+revised and updated to add new languages and symbols.
+
+A **character** is the smallest possible component of a text.  'A', 'B', 'C',
+etc., are all different characters.  So are 'È' and 'Í'.  Characters vary
+depending on the language or context you're talking
+about.  For example, there's a character for "Roman Numeral One", 'Ⅰ', that's
+separate from the uppercase letter 'I'.  They'll usually look the same,
+but these are two different characters that have different meanings.
+
+The Unicode standard describes how characters are represented by
+**code points**.  A code point value is an integer in the range 0 to
+0x10FFFF (about 1.1 million values, with some 110 thousand assigned so
+far).  In the standard and in this document, a code point is written
+using the notation ``U+265E`` to mean the character with value
+``0x265e`` (9,822 in decimal).
+
+The Unicode standard contains a lot of tables listing characters and
+their corresponding code points:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   0061    'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
+   0062    'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
+   0063    'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
+   ...
+   007B    '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
+   ...
+   2167    'Ⅶ': ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
+   2168    'Ⅸ': ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
+   ...
+   265E    '♞': BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
+   265F    '♟': BLACK CHESS PAWN
+   ...
+   1F600   '😀': GRINNING FACE
+   1F609   '😉': WINKING FACE
+   ...
+
+Strictly, these definitions imply that it's meaningless to say 'this is
+character ``U+265E``'.  ``U+265E`` is a code point, which represents some particular
+character; in this case, it represents the character 'BLACK CHESS KNIGHT',
+'♞'.  In
+informal contexts, this distinction between code points and characters will
+sometimes be forgotten.
+
+A character is represented on a screen or on paper by a set of graphical
+elements that's called a **glyph**.  The glyph for an uppercase A, for example,
+is two diagonal strokes and a horizontal stroke, though the exact details will
+depend on the font being used.  Most Python code doesn't need to worry about
+glyphs; figuring out the correct glyph to display is generally the job of a GUI
+toolkit or a terminal's font renderer.
+
+
+Encodings
+---------
+
+To summarize the previous section: a Unicode string is a sequence of
+code points, which are numbers from 0 through ``0x10FFFF`` (1,114,111
+decimal).  This sequence of code points needs to be represented in
+memory as a set of **code units**, and **code units** are then mapped
+to 8-bit bytes.  The rules for translating a Unicode string into a
+sequence of bytes are called a **character encoding**, or just
+an **encoding**.
+
+The first encoding you might think of is using 32-bit integers as the
+code unit, and then using the CPU's representation of 32-bit integers.
+In this representation, the string "Python" might look like this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+       P           y           t           h           o           n
+    0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
+       0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
+
+This representation is straightforward but using it presents a number of
+problems.
+
+1. It's not portable; different processors order the bytes differently.
+
+2. It's very wasteful of space.  In most texts, the majority of the code points
+   are less than 127, or less than 255, so a lot of space is occupied by ``0x00``
+   bytes.  The above string takes 24 bytes compared to the 6 bytes needed for an
+   ASCII representation.  Increased RAM usage doesn't matter too much (desktop
+   computers have gigabytes of RAM, and strings aren't usually that large), but
+   expanding our usage of disk and network bandwidth by a factor of 4 is
+   intolerable.
+
+3. It's not compatible with existing C functions such as ``strlen()``, so a new
+   family of wide string functions would need to be used.
+
+Therefore this encoding isn't used very much, and people instead choose other
+encodings that are more efficient and convenient, such as UTF-8.
+
+UTF-8 is one of the most commonly used encodings, and Python often
+defaults to using it.  UTF stands for "Unicode Transformation Format",
+and the '8' means that 8-bit values are used in the encoding.  (There
+are also UTF-16 and UTF-32 encodings, but they are less frequently
+used than UTF-8.)  UTF-8 uses the following rules:
+
+1. If the code point is < 128, it's represented by the corresponding byte value.
+2. If the code point is >= 128, it's turned into a sequence of two, three, or
+   four bytes, where each byte of the sequence is between 128 and 255.
+
+UTF-8 has several convenient properties:
+
+1. It can handle any Unicode code point.
+2. A Unicode string is turned into a sequence of bytes that contains embedded
+   zero bytes only where they represent the null character (U+0000). This means
+   that UTF-8 strings can be processed by C functions such as ``strcpy()`` and sent
+   through protocols that can't handle zero bytes for anything other than
+   end-of-string markers.
+3. A string of ASCII text is also valid UTF-8 text.
+4. UTF-8 is fairly compact; the majority of commonly used characters can be
+   represented with one or two bytes.
+5. If bytes are corrupted or lost, it's possible to determine the start of the
+   next UTF-8-encoded code point and resynchronize.  It's also unlikely that
+   random 8-bit data will look like valid UTF-8.
+6. UTF-8 is a byte oriented encoding. The encoding specifies that each
+   character is represented by a specific sequence of one or more bytes. This
+   avoids the byte-ordering issues that can occur with integer and word oriented
+   encodings, like UTF-16 and UTF-32, where the sequence of bytes varies depending
+   on the hardware on which the string was encoded.
+
+
+References
+----------
+
+The `Unicode Consortium site <http://www.unicode.org>`_ has character charts, a
+glossary, and PDF versions of the Unicode specification.  Be prepared for some
+difficult reading.  `A chronology <http://www.unicode.org/history/>`_ of the
+origin and development of Unicode is also available on the site.
+
+On the Computerphile Youtube channel, Tom Scott briefly
+`discusses the history of Unicode and UTF-8 <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4>`
+(9 minutes 36 seconds).
+
+To help understand the standard, Jukka Korpela has written `an introductory
+guide <http://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html>`_ to reading the
+Unicode character tables.
+
+Another `good introductory article <https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/>`_
+was written by Joel Spolsky.
+If this introduction didn't make things clear to you, you should try
+reading this alternate article before continuing.
+
+Wikipedia entries are often helpful; see the entries for "`character encoding
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding>`_" and `UTF-8
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8>`_, for example.
+
+
+Python's Unicode Support
+========================
+
+Now that you've learned the rudiments of Unicode, we can look at Python's
+Unicode features.
+
+The String Type
+---------------
+
+Since Python 3.0, the language's :class:`str` type contains Unicode
+characters, meaning any string created using ``"unicode rocks!"``, ``'unicode
+rocks!'``, or the triple-quoted string syntax is stored as Unicode.
+
+The default encoding for Python source code is UTF-8, so you can simply
+include a Unicode character in a string literal::
+
+   try:
+       with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f:
+           ...
+   except OSError:
+       # 'File not found' error message.
+       print("Fichier non trouvé")
+
+Side note: Python 3 also supports using Unicode characters in identifiers::
+
+   répertoire = "/tmp/records.log"
+   with open(répertoire, "w") as f:
+       f.write("test\n")
+
+If you can't enter a particular character in your editor or want to
+keep the source code ASCII-only for some reason, you can also use
+escape sequences in string literals. (Depending on your system,
+you may see the actual capital-delta glyph instead of a \u escape.) ::
+
+   >>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}"  # Using the character name
+   '\u0394'
+   >>> "\u0394"                          # Using a 16-bit hex value
+   '\u0394'
+   >>> "\U00000394"                      # Using a 32-bit hex value
+   '\u0394'
+
+In addition, one can create a string using the :func:`~bytes.decode` method of
+:class:`bytes`.  This method takes an *encoding* argument, such as ``UTF-8``,
+and optionally an *errors* argument.
+
+The *errors* argument specifies the response when the input string can't be
+converted according to the encoding's rules.  Legal values for this argument are
+``'strict'`` (raise a :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError` exception), ``'replace'`` (use
+``U+FFFD``, ``REPLACEMENT CHARACTER``), ``'ignore'`` (just leave the
+character out of the Unicode result), or ``'backslashreplace'`` (inserts a
+``\xNN`` escape sequence).
+The following examples show the differences::
+
+    >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict")  #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0:
+      invalid start byte
+    >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace")
+    '\ufffdabc'
+    >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace")
+    '\\x80abc'
+    >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore")
+    'abc'
+
+Encodings are specified as strings containing the encoding's name.  Python
+comes with roughly 100 different encodings; see the Python Library Reference at
+:ref:`standard-encodings` for a list.  Some encodings have multiple names; for
+example, ``'latin-1'``, ``'iso_8859_1'`` and ``'8859``' are all synonyms for
+the same encoding.
+
+One-character Unicode strings can also be created with the :func:`chr`
+built-in function, which takes integers and returns a Unicode string of length 1
+that contains the corresponding code point.  The reverse operation is the
+built-in :func:`ord` function that takes a one-character Unicode string and
+returns the code point value::
+
+    >>> chr(57344)
+    '\ue000'
+    >>> ord('\ue000')
+    57344
+
+Converting to Bytes
+-------------------
+
+The opposite method of :meth:`bytes.decode` is :meth:`str.encode`,
+which returns a :class:`bytes` representation of the Unicode string, encoded in the
+requested *encoding*.
+
+The *errors* parameter is the same as the parameter of the
+:meth:`~bytes.decode` method but supports a few more possible handlers. As well as
+``'strict'``, ``'ignore'``, and ``'replace'`` (which in this case
+inserts a question mark instead of the unencodable character), there is
+also ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` (inserts an XML character reference),
+``backslashreplace`` (inserts a ``\uNNNN`` escape sequence) and
+``namereplace`` (inserts a ``\N{...}`` escape sequence).
+
+The following example shows the different results::
+
+    >>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972)
+    >>> u.encode('utf-8')
+    b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4'
+    >>> u.encode('ascii')  #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in
+      position 0: ordinal not in range(128)
+    >>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore')
+    b'abcd'
+    >>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace')
+    b'?abcd?'
+    >>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace')
+    b'&#40960;abcd&#1972;'
+    >>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')
+    b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4'
+    >>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace')
+    b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4'
+
+The low-level routines for registering and accessing the available
+encodings are found in the :mod:`codecs` module.  Implementing new
+encodings also requires understanding the :mod:`codecs` module.
+However, the encoding and decoding functions returned by this module
+are usually more low-level than is comfortable, and writing new encodings
+is a specialized task, so the module won't be covered in this HOWTO.
+
+
+Unicode Literals in Python Source Code
+--------------------------------------
+
+In Python source code, specific Unicode code points can be written using the
+``\u`` escape sequence, which is followed by four hex digits giving the code
+point.  The ``\U`` escape sequence is similar, but expects eight hex digits,
+not four::
+
+    >>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000"
+    ... #     ^^^^ two-digit hex escape
+    ... #         ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape
+    ... #                     ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape
+    >>> [ord(c) for c in s]
+    [97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]
+
+Using escape sequences for code points greater than 127 is fine in small doses,
+but becomes an annoyance if you're using many accented characters, as you would
+in a program with messages in French or some other accent-using language.  You
+can also assemble strings using the :func:`chr` built-in function, but this is
+even more tedious.
+
+Ideally, you'd want to be able to write literals in your language's natural
+encoding.  You could then edit Python source code with your favorite editor
+which would display the accented characters naturally, and have the right
+characters used at runtime.
+
+Python supports writing source code in UTF-8 by default, but you can use almost
+any encoding if you declare the encoding being used.  This is done by including
+a special comment as either the first or second line of the source file::
+
+    #!/usr/bin/env python
+    # -*- coding: latin-1 -*-
+
+    u = 'abcdé'
+    print(ord(u[-1]))
+
+The syntax is inspired by Emacs's notation for specifying variables local to a
+file.  Emacs supports many different variables, but Python only supports
+'coding'.  The ``-*-`` symbols indicate to Emacs that the comment is special;
+they have no significance to Python but are a convention.  Python looks for
+``coding: name`` or ``coding=name`` in the comment.
+
+If you don't include such a comment, the default encoding used will be UTF-8 as
+already mentioned.  See also :pep:`263` for more information.
+
+
+Unicode Properties
+------------------
+
+The Unicode specification includes a database of information about
+code points.  For each defined code point, the information includes
+the character's name, its category, the numeric value if applicable
+(for characters representing numeric concepts such as the Roman
+numerals, fractions such as one-third and four-fifths, etc.).  There
+are also display-related properties, such as how to use the code point
+in bidirectional text.
+
+The following program displays some information about several characters, and
+prints the numeric value of one particular character::
+
+    import unicodedata
+
+    u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231)
+
+    for i, c in enumerate(u):
+        print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ")
+        print(unicodedata.name(c))
+
+    # Get numeric value of second character
+    print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1]))
+
+When run, this prints:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
+    1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
+    2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
+    3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
+    4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
+    1000.0
+
+The category codes are abbreviations describing the nature of the character.
+These are grouped into categories such as "Letter", "Number", "Punctuation", or
+"Symbol", which in turn are broken up into subcategories.  To take the codes
+from the above output, ``'Ll'`` means 'Letter, lowercase', ``'No'`` means
+"Number, other", ``'Mn'`` is "Mark, nonspacing", and ``'So'`` is "Symbol,
+other".  See
+`the General Category Values section of the Unicode Character Database documentation <http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values>`_ for a
+list of category codes.
+
+
+Comparing Strings
+-----------------
+
+Unicode adds some complication to comparing strings, because the same
+set of characters can be represented by different sequences of code
+points.  For example, a letter like 'ê' can be represented as a single
+code point U+00EA, or as U+0065 U+0302, which is the code point for
+'e' followed by a code point for 'COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT'.  These
+will produce the same output when printed, but one is a string of
+length 1 and the other is of length 2.
+
+One tool for a case-insensitive comparison is the
+:meth:`~str.casefold` string method that converts a string to a
+case-insensitive form following an algorithm described by the Unicode
+Standard.  This algorithm has special handling for characters such as
+the German letter 'ß' (code point U+00DF), which becomes the pair of
+lowercase letters 'ss'.
+
+::
+
+    >>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße'
+    >>> street.casefold()
+    'gürzenichstrasse'
+
+A second tool is the :mod:`unicodedata` module's
+:func:`~unicodedata.normalize` function that converts strings to one
+of several normal forms, where letters followed by a combining
+character are replaced with single characters.  :func:`normalize` can
+be used to perform string comparisons that won't falsely report
+inequality if two strings use combining characters differently:
+
+::
+
+    import unicodedata
+
+    def compare_strs(s1, s2):
+        def NFD(s):
+            return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)
+
+        return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2)
+
+    single_char = 'ê'
+    multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
+    print('length of first string=', len(single_char))
+    print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars))
+    print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars))
+
+When run, this outputs:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python3 compare-strs.py
+    length of first string= 1
+    length of second string= 2
+    True
+
+The first argument to the :func:`~unicodedata.normalize` function is a
+string giving the desired normalization form, which can be one of
+'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD', and 'NFKD'.
+
+The Unicode Standard also specifies how to do caseless comparisons::
+
+    import unicodedata
+
+    def compare_caseless(s1, s2):
+        def NFD(s):
+            return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)
+
+        return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold())
+
+    # Example usage
+    single_char = 'ê'
+    multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
+
+    print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars))
+
+This will print ``True``.  (Why is :func:`NFD` invoked twice?  Because
+there are a few characters that make :meth:`casefold` return a
+non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again. See
+section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)
+
+
+Unicode Regular Expressions
+---------------------------
+
+The regular expressions supported by the :mod:`re` module can be provided
+either as bytes or strings.  Some of the special character sequences such as
+``\d`` and ``\w`` have different meanings depending on whether
+the pattern is supplied as bytes or a string.  For example,
+``\d`` will match the characters ``[0-9]`` in bytes but
+in strings will match any character that's in the ``'Nd'`` category.
+
+The string in this example has the number 57 written in both Thai and
+Arabic numerals::
+
+   import re
+   p = re.compile(r'\d+')
+
+   s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours"
+   m = p.search(s)
+   print(repr(m.group()))
+
+When executed, ``\d+`` will match the Thai numerals and print them
+out.  If you supply the :const:`re.ASCII` flag to
+:func:`~re.compile`, ``\d+`` will match the substring "57" instead.
+
+Similarly, ``\w`` matches a wide variety of Unicode characters but
+only ``[a-zA-Z0-9_]`` in bytes or if :const:`re.ASCII` is supplied,
+and ``\s`` will match either Unicode whitespace characters or
+``[ \t\n\r\f\v]``.
+
+
+References
+----------
+
+.. comment should these be mentioned earlier, e.g. at the start of the "introduction to Unicode" first section?
+
+Some good alternative discussions of Python's Unicode support are:
+
+* `Processing Text Files in Python 3 <http://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html>`_, by Nick Coghlan.
+* `Pragmatic Unicode <https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html>`_, a PyCon 2012 presentation by Ned Batchelder.
+
+The :class:`str` type is described in the Python library reference at
+:ref:`textseq`.
+
+The documentation for the :mod:`unicodedata` module.
+
+The documentation for the :mod:`codecs` module.
+
+Marc-André Lemburg gave `a presentation titled "Python and Unicode" (PDF slides)
+<https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf>`_ at
+EuroPython 2002.  The slides are an excellent overview of the design of Python
+2's Unicode features (where the Unicode string type is called ``unicode`` and
+literals start with ``u``).
+
+
+Reading and Writing Unicode Data
+================================
+
+Once you've written some code that works with Unicode data, the next problem is
+input/output.  How do you get Unicode strings into your program, and how do you
+convert Unicode into a form suitable for storage or transmission?
+
+It's possible that you may not need to do anything depending on your input
+sources and output destinations; you should check whether the libraries used in
+your application support Unicode natively.  XML parsers often return Unicode
+data, for example.  Many relational databases also support Unicode-valued
+columns and can return Unicode values from an SQL query.
+
+Unicode data is usually converted to a particular encoding before it gets
+written to disk or sent over a socket.  It's possible to do all the work
+yourself: open a file, read an 8-bit bytes object from it, and convert the bytes
+with ``bytes.decode(encoding)``.  However, the manual approach is not recommended.
+
+One problem is the multi-byte nature of encodings; one Unicode character can be
+represented by several bytes.  If you want to read the file in arbitrary-sized
+chunks (say, 1024 or 4096 bytes), you need to write error-handling code to catch the case
+where only part of the bytes encoding a single Unicode character are read at the
+end of a chunk.  One solution would be to read the entire file into memory and
+then perform the decoding, but that prevents you from working with files that
+are extremely large; if you need to read a 2 GiB file, you need 2 GiB of RAM.
+(More, really, since for at least a moment you'd need to have both the encoded
+string and its Unicode version in memory.)
+
+The solution would be to use the low-level decoding interface to catch the case
+of partial coding sequences.  The work of implementing this has already been
+done for you: the built-in :func:`open` function can return a file-like object
+that assumes the file's contents are in a specified encoding and accepts Unicode
+parameters for methods such as :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.read` and
+:meth:`~io.TextIOBase.write`.  This works through :func:`open`\'s *encoding* and
+*errors* parameters which are interpreted just like those in :meth:`str.encode`
+and :meth:`bytes.decode`.
+
+Reading Unicode from a file is therefore simple::
+
+    with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f:
+        for line in f:
+            print(repr(line))
+
+It's also possible to open files in update mode, allowing both reading and
+writing::
+
+    with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f:
+        f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n')
+        f.seek(0)
+        print(repr(f.readline()[:1]))
+
+The Unicode character ``U+FEFF`` is used as a byte-order mark (BOM), and is often
+written as the first character of a file in order to assist with autodetection
+of the file's byte ordering.  Some encodings, such as UTF-16, expect a BOM to be
+present at the start of a file; when such an encoding is used, the BOM will be
+automatically written as the first character and will be silently dropped when
+the file is read.  There are variants of these encodings, such as 'utf-16-le'
+and 'utf-16-be' for little-endian and big-endian encodings, that specify one
+particular byte ordering and don't skip the BOM.
+
+In some areas, it is also convention to use a "BOM" at the start of UTF-8
+encoded files; the name is misleading since UTF-8 is not byte-order dependent.
+The mark simply announces that the file is encoded in UTF-8.  For reading such
+files, use the 'utf-8-sig' codec to automatically skip the mark if present.
+
+
+Unicode filenames
+-----------------
+
+Most of the operating systems in common use today support filenames
+that contain arbitrary Unicode characters.  Usually this is
+implemented by converting the Unicode string into some encoding that
+varies depending on the system.  Today Python is converging on using
+UTF-8: Python on MacOS has used UTF-8 for several versions, and Python
+3.6 switched to using UTF-8 on Windows as well.  On Unix systems,
+there will only be a filesystem encoding if you've set the ``LANG`` or
+``LC_CTYPE`` environment variables; if you haven't, the default
+encoding is again UTF-8.
+
+The :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` function returns the encoding to use on
+your current system, in case you want to do the encoding manually, but there's
+not much reason to bother.  When opening a file for reading or writing, you can
+usually just provide the Unicode string as the filename, and it will be
+automatically converted to the right encoding for you::
+
+    filename = 'filename\u4500abc'
+    with open(filename, 'w') as f:
+        f.write('blah\n')
+
+Functions in the :mod:`os` module such as :func:`os.stat` will also accept Unicode
+filenames.
+
+The :func:`os.listdir` function returns filenames, which raises an issue: should it return
+the Unicode version of filenames, or should it return bytes containing
+the encoded versions?  :func:`os.listdir` can do both, depending on whether you
+provided the directory path as bytes or a Unicode string.  If you pass a
+Unicode string as the path, filenames will be decoded using the filesystem's
+encoding and a list of Unicode strings will be returned, while passing a byte
+path will return the filenames as bytes.  For example,
+assuming the default filesystem encoding is UTF-8, running the following
+program::
+
+   fn = 'filename\u4500abc'
+   f = open(fn, 'w')
+   f.close()
+
+   import os
+   print(os.listdir(b'.'))
+   print(os.listdir('.'))
+
+will produce the following output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python listdir-test.py
+   [b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...]
+   ['filename\u4500abc', ...]
+
+The first list contains UTF-8-encoded filenames, and the second list contains
+the Unicode versions.
+
+Note that on most occasions, you should can just stick with using
+Unicode with these APIs.  The bytes APIs should only be used on
+systems where undecodable file names can be present; that's
+pretty much only Unix systems now.
+
+
+Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs
+---------------------------------------
+
+This section provides some suggestions on writing software that deals with
+Unicode.
+
+The most important tip is:
+
+    Software should only work with Unicode strings internally, decoding the input
+    data as soon as possible and encoding the output only at the end.
+
+If you attempt to write processing functions that accept both Unicode and byte
+strings, you will find your program vulnerable to bugs wherever you combine the
+two different kinds of strings.  There is no automatic encoding or decoding: if
+you do e.g. ``str + bytes``, a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised.
+
+When using data coming from a web browser or some other untrusted source, a
+common technique is to check for illegal characters in a string before using the
+string in a generated command line or storing it in a database.  If you're doing
+this, be careful to check the decoded string, not the encoded bytes data;
+some encodings may have interesting properties, such as not being bijective
+or not being fully ASCII-compatible.  This is especially true if the input
+data also specifies the encoding, since the attacker can then choose a
+clever way to hide malicious text in the encoded bytestream.
+
+
+Converting Between File Encodings
+'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+The :class:`~codecs.StreamRecoder` class can transparently convert between
+encodings, taking a stream that returns data in encoding #1
+and behaving like a stream returning data in encoding #2.
+
+For example, if you have an input file *f* that's in Latin-1, you
+can wrap it with a :class:`~codecs.StreamRecoder` to return bytes encoded in
+UTF-8::
+
+    new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f,
+        # en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and
+        # by write() to decode its input.
+        codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'),
+
+        # reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream.
+        codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )
+
+
+Files in an Unknown Encoding
+''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+What can you do if you need to make a change to a file, but don't know
+the file's encoding?  If you know the encoding is ASCII-compatible and
+only want to examine or modify the ASCII parts, you can open the file
+with the ``surrogateescape`` error handler::
+
+   with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
+       data = f.read()
+
+   # make changes to the string 'data'
+
+   with open(fname + '.new', 'w',
+             encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
+       f.write(data)
+
+The ``surrogateescape`` error handler will decode any non-ASCII bytes
+as code points in a special range running from U+DC80 to
+U+DCFF.  These code points will then turn back into the
+same bytes when the ``surrogateescape`` error handler is used to
+encode the data and write it back out.
+
+
+References
+----------
+
+One section of `Mastering Python 3 Input/Output
+<http://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010--mastering-python-3-i-o>`_,
+a PyCon 2010 talk by David Beazley, discusses text processing and binary data handling.
+
+The `PDF slides for Marc-André Lemburg's presentation "Writing Unicode-aware
+Applications in Python"
+<https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf>`_
+discuss questions of character encodings as well as how to internationalize
+and localize an application.  These slides cover Python 2.x only.
+
+`The Guts of Unicode in Python
+<http://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python>`_
+is a PyCon 2013 talk by Benjamin Peterson that discusses the internal Unicode
+representation in Python 3.3.
+
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The initial draft of this document was written by Andrew Kuchling.
+It has since been revised further by Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl,
+Andrew Kuchling, and Ezio Melotti.
+
+Thanks to the following people who have noted errors or offered
+suggestions on this article: Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick
+Coghlan, Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André
+Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka,
+Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre, Graham Wideman.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/urllib2.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/urllib2.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/howto/urllib2.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,605 @@
+.. _urllib-howto:
+
+***********************************************************
+  HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package
+***********************************************************
+
+:Author: `Michael Foord <http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/index.shtml>`_
+
+.. note::
+
+    There is a French translation of an earlier revision of this
+    HOWTO, available at `urllib2 - Le Manuel manquant
+    <http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/urllib2_francais.shtml>`_.
+
+
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+.. sidebar:: Related Articles
+
+    You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources
+    with Python:
+
+    * `Basic Authentication <http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml>`_
+
+        A tutorial on *Basic Authentication*, with examples in Python.
+
+**urllib.request** is a Python module for fetching URLs
+(Uniform Resource Locators). It offers a very simple interface, in the form of
+the *urlopen* function. This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of
+different protocols. It also offers a slightly more complex interface for
+handling common situations - like basic authentication, cookies, proxies and so
+on. These are provided by objects called handlers and openers.
+
+urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many "URL schemes" (identified by the string
+before the ``":"`` in URL - for example ``"ftp"`` is the URL scheme of
+``"ftp://python.org/"``) using their associated network protocols (e.g. FTP, HTTP).
+This tutorial focuses on the most common case, HTTP.
+
+For straightforward situations *urlopen* is very easy to use. But as soon as you
+encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP URLs, you will need some
+understanding of the HyperText Transfer Protocol. The most comprehensive and
+authoritative reference to HTTP is :rfc:`2616`. This is a technical document and
+not intended to be easy to read. This HOWTO aims to illustrate using *urllib*,
+with enough detail about HTTP to help you through. It is not intended to replace
+the :mod:`urllib.request` docs, but is supplementary to them.
+
+
+Fetching URLs
+=============
+
+The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows::
+
+    import urllib.request
+    with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
+       html = response.read()
+
+If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary
+location, you can do so via the :func:`shutil.copyfileobj` and
+:func:`tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile` functions::
+
+    import shutil
+    import tempfile
+    import urllib.request
+
+    with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
+        with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:
+            shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)
+
+    with open(tmp_file.name) as html:
+        pass
+
+Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an 'http:' URL we
+could have used a URL starting with 'ftp:', 'file:', etc.).  However, it's the
+purpose of this tutorial to explain the more complicated cases, concentrating on
+HTTP.
+
+HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and servers
+send responses. urllib.request mirrors this with a ``Request`` object which represents
+the HTTP request you are making. In its simplest form you create a Request
+object that specifies the URL you want to fetch. Calling ``urlopen`` with this
+Request object returns a response object for the URL requested. This response is
+a file-like object, which means you can for example call ``.read()`` on the
+response::
+
+    import urllib.request
+
+    req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
+    with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
+       the_page = response.read()
+
+Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to handle all URL
+schemes.  For example, you can make an FTP request like so::
+
+    req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')
+
+In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects allow you
+to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server.  Second, you can pass
+extra information ("metadata") *about* the data or the about request itself, to
+the server - this information is sent as HTTP "headers".  Let's look at each of
+these in turn.
+
+Data
+----
+
+Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a CGI
+(Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application). With HTTP,
+this is often done using what's known as a **POST** request. This is often what
+your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you filled in on the web. Not
+all POSTs have to come from forms: you can use a POST to transmit arbitrary data
+to your own application. In the common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be
+encoded in a standard way, and then passed to the Request object as the ``data``
+argument. The encoding is done using a function from the :mod:`urllib.parse`
+library. ::
+
+    import urllib.parse
+    import urllib.request
+
+    url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
+    values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',
+              'location' : 'Northampton',
+              'language' : 'Python' }
+
+    data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
+    data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes
+    req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)
+    with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
+       the_page = response.read()
+
+Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g. for file upload from HTML
+forms - see `HTML Specification, Form Submission
+<https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13>`_ for more
+details).
+
+If you do not pass the ``data`` argument, urllib uses a **GET** request. One
+way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests often have
+"side-effects": they change the state of the system in some way (for example by
+placing an order with the website for a hundredweight of tinned spam to be
+delivered to your door).  Though the HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are
+intended to *always* cause side-effects, and GET requests *never* to cause
+side-effects, nothing prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a
+POST requests from having no side-effects. Data can also be passed in an HTTP
+GET request by encoding it in the URL itself.
+
+This is done as follows::
+
+    >>> import urllib.request
+    >>> import urllib.parse
+    >>> data = {}
+    >>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'
+    >>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'
+    >>> data['language'] = 'Python'
+    >>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)
+    >>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.  #doctest: +SKIP
+    name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton
+    >>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'
+    >>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values
+    >>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)
+
+Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ``?`` to the URL, followed by
+the encoded values.
+
+Headers
+-------
+
+We'll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add headers
+to your HTTP request.
+
+Some websites [#]_ dislike being browsed by programs, or send different versions
+to different browsers [#]_. By default urllib identifies itself as
+``Python-urllib/x.y`` (where ``x`` and ``y`` are the major and minor version
+numbers of the Python release,
+e.g. ``Python-urllib/2.5``), which may confuse the site, or just plain
+not work. The way a browser identifies itself is through the
+``User-Agent`` header [#]_. When you create a Request object you can
+pass a dictionary of headers in. The following example makes the same
+request as above, but identifies itself as a version of Internet
+Explorer [#]_. ::
+
+    import urllib.parse
+    import urllib.request
+
+    url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
+    user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'
+    values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',
+              'location': 'Northampton',
+              'language': 'Python' }
+    headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}
+
+    data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
+    data = data.encode('ascii')
+    req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)
+    with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
+       the_page = response.read()
+
+The response also has two useful methods. See the section on `info and geturl`_
+which comes after we have a look at what happens when things go wrong.
+
+
+Handling Exceptions
+===================
+
+*urlopen* raises :exc:`URLError` when it cannot handle a response (though as
+usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as :exc:`ValueError`,
+:exc:`TypeError` etc. may also be raised).
+
+:exc:`HTTPError` is the subclass of :exc:`URLError` raised in the specific case of
+HTTP URLs.
+
+The exception classes are exported from the :mod:`urllib.error` module.
+
+URLError
+--------
+
+Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no route to
+the specified server), or the specified server doesn't exist.  In this case, the
+exception raised will have a 'reason' attribute, which is a tuple containing an
+error code and a text error message.
+
+e.g. ::
+
+    >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')
+    >>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)
+    ... except urllib.error.URLError as e:
+    ...     print(e.reason)      #doctest: +SKIP
+    ...
+    (4, 'getaddrinfo failed')
+
+
+HTTPError
+---------
+
+Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric "status code". Sometimes
+the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil the request. The
+default handlers will handle some of these responses for you (for example, if
+the response is a "redirection" that requests the client fetch the document from
+a different URL, urllib will handle that for you). For those it can't handle,
+urlopen will raise an :exc:`HTTPError`. Typical errors include '404' (page not
+found), '403' (request forbidden), and '401' (authentication required).
+
+See section 10 of :rfc:`2616` for a reference on all the HTTP error codes.
+
+The :exc:`HTTPError` instance raised will have an integer 'code' attribute, which
+corresponds to the error sent by the server.
+
+Error Codes
+~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range), and
+codes in the 100--299 range indicate success, you will usually only see error
+codes in the 400--599 range.
+
+:attr:`http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses` is a useful dictionary of
+response codes in that shows all the response codes used by :rfc:`2616`. The
+dictionary is reproduced here for convenience ::
+
+    # Table mapping response codes to messages; entries have the
+    # form {code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}.
+    responses = {
+        100: ('Continue', 'Request received, please continue'),
+        101: ('Switching Protocols',
+              'Switching to new protocol; obey Upgrade header'),
+
+        200: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
+        201: ('Created', 'Document created, URL follows'),
+        202: ('Accepted',
+              'Request accepted, processing continues off-line'),
+        203: ('Non-Authoritative Information', 'Request fulfilled from cache'),
+        204: ('No Content', 'Request fulfilled, nothing follows'),
+        205: ('Reset Content', 'Clear input form for further input.'),
+        206: ('Partial Content', 'Partial content follows.'),
+
+        300: ('Multiple Choices',
+              'Object has several resources -- see URI list'),
+        301: ('Moved Permanently', 'Object moved permanently -- see URI list'),
+        302: ('Found', 'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),
+        303: ('See Other', 'Object moved -- see Method and URL list'),
+        304: ('Not Modified',
+              'Document has not changed since given time'),
+        305: ('Use Proxy',
+              'You must use proxy specified in Location to access this '
+              'resource.'),
+        307: ('Temporary Redirect',
+              'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),
+
+        400: ('Bad Request',
+              'Bad request syntax or unsupported method'),
+        401: ('Unauthorized',
+              'No permission -- see authorization schemes'),
+        402: ('Payment Required',
+              'No payment -- see charging schemes'),
+        403: ('Forbidden',
+              'Request forbidden -- authorization will not help'),
+        404: ('Not Found', 'Nothing matches the given URI'),
+        405: ('Method Not Allowed',
+              'Specified method is invalid for this server.'),
+        406: ('Not Acceptable', 'URI not available in preferred format.'),
+        407: ('Proxy Authentication Required', 'You must authenticate with '
+              'this proxy before proceeding.'),
+        408: ('Request Timeout', 'Request timed out; try again later.'),
+        409: ('Conflict', 'Request conflict.'),
+        410: ('Gone',
+              'URI no longer exists and has been permanently removed.'),
+        411: ('Length Required', 'Client must specify Content-Length.'),
+        412: ('Precondition Failed', 'Precondition in headers is false.'),
+        413: ('Request Entity Too Large', 'Entity is too large.'),
+        414: ('Request-URI Too Long', 'URI is too long.'),
+        415: ('Unsupported Media Type', 'Entity body in unsupported format.'),
+        416: ('Requested Range Not Satisfiable',
+              'Cannot satisfy request range.'),
+        417: ('Expectation Failed',
+              'Expect condition could not be satisfied.'),
+
+        500: ('Internal Server Error', 'Server got itself in trouble'),
+        501: ('Not Implemented',
+              'Server does not support this operation'),
+        502: ('Bad Gateway', 'Invalid responses from another server/proxy.'),
+        503: ('Service Unavailable',
+              'The server cannot process the request due to a high load'),
+        504: ('Gateway Timeout',
+              'The gateway server did not receive a timely response'),
+        505: ('HTTP Version Not Supported', 'Cannot fulfill request.'),
+        }
+
+When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error code
+*and* an error page. You can use the :exc:`HTTPError` instance as a response on the
+page returned. This means that as well as the code attribute, it also has read,
+geturl, and info, methods as returned by the ``urllib.response`` module::
+
+    >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')
+    >>> try:
+    ...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)
+    ... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
+    ...     print(e.code)
+    ...     print(e.read())  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    ...
+    404
+    b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+      "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
+      ...
+      <title>Page Not Found</title>\n
+      ...
+
+Wrapping it Up
+--------------
+
+So if you want to be prepared for :exc:`HTTPError` *or* :exc:`URLError` there are two
+basic approaches. I prefer the second approach.
+
+Number 1
+~~~~~~~~
+
+::
+
+
+    from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
+    from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError
+    req = Request(someurl)
+    try:
+        response = urlopen(req)
+    except HTTPError as e:
+        print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
+        print('Error code: ', e.code)
+    except URLError as e:
+        print('We failed to reach a server.')
+        print('Reason: ', e.reason)
+    else:
+        # everything is fine
+
+
+.. note::
+
+    The ``except HTTPError`` *must* come first, otherwise ``except URLError``
+    will *also* catch an :exc:`HTTPError`.
+
+Number 2
+~~~~~~~~
+
+::
+
+    from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
+    from urllib.error import URLError
+    req = Request(someurl)
+    try:
+        response = urlopen(req)
+    except URLError as e:
+        if hasattr(e, 'reason'):
+            print('We failed to reach a server.')
+            print('Reason: ', e.reason)
+        elif hasattr(e, 'code'):
+            print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
+            print('Error code: ', e.code)
+    else:
+        # everything is fine
+
+
+info and geturl
+===============
+
+The response returned by urlopen (or the :exc:`HTTPError` instance) has two
+useful methods :meth:`info` and :meth:`geturl` and is defined in the module
+:mod:`urllib.response`..
+
+**geturl** - this returns the real URL of the page fetched. This is useful
+because ``urlopen`` (or the opener object used) may have followed a
+redirect. The URL of the page fetched may not be the same as the URL requested.
+
+**info** - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the page
+fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server. It is currently an
+:class:`http.client.HTTPMessage` instance.
+
+Typical headers include 'Content-length', 'Content-type', and so on. See the
+`Quick Reference to HTTP Headers <http://jkorpela.fi/http.html>`_
+for a useful listing of HTTP headers with brief explanations of their meaning
+and use.
+
+
+Openers and Handlers
+====================
+
+When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps
+confusingly-named :class:`urllib.request.OpenerDirector`). Normally we have been using
+the default opener - via ``urlopen`` - but you can create custom
+openers. Openers use handlers. All the "heavy lifting" is done by the
+handlers. Each handler knows how to open URLs for a particular URL scheme (http,
+ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of URL opening, for example HTTP
+redirections or HTTP cookies.
+
+You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific handlers
+installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies, or to get an
+opener that does not handle redirections.
+
+To create an opener, instantiate an ``OpenerDirector``, and then call
+``.add_handler(some_handler_instance)`` repeatedly.
+
+Alternatively, you can use ``build_opener``, which is a convenience function for
+creating opener objects with a single function call.  ``build_opener`` adds
+several handlers by default, but provides a quick way to add more and/or
+override the default handlers.
+
+Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies, authentication,
+and other common but slightly specialised situations.
+
+``install_opener`` can be used to make an ``opener`` object the (global) default
+opener. This means that calls to ``urlopen`` will use the opener you have
+installed.
+
+Opener objects have an ``open`` method, which can be called directly to fetch
+urls in the same way as the ``urlopen`` function: there's no need to call
+``install_opener``, except as a convenience.
+
+
+Basic Authentication
+====================
+
+To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the
+``HTTPBasicAuthHandler``. For a more detailed discussion of this subject --
+including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the `Basic
+Authentication Tutorial
+<http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml>`_.
+
+When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as the 401
+error code) requesting authentication.  This specifies the authentication scheme
+and a 'realm'. The header looks like: ``WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME
+realm="REALM"``.
+
+e.g.
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users"
+
+
+The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and password
+for the realm included as a header in the request. This is 'basic
+authentication'. In order to simplify this process we can create an instance of
+``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`` and an opener to use this handler.
+
+The ``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`` uses an object called a password manager to handle
+the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames. If you know what the
+realm is (from the authentication header sent by the server), then you can use a
+``HTTPPasswordMgr``. Frequently one doesn't care what the realm is. In that
+case, it is convenient to use ``HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm``. This allows
+you to specify a default username and password for a URL. This will be supplied
+in the absence of you providing an alternative combination for a specific
+realm. We indicate this by providing ``None`` as the realm argument to the
+``add_password`` method.
+
+The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication. URLs "deeper"
+than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match. ::
+
+    # create a password manager
+    password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()
+
+    # Add the username and password.
+    # If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.
+    top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/"
+    password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)
+
+    handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)
+
+    # create "opener" (OpenerDirector instance)
+    opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)
+
+    # use the opener to fetch a URL
+    opener.open(a_url)
+
+    # Install the opener.
+    # Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.
+    urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
+
+.. note::
+
+    In the above example we only supplied our ``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`` to
+    ``build_opener``. By default openers have the handlers for normal situations
+    -- ``ProxyHandler`` (if a proxy setting such as an :envvar:`http_proxy`
+    environment variable is set), ``UnknownHandler``, ``HTTPHandler``,
+    ``HTTPDefaultErrorHandler``, ``HTTPRedirectHandler``, ``FTPHandler``,
+    ``FileHandler``, ``DataHandler``, ``HTTPErrorProcessor``.
+
+``top_level_url`` is in fact *either* a full URL (including the 'http:' scheme
+component and the hostname and optionally the port number)
+e.g. ``"http://example.com/"`` *or* an "authority" (i.e. the hostname,
+optionally including the port number) e.g. ``"example.com"`` or ``"example.com:8080"``
+(the latter example includes a port number).  The authority, if present, must
+NOT contain the "userinfo" component - for example ``"joe:password@example.com"`` is
+not correct.
+
+
+Proxies
+=======
+
+**urllib** will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those. This is through
+the ``ProxyHandler``, which is part of the normal handler chain when a proxy
+setting is detected.  Normally that's a good thing, but there are occasions
+when it may not be helpful [#]_. One way to do this is to setup our own
+``ProxyHandler``, with no proxies defined. This is done using similar steps to
+setting up a `Basic Authentication`_ handler: ::
+
+    >>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})
+    >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)
+    >>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
+
+.. note::
+
+    Currently ``urllib.request`` *does not* support fetching of ``https`` locations
+    through a proxy.  However, this can be enabled by extending urllib.request as
+    shown in the recipe [#]_.
+
+.. note::
+
+    ``HTTP_PROXY`` will be ignored if a variable ``REQUEST_METHOD`` is set; see
+    the documentation on :func:`~urllib.request.getproxies`.
+
+
+Sockets and Layers
+==================
+
+The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered.  urllib uses
+the :mod:`http.client` library, which in turn uses the socket library.
+
+As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a response
+before timing out. This can be useful in applications which have to fetch web
+pages. By default the socket module has *no timeout* and can hang. Currently,
+the socket timeout is not exposed at the http.client or urllib.request levels.
+However, you can set the default timeout globally for all sockets using ::
+
+    import socket
+    import urllib.request
+
+    # timeout in seconds
+    timeout = 10
+    socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)
+
+    # this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout
+    # we have set in the socket module
+    req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
+    response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)
+
+
+-------
+
+
+Footnotes
+=========
+
+This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.
+
+.. [#] Google for example.
+.. [#] Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design - building
+       sites using web standards is much more sensible. Unfortunately a lot of
+       sites still send different versions to different browsers.
+.. [#] The user agent for MSIE 6 is
+       *'Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0; Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)'*
+.. [#] For details of more HTTP request headers, see
+       `Quick Reference to HTTP Headers`_.
+.. [#] In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work. If you
+       attempt to fetch *localhost* URLs through this proxy it blocks them. IE
+       is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on. In order to test
+       scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from using
+       the proxy.
+.. [#] urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): `ASPN Cookbook Recipe
+       <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195/>`_.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/install/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/install/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6a8cd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/install/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1117 @@
+.. highlightlang:: none
+
+.. _install-index:
+
+********************************************
+  Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)
+********************************************
+
+:Author: Greg Ward
+
+.. TODO: Fill in XXX comments
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`installing-index`
+      The up to date module installation documentations
+
+.. The audience for this document includes people who don't know anything
+   about Python and aren't about to learn the language just in order to
+   install and maintain it for their users, i.e. system administrators.
+   Thus, I have to be sure to explain the basics at some point:
+   sys.path and PYTHONPATH at least.  Should probably give pointers to
+   other docs on "import site", PYTHONSTARTUP, PYTHONHOME, etc.
+
+   Finally, it might be useful to include all the material from my "Care
+   and Feeding of a Python Installation" talk in here somewhere.  Yow!
+
+This document describes the Python Distribution Utilities ("Distutils") from the
+end-user's point-of-view, describing how to extend the capabilities of a
+standard Python installation by building and installing third-party Python
+modules and extensions.
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   This guide only covers the basic tools for building and distributing
+   extensions that are provided as part of this version of Python. Third party
+   tools offer easier to use and more secure alternatives. Refer to the `quick
+   recommendations section <https://packaging.python.org/guides/tool-recommendations/>`__
+   in the Python Packaging User Guide for more information.
+
+
+.. _inst-intro:
+
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+Although Python's extensive standard library covers many programming needs,
+there often comes a time when you need to add some new functionality to your
+Python installation in the form of third-party modules.  This might be necessary
+to support your own programming, or to support an application that you want to
+use and that happens to be written in Python.
+
+In the past, there has been little support for adding third-party modules to an
+existing Python installation.  With the introduction of the Python Distribution
+Utilities (Distutils for short) in Python 2.0, this changed.
+
+This document is aimed primarily at the people who need to install third-party
+Python modules: end-users and system administrators who just need to get some
+Python application running, and existing Python programmers who want to add some
+new goodies to their toolbox.  You don't need to know Python to read this
+document; there will be some brief forays into using Python's interactive mode
+to explore your installation, but that's it.  If you're looking for information
+on how to distribute your own Python modules so that others may use them, see
+the :ref:`distutils-index` manual.  :ref:`debug-setup-script` may also be of
+interest.
+
+
+.. _inst-trivial-install:
+
+Best case: trivial installation
+-------------------------------
+
+In the best case, someone will have prepared a special version of the module
+distribution you want to install that is targeted specifically at your platform
+and is installed just like any other software on your platform.  For example,
+the module developer might make an executable installer available for Windows
+users, an RPM package for users of RPM-based Linux systems (Red Hat, SuSE,
+Mandrake, and many others), a Debian package for users of Debian-based Linux
+systems, and so forth.
+
+In that case, you would download the installer appropriate to your platform and
+do the obvious thing with it: run it if it's an executable installer, ``rpm
+--install`` it if it's an RPM, etc.  You don't need to run Python or a setup
+script, you don't need to compile anything---you might not even need to read any
+instructions (although it's always a good idea to do so anyway).
+
+Of course, things will not always be that easy.  You might be interested in a
+module distribution that doesn't have an easy-to-use installer for your
+platform.  In that case, you'll have to start with the source distribution
+released by the module's author/maintainer.  Installing from a source
+distribution is not too hard, as long as the modules are packaged in the
+standard way.  The bulk of this document is about building and installing
+modules from standard source distributions.
+
+
+.. _inst-new-standard:
+
+The new standard: Distutils
+---------------------------
+
+If you download a module source distribution, you can tell pretty quickly if it
+was packaged and distributed in the standard way, i.e. using the Distutils.
+First, the distribution's name and version number will be featured prominently
+in the name of the downloaded archive, e.g. :file:`foo-1.0.tar.gz` or
+:file:`widget-0.9.7.zip`.  Next, the archive will unpack into a similarly-named
+directory: :file:`foo-1.0` or :file:`widget-0.9.7`.  Additionally, the
+distribution will contain a setup script :file:`setup.py`, and a file named
+:file:`README.txt` or possibly just :file:`README`, which should explain that
+building and installing the module distribution is a simple matter of running
+one command from a terminal::
+
+   python setup.py install
+
+For Windows, this command should be run from a command prompt window
+(:menuselection:`Start --> Accessories`)::
+
+   setup.py install
+
+If all these things are true, then you already know how to build and install the
+modules you've just downloaded:  Run the command above. Unless you need to
+install things in a non-standard way or customize the build process, you don't
+really need this manual.  Or rather, the above command is everything you need to
+get out of this manual.
+
+
+.. _inst-standard-install:
+
+Standard Build and Install
+==========================
+
+As described in section :ref:`inst-new-standard`, building and installing a module
+distribution using the Distutils is usually one simple command to run from a
+terminal::
+
+   python setup.py install
+
+
+.. _inst-platform-variations:
+
+Platform variations
+-------------------
+
+You should always run the setup command from the distribution root directory,
+i.e. the top-level subdirectory that the module source distribution unpacks
+into.  For example, if you've just downloaded a module source distribution
+:file:`foo-1.0.tar.gz` onto a Unix system, the normal thing to do is::
+
+   gunzip -c foo-1.0.tar.gz | tar xf -    # unpacks into directory foo-1.0
+   cd foo-1.0
+   python setup.py install
+
+On Windows, you'd probably download :file:`foo-1.0.zip`.  If you downloaded the
+archive file to :file:`C:\\Temp`, then it would unpack into
+:file:`C:\\Temp\\foo-1.0`; you can use either an archive manipulator with a
+graphical user interface (such as WinZip) or a command-line tool (such as
+:program:`unzip` or :program:`pkunzip`) to unpack the archive.  Then, open a
+command prompt window and run::
+
+   cd c:\Temp\foo-1.0
+   python setup.py install
+
+
+.. _inst-splitting-up:
+
+Splitting the job up
+--------------------
+
+Running ``setup.py install`` builds and installs all modules in one run.  If you
+prefer to work incrementally---especially useful if you want to customize the
+build process, or if things are going wrong---you can use the setup script to do
+one thing at a time.  This is particularly helpful when the build and install
+will be done by different users---for example, you might want to build a module
+distribution and hand it off to a system administrator for installation (or do
+it yourself, with super-user privileges).
+
+For example, you can build everything in one step, and then install everything
+in a second step, by invoking the setup script twice::
+
+   python setup.py build
+   python setup.py install
+
+If you do this, you will notice that running the :command:`install` command
+first runs the :command:`build` command, which---in this case---quickly notices
+that it has nothing to do, since everything in the :file:`build` directory is
+up-to-date.
+
+You may not need this ability to break things down often if all you do is
+install modules downloaded off the 'net, but it's very handy for more advanced
+tasks.  If you get into distributing your own Python modules and extensions,
+you'll run lots of individual Distutils commands on their own.
+
+
+.. _inst-how-build-works:
+
+How building works
+------------------
+
+As implied above, the :command:`build` command is responsible for putting the
+files to install into a *build directory*.  By default, this is :file:`build`
+under the distribution root; if you're excessively concerned with speed, or want
+to keep the source tree pristine, you can change the build directory with the
+:option:`!--build-base` option. For example::
+
+   python setup.py build --build-base=/path/to/pybuild/foo-1.0
+
+(Or you could do this permanently with a directive in your system or personal
+Distutils configuration file; see section :ref:`inst-config-files`.)  Normally, this
+isn't necessary.
+
+The default layout for the build tree is as follows::
+
+   --- build/ --- lib/
+   or
+   --- build/ --- lib.<plat>/
+                  temp.<plat>/
+
+where ``<plat>`` expands to a brief description of the current OS/hardware
+platform and Python version.  The first form, with just a :file:`lib` directory,
+is used for "pure module distributions"---that is, module distributions that
+include only pure Python modules.  If a module distribution contains any
+extensions (modules written in C/C++), then the second form, with two ``<plat>``
+directories, is used.  In that case, the :file:`temp.{plat}` directory holds
+temporary files generated by the compile/link process that don't actually get
+installed.  In either case, the :file:`lib` (or :file:`lib.{plat}`) directory
+contains all Python modules (pure Python and extensions) that will be installed.
+
+In the future, more directories will be added to handle Python scripts,
+documentation, binary executables, and whatever else is needed to handle the job
+of installing Python modules and applications.
+
+
+.. _inst-how-install-works:
+
+How installation works
+----------------------
+
+After the :command:`build` command runs (whether you run it explicitly, or the
+:command:`install` command does it for you), the work of the :command:`install`
+command is relatively simple: all it has to do is copy everything under
+:file:`build/lib` (or :file:`build/lib.{plat}`) to your chosen installation
+directory.
+
+If you don't choose an installation directory---i.e., if you just run ``setup.py
+install``\ ---then the :command:`install` command installs to the standard
+location for third-party Python modules.  This location varies by platform and
+by how you built/installed Python itself.  On Unix (and Mac OS X, which is also
+Unix-based), it also depends on whether the module distribution being installed
+is pure Python or contains extensions ("non-pure"):
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|l|l|l|
+
++-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| Platform        | Standard installation location                      | Default value                                    | Notes |
++=================+=====================================================+==================================================+=======+
+| Unix (pure)     | :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages`      | :file:`/usr/local/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` | \(1)  |
++-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| Unix (non-pure) | :file:`{exec-prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` | :file:`/usr/local/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` | \(1)  |
++-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| Windows         | :file:`{prefix}\\Lib\\site-packages`                | :file:`C:\\Python{XY}\\Lib\\site-packages`       | \(2)  |
++-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   Most Linux distributions include Python as a standard part of the system, so
+   :file:`{prefix}` and :file:`{exec-prefix}` are usually both :file:`/usr` on
+   Linux.  If you build Python yourself on Linux (or any Unix-like system), the
+   default :file:`{prefix}` and :file:`{exec-prefix}` are :file:`/usr/local`.
+
+(2)
+   The default installation directory on Windows was :file:`C:\\Program
+   Files\\Python` under Python 1.6a1, 1.5.2, and earlier.
+
+:file:`{prefix}` and :file:`{exec-prefix}` stand for the directories that Python
+is installed to, and where it finds its libraries at run-time.  They are always
+the same under Windows, and very often the same under Unix and Mac OS X.  You
+can find out what your Python installation uses for :file:`{prefix}` and
+:file:`{exec-prefix}` by running Python in interactive mode and typing a few
+simple commands. Under Unix, just type ``python`` at the shell prompt.  Under
+Windows, choose :menuselection:`Start --> Programs --> Python X.Y -->
+Python (command line)`.   Once the interpreter is started, you type Python code
+at the prompt.  For example, on my Linux system, I type the three Python
+statements shown below, and get the output as shown, to find out my
+:file:`{prefix}` and :file:`{exec-prefix}`:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+   Python 2.4 (#26, Aug  7 2004, 17:19:02)
+   Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.prefix
+   '/usr'
+   >>> sys.exec_prefix
+   '/usr'
+
+A few other placeholders are used in this document: :file:`{X.Y}` stands for the
+version of Python, for example ``3.2``; :file:`{abiflags}` will be replaced by
+the value of :data:`sys.abiflags` or the empty string for platforms which don't
+define ABI flags; :file:`{distname}` will be replaced by the name of the module
+distribution being installed.  Dots and capitalization are important in the
+paths; for example, a value that uses ``python3.2`` on UNIX will typically use
+``Python32`` on Windows.
+
+If you don't want to install modules to the standard location, or if you don't
+have permission to write there, then you need to read about alternate
+installations in section :ref:`inst-alt-install`.  If you want to customize your
+installation directories more heavily, see section :ref:`inst-custom-install` on
+custom installations.
+
+
+.. _inst-alt-install:
+
+Alternate Installation
+======================
+
+Often, it is necessary or desirable to install modules to a location other than
+the standard location for third-party Python modules.  For example, on a Unix
+system you might not have permission to write to the standard third-party module
+directory.  Or you might wish to try out a module before making it a standard
+part of your local Python installation.  This is especially true when upgrading
+a distribution already present: you want to make sure your existing base of
+scripts still works with the new version before actually upgrading.
+
+The Distutils :command:`install` command is designed to make installing module
+distributions to an alternate location simple and painless.  The basic idea is
+that you supply a base directory for the installation, and the
+:command:`install` command picks a set of directories (called an *installation
+scheme*) under this base directory in which to install files.  The details
+differ across platforms, so read whichever of the following sections applies to
+you.
+
+Note that the various alternate installation schemes are mutually exclusive: you
+can pass ``--user``, or ``--home``, or ``--prefix`` and ``--exec-prefix``, or
+``--install-base`` and ``--install-platbase``, but you can't mix from these
+groups.
+
+
+.. _inst-alt-install-user:
+
+Alternate installation: the user scheme
+---------------------------------------
+
+This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users that don't
+have write permission to the global site-packages directory or don't want to
+install into it.  It is enabled with a simple option::
+
+   python setup.py install --user
+
+Files will be installed into subdirectories of :data:`site.USER_BASE` (written
+as :file:`{userbase}` hereafter).  This scheme installs pure Python modules and
+extension modules in the same location (also known as :data:`site.USER_SITE`).
+Here are the values for UNIX, including Mac OS X:
+
+=============== ===========================================================
+Type of file    Installation directory
+=============== ===========================================================
+modules         :file:`{userbase}/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages`
+scripts         :file:`{userbase}/bin`
+data            :file:`{userbase}`
+C headers       :file:`{userbase}/include/python{X.Y}{abiflags}/{distname}`
+=============== ===========================================================
+
+And here are the values used on Windows:
+
+=============== ===========================================================
+Type of file    Installation directory
+=============== ===========================================================
+modules         :file:`{userbase}\\Python{XY}\\site-packages`
+scripts         :file:`{userbase}\\Python{XY}\\Scripts`
+data            :file:`{userbase}`
+C headers       :file:`{userbase}\\Python{XY}\\Include\\{distname}`
+=============== ===========================================================
+
+The advantage of using this scheme compared to the other ones described below is
+that the user site-packages directory is under normal conditions always included
+in :data:`sys.path` (see :mod:`site` for more information), which means that
+there is no additional step to perform after running the :file:`setup.py` script
+to finalize the installation.
+
+The :command:`build_ext` command also has a ``--user`` option to add
+:file:`{userbase}/include` to the compiler search path for header files and
+:file:`{userbase}/lib` to the compiler search path for libraries as well as to
+the runtime search path for shared C libraries (rpath).
+
+
+.. _inst-alt-install-home:
+
+Alternate installation: the home scheme
+---------------------------------------
+
+The idea behind the "home scheme" is that you build and maintain a personal
+stash of Python modules.  This scheme's name is derived from the idea of a
+"home" directory on Unix, since it's not unusual for a Unix user to make their
+home directory have a layout similar to :file:`/usr/` or :file:`/usr/local/`.
+This scheme can be used by anyone, regardless of the operating system they
+are installing for.
+
+Installing a new module distribution is as simple as ::
+
+   python setup.py install --home=<dir>
+
+where you can supply any directory you like for the :option:`!--home` option.  On
+Unix, lazy typists can just type a tilde (``~``); the :command:`install` command
+will expand this to your home directory::
+
+   python setup.py install --home=~
+
+To make Python find the distributions installed with this scheme, you may have
+to :ref:`modify Python's search path <inst-search-path>` or edit
+:mod:`sitecustomize` (see :mod:`site`) to call :func:`site.addsitedir` or edit
+:data:`sys.path`.
+
+The :option:`!--home` option defines the installation base directory.  Files are
+installed to the following directories under the installation base as follows:
+
+=============== ===========================================================
+Type of file    Installation directory
+=============== ===========================================================
+modules         :file:`{home}/lib/python`
+scripts         :file:`{home}/bin`
+data            :file:`{home}`
+C headers       :file:`{home}/include/python/{distname}`
+=============== ===========================================================
+
+(Mentally replace slashes with backslashes if you're on Windows.)
+
+
+.. _inst-alt-install-prefix-unix:
+
+Alternate installation: Unix (the prefix scheme)
+------------------------------------------------
+
+The "prefix scheme" is useful when you wish to use one Python installation to
+perform the build/install (i.e., to run the setup script), but install modules
+into the third-party module directory of a different Python installation (or
+something that looks like a different Python installation).  If this sounds a
+trifle unusual, it is---that's why the user and home schemes come before.  However,
+there are at least two known cases where the prefix scheme will be useful.
+
+First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in :file:`/usr`, rather
+than the more traditional :file:`/usr/local`.  This is entirely appropriate,
+since in those cases Python is part of "the system" rather than a local add-on.
+However, if you are installing Python modules from source, you probably want
+them to go in :file:`/usr/local/lib/python2.{X}` rather than
+:file:`/usr/lib/python2.{X}`.  This can be done with ::
+
+   /usr/bin/python setup.py install --prefix=/usr/local
+
+Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write to a
+remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for example, the
+Python interpreter accessed as :file:`/usr/local/bin/python` might search for
+modules in :file:`/usr/local/lib/python2.{X}`, but those modules would have to
+be installed to, say, :file:`/mnt/{@server}/export/lib/python2.{X}`.  This could
+be done with ::
+
+   /usr/local/bin/python setup.py install --prefix=/mnt/@server/export
+
+In either case, the :option:`!--prefix` option defines the installation base, and
+the :option:`!--exec-prefix` option defines the platform-specific installation
+base, which is used for platform-specific files.  (Currently, this just means
+non-pure module distributions, but could be expanded to C libraries, binary
+executables, etc.)  If :option:`!--exec-prefix` is not supplied, it defaults to
+:option:`!--prefix`.  Files are installed as follows:
+
+================= ==========================================================
+Type of file      Installation directory
+================= ==========================================================
+Python modules    :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages`
+extension modules :file:`{exec-prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages`
+scripts           :file:`{prefix}/bin`
+data              :file:`{prefix}`
+C headers         :file:`{prefix}/include/python{X.Y}{abiflags}/{distname}`
+================= ==========================================================
+
+There is no requirement that :option:`!--prefix` or :option:`!--exec-prefix`
+actually point to an alternate Python installation; if the directories listed
+above do not already exist, they are created at installation time.
+
+Incidentally, the real reason the prefix scheme is important is simply that a
+standard Unix installation uses the prefix scheme, but with :option:`!--prefix`
+and :option:`!--exec-prefix` supplied by Python itself as ``sys.prefix`` and
+``sys.exec_prefix``.  Thus, you might think you'll never use the prefix scheme,
+but every time you run ``python setup.py install`` without any other options,
+you're using it.
+
+Note that installing extensions to an alternate Python installation has no
+effect on how those extensions are built: in particular, the Python header files
+(:file:`Python.h` and friends) installed with the Python interpreter used to run
+the setup script will be used in compiling extensions.  It is your
+responsibility to ensure that the interpreter used to run extensions installed
+in this way is compatible with the interpreter used to build them.  The best way
+to do this is to ensure that the two interpreters are the same version of Python
+(possibly different builds, or possibly copies of the same build).  (Of course,
+if your :option:`!--prefix` and :option:`!--exec-prefix` don't even point to an
+alternate Python installation, this is immaterial.)
+
+
+.. _inst-alt-install-prefix-windows:
+
+Alternate installation: Windows (the prefix scheme)
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+Windows has no concept of a user's home directory, and since the standard Python
+installation under Windows is simpler than under Unix, the :option:`!--prefix`
+option has traditionally been used to install additional packages in separate
+locations on Windows. ::
+
+   python setup.py install --prefix="\Temp\Python"
+
+to install modules to the :file:`\\Temp\\Python` directory on the current drive.
+
+The installation base is defined by the :option:`!--prefix` option; the
+:option:`!--exec-prefix` option is not supported under Windows, which means that
+pure Python modules and extension modules are installed into the same location.
+Files are installed as follows:
+
+=============== ==========================================================
+Type of file    Installation directory
+=============== ==========================================================
+modules         :file:`{prefix}\\Lib\\site-packages`
+scripts         :file:`{prefix}\\Scripts`
+data            :file:`{prefix}`
+C headers       :file:`{prefix}\\Include\\{distname}`
+=============== ==========================================================
+
+
+.. _inst-custom-install:
+
+Custom Installation
+===================
+
+Sometimes, the alternate installation schemes described in section
+:ref:`inst-alt-install` just don't do what you want.  You might want to tweak just
+one or two directories while keeping everything under the same base directory,
+or you might want to completely redefine the installation scheme.  In either
+case, you're creating a *custom installation scheme*.
+
+To create a custom installation scheme, you start with one of the alternate
+schemes and override some of the installation directories used for the various
+types of files, using these options:
+
+====================== =======================
+Type of file           Override option
+====================== =======================
+Python modules         ``--install-purelib``
+extension modules      ``--install-platlib``
+all modules            ``--install-lib``
+scripts                ``--install-scripts``
+data                   ``--install-data``
+C headers              ``--install-headers``
+====================== =======================
+
+These override options can be relative, absolute,
+or explicitly defined in terms of one of the installation base directories.
+(There are two installation base directories, and they are normally the
+same---they only differ when you use the Unix "prefix scheme" and supply
+different ``--prefix`` and ``--exec-prefix`` options; using ``--install-lib``
+will override values computed or given for ``--install-purelib`` and
+``--install-platlib``, and is recommended for schemes that don't make a
+difference between Python and extension modules.)
+
+For example, say you're installing a module distribution to your home directory
+under Unix---but you want scripts to go in :file:`~/scripts` rather than
+:file:`~/bin`. As you might expect, you can override this directory with the
+:option:`!--install-scripts` option; in this case, it makes most sense to supply
+a relative path, which will be interpreted relative to the installation base
+directory (your home directory, in this case)::
+
+   python setup.py install --home=~ --install-scripts=scripts
+
+Another Unix example: suppose your Python installation was built and installed
+with a prefix of :file:`/usr/local/python`, so under a standard  installation
+scripts will wind up in :file:`/usr/local/python/bin`.  If you want them in
+:file:`/usr/local/bin` instead, you would supply this absolute directory for the
+:option:`!--install-scripts` option::
+
+   python setup.py install --install-scripts=/usr/local/bin
+
+(This performs an installation using the "prefix scheme," where the prefix is
+whatever your Python interpreter was installed with--- :file:`/usr/local/python`
+in this case.)
+
+If you maintain Python on Windows, you might want third-party modules to live in
+a subdirectory of :file:`{prefix}`, rather than right in :file:`{prefix}`
+itself.  This is almost as easy as customizing the script installation
+directory---you just have to remember that there are two types of modules
+to worry about, Python and extension modules, which can conveniently be both
+controlled by one option::
+
+   python setup.py install --install-lib=Site
+
+The specified installation directory is relative to :file:`{prefix}`.  Of
+course, you also have to ensure that this directory is in Python's module
+search path, such as by putting a :file:`.pth` file in a site directory (see
+:mod:`site`).  See section :ref:`inst-search-path` to find out how to modify
+Python's search path.
+
+If you want to define an entire installation scheme, you just have to supply all
+of the installation directory options.  The recommended way to do this is to
+supply relative paths; for example, if you want to maintain all Python
+module-related files under :file:`python` in your home directory, and you want a
+separate directory for each platform that you use your home directory from, you
+might define the following installation scheme::
+
+   python setup.py install --home=~ \
+                           --install-purelib=python/lib \
+                           --install-platlib=python/lib.$PLAT \
+                           --install-scripts=python/scripts
+                           --install-data=python/data
+
+or, equivalently, ::
+
+   python setup.py install --home=~/python \
+                           --install-purelib=lib \
+                           --install-platlib='lib.$PLAT' \
+                           --install-scripts=scripts
+                           --install-data=data
+
+``$PLAT`` is not (necessarily) an environment variable---it will be expanded by
+the Distutils as it parses your command line options, just as it does when
+parsing your configuration file(s).
+
+Obviously, specifying the entire installation scheme every time you install a
+new module distribution would be very tedious.  Thus, you can put these options
+into your Distutils config file (see section :ref:`inst-config-files`):
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [install]
+   install-base=$HOME
+   install-purelib=python/lib
+   install-platlib=python/lib.$PLAT
+   install-scripts=python/scripts
+   install-data=python/data
+
+or, equivalently,
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [install]
+   install-base=$HOME/python
+   install-purelib=lib
+   install-platlib=lib.$PLAT
+   install-scripts=scripts
+   install-data=data
+
+Note that these two are *not* equivalent if you supply a different installation
+base directory when you run the setup script.  For example, ::
+
+   python setup.py install --install-base=/tmp
+
+would install pure modules to :file:`/tmp/python/lib` in the first case, and
+to :file:`/tmp/lib` in the second case.  (For the second case, you probably
+want to supply an installation base of :file:`/tmp/python`.)
+
+You probably noticed the use of ``$HOME`` and ``$PLAT`` in the sample
+configuration file input.  These are Distutils configuration variables, which
+bear a strong resemblance to environment variables. In fact, you can use
+environment variables in config files on platforms that have such a notion but
+the Distutils additionally define a few extra variables that may not be in your
+environment, such as ``$PLAT``.  (And of course, on systems that don't have
+environment variables, such as Mac OS 9, the configuration variables supplied by
+the Distutils are the only ones you can use.) See section :ref:`inst-config-files`
+for details.
+
+.. note:: When a :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>` is activated, any options
+   that change the installation path will be ignored from all distutils configuration
+   files to prevent inadvertently installing projects outside of the virtual
+   environment.
+
+.. XXX need some Windows examples---when would custom installation schemes be
+   needed on those platforms?
+
+
+.. XXX Move this to Doc/using
+
+.. _inst-search-path:
+
+Modifying Python's Search Path
+------------------------------
+
+When the Python interpreter executes an :keyword:`import` statement, it searches
+for both Python code and extension modules along a search path.  A default value
+for the path is configured into the Python binary when the interpreter is built.
+You can determine the path by importing the :mod:`sys` module and printing the
+value of ``sys.path``.   ::
+
+   $ python
+   Python 2.2 (#11, Oct  3 2002, 13:31:27)
+   [GCC 2.96 20000731 (Red Hat Linux 7.3 2.96-112)] on linux2
+   Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.path
+   ['', '/usr/local/lib/python2.3', '/usr/local/lib/python2.3/plat-linux2',
+    '/usr/local/lib/python2.3/lib-tk', '/usr/local/lib/python2.3/lib-dynload',
+    '/usr/local/lib/python2.3/site-packages']
+   >>>
+
+The null string in ``sys.path`` represents the current working directory.
+
+The expected convention for locally installed packages is to put them in the
+:file:`{...}/site-packages/` directory, but you may want to install Python
+modules into some arbitrary directory.  For example, your site may have a
+convention of keeping all software related to the web server under :file:`/www`.
+Add-on Python modules might then belong in :file:`/www/python`, and in order to
+import them, this directory must be added to ``sys.path``.  There are several
+different ways to add the directory.
+
+The most convenient way is to add a path configuration file to a directory
+that's already on Python's path, usually to the :file:`.../site-packages/`
+directory.  Path configuration files have an extension of :file:`.pth`, and each
+line must contain a single path that will be appended to ``sys.path``.  (Because
+the new paths are appended to ``sys.path``, modules in the added directories
+will not override standard modules.  This means you can't use this mechanism for
+installing fixed versions of standard modules.)
+
+Paths can be absolute or relative, in which case they're relative to the
+directory containing the :file:`.pth` file.  See the documentation of
+the :mod:`site` module for more information.
+
+A slightly less convenient way is to edit the :file:`site.py` file in Python's
+standard library, and modify ``sys.path``.  :file:`site.py` is automatically
+imported when the Python interpreter is executed, unless the :option:`-S` switch
+is supplied to suppress this behaviour.  So you could simply edit
+:file:`site.py` and add two lines to it:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+   import sys
+   sys.path.append('/www/python/')
+
+However, if you reinstall the same major version of Python (perhaps when
+upgrading from 2.2 to 2.2.2, for example) :file:`site.py` will be overwritten by
+the stock version.  You'd have to remember that it was modified and save a copy
+before doing the installation.
+
+There are two environment variables that can modify ``sys.path``.
+:envvar:`PYTHONHOME` sets an alternate value for the prefix of the Python
+installation.  For example, if :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` is set to ``/www/python``,
+the search path will be set to ``['', '/www/python/lib/pythonX.Y/',
+'/www/python/lib/pythonX.Y/plat-linux2', ...]``.
+
+The :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` variable can be set to a list of paths that will be
+added to the beginning of ``sys.path``.  For example, if :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` is
+set to ``/www/python:/opt/py``, the search path will begin with
+``['/www/python', '/opt/py']``.  (Note that directories must exist in order to
+be added to ``sys.path``; the :mod:`site` module removes paths that don't
+exist.)
+
+Finally, ``sys.path`` is just a regular Python list, so any Python application
+can modify it by adding or removing entries.
+
+
+.. _inst-config-files:
+
+Distutils Configuration Files
+=============================
+
+As mentioned above, you can use Distutils configuration files to record personal
+or site preferences for any Distutils options.  That is, any option to any
+command can be stored in one of two or three (depending on your platform)
+configuration files, which will be consulted before the command-line is parsed.
+This means that configuration files will override default values, and the
+command-line will in turn override configuration files.  Furthermore, if
+multiple configuration files apply, values from "earlier" files are overridden
+by "later" files.
+
+
+.. _inst-config-filenames:
+
+Location and names of config files
+----------------------------------
+
+The names and locations of the configuration files vary slightly across
+platforms.  On Unix and Mac OS X, the three configuration files (in the order
+they are processed) are:
+
++--------------+----------------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| Type of file | Location and filename                                    | Notes |
++==============+==========================================================+=======+
+| system       | :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{ver}/distutils/distutils.cfg` | \(1)  |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| personal     | :file:`$HOME/.pydistutils.cfg`                           | \(2)  |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| local        | :file:`setup.cfg`                                        | \(3)  |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------------------+-------+
+
+And on Windows, the configuration files are:
+
++--------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| Type of file | Location and filename                           | Notes |
++==============+=================================================+=======+
+| system       | :file:`{prefix}\\Lib\\distutils\\distutils.cfg` | \(4)  |
++--------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| personal     | :file:`%HOME%\\pydistutils.cfg`                 | \(5)  |
++--------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| local        | :file:`setup.cfg`                               | \(3)  |
++--------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+
+
+On all platforms, the "personal" file can be temporarily disabled by
+passing the `--no-user-cfg` option.
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   Strictly speaking, the system-wide configuration file lives in the directory
+   where the Distutils are installed; under Python 1.6 and later on Unix, this is
+   as shown. For Python 1.5.2, the Distutils will normally be installed to
+   :file:`{prefix}/lib/python1.5/site-packages/distutils`, so the system
+   configuration file should be put there under Python 1.5.2.
+
+(2)
+   On Unix, if the :envvar:`HOME` environment variable is not defined, the user's
+   home directory will be determined with the :func:`getpwuid` function from the
+   standard :mod:`pwd` module. This is done by the :func:`os.path.expanduser`
+   function used by Distutils.
+
+(3)
+   I.e., in the current directory (usually the location of the setup script).
+
+(4)
+   (See also note (1).)  Under Python 1.6 and later, Python's default "installation
+   prefix" is :file:`C:\\Python`, so the system configuration file is normally
+   :file:`C:\\Python\\Lib\\distutils\\distutils.cfg`. Under Python 1.5.2, the
+   default prefix was :file:`C:\\Program Files\\Python`, and the Distutils were not
+   part of the standard library---so the system configuration file would be
+   :file:`C:\\Program Files\\Python\\distutils\\distutils.cfg` in a standard Python
+   1.5.2 installation under Windows.
+
+(5)
+   On Windows, if the :envvar:`HOME` environment variable is not defined,
+   :envvar:`USERPROFILE` then :envvar:`HOMEDRIVE` and :envvar:`HOMEPATH` will
+   be tried. This is done by the :func:`os.path.expanduser` function used
+   by Distutils.
+
+
+.. _inst-config-syntax:
+
+Syntax of config files
+----------------------
+
+The Distutils configuration files all have the same syntax.  The config files
+are grouped into sections.  There is one section for each Distutils command,
+plus a ``global`` section for global options that affect every command.  Each
+section consists of one option per line, specified as ``option=value``.
+
+For example, the following is a complete config file that just forces all
+commands to run quietly by default:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [global]
+   verbose=0
+
+If this is installed as the system config file, it will affect all processing of
+any Python module distribution by any user on the current system.  If it is
+installed as your personal config file (on systems that support them), it will
+affect only module distributions processed by you.  And if it is used as the
+:file:`setup.cfg` for a particular module distribution, it affects only that
+distribution.
+
+You could override the default "build base" directory and make the
+:command:`build\*` commands always forcibly rebuild all files with the
+following:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [build]
+   build-base=blib
+   force=1
+
+which corresponds to the command-line arguments ::
+
+   python setup.py build --build-base=blib --force
+
+except that including the :command:`build` command on the command-line means
+that command will be run.  Including a particular command in config files has no
+such implication; it only means that if the command is run, the options in the
+config file will apply.  (Or if other commands that derive values from it are
+run, they will use the values in the config file.)
+
+You can find out the complete list of options for any command using the
+:option:`!--help` option, e.g.::
+
+   python setup.py build --help
+
+and you can find out the complete list of global options by using
+:option:`!--help` without a command::
+
+   python setup.py --help
+
+See also the "Reference" section of the "Distributing Python Modules" manual.
+
+
+.. _inst-building-ext:
+
+Building Extensions: Tips and Tricks
+====================================
+
+Whenever possible, the Distutils try to use the configuration information made
+available by the Python interpreter used to run the :file:`setup.py` script.
+For example, the same compiler and linker flags used to compile Python will also
+be used for compiling extensions.  Usually this will work well, but in
+complicated situations this might be inappropriate.  This section discusses how
+to override the usual Distutils behaviour.
+
+
+.. _inst-tweak-flags:
+
+Tweaking compiler/linker flags
+------------------------------
+
+Compiling a Python extension written in C or C++ will sometimes require
+specifying custom flags for the compiler and linker in order to use a particular
+library or produce a special kind of object code. This is especially true if the
+extension hasn't been tested on your platform, or if you're trying to
+cross-compile Python.
+
+In the most general case, the extension author might have foreseen that
+compiling the extensions would be complicated, and provided a :file:`Setup` file
+for you to edit.  This will likely only be done if the module distribution
+contains many separate extension modules, or if they often require elaborate
+sets of compiler flags in order to work.
+
+A :file:`Setup` file, if present, is parsed in order to get a list of extensions
+to build.  Each line in a :file:`Setup` describes a single module.  Lines have
+the following structure::
+
+   module ... [sourcefile ...] [cpparg ...] [library ...]
+
+
+Let's examine each of the fields in turn.
+
+* *module* is the name of the extension module to be built, and should be a
+  valid Python identifier.  You can't just change this in order to rename a module
+  (edits to the source code would also be needed), so this should be left alone.
+
+* *sourcefile* is anything that's likely to be a source code file, at least
+  judging by the filename.  Filenames ending in :file:`.c` are assumed to be
+  written in C, filenames ending in :file:`.C`, :file:`.cc`, and :file:`.c++` are
+  assumed to be C++, and filenames ending in :file:`.m` or :file:`.mm` are assumed
+  to be in Objective C.
+
+* *cpparg* is an argument for the C preprocessor,  and is anything starting with
+  :option:`!-I`, :option:`!-D`, :option:`!-U` or :option:`!-C`.
+
+* *library* is anything ending in :file:`.a` or beginning with :option:`!-l` or
+  :option:`!-L`.
+
+If a particular platform requires a special library on your platform, you can
+add it by editing the :file:`Setup` file and running ``python setup.py build``.
+For example, if the module defined by the line ::
+
+   foo foomodule.c
+
+must be linked with the math library :file:`libm.a` on your platform, simply add
+:option:`!-lm` to the line::
+
+   foo foomodule.c -lm
+
+Arbitrary switches intended for the compiler or the linker can be supplied with
+the :option:`!-Xcompiler` *arg* and :option:`!-Xlinker` *arg* options::
+
+   foo foomodule.c -Xcompiler -o32 -Xlinker -shared -lm
+
+The next option after :option:`!-Xcompiler` and :option:`!-Xlinker` will be
+appended to the proper command line, so in the above example the compiler will
+be passed the :option:`!-o32` option, and the linker will be passed
+:option:`!-shared`.  If a compiler option requires an argument, you'll have to
+supply multiple :option:`!-Xcompiler` options; for example, to pass ``-x c++``
+the :file:`Setup` file would have to contain ``-Xcompiler -x -Xcompiler c++``.
+
+Compiler flags can also be supplied through setting the :envvar:`CFLAGS`
+environment variable.  If set, the contents of :envvar:`CFLAGS` will be added to
+the compiler flags specified in the  :file:`Setup` file.
+
+
+.. _inst-non-ms-compilers:
+
+Using non-Microsoft compilers on Windows
+----------------------------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Rene Liebscher <R.Liebscher@gmx.de>
+
+
+
+Borland/CodeGear C++
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This subsection describes the necessary steps to use Distutils with the Borland
+C++ compiler version 5.5.  First you have to know that Borland's object file
+format (OMF) is different from the format used by the Python version you can
+download from the Python or ActiveState Web site.  (Python is built with
+Microsoft Visual C++, which uses COFF as the object file format.) For this
+reason you have to convert Python's library :file:`python25.lib` into the
+Borland format.  You can do this as follows:
+
+.. Should we mention that users have to create cfg-files for the compiler?
+.. see also http://community.borland.com/article/0,1410,21205,00.html
+
+::
+
+   coff2omf python25.lib python25_bcpp.lib
+
+The :file:`coff2omf` program comes with the Borland compiler.  The file
+:file:`python25.lib` is in the :file:`Libs` directory of your Python
+installation.  If your extension uses other libraries (zlib, ...) you have to
+convert them too.
+
+The converted files have to reside in the same directories as the normal
+libraries.
+
+How does Distutils manage to use these libraries with their changed names?  If
+the extension needs a library (eg. :file:`foo`) Distutils checks first if it
+finds a library with suffix :file:`_bcpp` (eg. :file:`foo_bcpp.lib`) and then
+uses this library.  In the case it doesn't find such a special library it uses
+the default name (:file:`foo.lib`.) [#]_
+
+To let Distutils compile your extension with Borland C++ you now have to type::
+
+   python setup.py build --compiler=bcpp
+
+If you want to use the Borland C++ compiler as the default, you could specify
+this in your personal or system-wide configuration file for Distutils (see
+section :ref:`inst-config-files`.)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `C++Builder Compiler <https://www.embarcadero.com/products>`_
+      Information about the free C++ compiler from Borland, including links to the
+      download pages.
+
+   `Creating Python Extensions Using Borland's Free Compiler <http://www.cyberus.ca/~g_will/pyExtenDL.shtml>`_
+      Document describing how to use Borland's free command-line C++ compiler to build
+      Python.
+
+
+GNU C / Cygwin / MinGW
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This section describes the necessary steps to use Distutils with the GNU C/C++
+compilers in their Cygwin and MinGW distributions. [#]_ For a Python interpreter
+that was built with Cygwin, everything should work without any of these
+following steps.
+
+Not all extensions can be built with MinGW or Cygwin, but many can.  Extensions
+most likely to not work are those that use C++ or depend on Microsoft Visual C
+extensions.
+
+To let Distutils compile your extension with Cygwin you have to type::
+
+   python setup.py build --compiler=cygwin
+
+and for Cygwin in no-cygwin mode [#]_ or for MinGW type::
+
+   python setup.py build --compiler=mingw32
+
+If you want to use any of these options/compilers as default, you should
+consider writing it in your personal or system-wide configuration file for
+Distutils (see section :ref:`inst-config-files`.)
+
+Older Versions of Python and MinGW
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+The following instructions only apply if you're using a version of Python
+inferior to 2.4.1 with a MinGW inferior to 3.0.0 (with
+binutils-2.13.90-20030111-1).
+
+These compilers require some special libraries.  This task is more complex than
+for Borland's C++, because there is no program to convert the library.  First
+you have to create a list of symbols which the Python DLL exports. (You can find
+a good program for this task at
+https://sourceforge.net/projects/mingw/files/MinGW/Extension/pexports/).
+
+.. I don't understand what the next line means. --amk
+.. (inclusive the references on data structures.)
+
+::
+
+   pexports python25.dll >python25.def
+
+The location of an installed :file:`python25.dll` will depend on the
+installation options and the version and language of Windows.  In a "just for
+me" installation, it will appear in the root of the installation directory.  In
+a shared installation, it will be located in the system directory.
+
+Then you can create from these information an import library for gcc. ::
+
+   /cygwin/bin/dlltool --dllname python25.dll --def python25.def --output-lib libpython25.a
+
+The resulting library has to be placed in the same directory as
+:file:`python25.lib`. (Should be the :file:`libs` directory under your Python
+installation directory.)
+
+If your extension uses other libraries (zlib,...) you might  have to convert
+them too. The converted files have to reside in the same directories as the
+normal libraries do.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Building Python modules on MS Windows platform with MinGW <http://old.zope.org/Members/als/tips/win32_mingw_modules>`_
+      Information about building the required libraries for the MinGW environment.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] This also means you could replace all existing COFF-libraries with OMF-libraries
+   of the same name.
+
+.. [#] Check https://www.sourceware.org/cygwin/ and http://www.mingw.org/ for more
+   information
+
+.. [#] Then you have no POSIX emulation available, but you also don't need
+   :file:`cygwin1.dll`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/installing/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/installing/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8af828b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/installing/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+.. highlightlang:: none
+
+.. _installing-index:
+
+*************************
+Installing Python Modules
+*************************
+
+:Email: distutils-sig@python.org
+
+As a popular open source development project, Python has an active
+supporting community of contributors and users that also make their software
+available for other Python developers to use under open source license terms.
+
+This allows Python users to share and collaborate effectively, benefiting
+from the solutions others have already created to common (and sometimes
+even rare!) problems, as well as potentially contributing their own
+solutions to the common pool.
+
+This guide covers the installation part of the process. For a guide to
+creating and sharing your own Python projects, refer to the
+:ref:`distribution guide <distributing-index>`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   For corporate and other institutional users, be aware that many
+   organisations have their own policies around using and contributing to
+   open source software. Please take such policies into account when making
+   use of the distribution and installation tools provided with Python.
+
+
+Key terms
+=========
+
+* ``pip`` is the preferred installer program. Starting with Python 3.4, it
+  is included by default with the Python binary installers.
+* A *virtual environment* is a semi-isolated Python environment that allows
+  packages to be installed for use by a particular application, rather than
+  being installed system wide.
+* ``venv`` is the standard tool for creating virtual environments, and has
+  been part of Python since Python 3.3. Starting with Python 3.4, it
+  defaults to installing ``pip`` into all created virtual environments.
+* ``virtualenv`` is a third party alternative (and predecessor) to
+  ``venv``. It allows virtual environments to be used on versions of
+  Python prior to 3.4, which either don't provide ``venv`` at all, or
+  aren't able to automatically install ``pip`` into created environments.
+* The `Python Packaging Index <https://pypi.org>`__ is a public
+  repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by
+  other Python users.
+* the `Python Packaging Authority
+  <https://www.pypa.io/>`__ is the group of
+  developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and
+  evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
+  file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation,
+  and issue trackers on both `GitHub <https://github.com/pypa>`__ and
+  `BitBucket <https://bitbucket.org/pypa/>`__.
+* ``distutils`` is the original build and distribution system first added to
+  the Python standard library in 1998. While direct use of ``distutils`` is
+  being phased out, it still laid the foundation for the current packaging
+  and distribution infrastructure, and it not only remains part of the
+  standard library, but its name lives on in other ways (such as the name
+  of the mailing list used to coordinate Python packaging standards
+  development).
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.6
+   ``pyvenv`` was the recommended tool for creating virtual environments for
+   Python 3.3 and 3.4, and is `deprecated in Python 3.6
+   <https://docs.python.org/dev/whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated-features>`_.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   The use of ``venv`` is now recommended for creating virtual environments.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments
+   <https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments>`__
+
+
+Basic usage
+===========
+
+The standard packaging tools are all designed to be used from the command
+line.
+
+The following command will install the latest version of a module and its
+dependencies from the Python Packaging Index::
+
+    python -m pip install SomePackage
+
+.. note::
+
+   For POSIX users (including Mac OS X and Linux users), the examples in
+   this guide assume the use of a :term:`virtual environment`.
+
+   For Windows users, the examples in this guide assume that the option to
+   adjust the system PATH environment variable was selected when installing
+   Python.
+
+It's also possible to specify an exact or minimum version directly on the
+command line. When using comparator operators such as ``>``, ``<`` or some other
+special character which get interpreted by shell, the package name and the
+version should be enclosed within double quotes::
+
+    python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # specific version
+    python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4"  # minimum version
+
+Normally, if a suitable module is already installed, attempting to install
+it again will have no effect. Upgrading existing modules must be requested
+explicitly::
+
+    python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage
+
+More information and resources regarding ``pip`` and its capabilities can be
+found in the `Python Packaging User Guide <https://packaging.python.org>`__.
+
+Creation of virtual environments is done through the :mod:`venv` module.
+Installing packages into an active virtual environment uses the commands shown
+above.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    `Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Python Distribution Packages
+    <https://packaging.python.org/installing/>`__
+
+
+How do I ...?
+=============
+
+These are quick answers or links for some common tasks.
+
+... install ``pip`` in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Python only started bundling ``pip`` with Python 3.4. For earlier versions,
+``pip`` needs to be "bootstrapped" as described in the Python Packaging
+User Guide.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python Packaging User Guide: Requirements for Installing Packages
+   <https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages>`__
+
+
+.. installing-per-user-installation:
+
+... install packages just for the current user?
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+Passing the ``--user`` option to ``python -m pip install`` will install a
+package just for the current user, rather than for all users of the system.
+
+
+... install scientific Python packages?
+---------------------------------------
+
+A number of scientific Python packages have complex binary dependencies, and
+aren't currently easy to install using ``pip`` directly. At this point in
+time, it will often be easier for users to install these packages by
+`other means <https://packaging.python.org/science/>`__
+rather than attempting to install them with ``pip``.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Scientific Packages
+   <https://packaging.python.org/science/>`__
+
+
+... work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+On Linux, Mac OS X, and other POSIX systems, use the versioned Python commands
+in combination with the ``-m`` switch to run the appropriate copy of
+``pip``::
+
+   python2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
+   python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
+   python3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
+   python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4
+
+Appropriately versioned ``pip`` commands may also be available.
+
+On Windows, use the ``py`` Python launcher in combination with the ``-m``
+switch::
+
+   py -2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
+   py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
+   py -3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
+   py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4
+
+.. other questions:
+
+   Once the Development & Deployment part of PPUG is fleshed out, some of
+   those sections should be linked from new questions here (most notably,
+   we should have a question about avoiding depending on PyPI that links to
+   https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/mirrors/)
+
+
+Common installation issues
+==========================
+
+Installing into the system Python on Linux
+------------------------------------------
+
+On Linux systems, a Python installation will typically be included as part
+of the distribution. Installing into this Python installation requires
+root access to the system, and may interfere with the operation of the
+system package manager and other components of the system if a component
+is unexpectedly upgraded using ``pip``.
+
+On such systems, it is often better to use a virtual environment or a
+per-user installation when installing packages with ``pip``.
+
+
+Pip not installed
+-----------------
+
+It is possible that ``pip`` does not get installed by default. One potential fix is::
+
+    python -m ensurepip --default-pip
+
+There are also additional resources for `installing pip.
+<https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/installing-packages/#install-pip-setuptools-and-wheel>`__
+
+
+Installing binary extensions
+----------------------------
+
+Python has typically relied heavily on source based distribution, with end
+users being expected to compile extension modules from source as part of
+the installation process.
+
+With the introduction of support for the binary ``wheel`` format, and the
+ability to publish wheels for at least Windows and Mac OS X through the
+Python Packaging Index, this problem is expected to diminish over time,
+as users are more regularly able to install pre-built extensions rather
+than needing to build them themselves.
+
+Some of the solutions for installing `scientific software
+<https://packaging.python.org/science/>`__
+that are not yet available as pre-built ``wheel`` files may also help with
+obtaining other binary extensions without needing to build them locally.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions
+   <https://packaging.python.org/extensions/>`__
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/2to3.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/2to3.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa4b0a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/2to3.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,474 @@
+.. _2to3-reference:
+
+2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
+===============================================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
+
+2to3 is a Python program that reads Python 2.x source code and applies a series
+of *fixers* to transform it into valid Python 3.x code.  The standard library
+contains a rich set of fixers that will handle almost all code.  2to3 supporting
+library :mod:`lib2to3` is, however, a flexible and generic library, so it is
+possible to write your own fixers for 2to3.  :mod:`lib2to3` could also be
+adapted to custom applications in which Python code needs to be edited
+automatically.
+
+
+.. _2to3-using:
+
+Using 2to3
+----------
+
+2to3 will usually be installed with the Python interpreter as a script.  It is
+also located in the :file:`Tools/scripts` directory of the Python root.
+
+2to3's basic arguments are a list of files or directories to transform.  The
+directories are recursively traversed for Python sources.
+
+Here is a sample Python 2.x source file, :file:`example.py`::
+
+   def greet(name):
+       print "Hello, {0}!".format(name)
+   print "What's your name?"
+   name = raw_input()
+   greet(name)
+
+It can be converted to Python 3.x code via 2to3 on the command line:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ 2to3 example.py
+
+A diff against the original source file is printed.  2to3 can also write the
+needed modifications right back to the source file.  (A backup of the original
+file is made unless :option:`!-n` is also given.)  Writing the changes back is
+enabled with the :option:`!-w` flag:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ 2to3 -w example.py
+
+After transformation, :file:`example.py` looks like this::
+
+   def greet(name):
+       print("Hello, {0}!".format(name))
+   print("What's your name?")
+   name = input()
+   greet(name)
+
+Comments and exact indentation are preserved throughout the translation process.
+
+By default, 2to3 runs a set of :ref:`predefined fixers <2to3-fixers>`.  The
+:option:`!-l` flag lists all available fixers.  An explicit set of fixers to run
+can be given with :option:`!-f`.  Likewise the :option:`!-x` explicitly disables a
+fixer.  The following example runs only the ``imports`` and ``has_key`` fixers:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ 2to3 -f imports -f has_key example.py
+
+This command runs every fixer except the ``apply`` fixer:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ 2to3 -x apply example.py
+
+Some fixers are *explicit*, meaning they aren't run by default and must be
+listed on the command line to be run.  Here, in addition to the default fixers,
+the ``idioms`` fixer is run:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ 2to3 -f all -f idioms example.py
+
+Notice how passing ``all`` enables all default fixers.
+
+Sometimes 2to3 will find a place in your source code that needs to be changed,
+but 2to3 cannot fix automatically.  In this case, 2to3 will print a warning
+beneath the diff for a file.  You should address the warning in order to have
+compliant 3.x code.
+
+2to3 can also refactor doctests.  To enable this mode, use the :option:`!-d`
+flag.  Note that *only* doctests will be refactored.  This also doesn't require
+the module to be valid Python.  For example, doctest like examples in a reST
+document could also be refactored with this option.
+
+The :option:`!-v` option enables output of more information on the translation
+process.
+
+Since some print statements can be parsed as function calls or statements, 2to3
+cannot always read files containing the print function.  When 2to3 detects the
+presence of the ``from __future__ import print_function`` compiler directive, it
+modifies its internal grammar to interpret :func:`print` as a function.  This
+change can also be enabled manually with the :option:`!-p` flag.  Use
+:option:`!-p` to run fixers on code that already has had its print statements
+converted.
+
+The :option:`!-o` or :option:`!--output-dir` option allows specification of an
+alternate directory for processed output files to be written to.  The
+:option:`!-n` flag is required when using this as backup files do not make sense
+when not overwriting the input files.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2.3
+   The :option:`!-o` option was added.
+
+The :option:`!-W` or :option:`!--write-unchanged-files` flag tells 2to3 to always
+write output files even if no changes were required to the file.  This is most
+useful with :option:`!-o` so that an entire Python source tree is copied with
+translation from one directory to another.
+This option implies the :option:`!-w` flag as it would not make sense otherwise.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2.3
+   The :option:`!-W` flag was added.
+
+The :option:`!--add-suffix` option specifies a string to append to all output
+filenames.  The :option:`!-n` flag is required when specifying this as backups
+are not necessary when writing to different filenames.  Example:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ 2to3 -n -W --add-suffix=3 example.py
+
+Will cause a converted file named ``example.py3`` to be written.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2.3
+   The :option:`!--add-suffix` option was added.
+
+To translate an entire project from one directory tree to another use:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ 2to3 --output-dir=python3-version/mycode -W -n python2-version/mycode
+
+
+.. _2to3-fixers:
+
+Fixers
+------
+
+Each step of transforming code is encapsulated in a fixer.  The command ``2to3
+-l`` lists them.  As :ref:`documented above <2to3-using>`, each can be turned on
+and off individually.  They are described here in more detail.
+
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: apply
+
+   Removes usage of :func:`apply`.  For example ``apply(function, *args,
+   **kwargs)`` is converted to ``function(*args, **kwargs)``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: asserts
+
+   Replaces deprecated :mod:`unittest` method names with the correct ones.
+
+   ================================  ==========================================
+   From                              To
+   ================================  ==========================================
+   ``failUnlessEqual(a, b)``         :meth:`assertEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertEqual>`
+   ``assertEquals(a, b)``            :meth:`assertEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertEqual>`
+   ``failIfEqual(a, b)``             :meth:`assertNotEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual>`
+   ``assertNotEquals(a, b)``         :meth:`assertNotEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual>`
+   ``failUnless(a)``                 :meth:`assertTrue(a)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertTrue>`
+   ``assert_(a)``                    :meth:`assertTrue(a)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertTrue>`
+   ``failIf(a)``                     :meth:`assertFalse(a)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertFalse>`
+   ``failUnlessRaises(exc, cal)``    :meth:`assertRaises(exc, cal)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertRaises>`
+   ``failUnlessAlmostEqual(a, b)``   :meth:`assertAlmostEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual>`
+   ``assertAlmostEquals(a, b)``      :meth:`assertAlmostEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual>`
+   ``failIfAlmostEqual(a, b)``       :meth:`assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual>`
+   ``assertNotAlmostEquals(a, b)``   :meth:`assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)
+                                     <unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual>`
+   ================================  ==========================================
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: basestring
+
+   Converts :class:`basestring` to :class:`str`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: buffer
+
+   Converts :class:`buffer` to :class:`memoryview`.  This fixer is optional
+   because the :class:`memoryview` API is similar but not exactly the same as
+   that of :class:`buffer`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: dict
+
+   Fixes dictionary iteration methods.  :meth:`dict.iteritems` is converted to
+   :meth:`dict.items`, :meth:`dict.iterkeys` to :meth:`dict.keys`, and
+   :meth:`dict.itervalues` to :meth:`dict.values`.  Similarly,
+   :meth:`dict.viewitems`, :meth:`dict.viewkeys` and :meth:`dict.viewvalues` are
+   converted respectively to :meth:`dict.items`, :meth:`dict.keys` and
+   :meth:`dict.values`.  It also wraps existing usages of :meth:`dict.items`,
+   :meth:`dict.keys`, and :meth:`dict.values` in a call to :class:`list`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: except
+
+   Converts ``except X, T`` to ``except X as T``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: exec
+
+   Converts the ``exec`` statement to the :func:`exec` function.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: execfile
+
+   Removes usage of :func:`execfile`.  The argument to :func:`execfile` is
+   wrapped in calls to :func:`open`, :func:`compile`, and :func:`exec`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: exitfunc
+
+   Changes assignment of :attr:`sys.exitfunc` to use of the :mod:`atexit`
+   module.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: filter
+
+   Wraps :func:`filter` usage in a :class:`list` call.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: funcattrs
+
+   Fixes function attributes that have been renamed.  For example,
+   ``my_function.func_closure`` is converted to ``my_function.__closure__``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: future
+
+   Removes ``from __future__ import new_feature`` statements.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: getcwdu
+
+   Renames :func:`os.getcwdu` to :func:`os.getcwd`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: has_key
+
+   Changes ``dict.has_key(key)`` to ``key in dict``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: idioms
+
+   This optional fixer performs several transformations that make Python code
+   more idiomatic.  Type comparisons like ``type(x) is SomeClass`` and
+   ``type(x) == SomeClass`` are converted to ``isinstance(x, SomeClass)``.
+   ``while 1`` becomes ``while True``.  This fixer also tries to make use of
+   :func:`sorted` in appropriate places.  For example, this block ::
+
+       L = list(some_iterable)
+       L.sort()
+
+   is changed to ::
+
+      L = sorted(some_iterable)
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: import
+
+   Detects sibling imports and converts them to relative imports.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: imports
+
+   Handles module renames in the standard library.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: imports2
+
+   Handles other modules renames in the standard library.  It is separate from
+   the :2to3fixer:`imports` fixer only because of technical limitations.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: input
+
+   Converts ``input(prompt)`` to ``eval(input(prompt))``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: intern
+
+   Converts :func:`intern` to :func:`sys.intern`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: isinstance
+
+   Fixes duplicate types in the second argument of :func:`isinstance`.  For
+   example, ``isinstance(x, (int, int))`` is converted to ``isinstance(x,
+   int)`` and ``isinstance(x, (int, float, int))`` is converted to
+   ``isinstance(x, (int, float))``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: itertools_imports
+
+   Removes imports of :func:`itertools.ifilter`, :func:`itertools.izip`, and
+   :func:`itertools.imap`.  Imports of :func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` are also
+   changed to :func:`itertools.filterfalse`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: itertools
+
+   Changes usage of :func:`itertools.ifilter`, :func:`itertools.izip`, and
+   :func:`itertools.imap` to their built-in equivalents.
+   :func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` is changed to :func:`itertools.filterfalse`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: long
+
+   Renames :class:`long` to :class:`int`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: map
+
+   Wraps :func:`map` in a :class:`list` call.  It also changes ``map(None, x)``
+   to ``list(x)``.  Using ``from future_builtins import map`` disables this
+   fixer.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: metaclass
+
+   Converts the old metaclass syntax (``__metaclass__ = Meta`` in the class
+   body) to the new (``class X(metaclass=Meta)``).
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: methodattrs
+
+   Fixes old method attribute names.  For example, ``meth.im_func`` is converted
+   to ``meth.__func__``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: ne
+
+   Converts the old not-equal syntax, ``<>``, to ``!=``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: next
+
+   Converts the use of iterator's :meth:`~iterator.next` methods to the
+   :func:`next` function.  It also renames :meth:`next` methods to
+   :meth:`~iterator.__next__`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: nonzero
+
+   Renames :meth:`__nonzero__` to :meth:`~object.__bool__`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: numliterals
+
+   Converts octal literals into the new syntax.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: operator
+
+   Converts calls to various functions in the :mod:`operator` module to other,
+   but equivalent, function calls.  When needed, the appropriate ``import``
+   statements are added, e.g. ``import collections.abc``.  The following mapping
+   are made:
+
+   ==================================  =============================================
+   From                                To
+   ==================================  =============================================
+   ``operator.isCallable(obj)``        ``callable(obj)``
+   ``operator.sequenceIncludes(obj)``  ``operator.contains(obj)``
+   ``operator.isSequenceType(obj)``    ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Sequence)``
+   ``operator.isMappingType(obj)``     ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Mapping)``
+   ``operator.isNumberType(obj)``      ``isinstance(obj, numbers.Number)``
+   ``operator.repeat(obj, n)``         ``operator.mul(obj, n)``
+   ``operator.irepeat(obj, n)``        ``operator.imul(obj, n)``
+   ==================================  =============================================
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: paren
+
+   Add extra parenthesis where they are required in list comprehensions.  For
+   example, ``[x for x in 1, 2]`` becomes ``[x for x in (1, 2)]``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: print
+
+   Converts the ``print`` statement to the :func:`print` function.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: raise
+
+   Converts ``raise E, V`` to ``raise E(V)``, and ``raise E, V, T`` to ``raise
+   E(V).with_traceback(T)``.  If ``E`` is a tuple, the translation will be
+   incorrect because substituting tuples for exceptions has been removed in 3.0.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: raw_input
+
+   Converts :func:`raw_input` to :func:`input`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: reduce
+
+   Handles the move of :func:`reduce` to :func:`functools.reduce`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: reload
+
+   Converts :func:`reload` to :func:`importlib.reload`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: renames
+
+   Changes :data:`sys.maxint` to :data:`sys.maxsize`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: repr
+
+   Replaces backtick repr with the :func:`repr` function.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: set_literal
+
+   Replaces use of the :class:`set` constructor with set literals.  This fixer
+   is optional.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: standarderror
+
+   Renames :exc:`StandardError` to :exc:`Exception`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: sys_exc
+
+   Changes the deprecated :data:`sys.exc_value`, :data:`sys.exc_type`,
+   :data:`sys.exc_traceback` to use :func:`sys.exc_info`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: throw
+
+   Fixes the API change in generator's :meth:`throw` method.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: tuple_params
+
+   Removes implicit tuple parameter unpacking.  This fixer inserts temporary
+   variables.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: types
+
+   Fixes code broken from the removal of some members in the :mod:`types`
+   module.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: unicode
+
+   Renames :class:`unicode` to :class:`str`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: urllib
+
+   Handles the rename of :mod:`urllib` and :mod:`urllib2` to the :mod:`urllib`
+   package.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: ws_comma
+
+   Removes excess whitespace from comma separated items.  This fixer is
+   optional.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: xrange
+
+   Renames :func:`xrange` to :func:`range` and wraps existing :func:`range`
+   calls with :class:`list`.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: xreadlines
+
+   Changes ``for x in file.xreadlines()`` to ``for x in file``.
+
+.. 2to3fixer:: zip
+
+   Wraps :func:`zip` usage in a :class:`list` call.  This is disabled when
+   ``from future_builtins import zip`` appears.
+
+
+:mod:`lib2to3` - 2to3's library
+-------------------------------
+
+.. module:: lib2to3
+   :synopsis: the 2to3 library
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum
+.. moduleauthor:: Collin Winter
+.. moduleauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/lib2to3/`
+
+--------------
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :mod:`lib2to3` API should be considered unstable and may change
+   drastically in the future.
+
+.. XXX What is the public interface anyway?
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/__future__.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/__future__.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3d749e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/__future__.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+:mod:`__future__` --- Future statement definitions
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: __future__
+   :synopsis: Future statement definitions
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/__future__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`__future__` is a real module, and serves three purposes:
+
+* To avoid confusing existing tools that analyze import statements and expect to
+  find the modules they're importing.
+
+* To ensure that :ref:`future statements <future>` run under releases prior to
+  2.1 at least yield runtime exceptions (the import of :mod:`__future__` will
+  fail, because there was no module of that name prior to 2.1).
+
+* To document when incompatible changes were introduced, and when they will be
+  --- or were --- made mandatory.  This is a form of executable documentation, and
+  can be inspected programmatically via importing :mod:`__future__` and examining
+  its contents.
+
+Each statement in :file:`__future__.py` is of the form::
+
+   FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease,
+                          CompilerFlag)
+
+
+where, normally, *OptionalRelease* is less than *MandatoryRelease*, and both are
+5-tuples of the same form as :data:`sys.version_info`::
+
+   (PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int
+    PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int
+    PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int
+    PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string
+    PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int
+   )
+
+*OptionalRelease* records the first release in which the feature was accepted.
+
+In the case of a *MandatoryRelease* that has not yet occurred,
+*MandatoryRelease* predicts the release in which the feature will become part of
+the language.
+
+Else *MandatoryRelease* records when the feature became part of the language; in
+releases at or after that, modules no longer need a future statement to use the
+feature in question, but may continue to use such imports.
+
+*MandatoryRelease* may also be ``None``, meaning that a planned feature got
+dropped.
+
+Instances of class :class:`_Feature` have two corresponding methods,
+:meth:`getOptionalRelease` and :meth:`getMandatoryRelease`.
+
+*CompilerFlag* is the (bitfield) flag that should be passed in the fourth
+argument to the built-in function :func:`compile` to enable the feature in
+dynamically compiled code.  This flag is stored in the :attr:`compiler_flag`
+attribute on :class:`_Feature` instances.
+
+No feature description will ever be deleted from :mod:`__future__`. Since its
+introduction in Python 2.1 the following features have found their way into the
+language using this mechanism:
+
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| feature          | optional in | mandatory in | effect                                      |
++==================+=============+==============+=============================================+
+| nested_scopes    | 2.1.0b1     | 2.2          | :pep:`227`:                                 |
+|                  |             |              | *Statically Nested Scopes*                  |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| generators       | 2.2.0a1     | 2.3          | :pep:`255`:                                 |
+|                  |             |              | *Simple Generators*                         |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| division         | 2.2.0a2     | 3.0          | :pep:`238`:                                 |
+|                  |             |              | *Changing the Division Operator*            |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| absolute_import  | 2.5.0a1     | 3.0          | :pep:`328`:                                 |
+|                  |             |              | *Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative* |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| with_statement   | 2.5.0a1     | 2.6          | :pep:`343`:                                 |
+|                  |             |              | *The "with" Statement*                      |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| print_function   | 2.6.0a2     | 3.0          | :pep:`3105`:                                |
+|                  |             |              | *Make print a function*                     |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| unicode_literals | 2.6.0a2     | 3.0          | :pep:`3112`:                                |
+|                  |             |              | *Bytes literals in Python 3000*             |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| generator_stop   | 3.5.0b1     | 3.7          | :pep:`479`:                                 |
+|                  |             |              | *StopIteration handling inside generators*  |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| annotations      | 3.7.0b1     | 4.0          | :pep:`563`:                                 |
+|                  |             |              | *Postponed evaluation of annotations*       |
++------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+.. XXX Adding a new entry?  Remember to update simple_stmts.rst, too.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`future`
+      How the compiler treats future imports.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/__main__.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/__main__.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a64faf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/__main__.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+
+:mod:`__main__` --- Top-level script environment
+================================================
+
+.. module:: __main__
+   :synopsis: The environment where the top-level script is run.
+
+--------------
+
+``'__main__'`` is the name of the scope in which top-level code executes.
+A module's __name__ is set equal to ``'__main__'`` when read from
+standard input, a script, or from an interactive prompt.
+
+A module can discover whether or not it is running in the main scope by
+checking its own ``__name__``, which allows a common idiom for conditionally
+executing code in a module when it is run as a script or with ``python
+-m`` but not when it is imported::
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       # execute only if run as a script
+       main()
+
+For a package, the same effect can be achieved by including a
+``__main__.py`` module, the contents of which will be executed when the
+module is run with ``-m``.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/_dummy_thread.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/_dummy_thread.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7dccbc5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/_dummy_thread.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+:mod:`_dummy_thread` --- Drop-in replacement for the :mod:`_thread` module
+==========================================================================
+
+.. module:: _dummy_thread
+   :synopsis: Drop-in replacement for the _thread module.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/_dummy_thread.py`
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.7
+   Python now always has threading enabled.  Please use :mod:`_thread`
+   (or, better, :mod:`threading`) instead.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a duplicate interface to the :mod:`_thread` module.
+It was meant to be imported when the :mod:`_thread` module was not provided
+on a platform.
+
+Be careful to not use this module where deadlock might occur from a thread being
+created that blocks waiting for another thread to be created.  This often occurs
+with blocking I/O.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/_thread.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/_thread.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1c28f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/_thread.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+:mod:`_thread` --- Low-level threading API
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: _thread
+   :synopsis: Low-level threading API.
+
+.. index::
+   single: light-weight processes
+   single: processes, light-weight
+   single: binary semaphores
+   single: semaphores, binary
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides low-level primitives for working with multiple threads
+(also called :dfn:`light-weight processes` or :dfn:`tasks`) --- multiple threads of
+control sharing their global data space.  For synchronization, simple locks
+(also called :dfn:`mutexes` or :dfn:`binary semaphores`) are provided.
+The :mod:`threading` module provides an easier to use and higher-level
+threading API built on top of this module.
+
+.. index::
+   single: pthreads
+   pair: threads; POSIX
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   This module used to be optional, it is now always available.
+
+This module defines the following constants and functions:
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Raised on thread-specific errors.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This is now a synonym of the built-in :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+
+.. data:: LockType
+
+   This is the type of lock objects.
+
+
+.. function:: start_new_thread(function, args[, kwargs])
+
+   Start a new thread and return its identifier.  The thread executes the function
+   *function* with the argument list *args* (which must be a tuple).  The optional
+   *kwargs* argument specifies a dictionary of keyword arguments. When the function
+   returns, the thread silently exits.  When the function terminates with an
+   unhandled exception, a stack trace is printed and then the thread exits (but
+   other threads continue to run).
+
+
+.. function:: interrupt_main()
+
+   Simulate the effect of a :data:`signal.SIGINT` signal arriving in the main
+   thread. A thread can use this function to interrupt the main thread.
+
+   If :data:`signal.SIGINT` isn't handled by Python (it was set to
+   :data:`signal.SIG_DFL` or :data:`signal.SIG_IGN`), this function does
+   nothing.
+
+
+.. function:: exit()
+
+   Raise the :exc:`SystemExit` exception.  When not caught, this will cause the
+   thread to exit silently.
+
+..
+   function:: exit_prog(status)
+
+      Exit all threads and report the value of the integer argument
+      *status* as the exit status of the entire program.
+      **Caveat:** code in pending :keyword:`finally` clauses, in this thread
+      or in other threads, is not executed.
+
+
+.. function:: allocate_lock()
+
+   Return a new lock object.  Methods of locks are described below.  The lock is
+   initially unlocked.
+
+
+.. function:: get_ident()
+
+   Return the 'thread identifier' of the current thread.  This is a nonzero
+   integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended as a magic cookie to
+   be used e.g. to index a dictionary of thread-specific data.  Thread identifiers
+   may be recycled when a thread exits and another thread is created.
+
+
+.. function:: stack_size([size])
+
+   Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The optional
+   *size* argument specifies the stack size to be used for subsequently created
+   threads, and must be 0 (use platform or configured default) or a positive
+   integer value of at least 32,768 (32 KiB). If *size* is not specified,
+   0 is used.  If changing the thread stack size is
+   unsupported, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.  If the specified stack size is
+   invalid, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32 KiB
+   is currently the minimum supported stack size value to guarantee sufficient
+   stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note that some platforms may have
+   particular restrictions on values for the stack size, such as requiring a
+   minimum stack size > 32 KiB or requiring allocation in multiples of the system
+   memory page size - platform documentation should be referred to for more
+   information (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size is
+   the suggested approach in the absence of more specific information).
+
+   .. availability:: Windows, systems with POSIX threads.
+
+
+.. data:: TIMEOUT_MAX
+
+   The maximum value allowed for the *timeout* parameter of
+   :meth:`Lock.acquire`. Specifying a timeout greater than this value will
+   raise an :exc:`OverflowError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+Lock objects have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: lock.acquire(waitflag=1, timeout=-1)
+
+   Without any optional argument, this method acquires the lock unconditionally, if
+   necessary waiting until it is released by another thread (only one thread at a
+   time can acquire a lock --- that's their reason for existence).
+
+   If the integer *waitflag* argument is present, the action depends on its
+   value: if it is zero, the lock is only acquired if it can be acquired
+   immediately without waiting, while if it is nonzero, the lock is acquired
+   unconditionally as above.
+
+   If the floating-point *timeout* argument is present and positive, it
+   specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning.  A negative
+   *timeout* argument specifies an unbounded wait.  You cannot specify
+   a *timeout* if *waitflag* is zero.
+
+   The return value is ``True`` if the lock is acquired successfully,
+   ``False`` if not.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The *timeout* parameter is new.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Lock acquires can now be interrupted by signals on POSIX.
+
+
+.. method:: lock.release()
+
+   Releases the lock.  The lock must have been acquired earlier, but not
+   necessarily by the same thread.
+
+
+.. method:: lock.locked()
+
+   Return the status of the lock: ``True`` if it has been acquired by some thread,
+   ``False`` if not.
+
+In addition to these methods, lock objects can also be used via the
+:keyword:`with` statement, e.g.::
+
+   import _thread
+
+   a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()
+
+   with a_lock:
+       print("a_lock is locked while this executes")
+
+**Caveats:**
+
+  .. index:: module: signal
+
+* Threads interact strangely with interrupts: the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`
+  exception will be received by an arbitrary thread.  (When the :mod:`signal`
+  module is available, interrupts always go to the main thread.)
+
+* Calling :func:`sys.exit` or raising the :exc:`SystemExit` exception is
+  equivalent to calling :func:`_thread.exit`.
+
+* It is not possible to interrupt the :meth:`acquire` method on a lock --- the
+  :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception will happen after the lock has been acquired.
+
+* When the main thread exits, it is system defined whether the other threads
+  survive.  On most systems, they are killed without executing
+  :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` clauses or executing object
+  destructors.
+
+* When the main thread exits, it does not do any of its usual cleanup (except
+  that :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` clauses are honored), and the
+  standard I/O files are not flushed.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/abc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/abc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc39a2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/abc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,342 @@
+:mod:`abc` --- Abstract Base Classes
+====================================
+
+.. module:: abc
+   :synopsis: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum
+.. sectionauthor:: Georg Brandl
+.. much of the content adapted from docstrings
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/abc.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides the infrastructure for defining :term:`abstract base
+classes <abstract base class>` (ABCs) in Python, as outlined in :pep:`3119`;
+see the PEP for why this was added to Python. (See also :pep:`3141` and the
+:mod:`numbers` module regarding a type hierarchy for numbers based on ABCs.)
+
+The :mod:`collections` module has some concrete classes that derive from
+ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived. In addition, the
+:mod:`collections.abc` submodule has some ABCs that can be used to test whether
+a class or instance provides a particular interface, for example, if it is
+hashable or if it is a mapping.
+
+
+This module provides the metaclass :class:`ABCMeta` for defining ABCs and
+a helper class :class:`ABC` to alternatively define ABCs through inheritance:
+
+.. class:: ABC
+
+   A helper class that has :class:`ABCMeta` as its metaclass.  With this class,
+   an abstract base class can be created by simply deriving from :class:`ABC`
+   avoiding sometimes confusing metaclass usage, for example::
+
+     from abc import ABC
+
+     class MyABC(ABC):
+         pass
+
+   Note that the type of :class:`ABC` is still :class:`ABCMeta`, therefore
+   inheriting from :class:`ABC` requires the usual precautions regarding
+   metaclass usage, as multiple inheritance may lead to metaclass conflicts.
+   One may also define an abstract base class by passing the metaclass
+   keyword and using :class:`ABCMeta` directly, for example::
+
+     from abc import ABCMeta
+
+     class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta):
+         pass
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. class:: ABCMeta
+
+   Metaclass for defining Abstract Base Classes (ABCs).
+
+   Use this metaclass to create an ABC.  An ABC can be subclassed directly, and
+   then acts as a mix-in class.  You can also register unrelated concrete
+   classes (even built-in classes) and unrelated ABCs as "virtual subclasses" --
+   these and their descendants will be considered subclasses of the registering
+   ABC by the built-in :func:`issubclass` function, but the registering ABC
+   won't show up in their MRO (Method Resolution Order) nor will method
+   implementations defined by the registering ABC be callable (not even via
+   :func:`super`). [#]_
+
+   Classes created with a metaclass of :class:`ABCMeta` have the following method:
+
+   .. method:: register(subclass)
+
+      Register *subclass* as a "virtual subclass" of this ABC. For
+      example::
+
+         from abc import ABC
+
+         class MyABC(ABC):
+             pass
+
+         MyABC.register(tuple)
+
+         assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC)
+         assert isinstance((), MyABC)
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Returns the registered subclass, to allow usage as a class decorator.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         To detect calls to :meth:`register`, you can use the
+         :func:`get_cache_token` function.
+
+   You can also override this method in an abstract base class:
+
+   .. method:: __subclasshook__(subclass)
+
+      (Must be defined as a class method.)
+
+      Check whether *subclass* is considered a subclass of this ABC.  This means
+      that you can customize the behavior of ``issubclass`` further without the
+      need to call :meth:`register` on every class you want to consider a
+      subclass of the ABC.  (This class method is called from the
+      :meth:`__subclasscheck__` method of the ABC.)
+
+      This method should return ``True``, ``False`` or ``NotImplemented``.  If
+      it returns ``True``, the *subclass* is considered a subclass of this ABC.
+      If it returns ``False``, the *subclass* is not considered a subclass of
+      this ABC, even if it would normally be one.  If it returns
+      ``NotImplemented``, the subclass check is continued with the usual
+      mechanism.
+
+      .. XXX explain the "usual mechanism"
+
+
+   For a demonstration of these concepts, look at this example ABC definition::
+
+      class Foo:
+          def __getitem__(self, index):
+              ...
+          def __len__(self):
+              ...
+          def get_iterator(self):
+              return iter(self)
+
+      class MyIterable(ABC):
+
+          @abstractmethod
+          def __iter__(self):
+              while False:
+                  yield None
+
+          def get_iterator(self):
+              return self.__iter__()
+
+          @classmethod
+          def __subclasshook__(cls, C):
+              if cls is MyIterable:
+                  if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__):
+                      return True
+              return NotImplemented
+
+      MyIterable.register(Foo)
+
+   The ABC ``MyIterable`` defines the standard iterable method,
+   :meth:`~iterator.__iter__`, as an abstract method.  The implementation given
+   here can still be called from subclasses.  The :meth:`get_iterator` method
+   is also part of the ``MyIterable`` abstract base class, but it does not have
+   to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes.
+
+   The :meth:`__subclasshook__` class method defined here says that any class
+   that has an :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` method in its
+   :attr:`~object.__dict__` (or in that of one of its base classes, accessed
+   via the :attr:`~class.__mro__` list) is considered a ``MyIterable`` too.
+
+   Finally, the last line makes ``Foo`` a virtual subclass of ``MyIterable``,
+   even though it does not define an :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` method (it uses
+   the old-style iterable protocol, defined in terms of :meth:`__len__` and
+   :meth:`__getitem__`).  Note that this will not make ``get_iterator``
+   available as a method of ``Foo``, so it is provided separately.
+
+
+
+
+The :mod:`abc` module also provides the following decorator:
+
+.. decorator:: abstractmethod
+
+   A decorator indicating abstract methods.
+
+   Using this decorator requires that the class's metaclass is :class:`ABCMeta`
+   or is derived from it.  A class that has a metaclass derived from
+   :class:`ABCMeta` cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods
+   and properties are overridden.  The abstract methods can be called using any
+   of the normal 'super' call mechanisms.  :func:`abstractmethod` may be used
+   to declare abstract methods for properties and descriptors.
+
+   Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to modify the
+   abstraction status of a method or class once it is created, are not
+   supported.  The :func:`abstractmethod` only affects subclasses derived using
+   regular inheritance; "virtual subclasses" registered with the ABC's
+   :meth:`register` method are not affected.
+
+   When :func:`abstractmethod` is applied in combination with other method
+   descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as shown in
+   the following usage examples::
+
+      class C(ABC):
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_method(self, ...):
+              ...
+          @classmethod
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, ...):
+              ...
+          @staticmethod
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_staticmethod(...):
+              ...
+
+          @property
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_property(self):
+              ...
+          @my_abstract_property.setter
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_property(self, val):
+              ...
+
+          @abstractmethod
+          def _get_x(self):
+              ...
+          @abstractmethod
+          def _set_x(self, val):
+              ...
+          x = property(_get_x, _set_x)
+
+   In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class machinery,
+   the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using
+   :attr:`__isabstractmethod__`. In general, this attribute should be ``True``
+   if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are abstract. For
+   example, Python's built-in :class:`property` does the equivalent of::
+
+      class Descriptor:
+          ...
+          @property
+          def __isabstractmethod__(self):
+              return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for
+                         f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel))
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Unlike Java abstract methods, these abstract
+      methods may have an implementation. This implementation can be
+      called via the :func:`super` mechanism from the class that
+      overrides it.  This could be useful as an end-point for a
+      super-call in a framework that uses cooperative
+      multiple-inheritance.
+
+
+The :mod:`abc` module also supports the following legacy decorators:
+
+.. decorator:: abstractclassmethod
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+       It is now possible to use :class:`classmethod` with
+       :func:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
+
+   A subclass of the built-in :func:`classmethod`, indicating an abstract
+   classmethod. Otherwise it is similar to :func:`abstractmethod`.
+
+   This special case is deprecated, as the :func:`classmethod` decorator
+   is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
+   method::
+
+      class C(ABC):
+          @classmethod
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, ...):
+              ...
+
+
+.. decorator:: abstractstaticmethod
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+       It is now possible to use :class:`staticmethod` with
+       :func:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
+
+   A subclass of the built-in :func:`staticmethod`, indicating an abstract
+   staticmethod. Otherwise it is similar to :func:`abstractmethod`.
+
+   This special case is deprecated, as the :func:`staticmethod` decorator
+   is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
+   method::
+
+      class C(ABC):
+          @staticmethod
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_staticmethod(...):
+              ...
+
+
+.. decorator:: abstractproperty
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+       It is now possible to use :class:`property`, :meth:`property.getter`,
+       :meth:`property.setter` and :meth:`property.deleter` with
+       :func:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
+
+   A subclass of the built-in :func:`property`, indicating an abstract
+   property.
+
+   This special case is deprecated, as the :func:`property` decorator
+   is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
+   method::
+
+      class C(ABC):
+          @property
+          @abstractmethod
+          def my_abstract_property(self):
+              ...
+
+   The above example defines a read-only property; you can also define a
+   read-write abstract property by appropriately marking one or more of the
+   underlying methods as abstract::
+
+      class C(ABC):
+          @property
+          def x(self):
+              ...
+
+          @x.setter
+          @abstractmethod
+          def x(self, val):
+              ...
+
+   If only some components are abstract, only those components need to be
+   updated to create a concrete property in a subclass::
+
+      class D(C):
+          @C.x.setter
+          def x(self, val):
+              ...
+
+
+The :mod:`abc` module also provides the following functions:
+
+.. function:: get_cache_token()
+
+   Returns the current abstract base class cache token.
+
+   The token is an opaque object (that supports equality testing) identifying
+   the current version of the abstract base class cache for virtual subclasses.
+   The token changes with every call to :meth:`ABCMeta.register` on any ABC.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] C++ programmers should note that Python's virtual base class
+   concept is not the same as C++'s.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/aifc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/aifc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7328907
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/aifc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,239 @@
+:mod:`aifc` --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: aifc
+   :synopsis: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/aifc.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: Audio Interchange File Format
+   single: AIFF
+   single: AIFF-C
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides support for reading and writing AIFF and AIFF-C files.
+AIFF is Audio Interchange File Format, a format for storing digital audio
+samples in a file.  AIFF-C is a newer version of the format that includes the
+ability to compress the audio data.
+
+Audio files have a number of parameters that describe the audio data. The
+sampling rate or frame rate is the number of times per second the sound is
+sampled.  The number of channels indicate if the audio is mono, stereo, or
+quadro.  Each frame consists of one sample per channel.  The sample size is the
+size in bytes of each sample.  Thus a frame consists of
+``nchannels * samplesize`` bytes, and a second's worth of audio consists of
+``nchannels * samplesize * framerate`` bytes.
+
+For example, CD quality audio has a sample size of two bytes (16 bits), uses two
+channels (stereo) and has a frame rate of 44,100 frames/second.  This gives a
+frame size of 4 bytes (2\*2), and a second's worth occupies 2\*2\*44100 bytes
+(176,400 bytes).
+
+Module :mod:`aifc` defines the following function:
+
+
+.. function:: open(file, mode=None)
+
+   Open an AIFF or AIFF-C file and return an object instance with methods that are
+   described below.  The argument *file* is either a string naming a file or a
+   :term:`file object`.  *mode* must be ``'r'`` or ``'rb'`` when the file must be
+   opened for reading, or ``'w'``  or ``'wb'`` when the file must be opened for writing.
+   If omitted, ``file.mode`` is used if it exists, otherwise ``'rb'`` is used.  When
+   used for writing, the file object should be seekable, unless you know ahead of
+   time how many samples you are going to write in total and use
+   :meth:`writeframesraw` and :meth:`setnframes`.
+   The :func:`.open` function may be used in a :keyword:`with` statement.  When
+   the :keyword:`!with` block completes, the :meth:`~aifc.close` method is called.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added.
+
+Objects returned by :func:`.open` when a file is opened for reading have the
+following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getnchannels()
+
+   Return the number of audio channels (1 for mono, 2 for stereo).
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getsampwidth()
+
+   Return the size in bytes of individual samples.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getframerate()
+
+   Return the sampling rate (number of audio frames per second).
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getnframes()
+
+   Return the number of audio frames in the file.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getcomptype()
+
+   Return a bytes array of length 4 describing the type of compression
+   used in the audio file.  For AIFF files, the returned value is
+   ``b'NONE'``.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getcompname()
+
+   Return a bytes array convertible to a human-readable description
+   of the type of compression used in the audio file.  For AIFF files,
+   the returned value is ``b'not compressed'``.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getparams()
+
+   Returns a :func:`~collections.namedtuple` ``(nchannels, sampwidth,
+   framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)``, equivalent to output of the
+   :meth:`get\*` methods.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getmarkers()
+
+   Return a list of markers in the audio file.  A marker consists of a tuple of
+   three elements.  The first is the mark ID (an integer), the second is the mark
+   position in frames from the beginning of the data (an integer), the third is the
+   name of the mark (a string).
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.getmark(id)
+
+   Return the tuple as described in :meth:`getmarkers` for the mark with the given
+   *id*.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.readframes(nframes)
+
+   Read and return the next *nframes* frames from the audio file.  The returned
+   data is a string containing for each frame the uncompressed samples of all
+   channels.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.rewind()
+
+   Rewind the read pointer.  The next :meth:`readframes` will start from the
+   beginning.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setpos(pos)
+
+   Seek to the specified frame number.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.tell()
+
+   Return the current frame number.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.close()
+
+   Close the AIFF file.  After calling this method, the object can no longer be
+   used.
+
+Objects returned by :func:`.open` when a file is opened for writing have all the
+above methods, except for :meth:`readframes` and :meth:`setpos`.  In addition
+the following methods exist.  The :meth:`get\*` methods can only be called after
+the corresponding :meth:`set\*` methods have been called.  Before the first
+:meth:`writeframes` or :meth:`writeframesraw`, all parameters except for the
+number of frames must be filled in.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.aiff()
+
+   Create an AIFF file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is created, unless the
+   name of the file ends in ``'.aiff'`` in which case the default is an AIFF file.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.aifc()
+
+   Create an AIFF-C file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is created, unless
+   the name of the file ends in ``'.aiff'`` in which case the default is an AIFF
+   file.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setnchannels(nchannels)
+
+   Specify the number of channels in the audio file.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setsampwidth(width)
+
+   Specify the size in bytes of audio samples.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setframerate(rate)
+
+   Specify the sampling frequency in frames per second.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setnframes(nframes)
+
+   Specify the number of frames that are to be written to the audio file. If this
+   parameter is not set, or not set correctly, the file needs to support seeking.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setcomptype(type, name)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: u-LAW
+      single: A-LAW
+      single: G.722
+
+   Specify the compression type.  If not specified, the audio data will
+   not be compressed.  In AIFF files, compression is not possible.
+   The name parameter should be a human-readable description of the
+   compression type as a bytes array, the type parameter should be a
+   bytes array of length 4.  Currently the following compression types
+   are supported: ``b'NONE'``, ``b'ULAW'``, ``b'ALAW'``, ``b'G722'``.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setparams(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, comptype, compname)
+
+   Set all the above parameters at once.  The argument is a tuple consisting of the
+   various parameters.  This means that it is possible to use the result of a
+   :meth:`getparams` call as argument to :meth:`setparams`.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.setmark(id, pos, name)
+
+   Add a mark with the given id (larger than 0), and the given name at the given
+   position.  This method can be called at any time before :meth:`close`.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.tell()
+
+   Return the current write position in the output file.  Useful in combination
+   with :meth:`setmark`.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.writeframes(data)
+
+   Write data to the output file.  This method can only be called after the audio
+   file parameters have been set.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Any :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.writeframesraw(data)
+
+   Like :meth:`writeframes`, except that the header of the audio file is not
+   updated.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Any :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. method:: aifc.close()
+
+   Close the AIFF file.  The header of the file is updated to reflect the actual
+   size of the audio data. After calling this method, the object can no longer be
+   used.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/allos.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/allos.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7105d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/allos.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+.. _allos:
+
+*********************************
+Generic Operating System Services
+*********************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system
+features that are available on (almost) all operating systems, such as files and
+a clock.  The interfaces are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces,
+but they are available on most other systems as well.  Here's an overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   os.rst
+   io.rst
+   time.rst
+   argparse.rst
+   getopt.rst
+   logging.rst
+   logging.config.rst
+   logging.handlers.rst
+   getpass.rst
+   curses.rst
+   curses.ascii.rst
+   curses.panel.rst
+   platform.rst
+   errno.rst
+   ctypes.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/archiving.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/archiving.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c928494
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/archiving.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+.. _archiving:
+
+******************************
+Data Compression and Archiving
+******************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter support data compression with the zlib,
+gzip, bzip2 and lzma algorithms, and the creation of ZIP- and tar-format
+archives.  See also :ref:`archiving-operations` provided by the :mod:`shutil`
+module.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   zlib.rst
+   gzip.rst
+   bz2.rst
+   lzma.rst
+   zipfile.rst
+   tarfile.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/argparse.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/argparse.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cef197f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/argparse.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2089 @@
+:mod:`argparse` --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands
+===============================================================================
+
+.. module:: argparse
+   :synopsis: Command-line option and argument parsing library.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Steven Bethard <steven.bethard@gmail.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steven Bethard <steven.bethard@gmail.com>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/argparse.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. sidebar:: Tutorial
+
+   This page contains the API reference information. For a more gentle
+   introduction to Python command-line parsing, have a look at the
+   :ref:`argparse tutorial <argparse-tutorial>`.
+
+The :mod:`argparse` module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
+interfaces. The program defines what arguments it requires, and :mod:`argparse`
+will figure out how to parse those out of :data:`sys.argv`.  The :mod:`argparse`
+module also automatically generates help and usage messages and issues errors
+when users give the program invalid arguments.
+
+
+Example
+-------
+
+The following code is a Python program that takes a list of integers and
+produces either the sum or the max::
+
+   import argparse
+
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.')
+   parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
+                       help='an integer for the accumulator')
+   parser.add_argument('--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const',
+                       const=sum, default=max,
+                       help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
+
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+   print(args.accumulate(args.integers))
+
+Assuming the Python code above is saved into a file called ``prog.py``, it can
+be run at the command line and provides useful help messages:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python prog.py -h
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [--sum] N [N ...]
+
+   Process some integers.
+
+   positional arguments:
+    N           an integer for the accumulator
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --sum       sum the integers (default: find the max)
+
+When run with the appropriate arguments, it prints either the sum or the max of
+the command-line integers:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python prog.py 1 2 3 4
+   4
+
+   $ python prog.py 1 2 3 4 --sum
+   10
+
+If invalid arguments are passed in, it will issue an error:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python prog.py a b c
+   usage: prog.py [-h] [--sum] N [N ...]
+   prog.py: error: argument N: invalid int value: 'a'
+
+The following sections walk you through this example.
+
+
+Creating a parser
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The first step in using the :mod:`argparse` is creating an
+:class:`ArgumentParser` object::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.')
+
+The :class:`ArgumentParser` object will hold all the information necessary to
+parse the command line into Python data types.
+
+
+Adding arguments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Filling an :class:`ArgumentParser` with information about program arguments is
+done by making calls to the :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` method.
+Generally, these calls tell the :class:`ArgumentParser` how to take the strings
+on the command line and turn them into objects.  This information is stored and
+used when :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` is called. For example::
+
+   >>> parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
+   ...                     help='an integer for the accumulator')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const',
+   ...                     const=sum, default=max,
+   ...                     help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
+
+Later, calling :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` will return an object with
+two attributes, ``integers`` and ``accumulate``.  The ``integers`` attribute
+will be a list of one or more ints, and the ``accumulate`` attribute will be
+either the :func:`sum` function, if ``--sum`` was specified at the command line,
+or the :func:`max` function if it was not.
+
+
+Parsing arguments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`ArgumentParser` parses arguments through the
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` method.  This will inspect the command line,
+convert each argument to the appropriate type and then invoke the appropriate action.
+In most cases, this means a simple :class:`Namespace` object will be built up from
+attributes parsed out of the command line::
+
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--sum', '7', '-1', '42'])
+   Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[7, -1, 42])
+
+In a script, :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` will typically be called with no
+arguments, and the :class:`ArgumentParser` will automatically determine the
+command-line arguments from :data:`sys.argv`.
+
+
+ArgumentParser objects
+----------------------
+
+.. class:: ArgumentParser(prog=None, usage=None, description=None, \
+                          epilog=None, parents=[], \
+                          formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter, \
+                          prefix_chars='-', fromfile_prefix_chars=None, \
+                          argument_default=None, conflict_handler='error', \
+                          add_help=True, allow_abbrev=True)
+
+   Create a new :class:`ArgumentParser` object. All parameters should be passed
+   as keyword arguments. Each parameter has its own more detailed description
+   below, but in short they are:
+
+   * prog_ - The name of the program (default: ``sys.argv[0]``)
+
+   * usage_ - The string describing the program usage (default: generated from
+     arguments added to parser)
+
+   * description_ - Text to display before the argument help (default: none)
+
+   * epilog_ - Text to display after the argument help (default: none)
+
+   * parents_ - A list of :class:`ArgumentParser` objects whose arguments should
+     also be included
+
+   * formatter_class_ - A class for customizing the help output
+
+   * prefix_chars_ - The set of characters that prefix optional arguments
+     (default: '-')
+
+   * fromfile_prefix_chars_ - The set of characters that prefix files from
+     which additional arguments should be read (default: ``None``)
+
+   * argument_default_ - The global default value for arguments
+     (default: ``None``)
+
+   * conflict_handler_ - The strategy for resolving conflicting optionals
+     (usually unnecessary)
+
+   * add_help_ - Add a ``-h/--help`` option to the parser (default: ``True``)
+
+   * allow_abbrev_ - Allows long options to be abbreviated if the
+     abbreviation is unambiguous. (default: ``True``)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *allow_abbrev* parameter was added.
+
+The following sections describe how each of these are used.
+
+
+prog
+^^^^
+
+By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` objects use ``sys.argv[0]`` to determine
+how to display the name of the program in help messages.  This default is almost
+always desirable because it will make the help messages match how the program was
+invoked on the command line.  For example, consider a file named
+``myprogram.py`` with the following code::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+
+The help for this program will display ``myprogram.py`` as the program name
+(regardless of where the program was invoked from):
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python myprogram.py --help
+   usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo FOO   foo help
+   $ cd ..
+   $ python subdir/myprogram.py --help
+   usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo FOO   foo help
+
+To change this default behavior, another value can be supplied using the
+``prog=`` argument to :class:`ArgumentParser`::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: myprogram [-h]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+Note that the program name, whether determined from ``sys.argv[0]`` or from the
+``prog=`` argument, is available to help messages using the ``%(prog)s`` format
+specifier.
+
+::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo of the %(prog)s program')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program
+
+
+usage
+^^^^^
+
+By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` calculates the usage message from the
+arguments it contains::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [-h] [--foo [FOO]] bar [bar ...]
+
+   positional arguments:
+    bar          bar help
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help   show this help message and exit
+    --foo [FOO]  foo help
+
+The default message can be overridden with the ``usage=`` keyword argument::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [options]
+
+   positional arguments:
+    bar          bar help
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help   show this help message and exit
+    --foo [FOO]  foo help
+
+The ``%(prog)s`` format specifier is available to fill in the program name in
+your usage messages.
+
+
+description
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Most calls to the :class:`ArgumentParser` constructor will use the
+``description=`` keyword argument.  This argument gives a brief description of
+what the program does and how it works.  In help messages, the description is
+displayed between the command-line usage string and the help messages for the
+various arguments::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='A foo that bars')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: argparse.py [-h]
+
+   A foo that bars
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+By default, the description will be line-wrapped so that it fits within the
+given space.  To change this behavior, see the formatter_class_ argument.
+
+
+epilog
+^^^^^^
+
+Some programs like to display additional description of the program after the
+description of the arguments.  Such text can be specified using the ``epilog=``
+argument to :class:`ArgumentParser`::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+   ...     description='A foo that bars',
+   ...     epilog="And that's how you'd foo a bar")
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: argparse.py [-h]
+
+   A foo that bars
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+   And that's how you'd foo a bar
+
+As with the description_ argument, the ``epilog=`` text is by default
+line-wrapped, but this behavior can be adjusted with the formatter_class_
+argument to :class:`ArgumentParser`.
+
+
+parents
+^^^^^^^
+
+Sometimes, several parsers share a common set of arguments. Rather than
+repeating the definitions of these arguments, a single parser with all the
+shared arguments and passed to ``parents=`` argument to :class:`ArgumentParser`
+can be used.  The ``parents=`` argument takes a list of :class:`ArgumentParser`
+objects, collects all the positional and optional actions from them, and adds
+these actions to the :class:`ArgumentParser` object being constructed::
+
+   >>> parent_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(add_help=False)
+   >>> parent_parser.add_argument('--parent', type=int)
+
+   >>> foo_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
+   >>> foo_parser.add_argument('foo')
+   >>> foo_parser.parse_args(['--parent', '2', 'XXX'])
+   Namespace(foo='XXX', parent=2)
+
+   >>> bar_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
+   >>> bar_parser.add_argument('--bar')
+   >>> bar_parser.parse_args(['--bar', 'YYY'])
+   Namespace(bar='YYY', parent=None)
+
+Note that most parent parsers will specify ``add_help=False``.  Otherwise, the
+:class:`ArgumentParser` will see two ``-h/--help`` options (one in the parent
+and one in the child) and raise an error.
+
+.. note::
+   You must fully initialize the parsers before passing them via ``parents=``.
+   If you change the parent parsers after the child parser, those changes will
+   not be reflected in the child.
+
+
+formatter_class
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`ArgumentParser` objects allow the help formatting to be customized by
+specifying an alternate formatting class.  Currently, there are four such
+classes:
+
+.. class:: RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
+           RawTextHelpFormatter
+           ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
+           MetavarTypeHelpFormatter
+
+:class:`RawDescriptionHelpFormatter` and :class:`RawTextHelpFormatter` give
+more control over how textual descriptions are displayed.
+By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` objects line-wrap the description_ and
+epilog_ texts in command-line help messages::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+   ...     prog='PROG',
+   ...     description='''this description
+   ...         was indented weird
+   ...             but that is okay''',
+   ...     epilog='''
+   ...             likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will
+   ...         be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped
+   ...         across a couple lines''')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [-h]
+
+   this description was indented weird but that is okay
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+   likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words
+   will be wrapped across a couple lines
+
+Passing :class:`RawDescriptionHelpFormatter` as ``formatter_class=``
+indicates that description_ and epilog_ are already correctly formatted and
+should not be line-wrapped::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+   ...     prog='PROG',
+   ...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
+   ...     description=textwrap.dedent('''\
+   ...         Please do not mess up this text!
+   ...         --------------------------------
+   ...             I have indented it
+   ...             exactly the way
+   ...             I want it
+   ...         '''))
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [-h]
+
+   Please do not mess up this text!
+   --------------------------------
+      I have indented it
+      exactly the way
+      I want it
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+:class:`RawTextHelpFormatter` maintains whitespace for all sorts of help text,
+including argument descriptions. However, multiple new lines are replaced with
+one. If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines, add spaces between the
+newlines.
+
+:class:`ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter` automatically adds information about
+default values to each of the argument help messages::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+   ...     prog='PROG',
+   ...     formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int, default=42, help='FOO!')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='*', default=[1, 2, 3], help='BAR!')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar [bar ...]]
+
+   positional arguments:
+    bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)
+
+:class:`MetavarTypeHelpFormatter` uses the name of the type_ argument for each
+argument as the display name for its values (rather than using the dest_
+as the regular formatter does)::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+   ...     prog='PROG',
+   ...     formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float)
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float
+
+   positional arguments:
+     float
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+     --foo int
+
+
+prefix_chars
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Most command-line options will use ``-`` as the prefix, e.g. ``-f/--foo``.
+Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix
+characters, e.g. for options
+like ``+f`` or ``/foo``, may specify them using the ``prefix_chars=`` argument
+to the ArgumentParser constructor::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('+f')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('++bar')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('+f X ++bar Y'.split())
+   Namespace(bar='Y', f='X')
+
+The ``prefix_chars=`` argument defaults to ``'-'``. Supplying a set of
+characters that does not include ``-`` will cause ``-f/--foo`` options to be
+disallowed.
+
+
+fromfile_prefix_chars
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Sometimes, for example when dealing with a particularly long argument lists, it
+may make sense to keep the list of arguments in a file rather than typing it out
+at the command line.  If the ``fromfile_prefix_chars=`` argument is given to the
+:class:`ArgumentParser` constructor, then arguments that start with any of the
+specified characters will be treated as files, and will be replaced by the
+arguments they contain.  For example::
+
+   >>> with open('args.txt', 'w') as fp:
+   ...     fp.write('-f\nbar')
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(fromfile_prefix_chars='@')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-f')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
+   Namespace(f='bar')
+
+Arguments read from a file must by default be one per line (but see also
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args`) and are treated as if they
+were in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the command
+line.  So in the example above, the expression ``['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt']``
+is considered equivalent to the expression ``['-f', 'foo', '-f', 'bar']``.
+
+The ``fromfile_prefix_chars=`` argument defaults to ``None``, meaning that
+arguments will never be treated as file references.
+
+
+argument_default
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Generally, argument defaults are specified either by passing a default to
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` or by calling the
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.set_defaults` methods with a specific set of name-value
+pairs.  Sometimes however, it may be useful to specify a single parser-wide
+default for arguments.  This can be accomplished by passing the
+``argument_default=`` keyword argument to :class:`ArgumentParser`.  For example,
+to globally suppress attribute creation on :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`
+calls, we supply ``argument_default=SUPPRESS``::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(argument_default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1', 'BAR'])
+   Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='1')
+   >>> parser.parse_args([])
+   Namespace()
+
+.. _allow_abbrev:
+
+allow_abbrev
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Normally, when you pass an argument list to the
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` method of an :class:`ArgumentParser`,
+it :ref:`recognizes abbreviations <prefix-matching>` of long options.
+
+This feature can be disabled by setting ``allow_abbrev`` to ``False``::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', allow_abbrev=False)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foobar', action='store_true')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foonley', action='store_false')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foon'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]
+   PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+conflict_handler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`ArgumentParser` objects do not allow two actions with the same option
+string.  By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` objects raise an exception if an
+attempt is made to create an argument with an option string that is already in
+use::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ..
+   ArgumentError: argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo
+
+Sometimes (e.g. when using parents_) it may be useful to simply override any
+older arguments with the same option string.  To get this behavior, the value
+``'resolve'`` can be supplied to the ``conflict_handler=`` argument of
+:class:`ArgumentParser`::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', conflict_handler='resolve')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    -f FOO      old foo help
+    --foo FOO   new foo help
+
+Note that :class:`ArgumentParser` objects only remove an action if all of its
+option strings are overridden.  So, in the example above, the old ``-f/--foo``
+action is retained as the ``-f`` action, because only the ``--foo`` option
+string was overridden.
+
+
+add_help
+^^^^^^^^
+
+By default, ArgumentParser objects add an option which simply displays
+the parser's help message. For example, consider a file named
+``myprogram.py`` containing the following code::
+
+   import argparse
+   parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
+   args = parser.parse_args()
+
+If ``-h`` or ``--help`` is supplied at the command line, the ArgumentParser
+help will be printed:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python myprogram.py --help
+   usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo FOO   foo help
+
+Occasionally, it may be useful to disable the addition of this help option.
+This can be achieved by passing ``False`` as the ``add_help=`` argument to
+:class:`ArgumentParser`::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [--foo FOO]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    --foo FOO  foo help
+
+The help option is typically ``-h/--help``. The exception to this is
+if the ``prefix_chars=`` is specified and does not include ``-``, in
+which case ``-h`` and ``--help`` are not valid options.  In
+this case, the first character in ``prefix_chars`` is used to prefix
+the help options::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='+/')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [+h]
+
+   optional arguments:
+     +h, ++help  show this help message and exit
+
+
+The add_argument() method
+-------------------------
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_argument(name or flags..., [action], [nargs], \
+                           [const], [default], [type], [choices], [required], \
+                           [help], [metavar], [dest])
+
+   Define how a single command-line argument should be parsed.  Each parameter
+   has its own more detailed description below, but in short they are:
+
+   * `name or flags`_ - Either a name or a list of option strings, e.g. ``foo``
+     or ``-f, --foo``.
+
+   * action_ - The basic type of action to be taken when this argument is
+     encountered at the command line.
+
+   * nargs_ - The number of command-line arguments that should be consumed.
+
+   * const_ - A constant value required by some action_ and nargs_ selections.
+
+   * default_ - The value produced if the argument is absent from the
+     command line.
+
+   * type_ - The type to which the command-line argument should be converted.
+
+   * choices_ - A container of the allowable values for the argument.
+
+   * required_ - Whether or not the command-line option may be omitted
+     (optionals only).
+
+   * help_ - A brief description of what the argument does.
+
+   * metavar_ - A name for the argument in usage messages.
+
+   * dest_ - The name of the attribute to be added to the object returned by
+     :meth:`parse_args`.
+
+The following sections describe how each of these are used.
+
+
+name or flags
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` method must know whether an optional
+argument, like ``-f`` or ``--foo``, or a positional argument, like a list of
+filenames, is expected.  The first arguments passed to
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` must therefore be either a series of
+flags, or a simple argument name.  For example, an optional argument could
+be created like::
+
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
+
+while a positional argument could be created like::
+
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
+
+When :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` is called, optional arguments will be
+identified by the ``-`` prefix, and the remaining arguments will be assumed to
+be positional::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR'])
+   Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=None)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR', '--foo', 'FOO'])
+   Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='FOO')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar
+   PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar
+
+
+action
+^^^^^^
+
+:class:`ArgumentParser` objects associate command-line arguments with actions.  These
+actions can do just about anything with the command-line arguments associated with
+them, though most actions simply add an attribute to the object returned by
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`.  The ``action`` keyword argument specifies
+how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:
+
+* ``'store'`` - This just stores the argument's value.  This is the default
+  action. For example::
+
+    >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+    >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1'.split())
+    Namespace(foo='1')
+
+* ``'store_const'`` - This stores the value specified by the const_ keyword
+  argument.  The ``'store_const'`` action is most commonly used with
+  optional arguments that specify some sort of flag.  For example::
+
+    >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_const', const=42)
+    >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
+    Namespace(foo=42)
+
+* ``'store_true'`` and ``'store_false'`` - These are special cases of
+  ``'store_const'`` used for storing the values ``True`` and ``False``
+  respectively.  In addition, they create default values of ``False`` and
+  ``True`` respectively.  For example::
+
+    >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--baz', action='store_false')
+    >>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
+    Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)
+
+* ``'append'`` - This stores a list, and appends each argument value to the
+  list.  This is useful to allow an option to be specified multiple times.
+  Example usage::
+
+    >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append')
+    >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
+    Namespace(foo=['1', '2'])
+
+* ``'append_const'`` - This stores a list, and appends the value specified by
+  the const_ keyword argument to the list.  (Note that the const_ keyword
+  argument defaults to ``None``.)  The ``'append_const'`` action is typically
+  useful when multiple arguments need to store constants to the same list. For
+  example::
+
+    >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--str', dest='types', action='append_const', const=str)
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--int', dest='types', action='append_const', const=int)
+    >>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
+    Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])
+
+* ``'count'`` - This counts the number of times a keyword argument occurs. For
+  example, this is useful for increasing verbosity levels::
+
+    >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--verbose', '-v', action='count')
+    >>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
+    Namespace(verbose=3)
+
+* ``'help'`` - This prints a complete help message for all the options in the
+  current parser and then exits. By default a help action is automatically
+  added to the parser. See :class:`ArgumentParser` for details of how the
+  output is created.
+
+* ``'version'`` - This expects a ``version=`` keyword argument in the
+  :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` call, and prints version information
+  and exits when invoked::
+
+    >>> import argparse
+    >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+    >>> parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='%(prog)s 2.0')
+    >>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
+    PROG 2.0
+
+You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an Action subclass or
+other object that implements the same interface.  The recommended way to do
+this is to extend :class:`Action`, overriding the ``__call__`` method
+and optionally the ``__init__`` method.
+
+An example of a custom action::
+
+   >>> class FooAction(argparse.Action):
+   ...     def __init__(self, option_strings, dest, nargs=None, **kwargs):
+   ...         if nargs is not None:
+   ...             raise ValueError("nargs not allowed")
+   ...         super(FooAction, self).__init__(option_strings, dest, **kwargs)
+   ...     def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
+   ...         print('%r %r %r' % (namespace, values, option_string))
+   ...         setattr(namespace, self.dest, values)
+   ...
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=FooAction)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', action=FooAction)
+   >>> args = parser.parse_args('1 --foo 2'.split())
+   Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) '1' None
+   Namespace(bar='1', foo=None) '2' '--foo'
+   >>> args
+   Namespace(bar='1', foo='2')
+
+For more details, see :class:`Action`.
+
+nargs
+^^^^^
+
+ArgumentParser objects usually associate a single command-line argument with a
+single action to be taken.  The ``nargs`` keyword argument associates a
+different number of command-line arguments with a single action.  The supported
+values are:
+
+* ``N`` (an integer).  ``N`` arguments from the command line will be gathered
+  together into a list.  For example::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2)
+     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs=1)
+     >>> parser.parse_args('c --foo a b'.split())
+     Namespace(bar=['c'], foo=['a', 'b'])
+
+  Note that ``nargs=1`` produces a list of one item.  This is different from
+  the default, in which the item is produced by itself.
+
+.. index:: single: ? (question mark); in argparse module
+
+* ``'?'``. One argument will be consumed from the command line if possible, and
+  produced as a single item.  If no command-line argument is present, the value from
+  default_ will be produced.  Note that for optional arguments, there is an
+  additional case - the option string is present but not followed by a
+  command-line argument.  In this case the value from const_ will be produced.  Some
+  examples to illustrate this::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', const='c', default='d')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', default='d')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo', 'YY'])
+     Namespace(bar='XX', foo='YY')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo'])
+     Namespace(bar='XX', foo='c')
+     >>> parser.parse_args([])
+     Namespace(bar='d', foo='d')
+
+  One of the more common uses of ``nargs='?'`` is to allow optional input and
+  output files::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> parser.add_argument('infile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('r'),
+     ...                     default=sys.stdin)
+     >>> parser.add_argument('outfile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('w'),
+     ...                     default=sys.stdout)
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt', 'output.txt'])
+     Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='input.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>,
+               outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='output.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>)
+     >>> parser.parse_args([])
+     Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>,
+               outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdout>' encoding='UTF-8'>)
+
+.. index:: single: * (asterisk); in argparse module
+
+* ``'*'``.  All command-line arguments present are gathered into a list.  Note that
+  it generally doesn't make much sense to have more than one positional argument
+  with ``nargs='*'``, but multiple optional arguments with ``nargs='*'`` is
+  possible.  For example::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='*')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', nargs='*')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('baz', nargs='*')
+     >>> parser.parse_args('a b --foo x y --bar 1 2'.split())
+     Namespace(bar=['1', '2'], baz=['a', 'b'], foo=['x', 'y'])
+
+.. index:: single: + (plus); in argparse module
+
+* ``'+'``. Just like ``'*'``, all command-line args present are gathered into a
+  list.  Additionally, an error message will be generated if there wasn't at
+  least one command-line argument present.  For example::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='+')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['a', 'b'])
+     Namespace(foo=['a', 'b'])
+     >>> parser.parse_args([])
+     usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]
+     PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo
+
+.. _`argparse.REMAINDER`:
+
+* ``argparse.REMAINDER``.  All the remaining command-line arguments are gathered
+  into a list.  This is commonly useful for command line utilities that dispatch
+  to other command line utilities::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('command')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('args', nargs=argparse.REMAINDER)
+     >>> print(parser.parse_args('--foo B cmd --arg1 XX ZZ'.split()))
+     Namespace(args=['--arg1', 'XX', 'ZZ'], command='cmd', foo='B')
+
+If the ``nargs`` keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments consumed
+is determined by the action_.  Generally this means a single command-line argument
+will be consumed and a single item (not a list) will be produced.
+
+
+const
+^^^^^
+
+The ``const`` argument of :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` is used to hold
+constant values that are not read from the command line but are required for
+the various :class:`ArgumentParser` actions.  The two most common uses of it are:
+
+* When :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` is called with
+  ``action='store_const'`` or ``action='append_const'``.  These actions add the
+  ``const`` value to one of the attributes of the object returned by
+  :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`. See the action_ description for examples.
+
+* When :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` is called with option strings
+  (like ``-f`` or ``--foo``) and ``nargs='?'``.  This creates an optional
+  argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line arguments.
+  When parsing the command line, if the option string is encountered with no
+  command-line argument following it, the value of ``const`` will be assumed instead.
+  See the nargs_ description for examples.
+
+With the ``'store_const'`` and ``'append_const'`` actions, the ``const``
+keyword argument must be given.  For other actions, it defaults to ``None``.
+
+
+default
+^^^^^^^
+
+All optional arguments and some positional arguments may be omitted at the
+command line.  The ``default`` keyword argument of
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`, whose value defaults to ``None``,
+specifies what value should be used if the command-line argument is not present.
+For optional arguments, the ``default`` value is used when the option string
+was not present at the command line::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '2'])
+   Namespace(foo='2')
+   >>> parser.parse_args([])
+   Namespace(foo=42)
+
+If the ``default`` value is a string, the parser parses the value as if it
+were a command-line argument.  In particular, the parser applies any type_
+conversion argument, if provided, before setting the attribute on the
+:class:`Namespace` return value.  Otherwise, the parser uses the value as is::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--length', default='10', type=int)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--width', default=10.5, type=int)
+   >>> parser.parse_args()
+   Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)
+
+For positional arguments with nargs_ equal to ``?`` or ``*``, the ``default`` value
+is used when no command-line argument was present::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?', default=42)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['a'])
+   Namespace(foo='a')
+   >>> parser.parse_args([])
+   Namespace(foo=42)
+
+
+Providing ``default=argparse.SUPPRESS`` causes no attribute to be added if the
+command-line argument was not present::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
+   >>> parser.parse_args([])
+   Namespace()
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1'])
+   Namespace(foo='1')
+
+
+type
+^^^^
+
+By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` objects read command-line arguments in as simple
+strings. However, quite often the command-line string should instead be
+interpreted as another type, like a :class:`float` or :class:`int`.  The
+``type`` keyword argument of :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` allows any
+necessary type-checking and type conversions to be performed.  Common built-in
+types and functions can be used directly as the value of the ``type`` argument::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=open)
+   >>> parser.parse_args('2 temp.txt'.split())
+   Namespace(bar=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='temp.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>, foo=2)
+
+See the section on the default_ keyword argument for information on when the
+``type`` argument is applied to default arguments.
+
+To ease the use of various types of files, the argparse module provides the
+factory FileType which takes the ``mode=``, ``bufsize=``, ``encoding=`` and
+``errors=`` arguments of the :func:`open` function.  For example,
+``FileType('w')`` can be used to create a writable file::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=argparse.FileType('w'))
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['out.txt'])
+   Namespace(bar=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='out.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>)
+
+``type=`` can take any callable that takes a single string argument and returns
+the converted value::
+
+   >>> def perfect_square(string):
+   ...     value = int(string)
+   ...     sqrt = math.sqrt(value)
+   ...     if sqrt != int(sqrt):
+   ...         msg = "%r is not a perfect square" % string
+   ...         raise argparse.ArgumentTypeError(msg)
+   ...     return value
+   ...
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=perfect_square)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['9'])
+   Namespace(foo=9)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['7'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] foo
+   PROG: error: argument foo: '7' is not a perfect square
+
+The choices_ keyword argument may be more convenient for type checkers that
+simply check against a range of values::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int, choices=range(5, 10))
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['7'])
+   Namespace(foo=7)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['11'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] {5,6,7,8,9}
+   PROG: error: argument foo: invalid choice: 11 (choose from 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
+
+See the choices_ section for more details.
+
+
+choices
+^^^^^^^
+
+Some command-line arguments should be selected from a restricted set of values.
+These can be handled by passing a container object as the *choices* keyword
+argument to :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`.  When the command line is
+parsed, argument values will be checked, and an error message will be displayed
+if the argument was not one of the acceptable values::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='game.py')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('move', choices=['rock', 'paper', 'scissors'])
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['rock'])
+   Namespace(move='rock')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['fire'])
+   usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}
+   game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
+   'paper', 'scissors')
+
+Note that inclusion in the *choices* container is checked after any type_
+conversions have been performed, so the type of the objects in the *choices*
+container should match the type_ specified::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='doors.py')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('door', type=int, choices=range(1, 4))
+   >>> print(parser.parse_args(['3']))
+   Namespace(door=3)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['4'])
+   usage: doors.py [-h] {1,2,3}
+   doors.py: error: argument door: invalid choice: 4 (choose from 1, 2, 3)
+
+Any object that supports the ``in`` operator can be passed as the *choices*
+value, so :class:`dict` objects, :class:`set` objects, custom containers,
+etc. are all supported.
+
+
+required
+^^^^^^^^
+
+In general, the :mod:`argparse` module assumes that flags like ``-f`` and ``--bar``
+indicate *optional* arguments, which can always be omitted at the command line.
+To make an option *required*, ``True`` can be specified for the ``required=``
+keyword argument to :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', required=True)
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
+   Namespace(foo='BAR')
+   >>> parser.parse_args([])
+   usage: argparse.py [-h] [--foo FOO]
+   argparse.py: error: option --foo is required
+
+As the example shows, if an option is marked as ``required``,
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` will report an error if that option is not
+present at the command line.
+
+.. note::
+
+    Required options are generally considered bad form because users expect
+    *options* to be *optional*, and thus they should be avoided when possible.
+
+
+help
+^^^^
+
+The ``help`` value is a string containing a brief description of the argument.
+When a user requests help (usually by using ``-h`` or ``--help`` at the
+command line), these ``help`` descriptions will be displayed with each
+argument::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true',
+   ...                     help='foo the bars before frobbling')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+',
+   ...                     help='one of the bars to be frobbled')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
+   usage: frobble [-h] [--foo] bar [bar ...]
+
+   positional arguments:
+    bar     one of the bars to be frobbled
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo   foo the bars before frobbling
+
+The ``help`` strings can include various format specifiers to avoid repetition
+of things like the program name or the argument default_.  The available
+specifiers include the program name, ``%(prog)s`` and most keyword arguments to
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`, e.g. ``%(default)s``, ``%(type)s``, etc.::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', type=int, default=42,
+   ...                     help='the bar to %(prog)s (default: %(default)s)')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: frobble [-h] [bar]
+
+   positional arguments:
+    bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+As the help string supports %-formatting, if you want a literal ``%`` to appear
+in the help string, you must escape it as ``%%``.
+
+:mod:`argparse` supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
+setting the ``help`` value to ``argparse.SUPPRESS``::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help=argparse.SUPPRESS)
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: frobble [-h]
+
+   optional arguments:
+     -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+
+metavar
+^^^^^^^
+
+When :class:`ArgumentParser` generates help messages, it needs some way to refer
+to each expected argument.  By default, ArgumentParser objects use the dest_
+value as the "name" of each object.  By default, for positional argument
+actions, the dest_ value is used directly, and for optional argument actions,
+the dest_ value is uppercased.  So, a single positional argument with
+``dest='bar'`` will be referred to as ``bar``. A single
+optional argument ``--foo`` that should be followed by a single command-line argument
+will be referred to as ``FOO``.  An example::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
+   Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar
+
+   positional arguments:
+    bar
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo FOO
+
+An alternative name can be specified with ``metavar``::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', metavar='YYY')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', metavar='XXX')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
+   Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX
+
+   positional arguments:
+    XXX
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+    --foo YYY
+
+Note that ``metavar`` only changes the *displayed* name - the name of the
+attribute on the :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` object is still determined
+by the dest_ value.
+
+Different values of ``nargs`` may cause the metavar to be used multiple times.
+Providing a tuple to ``metavar`` specifies a different display for each of the
+arguments::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-x', nargs=2)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2, metavar=('bar', 'baz'))
+   >>> parser.print_help()
+   usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]
+
+   optional arguments:
+    -h, --help     show this help message and exit
+    -x X X
+    --foo bar baz
+
+
+dest
+^^^^
+
+Most :class:`ArgumentParser` actions add some value as an attribute of the
+object returned by :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`.  The name of this
+attribute is determined by the ``dest`` keyword argument of
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`.  For positional argument actions,
+``dest`` is normally supplied as the first argument to
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['XXX'])
+   Namespace(bar='XXX')
+
+For optional argument actions, the value of ``dest`` is normally inferred from
+the option strings.  :class:`ArgumentParser` generates the value of ``dest`` by
+taking the first long option string and stripping away the initial ``--``
+string.  If no long option strings were supplied, ``dest`` will be derived from
+the first short option string by stripping the initial ``-`` character.  Any
+internal ``-`` characters will be converted to ``_`` characters to make sure
+the string is a valid attribute name.  The examples below illustrate this
+behavior::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo-bar', '--foo')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-x', '-y')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('-f 1 -x 2'.split())
+   Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 -y 2'.split())
+   Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')
+
+``dest`` allows a custom attribute name to be provided::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', dest='bar')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
+   Namespace(bar='XXX')
+
+Action classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Action classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a callable
+which processes arguments from the command-line. Any object which follows
+this API may be passed as the ``action`` parameter to
+:meth:`add_argument`.
+
+.. class:: Action(option_strings, dest, nargs=None, const=None, default=None, \
+                  type=None, choices=None, required=False, help=None, \
+                  metavar=None)
+
+Action objects are used by an ArgumentParser to represent the information
+needed to parse a single argument from one or more strings from the
+command line. The Action class must accept the two positional arguments
+plus any keyword arguments passed to :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument`
+except for the ``action`` itself.
+
+Instances of Action (or return value of any callable to the ``action``
+parameter) should have attributes "dest", "option_strings", "default", "type",
+"required", "help", etc. defined. The easiest way to ensure these attributes
+are defined is to call ``Action.__init__``.
+
+Action instances should be callable, so subclasses must override the
+``__call__`` method, which should accept four parameters:
+
+* ``parser`` - The ArgumentParser object which contains this action.
+
+* ``namespace`` - The :class:`Namespace` object that will be returned by
+  :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`.  Most actions add an attribute to this
+  object using :func:`setattr`.
+
+* ``values`` - The associated command-line arguments, with any type conversions
+  applied.  Type conversions are specified with the type_ keyword argument to
+  :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`.
+
+* ``option_string`` - The option string that was used to invoke this action.
+  The ``option_string`` argument is optional, and will be absent if the action
+  is associated with a positional argument.
+
+The ``__call__`` method may perform arbitrary actions, but will typically set
+attributes on the ``namespace`` based on ``dest`` and ``values``.
+
+
+The parse_args() method
+-----------------------
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.parse_args(args=None, namespace=None)
+
+   Convert argument strings to objects and assign them as attributes of the
+   namespace.  Return the populated namespace.
+
+   Previous calls to :meth:`add_argument` determine exactly what objects are
+   created and how they are assigned. See the documentation for
+   :meth:`add_argument` for details.
+
+   * args_ - List of strings to parse.  The default is taken from
+     :data:`sys.argv`.
+
+   * namespace_ - An object to take the attributes.  The default is a new empty
+     :class:`Namespace` object.
+
+
+Option value syntax
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` method supports several ways of
+specifying the value of an option (if it takes one).  In the simplest case, the
+option and its value are passed as two separate arguments::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', 'X'])
+   Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
+   Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)
+
+For long options (options with names longer than a single character), the option
+and value can also be passed as a single command-line argument, using ``=`` to
+separate them::
+
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo=FOO'])
+   Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)
+
+For short options (options only one character long), the option and its value
+can be concatenated::
+
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-xX'])
+   Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
+
+Several short options can be joined together, using only a single ``-`` prefix,
+as long as only the last option (or none of them) requires a value::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-x', action='store_true')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-y', action='store_true')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-z')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-xyzZ'])
+   Namespace(x=True, y=True, z='Z')
+
+
+Invalid arguments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+While parsing the command line, :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` checks for a
+variety of errors, including ambiguous options, invalid types, invalid options,
+wrong number of positional arguments, etc.  When it encounters such an error,
+it exits and prints the error along with a usage message::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
+
+   >>> # invalid type
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'spam'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
+   PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: 'spam'
+
+   >>> # invalid option
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
+   PROG: error: no such option: --bar
+
+   >>> # wrong number of arguments
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
+   PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger
+
+
+Arguments containing ``-``
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` method attempts to give errors whenever
+the user has clearly made a mistake, but some situations are inherently
+ambiguous.  For example, the command-line argument ``-1`` could either be an
+attempt to specify an option or an attempt to provide a positional argument.
+The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` method is cautious here: positional
+arguments may only begin with ``-`` if they look like negative numbers and
+there are no options in the parser that look like negative numbers::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')
+
+   >>> # no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1'])
+   Namespace(foo=None, x='-1')
+
+   >>> # no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1', '-5'])
+   Namespace(foo='-5', x='-1')
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-1', dest='one')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')
+
+   >>> # negative number options present, so -1 is an option
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', 'X'])
+   Namespace(foo=None, one='X')
+
+   >>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
+   PROG: error: no such option: -2
+
+   >>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
+   usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
+   PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument
+
+If you have positional arguments that must begin with ``-`` and don't look
+like negative numbers, you can insert the pseudo-argument ``'--'`` which tells
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` that everything after that is a positional
+argument::
+
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
+   Namespace(foo='-f', one=None)
+
+.. _prefix-matching:
+
+Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` method :ref:`by default <allow_abbrev>`
+allows long options to be abbreviated to a prefix, if the abbreviation is
+unambiguous (the prefix matches a unique option)::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-bacon')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('-badger')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('-bac MMM'.split())
+   Namespace(bacon='MMM', badger=None)
+   >>> parser.parse_args('-bad WOOD'.split())
+   Namespace(bacon=None, badger='WOOD')
+   >>> parser.parse_args('-ba BA'.split())
+   usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]
+   PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon
+
+An error is produced for arguments that could produce more than one options.
+This feature can be disabled by setting :ref:`allow_abbrev` to ``False``.
+
+.. _args:
+
+Beyond ``sys.argv``
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Sometimes it may be useful to have an ArgumentParser parse arguments other than those
+of :data:`sys.argv`.  This can be accomplished by passing a list of strings to
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`.  This is useful for testing at the
+interactive prompt::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument(
+   ...     'integers', metavar='int', type=int, choices=range(10),
+   ...     nargs='+', help='an integer in the range 0..9')
+   >>> parser.add_argument(
+   ...     '--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const', const=sum,
+   ...     default=max, help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4'])
+   Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function max>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
+   >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4', '--sum'])
+   Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
+
+.. _namespace:
+
+The Namespace object
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Namespace
+
+   Simple class used by default by :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` to create
+   an object holding attributes and return it.
+
+This class is deliberately simple, just an :class:`object` subclass with a
+readable string representation. If you prefer to have dict-like view of the
+attributes, you can use the standard Python idiom, :func:`vars`::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+   >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
+   >>> vars(args)
+   {'foo': 'BAR'}
+
+It may also be useful to have an :class:`ArgumentParser` assign attributes to an
+already existing object, rather than a new :class:`Namespace` object.  This can
+be achieved by specifying the ``namespace=`` keyword argument::
+
+   >>> class C:
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> c = C()
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+   >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
+   >>> c.foo
+   'BAR'
+
+
+Other utilities
+---------------
+
+Sub-commands
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers([title], [description], [prog], \
+                                          [parser_class], [action], \
+                                          [option_string], [dest], [required], \
+                                          [help], [metavar])
+
+   Many programs split up their functionality into a number of sub-commands,
+   for example, the ``svn`` program can invoke sub-commands like ``svn
+   checkout``, ``svn update``, and ``svn commit``.  Splitting up functionality
+   this way can be a particularly good idea when a program performs several
+   different functions which require different kinds of command-line arguments.
+   :class:`ArgumentParser` supports the creation of such sub-commands with the
+   :meth:`add_subparsers` method.  The :meth:`add_subparsers` method is normally
+   called with no arguments and returns a special action object.  This object
+   has a single method, :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_parser`, which takes a
+   command name and any :class:`ArgumentParser` constructor arguments, and
+   returns an :class:`ArgumentParser` object that can be modified as usual.
+
+   Description of parameters:
+
+   * title - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by default
+     "subcommands" if description is provided, otherwise uses title for
+     positional arguments
+
+   * description - description for the sub-parser group in help output, by
+     default ``None``
+
+   * prog - usage information that will be displayed with sub-command help,
+     by default the name of the program and any positional arguments before the
+     subparser argument
+
+   * parser_class - class which will be used to create sub-parser instances, by
+     default the class of the current parser (e.g. ArgumentParser)
+
+   * action_ - the basic type of action to be taken when this argument is
+     encountered at the command line
+
+   * dest_ - name of the attribute under which sub-command name will be
+     stored; by default ``None`` and no value is stored
+
+   * required_ - Whether or not a subcommand must be provided, by default
+     ``False``.
+
+   * help_ - help for sub-parser group in help output, by default ``None``
+
+   * metavar_ - string presenting available sub-commands in help; by default it
+     is ``None`` and presents sub-commands in form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}
+
+   Some example usage::
+
+     >>> # create the top-level parser
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
+     >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='sub-command help')
+     >>>
+     >>> # create the parser for the "a" command
+     >>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
+     >>> parser_a.add_argument('bar', type=int, help='bar help')
+     >>>
+     >>> # create the parser for the "b" command
+     >>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
+     >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices='XYZ', help='baz help')
+     >>>
+     >>> # parse some argument lists
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
+     Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'b', '--baz', 'Z'])
+     Namespace(baz='Z', foo=True)
+
+   Note that the object returned by :meth:`parse_args` will only contain
+   attributes for the main parser and the subparser that was selected by the
+   command line (and not any other subparsers).  So in the example above, when
+   the ``a`` command is specified, only the ``foo`` and ``bar`` attributes are
+   present, and when the ``b`` command is specified, only the ``foo`` and
+   ``baz`` attributes are present.
+
+   Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only the help
+   for that particular parser will be printed.  The help message will not
+   include parent parser or sibling parser messages.  (A help message for each
+   subparser command, however, can be given by supplying the ``help=`` argument
+   to :meth:`add_parser` as above.)
+
+   ::
+
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])
+     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...
+
+     positional arguments:
+       {a,b}   sub-command help
+         a     a help
+         b     b help
+
+     optional arguments:
+       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+       --foo   foo help
+
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '--help'])
+     usage: PROG a [-h] bar
+
+     positional arguments:
+       bar     bar help
+
+     optional arguments:
+       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['b', '--help'])
+     usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]
+
+     optional arguments:
+       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
+       --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help
+
+   The :meth:`add_subparsers` method also supports ``title`` and ``description``
+   keyword arguments.  When either is present, the subparser's commands will
+   appear in their own group in the help output.  For example::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(title='subcommands',
+     ...                                    description='valid subcommands',
+     ...                                    help='additional help')
+     >>> subparsers.add_parser('foo')
+     >>> subparsers.add_parser('bar')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
+     usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...
+
+     optional arguments:
+       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+
+     subcommands:
+       valid subcommands
+
+       {foo,bar}   additional help
+
+   Furthermore, ``add_parser`` supports an additional ``aliases`` argument,
+   which allows multiple strings to refer to the same subparser. This example,
+   like ``svn``, aliases ``co`` as a shorthand for ``checkout``::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
+     >>> checkout = subparsers.add_parser('checkout', aliases=['co'])
+     >>> checkout.add_argument('foo')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['co', 'bar'])
+     Namespace(foo='bar')
+
+   One particularly effective way of handling sub-commands is to combine the use
+   of the :meth:`add_subparsers` method with calls to :meth:`set_defaults` so
+   that each subparser knows which Python function it should execute.  For
+   example::
+
+     >>> # sub-command functions
+     >>> def foo(args):
+     ...     print(args.x * args.y)
+     ...
+     >>> def bar(args):
+     ...     print('((%s))' % args.z)
+     ...
+     >>> # create the top-level parser
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
+     >>>
+     >>> # create the parser for the "foo" command
+     >>> parser_foo = subparsers.add_parser('foo')
+     >>> parser_foo.add_argument('-x', type=int, default=1)
+     >>> parser_foo.add_argument('y', type=float)
+     >>> parser_foo.set_defaults(func=foo)
+     >>>
+     >>> # create the parser for the "bar" command
+     >>> parser_bar = subparsers.add_parser('bar')
+     >>> parser_bar.add_argument('z')
+     >>> parser_bar.set_defaults(func=bar)
+     >>>
+     >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
+     >>> args = parser.parse_args('foo 1 -x 2'.split())
+     >>> args.func(args)
+     2.0
+     >>>
+     >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
+     >>> args = parser.parse_args('bar XYZYX'.split())
+     >>> args.func(args)
+     ((XYZYX))
+
+   This way, you can let :meth:`parse_args` do the job of calling the
+   appropriate function after argument parsing is complete.  Associating
+   functions with actions like this is typically the easiest way to handle the
+   different actions for each of your subparsers.  However, if it is necessary
+   to check the name of the subparser that was invoked, the ``dest`` keyword
+   argument to the :meth:`add_subparsers` call will work::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='subparser_name')
+     >>> subparser1 = subparsers.add_parser('1')
+     >>> subparser1.add_argument('-x')
+     >>> subparser2 = subparsers.add_parser('2')
+     >>> subparser2.add_argument('y')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['2', 'frobble'])
+     Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')
+
+
+FileType objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: FileType(mode='r', bufsize=-1, encoding=None, errors=None)
+
+   The :class:`FileType` factory creates objects that can be passed to the type
+   argument of :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument`.  Arguments that have
+   :class:`FileType` objects as their type will open command-line arguments as
+   files with the requested modes, buffer sizes, encodings and error handling
+   (see the :func:`open` function for more details)::
+
+      >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+      >>> parser.add_argument('--raw', type=argparse.FileType('wb', 0))
+      >>> parser.add_argument('out', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='UTF-8'))
+      >>> parser.parse_args(['--raw', 'raw.dat', 'file.txt'])
+      Namespace(out=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='file.txt' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, raw=<_io.FileIO name='raw.dat' mode='wb'>)
+
+   FileType objects understand the pseudo-argument ``'-'`` and automatically
+   convert this into ``sys.stdin`` for readable :class:`FileType` objects and
+   ``sys.stdout`` for writable :class:`FileType` objects::
+
+      >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+      >>> parser.add_argument('infile', type=argparse.FileType('r'))
+      >>> parser.parse_args(['-'])
+      Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      The *encodings* and *errors* keyword arguments.
+
+
+Argument groups
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group(title=None, description=None)
+
+   By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` groups command-line arguments into
+   "positional arguments" and "optional arguments" when displaying help
+   messages. When there is a better conceptual grouping of arguments than this
+   default one, appropriate groups can be created using the
+   :meth:`add_argument_group` method::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
+     >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
+     >>> group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
+     >>> group.add_argument('bar', help='bar help')
+     >>> parser.print_help()
+     usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar
+
+     group:
+       bar    bar help
+       --foo FOO  foo help
+
+   The :meth:`add_argument_group` method returns an argument group object which
+   has an :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` method just like a regular
+   :class:`ArgumentParser`.  When an argument is added to the group, the parser
+   treats it just like a normal argument, but displays the argument in a
+   separate group for help messages.  The :meth:`add_argument_group` method
+   accepts *title* and *description* arguments which can be used to
+   customize this display::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
+     >>> group1 = parser.add_argument_group('group1', 'group1 description')
+     >>> group1.add_argument('foo', help='foo help')
+     >>> group2 = parser.add_argument_group('group2', 'group2 description')
+     >>> group2.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
+     >>> parser.print_help()
+     usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo
+
+     group1:
+       group1 description
+
+       foo    foo help
+
+     group2:
+       group2 description
+
+       --bar BAR  bar help
+
+   Note that any arguments not in your user-defined groups will end up back
+   in the usual "positional arguments" and "optional arguments" sections.
+
+
+Mutual exclusion
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=False)
+
+   Create a mutually exclusive group. :mod:`argparse` will make sure that only
+   one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was present on the
+   command line::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+     >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
+     >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
+     >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
+     Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
+     Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '--bar'])
+     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]
+     PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo
+
+   The :meth:`add_mutually_exclusive_group` method also accepts a *required*
+   argument, to indicate that at least one of the mutually exclusive arguments
+   is required::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
+     >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
+     >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
+     >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
+     >>> parser.parse_args([])
+     usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)
+     PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required
+
+   Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not support the
+   *title* and *description* arguments of
+   :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument_group`.
+
+
+Parser defaults
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.set_defaults(**kwargs)
+
+   Most of the time, the attributes of the object returned by :meth:`parse_args`
+   will be fully determined by inspecting the command-line arguments and the argument
+   actions.  :meth:`set_defaults` allows some additional
+   attributes that are determined without any inspection of the command line to
+   be added::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
+     >>> parser.set_defaults(bar=42, baz='badger')
+     >>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
+     Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)
+
+   Note that parser-level defaults always override argument-level defaults::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
+     >>> parser.set_defaults(foo='spam')
+     >>> parser.parse_args([])
+     Namespace(foo='spam')
+
+   Parser-level defaults can be particularly useful when working with multiple
+   parsers.  See the :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_subparsers` method for an
+   example of this type.
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.get_default(dest)
+
+   Get the default value for a namespace attribute, as set by either
+   :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` or by
+   :meth:`~ArgumentParser.set_defaults`::
+
+     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='badger')
+     >>> parser.get_default('foo')
+     'badger'
+
+
+Printing help
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In most typical applications, :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` will take
+care of formatting and printing any usage or error messages.  However, several
+formatting methods are available:
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.print_usage(file=None)
+
+   Print a brief description of how the :class:`ArgumentParser` should be
+   invoked on the command line.  If *file* is ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` is
+   assumed.
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.print_help(file=None)
+
+   Print a help message, including the program usage and information about the
+   arguments registered with the :class:`ArgumentParser`.  If *file* is
+   ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` is assumed.
+
+There are also variants of these methods that simply return a string instead of
+printing it:
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.format_usage()
+
+   Return a string containing a brief description of how the
+   :class:`ArgumentParser` should be invoked on the command line.
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.format_help()
+
+   Return a string containing a help message, including the program usage and
+   information about the arguments registered with the :class:`ArgumentParser`.
+
+
+Partial parsing
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.parse_known_args(args=None, namespace=None)
+
+Sometimes a script may only parse a few of the command-line arguments, passing
+the remaining arguments on to another script or program. In these cases, the
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_args` method can be useful.  It works much like
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` except that it does not produce an error when
+extra arguments are present.  Instead, it returns a two item tuple containing
+the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.
+
+::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
+   >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
+   (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])
+
+.. warning::
+   :ref:`Prefix matching <prefix-matching>` rules apply to
+   :meth:`parse_known_args`. The parser may consume an option even if it's just
+   a prefix of one of its known options, instead of leaving it in the remaining
+   arguments list.
+
+
+Customizing file parsing
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args(arg_line)
+
+   Arguments that are read from a file (see the *fromfile_prefix_chars*
+   keyword argument to the :class:`ArgumentParser` constructor) are read one
+   argument per line. :meth:`convert_arg_line_to_args` can be overridden for
+   fancier reading.
+
+   This method takes a single argument *arg_line* which is a string read from
+   the argument file.  It returns a list of arguments parsed from this string.
+   The method is called once per line read from the argument file, in order.
+
+   A useful override of this method is one that treats each space-separated word
+   as an argument.  The following example demonstrates how to do this::
+
+    class MyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
+        def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
+            return arg_line.split()
+
+
+Exiting methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.exit(status=0, message=None)
+
+   This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified *status*
+   and, if given, it prints a *message* before that.
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.error(message)
+
+   This method prints a usage message including the *message* to the
+   standard error and terminates the program with a status code of 2.
+
+
+Intermixed parsing
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(args=None, namespace=None)
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args(args=None, namespace=None)
+
+A number of Unix commands allow the user to intermix optional arguments with
+positional arguments.  The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args`
+and :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args` methods
+support this parsing style.
+
+These parsers do not support all the argparse features, and will raise
+exceptions if unsupported features are used.  In particular, subparsers,
+``argparse.REMAINDER``, and mutually exclusive groups that include both
+optionals and positionals are not supported.
+
+The following example shows the difference between
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_args` and
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args`: the former returns ``['2',
+'3']`` as unparsed arguments, while the latter collects all the positionals
+into ``rest``.  ::
+
+   >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+   >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
+   >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
+   >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
+   (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
+   >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
+   Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])
+
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args` returns a two item tuple
+containing the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args` raises an error if there are any
+remaining unparsed argument strings.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. _upgrading-optparse-code:
+
+Upgrading optparse code
+-----------------------
+
+Originally, the :mod:`argparse` module had attempted to maintain compatibility
+with :mod:`optparse`.  However, :mod:`optparse` was difficult to extend
+transparently, particularly with the changes required to support the new
+``nargs=`` specifiers and better usage messages.  When most everything in
+:mod:`optparse` had either been copy-pasted over or monkey-patched, it no
+longer seemed practical to try to maintain the backwards compatibility.
+
+The :mod:`argparse` module improves on the standard library :mod:`optparse`
+module in a number of ways including:
+
+* Handling positional arguments.
+* Supporting sub-commands.
+* Allowing alternative option prefixes like ``+`` and ``/``.
+* Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.
+* Producing more informative usage messages.
+* Providing a much simpler interface for custom ``type`` and ``action``.
+
+A partial upgrade path from :mod:`optparse` to :mod:`argparse`:
+
+* Replace all :meth:`optparse.OptionParser.add_option` calls with
+  :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument` calls.
+
+* Replace ``(options, args) = parser.parse_args()`` with ``args =
+  parser.parse_args()`` and add additional :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument`
+  calls for the positional arguments. Keep in mind that what was previously
+  called ``options``, now in the :mod:`argparse` context is called ``args``.
+
+* Replace :meth:`optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args`
+  by using :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args` instead of
+  :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`.
+
+* Replace callback actions and the ``callback_*`` keyword arguments with
+  ``type`` or ``action`` arguments.
+
+* Replace string names for ``type`` keyword arguments with the corresponding
+  type objects (e.g. int, float, complex, etc).
+
+* Replace :class:`optparse.Values` with :class:`Namespace` and
+  :exc:`optparse.OptionError` and :exc:`optparse.OptionValueError` with
+  :exc:`ArgumentError`.
+
+* Replace strings with implicit arguments such as ``%default`` or ``%prog`` with
+  the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to format strings, that is,
+  ``%(default)s`` and ``%(prog)s``.
+
+* Replace the OptionParser constructor ``version`` argument with a call to
+  ``parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='<the version>')``.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/array.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/array.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ac7bb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/array.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,278 @@
+:mod:`array` --- Efficient arrays of numeric values
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: array
+   :synopsis: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values.
+
+.. index:: single: arrays
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines an object type which can compactly represent an array of
+basic values: characters, integers, floating point numbers.  Arrays are sequence
+types and behave very much like lists, except that the type of objects stored in
+them is constrained.  The type is specified at object creation time by using a
+:dfn:`type code`, which is a single character.  The following type codes are
+defined:
+
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| Type code | C Type             | Python Type       | Minimum size in bytes | Notes |
++===========+====================+===================+=======================+=======+
+| ``'b'``   | signed char        | int               | 1                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'B'``   | unsigned char      | int               | 1                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'u'``   | Py_UNICODE         | Unicode character | 2                     | \(1)  |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'h'``   | signed short       | int               | 2                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'H'``   | unsigned short     | int               | 2                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'i'``   | signed int         | int               | 2                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'I'``   | unsigned int       | int               | 2                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'l'``   | signed long        | int               | 4                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'L'``   | unsigned long      | int               | 4                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'q'``   | signed long long   | int               | 8                     | \(2)  |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'Q'``   | unsigned long long | int               | 8                     | \(2)  |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'f'``   | float              | float             | 4                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+| ``'d'``   | double             | float             | 8                     |       |
++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   The ``'u'`` type code corresponds to Python's obsolete unicode character
+   (:c:type:`Py_UNICODE` which is :c:type:`wchar_t`). Depending on the
+   platform, it can be 16 bits or 32 bits.
+
+   ``'u'`` will be removed together with the rest of the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE`
+   API.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0
+
+(2)
+   The ``'q'`` and ``'Q'`` type codes are available only if
+   the platform C compiler used to build Python supports C :c:type:`long long`,
+   or, on Windows, :c:type:`__int64`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The actual representation of values is determined by the machine architecture
+(strictly speaking, by the C implementation).  The actual size can be accessed
+through the :attr:`itemsize` attribute.
+
+The module defines the following type:
+
+
+.. class:: array(typecode[, initializer])
+
+   A new array whose items are restricted by *typecode*, and initialized
+   from the optional *initializer* value, which must be a list, a
+   :term:`bytes-like object`, or iterable over elements of the
+   appropriate type.
+
+   If given a list or string, the initializer is passed to the new array's
+   :meth:`fromlist`, :meth:`frombytes`, or :meth:`fromunicode` method (see below)
+   to add initial items to the array.  Otherwise, the iterable initializer is
+   passed to the :meth:`extend` method.
+
+
+.. data:: typecodes
+
+   A string with all available type codes.
+
+Array objects support the ordinary sequence operations of indexing, slicing,
+concatenation, and multiplication.  When using slice assignment, the assigned
+value must be an array object with the same type code; in all other cases,
+:exc:`TypeError` is raised. Array objects also implement the buffer interface,
+and may be used wherever :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` are supported.
+
+The following data items and methods are also supported:
+
+.. attribute:: array.typecode
+
+   The typecode character used to create the array.
+
+
+.. attribute:: array.itemsize
+
+   The length in bytes of one array item in the internal representation.
+
+
+.. method:: array.append(x)
+
+   Append a new item with value *x* to the end of the array.
+
+
+.. method:: array.buffer_info()
+
+   Return a tuple ``(address, length)`` giving the current memory address and the
+   length in elements of the buffer used to hold array's contents.  The size of the
+   memory buffer in bytes can be computed as ``array.buffer_info()[1] *
+   array.itemsize``.  This is occasionally useful when working with low-level (and
+   inherently unsafe) I/O interfaces that require memory addresses, such as certain
+   :c:func:`ioctl` operations.  The returned numbers are valid as long as the array
+   exists and no length-changing operations are applied to it.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      When using array objects from code written in C or C++ (the only way to
+      effectively make use of this information), it makes more sense to use the buffer
+      interface supported by array objects.  This method is maintained for backward
+      compatibility and should be avoided in new code.  The buffer interface is
+      documented in :ref:`bufferobjects`.
+
+
+.. method:: array.byteswap()
+
+   "Byteswap" all items of the array.  This is only supported for values which are
+   1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes in size; for other types of values, :exc:`RuntimeError` is
+   raised.  It is useful when reading data from a file written on a machine with a
+   different byte order.
+
+
+.. method:: array.count(x)
+
+   Return the number of occurrences of *x* in the array.
+
+
+.. method:: array.extend(iterable)
+
+   Append items from *iterable* to the end of the array.  If *iterable* is another
+   array, it must have *exactly* the same type code; if not, :exc:`TypeError` will
+   be raised.  If *iterable* is not an array, it must be iterable and its elements
+   must be the right type to be appended to the array.
+
+
+.. method:: array.frombytes(s)
+
+   Appends items from the string, interpreting the string as an array of machine
+   values (as if it had been read from a file using the :meth:`fromfile` method).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      :meth:`fromstring` is renamed to :meth:`frombytes` for clarity.
+
+
+.. method:: array.fromfile(f, n)
+
+   Read *n* items (as machine values) from the :term:`file object` *f* and append
+   them to the end of the array.  If less than *n* items are available,
+   :exc:`EOFError` is raised, but the items that were available are still
+   inserted into the array. *f* must be a real built-in file object; something
+   else with a :meth:`read` method won't do.
+
+
+.. method:: array.fromlist(list)
+
+   Append items from the list.  This is equivalent to ``for x in list:
+   a.append(x)`` except that if there is a type error, the array is unchanged.
+
+
+.. method:: array.fromstring()
+
+   Deprecated alias for :meth:`frombytes`.
+
+
+.. method:: array.fromunicode(s)
+
+   Extends this array with data from the given unicode string.  The array must
+   be a type ``'u'`` array; otherwise a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  Use
+   ``array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc))`` to append Unicode data to an
+   array of some other type.
+
+
+.. method:: array.index(x)
+
+   Return the smallest *i* such that *i* is the index of the first occurrence of
+   *x* in the array.
+
+
+.. method:: array.insert(i, x)
+
+   Insert a new item with value *x* in the array before position *i*. Negative
+   values are treated as being relative to the end of the array.
+
+
+.. method:: array.pop([i])
+
+   Removes the item with the index *i* from the array and returns it. The optional
+   argument defaults to ``-1``, so that by default the last item is removed and
+   returned.
+
+
+.. method:: array.remove(x)
+
+   Remove the first occurrence of *x* from the array.
+
+
+.. method:: array.reverse()
+
+   Reverse the order of the items in the array.
+
+
+.. method:: array.tobytes()
+
+   Convert the array to an array of machine values and return the bytes
+   representation (the same sequence of bytes that would be written to a file by
+   the :meth:`tofile` method.)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      :meth:`tostring` is renamed to :meth:`tobytes` for clarity.
+
+
+.. method:: array.tofile(f)
+
+   Write all items (as machine values) to the :term:`file object` *f*.
+
+
+.. method:: array.tolist()
+
+   Convert the array to an ordinary list with the same items.
+
+
+.. method:: array.tostring()
+
+   Deprecated alias for :meth:`tobytes`.
+
+
+.. method:: array.tounicode()
+
+   Convert the array to a unicode string.  The array must be a type ``'u'`` array;
+   otherwise a :exc:`ValueError` is raised. Use ``array.tobytes().decode(enc)`` to
+   obtain a unicode string from an array of some other type.
+
+
+When an array object is printed or converted to a string, it is represented as
+``array(typecode, initializer)``.  The *initializer* is omitted if the array is
+empty, otherwise it is a string if the *typecode* is ``'u'``, otherwise it is a
+list of numbers.  The string is guaranteed to be able to be converted back to an
+array with the same type and value using :func:`eval`, so long as the
+:class:`~array.array` class has been imported using ``from array import array``.
+Examples::
+
+   array('l')
+   array('u', 'hello \u2641')
+   array('l', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
+   array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.14])
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`struct`
+      Packing and unpacking of heterogeneous binary data.
+
+   Module :mod:`xdrlib`
+      Packing and unpacking of External Data Representation (XDR) data as used in some
+      remote procedure call systems.
+
+   `The Numerical Python Documentation <https://docs.scipy.org/doc/>`_
+      The Numeric Python extension (NumPy) defines another array type; see
+      http://www.numpy.org/ for further information about Numerical Python.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ast.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ast.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c73f74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ast.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,274 @@
+:mod:`ast` --- Abstract Syntax Trees
+====================================
+
+.. module:: ast
+   :synopsis: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+.. sectionauthor:: Georg Brandl <georg@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/ast.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`ast` module helps Python applications to process trees of the Python
+abstract syntax grammar.  The abstract syntax itself might change with each
+Python release; this module helps to find out programmatically what the current
+grammar looks like.
+
+An abstract syntax tree can be generated by passing :data:`ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST` as
+a flag to the :func:`compile` built-in function, or using the :func:`parse`
+helper provided in this module.  The result will be a tree of objects whose
+classes all inherit from :class:`ast.AST`.  An abstract syntax tree can be
+compiled into a Python code object using the built-in :func:`compile` function.
+
+
+Node classes
+------------
+
+.. class:: AST
+
+   This is the base of all AST node classes.  The actual node classes are
+   derived from the :file:`Parser/Python.asdl` file, which is reproduced
+   :ref:`below <abstract-grammar>`.  They are defined in the :mod:`_ast` C
+   module and re-exported in :mod:`ast`.
+
+   There is one class defined for each left-hand side symbol in the abstract
+   grammar (for example, :class:`ast.stmt` or :class:`ast.expr`).  In addition,
+   there is one class defined for each constructor on the right-hand side; these
+   classes inherit from the classes for the left-hand side trees.  For example,
+   :class:`ast.BinOp` inherits from :class:`ast.expr`.  For production rules
+   with alternatives (aka "sums"), the left-hand side class is abstract: only
+   instances of specific constructor nodes are ever created.
+
+   .. index:: single: ? (question mark); in AST grammar
+   .. index:: single: * (asterisk); in AST grammar
+
+   .. attribute:: _fields
+
+      Each concrete class has an attribute :attr:`_fields` which gives the names
+      of all child nodes.
+
+      Each instance of a concrete class has one attribute for each child node,
+      of the type as defined in the grammar.  For example, :class:`ast.BinOp`
+      instances have an attribute :attr:`left` of type :class:`ast.expr`.
+
+      If these attributes are marked as optional in the grammar (using a
+      question mark), the value might be ``None``.  If the attributes can have
+      zero-or-more values (marked with an asterisk), the values are represented
+      as Python lists.  All possible attributes must be present and have valid
+      values when compiling an AST with :func:`compile`.
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+                  col_offset
+
+      Instances of :class:`ast.expr` and :class:`ast.stmt` subclasses have
+      :attr:`lineno` and :attr:`col_offset` attributes.  The :attr:`lineno` is
+      the line number of source text (1-indexed so the first line is line 1) and
+      the :attr:`col_offset` is the UTF-8 byte offset of the first token that
+      generated the node.  The UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses
+      UTF-8 internally.
+
+   The constructor of a class :class:`ast.T` parses its arguments as follows:
+
+   * If there are positional arguments, there must be as many as there are items
+     in :attr:`T._fields`; they will be assigned as attributes of these names.
+   * If there are keyword arguments, they will set the attributes of the same
+     names to the given values.
+
+   For example, to create and populate an :class:`ast.UnaryOp` node, you could
+   use ::
+
+      node = ast.UnaryOp()
+      node.op = ast.USub()
+      node.operand = ast.Num()
+      node.operand.n = 5
+      node.operand.lineno = 0
+      node.operand.col_offset = 0
+      node.lineno = 0
+      node.col_offset = 0
+
+   or the more compact ::
+
+      node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Num(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0),
+                         lineno=0, col_offset=0)
+
+
+.. _abstract-grammar:
+
+Abstract Grammar
+----------------
+
+The abstract grammar is currently defined as follows:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../../Parser/Python.asdl
+   :language: none
+
+
+:mod:`ast` Helpers
+------------------
+
+Apart from the node classes, the :mod:`ast` module defines these utility functions
+and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees:
+
+.. function:: parse(source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec')
+
+   Parse the source into an AST node.  Equivalent to ``compile(source,
+   filename, mode, ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST)``.
+
+   .. warning::
+      It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
+      sufficiently large/complex string due to stack depth limitations
+      in Python's AST compiler.
+
+
+.. function:: literal_eval(node_or_string)
+
+   Safely evaluate an expression node or a string containing a Python literal or
+   container display.  The string or node provided may only consist of the
+   following Python literal structures: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists,
+   dicts, sets, booleans, and ``None``.
+
+   This can be used for safely evaluating strings containing Python values from
+   untrusted sources without the need to parse the values oneself.  It is not
+   capable of evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving
+   operators or indexing.
+
+   .. warning::
+      It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
+      sufficiently large/complex string due to stack depth limitations
+      in Python's AST compiler.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Now allows bytes and set literals.
+
+
+.. function:: get_docstring(node, clean=True)
+
+   Return the docstring of the given *node* (which must be a
+   :class:`FunctionDef`, :class:`AsyncFunctionDef`, :class:`ClassDef`,
+   or :class:`Module` node), or ``None`` if it has no docstring.
+   If *clean* is true, clean up the docstring's indentation with
+   :func:`inspect.cleandoc`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      :class:`AsyncFunctionDef` is now supported.
+
+
+.. function:: fix_missing_locations(node)
+
+   When you compile a node tree with :func:`compile`, the compiler expects
+   :attr:`lineno` and :attr:`col_offset` attributes for every node that supports
+   them.  This is rather tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper
+   adds these attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to
+   the values of the parent node.  It works recursively starting at *node*.
+
+
+.. function:: increment_lineno(node, n=1)
+
+   Increment the line number of each node in the tree starting at *node* by *n*.
+   This is useful to "move code" to a different location in a file.
+
+
+.. function:: copy_location(new_node, old_node)
+
+   Copy source location (:attr:`lineno` and :attr:`col_offset`) from *old_node*
+   to *new_node* if possible, and return *new_node*.
+
+
+.. function:: iter_fields(node)
+
+   Yield a tuple of ``(fieldname, value)`` for each field in ``node._fields``
+   that is present on *node*.
+
+
+.. function:: iter_child_nodes(node)
+
+   Yield all direct child nodes of *node*, that is, all fields that are nodes
+   and all items of fields that are lists of nodes.
+
+
+.. function:: walk(node)
+
+   Recursively yield all descendant nodes in the tree starting at *node*
+   (including *node* itself), in no specified order.  This is useful if you only
+   want to modify nodes in place and don't care about the context.
+
+
+.. class:: NodeVisitor()
+
+   A node visitor base class that walks the abstract syntax tree and calls a
+   visitor function for every node found.  This function may return a value
+   which is forwarded by the :meth:`visit` method.
+
+   This class is meant to be subclassed, with the subclass adding visitor
+   methods.
+
+   .. method:: visit(node)
+
+      Visit a node.  The default implementation calls the method called
+      :samp:`self.visit_{classname}` where *classname* is the name of the node
+      class, or :meth:`generic_visit` if that method doesn't exist.
+
+   .. method:: generic_visit(node)
+
+      This visitor calls :meth:`visit` on all children of the node.
+
+      Note that child nodes of nodes that have a custom visitor method won't be
+      visited unless the visitor calls :meth:`generic_visit` or visits them
+      itself.
+
+   Don't use the :class:`NodeVisitor` if you want to apply changes to nodes
+   during traversal.  For this a special visitor exists
+   (:class:`NodeTransformer`) that allows modifications.
+
+
+.. class:: NodeTransformer()
+
+   A :class:`NodeVisitor` subclass that walks the abstract syntax tree and
+   allows modification of nodes.
+
+   The :class:`NodeTransformer` will walk the AST and use the return value of
+   the visitor methods to replace or remove the old node.  If the return value
+   of the visitor method is ``None``, the node will be removed from its
+   location, otherwise it is replaced with the return value.  The return value
+   may be the original node in which case no replacement takes place.
+
+   Here is an example transformer that rewrites all occurrences of name lookups
+   (``foo``) to ``data['foo']``::
+
+      class RewriteName(NodeTransformer):
+
+          def visit_Name(self, node):
+              return copy_location(Subscript(
+                  value=Name(id='data', ctx=Load()),
+                  slice=Index(value=Str(s=node.id)),
+                  ctx=node.ctx
+              ), node)
+
+   Keep in mind that if the node you're operating on has child nodes you must
+   either transform the child nodes yourself or call the :meth:`generic_visit`
+   method for the node first.
+
+   For nodes that were part of a collection of statements (that applies to all
+   statement nodes), the visitor may also return a list of nodes rather than
+   just a single node.
+
+   Usually you use the transformer like this::
+
+      node = YourTransformer().visit(node)
+
+
+.. function:: dump(node, annotate_fields=True, include_attributes=False)
+
+   Return a formatted dump of the tree in *node*.  This is mainly useful for
+   debugging purposes.  The returned string will show the names and the values
+   for fields.  This makes the code impossible to evaluate, so if evaluation is
+   wanted *annotate_fields* must be set to ``False``.  Attributes such as line
+   numbers and column offsets are not dumped by default.  If this is wanted,
+   *include_attributes* can be set to ``True``.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    `Green Tree Snakes <https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/>`_, an external documentation resource, has good
+    details on working with Python ASTs.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asynchat.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asynchat.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e51416
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asynchat.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,213 @@
+:mod:`asynchat` --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler
+================================================================
+
+.. module:: asynchat
+   :synopsis: Support for asynchronous command/response protocols.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Sam Rushing <rushing@nightmare.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steve Holden <sholden@holdenweb.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/asynchat.py`
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.6
+   Please use :mod:`asyncio` instead.
+
+--------------
+
+.. note::
+
+   This module exists for backwards compatibility only.  For new code we
+   recommend using :mod:`asyncio`.
+
+This module builds on the :mod:`asyncore` infrastructure, simplifying
+asynchronous clients and servers and making it easier to handle protocols
+whose elements are terminated by arbitrary strings, or are of variable length.
+:mod:`asynchat` defines the abstract class :class:`async_chat` that you
+subclass, providing implementations of the :meth:`collect_incoming_data` and
+:meth:`found_terminator` methods. It uses the same asynchronous loop as
+:mod:`asyncore`, and the two types of channel, :class:`asyncore.dispatcher`
+and :class:`asynchat.async_chat`, can freely be mixed in the channel map.
+Typically an :class:`asyncore.dispatcher` server channel generates new
+:class:`asynchat.async_chat` channel objects as it receives incoming
+connection requests.
+
+
+.. class:: async_chat()
+
+   This class is an abstract subclass of :class:`asyncore.dispatcher`. To make
+   practical use of the code you must subclass :class:`async_chat`, providing
+   meaningful :meth:`collect_incoming_data` and :meth:`found_terminator`
+   methods.
+   The :class:`asyncore.dispatcher` methods can be used, although not all make
+   sense in a message/response context.
+
+   Like :class:`asyncore.dispatcher`, :class:`async_chat` defines a set of
+   events that are generated by an analysis of socket conditions after a
+   :c:func:`select` call. Once the polling loop has been started the
+   :class:`async_chat` object's methods are called by the event-processing
+   framework with no action on the part of the programmer.
+
+   Two class attributes can be modified, to improve performance, or possibly
+   even to conserve memory.
+
+
+   .. data:: ac_in_buffer_size
+
+      The asynchronous input buffer size (default ``4096``).
+
+
+   .. data:: ac_out_buffer_size
+
+      The asynchronous output buffer size (default ``4096``).
+
+   Unlike :class:`asyncore.dispatcher`, :class:`async_chat` allows you to
+   define a :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` queue of *producers*. A producer need
+   have only one method, :meth:`more`, which should return data to be
+   transmitted on the channel.
+   The producer indicates exhaustion (*i.e.* that it contains no more data) by
+   having its :meth:`more` method return the empty bytes object. At this point
+   the :class:`async_chat` object removes the producer from the queue and starts
+   using the next producer, if any. When the producer queue is empty the
+   :meth:`handle_write` method does nothing. You use the channel object's
+   :meth:`set_terminator` method to describe how to recognize the end of, or
+   an important breakpoint in, an incoming transmission from the remote
+   endpoint.
+
+   To build a functioning :class:`async_chat` subclass your  input methods
+   :meth:`collect_incoming_data` and :meth:`found_terminator` must handle the
+   data that the channel receives asynchronously. The methods are described
+   below.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.close_when_done()
+
+   Pushes a ``None`` on to the producer queue. When this producer is popped off
+   the queue it causes the channel to be closed.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.collect_incoming_data(data)
+
+   Called with *data* holding an arbitrary amount of received data.  The
+   default method, which must be overridden, raises a
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` exception.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.discard_buffers()
+
+   In emergencies this method will discard any data held in the input and/or
+   output buffers and the producer queue.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.found_terminator()
+
+   Called when the incoming data stream  matches the termination condition set
+   by :meth:`set_terminator`. The default method, which must be overridden,
+   raises a :exc:`NotImplementedError` exception. The buffered input data
+   should be available via an instance attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.get_terminator()
+
+   Returns the current terminator for the channel.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.push(data)
+
+   Pushes data on to the channel's queue to ensure its transmission.
+   This is all you need to do to have the channel write the data out to the
+   network, although it is possible to use your own producers in more complex
+   schemes to implement encryption and chunking, for example.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.push_with_producer(producer)
+
+   Takes a producer object and adds it to the producer queue associated with
+   the channel.  When all currently-pushed producers have been exhausted the
+   channel will consume this producer's data by calling its :meth:`more`
+   method and send the data to the remote endpoint.
+
+
+.. method:: async_chat.set_terminator(term)
+
+   Sets the terminating condition to be recognized on the channel.  ``term``
+   may be any of three types of value, corresponding to three different ways
+   to handle incoming protocol data.
+
+   +-----------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | term      | Description                                 |
+   +===========+=============================================+
+   | *string*  | Will call :meth:`found_terminator` when the |
+   |           | string is found in the input stream         |
+   +-----------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *integer* | Will call :meth:`found_terminator` when the |
+   |           | indicated number of characters have been    |
+   |           | received                                    |
+   +-----------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``None``  | The channel continues to collect data       |
+   |           | forever                                     |
+   +-----------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+   Note that any data following the terminator will be available for reading
+   by the channel after :meth:`found_terminator` is called.
+
+
+.. _asynchat-example:
+
+asynchat Example
+----------------
+
+The following partial example shows how HTTP requests can be read with
+:class:`async_chat`.  A web server might create an
+:class:`http_request_handler` object for each incoming client connection.
+Notice that initially the channel terminator is set to match the blank line at
+the end of the HTTP headers, and a flag indicates that the headers are being
+read.
+
+Once the headers have been read, if the request is of type POST (indicating
+that further data are present in the input stream) then the
+``Content-Length:`` header is used to set a numeric terminator to read the
+right amount of data from the channel.
+
+The :meth:`handle_request` method is called once all relevant input has been
+marshalled, after setting the channel terminator to ``None`` to ensure that
+any extraneous data sent by the web client are ignored. ::
+
+
+   import asynchat
+
+   class http_request_handler(asynchat.async_chat):
+
+       def __init__(self, sock, addr, sessions, log):
+           asynchat.async_chat.__init__(self, sock=sock)
+           self.addr = addr
+           self.sessions = sessions
+           self.ibuffer = []
+           self.obuffer = b""
+           self.set_terminator(b"\r\n\r\n")
+           self.reading_headers = True
+           self.handling = False
+           self.cgi_data = None
+           self.log = log
+
+       def collect_incoming_data(self, data):
+           """Buffer the data"""
+           self.ibuffer.append(data)
+
+       def found_terminator(self):
+           if self.reading_headers:
+               self.reading_headers = False
+               self.parse_headers(b"".join(self.ibuffer))
+               self.ibuffer = []
+               if self.op.upper() == b"POST":
+                   clen = self.headers.getheader("content-length")
+                   self.set_terminator(int(clen))
+               else:
+                   self.handling = True
+                   self.set_terminator(None)
+                   self.handle_request()
+           elif not self.handling:
+               self.set_terminator(None)  # browsers sometimes over-send
+               self.cgi_data = parse(self.headers, b"".join(self.ibuffer))
+               self.handling = True
+               self.ibuffer = []
+               self.handle_request()
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-api-index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-api-index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5b5659
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-api-index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+====================
+High-level API Index
+====================
+
+This page lists all high-level async/await enabled asyncio APIs.
+
+
+Tasks
+=====
+
+Utilities to run asyncio programs, create Tasks, and
+await on multiple things with timeouts.
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :func:`run`
+      - Create event loop, run a coroutine, close the loop.
+
+    * - :func:`create_task`
+      - Start an asyncio Task.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`sleep`
+      - Sleep for a number of seconds.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`gather`
+      - Schedule and wait for things concurrently.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`wait_for`
+      - Run with a timeout.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`shield`
+      - Shield from cancellation.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`wait`
+      - Monitor for completion.
+
+    * - :func:`current_task`
+      - Return the current Task.
+
+    * - :func:`all_tasks`
+      - Return all tasks for an event loop.
+
+    * - :class:`Task`
+      - Task object.
+
+    * - :func:`run_coroutine_threadsafe`
+      - Schedule a coroutine from another OS thread.
+
+    * - ``for in`` :func:`as_completed`
+      - Monitor for completion with a ``for`` loop.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Using asyncio.gather() to run things in parallel
+  <asyncio_example_gather>`.
+
+* :ref:`Using asyncio.wait_for() to enforce a timeout
+  <asyncio_example_waitfor>`.
+
+* :ref:`Cancellation <asyncio_example_task_cancel>`.
+
+* :ref:`Using asyncio.sleep() <asyncio_example_sleep>`.
+
+* See also the main :ref:`Tasks documentation page <coroutine>`.
+
+
+Queues
+======
+
+Queues should be used to distribute work amongst multiple asyncio Tasks,
+implement connection pools, and pub/sub patterns.
+
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :class:`Queue`
+      - A FIFO queue.
+
+    * - :class:`PriorityQueue`
+      - A priority queue.
+
+    * - :class:`LifoQueue`
+      - A LIFO queue.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Using asyncio.Queue to distribute workload between several
+  Tasks <asyncio_example_queue_dist>`.
+
+* See also the :ref:`Queues documentation page <asyncio-queues>`.
+
+
+Subprocesses
+============
+
+Utilities to spawn subprocesses and run shell commands.
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`create_subprocess_exec`
+      - Create a subprocess.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`create_subprocess_shell`
+      - Run a shell command.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Executing a shell command <asyncio_example_subprocess_shell>`.
+
+* See also the :ref:`subprocess APIs <asyncio-subprocess>`
+  documentation.
+
+
+Streams
+=======
+
+High-level APIs to work with network IO.
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`open_connection`
+      -  Establish a TCP connection.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`open_unix_connection`
+      -  Establish a Unix socket connection.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`start_server`
+      - Start a TCP server.
+
+    * - ``await`` :func:`start_unix_server`
+      - Start a Unix socket server.
+
+    * - :class:`StreamReader`
+      - High-level async/await object to receive network data.
+
+    * - :class:`StreamWriter`
+      - High-level async/await object to send network data.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Example TCP client <asyncio_example_stream>`.
+
+* See also the :ref:`streams APIs <asyncio-streams>`
+  documentation.
+
+
+Synchronization
+===============
+
+Threading-like synchronization primitives that can be used in Tasks.
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :class:`Lock`
+      - A mutex lock.
+
+    * - :class:`Event`
+      - An event object.
+
+    * - :class:`Condition`
+      - A condition object.
+
+    * - :class:`Semaphore`
+      - A semaphore.
+
+    * - :class:`BoundedSemaphore`
+      - A bounded semaphore.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Using asyncio.Event <asyncio_example_sync_event>`.
+
+* See also the documentation of asyncio
+  :ref:`synchronization primitives <asyncio-sync>`.
+
+
+Exceptions
+==========
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+
+    * - :exc:`asyncio.TimeoutError`
+      - Raised on timeout by functions like :func:`wait_for`.
+        Keep in mind that ``asyncio.TimeoutError`` is **unrelated**
+        to the built-in :exc:`TimeoutError` exception.
+
+    * - :exc:`asyncio.CancelledError`
+      - Raised when a Task is cancelled. See also :meth:`Task.cancel`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Handling CancelledError to run code on cancellation request
+  <asyncio_example_task_cancel>`.
+
+* See also the full list of
+  :ref:`asyncio-specific exceptions <asyncio-exceptions>`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-dev.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-dev.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b728803
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-dev.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,237 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+.. _asyncio-dev:
+
+=======================
+Developing with asyncio
+=======================
+
+Asynchronous programming is different from classic "sequential"
+programming.
+
+This page lists common mistakes and traps and explains how
+to avoid them.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-debug-mode:
+
+Debug Mode
+==========
+
+By default asyncio runs in production mode.  In order to ease
+the development asyncio has a *debug mode*.
+
+There are several ways to enable asyncio debug mode:
+
+* Setting the :envvar:`PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG` environment variable to ``1``.
+
+* Using the :option:`-X` ``dev`` Python command line option.
+
+* Passing ``debug=True`` to :func:`asyncio.run`.
+
+* Calling :meth:`loop.set_debug`.
+
+In addition to enabling the debug mode, consider also:
+
+* setting the log level of the :ref:`asyncio logger <asyncio-logger>` to
+  :py:data:`logging.DEBUG`, for example the following snippet of code
+  can be run at startup of the application::
+
+    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
+
+* configuring the :mod:`warnings` module to display
+  :exc:`ResourceWarning` warnings.  One way of doing that is by
+  using the :option:`-W` ``default`` command line option.
+
+
+When the debug mode is enabled:
+
+* asyncio checks for :ref:`coroutines that were not awaited
+  <asyncio-coroutine-not-scheduled>` and logs them; this mitigates
+  the "forgotten await" pitfall.
+
+* Many non-threadsafe asyncio APIs (such as :meth:`loop.call_soon` and
+  :meth:`loop.call_at` methods) raise an exception if they are called
+  from a wrong thread.
+
+* The execution time of the I/O selector is logged if it takes too long to
+  perform an I/O operation.
+
+* Callbacks taking longer than 100ms are logged.  The
+  :attr:`loop.slow_callback_duration` attribute can be used to set the
+  minimum execution duration in seconds that is considered "slow".
+
+
+.. _asyncio-multithreading:
+
+Concurrency and Multithreading
+==============================
+
+An event loop runs in a thread (typically the main thread) and executes
+all callbacks and Tasks in its thread.  While a Task is running in the
+event loop, no other Tasks can run in the same thread.  When a Task
+executes an ``await`` expression, the running Task gets suspended, and
+the event loop executes the next Task.
+
+To schedule a callback from a different OS thread, the
+:meth:`loop.call_soon_threadsafe` method should be used. Example::
+
+    loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args)
+
+Almost all asyncio objects are not thread safe, which is typically
+not a problem unless there is code that works with them from outside
+of a Task or a callback.  If there's a need for such code to call a
+low-level asyncio API, the :meth:`loop.call_soon_threadsafe` method
+should be used, e.g.::
+
+    loop.call_soon_threadsafe(fut.cancel)
+
+To schedule a coroutine object from a different OS thread, the
+:func:`run_coroutine_threadsafe` function should be used. It returns a
+:class:`concurrent.futures.Future` to access the result::
+
+     async def coro_func():
+          return await asyncio.sleep(1, 42)
+
+     # Later in another OS thread:
+
+     future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro_func(), loop)
+     # Wait for the result:
+     result = future.result()
+
+To handle signals and to execute subprocesses, the event loop must be
+run in the main thread.
+
+The :meth:`loop.run_in_executor` method can be used with a
+:class:`concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor` to execute
+blocking code in a different OS thread without blocking the OS thread
+that the event loop runs in.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-handle-blocking:
+
+Running Blocking Code
+=====================
+
+Blocking (CPU-bound) code should not be called directly.  For example,
+if a function performs a CPU-intensive calculation for 1 second,
+all concurrent asyncio Tasks and IO operations would be delayed
+by 1 second.
+
+An executor can be used to run a task in a different thread or even in
+a different process to avoid blocking block the OS thread with the
+event loop.  See the :meth:`loop.run_in_executor` method for more
+details.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-logger:
+
+Logging
+=======
+
+asyncio uses the :mod:`logging` module and all logging is performed
+via the ``"asyncio"`` logger.
+
+The default log level is :py:data:`logging.INFO`, which can be easily
+adjusted::
+
+   logging.getLogger("asyncio").setLevel(logging.WARNING)
+
+
+.. _asyncio-coroutine-not-scheduled:
+
+Detect never-awaited coroutines
+===============================
+
+When a coroutine function is called, but not awaited
+(e.g. ``coro()`` instead of ``await coro()``)
+or the coroutine is not scheduled with :meth:`asyncio.create_task`, asyncio
+will emit a :exc:`RuntimeWarning`::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def test():
+        print("never scheduled")
+
+    async def main():
+        test()
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+Output::
+
+  test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
+    test()
+
+Output in debug mode::
+
+  test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
+  Coroutine created at (most recent call last)
+    File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
+      asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)
+
+    < .. >
+
+    File "../t.py", line 7, in main
+      test()
+    test()
+
+The usual fix is to either await the coroutine or call the
+:meth:`asyncio.create_task` function::
+
+    async def main():
+        await test()
+
+
+Detect never-retrieved exceptions
+=================================
+
+If a :meth:`Future.set_exception` is called but the Future object is
+never awaited on, the exception would never be propagated to the
+user code.  In this case, asyncio would emit a log message when the
+Future object is garbage collected.
+
+Example of an unhandled exception::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def bug():
+        raise Exception("not consumed")
+
+    async def main():
+        asyncio.create_task(bug())
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+Output::
+
+    Task exception was never retrieved
+    future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
+      exception=Exception('not consumed')>
+
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "test.py", line 4, in bug
+        raise Exception("not consumed")
+    Exception: not consumed
+
+:ref:`Enable the debug mode <asyncio-debug-mode>` to get the
+traceback where the task was created::
+
+    asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)
+
+Output in debug mode::
+
+    Task exception was never retrieved
+    future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
+        exception=Exception('not consumed') created at asyncio/tasks.py:321>
+
+    source_traceback: Object created at (most recent call last):
+      File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
+        asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)
+
+    < .. >
+
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
+        raise Exception("not consumed")
+    Exception: not consumed
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-eventloop.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-eventloop.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e1d571
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-eventloop.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1625 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+==========
+Event Loop
+==========
+
+
+.. rubric:: Preface
+
+The event loop is the core of every asyncio application.
+Event loops run asynchronous tasks and callbacks, perform network
+IO operations, and run subprocesses.
+
+Application developers should typically use the high-level asyncio functions,
+such as :func:`asyncio.run`, and should rarely need to reference the loop
+object or call its methods.  This section is intended mostly for authors
+of lower-level code, libraries, and frameworks, who need finer control over
+the event loop behavior.
+
+.. rubric:: Obtaining the Event Loop
+
+The following low-level functions can be used to get, set, or create
+an event loop:
+
+.. function:: get_running_loop()
+
+   Return the running event loop in the current OS thread.
+
+   If there is no running event loop a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+   This function can only be called from a coroutine or a callback.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: get_event_loop()
+
+   Get the current event loop.  If there is no current event loop set
+   in the current OS thread and :func:`set_event_loop` has not yet
+   been called, asyncio will create a new event loop and set it as the
+   current one.
+
+   Because this function has rather complex behavior (especially
+   when custom event loop policies are in use), using the
+   :func:`get_running_loop` function is preferred to :func:`get_event_loop`
+   in coroutines and callbacks.
+
+   Consider also using the :func:`asyncio.run` function instead of using
+   lower level functions to manually create and close an event loop.
+
+.. function:: set_event_loop(loop)
+
+   Set *loop* as a current event loop for the current OS thread.
+
+.. function:: new_event_loop()
+
+   Create a new event loop object.
+
+Note that the behaviour of :func:`get_event_loop`, :func:`set_event_loop`,
+and :func:`new_event_loop` functions can be altered by
+:ref:`setting a custom event loop policy <asyncio-policies>`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Contents
+
+This documentation page contains the following sections:
+
+* The `Event Loop Methods`_ section is the reference documentation of
+  the event loop APIs;
+
+* The `Callback Handles`_ section documents the :class:`Handle` and
+  :class:`TimerHandle` instances which are returned from scheduling
+  methods such as :meth:`loop.call_soon` and :meth:`loop.call_later`;
+
+* The `Server Objects`_ section documents types returned from
+  event loop methods like :meth:`loop.create_server`;
+
+* The `Event Loop Implementations`_ section documents the
+  :class:`SelectorEventLoop` and :class:`ProactorEventLoop` classes;
+
+* The `Examples`_ section showcases how to work with some event
+  loop APIs.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-event-loop:
+
+Event Loop Methods
+==================
+
+Event loops have **low-level** APIs for the following:
+
+.. contents::
+   :depth: 1
+   :local:
+
+
+Running and stopping the loop
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: loop.run_until_complete(future)
+
+   Run until the *future* (an instance of :class:`Future`) has
+   completed.
+
+   If the argument is a :ref:`coroutine object <coroutine>` it
+   is implicitly scheduled to run as a :class:`asyncio.Task`.
+
+   Return the Future's result or raise its exception.
+
+.. method:: loop.run_forever()
+
+   Run the event loop until :meth:`stop` is called.
+
+   If :meth:`stop` is called before :meth:`run_forever()` is called,
+   the loop will poll the I/O selector once with a timeout of zero,
+   run all callbacks scheduled in response to I/O events (and
+   those that were already scheduled), and then exit.
+
+   If :meth:`stop` is called while :meth:`run_forever` is running,
+   the loop will run the current batch of callbacks and then exit.
+   Note that new callbacks scheduled by callbacks will not run in this
+   case; instead, they will run the next time :meth:`run_forever` or
+   :meth:`run_until_complete` is called.
+
+.. method:: loop.stop()
+
+   Stop the event loop.
+
+.. method:: loop.is_running()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the event loop is currently running.
+
+.. method:: loop.is_closed()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the event loop was closed.
+
+.. method:: loop.close()
+
+   Close the event loop.
+
+   The loop must not be running when this function is called.
+   Any pending callbacks will be discarded.
+
+   This method clears all queues and shuts down the executor, but does
+   not wait for the executor to finish.
+
+   This method is idempotent and irreversible.  No other methods
+   should be called after the event loop is closed.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.shutdown_asyncgens()
+
+   Schedule all currently open :term:`asynchronous generator` objects to
+   close with an :meth:`~agen.aclose()` call.  After calling this method,
+   the event loop will issue a warning if a new asynchronous generator
+   is iterated. This should be used to reliably finalize all scheduled
+   asynchronous generators.
+
+   Note that there is no need to call this function when
+   :func:`asyncio.run` is used.
+
+   Example::
+
+    try:
+        loop.run_forever()
+    finally:
+        loop.run_until_complete(loop.shutdown_asyncgens())
+        loop.close()
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+Scheduling callbacks
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: loop.call_soon(callback, *args, context=None)
+
+   Schedule a *callback* to be called with *args* arguments at
+   the next iteration of the event loop.
+
+   Callbacks are called in the order in which they are registered.
+   Each callback will be called exactly once.
+
+   An optional keyword-only *context* argument allows specifying a
+   custom :class:`contextvars.Context` for the *callback* to run in.
+   The current context is used when no *context* is provided.
+
+   An instance of :class:`asyncio.Handle` is returned, which can be
+   used later to cancel the callback.
+
+   This method is not thread-safe.
+
+.. method:: loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args, context=None)
+
+   A thread-safe variant of :meth:`call_soon`.  Must be used to
+   schedule callbacks *from another thread*.
+
+   See the :ref:`concurrency and multithreading <asyncio-multithreading>`
+   section of the documentation.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   The *context* keyword-only parameter was added. See :pep:`567`
+   for more details.
+
+.. _asyncio-pass-keywords:
+
+.. note::
+
+   Most :mod:`asyncio` scheduling functions don't allow passing
+   keyword arguments.  To do that, use :func:`functools.partial`::
+
+      # will schedule "print("Hello", flush=True)"
+      loop.call_soon(
+          functools.partial(print, "Hello", flush=True))
+
+   Using partial objects is usually more convenient than using lambdas,
+   as asyncio can render partial objects better in debug and error
+   messages.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-delayed-calls:
+
+Scheduling delayed callbacks
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Event loop provides mechanisms to schedule callback functions
+to be called at some point in the future.  Event loop uses monotonic
+clocks to track time.
+
+
+.. method:: loop.call_later(delay, callback, *args, context=None)
+
+   Schedule *callback* to be called after the given *delay*
+   number of seconds (can be either an int or a float).
+
+   An instance of :class:`asyncio.TimerHandle` is returned which can
+   be used to cancel the callback.
+
+   *callback* will be called exactly once.  If two callbacks are
+   scheduled for exactly the same time, the order in which they
+   are called is undefined.
+
+   The optional positional *args* will be passed to the callback when
+   it is called. If you want the callback to be called with keyword
+   arguments use :func:`functools.partial`.
+
+   An optional keyword-only *context* argument allows specifying a
+   custom :class:`contextvars.Context` for the *callback* to run in.
+   The current context is used when no *context* is provided.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *context* keyword-only parameter was added. See :pep:`567`
+      for more details.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
+      In Python 3.7.0 and earlier with the default event loop implementation,
+      the *delay* could not exceed one day.
+      This has been fixed in Python 3.7.1.
+
+.. method:: loop.call_at(when, callback, *args, context=None)
+
+   Schedule *callback* to be called at the given absolute timestamp
+   *when* (an int or a float), using the same time reference as
+   :meth:`loop.time`.
+
+   This method's behavior is the same as :meth:`call_later`.
+
+   An instance of :class:`asyncio.TimerHandle` is returned which can
+   be used to cancel the callback.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *context* keyword-only parameter was added. See :pep:`567`
+      for more details.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
+      In Python 3.7.0 and earlier with the default event loop implementation,
+      the difference between *when* and the current time could not exceed
+      one day.  This has been fixed in Python 3.7.1.
+
+.. method:: loop.time()
+
+   Return the current time, as a :class:`float` value, according to
+   the event loop's internal monotonic clock.
+
+.. note::
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.8
+      In Python 3.7 and earlier timeouts (relative *delay* or absolute *when*)
+      should not exceed one day.  This has been fixed in Python 3.8.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :func:`asyncio.sleep` function.
+
+
+Creating Futures and Tasks
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: loop.create_future()
+
+   Create an :class:`asyncio.Future` object attached to the event loop.
+
+   This is the preferred way to create Futures in asyncio. This lets
+   third-party event loops provide alternative implementations of
+   the Future object (with better performance or instrumentation).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. method:: loop.create_task(coro)
+
+   Schedule the execution of a :ref:`coroutine`.
+   Return a :class:`Task` object.
+
+   Third-party event loops can use their own subclass of :class:`Task`
+   for interoperability. In this case, the result type is a subclass
+   of :class:`Task`.
+
+.. method:: loop.set_task_factory(factory)
+
+   Set a task factory that will be used by
+   :meth:`loop.create_task`.
+
+   If *factory* is ``None`` the default task factory will be set.
+   Otherwise, *factory* must be a *callable* with the signature matching
+   ``(loop, coro)``, where *loop* is a reference to the active
+   event loop, and *coro* is a coroutine object.  The callable
+   must return a :class:`asyncio.Future`-compatible object.
+
+.. method:: loop.get_task_factory()
+
+   Return a task factory or ``None`` if the default one is in use.
+
+
+Opening network connections
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_connection(protocol_factory, \
+                          host=None, port=None, \*, ssl=None, \
+                          family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None, \
+                          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None, \
+                          ssl_handshake_timeout=None)
+
+   Open a streaming transport connection to a given
+   address specified by *host* and *port*.
+
+   The socket family can be either :py:data:`~socket.AF_INET` or
+   :py:data:`~socket.AF_INET6` depending on *host* (or the *family*
+   argument, if provided).
+
+   The socket type will be :py:data:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`.
+
+   *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning an
+   :ref:`asyncio protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
+
+   This method will try to establish the connection in the background.
+   When successful, it returns a ``(transport, protocol)`` pair.
+
+   The chronological synopsis of the underlying operation is as follows:
+
+   #. The connection is established and a :ref:`transport <asyncio-transport>`
+      is created for it.
+
+   #. *protocol_factory* is called without arguments and is expected to
+      return a :ref:`protocol <asyncio-protocol>` instance.
+
+   #. The protocol instance is coupled with the transport by calling its
+      :meth:`~BaseProtocol.connection_made` method.
+
+   #. A ``(transport, protocol)`` tuple is returned on success.
+
+   The created transport is an implementation-dependent bidirectional
+   stream.
+
+   Other arguments:
+
+   * *ssl*: if given and not false, a SSL/TLS transport is created
+     (by default a plain TCP transport is created).  If *ssl* is
+     a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object, this context is used to create
+     the transport; if *ssl* is :const:`True`, a default context returned
+     from :func:`ssl.create_default_context` is used.
+
+     .. seealso:: :ref:`SSL/TLS security considerations <ssl-security>`
+
+   * *server_hostname* sets or overrides the hostname that the target
+     server's certificate will be matched against.  Should only be passed
+     if *ssl* is not ``None``.  By default the value of the *host* argument
+     is used.  If *host* is empty, there is no default and you must pass a
+     value for *server_hostname*.  If *server_hostname* is an empty
+     string, hostname matching is disabled (which is a serious security
+     risk, allowing for potential man-in-the-middle attacks).
+
+   * *family*, *proto*, *flags* are the optional address family, protocol
+     and flags to be passed through to getaddrinfo() for *host* resolution.
+     If given, these should all be integers from the corresponding
+     :mod:`socket` module constants.
+
+   * *sock*, if given, should be an existing, already connected
+     :class:`socket.socket` object to be used by the transport.
+     If *sock* is given, none of *host*, *port*, *family*, *proto*, *flags*
+     and *local_addr* should be specified.
+
+   * *local_addr*, if given, is a ``(local_host, local_port)`` tuple used
+     to bind the socket to locally.  The *local_host* and *local_port*
+     are looked up using ``getaddrinfo()``, similarly to *host* and *port*.
+
+   * *ssl_handshake_timeout* is (for a TLS connection) the time in seconds
+     to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+     ``60.0`` seconds if ``None`` (default).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+      The socket option :py:data:`~socket.TCP_NODELAY` is set by default
+      for all TCP connections.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+      Added support for SSL/TLS in :class:`ProactorEventLoop`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :func:`open_connection` function is a high-level alternative
+      API.  It returns a pair of (:class:`StreamReader`, :class:`StreamWriter`)
+      that can be used directly in async/await code.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_datagram_endpoint(protocol_factory, \
+                        local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, \*, \
+                        family=0, proto=0, flags=0, \
+                        reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, \
+                        allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)
+
+   Create a datagram connection.
+
+   The socket family can be either :py:data:`~socket.AF_INET`,
+   :py:data:`~socket.AF_INET6`, or :py:data:`~socket.AF_UNIX`,
+   depending on *host* (or the *family* argument, if provided).
+
+   The socket type will be :py:data:`~socket.SOCK_DGRAM`.
+
+   *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning a
+   :ref:`protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
+
+   A tuple of ``(transport, protocol)`` is returned on success.
+
+   Other arguments:
+
+   * *local_addr*, if given, is a ``(local_host, local_port)`` tuple used
+     to bind the socket to locally.  The *local_host* and *local_port*
+     are looked up using :meth:`getaddrinfo`.
+
+   * *remote_addr*, if given, is a ``(remote_host, remote_port)`` tuple used
+     to connect the socket to a remote address.  The *remote_host* and
+     *remote_port* are looked up using :meth:`getaddrinfo`.
+
+   * *family*, *proto*, *flags* are the optional address family, protocol
+     and flags to be passed through to :meth:`getaddrinfo` for *host*
+     resolution. If given, these should all be integers from the
+     corresponding :mod:`socket` module constants.
+
+   * *reuse_address* tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
+     ``TIME_WAIT`` state, without waiting for its natural timeout to
+     expire. If not specified will automatically be set to ``True`` on
+     Unix.
+
+   * *reuse_port* tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be bound to the
+     same port as other existing endpoints are bound to, so long as they all
+     set this flag when being created. This option is not supported on Windows
+     and some Unixes. If the :py:data:`~socket.SO_REUSEPORT` constant is not
+     defined then this capability is unsupported.
+
+   * *allow_broadcast* tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to send
+     messages to the broadcast address.
+
+   * *sock* can optionally be specified in order to use a preexisting,
+     already connected, :class:`socket.socket` object to be used by the
+     transport. If specified, *local_addr* and *remote_addr* should be omitted
+     (must be :const:`None`).
+
+   On Windows, with :class:`ProactorEventLoop`, this method is not supported.
+
+   See :ref:`UDP echo client protocol <asyncio-udp-echo-client-protocol>` and
+   :ref:`UDP echo server protocol <asyncio-udp-echo-server-protocol>` examples.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4.4
+      The *family*, *proto*, *flags*, *reuse_address*, *reuse_port,
+      *allow_broadcast*, and *sock* parameters were added.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_unix_connection(protocol_factory, \
+                        path=None, \*, ssl=None, sock=None, \
+                        server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None)
+
+   Create a Unix connection.
+
+   The socket family will be :py:data:`~socket.AF_UNIX`; socket
+   type will be :py:data:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`.
+
+   A tuple of ``(transport, protocol)`` is returned on success.
+
+   *path* is the name of a Unix domain socket and is required,
+   unless a *sock* parameter is specified.  Abstract Unix sockets,
+   :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, and :class:`~pathlib.Path` paths are
+   supported.
+
+   See the documentation of the :meth:`loop.create_connection` method
+   for information about arguments to this method.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      The *path* parameter can now be a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+Creating network servers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_server(protocol_factory, \
+                        host=None, port=None, \*, \
+                        family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, \
+                        flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, \
+                        sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
+                        reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, \
+                        ssl_handshake_timeout=None, start_serving=True)
+
+   Create a TCP server (socket type :data:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`) listening
+   on *port* of the *host* address.
+
+   Returns a :class:`Server` object.
+
+   Arguments:
+
+   * *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning a
+     :ref:`protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
+
+   * The *host* parameter can be set to several types which determine where
+     the server would be listening:
+
+     - If *host* is a string, the TCP server is bound to a single network
+       interface specified by *host*.
+
+     - If *host* is a sequence of strings, the TCP server is bound to all
+       network interfaces specified by the sequence.
+
+     - If *host* is an empty string or ``None``, all interfaces are
+       assumed and a list of multiple sockets will be returned (most likely
+       one for IPv4 and another one for IPv6).
+
+   * *family* can be set to either :data:`socket.AF_INET` or
+     :data:`~socket.AF_INET6` to force the socket to use IPv4 or IPv6.
+     If not set, the *family* will be determined from host name
+     (defaults to :data:`~socket.AF_UNSPEC`).
+
+   * *flags* is a bitmask for :meth:`getaddrinfo`.
+
+   * *sock* can optionally be specified in order to use a preexisting
+     socket object. If specified, *host* and *port* must not be specified.
+
+   * *backlog* is the maximum number of queued connections passed to
+     :meth:`~socket.socket.listen` (defaults to 100).
+
+   * *ssl* can be set to an :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` instance to enable
+     TLS over the accepted connections.
+
+   * *reuse_address* tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
+     ``TIME_WAIT`` state, without waiting for its natural timeout to
+     expire. If not specified will automatically be set to ``True`` on
+     Unix.
+
+   * *reuse_port* tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be bound to the
+     same port as other existing endpoints are bound to, so long as they all
+     set this flag when being created. This option is not supported on
+     Windows.
+
+   * *ssl_handshake_timeout* is (for a TLS server) the time in seconds to wait
+     for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+     ``60.0`` seconds if ``None`` (default).
+
+   * *start_serving* set to ``True`` (the default) causes the created server
+     to start accepting connections immediately.  When set to ``False``,
+     the user should await on :meth:`Server.start_serving` or
+     :meth:`Server.serve_forever` to make the server to start accepting
+     connections.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      Added *ssl_handshake_timeout* and *start_serving* parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+      The socket option :py:data:`~socket.TCP_NODELAY` is set by default
+      for all TCP connections.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+      Added support for SSL/TLS in :class:`ProactorEventLoop`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5.1
+
+      The *host* parameter can be a sequence of strings.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :func:`start_server` function is a higher-level alternative API
+      that returns a pair of :class:`StreamReader` and :class:`StreamWriter`
+      that can be used in an async/await code.
+
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_unix_server(protocol_factory, path=None, \
+                          \*, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
+                          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, start_serving=True)
+
+   Similar to :meth:`loop.create_server` but works with the
+   :py:data:`~socket.AF_UNIX` socket family.
+
+   *path* is the name of a Unix domain socket, and is required,
+   unless a *sock* argument is provided.  Abstract Unix sockets,
+   :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, and :class:`~pathlib.Path` paths
+   are supported.
+
+   See the documentation of the :meth:`loop.create_server` method
+   for information about arguments to this method.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* and *start_serving* parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      The *path* parameter can now be a :class:`~pathlib.Path` object.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.connect_accepted_socket(protocol_factory, \
+                        sock, \*, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None)
+
+   Wrap an already accepted connection into a transport/protocol pair.
+
+   This method can be used by servers that accept connections outside
+   of asyncio but that use asyncio to handle them.
+
+   Parameters:
+
+   * *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning a
+     :ref:`protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
+
+   * *sock* is a preexisting socket object returned from
+     :meth:`socket.accept <socket.socket.accept>`.
+
+   * *ssl* can be set to an :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` to enable SSL over
+     the accepted connections.
+
+   * *ssl_handshake_timeout* is (for an SSL connection) the time in seconds to
+     wait for the SSL handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+     ``60.0`` seconds if ``None`` (default).
+
+   Returns a ``(transport, protocol)`` pair.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* parameter.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.3
+
+
+Transferring files
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sendfile(transport, file, \
+                                   offset=0, count=None, *, fallback=True)
+
+   Send a *file* over a *transport*.  Return the total number of bytes
+   sent.
+
+   The method uses high-performance :meth:`os.sendfile` if available.
+
+   *file* must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.
+
+   *offset* tells from where to start reading the file. If specified,
+   *count* is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
+   sending the file until EOF is reached. File position is always updated,
+   even when this method raises an error, and
+   :meth:`file.tell() <io.IOBase.tell>` can be used to obtain the actual
+   number of bytes sent.
+
+   *fallback* set to ``True`` makes asyncio to manually read and send
+   the file when the platform does not support the sendfile system call
+   (e.g. Windows or SSL socket on Unix).
+
+   Raise :exc:`SendfileNotAvailableError` if the system does not support
+   the *sendfile* syscall and *fallback* is ``False``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+TLS Upgrade
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.start_tls(transport, protocol, \
+                        sslcontext, \*, server_side=False, \
+                        server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None)
+
+   Upgrade an existing transport-based connection to TLS.
+
+   Return a new transport instance, that the *protocol* must start using
+   immediately after the *await*.  The *transport* instance passed to
+   the *start_tls* method should never be used again.
+
+   Parameters:
+
+   * *transport* and *protocol* instances that methods like
+     :meth:`~loop.create_server` and
+     :meth:`~loop.create_connection` return.
+
+   * *sslcontext*: a configured instance of :class:`~ssl.SSLContext`.
+
+   * *server_side* pass ``True`` when a server-side connection is being
+     upgraded (like the one created by :meth:`~loop.create_server`).
+
+   * *server_hostname*: sets or overrides the host name that the target
+     server's certificate will be matched against.
+
+   * *ssl_handshake_timeout* is (for a TLS connection) the time in seconds to
+     wait for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+     ``60.0`` seconds if ``None`` (default).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Watching file descriptors
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: loop.add_reader(fd, callback, \*args)
+
+   Start monitoring the *fd* file descriptor for read availability and
+   invoke *callback* with the specified arguments once *fd* is available for
+   reading.
+
+.. method:: loop.remove_reader(fd)
+
+   Stop monitoring the *fd* file descriptor for read availability.
+
+.. method:: loop.add_writer(fd, callback, \*args)
+
+   Start monitoring the *fd* file descriptor for write availability and
+   invoke *callback* with the specified arguments once *fd* is available for
+   writing.
+
+   Use :func:`functools.partial` :ref:`to pass keyword arguments
+   <asyncio-pass-keywords>` to *callback*.
+
+.. method:: loop.remove_writer(fd)
+
+   Stop monitoring the *fd* file descriptor for write availability.
+
+See also :ref:`Platform Support <asyncio-platform-support>` section
+for some limitations of these methods.
+
+
+Working with socket objects directly
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In general, protocol implementations that use transport-based APIs
+such as :meth:`loop.create_connection` and :meth:`loop.create_server`
+are faster than implementations that work with sockets directly.
+However, there are some use cases when performance is not critical, and
+working with :class:`~socket.socket` objects directly is more
+convenient.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_recv(sock, nbytes)
+
+   Receive up to *nbytes* from *sock*.  Asynchronous version of
+   :meth:`socket.recv() <socket.socket.recv>`.
+
+   Return the received data as a bytes object.
+
+   *sock* must be a non-blocking socket.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Even though this method was always documented as a coroutine
+      method, releases before Python 3.7 returned a :class:`Future`.
+      Since Python 3.7 this is an ``async def`` method.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_recv_into(sock, buf)
+
+   Receive data from *sock* into the *buf* buffer.  Modeled after the blocking
+   :meth:`socket.recv_into() <socket.socket.recv_into>` method.
+
+   Return the number of bytes written to the buffer.
+
+   *sock* must be a non-blocking socket.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_sendall(sock, data)
+
+   Send *data* to the *sock* socket. Asynchronous version of
+   :meth:`socket.sendall() <socket.socket.sendall>`.
+
+   This method continues to send to the socket until either all data
+   in *data* has been sent or an error occurs.  ``None`` is returned
+   on success.  On error, an exception is raised. Additionally, there is no way
+   to determine how much data, if any, was successfully processed by the
+   receiving end of the connection.
+
+   *sock* must be a non-blocking socket.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Even though the method was always documented as a coroutine
+      method, before Python 3.7 it returned an :class:`Future`.
+      Since Python 3.7, this is an ``async def`` method.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_connect(sock, address)
+
+   Connect *sock* to a remote socket at *address*.
+
+   Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.connect() <socket.socket.connect>`.
+
+   *sock* must be a non-blocking socket.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5.2
+      ``address`` no longer needs to be resolved.  ``sock_connect``
+      will try to check if the *address* is already resolved by calling
+      :func:`socket.inet_pton`.  If not,
+      :meth:`loop.getaddrinfo` will be used to resolve the
+      *address*.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :meth:`loop.create_connection`
+      and  :func:`asyncio.open_connection() <open_connection>`.
+
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_accept(sock)
+
+   Accept a connection.  Modeled after the blocking
+   :meth:`socket.accept() <socket.socket.accept>` method.
+
+   The socket must be bound to an address and listening
+   for connections. The return value is a pair ``(conn, address)`` where *conn*
+   is a *new* socket object usable to send and receive data on the connection,
+   and *address* is the address bound to the socket on the other end of the
+   connection.
+
+   *sock* must be a non-blocking socket.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Even though the method was always documented as a coroutine
+      method, before Python 3.7 it returned a :class:`Future`.
+      Since Python 3.7, this is an ``async def`` method.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :meth:`loop.create_server` and :func:`start_server`.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_sendfile(sock, file, offset=0, count=None, \
+                                        \*, fallback=True)
+
+   Send a file using high-performance :mod:`os.sendfile` if possible.
+   Return the total number of bytes sent.
+
+   Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.sendfile() <socket.socket.sendfile>`.
+
+   *sock* must be a non-blocking :const:`socket.SOCK_STREAM`
+   :class:`~socket.socket`.
+
+   *file* must be a regular file object open in binary mode.
+
+   *offset* tells from where to start reading the file. If specified,
+   *count* is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
+   sending the file until EOF is reached. File position is always updated,
+   even when this method raises an error, and
+   :meth:`file.tell() <io.IOBase.tell>` can be used to obtain the actual
+   number of bytes sent.
+
+   *fallback*, when set to ``True``, makes asyncio manually read and send
+   the file when the platform does not support the sendfile syscall
+   (e.g. Windows or SSL socket on Unix).
+
+   Raise :exc:`SendfileNotAvailableError` if the system does not support
+   *sendfile* syscall and *fallback* is ``False``.
+
+   *sock* must be a non-blocking socket.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+DNS
+^^^
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.getaddrinfo(host, port, \*, family=0, \
+                        type=0, proto=0, flags=0)
+
+   Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.getaddrinfo`.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.getnameinfo(sockaddr, flags=0)
+
+   Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.getnameinfo`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Both *getaddrinfo* and *getnameinfo* methods were always documented
+   to return a coroutine, but prior to Python 3.7 they were, in fact,
+   returning :class:`asyncio.Future` objects.  Starting with Python 3.7
+   both methods are coroutines.
+
+
+Working with pipes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.connect_read_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)
+
+   Register the read end of *pipe* in the event loop.
+
+   *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning an
+   :ref:`asyncio protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
+
+   *pipe* is a :term:`file-like object <file object>`.
+
+   Return pair ``(transport, protocol)``, where *transport* supports
+   the :class:`ReadTransport` interface and *protocol* is an object
+   instantiated by the *protocol_factory*.
+
+   With :class:`SelectorEventLoop` event loop, the *pipe* is set to
+   non-blocking mode.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.connect_write_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)
+
+   Register the write end of *pipe* in the event loop.
+
+   *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning an
+   :ref:`asyncio protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
+
+   *pipe* is :term:`file-like object <file object>`.
+
+   Return pair ``(transport, protocol)``, where *transport* supports
+   :class:`WriteTransport` interface and *protocol* is an object
+   instantiated by the *protocol_factory*.
+
+   With :class:`SelectorEventLoop` event loop, the *pipe* is set to
+   non-blocking mode.
+
+.. note::
+
+   :class:`SelectorEventLoop` does not support the above methods on
+   Windows.  Use :class:`ProactorEventLoop` instead for Windows.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` and
+   :meth:`loop.subprocess_shell` methods.
+
+
+Unix signals
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: loop.add_signal_handler(signum, callback, \*args)
+
+   Set *callback* as the handler for the *signum* signal.
+
+   The callback will be invoked by *loop*, along with other queued callbacks
+   and runnable coroutines of that event loop. Unlike signal handlers
+   registered using :func:`signal.signal`, a callback registered with this
+   function is allowed to interact with the event loop.
+
+   Raise :exc:`ValueError` if the signal number is invalid or uncatchable.
+   Raise :exc:`RuntimeError` if there is a problem setting up the handler.
+
+   Use :func:`functools.partial` :ref:`to pass keyword arguments
+   <asyncio-pass-keywords>` to *callback*.
+
+   Like :func:`signal.signal`, this function must be invoked in the main
+   thread.
+
+.. method:: loop.remove_signal_handler(sig)
+
+   Remove the handler for the *sig* signal.
+
+   Return ``True`` if the signal handler was removed, or ``False`` if
+   no handler was set for the given signal.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :mod:`signal` module.
+
+
+Executing code in thread or process pools
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. awaitablemethod:: loop.run_in_executor(executor, func, \*args)
+
+   Arrange for *func* to be called in the specified executor.
+
+   The *executor* argument should be an :class:`concurrent.futures.Executor`
+   instance. The default executor is used if *executor* is ``None``.
+
+   Example::
+
+      import asyncio
+      import concurrent.futures
+
+      def blocking_io():
+          # File operations (such as logging) can block the
+          # event loop: run them in a thread pool.
+          with open('/dev/urandom', 'rb') as f:
+              return f.read(100)
+
+      def cpu_bound():
+          # CPU-bound operations will block the event loop:
+          # in general it is preferable to run them in a
+          # process pool.
+          return sum(i * i for i in range(10 ** 7))
+
+      async def main():
+          loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+          ## Options:
+
+          # 1. Run in the default loop's executor:
+          result = await loop.run_in_executor(
+              None, blocking_io)
+          print('default thread pool', result)
+
+          # 2. Run in a custom thread pool:
+          with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
+              result = await loop.run_in_executor(
+                  pool, blocking_io)
+              print('custom thread pool', result)
+
+          # 3. Run in a custom process pool:
+          with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as pool:
+              result = await loop.run_in_executor(
+                  pool, cpu_bound)
+              print('custom process pool', result)
+
+      asyncio.run(main())
+
+   This method returns a :class:`asyncio.Future` object.
+
+   Use :func:`functools.partial` :ref:`to pass keyword arguments
+   <asyncio-pass-keywords>` to *func*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5.3
+      :meth:`loop.run_in_executor` no longer configures the
+      ``max_workers`` of the thread pool executor it creates, instead
+      leaving it up to the thread pool executor
+      (:class:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor`) to set the
+      default.
+
+.. method:: loop.set_default_executor(executor)
+
+   Set *executor* as the default executor used by :meth:`run_in_executor`.
+   *executor* should be an instance of
+   :class:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      Using an executor that is not an instance of
+      :class:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor` is deprecated and
+      will trigger an error in Python 3.9.
+
+   *executor* must be an instance of
+   :class:`concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor`.
+
+
+Error Handling API
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Allows customizing how exceptions are handled in the event loop.
+
+.. method:: loop.set_exception_handler(handler)
+
+   Set *handler* as the new event loop exception handler.
+
+   If *handler* is ``None``, the default exception handler will
+   be set.  Otherwise, *handler* must be a callable with the signature
+   matching ``(loop, context)``, where ``loop``
+   is a reference to the active event loop, and ``context``
+   is a ``dict`` object containing the details of the exception
+   (see :meth:`call_exception_handler` documentation for details
+   about context).
+
+.. method:: loop.get_exception_handler()
+
+   Return the current exception handler, or ``None`` if no custom
+   exception handler was set.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. method:: loop.default_exception_handler(context)
+
+   Default exception handler.
+
+   This is called when an exception occurs and no exception
+   handler is set. This can be called by a custom exception
+   handler that wants to defer to the default handler behavior.
+
+   *context* parameter has the same meaning as in
+   :meth:`call_exception_handler`.
+
+.. method:: loop.call_exception_handler(context)
+
+   Call the current event loop exception handler.
+
+   *context* is a ``dict`` object containing the following keys
+   (new keys may be introduced in future Python versions):
+
+   * 'message': Error message;
+   * 'exception' (optional): Exception object;
+   * 'future' (optional): :class:`asyncio.Future` instance;
+   * 'handle' (optional): :class:`asyncio.Handle` instance;
+   * 'protocol' (optional): :ref:`Protocol <asyncio-protocol>` instance;
+   * 'transport' (optional): :ref:`Transport <asyncio-transport>` instance;
+   * 'socket' (optional): :class:`socket.socket` instance.
+
+   .. note::
+
+       This method should not be overloaded in subclassed
+       event loops.  For custom exception handling, use
+       the :meth:`set_exception_handler()` method.
+
+Enabling debug mode
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: loop.get_debug()
+
+   Get the debug mode (:class:`bool`) of the event loop.
+
+   The default value is ``True`` if the environment variable
+   :envvar:`PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG` is set to a non-empty string, ``False``
+   otherwise.
+
+.. method:: loop.set_debug(enabled: bool)
+
+   Set the debug mode of the event loop.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      The new ``-X dev`` command line option can now also be used
+      to enable the debug mode.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`debug mode of asyncio <asyncio-debug-mode>`.
+
+
+Running Subprocesses
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Methods described in this subsections are low-level.  In regular
+async/await code consider using the high-level
+:func:`asyncio.create_subprocess_shell` and
+:func:`asyncio.create_subprocess_exec` convenience functions instead.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The default asyncio event loop on **Windows** does not support
+   subprocesses. See :ref:`Subprocess Support on Windows
+   <asyncio-windows-subprocess>` for details.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.subprocess_exec(protocol_factory, \*args, \
+                      stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, \
+                      stderr=subprocess.PIPE, \*\*kwargs)
+
+   Create a subprocess from one or more string arguments specified by
+   *args*.
+
+   *args* must be a list of strings represented by:
+
+   * :class:`str`;
+   * or :class:`bytes`, encoded to the
+     :ref:`filesystem encoding <filesystem-encoding>`.
+
+   The first string specifies the program executable,
+   and the remaining strings specify the arguments.  Together, string
+   arguments form the ``argv`` of the program.
+
+   This is similar to the standard library :class:`subprocess.Popen`
+   class called with ``shell=False`` and the list of strings passed as
+   the first argument; however, where :class:`~subprocess.Popen` takes
+   a single argument which is list of strings, *subprocess_exec*
+   takes multiple string arguments.
+
+   The *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning a subclass of the
+   :class:`asyncio.SubprocessProtocol` class.
+
+   Other parameters:
+
+   * *stdin*: either a file-like object representing a pipe to be
+     connected to the subprocess's standard input stream using
+     :meth:`~loop.connect_write_pipe`, or the
+     :const:`subprocess.PIPE`  constant (default). By default a new
+     pipe will be created and connected.
+
+   * *stdout*: either a file-like object representing the pipe to be
+     connected to the subprocess's standard output stream using
+     :meth:`~loop.connect_read_pipe`, or the
+     :const:`subprocess.PIPE` constant (default). By default a new pipe
+     will be created and connected.
+
+   * *stderr*: either a file-like object representing the pipe to be
+     connected to the subprocess's standard error stream using
+     :meth:`~loop.connect_read_pipe`, or one of
+     :const:`subprocess.PIPE` (default) or :const:`subprocess.STDOUT`
+     constants.
+
+     By default a new pipe will be created and connected. When
+     :const:`subprocess.STDOUT` is specified, the subprocess' standard
+     error stream will be connected to the same pipe as the standard
+     output stream.
+
+   * All other keyword arguments are passed to :class:`subprocess.Popen`
+     without interpretation, except for *bufsize*, *universal_newlines*
+     and *shell*, which should not be specified at all.
+
+   See the constructor of the :class:`subprocess.Popen` class
+   for documentation on other arguments.
+
+   Returns a pair of ``(transport, protocol)``, where *transport*
+   conforms to the :class:`asyncio.SubprocessTransport` base class and
+   *protocol* is an object instantiated by the *protocol_factory*.
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: loop.subprocess_shell(protocol_factory, cmd, \*, \
+                        stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, \
+                        stderr=subprocess.PIPE, \*\*kwargs)
+
+   Create a subprocess from *cmd*, which can be a :class:`str` or a
+   :class:`bytes` string encoded to the
+   :ref:`filesystem encoding <filesystem-encoding>`,
+   using the platform's "shell" syntax.
+
+   This is similar to the standard library :class:`subprocess.Popen`
+   class called with ``shell=True``.
+
+   The *protocol_factory* must be a callable returning a subclass of the
+   :class:`SubprocessProtocol` class.
+
+   See :meth:`~loop.subprocess_exec` for more details about
+   the remaining arguments.
+
+   Returns a pair of ``(transport, protocol)``, where *transport*
+   conforms to the :class:`SubprocessTransport` base class and
+   *protocol* is an object instantiated by the *protocol_factory*.
+
+.. note::
+   It is the application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace
+   and special characters are quoted appropriately to avoid `shell injection
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
+   vulnerabilities. The :func:`shlex.quote` function can be used to
+   properly escape whitespace and special characters in strings that
+   are going to be used to construct shell commands.
+
+
+Callback Handles
+================
+
+.. class:: Handle
+
+   A callback wrapper object returned by :meth:`loop.call_soon`,
+   :meth:`loop.call_soon_threadsafe`.
+
+   .. method:: cancel()
+
+      Cancel the callback.  If the callback has already been canceled
+      or executed, this method has no effect.
+
+   .. method:: cancelled()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the callback was cancelled.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. class:: TimerHandle
+
+   A callback wrapper object returned by :meth:`loop.call_later`,
+   and :meth:`loop.call_at`.
+
+   This class is a subclass of :class:`Handle`.
+
+   .. method:: when()
+
+      Return a scheduled callback time as :class:`float` seconds.
+
+      The time is an absolute timestamp, using the same time
+      reference as :meth:`loop.time`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Server Objects
+==============
+
+Server objects are created by :meth:`loop.create_server`,
+:meth:`loop.create_unix_server`, :func:`start_server`,
+and :func:`start_unix_server` functions.
+
+Do not instantiate the class directly.
+
+.. class:: Server
+
+   *Server* objects are asynchronous context managers.  When used in an
+   ``async with`` statement, it's guaranteed that the Server object is
+   closed and not accepting new connections when the ``async with``
+   statement is completed::
+
+      srv = await loop.create_server(...)
+
+      async with srv:
+          # some code
+
+      # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Server object is an asynchronous context manager since Python 3.7.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Stop serving: close listening sockets and set the :attr:`sockets`
+      attribute to ``None``.
+
+      The sockets that represent existing incoming client connections
+      are left open.
+
+      The server is closed asynchronously, use the :meth:`wait_closed`
+      coroutine to wait until the server is closed.
+
+   .. method:: get_loop()
+
+      Return the event loop associated with the server object.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: start_serving()
+
+      Start accepting connections.
+
+      This method is idempotent, so it can be called when
+      the server is already being serving.
+
+      The *start_serving* keyword-only parameter to
+      :meth:`loop.create_server` and
+      :meth:`asyncio.start_server` allows creating a Server object
+      that is not accepting connections initially.  In this case
+      ``Server.start_serving()``, or :meth:`Server.serve_forever` can be used
+      to make the Server start accepting connections.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: serve_forever()
+
+      Start accepting connections until the coroutine is cancelled.
+      Cancellation of ``serve_forever`` task causes the server
+      to be closed.
+
+      This method can be called if the server is already accepting
+      connections.  Only one ``serve_forever`` task can exist per
+      one *Server* object.
+
+      Example::
+
+          async def client_connected(reader, writer):
+              # Communicate with the client with
+              # reader/writer streams.  For example:
+              await reader.readline()
+
+          async def main(host, port):
+              srv = await asyncio.start_server(
+                  client_connected, host, port)
+              await srv.serve_forever()
+
+          asyncio.run(main('127.0.0.1', 0))
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. method:: is_serving()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the server is accepting new connections.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: wait_closed()
+
+      Wait until the :meth:`close` method completes.
+
+   .. attribute:: sockets
+
+      List of :class:`socket.socket` objects the server is listening on,
+      or ``None`` if the server is closed.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         Prior to Python 3.7 ``Server.sockets`` used to return an
+         internal list of server sockets directly.  In 3.7 a copy
+         of that list is returned.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-event-loops:
+
+Event Loop Implementations
+==========================
+
+asyncio ships with two different event loop implementations:
+:class:`SelectorEventLoop` and :class:`ProactorEventLoop`.
+
+By default asyncio is configured to use :class:`SelectorEventLoop`
+on all platforms.
+
+
+.. class:: SelectorEventLoop
+
+   An event loop based on the :mod:`selectors` module.
+
+   Uses the most efficient *selector* available for the given
+   platform.  It is also possible to manually configure the
+   exact selector implementation to be used::
+
+      import asyncio
+      import selectors
+
+      selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
+      loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
+      asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
+
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. class:: ProactorEventLoop
+
+   An event loop for Windows that uses "I/O Completion Ports" (IOCP).
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   An example how to use :class:`ProactorEventLoop` on Windows::
+
+        import asyncio
+        import sys
+
+        if sys.platform == 'win32':
+            loop = asyncio.ProactorEventLoop()
+            asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      `MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports
+      <https://docs.microsoft.com/en-ca/windows/desktop/FileIO/i-o-completion-ports>`_.
+
+
+.. class:: AbstractEventLoop
+
+   Abstract base class for asyncio-compliant event loops.
+
+   The :ref:`Event Loop Methods <asyncio-event-loop>` section lists all
+   methods that an alternative implementation of ``AbstractEventLoop``
+   should have defined.
+
+
+Examples
+========
+
+Note that all examples in this section **purposefully** show how
+to use the low-level event loop APIs, such as :meth:`loop.run_forever`
+and :meth:`loop.call_soon`.  Modern asyncio applications rarely
+need to be written this way; consider using the high-level functions
+like :func:`asyncio.run`.
+
+
+.. _asyncio_example_lowlevel_helloworld:
+
+Hello World with call_soon()
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+An example using the :meth:`loop.call_soon` method to schedule a
+callback. The callback displays ``"Hello World"`` and then stops the
+event loop::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    def hello_world(loop):
+        """A callback to print 'Hello World' and stop the event loop"""
+        print('Hello World')
+        loop.stop()
+
+    loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
+
+    # Schedule a call to hello_world()
+    loop.call_soon(hello_world, loop)
+
+    # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
+    try:
+        loop.run_forever()
+    finally:
+        loop.close()
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   A similar :ref:`Hello World <coroutine>`
+   example created with a coroutine and the :func:`run` function.
+
+
+.. _asyncio_example_call_later:
+
+Display the current date with call_later()
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+An example of a callback displaying the current date every second. The
+callback uses the :meth:`loop.call_later` method to reschedule itself
+after 5 seconds, and then stops the event loop::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import datetime
+
+    def display_date(end_time, loop):
+        print(datetime.datetime.now())
+        if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
+            loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
+        else:
+            loop.stop()
+
+    loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
+
+    # Schedule the first call to display_date()
+    end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
+    loop.call_soon(display_date, end_time, loop)
+
+    # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
+    try:
+        loop.run_forever()
+    finally:
+        loop.close()
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   A similar :ref:`current date <asyncio_example_sleep>` example
+   created with a coroutine and the :func:`run` function.
+
+
+.. _asyncio_example_watch_fd:
+
+Watch a file descriptor for read events
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Wait until a file descriptor received some data using the
+:meth:`loop.add_reader` method and then close the event loop::
+
+    import asyncio
+    from socket import socketpair
+
+    # Create a pair of connected file descriptors
+    rsock, wsock = socketpair()
+
+    loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
+
+    def reader():
+        data = rsock.recv(100)
+        print("Received:", data.decode())
+
+        # We are done: unregister the file descriptor
+        loop.remove_reader(rsock)
+
+        # Stop the event loop
+        loop.stop()
+
+    # Register the file descriptor for read event
+    loop.add_reader(rsock, reader)
+
+    # Simulate the reception of data from the network
+    loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())
+
+    try:
+        # Run the event loop
+        loop.run_forever()
+    finally:
+        # We are done. Close sockets and the event loop.
+        rsock.close()
+        wsock.close()
+        loop.close()
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   * A similar :ref:`example <asyncio_example_create_connection>`
+     using transports, protocols, and the
+     :meth:`loop.create_connection` method.
+
+   * Another similar :ref:`example <asyncio_example_create_connection-streams>`
+     using the high-level :func:`asyncio.open_connection` function
+     and streams.
+
+
+.. _asyncio_example_unix_signals:
+
+Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+(This ``signals`` example only works on Unix.)
+
+Register handlers for signals :py:data:`SIGINT` and :py:data:`SIGTERM`
+using the :meth:`loop.add_signal_handler` method::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import functools
+    import os
+    import signal
+
+    def ask_exit(signame, loop):
+        print("got signal %s: exit" % signame)
+        loop.stop()
+
+    async def main():
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        for signame in {'SIGINT', 'SIGTERM'}:
+            loop.add_signal_handler(
+                getattr(signal, signame),
+                functools.partial(ask_exit, signame, loop))
+
+        await asyncio.sleep(3600)
+
+    print("Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.")
+    print(f"pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.")
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-exceptions.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-exceptions.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e49577a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-exceptions.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+.. _asyncio-exceptions:
+
+==========
+Exceptions
+==========
+
+
+.. exception:: TimeoutError
+
+   The operation has exceeded the given deadline.
+
+   .. important::
+      This exception is different from the builtin :exc:`TimeoutError`
+      exception.
+
+
+.. exception:: CancelledError
+
+   The operation has been cancelled.
+
+   This exception can be caught to perform custom operations
+   when asyncio Tasks are cancelled.  In almost all situations the
+   exception must be re-raised.
+
+   .. important::
+
+      This exception is a subclass of :exc:`Exception`, so it can be
+      accidentally suppressed by an overly broad ``try..except`` block::
+
+        try:
+            await operation
+        except Exception:
+            # The cancellation is broken because the *except* block
+            # suppresses the CancelledError exception.
+            log.log('an error has occurred')
+
+      Instead, the following pattern should be used::
+
+        try:
+            await operation
+        except asyncio.CancelledError:
+            raise
+        except Exception:
+            log.log('an error has occurred')
+
+
+.. exception:: InvalidStateError
+
+   Invalid internal state of :class:`Task` or :class:`Future`.
+
+   Can be raised in situations like setting a result value for a
+   *Future* object that already has a result value set.
+
+
+.. exception:: SendfileNotAvailableError
+
+   The "sendfile" syscall is not available for the given
+   socket or file type.
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: IncompleteReadError
+
+   The requested read operation did not complete fully.
+
+   Raised by the :ref:`asyncio stream APIs<asyncio-streams>`.
+
+   This exception is a subclass of :exc:`EOFError`.
+
+   .. attribute:: expected
+
+      The total number (:class:`int`) of expected bytes.
+
+   .. attribute:: partial
+
+      A string of :class:`bytes` read before the end of stream was reached.
+
+
+.. exception:: LimitOverrunError
+
+   Reached the buffer size limit while looking for a separator.
+
+   Raised by the :ref:`asyncio stream APIs <asyncio-streams>`.
+
+   .. attribute:: consumed
+
+      The total number of to be consumed bytes.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-future.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-future.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e6e013
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-future.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,250 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+.. _asyncio-futures:
+
+=======
+Futures
+=======
+
+*Future* objects are used to bridge **low-level callback-based code**
+with high-level async/await code.
+
+
+Future Functions
+================
+
+.. function:: isfuture(obj)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *obj* is either of:
+
+   * an instance of :class:`asyncio.Future`,
+   * an instance of :class:`asyncio.Task`,
+   * a Future-like object with a ``_asyncio_future_blocking``
+     attribute.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: ensure_future(obj, \*, loop=None)
+
+   Return:
+
+   * *obj* argument as is, if *obj* is a :class:`Future`,
+     a :class:`Task`, or a Future-like object (:func:`isfuture`
+     is used for the test.)
+
+   * a :class:`Task` object wrapping *obj*, if *obj* is a
+     coroutine (:func:`iscoroutine` is used for the test.)
+
+   * a :class:`Task` object that would await on *obj*, if *obj* is an
+     awaitable (:func:`inspect.isawaitable` is used for the test.)
+
+   If *obj* is neither of the above a :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   .. important::
+
+      See also the :func:`create_task` function which is the
+      preferred way for creating new Tasks.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5.1
+      The function accepts any :term:`awaitable` object.
+
+
+.. function:: wrap_future(future, \*, loop=None)
+
+   Wrap a :class:`concurrent.futures.Future` object in a
+   :class:`asyncio.Future` object.
+
+
+Future Object
+=============
+
+.. class:: Future(\*, loop=None)
+
+   A Future represents an eventual result of an asynchronous
+   operation.  Not thread-safe.
+
+   Future is an :term:`awaitable` object.  Coroutines can await on
+   Future objects until they either have a result or an exception
+   set, or until they are cancelled.
+
+   Typically Futures are used to enable low-level
+   callback-based code (e.g. in protocols implemented using asyncio
+   :ref:`transports <asyncio-transports-protocols>`)
+   to interoperate with high-level async/await code.
+
+   The rule of thumb is to never expose Future objects in user-facing
+   APIs, and the recommended way to create a Future object is to call
+   :meth:`loop.create_future`.  This way alternative event loop
+   implementations can inject their own optimized implementations
+   of a Future object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added support for the :mod:`contextvars` module.
+
+   .. method:: result()
+
+      Return the result of the Future.
+
+      If the Future is *done* and has a result set by the
+      :meth:`set_result` method, the result value is returned.
+
+      If the Future is *done* and has an exception set by the
+      :meth:`set_exception` method, this method raises the exception.
+
+      If the Future has been *cancelled*, this method raises
+      a :exc:`CancelledError` exception.
+
+      If the Future's result isn't yet available, this method raises
+      a :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
+
+   .. method:: set_result(result)
+
+      Mark the Future as *done* and set its result.
+
+      Raises a :exc:`InvalidStateError` error if the Future is
+      already *done*.
+
+   .. method:: set_exception(exception)
+
+      Mark the Future as *done* and set an exception.
+
+      Raises a :exc:`InvalidStateError` error if the Future is
+      already *done*.
+
+   .. method:: done()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the Future is *done*.
+
+      A Future is *done* if it was *cancelled* or if it has a result
+      or an exception set with :meth:`set_result` or
+      :meth:`set_exception` calls.
+
+   .. method:: cancelled()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the Future was *cancelled*.
+
+      The method is usually used to check if a Future is not
+      *cancelled* before setting a result or an exception for it::
+
+          if not fut.cancelled():
+              fut.set_result(42)
+
+   .. method:: add_done_callback(callback, *, context=None)
+
+      Add a callback to be run when the Future is *done*.
+
+      The *callback* is called with the Future object as its only
+      argument.
+
+      If the Future is already *done* when this method is called,
+      the callback is scheduled with :meth:`loop.call_soon`.
+
+      An optional keyword-only *context* argument allows specifying a
+      custom :class:`contextvars.Context` for the *callback* to run in.
+      The current context is used when no *context* is provided.
+
+      :func:`functools.partial` can be used to pass parameters
+      to the callback, e.g.::
+
+          # Call 'print("Future:", fut)' when "fut" is done.
+          fut.add_done_callback(
+              functools.partial(print, "Future:"))
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         The *context* keyword-only parameter was added.
+         See :pep:`567` for more details.
+
+   .. method:: remove_done_callback(callback)
+
+      Remove *callback* from the callbacks list.
+
+      Returns the number of callbacks removed, which is typically 1,
+      unless a callback was added more than once.
+
+   .. method:: cancel()
+
+      Cancel the Future and schedule callbacks.
+
+      If the Future is already *done* or *cancelled*, return ``False``.
+      Otherwise, change the Future's state to *cancelled*,
+      schedule the callbacks, and return ``True``.
+
+   .. method:: exception()
+
+      Return the exception that was set on this Future.
+
+      The exception (or ``None`` if no exception was set) is
+      returned only if the Future is *done*.
+
+      If the Future has been *cancelled*, this method raises a
+      :exc:`CancelledError` exception.
+
+      If the Future isn't *done* yet, this method raises an
+      :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
+
+   .. method:: get_loop()
+
+      Return the event loop the Future object is bound to.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. _asyncio_example_future:
+
+This example creates a Future object, creates and schedules an
+asynchronous Task to set result for the Future, and waits until
+the Future has a result::
+
+    async def set_after(fut, delay, value):
+        # Sleep for *delay* seconds.
+        await asyncio.sleep(delay)
+
+        # Set *value* as a result of *fut* Future.
+        fut.set_result(value)
+
+    async def main():
+        # Get the current event loop.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        # Create a new Future object.
+        fut = loop.create_future()
+
+        # Run "set_after()" coroutine in a parallel Task.
+        # We are using the low-level "loop.create_task()" API here because
+        # we already have a reference to the event loop at hand.
+        # Otherwise we could have just used "asyncio.create_task()".
+        loop.create_task(
+            set_after(fut, 1, '... world'))
+
+        print('hello ...')
+
+        # Wait until *fut* has a result (1 second) and print it.
+        print(await fut)
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+.. important::
+
+   The Future object was designed to mimic
+   :class:`concurrent.futures.Future`.  Key differences include:
+
+   - unlike asyncio Futures, :class:`concurrent.futures.Future`
+     instances cannot be awaited.
+
+   - :meth:`asyncio.Future.result` and :meth:`asyncio.Future.exception`
+     do not accept the *timeout* argument.
+
+   - :meth:`asyncio.Future.result` and :meth:`asyncio.Future.exception`
+     raise an :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception when the Future is not
+     *done*.
+
+   - Callbacks registered with :meth:`asyncio.Future.add_done_callback`
+     are not called immediately.  They are scheduled with
+     :meth:`loop.call_soon` instead.
+
+   - asyncio Future is not compatible with the
+     :func:`concurrent.futures.wait` and
+     :func:`concurrent.futures.as_completed` functions.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ab322a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,510 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+===================
+Low-level API Index
+===================
+
+This page lists all low-level asyncio APIs.
+
+
+Obtaining the Event Loop
+========================
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :func:`asyncio.get_running_loop`
+      - The **preferred** function to get the running event loop.
+
+    * - :func:`asyncio.get_event_loop`
+      - Get an event loop instance (current or via the policy).
+
+    * - :func:`asyncio.set_event_loop`
+      - Set the event loop as current via the current policy.
+
+    * - :func:`asyncio.new_event_loop`
+      - Create a new event loop.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Using asyncio.get_running_loop() <asyncio_example_future>`.
+
+
+Event Loop Methods
+==================
+
+See also the main documentation section about the
+:ref:`event loop methods <asyncio-event-loop>`.
+
+.. rubric:: Lifecycle
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.run_until_complete`
+      - Run a Future/Task/awaitable until complete.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.run_forever`
+      - Run the event loop forever.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.stop`
+      - Stop the event loop.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.close`
+      - Close the event loop.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.is_running()`
+      - Return ``True`` if the event loop is running.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.is_closed()`
+      - Return ``True`` if the event loop is closed.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.shutdown_asyncgens`
+      - Close asynchronous generators.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Debugging
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.set_debug`
+      - Enable or disable the debug mode.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.get_debug`
+      - Get the current debug mode.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Scheduling Callbacks
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.call_soon`
+      - Invoke a callback soon.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.call_soon_threadsafe`
+      - A thread-safe variant of :meth:`loop.call_soon`.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.call_later`
+      - Invoke a callback *after* the given time.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.call_at`
+      - Invoke a callback *at* the given time.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Thread/Process Pool
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.run_in_executor`
+      - Run a CPU-bound or other blocking function in
+        a :mod:`concurrent.futures` executor.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.set_default_executor`
+      - Set the default executor for :meth:`loop.run_in_executor`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Tasks and Futures
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.create_future`
+      - Create a :class:`Future` object.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.create_task`
+      - Schedule coroutine as a :class:`Task`.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.set_task_factory`
+      - Set a factory used by :meth:`loop.create_task` to
+        create :class:`Tasks <Task>`.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.get_task_factory`
+      - Get the factory :meth:`loop.create_task` uses
+        to create :class:`Tasks <Task>`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: DNS
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.getaddrinfo`
+      - Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.getaddrinfo`.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.getnameinfo`
+      - Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.getnameinfo`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Networking and IPC
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.create_connection`
+      - Open a TCP connection.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.create_server`
+      - Create a TCP server.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.create_unix_connection`
+      - Open a Unix socket connection.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.create_unix_server`
+      - Create a Unix socket server.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.connect_accepted_socket`
+      - Wrap a :class:`~socket.socket` into a ``(transport, protocol)``
+        pair.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint`
+      - Open a datagram (UDP) connection.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.sendfile`
+      - Send a file over a transport.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.start_tls`
+      - Upgrade an existing connection to TLS.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe`
+      - Wrap a read end of a pipe into a ``(transport, protocol)`` pair.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe`
+      - Wrap a write end of a pipe into a ``(transport, protocol)`` pair.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Sockets
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.sock_recv`
+      - Receive data from the :class:`~socket.socket`.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.sock_recv_into`
+      - Receive data from the :class:`~socket.socket` into a buffer.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.sock_sendall`
+      - Send data to the :class:`~socket.socket`.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.sock_connect`
+      - Connect the :class:`~socket.socket`.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.sock_accept`
+      - Accept a :class:`~socket.socket` connection.
+
+    * - ``await`` :meth:`loop.sock_sendfile`
+      - Send a file over the :class:`~socket.socket`.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.add_reader`
+      - Start watching a file descriptor for read availability.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.remove_reader`
+      - Stop watching a file descriptor for read availability.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.add_writer`
+      - Start watching a file descriptor for write availability.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.remove_writer`
+      - Stop watching a file descriptor for write availability.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Unix Signals
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.add_signal_handler`
+      - Add a handler for a :mod:`signal`.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.remove_signal_handler`
+      - Remove a handler for a :mod:`signal`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Subprocesses
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec`
+      - Spawn a subprocess.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.subprocess_shell`
+      - Spawn a subprocess from a shell command.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Error Handling
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.call_exception_handler`
+      - Call the exception handler.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.set_exception_handler`
+      - Set a new exception handler.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.get_exception_handler`
+      - Get the current exception handler.
+
+    * - :meth:`loop.default_exception_handler`
+      - The default exception handler implementation.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Examples
+
+* :ref:`Using asyncio.get_event_loop() and loop.run_forever()
+  <asyncio_example_lowlevel_helloworld>`.
+
+* :ref:`Using loop.call_later() <asyncio_example_call_later>`.
+
+* Using ``loop.create_connection()`` to implement
+  :ref:`an echo-client <asyncio_example_tcp_echo_client_protocol>`.
+
+* Using ``loop.create_connection()`` to
+  :ref:`connect a socket <asyncio_example_create_connection>`.
+
+* :ref:`Using add_reader() to watch an FD for read events
+  <asyncio_example_watch_fd>`.
+
+* :ref:`Using loop.add_signal_handler() <asyncio_example_unix_signals>`.
+
+* :ref:`Using loop.subprocess_exec() <asyncio_example_subprocess_proto>`.
+
+
+Transports
+==========
+
+All transports implement the following methods:
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.close() <BaseTransport.close>`
+      - Close the transport.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.is_closing() <BaseTransport.is_closing>`
+      - Return ``True`` if the transport is closing or is closed.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.get_extra_info() <BaseTransport.get_extra_info>`
+      - Request for information about the transport.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.set_protocol() <BaseTransport.set_protocol>`
+      - Set a new protocol.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.get_protocol() <BaseTransport.get_protocol>`
+      - Return the current protocol.
+
+
+Transports that can receive data (TCP and Unix connections,
+pipes, etc).  Returned from methods like
+:meth:`loop.create_connection`, :meth:`loop.create_unix_connection`,
+:meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe`, etc:
+
+.. rubric:: Read Transports
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.is_reading() <ReadTransport.is_reading>`
+      - Return ``True`` if the transport is receiving.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.pause_reading() <ReadTransport.pause_reading>`
+      - Pause receiving.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.resume_reading() <ReadTransport.resume_reading>`
+      - Resume receiving.
+
+
+Transports that can Send data (TCP and Unix connections,
+pipes, etc).  Returned from methods like
+:meth:`loop.create_connection`, :meth:`loop.create_unix_connection`,
+:meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe`, etc:
+
+.. rubric:: Write Transports
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.write() <WriteTransport.write>`
+      - Write data to the transport.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.writelines() <WriteTransport.writelines>`
+      - Write buffers to the transport.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.can_write_eof() <WriteTransport.can_write_eof>`
+      - Return :const:`True` if the transport supports sending EOF.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.write_eof() <WriteTransport.write_eof>`
+      - Close and send EOF after flushing buffered data.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.abort() <WriteTransport.abort>`
+      - Close the transport immediately.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.get_write_buffer_size()
+        <WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size>`
+      - Return high and low water marks for write flow control.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.set_write_buffer_limits()
+        <WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits>`
+      - Set new high and low water marks for write flow control.
+
+
+Transports returned by :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint`:
+
+.. rubric:: Datagram Transports
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.sendto() <DatagramTransport.sendto>`
+      - Send data to the remote peer.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.abort() <DatagramTransport.abort>`
+      - Close the transport immediately.
+
+
+Low-level transport abstraction over subprocesses.
+Returned by :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` and
+:meth:`loop.subprocess_shell`:
+
+.. rubric:: Subprocess Transports
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.get_pid() <SubprocessTransport.get_pid>`
+      - Return the subprocess process id.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.get_pipe_transport()
+        <SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport>`
+      - Return the transport for the requested communication pipe
+        (*stdin*, *stdout*, or *stderr*).
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.get_returncode() <SubprocessTransport.get_returncode>`
+      - Return the subprocess return code.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.kill() <SubprocessTransport.kill>`
+      - Kill the subprocess.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.send_signal() <SubprocessTransport.send_signal>`
+      - Send a signal to the subprocess.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.terminate() <SubprocessTransport.terminate>`
+      - Stop the subprocess.
+
+    * - :meth:`transport.close() <SubprocessTransport.close>`
+      - Kill the subprocess and close all pipes.
+
+
+Protocols
+=========
+
+Protocol classes can implement the following **callback methods**:
+
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`connection_made() <BaseProtocol.connection_made>`
+      - Called when a connection is made.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`connection_lost() <BaseProtocol.connection_lost>`
+      - Called when the connection is lost or closed.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`pause_writing() <BaseProtocol.pause_writing>`
+      - Called when the transport's buffer goes over the high water mark.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`resume_writing() <BaseProtocol.resume_writing>`
+      - Called when the transport's buffer drains below the low water mark.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Streaming Protocols (TCP, Unix Sockets, Pipes)
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`data_received() <Protocol.data_received>`
+      - Called when some data is received.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`eof_received() <Protocol.eof_received>`
+      - Called when an EOF is received.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Buffered Streaming Protocols
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`get_buffer() <BufferedProtocol.get_buffer>`
+      - Called to allocate a new receive buffer.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`buffer_updated() <BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated>`
+      - Called when the buffer was updated with the received data.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`eof_received() <BufferedProtocol.eof_received>`
+      - Called when an EOF is received.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Datagram Protocols
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`datagram_received()
+        <DatagramProtocol.datagram_received>`
+      - Called when a datagram is received.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`error_received() <DatagramProtocol.error_received>`
+      - Called when a previous send or receive operation raises an
+        :class:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Subprocess Protocols
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`pipe_data_received()
+        <SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received>`
+      - Called when the child process writes data into its
+        *stdout* or *stderr* pipe.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`pipe_connection_lost()
+        <SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost>`
+      - Called when one of the pipes communicating with
+        the child process is closed.
+
+    * - ``callback`` :meth:`process_exited()
+        <SubprocessProtocol.process_exited>`
+      - Called when the child process has exited.
+
+
+Event Loop Policies
+===================
+
+Policies is a low-level mechanism to alter the behavior of
+functions like :func:`asyncio.get_event_loop`.  See also
+the main :ref:`policies section <asyncio-policies>` for more
+details.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Accessing Policies
+.. list-table::
+    :widths: 50 50
+    :class: full-width-table
+
+    * - :meth:`asyncio.get_event_loop_policy`
+      - Return the current process-wide policy.
+
+    * - :meth:`asyncio.set_event_loop_policy`
+      - Set a new process-wide policy.
+
+    * - :class:`AbstractEventLoopPolicy`
+      - Base class for policy objects.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-platforms.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-platforms.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f8ecb58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-platforms.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+.. _asyncio-platform-support:
+
+
+================
+Platform Support
+================
+
+The :mod:`asyncio` module is designed to be portable,
+but some platforms have subtle differences and limitations
+due to the platforms' underlying architecture and capabilities.
+
+
+All Platforms
+=============
+
+* :meth:`loop.add_reader` and :meth:`loop.add_writer`
+  cannot be used to monitor file I/O.
+
+
+Windows
+=======
+
+All event loops on Windows do not support the following methods:
+
+* :meth:`loop.create_unix_connection` and
+  :meth:`loop.create_unix_server` are not supported.
+  The :data:`socket.AF_UNIX` socket family is specific to Unix.
+
+* :meth:`loop.add_signal_handler` and
+  :meth:`loop.remove_signal_handler` are not supported.
+
+:class:`SelectorEventLoop` has the following limitations:
+
+* :class:`~selectors.SelectSelector` is used to wait on socket events:
+  it supports sockets and is limited to 512 sockets.
+
+* :meth:`loop.add_reader` and :meth:`loop.add_writer` only accept
+  socket handles (e.g. pipe file descriptors are not supported).
+
+* Pipes are not supported, so the :meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe`
+  and :meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe` methods are not implemented.
+
+* :ref:`Subprocesses <asyncio-subprocess>` are not supported, i.e.
+  :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` and :meth:`loop.subprocess_shell`
+  methods are not implemented.
+
+:class:`ProactorEventLoop` has the following limitations:
+
+* The :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint` method
+  is not supported.
+
+* The :meth:`loop.add_reader` and :meth:`loop.add_writer`
+  methods are not supported.
+
+The resolution of the monotonic clock on Windows is usually around 15.6
+msec.  The best resolution is 0.5 msec. The resolution depends on the
+hardware (availability of `HPET
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer>`_) and on the
+Windows configuration.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-windows-subprocess:
+
+Subprocess Support on Windows
+-----------------------------
+
+:class:`SelectorEventLoop` on Windows does not support subproceses.
+On Windows, :class:`ProactorEventLoop` should be used instead::
+
+  import asyncio
+
+  asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(
+      asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy())
+
+  asyncio.run(your_code())
+
+
+The :meth:`policy.set_child_watcher()
+<AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher>` function is also
+not supported, as :class:`ProactorEventLoop` has a different mechanism
+to watch child processes.
+
+
+macOS
+=====
+
+Modern macOS versions are fully supported.
+
+.. rubric:: macOS <= 10.8
+
+On macOS 10.6, 10.7 and 10.8, the default event loop
+uses :class:`selectors.KqueueSelector`, which does not support
+character devices on these versions.  The :class:`SelectorEventLoop`
+can be manually configured to use :class:`~selectors.SelectSelector`
+or :class:`~selectors.PollSelector` to support character devices on
+these older versions of macOS.  Example::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import selectors
+
+    selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
+    loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
+    asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-policy.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-policy.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07842da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-policy.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,221 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+.. _asyncio-policies:
+
+========
+Policies
+========
+
+An event loop policy is a global per-process object that controls
+the management of the event loop. Each event loop has a default
+policy, which can be changed and customized using the policy API.
+
+A policy defines the notion of *context* and manages a
+separate event loop per context. The default policy
+defines *context* to be the current thread.
+
+By using a custom event loop policy, the behavior of
+:func:`get_event_loop`, :func:`set_event_loop`, and
+:func:`new_event_loop` functions can be customized.
+
+Policy objects should implement the APIs defined
+in the :class:`AbstractEventLoopPolicy` abstract base class.
+
+
+Getting and Setting the Policy
+==============================
+
+The following functions can be used to get and set the policy
+for the current process:
+
+.. function:: get_event_loop_policy()
+
+   Return the current process-wide policy.
+
+.. function:: set_event_loop_policy(policy)
+
+   Set the current process-wide policy to *policy*.
+
+   If *policy* is set to ``None``, the default policy is restored.
+
+
+Policy Objects
+==============
+
+The abstract event loop policy base class is defined as follows:
+
+.. class:: AbstractEventLoopPolicy
+
+   An abstract base class for asyncio policies.
+
+   .. method:: get_event_loop()
+
+      Get the event loop for the current context.
+
+      Return an event loop object implementing the
+      :class:`AbstractEventLoop` interface.
+
+      This method should never return ``None``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+   .. method:: set_event_loop(loop)
+
+      Set the event loop for the current context to *loop*.
+
+   .. method:: new_event_loop()
+
+      Create and return a new event loop object.
+
+      This method should never return ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: get_child_watcher()
+
+      Get a child process watcher object.
+
+      Return a watcher object implementing the
+      :class:`AbstractChildWatcher` interface.
+
+      This function is Unix specific.
+
+   .. method:: set_child_watcher(watcher)
+
+      Set the current child process watcher to *watcher*.
+
+      This function is Unix specific.
+
+
+asyncio ships with the following built-in policies:
+
+
+.. class:: DefaultEventLoopPolicy
+
+   The default asyncio policy.  Uses :class:`SelectorEventLoop`
+   on both Unix and Windows platforms.
+
+   There is no need to install the default policy manually. asyncio
+   is configured to use the default policy automatically.
+
+
+.. class:: WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy
+
+   An alternative event loop policy that uses the
+   :class:`ProactorEventLoop` event loop implementation.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+Process Watchers
+================
+
+A process watcher allows customization of how an event loop monitors
+child processes on Unix. Specifically, the event loop needs to know
+when a child process has exited.
+
+In asyncio, child processes are created with
+:func:`create_subprocess_exec` and :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec`
+functions.
+
+asyncio defines the :class:`AbstractChildWatcher` abstract base class,
+which child watchers should implement, and has two different
+implementations: :class:`SafeChildWatcher` (configured to be used
+by default) and :class:`FastChildWatcher`.
+
+See also the :ref:`Subprocess and Threads <asyncio-subprocess-threads>`
+section.
+
+The following two functions can be used to customize the child process watcher
+implementation used by the asyncio event loop:
+
+.. function:: get_child_watcher()
+
+   Return the current child watcher for the current policy.
+
+.. function:: set_child_watcher(watcher)
+
+   Set the current child watcher to *watcher* for the current
+   policy.  *watcher* must implement methods defined in the
+   :class:`AbstractChildWatcher` base class.
+
+.. note::
+   Third-party event loops implementations might not support
+   custom child watchers.  For such event loops, using
+   :func:`set_child_watcher` might be prohibited or have no effect.
+
+.. class:: AbstractChildWatcher
+
+   .. method:: add_child_handler(pid, callback, \*args)
+
+      Register a new child handler.
+
+      Arrange for ``callback(pid, returncode, *args)`` to be called
+      when a process with PID equal to *pid* terminates.  Specifying
+      another callback for the same process replaces the previous
+      handler.
+
+      The *callback* callable must be thread-safe.
+
+   .. method:: remove_child_handler(pid)
+
+      Removes the handler for process with PID equal to *pid*.
+
+      The function returns ``True`` if the handler was successfully
+      removed, ``False`` if there was nothing to remove.
+
+   .. method:: attach_loop(loop)
+
+      Attach the watcher to an event loop.
+
+      If the watcher was previously attached to an event loop, then
+      it is first detached before attaching to the new loop.
+
+      Note: loop may be ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the watcher.
+
+      This method has to be called to ensure that underlying
+      resources are cleaned-up.
+
+.. class:: SafeChildWatcher
+
+   This implementation avoids disrupting other code spawning processes
+   by polling every process explicitly on a :py:data:`SIGCHLD` signal.
+
+   This is a safe solution but it has a significant overhead when
+   handling a big number of processes (*O(n)* each time a
+   :py:data:`SIGCHLD` is received).
+
+   asyncio uses this safe implementation by default.
+
+.. class:: FastChildWatcher
+
+   This implementation reaps every terminated processes by calling
+   ``os.waitpid(-1)`` directly, possibly breaking other code spawning
+   processes and waiting for their termination.
+
+   There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
+   children (*O(1)* each time a child terminates).
+
+
+Custom Policies
+===============
+
+To implement a new event loop policy, it is recommended to subclass
+:class:`DefaultEventLoopPolicy` and override the methods for which
+custom behavior is wanted, e.g.::
+
+    class MyEventLoopPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):
+
+        def get_event_loop(self):
+            """Get the event loop.
+
+            This may be None or an instance of EventLoop.
+            """
+            loop = super().get_event_loop()
+            # Do something with loop ...
+            return loop
+
+    asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyEventLoopPolicy())
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-protocol.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-protocol.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8d7947
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-protocol.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1041 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+.. _asyncio-transports-protocols:
+
+
+========================
+Transports and Protocols
+========================
+
+.. rubric:: Preface
+
+Transports and Protocols are used by the **low-level** event loop
+APIs such as :meth:`loop.create_connection`.  They use
+callback-based programming style and enable high-performance
+implementations of network or IPC protocols (e.g. HTTP).
+
+Essentially, transports and protocols should only be used in
+libraries and frameworks and never in high-level asyncio
+applications.
+
+This documentation page covers both `Transports`_ and `Protocols`_.
+
+.. rubric:: Introduction
+
+At the highest level, the transport is concerned with *how* bytes
+are transmitted, while the protocol determines *which* bytes to
+transmit (and to some extent when).
+
+A different way of saying the same thing: a transport is an
+abstraction for a socket (or similar I/O endpoint) while a protocol
+is an abstraction for an application, from the transport's point
+of view.
+
+Yet another view is the transport and protocol interfaces
+together define an abstract interface for using network I/O and
+interprocess I/O.
+
+There is always a 1:1 relationship between transport and protocol
+objects: the protocol calls transport methods to send data,
+while the transport calls protocol methods to pass it data that
+has been received.
+
+Most of connection oriented event loop methods
+(such as :meth:`loop.create_connection`) usually accept a
+*protocol_factory* argument used to create a *Protocol* object
+for an accepted connection, represented by a *Transport* object.
+Such methods usually return a tuple of ``(transport, protocol)``.
+
+.. rubric:: Contents
+
+This documentation page contains the following sections:
+
+* The `Transports`_ section documents asyncio :class:`BaseTransport`,
+  :class:`ReadTransport`, :class:`WriteTransport`, :class:`Transport`,
+  :class:`DatagramTransport`, and :class:`SubprocessTransport`
+  classes.
+
+* The `Protocols`_ section documents asyncio :class:`BaseProtocol`,
+  :class:`Protocol`, :class:`BufferedProtocol`,
+  :class:`DatagramProtocol`, and :class:`SubprocessProtocol` classes.
+
+* The `Examples`_ section showcases how to work with transports,
+  protocols, and low-level event loop APIs.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-transport:
+
+Transports
+==========
+
+Transports are classes provided by :mod:`asyncio` in order to abstract
+various kinds of communication channels.
+
+Transport objects are always instantiated by an
+:ref:`asyncio event loop <asyncio-event-loop>`.
+
+asyncio implements transports for TCP, UDP, SSL, and subprocess pipes.
+The methods available on a transport depend on the transport's kind.
+
+The transport classes are :ref:`not thread safe <asyncio-multithreading>`.
+
+
+Transports Hierarchy
+--------------------
+
+.. class:: BaseTransport
+
+   Base class for all transports.  Contains methods that all
+   asyncio transports share.
+
+.. class:: WriteTransport(BaseTransport)
+
+   A base transport for write-only connections.
+
+   Instances of the *WriteTransport* class are returned from
+   the :meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe` event loop method and
+   are also used by subprocess-related methods like
+   :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec`.
+
+.. class:: ReadTransport(BaseTransport)
+
+   A base transport for read-only connections.
+
+   Instances of the *ReadTransport* class are returned from
+   the :meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe` event loop method and
+   are also used by subprocess-related methods like
+   :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec`.
+
+.. class:: Transport(WriteTransport, ReadTransport)
+
+   Interface representing a bidirectional transport, such as a
+   TCP connection.
+
+   The user does not instantiate a transport directly; they call a
+   utility function, passing it a protocol factory and other
+   information necessary to create the transport and protocol.
+
+   Instances of the *Transport* class are returned from or used by
+   event loop methods like :meth:`loop.create_connection`,
+   :meth:`loop.create_unix_connection`,
+   :meth:`loop.create_server`, :meth:`loop.sendfile`, etc.
+
+
+.. class:: DatagramTransport(BaseTransport)
+
+   A transport for datagram (UDP) connections.
+
+   Instances of the *DatagramTransport* class are returned from
+   the :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint` event loop method.
+
+
+.. class:: SubprocessTransport(BaseTransport)
+
+   An abstraction to represent a connection between a parent and its
+   child OS process.
+
+   Instances of the *SubprocessTransport* class are returned from
+   event loop methods :meth:`loop.subprocess_shell` and
+   :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec`.
+
+
+Base Transport
+--------------
+
+.. method:: BaseTransport.close()
+
+   Close the transport.
+
+   If the transport has a buffer for outgoing
+   data, buffered data will be flushed asynchronously.  No more data
+   will be received.  After all buffered data is flushed, the
+   protocol's :meth:`protocol.connection_lost()
+   <BaseProtocol.connection_lost>` method will be called with
+   :const:`None` as its argument.
+
+.. method:: BaseTransport.is_closing()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the transport is closing or is closed.
+
+.. method:: BaseTransport.get_extra_info(name, default=None)
+
+   Return information about the transport or underlying resources
+   it uses.
+
+   *name* is a string representing the piece of transport-specific
+   information to get.
+
+   *default* is the value to return if the information is not
+   available, or if the transport does not support querying it
+   with the given third-party event loop implementation or on the
+   current platform.
+
+   For example, the following code attempts to get the underlying
+   socket object of the transport::
+
+      sock = transport.get_extra_info('socket')
+      if sock is not None:
+          print(sock.getsockopt(...))
+
+   Categories of information that can be queried on some transports:
+
+   * socket:
+
+     - ``'peername'``: the remote address to which the socket is
+       connected, result of :meth:`socket.socket.getpeername`
+       (``None`` on error)
+
+     - ``'socket'``: :class:`socket.socket` instance
+
+     - ``'sockname'``: the socket's own address,
+       result of :meth:`socket.socket.getsockname`
+
+   * SSL socket:
+
+     - ``'compression'``: the compression algorithm being used as a
+       string, or ``None`` if the connection isn't compressed; result
+       of :meth:`ssl.SSLSocket.compression`
+
+     - ``'cipher'``: a three-value tuple containing the name of the
+       cipher being used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines
+       its use, and the number of secret bits being used; result of
+       :meth:`ssl.SSLSocket.cipher`
+
+     - ``'peercert'``: peer certificate; result of
+       :meth:`ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert`
+
+     - ``'sslcontext'``: :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance
+
+     - ``'ssl_object'``: :class:`ssl.SSLObject` or
+       :class:`ssl.SSLSocket` instance
+
+   * pipe:
+
+     - ``'pipe'``: pipe object
+
+   * subprocess:
+
+     - ``'subprocess'``: :class:`subprocess.Popen` instance
+
+.. method:: BaseTransport.set_protocol(protocol)
+
+   Set a new protocol.
+
+   Switching protocol should only be done when both
+   protocols are documented to support the switch.
+
+.. method:: BaseTransport.get_protocol()
+
+   Return the current protocol.
+
+
+Read-only Transports
+--------------------
+
+.. method:: ReadTransport.is_reading()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the transport is receiving new data.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. method:: ReadTransport.pause_reading()
+
+   Pause the receiving end of the transport.  No data will be passed to
+   the protocol's :meth:`protocol.data_received() <Protocol.data_received>`
+   method until :meth:`resume_reading` is called.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The method is idempotent, i.e. it can be called when the
+      transport is already paused or closed.
+
+.. method:: ReadTransport.resume_reading()
+
+   Resume the receiving end.  The protocol's
+   :meth:`protocol.data_received() <Protocol.data_received>` method
+   will be called once again if some data is available for reading.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The method is idempotent, i.e. it can be called when the
+      transport is already reading.
+
+
+Write-only Transports
+---------------------
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.abort()
+
+   Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending operations
+   to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data will be received.
+   The protocol's :meth:`protocol.connection_lost()
+   <BaseProtocol.connection_lost>` method will eventually be
+   called with :const:`None` as its argument.
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.can_write_eof()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if the transport supports
+   :meth:`~WriteTransport.write_eof`, :const:`False` if not.
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size()
+
+   Return the current size of the output buffer used by the transport.
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits()
+
+   Get the *high* and *low* watermarks for write flow control. Return a
+   tuple ``(low, high)`` where *low* and *high* are positive number of
+   bytes.
+
+   Use :meth:`set_write_buffer_limits` to set the limits.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4.2
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits(high=None, low=None)
+
+   Set the *high* and *low* watermarks for write flow control.
+
+   These two values (measured in number of
+   bytes) control when the protocol's
+   :meth:`protocol.pause_writing() <BaseProtocol.pause_writing>`
+   and :meth:`protocol.resume_writing() <BaseProtocol.resume_writing>`
+   methods are called. If specified, the low watermark must be less
+   than or equal to the high watermark.  Neither *high* nor *low*
+   can be negative.
+
+   :meth:`~BaseProtocol.pause_writing` is called when the buffer size
+   becomes greater than or equal to the *high* value. If writing has
+   been paused, :meth:`~BaseProtocol.resume_writing` is called when
+   the buffer size becomes less than or equal to the *low* value.
+
+   The defaults are implementation-specific.  If only the
+   high watermark is given, the low watermark defaults to an
+   implementation-specific value less than or equal to the
+   high watermark.  Setting *high* to zero forces *low* to zero as
+   well, and causes :meth:`~BaseProtocol.pause_writing` to be called
+   whenever the buffer becomes non-empty.  Setting *low* to zero causes
+   :meth:`~BaseProtocol.resume_writing` to be called only once the
+   buffer is empty. Use of zero for either limit is generally
+   sub-optimal as it reduces opportunities for doing I/O and
+   computation concurrently.
+
+   Use :meth:`~WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits`
+   to get the limits.
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.write(data)
+
+   Write some *data* bytes to the transport.
+
+   This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
+   to be sent out asynchronously.
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.writelines(list_of_data)
+
+   Write a list (or any iterable) of data bytes to the transport.
+   This is functionally equivalent to calling :meth:`write` on each
+   element yielded by the iterable, but may be implemented more
+   efficiently.
+
+.. method:: WriteTransport.write_eof()
+
+   Close the write end of the transport after flushing all buffered data.
+   Data may still be received.
+
+   This method can raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` if the transport
+   (e.g. SSL) doesn't support half-closed connections.
+
+
+Datagram Transports
+-------------------
+
+.. method:: DatagramTransport.sendto(data, addr=None)
+
+   Send the *data* bytes to the remote peer given by *addr* (a
+   transport-dependent target address).  If *addr* is :const:`None`,
+   the data is sent to the target address given on transport
+   creation.
+
+   This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges
+   for it to be sent out asynchronously.
+
+.. method:: DatagramTransport.abort()
+
+   Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
+   operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.
+   No more data will be received.  The protocol's
+   :meth:`protocol.connection_lost() <BaseProtocol.connection_lost>`
+   method will eventually be called with :const:`None` as its argument.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-subprocess-transports:
+
+Subprocess Transports
+---------------------
+
+.. method:: SubprocessTransport.get_pid()
+
+   Return the subprocess process id as an integer.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport(fd)
+
+   Return the transport for the communication pipe corresponding to the
+   integer file descriptor *fd*:
+
+   * ``0``: readable streaming transport of the standard input (*stdin*),
+     or :const:`None` if the subprocess was not created with ``stdin=PIPE``
+   * ``1``: writable streaming transport of the standard output (*stdout*),
+     or :const:`None` if the subprocess was not created with ``stdout=PIPE``
+   * ``2``: writable streaming transport of the standard error (*stderr*),
+     or :const:`None` if the subprocess was not created with ``stderr=PIPE``
+   * other *fd*: :const:`None`
+
+.. method:: SubprocessTransport.get_returncode()
+
+   Return the subprocess return code as an integer or :const:`None`
+   if it hasn't returned, which is similar to the
+   :attr:`subprocess.Popen.returncode` attribute.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessTransport.kill()
+
+   Kill the subprocess.
+
+   On POSIX systems, the function sends SIGKILL to the subprocess.
+   On Windows, this method is an alias for :meth:`terminate`.
+
+   See also :meth:`subprocess.Popen.kill`.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessTransport.send_signal(signal)
+
+   Send the *signal* number to the subprocess, as in
+   :meth:`subprocess.Popen.send_signal`.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessTransport.terminate()
+
+   Stop the subprocess.
+
+   On POSIX systems, this method sends SIGTERM to the subprocess.
+   On Windows, the Windows API function TerminateProcess() is called to
+   stop the subprocess.
+
+   See also :meth:`subprocess.Popen.terminate`.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessTransport.close()
+
+   Kill the subprocess by calling the :meth:`kill` method.
+
+   If the subprocess hasn't returned yet, and close transports of
+   *stdin*, *stdout*, and *stderr* pipes.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-protocol:
+
+Protocols
+=========
+
+asyncio provides a set of abstract base classes that should be used
+to implement network protocols.  Those classes are meant to be used
+together with :ref:`transports <asyncio-transport>`.
+
+Subclasses of abstract base protocol classes may implement some or
+all methods.  All these methods are callbacks: they are called by
+transports on certain events, for example when some data is received.
+A base protocol method should be called by the corresponding transport.
+
+
+Base Protocols
+--------------
+
+.. class:: BaseProtocol
+
+   Base protocol with methods that all protocols share.
+
+.. class:: Protocol(BaseProtocol)
+
+   The base class for implementing streaming protocols
+   (TCP, Unix sockets, etc).
+
+.. class:: BufferedProtocol(BaseProtocol)
+
+   A base class for implementing streaming protocols with manual
+   control of the receive buffer.
+
+.. class:: DatagramProtocol(BaseProtocol)
+
+   The base class for implementing datagram (UDP) protocols.
+
+.. class:: SubprocessProtocol(BaseProtocol)
+
+   The base class for implementing protocols communicating with child
+   processes (unidirectional pipes).
+
+
+Base Protocol
+-------------
+
+All asyncio protocols can implement Base Protocol callbacks.
+
+.. rubric:: Connection Callbacks
+
+Connection callbacks are called on all protocols, exactly once per
+a successful connection.  All other protocol callbacks can only be
+called between those two methods.
+
+.. method:: BaseProtocol.connection_made(transport)
+
+   Called when a connection is made.
+
+   The *transport* argument is the transport representing the
+   connection.  The protocol is responsible for storing the reference
+   to its transport.
+
+.. method:: BaseProtocol.connection_lost(exc)
+
+   Called when the connection is lost or closed.
+
+   The argument is either an exception object or :const:`None`.
+   The latter means a regular EOF is received, or the connection was
+   aborted or closed by this side of the connection.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Flow Control Callbacks
+
+Flow control callbacks can be called by transports to pause or
+resume writing performed by the protocol.
+
+See the documentation of the :meth:`~WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits`
+method for more details.
+
+.. method:: BaseProtocol.pause_writing()
+
+   Called when the transport's buffer goes over the high watermark.
+
+.. method:: BaseProtocol.resume_writing()
+
+   Called when the transport's buffer drains below the low watermark.
+
+If the buffer size equals the high watermark,
+:meth:`~BaseProtocol.pause_writing` is not called: the buffer size must
+go strictly over.
+
+Conversely, :meth:`~BaseProtocol.resume_writing` is called when the
+buffer size is equal or lower than the low watermark.  These end
+conditions are important to ensure that things go as expected when
+either mark is zero.
+
+
+Streaming Protocols
+-------------------
+
+Event methods, such as :meth:`loop.create_server`,
+:meth:`loop.create_unix_server`, :meth:`loop.create_connection`,
+:meth:`loop.create_unix_connection`, :meth:`loop.connect_accepted_socket`,
+:meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe`, and :meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe`
+accept factories that return streaming protocols.
+
+.. method:: Protocol.data_received(data)
+
+   Called when some data is received.  *data* is a non-empty bytes
+   object containing the incoming data.
+
+   Whether the data is buffered, chunked or reassembled depends on
+   the transport.  In general, you shouldn't rely on specific semantics
+   and instead make your parsing generic and flexible. However,
+   data is always received in the correct order.
+
+   The method can be called an arbitrary number of times while
+   a connection is open.
+
+   However, :meth:`protocol.eof_received() <Protocol.eof_received>`
+   is called at most once.  Once `eof_received()` is called,
+   ``data_received()`` is not called anymore.
+
+.. method:: Protocol.eof_received()
+
+   Called when the other end signals it won't send any more data
+   (for example by calling :meth:`transport.write_eof()
+   <WriteTransport.write_eof>`, if the other end also uses
+   asyncio).
+
+   This method may return a false value (including ``None``), in which case
+   the transport will close itself.  Conversely, if this method returns a
+   true value, the protocol used determines whether to close the transport.
+   Since the default implementation returns ``None``, it implicitly closes the
+   connection.
+
+   Some transports, including SSL, don't support half-closed connections,
+   in which case returning true from this method will result in the connection
+   being closed.
+
+
+State machine:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    start -> connection_made
+        [-> data_received]*
+        [-> eof_received]?
+    -> connection_lost -> end
+
+
+Buffered Streaming Protocols
+----------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+   **Important:** this has been added to asyncio in Python 3.7
+   *on a provisional basis*!  This is as an experimental API that
+   might be changed or removed completely in Python 3.8.
+
+Buffered Protocols can be used with any event loop method
+that supports `Streaming Protocols`_.
+
+``BufferedProtocol`` implementations allow explicit manual allocation
+and control of the receive buffer.  Event loops can then use the buffer
+provided by the protocol to avoid unnecessary data copies.  This
+can result in noticeable performance improvement for protocols that
+receive big amounts of data.  Sophisticated protocol implementations
+can significantly reduce the number of buffer allocations.
+
+The following callbacks are called on :class:`BufferedProtocol`
+instances:
+
+.. method:: BufferedProtocol.get_buffer(sizehint)
+
+   Called to allocate a new receive buffer.
+
+   *sizehint* is the recommended minimum size for the returned
+   buffer.  It is acceptable to return smaller or larger buffers
+   than what *sizehint* suggests.  When set to -1, the buffer size
+   can be arbitrary. It is an error to return a buffer with a zero size.
+
+   ``get_buffer()`` must return an object implementing the
+   :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`.
+
+.. method:: BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated(nbytes)
+
+   Called when the buffer was updated with the received data.
+
+   *nbytes* is the total number of bytes that were written to the buffer.
+
+.. method:: BufferedProtocol.eof_received()
+
+   See the documentation of the :meth:`protocol.eof_received()
+   <Protocol.eof_received>` method.
+
+
+:meth:`~BufferedProtocol.get_buffer` can be called an arbitrary number
+of times during a connection.  However, :meth:`protocol.eof_received()
+<Protocol.eof_received>` is called at most once
+and, if called, :meth:`~BufferedProtocol.get_buffer` and
+:meth:`~BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated` won't be called after it.
+
+State machine:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    start -> connection_made
+        [-> get_buffer
+            [-> buffer_updated]?
+        ]*
+        [-> eof_received]?
+    -> connection_lost -> end
+
+
+Datagram Protocols
+------------------
+
+Datagram Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol
+factories passed to the :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint` method.
+
+.. method:: DatagramProtocol.datagram_received(data, addr)
+
+   Called when a datagram is received.  *data* is a bytes object containing
+   the incoming data.  *addr* is the address of the peer sending the data;
+   the exact format depends on the transport.
+
+.. method:: DatagramProtocol.error_received(exc)
+
+   Called when a previous send or receive operation raises an
+   :class:`OSError`.  *exc* is the :class:`OSError` instance.
+
+   This method is called in rare conditions, when the transport (e.g. UDP)
+   detects that a datagram could not be delivered to its recipient.
+   In many conditions though, undeliverable datagrams will be silently
+   dropped.
+
+.. note::
+
+   On BSD systems (macOS, FreeBSD, etc.) flow control is not supported
+   for datagram protocols, because there is no reliable way to detect send
+   failures caused by writing too many packets.
+
+   The socket always appears 'ready' and excess packets are dropped. An
+   :class:`OSError` with ``errno`` set to :const:`errno.ENOBUFS` may
+   or may not be raised; if it is raised, it will be reported to
+   :meth:`DatagramProtocol.error_received` but otherwise ignored.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-subprocess-protocols:
+
+Subprocess Protocols
+--------------------
+
+Datagram Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol
+factories passed to the :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` and
+:meth:`loop.subprocess_shell` methods.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received(fd, data)
+
+   Called when the child process writes data into its stdout or stderr
+   pipe.
+
+   *fd* is the integer file descriptor of the pipe.
+
+   *data* is a non-empty bytes object containing the received data.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost(fd, exc)
+
+   Called when one of the pipes communicating with the child process
+   is closed.
+
+   *fd* is the integer file descriptor that was closed.
+
+.. method:: SubprocessProtocol.process_exited()
+
+   Called when the child process has exited.
+
+
+Examples
+========
+
+.. _asyncio_example_tcp_echo_server_protocol:
+
+TCP Echo Server
+---------------
+
+Create a TCP echo server using the :meth:`loop.create_server` method, send back
+received data, and close the connection::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+
+    class EchoServerProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
+        def connection_made(self, transport):
+            peername = transport.get_extra_info('peername')
+            print('Connection from {}'.format(peername))
+            self.transport = transport
+
+        def data_received(self, data):
+            message = data.decode()
+            print('Data received: {!r}'.format(message))
+
+            print('Send: {!r}'.format(message))
+            self.transport.write(data)
+
+            print('Close the client socket')
+            self.transport.close()
+
+
+    async def main():
+        # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
+        # low-level APIs.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        server = await loop.create_server(
+            lambda: EchoServerProtocol(),
+            '127.0.0.1', 8888)
+
+        async with server:
+            await server.serve_forever()
+
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`TCP echo server using streams <asyncio-tcp-echo-server-streams>`
+   example uses the high-level :func:`asyncio.start_server` function.
+
+.. _asyncio_example_tcp_echo_client_protocol:
+
+TCP Echo Client
+---------------
+
+A TCP echo client using the :meth:`loop.create_connection` method, sends
+data, and waits until the connection is closed::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+
+    class EchoClientProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
+        def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost, loop):
+            self.message = message
+            self.loop = loop
+            self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost
+
+        def connection_made(self, transport):
+            transport.write(self.message.encode())
+            print('Data sent: {!r}'.format(self.message))
+
+        def data_received(self, data):
+            print('Data received: {!r}'.format(data.decode()))
+
+        def connection_lost(self, exc):
+            print('The server closed the connection')
+            self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)
+
+
+    async def main():
+        # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
+        # low-level APIs.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
+        message = 'Hello World!'
+
+        transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
+            lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost, loop),
+            '127.0.0.1', 8888)
+
+        # Wait until the protocol signals that the connection
+        # is lost and close the transport.
+        try:
+            await on_con_lost
+        finally:
+            transport.close()
+
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`TCP echo client using streams <asyncio-tcp-echo-client-streams>`
+   example uses the high-level :func:`asyncio.open_connection` function.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-udp-echo-server-protocol:
+
+UDP Echo Server
+---------------
+
+A UDP echo server, using the :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint`
+method, sends back received data::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+
+    class EchoServerProtocol:
+        def connection_made(self, transport):
+            self.transport = transport
+
+        def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
+            message = data.decode()
+            print('Received %r from %s' % (message, addr))
+            print('Send %r to %s' % (message, addr))
+            self.transport.sendto(data, addr)
+
+
+    async def main():
+        print("Starting UDP server")
+
+        # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
+        # low-level APIs.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        # One protocol instance will be created to serve all
+        # client requests.
+        transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
+            lambda: EchoServerProtocol(),
+            local_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))
+
+        try:
+            await asyncio.sleep(3600)  # Serve for 1 hour.
+        finally:
+            transport.close()
+
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+.. _asyncio-udp-echo-client-protocol:
+
+UDP Echo Client
+---------------
+
+A UDP echo client, using the :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint`
+method, sends data and closes the transport when it receives the answer::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+
+    class EchoClientProtocol:
+        def __init__(self, message, loop):
+            self.message = message
+            self.loop = loop
+            self.transport = None
+            self.on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
+
+        def connection_made(self, transport):
+            self.transport = transport
+            print('Send:', self.message)
+            self.transport.sendto(self.message.encode())
+
+        def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
+            print("Received:", data.decode())
+
+            print("Close the socket")
+            self.transport.close()
+
+        def error_received(self, exc):
+            print('Error received:', exc)
+
+        def connection_lost(self, exc):
+            print("Connection closed")
+            self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)
+
+
+    async def main():
+        # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
+        # low-level APIs.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        message = "Hello World!"
+        transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
+            lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, loop),
+            remote_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))
+
+        try:
+            await protocol.on_con_lost
+        finally:
+            transport.close()
+
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+.. _asyncio_example_create_connection:
+
+Connecting Existing Sockets
+---------------------------
+
+Wait until a socket receives data using the
+:meth:`loop.create_connection` method with a protocol::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import socket
+
+
+    class MyProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
+
+        def __init__(self, loop):
+            self.transport = None
+            self.on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
+
+        def connection_made(self, transport):
+            self.transport = transport
+
+        def data_received(self, data):
+            print("Received:", data.decode())
+
+            # We are done: close the transport;
+            # connection_lost() will be called automatically.
+            self.transport.close()
+
+        def connection_lost(self, exc):
+            # The socket has been closed
+            self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)
+
+
+    async def main():
+        # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
+        # low-level APIs.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        # Create a pair of connected sockets
+        rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()
+
+        # Register the socket to wait for data.
+        transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
+            lambda: MyProtocol(loop), sock=rsock)
+
+        # Simulate the reception of data from the network.
+        loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())
+
+        try:
+            await protocol.on_con_lost
+        finally:
+            transport.close()
+            wsock.close()
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`watch a file descriptor for read events
+   <asyncio_example_watch_fd>` example uses the low-level
+   :meth:`loop.add_reader` method to register an FD.
+
+   The :ref:`register an open socket to wait for data using streams
+   <asyncio_example_create_connection-streams>` example uses high-level streams
+   created by the :func:`open_connection` function in a coroutine.
+
+.. _asyncio_example_subprocess_proto:
+
+loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol
+---------------------------------------------
+
+An example of a subprocess protocol used to get the output of a
+subprocess and to wait for the subprocess exit.
+
+The subprocess is created by th :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` method::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import sys
+
+    class DateProtocol(asyncio.SubprocessProtocol):
+        def __init__(self, exit_future):
+            self.exit_future = exit_future
+            self.output = bytearray()
+
+        def pipe_data_received(self, fd, data):
+            self.output.extend(data)
+
+        def process_exited(self):
+            self.exit_future.set_result(True)
+
+    async def get_date():
+        # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
+        # low-level APIs.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
+        exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)
+
+        # Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;
+        # redirect the standard output into a pipe.
+        transport, protocol = await loop.subprocess_exec(
+            lambda: DateProtocol(exit_future),
+            sys.executable, '-c', code,
+            stdin=None, stderr=None)
+
+        # Wait for the subprocess exit using the process_exited()
+        # method of the protocol.
+        await exit_future
+
+        # Close the stdout pipe.
+        transport.close()
+
+        # Read the output which was collected by the
+        # pipe_data_received() method of the protocol.
+        data = bytes(protocol.output)
+        return data.decode('ascii').rstrip()
+
+    if sys.platform == "win32":
+        asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(
+            asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy())
+
+    date = asyncio.run(get_date())
+    print(f"Current date: {date}")
+
+See also the :ref:`same example <asyncio_example_create_subprocess_exec>`
+written using high-level APIs.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-queue.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-queue.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7be1023
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-queue.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,200 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+.. _asyncio-queues:
+
+======
+Queues
+======
+
+asyncio queues are designed to be similar to classes of the
+:mod:`queue` module.  Although asyncio queues are not thread-safe,
+they are designed to be used specifically in async/await code.
+
+Note that methods of asyncio queues don't have a *timeout* parameter;
+use :func:`asyncio.wait_for` function to do queue operations with a
+timeout.
+
+See also the `Examples`_ section below.
+
+Queue
+=====
+
+.. class:: Queue(maxsize=0, \*, loop=None)
+
+   A first in, first out (FIFO) queue.
+
+   If *maxsize* is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is
+   infinite.  If it is an integer greater than ``0``, then
+   ``await put()`` blocks when the queue reaches *maxsize*
+   until an item is removed by :meth:`get`.
+
+   Unlike the standard library threading :mod:`queue`, the size of
+   the queue is always known and can be returned by calling the
+   :meth:`qsize` method.
+
+   This class is :ref:`not thread safe <asyncio-multithreading>`.
+
+   .. attribute:: maxsize
+
+      Number of items allowed in the queue.
+
+   .. method:: empty()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the queue is empty, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: full()
+
+      Return ``True`` if there are :attr:`maxsize` items in the queue.
+
+      If the queue was initialized with ``maxsize=0`` (the default),
+      then :meth:`full()` never returns ``True``.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: get()
+
+      Remove and return an item from the queue. If queue is empty,
+      wait until an item is available.
+
+   .. method:: get_nowait()
+
+      Return an item if one is immediately available, else raise
+      :exc:`QueueEmpty`.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: join()
+
+      Block until all items in the queue have been received and processed.
+
+      The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added
+      to the queue. The count goes down whenever a consumer coroutine calls
+      :meth:`task_done` to indicate that the item was retrieved and all
+      work on it is complete.  When the count of unfinished tasks drops
+      to zero, :meth:`join` unblocks.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: put(item)
+
+      Put an item into the queue. If the queue is full, wait until a
+      free slot is available before adding the item.
+
+   .. method:: put_nowait(item)
+
+      Put an item into the queue without blocking.
+
+      If no free slot is immediately available, raise :exc:`QueueFull`.
+
+   .. method:: qsize()
+
+      Return the number of items in the queue.
+
+   .. method:: task_done()
+
+      Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.
+
+      Used by queue consumers. For each :meth:`~Queue.get` used to
+      fetch a task, a subsequent call to :meth:`task_done` tells the
+      queue that the processing on the task is complete.
+
+      If a :meth:`join` is currently blocking, it will resume when all
+      items have been processed (meaning that a :meth:`task_done`
+      call was received for every item that had been :meth:`~Queue.put`
+      into the queue).
+
+      Raises :exc:`ValueError` if called more times than there were
+      items placed in the queue.
+
+
+Priority Queue
+==============
+
+.. class:: PriorityQueue
+
+   A variant of :class:`Queue`; retrieves entries in priority order
+   (lowest first).
+
+   Entries are typically tuples of the form
+   ``(priority_number, data)``.
+
+
+LIFO Queue
+==========
+
+.. class:: LifoQueue
+
+   A variant of :class:`Queue` that retrieves most recently added
+   entries first (last in, first out).
+
+
+Exceptions
+==========
+
+.. exception:: QueueEmpty
+
+   This exception is raised when the :meth:`~Queue.get_nowait` method
+   is called on an empty queue.
+
+
+.. exception:: QueueFull
+
+   Exception raised when the :meth:`~Queue.put_nowait` method is called
+   on a queue that has reached its *maxsize*.
+
+
+Examples
+========
+
+.. _asyncio_example_queue_dist:
+
+Queues can be used to distribute workload between several
+concurrent tasks::
+
+   import asyncio
+   import random
+   import time
+
+
+   async def worker(name, queue):
+       while True:
+           # Get a "work item" out of the queue.
+           sleep_for = await queue.get()
+
+           # Sleep for the "sleep_for" seconds.
+           await asyncio.sleep(sleep_for)
+
+           # Notify the queue that the "work item" has been processed.
+           queue.task_done()
+
+           print(f'{name} has slept for {sleep_for:.2f} seconds')
+
+
+   async def main():
+       # Create a queue that we will use to store our "workload".
+       queue = asyncio.Queue()
+
+       # Generate random timings and put them into the queue.
+       total_sleep_time = 0
+       for _ in range(20):
+           sleep_for = random.uniform(0.05, 1.0)
+           total_sleep_time += sleep_for
+           queue.put_nowait(sleep_for)
+
+       # Create three worker tasks to process the queue concurrently.
+       tasks = []
+       for i in range(3):
+           task = asyncio.create_task(worker(f'worker-{i}', queue))
+           tasks.append(task)
+
+       # Wait until the queue is fully processed.
+       started_at = time.monotonic()
+       await queue.join()
+       total_slept_for = time.monotonic() - started_at
+
+       # Cancel our worker tasks.
+       for task in tasks:
+           task.cancel()
+       # Wait until all worker tasks are cancelled.
+       await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)
+
+       print('====')
+       print(f'3 workers slept in parallel for {total_slept_for:.2f} seconds')
+       print(f'total expected sleep time: {total_sleep_time:.2f} seconds')
+
+
+   asyncio.run(main())
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-stream.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-stream.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42b4c1f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-stream.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,470 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+.. _asyncio-streams:
+
+=======
+Streams
+=======
+
+Streams are high-level async/await-ready primitives to work with
+network connections.  Streams allow sending and receiving data without
+using callbacks or low-level protocols and transports.
+
+.. _asyncio_example_stream:
+
+Here is an example of a TCP echo client written using asyncio
+streams::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def tcp_echo_client(message):
+        reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
+            '127.0.0.1', 8888)
+
+        print(f'Send: {message!r}')
+        writer.write(message.encode())
+
+        data = await reader.read(100)
+        print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')
+
+        print('Close the connection')
+        writer.close()
+        await writer.wait_closed()
+
+    asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))
+
+
+See also the `Examples`_ section below.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Stream Functions
+
+The following top-level asyncio functions can be used to create
+and work with streams:
+
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: open_connection(host=None, port=None, \*, \
+                          loop=None, limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, \
+                          proto=0, flags=0, sock=None, local_addr=None, \
+                          server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None)
+
+   Establish a network connection and return a pair of
+   ``(reader, writer)`` objects.
+
+   The returned *reader* and *writer* objects are instances of
+   :class:`StreamReader` and :class:`StreamWriter` classes.
+
+   The *loop* argument is optional and can always be determined
+   automatically when this function is awaited from a coroutine.
+
+   *limit* determines the buffer size limit used by the
+   returned :class:`StreamReader` instance.  By default the *limit*
+   is set to 64 KiB.
+
+   The rest of the arguments are passed directly to
+   :meth:`loop.create_connection`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* parameter.
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: start_server(client_connected_cb, host=None, \
+                          port=None, \*, loop=None, limit=None, \
+                          family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, \
+                          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, \
+                          backlog=100, ssl=None, reuse_address=None, \
+                          reuse_port=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+                          start_serving=True)
+
+   Start a socket server.
+
+   The *client_connected_cb* callback is called whenever a new client
+   connection is established.  It receives a ``(reader, writer)`` pair
+   as two arguments, instances of the :class:`StreamReader` and
+   :class:`StreamWriter` classes.
+
+   *client_connected_cb* can be a plain callable or a
+   :ref:`coroutine function <coroutine>`; if it is a coroutine function,
+   it will be automatically scheduled as a :class:`Task`.
+
+   The *loop* argument is optional and can always be determined
+   automatically when this method is awaited from a coroutine.
+
+   *limit* determines the buffer size limit used by the
+   returned :class:`StreamReader` instance.  By default the *limit*
+   is set to 64 KiB.
+
+   The rest of the arguments are passed directly to
+   :meth:`loop.create_server`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* and *start_serving* parameters.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Unix Sockets
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: open_unix_connection(path=None, \*, loop=None, \
+                        limit=None, ssl=None, sock=None, \
+                        server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None)
+
+   Establish a Unix socket connection and return a pair of
+   ``(reader, writer)``.
+
+   Similar to :func:`open_connection` but operates on Unix sockets.
+
+   See also the documentation of :meth:`loop.create_unix_connection`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      The *path* parameter can now be a :term:`path-like object`
+
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: start_unix_server(client_connected_cb, path=None, \
+                          \*, loop=None, limit=None, sock=None, \
+                          backlog=100, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+                          start_serving=True)
+
+   Start a Unix socket server.
+
+   Similar to :func:`start_server` but works with Unix sockets.
+
+   See also the documentation of :meth:`loop.create_unix_server`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+      The *ssl_handshake_timeout* and *start_serving* parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      The *path* parameter can now be a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+---------
+
+
+StreamReader
+============
+
+.. class:: StreamReader
+
+   Represents a reader object that provides APIs to read data
+   from the IO stream.
+
+   It is not recommended to instantiate *StreamReader* objects
+   directly; use :func:`open_connection` and :func:`start_server`
+   instead.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: read(n=-1)
+
+      Read up to *n* bytes.  If *n* is not provided, or set to ``-1``,
+      read until EOF and return all read bytes.
+
+      If EOF was received and the internal buffer is empty,
+      return an empty ``bytes`` object.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: readline()
+
+      Read one line, where "line" is a sequence of bytes
+      ending with ``\n``.
+
+      If EOF is received and ``\n`` was not found, the method
+      returns partially read data.
+
+      If EOF is received and the internal buffer is empty,
+      return an empty ``bytes`` object.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: readexactly(n)
+
+      Read exactly *n* bytes.
+
+      Raise an :exc:`IncompleteReadError` if EOF is reached before *n*
+      can be read.  Use the :attr:`IncompleteReadError.partial`
+      attribute to get the partially read data.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: readuntil(separator=b'\\n')
+
+      Read data from the stream until *separator* is found.
+
+      On success, the data and separator will be removed from the
+      internal buffer (consumed). Returned data will include the
+      separator at the end.
+
+      If the amount of data read exceeds the configured stream limit, a
+      :exc:`LimitOverrunError` exception is raised, and the data
+      is left in the internal buffer and can be read again.
+
+      If EOF is reached before the complete separator is found,
+      an :exc:`IncompleteReadError` exception is raised, and the internal
+      buffer is reset.  The :attr:`IncompleteReadError.partial` attribute
+      may contain a portion of the separator.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+   .. method:: at_eof()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the buffer is empty and :meth:`feed_eof`
+      was called.
+
+
+StreamWriter
+============
+
+.. class:: StreamWriter
+
+   Represents a writer object that provides APIs to write data
+   to the IO stream.
+
+   It is not recommended to instantiate *StreamWriter* objects
+   directly; use :func:`open_connection` and :func:`start_server`
+   instead.
+
+   .. method:: can_write_eof()
+
+      Return *True* if the underlying transport supports
+      the :meth:`write_eof` method, *False* otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: write_eof()
+
+      Close the write end of the stream after the buffered write
+      data is flushed.
+
+   .. attribute:: transport
+
+      Return the underlying asyncio transport.
+
+   .. method:: get_extra_info(name, default=None)
+
+      Access optional transport information; see
+      :meth:`BaseTransport.get_extra_info` for details.
+
+   .. method:: write(data)
+
+      Write *data* to the stream.
+
+      This method is not subject to flow control.  Calls to ``write()`` should
+      be followed by :meth:`drain`.
+
+   .. method:: writelines(data)
+
+      Write a list (or any iterable) of bytes to the stream.
+
+      This method is not subject to flow control. Calls to ``writelines()``
+      should be followed by :meth:`drain`.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: drain()
+
+      Wait until it is appropriate to resume writing to the stream.
+      Example::
+
+          writer.write(data)
+          await writer.drain()
+
+      This is a flow control method that interacts with the underlying
+      IO write buffer.  When the size of the buffer reaches
+      the high watermark, *drain()* blocks until the size of the
+      buffer is drained down to the low watermark and writing can
+      be resumed.  When there is nothing to wait for, the :meth:`drain`
+      returns immediately.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the stream.
+
+   .. method:: is_closing()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the stream is closed or in the process of
+      being closed.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: wait_closed()
+
+      Wait until the stream is closed.
+
+      Should be called after :meth:`close` to wait until the underlying
+      connection is closed.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Examples
+========
+
+.. _asyncio-tcp-echo-client-streams:
+
+TCP echo client using streams
+-----------------------------
+
+TCP echo client using the :func:`asyncio.open_connection` function::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def tcp_echo_client(message):
+        reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
+            '127.0.0.1', 8888)
+
+        print(f'Send: {message!r}')
+        writer.write(message.encode())
+
+        data = await reader.read(100)
+        print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')
+
+        print('Close the connection')
+        writer.close()
+
+    asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`TCP echo client protocol <asyncio_example_tcp_echo_client_protocol>`
+   example uses the low-level :meth:`loop.create_connection` method.
+
+
+.. _asyncio-tcp-echo-server-streams:
+
+TCP echo server using streams
+-----------------------------
+
+TCP echo server using the :func:`asyncio.start_server` function::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def handle_echo(reader, writer):
+        data = await reader.read(100)
+        message = data.decode()
+        addr = writer.get_extra_info('peername')
+
+        print(f"Received {message!r} from {addr!r}")
+
+        print(f"Send: {message!r}")
+        writer.write(data)
+        await writer.drain()
+
+        print("Close the connection")
+        writer.close()
+
+    async def main():
+        server = await asyncio.start_server(
+            handle_echo, '127.0.0.1', 8888)
+
+        addr = server.sockets[0].getsockname()
+        print(f'Serving on {addr}')
+
+        async with server:
+            await server.serve_forever()
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`TCP echo server protocol <asyncio_example_tcp_echo_server_protocol>`
+   example uses the :meth:`loop.create_server` method.
+
+
+Get HTTP headers
+----------------
+
+Simple example querying HTTP headers of the URL passed on the command line::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import urllib.parse
+    import sys
+
+    async def print_http_headers(url):
+        url = urllib.parse.urlsplit(url)
+        if url.scheme == 'https':
+            reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
+                url.hostname, 443, ssl=True)
+        else:
+            reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
+                url.hostname, 80)
+
+        query = (
+            f"HEAD {url.path or '/'} HTTP/1.0\r\n"
+            f"Host: {url.hostname}\r\n"
+            f"\r\n"
+        )
+
+        writer.write(query.encode('latin-1'))
+        while True:
+            line = await reader.readline()
+            if not line:
+                break
+
+            line = line.decode('latin1').rstrip()
+            if line:
+                print(f'HTTP header> {line}')
+
+        # Ignore the body, close the socket
+        writer.close()
+
+    url = sys.argv[1]
+    asyncio.run(print_http_headers(url))
+
+
+Usage::
+
+    python example.py http://example.com/path/page.html
+
+or with HTTPS::
+
+    python example.py https://example.com/path/page.html
+
+
+.. _asyncio_example_create_connection-streams:
+
+Register an open socket to wait for data using streams
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+Coroutine waiting until a socket receives data using the
+:func:`open_connection` function::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import socket
+
+    async def wait_for_data():
+        # Get a reference to the current event loop because
+        # we want to access low-level APIs.
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+
+        # Create a pair of connected sockets.
+        rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()
+
+        # Register the open socket to wait for data.
+        reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(sock=rsock)
+
+        # Simulate the reception of data from the network
+        loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())
+
+        # Wait for data
+        data = await reader.read(100)
+
+        # Got data, we are done: close the socket
+        print("Received:", data.decode())
+        writer.close()
+
+        # Close the second socket
+        wsock.close()
+
+    asyncio.run(wait_for_data())
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol
+   <asyncio_example_create_connection>` example uses a low-level protocol and
+   the :meth:`loop.create_connection` method.
+
+   The :ref:`watch a file descriptor for read events
+   <asyncio_example_watch_fd>` example uses the low-level
+   :meth:`loop.add_reader` method to watch a file descriptor.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af7e36e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,356 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+.. _asyncio-subprocess:
+
+============
+Subprocesses
+============
+
+This section describes high-level async/await asyncio APIs to
+create and manage subprocesses.
+
+.. _asyncio_example_subprocess_shell:
+
+Here's an example of how asyncio can run a shell command and
+obtain its result::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def run(cmd):
+        proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(
+            cmd,
+            stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE,
+            stderr=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)
+
+        stdout, stderr = await proc.communicate()
+
+        print(f'[{cmd!r} exited with {proc.returncode}]')
+        if stdout:
+            print(f'[stdout]\n{stdout.decode()}')
+        if stderr:
+            print(f'[stderr]\n{stderr.decode()}')
+
+    asyncio.run(run('ls /zzz'))
+
+will print::
+
+    ['ls /zzz' exited with 1]
+    [stderr]
+    ls: /zzz: No such file or directory
+
+Because all asyncio subprocess functions are asynchronous and asyncio
+provides many tools to work with such functions, it is easy to execute
+and monitor multiple subprocesses in parallel.  It is indeed trivial
+to modify the above example to run several commands simultaneously::
+
+    async def main():
+        await asyncio.gather(
+            run('ls /zzz'),
+            run('sleep 1; echo "hello"'))
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+See also the `Examples`_ subsection.
+
+
+Creating Subprocesses
+=====================
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: create_subprocess_exec(program, \*args, stdin=None, \
+                          stdout=None, stderr=None, loop=None, \
+                          limit=None, \*\*kwds)
+
+   Create a subprocess.
+
+   The *limit* argument sets the buffer limit for :class:`StreamReader`
+   wrappers for :attr:`Process.stdout` and :attr:`Process.stderr`
+   (if :attr:`subprocess.PIPE` is passed to *stdout* and *stderr* arguments).
+
+   Return a :class:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process` instance.
+
+   See the documentation of :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` for other
+   parameters.
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: create_subprocess_shell(cmd, stdin=None, \
+                          stdout=None, stderr=None, loop=None, \
+                          limit=None, \*\*kwds)
+
+   Run the *cmd* shell command.
+
+   The *limit* argument sets the buffer limit for :class:`StreamReader`
+   wrappers for :attr:`Process.stdout` and :attr:`Process.stderr`
+   (if :attr:`subprocess.PIPE` is passed to *stdout* and *stderr* arguments).
+
+   Return a :class:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process` instance.
+
+   See the documentation of :meth:`loop.subprocess_shell` for other
+   parameters.
+
+.. important::
+
+   It is the application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
+   special characters are quoted appropriately to avoid `shell injection
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
+   vulnerabilities. The :func:`shlex.quote` function can be used to properly
+   escape whitespace and special shell characters in strings that are going
+   to be used to construct shell commands.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The default asyncio event loop implementation on **Windows** does not
+   support subprocesses. Subprocesses are available for Windows if a
+   :class:`ProactorEventLoop` is used.
+   See :ref:`Subprocess Support on Windows <asyncio-windows-subprocess>`
+   for details.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   asyncio also has the following *low-level* APIs to work with subprocesses:
+   :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec`, :meth:`loop.subprocess_shell`,
+   :meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe`, :meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe`,
+   as well as the :ref:`Subprocess Transports <asyncio-subprocess-transports>`
+   and :ref:`Subprocess Protocols <asyncio-subprocess-protocols>`.
+
+
+Constants
+=========
+
+.. data:: asyncio.subprocess.PIPE
+
+   Can be passed to the *stdin*, *stdout* or *stderr* parameters.
+
+   If *PIPE* is passed to *stdin* argument, the
+   :attr:`Process.stdin <asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin>` attribute
+   will point to a :class:`StreamWriter` instance.
+
+   If *PIPE* is passed to *stdout* or *stderr* arguments, the
+   :attr:`Process.stdout <asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout>` and
+   :attr:`Process.stderr <asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr>`
+   attributes will point to :class:`StreamReader` instances.
+
+.. data:: asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT
+
+   Special value that can be used as the *stderr* argument and indicates
+   that standard error should be redirected into standard output.
+
+.. data:: asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL
+
+   Special value that can be used as the *stdin*, *stdout* or *stderr* argument
+   to process creation functions.  It indicates that the special file
+   :data:`os.devnull` will be used for the corresponding subprocess stream.
+
+
+Interacting with Subprocesses
+=============================
+
+Both :func:`create_subprocess_exec` and :func:`create_subprocess_shell`
+functions return instances of the *Process* class.  *Process* is a high-level
+wrapper that allows communicating with subprocesses and watching for
+their completion.
+
+.. class:: asyncio.subprocess.Process
+
+   An object that wraps OS processes created by the
+   :func:`create_subprocess_exec` and :func:`create_subprocess_shell`
+   functions.
+
+   This class is designed to have a similar API to the
+   :class:`subprocess.Popen` class, but there are some
+   notable differences:
+
+   * unlike Popen, Process instances do not have an equivalent to
+     the :meth:`~subprocess.Popen.poll` method;
+
+   * the :meth:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate` and
+     :meth:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait` methods don't have a
+     *timeout* parameter: use the :func:`wait_for` function;
+
+   * the :meth:`Process.wait() <asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait>` method
+     is asynchronous, whereas :meth:`subprocess.Popen.wait` method
+     is implemented as a blocking busy loop;
+
+   * the *universal_newlines* parameter is not supported.
+
+   This class is :ref:`not thread safe <asyncio-multithreading>`.
+
+   See also the :ref:`Subprocess and Threads <asyncio-subprocess-threads>`
+   section.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: wait()
+
+      Wait for the child process to terminate.
+
+      Set and return the :attr:`returncode` attribute.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         This method can deadlock when using ``stdout=PIPE`` or
+         ``stderr=PIPE`` and the child process generates so much output
+         that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to accept
+         more data. Use the :meth:`communicate` method when using pipes
+         to avoid this condition.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: communicate(input=None)
+
+      Interact with process:
+
+      1. send data to *stdin* (if *input* is not ``None``);
+      2. read data from *stdout* and *stderr*, until EOF is reached;
+      3. wait for process to terminate.
+
+      The optional *input* argument is the data (:class:`bytes` object)
+      that will be sent to the child process.
+
+      Return a tuple ``(stdout_data, stderr_data)``.
+
+      If either :exc:`BrokenPipeError` or :exc:`ConnectionResetError`
+      exception is raised when writing *input* into *stdin*, the
+      exception is ignored.  This condition occurs when the process
+      exits before all data are written into *stdin*.
+
+      If it is desired to send data to the process' *stdin*,
+      the process needs to be created with ``stdin=PIPE``.  Similarly,
+      to get anything other than ``None`` in the result tuple, the
+      process has to be created with ``stdout=PIPE`` and/or
+      ``stderr=PIPE`` arguments.
+
+      Note, that the data read is buffered in memory, so do not use
+      this method if the data size is large or unlimited.
+
+   .. method:: send_signal(signal)
+
+      Sends the signal *signal* to the child process.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         On Windows, :py:data:`SIGTERM` is an alias for :meth:`terminate`.
+         ``CTRL_C_EVENT`` and ``CTRL_BREAK_EVENT`` can be sent to processes
+         started with a *creationflags* parameter which includes
+         ``CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP``.
+
+   .. method:: terminate()
+
+      Stop the child process.
+
+      On POSIX systems this method sends :py:data:`signal.SIGTERM` to the
+      child process.
+
+      On Windows the Win32 API function :c:func:`TerminateProcess` is
+      called to stop the child process.
+
+   .. method:: kill()
+
+      Kill the child.
+
+      On POSIX systems this method sends :py:data:`SIGKILL` to the child
+      process.
+
+      On Windows this method is an alias for :meth:`terminate`.
+
+   .. attribute:: stdin
+
+      Standard input stream (:class:`StreamWriter`) or ``None``
+      if the process was created with ``stdin=None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: stdout
+
+      Standard output stream (:class:`StreamReader`) or ``None``
+      if the process was created with ``stdout=None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: stderr
+
+      Standard error stream (:class:`StreamReader`) or ``None``
+      if the process was created with ``stderr=None``.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Use the :meth:`communicate` method rather than
+      :attr:`process.stdin.write() <stdin>`,
+      :attr:`await process.stdout.read() <stdout>` or
+      :attr:`await process.stderr.read <stderr>`.
+      This avoids deadlocks due to streams pausing reading or writing
+      and blocking the child process.
+
+   .. attribute:: pid
+
+      Process identification number (PID).
+
+      Note that for processes created by the :func:`create_subprocess_shell`
+      function, this attribute is the PID of the spawned shell.
+
+   .. attribute:: returncode
+
+      Return code of the process when it exits.
+
+      A ``None`` value indicates that the process has not terminated yet.
+
+      A negative value ``-N`` indicates that the child was terminated
+      by signal ``N`` (POSIX only).
+
+
+.. _asyncio-subprocess-threads:
+
+Subprocess and Threads
+----------------------
+
+Standard asyncio event loop supports running subprocesses from
+different threads, but there are limitations:
+
+* An event loop must run in the main thread.
+
+* The child watcher must be instantiated in the main thread
+  before executing subprocesses from other threads. Call the
+  :func:`get_child_watcher` function in the main thread to instantiate
+  the child watcher.
+
+Note that alternative event loop implementations might not share
+the above limitations; please refer to their documentation.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :ref:`Concurrency and multithreading in asyncio
+   <asyncio-multithreading>` section.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+An example using the :class:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process` class to
+control a subprocess and the :class:`StreamReader` class to read from
+its standard output.
+
+.. _asyncio_example_create_subprocess_exec:
+
+The subprocess is created by the :func:`create_subprocess_exec`
+function::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import sys
+
+    async def get_date():
+        code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
+
+        # Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output
+        # into a pipe.
+        proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(
+            sys.executable, '-c', code,
+            stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)
+
+        # Read one line of output.
+        data = await proc.stdout.readline()
+        line = data.decode('ascii').rstrip()
+
+        # Wait for the subprocess exit.
+        await proc.wait()
+        return line
+
+    if sys.platform == "win32":
+        asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(
+            asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy())
+
+    date = asyncio.run(get_date())
+    print(f"Current date: {date}")
+
+
+See also the :ref:`same example <asyncio_example_subprocess_proto>`
+written using low-level APIs.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-sync.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-sync.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..993bd13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-sync.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,332 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+.. _asyncio-sync:
+
+==========================
+Synchronization Primitives
+==========================
+
+asyncio synchronization primitives are designed to be similar to
+those of the :mod:`threading` module with two important caveats:
+
+* asyncio primitives are not thread-safe, therefore they should not
+  be used for OS thread synchronization (use :mod:`threading` for
+  that);
+
+* methods of these synchronization primitives do not accept the *timeout*
+  argument; use the :func:`asyncio.wait_for` function to perform
+  operations with timeouts.
+
+asyncio has the following basic synchronization primitives:
+
+* :class:`Lock`
+* :class:`Event`
+* :class:`Condition`
+* :class:`Semaphore`
+* :class:`BoundedSemaphore`
+
+
+---------
+
+
+Lock
+====
+
+.. class:: Lock(\*, loop=None)
+
+   Implements a mutex lock for asyncio tasks.  Not thread-safe.
+
+   An asyncio lock can be used to guarantee exclusive access to a
+   shared resource.
+
+   The preferred way to use a Lock is an :keyword:`async with`
+   statement::
+
+       lock = asyncio.Lock()
+
+       # ... later
+       async with lock:
+           # access shared state
+
+   which is equivalent to::
+
+       lock = asyncio.Lock()
+
+       # ... later
+       await lock.acquire()
+       try:
+           # access shared state
+       finally:
+           lock.release()
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: acquire()
+
+      Acquire the lock.
+
+      This method waits until the lock is *unlocked*, sets it to
+      *locked* and returns ``True``.
+
+      When more than one coroutine is blocked in :meth:`acquire`
+      waiting for the lock to be unlocked, only one coroutine
+      eventually proceeds.
+
+      Acquiring a lock is *fair*: the coroutine that proceeds will be
+      the first coroutine that started waiting on the lock.
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release the lock.
+
+      When the lock is *locked*, reset it to *unlocked* and return.
+
+      If the lock is *unlocked*, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+   .. method:: locked()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the lock is *locked*.
+
+
+Event
+=====
+
+.. class:: Event(\*, loop=None)
+
+   An event object.  Not thread-safe.
+
+   An asyncio event can be used to notify multiple asyncio tasks
+   that some event has happened.
+
+   An Event object manages an internal flag that can be set to *true*
+   with the :meth:`set` method and reset to *false* with the
+   :meth:`clear` method.  The :meth:`wait` method blocks until the
+   flag is set to *true*.  The flag is set to *false* initially.
+
+   .. _asyncio_example_sync_event:
+
+   Example::
+
+      async def waiter(event):
+          print('waiting for it ...')
+          await event.wait()
+          print('... got it!')
+
+      async def main():
+          # Create an Event object.
+          event = asyncio.Event()
+
+          # Spawn a Task to wait until 'event' is set.
+          waiter_task = asyncio.create_task(waiter(event))
+
+          # Sleep for 1 second and set the event.
+          await asyncio.sleep(1)
+          event.set()
+
+          # Wait until the waiter task is finished.
+          await waiter_task
+
+      asyncio.run(main())
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: wait()
+
+      Wait until the event is set.
+
+      If the event is set, return ``True`` immediately.
+      Otherwise block until another task calls :meth:`set`.
+
+   .. method:: set()
+
+      Set the event.
+
+      All tasks waiting for event to be set will be immediately
+      awakened.
+
+   .. method:: clear()
+
+      Clear (unset) the event.
+
+      Tasks awaiting on :meth:`wait` will now block until the
+      :meth:`set` method is called again.
+
+   .. method:: is_set()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the event is set.
+
+
+Condition
+=========
+
+.. class:: Condition(lock=None, \*, loop=None)
+
+   A Condition object.  Not thread-safe.
+
+   An asyncio condition primitive can be used by a task to wait for
+   some event to happen and then get exclusive access to a shared
+   resource.
+
+   In essence, a Condition object combines the functionality
+   of an :class:`Event` and a :class:`Lock`.  It is possible to have
+   multiple Condition objects share one Lock, which allows coordinating
+   exclusive access to a shared resource between different tasks
+   interested in particular states of that shared resource.
+
+   The optional *lock* argument must be a :class:`Lock` object or
+   ``None``.  In the latter case a new Lock object is created
+   automatically.
+
+   The preferred way to use a Condition is an :keyword:`async with`
+   statement::
+
+       cond = asyncio.Condition()
+
+       # ... later
+       async with cond:
+           await cond.wait()
+
+   which is equivalent to::
+
+       cond = asyncio.Condition()
+
+       # ... later
+       await lock.acquire()
+       try:
+           await cond.wait()
+       finally:
+           lock.release()
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: acquire()
+
+      Acquire the underlying lock.
+
+      This method waits until the underlying lock is *unlocked*,
+      sets it to *locked* and returns ``True``.
+
+   .. method:: notify(n=1)
+
+      Wake up at most *n* tasks (1 by default) waiting on this
+      condition.  The method is no-op if no tasks are waiting.
+
+      The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
+      released shortly after.  If called with an *unlocked* lock
+      a :exc:`RuntimeError` error is raised.
+
+   .. method:: locked()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the underlying lock is acquired.
+
+   .. method:: notify_all()
+
+      Wake up all tasks waiting on this condition.
+
+      This method acts like :meth:`notify`, but wakes up all waiting
+      tasks.
+
+      The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
+      released shortly after.  If called with an *unlocked* lock
+      a :exc:`RuntimeError` error is raised.
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release the underlying lock.
+
+      When invoked on an unlocked lock, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is
+      raised.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: wait()
+
+      Wait until notified.
+
+      If the calling task has not acquired the lock when this method is
+      called, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+      This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks until
+      it is awakened by a :meth:`notify` or :meth:`notify_all` call.
+      Once awakened, the Condition re-acquires its lock and this method
+      returns ``True``.
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: wait_for(predicate)
+
+      Wait until a predicate becomes *true*.
+
+      The predicate must be a callable which result will be
+      interpreted as a boolean value.  The final value is the
+      return value.
+
+
+Semaphore
+=========
+
+.. class:: Semaphore(value=1, \*, loop=None)
+
+   A Semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.
+
+   A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
+   :meth:`acquire` call and incremented by each :meth:`release` call.
+   The counter can never go below zero; when :meth:`acquire` finds
+   that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some task calls
+   :meth:`release`.
+
+   The optional *value* argument gives the initial value for the
+   internal counter (``1`` by default). If the given value is
+   less than ``0`` a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   The preferred way to use a Semaphore is an :keyword:`async with`
+   statement::
+
+       sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)
+
+       # ... later
+       async with sem:
+           # work with shared resource
+
+   which is equivalent to::
+
+       sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)
+
+       # ... later
+       await sem.acquire()
+       try:
+           # work with shared resource
+       finally:
+           sem.release()
+
+   .. coroutinemethod:: acquire()
+
+      Acquire a semaphore.
+
+      If the internal counter is greater than zero, decrement
+      it by one and return ``True`` immediately.  If it is zero, wait
+      until a :meth:`release` is called and return ``True``.
+
+   .. method:: locked()
+
+      Returns ``True`` if semaphore can not be acquired immediately.
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by one.
+      Can wake up a task waiting to acquire the semaphore.
+
+      Unlike :class:`BoundedSemaphore`, :class:`Semaphore` allows
+      making more ``release()`` calls than ``acquire()`` calls.
+
+
+BoundedSemaphore
+================
+
+.. class:: BoundedSemaphore(value=1, \*, loop=None)
+
+   A bounded semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.
+
+   Bounded Semaphore is a version of :class:`Semaphore` that raises
+   a :exc:`ValueError` in :meth:`~Semaphore.release` if it
+   increases the internal counter above the initial *value*.
+
+
+---------
+
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.7
+
+   Acquiring a lock using ``await lock`` or ``yield from lock`` and/or
+   :keyword:`with` statement (``with await lock``, ``with (yield from
+   lock)``) is deprecated.  Use ``async with lock`` instead.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-task.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-task.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29ccafe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio-task.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,908 @@
+.. currentmodule:: asyncio
+
+
+====================
+Coroutines and Tasks
+====================
+
+This section outlines high-level asyncio APIs to work with coroutines
+and Tasks.
+
+.. contents::
+   :depth: 1
+   :local:
+
+
+.. _coroutine:
+
+Coroutines
+==========
+
+Coroutines declared with async/await syntax is the preferred way of
+writing asyncio applications.  For example, the following snippet
+of code (requires Python 3.7+) prints "hello", waits 1 second,
+and then prints "world"::
+
+    >>> import asyncio
+
+    >>> async def main():
+    ...     print('hello')
+    ...     await asyncio.sleep(1)
+    ...     print('world')
+
+    >>> asyncio.run(main())
+    hello
+    world
+
+Note that simply calling a coroutine will not schedule it to
+be executed::
+
+    >>> main()
+    <coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8>
+
+To actually run a coroutine, asyncio provides three main mechanisms:
+
+* The :func:`asyncio.run` function to run the top-level
+  entry point "main()" function (see the above example.)
+
+* Awaiting on a coroutine.  The following snippet of code will
+  print "hello" after waiting for 1 second, and then print "world"
+  after waiting for *another* 2 seconds::
+
+      import asyncio
+      import time
+
+      async def say_after(delay, what):
+          await asyncio.sleep(delay)
+          print(what)
+
+      async def main():
+          print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")
+
+          await say_after(1, 'hello')
+          await say_after(2, 'world')
+
+          print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")
+
+      asyncio.run(main())
+
+  Expected output::
+
+      started at 17:13:52
+      hello
+      world
+      finished at 17:13:55
+
+* The :func:`asyncio.create_task` function to run coroutines
+  concurrently as asyncio :class:`Tasks <Task>`.
+
+  Let's modify the above example and run two ``say_after`` coroutines
+  *concurrently*::
+
+      async def main():
+          task1 = asyncio.create_task(
+              say_after(1, 'hello'))
+
+          task2 = asyncio.create_task(
+              say_after(2, 'world'))
+
+          print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")
+
+          # Wait until both tasks are completed (should take
+          # around 2 seconds.)
+          await task1
+          await task2
+
+          print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")
+
+  Note that expected output now shows that the snippet runs
+  1 second faster than before::
+
+      started at 17:14:32
+      hello
+      world
+      finished at 17:14:34
+
+
+.. _asyncio-awaitables:
+
+Awaitables
+==========
+
+We say that an object is an **awaitable** object if it can be used
+in an :keyword:`await` expression.  Many asyncio APIs are designed to
+accept awaitables.
+
+There are three main types of *awaitable* objects:
+**coroutines**, **Tasks**, and **Futures**.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Coroutines
+
+Python coroutines are *awaitables* and therefore can be awaited from
+other coroutines::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def nested():
+        return 42
+
+    async def main():
+        # Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
+        # A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
+        # so it *won't run at all*.
+        nested()
+
+        # Let's do it differently now and await it:
+        print(await nested())  # will print "42".
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+.. important::
+
+   In this documentation the term "coroutine" can be used for
+   two closely related concepts:
+
+   * a *coroutine function*: an :keyword:`async def` function;
+
+   * a *coroutine object*: an object returned by calling a
+     *coroutine function*.
+
+asyncio also supports legacy :ref:`generator-based
+<asyncio_generator_based_coro>` coroutines.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Tasks
+
+*Tasks* are used to schedule coroutines *concurrently*.
+
+When a coroutine is wrapped into a *Task* with functions like
+:func:`asyncio.create_task` the coroutine is automatically
+scheduled to run soon::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def nested():
+        return 42
+
+    async def main():
+        # Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently
+        # with "main()".
+        task = asyncio.create_task(nested())
+
+        # "task" can now be used to cancel "nested()", or
+        # can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:
+        await task
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+.. rubric:: Futures
+
+A :class:`Future` is a special **low-level** awaitable object that
+represents an **eventual result** of an asynchronous operation.
+
+When a Future object is *awaited* it means that the coroutine will
+wait until the Future is resolved in some other place.
+
+Future objects in asyncio are needed to allow callback-based code
+to be used with async/await.
+
+Normally **there is no need** to create Future objects at the
+application level code.
+
+Future objects, sometimes exposed by libraries and some asyncio
+APIs, can be awaited::
+
+    async def main():
+        await function_that_returns_a_future_object()
+
+        # this is also valid:
+        await asyncio.gather(
+            function_that_returns_a_future_object(),
+            some_python_coroutine()
+        )
+
+A good example of a low-level function that returns a Future object
+is :meth:`loop.run_in_executor`.
+
+
+Running an asyncio Program
+==========================
+
+.. function:: run(coro, \*, debug=False)
+
+    This function runs the passed coroutine, taking care of
+    managing the asyncio event loop and *finalizing asynchronous
+    generators*.
+
+    This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop is
+    running in the same thread.
+
+    If *debug* is ``True``, the event loop will be run in debug mode.
+
+    This function always creates a new event loop and closes it at
+    the end.  It should be used as a main entry point for asyncio
+    programs, and should ideally only be called once.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.7
+       **Important:** this function has been added to asyncio in
+       Python 3.7 on a :term:`provisional basis <provisional api>`.
+
+
+Creating Tasks
+==============
+
+.. function:: create_task(coro)
+
+   Wrap the *coro* :ref:`coroutine <coroutine>` into a :class:`Task`
+   and schedule its execution.  Return the Task object.
+
+   The task is executed in the loop returned by :func:`get_running_loop`,
+   :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised if there is no running loop in
+   current thread.
+
+   This function has been **added in Python 3.7**.  Prior to
+   Python 3.7, the low-level :func:`asyncio.ensure_future` function
+   can be used instead::
+
+       async def coro():
+           ...
+
+       # In Python 3.7+
+       task = asyncio.create_task(coro())
+       ...
+
+       # This works in all Python versions but is less readable
+       task = asyncio.ensure_future(coro())
+       ...
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Sleeping
+========
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: sleep(delay, result=None, \*, loop=None)
+
+   Block for *delay* seconds.
+
+   If *result* is provided, it is returned to the caller
+   when the coroutine completes.
+
+   ``sleep()`` always suspends the current task, allowing other tasks
+   to run.
+
+   The *loop* argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal
+   in Python 3.10.
+
+   .. _asyncio_example_sleep:
+
+   Example of coroutine displaying the current date every second
+   for 5 seconds::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import datetime
+
+    async def display_date():
+        loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
+        end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
+        while True:
+            print(datetime.datetime.now())
+            if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
+                break
+            await asyncio.sleep(1)
+
+    asyncio.run(display_date())
+
+
+Running Tasks Concurrently
+==========================
+
+.. awaitablefunction:: gather(\*aws, loop=None, return_exceptions=False)
+
+   Run :ref:`awaitable objects <asyncio-awaitables>` in the *aws*
+   sequence *concurrently*.
+
+   If any awaitable in *aws* is a coroutine, it is automatically
+   scheduled as a Task.
+
+   If all awaitables are completed successfully, the result is an
+   aggregate list of returned values.  The order of result values
+   corresponds to the order of awaitables in *aws*.
+
+   If *return_exceptions* is ``False`` (default), the first
+   raised exception is immediately propagated to the task that
+   awaits on ``gather()``.  Other awaitables in the *aws* sequence
+   **won't be cancelled** and will continue to run.
+
+   If *return_exceptions* is ``True``, exceptions are treated the
+   same as successful results, and aggregated in the result list.
+
+   If ``gather()`` is *cancelled*, all submitted awaitables
+   (that have not completed yet) are also *cancelled*.
+
+   If any Task or Future from the *aws* sequence is *cancelled*, it is
+   treated as if it raised :exc:`CancelledError` -- the ``gather()``
+   call is **not** cancelled in this case.  This is to prevent the
+   cancellation of one submitted Task/Future to cause other
+   Tasks/Futures to be cancelled.
+
+   .. _asyncio_example_gather:
+
+   Example::
+
+      import asyncio
+
+      async def factorial(name, number):
+          f = 1
+          for i in range(2, number + 1):
+              print(f"Task {name}: Compute factorial({i})...")
+              await asyncio.sleep(1)
+              f *= i
+          print(f"Task {name}: factorial({number}) = {f}")
+
+      async def main():
+          # Schedule three calls *concurrently*:
+          await asyncio.gather(
+              factorial("A", 2),
+              factorial("B", 3),
+              factorial("C", 4),
+          )
+
+      asyncio.run(main())
+
+      # Expected output:
+      #
+      #     Task A: Compute factorial(2)...
+      #     Task B: Compute factorial(2)...
+      #     Task C: Compute factorial(2)...
+      #     Task A: factorial(2) = 2
+      #     Task B: Compute factorial(3)...
+      #     Task C: Compute factorial(3)...
+      #     Task B: factorial(3) = 6
+      #     Task C: Compute factorial(4)...
+      #     Task C: factorial(4) = 24
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      If the *gather* itself is cancelled, the cancellation is
+      propagated regardless of *return_exceptions*.
+
+
+Shielding From Cancellation
+===========================
+
+.. awaitablefunction:: shield(aw, \*, loop=None)
+
+   Protect an :ref:`awaitable object <asyncio-awaitables>`
+   from being :meth:`cancelled <Task.cancel>`.
+
+   If *aw* is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.
+
+   The statement::
+
+       res = await shield(something())
+
+   is equivalent to::
+
+       res = await something()
+
+   *except* that if the coroutine containing it is cancelled, the
+   Task running in ``something()`` is not cancelled.  From the point
+   of view of ``something()``, the cancellation did not happen.
+   Although its caller is still cancelled, so the "await" expression
+   still raises a :exc:`CancelledError`.
+
+   If ``something()`` is cancelled by other means (i.e. from within
+   itself) that would also cancel ``shield()``.
+
+   If it is desired to completely ignore cancellation (not recommended)
+   the ``shield()`` function should be combined with a try/except
+   clause, as follows::
+
+       try:
+           res = await shield(something())
+       except CancelledError:
+           res = None
+
+
+Timeouts
+========
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: wait_for(aw, timeout, \*, loop=None)
+
+   Wait for the *aw* :ref:`awaitable <asyncio-awaitables>`
+   to complete with a timeout.
+
+   If *aw* is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.
+
+   *timeout* can either be ``None`` or a float or int number of seconds
+   to wait for.  If *timeout* is ``None``, block until the future
+   completes.
+
+   If a timeout occurs, it cancels the task and raises
+   :exc:`asyncio.TimeoutError`.
+
+   To avoid the task :meth:`cancellation <Task.cancel>`,
+   wrap it in :func:`shield`.
+
+   The function will wait until the future is actually cancelled,
+   so the total wait time may exceed the *timeout*.
+
+   If the wait is cancelled, the future *aw* is also cancelled.
+
+   The *loop* argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal
+   in Python 3.10.
+
+   .. _asyncio_example_waitfor:
+
+   Example::
+
+       async def eternity():
+           # Sleep for one hour
+           await asyncio.sleep(3600)
+           print('yay!')
+
+       async def main():
+           # Wait for at most 1 second
+           try:
+               await asyncio.wait_for(eternity(), timeout=1.0)
+           except asyncio.TimeoutError:
+               print('timeout!')
+
+       asyncio.run(main())
+
+       # Expected output:
+       #
+       #     timeout!
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      When *aw* is cancelled due to a timeout, ``wait_for`` waits
+      for *aw* to be cancelled.  Previously, it raised
+      :exc:`asyncio.TimeoutError` immediately.
+
+
+Waiting Primitives
+==================
+
+.. coroutinefunction:: wait(aws, \*, loop=None, timeout=None,\
+                            return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)
+
+   Run :ref:`awaitable objects <asyncio-awaitables>` in the *aws*
+   set concurrently and block until the condition specified
+   by *return_when*.
+
+   If any awaitable in *aws* is a coroutine, it is automatically
+   scheduled as a Task.  Passing coroutines objects to
+   ``wait()`` directly is deprecated as it leads to
+   :ref:`confusing behavior <asyncio_example_wait_coroutine>`.
+
+   Returns two sets of Tasks/Futures: ``(done, pending)``.
+
+   Usage::
+
+        done, pending = await asyncio.wait(aws)
+
+   The *loop* argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal
+   in Python 3.10.
+
+   *timeout* (a float or int), if specified, can be used to control
+   the maximum number of seconds to wait before returning.
+
+   Note that this function does not raise :exc:`asyncio.TimeoutError`.
+   Futures or Tasks that aren't done when the timeout occurs are simply
+   returned in the second set.
+
+   *return_when* indicates when this function should return.  It must
+   be one of the following constants:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                    | Description                            |
+   +=============================+========================================+
+   | :const:`FIRST_COMPLETED`    | The function will return when any      |
+   |                             | future finishes or is cancelled.       |
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`FIRST_EXCEPTION`    | The function will return when any      |
+   |                             | future finishes by raising an          |
+   |                             | exception.  If no future raises an     |
+   |                             | exception then it is equivalent to     |
+   |                             | :const:`ALL_COMPLETED`.                |
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`ALL_COMPLETED`      | The function will return when all      |
+   |                             | futures finish or are cancelled.       |
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+
+   Unlike :func:`~asyncio.wait_for`, ``wait()`` does not cancel the
+   futures when a timeout occurs.
+
+   .. _asyncio_example_wait_coroutine:
+   .. note::
+
+      ``wait()`` schedules coroutines as Tasks automatically and later
+      returns those implicitly created Task objects in ``(done, pending)``
+      sets.  Therefore the following code won't work as expected::
+
+          async def foo():
+              return 42
+
+          coro = foo()
+          done, pending = await asyncio.wait({coro})
+
+          if coro in done:
+              # This branch will never be run!
+
+      Here is how the above snippet can be fixed::
+
+          async def foo():
+              return 42
+
+          task = asyncio.create_task(foo())
+          done, pending = await asyncio.wait({task})
+
+          if task in done:
+              # Everything will work as expected now.
+
+      Passing coroutine objects to ``wait()`` directly is
+      deprecated.
+
+
+.. function:: as_completed(aws, \*, loop=None, timeout=None)
+
+   Run :ref:`awaitable objects <asyncio-awaitables>` in the *aws*
+   set concurrently.  Return an iterator of :class:`Future` objects.
+   Each Future object returned represents the earliest result
+   from the set of the remaining awaitables.
+
+   Raises :exc:`asyncio.TimeoutError` if the timeout occurs before
+   all Futures are done.
+
+   Example::
+
+       for f in as_completed(aws):
+           earliest_result = await f
+           # ...
+
+
+Scheduling From Other Threads
+=============================
+
+.. function:: run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)
+
+   Submit a coroutine to the given event loop.  Thread-safe.
+
+   Return a :class:`concurrent.futures.Future` to wait for the result
+   from another OS thread.
+
+   This function is meant to be called from a different OS thread
+   than the one where the event loop is running.  Example::
+
+     # Create a coroutine
+     coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)
+
+     # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
+     future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)
+
+     # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
+     assert future.result(timeout) == 3
+
+   If an exception is raised in the coroutine, the returned Future
+   will be notified.  It can also be used to cancel the task in
+   the event loop::
+
+     try:
+         result = future.result(timeout)
+     except asyncio.TimeoutError:
+         print('The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...')
+         future.cancel()
+     except Exception as exc:
+         print(f'The coroutine raised an exception: {exc!r}')
+     else:
+         print(f'The coroutine returned: {result!r}')
+
+   See the :ref:`concurrency and multithreading <asyncio-multithreading>`
+   section of the documentation.
+
+   Unlike other asyncio functions this function requires the *loop*
+   argument to be passed explicitly.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.1
+
+
+Introspection
+=============
+
+
+.. function:: current_task(loop=None)
+
+   Return the currently running :class:`Task` instance, or ``None`` if
+   no task is running.
+
+   If *loop* is ``None`` :func:`get_running_loop` is used to get
+   the current loop.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: all_tasks(loop=None)
+
+   Return a set of not yet finished :class:`Task` objects run by
+   the loop.
+
+   If *loop* is ``None``, :func:`get_running_loop` is used for getting
+   current loop.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Task Object
+===========
+
+.. class:: Task(coro, \*, loop=None)
+
+   A :class:`Future-like <Future>` object that runs a Python
+   :ref:`coroutine <coroutine>`.  Not thread-safe.
+
+   Tasks are used to run coroutines in event loops.
+   If a coroutine awaits on a Future, the Task suspends
+   the execution of the coroutine and waits for the completion
+   of the Future.  When the Future is *done*, the execution of
+   the wrapped coroutine resumes.
+
+   Event loops use cooperative scheduling: an event loop runs
+   one Task at a time.  While a Task awaits for the completion of a
+   Future, the event loop runs other Tasks, callbacks, or performs
+   IO operations.
+
+   Use the high-level :func:`asyncio.create_task` function to create
+   Tasks, or the low-level :meth:`loop.create_task` or
+   :func:`ensure_future` functions.  Manual instantiation of Tasks
+   is discouraged.
+
+   To cancel a running Task use the :meth:`cancel` method.  Calling it
+   will cause the Task to throw a :exc:`CancelledError` exception into
+   the wrapped coroutine.  If a coroutine is awaiting on a Future
+   object during cancellation, the Future object will be cancelled.
+
+   :meth:`cancelled` can be used to check if the Task was cancelled.
+   The method returns ``True`` if the wrapped coroutine did not
+   suppress the :exc:`CancelledError` exception and was actually
+   cancelled.
+
+   :class:`asyncio.Task` inherits from :class:`Future` all of its
+   APIs except :meth:`Future.set_result` and
+   :meth:`Future.set_exception`.
+
+   Tasks support the :mod:`contextvars` module.  When a Task
+   is created it copies the current context and later runs its
+   coroutine in the copied context.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added support for the :mod:`contextvars` module.
+
+   .. method:: cancel()
+
+      Request the Task to be cancelled.
+
+      This arranges for a :exc:`CancelledError` exception to be thrown
+      into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of the event loop.
+
+      The coroutine then has a chance to clean up or even deny the
+      request by suppressing the exception with a :keyword:`try` ...
+      ... ``except CancelledError`` ... :keyword:`finally` block.
+      Therefore, unlike :meth:`Future.cancel`, :meth:`Task.cancel` does
+      not guarantee that the Task will be cancelled, although
+      suppressing cancellation completely is not common and is actively
+      discouraged.
+
+      .. _asyncio_example_task_cancel:
+
+      The following example illustrates how coroutines can intercept
+      the cancellation request::
+
+          async def cancel_me():
+              print('cancel_me(): before sleep')
+
+              try:
+                  # Wait for 1 hour
+                  await asyncio.sleep(3600)
+              except asyncio.CancelledError:
+                  print('cancel_me(): cancel sleep')
+                  raise
+              finally:
+                  print('cancel_me(): after sleep')
+
+          async def main():
+              # Create a "cancel_me" Task
+              task = asyncio.create_task(cancel_me())
+
+              # Wait for 1 second
+              await asyncio.sleep(1)
+
+              task.cancel()
+              try:
+                  await task
+              except asyncio.CancelledError:
+                  print("main(): cancel_me is cancelled now")
+
+          asyncio.run(main())
+
+          # Expected output:
+          #
+          #     cancel_me(): before sleep
+          #     cancel_me(): cancel sleep
+          #     cancel_me(): after sleep
+          #     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now
+
+   .. method:: cancelled()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the Task is *cancelled*.
+
+      The Task is *cancelled* when the cancellation was requested with
+      :meth:`cancel` and the wrapped coroutine propagated the
+      :exc:`CancelledError` exception thrown into it.
+
+   .. method:: done()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the Task is *done*.
+
+      A Task is *done* when the wrapped coroutine either returned
+      a value, raised an exception, or the Task was cancelled.
+
+   .. method:: result()
+
+      Return the result of the Task.
+
+      If the Task is *done*, the result of the wrapped coroutine
+      is returned (or if the coroutine raised an exception, that
+      exception is re-raised.)
+
+      If the Task has been *cancelled*, this method raises
+      a :exc:`CancelledError` exception.
+
+      If the Task's result isn't yet available, this method raises
+      a :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
+
+   .. method:: exception()
+
+      Return the exception of the Task.
+
+      If the wrapped coroutine raised an exception that exception
+      is returned.  If the wrapped coroutine returned normally
+      this method returns ``None``.
+
+      If the Task has been *cancelled*, this method raises a
+      :exc:`CancelledError` exception.
+
+      If the Task isn't *done* yet, this method raises an
+      :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
+
+   .. method:: add_done_callback(callback, *, context=None)
+
+      Add a callback to be run when the Task is *done*.
+
+      This method should only be used in low-level callback-based code.
+
+      See the documentation of :meth:`Future.add_done_callback`
+      for more details.
+
+   .. method:: remove_done_callback(callback)
+
+      Remove *callback* from the callbacks list.
+
+      This method should only be used in low-level callback-based code.
+
+      See the documentation of :meth:`Future.remove_done_callback`
+      for more details.
+
+   .. method:: get_stack(\*, limit=None)
+
+      Return the list of stack frames for this Task.
+
+      If the wrapped coroutine is not done, this returns the stack
+      where it is suspended.  If the coroutine has completed
+      successfully or was cancelled, this returns an empty list.
+      If the coroutine was terminated by an exception, this returns
+      the list of traceback frames.
+
+      The frames are always ordered from oldest to newest.
+
+      Only one stack frame is returned for a suspended coroutine.
+
+      The optional *limit* argument sets the maximum number of frames
+      to return; by default all available frames are returned.
+      The ordering of the returned list differs depending on whether
+      a stack or a traceback is returned: the newest frames of a
+      stack are returned, but the oldest frames of a traceback are
+      returned.  (This matches the behavior of the traceback module.)
+
+   .. method:: print_stack(\*, limit=None, file=None)
+
+      Print the stack or traceback for this Task.
+
+      This produces output similar to that of the traceback module
+      for the frames retrieved by :meth:`get_stack`.
+
+      The *limit* argument is passed to :meth:`get_stack` directly.
+
+      The *file* argument is an I/O stream to which the output
+      is written; by default output is written to :data:`sys.stderr`.
+
+   .. classmethod:: all_tasks(loop=None)
+
+      Return a set of all tasks for an event loop.
+
+      By default all tasks for the current event loop are returned.
+      If *loop* is ``None``, the :func:`get_event_loop` function
+      is used to get the current loop.
+
+      This method is **deprecated** and will be removed in
+      Python 3.9.  Use the :func:`asyncio.all_tasks` function instead.
+
+   .. classmethod:: current_task(loop=None)
+
+      Return the currently running task or ``None``.
+
+      If *loop* is ``None``, the :func:`get_event_loop` function
+      is used to get the current loop.
+
+      This method is **deprecated** and will be removed in
+      Python 3.9.  Use the :func:`asyncio.current_task` function
+      instead.
+
+
+.. _asyncio_generator_based_coro:
+
+Generator-based Coroutines
+==========================
+
+.. note::
+
+   Support for generator-based coroutines is **deprecated** and
+   is scheduled for removal in Python 3.10.
+
+Generator-based coroutines predate async/await syntax.  They are
+Python generators that use ``yield from`` expressions to await
+on Futures and other coroutines.
+
+Generator-based coroutines should be decorated with
+:func:`@asyncio.coroutine <asyncio.coroutine>`, although this is not
+enforced.
+
+
+.. decorator:: coroutine
+
+    Decorator to mark generator-based coroutines.
+
+    This decorator enables legacy generator-based coroutines to be
+    compatible with async/await code::
+
+        @asyncio.coroutine
+        def old_style_coroutine():
+            yield from asyncio.sleep(1)
+
+        async def main():
+            await old_style_coroutine()
+
+    This decorator is **deprecated** and is scheduled for removal in
+    Python 3.10.
+
+    This decorator should not be used for :keyword:`async def`
+    coroutines.
+
+.. function:: iscoroutine(obj)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *obj* is a :ref:`coroutine object <coroutine>`.
+
+   This method is different from :func:`inspect.iscoroutine` because
+   it returns ``True`` for generator-based coroutines.
+
+.. function:: iscoroutinefunction(func)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *func* is a :ref:`coroutine function
+   <coroutine>`.
+
+   This method is different from :func:`inspect.iscoroutinefunction`
+   because it returns ``True`` for generator-based coroutine functions
+   decorated with :func:`@coroutine <coroutine>`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6990adb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncio.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+:mod:`asyncio` --- Asynchronous I/O
+===================================
+
+.. module:: asyncio
+   :synopsis: Asynchronous I/O.
+
+--------------
+
+.. sidebar:: Hello World!
+
+   ::
+
+       import asyncio
+
+       async def main():
+           print('Hello ...')
+           await asyncio.sleep(1)
+           print('... World!')
+
+       # Python 3.7+
+       asyncio.run(main())
+
+asyncio is a library to write **concurrent** code using
+the **async/await** syntax.
+
+asyncio is used as a foundation for multiple Python asynchronous
+frameworks that provide high-performance network and web-servers,
+database connection libraries, distributed task queues, etc.
+
+asyncio is often a perfect fit for IO-bound and high-level
+**structured** network code.
+
+asyncio provides a set of **high-level** APIs to:
+
+* :ref:`run Python coroutines <coroutine>` concurrently and
+  have full control over their execution;
+
+* perform :ref:`network IO and IPC <asyncio-streams>`;
+
+* control :ref:`subprocesses <asyncio-subprocess>`;
+
+* distribute tasks via :ref:`queues <asyncio-queues>`;
+
+* :ref:`synchronize <asyncio-sync>` concurrent code;
+
+Additionally, there are **low-level** APIs for
+*library and framework developers* to:
+
+* create and manage :ref:`event loops <asyncio-event-loop>`, which
+  provide asynchronous APIs for :meth:`networking <loop.create_server>`,
+  running :meth:`subprocesses <loop.subprocess_exec>`,
+  handling :meth:`OS signals <loop.add_signal_handler>`, etc;
+
+* implement efficient protocols using
+  :ref:`transports <asyncio-transports-protocols>`;
+
+* :ref:`bridge <asyncio-futures>` callback-based libraries and code
+  with async/await syntax.
+
+
+.. We use the "rubric" directive here to avoid creating
+   the "Reference" subsection in the TOC.
+
+.. rubric:: Reference
+
+.. toctree::
+   :caption: High-level APIs
+   :maxdepth: 1
+
+   asyncio-task.rst
+   asyncio-stream.rst
+   asyncio-sync.rst
+   asyncio-subprocess.rst
+   asyncio-queue.rst
+   asyncio-exceptions.rst
+
+.. toctree::
+   :caption: Low-level APIs
+   :maxdepth: 1
+
+   asyncio-eventloop.rst
+   asyncio-future.rst
+   asyncio-protocol.rst
+   asyncio-policy.rst
+   asyncio-platforms.rst
+
+.. toctree::
+   :caption: Guides and Tutorials
+   :maxdepth: 1
+
+   asyncio-api-index.rst
+   asyncio-llapi-index.rst
+   asyncio-dev.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncore.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncore.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a86518e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/asyncore.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,360 @@
+:mod:`asyncore` --- Asynchronous socket handler
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: asyncore
+   :synopsis: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling
+              services.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Sam Rushing <rushing@nightmare.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Christopher Petrilli <petrilli@amber.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steve Holden <sholden@holdenweb.com>
+.. heavily adapted from original documentation by Sam Rushing
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/asyncore.py`
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.6
+   Please use :mod:`asyncio` instead.
+
+--------------
+
+.. note::
+
+   This module exists for backwards compatibility only.  For new code we
+   recommend using :mod:`asyncio`.
+
+This module provides the basic infrastructure for writing asynchronous  socket
+service clients and servers.
+
+There are only two ways to have a program on a single processor do  "more than
+one thing at a time." Multi-threaded programming is the  simplest and most
+popular way to do it, but there is another very different technique, that lets
+you have nearly all the advantages of  multi-threading, without actually using
+multiple threads.  It's really  only practical if your program is largely I/O
+bound.  If your program is processor bound, then pre-emptive scheduled threads
+are probably what you really need.  Network servers are rarely processor
+bound, however.
+
+If your operating system supports the :c:func:`select` system call in its I/O
+library (and nearly all do), then you can use it to juggle multiple
+communication channels at once; doing other work while your I/O is taking
+place in the "background."  Although this strategy can seem strange and
+complex, especially at first, it is in many ways easier to understand and
+control than multi-threaded programming.  The :mod:`asyncore` module solves
+many of the difficult problems for you, making the task of building
+sophisticated high-performance network servers and clients a snap.  For
+"conversational" applications and protocols the companion :mod:`asynchat`
+module is invaluable.
+
+The basic idea behind both modules is to create one or more network
+*channels*, instances of class :class:`asyncore.dispatcher` and
+:class:`asynchat.async_chat`.  Creating the channels adds them to a global
+map, used by the :func:`loop` function if you do not provide it with your own
+*map*.
+
+Once the initial channel(s) is(are) created, calling the :func:`loop` function
+activates channel service, which continues until the last channel (including
+any that have been added to the map during asynchronous service) is closed.
+
+
+.. function:: loop([timeout[, use_poll[, map[,count]]]])
+
+   Enter a polling loop that terminates after count passes or all open
+   channels have been closed.  All arguments are optional.  The *count*
+   parameter defaults to ``None``, resulting in the loop terminating only when all
+   channels have been closed.  The *timeout* argument sets the timeout
+   parameter for the appropriate :func:`~select.select` or :func:`~select.poll`
+   call, measured in seconds; the default is 30 seconds.  The *use_poll*
+   parameter, if true, indicates that :func:`~select.poll` should be used in
+   preference to :func:`~select.select` (the default is ``False``).
+
+   The *map* parameter is a dictionary whose items are the channels to watch.
+   As channels are closed they are deleted from their map.  If *map* is
+   omitted, a global map is used. Channels (instances of
+   :class:`asyncore.dispatcher`, :class:`asynchat.async_chat` and subclasses
+   thereof) can freely be mixed in the map.
+
+
+.. class:: dispatcher()
+
+   The :class:`dispatcher` class is a thin wrapper around a low-level socket
+   object. To make it more useful, it has a few methods for event-handling
+   which are called from the asynchronous loop.   Otherwise, it can be treated
+   as a normal non-blocking socket object.
+
+   The firing of low-level events at certain times or in certain connection
+   states tells the asynchronous loop that certain higher-level events have
+   taken place.  For example, if we have asked for a socket to connect to
+   another host, we know that the connection has been made when the socket
+   becomes writable for the first time (at this point you know that you may
+   write to it with the expectation of success).  The implied higher-level
+   events are:
+
+   +----------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | Event                | Description                            |
+   +======================+========================================+
+   | ``handle_connect()`` | Implied by the first read or write     |
+   |                      | event                                  |
+   +----------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | ``handle_close()``   | Implied by a read event with no data   |
+   |                      | available                              |
+   +----------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | ``handle_accepted()``| Implied by a read event on a listening |
+   |                      | socket                                 |
+   +----------------------+----------------------------------------+
+
+   During asynchronous processing, each mapped channel's :meth:`readable` and
+   :meth:`writable` methods are used to determine whether the channel's socket
+   should be added to the list of channels :c:func:`select`\ ed or
+   :c:func:`poll`\ ed for read and write events.
+
+   Thus, the set of channel events is larger than the basic socket events.  The
+   full set of methods that can be overridden in your subclass follows:
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_read()
+
+      Called when the asynchronous loop detects that a :meth:`read` call on the
+      channel's socket will succeed.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_write()
+
+      Called when the asynchronous loop detects that a writable socket can be
+      written.  Often this method will implement the necessary buffering for
+      performance.  For example::
+
+         def handle_write(self):
+             sent = self.send(self.buffer)
+             self.buffer = self.buffer[sent:]
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_expt()
+
+      Called when there is out of band (OOB) data for a socket connection.  This
+      will almost never happen, as OOB is tenuously supported and rarely used.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_connect()
+
+      Called when the active opener's socket actually makes a connection.  Might
+      send a "welcome" banner, or initiate a protocol negotiation with the
+      remote endpoint, for example.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_close()
+
+      Called when the socket is closed.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_error()
+
+      Called when an exception is raised and not otherwise handled.  The default
+      version prints a condensed traceback.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_accept()
+
+      Called on listening channels (passive openers) when a connection can be
+      established with a new remote endpoint that has issued a :meth:`connect`
+      call for the local endpoint. Deprecated in version 3.2; use
+      :meth:`handle_accepted` instead.
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_accepted(sock, addr)
+
+      Called on listening channels (passive openers) when a connection has been
+      established with a new remote endpoint that has issued a :meth:`connect`
+      call for the local endpoint.  *sock* is a *new* socket object usable to
+      send and receive data on the connection, and *addr* is the address
+      bound to the socket on the other end of the connection.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: readable()
+
+      Called each time around the asynchronous loop to determine whether a
+      channel's socket should be added to the list on which read events can
+      occur.  The default method simply returns ``True``, indicating that by
+      default, all channels will be interested in read events.
+
+
+   .. method:: writable()
+
+      Called each time around the asynchronous loop to determine whether a
+      channel's socket should be added to the list on which write events can
+      occur.  The default method simply returns ``True``, indicating that by
+      default, all channels will be interested in write events.
+
+
+   In addition, each channel delegates or extends many of the socket methods.
+   Most of these are nearly identical to their socket partners.
+
+
+   .. method:: create_socket(family=socket.AF_INET, type=socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+
+      This is identical to the creation of a normal socket, and will use the
+      same options for creation.  Refer to the :mod:`socket` documentation for
+      information on creating sockets.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         *family* and *type* arguments can be omitted.
+
+
+   .. method:: connect(address)
+
+      As with the normal socket object, *address* is a tuple with the first
+      element the host to connect to, and the second the port number.
+
+
+   .. method:: send(data)
+
+      Send *data* to the remote end-point of the socket.
+
+
+   .. method:: recv(buffer_size)
+
+      Read at most *buffer_size* bytes from the socket's remote end-point.  An
+      empty bytes object implies that the channel has been closed from the
+      other end.
+
+      Note that :meth:`recv` may raise :exc:`BlockingIOError` , even though
+      :func:`select.select` or :func:`select.poll` has reported the socket
+      ready for reading.
+
+
+   .. method:: listen(backlog)
+
+      Listen for connections made to the socket.  The *backlog* argument
+      specifies the maximum number of queued connections and should be at least
+      1; the maximum value is system-dependent (usually 5).
+
+
+   .. method:: bind(address)
+
+      Bind the socket to *address*.  The socket must not already be bound.  (The
+      format of *address* depends on the address family --- refer to the
+      :mod:`socket` documentation for more information.)  To mark
+      the socket as re-usable (setting the :const:`SO_REUSEADDR` option), call
+      the :class:`dispatcher` object's :meth:`set_reuse_addr` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: accept()
+
+      Accept a connection.  The socket must be bound to an address and listening
+      for connections.  The return value can be either ``None`` or a pair
+      ``(conn, address)`` where *conn* is a *new* socket object usable to send
+      and receive data on the connection, and *address* is the address bound to
+      the socket on the other end of the connection.
+      When ``None`` is returned it means the connection didn't take place, in
+      which case the server should just ignore this event and keep listening
+      for further incoming connections.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the socket.  All future operations on the socket object will fail.
+      The remote end-point will receive no more data (after queued data is
+      flushed).  Sockets are automatically closed when they are
+      garbage-collected.
+
+
+.. class:: dispatcher_with_send()
+
+   A :class:`dispatcher` subclass which adds simple buffered output capability,
+   useful for simple clients. For more sophisticated usage use
+   :class:`asynchat.async_chat`.
+
+.. class:: file_dispatcher()
+
+   A file_dispatcher takes a file descriptor or :term:`file object` along
+   with an optional map argument and wraps it for use with the :c:func:`poll`
+   or :c:func:`loop` functions.  If provided a file object or anything with a
+   :c:func:`fileno` method, that method will be called and passed to the
+   :class:`file_wrapper` constructor.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+.. class:: file_wrapper()
+
+   A file_wrapper takes an integer file descriptor and calls :func:`os.dup` to
+   duplicate the handle so that the original handle may be closed independently
+   of the file_wrapper.  This class implements sufficient methods to emulate a
+   socket for use by the :class:`file_dispatcher` class.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. _asyncore-example-1:
+
+asyncore Example basic HTTP client
+----------------------------------
+
+Here is a very basic HTTP client that uses the :class:`dispatcher` class to
+implement its socket handling::
+
+   import asyncore
+
+   class HTTPClient(asyncore.dispatcher):
+
+       def __init__(self, host, path):
+           asyncore.dispatcher.__init__(self)
+           self.create_socket()
+           self.connect( (host, 80) )
+           self.buffer = bytes('GET %s HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: %s\r\n\r\n' %
+                               (path, host), 'ascii')
+
+       def handle_connect(self):
+           pass
+
+       def handle_close(self):
+           self.close()
+
+       def handle_read(self):
+           print(self.recv(8192))
+
+       def writable(self):
+           return (len(self.buffer) > 0)
+
+       def handle_write(self):
+           sent = self.send(self.buffer)
+           self.buffer = self.buffer[sent:]
+
+
+   client = HTTPClient('www.python.org', '/')
+   asyncore.loop()
+
+.. _asyncore-example-2:
+
+asyncore Example basic echo server
+----------------------------------
+
+Here is a basic echo server that uses the :class:`dispatcher` class to accept
+connections and dispatches the incoming connections to a handler::
+
+    import asyncore
+
+    class EchoHandler(asyncore.dispatcher_with_send):
+
+        def handle_read(self):
+            data = self.recv(8192)
+            if data:
+                self.send(data)
+
+    class EchoServer(asyncore.dispatcher):
+
+        def __init__(self, host, port):
+            asyncore.dispatcher.__init__(self)
+            self.create_socket()
+            self.set_reuse_addr()
+            self.bind((host, port))
+            self.listen(5)
+
+        def handle_accepted(self, sock, addr):
+            print('Incoming connection from %s' % repr(addr))
+            handler = EchoHandler(sock)
+
+    server = EchoServer('localhost', 8080)
+    asyncore.loop()
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/atexit.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/atexit.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c2c058e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/atexit.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+:mod:`atexit` --- Exit handlers
+===============================
+
+.. module:: atexit
+   :synopsis: Register and execute cleanup functions.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@pobox.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@pobox.com>
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`atexit` module defines functions to register and unregister cleanup
+functions.  Functions thus registered are automatically executed upon normal
+interpreter termination.  :mod:`atexit` runs these functions in the *reverse*
+order in which they were registered; if you register ``A``, ``B``, and ``C``,
+at interpreter termination time they will be run in the order ``C``, ``B``,
+``A``.
+
+**Note:** The functions registered via this module are not called when the
+program is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal
+internal error is detected, or when :func:`os._exit` is called.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+    When used with C-API subinterpreters, registered functions
+    are local to the interpreter they were registered in.
+
+.. function:: register(func, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Register *func* as a function to be executed at termination.  Any optional
+   arguments that are to be passed to *func* must be passed as arguments to
+   :func:`register`.  It is possible to register the same function and arguments
+   more than once.
+
+   At normal program termination (for instance, if :func:`sys.exit` is called or
+   the main module's execution completes), all functions registered are called in
+   last in, first out order.  The assumption is that lower level modules will
+   normally be imported before higher level modules and thus must be cleaned up
+   later.
+
+   If an exception is raised during execution of the exit handlers, a traceback is
+   printed (unless :exc:`SystemExit` is raised) and the exception information is
+   saved.  After all exit handlers have had a chance to run the last exception to
+   be raised is re-raised.
+
+   This function returns *func*, which makes it possible to use it as a
+   decorator.
+
+
+.. function:: unregister(func)
+
+   Remove *func* from the list of functions to be run at interpreter
+   shutdown.  After calling :func:`unregister`, *func* is guaranteed not to be
+   called when the interpreter shuts down, even if it was registered more than
+   once.  :func:`unregister` silently does nothing if *func* was not previously
+   registered.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`readline`
+      Useful example of :mod:`atexit` to read and write :mod:`readline` history
+      files.
+
+
+.. _atexit-example:
+
+:mod:`atexit` Example
+---------------------
+
+The following simple example demonstrates how a module can initialize a counter
+from a file when it is imported and save the counter's updated value
+automatically when the program terminates without relying on the application
+making an explicit call into this module at termination. ::
+
+   try:
+       with open("counterfile") as infile:
+           _count = int(infile.read())
+   except FileNotFoundError:
+       _count = 0
+
+   def incrcounter(n):
+       global _count
+       _count = _count + n
+
+   def savecounter():
+       with open("counterfile", "w") as outfile:
+           outfile.write("%d" % _count)
+
+   import atexit
+   atexit.register(savecounter)
+
+Positional and keyword arguments may also be passed to :func:`register` to be
+passed along to the registered function when it is called::
+
+   def goodbye(name, adjective):
+       print('Goodbye, %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective))
+
+   import atexit
+   atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice')
+
+   # or:
+   atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny')
+
+Usage as a :term:`decorator`::
+
+   import atexit
+
+   @atexit.register
+   def goodbye():
+       print("You are now leaving the Python sector.")
+
+This only works with functions that can be called without arguments.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/audioop.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/audioop.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bad9da2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/audioop.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,282 @@
+:mod:`audioop` --- Manipulate raw audio data
+============================================
+
+.. module:: audioop
+   :synopsis: Manipulate raw audio data.
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`audioop` module contains some useful operations on sound fragments.
+It operates on sound fragments consisting of signed integer samples 8, 16, 24
+or 32 bits wide, stored in :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`.  All scalar items are
+integers, unless specified otherwise.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Support for 24-bit samples was added.
+   All functions now accept any :term:`bytes-like object`.
+   String input now results in an immediate error.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Intel/DVI ADPCM
+   single: ADPCM, Intel/DVI
+   single: a-LAW
+   single: u-LAW
+
+This module provides support for a-LAW, u-LAW and Intel/DVI ADPCM encodings.
+
+.. This para is mostly here to provide an excuse for the index entries...
+
+A few of the more complicated operations only take 16-bit samples, otherwise the
+sample size (in bytes) is always a parameter of the operation.
+
+The module defines the following variables and functions:
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   This exception is raised on all errors, such as unknown number of bytes per
+   sample, etc.
+
+
+.. function:: add(fragment1, fragment2, width)
+
+   Return a fragment which is the addition of the two samples passed as parameters.
+   *width* is the sample width in bytes, either ``1``, ``2``, ``3`` or ``4``.  Both
+   fragments should have the same length.  Samples are truncated in case of overflow.
+
+
+.. function:: adpcm2lin(adpcmfragment, width, state)
+
+   Decode an Intel/DVI ADPCM coded fragment to a linear fragment.  See the
+   description of :func:`lin2adpcm` for details on ADPCM coding. Return a tuple
+   ``(sample, newstate)`` where the sample has the width specified in *width*.
+
+
+.. function:: alaw2lin(fragment, width)
+
+   Convert sound fragments in a-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound fragments.
+   a-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so *width* refers only to the sample
+   width of the output fragment here.
+
+
+.. function:: avg(fragment, width)
+
+   Return the average over all samples in the fragment.
+
+
+.. function:: avgpp(fragment, width)
+
+   Return the average peak-peak value over all samples in the fragment. No
+   filtering is done, so the usefulness of this routine is questionable.
+
+
+.. function:: bias(fragment, width, bias)
+
+   Return a fragment that is the original fragment with a bias added to each
+   sample.  Samples wrap around in case of overflow.
+
+
+.. function:: byteswap(fragment, width)
+
+   "Byteswap" all samples in a fragment and returns the modified fragment.
+   Converts big-endian samples to little-endian and vice versa.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: cross(fragment, width)
+
+   Return the number of zero crossings in the fragment passed as an argument.
+
+
+.. function:: findfactor(fragment, reference)
+
+   Return a factor *F* such that ``rms(add(fragment, mul(reference, -F)))`` is
+   minimal, i.e., return the factor with which you should multiply *reference* to
+   make it match as well as possible to *fragment*.  The fragments should both
+   contain 2-byte samples.
+
+   The time taken by this routine is proportional to ``len(fragment)``.
+
+
+.. function:: findfit(fragment, reference)
+
+   Try to match *reference* as well as possible to a portion of *fragment* (which
+   should be the longer fragment).  This is (conceptually) done by taking slices
+   out of *fragment*, using :func:`findfactor` to compute the best match, and
+   minimizing the result.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.
+   Return a tuple ``(offset, factor)`` where *offset* is the (integer) offset into
+   *fragment* where the optimal match started and *factor* is the (floating-point)
+   factor as per :func:`findfactor`.
+
+
+.. function:: findmax(fragment, length)
+
+   Search *fragment* for a slice of length *length* samples (not bytes!) with
+   maximum energy, i.e., return *i* for which ``rms(fragment[i*2:(i+length)*2])``
+   is maximal.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.
+
+   The routine takes time proportional to ``len(fragment)``.
+
+
+.. function:: getsample(fragment, width, index)
+
+   Return the value of sample *index* from the fragment.
+
+
+.. function:: lin2adpcm(fragment, width, state)
+
+   Convert samples to 4 bit Intel/DVI ADPCM encoding.  ADPCM coding is an adaptive
+   coding scheme, whereby each 4 bit number is the difference between one sample
+   and the next, divided by a (varying) step.  The Intel/DVI ADPCM algorithm has
+   been selected for use by the IMA, so it may well become a standard.
+
+   *state* is a tuple containing the state of the coder.  The coder returns a tuple
+   ``(adpcmfrag, newstate)``, and the *newstate* should be passed to the next call
+   of :func:`lin2adpcm`.  In the initial call, ``None`` can be passed as the state.
+   *adpcmfrag* is the ADPCM coded fragment packed 2 4-bit values per byte.
+
+
+.. function:: lin2alaw(fragment, width)
+
+   Convert samples in the audio fragment to a-LAW encoding and return this as a
+   bytes object.  a-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby you get a dynamic
+   range of about 13 bits using only 8 bit samples.  It is used by the Sun audio
+   hardware, among others.
+
+
+.. function:: lin2lin(fragment, width, newwidth)
+
+   Convert samples between 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-byte formats.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      In some audio formats, such as .WAV files, 16, 24 and 32 bit samples are
+      signed, but 8 bit samples are unsigned.  So when converting to 8 bit wide
+      samples for these formats, you need to also add 128 to the result::
+
+         new_frames = audioop.lin2lin(frames, old_width, 1)
+         new_frames = audioop.bias(new_frames, 1, 128)
+
+      The same, in reverse, has to be applied when converting from 8 to 16, 24
+      or 32 bit width samples.
+
+
+.. function:: lin2ulaw(fragment, width)
+
+   Convert samples in the audio fragment to u-LAW encoding and return this as a
+   bytes object.  u-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby you get a dynamic
+   range of about 14 bits using only 8 bit samples.  It is used by the Sun audio
+   hardware, among others.
+
+
+.. function:: max(fragment, width)
+
+   Return the maximum of the *absolute value* of all samples in a fragment.
+
+
+.. function:: maxpp(fragment, width)
+
+   Return the maximum peak-peak value in the sound fragment.
+
+
+.. function:: minmax(fragment, width)
+
+   Return a tuple consisting of the minimum and maximum values of all samples in
+   the sound fragment.
+
+
+.. function:: mul(fragment, width, factor)
+
+   Return a fragment that has all samples in the original fragment multiplied by
+   the floating-point value *factor*.  Samples are truncated in case of overflow.
+
+
+.. function:: ratecv(fragment, width, nchannels, inrate, outrate, state[, weightA[, weightB]])
+
+   Convert the frame rate of the input fragment.
+
+   *state* is a tuple containing the state of the converter.  The converter returns
+   a tuple ``(newfragment, newstate)``, and *newstate* should be passed to the next
+   call of :func:`ratecv`.  The initial call should pass ``None`` as the state.
+
+   The *weightA* and *weightB* arguments are parameters for a simple digital filter
+   and default to ``1`` and ``0`` respectively.
+
+
+.. function:: reverse(fragment, width)
+
+   Reverse the samples in a fragment and returns the modified fragment.
+
+
+.. function:: rms(fragment, width)
+
+   Return the root-mean-square of the fragment, i.e. ``sqrt(sum(S_i^2)/n)``.
+
+   This is a measure of the power in an audio signal.
+
+
+.. function:: tomono(fragment, width, lfactor, rfactor)
+
+   Convert a stereo fragment to a mono fragment.  The left channel is multiplied by
+   *lfactor* and the right channel by *rfactor* before adding the two channels to
+   give a mono signal.
+
+
+.. function:: tostereo(fragment, width, lfactor, rfactor)
+
+   Generate a stereo fragment from a mono fragment.  Each pair of samples in the
+   stereo fragment are computed from the mono sample, whereby left channel samples
+   are multiplied by *lfactor* and right channel samples by *rfactor*.
+
+
+.. function:: ulaw2lin(fragment, width)
+
+   Convert sound fragments in u-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound fragments.
+   u-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so *width* refers only to the sample
+   width of the output fragment here.
+
+Note that operations such as :func:`.mul` or :func:`.max` make no distinction
+between mono and stereo fragments, i.e. all samples are treated equal.  If this
+is a problem the stereo fragment should be split into two mono fragments first
+and recombined later.  Here is an example of how to do that::
+
+   def mul_stereo(sample, width, lfactor, rfactor):
+       lsample = audioop.tomono(sample, width, 1, 0)
+       rsample = audioop.tomono(sample, width, 0, 1)
+       lsample = audioop.mul(lsample, width, lfactor)
+       rsample = audioop.mul(rsample, width, rfactor)
+       lsample = audioop.tostereo(lsample, width, 1, 0)
+       rsample = audioop.tostereo(rsample, width, 0, 1)
+       return audioop.add(lsample, rsample, width)
+
+If you use the ADPCM coder to build network packets and you want your protocol
+to be stateless (i.e. to be able to tolerate packet loss) you should not only
+transmit the data but also the state.  Note that you should send the *initial*
+state (the one you passed to :func:`lin2adpcm`) along to the decoder, not the
+final state (as returned by the coder).  If you want to use
+:class:`struct.Struct` to store the state in binary you can code the first
+element (the predicted value) in 16 bits and the second (the delta index) in 8.
+
+The ADPCM coders have never been tried against other ADPCM coders, only against
+themselves.  It could well be that I misinterpreted the standards in which case
+they will not be interoperable with the respective standards.
+
+The :func:`find\*` routines might look a bit funny at first sight. They are
+primarily meant to do echo cancellation.  A reasonably fast way to do this is to
+pick the most energetic piece of the output sample, locate that in the input
+sample and subtract the whole output sample from the input sample::
+
+   def echocancel(outputdata, inputdata):
+       pos = audioop.findmax(outputdata, 800)    # one tenth second
+       out_test = outputdata[pos*2:]
+       in_test = inputdata[pos*2:]
+       ipos, factor = audioop.findfit(in_test, out_test)
+       # Optional (for better cancellation):
+       # factor = audioop.findfactor(in_test[ipos*2:ipos*2+len(out_test)],
+       #              out_test)
+       prefill = '\0'*(pos+ipos)*2
+       postfill = '\0'*(len(inputdata)-len(prefill)-len(outputdata))
+       outputdata = prefill + audioop.mul(outputdata, 2, -factor) + postfill
+       return audioop.add(inputdata, outputdata, 2)
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/base64.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/base64.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad9f5f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/base64.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
+:mod:`base64` --- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: base64
+   :synopsis: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings;
+              Base85 and Ascii85
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/base64.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: base64; encoding
+   single: MIME; base64 encoding
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable
+ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data.
+It provides encoding and decoding functions for the encodings specified in
+:rfc:`3548`, which defines the Base16, Base32, and Base64 algorithms,
+and for the de-facto standard Ascii85 and Base85 encodings.
+
+The :rfc:`3548` encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that it can
+safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as part of an HTTP
+POST request.  The encoding algorithm is not the same as the
+:program:`uuencode` program.
+
+There are two interfaces provided by this module.  The modern interface
+supports encoding :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` to ASCII
+:class:`bytes`, and decoding :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` or
+strings containing ASCII to :class:`bytes`.  Both base-64 alphabets
+defined in :rfc:`3548` (normal, and URL- and filesystem-safe) are supported.
+
+The legacy interface does not support decoding from strings, but it does
+provide functions for encoding and decoding to and from :term:`file objects
+<file object>`.  It only supports the Base64 standard alphabet, and it adds
+newlines every 76 characters as per :rfc:`2045`.  Note that if you are looking
+for :rfc:`2045` support you probably want to be looking at the :mod:`email`
+package instead.
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of
+   the modern interface.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Any :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` are now accepted by all
+   encoding and decoding functions in this module.  Ascii85/Base85 support added.
+
+The modern interface provides:
+
+.. function:: b64encode(s, altchars=None)
+
+   Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *s* using Base64 and return the encoded
+   :class:`bytes`.
+
+   Optional *altchars* must be a :term:`bytes-like object` of at least
+   length 2 (additional characters are ignored) which specifies an alternative
+   alphabet for the ``+`` and ``/`` characters.  This allows an application to e.g.
+   generate URL or filesystem safe Base64 strings.  The default is ``None``, for
+   which the standard Base64 alphabet is used.
+
+
+.. function:: b64decode(s, altchars=None, validate=False)
+
+   Decode the Base64 encoded :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string
+   *s* and return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+   Optional *altchars* must be a :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string of
+   at least length 2 (additional characters are ignored) which specifies the
+   alternative alphabet used instead of the ``+`` and ``/`` characters.
+
+   A :exc:`binascii.Error` exception is raised
+   if *s* is incorrectly padded.
+
+   If *validate* is ``False`` (the default), characters that are neither
+   in the normal base-64 alphabet nor the alternative alphabet are
+   discarded prior to the padding check.  If *validate* is ``True``,
+   these non-alphabet characters in the input result in a
+   :exc:`binascii.Error`.
+
+
+.. function:: standard_b64encode(s)
+
+   Encode :term:`bytes-like object` *s* using the standard Base64 alphabet
+   and return the encoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+
+.. function:: standard_b64decode(s)
+
+   Decode :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *s* using the standard
+   Base64 alphabet and return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+
+.. function:: urlsafe_b64encode(s)
+
+   Encode :term:`bytes-like object` *s* using the
+   URL- and filesystem-safe alphabet, which
+   substitutes ``-`` instead of ``+`` and ``_`` instead of ``/`` in the
+   standard Base64 alphabet, and return the encoded :class:`bytes`.  The result
+   can still contain ``=``.
+
+
+.. function:: urlsafe_b64decode(s)
+
+   Decode :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *s*
+   using the URL- and filesystem-safe
+   alphabet, which substitutes ``-`` instead of ``+`` and ``_`` instead of
+   ``/`` in the standard Base64 alphabet, and return the decoded
+   :class:`bytes`.
+
+
+.. function:: b32encode(s)
+
+   Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *s* using Base32 and return the
+   encoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+
+.. function:: b32decode(s, casefold=False, map01=None)
+
+   Decode the Base32 encoded :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *s* and
+   return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+   Optional *casefold* is a flag specifying
+   whether a lowercase alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes,
+   the default is ``False``.
+
+   :rfc:`3548` allows for optional mapping of the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O
+   (oh), and for optional mapping of the digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye)
+   or letter L (el).  The optional argument *map01* when not ``None``, specifies
+   which letter the digit 1 should be mapped to (when *map01* is not ``None``, the
+   digit 0 is always mapped to the letter O).  For security purposes the default is
+   ``None``, so that 0 and 1 are not allowed in the input.
+
+   A :exc:`binascii.Error` is raised if *s* is
+   incorrectly padded or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the
+   input.
+
+
+.. function:: b16encode(s)
+
+   Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *s* using Base16 and return the
+   encoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+
+.. function:: b16decode(s, casefold=False)
+
+   Decode the Base16 encoded :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *s* and
+   return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+   Optional *casefold* is a flag specifying whether a
+   lowercase alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes, the default
+   is ``False``.
+
+   A :exc:`binascii.Error` is raised if *s* is
+   incorrectly padded or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the
+   input.
+
+
+.. function:: a85encode(b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0, pad=False, adobe=False)
+
+   Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *b* using Ascii85 and return the
+   encoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+   *foldspaces* is an optional flag that uses the special short sequence 'y'
+   instead of 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20) as supported by 'btoa'. This
+   feature is not supported by the "standard" Ascii85 encoding.
+
+   *wrapcol* controls whether the output should have newline (``b'\n'``)
+   characters added to it. If this is non-zero, each output line will be
+   at most this many characters long.
+
+   *pad* controls whether the input is padded to a multiple of 4
+   before encoding. Note that the ``btoa`` implementation always pads.
+
+   *adobe* controls whether the encoded byte sequence is framed with ``<~``
+   and ``~>``, which is used by the Adobe implementation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: a85decode(b, *, foldspaces=False, adobe=False, ignorechars=b' \\t\\n\\r\\v')
+
+   Decode the Ascii85 encoded :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *b* and
+   return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+   *foldspaces* is a flag that specifies whether the 'y' short sequence
+   should be accepted as shorthand for 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20).
+   This feature is not supported by the "standard" Ascii85 encoding.
+
+   *adobe* controls whether the input sequence is in Adobe Ascii85 format
+   (i.e. is framed with <~ and ~>).
+
+   *ignorechars* should be a :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string
+   containing characters to ignore
+   from the input. This should only contain whitespace characters, and by
+   default contains all whitespace characters in ASCII.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: b85encode(b, pad=False)
+
+   Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *b* using base85 (as used in e.g.
+   git-style binary diffs) and return the encoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+   If *pad* is true, the input is padded with ``b'\0'`` so its length is a
+   multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: b85decode(b)
+
+   Decode the base85-encoded :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *b* and
+   return the decoded :class:`bytes`.  Padding is implicitly removed, if
+   necessary.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+The legacy interface:
+
+.. function:: decode(input, output)
+
+   Decode the contents of the binary *input* file and write the resulting binary
+   data to the *output* file. *input* and *output* must be :term:`file objects
+   <file object>`. *input* will be read until ``input.readline()`` returns an
+   empty bytes object.
+
+
+.. function:: decodebytes(s)
+
+   Decode the :term:`bytes-like object` *s*, which must contain one or more
+   lines of base64 encoded data, and return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+.. function:: decodestring(s)
+
+   Deprecated alias of :func:`decodebytes`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: encode(input, output)
+
+   Encode the contents of the binary *input* file and write the resulting base64
+   encoded data to the *output* file. *input* and *output* must be :term:`file
+   objects <file object>`. *input* will be read until ``input.read()`` returns
+   an empty bytes object. :func:`encode` inserts a newline character (``b'\n'``)
+   after every 76 bytes of the output, as well as ensuring that the output
+   always ends with a newline, as per :rfc:`2045` (MIME).
+
+
+.. function:: encodebytes(s)
+
+   Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *s*, which can contain arbitrary binary
+   data, and return :class:`bytes` containing the base64-encoded data, with newlines
+   (``b'\n'``) inserted after every 76 bytes of output, and ensuring that
+   there is a trailing newline, as per :rfc:`2045` (MIME).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+.. function:: encodestring(s)
+
+   Deprecated alias of :func:`encodebytes`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.1
+
+
+An example usage of the module:
+
+   >>> import base64
+   >>> encoded = base64.b64encode(b'data to be encoded')
+   >>> encoded
+   b'ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk'
+   >>> data = base64.b64decode(encoded)
+   >>> data
+   b'data to be encoded'
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`binascii`
+      Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII conversions.
+
+   :rfc:`1521` - MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies
+      Section 5.2, "Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding," provides the definition of the
+      base64 encoding.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bdb.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bdb.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..116ffcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bdb.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,372 @@
+:mod:`bdb` --- Debugger framework
+=================================
+
+.. module:: bdb
+   :synopsis: Debugger framework.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/bdb.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`bdb` module handles basic debugger functions, like setting breakpoints
+or managing execution via the debugger.
+
+The following exception is defined:
+
+.. exception:: BdbQuit
+
+   Exception raised by the :class:`Bdb` class for quitting the debugger.
+
+
+The :mod:`bdb` module also defines two classes:
+
+.. class:: Breakpoint(self, file, line, temporary=0, cond=None, funcname=None)
+
+   This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts, disabling and
+   (re-)enabling, and conditionals.
+
+   Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called :attr:`bpbynumber`
+   and by ``(file, line)`` pairs through :attr:`bplist`.  The former points to a
+   single instance of class :class:`Breakpoint`.  The latter points to a list of
+   such instances since there may be more than one breakpoint per line.
+
+   When creating a breakpoint, its associated filename should be in canonical
+   form.  If a *funcname* is defined, a breakpoint hit will be counted when the
+   first line of that function is executed.  A conditional breakpoint always
+   counts a hit.
+
+   :class:`Breakpoint` instances have the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: deleteMe()
+
+      Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line.  If it is
+      the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes the entry for the
+      file/line.
+
+
+   .. method:: enable()
+
+      Mark the breakpoint as enabled.
+
+
+   .. method:: disable()
+
+      Mark the breakpoint as disabled.
+
+
+   .. method:: bpformat()
+
+      Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint, nicely
+      formatted:
+
+      * The breakpoint number.
+      * If it is temporary or not.
+      * Its file,line position.
+      * The condition that causes a break.
+      * If it must be ignored the next N times.
+      * The breakpoint hit count.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: bpprint(out=None)
+
+      Print the output of :meth:`bpformat` to the file *out*, or if it is
+      ``None``, to standard output.
+
+
+.. class:: Bdb(skip=None)
+
+   The :class:`Bdb` class acts as a generic Python debugger base class.
+
+   This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a derived class
+   should implement user interaction.  The standard debugger class
+   (:class:`pdb.Pdb`) is an example.
+
+   The *skip* argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
+   module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
+   originate in a module that matches one of these patterns. Whether a
+   frame is considered to originate in a certain module is determined
+   by the ``__name__`` in the frame globals.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+      The *skip* argument.
+
+   The following methods of :class:`Bdb` normally don't need to be overridden.
+
+   .. method:: canonic(filename)
+
+      Auxiliary method for getting a filename in a canonical form, that is, as a
+      case-normalized (on case-insensitive filesystems) absolute path, stripped
+      of surrounding angle brackets.
+
+   .. method:: reset()
+
+      Set the :attr:`botframe`, :attr:`stopframe`, :attr:`returnframe` and
+      :attr:`quitting` attributes with values ready to start debugging.
+
+   .. method:: trace_dispatch(frame, event, arg)
+
+      This function is installed as the trace function of debugged frames.  Its
+      return value is the new trace function (in most cases, that is, itself).
+
+      The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame, depending on
+      the type of event (passed as a string) that is about to be executed.
+      *event* can be one of the following:
+
+      * ``"line"``: A new line of code is going to be executed.
+      * ``"call"``: A function is about to be called, or another code block
+        entered.
+      * ``"return"``: A function or other code block is about to return.
+      * ``"exception"``: An exception has occurred.
+      * ``"c_call"``: A C function is about to be called.
+      * ``"c_return"``: A C function has returned.
+      * ``"c_exception"``: A C function has raised an exception.
+
+      For the Python events, specialized functions (see below) are called.  For
+      the C events, no action is taken.
+
+      The *arg* parameter depends on the previous event.
+
+      See the documentation for :func:`sys.settrace` for more information on the
+      trace function.  For more information on code and frame objects, refer to
+      :ref:`types`.
+
+   .. method:: dispatch_line(frame)
+
+      If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the
+      :meth:`user_line` method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+      Raise a :exc:`BdbQuit` exception if the :attr:`Bdb.quitting` flag is set
+      (which can be set from :meth:`user_line`).  Return a reference to the
+      :meth:`trace_dispatch` method for further tracing in that scope.
+
+   .. method:: dispatch_call(frame, arg)
+
+      If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the
+      :meth:`user_call` method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+      Raise a :exc:`BdbQuit` exception if the :attr:`Bdb.quitting` flag is set
+      (which can be set from :meth:`user_call`).  Return a reference to the
+      :meth:`trace_dispatch` method for further tracing in that scope.
+
+   .. method:: dispatch_return(frame, arg)
+
+      If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke the
+      :meth:`user_return` method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+      Raise a :exc:`BdbQuit` exception if the :attr:`Bdb.quitting` flag is set
+      (which can be set from :meth:`user_return`).  Return a reference to the
+      :meth:`trace_dispatch` method for further tracing in that scope.
+
+   .. method:: dispatch_exception(frame, arg)
+
+      If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the
+      :meth:`user_exception` method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+      Raise a :exc:`BdbQuit` exception if the :attr:`Bdb.quitting` flag is set
+      (which can be set from :meth:`user_exception`).  Return a reference to the
+      :meth:`trace_dispatch` method for further tracing in that scope.
+
+   Normally derived classes don't override the following methods, but they may
+   if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and breakpoints.
+
+   .. method:: stop_here(frame)
+
+      This method checks if the *frame* is somewhere below :attr:`botframe` in
+      the call stack.  :attr:`botframe` is the frame in which debugging started.
+
+   .. method:: break_here(frame)
+
+      This method checks if there is a breakpoint in the filename and line
+      belonging to *frame* or, at least, in the current function.  If the
+      breakpoint is a temporary one, this method deletes it.
+
+   .. method:: break_anywhere(frame)
+
+      This method checks if there is a breakpoint in the filename of the current
+      frame.
+
+   Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over debugger
+   operation.
+
+   .. method:: user_call(frame, argument_list)
+
+      This method is called from :meth:`dispatch_call` when there is the
+      possibility that a break might be necessary anywhere inside the called
+      function.
+
+   .. method:: user_line(frame)
+
+      This method is called from :meth:`dispatch_line` when either
+      :meth:`stop_here` or :meth:`break_here` yields ``True``.
+
+   .. method:: user_return(frame, return_value)
+
+      This method is called from :meth:`dispatch_return` when :meth:`stop_here`
+      yields ``True``.
+
+   .. method:: user_exception(frame, exc_info)
+
+      This method is called from :meth:`dispatch_exception` when
+      :meth:`stop_here` yields ``True``.
+
+   .. method:: do_clear(arg)
+
+      Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary one.
+
+      This method must be implemented by derived classes.
+
+
+   Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to affect the
+   stepping state.
+
+   .. method:: set_step()
+
+      Stop after one line of code.
+
+   .. method:: set_next(frame)
+
+      Stop on the next line in or below the given frame.
+
+   .. method:: set_return(frame)
+
+      Stop when returning from the given frame.
+
+   .. method:: set_until(frame)
+
+      Stop when the line with the line no greater than the current one is
+      reached or when returning from current frame.
+
+   .. method:: set_trace([frame])
+
+      Start debugging from *frame*.  If *frame* is not specified, debugging
+      starts from caller's frame.
+
+   .. method:: set_continue()
+
+      Stop only at breakpoints or when finished.  If there are no breakpoints,
+      set the system trace function to ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: set_quit()
+
+      Set the :attr:`quitting` attribute to ``True``.  This raises :exc:`BdbQuit` in
+      the next call to one of the :meth:`dispatch_\*` methods.
+
+
+   Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to manipulate
+   breakpoints.  These methods return a string containing an error message if
+   something went wrong, or ``None`` if all is well.
+
+   .. method:: set_break(filename, lineno, temporary=0, cond, funcname)
+
+      Set a new breakpoint.  If the *lineno* line doesn't exist for the
+      *filename* passed as argument, return an error message.  The *filename*
+      should be in canonical form, as described in the :meth:`canonic` method.
+
+   .. method:: clear_break(filename, lineno)
+
+      Delete the breakpoints in *filename* and *lineno*.  If none were set, an
+      error message is returned.
+
+   .. method:: clear_bpbynumber(arg)
+
+      Delete the breakpoint which has the index *arg* in the
+      :attr:`Breakpoint.bpbynumber`.  If *arg* is not numeric or out of range,
+      return an error message.
+
+   .. method:: clear_all_file_breaks(filename)
+
+      Delete all breakpoints in *filename*.  If none were set, an error message
+      is returned.
+
+   .. method:: clear_all_breaks()
+
+      Delete all existing breakpoints.
+
+   .. method:: get_bpbynumber(arg)
+
+      Return a breakpoint specified by the given number.  If *arg* is a string,
+      it will be converted to a number.  If *arg* is a non-numeric string, if
+      the given breakpoint never existed or has been deleted, a
+      :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: get_break(filename, lineno)
+
+      Check if there is a breakpoint for *lineno* of *filename*.
+
+   .. method:: get_breaks(filename, lineno)
+
+      Return all breakpoints for *lineno* in *filename*, or an empty list if
+      none are set.
+
+   .. method:: get_file_breaks(filename)
+
+      Return all breakpoints in *filename*, or an empty list if none are set.
+
+   .. method:: get_all_breaks()
+
+      Return all breakpoints that are set.
+
+
+   Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a data
+   structure representing a stack trace.
+
+   .. method:: get_stack(f, t)
+
+      Get a list of records for a frame and all higher (calling) and lower
+      frames, and the size of the higher part.
+
+   .. method:: format_stack_entry(frame_lineno, lprefix=': ')
+
+      Return a string with information about a stack entry, identified by a
+      ``(frame, lineno)`` tuple:
+
+      * The canonical form of the filename which contains the frame.
+      * The function name, or ``"<lambda>"``.
+      * The input arguments.
+      * The return value.
+      * The line of code (if it exists).
+
+
+   The following two methods can be called by clients to use a debugger to debug
+   a :term:`statement`, given as a string.
+
+   .. method:: run(cmd, globals=None, locals=None)
+
+      Debug a statement executed via the :func:`exec` function.  *globals*
+      defaults to :attr:`__main__.__dict__`, *locals* defaults to *globals*.
+
+   .. method:: runeval(expr, globals=None, locals=None)
+
+      Debug an expression executed via the :func:`eval` function.  *globals* and
+      *locals* have the same meaning as in :meth:`run`.
+
+   .. method:: runctx(cmd, globals, locals)
+
+      For backwards compatibility.  Calls the :meth:`run` method.
+
+   .. method:: runcall(func, *args, **kwds)
+
+      Debug a single function call, and return its result.
+
+
+Finally, the module defines the following functions:
+
+.. function:: checkfuncname(b, frame)
+
+   Check whether we should break here, depending on the way the breakpoint *b*
+   was set.
+
+   If it was set via line number, it checks if ``b.line`` is the same as the one
+   in the frame also passed as argument.  If the breakpoint was set via function
+   name, we have to check we are in the right frame (the right function) and if
+   we are in its first executable line.
+
+.. function:: effective(file, line, frame)
+
+   Determine if there is an effective (active) breakpoint at this line of code.
+   Return a tuple of the breakpoint and a boolean that indicates if it is ok
+   to delete a temporary breakpoint.  Return ``(None, None)`` if there is no
+   matching breakpoint.
+
+.. function:: set_trace()
+
+   Start debugging with a :class:`Bdb` instance from caller's frame.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binary.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binary.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51fbdc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binary.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+.. _binaryservices:
+
+********************
+Binary Data Services
+********************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide some basic services operations
+for manipulation of binary data. Other operations on binary data, specifically
+in relation to file formats and network protocols, are described in the
+relevant sections.
+
+Some libraries described under :ref:`textservices` also work with either
+ASCII-compatible binary formats (for example, :mod:`re`) or all binary data
+(for example, :mod:`difflib`).
+
+In addition, see the documentation for Python's built-in binary data types in
+:ref:`binaryseq`.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   struct.rst
+   codecs.rst
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binascii.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binascii.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..89ecddc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binascii.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+:mod:`binascii` --- Convert between binary and ASCII
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: binascii
+   :synopsis: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary
+              representations.
+
+.. index::
+   module: uu
+   module: base64
+   module: binhex
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`binascii` module contains a number of methods to convert between
+binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations. Normally, you will not
+use these functions directly but use wrapper modules like :mod:`uu`,
+:mod:`base64`, or :mod:`binhex` instead. The :mod:`binascii` module contains
+low-level functions written in C for greater speed that are used by the
+higher-level modules.
+
+.. note::
+
+   ``a2b_*`` functions accept Unicode strings containing only ASCII characters.
+   Other functions only accept :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` (such as
+   :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray` and other objects that support the buffer
+   protocol).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      ASCII-only unicode strings are now accepted by the ``a2b_*`` functions.
+
+
+The :mod:`binascii` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: a2b_uu(string)
+
+   Convert a single line of uuencoded data back to binary and return the binary
+   data. Lines normally contain 45 (binary) bytes, except for the last line. Line
+   data may be followed by whitespace.
+
+
+.. function:: b2a_uu(data, *, backtick=False)
+
+   Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters, the return value is the
+   converted line, including a newline char. The length of *data* should be at most
+   45. If *backtick* is true, zeros are represented by ``'`'`` instead of spaces.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added the *backtick* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: a2b_base64(string)
+
+   Convert a block of base64 data back to binary and return the binary data. More
+   than one line may be passed at a time.
+
+
+.. function:: b2a_base64(data, *, newline=True)
+
+   Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters in base64 coding. The return
+   value is the converted line, including a newline char if *newline* is
+   true.  The output of this function conforms to :rfc:`3548`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added the *newline* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: a2b_qp(data, header=False)
+
+   Convert a block of quoted-printable data back to binary and return the binary
+   data. More than one line may be passed at a time. If the optional argument
+   *header* is present and true, underscores will be decoded as spaces.
+
+
+.. function:: b2a_qp(data, quotetabs=False, istext=True, header=False)
+
+   Convert binary data to a line(s) of ASCII characters in quoted-printable
+   encoding.  The return value is the converted line(s). If the optional argument
+   *quotetabs* is present and true, all tabs and spaces will be encoded.   If the
+   optional argument *istext* is present and true, newlines are not encoded but
+   trailing whitespace will be encoded. If the optional argument *header* is
+   present and true, spaces will be encoded as underscores per :rfc:`1522`. If the
+   optional argument *header* is present and false, newline characters will be
+   encoded as well; otherwise linefeed conversion might corrupt the binary data
+   stream.
+
+
+.. function:: a2b_hqx(string)
+
+   Convert binhex4 formatted ASCII data to binary, without doing RLE-decompression.
+   The string should contain a complete number of binary bytes, or (in case of the
+   last portion of the binhex4 data) have the remaining bits zero.
+
+
+.. function:: rledecode_hqx(data)
+
+   Perform RLE-decompression on the data, as per the binhex4 standard. The
+   algorithm uses ``0x90`` after a byte as a repeat indicator, followed by a count.
+   A count of ``0`` specifies a byte value of ``0x90``. The routine returns the
+   decompressed data, unless data input data ends in an orphaned repeat indicator,
+   in which case the :exc:`Incomplete` exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Accept only bytestring or bytearray objects as input.
+
+
+.. function:: rlecode_hqx(data)
+
+   Perform binhex4 style RLE-compression on *data* and return the result.
+
+
+.. function:: b2a_hqx(data)
+
+   Perform hexbin4 binary-to-ASCII translation and return the resulting string. The
+   argument should already be RLE-coded, and have a length divisible by 3 (except
+   possibly the last fragment).
+
+
+.. function:: crc_hqx(data, value)
+
+   Compute a 16-bit CRC value of *data*, starting with *value* as the
+   initial CRC, and return the result.  This uses the CRC-CCITT polynomial
+   *x*:sup:`16` + *x*:sup:`12` + *x*:sup:`5` + 1, often represented as
+   0x1021.  This CRC is used in the binhex4 format.
+
+
+.. function:: crc32(data[, value])
+
+   Compute CRC-32, the 32-bit checksum of *data*, starting with an
+   initial CRC of *value*.  The default initial CRC is zero.  The algorithm
+   is consistent with the ZIP file checksum.  Since the algorithm is designed for
+   use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable for use as a general hash
+   algorithm.  Use as follows::
+
+      print(binascii.crc32(b"hello world"))
+      # Or, in two pieces:
+      crc = binascii.crc32(b"hello")
+      crc = binascii.crc32(b" world", crc)
+      print('crc32 = {:#010x}'.format(crc))
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.0
+      The result is always unsigned.
+      To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and
+      platforms, use ``crc32(data) & 0xffffffff``.
+
+
+.. function:: b2a_hex(data)
+              hexlify(data)
+
+   Return the hexadecimal representation of the binary *data*.  Every byte of
+   *data* is converted into the corresponding 2-digit hex representation.  The
+   returned bytes object is therefore twice as long as the length of *data*.
+
+   Similar functionality (but returning a text string) is also conveniently
+   accessible using the :meth:`bytes.hex` method.
+
+.. function:: a2b_hex(hexstr)
+              unhexlify(hexstr)
+
+   Return the binary data represented by the hexadecimal string *hexstr*.  This
+   function is the inverse of :func:`b2a_hex`. *hexstr* must contain an even number
+   of hexadecimal digits (which can be upper or lower case), otherwise an
+   :exc:`Error` exception is raised.
+
+   Similar functionality (accepting only text string arguments, but more
+   liberal towards whitespace) is also accessible using the
+   :meth:`bytes.fromhex` class method.
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   Exception raised on errors. These are usually programming errors.
+
+
+.. exception:: Incomplete
+
+   Exception raised on incomplete data. These are usually not programming errors,
+   but may be handled by reading a little more data and trying again.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`base64`
+      Support for RFC compliant base64-style encoding in base 16, 32, 64,
+      and 85.
+
+   Module :mod:`binhex`
+      Support for the binhex format used on the Macintosh.
+
+   Module :mod:`uu`
+      Support for UU encoding used on Unix.
+
+   Module :mod:`quopri`
+      Support for quoted-printable encoding used in MIME email messages.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binhex.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binhex.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2966e0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/binhex.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+:mod:`binhex` --- Encode and decode binhex4 files
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: binhex
+   :synopsis: Encode and decode files in binhex4 format.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/binhex.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module encodes and decodes files in binhex4 format, a format allowing
+representation of Macintosh files in ASCII. Only the data fork is handled.
+
+The :mod:`binhex` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: binhex(input, output)
+
+   Convert a binary file with filename *input* to binhex file *output*. The
+   *output* parameter can either be a filename or a file-like object (any object
+   supporting a :meth:`write` and :meth:`close` method).
+
+
+.. function:: hexbin(input, output)
+
+   Decode a binhex file *input*. *input* may be a filename or a file-like object
+   supporting :meth:`read` and :meth:`close` methods. The resulting file is written
+   to a file named *output*, unless the argument is ``None`` in which case the
+   output filename is read from the binhex file.
+
+The following exception is also defined:
+
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   Exception raised when something can't be encoded using the binhex format (for
+   example, a filename is too long to fit in the filename field), or when input is
+   not properly encoded binhex data.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`binascii`
+      Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII conversions.
+
+
+.. _binhex-notes:
+
+Notes
+-----
+
+There is an alternative, more powerful interface to the coder and decoder, see
+the source for details.
+
+If you code or decode textfiles on non-Macintosh platforms they will still use
+the old Macintosh newline convention (carriage-return as end of line).
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bisect.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bisect.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bf7814
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bisect.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+:mod:`bisect` --- Array bisection algorithm
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: bisect
+   :synopsis: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn.com>
+.. example based on the PyModules FAQ entry by Aaron Watters <arw@pythonpros.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/bisect.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides support for maintaining a list in sorted order without
+having to sort the list after each insertion.  For long lists of items with
+expensive comparison operations, this can be an improvement over the more common
+approach.  The module is called :mod:`bisect` because it uses a basic bisection
+algorithm to do its work.  The source code may be most useful as a working
+example of the algorithm (the boundary conditions are already right!).
+
+The following functions are provided:
+
+
+.. function:: bisect_left(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a))
+
+   Locate the insertion point for *x* in *a* to maintain sorted order.
+   The parameters *lo* and *hi* may be used to specify a subset of the list
+   which should be considered; by default the entire list is used.  If *x* is
+   already present in *a*, the insertion point will be before (to the left of)
+   any existing entries.  The return value is suitable for use as the first
+   parameter to ``list.insert()`` assuming that *a* is already sorted.
+
+   The returned insertion point *i* partitions the array *a* into two halves so
+   that ``all(val < x for val in a[lo:i])`` for the left side and
+   ``all(val >= x for val in a[i:hi])`` for the right side.
+
+.. function:: bisect_right(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a))
+              bisect(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a))
+
+   Similar to :func:`bisect_left`, but returns an insertion point which comes
+   after (to the right of) any existing entries of *x* in *a*.
+
+   The returned insertion point *i* partitions the array *a* into two halves so
+   that ``all(val <= x for val in a[lo:i])`` for the left side and
+   ``all(val > x for val in a[i:hi])`` for the right side.
+
+.. function:: insort_left(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a))
+
+   Insert *x* in *a* in sorted order.  This is equivalent to
+   ``a.insert(bisect.bisect_left(a, x, lo, hi), x)`` assuming that *a* is
+   already sorted.  Keep in mind that the O(log n) search is dominated by
+   the slow O(n) insertion step.
+
+.. function:: insort_right(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a))
+              insort(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a))
+
+   Similar to :func:`insort_left`, but inserting *x* in *a* after any existing
+   entries of *x*.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `SortedCollection recipe
+   <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/>`_ that uses
+   bisect to build a full-featured collection class with straight-forward search
+   methods and support for a key-function.  The keys are precomputed to save
+   unnecessary calls to the key function during searches.
+
+
+Searching Sorted Lists
+----------------------
+
+The above :func:`bisect` functions are useful for finding insertion points but
+can be tricky or awkward to use for common searching tasks. The following five
+functions show how to transform them into the standard lookups for sorted
+lists::
+
+    def index(a, x):
+        'Locate the leftmost value exactly equal to x'
+        i = bisect_left(a, x)
+        if i != len(a) and a[i] == x:
+            return i
+        raise ValueError
+
+    def find_lt(a, x):
+        'Find rightmost value less than x'
+        i = bisect_left(a, x)
+        if i:
+            return a[i-1]
+        raise ValueError
+
+    def find_le(a, x):
+        'Find rightmost value less than or equal to x'
+        i = bisect_right(a, x)
+        if i:
+            return a[i-1]
+        raise ValueError
+
+    def find_gt(a, x):
+        'Find leftmost value greater than x'
+        i = bisect_right(a, x)
+        if i != len(a):
+            return a[i]
+        raise ValueError
+
+    def find_ge(a, x):
+        'Find leftmost item greater than or equal to x'
+        i = bisect_left(a, x)
+        if i != len(a):
+            return a[i]
+        raise ValueError
+
+
+Other Examples
+--------------
+
+.. _bisect-example:
+
+The :func:`bisect` function can be useful for numeric table lookups. This
+example uses :func:`bisect` to look up a letter grade for an exam score (say)
+based on a set of ordered numeric breakpoints: 90 and up is an 'A', 80 to 89 is
+a 'B', and so on::
+
+   >>> def grade(score, breakpoints=[60, 70, 80, 90], grades='FDCBA'):
+   ...     i = bisect(breakpoints, score)
+   ...     return grades[i]
+   ...
+   >>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
+   ['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']
+
+Unlike the :func:`sorted` function, it does not make sense for the :func:`bisect`
+functions to have *key* or *reversed* arguments because that would lead to an
+inefficient design (successive calls to bisect functions would not "remember"
+all of the previous key lookups).
+
+Instead, it is better to search a list of precomputed keys to find the index
+of the record in question::
+
+    >>> data = [('red', 5), ('blue', 1), ('yellow', 8), ('black', 0)]
+    >>> data.sort(key=lambda r: r[1])
+    >>> keys = [r[1] for r in data]         # precomputed list of keys
+    >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 0)]
+    ('black', 0)
+    >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 1)]
+    ('blue', 1)
+    >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 5)]
+    ('red', 5)
+    >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 8)]
+    ('yellow', 8)
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/builtins.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/builtins.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fb1fef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/builtins.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+:mod:`builtins` --- Built-in objects
+====================================
+
+.. module:: builtins
+   :synopsis: The module that provides the built-in namespace.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides direct access to all 'built-in' identifiers of Python; for
+example, ``builtins.open`` is the full name for the built-in function
+:func:`open`.  See :ref:`built-in-funcs` and :ref:`built-in-consts` for
+documentation.
+
+
+This module is not normally accessed explicitly by most applications, but can be
+useful in modules that provide objects with the same name as a built-in value,
+but in which the built-in of that name is also needed.  For example, in a module
+that wants to implement an :func:`open` function that wraps the built-in
+:func:`open`, this module can be used directly::
+
+   import builtins
+
+   def open(path):
+       f = builtins.open(path, 'r')
+       return UpperCaser(f)
+
+   class UpperCaser:
+       '''Wrapper around a file that converts output to upper-case.'''
+
+       def __init__(self, f):
+           self._f = f
+
+       def read(self, count=-1):
+           return self._f.read(count).upper()
+
+       # ...
+
+As an implementation detail, most modules have the name ``__builtins__`` made
+available as part of their globals.  The value of ``__builtins__`` is normally
+either this module or the value of this module's :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.
+Since this is an implementation detail, it may not be used by alternate
+implementations of Python.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bz2.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bz2.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b247de6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/bz2.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+:mod:`bz2` --- Support for :program:`bzip2` compression
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: bz2
+   :synopsis: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Gustavo Niemeyer <niemeyer@conectiva.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Gustavo Niemeyer <niemeyer@conectiva.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/bz2.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a comprehensive interface for compressing and
+decompressing data using the bzip2 compression algorithm.
+
+The :mod:`bz2` module contains:
+
+* The :func:`.open` function and :class:`BZ2File` class for reading and
+  writing compressed files.
+* The :class:`BZ2Compressor` and :class:`BZ2Decompressor` classes for
+  incremental (de)compression.
+* The :func:`compress` and :func:`decompress` functions for one-shot
+  (de)compression.
+
+All of the classes in this module may safely be accessed from multiple threads.
+
+
+(De)compression of files
+------------------------
+
+.. function:: open(filename, mode='r', compresslevel=9, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+
+   Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a :term:`file
+   object`.
+
+   As with the constructor for :class:`BZ2File`, the *filename* argument can be
+   an actual filename (a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object), or an existing
+   file object to read from or write to.
+
+   The *mode* argument can be any of ``'r'``, ``'rb'``, ``'w'``, ``'wb'``,
+   ``'x'``, ``'xb'``, ``'a'`` or ``'ab'`` for binary mode, or ``'rt'``,
+   ``'wt'``, ``'xt'``, or ``'at'`` for text mode. The default is ``'rb'``.
+
+   The *compresslevel* argument is an integer from 1 to 9, as for the
+   :class:`BZ2File` constructor.
+
+   For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the :class:`BZ2File`
+   constructor: ``BZ2File(filename, mode, compresslevel=compresslevel)``. In
+   this case, the *encoding*, *errors* and *newline* arguments must not be
+   provided.
+
+   For text mode, a :class:`BZ2File` object is created, and wrapped in an
+   :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` instance with the specified encoding, error
+   handling behavior, and line ending(s).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The ``'x'`` (exclusive creation) mode was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. class:: BZ2File(filename, mode='r', buffering=None, compresslevel=9)
+
+   Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode.
+
+   If *filename* is a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object, open the named file
+   directly. Otherwise, *filename* should be a :term:`file object`, which will
+   be used to read or write the compressed data.
+
+   The *mode* argument can be either ``'r'`` for reading (default), ``'w'`` for
+   overwriting, ``'x'`` for exclusive creation, or ``'a'`` for appending. These
+   can equivalently be given as ``'rb'``, ``'wb'``, ``'xb'`` and ``'ab'``
+   respectively.
+
+   If *filename* is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of
+   ``'w'`` does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to ``'a'``.
+
+   The *buffering* argument is ignored. Its use is deprecated.
+
+   If *mode* is ``'w'`` or ``'a'``, *compresslevel* can be an integer between
+   ``1`` and ``9`` specifying the level of compression: ``1`` produces the
+   least compression, and ``9`` (default) produces the most compression.
+
+   If *mode* is ``'r'``, the input file may be the concatenation of multiple
+   compressed streams.
+
+   :class:`BZ2File` provides all of the members specified by the
+   :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`, except for :meth:`detach` and :meth:`truncate`.
+   Iteration and the :keyword:`with` statement are supported.
+
+   :class:`BZ2File` also provides the following method:
+
+   .. method:: peek([n])
+
+      Return buffered data without advancing the file position. At least one
+      byte of data will be returned (unless at EOF). The exact number of bytes
+      returned is unspecified.
+
+      .. note:: While calling :meth:`peek` does not change the file position of
+         the :class:`BZ2File`, it may change the position of the underlying file
+         object (e.g. if the :class:`BZ2File` was constructed by passing a file
+         object for *filename*).
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The :meth:`fileno`, :meth:`readable`, :meth:`seekable`, :meth:`writable`,
+      :meth:`read1` and :meth:`readinto` methods were added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Support was added for *filename* being a :term:`file object` instead of an
+      actual filename.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The ``'a'`` (append) mode was added, along with support for reading
+      multi-stream files.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The ``'x'`` (exclusive creation) mode was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` method now accepts an argument of
+      ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+Incremental (de)compression
+---------------------------
+
+.. class:: BZ2Compressor(compresslevel=9)
+
+   Create a new compressor object. This object may be used to compress data
+   incrementally. For one-shot compression, use the :func:`compress` function
+   instead.
+
+   *compresslevel*, if given, must be an integer between ``1`` and ``9``. The
+   default is ``9``.
+
+   .. method:: compress(data)
+
+      Provide data to the compressor object. Returns a chunk of compressed data
+      if possible, or an empty byte string otherwise.
+
+      When you have finished providing data to the compressor, call the
+      :meth:`flush` method to finish the compression process.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      Finish the compression process. Returns the compressed data left in
+      internal buffers.
+
+      The compressor object may not be used after this method has been called.
+
+
+.. class:: BZ2Decompressor()
+
+   Create a new decompressor object. This object may be used to decompress data
+   incrementally. For one-shot compression, use the :func:`decompress` function
+   instead.
+
+   .. note::
+      This class does not transparently handle inputs containing multiple
+      compressed streams, unlike :func:`decompress` and :class:`BZ2File`. If
+      you need to decompress a multi-stream input with :class:`BZ2Decompressor`,
+      you must use a new decompressor for each stream.
+
+   .. method:: decompress(data, max_length=-1)
+
+      Decompress *data* (a :term:`bytes-like object`), returning
+      uncompressed data as bytes. Some of *data* may be buffered
+      internally, for use in later calls to :meth:`decompress`. The
+      returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
+      previous calls to :meth:`decompress`.
+
+      If *max_length* is nonnegative, returns at most *max_length*
+      bytes of decompressed data. If this limit is reached and further
+      output can be produced, the :attr:`~.needs_input` attribute will
+      be set to ``False``. In this case, the next call to
+      :meth:`~.decompress` may provide *data* as ``b''`` to obtain
+      more of the output.
+
+      If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
+      because this was less than *max_length* bytes, or because
+      *max_length* was negative), the :attr:`~.needs_input` attribute
+      will be set to ``True``.
+
+      Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is reached
+      raises an `EOFError`.  Any data found after the end of the
+      stream is ignored and saved in the :attr:`~.unused_data` attribute.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         Added the *max_length* parameter.
+
+   .. attribute:: eof
+
+      ``True`` if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+   .. attribute:: unused_data
+
+      Data found after the end of the compressed stream.
+
+      If this attribute is accessed before the end of the stream has been
+      reached, its value will be ``b''``.
+
+   .. attribute:: needs_input
+
+      ``False`` if the :meth:`.decompress` method can provide more
+      decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed input.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+One-shot (de)compression
+------------------------
+
+.. function:: compress(data, compresslevel=9)
+
+   Compress *data*, a :term:`bytes-like object <bytes-like object>`.
+
+   *compresslevel*, if given, must be an integer between ``1`` and ``9``. The
+   default is ``9``.
+
+   For incremental compression, use a :class:`BZ2Compressor` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: decompress(data)
+
+   Decompress *data*, a :term:`bytes-like object <bytes-like object>`.
+
+   If *data* is the concatenation of multiple compressed streams, decompress
+   all of the streams.
+
+   For incremental decompression, use a :class:`BZ2Decompressor` instead.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Support for multi-stream inputs was added.
+
+.. _bz2-usage-examples:
+
+Examples of usage
+-----------------
+
+Below are some examples of typical usage of the :mod:`bz2` module.
+
+Using :func:`compress` and :func:`decompress` to demonstrate round-trip compression:
+
+    >>> import bz2
+
+    >>> data = b"""\
+    ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
+    ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
+    ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
+    ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
+    ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
+    ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
+    ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
+
+    >>> c = bz2.compress(data)
+    >>> len(data) / len(c)  # Data compression ratio
+    1.513595166163142
+
+    >>> d = bz2.decompress(c)
+    >>> data == d  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
+    True
+
+Using :class:`BZ2Compressor` for incremental compression:
+
+    >>> import bz2
+
+    >>> def gen_data(chunks=10, chunksize=1000):
+    ...     """Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes."""
+    ...     for _ in range(chunks):
+    ...         yield b"z" * chunksize
+    ...
+    >>> comp = bz2.BZ2Compressor()
+    >>> out = b""
+    >>> for chunk in gen_data():
+    ...     # Provide data to the compressor object
+    ...     out = out + comp.compress(chunk)
+    ...
+    >>> # Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have
+    >>> # finished providing data to the compressor.
+    >>> out = out + comp.flush()
+
+The example above uses a very "nonrandom" stream of data
+(a stream of `b"z"` chunks).  Random data tends to compress poorly,
+while ordered, repetitive data usually yields a high compression ratio.
+
+Writing and reading a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode:
+
+    >>> import bz2
+
+    >>> data = b"""\
+    ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
+    ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
+    ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
+    ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
+    ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
+    ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
+    ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
+
+    >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "wb") as f:
+    ...     # Write compressed data to file
+    ...     unused = f.write(data)
+
+    >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "rb") as f:
+    ...     # Decompress data from file
+    ...     content = f.read()
+
+    >>> content == data  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
+    True
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/calendar.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/calendar.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56b75ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/calendar.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,420 @@
+:mod:`calendar` --- General calendar-related functions
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: calendar
+   :synopsis: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation
+              of the Unix cal program.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Drew Csillag <drew_csillag@geocities.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/calendar.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module allows you to output calendars like the Unix :program:`cal` program,
+and provides additional useful functions related to the calendar. By default,
+these calendars have Monday as the first day of the week, and Sunday as the last
+(the European convention). Use :func:`setfirstweekday` to set the first day of
+the week to Sunday (6) or to any other weekday.  Parameters that specify dates
+are given as integers. For related
+functionality, see also the :mod:`datetime` and :mod:`time` modules.
+
+The functions and classes defined in this module
+use an idealized calendar, the current Gregorian calendar extended indefinitely
+in both directions.  This matches the definition of the "proleptic Gregorian"
+calendar in Dershowitz and Reingold's book "Calendrical Calculations", where
+it's the base calendar for all computations.  Zero and negative years are
+interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard.  Year 0 is 1 BC, year -1 is
+2 BC, and so on.
+
+
+.. class:: Calendar(firstweekday=0)
+
+   Creates a :class:`Calendar` object. *firstweekday* is an integer specifying the
+   first day of the week. ``0`` is Monday (the default), ``6`` is Sunday.
+
+   A :class:`Calendar` object provides several methods that can be used for
+   preparing the calendar data for formatting. This class doesn't do any formatting
+   itself. This is the job of subclasses.
+
+
+   :class:`Calendar` instances have the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: iterweekdays()
+
+      Return an iterator for the week day numbers that will be used for one
+      week.  The first value from the iterator will be the same as the value of
+      the :attr:`firstweekday` property.
+
+
+   .. method:: itermonthdates(year, month)
+
+      Return an iterator for the month *month* (1--12) in the year *year*. This
+      iterator will return all days (as :class:`datetime.date` objects) for the
+      month and all days before the start of the month or after the end of the
+      month that are required to get a complete week.
+
+
+   .. method:: itermonthdays(year, month)
+
+      Return an iterator for the month *month* in the year *year* similar to
+      :meth:`itermonthdates`, but not restricted by the :class:`datetime.date`
+      range. Days returned will simply be day of the month numbers.  For the
+      days outside of the specified month, the day number is ``0``.
+
+
+   .. method:: itermonthdays2(year, month)
+
+      Return an iterator for the month *month* in the year *year* similar to
+      :meth:`itermonthdates`, but not restricted by the :class:`datetime.date`
+      range. Days returned will be tuples consisting of a day of the month
+      number and a week day number.
+
+
+   .. method:: itermonthdays3(year, month)
+
+      Return an iterator for the month *month* in the year *year* similar to
+      :meth:`itermonthdates`, but not restricted by the :class:`datetime.date`
+      range. Days returned will be tuples consisting of a year, a month and a day
+      of the month numbers.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   .. method:: itermonthdays4(year, month)
+
+      Return an iterator for the month *month* in the year *year* similar to
+      :meth:`itermonthdates`, but not restricted by the :class:`datetime.date`
+      range. Days returned will be tuples consisting of a year, a month, a day
+      of the month, and a day of the week numbers.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   .. method:: monthdatescalendar(year, month)
+
+      Return a list of the weeks in the month *month* of the *year* as full
+      weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven :class:`datetime.date` objects.
+
+
+   .. method:: monthdays2calendar(year, month)
+
+      Return a list of the weeks in the month *month* of the *year* as full
+      weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven tuples of day numbers and weekday
+      numbers.
+
+
+   .. method:: monthdayscalendar(year, month)
+
+      Return a list of the weeks in the month *month* of the *year* as full
+      weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven day numbers.
+
+
+   .. method:: yeardatescalendar(year, width=3)
+
+      Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting. The return
+      value is a list of month rows. Each month row contains up to *width*
+      months (defaulting to 3). Each month contains between 4 and 6 weeks and
+      each week contains 1--7 days. Days are :class:`datetime.date` objects.
+
+
+   .. method:: yeardays2calendar(year, width=3)
+
+      Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting (similar to
+      :meth:`yeardatescalendar`). Entries in the week lists are tuples of day
+      numbers and weekday numbers. Day numbers outside this month are zero.
+
+
+   .. method:: yeardayscalendar(year, width=3)
+
+      Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting (similar to
+      :meth:`yeardatescalendar`). Entries in the week lists are day numbers. Day
+      numbers outside this month are zero.
+
+
+.. class:: TextCalendar(firstweekday=0)
+
+   This class can be used to generate plain text calendars.
+
+   :class:`TextCalendar` instances have the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: formatmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)
+
+      Return a month's calendar in a multi-line string. If *w* is provided, it
+      specifies the width of the date columns, which are centered. If *l* is
+      given, it specifies the number of lines that each week will use. Depends
+      on the first weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the
+      :meth:`setfirstweekday` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: prmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)
+
+      Print a month's calendar as returned by :meth:`formatmonth`.
+
+
+   .. method:: formatyear(theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)
+
+      Return a *m*-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line string.
+      Optional parameters *w*, *l*, and *c* are for date column width, lines per
+      week, and number of spaces between month columns, respectively. Depends on
+      the first weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the
+      :meth:`setfirstweekday` method.  The earliest year for which a calendar
+      can be generated is platform-dependent.
+
+
+   .. method:: pryear(theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)
+
+      Print the calendar for an entire year as returned by :meth:`formatyear`.
+
+
+.. class:: HTMLCalendar(firstweekday=0)
+
+   This class can be used to generate HTML calendars.
+
+
+   :class:`!HTMLCalendar` instances have the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: formatmonth(theyear, themonth, withyear=True)
+
+      Return a month's calendar as an HTML table. If *withyear* is true the year
+      will be included in the header, otherwise just the month name will be
+      used.
+
+
+   .. method:: formatyear(theyear, width=3)
+
+      Return a year's calendar as an HTML table. *width* (defaulting to 3)
+      specifies the number of months per row.
+
+
+   .. method:: formatyearpage(theyear, width=3, css='calendar.css', encoding=None)
+
+      Return a year's calendar as a complete HTML page. *width* (defaulting to
+      3) specifies the number of months per row. *css* is the name for the
+      cascading style sheet to be used. :const:`None` can be passed if no style
+      sheet should be used. *encoding* specifies the encoding to be used for the
+      output (defaulting to the system default encoding).
+
+
+   :class:`!HTMLCalendar` has the following attributes you can override to
+   customize the CSS classes used by the calendar:
+
+   .. attribute:: cssclasses
+
+      A list of CSS classes used for each weekday. The default class list is::
+
+         cssclasses = ["mon", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun"]
+
+      more styles can be added for each day::
+
+         cssclasses = ["mon text-bold", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun red"]
+
+      Note that the length of this list must be seven items.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: cssclass_noday
+
+      The CSS class for a weekday occurring in the previous or coming month.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   .. attribute:: cssclasses_weekday_head
+
+      A list of CSS classes used for weekday names in the header row.
+      The default is the same as :attr:`cssclasses`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   .. attribute:: cssclass_month_head
+
+      The month's head CSS class (used by :meth:`formatmonthname`).
+      The default value is ``"month"``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   .. attribute:: cssclass_month
+
+      The CSS class for the whole month's table (used by :meth:`formatmonth`).
+      The default value is ``"month"``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   .. attribute:: cssclass_year
+
+      The CSS class for the whole year's table of tables (used by
+      :meth:`formatyear`). The default value is ``"year"``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   .. attribute:: cssclass_year_head
+
+      The CSS class for the table head for the whole year (used by
+      :meth:`formatyear`). The default value is ``"year"``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+   Note that although the naming for the above described class attributes is
+   singular (e.g. ``cssclass_month`` ``cssclass_noday``), one can replace the
+   single CSS class with a space separated list of CSS classes, for example::
+
+         "text-bold text-red"
+
+   Here is an example how :class:`!HTMLCalendar` can be customized::
+
+       class CustomHTMLCal(calendar.HTMLCalendar):
+           cssclasses = [style + " text-nowrap" for style in
+                         calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses]
+           cssclass_month_head = "text-center month-head"
+           cssclass_month = "text-center month"
+           cssclass_year = "text-italic lead"
+
+
+.. class:: LocaleTextCalendar(firstweekday=0, locale=None)
+
+   This subclass of :class:`TextCalendar` can be passed a locale name in the
+   constructor and will return month and weekday names in the specified locale.
+   If this locale includes an encoding all strings containing month and weekday
+   names will be returned as unicode.
+
+
+.. class:: LocaleHTMLCalendar(firstweekday=0, locale=None)
+
+   This subclass of :class:`HTMLCalendar` can be passed a locale name in the
+   constructor and will return month and weekday names in the specified
+   locale. If this locale includes an encoding all strings containing month and
+   weekday names will be returned as unicode.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :meth:`formatweekday` and :meth:`formatmonthname` methods of these two
+   classes temporarily change the current locale to the given *locale*.  Because
+   the current locale is a process-wide setting, they are not thread-safe.
+
+
+For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.
+
+.. function:: setfirstweekday(weekday)
+
+   Sets the weekday (``0`` is Monday, ``6`` is Sunday) to start each week. The
+   values :const:`MONDAY`, :const:`TUESDAY`, :const:`WEDNESDAY`, :const:`THURSDAY`,
+   :const:`FRIDAY`, :const:`SATURDAY`, and :const:`SUNDAY` are provided for
+   convenience. For example, to set the first weekday to Sunday::
+
+      import calendar
+      calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY)
+
+
+.. function:: firstweekday()
+
+   Returns the current setting for the weekday to start each week.
+
+
+.. function:: isleap(year)
+
+   Returns :const:`True` if *year* is a leap year, otherwise :const:`False`.
+
+
+.. function:: leapdays(y1, y2)
+
+   Returns the number of leap years in the range from *y1* to *y2* (exclusive),
+   where *y1* and *y2* are years.
+
+   This function works for ranges spanning a century change.
+
+
+.. function:: weekday(year, month, day)
+
+   Returns the day of the week (``0`` is Monday) for *year* (``1970``--...),
+   *month* (``1``--``12``), *day* (``1``--``31``).
+
+
+.. function:: weekheader(n)
+
+   Return a header containing abbreviated weekday names. *n* specifies the width in
+   characters for one weekday.
+
+
+.. function:: monthrange(year, month)
+
+   Returns weekday of first day of the month and number of days in month,  for the
+   specified *year* and *month*.
+
+
+.. function:: monthcalendar(year, month)
+
+   Returns a matrix representing a month's calendar.  Each row represents a week;
+   days outside of the month a represented by zeros. Each week begins with Monday
+   unless set by :func:`setfirstweekday`.
+
+
+.. function:: prmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)
+
+   Prints a month's calendar as returned by :func:`month`.
+
+
+.. function:: month(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)
+
+   Returns a month's calendar in a multi-line string using the :meth:`formatmonth`
+   of the :class:`TextCalendar` class.
+
+
+.. function:: prcal(year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)
+
+   Prints the calendar for an entire year as returned by  :func:`calendar`.
+
+
+.. function:: calendar(year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)
+
+   Returns a 3-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line string using
+   the :meth:`formatyear` of the :class:`TextCalendar` class.
+
+
+.. function:: timegm(tuple)
+
+   An unrelated but handy function that takes a time tuple such as returned by
+   the :func:`~time.gmtime` function in the :mod:`time` module, and returns the
+   corresponding Unix timestamp value, assuming an epoch of 1970, and the POSIX
+   encoding.  In fact, :func:`time.gmtime` and :func:`timegm` are each others'
+   inverse.
+
+
+The :mod:`calendar` module exports the following data attributes:
+
+.. data:: day_name
+
+   An array that represents the days of the week in the current locale.
+
+
+.. data:: day_abbr
+
+   An array that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the current locale.
+
+
+.. data:: month_name
+
+   An array that represents the months of the year in the current locale.  This
+   follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it has a length of
+   13 and  ``month_name[0]`` is the empty string.
+
+
+.. data:: month_abbr
+
+   An array that represents the abbreviated months of the year in the current
+   locale.  This follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it
+   has a length of 13 and  ``month_abbr[0]`` is the empty string.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`datetime`
+      Object-oriented interface to dates and times with similar functionality to the
+      :mod:`time` module.
+
+   Module :mod:`time`
+      Low-level time related functions.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cgi.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cgi.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b1aead
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cgi.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,545 @@
+:mod:`cgi` --- Common Gateway Interface support
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: cgi
+   :synopsis: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/cgi.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: WWW; server
+   pair: CGI; protocol
+   pair: HTTP; protocol
+   pair: MIME; headers
+   single: URL
+   single: Common Gateway Interface
+
+--------------
+
+Support module for Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts.
+
+This module defines a number of utilities for use by CGI scripts written in
+Python.
+
+
+Introduction
+------------
+
+.. _cgi-intro:
+
+A CGI script is invoked by an HTTP server, usually to process user input
+submitted through an HTML ``<FORM>`` or ``<ISINDEX>`` element.
+
+Most often, CGI scripts live in the server's special :file:`cgi-bin` directory.
+The HTTP server places all sorts of information about the request (such as the
+client's hostname, the requested URL, the query string, and lots of other
+goodies) in the script's shell environment, executes the script, and sends the
+script's output back to the client.
+
+The script's input is connected to the client too, and sometimes the form data
+is read this way; at other times the form data is passed via the "query string"
+part of the URL.  This module is intended to take care of the different cases
+and provide a simpler interface to the Python script.  It also provides a number
+of utilities that help in debugging scripts, and the latest addition is support
+for file uploads from a form (if your browser supports it).
+
+The output of a CGI script should consist of two sections, separated by a blank
+line.  The first section contains a number of headers, telling the client what
+kind of data is following.  Python code to generate a minimal header section
+looks like this::
+
+   print("Content-Type: text/html")    # HTML is following
+   print()                             # blank line, end of headers
+
+The second section is usually HTML, which allows the client software to display
+nicely formatted text with header, in-line images, etc. Here's Python code that
+prints a simple piece of HTML::
+
+   print("<TITLE>CGI script output</TITLE>")
+   print("<H1>This is my first CGI script</H1>")
+   print("Hello, world!")
+
+
+.. _using-the-cgi-module:
+
+Using the cgi module
+--------------------
+
+Begin by writing ``import cgi``.
+
+When you write a new script, consider adding these lines::
+
+   import cgitb
+   cgitb.enable()
+
+This activates a special exception handler that will display detailed reports in
+the Web browser if any errors occur.  If you'd rather not show the guts of your
+program to users of your script, you can have the reports saved to files
+instead, with code like this::
+
+   import cgitb
+   cgitb.enable(display=0, logdir="/path/to/logdir")
+
+It's very helpful to use this feature during script development. The reports
+produced by :mod:`cgitb` provide information that can save you a lot of time in
+tracking down bugs.  You can always remove the ``cgitb`` line later when you
+have tested your script and are confident that it works correctly.
+
+To get at submitted form data, use the :class:`FieldStorage` class. If the form
+contains non-ASCII characters, use the *encoding* keyword parameter set to the
+value of the encoding defined for the document. It is usually contained in the
+META tag in the HEAD section of the HTML document or by the
+:mailheader:`Content-Type` header).  This reads the form contents from the
+standard input or the environment (depending on the value of various
+environment variables set according to the CGI standard).  Since it may consume
+standard input, it should be instantiated only once.
+
+The :class:`FieldStorage` instance can be indexed like a Python dictionary.
+It allows membership testing with the :keyword:`in` operator, and also supports
+the standard dictionary method :meth:`~dict.keys` and the built-in function
+:func:`len`.  Form fields containing empty strings are ignored and do not appear
+in the dictionary; to keep such values, provide a true value for the optional
+*keep_blank_values* keyword parameter when creating the :class:`FieldStorage`
+instance.
+
+For instance, the following code (which assumes that the
+:mailheader:`Content-Type` header and blank line have already been printed)
+checks that the fields ``name`` and ``addr`` are both set to a non-empty
+string::
+
+   form = cgi.FieldStorage()
+   if "name" not in form or "addr" not in form:
+       print("<H1>Error</H1>")
+       print("Please fill in the name and addr fields.")
+       return
+   print("<p>name:", form["name"].value)
+   print("<p>addr:", form["addr"].value)
+   ...further form processing here...
+
+Here the fields, accessed through ``form[key]``, are themselves instances of
+:class:`FieldStorage` (or :class:`MiniFieldStorage`, depending on the form
+encoding). The :attr:`~FieldStorage.value` attribute of the instance yields
+the string value of the field.  The :meth:`~FieldStorage.getvalue` method
+returns this string value directly; it also accepts an optional second argument
+as a default to return if the requested key is not present.
+
+If the submitted form data contains more than one field with the same name, the
+object retrieved by ``form[key]`` is not a :class:`FieldStorage` or
+:class:`MiniFieldStorage` instance but a list of such instances.  Similarly, in
+this situation, ``form.getvalue(key)`` would return a list of strings. If you
+expect this possibility (when your HTML form contains multiple fields with the
+same name), use the :meth:`~FieldStorage.getlist` method, which always returns
+a list of values (so that you do not need to special-case the single item
+case).  For example, this code concatenates any number of username fields,
+separated by commas::
+
+   value = form.getlist("username")
+   usernames = ",".join(value)
+
+If a field represents an uploaded file, accessing the value via the
+:attr:`~FieldStorage.value` attribute or the :meth:`~FieldStorage.getvalue`
+method reads the entire file in memory as bytes.  This may not be what you
+want.  You can test for an uploaded file by testing either the
+:attr:`~FieldStorage.filename` attribute or the :attr:`~FieldStorage.file`
+attribute.  You can then read the data from the :attr:`!file`
+attribute before it is automatically closed as part of the garbage collection of
+the :class:`FieldStorage` instance
+(the :func:`~io.RawIOBase.read` and :func:`~io.IOBase.readline` methods will
+return bytes)::
+
+   fileitem = form["userfile"]
+   if fileitem.file:
+       # It's an uploaded file; count lines
+       linecount = 0
+       while True:
+           line = fileitem.file.readline()
+           if not line: break
+           linecount = linecount + 1
+
+:class:`FieldStorage` objects also support being used in a :keyword:`with`
+statement, which will automatically close them when done.
+
+If an error is encountered when obtaining the contents of an uploaded file
+(for example, when the user interrupts the form submission by clicking on
+a Back or Cancel button) the :attr:`~FieldStorage.done` attribute of the
+object for the field will be set to the value -1.
+
+The file upload draft standard entertains the possibility of uploading multiple
+files from one field (using a recursive :mimetype:`multipart/\*` encoding).
+When this occurs, the item will be a dictionary-like :class:`FieldStorage` item.
+This can be determined by testing its :attr:`!type` attribute, which should be
+:mimetype:`multipart/form-data` (or perhaps another MIME type matching
+:mimetype:`multipart/\*`).  In this case, it can be iterated over recursively
+just like the top-level form object.
+
+When a form is submitted in the "old" format (as the query string or as a single
+data part of type :mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded`), the items will
+actually be instances of the class :class:`MiniFieldStorage`.  In this case, the
+:attr:`!list`, :attr:`!file`, and :attr:`filename` attributes are always ``None``.
+
+A form submitted via POST that also has a query string will contain both
+:class:`FieldStorage` and :class:`MiniFieldStorage` items.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The :attr:`~FieldStorage.file` attribute is automatically closed upon the
+   garbage collection of the creating :class:`FieldStorage` instance.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Added support for the context management protocol to the
+   :class:`FieldStorage` class.
+
+
+Higher Level Interface
+----------------------
+
+The previous section explains how to read CGI form data using the
+:class:`FieldStorage` class.  This section describes a higher level interface
+which was added to this class to allow one to do it in a more readable and
+intuitive way.  The interface doesn't make the techniques described in previous
+sections obsolete --- they are still useful to process file uploads efficiently,
+for example.
+
+.. XXX: Is this true ?
+
+The interface consists of two simple methods. Using the methods you can process
+form data in a generic way, without the need to worry whether only one or more
+values were posted under one name.
+
+In the previous section, you learned to write following code anytime you
+expected a user to post more than one value under one name::
+
+   item = form.getvalue("item")
+   if isinstance(item, list):
+       # The user is requesting more than one item.
+   else:
+       # The user is requesting only one item.
+
+This situation is common for example when a form contains a group of multiple
+checkboxes with the same name::
+
+   <input type="checkbox" name="item" value="1" />
+   <input type="checkbox" name="item" value="2" />
+
+In most situations, however, there's only one form control with a particular
+name in a form and then you expect and need only one value associated with this
+name.  So you write a script containing for example this code::
+
+   user = form.getvalue("user").upper()
+
+The problem with the code is that you should never expect that a client will
+provide valid input to your scripts.  For example, if a curious user appends
+another ``user=foo`` pair to the query string, then the script would crash,
+because in this situation the ``getvalue("user")`` method call returns a list
+instead of a string.  Calling the :meth:`~str.upper` method on a list is not valid
+(since lists do not have a method of this name) and results in an
+:exc:`AttributeError` exception.
+
+Therefore, the appropriate way to read form data values was to always use the
+code which checks whether the obtained value is a single value or a list of
+values.  That's annoying and leads to less readable scripts.
+
+A more convenient approach is to use the methods :meth:`~FieldStorage.getfirst`
+and :meth:`~FieldStorage.getlist` provided by this higher level interface.
+
+
+.. method:: FieldStorage.getfirst(name, default=None)
+
+   This method always returns only one value associated with form field *name*.
+   The method returns only the first value in case that more values were posted
+   under such name.  Please note that the order in which the values are received
+   may vary from browser to browser and should not be counted on. [#]_  If no such
+   form field or value exists then the method returns the value specified by the
+   optional parameter *default*.  This parameter defaults to ``None`` if not
+   specified.
+
+
+.. method:: FieldStorage.getlist(name)
+
+   This method always returns a list of values associated with form field *name*.
+   The method returns an empty list if no such form field or value exists for
+   *name*.  It returns a list consisting of one item if only one such value exists.
+
+Using these methods you can write nice compact code::
+
+   import cgi
+   form = cgi.FieldStorage()
+   user = form.getfirst("user", "").upper()    # This way it's safe.
+   for item in form.getlist("item"):
+       do_something(item)
+
+
+.. _functions-in-cgi-module:
+
+Functions
+---------
+
+These are useful if you want more control, or if you want to employ some of the
+algorithms implemented in this module in other circumstances.
+
+
+.. function:: parse(fp=None, environ=os.environ, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False)
+
+   Parse a query in the environment or from a file (the file defaults to
+   ``sys.stdin``).  The *keep_blank_values* and *strict_parsing* parameters are
+   passed to :func:`urllib.parse.parse_qs` unchanged.
+
+
+.. function:: parse_qs(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False)
+
+   This function is deprecated in this module. Use :func:`urllib.parse.parse_qs`
+   instead. It is maintained here only for backward compatibility.
+
+
+.. function:: parse_qsl(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False)
+
+   This function is deprecated in this module. Use :func:`urllib.parse.parse_qsl`
+   instead. It is maintained here only for backward compatibility.
+
+
+.. function:: parse_multipart(fp, pdict, encoding="utf-8", errors="replace")
+
+   Parse input of type :mimetype:`multipart/form-data` (for  file uploads).
+   Arguments are *fp* for the input file, *pdict* for a dictionary containing
+   other parameters in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, and *encoding*,
+   the request encoding.
+
+   Returns a dictionary just like :func:`urllib.parse.parse_qs`: keys are the
+   field names, each value is a list of values for that field. For non-file
+   fields, the value is a list of strings.
+
+   This is easy to use but not much good if you are expecting megabytes to be
+   uploaded --- in that case, use the :class:`FieldStorage` class instead
+   which is much more flexible.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added the *encoding* and *errors* parameters.  For non-file fields, the
+      value is now a list of strings, not bytes.
+
+
+.. function:: parse_header(string)
+
+   Parse a MIME header (such as :mailheader:`Content-Type`) into a main value and a
+   dictionary of parameters.
+
+
+.. function:: test()
+
+   Robust test CGI script, usable as main program. Writes minimal HTTP headers and
+   formats all information provided to the script in HTML form.
+
+
+.. function:: print_environ()
+
+   Format the shell environment in HTML.
+
+
+.. function:: print_form(form)
+
+   Format a form in HTML.
+
+
+.. function:: print_directory()
+
+   Format the current directory in HTML.
+
+
+.. function:: print_environ_usage()
+
+   Print a list of useful (used by CGI) environment variables in HTML.
+
+
+.. function:: escape(s, quote=False)
+
+   Convert the characters ``'&'``, ``'<'`` and ``'>'`` in string *s* to HTML-safe
+   sequences.  Use this if you need to display text that might contain such
+   characters in HTML.  If the optional flag *quote* is true, the quotation mark
+   character (``"``) is also translated; this helps for inclusion in an HTML
+   attribute value delimited by double quotes, as in ``<a href="...">``.  Note
+   that single quotes are never translated.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+      This function is unsafe because *quote* is false by default, and therefore
+      deprecated.  Use :func:`html.escape` instead.
+
+
+.. _cgi-security:
+
+Caring about security
+---------------------
+
+.. index:: pair: CGI; security
+
+There's one important rule: if you invoke an external program (via the
+:func:`os.system` or :func:`os.popen` functions. or others with similar
+functionality), make very sure you don't pass arbitrary strings received from
+the client to the shell.  This is a well-known security hole whereby clever
+hackers anywhere on the Web can exploit a gullible CGI script to invoke
+arbitrary shell commands.  Even parts of the URL or field names cannot be
+trusted, since the request doesn't have to come from your form!
+
+To be on the safe side, if you must pass a string gotten from a form to a shell
+command, you should make sure the string contains only alphanumeric characters,
+dashes, underscores, and periods.
+
+
+Installing your CGI script on a Unix system
+-------------------------------------------
+
+Read the documentation for your HTTP server and check with your local system
+administrator to find the directory where CGI scripts should be installed;
+usually this is in a directory :file:`cgi-bin` in the server tree.
+
+Make sure that your script is readable and executable by "others"; the Unix file
+mode should be ``0o755`` octal (use ``chmod 0755 filename``).  Make sure that the
+first line of the script contains ``#!`` starting in column 1 followed by the
+pathname of the Python interpreter, for instance::
+
+   #!/usr/local/bin/python
+
+Make sure the Python interpreter exists and is executable by "others".
+
+Make sure that any files your script needs to read or write are readable or
+writable, respectively, by "others" --- their mode should be ``0o644`` for
+readable and ``0o666`` for writable.  This is because, for security reasons, the
+HTTP server executes your script as user "nobody", without any special
+privileges.  It can only read (write, execute) files that everybody can read
+(write, execute).  The current directory at execution time is also different (it
+is usually the server's cgi-bin directory) and the set of environment variables
+is also different from what you get when you log in.  In particular, don't count
+on the shell's search path for executables (:envvar:`PATH`) or the Python module
+search path (:envvar:`PYTHONPATH`) to be set to anything interesting.
+
+If you need to load modules from a directory which is not on Python's default
+module search path, you can change the path in your script, before importing
+other modules.  For example::
+
+   import sys
+   sys.path.insert(0, "/usr/home/joe/lib/python")
+   sys.path.insert(0, "/usr/local/lib/python")
+
+(This way, the directory inserted last will be searched first!)
+
+Instructions for non-Unix systems will vary; check your HTTP server's
+documentation (it will usually have a section on CGI scripts).
+
+
+Testing your CGI script
+-----------------------
+
+Unfortunately, a CGI script will generally not run when you try it from the
+command line, and a script that works perfectly from the command line may fail
+mysteriously when run from the server.  There's one reason why you should still
+test your script from the command line: if it contains a syntax error, the
+Python interpreter won't execute it at all, and the HTTP server will most likely
+send a cryptic error to the client.
+
+Assuming your script has no syntax errors, yet it does not work, you have no
+choice but to read the next section.
+
+
+Debugging CGI scripts
+---------------------
+
+.. index:: pair: CGI; debugging
+
+First of all, check for trivial installation errors --- reading the section
+above on installing your CGI script carefully can save you a lot of time.  If
+you wonder whether you have understood the installation procedure correctly, try
+installing a copy of this module file (:file:`cgi.py`) as a CGI script.  When
+invoked as a script, the file will dump its environment and the contents of the
+form in HTML form. Give it the right mode etc, and send it a request.  If it's
+installed in the standard :file:`cgi-bin` directory, it should be possible to
+send it a request by entering a URL into your browser of the form:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   http://yourhostname/cgi-bin/cgi.py?name=Joe+Blow&addr=At+Home
+
+If this gives an error of type 404, the server cannot find the script -- perhaps
+you need to install it in a different directory.  If it gives another error,
+there's an installation problem that you should fix before trying to go any
+further.  If you get a nicely formatted listing of the environment and form
+content (in this example, the fields should be listed as "addr" with value "At
+Home" and "name" with value "Joe Blow"), the :file:`cgi.py` script has been
+installed correctly.  If you follow the same procedure for your own script, you
+should now be able to debug it.
+
+The next step could be to call the :mod:`cgi` module's :func:`test` function
+from your script: replace its main code with the single statement ::
+
+   cgi.test()
+
+This should produce the same results as those gotten from installing the
+:file:`cgi.py` file itself.
+
+When an ordinary Python script raises an unhandled exception (for whatever
+reason: of a typo in a module name, a file that can't be opened, etc.), the
+Python interpreter prints a nice traceback and exits.  While the Python
+interpreter will still do this when your CGI script raises an exception, most
+likely the traceback will end up in one of the HTTP server's log files, or be
+discarded altogether.
+
+Fortunately, once you have managed to get your script to execute *some* code,
+you can easily send tracebacks to the Web browser using the :mod:`cgitb` module.
+If you haven't done so already, just add the lines::
+
+   import cgitb
+   cgitb.enable()
+
+to the top of your script.  Then try running it again; when a problem occurs,
+you should see a detailed report that will likely make apparent the cause of the
+crash.
+
+If you suspect that there may be a problem in importing the :mod:`cgitb` module,
+you can use an even more robust approach (which only uses built-in modules)::
+
+   import sys
+   sys.stderr = sys.stdout
+   print("Content-Type: text/plain")
+   print()
+   ...your code here...
+
+This relies on the Python interpreter to print the traceback.  The content type
+of the output is set to plain text, which disables all HTML processing.  If your
+script works, the raw HTML will be displayed by your client.  If it raises an
+exception, most likely after the first two lines have been printed, a traceback
+will be displayed. Because no HTML interpretation is going on, the traceback
+will be readable.
+
+
+Common problems and solutions
+-----------------------------
+
+* Most HTTP servers buffer the output from CGI scripts until the script is
+  completed.  This means that it is not possible to display a progress report on
+  the client's display while the script is running.
+
+* Check the installation instructions above.
+
+* Check the HTTP server's log files.  (``tail -f logfile`` in a separate window
+  may be useful!)
+
+* Always check a script for syntax errors first, by doing something like
+  ``python script.py``.
+
+* If your script does not have any syntax errors, try adding ``import cgitb;
+  cgitb.enable()`` to the top of the script.
+
+* When invoking external programs, make sure they can be found. Usually, this
+  means using absolute path names --- :envvar:`PATH` is usually not set to a very
+  useful value in a CGI script.
+
+* When reading or writing external files, make sure they can be read or written
+  by the userid under which your CGI script will be running: this is typically the
+  userid under which the web server is running, or some explicitly specified
+  userid for a web server's ``suexec`` feature.
+
+* Don't try to give a CGI script a set-uid mode.  This doesn't work on most
+  systems, and is a security liability as well.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Note that some recent versions of the HTML specification do state what
+   order the field values should be supplied in, but knowing whether a request
+   was received from a conforming browser, or even from a browser at all, is
+   tedious and error-prone.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cgitb.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cgitb.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f3a647
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cgitb.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+:mod:`cgitb` --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: cgitb
+   :synopsis: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/cgitb.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: CGI; exceptions
+   single: CGI; tracebacks
+   single: exceptions; in CGI scripts
+   single: tracebacks; in CGI scripts
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`cgitb` module provides a special exception handler for Python scripts.
+(Its name is a bit misleading.  It was originally designed to display extensive
+traceback information in HTML for CGI scripts.  It was later generalized to also
+display this information in plain text.)  After this module is activated, if an
+uncaught exception occurs, a detailed, formatted report will be displayed.  The
+report includes a traceback showing excerpts of the source code for each level,
+as well as the values of the arguments and local variables to currently running
+functions, to help you debug the problem.  Optionally, you can save this
+information to a file instead of sending it to the browser.
+
+To enable this feature, simply add this to the top of your CGI script::
+
+   import cgitb
+   cgitb.enable()
+
+The options to the :func:`enable` function control whether the report is
+displayed in the browser and whether the report is logged to a file for later
+analysis.
+
+
+.. function:: enable(display=1, logdir=None, context=5, format="html")
+
+   .. index:: single: excepthook() (in module sys)
+
+   This function causes the :mod:`cgitb` module to take over the interpreter's
+   default handling for exceptions by setting the value of :attr:`sys.excepthook`.
+
+   The optional argument *display* defaults to ``1`` and can be set to ``0`` to
+   suppress sending the traceback to the browser. If the argument *logdir* is
+   present, the traceback reports are written to files.  The value of *logdir*
+   should be a directory where these files will be placed. The optional argument
+   *context* is the number of lines of context to display around the current line
+   of source code in the traceback; this defaults to ``5``. If the optional
+   argument *format* is ``"html"``, the output is formatted as HTML.  Any other
+   value forces plain text output.  The default value is ``"html"``.
+
+
+.. function:: text(info, context=5)
+
+   This function handles the exception described by *info* (a 3-tuple containing
+   the result of :func:`sys.exc_info`), formatting its traceback as text and
+   returning the result as a string. The optional argument *context* is the
+   number of lines of context to display around the current line of source code
+   in the traceback; this defaults to ``5``.
+
+
+.. function:: html(info, context=5)
+
+   This function handles the exception described by *info* (a 3-tuple containing
+   the result of :func:`sys.exc_info`), formatting its traceback as HTML and
+   returning the result as a string. The optional argument *context* is the
+   number of lines of context to display around the current line of source code
+   in the traceback; this defaults to ``5``.
+
+
+.. function:: handler(info=None)
+
+   This function handles an exception using the default settings (that is, show a
+   report in the browser, but don't log to a file). This can be used when you've
+   caught an exception and want to report it using :mod:`cgitb`.  The optional
+   *info* argument should be a 3-tuple containing an exception type, exception
+   value, and traceback object, exactly like the tuple returned by
+   :func:`sys.exc_info`.  If the *info* argument is not supplied, the current
+   exception is obtained from :func:`sys.exc_info`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/chunk.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/chunk.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e24df9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/chunk.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+:mod:`chunk` --- Read IFF chunked data
+======================================
+
+.. module:: chunk
+   :synopsis: Module to read IFF chunks.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Sjoerd Mullender <sjoerd@acm.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Sjoerd Mullender <sjoerd@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/chunk.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: Audio Interchange File Format
+   single: AIFF
+   single: AIFF-C
+   single: Real Media File Format
+   single: RMFF
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides an interface for reading files that use EA IFF 85 chunks.
+[#]_  This format is used in at least the Audio Interchange File Format
+(AIFF/AIFF-C) and the Real Media File Format (RMFF).  The WAVE audio file format
+is closely related and can also be read using this module.
+
+A chunk has the following structure:
+
++---------+--------+-------------------------------+
+| Offset  | Length | Contents                      |
++=========+========+===============================+
+| 0       | 4      | Chunk ID                      |
++---------+--------+-------------------------------+
+| 4       | 4      | Size of chunk in big-endian   |
+|         |        | byte order, not including the |
+|         |        | header                        |
++---------+--------+-------------------------------+
+| 8       | *n*    | Data bytes, where *n* is the  |
+|         |        | size given in the preceding   |
+|         |        | field                         |
++---------+--------+-------------------------------+
+| 8 + *n* | 0 or 1 | Pad byte needed if *n* is odd |
+|         |        | and chunk alignment is used   |
++---------+--------+-------------------------------+
+
+The ID is a 4-byte string which identifies the type of chunk.
+
+The size field (a 32-bit value, encoded using big-endian byte order) gives the
+size of the chunk data, not including the 8-byte header.
+
+Usually an IFF-type file consists of one or more chunks.  The proposed usage of
+the :class:`Chunk` class defined here is to instantiate an instance at the start
+of each chunk and read from the instance until it reaches the end, after which a
+new instance can be instantiated. At the end of the file, creating a new
+instance will fail with an :exc:`EOFError` exception.
+
+
+.. class:: Chunk(file, align=True, bigendian=True, inclheader=False)
+
+   Class which represents a chunk.  The *file* argument is expected to be a
+   file-like object.  An instance of this class is specifically allowed.  The
+   only method that is needed is :meth:`~io.IOBase.read`.  If the methods
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.seek` and :meth:`~io.IOBase.tell` are present and don't
+   raise an exception, they are also used.
+   If these methods are present and raise an exception, they are expected to not
+   have altered the object.  If the optional argument *align* is true, chunks
+   are assumed to be aligned on 2-byte boundaries.  If *align* is false, no
+   alignment is assumed.  The default value is true.  If the optional argument
+   *bigendian* is false, the chunk size is assumed to be in little-endian order.
+   This is needed for WAVE audio files. The default value is true.  If the
+   optional argument *inclheader* is true, the size given in the chunk header
+   includes the size of the header.  The default value is false.
+
+   A :class:`Chunk` object supports the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: getname()
+
+      Returns the name (ID) of the chunk.  This is the first 4 bytes of the
+      chunk.
+
+
+   .. method:: getsize()
+
+      Returns the size of the chunk.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close and skip to the end of the chunk.  This does not close the
+      underlying file.
+
+   The remaining methods will raise :exc:`OSError` if called after the
+   :meth:`close` method has been called.  Before Python 3.3, they used to
+   raise :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+   .. method:: isatty()
+
+      Returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: seek(pos, whence=0)
+
+      Set the chunk's current position.  The *whence* argument is optional and
+      defaults to ``0`` (absolute file positioning); other values are ``1``
+      (seek relative to the current position) and ``2`` (seek relative to the
+      file's end).  There is no return value. If the underlying file does not
+      allow seek, only forward seeks are allowed.
+
+
+   .. method:: tell()
+
+      Return the current position into the chunk.
+
+
+   .. method:: read(size=-1)
+
+      Read at most *size* bytes from the chunk (less if the read hits the end of
+      the chunk before obtaining *size* bytes).  If the *size* argument is
+      negative or omitted, read all data until the end of the chunk.  An empty
+      bytes object is returned when the end of the chunk is encountered
+      immediately.
+
+
+   .. method:: skip()
+
+      Skip to the end of the chunk.  All further calls to :meth:`read` for the
+      chunk will return ``b''``.  If you are not interested in the contents of
+      the chunk, this method should be called so that the file points to the
+      start of the next chunk.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] "EA IFF 85" Standard for Interchange Format Files, Jerry Morrison, Electronic
+   Arts, January 1985.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cmath.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cmath.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28cd96b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cmath.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,316 @@
+:mod:`cmath` --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: cmath
+   :synopsis: Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to mathematical functions for complex numbers.  The
+functions in this module accept integers, floating-point numbers or complex
+numbers as arguments. They will also accept any Python object that has either a
+:meth:`__complex__` or a :meth:`__float__` method: these methods are used to
+convert the object to a complex or floating-point number, respectively, and
+the function is then applied to the result of the conversion.
+
+.. note::
+
+   On platforms with hardware and system-level support for signed
+   zeros, functions involving branch cuts are continuous on *both*
+   sides of the branch cut: the sign of the zero distinguishes one
+   side of the branch cut from the other.  On platforms that do not
+   support signed zeros the continuity is as specified below.
+
+
+Conversions to and from polar coordinates
+-----------------------------------------
+
+A Python complex number ``z`` is stored internally using *rectangular*
+or *Cartesian* coordinates.  It is completely determined by its *real
+part* ``z.real`` and its *imaginary part* ``z.imag``.  In other
+words::
+
+   z == z.real + z.imag*1j
+
+*Polar coordinates* give an alternative way to represent a complex
+number.  In polar coordinates, a complex number *z* is defined by the
+modulus *r* and the phase angle *phi*. The modulus *r* is the distance
+from *z* to the origin, while the phase *phi* is the counterclockwise
+angle, measured in radians, from the positive x-axis to the line
+segment that joins the origin to *z*.
+
+The following functions can be used to convert from the native
+rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates and back.
+
+.. function:: phase(x)
+
+   Return the phase of *x* (also known as the *argument* of *x*), as a
+   float.  ``phase(x)`` is equivalent to ``math.atan2(x.imag,
+   x.real)``.  The result lies in the range [-\ *π*, *π*], and the branch
+   cut for this operation lies along the negative real axis,
+   continuous from above.  On systems with support for signed zeros
+   (which includes most systems in current use), this means that the
+   sign of the result is the same as the sign of ``x.imag``, even when
+   ``x.imag`` is zero::
+
+      >>> phase(complex(-1.0, 0.0))
+      3.141592653589793
+      >>> phase(complex(-1.0, -0.0))
+      -3.141592653589793
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number *x* can be
+   computed using the built-in :func:`abs` function.  There is no
+   separate :mod:`cmath` module function for this operation.
+
+
+.. function:: polar(x)
+
+   Return the representation of *x* in polar coordinates.  Returns a
+   pair ``(r, phi)`` where *r* is the modulus of *x* and phi is the
+   phase of *x*.  ``polar(x)`` is equivalent to ``(abs(x),
+   phase(x))``.
+
+
+.. function:: rect(r, phi)
+
+   Return the complex number *x* with polar coordinates *r* and *phi*.
+   Equivalent to ``r * (math.cos(phi) + math.sin(phi)*1j)``.
+
+
+Power and logarithmic functions
+-------------------------------
+
+.. function:: exp(x)
+
+   Return *e* raised to the power *x*, where *e* is the base of natural
+   logarithms.
+
+
+.. function:: log(x[, base])
+
+   Returns the logarithm of *x* to the given *base*. If the *base* is not
+   specified, returns the natural logarithm of *x*. There is one branch cut, from 0
+   along the negative real axis to -∞, continuous from above.
+
+
+.. function:: log10(x)
+
+   Return the base-10 logarithm of *x*. This has the same branch cut as
+   :func:`log`.
+
+
+.. function:: sqrt(x)
+
+   Return the square root of *x*. This has the same branch cut as :func:`log`.
+
+
+Trigonometric functions
+-----------------------
+
+.. function:: acos(x)
+
+   Return the arc cosine of *x*. There are two branch cuts: One extends right from
+   1 along the real axis to ∞, continuous from below. The other extends left from
+   -1 along the real axis to -∞, continuous from above.
+
+
+.. function:: asin(x)
+
+   Return the arc sine of *x*. This has the same branch cuts as :func:`acos`.
+
+
+.. function:: atan(x)
+
+   Return the arc tangent of *x*. There are two branch cuts: One extends from
+   ``1j`` along the imaginary axis to ``∞j``, continuous from the right. The
+   other extends from ``-1j`` along the imaginary axis to ``-∞j``, continuous
+   from the left.
+
+
+.. function:: cos(x)
+
+   Return the cosine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: sin(x)
+
+   Return the sine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: tan(x)
+
+   Return the tangent of *x*.
+
+
+Hyperbolic functions
+--------------------
+
+.. function:: acosh(x)
+
+   Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of *x*. There is one branch cut,
+   extending left from 1 along the real axis to -∞, continuous from above.
+
+
+.. function:: asinh(x)
+
+   Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of *x*. There are two branch cuts:
+   One extends from ``1j`` along the imaginary axis to ``∞j``,
+   continuous from the right.  The other extends from ``-1j`` along
+   the imaginary axis to ``-∞j``, continuous from the left.
+
+
+.. function:: atanh(x)
+
+   Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of *x*. There are two branch cuts: One
+   extends from ``1`` along the real axis to ``∞``, continuous from below. The
+   other extends from ``-1`` along the real axis to ``-∞``, continuous from
+   above.
+
+
+.. function:: cosh(x)
+
+   Return the hyperbolic cosine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: sinh(x)
+
+   Return the hyperbolic sine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: tanh(x)
+
+   Return the hyperbolic tangent of *x*.
+
+
+Classification functions
+------------------------
+
+.. function:: isfinite(x)
+
+   Return ``True`` if both the real and imaginary parts of *x* are finite, and
+   ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: isinf(x)
+
+   Return ``True`` if either the real or the imaginary part of *x* is an
+   infinity, and ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: isnan(x)
+
+   Return ``True`` if either the real or the imaginary part of *x* is a NaN,
+   and ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the values *a* and *b* are close to each other and
+   ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to
+   given absolute and relative tolerances.
+
+   *rel_tol* is the relative tolerance -- it is the maximum allowed difference
+   between *a* and *b*, relative to the larger absolute value of *a* or *b*.
+   For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass ``rel_tol=0.05``.  The default
+   tolerance is ``1e-09``, which assures that the two values are the same
+   within about 9 decimal digits.  *rel_tol* must be greater than zero.
+
+   *abs_tol* is the minimum absolute tolerance -- useful for comparisons near
+   zero. *abs_tol* must be at least zero.
+
+   If no errors occur, the result will be:
+   ``abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)``.
+
+   The IEEE 754 special values of ``NaN``, ``inf``, and ``-inf`` will be
+   handled according to IEEE rules.  Specifically, ``NaN`` is not considered
+   close to any other value, including ``NaN``.  ``inf`` and ``-inf`` are only
+   considered close to themselves.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :pep:`485` -- A function for testing approximate equality
+
+
+Constants
+---------
+
+.. data:: pi
+
+   The mathematical constant *π*, as a float.
+
+
+.. data:: e
+
+   The mathematical constant *e*, as a float.
+
+
+.. data:: tau
+
+   The mathematical constant *τ*, as a float.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: inf
+
+   Floating-point positive infinity. Equivalent to ``float('inf')``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: infj
+
+   Complex number with zero real part and positive infinity imaginary
+   part. Equivalent to ``complex(0.0, float('inf'))``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: nan
+
+   A floating-point "not a number" (NaN) value.  Equivalent to
+   ``float('nan')``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: nanj
+
+   Complex number with zero real part and NaN imaginary part. Equivalent to
+   ``complex(0.0, float('nan'))``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. index:: module: math
+
+Note that the selection of functions is similar, but not identical, to that in
+module :mod:`math`.  The reason for having two modules is that some users aren't
+interested in complex numbers, and perhaps don't even know what they are.  They
+would rather have ``math.sqrt(-1)`` raise an exception than return a complex
+number. Also note that the functions defined in :mod:`cmath` always return a
+complex number, even if the answer can be expressed as a real number (in which
+case the complex number has an imaginary part of zero).
+
+A note on branch cuts: They are curves along which the given function fails to
+be continuous.  They are a necessary feature of many complex functions.  It is
+assumed that if you need to compute with complex functions, you will understand
+about branch cuts.  Consult almost any (not too elementary) book on complex
+variables for enlightenment.  For information of the proper choice of branch
+cuts for numerical purposes, a good reference should be the following:
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Kahan, W:  Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado about
+   nothing's sign bit.  In Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The state of the art
+   in numerical analysis. Clarendon Press (1987) pp165--211.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cmd.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/cmd.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,381 @@
+:mod:`cmd` --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters
+=============================================================
+
+.. module:: cmd
+   :synopsis: Build line-oriented command interpreters.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@snark.thyrsus.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/cmd.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :class:`Cmd` class provides a simple framework for writing line-oriented
+command interpreters.  These are often useful for test harnesses, administrative
+tools, and prototypes that will later be wrapped in a more sophisticated
+interface.
+
+.. class:: Cmd(completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None)
+
+   A :class:`Cmd` instance or subclass instance is a line-oriented interpreter
+   framework.  There is no good reason to instantiate :class:`Cmd` itself; rather,
+   it's useful as a superclass of an interpreter class you define yourself in order
+   to inherit :class:`Cmd`'s methods and encapsulate action methods.
+
+   The optional argument *completekey* is the :mod:`readline` name of a completion
+   key; it defaults to :kbd:`Tab`. If *completekey* is not :const:`None` and
+   :mod:`readline` is available, command completion is done automatically.
+
+   The optional arguments *stdin* and *stdout* specify the  input and output file
+   objects that the Cmd instance or subclass  instance will use for input and
+   output. If not specified, they will default to :data:`sys.stdin` and
+   :data:`sys.stdout`.
+
+   If you want a given *stdin* to be used, make sure to set the instance's
+   :attr:`use_rawinput` attribute to ``False``, otherwise *stdin* will be
+   ignored.
+
+
+.. _cmd-objects:
+
+Cmd Objects
+-----------
+
+A :class:`Cmd` instance has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.cmdloop(intro=None)
+
+   Repeatedly issue a prompt, accept input, parse an initial prefix off the
+   received input, and dispatch to action methods, passing them the remainder of
+   the line as argument.
+
+   The optional argument is a banner or intro string to be issued before the first
+   prompt (this overrides the :attr:`intro` class attribute).
+
+   If the :mod:`readline` module is loaded, input will automatically inherit
+   :program:`bash`\ -like history-list editing (e.g. :kbd:`Control-P` scrolls back
+   to the last command, :kbd:`Control-N` forward to the next one, :kbd:`Control-F`
+   moves the cursor to the right non-destructively, :kbd:`Control-B` moves the
+   cursor to the left non-destructively, etc.).
+
+   An end-of-file on input is passed back as the string ``'EOF'``.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: ? (question mark); in a command interpreter
+      single: ! (exclamation); in a command interpreter
+
+   An interpreter instance will recognize a command name ``foo`` if and only if it
+   has a method :meth:`do_foo`.  As a special case, a line beginning with the
+   character ``'?'`` is dispatched to the method :meth:`do_help`.  As another
+   special case, a line beginning with the character ``'!'`` is dispatched to the
+   method :meth:`do_shell` (if such a method is defined).
+
+   This method will return when the :meth:`postcmd` method returns a true value.
+   The *stop* argument to :meth:`postcmd` is the return value from the command's
+   corresponding :meth:`do_\*` method.
+
+   If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done automatically, and
+   completing of commands args is done by calling :meth:`complete_foo` with
+   arguments *text*, *line*, *begidx*, and *endidx*.  *text* is the string prefix
+   we are attempting to match: all returned matches must begin with it. *line* is
+   the current input line with leading whitespace removed, *begidx* and *endidx*
+   are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which could be used to
+   provide different completion depending upon which position the argument is in.
+
+   All subclasses of :class:`Cmd` inherit a predefined :meth:`do_help`.  This
+   method, called with an argument ``'bar'``, invokes the corresponding method
+   :meth:`help_bar`, and if that is not present, prints the docstring of
+   :meth:`do_bar`, if available.  With no argument, :meth:`do_help` lists all
+   available help topics (that is, all commands with corresponding
+   :meth:`help_\*` methods or commands that have docstrings), and also lists any
+   undocumented commands.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.onecmd(str)
+
+   Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to the prompt.
+   This may be overridden, but should not normally need to be; see the
+   :meth:`precmd` and :meth:`postcmd` methods for useful execution hooks.  The
+   return value is a flag indicating whether interpretation of commands by the
+   interpreter should stop.  If there is a :meth:`do_\*` method for the command
+   *str*, the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return value
+   from the :meth:`default` method is returned.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.emptyline()
+
+   Method called when an empty line is entered in response to the prompt. If this
+   method is not overridden, it repeats the last nonempty command entered.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.default(line)
+
+   Method called on an input line when the command prefix is not recognized. If
+   this method is not overridden, it prints an error message and returns.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.completedefault(text, line, begidx, endidx)
+
+   Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific
+   :meth:`complete_\*` method is available.  By default, it returns an empty list.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.precmd(line)
+
+   Hook method executed just before the command line *line* is interpreted, but
+   after the input prompt is generated and issued.  This method is a stub in
+   :class:`Cmd`; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.  The return value is
+   used as the command which will be executed by the :meth:`onecmd` method; the
+   :meth:`precmd` implementation may re-write the command or simply return *line*
+   unchanged.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.postcmd(stop, line)
+
+   Hook method executed just after a command dispatch is finished.  This method is
+   a stub in :class:`Cmd`; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.  *line* is the
+   command line which was executed, and *stop* is a flag which indicates whether
+   execution will be terminated after the call to :meth:`postcmd`; this will be the
+   return value of the :meth:`onecmd` method.  The return value of this method will
+   be used as the new value for the internal flag which corresponds to *stop*;
+   returning false will cause interpretation to continue.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.preloop()
+
+   Hook method executed once when :meth:`cmdloop` is called.  This method is a stub
+   in :class:`Cmd`; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.
+
+
+.. method:: Cmd.postloop()
+
+   Hook method executed once when :meth:`cmdloop` is about to return. This method
+   is a stub in :class:`Cmd`; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.
+
+
+Instances of :class:`Cmd` subclasses have some public instance variables:
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.prompt
+
+   The prompt issued to solicit input.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.identchars
+
+   The string of characters accepted for the command prefix.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.lastcmd
+
+   The last nonempty command prefix seen.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.cmdqueue
+
+   A list of queued input lines.  The cmdqueue list is checked in
+   :meth:`cmdloop` when new input is needed; if it is nonempty, its elements
+   will be processed in order, as if entered at the prompt.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.intro
+
+   A string to issue as an intro or banner.  May be overridden by giving the
+   :meth:`cmdloop` method an argument.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.doc_header
+
+   The header to issue if the help output has a section for documented commands.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.misc_header
+
+   The header to issue if the help output has a section for miscellaneous  help
+   topics (that is, there are :meth:`help_\*` methods without corresponding
+   :meth:`do_\*` methods).
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.undoc_header
+
+   The header to issue if the help output has a section for undocumented  commands
+   (that is, there are :meth:`do_\*` methods without corresponding :meth:`help_\*`
+   methods).
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.ruler
+
+   The character used to draw separator lines under the help-message headers.  If
+   empty, no ruler line is drawn.  It defaults to ``'='``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cmd.use_rawinput
+
+   A flag, defaulting to true.  If true, :meth:`cmdloop` uses :func:`input` to
+   display a prompt and read the next command; if false, :meth:`sys.stdout.write`
+   and :meth:`sys.stdin.readline` are used. (This means that by importing
+   :mod:`readline`, on systems that support it, the interpreter will automatically
+   support :program:`Emacs`\ -like line editing  and command-history keystrokes.)
+
+
+.. _cmd-example:
+
+Cmd Example
+-----------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn dot com>
+
+The :mod:`cmd` module is mainly useful for building custom shells that let a
+user work with a program interactively.
+
+This section presents a simple example of how to build a shell around a few of
+the commands in the :mod:`turtle` module.
+
+Basic turtle commands such as :meth:`~turtle.forward` are added to a
+:class:`Cmd` subclass with method named :meth:`do_forward`.  The argument is
+converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module.  The docstring is
+used in the help utility provided by the shell.
+
+The example also includes a basic record and playback facility implemented with
+the :meth:`~Cmd.precmd` method which is responsible for converting the input to
+lowercase and writing the commands to a file.  The :meth:`do_playback` method
+reads the file and adds the recorded commands to the :attr:`cmdqueue` for
+immediate playback::
+
+    import cmd, sys
+    from turtle import *
+
+    class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd):
+        intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.\n'
+        prompt = '(turtle) '
+        file = None
+
+        # ----- basic turtle commands -----
+        def do_forward(self, arg):
+            'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10'
+            forward(*parse(arg))
+        def do_right(self, arg):
+            'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20'
+            right(*parse(arg))
+        def do_left(self, arg):
+            'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90'
+            left(*parse(arg))
+        def do_goto(self, arg):
+            'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200'
+            goto(*parse(arg))
+        def do_home(self, arg):
+            'Return turtle to the home position:  HOME'
+            home()
+        def do_circle(self, arg):
+            'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50'
+            circle(*parse(arg))
+        def do_position(self, arg):
+            'Print the current turtle position:  POSITION'
+            print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position())
+        def do_heading(self, arg):
+            'Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING'
+            print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),))
+        def do_color(self, arg):
+            'Set the color:  COLOR BLUE'
+            color(arg.lower())
+        def do_undo(self, arg):
+            'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO'
+        def do_reset(self, arg):
+            'Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET'
+            reset()
+        def do_bye(self, arg):
+            'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE'
+            print('Thank you for using Turtle')
+            self.close()
+            bye()
+            return True
+
+        # ----- record and playback -----
+        def do_record(self, arg):
+            'Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd'
+            self.file = open(arg, 'w')
+        def do_playback(self, arg):
+            'Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd'
+            self.close()
+            with open(arg) as f:
+                self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines())
+        def precmd(self, line):
+            line = line.lower()
+            if self.file and 'playback' not in line:
+                print(line, file=self.file)
+            return line
+        def close(self):
+            if self.file:
+                self.file.close()
+                self.file = None
+
+    def parse(arg):
+        'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple'
+        return tuple(map(int, arg.split()))
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        TurtleShell().cmdloop()
+
+
+Here is a sample session with the turtle shell showing the help functions, using
+blank lines to repeat commands, and the simple record and playback facility:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.
+
+    (turtle) ?
+
+    Documented commands (type help <topic>):
+    ========================================
+    bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
+    circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo
+
+    (turtle) help forward
+    Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
+    (turtle) record spiral.cmd
+    (turtle) position
+    Current position is 0 0
+
+    (turtle) heading
+    Current heading is 0
+
+    (turtle) reset
+    (turtle) circle 20
+    (turtle) right 30
+    (turtle) circle 40
+    (turtle) right 30
+    (turtle) circle 60
+    (turtle) right 30
+    (turtle) circle 80
+    (turtle) right 30
+    (turtle) circle 100
+    (turtle) right 30
+    (turtle) circle 120
+    (turtle) right 30
+    (turtle) circle 120
+    (turtle) heading
+    Current heading is 180
+
+    (turtle) forward 100
+    (turtle)
+    (turtle) right 90
+    (turtle) forward 100
+    (turtle)
+    (turtle) right 90
+    (turtle) forward 400
+    (turtle) right 90
+    (turtle) forward 500
+    (turtle) right 90
+    (turtle) forward 400
+    (turtle) right 90
+    (turtle) forward 300
+    (turtle) playback spiral.cmd
+    Current position is 0 0
+
+    Current heading is 0
+
+    Current heading is 180
+
+    (turtle) bye
+    Thank you for using Turtle
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/code.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/code.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2c47ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/code.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+:mod:`code` --- Interpreter base classes
+========================================
+
+.. module:: code
+   :synopsis: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/code.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The ``code`` module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops in
+Python.  Two classes and convenience functions are included which can be used to
+build applications which provide an interactive interpreter prompt.
+
+
+.. class:: InteractiveInterpreter(locals=None)
+
+   This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user's namespace); it
+   does not deal with input buffering or prompting or input file naming (the
+   filename is always passed in explicitly). The optional *locals* argument
+   specifies the dictionary in which code will be executed; it defaults to a newly
+   created dictionary with key ``'__name__'`` set to ``'__console__'`` and key
+   ``'__doc__'`` set to ``None``.
+
+
+.. class:: InteractiveConsole(locals=None, filename="<console>")
+
+   Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter. This class
+   builds on :class:`InteractiveInterpreter` and adds prompting using the familiar
+   ``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2``, and input buffering.
+
+
+.. function:: interact(banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None, exitmsg=None)
+
+   Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop.  This creates a new
+   instance of :class:`InteractiveConsole` and sets *readfunc* to be used as
+   the :meth:`InteractiveConsole.raw_input` method, if provided.  If *local* is
+   provided, it is passed to the :class:`InteractiveConsole` constructor for
+   use as the default namespace for the interpreter loop.  The :meth:`interact`
+   method of the instance is then run with *banner* and *exitmsg* passed as the
+   banner and exit message to use, if provided.  The console object is discarded
+   after use.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *exitmsg* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: compile_command(source, filename="<input>", symbol="single")
+
+   This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python's interpreter
+   main loop (a.k.a. the read-eval-print loop).  The tricky part is to determine
+   when the user has entered an incomplete command that can be completed by
+   entering more text (as opposed to a complete command or a syntax error).  This
+   function *almost* always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main
+   loop.
+
+   *source* is the source string; *filename* is the optional filename from which
+   source was read, defaulting to ``'<input>'``; and *symbol* is the optional
+   grammar start symbol, which should be either ``'single'`` (the default) or
+   ``'eval'``.
+
+   Returns a code object (the same as ``compile(source, filename, symbol)``) if the
+   command is complete and valid; ``None`` if the command is incomplete; raises
+   :exc:`SyntaxError` if the command is complete and contains a syntax error, or
+   raises :exc:`OverflowError` or :exc:`ValueError` if the command contains an
+   invalid literal.
+
+
+.. _interpreter-objects:
+
+Interactive Interpreter Objects
+-------------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveInterpreter.runsource(source, filename="<input>", symbol="single")
+
+   Compile and run some source in the interpreter. Arguments are the same as for
+   :func:`compile_command`; the default for *filename* is ``'<input>'``, and for
+   *symbol* is ``'single'``.  One several things can happen:
+
+   * The input is incorrect; :func:`compile_command` raised an exception
+     (:exc:`SyntaxError` or :exc:`OverflowError`).  A syntax traceback will be
+     printed by calling the :meth:`showsyntaxerror` method.  :meth:`runsource`
+     returns ``False``.
+
+   * The input is incomplete, and more input is required; :func:`compile_command`
+     returned ``None``. :meth:`runsource` returns ``True``.
+
+   * The input is complete; :func:`compile_command` returned a code object.  The
+     code is executed by calling the :meth:`runcode` (which also handles run-time
+     exceptions, except for :exc:`SystemExit`). :meth:`runsource` returns ``False``.
+
+   The return value can be used to decide whether to use ``sys.ps1`` or ``sys.ps2``
+   to prompt the next line.
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveInterpreter.runcode(code)
+
+   Execute a code object. When an exception occurs, :meth:`showtraceback` is called
+   to display a traceback.  All exceptions are caught except :exc:`SystemExit`,
+   which is allowed to propagate.
+
+   A note about :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`: this exception may occur elsewhere in
+   this code, and may not always be caught.  The caller should be prepared to deal
+   with it.
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror(filename=None)
+
+   Display the syntax error that just occurred.  This does not display a stack
+   trace because there isn't one for syntax errors. If *filename* is given, it is
+   stuffed into the exception instead of the default filename provided by Python's
+   parser, because it always uses ``'<string>'`` when reading from a string. The
+   output is written by the :meth:`write` method.
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback()
+
+   Display the exception that just occurred.  We remove the first stack item
+   because it is within the interpreter object implementation. The output is
+   written by the :meth:`write` method.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5 The full chained traceback is displayed instead
+      of just the primary traceback.
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveInterpreter.write(data)
+
+   Write a string to the standard error stream (``sys.stderr``). Derived classes
+   should override this to provide the appropriate output handling as needed.
+
+
+.. _console-objects:
+
+Interactive Console Objects
+---------------------------
+
+The :class:`InteractiveConsole` class is a subclass of
+:class:`InteractiveInterpreter`, and so offers all the methods of the
+interpreter objects as well as the following additions.
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveConsole.interact(banner=None, exitmsg=None)
+
+   Closely emulate the interactive Python console. The optional *banner* argument
+   specify the banner to print before the first interaction; by default it prints a
+   banner similar to the one printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed
+   by the class name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse
+   this with the real interpreter -- since it's so close!).
+
+   The optional *exitmsg* argument specifies an exit message printed when exiting.
+   Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message. If *exitmsg* is not given or
+   ``None``, a default message is printed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      To suppress printing any banner, pass an empty string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Print an exit message when exiting.
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveConsole.push(line)
+
+   Push a line of source text to the interpreter. The line should not have a
+   trailing newline; it may have internal newlines.  The line is appended to a
+   buffer and the interpreter's :meth:`runsource` method is called with the
+   concatenated contents of the buffer as source.  If this indicates that the
+   command was executed or invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is
+   incomplete, and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended.  The
+   return value is ``True`` if more input is required, ``False`` if the line was
+   dealt with in some way (this is the same as :meth:`runsource`).
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer()
+
+   Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer.
+
+
+.. method:: InteractiveConsole.raw_input(prompt="")
+
+   Write a prompt and read a line.  The returned line does not include the trailing
+   newline.  When the user enters the EOF key sequence, :exc:`EOFError` is raised.
+   The base implementation reads from ``sys.stdin``; a subclass may replace this
+   with a different implementation.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/codecs.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/codecs.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff4f493
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/codecs.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1502 @@
+:mod:`codecs` --- Codec registry and base classes
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: codecs
+   :synopsis: Encode and decode data and streams.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Marc-André Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Marc-André Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/codecs.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: Unicode
+   single: Codecs
+   pair: Codecs; encode
+   pair: Codecs; decode
+   single: streams
+   pair: stackable; streams
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders and
+decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec registry, which
+manages the codec and error handling lookup process. Most standard codecs
+are :term:`text encodings <text encoding>`, which encode text to bytes,
+but there are also codecs provided that encode text to text, and bytes to
+bytes. Custom codecs may encode and decode between arbitrary types, but some
+module features are restricted to use specifically with
+:term:`text encodings <text encoding>`, or with codecs that encode to
+:class:`bytes`.
+
+The module defines the following functions for encoding and decoding with
+any codec:
+
+.. function:: encode(obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+
+   Encodes *obj* using the codec registered for *encoding*.
+
+   *Errors* may be given to set the desired error handling scheme. The
+   default error handler is ``'strict'`` meaning that encoding errors raise
+   :exc:`ValueError` (or a more codec specific subclass, such as
+   :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError`). Refer to :ref:`codec-base-classes` for more
+   information on codec error handling.
+
+.. function:: decode(obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+
+   Decodes *obj* using the codec registered for *encoding*.
+
+   *Errors* may be given to set the desired error handling scheme. The
+   default error handler is ``'strict'`` meaning that decoding errors raise
+   :exc:`ValueError` (or a more codec specific subclass, such as
+   :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError`). Refer to :ref:`codec-base-classes` for more
+   information on codec error handling.
+
+The full details for each codec can also be looked up directly:
+
+.. function:: lookup(encoding)
+
+   Looks up the codec info in the Python codec registry and returns a
+   :class:`CodecInfo` object as defined below.
+
+   Encodings are first looked up in the registry's cache. If not found, the list of
+   registered search functions is scanned. If no :class:`CodecInfo` object is
+   found, a :exc:`LookupError` is raised. Otherwise, the :class:`CodecInfo` object
+   is stored in the cache and returned to the caller.
+
+.. class:: CodecInfo(encode, decode, streamreader=None, streamwriter=None, incrementalencoder=None, incrementaldecoder=None, name=None)
+
+   Codec details when looking up the codec registry. The constructor
+   arguments are stored in attributes of the same name:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The name of the encoding.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: encode
+                  decode
+
+      The stateless encoding and decoding functions. These must be
+      functions or methods which have the same interface as
+      the :meth:`~Codec.encode` and :meth:`~Codec.decode` methods of Codec
+      instances (see :ref:`Codec Interface <codec-objects>`).
+      The functions or methods are expected to work in a stateless mode.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: incrementalencoder
+                  incrementaldecoder
+
+      Incremental encoder and decoder classes or factory functions.
+      These have to provide the interface defined by the base classes
+      :class:`IncrementalEncoder` and :class:`IncrementalDecoder`,
+      respectively. Incremental codecs can maintain state.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: streamwriter
+                  streamreader
+
+      Stream writer and reader classes or factory functions. These have to
+      provide the interface defined by the base classes
+      :class:`StreamWriter` and :class:`StreamReader`, respectively.
+      Stream codecs can maintain state.
+
+To simplify access to the various codec components, the module provides
+these additional functions which use :func:`lookup` for the codec lookup:
+
+.. function:: getencoder(encoding)
+
+   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its encoder function.
+
+   Raises a :exc:`LookupError` in case the encoding cannot be found.
+
+
+.. function:: getdecoder(encoding)
+
+   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its decoder function.
+
+   Raises a :exc:`LookupError` in case the encoding cannot be found.
+
+
+.. function:: getincrementalencoder(encoding)
+
+   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental encoder
+   class or factory function.
+
+   Raises a :exc:`LookupError` in case the encoding cannot be found or the codec
+   doesn't support an incremental encoder.
+
+
+.. function:: getincrementaldecoder(encoding)
+
+   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental decoder
+   class or factory function.
+
+   Raises a :exc:`LookupError` in case the encoding cannot be found or the codec
+   doesn't support an incremental decoder.
+
+
+.. function:: getreader(encoding)
+
+   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its :class:`StreamReader`
+   class or factory function.
+
+   Raises a :exc:`LookupError` in case the encoding cannot be found.
+
+
+.. function:: getwriter(encoding)
+
+   Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its :class:`StreamWriter`
+   class or factory function.
+
+   Raises a :exc:`LookupError` in case the encoding cannot be found.
+
+Custom codecs are made available by registering a suitable codec search
+function:
+
+.. function:: register(search_function)
+
+   Register a codec search function. Search functions are expected to take one
+   argument, being the encoding name in all lower case letters, and return a
+   :class:`CodecInfo` object. In case a search function cannot find
+   a given encoding, it should return ``None``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Search function registration is not currently reversible,
+      which may cause problems in some cases, such as unit testing or
+      module reloading.
+
+While the builtin :func:`open` and the associated :mod:`io` module are the
+recommended approach for working with encoded text files, this module
+provides additional utility functions and classes that allow the use of a
+wider range of codecs when working with binary files:
+
+.. function:: open(filename, mode='r', encoding=None, errors='strict', buffering=1)
+
+   Open an encoded file using the given *mode* and return an instance of
+   :class:`StreamReaderWriter`, providing transparent encoding/decoding.
+   The default file mode is ``'r'``, meaning to open the file in read mode.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Underlying encoded files are always opened in binary mode.
+      No automatic conversion of ``'\n'`` is done on reading and writing.
+      The *mode* argument may be any binary mode acceptable to the built-in
+      :func:`open` function; the ``'b'`` is automatically added.
+
+   *encoding* specifies the encoding which is to be used for the file.
+   Any encoding that encodes to and decodes from bytes is allowed, and
+   the data types supported by the file methods depend on the codec used.
+
+   *errors* may be given to define the error handling. It defaults to ``'strict'``
+   which causes a :exc:`ValueError` to be raised in case an encoding error occurs.
+
+   *buffering* has the same meaning as for the built-in :func:`open` function.  It
+   defaults to line buffered.
+
+
+.. function:: EncodedFile(file, data_encoding, file_encoding=None, errors='strict')
+
+   Return a :class:`StreamRecoder` instance, a wrapped version of *file*
+   which provides transparent transcoding. The original file is closed
+   when the wrapped version is closed.
+
+   Data written to the wrapped file is decoded according to the given
+   *data_encoding* and then written to the original file as bytes using
+   *file_encoding*. Bytes read from the original file are decoded
+   according to *file_encoding*, and the result is encoded
+   using *data_encoding*.
+
+   If *file_encoding* is not given, it defaults to *data_encoding*.
+
+   *errors* may be given to define the error handling. It defaults to
+   ``'strict'``, which causes :exc:`ValueError` to be raised in case an encoding
+   error occurs.
+
+
+.. function:: iterencode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)
+
+   Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input provided by
+   *iterator*. This function is a :term:`generator`.
+   The *errors* argument (as well as any
+   other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental encoder.
+
+   This function requires that the codec accept text :class:`str` objects
+   to encode. Therefore it does not support bytes-to-bytes encoders such as
+   ``base64_codec``.
+
+
+.. function:: iterdecode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)
+
+   Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input provided by
+   *iterator*. This function is a :term:`generator`.
+   The *errors* argument (as well as any
+   other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental decoder.
+
+   This function requires that the codec accept :class:`bytes` objects
+   to decode. Therefore it does not support text-to-text encoders such as
+   ``rot_13``, although ``rot_13`` may be used equivalently with
+   :func:`iterencode`.
+
+
+The module also provides the following constants which are useful for reading
+and writing to platform dependent files:
+
+
+.. data:: BOM
+          BOM_BE
+          BOM_LE
+          BOM_UTF8
+          BOM_UTF16
+          BOM_UTF16_BE
+          BOM_UTF16_LE
+          BOM_UTF32
+          BOM_UTF32_BE
+          BOM_UTF32_LE
+
+   These constants define various byte sequences,
+   being Unicode byte order marks (BOMs) for several encodings. They are
+   used in UTF-16 and UTF-32 data streams to indicate the byte order used,
+   and in UTF-8 as a Unicode signature. :const:`BOM_UTF16` is either
+   :const:`BOM_UTF16_BE` or :const:`BOM_UTF16_LE` depending on the platform's
+   native byte order, :const:`BOM` is an alias for :const:`BOM_UTF16`,
+   :const:`BOM_LE` for :const:`BOM_UTF16_LE` and :const:`BOM_BE` for
+   :const:`BOM_UTF16_BE`. The others represent the BOM in UTF-8 and UTF-32
+   encodings.
+
+
+.. _codec-base-classes:
+
+Codec Base Classes
+------------------
+
+The :mod:`codecs` module defines a set of base classes which define the
+interfaces for working with codec objects, and can also be used as the basis
+for custom codec implementations.
+
+Each codec has to define four interfaces to make it usable as codec in Python:
+stateless encoder, stateless decoder, stream reader and stream writer. The
+stream reader and writers typically reuse the stateless encoder/decoder to
+implement the file protocols. Codec authors also need to define how the
+codec will handle encoding and decoding errors.
+
+
+.. _surrogateescape:
+.. _error-handlers:
+
+Error Handlers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To simplify and standardize error handling,
+codecs may implement different error handling schemes by
+accepting the *errors* string argument.  The following string values are
+defined and implemented by all standard Python codecs:
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Value                   | Meaning                                       |
++=========================+===============================================+
+| ``'strict'``            | Raise :exc:`UnicodeError` (or a subclass);    |
+|                         | this is the default.  Implemented in          |
+|                         | :func:`strict_errors`.                        |
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``'ignore'``            | Ignore the malformed data and continue        |
+|                         | without further notice.  Implemented in       |
+|                         | :func:`ignore_errors`.                        |
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+The following error handlers are only applicable to
+:term:`text encodings <text encoding>`:
+
+.. index::
+   single: ? (question mark); replacement character
+   single: \ (backslash); escape sequence
+   single: \x; escape sequence
+   single: \u; escape sequence
+   single: \U; escape sequence
+   single: \N; escape sequence
+
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Value                   | Meaning                                       |
++=========================+===============================================+
+| ``'replace'``           | Replace with a suitable replacement           |
+|                         | marker; Python will use the official          |
+|                         | ``U+FFFD`` REPLACEMENT CHARACTER for the      |
+|                         | built-in codecs on decoding, and '?' on       |
+|                         | encoding.  Implemented in                     |
+|                         | :func:`replace_errors`.                       |
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` | Replace with the appropriate XML character    |
+|                         | reference (only for encoding).  Implemented   |
+|                         | in :func:`xmlcharrefreplace_errors`.          |
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``'backslashreplace'``  | Replace with backslashed escape sequences.    |
+|                         | Implemented in                                |
+|                         | :func:`backslashreplace_errors`.              |
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``'namereplace'``       | Replace with ``\N{...}`` escape sequences     |
+|                         | (only for encoding).  Implemented in          |
+|                         | :func:`namereplace_errors`.                   |
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``'surrogateescape'``   | On decoding, replace byte with individual     |
+|                         | surrogate code ranging from ``U+DC80`` to     |
+|                         | ``U+DCFF``.  This code will then be turned    |
+|                         | back into the same byte when the              |
+|                         | ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler is used   |
+|                         | when encoding the data.  (See :pep:`383` for  |
+|                         | more.)                                        |
++-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+In addition, the following error handler is specific to the given codecs:
+
++-------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+| Value             | Codecs                 | Meaning                                   |
++===================+========================+===========================================+
+|``'surrogatepass'``| utf-8, utf-16, utf-32, | Allow encoding and decoding of surrogate  |
+|                   | utf-16-be, utf-16-le,  | codes.  These codecs normally treat the   |
+|                   | utf-32-be, utf-32-le   | presence of surrogates as an error.       |
++-------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.1
+   The ``'surrogateescape'`` and ``'surrogatepass'`` error handlers.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The ``'surrogatepass'`` error handlers now works with utf-16\* and utf-32\* codecs.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+   The ``'namereplace'`` error handler.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   The ``'backslashreplace'`` error handlers now works with decoding and
+   translating.
+
+The set of allowed values can be extended by registering a new named error
+handler:
+
+.. function:: register_error(name, error_handler)
+
+   Register the error handling function *error_handler* under the name *name*.
+   The *error_handler* argument will be called during encoding and decoding
+   in case of an error, when *name* is specified as the errors parameter.
+
+   For encoding, *error_handler* will be called with a :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError`
+   instance, which contains information about the location of the error. The
+   error handler must either raise this or a different exception, or return a
+   tuple with a replacement for the unencodable part of the input and a position
+   where encoding should continue. The replacement may be either :class:`str` or
+   :class:`bytes`.  If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will simply copy
+   them into the output buffer. If the replacement is a string, the encoder will
+   encode the replacement.  Encoding continues on original input at the
+   specified position. Negative position values will be treated as being
+   relative to the end of the input string. If the resulting position is out of
+   bound an :exc:`IndexError` will be raised.
+
+   Decoding and translating works similarly, except :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError` or
+   :exc:`UnicodeTranslateError` will be passed to the handler and that the
+   replacement from the error handler will be put into the output directly.
+
+
+Previously registered error handlers (including the standard error handlers)
+can be looked up by name:
+
+.. function:: lookup_error(name)
+
+   Return the error handler previously registered under the name *name*.
+
+   Raises a :exc:`LookupError` in case the handler cannot be found.
+
+The following standard error handlers are also made available as module level
+functions:
+
+.. function:: strict_errors(exception)
+
+   Implements the ``'strict'`` error handling: each encoding or
+   decoding error raises a :exc:`UnicodeError`.
+
+
+.. function:: replace_errors(exception)
+
+   Implements the ``'replace'`` error handling (for :term:`text encodings
+   <text encoding>` only): substitutes ``'?'`` for encoding errors
+   (to be encoded by the codec), and ``'\ufffd'`` (the Unicode replacement
+   character) for decoding errors.
+
+
+.. function:: ignore_errors(exception)
+
+   Implements the ``'ignore'`` error handling: malformed data is ignored and
+   encoding or decoding is continued without further notice.
+
+
+.. function:: xmlcharrefreplace_errors(exception)
+
+   Implements the ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` error handling (for encoding with
+   :term:`text encodings <text encoding>` only): the
+   unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML character reference.
+
+
+.. function:: backslashreplace_errors(exception)
+
+   Implements the ``'backslashreplace'`` error handling (for
+   :term:`text encodings <text encoding>` only): malformed data is
+   replaced by a backslashed escape sequence.
+
+.. function:: namereplace_errors(exception)
+
+   Implements the ``'namereplace'`` error handling (for encoding with
+   :term:`text encodings <text encoding>` only): the
+   unencodable character is replaced by a ``\N{...}`` escape sequence.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. _codec-objects:
+
+Stateless Encoding and Decoding
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The base :class:`Codec` class defines these methods which also define the
+function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:
+
+
+.. method:: Codec.encode(input[, errors])
+
+   Encodes the object *input* and returns a tuple (output object, length consumed).
+   For instance, :term:`text encoding` converts
+   a string object to a bytes object using a particular
+   character set encoding (e.g., ``cp1252`` or ``iso-8859-1``).
+
+   The *errors* argument defines the error handling to apply.
+   It defaults to ``'strict'`` handling.
+
+   The method may not store state in the :class:`Codec` instance. Use
+   :class:`StreamWriter` for codecs which have to keep state in order to make
+   encoding efficient.
+
+   The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an empty object
+   of the output object type in this situation.
+
+
+.. method:: Codec.decode(input[, errors])
+
+   Decodes the object *input* and returns a tuple (output object, length
+   consumed).  For instance, for a :term:`text encoding`, decoding converts
+   a bytes object encoded using a particular
+   character set encoding to a string object.
+
+   For text encodings and bytes-to-bytes codecs,
+   *input* must be a bytes object or one which provides the read-only
+   buffer interface -- for example, buffer objects and memory mapped files.
+
+   The *errors* argument defines the error handling to apply.
+   It defaults to ``'strict'`` handling.
+
+   The method may not store state in the :class:`Codec` instance. Use
+   :class:`StreamReader` for codecs which have to keep state in order to make
+   decoding efficient.
+
+   The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an empty object
+   of the output object type in this situation.
+
+
+Incremental Encoding and Decoding
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`IncrementalEncoder` and :class:`IncrementalDecoder` classes provide
+the basic interface for incremental encoding and decoding. Encoding/decoding the
+input isn't done with one call to the stateless encoder/decoder function, but
+with multiple calls to the
+:meth:`~IncrementalEncoder.encode`/:meth:`~IncrementalDecoder.decode` method of
+the incremental encoder/decoder. The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of
+the encoding/decoding process during method calls.
+
+The joined output of calls to the
+:meth:`~IncrementalEncoder.encode`/:meth:`~IncrementalDecoder.decode` method is
+the same as if all the single inputs were joined into one, and this input was
+encoded/decoded with the stateless encoder/decoder.
+
+
+.. _incremental-encoder-objects:
+
+IncrementalEncoder Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`IncrementalEncoder` class is used for encoding an input in multiple
+steps. It defines the following methods which every incremental encoder must
+define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.
+
+
+.. class:: IncrementalEncoder(errors='strict')
+
+   Constructor for an :class:`IncrementalEncoder` instance.
+
+   All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface. They are free
+   to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by
+   the Python codec registry.
+
+   The :class:`IncrementalEncoder` may implement different error handling schemes
+   by providing the *errors* keyword argument. See :ref:`error-handlers` for
+   possible values.
+
+   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+   Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+   handling strategies during the lifetime of the :class:`IncrementalEncoder`
+   object.
+
+
+   .. method:: encode(object[, final])
+
+      Encodes *object* (taking the current state of the encoder into account)
+      and returns the resulting encoded object. If this is the last call to
+      :meth:`encode` *final* must be true (the default is false).
+
+
+   .. method:: reset()
+
+      Reset the encoder to the initial state. The output is discarded: call
+      ``.encode(object, final=True)``, passing an empty byte or text string
+      if necessary, to reset the encoder and to get the output.
+
+
+   .. method:: getstate()
+
+      Return the current state of the encoder which must be an integer. The
+      implementation should make sure that ``0`` is the most common
+      state. (States that are more complicated than integers can be converted
+      into an integer by marshaling/pickling the state and encoding the bytes
+      of the resulting string into an integer).
+
+
+   .. method:: setstate(state)
+
+      Set the state of the encoder to *state*. *state* must be an encoder state
+      returned by :meth:`getstate`.
+
+
+.. _incremental-decoder-objects:
+
+IncrementalDecoder Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`IncrementalDecoder` class is used for decoding an input in multiple
+steps. It defines the following methods which every incremental decoder must
+define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.
+
+
+.. class:: IncrementalDecoder(errors='strict')
+
+   Constructor for an :class:`IncrementalDecoder` instance.
+
+   All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface. They are free
+   to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by
+   the Python codec registry.
+
+   The :class:`IncrementalDecoder` may implement different error handling schemes
+   by providing the *errors* keyword argument. See :ref:`error-handlers` for
+   possible values.
+
+   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+   Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+   handling strategies during the lifetime of the :class:`IncrementalDecoder`
+   object.
+
+
+   .. method:: decode(object[, final])
+
+      Decodes *object* (taking the current state of the decoder into account)
+      and returns the resulting decoded object. If this is the last call to
+      :meth:`decode` *final* must be true (the default is false). If *final* is
+      true the decoder must decode the input completely and must flush all
+      buffers. If this isn't possible (e.g. because of incomplete byte sequences
+      at the end of the input) it must initiate error handling just like in the
+      stateless case (which might raise an exception).
+
+
+   .. method:: reset()
+
+      Reset the decoder to the initial state.
+
+
+   .. method:: getstate()
+
+      Return the current state of the decoder. This must be a tuple with two
+      items, the first must be the buffer containing the still undecoded
+      input. The second must be an integer and can be additional state
+      info. (The implementation should make sure that ``0`` is the most common
+      additional state info.) If this additional state info is ``0`` it must be
+      possible to set the decoder to the state which has no input buffered and
+      ``0`` as the additional state info, so that feeding the previously
+      buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state without
+      producing any output. (Additional state info that is more complicated than
+      integers can be converted into an integer by marshaling/pickling the info
+      and encoding the bytes of the resulting string into an integer.)
+
+
+   .. method:: setstate(state)
+
+      Set the state of the decoder to *state*. *state* must be a decoder state
+      returned by :meth:`getstate`.
+
+
+Stream Encoding and Decoding
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+The :class:`StreamWriter` and :class:`StreamReader` classes provide generic
+working interfaces which can be used to implement new encoding submodules very
+easily. See :mod:`encodings.utf_8` for an example of how this is done.
+
+
+.. _stream-writer-objects:
+
+StreamWriter Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`StreamWriter` class is a subclass of :class:`Codec` and defines the
+following methods which every stream writer must define in order to be
+compatible with the Python codec registry.
+
+
+.. class:: StreamWriter(stream, errors='strict')
+
+   Constructor for a :class:`StreamWriter` instance.
+
+   All stream writers must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add
+   additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the
+   Python codec registry.
+
+   The *stream* argument must be a file-like object open for writing
+   text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.
+
+   The :class:`StreamWriter` may implement different error handling schemes by
+   providing the *errors* keyword argument. See :ref:`error-handlers` for
+   the standard error handlers the underlying stream codec may support.
+
+   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+   Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+   handling strategies during the lifetime of the :class:`StreamWriter` object.
+
+   .. method:: write(object)
+
+      Writes the object's contents encoded to the stream.
+
+
+   .. method:: writelines(list)
+
+      Writes the concatenated list of strings to the stream (possibly by reusing
+      the :meth:`write` method). The standard bytes-to-bytes codecs
+      do not support this method.
+
+
+   .. method:: reset()
+
+      Flushes and resets the codec buffers used for keeping state.
+
+      Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output is put into
+      a clean state that allows appending of new fresh data without having to
+      rescan the whole stream to recover state.
+
+
+In addition to the above methods, the :class:`StreamWriter` must also inherit
+all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.
+
+
+.. _stream-reader-objects:
+
+StreamReader Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`StreamReader` class is a subclass of :class:`Codec` and defines the
+following methods which every stream reader must define in order to be
+compatible with the Python codec registry.
+
+
+.. class:: StreamReader(stream, errors='strict')
+
+   Constructor for a :class:`StreamReader` instance.
+
+   All stream readers must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add
+   additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the
+   Python codec registry.
+
+   The *stream* argument must be a file-like object open for reading
+   text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.
+
+   The :class:`StreamReader` may implement different error handling schemes by
+   providing the *errors* keyword argument. See :ref:`error-handlers` for
+   the standard error handlers the underlying stream codec may support.
+
+   The *errors* argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+   Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+   handling strategies during the lifetime of the :class:`StreamReader` object.
+
+   The set of allowed values for the *errors* argument can be extended with
+   :func:`register_error`.
+
+
+   .. method:: read([size[, chars, [firstline]]])
+
+      Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.
+
+      The *chars* argument indicates the number of decoded
+      code points or bytes to return. The :func:`read` method will
+      never return more data than requested, but it might return less,
+      if there is not enough available.
+
+      The *size* argument indicates the approximate maximum
+      number of encoded bytes or code points to read
+      for decoding. The decoder can modify this setting as
+      appropriate. The default value -1 indicates to read and decode as much as
+      possible.  This parameter is intended to
+      prevent having to decode huge files in one step.
+
+      The *firstline* flag indicates that
+      it would be sufficient to only return the first
+      line, if there are decoding errors on later lines.
+
+      The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it should read
+      as much data as is allowed within the definition of the encoding and the
+      given size, e.g.  if optional encoding endings or state markers are
+      available on the stream, these should be read too.
+
+
+   .. method:: readline([size[, keepends]])
+
+      Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded data.
+
+      *size*, if given, is passed as size argument to the stream's
+      :meth:`read` method.
+
+      If *keepends* is false line-endings will be stripped from the lines
+      returned.
+
+
+   .. method:: readlines([sizehint[, keepends]])
+
+      Read all lines available on the input stream and return them as a list of
+      lines.
+
+      Line-endings are implemented using the codec's decoder method and are
+      included in the list entries if *keepends* is true.
+
+      *sizehint*, if given, is passed as the *size* argument to the stream's
+      :meth:`read` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: reset()
+
+      Resets the codec buffers used for keeping state.
+
+      Note that no stream repositioning should take place.  This method is
+      primarily intended to be able to recover from decoding errors.
+
+
+In addition to the above methods, the :class:`StreamReader` must also inherit
+all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.
+
+.. _stream-reader-writer:
+
+StreamReaderWriter Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`StreamReaderWriter` is a convenience class that allows wrapping
+streams which work in both read and write modes.
+
+The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by the
+:func:`lookup` function to construct the instance.
+
+
+.. class:: StreamReaderWriter(stream, Reader, Writer, errors='strict')
+
+   Creates a :class:`StreamReaderWriter` instance. *stream* must be a file-like
+   object. *Reader* and *Writer* must be factory functions or classes providing the
+   :class:`StreamReader` and :class:`StreamWriter` interface resp. Error handling
+   is done in the same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.
+
+:class:`StreamReaderWriter` instances define the combined interfaces of
+:class:`StreamReader` and :class:`StreamWriter` classes. They inherit all other
+methods and attributes from the underlying stream.
+
+
+.. _stream-recoder-objects:
+
+StreamRecoder Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`StreamRecoder` translates data from one encoding to another,
+which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding environments.
+
+The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by the
+:func:`lookup` function to construct the instance.
+
+
+.. class:: StreamRecoder(stream, encode, decode, Reader, Writer, errors='strict')
+
+   Creates a :class:`StreamRecoder` instance which implements a two-way conversion:
+   *encode* and *decode* work on the frontend — the data visible to
+   code calling :meth:`read` and :meth:`write`, while *Reader* and *Writer*
+   work on the backend — the data in *stream*.
+
+   You can use these objects to do transparent transcodings from e.g. Latin-1
+   to UTF-8 and back.
+
+   The *stream* argument must be a file-like object.
+
+   The *encode* and *decode* arguments must
+   adhere to the :class:`Codec` interface. *Reader* and
+   *Writer* must be factory functions or classes providing objects of the
+   :class:`StreamReader` and :class:`StreamWriter` interface respectively.
+
+   Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream readers and
+   writers.
+
+
+:class:`StreamRecoder` instances define the combined interfaces of
+:class:`StreamReader` and :class:`StreamWriter` classes. They inherit all other
+methods and attributes from the underlying stream.
+
+
+.. _encodings-overview:
+
+Encodings and Unicode
+---------------------
+
+Strings are stored internally as sequences of code points in
+range ``0x0``--``0x10FFFF``.  (See :pep:`393` for
+more details about the implementation.)
+Once a string object is used outside of CPU and memory, endianness
+and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an issue.  As with other
+codecs, serialising a string into a sequence of bytes is known as *encoding*,
+and recreating the string from the sequence of bytes is known as *decoding*.
+There are a variety of different text serialisation codecs, which are
+collectivity referred to as :term:`text encodings <text encoding>`.
+
+The simplest text encoding (called ``'latin-1'`` or ``'iso-8859-1'``) maps
+the code points 0--255 to the bytes ``0x0``--``0xff``, which means that a string
+object that contains code points above ``U+00FF`` can't be encoded with this
+codec. Doing so will raise a :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError` that looks
+like the following (although the details of the error message may differ):
+``UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character '\u1234' in
+position 3: ordinal not in range(256)``.
+
+There's another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings) that choose
+a different subset of all Unicode code points and how these code points are
+mapped to the bytes ``0x0``--``0xff``. To see how this is done simply open
+e.g. :file:`encodings/cp1252.py` (which is an encoding that is used primarily on
+Windows). There's a string constant with 256 characters that shows you which
+character is mapped to which byte value.
+
+All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 code points
+defined in Unicode. A simple and straightforward way that can store each Unicode
+code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive bytes. There are two
+possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in little endian order. These
+two encodings are called ``UTF-32-BE`` and ``UTF-32-LE`` respectively. Their
+disadvantage is that if e.g. you use ``UTF-32-BE`` on a little endian machine you
+will always have to swap bytes on encoding and decoding. ``UTF-32`` avoids this
+problem: bytes will always be in natural endianness. When these bytes are read
+by a CPU with a different endianness, then bytes have to be swapped though. To
+be able to detect the endianness of a ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence,
+there's the so called BOM ("Byte Order Mark"). This is the Unicode character
+``U+FEFF``. This character can be prepended to every ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32``
+byte sequence. The byte swapped version of this character (``0xFFFE``) is an
+illegal character that may not appear in a Unicode text. So when the
+first character in an ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence
+appears to be a ``U+FFFE`` the bytes have to be swapped on decoding.
+Unfortunately the character ``U+FEFF`` had a second purpose as
+a ``ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE``: a character that has no width and doesn't allow
+a word to be split. It can e.g. be used to give hints to a ligature algorithm.
+With Unicode 4.0 using ``U+FEFF`` as a ``ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE`` has been
+deprecated (with ``U+2060`` (``WORD JOINER``) assuming this role). Nevertheless
+Unicode software still must be able to handle ``U+FEFF`` in both roles: as a BOM
+it's a device to determine the storage layout of the encoded bytes, and vanishes
+once the byte sequence has been decoded into a string; as a ``ZERO WIDTH
+NO-BREAK SPACE`` it's a normal character that will be decoded like any other.
+
+There's another encoding that is able to encoding the full range of Unicode
+characters: UTF-8. UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means there are no issues
+with byte order in UTF-8. Each byte in a UTF-8 byte sequence consists of two
+parts: marker bits (the most significant bits) and payload bits. The marker bits
+are a sequence of zero to four ``1`` bits followed by a ``0`` bit. Unicode characters are
+encoded like this (with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the
+Unicode character):
+
++-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Range                             | Encoding                                     |
++===================================+==============================================+
+| ``U-00000000`` ... ``U-0000007F`` | 0xxxxxxx                                     |
++-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``U-00000080`` ... ``U-000007FF`` | 110xxxxx 10xxxxxx                            |
++-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``U-00000800`` ... ``U-0000FFFF`` | 1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx                   |
++-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``U-00010000`` ... ``U-0010FFFF`` | 11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx          |
++-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x bit.
+
+As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any ``U+FEFF`` character in
+the decoded string (even if it's the first character) is treated as a ``ZERO
+WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE``.
+
+Without external information it's impossible to reliably determine which
+encoding was used for encoding a string. Each charmap encoding can
+decode any random byte sequence. However that's not possible with UTF-8, as
+UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn't allow arbitrary byte
+sequences. To increase the reliability with which a UTF-8 encoding can be
+detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8 (that Python 2.5 calls
+``"utf-8-sig"``) for its Notepad program: Before any of the Unicode characters
+is written to the file, a UTF-8 encoded BOM (which looks like this as a byte
+sequence: ``0xef``, ``0xbb``, ``0xbf``) is written. As it's rather improbable
+that any charmap encoded file starts with these byte values (which would e.g.
+map to
+
+   | LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS
+   | RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK
+   | INVERTED QUESTION MARK
+
+in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a ``utf-8-sig`` encoding can be
+correctly guessed from the byte sequence. So here the BOM is not used to be able
+to determine the byte order used for generating the byte sequence, but as a
+signature that helps in guessing the encoding. On encoding the utf-8-sig codec
+will write ``0xef``, ``0xbb``, ``0xbf`` as the first three bytes to the file. On
+decoding ``utf-8-sig`` will skip those three bytes if they appear as the first
+three bytes in the file.  In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is discouraged and
+should generally be avoided.
+
+
+.. _standard-encodings:
+
+Standard Encodings
+------------------
+
+Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C functions
+or with dictionaries as mapping tables. The following table lists the codecs by
+name, together with a few common aliases, and the languages for which the
+encoding is likely used. Neither the list of aliases nor the list of languages
+is meant to be exhaustive. Notice that spelling alternatives that only differ in
+case or use a hyphen instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore,
+e.g. ``'utf-8'`` is a valid alias for the ``'utf_8'`` codec.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   Some common encodings can bypass the codecs lookup machinery to
+   improve performance.  These optimization opportunities are only
+   recognized by CPython for a limited set of (case insensitive)
+   aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, mbcs
+   (Windows only), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16, utf16, utf-32, utf32, and
+   the same using underscores instead of dashes. Using alternative
+   aliases for these encodings may result in slower execution.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Optimization opportunity recognized for us-ascii.
+
+Many of the character sets support the same languages. They vary in individual
+characters (e.g. whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not), and in the
+assignment of characters to code positions. For the European languages in
+particular, the following variants typically exist:
+
+* an ISO 8859 codeset
+
+* a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from an 8859 codeset,
+  but replaces control characters with additional graphic characters
+
+* an IBM EBCDIC code page
+
+* an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|p{0.3\linewidth}|p{0.3\linewidth}|
+
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| Codec           | Aliases                        | Languages                      |
++=================+================================+================================+
+| ascii           | 646, us-ascii                  | English                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| big5            | big5-tw, csbig5                | Traditional Chinese            |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| big5hkscs       | big5-hkscs, hkscs              | Traditional Chinese            |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp037           | IBM037, IBM039                 | English                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp273           | 273, IBM273, csIBM273          | German                         |
+|                 |                                |                                |
+|                 |                                | .. versionadded:: 3.4          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp424           | EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424           | Hebrew                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp437           | 437, IBM437                    | English                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp500           | EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH,    | Western Europe                 |
+|                 | IBM500                         |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp720           |                                | Arabic                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp737           |                                | Greek                          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp775           | IBM775                         | Baltic languages               |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp850           | 850, IBM850                    | Western Europe                 |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp852           | 852, IBM852                    | Central and Eastern Europe     |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp855           | 855, IBM855                    | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,       |
+|                 |                                | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian   |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp856           |                                | Hebrew                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp857           | 857, IBM857                    | Turkish                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp858           | 858, IBM858                    | Western Europe                 |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp860           | 860, IBM860                    | Portuguese                     |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp861           | 861, CP-IS, IBM861             | Icelandic                      |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp862           | 862, IBM862                    | Hebrew                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp863           | 863, IBM863                    | Canadian                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp864           | IBM864                         | Arabic                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp865           | 865, IBM865                    | Danish, Norwegian              |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp866           | 866, IBM866                    | Russian                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp869           | 869, CP-GR, IBM869             | Greek                          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp874           |                                | Thai                           |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp875           |                                | Greek                          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp932           | 932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji  | Japanese                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp949           | 949, ms949, uhc                | Korean                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp950           | 950, ms950                     | Traditional Chinese            |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1006          |                                | Urdu                           |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1026          | ibm1026                        | Turkish                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1125          | 1125, ibm1125, cp866u, ruscii  | Ukrainian                      |
+|                 |                                |                                |
+|                 |                                | .. versionadded:: 3.4          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1140          | ibm1140                        | Western Europe                 |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1250          | windows-1250                   | Central and Eastern Europe     |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1251          | windows-1251                   | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,       |
+|                 |                                | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian   |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1252          | windows-1252                   | Western Europe                 |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1253          | windows-1253                   | Greek                          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1254          | windows-1254                   | Turkish                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1255          | windows-1255                   | Hebrew                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1256          | windows-1256                   | Arabic                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1257          | windows-1257                   | Baltic languages               |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp1258          | windows-1258                   | Vietnamese                     |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| cp65001         |                                | Windows only: Windows UTF-8    |
+|                 |                                | (``CP_UTF8``)                  |
+|                 |                                |                                |
+|                 |                                | .. versionadded:: 3.3          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| euc_jp          | eucjp, ujis, u-jis             | Japanese                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| euc_jis_2004    | jisx0213, eucjis2004           | Japanese                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| euc_jisx0213    | eucjisx0213                    | Japanese                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| euc_kr          | euckr, korean, ksc5601,        | Korean                         |
+|                 | ks_c-5601, ks_c-5601-1987,     |                                |
+|                 | ksx1001, ks_x-1001             |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| gb2312          | chinese, csiso58gb231280,      | Simplified Chinese             |
+|                 | euc-cn, euccn, eucgb2312-cn,   |                                |
+|                 | gb2312-1980, gb2312-80,        |                                |
+|                 | iso-ir-58                      |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| gbk             | 936, cp936, ms936              | Unified Chinese                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| gb18030         | gb18030-2000                   | Unified Chinese                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| hz              | hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312        | Simplified Chinese             |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso2022_jp      | csiso2022jp, iso2022jp,        | Japanese                       |
+|                 | iso-2022-jp                    |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso2022_jp_1    | iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1     | Japanese                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso2022_jp_2    | iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2     | Japanese, Korean, Simplified   |
+|                 |                                | Chinese, Western Europe, Greek |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso2022_jp_2004 | iso2022jp-2004,                | Japanese                       |
+|                 | iso-2022-jp-2004               |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso2022_jp_3    | iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3     | Japanese                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso2022_jp_ext  | iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext | Japanese                       |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso2022_kr      | csiso2022kr, iso2022kr,        | Korean                         |
+|                 | iso-2022-kr                    |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| latin_1         | iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859,   | West Europe                    |
+|                 | cp819, latin, latin1, L1       |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_2       | iso-8859-2, latin2, L2         | Central and Eastern Europe     |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_3       | iso-8859-3, latin3, L3         | Esperanto, Maltese             |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_4       | iso-8859-4, latin4, L4         | Baltic languages               |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_5       | iso-8859-5, cyrillic           | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,       |
+|                 |                                | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian   |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_6       | iso-8859-6, arabic             | Arabic                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_7       | iso-8859-7, greek, greek8      | Greek                          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_8       | iso-8859-8, hebrew             | Hebrew                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_9       | iso-8859-9, latin5, L5         | Turkish                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_10      | iso-8859-10, latin6, L6        | Nordic languages               |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_11      | iso-8859-11, thai              | Thai languages                 |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_13      | iso-8859-13, latin7, L7        | Baltic languages               |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_14      | iso-8859-14, latin8, L8        | Celtic languages               |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_15      | iso-8859-15, latin9, L9        | Western Europe                 |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| iso8859_16      | iso-8859-16, latin10, L10      | South-Eastern Europe           |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| johab           | cp1361, ms1361                 | Korean                         |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| koi8_r          |                                | Russian                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| koi8_t          |                                | Tajik                          |
+|                 |                                |                                |
+|                 |                                | .. versionadded:: 3.5          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| koi8_u          |                                | Ukrainian                      |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| kz1048          | kz_1048, strk1048_2002, rk1048 | Kazakh                         |
+|                 |                                |                                |
+|                 |                                | .. versionadded:: 3.5          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| mac_cyrillic    | maccyrillic                    | Bulgarian, Byelorussian,       |
+|                 |                                | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian   |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| mac_greek       | macgreek                       | Greek                          |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| mac_iceland     | maciceland                     | Icelandic                      |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| mac_latin2      | maclatin2, maccentraleurope    | Central and Eastern Europe     |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| mac_roman       | macroman, macintosh            | Western Europe                 |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| mac_turkish     | macturkish                     | Turkish                        |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| ptcp154         | csptcp154, pt154, cp154,       | Kazakh                         |
+|                 | cyrillic-asian                 |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| shift_jis       | csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis,    | Japanese                       |
+|                 | s_jis                          |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| shift_jis_2004  | shiftjis2004, sjis_2004,       | Japanese                       |
+|                 | sjis2004                       |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| shift_jisx0213  | shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213,      | Japanese                       |
+|                 | s_jisx0213                     |                                |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_32          | U32, utf32                     | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_32_be       | UTF-32BE                       | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_32_le       | UTF-32LE                       | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_16          | U16, utf16                     | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_16_be       | UTF-16BE                       | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_16_le       | UTF-16LE                       | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_7           | U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7          | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_8           | U8, UTF, utf8                  | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| utf_8_sig       |                                | all languages                  |
++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The utf-16\* and utf-32\* encoders no longer allow surrogate code points
+   (``U+D800``--``U+DFFF``) to be encoded.
+   The utf-32\* decoders no longer decode
+   byte sequences that correspond to surrogate code points.
+
+
+Python Specific Encodings
+-------------------------
+
+A number of predefined codecs are specific to Python, so their codec names have
+no meaning outside Python.  These are listed in the tables below based on the
+expected input and output types (note that while text encodings are the most
+common use case for codecs, the underlying codec infrastructure supports
+arbitrary data transforms rather than just text encodings).  For asymmetric
+codecs, the stated purpose describes the encoding direction.
+
+Text Encodings
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following codecs provide :class:`str` to :class:`bytes` encoding and
+:term:`bytes-like object` to :class:`str` decoding, similar to the Unicode text
+encodings.
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|p{0.3\linewidth}|p{0.3\linewidth}|
+
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| Codec              | Aliases | Purpose                   |
++====================+=========+===========================+
+| idna               |         | Implements :rfc:`3490`,   |
+|                    |         | see also                  |
+|                    |         | :mod:`encodings.idna`.    |
+|                    |         | Only ``errors='strict'``  |
+|                    |         | is supported.             |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| mbcs               | ansi,   | Windows only: Encode      |
+|                    | dbcs    | operand according to the  |
+|                    |         | ANSI codepage (CP_ACP)    |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| oem                |         | Windows only: Encode      |
+|                    |         | operand according to the  |
+|                    |         | OEM codepage (CP_OEMCP)   |
+|                    |         |                           |
+|                    |         | .. versionadded:: 3.6     |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| palmos             |         | Encoding of PalmOS 3.5    |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| punycode           |         | Implements :rfc:`3492`.   |
+|                    |         | Stateful codecs are not   |
+|                    |         | supported.                |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| raw_unicode_escape |         | Latin-1 encoding with     |
+|                    |         | ``\uXXXX`` and            |
+|                    |         | ``\UXXXXXXXX`` for other  |
+|                    |         | code points. Existing     |
+|                    |         | backslashes are not       |
+|                    |         | escaped in any way.       |
+|                    |         | It is used in the Python  |
+|                    |         | pickle protocol.          |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| undefined          |         | Raise an exception for    |
+|                    |         | all conversions, even     |
+|                    |         | empty strings. The error  |
+|                    |         | handler is ignored.       |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| unicode_escape     |         | Encoding suitable as the  |
+|                    |         | contents of a Unicode     |
+|                    |         | literal in ASCII-encoded  |
+|                    |         | Python source code,       |
+|                    |         | except that quotes are    |
+|                    |         | not escaped. Decodes from |
+|                    |         | Latin-1 source code.      |
+|                    |         | Beware that Python source |
+|                    |         | code actually uses UTF-8  |
+|                    |         | by default.               |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| unicode_internal   |         | Return the internal       |
+|                    |         | representation of the     |
+|                    |         | operand. Stateful codecs  |
+|                    |         | are not supported.        |
+|                    |         |                           |
+|                    |         | .. deprecated:: 3.3       |
+|                    |         |    This representation is |
+|                    |         |    obsoleted by           |
+|                    |         |    :pep:`393`.            |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+
+.. _binary-transforms:
+
+Binary Transforms
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following codecs provide binary transforms: :term:`bytes-like object`
+to :class:`bytes` mappings.  They are not supported by :meth:`bytes.decode`
+(which only produces :class:`str` output).
+
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|L|L|
+
++----------------------+------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| Codec                | Aliases          | Purpose                      | Encoder / decoder            |
++======================+==================+==============================+==============================+
+| base64_codec [#b64]_ | base64, base_64  | Convert operand to multiline | :meth:`base64.encodebytes` / |
+|                      |                  | MIME base64 (the result      | :meth:`base64.decodebytes`   |
+|                      |                  | always includes a trailing   |                              |
+|                      |                  | ``'\n'``)                    |                              |
+|                      |                  |                              |                              |
+|                      |                  | .. versionchanged:: 3.4      |                              |
+|                      |                  |    accepts any               |                              |
+|                      |                  |    :term:`bytes-like object` |                              |
+|                      |                  |    as input for encoding and |                              |
+|                      |                  |    decoding                  |                              |
++----------------------+------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| bz2_codec            | bz2              | Compress the operand         | :meth:`bz2.compress` /       |
+|                      |                  | using bz2                    | :meth:`bz2.decompress`       |
++----------------------+------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| hex_codec            | hex              | Convert operand to           | :meth:`binascii.b2a_hex` /   |
+|                      |                  | hexadecimal                  | :meth:`binascii.a2b_hex`     |
+|                      |                  | representation, with two     |                              |
+|                      |                  | digits per byte              |                              |
++----------------------+------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| quopri_codec         | quopri,          | Convert operand to MIME      | :meth:`quopri.encode` with   |
+|                      | quotedprintable, | quoted printable             | ``quotetabs=True`` /         |
+|                      | quoted_printable |                              | :meth:`quopri.decode`        |
++----------------------+------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| uu_codec             | uu               | Convert the operand using    | :meth:`uu.encode` /          |
+|                      |                  | uuencode                     | :meth:`uu.decode`            |
++----------------------+------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| zlib_codec           | zip, zlib        | Compress the operand         | :meth:`zlib.compress` /      |
+|                      |                  | using gzip                   | :meth:`zlib.decompress`      |
++----------------------+------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+
+.. [#b64] In addition to :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`,
+   ``'base64_codec'`` also accepts ASCII-only instances of :class:`str` for
+   decoding
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+   Restoration of the binary transforms.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Restoration of the aliases for the binary transforms.
+
+
+.. _text-transforms:
+
+Text Transforms
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following codec provides a text transform: a :class:`str` to :class:`str`
+mapping.  It is not supported by :meth:`str.encode` (which only produces
+:class:`bytes` output).
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|l|L|
+
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+| Codec              | Aliases | Purpose                   |
++====================+=========+===========================+
+| rot_13             | rot13   | Returns the Caesar-cypher |
+|                    |         | encryption of the operand |
++--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+   Restoration of the ``rot_13`` text transform.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Restoration of the ``rot13`` alias.
+
+
+:mod:`encodings.idna` --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: encodings.idna
+   :synopsis: Internationalized Domain Names implementation
+.. moduleauthor:: Martin v. Löwis
+
+This module implements :rfc:`3490` (Internationalized Domain Names in
+Applications) and :rfc:`3492` (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
+Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the ``punycode`` encoding
+and :mod:`stringprep`.
+
+These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters in domain
+names. A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such as
+``www.Alliancefrançaise.nu``) is converted into an ASCII-compatible encoding
+(ACE, such as ``www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu``). The ACE form of the domain
+name is then used in all places where arbitrary characters are not allowed by
+the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP :mailheader:`Host` fields, and so
+on. This conversion is carried out in the application; if possible invisible to
+the user: The application should transparently convert Unicode domain labels to
+IDNA on the wire, and convert back ACE labels to Unicode before presenting them
+to the user.
+
+Python supports this conversion in several ways:  the ``idna`` codec performs
+conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input string into labels
+based on the separator characters defined in :rfc:`section 3.1 of RFC 3490 <3490#section-3.1>`
+and converting each label to ACE as required, and conversely separating an input
+byte string into labels based on the ``.`` separator and converting any ACE
+labels found into unicode.  Furthermore, the :mod:`socket` module
+transparently converts Unicode host names to ACE, so that applications need not
+be concerned about converting host names themselves when they pass them to the
+socket module. On top of that, modules that have host names as function
+parameters, such as :mod:`http.client` and :mod:`ftplib`, accept Unicode host
+names (:mod:`http.client` then also transparently sends an IDNA hostname in the
+:mailheader:`Host` field if it sends that field at all).
+
+When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name lookup), no
+automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: Applications wishing to present
+such host names to the user should decode them to Unicode.
+
+The module :mod:`encodings.idna` also implements the nameprep procedure, which
+performs certain normalizations on host names, to achieve case-insensitivity of
+international domain names, and to unify similar characters. The nameprep
+functions can be used directly if desired.
+
+
+.. function:: nameprep(label)
+
+   Return the nameprepped version of *label*. The implementation currently assumes
+   query strings, so ``AllowUnassigned`` is true.
+
+
+.. function:: ToASCII(label)
+
+   Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in :rfc:`3490`. ``UseSTD3ASCIIRules`` is
+   assumed to be false.
+
+
+.. function:: ToUnicode(label)
+
+   Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in :rfc:`3490`.
+
+
+:mod:`encodings.mbcs` --- Windows ANSI codepage
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: encodings.mbcs
+   :synopsis: Windows ANSI codepage
+
+Encode operand according to the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).
+
+.. availability:: Windows only.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Support any error handler.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Before 3.2, the *errors* argument was ignored; ``'replace'`` was always used
+   to encode, and ``'ignore'`` to decode.
+
+
+:mod:`encodings.utf_8_sig` --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
+-------------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: encodings.utf_8_sig
+   :synopsis: UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
+.. moduleauthor:: Walter Dörwald
+
+This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec: On encoding a UTF-8 encoded
+BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes. For the stateful encoder this
+is only done once (on the first write to the byte stream).  For decoding an
+optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start of the data will be skipped.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/codeop.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/codeop.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a52d2c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/codeop.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+:mod:`codeop` --- Compile Python code
+=====================================
+
+.. module:: codeop
+   :synopsis: Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+.. sectionauthor:: Michael Hudson <mwh@python.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/codeop.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`codeop` module provides utilities upon which the Python
+read-eval-print loop can be emulated, as is done in the :mod:`code` module.  As
+a result, you probably don't want to use the module directly; if you want to
+include such a loop in your program you probably want to use the :mod:`code`
+module instead.
+
+There are two parts to this job:
+
+#. Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python  statement: in
+   short, telling whether to print '``>>>``' or '``...``' next.
+
+#. Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so  subsequent
+   input can be compiled with these in effect.
+
+The :mod:`codeop` module provides a way of doing each of these things, and a way
+of doing them both.
+
+To do just the former:
+
+.. function:: compile_command(source, filename="<input>", symbol="single")
+
+   Tries to compile *source*, which should be a string of Python code and return a
+   code object if *source* is valid Python code. In that case, the filename
+   attribute of the code object will be *filename*, which defaults to
+   ``'<input>'``. Returns ``None`` if *source* is *not* valid Python code, but is a
+   prefix of valid Python code.
+
+   If there is a problem with *source*, an exception will be raised.
+   :exc:`SyntaxError` is raised if there is invalid Python syntax, and
+   :exc:`OverflowError` or :exc:`ValueError` if there is an invalid literal.
+
+   The *symbol* argument determines whether *source* is compiled as a statement
+   (``'single'``, the default) or as an :term:`expression` (``'eval'``).  Any
+   other value will cause :exc:`ValueError` to  be raised.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      It is possible (but not likely) that the parser stops parsing with a
+      successful outcome before reaching the end of the source; in this case,
+      trailing symbols may be ignored instead of causing an error.  For example,
+      a backslash followed by two newlines may be followed by arbitrary garbage.
+      This will be fixed once the API for the parser is better.
+
+
+.. class:: Compile()
+
+   Instances of this class have :meth:`__call__` methods identical in signature to
+   the built-in function :func:`compile`, but with the difference that if the
+   instance compiles program text containing a :mod:`__future__` statement, the
+   instance 'remembers' and compiles all subsequent program texts with the
+   statement in force.
+
+
+.. class:: CommandCompiler()
+
+   Instances of this class have :meth:`__call__` methods identical in signature to
+   :func:`compile_command`; the difference is that if the instance compiles program
+   text containing a ``__future__`` statement, the instance 'remembers' and
+   compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/collections.abc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/collections.abc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a3fb14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/collections.abc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,306 @@
+:mod:`collections.abc` --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: collections.abc
+   :synopsis: Abstract base classes for containers
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn.com>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+   Formerly, this module was part of the :mod:`collections` module.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/_collections_abc.py`
+
+.. testsetup:: *
+
+   from collections import *
+   import itertools
+   __name__ = '<doctest>'
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides :term:`abstract base classes <abstract base class>` that
+can be used to test whether a class provides a particular interface; for
+example, whether it is hashable or whether it is a mapping.
+
+
+.. _collections-abstract-base-classes:
+
+Collections Abstract Base Classes
+---------------------------------
+
+The collections module offers the following :term:`ABCs <abstract base class>`:
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|L|L|
+
+========================== ====================== ======================= ====================================================
+ABC                        Inherits from          Abstract Methods        Mixin Methods
+========================== ====================== ======================= ====================================================
+:class:`Container`                                ``__contains__``
+:class:`Hashable`                                 ``__hash__``
+:class:`Iterable`                                 ``__iter__``
+:class:`Iterator`          :class:`Iterable`      ``__next__``            ``__iter__``
+:class:`Reversible`        :class:`Iterable`      ``__reversed__``
+:class:`Generator`         :class:`Iterator`      ``send``, ``throw``     ``close``, ``__iter__``, ``__next__``
+:class:`Sized`                                    ``__len__``
+:class:`Callable`                                 ``__call__``
+:class:`Collection`        :class:`Sized`,        ``__contains__``,
+                           :class:`Iterable`,     ``__iter__``,
+                           :class:`Container`     ``__len__``
+
+:class:`Sequence`          :class:`Reversible`,   ``__getitem__``,        ``__contains__``, ``__iter__``, ``__reversed__``,
+                           :class:`Collection`    ``__len__``             ``index``, and ``count``
+
+:class:`MutableSequence`   :class:`Sequence`      ``__getitem__``,        Inherited :class:`Sequence` methods and
+                                                  ``__setitem__``,        ``append``, ``reverse``, ``extend``, ``pop``,
+                                                  ``__delitem__``,        ``remove``, and ``__iadd__``
+                                                  ``__len__``,
+                                                  ``insert``
+
+:class:`ByteString`        :class:`Sequence`      ``__getitem__``,        Inherited :class:`Sequence` methods
+                                                  ``__len__``
+
+:class:`Set`               :class:`Collection`    ``__contains__``,       ``__le__``, ``__lt__``, ``__eq__``, ``__ne__``,
+                                                  ``__iter__``,           ``__gt__``, ``__ge__``, ``__and__``, ``__or__``,
+                                                  ``__len__``             ``__sub__``, ``__xor__``, and ``isdisjoint``
+
+:class:`MutableSet`        :class:`Set`           ``__contains__``,       Inherited :class:`Set` methods and
+                                                  ``__iter__``,           ``clear``, ``pop``, ``remove``, ``__ior__``,
+                                                  ``__len__``,            ``__iand__``, ``__ixor__``, and ``__isub__``
+                                                  ``add``,
+                                                  ``discard``
+
+:class:`Mapping`           :class:`Collection`    ``__getitem__``,        ``__contains__``, ``keys``, ``items``, ``values``,
+                                                  ``__iter__``,           ``get``, ``__eq__``, and ``__ne__``
+                                                  ``__len__``
+
+:class:`MutableMapping`    :class:`Mapping`       ``__getitem__``,        Inherited :class:`Mapping` methods and
+                                                  ``__setitem__``,        ``pop``, ``popitem``, ``clear``, ``update``,
+                                                  ``__delitem__``,        and ``setdefault``
+                                                  ``__iter__``,
+                                                  ``__len__``
+
+
+:class:`MappingView`       :class:`Sized`                                 ``__len__``
+:class:`ItemsView`         :class:`MappingView`,                          ``__contains__``,
+                           :class:`Set`                                   ``__iter__``
+:class:`KeysView`          :class:`MappingView`,                          ``__contains__``,
+                           :class:`Set`                                   ``__iter__``
+:class:`ValuesView`        :class:`MappingView`,                          ``__contains__``, ``__iter__``
+                           :class:`Collection`
+:class:`Awaitable`                                ``__await__``
+:class:`Coroutine`         :class:`Awaitable`     ``send``, ``throw``     ``close``
+:class:`AsyncIterable`                            ``__aiter__``
+:class:`AsyncIterator`     :class:`AsyncIterable` ``__anext__``           ``__aiter__``
+:class:`AsyncGenerator`    :class:`AsyncIterator` ``asend``, ``athrow``   ``aclose``, ``__aiter__``, ``__anext__``
+========================== ====================== ======================= ====================================================
+
+
+.. class:: Container
+           Hashable
+           Sized
+           Callable
+
+   ABCs for classes that provide respectively the methods :meth:`__contains__`,
+   :meth:`__hash__`, :meth:`__len__`, and :meth:`__call__`.
+
+.. class:: Iterable
+
+   ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`__iter__` method.
+
+   Checking ``isinstance(obj, Iterable)`` detects classes that are registered
+   as :class:`Iterable` or that have an :meth:`__iter__` method, but it does
+   not detect classes that iterate with the :meth:`__getitem__` method.
+   The only reliable way to determine whether an object is :term:`iterable`
+   is to call ``iter(obj)``.
+
+.. class:: Collection
+
+   ABC for sized iterable container classes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. class:: Iterator
+
+   ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` and
+   :meth:`~iterator.__next__` methods.  See also the definition of
+   :term:`iterator`.
+
+.. class:: Reversible
+
+   ABC for iterable classes that also provide the :meth:`__reversed__`
+   method.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. class:: Generator
+
+   ABC for generator classes that implement the protocol defined in
+   :pep:`342` that extends iterators with the :meth:`~generator.send`,
+   :meth:`~generator.throw` and :meth:`~generator.close` methods.
+   See also the definition of :term:`generator`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. class:: Sequence
+           MutableSequence
+           ByteString
+
+   ABCs for read-only and mutable :term:`sequences <sequence>`.
+
+   Implementation note: Some of the mixin methods, such as
+   :meth:`__iter__`, :meth:`__reversed__` and :meth:`index`, make
+   repeated calls to the underlying :meth:`__getitem__` method.
+   Consequently, if :meth:`__getitem__` is implemented with constant
+   access speed, the mixin methods will have linear performance;
+   however, if the underlying method is linear (as it would be with a
+   linked list), the mixins will have quadratic performance and will
+   likely need to be overridden.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The index() method added support for *stop* and *start*
+      arguments.
+
+.. class:: Set
+           MutableSet
+
+   ABCs for read-only and mutable sets.
+
+.. class:: Mapping
+           MutableMapping
+
+   ABCs for read-only and mutable :term:`mappings <mapping>`.
+
+.. class:: MappingView
+           ItemsView
+           KeysView
+           ValuesView
+
+   ABCs for mapping, items, keys, and values :term:`views <dictionary view>`.
+
+.. class:: Awaitable
+
+   ABC for :term:`awaitable` objects, which can be used in :keyword:`await`
+   expressions.  Custom implementations must provide the :meth:`__await__`
+   method.
+
+   :term:`Coroutine` objects and instances of the
+   :class:`~collections.abc.Coroutine` ABC are all instances of this ABC.
+
+   .. note::
+      In CPython, generator-based coroutines (generators decorated with
+      :func:`types.coroutine` or :func:`asyncio.coroutine`) are
+      *awaitables*, even though they do not have an :meth:`__await__` method.
+      Using ``isinstance(gencoro, Awaitable)`` for them will return ``False``.
+      Use :func:`inspect.isawaitable` to detect them.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. class:: Coroutine
+
+   ABC for coroutine compatible classes.  These implement the
+   following methods, defined in :ref:`coroutine-objects`:
+   :meth:`~coroutine.send`, :meth:`~coroutine.throw`, and
+   :meth:`~coroutine.close`.  Custom implementations must also implement
+   :meth:`__await__`.  All :class:`Coroutine` instances are also instances of
+   :class:`Awaitable`.  See also the definition of :term:`coroutine`.
+
+   .. note::
+      In CPython, generator-based coroutines (generators decorated with
+      :func:`types.coroutine` or :func:`asyncio.coroutine`) are
+      *awaitables*, even though they do not have an :meth:`__await__` method.
+      Using ``isinstance(gencoro, Coroutine)`` for them will return ``False``.
+      Use :func:`inspect.isawaitable` to detect them.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. class:: AsyncIterable
+
+   ABC for classes that provide ``__aiter__`` method.  See also the
+   definition of :term:`asynchronous iterable`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. class:: AsyncIterator
+
+   ABC for classes that provide ``__aiter__`` and ``__anext__``
+   methods.  See also the definition of :term:`asynchronous iterator`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. class:: AsyncGenerator
+
+   ABC for asynchronous generator classes that implement the protocol
+   defined in :pep:`525` and :pep:`492`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+These ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide
+particular functionality, for example::
+
+    size = None
+    if isinstance(myvar, collections.abc.Sized):
+        size = len(myvar)
+
+Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to develop
+classes supporting container APIs.  For example, to write a class supporting
+the full :class:`Set` API, it is only necessary to supply the three underlying
+abstract methods: :meth:`__contains__`, :meth:`__iter__`, and :meth:`__len__`.
+The ABC supplies the remaining methods such as :meth:`__and__` and
+:meth:`isdisjoint`::
+
+    class ListBasedSet(collections.abc.Set):
+        ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed
+            and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. '''
+        def __init__(self, iterable):
+            self.elements = lst = []
+            for value in iterable:
+                if value not in lst:
+                    lst.append(value)
+
+        def __iter__(self):
+            return iter(self.elements)
+
+        def __contains__(self, value):
+            return value in self.elements
+
+        def __len__(self):
+            return len(self.elements)
+
+    s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
+    s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
+    overlap = s1 & s2            # The __and__() method is supported automatically
+
+Notes on using :class:`Set` and :class:`MutableSet` as a mixin:
+
+(1)
+   Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin methods need
+   a way to create new instances from an iterable. The class constructor is
+   assumed to have a signature in the form ``ClassName(iterable)``.
+   That assumption is factored-out to an internal classmethod called
+   :meth:`_from_iterable` which calls ``cls(iterable)`` to produce a new set.
+   If the :class:`Set` mixin is being used in a class with a different
+   constructor signature, you will need to override :meth:`_from_iterable`
+   with a classmethod that can construct new instances from
+   an iterable argument.
+
+(2)
+   To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the
+   semantics are fixed), redefine :meth:`__le__` and :meth:`__ge__`,
+   then the other operations will automatically follow suit.
+
+(3)
+   The :class:`Set` mixin provides a :meth:`_hash` method to compute a hash value
+   for the set; however, :meth:`__hash__` is not defined because not all sets
+   are hashable or immutable.  To add set hashability using mixins,
+   inherit from both :meth:`Set` and :meth:`Hashable`, then define
+   ``__hash__ = Set._hash``.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   * `OrderedSet recipe <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/>`_ for an
+     example built on :class:`MutableSet`.
+
+   * For more about ABCs, see the :mod:`abc` module and :pep:`3119`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/collections.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/collections.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f47e89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/collections.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1251 @@
+:mod:`collections` --- Container datatypes
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: collections
+    :synopsis: Container datatypes
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/collections/__init__.py`
+
+.. testsetup:: *
+
+    from collections import *
+    import itertools
+    __name__ = '<doctest>'
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements specialized container datatypes providing alternatives to
+Python's general purpose built-in containers, :class:`dict`, :class:`list`,
+:class:`set`, and :class:`tuple`.
+
+=====================   ====================================================================
+:func:`namedtuple`      factory function for creating tuple subclasses with named fields
+:class:`deque`          list-like container with fast appends and pops on either end
+:class:`ChainMap`       dict-like class for creating a single view of multiple mappings
+:class:`Counter`        dict subclass for counting hashable objects
+:class:`OrderedDict`    dict subclass that remembers the order entries were added
+:class:`defaultdict`    dict subclass that calls a factory function to supply missing values
+:class:`UserDict`       wrapper around dictionary objects for easier dict subclassing
+:class:`UserList`       wrapper around list objects for easier list subclassing
+:class:`UserString`     wrapper around string objects for easier string subclassing
+=====================   ====================================================================
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+    Moved :ref:`collections-abstract-base-classes` to the :mod:`collections.abc` module.
+    For backwards compatibility, they continue to be visible in this module through
+    Python 3.7.  Subsequently, they will be removed entirely.
+
+
+:class:`ChainMap` objects
+-------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+A :class:`ChainMap` class is provided for quickly linking a number of mappings
+so they can be treated as a single unit.  It is often much faster than creating
+a new dictionary and running multiple :meth:`~dict.update` calls.
+
+The class can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating.
+
+.. class:: ChainMap(*maps)
+
+    A :class:`ChainMap` groups multiple dicts or other mappings together to
+    create a single, updateable view.  If no *maps* are specified, a single empty
+    dictionary is provided so that a new chain always has at least one mapping.
+
+    The underlying mappings are stored in a list.  That list is public and can
+    be accessed or updated using the *maps* attribute.  There is no other state.
+
+    Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is found.  In
+    contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on the first mapping.
+
+    A :class:`ChainMap` incorporates the underlying mappings by reference.  So, if
+    one of the underlying mappings gets updated, those changes will be reflected
+    in :class:`ChainMap`.
+
+    All of the usual dictionary methods are supported.  In addition, there is a
+    *maps* attribute, a method for creating new subcontexts, and a property for
+    accessing all but the first mapping:
+
+    .. attribute:: maps
+
+        A user updateable list of mappings.  The list is ordered from
+        first-searched to last-searched.  It is the only stored state and can
+        be modified to change which mappings are searched.  The list should
+        always contain at least one mapping.
+
+    .. method:: new_child(m=None)
+
+        Returns a new :class:`ChainMap` containing a new map followed by
+        all of the maps in the current instance.  If ``m`` is specified,
+        it becomes the new map at the front of the list of mappings; if not
+        specified, an empty dict is used, so that a call to ``d.new_child()``
+        is equivalent to: ``ChainMap({}, *d.maps)``.  This method is used for
+        creating subcontexts that can be updated without altering values in any
+        of the parent mappings.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           The optional ``m`` parameter was added.
+
+    .. attribute:: parents
+
+        Property returning a new :class:`ChainMap` containing all of the maps in
+        the current instance except the first one.  This is useful for skipping
+        the first map in the search.  Use cases are similar to those for the
+        :keyword:`nonlocal` keyword used in :term:`nested scopes <nested
+        scope>`.  The use cases also parallel those for the built-in
+        :func:`super` function.  A reference to ``d.parents`` is equivalent to:
+        ``ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])``.
+
+    Note, the iteration order of a :class:`ChainMap()` is determined by
+    scanning the mappings last to first::
+
+        >>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
+        >>> adjustments = {'art': 'van gogh', 'opera': 'carmen'}
+        >>> list(ChainMap(adjustments, baseline))
+        ['music', 'art', 'opera']
+
+    This gives the same ordering as a series of :meth:`dict.update` calls
+    starting with the last mapping::
+
+        >>> combined = baseline.copy()
+        >>> combined.update(adjustments)
+        >>> list(combined)
+        ['music', 'art', 'opera']
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    * The `MultiContext class
+      <https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py>`_
+      in the Enthought `CodeTools package
+      <https://github.com/enthought/codetools>`_ has options to support
+      writing to any mapping in the chain.
+
+    * Django's `Context class
+      <https://github.com/django/django/blob/master/django/template/context.py>`_
+      for templating is a read-only chain of mappings.  It also features
+      pushing and popping of contexts similar to the
+      :meth:`~collections.ChainMap.new_child` method and the
+      :attr:`~collections.ChainMap.parents` property.
+
+    * The `Nested Contexts recipe
+      <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434/>`_ has options to control
+      whether writes and other mutations apply only to the first mapping or to
+      any mapping in the chain.
+
+    * A `greatly simplified read-only version of Chainmap
+      <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/>`_.
+
+
+:class:`ChainMap` Examples and Recipes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This section shows various approaches to working with chained maps.
+
+
+Example of simulating Python's internal lookup chain::
+
+        import builtins
+        pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins))
+
+Example of letting user specified command-line arguments take precedence over
+environment variables which in turn take precedence over default values::
+
+        import os, argparse
+
+        defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'}
+
+        parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+        parser.add_argument('-u', '--user')
+        parser.add_argument('-c', '--color')
+        namespace = parser.parse_args()
+        command_line_args = {k:v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v}
+
+        combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults)
+        print(combined['color'])
+        print(combined['user'])
+
+Example patterns for using the :class:`ChainMap` class to simulate nested
+contexts::
+
+        c = ChainMap()        # Create root context
+        d = c.new_child()     # Create nested child context
+        e = c.new_child()     # Child of c, independent from d
+        e.maps[0]             # Current context dictionary -- like Python's locals()
+        e.maps[-1]            # Root context -- like Python's globals()
+        e.parents             # Enclosing context chain -- like Python's nonlocals
+
+        d['x'] = 1            # Set value in current context
+        d['x']                # Get first key in the chain of contexts
+        del d['x']            # Delete from current context
+        list(d)               # All nested values
+        k in d                # Check all nested values
+        len(d)                # Number of nested values
+        d.items()             # All nested items
+        dict(d)               # Flatten into a regular dictionary
+
+The :class:`ChainMap` class only makes updates (writes and deletions) to the
+first mapping in the chain while lookups will search the full chain.  However,
+if deep writes and deletions are desired, it is easy to make a subclass that
+updates keys found deeper in the chain::
+
+    class DeepChainMap(ChainMap):
+        'Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes'
+
+        def __setitem__(self, key, value):
+            for mapping in self.maps:
+                if key in mapping:
+                    mapping[key] = value
+                    return
+            self.maps[0][key] = value
+
+        def __delitem__(self, key):
+            for mapping in self.maps:
+                if key in mapping:
+                    del mapping[key]
+                    return
+            raise KeyError(key)
+
+    >>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant': 'blue'}, {'lion': 'yellow'})
+    >>> d['lion'] = 'orange'         # update an existing key two levels down
+    >>> d['snake'] = 'red'           # new keys get added to the topmost dict
+    >>> del d['elephant']            # remove an existing key one level down
+    >>> d                            # display result
+    DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'})
+
+
+:class:`Counter` objects
+------------------------
+
+A counter tool is provided to support convenient and rapid tallies.
+For example::
+
+    >>> # Tally occurrences of words in a list
+    >>> cnt = Counter()
+    >>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
+    ...     cnt[word] += 1
+    >>> cnt
+    Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})
+
+    >>> # Find the ten most common words in Hamlet
+    >>> import re
+    >>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
+    >>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
+    [('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
+     ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]
+
+.. class:: Counter([iterable-or-mapping])
+
+    A :class:`Counter` is a :class:`dict` subclass for counting hashable objects.
+    It is a collection where elements are stored as dictionary keys
+    and their counts are stored as dictionary values.  Counts are allowed to be
+    any integer value including zero or negative counts.  The :class:`Counter`
+    class is similar to bags or multisets in other languages.
+
+    Elements are counted from an *iterable* or initialized from another
+    *mapping* (or counter):
+
+        >>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
+        >>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
+        >>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
+        >>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args
+
+    Counter objects have a dictionary interface except that they return a zero
+    count for missing items instead of raising a :exc:`KeyError`:
+
+        >>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
+        >>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
+        0
+
+    Setting a count to zero does not remove an element from a counter.
+    Use ``del`` to remove it entirely:
+
+        >>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
+        >>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+    Counter objects support three methods beyond those available for all
+    dictionaries:
+
+    .. method:: elements()
+
+        Return an iterator over elements repeating each as many times as its
+        count.  Elements are returned in arbitrary order.  If an element's count
+        is less than one, :meth:`elements` will ignore it.
+
+            >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
+            >>> sorted(c.elements())
+            ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']
+
+    .. method:: most_common([n])
+
+        Return a list of the *n* most common elements and their counts from the
+        most common to the least.  If *n* is omitted or ``None``,
+        :meth:`most_common` returns *all* elements in the counter.
+        Elements with equal counts are ordered arbitrarily:
+
+            >>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)  # doctest: +SKIP
+            [('a', 5), ('r', 2), ('b', 2)]
+
+    .. method:: subtract([iterable-or-mapping])
+
+        Elements are subtracted from an *iterable* or from another *mapping*
+        (or counter).  Like :meth:`dict.update` but subtracts counts instead
+        of replacing them.  Both inputs and outputs may be zero or negative.
+
+            >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
+            >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
+            >>> c.subtract(d)
+            >>> c
+            Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+    The usual dictionary methods are available for :class:`Counter` objects
+    except for two which work differently for counters.
+
+    .. method:: fromkeys(iterable)
+
+        This class method is not implemented for :class:`Counter` objects.
+
+    .. method:: update([iterable-or-mapping])
+
+        Elements are counted from an *iterable* or added-in from another
+        *mapping* (or counter).  Like :meth:`dict.update` but adds counts
+        instead of replacing them.  Also, the *iterable* is expected to be a
+        sequence of elements, not a sequence of ``(key, value)`` pairs.
+
+Common patterns for working with :class:`Counter` objects::
+
+    sum(c.values())                 # total of all counts
+    c.clear()                       # reset all counts
+    list(c)                         # list unique elements
+    set(c)                          # convert to a set
+    dict(c)                         # convert to a regular dictionary
+    c.items()                       # convert to a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
+    Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
+    c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # n least common elements
+    +c                              # remove zero and negative counts
+
+Several mathematical operations are provided for combining :class:`Counter`
+objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts greater than zero).
+Addition and subtraction combine counters by adding or subtracting the counts
+of corresponding elements.  Intersection and union return the minimum and
+maximum of corresponding counts.  Each operation can accept inputs with signed
+counts, but the output will exclude results with counts of zero or less.
+
+    >>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
+    >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
+    >>> c + d                       # add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]
+    Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
+    >>> c - d                       # subtract (keeping only positive counts)
+    Counter({'a': 2})
+    >>> c & d                       # intersection:  min(c[x], d[x]) # doctest: +SKIP
+    Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
+    >>> c | d                       # union:  max(c[x], d[x])
+    Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})
+
+Unary addition and subtraction are shortcuts for adding an empty counter
+or subtracting from an empty counter.
+
+    >>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4)
+    >>> +c
+    Counter({'a': 2})
+    >>> -c
+    Counter({'b': 4})
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+    Added support for unary plus, unary minus, and in-place multiset operations.
+
+.. note::
+
+    Counters were primarily designed to work with positive integers to represent
+    running counts; however, care was taken to not unnecessarily preclude use
+    cases needing other types or negative values.  To help with those use cases,
+    this section documents the minimum range and type restrictions.
+
+    * The :class:`Counter` class itself is a dictionary subclass with no
+      restrictions on its keys and values.  The values are intended to be numbers
+      representing counts, but you *could* store anything in the value field.
+
+    * The :meth:`~Counter.most_common` method requires only that the values be orderable.
+
+    * For in-place operations such as ``c[key] += 1``, the value type need only
+      support addition and subtraction.  So fractions, floats, and decimals would
+      work and negative values are supported.  The same is also true for
+      :meth:`~Counter.update` and :meth:`~Counter.subtract` which allow negative and zero values
+      for both inputs and outputs.
+
+    * The multiset methods are designed only for use cases with positive values.
+      The inputs may be negative or zero, but only outputs with positive values
+      are created.  There are no type restrictions, but the value type needs to
+      support addition, subtraction, and comparison.
+
+    * The :meth:`~Counter.elements` method requires integer counts.  It ignores zero and
+      negative counts.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    * `Bag class <https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html>`_
+      in Smalltalk.
+
+    * Wikipedia entry for `Multisets <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset>`_.
+
+    * `C++ multisets <http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm>`_
+      tutorial with examples.
+
+    * For mathematical operations on multisets and their use cases, see
+      *Knuth, Donald. The Art of Computer Programming Volume II,
+      Section 4.6.3, Exercise 19*.
+
+    * To enumerate all distinct multisets of a given size over a given set of
+      elements, see :func:`itertools.combinations_with_replacement`::
+
+          map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) # --> AA AB AC BB BC CC
+
+
+:class:`deque` objects
+----------------------
+
+.. class:: deque([iterable, [maxlen]])
+
+    Returns a new deque object initialized left-to-right (using :meth:`append`) with
+    data from *iterable*.  If *iterable* is not specified, the new deque is empty.
+
+    Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is pronounced "deck"
+    and is short for "double-ended queue").  Deques support thread-safe, memory
+    efficient appends and pops from either side of the deque with approximately the
+    same O(1) performance in either direction.
+
+    Though :class:`list` objects support similar operations, they are optimized for
+    fast fixed-length operations and incur O(n) memory movement costs for
+    ``pop(0)`` and ``insert(0, v)`` operations which change both the size and
+    position of the underlying data representation.
+
+
+    If *maxlen* is not specified or is ``None``, deques may grow to an
+    arbitrary length.  Otherwise, the deque is bounded to the specified maximum
+    length.  Once a bounded length deque is full, when new items are added, a
+    corresponding number of items are discarded from the opposite end.  Bounded
+    length deques provide functionality similar to the ``tail`` filter in
+    Unix. They are also useful for tracking transactions and other pools of data
+    where only the most recent activity is of interest.
+
+
+    Deque objects support the following methods:
+
+    .. method:: append(x)
+
+        Add *x* to the right side of the deque.
+
+
+    .. method:: appendleft(x)
+
+        Add *x* to the left side of the deque.
+
+
+    .. method:: clear()
+
+        Remove all elements from the deque leaving it with length 0.
+
+
+    .. method:: copy()
+
+        Create a shallow copy of the deque.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+    .. method:: count(x)
+
+        Count the number of deque elements equal to *x*.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+    .. method:: extend(iterable)
+
+        Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from the iterable
+        argument.
+
+
+    .. method:: extendleft(iterable)
+
+        Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from *iterable*.
+        Note, the series of left appends results in reversing the order of
+        elements in the iterable argument.
+
+
+    .. method:: index(x[, start[, stop]])
+
+        Return the position of *x* in the deque (at or after index *start*
+        and before index *stop*).  Returns the first match or raises
+        :exc:`ValueError` if not found.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+    .. method:: insert(i, x)
+
+        Insert *x* into the deque at position *i*.
+
+        If the insertion would cause a bounded deque to grow beyond *maxlen*,
+        an :exc:`IndexError` is raised.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+    .. method:: pop()
+
+        Remove and return an element from the right side of the deque. If no
+        elements are present, raises an :exc:`IndexError`.
+
+
+    .. method:: popleft()
+
+        Remove and return an element from the left side of the deque. If no
+        elements are present, raises an :exc:`IndexError`.
+
+
+    .. method:: remove(value)
+
+        Remove the first occurrence of *value*.  If not found, raises a
+        :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+    .. method:: reverse()
+
+        Reverse the elements of the deque in-place and then return ``None``.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+    .. method:: rotate(n=1)
+
+        Rotate the deque *n* steps to the right.  If *n* is negative, rotate
+        to the left.
+
+        When the deque is not empty, rotating one step to the right is equivalent
+        to ``d.appendleft(d.pop())``, and rotating one step to the left is
+        equivalent to ``d.append(d.popleft())``.
+
+
+    Deque objects also provide one read-only attribute:
+
+    .. attribute:: maxlen
+
+        Maximum size of a deque or ``None`` if unbounded.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, ``len(d)``,
+``reversed(d)``, ``copy.copy(d)``, ``copy.deepcopy(d)``, membership testing with
+the :keyword:`in` operator, and subscript references such as ``d[-1]``.  Indexed
+access is O(1) at both ends but slows to O(n) in the middle.  For fast random
+access, use lists instead.
+
+Starting in version 3.5, deques support ``__add__()``, ``__mul__()``,
+and ``__imul__()``.
+
+Example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+    >>> from collections import deque
+    >>> d = deque('ghi')                 # make a new deque with three items
+    >>> for elem in d:                   # iterate over the deque's elements
+    ...     print(elem.upper())
+    G
+    H
+    I
+
+    >>> d.append('j')                    # add a new entry to the right side
+    >>> d.appendleft('f')                # add a new entry to the left side
+    >>> d                                # show the representation of the deque
+    deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
+
+    >>> d.pop()                          # return and remove the rightmost item
+    'j'
+    >>> d.popleft()                      # return and remove the leftmost item
+    'f'
+    >>> list(d)                          # list the contents of the deque
+    ['g', 'h', 'i']
+    >>> d[0]                             # peek at leftmost item
+    'g'
+    >>> d[-1]                            # peek at rightmost item
+    'i'
+
+    >>> list(reversed(d))                # list the contents of a deque in reverse
+    ['i', 'h', 'g']
+    >>> 'h' in d                         # search the deque
+    True
+    >>> d.extend('jkl')                  # add multiple elements at once
+    >>> d
+    deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
+    >>> d.rotate(1)                      # right rotation
+    >>> d
+    deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
+    >>> d.rotate(-1)                     # left rotation
+    >>> d
+    deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
+
+    >>> deque(reversed(d))               # make a new deque in reverse order
+    deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
+    >>> d.clear()                        # empty the deque
+    >>> d.pop()                          # cannot pop from an empty deque
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
+            d.pop()
+    IndexError: pop from an empty deque
+
+    >>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() reverses the input order
+    >>> d
+    deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])
+
+
+:class:`deque` Recipes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This section shows various approaches to working with deques.
+
+Bounded length deques provide functionality similar to the ``tail`` filter
+in Unix::
+
+    def tail(filename, n=10):
+        'Return the last n lines of a file'
+        with open(filename) as f:
+            return deque(f, n)
+
+Another approach to using deques is to maintain a sequence of recently
+added elements by appending to the right and popping to the left::
+
+    def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
+        # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
+        # http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
+        it = iter(iterable)
+        d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
+        d.appendleft(0)
+        s = sum(d)
+        for elem in it:
+            s += elem - d.popleft()
+            d.append(elem)
+            yield s / n
+
+A `round-robin scheduler
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling>`_ can be implemented with
+input iterators stored in a :class:`deque`.  Values are yielded from the active
+iterator in position zero.  If that iterator is exhausted, it can be removed
+with :meth:`~deque.popleft`; otherwise, it can be cycled back to the end with
+the :meth:`~deque.rotate` method::
+
+    def roundrobin(*iterables):
+        "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
+        iterators = deque(map(iter, iterables))
+        while iterators:
+            try:
+                while True:
+                    yield next(iterators[0])
+                    iterators.rotate(-1)
+            except StopIteration:
+                # Remove an exhausted iterator.
+                iterators.popleft()
+
+The :meth:`~deque.rotate` method provides a way to implement :class:`deque` slicing and
+deletion.  For example, a pure Python implementation of ``del d[n]`` relies on
+the ``rotate()`` method to position elements to be popped::
+
+    def delete_nth(d, n):
+        d.rotate(-n)
+        d.popleft()
+        d.rotate(n)
+
+To implement :class:`deque` slicing, use a similar approach applying
+:meth:`~deque.rotate` to bring a target element to the left side of the deque. Remove
+old entries with :meth:`~deque.popleft`, add new entries with :meth:`~deque.extend`, and then
+reverse the rotation.
+With minor variations on that approach, it is easy to implement Forth style
+stack manipulations such as ``dup``, ``drop``, ``swap``, ``over``, ``pick``,
+``rot``, and ``roll``.
+
+
+:class:`defaultdict` objects
+----------------------------
+
+.. class:: defaultdict([default_factory[, ...]])
+
+    Returns a new dictionary-like object.  :class:`defaultdict` is a subclass of the
+    built-in :class:`dict` class.  It overrides one method and adds one writable
+    instance variable.  The remaining functionality is the same as for the
+    :class:`dict` class and is not documented here.
+
+    The first argument provides the initial value for the :attr:`default_factory`
+    attribute; it defaults to ``None``. All remaining arguments are treated the same
+    as if they were passed to the :class:`dict` constructor, including keyword
+    arguments.
+
+
+    :class:`defaultdict` objects support the following method in addition to the
+    standard :class:`dict` operations:
+
+    .. method:: __missing__(key)
+
+        If the :attr:`default_factory` attribute is ``None``, this raises a
+        :exc:`KeyError` exception with the *key* as argument.
+
+        If :attr:`default_factory` is not ``None``, it is called without arguments
+        to provide a default value for the given *key*, this value is inserted in
+        the dictionary for the *key*, and returned.
+
+        If calling :attr:`default_factory` raises an exception this exception is
+        propagated unchanged.
+
+        This method is called by the :meth:`__getitem__` method of the
+        :class:`dict` class when the requested key is not found; whatever it
+        returns or raises is then returned or raised by :meth:`__getitem__`.
+
+        Note that :meth:`__missing__` is *not* called for any operations besides
+        :meth:`__getitem__`. This means that :meth:`get` will, like normal
+        dictionaries, return ``None`` as a default rather than using
+        :attr:`default_factory`.
+
+
+    :class:`defaultdict` objects support the following instance variable:
+
+
+    .. attribute:: default_factory
+
+        This attribute is used by the :meth:`__missing__` method; it is
+        initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present, or to
+        ``None``, if absent.
+
+
+:class:`defaultdict` Examples
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Using :class:`list` as the :attr:`~defaultdict.default_factory`, it is easy to group a
+sequence of key-value pairs into a dictionary of lists:
+
+    >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
+    >>> d = defaultdict(list)
+    >>> for k, v in s:
+    ...     d[k].append(v)
+    ...
+    >>> sorted(d.items())
+    [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]
+
+When each key is encountered for the first time, it is not already in the
+mapping; so an entry is automatically created using the :attr:`~defaultdict.default_factory`
+function which returns an empty :class:`list`.  The :meth:`list.append`
+operation then attaches the value to the new list.  When keys are encountered
+again, the look-up proceeds normally (returning the list for that key) and the
+:meth:`list.append` operation adds another value to the list. This technique is
+simpler and faster than an equivalent technique using :meth:`dict.setdefault`:
+
+    >>> d = {}
+    >>> for k, v in s:
+    ...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
+    ...
+    >>> sorted(d.items())
+    [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]
+
+Setting the :attr:`~defaultdict.default_factory` to :class:`int` makes the
+:class:`defaultdict` useful for counting (like a bag or multiset in other
+languages):
+
+    >>> s = 'mississippi'
+    >>> d = defaultdict(int)
+    >>> for k in s:
+    ...     d[k] += 1
+    ...
+    >>> sorted(d.items())
+    [('i', 4), ('m', 1), ('p', 2), ('s', 4)]
+
+When a letter is first encountered, it is missing from the mapping, so the
+:attr:`~defaultdict.default_factory` function calls :func:`int` to supply a default count of
+zero.  The increment operation then builds up the count for each letter.
+
+The function :func:`int` which always returns zero is just a special case of
+constant functions.  A faster and more flexible way to create constant functions
+is to use a lambda function which can supply any constant value (not just
+zero):
+
+    >>> def constant_factory(value):
+    ...     return lambda: value
+    >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
+    >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
+    >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
+    'John ran to <missing>'
+
+Setting the :attr:`~defaultdict.default_factory` to :class:`set` makes the
+:class:`defaultdict` useful for building a dictionary of sets:
+
+    >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
+    >>> d = defaultdict(set)
+    >>> for k, v in s:
+    ...     d[k].add(v)
+    ...
+    >>> sorted(d.items())
+    [('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})]
+
+
+:func:`namedtuple` Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Named tuples assign meaning to each position in a tuple and allow for more readable,
+self-documenting code.  They can be used wherever regular tuples are used, and
+they add the ability to access fields by name instead of position index.
+
+.. function:: namedtuple(typename, field_names, *, rename=False, defaults=None, module=None)
+
+    Returns a new tuple subclass named *typename*.  The new subclass is used to
+    create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by attribute lookup as
+    well as being indexable and iterable.  Instances of the subclass also have a
+    helpful docstring (with typename and field_names) and a helpful :meth:`__repr__`
+    method which lists the tuple contents in a ``name=value`` format.
+
+    The *field_names* are a sequence of strings such as ``['x', 'y']``.
+    Alternatively, *field_names* can be a single string with each fieldname
+    separated by whitespace and/or commas, for example ``'x y'`` or ``'x, y'``.
+
+    Any valid Python identifier may be used for a fieldname except for names
+    starting with an underscore.  Valid identifiers consist of letters, digits,
+    and underscores but do not start with a digit or underscore and cannot be
+    a :mod:`keyword` such as *class*, *for*, *return*, *global*, *pass*,
+    or *raise*.
+
+    If *rename* is true, invalid fieldnames are automatically replaced
+    with positional names.  For example, ``['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']`` is
+    converted to ``['abc', '_1', 'ghi', '_3']``, eliminating the keyword
+    ``def`` and the duplicate fieldname ``abc``.
+
+    *defaults* can be ``None`` or an :term:`iterable` of default values.
+    Since fields with a default value must come after any fields without a
+    default, the *defaults* are applied to the rightmost parameters.  For
+    example, if the fieldnames are ``['x', 'y', 'z']`` and the defaults are
+    ``(1, 2)``, then ``x`` will be a required argument, ``y`` will default to
+    ``1``, and ``z`` will default to ``2``.
+
+    If *module* is defined, the ``__module__`` attribute of the named tuple is
+    set to that value.
+
+    Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so they are
+    lightweight and require no more memory than regular tuples.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+       Added support for *rename*.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+       The *verbose* and *rename* parameters became
+       :ref:`keyword-only arguments <keyword-only_parameter>`.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+       Added the *module* parameter.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+       Remove the *verbose* parameter and the :attr:`_source` attribute.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+       Added the *defaults* parameter and the :attr:`_field_defaults`
+       attribute.
+
+.. doctest::
+    :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+    >>> # Basic example
+    >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
+    >>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments
+    >>> p[0] + p[1]             # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)
+    33
+    >>> x, y = p                # unpack like a regular tuple
+    >>> x, y
+    (11, 22)
+    >>> p.x + p.y               # fields also accessible by name
+    33
+    >>> p                       # readable __repr__ with a name=value style
+    Point(x=11, y=22)
+
+Named tuples are especially useful for assigning field names to result tuples returned
+by the :mod:`csv` or :mod:`sqlite3` modules::
+
+    EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')
+
+    import csv
+    for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
+        print(emp.name, emp.title)
+
+    import sqlite3
+    conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
+    cursor = conn.cursor()
+    cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
+    for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
+        print(emp.name, emp.title)
+
+In addition to the methods inherited from tuples, named tuples support
+three additional methods and two attributes.  To prevent conflicts with
+field names, the method and attribute names start with an underscore.
+
+.. classmethod:: somenamedtuple._make(iterable)
+
+    Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or iterable.
+
+    .. doctest::
+
+        >>> t = [11, 22]
+        >>> Point._make(t)
+        Point(x=11, y=22)
+
+.. method:: somenamedtuple._asdict()
+
+    Return a new :class:`dict` which maps field names to their corresponding
+    values:
+
+    .. doctest::
+
+        >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
+        >>> p._asdict()
+        OrderedDict([('x', 11), ('y', 22)])
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+        Returns an :class:`OrderedDict` instead of a regular :class:`dict`.
+
+.. method:: somenamedtuple._replace(**kwargs)
+
+    Return a new instance of the named tuple replacing specified fields with new
+    values::
+
+        >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
+        >>> p._replace(x=33)
+        Point(x=33, y=22)
+
+        >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
+        ...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())
+
+.. attribute:: somenamedtuple._fields
+
+    Tuple of strings listing the field names.  Useful for introspection
+    and for creating new named tuple types from existing named tuples.
+
+    .. doctest::
+
+        >>> p._fields            # view the field names
+        ('x', 'y')
+
+        >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
+        >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
+        >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
+        Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)
+
+.. attribute:: somenamedtuple._field_defaults
+
+   Dictionary mapping field names to default values.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+        >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', ['type', 'balance'], defaults=[0])
+        >>> Account._field_defaults
+        {'balance': 0}
+        >>> Account('premium')
+        Account(type='premium', balance=0)
+
+To retrieve a field whose name is stored in a string, use the :func:`getattr`
+function:
+
+    >>> getattr(p, 'x')
+    11
+
+To convert a dictionary to a named tuple, use the ``**`` operator
+(as described in :ref:`tut-unpacking-arguments`):
+
+    >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
+    >>> Point(**d)
+    Point(x=11, y=22)
+
+Since a named tuple is a regular Python class, it is easy to add or change
+functionality with a subclass.  Here is how to add a calculated field and
+a fixed-width print format:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+    >>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])):
+    ...     __slots__ = ()
+    ...     @property
+    ...     def hypot(self):
+    ...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
+    ...     def __str__(self):
+    ...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)
+
+    >>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7):
+    ...     print(p)
+    Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
+    Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018
+
+The subclass shown above sets ``__slots__`` to an empty tuple.  This helps
+keep memory requirements low by preventing the creation of instance dictionaries.
+
+Subclassing is not useful for adding new, stored fields.  Instead, simply
+create a new named tuple type from the :attr:`~somenamedtuple._fields` attribute:
+
+    >>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))
+
+Docstrings can be customized by making direct assignments to the ``__doc__``
+fields:
+
+   >>> Book = namedtuple('Book', ['id', 'title', 'authors'])
+   >>> Book.__doc__ += ': Hardcover book in active collection'
+   >>> Book.id.__doc__ = '13-digit ISBN'
+   >>> Book.title.__doc__ = 'Title of first printing'
+   >>> Book.authors.__doc__ = 'List of authors sorted by last name'
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Property docstrings became writeable.
+
+Default values can be implemented by using :meth:`~somenamedtuple._replace` to
+customize a prototype instance:
+
+    >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', 'owner balance transaction_count')
+    >>> default_account = Account('<owner name>', 0.0, 0)
+    >>> johns_account = default_account._replace(owner='John')
+    >>> janes_account = default_account._replace(owner='Jane')
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    * See :class:`typing.NamedTuple` for a way to add type hints for named
+      tuples.  It also provides an elegant notation using the :keyword:`class`
+      keyword::
+
+          class Component(NamedTuple):
+              part_number: int
+              weight: float
+              description: Optional[str] = None
+
+    * See :meth:`types.SimpleNamespace` for a mutable namespace based on an
+      underlying dictionary instead of a tuple.
+
+    * The :mod:`dataclasses` module provides a decorator and functions for
+      automatically adding generated special methods to user-defined classes.
+
+
+:class:`OrderedDict` objects
+----------------------------
+
+Ordered dictionaries are just like regular dictionaries but have some extra
+capabilities relating to ordering operations.  They have become less
+important now that the built-in :class:`dict` class gained the ability
+to remember insertion order (this new behavior became guaranteed in
+Python 3.7).
+
+Some differences from :class:`dict` still remain:
+
+* The regular :class:`dict` was designed to be very good at mapping
+  operations.  Tracking insertion order was secondary.
+
+* The :class:`OrderedDict` was designed to be good at reordering operations.
+  Space efficiency, iteration speed, and the performance of update
+  operations were secondary.
+
+* Algorithmically, :class:`OrderedDict` can handle frequent reordering
+  operations better than :class:`dict`.  This makes it suitable for tracking
+  recent accesses (for example in an `LRU cache
+  <https://medium.com/@krishankantsinghal/my-first-blog-on-medium-583159139237>`_).
+
+* The equality operation for :class:`OrderedDict` checks for matching order.
+
+* The :meth:`popitem` method of :class:`OrderedDict` has a different
+  signature.  It accepts an optional argument to specify which item is popped.
+
+* :class:`OrderedDict` has a :meth:`move_to_end` method to
+  efficiently reposition an element to an endpoint.
+
+* Until Python 3.8, :class:`dict` lacked a :meth:`__reversed__` method.
+
+
+.. class:: OrderedDict([items])
+
+    Return an instance of a :class:`dict` subclass that has methods
+    specialized for rearranging dictionary order.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+    .. method:: popitem(last=True)
+
+        The :meth:`popitem` method for ordered dictionaries returns and removes a
+        (key, value) pair.  The pairs are returned in
+        :abbr:`LIFO (last-in, first-out)` order if *last* is true
+        or :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` order if false.
+
+    .. method:: move_to_end(key, last=True)
+
+        Move an existing *key* to either end of an ordered dictionary.  The item
+        is moved to the right end if *last* is true (the default) or to the
+        beginning if *last* is false.  Raises :exc:`KeyError` if the *key* does
+        not exist::
+
+            >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde')
+            >>> d.move_to_end('b')
+            >>> ''.join(d.keys())
+            'acdeb'
+            >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False)
+            >>> ''.join(d.keys())
+            'bacde'
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+In addition to the usual mapping methods, ordered dictionaries also support
+reverse iteration using :func:`reversed`.
+
+Equality tests between :class:`OrderedDict` objects are order-sensitive
+and are implemented as ``list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())``.
+Equality tests between :class:`OrderedDict` objects and other
+:class:`~collections.abc.Mapping` objects are order-insensitive like regular
+dictionaries.  This allows :class:`OrderedDict` objects to be substituted
+anywhere a regular dictionary is used.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   The items, keys, and values :term:`views <dictionary view>`
+   of :class:`OrderedDict` now support reverse iteration using :func:`reversed`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   With the acceptance of :pep:`468`, order is retained for keyword arguments
+   passed to the :class:`OrderedDict` constructor and its :meth:`update`
+   method.
+
+:class:`OrderedDict` Examples and Recipes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+It is straightforward to create an ordered dictionary variant
+that remembers the order the keys were *last* inserted.
+If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the
+original insertion position is changed and moved to the end::
+
+    class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
+        'Store items in the order the keys were last added'
+
+        def __setitem__(self, key, value):
+            super().__setitem__(key, value)
+            super().move_to_end(key)
+
+An :class:`OrderedDict` would also be useful for implementing
+variants of :func:`functools.lru_cache`::
+
+    class LRU(OrderedDict):
+        'Limit size, evicting the least recently looked-up key when full'
+
+        def __init__(self, maxsize=128, *args, **kwds):
+            self.maxsize = maxsize
+            super().__init__(*args, **kwds)
+
+        def __getitem__(self, key):
+            value = super().__getitem__(key)
+            self.move_to_end(key)
+            return value
+
+        def __setitem__(self, key, value):
+            super().__setitem__(key, value)
+            if len(self) > self.maxsize:
+                oldest = next(iter(self))
+                del self[oldest]
+
+
+:class:`UserDict` objects
+-------------------------
+
+The class, :class:`UserDict` acts as a wrapper around dictionary objects.
+The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
+subclass directly from :class:`dict`; however, this class can be easier
+to work with because the underlying dictionary is accessible as an
+attribute.
+
+.. class:: UserDict([initialdata])
+
+    Class that simulates a dictionary.  The instance's contents are kept in a
+    regular dictionary, which is accessible via the :attr:`data` attribute of
+    :class:`UserDict` instances.  If *initialdata* is provided, :attr:`data` is
+    initialized with its contents; note that a reference to *initialdata* will not
+    be kept, allowing it be used for other purposes.
+
+    In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings,
+    :class:`UserDict` instances provide the following attribute:
+
+    .. attribute:: data
+
+        A real dictionary used to store the contents of the :class:`UserDict`
+        class.
+
+
+
+:class:`UserList` objects
+-------------------------
+
+This class acts as a wrapper around list objects.  It is a useful base class
+for your own list-like classes which can inherit from them and override
+existing methods or add new ones.  In this way, one can add new behaviors to
+lists.
+
+The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
+subclass directly from :class:`list`; however, this class can be easier
+to work with because the underlying list is accessible as an attribute.
+
+.. class:: UserList([list])
+
+    Class that simulates a list.  The instance's contents are kept in a regular
+    list, which is accessible via the :attr:`data` attribute of :class:`UserList`
+    instances.  The instance's contents are initially set to a copy of *list*,
+    defaulting to the empty list ``[]``.  *list* can be any iterable, for
+    example a real Python list or a :class:`UserList` object.
+
+    In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mutable sequences,
+    :class:`UserList` instances provide the following attribute:
+
+    .. attribute:: data
+
+        A real :class:`list` object used to store the contents of the
+        :class:`UserList` class.
+
+**Subclassing requirements:** Subclasses of :class:`UserList` are expected to
+offer a constructor which can be called with either no arguments or one
+argument.  List operations which return a new sequence attempt to create an
+instance of the actual implementation class.  To do so, it assumes that the
+constructor can be called with a single parameter, which is a sequence object
+used as a data source.
+
+If a derived class does not wish to comply with this requirement, all of the
+special methods supported by this class will need to be overridden; please
+consult the sources for information about the methods which need to be provided
+in that case.
+
+:class:`UserString` objects
+---------------------------
+
+The class, :class:`UserString` acts as a wrapper around string objects.
+The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
+subclass directly from :class:`str`; however, this class can be easier
+to work with because the underlying string is accessible as an
+attribute.
+
+.. class:: UserString(seq)
+
+    Class that simulates a string object.  The instance's
+    content is kept in a regular string object, which is accessible via the
+    :attr:`data` attribute of :class:`UserString` instances.  The instance's
+    contents are initially set to a copy of *seq*.  The *seq* argument can
+    be any object which can be converted into a string using the built-in
+    :func:`str` function.
+
+    In addition to supporting the methods and operations of strings,
+    :class:`UserString` instances provide the following attribute:
+
+    .. attribute:: data
+
+        A real :class:`str` object used to store the contents of the
+        :class:`UserString` class.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+       New methods ``__getnewargs__``, ``__rmod__``, ``casefold``,
+       ``format_map``, ``isprintable``, and ``maketrans``.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/colorsys.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/colorsys.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1360c7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/colorsys.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+:mod:`colorsys` --- Conversions between color systems
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: colorsys
+   :synopsis: Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: David Ascher <da@python.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/colorsys.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`colorsys` module defines bidirectional conversions of color values
+between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color space used in
+computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ, HLS (Hue Lightness
+Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value).  Coordinates in all of these color
+spaces are floating point values.  In the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between
+0 and 1, but the I and Q coordinates can be positive or negative.  In all other
+spaces, the coordinates are all between 0 and 1.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   More information about color spaces can be found at
+   http://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html and
+   https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm.
+
+The :mod:`colorsys` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: rgb_to_yiq(r, g, b)
+
+   Convert the color from RGB coordinates to YIQ coordinates.
+
+
+.. function:: yiq_to_rgb(y, i, q)
+
+   Convert the color from YIQ coordinates to RGB coordinates.
+
+
+.. function:: rgb_to_hls(r, g, b)
+
+   Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HLS coordinates.
+
+
+.. function:: hls_to_rgb(h, l, s)
+
+   Convert the color from HLS coordinates to RGB coordinates.
+
+
+.. function:: rgb_to_hsv(r, g, b)
+
+   Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HSV coordinates.
+
+
+.. function:: hsv_to_rgb(h, s, v)
+
+   Convert the color from HSV coordinates to RGB coordinates.
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> import colorsys
+   >>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
+   (0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
+   >>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
+   (0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/compileall.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/compileall.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..258de28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/compileall.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,267 @@
+:mod:`compileall` --- Byte-compile Python libraries
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: compileall
+   :synopsis: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/compileall.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides some utility functions to support installing Python
+libraries.  These functions compile Python source files in a directory tree.
+This module can be used to create the cached byte-code files at library
+installation time, which makes them available for use even by users who don't
+have write permission to the library directories.
+
+
+Command-line use
+----------------
+
+This module can work as a script (using :program:`python -m compileall`) to
+compile Python sources.
+
+.. program:: compileall
+
+.. cmdoption:: directory ...
+               file ...
+
+   Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that contain
+   source files, traversed recursively.  If no argument is given, behave as if
+   the command line was ``-l <directories from sys.path>``.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -l
+
+   Do not recurse into subdirectories, only compile source code files directly
+   contained in the named or implied directories.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -f
+
+   Force rebuild even if timestamps are up-to-date.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -q
+
+   Do not print the list of files compiled. If passed once, error messages will
+   still be printed. If passed twice (``-qq``), all output is suppressed.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -d destdir
+
+   Directory prepended to the path to each file being compiled.  This will
+   appear in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the
+   byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in
+   cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is
+   executed.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -x regex
+
+   regex is used to search the full path to each file considered for
+   compilation, and if the regex produces a match, the file is skipped.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -i list
+
+   Read the file ``list`` and add each line that it contains to the list of
+   files and directories to compile.  If ``list`` is ``-``, read lines from
+   ``stdin``.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -b
+
+   Write the byte-code files to their legacy locations and names, which may
+   overwrite byte-code files created by another version of Python.  The default
+   is to write files to their :pep:`3147` locations and names, which allows
+   byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to coexist.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -r
+
+   Control the maximum recursion level for subdirectories.
+   If this is given, then ``-l`` option will not be taken into account.
+   :program:`python -m compileall <directory> -r 0` is equivalent to
+   :program:`python -m compileall <directory> -l`.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -j N
+
+   Use *N* workers to compile the files within the given directory.
+   If ``0`` is used, then the result of :func:`os.cpu_count()`
+   will be used.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]
+
+   Control how the generated byte-code files are invalidated at runtime.
+   The ``timestamp`` value, means that ``.pyc`` files with the source timestamp
+   and size embedded will be generated. The ``checked-hash`` and
+   ``unchecked-hash`` values cause hash-based pycs to be generated. Hash-based
+   pycs embed a hash of the source file contents rather than a timestamp. See
+   :ref:`pyc-invalidation` for more information on how Python validates
+   bytecode cache files at runtime.
+   The default is ``timestamp`` if the :envvar:`SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH` environment
+   variable is not set, and ``checked-hash`` if the ``SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH``
+   environment variable is set.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Added the ``-i``, ``-b`` and ``-h`` options.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Added the  ``-j``, ``-r``, and ``-qq`` options.  ``-q`` option
+   was changed to a multilevel value.  ``-b`` will always produce a
+   byte-code file ending in ``.pyc``, never ``.pyo``.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added the ``--invalidation-mode`` option.
+
+
+There is no command-line option to control the optimization level used by the
+:func:`compile` function, because the Python interpreter itself already
+provides the option: :program:`python -O -m compileall`.
+
+Public functions
+----------------
+
+.. function:: compile_dir(dir, maxlevels=10, ddir=None, force=False, rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1, invalidation_mode=py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP)
+
+   Recursively descend the directory tree named by *dir*, compiling all :file:`.py`
+   files along the way. Return a true value if all the files compiled successfully,
+   and a false value otherwise.
+
+   The *maxlevels* parameter is used to limit the depth of the recursion; it
+   defaults to ``10``.
+
+   If *ddir* is given, it is prepended to the path to each file being compiled
+   for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the
+   byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in
+   cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is
+   executed.
+
+   If *force* is true, modules are re-compiled even if the timestamps are up to
+   date.
+
+   If *rx* is given, its search method is called on the complete path to each
+   file considered for compilation, and if it returns a true value, the file
+   is skipped.
+
+   If *quiet* is ``False`` or ``0`` (the default), the filenames and other
+   information are printed to standard out. Set to ``1``, only errors are
+   printed. Set to ``2``, all output is suppressed.
+
+   If *legacy* is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy locations
+   and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of
+   Python.  The default is to write files to their :pep:`3147` locations and
+   names, which allows byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to
+   coexist.
+
+   *optimize* specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It is passed to
+   the built-in :func:`compile` function.
+
+   The argument *workers* specifies how many workers are used to
+   compile files in parallel. The default is to not use multiple workers.
+   If the platform can't use multiple workers and *workers* argument is given,
+   then sequential compilation will be used as a fallback.  If *workers* is
+   lower than ``0``, a :exc:`ValueError` will be raised.
+
+   *invalidation_mode* should be a member of the
+   :class:`py_compile.PycInvalidationMode` enum and controls how the generated
+   pycs are invalidated at runtime.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the *legacy* and *optimize* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the *workers* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *quiet* parameter was changed to a multilevel value.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *legacy* parameter only writes out ``.pyc`` files, not ``.pyo`` files
+      no matter what the value of *optimize* is.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *invalidation_mode* parameter was added.
+
+.. function:: compile_file(fullname, ddir=None, force=False, rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP)
+
+   Compile the file with path *fullname*. Return a true value if the file
+   compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.
+
+   If *ddir* is given, it is prepended to the path to the file being compiled
+   for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the
+   byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in
+   cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is
+   executed.
+
+   If *rx* is given, its search method is passed the full path name to the
+   file being compiled, and if it returns a true value, the file is not
+   compiled and ``True`` is returned.
+
+   If *quiet* is ``False`` or ``0`` (the default), the filenames and other
+   information are printed to standard out. Set to ``1``, only errors are
+   printed. Set to ``2``, all output is suppressed.
+
+   If *legacy* is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy locations
+   and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of
+   Python.  The default is to write files to their :pep:`3147` locations and
+   names, which allows byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to
+   coexist.
+
+   *optimize* specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It is passed to
+   the built-in :func:`compile` function.
+
+   *invalidation_mode* should be a member of the
+   :class:`py_compile.PycInvalidationMode` enum and controls how the generated
+   pycs are invalidated at runtime.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *quiet* parameter was changed to a multilevel value.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *legacy* parameter only writes out ``.pyc`` files, not ``.pyo`` files
+      no matter what the value of *optimize* is.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *invalidation_mode* parameter was added.
+
+.. function:: compile_path(skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0, force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP)
+
+   Byte-compile all the :file:`.py` files found along ``sys.path``. Return a
+   true value if all the files compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.
+
+   If *skip_curdir* is true (the default), the current directory is not included
+   in the search.  All other parameters are passed to the :func:`compile_dir`
+   function.  Note that unlike the other compile functions, ``maxlevels``
+   defaults to ``0``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the *legacy* and *optimize* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *quiet* parameter was changed to a multilevel value.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *legacy* parameter only writes out ``.pyc`` files, not ``.pyo`` files
+      no matter what the value of *optimize* is.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *invalidation_mode* parameter was added.
+
+To force a recompile of all the :file:`.py` files in the :file:`Lib/`
+subdirectory and all its subdirectories::
+
+   import compileall
+
+   compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True)
+
+   # Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories.
+   import re
+   compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True)
+
+   # pathlib.Path objects can also be used.
+   import pathlib
+   compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`py_compile`
+      Byte-compile a single source file.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrency.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrency.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..826bf86
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrency.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+.. _concurrency:
+
+********************
+Concurrent Execution
+********************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide support for concurrent
+execution of code. The appropriate choice of tool will depend on the
+task to be executed (CPU bound vs IO bound) and preferred style of
+development (event driven cooperative multitasking vs preemptive
+multitasking). Here's an overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   threading.rst
+   multiprocessing.rst
+   concurrent.rst
+   concurrent.futures.rst
+   subprocess.rst
+   sched.rst
+   queue.rst
+
+
+The following are support modules for some of the above services:
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   _thread.rst
+   _dummy_thread.rst
+   dummy_threading.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrent.futures.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrent.futures.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9295df8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrent.futures.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,494 @@
+:mod:`concurrent.futures` --- Launching parallel tasks
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: concurrent.futures
+   :synopsis: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py`
+and :source:`Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`concurrent.futures` module provides a high-level interface for
+asynchronously executing callables.
+
+The asynchronous execution can be performed with threads, using
+:class:`ThreadPoolExecutor`, or separate processes, using
+:class:`ProcessPoolExecutor`.  Both implement the same interface, which is
+defined by the abstract :class:`Executor` class.
+
+
+Executor Objects
+----------------
+
+.. class:: Executor
+
+   An abstract class that provides methods to execute calls asynchronously.  It
+   should not be used directly, but through its concrete subclasses.
+
+    .. method:: submit(fn, *args, **kwargs)
+
+       Schedules the callable, *fn*, to be executed as ``fn(*args **kwargs)``
+       and returns a :class:`Future` object representing the execution of the
+       callable. ::
+
+          with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1) as executor:
+              future = executor.submit(pow, 323, 1235)
+              print(future.result())
+
+    .. method:: map(func, *iterables, timeout=None, chunksize=1)
+
+       Similar to :func:`map(func, *iterables) <map>` except:
+
+       * the *iterables* are collected immediately rather than lazily;
+
+       * *func* is executed asynchronously and several calls to
+         *func* may be made concurrently.
+
+       The returned iterator raises a :exc:`concurrent.futures.TimeoutError`
+       if :meth:`~iterator.__next__` is called and the result isn't available
+       after *timeout* seconds from the original call to :meth:`Executor.map`.
+       *timeout* can be an int or a float.  If *timeout* is not specified or
+       ``None``, there is no limit to the wait time.
+
+       If a *func* call raises an exception, then that exception will be
+       raised when its value is retrieved from the iterator.
+
+       When using :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor`, this method chops *iterables*
+       into a number of chunks which it submits to the pool as separate
+       tasks.  The (approximate) size of these chunks can be specified by
+       setting *chunksize* to a positive integer.  For very long iterables,
+       using a large value for *chunksize* can significantly improve
+       performance compared to the default size of 1.  With
+       :class:`ThreadPoolExecutor`, *chunksize* has no effect.
+
+       .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+          Added the *chunksize* argument.
+
+    .. method:: shutdown(wait=True)
+
+       Signal the executor that it should free any resources that it is using
+       when the currently pending futures are done executing.  Calls to
+       :meth:`Executor.submit` and :meth:`Executor.map` made after shutdown will
+       raise :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+       If *wait* is ``True`` then this method will not return until all the
+       pending futures are done executing and the resources associated with the
+       executor have been freed.  If *wait* is ``False`` then this method will
+       return immediately and the resources associated with the executor will be
+       freed when all pending futures are done executing.  Regardless of the
+       value of *wait*, the entire Python program will not exit until all
+       pending futures are done executing.
+
+       You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use the
+       :keyword:`with` statement, which will shutdown the :class:`Executor`
+       (waiting as if :meth:`Executor.shutdown` were called with *wait* set to
+       ``True``)::
+
+          import shutil
+          with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
+              e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
+              e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
+              e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
+              e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt')
+
+
+ThreadPoolExecutor
+------------------
+
+:class:`ThreadPoolExecutor` is an :class:`Executor` subclass that uses a pool of
+threads to execute calls asynchronously.
+
+Deadlocks can occur when the callable associated with a :class:`Future` waits on
+the results of another :class:`Future`.  For example::
+
+   import time
+   def wait_on_b():
+       time.sleep(5)
+       print(b.result())  # b will never complete because it is waiting on a.
+       return 5
+
+   def wait_on_a():
+       time.sleep(5)
+       print(a.result())  # a will never complete because it is waiting on b.
+       return 6
+
+
+   executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=2)
+   a = executor.submit(wait_on_b)
+   b = executor.submit(wait_on_a)
+
+And::
+
+   def wait_on_future():
+       f = executor.submit(pow, 5, 2)
+       # This will never complete because there is only one worker thread and
+       # it is executing this function.
+       print(f.result())
+
+   executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
+   executor.submit(wait_on_future)
+
+
+.. class:: ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=None, thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())
+
+   An :class:`Executor` subclass that uses a pool of at most *max_workers*
+   threads to execute calls asynchronously.
+
+   *initializer* is an optional callable that is called at the start of
+   each worker thread; *initargs* is a tuple of arguments passed to the
+   initializer.  Should *initializer* raise an exception, all currently
+   pending jobs will raise a :exc:`~concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool`,
+   as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If *max_workers* is ``None`` or
+      not given, it will default to the number of processors on the machine,
+      multiplied by ``5``, assuming that :class:`ThreadPoolExecutor` is often
+      used to overlap I/O instead of CPU work and the number of workers
+      should be higher than the number of workers
+      for :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      The *thread_name_prefix* argument was added to allow users to
+      control the :class:`threading.Thread` names for worker threads created by
+      the pool for easier debugging.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added the *initializer* and *initargs* arguments.
+
+
+.. _threadpoolexecutor-example:
+
+ThreadPoolExecutor Example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+::
+
+   import concurrent.futures
+   import urllib.request
+
+   URLS = ['http://www.foxnews.com/',
+           'http://www.cnn.com/',
+           'http://europe.wsj.com/',
+           'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
+           'http://some-made-up-domain.com/']
+
+   # Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents
+   def load_url(url, timeout):
+       with urllib.request.urlopen(url, timeout=timeout) as conn:
+           return conn.read()
+
+   # We can use a with statement to ensure threads are cleaned up promptly
+   with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
+       # Start the load operations and mark each future with its URL
+       future_to_url = {executor.submit(load_url, url, 60): url for url in URLS}
+       for future in concurrent.futures.as_completed(future_to_url):
+           url = future_to_url[future]
+           try:
+               data = future.result()
+           except Exception as exc:
+               print('%r generated an exception: %s' % (url, exc))
+           else:
+               print('%r page is %d bytes' % (url, len(data)))
+
+
+ProcessPoolExecutor
+-------------------
+
+The :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` class is an :class:`Executor` subclass that
+uses a pool of processes to execute calls asynchronously.
+:class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` uses the :mod:`multiprocessing` module, which
+allows it to side-step the :term:`Global Interpreter Lock` but also means that
+only picklable objects can be executed and returned.
+
+The ``__main__`` module must be importable by worker subprocesses. This means
+that :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` will not work in the interactive interpreter.
+
+Calling :class:`Executor` or :class:`Future` methods from a callable submitted
+to a :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` will result in deadlock.
+
+.. class:: ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=None, mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=())
+
+   An :class:`Executor` subclass that executes calls asynchronously using a pool
+   of at most *max_workers* processes.  If *max_workers* is ``None`` or not
+   given, it will default to the number of processors on the machine.
+   If *max_workers* is lower or equal to ``0``, then a :exc:`ValueError`
+   will be raised.
+   On Windows, *max_workers* must be equal or lower than ``61``. If it is not
+   then :exc:`ValueError` will be raised. If *max_workers* is ``None``, then
+   the default chosen will be at most ``61``, even if more processors are
+   available.
+   *mp_context* can be a multiprocessing context or None. It will be used to
+   launch the workers. If *mp_context* is ``None`` or not given, the default
+   multiprocessing context is used.
+
+   *initializer* is an optional callable that is called at the start of
+   each worker process; *initargs* is a tuple of arguments passed to the
+   initializer.  Should *initializer* raise an exception, all currently
+   pending jobs will raise a :exc:`~concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool`,
+   as well any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      When one of the worker processes terminates abruptly, a
+      :exc:`BrokenProcessPool` error is now raised.  Previously, behaviour
+      was undefined but operations on the executor or its futures would often
+      freeze or deadlock.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *mp_context* argument was added to allow users to control the
+      start_method for worker processes created by the pool.
+
+      Added the *initializer* and *initargs* arguments.
+
+
+.. _processpoolexecutor-example:
+
+ProcessPoolExecutor Example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+::
+
+   import concurrent.futures
+   import math
+
+   PRIMES = [
+       112272535095293,
+       112582705942171,
+       112272535095293,
+       115280095190773,
+       115797848077099,
+       1099726899285419]
+
+   def is_prime(n):
+       if n % 2 == 0:
+           return False
+
+       sqrt_n = int(math.floor(math.sqrt(n)))
+       for i in range(3, sqrt_n + 1, 2):
+           if n % i == 0:
+               return False
+       return True
+
+   def main():
+       with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
+           for number, prime in zip(PRIMES, executor.map(is_prime, PRIMES)):
+               print('%d is prime: %s' % (number, prime))
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       main()
+
+
+Future Objects
+--------------
+
+The :class:`Future` class encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable.
+:class:`Future` instances are created by :meth:`Executor.submit`.
+
+.. class:: Future
+
+   Encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable.  :class:`Future`
+   instances are created by :meth:`Executor.submit` and should not be created
+   directly except for testing.
+
+    .. method:: cancel()
+
+       Attempt to cancel the call.  If the call is currently being executed or
+       finished running and cannot be cancelled then the method will return
+       ``False``, otherwise the call will be cancelled and the method will
+       return ``True``.
+
+    .. method:: cancelled()
+
+       Return ``True`` if the call was successfully cancelled.
+
+    .. method:: running()
+
+       Return ``True`` if the call is currently being executed and cannot be
+       cancelled.
+
+    .. method:: done()
+
+       Return ``True`` if the call was successfully cancelled or finished
+       running.
+
+    .. method:: result(timeout=None)
+
+       Return the value returned by the call. If the call hasn't yet completed
+       then this method will wait up to *timeout* seconds.  If the call hasn't
+       completed in *timeout* seconds, then a
+       :exc:`concurrent.futures.TimeoutError` will be raised. *timeout* can be
+       an int or float.  If *timeout* is not specified or ``None``, there is no
+       limit to the wait time.
+
+       If the future is cancelled before completing then :exc:`.CancelledError`
+       will be raised.
+
+       If the call raised, this method will raise the same exception.
+
+    .. method:: exception(timeout=None)
+
+       Return the exception raised by the call.  If the call hasn't yet
+       completed then this method will wait up to *timeout* seconds.  If the
+       call hasn't completed in *timeout* seconds, then a
+       :exc:`concurrent.futures.TimeoutError` will be raised.  *timeout* can be
+       an int or float.  If *timeout* is not specified or ``None``, there is no
+       limit to the wait time.
+
+       If the future is cancelled before completing then :exc:`.CancelledError`
+       will be raised.
+
+       If the call completed without raising, ``None`` is returned.
+
+    .. method:: add_done_callback(fn)
+
+       Attaches the callable *fn* to the future.  *fn* will be called, with the
+       future as its only argument, when the future is cancelled or finishes
+       running.
+
+       Added callables are called in the order that they were added and are
+       always called in a thread belonging to the process that added them.  If
+       the callable raises an :exc:`Exception` subclass, it will be logged and
+       ignored.  If the callable raises a :exc:`BaseException` subclass, the
+       behavior is undefined.
+
+       If the future has already completed or been cancelled, *fn* will be
+       called immediately.
+
+   The following :class:`Future` methods are meant for use in unit tests and
+   :class:`Executor` implementations.
+
+    .. method:: set_running_or_notify_cancel()
+
+       This method should only be called by :class:`Executor` implementations
+       before executing the work associated with the :class:`Future` and by unit
+       tests.
+
+       If the method returns ``False`` then the :class:`Future` was cancelled,
+       i.e. :meth:`Future.cancel` was called and returned `True`.  Any threads
+       waiting on the :class:`Future` completing (i.e. through
+       :func:`as_completed` or :func:`wait`) will be woken up.
+
+       If the method returns ``True`` then the :class:`Future` was not cancelled
+       and has been put in the running state, i.e. calls to
+       :meth:`Future.running` will return `True`.
+
+       This method can only be called once and cannot be called after
+       :meth:`Future.set_result` or :meth:`Future.set_exception` have been
+       called.
+
+    .. method:: set_result(result)
+
+       Sets the result of the work associated with the :class:`Future` to
+       *result*.
+
+       This method should only be used by :class:`Executor` implementations and
+       unit tests.
+
+    .. method:: set_exception(exception)
+
+       Sets the result of the work associated with the :class:`Future` to the
+       :class:`Exception` *exception*.
+
+       This method should only be used by :class:`Executor` implementations and
+       unit tests.
+
+
+Module Functions
+----------------
+
+.. function:: wait(fs, timeout=None, return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)
+
+   Wait for the :class:`Future` instances (possibly created by different
+   :class:`Executor` instances) given by *fs* to complete.  Returns a named
+   2-tuple of sets.  The first set, named ``done``, contains the futures that
+   completed (finished or cancelled futures) before the wait completed.  The
+   second set, named ``not_done``, contains the futures that did not complete
+   (pending or running futures).
+
+   *timeout* can be used to control the maximum number of seconds to wait before
+   returning.  *timeout* can be an int or float.  If *timeout* is not specified
+   or ``None``, there is no limit to the wait time.
+
+   *return_when* indicates when this function should return.  It must be one of
+   the following constants:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                    | Description                            |
+   +=============================+========================================+
+   | :const:`FIRST_COMPLETED`    | The function will return when any      |
+   |                             | future finishes or is cancelled.       |
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`FIRST_EXCEPTION`    | The function will return when any      |
+   |                             | future finishes by raising an          |
+   |                             | exception.  If no future raises an     |
+   |                             | exception then it is equivalent to     |
+   |                             | :const:`ALL_COMPLETED`.                |
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`ALL_COMPLETED`      | The function will return when all      |
+   |                             | futures finish or are cancelled.       |
+   +-----------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+
+.. function:: as_completed(fs, timeout=None)
+
+   Returns an iterator over the :class:`Future` instances (possibly created by
+   different :class:`Executor` instances) given by *fs* that yields futures as
+   they complete (finished or cancelled futures). Any futures given by *fs* that
+   are duplicated will be returned once. Any futures that completed before
+   :func:`as_completed` is called will be yielded first.  The returned iterator
+   raises a :exc:`concurrent.futures.TimeoutError` if :meth:`~iterator.__next__`
+   is called and the result isn't available after *timeout* seconds from the
+   original call to :func:`as_completed`.  *timeout* can be an int or float. If
+   *timeout* is not specified or ``None``, there is no limit to the wait time.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3148` -- futures - execute computations asynchronously
+      The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python
+      standard library.
+
+
+Exception classes
+-----------------
+
+.. currentmodule:: concurrent.futures
+
+.. exception:: CancelledError
+
+   Raised when a future is cancelled.
+
+.. exception:: TimeoutError
+
+   Raised when a future operation exceeds the given timeout.
+
+.. exception:: BrokenExecutor
+
+   Derived from :exc:`RuntimeError`, this exception class is raised
+   when an executor is broken for some reason, and cannot be used
+   to submit or execute new tasks.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. currentmodule:: concurrent.futures.thread
+
+.. exception:: BrokenThreadPool
+
+   Derived from :exc:`~concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor`, this exception
+   class is raised when one of the workers of a :class:`ThreadPoolExecutor`
+   has failed initializing.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. currentmodule:: concurrent.futures.process
+
+.. exception:: BrokenProcessPool
+
+   Derived from :exc:`~concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor` (formerly
+   :exc:`RuntimeError`), this exception class is raised when one of the
+   workers of a :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` has terminated in a non-clean
+   fashion (for example, if it was killed from the outside).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrent.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrent.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2eba536
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/concurrent.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+The :mod:`concurrent` package
+=============================
+
+Currently, there is only one module in this package:
+
+* :mod:`concurrent.futures` -- Launching parallel tasks
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/configparser.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/configparser.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68b663f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/configparser.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1314 @@
+:mod:`configparser` --- Configuration file parser
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: configparser
+   :synopsis: Configuration file parser.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Ken Manheimer <klm@zope.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Barry Warsaw <bwarsaw@python.org>
+.. moduleauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@thyrsus.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Łukasz Langa <lukasz@langa.pl>
+.. sectionauthor:: Christopher G. Petrilli <petrilli@amber.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Łukasz Langa <lukasz@langa.pl>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/configparser.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: .ini; file
+   pair: configuration; file
+   single: ini file
+   single: Windows ini file
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides the :class:`ConfigParser` class which implements a basic
+configuration language which provides a structure similar to what's found in
+Microsoft Windows INI files.  You can use this to write Python programs which
+can be customized by end users easily.
+
+.. note::
+
+   This library does *not* interpret or write the value-type prefixes used in
+   the Windows Registry extended version of INI syntax.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`shlex`
+      Support for creating Unix shell-like mini-languages which can be used as
+      an alternate format for application configuration files.
+
+   Module :mod:`json`
+      The json module implements a subset of JavaScript syntax which can also
+      be used for this purpose.
+
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   import configparser
+
+
+Quick Start
+-----------
+
+Let's take a very basic configuration file that looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [DEFAULT]
+   ServerAliveInterval = 45
+   Compression = yes
+   CompressionLevel = 9
+   ForwardX11 = yes
+
+   [bitbucket.org]
+   User = hg
+
+   [topsecret.server.com]
+   Port = 50022
+   ForwardX11 = no
+
+The structure of INI files is described `in the following section
+<#supported-ini-file-structure>`_.  Essentially, the file
+consists of sections, each of which contains keys with values.
+:mod:`configparser` classes can read and write such files.  Let's start by
+creating the above configuration file programmatically.
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> import configparser
+   >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
+   >>> config['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '45',
+   ...                      'Compression': 'yes',
+   ...                      'CompressionLevel': '9'}
+   >>> config['bitbucket.org'] = {}
+   >>> config['bitbucket.org']['User'] = 'hg'
+   >>> config['topsecret.server.com'] = {}
+   >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.com']
+   >>> topsecret['Port'] = '50022'     # mutates the parser
+   >>> topsecret['ForwardX11'] = 'no'  # same here
+   >>> config['DEFAULT']['ForwardX11'] = 'yes'
+   >>> with open('example.ini', 'w') as configfile:
+   ...   config.write(configfile)
+   ...
+
+As you can see, we can treat a config parser much like a dictionary.
+There are differences, `outlined later <#mapping-protocol-access>`_, but
+the behavior is very close to what you would expect from a dictionary.
+
+Now that we have created and saved a configuration file, let's read it
+back and explore the data it holds.
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
+   >>> config.sections()
+   []
+   >>> config.read('example.ini')
+   ['example.ini']
+   >>> config.sections()
+   ['bitbucket.org', 'topsecret.server.com']
+   >>> 'bitbucket.org' in config
+   True
+   >>> 'bytebong.com' in config
+   False
+   >>> config['bitbucket.org']['User']
+   'hg'
+   >>> config['DEFAULT']['Compression']
+   'yes'
+   >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.com']
+   >>> topsecret['ForwardX11']
+   'no'
+   >>> topsecret['Port']
+   '50022'
+   >>> for key in config['bitbucket.org']:  # doctest: +SKIP
+   ...     print(key)
+   user
+   compressionlevel
+   serveraliveinterval
+   compression
+   forwardx11
+   >>> config['bitbucket.org']['ForwardX11']
+   'yes'
+
+As we can see above, the API is pretty straightforward.  The only bit of magic
+involves the ``DEFAULT`` section which provides default values for all other
+sections [1]_.  Note also that keys in sections are
+case-insensitive and stored in lowercase [1]_.
+
+
+Supported Datatypes
+-------------------
+
+Config parsers do not guess datatypes of values in configuration files, always
+storing them internally as strings.  This means that if you need other
+datatypes, you should convert on your own:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> int(topsecret['Port'])
+   50022
+   >>> float(topsecret['CompressionLevel'])
+   9.0
+
+Since this task is so common, config parsers provide a range of handy getter
+methods to handle integers, floats and booleans.  The last one is the most
+interesting because simply passing the value to ``bool()`` would do no good
+since ``bool('False')`` is still ``True``.  This is why config parsers also
+provide :meth:`~ConfigParser.getboolean`.  This method is case-insensitive and
+recognizes Boolean values from ``'yes'``/``'no'``, ``'on'``/``'off'``,
+``'true'``/``'false'`` and ``'1'``/``'0'`` [1]_.  For example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> topsecret.getboolean('ForwardX11')
+   False
+   >>> config['bitbucket.org'].getboolean('ForwardX11')
+   True
+   >>> config.getboolean('bitbucket.org', 'Compression')
+   True
+
+Apart from :meth:`~ConfigParser.getboolean`, config parsers also
+provide equivalent :meth:`~ConfigParser.getint` and
+:meth:`~ConfigParser.getfloat` methods.  You can register your own
+converters and customize the provided ones. [1]_
+
+Fallback Values
+---------------
+
+As with a dictionary, you can use a section's :meth:`get` method to
+provide fallback values:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> topsecret.get('Port')
+   '50022'
+   >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel')
+   '9'
+   >>> topsecret.get('Cipher')
+   >>> topsecret.get('Cipher', '3des-cbc')
+   '3des-cbc'
+
+Please note that default values have precedence over fallback values.
+For instance, in our example the ``'CompressionLevel'`` key was
+specified only in the ``'DEFAULT'`` section.  If we try to get it from
+the section ``'topsecret.server.com'``, we will always get the default,
+even if we specify a fallback:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel', '3')
+   '9'
+
+One more thing to be aware of is that the parser-level :meth:`get` method
+provides a custom, more complex interface, maintained for backwards
+compatibility.  When using this method, a fallback value can be provided via
+the ``fallback`` keyword-only argument:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> config.get('bitbucket.org', 'monster',
+   ...            fallback='No such things as monsters')
+   'No such things as monsters'
+
+The same ``fallback`` argument can be used with the
+:meth:`~ConfigParser.getint`, :meth:`~ConfigParser.getfloat` and
+:meth:`~ConfigParser.getboolean` methods, for example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> 'BatchMode' in topsecret
+   False
+   >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
+   True
+   >>> config['DEFAULT']['BatchMode'] = 'no'
+   >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
+   False
+
+
+Supported INI File Structure
+----------------------------
+
+A configuration file consists of sections, each led by a ``[section]`` header,
+followed by key/value entries separated by a specific string (``=`` or ``:`` by
+default [1]_).  By default, section names are case sensitive but keys are not
+[1]_.  Leading and trailing whitespace is removed from keys and values.
+Values can be omitted, in which case the key/value delimiter may also be left
+out.  Values can also span multiple lines, as long as they are indented deeper
+than the first line of the value.  Depending on the parser's mode, blank lines
+may be treated as parts of multiline values or ignored.
+
+Configuration files may include comments, prefixed by specific
+characters (``#`` and ``;`` by default [1]_).  Comments may appear on
+their own on an otherwise empty line, possibly indented. [1]_
+
+For example:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [Simple Values]
+   key=value
+   spaces in keys=allowed
+   spaces in values=allowed as well
+   spaces around the delimiter = obviously
+   you can also use : to delimit keys from values
+
+   [All Values Are Strings]
+   values like this: 1000000
+   or this: 3.14159265359
+   are they treated as numbers? : no
+   integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings
+   can use the API to get converted values directly: true
+
+   [Multiline Values]
+   chorus: I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay
+       I sleep all night and I work all day
+
+   [No Values]
+   key_without_value
+   empty string value here =
+
+   [You can use comments]
+   # like this
+   ; or this
+
+   # By default only in an empty line.
+   # Inline comments can be harmful because they prevent users
+   # from using the delimiting characters as parts of values.
+   # That being said, this can be customized.
+
+       [Sections Can Be Indented]
+           can_values_be_as_well = True
+           does_that_mean_anything_special = False
+           purpose = formatting for readability
+           multiline_values = are
+               handled just fine as
+               long as they are indented
+               deeper than the first line
+               of a value
+           # Did I mention we can indent comments, too?
+
+
+Interpolation of values
+-----------------------
+
+On top of the core functionality, :class:`ConfigParser` supports
+interpolation.  This means values can be preprocessed before returning them
+from ``get()`` calls.
+
+.. index:: single: % (percent); interpolation in configuration files
+
+.. class:: BasicInterpolation()
+
+   The default implementation used by :class:`ConfigParser`.  It enables
+   values to contain format strings which refer to other values in the same
+   section, or values in the special default section [1]_.  Additional default
+   values can be provided on initialization.
+
+   For example:
+
+   .. code-block:: ini
+
+      [Paths]
+      home_dir: /Users
+      my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack
+      my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures
+
+
+   In the example above, :class:`ConfigParser` with *interpolation* set to
+   ``BasicInterpolation()`` would resolve ``%(home_dir)s`` to the value of
+   ``home_dir`` (``/Users`` in this case).  ``%(my_dir)s`` in effect would
+   resolve to ``/Users/lumberjack``.  All interpolations are done on demand so
+   keys used in the chain of references do not have to be specified in any
+   specific order in the configuration file.
+
+   With ``interpolation`` set to ``None``, the parser would simply return
+   ``%(my_dir)s/Pictures`` as the value of ``my_pictures`` and
+   ``%(home_dir)s/lumberjack`` as the value of ``my_dir``.
+
+.. index:: single: $ (dollar); interpolation in configuration files
+
+.. class:: ExtendedInterpolation()
+
+   An alternative handler for interpolation which implements a more advanced
+   syntax, used for instance in ``zc.buildout``.  Extended interpolation is
+   using ``${section:option}`` to denote a value from a foreign section.
+   Interpolation can span multiple levels.  For convenience, if the
+   ``section:`` part is omitted, interpolation defaults to the current section
+   (and possibly the default values from the special section).
+
+   For example, the configuration specified above with basic interpolation,
+   would look like this with extended interpolation:
+
+   .. code-block:: ini
+
+      [Paths]
+      home_dir: /Users
+      my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack
+      my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
+
+   Values from other sections can be fetched as well:
+
+   .. code-block:: ini
+
+      [Common]
+      home_dir: /Users
+      library_dir: /Library
+      system_dir: /System
+      macports_dir: /opt/local
+
+      [Frameworks]
+      Python: 3.2
+      path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/
+
+      [Arthur]
+      nickname: Two Sheds
+      last_name: Jackson
+      my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds
+      my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
+      python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}
+
+Mapping Protocol Access
+-----------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+Mapping protocol access is a generic name for functionality that enables using
+custom objects as if they were dictionaries.  In case of :mod:`configparser`,
+the mapping interface implementation is using the
+``parser['section']['option']`` notation.
+
+``parser['section']`` in particular returns a proxy for the section's data in
+the parser.  This means that the values are not copied but they are taken from
+the original parser on demand.  What's even more important is that when values
+are changed on a section proxy, they are actually mutated in the original
+parser.
+
+:mod:`configparser` objects behave as close to actual dictionaries as possible.
+The mapping interface is complete and adheres to the
+:class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping` ABC.
+However, there are a few differences that should be taken into account:
+
+* By default, all keys in sections are accessible in a case-insensitive manner
+  [1]_.  E.g. ``for option in parser["section"]`` yields only ``optionxform``'ed
+  option key names.  This means lowercased keys by default.  At the same time,
+  for a section that holds the key ``'a'``, both expressions return ``True``::
+
+     "a" in parser["section"]
+     "A" in parser["section"]
+
+* All sections include ``DEFAULTSECT`` values as well which means that
+  ``.clear()`` on a section may not leave the section visibly empty.  This is
+  because default values cannot be deleted from the section (because technically
+  they are not there).  If they are overridden in the section, deleting causes
+  the default value to be visible again.  Trying to delete a default value
+  causes a :exc:`KeyError`.
+
+* ``DEFAULTSECT`` cannot be removed from the parser:
+
+  * trying to delete it raises :exc:`ValueError`,
+
+  * ``parser.clear()`` leaves it intact,
+
+  * ``parser.popitem()`` never returns it.
+
+* ``parser.get(section, option, **kwargs)`` - the second argument is **not**
+  a fallback value.  Note however that the section-level ``get()`` methods are
+  compatible both with the mapping protocol and the classic configparser API.
+
+* ``parser.items()`` is compatible with the mapping protocol (returns a list of
+  *section_name*, *section_proxy* pairs including the DEFAULTSECT).  However,
+  this method can also be invoked with arguments: ``parser.items(section, raw,
+  vars)``.  The latter call returns a list of *option*, *value* pairs for
+  a specified ``section``, with all interpolations expanded (unless
+  ``raw=True`` is provided).
+
+The mapping protocol is implemented on top of the existing legacy API so that
+subclasses overriding the original interface still should have mappings working
+as expected.
+
+
+Customizing Parser Behaviour
+----------------------------
+
+There are nearly as many INI format variants as there are applications using it.
+:mod:`configparser` goes a long way to provide support for the largest sensible
+set of INI styles available.  The default functionality is mainly dictated by
+historical background and it's very likely that you will want to customize some
+of the features.
+
+The most common way to change the way a specific config parser works is to use
+the :meth:`__init__` options:
+
+* *defaults*, default value: ``None``
+
+  This option accepts a dictionary of key-value pairs which will be initially
+  put in the ``DEFAULT`` section.  This makes for an elegant way to support
+  concise configuration files that don't specify values which are the same as
+  the documented default.
+
+  Hint: if you want to specify default values for a specific section, use
+  :meth:`read_dict` before you read the actual file.
+
+* *dict_type*, default value: :class:`collections.OrderedDict`
+
+  This option has a major impact on how the mapping protocol will behave and how
+  the written configuration files look.  With the default ordered
+  dictionary, every section is stored in the order they were added to the
+  parser.  Same goes for options within sections.
+
+  An alternative dictionary type can be used for example to sort sections and
+  options on write-back.  You can also use a regular dictionary for performance
+  reasons.
+
+  Please note: there are ways to add a set of key-value pairs in a single
+  operation.  When you use a regular dictionary in those operations, the order
+  of the keys will be ordered because dict preserves order from Python 3.7.
+  For example:
+
+  .. doctest::
+
+     >>> parser = configparser.ConfigParser()
+     >>> parser.read_dict({'section1': {'key1': 'value1',
+     ...                                'key2': 'value2',
+     ...                                'key3': 'value3'},
+     ...                   'section2': {'keyA': 'valueA',
+     ...                                'keyB': 'valueB',
+     ...                                'keyC': 'valueC'},
+     ...                   'section3': {'foo': 'x',
+     ...                                'bar': 'y',
+     ...                                'baz': 'z'}
+     ... })
+     >>> parser.sections()
+     ['section1', 'section2', 'section3']
+     >>> [option for option in parser['section3']]
+     ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']
+
+* *allow_no_value*, default value: ``False``
+
+  Some configuration files are known to include settings without values, but
+  which otherwise conform to the syntax supported by :mod:`configparser`.  The
+  *allow_no_value* parameter to the constructor can be used to
+  indicate that such values should be accepted:
+
+  .. doctest::
+
+     >>> import configparser
+
+     >>> sample_config = """
+     ... [mysqld]
+     ...   user = mysql
+     ...   pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
+     ...   skip-external-locking
+     ...   old_passwords = 1
+     ...   skip-bdb
+     ...   # we don't need ACID today
+     ...   skip-innodb
+     ... """
+     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
+     >>> config.read_string(sample_config)
+
+     >>> # Settings with values are treated as before:
+     >>> config["mysqld"]["user"]
+     'mysql'
+
+     >>> # Settings without values provide None:
+     >>> config["mysqld"]["skip-bdb"]
+
+     >>> # Settings which aren't specified still raise an error:
+     >>> config["mysqld"]["does-not-exist"]
+     Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ...
+     KeyError: 'does-not-exist'
+
+* *delimiters*, default value: ``('=', ':')``
+
+  Delimiters are substrings that delimit keys from values within a section.
+  The first occurrence of a delimiting substring on a line is considered
+  a delimiter.  This means values (but not keys) can contain the delimiters.
+
+  See also the *space_around_delimiters* argument to
+  :meth:`ConfigParser.write`.
+
+* *comment_prefixes*, default value: ``('#', ';')``
+
+* *inline_comment_prefixes*, default value: ``None``
+
+  Comment prefixes are strings that indicate the start of a valid comment within
+  a config file. *comment_prefixes* are used only on otherwise empty lines
+  (optionally indented) whereas *inline_comment_prefixes* can be used after
+  every valid value (e.g. section names, options and empty lines as well).  By
+  default inline comments are disabled and ``'#'`` and ``';'`` are used as
+  prefixes for whole line comments.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+     In previous versions of :mod:`configparser` behaviour matched
+     ``comment_prefixes=('#',';')`` and ``inline_comment_prefixes=(';',)``.
+
+  Please note that config parsers don't support escaping of comment prefixes so
+  using *inline_comment_prefixes* may prevent users from specifying option
+  values with characters used as comment prefixes.  When in doubt, avoid
+  setting *inline_comment_prefixes*.  In any circumstances, the only way of
+  storing comment prefix characters at the beginning of a line in multiline
+  values is to interpolate the prefix, for example::
+
+    >>> from configparser import ConfigParser, ExtendedInterpolation
+    >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
+    >>> # the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well
+    >>> parser.read_string("""
+    ... [DEFAULT]
+    ... hash = #
+    ...
+    ... [hashes]
+    ... shebang =
+    ...   ${hash}!/usr/bin/env python
+    ...   ${hash} -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+    ...
+    ... extensions =
+    ...   enabled_extension
+    ...   another_extension
+    ...   #disabled_by_comment
+    ...   yet_another_extension
+    ...
+    ... interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start
+    ... even in multiline values = line #1
+    ...   line #2
+    ...   line #3
+    ... """)
+    >>> print(parser['hashes']['shebang'])
+    <BLANKLINE>
+    #!/usr/bin/env python
+    # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+    >>> print(parser['hashes']['extensions'])
+    <BLANKLINE>
+    enabled_extension
+    another_extension
+    yet_another_extension
+    >>> print(parser['hashes']['interpolation not necessary'])
+    if # is not at line start
+    >>> print(parser['hashes']['even in multiline values'])
+    line #1
+    line #2
+    line #3
+
+* *strict*, default value: ``True``
+
+  When set to ``True``, the parser will not allow for any section or option
+  duplicates while reading from a single source (using :meth:`read_file`,
+  :meth:`read_string` or :meth:`read_dict`).  It is recommended to use strict
+  parsers in new applications.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+     In previous versions of :mod:`configparser` behaviour matched
+     ``strict=False``.
+
+* *empty_lines_in_values*, default value: ``True``
+
+  In config parsers, values can span multiple lines as long as they are
+  indented more than the key that holds them.  By default parsers also let
+  empty lines to be parts of values.  At the same time, keys can be arbitrarily
+  indented themselves to improve readability.  In consequence, when
+  configuration files get big and complex, it is easy for the user to lose
+  track of the file structure.  Take for instance:
+
+  .. code-block:: ini
+
+     [Section]
+     key = multiline
+       value with a gotcha
+
+      this = is still a part of the multiline value of 'key'
+
+  This can be especially problematic for the user to see if she's using a
+  proportional font to edit the file.  That is why when your application does
+  not need values with empty lines, you should consider disallowing them.  This
+  will make empty lines split keys every time.  In the example above, it would
+  produce two keys, ``key`` and ``this``.
+
+* *default_section*, default value: ``configparser.DEFAULTSECT`` (that is:
+  ``"DEFAULT"``)
+
+  The convention of allowing a special section of default values for other
+  sections or interpolation purposes is a powerful concept of this library,
+  letting users create complex declarative configurations.  This section is
+  normally called ``"DEFAULT"`` but this can be customized to point to any
+  other valid section name.  Some typical values include: ``"general"`` or
+  ``"common"``.  The name provided is used for recognizing default sections
+  when reading from any source and is used when writing configuration back to
+  a file.  Its current value can be retrieved using the
+  ``parser_instance.default_section`` attribute and may be modified at runtime
+  (i.e. to convert files from one format to another).
+
+* *interpolation*, default value: ``configparser.BasicInterpolation``
+
+  Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom handler
+  through the *interpolation* argument. ``None`` can be used to turn off
+  interpolation completely, ``ExtendedInterpolation()`` provides a more
+  advanced variant inspired by ``zc.buildout``.  More on the subject in the
+  `dedicated documentation section <#interpolation-of-values>`_.
+  :class:`RawConfigParser` has a default value of ``None``.
+
+* *converters*, default value: not set
+
+  Config parsers provide option value getters that perform type conversion.  By
+  default :meth:`~ConfigParser.getint`, :meth:`~ConfigParser.getfloat`, and
+  :meth:`~ConfigParser.getboolean` are implemented.  Should other getters be
+  desirable, users may define them in a subclass or pass a dictionary where each
+  key is a name of the converter and each value is a callable implementing said
+  conversion.  For instance, passing ``{'decimal': decimal.Decimal}`` would add
+  :meth:`getdecimal` on both the parser object and all section proxies.  In
+  other words, it will be possible to write both
+  ``parser_instance.getdecimal('section', 'key', fallback=0)`` and
+  ``parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key', 0)``.
+
+  If the converter needs to access the state of the parser, it can be
+  implemented as a method on a config parser subclass.  If the name of this
+  method starts with ``get``, it will be available on all section proxies, in
+  the dict-compatible form (see the ``getdecimal()`` example above).
+
+More advanced customization may be achieved by overriding default values of
+these parser attributes.  The defaults are defined on the classes, so they may
+be overridden by subclasses or by attribute assignment.
+
+.. attribute:: ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES
+
+  By default when using :meth:`~ConfigParser.getboolean`, config parsers
+  consider the following values ``True``: ``'1'``, ``'yes'``, ``'true'``,
+  ``'on'`` and the following values ``False``: ``'0'``, ``'no'``, ``'false'``,
+  ``'off'``.  You can override this by specifying a custom dictionary of strings
+  and their Boolean outcomes. For example:
+
+  .. doctest::
+
+     >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
+     >>> custom['section1'] = {'funky': 'nope'}
+     >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
+     Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+     ValueError: Not a boolean: nope
+     >>> custom.BOOLEAN_STATES = {'sure': True, 'nope': False}
+     >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
+     False
+
+  Other typical Boolean pairs include ``accept``/``reject`` or
+  ``enabled``/``disabled``.
+
+.. method:: ConfigParser.optionxform(option)
+
+  This method transforms option names on every read, get, or set
+  operation.  The default converts the name to lowercase.  This also
+  means that when a configuration file gets written, all keys will be
+  lowercase.  Override this method if that's unsuitable.
+  For example:
+
+  .. doctest::
+
+     >>> config = """
+     ... [Section1]
+     ... Key = Value
+     ...
+     ... [Section2]
+     ... AnotherKey = Value
+     ... """
+     >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
+     >>> typical.read_string(config)
+     >>> list(typical['Section1'].keys())
+     ['key']
+     >>> list(typical['Section2'].keys())
+     ['anotherkey']
+     >>> custom = configparser.RawConfigParser()
+     >>> custom.optionxform = lambda option: option
+     >>> custom.read_string(config)
+     >>> list(custom['Section1'].keys())
+     ['Key']
+     >>> list(custom['Section2'].keys())
+     ['AnotherKey']
+
+  .. note::
+     The optionxform function transforms option names to a canonical form.
+     This should be an idempotent function: if the name is already in
+     canonical form, it should be returned unchanged.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ConfigParser.SECTCRE
+
+  A compiled regular expression used to parse section headers.  The default
+  matches ``[section]`` to the name ``"section"``.  Whitespace is considered
+  part of the section name, thus ``[  larch  ]`` will be read as a section of
+  name ``"  larch  "``.  Override this attribute if that's unsuitable.  For
+  example:
+
+  .. doctest::
+
+     >>> import re
+     >>> config = """
+     ... [Section 1]
+     ... option = value
+     ...
+     ... [  Section 2  ]
+     ... another = val
+     ... """
+     >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
+     >>> typical.read_string(config)
+     >>> typical.sections()
+     ['Section 1', '  Section 2  ']
+     >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
+     >>> custom.SECTCRE = re.compile(r"\[ *(?P<header>[^]]+?) *\]")
+     >>> custom.read_string(config)
+     >>> custom.sections()
+     ['Section 1', 'Section 2']
+
+  .. note::
+
+     While ConfigParser objects also use an ``OPTCRE`` attribute for recognizing
+     option lines, it's not recommended to override it because that would
+     interfere with constructor options *allow_no_value* and *delimiters*.
+
+
+Legacy API Examples
+-------------------
+
+Mainly because of backwards compatibility concerns, :mod:`configparser`
+provides also a legacy API with explicit ``get``/``set`` methods.  While there
+are valid use cases for the methods outlined below, mapping protocol access is
+preferred for new projects.  The legacy API is at times more advanced,
+low-level and downright counterintuitive.
+
+An example of writing to a configuration file::
+
+   import configparser
+
+   config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
+
+   # Please note that using RawConfigParser's set functions, you can assign
+   # non-string values to keys internally, but will receive an error when
+   # attempting to write to a file or when you get it in non-raw mode. Setting
+   # values using the mapping protocol or ConfigParser's set() does not allow
+   # such assignments to take place.
+   config.add_section('Section1')
+   config.set('Section1', 'an_int', '15')
+   config.set('Section1', 'a_bool', 'true')
+   config.set('Section1', 'a_float', '3.1415')
+   config.set('Section1', 'baz', 'fun')
+   config.set('Section1', 'bar', 'Python')
+   config.set('Section1', 'foo', '%(bar)s is %(baz)s!')
+
+   # Writing our configuration file to 'example.cfg'
+   with open('example.cfg', 'w') as configfile:
+       config.write(configfile)
+
+An example of reading the configuration file again::
+
+   import configparser
+
+   config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
+   config.read('example.cfg')
+
+   # getfloat() raises an exception if the value is not a float
+   # getint() and getboolean() also do this for their respective types
+   a_float = config.getfloat('Section1', 'a_float')
+   an_int = config.getint('Section1', 'an_int')
+   print(a_float + an_int)
+
+   # Notice that the next output does not interpolate '%(bar)s' or '%(baz)s'.
+   # This is because we are using a RawConfigParser().
+   if config.getboolean('Section1', 'a_bool'):
+       print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))
+
+To get interpolation, use :class:`ConfigParser`::
+
+   import configparser
+
+   cfg = configparser.ConfigParser()
+   cfg.read('example.cfg')
+
+   # Set the optional *raw* argument of get() to True if you wish to disable
+   # interpolation in a single get operation.
+   print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=False))  # -> "Python is fun!"
+   print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=True))   # -> "%(bar)s is %(baz)s!"
+
+   # The optional *vars* argument is a dict with members that will take
+   # precedence in interpolation.
+   print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', vars={'bar': 'Documentation',
+                                          'baz': 'evil'}))
+
+   # The optional *fallback* argument can be used to provide a fallback value
+   print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo'))
+         # -> "Python is fun!"
+
+   print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', fallback='Monty is not.'))
+         # -> "Python is fun!"
+
+   print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback='No such things as monsters.'))
+         # -> "No such things as monsters."
+
+   # A bare print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster')) would raise NoOptionError
+   # but we can also use:
+
+   print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback=None))
+         # -> None
+
+Default values are available in both types of ConfigParsers.  They are used in
+interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere. ::
+
+   import configparser
+
+   # New instance with 'bar' and 'baz' defaulting to 'Life' and 'hard' each
+   config = configparser.ConfigParser({'bar': 'Life', 'baz': 'hard'})
+   config.read('example.cfg')
+
+   print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Python is fun!"
+   config.remove_option('Section1', 'bar')
+   config.remove_option('Section1', 'baz')
+   print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Life is hard!"
+
+
+.. _configparser-objects:
+
+ConfigParser Objects
+--------------------
+
+.. class:: ConfigParser(defaults=None, dict_type=collections.OrderedDict, allow_no_value=False, delimiters=('=', ':'), comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None, strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True, default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT, interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={})
+
+   The main configuration parser.  When *defaults* is given, it is initialized
+   into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults.  When *dict_type* is given, it
+   will be used to create the dictionary objects for the list of sections, for
+   the options within a section, and for the default values.
+
+   When *delimiters* is given, it is used as the set of substrings that
+   divide keys from values.  When *comment_prefixes* is given, it will be used
+   as the set of substrings that prefix comments in otherwise empty lines.
+   Comments can be indented.  When *inline_comment_prefixes* is given, it will
+   be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in non-empty lines.
+
+   When *strict* is ``True`` (the default), the parser won't allow for
+   any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source (file,
+   string or dictionary), raising :exc:`DuplicateSectionError` or
+   :exc:`DuplicateOptionError`.  When *empty_lines_in_values* is ``False``
+   (default: ``True``), each empty line marks the end of an option.  Otherwise,
+   internal empty lines of a multiline option are kept as part of the value.
+   When *allow_no_value* is ``True`` (default: ``False``), options without
+   values are accepted; the value held for these is ``None`` and they are
+   serialized without the trailing delimiter.
+
+   When *default_section* is given, it specifies the name for the special
+   section holding default values for other sections and interpolation purposes
+   (normally named ``"DEFAULT"``).  This value can be retrieved and changed on
+   runtime using the ``default_section`` instance attribute.
+
+   Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom handler
+   through the *interpolation* argument. ``None`` can be used to turn off
+   interpolation completely, ``ExtendedInterpolation()`` provides a more
+   advanced variant inspired by ``zc.buildout``.  More on the subject in the
+   `dedicated documentation section <#interpolation-of-values>`_.
+
+   All option names used in interpolation will be passed through the
+   :meth:`optionxform` method just like any other option name reference.  For
+   example, using the default implementation of :meth:`optionxform` (which
+   converts option names to lower case), the values ``foo %(bar)s`` and ``foo
+   %(BAR)s`` are equivalent.
+
+   When *converters* is given, it should be a dictionary where each key
+   represents the name of a type converter and each value is a callable
+   implementing the conversion from string to the desired datatype.  Every
+   converter gets its own corresponding :meth:`get*()` method on the parser
+   object and section proxies.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      The default *dict_type* is :class:`collections.OrderedDict`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *allow_no_value*, *delimiters*, *comment_prefixes*, *strict*,
+      *empty_lines_in_values*, *default_section* and *interpolation* were
+      added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *converters* argument was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *defaults* argument is read with :meth:`read_dict()`,
+      providing consistent behavior across the parser: non-string
+      keys and values are implicitly converted to strings.
+
+   .. method:: defaults()
+
+      Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.
+
+
+   .. method:: sections()
+
+      Return a list of the sections available; the *default section* is not
+      included in the list.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_section(section)
+
+      Add a section named *section* to the instance.  If a section by the given
+      name already exists, :exc:`DuplicateSectionError` is raised.  If the
+      *default section* name is passed, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  The name
+      of the section must be a string; if not, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Non-string section names raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+   .. method:: has_section(section)
+
+      Indicates whether the named *section* is present in the configuration.
+      The *default section* is not acknowledged.
+
+
+   .. method:: options(section)
+
+      Return a list of options available in the specified *section*.
+
+
+   .. method:: has_option(section, option)
+
+      If the given *section* exists, and contains the given *option*, return
+      :const:`True`; otherwise return :const:`False`.  If the specified
+      *section* is :const:`None` or an empty string, DEFAULT is assumed.
+
+
+   .. method:: read(filenames, encoding=None)
+
+      Attempt to read and parse an iterable of filenames, returning a list of
+      filenames which were successfully parsed.
+
+      If *filenames* is a string, a :class:`bytes` object or a
+      :term:`path-like object`, it is treated as
+      a single filename.  If a file named in *filenames* cannot be opened, that
+      file will be ignored.  This is designed so that you can specify an
+      iterable of potential configuration file locations (for example, the
+      current directory, the user's home directory, and some system-wide
+      directory), and all existing configuration files in the iterable will be
+      read.
+
+      If none of the named files exist, the :class:`ConfigParser`
+      instance will contain an empty dataset.  An application which requires
+      initial values to be loaded from a file should load the required file or
+      files using :meth:`read_file` before calling :meth:`read` for any
+      optional files::
+
+         import configparser, os
+
+         config = configparser.ConfigParser()
+         config.read_file(open('defaults.cfg'))
+         config.read(['site.cfg', os.path.expanduser('~/.myapp.cfg')],
+                     encoding='cp1250')
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+         The *encoding* parameter.  Previously, all files were read using the
+         default encoding for :func:`open`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.6.1
+         The *filenames* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+         The *filenames* parameter accepts a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+
+   .. method:: read_file(f, source=None)
+
+      Read and parse configuration data from *f* which must be an iterable
+      yielding Unicode strings (for example files opened in text mode).
+
+      Optional argument *source* specifies the name of the file being read.  If
+      not given and *f* has a :attr:`name` attribute, that is used for
+      *source*; the default is ``'<???>'``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+         Replaces :meth:`readfp`.
+
+   .. method:: read_string(string, source='<string>')
+
+      Parse configuration data from a string.
+
+      Optional argument *source* specifies a context-specific name of the
+      string passed.  If not given, ``'<string>'`` is used.  This should
+      commonly be a filesystem path or a URL.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: read_dict(dictionary, source='<dict>')
+
+      Load configuration from any object that provides a dict-like ``items()``
+      method.  Keys are section names, values are dictionaries with keys and
+      values that should be present in the section.  If the used dictionary
+      type preserves order, sections and their keys will be added in order.
+      Values are automatically converted to strings.
+
+      Optional argument *source* specifies a context-specific name of the
+      dictionary passed.  If not given, ``<dict>`` is used.
+
+      This method can be used to copy state between parsers.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: get(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])
+
+      Get an *option* value for the named *section*.  If *vars* is provided, it
+      must be a dictionary.  The *option* is looked up in *vars* (if provided),
+      *section*, and in *DEFAULTSECT* in that order.  If the key is not found
+      and *fallback* is provided, it is used as a fallback value.  ``None`` can
+      be provided as a *fallback* value.
+
+      All the ``'%'`` interpolations are expanded in the return values, unless
+      the *raw* argument is true.  Values for interpolation keys are looked up
+      in the same manner as the option.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Arguments *raw*, *vars* and *fallback* are keyword only to protect
+         users from trying to use the third argument as the *fallback* fallback
+         (especially when using the mapping protocol).
+
+
+   .. method:: getint(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])
+
+      A convenience method which coerces the *option* in the specified *section*
+      to an integer.  See :meth:`get` for explanation of *raw*, *vars* and
+      *fallback*.
+
+
+   .. method:: getfloat(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])
+
+      A convenience method which coerces the *option* in the specified *section*
+      to a floating point number.  See :meth:`get` for explanation of *raw*,
+      *vars* and *fallback*.
+
+
+   .. method:: getboolean(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])
+
+      A convenience method which coerces the *option* in the specified *section*
+      to a Boolean value.  Note that the accepted values for the option are
+      ``'1'``, ``'yes'``, ``'true'``, and ``'on'``, which cause this method to
+      return ``True``, and ``'0'``, ``'no'``, ``'false'``, and ``'off'``, which
+      cause it to return ``False``.  These string values are checked in a
+      case-insensitive manner.  Any other value will cause it to raise
+      :exc:`ValueError`.  See :meth:`get` for explanation of *raw*, *vars* and
+      *fallback*.
+
+
+   .. method:: items(raw=False, vars=None)
+               items(section, raw=False, vars=None)
+
+      When *section* is not given, return a list of *section_name*,
+      *section_proxy* pairs, including DEFAULTSECT.
+
+      Otherwise, return a list of *name*, *value* pairs for the options in the
+      given *section*.  Optional arguments have the same meaning as for the
+      :meth:`get` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: set(section, option, value)
+
+      If the given section exists, set the given option to the specified value;
+      otherwise raise :exc:`NoSectionError`.  *option* and *value* must be
+      strings; if not, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+
+   .. method:: write(fileobject, space_around_delimiters=True)
+
+      Write a representation of the configuration to the specified :term:`file
+      object`, which must be opened in text mode (accepting strings).  This
+      representation can be parsed by a future :meth:`read` call.  If
+      *space_around_delimiters* is true, delimiters between
+      keys and values are surrounded by spaces.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_option(section, option)
+
+      Remove the specified *option* from the specified *section*.  If the
+      section does not exist, raise :exc:`NoSectionError`.  If the option
+      existed to be removed, return :const:`True`; otherwise return
+      :const:`False`.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_section(section)
+
+      Remove the specified *section* from the configuration.  If the section in
+      fact existed, return ``True``.  Otherwise return ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: optionxform(option)
+
+      Transforms the option name *option* as found in an input file or as passed
+      in by client code to the form that should be used in the internal
+      structures.  The default implementation returns a lower-case version of
+      *option*; subclasses may override this or client code can set an attribute
+      of this name on instances to affect this behavior.
+
+      You don't need to subclass the parser to use this method, you can also
+      set it on an instance, to a function that takes a string argument and
+      returns a string.  Setting it to ``str``, for example, would make option
+      names case sensitive::
+
+         cfgparser = ConfigParser()
+         cfgparser.optionxform = str
+
+      Note that when reading configuration files, whitespace around the option
+      names is stripped before :meth:`optionxform` is called.
+
+
+   .. method:: readfp(fp, filename=None)
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.2
+         Use :meth:`read_file` instead.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         :meth:`readfp` now iterates on *fp* instead of calling ``fp.readline()``.
+
+      For existing code calling :meth:`readfp` with arguments which don't
+      support iteration, the following generator may be used as a wrapper
+      around the file-like object::
+
+         def readline_generator(fp):
+             line = fp.readline()
+             while line:
+                 yield line
+                 line = fp.readline()
+
+      Instead of ``parser.readfp(fp)`` use
+      ``parser.read_file(readline_generator(fp))``.
+
+
+.. data:: MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH
+
+   The maximum depth for recursive interpolation for :meth:`get` when the *raw*
+   parameter is false.  This is relevant only when the default *interpolation*
+   is used.
+
+
+.. _rawconfigparser-objects:
+
+RawConfigParser Objects
+-----------------------
+
+.. class:: RawConfigParser(defaults=None, dict_type=collections.OrderedDict, \
+                           allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'), \
+                           comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), \
+                           inline_comment_prefixes=None, strict=True, \
+                           empty_lines_in_values=True, \
+                           default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT[, \
+                           interpolation])
+
+   Legacy variant of the :class:`ConfigParser`.  It has interpolation
+   disabled by default and allows for non-string section names, option
+   names, and values via its unsafe ``add_section`` and ``set`` methods,
+   as well as the legacy ``defaults=`` keyword argument handling.
+
+   .. note::
+      Consider using :class:`ConfigParser` instead which checks types of
+      the values to be stored internally.  If you don't want interpolation, you
+      can use ``ConfigParser(interpolation=None)``.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_section(section)
+
+      Add a section named *section* to the instance.  If a section by the given
+      name already exists, :exc:`DuplicateSectionError` is raised.  If the
+      *default section* name is passed, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+      Type of *section* is not checked which lets users create non-string named
+      sections.  This behaviour is unsupported and may cause internal errors.
+
+
+   .. method:: set(section, option, value)
+
+      If the given section exists, set the given option to the specified value;
+      otherwise raise :exc:`NoSectionError`.  While it is possible to use
+      :class:`RawConfigParser` (or :class:`ConfigParser` with *raw* parameters
+      set to true) for *internal* storage of non-string values, full
+      functionality (including interpolation and output to files) can only be
+      achieved using string values.
+
+      This method lets users assign non-string values to keys internally.  This
+      behaviour is unsupported and will cause errors when attempting to write
+      to a file or get it in non-raw mode.  **Use the mapping protocol API**
+      which does not allow such assignments to take place.
+
+
+Exceptions
+----------
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   Base class for all other :mod:`configparser` exceptions.
+
+
+.. exception:: NoSectionError
+
+   Exception raised when a specified section is not found.
+
+
+.. exception:: DuplicateSectionError
+
+   Exception raised if :meth:`add_section` is called with the name of a section
+   that is already present or in strict parsers when a section if found more
+   than once in a single input file, string or dictionary.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      Optional ``source`` and ``lineno`` attributes and arguments to
+      :meth:`__init__` were added.
+
+
+.. exception:: DuplicateOptionError
+
+   Exception raised by strict parsers if a single option appears twice during
+   reading from a single file, string or dictionary. This catches misspellings
+   and case sensitivity-related errors, e.g. a dictionary may have two keys
+   representing the same case-insensitive configuration key.
+
+
+.. exception:: NoOptionError
+
+   Exception raised when a specified option is not found in the specified
+   section.
+
+
+.. exception:: InterpolationError
+
+   Base class for exceptions raised when problems occur performing string
+   interpolation.
+
+
+.. exception:: InterpolationDepthError
+
+   Exception raised when string interpolation cannot be completed because the
+   number of iterations exceeds :const:`MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH`.  Subclass of
+   :exc:`InterpolationError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: InterpolationMissingOptionError
+
+   Exception raised when an option referenced from a value does not exist.
+   Subclass of :exc:`InterpolationError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: InterpolationSyntaxError
+
+   Exception raised when the source text into which substitutions are made does
+   not conform to the required syntax.  Subclass of :exc:`InterpolationError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: MissingSectionHeaderError
+
+   Exception raised when attempting to parse a file which has no section
+   headers.
+
+
+.. exception:: ParsingError
+
+   Exception raised when errors occur attempting to parse a file.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The ``filename`` attribute and :meth:`__init__` argument were renamed to
+      ``source`` for consistency.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are interested in
+       changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference, consult the
+       `Customizing Parser Behaviour`_ section.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/constants.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/constants.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..634ff00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/constants.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+.. _built-in-consts:
+
+Built-in Constants
+==================
+
+A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace.  They are:
+
+.. data:: False
+
+   The false value of the :class:`bool` type. Assignments to ``False``
+   are illegal and raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+
+
+.. data:: True
+
+   The true value of the :class:`bool` type. Assignments to ``True``
+   are illegal and raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+
+
+.. data:: None
+
+   The sole value of the type ``NoneType``.  ``None`` is frequently used to
+   represent the absence of a value, as when default arguments are not passed to a
+   function. Assignments to ``None`` are illegal and raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+
+
+.. data:: NotImplemented
+
+   Special value which should be returned by the binary special methods
+   (e.g. :meth:`__eq__`, :meth:`__lt__`, :meth:`__add__`, :meth:`__rsub__`,
+   etc.) to indicate that the operation is not implemented with respect to
+   the other type; may be returned by the in-place binary special methods
+   (e.g. :meth:`__imul__`, :meth:`__iand__`, etc.) for the same purpose.
+   Its truth value is true.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      When a binary (or in-place) method returns ``NotImplemented`` the
+      interpreter will try the reflected operation on the other type (or some
+      other fallback, depending on the operator).  If all attempts return
+      ``NotImplemented``, the interpreter will raise an appropriate exception.
+      Incorrectly returning ``NotImplemented`` will result in a misleading
+      error message or the ``NotImplemented`` value being returned to Python code.
+
+      See :ref:`implementing-the-arithmetic-operations` for examples.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      ``NotImplementedError`` and ``NotImplemented`` are not interchangeable,
+      even though they have similar names and purposes.
+      See :exc:`NotImplementedError` for details on when to use it.
+
+
+.. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
+.. data:: Ellipsis
+
+   The same as the ellipsis literal "``...``".  Special value used mostly in conjunction
+   with extended slicing syntax for user-defined container data types.
+
+
+.. data:: __debug__
+
+   This constant is true if Python was not started with an :option:`-O` option.
+   See also the :keyword:`assert` statement.
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   The names :data:`None`, :data:`False`, :data:`True` and :data:`__debug__`
+   cannot be reassigned (assignments to them, even as an attribute name, raise
+   :exc:`SyntaxError`), so they can be considered "true" constants.
+
+
+Constants added by the :mod:`site` module
+-----------------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`site` module (which is imported automatically during startup, except
+if the :option:`-S` command-line option is given) adds several constants to the
+built-in namespace.  They are useful for the interactive interpreter shell and
+should not be used in programs.
+
+.. data:: quit(code=None)
+          exit(code=None)
+
+   Objects that when printed, print a message like "Use quit() or Ctrl-D
+   (i.e. EOF) to exit", and when called, raise :exc:`SystemExit` with the
+   specified exit code.
+
+.. data:: copyright
+          credits
+
+   Objects that when printed or called, print the text of copyright or
+   credits, respectively.
+
+.. data:: license
+
+   Object that when printed, prints the message "Type license() to see the
+   full license text", and when called, displays the full license text in a
+   pager-like fashion (one screen at a time).
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/contextlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/contextlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..017a87a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/contextlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,872 @@
+:mod:`!contextlib` --- Utilities for :keyword:`!with`\ -statement contexts
+==========================================================================
+
+.. module:: contextlib
+   :synopsis: Utilities for with-statement contexts.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/contextlib.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the :keyword:`with`
+statement. For more information see also :ref:`typecontextmanager` and
+:ref:`context-managers`.
+
+
+Utilities
+---------
+
+Functions and classes provided:
+
+.. class:: AbstractContextManager
+
+   An :term:`abstract base class` for classes that implement
+   :meth:`object.__enter__` and :meth:`object.__exit__`. A default
+   implementation for :meth:`object.__enter__` is provided which returns
+   ``self`` while :meth:`object.__exit__` is an abstract method which by default
+   returns ``None``. See also the definition of :ref:`typecontextmanager`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. class:: AbstractAsyncContextManager
+
+   An :term:`abstract base class` for classes that implement
+   :meth:`object.__aenter__` and :meth:`object.__aexit__`. A default
+   implementation for :meth:`object.__aenter__` is provided which returns
+   ``self`` while :meth:`object.__aexit__` is an abstract method which by default
+   returns ``None``. See also the definition of
+   :ref:`async-context-managers`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. decorator:: contextmanager
+
+   This function is a :term:`decorator` that can be used to define a factory
+   function for :keyword:`with` statement context managers, without needing to
+   create a class or separate :meth:`__enter__` and :meth:`__exit__` methods.
+
+   While many objects natively support use in with statements, sometimes a
+   resource needs to be managed that isn't a context manager in its own right,
+   and doesn't implement a ``close()`` method for use with ``contextlib.closing``
+
+   An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct resource
+   management::
+
+      from contextlib import contextmanager
+
+      @contextmanager
+      def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
+          # Code to acquire resource, e.g.:
+          resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
+          try:
+              yield resource
+          finally:
+              # Code to release resource, e.g.:
+              release_resource(resource)
+
+      >>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
+      ...     # Resource is released at the end of this block,
+      ...     # even if code in the block raises an exception
+
+   The function being decorated must return a :term:`generator`-iterator when
+   called. This iterator must yield exactly one value, which will be bound to
+   the targets in the :keyword:`with` statement's :keyword:`!as` clause, if any.
+
+   At the point where the generator yields, the block nested in the :keyword:`with`
+   statement is executed.  The generator is then resumed after the block is exited.
+   If an unhandled exception occurs in the block, it is reraised inside the
+   generator at the point where the yield occurred.  Thus, you can use a
+   :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except`...\ :keyword:`finally` statement to trap
+   the error (if any), or ensure that some cleanup takes place. If an exception is
+   trapped merely in order to log it or to perform some action (rather than to
+   suppress it entirely), the generator must reraise that exception. Otherwise the
+   generator context manager will indicate to the :keyword:`!with` statement that
+   the exception has been handled, and execution will resume with the statement
+   immediately following the :keyword:`!with` statement.
+
+   :func:`contextmanager` uses :class:`ContextDecorator` so the context managers
+   it creates can be used as decorators as well as in :keyword:`with` statements.
+   When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on
+   each function call (this allows the otherwise "one-shot" context managers
+   created by :func:`contextmanager` to meet the requirement that context
+   managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Use of :class:`ContextDecorator`.
+
+
+.. decorator:: asynccontextmanager
+
+   Similar to :func:`~contextlib.contextmanager`, but creates an
+   :ref:`asynchronous context manager <async-context-managers>`.
+
+   This function is a :term:`decorator` that can be used to define a factory
+   function for :keyword:`async with` statement asynchronous context managers,
+   without needing to create a class or separate :meth:`__aenter__` and
+   :meth:`__aexit__` methods. It must be applied to an :term:`asynchronous
+   generator` function.
+
+   A simple example::
+
+      from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
+
+      @asynccontextmanager
+      async def get_connection():
+          conn = await acquire_db_connection()
+          try:
+              yield conn
+          finally:
+              await release_db_connection(conn)
+
+      async def get_all_users():
+          async with get_connection() as conn:
+              return conn.query('SELECT ...')
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: closing(thing)
+
+   Return a context manager that closes *thing* upon completion of the block.  This
+   is basically equivalent to::
+
+      from contextlib import contextmanager
+
+      @contextmanager
+      def closing(thing):
+          try:
+              yield thing
+          finally:
+              thing.close()
+
+   And lets you write code like this::
+
+      from contextlib import closing
+      from urllib.request import urlopen
+
+      with closing(urlopen('http://www.python.org')) as page:
+          for line in page:
+              print(line)
+
+   without needing to explicitly close ``page``.  Even if an error occurs,
+   ``page.close()`` will be called when the :keyword:`with` block is exited.
+
+
+.. _simplifying-support-for-single-optional-context-managers:
+
+.. function:: nullcontext(enter_result=None)
+
+   Return a context manager that returns *enter_result* from ``__enter__``, but
+   otherwise does nothing. It is intended to be used as a stand-in for an
+   optional context manager, for example::
+
+      def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
+          if ignore_exceptions:
+              # Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.
+              cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
+          else:
+              # Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.
+              cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
+          with cm:
+              # Do something
+
+   An example using *enter_result*::
+
+      def process_file(file_or_path):
+          if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
+              # If string, open file
+              cm = open(file_or_path)
+          else:
+              # Caller is responsible for closing file
+              cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)
+
+          with cm as file:
+              # Perform processing on the file
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: suppress(*exceptions)
+
+   Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified exceptions
+   if they occur in the body of a with statement and then resumes execution
+   with the first statement following the end of the with statement.
+
+   As with any other mechanism that completely suppresses exceptions, this
+   context manager should be used only to cover very specific errors where
+   silently continuing with program execution is known to be the right
+   thing to do.
+
+   For example::
+
+       from contextlib import suppress
+
+       with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
+           os.remove('somefile.tmp')
+
+       with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
+           os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
+
+   This code is equivalent to::
+
+       try:
+           os.remove('somefile.tmp')
+       except FileNotFoundError:
+           pass
+
+       try:
+           os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
+       except FileNotFoundError:
+           pass
+
+   This context manager is :ref:`reentrant <reentrant-cms>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: redirect_stdout(new_target)
+
+   Context manager for temporarily redirecting :data:`sys.stdout` to
+   another file or file-like object.
+
+   This tool adds flexibility to existing functions or classes whose output
+   is hardwired to stdout.
+
+   For example, the output of :func:`help` normally is sent to *sys.stdout*.
+   You can capture that output in a string by redirecting the output to an
+   :class:`io.StringIO` object::
+
+        f = io.StringIO()
+        with redirect_stdout(f):
+            help(pow)
+        s = f.getvalue()
+
+   To send the output of :func:`help` to a file on disk, redirect the output
+   to a regular file::
+
+        with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
+            with redirect_stdout(f):
+                help(pow)
+
+   To send the output of :func:`help` to *sys.stderr*::
+
+        with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
+            help(pow)
+
+   Note that the global side effect on :data:`sys.stdout` means that this
+   context manager is not suitable for use in library code and most threaded
+   applications. It also has no effect on the output of subprocesses.
+   However, it is still a useful approach for many utility scripts.
+
+   This context manager is :ref:`reentrant <reentrant-cms>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: redirect_stderr(new_target)
+
+   Similar to :func:`~contextlib.redirect_stdout` but redirecting
+   :data:`sys.stderr` to another file or file-like object.
+
+   This context manager is :ref:`reentrant <reentrant-cms>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. class:: ContextDecorator()
+
+   A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a decorator.
+
+   Context managers inheriting from ``ContextDecorator`` have to implement
+   ``__enter__`` and ``__exit__`` as normal. ``__exit__`` retains its optional
+   exception handling even when used as a decorator.
+
+   ``ContextDecorator`` is used by :func:`contextmanager`, so you get this
+   functionality automatically.
+
+   Example of ``ContextDecorator``::
+
+      from contextlib import ContextDecorator
+
+      class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
+          def __enter__(self):
+              print('Starting')
+              return self
+
+          def __exit__(self, *exc):
+              print('Finishing')
+              return False
+
+      >>> @mycontext()
+      ... def function():
+      ...     print('The bit in the middle')
+      ...
+      >>> function()
+      Starting
+      The bit in the middle
+      Finishing
+
+      >>> with mycontext():
+      ...     print('The bit in the middle')
+      ...
+      Starting
+      The bit in the middle
+      Finishing
+
+   This change is just syntactic sugar for any construct of the following form::
+
+      def f():
+          with cm():
+              # Do stuff
+
+   ``ContextDecorator`` lets you instead write::
+
+      @cm()
+      def f():
+          # Do stuff
+
+   It makes it clear that the ``cm`` applies to the whole function, rather than
+   just a piece of it (and saving an indentation level is nice, too).
+
+   Existing context managers that already have a base class can be extended by
+   using ``ContextDecorator`` as a mixin class::
+
+      from contextlib import ContextDecorator
+
+      class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
+          def __enter__(self):
+              return self
+
+          def __exit__(self, *exc):
+              return False
+
+   .. note::
+      As the decorated function must be able to be called multiple times, the
+      underlying context manager must support use in multiple :keyword:`with`
+      statements. If this is not the case, then the original construct with the
+      explicit :keyword:`!with` statement inside the function should be used.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. class:: ExitStack()
+
+   A context manager that is designed to make it easy to programmatically
+   combine other context managers and cleanup functions, especially those
+   that are optional or otherwise driven by input data.
+
+   For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with
+   statement as follows::
+
+      with ExitStack() as stack:
+          files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
+          # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
+          # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
+          # in the list raise an exception
+
+   Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are called in
+   reverse order when the instance is closed (either explicitly or implicitly
+   at the end of a :keyword:`with` statement). Note that callbacks are *not*
+   invoked implicitly when the context stack instance is garbage collected.
+
+   This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire their
+   resources in their ``__init__`` method (such as file objects) can be
+   handled correctly.
+
+   Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of
+   registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested :keyword:`with`
+   statements had been used with the registered set of callbacks. This even
+   extends to exception handling - if an inner callback suppresses or replaces
+   an exception, then outer callbacks will be passed arguments based on that
+   updated state.
+
+   This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details of
+   correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks. It provides a suitable
+   foundation for higher level context managers that manipulate the exit
+   stack in application specific ways.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: enter_context(cm)
+
+      Enters a new context manager and adds its :meth:`__exit__` method to
+      the callback stack. The return value is the result of the context
+      manager's own :meth:`__enter__` method.
+
+      These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they normally
+      would if used directly as part of a :keyword:`with` statement.
+
+   .. method:: push(exit)
+
+      Adds a context manager's :meth:`__exit__` method to the callback stack.
+
+      As ``__enter__`` is *not* invoked, this method can be used to cover
+      part of an :meth:`__enter__` implementation with a context manager's own
+      :meth:`__exit__` method.
+
+      If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method assumes
+      it is a callback with the same signature as a context manager's
+      :meth:`__exit__` method and adds it directly to the callback stack.
+
+      By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress exceptions the
+      same way context manager :meth:`__exit__` methods can.
+
+      The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing this
+      method to be used as a function decorator.
+
+   .. method:: callback(callback, *args, **kwds)
+
+      Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds it to
+      the callback stack.
+
+      Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot suppress
+      exceptions (as they are never passed the exception details).
+
+      The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing this
+      method to be used as a function decorator.
+
+   .. method:: pop_all()
+
+      Transfers the callback stack to a fresh :class:`ExitStack` instance
+      and returns it. No callbacks are invoked by this operation - instead,
+      they will now be invoked when the new stack is closed (either
+      explicitly or implicitly at the end of a :keyword:`with` statement).
+
+      For example, a group of files can be opened as an "all or nothing"
+      operation as follows::
+
+         with ExitStack() as stack:
+             files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
+             # Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet.
+             close_files = stack.pop_all().close
+             # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be
+             # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,
+             # they will remain open even after the with statement ends.
+             # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in the
+      reverse order of registration. For any context managers and exit
+      callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will indicate that no
+      exception occurred.
+
+.. class:: AsyncExitStack()
+
+   An :ref:`asynchronous context manager <async-context-managers>`, similar
+   to :class:`ExitStack`, that supports combining both synchronous and
+   asynchronous context managers, as well as having coroutines for
+   cleanup logic.
+
+   The :meth:`close` method is not implemented, :meth:`aclose` must be used
+   instead.
+
+   .. method:: enter_async_context(cm)
+
+      Similar to :meth:`enter_context` but expects an asynchronous context
+      manager.
+
+   .. method:: push_async_exit(exit)
+
+      Similar to :meth:`push` but expects either an asynchronous context manager
+      or a coroutine function.
+
+   .. method:: push_async_callback(callback, *args, **kwds)
+
+      Similar to :meth:`callback` but expects a coroutine function.
+
+   .. method:: aclose()
+
+      Similar to :meth:`close` but properly handles awaitables.
+
+   Continuing the example for :func:`asynccontextmanager`::
+
+      async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
+          connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
+              for i in range(5)]
+          # All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of
+          # the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection
+          # later in the list raise an exception.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+Examples and Recipes
+--------------------
+
+This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective use of
+the tools provided by :mod:`contextlib`.
+
+
+Supporting a variable number of context managers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The primary use case for :class:`ExitStack` is the one given in the class
+documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers and other
+cleanup operations in a single :keyword:`with` statement. The variability
+may come from the number of context managers needed being driven by user
+input (such as opening a user specified collection of files), or from
+some of the context managers being optional::
+
+    with ExitStack() as stack:
+        for resource in resources:
+            stack.enter_context(resource)
+        if need_special_resource():
+            special = acquire_special_resource()
+            stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
+        # Perform operations that use the acquired resources
+
+As shown, :class:`ExitStack` also makes it quite easy to use :keyword:`with`
+statements to manage arbitrary resources that don't natively support the
+context management protocol.
+
+
+Catching exceptions from ``__enter__`` methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an ``__enter__``
+method implementation, *without* inadvertently catching exceptions from
+the :keyword:`with` statement body or the context manager's ``__exit__``
+method. By using :class:`ExitStack` the steps in the context management
+protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this::
+
+   stack = ExitStack()
+   try:
+       x = stack.enter_context(cm)
+   except Exception:
+       # handle __enter__ exception
+   else:
+       with stack:
+           # Handle normal case
+
+Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying API
+should be providing a direct resource management interface for use with
+:keyword:`try`/:keyword:`except`/:keyword:`finally` statements, but not
+all APIs are well designed in that regard. When a context manager is the
+only resource management API provided, then :class:`ExitStack` can make it
+easier to handle various situations that can't be handled directly in a
+:keyword:`with` statement.
+
+
+Cleaning up in an ``__enter__`` implementation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+As noted in the documentation of :meth:`ExitStack.push`, this
+method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if later
+steps in the :meth:`__enter__` implementation fail.
+
+Here's an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts resource
+acquisition and release functions, along with an optional validation function,
+and maps them to the context management protocol::
+
+   from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack
+
+   class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):
+
+       def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
+           self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
+           self.release_resource = release_resource
+           if check_resource_ok is None:
+               def check_resource_ok(resource):
+                   return True
+           self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok
+
+       @contextmanager
+       def _cleanup_on_error(self):
+           with ExitStack() as stack:
+               stack.push(self)
+               yield
+               # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception
+               # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it
+               # back to our caller
+               stack.pop_all()
+
+       def __enter__(self):
+           resource = self.acquire_resource()
+           with self._cleanup_on_error():
+               if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
+                   msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
+                   raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
+           return resource
+
+       def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
+           # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic
+           self.release_resource()
+
+
+Replacing any use of ``try-finally`` and flag variables
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A pattern you will sometimes see is a ``try-finally`` statement with a flag
+variable to indicate whether or not the body of the ``finally`` clause should
+be executed. In its simplest form (that can't already be handled just by
+using an ``except`` clause instead), it looks something like this::
+
+   cleanup_needed = True
+   try:
+       result = perform_operation()
+       if result:
+           cleanup_needed = False
+   finally:
+       if cleanup_needed:
+           cleanup_resources()
+
+As with any ``try`` statement based code, this can cause problems for
+development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can end
+up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code.
+
+:class:`ExitStack` makes it possible to instead register a callback for
+execution at the end of a ``with`` statement, and then later decide to skip
+executing that callback::
+
+   from contextlib import ExitStack
+
+   with ExitStack() as stack:
+       stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
+       result = perform_operation()
+       if result:
+           stack.pop_all()
+
+This allows the intended cleanup up behaviour to be made explicit up front,
+rather than requiring a separate flag variable.
+
+If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be simplified
+even further by means of a small helper class::
+
+   from contextlib import ExitStack
+
+   class Callback(ExitStack):
+       def __init__(self, callback, *args, **kwds):
+           super(Callback, self).__init__()
+           self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)
+
+       def cancel(self):
+           self.pop_all()
+
+   with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
+       result = perform_operation()
+       if result:
+           cb.cancel()
+
+If the resource cleanup isn't already neatly bundled into a standalone
+function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of
+:meth:`ExitStack.callback` to declare the resource cleanup in
+advance::
+
+   from contextlib import ExitStack
+
+   with ExitStack() as stack:
+       @stack.callback
+       def cleanup_resources():
+           ...
+       result = perform_operation()
+       if result:
+           stack.pop_all()
+
+Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function
+declared this way cannot take any parameters. Instead, any resources to
+be released must be accessed as closure variables.
+
+
+Using a context manager as a function decorator
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`ContextDecorator` makes it possible to use a context manager in
+both an ordinary ``with`` statement and also as a function decorator.
+
+For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements
+with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit.  Rather than
+writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task,
+inheriting from :class:`ContextDecorator` provides both capabilities in a
+single definition::
+
+    from contextlib import ContextDecorator
+    import logging
+
+    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)
+
+    class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
+        def __init__(self, name):
+            self.name = name
+
+        def __enter__(self):
+            logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)
+
+        def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
+            logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)
+
+Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager::
+
+    with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
+        print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
+        load_widget()
+
+And also as a function decorator::
+
+    @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
+    def activity():
+        print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
+        load_widget()
+
+Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers
+as function decorators: there's no way to access the return value of
+:meth:`__enter__`. If that value is needed, then it is still necessary to use
+an explicit ``with`` statement.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`343` - The "with" statement
+      The specification, background, and examples for the Python :keyword:`with`
+      statement.
+
+.. _single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms:
+
+Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+Most context managers are written in a way that means they can only be
+used effectively in a :keyword:`with` statement once. These single use
+context managers must be created afresh each time they're used -
+attempting to use them a second time will trigger an exception or
+otherwise not work correctly.
+
+This common limitation means that it is generally advisable to create
+context managers directly in the header of the :keyword:`with` statement
+where they are used (as shown in all of the usage examples above).
+
+Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since
+the first :keyword:`with` statement will close the file, preventing any
+further IO operations using that file object.
+
+Context managers created using :func:`contextmanager` are also single use
+context managers, and will complain about the underlying generator failing
+to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second time::
+
+    >>> from contextlib import contextmanager
+    >>> @contextmanager
+    ... def singleuse():
+    ...     print("Before")
+    ...     yield
+    ...     print("After")
+    ...
+    >>> cm = singleuse()
+    >>> with cm:
+    ...     pass
+    ...
+    Before
+    After
+    >>> with cm:
+    ...     pass
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    RuntimeError: generator didn't yield
+
+
+.. _reentrant-cms:
+
+Reentrant context managers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+More sophisticated context managers may be "reentrant". These context
+managers can not only be used in multiple :keyword:`with` statements,
+but may also be used *inside* a :keyword:`!with` statement that is already
+using the same context manager.
+
+:class:`threading.RLock` is an example of a reentrant context manager, as are
+:func:`suppress` and :func:`redirect_stdout`. Here's a very simple example of
+reentrant use::
+
+    >>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
+    >>> from io import StringIO
+    >>> stream = StringIO()
+    >>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
+    >>> with write_to_stream:
+    ...     print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
+    ...     with write_to_stream:
+    ...         print("This is also written to the stream")
+    ...
+    >>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
+    This is written directly to stdout
+    >>> print(stream.getvalue())
+    This is written to the stream rather than stdout
+    This is also written to the stream
+
+Real world examples of reentrancy are more likely to involve multiple
+functions calling each other and hence be far more complicated than this
+example.
+
+Note also that being reentrant is *not* the same thing as being thread safe.
+:func:`redirect_stdout`, for example, is definitely not thread safe, as it
+makes a global modification to the system state by binding :data:`sys.stdout`
+to a different stream.
+
+
+.. _reusable-cms:
+
+Reusable context managers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Distinct from both single use and reentrant context managers are "reusable"
+context managers (or, to be completely explicit, "reusable, but not
+reentrant" context managers, since reentrant context managers are also
+reusable). These context managers support being used multiple times, but
+will fail (or otherwise not work correctly) if the specific context manager
+instance has already been used in a containing with statement.
+
+:class:`threading.Lock` is an example of a reusable, but not reentrant,
+context manager (for a reentrant lock, it is necessary to use
+:class:`threading.RLock` instead).
+
+Another example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager is
+:class:`ExitStack`, as it invokes *all* currently registered callbacks
+when leaving any with statement, regardless of where those callbacks
+were added::
+
+    >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
+    >>> stack = ExitStack()
+    >>> with stack:
+    ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
+    ...     print("Leaving first context")
+    ...
+    Leaving first context
+    Callback: from first context
+    >>> with stack:
+    ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
+    ...     print("Leaving second context")
+    ...
+    Leaving second context
+    Callback: from second context
+    >>> with stack:
+    ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
+    ...     with stack:
+    ...         stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
+    ...         print("Leaving inner context")
+    ...     print("Leaving outer context")
+    ...
+    Leaving inner context
+    Callback: from inner context
+    Callback: from outer context
+    Leaving outer context
+
+As the output from the example shows, reusing a single stack object across
+multiple with statements works correctly, but attempting to nest them
+will cause the stack to be cleared at the end of the innermost with
+statement, which is unlikely to be desirable behaviour.
+
+Using separate :class:`ExitStack` instances instead of reusing a single
+instance avoids that problem::
+
+    >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
+    >>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
+    ...     outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
+    ...     with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
+    ...         inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
+    ...         print("Leaving inner context")
+    ...     print("Leaving outer context")
+    ...
+    Leaving inner context
+    Callback: from inner context
+    Leaving outer context
+    Callback: from outer context
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/contextvars.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/contextvars.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8805661
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/contextvars.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+:mod:`contextvars` --- Context Variables
+========================================
+
+.. module:: contextvars
+   :synopsis: Context Variables
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Yury Selivanov <yury@magic.io>
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides APIs to manage, store, and access context-local
+state.  The :class:`~contextvars.ContextVar` class is used to declare
+and work with *Context Variables*.  The :func:`~contextvars.copy_context`
+function and the :class:`~contextvars.Context` class should be used to
+manage the current context in asynchronous frameworks.
+
+Context managers that have state should use Context Variables
+instead of :func:`threading.local()` to prevent their state from
+bleeding to other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.
+
+See also :pep:`567` for additional details.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Context Variables
+-----------------
+
+.. class:: ContextVar(name, [\*, default])
+
+   This class is used to declare a new Context Variable, e.g.::
+
+       var: ContextVar[int] = ContextVar('var', default=42)
+
+   The required *name* parameter is used for introspection and debug
+   purposes.
+
+   The optional keyword-only *default* parameter is returned by
+   :meth:`ContextVar.get` when no value for the variable is found
+   in the current context.
+
+   **Important:** Context Variables should be created at the top module
+   level and never in closures.  :class:`Context` objects hold strong
+   references to context variables which prevents context variables
+   from being properly garbage collected.
+
+   .. attribute:: ContextVar.name
+
+      The name of the variable.  This is a read-only property.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7.1
+
+   .. method:: get([default])
+
+      Return a value for the context variable for the current context.
+
+      If there is no value for the variable in the current context,
+      the method will:
+
+      * return the value of the *default* argument of the method,
+        if provided; or
+
+      * return the default value for the context variable,
+        if it was created with one; or
+
+      * raise a :exc:`LookupError`.
+
+   .. method:: set(value)
+
+      Call to set a new value for the context variable in the current
+      context.
+
+      The required *value* argument is the new value for the context
+      variable.
+
+      Returns a :class:`~contextvars.Token` object that can be used
+      to restore the variable to its previous value via the
+      :meth:`ContextVar.reset` method.
+
+   .. method:: reset(token)
+
+      Reset the context variable to the value it had before the
+      :meth:`ContextVar.set` that created the *token* was used.
+
+      For example::
+
+          var = ContextVar('var')
+
+          token = var.set('new value')
+          # code that uses 'var'; var.get() returns 'new value'.
+          var.reset(token)
+
+          # After the reset call the var has no value again, so
+          # var.get() would raise a LookupError.
+
+
+.. class:: contextvars.Token
+
+   *Token* objects are returned by the :meth:`ContextVar.set` method.
+   They can be passed to the :meth:`ContextVar.reset` method to revert
+   the value of the variable to what it was before the corresponding
+   *set*.
+
+   .. attribute:: Token.var
+
+      A read-only property.  Points to the :class:`ContextVar` object
+      that created the token.
+
+   .. attribute:: Token.old_value
+
+      A read-only property.  Set to the value the variable had before
+      the :meth:`ContextVar.set` method call that created the token.
+      It points to :attr:`Token.MISSING` is the variable was not set
+      before the call.
+
+   .. attribute:: Token.MISSING
+
+      A marker object used by :attr:`Token.old_value`.
+
+
+Manual Context Management
+-------------------------
+
+.. function:: copy_context()
+
+   Returns a copy of the current :class:`~contextvars.Context` object.
+
+   The following snippet gets a copy of the current context and prints
+   all variables and their values that are set in it::
+
+      ctx: Context = copy_context()
+      print(list(ctx.items()))
+
+   The function has an O(1) complexity, i.e. works equally fast for
+   contexts with a few context variables and for contexts that have
+   a lot of them.
+
+
+.. class:: Context()
+
+   A mapping of :class:`ContextVars <ContextVar>` to their values.
+
+   ``Context()`` creates an empty context with no values in it.
+   To get a copy of the current context use the
+   :func:`~contextvars.copy_context` function.
+
+   Context implements the :class:`collections.abc.Mapping` interface.
+
+   .. method:: run(callable, \*args, \*\*kwargs)
+
+      Execute ``callable(*args, **kwargs)`` code in the context object
+      the *run* method is called on.  Return the result of the execution
+      or propagate an exception if one occurred.
+
+      Any changes to any context variables that *callable* makes will
+      be contained in the context object::
+
+        var = ContextVar('var')
+        var.set('spam')
+
+        def main():
+            # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
+            # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
+            # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'spam'
+
+            var.set('ham')
+
+            # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
+            # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'ham'
+
+        ctx = copy_context()
+
+        # Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
+        # will be contained in 'ctx'.
+        ctx.run(main)
+
+        # The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
+        # so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
+        # ctx[var] == 'ham'
+
+        # However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
+        # var.get() == 'spam'
+
+      The method raises a :exc:`RuntimeError` when called on the same
+      context object from more than one OS thread, or when called
+      recursively.
+
+   .. method:: copy()
+
+      Return a shallow copy of the context object.
+
+   .. describe:: var in context
+
+      Return ``True`` if the *context* has a value for *var* set;
+      return ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   .. describe:: context[var]
+
+      Return the value of the *var* :class:`ContextVar` variable.
+      If the variable is not set in the context object, a
+      :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+
+   .. method:: get(var, [default])
+
+      Return the value for *var* if *var* has the value in the context
+      object.  Return *default* otherwise.  If *default* is not given,
+      return ``None``.
+
+   .. describe:: iter(context)
+
+      Return an iterator over the variables stored in the context
+      object.
+
+   .. describe:: len(proxy)
+
+      Return the number of variables set in the context object.
+
+   .. method:: keys()
+
+      Return a list of all variables in the context object.
+
+   .. method:: values()
+
+      Return a list of all variables' values in the context object.
+
+
+   .. method:: items()
+
+      Return a list of 2-tuples containing all variables and their
+      values in the context object.
+
+
+asyncio support
+---------------
+
+Context variables are natively supported in :mod:`asyncio` and are
+ready to be used without any extra configuration.  For example, here
+is a simple echo server, that uses a context variable to make the
+address of a remote client available in the Task that handles that
+client::
+
+    import asyncio
+    import contextvars
+
+    client_addr_var = contextvars.ContextVar('client_addr')
+
+    def render_goodbye():
+        # The address of the currently handled client can be accessed
+        # without passing it explicitly to this function.
+
+        client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
+        return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\n'.encode()
+
+    async def handle_request(reader, writer):
+        addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
+        client_addr_var.set(addr)
+
+        # In any code that we call is now possible to get
+        # client's address by calling 'client_addr_var.get()'.
+
+        while True:
+            line = await reader.readline()
+            print(line)
+            if not line.strip():
+                break
+            writer.write(line)
+
+        writer.write(render_goodbye())
+        writer.close()
+
+    async def main():
+        srv = await asyncio.start_server(
+            handle_request, '127.0.0.1', 8081)
+
+        async with srv:
+            await srv.serve_forever()
+
+    asyncio.run(main())
+
+    # To test it you can use telnet:
+    #     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/copy.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/copy.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7bd89f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/copy.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+:mod:`copy` --- Shallow and deep copy operations
+================================================
+
+.. module:: copy
+   :synopsis: Shallow and deep copy operations.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/copy.py`
+
+--------------
+
+Assignment statements in Python do not copy objects, they create bindings
+between a target and an object. For collections that are mutable or contain
+mutable items, a copy is sometimes needed so one can change one copy without
+changing the other. This module provides generic shallow and deep copy
+operations (explained below).
+
+
+Interface summary:
+
+.. function:: copy(x)
+
+   Return a shallow copy of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: deepcopy(x[, memo])
+
+   Return a deep copy of *x*.
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Raised for module specific errors.
+
+
+The difference between shallow and deep copying is only relevant for compound
+objects (objects that contain other objects, like lists or class instances):
+
+* A *shallow copy* constructs a new compound object and then (to the extent
+  possible) inserts *references* into it to the objects found in the original.
+
+* A *deep copy* constructs a new compound object and then, recursively, inserts
+  *copies* into it of the objects found in the original.
+
+Two problems often exist with deep copy operations that don't exist with shallow
+copy operations:
+
+* Recursive objects (compound objects that, directly or indirectly, contain a
+  reference to themselves) may cause a recursive loop.
+
+* Because deep copy copies everything it may copy too much, such as data
+  which is intended to be shared between copies.
+
+The :func:`deepcopy` function avoids these problems by:
+
+* keeping a ``memo`` dictionary of objects already copied during the current
+  copying pass; and
+
+* letting user-defined classes override the copying operation or the set of
+  components copied.
+
+This module does not copy types like module, method, stack trace, stack frame,
+file, socket, window, array, or any similar types.  It does "copy" functions and
+classes (shallow and deeply), by returning the original object unchanged; this
+is compatible with the way these are treated by the :mod:`pickle` module.
+
+Shallow copies of dictionaries can be made using :meth:`dict.copy`, and
+of lists by assigning a slice of the entire list, for example,
+``copied_list = original_list[:]``.
+
+.. index:: module: pickle
+
+Classes can use the same interfaces to control copying that they use to control
+pickling.  See the description of module :mod:`pickle` for information on these
+methods.  In fact, the :mod:`copy` module uses the registered
+pickle functions from the :mod:`copyreg` module.
+
+.. index::
+   single: __copy__() (copy protocol)
+   single: __deepcopy__() (copy protocol)
+
+In order for a class to define its own copy implementation, it can define
+special methods :meth:`__copy__` and :meth:`__deepcopy__`.  The former is called
+to implement the shallow copy operation; no additional arguments are passed.
+The latter is called to implement the deep copy operation; it is passed one
+argument, the ``memo`` dictionary.  If the :meth:`__deepcopy__` implementation needs
+to make a deep copy of a component, it should call the :func:`deepcopy` function
+with the component as first argument and the memo dictionary as second argument.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`pickle`
+      Discussion of the special methods used to support object state retrieval and
+      restoration.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/copyreg.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/copyreg.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40fca56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/copyreg.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+:mod:`copyreg` --- Register :mod:`pickle` support functions
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: copyreg
+   :synopsis: Register pickle support functions.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/copyreg.py`
+
+.. index::
+   module: pickle
+   module: copy
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`copyreg` module offers a way to define functions used while pickling
+specific objects.  The :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`copy` modules use those functions
+when pickling/copying those objects.  The module provides configuration
+information about object constructors which are not classes.
+Such constructors may be factory functions or class instances.
+
+
+.. function:: constructor(object)
+
+   Declares *object* to be a valid constructor.  If *object* is not callable (and
+   hence not valid as a constructor), raises :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. function:: pickle(type, function, constructor=None)
+
+   Declares that *function* should be used as a "reduction" function for objects
+   of type *type*.  *function* should return either a string or a tuple
+   containing two or three elements.
+
+   The optional *constructor* parameter, if provided, is a callable object which
+   can be used to reconstruct the object when called with the tuple of arguments
+   returned by *function* at pickling time.  :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if
+   *object* is a class or *constructor* is not callable.
+
+   See the :mod:`pickle` module for more details on the interface
+   expected of *function* and *constructor*.  Note that the
+   :attr:`~pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table` attribute of a pickler
+   object or subclass of :class:`pickle.Pickler` can also be used for
+   declaring reduction functions.
+
+Example
+-------
+
+The example below would like to show how to register a pickle function and how
+it will be used:
+
+   >>> import copyreg, copy, pickle
+   >>> class C(object):
+   ...     def __init__(self, a):
+   ...         self.a = a
+   ...
+   >>> def pickle_c(c):
+   ...     print("pickling a C instance...")
+   ...     return C, (c.a,)
+   ...
+   >>> copyreg.pickle(C, pickle_c)
+   >>> c = C(1)
+   >>> d = copy.copy(c)  # doctest: +SKIP
+   pickling a C instance...
+   >>> p = pickle.dumps(c)  # doctest: +SKIP
+   pickling a C instance...
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/crypt.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/crypt.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43d4b5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/crypt.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
+:mod:`crypt` --- Function to check Unix passwords
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: crypt
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Steven D. Majewski <sdm7g@virginia.edu>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steven D. Majewski <sdm7g@virginia.edu>
+.. sectionauthor:: Peter Funk <pf@artcom-gmbh.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/crypt.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: crypt(3)
+   pair: cipher; DES
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements an interface to the :manpage:`crypt(3)` routine, which is
+a one-way hash function based upon a modified DES algorithm; see the Unix man
+page for further details.  Possible uses include storing hashed passwords
+so you can check passwords without storing the actual password, or attempting
+to crack Unix passwords with a dictionary.
+
+.. index:: single: crypt(3)
+
+Notice that the behavior of this module depends on the actual implementation  of
+the :manpage:`crypt(3)` routine in the running system.  Therefore, any
+extensions available on the current implementation will also  be available on
+this module.
+
+Hashing Methods
+---------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The :mod:`crypt` module defines the list of hashing methods (not all methods
+are available on all platforms):
+
+.. data:: METHOD_SHA512
+
+   A Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 86 character
+   hash based on the SHA-512 hash function.  This is the strongest method.
+
+.. data:: METHOD_SHA256
+
+   Another Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 43
+   character hash based on the SHA-256 hash function.
+
+.. data:: METHOD_BLOWFISH
+
+   Another Modular Crypt Format method with 22 character salt and 31
+   character hash based on the Blowfish cipher.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: METHOD_MD5
+
+   Another Modular Crypt Format method with 8 character salt and 22
+   character hash based on the MD5 hash function.
+
+.. data:: METHOD_CRYPT
+
+   The traditional method with a 2 character salt and 13 characters of
+   hash.  This is the weakest method.
+
+
+Module Attributes
+-----------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. attribute:: methods
+
+   A list of available password hashing algorithms, as
+   ``crypt.METHOD_*`` objects.  This list is sorted from strongest to
+   weakest.
+
+
+Module Functions
+----------------
+
+The :mod:`crypt` module defines the following functions:
+
+.. function:: crypt(word, salt=None)
+
+   *word* will usually be a user's password as typed at a prompt or  in a graphical
+   interface.  The optional *salt* is either a string as returned from
+   :func:`mksalt`, one of the ``crypt.METHOD_*`` values (though not all
+   may be available on all platforms), or a full encrypted password
+   including salt, as returned by this function.  If *salt* is not
+   provided, the strongest method will be used (as returned by
+   :func:`methods`).
+
+   Checking a password is usually done by passing the plain-text password
+   as *word* and the full results of a previous :func:`crypt` call,
+   which should be the same as the results of this call.
+
+   *salt* (either a random 2 or 16 character string, possibly prefixed with
+   ``$digit$`` to indicate the method) which will be used to perturb the
+   encryption algorithm.  The characters in *salt* must be in the set
+   ``[./a-zA-Z0-9]``, with the exception of Modular Crypt Format which
+   prefixes a ``$digit$``.
+
+   Returns the hashed password as a string, which will be composed of
+   characters from the same alphabet as the salt.
+
+   .. index:: single: crypt(3)
+
+   Since a few :manpage:`crypt(3)` extensions allow different values, with
+   different sizes in the *salt*, it is recommended to use  the full crypted
+   password as salt when checking for a password.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Accept ``crypt.METHOD_*`` values in addition to strings for *salt*.
+
+
+.. function:: mksalt(method=None, *, rounds=None)
+
+   Return a randomly generated salt of the specified method.  If no
+   *method* is given, the strongest method available as returned by
+   :func:`methods` is used.
+
+   The return value is a string suitable for passing as the *salt* argument
+   to :func:`crypt`.
+
+   *rounds* specifies the number of rounds for ``METHOD_SHA256``,
+   ``METHOD_SHA512`` and ``METHOD_BLOWFISH``.
+   For ``METHOD_SHA256`` and ``METHOD_SHA512`` it must be an integer between
+   ``1000`` and ``999_999_999``, the default is ``5000``.  For
+   ``METHOD_BLOWFISH`` it must be a power of two between ``16`` (2\ :sup:`4`)
+   and ``2_147_483_648`` (2\ :sup:`31`), the default is ``4096``
+   (2\ :sup:`12`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added the *rounds* parameter.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+A simple example illustrating typical use (a constant-time comparison
+operation is needed to limit exposure to timing attacks.
+:func:`hmac.compare_digest` is suitable for this purpose)::
+
+   import pwd
+   import crypt
+   import getpass
+   from hmac import compare_digest as compare_hash
+
+   def login():
+       username = input('Python login: ')
+       cryptedpasswd = pwd.getpwnam(username)[1]
+       if cryptedpasswd:
+           if cryptedpasswd == 'x' or cryptedpasswd == '*':
+               raise ValueError('no support for shadow passwords')
+           cleartext = getpass.getpass()
+           return compare_hash(crypt.crypt(cleartext, cryptedpasswd), cryptedpasswd)
+       else:
+           return True
+
+To generate a hash of a password using the strongest available method and
+check it against the original::
+
+   import crypt
+   from hmac import compare_digest as compare_hash
+
+   hashed = crypt.crypt(plaintext)
+   if not compare_hash(hashed, crypt.crypt(plaintext, hashed)):
+       raise ValueError("hashed version doesn't validate against original")
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/crypto.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/crypto.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae45549
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/crypto.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+.. _crypto:
+
+**********************
+Cryptographic Services
+**********************
+
+.. index:: single: cryptography
+
+The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms of a
+cryptographic nature.  They are available at the discretion of the installation.
+On Unix systems, the :mod:`crypt` module may also be available.
+Here's an overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   hashlib.rst
+   hmac.rst
+   secrets.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/csv.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/csv.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..049537e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/csv.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,550 @@
+:mod:`csv` --- CSV File Reading and Writing
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: csv
+   :synopsis: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@pobox.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/csv.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: csv
+   pair: data; tabular
+
+--------------
+
+The so-called CSV (Comma Separated Values) format is the most common import and
+export format for spreadsheets and databases.  CSV format was used for many
+years prior to attempts to describe the format in a standardized way in
+:rfc:`4180`.  The lack of a well-defined standard means that subtle differences
+often exist in the data produced and consumed by different applications.  These
+differences can make it annoying to process CSV files from multiple sources.
+Still, while the delimiters and quoting characters vary, the overall format is
+similar enough that it is possible to write a single module which can
+efficiently manipulate such data, hiding the details of reading and writing the
+data from the programmer.
+
+The :mod:`csv` module implements classes to read and write tabular data in CSV
+format.  It allows programmers to say, "write this data in the format preferred
+by Excel," or "read data from this file which was generated by Excel," without
+knowing the precise details of the CSV format used by Excel.  Programmers can
+also describe the CSV formats understood by other applications or define their
+own special-purpose CSV formats.
+
+The :mod:`csv` module's :class:`reader` and :class:`writer` objects read and
+write sequences.  Programmers can also read and write data in dictionary form
+using the :class:`DictReader` and :class:`DictWriter` classes.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`305` - CSV File API
+      The Python Enhancement Proposal which proposed this addition to Python.
+
+
+.. _csv-contents:
+
+Module Contents
+---------------
+
+The :mod:`csv` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: universal newlines; csv.reader function
+
+.. function:: reader(csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)
+
+   Return a reader object which will iterate over lines in the given *csvfile*.
+   *csvfile* can be any object which supports the :term:`iterator` protocol and returns a
+   string each time its :meth:`!__next__` method is called --- :term:`file objects
+   <file object>` and list objects are both suitable.   If *csvfile* is a file object,
+   it should be opened with ``newline=''``. [1]_  An optional
+   *dialect* parameter can be given which is used to define a set of parameters
+   specific to a particular CSV dialect.  It may be an instance of a subclass of
+   the :class:`Dialect` class or one of the strings returned by the
+   :func:`list_dialects` function.  The other optional *fmtparams* keyword arguments
+   can be given to override individual formatting parameters in the current
+   dialect.  For full details about the dialect and formatting parameters, see
+   section :ref:`csv-fmt-params`.
+
+   Each row read from the csv file is returned as a list of strings.  No
+   automatic data type conversion is performed unless the ``QUOTE_NONNUMERIC`` format
+   option is specified (in which case unquoted fields are transformed into floats).
+
+   A short usage example::
+
+      >>> import csv
+      >>> with open('eggs.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
+      ...     spamreader = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=' ', quotechar='|')
+      ...     for row in spamreader:
+      ...         print(', '.join(row))
+      Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
+      Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam
+
+
+.. function:: writer(csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)
+
+   Return a writer object responsible for converting the user's data into delimited
+   strings on the given file-like object.  *csvfile* can be any object with a
+   :func:`write` method.  If *csvfile* is a file object, it should be opened with
+   ``newline=''`` [1]_.  An optional *dialect*
+   parameter can be given which is used to define a set of parameters specific to a
+   particular CSV dialect.  It may be an instance of a subclass of the
+   :class:`Dialect` class or one of the strings returned by the
+   :func:`list_dialects` function.  The other optional *fmtparams* keyword arguments
+   can be given to override individual formatting parameters in the current
+   dialect.  For full details about the dialect and formatting parameters, see
+   section :ref:`csv-fmt-params`. To make it
+   as easy as possible to interface with modules which implement the DB API, the
+   value :const:`None` is written as the empty string.  While this isn't a
+   reversible transformation, it makes it easier to dump SQL NULL data values to
+   CSV files without preprocessing the data returned from a ``cursor.fetch*`` call.
+   All other non-string data are stringified with :func:`str` before being written.
+
+   A short usage example::
+
+      import csv
+      with open('eggs.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
+          spamwriter = csv.writer(csvfile, delimiter=' ',
+                                  quotechar='|', quoting=csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL)
+          spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
+          spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])
+
+
+.. function:: register_dialect(name[, dialect[, **fmtparams]])
+
+   Associate *dialect* with *name*.  *name* must be a string. The
+   dialect can be specified either by passing a sub-class of :class:`Dialect`, or
+   by *fmtparams* keyword arguments, or both, with keyword arguments overriding
+   parameters of the dialect. For full details about the dialect and formatting
+   parameters, see section :ref:`csv-fmt-params`.
+
+
+.. function:: unregister_dialect(name)
+
+   Delete the dialect associated with *name* from the dialect registry.  An
+   :exc:`Error` is raised if *name* is not a registered dialect name.
+
+
+.. function:: get_dialect(name)
+
+   Return the dialect associated with *name*.  An :exc:`Error` is raised if
+   *name* is not a registered dialect name.  This function returns an immutable
+   :class:`Dialect`.
+
+.. function:: list_dialects()
+
+   Return the names of all registered dialects.
+
+
+.. function:: field_size_limit([new_limit])
+
+   Returns the current maximum field size allowed by the parser. If *new_limit* is
+   given, this becomes the new limit.
+
+
+The :mod:`csv` module defines the following classes:
+
+.. class:: DictReader(f, fieldnames=None, restkey=None, restval=None, \
+                      dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)
+
+   Create an object that operates like a regular reader but maps the
+   information in each row to an :mod:`OrderedDict <collections.OrderedDict>`
+   whose keys are given by the optional *fieldnames* parameter.
+
+   The *fieldnames* parameter is a :term:`sequence`.  If *fieldnames* is
+   omitted, the values in the first row of file *f* will be used as the
+   fieldnames.  Regardless of how the fieldnames are determined, the ordered
+   dictionary preserves their original ordering.
+
+   If a row has more fields than fieldnames, the remaining data is put in a
+   list and stored with the fieldname specified by *restkey* (which defaults
+   to ``None``).  If a non-blank row has fewer fields than fieldnames, the
+   missing values are filled-in with ``None``.
+
+   All other optional or keyword arguments are passed to the underlying
+   :class:`reader` instance.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Returned rows are now of type :class:`OrderedDict`.
+
+   A short usage example::
+
+       >>> import csv
+       >>> with open('names.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
+       ...     reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile)
+       ...     for row in reader:
+       ...         print(row['first_name'], row['last_name'])
+       ...
+       Eric Idle
+       John Cleese
+
+       >>> print(row)
+       OrderedDict([('first_name', 'John'), ('last_name', 'Cleese')])
+
+
+.. class:: DictWriter(f, fieldnames, restval='', extrasaction='raise', \
+                      dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)
+
+   Create an object which operates like a regular writer but maps dictionaries
+   onto output rows.  The *fieldnames* parameter is a :mod:`sequence
+   <collections.abc>` of keys that identify the order in which values in the
+   dictionary passed to the :meth:`writerow` method are written to file
+   *f*.  The optional *restval* parameter specifies the value to be
+   written if the dictionary is missing a key in *fieldnames*.  If the
+   dictionary passed to the :meth:`writerow` method contains a key not found in
+   *fieldnames*, the optional *extrasaction* parameter indicates what action to
+   take.
+   If it is set to ``'raise'``, the default value, a :exc:`ValueError`
+   is raised.
+   If it is set to ``'ignore'``, extra values in the dictionary are ignored.
+   Any other optional or keyword arguments are passed to the underlying
+   :class:`writer` instance.
+
+   Note that unlike the :class:`DictReader` class, the *fieldnames* parameter
+   of the :class:`DictWriter` class is not optional.
+
+   A short usage example::
+
+       import csv
+
+       with open('names.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
+           fieldnames = ['first_name', 'last_name']
+           writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames)
+
+           writer.writeheader()
+           writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Baked', 'last_name': 'Beans'})
+           writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
+           writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
+
+
+.. class:: Dialect
+
+   The :class:`Dialect` class is a container class relied on primarily for its
+   attributes, which are used to define the parameters for a specific
+   :class:`reader` or :class:`writer` instance.
+
+
+.. class:: excel()
+
+   The :class:`excel` class defines the usual properties of an Excel-generated CSV
+   file.  It is registered with the dialect name ``'excel'``.
+
+
+.. class:: excel_tab()
+
+   The :class:`excel_tab` class defines the usual properties of an Excel-generated
+   TAB-delimited file.  It is registered with the dialect name ``'excel-tab'``.
+
+
+.. class:: unix_dialect()
+
+   The :class:`unix_dialect` class defines the usual properties of a CSV file
+   generated on UNIX systems, i.e. using ``'\n'`` as line terminator and quoting
+   all fields.  It is registered with the dialect name ``'unix'``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. class:: Sniffer()
+
+   The :class:`Sniffer` class is used to deduce the format of a CSV file.
+
+   The :class:`Sniffer` class provides two methods:
+
+   .. method:: sniff(sample, delimiters=None)
+
+      Analyze the given *sample* and return a :class:`Dialect` subclass
+      reflecting the parameters found.  If the optional *delimiters* parameter
+      is given, it is interpreted as a string containing possible valid
+      delimiter characters.
+
+
+   .. method:: has_header(sample)
+
+      Analyze the sample text (presumed to be in CSV format) and return
+      :const:`True` if the first row appears to be a series of column headers.
+
+An example for :class:`Sniffer` use::
+
+   with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
+       dialect = csv.Sniffer().sniff(csvfile.read(1024))
+       csvfile.seek(0)
+       reader = csv.reader(csvfile, dialect)
+       # ... process CSV file contents here ...
+
+
+The :mod:`csv` module defines the following constants:
+
+.. data:: QUOTE_ALL
+
+   Instructs :class:`writer` objects to quote all fields.
+
+
+.. data:: QUOTE_MINIMAL
+
+   Instructs :class:`writer` objects to only quote those fields which contain
+   special characters such as *delimiter*, *quotechar* or any of the characters in
+   *lineterminator*.
+
+
+.. data:: QUOTE_NONNUMERIC
+
+   Instructs :class:`writer` objects to quote all non-numeric fields.
+
+   Instructs the reader to convert all non-quoted fields to type *float*.
+
+
+.. data:: QUOTE_NONE
+
+   Instructs :class:`writer` objects to never quote fields.  When the current
+   *delimiter* occurs in output data it is preceded by the current *escapechar*
+   character.  If *escapechar* is not set, the writer will raise :exc:`Error` if
+   any characters that require escaping are encountered.
+
+   Instructs :class:`reader` to perform no special processing of quote characters.
+
+The :mod:`csv` module defines the following exception:
+
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   Raised by any of the functions when an error is detected.
+
+.. _csv-fmt-params:
+
+Dialects and Formatting Parameters
+----------------------------------
+
+To make it easier to specify the format of input and output records, specific
+formatting parameters are grouped together into dialects.  A dialect is a
+subclass of the :class:`Dialect` class having a set of specific methods and a
+single :meth:`validate` method.  When creating :class:`reader` or
+:class:`writer` objects, the programmer can specify a string or a subclass of
+the :class:`Dialect` class as the dialect parameter.  In addition to, or instead
+of, the *dialect* parameter, the programmer can also specify individual
+formatting parameters, which have the same names as the attributes defined below
+for the :class:`Dialect` class.
+
+Dialects support the following attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.delimiter
+
+   A one-character string used to separate fields.  It defaults to ``','``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.doublequote
+
+   Controls how instances of *quotechar* appearing inside a field should
+   themselves be quoted.  When :const:`True`, the character is doubled. When
+   :const:`False`, the *escapechar* is used as a prefix to the *quotechar*.  It
+   defaults to :const:`True`.
+
+   On output, if *doublequote* is :const:`False` and no *escapechar* is set,
+   :exc:`Error` is raised if a *quotechar* is found in a field.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.escapechar
+
+   A one-character string used by the writer to escape the *delimiter* if *quoting*
+   is set to :const:`QUOTE_NONE` and the *quotechar* if *doublequote* is
+   :const:`False`. On reading, the *escapechar* removes any special meaning from
+   the following character. It defaults to :const:`None`, which disables escaping.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.lineterminator
+
+   The string used to terminate lines produced by the :class:`writer`. It defaults
+   to ``'\r\n'``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :class:`reader` is hard-coded to recognise either ``'\r'`` or ``'\n'`` as
+      end-of-line, and ignores *lineterminator*. This behavior may change in the
+      future.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.quotechar
+
+   A one-character string used to quote fields containing special characters, such
+   as the *delimiter* or *quotechar*, or which contain new-line characters.  It
+   defaults to ``'"'``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.quoting
+
+   Controls when quotes should be generated by the writer and recognised by the
+   reader.  It can take on any of the :const:`QUOTE_\*` constants (see section
+   :ref:`csv-contents`) and defaults to :const:`QUOTE_MINIMAL`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.skipinitialspace
+
+   When :const:`True`, whitespace immediately following the *delimiter* is ignored.
+   The default is :const:`False`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Dialect.strict
+
+   When ``True``, raise exception :exc:`Error` on bad CSV input.
+   The default is ``False``.
+
+Reader Objects
+--------------
+
+Reader objects (:class:`DictReader` instances and objects returned by the
+:func:`reader` function) have the following public methods:
+
+.. method:: csvreader.__next__()
+
+   Return the next row of the reader's iterable object as a list (if the object
+   was returned from :func:`reader`) or a dict (if it is a :class:`DictReader`
+   instance), parsed according to the current dialect.  Usually you should call
+   this as ``next(reader)``.
+
+
+Reader objects have the following public attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: csvreader.dialect
+
+   A read-only description of the dialect in use by the parser.
+
+
+.. attribute:: csvreader.line_num
+
+   The number of lines read from the source iterator. This is not the same as the
+   number of records returned, as records can span multiple lines.
+
+
+DictReader objects have the following public attribute:
+
+.. attribute:: csvreader.fieldnames
+
+   If not passed as a parameter when creating the object, this attribute is
+   initialized upon first access or when the first record is read from the
+   file.
+
+
+
+Writer Objects
+--------------
+
+:class:`Writer` objects (:class:`DictWriter` instances and objects returned by
+the :func:`writer` function) have the following public methods.  A *row* must be
+an iterable of strings or numbers for :class:`Writer` objects and a dictionary
+mapping fieldnames to strings or numbers (by passing them through :func:`str`
+first) for :class:`DictWriter` objects.  Note that complex numbers are written
+out surrounded by parens. This may cause some problems for other programs which
+read CSV files (assuming they support complex numbers at all).
+
+
+.. method:: csvwriter.writerow(row)
+
+   Write the *row* parameter to the writer's file object, formatted according to
+   the current dialect.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support of arbitrary iterables.
+
+.. method:: csvwriter.writerows(rows)
+
+   Write all elements in *rows* (an iterable of *row* objects as described
+   above) to the writer's file object, formatted according to the current
+   dialect.
+
+Writer objects have the following public attribute:
+
+
+.. attribute:: csvwriter.dialect
+
+   A read-only description of the dialect in use by the writer.
+
+
+DictWriter objects have the following public method:
+
+
+.. method:: DictWriter.writeheader()
+
+   Write a row with the field names (as specified in the constructor).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. _csv-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+The simplest example of reading a CSV file::
+
+   import csv
+   with open('some.csv', newline='') as f:
+       reader = csv.reader(f)
+       for row in reader:
+           print(row)
+
+Reading a file with an alternate format::
+
+   import csv
+   with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
+       reader = csv.reader(f, delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
+       for row in reader:
+           print(row)
+
+The corresponding simplest possible writing example is::
+
+   import csv
+   with open('some.csv', 'w', newline='') as f:
+       writer = csv.writer(f)
+       writer.writerows(someiterable)
+
+Since :func:`open` is used to open a CSV file for reading, the file
+will by default be decoded into unicode using the system default
+encoding (see :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding`).  To decode a file
+using a different encoding, use the ``encoding`` argument of open::
+
+   import csv
+   with open('some.csv', newline='', encoding='utf-8') as f:
+       reader = csv.reader(f)
+       for row in reader:
+           print(row)
+
+The same applies to writing in something other than the system default
+encoding: specify the encoding argument when opening the output file.
+
+Registering a new dialect::
+
+   import csv
+   csv.register_dialect('unixpwd', delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
+   with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
+       reader = csv.reader(f, 'unixpwd')
+
+A slightly more advanced use of the reader --- catching and reporting errors::
+
+   import csv, sys
+   filename = 'some.csv'
+   with open(filename, newline='') as f:
+       reader = csv.reader(f)
+       try:
+           for row in reader:
+               print(row)
+       except csv.Error as e:
+           sys.exit('file {}, line {}: {}'.format(filename, reader.line_num, e))
+
+And while the module doesn't directly support parsing strings, it can easily be
+done::
+
+   import csv
+   for row in csv.reader(['one,two,three']):
+       print(row)
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] If ``newline=''`` is not specified, newlines embedded inside quoted fields
+   will not be interpreted correctly, and on platforms that use ``\r\n`` linendings
+   on write an extra ``\r`` will be added.  It should always be safe to specify
+   ``newline=''``, since the csv module does its own
+   (:term:`universal <universal newlines>`) newline handling.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ctypes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ctypes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..46a9d23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ctypes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2486 @@
+:mod:`ctypes` --- A foreign function library for Python
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: ctypes
+   :synopsis: A foreign function library for Python.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Thomas Heller <theller@python.net>
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`ctypes` is a foreign function library for Python.  It provides C compatible
+data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared libraries.  It can be
+used to wrap these libraries in pure Python.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-ctypes-tutorial:
+
+ctypes tutorial
+---------------
+
+Note: The code samples in this tutorial use :mod:`doctest` to make sure that
+they actually work.  Since some code samples behave differently under Linux,
+Windows, or Mac OS X, they contain doctest directives in comments.
+
+Note: Some code samples reference the ctypes :class:`c_int` type.  On platforms
+where ``sizeof(long) == sizeof(int)`` it is an alias to :class:`c_long`.
+So, you should not be confused if :class:`c_long` is printed if you would expect
+:class:`c_int` --- they are actually the same type.
+
+.. _ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries:
+
+Loading dynamic link libraries
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:mod:`ctypes` exports the *cdll*, and on Windows *windll* and *oledll*
+objects, for loading dynamic link libraries.
+
+You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects. *cdll*
+loads libraries which export functions using the standard ``cdecl`` calling
+convention, while *windll* libraries call functions using the ``stdcall``
+calling convention. *oledll* also uses the ``stdcall`` calling convention, and
+assumes the functions return a Windows :c:type:`HRESULT` error code. The error
+code is used to automatically raise an :class:`OSError` exception when the
+function call fails.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Windows errors used to raise :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an alias
+   of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+Here are some examples for Windows. Note that ``msvcrt`` is the MS standard C
+library containing most standard C functions, and uses the cdecl calling
+convention::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> print(windll.kernel32)  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   <WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...>
+   >>> print(cdll.msvcrt)      # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   <CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...>
+   >>> libc = cdll.msvcrt      # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   >>>
+
+Windows appends the usual ``.dll`` file suffix automatically.
+
+.. note::
+    Accessing the standard C library through ``cdll.msvcrt`` will use an
+    outdated version of the library that may be incompatible with the one
+    being used by Python. Where possible, use native Python functionality,
+    or else import and use the ``msvcrt`` module.
+
+On Linux, it is required to specify the filename *including* the extension to
+load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load libraries. Either the
+:meth:`LoadLibrary` method of the dll loaders should be used, or you should load
+the library by creating an instance of CDLL by calling the constructor::
+
+   >>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.so.6")  # doctest: +LINUX
+   <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
+   >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")       # doctest: +LINUX
+   >>> libc                           # doctest: +LINUX
+   <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
+   >>>
+
+.. XXX Add section for Mac OS X.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls:
+
+Accessing functions from loaded dlls
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Functions are accessed as attributes of dll objects::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> libc.printf
+   <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
+   >>> print(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA)  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
+   >>> print(windll.kernel32.MyOwnFunction)     # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+     File "ctypes.py", line 239, in __getattr__
+       func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
+   AttributeError: function 'MyOwnFunction' not found
+   >>>
+
+Note that win32 system dlls like ``kernel32`` and ``user32`` often export ANSI
+as well as UNICODE versions of a function. The UNICODE version is exported with
+an ``W`` appended to the name, while the ANSI version is exported with an ``A``
+appended to the name. The win32 ``GetModuleHandle`` function, which returns a
+*module handle* for a given module name, has the following C prototype, and a
+macro is used to expose one of them as ``GetModuleHandle`` depending on whether
+UNICODE is defined or not::
+
+   /* ANSI version */
+   HMODULE GetModuleHandleA(LPCSTR lpModuleName);
+   /* UNICODE version */
+   HMODULE GetModuleHandleW(LPCWSTR lpModuleName);
+
+*windll* does not try to select one of them by magic, you must access the
+version you need by specifying ``GetModuleHandleA`` or ``GetModuleHandleW``
+explicitly, and then call it with bytes or string objects respectively.
+
+Sometimes, dlls export functions with names which aren't valid Python
+identifiers, like ``"??2@YAPAXI@Z"``. In this case you have to use
+:func:`getattr` to retrieve the function::
+
+   >>> getattr(cdll.msvcrt, "??2@YAPAXI@Z")  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
+   >>>
+
+On Windows, some dlls export functions not by name but by ordinal. These
+functions can be accessed by indexing the dll object with the ordinal number::
+
+   >>> cdll.kernel32[1]  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
+   >>> cdll.kernel32[0]  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+     File "ctypes.py", line 310, in __getitem__
+       func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
+   AttributeError: function ordinal 0 not found
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-calling-functions:
+
+Calling functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+You can call these functions like any other Python callable. This example uses
+the ``time()`` function, which returns system time in seconds since the Unix
+epoch, and the ``GetModuleHandleA()`` function, which returns a win32 module
+handle.
+
+This example calls both functions with a NULL pointer (``None`` should be used
+as the NULL pointer)::
+
+   >>> print(libc.time(None))  # doctest: +SKIP
+   1150640792
+   >>> print(hex(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)))  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   0x1d000000
+   >>>
+
+.. note::
+
+   :mod:`ctypes` may raise a :exc:`ValueError` after calling the function, if
+   it detects that an invalid number of arguments were passed.  This behavior
+   should not be relied upon.  It is deprecated in 3.6.2, and will be removed
+   in 3.7.
+
+:exc:`ValueError` is raised when you call an ``stdcall`` function with the
+``cdecl`` calling convention, or vice versa::
+
+   >>> cdll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ValueError: Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)
+   >>>
+
+   >>> windll.msvcrt.printf(b"spam")  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ValueError: Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)
+   >>>
+
+To find out the correct calling convention you have to look into the C header
+file or the documentation for the function you want to call.
+
+On Windows, :mod:`ctypes` uses win32 structured exception handling to prevent
+crashes from general protection faults when functions are called with invalid
+argument values::
+
+   >>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32)  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
+   >>>
+
+There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with :mod:`ctypes`, so you
+should be careful anyway.  The :mod:`faulthandler` module can be helpful in
+debugging crashes (e.g. from segmentation faults produced by erroneous C library
+calls).
+
+``None``, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only native
+Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these function calls.
+``None`` is passed as a C ``NULL`` pointer, bytes objects and strings are passed
+as pointer to the memory block that contains their data (:c:type:`char *` or
+:c:type:`wchar_t *`).  Python integers are passed as the platforms default C
+:c:type:`int` type, their value is masked to fit into the C type.
+
+Before we move on calling functions with other parameter types, we have to learn
+more about :mod:`ctypes` data types.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-fundamental-data-types:
+
+Fundamental data types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:mod:`ctypes` defines a number of primitive C compatible data types:
+
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| ctypes type          | C type                                   | Python type                |
++======================+==========================================+============================+
+| :class:`c_bool`      | :c:type:`_Bool`                          | bool (1)                   |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_char`      | :c:type:`char`                           | 1-character bytes object   |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_wchar`     | :c:type:`wchar_t`                        | 1-character string         |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_byte`      | :c:type:`char`                           | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_ubyte`     | :c:type:`unsigned char`                  | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_short`     | :c:type:`short`                          | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_ushort`    | :c:type:`unsigned short`                 | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_int`       | :c:type:`int`                            | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_uint`      | :c:type:`unsigned int`                   | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_long`      | :c:type:`long`                           | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_ulong`     | :c:type:`unsigned long`                  | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_longlong`  | :c:type:`__int64` or :c:type:`long long` | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_ulonglong` | :c:type:`unsigned __int64` or            | int                        |
+|                      | :c:type:`unsigned long long`             |                            |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_size_t`    | :c:type:`size_t`                         | int                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_ssize_t`   | :c:type:`ssize_t` or                     | int                        |
+|                      | :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`                     |                            |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_float`     | :c:type:`float`                          | float                      |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_double`    | :c:type:`double`                         | float                      |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_longdouble`| :c:type:`long double`                    | float                      |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_char_p`    | :c:type:`char *` (NUL terminated)        | bytes object or ``None``   |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_wchar_p`   | :c:type:`wchar_t *` (NUL terminated)     | string or ``None``         |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_void_p`    | :c:type:`void *`                         | int or ``None``            |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+
+(1)
+   The constructor accepts any object with a truth value.
+
+All these types can be created by calling them with an optional initializer of
+the correct type and value::
+
+   >>> c_int()
+   c_long(0)
+   >>> c_wchar_p("Hello, World")
+   c_wchar_p(140018365411392)
+   >>> c_ushort(-3)
+   c_ushort(65533)
+   >>>
+
+Since these types are mutable, their value can also be changed afterwards::
+
+   >>> i = c_int(42)
+   >>> print(i)
+   c_long(42)
+   >>> print(i.value)
+   42
+   >>> i.value = -99
+   >>> print(i.value)
+   -99
+   >>>
+
+Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types :class:`c_char_p`,
+:class:`c_wchar_p`, and :class:`c_void_p` changes the *memory location* they
+point to, *not the contents* of the memory block (of course not, because Python
+bytes objects are immutable)::
+
+   >>> s = "Hello, World"
+   >>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
+   >>> print(c_s)
+   c_wchar_p(139966785747344)
+   >>> print(c_s.value)
+   Hello World
+   >>> c_s.value = "Hi, there"
+   >>> print(c_s)              # the memory location has changed
+   c_wchar_p(139966783348904)
+   >>> print(c_s.value)
+   Hi, there
+   >>> print(s)                # first object is unchanged
+   Hello, World
+   >>>
+
+You should be careful, however, not to pass them to functions expecting pointers
+to mutable memory. If you need mutable memory blocks, ctypes has a
+:func:`create_string_buffer` function which creates these in various ways.  The
+current memory block contents can be accessed (or changed) with the ``raw``
+property; if you want to access it as NUL terminated string, use the ``value``
+property::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> p = create_string_buffer(3)            # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes
+   >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
+   3 b'\x00\x00\x00'
+   >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello")     # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string
+   >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
+   6 b'Hello\x00'
+   >>> print(repr(p.value))
+   b'Hello'
+   >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello", 10) # create a 10 byte buffer
+   >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
+   10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+   >>> p.value = b"Hi"
+   >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
+   10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+   >>>
+
+The :func:`create_string_buffer` function replaces the :func:`c_buffer` function
+(which is still available as an alias), as well as the :func:`c_string` function
+from earlier ctypes releases.  To create a mutable memory block containing
+unicode characters of the C type :c:type:`wchar_t` use the
+:func:`create_unicode_buffer` function.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-calling-functions-continued:
+
+Calling functions, continued
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Note that printf prints to the real standard output channel, *not* to
+:data:`sys.stdout`, so these examples will only work at the console prompt, not
+from within *IDLE* or *PythonWin*::
+
+   >>> printf = libc.printf
+   >>> printf(b"Hello, %s\n", b"World!")
+   Hello, World!
+   14
+   >>> printf(b"Hello, %S\n", "World!")
+   Hello, World!
+   14
+   >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", 42)
+   42 bottles of beer
+   19
+   >>> printf(b"%f bottles of beer\n", 42.5)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ArgumentError: argument 2: exceptions.TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2
+   >>>
+
+As has been mentioned before, all Python types except integers, strings, and
+bytes objects have to be wrapped in their corresponding :mod:`ctypes` type, so
+that they can be converted to the required C data type::
+
+   >>> printf(b"An int %d, a double %f\n", 1234, c_double(3.14))
+   An int 1234, a double 3.140000
+   31
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types:
+
+Calling functions with your own custom data types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+You can also customize :mod:`ctypes` argument conversion to allow instances of
+your own classes be used as function arguments.  :mod:`ctypes` looks for an
+:attr:`_as_parameter_` attribute and uses this as the function argument.  Of
+course, it must be one of integer, string, or bytes::
+
+   >>> class Bottles:
+   ...     def __init__(self, number):
+   ...         self._as_parameter_ = number
+   ...
+   >>> bottles = Bottles(42)
+   >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", bottles)
+   42 bottles of beer
+   19
+   >>>
+
+If you don't want to store the instance's data in the :attr:`_as_parameter_`
+instance variable, you could define a :class:`property` which makes the
+attribute available on request.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-specifying-required-argument-types:
+
+Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions exported from
+DLLs by setting the :attr:`argtypes` attribute.
+
+:attr:`argtypes` must be a sequence of C data types (the ``printf`` function is
+probably not a good example here, because it takes a variable number and
+different types of parameters depending on the format string, on the other hand
+this is quite handy to experiment with this feature)::
+
+   >>> printf.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char_p, c_int, c_double]
+   >>> printf(b"String '%s', Int %d, Double %f\n", b"Hi", 10, 2.2)
+   String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000
+   37
+   >>>
+
+Specifying a format protects against incompatible argument types (just as a
+prototype for a C function), and tries to convert the arguments to valid types::
+
+   >>> printf(b"%d %d %d", 1, 2, 3)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ArgumentError: argument 2: exceptions.TypeError: wrong type
+   >>> printf(b"%s %d %f\n", b"X", 2, 3)
+   X 2 3.000000
+   13
+   >>>
+
+If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls, you have
+to implement a :meth:`from_param` class method for them to be able to use them
+in the :attr:`argtypes` sequence. The :meth:`from_param` class method receives
+the Python object passed to the function call, it should do a typecheck or
+whatever is needed to make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the
+object itself, its :attr:`_as_parameter_` attribute, or whatever you want to
+pass as the C function argument in this case. Again, the result should be an
+integer, string, bytes, a :mod:`ctypes` instance, or an object with an
+:attr:`_as_parameter_` attribute.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-return-types:
+
+Return types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+By default functions are assumed to return the C :c:type:`int` type.  Other
+return types can be specified by setting the :attr:`restype` attribute of the
+function object.
+
+Here is a more advanced example, it uses the ``strchr`` function, which expects
+a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string::
+
+   >>> strchr = libc.strchr
+   >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))  # doctest: +SKIP
+   8059983
+   >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p    # c_char_p is a pointer to a string
+   >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
+   b'def'
+   >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", ord("x")))
+   None
+   >>>
+
+If you want to avoid the ``ord("x")`` calls above, you can set the
+:attr:`argtypes` attribute, and the second argument will be converted from a
+single character Python bytes object into a C char::
+
+   >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p
+   >>> strchr.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char]
+   >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
+   'def'
+   >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"def")
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ArgumentError: argument 2: exceptions.TypeError: one character string expected
+   >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", b"x"))
+   None
+   >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
+   'def'
+   >>>
+
+You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for example) as
+the :attr:`restype` attribute, if the foreign function returns an integer.  The
+callable will be called with the *integer* the C function returns, and the
+result of this call will be used as the result of your function call. This is
+useful to check for error return values and automatically raise an exception::
+
+   >>> GetModuleHandle = windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   >>> def ValidHandle(value):
+   ...     if value == 0:
+   ...         raise WinError()
+   ...     return value
+   ...
+   >>>
+   >>> GetModuleHandle.restype = ValidHandle  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   >>> GetModuleHandle(None)  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   486539264
+   >>> GetModuleHandle("something silly")  # doctest: +WINDOWS
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+     File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle
+   OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.
+   >>>
+
+``WinError`` is a function which will call Windows ``FormatMessage()`` api to
+get the string representation of an error code, and *returns* an exception.
+``WinError`` takes an optional error code parameter, if no one is used, it calls
+:func:`GetLastError` to retrieve it.
+
+Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is available
+through the :attr:`errcheck` attribute; see the reference manual for details.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-passing-pointers:
+
+Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Sometimes a C api function expects a *pointer* to a data type as parameter,
+probably to write into the corresponding location, or if the data is too large
+to be passed by value. This is also known as *passing parameters by reference*.
+
+:mod:`ctypes` exports the :func:`byref` function which is used to pass parameters
+by reference.  The same effect can be achieved with the :func:`pointer` function,
+although :func:`pointer` does a lot more work since it constructs a real pointer
+object, so it is faster to use :func:`byref` if you don't need the pointer
+object in Python itself::
+
+   >>> i = c_int()
+   >>> f = c_float()
+   >>> s = create_string_buffer(b'\000' * 32)
+   >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
+   0 0.0 b''
+   >>> libc.sscanf(b"1 3.14 Hello", b"%d %f %s",
+   ...             byref(i), byref(f), s)
+   3
+   >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
+   1 3.1400001049 b'Hello'
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-structures-unions:
+
+Structures and unions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Structures and unions must derive from the :class:`Structure` and :class:`Union`
+base classes which are defined in the :mod:`ctypes` module. Each subclass must
+define a :attr:`_fields_` attribute.  :attr:`_fields_` must be a list of
+*2-tuples*, containing a *field name* and a *field type*.
+
+The field type must be a :mod:`ctypes` type like :class:`c_int`, or any other
+derived :mod:`ctypes` type: structure, union, array, pointer.
+
+Here is a simple example of a POINT structure, which contains two integers named
+*x* and *y*, and also shows how to initialize a structure in the constructor::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> class POINT(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_int),
+   ...                 ("y", c_int)]
+   ...
+   >>> point = POINT(10, 20)
+   >>> print(point.x, point.y)
+   10 20
+   >>> point = POINT(y=5)
+   >>> print(point.x, point.y)
+   0 5
+   >>> POINT(1, 2, 3)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: too many initializers
+   >>>
+
+You can, however, build much more complicated structures.  A structure can
+itself contain other structures by using a structure as a field type.
+
+Here is a RECT structure which contains two POINTs named *upperleft* and
+*lowerright*::
+
+   >>> class RECT(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = [("upperleft", POINT),
+   ...                 ("lowerright", POINT)]
+   ...
+   >>> rc = RECT(point)
+   >>> print(rc.upperleft.x, rc.upperleft.y)
+   0 5
+   >>> print(rc.lowerright.x, rc.lowerright.y)
+   0 0
+   >>>
+
+Nested structures can also be initialized in the constructor in several ways::
+
+   >>> r = RECT(POINT(1, 2), POINT(3, 4))
+   >>> r = RECT((1, 2), (3, 4))
+
+Field :term:`descriptor`\s can be retrieved from the *class*, they are useful
+for debugging because they can provide useful information::
+
+   >>> print(POINT.x)
+   <Field type=c_long, ofs=0, size=4>
+   >>> print(POINT.y)
+   <Field type=c_long, ofs=4, size=4>
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-structureunion-alignment-byte-order:
+
+.. warning::
+
+   :mod:`ctypes` does not support passing unions or structures with bit-fields
+   to functions by value.  While this may work on 32-bit x86, it's not
+   guaranteed by the library to work in the general case.  Unions and
+   structures with bit-fields should always be passed to functions by pointer.
+
+Structure/union alignment and byte order
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+By default, Structure and Union fields are aligned in the same way the C
+compiler does it. It is possible to override this behavior be specifying a
+:attr:`_pack_` class attribute in the subclass definition. This must be set to a
+positive integer and specifies the maximum alignment for the fields. This is
+what ``#pragma pack(n)`` also does in MSVC.
+
+:mod:`ctypes` uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions.  To build
+structures with non-native byte order, you can use one of the
+:class:`BigEndianStructure`, :class:`LittleEndianStructure`,
+:class:`BigEndianUnion`, and :class:`LittleEndianUnion` base classes.  These
+classes cannot contain pointer fields.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-bit-fields-in-structures-unions:
+
+Bit fields in structures and unions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields. Bit fields
+are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is specified as the third
+item in the :attr:`_fields_` tuples::
+
+   >>> class Int(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = [("first_16", c_int, 16),
+   ...                 ("second_16", c_int, 16)]
+   ...
+   >>> print(Int.first_16)
+   <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:0, bits=16>
+   >>> print(Int.second_16)
+   <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:16, bits=16>
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-arrays:
+
+Arrays
+^^^^^^
+
+Arrays are sequences, containing a fixed number of instances of the same type.
+
+The recommended way to create array types is by multiplying a data type with a
+positive integer::
+
+   TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10
+
+Here is an example of a somewhat artificial data type, a structure containing 4
+POINTs among other stuff::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> class POINT(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
+   ...
+   >>> class MyStruct(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = [("a", c_int),
+   ...                 ("b", c_float),
+   ...                 ("point_array", POINT * 4)]
+   >>>
+   >>> print(len(MyStruct().point_array))
+   4
+   >>>
+
+Instances are created in the usual way, by calling the class::
+
+   arr = TenPointsArrayType()
+   for pt in arr:
+       print(pt.x, pt.y)
+
+The above code print a series of ``0 0`` lines, because the array contents is
+initialized to zeros.
+
+Initializers of the correct type can also be specified::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10
+   >>> ii = TenIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
+   >>> print(ii)
+   <c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...>
+   >>> for i in ii: print(i, end=" ")
+   ...
+   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-pointers:
+
+Pointers
+^^^^^^^^
+
+Pointer instances are created by calling the :func:`pointer` function on a
+:mod:`ctypes` type::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> i = c_int(42)
+   >>> pi = pointer(i)
+   >>>
+
+Pointer instances have a :attr:`~_Pointer.contents` attribute which
+returns the object to which the pointer points, the ``i`` object above::
+
+   >>> pi.contents
+   c_long(42)
+   >>>
+
+Note that :mod:`ctypes` does not have OOR (original object return), it constructs a
+new, equivalent object each time you retrieve an attribute::
+
+   >>> pi.contents is i
+   False
+   >>> pi.contents is pi.contents
+   False
+   >>>
+
+Assigning another :class:`c_int` instance to the pointer's contents attribute
+would cause the pointer to point to the memory location where this is stored::
+
+   >>> i = c_int(99)
+   >>> pi.contents = i
+   >>> pi.contents
+   c_long(99)
+   >>>
+
+.. XXX Document dereferencing pointers, and that it is preferred over the
+   .contents attribute.
+
+Pointer instances can also be indexed with integers::
+
+   >>> pi[0]
+   99
+   >>>
+
+Assigning to an integer index changes the pointed to value::
+
+   >>> print(i)
+   c_long(99)
+   >>> pi[0] = 22
+   >>> print(i)
+   c_long(22)
+   >>>
+
+It is also possible to use indexes different from 0, but you must know what
+you're doing, just as in C: You can access or change arbitrary memory locations.
+Generally you only use this feature if you receive a pointer from a C function,
+and you *know* that the pointer actually points to an array instead of a single
+item.
+
+Behind the scenes, the :func:`pointer` function does more than simply create
+pointer instances, it has to create pointer *types* first. This is done with the
+:func:`POINTER` function, which accepts any :mod:`ctypes` type, and returns a
+new type::
+
+   >>> PI = POINTER(c_int)
+   >>> PI
+   <class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'>
+   >>> PI(42)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: expected c_long instead of int
+   >>> PI(c_int(42))
+   <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...>
+   >>>
+
+Calling the pointer type without an argument creates a ``NULL`` pointer.
+``NULL`` pointers have a ``False`` boolean value::
+
+   >>> null_ptr = POINTER(c_int)()
+   >>> print(bool(null_ptr))
+   False
+   >>>
+
+:mod:`ctypes` checks for ``NULL`` when dereferencing pointers (but dereferencing
+invalid non-\ ``NULL`` pointers would crash Python)::
+
+   >>> null_ptr[0]
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ....
+   ValueError: NULL pointer access
+   >>>
+
+   >>> null_ptr[0] = 1234
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ....
+   ValueError: NULL pointer access
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-type-conversions:
+
+Type conversions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Usually, ctypes does strict type checking.  This means, if you have
+``POINTER(c_int)`` in the :attr:`argtypes` list of a function or as the type of
+a member field in a structure definition, only instances of exactly the same
+type are accepted.  There are some exceptions to this rule, where ctypes accepts
+other objects.  For example, you can pass compatible array instances instead of
+pointer types.  So, for ``POINTER(c_int)``, ctypes accepts an array of c_int::
+
+   >>> class Bar(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = [("count", c_int), ("values", POINTER(c_int))]
+   ...
+   >>> bar = Bar()
+   >>> bar.values = (c_int * 3)(1, 2, 3)
+   >>> bar.count = 3
+   >>> for i in range(bar.count):
+   ...     print(bar.values[i])
+   ...
+   1
+   2
+   3
+   >>>
+
+In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a pointer type
+(such as ``POINTER(c_int)``) in :attr:`argtypes`, an object of the pointed
+type (``c_int`` in this case) can be passed to the function.  ctypes will apply
+the required :func:`byref` conversion in this case automatically.
+
+To set a POINTER type field to ``NULL``, you can assign ``None``::
+
+   >>> bar.values = None
+   >>>
+
+.. XXX list other conversions...
+
+Sometimes you have instances of incompatible types.  In C, you can cast one type
+into another type.  :mod:`ctypes` provides a :func:`cast` function which can be
+used in the same way.  The ``Bar`` structure defined above accepts
+``POINTER(c_int)`` pointers or :class:`c_int` arrays for its ``values`` field,
+but not instances of other types::
+
+   >>> bar.values = (c_byte * 4)()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance
+   >>>
+
+For these cases, the :func:`cast` function is handy.
+
+The :func:`cast` function can be used to cast a ctypes instance into a pointer
+to a different ctypes data type.  :func:`cast` takes two parameters, a ctypes
+object that is or can be converted to a pointer of some kind, and a ctypes
+pointer type.  It returns an instance of the second argument, which references
+the same memory block as the first argument::
+
+   >>> a = (c_byte * 4)()
+   >>> cast(a, POINTER(c_int))
+   <ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...>
+   >>>
+
+So, :func:`cast` can be used to assign to the ``values`` field of ``Bar`` the
+structure::
+
+   >>> bar = Bar()
+   >>> bar.values = cast((c_byte * 4)(), POINTER(c_int))
+   >>> print(bar.values[0])
+   0
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-incomplete-types:
+
+Incomplete Types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+*Incomplete Types* are structures, unions or arrays whose members are not yet
+specified. In C, they are specified by forward declarations, which are defined
+later::
+
+   struct cell; /* forward declaration */
+
+   struct cell {
+       char *name;
+       struct cell *next;
+   };
+
+The straightforward translation into ctypes code would be this, but it does not
+work::
+
+   >>> class cell(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
+   ...                 ("next", POINTER(cell))]
+   ...
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+     File "<stdin>", line 2, in cell
+   NameError: name 'cell' is not defined
+   >>>
+
+because the new ``class cell`` is not available in the class statement itself.
+In :mod:`ctypes`, we can define the ``cell`` class and set the :attr:`_fields_`
+attribute later, after the class statement::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> class cell(Structure):
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> cell._fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
+   ...                  ("next", POINTER(cell))]
+   >>>
+
+Lets try it. We create two instances of ``cell``, and let them point to each
+other, and finally follow the pointer chain a few times::
+
+   >>> c1 = cell()
+   >>> c1.name = "foo"
+   >>> c2 = cell()
+   >>> c2.name = "bar"
+   >>> c1.next = pointer(c2)
+   >>> c2.next = pointer(c1)
+   >>> p = c1
+   >>> for i in range(8):
+   ...     print(p.name, end=" ")
+   ...     p = p.next[0]
+   ...
+   foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-callback-functions:
+
+Callback functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:mod:`ctypes` allows creating C callable function pointers from Python callables.
+These are sometimes called *callback functions*.
+
+First, you must create a class for the callback function. The class knows the
+calling convention, the return type, and the number and types of arguments this
+function will receive.
+
+The :func:`CFUNCTYPE` factory function creates types for callback functions
+using the ``cdecl`` calling convention. On Windows, the :func:`WINFUNCTYPE`
+factory function creates types for callback functions using the ``stdcall``
+calling convention.
+
+Both of these factory functions are called with the result type as first
+argument, and the callback functions expected argument types as the remaining
+arguments.
+
+I will present an example here which uses the standard C library's
+:c:func:`qsort` function, that is used to sort items with the help of a callback
+function.  :c:func:`qsort` will be used to sort an array of integers::
+
+   >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5
+   >>> ia = IntArray5(5, 1, 7, 33, 99)
+   >>> qsort = libc.qsort
+   >>> qsort.restype = None
+   >>>
+
+:func:`qsort` must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number of
+items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the comparison
+function, the callback. The callback will then be called with two pointers to
+items, and it must return a negative integer if the first item is smaller than
+the second, a zero if they are equal, and a positive integer otherwise.
+
+So our callback function receives pointers to integers, and must return an
+integer. First we create the ``type`` for the callback function::
+
+   >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
+   >>>
+
+To get started, here is a simple callback that shows the values it gets
+passed::
+
+   >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
+   ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
+   ...     return 0
+   ...
+   >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)
+   >>>
+
+The result::
+
+   >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func)  # doctest: +LINUX
+   py_cmp_func 5 1
+   py_cmp_func 33 99
+   py_cmp_func 7 33
+   py_cmp_func 5 7
+   py_cmp_func 1 7
+   >>>
+
+Now we can actually compare the two items and return a useful result::
+
+   >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
+   ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
+   ...     return a[0] - b[0]
+   ...
+   >>>
+   >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)) # doctest: +LINUX
+   py_cmp_func 5 1
+   py_cmp_func 33 99
+   py_cmp_func 7 33
+   py_cmp_func 1 7
+   py_cmp_func 5 7
+   >>>
+
+As we can easily check, our array is sorted now::
+
+   >>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ")
+   ...
+   1 5 7 33 99
+   >>>
+
+The function factories can be used as decorator factories, so we may as well
+write::
+
+   >>> @CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
+   ... def py_cmp_func(a, b):
+   ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
+   ...     return a[0] - b[0]
+   ...
+   >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), py_cmp_func)
+   py_cmp_func 5 1
+   py_cmp_func 33 99
+   py_cmp_func 7 33
+   py_cmp_func 1 7
+   py_cmp_func 5 7
+   >>>
+
+.. note::
+
+   Make sure you keep references to :func:`CFUNCTYPE` objects as long as they
+   are used from C code. :mod:`ctypes` doesn't, and if you don't, they may be
+   garbage collected, crashing your program when a callback is made.
+
+   Also, note that if the callback function is called in a thread created
+   outside of Python's control (e.g. by the foreign code that calls the
+   callback), ctypes creates a new dummy Python thread on every invocation. This
+   behavior is correct for most purposes, but it means that values stored with
+   :class:`threading.local` will *not* survive across different callbacks, even when
+   those calls are made from the same C thread.
+
+.. _ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls:
+
+Accessing values exported from dlls
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export variables. An
+example in the Python library itself is the :c:data:`Py_OptimizeFlag`, an integer
+set to 0, 1, or 2, depending on the :option:`-O` or :option:`-OO` flag given on
+startup.
+
+:mod:`ctypes` can access values like this with the :meth:`in_dll` class methods of
+the type.  *pythonapi* is a predefined symbol giving access to the Python C
+api::
+
+   >>> opt_flag = c_int.in_dll(pythonapi, "Py_OptimizeFlag")
+   >>> print(opt_flag)
+   c_long(0)
+   >>>
+
+If the interpreter would have been started with :option:`-O`, the sample would
+have printed ``c_long(1)``, or ``c_long(2)`` if :option:`-OO` would have been
+specified.
+
+An extended example which also demonstrates the use of pointers accesses the
+:c:data:`PyImport_FrozenModules` pointer exported by Python.
+
+Quoting the docs for that value:
+
+   This pointer is initialized to point to an array of :c:type:`struct _frozen`
+   records, terminated by one whose members are all *NULL* or zero.  When a frozen
+   module is imported, it is searched in this table.  Third-party code could play
+   tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules.
+
+So manipulating this pointer could even prove useful. To restrict the example
+size, we show only how this table can be read with :mod:`ctypes`::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>>
+   >>> class struct_frozen(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
+   ...                 ("code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),
+   ...                 ("size", c_int)]
+   ...
+   >>>
+
+We have defined the :c:type:`struct _frozen` data type, so we can get the pointer
+to the table::
+
+   >>> FrozenTable = POINTER(struct_frozen)
+   >>> table = FrozenTable.in_dll(pythonapi, "PyImport_FrozenModules")
+   >>>
+
+Since ``table`` is a ``pointer`` to the array of ``struct_frozen`` records, we
+can iterate over it, but we just have to make sure that our loop terminates,
+because pointers have no size. Sooner or later it would probably crash with an
+access violation or whatever, so it's better to break out of the loop when we
+hit the NULL entry::
+
+   >>> for item in table:
+   ...     if item.name is None:
+   ...         break
+   ...     print(item.name.decode("ascii"), item.size)
+   ...
+   _frozen_importlib 31764
+   _frozen_importlib_external 41499
+   __hello__ 161
+   __phello__ -161
+   __phello__.spam 161
+   >>>
+
+The fact that standard Python has a frozen module and a frozen package
+(indicated by the negative size member) is not well known, it is only used for
+testing. Try it out with ``import __hello__`` for example.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-surprises:
+
+Surprises
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are some edges in :mod:`ctypes` where you might expect something other
+than what actually happens.
+
+Consider the following example::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import *
+   >>> class POINT(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
+   ...
+   >>> class RECT(Structure):
+   ...     _fields_ = ("a", POINT), ("b", POINT)
+   ...
+   >>> p1 = POINT(1, 2)
+   >>> p2 = POINT(3, 4)
+   >>> rc = RECT(p1, p2)
+   >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
+   1 2 3 4
+   >>> # now swap the two points
+   >>> rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a
+   >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
+   3 4 3 4
+   >>>
+
+Hm. We certainly expected the last statement to print ``3 4 1 2``. What
+happened? Here are the steps of the ``rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a`` line above::
+
+   >>> temp0, temp1 = rc.b, rc.a
+   >>> rc.a = temp0
+   >>> rc.b = temp1
+   >>>
+
+Note that ``temp0`` and ``temp1`` are objects still using the internal buffer of
+the ``rc`` object above. So executing ``rc.a = temp0`` copies the buffer
+contents of ``temp0`` into ``rc`` 's buffer.  This, in turn, changes the
+contents of ``temp1``. So, the last assignment ``rc.b = temp1``, doesn't have
+the expected effect.
+
+Keep in mind that retrieving sub-objects from Structure, Unions, and Arrays
+doesn't *copy* the sub-object, instead it retrieves a wrapper object accessing
+the root-object's underlying buffer.
+
+Another example that may behave different from what one would expect is this::
+
+   >>> s = c_char_p()
+   >>> s.value = "abc def ghi"
+   >>> s.value
+   'abc def ghi'
+   >>> s.value is s.value
+   False
+   >>>
+
+Why is it printing ``False``?  ctypes instances are objects containing a memory
+block plus some :term:`descriptor`\s accessing the contents of the memory.
+Storing a Python object in the memory block does not store the object itself,
+instead the ``contents`` of the object is stored.  Accessing the contents again
+constructs a new Python object each time!
+
+
+.. _ctypes-variable-sized-data-types:
+
+Variable-sized data types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:mod:`ctypes` provides some support for variable-sized arrays and structures.
+
+The :func:`resize` function can be used to resize the memory buffer of an
+existing ctypes object.  The function takes the object as first argument, and
+the requested size in bytes as the second argument.  The memory block cannot be
+made smaller than the natural memory block specified by the objects type, a
+:exc:`ValueError` is raised if this is tried::
+
+   >>> short_array = (c_short * 4)()
+   >>> print(sizeof(short_array))
+   8
+   >>> resize(short_array, 4)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ...
+   ValueError: minimum size is 8
+   >>> resize(short_array, 32)
+   >>> sizeof(short_array)
+   32
+   >>> sizeof(type(short_array))
+   8
+   >>>
+
+This is nice and fine, but how would one access the additional elements
+contained in this array?  Since the type still only knows about 4 elements, we
+get errors accessing other elements::
+
+   >>> short_array[:]
+   [0, 0, 0, 0]
+   >>> short_array[7]
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ...
+   IndexError: invalid index
+   >>>
+
+Another way to use variable-sized data types with :mod:`ctypes` is to use the
+dynamic nature of Python, and (re-)define the data type after the required size
+is already known, on a case by case basis.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-ctypes-reference:
+
+ctypes reference
+----------------
+
+
+.. _ctypes-finding-shared-libraries:
+
+Finding shared libraries
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+When programming in a compiled language, shared libraries are accessed when
+compiling/linking a program, and when the program is run.
+
+The purpose of the :func:`find_library` function is to locate a library in a way
+similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on platforms with several
+versions of a shared library the most recent should be loaded), while the ctypes
+library loaders act like when a program is run, and call the runtime loader
+directly.
+
+The :mod:`ctypes.util` module provides a function which can help to determine
+the library to load.
+
+
+.. data:: find_library(name)
+   :module: ctypes.util
+   :noindex:
+
+   Try to find a library and return a pathname.  *name* is the library name without
+   any prefix like *lib*, suffix like ``.so``, ``.dylib`` or version number (this
+   is the form used for the posix linker option :option:`!-l`).  If no library can
+   be found, returns ``None``.
+
+The exact functionality is system dependent.
+
+On Linux, :func:`find_library` tries to run external programs
+(``/sbin/ldconfig``, ``gcc``, ``objdump`` and ``ld``) to find the library file.
+It returns the filename of the library file.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   On Linux, the value of the environment variable ``LD_LIBRARY_PATH`` is used
+   when searching for libraries, if a library cannot be found by any other means.
+
+Here are some examples::
+
+   >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
+   >>> find_library("m")
+   'libm.so.6'
+   >>> find_library("c")
+   'libc.so.6'
+   >>> find_library("bz2")
+   'libbz2.so.1.0'
+   >>>
+
+On OS X, :func:`find_library` tries several predefined naming schemes and paths
+to locate the library, and returns a full pathname if successful::
+
+   >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
+   >>> find_library("c")
+   '/usr/lib/libc.dylib'
+   >>> find_library("m")
+   '/usr/lib/libm.dylib'
+   >>> find_library("bz2")
+   '/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib'
+   >>> find_library("AGL")
+   '/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL'
+   >>>
+
+On Windows, :func:`find_library` searches along the system search path, and
+returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined naming scheme a call
+like ``find_library("c")`` will fail and return ``None``.
+
+If wrapping a shared library with :mod:`ctypes`, it *may* be better to determine
+the shared library name at development time, and hardcode that into the wrapper
+module instead of using :func:`find_library` to locate the library at runtime.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-loading-shared-libraries:
+
+Loading shared libraries
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are several ways to load shared libraries into the Python process.  One
+way is to instantiate one of the following classes:
+
+
+.. class:: CDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)
+
+   Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries. Functions in these
+   libraries use the standard C calling convention, and are assumed to return
+   :c:type:`int`.
+
+
+.. class:: OleDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)
+
+   Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
+   functions in these libraries use the ``stdcall`` calling convention, and are
+   assumed to return the windows specific :class:`HRESULT` code.  :class:`HRESULT`
+   values contain information specifying whether the function call failed or
+   succeeded, together with additional error code.  If the return value signals a
+   failure, an :class:`OSError` is automatically raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`WindowsError` used to be raised.
+
+
+.. class:: WinDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)
+
+   Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
+   functions in these libraries use the ``stdcall`` calling convention, and are
+   assumed to return :c:type:`int` by default.
+
+   On Windows CE only the standard calling convention is used, for convenience the
+   :class:`WinDLL` and :class:`OleDLL` use the standard calling convention on this
+   platform.
+
+The Python :term:`global interpreter lock` is released before calling any
+function exported by these libraries, and reacquired afterwards.
+
+
+.. class:: PyDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None)
+
+   Instances of this class behave like :class:`CDLL` instances, except that the
+   Python GIL is *not* released during the function call, and after the function
+   execution the Python error flag is checked. If the error flag is set, a Python
+   exception is raised.
+
+   Thus, this is only useful to call Python C api functions directly.
+
+All these classes can be instantiated by calling them with at least one
+argument, the pathname of the shared library.  If you have an existing handle to
+an already loaded shared library, it can be passed as the ``handle`` named
+parameter, otherwise the underlying platforms ``dlopen`` or ``LoadLibrary``
+function is used to load the library into the process, and to get a handle to
+it.
+
+The *mode* parameter can be used to specify how the library is loaded.  For
+details, consult the :manpage:`dlopen(3)` manpage.  On Windows, *mode* is
+ignored.  On posix systems, RTLD_NOW is always added, and is not
+configurable.
+
+The *use_errno* parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes mechanism that
+allows accessing the system :data:`errno` error number in a safe way.
+:mod:`ctypes` maintains a thread-local copy of the systems :data:`errno`
+variable; if you call foreign functions created with ``use_errno=True`` then the
+:data:`errno` value before the function call is swapped with the ctypes private
+copy, the same happens immediately after the function call.
+
+The function :func:`ctypes.get_errno` returns the value of the ctypes private
+copy, and the function :func:`ctypes.set_errno` changes the ctypes private copy
+to a new value and returns the former value.
+
+The *use_last_error* parameter, when set to true, enables the same mechanism for
+the Windows error code which is managed by the :func:`GetLastError` and
+:func:`SetLastError` Windows API functions; :func:`ctypes.get_last_error` and
+:func:`ctypes.set_last_error` are used to request and change the ctypes private
+copy of the windows error code.
+
+.. data:: RTLD_GLOBAL
+   :noindex:
+
+   Flag to use as *mode* parameter.  On platforms where this flag is not available,
+   it is defined as the integer zero.
+
+
+.. data:: RTLD_LOCAL
+   :noindex:
+
+   Flag to use as *mode* parameter.  On platforms where this is not available, it
+   is the same as *RTLD_GLOBAL*.
+
+
+.. data:: DEFAULT_MODE
+   :noindex:
+
+   The default mode which is used to load shared libraries.  On OSX 10.3, this is
+   *RTLD_GLOBAL*, otherwise it is the same as *RTLD_LOCAL*.
+
+Instances of these classes have no public methods.  Functions exported by the
+shared library can be accessed as attributes or by index.  Please note that
+accessing the function through an attribute caches the result and therefore
+accessing it repeatedly returns the same object each time.  On the other hand,
+accessing it through an index returns a new object each time::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import CDLL
+   >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")  # On Linux
+   >>> libc.time == libc.time
+   True
+   >>> libc['time'] == libc['time']
+   False
+
+The following public attributes are available, their name starts with an
+underscore to not clash with exported function names:
+
+
+.. attribute:: PyDLL._handle
+
+   The system handle used to access the library.
+
+
+.. attribute:: PyDLL._name
+
+   The name of the library passed in the constructor.
+
+Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated objects,
+which are instances of the :class:`LibraryLoader` class, either by calling the
+:meth:`LoadLibrary` method, or by retrieving the library as attribute of the
+loader instance.
+
+
+.. class:: LibraryLoader(dlltype)
+
+   Class which loads shared libraries.  *dlltype* should be one of the
+   :class:`CDLL`, :class:`PyDLL`, :class:`WinDLL`, or :class:`OleDLL` types.
+
+   :meth:`__getattr__` has special behavior: It allows loading a shared library by
+   accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance.  The result is cached,
+   so repeated attribute accesses return the same library each time.
+
+   .. method:: LoadLibrary(name)
+
+      Load a shared library into the process and return it.  This method always
+      returns a new instance of the library.
+
+
+These prefabricated library loaders are available:
+
+.. data:: cdll
+   :noindex:
+
+   Creates :class:`CDLL` instances.
+
+
+.. data:: windll
+   :noindex:
+
+   Windows only: Creates :class:`WinDLL` instances.
+
+
+.. data:: oledll
+   :noindex:
+
+   Windows only: Creates :class:`OleDLL` instances.
+
+
+.. data:: pydll
+   :noindex:
+
+   Creates :class:`PyDLL` instances.
+
+
+For accessing the C Python api directly, a ready-to-use Python shared library
+object is available:
+
+.. data:: pythonapi
+   :noindex:
+
+   An instance of :class:`PyDLL` that exposes Python C API functions as
+   attributes.  Note that all these functions are assumed to return C
+   :c:type:`int`, which is of course not always the truth, so you have to assign
+   the correct :attr:`restype` attribute to use these functions.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-foreign-functions:
+
+Foreign functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed as
+attributes of loaded shared libraries.  The function objects created in this way
+by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes data instances as
+arguments, and return the default result type specified by the library loader.
+They are instances of a private class:
+
+
+.. class:: _FuncPtr
+
+   Base class for C callable foreign functions.
+
+   Instances of foreign functions are also C compatible data types; they
+   represent C function pointers.
+
+   This behavior can be customized by assigning to special attributes of the
+   foreign function object.
+
+   .. attribute:: restype
+
+      Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign function.
+      Use ``None`` for :c:type:`void`, a function not returning anything.
+
+      It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not a ctypes
+      type, in this case the function is assumed to return a C :c:type:`int`, and
+      the callable will be called with this integer, allowing further
+      processing or error checking.  Using this is deprecated, for more flexible
+      post processing or error checking use a ctypes data type as
+      :attr:`restype` and assign a callable to the :attr:`errcheck` attribute.
+
+   .. attribute:: argtypes
+
+      Assign a tuple of ctypes types to specify the argument types that the
+      function accepts.  Functions using the ``stdcall`` calling convention can
+      only be called with the same number of arguments as the length of this
+      tuple; functions using the C calling convention accept additional,
+      unspecified arguments as well.
+
+      When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is passed to the
+      :meth:`from_param` class method of the items in the :attr:`argtypes`
+      tuple, this method allows adapting the actual argument to an object that
+      the foreign function accepts.  For example, a :class:`c_char_p` item in
+      the :attr:`argtypes` tuple will convert a string passed as argument into
+      a bytes object using ctypes conversion rules.
+
+      New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not ctypes
+      types, but each item must have a :meth:`from_param` method which returns a
+      value usable as argument (integer, string, ctypes instance).  This allows
+      defining adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.
+
+   .. attribute:: errcheck
+
+      Assign a Python function or another callable to this attribute. The
+      callable will be called with three or more arguments:
+
+      .. function:: callable(result, func, arguments)
+         :noindex:
+         :module:
+
+         *result* is what the foreign function returns, as specified by the
+         :attr:`restype` attribute.
+
+         *func* is the foreign function object itself, this allows reusing the
+         same callable object to check or post process the results of several
+         functions.
+
+         *arguments* is a tuple containing the parameters originally passed to
+         the function call, this allows specializing the behavior on the
+         arguments used.
+
+      The object that this function returns will be returned from the
+      foreign function call, but it can also check the result value
+      and raise an exception if the foreign function call failed.
+
+
+.. exception:: ArgumentError
+
+   This exception is raised when a foreign function call cannot convert one of the
+   passed arguments.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-function-prototypes:
+
+Function prototypes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Foreign functions can also be created by instantiating function prototypes.
+Function prototypes are similar to function prototypes in C; they describe a
+function (return type, argument types, calling convention) without defining an
+implementation.  The factory functions must be called with the desired result
+type and the argument types of the function, and can be used as decorator
+factories, and as such, be applied to functions through the ``@wrapper`` syntax.
+See :ref:`ctypes-callback-functions` for examples.
+
+
+.. function:: CFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)
+
+   The returned function prototype creates functions that use the standard C
+   calling convention.  The function will release the GIL during the call.  If
+   *use_errno* is set to true, the ctypes private copy of the system
+   :data:`errno` variable is exchanged with the real :data:`errno` value before
+   and after the call; *use_last_error* does the same for the Windows error
+   code.
+
+
+.. function:: WINFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)
+
+   Windows only: The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
+   ``stdcall`` calling convention, except on Windows CE where
+   :func:`WINFUNCTYPE` is the same as :func:`CFUNCTYPE`.  The function will
+   release the GIL during the call.  *use_errno* and *use_last_error* have the
+   same meaning as above.
+
+
+.. function:: PYFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes)
+
+   The returned function prototype creates functions that use the Python calling
+   convention.  The function will *not* release the GIL during the call.
+
+Function prototypes created by these factory functions can be instantiated in
+different ways, depending on the type and number of the parameters in the call:
+
+
+   .. function:: prototype(address)
+      :noindex:
+      :module:
+
+      Returns a foreign function at the specified address which must be an integer.
+
+
+   .. function:: prototype(callable)
+      :noindex:
+      :module:
+
+      Create a C callable function (a callback function) from a Python *callable*.
+
+
+   .. function:: prototype(func_spec[, paramflags])
+      :noindex:
+      :module:
+
+      Returns a foreign function exported by a shared library. *func_spec* must
+      be a 2-tuple ``(name_or_ordinal, library)``. The first item is the name of
+      the exported function as string, or the ordinal of the exported function
+      as small integer.  The second item is the shared library instance.
+
+
+   .. function:: prototype(vtbl_index, name[, paramflags[, iid]])
+      :noindex:
+      :module:
+
+      Returns a foreign function that will call a COM method. *vtbl_index* is
+      the index into the virtual function table, a small non-negative
+      integer. *name* is name of the COM method. *iid* is an optional pointer to
+      the interface identifier which is used in extended error reporting.
+
+      COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a pointer to
+      the COM interface as first argument, in addition to those parameters that
+      are specified in the :attr:`argtypes` tuple.
+
+   The optional *paramflags* parameter creates foreign function wrappers with much
+   more functionality than the features described above.
+
+   *paramflags* must be a tuple of the same length as :attr:`argtypes`.
+
+   Each item in this tuple contains further information about a parameter, it must
+   be a tuple containing one, two, or three items.
+
+   The first item is an integer containing a combination of direction
+   flags for the parameter:
+
+      1
+         Specifies an input parameter to the function.
+
+      2
+         Output parameter.  The foreign function fills in a value.
+
+      4
+         Input parameter which defaults to the integer zero.
+
+   The optional second item is the parameter name as string.  If this is specified,
+   the foreign function can be called with named parameters.
+
+   The optional third item is the default value for this parameter.
+
+This example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows ``MessageBoxW`` function so
+that it supports default parameters and named arguments. The C declaration from
+the windows header file is this::
+
+   WINUSERAPI int WINAPI
+   MessageBoxW(
+       HWND hWnd,
+       LPCWSTR lpText,
+       LPCWSTR lpCaption,
+       UINT uType);
+
+Here is the wrapping with :mod:`ctypes`::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import c_int, WINFUNCTYPE, windll
+   >>> from ctypes.wintypes import HWND, LPCWSTR, UINT
+   >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(c_int, HWND, LPCWSTR, LPCWSTR, UINT)
+   >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd", 0), (1, "text", "Hi"), (1, "caption", "Hello from ctypes"), (1, "flags", 0)
+   >>> MessageBox = prototype(("MessageBoxW", windll.user32), paramflags)
+
+The ``MessageBox`` foreign function can now be called in these ways::
+
+   >>> MessageBox()
+   >>> MessageBox(text="Spam, spam, spam")
+   >>> MessageBox(flags=2, text="foo bar")
+
+A second example demonstrates output parameters.  The win32 ``GetWindowRect``
+function retrieves the dimensions of a specified window by copying them into
+``RECT`` structure that the caller has to supply.  Here is the C declaration::
+
+   WINUSERAPI BOOL WINAPI
+   GetWindowRect(
+        HWND hWnd,
+        LPRECT lpRect);
+
+Here is the wrapping with :mod:`ctypes`::
+
+   >>> from ctypes import POINTER, WINFUNCTYPE, windll, WinError
+   >>> from ctypes.wintypes import BOOL, HWND, RECT
+   >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(BOOL, HWND, POINTER(RECT))
+   >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd"), (2, "lprect")
+   >>> GetWindowRect = prototype(("GetWindowRect", windll.user32), paramflags)
+   >>>
+
+Functions with output parameters will automatically return the output parameter
+value if there is a single one, or a tuple containing the output parameter
+values when there are more than one, so the GetWindowRect function now returns a
+RECT instance, when called.
+
+Output parameters can be combined with the :attr:`errcheck` protocol to do
+further output processing and error checking.  The win32 ``GetWindowRect`` api
+function returns a ``BOOL`` to signal success or failure, so this function could
+do the error checking, and raises an exception when the api call failed::
+
+   >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
+   ...     if not result:
+   ...         raise WinError()
+   ...     return args
+   ...
+   >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
+   >>>
+
+If the :attr:`errcheck` function returns the argument tuple it receives
+unchanged, :mod:`ctypes` continues the normal processing it does on the output
+parameters.  If you want to return a tuple of window coordinates instead of a
+``RECT`` instance, you can retrieve the fields in the function and return them
+instead, the normal processing will no longer take place::
+
+   >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
+   ...     if not result:
+   ...         raise WinError()
+   ...     rc = args[1]
+   ...     return rc.left, rc.top, rc.bottom, rc.right
+   ...
+   >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
+   >>>
+
+
+.. _ctypes-utility-functions:
+
+Utility functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. function:: addressof(obj)
+
+   Returns the address of the memory buffer as integer.  *obj* must be an
+   instance of a ctypes type.
+
+
+.. function:: alignment(obj_or_type)
+
+   Returns the alignment requirements of a ctypes type. *obj_or_type* must be a
+   ctypes type or instance.
+
+
+.. function:: byref(obj[, offset])
+
+   Returns a light-weight pointer to *obj*, which must be an instance of a
+   ctypes type.  *offset* defaults to zero, and must be an integer that will be
+   added to the internal pointer value.
+
+   ``byref(obj, offset)`` corresponds to this C code::
+
+      (((char *)&obj) + offset)
+
+   The returned object can only be used as a foreign function call parameter.
+   It behaves similar to ``pointer(obj)``, but the construction is a lot faster.
+
+
+.. function:: cast(obj, type)
+
+   This function is similar to the cast operator in C. It returns a new instance
+   of *type* which points to the same memory block as *obj*.  *type* must be a
+   pointer type, and *obj* must be an object that can be interpreted as a
+   pointer.
+
+
+.. function:: create_string_buffer(init_or_size, size=None)
+
+   This function creates a mutable character buffer. The returned object is a
+   ctypes array of :class:`c_char`.
+
+   *init_or_size* must be an integer which specifies the size of the array, or a
+   bytes object which will be used to initialize the array items.
+
+   If a bytes object is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one item
+   larger than its length so that the last element in the array is a NUL
+   termination character. An integer can be passed as second argument which allows
+   specifying the size of the array if the length of the bytes should not be used.
+
+
+
+.. function:: create_unicode_buffer(init_or_size, size=None)
+
+   This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer. The returned object is
+   a ctypes array of :class:`c_wchar`.
+
+   *init_or_size* must be an integer which specifies the size of the array, or a
+   string which will be used to initialize the array items.
+
+   If a string is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one item
+   larger than the length of the string so that the last element in the array is a
+   NUL termination character. An integer can be passed as second argument which
+   allows specifying the size of the array if the length of the string should not
+   be used.
+
+
+
+.. function:: DllCanUnloadNow()
+
+   Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
+   COM servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow function that
+   the _ctypes extension dll exports.
+
+
+.. function:: DllGetClassObject()
+
+   Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
+   COM servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllGetClassObject function
+   that the ``_ctypes`` extension dll exports.
+
+
+.. function:: find_library(name)
+   :module: ctypes.util
+
+   Try to find a library and return a pathname.  *name* is the library name
+   without any prefix like ``lib``, suffix like ``.so``, ``.dylib`` or version
+   number (this is the form used for the posix linker option :option:`!-l`).  If
+   no library can be found, returns ``None``.
+
+   The exact functionality is system dependent.
+
+
+.. function:: find_msvcrt()
+   :module: ctypes.util
+
+   Windows only: return the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python,
+   and by the extension modules.  If the name of the library cannot be
+   determined, ``None`` is returned.
+
+   If you need to free memory, for example, allocated by an extension module
+   with a call to the ``free(void *)``, it is important that you use the
+   function in the same library that allocated the memory.
+
+
+.. function:: FormatError([code])
+
+   Windows only: Returns a textual description of the error code *code*.  If no
+   error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the Windows
+   api function GetLastError.
+
+
+.. function:: GetLastError()
+
+   Windows only: Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
+   This function calls the Windows `GetLastError()` function directly,
+   it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.
+
+.. function:: get_errno()
+
+   Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+   :data:`errno` variable in the calling thread.
+
+.. function:: get_last_error()
+
+   Windows only: returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+   :data:`LastError` variable in the calling thread.
+
+.. function:: memmove(dst, src, count)
+
+   Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies *count* bytes from
+   *src* to *dst*. *dst* and *src* must be integers or ctypes instances that can
+   be converted to pointers.
+
+
+.. function:: memset(dst, c, count)
+
+   Same as the standard C memset library function: fills the memory block at
+   address *dst* with *count* bytes of value *c*. *dst* must be an integer
+   specifying an address, or a ctypes instance.
+
+
+.. function:: POINTER(type)
+
+   This factory function creates and returns a new ctypes pointer type. Pointer
+   types are cached and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly is
+   cheap. *type* must be a ctypes type.
+
+
+.. function:: pointer(obj)
+
+   This function creates a new pointer instance, pointing to *obj*. The returned
+   object is of the type ``POINTER(type(obj))``.
+
+   Note: If you just want to pass a pointer to an object to a foreign function
+   call, you should use ``byref(obj)`` which is much faster.
+
+
+.. function:: resize(obj, size)
+
+   This function resizes the internal memory buffer of *obj*, which must be an
+   instance of a ctypes type.  It is not possible to make the buffer smaller
+   than the native size of the objects type, as given by ``sizeof(type(obj))``,
+   but it is possible to enlarge the buffer.
+
+
+.. function:: set_errno(value)
+
+   Set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system :data:`errno`
+   variable in the calling thread to *value* and return the previous value.
+
+
+
+.. function:: set_last_error(value)
+
+   Windows only: set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+   :data:`LastError` variable in the calling thread to *value* and return the
+   previous value.
+
+
+
+.. function:: sizeof(obj_or_type)
+
+   Returns the size in bytes of a ctypes type or instance memory buffer.
+   Does the same as the C ``sizeof`` operator.
+
+
+.. function:: string_at(address, size=-1)
+
+   This function returns the C string starting at memory address *address* as a bytes
+   object. If size is specified, it is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed
+   to be zero-terminated.
+
+
+.. function:: WinError(code=None, descr=None)
+
+   Windows only: this function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes. It
+   creates an instance of OSError.  If *code* is not specified,
+   ``GetLastError`` is called to determine the error code. If *descr* is not
+   specified, :func:`FormatError` is called to get a textual description of the
+   error.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      An instance of :exc:`WindowsError` used to be created.
+
+
+.. function:: wstring_at(address, size=-1)
+
+   This function returns the wide character string starting at memory address
+   *address* as a string.  If *size* is specified, it is used as the number of
+   characters of the string, otherwise the string is assumed to be
+   zero-terminated.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-data-types:
+
+Data types
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: _CData
+
+   This non-public class is the common base class of all ctypes data types.
+   Among other things, all ctypes type instances contain a memory block that
+   hold C compatible data; the address of the memory block is returned by the
+   :func:`addressof` helper function. Another instance variable is exposed as
+   :attr:`_objects`; this contains other Python objects that need to be kept
+   alive in case the memory block contains pointers.
+
+   Common methods of ctypes data types, these are all class methods (to be
+   exact, they are methods of the :term:`metaclass`):
+
+   .. method:: _CData.from_buffer(source[, offset])
+
+      This method returns a ctypes instance that shares the buffer of the
+      *source* object.  The *source* object must support the writeable buffer
+      interface.  The optional *offset* parameter specifies an offset into the
+      source buffer in bytes; the default is zero.  If the source buffer is not
+      large enough a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+   .. method:: _CData.from_buffer_copy(source[, offset])
+
+      This method creates a ctypes instance, copying the buffer from the
+      *source* object buffer which must be readable.  The optional *offset*
+      parameter specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the default
+      is zero.  If the source buffer is not large enough a :exc:`ValueError` is
+      raised.
+
+   .. method:: from_address(address)
+
+      This method returns a ctypes type instance using the memory specified by
+      *address* which must be an integer.
+
+   .. method:: from_param(obj)
+
+      This method adapts *obj* to a ctypes type.  It is called with the actual
+      object used in a foreign function call when the type is present in the
+      foreign function's :attr:`argtypes` tuple; it must return an object that
+      can be used as a function call parameter.
+
+      All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this classmethod
+      that normally returns *obj* if that is an instance of the type.  Some
+      types accept other objects as well.
+
+   .. method:: in_dll(library, name)
+
+      This method returns a ctypes type instance exported by a shared
+      library. *name* is the name of the symbol that exports the data, *library*
+      is the loaded shared library.
+
+   Common instance variables of ctypes data types:
+
+   .. attribute:: _b_base_
+
+      Sometimes ctypes data instances do not own the memory block they contain,
+      instead they share part of the memory block of a base object.  The
+      :attr:`_b_base_` read-only member is the root ctypes object that owns the
+      memory block.
+
+   .. attribute:: _b_needsfree_
+
+      This read-only variable is true when the ctypes data instance has
+      allocated the memory block itself, false otherwise.
+
+   .. attribute:: _objects
+
+      This member is either ``None`` or a dictionary containing Python objects
+      that need to be kept alive so that the memory block contents is kept
+      valid.  This object is only exposed for debugging; never modify the
+      contents of this dictionary.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-fundamental-data-types-2:
+
+Fundamental data types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: _SimpleCData
+
+   This non-public class is the base class of all fundamental ctypes data
+   types. It is mentioned here because it contains the common attributes of the
+   fundamental ctypes data types.  :class:`_SimpleCData` is a subclass of
+   :class:`_CData`, so it inherits their methods and attributes. ctypes data
+   types that are not and do not contain pointers can now be pickled.
+
+   Instances have a single attribute:
+
+   .. attribute:: value
+
+      This attribute contains the actual value of the instance. For integer and
+      pointer types, it is an integer, for character types, it is a single
+      character bytes object or string, for character pointer types it is a
+      Python bytes object or string.
+
+      When the ``value`` attribute is retrieved from a ctypes instance, usually
+      a new object is returned each time.  :mod:`ctypes` does *not* implement
+      original object return, always a new object is constructed.  The same is
+      true for all other ctypes object instances.
+
+
+Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results, or, for
+example, by retrieving structure field members or array items, are transparently
+converted to native Python types.  In other words, if a foreign function has a
+:attr:`restype` of :class:`c_char_p`, you will always receive a Python bytes
+object, *not* a :class:`c_char_p` instance.
+
+.. XXX above is false, it actually returns a Unicode string
+
+Subclasses of fundamental data types do *not* inherit this behavior. So, if a
+foreign functions :attr:`restype` is a subclass of :class:`c_void_p`, you will
+receive an instance of this subclass from the function call. Of course, you can
+get the value of the pointer by accessing the ``value`` attribute.
+
+These are the fundamental ctypes data types:
+
+.. class:: c_byte
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`signed char` datatype, and interprets the value as
+   small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no
+   overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_char
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`char` datatype, and interprets the value as a single
+   character.  The constructor accepts an optional string initializer, the
+   length of the string must be exactly one character.
+
+
+.. class:: c_char_p
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`char *` datatype when it points to a zero-terminated
+   string.  For a general character pointer that may also point to binary data,
+   ``POINTER(c_char)`` must be used.  The constructor accepts an integer
+   address, or a bytes object.
+
+
+.. class:: c_double
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`double` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional float initializer.
+
+
+.. class:: c_longdouble
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`long double` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional float initializer.  On platforms where ``sizeof(long double) ==
+   sizeof(double)`` it is an alias to :class:`c_double`.
+
+.. class:: c_float
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`float` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional float initializer.
+
+
+.. class:: c_int
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`signed int` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On platforms
+   where ``sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)`` it is an alias to :class:`c_long`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_int8
+
+   Represents the C 8-bit :c:type:`signed int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_byte`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_int16
+
+   Represents the C 16-bit :c:type:`signed int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_short`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_int32
+
+   Represents the C 32-bit :c:type:`signed int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_int`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_int64
+
+   Represents the C 64-bit :c:type:`signed int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_longlong`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_long
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`signed long` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_longlong
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`signed long long` datatype.  The constructor accepts
+   an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_short
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`signed short` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_size_t
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`size_t` datatype.
+
+
+.. class:: c_ssize_t
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`ssize_t` datatype.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. class:: c_ubyte
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`unsigned char` datatype, it interprets the value as
+   small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no
+   overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_uint
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`unsigned int` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On platforms
+   where ``sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)`` it is an alias for :class:`c_ulong`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_uint8
+
+   Represents the C 8-bit :c:type:`unsigned int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_ubyte`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_uint16
+
+   Represents the C 16-bit :c:type:`unsigned int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_ushort`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_uint32
+
+   Represents the C 32-bit :c:type:`unsigned int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_uint`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_uint64
+
+   Represents the C 64-bit :c:type:`unsigned int` datatype.  Usually an alias for
+   :class:`c_ulonglong`.
+
+
+.. class:: c_ulong
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`unsigned long` datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+   optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_ulonglong
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`unsigned long long` datatype.  The constructor
+   accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_ushort
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`unsigned short` datatype.  The constructor accepts
+   an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.
+
+
+.. class:: c_void_p
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`void *` type.  The value is represented as integer.
+   The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.
+
+
+.. class:: c_wchar
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`wchar_t` datatype, and interprets the value as a
+   single character unicode string.  The constructor accepts an optional string
+   initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one character.
+
+
+.. class:: c_wchar_p
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`wchar_t *` datatype, which must be a pointer to a
+   zero-terminated wide character string.  The constructor accepts an integer
+   address, or a string.
+
+
+.. class:: c_bool
+
+   Represent the C :c:type:`bool` datatype (more accurately, :c:type:`_Bool` from
+   C99).  Its value can be ``True`` or ``False``, and the constructor accepts any object
+   that has a truth value.
+
+
+.. class:: HRESULT
+
+   Windows only: Represents a :c:type:`HRESULT` value, which contains success or
+   error information for a function or method call.
+
+
+.. class:: py_object
+
+   Represents the C :c:type:`PyObject *` datatype.  Calling this without an
+   argument creates a ``NULL`` :c:type:`PyObject *` pointer.
+
+The :mod:`ctypes.wintypes` module provides quite some other Windows specific
+data types, for example :c:type:`HWND`, :c:type:`WPARAM`, or :c:type:`DWORD`.  Some
+useful structures like :c:type:`MSG` or :c:type:`RECT` are also defined.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-structured-data-types:
+
+Structured data types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: Union(*args, **kw)
+
+   Abstract base class for unions in native byte order.
+
+
+.. class:: BigEndianStructure(*args, **kw)
+
+   Abstract base class for structures in *big endian* byte order.
+
+
+.. class:: LittleEndianStructure(*args, **kw)
+
+   Abstract base class for structures in *little endian* byte order.
+
+Structures with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer type fields, or any
+other data types containing pointer type fields.
+
+
+.. class:: Structure(*args, **kw)
+
+   Abstract base class for structures in *native* byte order.
+
+   Concrete structure and union types must be created by subclassing one of these
+   types, and at least define a :attr:`_fields_` class variable. :mod:`ctypes` will
+   create :term:`descriptor`\s which allow reading and writing the fields by direct
+   attribute accesses.  These are the
+
+
+   .. attribute:: _fields_
+
+      A sequence defining the structure fields.  The items must be 2-tuples or
+      3-tuples.  The first item is the name of the field, the second item
+      specifies the type of the field; it can be any ctypes data type.
+
+      For integer type fields like :class:`c_int`, a third optional item can be
+      given.  It must be a small positive integer defining the bit width of the
+      field.
+
+      Field names must be unique within one structure or union.  This is not
+      checked, only one field can be accessed when names are repeated.
+
+      It is possible to define the :attr:`_fields_` class variable *after* the
+      class statement that defines the Structure subclass, this allows creating
+      data types that directly or indirectly reference themselves::
+
+         class List(Structure):
+             pass
+         List._fields_ = [("pnext", POINTER(List)),
+                          ...
+                         ]
+
+      The :attr:`_fields_` class variable must, however, be defined before the
+      type is first used (an instance is created, :func:`sizeof` is called on it,
+      and so on).  Later assignments to the :attr:`_fields_` class variable will
+      raise an AttributeError.
+
+      It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structure types, they inherit
+      the fields of the base class plus the :attr:`_fields_` defined in the
+      sub-subclass, if any.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: _pack_
+
+      An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment of
+      structure fields in the instance.  :attr:`_pack_` must already be defined
+      when :attr:`_fields_` is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: _anonymous_
+
+      An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed (anonymous) fields.
+      :attr:`_anonymous_` must be already defined when :attr:`_fields_` is
+      assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.
+
+      The fields listed in this variable must be structure or union type fields.
+      :mod:`ctypes` will create descriptors in the structure type that allows
+      accessing the nested fields directly, without the need to create the
+      structure or union field.
+
+      Here is an example type (Windows)::
+
+         class _U(Union):
+             _fields_ = [("lptdesc", POINTER(TYPEDESC)),
+                         ("lpadesc", POINTER(ARRAYDESC)),
+                         ("hreftype", HREFTYPE)]
+
+         class TYPEDESC(Structure):
+             _anonymous_ = ("u",)
+             _fields_ = [("u", _U),
+                         ("vt", VARTYPE)]
+
+
+      The ``TYPEDESC`` structure describes a COM data type, the ``vt`` field
+      specifies which one of the union fields is valid.  Since the ``u`` field
+      is defined as anonymous field, it is now possible to access the members
+      directly off the TYPEDESC instance. ``td.lptdesc`` and ``td.u.lptdesc``
+      are equivalent, but the former is faster since it does not need to create
+      a temporary union instance::
+
+         td = TYPEDESC()
+         td.vt = VT_PTR
+         td.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
+         td.u.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
+
+   It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structures, they inherit the
+   fields of the base class.  If the subclass definition has a separate
+   :attr:`_fields_` variable, the fields specified in this are appended to the
+   fields of the base class.
+
+   Structure and union constructors accept both positional and keyword
+   arguments.  Positional arguments are used to initialize member fields in the
+   same order as they are appear in :attr:`_fields_`.  Keyword arguments in the
+   constructor are interpreted as attribute assignments, so they will initialize
+   :attr:`_fields_` with the same name, or create new attributes for names not
+   present in :attr:`_fields_`.
+
+
+.. _ctypes-arrays-pointers:
+
+Arrays and pointers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Array(\*args)
+
+   Abstract base class for arrays.
+
+   The recommended way to create concrete array types is by multiplying any
+   :mod:`ctypes` data type with a positive integer.  Alternatively, you can subclass
+   this type and define :attr:`_length_` and :attr:`_type_` class variables.
+   Array elements can be read and written using standard
+   subscript and slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is
+   *not* itself an :class:`Array`.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: _length_
+
+        A positive integer specifying the number of elements in the array.
+        Out-of-range subscripts result in an :exc:`IndexError`. Will be
+        returned by :func:`len`.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: _type_
+
+        Specifies the type of each element in the array.
+
+
+   Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to
+   initialize the elements in order.
+
+
+.. class:: _Pointer
+
+   Private, abstract base class for pointers.
+
+   Concrete pointer types are created by calling :func:`POINTER` with the
+   type that will be pointed to; this is done automatically by
+   :func:`pointer`.
+
+   If a pointer points to an array, its elements can be read and
+   written using standard subscript and slice accesses.  Pointer objects
+   have no size, so :func:`len` will raise :exc:`TypeError`.  Negative
+   subscripts will read from the memory *before* the pointer (as in C), and
+   out-of-range subscripts will probably crash with an access violation (if
+   you're lucky).
+
+
+   .. attribute:: _type_
+
+        Specifies the type pointed to.
+
+   .. attribute:: contents
+
+        Returns the object to which to pointer points.  Assigning to this
+        attribute changes the pointer to point to the assigned object.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.ascii.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.ascii.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a69dbb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.ascii.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,229 @@
+:mod:`curses.ascii` --- Utilities for ASCII characters
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: curses.ascii
+   :synopsis: Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@thyrsus.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@thyrsus.com>
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`curses.ascii` module supplies name constants for ASCII characters and
+functions to test membership in various ASCII character classes.  The constants
+supplied are names for control characters as follows:
+
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Name         | Meaning                                      |
++==============+==============================================+
+| :const:`NUL` |                                              |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`SOH` | Start of heading, console interrupt          |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`STX` | Start of text                                |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`ETX` | End of text                                  |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`EOT` | End of transmission                          |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`ENQ` | Enquiry, goes with :const:`ACK` flow control |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`ACK` | Acknowledgement                              |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`BEL` | Bell                                         |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`BS`  | Backspace                                    |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`TAB` | Tab                                          |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`HT`  | Alias for :const:`TAB`: "Horizontal tab"     |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`LF`  | Line feed                                    |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`NL`  | Alias for :const:`LF`: "New line"            |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`VT`  | Vertical tab                                 |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`FF`  | Form feed                                    |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`CR`  | Carriage return                              |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`SO`  | Shift-out, begin alternate character set     |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`SI`  | Shift-in, resume default character set       |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`DLE` | Data-link escape                             |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`DC1` | XON, for flow control                        |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`DC2` | Device control 2, block-mode flow control    |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`DC3` | XOFF, for flow control                       |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`DC4` | Device control 4                             |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`NAK` | Negative acknowledgement                     |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`SYN` | Synchronous idle                             |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`ETB` | End transmission block                       |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`CAN` | Cancel                                       |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`EM`  | End of medium                                |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`SUB` | Substitute                                   |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`ESC` | Escape                                       |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`FS`  | File separator                               |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`GS`  | Group separator                              |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`RS`  | Record separator, block-mode terminator      |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`US`  | Unit separator                               |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`SP`  | Space                                        |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| :const:`DEL` | Delete                                       |
++--------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+Note that many of these have little practical significance in modern usage.  The
+mnemonics derive from teleprinter conventions that predate digital computers.
+
+The module supplies the following functions, patterned on those in the standard
+C library:
+
+
+.. function:: isalnum(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII alphanumeric character; it is equivalent to ``isalpha(c) or
+   isdigit(c)``.
+
+
+.. function:: isalpha(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII alphabetic character; it is equivalent to ``isupper(c) or
+   islower(c)``.
+
+
+.. function:: isascii(c)
+
+   Checks for a character value that fits in the 7-bit ASCII set.
+
+
+.. function:: isblank(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII whitespace character; space or horizontal tab.
+
+
+.. function:: iscntrl(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII control character (in the range 0x00 to 0x1f or 0x7f).
+
+
+.. function:: isdigit(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII decimal digit, ``'0'`` through ``'9'``.  This is equivalent
+   to ``c in string.digits``.
+
+
+.. function:: isgraph(c)
+
+   Checks for ASCII any printable character except space.
+
+
+.. function:: islower(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII lower-case character.
+
+
+.. function:: isprint(c)
+
+   Checks for any ASCII printable character including space.
+
+
+.. function:: ispunct(c)
+
+   Checks for any printable ASCII character which is not a space or an alphanumeric
+   character.
+
+
+.. function:: isspace(c)
+
+   Checks for ASCII white-space characters; space, line feed, carriage return, form
+   feed, horizontal tab, vertical tab.
+
+
+.. function:: isupper(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII uppercase letter.
+
+
+.. function:: isxdigit(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII hexadecimal digit.  This is equivalent to ``c in
+   string.hexdigits``.
+
+
+.. function:: isctrl(c)
+
+   Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31).
+
+
+.. function:: ismeta(c)
+
+   Checks for a non-ASCII character (ordinal values 0x80 and above).
+
+These functions accept either integers or single-character strings; when the argument is a
+string, it is first converted using the built-in function :func:`ord`.
+
+Note that all these functions check ordinal bit values derived from the
+character of the string you pass in; they do not actually know anything about
+the host machine's character encoding.
+
+The following two functions take either a single-character string or integer
+byte value; they return a value of the same type.
+
+
+.. function:: ascii(c)
+
+   Return the ASCII value corresponding to the low 7 bits of *c*.
+
+
+.. function:: ctrl(c)
+
+   Return the control character corresponding to the given character (the character
+   bit value is bitwise-anded with 0x1f).
+
+
+.. function:: alt(c)
+
+   Return the 8-bit character corresponding to the given ASCII character (the
+   character bit value is bitwise-ored with 0x80).
+
+The following function takes either a single-character string or integer value;
+it returns a string.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: ^ (caret); in curses module
+   single: ! (exclamation); in curses module
+
+.. function:: unctrl(c)
+
+   Return a string representation of the ASCII character *c*.  If *c* is printable,
+   this string is the character itself.  If the character is a control character
+   (0x00--0x1f) the string consists of a caret (``'^'``) followed by the
+   corresponding uppercase letter. If the character is an ASCII delete (0x7f) the
+   string is ``'^?'``.  If the character has its meta bit (0x80) set, the meta bit
+   is stripped, the preceding rules applied, and ``'!'`` prepended to the result.
+
+
+.. data:: controlnames
+
+   A 33-element string array that contains the ASCII mnemonics for the thirty-two
+   ASCII control characters from 0 (NUL) to 0x1f (US), in order, plus the mnemonic
+   ``SP`` for the space character.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.panel.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.panel.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d770c03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.panel.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+:mod:`curses.panel` --- A panel stack extension for curses
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: curses.panel
+   :synopsis: A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: A.M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
+
+--------------
+
+Panels are windows with the added feature of depth, so they can be stacked on
+top of each other, and only the visible portions of each window will be
+displayed.  Panels can be added, moved up or down in the stack, and removed.
+
+
+.. _cursespanel-functions:
+
+Functions
+---------
+
+The module :mod:`curses.panel` defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: bottom_panel()
+
+   Returns the bottom panel in the panel stack.
+
+
+.. function:: new_panel(win)
+
+   Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window *win*. Be aware
+   that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced explicitly.  If you
+   don't, the panel object is garbage collected and removed from the panel stack.
+
+
+.. function:: top_panel()
+
+   Returns the top panel in the panel stack.
+
+
+.. function:: update_panels()
+
+   Updates the virtual screen after changes in the panel stack. This does not call
+   :func:`curses.doupdate`, so you'll have to do this yourself.
+
+
+.. _curses-panel-objects:
+
+Panel Objects
+-------------
+
+Panel objects, as returned by :func:`new_panel` above, are windows with a
+stacking order. There's always a window associated with a panel which determines
+the content, while the panel methods are responsible for the window's depth in
+the panel stack.
+
+Panel objects have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.above()
+
+   Returns the panel above the current panel.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.below()
+
+   Returns the panel below the current panel.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.bottom()
+
+   Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.hidden()
+
+   Returns ``True`` if the panel is hidden (not visible), ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.hide()
+
+   Hide the panel. This does not delete the object, it just makes the window on
+   screen invisible.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.move(y, x)
+
+   Move the panel to the screen coordinates ``(y, x)``.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.replace(win)
+
+   Change the window associated with the panel to the window *win*.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.set_userptr(obj)
+
+   Set the panel's user pointer to *obj*. This is used to associate an arbitrary
+   piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python object.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.show()
+
+   Display the panel (which might have been hidden).
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.top()
+
+   Push panel to the top of the stack.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.userptr()
+
+   Returns the user pointer for the panel.  This might be any Python object.
+
+
+.. method:: Panel.window()
+
+   Returns the window object associated with the panel.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a2ee2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/curses.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1835 @@
+:mod:`curses` --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: curses
+   :synopsis: An interface to the curses library, providing portable
+              terminal handling.
+   :platform: Unix
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric Raymond <esr@thyrsus.com>
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`curses` module provides an interface to the curses library, the
+de-facto standard for portable advanced terminal handling.
+
+While curses is most widely used in the Unix environment, versions are available
+for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well.  This extension module is
+designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source curses library hosted on
+Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Whenever the documentation mentions a *character* it can be specified
+   as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a one-byte byte string.
+
+   Whenever the documentation mentions a *character string* it can be specified
+   as a Unicode string or a byte string.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Since version 5.4, the ncurses library decides how to interpret non-ASCII data
+   using the ``nl_langinfo`` function.  That means that you have to call
+   :func:`locale.setlocale` in the application and encode Unicode strings
+   using one of the system's available encodings.  This example uses the
+   system's default encoding::
+
+      import locale
+      locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')
+      code = locale.getpreferredencoding()
+
+   Then use *code* as the encoding for :meth:`str.encode` calls.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`curses.ascii`
+      Utilities for working with ASCII characters, regardless of your locale settings.
+
+   Module :mod:`curses.panel`
+      A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows.
+
+   Module :mod:`curses.textpad`
+      Editable text widget for curses supporting  :program:`Emacs`\ -like bindings.
+
+   :ref:`curses-howto`
+      Tutorial material on using curses with Python, by Andrew Kuchling and Eric
+      Raymond.
+
+   The :source:`Tools/demo/` directory in the Python source distribution contains
+   some example programs using the curses bindings provided by this module.
+
+
+.. _curses-functions:
+
+Functions
+---------
+
+The module :mod:`curses` defines the following exception:
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Exception raised when a curses library function returns an error.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Whenever *x* or *y* arguments to a function or a method are optional, they
+   default to the current cursor location. Whenever *attr* is optional, it defaults
+   to :const:`A_NORMAL`.
+
+The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: baudrate()
+
+   Return the output speed of the terminal in bits per second.  On software
+   terminal emulators it will have a fixed high value. Included for historical
+   reasons; in former times, it was used to  write output loops for time delays and
+   occasionally to change interfaces depending on the line speed.
+
+
+.. function:: beep()
+
+   Emit a short attention sound.
+
+
+.. function:: can_change_color()
+
+   Return ``True`` or ``False``, depending on whether the programmer can change the colors
+   displayed by the terminal.
+
+
+.. function:: cbreak()
+
+   Enter cbreak mode.  In cbreak mode (sometimes called "rare" mode) normal tty
+   line buffering is turned off and characters are available to be read one by one.
+   However, unlike raw mode, special characters (interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow
+   control) retain their effects on the tty driver and calling program.  Calling
+   first :func:`raw` then :func:`cbreak` leaves the terminal in cbreak mode.
+
+
+.. function:: color_content(color_number)
+
+   Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components in the color
+   *color_number*, which must be between ``0`` and :const:`COLORS`.  Return a 3-tuple,
+   containing the R,G,B values for the given color, which will be between
+   ``0`` (no component) and ``1000`` (maximum amount of component).
+
+
+.. function:: color_pair(color_number)
+
+   Return the attribute value for displaying text in the specified color.  This
+   attribute value can be combined with :const:`A_STANDOUT`, :const:`A_REVERSE`,
+   and the other :const:`A_\*` attributes.  :func:`pair_number` is the counterpart
+   to this function.
+
+
+.. function:: curs_set(visibility)
+
+   Set the cursor state.  *visibility* can be set to ``0``, ``1``, or ``2``, for invisible,
+   normal, or very visible.  If the terminal supports the visibility requested, return the
+   previous cursor state; otherwise raise an exception.  On many
+   terminals, the "visible" mode is an underline cursor and the "very visible" mode
+   is a block cursor.
+
+
+.. function:: def_prog_mode()
+
+   Save the current terminal mode as the "program" mode, the mode when the running
+   program is using curses.  (Its counterpart is the "shell" mode, for when the
+   program is not in curses.)  Subsequent calls to :func:`reset_prog_mode` will
+   restore this mode.
+
+
+.. function:: def_shell_mode()
+
+   Save the current terminal mode as the "shell" mode, the mode when the running
+   program is not using curses.  (Its counterpart is the "program" mode, when the
+   program is using curses capabilities.) Subsequent calls to
+   :func:`reset_shell_mode` will restore this mode.
+
+
+.. function:: delay_output(ms)
+
+   Insert an *ms* millisecond pause in output.
+
+
+.. function:: doupdate()
+
+   Update the physical screen.  The curses library keeps two data structures, one
+   representing the current physical screen contents and a virtual screen
+   representing the desired next state.  The :func:`doupdate` ground updates the
+   physical screen to match the virtual screen.
+
+   The virtual screen may be updated by a :meth:`~window.noutrefresh` call after write
+   operations such as :meth:`~window.addstr` have been performed on a window.  The normal
+   :meth:`~window.refresh` call is simply :meth:`!noutrefresh` followed by :func:`!doupdate`;
+   if you have to update multiple windows, you can speed performance and perhaps
+   reduce screen flicker by issuing :meth:`!noutrefresh` calls on all windows,
+   followed by a single :func:`!doupdate`.
+
+
+.. function:: echo()
+
+   Enter echo mode.  In echo mode, each character input is echoed to the screen as
+   it is entered.
+
+
+.. function:: endwin()
+
+   De-initialize the library, and return terminal to normal status.
+
+
+.. function:: erasechar()
+
+   Return the user's current erase character as a one-byte bytes object.  Under Unix operating systems this
+   is a property of the controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by
+   the curses library itself.
+
+
+.. function:: filter()
+
+   The :func:`.filter` routine, if used, must be called before :func:`initscr` is
+   called.  The effect is that, during those calls, :envvar:`LINES` is set to ``1``; the
+   capabilities ``clear``, ``cup``, ``cud``, ``cud1``, ``cuu1``, ``cuu``, ``vpa`` are disabled; and the ``home``
+   string is set to the value of ``cr``. The effect is that the cursor is confined to
+   the current line, and so are screen updates.  This may be used for enabling
+   character-at-a-time  line editing without touching the rest of the screen.
+
+
+.. function:: flash()
+
+   Flash the screen.  That is, change it to reverse-video and then change it back
+   in a short interval.  Some people prefer such as 'visible bell' to the audible
+   attention signal produced by :func:`beep`.
+
+
+.. function:: flushinp()
+
+   Flush all input buffers.  This throws away any  typeahead  that  has been typed
+   by the user and has not yet been processed by the program.
+
+
+.. function:: getmouse()
+
+   After :meth:`~window.getch` returns :const:`KEY_MOUSE` to signal a mouse event, this
+   method should be call to retrieve the queued mouse event, represented as a
+   5-tuple ``(id, x, y, z, bstate)``. *id* is an ID value used to distinguish
+   multiple devices, and *x*, *y*, *z* are the event's coordinates.  (*z* is
+   currently unused.)  *bstate* is an integer value whose bits will be set to
+   indicate the type of event, and will be the bitwise OR of one or more of the
+   following constants, where *n* is the button number from 1 to 4:
+   :const:`BUTTONn_PRESSED`, :const:`BUTTONn_RELEASED`, :const:`BUTTONn_CLICKED`,
+   :const:`BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED`, :const:`BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED`,
+   :const:`BUTTON_SHIFT`, :const:`BUTTON_CTRL`, :const:`BUTTON_ALT`.
+
+
+.. function:: getsyx()
+
+   Return the current coordinates of the virtual screen cursor as a tuple
+   ``(y, x)``.  If :meth:`leaveok <window.leaveok>` is currently ``True``, then return ``(-1, -1)``.
+
+
+.. function:: getwin(file)
+
+   Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier :func:`putwin` call.
+   The routine then creates and initializes a new window using that data, returning
+   the new window object.
+
+
+.. function:: has_colors()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the terminal can display colors; otherwise, return ``False``.
+
+
+.. function:: has_ic()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the terminal has insert- and delete-character capabilities.
+   This function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern software
+   terminal emulators have such capabilities.
+
+
+.. function:: has_il()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the terminal has insert- and delete-line capabilities, or can
+   simulate  them  using scrolling regions. This function is included for
+   historical reasons only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such
+   capabilities.
+
+
+.. function:: has_key(ch)
+
+   Take a key value *ch*, and return ``True`` if the current terminal type recognizes
+   a key with that value.
+
+
+.. function:: halfdelay(tenths)
+
+   Used for half-delay mode, which is similar to cbreak mode in that characters
+   typed by the user are immediately available to the program. However, after
+   blocking for *tenths* tenths of seconds, raise an exception if nothing has
+   been typed.  The value of *tenths* must be a number between ``1`` and ``255``.  Use
+   :func:`nocbreak` to leave half-delay mode.
+
+
+.. function:: init_color(color_number, r, g, b)
+
+   Change the definition of a color, taking the number of the color to be changed
+   followed by three RGB values (for the amounts of red, green, and blue
+   components).  The value of *color_number* must be between ``0`` and
+   :const:`COLORS`.  Each of *r*, *g*, *b*, must be a value between ``0`` and
+   ``1000``.  When :func:`init_color` is used, all occurrences of that color on the
+   screen immediately change to the new definition.  This function is a no-op on
+   most terminals; it is active only if :func:`can_change_color` returns ``True``.
+
+
+.. function:: init_pair(pair_number, fg, bg)
+
+   Change the definition of a color-pair.  It takes three arguments: the number of
+   the color-pair to be changed, the foreground color number, and the background
+   color number.  The value of *pair_number* must be between ``1`` and
+   ``COLOR_PAIRS - 1`` (the ``0`` color pair is wired to white on black and cannot
+   be changed).  The value of *fg* and *bg* arguments must be between ``0`` and
+   :const:`COLORS`.  If the color-pair was previously initialized, the screen is
+   refreshed and all occurrences of that color-pair are changed to the new
+   definition.
+
+
+.. function:: initscr()
+
+   Initialize the library. Return a :ref:`window <curses-window-objects>` object
+   which represents the whole screen.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If there is an error opening the terminal, the underlying curses library may
+      cause the interpreter to exit.
+
+
+.. function:: is_term_resized(nlines, ncols)
+
+   Return ``True`` if :func:`resize_term` would modify the window structure,
+   ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: isendwin()
+
+   Return ``True`` if :func:`endwin` has been called (that is, the  curses library has
+   been deinitialized).
+
+
+.. function:: keyname(k)
+
+   Return the name of the key numbered *k* as a bytes object.  The name of a key generating printable
+   ASCII character is the key's character.  The name of a control-key combination
+   is a two-byte bytes object consisting of a caret (``b'^'``) followed by the corresponding
+   printable ASCII character.  The name of an alt-key combination (128--255) is a
+   bytes object consisting of the prefix ``b'M-'`` followed by the name of the corresponding
+   ASCII character.
+
+
+.. function:: killchar()
+
+   Return the user's current line kill character as a one-byte bytes object. Under Unix operating systems
+   this is a property of the controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set
+   by the curses library itself.
+
+
+.. function:: longname()
+
+   Return a bytes object containing the terminfo long name field describing the current
+   terminal.  The maximum length of a verbose description is 128 characters.  It is
+   defined only after the call to :func:`initscr`.
+
+
+.. function:: meta(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, allow 8-bit characters to be input.  If
+   *flag* is ``False``,  allow only 7-bit chars.
+
+
+.. function:: mouseinterval(interval)
+
+   Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press and release
+   events in order for them to be recognized as a click, and return the previous
+   interval value.  The default value is 200 msec, or one fifth of a second.
+
+
+.. function:: mousemask(mousemask)
+
+   Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple ``(availmask,
+   oldmask)``.   *availmask* indicates which of the specified mouse events can be
+   reported; on complete failure it returns ``0``.  *oldmask* is the previous value of
+   the given window's mouse event mask.  If this function is never called, no mouse
+   events are ever reported.
+
+
+.. function:: napms(ms)
+
+   Sleep for *ms* milliseconds.
+
+
+.. function:: newpad(nlines, ncols)
+
+   Create and return a pointer to a new pad data structure with the given number
+   of lines and columns.  Return a pad as a window object.
+
+   A pad is like a window, except that it is not restricted by the screen size, and
+   is not necessarily associated with a particular part of the screen.  Pads can be
+   used when a large window is needed, and only a part of the window will be on the
+   screen at one time.  Automatic refreshes of pads (such as from scrolling or
+   echoing of input) do not occur.  The :meth:`~window.refresh` and :meth:`~window.noutrefresh`
+   methods of a pad require 6 arguments to specify the part of the pad to be
+   displayed and the location on the screen to be used for the display. The
+   arguments are *pminrow*, *pmincol*, *sminrow*, *smincol*, *smaxrow*, *smaxcol*; the *p*
+   arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be displayed and
+   the *s* arguments define a clipping box on the screen within which the pad region
+   is to be displayed.
+
+
+.. function:: newwin(nlines, ncols)
+              newwin(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)
+
+   Return a new :ref:`window <curses-window-objects>`, whose left-upper corner
+   is at  ``(begin_y, begin_x)``, and whose height/width is  *nlines*/*ncols*.
+
+   By default, the window will extend from the  specified position to the lower
+   right corner of the screen.
+
+
+.. function:: nl()
+
+   Enter newline mode.  This mode translates the return key into newline on input,
+   and translates newline into return and line-feed on output. Newline mode is
+   initially on.
+
+
+.. function:: nocbreak()
+
+   Leave cbreak mode.  Return to normal "cooked" mode with line buffering.
+
+
+.. function:: noecho()
+
+   Leave echo mode.  Echoing of input characters is turned off.
+
+
+.. function:: nonl()
+
+   Leave newline mode.  Disable translation of return into newline on input, and
+   disable low-level translation of newline into newline/return on output (but this
+   does not change the behavior of ``addch('\n')``, which always does the
+   equivalent of return and line feed on the virtual screen).  With translation
+   off, curses can sometimes speed up vertical motion a little; also, it will be
+   able to detect the return key on input.
+
+
+.. function:: noqiflush()
+
+   When the :func:`!noqiflush` routine is used, normal flush of input and output queues
+   associated with the ``INTR``, ``QUIT`` and ``SUSP`` characters will not be done.  You may
+   want to call :func:`!noqiflush` in a signal handler if you want output to
+   continue as though the interrupt had not occurred, after the handler exits.
+
+
+.. function:: noraw()
+
+   Leave raw mode. Return to normal "cooked" mode with line buffering.
+
+
+.. function:: pair_content(pair_number)
+
+   Return a tuple ``(fg, bg)`` containing the colors for the requested color pair.
+   The value of *pair_number* must be between ``1`` and ``COLOR_PAIRS - 1``.
+
+
+.. function:: pair_number(attr)
+
+   Return the number of the color-pair set by the attribute value *attr*.
+   :func:`color_pair` is the counterpart to this function.
+
+
+.. function:: putp(str)
+
+   Equivalent to ``tputs(str, 1, putchar)``; emit the value of a specified
+   terminfo capability for the current terminal.  Note that the output of :func:`putp`
+   always goes to standard output.
+
+
+.. function:: qiflush([flag])
+
+   If *flag* is ``False``, the effect is the same as calling :func:`noqiflush`. If
+   *flag* is ``True``, or no argument is provided, the queues will be flushed when
+   these control characters are read.
+
+
+.. function:: raw()
+
+   Enter raw mode.  In raw mode, normal line buffering and  processing of
+   interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control keys are turned off; characters are
+   presented to curses input functions one by one.
+
+
+.. function:: reset_prog_mode()
+
+   Restore the  terminal  to "program" mode, as previously saved  by
+   :func:`def_prog_mode`.
+
+
+.. function:: reset_shell_mode()
+
+   Restore the  terminal  to "shell" mode, as previously saved  by
+   :func:`def_shell_mode`.
+
+
+.. function:: resetty()
+
+   Restore the state of the terminal modes to what it was at the last call to
+   :func:`savetty`.
+
+
+.. function:: resize_term(nlines, ncols)
+
+   Backend function used by :func:`resizeterm`, performing most of the work;
+   when resizing the windows, :func:`resize_term` blank-fills the areas that are
+   extended.  The calling application should fill in these areas with
+   appropriate data.  The :func:`!resize_term` function attempts to resize all
+   windows.  However, due to the calling convention of pads, it is not possible
+   to resize these without additional interaction with the application.
+
+
+.. function:: resizeterm(nlines, ncols)
+
+   Resize the standard and current windows to the specified dimensions, and
+   adjusts other bookkeeping data used by the curses library that record the
+   window dimensions (in particular the SIGWINCH handler).
+
+
+.. function:: savetty()
+
+   Save the current state of the terminal modes in a buffer, usable by
+   :func:`resetty`.
+
+
+.. function:: setsyx(y, x)
+
+   Set the virtual screen cursor to *y*, *x*. If *y* and *x* are both ``-1``, then
+   :meth:`leaveok <window.leaveok>` is set ``True``.
+
+
+.. function:: setupterm(term=None, fd=-1)
+
+   Initialize the terminal.  *term* is a string giving
+   the terminal name, or ``None``; if omitted or ``None``, the value of the
+   :envvar:`TERM` environment variable will be used.  *fd* is the
+   file descriptor to which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not
+   supplied or ``-1``, the file descriptor for ``sys.stdout`` will be used.
+
+
+.. function:: start_color()
+
+   Must be called if the programmer wants to use colors, and before any other color
+   manipulation routine is called.  It is good practice to call this routine right
+   after :func:`initscr`.
+
+   :func:`start_color` initializes eight basic colors (black, red,  green, yellow,
+   blue, magenta, cyan, and white), and two global variables in the :mod:`curses`
+   module, :const:`COLORS` and :const:`COLOR_PAIRS`, containing the maximum number
+   of colors and color-pairs the terminal can support.  It also restores the colors
+   on the terminal to the values they had when the terminal was just turned on.
+
+
+.. function:: termattrs()
+
+   Return a logical OR of all video attributes supported by the terminal.  This
+   information is useful when a curses program needs complete control over the
+   appearance of the screen.
+
+
+.. function:: termname()
+
+   Return the value of the environment variable :envvar:`TERM`, as a bytes object,
+   truncated to 14 characters.
+
+
+.. function:: tigetflag(capname)
+
+   Return the value of the Boolean capability corresponding to the terminfo
+   capability name *capname* as an integer.  Return the value ``-1`` if *capname* is not a
+   Boolean capability, or ``0`` if it is canceled or absent from the terminal
+   description.
+
+
+.. function:: tigetnum(capname)
+
+   Return the value of the numeric capability corresponding to the terminfo
+   capability name *capname* as an integer.  Return the value ``-2`` if *capname* is not a
+   numeric capability, or ``-1`` if it is canceled or absent from the terminal
+   description.
+
+
+.. function:: tigetstr(capname)
+
+   Return the value of the string capability corresponding to the terminfo
+   capability name *capname* as a bytes object.  Return ``None`` if *capname*
+   is not a terminfo "string capability", or is canceled or absent from the
+   terminal description.
+
+
+.. function:: tparm(str[, ...])
+
+   Instantiate the bytes object *str* with the supplied parameters, where *str* should
+   be a parameterized string obtained from the terminfo database.  E.g.
+   ``tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3)`` could result in ``b'\033[6;4H'``, the exact
+   result depending on terminal type.
+
+
+.. function:: typeahead(fd)
+
+   Specify that the file descriptor *fd* be used for typeahead checking.  If *fd*
+   is ``-1``, then no typeahead checking is done.
+
+   The curses library does "line-breakout optimization" by looking for typeahead
+   periodically while updating the screen.  If input is found, and it is coming
+   from a tty, the current update is postponed until refresh or doupdate is called
+   again, allowing faster response to commands typed in advance. This function
+   allows specifying a different file descriptor for typeahead checking.
+
+
+.. function:: unctrl(ch)
+
+   Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the character *ch*.
+   Control characters are represented as a caret followed by the character, for
+   example as ``b'^C'``. Printing characters are left as they are.
+
+
+.. function:: ungetch(ch)
+
+   Push *ch* so the next :meth:`~window.getch` will return it.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Only one *ch* can be pushed before :meth:`!getch` is called.
+
+
+.. function:: update_lines_cols()
+
+   Update :envvar:`LINES` and :envvar:`COLS`. Useful for detecting manual screen resize.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: unget_wch(ch)
+
+   Push *ch* so the next :meth:`~window.get_wch` will return it.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Only one *ch* can be pushed before :meth:`!get_wch` is called.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: ungetmouse(id, x, y, z, bstate)
+
+   Push a :const:`KEY_MOUSE` event onto the input queue, associating the given
+   state data with it.
+
+
+.. function:: use_env(flag)
+
+   If used, this function should be called before :func:`initscr` or newterm are
+   called.  When *flag* is ``False``, the values of lines and columns specified in the
+   terminfo database will be used, even if environment variables :envvar:`LINES`
+   and :envvar:`COLUMNS` (used by default) are set, or if curses is running in a
+   window (in which case default behavior would be to use the window size if
+   :envvar:`LINES` and :envvar:`COLUMNS` are not set).
+
+
+.. function:: use_default_colors()
+
+   Allow use of default values for colors on terminals supporting this feature. Use
+   this to support transparency in your application.  The default color is assigned
+   to the color number ``-1``. After calling this function,  ``init_pair(x,
+   curses.COLOR_RED, -1)`` initializes, for instance, color pair *x* to a red
+   foreground color on the default background.
+
+
+.. function:: wrapper(func, ...)
+
+   Initialize curses and call another callable object, *func*, which should be the
+   rest of your curses-using application.  If the application raises an exception,
+   this function will restore the terminal to a sane state before re-raising the
+   exception and generating a traceback.  The callable object *func* is then passed
+   the main window 'stdscr' as its first argument, followed by any other arguments
+   passed to :func:`!wrapper`.  Before calling *func*, :func:`!wrapper` turns on
+   cbreak mode, turns off echo, enables the terminal keypad, and initializes colors
+   if the terminal has color support.  On exit (whether normally or by exception)
+   it restores cooked mode, turns on echo, and disables the terminal keypad.
+
+
+.. _curses-window-objects:
+
+Window Objects
+--------------
+
+Window objects, as returned by :func:`initscr` and :func:`newwin` above, have
+the following methods and attributes:
+
+
+.. method:: window.addch(ch[, attr])
+            window.addch(y, x, ch[, attr])
+
+   Paint character *ch* at ``(y, x)`` with attributes *attr*, overwriting any
+   character previously painter at that location.  By default, the character
+   position and attributes are the current settings for the window object.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises a :exc:`curses.error`.
+      Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow,
+      or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the character is printed.
+
+
+.. method:: window.addnstr(str, n[, attr])
+            window.addnstr(y, x, str, n[, attr])
+
+   Paint at most *n* characters of the character string *str* at
+   ``(y, x)`` with attributes
+   *attr*, overwriting anything previously on the display.
+
+
+.. method:: window.addstr(str[, attr])
+            window.addstr(y, x, str[, attr])
+
+   Paint the character string *str* at ``(y, x)`` with attributes
+   *attr*, overwriting anything previously on the display.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises :exc:`curses.error`.
+      Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow,
+      or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the string is printed.
+
+
+.. method:: window.attroff(attr)
+
+   Remove attribute *attr* from the "background" set applied to all writes to the
+   current window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.attron(attr)
+
+   Add attribute *attr* from the "background" set applied to all writes to the
+   current window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.attrset(attr)
+
+   Set the "background" set of attributes to *attr*.  This set is initially
+   ``0`` (no attributes).
+
+
+.. method:: window.bkgd(ch[, attr])
+
+   Set the background property of the window to the character *ch*, with
+   attributes *attr*.  The change is then applied to every character position in
+   that window:
+
+   * The attribute of every character in the window  is changed to the new
+     background attribute.
+
+   * Wherever  the  former background character appears, it is changed to the new
+     background character.
+
+
+.. method:: window.bkgdset(ch[, attr])
+
+   Set the window's background.  A window's background consists of a character and
+   any combination of attributes.  The attribute part of the background is combined
+   (OR'ed) with all non-blank characters that are written into the window.  Both
+   the character and attribute parts of the background are combined with the blank
+   characters.  The background becomes a property of the character and moves with
+   the character through any scrolling and insert/delete line/character operations.
+
+
+.. method:: window.border([ls[, rs[, ts[, bs[, tl[, tr[, bl[, br]]]]]]]])
+
+   Draw a border around the edges of the window. Each parameter specifies  the
+   character to use for a specific part of the border; see the table below for more
+   details.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      A ``0`` value for any parameter will cause the default character to be used for
+      that parameter.  Keyword parameters can *not* be used.  The defaults are listed
+      in this table:
+
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | Parameter | Description         | Default value         |
+   +===========+=====================+=======================+
+   | *ls*      | Left side           | :const:`ACS_VLINE`    |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | *rs*      | Right side          | :const:`ACS_VLINE`    |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | *ts*      | Top                 | :const:`ACS_HLINE`    |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | *bs*      | Bottom              | :const:`ACS_HLINE`    |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | *tl*      | Upper-left corner   | :const:`ACS_ULCORNER` |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | *tr*      | Upper-right corner  | :const:`ACS_URCORNER` |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | *bl*      | Bottom-left corner  | :const:`ACS_LLCORNER` |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+   | *br*      | Bottom-right corner | :const:`ACS_LRCORNER` |
+   +-----------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+
+
+.. method:: window.box([vertch, horch])
+
+   Similar to :meth:`border`, but both *ls* and *rs* are *vertch* and both *ts* and
+   *bs* are *horch*.  The default corner characters are always used by this function.
+
+
+.. method:: window.chgat(attr)
+            window.chgat(num, attr)
+            window.chgat(y, x, attr)
+            window.chgat(y, x, num, attr)
+
+   Set the attributes of *num* characters at the current cursor position, or at
+   position ``(y, x)`` if supplied. If *num* is not given or is ``-1``,
+   the attribute will be set on all the characters to the end of the line.  This
+   function moves cursor to position ``(y, x)`` if supplied. The changed line
+   will be touched using the :meth:`touchline` method so that the contents will
+   be redisplayed by the next window refresh.
+
+
+.. method:: window.clear()
+
+   Like :meth:`erase`, but also cause the whole window to be repainted upon next
+   call to :meth:`refresh`.
+
+
+.. method:: window.clearok(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, the next call to :meth:`refresh` will clear the window
+   completely.
+
+
+.. method:: window.clrtobot()
+
+   Erase from cursor to the end of the window: all lines below the cursor are
+   deleted, and then the equivalent of :meth:`clrtoeol` is performed.
+
+
+.. method:: window.clrtoeol()
+
+   Erase from cursor to the end of the line.
+
+
+.. method:: window.cursyncup()
+
+   Update the current cursor position of all the ancestors of the window to
+   reflect the current cursor position of the window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.delch([y, x])
+
+   Delete any character at ``(y, x)``.
+
+
+.. method:: window.deleteln()
+
+   Delete the line under the cursor. All following lines are moved up by one line.
+
+
+.. method:: window.derwin(begin_y, begin_x)
+            window.derwin(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)
+
+   An abbreviation for "derive window", :meth:`derwin` is the same as calling
+   :meth:`subwin`, except that *begin_y* and *begin_x* are relative to the origin
+   of the window, rather than relative to the entire screen.  Return a window
+   object for the derived window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.echochar(ch[, attr])
+
+   Add character *ch* with attribute *attr*, and immediately  call :meth:`refresh`
+   on the window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.enclose(y, x)
+
+   Test whether the given pair of screen-relative character-cell coordinates are
+   enclosed by the given window, returning ``True`` or ``False``.  It is useful for
+   determining what subset of the screen windows enclose the location of a mouse
+   event.
+
+
+.. attribute:: window.encoding
+
+   Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and characters).
+   The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent window when a subwindow
+   is created, for example with :meth:`window.subwin`. By default, the locale
+   encoding is used (see :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. method:: window.erase()
+
+   Clear the window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.getbegyx()
+
+   Return a tuple ``(y, x)`` of co-ordinates of upper-left corner.
+
+
+.. method:: window.getbkgd()
+
+   Return the given window's current background character/attribute pair.
+
+
+.. method:: window.getch([y, x])
+
+   Get a character. Note that the integer returned does *not* have to be in ASCII
+   range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are represented by numbers higher
+   than 255.  In no-delay mode, return ``-1`` if there is no input, otherwise
+   wait until a key is pressed.
+
+
+.. method:: window.get_wch([y, x])
+
+   Get a wide character. Return a character for most keys, or an integer for
+   function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys.
+   In no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. method:: window.getkey([y, x])
+
+   Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as :meth:`getch`
+   does. Function keys, keypad keys and other special keys return a multibyte
+   string containing the key name.  In no-delay mode, raise an exception if
+   there is no input.
+
+
+.. method:: window.getmaxyx()
+
+   Return a tuple ``(y, x)`` of the height and width of the window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.getparyx()
+
+   Return the beginning coordinates of this window relative to its parent window
+   as a tuple ``(y, x)``.  Return ``(-1, -1)`` if this window has no
+   parent.
+
+
+.. method:: window.getstr()
+            window.getstr(n)
+            window.getstr(y, x)
+            window.getstr(y, x, n)
+
+   Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing capacity.
+
+
+.. method:: window.getyx()
+
+   Return a tuple ``(y, x)`` of current cursor position  relative to the window's
+   upper-left corner.
+
+
+.. method:: window.hline(ch, n)
+            window.hline(y, x, ch, n)
+
+   Display a horizontal line starting at ``(y, x)`` with length *n* consisting of
+   the character *ch*.
+
+
+.. method:: window.idcok(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``False``, curses no longer considers using the hardware insert/delete
+   character feature of the terminal; if *flag* is ``True``, use of character insertion
+   and deletion is enabled.  When curses is first initialized, use of character
+   insert/delete is enabled by default.
+
+
+.. method:: window.idlok(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, :mod:`curses` will try and use hardware line
+   editing facilities. Otherwise, line insertion/deletion are disabled.
+
+
+.. method:: window.immedok(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, any change in the window image automatically causes the
+   window to be refreshed; you no longer have to call :meth:`refresh` yourself.
+   However, it may degrade performance considerably, due to repeated calls to
+   wrefresh.  This option is disabled by default.
+
+
+.. method:: window.inch([y, x])
+
+   Return the character at the given position in the window. The bottom 8 bits are
+   the character proper, and upper bits are the attributes.
+
+
+.. method:: window.insch(ch[, attr])
+            window.insch(y, x, ch[, attr])
+
+   Paint character *ch* at ``(y, x)`` with attributes *attr*, moving the line from
+   position *x* right by one character.
+
+
+.. method:: window.insdelln(nlines)
+
+   Insert *nlines* lines into the specified window above the current line.  The
+   *nlines* bottom lines are lost.  For negative *nlines*, delete *nlines* lines
+   starting with the one under the cursor, and move the remaining lines up.  The
+   bottom *nlines* lines are cleared.  The current cursor position remains the
+   same.
+
+
+.. method:: window.insertln()
+
+   Insert a blank line under the cursor. All following lines are moved down by one
+   line.
+
+
+.. method:: window.insnstr(str, n[, attr])
+            window.insnstr(y, x, str, n[, attr])
+
+   Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the line) before
+   the character under the cursor, up to *n* characters.   If *n* is zero or
+   negative, the entire string is inserted. All characters to the right of the
+   cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost characters on the line being lost.
+   The cursor position does not change (after moving to *y*, *x*, if specified).
+
+
+.. method:: window.insstr(str[, attr])
+            window.insstr(y, x, str[, attr])
+
+   Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the line) before
+   the character under the cursor.  All characters to the right of the cursor are
+   shifted right, with the rightmost characters on the line being lost.  The cursor
+   position does not change (after moving to *y*, *x*, if specified).
+
+
+.. method:: window.instr([n])
+            window.instr(y, x[, n])
+
+   Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window starting at the
+   current cursor position, or at *y*, *x* if specified. Attributes are stripped
+   from the characters.  If *n* is specified, :meth:`instr` returns a string
+   at most *n* characters long (exclusive of the trailing NUL).
+
+
+.. method:: window.is_linetouched(line)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the specified line was modified since the last call to
+   :meth:`refresh`; otherwise return ``False``.  Raise a :exc:`curses.error`
+   exception if *line* is not valid for the given window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.is_wintouched()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the specified window was modified since the last call to
+   :meth:`refresh`; otherwise return ``False``.
+
+
+.. method:: window.keypad(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, escape sequences generated by some keys (keypad,  function keys)
+   will be interpreted by :mod:`curses`. If *flag* is ``False``, escape sequences will be
+   left as is in the input stream.
+
+
+.. method:: window.leaveok(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, cursor is left where it is on update, instead of being at "cursor
+   position."  This reduces cursor movement where possible. If possible the cursor
+   will be made invisible.
+
+   If *flag* is ``False``, cursor will always be at "cursor position" after an update.
+
+
+.. method:: window.move(new_y, new_x)
+
+   Move cursor to ``(new_y, new_x)``.
+
+
+.. method:: window.mvderwin(y, x)
+
+   Move the window inside its parent window.  The screen-relative parameters of
+   the window are not changed.  This routine is used to display different parts of
+   the parent window at the same physical position on the screen.
+
+
+.. method:: window.mvwin(new_y, new_x)
+
+   Move the window so its upper-left corner is at ``(new_y, new_x)``.
+
+
+.. method:: window.nodelay(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, :meth:`getch` will be non-blocking.
+
+
+.. method:: window.notimeout(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, escape sequences will not be timed out.
+
+   If *flag* is ``False``, after a few milliseconds, an escape sequence will not be
+   interpreted, and will be left in the input stream as is.
+
+
+.. method:: window.noutrefresh()
+
+   Mark for refresh but wait.  This function updates the data structure
+   representing the desired state of the window, but does not force an update of
+   the physical screen.  To accomplish that, call  :func:`doupdate`.
+
+
+.. method:: window.overlay(destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow, dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])
+
+   Overlay the window on top of *destwin*. The windows need not be the same size,
+   only the overlapping region is copied. This copy is non-destructive, which means
+   that the current background character does not overwrite the old contents of
+   *destwin*.
+
+   To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form of
+   :meth:`overlay` can be used. *sminrow* and *smincol* are the upper-left
+   coordinates of the source window, and the other variables mark a rectangle in
+   the destination window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.overwrite(destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow, dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])
+
+   Overwrite the window on top of *destwin*. The windows need not be the same size,
+   in which case only the overlapping region is copied. This copy is destructive,
+   which means that the current background character overwrites the old contents of
+   *destwin*.
+
+   To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form of
+   :meth:`overwrite` can be used. *sminrow* and *smincol* are the upper-left
+   coordinates of the source window, the other variables mark a rectangle in the
+   destination window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.putwin(file)
+
+   Write all data associated with the window into the provided file object.  This
+   information can be later retrieved using the :func:`getwin` function.
+
+
+.. method:: window.redrawln(beg, num)
+
+   Indicate that the *num* screen lines, starting at line *beg*, are corrupted and
+   should be completely redrawn on the next :meth:`refresh` call.
+
+
+.. method:: window.redrawwin()
+
+   Touch the entire window, causing it to be completely redrawn on the next
+   :meth:`refresh` call.
+
+
+.. method:: window.refresh([pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol, smaxrow, smaxcol])
+
+   Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous
+   drawing/deleting methods).
+
+   The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a pad created
+   with :func:`newpad`.  The additional parameters are needed to indicate what part
+   of the pad and screen are involved. *pminrow* and *pmincol* specify the upper
+   left-hand corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad.  *sminrow*,
+   *smincol*, *smaxrow*, and *smaxcol* specify the edges of the rectangle to be
+   displayed on the screen.  The lower right-hand corner of the rectangle to be
+   displayed in the pad is calculated from the screen coordinates, since the
+   rectangles must be the same size.  Both rectangles must be entirely contained
+   within their respective structures.  Negative values of *pminrow*, *pmincol*,
+   *sminrow*, or *smincol* are treated as if they were zero.
+
+
+.. method:: window.resize(nlines, ncols)
+
+   Reallocate storage for a curses window to adjust its dimensions to the
+   specified values.  If either dimension is larger than the current values, the
+   window's data is filled with blanks that have the current background
+   rendition (as set by :meth:`bkgdset`) merged into them.
+
+
+.. method:: window.scroll([lines=1])
+
+   Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by *lines* lines.
+
+
+.. method:: window.scrollok(flag)
+
+   Control what happens when the cursor of a window is moved off the edge of the
+   window or scrolling region, either as a result of a newline action on the bottom
+   line, or typing the last character of the last line.  If *flag* is ``False``, the
+   cursor is left on the bottom line.  If *flag* is ``True``, the window is scrolled up
+   one line.  Note that in order to get the physical scrolling effect on the
+   terminal, it is also necessary to call :meth:`idlok`.
+
+
+.. method:: window.setscrreg(top, bottom)
+
+   Set the scrolling region from line *top* to line *bottom*. All scrolling actions
+   will take place in this region.
+
+
+.. method:: window.standend()
+
+   Turn off the standout attribute.  On some terminals this has the side effect of
+   turning off all attributes.
+
+
+.. method:: window.standout()
+
+   Turn on attribute *A_STANDOUT*.
+
+
+.. method:: window.subpad(begin_y, begin_x)
+            window.subpad(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)
+
+   Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ``(begin_y, begin_x)``, and
+   whose width/height is *ncols*/*nlines*.
+
+
+.. method:: window.subwin(begin_y, begin_x)
+            window.subwin(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)
+
+   Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ``(begin_y, begin_x)``, and
+   whose width/height is *ncols*/*nlines*.
+
+   By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position to the lower
+   right corner of the window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.syncdown()
+
+   Touch each location in the window that has been touched in any of its ancestor
+   windows.  This routine is called by :meth:`refresh`, so it should almost never
+   be necessary to call it manually.
+
+
+.. method:: window.syncok(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is ``True``, then :meth:`syncup` is called automatically
+   whenever there is a change in the window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.syncup()
+
+   Touch all locations in ancestors of the window that have been changed in  the
+   window.
+
+
+.. method:: window.timeout(delay)
+
+   Set blocking or non-blocking read behavior for the window.  If *delay* is
+   negative, blocking read is used (which will wait indefinitely for input).  If
+   *delay* is zero, then non-blocking read is used, and :meth:`getch` will
+   return ``-1`` if no input is waiting.  If *delay* is positive, then
+   :meth:`getch` will block for *delay* milliseconds, and return ``-1`` if there is
+   still no input at the end of that time.
+
+
+.. method:: window.touchline(start, count[, changed])
+
+   Pretend *count* lines have been changed, starting with line *start*.  If
+   *changed* is supplied, it specifies whether the affected lines are marked as
+   having been changed (*changed*\ ``=True``) or unchanged (*changed*\ ``=False``).
+
+
+.. method:: window.touchwin()
+
+   Pretend the whole window has been changed, for purposes of drawing
+   optimizations.
+
+
+.. method:: window.untouchwin()
+
+   Mark all lines in  the  window  as unchanged since the last call to
+   :meth:`refresh`.
+
+
+.. method:: window.vline(ch, n)
+            window.vline(y, x, ch, n)
+
+   Display a vertical line starting at ``(y, x)`` with length *n* consisting of the
+   character *ch*.
+
+
+Constants
+---------
+
+The :mod:`curses` module defines the following data members:
+
+
+.. data:: ERR
+
+   Some curses routines  that  return  an integer, such as  :func:`getch`, return
+   :const:`ERR` upon failure.
+
+
+.. data:: OK
+
+   Some curses routines  that  return  an integer, such as  :func:`napms`, return
+   :const:`OK` upon success.
+
+
+.. data:: version
+
+   A bytes object representing the current version of the module.  Also available as
+   :const:`__version__`.
+
+Some constants are available to specify character cell attributes.
+The exact constants available are system dependent.
+
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| Attribute        | Meaning                       |
++==================+===============================+
+| ``A_ALTCHARSET`` | Alternate character set mode  |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_BLINK``      | Blink mode                    |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_BOLD``       | Bold mode                     |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_DIM``        | Dim mode                      |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_INVIS``      | Invisible or blank mode       |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_ITALIC``     | Italic mode                   |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_NORMAL``     | Normal attribute              |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_PROTECT``    | Protected mode                |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_REVERSE``    | Reverse background and        |
+|                  | foreground colors             |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_STANDOUT``   | Standout mode                 |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_UNDERLINE``  | Underline mode                |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_HORIZONTAL`` | Horizontal highlight          |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_LEFT``       | Left highlight                |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_LOW``        | Low highlight                 |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_RIGHT``      | Right highlight               |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_TOP``        | Top highlight                 |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_VERTICAL``   | Vertical highlight            |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_CHARTEXT``   | Bit-mask to extract a         |
+|                  | character                     |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+   ``A_ITALIC`` was added.
+
+Several constants are available to extract corresponding attributes returned
+by some methods.
+
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| Bit-mask         | Meaning                       |
++==================+===============================+
+| ``A_ATTRIBUTES`` | Bit-mask to extract           |
+|                  | attributes                    |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_CHARTEXT``   | Bit-mask to extract a         |
+|                  | character                     |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+| ``A_COLOR``      | Bit-mask to extract           |
+|                  | color-pair field information  |
++------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with  ``KEY_``.
+The exact keycaps available are system dependent.
+
+.. XXX this table is far too large! should it be alphabetized?
+
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| Key constant      | Key                                        |
++===================+============================================+
+| ``KEY_MIN``       | Minimum key value                          |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_BREAK``     | Break key (unreliable)                     |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_DOWN``      | Down-arrow                                 |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_UP``        | Up-arrow                                   |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_LEFT``      | Left-arrow                                 |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_RIGHT``     | Right-arrow                                |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_HOME``      | Home key (upward+left arrow)               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_BACKSPACE`` | Backspace (unreliable)                     |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_F0``        | Function keys.  Up to 64 function keys are |
+|                   | supported.                                 |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_Fn``        | Value of function key *n*                  |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_DL``        | Delete line                                |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_IL``        | Insert line                                |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_DC``        | Delete character                           |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_IC``        | Insert char or enter insert mode           |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_EIC``       | Exit insert char mode                      |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_CLEAR``     | Clear screen                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_EOS``       | Clear to end of screen                     |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_EOL``       | Clear to end of line                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SF``        | Scroll 1 line forward                      |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SR``        | Scroll 1 line backward (reverse)           |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_NPAGE``     | Next page                                  |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_PPAGE``     | Previous page                              |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_STAB``      | Set tab                                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_CTAB``      | Clear tab                                  |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_CATAB``     | Clear all tabs                             |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_ENTER``     | Enter or send (unreliable)                 |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SRESET``    | Soft (partial) reset (unreliable)          |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_RESET``     | Reset or hard reset (unreliable)           |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_PRINT``     | Print                                      |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_LL``        | Home down or bottom (lower left)           |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_A1``        | Upper left of keypad                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_A3``        | Upper right of keypad                      |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_B2``        | Center of keypad                           |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_C1``        | Lower left of keypad                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_C3``        | Lower right of keypad                      |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_BTAB``      | Back tab                                   |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_BEG``       | Beg (beginning)                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_CANCEL``    | Cancel                                     |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_CLOSE``     | Close                                      |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_COMMAND``   | Cmd (command)                              |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_COPY``      | Copy                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_CREATE``    | Create                                     |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_END``       | End                                        |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_EXIT``      | Exit                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_FIND``      | Find                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_HELP``      | Help                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_MARK``      | Mark                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_MESSAGE``   | Message                                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_MOVE``      | Move                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_NEXT``      | Next                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_OPEN``      | Open                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_OPTIONS``   | Options                                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_PREVIOUS``  | Prev (previous)                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_REDO``      | Redo                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_REFERENCE`` | Ref (reference)                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_REFRESH``   | Refresh                                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_REPLACE``   | Replace                                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_RESTART``   | Restart                                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_RESUME``    | Resume                                     |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SAVE``      | Save                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SBEG``      | Shifted Beg (beginning)                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SCANCEL``   | Shifted Cancel                             |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SCOMMAND``  | Shifted Command                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SCOPY``     | Shifted Copy                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SCREATE``   | Shifted Create                             |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SDC``       | Shifted Delete char                        |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SDL``       | Shifted Delete line                        |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SELECT``    | Select                                     |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SEND``      | Shifted End                                |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SEOL``      | Shifted Clear line                         |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SEXIT``     | Shifted Exit                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SFIND``     | Shifted Find                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SHELP``     | Shifted Help                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SHOME``     | Shifted Home                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SIC``       | Shifted Input                              |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SLEFT``     | Shifted Left arrow                         |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SMESSAGE``  | Shifted Message                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SMOVE``     | Shifted Move                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SNEXT``     | Shifted Next                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SOPTIONS``  | Shifted Options                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SPREVIOUS`` | Shifted Prev                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SPRINT``    | Shifted Print                              |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SREDO``     | Shifted Redo                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SREPLACE``  | Shifted Replace                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SRIGHT``    | Shifted Right arrow                        |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SRSUME``    | Shifted Resume                             |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SSAVE``     | Shifted Save                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SSUSPEND``  | Shifted Suspend                            |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SUNDO``     | Shifted Undo                               |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_SUSPEND``   | Suspend                                    |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_UNDO``      | Undo                                       |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_MOUSE``     | Mouse event has occurred                   |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_RESIZE``    | Terminal resize event                      |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``KEY_MAX``       | Maximum key value                          |
++-------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+On VT100s and their software emulations, such as X terminal emulators, there are
+normally at least four function keys (:const:`KEY_F1`, :const:`KEY_F2`,
+:const:`KEY_F3`, :const:`KEY_F4`) available, and the arrow keys mapped to
+:const:`KEY_UP`, :const:`KEY_DOWN`, :const:`KEY_LEFT` and :const:`KEY_RIGHT` in
+the obvious way.  If your machine has a PC keyboard, it is safe to expect arrow
+keys and twelve function keys (older PC keyboards may have only ten function
+keys); also, the following keypad mappings are standard:
+
++------------------+-----------+
+| Keycap           | Constant  |
++==================+===========+
+| :kbd:`Insert`    | KEY_IC    |
++------------------+-----------+
+| :kbd:`Delete`    | KEY_DC    |
++------------------+-----------+
+| :kbd:`Home`      | KEY_HOME  |
++------------------+-----------+
+| :kbd:`End`       | KEY_END   |
++------------------+-----------+
+| :kbd:`Page Up`   | KEY_PPAGE |
++------------------+-----------+
+| :kbd:`Page Down` | KEY_NPAGE |
++------------------+-----------+
+
+The following table lists characters from the alternate character set. These are
+inherited from the VT100 terminal, and will generally be  available on software
+emulations such as X terminals.  When there is no graphic available, curses
+falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.
+
+.. note::
+
+   These are available only after :func:`initscr` has  been called.
+
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ACS code         | Meaning                                  |
++==================+==========================================+
+| ``ACS_BBSS``     | alternate name for upper right corner    |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_BLOCK``    | solid square block                       |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_BOARD``    | board of squares                         |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_BSBS``     | alternate name for horizontal line       |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_BSSB``     | alternate name for upper left corner     |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_BSSS``     | alternate name for top tee               |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_BTEE``     | bottom tee                               |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_BULLET``   | bullet                                   |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_CKBOARD``  | checker board (stipple)                  |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_DARROW``   | arrow pointing down                      |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_DEGREE``   | degree symbol                            |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_DIAMOND``  | diamond                                  |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_GEQUAL``   | greater-than-or-equal-to                 |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_HLINE``    | horizontal line                          |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_LANTERN``  | lantern symbol                           |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_LARROW``   | left arrow                               |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_LEQUAL``   | less-than-or-equal-to                    |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_LLCORNER`` | lower left-hand corner                   |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_LRCORNER`` | lower right-hand corner                  |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_LTEE``     | left tee                                 |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_NEQUAL``   | not-equal sign                           |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_PI``       | letter pi                                |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_PLMINUS``  | plus-or-minus sign                       |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_PLUS``     | big plus sign                            |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_RARROW``   | right arrow                              |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_RTEE``     | right tee                                |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_S1``       | scan line 1                              |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_S3``       | scan line 3                              |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_S7``       | scan line 7                              |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_S9``       | scan line 9                              |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_SBBS``     | alternate name for lower right corner    |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_SBSB``     | alternate name for vertical line         |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_SBSS``     | alternate name for right tee             |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_SSBB``     | alternate name for lower left corner     |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_SSBS``     | alternate name for bottom tee            |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_SSSB``     | alternate name for left tee              |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_SSSS``     | alternate name for crossover or big plus |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_STERLING`` | pound sterling                           |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_TTEE``     | top tee                                  |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_UARROW``   | up arrow                                 |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_ULCORNER`` | upper left corner                        |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_URCORNER`` | upper right corner                       |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| ``ACS_VLINE``    | vertical line                            |
++------------------+------------------------------------------+
+
+The following table lists the predefined colors:
+
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| Constant          | Color                      |
++===================+============================+
+| ``COLOR_BLACK``   | Black                      |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| ``COLOR_BLUE``    | Blue                       |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| ``COLOR_CYAN``    | Cyan (light greenish blue) |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| ``COLOR_GREEN``   | Green                      |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| ``COLOR_MAGENTA`` | Magenta (purplish red)     |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| ``COLOR_RED``     | Red                        |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| ``COLOR_WHITE``   | White                      |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+| ``COLOR_YELLOW``  | Yellow                     |
++-------------------+----------------------------+
+
+
+:mod:`curses.textpad` --- Text input widget for curses programs
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: curses.textpad
+   :synopsis: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.
+.. moduleauthor:: Eric Raymond <esr@thyrsus.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric Raymond <esr@thyrsus.com>
+
+
+The :mod:`curses.textpad` module provides a :class:`Textbox` class that handles
+elementary text editing in a curses window, supporting a set of keybindings
+resembling those of Emacs (thus, also of Netscape Navigator, BBedit 6.x,
+FrameMaker, and many other programs).  The module also provides a
+rectangle-drawing function useful for framing text boxes or for other purposes.
+
+The module :mod:`curses.textpad` defines the following function:
+
+
+.. function:: rectangle(win, uly, ulx, lry, lrx)
+
+   Draw a rectangle.  The first argument must be a window object; the remaining
+   arguments are coordinates relative to that window.  The second and third
+   arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper left hand corner of the
+   rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth arguments are the y and x
+   coordinates of the lower right hand corner. The rectangle will be drawn using
+   VT100/IBM PC forms characters on terminals that make this possible (including
+   xterm and most other software terminal emulators).  Otherwise it will be drawn
+   with ASCII  dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.
+
+
+.. _curses-textpad-objects:
+
+Textbox objects
+---------------
+
+You can instantiate a :class:`Textbox` object as follows:
+
+
+.. class:: Textbox(win)
+
+   Return a textbox widget object.  The *win* argument should be a curses
+   :ref:`window <curses-window-objects>` object in which the textbox is to
+   be contained. The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at the
+   upper left hand corner of the containing window, with coordinates ``(0, 0)``.
+   The instance's :attr:`stripspaces` flag is initially on.
+
+   :class:`Textbox` objects have the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: edit([validator])
+
+      This is the entry point you will normally use.  It accepts editing
+      keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is entered.  If
+      *validator* is supplied, it must be a function.  It will be called for
+      each keystroke entered with the keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch
+      is done on the result. This method returns the window contents as a
+      string; whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the
+      :attr:`stripspaces` attribute.
+
+
+   .. method:: do_command(ch)
+
+      Process a single command keystroke.  Here are the supported special
+      keystrokes:
+
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | Keystroke        | Action                                    |
+      +==================+===========================================+
+      | :kbd:`Control-A` | Go to left edge of window.                |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-B` | Cursor left, wrapping to previous line if |
+      |                  | appropriate.                              |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-D` | Delete character under cursor.            |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-E` | Go to right edge (stripspaces off) or end |
+      |                  | of line (stripspaces on).                 |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-F` | Cursor right, wrapping to next line when  |
+      |                  | appropriate.                              |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-G` | Terminate, returning the window contents. |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-H` | Delete character backward.                |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-J` | Terminate if the window is 1 line,        |
+      |                  | otherwise insert newline.                 |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-K` | If line is blank, delete it, otherwise    |
+      |                  | clear to end of line.                     |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-L` | Refresh screen.                           |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-N` | Cursor down; move down one line.          |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-O` | Insert a blank line at cursor location.   |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+      | :kbd:`Control-P` | Cursor up; move up one line.              |
+      +------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+      Move operations do nothing if the cursor is at an edge where the movement
+      is not possible.  The following synonyms are supported where possible:
+
+      +------------------------+------------------+
+      | Constant               | Keystroke        |
+      +========================+==================+
+      | :const:`KEY_LEFT`      | :kbd:`Control-B` |
+      +------------------------+------------------+
+      | :const:`KEY_RIGHT`     | :kbd:`Control-F` |
+      +------------------------+------------------+
+      | :const:`KEY_UP`        | :kbd:`Control-P` |
+      +------------------------+------------------+
+      | :const:`KEY_DOWN`      | :kbd:`Control-N` |
+      +------------------------+------------------+
+      | :const:`KEY_BACKSPACE` | :kbd:`Control-h` |
+      +------------------------+------------------+
+
+      All other keystrokes are treated as a command to insert the given
+      character and move right (with line wrapping).
+
+
+   .. method:: gather()
+
+      Return the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the
+      window are included is affected by the :attr:`stripspaces` member.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: stripspaces
+
+      This attribute is a flag which controls the interpretation of blanks in
+      the window.  When it is on, trailing blanks on each line are ignored; any
+      cursor motion that would land the cursor on a trailing blank goes to the
+      end of that line instead, and trailing blanks are stripped when the window
+      contents are gathered.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/custominterp.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/custominterp.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5eeced2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/custominterp.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+.. _custominterp:
+
+**************************
+Custom Python Interpreters
+**************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar to
+Python's interactive interpreter.  If you want a Python interpreter that
+supports some special feature in addition to the Python language, you should
+look at the :mod:`code` module.  (The :mod:`codeop` module is lower-level, used
+to support compiling a possibly-incomplete chunk of Python code.)
+
+The full list of modules described in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   code.rst
+   codeop.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dataclasses.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dataclasses.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6af60b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dataclasses.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,593 @@
+:mod:`dataclasses` --- Data Classes
+===================================
+
+.. module:: dataclasses
+    :synopsis: Generate special methods on user-defined classes.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Eric V. Smith <eric@trueblade.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric V. Smith <eric@trueblade.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dataclasses.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a decorator and functions for automatically
+adding generated :term:`special method`\s such as :meth:`__init__` and
+:meth:`__repr__` to user-defined classes.  It was originally described
+in :pep:`557`.
+
+The member variables to use in these generated methods are defined
+using :pep:`526` type annotations.  For example this code::
+
+  @dataclass
+  class InventoryItem:
+      '''Class for keeping track of an item in inventory.'''
+      name: str
+      unit_price: float
+      quantity_on_hand: int = 0
+
+      def total_cost(self) -> float:
+          return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand
+
+Will add, among other things, a :meth:`__init__` that looks like::
+
+  def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int=0):
+      self.name = name
+      self.unit_price = unit_price
+      self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand
+
+Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not
+directly specified in the ``InventoryItem`` definition shown above.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+Module-level decorators, classes, and functions
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+.. decorator:: dataclass(*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False)
+
+   This function is a :term:`decorator` that is used to add generated
+   :term:`special method`\s to classes, as described below.
+
+   The :func:`dataclass` decorator examines the class to find
+   ``field``\s.  A ``field`` is defined as class variable that has a
+   :term:`type annotation <variable annotation>`.  With two
+   exceptions described below, nothing in :func:`dataclass`
+   examines the type specified in the variable annotation.
+
+   The order of the fields in all of the generated methods is the
+   order in which they appear in the class definition.
+
+   The :func:`dataclass` decorator will add various "dunder" methods to
+   the class, described below.  If any of the added methods already
+   exist on the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented
+   below. The decorator returns the same class that is called on; no new
+   class is created.
+
+   If :func:`dataclass` is used just as a simple decorator with no parameters,
+   it acts as if it has the default values documented in this
+   signature.  That is, these three uses of :func:`dataclass` are
+   equivalent::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class C:
+         ...
+
+     @dataclass()
+     class C:
+         ...
+
+     @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False)
+     class C:
+        ...
+
+   The parameters to :func:`dataclass` are:
+
+   - ``init``: If true (the default), a :meth:`__init__` method will be
+     generated.
+
+     If the class already defines :meth:`__init__`, this parameter is
+     ignored.
+
+   - ``repr``: If true (the default), a :meth:`__repr__` method will be
+     generated.  The generated repr string will have the class name and
+     the name and repr of each field, in the order they are defined in
+     the class.  Fields that are marked as being excluded from the repr
+     are not included.  For example:
+     ``InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0, quantity_on_hand=10)``.
+
+     If the class already defines :meth:`__repr__`, this parameter is
+     ignored.
+
+   - ``eq``: If true (the default), an :meth:`__eq__` method will be
+     generated.  This method compares the class as if it were a tuple
+     of its fields, in order.  Both instances in the comparison must
+     be of the identical type.
+
+     If the class already defines :meth:`__eq__`, this parameter is
+     ignored.
+
+   - ``order``: If true (the default is ``False``), :meth:`__lt__`,
+     :meth:`__le__`, :meth:`__gt__`, and :meth:`__ge__` methods will be
+     generated.  These compare the class as if it were a tuple of its
+     fields, in order.  Both instances in the comparison must be of the
+     identical type.  If ``order`` is true and ``eq`` is false, a
+     :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+     If the class already defines any of :meth:`__lt__`,
+     :meth:`__le__`, :meth:`__gt__`, or :meth:`__ge__`, then
+     :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   - ``unsafe_hash``: If ``False`` (the default), a :meth:`__hash__` method
+     is generated according to how ``eq`` and ``frozen`` are set.
+
+     :meth:`__hash__` is used by built-in :meth:`hash()`, and when objects are
+     added to hashed collections such as dictionaries and sets.  Having a
+     :meth:`__hash__` implies that instances of the class are immutable.
+     Mutability is a complicated property that depends on the programmer's
+     intent, the existence and behavior of :meth:`__eq__`, and the values of
+     the ``eq`` and ``frozen`` flags in the :func:`dataclass` decorator.
+
+     By default, :func:`dataclass` will not implicitly add a :meth:`__hash__`
+     method unless it is safe to do so.  Neither will it add or change an
+     existing explicitly defined :meth:`__hash__` method.  Setting the class
+     attribute ``__hash__ = None`` has a specific meaning to Python, as
+     described in the :meth:`__hash__` documentation.
+
+     If :meth:`__hash__` is not explicit defined, or if it is set to ``None``,
+     then :func:`dataclass` *may* add an implicit :meth:`__hash__` method.
+     Although not recommended, you can force :func:`dataclass` to create a
+     :meth:`__hash__` method with ``unsafe_hash=True``. This might be the case
+     if your class is logically immutable but can nonetheless be mutated.
+     This is a specialized use case and should be considered carefully.
+
+     Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a :meth:`__hash__`
+     method.  Note that you cannot both have an explicit :meth:`__hash__`
+     method in your dataclass and set ``unsafe_hash=True``; this will result
+     in a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+     If ``eq`` and ``frozen`` are both true, by default :func:`dataclass` will
+     generate a :meth:`__hash__` method for you.  If ``eq`` is true and
+     ``frozen`` is false, :meth:`__hash__` will be set to ``None``, marking it
+     unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable).  If ``eq`` is false,
+     :meth:`__hash__` will be left untouched meaning the :meth:`__hash__`
+     method of the superclass will be used (if the superclass is
+     :class:`object`, this means it will fall back to id-based hashing).
+
+   - ``frozen``: If true (the default is False), assigning to fields will
+     generate an exception.  This emulates read-only frozen instances.  If
+     :meth:`__setattr__` or :meth:`__delattr__` is defined in the class, then
+     :exc:`TypeError` is raised.  See the discussion below.
+
+   ``field``\s may optionally specify a default value, using normal
+   Python syntax::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class C:
+         a: int       # 'a' has no default value
+         b: int = 0   # assign a default value for 'b'
+
+   In this example, both ``a`` and ``b`` will be included in the added
+   :meth:`__init__` method, which will be defined as::
+
+     def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):
+
+   :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if a field without a default value
+   follows a field with a default value.  This is true either when this
+   occurs in a single class, or as a result of class inheritance.
+
+.. function:: field(*, default=MISSING, default_factory=MISSING, repr=True, hash=None, init=True, compare=True, metadata=None)
+
+   For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is
+   required.  There are, however, some dataclass features that
+   require additional per-field information.  To satisfy this need for
+   additional information, you can replace the default field value
+   with a call to the provided :func:`field` function.  For example::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class C:
+         mylist: List[int] = field(default_factory=list)
+
+     c = C()
+     c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]
+
+   As shown above, the ``MISSING`` value is a sentinel object used to
+   detect if the ``default`` and ``default_factory`` parameters are
+   provided.  This sentinel is used because ``None`` is a valid value
+   for ``default``.  No code should directly use the ``MISSING``
+   value.
+
+   The parameters to :func:`field` are:
+
+   - ``default``: If provided, this will be the default value for this
+     field.  This is needed because the :meth:`field` call itself
+     replaces the normal position of the default value.
+
+   - ``default_factory``: If provided, it must be a zero-argument
+     callable that will be called when a default value is needed for
+     this field.  Among other purposes, this can be used to specify
+     fields with mutable default values, as discussed below.  It is an
+     error to specify both ``default`` and ``default_factory``.
+
+   - ``init``: If true (the default), this field is included as a
+     parameter to the generated :meth:`__init__` method.
+
+   - ``repr``: If true (the default), this field is included in the
+     string returned by the generated :meth:`__repr__` method.
+
+   - ``compare``: If true (the default), this field is included in the
+     generated equality and comparison methods (:meth:`__eq__`,
+     :meth:`__gt__`, et al.).
+
+   - ``hash``: This can be a bool or ``None``.  If true, this field is
+     included in the generated :meth:`__hash__` method.  If ``None`` (the
+     default), use the value of ``compare``: this would normally be
+     the expected behavior.  A field should be considered in the hash
+     if it's used for comparisons.  Setting this value to anything
+     other than ``None`` is discouraged.
+
+     One possible reason to set ``hash=False`` but ``compare=True``
+     would be if a field is expensive to compute a hash value for,
+     that field is needed for equality testing, and there are other
+     fields that contribute to the type's hash value.  Even if a field
+     is excluded from the hash, it will still be used for comparisons.
+
+   - ``metadata``: This can be a mapping or None. None is treated as
+     an empty dict.  This value is wrapped in
+     :func:`~types.MappingProxyType` to make it read-only, and exposed
+     on the :class:`Field` object. It is not used at all by Data
+     Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism.
+     Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as a
+     namespace in the metadata.
+
+   If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
+   :func:`field()`, then the class attribute for this field will be
+   replaced by the specified ``default`` value.  If no ``default`` is
+   provided, then the class attribute will be deleted.  The intent is
+   that after the :func:`dataclass` decorator runs, the class
+   attributes will all contain the default values for the fields, just
+   as if the default value itself were specified.  For example,
+   after::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class C:
+         x: int
+         y: int = field(repr=False)
+         z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
+         t: int = 20
+
+   The class attribute ``C.z`` will be ``10``, the class attribute
+   ``C.t`` will be ``20``, and the class attributes ``C.x`` and
+   ``C.y`` will not be set.
+
+.. class:: Field
+
+   :class:`Field` objects describe each defined field. These objects
+   are created internally, and are returned by the :func:`fields`
+   module-level method (see below).  Users should never instantiate a
+   :class:`Field` object directly.  Its documented attributes are:
+
+     - ``name``: The name of the field.
+
+     - ``type``: The type of the field.
+
+     - ``default``, ``default_factory``, ``init``, ``repr``, ``hash``,
+       ``compare``, and ``metadata`` have the identical meaning and
+       values as they do in the :func:`field` declaration.
+
+   Other attributes may exist, but they are private and must not be
+   inspected or relied on.
+
+.. function:: fields(class_or_instance)
+
+   Returns a tuple of :class:`Field` objects that define the fields for this
+   dataclass.  Accepts either a dataclass, or an instance of a dataclass.
+   Raises :exc:`TypeError` if not passed a dataclass or instance of one.
+   Does not return pseudo-fields which are ``ClassVar`` or ``InitVar``.
+
+.. function:: asdict(instance, *, dict_factory=dict)
+
+   Converts the dataclass ``instance`` to a dict (by using the
+   factory function ``dict_factory``).  Each dataclass is converted
+   to a dict of its fields, as ``name: value`` pairs.  dataclasses, dicts,
+   lists, and tuples are recursed into.  For example::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class Point:
+          x: int
+          y: int
+
+     @dataclass
+     class C:
+          mylist: List[Point]
+
+     p = Point(10, 20)
+     assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}
+
+     c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
+     assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}
+
+   Raises :exc:`TypeError` if ``instance`` is not a dataclass instance.
+
+.. function:: astuple(instance, *, tuple_factory=tuple)
+
+   Converts the dataclass ``instance`` to a tuple (by using the
+   factory function ``tuple_factory``).  Each dataclass is converted
+   to a tuple of its field values.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and
+   tuples are recursed into.
+
+   Continuing from the previous example::
+
+     assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
+     assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)
+
+   Raises :exc:`TypeError` if ``instance`` is not a dataclass instance.
+
+.. function:: make_dataclass(cls_name, fields, *, bases=(), namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False)
+
+   Creates a new dataclass with name ``cls_name``, fields as defined
+   in ``fields``, base classes as given in ``bases``, and initialized
+   with a namespace as given in ``namespace``.  ``fields`` is an
+   iterable whose elements are each either ``name``, ``(name, type)``,
+   or ``(name, type, Field)``.  If just ``name`` is supplied,
+   ``typing.Any`` is used for ``type``.  The values of ``init``,
+   ``repr``, ``eq``, ``order``, ``unsafe_hash``, and ``frozen`` have
+   the same meaning as they do in :func:`dataclass`.
+
+   This function is not strictly required, because any Python
+   mechanism for creating a new class with ``__annotations__`` can
+   then apply the :func:`dataclass` function to convert that class to
+   a dataclass.  This function is provided as a convenience.  For
+   example::
+
+     C = make_dataclass('C',
+                        [('x', int),
+                          'y',
+                         ('z', int, field(default=5))],
+                        namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})
+
+   Is equivalent to::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class C:
+         x: int
+         y: 'typing.Any'
+         z: int = 5
+
+         def add_one(self):
+             return self.x + 1
+
+.. function:: replace(instance, **changes)
+
+   Creates a new object of the same type of ``instance``, replacing
+   fields with values from ``changes``.  If ``instance`` is not a Data
+   Class, raises :exc:`TypeError`.  If values in ``changes`` do not
+   specify fields, raises :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   The newly returned object is created by calling the :meth:`__init__`
+   method of the dataclass.  This ensures that
+   :meth:`__post_init__`, if present, is also called.
+
+   Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be
+   specified on the call to :func:`replace` so that they can be passed to
+   :meth:`__init__` and :meth:`__post_init__`.
+
+   It is an error for ``changes`` to contain any fields that are
+   defined as having ``init=False``.  A :exc:`ValueError` will be raised
+   in this case.
+
+   Be forewarned about how ``init=False`` fields work during a call to
+   :func:`replace`.  They are not copied from the source object, but
+   rather are initialized in :meth:`__post_init__`, if they're
+   initialized at all.  It is expected that ``init=False`` fields will
+   be rarely and judiciously used.  If they are used, it might be wise
+   to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom
+   ``replace()`` (or similarly named) method which handles instance
+   copying.
+
+.. function:: is_dataclass(class_or_instance)
+
+   Returns True if its parameter is a dataclass or an instance of one,
+   otherwise returns False.
+
+   If you need to know if a class is an instance of a dataclass (and
+   not a dataclass itself), then add a further check for ``not
+   isinstance(obj, type)``::
+
+     def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
+         return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)
+
+Post-init processing
+--------------------
+
+The generated :meth:`__init__` code will call a method named
+:meth:`__post_init__`, if :meth:`__post_init__` is defined on the
+class.  It will normally be called as ``self.__post_init__()``.
+However, if any ``InitVar`` fields are defined, they will also be
+passed to :meth:`__post_init__` in the order they were defined in the
+class.  If no :meth:`__init__` method is generated, then
+:meth:`__post_init__` will not automatically be called.
+
+Among other uses, this allows for initializing field values that
+depend on one or more other fields.  For example::
+
+    @dataclass
+    class C:
+        a: float
+        b: float
+        c: float = field(init=False)
+
+        def __post_init__(self):
+            self.c = self.a + self.b
+
+See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass
+parameters to :meth:`__post_init__`.  Also see the warning about how
+:func:`replace` handles ``init=False`` fields.
+
+Class variables
+---------------
+
+One of two places where :func:`dataclass` actually inspects the type
+of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as defined
+in :pep:`526`.  It does this by checking if the type of the field is
+``typing.ClassVar``.  If a field is a ``ClassVar``, it is excluded
+from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass
+mechanisms.  Such ``ClassVar`` pseudo-fields are not returned by the
+module-level :func:`fields` function.
+
+Init-only variables
+-------------------
+
+The other place where :func:`dataclass` inspects a type annotation is to
+determine if a field is an init-only variable.  It does this by seeing
+if the type of a field is of type ``dataclasses.InitVar``.  If a field
+is an ``InitVar``, it is considered a pseudo-field called an init-only
+field.  As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the
+module-level :func:`fields` function.  Init-only fields are added as
+parameters to the generated :meth:`__init__` method, and are passed to
+the optional :meth:`__post_init__` method.  They are not otherwise used
+by dataclasses.
+
+For example, suppose a field will be initialized from a database, if a
+value is not provided when creating the class::
+
+  @dataclass
+  class C:
+      i: int
+      j: int = None
+      database: InitVar[DatabaseType] = None
+
+      def __post_init__(self, database):
+          if self.j is None and database is not None:
+              self.j = database.lookup('j')
+
+  c = C(10, database=my_database)
+
+In this case, :func:`fields` will return :class:`Field` objects for ``i`` and
+``j``, but not for ``database``.
+
+Frozen instances
+----------------
+
+It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects.  However,
+by passing ``frozen=True`` to the :meth:`dataclass` decorator you can
+emulate immutability.  In that case, dataclasses will add
+:meth:`__setattr__` and :meth:`__delattr__` methods to the class.  These
+methods will raise a :exc:`FrozenInstanceError` when invoked.
+
+There is a tiny performance penalty when using ``frozen=True``:
+:meth:`__init__` cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
+must use :meth:`object.__setattr__`.
+
+Inheritance
+-----------
+
+When the dataclass is being created by the :meth:`dataclass` decorator,
+it looks through all of the class's base classes in reverse MRO (that
+is, starting at :class:`object`) and, for each dataclass that it finds,
+adds the fields from that base class to an ordered mapping of fields.
+After all of the base class fields are added, it adds its own fields
+to the ordered mapping.  All of the generated methods will use this
+combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields.  Because the fields
+are in insertion order, derived classes override base classes.  An
+example::
+
+  @dataclass
+  class Base:
+      x: Any = 15.0
+      y: int = 0
+
+  @dataclass
+  class C(Base):
+      z: int = 10
+      x: int = 15
+
+The final list of fields is, in order, ``x``, ``y``, ``z``.  The final
+type of ``x`` is ``int``, as specified in class ``C``.
+
+The generated :meth:`__init__` method for ``C`` will look like::
+
+  def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):
+
+Default factory functions
+-------------------------
+
+   If a :func:`field` specifies a ``default_factory``, it is called with
+   zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed.  For
+   example, to create a new instance of a list, use::
+
+     mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)
+
+   If a field is excluded from :meth:`__init__` (using ``init=False``)
+   and the field also specifies ``default_factory``, then the default
+   factory function will always be called from the generated
+   :meth:`__init__` function.  This happens because there is no other
+   way to give the field an initial value.
+
+Mutable default values
+----------------------
+
+   Python stores default member variable values in class attributes.
+   Consider this example, not using dataclasses::
+
+     class C:
+         x = []
+         def add(self, element):
+             self.x.append(element)
+
+     o1 = C()
+     o2 = C()
+     o1.add(1)
+     o2.add(2)
+     assert o1.x == [1, 2]
+     assert o1.x is o2.x
+
+   Note that the two instances of class ``C`` share the same class
+   variable ``x``, as expected.
+
+   Using dataclasses, *if* this code was valid::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class D:
+         x: List = []
+         def add(self, element):
+             self.x += element
+
+   it would generate code similar to::
+
+     class D:
+         x = []
+         def __init__(self, x=x):
+             self.x = x
+         def add(self, element):
+             self.x += element
+
+     assert D().x is D().x
+
+   This has the same issue as the original example using class ``C``.
+   That is, two instances of class ``D`` that do not specify a value for
+   ``x`` when creating a class instance will share the same copy of
+   ``x``.  Because dataclasses just use normal Python class creation
+   they also share this behavior.  There is no general way for Data
+   Classes to detect this condition.  Instead, dataclasses will raise a
+   :exc:`TypeError` if it detects a default parameter of type ``list``,
+   ``dict``, or ``set``.  This is a partial solution, but it does protect
+   against many common errors.
+
+   Using default factory functions is a way to create new instances of
+   mutable types as default values for fields::
+
+     @dataclass
+     class D:
+         x: list = field(default_factory=list)
+
+     assert D().x is not D().x
+
+Exceptions
+----------
+
+.. exception:: FrozenInstanceError
+
+   Raised when an implicitly defined :meth:`__setattr__` or
+   :meth:`__delattr__` is called on a dataclass which was defined with
+   ``frozen=True``.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/datatypes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/datatypes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48af082
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/datatypes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+.. _datatypes:
+
+**********
+Data Types
+**********
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide a variety of specialized data
+types such as dates and times, fixed-type arrays, heap queues, synchronized
+queues, and sets.
+
+Python also provides some built-in data types, in particular,
+:class:`dict`, :class:`list`, :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset`, and
+:class:`tuple`.  The :class:`str` class is used to hold
+Unicode strings, and the :class:`bytes` class is used to hold binary data.
+
+The following modules are documented in this chapter:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   datetime.rst
+   calendar.rst
+   collections.rst
+   collections.abc.rst
+   heapq.rst
+   bisect.rst
+   array.rst
+   weakref.rst
+   types.rst
+   copy.rst
+   pprint.rst
+   reprlib.rst
+   enum.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/datetime.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/datetime.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..270b238
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/datetime.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2285 @@
+:mod:`datetime` --- Basic date and time types
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: datetime
+   :synopsis: Basic date and time types.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Tim Peters <tim@zope.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Tim Peters <tim@zope.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: A.M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/datetime.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. XXX what order should the types be discussed in?
+
+The :mod:`datetime` module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times in
+both simple and complex ways.  While date and time arithmetic is supported, the
+focus of the implementation is on efficient attribute extraction for output
+formatting and manipulation. For related functionality, see also the
+:mod:`time` and :mod:`calendar` modules.
+
+There are two kinds of date and time objects: "naive" and "aware".
+
+An aware object has sufficient knowledge of applicable algorithmic and
+political time adjustments, such as time zone and daylight saving time
+information, to locate itself relative to other aware objects.  An aware object
+is used to represent a specific moment in time that is not open to
+interpretation [#]_.
+
+A naive object does not contain enough information to unambiguously locate
+itself relative to other date/time objects.  Whether a naive object represents
+Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time in some other timezone is
+purely up to the program, just like it is up to the program whether a
+particular number represents metres, miles, or mass.  Naive objects are easy to
+understand and to work with, at the cost of ignoring some aspects of reality.
+
+For applications requiring aware objects, :class:`.datetime` and :class:`.time`
+objects have an optional time zone information attribute, :attr:`!tzinfo`, that
+can be set to an instance of a subclass of the abstract :class:`tzinfo` class.
+These :class:`tzinfo` objects capture information about the offset from UTC
+time, the time zone name, and whether Daylight Saving Time is in effect.  Note
+that only one concrete :class:`tzinfo` class, the :class:`timezone` class, is
+supplied by the :mod:`datetime` module.  The :class:`timezone` class can
+represent simple timezones with fixed offset from UTC, such as UTC itself or
+North American EST and EDT timezones.  Supporting timezones at deeper levels of
+detail is up to the application.  The rules for time adjustment across the
+world are more political than rational, change frequently, and there is no
+standard suitable for every application aside from UTC.
+
+The :mod:`datetime` module exports the following constants:
+
+.. data:: MINYEAR
+
+   The smallest year number allowed in a :class:`date` or :class:`.datetime` object.
+   :const:`MINYEAR` is ``1``.
+
+
+.. data:: MAXYEAR
+
+   The largest year number allowed in a :class:`date` or :class:`.datetime` object.
+   :const:`MAXYEAR` is ``9999``.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`calendar`
+      General calendar related functions.
+
+   Module :mod:`time`
+      Time access and conversions.
+
+
+Available Types
+---------------
+
+.. class:: date
+   :noindex:
+
+   An idealized naive date, assuming the current Gregorian calendar always was, and
+   always will be, in effect. Attributes: :attr:`year`, :attr:`month`, and
+   :attr:`day`.
+
+
+.. class:: time
+   :noindex:
+
+   An idealized time, independent of any particular day, assuming that every day
+   has exactly 24\*60\*60 seconds (there is no notion of "leap seconds" here).
+   Attributes: :attr:`hour`, :attr:`minute`, :attr:`second`, :attr:`microsecond`,
+   and :attr:`.tzinfo`.
+
+
+.. class:: datetime
+   :noindex:
+
+   A combination of a date and a time. Attributes: :attr:`year`, :attr:`month`,
+   :attr:`day`, :attr:`hour`, :attr:`minute`, :attr:`second`, :attr:`microsecond`,
+   and :attr:`.tzinfo`.
+
+
+.. class:: timedelta
+   :noindex:
+
+   A duration expressing the difference between two :class:`date`, :class:`.time`,
+   or :class:`.datetime` instances to microsecond resolution.
+
+
+.. class:: tzinfo
+   :noindex:
+
+   An abstract base class for time zone information objects.  These are used by the
+   :class:`.datetime` and :class:`.time` classes to provide a customizable notion of
+   time adjustment (for example, to account for time zone and/or daylight saving
+   time).
+
+.. class:: timezone
+   :noindex:
+
+   A class that implements the :class:`tzinfo` abstract base class as a
+   fixed offset from the UTC.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+Objects of these types are immutable.
+
+Objects of the :class:`date` type are always naive.
+
+An object of type :class:`.time` or :class:`.datetime` may be naive or aware.
+A :class:`.datetime` object *d* is aware if ``d.tzinfo`` is not ``None`` and
+``d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)`` does not return ``None``.  If ``d.tzinfo`` is
+``None``, or if ``d.tzinfo`` is not ``None`` but ``d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)``
+returns ``None``, *d* is naive.  A :class:`.time` object *t* is aware
+if ``t.tzinfo`` is not ``None`` and ``t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)`` does not return
+``None``.  Otherwise, *t* is naive.
+
+The distinction between naive and aware doesn't apply to :class:`timedelta`
+objects.
+
+Subclass relationships::
+
+   object
+       timedelta
+       tzinfo
+           timezone
+       time
+       date
+           datetime
+
+
+.. _datetime-timedelta:
+
+:class:`timedelta` Objects
+--------------------------
+
+A :class:`timedelta` object represents a duration, the difference between two
+dates or times.
+
+.. class:: timedelta(days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0, milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)
+
+   All arguments are optional and default to ``0``.  Arguments may be integers
+   or floats, and may be positive or negative.
+
+   Only *days*, *seconds* and *microseconds* are stored internally.  Arguments are
+   converted to those units:
+
+   * A millisecond is converted to 1000 microseconds.
+   * A minute is converted to 60 seconds.
+   * An hour is converted to 3600 seconds.
+   * A week is converted to 7 days.
+
+   and days, seconds and microseconds are then normalized so that the
+   representation is unique, with
+
+   * ``0 <= microseconds < 1000000``
+   * ``0 <= seconds < 3600*24`` (the number of seconds in one day)
+   * ``-999999999 <= days <= 999999999``
+
+   If any argument is a float and there are fractional microseconds,
+   the fractional microseconds left over from all arguments are
+   combined and their sum is rounded to the nearest microsecond using
+   round-half-to-even tiebreaker.  If no argument is a float, the
+   conversion and normalization processes are exact (no information is
+   lost).
+
+   If the normalized value of days lies outside the indicated range,
+   :exc:`OverflowError` is raised.
+
+   Note that normalization of negative values may be surprising at first. For
+   example,
+
+      >>> from datetime import timedelta
+      >>> d = timedelta(microseconds=-1)
+      >>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
+      (-1, 86399, 999999)
+
+
+Class attributes are:
+
+.. attribute:: timedelta.min
+
+   The most negative :class:`timedelta` object, ``timedelta(-999999999)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: timedelta.max
+
+   The most positive :class:`timedelta` object, ``timedelta(days=999999999,
+   hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59, microseconds=999999)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: timedelta.resolution
+
+   The smallest possible difference between non-equal :class:`timedelta` objects,
+   ``timedelta(microseconds=1)``.
+
+Note that, because of normalization, ``timedelta.max`` > ``-timedelta.min``.
+``-timedelta.max`` is not representable as a :class:`timedelta` object.
+
+Instance attributes (read-only):
+
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| Attribute        | Value                                      |
++==================+============================================+
+| ``days``         | Between -999999999 and 999999999 inclusive |
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``seconds``      | Between 0 and 86399 inclusive              |
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``microseconds`` | Between 0 and 999999 inclusive             |
++------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+Supported operations:
+
+.. XXX this table is too wide!
+
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Operation                      | Result                                        |
++================================+===============================================+
+| ``t1 = t2 + t3``               | Sum of *t2* and *t3*. Afterwards *t1*-*t2* == |
+|                                | *t3* and *t1*-*t3* == *t2* are true. (1)      |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``t1 = t2 - t3``               | Difference of *t2* and *t3*. Afterwards *t1*  |
+|                                | == *t2* - *t3* and *t2* == *t1* + *t3* are    |
+|                                | true. (1)(6)                                  |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``t1 = t2 * i or t1 = i * t2`` | Delta multiplied by an integer.               |
+|                                | Afterwards *t1* // i == *t2* is true,         |
+|                                | provided ``i != 0``.                          |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+|                                | In general, *t1* \* i == *t1* \* (i-1) + *t1* |
+|                                | is true. (1)                                  |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``t1 = t2 * f or t1 = f * t2`` | Delta multiplied by a float. The result is    |
+|                                | rounded to the nearest multiple of            |
+|                                | timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.|
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``f = t2 / t3``                | Division (3) of overall duration *t2* by      |
+|                                | interval unit *t3*. Returns a :class:`float`  |
+|                                | object.                                       |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``t1 = t2 / f or t1 = t2 / i`` | Delta divided by a float or an int. The result|
+|                                | is rounded to the nearest multiple of         |
+|                                | timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.|
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``t1 = t2 // i`` or            | The floor is computed and the remainder (if   |
+| ``t1 = t2 // t3``              | any) is thrown away.  In the second case, an  |
+|                                | integer is returned. (3)                      |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``t1 = t2 % t3``               | The remainder is computed as a                |
+|                                | :class:`timedelta` object. (3)                |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``q, r = divmod(t1, t2)``      | Computes the quotient and the remainder:      |
+|                                | ``q = t1 // t2`` (3) and ``r = t1 % t2``.     |
+|                                | q is an integer and r is a :class:`timedelta` |
+|                                | object.                                       |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``+t1``                        | Returns a :class:`timedelta` object with the  |
+|                                | same value. (2)                               |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``-t1``                        | equivalent to                                 |
+|                                | :class:`timedelta`\ (-*t1.days*,              |
+|                                | -*t1.seconds*, -*t1.microseconds*),           |
+|                                | and to *t1*\* -1. (1)(4)                      |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``abs(t)``                     | equivalent to +\ *t* when ``t.days >= 0``, and|
+|                                | to -*t* when ``t.days < 0``. (2)              |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``str(t)``                     | Returns a string in the form                  |
+|                                | ``[D day[s], ][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU]``, where D  |
+|                                | is negative for negative ``t``. (5)           |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| ``repr(t)``                    | Returns a string representation of the        |
+|                                | :class:`timedelta` object as a constructor    |
+|                                | call with canonical attribute values.         |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   This is exact, but may overflow.
+
+(2)
+   This is exact, and cannot overflow.
+
+(3)
+   Division by 0 raises :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`.
+
+(4)
+   -*timedelta.max* is not representable as a :class:`timedelta` object.
+
+(5)
+  String representations of :class:`timedelta` objects are normalized
+  similarly to their internal representation.  This leads to somewhat
+  unusual results for negative timedeltas.  For example:
+
+  >>> timedelta(hours=-5)
+  datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)
+  >>> print(_)
+  -1 day, 19:00:00
+
+(6)
+   The expression ``t2 - t3`` will always be equal to the expression ``t2 + (-t3)`` except
+   when t3 is equal to ``timedelta.max``; in that case the former will produce a result
+   while the latter will overflow.
+
+In addition to the operations listed above :class:`timedelta` objects support
+certain additions and subtractions with :class:`date` and :class:`.datetime`
+objects (see below).
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Floor division and true division of a :class:`timedelta` object by another
+   :class:`timedelta` object are now supported, as are remainder operations and
+   the :func:`divmod` function.  True division and multiplication of a
+   :class:`timedelta` object by a :class:`float` object are now supported.
+
+
+Comparisons of :class:`timedelta` objects are supported with the
+:class:`timedelta` object representing the smaller duration considered to be the
+smaller timedelta. In order to stop mixed-type comparisons from falling back to
+the default comparison by object address, when a :class:`timedelta` object is
+compared to an object of a different type, :exc:`TypeError` is raised unless the
+comparison is ``==`` or ``!=``.  The latter cases return :const:`False` or
+:const:`True`, respectively.
+
+:class:`timedelta` objects are :term:`hashable` (usable as dictionary keys), support
+efficient pickling, and in Boolean contexts, a :class:`timedelta` object is
+considered to be true if and only if it isn't equal to ``timedelta(0)``.
+
+Instance methods:
+
+.. method:: timedelta.total_seconds()
+
+   Return the total number of seconds contained in the duration. Equivalent to
+   ``td / timedelta(seconds=1)``. For interval units other than seconds, use the
+   division form directly (e.g. ``td / timedelta(microseconds=1)``).
+
+   Note that for very large time intervals (greater than 270 years on
+   most platforms) this method will lose microsecond accuracy.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+Example usage:
+
+    >>> from datetime import timedelta
+    >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
+    >>> another_year = timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
+    ...                          minutes=50, seconds=600)  # adds up to 365 days
+    >>> year.total_seconds()
+    31536000.0
+    >>> year == another_year
+    True
+    >>> ten_years = 10 * year
+    >>> ten_years, ten_years.days // 365
+    (datetime.timedelta(days=3650), 10)
+    >>> nine_years = ten_years - year
+    >>> nine_years, nine_years.days // 365
+    (datetime.timedelta(days=3285), 9)
+    >>> three_years = nine_years // 3
+    >>> three_years, three_years.days // 365
+    (datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)
+    >>> abs(three_years - ten_years) == 2 * three_years + year
+    True
+
+
+.. _datetime-date:
+
+:class:`date` Objects
+---------------------
+
+A :class:`date` object represents a date (year, month and day) in an idealized
+calendar, the current Gregorian calendar indefinitely extended in both
+directions.  January 1 of year 1 is called day number 1, January 2 of year 1 is
+called day number 2, and so on.  This matches the definition of the "proleptic
+Gregorian" calendar in Dershowitz and Reingold's book Calendrical Calculations,
+where it's the base calendar for all computations.  See the book for algorithms
+for converting between proleptic Gregorian ordinals and many other calendar
+systems.
+
+
+.. class:: date(year, month, day)
+
+   All arguments are required.  Arguments may be integers, in the following
+   ranges:
+
+   * ``MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR``
+   * ``1 <= month <= 12``
+   * ``1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year``
+
+   If an argument outside those ranges is given, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+Other constructors, all class methods:
+
+.. classmethod:: date.today()
+
+   Return the current local date.  This is equivalent to
+   ``date.fromtimestamp(time.time())``.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: date.fromtimestamp(timestamp)
+
+   Return the local date corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as is returned
+   by :func:`time.time`.  This may raise :exc:`OverflowError`, if the timestamp is out
+   of the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`localtime` function,
+   and :exc:`OSError` on :c:func:`localtime` failure.
+   It's common for this to be restricted to years from 1970 through 2038.  Note
+   that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their notion of a
+   timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by :meth:`fromtimestamp`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Raise :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`ValueError` if the timestamp
+      is out of the range of values supported by the platform C
+      :c:func:`localtime` function. Raise :exc:`OSError` instead of
+      :exc:`ValueError` on :c:func:`localtime` failure.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: date.fromordinal(ordinal)
+
+   Return the date corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian ordinal, where January
+   1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.  :exc:`ValueError` is raised unless ``1 <= ordinal <=
+   date.max.toordinal()``. For any date *d*, ``date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) ==
+   d``.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: date.fromisoformat(date_string)
+
+  Return a :class:`date` corresponding to a *date_string* in the format emitted
+  by :meth:`date.isoformat`. Specifically, this function supports strings in
+  the format(s) ``YYYY-MM-DD``.
+
+  .. caution::
+
+    This does not support parsing arbitrary ISO 8601 strings - it is only intended
+    as the inverse operation of :meth:`date.isoformat`.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+
+Class attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: date.min
+
+   The earliest representable date, ``date(MINYEAR, 1, 1)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: date.max
+
+   The latest representable date, ``date(MAXYEAR, 12, 31)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: date.resolution
+
+   The smallest possible difference between non-equal date objects,
+   ``timedelta(days=1)``.
+
+
+Instance attributes (read-only):
+
+.. attribute:: date.year
+
+   Between :const:`MINYEAR` and :const:`MAXYEAR` inclusive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: date.month
+
+   Between 1 and 12 inclusive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: date.day
+
+   Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given year.
+
+
+Supported operations:
+
++-------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Operation                     | Result                                       |
++===============================+==============================================+
+| ``date2 = date1 + timedelta`` | *date2* is ``timedelta.days`` days removed   |
+|                               | from *date1*.  (1)                           |
++-------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``date2 = date1 - timedelta`` | Computes *date2* such that ``date2 +         |
+|                               | timedelta == date1``. (2)                    |
++-------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``timedelta = date1 - date2`` | \(3)                                         |
++-------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``date1 < date2``             | *date1* is considered less than *date2* when |
+|                               | *date1* precedes *date2* in time. (4)        |
++-------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   *date2* is moved forward in time if ``timedelta.days > 0``, or backward if
+   ``timedelta.days < 0``.  Afterward ``date2 - date1 == timedelta.days``.
+   ``timedelta.seconds`` and ``timedelta.microseconds`` are ignored.
+   :exc:`OverflowError` is raised if ``date2.year`` would be smaller than
+   :const:`MINYEAR` or larger than :const:`MAXYEAR`.
+
+(2)
+   ``timedelta.seconds`` and ``timedelta.microseconds`` are ignored.
+
+(3)
+   This is exact, and cannot overflow.  timedelta.seconds and
+   timedelta.microseconds are 0, and date2 + timedelta == date1 after.
+
+(4)
+   In other words, ``date1 < date2`` if and only if ``date1.toordinal() <
+   date2.toordinal()``. Date comparison raises :exc:`TypeError` if
+   the other comparand isn't also a :class:`date` object. However,
+   ``NotImplemented`` is returned instead if the other comparand has a
+   :meth:`timetuple` attribute.  This hook gives other kinds of date objects a
+   chance at implementing mixed-type comparison. If not, when a :class:`date`
+   object is compared to an object of a different type, :exc:`TypeError` is raised
+   unless the comparison is ``==`` or ``!=``.  The latter cases return
+   :const:`False` or :const:`True`, respectively.
+
+Dates can be used as dictionary keys. In Boolean contexts, all :class:`date`
+objects are considered to be true.
+
+Instance methods:
+
+.. method:: date.replace(year=self.year, month=self.month, day=self.day)
+
+   Return a date with the same value, except for those parameters given new
+   values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.  For example, if ``d ==
+   date(2002, 12, 31)``, then ``d.replace(day=26) == date(2002, 12, 26)``.
+
+
+.. method:: date.timetuple()
+
+   Return a :class:`time.struct_time` such as returned by :func:`time.localtime`.
+   The hours, minutes and seconds are 0, and the DST flag is -1. ``d.timetuple()``
+   is equivalent to ``time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day, 0, 0, 0,
+   d.weekday(), yday, -1))``, where ``yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1,
+   1).toordinal() + 1`` is the day number within the current year starting with
+   ``1`` for January 1st.
+
+
+.. method:: date.toordinal()
+
+   Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1 of year 1
+   has ordinal 1.  For any :class:`date` object *d*,
+   ``date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d``.
+
+
+.. method:: date.weekday()
+
+   Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and Sunday is 6.
+   For example, ``date(2002, 12, 4).weekday() == 2``, a Wednesday. See also
+   :meth:`isoweekday`.
+
+
+.. method:: date.isoweekday()
+
+   Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and Sunday is 7.
+   For example, ``date(2002, 12, 4).isoweekday() == 3``, a Wednesday. See also
+   :meth:`weekday`, :meth:`isocalendar`.
+
+
+.. method:: date.isocalendar()
+
+   Return a 3-tuple, (ISO year, ISO week number, ISO weekday).
+
+   The ISO calendar is a widely used variant of the Gregorian calendar. See
+   https://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm for a good
+   explanation.
+
+   The ISO year consists of 52 or 53 full weeks, and where a week starts on a
+   Monday and ends on a Sunday.  The first week of an ISO year is the first
+   (Gregorian) calendar week of a year containing a Thursday. This is called week
+   number 1, and the ISO year of that Thursday is the same as its Gregorian year.
+
+   For example, 2004 begins on a Thursday, so the first week of ISO year 2004
+   begins on Monday, 29 Dec 2003 and ends on Sunday, 4 Jan 2004, so that
+   ``date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar() == (2004, 1, 1)`` and ``date(2004, 1,
+   4).isocalendar() == (2004, 1, 7)``.
+
+
+.. method:: date.isoformat()
+
+   Return a string representing the date in ISO 8601 format, 'YYYY-MM-DD'.  For
+   example, ``date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat() == '2002-12-04'``.
+
+
+.. method:: date.__str__()
+
+   For a date *d*, ``str(d)`` is equivalent to ``d.isoformat()``.
+
+
+.. method:: date.ctime()
+
+   Return a string representing the date, for example ``date(2002, 12,
+   4).ctime() == 'Wed Dec 4 00:00:00 2002'``. ``d.ctime()`` is equivalent to
+   ``time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))`` on platforms where the native C
+   :c:func:`ctime` function (which :func:`time.ctime` invokes, but which
+   :meth:`date.ctime` does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.
+
+
+.. method:: date.strftime(format)
+
+   Return a string representing the date, controlled by an explicit format string.
+   Format codes referring to hours, minutes or seconds will see 0 values. For a
+   complete list of formatting directives, see
+   :ref:`strftime-strptime-behavior`.
+
+
+.. method:: date.__format__(format)
+
+   Same as :meth:`.date.strftime`. This makes it possible to specify a format
+   string for a :class:`.date` object in :ref:`formatted string
+   literals <f-strings>` and when using :meth:`str.format`. For a
+   complete list of formatting directives, see
+   :ref:`strftime-strptime-behavior`.
+
+
+Example of counting days to an event::
+
+    >>> import time
+    >>> from datetime import date
+    >>> today = date.today()
+    >>> today
+    datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
+    >>> today == date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
+    True
+    >>> my_birthday = date(today.year, 6, 24)
+    >>> if my_birthday < today:
+    ...     my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
+    >>> my_birthday
+    datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)
+    >>> time_to_birthday = abs(my_birthday - today)
+    >>> time_to_birthday.days
+    202
+
+Example of working with :class:`date`:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+    >>> from datetime import date
+    >>> d = date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
+    >>> d
+    datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)
+    >>> t = d.timetuple()
+    >>> for i in t:     # doctest: +SKIP
+    ...     print(i)
+    2002                # year
+    3                   # month
+    11                  # day
+    0
+    0
+    0
+    0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)
+    70                  # 70th day in the year
+    -1
+    >>> ic = d.isocalendar()
+    >>> for i in ic:    # doctest: +SKIP
+    ...     print(i)
+    2002                # ISO year
+    11                  # ISO week number
+    1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )
+    >>> d.isoformat()
+    '2002-03-11'
+    >>> d.strftime("%d/%m/%y")
+    '11/03/02'
+    >>> d.strftime("%A %d. %B %Y")
+    'Monday 11. March 2002'
+    >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}.'.format(d, "day", "month")
+    'The day is 11, the month is March.'
+
+
+.. _datetime-datetime:
+
+:class:`.datetime` Objects
+--------------------------
+
+A :class:`.datetime` object is a single object containing all the information
+from a :class:`date` object and a :class:`.time` object.  Like a :class:`date`
+object, :class:`.datetime` assumes the current Gregorian calendar extended in
+both directions; like a time object, :class:`.datetime` assumes there are exactly
+3600\*24 seconds in every day.
+
+Constructor:
+
+.. class:: datetime(year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)
+
+   The year, month and day arguments are required.  *tzinfo* may be ``None``, or an
+   instance of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass.  The remaining arguments may be integers,
+   in the following ranges:
+
+   * ``MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR``,
+   * ``1 <= month <= 12``,
+   * ``1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year``,
+   * ``0 <= hour < 24``,
+   * ``0 <= minute < 60``,
+   * ``0 <= second < 60``,
+   * ``0 <= microsecond < 1000000``,
+   * ``fold in [0, 1]``.
+
+   If an argument outside those ranges is given, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Added the ``fold`` argument.
+
+Other constructors, all class methods:
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.today()
+
+   Return the current local datetime, with :attr:`.tzinfo` ``None``. This is
+   equivalent to ``datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())``. See also :meth:`now`,
+   :meth:`fromtimestamp`.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.now(tz=None)
+
+   Return the current local date and time.  If optional argument *tz* is ``None``
+   or not specified, this is like :meth:`today`, but, if possible, supplies more
+   precision than can be gotten from going through a :func:`time.time` timestamp
+   (for example, this may be possible on platforms supplying the C
+   :c:func:`gettimeofday` function).
+
+   If *tz* is not ``None``, it must be an instance of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass, and the
+   current date and time are converted to *tz*’s time zone.  In this case the
+   result is equivalent to ``tz.fromutc(datetime.utcnow().replace(tzinfo=tz))``.
+   See also :meth:`today`, :meth:`utcnow`.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.utcnow()
+
+   Return the current UTC date and time, with :attr:`.tzinfo` ``None``. This is like
+   :meth:`now`, but returns the current UTC date and time, as a naive
+   :class:`.datetime` object.  An aware current UTC datetime can be obtained by
+   calling ``datetime.now(timezone.utc)``.  See also :meth:`now`.
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=None)
+
+   Return the local date and time corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as is
+   returned by :func:`time.time`. If optional argument *tz* is ``None`` or not
+   specified, the timestamp is converted to the platform's local date and time, and
+   the returned :class:`.datetime` object is naive.
+
+   If *tz* is not ``None``, it must be an instance of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass, and the
+   timestamp is converted to *tz*’s time zone.  In this case the result is
+   equivalent to
+   ``tz.fromutc(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp).replace(tzinfo=tz))``.
+
+   :meth:`fromtimestamp` may raise :exc:`OverflowError`, if the timestamp is out of
+   the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`localtime` or
+   :c:func:`gmtime` functions, and :exc:`OSError` on :c:func:`localtime` or
+   :c:func:`gmtime` failure.
+   It's common for this to be restricted to years in
+   1970 through 2038. Note that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in
+   their notion of a timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by :meth:`fromtimestamp`,
+   and then it's possible to have two timestamps differing by a second that yield
+   identical :class:`.datetime` objects. See also :meth:`utcfromtimestamp`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Raise :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`ValueError` if the timestamp
+      is out of the range of values supported by the platform C
+      :c:func:`localtime` or :c:func:`gmtime` functions. Raise :exc:`OSError`
+      instead of :exc:`ValueError` on :c:func:`localtime` or :c:func:`gmtime`
+      failure.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :meth:`fromtimestamp` may return instances with :attr:`.fold` set to 1.
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp)
+
+   Return the UTC :class:`.datetime` corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, with
+   :attr:`.tzinfo` ``None``. This may raise :exc:`OverflowError`, if the timestamp is
+   out of the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`gmtime` function,
+   and :exc:`OSError` on :c:func:`gmtime` failure.
+   It's common for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.
+
+   To get an aware :class:`.datetime` object, call :meth:`fromtimestamp`::
+
+     datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, timezone.utc)
+
+   On the POSIX compliant platforms, it is equivalent to the following
+   expression::
+
+     datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp)
+
+   except the latter formula always supports the full years range: between
+   :const:`MINYEAR` and :const:`MAXYEAR` inclusive.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Raise :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`ValueError` if the timestamp
+      is out of the range of values supported by the platform C
+      :c:func:`gmtime` function. Raise :exc:`OSError` instead of
+      :exc:`ValueError` on :c:func:`gmtime` failure.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.fromordinal(ordinal)
+
+   Return the :class:`.datetime` corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian ordinal,
+   where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1. :exc:`ValueError` is raised unless ``1
+   <= ordinal <= datetime.max.toordinal()``.  The hour, minute, second and
+   microsecond of the result are all 0, and :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.combine(date, time, tzinfo=self.tzinfo)
+
+   Return a new :class:`.datetime` object whose date components are equal to the
+   given :class:`date` object's, and whose time components
+   are equal to the given :class:`.time` object's.  If the *tzinfo*
+   argument is provided, its value is used to set the :attr:`.tzinfo` attribute
+   of the result, otherwise the :attr:`~.time.tzinfo` attribute of the *time* argument
+   is used.
+
+   For any :class:`.datetime` object *d*,
+   ``d == datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo)``.  If date is a
+   :class:`.datetime` object, its time components and :attr:`.tzinfo` attributes
+   are ignored.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added the *tzinfo* argument.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.fromisoformat(date_string)
+
+  Return a :class:`datetime` corresponding to a *date_string* in one of the
+  formats emitted by :meth:`date.isoformat` and :meth:`datetime.isoformat`.
+  Specifically, this function supports strings in the format(s)
+  ``YYYY-MM-DD[*HH[:MM[:SS[.fff[fff]]]][+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]]]``,
+  where ``*`` can match any single character.
+
+  .. caution::
+
+    This does not support parsing arbitrary ISO 8601 strings - it is only intended
+    as the inverse operation of :meth:`datetime.isoformat`.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. classmethod:: datetime.strptime(date_string, format)
+
+   Return a :class:`.datetime` corresponding to *date_string*, parsed according to
+   *format*.  This is equivalent to ``datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string,
+   format)[0:6]))``. :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the date_string and format
+   can't be parsed by :func:`time.strptime` or if it returns a value which isn't a
+   time tuple. For a complete list of formatting directives, see
+   :ref:`strftime-strptime-behavior`.
+
+
+
+Class attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.min
+
+   The earliest representable :class:`.datetime`, ``datetime(MINYEAR, 1, 1,
+   tzinfo=None)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.max
+
+   The latest representable :class:`.datetime`, ``datetime(MAXYEAR, 12, 31, 23, 59,
+   59, 999999, tzinfo=None)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.resolution
+
+   The smallest possible difference between non-equal :class:`.datetime` objects,
+   ``timedelta(microseconds=1)``.
+
+
+Instance attributes (read-only):
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.year
+
+   Between :const:`MINYEAR` and :const:`MAXYEAR` inclusive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.month
+
+   Between 1 and 12 inclusive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.day
+
+   Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given year.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.hour
+
+   In ``range(24)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.minute
+
+   In ``range(60)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.second
+
+   In ``range(60)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.microsecond
+
+   In ``range(1000000)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.tzinfo
+
+   The object passed as the *tzinfo* argument to the :class:`.datetime` constructor,
+   or ``None`` if none was passed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: datetime.fold
+
+   In ``[0, 1]``.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated interval.  (A
+   repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back at the end of daylight saving
+   time or when the UTC offset for the current zone is decreased for political reasons.)
+   The value 0 (1) represents the earlier (later) of the two moments with the same wall
+   time representation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+Supported operations:
+
++---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| Operation                             | Result                         |
++=======================================+================================+
+| ``datetime2 = datetime1 + timedelta`` | \(1)                           |
++---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| ``datetime2 = datetime1 - timedelta`` | \(2)                           |
++---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| ``timedelta = datetime1 - datetime2`` | \(3)                           |
++---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+| ``datetime1 < datetime2``             | Compares :class:`.datetime` to |
+|                                       | :class:`.datetime`. (4)        |
++---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+
+(1)
+   datetime2 is a duration of timedelta removed from datetime1, moving forward in
+   time if ``timedelta.days`` > 0, or backward if ``timedelta.days`` < 0.  The
+   result has the same :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attribute as the input datetime, and
+   datetime2 - datetime1 == timedelta after. :exc:`OverflowError` is raised if
+   datetime2.year would be smaller than :const:`MINYEAR` or larger than
+   :const:`MAXYEAR`. Note that no time zone adjustments are done even if the
+   input is an aware object.
+
+(2)
+   Computes the datetime2 such that datetime2 + timedelta == datetime1. As for
+   addition, the result has the same :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attribute as the input
+   datetime, and no time zone adjustments are done even if the input is aware.
+
+(3)
+   Subtraction of a :class:`.datetime` from a :class:`.datetime` is defined only if
+   both operands are naive, or if both are aware.  If one is aware and the other is
+   naive, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attribute,
+   the :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attributes are ignored, and the result is a :class:`timedelta`
+   object *t* such that ``datetime2 + t == datetime1``.  No time zone adjustments
+   are done in this case.
+
+   If both are aware and have different :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attributes, ``a-b`` acts
+   as if *a* and *b* were first converted to naive UTC datetimes first.  The
+   result is ``(a.replace(tzinfo=None) - a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None)
+   - b.utcoffset())`` except that the implementation never overflows.
+
+(4)
+   *datetime1* is considered less than *datetime2* when *datetime1* precedes
+   *datetime2* in time.
+
+   If one comparand is naive and the other is aware, :exc:`TypeError`
+   is raised if an order comparison is attempted.  For equality
+   comparisons, naive instances are never equal to aware instances.
+
+   If both comparands are aware, and have the same :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attribute, the
+   common :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attribute is ignored and the base datetimes are
+   compared.  If both comparands are aware and have different :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo`
+   attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting their UTC
+   offsets (obtained from ``self.utcoffset()``).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Equality comparisons between naive and aware :class:`.datetime`
+      instances don't raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      In order to stop comparison from falling back to the default scheme of comparing
+      object addresses, datetime comparison normally raises :exc:`TypeError` if the
+      other comparand isn't also a :class:`.datetime` object.  However,
+      ``NotImplemented`` is returned instead if the other comparand has a
+      :meth:`timetuple` attribute.  This hook gives other kinds of date objects a
+      chance at implementing mixed-type comparison.  If not, when a :class:`.datetime`
+      object is compared to an object of a different type, :exc:`TypeError` is raised
+      unless the comparison is ``==`` or ``!=``.  The latter cases return
+      :const:`False` or :const:`True`, respectively.
+
+:class:`.datetime` objects can be used as dictionary keys. In Boolean contexts,
+all :class:`.datetime` objects are considered to be true.
+
+Instance methods:
+
+.. method:: datetime.date()
+
+   Return :class:`date` object with same year, month and day.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.time()
+
+   Return :class:`.time` object with same hour, minute, second, microsecond and fold.
+   :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``.  See also method :meth:`timetz`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The fold value is copied to the returned :class:`.time` object.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.timetz()
+
+   Return :class:`.time` object with same hour, minute, second, microsecond, fold, and
+   tzinfo attributes.  See also method :meth:`time`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The fold value is copied to the returned :class:`.time` object.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.replace(year=self.year, month=self.month, day=self.day, \
+   hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute, second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond, \
+   tzinfo=self.tzinfo, * fold=0)
+
+   Return a datetime with the same attributes, except for those attributes given
+   new values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.  Note that
+   ``tzinfo=None`` can be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware
+   datetime with no conversion of date and time data.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Added the ``fold`` argument.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.astimezone(tz=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`.datetime` object with new :attr:`.tzinfo` attribute *tz*,
+   adjusting the date and time data so the result is the same UTC time as
+   *self*, but in *tz*'s local time.
+
+   If provided, *tz* must be an instance of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass, and its
+   :meth:`utcoffset` and :meth:`dst` methods must not return ``None``.  If *self*
+   is naive, it is presumed to represent time in the system timezone.
+
+   If called without arguments (or with ``tz=None``) the system local
+   timezone is assumed for the target timezone.  The ``.tzinfo`` attribute of the converted
+   datetime instance will be set to an instance of :class:`timezone`
+   with the zone name and offset obtained from the OS.
+
+   If ``self.tzinfo`` is *tz*, ``self.astimezone(tz)`` is equal to *self*:  no
+   adjustment of date or time data is performed. Else the result is local
+   time in the timezone *tz*, representing the same UTC time as *self*:  after
+   ``astz = dt.astimezone(tz)``, ``astz - astz.utcoffset()`` will have
+   the same date and time data as ``dt - dt.utcoffset()``.
+
+   If you merely want to attach a time zone object *tz* to a datetime *dt* without
+   adjustment of date and time data, use ``dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)``.  If you
+   merely want to remove the time zone object from an aware datetime *dt* without
+   conversion of date and time data, use ``dt.replace(tzinfo=None)``.
+
+   Note that the default :meth:`tzinfo.fromutc` method can be overridden in a
+   :class:`tzinfo` subclass to affect the result returned by :meth:`astimezone`.
+   Ignoring error cases, :meth:`astimezone` acts like::
+
+      def astimezone(self, tz):
+          if self.tzinfo is tz:
+              return self
+          # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new time zone object.
+          utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
+          # Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
+          return tz.fromutc(utc)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *tz* now can be omitted.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The :meth:`astimezone` method can now be called on naive instances that
+      are presumed to represent system local time.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.utcoffset()
+
+   If :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``, returns ``None``, else returns
+   ``self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self)``, and raises an exception if the latter doesn't
+   return ``None`` or a :class:`timedelta` object with magnitude less than one day.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.dst()
+
+   If :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``, returns ``None``, else returns
+   ``self.tzinfo.dst(self)``, and raises an exception if the latter doesn't return
+   ``None`` or a :class:`timedelta` object with magnitude less than one day.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.tzname()
+
+   If :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``, returns ``None``, else returns
+   ``self.tzinfo.tzname(self)``, raises an exception if the latter doesn't return
+   ``None`` or a string object,
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.timetuple()
+
+   Return a :class:`time.struct_time` such as returned by :func:`time.localtime`.
+   ``d.timetuple()`` is equivalent to ``time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day,
+   d.hour, d.minute, d.second, d.weekday(), yday, dst))``, where ``yday =
+   d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1`` is the day number within
+   the current year starting with ``1`` for January 1st. The :attr:`tm_isdst` flag
+   of the result is set according to the :meth:`dst` method: :attr:`.tzinfo` is
+   ``None`` or :meth:`dst` returns ``None``, :attr:`tm_isdst` is set to ``-1``;
+   else if :meth:`dst` returns a non-zero value, :attr:`tm_isdst` is set to ``1``;
+   else :attr:`tm_isdst` is set to ``0``.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.utctimetuple()
+
+   If :class:`.datetime` instance *d* is naive, this is the same as
+   ``d.timetuple()`` except that :attr:`tm_isdst` is forced to 0 regardless of what
+   ``d.dst()`` returns.  DST is never in effect for a UTC time.
+
+   If *d* is aware, *d* is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
+   ``d.utcoffset()``, and a :class:`time.struct_time` for the
+   normalized time is returned.  :attr:`tm_isdst` is forced to 0. Note
+   that an :exc:`OverflowError` may be raised if *d*.year was
+   ``MINYEAR`` or ``MAXYEAR`` and UTC adjustment spills over a year
+   boundary.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.toordinal()
+
+   Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date.  The same as
+   ``self.date().toordinal()``.
+
+.. method:: datetime.timestamp()
+
+   Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the :class:`.datetime`
+   instance.  The return value is a :class:`float` similar to that
+   returned by :func:`time.time`.
+
+   Naive :class:`.datetime` instances are assumed to represent local
+   time and this method relies on the platform C :c:func:`mktime`
+   function to perform the conversion.  Since :class:`.datetime`
+   supports wider range of values than :c:func:`mktime` on many
+   platforms, this method may raise :exc:`OverflowError` for times far
+   in the past or far in the future.
+
+   For aware :class:`.datetime` instances, the return value is computed
+   as::
+
+      (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds()
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The :meth:`timestamp` method uses the :attr:`.fold` attribute to
+      disambiguate the times during a repeated interval.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp directly from a
+      naive :class:`.datetime` instance representing UTC time.  If your
+      application uses this convention and your system timezone is not
+      set to UTC, you can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying
+      ``tzinfo=timezone.utc``::
+
+         timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp()
+
+      or by calculating the timestamp directly::
+
+         timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1)
+
+.. method:: datetime.weekday()
+
+   Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and Sunday is 6.
+   The same as ``self.date().weekday()``. See also :meth:`isoweekday`.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.isoweekday()
+
+   Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and Sunday is 7.
+   The same as ``self.date().isoweekday()``. See also :meth:`weekday`,
+   :meth:`isocalendar`.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.isocalendar()
+
+   Return a 3-tuple, (ISO year, ISO week number, ISO weekday).  The same as
+   ``self.date().isocalendar()``.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.isoformat(sep='T', timespec='auto')
+
+   Return a string representing the date and time in ISO 8601 format,
+   YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff or, if :attr:`microsecond` is 0,
+   YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS
+
+   If :meth:`utcoffset` does not return ``None``, a string is
+   appended, giving the UTC offset:
+   YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]] or, if :attr:`microsecond`
+   is 0 YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]].
+
+   The optional argument *sep* (default ``'T'``) is a one-character separator,
+   placed between the date and time portions of the result.  For example,
+
+      >>> from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
+      >>> class TZ(tzinfo):
+      ...     def utcoffset(self, dt): return timedelta(minutes=-399)
+      ...
+      >>> datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
+      '2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
+
+   The optional argument *timespec* specifies the number of additional
+   components of the time to include (the default is ``'auto'``).
+   It can be one of the following:
+
+   - ``'auto'``: Same as ``'seconds'`` if :attr:`microsecond` is 0,
+     same as ``'microseconds'`` otherwise.
+   - ``'hours'``: Include the :attr:`hour` in the two-digit HH format.
+   - ``'minutes'``: Include :attr:`hour` and :attr:`minute` in HH:MM format.
+   - ``'seconds'``: Include :attr:`hour`, :attr:`minute`, and :attr:`second`
+     in HH:MM:SS format.
+   - ``'milliseconds'``: Include full time, but truncate fractional second
+     part to milliseconds. HH:MM:SS.sss format.
+   - ``'microseconds'``: Include full time in HH:MM:SS.ffffff format.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.
+
+   :exc:`ValueError` will be raised on an invalid *timespec* argument.
+
+
+      >>> from datetime import datetime
+      >>> datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes')   # doctest: +SKIP
+      '2002-12-25T00:00'
+      >>> dt = datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
+      >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
+      '2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Added the *timespec* argument.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.__str__()
+
+   For a :class:`.datetime` instance *d*, ``str(d)`` is equivalent to
+   ``d.isoformat(' ')``.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.ctime()
+
+   Return a string representing the date and time, for example ``datetime(2002, 12,
+   4, 20, 30, 40).ctime() == 'Wed Dec  4 20:30:40 2002'``. ``d.ctime()`` is
+   equivalent to ``time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))`` on platforms where the
+   native C :c:func:`ctime` function (which :func:`time.ctime` invokes, but which
+   :meth:`datetime.ctime` does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.strftime(format)
+
+   Return a string representing the date and time, controlled by an explicit format
+   string.  For a complete list of formatting directives, see
+   :ref:`strftime-strptime-behavior`.
+
+
+.. method:: datetime.__format__(format)
+
+   Same as :meth:`.datetime.strftime`.  This makes it possible to specify a format
+   string for a :class:`.datetime` object in :ref:`formatted string
+   literals <f-strings>` and when using :meth:`str.format`.  For a
+   complete list of formatting directives, see
+   :ref:`strftime-strptime-behavior`.
+
+
+Examples of working with datetime objects:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+    >>> from datetime import datetime, date, time
+    >>> # Using datetime.combine()
+    >>> d = date(2005, 7, 14)
+    >>> t = time(12, 30)
+    >>> datetime.combine(d, t)
+    datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)
+    >>> # Using datetime.now() or datetime.utcnow()
+    >>> datetime.now()   # doctest: +SKIP
+    datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1
+    >>> datetime.utcnow()   # doctest: +SKIP
+    datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060)
+    >>> # Using datetime.strptime()
+    >>> dt = datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
+    >>> dt
+    datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)
+    >>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
+    >>> tt = dt.timetuple()
+    >>> for it in tt:   # doctest: +SKIP
+    ...     print(it)
+    ...
+    2006    # year
+    11      # month
+    21      # day
+    16      # hour
+    30      # minute
+    0       # second
+    1       # weekday (0 = Monday)
+    325     # number of days since 1st January
+    -1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None
+    >>> # Date in ISO format
+    >>> ic = dt.isocalendar()
+    >>> for it in ic:   # doctest: +SKIP
+    ...     print(it)
+    ...
+    2006    # ISO year
+    47      # ISO week
+    2       # ISO weekday
+    >>> # Formatting datetime
+    >>> dt.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
+    'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
+    >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(dt, "day", "month", "time")
+    'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'
+
+Using datetime with tzinfo:
+
+    >>> from datetime import timedelta, datetime, tzinfo, timezone
+    >>> class KabulTz(tzinfo):
+    ...     # Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
+    ...     UTC_MOVE_DATE = datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+    ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
+    ...         if dt.year < 1945:
+    ...             return timedelta(hours=4)
+    ...         elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= dt.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
+    ...             # If dt falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
+    ...             # to resolve. See PEP495
+    ...             return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if dt.fold else 0))
+    ...         else:
+    ...             return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
+    ...
+    ...     def fromutc(self, dt):
+    ...         # A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
+    ...         # the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
+    ...         # but with a tzinfo set to self
+    ...         # See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp
+    ...
+    ...         # Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
+    ...         if not isinstance(dt, datetime):
+    ...             raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
+    ...         if dt.tzinfo is not self:
+    ...             raise ValueError("dt.tzinfo is not self")
+    ...
+    ...         if dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
+    ...             return dt + timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
+    ...         else:
+    ...             return dt + timedelta(hours=4)
+    ...
+    ...     def dst(self, dt):
+    ...         return timedelta(0)
+    ...
+    ...     def tzname(self, dt):
+    ...         if dt >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
+    ...             return "+04:30"
+    ...         else:
+    ...             return "+04"
+    ...
+    ...     def  __repr__(self):
+    ...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
+    ...
+    >>> tz1 = KabulTz()
+    >>> # Datetime before the change
+    >>> dt1 = datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
+    >>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
+    4:00:00
+    >>> # Datetime after the change
+    >>> dt2 = datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
+    >>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
+    4:30:00
+    >>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
+    >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(timezone.utc)
+    >>> dt3
+    datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+    >>> dt2
+    datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())
+    >>> dt2.utctimetuple() == dt3.utctimetuple()
+    True
+
+
+
+.. _datetime-time:
+
+:class:`.time` Objects
+----------------------
+
+A time object represents a (local) time of day, independent of any particular
+day, and subject to adjustment via a :class:`tzinfo` object.
+
+.. class:: time(hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)
+
+   All arguments are optional.  *tzinfo* may be ``None``, or an instance of a
+   :class:`tzinfo` subclass.  The remaining arguments may be integers, in the
+   following ranges:
+
+   * ``0 <= hour < 24``,
+   * ``0 <= minute < 60``,
+   * ``0 <= second < 60``,
+   * ``0 <= microsecond < 1000000``,
+   * ``fold in [0, 1]``.
+
+   If an argument outside those ranges is given, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  All
+   default to ``0`` except *tzinfo*, which defaults to :const:`None`.
+
+Class attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.min
+
+   The earliest representable :class:`.time`, ``time(0, 0, 0, 0)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.max
+
+   The latest representable :class:`.time`, ``time(23, 59, 59, 999999)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.resolution
+
+   The smallest possible difference between non-equal :class:`.time` objects,
+   ``timedelta(microseconds=1)``, although note that arithmetic on
+   :class:`.time` objects is not supported.
+
+
+Instance attributes (read-only):
+
+.. attribute:: time.hour
+
+   In ``range(24)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.minute
+
+   In ``range(60)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.second
+
+   In ``range(60)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.microsecond
+
+   In ``range(1000000)``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.tzinfo
+
+   The object passed as the tzinfo argument to the :class:`.time` constructor, or
+   ``None`` if none was passed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: time.fold
+
+   In ``[0, 1]``.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated interval.  (A
+   repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back at the end of daylight saving
+   time or when the UTC offset for the current zone is decreased for political reasons.)
+   The value 0 (1) represents the earlier (later) of the two moments with the same wall
+   time representation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+Supported operations:
+
+* comparison of :class:`.time` to :class:`.time`, where *a* is considered less
+  than *b* when *a* precedes *b* in time.  If one comparand is naive and the other
+  is aware, :exc:`TypeError` is raised if an order comparison is attempted. For equality
+  comparisons, naive instances are never equal to aware instances.
+
+  If both comparands are aware, and have
+  the same :attr:`~time.tzinfo` attribute, the common :attr:`~time.tzinfo` attribute is
+  ignored and the base times are compared.  If both comparands are aware and
+  have different :attr:`~time.tzinfo` attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by
+  subtracting their UTC offsets (obtained from ``self.utcoffset()``). In order
+  to stop mixed-type comparisons from falling back to the default comparison by
+  object address, when a :class:`.time` object is compared to an object of a
+  different type, :exc:`TypeError` is raised unless the comparison is ``==`` or
+  ``!=``.  The latter cases return :const:`False` or :const:`True`, respectively.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+     Equality comparisons between naive and aware :class:`~datetime.time` instances
+     don't raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+* hash, use as dict key
+
+* efficient pickling
+
+In boolean contexts, a :class:`.time` object is always considered to be true.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Before Python 3.5, a :class:`.time` object was considered to be false if it
+   represented midnight in UTC.  This behavior was considered obscure and
+   error-prone and has been removed in Python 3.5.  See :issue:`13936` for full
+   details.
+
+
+Other constructor:
+
+.. classmethod:: time.fromisoformat(time_string)
+
+  Return a :class:`time` corresponding to a *time_string* in one of the
+  formats emitted by :meth:`time.isoformat`. Specifically, this function supports
+  strings in the format(s) ``HH[:MM[:SS[.fff[fff]]]][+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]]``.
+
+  .. caution::
+
+    This does not support parsing arbitrary ISO 8601 strings - it is only intended
+    as the inverse operation of :meth:`time.isoformat`.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+Instance methods:
+
+.. method:: time.replace(hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute, second=self.second, \
+   microsecond=self.microsecond, tzinfo=self.tzinfo, * fold=0)
+
+   Return a :class:`.time` with the same value, except for those attributes given
+   new values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.  Note that
+   ``tzinfo=None`` can be specified to create a naive :class:`.time` from an
+   aware :class:`.time`, without conversion of the time data.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Added the ``fold`` argument.
+
+
+.. method:: time.isoformat(timespec='auto')
+
+   Return a string representing the time in ISO 8601 format, HH:MM:SS.ffffff or, if
+   :attr:`microsecond` is 0, HH:MM:SS If :meth:`utcoffset` does not return ``None``, a
+   string is appended, giving the UTC offset: HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]
+   or, if self.microsecond is 0, HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]].
+
+   The optional argument *timespec* specifies the number of additional
+   components of the time to include (the default is ``'auto'``).
+   It can be one of the following:
+
+   - ``'auto'``: Same as ``'seconds'`` if :attr:`microsecond` is 0,
+     same as ``'microseconds'`` otherwise.
+   - ``'hours'``: Include the :attr:`hour` in the two-digit HH format.
+   - ``'minutes'``: Include :attr:`hour` and :attr:`minute` in HH:MM format.
+   - ``'seconds'``: Include :attr:`hour`, :attr:`minute`, and :attr:`second`
+     in HH:MM:SS format.
+   - ``'milliseconds'``: Include full time, but truncate fractional second
+     part to milliseconds. HH:MM:SS.sss format.
+   - ``'microseconds'``: Include full time in HH:MM:SS.ffffff format.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.
+
+   :exc:`ValueError` will be raised on an invalid *timespec* argument.
+
+
+      >>> from datetime import time
+      >>> time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
+      '12:34'
+      >>> dt = time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
+      >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
+      '12:34:56.000000'
+      >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='auto')
+      '12:34:56'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Added the *timespec* argument.
+
+
+.. method:: time.__str__()
+
+   For a time *t*, ``str(t)`` is equivalent to ``t.isoformat()``.
+
+
+.. method:: time.strftime(format)
+
+   Return a string representing the time, controlled by an explicit format
+   string.  For a complete list of formatting directives, see
+   :ref:`strftime-strptime-behavior`.
+
+
+.. method:: time.__format__(format)
+
+   Same as :meth:`.time.strftime`. This makes it possible to specify a format string
+   for a :class:`.time` object in :ref:`formatted string
+   literals <f-strings>` and when using :meth:`str.format`.  For a
+   complete list of formatting directives, see
+   :ref:`strftime-strptime-behavior`.
+
+
+.. method:: time.utcoffset()
+
+   If :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``, returns ``None``, else returns
+   ``self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)``, and raises an exception if the latter doesn't
+   return ``None`` or a :class:`timedelta` object with magnitude less than one day.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+
+.. method:: time.dst()
+
+   If :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``, returns ``None``, else returns
+   ``self.tzinfo.dst(None)``, and raises an exception if the latter doesn't return
+   ``None``, or a :class:`timedelta` object with magnitude less than one day.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+.. method:: time.tzname()
+
+   If :attr:`.tzinfo` is ``None``, returns ``None``, else returns
+   ``self.tzinfo.tzname(None)``, or raises an exception if the latter doesn't
+   return ``None`` or a string object.
+
+Example:
+
+    >>> from datetime import time, tzinfo, timedelta
+    >>> class TZ1(tzinfo):
+    ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
+    ...         return timedelta(hours=1)
+    ...     def dst(self, dt):
+    ...         return timedelta(0)
+    ...     def tzname(self,dt):
+    ...         return "+01:00"
+    ...     def  __repr__(self):
+    ...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
+    ...
+    >>> t = time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
+    >>> t
+    datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
+    >>> t.isoformat()
+    '12:10:30+01:00'
+    >>> t.dst()
+    datetime.timedelta(0)
+    >>> t.tzname()
+    '+01:00'
+    >>> t.strftime("%H:%M:%S %Z")
+    '12:10:30 +01:00'
+    >>> 'The {} is {:%H:%M}.'.format("time", t)
+    'The time is 12:10.'
+
+
+.. _datetime-tzinfo:
+
+:class:`tzinfo` Objects
+-----------------------
+
+.. class:: tzinfo()
+
+   This is an abstract base class, meaning that this class should not be
+   instantiated directly.  You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least)
+   supply implementations of the standard :class:`tzinfo` methods needed by the
+   :class:`.datetime` methods you use.  The :mod:`datetime` module supplies
+   a simple concrete subclass of :class:`tzinfo`, :class:`timezone`, which can represent
+   timezones with fixed offset from UTC such as UTC itself or North American EST and
+   EDT.
+
+   An instance of (a concrete subclass of) :class:`tzinfo` can be passed to the
+   constructors for :class:`.datetime` and :class:`.time` objects. The latter objects
+   view their attributes as being in local time, and the :class:`tzinfo` object
+   supports methods revealing offset of local time from UTC, the name of the time
+   zone, and DST offset, all relative to a date or time object passed to them.
+
+   Special requirement for pickling:  A :class:`tzinfo` subclass must have an
+   :meth:`__init__` method that can be called with no arguments, else it can be
+   pickled but possibly not unpickled again.  This is a technical requirement that
+   may be relaxed in the future.
+
+   A concrete subclass of :class:`tzinfo` may need to implement the following
+   methods.  Exactly which methods are needed depends on the uses made of aware
+   :mod:`datetime` objects.  If in doubt, simply implement all of them.
+
+
+.. method:: tzinfo.utcoffset(dt)
+
+   Return offset of local time from UTC, as a :class:`timedelta` object that is
+   positive east of UTC.  If local time is
+   west of UTC, this should be negative.  Note that this is intended to be the
+   total offset from UTC; for example, if a :class:`tzinfo` object represents both
+   time zone and DST adjustments, :meth:`utcoffset` should return their sum.  If
+   the UTC offset isn't known, return ``None``.  Else the value returned must be a
+   :class:`timedelta` object strictly between ``-timedelta(hours=24)`` and
+   ``timedelta(hours=24)`` (the magnitude of the offset must be less
+   than one day).  Most implementations of :meth:`utcoffset` will probably look
+   like one of these two::
+
+      return CONSTANT                 # fixed-offset class
+      return CONSTANT + self.dst(dt)  # daylight-aware class
+
+   If :meth:`utcoffset` does not return ``None``, :meth:`dst` should not return
+   ``None`` either.
+
+   The default implementation of :meth:`utcoffset` raises
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+
+.. method:: tzinfo.dst(dt)
+
+   Return the daylight saving time (DST) adjustment, as a :class:`timedelta`
+   object or
+   ``None`` if DST information isn't known.  Return ``timedelta(0)`` if DST is not
+   in effect. If DST is in effect, return the offset as a :class:`timedelta` object
+   (see :meth:`utcoffset` for details). Note that DST offset, if applicable, has
+   already been added to the UTC offset returned by :meth:`utcoffset`, so there's
+   no need to consult :meth:`dst` unless you're interested in obtaining DST info
+   separately.  For example, :meth:`datetime.timetuple` calls its :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo`
+   attribute's :meth:`dst` method to determine how the :attr:`tm_isdst` flag
+   should be set, and :meth:`tzinfo.fromutc` calls :meth:`dst` to account for
+   DST changes when crossing time zones.
+
+   An instance *tz* of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass that models both standard and
+   daylight times must be consistent in this sense:
+
+   ``tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)``
+
+   must return the same result for every :class:`.datetime` *dt* with ``dt.tzinfo ==
+   tz``  For sane :class:`tzinfo` subclasses, this expression yields the time
+   zone's "standard offset", which should not depend on the date or the time, but
+   only on geographic location.  The implementation of :meth:`datetime.astimezone`
+   relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it's the programmer's
+   responsibility to ensure it.  If a :class:`tzinfo` subclass cannot guarantee
+   this, it may be able to override the default implementation of
+   :meth:`tzinfo.fromutc` to work correctly with :meth:`astimezone` regardless.
+
+   Most implementations of :meth:`dst` will probably look like one of these two::
+
+      def dst(self, dt):
+          # a fixed-offset class:  doesn't account for DST
+          return timedelta(0)
+
+   or ::
+
+      def dst(self, dt):
+          # Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
+          # transition times based on the input dt.year, and expressed
+          # in standard local time.  Then
+
+          if dston <= dt.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
+              return timedelta(hours=1)
+          else:
+              return timedelta(0)
+
+   The default implementation of :meth:`dst` raises :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+
+.. method:: tzinfo.tzname(dt)
+
+   Return the time zone name corresponding to the :class:`.datetime` object *dt*, as
+   a string. Nothing about string names is defined by the :mod:`datetime` module,
+   and there's no requirement that it mean anything in particular.  For example,
+   "GMT", "UTC", "-500", "-5:00", "EDT", "US/Eastern", "America/New York" are all
+   valid replies.  Return ``None`` if a string name isn't known.  Note that this is
+   a method rather than a fixed string primarily because some :class:`tzinfo`
+   subclasses will wish to return different names depending on the specific value
+   of *dt* passed, especially if the :class:`tzinfo` class is accounting for
+   daylight time.
+
+   The default implementation of :meth:`tzname` raises :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+
+These methods are called by a :class:`.datetime` or :class:`.time` object, in
+response to their methods of the same names.  A :class:`.datetime` object passes
+itself as the argument, and a :class:`.time` object passes ``None`` as the
+argument.  A :class:`tzinfo` subclass's methods should therefore be prepared to
+accept a *dt* argument of ``None``, or of class :class:`.datetime`.
+
+When ``None`` is passed, it's up to the class designer to decide the best
+response.  For example, returning ``None`` is appropriate if the class wishes to
+say that time objects don't participate in the :class:`tzinfo` protocols.  It
+may be more useful for ``utcoffset(None)`` to return the standard UTC offset, as
+there is no other convention for discovering the standard offset.
+
+When a :class:`.datetime` object is passed in response to a :class:`.datetime`
+method, ``dt.tzinfo`` is the same object as *self*.  :class:`tzinfo` methods can
+rely on this, unless user code calls :class:`tzinfo` methods directly.  The
+intent is that the :class:`tzinfo` methods interpret *dt* as being in local
+time, and not need worry about objects in other timezones.
+
+There is one more :class:`tzinfo` method that a subclass may wish to override:
+
+
+.. method:: tzinfo.fromutc(dt)
+
+   This is called from the default :class:`datetime.astimezone()`
+   implementation.  When called from that, ``dt.tzinfo`` is *self*, and *dt*'s
+   date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC time.  The purpose
+   of :meth:`fromutc` is to adjust the date and time data, returning an
+   equivalent datetime in *self*'s local time.
+
+   Most :class:`tzinfo` subclasses should be able to inherit the default
+   :meth:`fromutc` implementation without problems.  It's strong enough to handle
+   fixed-offset time zones, and time zones accounting for both standard and
+   daylight time, and the latter even if the DST transition times differ in
+   different years.  An example of a time zone the default :meth:`fromutc`
+   implementation may not handle correctly in all cases is one where the standard
+   offset (from UTC) depends on the specific date and time passed, which can happen
+   for political reasons. The default implementations of :meth:`astimezone` and
+   :meth:`fromutc` may not produce the result you want if the result is one of the
+   hours straddling the moment the standard offset changes.
+
+   Skipping code for error cases, the default :meth:`fromutc` implementation acts
+   like::
+
+      def fromutc(self, dt):
+          # raise ValueError error if dt.tzinfo is not self
+          dtoff = dt.utcoffset()
+          dtdst = dt.dst()
+          # raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
+          delta = dtoff - dtdst  # this is self's standard offset
+          if delta:
+              dt += delta   # convert to standard local time
+              dtdst = dt.dst()
+              # raise ValueError if dtdst is None
+          if dtdst:
+              return dt + dtdst
+          else:
+              return dt
+
+In the following :download:`tzinfo_examples.py
+<../includes/tzinfo_examples.py>` file there are some examples of
+:class:`tzinfo` classes:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/tzinfo_examples.py
+
+Note that there are unavoidable subtleties twice per year in a :class:`tzinfo`
+subclass accounting for both standard and daylight time, at the DST transition
+points.  For concreteness, consider US Eastern (UTC -0500), where EDT begins the
+minute after 1:59 (EST) on the second Sunday in March, and ends the minute after
+1:59 (EDT) on the first Sunday in November::
+
+     UTC   3:MM  4:MM  5:MM  6:MM  7:MM  8:MM
+     EST  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
+     EDT  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM  4:MM
+
+   start  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  3:MM  4:MM
+
+     end  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
+
+When DST starts (the "start" line), the local wall clock leaps from 1:59 to
+3:00.  A wall time of the form 2:MM doesn't really make sense on that day, so
+``astimezone(Eastern)`` won't deliver a result with ``hour == 2`` on the day DST
+begins.  For example, at the Spring forward transition of 2016, we get
+
+    >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
+    >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
+    >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+    >>> for i in range(4):
+    ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
+    ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
+    ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname())
+    ...
+    05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST
+    06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST
+    07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT
+    08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT
+
+
+When DST ends (the "end" line), there's a potentially worse problem: there's an
+hour that can't be spelled unambiguously in local wall time: the last hour of
+daylight time.  In Eastern, that's times of the form 5:MM UTC on the day
+daylight time ends.  The local wall clock leaps from 1:59 (daylight time) back
+to 1:00 (standard time) again. Local times of the form 1:MM are ambiguous.
+:meth:`astimezone` mimics the local clock's behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC
+hours into the same local hour then.  In the Eastern example, UTC times of the
+form 5:MM and 6:MM both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times
+have the :attr:`~datetime.fold` attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to 1.
+For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get
+
+    >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+    >>> for i in range(4):
+    ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
+    ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
+    ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
+    ...
+    04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
+    05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
+    06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
+    07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0
+
+Note that the :class:`datetime` instances that differ only by the value of the
+:attr:`~datetime.fold` attribute are considered equal in comparisons.
+
+Applications that can't bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly check the
+value of the :attr:`~datetime.fold` attribute or avoid using hybrid
+:class:`tzinfo` subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using :class:`timezone`,
+or any other fixed-offset :class:`tzinfo` subclass (such as a class representing
+only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `dateutil.tz <https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/tz.html>`_
+      The standard library has :class:`timezone` class for handling arbitrary
+      fixed offsets from UTC and :attr:`timezone.utc` as UTC timezone instance.
+
+      *dateutil.tz* library brings the *IANA timezone database* (also known as the
+      Olson database) to Python and its usage is recommended.
+
+   `IANA timezone database <https://www.iana.org/time-zones>`_
+      The Time Zone Database (often called tz, tzdata or zoneinfo) contains code and
+      data that represent the history of local time for many representative
+      locations around the globe. It is updated periodically to reflect changes
+      made by political bodies to time zone boundaries, UTC offsets, and
+      daylight-saving rules.
+
+
+.. _datetime-timezone:
+
+:class:`timezone` Objects
+--------------------------
+
+The :class:`timezone` class is a subclass of :class:`tzinfo`, each
+instance of which represents a timezone defined by a fixed offset from
+UTC.  Note that objects of this class cannot be used to represent
+timezone information in the locations where different offsets are used
+in different days of the year or where historical changes have been
+made to civil time.
+
+
+.. class:: timezone(offset, name=None)
+
+  The *offset* argument must be specified as a :class:`timedelta`
+  object representing the difference between the local time and UTC.  It must
+  be strictly between ``-timedelta(hours=24)`` and
+  ``timedelta(hours=24)``, otherwise :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+  The *name* argument is optional.  If specified it must be a string that
+  will be used as the value returned by the :meth:`datetime.tzname` method.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+     The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+
+.. method:: timezone.utcoffset(dt)
+
+  Return the fixed value specified when the :class:`timezone` instance is
+  constructed.  The *dt* argument is ignored.  The return value is a
+  :class:`timedelta` instance equal to the difference between the
+  local time and UTC.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+     The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+.. method:: timezone.tzname(dt)
+
+  Return the fixed value specified when the :class:`timezone` instance
+  is constructed.  If *name* is not provided in the constructor, the
+  name returned by ``tzname(dt)`` is generated from the value of the
+  ``offset`` as follows.  If *offset* is ``timedelta(0)``, the name
+  is "UTC", otherwise it is a string 'UTC±HH:MM', where ± is the sign
+  of ``offset``, HH and MM are two digits of ``offset.hours`` and
+  ``offset.minutes`` respectively.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+     Name generated from ``offset=timedelta(0)`` is now plain 'UTC', not
+     'UTC+00:00'.
+
+
+.. method:: timezone.dst(dt)
+
+  Always returns ``None``.
+
+.. method:: timezone.fromutc(dt)
+
+  Return ``dt + offset``.  The *dt* argument must be an aware
+  :class:`.datetime` instance, with ``tzinfo`` set to ``self``.
+
+Class attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: timezone.utc
+
+   The UTC timezone, ``timezone(timedelta(0))``.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: % (percent); datetime format
+
+.. _strftime-strptime-behavior:
+
+:meth:`strftime` and :meth:`strptime` Behavior
+----------------------------------------------
+
+:class:`date`, :class:`.datetime`, and :class:`.time` objects all support a
+``strftime(format)`` method, to create a string representing the time under the
+control of an explicit format string.  Broadly speaking, ``d.strftime(fmt)``
+acts like the :mod:`time` module's ``time.strftime(fmt, d.timetuple())``
+although not all objects support a :meth:`timetuple` method.
+
+Conversely, the :meth:`datetime.strptime` class method creates a
+:class:`.datetime` object from a string representing a date and time and a
+corresponding format string. ``datetime.strptime(date_string, format)`` is
+equivalent to ``datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))``, except
+when the format includes sub-second components or timezone offset information,
+which are supported in ``datetime.strptime`` but are discarded by ``time.strptime``.
+
+For :class:`.time` objects, the format codes for year, month, and day should not
+be used, as time objects have no such values.  If they're used anyway, ``1900``
+is substituted for the year, and ``1`` for the month and day.
+
+For :class:`date` objects, the format codes for hours, minutes, seconds, and
+microseconds should not be used, as :class:`date` objects have no such
+values.  If they're used anyway, ``0`` is substituted for them.
+
+For the :meth:`datetime.strptime` class method, the default value is ``1900-01-01T00:00:00.000``:
+any components not specified in the format string will be pulled from the default value. [#]_
+
+The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because Python
+calls the platform C library's :func:`strftime` function, and platform
+variations are common.  To see the full set of format codes supported on your
+platform, consult the :manpage:`strftime(3)` documentation.
+
+For the same reason, handling of format strings containing Unicode code points
+that can't be represented in the charset of the current locale is also
+platform-dependent. On some platforms such code points are preserved intact in
+the output, while on others ``strftime`` may raise :exc:`UnicodeError` or return
+an empty string instead.
+
+The following is a list of all the format codes that the C standard (1989
+version) requires, and these work on all platforms with a standard C
+implementation.  Note that the 1999 version of the C standard added additional
+format codes.
+
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| Directive | Meaning                        | Example                | Notes |
++===========+================================+========================+=======+
+| ``%a``    | Weekday as locale's            || Sun, Mon, ..., Sat    | \(1)  |
+|           | abbreviated name.              |  (en_US);              |       |
+|           |                                || So, Mo, ..., Sa       |       |
+|           |                                |  (de_DE)               |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%A``    | Weekday as locale's full name. || Sunday, Monday, ...,  | \(1)  |
+|           |                                |  Saturday (en_US);     |       |
+|           |                                || Sonntag, Montag, ..., |       |
+|           |                                |  Samstag (de_DE)       |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%w``    | Weekday as a decimal number,   | 0, 1, ..., 6           |       |
+|           | where 0 is Sunday and 6 is     |                        |       |
+|           | Saturday.                      |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%d``    | Day of the month as a          | 01, 02, ..., 31        | \(9)  |
+|           | zero-padded decimal number.    |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%b``    | Month as locale's abbreviated  || Jan, Feb, ..., Dec    | \(1)  |
+|           | name.                          |  (en_US);              |       |
+|           |                                || Jan, Feb, ..., Dez    |       |
+|           |                                |  (de_DE)               |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%B``    | Month as locale's full name.   || January, February,    | \(1)  |
+|           |                                |  ..., December (en_US);|       |
+|           |                                || Januar, Februar, ..., |       |
+|           |                                |  Dezember (de_DE)      |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%m``    | Month as a zero-padded         | 01, 02, ..., 12        | \(9)  |
+|           | decimal number.                |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%y``    | Year without century as a      | 00, 01, ..., 99        | \(9)  |
+|           | zero-padded decimal number.    |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%Y``    | Year with century as a decimal | 0001, 0002, ..., 2013, | \(2)  |
+|           | number.                        | 2014, ..., 9998, 9999  |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%H``    | Hour (24-hour clock) as a      | 00, 01, ..., 23        | \(9)  |
+|           | zero-padded decimal number.    |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%I``    | Hour (12-hour clock) as a      | 01, 02, ..., 12        | \(9)  |
+|           | zero-padded decimal number.    |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%p``    | Locale's equivalent of either  || AM, PM (en_US);       | \(1), |
+|           | AM or PM.                      || am, pm (de_DE)        | \(3)  |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%M``    | Minute as a zero-padded        | 00, 01, ..., 59        | \(9)  |
+|           | decimal number.                |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%S``    | Second as a zero-padded        | 00, 01, ..., 59        | \(4), |
+|           | decimal number.                |                        | \(9)  |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%f``    | Microsecond as a decimal       | 000000, 000001, ...,   | \(5)  |
+|           | number, zero-padded on the     | 999999                 |       |
+|           | left.                          |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%z``    | UTC offset in the form         | (empty), +0000,        | \(6)  |
+|           | ±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]] (empty      | -0400, +1030,          |       |
+|           | string if the object is        | +063415,               |       |
+|           | naive).                        | -030712.345216         |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%Z``    | Time zone name (empty string   | (empty), UTC, EST, CST |       |
+|           | if the object is naive).       |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%j``    | Day of the year as a           | 001, 002, ..., 366     | \(9)  |
+|           | zero-padded decimal number.    |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%U``    | Week number of the year        | 00, 01, ..., 53        | \(7), |
+|           | (Sunday as the first day of    |                        | \(9)  |
+|           | the week) as a zero padded     |                        |       |
+|           | decimal number. All days in a  |                        |       |
+|           | new year preceding the first   |                        |       |
+|           | Sunday are considered to be in |                        |       |
+|           | week 0.                        |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%W``    | Week number of the year        | 00, 01, ..., 53        | \(7), |
+|           | (Monday as the first day of    |                        | \(9)  |
+|           | the week) as a decimal number. |                        |       |
+|           | All days in a new year         |                        |       |
+|           | preceding the first Monday     |                        |       |
+|           | are considered to be in        |                        |       |
+|           | week 0.                        |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%c``    | Locale's appropriate date and  || Tue Aug 16 21:30:00   | \(1)  |
+|           | time representation.           |  1988 (en_US);         |       |
+|           |                                || Di 16 Aug 21:30:00    |       |
+|           |                                |  1988 (de_DE)          |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%x``    | Locale's appropriate date      || 08/16/88 (None);      | \(1)  |
+|           | representation.                || 08/16/1988 (en_US);   |       |
+|           |                                || 16.08.1988 (de_DE)    |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%X``    | Locale's appropriate time      || 21:30:00 (en_US);     | \(1)  |
+|           | representation.                || 21:30:00 (de_DE)      |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%%``    | A literal ``'%'`` character.   | %                      |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+
+Several additional directives not required by the C89 standard are included for
+convenience. These parameters all correspond to ISO 8601 date values. These
+may not be available on all platforms when used with the :meth:`strftime`
+method. The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives are not interchangeable
+with the year and week number directives above. Calling :meth:`strptime` with
+incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601 directives will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| Directive | Meaning                        | Example                | Notes |
++===========+================================+========================+=======+
+| ``%G``    | ISO 8601 year with century     | 0001, 0002, ..., 2013, | \(8)  |
+|           | representing the year that     | 2014, ..., 9998, 9999  |       |
+|           | contains the greater part of   |                        |       |
+|           | the ISO week (``%V``).         |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%u``    | ISO 8601 weekday as a decimal  | 1, 2, ..., 7           |       |
+|           | number where 1 is Monday.      |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+| ``%V``    | ISO 8601 week as a decimal     | 01, 02, ..., 53        | \(8), |
+|           | number with Monday as          |                        | \(9)  |
+|           | the first day of the week.     |                        |       |
+|           | Week 01 is the week containing |                        |       |
+|           | Jan 4.                         |                        |       |
++-----------+--------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+   ``%G``, ``%u`` and ``%V`` were added.
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   Because the format depends on the current locale, care should be taken when
+   making assumptions about the output value. Field orderings will vary (for
+   example, "month/day/year" versus "day/month/year"), and the output may
+   contain Unicode characters encoded using the locale's default encoding (for
+   example, if the current locale is ``ja_JP``, the default encoding could be
+   any one of ``eucJP``, ``SJIS``, or ``utf-8``; use :meth:`locale.getlocale`
+   to determine the current locale's encoding).
+
+(2)
+   The :meth:`strptime` method can parse years in the full [1, 9999] range, but
+   years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      In previous versions, :meth:`strftime` method was restricted to
+      years >= 1900.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      In version 3.2, :meth:`strftime` method was restricted to
+      years >= 1000.
+
+(3)
+   When used with the :meth:`strptime` method, the ``%p`` directive only affects
+   the output hour field if the ``%I`` directive is used to parse the hour.
+
+(4)
+   Unlike the :mod:`time` module, the :mod:`datetime` module does not support
+   leap seconds.
+
+(5)
+   When used with the :meth:`strptime` method, the ``%f`` directive
+   accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the right.  ``%f`` is
+   an extension to the set of format characters in the C standard (but
+   implemented separately in datetime objects, and therefore always
+   available).
+
+(6)
+   For a naive object, the ``%z`` and ``%Z`` format codes are replaced by empty
+   strings.
+
+   For an aware object:
+
+   ``%z``
+      :meth:`utcoffset` is transformed into a string of the form
+      ±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]], where HH is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC
+      offset hours, MM is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
+      minutes, SS is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
+      seconds and ffffff is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC
+      offset microseconds.  The ffffff part is omitted when the offset is a
+      whole number of seconds and both the ffffff and the SS part is omitted
+      when the offset is a whole number of minutes.  For example, if
+      :meth:`utcoffset` returns ``timedelta(hours=-3, minutes=-30)``, ``%z`` is
+      replaced with the string ``'-0330'``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      When the ``%z`` directive is provided to the  :meth:`strptime` method,
+      the UTC offsets can have a colon as a separator between hours, minutes
+      and seconds.
+      For example, ``'+01:00:00'`` will be parsed as an offset of one hour.
+      In addition, providing ``'Z'`` is identical to ``'+00:00'``.
+
+   ``%Z``
+      If :meth:`tzname` returns ``None``, ``%Z`` is replaced by an empty
+      string.  Otherwise ``%Z`` is replaced by the returned value, which must
+      be a string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      When the ``%z`` directive is provided to the :meth:`strptime` method, an
+      aware :class:`.datetime` object will be produced.  The ``tzinfo`` of the
+      result will be set to a :class:`timezone` instance.
+
+(7)
+   When used with the :meth:`strptime` method, ``%U`` and ``%W`` are only used
+   in calculations when the day of the week and the calendar year (``%Y``)
+   are specified.
+
+(8)
+   Similar to ``%U`` and ``%W``, ``%V`` is only used in calculations when the
+   day of the week and the ISO year (``%G``) are specified in a
+   :meth:`strptime` format string. Also note that ``%G`` and ``%Y`` are not
+   interchangeable.
+
+(9)
+   When used with the :meth:`strptime` method, the leading zero is optional
+   for  formats ``%d``, ``%m``, ``%H``, ``%I``, ``%M``, ``%S``, ``%J``, ``%U``,
+   ``%W``, and ``%V``. Format ``%y`` does require a leading zero.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] If, that is, we ignore the effects of Relativity
+.. [#] Passing ``datetime.strptime('Feb 29', '%b %d')`` will fail since ``1900`` is not a leap year.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dbm.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dbm.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0150f5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dbm.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,375 @@
+:mod:`dbm` --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: dbm
+   :synopsis: Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dbm/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`dbm` is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database ---
+:mod:`dbm.gnu` or :mod:`dbm.ndbm`.  If none of these modules is installed, the
+slow-but-simple implementation in module :mod:`dbm.dumb` will be used.  There
+is a `third party interface <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`_ to
+the Oracle Berkeley DB.
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the supported
+   modules, with a unique exception also named :exc:`dbm.error` as the first
+   item --- the latter is used when :exc:`dbm.error` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: whichdb(filename)
+
+   This function attempts to guess which of the several simple database modules
+   available --- :mod:`dbm.gnu`, :mod:`dbm.ndbm` or :mod:`dbm.dumb` --- should
+   be used to open a given file.
+
+   Returns one of the following values: ``None`` if the file can't be opened
+   because it's unreadable or doesn't exist; the empty string (``''``) if the
+   file's format can't be guessed; or a string containing the required module
+   name, such as ``'dbm.ndbm'`` or ``'dbm.gnu'``.
+
+
+.. function:: open(file, flag='r', mode=0o666)
+
+   Open the database file *file* and return a corresponding object.
+
+   If the database file already exists, the :func:`whichdb` function is used to
+   determine its type and the appropriate module is used; if it does not exist,
+   the first module listed above that can be imported is used.
+
+   The optional *flag* argument can be:
+
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | Value   | Meaning                                   |
+   +=========+===========================================+
+   | ``'r'`` | Open existing database for reading only   |
+   |         | (default)                                 |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w'`` | Open existing database for reading and    |
+   |         | writing                                   |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'c'`` | Open database for reading and writing,    |
+   |         | creating it if it doesn't exist           |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'n'`` | Always create a new, empty database, open |
+   |         | for reading and writing                   |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+   The optional *mode* argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+   database has to be created.  It defaults to octal ``0o666`` (and will be
+   modified by the prevailing umask).
+
+
+The object returned by :func:`.open` supports the same basic functionality as
+dictionaries; keys and their corresponding values can be stored, retrieved, and
+deleted, and the :keyword:`in` operator and the :meth:`keys` method are
+available, as well as :meth:`get` and :meth:`setdefault`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   :meth:`get` and :meth:`setdefault` are now available in all database modules.
+
+Key and values are always stored as bytes. This means that when
+strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default encoding before
+being stored.
+
+These objects also support being used in a :keyword:`with` statement, which
+will automatically close them when done.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Added native support for the context management protocol to the objects
+   returned by :func:`.open`.
+
+The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title,  and
+then prints out the contents of the database::
+
+   import dbm
+
+   # Open database, creating it if necessary.
+   with dbm.open('cache', 'c') as db:
+
+       # Record some values
+       db[b'hello'] = b'there'
+       db['www.python.org'] = 'Python Website'
+       db['www.cnn.com'] = 'Cable News Network'
+
+       # Note that the keys are considered bytes now.
+       assert db[b'www.python.org'] == b'Python Website'
+       # Notice how the value is now in bytes.
+       assert db['www.cnn.com'] == b'Cable News Network'
+
+       # Often-used methods of the dict interface work too.
+       print(db.get('python.org', b'not present'))
+
+       # Storing a non-string key or value will raise an exception (most
+       # likely a TypeError).
+       db['www.yahoo.com'] = 4
+
+   # db is automatically closed when leaving the with statement.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`shelve`
+      Persistence module which stores non-string data.
+
+
+The individual submodules are described in the following sections.
+
+
+:mod:`dbm.gnu` --- GNU's reinterpretation of dbm
+------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: dbm.gnu
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dbm/gnu.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module is quite similar to the :mod:`dbm` module, but uses the GNU library
+``gdbm`` instead to provide some additional functionality.  Please note that the
+file formats created by :mod:`dbm.gnu` and :mod:`dbm.ndbm` are incompatible.
+
+The :mod:`dbm.gnu` module provides an interface to the GNU DBM library.
+``dbm.gnu.gdbm`` objects behave like mappings (dictionaries), except that keys and
+values are always converted to bytes before storing.  Printing a ``gdbm``
+object doesn't print the
+keys and values, and the :meth:`items` and :meth:`values` methods are not
+supported.
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Raised on :mod:`dbm.gnu`-specific errors, such as I/O errors. :exc:`KeyError` is
+   raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.
+
+
+.. function:: open(filename[, flag[, mode]])
+
+   Open a ``gdbm`` database and return a :class:`gdbm` object.  The *filename*
+   argument is the name of the database file.
+
+   The optional *flag* argument can be:
+
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | Value   | Meaning                                   |
+   +=========+===========================================+
+   | ``'r'`` | Open existing database for reading only   |
+   |         | (default)                                 |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w'`` | Open existing database for reading and    |
+   |         | writing                                   |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'c'`` | Open database for reading and writing,    |
+   |         | creating it if it doesn't exist           |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'n'`` | Always create a new, empty database, open |
+   |         | for reading and writing                   |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+   The following additional characters may be appended to the flag to control
+   how the database is opened:
+
+   +---------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | Value   | Meaning                                    |
+   +=========+============================================+
+   | ``'f'`` | Open the database in fast mode.  Writes    |
+   |         | to the database will not be synchronized.  |
+   +---------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'s'`` | Synchronized mode. This will cause changes |
+   |         | to the database to be immediately written  |
+   |         | to the file.                               |
+   +---------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'u'`` | Do not lock database.                      |
+   +---------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+   Not all flags are valid for all versions of ``gdbm``.  The module constant
+   :const:`open_flags` is a string of supported flag characters.  The exception
+   :exc:`error` is raised if an invalid flag is specified.
+
+   The optional *mode* argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+   database has to be created.  It defaults to octal ``0o666``.
+
+   In addition to the dictionary-like methods, ``gdbm`` objects have the
+   following methods:
+
+   .. method:: gdbm.firstkey()
+
+      It's possible to loop over every key in the database using this method  and the
+      :meth:`nextkey` method.  The traversal is ordered by ``gdbm``'s internal
+      hash values, and won't be sorted by the key values.  This method returns
+      the starting key.
+
+   .. method:: gdbm.nextkey(key)
+
+      Returns the key that follows *key* in the traversal.  The following code prints
+      every key in the database ``db``, without having to create a list in memory that
+      contains them all::
+
+         k = db.firstkey()
+         while k != None:
+             print(k)
+             k = db.nextkey(k)
+
+   .. method:: gdbm.reorganize()
+
+      If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to shrink the space
+      used by the ``gdbm`` file, this routine will reorganize the database.  ``gdbm``
+      objects will not shorten the length of a database file except by using this
+      reorganization; otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and reused as new
+      (key, value) pairs are added.
+
+   .. method:: gdbm.sync()
+
+      When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method forces any
+      unwritten data to be written to the disk.
+
+   .. method:: gdbm.close()
+
+      Close the ``gdbm`` database.
+
+:mod:`dbm.ndbm` --- Interface based on ndbm
+-------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: dbm.ndbm
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: The standard "database" interface, based on ndbm.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dbm/ndbm.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`dbm.ndbm` module provides an interface to the Unix "(n)dbm" library.
+Dbm objects behave like mappings (dictionaries), except that keys and values are
+always stored as bytes. Printing a ``dbm`` object doesn't print the keys and
+values, and the :meth:`items` and :meth:`values` methods are not supported.
+
+This module can be used with the "classic" ndbm interface or the GNU GDBM
+compatibility interface. On Unix, the :program:`configure` script will attempt
+to locate the appropriate header file to simplify building this module.
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Raised on :mod:`dbm.ndbm`-specific errors, such as I/O errors. :exc:`KeyError` is raised
+   for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.
+
+
+.. data:: library
+
+   Name of the ``ndbm`` implementation library used.
+
+
+.. function:: open(filename[, flag[, mode]])
+
+   Open a dbm database and return a ``ndbm`` object.  The *filename* argument is the
+   name of the database file (without the :file:`.dir` or :file:`.pag` extensions).
+
+   The optional *flag* argument must be one of these values:
+
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | Value   | Meaning                                   |
+   +=========+===========================================+
+   | ``'r'`` | Open existing database for reading only   |
+   |         | (default)                                 |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w'`` | Open existing database for reading and    |
+   |         | writing                                   |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'c'`` | Open database for reading and writing,    |
+   |         | creating it if it doesn't exist           |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'n'`` | Always create a new, empty database, open |
+   |         | for reading and writing                   |
+   +---------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+   The optional *mode* argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+   database has to be created.  It defaults to octal ``0o666`` (and will be
+   modified by the prevailing umask).
+
+   In addition to the dictionary-like methods, ``ndbm`` objects
+   provide the following method:
+
+   .. method:: ndbm.close()
+
+      Close the ``ndbm`` database.
+
+
+:mod:`dbm.dumb` --- Portable DBM implementation
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: dbm.dumb
+   :synopsis: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dbm/dumb.py`
+
+.. index:: single: databases
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :mod:`dbm.dumb` module is intended as a last resort fallback for the
+   :mod:`dbm` module when a more robust module is not available. The :mod:`dbm.dumb`
+   module is not written for speed and is not nearly as heavily used as the other
+   database modules.
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`dbm.dumb` module provides a persistent dictionary-like interface which
+is written entirely in Python.  Unlike other modules such as :mod:`dbm.gnu` no
+external library is required.  As with other persistent mappings, the keys and
+values are always stored as bytes.
+
+The module defines the following:
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Raised on :mod:`dbm.dumb`-specific errors, such as I/O errors.  :exc:`KeyError` is
+   raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.
+
+
+.. function:: open(filename[, flag[, mode]])
+
+   Open a ``dumbdbm`` database and return a dumbdbm object.  The *filename* argument is
+   the basename of the database file (without any specific extensions).  When a
+   dumbdbm database is created, files with :file:`.dat` and :file:`.dir` extensions
+   are created.
+
+   The optional *flag* argument supports only the semantics of ``'c'``
+   and ``'n'`` values.  Other values will default to database being always
+   opened for update, and will be created if it does not exist.
+
+   The optional *mode* argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+   database has to be created.  It defaults to octal ``0o666`` (and will be modified
+   by the prevailing umask).
+
+   .. warning::
+      It is possible to crash the Python interpreter when loading a database
+      with a sufficiently large/complex entry due to stack depth limitations in
+      Python's AST compiler.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      :func:`.open` always creates a new database when the flag has the value
+      ``'n'``.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.8
+      Creating database in ``'r'`` and ``'w'`` modes.  Modifying database in
+      ``'r'`` mode.
+
+   In addition to the methods provided by the
+   :class:`collections.abc.MutableMapping` class, :class:`dumbdbm` objects
+   provide the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: dumbdbm.sync()
+
+      Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files.  This method is called
+      by the :meth:`Shelve.sync` method.
+
+   .. method:: dumbdbm.close()
+
+      Close the ``dumbdbm`` database.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/debug.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/debug.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88a2fa6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/debug.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+***********************
+Debugging and Profiling
+***********************
+
+These libraries help you with Python development: the debugger enables you to
+step through code, analyze stack frames and set breakpoints etc., and the
+profilers run code and give you a detailed breakdown of execution times,
+allowing you to identify bottlenecks in your programs.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   bdb.rst
+   faulthandler.rst
+   pdb.rst
+   profile.rst
+   timeit.rst
+   trace.rst
+   tracemalloc.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/decimal.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/decimal.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcae55e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/decimal.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2137 @@
+:mod:`decimal` --- Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
+====================================================================
+
+.. module:: decimal
+   :synopsis: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Eric Price <eprice at tjhsst.edu>
+.. moduleauthor:: Facundo Batista <facundo at taniquetil.com.ar>
+.. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Aahz <aahz at pobox.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Tim Peters <tim.one at comcast.net>
+.. moduleauthor:: Stefan Krah <skrah at bytereef.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond D. Hettinger <python at rcn.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/decimal.py`
+
+.. import modules for testing inline doctests with the Sphinx doctest builder
+.. testsetup:: *
+
+   import decimal
+   import math
+   from decimal import *
+   # make sure each group gets a fresh context
+   setcontext(Context())
+
+.. testcleanup:: *
+
+   # make sure other tests (outside this file) get a fresh context
+   setcontext(Context())
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`decimal` module provides support for fast correctly-rounded
+decimal floating point arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the
+:class:`float` datatype:
+
+* Decimal "is based on a floating-point model which was designed with people
+  in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle -- computers must
+  provide an arithmetic that works in the same way as the arithmetic that
+  people learn at school." -- excerpt from the decimal arithmetic specification.
+
+* Decimal numbers can be represented exactly.  In contrast, numbers like
+  :const:`1.1` and :const:`2.2` do not have exact representations in binary
+  floating point. End users typically would not expect ``1.1 + 2.2`` to display
+  as :const:`3.3000000000000003` as it does with binary floating point.
+
+* The exactness carries over into arithmetic.  In decimal floating point, ``0.1
+  + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3`` is exactly equal to zero.  In binary floating point, the result
+  is :const:`5.5511151231257827e-017`.  While near to zero, the differences
+  prevent reliable equality testing and differences can accumulate. For this
+  reason, decimal is preferred in accounting applications which have strict
+  equality invariants.
+
+* The decimal module incorporates a notion of significant places so that ``1.30
+  + 1.20`` is :const:`2.50`.  The trailing zero is kept to indicate significance.
+  This is the customary presentation for monetary applications. For
+  multiplication, the "schoolbook" approach uses all the figures in the
+  multiplicands.  For instance, ``1.3 * 1.2`` gives :const:`1.56` while ``1.30 *
+  1.20`` gives :const:`1.5600`.
+
+* Unlike hardware based binary floating point, the decimal module has a user
+  alterable precision (defaulting to 28 places) which can be as large as needed for
+  a given problem:
+
+     >>> from decimal import *
+     >>> getcontext().prec = 6
+     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
+     Decimal('0.142857')
+     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
+     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
+     Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')
+
+* Both binary and decimal floating point are implemented in terms of published
+  standards.  While the built-in float type exposes only a modest portion of its
+  capabilities, the decimal module exposes all required parts of the standard.
+  When needed, the programmer has full control over rounding and signal handling.
+  This includes an option to enforce exact arithmetic by using exceptions
+  to block any inexact operations.
+
+* The decimal module was designed to support "without prejudice, both exact
+  unrounded decimal arithmetic (sometimes called fixed-point arithmetic)
+  and rounded floating-point arithmetic."  -- excerpt from the decimal
+  arithmetic specification.
+
+The module design is centered around three concepts:  the decimal number, the
+context for arithmetic, and signals.
+
+A decimal number is immutable.  It has a sign, coefficient digits, and an
+exponent.  To preserve significance, the coefficient digits do not truncate
+trailing zeros.  Decimals also include special values such as
+:const:`Infinity`, :const:`-Infinity`, and :const:`NaN`.  The standard also
+differentiates :const:`-0` from :const:`+0`.
+
+The context for arithmetic is an environment specifying precision, rounding
+rules, limits on exponents, flags indicating the results of operations, and trap
+enablers which determine whether signals are treated as exceptions.  Rounding
+options include :const:`ROUND_CEILING`, :const:`ROUND_DOWN`,
+:const:`ROUND_FLOOR`, :const:`ROUND_HALF_DOWN`, :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN`,
+:const:`ROUND_HALF_UP`, :const:`ROUND_UP`, and :const:`ROUND_05UP`.
+
+Signals are groups of exceptional conditions arising during the course of
+computation.  Depending on the needs of the application, signals may be ignored,
+considered as informational, or treated as exceptions. The signals in the
+decimal module are: :const:`Clamped`, :const:`InvalidOperation`,
+:const:`DivisionByZero`, :const:`Inexact`, :const:`Rounded`, :const:`Subnormal`,
+:const:`Overflow`, :const:`Underflow` and :const:`FloatOperation`.
+
+For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler.  When a signal is
+encountered, its flag is set to one, then, if the trap enabler is
+set to one, an exception is raised.  Flags are sticky, so the user needs to
+reset them before monitoring a calculation.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   * IBM's General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, `The General Decimal Arithmetic
+     Specification <http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html>`_.
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+.. _decimal-tutorial:
+
+Quick-start Tutorial
+--------------------
+
+The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the current
+context with :func:`getcontext` and, if necessary, setting new values for
+precision, rounding, or enabled traps::
+
+   >>> from decimal import *
+   >>> getcontext()
+   Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
+           capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,
+           InvalidOperation])
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 7       # Set a new precision
+
+Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or tuples.
+Construction from an integer or a float performs an exact conversion of the
+value of that integer or float.  Decimal numbers include special values such as
+:const:`NaN` which stands for "Not a number", positive and negative
+:const:`Infinity`, and :const:`-0`::
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 28
+   >>> Decimal(10)
+   Decimal('10')
+   >>> Decimal('3.14')
+   Decimal('3.14')
+   >>> Decimal(3.14)
+   Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
+   >>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))
+   Decimal('3.14')
+   >>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))
+   Decimal('1.4142135623730951')
+   >>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')
+   Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
+   >>> Decimal('NaN')
+   Decimal('NaN')
+   >>> Decimal('-Infinity')
+   Decimal('-Infinity')
+
+If the :exc:`FloatOperation` signal is trapped, accidental mixing of
+decimals and floats in constructors or ordering comparisons raises
+an exception::
+
+   >>> c = getcontext()
+   >>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True
+   >>> Decimal(3.14)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
+   >>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
+   >>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5
+   True
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of digits
+input.  Context precision and rounding only come into play during arithmetic
+operations.
+
+.. doctest:: newcontext
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 6
+   >>> Decimal('3.0')
+   Decimal('3.0')
+   >>> Decimal('3.1415926535')
+   Decimal('3.1415926535')
+   >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
+   Decimal('5.85987')
+   >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP
+   >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
+   Decimal('5.85988')
+
+If the internal limits of the C version are exceeded, constructing
+a decimal raises :class:`InvalidOperation`::
+
+   >>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+
+Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python.  Here is a small decimal
+floating point flying circus:
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   >>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))
+   >>> max(data)
+   Decimal('9.25')
+   >>> min(data)
+   Decimal('0.03')
+   >>> sorted(data)
+   [Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),
+    Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]
+   >>> sum(data)
+   Decimal('19.29')
+   >>> a,b,c = data[:3]
+   >>> str(a)
+   '1.34'
+   >>> float(a)
+   1.34
+   >>> round(a, 1)
+   Decimal('1.3')
+   >>> int(a)
+   1
+   >>> a * 5
+   Decimal('6.70')
+   >>> a * b
+   Decimal('2.5058')
+   >>> c % a
+   Decimal('0.77')
+
+And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 28
+   >>> Decimal(2).sqrt()
+   Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
+   >>> Decimal(1).exp()
+   Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
+   >>> Decimal('10').ln()
+   Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')
+   >>> Decimal('10').log10()
+   Decimal('1')
+
+The :meth:`quantize` method rounds a number to a fixed exponent.  This method is
+useful for monetary applications that often round results to a fixed number of
+places:
+
+   >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
+   Decimal('7.32')
+   >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)
+   Decimal('8')
+
+As shown above, the :func:`getcontext` function accesses the current context and
+allows the settings to be changed.  This approach meets the needs of most
+applications.
+
+For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts using the
+Context() constructor.  To make an alternate active, use the :func:`setcontext`
+function.
+
+In accordance with the standard, the :mod:`decimal` module provides two ready to
+use standard contexts, :const:`BasicContext` and :const:`ExtendedContext`. The
+former is especially useful for debugging because many of the traps are
+enabled:
+
+.. doctest:: newcontext
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   >>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)
+   >>> setcontext(myothercontext)
+   >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
+   Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')
+
+   >>> ExtendedContext
+   Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
+           capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])
+   >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
+   >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
+   Decimal('0.142857143')
+   >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
+   Decimal('Infinity')
+
+   >>> setcontext(BasicContext)
+   >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-
+       Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
+   DivisionByZero: x / 0
+
+Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions
+encountered during computations.  The flags remain set until explicitly cleared,
+so it is best to clear the flags before each set of monitored computations by
+using the :meth:`clear_flags` method. ::
+
+   >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
+   >>> getcontext().clear_flags()
+   >>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)
+   Decimal('3.14159292')
+   >>> getcontext()
+   Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
+           capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])
+
+The *flags* entry shows that the rational approximation to :const:`Pi` was
+rounded (digits beyond the context precision were thrown away) and that the
+result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-zero).
+
+Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the :attr:`traps` field of a
+context:
+
+.. doctest:: newcontext
+
+   >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
+   >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
+   Decimal('Infinity')
+   >>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1
+   >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-
+       Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
+   DivisionByZero: x / 0
+
+Most programs adjust the current context only once, at the beginning of the
+program.  And, in many applications, data is converted to :class:`Decimal` with
+a single cast inside a loop.  With context set and decimals created, the bulk of
+the program manipulates the data no differently than with other Python numeric
+types.
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+.. _decimal-decimal:
+
+Decimal objects
+---------------
+
+
+.. class:: Decimal(value="0", context=None)
+
+   Construct a new :class:`Decimal` object based from *value*.
+
+   *value* can be an integer, string, tuple, :class:`float`, or another :class:`Decimal`
+   object. If no *value* is given, returns ``Decimal('0')``.  If *value* is a
+   string, it should conform to the decimal numeric string syntax after leading
+   and trailing whitespace characters, as well as underscores throughout, are removed::
+
+      sign           ::=  '+' | '-'
+      digit          ::=  '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'
+      indicator      ::=  'e' | 'E'
+      digits         ::=  digit [digit]...
+      decimal-part   ::=  digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits
+      exponent-part  ::=  indicator [sign] digits
+      infinity       ::=  'Infinity' | 'Inf'
+      nan            ::=  'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]
+      numeric-value  ::=  decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity
+      numeric-string ::=  [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan
+
+   Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where ``digit``
+   appears above.  These include decimal digits from various other
+   alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
+   with the fullwidth digits ``'\uff10'`` through ``'\uff19'``.
+
+   If *value* is a :class:`tuple`, it should have three components, a sign
+   (:const:`0` for positive or :const:`1` for negative), a :class:`tuple` of
+   digits, and an integer exponent. For example, ``Decimal((0, (1, 4, 1, 4), -3))``
+   returns ``Decimal('1.414')``.
+
+   If *value* is a :class:`float`, the binary floating point value is losslessly
+   converted to its exact decimal equivalent.  This conversion can often require
+   53 or more digits of precision.  For example, ``Decimal(float('1.1'))``
+   converts to
+   ``Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')``.
+
+   The *context* precision does not affect how many digits are stored. That is
+   determined exclusively by the number of digits in *value*. For example,
+   ``Decimal('3.00000')`` records all five zeros even if the context precision is
+   only three.
+
+   The purpose of the *context* argument is determining what to do if *value* is a
+   malformed string.  If the context traps :const:`InvalidOperation`, an exception
+   is raised; otherwise, the constructor returns a new Decimal with the value of
+   :const:`NaN`.
+
+   Once constructed, :class:`Decimal` objects are immutable.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The argument to the constructor is now permitted to be a :class:`float`
+      instance.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :class:`float` arguments raise an exception if the :exc:`FloatOperation`
+      trap is set. By default the trap is off.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Underscores are allowed for grouping, as with integral and floating-point
+      literals in code.
+
+   Decimal floating point objects share many properties with the other built-in
+   numeric types such as :class:`float` and :class:`int`.  All of the usual math
+   operations and special methods apply.  Likewise, decimal objects can be
+   copied, pickled, printed, used as dictionary keys, used as set elements,
+   compared, sorted, and coerced to another type (such as :class:`float` or
+   :class:`int`).
+
+   There are some small differences between arithmetic on Decimal objects and
+   arithmetic on integers and floats.  When the remainder operator ``%`` is
+   applied to Decimal objects, the sign of the result is the sign of the
+   *dividend* rather than the sign of the divisor::
+
+      >>> (-7) % 4
+      1
+      >>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)
+      Decimal('-3')
+
+   The integer division operator ``//`` behaves analogously, returning the
+   integer part of the true quotient (truncating towards zero) rather than its
+   floor, so as to preserve the usual identity ``x == (x // y) * y + x % y``::
+
+      >>> -7 // 4
+      -2
+      >>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)
+      Decimal('-1')
+
+   The ``%`` and ``//`` operators implement the ``remainder`` and
+   ``divide-integer`` operations (respectively) as described in the
+   specification.
+
+   Decimal objects cannot generally be combined with floats or
+   instances of :class:`fractions.Fraction` in arithmetic operations:
+   an attempt to add a :class:`Decimal` to a :class:`float`, for
+   example, will raise a :exc:`TypeError`.  However, it is possible to
+   use Python's comparison operators to compare a :class:`Decimal`
+   instance ``x`` with another number ``y``.  This avoids confusing results
+   when doing equality comparisons between numbers of different types.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Mixed-type comparisons between :class:`Decimal` instances and other
+      numeric types are now fully supported.
+
+   In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal floating point
+   objects also have a number of specialized methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: adjusted()
+
+      Return the adjusted exponent after shifting out the coefficient's
+      rightmost digits until only the lead digit remains:
+      ``Decimal('321e+5').adjusted()`` returns seven.  Used for determining the
+      position of the most significant digit with respect to the decimal point.
+
+   .. method:: as_integer_ratio()
+
+      Return a pair ``(n, d)`` of integers that represent the given
+      :class:`Decimal` instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and
+      with a positive denominator::
+
+          >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
+          (-157, 50)
+
+      The conversion is exact.  Raise OverflowError on infinities and ValueError
+      on NaNs.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   .. method:: as_tuple()
+
+      Return a :term:`named tuple` representation of the number:
+      ``DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exponent)``.
+
+
+   .. method:: canonical()
+
+      Return the canonical encoding of the argument.  Currently, the encoding of
+      a :class:`Decimal` instance is always canonical, so this operation returns
+      its argument unchanged.
+
+   .. method:: compare(other, context=None)
+
+      Compare the values of two Decimal instances.  :meth:`compare` returns a
+      Decimal instance, and if either operand is a NaN then the result is a
+      NaN::
+
+         a or b is a NaN  ==> Decimal('NaN')
+         a < b            ==> Decimal('-1')
+         a == b           ==> Decimal('0')
+         a > b            ==> Decimal('1')
+
+   .. method:: compare_signal(other, context=None)
+
+      This operation is identical to the :meth:`compare` method, except that all
+      NaNs signal.  That is, if neither operand is a signaling NaN then any
+      quiet NaN operand is treated as though it were a signaling NaN.
+
+   .. method:: compare_total(other, context=None)
+
+      Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their
+      numerical value.  Similar to the :meth:`compare` method, but the result
+      gives a total ordering on :class:`Decimal` instances.  Two
+      :class:`Decimal` instances with the same numeric value but different
+      representations compare unequal in this ordering:
+
+         >>> Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))
+         Decimal('-1')
+
+      Quiet and signaling NaNs are also included in the total ordering.  The
+      result of this function is ``Decimal('0')`` if both operands have the same
+      representation, ``Decimal('-1')`` if the first operand is lower in the
+      total order than the second, and ``Decimal('1')`` if the first operand is
+      higher in the total order than the second operand.  See the specification
+      for details of the total order.
+
+      This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+      and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+      InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.
+
+   .. method:: compare_total_mag(other, context=None)
+
+      Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their
+      value as in :meth:`compare_total`, but ignoring the sign of each operand.
+      ``x.compare_total_mag(y)`` is equivalent to
+      ``x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs())``.
+
+      This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+      and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+      InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.
+
+   .. method:: conjugate()
+
+      Just returns self, this method is only to comply with the Decimal
+      Specification.
+
+   .. method:: copy_abs()
+
+      Return the absolute value of the argument.  This operation is unaffected
+      by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is
+      performed.
+
+   .. method:: copy_negate()
+
+      Return the negation of the argument.  This operation is unaffected by the
+      context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is performed.
+
+   .. method:: copy_sign(other, context=None)
+
+      Return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the same as the
+      sign of the second operand.  For example:
+
+         >>> Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))
+         Decimal('-2.3')
+
+      This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+      and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+      InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.
+
+   .. method:: exp(context=None)
+
+      Return the value of the (natural) exponential function ``e**x`` at the
+      given number.  The result is correctly rounded using the
+      :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN` rounding mode.
+
+      >>> Decimal(1).exp()
+      Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
+      >>> Decimal(321).exp()
+      Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')
+
+   .. method:: from_float(f)
+
+      Classmethod that converts a float to a decimal number, exactly.
+
+      Note `Decimal.from_float(0.1)` is not the same as `Decimal('0.1')`.
+      Since 0.1 is not exactly representable in binary floating point, the
+      value is stored as the nearest representable value which is
+      `0x1.999999999999ap-4`.  That equivalent value in decimal is
+      `0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625`.
+
+      .. note:: From Python 3.2 onwards, a :class:`Decimal` instance
+         can also be constructed directly from a :class:`float`.
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+          >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
+          Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
+          >>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))
+          Decimal('NaN')
+          >>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))
+          Decimal('Infinity')
+          >>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))
+          Decimal('-Infinity')
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   .. method:: fma(other, third, context=None)
+
+      Fused multiply-add.  Return self*other+third with no rounding of the
+      intermediate product self*other.
+
+      >>> Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)
+      Decimal('11')
+
+   .. method:: is_canonical()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is canonical and :const:`False`
+      otherwise.  Currently, a :class:`Decimal` instance is always canonical, so
+      this operation always returns :const:`True`.
+
+   .. method:: is_finite()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is a finite number, and
+      :const:`False` if the argument is an infinity or a NaN.
+
+   .. method:: is_infinite()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is either positive or negative
+      infinity and :const:`False` otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: is_nan()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is a (quiet or signaling) NaN and
+      :const:`False` otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: is_normal(context=None)
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is a *normal* finite number.  Return
+      :const:`False` if the argument is zero, subnormal, infinite or a NaN.
+
+   .. method:: is_qnan()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is a quiet NaN, and
+      :const:`False` otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: is_signed()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument has a negative sign and
+      :const:`False` otherwise.  Note that zeros and NaNs can both carry signs.
+
+   .. method:: is_snan()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is a signaling NaN and :const:`False`
+      otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: is_subnormal(context=None)
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is subnormal, and :const:`False`
+      otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: is_zero()
+
+      Return :const:`True` if the argument is a (positive or negative) zero and
+      :const:`False` otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: ln(context=None)
+
+      Return the natural (base e) logarithm of the operand.  The result is
+      correctly rounded using the :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN` rounding mode.
+
+   .. method:: log10(context=None)
+
+      Return the base ten logarithm of the operand.  The result is correctly
+      rounded using the :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN` rounding mode.
+
+   .. method:: logb(context=None)
+
+      For a nonzero number, return the adjusted exponent of its operand as a
+      :class:`Decimal` instance.  If the operand is a zero then
+      ``Decimal('-Infinity')`` is returned and the :const:`DivisionByZero` flag
+      is raised.  If the operand is an infinity then ``Decimal('Infinity')`` is
+      returned.
+
+   .. method:: logical_and(other, context=None)
+
+      :meth:`logical_and` is a logical operation which takes two *logical
+      operands* (see :ref:`logical_operands_label`).  The result is the
+      digit-wise ``and`` of the two operands.
+
+   .. method:: logical_invert(context=None)
+
+      :meth:`logical_invert` is a logical operation.  The
+      result is the digit-wise inversion of the operand.
+
+   .. method:: logical_or(other, context=None)
+
+      :meth:`logical_or` is a logical operation which takes two *logical
+      operands* (see :ref:`logical_operands_label`).  The result is the
+      digit-wise ``or`` of the two operands.
+
+   .. method:: logical_xor(other, context=None)
+
+      :meth:`logical_xor` is a logical operation which takes two *logical
+      operands* (see :ref:`logical_operands_label`).  The result is the
+      digit-wise exclusive or of the two operands.
+
+   .. method:: max(other, context=None)
+
+      Like ``max(self, other)`` except that the context rounding rule is applied
+      before returning and that :const:`NaN` values are either signaled or
+      ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or
+      quiet).
+
+   .. method:: max_mag(other, context=None)
+
+      Similar to the :meth:`.max` method, but the comparison is done using the
+      absolute values of the operands.
+
+   .. method:: min(other, context=None)
+
+      Like ``min(self, other)`` except that the context rounding rule is applied
+      before returning and that :const:`NaN` values are either signaled or
+      ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or
+      quiet).
+
+   .. method:: min_mag(other, context=None)
+
+      Similar to the :meth:`.min` method, but the comparison is done using the
+      absolute values of the operands.
+
+   .. method:: next_minus(context=None)
+
+      Return the largest number representable in the given context (or in the
+      current thread's context if no context is given) that is smaller than the
+      given operand.
+
+   .. method:: next_plus(context=None)
+
+      Return the smallest number representable in the given context (or in the
+      current thread's context if no context is given) that is larger than the
+      given operand.
+
+   .. method:: next_toward(other, context=None)
+
+      If the two operands are unequal, return the number closest to the first
+      operand in the direction of the second operand.  If both operands are
+      numerically equal, return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to
+      be the same as the sign of the second operand.
+
+   .. method:: normalize(context=None)
+
+      Normalize the number by stripping the rightmost trailing zeros and
+      converting any result equal to :const:`Decimal('0')` to
+      :const:`Decimal('0e0')`. Used for producing canonical values for attributes
+      of an equivalence class. For example, ``Decimal('32.100')`` and
+      ``Decimal('0.321000e+2')`` both normalize to the equivalent value
+      ``Decimal('32.1')``.
+
+   .. method:: number_class(context=None)
+
+      Return a string describing the *class* of the operand.  The returned value
+      is one of the following ten strings.
+
+      * ``"-Infinity"``, indicating that the operand is negative infinity.
+      * ``"-Normal"``, indicating that the operand is a negative normal number.
+      * ``"-Subnormal"``, indicating that the operand is negative and subnormal.
+      * ``"-Zero"``, indicating that the operand is a negative zero.
+      * ``"+Zero"``, indicating that the operand is a positive zero.
+      * ``"+Subnormal"``, indicating that the operand is positive and subnormal.
+      * ``"+Normal"``, indicating that the operand is a positive normal number.
+      * ``"+Infinity"``, indicating that the operand is positive infinity.
+      * ``"NaN"``, indicating that the operand is a quiet NaN (Not a Number).
+      * ``"sNaN"``, indicating that the operand is a signaling NaN.
+
+   .. method:: quantize(exp, rounding=None, context=None)
+
+      Return a value equal to the first operand after rounding and having the
+      exponent of the second operand.
+
+      >>> Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))
+      Decimal('1.414')
+
+      Unlike other operations, if the length of the coefficient after the
+      quantize operation would be greater than precision, then an
+      :const:`InvalidOperation` is signaled. This guarantees that, unless there
+      is an error condition, the quantized exponent is always equal to that of
+      the right-hand operand.
+
+      Also unlike other operations, quantize never signals Underflow, even if
+      the result is subnormal and inexact.
+
+      If the exponent of the second operand is larger than that of the first
+      then rounding may be necessary.  In this case, the rounding mode is
+      determined by the ``rounding`` argument if given, else by the given
+      ``context`` argument; if neither argument is given the rounding mode of
+      the current thread's context is used.
+
+      An error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is greater than
+      :attr:`Emax` or less than :attr:`Etiny`.
+
+   .. method:: radix()
+
+      Return ``Decimal(10)``, the radix (base) in which the :class:`Decimal`
+      class does all its arithmetic.  Included for compatibility with the
+      specification.
+
+   .. method:: remainder_near(other, context=None)
+
+      Return the remainder from dividing *self* by *other*.  This differs from
+      ``self % other`` in that the sign of the remainder is chosen so as to
+      minimize its absolute value.  More precisely, the return value is
+      ``self - n * other`` where ``n`` is the integer nearest to the exact
+      value of ``self / other``, and if two integers are equally near then the
+      even one is chosen.
+
+      If the result is zero then its sign will be the sign of *self*.
+
+      >>> Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
+      Decimal('-2')
+      >>> Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
+      Decimal('5')
+      >>> Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
+      Decimal('-5')
+
+   .. method:: rotate(other, context=None)
+
+      Return the result of rotating the digits of the first operand by an amount
+      specified by the second operand.  The second operand must be an integer in
+      the range -precision through precision.  The absolute value of the second
+      operand gives the number of places to rotate.  If the second operand is
+      positive then rotation is to the left; otherwise rotation is to the right.
+      The coefficient of the first operand is padded on the left with zeros to
+      length precision if necessary.  The sign and exponent of the first operand
+      are unchanged.
+
+   .. method:: same_quantum(other, context=None)
+
+      Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether both are
+      :const:`NaN`.
+
+      This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+      and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+      InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.
+
+   .. method:: scaleb(other, context=None)
+
+      Return the first operand with exponent adjusted by the second.
+      Equivalently, return the first operand multiplied by ``10**other``.  The
+      second operand must be an integer.
+
+   .. method:: shift(other, context=None)
+
+      Return the result of shifting the digits of the first operand by an amount
+      specified by the second operand.  The second operand must be an integer in
+      the range -precision through precision.  The absolute value of the second
+      operand gives the number of places to shift.  If the second operand is
+      positive then the shift is to the left; otherwise the shift is to the
+      right.  Digits shifted into the coefficient are zeros.  The sign and
+      exponent of the first operand are unchanged.
+
+   .. method:: sqrt(context=None)
+
+      Return the square root of the argument to full precision.
+
+
+   .. method:: to_eng_string(context=None)
+
+      Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent is needed.
+
+      Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.  This
+      can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place and may
+      require the addition of either one or two trailing zeros.
+
+      For example, this converts ``Decimal('123E+1')`` to ``Decimal('1.23E+3')``.
+
+   .. method:: to_integral(rounding=None, context=None)
+
+      Identical to the :meth:`to_integral_value` method.  The ``to_integral``
+      name has been kept for compatibility with older versions.
+
+   .. method:: to_integral_exact(rounding=None, context=None)
+
+      Round to the nearest integer, signaling :const:`Inexact` or
+      :const:`Rounded` as appropriate if rounding occurs.  The rounding mode is
+      determined by the ``rounding`` parameter if given, else by the given
+      ``context``.  If neither parameter is given then the rounding mode of the
+      current context is used.
+
+   .. method:: to_integral_value(rounding=None, context=None)
+
+      Round to the nearest integer without signaling :const:`Inexact` or
+      :const:`Rounded`.  If given, applies *rounding*; otherwise, uses the
+      rounding method in either the supplied *context* or the current context.
+
+
+.. _logical_operands_label:
+
+Logical operands
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :meth:`logical_and`, :meth:`logical_invert`, :meth:`logical_or`,
+and :meth:`logical_xor` methods expect their arguments to be *logical
+operands*.  A *logical operand* is a :class:`Decimal` instance whose
+exponent and sign are both zero, and whose digits are all either
+:const:`0` or :const:`1`.
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+.. _decimal-context:
+
+Context objects
+---------------
+
+Contexts are environments for arithmetic operations.  They govern precision, set
+rules for rounding, determine which signals are treated as exceptions, and limit
+the range for exponents.
+
+Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed using the
+:func:`getcontext` and :func:`setcontext` functions:
+
+
+.. function:: getcontext()
+
+   Return the current context for the active thread.
+
+
+.. function:: setcontext(c)
+
+   Set the current context for the active thread to *c*.
+
+You can also use the :keyword:`with` statement and the :func:`localcontext`
+function to temporarily change the active context.
+
+.. function:: localcontext(ctx=None)
+
+   Return a context manager that will set the current context for the active thread
+   to a copy of *ctx* on entry to the with-statement and restore the previous context
+   when exiting the with-statement. If no context is specified, a copy of the
+   current context is used.
+
+   For example, the following code sets the current decimal precision to 42 places,
+   performs a calculation, and then automatically restores the previous context::
+
+      from decimal import localcontext
+
+      with localcontext() as ctx:
+          ctx.prec = 42   # Perform a high precision calculation
+          s = calculate_something()
+      s = +s  # Round the final result back to the default precision
+
+New contexts can also be created using the :class:`Context` constructor
+described below. In addition, the module provides three pre-made contexts:
+
+
+.. class:: BasicContext
+
+   This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic
+   Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is set to
+   :const:`ROUND_HALF_UP`.  All flags are cleared.  All traps are enabled (treated
+   as exceptions) except :const:`Inexact`, :const:`Rounded`, and
+   :const:`Subnormal`.
+
+   Because many of the traps are enabled, this context is useful for debugging.
+
+
+.. class:: ExtendedContext
+
+   This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic
+   Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is set to
+   :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN`.  All flags are cleared.  No traps are enabled (so that
+   exceptions are not raised during computations).
+
+   Because the traps are disabled, this context is useful for applications that
+   prefer to have result value of :const:`NaN` or :const:`Infinity` instead of
+   raising exceptions.  This allows an application to complete a run in the
+   presence of conditions that would otherwise halt the program.
+
+
+.. class:: DefaultContext
+
+   This context is used by the :class:`Context` constructor as a prototype for new
+   contexts.  Changing a field (such a precision) has the effect of changing the
+   default for new contexts created by the :class:`Context` constructor.
+
+   This context is most useful in multi-threaded environments.  Changing one of the
+   fields before threads are started has the effect of setting system-wide
+   defaults.  Changing the fields after threads have started is not recommended as
+   it would require thread synchronization to prevent race conditions.
+
+   In single threaded environments, it is preferable to not use this context at
+   all.  Instead, simply create contexts explicitly as described below.
+
+   The default values are :attr:`prec`\ =\ :const:`28`,
+   :attr:`rounding`\ =\ :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN`,
+   and enabled traps for :class:`Overflow`, :class:`InvalidOperation`, and
+   :class:`DivisionByZero`.
+
+In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
+:class:`Context` constructor.
+
+
+.. class:: Context(prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None, Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None)
+
+   Creates a new context.  If a field is not specified or is :const:`None`, the
+   default values are copied from the :const:`DefaultContext`.  If the *flags*
+   field is not specified or is :const:`None`, all flags are cleared.
+
+   *prec* is an integer in the range [:const:`1`, :const:`MAX_PREC`] that sets
+   the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.
+
+   The *rounding* option is one of the constants listed in the section
+   `Rounding Modes`_.
+
+   The *traps* and *flags* fields list any signals to be set. Generally, new
+   contexts should only set traps and leave the flags clear.
+
+   The *Emin* and *Emax* fields are integers specifying the outer limits allowable
+   for exponents. *Emin* must be in the range [:const:`MIN_EMIN`, :const:`0`],
+   *Emax* in the range [:const:`0`, :const:`MAX_EMAX`].
+
+   The *capitals* field is either :const:`0` or :const:`1` (the default). If set to
+   :const:`1`, exponents are printed with a capital :const:`E`; otherwise, a
+   lowercase :const:`e` is used: :const:`Decimal('6.02e+23')`.
+
+   The *clamp* field is either :const:`0` (the default) or :const:`1`.
+   If set to :const:`1`, the exponent ``e`` of a :class:`Decimal`
+   instance representable in this context is strictly limited to the
+   range ``Emin - prec + 1 <= e <= Emax - prec + 1``.  If *clamp* is
+   :const:`0` then a weaker condition holds: the adjusted exponent of
+   the :class:`Decimal` instance is at most ``Emax``.  When *clamp* is
+   :const:`1`, a large normal number will, where possible, have its
+   exponent reduced and a corresponding number of zeros added to its
+   coefficient, in order to fit the exponent constraints; this
+   preserves the value of the number but loses information about
+   significant trailing zeros.  For example::
+
+      >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
+      Decimal('1.23000E+999')
+
+   A *clamp* value of :const:`1` allows compatibility with the
+   fixed-width decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.
+
+   The :class:`Context` class defines several general purpose methods as well as
+   a large number of methods for doing arithmetic directly in a given context.
+   In addition, for each of the :class:`Decimal` methods described above (with
+   the exception of the :meth:`adjusted` and :meth:`as_tuple` methods) there is
+   a corresponding :class:`Context` method.  For example, for a :class:`Context`
+   instance ``C`` and :class:`Decimal` instance ``x``, ``C.exp(x)`` is
+   equivalent to ``x.exp(context=C)``.  Each :class:`Context` method accepts a
+   Python integer (an instance of :class:`int`) anywhere that a
+   Decimal instance is accepted.
+
+
+   .. method:: clear_flags()
+
+      Resets all of the flags to :const:`0`.
+
+   .. method:: clear_traps()
+
+      Resets all of the traps to :const:`0`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: copy()
+
+      Return a duplicate of the context.
+
+   .. method:: copy_decimal(num)
+
+      Return a copy of the Decimal instance num.
+
+   .. method:: create_decimal(num)
+
+      Creates a new Decimal instance from *num* but using *self* as
+      context. Unlike the :class:`Decimal` constructor, the context precision,
+      rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to the conversion.
+
+      This is useful because constants are often given to a greater precision
+      than is needed by the application.  Another benefit is that rounding
+      immediately eliminates unintended effects from digits beyond the current
+      precision. In the following example, using unrounded inputs means that
+      adding zero to a sum can change the result:
+
+      .. doctest:: newcontext
+
+         >>> getcontext().prec = 3
+         >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023')
+         Decimal('4.45')
+         >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')
+         Decimal('4.44')
+
+      This method implements the to-number operation of the IBM specification.
+      If the argument is a string, no leading or trailing whitespace or
+      underscores are permitted.
+
+   .. method:: create_decimal_from_float(f)
+
+      Creates a new Decimal instance from a float *f* but rounding using *self*
+      as the context.  Unlike the :meth:`Decimal.from_float` class method,
+      the context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to
+      the conversion.
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
+         >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
+         Decimal('3.1415')
+         >>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])
+         >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
+         Traceback (most recent call last):
+             ...
+         decimal.Inexact: None
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   .. method:: Etiny()
+
+      Returns a value equal to ``Emin - prec + 1`` which is the minimum exponent
+      value for subnormal results.  When underflow occurs, the exponent is set
+      to :const:`Etiny`.
+
+   .. method:: Etop()
+
+      Returns a value equal to ``Emax - prec + 1``.
+
+   The usual approach to working with decimals is to create :class:`Decimal`
+   instances and then apply arithmetic operations which take place within the
+   current context for the active thread.  An alternative approach is to use
+   context methods for calculating within a specific context.  The methods are
+   similar to those for the :class:`Decimal` class and are only briefly
+   recounted here.
+
+
+   .. method:: abs(x)
+
+      Returns the absolute value of *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: add(x, y)
+
+      Return the sum of *x* and *y*.
+
+
+   .. method:: canonical(x)
+
+      Returns the same Decimal object *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: compare(x, y)
+
+      Compares *x* and *y* numerically.
+
+
+   .. method:: compare_signal(x, y)
+
+      Compares the values of the two operands numerically.
+
+
+   .. method:: compare_total(x, y)
+
+      Compares two operands using their abstract representation.
+
+
+   .. method:: compare_total_mag(x, y)
+
+      Compares two operands using their abstract representation, ignoring sign.
+
+
+   .. method:: copy_abs(x)
+
+      Returns a copy of *x* with the sign set to 0.
+
+
+   .. method:: copy_negate(x)
+
+      Returns a copy of *x* with the sign inverted.
+
+
+   .. method:: copy_sign(x, y)
+
+      Copies the sign from *y* to *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: divide(x, y)
+
+      Return *x* divided by *y*.
+
+
+   .. method:: divide_int(x, y)
+
+      Return *x* divided by *y*, truncated to an integer.
+
+
+   .. method:: divmod(x, y)
+
+      Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the result.
+
+
+   .. method:: exp(x)
+
+      Returns `e ** x`.
+
+
+   .. method:: fma(x, y, z)
+
+      Returns *x* multiplied by *y*, plus *z*.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_canonical(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is canonical; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_finite(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is finite; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_infinite(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is infinite; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_nan(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_normal(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is a normal number; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_qnan(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_signed(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is negative; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_snan(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_subnormal(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is subnormal; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_zero(x)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if *x* is a zero; otherwise returns ``False``.
+
+
+   .. method:: ln(x)
+
+      Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: log10(x)
+
+      Returns the base 10 logarithm of *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: logb(x)
+
+       Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand's MSD.
+
+
+   .. method:: logical_and(x, y)
+
+      Applies the logical operation *and* between each operand's digits.
+
+
+   .. method:: logical_invert(x)
+
+      Invert all the digits in *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: logical_or(x, y)
+
+      Applies the logical operation *or* between each operand's digits.
+
+
+   .. method:: logical_xor(x, y)
+
+      Applies the logical operation *xor* between each operand's digits.
+
+
+   .. method:: max(x, y)
+
+      Compares two values numerically and returns the maximum.
+
+
+   .. method:: max_mag(x, y)
+
+      Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.
+
+
+   .. method:: min(x, y)
+
+      Compares two values numerically and returns the minimum.
+
+
+   .. method:: min_mag(x, y)
+
+      Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.
+
+
+   .. method:: minus(x)
+
+      Minus corresponds to the unary prefix minus operator in Python.
+
+
+   .. method:: multiply(x, y)
+
+      Return the product of *x* and *y*.
+
+
+   .. method:: next_minus(x)
+
+      Returns the largest representable number smaller than *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: next_plus(x)
+
+      Returns the smallest representable number larger than *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: next_toward(x, y)
+
+      Returns the number closest to *x*, in direction towards *y*.
+
+
+   .. method:: normalize(x)
+
+      Reduces *x* to its simplest form.
+
+
+   .. method:: number_class(x)
+
+      Returns an indication of the class of *x*.
+
+
+   .. method:: plus(x)
+
+      Plus corresponds to the unary prefix plus operator in Python.  This
+      operation applies the context precision and rounding, so it is *not* an
+      identity operation.
+
+
+   .. method:: power(x, y, modulo=None)
+
+      Return ``x`` to the power of ``y``, reduced modulo ``modulo`` if given.
+
+      With two arguments, compute ``x**y``.  If ``x`` is negative then ``y``
+      must be integral.  The result will be inexact unless ``y`` is integral and
+      the result is finite and can be expressed exactly in 'precision' digits.
+      The rounding mode of the context is used. Results are always correctly-rounded
+      in the Python version.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         The C module computes :meth:`power` in terms of the correctly-rounded
+         :meth:`exp` and :meth:`ln` functions. The result is well-defined but
+         only "almost always correctly-rounded".
+
+      With three arguments, compute ``(x**y) % modulo``.  For the three argument
+      form, the following restrictions on the arguments hold:
+
+         - all three arguments must be integral
+         - ``y`` must be nonnegative
+         - at least one of ``x`` or ``y`` must be nonzero
+         - ``modulo`` must be nonzero and have at most 'precision' digits
+
+      The value resulting from ``Context.power(x, y, modulo)`` is
+      equal to the value that would be obtained by computing ``(x**y)
+      % modulo`` with unbounded precision, but is computed more
+      efficiently.  The exponent of the result is zero, regardless of
+      the exponents of ``x``, ``y`` and ``modulo``.  The result is
+      always exact.
+
+
+   .. method:: quantize(x, y)
+
+      Returns a value equal to *x* (rounded), having the exponent of *y*.
+
+
+   .. method:: radix()
+
+      Just returns 10, as this is Decimal, :)
+
+
+   .. method:: remainder(x, y)
+
+      Returns the remainder from integer division.
+
+      The sign of the result, if non-zero, is the same as that of the original
+      dividend.
+
+
+   .. method:: remainder_near(x, y)
+
+      Returns ``x - y * n``, where *n* is the integer nearest the exact value
+      of ``x / y`` (if the result is 0 then its sign will be the sign of *x*).
+
+
+   .. method:: rotate(x, y)
+
+      Returns a rotated copy of *x*, *y* times.
+
+
+   .. method:: same_quantum(x, y)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if the two operands have the same exponent.
+
+
+   .. method:: scaleb (x, y)
+
+      Returns the first operand after adding the second value its exp.
+
+
+   .. method:: shift(x, y)
+
+      Returns a shifted copy of *x*, *y* times.
+
+
+   .. method:: sqrt(x)
+
+      Square root of a non-negative number to context precision.
+
+
+   .. method:: subtract(x, y)
+
+      Return the difference between *x* and *y*.
+
+
+   .. method:: to_eng_string(x)
+
+      Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent is needed.
+
+      Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.  This
+      can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place and may
+      require the addition of either one or two trailing zeros.
+
+
+   .. method:: to_integral_exact(x)
+
+      Rounds to an integer.
+
+
+   .. method:: to_sci_string(x)
+
+      Converts a number to a string using scientific notation.
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+.. _decimal-rounding-modes:
+
+Constants
+---------
+
+The constants in this section are only relevant for the C module. They
+are also included in the pure Python version for compatibility.
+
++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+|                     |       32-bit        |            64-bit             |
++=====================+=====================+===============================+
+| .. data:: MAX_PREC  | :const:`425000000`  | :const:`999999999999999999`   |
++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+| .. data:: MAX_EMAX  | :const:`425000000`  | :const:`999999999999999999`   |
++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+| .. data:: MIN_EMIN  | :const:`-425000000` | :const:`-999999999999999999`  |
++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+| .. data:: MIN_ETINY | :const:`-849999999` | :const:`-1999999999999999997` |
++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+
+.. data:: HAVE_THREADS
+
+   The default value is ``True``. If Python is compiled without threads, the
+   C version automatically disables the expensive thread local context
+   machinery. In this case, the value is ``False``.
+
+Rounding modes
+--------------
+
+.. data:: ROUND_CEILING
+
+   Round towards :const:`Infinity`.
+
+.. data:: ROUND_DOWN
+
+   Round towards zero.
+
+.. data:: ROUND_FLOOR
+
+   Round towards :const:`-Infinity`.
+
+.. data:: ROUND_HALF_DOWN
+
+   Round to nearest with ties going towards zero.
+
+.. data:: ROUND_HALF_EVEN
+
+   Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer.
+
+.. data:: ROUND_HALF_UP
+
+   Round to nearest with ties going away from zero.
+
+.. data:: ROUND_UP
+
+   Round away from zero.
+
+.. data:: ROUND_05UP
+
+   Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero would have
+   been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero.
+
+
+.. _decimal-signals:
+
+Signals
+-------
+
+Signals represent conditions that arise during computation. Each corresponds to
+one context flag and one context trap enabler.
+
+The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered. After the
+computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for instance, to
+determine whether a computation was exact). After checking the flags, be sure to
+clear all flags before starting the next computation.
+
+If the context's trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition causes a
+Python exception to be raised.  For example, if the :class:`DivisionByZero` trap
+is set, then a :exc:`DivisionByZero` exception is raised upon encountering the
+condition.
+
+
+.. class:: Clamped
+
+   Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.
+
+   Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the context's
+   :attr:`Emin` and :attr:`Emax` limits.  If possible, the exponent is reduced to
+   fit by adding zeros to the coefficient.
+
+
+.. class:: DecimalException
+
+   Base class for other signals and a subclass of :exc:`ArithmeticError`.
+
+
+.. class:: DivisionByZero
+
+   Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.
+
+   Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number to a negative
+   power.  If this signal is not trapped, returns :const:`Infinity` or
+   :const:`-Infinity` with the sign determined by the inputs to the calculation.
+
+
+.. class:: Inexact
+
+   Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.
+
+   Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding. The rounded result
+   is returned.  The signal flag or trap is used to detect when results are
+   inexact.
+
+
+.. class:: InvalidOperation
+
+   An invalid operation was performed.
+
+   Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense. If not
+   trapped, returns :const:`NaN`.  Possible causes include::
+
+      Infinity - Infinity
+      0 * Infinity
+      Infinity / Infinity
+      x % 0
+      Infinity % x
+      sqrt(-x) and x > 0
+      0 ** 0
+      x ** (non-integer)
+      x ** Infinity
+
+
+.. class:: Overflow
+
+   Numerical overflow.
+
+   Indicates the exponent is larger than :attr:`Emax` after rounding has
+   occurred.  If not trapped, the result depends on the rounding mode, either
+   pulling inward to the largest representable finite number or rounding outward
+   to :const:`Infinity`.  In either case, :class:`Inexact` and :class:`Rounded`
+   are also signaled.
+
+
+.. class:: Rounded
+
+   Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.
+
+   Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits are zero
+   (such as rounding :const:`5.00` to :const:`5.0`).  If not trapped, returns
+   the result unchanged.  This signal is used to detect loss of significant
+   digits.
+
+
+.. class:: Subnormal
+
+   Exponent was lower than :attr:`Emin` prior to rounding.
+
+   Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too small). If
+   not trapped, returns the result unchanged.
+
+
+.. class:: Underflow
+
+   Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.
+
+   Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding. :class:`Inexact`
+   and :class:`Subnormal` are also signaled.
+
+
+.. class:: FloatOperation
+
+    Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.
+
+    If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals is
+    permitted in the :class:`~decimal.Decimal` constructor,
+    :meth:`~decimal.Context.create_decimal` and all comparison operators.
+    Both conversion and comparisons are exact. Any occurrence of a mixed
+    operation is silently recorded by setting :exc:`FloatOperation` in the
+    context flags. Explicit conversions with :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.from_float`
+    or :meth:`~decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float` do not set the flag.
+
+    Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and explicit
+    conversions are silent. All other mixed operations raise :exc:`FloatOperation`.
+
+
+The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals::
+
+   exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception)
+       DecimalException
+           Clamped
+           DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError)
+           Inexact
+               Overflow(Inexact, Rounded)
+               Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal)
+           InvalidOperation
+           Rounded
+           Subnormal
+           FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError)
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+
+.. _decimal-notes:
+
+Floating Point Notes
+--------------------
+
+
+Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation error
+(making it possible to represent :const:`0.1` exactly); however, some operations
+can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed the fixed precision.
+
+The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or subtraction
+of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of significance.  Knuth
+provides two instructive examples where rounded floating point arithmetic with
+insufficient precision causes the breakdown of the associative and distributive
+properties of addition:
+
+.. doctest:: newcontext
+
+   # Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.
+   >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 8
+
+   >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
+   >>> (u + v) + w
+   Decimal('9.5111111')
+   >>> u + (v + w)
+   Decimal('10')
+
+   >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
+   >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
+   Decimal('0.01')
+   >>> u * (v+w)
+   Decimal('0.0060000')
+
+The :mod:`decimal` module makes it possible to restore the identities by
+expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of significance:
+
+.. doctest:: newcontext
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 20
+   >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
+   >>> (u + v) + w
+   Decimal('9.51111111')
+   >>> u + (v + w)
+   Decimal('9.51111111')
+   >>>
+   >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
+   >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
+   Decimal('0.0060000')
+   >>> u * (v+w)
+   Decimal('0.0060000')
+
+
+Special values
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The number system for the :mod:`decimal` module provides special values
+including :const:`NaN`, :const:`sNaN`, :const:`-Infinity`, :const:`Infinity`,
+and two zeros, :const:`+0` and :const:`-0`.
+
+Infinities can be constructed directly with:  ``Decimal('Infinity')``. Also,
+they can arise from dividing by zero when the :exc:`DivisionByZero` signal is
+not trapped.  Likewise, when the :exc:`Overflow` signal is not trapped, infinity
+can result from rounding beyond the limits of the largest representable number.
+
+The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic operations
+where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers.  For instance,
+adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite result.
+
+Some operations are indeterminate and return :const:`NaN`, or if the
+:exc:`InvalidOperation` signal is trapped, raise an exception.  For example,
+``0/0`` returns :const:`NaN` which means "not a number".  This variety of
+:const:`NaN` is quiet and, once created, will flow through other computations
+always resulting in another :const:`NaN`.  This behavior can be useful for a
+series of computations that occasionally have missing inputs --- it allows the
+calculation to proceed while flagging specific results as invalid.
+
+A variant is :const:`sNaN` which signals rather than remaining quiet after every
+operation.  This is a useful return value when an invalid result needs to
+interrupt a calculation for special handling.
+
+The behavior of Python's comparison operators can be a little surprising where a
+:const:`NaN` is involved.  A test for equality where one of the operands is a
+quiet or signaling :const:`NaN` always returns :const:`False` (even when doing
+``Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')``), while a test for inequality always returns
+:const:`True`.  An attempt to compare two Decimals using any of the ``<``,
+``<=``, ``>`` or ``>=`` operators will raise the :exc:`InvalidOperation` signal
+if either operand is a :const:`NaN`, and return :const:`False` if this signal is
+not trapped.  Note that the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not
+specify the behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons
+involving a :const:`NaN` were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in
+section 5.7).  To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the :meth:`compare`
+and :meth:`compare-signal` methods instead.
+
+The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow. They keep the sign
+that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried out to greater
+precision.  Since their magnitude is zero, both positive and negative zeros are
+treated as equal and their sign is informational.
+
+In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there are
+various representations of zero with differing precisions yet equivalent in
+value.  This takes a bit of getting used to.  For an eye accustomed to
+normalized floating point representations, it is not immediately obvious that
+the following calculation returns a value equal to zero:
+
+   >>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
+   Decimal('0E-1000026')
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+.. _decimal-threads:
+
+Working with threads
+--------------------
+
+The :func:`getcontext` function accesses a different :class:`Context` object for
+each thread.  Having separate thread contexts means that threads may make
+changes (such as ``getcontext().prec=10``) without interfering with other threads.
+
+Likewise, the :func:`setcontext` function automatically assigns its target to
+the current thread.
+
+If :func:`setcontext` has not been called before :func:`getcontext`, then
+:func:`getcontext` will automatically create a new context for use in the
+current thread.
+
+The new context is copied from a prototype context called *DefaultContext*. To
+control the defaults so that each thread will use the same values throughout the
+application, directly modify the *DefaultContext* object. This should be done
+*before* any threads are started so that there won't be a race condition between
+threads calling :func:`getcontext`. For example::
+
+   # Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched
+   DefaultContext.prec = 12
+   DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
+   DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()
+   DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1
+   setcontext(DefaultContext)
+
+   # Afterwards, the threads can be started
+   t1.start()
+   t2.start()
+   t3.start()
+    . . .
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+.. _decimal-recipes:
+
+Recipes
+-------
+
+Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that demonstrate ways
+to work with the :class:`Decimal` class::
+
+   def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',
+                pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):
+       """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.
+
+       places:  required number of places after the decimal point
+       curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
+       sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
+       dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
+                only specify as blank when places is zero
+       pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
+       neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
+       trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank
+
+       >>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
+       >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
+       '-$1,234,567.89'
+       >>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
+       '1.234.568-'
+       >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
+       '($1,234,567.89)'
+       >>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
+       '123 456 789.00'
+       >>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
+       '<0.02>'
+
+       """
+       q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
+       sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
+       result = []
+       digits = list(map(str, digits))
+       build, next = result.append, digits.pop
+       if sign:
+           build(trailneg)
+       for i in range(places):
+           build(next() if digits else '0')
+       if places:
+           build(dp)
+       if not digits:
+           build('0')
+       i = 0
+       while digits:
+           build(next())
+           i += 1
+           if i == 3 and digits:
+               i = 0
+               build(sep)
+       build(curr)
+       build(neg if sign else pos)
+       return ''.join(reversed(result))
+
+   def pi():
+       """Compute Pi to the current precision.
+
+       >>> print(pi())
+       3.141592653589793238462643383
+
+       """
+       getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
+       three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
+       lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
+       while s != lasts:
+           lasts = s
+           n, na = n+na, na+8
+           d, da = d+da, da+32
+           t = (t * n) / d
+           s += t
+       getcontext().prec -= 2
+       return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision
+
+   def exp(x):
+       """Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.
+
+       >>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
+       2.718281828459045235360287471
+       >>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
+       7.389056098930650227230427461
+       >>> print(exp(2.0))
+       7.38905609893
+       >>> print(exp(2+0j))
+       (7.38905609893+0j)
+
+       """
+       getcontext().prec += 2
+       i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
+       while s != lasts:
+           lasts = s
+           i += 1
+           fact *= i
+           num *= x
+           s += num / fact
+       getcontext().prec -= 2
+       return +s
+
+   def cos(x):
+       """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.
+
+       The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
+       For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).
+
+       >>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
+       0.8775825618903727161162815826
+       >>> print(cos(0.5))
+       0.87758256189
+       >>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
+       (0.87758256189+0j)
+
+       """
+       getcontext().prec += 2
+       i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
+       while s != lasts:
+           lasts = s
+           i += 2
+           fact *= i * (i-1)
+           num *= x * x
+           sign *= -1
+           s += num / fact * sign
+       getcontext().prec -= 2
+       return +s
+
+   def sin(x):
+       """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.
+
+       The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
+       For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).
+
+       >>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
+       0.4794255386042030002732879352
+       >>> print(sin(0.5))
+       0.479425538604
+       >>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
+       (0.479425538604+0j)
+
+       """
+       getcontext().prec += 2
+       i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
+       while s != lasts:
+           lasts = s
+           i += 2
+           fact *= i * (i-1)
+           num *= x * x
+           sign *= -1
+           s += num / fact * sign
+       getcontext().prec -= 2
+       return +s
+
+
+.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+.. _decimal-faq:
+
+Decimal FAQ
+-----------
+
+Q. It is cumbersome to type ``decimal.Decimal('1234.5')``.  Is there a way to
+minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?
+
+A. Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:
+
+   >>> D = decimal.Decimal
+   >>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
+   Decimal('4.68')
+
+Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs have many
+places and need to be rounded.  Others are not supposed to have excess digits
+and need to be validated.  What methods should be used?
+
+A. The :meth:`quantize` method rounds to a fixed number of decimal places. If
+the :const:`Inexact` trap is set, it is also useful for validation:
+
+   >>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2       # same as Decimal('0.01')
+
+   >>> # Round to two places
+   >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)
+   Decimal('3.21')
+
+   >>> # Validate that a number does not exceed two places
+   >>> Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
+   Decimal('3.21')
+
+   >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+   Inexact: None
+
+Q. Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant
+throughout an application?
+
+A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an integer
+will automatically preserve fixed point.  Others operations, like division and
+non-integer multiplication, will change the number of decimal places and need to
+be followed-up with a :meth:`quantize` step:
+
+    >>> a = Decimal('102.72')           # Initial fixed-point values
+    >>> b = Decimal('3.17')
+    >>> a + b                           # Addition preserves fixed-point
+    Decimal('105.89')
+    >>> a - b
+    Decimal('99.55')
+    >>> a * 42                          # So does integer multiplication
+    Decimal('4314.24')
+    >>> (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # Must quantize non-integer multiplication
+    Decimal('325.62')
+    >>> (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # And quantize division
+    Decimal('0.03')
+
+In developing fixed-point applications, it is convenient to define functions
+to handle the :meth:`quantize` step:
+
+    >>> def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
+    ...     return (x * y).quantize(fp)
+    >>> def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
+    ...     return (x / y).quantize(fp)
+
+    >>> mul(a, b)                       # Automatically preserve fixed-point
+    Decimal('325.62')
+    >>> div(b, a)
+    Decimal('0.03')
+
+Q. There are many ways to express the same value.  The numbers :const:`200`,
+:const:`200.000`, :const:`2E2`, and :const:`.02E+4` all have the same value at
+various precisions. Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
+canonical value?
+
+A. The :meth:`normalize` method maps all equivalent values to a single
+representative:
+
+   >>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
+   >>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
+   [Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]
+
+Q. Some decimal values always print with exponential notation.  Is there a way
+to get a non-exponential representation?
+
+A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the number
+of significant places in the coefficient.  For example, expressing
+:const:`5.0E+3` as :const:`5000` keeps the value constant but cannot show the
+original's two-place significance.
+
+If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy to
+remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but keeping the
+value unchanged:
+
+    >>> def remove_exponent(d):
+    ...     return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()
+
+    >>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
+    Decimal('5000')
+
+Q. Is there a way to convert a regular float to a :class:`Decimal`?
+
+A. Yes, any binary floating point number can be exactly expressed as a
+Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than intuition would
+suggest:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+    >>> Decimal(math.pi)
+    Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')
+
+Q. Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven't gotten a
+spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding anomalies.
+
+A. The decimal module makes it easy to test results.  A best practice is to
+re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding modes.
+Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision, rounding mode issues,
+ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable algorithm.
+
+Q. I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of operations but
+not to the inputs.  Is there anything to watch out for when mixing values of
+different precisions?
+
+A. Yes.  The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and so is
+the arithmetic on those values.  Only the results are rounded.  The advantage
+for inputs is that "what you type is what you get".  A disadvantage is that the
+results can look odd if you forget that the inputs haven't been rounded:
+
+.. doctest:: newcontext
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 3
+   >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104')
+   Decimal('5.21')
+   >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104')
+   Decimal('5.20')
+
+The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of inputs
+using the unary plus operation:
+
+.. doctest:: newcontext
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 3
+   >>> +Decimal('1.23456789')      # unary plus triggers rounding
+   Decimal('1.23')
+
+Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the
+:meth:`Context.create_decimal` method:
+
+   >>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
+   Decimal('1.2345')
+
+Q. Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?
+
+A. Yes.  In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions of
+the decimal module integrate the high speed `libmpdec
+<https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html>`_ library for
+arbitrary precision correctly-rounded decimal floating point arithmetic.
+``libmpdec`` uses `Karatsuba multiplication
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm>`_
+for medium-sized numbers and the `Number Theoretic Transform
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform>`_
+for very large numbers.  However, to realize this performance gain, the
+context needs to be set for unrounded calculations.
+
+    >>> c = getcontext()
+    >>> c.prec = MAX_PREC
+    >>> c.Emax = MAX_EMAX
+    >>> c.Emin = MIN_EMIN
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/development.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/development.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab34e1f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/development.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+.. _development:
+
+*****************
+Development Tools
+*****************
+
+The modules described in this chapter help you write software.  For example, the
+:mod:`pydoc` module takes a module and generates documentation based on the
+module's contents.  The :mod:`doctest` and :mod:`unittest` modules contains
+frameworks for writing unit tests that automatically exercise code and verify
+that the expected output is produced.  :program:`2to3` can translate Python 2.x
+source code into valid Python 3.x code.
+
+The list of modules described in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   typing.rst
+   pydoc.rst
+   doctest.rst
+   unittest.rst
+   unittest.mock.rst
+   unittest.mock-examples.rst
+   2to3.rst
+   test.rst
+
+See also the Python development mode: the :option:`-X` ``dev`` option and
+:envvar:`PYTHONDEVMODE` environment variable.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/difflib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/difflib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f044cb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/difflib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,746 @@
+:mod:`difflib` --- Helpers for computing deltas
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: difflib
+   :synopsis: Helpers for computing differences between objects.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Tim Peters <tim_one@users.sourceforge.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Tim Peters <tim_one@users.sourceforge.net>
+.. Markup by Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/difflib.py`
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   import sys
+   from difflib import *
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences. It
+can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce difference
+information in various formats, including HTML and context and unified
+diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the :mod:`filecmp` module.
+
+
+.. class:: SequenceMatcher
+
+   This is a flexible class for comparing pairs of sequences of any type, so long
+   as the sequence elements are :term:`hashable`.  The basic algorithm predates, and is a
+   little fancier than, an algorithm published in the late 1980's by Ratcliff and
+   Obershelp under the hyperbolic name "gestalt pattern matching."  The idea is to
+   find the longest contiguous matching subsequence that contains no "junk"
+   elements; these "junk" elements are ones that are uninteresting in some
+   sense, such as blank lines or whitespace.  (Handling junk is an
+   extension to the Ratcliff and Obershelp algorithm.) The same
+   idea is then applied recursively to the pieces of the sequences to the left and
+   to the right of the matching subsequence.  This does not yield minimal edit
+   sequences, but does tend to yield matches that "look right" to people.
+
+   **Timing:** The basic Ratcliff-Obershelp algorithm is cubic time in the worst
+   case and quadratic time in the expected case. :class:`SequenceMatcher` is
+   quadratic time for the worst case and has expected-case behavior dependent in a
+   complicated way on how many elements the sequences have in common; best case
+   time is linear.
+
+   **Automatic junk heuristic:** :class:`SequenceMatcher` supports a heuristic that
+   automatically treats certain sequence items as junk. The heuristic counts how many
+   times each individual item appears in the sequence. If an item's duplicates (after
+   the first one) account for more than 1% of the sequence and the sequence is at least
+   200 items long, this item is marked as "popular" and is treated as junk for
+   the purpose of sequence matching. This heuristic can be turned off by setting
+   the ``autojunk`` argument to ``False`` when creating the :class:`SequenceMatcher`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *autojunk* parameter.
+
+
+.. class:: Differ
+
+   This is a class for comparing sequences of lines of text, and producing
+   human-readable differences or deltas.  Differ uses :class:`SequenceMatcher`
+   both to compare sequences of lines, and to compare sequences of characters
+   within similar (near-matching) lines.
+
+   Each line of a :class:`Differ` delta begins with a two-letter code:
+
+   +----------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | Code     | Meaning                                   |
+   +==========+===========================================+
+   | ``'- '`` | line unique to sequence 1                 |
+   +----------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'+ '`` | line unique to sequence 2                 |
+   +----------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'  '`` | line common to both sequences             |
+   +----------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'? '`` | line not present in either input sequence |
+   +----------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+   Lines beginning with '``?``' attempt to guide the eye to intraline differences,
+   and were not present in either input sequence. These lines can be confusing if
+   the sequences contain tab characters.
+
+
+.. class:: HtmlDiff
+
+   This class can be used to create an HTML table (or a complete HTML file
+   containing the table) showing a side by side, line by line comparison of text
+   with inter-line and intra-line change highlights.  The table can be generated in
+   either full or contextual difference mode.
+
+   The constructor for this class is:
+
+
+   .. method:: __init__(tabsize=8, wrapcolumn=None, linejunk=None, charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)
+
+      Initializes instance of :class:`HtmlDiff`.
+
+      *tabsize* is an optional keyword argument to specify tab stop spacing and
+      defaults to ``8``.
+
+      *wrapcolumn* is an optional keyword to specify column number where lines are
+      broken and wrapped, defaults to ``None`` where lines are not wrapped.
+
+      *linejunk* and *charjunk* are optional keyword arguments passed into :func:`ndiff`
+      (used by :class:`HtmlDiff` to generate the side by side HTML differences).  See
+      :func:`ndiff` documentation for argument default values and descriptions.
+
+   The following methods are public:
+
+   .. method:: make_file(fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='', context=False, \
+                         numlines=5, *, charset='utf-8')
+
+      Compares *fromlines* and *tolines* (lists of strings) and returns a string which
+      is a complete HTML file containing a table showing line by line differences with
+      inter-line and intra-line changes highlighted.
+
+      *fromdesc* and *todesc* are optional keyword arguments to specify from/to file
+      column header strings (both default to an empty string).
+
+      *context* and *numlines* are both optional keyword arguments. Set *context* to
+      ``True`` when contextual differences are to be shown, else the default is
+      ``False`` to show the full files. *numlines* defaults to ``5``.  When *context*
+      is ``True`` *numlines* controls the number of context lines which surround the
+      difference highlights.  When *context* is ``False`` *numlines* controls the
+      number of lines which are shown before a difference highlight when using the
+      "next" hyperlinks (setting to zero would cause the "next" hyperlinks to place
+      the next difference highlight at the top of the browser without any leading
+      context).
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         *charset* keyword-only argument was added.  The default charset of
+         HTML document changed from ``'ISO-8859-1'`` to ``'utf-8'``.
+
+   .. method:: make_table(fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='', context=False, numlines=5)
+
+      Compares *fromlines* and *tolines* (lists of strings) and returns a string which
+      is a complete HTML table showing line by line differences with inter-line and
+      intra-line changes highlighted.
+
+      The arguments for this method are the same as those for the :meth:`make_file`
+      method.
+
+   :file:`Tools/scripts/diff.py` is a command-line front-end to this class and
+   contains a good example of its use.
+
+
+.. function:: context_diff(a, b, fromfile='', tofile='', fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\\n')
+
+   Compare *a* and *b* (lists of strings); return a delta (a :term:`generator`
+   generating the delta lines) in context diff format.
+
+   Context diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have changed plus
+   a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in a before/after style.  The
+   number of context lines is set by *n* which defaults to three.
+
+   By default, the diff control lines (those with ``***`` or ``---``) are created
+   with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that inputs created from
+   :func:`io.IOBase.readlines` result in diffs that are suitable for use with
+   :func:`io.IOBase.writelines` since both the inputs and outputs have trailing
+   newlines.
+
+   For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the *lineterm* argument to
+   ``""`` so that the output will be uniformly newline free.
+
+   The context diff format normally has a header for filenames and modification
+   times.  Any or all of these may be specified using strings for *fromfile*,
+   *tofile*, *fromfiledate*, and *tofiledate*.  The modification times are normally
+   expressed in the ISO 8601 format. If not specified, the
+   strings default to blanks.
+
+      >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
+      >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
+      >>> sys.stdout.writelines(context_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
+      *** before.py
+      --- after.py
+      ***************
+      *** 1,4 ****
+      ! bacon
+      ! eggs
+      ! ham
+        guido
+      --- 1,4 ----
+      ! python
+      ! eggy
+      ! hamster
+        guido
+
+   See :ref:`difflib-interface` for a more detailed example.
+
+
+.. function:: get_close_matches(word, possibilities, n=3, cutoff=0.6)
+
+   Return a list of the best "good enough" matches.  *word* is a sequence for which
+   close matches are desired (typically a string), and *possibilities* is a list of
+   sequences against which to match *word* (typically a list of strings).
+
+   Optional argument *n* (default ``3``) is the maximum number of close matches to
+   return; *n* must be greater than ``0``.
+
+   Optional argument *cutoff* (default ``0.6``) is a float in the range [0, 1].
+   Possibilities that don't score at least that similar to *word* are ignored.
+
+   The best (no more than *n*) matches among the possibilities are returned in a
+   list, sorted by similarity score, most similar first.
+
+      >>> get_close_matches('appel', ['ape', 'apple', 'peach', 'puppy'])
+      ['apple', 'ape']
+      >>> import keyword
+      >>> get_close_matches('wheel', keyword.kwlist)
+      ['while']
+      >>> get_close_matches('pineapple', keyword.kwlist)
+      []
+      >>> get_close_matches('accept', keyword.kwlist)
+      ['except']
+
+
+.. function:: ndiff(a, b, linejunk=None, charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)
+
+   Compare *a* and *b* (lists of strings); return a :class:`Differ`\ -style
+   delta (a :term:`generator` generating the delta lines).
+
+   Optional keyword parameters *linejunk* and *charjunk* are filtering functions
+   (or ``None``):
+
+   *linejunk*: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns
+   true if the string is junk, or false if not. The default is ``None``. There
+   is also a module-level function :func:`IS_LINE_JUNK`, which filters out lines
+   without visible characters, except for at most one pound character (``'#'``)
+   -- however the underlying :class:`SequenceMatcher` class does a dynamic
+   analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute noise, and this
+   usually works better than using this function.
+
+   *charjunk*: A function that accepts a character (a string of length 1), and
+   returns if the character is junk, or false if not. The default is module-level
+   function :func:`IS_CHARACTER_JUNK`, which filters out whitespace characters (a
+   blank or tab; it's a bad idea to include newline in this!).
+
+   :file:`Tools/scripts/ndiff.py` is a command-line front-end to this function.
+
+      >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
+      ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
+      >>> print(''.join(diff), end="")
+      - one
+      ?  ^
+      + ore
+      ?  ^
+      - two
+      - three
+      ?  -
+      + tree
+      + emu
+
+
+.. function:: restore(sequence, which)
+
+   Return one of the two sequences that generated a delta.
+
+   Given a *sequence* produced by :meth:`Differ.compare` or :func:`ndiff`, extract
+   lines originating from file 1 or 2 (parameter *which*), stripping off line
+   prefixes.
+
+   Example:
+
+      >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
+      ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
+      >>> diff = list(diff) # materialize the generated delta into a list
+      >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 1)), end="")
+      one
+      two
+      three
+      >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 2)), end="")
+      ore
+      tree
+      emu
+
+
+.. function:: unified_diff(a, b, fromfile='', tofile='', fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\\n')
+
+   Compare *a* and *b* (lists of strings); return a delta (a :term:`generator`
+   generating the delta lines) in unified diff format.
+
+   Unified diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have changed plus
+   a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in an inline style (instead of
+   separate before/after blocks).  The number of context lines is set by *n* which
+   defaults to three.
+
+   By default, the diff control lines (those with ``---``, ``+++``, or ``@@``) are
+   created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that inputs created from
+   :func:`io.IOBase.readlines` result in diffs that are suitable for use with
+   :func:`io.IOBase.writelines` since both the inputs and outputs have trailing
+   newlines.
+
+   For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the *lineterm* argument to
+   ``""`` so that the output will be uniformly newline free.
+
+   The context diff format normally has a header for filenames and modification
+   times.  Any or all of these may be specified using strings for *fromfile*,
+   *tofile*, *fromfiledate*, and *tofiledate*.  The modification times are normally
+   expressed in the ISO 8601 format. If not specified, the
+   strings default to blanks.
+
+
+      >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
+      >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
+      >>> sys.stdout.writelines(unified_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
+      --- before.py
+      +++ after.py
+      @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
+      -bacon
+      -eggs
+      -ham
+      +python
+      +eggy
+      +hamster
+       guido
+
+   See :ref:`difflib-interface` for a more detailed example.
+
+.. function:: diff_bytes(dfunc, a, b, fromfile=b'', tofile=b'', fromfiledate=b'', tofiledate=b'', n=3, lineterm=b'\\n')
+
+   Compare *a* and *b* (lists of bytes objects) using *dfunc*; yield a
+   sequence of delta lines (also bytes) in the format returned by *dfunc*.
+   *dfunc* must be a callable, typically either :func:`unified_diff` or
+   :func:`context_diff`.
+
+   Allows you to compare data with unknown or inconsistent encoding. All
+   inputs except *n* must be bytes objects, not str. Works by losslessly
+   converting all inputs (except *n*) to str, and calling ``dfunc(a, b,
+   fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate, tofiledate, n, lineterm)``. The output of
+   *dfunc* is then converted back to bytes, so the delta lines that you
+   receive have the same unknown/inconsistent encodings as *a* and *b*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. function:: IS_LINE_JUNK(line)
+
+   Return true for ignorable lines.  The line *line* is ignorable if *line* is
+   blank or contains a single ``'#'``, otherwise it is not ignorable.  Used as a
+   default for parameter *linejunk* in :func:`ndiff` in older versions.
+
+
+.. function:: IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(ch)
+
+   Return true for ignorable characters.  The character *ch* is ignorable if *ch*
+   is a space or tab, otherwise it is not ignorable.  Used as a default for
+   parameter *charjunk* in :func:`ndiff`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach <http://www.drdobbs.com/database/pattern-matching-the-gestalt-approach/184407970>`_
+      Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E. Metzener. This
+      was published in `Dr. Dobb's Journal <http://www.drdobbs.com/>`_ in July, 1988.
+
+
+.. _sequence-matcher:
+
+SequenceMatcher Objects
+-----------------------
+
+The :class:`SequenceMatcher` class has this constructor:
+
+
+.. class:: SequenceMatcher(isjunk=None, a='', b='', autojunk=True)
+
+   Optional argument *isjunk* must be ``None`` (the default) or a one-argument
+   function that takes a sequence element and returns true if and only if the
+   element is "junk" and should be ignored. Passing ``None`` for *isjunk* is
+   equivalent to passing ``lambda x: 0``; in other words, no elements are ignored.
+   For example, pass::
+
+      lambda x: x in " \t"
+
+   if you're comparing lines as sequences of characters, and don't want to synch up
+   on blanks or hard tabs.
+
+   The optional arguments *a* and *b* are sequences to be compared; both default to
+   empty strings.  The elements of both sequences must be :term:`hashable`.
+
+   The optional argument *autojunk* can be used to disable the automatic junk
+   heuristic.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *autojunk* parameter.
+
+   SequenceMatcher objects get three data attributes: *bjunk* is the
+   set of elements of *b* for which *isjunk* is ``True``; *bpopular* is the set of
+   non-junk elements considered popular by the heuristic (if it is not
+   disabled); *b2j* is a dict mapping the remaining elements of *b* to a list
+   of positions where they occur. All three are reset whenever *b* is reset
+   with :meth:`set_seqs` or :meth:`set_seq2`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *bjunk* and *bpopular* attributes.
+
+   :class:`SequenceMatcher` objects have the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: set_seqs(a, b)
+
+      Set the two sequences to be compared.
+
+   :class:`SequenceMatcher` computes and caches detailed information about the
+   second sequence, so if you want to compare one sequence against many
+   sequences, use :meth:`set_seq2` to set the commonly used sequence once and
+   call :meth:`set_seq1` repeatedly, once for each of the other sequences.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_seq1(a)
+
+      Set the first sequence to be compared.  The second sequence to be compared
+      is not changed.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_seq2(b)
+
+      Set the second sequence to be compared.  The first sequence to be compared
+      is not changed.
+
+
+   .. method:: find_longest_match(alo, ahi, blo, bhi)
+
+      Find longest matching block in ``a[alo:ahi]`` and ``b[blo:bhi]``.
+
+      If *isjunk* was omitted or ``None``, :meth:`find_longest_match` returns
+      ``(i, j, k)`` such that ``a[i:i+k]`` is equal to ``b[j:j+k]``, where ``alo
+      <= i <= i+k <= ahi`` and ``blo <= j <= j+k <= bhi``. For all ``(i', j',
+      k')`` meeting those conditions, the additional conditions ``k >= k'``, ``i
+      <= i'``, and if ``i == i'``, ``j <= j'`` are also met. In other words, of
+      all maximal matching blocks, return one that starts earliest in *a*, and
+      of all those maximal matching blocks that start earliest in *a*, return
+      the one that starts earliest in *b*.
+
+         >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, " abcd", "abcd abcd")
+         >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
+         Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)
+
+      If *isjunk* was provided, first the longest matching block is determined
+      as above, but with the additional restriction that no junk element appears
+      in the block.  Then that block is extended as far as possible by matching
+      (only) junk elements on both sides. So the resulting block never matches
+      on junk except as identical junk happens to be adjacent to an interesting
+      match.
+
+      Here's the same example as before, but considering blanks to be junk. That
+      prevents ``' abcd'`` from matching the ``' abcd'`` at the tail end of the
+      second sequence directly.  Instead only the ``'abcd'`` can match, and
+      matches the leftmost ``'abcd'`` in the second sequence:
+
+         >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x==" ", " abcd", "abcd abcd")
+         >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
+         Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)
+
+      If no blocks match, this returns ``(alo, blo, 0)``.
+
+      This method returns a :term:`named tuple` ``Match(a, b, size)``.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_matching_blocks()
+
+      Return list of triples describing non-overlapping matching subsequences.
+      Each triple is of the form ``(i, j, n)``,
+      and means that ``a[i:i+n] == b[j:j+n]``.  The
+      triples are monotonically increasing in *i* and *j*.
+
+      The last triple is a dummy, and has the value ``(len(a), len(b), 0)``.  It
+      is the only triple with ``n == 0``.  If ``(i, j, n)`` and ``(i', j', n')``
+      are adjacent triples in the list, and the second is not the last triple in
+      the list, then ``i+n < i'`` or ``j+n < j'``; in other words, adjacent
+      triples always describe non-adjacent equal blocks.
+
+      .. XXX Explain why a dummy is used!
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abxcd", "abcd")
+         >>> s.get_matching_blocks()
+         [Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]
+
+
+   .. method:: get_opcodes()
+
+      Return list of 5-tuples describing how to turn *a* into *b*. Each tuple is
+      of the form ``(tag, i1, i2, j1, j2)``.  The first tuple has ``i1 == j1 ==
+      0``, and remaining tuples have *i1* equal to the *i2* from the preceding
+      tuple, and, likewise, *j1* equal to the previous *j2*.
+
+      The *tag* values are strings, with these meanings:
+
+      +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+      | Value         | Meaning                                     |
+      +===============+=============================================+
+      | ``'replace'`` | ``a[i1:i2]`` should be replaced by          |
+      |               | ``b[j1:j2]``.                               |
+      +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+      | ``'delete'``  | ``a[i1:i2]`` should be deleted.  Note that  |
+      |               | ``j1 == j2`` in this case.                  |
+      +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+      | ``'insert'``  | ``b[j1:j2]`` should be inserted at          |
+      |               | ``a[i1:i1]``. Note that ``i1 == i2`` in     |
+      |               | this case.                                  |
+      +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+      | ``'equal'``   | ``a[i1:i2] == b[j1:j2]`` (the sub-sequences |
+      |               | are equal).                                 |
+      +---------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+      For example::
+
+        >>> a = "qabxcd"
+        >>> b = "abycdf"
+        >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, a, b)
+        >>> for tag, i1, i2, j1, j2 in s.get_opcodes():
+        ...     print('{:7}   a[{}:{}] --> b[{}:{}] {!r:>8} --> {!r}'.format(
+        ...         tag, i1, i2, j1, j2, a[i1:i2], b[j1:j2]))
+        delete    a[0:1] --> b[0:0]      'q' --> ''
+        equal     a[1:3] --> b[0:2]     'ab' --> 'ab'
+        replace   a[3:4] --> b[2:3]      'x' --> 'y'
+        equal     a[4:6] --> b[3:5]     'cd' --> 'cd'
+        insert    a[6:6] --> b[5:6]       '' --> 'f'
+
+
+   .. method:: get_grouped_opcodes(n=3)
+
+      Return a :term:`generator` of groups with up to *n* lines of context.
+
+      Starting with the groups returned by :meth:`get_opcodes`, this method
+      splits out smaller change clusters and eliminates intervening ranges which
+      have no changes.
+
+      The groups are returned in the same format as :meth:`get_opcodes`.
+
+
+   .. method:: ratio()
+
+      Return a measure of the sequences' similarity as a float in the range [0,
+      1].
+
+      Where T is the total number of elements in both sequences, and M is the
+      number of matches, this is 2.0\*M / T. Note that this is ``1.0`` if the
+      sequences are identical, and ``0.0`` if they have nothing in common.
+
+      This is expensive to compute if :meth:`get_matching_blocks` or
+      :meth:`get_opcodes` hasn't already been called, in which case you may want
+      to try :meth:`quick_ratio` or :meth:`real_quick_ratio` first to get an
+      upper bound.
+
+
+   .. method:: quick_ratio()
+
+      Return an upper bound on :meth:`ratio` relatively quickly.
+
+
+   .. method:: real_quick_ratio()
+
+      Return an upper bound on :meth:`ratio` very quickly.
+
+
+The three methods that return the ratio of matching to total characters can give
+different results due to differing levels of approximation, although
+:meth:`quick_ratio` and :meth:`real_quick_ratio` are always at least as large as
+:meth:`ratio`:
+
+   >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abcd", "bcde")
+   >>> s.ratio()
+   0.75
+   >>> s.quick_ratio()
+   0.75
+   >>> s.real_quick_ratio()
+   1.0
+
+
+.. _sequencematcher-examples:
+
+SequenceMatcher Examples
+------------------------
+
+This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be "junk":
+
+   >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x == " ",
+   ...                     "private Thread currentThread;",
+   ...                     "private volatile Thread currentThread;")
+
+:meth:`ratio` returns a float in [0, 1], measuring the similarity of the
+sequences.  As a rule of thumb, a :meth:`ratio` value over 0.6 means the
+sequences are close matches:
+
+   >>> print(round(s.ratio(), 3))
+   0.866
+
+If you're only interested in where the sequences match,
+:meth:`get_matching_blocks` is handy:
+
+   >>> for block in s.get_matching_blocks():
+   ...     print("a[%d] and b[%d] match for %d elements" % block)
+   a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements
+   a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements
+   a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements
+
+Note that the last tuple returned by :meth:`get_matching_blocks` is always a
+dummy, ``(len(a), len(b), 0)``, and this is the only case in which the last
+tuple element (number of elements matched) is ``0``.
+
+If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second, use
+:meth:`get_opcodes`:
+
+   >>> for opcode in s.get_opcodes():
+   ...     print("%6s a[%d:%d] b[%d:%d]" % opcode)
+    equal a[0:8] b[0:8]
+   insert a[8:8] b[8:17]
+    equal a[8:29] b[17:38]
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   * The :func:`get_close_matches` function in this module which shows how
+     simple code building on :class:`SequenceMatcher` can be used to do useful
+     work.
+
+   * `Simple version control recipe
+     <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729/>`_ for a small application
+     built with :class:`SequenceMatcher`.
+
+
+.. _differ-objects:
+
+Differ Objects
+--------------
+
+Note that :class:`Differ`\ -generated deltas make no claim to be **minimal**
+diffs. To the contrary, minimal diffs are often counter-intuitive, because they
+synch up anywhere possible, sometimes accidental matches 100 pages apart.
+Restricting synch points to contiguous matches preserves some notion of
+locality, at the occasional cost of producing a longer diff.
+
+The :class:`Differ` class has this constructor:
+
+
+.. class:: Differ(linejunk=None, charjunk=None)
+
+   Optional keyword parameters *linejunk* and *charjunk* are for filter functions
+   (or ``None``):
+
+   *linejunk*: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns true
+   if the string is junk.  The default is ``None``, meaning that no line is
+   considered junk.
+
+   *charjunk*: A function that accepts a single character argument (a string of
+   length 1), and returns true if the character is junk. The default is ``None``,
+   meaning that no character is considered junk.
+
+   These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
+   differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
+   be ignored.  Read the description of the
+   :meth:`~SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match` method's *isjunk*
+   parameter for an explanation.
+
+   :class:`Differ` objects are used (deltas generated) via a single method:
+
+
+   .. method:: Differ.compare(a, b)
+
+      Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a sequence of lines).
+
+      Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings ending with
+      newlines.  Such sequences can be obtained from the
+      :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines` method of file-like objects.  The delta
+      generated also consists of newline-terminated strings, ready to be
+      printed as-is via the :meth:`~io.IOBase.writelines` method of a
+      file-like object.
+
+
+.. _differ-examples:
+
+Differ Example
+--------------
+
+This example compares two texts. First we set up the texts, sequences of
+individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences can also be
+obtained from the :meth:`~io.BaseIO.readlines` method of file-like objects):
+
+   >>> text1 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
+   ...   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
+   ...   3. Simple is better than complex.
+   ...   4. Complex is better than complicated.
+   ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
+   >>> len(text1)
+   4
+   >>> text1[0][-1]
+   '\n'
+   >>> text2 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
+   ...   3.   Simple is better than complex.
+   ...   4. Complicated is better than complex.
+   ...   5. Flat is better than nested.
+   ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
+
+Next we instantiate a Differ object:
+
+   >>> d = Differ()
+
+Note that when instantiating a :class:`Differ` object we may pass functions to
+filter out line and character "junk."  See the :meth:`Differ` constructor for
+details.
+
+Finally, we compare the two:
+
+   >>> result = list(d.compare(text1, text2))
+
+``result`` is a list of strings, so let's pretty-print it:
+
+   >>> from pprint import pprint
+   >>> pprint(result)
+   ['    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n',
+    '-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n',
+    '-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n',
+    '+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n',
+    '?     ++\n',
+    '-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n',
+    '?            ^                     ---- ^\n',
+    '+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n',
+    '?           ++++ ^                      ^\n',
+    '+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n']
+
+As a single multi-line string it looks like this:
+
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.stdout.writelines(result)
+       1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
+   -   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
+   -   3. Simple is better than complex.
+   +   3.   Simple is better than complex.
+   ?     ++
+   -   4. Complex is better than complicated.
+   ?            ^                     ---- ^
+   +   4. Complicated is better than complex.
+   ?           ++++ ^                      ^
+   +   5. Flat is better than nested.
+
+
+.. _difflib-interface:
+
+A command-line interface to difflib
+-----------------------------------
+
+This example shows how to use difflib to create a ``diff``-like utility.
+It is also contained in the Python source distribution, as
+:file:`Tools/scripts/diff.py`.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../../Tools/scripts/diff.py
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dis.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dis.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e6f002
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dis.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1265 @@
+:mod:`dis` --- Disassembler for Python bytecode
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: dis
+   :synopsis: Disassembler for Python bytecode.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dis.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`dis` module supports the analysis of CPython :term:`bytecode` by
+disassembling it. The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an input is
+defined in the file :file:`Include/opcode.h` and used by the compiler and the
+interpreter.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   Bytecode is an implementation detail of the CPython interpreter.  No
+   guarantees are made that bytecode will not be added, removed, or changed
+   between versions of Python.  Use of this module should not be considered to
+   work across Python VMs or Python releases.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Use 2 bytes for each instruction. Previously the number of bytes varied
+      by instruction.
+
+
+Example: Given the function :func:`myfunc`::
+
+   def myfunc(alist):
+       return len(alist)
+
+the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
+:func:`myfunc`::
+
+   >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
+     2           0 LOAD_GLOBAL              0 (len)
+                 2 LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
+                 4 CALL_FUNCTION            1
+                 6 RETURN_VALUE
+
+(The "2" is a line number).
+
+Bytecode analysis
+-----------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in a
+:class:`Bytecode` object that provides easy access to details of the compiled
+code.
+
+.. class:: Bytecode(x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None)
+
+
+   Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator, asynchronous
+   generator, coroutine, method, string of source code, or a code object (as
+   returned by :func:`compile`).
+
+   This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed below, most
+   notably :func:`get_instructions`, as iterating over a :class:`Bytecode`
+   instance yields the bytecode operations as :class:`Instruction` instances.
+
+   If *first_line* is not ``None``, it indicates the line number that should be
+   reported for the first source line in the disassembled code.  Otherwise, the
+   source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code
+   object.
+
+   If *current_offset* is not ``None``, it refers to an instruction offset in the
+   disassembled code. Setting this means :meth:`.dis` will display a "current
+   instruction" marker against the specified opcode.
+
+   .. classmethod:: from_traceback(tb)
+
+      Construct a :class:`Bytecode` instance from the given traceback, setting
+      *current_offset* to the instruction responsible for the exception.
+
+   .. data:: codeobj
+
+      The compiled code object.
+
+   .. data:: first_line
+
+      The first source line of the code object (if available)
+
+   .. method:: dis()
+
+      Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same as printed by
+      :func:`dis.dis`, but returned as a multi-line string).
+
+   .. method:: info()
+
+      Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information about the
+      code object, like :func:`code_info`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.
+
+Example::
+
+    >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
+    >>> for instr in bytecode:
+    ...     print(instr.opname)
+    ...
+    LOAD_GLOBAL
+    LOAD_FAST
+    CALL_FUNCTION
+    RETURN_VALUE
+
+
+Analysis functions
+------------------
+
+The :mod:`dis` module also defines the following analysis functions that convert
+the input directly to the desired output. They can be useful if only a single
+operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn't useful:
+
+.. function:: code_info(x)
+
+   Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object information
+   for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine,
+   method, source code string or code object.
+
+   Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly implementation
+   dependent and they may change arbitrarily across Python VMs or Python
+   releases.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.
+
+
+.. function:: show_code(x, *, file=None)
+
+   Print detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
+   source code string or code object to *file* (or ``sys.stdout`` if *file*
+   is not specified).
+
+   This is a convenient shorthand for ``print(code_info(x), file=file)``,
+   intended for interactive exploration at the interpreter prompt.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added *file* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: dis(x=None, *, file=None, depth=None)
+
+   Disassemble the *x* object.  *x* can denote either a module, a class, a
+   method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous generator, a coroutine,
+   a code object, a string of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode.
+   For a module, it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles
+   all methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or
+   sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction.
+   It also recursively disassembles nested code objects (the code of
+   comprehensions, generator expressions and nested functions, and the code
+   used for building nested classes).
+   Strings are first compiled to code objects with the :func:`compile`
+   built-in function before being disassembled.  If no object is provided, this
+   function disassembles the last traceback.
+
+   The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if
+   provided and to ``sys.stdout`` otherwise.
+
+   The maximal depth of recursion is limited by *depth* unless it is ``None``.
+   ``depth=0`` means no recursion.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added *file* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Implemented recursive disassembling and added *depth* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.
+
+
+.. function:: distb(tb=None, *, file=None)
+
+   Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last
+   traceback if none was passed.  The instruction causing the exception is
+   indicated.
+
+   The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if
+   provided and to ``sys.stdout`` otherwise.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added *file* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: disassemble(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)
+              disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)
+
+   Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if *lasti* was
+   provided.  The output is divided in the following columns:
+
+   #. the line number, for the first instruction of each line
+   #. the current instruction, indicated as ``-->``,
+   #. a labelled instruction, indicated with ``>>``,
+   #. the address of the instruction,
+   #. the operation code name,
+   #. operation parameters, and
+   #. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.
+
+   The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable names,
+   constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.
+
+   The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if
+   provided and to ``sys.stdout`` otherwise.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added *file* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: get_instructions(x, *, first_line=None)
+
+   Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function, method,
+   source code string or code object.
+
+   The iterator generates a series of :class:`Instruction` named tuples giving
+   the details of each operation in the supplied code.
+
+   If *first_line* is not ``None``, it indicates the line number that should be
+   reported for the first source line in the disassembled code.  Otherwise, the
+   source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code
+   object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: findlinestarts(code)
+
+   This generator function uses the ``co_firstlineno`` and ``co_lnotab``
+   attributes of the code object *code* to find the offsets which are starts of
+   lines in the source code.  They are generated as ``(offset, lineno)`` pairs.
+   See :source:`Objects/lnotab_notes.txt` for the ``co_lnotab`` format and
+   how to decode it.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Line numbers can be decreasing. Before, they were always increasing.
+
+
+.. function:: findlabels(code)
+
+   Detect all offsets in the code object *code* which are jump targets, and
+   return a list of these offsets.
+
+
+.. function:: stack_effect(opcode, [oparg])
+
+   Compute the stack effect of *opcode* with argument *oparg*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. _bytecodes:
+
+Python Bytecode Instructions
+----------------------------
+
+The :func:`get_instructions` function and :class:`Bytecode` class provide
+details of bytecode instructions as :class:`Instruction` instances:
+
+.. class:: Instruction
+
+   Details for a bytecode operation
+
+   .. data:: opcode
+
+      numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values listed
+      below and the bytecode values in the :ref:`opcode_collections`.
+
+
+   .. data:: opname
+
+      human readable name for operation
+
+
+   .. data:: arg
+
+      numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise ``None``
+
+
+   .. data:: argval
+
+      resolved arg value (if known), otherwise same as arg
+
+
+   .. data:: argrepr
+
+      human readable description of operation argument
+
+
+   .. data:: offset
+
+      start index of operation within bytecode sequence
+
+
+   .. data:: starts_line
+
+      line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise ``None``
+
+
+   .. data:: is_jump_target
+
+      ``True`` if other code jumps to here, otherwise ``False``
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.
+
+
+**General instructions**
+
+.. opcode:: NOP
+
+   Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer.
+
+
+.. opcode:: POP_TOP
+
+   Removes the top-of-stack (TOS) item.
+
+
+.. opcode:: ROT_TWO
+
+   Swaps the two top-most stack items.
+
+
+.. opcode:: ROT_THREE
+
+   Lifts second and third stack item one position up, moves top down to position
+   three.
+
+
+.. opcode:: DUP_TOP
+
+   Duplicates the reference on top of the stack.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. opcode:: DUP_TOP_TWO
+
+   Duplicates the two references on top of the stack, leaving them in the
+   same order.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+**Unary operations**
+
+Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the
+result back on the stack.
+
+.. opcode:: UNARY_POSITIVE
+
+   Implements ``TOS = +TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: UNARY_NEGATIVE
+
+   Implements ``TOS = -TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: UNARY_NOT
+
+   Implements ``TOS = not TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: UNARY_INVERT
+
+   Implements ``TOS = ~TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: GET_ITER
+
+   Implements ``TOS = iter(TOS)``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER
+
+   If ``TOS`` is a :term:`generator iterator` or :term:`coroutine` object
+   it is left as is.  Otherwise, implements ``TOS = iter(TOS)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+**Binary operations**
+
+Binary operations remove the top of the stack (TOS) and the second top-most
+stack item (TOS1) from the stack.  They perform the operation, and put the
+result back on the stack.
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_POWER
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 ** TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_MULTIPLY
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 * TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 @ TOS``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 // TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_MODULO
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 % TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_ADD
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 + TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_SUBTRACT
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 - TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_SUBSCR
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1[TOS]``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_LSHIFT
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 << TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_RSHIFT
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 >> TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_AND
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 & TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_XOR
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BINARY_OR
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS1 | TOS``.
+
+
+**In-place operations**
+
+In-place operations are like binary operations, in that they remove TOS and
+TOS1, and push the result back on the stack, but the operation is done in-place
+when TOS1 supports it, and the resulting TOS may be (but does not have to be)
+the original TOS1.
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_POWER
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 ** TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_MULTIPLY
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 * TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 @ TOS``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 // TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_MODULO
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 % TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_ADD
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 + TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_SUBTRACT
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 - TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_LSHIFT
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 << TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_RSHIFT
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 >> TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_AND
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 & TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_XOR
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: INPLACE_OR
+
+   Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 | TOS``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: STORE_SUBSCR
+
+   Implements ``TOS1[TOS] = TOS2``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: DELETE_SUBSCR
+
+   Implements ``del TOS1[TOS]``.
+
+
+**Coroutine opcodes**
+
+.. opcode:: GET_AWAITABLE
+
+   Implements ``TOS = get_awaitable(TOS)``, where ``get_awaitable(o)``
+   returns ``o`` if ``o`` is a coroutine object or a generator object with
+   the CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE flag, or resolves
+   ``o.__await__``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: GET_AITER
+
+   Implements ``TOS = TOS.__aiter__()``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Returning awaitable objects from ``__aiter__`` is no longer
+      supported.
+
+
+.. opcode:: GET_ANEXT
+
+   Implements ``PUSH(get_awaitable(TOS.__anext__()))``.  See ``GET_AWAITABLE``
+   for details about ``get_awaitable``
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH
+
+   Resolves ``__aenter__`` and ``__aexit__`` from the object on top of the
+   stack.  Pushes ``__aexit__`` and result of ``__aenter__()`` to the stack.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: SETUP_ASYNC_WITH
+
+   Creates a new frame object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+
+**Miscellaneous opcodes**
+
+.. opcode:: PRINT_EXPR
+
+   Implements the expression statement for the interactive mode.  TOS is removed
+   from the stack and printed.  In non-interactive mode, an expression statement
+   is terminated with :opcode:`POP_TOP`.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BREAK_LOOP
+
+   Terminates a loop due to a :keyword:`break` statement.
+
+
+.. opcode:: CONTINUE_LOOP (target)
+
+   Continues a loop due to a :keyword:`continue` statement.  *target* is the
+   address to jump to (which should be a :opcode:`FOR_ITER` instruction).
+
+
+.. opcode:: SET_ADD (i)
+
+   Calls ``set.add(TOS1[-i], TOS)``.  Used to implement set comprehensions.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LIST_APPEND (i)
+
+   Calls ``list.append(TOS[-i], TOS)``.  Used to implement list comprehensions.
+
+
+.. opcode:: MAP_ADD (i)
+
+   Calls ``dict.setitem(TOS1[-i], TOS, TOS1)``.  Used to implement dict
+   comprehensions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+For all of the :opcode:`SET_ADD`, :opcode:`LIST_APPEND` and :opcode:`MAP_ADD`
+instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the
+container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further
+iterations of the loop.
+
+
+.. opcode:: RETURN_VALUE
+
+   Returns with TOS to the caller of the function.
+
+
+.. opcode:: YIELD_VALUE
+
+   Pops TOS and yields it from a :term:`generator`.
+
+
+.. opcode:: YIELD_FROM
+
+   Pops TOS and delegates to it as a subiterator from a :term:`generator`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. opcode:: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS
+
+   Checks whether ``__annotations__`` is defined in ``locals()``, if not it is
+   set up to an empty ``dict``. This opcode is only emitted if a class
+   or module body contains :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>`
+   statically.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. opcode:: IMPORT_STAR
+
+   Loads all symbols not starting with ``'_'`` directly from the module TOS to
+   the local namespace. The module is popped after loading all names. This
+   opcode implements ``from module import *``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: POP_BLOCK
+
+   Removes one block from the block stack.  Per frame, there is a stack of
+   blocks, denoting nested loops, try statements, and such.
+
+
+.. opcode:: POP_EXCEPT
+
+   Removes one block from the block stack. The popped block must be an exception
+   handler block, as implicitly created when entering an except handler.  In
+   addition to popping extraneous values from the frame stack, the last three
+   popped values are used to restore the exception state.
+
+
+.. opcode:: END_FINALLY
+
+   Terminates a :keyword:`finally` clause.  The interpreter recalls whether the
+   exception has to be re-raised, or whether the function returns, and continues
+   with the outer-next block.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS
+
+   Pushes :func:`builtins.__build_class__` onto the stack.  It is later called
+   by :opcode:`CALL_FUNCTION` to construct a class.
+
+
+.. opcode:: SETUP_WITH (delta)
+
+   This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts.  First,
+   it loads :meth:`~object.__exit__` from the context manager and pushes it onto
+   the stack for later use by :opcode:`WITH_CLEANUP`.  Then,
+   :meth:`~object.__enter__` is called, and a finally block pointing to *delta*
+   is pushed.  Finally, the result of calling the enter method is pushed onto
+   the stack.  The next opcode will either ignore it (:opcode:`POP_TOP`), or
+   store it in (a) variable(s) (:opcode:`STORE_FAST`, :opcode:`STORE_NAME`, or
+   :opcode:`UNPACK_SEQUENCE`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. opcode:: WITH_CLEANUP_START
+
+   Cleans up the stack when a :keyword:`with` statement block exits.  TOS is the
+   context manager's :meth:`__exit__` bound method. Below TOS are 1--3 values
+   indicating how/why the finally clause was entered:
+
+   * SECOND = ``None``
+   * (SECOND, THIRD) = (``WHY_{RETURN,CONTINUE}``), retval
+   * SECOND = ``WHY_*``; no retval below it
+   * (SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH) = exc_info()
+
+   In the last case, ``TOS(SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH)`` is called, otherwise
+   ``TOS(None, None, None)``.  Pushes SECOND and result of the call
+   to the stack.
+
+
+.. opcode:: WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH
+
+   Pops exception type and result of 'exit' function call from the stack.
+
+   If the stack represents an exception, *and* the function call returns a
+   'true' value, this information is "zapped" and replaced with a single
+   ``WHY_SILENCED`` to prevent :opcode:`END_FINALLY` from re-raising the
+   exception.  (But non-local gotos will still be resumed.)
+
+   .. XXX explain the WHY stuff!
+
+
+All of the following opcodes use their arguments.
+
+.. opcode:: STORE_NAME (namei)
+
+   Implements ``name = TOS``. *namei* is the index of *name* in the attribute
+   :attr:`co_names` of the code object. The compiler tries to use
+   :opcode:`STORE_FAST` or :opcode:`STORE_GLOBAL` if possible.
+
+
+.. opcode:: DELETE_NAME (namei)
+
+   Implements ``del name``, where *namei* is the index into :attr:`co_names`
+   attribute of the code object.
+
+
+.. opcode:: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)
+
+   Unpacks TOS into *count* individual values, which are put onto the stack
+   right-to-left.
+
+
+.. opcode:: UNPACK_EX (counts)
+
+   Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in TOS into
+   individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the
+   number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all
+   leftover items.
+
+   The low byte of *counts* is the number of values before the list value, the
+   high byte of *counts* the number of values after it.  The resulting values
+   are put onto the stack right-to-left.
+
+
+.. opcode:: STORE_ATTR (namei)
+
+   Implements ``TOS.name = TOS1``, where *namei* is the index of name in
+   :attr:`co_names`.
+
+
+.. opcode:: DELETE_ATTR (namei)
+
+   Implements ``del TOS.name``, using *namei* as index into :attr:`co_names`.
+
+
+.. opcode:: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)
+
+   Works as :opcode:`STORE_NAME`, but stores the name as a global.
+
+
+.. opcode:: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)
+
+   Works as :opcode:`DELETE_NAME`, but deletes a global name.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_CONST (consti)
+
+   Pushes ``co_consts[consti]`` onto the stack.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_NAME (namei)
+
+   Pushes the value associated with ``co_names[namei]`` onto the stack.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE (count)
+
+   Creates a tuple consuming *count* items from the stack, and pushes the
+   resulting tuple onto the stack.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_LIST (count)
+
+   Works as :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a list.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_SET (count)
+
+   Works as :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a set.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_MAP (count)
+
+   Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops ``2 * count`` items
+   so that the dictionary holds *count* entries:
+   ``{..., TOS3: TOS2, TOS1: TOS}``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an
+      empty dictionary pre-sized to hold *count* items.
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (count)
+
+   The version of :opcode:`BUILD_MAP` specialized for constant keys.  *count*
+   values are consumed from the stack.  The top element on the stack contains
+   a tuple of keys.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_STRING (count)
+
+   Concatenates *count* strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string
+   onto the stack.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK (count)
+
+   Pops *count* iterables from the stack, joins them in a single tuple,
+   and pushes the result.  Implements iterable unpacking in tuple
+   displays ``(*x, *y, *z)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (count)
+
+   This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`,
+   but is used for ``f(*x, *y, *z)`` call syntax. The stack item at position
+   ``count + 1`` should be the corresponding callable ``f``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_LIST_UNPACK (count)
+
+   This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`, but pushes a list
+   instead of tuple.  Implements iterable unpacking in list
+   displays ``[*x, *y, *z]``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_SET_UNPACK (count)
+
+   This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`, but pushes a set
+   instead of tuple.  Implements iterable unpacking in set
+   displays ``{*x, *y, *z}``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_MAP_UNPACK (count)
+
+   Pops *count* mappings from the stack, merges them into a single dictionary,
+   and pushes the result.  Implements dictionary unpacking in dictionary
+   displays ``{**x, **y, **z}``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (count)
+
+   This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK`,
+   but is used for ``f(**x, **y, **z)`` call syntax.  The stack item at
+   position ``count + 2`` should be the corresponding callable ``f``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The position of the callable is determined by adding 2 to the opcode
+      argument instead of encoding it in the second byte of the argument.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_ATTR (namei)
+
+   Replaces TOS with ``getattr(TOS, co_names[namei])``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: COMPARE_OP (opname)
+
+   Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
+   ``cmp_op[opname]``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: IMPORT_NAME (namei)
+
+   Imports the module ``co_names[namei]``.  TOS and TOS1 are popped and provide
+   the *fromlist* and *level* arguments of :func:`__import__`.  The module
+   object is pushed onto the stack.  The current namespace is not affected: for
+   a proper import statement, a subsequent :opcode:`STORE_FAST` instruction
+   modifies the namespace.
+
+
+.. opcode:: IMPORT_FROM (namei)
+
+   Loads the attribute ``co_names[namei]`` from the module found in TOS. The
+   resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a
+   :opcode:`STORE_FAST` instruction.
+
+
+.. opcode:: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)
+
+   Increments bytecode counter by *delta*.
+
+
+.. opcode:: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (target)
+
+   If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target*.  TOS is popped.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. opcode:: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (target)
+
+   If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target*.  TOS is popped.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. opcode:: JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP (target)
+
+   If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves TOS on the
+   stack.  Otherwise (TOS is false), TOS is popped.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. opcode:: JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP (target)
+
+   If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves TOS on the
+   stack.  Otherwise (TOS is true), TOS is popped.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. opcode:: JUMP_ABSOLUTE (target)
+
+   Set bytecode counter to *target*.
+
+
+.. opcode:: FOR_ITER (delta)
+
+   TOS is an :term:`iterator`.  Call its :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method.  If
+   this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below
+   it).  If the iterator indicates it is exhausted TOS is popped, and the byte
+   code counter is incremented by *delta*.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)
+
+   Loads the global named ``co_names[namei]`` onto the stack.
+
+
+.. opcode:: SETUP_LOOP (delta)
+
+   Pushes a block for a loop onto the block stack.  The block spans from the
+   current instruction with a size of *delta* bytes.
+
+
+.. opcode:: SETUP_EXCEPT (delta)
+
+   Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta*
+   points to the first except block.
+
+
+.. opcode:: SETUP_FINALLY (delta)
+
+   Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta*
+   points to the finally block.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_FAST (var_num)
+
+   Pushes a reference to the local ``co_varnames[var_num]`` onto the stack.
+
+
+.. opcode:: STORE_FAST (var_num)
+
+   Stores TOS into the local ``co_varnames[var_num]``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: DELETE_FAST (var_num)
+
+   Deletes local ``co_varnames[var_num]``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)
+
+   Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free
+   variable storage.  The name of the variable is ``co_cellvars[i]`` if *i* is
+   less than the length of *co_cellvars*.  Otherwise it is ``co_freevars[i -
+   len(co_cellvars)]``.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_DEREF (i)
+
+   Loads the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage.
+   Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_CLASSDEREF (i)
+
+   Much like :opcode:`LOAD_DEREF` but first checks the locals dictionary before
+   consulting the cell.  This is used for loading free variables in class
+   bodies.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. opcode:: STORE_DEREF (i)
+
+   Stores TOS into the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable
+   storage.
+
+
+.. opcode:: DELETE_DEREF (i)
+
+   Empties the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage.
+   Used by the :keyword:`del` statement.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. opcode:: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)
+
+   Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the ``raise`` statement,
+   depending on the value of *argc*:
+
+   * 0: ``raise`` (re-raise previous exception)
+   * 1: ``raise TOS`` (raise exception instance or type at ``TOS``)
+   * 2: ``raise TOS1 from TOS`` (raise exception instance or type at ``TOS1``
+     with ``__cause__`` set to ``TOS``)
+
+
+.. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION (argc)
+
+   Calls a callable object with positional arguments.
+   *argc* indicates the number of positional arguments.
+   The top of the stack contains positional arguments, with the right-most
+   argument on top.  Below the arguments is a callable object to call.
+   ``CALL_FUNCTION`` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
+   calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
+   returned by the callable object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      This opcode is used only for calls with positional arguments.
+
+
+.. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION_KW (argc)
+
+   Calls a callable object with positional (if any) and keyword arguments.
+   *argc* indicates the total number of positional and keyword arguments.
+   The top element on the stack contains a tuple of keyword argument names.
+   Below that are keyword arguments in the order corresponding to the tuple.
+   Below that are positional arguments, with the right-most parameter on
+   top.  Below the arguments is a callable object to call.
+   ``CALL_FUNCTION_KW`` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
+   calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
+   returned by the callable object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Keyword arguments are packed in a tuple instead of a dictionary,
+      *argc* indicates the total number of arguments.
+
+
+.. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags)
+
+   Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword
+   arguments.  If the lowest bit of *flags* is set, the top of the stack
+   contains a mapping object containing additional keyword arguments.
+   Below that is an iterable object containing positional arguments and
+   a callable object to call.  :opcode:`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL` and
+   :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL` can be used for merging multiple
+   mapping objects and iterables containing arguments.
+   Before the callable is called, the mapping object and iterable object
+   are each "unpacked" and their contents passed in as keyword and
+   positional arguments respectively.
+   ``CALL_FUNCTION_EX`` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
+   calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
+   returned by the callable object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. opcode:: LOAD_METHOD (namei)
+
+   Loads a method named ``co_names[namei]`` from TOS object. TOS is popped and
+   method and TOS are pushed when interpreter can call unbound method directly.
+   TOS will be used as the first argument (``self``) by :opcode:`CALL_METHOD`.
+   Otherwise, ``NULL`` and  method is pushed (method is bound method or
+   something else).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. opcode:: CALL_METHOD (argc)
+
+   Calls a method.  *argc* is number of positional arguments.
+   Keyword arguments are not supported.  This opcode is designed to be used
+   with :opcode:`LOAD_METHOD`.  Positional arguments are on top of the stack.
+   Below them, two items described in :opcode:`LOAD_METHOD` on the stack.
+   All of them are popped and return value is pushed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. opcode:: MAKE_FUNCTION (argc)
+
+   Pushes a new function object on the stack.  From bottom to top, the consumed
+   stack must consist of values if the argument carries a specified flag value
+
+   * ``0x01`` a tuple of default values for positional-only and
+     positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order
+   * ``0x02`` a dictionary of keyword-only parameters' default values
+   * ``0x04`` an annotation dictionary
+   * ``0x08`` a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure
+   * the code associated with the function (at TOS1)
+   * the :term:`qualified name` of the function (at TOS)
+
+
+.. opcode:: BUILD_SLICE (argc)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: slice
+
+   Pushes a slice object on the stack.  *argc* must be 2 or 3.  If it is 2,
+   ``slice(TOS1, TOS)`` is pushed; if it is 3, ``slice(TOS2, TOS1, TOS)`` is
+   pushed. See the :func:`slice` built-in function for more information.
+
+
+.. opcode:: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)
+
+   Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default one
+   byte. *ext* holds an additional byte which act as higher bits in the argument.
+   For each opcode, at most three prefixal ``EXTENDED_ARG`` are allowed, forming
+   an argument from two-byte to four-byte.
+
+
+.. opcode:: FORMAT_VALUE (flags)
+
+   Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).  Pops
+   an optional *fmt_spec* from the stack, then a required *value*.
+   *flags* is interpreted as follows:
+
+   * ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x00``: *value* is formatted as-is.
+   * ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x01``: call :func:`str` on *value* before
+     formatting it.
+   * ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x02``: call :func:`repr` on *value* before
+     formatting it.
+   * ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x03``: call :func:`ascii` on *value* before
+     formatting it.
+   * ``(flags & 0x04) == 0x04``: pop *fmt_spec* from the stack and use
+     it, else use an empty *fmt_spec*.
+
+   Formatting is performed using :c:func:`PyObject_Format`.  The
+   result is pushed on the stack.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. opcode:: HAVE_ARGUMENT
+
+   This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line between
+   opcodes which don't use their argument and those that do
+   (``< HAVE_ARGUMENT`` and ``>= HAVE_ARGUMENT``, respectively).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes ``< HAVE_ARGUMENT``
+      ignore it. Before, only opcodes ``>= HAVE_ARGUMENT`` had an argument.
+
+
+.. _opcode_collections:
+
+Opcode collections
+------------------
+
+These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
+instructions:
+
+.. data:: opname
+
+   Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.
+
+
+.. data:: opmap
+
+   Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.
+
+
+.. data:: cmp_op
+
+   Sequence of all compare operation names.
+
+
+.. data:: hasconst
+
+   Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.
+
+
+.. data:: hasfree
+
+   Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable (note that 'free' in this
+   context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner
+   scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope.  It does
+   *not* include references to global or builtin scopes).
+
+
+.. data:: hasname
+
+   Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.
+
+
+.. data:: hasjrel
+
+   Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.
+
+
+.. data:: hasjabs
+
+   Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.
+
+
+.. data:: haslocal
+
+   Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.
+
+
+.. data:: hascompare
+
+   Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/distribution.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/distribution.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d4befe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/distribution.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+***********************************
+Software Packaging and Distribution
+***********************************
+
+These libraries help you with publishing and installing Python software.
+While these modules are designed to work in conjunction with the
+`Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`__, they can also be used
+with a local index server, or without any index server at all.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   distutils.rst
+   ensurepip.rst
+   venv.rst
+   zipapp.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/distutils.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/distutils.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62abc85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/distutils.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+:mod:`distutils` --- Building and installing Python modules
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils
+   :synopsis: Support for building and installing Python modules into an
+              existing Python installation.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`distutils` package provides support for building and installing
+additional modules into a Python installation.  The new modules may be either
+100%-pure Python, or may be extension modules written in C, or may be
+collections of Python packages which include modules coded in both Python and C.
+
+Most Python users will *not* want to use this module directly, but instead
+use the cross-version tools maintained by the Python Packaging Authority. In
+particular,
+`setuptools <https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/>`__ is an
+enhanced alternative to :mod:`distutils` that provides:
+
+* support for declaring project dependencies
+* additional mechanisms for configuring which files to include in source
+  releases (including plugins for integration with version control systems)
+* the ability to declare project "entry points", which can be used as the
+  basis for application plugin systems
+* the ability to automatically generate Windows command line executables at
+  installation time rather than needing to prebuild them
+* consistent behaviour across all supported Python versions
+
+The recommended `pip <https://pip.pypa.io/>`__ installer runs all
+``setup.py`` scripts with ``setuptools``, even if the script itself only
+imports ``distutils``. Refer to the
+`Python Packaging User Guide <https://packaging.python.org>`_ for more
+information.
+
+For the benefits of packaging tool authors and users seeking a deeper
+understanding of the details of the current packaging and distribution
+system, the legacy :mod:`distutils` based user documentation and API
+reference remain available:
+
+* :ref:`install-index`
+* :ref:`distutils-index`
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/doctest.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/doctest.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e7c0033
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/doctest.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1868 @@
+:keepdoctest:
+
+:mod:`doctest` --- Test interactive Python examples
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: doctest
+   :synopsis: Test pieces of code within docstrings.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Tim Peters <tim@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Tim Peters <tim@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@debian.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Edward Loper <edloper@users.sourceforge.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/doctest.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`doctest` module searches for pieces of text that look like interactive
+Python sessions, and then executes those sessions to verify that they work
+exactly as shown.  There are several common ways to use doctest:
+
+* To check that a module's docstrings are up-to-date by verifying that all
+  interactive examples still work as documented.
+
+* To perform regression testing by verifying that interactive examples from a
+  test file or a test object work as expected.
+
+* To write tutorial documentation for a package, liberally illustrated with
+  input-output examples.  Depending on whether the examples or the expository text
+  are emphasized, this has the flavor of "literate testing" or "executable
+  documentation".
+
+Here's a complete but small example module::
+
+   """
+   This is the "example" module.
+
+   The example module supplies one function, factorial().  For example,
+
+   >>> factorial(5)
+   120
+   """
+
+   def factorial(n):
+       """Return the factorial of n, an exact integer >= 0.
+
+       >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
+       [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
+       >>> factorial(30)
+       265252859812191058636308480000000
+       >>> factorial(-1)
+       Traceback (most recent call last):
+           ...
+       ValueError: n must be >= 0
+
+       Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer:
+       >>> factorial(30.1)
+       Traceback (most recent call last):
+           ...
+       ValueError: n must be exact integer
+       >>> factorial(30.0)
+       265252859812191058636308480000000
+
+       It must also not be ridiculously large:
+       >>> factorial(1e100)
+       Traceback (most recent call last):
+           ...
+       OverflowError: n too large
+       """
+
+       import math
+       if not n >= 0:
+           raise ValueError("n must be >= 0")
+       if math.floor(n) != n:
+           raise ValueError("n must be exact integer")
+       if n+1 == n:  # catch a value like 1e300
+           raise OverflowError("n too large")
+       result = 1
+       factor = 2
+       while factor <= n:
+           result *= factor
+           factor += 1
+       return result
+
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       import doctest
+       doctest.testmod()
+
+If you run :file:`example.py` directly from the command line, :mod:`doctest`
+works its magic:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python example.py
+   $
+
+There's no output!  That's normal, and it means all the examples worked.  Pass
+``-v`` to the script, and :mod:`doctest` prints a detailed log of what
+it's trying, and prints a summary at the end:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python example.py -v
+   Trying:
+       factorial(5)
+   Expecting:
+       120
+   ok
+   Trying:
+       [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
+   Expecting:
+       [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
+   ok
+
+And so on, eventually ending with:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   Trying:
+       factorial(1e100)
+   Expecting:
+       Traceback (most recent call last):
+           ...
+       OverflowError: n too large
+   ok
+   2 items passed all tests:
+      1 tests in __main__
+      8 tests in __main__.factorial
+   9 tests in 2 items.
+   9 passed and 0 failed.
+   Test passed.
+   $
+
+That's all you need to know to start making productive use of :mod:`doctest`!
+Jump in.  The following sections provide full details.  Note that there are many
+examples of doctests in the standard Python test suite and libraries.
+Especially useful examples can be found in the standard test file
+:file:`Lib/test/test_doctest.py`.
+
+
+.. _doctest-simple-testmod:
+
+Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings
+---------------------------------------------
+
+The simplest way to start using doctest (but not necessarily the way you'll
+continue to do it) is to end each module :mod:`M` with::
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       import doctest
+       doctest.testmod()
+
+:mod:`doctest` then examines docstrings in module :mod:`M`.
+
+Running the module as a script causes the examples in the docstrings to get
+executed and verified::
+
+   python M.py
+
+This won't display anything unless an example fails, in which case the failing
+example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, and the
+final line of output is ``***Test Failed*** N failures.``, where *N* is the
+number of examples that failed.
+
+Run it with the ``-v`` switch instead::
+
+   python M.py -v
+
+and a detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard output, along
+with assorted summaries at the end.
+
+You can force verbose mode by passing ``verbose=True`` to :func:`testmod`, or
+prohibit it by passing ``verbose=False``.  In either of those cases,
+``sys.argv`` is not examined by :func:`testmod` (so passing ``-v`` or not
+has no effect).
+
+There is also a command line shortcut for running :func:`testmod`.  You can
+instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module directly from the
+standard library and pass the module name(s) on the command line::
+
+   python -m doctest -v example.py
+
+This will import :file:`example.py` as a standalone module and run
+:func:`testmod` on it.  Note that this may not work correctly if the file is
+part of a package and imports other submodules from that package.
+
+For more information on :func:`testmod`, see section :ref:`doctest-basic-api`.
+
+
+.. _doctest-simple-testfile:
+
+Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File
+----------------------------------------------
+
+Another simple application of doctest is testing interactive examples in a text
+file.  This can be done with the :func:`testfile` function::
+
+   import doctest
+   doctest.testfile("example.txt")
+
+That short script executes and verifies any interactive Python examples
+contained in the file :file:`example.txt`.  The file content is treated as if it
+were a single giant docstring; the file doesn't need to contain a Python
+program!   For example, perhaps :file:`example.txt` contains this:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   The ``example`` module
+   ======================
+
+   Using ``factorial``
+   -------------------
+
+   This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
+   ``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:
+
+       >>> from example import factorial
+
+   Now use it:
+
+       >>> factorial(6)
+       120
+
+Running ``doctest.testfile("example.txt")`` then finds the error in this
+documentation::
+
+   File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt
+   Failed example:
+       factorial(6)
+   Expected:
+       120
+   Got:
+       720
+
+As with :func:`testmod`, :func:`testfile` won't display anything unless an
+example fails.  If an example does fail, then the failing example(s) and the
+cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, using the same format as
+:func:`testmod`.
+
+By default, :func:`testfile` looks for files in the calling module's directory.
+See section :ref:`doctest-basic-api` for a description of the optional arguments
+that can be used to tell it to look for files in other locations.
+
+Like :func:`testmod`, :func:`testfile`'s verbosity can be set with the
+``-v`` command-line switch or with the optional keyword argument
+*verbose*.
+
+There is also a command line shortcut for running :func:`testfile`.  You can
+instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module directly from the
+standard library and pass the file name(s) on the command line::
+
+   python -m doctest -v example.txt
+
+Because the file name does not end with :file:`.py`, :mod:`doctest` infers that
+it must be run with :func:`testfile`, not :func:`testmod`.
+
+For more information on :func:`testfile`, see section :ref:`doctest-basic-api`.
+
+
+.. _doctest-how-it-works:
+
+How It Works
+------------
+
+This section examines in detail how doctest works: which docstrings it looks at,
+how it finds interactive examples, what execution context it uses, how it
+handles exceptions, and how option flags can be used to control its behavior.
+This is the information that you need to know to write doctest examples; for
+information about actually running doctest on these examples, see the following
+sections.
+
+
+.. _doctest-which-docstrings:
+
+Which Docstrings Are Examined?
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The module docstring, and all function, class and method docstrings are
+searched.  Objects imported into the module are not searched.
+
+In addition, if ``M.__test__`` exists and "is true", it must be a dict, and each
+entry maps a (string) name to a function object, class object, or string.
+Function and class object docstrings found from ``M.__test__`` are searched, and
+strings are treated as if they were docstrings.  In output, a key ``K`` in
+``M.__test__`` appears with name ::
+
+   <name of M>.__test__.K
+
+Any classes found are recursively searched similarly, to test docstrings in
+their contained methods and nested classes.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+   Prior to version 3.4, extension modules written in C were not fully
+   searched by doctest.
+
+
+.. _doctest-finding-examples:
+
+How are Docstring Examples Recognized?
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In most cases a copy-and-paste of an interactive console session works fine,
+but doctest isn't trying to do an exact emulation of any specific Python shell.
+
+::
+
+   >>> # comments are ignored
+   >>> x = 12
+   >>> x
+   12
+   >>> if x == 13:
+   ...     print("yes")
+   ... else:
+   ...     print("no")
+   ...     print("NO")
+   ...     print("NO!!!")
+   ...
+   no
+   NO
+   NO!!!
+   >>>
+
+.. index::
+   single: >>>; interpreter prompt
+   single: ...; interpreter prompt
+
+Any expected output must immediately follow the final ``'>>> '`` or ``'... '``
+line containing the code, and the expected output (if any) extends to the next
+``'>>> '`` or all-whitespace line.
+
+The fine print:
+
+* Expected output cannot contain an all-whitespace line, since such a line is
+  taken to signal the end of expected output.  If expected output does contain a
+  blank line, put ``<BLANKLINE>`` in your doctest example each place a blank line
+  is expected.
+
+* All hard tab characters are expanded to spaces, using 8-column tab stops.
+  Tabs in output generated by the tested code are not modified.  Because any
+  hard tabs in the sample output *are* expanded, this means that if the code
+  output includes hard tabs, the only way the doctest can pass is if the
+  :const:`NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE` option or :ref:`directive <doctest-directives>`
+  is in effect.
+  Alternatively, the test can be rewritten to capture the output and compare it
+  to an expected value as part of the test.  This handling of tabs in the
+  source was arrived at through trial and error, and has proven to be the least
+  error prone way of handling them.  It is possible to use a different
+  algorithm for handling tabs by writing a custom :class:`DocTestParser` class.
+
+* Output to stdout is captured, but not output to stderr (exception tracebacks
+  are captured via a different means).
+
+* If you continue a line via backslashing in an interactive session, or for any
+  other reason use a backslash, you should use a raw docstring, which will
+  preserve your backslashes exactly as you type them::
+
+     >>> def f(x):
+     ...     r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n'''
+     >>> print(f.__doc__)
+     Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n
+
+  Otherwise, the backslash will be interpreted as part of the string. For example,
+  the ``\n`` above would be interpreted as a newline character.  Alternatively, you
+  can double each backslash in the doctest version (and not use a raw string)::
+
+     >>> def f(x):
+     ...     '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n'''
+     >>> print(f.__doc__)
+     Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n
+
+* The starting column doesn't matter::
+
+     >>> assert "Easy!"
+           >>> import math
+               >>> math.floor(1.9)
+               1
+
+  and as many leading whitespace characters are stripped from the expected output
+  as appeared in the initial ``'>>> '`` line that started the example.
+
+
+.. _doctest-execution-context:
+
+What's the Execution Context?
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+By default, each time :mod:`doctest` finds a docstring to test, it uses a
+*shallow copy* of :mod:`M`'s globals, so that running tests doesn't change the
+module's real globals, and so that one test in :mod:`M` can't leave behind
+crumbs that accidentally allow another test to work.  This means examples can
+freely use any names defined at top-level in :mod:`M`, and names defined earlier
+in the docstring being run. Examples cannot see names defined in other
+docstrings.
+
+You can force use of your own dict as the execution context by passing
+``globs=your_dict`` to :func:`testmod` or :func:`testfile` instead.
+
+
+.. _doctest-exceptions:
+
+What About Exceptions?
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+No problem, provided that the traceback is the only output produced by the
+example:  just paste in the traceback. [#]_ Since tracebacks contain details
+that are likely to change rapidly (for example, exact file paths and line
+numbers), this is one case where doctest works hard to be flexible in what it
+accepts.
+
+Simple example::
+
+   >>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list
+
+That doctest succeeds if :exc:`ValueError` is raised, with the ``list.remove(x):
+x not in list`` detail as shown.
+
+The expected output for an exception must start with a traceback header, which
+may be either of the following two lines, indented the same as the first line of
+the example::
+
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+   Traceback (innermost last):
+
+The traceback header is followed by an optional traceback stack, whose contents
+are ignored by doctest.  The traceback stack is typically omitted, or copied
+verbatim from an interactive session.
+
+The traceback stack is followed by the most interesting part: the line(s)
+containing the exception type and detail.  This is usually the last line of a
+traceback, but can extend across multiple lines if the exception has a
+multi-line detail::
+
+   >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ValueError: multi
+       line
+   detail
+
+The last three lines (starting with :exc:`ValueError`) are compared against the
+exception's type and detail, and the rest are ignored.
+
+Best practice is to omit the traceback stack, unless it adds significant
+documentation value to the example.  So the last example is probably better as::
+
+   >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ...
+   ValueError: multi
+       line
+   detail
+
+Note that tracebacks are treated very specially.  In particular, in the
+rewritten example, the use of ``...`` is independent of doctest's
+:const:`ELLIPSIS` option.  The ellipsis in that example could be left out, or
+could just as well be three (or three hundred) commas or digits, or an indented
+transcript of a Monty Python skit.
+
+Some details you should read once, but won't need to remember:
+
+* Doctest can't guess whether your expected output came from an exception
+  traceback or from ordinary printing.  So, e.g., an example that expects
+  ``ValueError: 42 is prime`` will pass whether :exc:`ValueError` is actually
+  raised or if the example merely prints that traceback text.  In practice,
+  ordinary output rarely begins with a traceback header line, so this doesn't
+  create real problems.
+
+* Each line of the traceback stack (if present) must be indented further than
+  the first line of the example, *or* start with a non-alphanumeric character.
+  The first line following the traceback header indented the same and starting
+  with an alphanumeric is taken to be the start of the exception detail.  Of
+  course this does the right thing for genuine tracebacks.
+
+* When the :const:`IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL` doctest option is specified,
+  everything following the leftmost colon and any module information in the
+  exception name is ignored.
+
+* The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some
+  :exc:`SyntaxError`\ s.  But doctest uses the traceback header line to
+  distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions.  So in the rare case where you need
+  to test a :exc:`SyntaxError` that omits the traceback header, you will need to
+  manually add the traceback header line to your test example.
+
+.. index:: single: ^ (caret); marker
+
+* For some :exc:`SyntaxError`\ s, Python displays the character position of the
+  syntax error, using a ``^`` marker::
+
+     >>> 1 1
+       File "<stdin>", line 1
+         1 1
+           ^
+     SyntaxError: invalid syntax
+
+  Since the lines showing the position of the error come before the exception type
+  and detail, they are not checked by doctest.  For example, the following test
+  would pass, even though it puts the ``^`` marker in the wrong location::
+
+     >>> 1 1
+     Traceback (most recent call last):
+       File "<stdin>", line 1
+         1 1
+         ^
+     SyntaxError: invalid syntax
+
+
+.. _option-flags-and-directives:
+.. _doctest-options:
+
+Option Flags
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A number of option flags control various aspects of doctest's behavior.
+Symbolic names for the flags are supplied as module constants, which can be
+:ref:`bitwise ORed <bitwise>` together and passed to various functions.
+The names can also be used in :ref:`doctest directives <doctest-directives>`,
+and may be passed to the doctest command line interface via the ``-o`` option.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+   The ``-o`` command line option.
+
+The first group of options define test semantics, controlling aspects of how
+doctest decides whether actual output matches an example's expected output:
+
+
+.. data:: DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1
+
+   By default, if an expected output block contains just ``1``, an actual output
+   block containing just ``1`` or just ``True`` is considered to be a match, and
+   similarly for ``0`` versus ``False``.  When :const:`DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1` is
+   specified, neither substitution is allowed.  The default behavior caters to that
+   Python changed the return type of many functions from integer to boolean;
+   doctests expecting "little integer" output still work in these cases.  This
+   option will probably go away, but not for several years.
+
+
+.. index:: single: <BLANKLINE>
+.. data:: DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE
+
+   By default, if an expected output block contains a line containing only the
+   string ``<BLANKLINE>``, then that line will match a blank line in the actual
+   output.  Because a genuinely blank line delimits the expected output, this is
+   the only way to communicate that a blank line is expected.  When
+   :const:`DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE` is specified, this substitution is not allowed.
+
+
+.. data:: NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   When specified, all sequences of whitespace (blanks and newlines) are treated as
+   equal.  Any sequence of whitespace within the expected output will match any
+   sequence of whitespace within the actual output. By default, whitespace must
+   match exactly. :const:`NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE` is especially useful when a line of
+   expected output is very long, and you want to wrap it across multiple lines in
+   your source.
+
+
+.. index:: single: ...; in doctests
+.. data:: ELLIPSIS
+
+   When specified, an ellipsis marker (``...``) in the expected output can match
+   any substring in the actual output.  This includes substrings that span line
+   boundaries, and empty substrings, so it's best to keep usage of this simple.
+   Complicated uses can lead to the same kinds of "oops, it matched too much!"
+   surprises that ``.*`` is prone to in regular expressions.
+
+
+.. data:: IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL
+
+   When specified, an example that expects an exception passes if an exception of
+   the expected type is raised, even if the exception detail does not match.  For
+   example, an example expecting ``ValueError: 42`` will pass if the actual
+   exception raised is ``ValueError: 3*14``, but will fail, e.g., if
+   :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   It will also ignore the module name used in Python 3 doctest reports. Hence
+   both of these variations will work with the flag specified, regardless of
+   whether the test is run under Python 2.7 or Python 3.2 (or later versions)::
+
+      >>> raise CustomError('message')
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+      CustomError: message
+
+      >>> raise CustomError('message')
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+      my_module.CustomError: message
+
+   Note that :const:`ELLIPSIS` can also be used to ignore the
+   details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail based
+   on whether or not the module details are printed as part of the
+   exception name. Using :const:`IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL` and the details
+   from Python 2.3 is also the only clear way to write a doctest that doesn't
+   care about the exception detail yet continues to pass under Python 2.3 or
+   earlier (those releases do not support :ref:`doctest directives
+   <doctest-directives>` and ignore them as irrelevant comments). For example::
+
+      >>> (1, 2)[3] = 'moo'
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+        File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+      TypeError: object doesn't support item assignment
+
+   passes under Python 2.3 and later Python versions with the flag specified,
+   even though the detail
+   changed in Python 2.4 to say "does not" instead of "doesn't".
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      :const:`IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL` now also ignores any information relating
+      to the module containing the exception under test.
+
+
+.. data:: SKIP
+
+   When specified, do not run the example at all.  This can be useful in contexts
+   where doctest examples serve as both documentation and test cases, and an
+   example should be included for documentation purposes, but should not be
+   checked.  E.g., the example's output might be random; or the example might
+   depend on resources which would be unavailable to the test driver.
+
+   The SKIP flag can also be used for temporarily "commenting out" examples.
+
+
+.. data:: COMPARISON_FLAGS
+
+   A bitmask or'ing together all the comparison flags above.
+
+The second group of options controls how test failures are reported:
+
+
+.. data:: REPORT_UDIFF
+
+   When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and actual outputs are
+   displayed using a unified diff.
+
+
+.. data:: REPORT_CDIFF
+
+   When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and actual outputs
+   will be displayed using a context diff.
+
+
+.. data:: REPORT_NDIFF
+
+   When specified, differences are computed by ``difflib.Differ``, using the same
+   algorithm as the popular :file:`ndiff.py` utility. This is the only method that
+   marks differences within lines as well as across lines.  For example, if a line
+   of expected output contains digit ``1`` where actual output contains letter
+   ``l``, a line is inserted with a caret marking the mismatching column positions.
+
+
+.. data:: REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE
+
+   When specified, display the first failing example in each doctest, but suppress
+   output for all remaining examples.  This will prevent doctest from reporting
+   correct examples that break because of earlier failures; but it might also hide
+   incorrect examples that fail independently of the first failure.  When
+   :const:`REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE` is specified, the remaining examples are
+   still run, and still count towards the total number of failures reported; only
+   the output is suppressed.
+
+
+.. data:: FAIL_FAST
+
+   When specified, exit after the first failing example and don't attempt to run
+   the remaining examples. Thus, the number of failures reported will be at most
+   1.  This flag may be useful during debugging, since examples after the first
+   failure won't even produce debugging output.
+
+   The doctest command line accepts the option ``-f`` as a shorthand for ``-o
+   FAIL_FAST``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. data:: REPORTING_FLAGS
+
+   A bitmask or'ing together all the reporting flags above.
+
+
+There is also a way to register new option flag names, though this isn't
+useful unless you intend to extend :mod:`doctest` internals via subclassing:
+
+
+.. function:: register_optionflag(name)
+
+   Create a new option flag with a given name, and return the new flag's integer
+   value.  :func:`register_optionflag` can be used when subclassing
+   :class:`OutputChecker` or :class:`DocTestRunner` to create new options that are
+   supported by your subclasses.  :func:`register_optionflag` should always be
+   called using the following idiom::
+
+      MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: # (hash); in doctests
+   single: + (plus); in doctests
+   single: - (minus); in doctests
+.. _doctest-directives:
+
+Directives
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Doctest directives may be used to modify the :ref:`option flags
+<doctest-options>` for an individual example.  Doctest directives are
+special Python comments following an example's source code:
+
+.. productionlist:: doctest
+   directive: "#" "doctest:" `directive_options`
+   directive_options: `directive_option` ("," `directive_option`)\*
+   directive_option: `on_or_off` `directive_option_name`
+   on_or_off: "+" \| "-"
+   directive_option_name: "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" \| "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" \| ...
+
+Whitespace is not allowed between the ``+`` or ``-`` and the directive option
+name.  The directive option name can be any of the option flag names explained
+above.
+
+An example's doctest directives modify doctest's behavior for that single
+example.  Use ``+`` to enable the named behavior, or ``-`` to disable it.
+
+For example, this test passes::
+
+   >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+   [0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,
+   10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
+
+Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output doesn't have
+two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and because the actual output
+is on a single line.  This test also passes, and also requires a directive to do
+so::
+
+   >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+   [0, 1, ..., 18, 19]
+
+Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by
+commas::
+
+   >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+   [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]
+
+If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they are
+combined::
+
+   >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+   ...                        # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+   [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]
+
+As the previous example shows, you can add ``...`` lines to your example
+containing only directives.  This can be useful when an example is too long for
+a directive to comfortably fit on the same line::
+
+   >>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40)))
+   ... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+   [0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]
+
+Note that since all options are disabled by default, and directives apply only
+to the example they appear in, enabling options (via ``+`` in a directive) is
+usually the only meaningful choice.  However, option flags can also be passed to
+functions that run doctests, establishing different defaults.  In such cases,
+disabling an option via ``-`` in a directive can be useful.
+
+
+.. _doctest-warnings:
+
+Warnings
+^^^^^^^^
+
+:mod:`doctest` is serious about requiring exact matches in expected output.  If
+even a single character doesn't match, the test fails.  This will probably
+surprise you a few times, as you learn exactly what Python does and doesn't
+guarantee about output.  For example, when printing a set, Python doesn't
+guarantee that the element is printed in any particular order, so a test like ::
+
+   >>> foo()
+   {"Hermione", "Harry"}
+
+is vulnerable!  One workaround is to do ::
+
+   >>> foo() == {"Hermione", "Harry"}
+   True
+
+instead.  Another is to do ::
+
+   >>> d = sorted(foo())
+   >>> d
+   ['Harry', 'Hermione']
+
+.. note::
+
+    Before Python 3.6, when printing a dict, Python did not guarantee that
+    the key-value pairs was printed in any particular order.
+
+There are others, but you get the idea.
+
+Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like ::
+
+   >>> id(1.0) # certain to fail some of the time
+   7948648
+   >>> class C: pass
+   >>> C()   # the default repr() for instances embeds an address
+   <__main__.C instance at 0x00AC18F0>
+
+The :const:`ELLIPSIS` directive gives a nice approach for the last example::
+
+   >>> C() #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+   <__main__.C instance at 0x...>
+
+Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations across
+platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for float formatting,
+and C libraries vary widely in quality here. ::
+
+   >>> 1./7  # risky
+   0.14285714285714285
+   >>> print(1./7) # safer
+   0.142857142857
+   >>> print(round(1./7, 6)) # much safer
+   0.142857
+
+Numbers of the form ``I/2.**J`` are safe across all platforms, and I often
+contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form::
+
+   >>> 3./4  # utterly safe
+   0.75
+
+Simple fractions are also easier for people to understand, and that makes for
+better documentation.
+
+
+.. _doctest-basic-api:
+
+Basic API
+---------
+
+The functions :func:`testmod` and :func:`testfile` provide a simple interface to
+doctest that should be sufficient for most basic uses.  For a less formal
+introduction to these two functions, see sections :ref:`doctest-simple-testmod`
+and :ref:`doctest-simple-testfile`.
+
+
+.. function:: testfile(filename, module_relative=True, name=None, package=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)
+
+   All arguments except *filename* are optional, and should be specified in keyword
+   form.
+
+   Test examples in the file named *filename*.  Return ``(failure_count,
+   test_count)``.
+
+   Optional argument *module_relative* specifies how the filename should be
+   interpreted:
+
+   * If *module_relative* is ``True`` (the default), then *filename* specifies an
+     OS-independent module-relative path.  By default, this path is relative to the
+     calling module's directory; but if the *package* argument is specified, then it
+     is relative to that package.  To ensure OS-independence, *filename* should use
+     ``/`` characters to separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path
+     (i.e., it may not begin with ``/``).
+
+   * If *module_relative* is ``False``, then *filename* specifies an OS-specific
+     path.  The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths are resolved with
+     respect to the current working directory.
+
+   Optional argument *name* gives the name of the test; by default, or if ``None``,
+   ``os.path.basename(filename)`` is used.
+
+   Optional argument *package* is a Python package or the name of a Python package
+   whose directory should be used as the base directory for a module-relative
+   filename.  If no package is specified, then the calling module's directory is
+   used as the base directory for module-relative filenames.  It is an error to
+   specify *package* if *module_relative* is ``False``.
+
+   Optional argument *globs* gives a dict to be used as the globals when executing
+   examples.  A new shallow copy of this dict is created for the doctest, so its
+   examples start with a clean slate. By default, or if ``None``, a new empty dict
+   is used.
+
+   Optional argument *extraglobs* gives a dict merged into the globals used to
+   execute examples.  This works like :meth:`dict.update`:  if *globs* and
+   *extraglobs* have a common key, the associated value in *extraglobs* appears in
+   the combined dict.  By default, or if ``None``, no extra globals are used.  This
+   is an advanced feature that allows parameterization of doctests.  For example, a
+   doctest can be written for a base class, using a generic name for the class,
+   then reused to test any number of subclasses by passing an *extraglobs* dict
+   mapping the generic name to the subclass to be tested.
+
+   Optional argument *verbose* prints lots of stuff if true, and prints only
+   failures if false; by default, or if ``None``, it's true if and only if ``'-v'``
+   is in ``sys.argv``.
+
+   Optional argument *report* prints a summary at the end when true, else prints
+   nothing at the end.  In verbose mode, the summary is detailed, else the summary
+   is very brief (in fact, empty if all tests passed).
+
+   Optional argument *optionflags* (default value 0) takes the
+   :ref:`bitwise OR <bitwise>` of option flags.
+   See section :ref:`doctest-options`.
+
+   Optional argument *raise_on_error* defaults to false.  If true, an exception is
+   raised upon the first failure or unexpected exception in an example.  This
+   allows failures to be post-mortem debugged. Default behavior is to continue
+   running examples.
+
+   Optional argument *parser* specifies a :class:`DocTestParser` (or subclass) that
+   should be used to extract tests from the files.  It defaults to a normal parser
+   (i.e., ``DocTestParser()``).
+
+   Optional argument *encoding* specifies an encoding that should be used to
+   convert the file to unicode.
+
+
+.. function:: testmod(m=None, name=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False)
+
+   All arguments are optional, and all except for *m* should be specified in
+   keyword form.
+
+   Test examples in docstrings in functions and classes reachable from module *m*
+   (or module :mod:`__main__` if *m* is not supplied or is ``None``), starting with
+   ``m.__doc__``.
+
+   Also test examples reachable from dict ``m.__test__``, if it exists and is not
+   ``None``.  ``m.__test__`` maps names (strings) to functions, classes and
+   strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples; strings are
+   searched directly, as if they were docstrings.
+
+   Only docstrings attached to objects belonging to module *m* are searched.
+
+   Return ``(failure_count, test_count)``.
+
+   Optional argument *name* gives the name of the module; by default, or if
+   ``None``, ``m.__name__`` is used.
+
+   Optional argument *exclude_empty* defaults to false.  If true, objects for which
+   no doctests are found are excluded from consideration. The default is a backward
+   compatibility hack, so that code still using :meth:`doctest.master.summarize` in
+   conjunction with :func:`testmod` continues to get output for objects with no
+   tests. The *exclude_empty* argument to the newer :class:`DocTestFinder`
+   constructor defaults to true.
+
+   Optional arguments *extraglobs*, *verbose*, *report*, *optionflags*,
+   *raise_on_error*, and *globs* are the same as for function :func:`testfile`
+   above, except that *globs* defaults to ``m.__dict__``.
+
+
+.. function:: run_docstring_examples(f, globs, verbose=False, name="NoName", compileflags=None, optionflags=0)
+
+   Test examples associated with object *f*; for example, *f* may be a string,
+   a module, a function, or a class object.
+
+   A shallow copy of dictionary argument *globs* is used for the execution context.
+
+   Optional argument *name* is used in failure messages, and defaults to
+   ``"NoName"``.
+
+   If optional argument *verbose* is true, output is generated even if there are no
+   failures.  By default, output is generated only in case of an example failure.
+
+   Optional argument *compileflags* gives the set of flags that should be used by
+   the Python compiler when running the examples.  By default, or if ``None``,
+   flags are deduced corresponding to the set of future features found in *globs*.
+
+   Optional argument *optionflags* works as for function :func:`testfile` above.
+
+
+.. _doctest-unittest-api:
+
+Unittest API
+------------
+
+As your collection of doctest'ed modules grows, you'll want a way to run all
+their doctests systematically.  :mod:`doctest` provides two functions that can
+be used to create :mod:`unittest` test suites from modules and text files
+containing doctests.  To integrate with :mod:`unittest` test discovery, include
+a :func:`load_tests` function in your test module::
+
+   import unittest
+   import doctest
+   import my_module_with_doctests
+
+   def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore):
+       tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests))
+       return tests
+
+There are two main functions for creating :class:`unittest.TestSuite` instances
+from text files and modules with doctests:
+
+
+.. function:: DocFileSuite(*paths, module_relative=True, package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None, optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)
+
+   Convert doctest tests from one or more text files to a
+   :class:`unittest.TestSuite`.
+
+   The returned :class:`unittest.TestSuite` is to be run by the unittest framework
+   and runs the interactive examples in each file.  If an example in any file
+   fails, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a :exc:`failureException`
+   exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the test and a
+   (sometimes approximate) line number.
+
+   Pass one or more paths (as strings) to text files to be examined.
+
+   Options may be provided as keyword arguments:
+
+   Optional argument *module_relative* specifies how the filenames in *paths*
+   should be interpreted:
+
+   * If *module_relative* is ``True`` (the default), then each filename in
+     *paths* specifies an OS-independent module-relative path.  By default, this
+     path is relative to the calling module's directory; but if the *package*
+     argument is specified, then it is relative to that package.  To ensure
+     OS-independence, each filename should use ``/`` characters to separate path
+     segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with
+     ``/``).
+
+   * If *module_relative* is ``False``, then each filename in *paths* specifies
+     an OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths
+     are resolved with respect to the current working directory.
+
+   Optional argument *package* is a Python package or the name of a Python
+   package whose directory should be used as the base directory for
+   module-relative filenames in *paths*.  If no package is specified, then the
+   calling module's directory is used as the base directory for module-relative
+   filenames.  It is an error to specify *package* if *module_relative* is
+   ``False``.
+
+   Optional argument *setUp* specifies a set-up function for the test suite.
+   This is called before running the tests in each file.  The *setUp* function
+   will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object.  The setUp function can access the
+   test globals as the *globs* attribute of the test passed.
+
+   Optional argument *tearDown* specifies a tear-down function for the test
+   suite.  This is called after running the tests in each file.  The *tearDown*
+   function will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object.  The setUp function can
+   access the test globals as the *globs* attribute of the test passed.
+
+   Optional argument *globs* is a dictionary containing the initial global
+   variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is created for each
+   test.  By default, *globs* is a new empty dictionary.
+
+   Optional argument *optionflags* specifies the default doctest options for the
+   tests, created by or-ing together individual option flags.  See section
+   :ref:`doctest-options`. See function :func:`set_unittest_reportflags` below
+   for a better way to set reporting options.
+
+   Optional argument *parser* specifies a :class:`DocTestParser` (or subclass)
+   that should be used to extract tests from the files.  It defaults to a normal
+   parser (i.e., ``DocTestParser()``).
+
+   Optional argument *encoding* specifies an encoding that should be used to
+   convert the file to unicode.
+
+   The global ``__file__`` is added to the globals provided to doctests loaded
+   from a text file using :func:`DocFileSuite`.
+
+
+.. function:: DocTestSuite(module=None, globs=None, extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, checker=None)
+
+   Convert doctest tests for a module to a :class:`unittest.TestSuite`.
+
+   The returned :class:`unittest.TestSuite` is to be run by the unittest framework
+   and runs each doctest in the module.  If any of the doctests fail, then the
+   synthesized unit test fails, and a :exc:`failureException` exception is raised
+   showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate)
+   line number.
+
+   Optional argument *module* provides the module to be tested.  It can be a module
+   object or a (possibly dotted) module name.  If not specified, the module calling
+   this function is used.
+
+   Optional argument *globs* is a dictionary containing the initial global
+   variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is created for each
+   test.  By default, *globs* is a new empty dictionary.
+
+   Optional argument *extraglobs* specifies an extra set of global variables, which
+   is merged into *globs*.  By default, no extra globals are used.
+
+   Optional argument *test_finder* is the :class:`DocTestFinder` object (or a
+   drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from the module.
+
+   Optional arguments *setUp*, *tearDown*, and *optionflags* are the same as for
+   function :func:`DocFileSuite` above.
+
+   This function uses the same search technique as :func:`testmod`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      :func:`DocTestSuite` returns an empty :class:`unittest.TestSuite` if *module*
+      contains no docstrings instead of raising :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+Under the covers, :func:`DocTestSuite` creates a :class:`unittest.TestSuite` out
+of :class:`doctest.DocTestCase` instances, and :class:`DocTestCase` is a
+subclass of :class:`unittest.TestCase`. :class:`DocTestCase` isn't documented
+here (it's an internal detail), but studying its code can answer questions about
+the exact details of :mod:`unittest` integration.
+
+Similarly, :func:`DocFileSuite` creates a :class:`unittest.TestSuite` out of
+:class:`doctest.DocFileCase` instances, and :class:`DocFileCase` is a subclass
+of :class:`DocTestCase`.
+
+So both ways of creating a :class:`unittest.TestSuite` run instances of
+:class:`DocTestCase`.  This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
+:mod:`doctest` functions yourself, you can control the :mod:`doctest` options in
+use directly, by passing option flags to :mod:`doctest` functions.  However, if
+you're writing a :mod:`unittest` framework, :mod:`unittest` ultimately controls
+when and how tests get run.  The framework author typically wants to control
+:mod:`doctest` reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line
+options), but there's no way to pass options through :mod:`unittest` to
+:mod:`doctest` test runners.
+
+For this reason, :mod:`doctest` also supports a notion of :mod:`doctest`
+reporting flags specific to :mod:`unittest` support, via this function:
+
+
+.. function:: set_unittest_reportflags(flags)
+
+   Set the :mod:`doctest` reporting flags to use.
+
+   Argument *flags* takes the :ref:`bitwise OR <bitwise>` of option flags.  See
+   section :ref:`doctest-options`.  Only "reporting flags" can be used.
+
+   This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests run by module
+   :mod:`unittest`:  the :meth:`runTest` method of :class:`DocTestCase` looks at
+   the option flags specified for the test case when the :class:`DocTestCase`
+   instance was constructed.  If no reporting flags were specified (which is the
+   typical and expected case), :mod:`doctest`'s :mod:`unittest` reporting flags are
+   :ref:`bitwise ORed <bitwise>` into the option flags, and the option flags
+   so augmented are passed to the :class:`DocTestRunner` instance created to
+   run the doctest.  If any reporting flags were specified when the
+   :class:`DocTestCase` instance was constructed, :mod:`doctest`'s
+   :mod:`unittest` reporting flags are ignored.
+
+   The value of the :mod:`unittest` reporting flags in effect before the function
+   was called is returned by the function.
+
+
+.. _doctest-advanced-api:
+
+Advanced API
+------------
+
+The basic API is a simple wrapper that's intended to make doctest easy to use.
+It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users' needs; however, if you
+require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish to extend doctest's
+capabilities, then you should use the advanced API.
+
+The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used to store
+the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases:
+
+* :class:`Example`: A single Python :term:`statement`, paired with its expected
+  output.
+
+* :class:`DocTest`: A collection of :class:`Example`\ s, typically extracted
+  from a single docstring or text file.
+
+Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and check
+doctest examples:
+
+* :class:`DocTestFinder`: Finds all docstrings in a given module, and uses a
+  :class:`DocTestParser` to create a :class:`DocTest` from every docstring that
+  contains interactive examples.
+
+* :class:`DocTestParser`: Creates a :class:`DocTest` object from a string (such
+  as an object's docstring).
+
+* :class:`DocTestRunner`: Executes the examples in a :class:`DocTest`, and uses
+  an :class:`OutputChecker` to verify their output.
+
+* :class:`OutputChecker`: Compares the actual output from a doctest example with
+  the expected output, and decides whether they match.
+
+The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the following
+diagram::
+
+                               list of:
+   +------+                   +---------+
+   |module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results
+   +------+    |        ^     +---------+     |       ^    (printed)
+               |        |     | Example |     |       |
+               v        |     |   ...   |     v       |
+              DocTestParser   | Example |   OutputChecker
+                              +---------+
+
+
+.. _doctest-doctest:
+
+DocTest Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: DocTest(examples, globs, name, filename, lineno, docstring)
+
+   A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single namespace.  The
+   constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names.
+
+
+   :class:`DocTest` defines the following attributes.  They are initialized by
+   the constructor, and should not be modified directly.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: examples
+
+      A list of :class:`Example` objects encoding the individual interactive Python
+      examples that should be run by this test.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: globs
+
+      The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run in. This is a
+      dictionary mapping names to values.  Any changes to the namespace made by the
+      examples (such as binding new variables) will be reflected in :attr:`globs`
+      after the test is run.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      A string name identifying the :class:`DocTest`.  Typically, this is the name
+      of the object or file that the test was extracted from.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: filename
+
+      The name of the file that this :class:`DocTest` was extracted from; or
+      ``None`` if the filename is unknown, or if the :class:`DocTest` was not
+      extracted from a file.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+
+      The line number within :attr:`filename` where this :class:`DocTest` begins, or
+      ``None`` if the line number is unavailable.  This line number is zero-based
+      with respect to the beginning of the file.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: docstring
+
+      The string that the test was extracted from, or ``None`` if the string is
+      unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a string.
+
+
+.. _doctest-example:
+
+Example Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: Example(source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0, indent=0, options=None)
+
+   A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and its expected
+   output.  The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of
+   the same names.
+
+
+   :class:`Example` defines the following attributes.  They are initialized by
+   the constructor, and should not be modified directly.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: source
+
+      A string containing the example's source code.  This source code consists of a
+      single Python statement, and always ends with a newline; the constructor adds
+      a newline when necessary.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: want
+
+      The expected output from running the example's source code (either from
+      stdout, or a traceback in case of exception).  :attr:`want` ends with a
+      newline unless no output is expected, in which case it's an empty string.  The
+      constructor adds a newline when necessary.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: exc_msg
+
+      The exception message generated by the example, if the example is expected to
+      generate an exception; or ``None`` if it is not expected to generate an
+      exception.  This exception message is compared against the return value of
+      :func:`traceback.format_exception_only`.  :attr:`exc_msg` ends with a newline
+      unless it's ``None``.  The constructor adds a newline if needed.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+
+      The line number within the string containing this example where the example
+      begins.  This line number is zero-based with respect to the beginning of the
+      containing string.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: indent
+
+      The example's indentation in the containing string, i.e., the number of space
+      characters that precede the example's first prompt.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: options
+
+      A dictionary mapping from option flags to ``True`` or ``False``, which is used
+      to override default options for this example.  Any option flags not contained
+      in this dictionary are left at their default value (as specified by the
+      :class:`DocTestRunner`'s :attr:`optionflags`). By default, no options are set.
+
+
+.. _doctest-doctestfinder:
+
+DocTestFinder objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: DocTestFinder(verbose=False, parser=DocTestParser(), recurse=True, exclude_empty=True)
+
+   A processing class used to extract the :class:`DocTest`\ s that are relevant to
+   a given object, from its docstring and the docstrings of its contained objects.
+   :class:`DocTest`\ s can be extracted from modules, classes, functions,
+   methods, staticmethods, classmethods, and properties.
+
+   The optional argument *verbose* can be used to display the objects searched by
+   the finder.  It defaults to ``False`` (no output).
+
+   The optional argument *parser* specifies the :class:`DocTestParser` object (or a
+   drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from docstrings.
+
+   If the optional argument *recurse* is false, then :meth:`DocTestFinder.find`
+   will only examine the given object, and not any contained objects.
+
+   If the optional argument *exclude_empty* is false, then
+   :meth:`DocTestFinder.find` will include tests for objects with empty docstrings.
+
+
+   :class:`DocTestFinder` defines the following method:
+
+
+   .. method:: find(obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs])
+
+      Return a list of the :class:`DocTest`\ s that are defined by *obj*'s
+      docstring, or by any of its contained objects' docstrings.
+
+      The optional argument *name* specifies the object's name; this name will be
+      used to construct names for the returned :class:`DocTest`\ s.  If *name* is
+      not specified, then ``obj.__name__`` is used.
+
+      The optional parameter *module* is the module that contains the given object.
+      If the module is not specified or is ``None``, then the test finder will attempt
+      to automatically determine the correct module.  The object's module is used:
+
+      * As a default namespace, if *globs* is not specified.
+
+      * To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests from objects that are
+        imported from other modules.  (Contained objects with modules other than
+        *module* are ignored.)
+
+      * To find the name of the file containing the object.
+
+      * To help find the line number of the object within its file.
+
+      If *module* is ``False``, no attempt to find the module will be made.  This is
+      obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest itself: if *module* is ``False``, or
+      is ``None`` but cannot be found automatically, then all objects are considered
+      to belong to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will
+      (recursively) be searched for doctests.
+
+      The globals for each :class:`DocTest` is formed by combining *globs* and
+      *extraglobs* (bindings in *extraglobs* override bindings in *globs*).  A new
+      shallow copy of the globals dictionary is created for each :class:`DocTest`.
+      If *globs* is not specified, then it defaults to the module's *__dict__*, if
+      specified, or ``{}`` otherwise.  If *extraglobs* is not specified, then it
+      defaults to ``{}``.
+
+
+.. _doctest-doctestparser:
+
+DocTestParser objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: DocTestParser()
+
+   A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a string, and use
+   them to create a :class:`DocTest` object.
+
+
+   :class:`DocTestParser` defines the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_doctest(string, globs, name, filename, lineno)
+
+      Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and collect them into a
+      :class:`DocTest` object.
+
+      *globs*, *name*, *filename*, and *lineno* are attributes for the new
+      :class:`DocTest` object.  See the documentation for :class:`DocTest` for more
+      information.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_examples(string, name='<string>')
+
+      Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return them as a list
+      of :class:`Example` objects.  Line numbers are 0-based.  The optional argument
+      *name* is a name identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.
+
+
+   .. method:: parse(string, name='<string>')
+
+      Divide the given string into examples and intervening text, and return them as
+      a list of alternating :class:`Example`\ s and strings. Line numbers for the
+      :class:`Example`\ s are 0-based.  The optional argument *name* is a name
+      identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.
+
+
+.. _doctest-doctestrunner:
+
+DocTestRunner objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: DocTestRunner(checker=None, verbose=None, optionflags=0)
+
+   A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive examples in a
+   :class:`DocTest`.
+
+   The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done by an
+   :class:`OutputChecker`.  This comparison may be customized with a number of
+   option flags; see section :ref:`doctest-options` for more information.  If the
+   option flags are insufficient, then the comparison may also be customized by
+   passing a subclass of :class:`OutputChecker` to the constructor.
+
+   The test runner's display output can be controlled in two ways. First, an output
+   function can be passed to :meth:`TestRunner.run`; this function will be called
+   with strings that should be displayed.  It defaults to ``sys.stdout.write``.  If
+   capturing the output is not sufficient, then the display output can be also
+   customized by subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods
+   :meth:`report_start`, :meth:`report_success`,
+   :meth:`report_unexpected_exception`, and :meth:`report_failure`.
+
+   The optional keyword argument *checker* specifies the :class:`OutputChecker`
+   object (or drop-in replacement) that should be used to compare the expected
+   outputs to the actual outputs of doctest examples.
+
+   The optional keyword argument *verbose* controls the :class:`DocTestRunner`'s
+   verbosity.  If *verbose* is ``True``, then information is printed about each
+   example, as it is run.  If *verbose* is ``False``, then only failures are
+   printed.  If *verbose* is unspecified, or ``None``, then verbose output is used
+   iff the command-line switch ``-v`` is used.
+
+   The optional keyword argument *optionflags* can be used to control how the test
+   runner compares expected output to actual output, and how it displays failures.
+   For more information, see section :ref:`doctest-options`.
+
+
+   :class:`DocTestParser` defines the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: report_start(out, test, example)
+
+      Report that the test runner is about to process the given example. This method
+      is provided to allow subclasses of :class:`DocTestRunner` to customize their
+      output; it should not be called directly.
+
+      *example* is the example about to be processed.  *test* is the test
+      *containing example*.  *out* is the output function that was passed to
+      :meth:`DocTestRunner.run`.
+
+
+   .. method:: report_success(out, test, example, got)
+
+      Report that the given example ran successfully.  This method is provided to
+      allow subclasses of :class:`DocTestRunner` to customize their output; it
+      should not be called directly.
+
+      *example* is the example about to be processed.  *got* is the actual output
+      from the example.  *test* is the test containing *example*.  *out* is the
+      output function that was passed to :meth:`DocTestRunner.run`.
+
+
+   .. method:: report_failure(out, test, example, got)
+
+      Report that the given example failed.  This method is provided to allow
+      subclasses of :class:`DocTestRunner` to customize their output; it should not
+      be called directly.
+
+      *example* is the example about to be processed.  *got* is the actual output
+      from the example.  *test* is the test containing *example*.  *out* is the
+      output function that was passed to :meth:`DocTestRunner.run`.
+
+
+   .. method:: report_unexpected_exception(out, test, example, exc_info)
+
+      Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception. This method is
+      provided to allow subclasses of :class:`DocTestRunner` to customize their
+      output; it should not be called directly.
+
+      *example* is the example about to be processed. *exc_info* is a tuple
+      containing information about the unexpected exception (as returned by
+      :func:`sys.exc_info`). *test* is the test containing *example*.  *out* is the
+      output function that was passed to :meth:`DocTestRunner.run`.
+
+
+   .. method:: run(test, compileflags=None, out=None, clear_globs=True)
+
+      Run the examples in *test* (a :class:`DocTest` object), and display the
+      results using the writer function *out*.
+
+      The examples are run in the namespace ``test.globs``.  If *clear_globs* is
+      true (the default), then this namespace will be cleared after the test runs,
+      to help with garbage collection. If you would like to examine the namespace
+      after the test completes, then use *clear_globs=False*.
+
+      *compileflags* gives the set of flags that should be used by the Python
+      compiler when running the examples.  If not specified, then it will default to
+      the set of future-import flags that apply to *globs*.
+
+      The output of each example is checked using the :class:`DocTestRunner`'s
+      output checker, and the results are formatted by the
+      :meth:`DocTestRunner.report_\*` methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: summarize(verbose=None)
+
+      Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by this DocTestRunner,
+      and return a :term:`named tuple` ``TestResults(failed, attempted)``.
+
+      The optional *verbose* argument controls how detailed the summary is.  If the
+      verbosity is not specified, then the :class:`DocTestRunner`'s verbosity is
+      used.
+
+.. _doctest-outputchecker:
+
+OutputChecker objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: OutputChecker()
+
+   A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest example
+   matches the expected output.  :class:`OutputChecker` defines two methods:
+   :meth:`check_output`, which compares a given pair of outputs, and returns true
+   if they match; and :meth:`output_difference`, which returns a string describing
+   the differences between two outputs.
+
+
+   :class:`OutputChecker` defines the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: check_output(want, got, optionflags)
+
+      Return ``True`` iff the actual output from an example (*got*) matches the
+      expected output (*want*).  These strings are always considered to match if
+      they are identical; but depending on what option flags the test runner is
+      using, several non-exact match types are also possible.  See section
+      :ref:`doctest-options` for more information about option flags.
+
+
+   .. method:: output_difference(example, got, optionflags)
+
+      Return a string describing the differences between the expected output for a
+      given example (*example*) and the actual output (*got*).  *optionflags* is the
+      set of option flags used to compare *want* and *got*.
+
+
+.. _doctest-debugging:
+
+Debugging
+---------
+
+Doctest provides several mechanisms for debugging doctest examples:
+
+* Several functions convert doctests to executable Python programs, which can be
+  run under the Python debugger, :mod:`pdb`.
+
+* The :class:`DebugRunner` class is a subclass of :class:`DocTestRunner` that
+  raises an exception for the first failing example, containing information about
+  that example. This information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on
+  the example.
+
+* The :mod:`unittest` cases generated by :func:`DocTestSuite` support the
+  :meth:`debug` method defined by :class:`unittest.TestCase`.
+
+* You can add a call to :func:`pdb.set_trace` in a doctest example, and you'll
+  drop into the Python debugger when that line is executed.  Then you can inspect
+  current values of variables, and so on.  For example, suppose :file:`a.py`
+  contains just this module docstring::
+
+     """
+     >>> def f(x):
+     ...     g(x*2)
+     >>> def g(x):
+     ...     print(x+3)
+     ...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
+     >>> f(3)
+     9
+     """
+
+  Then an interactive Python session may look like this::
+
+     >>> import a, doctest
+     >>> doctest.testmod(a)
+     --Return--
+     > <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None
+     -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
+     (Pdb) list
+       1     def g(x):
+       2         print(x+3)
+       3  ->     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
+     [EOF]
+     (Pdb) p x
+     6
+     (Pdb) step
+     --Return--
+     > <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None
+     -> g(x*2)
+     (Pdb) list
+       1     def f(x):
+       2  ->     g(x*2)
+     [EOF]
+     (Pdb) p x
+     3
+     (Pdb) step
+     --Return--
+     > <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None
+     -> f(3)
+     (Pdb) cont
+     (0, 3)
+     >>>
+
+
+Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the synthesized
+code under the debugger:
+
+
+.. function:: script_from_examples(s)
+
+   Convert text with examples to a script.
+
+   Argument *s* is a string containing doctest examples.  The string is converted
+   to a Python script, where doctest examples in *s* are converted to regular code,
+   and everything else is converted to Python comments.  The generated script is
+   returned as a string. For example, ::
+
+      import doctest
+      print(doctest.script_from_examples(r"""
+          Set x and y to 1 and 2.
+          >>> x, y = 1, 2
+
+          Print their sum:
+          >>> print(x+y)
+          3
+      """))
+
+   displays::
+
+      # Set x and y to 1 and 2.
+      x, y = 1, 2
+      #
+      # Print their sum:
+      print(x+y)
+      # Expected:
+      ## 3
+
+   This function is used internally by other functions (see below), but can also be
+   useful when you want to transform an interactive Python session into a Python
+   script.
+
+
+.. function:: testsource(module, name)
+
+   Convert the doctest for an object to a script.
+
+   Argument *module* is a module object, or dotted name of a module, containing the
+   object whose doctests are of interest.  Argument *name* is the name (within the
+   module) of the object with the doctests of interest.  The result is a string,
+   containing the object's docstring converted to a Python script, as described for
+   :func:`script_from_examples` above.  For example, if module :file:`a.py`
+   contains a top-level function :func:`f`, then ::
+
+      import a, doctest
+      print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f"))
+
+   prints a script version of function :func:`f`'s docstring, with doctests
+   converted to code, and the rest placed in comments.
+
+
+.. function:: debug(module, name, pm=False)
+
+   Debug the doctests for an object.
+
+   The *module* and *name* arguments are the same as for function
+   :func:`testsource` above.  The synthesized Python script for the named object's
+   docstring is written to a temporary file, and then that file is run under the
+   control of the Python debugger, :mod:`pdb`.
+
+   A shallow copy of ``module.__dict__`` is used for both local and global
+   execution context.
+
+   Optional argument *pm* controls whether post-mortem debugging is used.  If *pm*
+   has a true value, the script file is run directly, and the debugger gets
+   involved only if the script terminates via raising an unhandled exception.  If
+   it does, then post-mortem debugging is invoked, via :func:`pdb.post_mortem`,
+   passing the traceback object from the unhandled exception.  If *pm* is not
+   specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from the start, via
+   passing an appropriate :func:`exec` call to :func:`pdb.run`.
+
+
+.. function:: debug_src(src, pm=False, globs=None)
+
+   Debug the doctests in a string.
+
+   This is like function :func:`debug` above, except that a string containing
+   doctest examples is specified directly, via the *src* argument.
+
+   Optional argument *pm* has the same meaning as in function :func:`debug` above.
+
+   Optional argument *globs* gives a dictionary to use as both local and global
+   execution context.  If not specified, or ``None``, an empty dictionary is used.
+   If specified, a shallow copy of the dictionary is used.
+
+
+The :class:`DebugRunner` class, and the special exceptions it may raise, are of
+most interest to testing framework authors, and will only be sketched here.  See
+the source code, and especially :class:`DebugRunner`'s docstring (which is a
+doctest!) for more details:
+
+
+.. class:: DebugRunner(checker=None, verbose=None, optionflags=0)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`DocTestRunner` that raises an exception as soon as a
+   failure is encountered.  If an unexpected exception occurs, an
+   :exc:`UnexpectedException` exception is raised, containing the test, the
+   example, and the original exception.  If the output doesn't match, then a
+   :exc:`DocTestFailure` exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and
+   the actual output.
+
+   For information about the constructor parameters and methods, see the
+   documentation for :class:`DocTestRunner` in section :ref:`doctest-advanced-api`.
+
+There are two exceptions that may be raised by :class:`DebugRunner` instances:
+
+
+.. exception:: DocTestFailure(test, example, got)
+
+   An exception raised by :class:`DocTestRunner` to signal that a doctest example's
+   actual output did not match its expected output. The constructor arguments are
+   used to initialize the attributes of the same names.
+
+:exc:`DocTestFailure` defines the following attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocTestFailure.test
+
+   The :class:`DocTest` object that was being run when the example failed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocTestFailure.example
+
+   The :class:`Example` that failed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocTestFailure.got
+
+   The example's actual output.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnexpectedException(test, example, exc_info)
+
+   An exception raised by :class:`DocTestRunner` to signal that a doctest
+   example raised an unexpected exception.  The constructor arguments are used
+   to initialize the attributes of the same names.
+
+:exc:`UnexpectedException` defines the following attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: UnexpectedException.test
+
+   The :class:`DocTest` object that was being run when the example failed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: UnexpectedException.example
+
+   The :class:`Example` that failed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: UnexpectedException.exc_info
+
+   A tuple containing information about the unexpected exception, as returned by
+   :func:`sys.exc_info`.
+
+
+.. _doctest-soapbox:
+
+Soapbox
+-------
+
+As mentioned in the introduction, :mod:`doctest` has grown to have three primary
+uses:
+
+#. Checking examples in docstrings.
+
+#. Regression testing.
+
+#. Executable documentation / literate testing.
+
+These uses have different requirements, and it is important to distinguish them.
+In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure test cases makes for bad
+documentation.
+
+When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care. There's an art to
+this that needs to be learned---it may not be natural at first.  Examples should
+add genuine value to the documentation.  A good example can often be worth many
+words. If done with care, the examples will be invaluable for your users, and
+will pay back the time it takes to collect them many times over as the years go
+by and things change.  I'm still amazed at how often one of my :mod:`doctest`
+examples stops working after a "harmless" change.
+
+Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially if you
+don't skimp on explanatory text.  By interleaving prose and examples, it becomes
+much easier to keep track of what's actually being tested, and why.  When a test
+fails, good prose can make it much easier to figure out what the problem is, and
+how it should be fixed.  It's true that you could write extensive comments in
+code-based testing, but few programmers do. Many have found that using doctest
+approaches instead leads to much clearer tests.  Perhaps this is simply because
+doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while writing
+comments in code is a little harder.  I think it goes deeper than just that:
+the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test is that you want to
+explain the fine points of your software, and illustrate them with examples.
+This in turn naturally leads to test files that start with the simplest
+features, and logically progress to complications and edge cases.  A coherent
+narrative is the result, instead of a collection of isolated functions that test
+isolated bits of functionality seemingly at random.  It's a different attitude,
+and produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and
+explaining.
+
+Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files.  There are
+several options for organizing tests:
+
+* Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and test the
+  files using :func:`testfile` or :func:`DocFileSuite`.  This is recommended,
+  although is easiest to do for new projects, designed from the start to use
+  doctest.
+
+* Define functions named ``_regrtest_topic`` that consist of single docstrings,
+  containing test cases for the named topics.  These functions can be included in
+  the same file as the module, or separated out into a separate test file.
+
+* Define a ``__test__`` dictionary mapping from regression test topics to
+  docstrings containing test cases.
+
+When you have placed your tests in a module, the module can itself be the test
+runner.  When a test fails, you can arrange for your test runner to re-run only
+the failing doctest while you debug the problem.  Here is a minimal example of
+such a test runner::
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        import doctest
+        flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST
+        if len(sys.argv) > 1:
+            name = sys.argv[1]
+            if name in globals():
+                obj = globals()[name]
+            else:
+                obj = __test__[name]
+            doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name,
+                                           optionflags=flags)
+        else:
+            fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags)
+            print("{} failures out of {} tests".format(fail, total))
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Examples containing both expected output and an exception are not supported.
+   Trying to guess where one ends and the other begins is too error-prone, and that
+   also makes for a confusing test.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dummy_threading.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dummy_threading.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfc3289
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/dummy_threading.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+:mod:`dummy_threading` --- Drop-in replacement for the :mod:`threading` module
+==============================================================================
+
+.. module:: dummy_threading
+   :synopsis: Drop-in replacement for the threading module.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dummy_threading.py`
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.7
+   Python now always has threading enabled.  Please use :mod:`threading` instead.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a duplicate interface to the :mod:`threading` module.
+It was meant to be imported when the :mod:`_thread` module was not provided
+on a platform.
+
+Be careful to not use this module where deadlock might occur from a thread being
+created that blocks waiting for another thread to be created.  This often occurs
+with blocking I/O.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.charset.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.charset.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..053463f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.charset.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,247 @@
+:mod:`email.charset`: Representing character sets
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.charset
+   :synopsis: Character Sets
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/charset.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module is part of the legacy (``Compat32``) email API.  In the new
+API only the aliases table is used.
+
+The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the module.
+
+This module provides a class :class:`Charset` for representing character sets
+and character set conversions in email messages, as well as a character set
+registry and several convenience methods for manipulating this registry.
+Instances of :class:`Charset` are used in several other modules within the
+:mod:`email` package.
+
+Import this class from the :mod:`email.charset` module.
+
+
+.. class:: Charset(input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET)
+
+   Map character sets to their email properties.
+
+   This class provides information about the requirements imposed on email for a
+   specific character set.  It also provides convenience routines for converting
+   between character sets, given the availability of the applicable codecs.  Given
+   a character set, it will do its best to provide information on how to use that
+   character set in an email message in an RFC-compliant way.
+
+   Certain character sets must be encoded with quoted-printable or base64 when used
+   in email headers or bodies.  Certain character sets must be converted outright,
+   and are not allowed in email.
+
+   Optional *input_charset* is as described below; it is always coerced to lower
+   case.  After being alias normalized it is also used as a lookup into the
+   registry of character sets to find out the header encoding, body encoding, and
+   output conversion codec to be used for the character set.  For example, if
+   *input_charset* is ``iso-8859-1``, then headers and bodies will be encoded using
+   quoted-printable and no output conversion codec is necessary.  If
+   *input_charset* is ``euc-jp``, then headers will be encoded with base64, bodies
+   will not be encoded, but output text will be converted from the ``euc-jp``
+   character set to the ``iso-2022-jp`` character set.
+
+   :class:`Charset` instances have the following data attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: input_charset
+
+      The initial character set specified.  Common aliases are converted to
+      their *official* email names (e.g. ``latin_1`` is converted to
+      ``iso-8859-1``).  Defaults to 7-bit ``us-ascii``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: header_encoding
+
+      If the character set must be encoded before it can be used in an email
+      header, this attribute will be set to ``Charset.QP`` (for
+      quoted-printable), ``Charset.BASE64`` (for base64 encoding), or
+      ``Charset.SHORTEST`` for the shortest of QP or BASE64 encoding. Otherwise,
+      it will be ``None``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: body_encoding
+
+      Same as *header_encoding*, but describes the encoding for the mail
+      message's body, which indeed may be different than the header encoding.
+      ``Charset.SHORTEST`` is not allowed for *body_encoding*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: output_charset
+
+      Some character sets must be converted before they can be used in email
+      headers or bodies.  If the *input_charset* is one of them, this attribute
+      will contain the name of the character set output will be converted to.
+      Otherwise, it will be ``None``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: input_codec
+
+      The name of the Python codec used to convert the *input_charset* to
+      Unicode.  If no conversion codec is necessary, this attribute will be
+      ``None``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: output_codec
+
+      The name of the Python codec used to convert Unicode to the
+      *output_charset*.  If no conversion codec is necessary, this attribute
+      will have the same value as the *input_codec*.
+
+
+   :class:`Charset` instances also have the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: get_body_encoding()
+
+      Return the content transfer encoding used for body encoding.
+
+      This is either the string ``quoted-printable`` or ``base64`` depending on
+      the encoding used, or it is a function, in which case you should call the
+      function with a single argument, the Message object being encoded.  The
+      function should then set the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`
+      header itself to whatever is appropriate.
+
+      Returns the string ``quoted-printable`` if *body_encoding* is ``QP``,
+      returns the string ``base64`` if *body_encoding* is ``BASE64``, and
+      returns the string ``7bit`` otherwise.
+
+
+   .. XXX to_splittable and from_splittable are not there anymore!
+
+   .. to_splittable(s)
+
+      Convert a possibly multibyte string to a safely splittable format. *s* is
+      the string to split.
+
+      Uses the *input_codec* to try and convert the string to Unicode, so it can
+      be safely split on character boundaries (even for multibyte characters).
+
+      Returns the string as-is if it isn't known how to convert *s* to Unicode
+      with the *input_charset*.
+
+      Characters that could not be converted to Unicode will be replaced with
+      the Unicode replacement character ``'U+FFFD'``.
+
+
+   .. from_splittable(ustr[, to_output])
+
+      Convert a splittable string back into an encoded string.  *ustr* is a
+      Unicode string to "unsplit".
+
+      This method uses the proper codec to try and convert the string from
+      Unicode back into an encoded format.  Return the string as-is if it is not
+      Unicode, or if it could not be converted from Unicode.
+
+      Characters that could not be converted from Unicode will be replaced with
+      an appropriate character (usually ``'?'``).
+
+      If *to_output* is ``True`` (the default), uses *output_codec* to convert
+      to an encoded format.  If *to_output* is ``False``, it uses *input_codec*.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_output_charset()
+
+      Return the output character set.
+
+      This is the *output_charset* attribute if that is not ``None``, otherwise
+      it is *input_charset*.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_encode(string)
+
+      Header-encode the string *string*.
+
+      The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be based on the
+      *header_encoding* attribute.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_encode_lines(string, maxlengths)
+
+      Header-encode a *string* by converting it first to bytes.
+
+      This is similar to :meth:`header_encode` except that the string is fit
+      into maximum line lengths as given by the argument *maxlengths*, which
+      must be an iterator: each element returned from this iterator will provide
+      the next maximum line length.
+
+
+   .. method:: body_encode(string)
+
+      Body-encode the string *string*.
+
+      The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be based on the
+      *body_encoding* attribute.
+
+   The :class:`Charset` class also provides a number of methods to support
+   standard operations and built-in functions.
+
+
+   .. method:: __str__()
+
+      Returns *input_charset* as a string coerced to lower
+      case. :meth:`__repr__` is an alias for :meth:`__str__`.
+
+
+   .. method:: __eq__(other)
+
+      This method allows you to compare two :class:`Charset` instances for
+      equality.
+
+
+   .. method:: __ne__(other)
+
+      This method allows you to compare two :class:`Charset` instances for
+      inequality.
+
+The :mod:`email.charset` module also provides the following functions for adding
+new entries to the global character set, alias, and codec registries:
+
+
+.. function:: add_charset(charset, header_enc=None, body_enc=None, output_charset=None)
+
+   Add character properties to the global registry.
+
+   *charset* is the input character set, and must be the canonical name of a
+   character set.
+
+   Optional *header_enc* and *body_enc* is either ``Charset.QP`` for
+   quoted-printable, ``Charset.BASE64`` for base64 encoding,
+   ``Charset.SHORTEST`` for the shortest of quoted-printable or base64 encoding,
+   or ``None`` for no encoding.  ``SHORTEST`` is only valid for
+   *header_enc*. The default is ``None`` for no encoding.
+
+   Optional *output_charset* is the character set that the output should be in.
+   Conversions will proceed from input charset, to Unicode, to the output charset
+   when the method :meth:`Charset.convert` is called.  The default is to output in
+   the same character set as the input.
+
+   Both *input_charset* and *output_charset* must have Unicode codec entries in the
+   module's character set-to-codec mapping; use :func:`add_codec` to add codecs the
+   module does not know about.  See the :mod:`codecs` module's documentation for
+   more information.
+
+   The global character set registry is kept in the module global dictionary
+   ``CHARSETS``.
+
+
+.. function:: add_alias(alias, canonical)
+
+   Add a character set alias.  *alias* is the alias name, e.g. ``latin-1``.
+   *canonical* is the character set's canonical name, e.g. ``iso-8859-1``.
+
+   The global charset alias registry is kept in the module global dictionary
+   ``ALIASES``.
+
+
+.. function:: add_codec(charset, codecname)
+
+   Add a codec that map characters in the given character set to and from Unicode.
+
+   *charset* is the canonical name of a character set. *codecname* is the name of a
+   Python codec, as appropriate for the second argument to the :class:`str`'s
+   :meth:`~str.encode` method.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.compat32-message.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.compat32-message.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.compat32-message.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,759 @@
+.. _compat32_message:
+
+:mod:`email.message.Message`: Representing an email message using the :data:`~email.policy.compat32` API
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.message
+   :synopsis: The base class representing email messages in a fashion
+              backward compatible with Python 3.2
+   :noindex:
+
+
+The :class:`Message` class is very similar to the
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class, without the methods added by that
+class, and with the default behavior of certain other methods being slightly
+different.  We also document here some methods that, while supported by the
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class, are not recommended unless you are
+dealing with legacy code.
+
+The philosophy and structure of the two classes is otherwise the same.
+
+This document describes the behavior under the default (for :class:`Message`)
+policy :attr:`~email.policy.Compat32`.  If you are going to use another policy,
+you should be using the :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class instead.
+
+An email message consists of *headers* and a *payload*.  Headers must be
+:rfc:`5233` style names and values, where the field name and value are
+separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or the
+field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary object, or
+a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set of headers and
+their own payload.  The latter type of payload is indicated by the message
+having a MIME type such as :mimetype:`multipart/\*` or
+:mimetype:`message/rfc822`.
+
+The conceptual model provided by a :class:`Message` object is that of an
+ordered dictionary of headers with additional methods for accessing both
+specialized information from the headers, for accessing the payload, for
+generating a serialized version of the message, and for recursively walking
+over the object tree.  Note that duplicate headers are supported but special
+methods must be used to access them.
+
+The :class:`Message` pseudo-dictionary is indexed by the header names, which
+must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary are strings that are
+supposed to contain only ASCII characters; there is some special handling for
+non-ASCII input, but it doesn't always produce the correct results.  Headers
+are stored and returned in case-preserving form, but field names are matched
+case-insensitively.  There may also be a single envelope header, also known as
+the *Unix-From* header or the ``From_`` header.  The *payload* is either a
+string or bytes, in the case of simple message objects, or a list of
+:class:`Message` objects, for MIME container documents (e.g.
+:mimetype:`multipart/\*` and :mimetype:`message/rfc822`).
+
+Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
+
+
+.. class:: Message(policy=compat32)
+
+   If *policy* is specified (it must be an instance of a :mod:`~email.policy`
+   class) use the rules it specifies to update and serialize the representation
+   of the message.  If *policy* is not set, use the :class:`compat32
+   <email.policy.Compat32>` policy, which maintains backward compatibility with
+   the Python 3.2 version of the email package.  For more information see the
+   :mod:`~email.policy` documentation.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3 The *policy* keyword argument was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: as_string(unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=0, policy=None)
+
+      Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When optional *unixfrom*
+      is true, the envelope header is included in the returned string.
+      *unixfrom* defaults to ``False``.  For backward compatibility reasons,
+      *maxheaderlen* defaults to ``0``, so if you want a different value you
+      must override it explicitly (the value specified for *max_line_length* in
+      the policy will be ignored by this method).  The *policy* argument may be
+      used to override the default policy obtained from the message instance.
+      This can be used to control some of the formatting produced by the
+      method, since the specified *policy* will be passed to the ``Generator``.
+
+      Flattening the message may trigger changes to the :class:`Message` if
+      defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a string
+      (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).
+
+      Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not always
+      format the message the way you want.  For example, by default it does
+      not do the mangling of lines that begin with ``From`` that is
+      required by the unix mbox format.  For more flexibility, instantiate a
+      :class:`~email.generator.Generator` instance and use its
+      :meth:`~email.generator.Generator.flatten` method directly.  For example::
+
+         from io import StringIO
+         from email.generator import Generator
+         fp = StringIO()
+         g = Generator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
+         g.flatten(msg)
+         text = fp.getvalue()
+
+      If the message object contains binary data that is not encoded according
+      to RFC standards, the non-compliant data will be replaced by unicode
+      "unknown character" code points.  (See also :meth:`.as_bytes` and
+      :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator`.)
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4 the *policy* keyword argument was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: __str__()
+
+      Equivalent to :meth:`.as_string()`.  Allows ``str(msg)`` to produce a
+      string containing the formatted message.
+
+
+   .. method:: as_bytes(unixfrom=False, policy=None)
+
+      Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When optional
+      *unixfrom* is true, the envelope header is included in the returned
+      string.  *unixfrom* defaults to ``False``.  The *policy* argument may be
+      used to override the default policy obtained from the message instance.
+      This can be used to control some of the formatting produced by the
+      method, since the specified *policy* will be passed to the
+      ``BytesGenerator``.
+
+      Flattening the message may trigger changes to the :class:`Message` if
+      defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a string
+      (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).
+
+      Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not always
+      format the message the way you want.  For example, by default it does
+      not do the mangling of lines that begin with ``From`` that is
+      required by the unix mbox format.  For more flexibility, instantiate a
+      :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator` instance and use its
+      :meth:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten` method directly.
+      For example::
+
+         from io import BytesIO
+         from email.generator import BytesGenerator
+         fp = BytesIO()
+         g = BytesGenerator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
+         g.flatten(msg)
+         text = fp.getvalue()
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+   .. method:: __bytes__()
+
+      Equivalent to :meth:`.as_bytes()`.  Allows ``bytes(msg)`` to produce a
+      bytes object containing the formatted message.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+   .. method:: is_multipart()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the message's payload is a list of
+      sub-\ :class:`Message` objects, otherwise return ``False``.  When
+      :meth:`is_multipart` returns ``False``, the payload should be a string
+      object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).  (Note that
+      :meth:`is_multipart` returning ``True`` does not necessarily mean that
+      "msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'" will return the ``True``.
+      For example, ``is_multipart`` will return ``True`` when the
+      :class:`Message` is of type ``message/rfc822``.)
+
+
+   .. method:: set_unixfrom(unixfrom)
+
+      Set the message's envelope header to *unixfrom*, which should be a string.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_unixfrom()
+
+      Return the message's envelope header.  Defaults to ``None`` if the
+      envelope header was never set.
+
+
+   .. method:: attach(payload)
+
+      Add the given *payload* to the current payload, which must be ``None`` or
+      a list of :class:`Message` objects before the call. After the call, the
+      payload will always be a list of :class:`Message` objects.  If you want to
+      set the payload to a scalar object (e.g. a string), use
+      :meth:`set_payload` instead.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+      replaced by :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_content` and the
+      related ``make`` and ``add`` methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_payload(i=None, decode=False)
+
+      Return the current payload, which will be a list of
+      :class:`Message` objects when :meth:`is_multipart` is ``True``, or a
+      string when :meth:`is_multipart` is ``False``.  If the payload is a list
+      and you mutate the list object, you modify the message's payload in place.
+
+      With optional argument *i*, :meth:`get_payload` will return the *i*-th
+      element of the payload, counting from zero, if :meth:`is_multipart` is
+      ``True``.  An :exc:`IndexError` will be raised if *i* is less than 0 or
+      greater than or equal to the number of items in the payload.  If the
+      payload is a string (i.e.  :meth:`is_multipart` is ``False``) and *i* is
+      given, a :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+      Optional *decode* is a flag indicating whether the payload should be
+      decoded or not, according to the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`
+      header. When ``True`` and the message is not a multipart, the payload will
+      be decoded if this header's value is ``quoted-printable`` or ``base64``.
+      If some other encoding is used, or :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`
+      header is missing, the payload is
+      returned as-is (undecoded).  In all cases the returned value is binary
+      data.  If the message is a multipart and the *decode* flag is ``True``,
+      then ``None`` is returned.  If the payload is base64 and it was not
+      perfectly formed (missing padding, characters outside the base64
+      alphabet), then an appropriate defect will be added to the message's
+      defect property (:class:`~email.errors.InvalidBase64PaddingDefect` or
+      :class:`~email.errors.InvalidBase64CharactersDefect`, respectively).
+
+      When *decode* is ``False`` (the default) the body is returned as a string
+      without decoding the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`.  However,
+      for a :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of 8bit, an attempt is made
+      to decode the original bytes using the ``charset`` specified by the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, using the ``replace`` error handler.
+      If no ``charset`` is specified, or if the ``charset`` given is not
+      recognized by the email package, the body is decoded using the default
+      ASCII charset.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+      replaced by :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.get_content` and
+      :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_payload(payload, charset=None)
+
+      Set the entire message object's payload to *payload*.  It is the client's
+      responsibility to ensure the payload invariants.  Optional *charset* sets
+      the message's default character set; see :meth:`set_charset` for details.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+      replaced by :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_content`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_charset(charset)
+
+      Set the character set of the payload to *charset*, which can either be a
+      :class:`~email.charset.Charset` instance (see :mod:`email.charset`), a
+      string naming a character set, or ``None``.  If it is a string, it will
+      be converted to a :class:`~email.charset.Charset` instance.  If *charset*
+      is ``None``, the ``charset`` parameter will be removed from the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header (the message will not be otherwise
+      modified).  Anything else will generate a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+      If there is no existing :mailheader:`MIME-Version` header one will be
+      added.  If there is no existing :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, one
+      will be added with a value of :mimetype:`text/plain`.  Whether the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header already exists or not, its ``charset``
+      parameter will be set to *charset.output_charset*.   If
+      *charset.input_charset* and *charset.output_charset* differ, the payload
+      will be re-encoded to the *output_charset*.  If there is no existing
+      :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header, then the payload will be
+      transfer-encoded, if needed, using the specified
+      :class:`~email.charset.Charset`, and a header with the appropriate value
+      will be added.  If a :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header
+      already exists, the payload is assumed to already be correctly encoded
+      using that :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` and is not modified.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+      replaced by the *charset* parameter of the
+      :meth:`email.emailmessage.EmailMessage.set_content` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_charset()
+
+      Return the :class:`~email.charset.Charset` instance associated with the
+      message's payload.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class it always returns
+      ``None``.
+
+
+   The following methods implement a mapping-like interface for accessing the
+   message's :rfc:`2822` headers.  Note that there are some semantic differences
+   between these methods and a normal mapping (i.e. dictionary) interface.  For
+   example, in a dictionary there are no duplicate keys, but here there may be
+   duplicate message headers.  Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed
+   order to the keys returned by :meth:`keys`, but in a :class:`Message` object,
+   headers are always returned in the order they appeared in the original
+   message, or were added to the message later.  Any header deleted and then
+   re-added are always appended to the end of the header list.
+
+   These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward maximal
+   convenience.
+
+   Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message is not
+   included in the mapping interface.
+
+   In a model generated from bytes, any header values that (in contravention of
+   the RFCs) contain non-ASCII bytes will, when retrieved through this
+   interface, be represented as :class:`~email.header.Header` objects with
+   a charset of `unknown-8bit`.
+
+
+   .. method:: __len__()
+
+      Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.
+
+
+   .. method:: __contains__(name)
+
+      Return true if the message object has a field named *name*. Matching is
+      done case-insensitively and *name* should not include the trailing colon.
+      Used for the ``in`` operator, e.g.::
+
+           if 'message-id' in myMessage:
+              print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])
+
+
+   .. method:: __getitem__(name)
+
+      Return the value of the named header field.  *name* should not include the
+      colon field separator.  If the header is missing, ``None`` is returned; a
+      :exc:`KeyError` is never raised.
+
+      Note that if the named field appears more than once in the message's
+      headers, exactly which of those field values will be returned is
+      undefined.  Use the :meth:`get_all` method to get the values of all the
+      extant named headers.
+
+
+   .. method:: __setitem__(name, val)
+
+      Add a header to the message with field name *name* and value *val*.  The
+      field is appended to the end of the message's existing fields.
+
+      Note that this does *not* overwrite or delete any existing header with the same
+      name.  If you want to ensure that the new header is the only one present in the
+      message with field name *name*, delete the field first, e.g.::
+
+         del msg['subject']
+         msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'
+
+
+   .. method:: __delitem__(name)
+
+      Delete all occurrences of the field with name *name* from the message's
+      headers.  No exception is raised if the named field isn't present in the
+      headers.
+
+
+   .. method:: keys()
+
+      Return a list of all the message's header field names.
+
+
+   .. method:: values()
+
+      Return a list of all the message's field values.
+
+
+   .. method:: items()
+
+      Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message's field headers and
+      values.
+
+
+   .. method:: get(name, failobj=None)
+
+      Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical to
+      :meth:`__getitem__` except that optional *failobj* is returned if the
+      named header is missing (defaults to ``None``).
+
+   Here are some additional useful methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_all(name, failobj=None)
+
+      Return a list of all the values for the field named *name*. If there are
+      no such named headers in the message, *failobj* is returned (defaults to
+      ``None``).
+
+
+   .. method:: add_header(_name, _value, **_params)
+
+      Extended header setting.  This method is similar to :meth:`__setitem__`
+      except that additional header parameters can be provided as keyword
+      arguments.  *_name* is the header field to add and *_value* is the
+      *primary* value for the header.
+
+      For each item in the keyword argument dictionary *_params*, the key is
+      taken as the parameter name, with underscores converted to dashes (since
+      dashes are illegal in Python identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will
+      be added as ``key="value"`` unless the value is ``None``, in which case
+      only the key will be added.  If the value contains non-ASCII characters,
+      it can be specified as a three tuple in the format
+      ``(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)``, where ``CHARSET`` is a string naming the
+      charset to be used to encode the value, ``LANGUAGE`` can usually be set
+      to ``None`` or the empty string (see :rfc:`2231` for other possibilities),
+      and ``VALUE`` is the string value containing non-ASCII code points.  If
+      a three tuple is not passed and the value contains non-ASCII characters,
+      it is automatically encoded in :rfc:`2231` format using a ``CHARSET``
+      of ``utf-8`` and a ``LANGUAGE`` of ``None``.
+
+      Here's an example::
+
+         msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')
+
+      This will add a header that looks like ::
+
+         Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"
+
+      An example with non-ASCII characters::
+
+         msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
+                        filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))
+
+      Which produces ::
+
+         Content-Disposition: attachment; filename*="iso-8859-1''Fu%DFballer.ppt"
+
+
+   .. method:: replace_header(_name, _value)
+
+      Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the message that
+      matches *_name*, retaining header order and field name case.  If no
+      matching header was found, a :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_type()
+
+      Return the message's content type.  The returned string is coerced to
+      lower case of the form :mimetype:`maintype/subtype`.  If there was no
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header in the message the default type as given
+      by :meth:`get_default_type` will be returned.  Since according to
+      :rfc:`2045`, messages always have a default type, :meth:`get_content_type`
+      will always return a value.
+
+      :rfc:`2045` defines a message's default type to be :mimetype:`text/plain`
+      unless it appears inside a :mimetype:`multipart/digest` container, in
+      which case it would be :mimetype:`message/rfc822`.  If the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header has an invalid type specification,
+      :rfc:`2045` mandates that the default type be :mimetype:`text/plain`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_maintype()
+
+      Return the message's main content type.  This is the :mimetype:`maintype`
+      part of the string returned by :meth:`get_content_type`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_subtype()
+
+      Return the message's sub-content type.  This is the :mimetype:`subtype`
+      part of the string returned by :meth:`get_content_type`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_default_type()
+
+      Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default content
+      type of :mimetype:`text/plain`, except for messages that are subparts of
+      :mimetype:`multipart/digest` containers.  Such subparts have a default
+      content type of :mimetype:`message/rfc822`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_default_type(ctype)
+
+      Set the default content type.  *ctype* should either be
+      :mimetype:`text/plain` or :mimetype:`message/rfc822`, although this is not
+      enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_params(failobj=None, header='content-type', unquote=True)
+
+      Return the message's :mailheader:`Content-Type` parameters, as a list.
+      The elements of the returned list are 2-tuples of key/value pairs, as
+      split on the ``'='`` sign.  The left hand side of the ``'='`` is the key,
+      while the right hand side is the value.  If there is no ``'='`` sign in
+      the parameter the value is the empty string, otherwise the value is as
+      described in :meth:`get_param` and is unquoted if optional *unquote* is
+      ``True`` (the default).
+
+      Optional *failobj* is the object to return if there is no
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.  Optional *header* is the header to
+      search instead of :mailheader:`Content-Type`.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+      replaced by the *params* property of the individual header objects
+      returned by the header access methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_param(param, failobj=None, header='content-type', unquote=True)
+
+      Return the value of the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header's parameter
+      *param* as a string.  If the message has no :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+      header or if there is no such parameter, then *failobj* is returned
+      (defaults to ``None``).
+
+      Optional *header* if given, specifies the message header to use instead of
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type`.
+
+      Parameter keys are always compared case insensitively.  The return value
+      can either be a string, or a 3-tuple if the parameter was :rfc:`2231`
+      encoded.  When it's a 3-tuple, the elements of the value are of the form
+      ``(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)``.  Note that both ``CHARSET`` and
+      ``LANGUAGE`` can be ``None``, in which case you should consider ``VALUE``
+      to be encoded in the ``us-ascii`` charset.  You can usually ignore
+      ``LANGUAGE``.
+
+      If your application doesn't care whether the parameter was encoded as in
+      :rfc:`2231`, you can collapse the parameter value by calling
+      :func:`email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value`, passing in the return value
+      from :meth:`get_param`.  This will return a suitably decoded Unicode
+      string when the value is a tuple, or the original string unquoted if it
+      isn't.  For example::
+
+         rawparam = msg.get_param('foo')
+         param = email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(rawparam)
+
+      In any case, the parameter value (either the returned string, or the
+      ``VALUE`` item in the 3-tuple) is always unquoted, unless *unquote* is set
+      to ``False``.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+      replaced by the *params* property of the individual header objects
+      returned by the header access methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_param(param, value, header='Content-Type', requote=True, \
+                         charset=None, language='', replace=False)
+
+      Set a parameter in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.  If the
+      parameter already exists in the header, its value will be replaced with
+      *value*.  If the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header as not yet been defined
+      for this message, it will be set to :mimetype:`text/plain` and the new
+      parameter value will be appended as per :rfc:`2045`.
+
+      Optional *header* specifies an alternative header to
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type`, and all parameters will be quoted as necessary
+      unless optional *requote* is ``False`` (the default is ``True``).
+
+      If optional *charset* is specified, the parameter will be encoded
+      according to :rfc:`2231`. Optional *language* specifies the RFC 2231
+      language, defaulting to the empty string.  Both *charset* and *language*
+      should be strings.
+
+      If *replace* is ``False`` (the default) the header is moved to the
+      end of the list of headers.  If *replace* is ``True``, the header
+      will be updated in place.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4 ``replace`` keyword was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: del_param(param, header='content-type', requote=True)
+
+      Remove the given parameter completely from the :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+      header.  The header will be re-written in place without the parameter or
+      its value.  All values will be quoted as necessary unless *requote* is
+      ``False`` (the default is ``True``).  Optional *header* specifies an
+      alternative to :mailheader:`Content-Type`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_type(type, header='Content-Type', requote=True)
+
+      Set the main type and subtype for the :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+      header. *type* must be a string in the form :mimetype:`maintype/subtype`,
+      otherwise a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+      This method replaces the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, keeping all
+      the parameters in place.  If *requote* is ``False``, this leaves the
+      existing header's quoting as is, otherwise the parameters will be quoted
+      (the default).
+
+      An alternative header can be specified in the *header* argument. When the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header is set a :mailheader:`MIME-Version`
+      header is also added.
+
+      This is a legacy method.  On the
+      :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+      replaced by the ``make_`` and ``add_`` methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_filename(failobj=None)
+
+      Return the value of the ``filename`` parameter of the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header of the message.  If the header
+      does not have a ``filename`` parameter, this method falls back to looking
+      for the ``name`` parameter on the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.  If
+      neither is found, or the header is missing, then *failobj* is returned.
+      The returned string will always be unquoted as per
+      :func:`email.utils.unquote`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_boundary(failobj=None)
+
+      Return the value of the ``boundary`` parameter of the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header of the message, or *failobj* if either
+      the header is missing, or has no ``boundary`` parameter.  The returned
+      string will always be unquoted as per :func:`email.utils.unquote`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_boundary(boundary)
+
+      Set the ``boundary`` parameter of the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header to
+      *boundary*.  :meth:`set_boundary` will always quote *boundary* if
+      necessary.  A :exc:`~email.errors.HeaderParseError` is raised if the
+      message object has no :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+
+      Note that using this method is subtly different than deleting the old
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header and adding a new one with the new
+      boundary via :meth:`add_header`, because :meth:`set_boundary` preserves
+      the order of the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header in the list of
+      headers. However, it does *not* preserve any continuation lines which may
+      have been present in the original :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_charset(failobj=None)
+
+      Return the ``charset`` parameter of the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header,
+      coerced to lower case.  If there is no :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, or if
+      that header has no ``charset`` parameter, *failobj* is returned.
+
+      Note that this method differs from :meth:`get_charset` which returns the
+      :class:`~email.charset.Charset` instance for the default encoding of the message body.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_charsets(failobj=None)
+
+      Return a list containing the character set names in the message.  If the
+      message is a :mimetype:`multipart`, then the list will contain one element
+      for each subpart in the payload, otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.
+
+      Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of the
+      ``charset`` parameter in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header for the
+      represented subpart.  However, if the subpart has no
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, no ``charset`` parameter, or is not of
+      the :mimetype:`text` main MIME type, then that item in the returned list
+      will be *failobj*.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_disposition()
+
+      Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the message's
+      :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header if it has one, or ``None``.  The
+      possible values for this method are *inline*, *attachment* or ``None``
+      if the message follows :rfc:`2183`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. method:: walk()
+
+      The :meth:`walk` method is an all-purpose generator which can be used to
+      iterate over all the parts and subparts of a message object tree, in
+      depth-first traversal order.  You will typically use :meth:`walk` as the
+      iterator in a ``for`` loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.
+
+      Here's an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a multipart
+      message structure:
+
+      .. testsetup::
+
+         import email
+         from email import message_from_binary_file
+         from os.path import join, dirname
+         lib_dir = dirname(dirname(email.__file__))
+         file_path = join(lib_dir, 'test/test_email/data/msg_16.txt')
+         with open(file_path, 'rb') as f:
+             msg = message_from_binary_file(f)
+         from email.iterators import _structure
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> for part in msg.walk():
+         ...     print(part.get_content_type())
+         multipart/report
+         text/plain
+         message/delivery-status
+         text/plain
+         text/plain
+         message/rfc822
+         text/plain
+
+      ``walk`` iterates over the subparts of any part where
+      :meth:`is_multipart` returns ``True``, even though
+      ``msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'`` may return ``False``.  We
+      can see this in our example by making use of the ``_structure`` debug
+      helper function:
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> for part in msg.walk():
+         ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
+         ...           part.is_multipart())
+         True True
+         False False
+         False True
+         False False
+         False False
+         False True
+         False False
+         >>> _structure(msg)
+         multipart/report
+             text/plain
+             message/delivery-status
+                 text/plain
+                 text/plain
+             message/rfc822
+                 text/plain
+
+      Here the ``message`` parts are not ``multiparts``, but they do contain
+      subparts. ``is_multipart()`` returns ``True`` and ``walk`` descends
+      into the subparts.
+
+
+   :class:`Message` objects can also optionally contain two instance attributes,
+   which can be used when generating the plain text of a MIME message.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: preamble
+
+      The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the blank line
+      following the headers, and the first multipart boundary string. Normally,
+      this text is never visible in a MIME-aware mail reader because it falls
+      outside the standard MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of
+      the message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware reader, this
+      text can become visible.
+
+      The *preamble* attribute contains this leading extra-armor text for MIME
+      documents.  When the :class:`~email.parser.Parser` discovers some text
+      after the headers but before the first boundary string, it assigns this
+      text to the message's *preamble* attribute.  When the
+      :class:`~email.generator.Generator` is writing out the plain text
+      representation of a MIME message, and it finds the
+      message has a *preamble* attribute, it will write this text in the area
+      between the headers and the first boundary.  See :mod:`email.parser` and
+      :mod:`email.generator` for details.
+
+      Note that if the message object has no preamble, the *preamble* attribute
+      will be ``None``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: epilogue
+
+      The *epilogue* attribute acts the same way as the *preamble* attribute,
+      except that it contains text that appears between the last boundary and
+      the end of the message.
+
+      You do not need to set the epilogue to the empty string in order for the
+      :class:`~email.generator.Generator` to print a newline at the end of the
+      file.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: defects
+
+      The *defects* attribute contains a list of all the problems found when
+      parsing this message.  See :mod:`email.errors` for a detailed description
+      of the possible parsing defects.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.contentmanager.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.contentmanager.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.contentmanager.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
+:mod:`email.contentmanager`: Managing MIME Content
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.contentmanager
+   :synopsis: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
+
+.. moduleauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/contentmanager.py`
+
+------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6 [1]_
+
+
+.. class:: ContentManager()
+
+   Base class for content managers.  Provides the standard registry mechanisms
+   to register converters between MIME content and other representations, as
+   well as the ``get_content`` and ``set_content`` dispatch methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content(msg, *args, **kw)
+
+      Look up a handler function based on the ``mimetype`` of *msg* (see next
+      paragraph), call it, passing through all arguments, and return the result
+      of the call.  The expectation is that the handler will extract the
+      payload from *msg* and return an object that encodes information about
+      the extracted data.
+
+      To find the handler, look for the following keys in the registry,
+      stopping with the first one found:
+
+            * the string representing the full MIME type (``maintype/subtype``)
+            * the string representing the ``maintype``
+            * the empty string
+
+      If none of these keys produce a handler, raise a :exc:`KeyError` for the
+      full MIME type.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_content(msg, obj, *args, **kw)
+
+      If the ``maintype`` is ``multipart``, raise a :exc:`TypeError`; otherwise
+      look up a handler function based on the type of *obj* (see next
+      paragraph), call :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.clear_content` on the
+      *msg*, and call the handler function, passing through all arguments.  The
+      expectation is that the handler will transform and store *obj* into
+      *msg*, possibly making other changes to *msg* as well, such as adding
+      various MIME headers to encode information needed to interpret the stored
+      data.
+
+      To find the handler, obtain the type of *obj* (``typ = type(obj)``), and
+      look for the following keys in the registry, stopping with the first one
+      found:
+
+           * the type itself (``typ``)
+           * the type's fully qualified name (``typ.__module__ + '.' +
+             typ.__qualname__``).
+           * the type's qualname (``typ.__qualname__``)
+           * the type's name (``typ.__name__``).
+
+      If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for each of
+      the types in the :term:`MRO` (``typ.__mro__``).  Finally, if no other key
+      yields a handler, check for a handler for the key ``None``.  If there is
+      no handler for ``None``, raise a :exc:`KeyError` for the fully
+      qualified name of the type.
+
+      Also add a :mailheader:`MIME-Version` header if one is not present (see
+      also :class:`.MIMEPart`).
+
+
+   .. method:: add_get_handler(key, handler)
+
+      Record the function *handler* as the handler for *key*.  For the possible
+      values of *key*, see :meth:`get_content`.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_set_handler(typekey, handler)
+
+      Record *handler* as the function to call when an object of a type
+      matching *typekey* is passed to :meth:`set_content`.  For the possible
+      values of *typekey*, see :meth:`set_content`.
+
+
+Content Manager Instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
+:data:`raw_data_manager`, although more may be added in the future.
+:data:`raw_data_manager` is the
+:attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager` provided by
+:attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy` and its derivatives.
+
+
+.. data:: raw_data_manager
+
+   This content manager provides only a minimum interface beyond that provided
+   by :class:`~email.message.Message` itself:  it deals only with text, raw
+   byte strings, and :class:`~email.message.Message` objects.  Nevertheless, it
+   provides significant advantages compared to the base API: ``get_content`` on
+   a text part will return a unicode string without the application needing to
+   manually decode it, ``set_content`` provides a rich set of options for
+   controlling the headers added to a part and controlling the content transfer
+   encoding, and it enables the use of the various ``add_`` methods, thereby
+   simplifying the creation of multipart messages.
+
+   .. method:: get_content(msg, errors='replace')
+
+      Return the payload of the part as either a string (for ``text`` parts), an
+      :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` object (for ``message/rfc822``
+      parts), or a ``bytes`` object (for all other non-multipart types).  Raise
+      a :exc:`KeyError` if called on a ``multipart``.  If the part is a
+      ``text`` part and *errors* is specified, use it as the error handler when
+      decoding the payload to unicode.  The default error handler is
+      ``replace``.
+
+   .. method:: set_content(msg, <'str'>, subtype="plain", charset='utf-8' \
+                           cte=None, \
+                           disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, \
+                           params=None, headers=None)
+               set_content(msg, <'bytes'>, maintype, subtype, cte="base64", \
+                           disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, \
+                           params=None, headers=None)
+               set_content(msg, <'EmailMessage'>, cte=None, \
+                           disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, \
+                           params=None, headers=None)
+
+       Add headers and payload to *msg*:
+
+       Add a :mailheader:`Content-Type` header with a ``maintype/subtype``
+       value.
+
+           * For ``str``, set the MIME ``maintype`` to ``text``, and set the
+             subtype to *subtype* if it is specified, or ``plain`` if it is not.
+           * For ``bytes``, use the specified *maintype* and *subtype*, or
+             raise a :exc:`TypeError` if they are not specified.
+           * For :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` objects, set the maintype
+             to ``message``, and set the subtype to *subtype* if it is
+             specified or ``rfc822`` if it is not.  If *subtype* is
+             ``partial``, raise an error (``bytes`` objects must be used to
+             construct ``message/partial`` parts).
+
+       If *charset* is provided (which is valid only for ``str``), encode the
+       string to bytes using the specified character set.  The default is
+       ``utf-8``.  If the specified *charset* is a known alias for a standard
+       MIME charset name, use the standard charset instead.
+
+       If *cte* is set, encode the payload using the specified content transfer
+       encoding, and set the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header to
+       that value.  Possible values for *cte* are ``quoted-printable``,
+       ``base64``, ``7bit``, ``8bit``, and ``binary``.  If the input cannot be
+       encoded in the specified encoding (for example, specifying a *cte* of
+       ``7bit`` for an input that contains non-ASCII values), raise a
+       :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+            * For ``str`` objects, if *cte* is not set use heuristics to
+              determine the most compact encoding.
+            * For :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`, per :rfc:`2046`, raise
+              an error if a *cte* of ``quoted-printable`` or ``base64`` is
+              requested for *subtype* ``rfc822``, and for any *cte* other than
+              ``7bit`` for *subtype* ``external-body``.  For
+              ``message/rfc822``, use ``8bit`` if *cte* is not specified.  For
+              all other values of *subtype*, use ``7bit``.
+
+       .. note:: A *cte* of ``binary`` does not actually work correctly yet.
+          The ``EmailMessage`` object as modified by ``set_content`` is
+          correct, but :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator` does not
+          serialize it correctly.
+
+       If *disposition* is set, use it as the value of the
+       :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header.  If not specified, and
+       *filename* is specified, add the header with the value ``attachment``.
+       If *disposition* is not specified and *filename* is also not specified,
+       do not add the header.  The only valid values for *disposition* are
+       ``attachment`` and ``inline``.
+
+       If *filename* is specified, use it as the value of the ``filename``
+       parameter of the :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header.
+
+       If *cid* is specified, add a :mailheader:`Content-ID` header with
+       *cid* as its value.
+
+       If *params* is specified, iterate its ``items`` method and use the
+       resulting ``(key, value)`` pairs to set additional parameters on the
+       :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+
+       If *headers* is specified and is a list of strings of the form
+       ``headername: headervalue`` or a list of ``header`` objects
+       (distinguished from strings by having a ``name`` attribute), add the
+       headers to *msg*.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Originally added in 3.4 as a :term:`provisional module <provisional
+       package>`
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.encoders.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.encoders.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..debd1c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.encoders.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+:mod:`email.encoders`: Encoders
+-------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.encoders
+   :synopsis: Encoders for email message payloads.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/encoders.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module is part of the legacy (``Compat32``) email API.  In the
+new API the functionality is provided by the *cte* parameter of
+the :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_content` method.
+
+This module is deprecated in Python 3.  The functions provided here
+should not be called explicitly since the :class:`~email.mime.text.MIMEText`
+class sets the content type and CTE header using the *_subtype* and *_charset*
+values passed during the instaniation of that class.
+
+The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the module.
+
+When creating :class:`~email.message.Message` objects from scratch, you often
+need to encode the payloads for transport through compliant mail servers. This
+is especially true for :mimetype:`image/\*` and :mimetype:`text/\*` type messages
+containing binary data.
+
+The :mod:`email` package provides some convenient encodings in its
+:mod:`encoders` module.  These encoders are actually used by the
+:class:`~email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio` and :class:`~email.mime.image.MIMEImage`
+class constructors to provide default encodings.  All encoder functions take
+exactly one argument, the message object to encode.  They usually extract the
+payload, encode it, and reset the payload to this newly encoded value.  They
+should also set the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header as appropriate.
+
+Note that these functions are not meaningful for a multipart message.  They
+must be applied to individual subparts instead, and will raise a
+:exc:`TypeError` if passed a message whose type is multipart.
+
+Here are the encoding functions provided:
+
+
+.. function:: encode_quopri(msg)
+
+   Encodes the payload into quoted-printable form and sets the
+   :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header to ``quoted-printable`` [#]_.
+   This is a good encoding to use when most of your payload is normal printable
+   data, but contains a few unprintable characters.
+
+
+.. function:: encode_base64(msg)
+
+   Encodes the payload into base64 form and sets the
+   :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header to ``base64``.  This is a good
+   encoding to use when most of your payload is unprintable data since it is a more
+   compact form than quoted-printable.  The drawback of base64 encoding is that it
+   renders the text non-human readable.
+
+
+.. function:: encode_7or8bit(msg)
+
+   This doesn't actually modify the message's payload, but it does set the
+   :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header to either ``7bit`` or ``8bit`` as
+   appropriate, based on the payload data.
+
+
+.. function:: encode_noop(msg)
+
+   This does nothing; it doesn't even set the
+   :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Note that encoding with :meth:`encode_quopri` also encodes all tabs and space
+   characters in the data.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.errors.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.errors.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..511ad16
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.errors.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+:mod:`email.errors`: Exception and Defect classes
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.errors
+   :synopsis: The exception classes used by the email package.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/errors.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The following exception classes are defined in the :mod:`email.errors` module:
+
+
+.. exception:: MessageError()
+
+   This is the base class for all exceptions that the :mod:`email` package can
+   raise.  It is derived from the standard :exc:`Exception` class and defines no
+   additional methods.
+
+
+.. exception:: MessageParseError()
+
+   This is the base class for exceptions raised by the
+   :class:`~email.parser.Parser` class.  It is derived from
+   :exc:`MessageError`.  This class is also used internally by the parser used
+   by :mod:`~email.headerregistry`.
+
+
+.. exception:: HeaderParseError()
+
+   Raised under some error conditions when parsing the :rfc:`5322` headers of a
+   message, this class is derived from :exc:`MessageParseError`.  The
+   :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary` method will raise this
+   error if the content type is unknown when the method is called.
+   :class:`~email.header.Header` may raise this error for certain base64
+   decoding errors, and when an attempt is made to create a header that appears
+   to contain an embedded header (that is, there is what is supposed to be a
+   continuation line that has no leading whitespace and looks like a header).
+
+
+.. exception:: BoundaryError()
+
+   Deprecated and no longer used.
+
+
+.. exception:: MultipartConversionError()
+
+   Raised when a payload is added to a :class:`~email.message.Message` object
+   using :meth:`add_payload`, but the payload is already a scalar and the
+   message's :mailheader:`Content-Type` main type is not either
+   :mimetype:`multipart` or missing.  :exc:`MultipartConversionError` multiply
+   inherits from :exc:`MessageError` and the built-in :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   Since :meth:`Message.add_payload` is deprecated, this exception is rarely
+   raised in practice.  However the exception may also be raised if the
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach`
+   method is called on an instance of a class derived from
+   :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart` (e.g.
+   :class:`~email.mime.image.MIMEImage`).
+
+
+Here is the list of the defects that the :class:`~email.parser.FeedParser`
+can find while parsing messages.  Note that the defects are added to the message
+where the problem was found, so for example, if a message nested inside a
+:mimetype:`multipart/alternative` had a malformed header, that nested message
+object would have a defect, but the containing messages would not.
+
+All defect classes are subclassed from :class:`email.errors.MessageDefect`.
+
+* :class:`NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect` -- A message claimed to be a multipart,
+  but had no :mimetype:`boundary` parameter.
+
+* :class:`StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect` -- The start boundary claimed in the
+  :mailheader:`Content-Type` header was never found.
+
+* :class:`CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect` -- A start boundary was found, but
+  no corresponding close boundary was ever found.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+* :class:`FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect` -- The message had a continuation
+  line as its first header line.
+
+* :class:`MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect` - A "Unix From" header was found in the
+  middle of a header block.
+
+* :class:`MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect` - A line was found while parsing
+  headers that had no leading white space but contained no ':'.  Parsing
+  continues assuming that the line represents the first line of the body.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+* :class:`MalformedHeaderDefect` -- A header was found that was missing a colon,
+  or was otherwise malformed.
+
+  .. deprecated:: 3.3
+     This defect has not been used for several Python versions.
+
+* :class:`MultipartInvariantViolationDefect` -- A message claimed to be a
+  :mimetype:`multipart`, but no subparts were found.  Note that when a message
+  has this defect, its :meth:`~email.message.Message.is_multipart` method may
+  return false even though its content type claims to be :mimetype:`multipart`.
+
+* :class:`InvalidBase64PaddingDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64
+  encoded bytes, the padding was not correct.  Enough padding is added to
+  perform the decode, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.
+
+* :class:`InvalidBase64CharactersDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64
+  encoded bytes, characters outside the base64 alphabet were encountered.
+  The characters are ignored, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.
+
+* :class:`InvalidBase64LengthDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64 encoded
+  bytes, the number of non-padding base64 characters was invalid (1 more than
+  a multiple of 4).  The encoded block was kept as-is.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.examples.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.examples.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc96462
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.examples.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+.. _email-examples:
+
+:mod:`email`: Examples
+----------------------
+
+Here are a few examples of how to use the :mod:`email` package to read, write,
+and send simple email messages, as well as more complex MIME messages.
+
+First, let's see how to create and send a simple text message (both the
+text content and the addresses may contain unicode characters):
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-simple.py
+
+
+Parsing :rfc:`822` headers can easily be done by the using the classes
+from the :mod:`~email.parser` module:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-headers.py
+
+
+Here's an example of how to send a MIME message containing a bunch of family
+pictures that may be residing in a directory:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-mime.py
+
+
+Here's an example of how to send the entire contents of a directory as an email
+message: [1]_
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-dir.py
+
+
+Here's an example of how to unpack a MIME message like the one
+above, into a directory of files:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-unpack.py
+
+
+Here's an example of how to create an HTML message with an alternative plain
+text version.  To make things a bit more interesting, we include a related
+image in the html part, and we save a copy of what we are going to send to
+disk, as well as sending it.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-alternative.py
+
+
+If we were sent the message from the last example, here is one way we could
+process it:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-read-alternative.py
+
+Up to the prompt, the output from the above is:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    To: Penelope Pussycat <penelope@example.com>, Fabrette Pussycat <fabrette@example.com>
+    From: Pepé Le Pew <pepe@example.com>
+    Subject: Ayons asperges pour le déjeuner
+
+    Salut!
+
+    Cela ressemble à un excellent recipie[1] déjeuner.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Thanks to Matthew Dixon Cowles for the original inspiration and examples.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.generator.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.generator.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c825aa1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.generator.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,279 @@
+:mod:`email.generator`: Generating MIME documents
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.generator
+   :synopsis: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/generator.py`
+
+--------------
+
+One of the most common tasks is to generate the flat (serialized) version of
+the email message represented by a message object structure.  You will need to
+do this if you want to send your message via :meth:`smtplib.SMTP.sendmail` or
+the :mod:`nntplib` module, or print the message on the console.  Taking a
+message object structure and producing a serialized representation is the job
+of the generator classes.
+
+As with the :mod:`email.parser` module, you aren't limited to the functionality
+of the bundled generator; you could write one from scratch yourself.  However
+the bundled generator knows how to generate most email in a standards-compliant
+way, should handle MIME and non-MIME email messages just fine, and is designed
+so that the bytes-oriented parsing and generation operations are inverses,
+assuming the same non-transforming :mod:`~email.policy` is used for both.  That
+is, parsing the serialized byte stream via the
+:class:`~email.parser.BytesParser` class and then regenerating the serialized
+byte stream using :class:`BytesGenerator` should produce output identical to
+the input [#]_.  (On the other hand, using the generator on an
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` constructed by program may result in
+changes to the :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` object as defaults are
+filled in.)
+
+The :class:`Generator` class can be used to flatten a message into a text (as
+opposed to binary) serialized representation, but since Unicode cannot
+represent binary data directly, the message is of necessity transformed into
+something that contains only ASCII characters, using the standard email RFC
+Content Transfer Encoding techniques for encoding email messages for transport
+over channels that are not "8 bit clean".
+
+
+.. class:: BytesGenerator(outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, *, \
+                          policy=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`BytesGenerator` object that will write any message provided
+   to the :meth:`flatten` method, or any surrogateescape encoded text provided
+   to the :meth:`write` method, to the :term:`file-like object` *outfp*.
+   *outfp* must support a ``write`` method that accepts binary data.
+
+   If optional *mangle_from_* is ``True``, put a ``>`` character in front of
+   any line in the body that starts with the exact string ``"From "``, that is
+   ``From`` followed by a space at the beginning of a line.  *mangle_from_*
+   defaults to the value of the :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_`
+   setting of the *policy* (which is ``True`` for the
+   :data:`~email.policy.compat32` policy and ``False`` for all others).
+   *mangle_from_* is intended for use when messages are stored in unix mbox
+   format (see :mod:`mailbox` and `WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD
+   <https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_).
+
+   If *maxheaderlen* is not ``None``, refold any header lines that are longer
+   than *maxheaderlen*, or if ``0``, do not rewrap any headers.  If
+   *manheaderlen* is ``None`` (the default), wrap headers and other message
+   lines according to the *policy* settings.
+
+   If *policy* is specified, use that policy to control message generation.  If
+   *policy* is ``None`` (the default), use the policy associated with the
+   :class:`~email.message.Message` or :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`
+   object passed to ``flatten`` to control the message generation.  See
+   :mod:`email.policy` for details on what *policy* controls.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6 The default behavior of the *mangle_from_*
+      and *maxheaderlen* parameters is to follow the policy.
+
+
+   .. method:: flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)
+
+      Print the textual representation of the message object structure rooted
+      at *msg* to the output file specified when the :class:`BytesGenerator`
+      instance was created.
+
+      If the :mod:`~email.policy` option :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.cte_type`
+      is ``8bit`` (the default), copy any headers in the original parsed
+      message that have not been modified to the output with any bytes with the
+      high bit set reproduced as in the original, and preserve the non-ASCII
+      :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of any body parts that have them.
+      If ``cte_type`` is ``7bit``, convert the bytes with the high bit set as
+      needed using an ASCII-compatible :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`.
+      That is, transform parts with non-ASCII
+      :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`
+      (:mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit`) to an ASCII compatible
+      :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`, and encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII
+      bytes in headers using the MIME ``unknown-8bit`` character set, thus
+      rendering them RFC-compliant.
+
+      .. XXX: There should be an option that just does the RFC
+         compliance transformation on headers but leaves CTE 8bit parts alone.
+
+      If *unixfrom* is ``True``, print the envelope header delimiter used by
+      the Unix mailbox format (see :mod:`mailbox`) before the first of the
+      :rfc:`5322` headers of the root message object.  If the root object has
+      no envelope header, craft a standard one.  The default is ``False``.
+      Note that for subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.
+
+      If *linesep* is not ``None``, use it as the separator character between
+      all the lines of the flattened message.  If *linesep* is ``None`` (the
+      default), use the value specified in the *policy*.
+
+      .. XXX: flatten should take a *policy* keyword.
+
+
+   .. method:: clone(fp)
+
+      Return an independent clone of this :class:`BytesGenerator` instance with
+      the exact same option settings, and *fp* as the new *outfp*.
+
+
+   .. method:: write(s)
+
+      Encode *s* using the ``ASCII`` codec and the ``surrogateescape`` error
+      handler, and pass it to the *write* method of the *outfp* passed to the
+      :class:`BytesGenerator`'s constructor.
+
+
+As a convenience, :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` provides the methods
+:meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes` and ``bytes(aMessage)`` (a.k.a.
+:meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.__bytes__`), which simplify the generation of
+a serialized binary representation of a message object.  For more detail, see
+:mod:`email.message`.
+
+
+Because strings cannot represent binary data, the :class:`Generator` class must
+convert any binary data in any message it flattens to an ASCII compatible
+format, by converting them to an ASCII compatible
+:mailheader:`Content-Transfer_Encoding`.  Using the terminology of the email
+RFCs, you can think of this as :class:`Generator` serializing to an I/O stream
+that is not "8 bit clean".  In other words, most applications will want
+to be using :class:`BytesGenerator`, and not :class:`Generator`.
+
+.. class:: Generator(outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, *, \
+                     policy=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`Generator` object that will write any message provided
+   to the :meth:`flatten` method, or any text provided to the :meth:`write`
+   method, to the :term:`file-like object` *outfp*.  *outfp* must support a
+   ``write`` method that accepts string data.
+
+   If optional *mangle_from_* is ``True``, put a ``>`` character in front of
+   any line in the body that starts with the exact string ``"From "``, that is
+   ``From`` followed by a space at the beginning of a line.  *mangle_from_*
+   defaults to the value of the :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_`
+   setting of the *policy* (which is ``True`` for the
+   :data:`~email.policy.compat32` policy and ``False`` for all others).
+   *mangle_from_* is intended for use when messages are stored in unix mbox
+   format (see :mod:`mailbox` and `WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD
+   <https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_).
+
+   If *maxheaderlen* is not ``None``, refold any header lines that are longer
+   than *maxheaderlen*, or if ``0``, do not rewrap any headers.  If
+   *manheaderlen* is ``None`` (the default), wrap headers and other message
+   lines according to the *policy* settings.
+
+   If *policy* is specified, use that policy to control message generation.  If
+   *policy* is ``None`` (the default), use the policy associated with the
+   :class:`~email.message.Message` or :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`
+   object passed to ``flatten`` to control the message generation.  See
+   :mod:`email.policy` for details on what *policy* controls.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6 The default behavior of the *mangle_from_*
+      and *maxheaderlen* parameters is to follow the policy.
+
+
+   .. method:: flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)
+
+      Print the textual representation of the message object structure rooted
+      at *msg* to the output file specified when the :class:`Generator`
+      instance was created.
+
+      If the :mod:`~email.policy` option :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.cte_type`
+      is ``8bit``, generate the message as if the option were set to ``7bit``.
+      (This is required because strings cannot represent non-ASCII bytes.)
+      Convert any bytes with the high bit set as needed using an
+      ASCII-compatible :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`.  That is,
+      transform parts with non-ASCII :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`
+      (:mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit`) to an ASCII compatible
+      :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`, and encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII
+      bytes in headers using the MIME ``unknown-8bit`` character set, thus
+      rendering them RFC-compliant.
+
+      If *unixfrom* is ``True``, print the envelope header delimiter used by
+      the Unix mailbox format (see :mod:`mailbox`) before the first of the
+      :rfc:`5322` headers of the root message object.  If the root object has
+      no envelope header, craft a standard one.  The default is ``False``.
+      Note that for subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.
+
+      If *linesep* is not ``None``, use it as the separator character between
+      all the lines of the flattened message.  If *linesep* is ``None`` (the
+      default), use the value specified in the *policy*.
+
+      .. XXX: flatten should take a *policy* keyword.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Added support for re-encoding ``8bit`` message bodies, and the
+         *linesep* argument.
+
+
+   .. method:: clone(fp)
+
+      Return an independent clone of this :class:`Generator` instance with the
+      exact same options, and *fp* as the new *outfp*.
+
+
+   .. method:: write(s)
+
+      Write *s* to the *write* method of the *outfp* passed to the
+      :class:`Generator`'s constructor.  This provides just enough file-like
+      API for :class:`Generator` instances to be used in the :func:`print`
+      function.
+
+
+As a convenience, :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` provides the methods
+:meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.as_string` and ``str(aMessage)`` (a.k.a.
+:meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.__str__`), which simplify the generation of
+a formatted string representation of a message object.  For more detail, see
+:mod:`email.message`.
+
+
+The :mod:`email.generator` module also provides a derived class,
+:class:`DecodedGenerator`, which is like the :class:`Generator` base class,
+except that non-\ :mimetype:`text` parts are not serialized, but are instead
+represented in the output stream by a string derived from a template filled
+in with information about the part.
+
+.. class:: DecodedGenerator(outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, \
+                            fmt=None, *, policy=None)
+
+   Act like :class:`Generator`, except that for any subpart of the message
+   passed to :meth:`Generator.flatten`, if the subpart is of main type
+   :mimetype:`text`, print the decoded payload of the subpart, and if the main
+   type is not :mimetype:`text`, instead of printing it fill in the string
+   *fmt* using information from the part and print the resulting
+   filled-in string.
+
+   To fill in *fmt*, execute ``fmt % part_info``, where ``part_info``
+   is a dictionary composed of the following keys and values:
+
+   * ``type`` -- Full MIME type of the non-\ :mimetype:`text` part
+
+   * ``maintype`` -- Main MIME type of the non-\ :mimetype:`text` part
+
+   * ``subtype`` -- Sub-MIME type of the non-\ :mimetype:`text` part
+
+   * ``filename`` -- Filename of the non-\ :mimetype:`text` part
+
+   * ``description`` -- Description associated with the non-\ :mimetype:`text` part
+
+   * ``encoding`` -- Content transfer encoding of the non-\ :mimetype:`text` part
+
+   If *fmt* is ``None``, use the following default *fmt*:
+
+      "[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename %(filename)s]"
+
+   Optional *_mangle_from_* and *maxheaderlen* are as with the
+   :class:`Generator` base class.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] This statement assumes that you use the appropriate setting for
+       ``unixfrom``, and that there are no :mod:`policy` settings calling for
+       automatic adjustments (for example,
+       :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.refold_source` must be ``none``, which is
+       *not* the default).  It is also not 100% true, since if the message
+       does not conform to the RFC standards occasionally information about the
+       exact original text is lost during parsing error recovery.  It is a goal
+       to fix these latter edge cases when possible.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.header.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.header.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07152c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.header.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,205 @@
+:mod:`email.header`: Internationalized headers
+----------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.header
+   :synopsis: Representing non-ASCII headers
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/header.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module is part of the legacy (``Compat32``) email API.  In the current API
+encoding and decoding of headers is handled transparently by the
+dictionary-like API of the :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class.  In
+addition to uses in legacy code, this module can be useful in applications that
+need to completely control the character sets used when encoding headers.
+
+The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the module.
+
+:rfc:`2822` is the base standard that describes the format of email messages.
+It derives from the older :rfc:`822` standard which came into widespread use at
+a time when most email was composed of ASCII characters only.  :rfc:`2822` is a
+specification written assuming email contains only 7-bit ASCII characters.
+
+Of course, as email has been deployed worldwide, it has become
+internationalized, such that language specific character sets can now be used in
+email messages.  The base standard still requires email messages to be
+transferred using only 7-bit ASCII characters, so a slew of RFCs have been
+written describing how to encode email containing non-ASCII characters into
+:rfc:`2822`\ -compliant format. These RFCs include :rfc:`2045`, :rfc:`2046`,
+:rfc:`2047`, and :rfc:`2231`. The :mod:`email` package supports these standards
+in its :mod:`email.header` and :mod:`email.charset` modules.
+
+If you want to include non-ASCII characters in your email headers, say in the
+:mailheader:`Subject` or :mailheader:`To` fields, you should use the
+:class:`Header` class and assign the field in the :class:`~email.message.Message`
+object to an instance of :class:`Header` instead of using a string for the header
+value.  Import the :class:`Header` class from the :mod:`email.header` module.
+For example::
+
+   >>> from email.message import Message
+   >>> from email.header import Header
+   >>> msg = Message()
+   >>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')
+   >>> msg['Subject'] = h
+   >>> msg.as_string()
+   'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n'
+
+
+
+Notice here how we wanted the :mailheader:`Subject` field to contain a non-ASCII
+character?  We did this by creating a :class:`Header` instance and passing in
+the character set that the byte string was encoded in.  When the subsequent
+:class:`~email.message.Message` instance was flattened, the :mailheader:`Subject`
+field was properly :rfc:`2047` encoded.  MIME-aware mail readers would show this
+header using the embedded ISO-8859-1 character.
+
+Here is the :class:`Header` class description:
+
+
+.. class:: Header(s=None, charset=None, maxlinelen=None, header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ', errors='strict')
+
+   Create a MIME-compliant header that can contain strings in different character
+   sets.
+
+   Optional *s* is the initial header value.  If ``None`` (the default), the
+   initial header value is not set.  You can later append to the header with
+   :meth:`append` method calls.  *s* may be an instance of :class:`bytes` or
+   :class:`str`, but see the :meth:`append` documentation for semantics.
+
+   Optional *charset* serves two purposes: it has the same meaning as the *charset*
+   argument to the :meth:`append` method.  It also sets the default character set
+   for all subsequent :meth:`append` calls that omit the *charset* argument.  If
+   *charset* is not provided in the constructor (the default), the ``us-ascii``
+   character set is used both as *s*'s initial charset and as the default for
+   subsequent :meth:`append` calls.
+
+   The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via *maxlinelen*.  For
+   splitting the first line to a shorter value (to account for the field header
+   which isn't included in *s*, e.g. :mailheader:`Subject`) pass in the name of the
+   field in *header_name*.  The default *maxlinelen* is 76, and the default value
+   for *header_name* is ``None``, meaning it is not taken into account for the
+   first line of a long, split header.
+
+   Optional *continuation_ws* must be :rfc:`2822`\ -compliant folding
+   whitespace, and is usually either a space or a hard tab character.  This
+   character will be prepended to continuation lines.  *continuation_ws*
+   defaults to a single space character.
+
+   Optional *errors* is passed straight through to the :meth:`append` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: append(s, charset=None, errors='strict')
+
+      Append the string *s* to the MIME header.
+
+      Optional *charset*, if given, should be a :class:`~email.charset.Charset`
+      instance (see :mod:`email.charset`) or the name of a character set, which
+      will be converted to a :class:`~email.charset.Charset` instance.  A value
+      of ``None`` (the default) means that the *charset* given in the constructor
+      is used.
+
+      *s* may be an instance of :class:`bytes` or :class:`str`.  If it is an
+      instance of :class:`bytes`, then *charset* is the encoding of that byte
+      string, and a :exc:`UnicodeError` will be raised if the string cannot be
+      decoded with that character set.
+
+      If *s* is an instance of :class:`str`, then *charset* is a hint specifying
+      the character set of the characters in the string.
+
+      In either case, when producing an :rfc:`2822`\ -compliant header using
+      :rfc:`2047` rules, the string will be encoded using the output codec of
+      the charset.  If the string cannot be encoded using the output codec, a
+      UnicodeError will be raised.
+
+      Optional *errors* is passed as the errors argument to the decode call
+      if *s* is a byte string.
+
+
+   .. method:: encode(splitchars=';, \\t', maxlinelen=None, linesep='\\n')
+
+      Encode a message header into an RFC-compliant format, possibly wrapping
+      long lines and encapsulating non-ASCII parts in base64 or quoted-printable
+      encodings.
+
+      Optional *splitchars* is a string containing characters which should be
+      given extra weight by the splitting algorithm during normal header
+      wrapping.  This is in very rough support of :RFC:`2822`\'s 'higher level
+      syntactic breaks':  split points preceded by a splitchar are preferred
+      during line splitting, with the characters preferred in the order in
+      which they appear in the string.  Space and tab may be included in the
+      string to indicate whether preference should be given to one over the
+      other as a split point when other split chars do not appear in the line
+      being split.  Splitchars does not affect :RFC:`2047` encoded lines.
+
+      *maxlinelen*, if given, overrides the instance's value for the maximum
+      line length.
+
+      *linesep* specifies the characters used to separate the lines of the
+      folded header.  It defaults to the most useful value for Python
+      application code (``\n``), but ``\r\n`` can be specified in order
+      to produce headers with RFC-compliant line separators.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Added the *linesep* argument.
+
+
+   The :class:`Header` class also provides a number of methods to support
+   standard operators and built-in functions.
+
+   .. method:: __str__()
+
+      Returns an approximation of the :class:`Header` as a string, using an
+      unlimited line length.  All pieces are converted to unicode using the
+      specified encoding and joined together appropriately.  Any pieces with a
+      charset of ``'unknown-8bit'`` are decoded as ASCII using the ``'replace'``
+      error handler.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Added handling for the ``'unknown-8bit'`` charset.
+
+
+   .. method:: __eq__(other)
+
+      This method allows you to compare two :class:`Header` instances for
+      equality.
+
+
+   .. method:: __ne__(other)
+
+      This method allows you to compare two :class:`Header` instances for
+      inequality.
+
+The :mod:`email.header` module also provides the following convenient functions.
+
+
+.. function:: decode_header(header)
+
+   Decode a message header value without converting the character set. The header
+   value is in *header*.
+
+   This function returns a list of ``(decoded_string, charset)`` pairs containing
+   each of the decoded parts of the header.  *charset* is ``None`` for non-encoded
+   parts of the header, otherwise a lower case string containing the name of the
+   character set specified in the encoded string.
+
+   Here's an example::
+
+      >>> from email.header import decode_header
+      >>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
+      [(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]
+
+
+.. function:: make_header(decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None, header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')
+
+   Create a :class:`Header` instance from a sequence of pairs as returned by
+   :func:`decode_header`.
+
+   :func:`decode_header` takes a header value string and returns a sequence of
+   pairs of the format ``(decoded_string, charset)`` where *charset* is the name of
+   the character set.
+
+   This function takes one of those sequence of pairs and returns a
+   :class:`Header` instance.  Optional *maxlinelen*, *header_name*, and
+   *continuation_ws* are as in the :class:`Header` constructor.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.headerregistry.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.headerregistry.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce283c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.headerregistry.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,455 @@
+:mod:`email.headerregistry`: Custom Header Objects
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.headerregistry
+   :synopsis: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
+
+.. moduleauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/headerregistry.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6 [1]_
+
+Headers are represented by customized subclasses of :class:`str`.  The
+particular class used to represent a given header is determined by the
+:attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory` of the :mod:`~email.policy` in
+effect when the headers are created.  This section documents the particular
+``header_factory`` implemented by the email package for handling :RFC:`5322`
+compliant email messages, which not only provides customized header objects for
+various header types, but also provides an extension mechanism for applications
+to add their own custom header types.
+
+When using any of the policy objects derived from
+:data:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy`, all headers are produced by
+:class:`.HeaderRegistry` and have :class:`.BaseHeader` as their last base
+class.  Each header class has an additional base class that is determined by
+the type of the header.  For example, many headers have the class
+:class:`.UnstructuredHeader` as their other base class.  The specialized second
+class for a header is determined by the name of the header, using a lookup
+table stored in the :class:`.HeaderRegistry`.  All of this is managed
+transparently for the typical application program, but interfaces are provided
+for modifying the default behavior for use by more complex applications.
+
+The sections below first document the header base classes and their attributes,
+followed by the API for modifying the behavior of :class:`.HeaderRegistry`, and
+finally the support classes used to represent the data parsed from structured
+headers.
+
+
+.. class:: BaseHeader(name, value)
+
+   *name* and *value* are passed to ``BaseHeader`` from the
+   :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory` call.  The string value of
+   any header object is the *value* fully decoded to unicode.
+
+   This base class defines the following read-only properties:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The name of the header (the portion of the field before the ':').  This
+      is exactly the value passed in the
+      :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory` call for *name*; that
+      is, case is preserved.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: defects
+
+      A tuple of :exc:`~email.errors.HeaderDefect` instances reporting any
+      RFC compliance problems found during parsing.  The email package tries to
+      be complete about detecting compliance issues.  See the :mod:`~email.errors`
+      module for a discussion of the types of defects that may be reported.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: max_count
+
+      The maximum number of headers of this type that can have the same
+      ``name``.  A value of ``None`` means unlimited.  The ``BaseHeader`` value
+      for this attribute is ``None``; it is expected that specialized header
+      classes will override this value as needed.
+
+   ``BaseHeader`` also provides the following method, which is called by the
+   email library code and should not in general be called by application
+   programs:
+
+   .. method:: fold(*, policy)
+
+      Return a string containing :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.linesep`
+      characters as required to correctly fold the header according to
+      *policy*.  A :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.cte_type` of ``8bit`` will be
+      treated as if it were ``7bit``, since headers may not contain arbitrary
+      binary data.  If :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8` is ``False``,
+      non-ASCII data will be :rfc:`2047` encoded.
+
+
+   ``BaseHeader`` by itself cannot be used to create a header object.  It
+   defines a protocol that each specialized header cooperates with in order to
+   produce the header object.  Specifically, ``BaseHeader`` requires that
+   the specialized class provide a :func:`classmethod` named ``parse``.  This
+   method is called as follows::
+
+       parse(string, kwds)
+
+   ``kwds`` is a dictionary containing one pre-initialized key, ``defects``.
+   ``defects`` is an empty list.  The parse method should append any detected
+   defects to this list.  On return, the ``kwds`` dictionary *must* contain
+   values for at least the keys ``decoded`` and ``defects``.  ``decoded``
+   should be the string value for the header (that is, the header value fully
+   decoded to unicode).  The parse method should assume that *string* may
+   contain content-transfer-encoded parts, but should correctly handle all valid
+   unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded header values.
+
+   ``BaseHeader``'s ``__new__`` then creates the header instance, and calls its
+   ``init`` method.  The specialized class only needs to provide an ``init``
+   method if it wishes to set additional attributes beyond those provided by
+   ``BaseHeader`` itself.  Such an ``init`` method should look like this::
+
+       def init(self, *args, **kw):
+           self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr')
+           super().init(*args, **kw)
+
+   That is, anything extra that the specialized class puts in to the ``kwds``
+   dictionary should be removed and handled, and the remaining contents of
+   ``kw`` (and ``args``) passed to the ``BaseHeader`` ``init`` method.
+
+
+.. class:: UnstructuredHeader
+
+   An "unstructured" header is the default type of header in :rfc:`5322`.
+   Any header that does not have a specified syntax is treated as
+   unstructured.  The classic example of an unstructured header is the
+   :mailheader:`Subject` header.
+
+   In :rfc:`5322`, an unstructured header is a run of arbitrary text in the
+   ASCII character set.  :rfc:`2047`, however, has an :rfc:`5322` compatible
+   mechanism for encoding non-ASCII text as ASCII characters within a header
+   value.  When a *value* containing encoded words is passed to the
+   constructor, the ``UnstructuredHeader`` parser converts such encoded words
+   into unicode, following the :rfc:`2047` rules for unstructured text.  The
+   parser uses heuristics to attempt to decode certain non-compliant encoded
+   words.  Defects are registered in such cases, as well as defects for issues
+   such as invalid characters within the encoded words or the non-encoded text.
+
+   This header type provides no additional attributes.
+
+
+.. class:: DateHeader
+
+   :rfc:`5322` specifies a very specific format for dates within email headers.
+   The ``DateHeader`` parser recognizes that date format, as well as
+   recognizing a number of variant forms that are sometimes found "in the
+   wild".
+
+   This header type provides the following additional attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: datetime
+
+      If the header value can be recognized as a valid date of one form or
+      another, this attribute will contain a :class:`~datetime.datetime`
+      instance representing that date.  If the timezone of the input date is
+      specified as ``-0000`` (indicating it is in UTC but contains no
+      information about the source timezone), then :attr:`.datetime` will be a
+      naive :class:`~datetime.datetime`.  If a specific timezone offset is
+      found (including `+0000`), then :attr:`.datetime` will contain an aware
+      ``datetime`` that uses :class:`datetime.timezone` to record the timezone
+      offset.
+
+   The ``decoded`` value of the header is determined by formatting the
+   ``datetime`` according to the :rfc:`5322` rules; that is, it is set to::
+
+       email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime)
+
+   When creating a ``DateHeader``, *value* may be
+   :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance.  This means, for example, that
+   the following code is valid and does what one would expect::
+
+       msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21)
+
+   Because this is a naive ``datetime`` it will be interpreted as a UTC
+   timestamp, and the resulting value will have a timezone of ``-0000``.  Much
+   more useful is to use the :func:`~email.utils.localtime` function from the
+   :mod:`~email.utils` module::
+
+       msg['Date'] = utils.localtime()
+
+   This example sets the date header to the current time and date using
+   the current timezone offset.
+
+
+.. class:: AddressHeader
+
+   Address headers are one of the most complex structured header types.
+   The ``AddressHeader`` class provides a generic interface to any address
+   header.
+
+   This header type provides the following additional attributes:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: groups
+
+      A tuple of :class:`.Group` objects encoding the
+      addresses and groups found in the header value.  Addresses that are
+      not part of a group are represented in this list as single-address
+      ``Groups`` whose :attr:`~.Group.display_name` is ``None``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: addresses
+
+      A tuple of :class:`.Address` objects encoding all
+      of the individual addresses from the header value.  If the header value
+      contains any groups, the individual addresses from the group are included
+      in the list at the point where the group occurs in the value (that is,
+      the list of addresses is "flattened" into a one dimensional list).
+
+   The ``decoded`` value of the header will have all encoded words decoded to
+   unicode.  :class:`~encodings.idna` encoded domain names are also decoded to
+   unicode.  The ``decoded`` value is set by :attr:`~str.join`\ ing the
+   :class:`str` value of the elements of the ``groups`` attribute with ``',
+   '``.
+
+   A list of :class:`.Address` and :class:`.Group` objects in any combination
+   may be used to set the value of an address header.  ``Group`` objects whose
+   ``display_name`` is ``None`` will be interpreted as single addresses, which
+   allows an address list to be copied with groups intact by using the list
+   obtained from the ``groups`` attribute of the source header.
+
+
+.. class:: SingleAddressHeader
+
+   A subclass of :class:`.AddressHeader` that adds one
+   additional attribute:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: address
+
+      The single address encoded by the header value.  If the header value
+      actually contains more than one address (which would be a violation of
+      the RFC under the default :mod:`~email.policy`), accessing this attribute
+      will result in a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+Many of the above classes also have a ``Unique`` variant (for example,
+``UniqueUnstructuredHeader``).  The only difference is that in the ``Unique``
+variant, :attr:`~.BaseHeader.max_count` is set to 1.
+
+
+.. class:: MIMEVersionHeader
+
+   There is really only one valid value for the :mailheader:`MIME-Version`
+   header, and that is ``1.0``.  For future proofing, this header class
+   supports other valid version numbers.  If a version number has a valid value
+   per :rfc:`2045`, then the header object will have non-``None`` values for
+   the following attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: version
+
+      The version number as a string, with any whitespace and/or comments
+      removed.
+
+   .. attribute:: major
+
+      The major version number as an integer
+
+   .. attribute:: minor
+
+      The minor version number as an integer
+
+
+.. class:: ParameterizedMIMEHeader
+
+    MIME headers all start with the prefix 'Content-'.  Each specific header has
+    a certain value, described under the class for that header.  Some can
+    also take a list of supplemental parameters, which have a common format.
+    This class serves as a base for all the MIME headers that take parameters.
+
+    .. attribute:: params
+
+       A dictionary mapping parameter names to parameter values.
+
+
+.. class:: ContentTypeHeader
+
+    A :class:`ParameterizedMIMEHeader` class that handles the
+    :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+
+    .. attribute:: content_type
+
+       The content type string, in the form ``maintype/subtype``.
+
+    .. attribute:: maintype
+
+    .. attribute:: subtype
+
+
+.. class:: ContentDispositionHeader
+
+    A :class:`ParameterizedMIMEHeader` class that handles the
+    :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header.
+
+    .. attribute:: content-disposition
+
+       ``inline`` and ``attachment`` are the only valid values in common use.
+
+
+.. class:: ContentTransferEncoding
+
+   Handles the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header.
+
+   .. attribute:: cte
+
+      Valid values are ``7bit``, ``8bit``, ``base64``, and
+      ``quoted-printable``.  See :rfc:`2045` for more information.
+
+
+
+.. class:: HeaderRegistry(base_class=BaseHeader, \
+                          default_class=UnstructuredHeader, \
+                          use_default_map=True)
+
+    This is the factory used by :class:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy` by default.
+    ``HeaderRegistry`` builds the class used to create a header instance
+    dynamically, using *base_class* and a specialized class retrieved from a
+    registry that it holds.  When a given header name does not appear in the
+    registry, the class specified by *default_class* is used as the specialized
+    class.  When *use_default_map* is ``True`` (the default), the standard
+    mapping of header names to classes is copied in to the registry during
+    initialization.  *base_class* is always the last class in the generated
+    class's ``__bases__`` list.
+
+    The default mappings are:
+
+      :subject:         UniqueUnstructuredHeader
+      :date:            UniqueDateHeader
+      :resent-date:     DateHeader
+      :orig-date:       UniqueDateHeader
+      :sender:          UniqueSingleAddressHeader
+      :resent-sender:   SingleAddressHeader
+      :to:              UniqueAddressHeader
+      :resent-to:       AddressHeader
+      :cc:              UniqueAddressHeader
+      :resent-cc:       AddressHeader
+      :from:            UniqueAddressHeader
+      :resent-from:     AddressHeader
+      :reply-to:        UniqueAddressHeader
+
+    ``HeaderRegistry`` has the following methods:
+
+
+    .. method:: map_to_type(self, name, cls)
+
+       *name* is the name of the header to be mapped.  It will be converted to
+       lower case in the registry.  *cls* is the specialized class to be used,
+       along with *base_class*, to create the class used to instantiate headers
+       that match *name*.
+
+
+    .. method:: __getitem__(name)
+
+       Construct and return a class to handle creating a *name* header.
+
+
+    .. method:: __call__(name, value)
+
+       Retrieves the specialized header associated with *name* from the
+       registry (using *default_class* if *name* does not appear in the
+       registry) and composes it with *base_class* to produce a class,
+       calls the constructed class's constructor, passing it the same
+       argument list, and finally returns the class instance created thereby.
+
+
+The following classes are the classes used to represent data parsed from
+structured headers and can, in general, be used by an application program to
+construct structured values to assign to specific headers.
+
+
+.. class:: Address(display_name='', username='', domain='', addr_spec=None)
+
+   The class used to represent an email address.  The general form of an
+   address is::
+
+      [display_name] <username@domain>
+
+   or::
+
+      username@domain
+
+   where each part must conform to specific syntax rules spelled out in
+   :rfc:`5322`.
+
+   As a convenience *addr_spec* can be specified instead of *username* and
+   *domain*, in which case *username* and *domain* will be parsed from the
+   *addr_spec*.  An *addr_spec* must be a properly RFC quoted string; if it is
+   not ``Address`` will raise an error.  Unicode characters are allowed and
+   will be property encoded when serialized.  However, per the RFCs, unicode is
+   *not* allowed in the username portion of the address.
+
+   .. attribute:: display_name
+
+      The display name portion of the address, if any, with all quoting
+      removed.  If the address does not have a display name, this attribute
+      will be an empty string.
+
+   .. attribute:: username
+
+      The ``username`` portion of the address, with all quoting removed.
+
+   .. attribute:: domain
+
+      The ``domain`` portion of the address.
+
+   .. attribute:: addr_spec
+
+      The ``username@domain`` portion of the address, correctly quoted
+      for use as a bare address (the second form shown above).  This
+      attribute is not mutable.
+
+   .. method:: __str__()
+
+      The ``str`` value of the object is the address quoted according to
+      :rfc:`5322` rules, but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any non-ASCII
+      characters.
+
+   To support SMTP (:rfc:`5321`), ``Address`` handles one special case: if
+   ``username`` and ``domain`` are both the empty string (or ``None``), then
+   the string value of the ``Address`` is ``<>``.
+
+
+.. class:: Group(display_name=None, addresses=None)
+
+   The class used to represent an address group.  The general form of an
+   address group is::
+
+     display_name: [address-list];
+
+   As a convenience for processing lists of addresses that consist of a mixture
+   of groups and single addresses, a ``Group`` may also be used to represent
+   single addresses that are not part of a group by setting *display_name* to
+   ``None`` and providing a list of the single address as *addresses*.
+
+   .. attribute:: display_name
+
+      The ``display_name`` of the group.  If it is ``None`` and there is
+      exactly one ``Address`` in ``addresses``, then the ``Group`` represents a
+      single address that is not in a group.
+
+   .. attribute:: addresses
+
+      A possibly empty tuple of :class:`.Address` objects representing the
+      addresses in the group.
+
+   .. method:: __str__()
+
+      The ``str`` value of a ``Group`` is formatted according to :rfc:`5322`,
+      but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any non-ASCII characters.  If
+      ``display_name`` is none and there is a single ``Address`` in the
+      ``addresses`` list, the ``str`` value will be the same as the ``str`` of
+      that single ``Address``.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Originally added in 3.3 as a :term:`provisional module <provisional
+       package>`
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.iterators.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.iterators.rst.txt
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.iterators.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+:mod:`email.iterators`: Iterators
+---------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.iterators
+   :synopsis: Iterate over a  message object tree.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/iterators.py`
+
+--------------
+
+Iterating over a message object tree is fairly easy with the
+:meth:`Message.walk <email.message.Message.walk>` method.  The
+:mod:`email.iterators` module provides some useful higher level iterations over
+message object trees.
+
+
+.. function:: body_line_iterator(msg, decode=False)
+
+   This iterates over all the payloads in all the subparts of *msg*, returning the
+   string payloads line-by-line.  It skips over all the subpart headers, and it
+   skips over any subpart with a payload that isn't a Python string.  This is
+   somewhat equivalent to reading the flat text representation of the message from
+   a file using :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.readline`, skipping over all the
+   intervening headers.
+
+   Optional *decode* is passed through to :meth:`Message.get_payload
+   <email.message.Message.get_payload>`.
+
+
+.. function:: typed_subpart_iterator(msg, maintype='text', subtype=None)
+
+   This iterates over all the subparts of *msg*, returning only those subparts that
+   match the MIME type specified by *maintype* and *subtype*.
+
+   Note that *subtype* is optional; if omitted, then subpart MIME type matching is
+   done only with the main type.  *maintype* is optional too; it defaults to
+   :mimetype:`text`.
+
+   Thus, by default :func:`typed_subpart_iterator` returns each subpart that has a
+   MIME type of :mimetype:`text/\*`.
+
+
+The following function has been added as a useful debugging tool.  It should
+*not* be considered part of the supported public interface for the package.
+
+.. function:: _structure(msg, fp=None, level=0, include_default=False)
+
+   Prints an indented representation of the content types of the message object
+   structure.  For example:
+
+   .. testsetup::
+
+      import email
+      from email.iterators import _structure
+      somefile = open('../Lib/test/test_email/data/msg_02.txt')
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> msg = email.message_from_file(somefile)
+      >>> _structure(msg)
+      multipart/mixed
+          text/plain
+          text/plain
+          multipart/digest
+              message/rfc822
+                  text/plain
+              message/rfc822
+                  text/plain
+              message/rfc822
+                  text/plain
+              message/rfc822
+                  text/plain
+              message/rfc822
+                  text/plain
+          text/plain
+
+   .. testcleanup::
+
+      somefile.close()
+
+   Optional *fp* is a file-like object to print the output to.  It must be
+   suitable for Python's :func:`print` function.  *level* is used internally.
+   *include_default*, if true, prints the default type as well.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.message.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.message.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.message.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,751 @@
+:mod:`email.message`: Representing an email message
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.message
+   :synopsis: The base class representing email messages.
+.. moduleauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>,
+                   Barry A. Warsaw <barry@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/message.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6 [1]_
+
+The central class in the :mod:`email` package is the :class:`EmailMessage`
+class, imported from the :mod:`email.message` module.  It is the base class for
+the :mod:`email` object model.  :class:`EmailMessage` provides the core
+functionality for setting and querying header fields, for accessing message
+bodies, and for creating or modifying structured messages.
+
+An email message consists of *headers* and a *payload* (which is also referred
+to as the *content*).  Headers are :rfc:`5322` or :rfc:`6532` style field names
+and values, where the field name and value are separated by a colon.  The colon
+is not part of either the field name or the field value.  The payload may be a
+simple text message, or a binary object, or a structured sequence of
+sub-messages each with their own set of headers and their own payload.  The
+latter type of payload is indicated by the message having a MIME type such as
+:mimetype:`multipart/\*` or :mimetype:`message/rfc822`.
+
+The conceptual model provided by an :class:`EmailMessage` object is that of an
+ordered dictionary of headers coupled with a *payload* that represents the
+:rfc:`5322` body of the message, which might be a list of sub-``EmailMessage``
+objects.  In addition to the normal dictionary methods for accessing the header
+names and values, there are methods for accessing specialized information from
+the headers (for example the MIME content type), for operating on the payload,
+for generating a serialized version of the message, and for recursively walking
+over the object tree.
+
+The :class:`EmailMessage` dictionary-like interface is indexed by the header
+names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary are strings
+with some extra methods.  Headers are stored and returned in case-preserving
+form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.  Unlike a real dict,
+there is an ordering to the keys, and there can be duplicate keys.  Additional
+methods are provided for working with headers that have duplicate keys.
+
+The *payload* is either a string or bytes object, in the case of simple message
+objects, or a list of :class:`EmailMessage` objects, for MIME container
+documents such as :mimetype:`multipart/\*` and :mimetype:`message/rfc822`
+message objects.
+
+
+.. class:: EmailMessage(policy=default)
+
+   If *policy* is specified use the rules it specifies to update and serialize
+   the representation of the message.  If *policy* is not set, use the
+   :class:`~email.policy.default` policy, which follows the rules of the email
+   RFCs except for line endings (instead of the RFC mandated ``\r\n``, it uses
+   the Python standard ``\n`` line endings).  For more information see the
+   :mod:`~email.policy` documentation.
+
+   .. method:: as_string(unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None, policy=None)
+
+      Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When optional
+      *unixfrom* is true, the envelope header is included in the returned
+      string.  *unixfrom* defaults to ``False``.  For backward compatibility
+      with the base :class:`~email.message.Message` class *maxheaderlen* is
+      accepted, but defaults to ``None``, which means that by default the line
+      length is controlled by the
+      :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.max_line_length` of the policy.  The
+      *policy* argument may be used to override the default policy obtained
+      from the message instance.  This can be used to control some of the
+      formatting produced by the method, since the specified *policy* will be
+      passed to the :class:`~email.generator.Generator`.
+
+      Flattening the message may trigger changes to the :class:`EmailMessage`
+      if defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a
+      string (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).
+
+      Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not be the
+      most useful way to serialize messages in your application, especially if
+      you are dealing with multiple messages.  See
+      :class:`email.generator.Generator` for a more flexible API for
+      serializing messages.  Note also that this method is restricted to
+      producing messages serialized as "7 bit clean" when
+      :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8` is ``False``, which is the default.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6 the default behavior when *maxheaderlen*
+         is not specified was changed from defaulting to 0 to defaulting
+         to the value of *max_line_length* from the policy.
+
+
+   .. method:: __str__()
+
+      Equivalent to ``as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True))``.  Allows
+      ``str(msg)`` to produce a string containing the serialized message in a
+      readable format.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4 the method was changed to use ``utf8=True``,
+         thus producing an :rfc:`6531`-like message representation, instead of
+         being a direct alias for :meth:`as_string`.
+
+
+   .. method:: as_bytes(unixfrom=False, policy=None)
+
+      Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When optional
+      *unixfrom* is true, the envelope header is included in the returned
+      string.  *unixfrom* defaults to ``False``.  The *policy* argument may be
+      used to override the default policy obtained from the message instance.
+      This can be used to control some of the formatting produced by the
+      method, since the specified *policy* will be passed to the
+      :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator`.
+
+      Flattening the message may trigger changes to the :class:`EmailMessage`
+      if defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a
+      string (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).
+
+      Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not be the
+      most useful way to serialize messages in your application, especially if
+      you are dealing with multiple messages.  See
+      :class:`email.generator.BytesGenerator` for a more flexible API for
+      serializing messages.
+
+
+   .. method:: __bytes__()
+
+      Equivalent to :meth:`.as_bytes()`.  Allows ``bytes(msg)`` to produce a
+      bytes object containing the serialized message.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_multipart()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the message's payload is a list of
+      sub-\ :class:`EmailMessage` objects, otherwise return ``False``.  When
+      :meth:`is_multipart` returns ``False``, the payload should be a string
+      object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).  Note that
+      :meth:`is_multipart` returning ``True`` does not necessarily mean that
+      "msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'" will return the ``True``.
+      For example, ``is_multipart`` will return ``True`` when the
+      :class:`EmailMessage` is of type ``message/rfc822``.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_unixfrom(unixfrom)
+
+      Set the message's envelope header to *unixfrom*, which should be a
+      string.  (See :class:`~mailbox.mboxMessage` for a brief description of
+      this header.)
+
+
+   .. method:: get_unixfrom()
+
+      Return the message's envelope header.  Defaults to ``None`` if the
+      envelope header was never set.
+
+
+   The following methods implement the mapping-like interface for accessing the
+   message's headers.  Note that there are some semantic differences
+   between these methods and a normal mapping (i.e. dictionary) interface.  For
+   example, in a dictionary there are no duplicate keys, but here there may be
+   duplicate message headers.  Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed
+   order to the keys returned by :meth:`keys`, but in an :class:`EmailMessage`
+   object, headers are always returned in the order they appeared in the
+   original message, or in which they were added to the message later.  Any
+   header deleted and then re-added is always appended to the end of the
+   header list.
+
+   These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
+   convenience in the most common use cases.
+
+   Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message is not
+   included in the mapping interface.
+
+
+   .. method:: __len__()
+
+      Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.
+
+
+   .. method:: __contains__(name)
+
+      Return true if the message object has a field named *name*. Matching is
+      done without regard to case and *name* does not include the trailing
+      colon.  Used for the ``in`` operator.  For example::
+
+           if 'message-id' in myMessage:
+              print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])
+
+
+   .. method:: __getitem__(name)
+
+      Return the value of the named header field.  *name* does not include the
+      colon field separator.  If the header is missing, ``None`` is returned; a
+      :exc:`KeyError` is never raised.
+
+      Note that if the named field appears more than once in the message's
+      headers, exactly which of those field values will be returned is
+      undefined.  Use the :meth:`get_all` method to get the values of all the
+      extant headers named *name*.
+
+      Using the standard (non-``compat32``) policies, the returned value is an
+      instance of a subclass of :class:`email.headerregistry.BaseHeader`.
+
+
+   .. method:: __setitem__(name, val)
+
+      Add a header to the message with field name *name* and value *val*.  The
+      field is appended to the end of the message's existing headers.
+
+      Note that this does *not* overwrite or delete any existing header with the same
+      name.  If you want to ensure that the new header is the only one present in the
+      message with field name *name*, delete the field first, e.g.::
+
+         del msg['subject']
+         msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'
+
+      If the :mod:`policy` defines certain headers to be unique (as the standard
+      policies do), this method may raise a :exc:`ValueError` when an attempt
+      is made to assign a value to such a header when one already exists.  This
+      behavior is intentional for consistency's sake, but do not depend on it
+      as we may choose to make such assignments do an automatic deletion of the
+      existing header in the future.
+
+
+   .. method:: __delitem__(name)
+
+      Delete all occurrences of the field with name *name* from the message's
+      headers.  No exception is raised if the named field isn't present in the
+      headers.
+
+
+   .. method:: keys()
+
+      Return a list of all the message's header field names.
+
+
+   .. method:: values()
+
+      Return a list of all the message's field values.
+
+
+   .. method:: items()
+
+      Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message's field headers and
+      values.
+
+
+   .. method:: get(name, failobj=None)
+
+      Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical to
+      :meth:`__getitem__` except that optional *failobj* is returned if the
+      named header is missing (*failobj* defaults to ``None``).
+
+
+   Here are some additional useful header related methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_all(name, failobj=None)
+
+      Return a list of all the values for the field named *name*. If there are
+      no such named headers in the message, *failobj* is returned (defaults to
+      ``None``).
+
+
+   .. method:: add_header(_name, _value, **_params)
+
+      Extended header setting.  This method is similar to :meth:`__setitem__`
+      except that additional header parameters can be provided as keyword
+      arguments.  *_name* is the header field to add and *_value* is the
+      *primary* value for the header.
+
+      For each item in the keyword argument dictionary *_params*, the key is
+      taken as the parameter name, with underscores converted to dashes (since
+      dashes are illegal in Python identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will
+      be added as ``key="value"`` unless the value is ``None``, in which case
+      only the key will be added.
+
+      If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and language may
+      be explicitly controlled by specifying the value as a three tuple in the
+      format ``(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)``, where ``CHARSET`` is a string
+      naming the charset to be used to encode the value, ``LANGUAGE`` can
+      usually be set to ``None`` or the empty string (see :rfc:`2231` for other
+      possibilities), and ``VALUE`` is the string value containing non-ASCII
+      code points.  If a three tuple is not passed and the value contains
+      non-ASCII characters, it is automatically encoded in :rfc:`2231` format
+      using a ``CHARSET`` of ``utf-8`` and a ``LANGUAGE`` of ``None``.
+
+      Here is an example::
+
+         msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')
+
+      This will add a header that looks like ::
+
+         Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"
+
+      An example of the extended interface with non-ASCII characters::
+
+         msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
+                        filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))
+
+
+   .. method:: replace_header(_name, _value)
+
+      Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the message that
+      matches *_name*, retaining header order and field name case of the
+      original header.  If no matching header is found, raise a
+      :exc:`KeyError`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_type()
+
+      Return the message's content type, coerced to lower case of the form
+      :mimetype:`maintype/subtype`.  If there is no :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+      header in the message return the value returned by
+      :meth:`get_default_type`.  If the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header is
+      invalid, return ``text/plain``.
+
+      (According to :rfc:`2045`, messages always have a default type,
+      :meth:`get_content_type` will always return a value.  :rfc:`2045` defines
+      a message's default type to be :mimetype:`text/plain` unless it appears
+      inside a :mimetype:`multipart/digest` container, in which case it would
+      be :mimetype:`message/rfc822`.  If the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header
+      has an invalid type specification, :rfc:`2045` mandates that the default
+      type be :mimetype:`text/plain`.)
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_maintype()
+
+      Return the message's main content type.  This is the :mimetype:`maintype`
+      part of the string returned by :meth:`get_content_type`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_subtype()
+
+      Return the message's sub-content type.  This is the :mimetype:`subtype`
+      part of the string returned by :meth:`get_content_type`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_default_type()
+
+      Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default content
+      type of :mimetype:`text/plain`, except for messages that are subparts of
+      :mimetype:`multipart/digest` containers.  Such subparts have a default
+      content type of :mimetype:`message/rfc822`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_default_type(ctype)
+
+      Set the default content type.  *ctype* should either be
+      :mimetype:`text/plain` or :mimetype:`message/rfc822`, although this is
+      not enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, so it only affects the return value of
+      the ``get_content_type`` methods when no :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+      header is present in the message.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_param(param, value, header='Content-Type', requote=True, \
+                         charset=None, language='', replace=False)
+
+      Set a parameter in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.  If the
+      parameter already exists in the header, replace its value with *value*.
+      When *header* is ``Content-Type`` (the default) and the header does not
+      yet exist in the message, add it, set its value to
+      :mimetype:`text/plain`, and append the new parameter value.  Optional
+      *header* specifies an alternative header to :mailheader:`Content-Type`.
+
+      If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and language may
+      be explicitly specified using the optional *charset* and *language*
+      parameters.  Optional *language* specifies the :rfc:`2231` language,
+      defaulting to the empty string.  Both *charset* and *language* should be
+      strings.  The default is to use the ``utf8`` *charset* and ``None`` for
+      the *language*.
+
+      If *replace* is ``False`` (the default) the header is moved to the
+      end of the list of headers.  If *replace* is ``True``, the header
+      will be updated in place.
+
+      Use of the *requote* parameter with :class:`EmailMessage` objects is
+      deprecated.
+
+      Note that existing parameter values of headers may be accessed through
+      the :attr:`~email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.params` attribute of the
+      header value (for example, ``msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']``).
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4 ``replace`` keyword was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: del_param(param, header='content-type', requote=True)
+
+      Remove the given parameter completely from the :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+      header.  The header will be re-written in place without the parameter or
+      its value.  Optional *header* specifies an alternative to
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type`.
+
+      Use of the *requote* parameter with :class:`EmailMessage` objects is
+      deprecated.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_filename(failobj=None)
+
+      Return the value of the ``filename`` parameter of the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header of the message.  If the header
+      does not have a ``filename`` parameter, this method falls back to looking
+      for the ``name`` parameter on the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.  If
+      neither is found, or the header is missing, then *failobj* is returned.
+      The returned string will always be unquoted as per
+      :func:`email.utils.unquote`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_boundary(failobj=None)
+
+      Return the value of the ``boundary`` parameter of the
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header of the message, or *failobj* if either
+      the header is missing, or has no ``boundary`` parameter.  The returned
+      string will always be unquoted as per :func:`email.utils.unquote`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_boundary(boundary)
+
+      Set the ``boundary`` parameter of the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header to
+      *boundary*.  :meth:`set_boundary` will always quote *boundary* if
+      necessary.  A :exc:`~email.errors.HeaderParseError` is raised if the
+      message object has no :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+
+      Note that using this method is subtly different from deleting the old
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header and adding a new one with the new
+      boundary via :meth:`add_header`, because :meth:`set_boundary` preserves
+      the order of the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header in the list of
+      headers.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_charset(failobj=None)
+
+      Return the ``charset`` parameter of the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header,
+      coerced to lower case.  If there is no :mailheader:`Content-Type` header, or if
+      that header has no ``charset`` parameter, *failobj* is returned.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_charsets(failobj=None)
+
+      Return a list containing the character set names in the message.  If the
+      message is a :mimetype:`multipart`, then the list will contain one element
+      for each subpart in the payload, otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.
+
+      Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of the
+      ``charset`` parameter in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header for the
+      represented subpart.  If the subpart has no :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+      header, no ``charset`` parameter, or is not of the :mimetype:`text` main
+      MIME type, then that item in the returned list will be *failobj*.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_attachment
+
+      Return ``True`` if there is a :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header
+      and its (case insensitive) value is ``attachment``, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4.2
+         is_attachment is now a method instead of a property, for consistency
+         with :meth:`~email.message.Message.is_multipart`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content_disposition()
+
+      Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the message's
+      :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header if it has one, or ``None``.  The
+      possible values for this method are *inline*, *attachment* or ``None``
+      if the message follows :rfc:`2183`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+   The following methods relate to interrogating and manipulating the content
+   (payload) of the message.
+
+
+   .. method:: walk()
+
+      The :meth:`walk` method is an all-purpose generator which can be used to
+      iterate over all the parts and subparts of a message object tree, in
+      depth-first traversal order.  You will typically use :meth:`walk` as the
+      iterator in a ``for`` loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.
+
+      Here's an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a multipart
+      message structure:
+
+      .. testsetup::
+
+         from email import message_from_binary_file
+         with open('../Lib/test/test_email/data/msg_16.txt', 'rb') as f:
+             msg = message_from_binary_file(f)
+         from email.iterators import _structure
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> for part in msg.walk():
+         ...     print(part.get_content_type())
+         multipart/report
+         text/plain
+         message/delivery-status
+         text/plain
+         text/plain
+         message/rfc822
+         text/plain
+
+      ``walk`` iterates over the subparts of any part where
+      :meth:`is_multipart` returns ``True``, even though
+      ``msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'`` may return ``False``.  We
+      can see this in our example by making use of the ``_structure`` debug
+      helper function:
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> for part in msg.walk():
+         ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
+         ...           part.is_multipart())
+         True True
+         False False
+         False True
+         False False
+         False False
+         False True
+         False False
+         >>> _structure(msg)
+         multipart/report
+             text/plain
+             message/delivery-status
+                 text/plain
+                 text/plain
+             message/rfc822
+                 text/plain
+
+      Here the ``message`` parts are not ``multiparts``, but they do contain
+      subparts. ``is_multipart()`` returns ``True`` and ``walk`` descends
+      into the subparts.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_body(preferencelist=('related', 'html', 'plain'))
+
+      Return the MIME part that is the best candidate to be the "body" of the
+      message.
+
+      *preferencelist* must be a sequence of strings from the set ``related``,
+      ``html``, and ``plain``, and indicates the order of preference for the
+      content type of the part returned.
+
+      Start looking for candidate matches with the object on which the
+      ``get_body`` method is called.
+
+      If ``related`` is not included in *preferencelist*, consider the root
+      part (or subpart of the root part) of any related encountered as a
+      candidate if the (sub-)part matches a preference.
+
+      When encountering a ``multipart/related``, check the ``start`` parameter
+      and if a part with a matching :mailheader:`Content-ID` is found, consider
+      only it when looking for candidate matches.  Otherwise consider only the
+      first (default root) part of the ``multipart/related``.
+
+      If a part has a :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header, only consider
+      the part a candidate match if the value of the header is ``inline``.
+
+      If none of the candidates matches any of the preferences in
+      *preferencelist*, return ``None``.
+
+      Notes: (1) For most applications the only *preferencelist* combinations
+      that really make sense are ``('plain',)``, ``('html', 'plain')``, and the
+      default ``('related', 'html', 'plain')``.  (2) Because matching starts
+      with the object on which ``get_body`` is called, calling ``get_body`` on
+      a ``multipart/related`` will return the object itself unless
+      *preferencelist* has a non-default value. (3) Messages (or message parts)
+      that do not specify a :mailheader:`Content-Type` or whose
+      :mailheader:`Content-Type` header is invalid will be treated as if they
+      are of type ``text/plain``, which may occasionally cause ``get_body`` to
+      return unexpected results.
+
+
+   .. method:: iter_attachments()
+
+      Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the message
+      that are not candidate "body" parts.  That is, skip the first occurrence
+      of each of ``text/plain``, ``text/html``, ``multipart/related``, or
+      ``multipart/alternative`` (unless they are explicitly marked as
+      attachments via :mailheader:`Content-Disposition: attachment`), and
+      return all remaining parts.  When applied directly to a
+      ``multipart/related``, return an iterator over the all the related parts
+      except the root part (ie: the part pointed to by the ``start`` parameter,
+      or the first part if there is no ``start`` parameter or the ``start``
+      parameter doesn't match the :mailheader:`Content-ID` of any of the
+      parts).  When applied directly to a ``multipart/alternative`` or a
+      non-``multipart``, return an empty iterator.
+
+
+   .. method:: iter_parts()
+
+      Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the message,
+      which will be empty for a non-``multipart``.  (See also
+      :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.walk`.)
+
+
+   .. method:: get_content(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)
+
+      Call the :meth:`~email.contentmanager.ContentManager.get_content` method
+      of the *content_manager*, passing self as the message object, and passing
+      along any other arguments or keywords as additional arguments.  If
+      *content_manager* is not specified, use the ``content_manager`` specified
+      by the current :mod:`~email.policy`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_content(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)
+
+      Call the :meth:`~email.contentmanager.ContentManager.set_content` method
+      of the *content_manager*, passing self as the message object, and passing
+      along any other arguments or keywords as additional arguments.  If
+      *content_manager* is not specified, use the ``content_manager`` specified
+      by the current :mod:`~email.policy`.
+
+
+   .. method:: make_related(boundary=None)
+
+      Convert a non-``multipart`` message into a ``multipart/related`` message,
+      moving any existing :mailheader:`Content-` headers and payload into a
+      (new) first part of the ``multipart``.  If *boundary* is specified, use
+      it as the boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the boundary
+      to be automatically created when it is needed (for example, when the
+      message is serialized).
+
+
+   .. method:: make_alternative(boundary=None)
+
+      Convert a non-``multipart`` or a ``multipart/related`` into a
+      ``multipart/alternative``, moving any existing :mailheader:`Content-`
+      headers and payload into a (new) first part of the ``multipart``.  If
+      *boundary* is specified, use it as the boundary string in the multipart,
+      otherwise leave the boundary to be automatically created when it is
+      needed (for example, when the message is serialized).
+
+
+   .. method:: make_mixed(boundary=None)
+
+      Convert a non-``multipart``, a ``multipart/related``, or a
+      ``multipart-alternative`` into a ``multipart/mixed``, moving any existing
+      :mailheader:`Content-` headers and payload into a (new) first part of the
+      ``multipart``.  If *boundary* is specified, use it as the boundary string
+      in the multipart, otherwise leave the boundary to be automatically
+      created when it is needed (for example, when the message is serialized).
+
+
+   .. method:: add_related(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)
+
+      If the message is a ``multipart/related``, create a new message
+      object, pass all of the arguments to its :meth:`set_content` method,
+      and :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach` it to the ``multipart``.  If
+      the message is a non-``multipart``, call :meth:`make_related` and then
+      proceed as above.  If the message is any other type of ``multipart``,
+      raise a :exc:`TypeError`. If *content_manager* is not specified, use
+      the ``content_manager`` specified by the current :mod:`~email.policy`.
+      If the added part has no :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header,
+      add one with the value ``inline``.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_alternative(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)
+
+      If the message is a ``multipart/alternative``, create a new message
+      object, pass all of the arguments to its :meth:`set_content` method, and
+      :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach` it to the ``multipart``.  If the
+      message is a non-``multipart`` or ``multipart/related``, call
+      :meth:`make_alternative` and then proceed as above.  If the message is
+      any other type of ``multipart``, raise a :exc:`TypeError`. If
+      *content_manager* is not specified, use the ``content_manager`` specified
+      by the current :mod:`~email.policy`.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_attachment(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)
+
+      If the message is a ``multipart/mixed``, create a new message object,
+      pass all of the arguments to its :meth:`set_content` method, and
+      :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach` it to the ``multipart``.  If the
+      message is a non-``multipart``, ``multipart/related``, or
+      ``multipart/alternative``, call :meth:`make_mixed` and then proceed as
+      above. If *content_manager* is not specified, use the ``content_manager``
+      specified by the current :mod:`~email.policy`.  If the added part
+      has no :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header, add one with the value
+      ``attachment``.  This method can be used both for explicit attachments
+      (:mailheader:`Content-Disposition: attachment`) and ``inline`` attachments
+      (:mailheader:`Content-Disposition: inline`), by passing appropriate
+      options to the ``content_manager``.
+
+
+   .. method:: clear()
+
+      Remove the payload and all of the headers.
+
+
+   .. method:: clear_content()
+
+      Remove the payload and all of the :exc:`Content-` headers, leaving
+      all other headers intact and in their original order.
+
+
+   :class:`EmailMessage` objects have the following instance attributes:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: preamble
+
+      The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the blank line
+      following the headers, and the first multipart boundary string. Normally,
+      this text is never visible in a MIME-aware mail reader because it falls
+      outside the standard MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of
+      the message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware reader, this
+      text can become visible.
+
+      The *preamble* attribute contains this leading extra-armor text for MIME
+      documents.  When the :class:`~email.parser.Parser` discovers some text
+      after the headers but before the first boundary string, it assigns this
+      text to the message's *preamble* attribute.  When the
+      :class:`~email.generator.Generator` is writing out the plain text
+      representation of a MIME message, and it finds the
+      message has a *preamble* attribute, it will write this text in the area
+      between the headers and the first boundary.  See :mod:`email.parser` and
+      :mod:`email.generator` for details.
+
+      Note that if the message object has no preamble, the *preamble* attribute
+      will be ``None``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: epilogue
+
+      The *epilogue* attribute acts the same way as the *preamble* attribute,
+      except that it contains text that appears between the last boundary and
+      the end of the message.  As with the :attr:`~EmailMessage.preamble`,
+      if there is no epilog text this attribute will be ``None``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: defects
+
+      The *defects* attribute contains a list of all the problems found when
+      parsing this message.  See :mod:`email.errors` for a detailed description
+      of the possible parsing defects.
+
+
+.. class:: MIMEPart(policy=default)
+
+    This class represents a subpart of a MIME message.  It is identical to
+    :class:`EmailMessage`, except that no :mailheader:`MIME-Version` headers are
+    added when :meth:`~EmailMessage.set_content` is called, since sub-parts do
+    not need their own :mailheader:`MIME-Version` headers.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Originally added in 3.4 as a :term:`provisional module <provisional
+       package>`.  Docs for legacy message class moved to
+       :ref:`compat32_message`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.mime.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.mime.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.mime.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+:mod:`email.mime`: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
+---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.mime
+   :synopsis: Build MIME messages.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/mime/`
+
+--------------
+
+This module is part of the legacy (``Compat32``) email API.  Its functionality
+is partially replaced by the :mod:`~email.contentmanager` in the new API, but
+in certain applications these classes may still be useful, even in non-legacy
+code.
+
+Ordinarily, you get a message object structure by passing a file or some text to
+a parser, which parses the text and returns the root message object.  However
+you can also build a complete message structure from scratch, or even individual
+:class:`~email.message.Message` objects by hand.  In fact, you can also take an
+existing structure and add new :class:`~email.message.Message` objects, move them
+around, etc.  This makes a very convenient interface for slicing-and-dicing MIME
+messages.
+
+You can create a new object structure by creating :class:`~email.message.Message`
+instances, adding attachments and all the appropriate headers manually.  For MIME
+messages though, the :mod:`email` package provides some convenient subclasses to
+make things easier.
+
+Here are the classes:
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.base
+
+.. class:: MIMEBase(_maintype, _subtype, *, policy=compat32, **_params)
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.base`
+
+   This is the base class for all the MIME-specific subclasses of
+   :class:`~email.message.Message`.  Ordinarily you won't create instances
+   specifically of :class:`MIMEBase`, although you could.  :class:`MIMEBase`
+   is provided primarily as a convenient base class for more specific
+   MIME-aware subclasses.
+
+   *_maintype* is the :mailheader:`Content-Type` major type (e.g. :mimetype:`text`
+   or :mimetype:`image`), and *_subtype* is the :mailheader:`Content-Type` minor
+   type  (e.g. :mimetype:`plain` or :mimetype:`gif`).  *_params* is a parameter
+   key/value dictionary and is passed directly to :meth:`Message.add_header
+   <email.message.Message.add_header>`.
+
+   If *policy* is specified, (defaults to the
+   :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>` policy) it will be passed to
+   :class:`~email.message.Message`.
+
+   The :class:`MIMEBase` class always adds a :mailheader:`Content-Type` header
+   (based on *_maintype*, *_subtype*, and *_params*), and a
+   :mailheader:`MIME-Version` header (always set to ``1.0``).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *policy* keyword-only parameter.
+
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.nonmultipart
+
+.. class:: MIMENonMultipart()
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.nonmultipart`
+
+   A subclass of :class:`~email.mime.base.MIMEBase`, this is an intermediate base
+   class for MIME messages that are not :mimetype:`multipart`.  The primary
+   purpose of this class is to prevent the use of the
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach` method, which only makes sense for
+   :mimetype:`multipart` messages.  If :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach`
+   is called, a :exc:`~email.errors.MultipartConversionError` exception is raised.
+
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.multipart
+
+.. class:: MIMEMultipart(_subtype='mixed', boundary=None, _subparts=None, \
+                         *, policy=compat32, **_params)
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.multipart`
+
+   A subclass of :class:`~email.mime.base.MIMEBase`, this is an intermediate base
+   class for MIME messages that are :mimetype:`multipart`.  Optional *_subtype*
+   defaults to :mimetype:`mixed`, but can be used to specify the subtype of the
+   message.  A :mailheader:`Content-Type` header of :mimetype:`multipart/_subtype`
+   will be added to the message object.  A :mailheader:`MIME-Version` header will
+   also be added.
+
+   Optional *boundary* is the multipart boundary string.  When ``None`` (the
+   default), the boundary is calculated when needed (for example, when the
+   message is serialized).
+
+   *_subparts* is a sequence of initial subparts for the payload.  It must be
+   possible to convert this sequence to a list.  You can always attach new subparts
+   to the message by using the :meth:`Message.attach
+   <email.message.Message.attach>` method.
+
+   Optional *policy* argument defaults to :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>`.
+
+   Additional parameters for the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header are taken from
+   the keyword arguments, or passed into the *_params* argument, which is a keyword
+   dictionary.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *policy* keyword-only parameter.
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.application
+
+.. class:: MIMEApplication(_data, _subtype='octet-stream', \
+                           _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, \
+                           *, policy=compat32, **_params)
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.application`
+
+   A subclass of :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart`, the
+   :class:`MIMEApplication` class is used to represent MIME message objects of
+   major type :mimetype:`application`.  *_data* is a string containing the raw
+   byte data.  Optional *_subtype* specifies the MIME subtype and defaults to
+   :mimetype:`octet-stream`.
+
+   Optional *_encoder* is a callable (i.e. function) which will perform the actual
+   encoding of the data for transport.  This callable takes one argument, which is
+   the :class:`MIMEApplication` instance. It should use
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.get_payload` and
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.set_payload` to change the payload to encoded
+   form.  It should also add
+   any :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` or other headers to the message
+   object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
+   :mod:`email.encoders` module for a list of the built-in encoders.
+
+   Optional *policy* argument defaults to :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>`.
+
+   *_params* are passed straight through to the base class constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *policy* keyword-only parameter.
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.audio
+
+.. class:: MIMEAudio(_audiodata, _subtype=None, \
+                     _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, \
+                     *, policy=compat32, **_params)
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.audio`
+
+   A subclass of :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart`, the
+   :class:`MIMEAudio` class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
+   :mimetype:`audio`. *_audiodata* is a string containing the raw audio data.  If
+   this data can be decoded by the standard Python module :mod:`sndhdr`, then the
+   subtype will be automatically included in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+   Otherwise you can explicitly specify the audio subtype via the *_subtype*
+   argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed and *_subtype* was not given,
+   then :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   Optional *_encoder* is a callable (i.e. function) which will perform the actual
+   encoding of the audio data for transport.  This callable takes one argument,
+   which is the :class:`MIMEAudio` instance. It should use
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.get_payload` and
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.set_payload` to change the payload to encoded
+   form.  It should also add
+   any :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` or other headers to the message
+   object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
+   :mod:`email.encoders` module for a list of the built-in encoders.
+
+   Optional *policy* argument defaults to :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>`.
+
+   *_params* are passed straight through to the base class constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *policy* keyword-only parameter.
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.image
+
+.. class:: MIMEImage(_imagedata, _subtype=None, \
+                     _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, \
+                    *, policy=compat32, **_params)
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.image`
+
+   A subclass of :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart`, the
+   :class:`MIMEImage` class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
+   :mimetype:`image`. *_imagedata* is a string containing the raw image data.  If
+   this data can be decoded by the standard Python module :mod:`imghdr`, then the
+   subtype will be automatically included in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header.
+   Otherwise you can explicitly specify the image subtype via the *_subtype*
+   argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed and *_subtype* was not given,
+   then :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   Optional *_encoder* is a callable (i.e. function) which will perform the actual
+   encoding of the image data for transport.  This callable takes one argument,
+   which is the :class:`MIMEImage` instance. It should use
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.get_payload` and
+   :meth:`~email.message.Message.set_payload` to change the payload to encoded
+   form.  It should also add
+   any :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` or other headers to the message
+   object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
+   :mod:`email.encoders` module for a list of the built-in encoders.
+
+   Optional *policy* argument defaults to :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>`.
+
+   *_params* are passed straight through to the :class:`~email.mime.base.MIMEBase`
+   constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *policy* keyword-only parameter.
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.message
+
+.. class:: MIMEMessage(_msg, _subtype='rfc822', *, policy=compat32)
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.message`
+
+   A subclass of :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart`, the
+   :class:`MIMEMessage` class is used to create MIME objects of main type
+   :mimetype:`message`. *_msg* is used as the payload, and must be an instance
+   of class :class:`~email.message.Message` (or a subclass thereof), otherwise
+   a :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   Optional *_subtype* sets the subtype of the message; it defaults to
+   :mimetype:`rfc822`.
+
+   Optional *policy* argument defaults to :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *policy* keyword-only parameter.
+
+.. currentmodule:: email.mime.text
+
+.. class:: MIMEText(_text, _subtype='plain', _charset=None, *, policy=compat32)
+
+   Module: :mod:`email.mime.text`
+
+   A subclass of :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart`, the
+   :class:`MIMEText` class is used to create MIME objects of major type
+   :mimetype:`text`. *_text* is the string for the payload.  *_subtype* is the
+   minor type and defaults to :mimetype:`plain`.  *_charset* is the character
+   set of the text and is passed as an argument to the
+   :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart` constructor; it defaults
+   to ``us-ascii`` if the string contains only ``ascii`` code points, and
+   ``utf-8`` otherwise.  The *_charset* parameter accepts either a string or a
+   :class:`~email.charset.Charset` instance.
+
+   Unless the *_charset* argument is explicitly set to ``None``, the
+   MIMEText object created will have both a :mailheader:`Content-Type` header
+   with a ``charset`` parameter, and a :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`
+   header.  This means that a subsequent ``set_payload`` call will not result
+   in an encoded payload, even if a charset is passed in the ``set_payload``
+   command.  You can "reset" this behavior by deleting the
+   ``Content-Transfer-Encoding`` header, after which a ``set_payload`` call
+   will automatically encode the new payload (and add a new
+   :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header).
+
+   Optional *policy* argument defaults to :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *_charset* also accepts :class:`~email.charset.Charset` instances.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *policy* keyword-only parameter.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.parser.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.parser.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.parser.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,320 @@
+:mod:`email.parser`: Parsing email messages
+-------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.parser
+   :synopsis: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/parser.py`
+
+--------------
+
+Message object structures can be created in one of two ways: they can be
+created from whole cloth by creating an :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`
+object, adding headers using the dictionary interface, and adding payload(s)
+using :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_content` and related methods, or
+they can be created by parsing a serialized representation of the email
+message.
+
+The :mod:`email` package provides a standard parser that understands most email
+document structures, including MIME documents.  You can pass the parser a
+bytes, string or file object, and the parser will return to you the root
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` instance of the object structure.  For
+simple, non-MIME messages the payload of this root object will likely be a
+string containing the text of the message.  For MIME messages, the root object
+will return ``True`` from its :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart`
+method, and the subparts can be accessed via the payload manipulation methods,
+such as :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.get_body`,
+:meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts`, and
+:meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.walk`.
+
+There are actually two parser interfaces available for use, the :class:`Parser`
+API and the incremental :class:`FeedParser` API.  The :class:`Parser` API is
+most useful if you have the entire text of the message in memory, or if the
+entire message lives in a file on the file system.  :class:`FeedParser` is more
+appropriate when you are reading the message from a stream which might block
+waiting for more input (such as reading an email message from a socket).  The
+:class:`FeedParser` can consume and parse the message incrementally, and only
+returns the root object when you close the parser.
+
+Note that the parser can be extended in limited ways, and of course you can
+implement your own parser completely from scratch.  All of the logic that
+connects the :mod:`email` package's bundled parser and the
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class is embodied in the :mod:`policy`
+class, so a custom parser can create message object trees any way it finds
+necessary by implementing custom versions of the appropriate :mod:`policy`
+methods.
+
+
+FeedParser API
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`BytesFeedParser`, imported from the :mod:`email.feedparser` module,
+provides an API that is conducive to incremental parsing of email messages,
+such as would be necessary when reading the text of an email message from a
+source that can block (such as a socket).  The :class:`BytesFeedParser` can of
+course be used to parse an email message fully contained in a :term:`bytes-like
+object`, string, or file, but the :class:`BytesParser` API may be more
+convenient for such use cases.  The semantics and results of the two parser
+APIs are identical.
+
+The :class:`BytesFeedParser`'s API is simple; you create an instance, feed it a
+bunch of bytes until there's no more to feed it, then close the parser to
+retrieve the root message object.  The :class:`BytesFeedParser` is extremely
+accurate when parsing standards-compliant messages, and it does a very good job
+of parsing non-compliant messages, providing information about how a message
+was deemed broken.  It will populate a message object's
+:attr:`~email.message.EmailMessage.defects` attribute with a list of any
+problems it found in a message.  See the :mod:`email.errors` module for the
+list of defects that it can find.
+
+Here is the API for the :class:`BytesFeedParser`:
+
+
+.. class:: BytesFeedParser(_factory=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Create a :class:`BytesFeedParser` instance.  Optional *_factory* is a
+   no-argument callable; if not specified use the
+   :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.message_factory` from the *policy*.  Call
+   *_factory* whenever a new message object is needed.
+
+   If *policy* is specified use the rules it specifies to update the
+   representation of the message.  If *policy* is not set, use the
+   :class:`compat32 <email.policy.Compat32>` policy, which maintains backward
+   compatibility with the Python 3.2 version of the email package and provides
+   :class:`~email.message.Message` as the default factory.  All other policies
+   provide :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` as the default *_factory*. For
+   more information on what else *policy* controls, see the
+   :mod:`~email.policy` documentation.
+
+   Note: **The policy keyword should always be specified**; The default will
+   change to :data:`email.policy.default` in a future version of Python.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword.
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6 *_factory* defaults to the policy ``message_factory``.
+
+
+   .. method:: feed(data)
+
+      Feed the parser some more data.  *data* should be a :term:`bytes-like
+      object` containing one or more lines.  The lines can be partial and the
+      parser will stitch such partial lines together properly.  The lines can
+      have any of the three common line endings: carriage return, newline, or
+      carriage return and newline (they can even be mixed).
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Complete the parsing of all previously fed data and return the root
+      message object.  It is undefined what happens if :meth:`~feed` is called
+      after this method has been called.
+
+
+.. class:: FeedParser(_factory=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Works like :class:`BytesFeedParser` except that the input to the
+   :meth:`~BytesFeedParser.feed` method must be a string.  This is of limited
+   utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid is for it to
+   contain only ASCII text or, if :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.utf8` is
+   ``True``, no binary attachments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword.
+
+
+Parser API
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`BytesParser` class, imported from the :mod:`email.parser` module,
+provides an API that can be used to parse a message when the complete contents
+of the message are available in a :term:`bytes-like object` or file.  The
+:mod:`email.parser` module also provides :class:`Parser` for parsing strings,
+and header-only parsers, :class:`BytesHeaderParser` and
+:class:`HeaderParser`, which can be used if you're only interested in the
+headers of the message.  :class:`BytesHeaderParser` and :class:`HeaderParser`
+can be much faster in these situations, since they do not attempt to parse the
+message body, instead setting the payload to the raw body.
+
+
+.. class:: BytesParser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Create a :class:`BytesParser` instance.  The *_class* and *policy*
+   arguments have the same meaning and semantics as the *_factory*
+   and *policy* arguments of :class:`BytesFeedParser`.
+
+   Note: **The policy keyword should always be specified**; The default will
+   change to :data:`email.policy.default` in a future version of Python.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Removed the *strict* argument that was deprecated in 2.4.  Added the
+      *policy* keyword.
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6 *_class* defaults to the policy ``message_factory``.
+
+
+   .. method:: parse(fp, headersonly=False)
+
+      Read all the data from the binary file-like object *fp*, parse the
+      resulting bytes, and return the message object.  *fp* must support
+      both the :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` and the :meth:`~io.IOBase.read`
+      methods.
+
+      The bytes contained in *fp* must be formatted as a block of :rfc:`5322`
+      (or, if :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.utf8` is ``True``, :rfc:`6532`)
+      style headers and header continuation lines, optionally preceded by an
+      envelope header.  The header block is terminated either by the end of the
+      data or by a blank line.  Following the header block is the body of the
+      message (which may contain MIME-encoded subparts, including subparts
+      with a :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of ``8bit``).
+
+      Optional *headersonly* is a flag specifying whether to stop parsing after
+      reading the headers or not.  The default is ``False``, meaning it parses
+      the entire contents of the file.
+
+
+   .. method:: parsebytes(bytes, headersonly=False)
+
+      Similar to the :meth:`parse` method, except it takes a :term:`bytes-like
+      object` instead of a file-like object.  Calling this method on a
+      :term:`bytes-like object` is equivalent to wrapping *bytes* in a
+      :class:`~io.BytesIO` instance first and calling :meth:`parse`.
+
+      Optional *headersonly* is as with the :meth:`parse` method.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. class:: BytesHeaderParser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Exactly like :class:`BytesParser`, except that *headersonly*
+   defaults to ``True``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. class:: Parser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   This class is parallel to :class:`BytesParser`, but handles string input.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Removed the *strict* argument.  Added the *policy* keyword.
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6 *_class* defaults to the policy ``message_factory``.
+
+
+   .. method:: parse(fp, headersonly=False)
+
+      Read all the data from the text-mode file-like object *fp*, parse the
+      resulting text, and return the root message object.  *fp* must support
+      both the :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.readline` and the
+      :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.read` methods on file-like objects.
+
+      Other than the text mode requirement, this method operates like
+      :meth:`BytesParser.parse`.
+
+
+   .. method:: parsestr(text, headersonly=False)
+
+      Similar to the :meth:`parse` method, except it takes a string object
+      instead of a file-like object.  Calling this method on a string is
+      equivalent to wrapping *text* in a :class:`~io.StringIO` instance first
+      and calling :meth:`parse`.
+
+      Optional *headersonly* is as with the :meth:`parse` method.
+
+
+.. class:: HeaderParser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Exactly like :class:`Parser`, except that *headersonly*
+   defaults to ``True``.
+
+
+Since creating a message object structure from a string or a file object is such
+a common task, four functions are provided as a convenience.  They are available
+in the top-level :mod:`email` package namespace.
+
+.. currentmodule:: email
+
+
+.. function:: message_from_bytes(s, _class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Return a message object structure from a :term:`bytes-like object`.  This is
+   equivalent to ``BytesParser().parsebytes(s)``.  Optional *_class* and
+   *policy* are interpreted as with the :class:`~email.parser.BytesParser` class
+   constructor.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Removed the *strict* argument.  Added the *policy* keyword.
+
+
+.. function:: message_from_binary_file(fp, _class=None, *, \
+                                       policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Return a message object structure tree from an open binary :term:`file
+   object`.  This is equivalent to ``BytesParser().parse(fp)``.  *_class* and
+   *policy* are interpreted as with the :class:`~email.parser.BytesParser` class
+   constructor.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Removed the *strict* argument.  Added the *policy* keyword.
+
+
+.. function:: message_from_string(s, _class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Return a message object structure from a string.  This is equivalent to
+   ``Parser().parsestr(s)``.  *_class* and *policy* are interpreted as
+   with the :class:`~email.parser.Parser` class constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Removed the *strict* argument.  Added the *policy* keyword.
+
+
+.. function:: message_from_file(fp, _class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)
+
+   Return a message object structure tree from an open :term:`file object`.
+   This is equivalent to ``Parser().parse(fp)``.  *_class* and *policy* are
+   interpreted as with the :class:`~email.parser.Parser` class constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Removed the *strict* argument.  Added the *policy* keyword.
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6 *_class* defaults to the policy ``message_factory``.
+
+
+Here's an example of how you might use :func:`message_from_bytes` at an
+interactive Python prompt::
+
+   >>> import email
+   >>> msg = email.message_from_bytes(myBytes)  # doctest: +SKIP
+
+
+Additional notes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Here are some notes on the parsing semantics:
+
+* Most non-\ :mimetype:`multipart` type messages are parsed as a single message
+  object with a string payload.  These objects will return ``False`` for
+  :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart`, and
+  :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts` will yield an empty list.
+
+* All :mimetype:`multipart` type messages will be parsed as a container message
+  object with a list of sub-message objects for their payload.  The outer
+  container message will return ``True`` for
+  :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart`, and
+  :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts` will yield a list of subparts.
+
+* Most messages with a content type of :mimetype:`message/\*` (such as
+  :mimetype:`message/delivery-status` and :mimetype:`message/rfc822`) will also
+  be parsed as container object containing a list payload of length 1.  Their
+  :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart` method will return ``True``.
+  The single element yielded by :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts`
+  will be a sub-message object.
+
+* Some non-standards-compliant messages may not be internally consistent about
+  their :mimetype:`multipart`\ -edness.  Such messages may have a
+  :mailheader:`Content-Type` header of type :mimetype:`multipart`, but their
+  :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart` method may return ``False``.
+  If such messages were parsed with the :class:`~email.parser.FeedParser`,
+  they will have an instance of the
+  :class:`~email.errors.MultipartInvariantViolationDefect` class in their
+  *defects* attribute list.  See :mod:`email.errors` for details.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.policy.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.policy.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e70762
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.policy.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,651 @@
+:mod:`email.policy`: Policy Objects
+-----------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.policy
+   :synopsis: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
+
+.. moduleauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/policy.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`email` package's prime focus is the handling of email messages as
+described by the various email and MIME RFCs.  However, the general format of
+email messages (a block of header fields each consisting of a name followed by
+a colon followed by a value, the whole block followed by a blank line and an
+arbitrary 'body'), is a format that has found utility outside of the realm of
+email.  Some of these uses conform fairly closely to the main email RFCs, some
+do not.  Even when working with email, there are times when it is desirable to
+break strict compliance with the RFCs, such as generating emails that
+interoperate with email servers that do not themselves follow the standards, or
+that implement extensions you want to use in ways that violate the
+standards.
+
+Policy objects give the email package the flexibility to handle all these
+disparate use cases.
+
+A :class:`Policy` object encapsulates a set of attributes and methods that
+control the behavior of various components of the email package during use.
+:class:`Policy` instances can be passed to various classes and methods in the
+email package to alter the default behavior.  The settable values and their
+defaults are described below.
+
+There is a default policy used by all classes in the email package.  For all of
+the :mod:`~email.parser` classes and the related convenience functions, and for
+the :class:`~email.message.Message` class, this is the :class:`Compat32`
+policy, via its corresponding pre-defined instance :const:`compat32`.  This
+policy provides for complete backward compatibility (in some cases, including
+bug compatibility) with the pre-Python3.3 version of the email package.
+
+This default value for the *policy* keyword to
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` is the :class:`EmailPolicy` policy, via
+its pre-defined instance :data:`~default`.
+
+When a :class:`~email.message.Message` or :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`
+object is created, it acquires a policy.  If the message is created by a
+:mod:`~email.parser`, a policy passed to the parser will be the policy used by
+the message it creates.  If the message is created by the program, then the
+policy can be specified when it is created.  When a message is passed to a
+:mod:`~email.generator`, the generator uses the policy from the message by
+default, but you can also pass a specific policy to the generator that will
+override the one stored on the message object.
+
+The default value for the *policy* keyword for the :mod:`email.parser` classes
+and the parser convenience functions **will be changing** in a future version of
+Python.  Therefore you should **always specify explicitly which policy you want
+to use** when calling any of the classes and functions described in the
+:mod:`~email.parser` module.
+
+The first part of this documentation covers the features of :class:`Policy`, an
+:term:`abstract base class` that defines the features that are common to all
+policy objects, including :const:`compat32`.  This includes certain hook
+methods that are called internally by the email package, which a custom policy
+could override to obtain different behavior.  The second part describes the
+concrete classes :class:`EmailPolicy` and :class:`Compat32`, which implement
+the hooks that provide the standard behavior and the backward compatible
+behavior and features, respectively.
+
+:class:`Policy` instances are immutable, but they can be cloned, accepting the
+same keyword arguments as the class constructor and returning a new
+:class:`Policy` instance that is a copy of the original but with the specified
+attributes values changed.
+
+As an example, the following code could be used to read an email message from a
+file on disk and pass it to the system ``sendmail`` program on a Unix system:
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   from unittest import mock
+   mocker = mock.patch('subprocess.Popen')
+   m = mocker.start()
+   proc = mock.MagicMock()
+   m.return_value = proc
+   proc.stdin.close.return_value = None
+   mymsg = open('mymsg.txt', 'w')
+   mymsg.write('To: abc@xyz.com\n\n')
+   mymsg.flush()
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> from email import message_from_binary_file
+   >>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator
+   >>> from email import policy
+   >>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
+   >>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'rb') as f:
+   ...     msg = message_from_binary_file(f, policy=policy.default)
+   >>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'].addresses[0]], stdin=PIPE)
+   >>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n'))
+   >>> g.flatten(msg)
+   >>> p.stdin.close()
+   >>> rc = p.wait()
+
+.. testcleanup::
+
+   mymsg.close()
+   mocker.stop()
+   import os
+   os.remove('mymsg.txt')
+
+Here we are telling :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator` to use the RFC
+correct line separator characters when creating the binary string to feed into
+``sendmail's`` ``stdin``, where the default policy would use ``\n`` line
+separators.
+
+Some email package methods accept a *policy* keyword argument, allowing the
+policy to be overridden for that method.  For example, the following code uses
+the :meth:`~email.message.Message.as_bytes` method of the *msg* object from
+the previous example and writes the message to a file using the native line
+separators for the platform on which it is running::
+
+   >>> import os
+   >>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f:
+   ...     f.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)))
+   17
+
+Policy objects can also be combined using the addition operator, producing a
+policy object whose settings are a combination of the non-default values of the
+summed objects::
+
+   >>> compat_SMTP = policy.compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
+   >>> compat_strict = policy.compat32.clone(raise_on_defect=True)
+   >>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict
+
+This operation is not commutative; that is, the order in which the objects are
+added matters.  To illustrate::
+
+   >>> policy100 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=100)
+   >>> policy80 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=80)
+   >>> apolicy = policy100 + policy80
+   >>> apolicy.max_line_length
+   80
+   >>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100
+   >>> apolicy.max_line_length
+   100
+
+
+.. class:: Policy(**kw)
+
+   This is the :term:`abstract base class` for all policy classes.  It provides
+   default implementations for a couple of trivial methods, as well as the
+   implementation of the immutability property, the :meth:`clone` method, and
+   the constructor semantics.
+
+   The constructor of a policy class can be passed various keyword arguments.
+   The arguments that may be specified are any non-method properties on this
+   class, plus any additional non-method properties on the concrete class.  A
+   value specified in the constructor will override the default value for the
+   corresponding attribute.
+
+   This class defines the following properties, and thus values for the
+   following may be passed in the constructor of any policy class:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: max_line_length
+
+      The maximum length of any line in the serialized output, not counting the
+      end of line character(s).  Default is 78, per :rfc:`5322`.  A value of
+      ``0`` or :const:`None` indicates that no line wrapping should be
+      done at all.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: linesep
+
+      The string to be used to terminate lines in serialized output.  The
+      default is ``\n`` because that's the internal end-of-line discipline used
+      by Python, though ``\r\n`` is required by the RFCs.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: cte_type
+
+      Controls the type of Content Transfer Encodings that may be or are
+      required to be used.  The possible values are:
+
+      .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+      ========  ===============================================================
+      ``7bit``  all data must be "7 bit clean" (ASCII-only).  This means that
+                where necessary data will be encoded using either
+                quoted-printable or base64 encoding.
+
+      ``8bit``  data is not constrained to be 7 bit clean.  Data in headers is
+                still required to be ASCII-only and so will be encoded (see
+                :meth:`fold_binary` and :attr:`~EmailPolicy.utf8` below for
+                exceptions), but body parts may use the ``8bit`` CTE.
+      ========  ===============================================================
+
+      A ``cte_type`` value of ``8bit`` only works with ``BytesGenerator``, not
+      ``Generator``, because strings cannot contain binary data.  If a
+      ``Generator`` is operating under a policy that specifies
+      ``cte_type=8bit``, it will act as if ``cte_type`` is ``7bit``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: raise_on_defect
+
+      If :const:`True`, any defects encountered will be raised as errors.  If
+      :const:`False` (the default), defects will be passed to the
+      :meth:`register_defect` method.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: mangle_from\_
+
+      If :const:`True`, lines starting with *"From "* in the body are
+      escaped by putting a ``>`` in front of them. This parameter is used when
+      the message is being serialized by a generator.
+      Default: :const:`False`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+         The *mangle_from_* parameter.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: message_factory
+
+      A factory function for constructing a new empty message object.  Used
+      by the parser when building messages.  Defaults to ``None``, in
+      which case :class:`~email.message.Message` is used.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   The following :class:`Policy` method is intended to be called by code using
+   the email library to create policy instances with custom settings:
+
+
+   .. method:: clone(**kw)
+
+      Return a new :class:`Policy` instance whose attributes have the same
+      values as the current instance, except where those attributes are
+      given new values by the keyword arguments.
+
+
+   The remaining :class:`Policy` methods are called by the email package code,
+   and are not intended to be called by an application using the email package.
+   A custom policy must implement all of these methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_defect(obj, defect)
+
+      Handle a *defect* found on *obj*.  When the email package calls this
+      method, *defect* will always be a subclass of
+      :class:`~email.errors.Defect`.
+
+      The default implementation checks the :attr:`raise_on_defect` flag.  If
+      it is ``True``, *defect* is raised as an exception.  If it is ``False``
+      (the default), *obj* and *defect* are passed to :meth:`register_defect`.
+
+
+   .. method:: register_defect(obj, defect)
+
+      Register a *defect* on *obj*.  In the email package, *defect* will always
+      be a subclass of :class:`~email.errors.Defect`.
+
+      The default implementation calls the ``append`` method of the ``defects``
+      attribute of *obj*.  When the email package calls :attr:`handle_defect`,
+      *obj* will normally have a ``defects`` attribute that has an ``append``
+      method.  Custom object types used with the email package (for example,
+      custom ``Message`` objects) should also provide such an attribute,
+      otherwise defects in parsed messages will raise unexpected errors.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_max_count(name)
+
+      Return the maximum allowed number of headers named *name*.
+
+      Called when a header is added to an :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`
+      or :class:`~email.message.Message` object.  If the returned value is not
+      ``0`` or ``None``, and there are already a number of headers with the
+      name *name* greater than or equal to the value returned, a
+      :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+      Because the default behavior of ``Message.__setitem__`` is to append the
+      value to the list of headers, it is easy to create duplicate headers
+      without realizing it.  This method allows certain headers to be limited
+      in the number of instances of that header that may be added to a
+      ``Message`` programmatically.  (The limit is not observed by the parser,
+      which will faithfully produce as many headers as exist in the message
+      being parsed.)
+
+      The default implementation returns ``None`` for all header names.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_source_parse(sourcelines)
+
+      The email package calls this method with a list of strings, each string
+      ending with the line separation characters found in the source being
+      parsed.  The first line includes the field header name and separator.
+      All whitespace in the source is preserved.  The method should return the
+      ``(name, value)`` tuple that is to be stored in the ``Message`` to
+      represent the parsed header.
+
+      If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the existing
+      email package policies, *name* should be the case preserved name (all
+      characters up to the '``:``' separator), while *value* should be the
+      unfolded value (all line separator characters removed, but whitespace
+      kept intact), stripped of leading whitespace.
+
+      *sourcelines* may contain surrogateescaped binary data.
+
+      There is no default implementation
+
+
+   .. method:: header_store_parse(name, value)
+
+      The email package calls this method with the name and value provided by
+      the application program when the application program is modifying a
+      ``Message`` programmatically (as opposed to a ``Message`` created by a
+      parser).  The method should return the ``(name, value)`` tuple that is to
+      be stored in the ``Message`` to represent the header.
+
+      If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the existing
+      email package policies, the *name* and *value* should be strings or
+      string subclasses that do not change the content of the passed in
+      arguments.
+
+      There is no default implementation
+
+
+   .. method:: header_fetch_parse(name, value)
+
+      The email package calls this method with the *name* and *value* currently
+      stored in the ``Message`` when that header is requested by the
+      application program, and whatever the method returns is what is passed
+      back to the application as the value of the header being retrieved.
+      Note that there may be more than one header with the same name stored in
+      the ``Message``; the method is passed the specific name and value of the
+      header destined to be returned to the application.
+
+      *value* may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There should be no
+      surrogateescaped binary data in the value returned by the method.
+
+      There is no default implementation
+
+
+   .. method:: fold(name, value)
+
+      The email package calls this method with the *name* and *value* currently
+      stored in the ``Message`` for a given header.  The method should return a
+      string that represents that header "folded" correctly (according to the
+      policy settings) by composing the *name* with the *value* and inserting
+      :attr:`linesep` characters at the appropriate places.  See :rfc:`5322`
+      for a discussion of the rules for folding email headers.
+
+      *value* may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There should be no
+      surrogateescaped binary data in the string returned by the method.
+
+
+   .. method:: fold_binary(name, value)
+
+      The same as :meth:`fold`, except that the returned value should be a
+      bytes object rather than a string.
+
+      *value* may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  These could be
+      converted back into binary data in the returned bytes object.
+
+
+
+.. class:: EmailPolicy(**kw)
+
+   This concrete :class:`Policy` provides behavior that is intended to be fully
+   compliant with the current email RFCs.  These include (but are not limited
+   to) :rfc:`5322`, :rfc:`2047`, and the current MIME RFCs.
+
+   This policy adds new header parsing and folding algorithms.  Instead of
+   simple strings, headers are ``str`` subclasses with attributes that depend
+   on the type of the field.  The parsing and folding algorithm fully implement
+   :rfc:`2047` and :rfc:`5322`.
+
+   The default value for the :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.message_factory`
+   attribute is :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`.
+
+   In addition to the settable attributes listed above that apply to all
+   policies, this policy adds the following additional attributes:
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6 [1]_
+
+
+   .. attribute:: utf8
+
+      If ``False``, follow :rfc:`5322`, supporting non-ASCII characters in
+      headers by encoding them as "encoded words".  If ``True``, follow
+      :rfc:`6532` and use ``utf-8`` encoding for headers.  Messages
+      formatted in this way may be passed to SMTP servers that support
+      the ``SMTPUTF8`` extension (:rfc:`6531`).
+
+
+   .. attribute:: refold_source
+
+      If the value for a header in the ``Message`` object originated from a
+      :mod:`~email.parser` (as opposed to being set by a program), this
+      attribute indicates whether or not a generator should refold that value
+      when transforming the message back into serialized form.  The possible
+      values are:
+
+      ========  ===============================================================
+      ``none``  all source values use original folding
+
+      ``long``  source values that have any line that is longer than
+                ``max_line_length`` will be refolded
+
+      ``all``   all values are refolded.
+      ========  ===============================================================
+
+      The default is ``long``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: header_factory
+
+      A callable that takes two arguments, ``name`` and ``value``, where
+      ``name`` is a header field name and ``value`` is an unfolded header field
+      value, and returns a string subclass that represents that header.  A
+      default ``header_factory`` (see :mod:`~email.headerregistry`) is provided
+      that supports custom parsing for the various address and date :RFC:`5322`
+      header field types, and the major MIME header field stypes.  Support for
+      additional custom parsing will be added in the future.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: content_manager
+
+      An object with at least two methods: get_content and set_content.  When
+      the :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.get_content` or
+      :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_content` method of an
+      :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` object is called, it calls the
+      corresponding method of this object, passing it the message object as its
+      first argument, and any arguments or keywords that were passed to it as
+      additional arguments.  By default ``content_manager`` is set to
+      :data:`~email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+   The class provides the following concrete implementations of the abstract
+   methods of :class:`Policy`:
+
+
+   .. method:: header_max_count(name)
+
+      Returns the value of the
+      :attr:`~email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count` attribute of the
+      specialized class used to represent the header with the given name.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_source_parse(sourcelines)
+
+
+      The name is parsed as everything up to the '``:``' and returned
+      unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading whitespace off
+      the remainder of the first line, joining all subsequent lines together,
+      and stripping any trailing carriage return or linefeed characters.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_store_parse(name, value)
+
+      The name is returned unchanged.  If the input value has a ``name``
+      attribute and it matches *name* ignoring case, the value is returned
+      unchanged.  Otherwise the *name* and *value* are passed to
+      ``header_factory``, and the resulting header object is returned as
+      the value.  In this case a ``ValueError`` is raised if the input value
+      contains CR or LF characters.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_fetch_parse(name, value)
+
+      If the value has a ``name`` attribute, it is returned to unmodified.
+      Otherwise the *name*, and the *value* with any CR or LF characters
+      removed, are passed to the ``header_factory``, and the resulting
+      header object is returned.  Any surrogateescaped bytes get turned into
+      the unicode unknown-character glyph.
+
+
+   .. method:: fold(name, value)
+
+      Header folding is controlled by the :attr:`refold_source` policy setting.
+      A value is considered to be a 'source value' if and only if it does not
+      have a ``name`` attribute (having a ``name`` attribute means it is a
+      header object of some sort).  If a source value needs to be refolded
+      according to the policy, it is converted into a header object by
+      passing the *name* and the *value* with any CR and LF characters removed
+      to the ``header_factory``.  Folding of a header object is done by
+      calling its ``fold`` method with the current policy.
+
+      Source values are split into lines using :meth:`~str.splitlines`.  If
+      the value is not to be refolded, the lines are rejoined using the
+      ``linesep`` from the policy and returned.  The exception is lines
+      containing non-ascii binary data.  In that case the value is refolded
+      regardless of the ``refold_source`` setting, which causes the binary data
+      to be CTE encoded using the ``unknown-8bit`` charset.
+
+
+   .. method:: fold_binary(name, value)
+
+      The same as :meth:`fold` if :attr:`~Policy.cte_type` is ``7bit``, except
+      that the returned value is bytes.
+
+      If :attr:`~Policy.cte_type` is ``8bit``, non-ASCII binary data is
+      converted back
+      into bytes.  Headers with binary data are not refolded, regardless of the
+      ``refold_header`` setting, since there is no way to know whether the
+      binary data consists of single byte characters or multibyte characters.
+
+
+The following instances of :class:`EmailPolicy` provide defaults suitable for
+specific application domains.  Note that in the future the behavior of these
+instances (in particular the ``HTTP`` instance) may be adjusted to conform even
+more closely to the RFCs relevant to their domains.
+
+
+.. data:: default
+
+   An instance of ``EmailPolicy`` with all defaults unchanged.  This policy
+   uses the standard Python ``\n`` line endings rather than the RFC-correct
+   ``\r\n``.
+
+
+.. data:: SMTP
+
+   Suitable for serializing messages in conformance with the email RFCs.
+   Like ``default``, but with ``linesep`` set to ``\r\n``, which is RFC
+   compliant.
+
+
+.. data:: SMTPUTF8
+
+   The same as ``SMTP`` except that :attr:`~EmailPolicy.utf8` is ``True``.
+   Useful for serializing messages to a message store without using encoded
+   words in the headers.  Should only be used for SMTP transmission if the
+   sender or recipient addresses have non-ASCII characters (the
+   :meth:`smtplib.SMTP.send_message` method handles this automatically).
+
+
+.. data:: HTTP
+
+   Suitable for serializing headers with for use in HTTP traffic.  Like
+   ``SMTP`` except that ``max_line_length`` is set to ``None`` (unlimited).
+
+
+.. data:: strict
+
+   Convenience instance.  The same as ``default`` except that
+   ``raise_on_defect`` is set to ``True``.  This allows any policy to be made
+   strict by writing::
+
+        somepolicy + policy.strict
+
+
+With all of these :class:`EmailPolicies <.EmailPolicy>`, the effective API of
+the email package is changed from the Python 3.2 API in the following ways:
+
+   * Setting a header on a :class:`~email.message.Message` results in that
+     header being parsed and a header object created.
+
+   * Fetching a header value from a :class:`~email.message.Message` results
+     in that header being parsed and a header object created and
+     returned.
+
+   * Any header object, or any header that is refolded due to the
+     policy settings, is folded using an algorithm that fully implements the
+     RFC folding algorithms, including knowing where encoded words are required
+     and allowed.
+
+From the application view, this means that any header obtained through the
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` is a header object with extra
+attributes, whose string value is the fully decoded unicode value of the
+header.  Likewise, a header may be assigned a new value, or a new header
+created, using a unicode string, and the policy will take care of converting
+the unicode string into the correct RFC encoded form.
+
+The header objects and their attributes are described in
+:mod:`~email.headerregistry`.
+
+
+
+.. class:: Compat32(**kw)
+
+   This concrete :class:`Policy` is the backward compatibility policy.  It
+   replicates the behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.  The
+   :mod:`~email.policy` module also defines an instance of this class,
+   :const:`compat32`, that is used as the default policy.  Thus the default
+   behavior of the email package is to maintain compatibility with Python 3.2.
+
+   The following attributes have values that are different from the
+   :class:`Policy` default:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: mangle_from_
+
+      The default is ``True``.
+
+
+   The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
+   abstract methods of :class:`Policy`:
+
+
+   .. method:: header_source_parse(sourcelines)
+
+      The name is parsed as everything up to the '``:``' and returned
+      unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading whitespace off
+      the remainder of the first line, joining all subsequent lines together,
+      and stripping any trailing carriage return or linefeed characters.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_store_parse(name, value)
+
+      The name and value are returned unmodified.
+
+
+   .. method:: header_fetch_parse(name, value)
+
+      If the value contains binary data, it is converted into a
+      :class:`~email.header.Header` object using the ``unknown-8bit`` charset.
+      Otherwise it is returned unmodified.
+
+
+   .. method:: fold(name, value)
+
+      Headers are folded using the :class:`~email.header.Header` folding
+      algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value, and wraps
+      each resulting line to the ``max_line_length``.  Non-ASCII binary data are
+      CTE encoded using the ``unknown-8bit`` charset.
+
+
+   .. method:: fold_binary(name, value)
+
+      Headers are folded using the :class:`~email.header.Header` folding
+      algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value, and wraps
+      each resulting line to the ``max_line_length``.  If ``cte_type`` is
+      ``7bit``, non-ascii binary data is CTE encoded using the ``unknown-8bit``
+      charset.  Otherwise the original source header is used, with its existing
+      line breaks and any (RFC invalid) binary data it may contain.
+
+
+.. data:: compat32
+
+   An instance of :class:`Compat32`, providing  backward compatibility with the
+   behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Originally added in 3.3 as a :term:`provisional feature <provisional
+       package>`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fae99cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,152 @@
+:mod:`email` --- An email and MIME handling package
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: email
+   :synopsis: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating
+              email messages.
+.. moduleauthor:: Barry A. Warsaw <barry@python.org>,
+                  R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`email` package is a library for managing email messages.  It is
+specifically *not* designed to do any sending of email messages to SMTP
+(:rfc:`2821`), NNTP, or other servers; those are functions of modules such as
+:mod:`smtplib` and :mod:`nntplib`.  The :mod:`email` package attempts to be as
+RFC-compliant as possible, supporting :rfc:`5233` and :rfc:`6532`, as well as
+such MIME-related RFCs as :rfc:`2045`, :rfc:`2046`, :rfc:`2047`, :rfc:`2183`,
+and :rfc:`2231`.
+
+The overall structure of the email package can be divided into three major
+components, plus a fourth component that controls the behavior of the other
+components.
+
+The central component of the package is an "object model" that represents email
+messages.  An application interacts with the package primarily through the
+object model interface defined in the :mod:`~email.message` sub-module.  The
+application can use this API to ask questions about an existing email, to
+construct a new email, or to add or remove email subcomponents that themselves
+use the same object model interface.  That is, following the nature of email
+messages and their MIME subcomponents, the email object model is a tree
+structure of objects that all provide the :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`
+API.
+
+The other two major components of the package are the :mod:`~email.parser` and
+the :mod:`~email.generator`.  The parser takes the serialized version of an
+email message (a stream of bytes) and converts it into a tree of
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` objects.  The generator takes an
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` and turns it back into a serialized byte
+stream.  (The parser and generator also handle streams of text characters, but
+this usage is discouraged as it is too easy to end up with messages that are
+not valid in one way or another.)
+
+The control component is the :mod:`~email.policy` module.  Every
+:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`, every :mod:`~email.generator`, and every
+:mod:`~email.parser` has an associated :mod:`~email.policy` object that
+controls its behavior.  Usually an application only needs to specify the policy
+when an :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` is created, either by directly
+instantiating an :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`  to create a new email,
+or by parsing an input stream using a :mod:`~email.parser`.  But the policy can
+be changed when the message is serialized using a :mod:`~email.generator`.
+This allows, for example, a generic email message to be parsed from disk, but
+to serialize it using standard SMTP settings when sending it to an email
+server.
+
+The email package does its best to hide the details of the various governing
+RFCs from the application.  Conceptually the application should be able to
+treat the email message as a structured tree of unicode text and binary
+attachments, without having to worry about how these are represented when
+serialized.  In practice, however, it is often necessary to be aware of at
+least some of the rules governing MIME messages and their structure,
+specifically the names and nature of the MIME "content types" and how they
+identify multipart documents.  For the most part this knowledge should only be
+required for more complex applications, and even then it should only be the
+high level structure in question, and not the details of how those structures
+are represented.  Since MIME content types are used widely in modern internet
+software (not just email), this will be a familiar concept to many programmers.
+
+The following sections describe the functionality of the :mod:`email` package.
+We start with the :mod:`~email.message` object model, which is the primary
+interface an application will use, and follow that with the
+:mod:`~email.parser` and :mod:`~email.generator` components.  Then we cover the
+:mod:`~email.policy` controls, which completes the treatment of the main
+components of the library.
+
+The next three sections cover the exceptions the package may raise and the
+defects (non-compliance with the RFCs) that the :mod:`~email.parser` may
+detect.  Then we cover the :mod:`~email.headerregistry` and the
+:mod:`~email.contentmanager` sub-components, which provide tools for doing more
+detailed manipulation of headers and payloads, respectively.  Both of these
+components contain features relevant to consuming and producing non-trivial
+messages, but also document their extensibility APIs, which will be of interest
+to advanced applications.
+
+Following those is a set of examples of using the fundamental parts of the APIs
+covered in the preceding sections.
+
+The foregoing represent the modern (unicode friendly) API of the email package.
+The remaining sections, starting with the :class:`~email.message.Message`
+class, cover the legacy :data:`~email.policy.compat32` API that deals much more
+directly with the details of how email messages are represented.  The
+:data:`~email.policy.compat32` API does *not* hide the details of the RFCs from
+the application, but for applications that need to operate at that level, they
+can be useful tools.  This documentation is also relevant for applications that
+are still using the :mod:`~email.policy.compat32` API for backward
+compatibility reasons.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   Docs reorganized and rewritten to promote the new
+   :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`/:class:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy`
+   API.
+
+Contents of the :mod:`email` package documentation:
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   email.message.rst
+   email.parser.rst
+   email.generator.rst
+   email.policy.rst
+
+   email.errors.rst
+   email.headerregistry.rst
+   email.contentmanager.rst
+
+   email.examples.rst
+
+Legacy API:
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   email.compat32-message.rst
+   email.mime.rst
+   email.header.rst
+   email.charset.rst
+   email.encoders.rst
+   email.utils.rst
+   email.iterators.rst
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`smtplib`
+      SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) client
+
+   Module :mod:`poplib`
+      POP (Post Office Protocol) client
+
+   Module :mod:`imaplib`
+      IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) client
+
+   Module :mod:`nntplib`
+      NNTP (Net News Transport Protocol) client
+
+   Module :mod:`mailbox`
+      Tools for creating, reading, and managing collections of messages on disk
+      using a variety standard formats.
+
+   Module :mod:`smtpd`
+      SMTP server framework (primarily useful for testing)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.utils.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.utils.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63fae2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/email.utils.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+:mod:`email.utils`: Miscellaneous utilities
+-------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: email.utils
+   :synopsis: Miscellaneous email package utilities.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/email/utils.py`
+
+--------------
+
+There are a couple of useful utilities provided in the :mod:`email.utils`
+module:
+
+.. function:: localtime(dt=None)
+
+    Return local time as an aware datetime object.  If called without
+    arguments, return current time.  Otherwise *dt* argument should be a
+    :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance, and it is converted to the local time
+    zone according to the system time zone database.  If *dt* is naive (that
+    is, ``dt.tzinfo`` is ``None``), it is assumed to be in local time.  In this
+    case, a positive or zero value for *isdst* causes ``localtime`` to presume
+    initially that summer time (for example, Daylight Saving Time) is or is not
+    (respectively) in effect for the specified time.  A negative value for
+    *isdst* causes the ``localtime`` to attempt to divine whether summer time
+    is in effect for the specified time.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: make_msgid(idstring=None, domain=None)
+
+   Returns a string suitable for an :rfc:`2822`\ -compliant
+   :mailheader:`Message-ID` header.  Optional *idstring* if given, is a string
+   used to strengthen the uniqueness of the message id.  Optional *domain* if
+   given provides the portion of the msgid after the '@'.  The default is the
+   local hostname.  It is not normally necessary to override this default, but
+   may be useful certain cases, such as a constructing distributed system that
+   uses a consistent domain name across multiple hosts.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the *domain* keyword.
+
+
+The remaining functions are part of the legacy (``Compat32``) email API.  There
+is no need to directly use these with the new API, since the parsing and
+formatting they provide is done automatically by the header parsing machinery
+of the new API.
+
+
+.. function:: quote(str)
+
+   Return a new string with backslashes in *str* replaced by two backslashes, and
+   double quotes replaced by backslash-double quote.
+
+
+.. function:: unquote(str)
+
+   Return a new string which is an *unquoted* version of *str*. If *str* ends and
+   begins with double quotes, they are stripped off.  Likewise if *str* ends and
+   begins with angle brackets, they are stripped off.
+
+
+.. function:: parseaddr(address)
+
+   Parse address -- which should be the value of some address-containing field such
+   as :mailheader:`To` or :mailheader:`Cc` -- into its constituent *realname* and
+   *email address* parts.  Returns a tuple of that information, unless the parse
+   fails, in which case a 2-tuple of ``('', '')`` is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: formataddr(pair, charset='utf-8')
+
+   The inverse of :meth:`parseaddr`, this takes a 2-tuple of the form ``(realname,
+   email_address)`` and returns the string value suitable for a :mailheader:`To` or
+   :mailheader:`Cc` header.  If the first element of *pair* is false, then the
+   second element is returned unmodified.
+
+   Optional *charset* is the character set that will be used in the :rfc:`2047`
+   encoding of the ``realname`` if the ``realname`` contains non-ASCII
+   characters.  Can be an instance of :class:`str` or a
+   :class:`~email.charset.Charset`.  Defaults to ``utf-8``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *charset* option.
+
+
+.. function:: getaddresses(fieldvalues)
+
+   This method returns a list of 2-tuples of the form returned by ``parseaddr()``.
+   *fieldvalues* is a sequence of header field values as might be returned by
+   :meth:`Message.get_all <email.message.Message.get_all>`.  Here's a simple
+   example that gets all the recipients of a message::
+
+      from email.utils import getaddresses
+
+      tos = msg.get_all('to', [])
+      ccs = msg.get_all('cc', [])
+      resent_tos = msg.get_all('resent-to', [])
+      resent_ccs = msg.get_all('resent-cc', [])
+      all_recipients = getaddresses(tos + ccs + resent_tos + resent_ccs)
+
+
+.. function:: parsedate(date)
+
+   Attempts to parse a date according to the rules in :rfc:`2822`. however, some
+   mailers don't follow that format as specified, so :func:`parsedate` tries to
+   guess correctly in such cases.  *date* is a string containing an :rfc:`2822`
+   date, such as  ``"Mon, 20 Nov 1995 19:12:08 -0500"``.  If it succeeds in parsing
+   the date, :func:`parsedate` returns a 9-tuple that can be passed directly to
+   :func:`time.mktime`; otherwise ``None`` will be returned.  Note that indexes 6,
+   7, and 8 of the result tuple are not usable.
+
+
+.. function:: parsedate_tz(date)
+
+   Performs the same function as :func:`parsedate`, but returns either ``None`` or
+   a 10-tuple; the first 9 elements make up a tuple that can be passed directly to
+   :func:`time.mktime`, and the tenth is the offset of the date's timezone from UTC
+   (which is the official term for Greenwich Mean Time) [#]_.  If the input string
+   has no timezone, the last element of the tuple returned is ``None``.  Note that
+   indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result tuple are not usable.
+
+
+.. function:: parsedate_to_datetime(date)
+
+   The inverse of :func:`format_datetime`.  Performs the same function as
+   :func:`parsedate`, but on success returns a :mod:`~datetime.datetime`.  If
+   the input date has a timezone of ``-0000``, the ``datetime`` will be a naive
+   ``datetime``, and if the date is conforming to the RFCs it will represent a
+   time in UTC but with no indication of the actual source timezone of the
+   message the date comes from.  If the input date has any other valid timezone
+   offset, the ``datetime`` will be an aware ``datetime`` with the
+   corresponding a :class:`~datetime.timezone` :class:`~datetime.tzinfo`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: mktime_tz(tuple)
+
+   Turn a 10-tuple as returned by :func:`parsedate_tz` into a UTC
+   timestamp (seconds since the Epoch).  If the timezone item in the
+   tuple is ``None``, assume local time.
+
+
+.. function:: formatdate(timeval=None, localtime=False, usegmt=False)
+
+   Returns a date string as per :rfc:`2822`, e.g.::
+
+      Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000
+
+   Optional *timeval* if given is a floating point time value as accepted by
+   :func:`time.gmtime` and :func:`time.localtime`, otherwise the current time is
+   used.
+
+   Optional *localtime* is a flag that when ``True``, interprets *timeval*, and
+   returns a date relative to the local timezone instead of UTC, properly taking
+   daylight savings time into account. The default is ``False`` meaning UTC is
+   used.
+
+   Optional *usegmt* is a flag that when ``True``, outputs a  date string with the
+   timezone as an ascii string ``GMT``, rather than a numeric ``-0000``. This is
+   needed for some protocols (such as HTTP). This only applies when *localtime* is
+   ``False``.  The default is ``False``.
+
+
+.. function:: format_datetime(dt, usegmt=False)
+
+   Like ``formatdate``, but the input is a :mod:`datetime` instance.  If it is
+   a naive datetime, it is assumed to be "UTC with no information about the
+   source timezone", and the conventional ``-0000`` is used for the timezone.
+   If it is an aware ``datetime``, then the numeric timezone offset is used.
+   If it is an aware timezone with offset zero, then *usegmt* may be set to
+   ``True``, in which case the string ``GMT`` is used instead of the numeric
+   timezone offset.  This provides a way to generate standards conformant HTTP
+   date headers.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: decode_rfc2231(s)
+
+   Decode the string *s* according to :rfc:`2231`.
+
+
+.. function:: encode_rfc2231(s, charset=None, language=None)
+
+   Encode the string *s* according to :rfc:`2231`.  Optional *charset* and
+   *language*, if given is the character set name and language name to use.  If
+   neither is given, *s* is returned as-is.  If *charset* is given but *language*
+   is not, the string is encoded using the empty string for *language*.
+
+
+.. function:: collapse_rfc2231_value(value, errors='replace', fallback_charset='us-ascii')
+
+   When a header parameter is encoded in :rfc:`2231` format,
+   :meth:`Message.get_param <email.message.Message.get_param>` may return a
+   3-tuple containing the character set,
+   language, and value.  :func:`collapse_rfc2231_value` turns this into a unicode
+   string.  Optional *errors* is passed to the *errors* argument of :class:`str`'s
+   :func:`~str.encode` method; it defaults to ``'replace'``.  Optional
+   *fallback_charset* specifies the character set to use if the one in the
+   :rfc:`2231` header is not known by Python; it defaults to ``'us-ascii'``.
+
+   For convenience, if the *value* passed to :func:`collapse_rfc2231_value` is not
+   a tuple, it should be a string and it is returned unquoted.
+
+
+.. function:: decode_params(params)
+
+   Decode parameters list according to :rfc:`2231`.  *params* is a sequence of
+   2-tuples containing elements of the form ``(content-type, string-value)``.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Note that the sign of the timezone offset is the opposite of the sign of the
+   ``time.timezone`` variable for the same timezone; the latter variable follows
+   the POSIX standard while this module follows :rfc:`2822`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ensurepip.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ensurepip.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ensurepip.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+:mod:`ensurepip` --- Bootstrapping the ``pip`` installer
+========================================================
+
+.. module:: ensurepip
+   :synopsis: Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing Python
+              installation or virtual environment.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`ensurepip` package provides support for bootstrapping the ``pip``
+installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment. This
+bootstrapping approach reflects the fact that ``pip`` is an independent
+project with its own release cycle, and the latest available stable version
+is bundled with maintenance and feature releases of the CPython reference
+interpreter.
+
+In most cases, end users of Python shouldn't need to invoke this module
+directly (as ``pip`` should be bootstrapped by default), but it may be
+needed if installing ``pip`` was skipped when installing Python (or
+when creating a virtual environment) or after explicitly uninstalling
+``pip``.
+
+.. note::
+
+   This module *does not* access the internet. All of the components
+   needed to bootstrap ``pip`` are included as internal parts of the
+   package.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`installing-index`
+      The end user guide for installing Python packages
+
+   :pep:`453`: Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations
+      The original rationale and specification for this module.
+
+
+Command line interface
+----------------------
+
+The command line interface is invoked using the interpreter's ``-m`` switch.
+
+The simplest possible invocation is::
+
+    python -m ensurepip
+
+This invocation will install ``pip`` if it is not already installed,
+but otherwise does nothing. To ensure the installed version of ``pip``
+is at least as recent as the one bundled with ``ensurepip``, pass the
+``--upgrade`` option::
+
+    python -m ensurepip --upgrade
+
+By default, ``pip`` is installed into the current virtual environment
+(if one is active) or into the system site packages (if there is no
+active virtual environment). The installation location can be controlled
+through two additional command line options:
+
+* ``--root <dir>``: Installs ``pip`` relative to the given root directory
+  rather than the root of the currently active virtual environment (if any)
+  or the default root for the current Python installation.
+* ``--user``: Installs ``pip`` into the user site packages directory rather
+  than globally for the current Python installation (this option is not
+  permitted inside an active virtual environment).
+
+By default, the scripts ``pipX`` and ``pipX.Y`` will be installed (where
+X.Y stands for the version of Python used to invoke ``ensurepip``). The
+scripts installed can be controlled through two additional command line
+options:
+
+* ``--altinstall``: if an alternate installation is requested, the ``pipX``
+  script will *not* be installed.
+
+* ``--default-pip``: if a "default pip" installation is requested, the
+   ``pip`` script will be installed in addition to the two regular scripts.
+
+Providing both of the script selection options will trigger an exception.
+
+
+Module API
+----------
+
+:mod:`ensurepip` exposes two functions for programmatic use:
+
+.. function:: version()
+
+   Returns a string specifying the bundled version of pip that will be
+   installed when bootstrapping an environment.
+
+.. function:: bootstrap(root=None, upgrade=False, user=False, \
+                        altinstall=False, default_pip=False, \
+                        verbosity=0)
+
+   Bootstraps ``pip`` into the current or designated environment.
+
+   *root* specifies an alternative root directory to install relative to.
+   If *root* is ``None``, then installation uses the default install location
+   for the current environment.
+
+   *upgrade* indicates whether or not to upgrade an existing installation
+   of an earlier version of ``pip`` to the bundled version.
+
+   *user* indicates whether to use the user scheme rather than installing
+   globally.
+
+   By default, the scripts ``pipX`` and ``pipX.Y`` will be installed (where
+   X.Y stands for the current version of Python).
+
+   If *altinstall* is set, then ``pipX`` will *not* be installed.
+
+   If *default_pip* is set, then ``pip`` will be installed in addition to
+   the two regular scripts.
+
+   Setting both *altinstall* and *default_pip* will trigger
+   :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   *verbosity* controls the level of output to :data:`sys.stdout` from the
+   bootstrapping operation.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bootstrapping process has side effects on both ``sys.path`` and
+      ``os.environ``. Invoking the command line interface in a subprocess
+      instead allows these side effects to be avoided.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bootstrapping process may install additional modules required by
+      ``pip``, but other software should not assume those dependencies will
+      always be present by default (as the dependencies may be removed in a
+      future version of ``pip``).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/enum.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/enum.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6285ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/enum.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1124 @@
+:mod:`enum` --- Support for enumerations
+========================================
+
+.. module:: enum
+   :synopsis: Implementation of an enumeration class.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Ethan Furman <ethan@stoneleaf.us>
+.. sectionauthor:: Barry Warsaw <barry@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eli Bendersky <eliben@gmail.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Ethan Furman <ethan@stoneleaf.us>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/enum.py`
+
+----------------
+
+An enumeration is a set of symbolic names (members) bound to unique,
+constant values.  Within an enumeration, the members can be compared
+by identity, and the enumeration itself can be iterated over.
+
+
+Module Contents
+---------------
+
+This module defines four enumeration classes that can be used to define unique
+sets of names and values: :class:`Enum`, :class:`IntEnum`, :class:`Flag`, and
+:class:`IntFlag`.  It also defines one decorator, :func:`unique`, and one
+helper, :class:`auto`.
+
+.. class:: Enum
+
+    Base class for creating enumerated constants.  See section
+    `Functional API`_ for an alternate construction syntax.
+
+.. class:: IntEnum
+
+    Base class for creating enumerated constants that are also
+    subclasses of :class:`int`.
+
+.. class:: IntFlag
+
+    Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be combined using
+    the bitwise operators without losing their :class:`IntFlag` membership.
+    :class:`IntFlag` members are also subclasses of :class:`int`.
+
+.. class:: Flag
+
+    Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be combined using
+    the bitwise operations without losing their :class:`Flag` membership.
+
+.. function:: unique
+
+    Enum class decorator that ensures only one name is bound to any one value.
+
+.. class:: auto
+
+    Instances are replaced with an appropriate value for Enum members.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6  ``Flag``, ``IntFlag``, ``auto``
+
+
+Creating an Enum
+----------------
+
+Enumerations are created using the :keyword:`class` syntax, which makes them
+easy to read and write.  An alternative creation method is described in
+`Functional API`_.  To define an enumeration, subclass :class:`Enum` as
+follows::
+
+    >>> from enum import Enum
+    >>> class Color(Enum):
+    ...     RED = 1
+    ...     GREEN = 2
+    ...     BLUE = 3
+    ...
+
+.. note:: Enum member values
+
+    Member values can be anything: :class:`int`, :class:`str`, etc..  If
+    the exact value is unimportant you may use :class:`auto` instances and an
+    appropriate value will be chosen for you.  Care must be taken if you mix
+    :class:`auto` with other values.
+
+.. note:: Nomenclature
+
+  - The class :class:`Color` is an *enumeration* (or *enum*)
+  - The attributes :attr:`Color.RED`, :attr:`Color.GREEN`, etc., are
+    *enumeration members* (or *enum members*) and are functionally constants.
+  - The enum members have *names* and *values* (the name of
+    :attr:`Color.RED` is ``RED``, the value of :attr:`Color.BLUE` is
+    ``3``, etc.)
+
+.. note::
+
+    Even though we use the :keyword:`class` syntax to create Enums, Enums
+    are not normal Python classes.  See `How are Enums different?`_ for
+    more details.
+
+Enumeration members have human readable string representations::
+
+    >>> print(Color.RED)
+    Color.RED
+
+...while their ``repr`` has more information::
+
+    >>> print(repr(Color.RED))
+    <Color.RED: 1>
+
+The *type* of an enumeration member is the enumeration it belongs to::
+
+    >>> type(Color.RED)
+    <enum 'Color'>
+    >>> isinstance(Color.GREEN, Color)
+    True
+    >>>
+
+Enum members also have a property that contains just their item name::
+
+    >>> print(Color.RED.name)
+    RED
+
+Enumerations support iteration, in definition order::
+
+    >>> class Shake(Enum):
+    ...     VANILLA = 7
+    ...     CHOCOLATE = 4
+    ...     COOKIES = 9
+    ...     MINT = 3
+    ...
+    >>> for shake in Shake:
+    ...     print(shake)
+    ...
+    Shake.VANILLA
+    Shake.CHOCOLATE
+    Shake.COOKIES
+    Shake.MINT
+
+Enumeration members are hashable, so they can be used in dictionaries and sets::
+
+    >>> apples = {}
+    >>> apples[Color.RED] = 'red delicious'
+    >>> apples[Color.GREEN] = 'granny smith'
+    >>> apples == {Color.RED: 'red delicious', Color.GREEN: 'granny smith'}
+    True
+
+
+Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
+---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Sometimes it's useful to access members in enumerations programmatically (i.e.
+situations where ``Color.RED`` won't do because the exact color is not known
+at program-writing time).  ``Enum`` allows such access::
+
+    >>> Color(1)
+    <Color.RED: 1>
+    >>> Color(3)
+    <Color.BLUE: 3>
+
+If you want to access enum members by *name*, use item access::
+
+    >>> Color['RED']
+    <Color.RED: 1>
+    >>> Color['GREEN']
+    <Color.GREEN: 2>
+
+If you have an enum member and need its :attr:`name` or :attr:`value`::
+
+    >>> member = Color.RED
+    >>> member.name
+    'RED'
+    >>> member.value
+    1
+
+
+Duplicating enum members and values
+-----------------------------------
+
+Having two enum members with the same name is invalid::
+
+    >>> class Shape(Enum):
+    ...     SQUARE = 2
+    ...     SQUARE = 3
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    TypeError: Attempted to reuse key: 'SQUARE'
+
+However, two enum members are allowed to have the same value.  Given two members
+A and B with the same value (and A defined first), B is an alias to A.  By-value
+lookup of the value of A and B will return A.  By-name lookup of B will also
+return A::
+
+    >>> class Shape(Enum):
+    ...     SQUARE = 2
+    ...     DIAMOND = 1
+    ...     CIRCLE = 3
+    ...     ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2
+    ...
+    >>> Shape.SQUARE
+    <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
+    >>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE
+    <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
+    >>> Shape(2)
+    <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
+
+.. note::
+
+    Attempting to create a member with the same name as an already
+    defined attribute (another member, a method, etc.) or attempting to create
+    an attribute with the same name as a member is not allowed.
+
+
+Ensuring unique enumeration values
+----------------------------------
+
+By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same value.
+When this behavior isn't desired, the following decorator can be used to
+ensure each value is used only once in the enumeration:
+
+.. decorator:: unique
+
+A :keyword:`class` decorator specifically for enumerations.  It searches an
+enumeration's :attr:`__members__` gathering any aliases it finds; if any are
+found :exc:`ValueError` is raised with the details::
+
+    >>> from enum import Enum, unique
+    >>> @unique
+    ... class Mistake(Enum):
+    ...     ONE = 1
+    ...     TWO = 2
+    ...     THREE = 3
+    ...     FOUR = 3
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE
+
+
+Using automatic values
+----------------------
+
+If the exact value is unimportant you can use :class:`auto`::
+
+    >>> from enum import Enum, auto
+    >>> class Color(Enum):
+    ...     RED = auto()
+    ...     BLUE = auto()
+    ...     GREEN = auto()
+    ...
+    >>> list(Color)
+    [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>, <Color.GREEN: 3>]
+
+The values are chosen by :func:`_generate_next_value_`, which can be
+overridden::
+
+    >>> class AutoName(Enum):
+    ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
+    ...         return name
+    ...
+    >>> class Ordinal(AutoName):
+    ...     NORTH = auto()
+    ...     SOUTH = auto()
+    ...     EAST = auto()
+    ...     WEST = auto()
+    ...
+    >>> list(Ordinal)
+    [<Ordinal.NORTH: 'NORTH'>, <Ordinal.SOUTH: 'SOUTH'>, <Ordinal.EAST: 'EAST'>, <Ordinal.WEST: 'WEST'>]
+
+.. note::
+
+    The goal of the default :meth:`_generate_next_value_` methods is to provide
+    the next :class:`int` in sequence with the last :class:`int` provided, but
+    the way it does this is an implementation detail and may change.
+
+Iteration
+---------
+
+Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases::
+
+    >>> list(Shape)
+    [<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>]
+
+The special attribute ``__members__`` is an ordered dictionary mapping names
+to members.  It includes all names defined in the enumeration, including the
+aliases::
+
+    >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
+    ...     name, member
+    ...
+    ('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
+    ('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>)
+    ('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>)
+    ('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
+
+The ``__members__`` attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access to
+the enumeration members.  For example, finding all the aliases::
+
+    >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
+    ['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE']
+
+
+Comparisons
+-----------
+
+Enumeration members are compared by identity::
+
+    >>> Color.RED is Color.RED
+    True
+    >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
+    False
+    >>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE
+    True
+
+Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are *not* supported.  Enum
+members are not integers (but see `IntEnum`_ below)::
+
+    >>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color'
+
+Equality comparisons are defined though::
+
+    >>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED
+    False
+    >>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED
+    True
+    >>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE
+    True
+
+Comparisons against non-enumeration values will always compare not equal
+(again, :class:`IntEnum` was explicitly designed to behave differently, see
+below)::
+
+    >>> Color.BLUE == 2
+    False
+
+
+Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
+----------------------------------------------
+
+The examples above use integers for enumeration values.  Using integers is
+short and handy (and provided by default by the `Functional API`_), but not
+strictly enforced.  In the vast majority of use-cases, one doesn't care what
+the actual value of an enumeration is.  But if the value *is* important,
+enumerations can have arbitrary values.
+
+Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special methods as
+usual.  If we have this enumeration::
+
+    >>> class Mood(Enum):
+    ...     FUNKY = 1
+    ...     HAPPY = 3
+    ...
+    ...     def describe(self):
+    ...         # self is the member here
+    ...         return self.name, self.value
+    ...
+    ...     def __str__(self):
+    ...         return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
+    ...
+    ...     @classmethod
+    ...     def favorite_mood(cls):
+    ...         # cls here is the enumeration
+    ...         return cls.HAPPY
+    ...
+
+Then::
+
+    >>> Mood.favorite_mood()
+    <Mood.HAPPY: 3>
+    >>> Mood.HAPPY.describe()
+    ('HAPPY', 3)
+    >>> str(Mood.FUNKY)
+    'my custom str! 1'
+
+The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end with
+a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all other
+attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of this
+enumeration, with the exception of special methods (:meth:`__str__`,
+:meth:`__add__`, etc.), descriptors (methods are also descriptors), and
+variable names listed in :attr:`_ignore_`.
+
+Note:  if your enumeration defines :meth:`__new__` and/or :meth:`__init__` then
+whatever value(s) were given to the enum member will be passed into those
+methods.  See `Planet`_ for an example.
+
+
+Restricted Enum subclassing
+---------------------------
+
+A new :class:`Enum` class must have one base Enum class, up to one concrete
+data type, and as many :class:`object`-based mixin classes as needed.  The
+order of these base classes is::
+
+    class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum):
+        pass
+
+Also, subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does not define
+any members.  So this is forbidden::
+
+    >>> class MoreColor(Color):
+    ...     PINK = 17
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    TypeError: Cannot extend enumerations
+
+But this is allowed::
+
+    >>> class Foo(Enum):
+    ...     def some_behavior(self):
+    ...         pass
+    ...
+    >>> class Bar(Foo):
+    ...     HAPPY = 1
+    ...     SAD = 2
+    ...
+
+Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a violation of
+some important invariants of types and instances.  On the other hand, it makes
+sense to allow sharing some common behavior between a group of enumerations.
+(See `OrderedEnum`_ for an example.)
+
+
+Pickling
+--------
+
+Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled::
+
+    >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
+    >>> from pickle import dumps, loads
+    >>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO))
+    True
+
+The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be defined in
+the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to be importable
+from that module.
+
+.. note::
+
+    With pickle protocol version 4 it is possible to easily pickle enums
+    nested in other classes.
+
+It is possible to modify how Enum members are pickled/unpickled by defining
+:meth:`__reduce_ex__` in the enumeration class.
+
+
+Functional API
+--------------
+
+The :class:`Enum` class is callable, providing the following functional API::
+
+    >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG')
+    >>> Animal
+    <enum 'Animal'>
+    >>> Animal.ANT
+    <Animal.ANT: 1>
+    >>> Animal.ANT.value
+    1
+    >>> list(Animal)
+    [<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>]
+
+The semantics of this API resemble :class:`~collections.namedtuple`. The first
+argument of the call to :class:`Enum` is the name of the enumeration.
+
+The second argument is the *source* of enumeration member names.  It can be a
+whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a sequence of
+2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g. dictionary) of names to
+values.  The last two options enable assigning arbitrary values to
+enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing integers starting with 1 (use
+the ``start`` parameter to specify a different starting value).  A
+new class derived from :class:`Enum` is returned.  In other words, the above
+assignment to :class:`Animal` is equivalent to::
+
+    >>> class Animal(Enum):
+    ...     ANT = 1
+    ...     BEE = 2
+    ...     CAT = 3
+    ...     DOG = 4
+    ...
+
+The reason for defaulting to ``1`` as the starting number and not ``0`` is
+that ``0`` is ``False`` in a boolean sense, but enum members all evaluate
+to ``True``.
+
+Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame stack
+implementation details are used to try and figure out which module the
+enumeration is being created in (e.g. it will fail if you use a utility
+function in separate module, and also may not work on IronPython or Jython).
+The solution is to specify the module name explicitly as follows::
+
+    >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__)
+
+.. warning::
+
+    If ``module`` is not supplied, and Enum cannot determine what it is,
+    the new Enum members will not be unpicklable; to keep errors closer to
+    the source, pickling will be disabled.
+
+The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on
+:attr:`~definition.__qualname__` being set to the location where pickle will be able
+to find the class.  For example, if the class was made available in class
+SomeData in the global scope::
+
+    >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal')
+
+The complete signature is::
+
+    Enum(value='NewEnumName', names=<...>, *, module='...', qualname='...', type=<mixed-in class>, start=1)
+
+:value: What the new Enum class will record as its name.
+
+:names: The Enum members.  This can be a whitespace or comma separated string
+  (values will start at 1 unless otherwise specified)::
+
+    'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE'
+
+  or an iterator of names::
+
+    ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']
+
+  or an iterator of (name, value) pairs::
+
+    [('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)]
+
+  or a mapping::
+
+    {'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42}
+
+:module: name of module where new Enum class can be found.
+
+:qualname: where in module new Enum class can be found.
+
+:type: type to mix in to new Enum class.
+
+:start: number to start counting at if only names are passed in.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   The *start* parameter was added.
+
+
+Derived Enumerations
+--------------------
+
+IntEnum
+^^^^^^^
+
+The first variation of :class:`Enum` that is provided is also a subclass of
+:class:`int`.  Members of an :class:`IntEnum` can be compared to integers;
+by extension, integer enumerations of different types can also be compared
+to each other::
+
+    >>> from enum import IntEnum
+    >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
+    ...     CIRCLE = 1
+    ...     SQUARE = 2
+    ...
+    >>> class Request(IntEnum):
+    ...     POST = 1
+    ...     GET = 2
+    ...
+    >>> Shape == 1
+    False
+    >>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1
+    True
+    >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST
+    True
+
+However, they still can't be compared to standard :class:`Enum` enumerations::
+
+    >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
+    ...     CIRCLE = 1
+    ...     SQUARE = 2
+    ...
+    >>> class Color(Enum):
+    ...     RED = 1
+    ...     GREEN = 2
+    ...
+    >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED
+    False
+
+:class:`IntEnum` values behave like integers in other ways you'd expect::
+
+    >>> int(Shape.CIRCLE)
+    1
+    >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE]
+    'b'
+    >>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)]
+    [0, 1]
+
+
+IntFlag
+^^^^^^^
+
+The next variation of :class:`Enum` provided, :class:`IntFlag`, is also based
+on :class:`int`.  The difference being :class:`IntFlag` members can be combined
+using the bitwise operators (&, \|, ^, ~) and the result is still an
+:class:`IntFlag` member.  However, as the name implies, :class:`IntFlag`
+members also subclass :class:`int` and can be used wherever an :class:`int` is
+used.  Any operation on an :class:`IntFlag` member besides the bit-wise
+operations will lose the :class:`IntFlag` membership.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+Sample :class:`IntFlag` class::
+
+    >>> from enum import IntFlag
+    >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
+    ...     R = 4
+    ...     W = 2
+    ...     X = 1
+    ...
+    >>> Perm.R | Perm.W
+    <Perm.R|W: 6>
+    >>> Perm.R + Perm.W
+    6
+    >>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W
+    >>> Perm.R in RW
+    True
+
+It is also possible to name the combinations::
+
+    >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
+    ...     R = 4
+    ...     W = 2
+    ...     X = 1
+    ...     RWX = 7
+    >>> Perm.RWX
+    <Perm.RWX: 7>
+    >>> ~Perm.RWX
+    <Perm.-8: -8>
+
+Another important difference between :class:`IntFlag` and :class:`Enum` is that
+if no flags are set (the value is 0), its boolean evaluation is :data:`False`::
+
+    >>> Perm.R & Perm.X
+    <Perm.0: 0>
+    >>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X)
+    False
+
+Because :class:`IntFlag` members are also subclasses of :class:`int` they can
+be combined with them::
+
+    >>> Perm.X | 8
+    <Perm.8|X: 9>
+
+
+Flag
+^^^^
+
+The last variation is :class:`Flag`.  Like :class:`IntFlag`, :class:`Flag`
+members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, \|, ^, ~).  Unlike
+:class:`IntFlag`, they cannot be combined with, nor compared against, any
+other :class:`Flag` enumeration, nor :class:`int`.  While it is possible to
+specify the values directly it is recommended to use :class:`auto` as the
+value and let :class:`Flag` select an appropriate value.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+Like :class:`IntFlag`, if a combination of :class:`Flag` members results in no
+flags being set, the boolean evaluation is :data:`False`::
+
+    >>> from enum import Flag, auto
+    >>> class Color(Flag):
+    ...     RED = auto()
+    ...     BLUE = auto()
+    ...     GREEN = auto()
+    ...
+    >>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN
+    <Color.0: 0>
+    >>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN)
+    False
+
+Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8, ...),
+while combinations of flags won't::
+
+    >>> class Color(Flag):
+    ...     RED = auto()
+    ...     BLUE = auto()
+    ...     GREEN = auto()
+    ...     WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN
+    ...
+    >>> Color.WHITE
+    <Color.WHITE: 7>
+
+Giving a name to the "no flags set" condition does not change its boolean
+value::
+
+    >>> class Color(Flag):
+    ...     BLACK = 0
+    ...     RED = auto()
+    ...     BLUE = auto()
+    ...     GREEN = auto()
+    ...
+    >>> Color.BLACK
+    <Color.BLACK: 0>
+    >>> bool(Color.BLACK)
+    False
+
+.. note::
+
+    For the majority of new code, :class:`Enum` and :class:`Flag` are strongly
+    recommended, since :class:`IntEnum` and :class:`IntFlag` break some
+    semantic promises of an enumeration (by being comparable to integers, and
+    thus by transitivity to other unrelated enumerations).  :class:`IntEnum`
+    and :class:`IntFlag` should be used only in cases where :class:`Enum` and
+    :class:`Flag` will not do; for example, when integer constants are replaced
+    with enumerations, or for interoperability with other systems.
+
+
+Others
+^^^^^^
+
+While :class:`IntEnum` is part of the :mod:`enum` module, it would be very
+simple to implement independently::
+
+    class IntEnum(int, Enum):
+        pass
+
+This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for example
+a :class:`StrEnum` that mixes in :class:`str` instead of :class:`int`.
+
+Some rules:
+
+1. When subclassing :class:`Enum`, mix-in types must appear before
+   :class:`Enum` itself in the sequence of bases, as in the :class:`IntEnum`
+   example above.
+2. While :class:`Enum` can have members of any type, once you mix in an
+   additional type, all the members must have values of that type, e.g.
+   :class:`int` above.  This restriction does not apply to mix-ins which only
+   add methods and don't specify another data type such as :class:`int` or
+   :class:`str`.
+3. When another data type is mixed in, the :attr:`value` attribute is *not the
+   same* as the enum member itself, although it is equivalent and will compare
+   equal.
+4. %-style formatting:  `%s` and `%r` call the :class:`Enum` class's
+   :meth:`__str__` and :meth:`__repr__` respectively; other codes (such as
+   `%i` or `%h` for IntEnum) treat the enum member as its mixed-in type.
+5. :ref:`Formatted string literals <f-strings>`, :meth:`str.format`,
+   and :func:`format` will use the mixed-in
+   type's :meth:`__format__`.  If the :class:`Enum` class's :func:`str` or
+   :func:`repr` is desired, use the `!s` or `!r` format codes.
+
+
+Interesting examples
+--------------------
+
+While :class:`Enum`, :class:`IntEnum`, :class:`IntFlag`, and :class:`Flag` are
+expected to cover the majority of use-cases, they cannot cover them all.  Here
+are recipes for some different types of enumerations that can be used directly,
+or as examples for creating one's own.
+
+
+Omitting values
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In many use-cases one doesn't care what the actual value of an enumeration
+is. There are several ways to define this type of simple enumeration:
+
+- use instances of :class:`auto` for the value
+- use instances of :class:`object` as the value
+- use a descriptive string as the value
+- use a tuple as the value and a custom :meth:`__new__` to replace the
+  tuple with an :class:`int` value
+
+Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are not
+important, and also enables one to add, remove, or reorder members without
+having to renumber the remaining members.
+
+Whichever method you choose, you should provide a :meth:`repr` that also hides
+the (unimportant) value::
+
+    >>> class NoValue(Enum):
+    ...     def __repr__(self):
+    ...         return '<%s.%s>' % (self.__class__.__name__, self.name)
+    ...
+
+
+Using :class:`auto`
+"""""""""""""""""""
+
+Using :class:`auto` would look like::
+
+    >>> class Color(NoValue):
+    ...     RED = auto()
+    ...     BLUE = auto()
+    ...     GREEN = auto()
+    ...
+    >>> Color.GREEN
+    <Color.GREEN>
+
+
+Using :class:`object`
+"""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Using :class:`object` would look like::
+
+    >>> class Color(NoValue):
+    ...     RED = object()
+    ...     GREEN = object()
+    ...     BLUE = object()
+    ...
+    >>> Color.GREEN
+    <Color.GREEN>
+
+
+Using a descriptive string
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Using a string as the value would look like::
+
+    >>> class Color(NoValue):
+    ...     RED = 'stop'
+    ...     GREEN = 'go'
+    ...     BLUE = 'too fast!'
+    ...
+    >>> Color.GREEN
+    <Color.GREEN>
+    >>> Color.GREEN.value
+    'go'
+
+
+Using a custom :meth:`__new__`
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Using an auto-numbering :meth:`__new__` would look like::
+
+    >>> class AutoNumber(NoValue):
+    ...     def __new__(cls):
+    ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
+    ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
+    ...         obj._value_ = value
+    ...         return obj
+    ...
+    >>> class Color(AutoNumber):
+    ...     RED = ()
+    ...     GREEN = ()
+    ...     BLUE = ()
+    ...
+    >>> Color.GREEN
+    <Color.GREEN>
+    >>> Color.GREEN.value
+    2
+
+
+.. note::
+
+    The :meth:`__new__` method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum
+    members; it is then replaced by Enum's :meth:`__new__` which is used after
+    class creation for lookup of existing members.
+
+
+OrderedEnum
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+An ordered enumeration that is not based on :class:`IntEnum` and so maintains
+the normal :class:`Enum` invariants (such as not being comparable to other
+enumerations)::
+
+    >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
+    ...     def __ge__(self, other):
+    ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+    ...             return self.value >= other.value
+    ...         return NotImplemented
+    ...     def __gt__(self, other):
+    ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+    ...             return self.value > other.value
+    ...         return NotImplemented
+    ...     def __le__(self, other):
+    ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+    ...             return self.value <= other.value
+    ...         return NotImplemented
+    ...     def __lt__(self, other):
+    ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+    ...             return self.value < other.value
+    ...         return NotImplemented
+    ...
+    >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
+    ...     A = 5
+    ...     B = 4
+    ...     C = 3
+    ...     D = 2
+    ...     F = 1
+    ...
+    >>> Grade.C < Grade.A
+    True
+
+
+DuplicateFreeEnum
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Raises an error if a duplicate member name is found instead of creating an
+alias::
+
+    >>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum):
+    ...     def __init__(self, *args):
+    ...         cls = self.__class__
+    ...         if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
+    ...             a = self.name
+    ...             e = cls(self.value).name
+    ...             raise ValueError(
+    ...                 "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  %r --> %r"
+    ...                 % (a, e))
+    ...
+    >>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum):
+    ...     RED = 1
+    ...     GREEN = 2
+    ...     BLUE = 3
+    ...     GRENE = 2
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  'GRENE' --> 'GREEN'
+
+.. note::
+
+    This is a useful example for subclassing Enum to add or change other
+    behaviors as well as disallowing aliases.  If the only desired change is
+    disallowing aliases, the :func:`unique` decorator can be used instead.
+
+
+Planet
+^^^^^^
+
+If :meth:`__new__` or :meth:`__init__` is defined the value of the enum member
+will be passed to those methods::
+
+    >>> class Planet(Enum):
+    ...     MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
+    ...     VENUS   = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
+    ...     EARTH   = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
+    ...     MARS    = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
+    ...     JUPITER = (1.9e+27,   7.1492e7)
+    ...     SATURN  = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
+    ...     URANUS  = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
+    ...     NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
+    ...     def __init__(self, mass, radius):
+    ...         self.mass = mass       # in kilograms
+    ...         self.radius = radius   # in meters
+    ...     @property
+    ...     def surface_gravity(self):
+    ...         # universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)
+    ...         G = 6.67300E-11
+    ...         return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
+    ...
+    >>> Planet.EARTH.value
+    (5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
+    >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
+    9.802652743337129
+
+
+TimePeriod
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+An example to show the :attr:`_ignore_` attribute in use::
+
+    >>> from datetime import timedelta
+    >>> class Period(timedelta, Enum):
+    ...     "different lengths of time"
+    ...     _ignore_ = 'Period i'
+    ...     Period = vars()
+    ...     for i in range(367):
+    ...         Period['day_%d' % i] = i
+    ...
+    >>> list(Period)[:2]
+    [<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>]
+    >>> list(Period)[-2:]
+    [<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]
+
+
+How are Enums different?
+------------------------
+
+Enums have a custom metaclass that affects many aspects of both derived Enum
+classes and their instances (members).
+
+
+Enum Classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`EnumMeta` metaclass is responsible for providing the
+:meth:`__contains__`, :meth:`__dir__`, :meth:`__iter__` and other methods that
+allow one to do things with an :class:`Enum` class that fail on a typical
+class, such as `list(Color)` or `some_enum_var in Color`.  :class:`EnumMeta` is
+responsible for ensuring that various other methods on the final :class:`Enum`
+class are correct (such as :meth:`__new__`, :meth:`__getnewargs__`,
+:meth:`__str__` and :meth:`__repr__`).
+
+
+Enum Members (aka instances)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The most interesting thing about Enum members is that they are singletons.
+:class:`EnumMeta` creates them all while it is creating the :class:`Enum`
+class itself, and then puts a custom :meth:`__new__` in place to ensure
+that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only the existing
+member instances.
+
+
+Finer Points
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Supported ``__dunder__`` names
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+:attr:`__members__` is an :class:`OrderedDict` of ``member_name``:``member``
+items.  It is only available on the class.
+
+:meth:`__new__`, if specified, must create and return the enum members; it is
+also a very good idea to set the member's :attr:`_value_` appropriately.  Once
+all the members are created it is no longer used.
+
+
+Supported ``_sunder_`` names
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+- ``_name_`` -- name of the member
+- ``_value_`` -- value of the member; can be set / modified in ``__new__``
+
+- ``_missing_`` -- a lookup function used when a value is not found; may be
+  overridden
+- ``_ignore_`` -- a list of names, either as a :func:`list` or a :func:`str`,
+  that will not be transformed into members, and will be removed from the final
+  class
+- ``_order_`` -- used in Python 2/3 code to ensure member order is consistent
+  (class attribute, removed during class creation)
+- ``_generate_next_value_`` -- used by the `Functional API`_ and by
+  :class:`auto` to get an appropriate value for an enum member; may be
+  overridden
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6 ``_missing_``, ``_order_``, ``_generate_next_value_``
+.. versionadded:: 3.7 ``_ignore_``
+
+To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an :attr:`_order_` attribute can
+be provided.  It will be checked against the actual order of the enumeration
+and raise an error if the two do not match::
+
+    >>> class Color(Enum):
+    ...     _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
+    ...     RED = 1
+    ...     BLUE = 3
+    ...     GREEN = 2
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    TypeError: member order does not match _order_
+
+.. note::
+
+    In Python 2 code the :attr:`_order_` attribute is necessary as definition
+    order is lost before it can be recorded.
+
+``Enum`` member type
+""""""""""""""""""""
+
+:class:`Enum` members are instances of their :class:`Enum` class, and are
+normally accessed as ``EnumClass.member``.  Under certain circumstances they
+can also be accessed as ``EnumClass.member.member``, but you should never do
+this as that lookup may fail or, worse, return something besides the
+:class:`Enum` member you are looking for (this is another good reason to use
+all-uppercase names for members)::
+
+    >>> class FieldTypes(Enum):
+    ...     name = 0
+    ...     value = 1
+    ...     size = 2
+    ...
+    >>> FieldTypes.value.size
+    <FieldTypes.size: 2>
+    >>> FieldTypes.size.value
+    2
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+
+Boolean value of ``Enum`` classes and members
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+:class:`Enum` members that are mixed with non-:class:`Enum` types (such as
+:class:`int`, :class:`str`, etc.) are evaluated according to the mixed-in
+type's rules; otherwise, all members evaluate as :data:`True`.  To make your
+own Enum's boolean evaluation depend on the member's value add the following to
+your class::
+
+    def __bool__(self):
+        return bool(self.value)
+
+:class:`Enum` classes always evaluate as :data:`True`.
+
+
+``Enum`` classes with methods
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+If you give your :class:`Enum` subclass extra methods, like the `Planet`_
+class above, those methods will show up in a :func:`dir` of the member,
+but not of the class::
+
+    >>> dir(Planet)
+    ['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']
+    >>> dir(Planet.EARTH)
+    ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name', 'surface_gravity', 'value']
+
+
+Combining members of ``Flag``
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+If a combination of Flag members is not named, the :func:`repr` will include
+all named flags and all named combinations of flags that are in the value::
+
+    >>> class Color(Flag):
+    ...     RED = auto()
+    ...     GREEN = auto()
+    ...     BLUE = auto()
+    ...     MAGENTA = RED | BLUE
+    ...     YELLOW = RED | GREEN
+    ...     CYAN = GREEN | BLUE
+    ...
+    >>> Color(3)  # named combination
+    <Color.YELLOW: 3>
+    >>> Color(7)      # not named combination
+    <Color.CYAN|MAGENTA|BLUE|YELLOW|GREEN|RED: 7>
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/errno.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/errno.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1cbd51c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/errno.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,639 @@
+:mod:`errno` --- Standard errno system symbols
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: errno
+   :synopsis: Standard errno system symbols.
+
+----------------
+
+This module makes available standard ``errno`` system symbols. The value of each
+symbol is the corresponding integer value. The names and descriptions are
+borrowed from :file:`linux/include/errno.h`, which should be pretty
+all-inclusive.
+
+
+.. data:: errorcode
+
+   Dictionary providing a mapping from the errno value to the string name in the
+   underlying system.  For instance, ``errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM]`` maps to
+   ``'EPERM'``.
+
+To translate a numeric error code to an error message, use :func:`os.strerror`.
+
+Of the following list, symbols that are not used on the current platform are not
+defined by the module.  The specific list of defined symbols is available as
+``errno.errorcode.keys()``.  Symbols available can include:
+
+
+.. data:: EPERM
+
+   Operation not permitted
+
+
+.. data:: ENOENT
+
+   No such file or directory
+
+
+.. data:: ESRCH
+
+   No such process
+
+
+.. data:: EINTR
+
+   Interrupted system call.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      This error is mapped to the exception :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+
+.. data:: EIO
+
+   I/O error
+
+
+.. data:: ENXIO
+
+   No such device or address
+
+
+.. data:: E2BIG
+
+   Arg list too long
+
+
+.. data:: ENOEXEC
+
+   Exec format error
+
+
+.. data:: EBADF
+
+   Bad file number
+
+
+.. data:: ECHILD
+
+   No child processes
+
+
+.. data:: EAGAIN
+
+   Try again
+
+
+.. data:: ENOMEM
+
+   Out of memory
+
+
+.. data:: EACCES
+
+   Permission denied
+
+
+.. data:: EFAULT
+
+   Bad address
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTBLK
+
+   Block device required
+
+
+.. data:: EBUSY
+
+   Device or resource busy
+
+
+.. data:: EEXIST
+
+   File exists
+
+
+.. data:: EXDEV
+
+   Cross-device link
+
+
+.. data:: ENODEV
+
+   No such device
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTDIR
+
+   Not a directory
+
+
+.. data:: EISDIR
+
+   Is a directory
+
+
+.. data:: EINVAL
+
+   Invalid argument
+
+
+.. data:: ENFILE
+
+   File table overflow
+
+
+.. data:: EMFILE
+
+   Too many open files
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTTY
+
+   Not a typewriter
+
+
+.. data:: ETXTBSY
+
+   Text file busy
+
+
+.. data:: EFBIG
+
+   File too large
+
+
+.. data:: ENOSPC
+
+   No space left on device
+
+
+.. data:: ESPIPE
+
+   Illegal seek
+
+
+.. data:: EROFS
+
+   Read-only file system
+
+
+.. data:: EMLINK
+
+   Too many links
+
+
+.. data:: EPIPE
+
+   Broken pipe
+
+
+.. data:: EDOM
+
+   Math argument out of domain of func
+
+
+.. data:: ERANGE
+
+   Math result not representable
+
+
+.. data:: EDEADLK
+
+   Resource deadlock would occur
+
+
+.. data:: ENAMETOOLONG
+
+   File name too long
+
+
+.. data:: ENOLCK
+
+   No record locks available
+
+
+.. data:: ENOSYS
+
+   Function not implemented
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTEMPTY
+
+   Directory not empty
+
+
+.. data:: ELOOP
+
+   Too many symbolic links encountered
+
+
+.. data:: EWOULDBLOCK
+
+   Operation would block
+
+
+.. data:: ENOMSG
+
+   No message of desired type
+
+
+.. data:: EIDRM
+
+   Identifier removed
+
+
+.. data:: ECHRNG
+
+   Channel number out of range
+
+
+.. data:: EL2NSYNC
+
+   Level 2 not synchronized
+
+
+.. data:: EL3HLT
+
+   Level 3 halted
+
+
+.. data:: EL3RST
+
+   Level 3 reset
+
+
+.. data:: ELNRNG
+
+   Link number out of range
+
+
+.. data:: EUNATCH
+
+   Protocol driver not attached
+
+
+.. data:: ENOCSI
+
+   No CSI structure available
+
+
+.. data:: EL2HLT
+
+   Level 2 halted
+
+
+.. data:: EBADE
+
+   Invalid exchange
+
+
+.. data:: EBADR
+
+   Invalid request descriptor
+
+
+.. data:: EXFULL
+
+   Exchange full
+
+
+.. data:: ENOANO
+
+   No anode
+
+
+.. data:: EBADRQC
+
+   Invalid request code
+
+
+.. data:: EBADSLT
+
+   Invalid slot
+
+
+.. data:: EDEADLOCK
+
+   File locking deadlock error
+
+
+.. data:: EBFONT
+
+   Bad font file format
+
+
+.. data:: ENOSTR
+
+   Device not a stream
+
+
+.. data:: ENODATA
+
+   No data available
+
+
+.. data:: ETIME
+
+   Timer expired
+
+
+.. data:: ENOSR
+
+   Out of streams resources
+
+
+.. data:: ENONET
+
+   Machine is not on the network
+
+
+.. data:: ENOPKG
+
+   Package not installed
+
+
+.. data:: EREMOTE
+
+   Object is remote
+
+
+.. data:: ENOLINK
+
+   Link has been severed
+
+
+.. data:: EADV
+
+   Advertise error
+
+
+.. data:: ESRMNT
+
+   Srmount error
+
+
+.. data:: ECOMM
+
+   Communication error on send
+
+
+.. data:: EPROTO
+
+   Protocol error
+
+
+.. data:: EMULTIHOP
+
+   Multihop attempted
+
+
+.. data:: EDOTDOT
+
+   RFS specific error
+
+
+.. data:: EBADMSG
+
+   Not a data message
+
+
+.. data:: EOVERFLOW
+
+   Value too large for defined data type
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTUNIQ
+
+   Name not unique on network
+
+
+.. data:: EBADFD
+
+   File descriptor in bad state
+
+
+.. data:: EREMCHG
+
+   Remote address changed
+
+
+.. data:: ELIBACC
+
+   Can not access a needed shared library
+
+
+.. data:: ELIBBAD
+
+   Accessing a corrupted shared library
+
+
+.. data:: ELIBSCN
+
+   .lib section in a.out corrupted
+
+
+.. data:: ELIBMAX
+
+   Attempting to link in too many shared libraries
+
+
+.. data:: ELIBEXEC
+
+   Cannot exec a shared library directly
+
+
+.. data:: EILSEQ
+
+   Illegal byte sequence
+
+
+.. data:: ERESTART
+
+   Interrupted system call should be restarted
+
+
+.. data:: ESTRPIPE
+
+   Streams pipe error
+
+
+.. data:: EUSERS
+
+   Too many users
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTSOCK
+
+   Socket operation on non-socket
+
+
+.. data:: EDESTADDRREQ
+
+   Destination address required
+
+
+.. data:: EMSGSIZE
+
+   Message too long
+
+
+.. data:: EPROTOTYPE
+
+   Protocol wrong type for socket
+
+
+.. data:: ENOPROTOOPT
+
+   Protocol not available
+
+
+.. data:: EPROTONOSUPPORT
+
+   Protocol not supported
+
+
+.. data:: ESOCKTNOSUPPORT
+
+   Socket type not supported
+
+
+.. data:: EOPNOTSUPP
+
+   Operation not supported on transport endpoint
+
+
+.. data:: EPFNOSUPPORT
+
+   Protocol family not supported
+
+
+.. data:: EAFNOSUPPORT
+
+   Address family not supported by protocol
+
+
+.. data:: EADDRINUSE
+
+   Address already in use
+
+
+.. data:: EADDRNOTAVAIL
+
+   Cannot assign requested address
+
+
+.. data:: ENETDOWN
+
+   Network is down
+
+
+.. data:: ENETUNREACH
+
+   Network is unreachable
+
+
+.. data:: ENETRESET
+
+   Network dropped connection because of reset
+
+
+.. data:: ECONNABORTED
+
+   Software caused connection abort
+
+
+.. data:: ECONNRESET
+
+   Connection reset by peer
+
+
+.. data:: ENOBUFS
+
+   No buffer space available
+
+
+.. data:: EISCONN
+
+   Transport endpoint is already connected
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTCONN
+
+   Transport endpoint is not connected
+
+
+.. data:: ESHUTDOWN
+
+   Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown
+
+
+.. data:: ETOOMANYREFS
+
+   Too many references: cannot splice
+
+
+.. data:: ETIMEDOUT
+
+   Connection timed out
+
+
+.. data:: ECONNREFUSED
+
+   Connection refused
+
+
+.. data:: EHOSTDOWN
+
+   Host is down
+
+
+.. data:: EHOSTUNREACH
+
+   No route to host
+
+
+.. data:: EALREADY
+
+   Operation already in progress
+
+
+.. data:: EINPROGRESS
+
+   Operation now in progress
+
+
+.. data:: ESTALE
+
+   Stale NFS file handle
+
+
+.. data:: EUCLEAN
+
+   Structure needs cleaning
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTNAM
+
+   Not a XENIX named type file
+
+
+.. data:: ENAVAIL
+
+   No XENIX semaphores available
+
+
+.. data:: EISNAM
+
+   Is a named type file
+
+
+.. data:: EREMOTEIO
+
+   Remote I/O error
+
+
+.. data:: EDQUOT
+
+   Quota exceeded
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/exceptions.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/exceptions.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52a505e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/exceptions.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,748 @@
+.. _bltin-exceptions:
+
+Built-in Exceptions
+===================
+
+.. index::
+   statement: try
+   statement: except
+
+In Python, all exceptions must be instances of a class that derives from
+:class:`BaseException`.  In a :keyword:`try` statement with an :keyword:`except`
+clause that mentions a particular class, that clause also handles any exception
+classes derived from that class (but not exception classes from which *it* is
+derived).  Two exception classes that are not related via subclassing are never
+equivalent, even if they have the same name.
+
+.. index:: statement: raise
+
+The built-in exceptions listed below can be generated by the interpreter or
+built-in functions.  Except where mentioned, they have an "associated value"
+indicating the detailed cause of the error.  This may be a string or a tuple of
+several items of information (e.g., an error code and a string explaining the
+code).  The associated value is usually passed as arguments to the exception
+class's constructor.
+
+User code can raise built-in exceptions.  This can be used to test an exception
+handler or to report an error condition "just like" the situation in which the
+interpreter raises the same exception; but beware that there is nothing to
+prevent user code from raising an inappropriate error.
+
+The built-in exception classes can be subclassed to define new exceptions;
+programmers are encouraged to derive new exceptions from the :exc:`Exception`
+class or one of its subclasses, and not from :exc:`BaseException`.  More
+information on defining exceptions is available in the Python Tutorial under
+:ref:`tut-userexceptions`.
+
+When raising (or re-raising) an exception in an :keyword:`except` or
+:keyword:`finally` clause
+:attr:`__context__` is automatically set to the last exception caught; if the
+new exception is not handled the traceback that is eventually displayed will
+include the originating exception(s) and the final exception.
+
+When raising a new exception (rather than using a bare ``raise`` to re-raise
+the exception currently being handled), the implicit exception context can be
+supplemented with an explicit cause by using :keyword:`from` with
+:keyword:`raise`::
+
+   raise new_exc from original_exc
+
+The expression following :keyword:`from` must be an exception or ``None``. It
+will be set as :attr:`__cause__` on the raised exception. Setting
+:attr:`__cause__` also implicitly sets the :attr:`__suppress_context__`
+attribute to ``True``, so that using ``raise new_exc from None``
+effectively replaces the old exception with the new one for display
+purposes (e.g. converting :exc:`KeyError` to :exc:`AttributeError`), while
+leaving the old exception available in :attr:`__context__` for introspection
+when debugging.
+
+The default traceback display code shows these chained exceptions in
+addition to the traceback for the exception itself. An explicitly chained
+exception in :attr:`__cause__` is always shown when present. An implicitly
+chained exception in :attr:`__context__` is shown only if :attr:`__cause__`
+is :const:`None` and :attr:`__suppress_context__` is false.
+
+In either case, the exception itself is always shown after any chained
+exceptions so that the final line of the traceback always shows the last
+exception that was raised.
+
+
+Base classes
+------------
+
+The following exceptions are used mostly as base classes for other exceptions.
+
+.. exception:: BaseException
+
+   The base class for all built-in exceptions.  It is not meant to be directly
+   inherited by user-defined classes (for that, use :exc:`Exception`).  If
+   :func:`str` is called on an instance of this class, the representation of
+   the argument(s) to the instance are returned, or the empty string when
+   there were no arguments.
+
+   .. attribute:: args
+
+      The tuple of arguments given to the exception constructor.  Some built-in
+      exceptions (like :exc:`OSError`) expect a certain number of arguments and
+      assign a special meaning to the elements of this tuple, while others are
+      usually called only with a single string giving an error message.
+
+   .. method:: with_traceback(tb)
+
+      This method sets *tb* as the new traceback for the exception and returns
+      the exception object.  It is usually used in exception handling code like
+      this::
+
+         try:
+             ...
+         except SomeException:
+             tb = sys.exc_info()[2]
+             raise OtherException(...).with_traceback(tb)
+
+
+.. exception:: Exception
+
+   All built-in, non-system-exiting exceptions are derived from this class.  All
+   user-defined exceptions should also be derived from this class.
+
+
+.. exception:: ArithmeticError
+
+   The base class for those built-in exceptions that are raised for various
+   arithmetic errors: :exc:`OverflowError`, :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`,
+   :exc:`FloatingPointError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: BufferError
+
+   Raised when a :ref:`buffer <bufferobjects>` related operation cannot be
+   performed.
+
+
+.. exception:: LookupError
+
+   The base class for the exceptions that are raised when a key or index used on
+   a mapping or sequence is invalid: :exc:`IndexError`, :exc:`KeyError`.  This
+   can be raised directly by :func:`codecs.lookup`.
+
+
+Concrete exceptions
+-------------------
+
+The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
+
+.. exception:: AssertionError
+
+   .. index:: statement: assert
+
+   Raised when an :keyword:`assert` statement fails.
+
+
+.. exception:: AttributeError
+
+   Raised when an attribute reference (see :ref:`attribute-references`) or
+   assignment fails.  (When an object does not support attribute references or
+   attribute assignments at all, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.)
+
+
+.. exception:: EOFError
+
+   Raised when the :func:`input` function hits an end-of-file condition (EOF)
+   without reading any data. (N.B.: the :meth:`io.IOBase.read` and
+   :meth:`io.IOBase.readline` methods return an empty string when they hit EOF.)
+
+
+.. exception:: FloatingPointError
+
+   Not currently used.
+
+
+.. exception:: GeneratorExit
+
+   Raised when a :term:`generator` or :term:`coroutine` is closed;
+   see :meth:`generator.close` and :meth:`coroutine.close`.  It
+   directly inherits from :exc:`BaseException` instead of :exc:`Exception` since
+   it is technically not an error.
+
+
+.. exception:: ImportError
+
+   Raised when the :keyword:`import` statement has troubles trying to
+   load a module.  Also raised when the "from list" in ``from ... import``
+   has a name that cannot be found.
+
+   The :attr:`name` and :attr:`path` attributes can be set using keyword-only
+   arguments to the constructor. When set they represent the name of the module
+   that was attempted to be imported and the path to any file which triggered
+   the exception, respectively.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the :attr:`name` and :attr:`path` attributes.
+
+.. exception:: ModuleNotFoundError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ImportError` which is raised by :keyword:`import`
+   when a module could not be located.  It is also raised when ``None``
+   is found in :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. exception:: IndexError
+
+   Raised when a sequence subscript is out of range.  (Slice indices are
+   silently truncated to fall in the allowed range; if an index is not an
+   integer, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.)
+
+   .. XXX xref to sequences
+
+
+.. exception:: KeyError
+
+   Raised when a mapping (dictionary) key is not found in the set of existing keys.
+
+   .. XXX xref to mapping objects?
+
+
+.. exception:: KeyboardInterrupt
+
+   Raised when the user hits the interrupt key (normally :kbd:`Control-C` or
+   :kbd:`Delete`).  During execution, a check for interrupts is made
+   regularly. The exception inherits from :exc:`BaseException` so as to not be
+   accidentally caught by code that catches :exc:`Exception` and thus prevent
+   the interpreter from exiting.
+
+
+.. exception:: MemoryError
+
+   Raised when an operation runs out of memory but the situation may still be
+   rescued (by deleting some objects).  The associated value is a string indicating
+   what kind of (internal) operation ran out of memory. Note that because of the
+   underlying memory management architecture (C's :c:func:`malloc` function), the
+   interpreter may not always be able to completely recover from this situation; it
+   nevertheless raises an exception so that a stack traceback can be printed, in
+   case a run-away program was the cause.
+
+
+.. exception:: NameError
+
+   Raised when a local or global name is not found.  This applies only to
+   unqualified names.  The associated value is an error message that includes the
+   name that could not be found.
+
+
+.. exception:: NotImplementedError
+
+   This exception is derived from :exc:`RuntimeError`.  In user defined base
+   classes, abstract methods should raise this exception when they require
+   derived classes to override the method, or while the class is being
+   developed to indicate that the real implementation still needs to be added.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      It should not be used to indicate that an operator or method is not
+      meant to be supported at all -- in that case either leave the operator /
+      method undefined or, if a subclass, set it to :data:`None`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      ``NotImplementedError`` and ``NotImplemented`` are not interchangeable,
+      even though they have similar names and purposes.  See
+      :data:`NotImplemented` for details on when to use it.
+
+.. exception:: OSError([arg])
+               OSError(errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[, filename2]]])
+
+   .. index:: module: errno
+
+   This exception is raised when a system function returns a system-related
+   error, including I/O failures such as "file not found" or "disk full"
+   (not for illegal argument types or other incidental errors).
+
+   The second form of the constructor sets the corresponding attributes,
+   described below.  The attributes default to :const:`None` if not
+   specified.  For backwards compatibility, if three arguments are passed,
+   the :attr:`~BaseException.args` attribute contains only a 2-tuple
+   of the first two constructor arguments.
+
+   The constructor often actually returns a subclass of :exc:`OSError`, as
+   described in `OS exceptions`_ below.  The particular subclass depends on
+   the final :attr:`.errno` value.  This behaviour only occurs when
+   constructing :exc:`OSError` directly or via an alias, and is not
+   inherited when subclassing.
+
+   .. attribute:: errno
+
+      A numeric error code from the C variable :c:data:`errno`.
+
+   .. attribute:: winerror
+
+      Under Windows, this gives you the native
+      Windows error code.  The :attr:`.errno` attribute is then an approximate
+      translation, in POSIX terms, of that native error code.
+
+      Under Windows, if the *winerror* constructor argument is an integer,
+      the :attr:`.errno` attribute is determined from the Windows error code,
+      and the *errno* argument is ignored.  On other platforms, the
+      *winerror* argument is ignored, and the :attr:`winerror` attribute
+      does not exist.
+
+   .. attribute:: strerror
+
+      The corresponding error message, as provided by
+      the operating system.  It is formatted by the C
+      functions :c:func:`perror` under POSIX, and :c:func:`FormatMessage`
+      under Windows.
+
+   .. attribute:: filename
+                  filename2
+
+      For exceptions that involve a file system path (such as :func:`open` or
+      :func:`os.unlink`), :attr:`filename` is the file name passed to the function.
+      For functions that involve two file system paths (such as
+      :func:`os.rename`), :attr:`filename2` corresponds to the second
+      file name passed to the function.
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`EnvironmentError`, :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`WindowsError`,
+      :exc:`socket.error`, :exc:`select.error` and
+      :exc:`mmap.error` have been merged into :exc:`OSError`, and the
+      constructor may return a subclass.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The :attr:`filename` attribute is now the original file name passed to
+      the function, instead of the name encoded to or decoded from the
+      filesystem encoding.  Also, the *filename2* constructor argument and
+      attribute was added.
+
+
+.. exception:: OverflowError
+
+   Raised when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large to be
+   represented.  This cannot occur for integers (which would rather raise
+   :exc:`MemoryError` than give up).  However, for historical reasons,
+   OverflowError is sometimes raised for integers that are outside a required
+   range.   Because of the lack of standardization of floating point exception
+   handling in C, most floating point operations are not checked.
+
+
+.. exception:: RecursionError
+
+   This exception is derived from :exc:`RuntimeError`.  It is raised when the
+   interpreter detects that the maximum recursion depth (see
+   :func:`sys.getrecursionlimit`) is exceeded.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      Previously, a plain :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+
+.. exception:: ReferenceError
+
+   This exception is raised when a weak reference proxy, created by the
+   :func:`weakref.proxy` function, is used to access an attribute of the referent
+   after it has been garbage collected. For more information on weak references,
+   see the :mod:`weakref` module.
+
+
+.. exception:: RuntimeError
+
+   Raised when an error is detected that doesn't fall in any of the other
+   categories.  The associated value is a string indicating what precisely went
+   wrong.
+
+
+.. exception:: StopIteration
+
+   Raised by built-in function :func:`next` and an :term:`iterator`\'s
+   :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method to signal that there are no further
+   items produced by the iterator.
+
+   The exception object has a single attribute :attr:`value`, which is
+   given as an argument when constructing the exception, and defaults
+   to :const:`None`.
+
+   When a :term:`generator` or :term:`coroutine` function
+   returns, a new :exc:`StopIteration` instance is
+   raised, and the value returned by the function is used as the
+   :attr:`value` parameter to the constructor of the exception.
+
+   If a generator code directly or indirectly raises :exc:`StopIteration`,
+   it is converted into a :exc:`RuntimeError` (retaining the
+   :exc:`StopIteration` as the new exception's cause).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added ``value`` attribute and the ability for generator functions to
+      use it to return a value.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Introduced the RuntimeError transformation via
+      ``from __future__ import generator_stop``, see :pep:`479`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Enable :pep:`479` for all code by default: a :exc:`StopIteration`
+      error raised in a generator is transformed into a :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+.. exception:: StopAsyncIteration
+
+   Must be raised by :meth:`__anext__` method of an
+   :term:`asynchronous iterator` object to stop the iteration.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. exception:: SyntaxError
+
+   Raised when the parser encounters a syntax error.  This may occur in an
+   :keyword:`import` statement, in a call to the built-in functions :func:`exec`
+   or :func:`eval`, or when reading the initial script or standard input
+   (also interactively).
+
+   Instances of this class have attributes :attr:`filename`, :attr:`lineno`,
+   :attr:`offset` and :attr:`text` for easier access to the details.  :func:`str`
+   of the exception instance returns only the message.
+
+
+.. exception:: IndentationError
+
+   Base class for syntax errors related to incorrect indentation.  This is a
+   subclass of :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: TabError
+
+   Raised when indentation contains an inconsistent use of tabs and spaces.
+   This is a subclass of :exc:`IndentationError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: SystemError
+
+   Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the situation does not
+   look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope. The associated value is a
+   string indicating what went wrong (in low-level terms).
+
+   You should report this to the author or maintainer of your Python interpreter.
+   Be sure to report the version of the Python interpreter (``sys.version``; it is
+   also printed at the start of an interactive Python session), the exact error
+   message (the exception's associated value) and if possible the source of the
+   program that triggered the error.
+
+
+.. exception:: SystemExit
+
+   This exception is raised by the :func:`sys.exit` function.  It inherits from
+   :exc:`BaseException` instead of :exc:`Exception` so that it is not accidentally
+   caught by code that catches :exc:`Exception`.  This allows the exception to
+   properly propagate up and cause the interpreter to exit.  When it is not
+   handled, the Python interpreter exits; no stack traceback is printed.  The
+   constructor accepts the same optional argument passed to :func:`sys.exit`.
+   If the value is an integer, it specifies the system exit status (passed to
+   C's :c:func:`exit` function); if it is ``None``, the exit status is zero; if
+   it has another type (such as a string), the object's value is printed and
+   the exit status is one.
+
+   A call to :func:`sys.exit` is translated into an exception so that clean-up
+   handlers (:keyword:`finally` clauses of :keyword:`try` statements) can be
+   executed, and so that a debugger can execute a script without running the risk
+   of losing control.  The :func:`os._exit` function can be used if it is
+   absolutely positively necessary to exit immediately (for example, in the child
+   process after a call to :func:`os.fork`).
+
+   .. attribute:: code
+
+      The exit status or error message that is passed to the constructor.
+      (Defaults to ``None``.)
+
+
+.. exception:: TypeError
+
+   Raised when an operation or function is applied to an object of inappropriate
+   type.  The associated value is a string giving details about the type mismatch.
+
+   This exception may be raised by user code to indicate that an attempted
+   operation on an object is not supported, and is not meant to be. If an object
+   is meant to support a given operation but has not yet provided an
+   implementation, :exc:`NotImplementedError` is the proper exception to raise.
+
+   Passing arguments of the wrong type (e.g. passing a :class:`list` when an
+   :class:`int` is expected) should result in a :exc:`TypeError`, but passing
+   arguments with the wrong value (e.g. a number outside expected boundaries)
+   should result in a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+.. exception:: UnboundLocalError
+
+   Raised when a reference is made to a local variable in a function or method, but
+   no value has been bound to that variable.  This is a subclass of
+   :exc:`NameError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnicodeError
+
+   Raised when a Unicode-related encoding or decoding error occurs.  It is a
+   subclass of :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   :exc:`UnicodeError` has attributes that describe the encoding or decoding
+   error.  For example, ``err.object[err.start:err.end]`` gives the particular
+   invalid input that the codec failed on.
+
+   .. attribute:: encoding
+
+       The name of the encoding that raised the error.
+
+   .. attribute:: reason
+
+       A string describing the specific codec error.
+
+   .. attribute:: object
+
+       The object the codec was attempting to encode or decode.
+
+   .. attribute:: start
+
+       The first index of invalid data in :attr:`object`.
+
+   .. attribute:: end
+
+       The index after the last invalid data in :attr:`object`.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnicodeEncodeError
+
+   Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during encoding.  It is a subclass of
+   :exc:`UnicodeError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnicodeDecodeError
+
+   Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during decoding.  It is a subclass of
+   :exc:`UnicodeError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnicodeTranslateError
+
+   Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during translating.  It is a subclass
+   of :exc:`UnicodeError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: ValueError
+
+   Raised when an operation or function receives an argument that has the
+   right type but an inappropriate value, and the situation is not described by a
+   more precise exception such as :exc:`IndexError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: ZeroDivisionError
+
+   Raised when the second argument of a division or modulo operation is zero.  The
+   associated value is a string indicating the type of the operands and the
+   operation.
+
+
+The following exceptions are kept for compatibility with previous versions;
+starting from Python 3.3, they are aliases of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+.. exception:: EnvironmentError
+
+.. exception:: IOError
+
+.. exception:: WindowsError
+
+   Only available on Windows.
+
+
+OS exceptions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following exceptions are subclasses of :exc:`OSError`, they get raised
+depending on the system error code.
+
+.. exception:: BlockingIOError
+
+   Raised when an operation would block on an object (e.g. socket) set
+   for non-blocking operation.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EAGAIN``, ``EALREADY``,
+   ``EWOULDBLOCK`` and ``EINPROGRESS``.
+
+   In addition to those of :exc:`OSError`, :exc:`BlockingIOError` can have
+   one more attribute:
+
+   .. attribute:: characters_written
+
+      An integer containing the number of characters written to the stream
+      before it blocked.  This attribute is available when using the
+      buffered I/O classes from the :mod:`io` module.
+
+.. exception:: ChildProcessError
+
+   Raised when an operation on a child process failed.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECHILD``.
+
+.. exception:: ConnectionError
+
+   A base class for connection-related issues.
+
+   Subclasses are :exc:`BrokenPipeError`, :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError`,
+   :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError` and :exc:`ConnectionResetError`.
+
+.. exception:: BrokenPipeError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when trying to write on a
+   pipe while the other end has been closed, or trying to write on a socket
+   which has been shutdown for writing.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EPIPE`` and ``ESHUTDOWN``.
+
+.. exception:: ConnectionAbortedError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when a connection attempt
+   is aborted by the peer.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECONNABORTED``.
+
+.. exception:: ConnectionRefusedError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when a connection attempt
+   is refused by the peer.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECONNREFUSED``.
+
+.. exception:: ConnectionResetError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when a connection is
+   reset by the peer.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECONNRESET``.
+
+.. exception:: FileExistsError
+
+   Raised when trying to create a file or directory which already exists.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EEXIST``.
+
+.. exception:: FileNotFoundError
+
+   Raised when a file or directory is requested but doesn't exist.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ENOENT``.
+
+.. exception:: InterruptedError
+
+   Raised when a system call is interrupted by an incoming signal.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` :py:data:`~errno.EINTR`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Python now retries system calls when a syscall is interrupted by a
+      signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see :pep:`475`
+      for the rationale), instead of raising :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+.. exception:: IsADirectoryError
+
+   Raised when a file operation (such as :func:`os.remove`) is requested
+   on a directory.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EISDIR``.
+
+.. exception:: NotADirectoryError
+
+   Raised when a directory operation (such as :func:`os.listdir`) is requested
+   on something which is not a directory.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ENOTDIR``.
+
+.. exception:: PermissionError
+
+   Raised when trying to run an operation without the adequate access
+   rights - for example filesystem permissions.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EACCES`` and ``EPERM``.
+
+.. exception:: ProcessLookupError
+
+   Raised when a given process doesn't exist.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ESRCH``.
+
+.. exception:: TimeoutError
+
+   Raised when a system function timed out at the system level.
+   Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ETIMEDOUT``.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+   All the above :exc:`OSError` subclasses were added.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3151` - Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
+
+
+.. _warning-categories-as-exceptions:
+
+Warnings
+--------
+
+The following exceptions are used as warning categories; see the
+:ref:`warning-categories` documentation for more details.
+
+.. exception:: Warning
+
+   Base class for warning categories.
+
+
+.. exception:: UserWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings generated by user code.
+
+
+.. exception:: DeprecationWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings about deprecated features when those warnings are
+   intended for other Python developers.
+
+
+.. exception:: PendingDeprecationWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings about features which are obsolete and
+   expected to be deprecated in the future, but are not deprecated
+   at the moment.
+
+   This class is rarely used as emitting a warning about a possible
+   upcoming deprecation is unusual, and :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+   is preferred for already active deprecations.
+
+
+.. exception:: SyntaxWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings about dubious syntax.
+
+
+.. exception:: RuntimeWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings about dubious runtime behavior.
+
+
+.. exception:: FutureWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings about deprecated features when those warnings are
+   intended for end users of applications that are written in Python.
+
+
+.. exception:: ImportWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings about probable mistakes in module imports.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnicodeWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings related to Unicode.
+
+
+.. exception:: BytesWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings related to :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.
+
+
+.. exception:: ResourceWarning
+
+   Base class for warnings related to resource usage. Ignored by the default
+   warning filters.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+
+Exception hierarchy
+-------------------
+
+The class hierarchy for built-in exceptions is:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../../Lib/test/exception_hierarchy.txt
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/faulthandler.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/faulthandler.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94ebd87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/faulthandler.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+:mod:`faulthandler` --- Dump the Python traceback
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: faulthandler
+   :synopsis: Dump the Python traceback.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+----------------
+
+This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault,
+after a timeout, or on a user signal. Call :func:`faulthandler.enable` to
+install fault handlers for the :const:`SIGSEGV`, :const:`SIGFPE`,
+:const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS`, and :const:`SIGILL` signals. You can also
+enable them at startup by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONFAULTHANDLER` environment
+variable or by using the :option:`-X` ``faulthandler`` command line option.
+
+The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport or the
+Windows fault handler. The module uses an alternative stack for signal handlers
+if the :c:func:`sigaltstack` function is available. This allows it to dump the
+traceback even on a stack overflow.
+
+The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only use
+signal-safe functions (e.g. it cannot allocate memory on the heap). Because of
+this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to normal Python
+tracebacks:
+
+* Only ASCII is supported. The ``backslashreplace`` error handler is used on
+  encoding.
+* Each string is limited to 500 characters.
+* Only the filename, the function name and the line number are
+  displayed. (no source code)
+* It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads.
+* The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first.
+
+By default, the Python traceback is written to :data:`sys.stderr`. To see
+tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal. A log file can
+alternatively be passed to :func:`faulthandler.enable`.
+
+The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash or when
+Python is deadlocked.
+
+
+Dumping the traceback
+---------------------
+
+.. function:: dump_traceback(file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True)
+
+   Dump the tracebacks of all threads into *file*. If *all_threads* is
+   ``False``, dump only the current thread.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.
+
+
+Fault handler state
+-------------------
+
+.. function:: enable(file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True)
+
+   Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the :const:`SIGSEGV`,
+   :const:`SIGFPE`, :const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS` and :const:`SIGILL`
+   signals to dump the Python traceback. If *all_threads* is ``True``,
+   produce tracebacks for every running thread. Otherwise, dump only the current
+   thread.
+
+   The *file* must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled: see
+   :ref:`issue with file descriptors <faulthandler-fd>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      On Windows, a handler for Windows exception is also installed.
+
+.. function:: disable()
+
+   Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed by
+   :func:`enable`.
+
+.. function:: is_enabled()
+
+   Check if the fault handler is enabled.
+
+
+Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout
+--------------------------------------
+
+.. function:: dump_traceback_later(timeout, repeat=False, file=sys.stderr, exit=False)
+
+   Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of *timeout* seconds, or
+   every *timeout* seconds if *repeat* is ``True``.  If *exit* is ``True``, call
+   :c:func:`_exit` with status=1 after dumping the tracebacks.  (Note
+   :c:func:`_exit` exits the process immediately, which means it doesn't do any
+   cleanup like flushing file buffers.) If the function is called twice, the new
+   call replaces previous parameters and resets the timeout. The timer has a
+   sub-second resolution.
+
+   The *file* must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or
+   :func:`cancel_dump_traceback_later` is called: see :ref:`issue with file
+   descriptors <faulthandler-fd>`.
+
+   This function is implemented using a watchdog thread and therefore is not
+   available if Python is compiled with threads disabled.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.
+
+.. function:: cancel_dump_traceback_later()
+
+   Cancel the last call to :func:`dump_traceback_later`.
+
+
+Dumping the traceback on a user signal
+--------------------------------------
+
+.. function:: register(signum, file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True, chain=False)
+
+   Register a user signal: install a handler for the *signum* signal to dump
+   the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if *all_threads* is
+   ``False``, into *file*. Call the previous handler if chain is ``True``.
+
+   The *file* must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by
+   :func:`unregister`: see :ref:`issue with file descriptors <faulthandler-fd>`.
+
+   Not available on Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.
+
+.. function:: unregister(signum)
+
+   Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the *signum* signal
+   installed by :func:`register`. Return ``True`` if the signal was registered,
+   ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   Not available on Windows.
+
+
+.. _faulthandler-fd:
+
+Issue with file descriptors
+---------------------------
+
+:func:`enable`, :func:`dump_traceback_later` and :func:`register` keep the
+file descriptor of their *file* argument. If the file is closed and its file
+descriptor is reused by a new file, or if :func:`os.dup2` is used to replace
+the file descriptor, the traceback will be written into a different file. Call
+these functions again each time that the file is replaced.
+
+
+Example
+-------
+
+Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the fault
+handler:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python3 -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)"
+    Segmentation fault
+
+    $ python3 -q -X faulthandler
+    >>> import ctypes
+    >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
+    Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault
+
+    Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):
+      File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
+      File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
+    Segmentation fault
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fcntl.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fcntl.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88112f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fcntl.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,170 @@
+:mod:`fcntl` --- The ``fcntl`` and ``ioctl`` system calls
+=========================================================
+
+.. module:: fcntl
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Jaap Vermeulen
+
+.. index::
+   pair: UNIX; file control
+   pair: UNIX; I/O control
+
+----------------
+
+This module performs file control and I/O control on file descriptors. It is an
+interface to the :c:func:`fcntl` and :c:func:`ioctl` Unix routines.  For a
+complete description of these calls, see :manpage:`fcntl(2)` and
+:manpage:`ioctl(2)` Unix manual pages.
+
+All functions in this module take a file descriptor *fd* as their first
+argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
+``sys.stdin.fileno()``, or an :class:`io.IOBase` object, such as ``sys.stdin``
+itself, which provides a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` that returns a genuine file
+descriptor.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Operations in this module used to raise an :exc:`IOError` where they now
+   raise an :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+The module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: fcntl(fd, cmd, arg=0)
+
+   Perform the operation *cmd* on file descriptor *fd* (file objects providing
+   a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method are accepted as well).  The values used
+   for *cmd* are operating system dependent, and are available as constants
+   in the :mod:`fcntl` module, using the same names as used in the relevant C
+   header files. The argument *arg* can either be an integer value, or a
+   :class:`bytes` object. With an integer value, the return value of this
+   function is the integer return value of the C :c:func:`fcntl` call.  When
+   the argument is bytes it represents a binary structure, e.g. created by
+   :func:`struct.pack`. The binary data is copied to a buffer whose address is
+   passed to the C :c:func:`fcntl` call.  The return value after a successful
+   call is the contents of the buffer, converted to a :class:`bytes` object.
+   The length of the returned object will be the same as the length of the
+   *arg* argument. This is limited to 1024 bytes. If the information returned
+   in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes, this is
+   most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data
+   corruption.
+
+   If the :c:func:`fcntl` fails, an :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: ioctl(fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True)
+
+   This function is identical to the :func:`~fcntl.fcntl` function, except
+   that the argument handling is even more complicated.
+
+   The *request* parameter is limited to values that can fit in 32-bits.
+   Additional constants of interest for use as the *request* argument can be
+   found in the :mod:`termios` module, under the same names as used in
+   the relevant C header files.
+
+   The parameter *arg* can be one of an integer, an object supporting the
+   read-only buffer interface (like :class:`bytes`) or an object supporting
+   the read-write buffer interface (like :class:`bytearray`).
+
+   In all but the last case, behaviour is as for the :func:`~fcntl.fcntl`
+   function.
+
+   If a mutable buffer is passed, then the behaviour is determined by the value of
+   the *mutate_flag* parameter.
+
+   If it is false, the buffer's mutability is ignored and behaviour is as for a
+   read-only buffer, except that the 1024 byte limit mentioned above is avoided --
+   so long as the buffer you pass is at least as long as what the operating system
+   wants to put there, things should work.
+
+   If *mutate_flag* is true (the default), then the buffer is (in effect) passed
+   to the underlying :func:`ioctl` system call, the latter's return code is
+   passed back to the calling Python, and the buffer's new contents reflect the
+   action of the :func:`ioctl`.  This is a slight simplification, because if the
+   supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied into a static
+   buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to :func:`ioctl` and copied back
+   into the supplied buffer.
+
+   If the :c:func:`ioctl` fails, an :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+
+   An example::
+
+      >>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
+      >>> os.getpgrp()
+      13341
+      >>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, "  "))[0]
+      13341
+      >>> buf = array.array('h', [0])
+      >>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1)
+      0
+      >>> buf
+      array('h', [13341])
+
+
+.. function:: flock(fd, operation)
+
+   Perform the lock operation *operation* on file descriptor *fd* (file objects providing
+   a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method are accepted as well). See the Unix manual
+   :manpage:`flock(2)` for details.  (On some systems, this function is emulated
+   using :c:func:`fcntl`.)
+
+   If the :c:func:`flock` fails, an :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: lockf(fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0)
+
+   This is essentially a wrapper around the :func:`~fcntl.fcntl` locking calls.
+   *fd* is the file descriptor of the file to lock or unlock, and *cmd*
+   is one of the following values:
+
+   * :const:`LOCK_UN` -- unlock
+   * :const:`LOCK_SH` -- acquire a shared lock
+   * :const:`LOCK_EX` -- acquire an exclusive lock
+
+   When *cmd* is :const:`LOCK_SH` or :const:`LOCK_EX`, it can also be
+   bitwise ORed with :const:`LOCK_NB` to avoid blocking on lock acquisition.
+   If :const:`LOCK_NB` is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an
+   :exc:`OSError` will be raised and the exception will have an *errno*
+   attribute set to :const:`EACCES` or :const:`EAGAIN` (depending on the
+   operating system; for portability, check for both values).  On at least some
+   systems, :const:`LOCK_EX` can only be used if the file descriptor refers to a
+   file opened for writing.
+
+   *len* is the number of bytes to lock, *start* is the byte offset at
+   which the lock starts, relative to *whence*, and *whence* is as with
+   :func:`io.IOBase.seek`, specifically:
+
+   * :const:`0` -- relative to the start of the file (:data:`os.SEEK_SET`)
+   * :const:`1` -- relative to the current buffer position (:data:`os.SEEK_CUR`)
+   * :const:`2` -- relative to the end of the file (:data:`os.SEEK_END`)
+
+   The default for *start* is 0, which means to start at the beginning of the file.
+   The default for *len* is 0 which means to lock to the end of the file.  The
+   default for *whence* is also 0.
+
+Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system)::
+
+   import struct, fcntl, os
+
+   f = open(...)
+   rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY)
+
+   lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
+   rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata)
+
+Note that in the first example the return value variable *rv* will hold an
+integer value; in the second example it will hold a :class:`bytes` object.  The
+structure lay-out for the *lockdata* variable is system dependent --- therefore
+using the :func:`flock` call may be better.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`os`
+      If the locking flags :data:`~os.O_SHLOCK` and :data:`~os.O_EXLOCK` are
+      present in the :mod:`os` module (on BSD only), the :func:`os.open`
+      function provides an alternative to the :func:`lockf` and :func:`flock`
+      functions.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/filecmp.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/filecmp.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31b9b4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/filecmp.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
+:mod:`filecmp` --- File and Directory Comparisons
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: filecmp
+   :synopsis: Compare files efficiently.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/filecmp.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`filecmp` module defines functions to compare files and directories,
+with various optional time/correctness trade-offs. For comparing files,
+see also the :mod:`difflib` module.
+
+The :mod:`filecmp` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: cmp(f1, f2, shallow=True)
+
+   Compare the files named *f1* and *f2*, returning ``True`` if they seem equal,
+   ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   If *shallow* is true, files with identical :func:`os.stat` signatures are
+   taken to be equal.  Otherwise, the contents of the files are compared.
+
+   Note that no external programs are called from this function, giving it
+   portability and efficiency.
+
+   This function uses a cache for past comparisons and the results,
+   with cache entries invalidated if the :func:`os.stat` information for the
+   file changes.  The entire cache may be cleared using :func:`clear_cache`.
+
+
+.. function:: cmpfiles(dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)
+
+   Compare the files in the two directories *dir1* and *dir2* whose names are
+   given by *common*.
+
+   Returns three lists of file names: *match*, *mismatch*,
+   *errors*.  *match* contains the list of files that match, *mismatch* contains
+   the names of those that don't, and *errors* lists the names of files which
+   could not be compared.  Files are listed in *errors* if they don't exist in
+   one of the directories, the user lacks permission to read them or if the
+   comparison could not be done for some other reason.
+
+   The *shallow* parameter has the same meaning and default value as for
+   :func:`filecmp.cmp`.
+
+   For example, ``cmpfiles('a', 'b', ['c', 'd/e'])`` will compare ``a/c`` with
+   ``b/c`` and ``a/d/e`` with ``b/d/e``.  ``'c'`` and ``'d/e'`` will each be in
+   one of the three returned lists.
+
+
+.. function:: clear_cache()
+
+   Clear the filecmp cache. This may be useful if a file is compared so quickly
+   after it is modified that it is within the mtime resolution of
+   the underlying filesystem.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. _dircmp-objects:
+
+The :class:`dircmp` class
+-------------------------
+
+.. class:: dircmp(a, b, ignore=None, hide=None)
+
+   Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the directories *a*
+   and *b*.  *ignore* is a list of names to ignore, and defaults to
+   :attr:`filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES`.  *hide* is a list of names to hide, and
+   defaults to ``[os.curdir, os.pardir]``.
+
+   The :class:`dircmp` class compares files by doing *shallow* comparisons
+   as described for :func:`filecmp.cmp`.
+
+   The :class:`dircmp` class provides the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: report()
+
+      Print (to :data:`sys.stdout`) a comparison between *a* and *b*.
+
+   .. method:: report_partial_closure()
+
+      Print a comparison between *a* and *b* and common immediate
+      subdirectories.
+
+   .. method:: report_full_closure()
+
+      Print a comparison between *a* and *b* and common subdirectories
+      (recursively).
+
+   The :class:`dircmp` class offers a number of interesting attributes that may be
+   used to get various bits of information about the directory trees being
+   compared.
+
+   Note that via :meth:`__getattr__` hooks, all attributes are computed lazily,
+   so there is no speed penalty if only those attributes which are lightweight
+   to compute are used.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: left
+
+      The directory *a*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: right
+
+      The directory *b*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: left_list
+
+      Files and subdirectories in *a*, filtered by *hide* and *ignore*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: right_list
+
+      Files and subdirectories in *b*, filtered by *hide* and *ignore*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: common
+
+      Files and subdirectories in both *a* and *b*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: left_only
+
+      Files and subdirectories only in *a*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: right_only
+
+      Files and subdirectories only in *b*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: common_dirs
+
+      Subdirectories in both *a* and *b*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: common_files
+
+      Files in both *a* and *b*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: common_funny
+
+      Names in both *a* and *b*, such that the type differs between the
+      directories, or names for which :func:`os.stat` reports an error.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: same_files
+
+      Files which are identical in both *a* and *b*, using the class's
+      file comparison operator.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: diff_files
+
+      Files which are in both *a* and *b*, whose contents differ according
+      to the class's file comparison operator.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: funny_files
+
+      Files which are in both *a* and *b*, but could not be compared.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: subdirs
+
+      A dictionary mapping names in :attr:`common_dirs` to :class:`dircmp`
+      objects.
+
+.. attribute:: DEFAULT_IGNORES
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   List of directories ignored by :class:`dircmp` by default.
+
+
+Here is a simplified example of using the ``subdirs`` attribute to search
+recursively through two directories to show common different files::
+
+    >>> from filecmp import dircmp
+    >>> def print_diff_files(dcmp):
+    ...     for name in dcmp.diff_files:
+    ...         print("diff_file %s found in %s and %s" % (name, dcmp.left,
+    ...               dcmp.right))
+    ...     for sub_dcmp in dcmp.subdirs.values():
+    ...         print_diff_files(sub_dcmp)
+    ...
+    >>> dcmp = dircmp('dir1', 'dir2') # doctest: +SKIP
+    >>> print_diff_files(dcmp) # doctest: +SKIP
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fileformats.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fileformats.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9c2e1f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fileformats.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+.. _fileformats:
+
+************
+File Formats
+************
+
+The modules described in this chapter parse various miscellaneous file formats
+that aren't markup languages and are not related to e-mail.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   csv.rst
+   configparser.rst
+   netrc.rst
+   xdrlib.rst
+   plistlib.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fileinput.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fileinput.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf81749
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fileinput.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,208 @@
+:mod:`fileinput` --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
+===================================================================
+
+.. module:: fileinput
+   :synopsis: Loop over standard input or a list of files.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/fileinput.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements a helper class and functions to quickly write a
+loop over standard input or a list of files. If you just want to read or
+write one file see :func:`open`.
+
+The typical use is::
+
+   import fileinput
+   for line in fileinput.input():
+       process(line)
+
+This iterates over the lines of all files listed in ``sys.argv[1:]``, defaulting
+to ``sys.stdin`` if the list is empty.  If a filename is ``'-'``, it is also
+replaced by ``sys.stdin`` and the optional arguments *mode* and *openhook*
+are ignored.  To specify an alternative list of filenames, pass it as the
+first argument to :func:`.input`.  A single file name is also allowed.
+
+All files are opened in text mode by default, but you can override this by
+specifying the *mode* parameter in the call to :func:`.input` or
+:class:`FileInput`.  If an I/O error occurs during opening or reading a file,
+:exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   :exc:`IOError` used to be raised; it is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+If ``sys.stdin`` is used more than once, the second and further use will return
+no lines, except perhaps for interactive use, or if it has been explicitly reset
+(e.g. using ``sys.stdin.seek(0)``).
+
+Empty files are opened and immediately closed; the only time their presence in
+the list of filenames is noticeable at all is when the last file opened is
+empty.
+
+Lines are returned with any newlines intact, which means that the last line in
+a file may not have one.
+
+You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via the
+*openhook* parameter to :func:`fileinput.input` or :class:`FileInput()`. The
+hook must be a function that takes two arguments, *filename* and *mode*, and
+returns an accordingly opened file-like object. Two useful hooks are already
+provided by this module.
+
+The following function is the primary interface of this module:
+
+
+.. function:: input(files=None, inplace=False, backup='', bufsize=0, mode='r', openhook=None)
+
+   Create an instance of the :class:`FileInput` class.  The instance will be used
+   as global state for the functions of this module, and is also returned to use
+   during iteration.  The parameters to this function will be passed along to the
+   constructor of the :class:`FileInput` class.
+
+   The :class:`FileInput` instance can be used as a context manager in the
+   :keyword:`with` statement.  In this example, *input* is closed after the
+   :keyword:`!with` statement is exited, even if an exception occurs::
+
+      with fileinput.input(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as f:
+          for line in f:
+              process(line)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Can be used as a context manager.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.8
+      The *bufsize* parameter.
+
+The following functions use the global state created by :func:`fileinput.input`;
+if there is no active state, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: filename()
+
+   Return the name of the file currently being read.  Before the first line has
+   been read, returns ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: fileno()
+
+   Return the integer "file descriptor" for the current file. When no file is
+   opened (before the first line and between files), returns ``-1``.
+
+
+.. function:: lineno()
+
+   Return the cumulative line number of the line that has just been read.  Before
+   the first line has been read, returns ``0``.  After the last line of the last
+   file has been read, returns the line number of that line.
+
+
+.. function:: filelineno()
+
+   Return the line number in the current file.  Before the first line has been
+   read, returns ``0``.  After the last line of the last file has been read,
+   returns the line number of that line within the file.
+
+
+.. function:: isfirstline()
+
+   Returns true if the line just read is the first line of its file, otherwise
+   returns false.
+
+
+.. function:: isstdin()
+
+   Returns true if the last line was read from ``sys.stdin``, otherwise returns
+   false.
+
+
+.. function:: nextfile()
+
+   Close the current file so that the next iteration will read the first line from
+   the next file (if any); lines not read from the file will not count towards the
+   cumulative line count.  The filename is not changed until after the first line
+   of the next file has been read.  Before the first line has been read, this
+   function has no effect; it cannot be used to skip the first file.  After the
+   last line of the last file has been read, this function has no effect.
+
+
+.. function:: close()
+
+   Close the sequence.
+
+The class which implements the sequence behavior provided by the module is
+available for subclassing as well:
+
+
+.. class:: FileInput(files=None, inplace=False, backup='', bufsize=0, mode='r', openhook=None)
+
+   Class :class:`FileInput` is the implementation; its methods :meth:`filename`,
+   :meth:`fileno`, :meth:`lineno`, :meth:`filelineno`, :meth:`isfirstline`,
+   :meth:`isstdin`, :meth:`nextfile` and :meth:`close` correspond to the
+   functions of the same name in the module. In addition it has a
+   :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.readline` method which returns the next input line,
+   and a :meth:`__getitem__` method which implements the sequence behavior.
+   The sequence must be accessed in strictly sequential order; random access
+   and :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.readline` cannot be mixed.
+
+   With *mode* you can specify which file mode will be passed to :func:`open`. It
+   must be one of ``'r'``, ``'rU'``, ``'U'`` and ``'rb'``.
+
+   The *openhook*, when given, must be a function that takes two arguments,
+   *filename* and *mode*, and returns an accordingly opened file-like object. You
+   cannot use *inplace* and *openhook* together.
+
+   A :class:`FileInput` instance can be used as a context manager in the
+   :keyword:`with` statement.  In this example, *input* is closed after the
+   :keyword:`!with` statement is exited, even if an exception occurs::
+
+      with FileInput(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as input:
+          process(input)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Can be used as a context manager.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      The ``'rU'`` and ``'U'`` modes.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.8
+      The *bufsize* parameter.
+
+
+**Optional in-place filtering:** if the keyword argument ``inplace=True`` is
+passed to :func:`fileinput.input` or to the :class:`FileInput` constructor, the
+file is moved to a backup file and standard output is directed to the input file
+(if a file of the same name as the backup file already exists, it will be
+replaced silently).  This makes it possible to write a filter that rewrites its
+input file in place.  If the *backup* parameter is given (typically as
+``backup='.<some extension>'``), it specifies the extension for the backup file,
+and the backup file remains around; by default, the extension is ``'.bak'`` and
+it is deleted when the output file is closed.  In-place filtering is disabled
+when standard input is read.
+
+
+The two following opening hooks are provided by this module:
+
+.. function:: hook_compressed(filename, mode)
+
+   Transparently opens files compressed with gzip and bzip2 (recognized by the
+   extensions ``'.gz'`` and ``'.bz2'``) using the :mod:`gzip` and :mod:`bz2`
+   modules.  If the filename extension is not ``'.gz'`` or ``'.bz2'``, the file is
+   opened normally (ie, using :func:`open` without any decompression).
+
+   Usage example:  ``fi = fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed)``
+
+
+.. function:: hook_encoded(encoding, errors=None)
+
+   Returns a hook which opens each file with :func:`open`, using the given
+   *encoding* and *errors* to read the file.
+
+   Usage example: ``fi =
+   fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded("utf-8",
+   "surrogateescape"))``
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added the optional *errors* parameter.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/filesys.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/filesys.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03e085b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/filesys.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+.. _filesys:
+
+*************************
+File and Directory Access
+*************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter deal with disk files and directories.  For
+example, there are modules for reading the properties of files, manipulating
+paths in a portable way, and creating temporary files.  The full list of modules
+in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   pathlib.rst
+   os.path.rst
+   fileinput.rst
+   stat.rst
+   filecmp.rst
+   tempfile.rst
+   glob.rst
+   fnmatch.rst
+   linecache.rst
+   shutil.rst
+   macpath.rst
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`os`
+      Operating system interfaces, including functions to work with files at a
+      lower level than Python :term:`file objects <file object>`.
+
+   Module :mod:`io`
+      Python's built-in I/O library, including both abstract classes and
+      some concrete classes such as file I/O.
+
+   Built-in function :func:`open`
+      The standard way to open files for reading and writing with Python.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fnmatch.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fnmatch.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce07d32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fnmatch.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+:mod:`fnmatch` --- Unix filename pattern matching
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: fnmatch
+   :synopsis: Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/fnmatch.py`
+
+.. index:: single: filenames; wildcard expansion
+
+.. index:: module: re
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides support for Unix shell-style wildcards, which are *not* the
+same as regular expressions (which are documented in the :mod:`re` module).  The
+special characters used in shell-style wildcards are:
+
+.. index::
+   single: * (asterisk); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: ? (question mark); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: [] (square brackets); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: ! (exclamation); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: - (minus); in glob-style wildcards
+
++------------+------------------------------------+
+| Pattern    | Meaning                            |
++============+====================================+
+| ``*``      | matches everything                 |
++------------+------------------------------------+
+| ``?``      | matches any single character       |
++------------+------------------------------------+
+| ``[seq]``  | matches any character in *seq*     |
++------------+------------------------------------+
+| ``[!seq]`` | matches any character not in *seq* |
++------------+------------------------------------+
+
+For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.
+For example, ``'[?]'`` matches the character ``'?'``.
+
+.. index:: module: glob
+
+Note that the filename separator (``'/'`` on Unix) is *not* special to this
+module.  See module :mod:`glob` for pathname expansion (:mod:`glob` uses
+:func:`.filter` to match pathname segments).  Similarly, filenames starting with
+a period are not special for this module, and are matched by the ``*`` and ``?``
+patterns.
+
+
+.. function:: fnmatch(filename, pattern)
+
+   Test whether the *filename* string matches the *pattern* string, returning
+   :const:`True` or :const:`False`.  Both parameters are case-normalized
+   using :func:`os.path.normcase`. :func:`fnmatchcase` can be used to perform a
+   case-sensitive comparison, regardless of whether that's standard for the
+   operating system.
+
+   This example will print all file names in the current directory with the
+   extension ``.txt``::
+
+      import fnmatch
+      import os
+
+      for file in os.listdir('.'):
+          if fnmatch.fnmatch(file, '*.txt'):
+              print(file)
+
+
+.. function:: fnmatchcase(filename, pattern)
+
+   Test whether *filename* matches *pattern*, returning :const:`True` or
+   :const:`False`; the comparison is case-sensitive and does not apply
+   :func:`os.path.normcase`.
+
+
+.. function:: filter(names, pattern)
+
+   Return the subset of the list of *names* that match *pattern*. It is the same as
+   ``[n for n in names if fnmatch(n, pattern)]``, but implemented more efficiently.
+
+
+.. function:: translate(pattern)
+
+   Return the shell-style *pattern* converted to a regular expression for
+   using with :func:`re.match`.
+
+   Example:
+
+      >>> import fnmatch, re
+      >>>
+      >>> regex = fnmatch.translate('*.txt')
+      >>> regex
+      '(?s:.*\\.txt)\\Z'
+      >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
+      >>> reobj.match('foobar.txt')
+      <re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match='foobar.txt'>
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`glob`
+      Unix shell-style path expansion.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/formatter.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/formatter.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c10ac6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/formatter.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,351 @@
+:mod:`formatter` --- Generic output formatting
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: formatter
+   :synopsis: Generic output formatter and device interface.
+   :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.4
+   Due to lack of usage, the formatter module has been deprecated.
+
+--------------
+
+This module supports two interface definitions, each with multiple
+implementations: The *formatter* interface, and the *writer* interface which is
+required by the formatter interface.
+
+Formatter objects transform an abstract flow of formatting events into specific
+output events on writer objects.  Formatters manage several stack structures to
+allow various properties of a writer object to be changed and restored; writers
+need not be able to handle relative changes nor any sort of "change back"
+operation.  Specific writer properties which may be controlled via formatter
+objects are horizontal alignment, font, and left margin indentations.  A
+mechanism is provided which supports providing arbitrary, non-exclusive style
+settings to a writer as well.  Additional interfaces facilitate formatting
+events which are not reversible, such as paragraph separation.
+
+Writer objects encapsulate device interfaces.  Abstract devices, such as file
+formats, are supported as well as physical devices.  The provided
+implementations all work with abstract devices.  The interface makes available
+mechanisms for setting the properties which formatter objects manage and
+inserting data into the output.
+
+
+.. _formatter-interface:
+
+The Formatter Interface
+-----------------------
+
+Interfaces to create formatters are dependent on the specific formatter class
+being instantiated.  The interfaces described below are the required interfaces
+which all formatters must support once initialized.
+
+One data element is defined at the module level:
+
+
+.. data:: AS_IS
+
+   Value which can be used in the font specification passed to the ``push_font()``
+   method described below, or as the new value to any other ``push_property()``
+   method.  Pushing the ``AS_IS`` value allows the corresponding ``pop_property()``
+   method to be called without having to track whether the property was changed.
+
+The following attributes are defined for formatter instance objects:
+
+
+.. attribute:: formatter.writer
+
+   The writer instance with which the formatter interacts.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.end_paragraph(blanklines)
+
+   Close any open paragraphs and insert at least *blanklines* before the next
+   paragraph.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.add_line_break()
+
+   Add a hard line break if one does not already exist.  This does not break the
+   logical paragraph.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.add_hor_rule(*args, **kw)
+
+   Insert a horizontal rule in the output.  A hard break is inserted if there is
+   data in the current paragraph, but the logical paragraph is not broken.  The
+   arguments and keywords are passed on to the writer's :meth:`send_line_break`
+   method.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.add_flowing_data(data)
+
+   Provide data which should be formatted with collapsed whitespace. Whitespace
+   from preceding and successive calls to :meth:`add_flowing_data` is considered as
+   well when the whitespace collapse is performed.  The data which is passed to
+   this method is expected to be word-wrapped by the output device.  Note that any
+   word-wrapping still must be performed by the writer object due to the need to
+   rely on device and font information.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.add_literal_data(data)
+
+   Provide data which should be passed to the writer unchanged. Whitespace,
+   including newline and tab characters, are considered legal in the value of
+   *data*.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.add_label_data(format, counter)
+
+   Insert a label which should be placed to the left of the current left margin.
+   This should be used for constructing bulleted or numbered lists.  If the
+   *format* value is a string, it is interpreted as a format specification for
+   *counter*, which should be an integer. The result of this formatting becomes the
+   value of the label; if *format* is not a string it is used as the label value
+   directly. The label value is passed as the only argument to the writer's
+   :meth:`send_label_data` method.  Interpretation of non-string label values is
+   dependent on the associated writer.
+
+   Format specifications are strings which, in combination with a counter value,
+   are used to compute label values.  Each character in the format string is copied
+   to the label value, with some characters recognized to indicate a transform on
+   the counter value.  Specifically, the character ``'1'`` represents the counter
+   value formatter as an Arabic number, the characters ``'A'`` and ``'a'``
+   represent alphabetic representations of the counter value in upper and lower
+   case, respectively, and ``'I'`` and ``'i'`` represent the counter value in Roman
+   numerals, in upper and lower case.  Note that the alphabetic and roman
+   transforms require that the counter value be greater than zero.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.flush_softspace()
+
+   Send any pending whitespace buffered from a previous call to
+   :meth:`add_flowing_data` to the associated writer object.  This should be called
+   before any direct manipulation of the writer object.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.push_alignment(align)
+
+   Push a new alignment setting onto the alignment stack.  This may be
+   :const:`AS_IS` if no change is desired.  If the alignment value is changed from
+   the previous setting, the writer's :meth:`new_alignment` method is called with
+   the *align* value.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.pop_alignment()
+
+   Restore the previous alignment.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.push_font((size, italic, bold, teletype))
+
+   Change some or all font properties of the writer object.  Properties which are
+   not set to :const:`AS_IS` are set to the values passed in while others are
+   maintained at their current settings.  The writer's :meth:`new_font` method is
+   called with the fully resolved font specification.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.pop_font()
+
+   Restore the previous font.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.push_margin(margin)
+
+   Increase the number of left margin indentations by one, associating the logical
+   tag *margin* with the new indentation.  The initial margin level is ``0``.
+   Changed values of the logical tag must be true values; false values other than
+   :const:`AS_IS` are not sufficient to change the margin.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.pop_margin()
+
+   Restore the previous margin.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.push_style(*styles)
+
+   Push any number of arbitrary style specifications.  All styles are pushed onto
+   the styles stack in order.  A tuple representing the entire stack, including
+   :const:`AS_IS` values, is passed to the writer's :meth:`new_styles` method.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.pop_style(n=1)
+
+   Pop the last *n* style specifications passed to :meth:`push_style`.  A tuple
+   representing the revised stack, including :const:`AS_IS` values, is passed to
+   the writer's :meth:`new_styles` method.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.set_spacing(spacing)
+
+   Set the spacing style for the writer.
+
+
+.. method:: formatter.assert_line_data(flag=1)
+
+   Inform the formatter that data has been added to the current paragraph
+   out-of-band.  This should be used when the writer has been manipulated
+   directly.  The optional *flag* argument can be set to false if the writer
+   manipulations produced a hard line break at the end of the output.
+
+
+.. _formatter-impls:
+
+Formatter Implementations
+-------------------------
+
+Two implementations of formatter objects are provided by this module. Most
+applications may use one of these classes without modification or subclassing.
+
+
+.. class:: NullFormatter(writer=None)
+
+   A formatter which does nothing.  If *writer* is omitted, a :class:`NullWriter`
+   instance is created.  No methods of the writer are called by
+   :class:`NullFormatter` instances.  Implementations should inherit from this
+   class if implementing a writer interface but don't need to inherit any
+   implementation.
+
+
+.. class:: AbstractFormatter(writer)
+
+   The standard formatter.  This implementation has demonstrated wide applicability
+   to many writers, and may be used directly in most circumstances.  It has been
+   used to implement a full-featured World Wide Web browser.
+
+
+.. _writer-interface:
+
+The Writer Interface
+--------------------
+
+Interfaces to create writers are dependent on the specific writer class being
+instantiated.  The interfaces described below are the required interfaces which
+all writers must support once initialized. Note that while most applications can
+use the :class:`AbstractFormatter` class as a formatter, the writer must
+typically be provided by the application.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.flush()
+
+   Flush any buffered output or device control events.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.new_alignment(align)
+
+   Set the alignment style.  The *align* value can be any object, but by convention
+   is a string or ``None``, where ``None`` indicates that the writer's "preferred"
+   alignment should be used. Conventional *align* values are ``'left'``,
+   ``'center'``, ``'right'``, and ``'justify'``.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.new_font(font)
+
+   Set the font style.  The value of *font* will be ``None``, indicating that the
+   device's default font should be used, or a tuple of the form ``(size,
+   italic, bold, teletype)``.  Size will be a string indicating the size of
+   font that should be used; specific strings and their interpretation must be
+   defined by the application.  The *italic*, *bold*, and *teletype* values are
+   Boolean values specifying which of those font attributes should be used.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.new_margin(margin, level)
+
+   Set the margin level to the integer *level* and the logical tag to *margin*.
+   Interpretation of the logical tag is at the writer's discretion; the only
+   restriction on the value of the logical tag is that it not be a false value for
+   non-zero values of *level*.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.new_spacing(spacing)
+
+   Set the spacing style to *spacing*.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.new_styles(styles)
+
+   Set additional styles.  The *styles* value is a tuple of arbitrary values; the
+   value :const:`AS_IS` should be ignored.  The *styles* tuple may be interpreted
+   either as a set or as a stack depending on the requirements of the application
+   and writer implementation.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.send_line_break()
+
+   Break the current line.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.send_paragraph(blankline)
+
+   Produce a paragraph separation of at least *blankline* blank lines, or the
+   equivalent.  The *blankline* value will be an integer.  Note that the
+   implementation will receive a call to :meth:`send_line_break` before this call
+   if a line break is needed;  this method should not include ending the last line
+   of the paragraph. It is only responsible for vertical spacing between
+   paragraphs.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.send_hor_rule(*args, **kw)
+
+   Display a horizontal rule on the output device.  The arguments to this method
+   are entirely application- and writer-specific, and should be interpreted with
+   care.  The method implementation may assume that a line break has already been
+   issued via :meth:`send_line_break`.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.send_flowing_data(data)
+
+   Output character data which may be word-wrapped and re-flowed as needed.  Within
+   any sequence of calls to this method, the writer may assume that spans of
+   multiple whitespace characters have been collapsed to single space characters.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.send_literal_data(data)
+
+   Output character data which has already been formatted for display.  Generally,
+   this should be interpreted to mean that line breaks indicated by newline
+   characters should be preserved and no new line breaks should be introduced.  The
+   data may contain embedded newline and tab characters, unlike data provided to
+   the :meth:`send_formatted_data` interface.
+
+
+.. method:: writer.send_label_data(data)
+
+   Set *data* to the left of the current left margin, if possible. The value of
+   *data* is not restricted; treatment of non-string values is entirely
+   application- and writer-dependent.  This method will only be called at the
+   beginning of a line.
+
+
+.. _writer-impls:
+
+Writer Implementations
+----------------------
+
+Three implementations of the writer object interface are provided as examples by
+this module.  Most applications will need to derive new writer classes from the
+:class:`NullWriter` class.
+
+
+.. class:: NullWriter()
+
+   A writer which only provides the interface definition; no actions are taken on
+   any methods.  This should be the base class for all writers which do not need to
+   inherit any implementation methods.
+
+
+.. class:: AbstractWriter()
+
+   A writer which can be used in debugging formatters, but not much else.  Each
+   method simply announces itself by printing its name and arguments on standard
+   output.
+
+
+.. class:: DumbWriter(file=None, maxcol=72)
+
+   Simple writer class which writes output on the :term:`file object` passed
+   in as *file* or, if *file* is omitted, on standard output.  The output is
+   simply word-wrapped to the number of columns specified by *maxcol*.  This
+   class is suitable for reflowing a sequence of paragraphs.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fractions.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fractions.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5a818e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/fractions.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,183 @@
+:mod:`fractions` --- Rational numbers
+=====================================
+
+.. module:: fractions
+   :synopsis: Rational numbers.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Jeffrey Yasskin <jyasskin at gmail.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Jeffrey Yasskin <jyasskin at gmail.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/fractions.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`fractions` module provides support for rational number arithmetic.
+
+
+A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of integers, from
+another rational number, or from a string.
+
+.. class:: Fraction(numerator=0, denominator=1)
+           Fraction(other_fraction)
+           Fraction(float)
+           Fraction(decimal)
+           Fraction(string)
+
+   The first version requires that *numerator* and *denominator* are instances
+   of :class:`numbers.Rational` and returns a new :class:`Fraction` instance
+   with value ``numerator/denominator``. If *denominator* is :const:`0`, it
+   raises a :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`. The second version requires that
+   *other_fraction* is an instance of :class:`numbers.Rational` and returns a
+   :class:`Fraction` instance with the same value.  The next two versions accept
+   either a :class:`float` or a :class:`decimal.Decimal` instance, and return a
+   :class:`Fraction` instance with exactly the same value.  Note that due to the
+   usual issues with binary floating-point (see :ref:`tut-fp-issues`), the
+   argument to ``Fraction(1.1)`` is not exactly equal to 11/10, and so
+   ``Fraction(1.1)`` does *not* return ``Fraction(11, 10)`` as one might expect.
+   (But see the documentation for the :meth:`limit_denominator` method below.)
+   The last version of the constructor expects a string or unicode instance.
+   The usual form for this instance is::
+
+      [sign] numerator ['/' denominator]
+
+   where the optional ``sign`` may be either '+' or '-' and
+   ``numerator`` and ``denominator`` (if present) are strings of
+   decimal digits.  In addition, any string that represents a finite
+   value and is accepted by the :class:`float` constructor is also
+   accepted by the :class:`Fraction` constructor.  In either form the
+   input string may also have leading and/or trailing whitespace.
+   Here are some examples::
+
+      >>> from fractions import Fraction
+      >>> Fraction(16, -10)
+      Fraction(-8, 5)
+      >>> Fraction(123)
+      Fraction(123, 1)
+      >>> Fraction()
+      Fraction(0, 1)
+      >>> Fraction('3/7')
+      Fraction(3, 7)
+      >>> Fraction(' -3/7 ')
+      Fraction(-3, 7)
+      >>> Fraction('1.414213 \t\n')
+      Fraction(1414213, 1000000)
+      >>> Fraction('-.125')
+      Fraction(-1, 8)
+      >>> Fraction('7e-6')
+      Fraction(7, 1000000)
+      >>> Fraction(2.25)
+      Fraction(9, 4)
+      >>> Fraction(1.1)
+      Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
+      >>> from decimal import Decimal
+      >>> Fraction(Decimal('1.1'))
+      Fraction(11, 10)
+
+
+   The :class:`Fraction` class inherits from the abstract base class
+   :class:`numbers.Rational`, and implements all of the methods and
+   operations from that class.  :class:`Fraction` instances are hashable,
+   and should be treated as immutable.  In addition,
+   :class:`Fraction` has the following properties and methods:
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The :class:`Fraction` constructor now accepts :class:`float` and
+      :class:`decimal.Decimal` instances.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: numerator
+
+      Numerator of the Fraction in lowest term.
+
+   .. attribute:: denominator
+
+      Denominator of the Fraction in lowest term.
+
+
+   .. method:: from_float(flt)
+
+      This class method constructs a :class:`Fraction` representing the exact
+      value of *flt*, which must be a :class:`float`. Beware that
+      ``Fraction.from_float(0.3)`` is not the same value as ``Fraction(3, 10)``.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
+         :class:`Fraction` instance directly from a :class:`float`.
+
+
+   .. method:: from_decimal(dec)
+
+      This class method constructs a :class:`Fraction` representing the exact
+      value of *dec*, which must be a :class:`decimal.Decimal` instance.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
+         :class:`Fraction` instance directly from a :class:`decimal.Decimal`
+         instance.
+
+
+   .. method:: limit_denominator(max_denominator=1000000)
+
+      Finds and returns the closest :class:`Fraction` to ``self`` that has
+      denominator at most max_denominator.  This method is useful for finding
+      rational approximations to a given floating-point number:
+
+         >>> from fractions import Fraction
+         >>> Fraction('3.1415926535897932').limit_denominator(1000)
+         Fraction(355, 113)
+
+      or for recovering a rational number that's represented as a float:
+
+         >>> from math import pi, cos
+         >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3))
+         Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)
+         >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3)).limit_denominator()
+         Fraction(1, 2)
+         >>> Fraction(1.1).limit_denominator()
+         Fraction(11, 10)
+
+
+   .. method:: __floor__()
+
+      Returns the greatest :class:`int` ``<= self``.  This method can
+      also be accessed through the :func:`math.floor` function:
+
+        >>> from math import floor
+        >>> floor(Fraction(355, 113))
+        3
+
+
+   .. method:: __ceil__()
+
+      Returns the least :class:`int` ``>= self``.  This method can
+      also be accessed through the :func:`math.ceil` function.
+
+
+   .. method:: __round__()
+               __round__(ndigits)
+
+      The first version returns the nearest :class:`int` to ``self``,
+      rounding half to even. The second version rounds ``self`` to the
+      nearest multiple of ``Fraction(1, 10**ndigits)`` (logically, if
+      ``ndigits`` is negative), again rounding half toward even.  This
+      method can also be accessed through the :func:`round` function.
+
+
+.. function:: gcd(a, b)
+
+   Return the greatest common divisor of the integers *a* and *b*.  If either
+   *a* or *b* is nonzero, then the absolute value of ``gcd(a, b)`` is the
+   largest integer that divides both *a* and *b*.  ``gcd(a,b)`` has the same
+   sign as *b* if *b* is nonzero; otherwise it takes the sign of *a*.  ``gcd(0,
+   0)`` returns ``0``.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.5
+      Use :func:`math.gcd` instead.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`numbers`
+      The abstract base classes making up the numeric tower.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/frameworks.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/frameworks.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15ceeec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/frameworks.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+.. _frameworks:
+
+******************
+Program Frameworks
+******************
+
+The modules described in this chapter are frameworks that will largely dictate
+the structure of your program.  Currently the modules described  here are all
+oriented toward writing command-line interfaces.
+
+The full list of modules described in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   turtle.rst
+   cmd.rst
+   shlex.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ftplib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ftplib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c39f9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ftplib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,442 @@
+:mod:`ftplib` --- FTP protocol client
+=====================================
+
+.. module:: ftplib
+   :synopsis: FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/ftplib.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: FTP; protocol
+   single: FTP; ftplib (standard module)
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines the class :class:`FTP` and a few related items. The
+:class:`FTP` class implements the client side of the FTP protocol.  You can use
+this to write Python programs that perform a variety of automated FTP jobs, such
+as mirroring other FTP servers.  It is also used by the module
+:mod:`urllib.request` to handle URLs that use FTP.  For more information on FTP
+(File Transfer Protocol), see Internet :rfc:`959`.
+
+Here's a sample session using the :mod:`ftplib` module::
+
+   >>> from ftplib import FTP
+   >>> ftp = FTP('ftp.debian.org')     # connect to host, default port
+   >>> ftp.login()                     # user anonymous, passwd anonymous@
+   '230 Login successful.'
+   >>> ftp.cwd('debian')               # change into "debian" directory
+   >>> ftp.retrlines('LIST')           # list directory contents
+   -rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README
+   ...
+   drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool
+   drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project
+   drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools
+   '226 Directory send OK.'
+   >>> ftp.retrbinary('RETR README', open('README', 'wb').write)
+   '226 Transfer complete.'
+   >>> ftp.quit()
+
+
+The module defines the following items:
+
+.. class:: FTP(host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', timeout=None, source_address=None)
+
+   Return a new instance of the :class:`FTP` class.  When *host* is given, the
+   method call ``connect(host)`` is made.  When *user* is given, additionally
+   the method call ``login(user, passwd, acct)`` is made (where *passwd* and
+   *acct* default to the empty string when not given).  The optional *timeout*
+   parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the
+   connection attempt (if is not specified, the global default timeout setting
+   will be used). *source_address* is a 2-tuple ``(host, port)`` for the socket
+   to bind to as its source address before connecting.
+
+   The :class:`FTP` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement, e.g.:
+
+    >>> from ftplib import FTP
+    >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
+    ...     ftp.login()
+    ...     ftp.dir()
+    ... # doctest: +SKIP
+    '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
+    dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
+    dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
+    dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
+    dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
+    >>>
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *source_address* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. class:: FTP_TLS(host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', keyfile=None, certfile=None, context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None)
+
+   A :class:`FTP` subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as described in
+   :rfc:`4217`.
+   Connect as usual to port 21 implicitly securing the FTP control connection
+   before authenticating. Securing the data connection requires the user to
+   explicitly ask for it by calling the :meth:`prot_p` method.  *context*
+   is a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object which allows bundling SSL configuration
+   options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
+   long-lived) structure.  Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for best practices.
+
+   *keyfile* and *certfile* are a legacy alternative to *context* -- they
+   can point to PEM-formatted private key and certificate chain files
+   (respectively) for the SSL connection.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *source_address* parameter was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The class now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+       *keyfile* and *certfile* are deprecated in favor of *context*.
+       Please use :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` instead, or let
+       :func:`ssl.create_default_context` select the system's trusted CA
+       certificates for you.
+
+   Here's a sample session using the :class:`FTP_TLS` class::
+
+      >>> ftps = FTP_TLS('ftp.pureftpd.org')
+      >>> ftps.login()
+      '230 Anonymous user logged in'
+      >>> ftps.prot_p()
+      '200 Data protection level set to "private"'
+      >>> ftps.nlst()
+      ['6jack', 'OpenBSD', 'antilink', 'blogbench', 'bsdcam', 'clockspeed', 'djbdns-jedi', 'docs', 'eaccelerator-jedi', 'favicon.ico', 'francotone', 'fugu', 'ignore', 'libpuzzle', 'metalog', 'minidentd', 'misc', 'mysql-udf-global-user-variables', 'php-jenkins-hash', 'php-skein-hash', 'php-webdav', 'phpaudit', 'phpbench', 'pincaster', 'ping', 'posto', 'pub', 'public', 'public_keys', 'pure-ftpd', 'qscan', 'qtc', 'sharedance', 'skycache', 'sound', 'tmp', 'ucarp']
+
+
+.. exception:: error_reply
+
+   Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the server.
+
+
+.. exception:: error_temp
+
+   Exception raised when an error code signifying a temporary error (response
+   codes in the range 400--499) is received.
+
+
+.. exception:: error_perm
+
+   Exception raised when an error code signifying a permanent error (response
+   codes in the range 500--599) is received.
+
+
+.. exception:: error_proto
+
+   Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does not fit
+   the response specifications of the File Transfer Protocol, i.e. begin with a
+   digit in the range 1--5.
+
+
+.. data:: all_errors
+
+   The set of all exceptions (as a tuple) that methods of :class:`FTP`
+   instances may raise as a result of problems with the FTP connection (as
+   opposed to programming errors made by the caller).  This set includes the
+   four exceptions listed above as well as :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`netrc`
+      Parser for the :file:`.netrc` file format.  The file :file:`.netrc` is
+      typically used by FTP clients to load user authentication information
+      before prompting the user.
+
+
+.. _ftp-objects:
+
+FTP Objects
+-----------
+
+Several methods are available in two flavors: one for handling text files and
+another for binary files.  These are named for the command which is used
+followed by ``lines`` for the text version or ``binary`` for the binary version.
+
+:class:`FTP` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.set_debuglevel(level)
+
+   Set the instance's debugging level.  This controls the amount of debugging
+   output printed.  The default, ``0``, produces no debugging output.  A value of
+   ``1`` produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line
+   per request.  A value of ``2`` or higher produces the maximum amount of
+   debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the control connection.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.connect(host='', port=0, timeout=None, source_address=None)
+
+   Connect to the given host and port.  The default port number is ``21``, as
+   specified by the FTP protocol specification.  It is rarely needed to specify a
+   different port number.  This function should be called only once for each
+   instance; it should not be called at all if a host was given when the instance
+   was created.  All other methods can only be used after a connection has been
+   made.
+   The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the
+   connection attempt. If no *timeout* is passed, the global default timeout
+   setting will be used.
+   *source_address* is a 2-tuple ``(host, port)`` for the socket to bind to as
+   its source address before connecting.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *source_address* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.getwelcome()
+
+   Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the initial
+   connection.  (This message sometimes contains disclaimers or help information
+   that may be relevant to the user.)
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.login(user='anonymous', passwd='', acct='')
+
+   Log in as the given *user*.  The *passwd* and *acct* parameters are optional and
+   default to the empty string.  If no *user* is specified, it defaults to
+   ``'anonymous'``.  If *user* is ``'anonymous'``, the default *passwd* is
+   ``'anonymous@'``.  This function should be called only once for each instance,
+   after a connection has been established; it should not be called at all if a
+   host and user were given when the instance was created.  Most FTP commands are
+   only allowed after the client has logged in.  The *acct* parameter supplies
+   "accounting information"; few systems implement this.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.abort()
+
+   Abort a file transfer that is in progress.  Using this does not always work, but
+   it's worth a try.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.sendcmd(cmd)
+
+   Send a simple command string to the server and return the response string.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.voidcmd(cmd)
+
+   Send a simple command string to the server and handle the response.  Return
+   nothing if a response code corresponding to success (codes in the range
+   200--299) is received.  Raise :exc:`error_reply` otherwise.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.retrbinary(cmd, callback, blocksize=8192, rest=None)
+
+   Retrieve a file in binary transfer mode.  *cmd* should be an appropriate
+   ``RETR`` command: ``'RETR filename'``. The *callback* function is called for
+   each block of data received, with a single bytes argument giving the data
+   block. The optional *blocksize* argument specifies the maximum chunk size to
+   read on the low-level socket object created to do the actual transfer (which
+   will also be the largest size of the data blocks passed to *callback*).  A
+   reasonable default is chosen. *rest* means the same thing as in the
+   :meth:`transfercmd` method.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.retrlines(cmd, callback=None)
+
+   Retrieve a file or directory listing in ASCII transfer mode.  *cmd* should be
+   an appropriate ``RETR`` command (see :meth:`retrbinary`) or a command such as
+   ``LIST`` or ``NLST`` (usually just the string ``'LIST'``).
+   ``LIST`` retrieves a list of files and information about those files.
+   ``NLST`` retrieves a list of file names.
+   The *callback* function is called for each line with a string argument
+   containing the line with the trailing CRLF stripped.  The default *callback*
+   prints the line to ``sys.stdout``.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.set_pasv(val)
+
+   Enable "passive" mode if *val* is true, otherwise disable passive mode.
+   Passive mode is on by default.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.storbinary(cmd, fp, blocksize=8192, callback=None, rest=None)
+
+   Store a file in binary transfer mode.  *cmd* should be an appropriate
+   ``STOR`` command: ``"STOR filename"``. *fp* is a :term:`file object`
+   (opened in binary mode) which is read until EOF using its :meth:`~io.IOBase.read`
+   method in blocks of size *blocksize* to provide the data to be stored.
+   The *blocksize* argument defaults to 8192.  *callback* is an optional single
+   parameter callable that is called on each block of data after it is sent.
+   *rest* means the same thing as in the :meth:`transfercmd` method.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *rest* parameter added.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.storlines(cmd, fp, callback=None)
+
+   Store a file in ASCII transfer mode.  *cmd* should be an appropriate
+   ``STOR`` command (see :meth:`storbinary`).  Lines are read until EOF from the
+   :term:`file object` *fp* (opened in binary mode) using its :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline`
+   method to provide the data to be stored.  *callback* is an optional single
+   parameter callable that is called on each line after it is sent.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.transfercmd(cmd, rest=None)
+
+   Initiate a transfer over the data connection.  If the transfer is active, send an
+   ``EPRT`` or  ``PORT`` command and the transfer command specified by *cmd*, and
+   accept the connection.  If the server is passive, send an ``EPSV`` or ``PASV``
+   command, connect to it, and start the transfer command.  Either way, return the
+   socket for the connection.
+
+   If optional *rest* is given, a ``REST`` command is sent to the server, passing
+   *rest* as an argument.  *rest* is usually a byte offset into the requested file,
+   telling the server to restart sending the file's bytes at the requested offset,
+   skipping over the initial bytes.  Note however that :rfc:`959` requires only that
+   *rest* be a string containing characters in the printable range from ASCII code
+   33 to ASCII code 126.  The :meth:`transfercmd` method, therefore, converts
+   *rest* to a string, but no check is performed on the string's contents.  If the
+   server does not recognize the ``REST`` command, an :exc:`error_reply` exception
+   will be raised.  If this happens, simply call :meth:`transfercmd` without a
+   *rest* argument.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.ntransfercmd(cmd, rest=None)
+
+   Like :meth:`transfercmd`, but returns a tuple of the data connection and the
+   expected size of the data.  If the expected size could not be computed, ``None``
+   will be returned as the expected size.  *cmd* and *rest* means the same thing as
+   in :meth:`transfercmd`.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.mlsd(path="", facts=[])
+
+   List a directory in a standardized format by using ``MLSD`` command
+   (:rfc:`3659`).  If *path* is omitted the current directory is assumed.
+   *facts* is a list of strings representing the type of information desired
+   (e.g. ``["type", "size", "perm"]``).  Return a generator object yielding a
+   tuple of two elements for every file found in path.  First element is the
+   file name, the second one is a dictionary containing facts about the file
+   name.  Content of this dictionary might be limited by the *facts* argument
+   but server is not guaranteed to return all requested facts.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.nlst(argument[, ...])
+
+   Return a list of file names as returned by the ``NLST`` command.  The
+   optional *argument* is a directory to list (default is the current server
+   directory).  Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard options to
+   the ``NLST`` command.
+
+   .. note:: If your server supports the command, :meth:`mlsd` offers a better API.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.dir(argument[, ...])
+
+   Produce a directory listing as returned by the ``LIST`` command, printing it to
+   standard output.  The optional *argument* is a directory to list (default is the
+   current server directory).  Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard
+   options to the ``LIST`` command.  If the last argument is a function, it is used
+   as a *callback* function as for :meth:`retrlines`; the default prints to
+   ``sys.stdout``.  This method returns ``None``.
+
+   .. note:: If your server supports the command, :meth:`mlsd` offers a better API.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.rename(fromname, toname)
+
+   Rename file *fromname* on the server to *toname*.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.delete(filename)
+
+   Remove the file named *filename* from the server.  If successful, returns the
+   text of the response, otherwise raises :exc:`error_perm` on permission errors or
+   :exc:`error_reply` on other errors.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.cwd(pathname)
+
+   Set the current directory on the server.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.mkd(pathname)
+
+   Create a new directory on the server.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.pwd()
+
+   Return the pathname of the current directory on the server.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.rmd(dirname)
+
+   Remove the directory named *dirname* on the server.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.size(filename)
+
+   Request the size of the file named *filename* on the server.  On success, the
+   size of the file is returned as an integer, otherwise ``None`` is returned.
+   Note that the ``SIZE`` command is not  standardized, but is supported by many
+   common server implementations.
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.quit()
+
+   Send a ``QUIT`` command to the server and close the connection. This is the
+   "polite" way to close a connection, but it may raise an exception if the server
+   responds with an error to the ``QUIT`` command.  This implies a call to the
+   :meth:`close` method which renders the :class:`FTP` instance useless for
+   subsequent calls (see below).
+
+
+.. method:: FTP.close()
+
+   Close the connection unilaterally.  This should not be applied to an already
+   closed connection such as after a successful call to :meth:`~FTP.quit`.
+   After this call the :class:`FTP` instance should not be used any more (after
+   a call to :meth:`close` or :meth:`~FTP.quit` you cannot reopen the
+   connection by issuing another :meth:`login` method).
+
+
+FTP_TLS Objects
+---------------
+
+:class:`FTP_TLS` class inherits from :class:`FTP`, defining these additional objects:
+
+.. attribute:: FTP_TLS.ssl_version
+
+   The SSL version to use (defaults to :attr:`ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23`).
+
+.. method:: FTP_TLS.auth()
+
+   Set up a secure control connection by using TLS or SSL, depending on what
+   is specified in the :attr:`ssl_version` attribute.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The method now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+.. method:: FTP_TLS.ccc()
+
+   Revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be useful to take
+   advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT with non-secure FTP
+   without opening fixed ports.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. method:: FTP_TLS.prot_p()
+
+   Set up secure data connection.
+
+.. method:: FTP_TLS.prot_c()
+
+   Set up clear text data connection.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functional.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functional.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b6185a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functional.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+******************************
+Functional Programming Modules
+******************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide functions and classes that support
+a functional programming style, and general operations on callables.
+
+The following modules are documented in this chapter:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   itertools.rst
+   functools.rst
+   operator.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functions.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functions.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1114752
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functions.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1729 @@
+.. XXX document all delegations to __special__ methods
+.. _built-in-funcs:
+
+Built-in Functions
+==================
+
+The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into it that
+are always available.  They are listed here in alphabetical order.
+
+===================  =================  ==================  ==================  ====================
+..                   ..                 Built-in Functions  ..                  ..
+===================  =================  ==================  ==================  ====================
+:func:`abs`          :func:`delattr`    :func:`hash`        |func-memoryview|_  |func-set|_
+:func:`all`          |func-dict|_       :func:`help`        :func:`min`         :func:`setattr`
+:func:`any`          :func:`dir`        :func:`hex`         :func:`next`        :func:`slice`
+:func:`ascii`        :func:`divmod`     :func:`id`          :func:`object`      :func:`sorted`
+:func:`bin`          :func:`enumerate`  :func:`input`       :func:`oct`         :func:`staticmethod`
+:func:`bool`         :func:`eval`       :func:`int`         :func:`open`        |func-str|_
+:func:`breakpoint`   :func:`exec`       :func:`isinstance`  :func:`ord`         :func:`sum`
+|func-bytearray|_    :func:`filter`     :func:`issubclass`  :func:`pow`         :func:`super`
+|func-bytes|_        :func:`float`      :func:`iter`        :func:`print`       |func-tuple|_
+:func:`callable`     :func:`format`     :func:`len`         :func:`property`    :func:`type`
+:func:`chr`          |func-frozenset|_  |func-list|_        |func-range|_       :func:`vars`
+:func:`classmethod`  :func:`getattr`    :func:`locals`      :func:`repr`        :func:`zip`
+:func:`compile`      :func:`globals`    :func:`map`         :func:`reversed`    :func:`__import__`
+:func:`complex`      :func:`hasattr`    :func:`max`         :func:`round`
+===================  =================  ==================  ==================  ====================
+
+.. using :func:`dict` would create a link to another page, so local targets are
+   used, with replacement texts to make the output in the table consistent
+
+.. |func-dict| replace:: ``dict()``
+.. |func-frozenset| replace:: ``frozenset()``
+.. |func-memoryview| replace:: ``memoryview()``
+.. |func-set| replace:: ``set()``
+.. |func-list| replace:: ``list()``
+.. |func-str| replace:: ``str()``
+.. |func-tuple| replace:: ``tuple()``
+.. |func-range| replace:: ``range()``
+.. |func-bytearray| replace:: ``bytearray()``
+.. |func-bytes| replace:: ``bytes()``
+
+.. function:: abs(x)
+
+   Return the absolute value of a number.  The argument may be an
+   integer or a floating point number.  If the argument is a complex number, its
+   magnitude is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: all(iterable)
+
+   Return ``True`` if all elements of the *iterable* are true (or if the iterable
+   is empty).  Equivalent to::
+
+      def all(iterable):
+          for element in iterable:
+              if not element:
+                  return False
+          return True
+
+
+.. function:: any(iterable)
+
+   Return ``True`` if any element of the *iterable* is true.  If the iterable
+   is empty, return ``False``.  Equivalent to::
+
+      def any(iterable):
+          for element in iterable:
+              if element:
+                  return True
+          return False
+
+
+.. function:: ascii(object)
+
+   As :func:`repr`, return a string containing a printable representation of an
+   object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by
+   :func:`repr` using ``\x``, ``\u`` or ``\U`` escapes.  This generates a string
+   similar to that returned by :func:`repr` in Python 2.
+
+
+.. function:: bin(x)
+
+   Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with "0b". The result
+   is a valid Python expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
+   has to define an :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer. Some
+   examples:
+
+      >>> bin(3)
+      '0b11'
+      >>> bin(-10)
+      '-0b1010'
+
+   If prefix "0b" is desired or not, you can use either of the following ways.
+
+      >>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
+      ('0b1110', '1110')
+      >>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
+      ('0b1110', '1110')
+
+   See also :func:`format` for more information.
+
+
+.. class:: bool([x])
+
+   Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of ``True`` or ``False``.  *x* is converted
+   using the standard :ref:`truth testing procedure <truth>`.  If *x* is false
+   or omitted, this returns ``False``; otherwise it returns ``True``.  The
+   :class:`bool` class is a subclass of :class:`int` (see :ref:`typesnumeric`).
+   It cannot be subclassed further.  Its only instances are ``False`` and
+   ``True`` (see :ref:`bltin-boolean-values`).
+
+   .. index:: pair: Boolean; type
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      *x* is now a positional-only parameter.
+
+.. function:: breakpoint(*args, **kws)
+
+   This function drops you into the debugger at the call site.  Specifically,
+   it calls :func:`sys.breakpointhook`, passing ``args`` and ``kws`` straight
+   through.  By default, ``sys.breakpointhook()`` calls
+   :func:`pdb.set_trace()` expecting no arguments.  In this case, it is
+   purely a convenience function so you don't have to explicitly import
+   :mod:`pdb` or type as much code to enter the debugger.  However,
+   :func:`sys.breakpointhook` can be set to some other function and
+   :func:`breakpoint` will automatically call that, allowing you to drop into
+   the debugger of choice.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. _func-bytearray:
+.. class:: bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return a new array of bytes.  The :class:`bytearray` class is a mutable
+   sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  It has most of the usual
+   methods of mutable sequences, described in :ref:`typesseq-mutable`, as well
+   as most methods that the :class:`bytes` type has, see :ref:`bytes-methods`.
+
+   The optional *source* parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
+   different ways:
+
+   * If it is a *string*, you must also give the *encoding* (and optionally,
+     *errors*) parameters; :func:`bytearray` then converts the string to
+     bytes using :meth:`str.encode`.
+
+   * If it is an *integer*, the array will have that size and will be
+     initialized with null bytes.
+
+   * If it is an object conforming to the *buffer* interface, a read-only buffer
+     of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array.
+
+   * If it is an *iterable*, it must be an iterable of integers in the range
+     ``0 <= x < 256``, which are used as the initial contents of the array.
+
+   Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.
+
+   See also :ref:`binaryseq` and :ref:`typebytearray`.
+
+
+.. _func-bytes:
+.. class:: bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return a new "bytes" object, which is an immutable sequence of integers in
+   the range ``0 <= x < 256``.  :class:`bytes` is an immutable version of
+   :class:`bytearray` -- it has the same non-mutating methods and the same
+   indexing and slicing behavior.
+
+   Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for :func:`bytearray`.
+
+   Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see :ref:`strings`.
+
+   See also :ref:`binaryseq`, :ref:`typebytes`, and :ref:`bytes-methods`.
+
+
+.. function:: callable(object)
+
+   Return :const:`True` if the *object* argument appears callable,
+   :const:`False` if not.  If this returns true, it is still possible that a
+   call fails, but if it is false, calling *object* will never succeed.
+   Note that classes are callable (calling a class returns a new instance);
+   instances are callable if their class has a :meth:`__call__` method.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      This function was first removed in Python 3.0 and then brought back
+      in Python 3.2.
+
+
+.. function:: chr(i)
+
+   Return the string representing a character whose Unicode code point is the
+   integer *i*.  For example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string ``'a'``, while
+   ``chr(8364)`` returns the string ``'€'``. This is the inverse of :func:`ord`.
+
+   The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in
+   base 16).  :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if *i* is outside that range.
+
+
+.. decorator:: classmethod
+
+   Transform a method into a class method.
+
+   A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just like an
+   instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this
+   idiom::
+
+      class C:
+          @classmethod
+          def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...): ...
+
+   The ``@classmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see
+   :ref:`function` for details.
+
+   A class method can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
+   as ``C().f()``).  The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
+   method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the
+   implied first argument.
+
+   Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
+   see :func:`staticmethod`.
+
+   For more information on class methods, see :ref:`types`.
+
+
+.. function:: compile(source, filename, mode, flags=0, dont_inherit=False, optimize=-1)
+
+   Compile the *source* into a code or AST object.  Code objects can be executed
+   by :func:`exec` or :func:`eval`.  *source* can either be a normal string, a
+   byte string, or an AST object.  Refer to the :mod:`ast` module documentation
+   for information on how to work with AST objects.
+
+   The *filename* argument should give the file from which the code was read;
+   pass some recognizable value if it wasn't read from a file (``'<string>'`` is
+   commonly used).
+
+   The *mode* argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
+   ``'exec'`` if *source* consists of a sequence of statements, ``'eval'`` if it
+   consists of a single expression, or ``'single'`` if it consists of a single
+   interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
+   evaluate to something other than ``None`` will be printed).
+
+   The optional arguments *flags* and *dont_inherit* control which :ref:`future
+   statements <future>` affect the compilation of *source*.  If neither
+   is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with those future
+   statements that are in effect in the code that is calling :func:`compile`.  If the
+   *flags* argument is given and *dont_inherit* is not (or is zero) then the
+   future statements specified by the *flags* argument are used in addition to
+   those that would be used anyway. If *dont_inherit* is a non-zero integer then
+   the *flags* argument is it -- the future statements in effect around the call
+   to compile are ignored.
+
+   Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to
+   specify multiple statements.  The bitfield required to specify a given feature
+   can be found as the :attr:`~__future__._Feature.compiler_flag` attribute on
+   the :class:`~__future__._Feature` instance in the :mod:`__future__` module.
+
+   The argument *optimize* specifies the optimization level of the compiler; the
+   default value of ``-1`` selects the optimization level of the interpreter as
+   given by :option:`-O` options.  Explicit levels are ``0`` (no optimization;
+   ``__debug__`` is true), ``1`` (asserts are removed, ``__debug__`` is false)
+   or ``2`` (docstrings are removed too).
+
+   This function raises :exc:`SyntaxError` if the compiled source is invalid,
+   and :exc:`ValueError` if the source contains null bytes.
+
+   If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see
+   :func:`ast.parse`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      When compiling a string with multi-line code in ``'single'`` or
+      ``'eval'`` mode, input must be terminated by at least one newline
+      character.  This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and complete
+      statements in the :mod:`code` module.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
+      sufficiently large/complex string when compiling to an AST
+      object due to stack depth limitations in Python's AST compiler.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines.  Also input in ``'exec'`` mode
+      does not have to end in a newline anymore.  Added the *optimize* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Previously, :exc:`TypeError` was raised when null bytes were encountered
+      in *source*.
+
+
+.. class:: complex([real[, imag]])
+
+   Return a complex number with the value *real* + *imag*\*1j or convert a string
+   or number to a complex number.  If the first parameter is a string, it will
+   be interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a
+   second parameter.  The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument
+   may be any numeric type (including complex).  If *imag* is omitted, it
+   defaults to zero and the constructor serves as a numeric conversion like
+   :class:`int` and :class:`float`.  If both arguments are omitted, returns
+   ``0j``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace
+      around the central ``+`` or ``-`` operator.  For example,
+      ``complex('1+2j')`` is fine, but ``complex('1 + 2j')`` raises
+      :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   The complex type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.
+
+
+.. function:: delattr(object, name)
+
+   This is a relative of :func:`setattr`.  The arguments are an object and a
+   string.  The string must be the name of one of the object's attributes.  The
+   function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it.  For
+   example, ``delattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to ``del x.foobar``.
+
+
+.. _func-dict:
+.. class:: dict(**kwarg)
+           dict(mapping, **kwarg)
+           dict(iterable, **kwarg)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Create a new dictionary.  The :class:`dict` object is the dictionary class.
+   See :class:`dict` and :ref:`typesmapping` for documentation about this class.
+
+   For other containers see the built-in :class:`list`, :class:`set`, and
+   :class:`tuple` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections` module.
+
+
+.. function:: dir([object])
+
+   Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope.  With an
+   argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.
+
+   If the object has a method named :meth:`__dir__`, this method will be called and
+   must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
+   :func:`__getattr__` or :func:`__getattribute__` function to customize the way
+   :func:`dir` reports their attributes.
+
+   If the object does not provide :meth:`__dir__`, the function tries its best to
+   gather information from the object's :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute, if defined, and
+   from its type object.  The resulting list is not necessarily complete, and may
+   be inaccurate when the object has a custom :func:`__getattr__`.
+
+   The default :func:`dir` mechanism behaves differently with different types of
+   objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete,
+   information:
+
+   * If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module's
+     attributes.
+
+   * If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
+     attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.
+
+   * Otherwise, the list contains the object's attributes' names, the names of its
+     class's attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class's base
+     classes.
+
+   The resulting list is sorted alphabetically.  For example:
+
+      >>> import struct
+      >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  # doctest: +SKIP
+      ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
+      >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module # doctest: +SKIP
+      ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
+       '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
+       '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
+       'unpack', 'unpack_from']
+      >>> class Shape:
+      ...     def __dir__(self):
+      ...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
+      >>> s = Shape()
+      >>> dir(s)
+      ['area', 'location', 'perimeter']
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Because :func:`dir` is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
+      interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more
+      than it tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names,
+      and its detailed behavior may change across releases.  For example,
+      metaclass attributes are not in the result list when the argument is a
+      class.
+
+
+.. function:: divmod(a, b)
+
+   Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
+   consisting of their quotient and remainder when using integer division.  With
+   mixed operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
+   integers, the result is the same as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating point
+   numbers the result is ``(q, a % b)``, where *q* is usually ``math.floor(a /
+   b)`` but may be 1 less than that.  In any case ``q * b + a % b`` is very
+   close to *a*, if ``a % b`` is non-zero it has the same sign as *b*, and ``0
+   <= abs(a % b) < abs(b)``.
+
+
+.. function:: enumerate(iterable, start=0)
+
+   Return an enumerate object. *iterable* must be a sequence, an
+   :term:`iterator`, or some other object which supports iteration.
+   The :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method of the iterator returned by
+   :func:`enumerate` returns a tuple containing a count (from *start* which
+   defaults to 0) and the values obtained from iterating over *iterable*.
+
+      >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
+      >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
+      [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
+      >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
+      [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]
+
+   Equivalent to::
+
+      def enumerate(sequence, start=0):
+          n = start
+          for elem in sequence:
+              yield n, elem
+              n += 1
+
+
+.. function:: eval(expression, globals=None, locals=None)
+
+   The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals.  If provided,
+   *globals* must be a dictionary.  If provided, *locals* can be any mapping
+   object.
+
+   The *expression* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
+   (technically speaking, a condition list) using the *globals* and *locals*
+   dictionaries as global and local namespace.  If the *globals* dictionary is
+   present and does not contain a value for the key ``__builtins__``, a
+   reference to the dictionary of the built-in module :mod:`builtins` is
+   inserted under that key before *expression* is parsed.
+   This means that *expression* normally has full
+   access to the standard :mod:`builtins` module and restricted environments are
+   propagated.  If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the *globals*
+   dictionary.  If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the
+   environment where :func:`eval` is called.  The return value is the result of
+   the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.  Example:
+
+      >>> x = 1
+      >>> eval('x+1')
+      2
+
+   This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
+   those created by :func:`compile`).  In this case pass a code object instead
+   of a string.  If the code object has been compiled with ``'exec'`` as the
+   *mode* argument, :func:`eval`\'s return value will be ``None``.
+
+   Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the :func:`exec`
+   function.  The :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` functions
+   returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
+   useful to pass around for use by :func:`eval` or :func:`exec`.
+
+   See :func:`ast.literal_eval` for a function that can safely evaluate strings
+   with expressions containing only literals.
+
+.. index:: builtin: exec
+
+.. function:: exec(object[, globals[, locals]])
+
+   This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. *object* must be
+   either a string or a code object.  If it is a string, the string is parsed as
+   a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error
+   occurs). [#]_ If it is a code object, it is simply executed.  In all cases,
+   the code that's executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the
+   section "File input" in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the
+   :keyword:`return` and :keyword:`yield` statements may not be used outside of
+   function definitions even within the context of code passed to the
+   :func:`exec` function. The return value is ``None``.
+
+   In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the
+   current scope.  If only *globals* is provided, it must be a dictionary, which
+   will be used for both the global and the local variables.  If *globals* and
+   *locals* are given, they are used for the global and local variables,
+   respectively.  If provided, *locals* can be any mapping object.  Remember
+   that at module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary. If exec
+   gets two separate objects as *globals* and *locals*, the code will be
+   executed as if it were embedded in a class definition.
+
+   If the *globals* dictionary does not contain a value for the key
+   ``__builtins__``, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module
+   :mod:`builtins` is inserted under that key.  That way you can control what
+   builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own
+   ``__builtins__`` dictionary into *globals* before passing it to :func:`exec`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The built-in functions :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` return the current
+      global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around
+      for use as the second and third argument to :func:`exec`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The default *locals* act as described for function :func:`locals` below:
+      modifications to the default *locals* dictionary should not be attempted.
+      Pass an explicit *locals* dictionary if you need to see effects of the
+      code on *locals* after function :func:`exec` returns.
+
+
+.. function:: filter(function, iterable)
+
+   Construct an iterator from those elements of *iterable* for which *function*
+   returns true.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container which
+   supports iteration, or an iterator.  If *function* is ``None``, the identity
+   function is assumed, that is, all elements of *iterable* that are false are
+   removed.
+
+   Note that ``filter(function, iterable)`` is equivalent to the generator
+   expression ``(item for item in iterable if function(item))`` if function is
+   not ``None`` and ``(item for item in iterable if item)`` if function is
+   ``None``.
+
+   See :func:`itertools.filterfalse` for the complementary function that returns
+   elements of *iterable* for which *function* returns false.
+
+
+.. class:: float([x])
+
+   .. index::
+      single: NaN
+      single: Infinity
+
+   Return a floating point number constructed from a number or string *x*.
+
+   If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally
+   preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in whitespace.  The optional
+   sign may be ``'+'`` or ``'-'``; a ``'+'`` sign has no effect on the value
+   produced.  The argument may also be a string representing a NaN
+   (not-a-number), or a positive or negative infinity.  More precisely, the
+   input must conform to the following grammar after leading and trailing
+   whitespace characters are removed:
+
+   .. productionlist::
+      sign: "+" | "-"
+      infinity: "Infinity" | "inf"
+      nan: "nan"
+      numeric_value: `floatnumber` | `infinity` | `nan`
+      numeric_string: [`sign`] `numeric_value`
+
+   Here ``floatnumber`` is the form of a Python floating-point literal,
+   described in :ref:`floating`.  Case is not significant, so, for example,
+   "inf", "Inf", "INFINITY" and "iNfINity" are all acceptable spellings for
+   positive infinity.
+
+   Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating point number, a
+   floating point number with the same value (within Python's floating point
+   precision) is returned.  If the argument is outside the range of a Python
+   float, an :exc:`OverflowError` will be raised.
+
+   For a general Python object ``x``, ``float(x)`` delegates to
+   ``x.__float__()``.
+
+   If no argument is given, ``0.0`` is returned.
+
+   Examples::
+
+      >>> float('+1.23')
+      1.23
+      >>> float('   -12345\n')
+      -12345.0
+      >>> float('1e-003')
+      0.001
+      >>> float('+1E6')
+      1000000.0
+      >>> float('-Infinity')
+      -inf
+
+   The float type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      *x* is now a positional-only parameter.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: __format__
+   single: string; format() (built-in function)
+
+.. function:: format(value[, format_spec])
+
+   Convert a *value* to a "formatted" representation, as controlled by
+   *format_spec*.  The interpretation of *format_spec* will depend on the type
+   of the *value* argument, however there is a standard formatting syntax that
+   is used by most built-in types: :ref:`formatspec`.
+
+   The default *format_spec* is an empty string which usually gives the same
+   effect as calling :func:`str(value) <str>`.
+
+   A call to ``format(value, format_spec)`` is translated to
+   ``type(value).__format__(value, format_spec)`` which bypasses the instance
+   dictionary when searching for the value's :meth:`__format__` method.  A
+   :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised if the method search reaches
+   :mod:`object` and the *format_spec* is non-empty, or if either the
+   *format_spec* or the return value are not strings.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      ``object().__format__(format_spec)`` raises :exc:`TypeError`
+      if *format_spec* is not an empty string.
+
+
+.. _func-frozenset:
+.. class:: frozenset([iterable])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return a new :class:`frozenset` object, optionally with elements taken from
+   *iterable*.  ``frozenset`` is a built-in class.  See :class:`frozenset` and
+   :ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.
+
+   For other containers see the built-in :class:`set`, :class:`list`,
+   :class:`tuple`, and :class:`dict` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections`
+   module.
+
+
+.. function:: getattr(object, name[, default])
+
+   Return the value of the named attribute of *object*.  *name* must be a string.
+   If the string is the name of one of the object's attributes, the result is the
+   value of that attribute.  For example, ``getattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to
+   ``x.foobar``.  If the named attribute does not exist, *default* is returned if
+   provided, otherwise :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: globals()
+
+   Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table. This is always
+   the dictionary of the current module (inside a function or method, this is the
+   module where it is defined, not the module from which it is called).
+
+
+.. function:: hasattr(object, name)
+
+   The arguments are an object and a string.  The result is ``True`` if the
+   string is the name of one of the object's attributes, ``False`` if not. (This
+   is implemented by calling ``getattr(object, name)`` and seeing whether it
+   raises an :exc:`AttributeError` or not.)
+
+
+.. function:: hash(object)
+
+   Return the hash value of the object (if it has one).  Hash values are
+   integers.  They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a
+   dictionary lookup.  Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash
+   value (even if they are of different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      For objects with custom :meth:`__hash__` methods, note that :func:`hash`
+      truncates the return value based on the bit width of the host machine.
+      See :meth:`__hash__` for details.
+
+.. function:: help([object])
+
+   Invoke the built-in help system.  (This function is intended for interactive
+   use.)  If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the
+   interpreter console.  If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up
+   as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
+   topic, and a help page is printed on the console.  If the argument is any other
+   kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.
+
+   Note that if a slash(/) appears in the parameter list of a function, when
+   invoking :func:`help`, it means that the parameters prior to the slash are
+   positional-only. For more info, see
+   :ref:`the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters <faq-positional-only-arguments>`.
+
+   This function is added to the built-in namespace by the :mod:`site` module.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Changes to :mod:`pydoc` and :mod:`inspect` mean that the reported
+      signatures for callables are now more comprehensive and consistent.
+
+
+.. function:: hex(x)
+
+   Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with
+   "0x". If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
+   :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer. Some examples:
+
+      >>> hex(255)
+      '0xff'
+      >>> hex(-42)
+      '-0x2a'
+
+   If you want to convert an integer number to an uppercase or lower hexadecimal
+   string with prefix or not, you can use either of the following ways:
+
+     >>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
+     ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
+     >>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
+     ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
+     >>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
+     ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
+
+   See also :func:`format` for more information.
+
+   See also :func:`int` for converting a hexadecimal string to an
+   integer using a base of 16.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the
+      :meth:`float.hex` method.
+
+
+.. function:: id(object)
+
+   Return the "identity" of an object.  This is an integer which
+   is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
+   Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same :func:`id`
+   value.
+
+   .. impl-detail:: This is the address of the object in memory.
+
+
+.. function:: input([prompt])
+
+   If the *prompt* argument is present, it is written to standard output without
+   a trailing newline.  The function then reads a line from input, converts it
+   to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that.  When EOF is
+   read, :exc:`EOFError` is raised.  Example::
+
+      >>> s = input('--> ')  # doctest: +SKIP
+      --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
+      >>> s  # doctest: +SKIP
+      "Monty Python's Flying Circus"
+
+   If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`input` will use it
+   to provide elaborate line editing and history features.
+
+
+.. class:: int([x])
+           int(x, base=10)
+
+   Return an integer object constructed from a number or string *x*, or return
+   ``0`` if no arguments are given.  If *x* defines :meth:`__int__`,
+   ``int(x)`` returns ``x.__int__()``.  If *x* defines :meth:`__trunc__`,
+   it returns ``x.__trunc__()``.
+   For floating point numbers, this truncates towards zero.
+
+   If *x* is not a number or if *base* is given, then *x* must be a string,
+   :class:`bytes`, or :class:`bytearray` instance representing an :ref:`integer
+   literal <integers>` in radix *base*.  Optionally, the literal can be
+   preceded by ``+`` or ``-`` (with no space in between) and surrounded by
+   whitespace.  A base-n literal consists of the digits 0 to n-1, with ``a``
+   to ``z`` (or ``A`` to ``Z``) having
+   values 10 to 35.  The default *base* is 10. The allowed values are 0 and 2--36.
+   Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can be optionally prefixed with ``0b``/``0B``,
+   ``0o``/``0O``, or ``0x``/``0X``, as with integer literals in code.  Base 0
+   means to interpret exactly as a code literal, so that the actual base is 2,
+   8, 10, or 16, and so that ``int('010', 0)`` is not legal, while
+   ``int('010')`` is, as well as ``int('010', 8)``.
+
+   The integer type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      If *base* is not an instance of :class:`int` and the *base* object has a
+      :meth:`base.__index__ <object.__index__>` method, that method is called
+      to obtain an integer for the base.  Previous versions used
+      :meth:`base.__int__ <object.__int__>` instead of :meth:`base.__index__
+      <object.__index__>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      *x* is now a positional-only parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: isinstance(object, classinfo)
+
+   Return true if the *object* argument is an instance of the *classinfo*
+   argument, or of a (direct, indirect or :term:`virtual <abstract base
+   class>`) subclass thereof.  If *object* is not
+   an object of the given type, the function always returns false.
+   If *classinfo* is a tuple of type objects (or recursively, other such
+   tuples), return true if *object* is an instance of any of the types.
+   If *classinfo* is not a type or tuple of types and such tuples,
+   a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: issubclass(class, classinfo)
+
+   Return true if *class* is a subclass (direct, indirect or :term:`virtual
+   <abstract base class>`) of *classinfo*.  A
+   class is considered a subclass of itself. *classinfo* may be a tuple of class
+   objects, in which case every entry in *classinfo* will be checked. In any other
+   case, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: iter(object[, sentinel])
+
+   Return an :term:`iterator` object.  The first argument is interpreted very
+   differently depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a
+   second argument, *object* must be a collection object which supports the
+   iteration protocol (the :meth:`__iter__` method), or it must support the
+   sequence protocol (the :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer arguments
+   starting at ``0``).  If it does not support either of those protocols,
+   :exc:`TypeError` is raised. If the second argument, *sentinel*, is given,
+   then *object* must be a callable object.  The iterator created in this case
+   will call *object* with no arguments for each call to its
+   :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method; if the value returned is equal to
+   *sentinel*, :exc:`StopIteration` will be raised, otherwise the value will
+   be returned.
+
+   See also :ref:`typeiter`.
+
+   One useful application of the second form of :func:`iter` is to build a
+   block-reader. For example, reading fixed-width blocks from a binary
+   database file until the end of file is reached::
+
+      from functools import partial
+      with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:
+          for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):
+              process_block(block)
+
+
+.. function:: len(s)
+
+   Return the length (the number of items) of an object.  The argument may be a
+   sequence (such as a string, bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection
+   (such as a dictionary, set, or frozen set).
+
+
+.. _func-list:
+.. class:: list([iterable])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Rather than being a function, :class:`list` is actually a mutable
+   sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-list` and :ref:`typesseq`.
+
+
+.. function:: locals()
+
+   Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
+   Free variables are returned by :func:`locals` when it is called in function
+   blocks, but not in class blocks. Note that at the module level, :func:`locals`
+   and :func:`globals` are the same dictionary.
+
+   .. note::
+      The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not
+      affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.
+
+.. function:: map(function, iterable, ...)
+
+   Return an iterator that applies *function* to every item of *iterable*,
+   yielding the results.  If additional *iterable* arguments are passed,
+   *function* must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all
+   iterables in parallel.  With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the
+   shortest iterable is exhausted.  For cases where the function inputs are
+   already arranged into argument tuples, see :func:`itertools.starmap`\.
+
+
+.. function:: max(iterable, *[, key, default])
+              max(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])
+
+   Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more
+   arguments.
+
+   If one positional argument is provided, it should be an :term:`iterable`.
+   The largest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more positional
+   arguments are provided, the largest of the positional arguments is
+   returned.
+
+   There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The *key* argument specifies
+   a one-argument ordering function like that used for :meth:`list.sort`. The
+   *default* argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is
+   empty. If the iterable is empty and *default* is not provided, a
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   If multiple items are maximal, the function returns the first one
+   encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools
+   such as ``sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0]`` and
+   ``heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      The *default* keyword-only argument.
+
+
+.. _func-memoryview:
+.. function:: memoryview(obj)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return a "memory view" object created from the given argument.  See
+   :ref:`typememoryview` for more information.
+
+
+.. function:: min(iterable, *[, key, default])
+              min(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])
+
+   Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more
+   arguments.
+
+   If one positional argument is provided, it should be an :term:`iterable`.
+   The smallest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more positional
+   arguments are provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is
+   returned.
+
+   There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The *key* argument specifies
+   a one-argument ordering function like that used for :meth:`list.sort`. The
+   *default* argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is
+   empty. If the iterable is empty and *default* is not provided, a
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   If multiple items are minimal, the function returns the first one
+   encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools
+   such as ``sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]`` and ``heapq.nsmallest(1,
+   iterable, key=keyfunc)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      The *default* keyword-only argument.
+
+
+.. function:: next(iterator[, default])
+
+   Retrieve the next item from the *iterator* by calling its
+   :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method.  If *default* is given, it is returned
+   if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise :exc:`StopIteration` is raised.
+
+
+.. class:: object()
+
+   Return a new featureless object.  :class:`object` is a base for all classes.
+   It has the methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  This
+   function does not accept any arguments.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :class:`object` does *not* have a :attr:`~object.__dict__`, so you can't
+      assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of the :class:`object` class.
+
+
+.. function:: oct(x)
+
+  Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with "0o".  The result
+  is a valid Python expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
+  has to define an :meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer. For
+  example:
+
+      >>> oct(8)
+      '0o10'
+      >>> oct(-56)
+      '-0o70'
+
+  If you want to convert an integer number to octal string either with prefix
+  "0o" or not, you can use either of the following ways.
+
+      >>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
+      ('0o12', '12')
+      >>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
+      ('0o12', '12')
+      >>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
+      ('0o12', '12')
+
+  See also :func:`format` for more information.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: file object; open() built-in function
+
+.. function:: open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)
+
+   Open *file* and return a corresponding :term:`file object`.  If the file
+   cannot be opened, an :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+   *file* is a :term:`path-like object` giving the pathname (absolute or
+   relative to the current working directory) of the file to be opened or an
+   integer file descriptor of the file to be wrapped.  (If a file descriptor is
+   given, it is closed when the returned I/O object is closed, unless *closefd*
+   is set to ``False``.)
+
+   *mode* is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is
+   opened.  It defaults to ``'r'`` which means open for reading in text mode.
+   Other common values are ``'w'`` for writing (truncating the file if it
+   already exists), ``'x'`` for exclusive creation and ``'a'`` for appending
+   (which on *some* Unix systems, means that *all* writes append to the end of
+   the file regardless of the current seek position).  In text mode, if
+   *encoding* is not specified the encoding used is platform dependent:
+   ``locale.getpreferredencoding(False)`` is called to get the current locale
+   encoding. (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave
+   *encoding* unspecified.)  The available modes are:
+
+   .. _filemodes:
+
+   .. index::
+      pair: file; modes
+
+   ========= ===============================================================
+   Character Meaning
+   ========= ===============================================================
+   ``'r'``   open for reading (default)
+   ``'w'``   open for writing, truncating the file first
+   ``'x'``   open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists
+   ``'a'``   open for writing, appending to the end of the file if it exists
+   ``'b'``   binary mode
+   ``'t'``   text mode (default)
+   ``'+'``   open a disk file for updating (reading and writing)
+   ========= ===============================================================
+
+   The default mode is ``'r'`` (open for reading text, synonym of ``'rt'``).
+   For binary read-write access, the mode ``'w+b'`` opens and truncates the file
+   to 0 bytes.  ``'r+b'`` opens the file without truncation.
+
+   As mentioned in the :ref:`io-overview`, Python distinguishes between binary
+   and text I/O.  Files opened in binary mode (including ``'b'`` in the *mode*
+   argument) return contents as :class:`bytes` objects without any decoding.  In
+   text mode (the default, or when ``'t'`` is included in the *mode* argument),
+   the contents of the file are returned as :class:`str`, the bytes having been
+   first decoded using a platform-dependent encoding or using the specified
+   *encoding* if given.
+
+   There is an additional mode character permitted, ``'U'``, which no longer
+   has any effect, and is considered deprecated. It previously enabled
+   :term:`universal newlines` in text mode, which became the default behaviour
+   in Python 3.0. Refer to the documentation of the
+   :ref:`newline <open-newline-parameter>` parameter for further details.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Python doesn't depend on the underlying operating system's notion of text
+      files; all the processing is done by Python itself, and is therefore
+      platform-independent.
+
+   *buffering* is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy.  Pass 0
+   to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary mode), 1 to select line
+   buffering (only usable in text mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size
+   in bytes of a fixed-size chunk buffer.  When no *buffering* argument is
+   given, the default buffering policy works as follows:
+
+   * Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the buffer is
+     chosen using a heuristic trying to determine the underlying device's "block
+     size" and falling back on :attr:`io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.  On many systems,
+     the buffer will typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.
+
+   * "Interactive" text files (files for which :meth:`~io.IOBase.isatty`
+     returns ``True``) use line buffering.  Other text files use the policy
+     described above for binary files.
+
+   *encoding* is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the file.
+   This should only be used in text mode.  The default encoding is platform
+   dependent (whatever :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding` returns), but any
+   :term:`text encoding` supported by Python
+   can be used.  See the :mod:`codecs` module for
+   the list of supported encodings.
+
+   *errors* is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding
+   errors are to be handled—this cannot be used in binary mode.
+   A variety of standard error handlers are available
+   (listed under :ref:`error-handlers`), though any
+   error handling name that has been registered with
+   :func:`codecs.register_error` is also valid.  The standard names
+   include:
+
+   * ``'strict'`` to raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception if there is
+     an encoding error.  The default value of ``None`` has the same
+     effect.
+
+   * ``'ignore'`` ignores errors.  Note that ignoring encoding errors
+     can lead to data loss.
+
+   * ``'replace'`` causes a replacement marker (such as ``'?'``) to be inserted
+     where there is malformed data.
+
+   * ``'surrogateescape'`` will represent any incorrect bytes as code
+     points in the Unicode Private Use Area ranging from U+DC80 to
+     U+DCFF.  These private code points will then be turned back into
+     the same bytes when the ``surrogateescape`` error handler is used
+     when writing data.  This is useful for processing files in an
+     unknown encoding.
+
+   * ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` is only supported when writing to a file.
+     Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced with the
+     appropriate XML character reference ``&#nnn;``.
+
+   * ``'backslashreplace'`` replaces malformed data by Python's backslashed
+     escape sequences.
+
+   * ``'namereplace'`` (also only supported when writing)
+     replaces unsupported characters with ``\N{...}`` escape sequences.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: universal newlines; open() built-in function
+
+   .. _open-newline-parameter:
+
+   *newline* controls how :term:`universal newlines` mode works (it only
+   applies to text mode).  It can be ``None``, ``''``, ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, and
+   ``'\r\n'``.  It works as follows:
+
+   * When reading input from the stream, if *newline* is ``None``, universal
+     newlines mode is enabled.  Lines in the input can end in ``'\n'``,
+     ``'\r'``, or ``'\r\n'``, and these are translated into ``'\n'`` before
+     being returned to the caller.  If it is ``''``, universal newlines mode is
+     enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.  If it
+     has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated by the
+     given string, and the line ending is returned to the caller untranslated.
+
+   * When writing output to the stream, if *newline* is ``None``, any ``'\n'``
+     characters written are translated to the system default line separator,
+     :data:`os.linesep`.  If *newline* is ``''`` or ``'\n'``, no translation
+     takes place.  If *newline* is any of the other legal values, any ``'\n'``
+     characters written are translated to the given string.
+
+   If *closefd* is ``False`` and a file descriptor rather than a filename was
+   given, the underlying file descriptor will be kept open when the file is
+   closed.  If a filename is given *closefd* must be ``True`` (the default)
+   otherwise an error will be raised.
+
+   A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as *opener*. The underlying
+   file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with
+   (*file*, *flags*). *opener* must return an open file descriptor (passing
+   :mod:`os.open` as *opener* results in functionality similar to passing
+   ``None``).
+
+   The newly created file is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   The following example uses the :ref:`dir_fd <dir_fd>` parameter of the
+   :func:`os.open` function to open a file relative to a given directory::
+
+      >>> import os
+      >>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
+      >>> def opener(path, flags):
+      ...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
+      ...
+      >>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
+      ...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
+      ...
+      >>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor
+
+   The type of :term:`file object` returned by the :func:`open` function
+   depends on the mode.  When :func:`open` is used to open a file in a text
+   mode (``'w'``, ``'r'``, ``'wt'``, ``'rt'``, etc.), it returns a subclass of
+   :class:`io.TextIOBase` (specifically :class:`io.TextIOWrapper`).  When used
+   to open a file in a binary mode with buffering, the returned class is a
+   subclass of :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`.  The exact class varies: in read
+   binary mode, it returns an :class:`io.BufferedReader`; in write binary and
+   append binary modes, it returns an :class:`io.BufferedWriter`, and in
+   read/write mode, it returns an :class:`io.BufferedRandom`.  When buffering is
+   disabled, the raw stream, a subclass of :class:`io.RawIOBase`,
+   :class:`io.FileIO`, is returned.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: line-buffered I/O
+      single: unbuffered I/O
+      single: buffer size, I/O
+      single: I/O control; buffering
+      single: binary mode
+      single: text mode
+      module: sys
+
+   See also the file handling modules, such as, :mod:`fileinput`, :mod:`io`
+   (where :func:`open` is declared), :mod:`os`, :mod:`os.path`, :mod:`tempfile`,
+   and :mod:`shutil`.
+
+   .. versionchanged::
+      3.3
+
+         * The *opener* parameter was added.
+         * The ``'x'`` mode was added.
+         * :exc:`IOError` used to be raised, it is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+         * :exc:`FileExistsError` is now raised if the file opened in exclusive
+           creation mode (``'x'``) already exists.
+
+   .. versionchanged::
+      3.4
+
+         * The file is now non-inheritable.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 4.0
+
+      The ``'U'`` mode.
+
+   .. versionchanged::
+      3.5
+
+         * If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+           exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+           :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+         * The ``'namereplace'`` error handler was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged::
+      3.6
+
+         * Support added to accept objects implementing :class:`os.PathLike`.
+         * On Windows, opening a console buffer may return a subclass of
+           :class:`io.RawIOBase` other than :class:`io.FileIO`.
+
+.. function:: ord(c)
+
+   Given a string representing one Unicode character, return an integer
+   representing the Unicode code point of that character.  For example,
+   ``ord('a')`` returns the integer ``97`` and ``ord('€')`` (Euro sign)
+   returns ``8364``.  This is the inverse of :func:`chr`.
+
+
+.. function:: pow(x, y[, z])
+
+   Return *x* to the power *y*; if *z* is present, return *x* to the power *y*,
+   modulo *z* (computed more efficiently than ``pow(x, y) % z``). The two-argument
+   form ``pow(x, y)`` is equivalent to using the power operator: ``x**y``.
+
+   The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types, the
+   coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For :class:`int`
+   operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion)
+   unless the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
+   converted to float and a float result is delivered.  For example, ``10**2``
+   returns ``100``, but ``10**-2`` returns ``0.01``.  If the second argument is
+   negative, the third argument must be omitted.  If *z* is present, *x* and *y*
+   must be of integer types, and *y* must be non-negative.
+
+
+.. function:: print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)
+
+   Print *objects* to the text stream *file*, separated by *sep* and followed
+   by *end*.  *sep*, *end*, *file* and *flush*, if present, must be given as keyword
+   arguments.
+
+   All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like :func:`str` does and
+   written to the stream, separated by *sep* and followed by *end*.  Both *sep*
+   and *end* must be strings; they can also be ``None``, which means to use the
+   default values.  If no *objects* are given, :func:`print` will just write
+   *end*.
+
+   The *file* argument must be an object with a ``write(string)`` method; if it
+   is not present or ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` will be used.  Since printed
+   arguments are converted to text strings, :func:`print` cannot be used with
+   binary mode file objects.  For these, use ``file.write(...)`` instead.
+
+   Whether output is buffered is usually determined by *file*, but if the
+   *flush* keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *flush* keyword argument.
+
+
+.. class:: property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)
+
+   Return a property attribute.
+
+   *fget* is a function for getting an attribute value.  *fset* is a function
+   for setting an attribute value. *fdel* is a function for deleting an attribute
+   value.  And *doc* creates a docstring for the attribute.
+
+   A typical use is to define a managed attribute ``x``::
+
+      class C:
+          def __init__(self):
+              self._x = None
+
+          def getx(self):
+              return self._x
+
+          def setx(self, value):
+              self._x = value
+
+          def delx(self):
+              del self._x
+
+          x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")
+
+   If *c* is an instance of *C*, ``c.x`` will invoke the getter,
+   ``c.x = value`` will invoke the setter and ``del c.x`` the deleter.
+
+   If given, *doc* will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
+   property will copy *fget*'s docstring (if it exists).  This makes it possible to
+   create read-only properties easily using :func:`property` as a :term:`decorator`::
+
+      class Parrot:
+          def __init__(self):
+              self._voltage = 100000
+
+          @property
+          def voltage(self):
+              """Get the current voltage."""
+              return self._voltage
+
+   The ``@property`` decorator turns the :meth:`voltage` method into a "getter"
+   for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets the docstring for
+   *voltage* to "Get the current voltage."
+
+   A property object has :attr:`~property.getter`, :attr:`~property.setter`,
+   and :attr:`~property.deleter` methods usable as decorators that create a
+   copy of the property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
+   decorated function.  This is best explained with an example::
+
+      class C:
+          def __init__(self):
+              self._x = None
+
+          @property
+          def x(self):
+              """I'm the 'x' property."""
+              return self._x
+
+          @x.setter
+          def x(self, value):
+              self._x = value
+
+          @x.deleter
+          def x(self):
+              del self._x
+
+   This code is exactly equivalent to the first example.  Be sure to give the
+   additional functions the same name as the original property (``x`` in this
+   case.)
+
+   The returned property object also has the attributes ``fget``, ``fset``, and
+   ``fdel`` corresponding to the constructor arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The docstrings of property objects are now writeable.
+
+
+.. _func-range:
+.. function:: range(stop)
+              range(start, stop[, step])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Rather than being a function, :class:`range` is actually an immutable
+   sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-range` and :ref:`typesseq`.
+
+
+.. function:: repr(object)
+
+   Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.  For many
+   types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
+   object with the same value when passed to :func:`eval`, otherwise the
+   representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
+   of the type of the object together with additional information often
+   including the name and address of the object.  A class can control what this
+   function returns for its instances by defining a :meth:`__repr__` method.
+
+
+.. function:: reversed(seq)
+
+   Return a reverse :term:`iterator`.  *seq* must be an object which has
+   a :meth:`__reversed__` method or supports the sequence protocol (the
+   :meth:`__len__` method and the :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer
+   arguments starting at ``0``).
+
+
+.. function:: round(number[, ndigits])
+
+   Return *number* rounded to *ndigits* precision after the decimal
+   point.  If *ndigits* is omitted or is ``None``, it returns the
+   nearest integer to its input.
+
+   For the built-in types supporting :func:`round`, values are rounded to the
+   closest multiple of 10 to the power minus *ndigits*; if two multiples are
+   equally close, rounding is done toward the even choice (so, for example,
+   both ``round(0.5)`` and ``round(-0.5)`` are ``0``, and ``round(1.5)`` is
+   ``2``).  Any integer value is valid for *ndigits* (positive, zero, or
+   negative).  The return value is an integer if *ndigits* is omitted or
+   ``None``.
+   Otherwise the return value has the same type as *number*.
+
+   For a general Python object ``number``, ``round`` delegates to
+   ``number.__round__``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The behavior of :func:`round` for floats can be surprising: for example,
+      ``round(2.675, 2)`` gives ``2.67`` instead of the expected ``2.68``.
+      This is not a bug: it's a result of the fact that most decimal fractions
+      can't be represented exactly as a float.  See :ref:`tut-fp-issues` for
+      more information.
+
+
+.. _func-set:
+.. class:: set([iterable])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return a new :class:`set` object, optionally with elements taken from
+   *iterable*.  ``set`` is a built-in class.  See :class:`set` and
+   :ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.
+
+   For other containers see the built-in :class:`frozenset`, :class:`list`,
+   :class:`tuple`, and :class:`dict` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections`
+   module.
+
+
+.. function:: setattr(object, name, value)
+
+   This is the counterpart of :func:`getattr`.  The arguments are an object, a
+   string and an arbitrary value.  The string may name an existing attribute or a
+   new attribute.  The function assigns the value to the attribute, provided the
+   object allows it.  For example, ``setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)`` is equivalent to
+   ``x.foobar = 123``.
+
+
+.. class:: slice(stop)
+           slice(start, stop[, step])
+
+   .. index:: single: Numerical Python
+
+   Return a :term:`slice` object representing the set of indices specified by
+   ``range(start, stop, step)``.  The *start* and *step* arguments default to
+   ``None``.  Slice objects have read-only data attributes :attr:`~slice.start`,
+   :attr:`~slice.stop` and :attr:`~slice.step` which merely return the argument
+   values (or their default).  They have no other explicit functionality;
+   however they are used by Numerical Python and other third party extensions.
+   Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is used.  For
+   example: ``a[start:stop:step]`` or ``a[start:stop, i]``.  See
+   :func:`itertools.islice` for an alternate version that returns an iterator.
+
+
+.. function:: sorted(iterable, *, key=None, reverse=False)
+
+   Return a new sorted list from the items in *iterable*.
+
+   Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword arguments.
+
+   *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison
+   key from each element in *iterable* (for example, ``key=str.lower``).  The
+   default value is ``None`` (compare the elements directly).
+
+   *reverse* is a boolean value.  If set to ``True``, then the list elements are
+   sorted as if each comparison were reversed.
+
+   Use :func:`functools.cmp_to_key` to convert an old-style *cmp* function to a
+   *key* function.
+
+   The built-in :func:`sorted` function is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is
+   stable if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that
+   compare equal --- this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for
+   example, sort by department, then by salary grade).
+
+   For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see :ref:`sortinghowto`.
+
+.. decorator:: staticmethod
+
+   Transform a method into a static method.
+
+   A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
+   method, use this idiom::
+
+      class C:
+          @staticmethod
+          def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...
+
+   The ``@staticmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see
+   :ref:`function` for details.
+
+   A static method can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
+   as ``C().f()``).
+
+   Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. Also see
+   :func:`classmethod` for a variant that is useful for creating alternate class
+   constructors.
+
+   Like all decorators, it is also possible to call ``staticmethod`` as
+   a regular function and do something with its result.  This is needed
+   in some cases where you need a reference to a function from a class
+   body and you want to avoid the automatic transformation to instance
+   method.  For these cases, use this idiom::
+
+      class C:
+          builtin_open = staticmethod(open)
+
+   For more information on static methods, see :ref:`types`.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: string; str() (built-in function)
+
+.. _func-str:
+.. class:: str(object='')
+           str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return a :class:`str` version of *object*.  See :func:`str` for details.
+
+   ``str`` is the built-in string :term:`class`.  For general information
+   about strings, see :ref:`textseq`.
+
+
+.. function:: sum(iterable[, start])
+
+   Sums *start* and the items of an *iterable* from left to right and returns the
+   total.  *start* defaults to ``0``. The *iterable*'s items are normally numbers,
+   and the start value is not allowed to be a string.
+
+   For some use cases, there are good alternatives to :func:`sum`.
+   The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by calling
+   ``''.join(sequence)``.  To add floating point values with extended precision,
+   see :func:`math.fsum`\.  To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using
+   :func:`itertools.chain`.
+
+.. function:: super([type[, object-or-type]])
+
+   Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
+   class of *type*.  This is useful for accessing inherited methods that have
+   been overridden in a class. The search order is same as that used by
+   :func:`getattr` except that the *type* itself is skipped.
+
+   The :attr:`~class.__mro__` attribute of the *type* lists the method
+   resolution search order used by both :func:`getattr` and :func:`super`.  The
+   attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
+   updated.
+
+   If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound.  If
+   the second argument is an object, ``isinstance(obj, type)`` must be true.  If
+   the second argument is a type, ``issubclass(type2, type)`` must be true (this
+   is useful for classmethods).
+
+   There are two typical use cases for *super*.  In a class hierarchy with
+   single inheritance, *super* can be used to refer to parent classes without
+   naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable.  This use
+   closely parallels the use of *super* in other programming languages.
+
+   The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance in a
+   dynamic execution environment.  This use case is unique to Python and is
+   not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only support
+   single inheritance.  This makes it possible to implement "diamond diagrams"
+   where multiple base classes implement the same method.  Good design dictates
+   that this method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
+   order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
+   to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can include
+   sibling classes that are unknown prior to runtime).
+
+   For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this::
+
+      class C(B):
+          def method(self, arg):
+              super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
+                                     # super(C, self).method(arg)
+
+   Note that :func:`super` is implemented as part of the binding process for
+   explicit dotted attribute lookups such as ``super().__getitem__(name)``.
+   It does so by implementing its own :meth:`__getattribute__` method for searching
+   classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
+   Accordingly, :func:`super` is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
+   operators such as ``super()[name]``.
+
+   Also note that, aside from the zero argument form, :func:`super` is not
+   limited to use inside methods.  The two argument form specifies the
+   arguments exactly and makes the appropriate references.  The zero
+   argument form only works inside a class definition, as the compiler fills
+   in the necessary details to correctly retrieve the class being defined,
+   as well as accessing the current instance for ordinary methods.
+
+   For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using
+   :func:`super`, see `guide to using super()
+   <https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/>`_.
+
+
+.. _func-tuple:
+.. function:: tuple([iterable])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Rather than being a function, :class:`tuple` is actually an immutable
+   sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-tuple` and :ref:`typesseq`.
+
+
+.. class:: type(object)
+           type(name, bases, dict)
+
+   .. index:: object: type
+
+   With one argument, return the type of an *object*.  The return value is a
+   type object and generally the same object as returned by
+   :attr:`object.__class__ <instance.__class__>`.
+
+   The :func:`isinstance` built-in function is recommended for testing the type
+   of an object, because it takes subclasses into account.
+
+
+   With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is essentially a
+   dynamic form of the :keyword:`class` statement. The *name* string is the
+   class name and becomes the :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute; the *bases*
+   tuple itemizes the base classes and becomes the :attr:`~class.__bases__`
+   attribute; and the *dict* dictionary is the namespace containing definitions
+   for class body and is copied to a standard dictionary to become the
+   :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.  For example, the following two
+   statements create identical :class:`type` objects:
+
+      >>> class X:
+      ...     a = 1
+      ...
+      >>> X = type('X', (object,), dict(a=1))
+
+   See also :ref:`bltin-type-objects`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Subclasses of :class:`type` which don't override ``type.__new__`` may no
+      longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object.
+
+.. function:: vars([object])
+
+   Return the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute for a module, class, instance,
+   or any other object with a :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.
+
+   Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable :attr:`~object.__dict__`
+   attribute; however, other objects may have write restrictions on their
+   :attr:`~object.__dict__` attributes (for example, classes use a
+   :class:`types.MappingProxyType` to prevent direct dictionary updates).
+
+   Without an argument, :func:`vars` acts like :func:`locals`.  Note, the
+   locals dictionary is only useful for reads since updates to the locals
+   dictionary are ignored.
+
+
+.. function:: zip(*iterables)
+
+   Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables.
+
+   Returns an iterator of tuples, where the *i*-th tuple contains
+   the *i*-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables.  The
+   iterator stops when the shortest input iterable is exhausted. With a single
+   iterable argument, it returns an iterator of 1-tuples.  With no arguments,
+   it returns an empty iterator.  Equivalent to::
+
+        def zip(*iterables):
+            # zip('ABCD', 'xy') --> Ax By
+            sentinel = object()
+            iterators = [iter(it) for it in iterables]
+            while iterators:
+                result = []
+                for it in iterators:
+                    elem = next(it, sentinel)
+                    if elem is sentinel:
+                        return
+                    result.append(elem)
+                yield tuple(result)
+
+   The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This
+   makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups
+   using ``zip(*[iter(s)]*n)``.  This repeats the *same* iterator ``n`` times
+   so that each output tuple has the result of ``n`` calls to the iterator.
+   This has the effect of dividing the input into n-length chunks.
+
+   :func:`zip` should only be used with unequal length inputs when you don't
+   care about trailing, unmatched values from the longer iterables.  If those
+   values are important, use :func:`itertools.zip_longest` instead.
+
+   :func:`zip` in conjunction with the ``*`` operator can be used to unzip a
+   list::
+
+      >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
+      >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
+      >>> zipped = zip(x, y)
+      >>> list(zipped)
+      [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
+      >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
+      >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
+      True
+
+
+.. function:: __import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0)
+
+   .. index::
+      statement: import
+      module: imp
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
+      programming, unlike :func:`importlib.import_module`.
+
+   This function is invoked by the :keyword:`import` statement.  It can be
+   replaced (by importing the :mod:`builtins` module and assigning to
+   ``builtins.__import__``) in order to change semantics of the
+   :keyword:`!import` statement, but doing so is **strongly** discouraged as it
+   is usually simpler to use import hooks (see :pep:`302`) to attain the same
+   goals and does not cause issues with code which assumes the default import
+   implementation is in use.  Direct use of :func:`__import__` is also
+   discouraged in favor of :func:`importlib.import_module`.
+
+   The function imports the module *name*, potentially using the given *globals*
+   and *locals* to determine how to interpret the name in a package context.
+   The *fromlist* gives the names of objects or submodules that should be
+   imported from the module given by *name*.  The standard implementation does
+   not use its *locals* argument at all, and uses its *globals* only to
+   determine the package context of the :keyword:`import` statement.
+
+   *level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. ``0`` (the
+   default) means only perform absolute imports.  Positive values for
+   *level* indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the
+   directory of the module calling :func:`__import__` (see :pep:`328` for the
+   details).
+
+   When the *name* variable is of the form ``package.module``, normally, the
+   top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, *not* the
+   module named by *name*.  However, when a non-empty *fromlist* argument is
+   given, the module named by *name* is returned.
+
+   For example, the statement ``import spam`` results in bytecode resembling the
+   following code::
+
+      spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)
+
+   The statement ``import spam.ham`` results in this call::
+
+      spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)
+
+   Note how :func:`__import__` returns the toplevel module here because this is
+   the object that is bound to a name by the :keyword:`import` statement.
+
+   On the other hand, the statement ``from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as
+   saus`` results in ::
+
+      _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
+      eggs = _temp.eggs
+      saus = _temp.sausage
+
+   Here, the ``spam.ham`` module is returned from :func:`__import__`.  From this
+   object, the names to import are retrieved and assigned to their respective
+   names.
+
+   If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name,
+   use :func:`importlib.import_module`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Negative values for *level* are no longer supported (which also changes
+      the default value to 0).
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Note that the parser only accepts the Unix-style end of line convention.
+   If you are reading the code from a file, make sure to use newline conversion
+   mode to convert Windows or Mac-style newlines.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functools.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functools.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d19373b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/functools.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,505 @@
+:mod:`functools` --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
+==============================================================================
+
+.. module:: functools
+   :synopsis: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Peter Harris <scav@blueyonder.co.uk>
+.. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Nick Coghlan <ncoghlan@gmail.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Łukasz Langa <lukasz@langa.pl>
+.. sectionauthor:: Peter Harris <scav@blueyonder.co.uk>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/functools.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`functools` module is for higher-order functions: functions that act on
+or return other functions. In general, any callable object can be treated as a
+function for the purposes of this module.
+
+The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
+
+.. function:: cmp_to_key(func)
+
+   Transform an old-style comparison function to a :term:`key function`.  Used
+   with tools that accept key functions (such as :func:`sorted`, :func:`min`,
+   :func:`max`, :func:`heapq.nlargest`, :func:`heapq.nsmallest`,
+   :func:`itertools.groupby`).  This function is primarily used as a transition
+   tool for programs being converted from Python 2 which supported the use of
+   comparison functions.
+
+   A comparison function is any callable that accept two arguments, compares them,
+   and returns a negative number for less-than, zero for equality, or a positive
+   number for greater-than.  A key function is a callable that accepts one
+   argument and returns another value to be used as the sort key.
+
+   Example::
+
+       sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order
+
+   For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see :ref:`sortinghowto`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. decorator:: lru_cache(maxsize=128, typed=False)
+
+   Decorator to wrap a function with a memoizing callable that saves up to the
+   *maxsize* most recent calls.  It can save time when an expensive or I/O bound
+   function is periodically called with the same arguments.
+
+   Since a dictionary is used to cache results, the positional and keyword
+   arguments to the function must be hashable.
+
+   Distinct argument patterns may be considered to be distinct calls with
+   separate cache entries.  For example, `f(a=1, b=2)` and `f(b=2, a=1)`
+   differ in their keyword argument order and may have two separate cache
+   entries.
+
+   If *maxsize* is set to ``None``, the LRU feature is disabled and the cache can
+   grow without bound.  The LRU feature performs best when *maxsize* is a
+   power-of-two.
+
+   If *typed* is set to true, function arguments of different types will be
+   cached separately.  For example, ``f(3)`` and ``f(3.0)`` will be treated
+   as distinct calls with distinct results.
+
+   To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the *maxsize*
+   parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a :func:`cache_info`
+   function that returns a :term:`named tuple` showing *hits*, *misses*,
+   *maxsize* and *currsize*.  In a multi-threaded environment, the hits
+   and misses are approximate.
+
+   The decorator also provides a :func:`cache_clear` function for clearing or
+   invalidating the cache.
+
+   The original underlying function is accessible through the
+   :attr:`__wrapped__` attribute.  This is useful for introspection, for
+   bypassing the cache, or for rewrapping the function with a different cache.
+
+   An `LRU (least recently used) cache
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_algorithms#Examples>`_ works
+   best when the most recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for
+   example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change each day).
+   The cache's size limit assures that the cache does not grow without bound on
+   long-running processes such as web servers.
+
+   In general, the LRU cache should only be used when you want to reuse
+   previously computed values.  Accordingly, it doesn't make sense to cache
+   functions with side-effects, functions that need to create distinct mutable
+   objects on each call, or impure functions such as time() or random().
+
+   Example of an LRU cache for static web content::
+
+        @lru_cache(maxsize=32)
+        def get_pep(num):
+            'Retrieve text of a Python Enhancement Proposal'
+            resource = 'http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-%04d/' % num
+            try:
+                with urllib.request.urlopen(resource) as s:
+                    return s.read()
+            except urllib.error.HTTPError:
+                return 'Not Found'
+
+        >>> for n in 8, 290, 308, 320, 8, 218, 320, 279, 289, 320, 9991:
+        ...     pep = get_pep(n)
+        ...     print(n, len(pep))
+
+        >>> get_pep.cache_info()
+        CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)
+
+   Example of efficiently computing
+   `Fibonacci numbers <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number>`_
+   using a cache to implement a
+   `dynamic programming <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming>`_
+   technique::
+
+        @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
+        def fib(n):
+            if n < 2:
+                return n
+            return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)
+
+        >>> [fib(n) for n in range(16)]
+        [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610]
+
+        >>> fib.cache_info()
+        CacheInfo(hits=28, misses=16, maxsize=None, currsize=16)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *typed* option.
+
+.. decorator:: total_ordering
+
+   Given a class defining one or more rich comparison ordering methods, this
+   class decorator supplies the rest.  This simplifies the effort involved
+   in specifying all of the possible rich comparison operations:
+
+   The class must define one of :meth:`__lt__`, :meth:`__le__`,
+   :meth:`__gt__`, or :meth:`__ge__`.
+   In addition, the class should supply an :meth:`__eq__` method.
+
+   For example::
+
+       @total_ordering
+       class Student:
+           def _is_valid_operand(self, other):
+               return (hasattr(other, "lastname") and
+                       hasattr(other, "firstname"))
+           def __eq__(self, other):
+               if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
+                   return NotImplemented
+               return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
+                       (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
+           def __lt__(self, other):
+               if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
+                   return NotImplemented
+               return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
+                       (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
+
+   .. note::
+
+      While this decorator makes it easy to create well behaved totally
+      ordered types, it *does* come at the cost of slower execution and
+      more complex stack traces for the derived comparison methods. If
+      performance benchmarking indicates this is a bottleneck for a given
+      application, implementing all six rich comparison methods instead is
+      likely to provide an easy speed boost.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Returning NotImplemented from the underlying comparison function for
+      unrecognised types is now supported.
+
+.. function:: partial(func, *args, **keywords)
+
+   Return a new :ref:`partial object<partial-objects>` which when called
+   will behave like *func* called with the positional arguments *args*
+   and keyword arguments *keywords*. If more arguments are supplied to the
+   call, they are appended to *args*. If additional keyword arguments are
+   supplied, they extend and override *keywords*.
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def partial(func, *args, **keywords):
+          def newfunc(*fargs, **fkeywords):
+              newkeywords = keywords.copy()
+              newkeywords.update(fkeywords)
+              return func(*args, *fargs, **newkeywords)
+          newfunc.func = func
+          newfunc.args = args
+          newfunc.keywords = keywords
+          return newfunc
+
+   The :func:`partial` is used for partial function application which "freezes"
+   some portion of a function's arguments and/or keywords resulting in a new object
+   with a simplified signature.  For example, :func:`partial` can be used to create
+   a callable that behaves like the :func:`int` function where the *base* argument
+   defaults to two:
+
+      >>> from functools import partial
+      >>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
+      >>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
+      >>> basetwo('10010')
+      18
+
+
+.. class:: partialmethod(func, *args, **keywords)
+
+   Return a new :class:`partialmethod` descriptor which behaves
+   like :class:`partial` except that it is designed to be used as a method
+   definition rather than being directly callable.
+
+   *func* must be a :term:`descriptor` or a callable (objects which are both,
+   like normal functions, are handled as descriptors).
+
+   When *func* is a descriptor (such as a normal Python function,
+   :func:`classmethod`, :func:`staticmethod`, :func:`abstractmethod` or
+   another instance of :class:`partialmethod`), calls to ``__get__`` are
+   delegated to the underlying descriptor, and an appropriate
+   :ref:`partial object<partial-objects>` returned as the result.
+
+   When *func* is a non-descriptor callable, an appropriate bound method is
+   created dynamically. This behaves like a normal Python function when
+   used as a method: the *self* argument will be inserted as the first
+   positional argument, even before the *args* and *keywords* supplied to
+   the :class:`partialmethod` constructor.
+
+   Example::
+
+      >>> class Cell(object):
+      ...     def __init__(self):
+      ...         self._alive = False
+      ...     @property
+      ...     def alive(self):
+      ...         return self._alive
+      ...     def set_state(self, state):
+      ...         self._alive = bool(state)
+      ...     set_alive = partialmethod(set_state, True)
+      ...     set_dead = partialmethod(set_state, False)
+      ...
+      >>> c = Cell()
+      >>> c.alive
+      False
+      >>> c.set_alive()
+      >>> c.alive
+      True
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: reduce(function, iterable[, initializer])
+
+   Apply *function* of two arguments cumulatively to the items of *sequence*, from
+   left to right, so as to reduce the sequence to a single value.  For example,
+   ``reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])`` calculates ``((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)``.
+   The left argument, *x*, is the accumulated value and the right argument, *y*, is
+   the update value from the *sequence*.  If the optional *initializer* is present,
+   it is placed before the items of the sequence in the calculation, and serves as
+   a default when the sequence is empty.  If *initializer* is not given and
+   *sequence* contains only one item, the first item is returned.
+
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def reduce(function, iterable, initializer=None):
+          it = iter(iterable)
+          if initializer is None:
+              value = next(it)
+          else:
+              value = initializer
+          for element in it:
+              value = function(value, element)
+          return value
+
+
+.. decorator:: singledispatch
+
+   Transform a function into a :term:`single-dispatch <single
+   dispatch>` :term:`generic function`.
+
+   To define a generic function, decorate it with the ``@singledispatch``
+   decorator. Note that the dispatch happens on the type of the first argument,
+   create your function accordingly::
+
+     >>> from functools import singledispatch
+     >>> @singledispatch
+     ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
+     ...     if verbose:
+     ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
+     ...     print(arg)
+
+   To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the :func:`register`
+   attribute of the generic function.  It is a decorator.  For functions
+   annotated with types, the decorator will infer the type of the first
+   argument automatically::
+
+     >>> @fun.register
+     ... def _(arg: int, verbose=False):
+     ...     if verbose:
+     ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
+     ...     print(arg)
+     ...
+     >>> @fun.register
+     ... def _(arg: list, verbose=False):
+     ...     if verbose:
+     ...         print("Enumerate this:")
+     ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
+     ...         print(i, elem)
+
+   For code which doesn't use type annotations, the appropriate type
+   argument can be passed explicitly to the decorator itself::
+
+     >>> @fun.register(complex)
+     ... def _(arg, verbose=False):
+     ...     if verbose:
+     ...         print("Better than complicated.", end=" ")
+     ...     print(arg.real, arg.imag)
+     ...
+
+
+   To enable registering lambdas and pre-existing functions, the
+   :func:`register` attribute can be used in a functional form::
+
+     >>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
+     ...     print("Nothing.")
+     ...
+     >>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)
+
+   The :func:`register` attribute returns the undecorated function which
+   enables decorator stacking, pickling, as well as creating unit tests for
+   each variant independently::
+
+     >>> @fun.register(float)
+     ... @fun.register(Decimal)
+     ... def fun_num(arg, verbose=False):
+     ...     if verbose:
+     ...         print("Half of your number:", end=" ")
+     ...     print(arg / 2)
+     ...
+     >>> fun_num is fun
+     False
+
+   When called, the generic function dispatches on the type of the first
+   argument::
+
+     >>> fun("Hello, world.")
+     Hello, world.
+     >>> fun("test.", verbose=True)
+     Let me just say, test.
+     >>> fun(42, verbose=True)
+     Strength in numbers, eh? 42
+     >>> fun(['spam', 'spam', 'eggs', 'spam'], verbose=True)
+     Enumerate this:
+     0 spam
+     1 spam
+     2 eggs
+     3 spam
+     >>> fun(None)
+     Nothing.
+     >>> fun(1.23)
+     0.615
+
+   Where there is no registered implementation for a specific type, its
+   method resolution order is used to find a more generic implementation.
+   The original function decorated with ``@singledispatch`` is registered
+   for the base ``object`` type, which means it is used if no better
+   implementation is found.
+
+   To check which implementation will the generic function choose for
+   a given type, use the ``dispatch()`` attribute::
+
+     >>> fun.dispatch(float)
+     <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
+     >>> fun.dispatch(dict)    # note: default implementation
+     <function fun at 0x103fe0000>
+
+   To access all registered implementations, use the read-only ``registry``
+   attribute::
+
+    >>> fun.registry.keys()
+    dict_keys([<class 'NoneType'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'object'>,
+              <class 'decimal.Decimal'>, <class 'list'>,
+              <class 'float'>])
+    >>> fun.registry[float]
+    <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
+    >>> fun.registry[object]
+    <function fun at 0x103fe0000>
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The :func:`register` attribute supports using type annotations.
+
+
+.. function:: update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)
+
+   Update a *wrapper* function to look like the *wrapped* function. The optional
+   arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of the original function are
+   assigned directly to the matching attributes on the wrapper function and which
+   attributes of the wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes
+   from the original function. The default values for these arguments are the
+   module level constants ``WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS`` (which assigns to the wrapper
+   function's ``__module__``, ``__name__``, ``__qualname__``, ``__annotations__``
+   and ``__doc__``, the documentation string) and ``WRAPPER_UPDATES`` (which
+   updates the wrapper function's ``__dict__``, i.e. the instance dictionary).
+
+   To allow access to the original function for introspection and other purposes
+   (e.g. bypassing a caching decorator such as :func:`lru_cache`), this function
+   automatically adds a ``__wrapped__`` attribute to the wrapper that refers to
+   the function being wrapped.
+
+   The main intended use for this function is in :term:`decorator` functions which
+   wrap the decorated function and return the wrapper. If the wrapper function is
+   not updated, the metadata of the returned function will reflect the wrapper
+   definition rather than the original function definition, which is typically less
+   than helpful.
+
+   :func:`update_wrapper` may be used with callables other than functions. Any
+   attributes named in *assigned* or *updated* that are missing from the object
+   being wrapped are ignored (i.e. this function will not attempt to set them
+   on the wrapper function). :exc:`AttributeError` is still raised if the
+   wrapper function itself is missing any attributes named in *updated*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      Automatic addition of the ``__wrapped__`` attribute.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      Copying of the ``__annotations__`` attribute by default.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Missing attributes no longer trigger an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The ``__wrapped__`` attribute now always refers to the wrapped
+      function, even if that function defined a ``__wrapped__`` attribute.
+      (see :issue:`17482`)
+
+
+.. decorator:: wraps(wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)
+
+   This is a convenience function for invoking :func:`update_wrapper` as a
+   function decorator when defining a wrapper function.  It is equivalent to
+   ``partial(update_wrapper, wrapped=wrapped, assigned=assigned, updated=updated)``.
+   For example::
+
+      >>> from functools import wraps
+      >>> def my_decorator(f):
+      ...     @wraps(f)
+      ...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
+      ...         print('Calling decorated function')
+      ...         return f(*args, **kwds)
+      ...     return wrapper
+      ...
+      >>> @my_decorator
+      ... def example():
+      ...     """Docstring"""
+      ...     print('Called example function')
+      ...
+      >>> example()
+      Calling decorated function
+      Called example function
+      >>> example.__name__
+      'example'
+      >>> example.__doc__
+      'Docstring'
+
+   Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example function
+   would have been ``'wrapper'``, and the docstring of the original :func:`example`
+   would have been lost.
+
+
+.. _partial-objects:
+
+:class:`partial` Objects
+------------------------
+
+:class:`partial` objects are callable objects created by :func:`partial`. They
+have three read-only attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: partial.func
+
+   A callable object or function.  Calls to the :class:`partial` object will be
+   forwarded to :attr:`func` with new arguments and keywords.
+
+
+.. attribute:: partial.args
+
+   The leftmost positional arguments that will be prepended to the positional
+   arguments provided to a :class:`partial` object call.
+
+
+.. attribute:: partial.keywords
+
+   The keyword arguments that will be supplied when the :class:`partial` object is
+   called.
+
+:class:`partial` objects are like :class:`function` objects in that they are
+callable, weak referencable, and can have attributes.  There are some important
+differences.  For instance, the :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`__doc__` attributes
+are not created automatically.  Also, :class:`partial` objects defined in
+classes behave like static methods and do not transform into bound methods
+during instance attribute look-up.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..153d8fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,297 @@
+:mod:`gc` --- Garbage Collector interface
+=========================================
+
+.. module:: gc
+   :synopsis: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Neil Schemenauer <nas@arctrix.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Neil Schemenauer <nas@arctrix.com>
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides an interface to the optional garbage collector.  It
+provides the ability to disable the collector, tune the collection frequency,
+and set debugging options.  It also provides access to unreachable objects that
+the collector found but cannot free.  Since the collector supplements the
+reference counting already used in Python, you can disable the collector if you
+are sure your program does not create reference cycles.  Automatic collection
+can be disabled by calling ``gc.disable()``.  To debug a leaking program call
+``gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)``. Notice that this includes
+``gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL``, causing garbage-collected objects to be saved in
+gc.garbage for inspection.
+
+The :mod:`gc` module provides the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: enable()
+
+   Enable automatic garbage collection.
+
+
+.. function:: disable()
+
+   Disable automatic garbage collection.
+
+
+.. function:: isenabled()
+
+   Returns true if automatic collection is enabled.
+
+
+.. function:: collect(generation=2)
+
+   With no arguments, run a full collection.  The optional argument *generation*
+   may be an integer specifying which generation to collect (from 0 to 2).  A
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the generation number  is invalid. The number of
+   unreachable objects found is returned.
+
+   The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are cleared
+   whenever a full collection or collection of the highest generation (2)
+   is run.  Not all items in some free lists may be freed due to the
+   particular implementation, in particular :class:`float`.
+
+
+.. function:: set_debug(flags)
+
+   Set the garbage collection debugging flags. Debugging information will be
+   written to ``sys.stderr``.  See below for a list of debugging flags which can be
+   combined using bit operations to control debugging.
+
+
+.. function:: get_debug()
+
+   Return the debugging flags currently set.
+
+
+.. function:: get_objects()
+
+   Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding the list
+   returned.
+
+
+.. function:: get_stats()
+
+   Return a list of three per-generation dictionaries containing collection
+   statistics since interpreter start.  The number of keys may change
+   in the future, but currently each dictionary will contain the following
+   items:
+
+   * ``collections`` is the number of times this generation was collected;
+
+   * ``collected`` is the total number of objects collected inside this
+     generation;
+
+   * ``uncollectable`` is the total number of objects which were found
+     to be uncollectable (and were therefore moved to the :data:`garbage`
+     list) inside this generation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: set_threshold(threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]])
+
+   Set the garbage collection thresholds (the collection frequency). Setting
+   *threshold0* to zero disables collection.
+
+   The GC classifies objects into three generations depending on how many
+   collection sweeps they have survived.  New objects are placed in the youngest
+   generation (generation ``0``).  If an object survives a collection it is moved
+   into the next older generation.  Since generation ``2`` is the oldest
+   generation, objects in that generation remain there after a collection.  In
+   order to decide when to run, the collector keeps track of the number object
+   allocations and deallocations since the last collection.  When the number of
+   allocations minus the number of deallocations exceeds *threshold0*, collection
+   starts.  Initially only generation ``0`` is examined.  If generation ``0`` has
+   been examined more than *threshold1* times since generation ``1`` has been
+   examined, then generation ``1`` is examined as well.  Similarly, *threshold2*
+   controls the number of collections of generation ``1`` before collecting
+   generation ``2``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_count()
+
+   Return the current collection  counts as a tuple of ``(count0, count1,
+   count2)``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_threshold()
+
+   Return the current collection thresholds as a tuple of ``(threshold0,
+   threshold1, threshold2)``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_referrers(*objs)
+
+   Return the list of objects that directly refer to any of objs. This function
+   will only locate those containers which support garbage collection; extension
+   types which do refer to other objects but do not support garbage collection will
+   not be found.
+
+   Note that objects which have already been dereferenced, but which live in cycles
+   and have not yet been collected by the garbage collector can be listed among the
+   resulting referrers.  To get only currently live objects, call :func:`collect`
+   before calling :func:`get_referrers`.
+
+   Care must be taken when using objects returned by :func:`get_referrers` because
+   some of them could still be under construction and hence in a temporarily
+   invalid state. Avoid using :func:`get_referrers` for any purpose other than
+   debugging.
+
+
+.. function:: get_referents(*objs)
+
+   Return a list of objects directly referred to by any of the arguments. The
+   referents returned are those objects visited by the arguments' C-level
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` methods (if any), and may not be all objects actually
+   directly reachable.  :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` methods are supported only by objects
+   that support garbage collection, and are only required to visit objects that may
+   be involved in a cycle.  So, for example, if an integer is directly reachable
+   from an argument, that integer object may or may not appear in the result list.
+
+
+.. function:: is_tracked(obj)
+
+   Returns ``True`` if the object is currently tracked by the garbage collector,
+   ``False`` otherwise.  As a general rule, instances of atomic types aren't
+   tracked and instances of non-atomic types (containers, user-defined
+   objects...) are.  However, some type-specific optimizations can be present
+   in order to suppress the garbage collector footprint of simple instances
+   (e.g. dicts containing only atomic keys and values)::
+
+      >>> gc.is_tracked(0)
+      False
+      >>> gc.is_tracked("a")
+      False
+      >>> gc.is_tracked([])
+      True
+      >>> gc.is_tracked({})
+      False
+      >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1})
+      False
+      >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": []})
+      True
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: freeze()
+
+   Freeze all the objects tracked by gc - move them to a permanent generation
+   and ignore all the future collections. This can be used before a POSIX
+   fork() call to make the gc copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection.
+   Also collection before a POSIX fork() call may free pages for future
+   allocation which can cause copy-on-write too so it's advised to disable gc
+   in master process and freeze before fork and enable gc in child process.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: unfreeze()
+
+   Unfreeze the objects in the permanent generation, put them back into the
+   oldest generation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: get_freeze_count()
+
+   Return the number of objects in the permanent generation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+The following variables are provided for read-only access (you can mutate the
+values but should not rebind them):
+
+.. data:: garbage
+
+   A list of objects which the collector found to be unreachable but could
+   not be freed (uncollectable objects).  Starting with Python 3.4, this
+   list should be empty most of the time, except when using instances of
+   C extension types with a non-NULL ``tp_del`` slot.
+
+   If :const:`DEBUG_SAVEALL` is set, then all unreachable objects will be
+   added to this list rather than freed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      If this list is non-empty at :term:`interpreter shutdown`, a
+      :exc:`ResourceWarning` is emitted, which is silent by default.  If
+      :const:`DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE` is set, in addition all uncollectable objects
+      are printed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Following :pep:`442`, objects with a :meth:`__del__` method don't end
+      up in :attr:`gc.garbage` anymore.
+
+.. data:: callbacks
+
+   A list of callbacks that will be invoked by the garbage collector before and
+   after collection.  The callbacks will be called with two arguments,
+   *phase* and *info*.
+
+   *phase* can be one of two values:
+
+      "start": The garbage collection is about to start.
+
+      "stop": The garbage collection has finished.
+
+   *info* is a dict providing more information for the callback.  The following
+   keys are currently defined:
+
+      "generation": The oldest generation being collected.
+
+      "collected": When *phase* is "stop", the number of objects
+      successfully collected.
+
+      "uncollectable": When *phase* is "stop", the number of objects
+      that could not be collected and were put in :data:`garbage`.
+
+   Applications can add their own callbacks to this list.  The primary
+   use cases are:
+
+      Gathering statistics about garbage collection, such as how often
+      various generations are collected, and how long the collection
+      takes.
+
+      Allowing applications to identify and clear their own uncollectable
+      types when they appear in :data:`garbage`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+The following constants are provided for use with :func:`set_debug`:
+
+
+.. data:: DEBUG_STATS
+
+   Print statistics during collection.  This information can be useful when tuning
+   the collection frequency.
+
+
+.. data:: DEBUG_COLLECTABLE
+
+   Print information on collectable objects found.
+
+
+.. data:: DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE
+
+   Print information of uncollectable objects found (objects which are not
+   reachable but cannot be freed by the collector).  These objects will be added
+   to the ``garbage`` list.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Also print the contents of the :data:`garbage` list at
+      :term:`interpreter shutdown`, if it isn't empty.
+
+.. data:: DEBUG_SAVEALL
+
+   When set, all unreachable objects found will be appended to *garbage* rather
+   than being freed.  This can be useful for debugging a leaking program.
+
+
+.. data:: DEBUG_LEAK
+
+   The debugging flags necessary for the collector to print information about a
+   leaking program (equal to ``DEBUG_COLLECTABLE | DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE |
+   DEBUG_SAVEALL``).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/getopt.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/getopt.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..336deab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/getopt.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+:mod:`getopt` --- C-style parser for command line options
+=========================================================
+
+.. module:: getopt
+   :synopsis: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and
+              long option names.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/getopt.py`
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :mod:`getopt` module is a parser for command line options whose API is
+   designed to be familiar to users of the C :c:func:`getopt` function. Users who
+   are unfamiliar with the C :c:func:`getopt` function or who would like to write
+   less code and get better help and error messages should consider using the
+   :mod:`argparse` module instead.
+
+--------------
+
+This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in ``sys.argv``.
+It supports the same conventions as the Unix :c:func:`getopt` function (including
+the special meanings of arguments of the form '``-``' and '``--``').  Long
+options similar to those supported by GNU software may be used as well via an
+optional third argument.
+
+This module provides two functions and an
+exception:
+
+
+.. function:: getopt(args, shortopts, longopts=[])
+
+   Parses command line options and parameter list.  *args* is the argument list to
+   be parsed, without the leading reference to the running program. Typically, this
+   means ``sys.argv[1:]``. *shortopts* is the string of option letters that the
+   script wants to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a
+   colon (``':'``; i.e., the same format that Unix :c:func:`getopt` uses).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Unlike GNU :c:func:`getopt`, after a non-option argument, all further
+      arguments are considered also non-options. This is similar to the way
+      non-GNU Unix systems work.
+
+   *longopts*, if specified, must be a list of strings with the names of the
+   long options which should be supported.  The leading ``'--'`` characters
+   should not be included in the option name.  Long options which require an
+   argument should be followed by an equal sign (``'='``).  Optional arguments
+   are not supported.  To accept only long options, *shortopts* should be an
+   empty string.  Long options on the command line can be recognized so long as
+   they provide a prefix of the option name that matches exactly one of the
+   accepted options.  For example, if *longopts* is ``['foo', 'frob']``, the
+   option ``--fo`` will match as ``--foo``, but ``--f`` will
+   not match uniquely, so :exc:`GetoptError` will be raised.
+
+   The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of ``(option,
+   value)`` pairs; the second is the list of program arguments left after the
+   option list was stripped (this is a trailing slice of *args*).  Each
+   option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element, prefixed
+   with a hyphen for short options (e.g., ``'-x'``) or two hyphens for long
+   options (e.g., ``'--long-option'``), and the option argument as its
+   second element, or an empty string if the option has no argument.  The
+   options occur in the list in the same order in which they were found, thus
+   allowing multiple occurrences.  Long and short options may be mixed.
+
+
+.. function:: gnu_getopt(args, shortopts, longopts=[])
+
+   This function works like :func:`getopt`, except that GNU style scanning mode is
+   used by default. This means that option and non-option arguments may be
+   intermixed. The :func:`getopt` function stops processing options as soon as a
+   non-option argument is encountered.
+
+   If the first character of the option string is ``'+'``, or if the environment
+   variable :envvar:`POSIXLY_CORRECT` is set, then option processing stops as
+   soon as a non-option argument is encountered.
+
+
+.. exception:: GetoptError
+
+   This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or when
+   an option requiring an argument is given none. The argument to the exception is
+   a string indicating the cause of the error.  For long options, an argument given
+   to an option which does not require one will also cause this exception to be
+   raised.  The attributes :attr:`msg` and :attr:`opt` give the error message and
+   related option; if there is no specific option to which the exception relates,
+   :attr:`opt` is an empty string.
+
+.. XXX deprecated?
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Alias for :exc:`GetoptError`; for backward compatibility.
+
+An example using only Unix style options:
+
+   >>> import getopt
+   >>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
+   >>> args
+   ['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
+   >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
+   >>> optlist
+   [('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
+   >>> args
+   ['a1', 'a2']
+
+Using long option names is equally easy:
+
+   >>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
+   >>> args = s.split()
+   >>> args
+   ['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2']
+   >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [
+   ...     'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing'])
+   >>> optlist
+   [('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')]
+   >>> args
+   ['a1', 'a2']
+
+In a script, typical usage is something like this::
+
+   import getopt, sys
+
+   def main():
+       try:
+           opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="])
+       except getopt.GetoptError as err:
+           # print help information and exit:
+           print(err)  # will print something like "option -a not recognized"
+           usage()
+           sys.exit(2)
+       output = None
+       verbose = False
+       for o, a in opts:
+           if o == "-v":
+               verbose = True
+           elif o in ("-h", "--help"):
+               usage()
+               sys.exit()
+           elif o in ("-o", "--output"):
+               output = a
+           else:
+               assert False, "unhandled option"
+       # ...
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       main()
+
+Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with less code
+and more informative help and error messages by using the :mod:`argparse` module::
+
+   import argparse
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+       parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
+       parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
+       args = parser.parse_args()
+       # ... do something with args.output ...
+       # ... do something with args.verbose ..
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`argparse`
+      Alternative command line option and argument parsing library.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/getpass.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/getpass.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82b1191
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/getpass.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+:mod:`getpass` --- Portable password input
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: getpass
+   :synopsis: Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Piers Lauder <piers@cs.su.oz.au>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. Windows (& Mac?) support by Guido van Rossum.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/getpass.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`getpass` module provides two functions:
+
+
+.. function:: getpass(prompt='Password: ', stream=None)
+
+   Prompt the user for a password without echoing.  The user is prompted using
+   the string *prompt*, which defaults to ``'Password: '``.  On Unix, the
+   prompt is written to the file-like object *stream* using the replace error
+   handler if needed.  *stream* defaults to the controlling terminal
+   (:file:`/dev/tty`) or if that is unavailable to ``sys.stderr`` (this
+   argument is ignored on Windows).
+
+   If echo free input is unavailable getpass() falls back to printing
+   a warning message to *stream* and reading from ``sys.stdin`` and
+   issuing a :exc:`GetPassWarning`.
+
+   .. note::
+      If you call getpass from within IDLE, the input may be done in the
+      terminal you launched IDLE from rather than the idle window itself.
+
+.. exception:: GetPassWarning
+
+   A :exc:`UserWarning` subclass issued when password input may be echoed.
+
+
+.. function:: getuser()
+
+   Return the "login name" of the user.
+
+   This function checks the environment variables :envvar:`LOGNAME`,
+   :envvar:`USER`, :envvar:`LNAME` and :envvar:`USERNAME`, in order, and
+   returns the value of the first one which is set to a non-empty string.  If
+   none are set, the login name from the password database is returned on
+   systems which support the :mod:`pwd` module, otherwise, an exception is
+   raised.
+
+   In general, this function should be preferred over :func:`os.getlogin()`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gettext.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gettext.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94ed340
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gettext.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,660 @@
+:mod:`gettext` --- Multilingual internationalization services
+=============================================================
+
+.. module:: gettext
+   :synopsis: Multilingual internationalization services.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Barry A. Warsaw <barry@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Barry A. Warsaw <barry@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/gettext.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`gettext` module provides internationalization (I18N) and localization
+(L10N) services for your Python modules and applications. It supports both the
+GNU :program:`gettext` message catalog API and a higher level, class-based API that may
+be more appropriate for Python files.  The interface described below allows you
+to write your module and application messages in one natural language, and
+provide a catalog of translated messages for running under different natural
+languages.
+
+Some hints on localizing your Python modules and applications are also given.
+
+
+GNU :program:`gettext` API
+--------------------------
+
+The :mod:`gettext` module defines the following API, which is very similar to
+the GNU :program:`gettext` API.  If you use this API you will affect the
+translation of your entire application globally.  Often this is what you want if
+your application is monolingual, with the choice of language dependent on the
+locale of your user.  If you are localizing a Python module, or if your
+application needs to switch languages on the fly, you probably want to use the
+class-based API instead.
+
+
+.. function:: bindtextdomain(domain, localedir=None)
+
+   Bind the *domain* to the locale directory *localedir*.  More concretely,
+   :mod:`gettext` will look for binary :file:`.mo` files for the given domain using
+   the path (on Unix): :file:`{localedir}/{language}/LC_MESSAGES/{domain}.mo`, where
+   *languages* is searched for in the environment variables :envvar:`LANGUAGE`,
+   :envvar:`LC_ALL`, :envvar:`LC_MESSAGES`, and :envvar:`LANG` respectively.
+
+   If *localedir* is omitted or ``None``, then the current binding for *domain* is
+   returned. [#]_
+
+
+.. function:: bind_textdomain_codeset(domain, codeset=None)
+
+   Bind the *domain* to *codeset*, changing the encoding of byte strings
+   returned by the :func:`lgettext`, :func:`ldgettext`, :func:`lngettext`
+   and :func:`ldngettext` functions.
+   If *codeset* is omitted, then the current binding is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: textdomain(domain=None)
+
+   Change or query the current global domain.  If *domain* is ``None``, then the
+   current global domain is returned, otherwise the global domain is set to
+   *domain*, which is returned.
+
+
+.. index:: single: _ (underscore); gettext
+.. function:: gettext(message)
+
+   Return the localized translation of *message*, based on the current global
+   domain, language, and locale directory.  This function is usually aliased as
+   :func:`_` in the local namespace (see examples below).
+
+
+.. function:: dgettext(domain, message)
+
+   Like :func:`.gettext`, but look the message up in the specified *domain*.
+
+
+.. function:: ngettext(singular, plural, n)
+
+   Like :func:`.gettext`, but consider plural forms. If a translation is found,
+   apply the plural formula to *n*, and return the resulting message (some
+   languages have more than two plural forms). If no translation is found, return
+   *singular* if *n* is 1; return *plural* otherwise.
+
+   The Plural formula is taken from the catalog header. It is a C or Python
+   expression that has a free variable *n*; the expression evaluates to the index
+   of the plural in the catalog. See
+   `the GNU gettext documentation <https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html>`__
+   for the precise syntax to be used in :file:`.po` files and the
+   formulas for a variety of languages.
+
+
+.. function:: dngettext(domain, singular, plural, n)
+
+   Like :func:`ngettext`, but look the message up in the specified *domain*.
+
+
+.. function:: lgettext(message)
+.. function:: ldgettext(domain, message)
+.. function:: lngettext(singular, plural, n)
+.. function:: ldngettext(domain, singular, plural, n)
+
+   Equivalent to the corresponding functions without the ``l`` prefix
+   (:func:`.gettext`, :func:`dgettext`, :func:`ngettext` and :func:`dngettext`),
+   but the translation is returned as a byte string encoded in the preferred
+   system encoding if no other encoding was explicitly set with
+   :func:`bind_textdomain_codeset`.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      These functions should be avoided in Python 3, because they return
+      encoded bytes.  It's much better to use alternatives which return
+      Unicode strings instead, since most Python applications will want to
+      manipulate human readable text as strings instead of bytes.  Further,
+      it's possible that you may get unexpected Unicode-related exceptions
+      if there are encoding problems with the translated strings.  It is
+      possible that the ``l*()`` functions will be deprecated in future Python
+      versions due to their inherent problems and limitations.
+
+
+Note that GNU :program:`gettext` also defines a :func:`dcgettext` method, but
+this was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented.
+
+Here's an example of typical usage for this API::
+
+   import gettext
+   gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory')
+   gettext.textdomain('myapplication')
+   _ = gettext.gettext
+   # ...
+   print(_('This is a translatable string.'))
+
+
+Class-based API
+---------------
+
+The class-based API of the :mod:`gettext` module gives you more flexibility and
+greater convenience than the GNU :program:`gettext` API.  It is the recommended
+way of localizing your Python applications and modules.  :mod:`!gettext` defines
+a :class:`GNUTranslations` class which implements the parsing of GNU :file:`.mo` format
+files, and has methods for returning strings. Instances of this class can also
+install themselves in the built-in namespace as the function :func:`_`.
+
+
+.. function:: find(domain, localedir=None, languages=None, all=False)
+
+   This function implements the standard :file:`.mo` file search algorithm.  It
+   takes a *domain*, identical to what :func:`textdomain` takes.  Optional
+   *localedir* is as in :func:`bindtextdomain`. Optional *languages* is a list of
+   strings, where each string is a language code.
+
+   If *localedir* is not given, then the default system locale directory is used.
+   [#]_  If *languages* is not given, then the following environment variables are
+   searched: :envvar:`LANGUAGE`, :envvar:`LC_ALL`, :envvar:`LC_MESSAGES`, and
+   :envvar:`LANG`.  The first one returning a non-empty value is used for the
+   *languages* variable. The environment variables should contain a colon separated
+   list of languages, which will be split on the colon to produce the expected list
+   of language code strings.
+
+   :func:`find` then expands and normalizes the languages, and then iterates
+   through them, searching for an existing file built of these components:
+
+   :file:`{localedir}/{language}/LC_MESSAGES/{domain}.mo`
+
+   The first such file name that exists is returned by :func:`find`. If no such
+   file is found, then ``None`` is returned. If *all* is given, it returns a list
+   of all file names, in the order in which they appear in the languages list or
+   the environment variables.
+
+
+.. function:: translation(domain, localedir=None, languages=None, class_=None, fallback=False, codeset=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`*Translations` instance based on the *domain*, *localedir*,
+   and *languages*, which are first passed to :func:`find` to get a list of the
+   associated :file:`.mo` file paths.  Instances with identical :file:`.mo` file
+   names are cached.  The actual class instantiated is *class_* if
+   provided, otherwise :class:`GNUTranslations`.  The class's constructor must
+   take a single :term:`file object` argument.  If provided, *codeset* will change
+   the charset used to encode translated strings in the
+   :meth:`~NullTranslations.lgettext` and :meth:`~NullTranslations.lngettext`
+   methods.
+
+   If multiple files are found, later files are used as fallbacks for earlier ones.
+   To allow setting the fallback, :func:`copy.copy` is used to clone each
+   translation object from the cache; the actual instance data is still shared with
+   the cache.
+
+   If no :file:`.mo` file is found, this function raises :exc:`OSError` if
+   *fallback* is false (which is the default), and returns a
+   :class:`NullTranslations` instance if *fallback* is true.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`IOError` used to be raised instead of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. function:: install(domain, localedir=None, codeset=None, names=None)
+
+   This installs the function :func:`_` in Python's builtins namespace, based on
+   *domain*, *localedir*, and *codeset* which are passed to the function
+   :func:`translation`.
+
+   For the *names* parameter, please see the description of the translation
+   object's :meth:`~NullTranslations.install` method.
+
+   As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application that are
+   candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to the :func:`_`
+   function, like this::
+
+      print(_('This string will be translated.'))
+
+   For convenience, you want the :func:`_` function to be installed in Python's
+   builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all modules of your
+   application.
+
+
+The :class:`NullTranslations` class
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Translation classes are what actually implement the translation of original
+source file message strings to translated message strings. The base class used
+by all translation classes is :class:`NullTranslations`; this provides the basic
+interface you can use to write your own specialized translation classes.  Here
+are the methods of :class:`!NullTranslations`:
+
+
+.. class:: NullTranslations(fp=None)
+
+   Takes an optional :term:`file object` *fp*, which is ignored by the base class.
+   Initializes "protected" instance variables *_info* and *_charset* which are set
+   by derived classes, as well as *_fallback*, which is set through
+   :meth:`add_fallback`.  It then calls ``self._parse(fp)`` if *fp* is not
+   ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: _parse(fp)
+
+      No-op in the base class, this method takes file object *fp*, and reads
+      the data from the file, initializing its message catalog.  If you have an
+      unsupported message catalog file format, you should override this method
+      to parse your format.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_fallback(fallback)
+
+      Add *fallback* as the fallback object for the current translation object.
+      A translation object should consult the fallback if it cannot provide a
+      translation for a given message.
+
+
+   .. method:: gettext(message)
+
+      If a fallback has been set, forward :meth:`!gettext` to the fallback.
+      Otherwise, return *message*.  Overridden in derived classes.
+
+
+   .. method:: ngettext(singular, plural, n)
+
+      If a fallback has been set, forward :meth:`!ngettext` to the fallback.
+      Otherwise, return *singular* if *n* is 1; return *plural* otherwise.
+      Overridden in derived classes.
+
+
+   .. method:: lgettext(message)
+   .. method:: lngettext(singular, plural, n)
+
+      Equivalent to :meth:`.gettext` and :meth:`.ngettext`, but the translation
+      is returned as a byte string encoded in the preferred system encoding
+      if no encoding was explicitly set with :meth:`set_output_charset`.
+      Overridden in derived classes.
+
+      .. warning::
+
+         These methods should be avoided in Python 3.  See the warning for the
+         :func:`lgettext` function.
+
+
+   .. method:: info()
+
+      Return the "protected" :attr:`_info` variable, a dictionary containing
+      the metadata found in the message catalog file.
+
+
+   .. method:: charset()
+
+      Return the encoding of the message catalog file.
+
+
+   .. method:: output_charset()
+
+      Return the encoding used to return translated messages in :meth:`.lgettext`
+      and :meth:`.lngettext`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_output_charset(charset)
+
+      Change the encoding used to return translated messages.
+
+
+   .. method:: install(names=None)
+
+      This method installs :meth:`.gettext` into the built-in namespace,
+      binding it to ``_``.
+
+      If the *names* parameter is given, it must be a sequence containing the
+      names of functions you want to install in the builtins namespace in
+      addition to :func:`_`.  Supported names are ``'gettext'``, ``'ngettext'``,
+      ``'lgettext'`` and ``'lngettext'``.
+
+      Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient way, to make
+      the :func:`_` function available to your application.  Because it affects
+      the entire application globally, and specifically the built-in namespace,
+      localized modules should never install :func:`_`. Instead, they should use
+      this code to make :func:`_` available to their module::
+
+         import gettext
+         t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...)
+         _ = t.gettext
+
+      This puts :func:`_` only in the module's global namespace and so only
+      affects calls within this module.
+
+
+The :class:`GNUTranslations` class
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :mod:`gettext` module provides one additional class derived from
+:class:`NullTranslations`: :class:`GNUTranslations`.  This class overrides
+:meth:`_parse` to enable reading GNU :program:`gettext` format :file:`.mo` files
+in both big-endian and little-endian format.
+
+:class:`GNUTranslations` parses optional metadata out of the translation
+catalog. It is convention with GNU :program:`gettext` to include metadata as
+the translation for the empty string. This metadata is in :rfc:`822`\ -style
+``key: value`` pairs, and should contain the ``Project-Id-Version`` key.  If the
+key ``Content-Type`` is found, then the ``charset`` property is used to
+initialize the "protected" :attr:`_charset` instance variable, defaulting to
+``None`` if not found.  If the charset encoding is specified, then all message
+ids and message strings read from the catalog are converted to Unicode using
+this encoding, else ASCII is assumed.
+
+Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all :meth:`*gettext` methods
+will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings.
+
+The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set as the
+"protected" :attr:`_info` instance variable.
+
+If the :file:`.mo` file's magic number is invalid, the major version number is
+unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a
+:class:`GNUTranslations` class can raise :exc:`OSError`.
+
+.. class:: GNUTranslations
+
+   The following methods are overridden from the base class implementation:
+
+   .. method:: gettext(message)
+
+      Look up the *message* id in the catalog and return the corresponding message
+      string, as a Unicode string.  If there is no entry in the catalog for the
+      *message* id, and a fallback has been set, the look up is forwarded to the
+      fallback's :meth:`~NullTranslations.gettext` method.  Otherwise, the
+      *message* id is returned.
+
+
+   .. method:: ngettext(singular, plural, n)
+
+      Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  *singular* is used as the message id
+      for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while *n* is used to determine which
+      plural form to use.  The returned message string is a Unicode string.
+
+      If the message id is not found in the catalog, and a fallback is specified,
+      the request is forwarded to the fallback's :meth:`~NullTranslations.ngettext`
+      method.  Otherwise, when *n* is 1 *singular* is returned, and *plural* is
+      returned in all other cases.
+
+      Here is an example::
+
+         n = len(os.listdir('.'))
+         cat = GNUTranslations(somefile)
+         message = cat.ngettext(
+             'There is %(num)d file in this directory',
+             'There are %(num)d files in this directory',
+             n) % {'num': n}
+
+
+   .. method:: lgettext(message)
+   .. method:: lngettext(singular, plural, n)
+
+      Equivalent to :meth:`.gettext` and :meth:`.ngettext`, but the translation
+      is returned as a byte string encoded in the preferred system encoding
+      if no encoding  was explicitly set with
+      :meth:`~NullTranslations.set_output_charset`.
+
+      .. warning::
+
+         These methods should be avoided in Python 3.  See the warning for the
+         :func:`lgettext` function.
+
+
+Solaris message catalog support
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The Solaris operating system defines its own binary :file:`.mo` file format, but
+since no documentation can be found on this format, it is not supported at this
+time.
+
+
+The Catalog constructor
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index:: single: GNOME
+
+GNOME uses a version of the :mod:`gettext` module by James Henstridge, but this
+version has a slightly different API.  Its documented usage was::
+
+   import gettext
+   cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir)
+   _ = cat.gettext
+   print(_('hello world'))
+
+For compatibility with this older module, the function :func:`Catalog` is an
+alias for the :func:`translation` function described above.
+
+One difference between this module and Henstridge's: his catalog objects
+supported access through a mapping API, but this appears to be unused and so is
+not currently supported.
+
+
+Internationalizing your programs and modules
+--------------------------------------------
+
+Internationalization (I18N) refers to the operation by which a program is made
+aware of multiple languages.  Localization (L10N) refers to the adaptation of
+your program, once internationalized, to the local language and cultural habits.
+In order to provide multilingual messages for your Python programs, you need to
+take the following steps:
+
+#. prepare your program or module by specially marking translatable strings
+
+#. run a suite of tools over your marked files to generate raw messages catalogs
+
+#. create language-specific translations of the message catalogs
+
+#. use the :mod:`gettext` module so that message strings are properly translated
+
+In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the strings in
+your files.  Any string that needs to be translated should be marked by wrapping
+it in ``_('...')`` --- that is, a call to the function :func:`_`.  For example::
+
+   filename = 'mylog.txt'
+   message = _('writing a log message')
+   with open(filename, 'w') as fp:
+       fp.write(message)
+
+In this example, the string ``'writing a log message'`` is marked as a candidate
+for translation, while the strings ``'mylog.txt'`` and ``'w'`` are not.
+
+There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation.
+The original GNU :program:`gettext` only supported C or C++ source
+code but its extended version :program:`xgettext` scans code written
+in a number of languages, including Python, to find strings marked as
+translatable.  `Babel <http://babel.pocoo.org/>`__ is a Python
+internationalization library that includes a :file:`pybabel` script to
+extract and compile message catalogs.  François Pinard's program
+called :program:`xpot` does a similar job and is available as part of
+his `po-utils package <https://github.com/pinard/po-utils>`__.
+
+(Python also includes pure-Python versions of these programs, called
+:program:`pygettext.py` and :program:`msgfmt.py`; some Python distributions
+will install them for you.  :program:`pygettext.py` is similar to
+:program:`xgettext`, but only understands Python source code and
+cannot handle other programming languages such as C or C++.
+:program:`pygettext.py` supports a command-line interface similar to
+:program:`xgettext`; for details on its use, run ``pygettext.py
+--help``.  :program:`msgfmt.py` is binary compatible with GNU
+:program:`msgfmt`.  With these two programs, you may not need the GNU
+:program:`gettext` package to internationalize your Python
+applications.)
+
+:program:`xgettext`, :program:`pygettext`, and similar tools generate
+:file:`.po` files that are message catalogs.  They are structured
+human-readable files that contain every marked string in the source
+code, along with a placeholder for the translated versions of these
+strings.
+
+Copies of these :file:`.po` files are then handed over to the
+individual human translators who write translations for every
+supported natural language.  They send back the completed
+language-specific versions as a :file:`<language-name>.po` file that's
+compiled into a machine-readable :file:`.mo` binary catalog file using
+the :program:`msgfmt` program.  The :file:`.mo` files are used by the
+:mod:`gettext` module for the actual translation processing at
+run-time.
+
+How you use the :mod:`gettext` module in your code depends on whether you are
+internationalizing a single module or your entire application. The next two
+sections will discuss each case.
+
+
+Localizing your module
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If you are localizing your module, you must take care not to make global
+changes, e.g. to the built-in namespace. You should not use the GNU :program:`gettext`
+API but instead the class-based API.
+
+Let's say your module is called "spam" and the module's various natural language
+translation :file:`.mo` files reside in :file:`/usr/share/locale` in GNU
+:program:`gettext` format.  Here's what you would put at the top of your
+module::
+
+   import gettext
+   t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale')
+   _ = t.gettext
+
+
+Localizing your application
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If you are localizing your application, you can install the :func:`_` function
+globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main driver file of your
+application.  This will let all your application-specific files just use
+``_('...')`` without having to explicitly install it in each file.
+
+In the simple case then, you need only add the following bit of code to the main
+driver file of your application::
+
+   import gettext
+   gettext.install('myapplication')
+
+If you need to set the locale directory, you can pass it into the
+:func:`install` function::
+
+   import gettext
+   gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')
+
+
+Changing languages on the fly
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If your program needs to support many languages at the same time, you may want
+to create multiple translation instances and then switch between them
+explicitly, like so::
+
+   import gettext
+
+   lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en'])
+   lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr'])
+   lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de'])
+
+   # start by using language1
+   lang1.install()
+
+   # ... time goes by, user selects language 2
+   lang2.install()
+
+   # ... more time goes by, user selects language 3
+   lang3.install()
+
+
+Deferred translations
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In most coding situations, strings are translated where they are coded.
+Occasionally however, you need to mark strings for translation, but defer actual
+translation until later.  A classic example is::
+
+   animals = ['mollusk',
+              'albatross',
+              'rat',
+              'penguin',
+              'python', ]
+   # ...
+   for a in animals:
+       print(a)
+
+Here, you want to mark the strings in the ``animals`` list as being
+translatable, but you don't actually want to translate them until they are
+printed.
+
+Here is one way you can handle this situation::
+
+   def _(message): return message
+
+   animals = [_('mollusk'),
+              _('albatross'),
+              _('rat'),
+              _('penguin'),
+              _('python'), ]
+
+   del _
+
+   # ...
+   for a in animals:
+       print(_(a))
+
+This works because the dummy definition of :func:`_` simply returns the string
+unchanged.  And this dummy definition will temporarily override any definition
+of :func:`_` in the built-in namespace (until the :keyword:`del` command). Take
+care, though if you have a previous definition of :func:`_` in the local
+namespace.
+
+Note that the second use of :func:`_` will not identify "a" as being
+translatable to the :program:`gettext` program, because the parameter
+is not a string literal.
+
+Another way to handle this is with the following example::
+
+   def N_(message): return message
+
+   animals = [N_('mollusk'),
+              N_('albatross'),
+              N_('rat'),
+              N_('penguin'),
+              N_('python'), ]
+
+   # ...
+   for a in animals:
+       print(_(a))
+
+In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function
+:func:`N_`, which won't conflict with any definition of :func:`_`.
+However, you will need to teach your message extraction program to
+look for translatable strings marked with :func:`N_`. :program:`xgettext`,
+:program:`pygettext`, ``pybabel extract``, and :program:`xpot` all
+support this through the use of the :option:`!-k` command-line switch.
+The choice of :func:`N_` here is totally arbitrary; it could have just
+as easily been :func:`MarkThisStringForTranslation`.
+
+
+Acknowledgements
+----------------
+
+The following people contributed code, feedback, design suggestions, previous
+implementations, and valuable experience to the creation of this module:
+
+* Peter Funk
+
+* James Henstridge
+
+* Juan David Ibáñez Palomar
+
+* Marc-André Lemburg
+
+* Martin von Löwis
+
+* François Pinard
+
+* Barry Warsaw
+
+* Gustavo Niemeyer
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on RedHat Linux
+   it is :file:`/usr/share/locale`, but on Solaris it is :file:`/usr/lib/locale`.
+   The :mod:`gettext` module does not try to support these system dependent
+   defaults; instead its default is :file:`{sys.prefix}/share/locale` (see
+   :data:`sys.prefix`). For this reason, it is always best to call
+   :func:`bindtextdomain` with an explicit absolute path at the start of your
+   application.
+
+.. [#] See the footnote for :func:`bindtextdomain` above.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/glob.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/glob.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0db10b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/glob.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,111 @@
+:mod:`glob` --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: glob
+   :synopsis: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/glob.py`
+
+.. index:: single: filenames; pathname expansion
+
+--------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: * (asterisk); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: ? (question mark); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: [] (square brackets); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: ! (exclamation); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: - (minus); in glob-style wildcards
+   single: . (dot); in glob-style wildcards
+
+The :mod:`glob` module finds all the pathnames matching a specified pattern
+according to the rules used by the Unix shell, although results are returned in
+arbitrary order.  No tilde expansion is done, but ``*``, ``?``, and character
+ranges expressed with ``[]`` will be correctly matched.  This is done by using
+the :func:`os.scandir` and :func:`fnmatch.fnmatch` functions in concert, and
+not by actually invoking a subshell.  Note that unlike :func:`fnmatch.fnmatch`,
+:mod:`glob` treats filenames beginning with a dot (``.``) as special cases.
+(For tilde and shell variable expansion, use :func:`os.path.expanduser` and
+:func:`os.path.expandvars`.)
+
+For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.
+For example, ``'[?]'`` matches the character ``'?'``.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+   The :mod:`pathlib` module offers high-level path objects.
+
+
+.. function:: glob(pathname, *, recursive=False)
+
+   Return a possibly-empty list of path names that match *pathname*, which must be
+   a string containing a path specification. *pathname* can be either absolute
+   (like :file:`/usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile`) or relative (like
+   :file:`../../Tools/\*/\*.gif`), and can contain shell-style wildcards. Broken
+   symlinks are included in the results (as in the shell).
+
+   .. index::
+      single: **; in glob-style wildcards
+
+   If *recursive* is true, the pattern "``**``" will match any files and zero or
+   more directories and subdirectories.  If the pattern is followed by an
+   ``os.sep``, only directories and subdirectories match.
+
+   .. note::
+      Using the "``**``" pattern in large directory trees may consume
+      an inordinate amount of time.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Support for recursive globs using "``**``".
+
+
+.. function:: iglob(pathname, *, recursive=False)
+
+   Return an :term:`iterator` which yields the same values as :func:`glob`
+   without actually storing them all simultaneously.
+
+
+.. function:: escape(pathname)
+
+   Escape all special characters (``'?'``, ``'*'`` and ``'['``).
+   This is useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may
+   have special characters in it.  Special characters in drive/UNC
+   sharepoints are not escaped, e.g. on Windows
+   ``escape('//?/c:/Quo vadis?.txt')`` returns ``'//?/c:/Quo vadis[?].txt'``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+For example, consider a directory containing the following files:
+:file:`1.gif`, :file:`2.txt`, :file:`card.gif` and a subdirectory :file:`sub`
+which contains only the file :file:`3.txt`.  :func:`glob` will produce
+the following results.  Notice how any leading components of the path are
+preserved. ::
+
+   >>> import glob
+   >>> glob.glob('./[0-9].*')
+   ['./1.gif', './2.txt']
+   >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
+   ['1.gif', 'card.gif']
+   >>> glob.glob('?.gif')
+   ['1.gif']
+   >>> glob.glob('**/*.txt', recursive=True)
+   ['2.txt', 'sub/3.txt']
+   >>> glob.glob('./**/', recursive=True)
+   ['./', './sub/']
+
+If the directory contains files starting with ``.`` they won't be matched by
+default. For example, consider a directory containing :file:`card.gif` and
+:file:`.card.gif`::
+
+   >>> import glob
+   >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
+   ['card.gif']
+   >>> glob.glob('.c*')
+   ['.card.gif']
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`fnmatch`
+      Shell-style filename (not path) expansion
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/grp.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/grp.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/grp.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+:mod:`grp` --- The group database
+=================================
+
+.. module:: grp
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to the Unix group database. It is available on all
+Unix versions.
+
+Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes
+correspond to the members of the ``group`` structure (Attribute field below, see
+``<pwd.h>``):
+
++-------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| Index | Attribute | Meaning                         |
++=======+===========+=================================+
+| 0     | gr_name   | the name of the group           |
++-------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 1     | gr_passwd | the (encrypted) group password; |
+|       |           | often empty                     |
++-------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 2     | gr_gid    | the numerical group ID          |
++-------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+| 3     | gr_mem    | all the group member's  user    |
+|       |           | names                           |
++-------+-----------+---------------------------------+
+
+The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member list is a
+list of strings. (Note that most users are not explicitly listed as members of
+the group they are in according to the password database.  Check both databases
+to get complete membership information.  Also note that a ``gr_name`` that
+starts with a ``+`` or ``-`` is likely to be a YP/NIS reference and may not be
+accessible via :func:`getgrnam` or :func:`getgrgid`.)
+
+It defines the following items:
+
+
+.. function:: getgrgid(gid)
+
+   Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID. :exc:`KeyError`
+   is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+      Since Python 3.6 the support of non-integer arguments like floats or
+      strings in :func:`getgrgid` is deprecated.
+
+.. function:: getgrnam(name)
+
+   Return the group database entry for the given group name. :exc:`KeyError` is
+   raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.
+
+
+.. function:: getgrall()
+
+   Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`pwd`
+      An interface to the user database, similar to this.
+
+   Module :mod:`spwd`
+      An interface to the shadow password database, similar to this.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gzip.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gzip.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c6b722
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/gzip.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,213 @@
+:mod:`gzip` --- Support for :program:`gzip` files
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: gzip
+   :synopsis: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/gzip.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a simple interface to compress and decompress files just
+like the GNU programs :program:`gzip` and :program:`gunzip` would.
+
+The data compression is provided by the :mod:`zlib` module.
+
+The :mod:`gzip` module provides the :class:`GzipFile` class, as well as the
+:func:`.open`, :func:`compress` and :func:`decompress` convenience functions.
+The :class:`GzipFile` class reads and writes :program:`gzip`\ -format files,
+automatically compressing or decompressing the data so that it looks like an
+ordinary :term:`file object`.
+
+Note that additional file formats which can be decompressed by the
+:program:`gzip` and :program:`gunzip` programs, such  as those produced by
+:program:`compress` and :program:`pack`, are not supported by this module.
+
+The module defines the following items:
+
+
+.. function:: open(filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+
+   Open a gzip-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a :term:`file
+   object`.
+
+   The *filename* argument can be an actual filename (a :class:`str` or
+   :class:`bytes` object), or an existing file object to read from or write to.
+
+   The *mode* argument can be any of ``'r'``, ``'rb'``, ``'a'``, ``'ab'``,
+   ``'w'``, ``'wb'``, ``'x'`` or ``'xb'`` for binary mode, or ``'rt'``,
+   ``'at'``, ``'wt'``, or ``'xt'`` for text mode. The default is ``'rb'``.
+
+   The *compresslevel* argument is an integer from 0 to 9, as for the
+   :class:`GzipFile` constructor.
+
+   For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the :class:`GzipFile`
+   constructor: ``GzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel)``. In this case, the
+   *encoding*, *errors* and *newline* arguments must not be provided.
+
+   For text mode, a :class:`GzipFile` object is created, and wrapped in an
+   :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` instance with the specified encoding, error
+   handling behavior, and line ending(s).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added support for *filename* being a file object, support for text mode,
+      and the *encoding*, *errors* and *newline* arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added support for the ``'x'``, ``'xb'`` and ``'xt'`` modes.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+.. class:: GzipFile(filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=9, fileobj=None, mtime=None)
+
+   Constructor for the :class:`GzipFile` class, which simulates most of the
+   methods of a :term:`file object`, with the exception of the :meth:`truncate`
+   method.  At least one of *fileobj* and *filename* must be given a non-trivial
+   value.
+
+   The new class instance is based on *fileobj*, which can be a regular file, an
+   :class:`io.BytesIO` object, or any other object which simulates a file.  It
+   defaults to ``None``, in which case *filename* is opened to provide a file
+   object.
+
+   When *fileobj* is not ``None``, the *filename* argument is only used to be
+   included in the :program:`gzip` file header, which may include the original
+   filename of the uncompressed file.  It defaults to the filename of *fileobj*, if
+   discernible; otherwise, it defaults to the empty string, and in this case the
+   original filename is not included in the header.
+
+   The *mode* argument can be any of ``'r'``, ``'rb'``, ``'a'``, ``'ab'``, ``'w'``,
+   ``'wb'``, ``'x'``, or ``'xb'``, depending on whether the file will be read or
+   written.  The default is the mode of *fileobj* if discernible; otherwise, the
+   default is ``'rb'``.
+
+   Note that the file is always opened in binary mode. To open a compressed file
+   in text mode, use :func:`.open` (or wrap your :class:`GzipFile` with an
+   :class:`io.TextIOWrapper`).
+
+   The *compresslevel* argument is an integer from ``0`` to ``9`` controlling
+   the level of compression; ``1`` is fastest and produces the least
+   compression, and ``9`` is slowest and produces the most compression. ``0``
+   is no compression. The default is ``9``.
+
+   The *mtime* argument is an optional numeric timestamp to be written to
+   the last modification time field in the stream when compressing.  It
+   should only be provided in compression mode.  If omitted or ``None``, the
+   current time is used.  See the :attr:`mtime` attribute for more details.
+
+   Calling a :class:`GzipFile` object's :meth:`close` method does not close
+   *fileobj*, since you might wish to append more material after the compressed
+   data.  This also allows you to pass an :class:`io.BytesIO` object opened for
+   writing as *fileobj*, and retrieve the resulting memory buffer using the
+   :class:`io.BytesIO` object's :meth:`~io.BytesIO.getvalue` method.
+
+   :class:`GzipFile` supports the :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` interface,
+   including iteration and the :keyword:`with` statement.  Only the
+   :meth:`truncate` method isn't implemented.
+
+   :class:`GzipFile` also provides the following method and attribute:
+
+   .. method:: peek(n)
+
+      Read *n* uncompressed bytes without advancing the file position.
+      At most one single read on the compressed stream is done to satisfy
+      the call.  The number of bytes returned may be more or less than
+      requested.
+
+      .. note:: While calling :meth:`peek` does not change the file position of
+         the :class:`GzipFile`, it may change the position of the underlying
+         file object (e.g. if the :class:`GzipFile` was constructed with the
+         *fileobj* parameter).
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. attribute:: mtime
+
+      When decompressing, the value of the last modification time field in
+      the most recently read header may be read from this attribute, as an
+      integer.  The initial value before reading any headers is ``None``.
+
+      All :program:`gzip` compressed streams are required to contain this
+      timestamp field.  Some programs, such as :program:`gunzip`\ , make use
+      of the timestamp.  The format is the same as the return value of
+      :func:`time.time` and the :attr:`~os.stat_result.st_mtime` attribute of
+      the object returned by :func:`os.stat`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added, along with the
+      *mtime* constructor argument and :attr:`mtime` attribute.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Support for zero-padded and unseekable files was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The :meth:`io.BufferedIOBase.read1` method is now implemented.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added support for the ``'x'`` and ``'xb'`` modes.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for writing arbitrary
+      :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`.
+      The :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` method now accepts an argument of
+      ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: compress(data, compresslevel=9)
+
+   Compress the *data*, returning a :class:`bytes` object containing
+   the compressed data.  *compresslevel* has the same meaning as in
+   the :class:`GzipFile` constructor above.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. function:: decompress(data)
+
+   Decompress the *data*, returning a :class:`bytes` object containing the
+   uncompressed data.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. _gzip-usage-examples:
+
+Examples of usage
+-----------------
+
+Example of how to read a compressed file::
+
+   import gzip
+   with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'rb') as f:
+       file_content = f.read()
+
+Example of how to create a compressed GZIP file::
+
+   import gzip
+   content = b"Lots of content here"
+   with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f:
+       f.write(content)
+
+Example of how to GZIP compress an existing file::
+
+   import gzip
+   import shutil
+   with open('/home/joe/file.txt', 'rb') as f_in:
+       with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f_out:
+           shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)
+
+Example of how to GZIP compress a binary string::
+
+   import gzip
+   s_in = b"Lots of content here"
+   s_out = gzip.compress(s_in)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`zlib`
+      The basic data compression module needed to support the :program:`gzip` file
+      format.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/hashlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/hashlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab4414f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/hashlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,739 @@
+:mod:`hashlib` --- Secure hashes and message digests
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: hashlib
+   :synopsis: Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Gregory P. Smith <greg@krypto.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Gregory P. Smith <greg@krypto.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/hashlib.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: message digest, MD5
+   single: secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   import hashlib
+
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements a common interface to many different secure hash and
+message digest algorithms.  Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA1,
+SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, and SHA512 (defined in FIPS 180-2) as well as RSA's MD5
+algorithm (defined in Internet :rfc:`1321`).  The terms "secure hash" and
+"message digest" are interchangeable.  Older algorithms were called message
+digests.  The modern term is secure hash.
+
+.. note::
+
+   If you want the adler32 or crc32 hash functions, they are available in
+   the :mod:`zlib` module.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   Some algorithms have known hash collision weaknesses, refer to the "See
+   also" section at the end.
+
+
+.. _hash-algorithms:
+
+Hash algorithms
+---------------
+
+There is one constructor method named for each type of :dfn:`hash`.  All return
+a hash object with the same simple interface. For example: use :func:`sha256` to
+create a SHA-256 hash object. You can now feed this object with :term:`bytes-like
+objects <bytes-like object>` (normally :class:`bytes`) using the :meth:`update` method.
+At any point you can ask it for the :dfn:`digest` of the
+concatenation of the data fed to it so far using the :meth:`digest` or
+:meth:`hexdigest` methods.
+
+.. note::
+
+   For better multithreading performance, the Python :term:`GIL` is released for
+   data larger than 2047 bytes at object creation or on update.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Feeding string objects into :meth:`update` is not supported, as hashes work
+   on bytes, not on characters.
+
+.. index:: single: OpenSSL; (use in module hashlib)
+
+Constructors for hash algorithms that are always present in this module are
+:func:`sha1`, :func:`sha224`, :func:`sha256`, :func:`sha384`,
+:func:`sha512`, :func:`blake2b`, and :func:`blake2s`.
+:func:`md5` is normally available as well, though it
+may be missing if you are using a rare "FIPS compliant" build of Python.
+Additional algorithms may also be available depending upon the OpenSSL
+library that Python uses on your platform. On most platforms the
+:func:`sha3_224`, :func:`sha3_256`, :func:`sha3_384`, :func:`sha3_512`,
+:func:`shake_128`, :func:`shake_256` are also available.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+   SHA3 (Keccak) and SHAKE constructors :func:`sha3_224`, :func:`sha3_256`,
+   :func:`sha3_384`, :func:`sha3_512`, :func:`shake_128`, :func:`shake_256`.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+   :func:`blake2b` and :func:`blake2s` were added.
+
+For example, to obtain the digest of the byte string ``b'Nobody inspects the
+spammish repetition'``::
+
+   >>> import hashlib
+   >>> m = hashlib.sha256()
+   >>> m.update(b"Nobody inspects")
+   >>> m.update(b" the spammish repetition")
+   >>> m.digest()
+   b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06'
+   >>> m.digest_size
+   32
+   >>> m.block_size
+   64
+
+More condensed:
+
+   >>> hashlib.sha224(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition").hexdigest()
+   'a4337bc45a8fc544c03f52dc550cd6e1e87021bc896588bd79e901e2'
+
+.. function:: new(name[, data])
+
+   Is a generic constructor that takes the string *name* of the desired
+   algorithm as its first parameter.  It also exists to allow access to the
+   above listed hashes as well as any other algorithms that your OpenSSL
+   library may offer.  The named constructors are much faster than :func:`new`
+   and should be preferred.
+
+Using :func:`new` with an algorithm provided by OpenSSL:
+
+   >>> h = hashlib.new('ripemd160')
+   >>> h.update(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition")
+   >>> h.hexdigest()
+   'cc4a5ce1b3df48aec5d22d1f16b894a0b894eccc'
+
+Hashlib provides the following constant attributes:
+
+.. data:: algorithms_guaranteed
+
+   A set containing the names of the hash algorithms guaranteed to be supported
+   by this module on all platforms.  Note that 'md5' is in this list despite
+   some upstream vendors offering an odd "FIPS compliant" Python build that
+   excludes it.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: algorithms_available
+
+   A set containing the names of the hash algorithms that are available in the
+   running Python interpreter.  These names will be recognized when passed to
+   :func:`new`.  :attr:`algorithms_guaranteed` will always be a subset.  The
+   same algorithm may appear multiple times in this set under different names
+   (thanks to OpenSSL).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+The following values are provided as constant attributes of the hash objects
+returned by the constructors:
+
+
+.. data:: hash.digest_size
+
+   The size of the resulting hash in bytes.
+
+.. data:: hash.block_size
+
+   The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.
+
+A hash object has the following attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: hash.name
+
+   The canonical name of this hash, always lowercase and always suitable as a
+   parameter to :func:`new` to create another hash of this type.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The name attribute has been present in CPython since its inception, but
+      until Python 3.4 was not formally specified, so may not exist on some
+      platforms.
+
+A hash object has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: hash.update(data)
+
+   Update the hash object with the :term:`bytes-like object`.
+   Repeated calls are equivalent to a single call with the
+   concatenation of all the arguments: ``m.update(a); m.update(b)`` is
+   equivalent to ``m.update(a+b)``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      The Python GIL is released to allow other threads to run while hash
+      updates on data larger than 2047 bytes is taking place when using hash
+      algorithms supplied by OpenSSL.
+
+
+.. method:: hash.digest()
+
+   Return the digest of the data passed to the :meth:`update` method so far.
+   This is a bytes object of size :attr:`digest_size` which may contain bytes in
+   the whole range from 0 to 255.
+
+
+.. method:: hash.hexdigest()
+
+   Like :meth:`digest` except the digest is returned as a string object of
+   double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be used to
+   exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary environments.
+
+
+.. method:: hash.copy()
+
+   Return a copy ("clone") of the hash object.  This can be used to efficiently
+   compute the digests of data sharing a common initial substring.
+
+
+SHAKE variable length digests
+-----------------------------
+
+The :func:`shake_128` and :func:`shake_256` algorithms provide variable
+length digests with length_in_bits//2 up to 128 or 256 bits of security.
+As such, their digest methods require a length. Maximum length is not limited
+by the SHAKE algorithm.
+
+.. method:: shake.digest(length)
+
+   Return the digest of the data passed to the :meth:`update` method so far.
+   This is a bytes object of size *length* which may contain bytes in
+   the whole range from 0 to 255.
+
+
+.. method:: shake.hexdigest(length)
+
+   Like :meth:`digest` except the digest is returned as a string object of
+   double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be used to
+   exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary environments.
+
+
+Key derivation
+--------------
+
+Key derivation and key stretching algorithms are designed for secure password
+hashing. Naive algorithms such as ``sha1(password)`` are not resistant against
+brute-force attacks. A good password hashing function must be tunable, slow, and
+include a `salt <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28cryptography%29>`_.
+
+
+.. function:: pbkdf2_hmac(hash_name, password, salt, iterations, dklen=None)
+
+   The function provides PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2. It
+   uses HMAC as pseudorandom function.
+
+   The string *hash_name* is the desired name of the hash digest algorithm for
+   HMAC, e.g. 'sha1' or 'sha256'. *password* and *salt* are interpreted as
+   buffers of bytes. Applications and libraries should limit *password* to
+   a sensible length (e.g. 1024). *salt* should be about 16 or more bytes from
+   a proper source, e.g. :func:`os.urandom`.
+
+   The number of *iterations* should be chosen based on the hash algorithm and
+   computing power. As of 2013, at least 100,000 iterations of SHA-256 are
+   suggested.
+
+   *dklen* is the length of the derived key. If *dklen* is ``None`` then the
+   digest size of the hash algorithm *hash_name* is used, e.g. 64 for SHA-512.
+
+   >>> import hashlib, binascii
+   >>> dk = hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', b'password', b'salt', 100000)
+   >>> binascii.hexlify(dk)
+   b'0394a2ede332c9a13eb82e9b24631604c31df978b4e2f0fbd2c549944f9d79a5'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. note::
+
+      A fast implementation of *pbkdf2_hmac* is available with OpenSSL.  The
+      Python implementation uses an inline version of :mod:`hmac`. It is about
+      three times slower and doesn't release the GIL.
+
+.. function:: scrypt(password, *, salt, n, r, p, maxmem=0, dklen=64)
+
+   The function provides scrypt password-based key derivation function as
+   defined in :rfc:`7914`.
+
+   *password* and *salt* must be :term:`bytes-like objects
+   <bytes-like object>`.  Applications and libraries should limit *password*
+   to a sensible length (e.g. 1024).  *salt* should be about 16 or more
+   bytes from a proper source, e.g. :func:`os.urandom`.
+
+   *n* is the CPU/Memory cost factor, *r* the block size, *p* parallelization
+   factor and *maxmem* limits memory (OpenSSL 1.1.0 defaults to 32 MiB).
+   *dklen* is the length of the derived key.
+
+   .. availability:: OpenSSL 1.1+.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+BLAKE2
+------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Dmitry Chestnykh
+
+.. index::
+   single: blake2b, blake2s
+
+BLAKE2_ is a cryptographic hash function defined in :rfc:`7693` that comes in two
+flavors:
+
+* **BLAKE2b**, optimized for 64-bit platforms and produces digests of any size
+  between 1 and 64 bytes,
+
+* **BLAKE2s**, optimized for 8- to 32-bit platforms and produces digests of any
+  size between 1 and 32 bytes.
+
+BLAKE2 supports **keyed mode** (a faster and simpler replacement for HMAC_),
+**salted hashing**, **personalization**, and **tree hashing**.
+
+Hash objects from this module follow the API of standard library's
+:mod:`hashlib` objects.
+
+
+Creating hash objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+New hash objects are created by calling constructor functions:
+
+
+.. function:: blake2b(data=b'', *, digest_size=64, key=b'', salt=b'', \
+                person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0, node_offset=0,  \
+                node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False)
+
+.. function:: blake2s(data=b'', *, digest_size=32, key=b'', salt=b'', \
+                person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0, node_offset=0,  \
+                node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False)
+
+
+These functions return the corresponding hash objects for calculating
+BLAKE2b or BLAKE2s. They optionally take these general parameters:
+
+* *data*: initial chunk of data to hash, which must be
+  :term:`bytes-like object`.  It can be passed only as positional argument.
+
+* *digest_size*: size of output digest in bytes.
+
+* *key*: key for keyed hashing (up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 32 bytes for
+  BLAKE2s).
+
+* *salt*: salt for randomized hashing (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 8
+  bytes for BLAKE2s).
+
+* *person*: personalization string (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 8 bytes
+  for BLAKE2s).
+
+The following table shows limits for general parameters (in bytes):
+
+======= =========== ======== ========= ===========
+Hash    digest_size len(key) len(salt) len(person)
+======= =========== ======== ========= ===========
+BLAKE2b     64         64       16        16
+BLAKE2s     32         32       8         8
+======= =========== ======== ========= ===========
+
+.. note::
+
+    BLAKE2 specification defines constant lengths for salt and personalization
+    parameters, however, for convenience, this implementation accepts byte
+    strings of any size up to the specified length. If the length of the
+    parameter is less than specified, it is padded with zeros, thus, for
+    example, ``b'salt'`` and ``b'salt\x00'`` is the same value. (This is not
+    the case for *key*.)
+
+These sizes are available as module `constants`_ described below.
+
+Constructor functions also accept the following tree hashing parameters:
+
+* *fanout*: fanout (0 to 255, 0 if unlimited, 1 in sequential mode).
+
+* *depth*: maximal depth of tree (1 to 255, 255 if unlimited, 1 in
+  sequential mode).
+
+* *leaf_size*: maximal byte length of leaf (0 to 2**32-1, 0 if unlimited or in
+  sequential mode).
+
+* *node_offset*: node offset (0 to 2**64-1 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 2**48-1 for
+  BLAKE2s, 0 for the first, leftmost, leaf, or in sequential mode).
+
+* *node_depth*: node depth (0 to 255, 0 for leaves, or in sequential mode).
+
+* *inner_size*: inner digest size (0 to 64 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 32 for
+  BLAKE2s, 0 in sequential mode).
+
+* *last_node*: boolean indicating whether the processed node is the last
+  one (`False` for sequential mode).
+
+.. figure:: hashlib-blake2-tree.png
+   :alt: Explanation of tree mode parameters.
+
+See section 2.10 in `BLAKE2 specification
+<https://blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf>`_ for comprehensive review of tree
+hashing.
+
+
+Constants
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. data:: blake2b.SALT_SIZE
+.. data:: blake2s.SALT_SIZE
+
+Salt length (maximum length accepted by constructors).
+
+
+.. data:: blake2b.PERSON_SIZE
+.. data:: blake2s.PERSON_SIZE
+
+Personalization string length (maximum length accepted by constructors).
+
+
+.. data:: blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE
+.. data:: blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE
+
+Maximum key size.
+
+
+.. data:: blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE
+.. data:: blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE
+
+Maximum digest size that the hash function can output.
+
+
+Examples
+^^^^^^^^
+
+Simple hashing
+""""""""""""""
+
+To calculate hash of some data, you should first construct a hash object by
+calling the appropriate constructor function (:func:`blake2b` or
+:func:`blake2s`), then update it with the data by calling :meth:`update` on the
+object, and, finally, get the digest out of the object by calling
+:meth:`digest` (or :meth:`hexdigest` for hex-encoded string).
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> h = blake2b()
+    >>> h.update(b'Hello world')
+    >>> h.hexdigest()
+    '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'
+
+
+As a shortcut, you can pass the first chunk of data to update directly to the
+constructor as the positional argument:
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> blake2b(b'Hello world').hexdigest()
+    '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'
+
+You can call :meth:`hash.update` as many times as you need to iteratively
+update the hash:
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> items = [b'Hello', b' ', b'world']
+    >>> h = blake2b()
+    >>> for item in items:
+    ...     h.update(item)
+    >>> h.hexdigest()
+    '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'
+
+
+Using different digest sizes
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+BLAKE2 has configurable size of digests up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b and up to 32
+bytes for BLAKE2s. For example, to replace SHA-1 with BLAKE2b without changing
+the size of output, we can tell BLAKE2b to produce 20-byte digests:
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=20)
+    >>> h.update(b'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function')
+    >>> h.hexdigest()
+    'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c'
+    >>> h.digest_size
+    20
+    >>> len(h.digest())
+    20
+
+Hash objects with different digest sizes have completely different outputs
+(shorter hashes are *not* prefixes of longer hashes); BLAKE2b and BLAKE2s
+produce different outputs even if the output length is the same:
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b, blake2s
+    >>> blake2b(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
+    '6fa1d8fcfd719046d762'
+    >>> blake2b(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
+    'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809'
+    >>> blake2s(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
+    '1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9'
+    >>> blake2s(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
+    '567004bf96e4a25773ebf4'
+
+
+Keyed hashing
+"""""""""""""
+
+Keyed hashing can be used for authentication as a faster and simpler
+replacement for `Hash-based message authentication code
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code>`_ (HMAC).
+BLAKE2 can be securely used in prefix-MAC mode thanks to the
+indifferentiability property inherited from BLAKE.
+
+This example shows how to get a (hex-encoded) 128-bit authentication code for
+message ``b'message data'`` with key ``b'pseudorandom key'``::
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> h = blake2b(key=b'pseudorandom key', digest_size=16)
+    >>> h.update(b'message data')
+    >>> h.hexdigest()
+    '3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced'
+
+
+As a practical example, a web application can symmetrically sign cookies sent
+to users and later verify them to make sure they weren't tampered with::
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> from hmac import compare_digest
+    >>>
+    >>> SECRET_KEY = b'pseudorandomly generated server secret key'
+    >>> AUTH_SIZE = 16
+    >>>
+    >>> def sign(cookie):
+    ...     h = blake2b(digest_size=AUTH_SIZE, key=SECRET_KEY)
+    ...     h.update(cookie)
+    ...     return h.hexdigest().encode('utf-8')
+    >>>
+    >>> def verify(cookie, sig):
+    ...     good_sig = sign(cookie)
+    ...     return compare_digest(good_sig, sig)
+    >>>
+    >>> cookie = b'user-alice'
+    >>> sig = sign(cookie)
+    >>> print("{0},{1}".format(cookie.decode('utf-8'), sig))
+    user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421'
+    >>> verify(cookie, sig)
+    True
+    >>> verify(b'user-bob', sig)
+    False
+    >>> verify(cookie, b'0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00')
+    False
+
+Even though there's a native keyed hashing mode, BLAKE2 can, of course, be used
+in HMAC construction with :mod:`hmac` module::
+
+    >>> import hmac, hashlib
+    >>> m = hmac.new(b'secret key', digestmod=hashlib.blake2s)
+    >>> m.update(b'message')
+    >>> m.hexdigest()
+    'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142'
+
+
+Randomized hashing
+""""""""""""""""""
+
+By setting *salt* parameter users can introduce randomization to the hash
+function. Randomized hashing is useful for protecting against collision attacks
+on the hash function used in digital signatures.
+
+    Randomized hashing is designed for situations where one party, the message
+    preparer, generates all or part of a message to be signed by a second
+    party, the message signer. If the message preparer is able to find
+    cryptographic hash function collisions (i.e., two messages producing the
+    same hash value), then they might prepare meaningful versions of the message
+    that would produce the same hash value and digital signature, but with
+    different results (e.g., transferring $1,000,000 to an account, rather than
+    $10). Cryptographic hash functions have been designed with collision
+    resistance as a major goal, but the current concentration on attacking
+    cryptographic hash functions may result in a given cryptographic hash
+    function providing less collision resistance than expected. Randomized
+    hashing offers the signer additional protection by reducing the likelihood
+    that a preparer can generate two or more messages that ultimately yield the
+    same hash value during the digital signature generation process --- even if
+    it is practical to find collisions for the hash function. However, the use
+    of randomized hashing may reduce the amount of security provided by a
+    digital signature when all portions of the message are prepared
+    by the signer.
+
+    (`NIST SP-800-106 "Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures"
+    <https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-106/final>`_)
+
+In BLAKE2 the salt is processed as a one-time input to the hash function during
+initialization, rather than as an input to each compression function.
+
+.. warning::
+
+    *Salted hashing* (or just hashing) with BLAKE2 or any other general-purpose
+    cryptographic hash function, such as SHA-256, is not suitable for hashing
+    passwords.  See `BLAKE2 FAQ <https://blake2.net/#qa>`_ for more
+    information.
+..
+
+    >>> import os
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> msg = b'some message'
+    >>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt.
+    >>> salt1 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
+    >>> h1 = blake2b(salt=salt1)
+    >>> h1.update(msg)
+    >>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.
+    >>> salt2 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
+    >>> h2 = blake2b(salt=salt2)
+    >>> h2.update(msg)
+    >>> # The digests are different.
+    >>> h1.digest() != h2.digest()
+    True
+
+
+Personalization
+"""""""""""""""
+
+Sometimes it is useful to force hash function to produce different digests for
+the same input for different purposes. Quoting the authors of the Skein hash
+function:
+
+    We recommend that all application designers seriously consider doing this;
+    we have seen many protocols where a hash that is computed in one part of
+    the protocol can be used in an entirely different part because two hash
+    computations were done on similar or related data, and the attacker can
+    force the application to make the hash inputs the same. Personalizing each
+    hash function used in the protocol summarily stops this type of attack.
+
+    (`The Skein Hash Function Family
+    <http://www.skein-hash.info/sites/default/files/skein1.3.pdf>`_,
+    p. 21)
+
+BLAKE2 can be personalized by passing bytes to the *person* argument::
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Files Hash'
+    >>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Block Hash'
+    >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=FILES_HASH_PERSON)
+    >>> h.update(b'the same content')
+    >>> h.hexdigest()
+    '20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4'
+    >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=BLOCK_HASH_PERSON)
+    >>> h.update(b'the same content')
+    >>> h.hexdigest()
+    'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3'
+
+Personalization together with the keyed mode can also be used to derive different
+keys from a single one.
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2s
+    >>> from base64 import b64decode, b64encode
+    >>> orig_key = b64decode(b'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=')
+    >>> enc_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kEncrypt').digest()
+    >>> mac_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kMAC').digest()
+    >>> print(b64encode(enc_key).decode('utf-8'))
+    rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=
+    >>> print(b64encode(mac_key).decode('utf-8'))
+    G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=
+
+Tree mode
+"""""""""
+
+Here's an example of hashing a minimal tree with two leaf nodes::
+
+       10
+      /  \
+     00  01
+
+This example uses 64-byte internal digests, and returns the 32-byte final
+digest::
+
+    >>> from hashlib import blake2b
+    >>>
+    >>> FANOUT = 2
+    >>> DEPTH = 2
+    >>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096
+    >>> INNER_SIZE = 64
+    >>>
+    >>> buf = bytearray(6000)
+    >>>
+    >>> # Left leaf
+    ... h00 = blake2b(buf[0:LEAF_SIZE], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
+    ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
+    ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=0, last_node=False)
+    >>> # Right leaf
+    ... h01 = blake2b(buf[LEAF_SIZE:], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
+    ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
+    ...               node_offset=1, node_depth=0, last_node=True)
+    >>> # Root node
+    ... h10 = blake2b(digest_size=32, fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
+    ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
+    ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=1, last_node=True)
+    >>> h10.update(h00.digest())
+    >>> h10.update(h01.digest())
+    >>> h10.hexdigest()
+    '3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa'
+
+Credits
+^^^^^^^
+
+BLAKE2_ was designed by *Jean-Philippe Aumasson*, *Samuel Neves*, *Zooko
+Wilcox-O'Hearn*, and *Christian Winnerlein* based on SHA-3_ finalist BLAKE_
+created by *Jean-Philippe Aumasson*, *Luca Henzen*, *Willi Meier*, and
+*Raphael C.-W. Phan*.
+
+It uses core algorithm from ChaCha_ cipher designed by *Daniel J.  Bernstein*.
+
+The stdlib implementation is based on pyblake2_ module. It was written by
+*Dmitry Chestnykh* based on C implementation written by *Samuel Neves*. The
+documentation was copied from pyblake2_ and written by *Dmitry Chestnykh*.
+
+The C code was partly rewritten for Python by *Christian Heimes*.
+
+The following public domain dedication applies for both C hash function
+implementation, extension code, and this documentation:
+
+   To the extent possible under law, the author(s) have dedicated all copyright
+   and related and neighboring rights to this software to the public domain
+   worldwide. This software is distributed without any warranty.
+
+   You should have received a copy of the CC0 Public Domain Dedication along
+   with this software. If not, see
+   https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/.
+
+The following people have helped with development or contributed their changes
+to the project and the public domain according to the Creative Commons Public
+Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal:
+
+* *Alexandr Sokolovskiy*
+
+.. _BLAKE2: https://blake2.net
+.. _HMAC: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code
+.. _BLAKE: https://131002.net/blake/
+.. _SHA-3: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST_hash_function_competition
+.. _ChaCha: https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html
+.. _pyblake2: https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/
+
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`hmac`
+      A module to generate message authentication codes using hashes.
+
+   Module :mod:`base64`
+      Another way to encode binary hashes for non-binary environments.
+
+   https://blake2.net
+      Official BLAKE2 website.
+
+   https://csrc.nist.gov/csrc/media/publications/fips/180/2/archive/2002-08-01/documents/fips180-2.pdf
+      The FIPS 180-2 publication on Secure Hash Algorithms.
+
+   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Cryptographic_hash_algorithms
+      Wikipedia article with information on which algorithms have known issues and
+      what that means regarding their use.
+
+   https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2898.txt
+      PKCS #5: Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.0
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/heapq.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/heapq.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b00f7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/heapq.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,322 @@
+:mod:`heapq` --- Heap queue algorithm
+=====================================
+
+.. module:: heapq
+   :synopsis: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Kevin O'Connor
+.. sectionauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: François Pinard
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/heapq.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides an implementation of the heap queue algorithm, also known
+as the priority queue algorithm.
+
+Heaps are binary trees for which every parent node has a value less than or
+equal to any of its children.  This implementation uses arrays for which
+``heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]`` and ``heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]`` for all *k*, counting
+elements from zero.  For the sake of comparison, non-existing elements are
+considered to be infinite.  The interesting property of a heap is that its
+smallest element is always the root, ``heap[0]``.
+
+The API below differs from textbook heap algorithms in two aspects: (a) We use
+zero-based indexing.  This makes the relationship between the index for a node
+and the indexes for its children slightly less obvious, but is more suitable
+since Python uses zero-based indexing. (b) Our pop method returns the smallest
+item, not the largest (called a "min heap" in textbooks; a "max heap" is more
+common in texts because of its suitability for in-place sorting).
+
+These two make it possible to view the heap as a regular Python list without
+surprises: ``heap[0]`` is the smallest item, and ``heap.sort()`` maintains the
+heap invariant!
+
+To create a heap, use a list initialized to ``[]``, or you can transform a
+populated list into a heap via function :func:`heapify`.
+
+The following functions are provided:
+
+
+.. function:: heappush(heap, item)
+
+   Push the value *item* onto the *heap*, maintaining the heap invariant.
+
+
+.. function:: heappop(heap)
+
+   Pop and return the smallest item from the *heap*, maintaining the heap
+   invariant.  If the heap is empty, :exc:`IndexError` is raised.  To access the
+   smallest item without popping it, use ``heap[0]``.
+
+
+.. function:: heappushpop(heap, item)
+
+   Push *item* on the heap, then pop and return the smallest item from the
+   *heap*.  The combined action runs more efficiently than :func:`heappush`
+   followed by a separate call to :func:`heappop`.
+
+
+.. function:: heapify(x)
+
+   Transform list *x* into a heap, in-place, in linear time.
+
+
+.. function:: heapreplace(heap, item)
+
+   Pop and return the smallest item from the *heap*, and also push the new *item*.
+   The heap size doesn't change. If the heap is empty, :exc:`IndexError` is raised.
+
+   This one step operation is more efficient than a :func:`heappop` followed by
+   :func:`heappush` and can be more appropriate when using a fixed-size heap.
+   The pop/push combination always returns an element from the heap and replaces
+   it with *item*.
+
+   The value returned may be larger than the *item* added.  If that isn't
+   desired, consider using :func:`heappushpop` instead.  Its push/pop
+   combination returns the smaller of the two values, leaving the larger value
+   on the heap.
+
+
+The module also offers three general purpose functions based on heaps.
+
+
+.. function:: merge(*iterables, key=None, reverse=False)
+
+   Merge multiple sorted inputs into a single sorted output (for example, merge
+   timestamped entries from multiple log files).  Returns an :term:`iterator`
+   over the sorted values.
+
+   Similar to ``sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables))`` but returns an iterable, does
+   not pull the data into memory all at once, and assumes that each of the input
+   streams is already sorted (smallest to largest).
+
+   Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword arguments.
+
+   *key* specifies a :term:`key function` of one argument that is used to
+   extract a comparison key from each input element.  The default value is
+   ``None`` (compare the elements directly).
+
+   *reverse* is a boolean value.  If set to ``True``, then the input elements
+   are merged as if each comparison were reversed. To achieve behavior similar
+   to ``sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables), reverse=True)``, all iterables must
+   be sorted from largest to smallest.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the optional *key* and *reverse* parameters.
+
+
+.. function:: nlargest(n, iterable, key=None)
+
+   Return a list with the *n* largest elements from the dataset defined by
+   *iterable*.  *key*, if provided, specifies a function of one argument that is
+   used to extract a comparison key from each element in *iterable* (for example,
+   ``key=str.lower``).  Equivalent to:  ``sorted(iterable, key=key,
+   reverse=True)[:n]``.
+
+
+.. function:: nsmallest(n, iterable, key=None)
+
+   Return a list with the *n* smallest elements from the dataset defined by
+   *iterable*.  *key*, if provided, specifies a function of one argument that is
+   used to extract a comparison key from each element in *iterable* (for example,
+   ``key=str.lower``).  Equivalent to:  ``sorted(iterable, key=key)[:n]``.
+
+
+The latter two functions perform best for smaller values of *n*.  For larger
+values, it is more efficient to use the :func:`sorted` function.  Also, when
+``n==1``, it is more efficient to use the built-in :func:`min` and :func:`max`
+functions.  If repeated usage of these functions is required, consider turning
+the iterable into an actual heap.
+
+
+Basic Examples
+--------------
+
+A `heapsort <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort>`_ can be implemented by
+pushing all values onto a heap and then popping off the smallest values one at a
+time::
+
+   >>> def heapsort(iterable):
+   ...     h = []
+   ...     for value in iterable:
+   ...         heappush(h, value)
+   ...     return [heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
+   ...
+   >>> heapsort([1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0])
+   [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
+
+This is similar to ``sorted(iterable)``, but unlike :func:`sorted`, this
+implementation is not stable.
+
+Heap elements can be tuples.  This is useful for assigning comparison values
+(such as task priorities) alongside the main record being tracked::
+
+    >>> h = []
+    >>> heappush(h, (5, 'write code'))
+    >>> heappush(h, (7, 'release product'))
+    >>> heappush(h, (1, 'write spec'))
+    >>> heappush(h, (3, 'create tests'))
+    >>> heappop(h)
+    (1, 'write spec')
+
+
+Priority Queue Implementation Notes
+-----------------------------------
+
+A `priority queue <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue>`_ is common use
+for a heap, and it presents several implementation challenges:
+
+* Sort stability:  how do you get two tasks with equal priorities to be returned
+  in the order they were originally added?
+
+* Tuple comparison breaks for (priority, task) pairs if the priorities are equal
+  and the tasks do not have a default comparison order.
+
+* If the priority of a task changes, how do you move it to a new position in
+  the heap?
+
+* Or if a pending task needs to be deleted, how do you find it and remove it
+  from the queue?
+
+A solution to the first two challenges is to store entries as 3-element list
+including the priority, an entry count, and the task.  The entry count serves as
+a tie-breaker so that two tasks with the same priority are returned in the order
+they were added. And since no two entry counts are the same, the tuple
+comparison will never attempt to directly compare two tasks.
+
+Another solution to the problem of non-comparable tasks is to create a wrapper
+class that ignores the task item and only compares the priority field::
+
+    from dataclasses import dataclass, field
+    from typing import Any
+
+    @dataclass(order=True)
+    class PrioritizedItem:
+        priority: int
+        item: Any=field(compare=False)
+
+The remaining challenges revolve around finding a pending task and making
+changes to its priority or removing it entirely.  Finding a task can be done
+with a dictionary pointing to an entry in the queue.
+
+Removing the entry or changing its priority is more difficult because it would
+break the heap structure invariants.  So, a possible solution is to mark the
+entry as removed and add a new entry with the revised priority::
+
+    pq = []                         # list of entries arranged in a heap
+    entry_finder = {}               # mapping of tasks to entries
+    REMOVED = '<removed-task>'      # placeholder for a removed task
+    counter = itertools.count()     # unique sequence count
+
+    def add_task(task, priority=0):
+        'Add a new task or update the priority of an existing task'
+        if task in entry_finder:
+            remove_task(task)
+        count = next(counter)
+        entry = [priority, count, task]
+        entry_finder[task] = entry
+        heappush(pq, entry)
+
+    def remove_task(task):
+        'Mark an existing task as REMOVED.  Raise KeyError if not found.'
+        entry = entry_finder.pop(task)
+        entry[-1] = REMOVED
+
+    def pop_task():
+        'Remove and return the lowest priority task. Raise KeyError if empty.'
+        while pq:
+            priority, count, task = heappop(pq)
+            if task is not REMOVED:
+                del entry_finder[task]
+                return task
+        raise KeyError('pop from an empty priority queue')
+
+
+Theory
+------
+
+Heaps are arrays for which ``a[k] <= a[2*k+1]`` and ``a[k] <= a[2*k+2]`` for all
+*k*, counting elements from 0.  For the sake of comparison, non-existing
+elements are considered to be infinite.  The interesting property of a heap is
+that ``a[0]`` is always its smallest element.
+
+The strange invariant above is meant to be an efficient memory representation
+for a tournament.  The numbers below are *k*, not ``a[k]``::
+
+                                  0
+
+                 1                                 2
+
+         3               4                5               6
+
+     7       8       9       10      11      12      13      14
+
+   15 16   17 18   19 20   21 22   23 24   25 26   27 28   29 30
+
+In the tree above, each cell *k* is topping ``2*k+1`` and ``2*k+2``. In a usual
+binary tournament we see in sports, each cell is the winner over the two cells
+it tops, and we can trace the winner down the tree to see all opponents s/he
+had.  However, in many computer applications of such tournaments, we do not need
+to trace the history of a winner. To be more memory efficient, when a winner is
+promoted, we try to replace it by something else at a lower level, and the rule
+becomes that a cell and the two cells it tops contain three different items, but
+the top cell "wins" over the two topped cells.
+
+If this heap invariant is protected at all time, index 0 is clearly the overall
+winner.  The simplest algorithmic way to remove it and find the "next" winner is
+to move some loser (let's say cell 30 in the diagram above) into the 0 position,
+and then percolate this new 0 down the tree, exchanging values, until the
+invariant is re-established. This is clearly logarithmic on the total number of
+items in the tree. By iterating over all items, you get an O(n log n) sort.
+
+A nice feature of this sort is that you can efficiently insert new items while
+the sort is going on, provided that the inserted items are not "better" than the
+last 0'th element you extracted.  This is especially useful in simulation
+contexts, where the tree holds all incoming events, and the "win" condition
+means the smallest scheduled time.  When an event schedules other events for
+execution, they are scheduled into the future, so they can easily go into the
+heap.  So, a heap is a good structure for implementing schedulers (this is what
+I used for my MIDI sequencer :-).
+
+Various structures for implementing schedulers have been extensively studied,
+and heaps are good for this, as they are reasonably speedy, the speed is almost
+constant, and the worst case is not much different than the average case.
+However, there are other representations which are more efficient overall, yet
+the worst cases might be terrible.
+
+Heaps are also very useful in big disk sorts.  You most probably all know that a
+big sort implies producing "runs" (which are pre-sorted sequences, whose size is
+usually related to the amount of CPU memory), followed by a merging passes for
+these runs, which merging is often very cleverly organised [#]_. It is very
+important that the initial sort produces the longest runs possible.  Tournaments
+are a good way to achieve that.  If, using all the memory available to hold a
+tournament, you replace and percolate items that happen to fit the current run,
+you'll produce runs which are twice the size of the memory for random input, and
+much better for input fuzzily ordered.
+
+Moreover, if you output the 0'th item on disk and get an input which may not fit
+in the current tournament (because the value "wins" over the last output value),
+it cannot fit in the heap, so the size of the heap decreases.  The freed memory
+could be cleverly reused immediately for progressively building a second heap,
+which grows at exactly the same rate the first heap is melting.  When the first
+heap completely vanishes, you switch heaps and start a new run.  Clever and
+quite effective!
+
+In a word, heaps are useful memory structures to know.  I use them in a few
+applications, and I think it is good to keep a 'heap' module around. :-)
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] The disk balancing algorithms which are current, nowadays, are more annoying
+   than clever, and this is a consequence of the seeking capabilities of the disks.
+   On devices which cannot seek, like big tape drives, the story was quite
+   different, and one had to be very clever to ensure (far in advance) that each
+   tape movement will be the most effective possible (that is, will best
+   participate at "progressing" the merge).  Some tapes were even able to read
+   backwards, and this was also used to avoid the rewinding time. Believe me, real
+   good tape sorts were quite spectacular to watch! From all times, sorting has
+   always been a Great Art! :-)
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/hmac.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/hmac.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..731624b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/hmac.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+:mod:`hmac` --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
+========================================================
+
+.. module:: hmac
+   :synopsis: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Gerhard Häring <ghaering@users.sourceforge.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Gerhard Häring <ghaering@users.sourceforge.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/hmac.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by :rfc:`2104`.
+
+
+.. function:: new(key, msg=None, digestmod=None)
+
+   Return a new hmac object.  *key* is a bytes or bytearray object giving the
+   secret key.  If *msg* is present, the method call ``update(msg)`` is made.
+   *digestmod* is the digest name, digest constructor or module for the HMAC
+   object to use. It supports any name suitable to :func:`hashlib.new` and
+   defaults to the :data:`hashlib.md5` constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Parameter *key* can be a bytes or bytearray object.
+      Parameter *msg* can be of any type supported by :mod:`hashlib`.
+      Parameter *digestmod* can be the name of a hash algorithm.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 3.8
+      MD5 as implicit default digest for *digestmod* is deprecated.
+
+
+.. function:: digest(key, msg, digest)
+
+   Return digest of *msg* for given secret *key* and *digest*. The
+   function is equivalent to ``HMAC(key, msg, digest).digest()``, but
+   uses an optimized C or inline implementation, which is faster for messages
+   that fit into memory. The parameters *key*, *msg*, and *digest* have
+   the same meaning as in :func:`~hmac.new`.
+
+   CPython implementation detail, the optimized C implementation is only used
+   when *digest* is a string and name of a digest algorithm, which is
+   supported by OpenSSL.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+An HMAC object has the following methods:
+
+.. method:: HMAC.update(msg)
+
+   Update the hmac object with *msg*.  Repeated calls are equivalent to a
+   single call with the concatenation of all the arguments:
+   ``m.update(a); m.update(b)`` is equivalent to ``m.update(a + b)``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Parameter *msg* can be of any type supported by :mod:`hashlib`.
+
+
+.. method:: HMAC.digest()
+
+   Return the digest of the bytes passed to the :meth:`update` method so far.
+   This bytes object will be the same length as the *digest_size* of the digest
+   given to the constructor.  It may contain non-ASCII bytes, including NUL
+   bytes.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      When comparing the output of :meth:`digest` to an externally-supplied
+      digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the
+      :func:`compare_digest` function instead of the ``==`` operator
+      to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks.
+
+
+.. method:: HMAC.hexdigest()
+
+   Like :meth:`digest` except the digest is returned as a string twice the
+   length containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be used to exchange the
+   value safely in email or other non-binary environments.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      When comparing the output of :meth:`hexdigest` to an externally-supplied
+      digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the
+      :func:`compare_digest` function instead of the ``==`` operator
+      to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks.
+
+
+.. method:: HMAC.copy()
+
+   Return a copy ("clone") of the hmac object.  This can be used to efficiently
+   compute the digests of strings that share a common initial substring.
+
+
+A hash object has the following attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: HMAC.digest_size
+
+   The size of the resulting HMAC digest in bytes.
+
+.. attribute:: HMAC.block_size
+
+   The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. attribute:: HMAC.name
+
+   The canonical name of this HMAC, always lowercase, e.g. ``hmac-md5``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+This module also provides the following helper function:
+
+.. function:: compare_digest(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a == b``.  This function uses an approach designed to prevent
+   timing analysis by avoiding content-based short circuiting behaviour,
+   making it appropriate for cryptography.  *a* and *b* must both be of the
+   same type: either :class:`str` (ASCII only, as e.g. returned by
+   :meth:`HMAC.hexdigest`), or a :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If *a* and *b* are of different lengths, or if an error occurs,
+      a timing attack could theoretically reveal information about the
+      types and lengths of *a* and *b*—but not their values.
+
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`hashlib`
+      The Python module providing secure hash functions.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.entities.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.entities.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..067e1b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.entities.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+:mod:`html.entities` --- Definitions of HTML general entities
+=============================================================
+
+.. module:: html.entities
+   :synopsis: Definitions of HTML general entities.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/html/entities.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines four dictionaries, :data:`html5`,
+:data:`name2codepoint`, :data:`codepoint2name`, and :data:`entitydefs`.
+
+
+.. data:: html5
+
+   A dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references [#]_ to the
+   equivalent Unicode character(s), e.g. ``html5['gt;'] == '>'``.
+   Note that the trailing semicolon is included in the name (e.g. ``'gt;'``),
+   however some of the names are accepted by the standard even without the
+   semicolon: in this case the name is present with and without the ``';'``.
+   See also :func:`html.unescape`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: entitydefs
+
+   A dictionary mapping XHTML 1.0 entity definitions to their replacement text in
+   ISO Latin-1.
+
+
+.. data:: name2codepoint
+
+   A dictionary that maps HTML entity names to the Unicode code points.
+
+
+.. data:: codepoint2name
+
+   A dictionary that maps Unicode code points to HTML entity names.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] See https://www.w3.org/TR/html5/syntax.html#named-character-references
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.parser.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.parser.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac844a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.parser.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,340 @@
+:mod:`html.parser` --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: html.parser
+   :synopsis: A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/html/parser.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: HTML
+   single: XHTML
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines a class :class:`HTMLParser` which serves as the basis for
+parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) and XHTML.
+
+.. class:: HTMLParser(*, convert_charrefs=True)
+
+   Create a parser instance able to parse invalid markup.
+
+   If *convert_charrefs* is ``True`` (the default), all character
+   references (except the ones in ``script``/``style`` elements) are
+   automatically converted to the corresponding Unicode characters.
+
+   An :class:`.HTMLParser` instance is fed HTML data and calls handler methods
+   when start tags, end tags, text, comments, and other markup elements are
+   encountered.  The user should subclass :class:`.HTMLParser` and override its
+   methods to implement the desired behavior.
+
+   This parser does not check that end tags match start tags or call the end-tag
+   handler for elements which are closed implicitly by closing an outer element.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      *convert_charrefs* keyword argument added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The default value for argument *convert_charrefs* is now ``True``.
+
+
+Example HTML Parser Application
+-------------------------------
+
+As a basic example, below is a simple HTML parser that uses the
+:class:`HTMLParser` class to print out start tags, end tags, and data
+as they are encountered::
+
+   from html.parser import HTMLParser
+
+   class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
+       def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
+           print("Encountered a start tag:", tag)
+
+       def handle_endtag(self, tag):
+           print("Encountered an end tag :", tag)
+
+       def handle_data(self, data):
+           print("Encountered some data  :", data)
+
+   parser = MyHTMLParser()
+   parser.feed('<html><head><title>Test</title></head>'
+               '<body><h1>Parse me!</h1></body></html>')
+
+The output will then be:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   Encountered a start tag: html
+   Encountered a start tag: head
+   Encountered a start tag: title
+   Encountered some data  : Test
+   Encountered an end tag : title
+   Encountered an end tag : head
+   Encountered a start tag: body
+   Encountered a start tag: h1
+   Encountered some data  : Parse me!
+   Encountered an end tag : h1
+   Encountered an end tag : body
+   Encountered an end tag : html
+
+
+:class:`.HTMLParser` Methods
+----------------------------
+
+:class:`HTMLParser` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.feed(data)
+
+   Feed some text to the parser.  It is processed insofar as it consists of
+   complete elements; incomplete data is buffered until more data is fed or
+   :meth:`close` is called.  *data* must be :class:`str`.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.close()
+
+   Force processing of all buffered data as if it were followed by an end-of-file
+   mark.  This method may be redefined by a derived class to define additional
+   processing at the end of the input, but the redefined version should always call
+   the :class:`HTMLParser` base class method :meth:`close`.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.reset()
+
+   Reset the instance.  Loses all unprocessed data.  This is called implicitly at
+   instantiation time.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.getpos()
+
+   Return current line number and offset.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.get_starttag_text()
+
+   Return the text of the most recently opened start tag.  This should not normally
+   be needed for structured processing, but may be useful in dealing with HTML "as
+   deployed" or for re-generating input with minimal changes (whitespace between
+   attributes can be preserved, etc.).
+
+
+The following methods are called when data or markup elements are encountered
+and they are meant to be overridden in a subclass.  The base class
+implementations do nothing (except for :meth:`~HTMLParser.handle_startendtag`):
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_starttag(tag, attrs)
+
+   This method is called to handle the start of a tag (e.g. ``<div id="main">``).
+
+   The *tag* argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case. The *attrs*
+   argument is a list of ``(name, value)`` pairs containing the attributes found
+   inside the tag's ``<>`` brackets.  The *name* will be translated to lower case,
+   and quotes in the *value* have been removed, and character and entity references
+   have been replaced.
+
+   For instance, for the tag ``<A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">``, this method
+   would be called as ``handle_starttag('a', [('href', 'https://www.cwi.nl/')])``.
+
+   All entity references from :mod:`html.entities` are replaced in the attribute
+   values.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_endtag(tag)
+
+   This method is called to handle the end tag of an element (e.g. ``</div>``).
+
+   The *tag* argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_startendtag(tag, attrs)
+
+   Similar to :meth:`handle_starttag`, but called when the parser encounters an
+   XHTML-style empty tag (``<img ... />``).  This method may be overridden by
+   subclasses which require this particular lexical information; the default
+   implementation simply calls :meth:`handle_starttag` and :meth:`handle_endtag`.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_data(data)
+
+   This method is called to process arbitrary data (e.g. text nodes and the
+   content of ``<script>...</script>`` and ``<style>...</style>``).
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_entityref(name)
+
+   This method is called to process a named character reference of the form
+   ``&name;`` (e.g. ``&gt;``), where *name* is a general entity reference
+   (e.g. ``'gt'``).  This method is never called if *convert_charrefs* is
+   ``True``.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_charref(name)
+
+   This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric character
+   references of the form ``&#NNN;`` and ``&#xNNN;``.  For example, the decimal
+   equivalent for ``&gt;`` is ``&#62;``, whereas the hexadecimal is ``&#x3E;``;
+   in this case the method will receive ``'62'`` or ``'x3E'``.  This method
+   is never called if *convert_charrefs* is ``True``.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_comment(data)
+
+   This method is called when a comment is encountered (e.g. ``<!--comment-->``).
+
+   For example, the comment ``<!-- comment -->`` will cause this method to be
+   called with the argument ``' comment '``.
+
+   The content of Internet Explorer conditional comments (condcoms) will also be
+   sent to this method, so, for ``<!--[if IE 9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]-->``,
+   this method will receive ``'[if IE 9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]'``.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_decl(decl)
+
+   This method is called to handle an HTML doctype declaration (e.g.
+   ``<!DOCTYPE html>``).
+
+   The *decl* parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration inside
+   the ``<!...>`` markup (e.g. ``'DOCTYPE html'``).
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_pi(data)
+
+   Method called when a processing instruction is encountered.  The *data*
+   parameter will contain the entire processing instruction. For example, for the
+   processing instruction ``<?proc color='red'>``, this method would be called as
+   ``handle_pi("proc color='red'")``.  It is intended to be overridden by a derived
+   class; the base class implementation does nothing.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :class:`HTMLParser` class uses the SGML syntactic rules for processing
+      instructions.  An XHTML processing instruction using the trailing ``'?'`` will
+      cause the ``'?'`` to be included in *data*.
+
+
+.. method:: HTMLParser.unknown_decl(data)
+
+   This method is called when an unrecognized declaration is read by the parser.
+
+   The *data* parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration inside
+   the ``<![...]>`` markup.  It is sometimes useful to be overridden by a
+   derived class.  The base class implementation does nothing.
+
+
+.. _htmlparser-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate more
+examples::
+
+   from html.parser import HTMLParser
+   from html.entities import name2codepoint
+
+   class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
+       def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
+           print("Start tag:", tag)
+           for attr in attrs:
+               print("     attr:", attr)
+
+       def handle_endtag(self, tag):
+           print("End tag  :", tag)
+
+       def handle_data(self, data):
+           print("Data     :", data)
+
+       def handle_comment(self, data):
+           print("Comment  :", data)
+
+       def handle_entityref(self, name):
+           c = chr(name2codepoint[name])
+           print("Named ent:", c)
+
+       def handle_charref(self, name):
+           if name.startswith('x'):
+               c = chr(int(name[1:], 16))
+           else:
+               c = chr(int(name))
+           print("Num ent  :", c)
+
+       def handle_decl(self, data):
+           print("Decl     :", data)
+
+   parser = MyHTMLParser()
+
+Parsing a doctype::
+
+   >>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
+   ...             '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
+   Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"
+
+Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title::
+
+   >>> parser.feed('<img src="python-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
+   Start tag: img
+        attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png')
+        attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo')
+   >>>
+   >>> parser.feed('<h1>Python</h1>')
+   Start tag: h1
+   Data     : Python
+   End tag  : h1
+
+The content of ``script`` and ``style`` elements is returned as is, without
+further parsing::
+
+   >>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
+   Start tag: style
+        attr: ('type', 'text/css')
+   Data     : #python { color: green }
+   End tag  : style
+
+   >>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
+   ...             'alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");</script>')
+   Start tag: script
+        attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
+   Data     : alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");
+   End tag  : script
+
+Parsing comments::
+
+   >>> parser.feed('<!-- a comment -->'
+   ...             '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
+   Comment  :  a comment
+   Comment  : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]
+
+Parsing named and numeric character references and converting them to the
+correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to ``'>'``)::
+
+   >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
+   Named ent: >
+   Num ent  : >
+   Num ent  : >
+
+Feeding incomplete chunks to :meth:`~HTMLParser.feed` works, but
+:meth:`~HTMLParser.handle_data` might be called more than once
+(unless *convert_charrefs* is set to ``True``)::
+
+   >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered ', 'text</s', 'pan>']:
+   ...     parser.feed(chunk)
+   ...
+   Start tag: span
+   Data     : buff
+   Data     : ered
+   Data     : text
+   End tag  : span
+
+Parsing invalid HTML (e.g. unquoted attributes) also works::
+
+   >>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
+   Start tag: p
+   Start tag: a
+        attr: ('class', 'link')
+        attr: ('href', '#main')
+   Data     : tag soup
+   End tag  : p
+   End tag  : a
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c2b01e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/html.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+:mod:`html` --- HyperText Markup Language support
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: html
+   :synopsis: Helpers for manipulating HTML.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/html/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines utilities to manipulate HTML.
+
+.. function:: escape(s, quote=True)
+
+   Convert the characters ``&``, ``<`` and ``>`` in string *s* to HTML-safe
+   sequences.  Use this if you need to display text that might contain such
+   characters in HTML.  If the optional flag *quote* is true, the characters
+   (``"``) and (``'``) are also translated; this helps for inclusion in an HTML
+   attribute value delimited by quotes, as in ``<a href="...">``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: unescape(s)
+
+   Convert all named and numeric character references (e.g. ``&gt;``,
+   ``&#62;``, ``&#x3e;``) in the string *s* to the corresponding Unicode
+   characters.  This function uses the rules defined by the HTML 5 standard
+   for both valid and invalid character references, and the :data:`list of
+   HTML 5 named character references <html.entities.html5>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+--------------
+
+Submodules in the ``html`` package are:
+
+* :mod:`html.parser` -- HTML/XHTML parser with lenient parsing mode
+* :mod:`html.entities` -- HTML entity definitions
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.client.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.client.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ebeb10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.client.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,571 @@
+:mod:`http.client` --- HTTP protocol client
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: http.client
+   :synopsis: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/http/client.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: HTTP; protocol
+   single: HTTP; http.client (standard module)
+
+.. index:: module: urllib.request
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines classes which implement the client side of the HTTP and
+HTTPS protocols.  It is normally not used directly --- the module
+:mod:`urllib.request` uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and HTTPS.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    The `Requests package <http://docs.python-requests.org/>`_
+    is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface.
+
+.. note::
+
+   HTTPS support is only available if Python was compiled with SSL support
+   (through the :mod:`ssl` module).
+
+The module provides the following classes:
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPConnection(host, port=None[, timeout], source_address=None, \
+                          blocksize=8192)
+
+   An :class:`HTTPConnection` instance represents one transaction with an HTTP
+   server.  It should be instantiated passing it a host and optional port
+   number.  If no port number is passed, the port is extracted from the host
+   string if it has the form ``host:port``, else the default HTTP port (80) is
+   used.  If the optional *timeout* parameter is given, blocking
+   operations (like connection attempts) will timeout after that many seconds
+   (if it is not given, the global default timeout setting is used).
+   The optional *source_address* parameter may be a tuple of a (host, port)
+   to use as the source address the HTTP connection is made from.
+   The optional *blocksize* parameter sets the buffer size in bytes for
+   sending a file-like message body.
+
+   For example, the following calls all create instances that connect to the server
+   at the same host and port::
+
+      >>> h1 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
+      >>> h2 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org:80')
+      >>> h3 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80)
+      >>> h4 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80, timeout=10)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *source_address* was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The  *strict* parameter was removed. HTTP 0.9-style "Simple Responses" are
+      not longer supported.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      *blocksize* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPSConnection(host, port=None, key_file=None, \
+                           cert_file=None[, timeout], \
+                           source_address=None, *, context=None, \
+                           check_hostname=None, blocksize=8192)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`HTTPConnection` that uses SSL for communication with
+   secure servers.  Default port is ``443``.  If *context* is specified, it
+   must be a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance describing the various SSL
+   options.
+
+   Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for more information on best practices.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *source_address*, *context* and *check_hostname* were added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      This class now supports HTTPS virtual hosts if possible (that is,
+      if :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI` is true).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The *strict* parameter was removed. HTTP 0.9-style "Simple Responses" are
+      no longer supported.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4.3
+      This class now performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks
+      by default. To revert to the previous, unverified, behavior
+      :func:`ssl._create_unverified_context` can be passed to the *context*
+      parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.4
+      This class now enables TLS 1.3
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth` for the default *context* or
+      when *cert_file* is passed with a custom *context*.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+       *key_file* and *cert_file* are deprecated in favor of *context*.
+       Please use :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` instead, or let
+       :func:`ssl.create_default_context` select the system's trusted CA
+       certificates for you.
+
+       The *check_hostname* parameter is also deprecated; the
+       :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` attribute of *context* should
+       be used instead.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPResponse(sock, debuglevel=0, method=None, url=None)
+
+   Class whose instances are returned upon successful connection.  Not
+   instantiated directly by user.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The *strict* parameter was removed. HTTP 0.9 style "Simple Responses" are
+      no longer supported.
+
+
+The following exceptions are raised as appropriate:
+
+
+.. exception:: HTTPException
+
+   The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  It is a subclass of
+   :exc:`Exception`.
+
+
+.. exception:: NotConnected
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.
+
+
+.. exception:: InvalidURL
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`, raised if a port is given and is either
+   non-numeric or empty.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnknownProtocol
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnknownTransferEncoding
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnimplementedFileMode
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.
+
+
+.. exception:: IncompleteRead
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.
+
+
+.. exception:: ImproperConnectionState
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.
+
+
+.. exception:: CannotSendRequest
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ImproperConnectionState`.
+
+
+.. exception:: CannotSendHeader
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ImproperConnectionState`.
+
+
+.. exception:: ResponseNotReady
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ImproperConnectionState`.
+
+
+.. exception:: BadStatusLine
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.  Raised if a server responds with a HTTP
+   status code that we don't understand.
+
+
+.. exception:: LineTooLong
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`HTTPException`.  Raised if an excessively long line
+   is received in the HTTP protocol from the server.
+
+
+.. exception:: RemoteDisconnected
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionResetError` and :exc:`BadStatusLine`.  Raised
+   by :meth:`HTTPConnection.getresponse` when the attempt to read the response
+   results in no data read from the connection, indicating that the remote end
+   has closed the connection.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      Previously, :exc:`BadStatusLine`\ ``('')`` was raised.
+
+
+The constants defined in this module are:
+
+.. data:: HTTP_PORT
+
+   The default port for the HTTP protocol (always ``80``).
+
+.. data:: HTTPS_PORT
+
+   The default port for the HTTPS protocol (always ``443``).
+
+.. data:: responses
+
+   This dictionary maps the HTTP 1.1 status codes to the W3C names.
+
+   Example: ``http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND]`` is ``'Not Found'``.
+
+See :ref:`http-status-codes` for a list of HTTP status codes that are
+available in this module as constants.
+
+
+.. _httpconnection-objects:
+
+HTTPConnection Objects
+----------------------
+
+:class:`HTTPConnection` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.request(method, url, body=None, headers={}, *, \
+            encode_chunked=False)
+
+   This will send a request to the server using the HTTP request
+   method *method* and the selector *url*.
+
+   If *body* is specified, the specified data is sent after the headers are
+   finished.  It may be a :class:`str`, a :term:`bytes-like object`, an
+   open :term:`file object`, or an iterable of :class:`bytes`.  If *body*
+   is a string, it is encoded as ISO-8859-1, the default for HTTP.  If it
+   is a bytes-like object, the bytes are sent as is.  If it is a :term:`file
+   object`, the contents of the file is sent; this file object should
+   support at least the ``read()`` method.  If the file object is an
+   instance of :class:`io.TextIOBase`, the data returned by the ``read()``
+   method will be encoded as ISO-8859-1, otherwise the data returned by
+   ``read()`` is sent as is.  If *body* is an iterable, the elements of the
+   iterable are sent as is until the iterable is exhausted.
+
+   The *headers* argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to send
+   with the request.
+
+   If *headers* contains neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding,
+   but there is a request body, one of those
+   header fields will be added automatically.  If
+   *body* is ``None``, the Content-Length header is set to ``0`` for
+   methods that expect a body (``PUT``, ``POST``, and ``PATCH``).  If
+   *body* is a string or a bytes-like object that is not also a
+   :term:`file <file object>`, the Content-Length header is
+   set to its length.  Any other type of *body* (files
+   and iterables in general) will be chunk-encoded, and the
+   Transfer-Encoding header will automatically be set instead of
+   Content-Length.
+
+   The *encode_chunked* argument is only relevant if Transfer-Encoding is
+   specified in *headers*.  If *encode_chunked* is ``False``, the
+   HTTPConnection object assumes that all encoding is handled by the
+   calling code.  If it is ``True``, the body will be chunk-encoded.
+
+   .. note::
+      Chunked transfer encoding has been added to the HTTP protocol
+      version 1.1.  Unless the HTTP server is known to handle HTTP 1.1,
+      the caller must either specify the Content-Length, or must pass a
+      :class:`str` or bytes-like object that is not also a file as the
+      body representation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      *body* can now be an iterable.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      If neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding are set in
+      *headers*, file and iterable *body* objects are now chunk-encoded.
+      The *encode_chunked* argument was added.
+      No attempt is made to determine the Content-Length for file
+      objects.
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.getresponse()
+
+   Should be called after a request is sent to get the response from the server.
+   Returns an :class:`HTTPResponse` instance.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Note that you must have read the whole response before you can send a new
+      request to the server.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If a :exc:`ConnectionError` or subclass is raised, the
+      :class:`HTTPConnection` object will be ready to reconnect when
+      a new request is sent.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel(level)
+
+   Set the debugging level.  The default debug level is ``0``, meaning no
+   debugging output is printed.  Any value greater than ``0`` will cause all
+   currently defined debug output to be printed to stdout.  The ``debuglevel``
+   is passed to any new :class:`HTTPResponse` objects that are created.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.set_tunnel(host, port=None, headers=None)
+
+   Set the host and the port for HTTP Connect Tunnelling. This allows running
+   the connection through a proxy server.
+
+   The host and port arguments specify the endpoint of the tunneled connection
+   (i.e. the address included in the CONNECT request, *not* the address of the
+   proxy server).
+
+   The headers argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to send with
+   the CONNECT request.
+
+   For example, to tunnel through a HTTPS proxy server running locally on port
+   8080, we would pass the address of the proxy to the :class:`HTTPSConnection`
+   constructor, and the address of the host that we eventually want to reach to
+   the :meth:`~HTTPConnection.set_tunnel` method::
+
+      >>> import http.client
+      >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("localhost", 8080)
+      >>> conn.set_tunnel("www.python.org")
+      >>> conn.request("HEAD","/index.html")
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.connect()
+
+   Connect to the server specified when the object was created.  By default,
+   this is called automatically when making a request if the client does not
+   already have a connection.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.close()
+
+   Close the connection to the server.
+
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPConnection.blocksize
+
+   Buffer size in bytes for sending a file-like message body.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+As an alternative to using the :meth:`request` method described above, you can
+also send your request step by step, by using the four functions below.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.putrequest(method, url, skip_host=False, \
+                                      skip_accept_encoding=False)
+
+   This should be the first call after the connection to the server has been
+   made. It sends a line to the server consisting of the *method* string,
+   the *url* string, and the HTTP version (``HTTP/1.1``).  To disable automatic
+   sending of ``Host:`` or ``Accept-Encoding:`` headers (for example to accept
+   additional content encodings), specify *skip_host* or *skip_accept_encoding*
+   with non-False values.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.putheader(header, argument[, ...])
+
+   Send an :rfc:`822`\ -style header to the server.  It sends a line to the server
+   consisting of the header, a colon and a space, and the first argument.  If more
+   arguments are given, continuation lines are sent, each consisting of a tab and
+   an argument.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.endheaders(message_body=None, *, encode_chunked=False)
+
+   Send a blank line to the server, signalling the end of the headers. The
+   optional *message_body* argument can be used to pass a message body
+   associated with the request.
+
+   If *encode_chunked* is ``True``, the result of each iteration of
+   *message_body* will be chunk-encoded as specified in :rfc:`7230`,
+   Section 3.3.1.  How the data is encoded is dependent on the type of
+   *message_body*.  If *message_body* implements the :ref:`buffer interface
+   <bufferobjects>` the encoding will result in a single chunk.
+   If *message_body* is a :class:`collections.abc.Iterable`, each iteration
+   of *message_body* will result in a chunk.  If *message_body* is a
+   :term:`file object`, each call to ``.read()`` will result in a chunk.
+   The method automatically signals the end of the chunk-encoded data
+   immediately after *message_body*.
+
+   .. note:: Due to the chunked encoding specification, empty chunks
+      yielded by an iterator body will be ignored by the chunk-encoder.
+      This is to avoid premature termination of the read of the request by
+      the target server due to malformed encoding.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Chunked encoding support.  The *encode_chunked* parameter was
+      added.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPConnection.send(data)
+
+   Send data to the server.  This should be used directly only after the
+   :meth:`endheaders` method has been called and before :meth:`getresponse` is
+   called.
+
+
+.. _httpresponse-objects:
+
+HTTPResponse Objects
+--------------------
+
+An :class:`HTTPResponse` instance wraps the HTTP response from the
+server.  It provides access to the request headers and the entity
+body.  The response is an iterable object and can be used in a with
+statement.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   The :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` interface is now implemented and
+   all of its reader operations are supported.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPResponse.read([amt])
+
+   Reads and returns the response body, or up to the next *amt* bytes.
+
+.. method:: HTTPResponse.readinto(b)
+
+   Reads up to the next len(b) bytes of the response body into the buffer *b*.
+   Returns the number of bytes read.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. method:: HTTPResponse.getheader(name, default=None)
+
+   Return the value of the header *name*, or *default* if there is no header
+   matching *name*.  If there is more than one  header with the name *name*,
+   return all of the values joined by ', '.  If 'default' is any iterable other
+   than a single string, its elements are similarly returned joined by commas.
+
+.. method:: HTTPResponse.getheaders()
+
+   Return a list of (header, value) tuples.
+
+.. method:: HTTPResponse.fileno()
+
+   Return the ``fileno`` of the underlying socket.
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPResponse.msg
+
+   A :class:`http.client.HTTPMessage` instance containing the response
+   headers.  :class:`http.client.HTTPMessage` is a subclass of
+   :class:`email.message.Message`.
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPResponse.version
+
+   HTTP protocol version used by server.  10 for HTTP/1.0, 11 for HTTP/1.1.
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPResponse.status
+
+   Status code returned by server.
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPResponse.reason
+
+   Reason phrase returned by server.
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPResponse.debuglevel
+
+   A debugging hook.  If :attr:`debuglevel` is greater than zero, messages
+   will be printed to stdout as the response is read and parsed.
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPResponse.closed
+
+   Is ``True`` if the stream is closed.
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Here is an example session that uses the ``GET`` method::
+
+   >>> import http.client
+   >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
+   >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
+   >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
+   >>> print(r1.status, r1.reason)
+   200 OK
+   >>> data1 = r1.read()  # This will return entire content.
+   >>> # The following example demonstrates reading data in chunks.
+   >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
+   >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
+   >>> while not r1.closed:
+   ...     print(r1.read(200))  # 200 bytes
+   b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if"...
+   ...
+   >>> # Example of an invalid request
+   >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("docs.python.org")
+   >>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")
+   >>> r2 = conn.getresponse()
+   >>> print(r2.status, r2.reason)
+   404 Not Found
+   >>> data2 = r2.read()
+   >>> conn.close()
+
+Here is an example session that uses the ``HEAD`` method.  Note that the
+``HEAD`` method never returns any data. ::
+
+   >>> import http.client
+   >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
+   >>> conn.request("HEAD", "/")
+   >>> res = conn.getresponse()
+   >>> print(res.status, res.reason)
+   200 OK
+   >>> data = res.read()
+   >>> print(len(data))
+   0
+   >>> data == b''
+   True
+
+Here is an example session that shows how to ``POST`` requests::
+
+   >>> import http.client, urllib.parse
+   >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'@number': 12524, '@type': 'issue', '@action': 'show'})
+   >>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded",
+   ...            "Accept": "text/plain"}
+   >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("bugs.python.org")
+   >>> conn.request("POST", "", params, headers)
+   >>> response = conn.getresponse()
+   >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
+   302 Found
+   >>> data = response.read()
+   >>> data
+   b'Redirecting to <a href="http://bugs.python.org/issue12524">http://bugs.python.org/issue12524</a>'
+   >>> conn.close()
+
+Client side ``HTTP PUT`` requests are very similar to ``POST`` requests. The
+difference lies only the server side where HTTP server will allow resources to
+be created via ``PUT`` request. It should be noted that custom HTTP methods
++are also handled in :class:`urllib.request.Request` by sending the appropriate
++method attribute.Here is an example session that shows how to do ``PUT``
+request using http.client::
+
+    >>> # This creates an HTTP message
+    >>> # with the content of BODY as the enclosed representation
+    >>> # for the resource http://localhost:8080/file
+    ...
+    >>> import http.client
+    >>> BODY = "***filecontents***"
+    >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("localhost", 8080)
+    >>> conn.request("PUT", "/file", BODY)
+    >>> response = conn.getresponse()
+    >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
+    200, OK
+
+.. _httpmessage-objects:
+
+HTTPMessage Objects
+-------------------
+
+An :class:`http.client.HTTPMessage` instance holds the headers from an HTTP
+response.  It is implemented using the :class:`email.message.Message` class.
+
+.. XXX Define the methods that clients can depend upon between versions.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.cookiejar.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.cookiejar.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8da668
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.cookiejar.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,760 @@
+:mod:`http.cookiejar` --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: http.cookiejar
+   :synopsis: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: John J. Lee <jjl@pobox.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: John J. Lee <jjl@pobox.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/http/cookiejar.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`http.cookiejar` module defines classes for automatic handling of HTTP
+cookies.  It is useful for accessing web sites that require small pieces of data
+-- :dfn:`cookies` -- to be set on the client machine by an HTTP response from a
+web server, and then returned to the server in later HTTP requests.
+
+Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by
+:rfc:`2965` are handled.  RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default.
+:rfc:`2109` cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently treated
+either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the 'policy' in effect.
+Note that the great majority of cookies on the Internet are Netscape cookies.
+:mod:`http.cookiejar` attempts to follow the de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which
+differs substantially from that set out in the original Netscape specification),
+including taking note of the ``max-age`` and ``port`` cookie-attributes
+introduced with RFC 2965.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The various named parameters found in :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` and
+   :mailheader:`Set-Cookie2` headers (eg. ``domain`` and ``expires``) are
+   conventionally referred to as :dfn:`attributes`.  To distinguish them from
+   Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the term
+   :dfn:`cookie-attribute` instead.
+
+
+The module defines the following exception:
+
+
+.. exception:: LoadError
+
+   Instances of :class:`FileCookieJar` raise this exception on failure to load
+   cookies from a file.  :exc:`LoadError` is a subclass of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      LoadError was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError` instead of
+      :exc:`IOError`.
+
+
+The following classes are provided:
+
+
+.. class:: CookieJar(policy=None)
+
+   *policy* is an object implementing the :class:`CookiePolicy` interface.
+
+   The :class:`CookieJar` class stores HTTP cookies.  It extracts cookies from HTTP
+   requests, and returns them in HTTP responses. :class:`CookieJar` instances
+   automatically expire contained cookies when necessary.  Subclasses are also
+   responsible for storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database.
+
+
+.. class:: FileCookieJar(filename, delayload=None, policy=None)
+
+   *policy* is an object implementing the :class:`CookiePolicy` interface.  For the
+   other arguments, see the documentation for the corresponding attributes.
+
+   A :class:`CookieJar` which can load cookies from, and perhaps save cookies to, a
+   file on disk.  Cookies are **NOT** loaded from the named file until either the
+   :meth:`load` or :meth:`revert` method is called.  Subclasses of this class are
+   documented in section :ref:`file-cookie-jar-classes`.
+
+
+.. class:: CookiePolicy()
+
+   This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should be accepted
+   from / returned to the server.
+
+
+.. class:: DefaultCookiePolicy( blocked_domains=None, allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False, rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False, strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True, strict_ns_unverifiable=False, strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal, strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False )
+
+   Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only.
+   *blocked_domains* is a sequence of domain names that we never accept cookies
+   from, nor return cookies to. *allowed_domains* if not :const:`None`, this is a
+   sequence of the only domains for which we accept and return cookies.  For all
+   other arguments, see the documentation for :class:`CookiePolicy` and
+   :class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` objects.
+
+   :class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` implements the standard accept / reject rules for
+   Netscape and :rfc:`2965` cookies.  By default, :rfc:`2109` cookies (ie. cookies
+   received in a :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header with a version cookie-attribute of
+   1) are treated according to the RFC 2965 rules.  However, if RFC 2965 handling
+   is turned off or :attr:`rfc2109_as_netscape` is ``True``, RFC 2109 cookies are
+   'downgraded' by the :class:`CookieJar` instance to Netscape cookies, by
+   setting the :attr:`version` attribute of the :class:`Cookie` instance to 0.
+   :class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` also provides some parameters to allow some
+   fine-tuning of policy.
+
+
+.. class:: Cookie()
+
+   This class represents Netscape, :rfc:`2109` and :rfc:`2965` cookies.  It is not
+   expected that users of :mod:`http.cookiejar` construct their own :class:`Cookie`
+   instances.  Instead, if necessary, call :meth:`make_cookies` on a
+   :class:`CookieJar` instance.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`urllib.request`
+      URL opening with automatic cookie handling.
+
+   Module :mod:`http.cookies`
+      HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code.  The
+      :mod:`http.cookiejar` and :mod:`http.cookies` modules do not depend on each
+      other.
+
+   https://curl.haxx.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html
+      The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol.  Though this is
+      still the dominant protocol, the 'Netscape cookie protocol' implemented by all
+      the major browsers (and :mod:`http.cookiejar`) only bears a passing resemblance to
+      the one sketched out in ``cookie_spec.html``.
+
+   :rfc:`2109` - HTTP State Management Mechanism
+      Obsoleted by :rfc:`2965`. Uses :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` with version=1.
+
+   :rfc:`2965` - HTTP State Management Mechanism
+      The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed.  Uses :mailheader:`Set-Cookie2` in
+      place of :mailheader:`Set-Cookie`.  Not widely used.
+
+   http://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html
+      Unfinished errata to :rfc:`2965`.
+
+   :rfc:`2964` - Use of HTTP State Management
+
+.. _cookie-jar-objects:
+
+CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
+-----------------------------------
+
+:class:`CookieJar` objects support the :term:`iterator` protocol for iterating over
+contained :class:`Cookie` objects.
+
+:class:`CookieJar` has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.add_cookie_header(request)
+
+   Add correct :mailheader:`Cookie` header to *request*.
+
+   If policy allows (ie. the :attr:`rfc2965` and :attr:`hide_cookie2` attributes of
+   the :class:`CookieJar`'s :class:`CookiePolicy` instance are true and false
+   respectively), the :mailheader:`Cookie2` header is also added when appropriate.
+
+   The *request* object (usually a :class:`urllib.request..Request` instance)
+   must support the methods :meth:`get_full_url`, :meth:`get_host`,
+   :meth:`get_type`, :meth:`unverifiable`, :meth:`has_header`,
+   :meth:`get_header`, :meth:`header_items`, :meth:`add_unredirected_header`
+   and :attr:`origin_req_host` attribute as documented by
+   :mod:`urllib.request`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+
+    *request* object needs :attr:`origin_req_host` attribute. Dependency on a
+    deprecated method :meth:`get_origin_req_host` has been removed.
+
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.extract_cookies(response, request)
+
+   Extract cookies from HTTP *response* and store them in the :class:`CookieJar`,
+   where allowed by policy.
+
+   The :class:`CookieJar` will look for allowable :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` and
+   :mailheader:`Set-Cookie2` headers in the *response* argument, and store cookies
+   as appropriate (subject to the :meth:`CookiePolicy.set_ok` method's approval).
+
+   The *response* object (usually the result of a call to
+   :meth:`urllib.request.urlopen`, or similar) should support an :meth:`info`
+   method, which returns an :class:`email.message.Message` instance.
+
+   The *request* object (usually a :class:`urllib.request.Request` instance)
+   must support the methods :meth:`get_full_url`, :meth:`get_host`,
+   :meth:`unverifiable`, and :attr:`origin_req_host` attribute, as documented
+   by :mod:`urllib.request`.  The request is used to set default values for
+   cookie-attributes as well as for checking that the cookie is allowed to be
+   set.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+
+    *request* object needs :attr:`origin_req_host` attribute. Dependency on a
+    deprecated method :meth:`get_origin_req_host` has been removed.
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.set_policy(policy)
+
+   Set the :class:`CookiePolicy` instance to be used.
+
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.make_cookies(response, request)
+
+   Return sequence of :class:`Cookie` objects extracted from *response* object.
+
+   See the documentation for :meth:`extract_cookies` for the interfaces required of
+   the *response* and *request* arguments.
+
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok(cookie, request)
+
+   Set a :class:`Cookie` if policy says it's OK to do so.
+
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.set_cookie(cookie)
+
+   Set a :class:`Cookie`, without checking with policy to see whether or not it
+   should be set.
+
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.clear([domain[, path[, name]]])
+
+   Clear some cookies.
+
+   If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies.  If given a single argument,
+   only cookies belonging to that *domain* will be removed. If given two arguments,
+   cookies belonging to the specified *domain* and URL *path* are removed.  If
+   given three arguments, then the cookie with the specified *domain*, *path* and
+   *name* is removed.
+
+   Raises :exc:`KeyError` if no matching cookie exists.
+
+
+.. method:: CookieJar.clear_session_cookies()
+
+   Discard all session cookies.
+
+   Discards all contained cookies that have a true :attr:`discard` attribute
+   (usually because they had either no ``max-age`` or ``expires`` cookie-attribute,
+   or an explicit ``discard`` cookie-attribute).  For interactive browsers, the end
+   of a session usually corresponds to closing the browser window.
+
+   Note that the :meth:`save` method won't save session cookies anyway, unless you
+   ask otherwise by passing a true *ignore_discard* argument.
+
+:class:`FileCookieJar` implements the following additional methods:
+
+
+.. method:: FileCookieJar.save(filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False)
+
+   Save cookies to a file.
+
+   This base class raises :exc:`NotImplementedError`.  Subclasses may leave this
+   method unimplemented.
+
+   *filename* is the name of file in which to save cookies.  If *filename* is not
+   specified, :attr:`self.filename` is used (whose default is the value passed to
+   the constructor, if any); if :attr:`self.filename` is :const:`None`,
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   *ignore_discard*: save even cookies set to be discarded. *ignore_expires*: save
+   even cookies that have expired
+
+   The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the cookies it
+   contains.  Saved cookies can be restored later using the :meth:`load` or
+   :meth:`revert` methods.
+
+
+.. method:: FileCookieJar.load(filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False)
+
+   Load cookies from a file.
+
+   Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones.
+
+   Arguments are as for :meth:`save`.
+
+   The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or
+   :exc:`LoadError` will be raised.  Also, :exc:`OSError` may be raised, for
+   example if the file does not exist.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`IOError` used to be raised, it is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. method:: FileCookieJar.revert(filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False)
+
+   Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file.
+
+   :meth:`revert` can raise the same exceptions as :meth:`load`. If there is a
+   failure, the object's state will not be altered.
+
+:class:`FileCookieJar` instances have the following public attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: FileCookieJar.filename
+
+   Filename of default file in which to keep cookies.  This attribute may be
+   assigned to.
+
+
+.. attribute:: FileCookieJar.delayload
+
+   If true, load cookies lazily from disk.  This attribute should not be assigned
+   to.  This is only a hint, since this only affects performance, not behaviour
+   (unless the cookies on disk are changing). A :class:`CookieJar` object may
+   ignore it.  None of the :class:`FileCookieJar` classes included in the standard
+   library lazily loads cookies.
+
+
+.. _file-cookie-jar-classes:
+
+FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+The following :class:`CookieJar` subclasses are provided for reading and
+writing.
+
+.. class:: MozillaCookieJar(filename, delayload=None, policy=None)
+
+   A :class:`FileCookieJar` that can load from and save cookies to disk in the
+   Mozilla ``cookies.txt`` file format (which is also used by the Lynx and Netscape
+   browsers).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This loses information about :rfc:`2965` cookies, and also about newer or
+      non-standard cookie-attributes such as ``port``.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Back up your cookies before saving if you have cookies whose loss / corruption
+      would be inconvenient (there are some subtleties which may lead to slight
+      changes in the file over a load / save round-trip).
+
+   Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get clobbered by
+   Mozilla.
+
+
+.. class:: LWPCookieJar(filename, delayload=None, policy=None)
+
+   A :class:`FileCookieJar` that can load from and save cookies to disk in format
+   compatible with the libwww-perl library's ``Set-Cookie3`` file format.  This is
+   convenient if you want to store cookies in a human-readable file.
+
+
+.. _cookie-policy-objects:
+
+CookiePolicy Objects
+--------------------
+
+Objects implementing the :class:`CookiePolicy` interface have the following
+methods:
+
+
+.. method:: CookiePolicy.set_ok(cookie, request)
+
+   Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted from server.
+
+   *cookie* is a :class:`Cookie` instance.  *request* is an object
+   implementing the interface defined by the documentation for
+   :meth:`CookieJar.extract_cookies`.
+
+
+.. method:: CookiePolicy.return_ok(cookie, request)
+
+   Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned to server.
+
+   *cookie* is a :class:`Cookie` instance.  *request* is an object
+   implementing the interface defined by the documentation for
+   :meth:`CookieJar.add_cookie_header`.
+
+
+.. method:: CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok(domain, request)
+
+   Return false if cookies should not be returned, given cookie domain.
+
+   This method is an optimization.  It removes the need for checking every cookie
+   with a particular domain (which might involve reading many files).  Returning
+   true from :meth:`domain_return_ok` and :meth:`path_return_ok` leaves all the
+   work to :meth:`return_ok`.
+
+   If :meth:`domain_return_ok` returns true for the cookie domain,
+   :meth:`path_return_ok` is called for the cookie path.  Otherwise,
+   :meth:`path_return_ok` and :meth:`return_ok` are never called for that cookie
+   domain.  If :meth:`path_return_ok` returns true, :meth:`return_ok` is called
+   with the :class:`Cookie` object itself for a full check.  Otherwise,
+   :meth:`return_ok` is never called for that cookie path.
+
+   Note that :meth:`domain_return_ok` is called for every *cookie* domain, not just
+   for the *request* domain.  For example, the function might be called with both
+   ``".example.com"`` and ``"www.example.com"`` if the request domain is
+   ``"www.example.com"``.  The same goes for :meth:`path_return_ok`.
+
+   The *request* argument is as documented for :meth:`return_ok`.
+
+
+.. method:: CookiePolicy.path_return_ok(path, request)
+
+   Return false if cookies should not be returned, given cookie path.
+
+   See the documentation for :meth:`domain_return_ok`.
+
+In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the
+:class:`CookiePolicy` interface must also supply the following attributes,
+indicating which protocols should be used, and how.  All of these attributes may
+be assigned to.
+
+
+.. attribute:: CookiePolicy.netscape
+
+   Implement Netscape protocol.
+
+
+.. attribute:: CookiePolicy.rfc2965
+
+   Implement :rfc:`2965` protocol.
+
+
+.. attribute:: CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2
+
+   Don't add :mailheader:`Cookie2` header to requests (the presence of this header
+   indicates to the server that we understand :rfc:`2965` cookies).
+
+The most useful way to define a :class:`CookiePolicy` class is by subclassing
+from :class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` and overriding some or all of the methods
+above.  :class:`CookiePolicy` itself may be used as a 'null policy' to allow
+setting and receiving any and all cookies (this is unlikely to be useful).
+
+
+.. _default-cookie-policy-objects:
+
+DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
+---------------------------
+
+Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.
+
+Both :rfc:`2965` and Netscape cookies are covered.  RFC 2965 handling is switched
+off by default.
+
+The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and call
+its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your own additional
+checks::
+
+   import http.cookiejar
+   class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy):
+       def set_ok(self, cookie, request):
+           if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request):
+               return False
+           if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie):
+               return False
+           return True
+
+In addition to the features required to implement the :class:`CookiePolicy`
+interface, this class allows you to block and allow domains from setting and
+receiving cookies.  There are also some strictness switches that allow you to
+tighten up the rather loose Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of
+blocking some benign cookies).
+
+A domain blacklist and whitelist is provided (both off by default). Only domains
+not in the blacklist and present in the whitelist (if the whitelist is active)
+participate in cookie setting and returning.  Use the *blocked_domains*
+constructor argument, and :meth:`blocked_domains` and
+:meth:`set_blocked_domains` methods (and the corresponding argument and methods
+for *allowed_domains*).  If you set a whitelist, you can turn it off again by
+setting it to :const:`None`.
+
+Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal the
+cookie domain to be matched.  For example, ``"example.com"`` matches a blacklist
+entry of ``"example.com"``, but ``"www.example.com"`` does not.  Domains that do
+start with a dot are matched by more specific domains too. For example, both
+``"www.example.com"`` and ``"www.coyote.example.com"`` match ``".example.com"``
+(but ``"example.com"`` itself does not).  IP addresses are an exception, and
+must match exactly.  For example, if blocked_domains contains ``"192.168.1.2"``
+and ``".168.1.2"``, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.
+
+:class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` implements the following additional methods:
+
+
+.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains()
+
+   Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple).
+
+
+.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains(blocked_domains)
+
+   Set the sequence of blocked domains.
+
+
+.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked(domain)
+
+   Return whether *domain* is on the blacklist for setting or receiving cookies.
+
+
+.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains()
+
+   Return :const:`None`, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a tuple).
+
+
+.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains(allowed_domains)
+
+   Set the sequence of allowed domains, or :const:`None`.
+
+
+.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed(domain)
+
+   Return whether *domain* is not on the whitelist for setting or receiving
+   cookies.
+
+:class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` instances have the following attributes, which are
+all initialised from the constructor arguments of the same name, and which may
+all be assigned to.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape
+
+   If true, request that the :class:`CookieJar` instance downgrade :rfc:`2109` cookies
+   (ie. cookies received in a :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header with a version
+   cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by setting the version attribute of
+   the :class:`Cookie` instance to 0.  The default value is :const:`None`, in which
+   case RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded if and only if :rfc:`2965` handling is turned
+   off.  Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.
+
+
+General strictness switches:
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain
+
+   Don't allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code top-level
+   domains like ``.co.uk``, ``.gov.uk``, ``.co.nz``.etc.  This is far from perfect
+   and isn't guaranteed to work!
+
+
+:rfc:`2965` protocol strictness switches:
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable
+
+   Follow :rfc:`2965` rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an unverifiable
+   transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a request for an image hosted on
+   another site).  If this is false, cookies are *never* blocked on the basis of
+   verifiability
+
+
+Netscape protocol strictness switches:
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable
+
+   Apply :rfc:`2965` rules on unverifiable transactions even to Netscape cookies.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain
+
+   Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for Netscape
+   cookies.  See below for acceptable values.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar
+
+   Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with ``'$'``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path
+
+   Don't allow setting cookies whose path doesn't path-match request URI.
+
+:attr:`strict_ns_domain` is a collection of flags.  Its value is constructed by
+or-ing together (for example, ``DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain`` means
+both flags are set).
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots
+
+   When setting cookies, the 'host prefix' must not contain a dot (eg.
+   ``www.foo.bar.com`` can't set a cookie for ``.bar.com``, because ``www.foo``
+   contains a dot).
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain
+
+   Cookies that did not explicitly specify a ``domain`` cookie-attribute can only
+   be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the cookie (eg.
+   ``spam.example.com`` won't be returned cookies from ``example.com`` that had no
+   ``domain`` cookie-attribute).
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match
+
+   When setting cookies, require a full :rfc:`2965` domain-match.
+
+The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most useful
+combinations of the above flags:
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal
+
+   Equivalent to 0 (ie. all of the above Netscape domain strictness flags switched
+   off).
+
+
+.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict
+
+   Equivalent to ``DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain``.
+
+
+Cookie Objects
+--------------
+
+:class:`Cookie` instances have Python attributes roughly corresponding to the
+standard cookie-attributes specified in the various cookie standards.  The
+correspondence is not one-to-one, because there are complicated rules for
+assigning default values, because the ``max-age`` and ``expires``
+cookie-attributes contain equivalent information, and because :rfc:`2109` cookies
+may be 'downgraded' by :mod:`http.cookiejar` from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape)
+cookies.
+
+Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in rare
+circumstances in a :class:`CookiePolicy` method.  The class does not enforce
+internal consistency, so you should know what you're doing if you do that.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.version
+
+   Integer or :const:`None`.  Netscape cookies have :attr:`version` 0. :rfc:`2965` and
+   :rfc:`2109` cookies have a ``version`` cookie-attribute of 1.  However, note that
+   :mod:`http.cookiejar` may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which
+   case :attr:`version` is 0.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.name
+
+   Cookie name (a string).
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.value
+
+   Cookie value (a string), or :const:`None`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.port
+
+   String representing a port or a set of ports (eg. '80', or '80,8080'), or
+   :const:`None`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.path
+
+   Cookie path (a string, eg. ``'/acme/rocket_launchers'``).
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.secure
+
+   ``True`` if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.expires
+
+   Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or :const:`None`.  See also the
+   :meth:`is_expired` method.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.discard
+
+   ``True`` if this is a session cookie.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.comment
+
+   String comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie, or
+   :const:`None`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.comment_url
+
+   URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie,
+   or :const:`None`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.rfc2109
+
+   ``True`` if this cookie was received as an :rfc:`2109` cookie (ie. the cookie
+   arrived in a :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header, and the value of the Version
+   cookie-attribute in that header was 1).  This attribute is provided because
+   :mod:`http.cookiejar` may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in
+   which case :attr:`version` is 0.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.port_specified
+
+   ``True`` if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the server (in the
+   :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` / :mailheader:`Set-Cookie2` header).
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.domain_specified
+
+   ``True`` if a domain was explicitly specified by the server.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Cookie.domain_initial_dot
+
+   ``True`` if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with a dot
+   (``'.'``).
+
+Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes.  These may be
+accessed using the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr(name)
+
+   Return true if cookie has the named cookie-attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr(name, default=None)
+
+   If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value. Otherwise, return
+   *default*.
+
+
+.. method:: Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr(name, value)
+
+   Set the value of the named cookie-attribute.
+
+The :class:`Cookie` class also defines the following method:
+
+
+.. method:: Cookie.is_expired(now=None)
+
+   ``True`` if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested it should
+   expire.  If *now* is given (in seconds since the epoch), return whether the
+   cookie has expired at the specified time.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+The first example shows the most common usage of :mod:`http.cookiejar`::
+
+   import http.cookiejar, urllib.request
+   cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar()
+   opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
+   r = opener.open("http://example.com/")
+
+This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla, or Lynx
+cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the cookies file)::
+
+   import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request
+   cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar()
+   cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt"))
+   opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
+   r = opener.open("http://example.com/")
+
+The next example illustrates the use of :class:`DefaultCookiePolicy`. Turn on
+:rfc:`2965` cookies, be more strict about domains when setting and returning
+Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting cookies or having them
+returned::
+
+   import urllib.request
+   from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy
+   policy = DefaultCookiePolicy(
+       rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict,
+       blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"])
+   cj = CookieJar(policy)
+   opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
+   r = opener.open("http://example.com/")
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.cookies.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.cookies.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01bedfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.cookies.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,286 @@
+:mod:`http.cookies` --- HTTP state management
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: http.cookies
+   :synopsis: Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/http/cookies.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`http.cookies` module defines classes for abstracting the concept of
+cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism. It supports both simple string-only
+cookies, and provides an abstraction for having any serializable data-type as
+cookie value.
+
+The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the
+:rfc:`2109` and :rfc:`2068` specifications.  It has since been discovered that
+MSIE 3.0x doesn't follow the character rules outlined in those specs and also
+many current day browsers and servers have relaxed parsing rules when comes to
+Cookie handling.  As a result, the parsing rules used are a bit less strict.
+
+The character set, :data:`string.ascii_letters`, :data:`string.digits` and
+``!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:`` denote the set of valid characters allowed by this module
+in Cookie name (as :attr:`~Morsel.key`).
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Allowed ':' as a valid Cookie name character.
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   On encountering an invalid cookie, :exc:`CookieError` is raised, so if your
+   cookie data comes from a browser you should always prepare for invalid data
+   and catch :exc:`CookieError` on parsing.
+
+
+.. exception:: CookieError
+
+   Exception failing because of :rfc:`2109` invalidity: incorrect attributes,
+   incorrect :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header, etc.
+
+
+.. class:: BaseCookie([input])
+
+   This class is a dictionary-like object whose keys are strings and whose values
+   are :class:`Morsel` instances. Note that upon setting a key to a value, the
+   value is first converted to a :class:`Morsel` containing the key and the value.
+
+   If *input* is given, it is passed to the :meth:`load` method.
+
+
+.. class:: SimpleCookie([input])
+
+   This class derives from :class:`BaseCookie` and overrides :meth:`value_decode`
+   and :meth:`value_encode`. SimpleCookie supports strings as cookie values.
+   When setting the value, SimpleCookie calls the builtin :func:`str()` to convert
+   the value to a string. Values received from HTTP are kept as strings.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`http.cookiejar`
+      HTTP cookie handling for web *clients*.  The :mod:`http.cookiejar` and
+      :mod:`http.cookies` modules do not depend on each other.
+
+   :rfc:`2109` - HTTP State Management Mechanism
+      This is the state management specification implemented by this module.
+
+
+.. _cookie-objects:
+
+Cookie Objects
+--------------
+
+
+.. method:: BaseCookie.value_decode(val)
+
+   Return a tuple ``(real_value, coded_value)`` from a string representation.
+   ``real_value`` can be any type. This method does no decoding in
+   :class:`BaseCookie` --- it exists so it can be overridden.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseCookie.value_encode(val)
+
+   Return a tuple ``(real_value, coded_value)``. *val* can be any type, but
+   ``coded_value`` will always be converted to a string.
+   This method does no encoding in :class:`BaseCookie` --- it exists so it can
+   be overridden.
+
+   In general, it should be the case that :meth:`value_encode` and
+   :meth:`value_decode` are inverses on the range of *value_decode*.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseCookie.output(attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:', sep='\\r\\n')
+
+   Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers. *attrs* and
+   *header* are sent to each :class:`Morsel`'s :meth:`output` method. *sep* is used
+   to join the headers together, and is by default the combination ``'\r\n'``
+   (CRLF).
+
+
+.. method:: BaseCookie.js_output(attrs=None)
+
+   Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which
+   supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP headers was sent.
+
+   The meaning for *attrs* is the same as in :meth:`output`.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseCookie.load(rawdata)
+
+   If *rawdata* is a string, parse it as an ``HTTP_COOKIE`` and add the values
+   found there as :class:`Morsel`\ s. If it is a dictionary, it is equivalent to::
+
+      for k, v in rawdata.items():
+          cookie[k] = v
+
+
+.. _morsel-objects:
+
+Morsel Objects
+--------------
+
+
+.. class:: Morsel
+
+   Abstract a key/value pair, which has some :rfc:`2109` attributes.
+
+   Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant --- the valid
+   :rfc:`2109` attributes, which are
+
+   * ``expires``
+   * ``path``
+   * ``comment``
+   * ``domain``
+   * ``max-age``
+   * ``secure``
+   * ``version``
+   * ``httponly``
+
+   The attribute :attr:`httponly` specifies that the cookie is only transferred
+   in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through JavaScript. This is intended
+   to mitigate some forms of cross-site scripting.
+
+   The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is ``''``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      :meth:`~Morsel.__eq__` now takes :attr:`~Morsel.key` and :attr:`~Morsel.value`
+      into account.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Attributes :attr:`~Morsel.key`, :attr:`~Morsel.value` and
+      :attr:`~Morsel.coded_value` are read-only.  Use :meth:`~Morsel.set` for
+      setting them.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Morsel.value
+
+   The value of the cookie.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Morsel.coded_value
+
+   The encoded value of the cookie --- this is what should be sent.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Morsel.key
+
+   The name of the cookie.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.set(key, value, coded_value)
+
+   Set the *key*, *value* and *coded_value* attributes.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.isReservedKey(K)
+
+   Whether *K* is a member of the set of keys of a :class:`Morsel`.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.output(attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:')
+
+   Return a string representation of the Morsel, suitable to be sent as an HTTP
+   header. By default, all the attributes are included, unless *attrs* is given, in
+   which case it should be a list of attributes to use. *header* is by default
+   ``"Set-Cookie:"``.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.js_output(attrs=None)
+
+   Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which
+   supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP header was sent.
+
+   The meaning for *attrs* is the same as in :meth:`output`.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.OutputString(attrs=None)
+
+   Return a string representing the Morsel, without any surrounding HTTP or
+   JavaScript.
+
+   The meaning for *attrs* is the same as in :meth:`output`.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.update(values)
+
+   Update the values in the Morsel dictionary with the values in the dictionary
+   *values*.  Raise an error if any of the keys in the *values* dict is not a
+   valid :rfc:`2109` attribute.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      an error is raised for invalid keys.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.copy(value)
+
+   Return a shallow copy of the Morsel object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      return a Morsel object instead of a dict.
+
+
+.. method:: Morsel.setdefault(key, value=None)
+
+   Raise an error if key is not a valid :rfc:`2109` attribute, otherwise
+   behave the same as :meth:`dict.setdefault`.
+
+
+.. _cookie-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+The following example demonstrates how to use the :mod:`http.cookies` module.
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   >>> from http import cookies
+   >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
+   >>> C["fig"] = "newton"
+   >>> C["sugar"] = "wafer"
+   >>> print(C) # generate HTTP headers
+   Set-Cookie: fig=newton
+   Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
+   >>> print(C.output()) # same thing
+   Set-Cookie: fig=newton
+   Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
+   >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
+   >>> C["rocky"] = "road"
+   >>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie"
+   >>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:"))
+   Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie
+   >>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:"))
+   Cookie: rocky=road
+   >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
+   >>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # load from a string (HTTP header)
+   >>> print(C)
+   Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
+   Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
+   >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
+   >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=\\012;";')
+   >>> print(C)
+   Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;"
+   >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
+   >>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
+   >>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
+   >>> print(C)
+   Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/
+   >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
+   >>> C["twix"] = "none for you"
+   >>> C["twix"].value
+   'none for you'
+   >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
+   >>> C["number"] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7)
+   >>> C["string"] = "seven"
+   >>> C["number"].value
+   '7'
+   >>> C["string"].value
+   'seven'
+   >>> print(C)
+   Set-Cookie: number=7
+   Set-Cookie: string=seven
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88d62cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+:mod:`http` --- HTTP modules
+============================
+
+.. module:: http
+   :synopsis: HTTP status codes and messages
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/http/__init__.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: HTTP; protocol
+   single: HTTP; http (standard module)
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`http` is a package that collects several modules for working with the
+HyperText Transfer Protocol:
+
+* :mod:`http.client` is a low-level HTTP protocol client; for high-level URL
+  opening use :mod:`urllib.request`
+* :mod:`http.server` contains basic HTTP server classes based on :mod:`socketserver`
+* :mod:`http.cookies` has utilities for implementing state management with cookies
+* :mod:`http.cookiejar` provides persistence of cookies
+
+:mod:`http` is also a module that defines a number of HTTP status codes and
+associated messages through the :class:`http.HTTPStatus` enum:
+
+.. class:: HTTPStatus
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   A subclass of :class:`enum.IntEnum` that defines a set of HTTP status codes,
+   reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.
+
+   Usage::
+
+      >>> from http import HTTPStatus
+      >>> HTTPStatus.OK
+      <HTTPStatus.OK: 200>
+      >>> HTTPStatus.OK == 200
+      True
+      >>> http.HTTPStatus.OK.value
+      200
+      >>> HTTPStatus.OK.phrase
+      'OK'
+      >>> HTTPStatus.OK.description
+      'Request fulfilled, document follows'
+      >>> list(HTTPStatus)
+      [<HTTPStatus.CONTINUE: 100>, <HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS: 101>, ...]
+
+.. _http-status-codes:
+
+HTTP status codes
+-----------------
+
+Supported,
+`IANA-registered <https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml>`_
+status codes available in :class:`http.HTTPStatus` are:
+
+======= =================================== ==================================================================
+Code    Enum Name                           Details
+======= =================================== ==================================================================
+``100`` ``CONTINUE``                        HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.2.1
+``101`` ``SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS``             HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.2.2
+``102`` ``PROCESSING``                      WebDAV :rfc:`2518`, Section 10.1
+``200`` ``OK``                              HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.3.1
+``201`` ``CREATED``                         HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.3.2
+``202`` ``ACCEPTED``                        HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.3.3
+``203`` ``NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION``   HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.3.4
+``204`` ``NO_CONTENT``                      HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.3.5
+``205`` ``RESET_CONTENT``                   HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.3.6
+``206`` ``PARTIAL_CONTENT``                 HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7233`, Section 4.1
+``207`` ``MULTI_STATUS``                    WebDAV :rfc:`4918`, Section 11.1
+``208`` ``ALREADY_REPORTED``                WebDAV Binding Extensions :rfc:`5842`, Section 7.1 (Experimental)
+``226`` ``IM_USED``                         Delta Encoding in HTTP :rfc:`3229`, Section 10.4.1
+``300`` ``MULTIPLE_CHOICES``                HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.4.1
+``301`` ``MOVED_PERMANENTLY``               HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.4.2
+``302`` ``FOUND``                           HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.4.3
+``303`` ``SEE_OTHER``                       HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.4.4
+``304`` ``NOT_MODIFIED``                    HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7232`, Section 4.1
+``305`` ``USE_PROXY``                       HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.4.5
+``307`` ``TEMPORARY_REDIRECT``              HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.4.7
+``308`` ``PERMANENT_REDIRECT``              Permanent Redirect :rfc:`7238`, Section 3 (Experimental)
+``400`` ``BAD_REQUEST``                     HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.1
+``401`` ``UNAUTHORIZED``                    HTTP/1.1 Authentication :rfc:`7235`, Section 3.1
+``402`` ``PAYMENT_REQUIRED``                HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.2
+``403`` ``FORBIDDEN``                       HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.3
+``404`` ``NOT_FOUND``                       HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.4
+``405`` ``METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED``              HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.5
+``406`` ``NOT_ACCEPTABLE``                  HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.6
+``407`` ``PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED``   HTTP/1.1 Authentication :rfc:`7235`, Section 3.2
+``408`` ``REQUEST_TIMEOUT``                 HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.7
+``409`` ``CONFLICT``                        HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.8
+``410`` ``GONE``                            HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.9
+``411`` ``LENGTH_REQUIRED``                 HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.10
+``412`` ``PRECONDITION_FAILED``             HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7232`, Section 4.2
+``413`` ``REQUEST_ENTITY_TOO_LARGE``        HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.11
+``414`` ``REQUEST_URI_TOO_LONG``            HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.12
+``415`` ``UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE``          HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.13
+``416`` ``REQUESTED_RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE`` HTTP/1.1 Range Requests :rfc:`7233`, Section 4.4
+``417`` ``EXPECTATION_FAILED``              HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.14
+``421`` ``MISDIRECTED_REQUEST``             HTTP/2 :rfc:`7540`, Section 9.1.2
+``422`` ``UNPROCESSABLE_ENTITY``            WebDAV :rfc:`4918`, Section 11.2
+``423`` ``LOCKED``                          WebDAV :rfc:`4918`, Section 11.3
+``424`` ``FAILED_DEPENDENCY``               WebDAV :rfc:`4918`, Section 11.4
+``426`` ``UPGRADE_REQUIRED``                HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.5.15
+``428`` ``PRECONDITION_REQUIRED``           Additional HTTP Status Codes :rfc:`6585`
+``429`` ``TOO_MANY_REQUESTS``               Additional HTTP Status Codes :rfc:`6585`
+``431`` ``REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE`` Additional HTTP Status Codes :rfc:`6585`
+``500`` ``INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR``           HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.6.1
+``501`` ``NOT_IMPLEMENTED``                 HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.6.2
+``502`` ``BAD_GATEWAY``                     HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.6.3
+``503`` ``SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE``             HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.6.4
+``504`` ``GATEWAY_TIMEOUT``                 HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.6.5
+``505`` ``HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED``      HTTP/1.1 :rfc:`7231`, Section 6.6.6
+``506`` ``VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES``         Transparent Content Negotiation in HTTP :rfc:`2295`, Section 8.1 (Experimental)
+``507`` ``INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE``            WebDAV :rfc:`4918`, Section 11.5
+``508`` ``LOOP_DETECTED``                   WebDAV Binding Extensions :rfc:`5842`, Section 7.2 (Experimental)
+``510`` ``NOT_EXTENDED``                    An HTTP Extension Framework :rfc:`2774`, Section 7 (Experimental)
+``511`` ``NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED`` Additional HTTP Status Codes :rfc:`6585`, Section 6
+======= =================================== ==================================================================
+
+In order to preserve backwards compatibility, enum values are also present
+in the :mod:`http.client` module in the form of constants. The enum name is
+equal to the constant name (i.e. ``http.HTTPStatus.OK`` is also available as
+``http.client.OK``).
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added ``421 MISDIRECTED_REQUEST`` status code.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.server.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.server.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e317cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/http.server.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,472 @@
+:mod:`http.server` --- HTTP servers
+===================================
+
+.. module:: http.server
+   :synopsis: HTTP server and request handlers.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/http/server.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: WWW; server
+   pair: HTTP; protocol
+   single: URL
+   single: httpd
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines classes for implementing HTTP servers (Web servers).
+
+.. warning::
+
+    :mod:`http.server` is not recommended for production. It only implements
+    basic security checks.
+
+One class, :class:`HTTPServer`, is a :class:`socketserver.TCPServer` subclass.
+It creates and listens at the HTTP socket, dispatching the requests to a
+handler.  Code to create and run the server looks like this::
+
+   def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler):
+       server_address = ('', 8000)
+       httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class)
+       httpd.serve_forever()
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)
+
+   This class builds on the :class:`~socketserver.TCPServer` class by storing
+   the server address as instance variables named :attr:`server_name` and
+   :attr:`server_port`. The server is accessible by the handler, typically
+   through the handler's :attr:`server` instance variable.
+
+.. class:: ThreadingHTTPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)
+
+   This class is identical to HTTPServer but uses threads to handle
+   requests by using the :class:`~socketserver.ThreadingMixIn`. This
+   is useful to handle web browsers pre-opening sockets, on which
+   :class:`HTTPServer` would wait indefinitely.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+The :class:`HTTPServer` and :class:`ThreadingHTTPServer` must be given
+a *RequestHandlerClass* on instantiation, of which this module
+provides three different variants:
+
+.. class:: BaseHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server)
+
+   This class is used to handle the HTTP requests that arrive at the server.  By
+   itself, it cannot respond to any actual HTTP requests; it must be subclassed
+   to handle each request method (e.g. GET or POST).
+   :class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler` provides a number of class and instance
+   variables, and methods for use by subclasses.
+
+   The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a method
+   specific to the request type. The method name is constructed from the
+   request. For example, for the request method ``SPAM``, the :meth:`do_SPAM`
+   method will be called with no arguments. All of the relevant information is
+   stored in instance variables of the handler.  Subclasses should not need to
+   override or extend the :meth:`__init__` method.
+
+   :class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler` has the following instance variables:
+
+   .. attribute:: client_address
+
+      Contains a tuple of the form ``(host, port)`` referring to the client's
+      address.
+
+   .. attribute:: server
+
+      Contains the server instance.
+
+   .. attribute:: close_connection
+
+      Boolean that should be set before :meth:`handle_one_request` returns,
+      indicating if another request may be expected, or if the connection should
+      be shut down.
+
+   .. attribute:: requestline
+
+      Contains the string representation of the HTTP request line. The
+      terminating CRLF is stripped. This attribute should be set by
+      :meth:`handle_one_request`. If no valid request line was processed, it
+      should be set to the empty string.
+
+   .. attribute:: command
+
+      Contains the command (request type). For example, ``'GET'``.
+
+   .. attribute:: path
+
+      Contains the request path.
+
+   .. attribute:: request_version
+
+      Contains the version string from the request. For example, ``'HTTP/1.0'``.
+
+   .. attribute:: headers
+
+      Holds an instance of the class specified by the :attr:`MessageClass` class
+      variable. This instance parses and manages the headers in the HTTP
+      request. The :func:`~http.client.parse_headers` function from
+      :mod:`http.client` is used to parse the headers and it requires that the
+      HTTP request provide a valid :rfc:`2822` style header.
+
+   .. attribute:: rfile
+
+      An :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` input stream, ready to read from
+      the start of the optional input data.
+
+   .. attribute:: wfile
+
+      Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the
+      client. Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used when writing to
+      this stream in order to achieve successful interoperation with HTTP
+      clients.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         This is an :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` stream.
+
+   :class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler` has the following attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: server_version
+
+      Specifies the server software version.  You may want to override this. The
+      format is multiple whitespace-separated strings, where each string is of
+      the form name[/version]. For example, ``'BaseHTTP/0.2'``.
+
+   .. attribute:: sys_version
+
+      Contains the Python system version, in a form usable by the
+      :attr:`version_string` method and the :attr:`server_version` class
+      variable. For example, ``'Python/1.4'``.
+
+   .. attribute:: error_message_format
+
+      Specifies a format string that should be used by :meth:`send_error` method
+      for building an error response to the client. The string is filled by
+      default with variables from :attr:`responses` based on the status code
+      that passed to :meth:`send_error`.
+
+   .. attribute:: error_content_type
+
+      Specifies the Content-Type HTTP header of error responses sent to the
+      client.  The default value is ``'text/html'``.
+
+   .. attribute:: protocol_version
+
+      This specifies the HTTP protocol version used in responses.  If set to
+      ``'HTTP/1.1'``, the server will permit HTTP persistent connections;
+      however, your server *must* then include an accurate ``Content-Length``
+      header (using :meth:`send_header`) in all of its responses to clients.
+      For backwards compatibility, the setting defaults to ``'HTTP/1.0'``.
+
+   .. attribute:: MessageClass
+
+      Specifies an :class:`email.message.Message`\ -like class to parse HTTP
+      headers.  Typically, this is not overridden, and it defaults to
+      :class:`http.client.HTTPMessage`.
+
+   .. attribute:: responses
+
+      This attribute contains a mapping of error code integers to two-element tuples
+      containing a short and long message. For example, ``{code: (shortmessage,
+      longmessage)}``. The *shortmessage* is usually used as the *message* key in an
+      error response, and *longmessage* as the *explain* key.  It is used by
+      :meth:`send_response_only` and :meth:`send_error` methods.
+
+   A :class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler` instance has the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: handle()
+
+      Calls :meth:`handle_one_request` once (or, if persistent connections are
+      enabled, multiple times) to handle incoming HTTP requests. You should
+      never need to override it; instead, implement appropriate :meth:`do_\*`
+      methods.
+
+   .. method:: handle_one_request()
+
+      This method will parse and dispatch the request to the appropriate
+      :meth:`do_\*` method.  You should never need to override it.
+
+   .. method:: handle_expect_100()
+
+      When a HTTP/1.1 compliant server receives an ``Expect: 100-continue``
+      request header it responds back with a ``100 Continue`` followed by ``200
+      OK`` headers.
+      This method can be overridden to raise an error if the server does not
+      want the client to continue.  For e.g. server can chose to send ``417
+      Expectation Failed`` as a response header and ``return False``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: send_error(code, message=None, explain=None)
+
+      Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client. The numeric *code*
+      specifies the HTTP error code, with *message* as an optional, short, human
+      readable description of the error.  The *explain* argument can be used to
+      provide more detailed information about the error; it will be formatted
+      using the :attr:`error_message_format` attribute and emitted, after
+      a complete set of headers, as the response body.  The :attr:`responses`
+      attribute holds the default values for *message* and *explain* that
+      will be used if no value is provided; for unknown codes the default value
+      for both is the string ``???``. The body will be empty if the method is
+      HEAD or the response code is one of the following: ``1xx``,
+      ``204 No Content``, ``205 Reset Content``, ``304 Not Modified``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         The error response includes a Content-Length header.
+         Added the *explain* argument.
+
+   .. method:: send_response(code, message=None)
+
+      Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the accepted
+      request. The HTTP response line is written to the internal buffer,
+      followed by *Server* and *Date* headers. The values for these two headers
+      are picked up from the :meth:`version_string` and
+      :meth:`date_time_string` methods, respectively. If the server does not
+      intend to send any other headers using the :meth:`send_header` method,
+      then :meth:`send_response` should be followed by an :meth:`end_headers`
+      call.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Headers are stored to an internal buffer and :meth:`end_headers`
+         needs to be called explicitly.
+
+   .. method:: send_header(keyword, value)
+
+      Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be written to the
+      output stream when either :meth:`end_headers` or :meth:`flush_headers` is
+      invoked. *keyword* should specify the header keyword, with *value*
+      specifying its value. Note that, after the send_header calls are done,
+      :meth:`end_headers` MUST BE called in order to complete the operation.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Headers are stored in an internal buffer.
+
+   .. method:: send_response_only(code, message=None)
+
+      Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when ``100
+      Continue`` response is sent by the server to the client. The headers not
+      buffered and sent directly the output stream.If the *message* is not
+      specified, the HTTP message corresponding the response *code*  is sent.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: end_headers()
+
+      Adds a blank line
+      (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in the response)
+      to the headers buffer and calls :meth:`flush_headers()`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The buffered headers are written to the output stream.
+
+   .. method:: flush_headers()
+
+      Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the internal
+      headers buffer.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: log_request(code='-', size='-')
+
+      Logs an accepted (successful) request. *code* should specify the numeric
+      HTTP code associated with the response. If a size of the response is
+      available, then it should be passed as the *size* parameter.
+
+   .. method:: log_error(...)
+
+      Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled. By default, it passes
+      the message to :meth:`log_message`, so it takes the same arguments
+      (*format* and additional values).
+
+
+   .. method:: log_message(format, ...)
+
+      Logs an arbitrary message to ``sys.stderr``. This is typically overridden
+      to create custom error logging mechanisms. The *format* argument is a
+      standard printf-style format string, where the additional arguments to
+      :meth:`log_message` are applied as inputs to the formatting. The client
+      ip address and current date and time are prefixed to every message logged.
+
+   .. method:: version_string()
+
+      Returns the server software's version string. This is a combination of the
+      :attr:`server_version` and :attr:`sys_version` attributes.
+
+   .. method:: date_time_string(timestamp=None)
+
+      Returns the date and time given by *timestamp* (which must be ``None`` or in
+      the format returned by :func:`time.time`), formatted for a message
+      header. If *timestamp* is omitted, it uses the current date and time.
+
+      The result looks like ``'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'``.
+
+   .. method:: log_date_time_string()
+
+      Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging.
+
+   .. method:: address_string()
+
+      Returns the client address.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Previously, a name lookup was performed. To avoid name resolution
+         delays, it now always returns the IP address.
+
+
+.. class:: SimpleHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server, directory=None)
+
+   This class serves files from the current directory and below, directly
+   mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests.
+
+   A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base class
+   :class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler`.  This class implements the :func:`do_GET`
+   and :func:`do_HEAD` functions.
+
+   The following are defined as class-level attributes of
+   :class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler`:
+
+   .. attribute:: server_version
+
+      This will be ``"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__``, where ``__version__`` is
+      defined at the module level.
+
+   .. attribute:: extensions_map
+
+      A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types. The default is
+      signified by an empty string, and is considered to be
+      ``application/octet-stream``. The mapping is used case-insensitively,
+      and so should contain only lower-cased keys.
+
+   .. attribute:: directory
+
+      If not specified, the directory to serve is the current working directory.
+
+   The :class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` class defines the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: do_HEAD()
+
+      This method serves the ``'HEAD'`` request type: it sends the headers it
+      would send for the equivalent ``GET`` request. See the :meth:`do_GET`
+      method for a more complete explanation of the possible headers.
+
+   .. method:: do_GET()
+
+      The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the request as a
+      path relative to the current working directory.
+
+      If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is checked for a
+      file named ``index.html`` or ``index.htm`` (in that order). If found, the
+      file's contents are returned; otherwise a directory listing is generated
+      by calling the :meth:`list_directory` method. This method uses
+      :func:`os.listdir` to scan the directory, and returns a ``404`` error
+      response if the :func:`~os.listdir` fails.
+
+      If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened. Any :exc:`OSError`
+      exception in opening the requested file is mapped to a ``404``,
+      ``'File not found'`` error. If there was a ``'If-Modified-Since'``
+      header in the request, and the file was not modified after this time,
+      a ``304``, ``'Not Modified'`` response is sent. Otherwise, the content
+      type is guessed by calling the :meth:`guess_type` method, which in turn
+      uses the *extensions_map* variable, and the file contents are returned.
+
+      A ``'Content-type:'`` header with the guessed content type is output,
+      followed by a ``'Content-Length:'`` header with the file's size and a
+      ``'Last-Modified:'`` header with the file's modification time.
+
+      Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers, and then the
+      contents of the file are output. If the file's MIME type starts with
+      ``text/`` the file is opened in text mode; otherwise binary mode is used.
+
+      For example usage, see the implementation of the :func:`test` function
+      invocation in the :mod:`http.server` module.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         Support of the ``'If-Modified-Since'`` header.
+
+The :class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` class can be used in the following
+manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files relative to
+the current directory::
+
+   import http.server
+   import socketserver
+
+   PORT = 8000
+
+   Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler
+
+   with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
+       print("serving at port", PORT)
+       httpd.serve_forever()
+
+.. _http-server-cli:
+
+:mod:`http.server` can also be invoked directly using the :option:`-m`
+switch of the interpreter with a ``port number`` argument.  Similar to
+the previous example, this serves files relative to the current directory::
+
+        python -m http.server 8000
+
+By default, server binds itself to all interfaces.  The option ``-b/--bind``
+specifies a specific address to which it should bind.  For example, the
+following command causes the server to bind to localhost only::
+
+        python -m http.server 8000 --bind 127.0.0.1
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+    ``--bind`` argument was introduced.
+
+By default, server uses the current directory. The option ``-d/--directory``
+specifies a directory to which it should serve the files. For example,
+the following command uses a specific directory::
+
+        python -m http.server --directory /tmp/
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+    ``--directory`` specify alternate directory
+
+.. class:: CGIHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server)
+
+   This class is used to serve either files or output of CGI scripts from the
+   current directory and below. Note that mapping HTTP hierarchic structure to
+   local directory structure is exactly as in :class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      CGI scripts run by the :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` class cannot execute
+      redirects (HTTP code 302), because code 200 (script output follows) is
+      sent prior to execution of the CGI script.  This pre-empts the status
+      code.
+
+   The class will however, run the CGI script, instead of serving it as a file,
+   if it guesses it to be a CGI script.  Only directory-based CGI are used ---
+   the other common server configuration is to treat special extensions as
+   denoting CGI scripts.
+
+   The :func:`do_GET` and :func:`do_HEAD` functions are modified to run CGI scripts
+   and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the request leads to
+   somewhere below the ``cgi_directories`` path.
+
+   The :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` defines the following data member:
+
+   .. attribute:: cgi_directories
+
+      This defaults to ``['/cgi-bin', '/htbin']`` and describes directories to
+      treat as containing CGI scripts.
+
+   The :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` defines the following method:
+
+   .. method:: do_POST()
+
+      This method serves the ``'POST'`` request type, only allowed for CGI
+      scripts.  Error 501, "Can only POST to CGI scripts", is output when trying
+      to POST to a non-CGI url.
+
+   Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for security
+   reasons.  Problems with the CGI script will be translated to error 403.
+
+:class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` can be enabled in the command line by passing
+the ``--cgi`` option::
+
+        python -m http.server --cgi 8000
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/i18n.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/i18n.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..818f129
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/i18n.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+.. _i18n:
+
+********************
+Internationalization
+********************
+
+The modules described in this chapter help you write software that is
+independent of language and locale by providing mechanisms for selecting a
+language to be used in  program messages or by tailoring output to match local
+conventions.
+
+The list of modules described in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   gettext.rst
+   locale.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/idle.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/idle.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..de58f26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/idle.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,901 @@
+.. _idle:
+
+IDLE
+====
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/idlelib/`
+
+.. index::
+   single: IDLE
+   single: Python Editor
+   single: Integrated Development Environment
+
+--------------
+
+IDLE is Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment.
+
+IDLE has the following features:
+
+* coded in 100% pure Python, using the :mod:`tkinter` GUI toolkit
+
+* cross-platform: works mostly the same on Windows, Unix, and macOS
+
+* Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing
+  of code input, output, and error messages
+
+* multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing,
+  smart indent, call tips, auto completion, and other features
+
+* search within any window, replace within editor windows, and search
+  through multiple files (grep)
+
+* debugger with persistent breakpoints, stepping, and viewing
+  of global and local namespaces
+
+* configuration, browsers, and other dialogs
+
+Menus
+-----
+
+IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window and the Editor window.  It is
+possible to have multiple editor windows simultaneously.  On Windows and
+Linux, each has its own top menu.  Each menu documented below indicates
+which window type it is associated with.
+
+Output windows, such as used for Edit => Find in Files, are a subtype of editor
+window.  They currently have the same top menu but a different
+default title and context menu.
+
+On macOS, there is one application menu.  It dynamically changes according
+to the window currently selected.  It has an IDLE menu, and some entries
+described below are moved around to conform to Apple guidelines.
+
+File menu (Shell and Editor)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+New File
+   Create a new file editing window.
+
+Open...
+   Open an existing file with an Open dialog.
+
+Recent Files
+   Open a list of recent files.  Click one to open it.
+
+Open Module...
+   Open an existing module (searches sys.path).
+
+.. index::
+   single: Class browser
+   single: Path browser
+
+Class Browser
+   Show functions, classes, and methods in the current Editor file in a
+   tree structure.  In the shell, open a module first.
+
+Path Browser
+   Show sys.path directories, modules, functions, classes and methods in a
+   tree structure.
+
+Save
+   Save the current window to the associated file, if there is one.  Windows
+   that have been changed since being opened or last saved have a \* before
+   and after the window title.  If there is no associated file,
+   do Save As instead.
+
+Save As...
+   Save the current window with a Save As dialog.  The file saved becomes the
+   new associated file for the window.
+
+Save Copy As...
+   Save the current window to different file without changing the associated
+   file.
+
+Print Window
+   Print the current window to the default printer.
+
+Close
+   Close the current window (ask to save if unsaved).
+
+Exit
+   Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved windows).
+
+Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Undo
+   Undo the last change to the current window.  A maximum of 1000 changes may
+   be undone.
+
+Redo
+   Redo the last undone change to the current window.
+
+Cut
+   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection.
+
+Copy
+   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.
+
+Paste
+   Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window.
+
+The clipboard functions are also available in context menus.
+
+Select All
+   Select the entire contents of the current window.
+
+Find...
+   Open a search dialog with many options
+
+Find Again
+   Repeat the last search, if there is one.
+
+Find Selection
+   Search for the currently selected string, if there is one.
+
+Find in Files...
+   Open a file search dialog.  Put results in a new output window.
+
+Replace...
+   Open a search-and-replace dialog.
+
+Go to Line
+   Move cursor to the line number requested and make that line visible.
+
+Show Completions
+   Open a scrollable list allowing selection of keywords and attributes. See
+   :ref:`Completions <completions>` in the Editing and navigation section below.
+
+Expand Word
+   Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same window;
+   repeat to get a different expansion.
+
+Show call tip
+   After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window with
+   function parameter hints.  See :ref:`Calltips <calltips>` in the
+   Editing and navigation section below.
+
+Show surrounding parens
+   Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.
+
+.. _format-menu:
+
+Format menu (Editor window only)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Indent Region
+   Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces).
+
+Dedent Region
+   Shift selected lines left by the indent width (default 4 spaces).
+
+Comment Out Region
+   Insert ## in front of selected lines.
+
+Uncomment Region
+   Remove leading # or ## from selected lines.
+
+Tabify Region
+   Turn *leading* stretches of spaces into tabs. (Note: We recommend using
+   4 space blocks to indent Python code.)
+
+Untabify Region
+   Turn *all* tabs into the correct number of spaces.
+
+Toggle Tabs
+   Open a dialog to switch between indenting with spaces and tabs.
+
+New Indent Width
+   Open a dialog to change indent width. The accepted default by the Python
+   community is 4 spaces.
+
+Format Paragraph
+   Reformat the current blank-line-delimited paragraph in comment block or
+   multiline string or selected line in a string.  All lines in the
+   paragraph will be formatted to less than N columns, where N defaults to 72.
+
+Strip trailing whitespace
+   Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the last
+   non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip to each line,
+   including lines within multiline strings.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Run script
+
+Run menu (Editor window only)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. _python-shell:
+
+Python Shell
+   Open or wake up the Python Shell window.
+
+.. _check-module:
+
+Check Module
+   Check the syntax of the module currently open in the Editor window. If the
+   module has not been saved IDLE will either prompt the user to save or
+   autosave, as selected in the General tab of the Idle Settings dialog.  If
+   there is a syntax error, the approximate location is indicated in the
+   Editor window.
+
+.. _run-module:
+
+Run Module
+   Do :ref:`Check Module <check-module>`.  If no error, restart the shell to clean the
+   environment, then execute the module.  Output is displayed in the Shell
+   window.  Note that output requires use of ``print`` or ``write``.
+   When execution is complete, the Shell retains focus and displays a prompt.
+   At this point, one may interactively explore the result of execution.
+   This is similar to executing a file with ``python -i file`` at a command
+   line.
+
+.. _run-custom:
+
+Run... Customized
+   Same as :ref:`Run Module <run-module>`, but run the module with customized
+   settings.  *Command Line Arguments* extend :data:`sys.argv` as if passed
+   on a command line. The module can be run in the Shell without restarting.
+
+
+Shell menu (Shell window only)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+View Last Restart
+  Scroll the shell window to the last Shell restart.
+
+Restart Shell
+  Restart the shell to clean the environment.
+
+Previous History
+  Cycle through earlier commands in history which match the current entry.
+
+Next History
+  Cycle through later commands in history which match the current entry.
+
+Interrupt Execution
+  Stop a running program.
+
+Debug menu (Shell window only)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Go to File/Line
+   Look on the current line. with the cursor, and the line above for a filename
+   and line number.  If found, open the file if not already open, and show the
+   line.  Use this to view source lines referenced in an exception traceback
+   and lines found by Find in Files. Also available in the context menu of
+   the Shell window and Output windows.
+
+.. index::
+   single: debugger
+   single: stack viewer
+
+Debugger (toggle)
+   When activated, code entered in the Shell or run from an Editor will run
+   under the debugger.  In the Editor, breakpoints can be set with the context
+   menu.  This feature is still incomplete and somewhat experimental.
+
+Stack Viewer
+   Show the stack traceback of the last exception in a tree widget, with
+   access to locals and globals.
+
+Auto-open Stack Viewer
+   Toggle automatically opening the stack viewer on an unhandled exception.
+
+Options menu (Shell and Editor)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Configure IDLE
+   Open a configuration dialog and change preferences for the following:
+   fonts, indentation, keybindings, text color themes, startup windows and
+   size, additional help sources, and extensions.  On macOS,  open the
+   configuration dialog by selecting Preferences in the application
+   menu. For more, see
+   :ref:`Setting preferences <preferences>` under Help and preferences.
+
+Show/Hide Code Context (Editor Window only)
+   Open a pane at the top of the edit window which shows the block context
+   of the code which has scrolled above the top of the window.  See
+   :ref:`Code Context <code-context>` in the Editing and Navigation section below.
+
+Zoom/Restore Height
+   Toggles the window between normal size and maximum height. The initial size
+   defaults to 40 lines by 80 chars unless changed on the General tab of the
+   Configure IDLE dialog.  The maximum height for a screen is determined by
+   momentarily maximizing a window the first time one is zoomed on the screen.
+   Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height.  This toogle has
+   no effect when a window is maximized.
+
+Window menu (Shell and Editor)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Lists the names of all open windows; select one to bring it to the foreground
+(deiconifying it if necessary).
+
+Help menu (Shell and Editor)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+About IDLE
+   Display version, copyright, license, credits, and more.
+
+IDLE Help
+   Display this IDLE document, detailing the menu options, basic editing and
+   navigation, and other tips.
+
+Python Docs
+   Access local Python documentation, if installed, or start a web browser
+   and open docs.python.org showing the latest Python documentation.
+
+Turtle Demo
+   Run the turtledemo module with example Python code and turtle drawings.
+
+Additional help sources may be added here with the Configure IDLE dialog under
+the General tab. See the :ref:`Help sources <help-sources>` subsection below
+for more on Help menu choices.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Cut
+   single: Copy
+   single: Paste
+   single: Set Breakpoint
+   single: Clear Breakpoint
+   single: breakpoints
+
+Context Menus
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Open a context menu by right-clicking in a window (Control-click on macOS).
+Context menus have the standard clipboard functions also on the Edit menu.
+
+Cut
+   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection.
+
+Copy
+   Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.
+
+Paste
+   Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window.
+
+Editor windows also have breakpoint functions.  Lines with a breakpoint set are
+specially marked.  Breakpoints only have an effect when running under the
+debugger.  Breakpoints for a file are saved in the user's .idlerc directory.
+
+Set Breakpoint
+   Set a breakpoint on the current line.
+
+Clear Breakpoint
+   Clear the breakpoint on that line.
+
+Shell and Output windows also have the following.
+
+Go to file/line
+   Same as in Debug menu.
+
+The Shell window also has an output squeezing facility explained in the *Python
+Shell window* subsection below.
+
+Squeeze
+   If the cursor is over an output line, squeeze all the output between
+   the code above and the prompt below down to a 'Squeezed text' label.
+
+
+.. _editing-and-navigation:
+
+Editing and navigation
+----------------------
+
+Editor windows
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+IDLE may open editor windows when it starts, depending on settings
+and how you start IDLE.  Thereafter, use the File menu.  There can be only
+one open editor window for a given file.
+
+The title bar contains the name of the file, the full path, and the version
+of Python and IDLE running the window.  The status bar contains the line
+number ('Ln') and column number ('Col').  Line numbers start with 1;
+column numbers with 0.
+
+IDLE assumes that files with a known .py* extension contain Python code
+and that other files do not.  Run Python code with the Run menu.
+
+Key bindings
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In this section, 'C' refers to the :kbd:`Control` key on Windows and Unix and
+the :kbd:`Command` key on macOS.
+
+* :kbd:`Backspace` deletes to the left; :kbd:`Del` deletes to the right
+
+* :kbd:`C-Backspace` delete word left; :kbd:`C-Del` delete word to the right
+
+* Arrow keys and :kbd:`Page Up`/:kbd:`Page Down` to move around
+
+* :kbd:`C-LeftArrow` and :kbd:`C-RightArrow` moves by words
+
+* :kbd:`Home`/:kbd:`End` go to begin/end of line
+
+* :kbd:`C-Home`/:kbd:`C-End` go to begin/end of file
+
+* Some useful Emacs bindings are inherited from Tcl/Tk:
+
+   * :kbd:`C-a` beginning of line
+
+   * :kbd:`C-e` end of line
+
+   * :kbd:`C-k` kill line (but doesn't put it in clipboard)
+
+   * :kbd:`C-l` center window around the insertion point
+
+   * :kbd:`C-b` go backward one character without deleting (usually you can
+     also use the cursor key for this)
+
+   * :kbd:`C-f` go forward one character without deleting (usually you can
+     also use the cursor key for this)
+
+   * :kbd:`C-p` go up one line (usually you can also use the cursor key for
+     this)
+
+   * :kbd:`C-d` delete next character
+
+Standard keybindings (like :kbd:`C-c` to copy and :kbd:`C-v` to paste)
+may work.  Keybindings are selected in the Configure IDLE dialog.
+
+Automatic indentation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+After a block-opening statement, the next line is indented by 4 spaces (in the
+Python Shell window by one tab).  After certain keywords (break, return etc.)
+the next line is dedented.  In leading indentation, :kbd:`Backspace` deletes up
+to 4 spaces if they are there. :kbd:`Tab` inserts spaces (in the Python
+Shell window one tab), number depends on Indent width. Currently, tabs
+are restricted to four spaces due to Tcl/Tk limitations.
+
+See also the indent/dedent region commands on the
+:ref:`Format menu <format-menu>`.
+
+
+.. _completions:
+
+Completions
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Completions are supplied for functions, classes, and attributes of classes,
+both built-in and user-defined. Completions are also provided for
+filenames.
+
+The AutoCompleteWindow (ACW) will open after a predefined delay (default is
+two seconds) after a '.' or (in a string) an os.sep is typed. If after one
+of those characters (plus zero or more other characters) a tab is typed
+the ACW will open immediately if a possible continuation is found.
+
+If there is only one possible completion for the characters entered, a
+:kbd:`Tab` will supply that completion without opening the ACW.
+
+'Show Completions' will force open a completions window, by default the
+:kbd:`C-space` will open a completions window. In an empty
+string, this will contain the files in the current directory. On a
+blank line, it will contain the built-in and user-defined functions and
+classes in the current namespaces, plus any modules imported. If some
+characters have been entered, the ACW will attempt to be more specific.
+
+If a string of characters is typed, the ACW selection will jump to the
+entry most closely matching those characters.  Entering a :kbd:`tab` will
+cause the longest non-ambiguous match to be entered in the Editor window or
+Shell.  Two :kbd:`tab` in a row will supply the current ACW selection, as
+will return or a double click.  Cursor keys, Page Up/Down, mouse selection,
+and the scroll wheel all operate on the ACW.
+
+"Hidden" attributes can be accessed by typing the beginning of hidden
+name after a '.', e.g. '_'. This allows access to modules with
+``__all__`` set, or to class-private attributes.
+
+Completions and the 'Expand Word' facility can save a lot of typing!
+
+Completions are currently limited to those in the namespaces. Names in
+an Editor window which are not via ``__main__`` and :data:`sys.modules` will
+not be found.  Run the module once with your imports to correct this situation.
+Note that IDLE itself places quite a few modules in sys.modules, so
+much can be found by default, e.g. the re module.
+
+If you don't like the ACW popping up unbidden, simply make the delay
+longer or disable the extension.
+
+.. _calltips:
+
+Calltips
+^^^^^^^^
+
+A calltip is shown when one types :kbd:`(` after the name of an *accessible*
+function.  A name expression may include dots and subscripts.  A calltip
+remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved out of the argument area,
+or :kbd:`)` is typed.  When the cursor is in the argument part of a definition,
+the menu or shortcut display a calltip.
+
+A calltip consists of the function signature and the first line of the
+docstring.  For builtins without an accessible signature, the calltip
+consists of all lines up the fifth line or the first blank line.  These
+details may change.
+
+The set of *accessible* functions depends on what modules have been imported
+into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself,
+and what definitions have been run, all since the last restart.
+
+For example, restart the Shell and enter ``itertools.count(``.  A calltip
+appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own use.
+(This could change.)  Enter ``turtle.write(`` and nothing appears.  Idle does
+not import turtle.  The menu or shortcut do nothing either.  Enter
+``import turtle`` and then ``turtle.write(`` will work.
+
+In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.  One
+might want to run a file after writing the import statements at the top,
+or immediately run an existing file before editing.
+
+.. _code-context:
+
+Code Context
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Within an editor window containing Python code, code context can be toggled
+in order to show or hide a pane at the top of the window.  When shown, this
+pane freezes the opening lines for block code, such as those beginning with
+``class``, ``def``, or ``if`` keywords, that would have otherwise scrolled
+out of view.  The size of the pane will be expanded and contracted as needed
+to show the all current levels of context, up to the maximum number of
+lines defined in the Configure IDLE dialog (which defaults to 15).  If there
+are no current context lines and the feature is toggled on, a single blank
+line will display.  Clicking on a line in the context pane will move that
+line to the top of the editor.
+
+The text and background colors for the context pane can be configured under
+the Highlights tab in the Configure IDLE dialog.
+
+Python Shell window
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+With IDLE's Shell, one enters, edits, and recalls complete statements.
+Most consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time.
+
+When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly executed
+until one hits :kbd:`Return`.  One may edit pasted code first.
+If one pastes more that one statement into Shell, the result will be a
+:exc:`SyntaxError` when multiple statements are compiled as if they were one.
+
+The editing features described in previous subsections work when entering
+code interactively.  IDLE's Shell window also responds to the following keys.
+
+* :kbd:`C-c` interrupts executing command
+
+* :kbd:`C-d` sends end-of-file; closes window if typed at a ``>>>`` prompt
+
+* :kbd:`Alt-/` (Expand word) is also useful to reduce typing
+
+  Command history
+
+  * :kbd:`Alt-p` retrieves previous command matching what you have typed. On
+    macOS use :kbd:`C-p`.
+
+  * :kbd:`Alt-n` retrieves next. On macOS use :kbd:`C-n`.
+
+  * :kbd:`Return` while on any previous command retrieves that command
+
+Text colors
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Idle defaults to black on white text, but colors text with special meanings.
+For the shell, these are shell output, shell error, user output, and
+user error.  For Python code, at the shell prompt or in an editor, these are
+keywords, builtin class and function names, names following ``class`` and
+``def``, strings, and comments. For any text window, these are the cursor (when
+present), found text (when possible), and selected text.
+
+Text coloring is done in the background, so uncolorized text is occasionally
+visible.  To change the color scheme, use the Configure IDLE dialog
+Highlighting tab.  The marking of debugger breakpoint lines in the editor and
+text in popups and dialogs is not user-configurable.
+
+
+Startup and code execution
+--------------------------
+
+Upon startup with the ``-s`` option, IDLE will execute the file referenced by
+the environment variables :envvar:`IDLESTARTUP` or :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP`.
+IDLE first checks for ``IDLESTARTUP``; if ``IDLESTARTUP`` is present the file
+referenced is run.  If ``IDLESTARTUP`` is not present, IDLE checks for
+``PYTHONSTARTUP``.  Files referenced by these environment variables are
+convenient places to store functions that are used frequently from the IDLE
+shell, or for executing import statements to import common modules.
+
+In addition, ``Tk`` also loads a startup file if it is present.  Note that the
+Tk file is loaded unconditionally.  This additional file is ``.Idle.py`` and is
+looked for in the user's home directory.  Statements in this file will be
+executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not useful for importing
+functions to be used from IDLE's Python shell.
+
+Command line usage
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   idle.py [-c command] [-d] [-e] [-h] [-i] [-r file] [-s] [-t title] [-] [arg] ...
+
+   -c command  run command in the shell window
+   -d          enable debugger and open shell window
+   -e          open editor window
+   -h          print help message with legal combinations and exit
+   -i          open shell window
+   -r file     run file in shell window
+   -s          run $IDLESTARTUP or $PYTHONSTARTUP first, in shell window
+   -t title    set title of shell window
+   -           run stdin in shell (- must be last option before args)
+
+If there are arguments:
+
+* If ``-``, ``-c``, or ``r`` is used, all arguments are placed in
+  ``sys.argv[1:...]`` and ``sys.argv[0]`` is set to ``''``, ``'-c'``,
+  or ``'-r'``.  No editor window is opened, even if that is the default
+  set in the Options dialog.
+
+* Otherwise, arguments are files opened for editing and
+  ``sys.argv`` reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.
+
+Startup failure
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the user
+code execution process.  A connection must be established whenever the Shell
+starts or restarts.  (The latter is indicated by a divider line that says
+'RESTART'). If the user process fails to connect to the GUI process, it
+displays a ``Tk`` error box with a 'cannot connect' message that directs the
+user here.  It then exits.
+
+A common cause of failure is a user-written file with the same name as a
+standard library module, such as *random.py* and *tkinter.py*. When such a
+file is located in the same directory as a file that is about to be run,
+IDLE cannot import the stdlib file.  The current fix is to rename the
+user file.
+
+Though less common than in the past, an antivirus or firewall program may
+stop the connection.  If the program cannot be taught to allow the
+connection, then it must be turned off for IDLE to work.  It is safe to
+allow this internal connection because no data is visible on external
+ports.  A similar problem is a network mis-configuration that blocks
+connections.
+
+Python installation issues occasionally stop IDLE: multiple versions can
+clash, or a single installation might need admin access.  If one undo the
+clash, or cannot or does not want to run as admin, it might be easiest to
+completely remove Python and start over.
+
+A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem.  On Windows, use Task
+Manager to detect and stop one.  Sometimes a restart initiated by a program
+crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail to connect.  Dismissing
+the error box or Restart Shell on the Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.
+
+When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in
+~/.idlerc/ (~ is one's home directory).  If there is a problem, an error
+message should be displayed.  Leaving aside random disk glitches, this can
+be prevented by never editing the files by hand, using the configuration
+dialog, under Options, instead Options.  Once it happens, the solution may
+be to delete one or more of the configuration files.
+
+If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console, try
+starting from a console (``python -m idlelib)`` and see if a message appears.
+
+Running user code
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is
+intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default method,
+directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal window.
+However, the different interface and operation occasionally affect
+visible results.  For instance, ``sys.modules`` starts with more entries,
+and ``threading.activeCount()`` returns 2 instead of 1.
+
+By default, IDLE runs user code in a separate OS process rather than in
+the user interface process that runs the shell and editor.  In the execution
+process, it replaces ``sys.stdin``, ``sys.stdout``, and ``sys.stderr``
+with objects that get input from and send output to the Shell window.
+The original values stored in ``sys.__stdin__``, ``sys.__stdout__``, and
+``sys.__stderr__`` are not touched, but may be ``None``.
+
+When Shell has the focus, it controls the keyboard and screen.  This is
+normally transparent, but functions that directly access the keyboard
+and screen will not work.  These include system-specific functions that
+determine whether a key has been pressed and if so, which.
+
+IDLE's standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses
+created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by modules
+such as multiprocessing.  If such subprocess use ``input`` from sys.stdin
+or ``print`` or ``write`` to sys.stdout or sys.stderr,
+IDLE should be started in a command line window.  The secondary subprocess
+will then be attached to that window for input and output.
+
+The IDLE code running in the execution process adds frames to the call stack
+that would not be there otherwise.  IDLE wraps ``sys.getrecursionlimit`` and
+``sys.setrecursionlimit`` to reduce the effect of the additional stack frames.
+
+If ``sys`` is reset by user code, such as with ``importlib.reload(sys)``,
+IDLE's changes are lost and input from the keyboard and output to the screen
+will not work correctly.
+
+When user code raises SystemExit either directly or by calling sys.exit, IDLE
+returns to a Shell prompt instead of exiting.
+
+User output in Shell
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+When a program outputs text, the result is determined by the
+corresponding output device.  When IDLE executes user code, ``sys.stdout``
+and ``sys.stderr`` are connected to the display area of IDLE's Shell.  Some of
+its features are inherited from the underlying Tk Text widget.  Others
+are programmed additions.  Where it matters, Shell is designed for development
+rather than production runs.
+
+For instance, Shell never throws away output.  A program that sends unlimited
+output to Shell will eventually fill memory, resulting in a memory error.
+In contrast, some system text windows only keep the last n lines of output.
+A Windows console, for instance, keeps a user-settable 1 to 9999 lines,
+with 300 the default.
+
+A Tk Text widget, and hence IDLE's Shell, displays characters (codepoints) in
+the BMP (Basic Multilingual Plane) subset of Unicode.  Which characters are
+displayed with a proper glyph and which with a replacement box depends on the
+operating system and installed fonts.  Tab characters cause the following text
+to begin after the next tab stop. (They occur every 8 'characters').  Newline
+characters cause following text to appear on a new line.  Other control
+characters are ignored or displayed as a space, box, or something else,
+depending on the operating system and font.  (Moving the text cursor through
+such output with arrow keys may exhibit some surprising spacing behavior.) ::
+
+   >>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd'  # Enter 22 chars.
+   >>> len(s)
+   14
+   >>> s  # Display repr(s)
+   'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd'
+   >>> print(s, end='')  # Display s as is.
+   # Result varies by OS and font.  Try it.
+
+The ``repr`` function is used for interactive echo of expression
+values.  It returns an altered version of the input string in which
+control codes, some BMP codepoints, and all non-BMP codepoints are
+replaced with escape codes. As demonstrated above, it allows one to
+identify the characters in a string, regardless of how they are displayed.
+
+Normal and error output are generally kept separate (on separate lines)
+from code input and each other.  They each get different highlight colors.
+
+For SyntaxError tracebacks, the normal '^' marking where the error was
+detected is replaced by coloring the text with an error highlight.
+When code run from a file causes other exceptions, one may right click
+on a traceback line to jump to the corresponding line in an IDLE editor.
+The file will be opened if necessary.
+
+Shell has a special facility for squeezing output lines down to a
+'Squeezed text' label.  This is done automatically
+for output over N lines (N = 50 by default).
+N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General
+page of the Settings dialog.  Output with fewer lines can be squeezed by
+right clicking on the output.  This can be useful lines long enough to slow
+down scrolling.
+
+Squeezed output is expanded in place by double-clicking the label.
+It can also be sent to the clipboard or a separate view window by
+right-clicking the label.
+
+Developing tkinter applications
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+IDLE is intentionally different from standard Python in order to
+facilitate development of tkinter programs.  Enter ``import tkinter as tk;
+root = tk.Tk()`` in standard Python and nothing appears.  Enter the same
+in IDLE and a tk window appears.  In standard Python, one must also enter
+``root.update()`` to see the window.  IDLE does the equivalent in the
+background, about 20 times a second, which is about every 50 milliseconds.
+Next enter ``b = tk.Button(root, text='button'); b.pack()``.  Again,
+nothing visibly changes in standard Python until one enters ``root.update()``.
+
+Most tkinter programs run ``root.mainloop()``, which usually does not
+return until the tk app is destroyed.  If the program is run with
+``python -i`` or from an IDLE editor, a ``>>>`` shell prompt does not
+appear until ``mainloop()`` returns, at which time there is nothing left
+to interact with.
+
+When running a tkinter program from an IDLE editor, one can comment out
+the mainloop call.  One then gets a shell prompt immediately and can
+interact with the live application.  One just has to remember to
+re-enable the mainloop call when running in standard Python.
+
+Running without a subprocess
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a socket,
+which uses the internal loopback interface.  This connection is not
+externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the Internet.
+If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.
+
+If the attempt to make the socket connection fails, Idle will notify you.
+Such failures are sometimes transient, but if persistent, the problem
+may be either a firewall blocking the connection or misconfiguration of
+a particular system.  Until the problem is fixed, one can run Idle with
+the -n command line switch.
+
+If IDLE is started with the -n command line switch it will run in a
+single process and will not create the subprocess which runs the RPC
+Python execution server.  This can be useful if Python cannot create
+the subprocess or the RPC socket interface on your platform.  However,
+in this mode user code is not isolated from IDLE itself.  Also, the
+environment is not restarted when Run/Run Module (F5) is selected.  If
+your code has been modified, you must reload() the affected modules and
+re-import any specific items (e.g. from foo import baz) if the changes
+are to take effect.  For these reasons, it is preferable to run IDLE
+with the default subprocess if at all possible.
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.4
+
+
+Help and preferences
+--------------------
+
+.. _help-sources:
+
+Help sources
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Help menu entry "IDLE Help" displays a formatted html version of the
+IDLE chapter of the Library Reference.  The result, in a read-only
+tkinter text window, is close to what one sees in a web browser.
+Navigate through the text with a mousewheel,
+the scrollbar, or up and down arrow keys held down.
+Or click the TOC (Table of Contents) button and select a section
+header in the opened box.
+
+Help menu entry "Python Docs" opens the extensive sources of help,
+including tutorials, available at docs.python.org/x.y, where 'x.y'
+is the currently running Python version.  If your system
+has an off-line copy of the docs (this may be an installation option),
+that will be opened instead.
+
+Selected URLs can be added or removed from the help menu at any time using the
+General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog .
+
+.. _preferences:
+
+Setting preferences
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The font preferences, highlighting, keys, and general preferences can be
+changed via Configure IDLE on the Option menu.
+Non-default user settings are saved in a .idlerc directory in the user's
+home directory.  Problems caused by bad user configuration files are solved
+by editing or deleting one or more of the files in .idlerc.
+
+On the Font tab, see the text sample for the effect of font face and size
+on multiple characters in multiple languages.  Edit the sample to add
+other characters of personal interest.  Use the sample to select
+monospaced fonts.  If particular characters have problems in Shell or an
+editor, add them to the top of the sample and try changing first size
+and then font.
+
+On the Highlights and Keys tab, select a built-in or custom color theme
+and key set.  To use a newer built-in color theme or key set with older
+IDLEs, save it as a new custom theme or key set and it well be accessible
+to older IDLEs.
+
+IDLE on macOS
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Under System Preferences: Dock, one can set "Prefer tabs when opening
+documents" to "Always".  This setting is not compatible with the tk/tkinter
+GUI framework used by IDLE, and it breaks a few IDLE features.
+
+Extensions
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+IDLE contains an extension facility.  Preferences for extensions can be
+changed with the Extensions tab of the preferences dialog. See the
+beginning of config-extensions.def in the idlelib directory for further
+information.  The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example
+also used for testing.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imaplib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imaplib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0709f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imaplib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,609 @@
+:mod:`imaplib` --- IMAP4 protocol client
+========================================
+
+.. module:: imaplib
+   :synopsis: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Piers Lauder <piers@communitysolutions.com.au>
+.. sectionauthor:: Piers Lauder <piers@communitysolutions.com.au>
+.. revised by ESR, January 2000
+.. changes for IMAP4_SSL by Tino Lange <Tino.Lange@isg.de>, March 2002
+.. changes for IMAP4_stream by Piers Lauder <piers@communitysolutions.com.au>,
+   November 2002
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/imaplib.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: IMAP4; protocol
+   pair: IMAP4_SSL; protocol
+   pair: IMAP4_stream; protocol
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines three classes, :class:`IMAP4`, :class:`IMAP4_SSL` and
+:class:`IMAP4_stream`, which encapsulate a connection to an IMAP4 server and
+implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client protocol as defined in
+:rfc:`2060`. It is backward compatible with IMAP4 (:rfc:`1730`) servers, but
+note that the ``STATUS`` command is not supported in IMAP4.
+
+Three classes are provided by the :mod:`imaplib` module, :class:`IMAP4` is the
+base class:
+
+
+.. class:: IMAP4(host='', port=IMAP4_PORT)
+
+   This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol.  The connection is created and
+   protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined when the instance is
+   initialized. If *host* is not specified, ``''`` (the local host) is used. If
+   *port* is omitted, the standard IMAP4 port (143) is used.
+
+   The :class:`IMAP4` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement.  When used
+   like this, the IMAP4 ``LOGOUT`` command is issued automatically when the
+   :keyword:`!with` statement exits.  E.g.::
+
+    >>> from imaplib import IMAP4
+    >>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
+    ...     M.noop()
+    ...
+    ('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added.
+
+Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the :class:`IMAP4` class:
+
+
+.. exception:: IMAP4.error
+
+   Exception raised on any errors.  The reason for the exception is passed to the
+   constructor as a string.
+
+
+.. exception:: IMAP4.abort
+
+   IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised.  This is a sub-class of
+   :exc:`IMAP4.error`.  Note that closing the instance and instantiating a new one
+   will usually allow recovery from this exception.
+
+
+.. exception:: IMAP4.readonly
+
+   This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status changed by the
+   server.  This is a sub-class of :exc:`IMAP4.error`.  Some other client now has
+   write permission, and the mailbox will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write
+   permission.
+
+
+There's also a subclass for secure connections:
+
+
+.. class:: IMAP4_SSL(host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, keyfile=None, \
+                     certfile=None, ssl_context=None)
+
+   This is a subclass derived from :class:`IMAP4` that connects over an SSL
+   encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket module that was compiled
+   with SSL support).  If *host* is not specified, ``''`` (the local host) is used.
+   If *port* is omitted, the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used.
+   *ssl_context* is a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object which allows bundling
+   SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
+   (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for
+   best practices.
+
+   *keyfile* and *certfile* are a legacy alternative to *ssl_context* - they
+   can point to PEM-formatted private key and certificate chain files for
+   the SSL connection.  Note that the *keyfile*/*certfile* parameters are
+   mutually exclusive with *ssl_context*, a :class:`ValueError` is raised
+   if *keyfile*/*certfile* is provided along with *ssl_context*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *ssl_context* parameter added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The class now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+       *keyfile* and *certfile* are deprecated in favor of *ssl_context*.
+       Please use :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` instead, or let
+       :func:`ssl.create_default_context` select the system's trusted CA
+       certificates for you.
+
+
+The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:
+
+
+.. class:: IMAP4_stream(command)
+
+   This is a subclass derived from :class:`IMAP4` that connects to the
+   ``stdin/stdout`` file descriptors created by passing *command* to
+   ``subprocess.Popen()``.
+
+
+The following utility functions are defined:
+
+
+.. function:: Internaldate2tuple(datestr)
+
+   Parse an IMAP4 ``INTERNALDATE`` string and return corresponding local
+   time.  The return value is a :class:`time.struct_time` tuple or
+   ``None`` if the string has wrong format.
+
+.. function:: Int2AP(num)
+
+   Converts an integer into a string representation using characters from the set
+   [``A`` .. ``P``].
+
+
+.. function:: ParseFlags(flagstr)
+
+   Converts an IMAP4 ``FLAGS`` response to a tuple of individual flags.
+
+
+.. function:: Time2Internaldate(date_time)
+
+   Convert *date_time* to an IMAP4 ``INTERNALDATE`` representation.
+   The return value is a string in the form: ``"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS
+   +HHMM"`` (including double-quotes).  The *date_time* argument can
+   be a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as
+   returned by :func:`time.time`), a 9-tuple representing local time
+   an instance of :class:`time.struct_time` (as returned by
+   :func:`time.localtime`), an aware instance of
+   :class:`datetime.datetime`, or a double-quoted string.  In the last
+   case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.
+
+Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in particular,
+after an ``EXPUNGE`` command performs deletions the remaining messages are
+renumbered. So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead, with the UID command.
+
+At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more extensive
+example of usage.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Documents describing the protocol, and sources and binaries  for servers
+   implementing it, can all be found at the University of Washington's *IMAP
+   Information Center* (https://www.washington.edu/imap/).
+
+
+.. _imap4-objects:
+
+IMAP4 Objects
+-------------
+
+All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name, either
+upper-case or lower-case.
+
+All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for ``AUTHENTICATE``,
+and the last argument to ``APPEND`` which is passed as an IMAP4 literal.  If
+necessary (the string contains IMAP4 protocol-sensitive characters and isn't
+enclosed with either parentheses or double quotes) each string is quoted.
+However, the *password* argument to the ``LOGIN`` command is always quoted. If
+you want to avoid having an argument string quoted (eg: the *flags* argument to
+``STORE``) then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: ``r'(\Deleted)'``).
+
+Each command returns a tuple: ``(type, [data, ...])`` where *type* is usually
+``'OK'`` or ``'NO'``, and *data* is either the text from the command response,
+or mandated results from the command. Each *data* is either a string, or a
+tuple. If a tuple, then the first part is the header of the response, and the
+second part contains the data (ie: 'literal' value).
+
+The *message_set* options to commands below is a string specifying one or more
+messages to be acted upon.  It may be a simple message number (``'1'``), a range
+of message numbers (``'2:4'``), or a group of non-contiguous ranges separated by
+commas (``'1:3,6:9'``).  A range can contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite
+upper bound (``'3:*'``).
+
+An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.append(mailbox, flags, date_time, message)
+
+   Append *message* to named mailbox.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.authenticate(mechanism, authobject)
+
+   Authenticate command --- requires response processing.
+
+   *mechanism* specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used - it should
+   appear in the instance variable ``capabilities`` in the form ``AUTH=mechanism``.
+
+   *authobject* must be a callable object::
+
+      data = authobject(response)
+
+   It will be called to process server continuation responses; the *response*
+   argument it is passed will be ``bytes``.  It should return ``bytes`` *data*
+   that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.  It should return
+   ``None`` if the client abort response ``*`` should be sent instead.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      string usernames and passwords are now encoded to ``utf-8`` instead of
+      being limited to ASCII.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.check()
+
+   Checkpoint mailbox on server.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.close()
+
+   Close currently selected mailbox. Deleted messages are removed from writable
+   mailbox. This is the recommended command before ``LOGOUT``.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.copy(message_set, new_mailbox)
+
+   Copy *message_set* messages onto end of *new_mailbox*.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.create(mailbox)
+
+   Create new mailbox named *mailbox*.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.delete(mailbox)
+
+   Delete old mailbox named *mailbox*.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.deleteacl(mailbox, who)
+
+   Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.enable(capability)
+
+   Enable *capability* (see :rfc:`5161`).  Most capabilities do not need to be
+   enabled.  Currently only the ``UTF8=ACCEPT`` capability is supported
+   (see :RFC:`6855`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      The :meth:`enable` method itself, and :RFC:`6855` support.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.expunge()
+
+   Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox. Generates an ``EXPUNGE``
+   response for each deleted message. Returned data contains a list of ``EXPUNGE``
+   message numbers in order received.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.fetch(message_set, message_parts)
+
+   Fetch (parts of) messages.  *message_parts* should be a string of message part
+   names enclosed within parentheses, eg: ``"(UID BODY[TEXT])"``.  Returned data
+   are tuples of message part envelope and data.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.getacl(mailbox)
+
+   Get the ``ACL``\ s for *mailbox*. The method is non-standard, but is supported
+   by the ``Cyrus`` server.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.getannotation(mailbox, entry, attribute)
+
+   Retrieve the specified ``ANNOTATION``\ s for *mailbox*. The method is
+   non-standard, but is supported by the ``Cyrus`` server.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.getquota(root)
+
+   Get the ``quota`` *root*'s resource usage and limits. This method is part of the
+   IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.getquotaroot(mailbox)
+
+   Get the list of ``quota`` ``roots`` for the named *mailbox*. This method is part
+   of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.list([directory[, pattern]])
+
+   List mailbox names in *directory* matching *pattern*.  *directory* defaults to
+   the top-level mail folder, and *pattern* defaults to match anything.  Returned
+   data contains a list of ``LIST`` responses.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.login(user, password)
+
+   Identify the client using a plaintext password. The *password* will be quoted.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.login_cram_md5(user, password)
+
+   Force use of ``CRAM-MD5`` authentication when identifying the client to protect
+   the password.  Will only work if the server ``CAPABILITY`` response includes the
+   phrase ``AUTH=CRAM-MD5``.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.logout()
+
+   Shutdown connection to server. Returns server ``BYE`` response.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.lsub(directory='""', pattern='*')
+
+   List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern. *directory*
+   defaults to the top level directory and *pattern* defaults to match any mailbox.
+   Returned data are tuples of message part envelope and data.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.myrights(mailbox)
+
+   Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e. the rights that I have on mailbox).
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.namespace()
+
+   Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in :rfc:`2342`.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.noop()
+
+   Send ``NOOP`` to server.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.open(host, port)
+
+   Opens socket to *port* at *host*.  This method is implicitly called by
+   the :class:`IMAP4` constructor.  The connection objects established by this
+   method will be used in the :meth:`IMAP4.read`, :meth:`IMAP4.readline`,
+   :meth:`IMAP4.send`, and :meth:`IMAP4.shutdown` methods.  You may override
+   this method.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.partial(message_num, message_part, start, length)
+
+   Fetch truncated part of a message. Returned data is a tuple of message part
+   envelope and data.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.proxyauth(user)
+
+   Assume authentication as *user*. Allows an authorised administrator to proxy
+   into any user's mailbox.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.read(size)
+
+   Reads *size* bytes from the remote server. You may override this method.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.readline()
+
+   Reads one line from the remote server. You may override this method.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.recent()
+
+   Prompt server for an update. Returned data is ``None`` if no new messages, else
+   value of ``RECENT`` response.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.rename(oldmailbox, newmailbox)
+
+   Rename mailbox named *oldmailbox* to *newmailbox*.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.response(code)
+
+   Return data for response *code* if received, or ``None``. Returns the given
+   code, instead of the usual type.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.search(charset, criterion[, ...])
+
+   Search mailbox for matching messages.  *charset* may be ``None``, in which case
+   no ``CHARSET`` will be specified in the request to the server.  The IMAP
+   protocol requires that at least one criterion be specified; an exception will be
+   raised when the server returns an error.  *charset* must be ``None`` if
+   the ``UTF8=ACCEPT`` capability was enabled using the :meth:`enable`
+   command.
+
+   Example::
+
+      # M is a connected IMAP4 instance...
+      typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')
+
+      # or:
+      typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.select(mailbox='INBOX', readonly=False)
+
+   Select a mailbox. Returned data is the count of messages in *mailbox*
+   (``EXISTS`` response).  The default *mailbox* is ``'INBOX'``.  If the *readonly*
+   flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not allowed.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.send(data)
+
+   Sends ``data`` to the remote server. You may override this method.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.setacl(mailbox, who, what)
+
+   Set an ``ACL`` for *mailbox*. The method is non-standard, but is supported by
+   the ``Cyrus`` server.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.setannotation(mailbox, entry, attribute[, ...])
+
+   Set ``ANNOTATION``\ s for *mailbox*. The method is non-standard, but is
+   supported by the ``Cyrus`` server.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.setquota(root, limits)
+
+   Set the ``quota`` *root*'s resource *limits*. This method is part of the IMAP4
+   QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.shutdown()
+
+   Close connection established in ``open``.  This method is implicitly
+   called by :meth:`IMAP4.logout`.  You may override this method.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.socket()
+
+   Returns socket instance used to connect to server.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.sort(sort_criteria, charset, search_criterion[, ...])
+
+   The ``sort`` command is a variant of ``search`` with sorting semantics for the
+   results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of matching message
+   numbers.
+
+   Sort has two arguments before the *search_criterion* argument(s); a
+   parenthesized list of *sort_criteria*, and the searching *charset*.  Note that
+   unlike ``search``, the searching *charset* argument is mandatory.  There is also
+   a ``uid sort`` command which corresponds to ``sort`` the way that ``uid search``
+   corresponds to ``search``.  The ``sort`` command first searches the mailbox for
+   messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset argument for
+   the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then returns the
+   numbers of matching messages.
+
+   This is an ``IMAP4rev1`` extension command.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.starttls(ssl_context=None)
+
+   Send a ``STARTTLS`` command.  The *ssl_context* argument is optional
+   and should be a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object.  This will enable
+   encryption on the IMAP connection.  Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for
+   best practices.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The method now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.status(mailbox, names)
+
+   Request named status conditions for *mailbox*.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.store(message_set, command, flag_list)
+
+   Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox.  *command* is specified by
+   section 6.4.6 of :rfc:`2060` as being one of "FLAGS", "+FLAGS", or "-FLAGS",
+   optionally with a suffix of ".SILENT".
+
+   For example, to set the delete flag on all messages::
+
+      typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
+      for num in data[0].split():
+         M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
+      M.expunge()
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Creating flags containing ']' (for example: "[test]") violates
+      :rfc:`3501` (the IMAP protocol).  However, imaplib has historically
+      allowed creation of such tags, and popular IMAP servers, such as Gmail,
+      accept and produce such flags.  There are non-Python programs which also
+      create such tags.  Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and
+      servers are supposed to be strict, imaplib nonetheless continues to allow
+      such tags to be created for backward compatibility reasons, and as of
+      Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent from the server, since this
+      improves real-world compatibility.
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.subscribe(mailbox)
+
+   Subscribe to new mailbox.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.thread(threading_algorithm, charset, search_criterion[, ...])
+
+   The ``thread`` command is a variant of ``search`` with threading semantics for
+   the results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of thread members.
+
+   Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited by spaces,
+   indicating successive parent and child.
+
+   Thread has two arguments before the *search_criterion* argument(s); a
+   *threading_algorithm*, and the searching *charset*.  Note that unlike
+   ``search``, the searching *charset* argument is mandatory.  There is also a
+   ``uid thread`` command which corresponds to ``thread`` the way that ``uid
+   search`` corresponds to ``search``.  The ``thread`` command first searches the
+   mailbox for messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset
+   argument for the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria. It then
+   returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified threading
+   algorithm.
+
+   This is an ``IMAP4rev1`` extension command.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.uid(command, arg[, ...])
+
+   Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than message
+   number.  Returns response appropriate to command.  At least one argument must be
+   supplied; if none are provided, the server will return an error and an exception
+   will be raised.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.unsubscribe(mailbox)
+
+   Unsubscribe from old mailbox.
+
+
+.. method:: IMAP4.xatom(name[, ...])
+
+   Allow simple extension commands notified by server in ``CAPABILITY`` response.
+
+
+The following attributes are defined on instances of :class:`IMAP4`:
+
+.. attribute:: IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION
+
+   The most recent supported protocol in the ``CAPABILITY`` response from the
+   server.
+
+
+.. attribute:: IMAP4.debug
+
+   Integer value to control debugging output.  The initialize value is taken from
+   the module variable ``Debug``.  Values greater than three trace each command.
+
+
+.. attribute:: IMAP4.utf8_enabled
+
+   Boolean value that is normally ``False``, but is set to ``True`` if an
+   :meth:`enable` command is successfully issued for the ``UTF8=ACCEPT``
+   capability.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. _imap4-example:
+
+IMAP4 Example
+-------------
+
+Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox and
+retrieves and prints all messages::
+
+   import getpass, imaplib
+
+   M = imaplib.IMAP4()
+   M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
+   M.select()
+   typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
+   for num in data[0].split():
+       typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
+       print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
+   M.close()
+   M.logout()
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imghdr.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imghdr.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..800e919
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imghdr.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+:mod:`imghdr` --- Determine the type of an image
+================================================
+
+.. module:: imghdr
+   :synopsis: Determine the type of image contained in a file or byte stream.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/imghdr.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`imghdr` module determines the type of image contained in a file or
+byte stream.
+
+The :mod:`imghdr` module defines the following function:
+
+
+.. function:: what(filename, h=None)
+
+   Tests the image data contained in the file named by *filename*, and returns a
+   string describing the image type.  If optional *h* is provided, the *filename*
+   is ignored and *h* is assumed to contain the byte stream to test.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+The following image types are recognized, as listed below with the return value
+from :func:`what`:
+
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| Value      | Image format                      |
++============+===================================+
+| ``'rgb'``  | SGI ImgLib Files                  |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'gif'``  | GIF 87a and 89a Files             |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'pbm'``  | Portable Bitmap Files             |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'pgm'``  | Portable Graymap Files            |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'ppm'``  | Portable Pixmap Files             |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'tiff'`` | TIFF Files                        |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'rast'`` | Sun Raster Files                  |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'xbm'``  | X Bitmap Files                    |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'jpeg'`` | JPEG data in JFIF or Exif formats |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'bmp'``  | BMP files                         |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'png'``  | Portable Network Graphics         |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'webp'`` | WebP files                        |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+| ``'exr'``  | OpenEXR Files                     |
++------------+-----------------------------------+
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+   The *exr* and *webp* formats were added.
+
+
+You can extend the list of file types :mod:`imghdr` can recognize by appending
+to this variable:
+
+
+.. data:: tests
+
+   A list of functions performing the individual tests.  Each function takes two
+   arguments: the byte-stream and an open file-like object. When :func:`what` is
+   called with a byte-stream, the file-like object will be ``None``.
+
+   The test function should return a string describing the image type if the test
+   succeeded, or ``None`` if it failed.
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> import imghdr
+   >>> imghdr.what('bass.gif')
+   'gif'
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imp.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imp.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04f207f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/imp.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,412 @@
+:mod:`imp` --- Access the :ref:`import <importsystem>` internals
+================================================================
+
+.. module:: imp
+   :synopsis: Access the implementation of the import statement.
+   :deprecated:
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/imp.py`
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.4
+   The :mod:`imp` package is pending deprecation in favor of :mod:`importlib`.
+
+.. index:: statement: import
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides an interface to the mechanisms used to implement the
+:keyword:`import` statement.  It defines the following constants and functions:
+
+
+.. function:: get_magic()
+
+   .. index:: pair: file; byte-code
+
+   Return the magic string value used to recognize byte-compiled code files
+   (:file:`.pyc` files).  (This value may be different for each Python version.)
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+       Use :attr:`importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: get_suffixes()
+
+   Return a list of 3-element tuples, each describing a particular type of
+   module. Each triple has the form ``(suffix, mode, type)``, where *suffix* is
+   a string to be appended to the module name to form the filename to search
+   for, *mode* is the mode string to pass to the built-in :func:`open` function
+   to open the file (this can be ``'r'`` for text files or ``'rb'`` for binary
+   files), and *type* is the file type, which has one of the values
+   :const:`PY_SOURCE`, :const:`PY_COMPILED`, or :const:`C_EXTENSION`, described
+   below.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      Use the constants defined on :mod:`importlib.machinery` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: find_module(name[, path])
+
+   Try to find the module *name*.  If *path* is omitted or ``None``, the list of
+   directory names given by ``sys.path`` is searched, but first a few special
+   places are searched: the function tries to find a built-in module with the
+   given name (:const:`C_BUILTIN`), then a frozen module (:const:`PY_FROZEN`),
+   and on some systems some other places are looked in as well (on Windows, it
+   looks in the registry which may point to a specific file).
+
+   Otherwise, *path* must be a list of directory names; each directory is
+   searched for files with any of the suffixes returned by :func:`get_suffixes`
+   above.  Invalid names in the list are silently ignored (but all list items
+   must be strings).
+
+   If search is successful, the return value is a 3-element tuple ``(file,
+   pathname, description)``:
+
+   *file* is an open :term:`file object` positioned at the beginning, *pathname*
+   is the pathname of the file found, and *description* is a 3-element tuple as
+   contained in the list returned by :func:`get_suffixes` describing the kind of
+   module found.
+
+   If the module does not live in a file, the returned *file* is ``None``,
+   *pathname* is the empty string, and the *description* tuple contains empty
+   strings for its suffix and mode; the module type is indicated as given in
+   parentheses above.  If the search is unsuccessful, :exc:`ImportError` is
+   raised.  Other exceptions indicate problems with the arguments or
+   environment.
+
+   If the module is a package, *file* is ``None``, *pathname* is the package
+   path and the last item in the *description* tuple is :const:`PKG_DIRECTORY`.
+
+   This function does not handle hierarchical module names (names containing
+   dots).  In order to find *P.M*, that is, submodule *M* of package *P*, use
+   :func:`find_module` and :func:`load_module` to find and load package *P*, and
+   then use :func:`find_module` with the *path* argument set to ``P.__path__``.
+   When *P* itself has a dotted name, apply this recipe recursively.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      Use :func:`importlib.util.find_spec` instead unless Python 3.3
+      compatibility is required, in which case use
+      :func:`importlib.find_loader`. For example usage of the former case,
+      see the :ref:`importlib-examples` section of the :mod:`importlib`
+      documentation.
+
+
+.. function:: load_module(name, file, pathname, description)
+
+   Load a module that was previously found by :func:`find_module` (or by an
+   otherwise conducted search yielding compatible results).  This function does
+   more than importing the module: if the module was already imported, it will
+   reload the module!  The *name* argument indicates the full
+   module name (including the package name, if this is a submodule of a
+   package).  The *file* argument is an open file, and *pathname* is the
+   corresponding file name; these can be ``None`` and ``''``, respectively, when
+   the module is a package or not being loaded from a file.  The *description*
+   argument is a tuple, as would be returned by :func:`get_suffixes`, describing
+   what kind of module must be loaded.
+
+   If the load is successful, the return value is the module object; otherwise,
+   an exception (usually :exc:`ImportError`) is raised.
+
+   **Important:** the caller is responsible for closing the *file* argument, if
+   it was not ``None``, even when an exception is raised.  This is best done
+   using a :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` statement.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      If previously used in conjunction with :func:`imp.find_module` then
+      consider using :func:`importlib.import_module`, otherwise use the loader
+      returned by the replacement you chose for :func:`imp.find_module`. If you
+      called :func:`imp.load_module` and related functions directly with file
+      path arguments then use a combination of
+      :func:`importlib.util.spec_from_file_location` and
+      :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec`. See the :ref:`importlib-examples`
+      section of the :mod:`importlib` documentation for details of the various
+      approaches.
+
+
+.. function:: new_module(name)
+
+   Return a new empty module object called *name*.  This object is *not* inserted
+   in ``sys.modules``.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      Use :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: reload(module)
+
+   Reload a previously imported *module*.  The argument must be a module object, so
+   it must have been successfully imported before.  This is useful if you have
+   edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the
+   new version without leaving the Python interpreter.  The return value is the
+   module object (the same as the *module* argument).
+
+   When ``reload(module)`` is executed:
+
+   * Python modules' code is recompiled and the module-level code reexecuted,
+     defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module's
+     dictionary.  The ``init`` function of extension modules is not called a second
+     time.
+
+   * As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after
+     their reference counts drop to zero.
+
+   * The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed
+     objects.
+
+   * Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are
+     not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace
+     where they occur if that is desired.
+
+   There are a number of other caveats:
+
+   When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module's global
+   variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will override the old
+   definitions, so this is generally not a problem.  If the new version of a module
+   does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition
+   remains.  This feature can be used to the module's advantage if it maintains a
+   global table or cache of objects --- with a :keyword:`try` statement it can test
+   for the table's presence and skip its initialization if desired::
+
+      try:
+          cache
+      except NameError:
+          cache = {}
+
+   It is legal though generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
+   loaded modules, except for :mod:`sys`, :mod:`__main__` and :mod:`builtins`.
+   In many cases, however, extension modules are not designed to be initialized
+   more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.
+
+   If a module imports objects from another module using :keyword:`from` ...
+   :keyword:`import` ..., calling :func:`reload` for the other module does not
+   redefine the objects imported from it --- one way around this is to re-execute
+   the :keyword:`!from` statement, another is to use :keyword:`!import` and qualified
+   names (*module*.*name*) instead.
+
+   If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines
+   the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances --- they
+   continue to use the old class definition.  The same is true for derived classes.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Relies on both ``__name__`` and ``__loader__`` being defined on the module
+      being reloaded instead of just ``__name__``.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      Use :func:`importlib.reload` instead.
+
+
+The following functions are conveniences for handling :pep:`3147` byte-compiled
+file paths.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. function:: cache_from_source(path, debug_override=None)
+
+   Return the :pep:`3147` path to the byte-compiled file associated with the
+   source *path*.  For example, if *path* is ``/foo/bar/baz.py`` the return
+   value would be ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc`` for Python 3.2.
+   The ``cpython-32`` string comes from the current magic tag (see
+   :func:`get_tag`; if :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined then
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` will be raised). By passing in ``True`` or
+   ``False`` for *debug_override* you can override the system's value for
+   ``__debug__``, leading to optimized bytecode.
+
+   *path* need not exist.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      If :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is ``None``, then
+      :exc:`NotImplementedError` is raised.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      Use :func:`importlib.util.cache_from_source` instead.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *debug_override* parameter no longer creates a ``.pyo`` file.
+
+
+.. function:: source_from_cache(path)
+
+   Given the *path* to a :pep:`3147` file name, return the associated source code
+   file path.  For example, if *path* is
+   ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc`` the returned path would be
+   ``/foo/bar/baz.py``.  *path* need not exist, however if it does not conform
+   to :pep:`3147` format, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised. If
+   :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined,
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` when
+      :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      Use :func:`importlib.util.source_from_cache` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: get_tag()
+
+   Return the :pep:`3147` magic tag string matching this version of Python's
+   magic number, as returned by :func:`get_magic`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      Use :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` directly starting
+      in Python 3.3.
+
+
+The following functions help interact with the import system's internal
+locking mechanism.  Locking semantics of imports are an implementation
+detail which may vary from release to release.  However, Python ensures
+that circular imports work without any deadlocks.
+
+
+.. function:: lock_held()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the global import lock is currently held, else
+   ``False``. On platforms without threads, always return ``False``.
+
+   On platforms with threads, a thread executing an import first holds a
+   global import lock, then sets up a per-module lock for the rest of the
+   import.  This blocks other threads from importing the same module until
+   the original import completes, preventing other threads from seeing
+   incomplete module objects constructed by the original thread.  An
+   exception is made for circular imports, which by construction have to
+   expose an incomplete module object at some point.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for
+      the most part.  A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks,
+      such as initializing the per-module locks.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: acquire_lock()
+
+   Acquire the interpreter's global import lock for the current thread.
+   This lock should be used by import hooks to ensure thread-safety when
+   importing modules.
+
+   Once a thread has acquired the import lock, the same thread may acquire it
+   again without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it has
+   acquired it.
+
+   On platforms without threads, this function does nothing.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for
+      the most part.  A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks,
+      such as initializing the per-module locks.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: release_lock()
+
+   Release the interpreter's global import lock. On platforms without
+   threads, this function does nothing.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for
+      the most part.  A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks,
+      such as initializing the per-module locks.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+
+
+The following constants with integer values, defined in this module, are used
+to indicate the search result of :func:`find_module`.
+
+
+.. data:: PY_SOURCE
+
+   The module was found as a source file.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: PY_COMPILED
+
+   The module was found as a compiled code object file.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: C_EXTENSION
+
+   The module was found as dynamically loadable shared library.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: PKG_DIRECTORY
+
+   The module was found as a package directory.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: C_BUILTIN
+
+   The module was found as a built-in module.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: PY_FROZEN
+
+   The module was found as a frozen module.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+
+.. class:: NullImporter(path_string)
+
+   The :class:`NullImporter` type is a :pep:`302` import hook that handles
+   non-directory path strings by failing to find any modules.  Calling this type
+   with an existing directory or empty string raises :exc:`ImportError`.
+   Otherwise, a :class:`NullImporter` instance is returned.
+
+   Instances have only one method:
+
+   .. method:: NullImporter.find_module(fullname [, path])
+
+      This method always returns ``None``, indicating that the requested module could
+      not be found.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      ``None`` is inserted into ``sys.path_importer_cache`` instead of an
+      instance of :class:`NullImporter`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      Insert ``None`` into ``sys.path_importer_cache`` instead.
+
+
+.. _examples-imp:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+The following function emulates what was the standard import statement up to
+Python 1.4 (no hierarchical module names).  (This *implementation* wouldn't work
+in that version, since :func:`find_module` has been extended and
+:func:`load_module` has been added in 1.4.) ::
+
+   import imp
+   import sys
+
+   def __import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=None):
+       # Fast path: see if the module has already been imported.
+       try:
+           return sys.modules[name]
+       except KeyError:
+           pass
+
+       # If any of the following calls raises an exception,
+       # there's a problem we can't handle -- let the caller handle it.
+
+       fp, pathname, description = imp.find_module(name)
+
+       try:
+           return imp.load_module(name, fp, pathname, description)
+       finally:
+           # Since we may exit via an exception, close fp explicitly.
+           if fp:
+               fp.close()
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/importlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/importlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df184b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/importlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1747 @@
+:mod:`!importlib` --- The implementation of :keyword:`!import`
+==============================================================
+
+.. module:: importlib
+   :synopsis: The implementation of the import machinery.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Brett Cannon <brett@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Brett Cannon <brett@python.org>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/importlib/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+Introduction
+------------
+
+The purpose of the :mod:`importlib` package is two-fold. One is to provide the
+implementation of the :keyword:`import` statement (and thus, by extension, the
+:func:`__import__` function) in Python source code. This provides an
+implementation of :keyword:`!import` which is portable to any Python
+interpreter. This also provides an implementation which is easier to
+comprehend than one implemented in a programming language other than Python.
+
+Two, the components to implement :keyword:`import` are exposed in this
+package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects (known
+generically as an :term:`importer`) to participate in the import process.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :ref:`import`
+        The language reference for the :keyword:`import` statement.
+
+    `Packages specification <https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/>`__
+        Original specification of packages. Some semantics have changed since
+        the writing of this document (e.g. redirecting based on ``None``
+        in :data:`sys.modules`).
+
+    The :func:`.__import__` function
+        The :keyword:`import` statement is syntactic sugar for this function.
+
+    :pep:`235`
+        Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms
+
+    :pep:`263`
+        Defining Python Source Code Encodings
+
+    :pep:`302`
+        New Import Hooks
+
+    :pep:`328`
+        Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative
+
+    :pep:`366`
+        Main module explicit relative imports
+
+    :pep:`420`
+        Implicit namespace packages
+
+    :pep:`451`
+        A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
+
+    :pep:`488`
+        Elimination of PYO files
+
+    :pep:`489`
+        Multi-phase extension module initialization
+
+    :pep:`552`
+        Deterministic pycs
+
+    :pep:`3120`
+        Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding
+
+    :pep:`3147`
+        PYC Repository Directories
+
+
+Functions
+---------
+
+.. function:: __import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0)
+
+    An implementation of the built-in :func:`__import__` function.
+
+    .. note::
+       Programmatic importing of modules should use :func:`import_module`
+       instead of this function.
+
+.. function:: import_module(name, package=None)
+
+    Import a module. The *name* argument specifies what module to
+    import in absolute or relative terms
+    (e.g. either ``pkg.mod`` or ``..mod``). If the name is
+    specified in relative terms, then the *package* argument must be set to
+    the name of the package which is to act as the anchor for resolving the
+    package name (e.g. ``import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg')`` will import
+    ``pkg.mod``).
+
+    The :func:`import_module` function acts as a simplifying wrapper around
+    :func:`importlib.__import__`. This means all semantics of the function are
+    derived from :func:`importlib.__import__`. The most important difference
+    between these two functions is that :func:`import_module` returns the
+    specified package or module (e.g. ``pkg.mod``), while :func:`__import__`
+    returns the top-level package or module (e.g. ``pkg``).
+
+    If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since the
+    interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source file), you may
+    need to call :func:`invalidate_caches` in order for the new module to be
+    noticed by the import system.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+       Parent packages are automatically imported.
+
+.. function:: find_loader(name, path=None)
+
+   Find the loader for a module, optionally within the specified *path*. If the
+   module is in :attr:`sys.modules`, then ``sys.modules[name].__loader__`` is
+   returned (unless the loader would be ``None`` or is not set, in which case
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised). Otherwise a search using :attr:`sys.meta_path`
+   is done. ``None`` is returned if no loader is found.
+
+   A dotted name does not have its parents implicitly imported as that requires
+   loading them and that may not be desired. To properly import a submodule you
+   will need to import all parent packages of the submodule and use the correct
+   argument to *path*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      If ``__loader__`` is not set, raise :exc:`ValueError`, just like when the
+      attribute is set to ``None``.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      Use :func:`importlib.util.find_spec` instead.
+
+.. function:: invalidate_caches()
+
+   Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at
+   :data:`sys.meta_path`. If a finder implements ``invalidate_caches()`` then it
+   will be called to perform the invalidation.  This function should be called
+   if any modules are created/installed while your program is running to
+   guarantee all finders will notice the new module's existence.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: reload(module)
+
+   Reload a previously imported *module*.  The argument must be a module object,
+   so it must have been successfully imported before.  This is useful if you
+   have edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try
+   out the new version without leaving the Python interpreter.  The return value
+   is the module object (which can be different if re-importing causes a
+   different object to be placed in :data:`sys.modules`).
+
+   When :func:`reload` is executed:
+
+   * Python module's code is recompiled and the module-level code re-executed,
+     defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module's
+     dictionary by reusing the :term:`loader` which originally loaded the
+     module.  The ``init`` function of extension modules is not called a second
+     time.
+
+   * As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed
+     after their reference counts drop to zero.
+
+   * The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or
+     changed objects.
+
+   * Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are
+     not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace
+     where they occur if that is desired.
+
+   There are a number of other caveats:
+
+   When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module's global
+   variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will override the old
+   definitions, so this is generally not a problem.  If the new version of a
+   module does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old
+   definition remains.  This feature can be used to the module's advantage if it
+   maintains a global table or cache of objects --- with a :keyword:`try`
+   statement it can test for the table's presence and skip its initialization if
+   desired::
+
+      try:
+          cache
+      except NameError:
+          cache = {}
+
+   It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically loaded
+   modules.  Reloading :mod:`sys`, :mod:`__main__`, :mod:`builtins` and other
+   key modules is not recommended.  In many cases extension modules are not
+   designed to be initialized more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways
+   when reloaded.
+
+   If a module imports objects from another module using :keyword:`from` ...
+   :keyword:`import` ..., calling :func:`reload` for the other module does not
+   redefine the objects imported from it --- one way around this is to
+   re-execute the :keyword:`!from` statement, another is to use :keyword:`!import`
+   and qualified names (*module.name*) instead.
+
+   If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that
+   defines the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances ---
+   they continue to use the old class definition.  The same is true for derived
+   classes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+       :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised when the module being reloaded lacks
+       a :class:`ModuleSpec`.
+
+
+:mod:`importlib.abc` -- Abstract base classes related to import
+---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: importlib.abc
+    :synopsis: Abstract base classes related to import
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/importlib/abc.py`
+
+--------------
+
+
+The :mod:`importlib.abc` module contains all of the core abstract base classes
+used by :keyword:`import`. Some subclasses of the core abstract base classes
+are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs.
+
+ABC hierarchy::
+
+    object
+     +-- Finder (deprecated)
+     |    +-- MetaPathFinder
+     |    +-- PathEntryFinder
+     +-- Loader
+          +-- ResourceLoader --------+
+          +-- InspectLoader          |
+               +-- ExecutionLoader --+
+                                     +-- FileLoader
+                                     +-- SourceLoader
+
+
+.. class:: Finder
+
+   An abstract base class representing a :term:`finder`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      Use :class:`MetaPathFinder` or :class:`PathEntryFinder` instead.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: find_module(fullname, path=None)
+
+      An abstract method for finding a :term:`loader` for the specified
+      module.  Originally specified in :pep:`302`, this method was meant
+      for use in :data:`sys.meta_path` and in the path-based import subsystem.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Returns ``None`` when called instead of raising
+         :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+
+.. class:: MetaPathFinder
+
+   An abstract base class representing a :term:`meta path finder`. For
+   compatibility, this is a subclass of :class:`Finder`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: find_spec(fullname, path, target=None)
+
+      An abstract method for finding a :term:`spec <module spec>` for
+      the specified module.  If this is a top-level import, *path* will
+      be ``None``.  Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or
+      module and *path* will be the value of :attr:`__path__` from the
+      parent package. If a spec cannot be found, ``None`` is returned.
+      When passed in, ``target`` is a module object that the finder may
+      use to make a more educated guess about what spec to return.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. method:: find_module(fullname, path)
+
+      A legacy method for finding a :term:`loader` for the specified
+      module.  If this is a top-level import, *path* will be ``None``.
+      Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or module and *path*
+      will be the value of :attr:`__path__` from the parent
+      package. If a loader cannot be found, ``None`` is returned.
+
+      If :meth:`find_spec` is defined, backwards-compatible functionality is
+      provided.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Returns ``None`` when called instead of raising
+         :exc:`NotImplementedError`. Can use :meth:`find_spec` to provide
+         functionality.
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.4
+         Use :meth:`find_spec` instead.
+
+   .. method:: invalidate_caches()
+
+      An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal
+      cache used by the finder. Used by :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches`
+      when invalidating the caches of all finders on :data:`sys.meta_path`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Returns ``None`` when called instead of ``NotImplemented``.
+
+
+.. class:: PathEntryFinder
+
+   An abstract base class representing a :term:`path entry finder`.  Though
+   it bears some similarities to :class:`MetaPathFinder`, ``PathEntryFinder``
+   is meant for use only within the path-based import subsystem provided
+   by :class:`PathFinder`. This ABC is a subclass of :class:`Finder` for
+   compatibility reasons only.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: find_spec(fullname, target=None)
+
+      An abstract method for finding a :term:`spec <module spec>` for
+      the specified module.  The finder will search for the module only
+      within the :term:`path entry` to which it is assigned.  If a spec
+      cannot be found, ``None`` is returned.  When passed in, ``target``
+      is a module object that the finder may use to make a more educated
+      guess about what spec to return.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. method:: find_loader(fullname)
+
+      A legacy method for finding a :term:`loader` for the specified
+      module.  Returns a 2-tuple of ``(loader, portion)`` where ``portion``
+      is a sequence of file system locations contributing to part of a namespace
+      package. The loader may be ``None`` while specifying ``portion`` to
+      signify the contribution of the file system locations to a namespace
+      package. An empty list can be used for ``portion`` to signify the loader
+      is not part of a namespace package. If ``loader`` is ``None`` and
+      ``portion`` is the empty list then no loader or location for a namespace
+      package were found (i.e. failure to find anything for the module).
+
+      If :meth:`find_spec` is defined then backwards-compatible functionality is
+      provided.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Returns ``(None, [])`` instead of raising :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+         Uses :meth:`find_spec` when available to provide functionality.
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.4
+         Use :meth:`find_spec` instead.
+
+   .. method:: find_module(fullname)
+
+      A concrete implementation of :meth:`Finder.find_module` which is
+      equivalent to ``self.find_loader(fullname)[0]``.
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.4
+         Use :meth:`find_spec` instead.
+
+   .. method:: invalidate_caches()
+
+      An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal
+      cache used by the finder. Used by :meth:`PathFinder.invalidate_caches`
+      when invalidating the caches of all cached finders.
+
+
+.. class:: Loader
+
+    An abstract base class for a :term:`loader`.
+    See :pep:`302` for the exact definition for a loader.
+
+    Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a
+    ``get_resource_reader(fullname)`` method as specified by
+    :class:`importlib.abc.ResourceReader`.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+       Introduced the optional ``get_resource_reader()`` method.
+
+    .. method:: create_module(spec)
+
+       A method that returns the module object to use when
+       importing a module.  This method may return ``None``,
+       indicating that default module creation semantics should take place.
+
+       .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+       .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+          Starting in Python 3.6, this method will not be optional when
+          :meth:`exec_module` is defined.
+
+    .. method:: exec_module(module)
+
+       An abstract method that executes the module in its own namespace
+       when a module is imported or reloaded.  The module should already
+       be initialized when ``exec_module()`` is called. When this method exists,
+       :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.create_module` must be defined.
+
+       .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+       .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+          :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.create_module` must also be defined.
+
+    .. method:: load_module(fullname)
+
+        A legacy method for loading a module. If the module cannot be
+        loaded, :exc:`ImportError` is raised, otherwise the loaded module is
+        returned.
+
+        If the requested module already exists in :data:`sys.modules`, that
+        module should be used and reloaded.
+        Otherwise the loader should create a new module and insert it into
+        :data:`sys.modules` before any loading begins, to prevent recursion
+        from the import. If the loader inserted a module and the load fails, it
+        must be removed by the loader from :data:`sys.modules`; modules already
+        in :data:`sys.modules` before the loader began execution should be left
+        alone (see :func:`importlib.util.module_for_loader`).
+
+        The loader should set several attributes on the module.
+        (Note that some of these attributes can change when a module is
+        reloaded):
+
+        - :attr:`__name__`
+            The name of the module.
+
+        - :attr:`__file__`
+            The path to where the module data is stored (not set for built-in
+            modules).
+
+        - :attr:`__cached__`
+            The path to where a compiled version of the module is/should be
+            stored (not set when the attribute would be inappropriate).
+
+        - :attr:`__path__`
+            A list of strings specifying the search path within a
+            package. This attribute is not set on modules.
+
+        - :attr:`__package__`
+            The parent package for the module/package. If the module is
+            top-level then it has a value of the empty string. The
+            :func:`importlib.util.module_for_loader` decorator can handle the
+            details for :attr:`__package__`.
+
+        - :attr:`__loader__`
+            The loader used to load the module. The
+            :func:`importlib.util.module_for_loader` decorator can handle the
+            details for :attr:`__package__`.
+
+        When :meth:`exec_module` is available then backwards-compatible
+        functionality is provided.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Raise :exc:`ImportError` when called instead of
+           :exc:`NotImplementedError`. Functionality provided when
+           :meth:`exec_module` is available.
+
+        .. deprecated:: 3.4
+           The recommended API for loading a module is :meth:`exec_module`
+           (and :meth:`create_module`).  Loaders should implement
+           it instead of load_module().  The import machinery takes care of
+           all the other responsibilities of load_module() when exec_module()
+           is implemented.
+
+    .. method:: module_repr(module)
+
+        A legacy method which when implemented calculates and returns the
+        given module's repr, as a string. The module type's default repr() will
+        use the result of this method as appropriate.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Made optional instead of an abstractmethod.
+
+        .. deprecated:: 3.4
+           The import machinery now takes care of this automatically.
+
+
+.. class:: ResourceReader
+
+    An :term:`abstract base class` to provide the ability to read
+    *resources*.
+
+    From the perspective of this ABC, a *resource* is a binary
+    artifact that is shipped within a package. Typically this is
+    something like a data file that lives next to the ``__init__.py``
+    file of the package. The purpose of this class is to help abstract
+    out the accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if
+    the package and its data file(s) are stored in a e.g. zip file
+    versus on the file system.
+
+    For any of methods of this class, a *resource* argument is
+    expected to be a :term:`path-like object` which represents
+    conceptually just a file name. This means that no subdirectory
+    paths should be included in the *resource* argument. This is
+    because the location of the package the reader is for, acts as the
+    "directory". Hence the metaphor for directories and file
+    names is packages and resources, respectively. This is also why
+    instances of this class are expected to directly correlate to
+    a specific package (instead of potentially representing multiple
+    packages or a module).
+
+    Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
+    provide a method called ``get_resource_reader(fullname)`` which
+    returns an object implementing this ABC's interface. If the module
+    specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
+    :const:`None`. An object compatible with this ABC should only be
+    returned when the specified module is a package.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+    .. abstractmethod:: open_resource(resource)
+
+        Returns an opened, :term:`file-like object` for binary reading
+        of the *resource*.
+
+        If the resource cannot be found, :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is
+        raised.
+
+    .. abstractmethod:: resource_path(resource)
+
+        Returns the file system path to the *resource*.
+
+        If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
+        raise :exc:`FileNotFoundError`.
+
+    .. abstractmethod:: is_resource(name)
+
+        Returns ``True`` if the named *name* is considered a resource.
+        :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is raised if *name* does not exist.
+
+    .. abstractmethod:: contents()
+
+        Returns an :term:`iterable` of strings over the contents of
+        the package. Do note that it is not required that all names
+        returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g. it is
+        acceptable to return names for which :meth:`is_resource` would
+        be false.
+
+        Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
+        situations where how a package and its resources are stored
+        are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
+        For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
+        when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
+        the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
+        directly.
+
+        The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.
+
+
+.. class:: ResourceLoader
+
+    An abstract base class for a :term:`loader` which implements the optional
+    :pep:`302` protocol for loading arbitrary resources from the storage
+    back-end.
+
+    .. deprecated:: 3.7
+       This ABC is deprecated in favour of supporting resource loading
+       through :class:`importlib.abc.ResourceReader`.
+
+    .. abstractmethod:: get_data(path)
+
+        An abstract method to return the bytes for the data located at *path*.
+        Loaders that have a file-like storage back-end
+        that allows storing arbitrary data
+        can implement this abstract method to give direct access
+        to the data stored. :exc:`OSError` is to be raised if the *path* cannot
+        be found. The *path* is expected to be constructed using a module's
+        :attr:`__file__` attribute or an item from a package's :attr:`__path__`.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Raises :exc:`OSError` instead of :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+
+.. class:: InspectLoader
+
+    An abstract base class for a :term:`loader` which implements the optional
+    :pep:`302` protocol for loaders that inspect modules.
+
+    .. method:: get_code(fullname)
+
+        Return the code object for a module, or ``None`` if the module does not
+        have a code object (as would be the case, for example, for a built-in
+        module).  Raise an :exc:`ImportError` if loader cannot find the
+        requested module.
+
+        .. note::
+           While the method has a default implementation, it is suggested that
+           it be overridden if possible for performance.
+
+        .. index::
+           single: universal newlines; importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source method
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           No longer abstract and a concrete implementation is provided.
+
+    .. abstractmethod:: get_source(fullname)
+
+        An abstract method to return the source of a module. It is returned as
+        a text string using :term:`universal newlines`, translating all
+        recognized line separators into ``'\n'`` characters.  Returns ``None``
+        if no source is available (e.g. a built-in module). Raises
+        :exc:`ImportError` if the loader cannot find the module specified.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Raises :exc:`ImportError` instead of :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+    .. method:: is_package(fullname)
+
+        An abstract method to return a true value if the module is a package, a
+        false value otherwise. :exc:`ImportError` is raised if the
+        :term:`loader` cannot find the module.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Raises :exc:`ImportError` instead of :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+    .. staticmethod:: source_to_code(data, path='<string>')
+
+        Create a code object from Python source.
+
+        The *data* argument can be whatever the :func:`compile` function
+        supports (i.e. string or bytes). The *path* argument should be
+        the "path" to where the source code originated from, which can be an
+        abstract concept (e.g. location in a zip file).
+
+        With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module by
+        running ``exec(code, module.__dict__)``.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+           Made the method static.
+
+    .. method:: exec_module(module)
+
+       Implementation of :meth:`Loader.exec_module`.
+
+       .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+    .. method:: load_module(fullname)
+
+       Implementation of :meth:`Loader.load_module`.
+
+       .. deprecated:: 3.4
+          use :meth:`exec_module` instead.
+
+
+.. class:: ExecutionLoader
+
+    An abstract base class which inherits from :class:`InspectLoader` that,
+    when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a script. The ABC
+    represents an optional :pep:`302` protocol.
+
+    .. abstractmethod:: get_filename(fullname)
+
+        An abstract method that is to return the value of :attr:`__file__` for
+        the specified module. If no path is available, :exc:`ImportError` is
+        raised.
+
+        If source code is available, then the method should return the path to
+        the source file, regardless of whether a bytecode was used to load the
+        module.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Raises :exc:`ImportError` instead of :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+
+.. class:: FileLoader(fullname, path)
+
+   An abstract base class which inherits from :class:`ResourceLoader` and
+   :class:`ExecutionLoader`, providing concrete implementations of
+   :meth:`ResourceLoader.get_data` and :meth:`ExecutionLoader.get_filename`.
+
+   The *fullname* argument is a fully resolved name of the module the loader is
+   to handle. The *path* argument is the path to the file for the module.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The name of the module the loader can handle.
+
+   .. attribute:: path
+
+      Path to the file of the module.
+
+   .. method:: load_module(fullname)
+
+      Calls super's ``load_module()``.
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.4
+         Use :meth:`Loader.exec_module` instead.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: get_filename(fullname)
+
+      Returns :attr:`path`.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: get_data(path)
+
+      Reads *path* as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.
+
+
+.. class:: SourceLoader
+
+    An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally bytecode)
+    file loading. The class inherits from both :class:`ResourceLoader` and
+    :class:`ExecutionLoader`, requiring the implementation of:
+
+    * :meth:`ResourceLoader.get_data`
+    * :meth:`ExecutionLoader.get_filename`
+          Should only return the path to the source file; sourceless
+          loading is not supported.
+
+    The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional bytecode
+    file support. Not implementing these optional methods (or causing them to
+    raise :exc:`NotImplementedError`) causes the loader to
+    only work with source code. Implementing the methods allows the loader to
+    work with source *and* bytecode files; it does not allow for *sourceless*
+    loading where only bytecode is provided.  Bytecode files are an
+    optimization to speed up loading by removing the parsing step of Python's
+    compiler, and so no bytecode-specific API is exposed.
+
+    .. method:: path_stats(path)
+
+        Optional abstract method which returns a :class:`dict` containing
+        metadata about the specified path.  Supported dictionary keys are:
+
+        - ``'mtime'`` (mandatory): an integer or floating-point number
+          representing the modification time of the source code;
+        - ``'size'`` (optional): the size in bytes of the source code.
+
+        Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for future
+        extensions. If the path cannot be handled, :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Raise :exc:`OSError` instead of :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+    .. method:: path_mtime(path)
+
+        Optional abstract method which returns the modification time for the
+        specified path.
+
+        .. deprecated:: 3.3
+           This method is deprecated in favour of :meth:`path_stats`.  You don't
+           have to implement it, but it is still available for compatibility
+           purposes. Raise :exc:`OSError` if the path cannot be handled.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           Raise :exc:`OSError` instead of :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+    .. method:: set_data(path, data)
+
+        Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a file
+        path. Any intermediate directories which do not exist are to be created
+        automatically.
+
+        When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only
+        (:attr:`errno.EACCES`/:exc:`PermissionError`), do not propagate the
+        exception.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+           No longer raises :exc:`NotImplementedError` when called.
+
+    .. method:: get_code(fullname)
+
+        Concrete implementation of :meth:`InspectLoader.get_code`.
+
+    .. method:: exec_module(module)
+
+       Concrete implementation of :meth:`Loader.exec_module`.
+
+       .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+    .. method:: load_module(fullname)
+
+       Concrete implementation of :meth:`Loader.load_module`.
+
+       .. deprecated:: 3.4
+          Use :meth:`exec_module` instead.
+
+    .. method:: get_source(fullname)
+
+        Concrete implementation of :meth:`InspectLoader.get_source`.
+
+    .. method:: is_package(fullname)
+
+        Concrete implementation of :meth:`InspectLoader.is_package`. A module
+        is determined to be a package if its file path (as provided by
+        :meth:`ExecutionLoader.get_filename`) is a file named
+        ``__init__`` when the file extension is removed **and** the module name
+        itself does not end in ``__init__``.
+
+
+:mod:`importlib.resources` -- Resources
+---------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: importlib.resources
+    :synopsis: Package resource reading, opening, and access
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/importlib/resources.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+This module leverages Python's import system to provide access to *resources*
+within *packages*.  If you can import a package, you can access resources
+within that package.  Resources can be opened or read, in either binary or
+text mode.
+
+Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it's important
+to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor.  Resources and packages **do
+not** have to exist as physical files and directories on the file system.
+
+.. note::
+
+   This module provides functionality similar to `pkg_resources
+   <https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html>`_ `Basic
+   Resource Access
+   <http://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access>`_
+   without the performance overhead of that package.  This makes reading
+   resources included in packages easier, with more stable and consistent
+   semantics.
+
+   The standalone backport of this module provides more information
+   on `using importlib.resources
+   <http://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html>`_ and
+   `migrating from pkg_resources to importlib.resources
+   <http://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html>`_.
+
+Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a
+``get_resource_reader(fullname)`` method as specified by
+:class:`importlib.abc.ResourceReader`.
+
+The following types are defined.
+
+.. data:: Package
+
+    The ``Package`` type is defined as ``Union[str, ModuleType]``.  This means
+    that where the function describes accepting a ``Package``, you can pass in
+    either a string or a module.  Module objects must have a resolvable
+    ``__spec__.submodule_search_locations`` that is not ``None``.
+
+.. data:: Resource
+
+    This type describes the resource names passed into the various functions
+    in this package.  This is defined as ``Union[str, os.PathLike]``.
+
+
+The following functions are available.
+
+.. function:: open_binary(package, resource)
+
+    Open for binary reading the *resource* within *package*.
+
+    *package* is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+    ``Package`` requirements.  *resource* is the name of the resource to open
+    within *package*; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+    sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  This function returns a
+    ``typing.BinaryIO`` instance, a binary I/O stream open for reading.
+
+
+.. function:: open_text(package, resource, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+
+    Open for text reading the *resource* within *package*.  By default, the
+    resource is opened for reading as UTF-8.
+
+    *package* is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+    ``Package`` requirements.  *resource* is the name of the resource to open
+    within *package*; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+    sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  *encoding* and *errors*
+    have the same meaning as with built-in :func:`open`.
+
+    This function returns a ``typing.TextIO`` instance, a text I/O stream open
+    for reading.
+
+
+.. function:: read_binary(package, resource)
+
+    Read and return the contents of the *resource* within *package* as
+    ``bytes``.
+
+    *package* is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+    ``Package`` requirements.  *resource* is the name of the resource to open
+    within *package*; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+    sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  This function returns the
+    contents of the resource as :class:`bytes`.
+
+
+.. function:: read_text(package, resource, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+
+    Read and return the contents of *resource* within *package* as a ``str``.
+    By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.
+
+    *package* is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+    ``Package`` requirements.  *resource* is the name of the resource to open
+    within *package*; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+    sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  *encoding* and *errors*
+    have the same meaning as with built-in :func:`open`.  This function
+    returns the contents of the resource as :class:`str`.
+
+
+.. function:: path(package, resource)
+
+    Return the path to the *resource* as an actual file system path.  This
+    function returns a context manager for use in a :keyword:`with` statement.
+    The context manager provides a :class:`pathlib.Path` object.
+
+    Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file created when the
+    resource needs to be extracted from e.g. a zip file.
+
+    *package* is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+    ``Package`` requirements.  *resource* is the name of the resource to open
+    within *package*; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+    sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).
+
+
+.. function:: is_resource(package, name)
+
+    Return ``True`` if there is a resource named *name* in the package,
+    otherwise ``False``.  Remember that directories are *not* resources!
+    *package* is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+    ``Package`` requirements.
+
+
+.. function:: contents(package)
+
+    Return an iterable over the named items within the package.  The iterable
+    returns :class:`str` resources (e.g. files) and non-resources
+    (e.g. directories).  The iterable does not recurse into subdirectories.
+
+    *package* is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+    ``Package`` requirements.
+
+
+:mod:`importlib.machinery` -- Importers and path hooks
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: importlib.machinery
+    :synopsis: Importers and path hooks
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/importlib/machinery.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module contains the various objects that help :keyword:`import`
+find and load modules.
+
+.. attribute:: SOURCE_SUFFIXES
+
+   A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for source
+   modules.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. attribute:: DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
+
+   A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized bytecode
+   modules.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.5
+      Use :attr:`BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` instead.
+
+.. attribute:: OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
+
+   A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized bytecode
+   modules.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.5
+      Use :attr:`BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` instead.
+
+.. attribute:: BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
+
+   A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for bytecode
+   modules (including the leading dot).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The value is no longer dependent on ``__debug__``.
+
+.. attribute:: EXTENSION_SUFFIXES
+
+   A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
+   extension modules.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: all_suffixes()
+
+   Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes for
+   modules recognized by the standard import machinery. This is a
+   helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path
+   potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the kind
+   of module (for example, :func:`inspect.getmodulename`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. class:: BuiltinImporter
+
+    An :term:`importer` for built-in modules. All known built-in modules are
+    listed in :data:`sys.builtin_module_names`. This class implements the
+    :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` and
+    :class:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader` ABCs.
+
+    Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+    instantiation.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+       As part of :pep:`489`, the builtin importer now implements
+       :meth:`Loader.create_module` and :meth:`Loader.exec_module`
+
+
+.. class:: FrozenImporter
+
+    An :term:`importer` for frozen modules. This class implements the
+    :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` and
+    :class:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader` ABCs.
+
+    Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+    instantiation.
+
+
+.. class:: WindowsRegistryFinder
+
+   :term:`Finder` for modules declared in the Windows registry.  This class
+   implements the :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` ABC.
+
+   Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+   instantiation.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+      Use :mod:`site` configuration instead. Future versions of Python may
+      not enable this finder by default.
+
+
+.. class:: PathFinder
+
+   A :term:`Finder` for :data:`sys.path` and package ``__path__`` attributes.
+   This class implements the :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` ABC.
+
+   Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+   instantiation.
+
+   .. classmethod:: find_spec(fullname, path=None, target=None)
+
+      Class method that attempts to find a :term:`spec <module spec>`
+      for the module specified by *fullname* on :data:`sys.path` or, if
+      defined, on *path*. For each path entry that is searched,
+      :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` is checked. If a non-false object
+      is found then it is used as the :term:`path entry finder` to look
+      for the module being searched for. If no entry is found in
+      :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`, then :data:`sys.path_hooks` is
+      searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored
+      in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` along with being queried about
+      the module. If no finder is ever found then ``None`` is both
+      stored in the cache and returned.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         If the current working directory -- represented by an empty string --
+         is no longer valid then ``None`` is returned but no value is cached
+         in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`.
+
+   .. classmethod:: find_module(fullname, path=None)
+
+      A legacy wrapper around :meth:`find_spec`.
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.4
+         Use :meth:`find_spec` instead.
+
+   .. classmethod:: invalidate_caches()
+
+      Calls :meth:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches` on all
+      finders stored in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` that define the method.
+      Otherwise entries in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` set to ``None`` are
+      deleted.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         Entries of ``None`` in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` are deleted.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Calls objects in :data:`sys.path_hooks` with the current working
+      directory for ``''`` (i.e. the empty string).
+
+
+.. class:: FileFinder(path, \*loader_details)
+
+   A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder` which
+   caches results from the file system.
+
+   The *path* argument is the directory for which the finder is in charge of
+   searching.
+
+   The *loader_details* argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples each
+   containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader recognizes.
+   The loaders are expected to be callables which accept two arguments of
+   the module's name and the path to the file found.
+
+   The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making stat calls
+   for each module search to verify the cache is not outdated. Because cache
+   staleness relies upon the granularity of the operating system's state
+   information of the file system, there is a potential race condition of
+   searching for a module, creating a new file, and then searching for the
+   module the new file represents. If the operations happen fast enough to fit
+   within the granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail. To
+   prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically, make sure
+   to call :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: path
+
+      The path the finder will search in.
+
+   .. method:: find_spec(fullname, target=None)
+
+      Attempt to find the spec to handle *fullname* within :attr:`path`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. method:: find_loader(fullname)
+
+      Attempt to find the loader to handle *fullname* within :attr:`path`.
+
+   .. method:: invalidate_caches()
+
+      Clear out the internal cache.
+
+   .. classmethod:: path_hook(\*loader_details)
+
+      A class method which returns a closure for use on :attr:`sys.path_hooks`.
+      An instance of :class:`FileFinder` is returned by the closure using the
+      path argument given to the closure directly and *loader_details*
+      indirectly.
+
+      If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory,
+      :exc:`ImportError` is raised.
+
+
+.. class:: SourceFileLoader(fullname, path)
+
+   A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader` by
+   subclassing :class:`importlib.abc.FileLoader` and providing some concrete
+   implementations of other methods.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The name of the module that this loader will handle.
+
+   .. attribute:: path
+
+      The path to the source file.
+
+   .. method:: is_package(fullname)
+
+      Return true if :attr:`path` appears to be for a package.
+
+   .. method:: path_stats(path)
+
+      Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats`.
+
+   .. method:: set_data(path, data)
+
+      Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data`.
+
+   .. method:: load_module(name=None)
+
+      Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` where
+      specifying the name of the module to load is optional.
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+         Use :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` instead.
+
+
+.. class:: SourcelessFileLoader(fullname, path)
+
+   A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.FileLoader` which can
+   import bytecode files (i.e. no source code files exist).
+
+   Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source code
+   files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python
+   implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode
+   format.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The name of the module the loader will handle.
+
+   .. attribute:: path
+
+      The path to the bytecode file.
+
+   .. method:: is_package(fullname)
+
+      Determines if the module is a package based on :attr:`path`.
+
+   .. method:: get_code(fullname)
+
+      Returns the code object for :attr:`name` created from :attr:`path`.
+
+   .. method:: get_source(fullname)
+
+      Returns ``None`` as bytecode files have no source when this loader is
+      used.
+
+   .. method:: load_module(name=None)
+
+   Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` where
+   specifying the name of the module to load is optional.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      Use :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` instead.
+
+
+.. class:: ExtensionFileLoader(fullname, path)
+
+   A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader` for
+   extension modules.
+
+   The *fullname* argument specifies the name of the module the loader is to
+   support. The *path* argument is the path to the extension module's file.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      Name of the module the loader supports.
+
+   .. attribute:: path
+
+      Path to the extension module.
+
+   .. method:: create_module(spec)
+
+      Creates the module object from the given specification in accordance
+      with :pep:`489`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. method:: exec_module(module)
+
+      Initializes the given module object in accordance with :pep:`489`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. method:: is_package(fullname)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if the file path points to a package's ``__init__``
+      module based on :attr:`EXTENSION_SUFFIXES`.
+
+   .. method:: get_code(fullname)
+
+      Returns ``None`` as extension modules lack a code object.
+
+   .. method:: get_source(fullname)
+
+      Returns ``None`` as extension modules do not have source code.
+
+   .. method:: get_filename(fullname)
+
+      Returns :attr:`path`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. class:: ModuleSpec(name, loader, *, origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None)
+
+   A specification for a module's import-system-related state.  This is
+   typically exposed as the module's ``__spec__`` attribute.  In the
+   descriptions below, the names in parentheses give the corresponding
+   attribute available directly on the module object.
+   E.g. ``module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__``.  Note however that
+   while the *values* are usually equivalent, they can differ since there is
+   no synchronization between the two objects.  Thus it is possible to update
+   the module's ``__path__`` at runtime, and this will not be automatically
+   reflected in ``__spec__.submodule_search_locations``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+   (``__name__``)
+
+   A string for the fully-qualified name of the module.
+
+   .. attribute:: loader
+
+   (``__loader__``)
+
+   The loader to use for loading.  For namespace packages this should be
+   set to ``None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: origin
+
+   (``__file__``)
+
+   Name of the place from which the module is loaded, e.g. "builtin" for
+   built-in modules and the filename for modules loaded from source.
+   Normally "origin" should be set, but it may be ``None`` (the default)
+   which indicates it is unspecified (e.g. for namespace packages).
+
+   .. attribute:: submodule_search_locations
+
+   (``__path__``)
+
+   List of strings for where to find submodules, if a package (``None``
+   otherwise).
+
+   .. attribute:: loader_state
+
+   Container of extra module-specific data for use during loading (or
+   ``None``).
+
+   .. attribute:: cached
+
+   (``__cached__``)
+
+   String for where the compiled module should be stored (or ``None``).
+
+   .. attribute:: parent
+
+   (``__package__``)
+
+   (Read-only) Fully-qualified name of the package to which the module
+   belongs as a submodule (or ``None``).
+
+   .. attribute:: has_location
+
+   Boolean indicating whether or not the module's "origin"
+   attribute refers to a loadable location.
+
+:mod:`importlib.util` -- Utility code for importers
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: importlib.util
+    :synopsis: Utility code for importers
+
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/importlib/util.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module contains the various objects that help in the construction of
+an :term:`importer`.
+
+.. attribute:: MAGIC_NUMBER
+
+   The bytes which represent the bytecode version number. If you need help with
+   loading/writing bytecode then consider :class:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: cache_from_source(path, debug_override=None, *, optimization=None)
+
+   Return the :pep:`3147`/:pep:`488` path to the byte-compiled file associated
+   with the source *path*.  For example, if *path* is ``/foo/bar/baz.py`` the return
+   value would be ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc`` for Python 3.2.
+   The ``cpython-32`` string comes from the current magic tag (see
+   :func:`get_tag`; if :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined then
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` will be raised).
+
+   The *optimization* parameter is used to specify the optimization level of the
+   bytecode file. An empty string represents no optimization, so
+   ``/foo/bar/baz.py`` with an *optimization* of ``''`` will result in a
+   bytecode path of ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc``. ``None`` causes
+   the interpter's optimization level to be used. Any other value's string
+   representation being used, so ``/foo/bar/baz.py`` with an *optimization* of
+   ``2`` will lead to the bytecode path of
+   ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc``. The string representation
+   of *optimization* can only be alphanumeric, else :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   The *debug_override* parameter is deprecated and can be used to override
+   the system's value for ``__debug__``. A ``True`` value is the equivalent of
+   setting *optimization* to the empty string. A ``False`` value is the same as
+   setting *optimization* to ``1``. If both *debug_override* an *optimization*
+   are not ``None`` then :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *optimization* parameter was added and the *debug_override* parameter
+      was deprecated.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: source_from_cache(path)
+
+   Given the *path* to a :pep:`3147` file name, return the associated source code
+   file path.  For example, if *path* is
+   ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc`` the returned path would be
+   ``/foo/bar/baz.py``.  *path* need not exist, however if it does not conform
+   to :pep:`3147` or :pep:`488` format, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised. If
+   :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined,
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+.. function:: decode_source(source_bytes)
+
+   Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a string
+   with universal newlines (as required by
+   :meth:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: resolve_name(name, package)
+
+   Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one.
+
+   If  **name** has no leading dots, then **name** is simply returned. This
+   allows for usage such as
+   ``importlib.util.resolve_name('sys', __package__)`` without doing a
+   check to see if the **package** argument is needed.
+
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if **name** is a relative module name but
+   package is a false value (e.g. ``None`` or the empty string).
+   :exc:`ValueError` is also raised a relative name would escape its containing
+   package (e.g. requesting ``..bacon`` from within the ``spam`` package).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: find_spec(name, package=None)
+
+   Find the :term:`spec <module spec>` for a module, optionally relative to
+   the specified **package** name. If the module is in :attr:`sys.modules`,
+   then ``sys.modules[name].__spec__`` is returned (unless the spec would be
+   ``None`` or is not set, in which case :exc:`ValueError` is raised).
+   Otherwise a search using :attr:`sys.meta_path` is done. ``None`` is
+   returned if no spec is found.
+
+   If **name** is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is
+   automatically imported.
+
+   **name** and **package** work the same as for :func:`import_module`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Raises :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` instead of :exc:`AttributeError` if
+      **package** is in fact not a package (i.e. lacks a :attr:`__path__`
+      attribute).
+
+.. function:: module_from_spec(spec)
+
+   Create a new module based on **spec** and
+   :meth:`spec.loader.create_module <importlib.abc.Loader.create_module>`.
+
+   If :meth:`spec.loader.create_module <importlib.abc.Loader.create_module>`
+   does not return ``None``, then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset.
+   Also, no :exc:`AttributeError` will be raised if triggered while accessing
+   **spec** or setting an attribute on the module.
+
+   This function is preferred over using :class:`types.ModuleType` to create a
+   new module as **spec** is used to set as many import-controlled attributes on
+   the module as possible.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. decorator:: module_for_loader
+
+    A :term:`decorator` for :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module`
+    to handle selecting the proper
+    module object to load with. The decorated method is expected to have a call
+    signature taking two positional arguments
+    (e.g. ``load_module(self, module)``) for which the second argument
+    will be the module **object** to be used by the loader.
+    Note that the decorator will not work on static methods because of the
+    assumption of two arguments.
+
+    The decorated method will take in the **name** of the module to be loaded
+    as expected for a :term:`loader`. If the module is not found in
+    :data:`sys.modules` then a new one is constructed. Regardless of where the
+    module came from, :attr:`__loader__` set to **self** and :attr:`__package__`
+    is set based on what :meth:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package` returns
+    (if available). These attributes are set unconditionally to support
+    reloading.
+
+    If an exception is raised by the decorated method and a module was added to
+    :data:`sys.modules`, then the module will be removed to prevent a partially
+    initialized module from being in left in :data:`sys.modules`. If the module
+    was already in :data:`sys.modules` then it is left alone.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+       :attr:`__loader__` and :attr:`__package__` are automatically set
+       (when possible).
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+       Set :attr:`__name__`, :attr:`__loader__` :attr:`__package__`
+       unconditionally to support reloading.
+
+    .. deprecated:: 3.4
+       The import machinery now directly performs all the functionality
+       provided by this function.
+
+.. decorator:: set_loader
+
+   A :term:`decorator` for :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module`
+   to set the :attr:`__loader__`
+   attribute on the returned module. If the attribute is already set the
+   decorator does nothing. It is assumed that the first positional argument to
+   the wrapped method (i.e. ``self``) is what :attr:`__loader__` should be set
+   to.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Set ``__loader__`` if set to ``None``, as if the attribute does not
+      exist.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      The import machinery takes care of this automatically.
+
+.. decorator:: set_package
+
+   A :term:`decorator` for :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` to set the
+   :attr:`__package__` attribute on the returned module. If :attr:`__package__`
+   is set and has a value other than ``None`` it will not be changed.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      The import machinery takes care of this automatically.
+
+.. function:: spec_from_loader(name, loader, *, origin=None, is_package=None)
+
+   A factory function for creating a :class:`ModuleSpec` instance based
+   on a loader.  The parameters have the same meaning as they do for
+   ModuleSpec.  The function uses available :term:`loader` APIs, such as
+   :meth:`InspectLoader.is_package`, to fill in any missing
+   information on the spec.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: spec_from_file_location(name, location, *, loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)
+
+   A factory function for creating a :class:`ModuleSpec` instance based
+   on the path to a file.  Missing information will be filled in on the
+   spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication that the
+   module will be file-based.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+.. function:: source_hash(source_bytes)
+
+   Return the hash of *source_bytes* as bytes. A hash-based ``.pyc`` file embeds
+   the :func:`source_hash` of the corresponding source file's contents in its
+   header.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. class:: LazyLoader(loader)
+
+   A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module until the
+   module has an attribute accessed.
+
+   This class **only** works with loaders that define
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` as control over what module type
+   is used for the module is required. For those same reasons, the loader's
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.create_module` method must return ``None`` or a
+   type for which its ``__class__`` attribute can be mutated along with not
+   using :term:`slots <__slots__>`. Finally, modules which substitute the object
+   placed into :attr:`sys.modules` will not work as there is no way to properly
+   replace the module references throughout the interpreter safely;
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if such a substitution is detected.
+
+   .. note::
+      For projects where startup time is critical, this class allows for
+      potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module if it is never used.
+      For projects where startup time is not essential then use of this class is
+      **heavily** discouraged due to error messages created during loading being
+      postponed and thus occurring out of context.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Began calling :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.create_module`, removing the
+      compatibility warning for :class:`importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter` and
+      :class:`importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader`.
+
+   .. classmethod:: factory(loader)
+
+      A static method which returns a callable that creates a lazy loader. This
+      is meant to be used in situations where the loader is passed by class
+      instead of by instance.
+      ::
+
+        suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
+        loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
+        lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
+        finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))
+
+.. _importlib-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Importing programmatically
+''''''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+To programmatically import a module, use :func:`importlib.import_module`.
+::
+
+  import importlib
+
+  itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')
+
+
+Checking if a module can be imported
+''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually doing the
+import, then you should use :func:`importlib.util.find_spec`.
+::
+
+  import importlib.util
+  import sys
+
+  # For illustrative purposes.
+  name = 'itertools'
+
+  spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name)
+  if spec is None:
+      print("can't find the itertools module")
+  else:
+      # If you chose to perform the actual import ...
+      module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
+      spec.loader.exec_module(module)
+      # Adding the module to sys.modules is optional.
+      sys.modules[name] = module
+
+
+Importing a source file directly
+''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+To import a Python source file directly, use the following recipe
+(Python 3.5 and newer only)::
+
+  import importlib.util
+  import sys
+
+  # For illustrative purposes.
+  import tokenize
+  file_path = tokenize.__file__
+  module_name = tokenize.__name__
+
+  spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
+  module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
+  spec.loader.exec_module(module)
+  # Optional; only necessary if you want to be able to import the module
+  # by name later.
+  sys.modules[module_name] = module
+
+
+Setting up an importer
+''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an
+:term:`importer`. This means managing both the :term:`finder` and :term:`loader`
+side of things. For finders there are two flavours to choose from depending on
+your needs: a :term:`meta path finder` or a :term:`path entry finder`. The
+former is what you would put on :attr:`sys.meta_path` while the latter is what
+you create using a :term:`path entry hook` on :attr:`sys.path_hooks` which works
+with :attr:`sys.path` entries to potentially create a finder. This example will
+show you how to register your own importers so that import will use them (for
+creating an importer for yourself, read the documentation for the appropriate
+classes defined within this package)::
+
+  import importlib.machinery
+  import sys
+
+  # For illustrative purposes only.
+  SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder
+  SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder
+  loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader,
+                    importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES)
+
+  # Setting up a meta path finder.
+  # Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of
+  # priority.
+  sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder)
+
+  # Setting up a path entry finder.
+  # Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms
+  # of priority.
+  sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))
+
+
+Approximating :func:`importlib.import_module`
+'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to
+expose most of the import machinery through importlib. The following
+helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an
+approximate implementation of
+:func:`importlib.import_module` (Python 3.4 and newer for the importlib usage,
+Python 3.6 and newer for other parts of the code).
+::
+
+  import importlib.util
+  import sys
+
+  def import_module(name, package=None):
+      """An approximate implementation of import."""
+      absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
+      try:
+          return sys.modules[absolute_name]
+      except KeyError:
+          pass
+
+      path = None
+      if '.' in absolute_name:
+          parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.')
+          parent_module = import_module(parent_name)
+          path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations
+      for finder in sys.meta_path:
+          spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path)
+          if spec is not None:
+              break
+      else:
+          msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}'
+          raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name)
+      module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
+      spec.loader.exec_module(module)
+      sys.modules[absolute_name] = module
+      if path is not None:
+          setattr(parent_module, child_name, module)
+      return module
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bebf742
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+.. _library-index:
+
+###############################
+  The Python Standard Library
+###############################
+
+While :ref:`reference-index` describes the exact syntax and
+semantics of the Python language, this library reference manual
+describes the standard library that is distributed with Python. It also
+describes some of the optional components that are commonly included
+in Python distributions.
+
+Python's standard library is very extensive, offering a wide range of
+facilities as indicated by the long table of contents listed below. The
+library contains built-in modules (written in C) that provide access to
+system functionality such as file I/O that would otherwise be
+inaccessible to Python programmers, as well as modules written in Python
+that provide standardized solutions for many problems that occur in
+everyday programming. Some of these modules are explicitly designed to
+encourage and enhance the portability of Python programs by abstracting
+away platform-specifics into platform-neutral APIs.
+
+The Python installers for the Windows platform usually include
+the entire standard library and often also include many additional
+components. For Unix-like operating systems Python is normally provided
+as a collection of packages, so it may be necessary to use the packaging
+tools provided with the operating system to obtain some or all of the
+optional components.
+
+In addition to the standard library, there is a growing collection of
+several thousand components (from individual programs and modules to
+packages and entire application development frameworks), available from
+the `Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`_.
+
+.. We don't use :numbered: option for the TOC below as it enforces
+   numbered sections for the entire stdlib docs.  If desired,
+   :numbered: can be enabled on a per-module basis.
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+
+   intro.rst
+   functions.rst
+   constants.rst
+   stdtypes.rst
+   exceptions.rst
+
+   text.rst
+   binary.rst
+   datatypes.rst
+   numeric.rst
+   functional.rst
+   filesys.rst
+   persistence.rst
+   archiving.rst
+   fileformats.rst
+   crypto.rst
+   allos.rst
+   concurrency.rst
+   contextvars.rst
+   ipc.rst
+   netdata.rst
+   markup.rst
+   internet.rst
+   mm.rst
+   i18n.rst
+   frameworks.rst
+   tk.rst
+   development.rst
+   debug.rst
+   distribution.rst
+   python.rst
+   custominterp.rst
+   modules.rst
+   language.rst
+   misc.rst
+   windows.rst
+   unix.rst
+   superseded.rst
+   undoc.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/inspect.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/inspect.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18cbacf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/inspect.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1385 @@
+:mod:`inspect` --- Inspect live objects
+=======================================
+
+.. module:: inspect
+   :synopsis: Extract information and source code from live objects.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/inspect.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`inspect` module provides several useful functions to help get
+information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions,
+tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects.  For example, it can help you
+examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract
+and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need
+to display a detailed traceback.
+
+There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking,
+getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the
+interpreter stack.
+
+
+.. _inspect-types:
+
+Types and members
+-----------------
+
+The :func:`getmembers` function retrieves the members of an object such as a
+class or module. The functions whose names begin with "is" are mainly
+provided as convenient choices for the second argument to :func:`getmembers`.
+They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special
+attributes:
+
+.. this function name is too big to fit in the ascii-art table below
+.. |coroutine-origin-link| replace:: :func:`sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth`
+
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| Type      | Attribute         | Description               |
++===========+===================+===========================+
+| module    | __doc__           | documentation string      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __file__          | filename (missing for     |
+|           |                   | built-in modules)         |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| class     | __doc__           | documentation string      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __name__          | name with which this      |
+|           |                   | class was defined         |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __qualname__      | qualified name            |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __module__        | name of module in which   |
+|           |                   | this class was defined    |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| method    | __doc__           | documentation string      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __name__          | name with which this      |
+|           |                   | method was defined        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __qualname__      | qualified name            |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __func__          | function object           |
+|           |                   | containing implementation |
+|           |                   | of method                 |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __self__          | instance to which this    |
+|           |                   | method is bound, or       |
+|           |                   | ``None``                  |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| function  | __doc__           | documentation string      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __name__          | name with which this      |
+|           |                   | function was defined      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __qualname__      | qualified name            |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __code__          | code object containing    |
+|           |                   | compiled function         |
+|           |                   | :term:`bytecode`          |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __defaults__      | tuple of any default      |
+|           |                   | values for positional or  |
+|           |                   | keyword parameters        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __kwdefaults__    | mapping of any default    |
+|           |                   | values for keyword-only   |
+|           |                   | parameters                |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __globals__       | global namespace in which |
+|           |                   | this function was defined |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __annotations__   | mapping of parameters     |
+|           |                   | names to annotations;     |
+|           |                   | ``"return"`` key is       |
+|           |                   | reserved for return       |
+|           |                   | annotations.              |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| traceback | tb_frame          | frame object at this      |
+|           |                   | level                     |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | tb_lasti          | index of last attempted   |
+|           |                   | instruction in bytecode   |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | tb_lineno         | current line number in    |
+|           |                   | Python source code        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | tb_next           | next inner traceback      |
+|           |                   | object (called by this    |
+|           |                   | level)                    |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| frame     | f_back            | next outer frame object   |
+|           |                   | (this frame's caller)     |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | f_builtins        | builtins namespace seen   |
+|           |                   | by this frame             |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | f_code            | code object being         |
+|           |                   | executed in this frame    |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | f_globals         | global namespace seen by  |
+|           |                   | this frame                |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | f_lasti           | index of last attempted   |
+|           |                   | instruction in bytecode   |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | f_lineno          | current line number in    |
+|           |                   | Python source code        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | f_locals          | local namespace seen by   |
+|           |                   | this frame                |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | f_trace           | tracing function for this |
+|           |                   | frame, or ``None``        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| code      | co_argcount       | number of arguments (not  |
+|           |                   | including keyword only    |
+|           |                   | arguments, \* or \*\*     |
+|           |                   | args)                     |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_code           | string of raw compiled    |
+|           |                   | bytecode                  |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_cellvars       | tuple of names of cell    |
+|           |                   | variables (referenced by  |
+|           |                   | containing scopes)        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_consts         | tuple of constants used   |
+|           |                   | in the bytecode           |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_filename       | name of file in which     |
+|           |                   | this code object was      |
+|           |                   | created                   |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_firstlineno    | number of first line in   |
+|           |                   | Python source code        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_flags          | bitmap of ``CO_*`` flags, |
+|           |                   | read more :ref:`here      |
+|           |                   | <inspect-module-co-flags>`|
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_lnotab         | encoded mapping of line   |
+|           |                   | numbers to bytecode       |
+|           |                   | indices                   |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_freevars       | tuple of names of free    |
+|           |                   | variables (referenced via |
+|           |                   | a function's closure)     |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_kwonlyargcount | number of keyword only    |
+|           |                   | arguments (not including  |
+|           |                   | \*\* arg)                 |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_name           | name with which this code |
+|           |                   | object was defined        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_names          | tuple of names of local   |
+|           |                   | variables                 |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_nlocals        | number of local variables |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_stacksize      | virtual machine stack     |
+|           |                   | space required            |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | co_varnames       | tuple of names of         |
+|           |                   | arguments and local       |
+|           |                   | variables                 |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| generator | __name__          | name                      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __qualname__      | qualified name            |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | gi_frame          | frame                     |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | gi_running        | is the generator running? |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | gi_code           | code                      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | gi_yieldfrom      | object being iterated by  |
+|           |                   | ``yield from``, or        |
+|           |                   | ``None``                  |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| coroutine | __name__          | name                      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __qualname__      | qualified name            |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | cr_await          | object being awaited on,  |
+|           |                   | or ``None``               |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | cr_frame          | frame                     |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | cr_running        | is the coroutine running? |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | cr_code           | code                      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | cr_origin         | where coroutine was       |
+|           |                   | created, or ``None``. See |
+|           |                   | |coroutine-origin-link|   |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| builtin   | __doc__           | documentation string      |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __name__          | original name of this     |
+|           |                   | function or method        |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __qualname__      | qualified name            |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+|           | __self__          | instance to which a       |
+|           |                   | method is bound, or       |
+|           |                   | ``None``                  |
++-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+   Add ``__qualname__`` and ``gi_yieldfrom`` attributes to generators.
+
+   The ``__name__`` attribute of generators is now set from the function
+   name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+   Add ``cr_origin`` attribute to coroutines.
+
+.. function:: getmembers(object[, predicate])
+
+   Return all the members of an object in a list of (name, value) pairs sorted by
+   name.  If the optional *predicate* argument is supplied, only members for which
+   the predicate returns a true value are included.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :func:`getmembers` will only return class attributes defined in the
+      metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been
+      listed in the metaclass' custom :meth:`__dir__`.
+
+
+.. function:: getmodulename(path)
+
+   Return the name of the module named by the file *path*, without including the
+   names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of
+   the entries in :func:`importlib.machinery.all_suffixes`. If it matches,
+   the final path component is returned with the extension removed.
+   Otherwise, ``None`` is returned.
+
+   Note that this function *only* returns a meaningful name for actual
+   Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will
+   still return ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The function is based directly on :mod:`importlib`.
+
+
+.. function:: ismodule(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a module.
+
+
+.. function:: isclass(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python
+   code.
+
+
+.. function:: ismethod(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a bound method written in Python.
+
+
+.. function:: isfunction(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a Python function, which includes functions
+   created by a :term:`lambda` expression.
+
+
+.. function:: isgeneratorfunction(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a Python generator function.
+
+
+.. function:: isgenerator(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a generator.
+
+
+.. function:: iscoroutinefunction(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a :term:`coroutine function`
+   (a function defined with an :keyword:`async def` syntax).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: iscoroutine(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a :term:`coroutine` created by an
+   :keyword:`async def` function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: isawaitable(object)
+
+   Return true if the object can be used in :keyword:`await` expression.
+
+   Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular
+   generators::
+
+      def gen():
+          yield
+      @types.coroutine
+      def gen_coro():
+          yield
+
+      assert not isawaitable(gen())
+      assert isawaitable(gen_coro())
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: isasyncgenfunction(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is an :term:`asynchronous generator` function,
+   for example::
+
+    >>> async def agen():
+    ...     yield 1
+    ...
+    >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
+    True
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. function:: isasyncgen(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator`
+   created by an :term:`asynchronous generator` function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. function:: istraceback(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a traceback.
+
+
+.. function:: isframe(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a frame.
+
+
+.. function:: iscode(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a code.
+
+
+.. function:: isbuiltin(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.
+
+
+.. function:: isroutine(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.
+
+
+.. function:: isabstract(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is an abstract base class.
+
+
+.. function:: ismethoddescriptor(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
+   :func:`ismethod`, :func:`isclass`, :func:`isfunction` or :func:`isbuiltin`
+   are true.
+
+   This, for example, is true of ``int.__add__``.  An object passing this test
+   has a :meth:`~object.__get__` method but not a :meth:`~object.__set__`
+   method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies.  A
+   :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute is usually
+   sensible, and :attr:`__doc__` often is.
+
+   Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests
+   return false from the :func:`ismethoddescriptor` test, simply because the
+   other tests promise more -- you can, e.g., count on having the
+   :attr:`__func__` attribute (etc) when an object passes :func:`ismethod`.
+
+
+.. function:: isdatadescriptor(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a data descriptor.
+
+   Data descriptors have both a :attr:`~object.__get__` and a :attr:`~object.__set__` method.
+   Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members.  The
+   latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for
+   those types, which is robust across Python implementations.  Typically, data
+   descriptors will also have :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`__doc__` attributes
+   (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is
+   not guaranteed.
+
+
+.. function:: isgetsetdescriptor(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a getset descriptor.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via
+      :c:type:`PyGetSetDef` structures.  For Python implementations without such
+      types, this method will always return ``False``.
+
+
+.. function:: ismemberdescriptor(object)
+
+   Return true if the object is a member descriptor.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via
+      :c:type:`PyMemberDef` structures.  For Python implementations without such
+      types, this method will always return ``False``.
+
+
+.. _inspect-source:
+
+Retrieving source code
+----------------------
+
+.. function:: getdoc(object)
+
+   Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with :func:`cleandoc`.
+   If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is
+   a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation
+   string from the inheritance hierarchy.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden.
+
+
+.. function:: getcomments(object)
+
+   Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the
+   object's source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the
+   Python source file (if the object is a module).  If the object's source code
+   is unavailable, return ``None``.  This could happen if the object has been
+   defined in C or the interactive shell.
+
+
+.. function:: getfile(object)
+
+   Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined.
+   This will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module,
+   class, or function.
+
+
+.. function:: getmodule(object)
+
+   Try to guess which module an object was defined in.
+
+
+.. function:: getsourcefile(object)
+
+   Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined.  This
+   will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or
+   function.
+
+
+.. function:: getsourcelines(object)
+
+   Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The
+   argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
+   object.  The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the
+   object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first
+   line of code was found.  An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot
+   be retrieved.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the
+      former.
+
+
+.. function:: getsource(object)
+
+   Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module,
+   class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object.  The source code is
+   returned as a single string.  An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code
+   cannot be retrieved.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the
+      former.
+
+
+.. function:: cleandoc(doc)
+
+   Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks
+   of code.
+
+   All leading whitespace is removed from the first line.  Any leading whitespace
+   that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed.  Empty
+   lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed.  Also, all tabs are
+   expanded to spaces.
+
+
+.. _inspect-signature-object:
+
+Introspecting callables with the Signature object
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its
+return annotation.  To retrieve a Signature object, use the :func:`signature`
+function.
+
+.. function:: signature(callable, \*, follow_wrapped=True)
+
+   Return a :class:`Signature` object for the given ``callable``::
+
+      >>> from inspect import signature
+      >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
+      ...     pass
+
+      >>> sig = signature(foo)
+
+      >>> str(sig)
+      '(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)'
+
+      >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
+      'b:int'
+
+      >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
+      <class 'int'>
+
+   Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to
+   :func:`functools.partial` objects.
+
+   Raises :exc:`ValueError` if no signature can be provided, and
+   :exc:`TypeError` if that type of object is not supported.
+
+   A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior
+   to it are positional-only. For more info, see
+   :ref:`the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters <faq-positional-only-arguments>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      ``follow_wrapped`` parameter. Pass ``False`` to get a signature of
+      ``callable`` specifically (``callable.__wrapped__`` will not be used to
+      unwrap decorated callables.)
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of
+      Python.  For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in
+      C provide no metadata about their arguments.
+
+
+.. class:: Signature(parameters=None, \*, return_annotation=Signature.empty)
+
+   A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return
+   annotation.  For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a
+   :class:`Parameter` object in its :attr:`parameters` collection.
+
+   The optional *parameters* argument is a sequence of :class:`Parameter`
+   objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters with
+   duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right order, i.e.
+   positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with
+   defaults follow parameters without defaults.
+
+   The optional *return_annotation* argument, can be an arbitrary Python object,
+   is the "return" annotation of the callable.
+
+   Signature objects are *immutable*.  Use :meth:`Signature.replace` to make a
+   modified copy.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Signature objects are picklable and hashable.
+
+   .. attribute:: Signature.empty
+
+      A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation.
+
+   .. attribute:: Signature.parameters
+
+      An ordered mapping of parameters' names to the corresponding
+      :class:`Parameter` objects.  Parameters appear in strict definition
+      order, including keyword-only parameters.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
+         order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
+         this order had always been preserved in Python 3.
+
+   .. attribute:: Signature.return_annotation
+
+      The "return" annotation for the callable.  If the callable has no "return"
+      annotation, this attribute is set to :attr:`Signature.empty`.
+
+   .. method:: Signature.bind(*args, **kwargs)
+
+      Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters.
+      Returns :class:`BoundArguments` if ``*args`` and ``**kwargs`` match the
+      signature, or raises a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   .. method:: Signature.bind_partial(*args, **kwargs)
+
+      Works the same way as :meth:`Signature.bind`, but allows the omission of
+      some required arguments (mimics :func:`functools.partial` behavior.)
+      Returns :class:`BoundArguments`, or raises a :exc:`TypeError` if the
+      passed arguments do not match the signature.
+
+   .. method:: Signature.replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation])
+
+      Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked
+      on.  It is possible to pass different ``parameters`` and/or
+      ``return_annotation`` to override the corresponding properties of the base
+      signature.  To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in
+      :attr:`Signature.empty`.
+
+      ::
+
+         >>> def test(a, b):
+         ...     pass
+         >>> sig = signature(test)
+         >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
+         >>> str(new_sig)
+         "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"
+
+   .. classmethod:: Signature.from_callable(obj, \*, follow_wrapped=True)
+
+       Return a :class:`Signature` (or its subclass) object for a given callable
+       ``obj``.  Pass ``follow_wrapped=False`` to get a signature of ``obj``
+       without unwrapping its ``__wrapped__`` chain.
+
+       This method simplifies subclassing of :class:`Signature`::
+
+         class MySignature(Signature):
+             pass
+         sig = MySignature.from_callable(min)
+         assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)
+
+       .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. class:: Parameter(name, kind, \*, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty)
+
+   Parameter objects are *immutable*.  Instead of modifying a Parameter object,
+   you can use :meth:`Parameter.replace` to create a modified copy.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Parameter objects are picklable and hashable.
+
+   .. attribute:: Parameter.empty
+
+      A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and
+      annotations.
+
+   .. attribute:: Parameter.name
+
+      The name of the parameter as a string.  The name must be a valid
+      Python identifier.
+
+      .. impl-detail::
+
+         CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form ``.0`` on the
+         code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator
+         expressions.
+
+         .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+            These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like
+            ``implicit0``.
+
+   .. attribute:: Parameter.default
+
+      The default value for the parameter.  If the parameter has no default
+      value, this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`.
+
+   .. attribute:: Parameter.annotation
+
+      The annotation for the parameter.  If the parameter has no annotation,
+      this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`.
+
+   .. attribute:: Parameter.kind
+
+      Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter.  Possible values
+      (accessible via :class:`Parameter`, like ``Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY``):
+
+      .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+      +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+      |    Name                | Meaning                                      |
+      +========================+==============================================+
+      | *POSITIONAL_ONLY*      | Value must be supplied as a positional       |
+      |                        | argument.                                    |
+      |                        |                                              |
+      |                        | Python has no explicit syntax for defining   |
+      |                        | positional-only parameters, but many built-in|
+      |                        | and extension module functions (especially   |
+      |                        | those that accept only one or two parameters)|
+      |                        | accept them.                                 |
+      +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+      | *POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD*| Value may be supplied as either a keyword or |
+      |                        | positional argument (this is the standard    |
+      |                        | binding behaviour for functions implemented  |
+      |                        | in Python.)                                  |
+      +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+      | *VAR_POSITIONAL*       | A tuple of positional arguments that aren't  |
+      |                        | bound to any other parameter. This           |
+      |                        | corresponds to a ``*args`` parameter in a    |
+      |                        | Python function definition.                  |
+      +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+      | *KEYWORD_ONLY*         | Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.|
+      |                        | Keyword only parameters are those which      |
+      |                        | appear after a ``*`` or ``*args`` entry in a |
+      |                        | Python function definition.                  |
+      +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+      | *VAR_KEYWORD*          | A dict of keyword arguments that aren't bound|
+      |                        | to any other parameter. This corresponds to a|
+      |                        | ``**kwargs`` parameter in a Python function  |
+      |                        | definition.                                  |
+      +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+      Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values::
+
+         >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
+         ...     pass
+
+         >>> sig = signature(foo)
+         >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
+         ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
+         ...                        param.default is param.empty):
+         ...         print('Parameter:', param)
+         Parameter: c
+
+   .. method:: Parameter.replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])
+
+      Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked
+      on.  To override a :class:`Parameter` attribute, pass the corresponding
+      argument.  To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a
+      Parameter, pass :attr:`Parameter.empty`.
+
+      ::
+
+         >>> from inspect import Parameter
+         >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
+         >>> str(param)
+         'foo=42'
+
+         >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
+         'foo=42'
+
+         >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
+         "foo:'spam'"
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+        In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have ``name`` set
+        to ``None`` if their ``kind`` was set to ``POSITIONAL_ONLY``.
+        This is no longer permitted.
+
+.. class:: BoundArguments
+
+   Result of a :meth:`Signature.bind` or :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` call.
+   Holds the mapping of arguments to the function's parameters.
+
+   .. attribute:: BoundArguments.arguments
+
+      An ordered, mutable mapping (:class:`collections.OrderedDict`) of
+      parameters' names to arguments' values.  Contains only explicitly bound
+      arguments.  Changes in :attr:`arguments` will reflect in :attr:`args` and
+      :attr:`kwargs`.
+
+      Should be used in conjunction with :attr:`Signature.parameters` for any
+      argument processing purposes.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         Arguments for which :meth:`Signature.bind` or
+         :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` relied on a default value are skipped.
+         However, if needed, use :meth:`BoundArguments.apply_defaults` to add
+         them.
+
+   .. attribute:: BoundArguments.args
+
+      A tuple of positional arguments values.  Dynamically computed from the
+      :attr:`arguments` attribute.
+
+   .. attribute:: BoundArguments.kwargs
+
+      A dict of keyword arguments values.  Dynamically computed from the
+      :attr:`arguments` attribute.
+
+   .. attribute:: BoundArguments.signature
+
+      A reference to the parent :class:`Signature` object.
+
+   .. method:: BoundArguments.apply_defaults()
+
+      Set default values for missing arguments.
+
+      For variable-positional arguments (``*args``) the default is an
+      empty tuple.
+
+      For variable-keyword arguments (``**kwargs``) the default is an
+      empty dict.
+
+      ::
+
+        >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
+        >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
+        >>> ba.apply_defaults()
+        >>> ba.arguments
+        OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   The :attr:`args` and :attr:`kwargs` properties can be used to invoke
+   functions::
+
+      def test(a, *, b):
+          ...
+
+      sig = signature(test)
+      ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
+      test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`362` - Function Signature Object.
+      The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.
+
+
+.. _inspect-classes-functions:
+
+Classes and functions
+---------------------
+
+.. function:: getclasstree(classes, unique=False)
+
+   Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a
+   nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry
+   immediately precedes the list.  Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a
+   tuple of its base classes.  If the *unique* argument is true, exactly one entry
+   appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list.  Otherwise,
+   classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple
+   times.
+
+
+.. function:: getargspec(func)
+
+   Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters. A
+   :term:`named tuple` ``ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults)`` is
+   returned. *args* is a list of the parameter names. *varargs* and *keywords*
+   are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` parameters or ``None``. *defaults* is a
+   tuple of default argument values or ``None`` if there are no default
+   arguments; if this tuple has *n* elements, they correspond to the last
+   *n* elements listed in *args*.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.0
+      Use :func:`getfullargspec` for an updated API that is usually a drop-in
+      replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and
+      keyword-only parameters.
+
+      Alternatively, use :func:`signature` and
+      :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a
+      more structured introspection API for callables.
+
+
+.. function:: getfullargspec(func)
+
+   Get the names and default values of a Python function's parameters.  A
+   :term:`named tuple` is returned:
+
+   ``FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults,
+   annotations)``
+
+   *args* is a list of the positional parameter names.
+   *varargs* is the name of the ``*`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary
+   positional arguments are not accepted.
+   *varkw* is the name of the ``**`` parameter or ``None`` if arbitrary
+   keyword arguments are not accepted.
+   *defaults* is an *n*-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the
+   last *n* positional parameters, or ``None`` if there are no such defaults
+   defined.
+   *kwonlyargs* is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
+   *kwonlydefaults* is a dictionary mapping parameter names from *kwonlyargs*
+   to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
+   *annotations* is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations.
+   The special key ``"return"`` is used to report the function return value
+   annotation (if any).
+
+   Note that :func:`signature` and
+   :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>` provide the recommended
+   API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like
+   positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module
+   APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to
+   maintain compatibility with the Python 2 ``inspect`` module API.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      This function is now based on :func:`signature`, but still ignores
+      ``__wrapped__`` attributes and includes the already bound first
+      parameter in the signature output for bound methods.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of
+      :func:`signature` in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed
+      in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for
+      single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy
+      :func:`getargspec` API.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
+      order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
+      this order had always been preserved in Python 3.
+
+
+.. function:: getargvalues(frame)
+
+   Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame.  A
+   :term:`named tuple` ``ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)`` is
+   returned. *args* is a list of the argument names.  *varargs* and *keywords*
+   are the names of the ``*`` and ``**`` arguments or ``None``.  *locals* is the
+   locals dictionary of the given frame.
+
+   .. note::
+      This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.
+
+
+.. function:: formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations[, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]])
+
+   Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by
+   :func:`getfullargspec`.
+
+   The first seven arguments are (``args``, ``varargs``, ``varkw``,
+   ``defaults``, ``kwonlyargs``, ``kwonlydefaults``, ``annotations``).
+
+   The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names,
+   ``*`` argument name, ``**`` argument name, default values, return annotation
+   and individual annotations into strings, respectively.
+
+   For example:
+
+   >>> from inspect import formatargspec, getfullargspec
+   >>> def f(a: int, b: float):
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> formatargspec(*getfullargspec(f))
+   '(a: int, b: float)'
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.5
+      Use :func:`signature` and
+      :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>`, which provide a
+      better introspecting API for callables.
+
+
+.. function:: formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])
+
+   Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
+   :func:`getargvalues`.  The format\* arguments are the corresponding optional
+   formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.
+
+   .. note::
+      This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.
+
+
+.. function:: getmro(cls)
+
+   Return a tuple of class cls's base classes, including cls, in method resolution
+   order.  No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method
+   resolution order depends on cls's type.  Unless a very peculiar user-defined
+   metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.
+
+
+.. function:: getcallargs(func, *args, **kwds)
+
+   Bind the *args* and *kwds* to the argument names of the Python function or
+   method *func*, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the
+   first argument (typically named ``self``) to the associated instance. A dict
+   is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the ``*`` and
+   ``**`` arguments, if any) to their values from *args* and *kwds*. In case of
+   invoking *func* incorrectly, i.e. whenever ``func(*args, **kwds)`` would raise
+   an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type
+   and the same or similar message is raised. For example::
+
+    >>> from inspect import getcallargs
+    >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
+    ...     pass
+    >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
+    True
+    >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
+    True
+    >>> getcallargs(f)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.5
+      Use :meth:`Signature.bind` and :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: getclosurevars(func)
+
+   Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
+   method *func* to their current values. A
+   :term:`named tuple` ``ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)``
+   is returned. *nonlocals* maps referenced names to lexical closure
+   variables, *globals* to the function's module globals and *builtins* to
+   the builtins visible from the function body. *unbound* is the set of names
+   referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the
+   current module globals and builtins.
+
+   :exc:`TypeError` is raised if *func* is not a Python function or method.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: unwrap(func, *, stop=None)
+
+   Get the object wrapped by *func*. It follows the chain of :attr:`__wrapped__`
+   attributes returning the last object in the chain.
+
+   *stop* is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain
+   as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if
+   the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true
+   value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example,
+   :func:`signature` uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the
+   chain has a ``__signature__`` attribute defined.
+
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if a cycle is encountered.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. _inspect-stack:
+
+The interpreter stack
+---------------------
+
+When the following functions return "frame records," each record is a
+:term:`named tuple`
+``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``.
+The tuple contains the frame object, the filename, the line number of the
+current line,
+the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the
+index of the current line within that list.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Return a named tuple instead of a tuple.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame
+   records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference
+   cycles.  Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects
+   which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much
+   longer even if Python's optional cycle detector is enabled.  If such cycles must
+   be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the
+   delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs.
+
+   Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local
+   variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a
+   :keyword:`finally` clause.  This is also important if the cycle detector was
+   disabled when Python was compiled or using :func:`gc.disable`.  For example::
+
+      def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
+          frame = inspect.currentframe()
+          try:
+              # do something with the frame
+          finally:
+              del frame
+
+   If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback
+   later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
+   :meth:`frame.clear` method.
+
+The optional *context* argument supported by most of these functions specifies
+the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current
+line.
+
+
+.. function:: getframeinfo(frame, context=1)
+
+   Get information about a frame or traceback object.  A :term:`named tuple`
+   ``Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)`` is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: getouterframes(frame, context=1)
+
+   Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames.  These frames
+   represent the calls that lead to the creation of *frame*. The first entry in the
+   returned list represents *frame*; the last entry represents the outermost call
+   on *frame*'s stack.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
+      ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
+      is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)
+
+   Get a list of frame records for a traceback's frame and all inner frames.  These
+   frames represent calls made as a consequence of *frame*.  The first entry in the
+   list represents *traceback*; the last entry represents where the exception was
+   raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
+      ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
+      is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: currentframe()
+
+   Return the frame object for the caller's stack frame.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter,
+      which isn't guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.  If
+      running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this
+      function returns ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: stack(context=1)
+
+   Return a list of frame records for the caller's stack.  The first entry in the
+   returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost
+   call on the stack.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
+      ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
+      is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: trace(context=1)
+
+   Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the
+   frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in.  The first
+   entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
+   exception was raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      A list of :term:`named tuples <named tuple>`
+      ``FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)``
+      is returned.
+
+
+Fetching attributes statically
+------------------------------
+
+Both :func:`getattr` and :func:`hasattr` can trigger code execution when
+fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like
+properties, will be invoked and :meth:`__getattr__` and :meth:`__getattribute__`
+may be called.
+
+For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this
+can be inconvenient. :func:`getattr_static` has the same signature as :func:`getattr`
+but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.
+
+.. function:: getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)
+
+   Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
+   descriptor protocol, :meth:`__getattr__` or :meth:`__getattribute__`.
+
+   Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes
+   that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes)
+   and may find attributes that getattr can't (like descriptors
+   that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects
+   instead of instance members.
+
+   If the instance :attr:`~object.__dict__` is shadowed by another member (for
+   example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance
+   members.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+:func:`getattr_static` does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or
+getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object
+is returned instead of the underlying attribute.
+
+You can handle these with code like the following. Note that
+for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger
+code execution::
+
+   # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
+   class _foo:
+       __slots__ = ['foo']
+
+   slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
+   getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
+   wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
+   descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)
+
+   result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
+   if type(result) in descriptor_types:
+       try:
+           result = result.__get__()
+       except AttributeError:
+           # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
+           # indicate there is no underlying value
+           # in which case the descriptor itself will
+           # have to do
+           pass
+
+
+Current State of Generators and Coroutines
+------------------------------------------
+
+When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
+generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
+executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
+terminated. :func:`getgeneratorstate` allows the current state of a
+generator to be determined easily.
+
+.. function:: getgeneratorstate(generator)
+
+   Get current state of a generator-iterator.
+
+   Possible states are:
+    * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.
+    * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.
+    * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.
+    * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. function:: getcoroutinestate(coroutine)
+
+   Get current state of a coroutine object.  The function is intended to be
+   used with coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions, but
+   will accept any coroutine-like object that has ``cr_running`` and
+   ``cr_frame`` attributes.
+
+   Possible states are:
+    * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.
+    * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.
+    * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.
+    * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is
+mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being
+updated as expected:
+
+.. function:: getgeneratorlocals(generator)
+
+   Get the mapping of live local variables in *generator* to their current
+   values.  A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values.
+   This is the equivalent of calling :func:`locals` in the body of the
+   generator, and all the same caveats apply.
+
+   If *generator* is a :term:`generator` with no currently associated frame,
+   then an empty dictionary is returned.  :exc:`TypeError` is raised if
+   *generator* is not a Python generator object.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame
+      for introspection, which isn't guaranteed to be the case in all
+      implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always
+      return an empty dictionary.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)
+
+   This function is analogous to :func:`~inspect.getgeneratorlocals`, but
+   works for coroutine objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. _inspect-module-co-flags:
+
+Code Objects Bit Flags
+----------------------
+
+Python code objects have a ``co_flags`` attribute, which is a bitmap of
+the following flags:
+
+.. data:: CO_OPTIMIZED
+
+   The code object is optimized, using fast locals.
+
+.. data:: CO_NEWLOCALS
+
+   If set, a new dict will be created for the frame's ``f_locals`` when
+   the code object is executed.
+
+.. data:: CO_VARARGS
+
+   The code object has a variable positional parameter (``*args``-like).
+
+.. data:: CO_VARKEYWORDS
+
+   The code object has a variable keyword parameter (``**kwargs``-like).
+
+.. data:: CO_NESTED
+
+   The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.
+
+.. data:: CO_GENERATOR
+
+   The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
+   a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.
+
+.. data:: CO_NOFREE
+
+   The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables.
+
+.. data:: CO_COROUTINE
+
+   The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.
+   When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.
+   See :pep:`492` for more details.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. data:: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE
+
+   The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
+   coroutines.  Generator objects with this flag can be used in
+   ``await`` expression, and can ``yield from`` coroutine objects.
+   See :pep:`492` for more details.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. data:: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR
+
+   The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
+   function.  When the code object is executed it returns an
+   asynchronous generator object.  See :pep:`525` for more details.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. note::
+   The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other
+   Python implementations.  Furthermore, the flags are an implementation
+   detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases.
+   It's recommended to use public APIs from the :mod:`inspect` module
+   for any introspection needs.
+
+
+.. _inspect-module-cli:
+
+Command Line Interface
+----------------------
+
+The :mod:`inspect` module also provides a basic introspection capability
+from the command line.
+
+.. program:: inspect
+
+By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
+module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
+appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --details
+
+   Print information about the specified object rather than the source code
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/internet.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/internet.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8950bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/internet.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+.. _internet:
+
+******************************
+Internet Protocols and Support
+******************************
+
+.. index::
+   single: WWW
+   single: Internet
+   single: World Wide Web
+
+.. index:: module: socket
+
+The modules described in this chapter implement Internet protocols and  support
+for related technology.  They are all implemented in Python. Most of these
+modules require the presence of the system-dependent module :mod:`socket`, which
+is currently supported on most popular platforms.  Here is an overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   webbrowser.rst
+   cgi.rst
+   cgitb.rst
+   wsgiref.rst
+   urllib.rst
+   urllib.request.rst
+   urllib.parse.rst
+   urllib.error.rst
+   urllib.robotparser.rst
+   http.rst
+   http.client.rst
+   ftplib.rst
+   poplib.rst
+   imaplib.rst
+   nntplib.rst
+   smtplib.rst
+   smtpd.rst
+   telnetlib.rst
+   uuid.rst
+   socketserver.rst
+   http.server.rst
+   http.cookies.rst
+   http.cookiejar.rst
+   xmlrpc.rst
+   xmlrpc.client.rst
+   xmlrpc.server.rst
+   ipaddress.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/intro.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/intro.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8567e4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/intro.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+.. _library-intro:
+
+************
+Introduction
+************
+
+The "Python library" contains several different kinds of components.
+
+It contains data types that would normally be considered part of the "core" of a
+language, such as numbers and lists.  For these types, the Python language core
+defines the form of literals and places some constraints on their semantics, but
+does not fully define the semantics.  (On the other hand, the language core does
+define syntactic properties like the spelling and priorities of operators.)
+
+The library also contains built-in functions and exceptions --- objects that can
+be used by all Python code without the need of an :keyword:`import` statement.
+Some of these are defined by the core language, but many are not essential for
+the core semantics and are only described here.
+
+The bulk of the library, however, consists of a collection of modules. There are
+many ways to dissect this collection.  Some modules are written in C and built
+in to the Python interpreter; others are written in Python and imported in
+source form.  Some modules provide interfaces that are highly specific to
+Python, like printing a stack trace; some provide interfaces that are specific
+to particular operating systems, such as access to specific hardware; others
+provide interfaces that are specific to a particular application domain, like
+the World Wide Web. Some modules are available in all versions and ports of
+Python; others are only available when the underlying system supports or
+requires them; yet others are available only when a particular configuration
+option was chosen at the time when Python was compiled and installed.
+
+This manual is organized "from the inside out:" it first describes the built-in
+functions, data types and exceptions, and finally the modules, grouped in
+chapters of related modules.
+
+This means that if you start reading this manual from the start, and skip to the
+next chapter when you get bored, you will get a reasonable overview of the
+available modules and application areas that are supported by the Python
+library.  Of course, you don't *have* to read it like a novel --- you can also
+browse the table of contents (in front of the manual), or look for a specific
+function, module or term in the index (in the back).  And finally, if you enjoy
+learning about random subjects, you choose a random page number (see module
+:mod:`random`) and read a section or two.  Regardless of the order in which you
+read the sections of this manual, it helps to start with chapter
+:ref:`built-in-funcs`, as the remainder of the manual assumes familiarity with
+this material.
+
+Let the show begin!
+
+
+.. _availability:
+
+Notes on availability
+=====================
+
+* An "Availability: Unix" note means that this function is commonly found on
+  Unix systems.  It does not make any claims about its existence on a specific
+  operating system.
+
+* If not separately noted, all functions that claim "Availability: Unix" are
+  supported on Mac OS X, which builds on a Unix core.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/io.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/io.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bf56bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/io.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1049 @@
+:mod:`io` --- Core tools for working with streams
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: io
+   :synopsis: Core tools for working with streams.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org>
+.. moduleauthor:: Mike Verdone <mike.verdone@gmail.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Mark Russell <mark.russell@zen.co.uk>
+.. moduleauthor:: Antoine Pitrou <solipsis@pitrou.net>
+.. moduleauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc <amauryfa@gmail.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/io.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. _io-overview:
+
+Overview
+--------
+
+.. index::
+   single: file object; io module
+
+The :mod:`io` module provides Python's main facilities for dealing with various
+types of I/O.  There are three main types of I/O: *text I/O*, *binary I/O*
+and *raw I/O*.  These are generic categories, and various backing stores can
+be used for each of them.  A concrete object belonging to any of these
+categories is called a :term:`file object`.  Other common terms are *stream*
+and *file-like object*.
+
+Independent of its category, each concrete stream object will also have
+various capabilities: it can be read-only, write-only, or read-write. It can
+also allow arbitrary random access (seeking forwards or backwards to any
+location), or only sequential access (for example in the case of a socket or
+pipe).
+
+All streams are careful about the type of data you give to them.  For example
+giving a :class:`str` object to the ``write()`` method of a binary stream
+will raise a :exc:`TypeError`.  So will giving a :class:`bytes` object to the
+``write()`` method of a text stream.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Operations that used to raise :exc:`IOError` now raise :exc:`OSError`, since
+   :exc:`IOError` is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+Text I/O
+^^^^^^^^
+
+Text I/O expects and produces :class:`str` objects.  This means that whenever
+the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the case of a file),
+encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as well as optional
+translation of platform-specific newline characters.
+
+The easiest way to create a text stream is with :meth:`open()`, optionally
+specifying an encoding::
+
+   f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")
+
+In-memory text streams are also available as :class:`StringIO` objects::
+
+   f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")
+
+The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation of
+:class:`TextIOBase`.
+
+
+Binary I/O
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Binary I/O (also called *buffered I/O*) expects
+:term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` and produces :class:`bytes`
+objects.  No encoding, decoding, or newline translation is performed.  This
+category of streams can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when
+manual control over the handling of text data is desired.
+
+The easiest way to create a binary stream is with :meth:`open()` with ``'b'`` in
+the mode string::
+
+   f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")
+
+In-memory binary streams are also available as :class:`BytesIO` objects::
+
+   f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")
+
+The binary stream API is described in detail in the docs of
+:class:`BufferedIOBase`.
+
+Other library modules may provide additional ways to create text or binary
+streams.  See :meth:`socket.socket.makefile` for example.
+
+
+Raw I/O
+^^^^^^^
+
+Raw I/O (also called *unbuffered I/O*) is generally used as a low-level
+building-block for binary and text streams; it is rarely useful to directly
+manipulate a raw stream from user code.  Nevertheless, you can create a raw
+stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering disabled::
+
+   f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)
+
+The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of :class:`RawIOBase`.
+
+
+High-level Module Interface
+---------------------------
+
+.. data:: DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE
+
+   An int containing the default buffer size used by the module's buffered I/O
+   classes.  :func:`open` uses the file's blksize (as obtained by
+   :func:`os.stat`) if possible.
+
+
+.. function:: open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)
+
+   This is an alias for the builtin :func:`open` function.
+
+
+.. exception:: BlockingIOError
+
+   This is a compatibility alias for the builtin :exc:`BlockingIOError`
+   exception.
+
+
+.. exception:: UnsupportedOperation
+
+   An exception inheriting :exc:`OSError` and :exc:`ValueError` that is raised
+   when an unsupported operation is called on a stream.
+
+
+In-memory streams
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+It is also possible to use a :class:`str` or :term:`bytes-like object` as a
+file for both reading and writing.  For strings :class:`StringIO` can be used
+like a file opened in text mode.  :class:`BytesIO` can be used like a file
+opened in binary mode.  Both provide full read-write capabilities with random
+access.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :mod:`sys`
+       contains the standard IO streams: :data:`sys.stdin`, :data:`sys.stdout`,
+       and :data:`sys.stderr`.
+
+
+Class hierarchy
+---------------
+
+The implementation of I/O streams is organized as a hierarchy of classes.  First
+:term:`abstract base classes <abstract base class>` (ABCs), which are used to
+specify the various categories of streams, then concrete classes providing the
+standard stream implementations.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The abstract base classes also provide default implementations of some
+      methods in order to help implementation of concrete stream classes.  For
+      example, :class:`BufferedIOBase` provides unoptimized implementations of
+      :meth:`~IOBase.readinto` and :meth:`~IOBase.readline`.
+
+At the top of the I/O hierarchy is the abstract base class :class:`IOBase`.  It
+defines the basic interface to a stream.  Note, however, that there is no
+separation between reading and writing to streams; implementations are allowed
+to raise :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if they do not support a given operation.
+
+The :class:`RawIOBase` ABC extends :class:`IOBase`.  It deals with the reading
+and writing of bytes to a stream.  :class:`FileIO` subclasses :class:`RawIOBase`
+to provide an interface to files in the machine's file system.
+
+The :class:`BufferedIOBase` ABC deals with buffering on a raw byte stream
+(:class:`RawIOBase`).  Its subclasses, :class:`BufferedWriter`,
+:class:`BufferedReader`, and :class:`BufferedRWPair` buffer streams that are
+readable, writable, and both readable and writable.  :class:`BufferedRandom`
+provides a buffered interface to random access streams.  Another
+:class:`BufferedIOBase` subclass, :class:`BytesIO`, is a stream of in-memory
+bytes.
+
+The :class:`TextIOBase` ABC, another subclass of :class:`IOBase`, deals with
+streams whose bytes represent text, and handles encoding and decoding to and
+from strings. :class:`TextIOWrapper`, which extends it, is a buffered text
+interface to a buffered raw stream (:class:`BufferedIOBase`). Finally,
+:class:`StringIO` is an in-memory stream for text.
+
+Argument names are not part of the specification, and only the arguments of
+:func:`open` are intended to be used as keyword arguments.
+
+The following table summarizes the ABCs provided by the :mod:`io` module:
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|l|L|L|
+
+=========================  ==================  ========================  ==================================================
+ABC                        Inherits            Stub Methods              Mixin Methods and Properties
+=========================  ==================  ========================  ==================================================
+:class:`IOBase`                                ``fileno``, ``seek``,     ``close``, ``closed``, ``__enter__``,
+                                               and ``truncate``          ``__exit__``, ``flush``, ``isatty``, ``__iter__``,
+                                                                         ``__next__``, ``readable``, ``readline``,
+                                                                         ``readlines``, ``seekable``, ``tell``,
+                                                                         ``writable``, and ``writelines``
+:class:`RawIOBase`         :class:`IOBase`     ``readinto`` and          Inherited :class:`IOBase` methods, ``read``,
+                                               ``write``                 and ``readall``
+:class:`BufferedIOBase`    :class:`IOBase`     ``detach``, ``read``,     Inherited :class:`IOBase` methods, ``readinto``,
+                                               ``read1``, and ``write``  and ``readinto1``
+:class:`TextIOBase`        :class:`IOBase`     ``detach``, ``read``,     Inherited :class:`IOBase` methods, ``encoding``,
+                                               ``readline``, and         ``errors``, and ``newlines``
+                                               ``write``
+=========================  ==================  ========================  ==================================================
+
+
+I/O Base Classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: IOBase
+
+   The abstract base class for all I/O classes, acting on streams of bytes.
+   There is no public constructor.
+
+   This class provides empty abstract implementations for many methods
+   that derived classes can override selectively; the default
+   implementations represent a file that cannot be read, written or
+   seeked.
+
+   Even though :class:`IOBase` does not declare :meth:`read`
+   or :meth:`write` because their signatures will vary, implementations and
+   clients should consider those methods part of the interface.  Also,
+   implementations may raise a :exc:`ValueError` (or :exc:`UnsupportedOperation`)
+   when operations they do not support are called.
+
+   The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file is
+   :class:`bytes`.  Other :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` are
+   accepted as method arguments too.  Text I/O classes work with :class:`str` data.
+
+   Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is
+   undefined.  Implementations may raise :exc:`ValueError` in this case.
+
+   :class:`IOBase` (and its subclasses) supports the iterator protocol, meaning
+   that an :class:`IOBase` object can be iterated over yielding the lines in a
+   stream.  Lines are defined slightly differently depending on whether the
+   stream is a binary stream (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding
+   character strings).  See :meth:`~IOBase.readline` below.
+
+   :class:`IOBase` is also a context manager and therefore supports the
+   :keyword:`with` statement.  In this example, *file* is closed after the
+   :keyword:`!with` statement's suite is finished---even if an exception occurs::
+
+      with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
+          file.write('Spam and eggs!')
+
+   :class:`IOBase` provides these data attributes and methods:
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Flush and close this stream. This method has no effect if the file is
+      already closed. Once the file is closed, any operation on the file
+      (e.g. reading or writing) will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+      As a convenience, it is allowed to call this method more than once;
+      only the first call, however, will have an effect.
+
+   .. attribute:: closed
+
+      ``True`` if the stream is closed.
+
+   .. method:: fileno()
+
+      Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the stream if it
+      exists.  An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the IO object does not use a file
+      descriptor.
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      Flush the write buffers of the stream if applicable.  This does nothing
+      for read-only and non-blocking streams.
+
+   .. method:: isatty()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the stream is interactive (i.e., connected to
+      a terminal/tty device).
+
+   .. method:: readable()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the stream can be read from.  If ``False``, :meth:`read`
+      will raise :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. method:: readline(size=-1)
+
+      Read and return one line from the stream.  If *size* is specified, at
+      most *size* bytes will be read.
+
+      The line terminator is always ``b'\n'`` for binary files; for text files,
+      the *newline* argument to :func:`open` can be used to select the line
+      terminator(s) recognized.
+
+   .. method:: readlines(hint=-1)
+
+      Read and return a list of lines from the stream.  *hint* can be specified
+      to control the number of lines read: no more lines will be read if the
+      total size (in bytes/characters) of all lines so far exceeds *hint*.
+
+      Note that it's already possible to iterate on file objects using ``for
+      line in file: ...`` without calling ``file.readlines()``.
+
+   .. method:: seek(offset, whence=SEEK_SET)
+
+      Change the stream position to the given byte *offset*.  *offset* is
+      interpreted relative to the position indicated by *whence*.  The default
+      value for *whence* is :data:`SEEK_SET`.  Values for *whence* are:
+
+      * :data:`SEEK_SET` or ``0`` -- start of the stream (the default);
+        *offset* should be zero or positive
+      * :data:`SEEK_CUR` or ``1`` -- current stream position; *offset* may
+        be negative
+      * :data:`SEEK_END` or ``2`` -- end of the stream; *offset* is usually
+        negative
+
+      Return the new absolute position.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+         The ``SEEK_*`` constants.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+         Some operating systems could support additional values, like
+         :data:`os.SEEK_HOLE` or :data:`os.SEEK_DATA`. The valid values
+         for a file could depend on it being open in text or binary mode.
+
+   .. method:: seekable()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the stream supports random access.  If ``False``,
+      :meth:`seek`, :meth:`tell` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. method:: tell()
+
+      Return the current stream position.
+
+   .. method:: truncate(size=None)
+
+      Resize the stream to the given *size* in bytes (or the current position
+      if *size* is not specified).  The current stream position isn't changed.
+      This resizing can extend or reduce the current file size.  In case of
+      extension, the contents of the new file area depend on the platform
+      (on most systems, additional bytes are zero-filled).  The new file size
+      is returned.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         Windows will now zero-fill files when extending.
+
+   .. method:: writable()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the stream supports writing.  If ``False``,
+      :meth:`write` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. method:: writelines(lines)
+
+      Write a list of lines to the stream.  Line separators are not added, so it
+      is usual for each of the lines provided to have a line separator at the
+      end.
+
+   .. method:: __del__()
+
+      Prepare for object destruction. :class:`IOBase` provides a default
+      implementation of this method that calls the instance's
+      :meth:`~IOBase.close` method.
+
+
+.. class:: RawIOBase
+
+   Base class for raw binary I/O.  It inherits :class:`IOBase`.  There is no
+   public constructor.
+
+   Raw binary I/O typically provides low-level access to an underlying OS
+   device or API, and does not try to encapsulate it in high-level primitives
+   (this is left to Buffered I/O and Text I/O, described later in this page).
+
+   In addition to the attributes and methods from :class:`IOBase`,
+   :class:`RawIOBase` provides the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: read(size=-1)
+
+      Read up to *size* bytes from the object and return them.  As a convenience,
+      if *size* is unspecified or -1, all bytes until EOF are returned.
+      Otherwise, only one system call is ever made.  Fewer than *size* bytes may
+      be returned if the operating system call returns fewer than *size* bytes.
+
+      If 0 bytes are returned, and *size* was not 0, this indicates end of file.
+      If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available,
+      ``None`` is returned.
+
+      The default implementation defers to :meth:`readall` and
+      :meth:`readinto`.
+
+   .. method:: readall()
+
+      Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using multiple
+      calls to the stream if necessary.
+
+   .. method:: readinto(b)
+
+      Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable
+      :term:`bytes-like object` *b*, and return the
+      number of bytes read.  For example, *b* might be a :class:`bytearray`.
+      If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes
+      are available, ``None`` is returned.
+
+   .. method:: write(b)
+
+      Write the given :term:`bytes-like object`, *b*, to the
+      underlying raw stream, and return the number of
+      bytes written.  This can be less than the length of *b* in
+      bytes, depending on specifics of the underlying raw
+      stream, and especially if it is in non-blocking mode.  ``None`` is
+      returned if the raw stream is set not to block and no single byte could
+      be readily written to it.  The caller may release or mutate *b* after
+      this method returns, so the implementation should only access *b*
+      during the method call.
+
+
+.. class:: BufferedIOBase
+
+   Base class for binary streams that support some kind of buffering.
+   It inherits :class:`IOBase`. There is no public constructor.
+
+   The main difference with :class:`RawIOBase` is that methods :meth:`read`,
+   :meth:`readinto` and :meth:`write` will try (respectively) to read as much
+   input as requested or to consume all given output, at the expense of
+   making perhaps more than one system call.
+
+   In addition, those methods can raise :exc:`BlockingIOError` if the
+   underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode and cannot take or give
+   enough data; unlike their :class:`RawIOBase` counterparts, they will
+   never return ``None``.
+
+   Besides, the :meth:`read` method does not have a default
+   implementation that defers to :meth:`readinto`.
+
+   A typical :class:`BufferedIOBase` implementation should not inherit from a
+   :class:`RawIOBase` implementation, but wrap one, like
+   :class:`BufferedWriter` and :class:`BufferedReader` do.
+
+   :class:`BufferedIOBase` provides or overrides these methods and attribute in
+   addition to those from :class:`IOBase`:
+
+   .. attribute:: raw
+
+      The underlying raw stream (a :class:`RawIOBase` instance) that
+      :class:`BufferedIOBase` deals with.  This is not part of the
+      :class:`BufferedIOBase` API and may not exist on some implementations.
+
+   .. method:: detach()
+
+      Separate the underlying raw stream from the buffer and return it.
+
+      After the raw stream has been detached, the buffer is in an unusable
+      state.
+
+      Some buffers, like :class:`BytesIO`, do not have the concept of a single
+      raw stream to return from this method.  They raise
+      :exc:`UnsupportedOperation`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   .. method:: read(size=-1)
+
+      Read and return up to *size* bytes.  If the argument is omitted, ``None``,
+      or negative, data is read and returned until EOF is reached.  An empty
+      :class:`bytes` object is returned if the stream is already at EOF.
+
+      If the argument is positive, and the underlying raw stream is not
+      interactive, multiple raw reads may be issued to satisfy the byte count
+      (unless EOF is reached first).  But for interactive raw streams, at most
+      one raw read will be issued, and a short result does not imply that EOF is
+      imminent.
+
+      A :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the underlying raw stream is in
+      non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.
+
+   .. method:: read1([size])
+
+      Read and return up to *size* bytes, with at most one call to the
+      underlying raw stream's :meth:`~RawIOBase.read` (or
+      :meth:`~RawIOBase.readinto`) method.  This can be useful if you are
+      implementing your own buffering on top of a :class:`BufferedIOBase`
+      object.
+
+      If *size* is ``-1`` (the default), an arbitrary number of bytes are
+      returned (more than zero unless EOF is reached).
+
+   .. method:: readinto(b)
+
+      Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable
+      :term:`bytes-like object` *b* and return the number of bytes read.
+      For example, *b* might be a :class:`bytearray`.
+
+      Like :meth:`read`, multiple reads may be issued to the underlying raw
+      stream, unless the latter is interactive.
+
+      A :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the underlying raw stream is in non
+      blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.
+
+   .. method:: readinto1(b)
+
+      Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable
+      :term:`bytes-like object` *b*, using at most one call to
+      the underlying raw stream's :meth:`~RawIOBase.read` (or
+      :meth:`~RawIOBase.readinto`) method. Return the number of bytes read.
+
+      A :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the underlying raw stream is in non
+      blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. method:: write(b)
+
+      Write the given :term:`bytes-like object`, *b*, and return the number
+      of bytes written (always equal to the length of *b* in bytes, since if
+      the write fails an :exc:`OSError` will be raised).  Depending on the
+      actual implementation, these bytes may be readily written to the
+      underlying stream, or held in a buffer for performance and latency
+      reasons.
+
+      When in non-blocking mode, a :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the
+      data needed to be written to the raw stream but it couldn't accept
+      all the data without blocking.
+
+      The caller may release or mutate *b* after this method returns,
+      so the implementation should only access *b* during the method call.
+
+
+Raw File I/O
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: FileIO(name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)
+
+   :class:`FileIO` represents an OS-level file containing bytes data.
+   It implements the :class:`RawIOBase` interface (and therefore the
+   :class:`IOBase` interface, too).
+
+   The *name* can be one of two things:
+
+   * a character string or :class:`bytes` object representing the path to the
+     file which will be opened. In this case closefd must be ``True`` (the default)
+     otherwise an error will be raised.
+   * an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level file descriptor
+     to which the resulting :class:`FileIO` object will give access. When the
+     FileIO object is closed this fd will be closed as well, unless *closefd*
+     is set to ``False``.
+
+   The *mode* can be ``'r'``, ``'w'``, ``'x'`` or ``'a'`` for reading
+   (default), writing, exclusive creation or appending. The file will be
+   created if it doesn't exist when opened for writing or appending; it will be
+   truncated when opened for writing. :exc:`FileExistsError` will be raised if
+   it already exists when opened for creating. Opening a file for creating
+   implies writing, so this mode behaves in a similar way to ``'w'``. Add a
+   ``'+'`` to the mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.
+
+   The :meth:`read` (when called with a positive argument), :meth:`readinto`
+   and :meth:`write` methods on this class will only make one system call.
+
+   A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as *opener*. The underlying
+   file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with
+   (*name*, *flags*). *opener* must return an open file descriptor (passing
+   :mod:`os.open` as *opener* results in functionality similar to passing
+   ``None``).
+
+   The newly created file is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   See the :func:`open` built-in function for examples on using the *opener*
+   parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *opener* parameter was added.
+      The ``'x'`` mode was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The file is now non-inheritable.
+
+   In addition to the attributes and methods from :class:`IOBase` and
+   :class:`RawIOBase`, :class:`FileIO` provides the following data
+   attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: mode
+
+      The mode as given in the constructor.
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The file name.  This is the file descriptor of the file when no name is
+      given in the constructor.
+
+
+Buffered Streams
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Buffered I/O streams provide a higher-level interface to an I/O device
+than raw I/O does.
+
+.. class:: BytesIO([initial_bytes])
+
+   A stream implementation using an in-memory bytes buffer.  It inherits
+   :class:`BufferedIOBase`.  The buffer is discarded when the
+   :meth:`~IOBase.close` method is called.
+
+   The optional argument *initial_bytes* is a :term:`bytes-like object` that
+   contains initial data.
+
+   :class:`BytesIO` provides or overrides these methods in addition to those
+   from :class:`BufferedIOBase` and :class:`IOBase`:
+
+   .. method:: getbuffer()
+
+      Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the buffer
+      without copying them.  Also, mutating the view will transparently
+      update the contents of the buffer::
+
+         >>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
+         >>> view = b.getbuffer()
+         >>> view[2:4] = b"56"
+         >>> b.getvalue()
+         b'ab56ef'
+
+      .. note::
+         As long as the view exists, the :class:`BytesIO` object cannot be
+         resized or closed.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: getvalue()
+
+      Return :class:`bytes` containing the entire contents of the buffer.
+
+
+   .. method:: read1([size])
+
+      In :class:`BytesIO`, this is the same as :meth:`~BufferedIOBase.read`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         The *size* argument is now optional.
+
+   .. method:: readinto1(b)
+
+      In :class:`BytesIO`, this is the same as :meth:`~BufferedIOBase.readinto`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. class:: BufferedReader(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
+
+   A buffer providing higher-level access to a readable, sequential
+   :class:`RawIOBase` object.  It inherits :class:`BufferedIOBase`.
+   When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be
+   requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal buffer.
+   The buffered data can then be returned directly on subsequent reads.
+
+   The constructor creates a :class:`BufferedReader` for the given readable
+   *raw* stream and *buffer_size*.  If *buffer_size* is omitted,
+   :data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE` is used.
+
+   :class:`BufferedReader` provides or overrides these methods in addition to
+   those from :class:`BufferedIOBase` and :class:`IOBase`:
+
+   .. method:: peek([size])
+
+      Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position.  At most one
+      single read on the raw stream is done to satisfy the call. The number of
+      bytes returned may be less or more than requested.
+
+   .. method:: read([size])
+
+      Read and return *size* bytes, or if *size* is not given or negative, until
+      EOF or if the read call would block in non-blocking mode.
+
+   .. method:: read1([size])
+
+      Read and return up to *size* bytes with only one call on the raw stream.
+      If at least one byte is buffered, only buffered bytes are returned.
+      Otherwise, one raw stream read call is made.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         The *size* argument is now optional.
+
+
+.. class:: BufferedWriter(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
+
+   A buffer providing higher-level access to a writeable, sequential
+   :class:`RawIOBase` object.  It inherits :class:`BufferedIOBase`.
+   When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an internal
+   buffer.  The buffer will be written out to the underlying :class:`RawIOBase`
+   object under various conditions, including:
+
+   * when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;
+   * when :meth:`flush()` is called;
+   * when a :meth:`seek()` is requested (for :class:`BufferedRandom` objects);
+   * when the :class:`BufferedWriter` object is closed or destroyed.
+
+   The constructor creates a :class:`BufferedWriter` for the given writeable
+   *raw* stream.  If the *buffer_size* is not given, it defaults to
+   :data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.
+
+   :class:`BufferedWriter` provides or overrides these methods in addition to
+   those from :class:`BufferedIOBase` and :class:`IOBase`:
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream.  A
+      :exc:`BlockingIOError` should be raised if the raw stream blocks.
+
+   .. method:: write(b)
+
+      Write the :term:`bytes-like object`, *b*, and return the
+      number of bytes written.  When in non-blocking mode, a
+      :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the buffer needs to be written out but
+      the raw stream blocks.
+
+
+.. class:: BufferedRandom(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
+
+   A buffered interface to random access streams.  It inherits
+   :class:`BufferedReader` and :class:`BufferedWriter`, and further supports
+   :meth:`seek` and :meth:`tell` functionality.
+
+   The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw stream, given
+   in the first argument.  If the *buffer_size* is omitted it defaults to
+   :data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.
+
+   :class:`BufferedRandom` is capable of anything :class:`BufferedReader` or
+   :class:`BufferedWriter` can do.
+
+
+.. class:: BufferedRWPair(reader, writer, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
+
+   A buffered I/O object combining two unidirectional :class:`RawIOBase`
+   objects -- one readable, the other writeable -- into a single bidirectional
+   endpoint.  It inherits :class:`BufferedIOBase`.
+
+   *reader* and *writer* are :class:`RawIOBase` objects that are readable and
+   writeable respectively.  If the *buffer_size* is omitted it defaults to
+   :data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.
+
+   :class:`BufferedRWPair` implements all of :class:`BufferedIOBase`\'s methods
+   except for :meth:`~BufferedIOBase.detach`, which raises
+   :exc:`UnsupportedOperation`.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      :class:`BufferedRWPair` does not attempt to synchronize accesses to
+      its underlying raw streams.  You should not pass it the same object
+      as reader and writer; use :class:`BufferedRandom` instead.
+
+
+Text I/O
+^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: TextIOBase
+
+   Base class for text streams.  This class provides a character and line based
+   interface to stream I/O.  It inherits :class:`IOBase`.
+   There is no public constructor.
+
+   :class:`TextIOBase` provides or overrides these data attributes and
+   methods in addition to those from :class:`IOBase`:
+
+   .. attribute:: encoding
+
+      The name of the encoding used to decode the stream's bytes into
+      strings, and to encode strings into bytes.
+
+   .. attribute:: errors
+
+      The error setting of the decoder or encoder.
+
+   .. attribute:: newlines
+
+      A string, a tuple of strings, or ``None``, indicating the newlines
+      translated so far.  Depending on the implementation and the initial
+      constructor flags, this may not be available.
+
+   .. attribute:: buffer
+
+      The underlying binary buffer (a :class:`BufferedIOBase` instance) that
+      :class:`TextIOBase` deals with.  This is not part of the
+      :class:`TextIOBase` API and may not exist in some implementations.
+
+   .. method:: detach()
+
+      Separate the underlying binary buffer from the :class:`TextIOBase` and
+      return it.
+
+      After the underlying buffer has been detached, the :class:`TextIOBase` is
+      in an unusable state.
+
+      Some :class:`TextIOBase` implementations, like :class:`StringIO`, may not
+      have the concept of an underlying buffer and calling this method will
+      raise :exc:`UnsupportedOperation`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   .. method:: read(size=-1)
+
+      Read and return at most *size* characters from the stream as a single
+      :class:`str`.  If *size* is negative or ``None``, reads until EOF.
+
+   .. method:: readline(size=-1)
+
+      Read until newline or EOF and return a single ``str``.  If the stream is
+      already at EOF, an empty string is returned.
+
+      If *size* is specified, at most *size* characters will be read.
+
+   .. method:: seek(offset, whence=SEEK_SET)
+
+      Change the stream position to the given *offset*.  Behaviour depends on
+      the *whence* parameter.  The default value for *whence* is
+      :data:`SEEK_SET`.
+
+      * :data:`SEEK_SET` or ``0``: seek from the start of the stream
+        (the default); *offset* must either be a number returned by
+        :meth:`TextIOBase.tell`, or zero.  Any other *offset* value
+        produces undefined behaviour.
+      * :data:`SEEK_CUR` or ``1``: "seek" to the current position;
+        *offset* must be zero, which is a no-operation (all other values
+        are unsupported).
+      * :data:`SEEK_END` or ``2``: seek to the end of the stream;
+        *offset* must be zero (all other values are unsupported).
+
+      Return the new absolute position as an opaque number.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+         The ``SEEK_*`` constants.
+
+   .. method:: tell()
+
+      Return the current stream position as an opaque number.  The number
+      does not usually represent a number of bytes in the underlying
+      binary storage.
+
+   .. method:: write(s)
+
+      Write the string *s* to the stream and return the number of characters
+      written.
+
+
+.. class:: TextIOWrapper(buffer, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, \
+                         line_buffering=False, write_through=False)
+
+   A buffered text stream over a :class:`BufferedIOBase` binary stream.
+   It inherits :class:`TextIOBase`.
+
+   *encoding* gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be decoded or
+   encoded with.  It defaults to
+   :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding(False) <locale.getpreferredencoding>`.
+
+   *errors* is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding
+   errors are to be handled.  Pass ``'strict'`` to raise a :exc:`ValueError`
+   exception if there is an encoding error (the default of ``None`` has the same
+   effect), or pass ``'ignore'`` to ignore errors.  (Note that ignoring encoding
+   errors can lead to data loss.)  ``'replace'`` causes a replacement marker
+   (such as ``'?'``) to be inserted where there is malformed data.
+   ``'backslashreplace'`` causes malformed data to be replaced by a
+   backslashed escape sequence.  When writing, ``'xmlcharrefreplace'``
+   (replace with the appropriate XML character reference)  or ``'namereplace'``
+   (replace with ``\N{...}`` escape sequences) can be used.  Any other error
+   handling name that has been registered with
+   :func:`codecs.register_error` is also valid.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: universal newlines; io.TextIOWrapper class
+
+   *newline* controls how line endings are handled.  It can be ``None``,
+   ``''``, ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, and ``'\r\n'``.  It works as follows:
+
+   * When reading input from the stream, if *newline* is ``None``,
+     :term:`universal newlines` mode is enabled.  Lines in the input can end in
+     ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, or ``'\r\n'``, and these are translated into ``'\n'``
+     before being returned to the caller.  If it is ``''``, universal newlines
+     mode is enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.
+     If it has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated
+     by the given string, and the line ending is returned to the caller
+     untranslated.
+
+   * When writing output to the stream, if *newline* is ``None``, any ``'\n'``
+     characters written are translated to the system default line separator,
+     :data:`os.linesep`.  If *newline* is ``''`` or ``'\n'``, no translation
+     takes place.  If *newline* is any of the other legal values, any ``'\n'``
+     characters written are translated to the given string.
+
+   If *line_buffering* is ``True``, :meth:`flush` is implied when a call to
+   write contains a newline character or a carriage return.
+
+   If *write_through* is ``True``, calls to :meth:`write` are guaranteed
+   not to be buffered: any data written on the :class:`TextIOWrapper`
+   object is immediately handled to its underlying binary *buffer*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *write_through* argument has been added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The default *encoding* is now ``locale.getpreferredencoding(False)``
+      instead of ``locale.getpreferredencoding()``. Don't change temporary the
+      locale encoding using :func:`locale.setlocale`, use the current locale
+      encoding instead of the user preferred encoding.
+
+   :class:`TextIOWrapper` provides these members in addition to those of
+   :class:`TextIOBase` and its parents:
+
+   .. attribute:: line_buffering
+
+      Whether line buffering is enabled.
+
+   .. attribute:: write_through
+
+      Whether writes are passed immediately to the underlying binary
+      buffer.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. method:: reconfigure(*[, encoding][, errors][, newline][, \
+                           line_buffering][, write_through])
+
+      Reconfigure this text stream using new settings for *encoding*,
+      *errors*, *newline*, *line_buffering* and *write_through*.
+
+      Parameters not specified keep current settings, except
+      ``errors='strict'`` is used when *encoding* is specified but
+      *errors* is not specified.
+
+      It is not possible to change the encoding or newline if some data
+      has already been read from the stream. On the other hand, changing
+      encoding after write is possible.
+
+      This method does an implicit stream flush before setting the
+      new parameters.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. class:: StringIO(initial_value='', newline='\\n')
+
+   An in-memory stream for text I/O.  The text buffer is discarded when the
+   :meth:`~IOBase.close` method is called.
+
+   The initial value of the buffer can be set by providing *initial_value*.
+   If newline translation is enabled, newlines will be encoded as if by
+   :meth:`~TextIOBase.write`.  The stream is positioned at the start of
+   the buffer.
+
+   The *newline* argument works like that of :class:`TextIOWrapper`.
+   The default is to consider only ``\n`` characters as ends of lines and
+   to do no newline translation.  If *newline* is set to ``None``,
+   newlines are written as ``\n`` on all platforms, but universal
+   newline decoding is still performed when reading.
+
+   :class:`StringIO` provides this method in addition to those from
+   :class:`TextIOBase` and its parents:
+
+   .. method:: getvalue()
+
+      Return a ``str`` containing the entire contents of the buffer.
+      Newlines are decoded as if by :meth:`~TextIOBase.read`, although
+      the stream position is not changed.
+
+   Example usage::
+
+      import io
+
+      output = io.StringIO()
+      output.write('First line.\n')
+      print('Second line.', file=output)
+
+      # Retrieve file contents -- this will be
+      # 'First line.\nSecond line.\n'
+      contents = output.getvalue()
+
+      # Close object and discard memory buffer --
+      # .getvalue() will now raise an exception.
+      output.close()
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: universal newlines; io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder class
+
+.. class:: IncrementalNewlineDecoder
+
+   A helper codec that decodes newlines for :term:`universal newlines` mode.
+   It inherits :class:`codecs.IncrementalDecoder`.
+
+
+Performance
+-----------
+
+This section discusses the performance of the provided concrete I/O
+implementations.
+
+Binary I/O
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+By reading and writing only large chunks of data even when the user asks for a
+single byte, buffered I/O hides any inefficiency in calling and executing the
+operating system's unbuffered I/O routines.  The gain depends on the OS and the
+kind of I/O which is performed.  For example, on some modern OSes such as Linux,
+unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as buffered I/O.  The bottom line, however,
+is that buffered I/O offers predictable performance regardless of the platform
+and the backing device.  Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use
+buffered I/O rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data.
+
+Text I/O
+^^^^^^^^
+
+Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower than
+binary I/O over the same storage, because it requires conversions between
+unicode and binary data using a character codec.  This can become noticeable
+handling huge amounts of text data like large log files.  Also,
+:meth:`TextIOWrapper.tell` and :meth:`TextIOWrapper.seek` are both quite slow
+due to the reconstruction algorithm used.
+
+:class:`StringIO`, however, is a native in-memory unicode container and will
+exhibit similar speed to :class:`BytesIO`.
+
+Multi-threading
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`FileIO` objects are thread-safe to the extent that the operating system
+calls (such as ``read(2)`` under Unix) they wrap are thread-safe too.
+
+Binary buffered objects (instances of :class:`BufferedReader`,
+:class:`BufferedWriter`, :class:`BufferedRandom` and :class:`BufferedRWPair`)
+protect their internal structures using a lock; it is therefore safe to call
+them from multiple threads at once.
+
+:class:`TextIOWrapper` objects are not thread-safe.
+
+Reentrancy
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Binary buffered objects (instances of :class:`BufferedReader`,
+:class:`BufferedWriter`, :class:`BufferedRandom` and :class:`BufferedRWPair`)
+are not reentrant.  While reentrant calls will not happen in normal situations,
+they can arise from doing I/O in a :mod:`signal` handler.  If a thread tries to
+re-enter a buffered object which it is already accessing, a :exc:`RuntimeError`
+is raised.  Note this doesn't prohibit a different thread from entering the
+buffered object.
+
+The above implicitly extends to text files, since the :func:`open()` function
+will wrap a buffered object inside a :class:`TextIOWrapper`.  This includes
+standard streams and therefore affects the built-in function :func:`print()` as
+well.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ipaddress.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ipaddress.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7b502a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ipaddress.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,920 @@
+:mod:`ipaddress` --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: ipaddress
+   :synopsis: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Peter Moody
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/ipaddress.py`
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`ipaddress` provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and
+operate on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks.
+
+The functions and classes in this module make it straightforward to handle
+various tasks related to IP addresses, including checking whether or not two
+hosts are on the same subnet, iterating over all hosts in a particular
+subnet, checking whether or not a string represents a valid IP address or
+network definition, and so on.
+
+This is the full module API reference—for an overview and introduction, see
+:ref:`ipaddress-howto`.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   import ipaddress
+   from ipaddress import (
+       ip_network, IPv4Address, IPv4Interface, IPv4Network,
+   )
+
+Convenience factory functions
+-----------------------------
+
+The :mod:`ipaddress` module provides factory functions to conveniently create
+IP addresses, networks and interfaces:
+
+.. function:: ip_address(address)
+
+   Return an :class:`IPv4Address` or :class:`IPv6Address` object depending on
+   the IP address passed as argument.  Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be
+   supplied; integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default.
+   A :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *address* does not represent a valid IPv4
+   or IPv6 address.
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1')
+   IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::')
+   IPv6Address('2001:db8::')
+
+
+.. function:: ip_network(address, strict=True)
+
+   Return an :class:`IPv4Network` or :class:`IPv6Network` object depending on
+   the IP address passed as argument.  *address* is a string or integer
+   representing the IP network.  Either IPv4 or IPv6 networks may be supplied;
+   integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default.  *strict*
+   is passed to :class:`IPv4Network` or :class:`IPv6Network` constructor.  A
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *address* does not represent a valid IPv4 or
+   IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set.
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28')
+   IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28')
+
+
+.. function:: ip_interface(address)
+
+   Return an :class:`IPv4Interface` or :class:`IPv6Interface` object depending
+   on the IP address passed as argument.  *address* is a string or integer
+   representing the IP address.  Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be supplied;
+   integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default.  A
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *address* does not represent a valid IPv4 or
+   IPv6 address.
+
+One downside of these convenience functions is that the need to handle both
+IPv4 and IPv6 formats means that error messages provide minimal
+information on the precise error, as the functions don't know whether the
+IPv4 or IPv6 format was intended. More detailed error reporting can be
+obtained by calling the appropriate version specific class constructors
+directly.
+
+
+IP Addresses
+------------
+
+Address objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`IPv4Address` and :class:`IPv6Address` objects share a lot of common
+attributes.  Some attributes that are only meaningful for IPv6 addresses are
+also implemented by :class:`IPv4Address` objects, in order to make it easier to
+write code that handles both IP versions correctly.  Address objects are
+:term:`hashable`, so they can be used as keys in dictionaries.
+
+.. class:: IPv4Address(address)
+
+   Construct an IPv4 address.  An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if
+   *address* is not a valid IPv4 address.
+
+   The following constitutes a valid IPv4 address:
+
+   1. A string in decimal-dot notation, consisting of four decimal integers in
+      the inclusive range 0--255, separated by dots (e.g. ``192.168.0.1``). Each
+      integer represents an octet (byte) in the address. Leading zeroes are
+      tolerated only for values less than 8 (as there is no ambiguity
+      between the decimal and octal interpretations of such strings).
+   2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.
+   3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 4 (most
+      significant octet first).
+
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
+   IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521)
+   IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01')
+   IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
+
+   .. attribute:: version
+
+      The appropriate version number: ``4`` for IPv4, ``6`` for IPv6.
+
+   .. attribute:: max_prefixlen
+
+      The total number of bits in the address representation for this
+      version: ``32`` for IPv4, ``128`` for IPv6.
+
+      The prefix defines the number of leading bits in an  address that
+      are compared to determine whether or not an address is part of a
+      network.
+
+   .. attribute:: compressed
+   .. attribute:: exploded
+
+      The string representation in dotted decimal notation. Leading zeroes
+      are never included in the representation.
+
+      As IPv4 does not define a shorthand notation for addresses with octets
+      set to zero, these two attributes are always the same as ``str(addr)``
+      for IPv4 addresses. Exposing these attributes makes it easier to
+      write display code that can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.
+
+   .. attribute:: packed
+
+      The binary representation of this address - a :class:`bytes` object of
+      the appropriate length (most significant octet first). This is 4 bytes
+      for IPv4 and 16 bytes for IPv6.
+
+   .. attribute:: reverse_pointer
+
+      The name of the reverse DNS PTR record for the IP address, e.g.::
+
+          >>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer
+          '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
+          >>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer
+          '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa'
+
+      This is the name that could be used for performing a PTR lookup, not the
+      resolved hostname itself.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. attribute:: is_multicast
+
+      ``True`` if the address is reserved for multicast use.  See
+      :RFC:`3171` (for IPv4) or :RFC:`2373` (for IPv6).
+
+   .. attribute:: is_private
+
+      ``True`` if the address is allocated for private networks.  See
+      iana-ipv4-special-registry_ (for IPv4) or iana-ipv6-special-registry_
+      (for IPv6).
+
+   .. attribute:: is_global
+
+      ``True`` if the address is allocated for public networks.  See
+      iana-ipv4-special-registry_ (for IPv4) or iana-ipv6-special-registry_
+      (for IPv6).
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. attribute:: is_unspecified
+
+      ``True`` if the address is unspecified.  See :RFC:`5735` (for IPv4)
+      or :RFC:`2373` (for IPv6).
+
+   .. attribute:: is_reserved
+
+      ``True`` if the address is otherwise IETF reserved.
+
+   .. attribute:: is_loopback
+
+      ``True`` if this is a loopback address.  See :RFC:`3330` (for IPv4)
+      or :RFC:`2373` (for IPv6).
+
+   .. attribute:: is_link_local
+
+      ``True`` if the address is reserved for link-local usage.  See
+      :RFC:`3927`.
+
+.. _iana-ipv4-special-registry: https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml
+.. _iana-ipv6-special-registry: https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml
+
+
+.. class:: IPv6Address(address)
+
+   Construct an IPv6 address.  An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if
+   *address* is not a valid IPv6 address.
+
+   The following constitutes a valid IPv6 address:
+
+   1. A string consisting of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each
+      group representing 16 bits.  The groups are separated by colons.
+      This describes an *exploded* (longhand) notation.  The string can
+      also be *compressed* (shorthand notation) by various means.  See
+      :RFC:`4291` for details.  For example,
+      ``"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"`` can be compressed to
+      ``"::abc:7:def"``.
+   2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.
+   3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 16, big-endian.
+
+   >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
+   IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
+
+   .. attribute:: compressed
+
+   The short form of the address representation, with leading zeroes in
+   groups omitted and the longest sequence of groups consisting entirely of
+   zeroes collapsed to a single empty group.
+
+   This is also the value returned by ``str(addr)`` for IPv6 addresses.
+
+   .. attribute:: exploded
+
+   The long form of the address representation, with all leading zeroes and
+   groups consisting entirely of zeroes included.
+
+
+   For the following attributes, see the corresponding documentation of the
+   :class:`IPv4Address` class:
+
+   .. attribute:: packed
+   .. attribute:: reverse_pointer
+   .. attribute:: version
+   .. attribute:: max_prefixlen
+   .. attribute:: is_multicast
+   .. attribute:: is_private
+   .. attribute:: is_global
+   .. attribute:: is_unspecified
+   .. attribute:: is_reserved
+   .. attribute:: is_loopback
+   .. attribute:: is_link_local
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+         is_global
+
+   .. attribute:: is_site_local
+
+      ``True`` if the address is reserved for site-local usage.  Note that
+      the site-local address space has been deprecated by :RFC:`3879`. Use
+      :attr:`~IPv4Address.is_private` to test if this address is in the
+      space of unique local addresses as defined by :RFC:`4193`.
+
+   .. attribute:: ipv4_mapped
+
+      For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses (starting with
+      ``::FFFF/96``), this property will report the embedded IPv4 address.
+      For any other address, this property will be ``None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: sixtofour
+
+      For addresses that appear to be 6to4 addresses  (starting with
+      ``2002::/16``) as defined by :RFC:`3056`, this property will report
+      the embedded IPv4 address.  For any other address, this property will
+      be ``None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: teredo
+
+      For addresses that appear to be Teredo addresses (starting with
+      ``2001::/32``) as defined by :RFC:`4380`, this property will report
+      the embedded ``(server, client)`` IP address pair.  For any other
+      address, this property will be ``None``.
+
+
+Conversion to Strings and Integers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To interoperate with networking interfaces such as the socket module,
+addresses must be converted to strings or integers. This is handled using
+the :func:`str` and :func:`int` builtin functions::
+
+   >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
+   '192.168.0.1'
+   >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
+   3232235521
+   >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
+   '::1'
+   >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
+   1
+
+
+Operators
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+Address objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise, operators can
+only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with
+IPv6).
+
+
+Comparison operators
+""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison operators.  Some
+examples::
+
+   >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
+   True
+   >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
+   False
+   >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
+   True
+
+
+Arithmetic operators
+""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Integers can be added to or subtracted from address objects.  Some examples::
+
+   >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3
+   IPv4Address('127.0.0.5')
+   >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3
+   IPv4Address('126.255.255.255')
+   >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address
+
+
+IP Network definitions
+----------------------
+
+The :class:`IPv4Network` and :class:`IPv6Network` objects provide a mechanism
+for defining and inspecting IP network definitions.  A network definition
+consists of a *mask* and a *network address*, and as such defines a range of
+IP addresses that equal the network address when masked (binary AND) with the
+mask.  For example, a network definition with the mask ``255.255.255.0`` and
+the network address ``192.168.1.0`` consists of IP addresses in the inclusive
+range ``192.168.1.0`` to ``192.168.1.255``.
+
+
+Prefix, net mask and host mask
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks.  A *prefix*
+``/<nbits>`` is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits are set in
+the network mask.  A *net mask* is an IP address with some number of
+high-order bits set.  Thus the prefix ``/24`` is equivalent to the net mask
+``255.255.255.0`` in IPv4, or ``ffff:ff00::`` in IPv6.  In addition, a
+*host mask* is the logical inverse of a *net mask*, and is sometimes used
+(for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a network mask.  The
+host mask equivalent to ``/24`` in IPv4 is ``0.0.0.255``.
+
+
+Network objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network
+objects as well.  In addition, network objects implement additional attributes.
+All of these are common between :class:`IPv4Network` and :class:`IPv6Network`,
+so to avoid duplication they are only documented for :class:`IPv4Network`.
+Network objects are :term:`hashable`, so they can be used as keys in
+dictionaries.
+
+.. class:: IPv4Network(address, strict=True)
+
+   Construct an IPv4 network definition.  *address* can be one of the following:
+
+   1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask, separated by
+      a slash (``/``).  The IP address is the network address, and the mask
+      can be either a single number, which means it's a *prefix*, or a string
+      representation of an IPv4 address.  If it's the latter, the mask is
+      interpreted as a *net mask* if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a
+      *host mask* if it starts with a zero field, with the single exception of
+      an all-zero mask which is treated as a *net mask*.  If no mask is provided,
+      it's considered to be ``/32``.
+
+      For example, the following *address* specifications are equivalent:
+      ``192.168.1.0/24``, ``192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0`` and
+      ``192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255``.
+
+   2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.  This is equivalent to a
+      single-address network, with the network address being *address* and
+      the mask being ``/32``.
+
+   3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 4, big-endian.
+      The interpretation is similar to an integer *address*.
+
+   4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address
+      description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a 4-bytes packed
+      integer, or an existing IPv4Address object; and the netmask is either
+      an integer representing the prefix length (e.g. ``24``) or a string
+      representing the prefix mask (e.g. ``255.255.255.0``).
+
+   An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if *address* is not a valid IPv4
+   address.  A :exc:`NetmaskValueError` is raised if the mask is not valid for
+   an IPv4 address.
+
+   If *strict* is ``True`` and host bits are set in the supplied address,
+   then :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  Otherwise, the host bits are masked out
+   to determine the appropriate network address.
+
+   Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other network/address
+   objects will raise :exc:`TypeError` if the argument's IP version is
+   incompatible to ``self``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+      Added the two-tuple form for the *address* constructor parameter.
+
+   .. attribute:: version
+   .. attribute:: max_prefixlen
+
+      Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in
+      :class:`IPv4Address`.
+
+   .. attribute:: is_multicast
+   .. attribute:: is_private
+   .. attribute:: is_unspecified
+   .. attribute:: is_reserved
+   .. attribute:: is_loopback
+   .. attribute:: is_link_local
+
+      These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they are true
+      for both the network address and the broadcast address.
+
+   .. attribute:: network_address
+
+      The network address for the network. The network address and the
+      prefix length together uniquely define a network.
+
+   .. attribute:: broadcast_address
+
+      The broadcast address for the network. Packets sent to the broadcast
+      address should be received by every host on the network.
+
+   .. attribute:: hostmask
+
+      The host mask, as an :class:`IPv4Address` object.
+
+   .. attribute:: netmask
+
+      The net mask, as an :class:`IPv4Address` object.
+
+   .. attribute:: with_prefixlen
+   .. attribute:: compressed
+   .. attribute:: exploded
+
+      A string representation of the network, with the mask in prefix
+      notation.
+
+      ``with_prefixlen`` and ``compressed`` are always the same as
+      ``str(network)``.
+      ``exploded`` uses the exploded form the network address.
+
+   .. attribute:: with_netmask
+
+      A string representation of the network, with the mask in net mask
+      notation.
+
+   .. attribute:: with_hostmask
+
+      A string representation of the network, with the mask in host mask
+      notation.
+
+   .. attribute:: num_addresses
+
+      The total number of addresses in the network.
+
+   .. attribute:: prefixlen
+
+      Length of the network prefix, in bits.
+
+   .. method:: hosts()
+
+      Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The usable
+      hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the
+      network address itself and the network broadcast address.  For networks
+      with a mask length of 31, the network address and network broadcast
+      address are also included in the result.
+
+         >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts())  #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+         [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'),
+          IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'),
+          IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')]
+         >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts())
+         [IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]
+
+   .. method:: overlaps(other)
+
+      ``True`` if this network is partly or wholly contained in *other* or
+      *other* is wholly contained in this network.
+
+   .. method:: address_exclude(network)
+
+      Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the given
+      *network* from this one.  Returns an iterator of network objects.
+      Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *network* is not completely contained in
+      this network.
+
+         >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28')
+         >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')
+         >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2))  #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+         [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'),
+          IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')]
+
+   .. method:: subnets(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)
+
+      The subnets that join to make the current network definition, depending
+      on the argument values.  *prefixlen_diff* is the amount our prefix
+      length should be increased by.  *new_prefix* is the desired new
+      prefix of the subnets; it must be larger than our prefix.  One and
+      only one of *prefixlen_diff* and *new_prefix* must be set.  Returns an
+      iterator of network objects.
+
+         >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets())
+         [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
+         >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2))  #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+         [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
+          IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
+         >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26))  #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+         [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
+          IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
+         >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23))
+         Traceback (most recent call last):
+           File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+             raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer')
+         ValueError: new prefix must be longer
+         >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25))
+         [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
+
+   .. method:: supernet(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)
+
+      The supernet containing this network definition, depending on the
+      argument values.  *prefixlen_diff* is the amount our prefix length
+      should be decreased by.  *new_prefix* is the desired new prefix of
+      the supernet; it must be smaller than our prefix.  One and only one
+      of *prefixlen_diff* and *new_prefix* must be set.  Returns a single
+      network object.
+
+         >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet()
+         IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23')
+         >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2)
+         IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22')
+         >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20)
+         IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20')
+
+   .. method:: subnet_of(other)
+
+      Returns *True* if this network is a subnet of *other*.
+
+        >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
+        >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
+        >>> b.subnet_of(a)
+        True
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. method:: supernet_of(other)
+
+      Returns *True* if this network is a supernet of *other*.
+
+        >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
+        >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
+        >>> a.supernet_of(b)
+        True
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. method:: compare_networks(other)
+
+      Compare this network to *other*.  In this comparison only the network
+      addresses are considered; host bits aren't.  Returns either ``-1``,
+      ``0`` or ``1``.
+
+         >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32'))
+         -1
+         >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32'))
+         1
+         >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32'))
+         0
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.7
+         It uses the same ordering and comparison algorithm as "<", "==", and ">"
+
+
+.. class:: IPv6Network(address, strict=True)
+
+   Construct an IPv6 network definition.  *address* can be one of the following:
+
+   1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix length,
+      separated by a slash (``/``).  The IP address is the network address,
+      and the prefix length must be a single number, the *prefix*.  If no
+      prefix length is provided, it's considered to be ``/128``.
+
+      Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported.  That means
+      ``2001:db00::0/24`` is a valid argument while ``2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::``
+      not.
+
+   2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.  This is equivalent to a
+      single-address network, with the network address being *address* and
+      the mask being ``/128``.
+
+   3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 16, big-endian.
+      The interpretation is similar to an integer *address*.
+
+   4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address
+      description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a 16-bytes packed
+      integer, or an existing IPv6Address object; and the netmask is an
+      integer representing the prefix length.
+
+   An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if *address* is not a valid IPv6
+   address.  A :exc:`NetmaskValueError` is raised if the mask is not valid for
+   an IPv6 address.
+
+   If *strict* is ``True`` and host bits are set in the supplied address,
+   then :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  Otherwise, the host bits are masked out
+   to determine the appropriate network address.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+      Added the two-tuple form for the *address* constructor parameter.
+
+   .. attribute:: version
+   .. attribute:: max_prefixlen
+   .. attribute:: is_multicast
+   .. attribute:: is_private
+   .. attribute:: is_unspecified
+   .. attribute:: is_reserved
+   .. attribute:: is_loopback
+   .. attribute:: is_link_local
+   .. attribute:: network_address
+   .. attribute:: broadcast_address
+   .. attribute:: hostmask
+   .. attribute:: netmask
+   .. attribute:: with_prefixlen
+   .. attribute:: compressed
+   .. attribute:: exploded
+   .. attribute:: with_netmask
+   .. attribute:: with_hostmask
+   .. attribute:: num_addresses
+   .. attribute:: prefixlen
+   .. method:: hosts()
+
+      Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The usable
+      hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the
+      Subnet-Router anycast address.  For networks with a mask length of 127,
+      the Subnet-Router anycast address is also included in the result.
+
+   .. method:: overlaps(other)
+   .. method:: address_exclude(network)
+   .. method:: subnets(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)
+   .. method:: supernet(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)
+   .. method:: subnet_of(other)
+   .. method:: supernet_of(other)
+   .. method:: compare_networks(other)
+
+      Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in
+      :class:`IPv4Network`.
+
+   .. attribute:: is_site_local
+
+      These attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is true
+      for both the network address and the broadcast address.
+
+
+Operators
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+Network objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise, operators can
+only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with
+IPv6).
+
+
+Logical operators
+"""""""""""""""""
+
+Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.
+Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.
+
+
+Iteration
+"""""""""
+
+Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to the
+network.  For iteration, *all* hosts are returned, including unusable hosts
+(for usable hosts, use the :meth:`~IPv4Network.hosts` method).  An
+example::
+
+   >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'):
+   ...     addr
+   ...
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.2')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.3')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.4')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.7')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.8')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.9')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.10')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.11')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.12')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.13')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.14')
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
+
+
+Networks as containers of addresses
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Network objects can act as containers of addresses.  Some examples::
+
+   >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0]
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
+   >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15]
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
+   >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
+   True
+   >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
+   False
+
+
+Interface objects
+-----------------
+
+Interface objects are :term:`hashable`, so they can be used as keys in
+dictionaries.
+
+.. class:: IPv4Interface(address)
+
+   Construct an IPv4 interface.  The meaning of *address* is as in the
+   constructor of :class:`IPv4Network`, except that arbitrary host addresses
+   are always accepted.
+
+   :class:`IPv4Interface` is a subclass of :class:`IPv4Address`, so it inherits
+   all the attributes from that class.  In addition, the following attributes
+   are available:
+
+   .. attribute:: ip
+
+      The address (:class:`IPv4Address`) without network information.
+
+         >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
+         >>> interface.ip
+         IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
+
+   .. attribute:: network
+
+      The network (:class:`IPv4Network`) this interface belongs to.
+
+         >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
+         >>> interface.network
+         IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
+
+   .. attribute:: with_prefixlen
+
+      A string representation of the interface with the mask in prefix notation.
+
+         >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
+         >>> interface.with_prefixlen
+         '192.0.2.5/24'
+
+   .. attribute:: with_netmask
+
+      A string representation of the interface with the network as a net mask.
+
+         >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
+         >>> interface.with_netmask
+         '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0'
+
+   .. attribute:: with_hostmask
+
+      A string representation of the interface with the network as a host mask.
+
+         >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
+         >>> interface.with_hostmask
+         '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255'
+
+
+.. class:: IPv6Interface(address)
+
+   Construct an IPv6 interface.  The meaning of *address* is as in the
+   constructor of :class:`IPv6Network`, except that arbitrary host addresses
+   are always accepted.
+
+   :class:`IPv6Interface` is a subclass of :class:`IPv6Address`, so it inherits
+   all the attributes from that class.  In addition, the following attributes
+   are available:
+
+   .. attribute:: ip
+   .. attribute:: network
+   .. attribute:: with_prefixlen
+   .. attribute:: with_netmask
+   .. attribute:: with_hostmask
+
+      Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in
+      :class:`IPv4Interface`.
+
+
+Operators
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+Interface objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise, operators
+can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with
+IPv6).
+
+
+Logical operators
+"""""""""""""""""
+
+Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.
+
+For equality comparison (``==`` and ``!=``), both the IP address and network
+must be the same for the objects to be equal.  An interface will not compare
+equal to any address or network object.
+
+For ordering (``<``, ``>``, etc) the rules are different.  Interface and
+address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the address
+objects will always sort before the interface objects.  Two interface objects
+are first compared by their networks and, if those are the same, then by their
+IP addresses.
+
+
+Other Module Level Functions
+----------------------------
+
+The module also provides the following module level functions:
+
+.. function:: v4_int_to_packed(address)
+
+   Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order.
+   *address* is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP address.  A
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an
+   IPv4 IP address.
+
+   >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
+   IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
+   >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985)
+   b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01'
+
+
+.. function:: v6_int_to_packed(address)
+
+   Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order.
+   *address* is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP address.  A
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an
+   IPv6 IP address.
+
+
+.. function:: summarize_address_range(first, last)
+
+   Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first and last
+   IP addresses.  *first* is the first :class:`IPv4Address` or
+   :class:`IPv6Address` in the range and *last* is the last :class:`IPv4Address`
+   or :class:`IPv6Address` in the range.  A :exc:`TypeError` is raised if
+   *first* or *last* are not IP addresses or are not of the same version.  A
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *last* is not greater than *first* or if
+   *first* address version is not 4 or 6.
+
+   >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range(
+   ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'),
+   ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))]
+   [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')]
+
+
+.. function:: collapse_addresses(addresses)
+
+   Return an iterator of the collapsed :class:`IPv4Network` or
+   :class:`IPv6Network` objects.  *addresses* is an iterator of
+   :class:`IPv4Network` or :class:`IPv6Network` objects.  A :exc:`TypeError` is
+   raised if *addresses* contains mixed version objects.
+
+   >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in
+   ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'),
+   ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])]
+   [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')]
+
+
+.. function:: get_mixed_type_key(obj)
+
+   Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses.  Address
+   and Network objects are not sortable by default; they're fundamentally
+   different, so the expression::
+
+     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
+
+   doesn't make sense.  There are some times however, where you may wish to
+   have :mod:`ipaddress` sort these anyway.  If you need to do this, you can use
+   this function as the *key* argument to :func:`sorted()`.
+
+   *obj* is either a network or address object.
+
+
+Custom Exceptions
+-----------------
+
+To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the
+module defines the following exceptions:
+
+.. exception:: AddressValueError(ValueError)
+
+   Any value error related to the address.
+
+
+.. exception:: NetmaskValueError(ValueError)
+
+   Any value error related to the net mask.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ipc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ipc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b88a174
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ipc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+.. _ipc:
+
+*****************************************
+Networking and Interprocess Communication
+*****************************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide mechanisms for
+networking and inter-processes communication.
+
+Some modules only work for two processes that are on the same machine, e.g.
+:mod:`signal` and :mod:`mmap`.  Other modules support networking protocols
+that two or more processes can use to communicate across machines.
+
+The list of modules described in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 1
+
+   asyncio.rst
+   socket.rst
+   ssl.rst
+   select.rst
+   selectors.rst
+   asyncore.rst
+   asynchat.rst
+   signal.rst
+   mmap.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/itertools.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/itertools.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..959424f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/itertools.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,904 @@
+:mod:`itertools` --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
+=======================================================================
+
+.. module:: itertools
+   :synopsis: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   from itertools import *
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements a number of :term:`iterator` building blocks inspired
+by constructs from APL, Haskell, and SML.  Each has been recast in a form
+suitable for Python.
+
+The module standardizes a core set of fast, memory efficient tools that are
+useful by themselves or in combination.  Together, they form an "iterator
+algebra" making it possible to construct specialized tools succinctly and
+efficiently in pure Python.
+
+For instance, SML provides a tabulation tool: ``tabulate(f)`` which produces a
+sequence ``f(0), f(1), ...``.  The same effect can be achieved in Python
+by combining :func:`map` and :func:`count` to form ``map(f, count())``.
+
+These tools and their built-in counterparts also work well with the high-speed
+functions in the :mod:`operator` module.  For example, the multiplication
+operator can be mapped across two vectors to form an efficient dot-product:
+``sum(map(operator.mul, vector1, vector2))``.
+
+
+**Infinite iterators:**
+
+==================  =================       =================================================               =========================================
+Iterator            Arguments               Results                                                         Example
+==================  =================       =================================================               =========================================
+:func:`count`       start, [step]           start, start+step, start+2*step, ...                            ``count(10) --> 10 11 12 13 14 ...``
+:func:`cycle`       p                       p0, p1, ... plast, p0, p1, ...                                  ``cycle('ABCD') --> A B C D A B C D ...``
+:func:`repeat`      elem [,n]               elem, elem, elem, ... endlessly or up to n times                ``repeat(10, 3) --> 10 10 10``
+==================  =================       =================================================               =========================================
+
+**Iterators terminating on the shortest input sequence:**
+
+============================    ============================    =================================================   =============================================================
+Iterator                        Arguments                       Results                                             Example
+============================    ============================    =================================================   =============================================================
+:func:`accumulate`              p [,func]                       p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, ...                            ``accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) --> 1 3 6 10 15``
+:func:`chain`                   p, q, ...                       p0, p1, ... plast, q0, q1, ...                      ``chain('ABC', 'DEF') --> A B C D E F``
+:func:`chain.from_iterable`     iterable                        p0, p1, ... plast, q0, q1, ...                      ``chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) --> A B C D E F``
+:func:`compress`                data, selectors                 (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), ...                 ``compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) --> A C E F``
+:func:`dropwhile`               pred, seq                       seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when pred fails          ``dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) --> 6 4 1``
+:func:`filterfalse`             pred, seq                       elements of seq where pred(elem) is false           ``filterfalse(lambda x: x%2, range(10)) --> 0 2 4 6 8``
+:func:`groupby`                 iterable[, key]                 sub-iterators grouped by value of key(v)
+:func:`islice`                  seq, [start,] stop [, step]     elements from seq[start:stop:step]                  ``islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) --> C D E F G``
+:func:`starmap`                 func, seq                       func(\*seq[0]), func(\*seq[1]), ...                 ``starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) --> 32 9 1000``
+:func:`takewhile`               pred, seq                       seq[0], seq[1], until pred fails                    ``takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) --> 1 4``
+:func:`tee`                     it, n                           it1, it2, ... itn  splits one iterator into n
+:func:`zip_longest`             p, q, ...                       (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), ...                     ``zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') --> Ax By C- D-``
+============================    ============================    =================================================   =============================================================
+
+**Combinatoric iterators:**
+
+==============================================   ====================       =============================================================
+Iterator                                         Arguments                  Results
+==============================================   ====================       =============================================================
+:func:`product`                                  p, q, ... [repeat=1]       cartesian product, equivalent to a nested for-loop
+:func:`permutations`                             p[, r]                     r-length tuples, all possible orderings, no repeated elements
+:func:`combinations`                             p, r                       r-length tuples, in sorted order, no repeated elements
+:func:`combinations_with_replacement`            p, r                       r-length tuples, in sorted order, with repeated elements
+``product('ABCD', repeat=2)``                                               ``AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD``
+``permutations('ABCD', 2)``                                                 ``AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC``
+``combinations('ABCD', 2)``                                                 ``AB AC AD BC BD CD``
+``combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)``                                ``AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD``
+==============================================   ====================       =============================================================
+
+
+.. _itertools-functions:
+
+Itertool functions
+------------------
+
+The following module functions all construct and return iterators. Some provide
+streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by functions or
+loops that truncate the stream.
+
+.. function:: accumulate(iterable[, func])
+
+    Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums, or accumulated
+    results of other binary functions (specified via the optional
+    *func* argument).  If *func* is supplied, it should be a function
+    of two arguments. Elements of the input *iterable* may be any type
+    that can be accepted as arguments to *func*. (For example, with
+    the default operation of addition, elements may be any addable
+    type including :class:`~decimal.Decimal` or
+    :class:`~fractions.Fraction`.) If the input iterable is empty, the
+    output iterable will also be empty.
+
+    Roughly equivalent to::
+
+        def accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add):
+            'Return running totals'
+            # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) --> 1 3 6 10 15
+            # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) --> 1 2 6 24 120
+            it = iter(iterable)
+            try:
+                total = next(it)
+            except StopIteration:
+                return
+            yield total
+            for element in it:
+                total = func(total, element)
+                yield total
+
+    There are a number of uses for the *func* argument.  It can be set to
+    :func:`min` for a running minimum, :func:`max` for a running maximum, or
+    :func:`operator.mul` for a running product.  Amortization tables can be
+    built by accumulating interest and applying payments.  First-order
+    `recurrence relations <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation>`_
+    can be modeled by supplying the initial value in the iterable and using only
+    the accumulated total in *func* argument::
+
+      >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
+      >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
+      [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]
+      >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
+      [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
+
+      # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 4 annual payments of 90
+      >>> cashflows = [1000, -90, -90, -90, -90]
+      >>> list(accumulate(cashflows, lambda bal, pmt: bal*1.05 + pmt))
+      [1000, 960.0, 918.0, 873.9000000000001, 827.5950000000001]
+
+      # Chaotic recurrence relation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_map
+      >>> logistic_map = lambda x, _:  r * x * (1 - x)
+      >>> r = 3.8
+      >>> x0 = 0.4
+      >>> inputs = repeat(x0, 36)     # only the initial value is used
+      >>> [format(x, '.2f') for x in accumulate(inputs, logistic_map)]
+      ['0.40', '0.91', '0.30', '0.81', '0.60', '0.92', '0.29', '0.79', '0.63',
+       '0.88', '0.39', '0.90', '0.33', '0.84', '0.52', '0.95', '0.18', '0.57',
+       '0.93', '0.25', '0.71', '0.79', '0.63', '0.88', '0.39', '0.91', '0.32',
+       '0.83', '0.54', '0.95', '0.20', '0.60', '0.91', '0.30', '0.80', '0.60']
+
+    See :func:`functools.reduce` for a similar function that returns only the
+    final accumulated value.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+       Added the optional *func* parameter.
+
+.. function:: chain(*iterables)
+
+   Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable until it is
+   exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until all of the iterables are
+   exhausted.  Used for treating consecutive sequences as a single sequence.
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def chain(*iterables):
+          # chain('ABC', 'DEF') --> A B C D E F
+          for it in iterables:
+              for element in it:
+                  yield element
+
+
+.. classmethod:: chain.from_iterable(iterable)
+
+   Alternate constructor for :func:`chain`.  Gets chained inputs from a
+   single iterable argument that is evaluated lazily.  Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def from_iterable(iterables):
+          # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) --> A B C D E F
+          for it in iterables:
+              for element in it:
+                  yield element
+
+
+.. function:: combinations(iterable, r)
+
+   Return *r* length subsequences of elements from the input *iterable*.
+
+   Combinations are emitted in lexicographic sort order.  So, if the
+   input *iterable* is sorted, the combination tuples will be produced
+   in sorted order.
+
+   Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
+   value.  So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeat
+   values in each combination.
+
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+        def combinations(iterable, r):
+            # combinations('ABCD', 2) --> AB AC AD BC BD CD
+            # combinations(range(4), 3) --> 012 013 023 123
+            pool = tuple(iterable)
+            n = len(pool)
+            if r > n:
+                return
+            indices = list(range(r))
+            yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+            while True:
+                for i in reversed(range(r)):
+                    if indices[i] != i + n - r:
+                        break
+                else:
+                    return
+                indices[i] += 1
+                for j in range(i+1, r):
+                    indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
+                yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+
+   The code for :func:`combinations` can be also expressed as a subsequence
+   of :func:`permutations` after filtering entries where the elements are not
+   in sorted order (according to their position in the input pool)::
+
+        def combinations(iterable, r):
+            pool = tuple(iterable)
+            n = len(pool)
+            for indices in permutations(range(n), r):
+                if sorted(indices) == list(indices):
+                    yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+
+   The number of items returned is ``n! / r! / (n-r)!`` when ``0 <= r <= n``
+   or zero when ``r > n``.
+
+.. function:: combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)
+
+   Return *r* length subsequences of elements from the input *iterable*
+   allowing individual elements to be repeated more than once.
+
+   Combinations are emitted in lexicographic sort order.  So, if the
+   input *iterable* is sorted, the combination tuples will be produced
+   in sorted order.
+
+   Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
+   value.  So if the input elements are unique, the generated combinations
+   will also be unique.
+
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+        def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
+            # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) --> AA AB AC BB BC CC
+            pool = tuple(iterable)
+            n = len(pool)
+            if not n and r:
+                return
+            indices = [0] * r
+            yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+            while True:
+                for i in reversed(range(r)):
+                    if indices[i] != n - 1:
+                        break
+                else:
+                    return
+                indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
+                yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+
+   The code for :func:`combinations_with_replacement` can be also expressed as
+   a subsequence of :func:`product` after filtering entries where the elements
+   are not in sorted order (according to their position in the input pool)::
+
+        def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
+            pool = tuple(iterable)
+            n = len(pool)
+            for indices in product(range(n), repeat=r):
+                if sorted(indices) == list(indices):
+                    yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+
+   The number of items returned is ``(n+r-1)! / r! / (n-1)!`` when ``n > 0``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: compress(data, selectors)
+
+   Make an iterator that filters elements from *data* returning only those that
+   have a corresponding element in *selectors* that evaluates to ``True``.
+   Stops when either the *data* or *selectors* iterables has been exhausted.
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+       def compress(data, selectors):
+           # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) --> A C E F
+           return (d for d, s in zip(data, selectors) if s)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: count(start=0, step=1)
+
+   Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values starting with number *start*. Often
+   used as an argument to :func:`map` to generate consecutive data points.
+   Also, used with :func:`zip` to add sequence numbers.  Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def count(start=0, step=1):
+          # count(10) --> 10 11 12 13 14 ...
+          # count(2.5, 0.5) -> 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
+          n = start
+          while True:
+              yield n
+              n += step
+
+   When counting with floating point numbers, better accuracy can sometimes be
+   achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as: ``(start + step * i
+   for i in count())``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added *step* argument and allowed non-integer arguments.
+
+.. function:: cycle(iterable)
+
+   Make an iterator returning elements from the iterable and saving a copy of each.
+   When the iterable is exhausted, return elements from the saved copy.  Repeats
+   indefinitely.  Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def cycle(iterable):
+          # cycle('ABCD') --> A B C D A B C D A B C D ...
+          saved = []
+          for element in iterable:
+              yield element
+              saved.append(element)
+          while saved:
+              for element in saved:
+                    yield element
+
+   Note, this member of the toolkit may require significant auxiliary storage
+   (depending on the length of the iterable).
+
+
+.. function:: dropwhile(predicate, iterable)
+
+   Make an iterator that drops elements from the iterable as long as the predicate
+   is true; afterwards, returns every element.  Note, the iterator does not produce
+   *any* output until the predicate first becomes false, so it may have a lengthy
+   start-up time.  Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
+          # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) --> 6 4 1
+          iterable = iter(iterable)
+          for x in iterable:
+              if not predicate(x):
+                  yield x
+                  break
+          for x in iterable:
+              yield x
+
+.. function:: filterfalse(predicate, iterable)
+
+   Make an iterator that filters elements from iterable returning only those for
+   which the predicate is ``False``. If *predicate* is ``None``, return the items
+   that are false. Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
+          # filterfalse(lambda x: x%2, range(10)) --> 0 2 4 6 8
+          if predicate is None:
+              predicate = bool
+          for x in iterable:
+              if not predicate(x):
+                  yield x
+
+
+.. function:: groupby(iterable, key=None)
+
+   Make an iterator that returns consecutive keys and groups from the *iterable*.
+   The *key* is a function computing a key value for each element.  If not
+   specified or is ``None``, *key* defaults to an identity function and returns
+   the element unchanged.  Generally, the iterable needs to already be sorted on
+   the same key function.
+
+   The operation of :func:`groupby` is similar to the ``uniq`` filter in Unix.  It
+   generates a break or new group every time the value of the key function changes
+   (which is why it is usually necessary to have sorted the data using the same key
+   function).  That behavior differs from SQL's GROUP BY which aggregates common
+   elements regardless of their input order.
+
+   The returned group is itself an iterator that shares the underlying iterable
+   with :func:`groupby`.  Because the source is shared, when the :func:`groupby`
+   object is advanced, the previous group is no longer visible.  So, if that data
+   is needed later, it should be stored as a list::
+
+      groups = []
+      uniquekeys = []
+      data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
+      for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
+          groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
+          uniquekeys.append(k)
+
+   :func:`groupby` is roughly equivalent to::
+
+      class groupby:
+          # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] --> A B C D A B
+          # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] --> AAAA BBB CC D
+          def __init__(self, iterable, key=None):
+              if key is None:
+                  key = lambda x: x
+              self.keyfunc = key
+              self.it = iter(iterable)
+              self.tgtkey = self.currkey = self.currvalue = object()
+          def __iter__(self):
+              return self
+          def __next__(self):
+              self.id = object()
+              while self.currkey == self.tgtkey:
+                  self.currvalue = next(self.it)    # Exit on StopIteration
+                  self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue)
+              self.tgtkey = self.currkey
+              return (self.currkey, self._grouper(self.tgtkey, self.id))
+          def _grouper(self, tgtkey, id):
+              while self.id is id and self.currkey == tgtkey:
+                  yield self.currvalue
+                  try:
+                      self.currvalue = next(self.it)
+                  except StopIteration:
+                      return
+                  self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue)
+
+
+.. function:: islice(iterable, stop)
+              islice(iterable, start, stop[, step])
+
+   Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable. If *start* is
+   non-zero, then elements from the iterable are skipped until start is reached.
+   Afterward, elements are returned consecutively unless *step* is set higher than
+   one which results in items being skipped.  If *stop* is ``None``, then iteration
+   continues until the iterator is exhausted, if at all; otherwise, it stops at the
+   specified position.  Unlike regular slicing, :func:`islice` does not support
+   negative values for *start*, *stop*, or *step*.  Can be used to extract related
+   fields from data where the internal structure has been flattened (for example, a
+   multi-line report may list a name field on every third line).  Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def islice(iterable, *args):
+          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) --> A B
+          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) --> C D
+          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) --> C D E F G
+          # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) --> A C E G
+          s = slice(*args)
+          start, stop, step = s.start or 0, s.stop or sys.maxsize, s.step or 1
+          it = iter(range(start, stop, step))
+          try:
+              nexti = next(it)
+          except StopIteration:
+              # Consume *iterable* up to the *start* position.
+              for i, element in zip(range(start), iterable):
+                  pass
+              return
+          try:
+              for i, element in enumerate(iterable):
+                  if i == nexti:
+                      yield element
+                      nexti = next(it)
+          except StopIteration:
+              # Consume to *stop*.
+              for i, element in zip(range(i + 1, stop), iterable):
+                  pass
+
+   If *start* is ``None``, then iteration starts at zero. If *step* is ``None``,
+   then the step defaults to one.
+
+
+.. function:: permutations(iterable, r=None)
+
+   Return successive *r* length permutations of elements in the *iterable*.
+
+   If *r* is not specified or is ``None``, then *r* defaults to the length
+   of the *iterable* and all possible full-length permutations
+   are generated.
+
+   Permutations are emitted in lexicographic sort order.  So, if the
+   input *iterable* is sorted, the permutation tuples will be produced
+   in sorted order.
+
+   Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
+   value.  So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeat
+   values in each permutation.
+
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+        def permutations(iterable, r=None):
+            # permutations('ABCD', 2) --> AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
+            # permutations(range(3)) --> 012 021 102 120 201 210
+            pool = tuple(iterable)
+            n = len(pool)
+            r = n if r is None else r
+            if r > n:
+                return
+            indices = list(range(n))
+            cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
+            yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
+            while n:
+                for i in reversed(range(r)):
+                    cycles[i] -= 1
+                    if cycles[i] == 0:
+                        indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
+                        cycles[i] = n - i
+                    else:
+                        j = cycles[i]
+                        indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
+                        yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
+                        break
+                else:
+                    return
+
+   The code for :func:`permutations` can be also expressed as a subsequence of
+   :func:`product`, filtered to exclude entries with repeated elements (those
+   from the same position in the input pool)::
+
+        def permutations(iterable, r=None):
+            pool = tuple(iterable)
+            n = len(pool)
+            r = n if r is None else r
+            for indices in product(range(n), repeat=r):
+                if len(set(indices)) == r:
+                    yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+
+   The number of items returned is ``n! / (n-r)!`` when ``0 <= r <= n``
+   or zero when ``r > n``.
+
+.. function:: product(*iterables, repeat=1)
+
+   Cartesian product of input iterables.
+
+   Roughly equivalent to nested for-loops in a generator expression. For example,
+   ``product(A, B)`` returns the same as ``((x,y) for x in A for y in B)``.
+
+   The nested loops cycle like an odometer with the rightmost element advancing
+   on every iteration.  This pattern creates a lexicographic ordering so that if
+   the input's iterables are sorted, the product tuples are emitted in sorted
+   order.
+
+   To compute the product of an iterable with itself, specify the number of
+   repetitions with the optional *repeat* keyword argument.  For example,
+   ``product(A, repeat=4)`` means the same as ``product(A, A, A, A)``.
+
+   This function is roughly equivalent to the following code, except that the
+   actual implementation does not build up intermediate results in memory::
+
+       def product(*args, repeat=1):
+           # product('ABCD', 'xy') --> Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
+           # product(range(2), repeat=3) --> 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
+           pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
+           result = [[]]
+           for pool in pools:
+               result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]
+           for prod in result:
+               yield tuple(prod)
+
+
+.. function:: repeat(object[, times])
+
+   Make an iterator that returns *object* over and over again. Runs indefinitely
+   unless the *times* argument is specified. Used as argument to :func:`map` for
+   invariant parameters to the called function.  Also used with :func:`zip` to
+   create an invariant part of a tuple record.
+
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def repeat(object, times=None):
+          # repeat(10, 3) --> 10 10 10
+          if times is None:
+              while True:
+                  yield object
+          else:
+              for i in range(times):
+                  yield object
+
+   A common use for *repeat* is to supply a stream of constant values to *map*
+   or *zip*::
+
+      >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
+      [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
+
+.. function:: starmap(function, iterable)
+
+   Make an iterator that computes the function using arguments obtained from
+   the iterable.  Used instead of :func:`map` when argument parameters are already
+   grouped in tuples from a single iterable (the data has been "pre-zipped").  The
+   difference between :func:`map` and :func:`starmap` parallels the distinction
+   between ``function(a,b)`` and ``function(*c)``. Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def starmap(function, iterable):
+          # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) --> 32 9 1000
+          for args in iterable:
+              yield function(*args)
+
+
+.. function:: takewhile(predicate, iterable)
+
+   Make an iterator that returns elements from the iterable as long as the
+   predicate is true.  Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
+          # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) --> 1 4
+          for x in iterable:
+              if predicate(x):
+                  yield x
+              else:
+                  break
+
+
+.. function:: tee(iterable, n=2)
+
+   Return *n* independent iterators from a single iterable.
+
+   The following Python code helps explain what *tee* does (although the actual
+   implementation is more complex and uses only a single underlying
+   :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` queue).
+
+   Roughly equivalent to::
+
+        def tee(iterable, n=2):
+            it = iter(iterable)
+            deques = [collections.deque() for i in range(n)]
+            def gen(mydeque):
+                while True:
+                    if not mydeque:             # when the local deque is empty
+                        try:
+                            newval = next(it)   # fetch a new value and
+                        except StopIteration:
+                            return
+                        for d in deques:        # load it to all the deques
+                            d.append(newval)
+                    yield mydeque.popleft()
+            return tuple(gen(d) for d in deques)
+
+   Once :func:`tee` has made a split, the original *iterable* should not be
+   used anywhere else; otherwise, the *iterable* could get advanced without
+   the tee objects being informed.
+
+   This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending on how
+   much temporary data needs to be stored). In general, if one iterator uses
+   most or all of the data before another iterator starts, it is faster to use
+   :func:`list` instead of :func:`tee`.
+
+
+.. function:: zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None)
+
+   Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables. If the
+   iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in with *fillvalue*.
+   Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.  Roughly equivalent to::
+
+      def zip_longest(*args, fillvalue=None):
+          # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') --> Ax By C- D-
+          iterators = [iter(it) for it in args]
+          num_active = len(iterators)
+          if not num_active:
+              return
+          while True:
+              values = []
+              for i, it in enumerate(iterators):
+                  try:
+                      value = next(it)
+                  except StopIteration:
+                      num_active -= 1
+                      if not num_active:
+                          return
+                      iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
+                      value = fillvalue
+                  values.append(value)
+              yield tuple(values)
+
+   If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the :func:`zip_longest`
+   function should be wrapped with something that limits the number of calls
+   (for example :func:`islice` or :func:`takewhile`).  If not specified,
+   *fillvalue* defaults to ``None``.
+
+
+.. _itertools-recipes:
+
+Itertools Recipes
+-----------------
+
+This section shows recipes for creating an extended toolset using the existing
+itertools as building blocks.
+
+The extended tools offer the same high performance as the underlying toolset.
+The superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one at a time
+rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at once. Code volume is
+kept small by linking the tools together in a functional style which helps
+eliminate temporary variables.  High speed is retained by preferring
+"vectorized" building blocks over the use of for-loops and :term:`generator`\s
+which incur interpreter overhead.
+
+.. testcode::
+
+   def take(n, iterable):
+       "Return first n items of the iterable as a list"
+       return list(islice(iterable, n))
+
+   def prepend(value, iterator):
+       "Prepend a single value in front of an iterator"
+       # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) -> 1 2 3 4
+       return chain([value], iterator)
+
+   def tabulate(function, start=0):
+       "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
+       return map(function, count(start))
+
+   def tail(n, iterable):
+       "Return an iterator over the last n items"
+       # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') --> E F G
+       return iter(collections.deque(iterable, maxlen=n))
+
+   def consume(iterator, n=None):
+       "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
+       # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
+       if n is None:
+           # feed the entire iterator into a zero-length deque
+           collections.deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
+       else:
+           # advance to the empty slice starting at position n
+           next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)
+
+   def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
+       "Returns the nth item or a default value"
+       return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)
+
+   def all_equal(iterable):
+       "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other"
+       g = groupby(iterable)
+       return next(g, True) and not next(g, False)
+
+   def quantify(iterable, pred=bool):
+       "Count how many times the predicate is true"
+       return sum(map(pred, iterable))
+
+   def padnone(iterable):
+       """Returns the sequence elements and then returns None indefinitely.
+
+       Useful for emulating the behavior of the built-in map() function.
+       """
+       return chain(iterable, repeat(None))
+
+   def ncycles(iterable, n):
+       "Returns the sequence elements n times"
+       return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))
+
+   def dotproduct(vec1, vec2):
+       return sum(map(operator.mul, vec1, vec2))
+
+   def flatten(listOfLists):
+       "Flatten one level of nesting"
+       return chain.from_iterable(listOfLists)
+
+   def repeatfunc(func, times=None, *args):
+       """Repeat calls to func with specified arguments.
+
+       Example:  repeatfunc(random.random)
+       """
+       if times is None:
+           return starmap(func, repeat(args))
+       return starmap(func, repeat(args, times))
+
+   def pairwise(iterable):
+       "s -> (s0,s1), (s1,s2), (s2, s3), ..."
+       a, b = tee(iterable)
+       next(b, None)
+       return zip(a, b)
+
+   def grouper(iterable, n, fillvalue=None):
+       "Collect data into fixed-length chunks or blocks"
+       # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, 'x') --> ABC DEF Gxx"
+       args = [iter(iterable)] * n
+       return zip_longest(*args, fillvalue=fillvalue)
+
+   def roundrobin(*iterables):
+       "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
+       # Recipe credited to George Sakkis
+       num_active = len(iterables)
+       nexts = cycle(iter(it).__next__ for it in iterables)
+       while num_active:
+           try:
+               for next in nexts:
+                   yield next()
+           except StopIteration:
+               # Remove the iterator we just exhausted from the cycle.
+               num_active -= 1
+               nexts = cycle(islice(nexts, num_active))
+
+   def partition(pred, iterable):
+       'Use a predicate to partition entries into false entries and true entries'
+       # partition(is_odd, range(10)) --> 0 2 4 6 8   and  1 3 5 7 9
+       t1, t2 = tee(iterable)
+       return filterfalse(pred, t1), filter(pred, t2)
+
+   def powerset(iterable):
+       "powerset([1,2,3]) --> () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)"
+       s = list(iterable)
+       return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))
+
+   def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
+       "List unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
+       # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') --> A B C D
+       # unique_everseen('ABBCcAD', str.lower) --> A B C D
+       seen = set()
+       seen_add = seen.add
+       if key is None:
+           for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
+               seen_add(element)
+               yield element
+       else:
+           for element in iterable:
+               k = key(element)
+               if k not in seen:
+                   seen_add(k)
+                   yield element
+
+   def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
+       "List unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
+       # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') --> A B C D A B
+       # unique_justseen('ABBCcAD', str.lower) --> A B C A D
+       return map(next, map(itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))
+
+   def iter_except(func, exception, first=None):
+       """ Call a function repeatedly until an exception is raised.
+
+       Converts a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface.
+       Like builtins.iter(func, sentinel) but uses an exception instead
+       of a sentinel to end the loop.
+
+       Examples:
+           iter_except(functools.partial(heappop, h), IndexError)   # priority queue iterator
+           iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError)                         # non-blocking dict iterator
+           iter_except(d.popleft, IndexError)                       # non-blocking deque iterator
+           iter_except(q.get_nowait, Queue.Empty)                   # loop over a producer Queue
+           iter_except(s.pop, KeyError)                             # non-blocking set iterator
+
+       """
+       try:
+           if first is not None:
+               yield first()            # For database APIs needing an initial cast to db.first()
+           while True:
+               yield func()
+       except exception:
+           pass
+
+   def first_true(iterable, default=False, pred=None):
+       """Returns the first true value in the iterable.
+
+       If no true value is found, returns *default*
+
+       If *pred* is not None, returns the first item
+       for which pred(item) is true.
+
+       """
+       # first_true([a,b,c], x) --> a or b or c or x
+       # first_true([a,b], x, f) --> a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
+       return next(filter(pred, iterable), default)
+
+   def random_product(*args, repeat=1):
+       "Random selection from itertools.product(*args, **kwds)"
+       pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
+       return tuple(random.choice(pool) for pool in pools)
+
+   def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
+       "Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)"
+       pool = tuple(iterable)
+       r = len(pool) if r is None else r
+       return tuple(random.sample(pool, r))
+
+   def random_combination(iterable, r):
+       "Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)"
+       pool = tuple(iterable)
+       n = len(pool)
+       indices = sorted(random.sample(range(n), r))
+       return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+
+   def random_combination_with_replacement(iterable, r):
+       "Random selection from itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)"
+       pool = tuple(iterable)
+       n = len(pool)
+       indices = sorted(random.randrange(n) for i in range(r))
+       return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+
+   def nth_combination(iterable, r, index):
+       'Equivalent to list(combinations(iterable, r))[index]'
+       pool = tuple(iterable)
+       n = len(pool)
+       if r < 0 or r > n:
+           raise ValueError
+       c = 1
+       k = min(r, n-r)
+       for i in range(1, k+1):
+           c = c * (n - k + i) // i
+       if index < 0:
+           index += c
+       if index < 0 or index >= c:
+           raise IndexError
+       result = []
+       while r:
+           c, n, r = c*r//n, n-1, r-1
+           while index >= c:
+               index -= c
+               c, n = c*(n-r)//n, n-1
+           result.append(pool[-1-n])
+       return tuple(result)
+
+Note, many of the above recipes can be optimized by replacing global lookups
+with local variables defined as default values.  For example, the
+*dotproduct* recipe can be written as::
+
+   def dotproduct(vec1, vec2, sum=sum, map=map, mul=operator.mul):
+       return sum(map(mul, vec1, vec2))
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/json.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/json.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..510e307
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/json.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,731 @@
+:mod:`json` --- JSON encoder and decoder
+========================================
+
+.. module:: json
+   :synopsis: Encode and decode the JSON format.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Bob Ippolito <bob@redivi.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Bob Ippolito <bob@redivi.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/json/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+`JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) <http://json.org>`_, specified by
+:rfc:`7159` (which obsoletes :rfc:`4627`) and by
+`ECMA-404 <http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-404.htm>`_,
+is a lightweight data interchange format inspired by
+`JavaScript <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript>`_ object literal syntax
+(although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript [#rfc-errata]_ ).
+
+:mod:`json` exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
+:mod:`marshal` and :mod:`pickle` modules.
+
+Encoding basic Python object hierarchies::
+
+    >>> import json
+    >>> json.dumps(['foo', {'bar': ('baz', None, 1.0, 2)}])
+    '["foo", {"bar": ["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]'
+    >>> print(json.dumps("\"foo\bar"))
+    "\"foo\bar"
+    >>> print(json.dumps('\u1234'))
+    "\u1234"
+    >>> print(json.dumps('\\'))
+    "\\"
+    >>> print(json.dumps({"c": 0, "b": 0, "a": 0}, sort_keys=True))
+    {"a": 0, "b": 0, "c": 0}
+    >>> from io import StringIO
+    >>> io = StringIO()
+    >>> json.dump(['streaming API'], io)
+    >>> io.getvalue()
+    '["streaming API"]'
+
+Compact encoding::
+
+    >>> import json
+    >>> json.dumps([1, 2, 3, {'4': 5, '6': 7}], separators=(',', ':'))
+    '[1,2,3,{"4":5,"6":7}]'
+
+Pretty printing::
+
+    >>> import json
+    >>> print(json.dumps({'4': 5, '6': 7}, sort_keys=True, indent=4))
+    {
+        "4": 5,
+        "6": 7
+    }
+
+Decoding JSON::
+
+    >>> import json
+    >>> json.loads('["foo", {"bar":["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]')
+    ['foo', {'bar': ['baz', None, 1.0, 2]}]
+    >>> json.loads('"\\"foo\\bar"')
+    '"foo\x08ar'
+    >>> from io import StringIO
+    >>> io = StringIO('["streaming API"]')
+    >>> json.load(io)
+    ['streaming API']
+
+Specializing JSON object decoding::
+
+    >>> import json
+    >>> def as_complex(dct):
+    ...     if '__complex__' in dct:
+    ...         return complex(dct['real'], dct['imag'])
+    ...     return dct
+    ...
+    >>> json.loads('{"__complex__": true, "real": 1, "imag": 2}',
+    ...     object_hook=as_complex)
+    (1+2j)
+    >>> import decimal
+    >>> json.loads('1.1', parse_float=decimal.Decimal)
+    Decimal('1.1')
+
+Extending :class:`JSONEncoder`::
+
+    >>> import json
+    >>> class ComplexEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
+    ...     def default(self, obj):
+    ...         if isinstance(obj, complex):
+    ...             return [obj.real, obj.imag]
+    ...         # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
+    ...         return json.JSONEncoder.default(self, obj)
+    ...
+    >>> json.dumps(2 + 1j, cls=ComplexEncoder)
+    '[2.0, 1.0]'
+    >>> ComplexEncoder().encode(2 + 1j)
+    '[2.0, 1.0]'
+    >>> list(ComplexEncoder().iterencode(2 + 1j))
+    ['[2.0', ', 1.0', ']']
+
+
+Using :mod:`json.tool` from the shell to validate and pretty-print:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ echo '{"json":"obj"}' | python -m json.tool
+    {
+        "json": "obj"
+    }
+    $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
+    Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)
+
+See :ref:`json-commandline` for detailed documentation.
+
+.. note::
+
+   JSON is a subset of `YAML <http://yaml.org/>`_ 1.2.  The JSON produced by
+   this module's default settings (in particular, the default *separators*
+   value) is also a subset of YAML 1.0 and 1.1.  This module can thus also be
+   used as a YAML serializer.
+
+
+Basic Usage
+-----------
+
+.. function:: dump(obj, fp, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True, \
+                   check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, \
+                   indent=None, separators=None, default=None, \
+                   sort_keys=False, **kw)
+
+   Serialize *obj* as a JSON formatted stream to *fp* (a ``.write()``-supporting
+   :term:`file-like object`) using this :ref:`conversion table
+   <py-to-json-table>`.
+
+   If *skipkeys* is true (default: ``False``), then dict keys that are not
+   of a basic type (:class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`bool`,
+   ``None``) will be skipped instead of raising a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   The :mod:`json` module always produces :class:`str` objects, not
+   :class:`bytes` objects. Therefore, ``fp.write()`` must support :class:`str`
+   input.
+
+   If *ensure_ascii* is true (the default), the output is guaranteed to
+   have all incoming non-ASCII characters escaped.  If *ensure_ascii* is
+   false, these characters will be output as-is.
+
+   If *check_circular* is false (default: ``True``), then the circular
+   reference check for container types will be skipped and a circular reference
+   will result in an :exc:`OverflowError` (or worse).
+
+   If *allow_nan* is false (default: ``True``), then it will be a
+   :exc:`ValueError` to serialize out of range :class:`float` values (``nan``,
+   ``inf``, ``-inf``) in strict compliance of the JSON specification.
+   If *allow_nan* is true, their JavaScript equivalents (``NaN``,
+   ``Infinity``, ``-Infinity``) will be used.
+
+   If *indent* is a non-negative integer or string, then JSON array elements and
+   object members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  An indent level
+   of 0, negative, or ``""`` will only insert newlines.  ``None`` (the default)
+   selects the most compact representation. Using a positive integer indent
+   indents that many spaces per level.  If *indent* is a string (such as ``"\t"``),
+   that string is used to indent each level.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Allow strings for *indent* in addition to integers.
+
+   If specified, *separators* should be an ``(item_separator, key_separator)``
+   tuple.  The default is ``(', ', ': ')`` if *indent* is ``None`` and
+   ``(',', ': ')`` otherwise.  To get the most compact JSON representation,
+   you should specify ``(',', ':')`` to eliminate whitespace.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Use ``(',', ': ')`` as default if *indent* is not ``None``.
+
+   If specified, *default* should be a function that gets called for objects that
+   can't otherwise be serialized.  It should return a JSON encodable version of
+   the object or raise a :exc:`TypeError`.  If not specified, :exc:`TypeError`
+   is raised.
+
+   If *sort_keys* is true (default: ``False``), then the output of
+   dictionaries will be sorted by key.
+
+   To use a custom :class:`JSONEncoder` subclass (e.g. one that overrides the
+   :meth:`default` method to serialize additional types), specify it with the
+   *cls* kwarg; otherwise :class:`JSONEncoder` is used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      All optional parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Unlike :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`marshal`, JSON is not a framed protocol,
+      so trying to serialize multiple objects with repeated calls to
+      :func:`dump` using the same *fp* will result in an invalid JSON file.
+
+.. function:: dumps(obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True, \
+                    check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, \
+                    indent=None, separators=None, default=None, \
+                    sort_keys=False, **kw)
+
+   Serialize *obj* to a JSON formatted :class:`str` using this :ref:`conversion
+   table <py-to-json-table>`.  The arguments have the same meaning as in
+   :func:`dump`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Keys in key/value pairs of JSON are always of the type :class:`str`. When
+      a dictionary is converted into JSON, all the keys of the dictionary are
+      coerced to strings. As a result of this, if a dictionary is converted
+      into JSON and then back into a dictionary, the dictionary may not equal
+      the original one. That is, ``loads(dumps(x)) != x`` if x has non-string
+      keys.
+
+.. function:: load(fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)
+
+   Deserialize *fp* (a ``.read()``-supporting :term:`text file` or
+   :term:`binary file` containing a JSON document) to a Python object using
+   this :ref:`conversion table <json-to-py-table>`.
+
+   *object_hook* is an optional function that will be called with the result of
+   any object literal decoded (a :class:`dict`).  The return value of
+   *object_hook* will be used instead of the :class:`dict`.  This feature can be used
+   to implement custom decoders (e.g. `JSON-RPC <http://www.jsonrpc.org>`_
+   class hinting).
+
+   *object_pairs_hook* is an optional function that will be called with the
+   result of any object literal decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The
+   return value of *object_pairs_hook* will be used instead of the
+   :class:`dict`.  This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.
+   If *object_hook* is also defined, the *object_pairs_hook* takes priority.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added support for *object_pairs_hook*.
+
+   *parse_float*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON
+   float to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ``float(num_str)``.
+   This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON floats
+   (e.g. :class:`decimal.Decimal`).
+
+   *parse_int*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON int
+   to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ``int(num_str)``.  This can
+   be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON integers
+   (e.g. :class:`float`).
+
+   *parse_constant*, if specified, will be called with one of the following
+   strings: ``'-Infinity'``, ``'Infinity'``, ``'NaN'``.
+   This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers
+   are encountered.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      *parse_constant* doesn't get called on 'null', 'true', 'false' anymore.
+
+   To use a custom :class:`JSONDecoder` subclass, specify it with the ``cls``
+   kwarg; otherwise :class:`JSONDecoder` is used.  Additional keyword arguments
+   will be passed to the constructor of the class.
+
+   If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
+   :exc:`JSONDecodeError` will be raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      All optional parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *fp* can now be a :term:`binary file`. The input encoding should be
+      UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.
+
+.. function:: loads(s, *, encoding=None, cls=None, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)
+
+   Deserialize *s* (a :class:`str`, :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`
+   instance containing a JSON document) to a Python object using this
+   :ref:`conversion table <json-to-py-table>`.
+
+   The other arguments have the same meaning as in :func:`load`, except
+   *encoding* which is ignored and deprecated.
+
+   If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
+   :exc:`JSONDecodeError` will be raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *s* can now be of type :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`. The
+      input encoding should be UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.
+
+
+Encoders and Decoders
+---------------------
+
+.. class:: JSONDecoder(*, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, strict=True, object_pairs_hook=None)
+
+   Simple JSON decoder.
+
+   Performs the following translations in decoding by default:
+
+   .. _json-to-py-table:
+
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | JSON          | Python            |
+   +===============+===================+
+   | object        | dict              |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | array         | list              |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | string        | str               |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | number (int)  | int               |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | number (real) | float             |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | true          | True              |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | false         | False             |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+   | null          | None              |
+   +---------------+-------------------+
+
+   It also understands ``NaN``, ``Infinity``, and ``-Infinity`` as their
+   corresponding ``float`` values, which is outside the JSON spec.
+
+   *object_hook*, if specified, will be called with the result of every JSON
+   object decoded and its return value will be used in place of the given
+   :class:`dict`.  This can be used to provide custom deserializations (e.g. to
+   support JSON-RPC class hinting).
+
+   *object_pairs_hook*, if specified will be called with the result of every
+   JSON object decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The return value of
+   *object_pairs_hook* will be used instead of the :class:`dict`.  This
+   feature can be used to implement custom decoders.  If *object_hook* is also
+   defined, the *object_pairs_hook* takes priority.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added support for *object_pairs_hook*.
+
+   *parse_float*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON
+   float to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ``float(num_str)``.
+   This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON floats
+   (e.g. :class:`decimal.Decimal`).
+
+   *parse_int*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON int
+   to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ``int(num_str)``.  This can
+   be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON integers
+   (e.g. :class:`float`).
+
+   *parse_constant*, if specified, will be called with one of the following
+   strings: ``'-Infinity'``, ``'Infinity'``, ``'NaN'``.
+   This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers
+   are encountered.
+
+   If *strict* is false (``True`` is the default), then control characters
+   will be allowed inside strings.  Control characters in this context are
+   those with character codes in the 0--31 range, including ``'\t'`` (tab),
+   ``'\n'``, ``'\r'`` and ``'\0'``.
+
+   If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
+   :exc:`JSONDecodeError` will be raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      All parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
+
+   .. method:: decode(s)
+
+      Return the Python representation of *s* (a :class:`str` instance
+      containing a JSON document).
+
+      :exc:`JSONDecodeError` will be raised if the given JSON document is not
+      valid.
+
+   .. method:: raw_decode(s)
+
+      Decode a JSON document from *s* (a :class:`str` beginning with a
+      JSON document) and return a 2-tuple of the Python representation
+      and the index in *s* where the document ended.
+
+      This can be used to decode a JSON document from a string that may have
+      extraneous data at the end.
+
+
+.. class:: JSONEncoder(*, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True, check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, sort_keys=False, indent=None, separators=None, default=None)
+
+   Extensible JSON encoder for Python data structures.
+
+   Supports the following objects and types by default:
+
+   .. _py-to-json-table:
+
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+   | Python                                 | JSON          |
+   +========================================+===============+
+   | dict                                   | object        |
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+   | list, tuple                            | array         |
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+   | str                                    | string        |
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+   | int, float, int- & float-derived Enums | number        |
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+   | True                                   | true          |
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+   | False                                  | false         |
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+   | None                                   | null          |
+   +----------------------------------------+---------------+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added support for int- and float-derived Enum classes.
+
+   To extend this to recognize other objects, subclass and implement a
+   :meth:`default` method with another method that returns a serializable object
+   for ``o`` if possible, otherwise it should call the superclass implementation
+   (to raise :exc:`TypeError`).
+
+   If *skipkeys* is false (the default), then it is a :exc:`TypeError` to
+   attempt encoding of keys that are not :class:`str`, :class:`int`,
+   :class:`float` or ``None``.  If *skipkeys* is true, such items are simply
+   skipped.
+
+   If *ensure_ascii* is true (the default), the output is guaranteed to
+   have all incoming non-ASCII characters escaped.  If *ensure_ascii* is
+   false, these characters will be output as-is.
+
+   If *check_circular* is true (the default), then lists, dicts, and custom
+   encoded objects will be checked for circular references during encoding to
+   prevent an infinite recursion (which would cause an :exc:`OverflowError`).
+   Otherwise, no such check takes place.
+
+   If *allow_nan* is true (the default), then ``NaN``, ``Infinity``, and
+   ``-Infinity`` will be encoded as such.  This behavior is not JSON
+   specification compliant, but is consistent with most JavaScript based
+   encoders and decoders.  Otherwise, it will be a :exc:`ValueError` to encode
+   such floats.
+
+   If *sort_keys* is true (default: ``False``), then the output of dictionaries
+   will be sorted by key; this is useful for regression tests to ensure that
+   JSON serializations can be compared on a day-to-day basis.
+
+   If *indent* is a non-negative integer or string, then JSON array elements and
+   object members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  An indent level
+   of 0, negative, or ``""`` will only insert newlines.  ``None`` (the default)
+   selects the most compact representation. Using a positive integer indent
+   indents that many spaces per level.  If *indent* is a string (such as ``"\t"``),
+   that string is used to indent each level.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Allow strings for *indent* in addition to integers.
+
+   If specified, *separators* should be an ``(item_separator, key_separator)``
+   tuple.  The default is ``(', ', ': ')`` if *indent* is ``None`` and
+   ``(',', ': ')`` otherwise.  To get the most compact JSON representation,
+   you should specify ``(',', ':')`` to eliminate whitespace.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Use ``(',', ': ')`` as default if *indent* is not ``None``.
+
+   If specified, *default* should be a function that gets called for objects that
+   can't otherwise be serialized.  It should return a JSON encodable version of
+   the object or raise a :exc:`TypeError`.  If not specified, :exc:`TypeError`
+   is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      All parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
+
+
+   .. method:: default(o)
+
+      Implement this method in a subclass such that it returns a serializable
+      object for *o*, or calls the base implementation (to raise a
+      :exc:`TypeError`).
+
+      For example, to support arbitrary iterators, you could implement default
+      like this::
+
+         def default(self, o):
+            try:
+                iterable = iter(o)
+            except TypeError:
+                pass
+            else:
+                return list(iterable)
+            # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
+            return json.JSONEncoder.default(self, o)
+
+
+   .. method:: encode(o)
+
+      Return a JSON string representation of a Python data structure, *o*.  For
+      example::
+
+        >>> json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]})
+        '{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'
+
+
+   .. method:: iterencode(o)
+
+      Encode the given object, *o*, and yield each string representation as
+      available.  For example::
+
+            for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject):
+                mysocket.write(chunk)
+
+
+Exceptions
+----------
+
+.. exception:: JSONDecodeError(msg, doc, pos)
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`ValueError` with the following additional attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: msg
+
+      The unformatted error message.
+
+   .. attribute:: doc
+
+      The JSON document being parsed.
+
+   .. attribute:: pos
+
+      The start index of *doc* where parsing failed.
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+
+      The line corresponding to *pos*.
+
+   .. attribute:: colno
+
+      The column corresponding to *pos*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+Standard Compliance and Interoperability
+----------------------------------------
+
+The JSON format is specified by :rfc:`7159` and by
+`ECMA-404 <http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-404.htm>`_.
+This section details this module's level of compliance with the RFC.
+For simplicity, :class:`JSONEncoder` and :class:`JSONDecoder` subclasses, and
+parameters other than those explicitly mentioned, are not considered.
+
+This module does not comply with the RFC in a strict fashion, implementing some
+extensions that are valid JavaScript but not valid JSON.  In particular:
+
+- Infinite and NaN number values are accepted and output;
+- Repeated names within an object are accepted, and only the value of the last
+  name-value pair is used.
+
+Since the RFC permits RFC-compliant parsers to accept input texts that are not
+RFC-compliant, this module's deserializer is technically RFC-compliant under
+default settings.
+
+Character Encodings
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The RFC requires that JSON be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or
+UTF-32, with UTF-8 being the recommended default for maximum interoperability.
+
+As permitted, though not required, by the RFC, this module's serializer sets
+*ensure_ascii=True* by default, thus escaping the output so that the resulting
+strings only contain ASCII characters.
+
+Other than the *ensure_ascii* parameter, this module is defined strictly in
+terms of conversion between Python objects and
+:class:`Unicode strings <str>`, and thus does not otherwise directly address
+the issue of character encodings.
+
+The RFC prohibits adding a byte order mark (BOM) to the start of a JSON text,
+and this module's serializer does not add a BOM to its output.
+The RFC permits, but does not require, JSON deserializers to ignore an initial
+BOM in their input.  This module's deserializer raises a :exc:`ValueError`
+when an initial BOM is present.
+
+The RFC does not explicitly forbid JSON strings which contain byte sequences
+that don't correspond to valid Unicode characters (e.g. unpaired UTF-16
+surrogates), but it does note that they may cause interoperability problems.
+By default, this module accepts and outputs (when present in the original
+:class:`str`) code points for such sequences.
+
+
+Infinite and NaN Number Values
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The RFC does not permit the representation of infinite or NaN number values.
+Despite that, by default, this module accepts and outputs ``Infinity``,
+``-Infinity``, and ``NaN`` as if they were valid JSON number literal values::
+
+   >>> # Neither of these calls raises an exception, but the results are not valid JSON
+   >>> json.dumps(float('-inf'))
+   '-Infinity'
+   >>> json.dumps(float('nan'))
+   'NaN'
+   >>> # Same when deserializing
+   >>> json.loads('-Infinity')
+   -inf
+   >>> json.loads('NaN')
+   nan
+
+In the serializer, the *allow_nan* parameter can be used to alter this
+behavior.  In the deserializer, the *parse_constant* parameter can be used to
+alter this behavior.
+
+
+Repeated Names Within an Object
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The RFC specifies that the names within a JSON object should be unique, but
+does not mandate how repeated names in JSON objects should be handled.  By
+default, this module does not raise an exception; instead, it ignores all but
+the last name-value pair for a given name::
+
+   >>> weird_json = '{"x": 1, "x": 2, "x": 3}'
+   >>> json.loads(weird_json)
+   {'x': 3}
+
+The *object_pairs_hook* parameter can be used to alter this behavior.
+
+
+Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The old version of JSON specified by the obsolete :rfc:`4627` required that
+the top-level value of a JSON text must be either a JSON object or array
+(Python :class:`dict` or :class:`list`), and could not be a JSON null,
+boolean, number, or string value.  :rfc:`7159` removed that restriction, and
+this module does not and has never implemented that restriction in either its
+serializer or its deserializer.
+
+Regardless, for maximum interoperability, you may wish to voluntarily adhere
+to the restriction yourself.
+
+
+Implementation Limitations
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Some JSON deserializer implementations may set limits on:
+
+* the size of accepted JSON texts
+* the maximum level of nesting of JSON objects and arrays
+* the range and precision of JSON numbers
+* the content and maximum length of JSON strings
+
+This module does not impose any such limits beyond those of the relevant
+Python datatypes themselves or the Python interpreter itself.
+
+When serializing to JSON, beware any such limitations in applications that may
+consume your JSON.  In particular, it is common for JSON numbers to be
+deserialized into IEEE 754 double precision numbers and thus subject to that
+representation's range and precision limitations.  This is especially relevant
+when serializing Python :class:`int` values of extremely large magnitude, or
+when serializing instances of "exotic" numerical types such as
+:class:`decimal.Decimal`.
+
+
+.. _json-commandline:
+.. program:: json.tool
+
+Command Line Interface
+----------------------
+
+.. module:: json.tool
+    :synopsis: A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/json/tool.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`json.tool` module provides a simple command line interface to validate
+and pretty-print JSON objects.
+
+If the optional ``infile`` and ``outfile`` arguments are not
+specified, :attr:`sys.stdin` and :attr:`sys.stdout` will be used respectively:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ echo '{"json": "obj"}' | python -m json.tool
+    {
+        "json": "obj"
+    }
+    $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
+    Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   The output is now in the same order as the input. Use the
+   :option:`--sort-keys` option to sort the output of dictionaries
+   alphabetically by key.
+
+
+Command line options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. cmdoption:: infile
+
+   The JSON file to be validated or pretty-printed:
+
+   .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+      $ python -m json.tool mp_films.json
+      [
+          {
+              "title": "And Now for Something Completely Different",
+              "year": 1971
+          },
+          {
+              "title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
+              "year": 1975
+          }
+      ]
+
+   If *infile* is not specified, read from :attr:`sys.stdin`.
+
+.. cmdoption:: outfile
+
+   Write the output of the *infile* to the given *outfile*. Otherwise, write it
+   to :attr:`sys.stdout`.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --sort-keys
+
+   Sort the output of dictionaries alphabetically by key.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. cmdoption:: -h, --help
+
+   Show the help message.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#rfc-errata] As noted in `the errata for RFC 7159
+   <https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159>`_,
+   JSON permits literal U+2028 (LINE SEPARATOR) and
+   U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR) characters in strings, whereas JavaScript
+   (as of ECMAScript Edition 5.1) does not.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/keyword.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/keyword.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..173db23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/keyword.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+:mod:`keyword` --- Testing for Python keywords
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: keyword
+   :synopsis: Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/keyword.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module allows a Python program to determine if a string is a keyword.
+
+
+.. function:: iskeyword(s)
+
+   Return true if *s* is a Python keyword.
+
+
+.. data:: kwlist
+
+   Sequence containing all the keywords defined for the interpreter.  If any
+   keywords are defined to only be active when particular :mod:`__future__`
+   statements are in effect, these will be included as well.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/language.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/language.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1eac32e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/language.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+.. _language:
+
+************************
+Python Language Services
+************************
+
+Python provides a number of modules to assist in working with the Python
+language.  These modules support tokenizing, parsing, syntax analysis, bytecode
+disassembly, and various other facilities.
+
+These modules include:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   parser.rst
+   ast.rst
+   symtable.rst
+   symbol.rst
+   token.rst
+   keyword.rst
+   tokenize.rst
+   tabnanny.rst
+   pyclbr.rst
+   py_compile.rst
+   compileall.rst
+   dis.rst
+   pickletools.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/linecache.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/linecache.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34fcac5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/linecache.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+:mod:`linecache` --- Random access to text lines
+================================================
+
+.. module:: linecache
+   :synopsis: This module provides random access to individual lines from text files.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/linecache.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`linecache` module allows one to get any line from a Python source file, while
+attempting to optimize internally, using a cache, the common case where many
+lines are read from a single file.  This is used by the :mod:`traceback` module
+to retrieve source lines for inclusion in  the formatted traceback.
+
+The :func:`tokenize.open` function is used to open files. This
+function uses :func:`tokenize.detect_encoding` to get the encoding of the
+file; in the absence of an encoding token, the file encoding defaults to UTF-8.
+
+The :mod:`linecache` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: getline(filename, lineno, module_globals=None)
+
+   Get line *lineno* from file named *filename*. This function will never raise an
+   exception --- it will return ``''`` on errors (the terminating newline character
+   will be included for lines that are found).
+
+   .. index:: triple: module; search; path
+
+   If a file named *filename* is not found, the function will look for it in the
+   module search path, ``sys.path``, after first checking for a :pep:`302`
+   ``__loader__`` in *module_globals*, in case the module was imported from a
+   zipfile or other non-filesystem import source.
+
+
+.. function:: clearcache()
+
+   Clear the cache.  Use this function if you no longer need lines from files
+   previously read using :func:`getline`.
+
+
+.. function:: checkcache(filename=None)
+
+   Check the cache for validity.  Use this function if files in the cache  may have
+   changed on disk, and you require the updated version.  If *filename* is omitted,
+   it will check all the entries in the cache.
+
+.. function:: lazycache(filename, module_globals)
+
+   Capture enough detail about a non-file-based module to permit getting its
+   lines later via :func:`getline` even if *module_globals* is ``None`` in the later
+   call. This avoids doing I/O until a line is actually needed, without having
+   to carry the module globals around indefinitely.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> import linecache
+   >>> linecache.getline(linecache.__file__, 8)
+   'import sys\n'
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/locale.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/locale.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf57a08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/locale.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,588 @@
+:mod:`locale` --- Internationalization services
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: locale
+   :synopsis: Internationalization services.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Martin von Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin von Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/locale.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`locale` module opens access to the POSIX locale database and
+functionality. The POSIX locale mechanism allows programmers to deal with
+certain cultural issues in an application, without requiring the programmer to
+know all the specifics of each country where the software is executed.
+
+.. index:: module: _locale
+
+The :mod:`locale` module is implemented on top of the :mod:`_locale` module,
+which in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available.
+
+The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
+
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   Exception raised when the locale passed to :func:`setlocale` is not
+   recognized.
+
+
+.. function:: setlocale(category, locale=None)
+
+   If *locale* is given and not ``None``, :func:`setlocale` modifies the locale
+   setting for the *category*. The available categories are listed in the data
+   description below. *locale* may be a string, or an iterable of two strings
+   (language code and encoding). If it's an iterable, it's converted to a locale
+   name using the locale aliasing engine. An empty string specifies the user's
+   default settings. If the modification of the locale fails, the exception
+   :exc:`Error` is raised. If successful, the new locale setting is returned.
+
+   If *locale* is omitted or ``None``, the current setting for *category* is
+   returned.
+
+   :func:`setlocale` is not thread-safe on most systems. Applications typically
+   start with a call of ::
+
+      import locale
+      locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')
+
+   This sets the locale for all categories to the user's default setting (typically
+   specified in the :envvar:`LANG` environment variable).  If the locale is not
+   changed thereafter, using multithreading should not cause problems.
+
+
+.. function:: localeconv()
+
+   Returns the database of the local conventions as a dictionary. This dictionary
+   has the following strings as keys:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|l|L|
+
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | Category             | Key                                 | Meaning                        |
+   +======================+=====================================+================================+
+   | :const:`LC_NUMERIC`  | ``'decimal_point'``                 | Decimal point character.       |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'grouping'``                      | Sequence of numbers specifying |
+   |                      |                                     | which relative positions the   |
+   |                      |                                     | ``'thousands_sep'`` is         |
+   |                      |                                     | expected.  If the sequence is  |
+   |                      |                                     | terminated with                |
+   |                      |                                     | :const:`CHAR_MAX`, no further  |
+   |                      |                                     | grouping is performed. If the  |
+   |                      |                                     | sequence terminates with a     |
+   |                      |                                     | ``0``,  the last group size is |
+   |                      |                                     | repeatedly used.               |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'thousands_sep'``                 | Character used between groups. |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   | :const:`LC_MONETARY` | ``'int_curr_symbol'``               | International currency symbol. |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'currency_symbol'``               | Local currency symbol.         |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'``   | Whether the currency symbol    |
+   |                      |                                     | precedes the value (for        |
+   |                      |                                     | positive resp. negative        |
+   |                      |                                     | values).                       |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'`` | Whether the currency symbol is |
+   |                      |                                     | separated from the value  by a |
+   |                      |                                     | space (for positive resp.      |
+   |                      |                                     | negative values).              |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'mon_decimal_point'``             | Decimal point used for         |
+   |                      |                                     | monetary values.               |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'frac_digits'``                   | Number of fractional digits    |
+   |                      |                                     | used in local formatting of    |
+   |                      |                                     | monetary values.               |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'int_frac_digits'``               | Number of fractional digits    |
+   |                      |                                     | used in international          |
+   |                      |                                     | formatting of monetary values. |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'mon_thousands_sep'``             | Group separator used for       |
+   |                      |                                     | monetary values.               |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'mon_grouping'``                  | Equivalent to ``'grouping'``,  |
+   |                      |                                     | used for monetary values.      |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'positive_sign'``                 | Symbol used to annotate a      |
+   |                      |                                     | positive monetary value.       |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'negative_sign'``                 | Symbol used to annotate a      |
+   |                      |                                     | negative monetary value.       |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+   |                      | ``'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'``       | The position of the sign (for  |
+   |                      |                                     | positive resp. negative        |
+   |                      |                                     | values), see below.            |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+
+   All numeric values can be set to :const:`CHAR_MAX` to indicate that there is no
+   value specified in this locale.
+
+   The possible values for ``'p_sign_posn'`` and ``'n_sign_posn'`` are given below.
+
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | Value        | Explanation                             |
+   +==============+=========================================+
+   | ``0``        | Currency and value are surrounded by    |
+   |              | parentheses.                            |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | ``1``        | The sign should precede the value and   |
+   |              | currency symbol.                        |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | ``2``        | The sign should follow the value and    |
+   |              | currency symbol.                        |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | ``3``        | The sign should immediately precede the |
+   |              | value.                                  |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | ``4``        | The sign should immediately follow the  |
+   |              | value.                                  |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | ``CHAR_MAX`` | Nothing is specified in this locale.    |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------+
+
+   The function sets temporarily the ``LC_CTYPE`` locale to the ``LC_NUMERIC``
+   locale or the ``LC_MONETARY`` locale if locales are different and numeric or
+   monetary strings are non-ASCII. This temporary change affects other threads.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function now sets temporarily the ``LC_CTYPE`` locale to the
+      ``LC_NUMERIC`` locale in some cases.
+
+
+.. function:: nl_langinfo(option)
+
+   Return some locale-specific information as a string.  This function is not
+   available on all systems, and the set of possible options might also vary
+   across platforms.  The possible argument values are numbers, for which
+   symbolic constants are available in the locale module.
+
+   The :func:`nl_langinfo` function accepts one of the following keys.  Most
+   descriptions are taken from the corresponding description in the GNU C
+   library.
+
+   .. data:: CODESET
+
+      Get a string with the name of the character encoding used in the
+      selected locale.
+
+   .. data:: D_T_FMT
+
+      Get a string that can be used as a format string for :func:`time.strftime` to
+      represent date and time in a locale-specific way.
+
+   .. data:: D_FMT
+
+      Get a string that can be used as a format string for :func:`time.strftime` to
+      represent a date in a locale-specific way.
+
+   .. data:: T_FMT
+
+      Get a string that can be used as a format string for :func:`time.strftime` to
+      represent a time in a locale-specific way.
+
+   .. data:: T_FMT_AMPM
+
+      Get a format string for :func:`time.strftime` to represent time in the am/pm
+      format.
+
+   .. data:: DAY_1 ... DAY_7
+
+      Get the name of the n-th day of the week.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         This follows the US convention of :const:`DAY_1` being Sunday, not the
+         international convention (ISO 8601) that Monday is the first day of the
+         week.
+
+   .. data:: ABDAY_1 ... ABDAY_7
+
+      Get the abbreviated name of the n-th day of the week.
+
+   .. data:: MON_1 ... MON_12
+
+      Get the name of the n-th month.
+
+   .. data:: ABMON_1 ... ABMON_12
+
+      Get the abbreviated name of the n-th month.
+
+   .. data:: RADIXCHAR
+
+      Get the radix character (decimal dot, decimal comma, etc.).
+
+   .. data:: THOUSEP
+
+      Get the separator character for thousands (groups of three digits).
+
+   .. data:: YESEXPR
+
+      Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex function to
+      recognize a positive response to a yes/no question.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         The expression is in the syntax suitable for the :c:func:`regex` function
+         from the C library, which might differ from the syntax used in :mod:`re`.
+
+   .. data:: NOEXPR
+
+      Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex(3) function to
+      recognize a negative response to a yes/no question.
+
+   .. data:: CRNCYSTR
+
+      Get the currency symbol, preceded by "-" if the symbol should appear before
+      the value, "+" if the symbol should appear after the value, or "." if the
+      symbol should replace the radix character.
+
+   .. data:: ERA
+
+      Get a string that represents the era used in the current locale.
+
+      Most locales do not define this value.  An example of a locale which does
+      define this value is the Japanese one.  In Japan, the traditional
+      representation of dates includes the name of the era corresponding to the
+      then-emperor's reign.
+
+      Normally it should not be necessary to use this value directly. Specifying
+      the ``E`` modifier in their format strings causes the :func:`time.strftime`
+      function to use this information.  The format of the returned string is not
+      specified, and therefore you should not assume knowledge of it on different
+      systems.
+
+   .. data:: ERA_D_T_FMT
+
+      Get a format string for :func:`time.strftime` to represent date and time in a
+      locale-specific era-based way.
+
+   .. data:: ERA_D_FMT
+
+      Get a format string for :func:`time.strftime` to represent a date in a
+      locale-specific era-based way.
+
+   .. data:: ERA_T_FMT
+
+      Get a format string for :func:`time.strftime` to represent a time in a
+      locale-specific era-based way.
+
+   .. data:: ALT_DIGITS
+
+      Get a representation of up to 100 values used to represent the values
+      0 to 99.
+
+
+.. function:: getdefaultlocale([envvars])
+
+   Tries to determine the default locale settings and returns them as a tuple of
+   the form ``(language code, encoding)``.
+
+   According to POSIX, a program which has not called ``setlocale(LC_ALL, '')``
+   runs using the portable ``'C'`` locale.  Calling ``setlocale(LC_ALL, '')`` lets
+   it use the default locale as defined by the :envvar:`LANG` variable.  Since we
+   do not want to interfere with the current locale setting we thus emulate the
+   behavior in the way described above.
+
+   To maintain compatibility with other platforms, not only the :envvar:`LANG`
+   variable is tested, but a list of variables given as envvars parameter.  The
+   first found to be defined will be used.  *envvars* defaults to the search
+   path used in GNU gettext; it must always contain the variable name
+   ``'LANG'``.  The GNU gettext search path contains ``'LC_ALL'``,
+   ``'LC_CTYPE'``, ``'LANG'`` and ``'LANGUAGE'``, in that order.
+
+   Except for the code ``'C'``, the language code corresponds to :rfc:`1766`.
+   *language code* and *encoding* may be ``None`` if their values cannot be
+   determined.
+
+
+.. function:: getlocale(category=LC_CTYPE)
+
+   Returns the current setting for the given locale category as sequence containing
+   *language code*, *encoding*. *category* may be one of the :const:`LC_\*` values
+   except :const:`LC_ALL`.  It defaults to :const:`LC_CTYPE`.
+
+   Except for the code ``'C'``, the language code corresponds to :rfc:`1766`.
+   *language code* and *encoding* may be ``None`` if their values cannot be
+   determined.
+
+
+.. function:: getpreferredencoding(do_setlocale=True)
+
+   Return the encoding used for text data, according to user preferences.  User
+   preferences are expressed differently on different systems, and might not be
+   available programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a
+   guess.
+
+   On some systems, it is necessary to invoke :func:`setlocale` to obtain the user
+   preferences, so this function is not thread-safe. If invoking setlocale is not
+   necessary or desired, *do_setlocale* should be set to ``False``.
+
+   On Android or in the UTF-8 mode (:option:`-X` ``utf8`` option), always
+   return ``'UTF-8'``, the locale and the *do_setlocale* argument are ignored.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function now always returns ``UTF-8`` on Android or if the UTF-8 mode
+      is enabled.
+
+
+.. function:: normalize(localename)
+
+   Returns a normalized locale code for the given locale name.  The returned locale
+   code is formatted for use with :func:`setlocale`.  If normalization fails, the
+   original name is returned unchanged.
+
+   If the given encoding is not known, the function defaults to the default
+   encoding for the locale code just like :func:`setlocale`.
+
+
+.. function:: resetlocale(category=LC_ALL)
+
+   Sets the locale for *category* to the default setting.
+
+   The default setting is determined by calling :func:`getdefaultlocale`.
+   *category* defaults to :const:`LC_ALL`.
+
+
+.. function:: strcoll(string1, string2)
+
+   Compares two strings according to the current :const:`LC_COLLATE` setting. As
+   any other compare function, returns a negative, or a positive value, or ``0``,
+   depending on whether *string1* collates before or after *string2* or is equal to
+   it.
+
+
+.. function:: strxfrm(string)
+
+   Transforms a string to one that can be used in locale-aware
+   comparisons.  For example, ``strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2)`` is
+   equivalent to ``strcoll(s1, s2) < 0``.  This function can be used
+   when the same string is compared repeatedly, e.g. when collating a
+   sequence of strings.
+
+
+.. function:: format_string(format, val, grouping=False, monetary=False)
+
+   Formats a number *val* according to the current :const:`LC_NUMERIC` setting.
+   The format follows the conventions of the ``%`` operator.  For floating point
+   values, the decimal point is modified if appropriate.  If *grouping* is true,
+   also takes the grouping into account.
+
+   If *monetary* is true, the conversion uses monetary thousands separator and
+   grouping strings.
+
+   Processes formatting specifiers as in ``format % val``, but takes the current
+   locale settings into account.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *monetary* keyword parameter was added.
+
+
+.. function:: format(format, val, grouping=False, monetary=False)
+
+   Please note that this function works like :meth:`format_string` but will
+   only work for exactly one ``%char`` specifier.  For example, ``'%f'`` and
+   ``'%.0f'`` are both valid specifiers, but ``'%f KiB'`` is not.
+
+   For whole format strings, use :func:`format_string`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      Use :meth:`format_string` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: currency(val, symbol=True, grouping=False, international=False)
+
+   Formats a number *val* according to the current :const:`LC_MONETARY` settings.
+
+   The returned string includes the currency symbol if *symbol* is true, which is
+   the default. If *grouping* is true (which is not the default), grouping is done
+   with the value. If *international* is true (which is not the default), the
+   international currency symbol is used.
+
+   Note that this function will not work with the 'C' locale, so you have to set a
+   locale via :func:`setlocale` first.
+
+
+.. function:: str(float)
+
+   Formats a floating point number using the same format as the built-in function
+   ``str(float)``, but takes the decimal point into account.
+
+
+.. function:: delocalize(string)
+
+    Converts a string into a normalized number string, following the
+    :const:`LC_NUMERIC` settings.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: atof(string)
+
+   Converts a string to a floating point number, following the :const:`LC_NUMERIC`
+   settings.
+
+
+.. function:: atoi(string)
+
+   Converts a string to an integer, following the :const:`LC_NUMERIC` conventions.
+
+
+.. data:: LC_CTYPE
+
+   .. index:: module: string
+
+   Locale category for the character type functions.  Depending on the settings of
+   this category, the functions of module :mod:`string` dealing with case change
+   their behaviour.
+
+
+.. data:: LC_COLLATE
+
+   Locale category for sorting strings.  The functions :func:`strcoll` and
+   :func:`strxfrm` of the :mod:`locale` module are affected.
+
+
+.. data:: LC_TIME
+
+   Locale category for the formatting of time.  The function :func:`time.strftime`
+   follows these conventions.
+
+
+.. data:: LC_MONETARY
+
+   Locale category for formatting of monetary values.  The available options are
+   available from the :func:`localeconv` function.
+
+
+.. data:: LC_MESSAGES
+
+   Locale category for message display. Python currently does not support
+   application specific locale-aware messages.  Messages displayed by the operating
+   system, like those returned by :func:`os.strerror` might be affected by this
+   category.
+
+
+.. data:: LC_NUMERIC
+
+   Locale category for formatting numbers.  The functions :func:`.format`,
+   :func:`atoi`, :func:`atof` and :func:`.str` of the :mod:`locale` module are
+   affected by that category.  All other numeric formatting operations are not
+   affected.
+
+
+.. data:: LC_ALL
+
+   Combination of all locale settings.  If this flag is used when the locale is
+   changed, setting the locale for all categories is attempted. If that fails for
+   any category, no category is changed at all.  When the locale is retrieved using
+   this flag, a string indicating the setting for all categories is returned. This
+   string can be later used to restore the settings.
+
+
+.. data:: CHAR_MAX
+
+   This is a symbolic constant used for different values returned by
+   :func:`localeconv`.
+
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> import locale
+   >>> loc = locale.getlocale()  # get current locale
+   # use German locale; name might vary with platform
+   >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE')
+   >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo')  # compare a string containing an umlaut
+   >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')   # use user's preferred locale
+   >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C')  # use default (C) locale
+   >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc)  # restore saved locale
+
+
+Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
+--------------------------------------------
+
+The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be
+relatively expensive to change.  On top of that, some implementation are broken
+in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core dumps.  This makes the
+locale somewhat painful to use correctly.
+
+Initially, when a program is started, the locale is the ``C`` locale, no matter
+what the user's preferred locale is.  There is one exception: the
+:data:`LC_CTYPE` category is changed at startup to set the current locale
+encoding to the user's preferred locale encoding. The program must explicitly
+say that it wants the user's preferred locale settings for other categories by
+calling ``setlocale(LC_ALL, '')``.
+
+It is generally a bad idea to call :func:`setlocale` in some library routine,
+since as a side effect it affects the entire program.  Saving and restoring it
+is almost as bad: it is expensive and affects other threads that happen to run
+before the settings have been restored.
+
+If, when coding a module for general use, you need a locale independent version
+of an operation that is affected by the locale (such as
+certain formats used with :func:`time.strftime`), you will have to find a way to
+do it without using the standard library routine.  Even better is convincing
+yourself that using locale settings is okay.  Only as a last resort should you
+document that your module is not compatible with non-\ ``C`` locale settings.
+
+The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to use the
+special functions defined by this module: :func:`atof`, :func:`atoi`,
+:func:`.format`, :func:`.str`.
+
+There is no way to perform case conversions and character classifications
+according to the locale.  For (Unicode) text strings these are done according
+to the character value only, while for byte strings, the conversions and
+classifications are done according to the ASCII value of the byte, and bytes
+whose high bit is set (i.e., non-ASCII bytes) are never converted or considered
+part of a character class such as letter or whitespace.
+
+
+.. _embedding-locale:
+
+For extension writers and programs that embed Python
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Extension modules should never call :func:`setlocale`, except to find out what
+the current locale is.  But since the return value can only be used portably to
+restore it, that is not very useful (except perhaps to find out whether or not
+the locale is ``C``).
+
+When Python code uses the :mod:`locale` module to change the locale, this also
+affects the embedding application.  If the embedding application doesn't want
+this to happen, it should remove the :mod:`_locale` extension module (which does
+all the work) from the table of built-in modules in the :file:`config.c` file,
+and make sure that the :mod:`_locale` module is not accessible as a shared
+library.
+
+
+.. _locale-gettext:
+
+Access to message catalogs
+--------------------------
+
+.. function:: gettext(msg)
+.. function:: dgettext(domain, msg)
+.. function:: dcgettext(domain, msg, category)
+.. function:: textdomain(domain)
+.. function:: bindtextdomain(domain, dir)
+
+The locale module exposes the C library's gettext interface on systems that
+provide this interface.  It consists of the functions :func:`!gettext`,
+:func:`!dgettext`, :func:`!dcgettext`, :func:`!textdomain`, :func:`!bindtextdomain`,
+and :func:`!bind_textdomain_codeset`.  These are similar to the same functions in
+the :mod:`gettext` module, but use the C library's binary format for message
+catalogs, and the C library's search algorithms for locating message catalogs.
+
+Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these functions, and
+should use :mod:`gettext` instead.  A known exception to this rule are
+applications that link with additional C libraries which internally invoke
+:c:func:`gettext` or :c:func:`dcgettext`.  For these applications, it may be
+necessary to bind the text domain, so that the libraries can properly locate
+their message catalogs.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.config.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.config.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd62adb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.config.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,818 @@
+:mod:`logging.config` --- Logging configuration
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: logging.config
+   :synopsis: Configuration of the logging module.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@red-dove.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@red-dove.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/logging/config.py`
+
+.. sidebar:: Important
+
+   This page contains only reference information. For tutorials,
+   please see
+
+   * :ref:`Basic Tutorial <logging-basic-tutorial>`
+   * :ref:`Advanced Tutorial <logging-advanced-tutorial>`
+   * :ref:`Logging Cookbook <logging-cookbook>`
+
+--------------
+
+This section describes the API for configuring the logging module.
+
+.. _logging-config-api:
+
+Configuration functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following functions configure the logging module. They are located in the
+:mod:`logging.config` module.  Their use is optional --- you can configure the
+logging module using these functions or by making calls to the main API (defined
+in :mod:`logging` itself) and defining handlers which are declared either in
+:mod:`logging` or :mod:`logging.handlers`.
+
+.. function:: dictConfig(config)
+
+    Takes the logging configuration from a dictionary.  The contents of
+    this dictionary are described in :ref:`logging-config-dictschema`
+    below.
+
+    If an error is encountered during configuration, this function will
+    raise a :exc:`ValueError`, :exc:`TypeError`, :exc:`AttributeError`
+    or :exc:`ImportError` with a suitably descriptive message.  The
+    following is a (possibly incomplete) list of conditions which will
+    raise an error:
+
+    * A ``level`` which is not a string or which is a string not
+      corresponding to an actual logging level.
+    * A ``propagate`` value which is not a boolean.
+    * An id which does not have a corresponding destination.
+    * A non-existent handler id found during an incremental call.
+    * An invalid logger name.
+    * Inability to resolve to an internal or external object.
+
+    Parsing is performed by the :class:`DictConfigurator` class, whose
+    constructor is passed the dictionary used for configuration, and
+    has a :meth:`configure` method.  The :mod:`logging.config` module
+    has a callable attribute :attr:`dictConfigClass`
+    which is initially set to :class:`DictConfigurator`.
+    You can replace the value of :attr:`dictConfigClass` with a
+    suitable implementation of your own.
+
+    :func:`dictConfig` calls :attr:`dictConfigClass` passing
+    the specified dictionary, and then calls the :meth:`configure` method on
+    the returned object to put the configuration into effect::
+
+          def dictConfig(config):
+              dictConfigClass(config).configure()
+
+    For example, a subclass of :class:`DictConfigurator` could call
+    ``DictConfigurator.__init__()`` in its own :meth:`__init__()`, then
+    set up custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent
+    :meth:`configure` call. :attr:`dictConfigClass` would be bound to
+    this new subclass, and then :func:`dictConfig` could be called exactly as
+    in the default, uncustomized state.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. function:: fileConfig(fname, defaults=None, disable_existing_loggers=True)
+
+   Reads the logging configuration from a :mod:`configparser`\-format file. The
+   format of the file should be as described in
+   :ref:`logging-config-fileformat`.
+   This function can be called several times from an application, allowing an
+   end user to select from various pre-canned configurations (if the developer
+   provides a mechanism to present the choices and load the chosen
+   configuration).
+
+   :param fname: A filename, or a file-like object, or an instance derived
+                 from :class:`~configparser.RawConfigParser`. If a
+                 ``RawConfigParser``-derived instance is passed, it is used as
+                 is. Otherwise, a :class:`~configparser.Configparser` is
+                 instantiated, and the configuration read by it from the
+                 object passed in ``fname``. If that has a :meth:`readline`
+                 method, it is assumed to be a file-like object and read using
+                 :meth:`~configparser.ConfigParser.read_file`; otherwise,
+                 it is assumed to be a filename and passed to
+                 :meth:`~configparser.ConfigParser.read`.
+
+
+   :param defaults: Defaults to be passed to the ConfigParser can be specified
+                    in this argument.
+
+   :param disable_existing_loggers: If specified as ``False``, loggers which
+                                    exist when this call is made are left
+                                    enabled. The default is ``True`` because this
+                                    enables old behaviour in a
+                                    backward-compatible way. This behaviour is to
+                                    disable any existing non-root loggers unless
+                                    they or their ancestors are explicitly named
+                                    in the logging configuration.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      An instance of a subclass of :class:`~configparser.RawConfigParser` is
+      now accepted as a value for ``fname``. This facilitates:
+
+      * Use of a configuration file where logging configuration is just part
+        of the overall application configuration.
+      * Use of a configuration read from a file, and then modified by the using
+        application (e.g. based on command-line parameters or other aspects
+        of the runtime environment) before being passed to ``fileConfig``.
+
+.. function:: listen(port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT, verify=None)
+
+   Starts up a socket server on the specified port, and listens for new
+   configurations. If no port is specified, the module's default
+   :const:`DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT` is used. Logging configurations will be
+   sent as a file suitable for processing by :func:`dictConfig` or
+   :func:`fileConfig`. Returns a :class:`~threading.Thread` instance on which
+   you can call :meth:`~threading.Thread.start` to start the server, and which
+   you can :meth:`~threading.Thread.join` when appropriate. To stop the server,
+   call :func:`stopListening`.
+
+   The ``verify`` argument, if specified, should be a callable which should
+   verify whether bytes received across the socket are valid and should be
+   processed. This could be done by encrypting and/or signing what is sent
+   across the socket, such that the ``verify`` callable can perform
+   signature verification and/or decryption. The ``verify`` callable is called
+   with a single argument - the bytes received across the socket - and should
+   return the bytes to be processed, or ``None`` to indicate that the bytes should
+   be discarded. The returned bytes could be the same as the passed in bytes
+   (e.g. when only verification is done), or they could be completely different
+   (perhaps if decryption were performed).
+
+   To send a configuration to the socket, read in the configuration file and
+   send it to the socket as a sequence of bytes preceded by a four-byte length
+   string packed in binary using ``struct.pack('>L', n)``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Because portions of the configuration are passed through
+      :func:`eval`, use of this function may open its users to a security risk.
+      While the function only binds to a socket on ``localhost``, and so does
+      not accept connections from remote machines, there are scenarios where
+      untrusted code could be run under the account of the process which calls
+      :func:`listen`. Specifically, if the process calling :func:`listen` runs
+      on a multi-user machine where users cannot trust each other, then a
+      malicious user could arrange to run essentially arbitrary code in a
+      victim user's process, simply by connecting to the victim's
+      :func:`listen` socket and sending a configuration which runs whatever
+      code the attacker wants to have executed in the victim's process. This is
+      especially easy to do if the default port is used, but not hard even if a
+      different port is used). To avoid the risk of this happening, use the
+      ``verify`` argument to :func:`listen` to prevent unrecognised
+      configurations from being applied.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The ``verify`` argument was added.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If you want to send configurations to the listener which don't
+      disable existing loggers, you will need to use a JSON format for
+      the configuration, which will use :func:`dictConfig` for configuration.
+      This method allows you to specify ``disable_existing_loggers`` as
+      ``False`` in the configuration you send.
+
+
+.. function:: stopListening()
+
+   Stops the listening server which was created with a call to :func:`listen`.
+   This is typically called before calling :meth:`join` on the return value from
+   :func:`listen`.
+
+
+.. _logging-config-dictschema:
+
+Configuration dictionary schema
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Describing a logging configuration requires listing the various
+objects to create and the connections between them; for example, you
+may create a handler named 'console' and then say that the logger
+named 'startup' will send its messages to the 'console' handler.
+These objects aren't limited to those provided by the :mod:`logging`
+module because you might write your own formatter or handler class.
+The parameters to these classes may also need to include external
+objects such as ``sys.stderr``.  The syntax for describing these
+objects and connections is defined in :ref:`logging-config-dict-connections`
+below.
+
+Dictionary Schema Details
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+The dictionary passed to :func:`dictConfig` must contain the following
+keys:
+
+* *version* - to be set to an integer value representing the schema
+  version.  The only valid value at present is 1, but having this key
+  allows the schema to evolve while still preserving backwards
+  compatibility.
+
+All other keys are optional, but if present they will be interpreted
+as described below.  In all cases below where a 'configuring dict' is
+mentioned, it will be checked for the special ``'()'`` key to see if a
+custom instantiation is required.  If so, the mechanism described in
+:ref:`logging-config-dict-userdef` below is used to create an instance;
+otherwise, the context is used to determine what to instantiate.
+
+* *formatters* - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
+  key is a formatter id and each value is a dict describing how to
+  configure the corresponding :class:`~logging.Formatter` instance.
+
+  The configuring dict is searched for keys ``format`` and ``datefmt``
+  (with defaults of ``None``) and these are used to construct a
+  :class:`~logging.Formatter` instance.
+
+* *filters* - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key
+  is a filter id and each value is a dict describing how to configure
+  the corresponding Filter instance.
+
+  The configuring dict is searched for the key ``name`` (defaulting to the
+  empty string) and this is used to construct a :class:`logging.Filter`
+  instance.
+
+* *handlers* - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
+  key is a handler id and each value is a dict describing how to
+  configure the corresponding Handler instance.
+
+  The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:
+
+  * ``class`` (mandatory).  This is the fully qualified name of the
+    handler class.
+
+  * ``level`` (optional).  The level of the handler.
+
+  * ``formatter`` (optional).  The id of the formatter for this
+    handler.
+
+  * ``filters`` (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
+    handler.
+
+  All *other* keys are passed through as keyword arguments to the
+  handler's constructor.  For example, given the snippet:
+
+  .. code-block:: yaml
+
+      handlers:
+        console:
+          class : logging.StreamHandler
+          formatter: brief
+          level   : INFO
+          filters: [allow_foo]
+          stream  : ext://sys.stdout
+        file:
+          class : logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler
+          formatter: precise
+          filename: logconfig.log
+          maxBytes: 1024
+          backupCount: 3
+
+  the handler with id ``console`` is instantiated as a
+  :class:`logging.StreamHandler`, using ``sys.stdout`` as the underlying
+  stream.  The handler with id ``file`` is instantiated as a
+  :class:`logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler` with the keyword arguments
+  ``filename='logconfig.log', maxBytes=1024, backupCount=3``.
+
+* *loggers* - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key
+  is a logger name and each value is a dict describing how to
+  configure the corresponding Logger instance.
+
+  The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:
+
+  * ``level`` (optional).  The level of the logger.
+
+  * ``propagate`` (optional).  The propagation setting of the logger.
+
+  * ``filters`` (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
+    logger.
+
+  * ``handlers`` (optional).  A list of ids of the handlers for this
+    logger.
+
+  The specified loggers will be configured according to the level,
+  propagation, filters and handlers specified.
+
+* *root* - this will be the configuration for the root logger.
+  Processing of the configuration will be as for any logger, except
+  that the ``propagate`` setting will not be applicable.
+
+* *incremental* - whether the configuration is to be interpreted as
+  incremental to the existing configuration.  This value defaults to
+  ``False``, which means that the specified configuration replaces the
+  existing configuration with the same semantics as used by the
+  existing :func:`fileConfig` API.
+
+  If the specified value is ``True``, the configuration is processed
+  as described in the section on :ref:`logging-config-dict-incremental`.
+
+* *disable_existing_loggers* - whether any existing non-root loggers are
+  to be disabled. This setting mirrors the parameter of the same name in
+  :func:`fileConfig`. If absent, this parameter defaults to ``True``.
+  This value is ignored if *incremental* is ``True``.
+
+.. _logging-config-dict-incremental:
+
+Incremental Configuration
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+It is difficult to provide complete flexibility for incremental
+configuration.  For example, because objects such as filters
+and formatters are anonymous, once a configuration is set up, it is
+not possible to refer to such anonymous objects when augmenting a
+configuration.
+
+Furthermore, there is not a compelling case for arbitrarily altering
+the object graph of loggers, handlers, filters, formatters at
+run-time, once a configuration is set up; the verbosity of loggers and
+handlers can be controlled just by setting levels (and, in the case of
+loggers, propagation flags).  Changing the object graph arbitrarily in
+a safe way is problematic in a multi-threaded environment; while not
+impossible, the benefits are not worth the complexity it adds to the
+implementation.
+
+Thus, when the ``incremental`` key of a configuration dict is present
+and is ``True``, the system will completely ignore any ``formatters`` and
+``filters`` entries, and process only the ``level``
+settings in the ``handlers`` entries, and the ``level`` and
+``propagate`` settings in the ``loggers`` and ``root`` entries.
+
+Using a value in the configuration dict lets configurations to be sent
+over the wire as pickled dicts to a socket listener. Thus, the logging
+verbosity of a long-running application can be altered over time with
+no need to stop and restart the application.
+
+.. _logging-config-dict-connections:
+
+Object connections
+""""""""""""""""""
+
+The schema describes a set of logging objects - loggers,
+handlers, formatters, filters - which are connected to each other in
+an object graph.  Thus, the schema needs to represent connections
+between the objects.  For example, say that, once configured, a
+particular logger has attached to it a particular handler.  For the
+purposes of this discussion, we can say that the logger represents the
+source, and the handler the destination, of a connection between the
+two.  Of course in the configured objects this is represented by the
+logger holding a reference to the handler.  In the configuration dict,
+this is done by giving each destination object an id which identifies
+it unambiguously, and then using the id in the source object's
+configuration to indicate that a connection exists between the source
+and the destination object with that id.
+
+So, for example, consider the following YAML snippet:
+
+.. code-block:: yaml
+
+    formatters:
+      brief:
+        # configuration for formatter with id 'brief' goes here
+      precise:
+        # configuration for formatter with id 'precise' goes here
+    handlers:
+      h1: #This is an id
+       # configuration of handler with id 'h1' goes here
+       formatter: brief
+      h2: #This is another id
+       # configuration of handler with id 'h2' goes here
+       formatter: precise
+    loggers:
+      foo.bar.baz:
+        # other configuration for logger 'foo.bar.baz'
+        handlers: [h1, h2]
+
+(Note: YAML used here because it's a little more readable than the
+equivalent Python source form for the dictionary.)
+
+The ids for loggers are the logger names which would be used
+programmatically to obtain a reference to those loggers, e.g.
+``foo.bar.baz``.  The ids for Formatters and Filters can be any string
+value (such as ``brief``, ``precise`` above) and they are transient,
+in that they are only meaningful for processing the configuration
+dictionary and used to determine connections between objects, and are
+not persisted anywhere when the configuration call is complete.
+
+The above snippet indicates that logger named ``foo.bar.baz`` should
+have two handlers attached to it, which are described by the handler
+ids ``h1`` and ``h2``. The formatter for ``h1`` is that described by id
+``brief``, and the formatter for ``h2`` is that described by id
+``precise``.
+
+
+.. _logging-config-dict-userdef:
+
+User-defined objects
+""""""""""""""""""""
+
+The schema supports user-defined objects for handlers, filters and
+formatters.  (Loggers do not need to have different types for
+different instances, so there is no support in this configuration
+schema for user-defined logger classes.)
+
+Objects to be configured are described by dictionaries
+which detail their configuration.  In some places, the logging system
+will be able to infer from the context how an object is to be
+instantiated, but when a user-defined object is to be instantiated,
+the system will not know how to do this.  In order to provide complete
+flexibility for user-defined object instantiation, the user needs
+to provide a 'factory' - a callable which is called with a
+configuration dictionary and which returns the instantiated object.
+This is signalled by an absolute import path to the factory being
+made available under the special key ``'()'``.  Here's a concrete
+example:
+
+.. code-block:: yaml
+
+    formatters:
+      brief:
+        format: '%(message)s'
+      default:
+        format: '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s'
+        datefmt: '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
+      custom:
+          (): my.package.customFormatterFactory
+          bar: baz
+          spam: 99.9
+          answer: 42
+
+The above YAML snippet defines three formatters.  The first, with id
+``brief``, is a standard :class:`logging.Formatter` instance with the
+specified format string.  The second, with id ``default``, has a
+longer format and also defines the time format explicitly, and will
+result in a :class:`logging.Formatter` initialized with those two format
+strings.  Shown in Python source form, the ``brief`` and ``default``
+formatters have configuration sub-dictionaries::
+
+    {
+      'format' : '%(message)s'
+    }
+
+and::
+
+    {
+      'format' : '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s',
+      'datefmt' : '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
+    }
+
+respectively, and as these dictionaries do not contain the special key
+``'()'``, the instantiation is inferred from the context: as a result,
+standard :class:`logging.Formatter` instances are created.  The
+configuration sub-dictionary for the third formatter, with id
+``custom``, is::
+
+  {
+    '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
+    'bar' : 'baz',
+    'spam' : 99.9,
+    'answer' : 42
+  }
+
+and this contains the special key ``'()'``, which means that
+user-defined instantiation is wanted.  In this case, the specified
+factory callable will be used. If it is an actual callable it will be
+used directly - otherwise, if you specify a string (as in the example)
+the actual callable will be located using normal import mechanisms.
+The callable will be called with the **remaining** items in the
+configuration sub-dictionary as keyword arguments.  In the above
+example, the formatter with id ``custom`` will be assumed to be
+returned by the call::
+
+    my.package.customFormatterFactory(bar='baz', spam=99.9, answer=42)
+
+The key ``'()'`` has been used as the special key because it is not a
+valid keyword parameter name, and so will not clash with the names of
+the keyword arguments used in the call.  The ``'()'`` also serves as a
+mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.
+
+
+.. _logging-config-dict-externalobj:
+
+Access to external objects
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+There are times where a configuration needs to refer to objects
+external to the configuration, for example ``sys.stderr``.  If the
+configuration dict is constructed using Python code, this is
+straightforward, but a problem arises when the configuration is
+provided via a text file (e.g. JSON, YAML).  In a text file, there is
+no standard way to distinguish ``sys.stderr`` from the literal string
+``'sys.stderr'``.  To facilitate this distinction, the configuration
+system looks for certain special prefixes in string values and
+treat them specially.  For example, if the literal string
+``'ext://sys.stderr'`` is provided as a value in the configuration,
+then the ``ext://`` will be stripped off and the remainder of the
+value processed using normal import mechanisms.
+
+The handling of such prefixes is done in a way analogous to protocol
+handling: there is a generic mechanism to look for prefixes which
+match the regular expression ``^(?P<prefix>[a-z]+)://(?P<suffix>.*)$``
+whereby, if the ``prefix`` is recognised, the ``suffix`` is processed
+in a prefix-dependent manner and the result of the processing replaces
+the string value.  If the prefix is not recognised, then the string
+value will be left as-is.
+
+
+.. _logging-config-dict-internalobj:
+
+Access to internal objects
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+As well as external objects, there is sometimes also a need to refer
+to objects in the configuration.  This will be done implicitly by the
+configuration system for things that it knows about.  For example, the
+string value ``'DEBUG'`` for a ``level`` in a logger or handler will
+automatically be converted to the value ``logging.DEBUG``, and the
+``handlers``, ``filters`` and ``formatter`` entries will take an
+object id and resolve to the appropriate destination object.
+
+However, a more generic mechanism is needed for user-defined
+objects which are not known to the :mod:`logging` module.  For
+example, consider :class:`logging.handlers.MemoryHandler`, which takes
+a ``target`` argument which is another handler to delegate to. Since
+the system already knows about this class, then in the configuration,
+the given ``target`` just needs to be the object id of the relevant
+target handler, and the system will resolve to the handler from the
+id.  If, however, a user defines a ``my.package.MyHandler`` which has
+an ``alternate`` handler, the configuration system would not know that
+the ``alternate`` referred to a handler.  To cater for this, a generic
+resolution system allows the user to specify:
+
+.. code-block:: yaml
+
+    handlers:
+      file:
+        # configuration of file handler goes here
+
+      custom:
+        (): my.package.MyHandler
+        alternate: cfg://handlers.file
+
+The literal string ``'cfg://handlers.file'`` will be resolved in an
+analogous way to strings with the ``ext://`` prefix, but looking
+in the configuration itself rather than the import namespace.  The
+mechanism allows access by dot or by index, in a similar way to
+that provided by ``str.format``.  Thus, given the following snippet:
+
+.. code-block:: yaml
+
+    handlers:
+      email:
+        class: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler
+        mailhost: localhost
+        fromaddr: my_app@domain.tld
+        toaddrs:
+          - support_team@domain.tld
+          - dev_team@domain.tld
+        subject: Houston, we have a problem.
+
+in the configuration, the string ``'cfg://handlers'`` would resolve to
+the dict with key ``handlers``, the string ``'cfg://handlers.email``
+would resolve to the dict with key ``email`` in the ``handlers`` dict,
+and so on.  The string ``'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1]`` would
+resolve to ``'dev_team.domain.tld'`` and the string
+``'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]'`` would resolve to the value
+``'support_team@domain.tld'``. The ``subject`` value could be accessed
+using either ``'cfg://handlers.email.subject'`` or, equivalently,
+``'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'``.  The latter form only needs to be
+used if the key contains spaces or non-alphanumeric characters.  If an
+index value consists only of decimal digits, access will be attempted
+using the corresponding integer value, falling back to the string
+value if needed.
+
+Given a string ``cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123``, this will
+resolve to ``config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']``.
+If the string is specified as ``cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123]``,
+the system will attempt to retrieve the value from
+``config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123]``, and fall back
+to ``config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']`` if that
+fails.
+
+
+.. _logging-import-resolution:
+
+Import resolution and custom importers
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+Import resolution, by default, uses the builtin :func:`__import__` function
+to do its importing. You may want to replace this with your own importing
+mechanism: if so, you can replace the :attr:`importer` attribute of the
+:class:`DictConfigurator` or its superclass, the
+:class:`BaseConfigurator` class. However, you need to be
+careful because of the way functions are accessed from classes via
+descriptors. If you are using a Python callable to do your imports, and you
+want to define it at class level rather than instance level, you need to wrap
+it with :func:`staticmethod`. For example::
+
+   from importlib import import_module
+   from logging.config import BaseConfigurator
+
+   BaseConfigurator.importer = staticmethod(import_module)
+
+You don't need to wrap with :func:`staticmethod` if you're setting the import
+callable on a configurator *instance*.
+
+
+.. _logging-config-fileformat:
+
+Configuration file format
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The configuration file format understood by :func:`fileConfig` is based on
+:mod:`configparser` functionality. The file must contain sections called
+``[loggers]``, ``[handlers]`` and ``[formatters]`` which identify by name the
+entities of each type which are defined in the file. For each such entity, there
+is a separate section which identifies how that entity is configured.  Thus, for
+a logger named ``log01`` in the ``[loggers]`` section, the relevant
+configuration details are held in a section ``[logger_log01]``. Similarly, a
+handler called ``hand01`` in the ``[handlers]`` section will have its
+configuration held in a section called ``[handler_hand01]``, while a formatter
+called ``form01`` in the ``[formatters]`` section will have its configuration
+specified in a section called ``[formatter_form01]``. The root logger
+configuration must be specified in a section called ``[logger_root]``.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :func:`fileConfig` API is older than the :func:`dictConfig` API and does
+   not provide functionality to cover certain aspects of logging. For example,
+   you cannot configure :class:`~logging.Filter` objects, which provide for
+   filtering of messages beyond simple integer levels, using :func:`fileConfig`.
+   If you need to have instances of :class:`~logging.Filter` in your logging
+   configuration, you will need to use :func:`dictConfig`. Note that future
+   enhancements to configuration functionality will be added to
+   :func:`dictConfig`, so it's worth considering transitioning to this newer
+   API when it's convenient to do so.
+
+Examples of these sections in the file are given below.
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [loggers]
+   keys=root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07
+
+   [handlers]
+   keys=hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09
+
+   [formatters]
+   keys=form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09
+
+The root logger must specify a level and a list of handlers. An example of a
+root logger section is given below.
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [logger_root]
+   level=NOTSET
+   handlers=hand01
+
+The ``level`` entry can be one of ``DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL`` or
+``NOTSET``. For the root logger only, ``NOTSET`` means that all messages will be
+logged. Level values are :func:`eval`\ uated in the context of the ``logging``
+package's namespace.
+
+The ``handlers`` entry is a comma-separated list of handler names, which must
+appear in the ``[handlers]`` section. These names must appear in the
+``[handlers]`` section and have corresponding sections in the configuration
+file.
+
+For loggers other than the root logger, some additional information is required.
+This is illustrated by the following example.
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [logger_parser]
+   level=DEBUG
+   handlers=hand01
+   propagate=1
+   qualname=compiler.parser
+
+The ``level`` and ``handlers`` entries are interpreted as for the root logger,
+except that if a non-root logger's level is specified as ``NOTSET``, the system
+consults loggers higher up the hierarchy to determine the effective level of the
+logger. The ``propagate`` entry is set to 1 to indicate that messages must
+propagate to handlers higher up the logger hierarchy from this logger, or 0 to
+indicate that messages are **not** propagated to handlers up the hierarchy. The
+``qualname`` entry is the hierarchical channel name of the logger, that is to
+say the name used by the application to get the logger.
+
+Sections which specify handler configuration are exemplified by the following.
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [handler_hand01]
+   class=StreamHandler
+   level=NOTSET
+   formatter=form01
+   args=(sys.stdout,)
+
+The ``class`` entry indicates the handler's class (as determined by :func:`eval`
+in the ``logging`` package's namespace). The ``level`` is interpreted as for
+loggers, and ``NOTSET`` is taken to mean 'log everything'.
+
+The ``formatter`` entry indicates the key name of the formatter for this
+handler. If blank, a default formatter (``logging._defaultFormatter``) is used.
+If a name is specified, it must appear in the ``[formatters]`` section and have
+a corresponding section in the configuration file.
+
+The ``args`` entry, when :func:`eval`\ uated in the context of the ``logging``
+package's namespace, is the list of arguments to the constructor for the handler
+class. Refer to the constructors for the relevant handlers, or to the examples
+below, to see how typical entries are constructed. If not provided, it defaults
+to ``()``.
+
+The optional ``kwargs`` entry, when :func:`eval`\ uated in the context of the
+``logging`` package's namespace, is the keyword argument dict to the constructor
+for the handler class. If not provided, it defaults to ``{}``.
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [handler_hand02]
+   class=FileHandler
+   level=DEBUG
+   formatter=form02
+   args=('python.log', 'w')
+
+   [handler_hand03]
+   class=handlers.SocketHandler
+   level=INFO
+   formatter=form03
+   args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
+
+   [handler_hand04]
+   class=handlers.DatagramHandler
+   level=WARN
+   formatter=form04
+   args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)
+
+   [handler_hand05]
+   class=handlers.SysLogHandler
+   level=ERROR
+   formatter=form05
+   args=(('localhost', handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)
+
+   [handler_hand06]
+   class=handlers.NTEventLogHandler
+   level=CRITICAL
+   formatter=form06
+   args=('Python Application', '', 'Application')
+
+   [handler_hand07]
+   class=handlers.SMTPHandler
+   level=WARN
+   formatter=form07
+   args=('localhost', 'from@abc', ['user1@abc', 'user2@xyz'], 'Logger Subject')
+   kwargs={'timeout': 10.0}
+
+   [handler_hand08]
+   class=handlers.MemoryHandler
+   level=NOTSET
+   formatter=form08
+   target=
+   args=(10, ERROR)
+
+   [handler_hand09]
+   class=handlers.HTTPHandler
+   level=NOTSET
+   formatter=form09
+   args=('localhost:9022', '/log', 'GET')
+   kwargs={'secure': True}
+
+Sections which specify formatter configuration are typified by the following.
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+   [formatter_form01]
+   format=F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s
+   datefmt=
+   class=logging.Formatter
+
+The ``format`` entry is the overall format string, and the ``datefmt`` entry is
+the :func:`strftime`\ -compatible date/time format string.  If empty, the
+package substitutes something which is almost equivalent to specifying the date
+format string ``'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'``.  This format also specifies milliseconds,
+which are appended to the result of using the above format string, with a comma
+separator.  An example time in this format is ``2003-01-23 00:29:50,411``.
+
+The ``class`` entry is optional.  It indicates the name of the formatter's class
+(as a dotted module and class name.)  This option is useful for instantiating a
+:class:`~logging.Formatter` subclass.  Subclasses of
+:class:`~logging.Formatter` can present exception tracebacks in an expanded or
+condensed format.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Due to the use of :func:`eval` as described above, there are
+   potential security risks which result from using the :func:`listen` to send
+   and receive configurations via sockets. The risks are limited to where
+   multiple users with no mutual trust run code on the same machine; see the
+   :func:`listen` documentation for more information.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`logging`
+      API reference for the logging module.
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.handlers`
+      Useful handlers included with the logging module.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.handlers.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.handlers.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..32919c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.handlers.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1108 @@
+:mod:`logging.handlers` --- Logging handlers
+============================================
+
+.. module:: logging.handlers
+   :synopsis: Handlers for the logging module.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@red-dove.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@red-dove.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/logging/handlers.py`
+
+.. sidebar:: Important
+
+   This page contains only reference information. For tutorials,
+   please see
+
+   * :ref:`Basic Tutorial <logging-basic-tutorial>`
+   * :ref:`Advanced Tutorial <logging-advanced-tutorial>`
+   * :ref:`Logging Cookbook <logging-cookbook>`
+
+--------------
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+The following useful handlers are provided in the package. Note that three of
+the handlers (:class:`StreamHandler`, :class:`FileHandler` and
+:class:`NullHandler`) are actually defined in the :mod:`logging` module itself,
+but have been documented here along with the other handlers.
+
+.. _stream-handler:
+
+StreamHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`StreamHandler` class, located in the core :mod:`logging` package,
+sends logging output to streams such as *sys.stdout*, *sys.stderr* or any
+file-like object (or, more precisely, any object which supports :meth:`write`
+and :meth:`flush` methods).
+
+
+.. class:: StreamHandler(stream=None)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`StreamHandler` class. If *stream* is
+   specified, the instance will use it for logging output; otherwise, *sys.stderr*
+   will be used.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      If a formatter is specified, it is used to format the record. The record
+      is then written to the stream with a terminator. If exception information
+      is present, it is formatted using :func:`traceback.print_exception` and
+      appended to the stream.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      Flushes the stream by calling its :meth:`flush` method. Note that the
+      :meth:`close` method is inherited from :class:`~logging.Handler` and so
+      does no output, so an explicit :meth:`flush` call may be needed at times.
+
+   .. method:: setStream(stream)
+
+      Sets the instance's stream to the specified value, if it is different.
+      The old stream is flushed before the new stream is set.
+
+      :param stream: The stream that the handler should use.
+
+      :return: the old stream, if the stream was changed, or *None* if it wasn't.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   The ``StreamHandler`` class now has a ``terminator`` attribute, default
+   value ``'\n'``, which is used as the terminator when writing a formatted
+   record to a stream. If you don't want this newline termination, you can
+   set the handler instance's ``terminator`` attribute to the empty string.
+   In earlier versions, the terminator was hardcoded as ``'\n'``.
+
+
+.. _file-handler:
+
+FileHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`FileHandler` class, located in the core :mod:`logging` package,
+sends logging output to a disk file.  It inherits the output functionality from
+:class:`StreamHandler`.
+
+
+.. class:: FileHandler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, delay=False)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`FileHandler` class. The specified file is
+   opened and used as the stream for logging. If *mode* is not specified,
+   :const:`'a'` is used.  If *encoding* is not ``None``, it is used to open the file
+   with that encoding.  If *delay* is true, then file opening is deferred until the
+   first call to :meth:`emit`. By default, the file grows indefinitely.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      As well as string values, :class:`~pathlib.Path` objects are also accepted
+      for the *filename* argument.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Closes the file.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Outputs the record to the file.
+
+
+.. _null-handler:
+
+NullHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+The :class:`NullHandler` class, located in the core :mod:`logging` package,
+does not do any formatting or output. It is essentially a 'no-op' handler
+for use by library developers.
+
+.. class:: NullHandler()
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`NullHandler` class.
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      This method does nothing.
+
+   .. method:: handle(record)
+
+      This method does nothing.
+
+   .. method:: createLock()
+
+      This method returns ``None`` for the lock, since there is no
+      underlying I/O to which access needs to be serialized.
+
+
+See :ref:`library-config` for more information on how to use
+:class:`NullHandler`.
+
+.. _watched-file-handler:
+
+WatchedFileHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging.handlers
+
+The :class:`WatchedFileHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers`
+module, is a :class:`FileHandler` which watches the file it is logging to. If
+the file changes, it is closed and reopened using the file name.
+
+A file change can happen because of usage of programs such as *newsyslog* and
+*logrotate* which perform log file rotation. This handler, intended for use
+under Unix/Linux, watches the file to see if it has changed since the last emit.
+(A file is deemed to have changed if its device or inode have changed.) If the
+file has changed, the old file stream is closed, and the file opened to get a
+new stream.
+
+This handler is not appropriate for use under Windows, because under Windows
+open log files cannot be moved or renamed - logging opens the files with
+exclusive locks - and so there is no need for such a handler. Furthermore,
+*ST_INO* is not supported under Windows; :func:`~os.stat` always returns zero
+for this value.
+
+
+.. class:: WatchedFileHandler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, delay=False)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`WatchedFileHandler` class. The specified
+   file is opened and used as the stream for logging. If *mode* is not specified,
+   :const:`'a'` is used.  If *encoding* is not ``None``, it is used to open the file
+   with that encoding.  If *delay* is true, then file opening is deferred until the
+   first call to :meth:`emit`.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      As well as string values, :class:`~pathlib.Path` objects are also accepted
+      for the *filename* argument.
+
+   .. method:: reopenIfNeeded()
+
+      Checks to see if the file has changed.  If it has, the existing stream is
+      flushed and closed and the file opened again, typically as a precursor to
+      outputting the record to the file.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Outputs the record to the file, but first calls :meth:`reopenIfNeeded` to
+      reopen the file if it has changed.
+
+.. _base-rotating-handler:
+
+BaseRotatingHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`BaseRotatingHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers`
+module, is the base class for the rotating file handlers,
+:class:`RotatingFileHandler` and :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler`. You should
+not need to instantiate this class, but it has attributes and methods you may
+need to override.
+
+.. class:: BaseRotatingHandler(filename, mode, encoding=None, delay=False)
+
+   The parameters are as for :class:`FileHandler`. The attributes are:
+
+   .. attribute:: namer
+
+      If this attribute is set to a callable, the :meth:`rotation_filename`
+      method delegates to this callable. The parameters passed to the callable
+      are those passed to :meth:`rotation_filename`.
+
+      .. note:: The namer function is called quite a few times during rollover,
+         so it should be as simple and as fast as possible. It should also
+         return the same output every time for a given input, otherwise the
+         rollover behaviour may not work as expected.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseRotatingHandler.rotator
+
+      If this attribute is set to a callable, the :meth:`rotate` method
+      delegates to this callable.  The parameters passed to the callable are
+      those passed to :meth:`rotate`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename(default_name)
+
+      Modify the filename of a log file when rotating.
+
+      This is provided so that a custom filename can be provided.
+
+      The default implementation calls the 'namer' attribute of the handler,
+      if it's callable, passing the default name to it. If the attribute isn't
+      callable (the default is ``None``), the name is returned unchanged.
+
+      :param default_name: The default name for the log file.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseRotatingHandler.rotate(source, dest)
+
+      When rotating, rotate the current log.
+
+      The default implementation calls the 'rotator' attribute of the handler,
+      if it's callable, passing the source and dest arguments to it. If the
+      attribute isn't callable (the default is ``None``), the source is simply
+      renamed to the destination.
+
+      :param source: The source filename. This is normally the base
+                     filename, e.g. 'test.log'.
+      :param dest:   The destination filename. This is normally
+                     what the source is rotated to, e.g. 'test.log.1'.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The reason the attributes exist is to save you having to subclass - you can use
+the same callables for instances of :class:`RotatingFileHandler` and
+:class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler`. If either the namer or rotator callable
+raises an exception, this will be handled in the same way as any other
+exception during an :meth:`emit` call, i.e. via the :meth:`handleError` method
+of the handler.
+
+If you need to make more significant changes to rotation processing, you can
+override the methods.
+
+For an example, see :ref:`cookbook-rotator-namer`.
+
+
+.. _rotating-file-handler:
+
+RotatingFileHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`RotatingFileHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers`
+module, supports rotation of disk log files.
+
+
+.. class:: RotatingFileHandler(filename, mode='a', maxBytes=0, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`RotatingFileHandler` class. The specified
+   file is opened and used as the stream for logging. If *mode* is not specified,
+   ``'a'`` is used.  If *encoding* is not ``None``, it is used to open the file
+   with that encoding.  If *delay* is true, then file opening is deferred until the
+   first call to :meth:`emit`.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.
+
+   You can use the *maxBytes* and *backupCount* values to allow the file to
+   :dfn:`rollover` at a predetermined size. When the size is about to be exceeded,
+   the file is closed and a new file is silently opened for output. Rollover occurs
+   whenever the current log file is nearly *maxBytes* in length; but if either of
+   *maxBytes* or *backupCount* is zero, rollover never occurs, so you generally want
+   to set *backupCount* to at least 1, and have a non-zero *maxBytes*.
+   When *backupCount* is non-zero, the system will save old log files by appending
+   the extensions '.1', '.2' etc., to the filename. For example, with a *backupCount*
+   of 5 and a base file name of :file:`app.log`, you would get :file:`app.log`,
+   :file:`app.log.1`, :file:`app.log.2`, up to :file:`app.log.5`. The file being
+   written to is always :file:`app.log`.  When this file is filled, it is closed
+   and renamed to :file:`app.log.1`, and if files :file:`app.log.1`,
+   :file:`app.log.2`, etc. exist, then they are renamed to :file:`app.log.2`,
+   :file:`app.log.3` etc. respectively.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      As well as string values, :class:`~pathlib.Path` objects are also accepted
+      for the *filename* argument.
+
+   .. method:: doRollover()
+
+      Does a rollover, as described above.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as described
+      previously.
+
+.. _timed-rotating-file-handler:
+
+TimedRotatingFileHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` class, located in the
+:mod:`logging.handlers` module, supports rotation of disk log files at certain
+timed intervals.
+
+
+.. class:: TimedRotatingFileHandler(filename, when='h', interval=1, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False, utc=False, atTime=None)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` class. The
+   specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging. On rotating it also
+   sets the filename suffix. Rotating happens based on the product of *when* and
+   *interval*.
+
+   You can use the *when* to specify the type of *interval*. The list of possible
+   values is below.  Note that they are not case sensitive.
+
+   +----------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
+   | Value          | Type of interval           | If/how *atTime* is used |
+   +================+============================+=========================+
+   | ``'S'``        | Seconds                    | Ignored                 |
+   +----------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
+   | ``'M'``        | Minutes                    | Ignored                 |
+   +----------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
+   | ``'H'``        | Hours                      | Ignored                 |
+   +----------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
+   | ``'D'``        | Days                       | Ignored                 |
+   +----------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
+   | ``'W0'-'W6'``  | Weekday (0=Monday)         | Used to compute initial |
+   |                |                            | rollover time           |
+   +----------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
+   | ``'midnight'`` | Roll over at midnight, if  | Used to compute initial |
+   |                | *atTime* not specified,    | rollover time           |
+   |                | else at time *atTime*      |                         |
+   +----------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
+
+   When using weekday-based rotation, specify 'W0' for Monday, 'W1' for
+   Tuesday, and so on up to 'W6' for Sunday. In this case, the value passed for
+   *interval* isn't used.
+
+   The system will save old log files by appending extensions to the filename.
+   The extensions are date-and-time based, using the strftime format
+   ``%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S`` or a leading portion thereof, depending on the
+   rollover interval.
+
+   When computing the next rollover time for the first time (when the handler
+   is created), the last modification time of an existing log file, or else
+   the current time, is used to compute when the next rotation will occur.
+
+   If the *utc* argument is true, times in UTC will be used; otherwise
+   local time is used.
+
+   If *backupCount* is nonzero, at most *backupCount* files
+   will be kept, and if more would be created when rollover occurs, the oldest
+   one is deleted. The deletion logic uses the interval to determine which
+   files to delete, so changing the interval may leave old files lying around.
+
+   If *delay* is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to
+   :meth:`emit`.
+
+   If *atTime* is not ``None``, it must be a ``datetime.time`` instance which
+   specifies the time of day when rollover occurs, for the cases where rollover
+   is set to happen "at midnight" or "on a particular weekday". Note that in
+   these cases, the *atTime* value is effectively used to compute the *initial*
+   rollover, and subsequent rollovers would be calculated via the normal
+   interval calculation.
+
+   .. note:: Calculation of the initial rollover time is done when the handler
+      is initialised. Calculation of subsequent rollover times is done only
+      when rollover occurs, and rollover occurs only when emitting output. If
+      this is not kept in mind, it might lead to some confusion. For example,
+      if an interval of "every minute" is set, that does not mean you will
+      always see log files with times (in the filename) separated by a minute;
+      if, during application execution, logging output is generated more
+      frequently than once a minute, *then* you can expect to see log files
+      with times separated by a minute. If, on the other hand, logging messages
+      are only output once every five minutes (say), then there will be gaps in
+      the file times corresponding to the minutes where no output (and hence no
+      rollover) occurred.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      *atTime* parameter was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      As well as string values, :class:`~pathlib.Path` objects are also accepted
+      for the *filename* argument.
+
+   .. method:: doRollover()
+
+      Does a rollover, as described above.
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as described above.
+
+
+.. _socket-handler:
+
+SocketHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`SocketHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` module,
+sends logging output to a network socket. The base class uses a TCP socket.
+
+
+.. class:: SocketHandler(host, port)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`SocketHandler` class intended to
+   communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by *host* and *port*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      If ``port`` is specified as ``None``, a Unix domain socket is created
+      using the value in ``host`` - otherwise, a TCP socket is created.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Closes the socket.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit()
+
+      Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the socket in
+      binary format. If there is an error with the socket, silently drops the
+      packet. If the connection was previously lost, re-establishes the
+      connection. To unpickle the record at the receiving end into a
+      :class:`~logging.LogRecord`, use the :func:`~logging.makeLogRecord`
+      function.
+
+
+   .. method:: handleError()
+
+      Handles an error which has occurred during :meth:`emit`. The most likely
+      cause is a lost connection. Closes the socket so that we can retry on the
+      next event.
+
+
+   .. method:: makeSocket()
+
+      This is a factory method which allows subclasses to define the precise
+      type of socket they want. The default implementation creates a TCP socket
+      (:const:`socket.SOCK_STREAM`).
+
+
+   .. method:: makePickle(record)
+
+      Pickles the record's attribute dictionary in binary format with a length
+      prefix, and returns it ready for transmission across the socket. The
+      details of this operation are equivalent to::
+
+          data = pickle.dumps(record_attr_dict, 1)
+          datalen = struct.pack('>L', len(data))
+          return datalen + data
+
+      Note that pickles aren't completely secure. If you are concerned about
+      security, you may want to override this method to implement a more secure
+      mechanism. For example, you can sign pickles using HMAC and then verify
+      them on the receiving end, or alternatively you can disable unpickling of
+      global objects on the receiving end.
+
+
+   .. method:: send(packet)
+
+      Send a pickled byte-string *packet* to the socket. The format of the sent
+      byte-string is as described in the documentation for
+      :meth:`~SocketHandler.makePickle`.
+
+      This function allows for partial sends, which can happen when the network
+      is busy.
+
+
+   .. method:: createSocket()
+
+      Tries to create a socket; on failure, uses an exponential back-off
+      algorithm.  On initial failure, the handler will drop the message it was
+      trying to send.  When subsequent messages are handled by the same
+      instance, it will not try connecting until some time has passed.  The
+      default parameters are such that the initial delay is one second, and if
+      after that delay the connection still can't be made, the handler will
+      double the delay each time up to a maximum of 30 seconds.
+
+      This behaviour is controlled by the following handler attributes:
+
+      * ``retryStart`` (initial delay, defaulting to 1.0 seconds).
+      * ``retryFactor`` (multiplier, defaulting to 2.0).
+      * ``retryMax`` (maximum delay, defaulting to 30.0 seconds).
+
+      This means that if the remote listener starts up *after* the handler has
+      been used, you could lose messages (since the handler won't even attempt
+      a connection until the delay has elapsed, but just silently drop messages
+      during the delay period).
+
+
+.. _datagram-handler:
+
+DatagramHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`DatagramHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers`
+module, inherits from :class:`SocketHandler` to support sending logging messages
+over UDP sockets.
+
+
+.. class:: DatagramHandler(host, port)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`DatagramHandler` class intended to
+   communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by *host* and *port*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      If ``port`` is specified as ``None``, a Unix domain socket is created
+      using the value in ``host`` - otherwise, a UDP socket is created.
+
+   .. method:: emit()
+
+      Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the socket in
+      binary format. If there is an error with the socket, silently drops the
+      packet. To unpickle the record at the receiving end into a
+      :class:`~logging.LogRecord`, use the :func:`~logging.makeLogRecord`
+      function.
+
+
+   .. method:: makeSocket()
+
+      The factory method of :class:`SocketHandler` is here overridden to create
+      a UDP socket (:const:`socket.SOCK_DGRAM`).
+
+
+   .. method:: send(s)
+
+      Send a pickled byte-string to a socket. The format of the sent byte-string
+      is as described in the documentation for :meth:`SocketHandler.makePickle`.
+
+
+.. _syslog-handler:
+
+SysLogHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`SysLogHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` module,
+supports sending logging messages to a remote or local Unix syslog.
+
+
+.. class:: SysLogHandler(address=('localhost', SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), facility=LOG_USER, socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`SysLogHandler` class intended to
+   communicate with a remote Unix machine whose address is given by *address* in
+   the form of a ``(host, port)`` tuple.  If *address* is not specified,
+   ``('localhost', 514)`` is used.  The address is used to open a socket.  An
+   alternative to providing a ``(host, port)`` tuple is providing an address as a
+   string, for example '/dev/log'. In this case, a Unix domain socket is used to
+   send the message to the syslog. If *facility* is not specified,
+   :const:`LOG_USER` is used. The type of socket opened depends on the
+   *socktype* argument, which defaults to :const:`socket.SOCK_DGRAM` and thus
+   opens a UDP socket. To open a TCP socket (for use with the newer syslog
+   daemons such as rsyslog), specify a value of :const:`socket.SOCK_STREAM`.
+
+   Note that if your server is not listening on UDP port 514,
+   :class:`SysLogHandler` may appear not to work. In that case, check what
+   address you should be using for a domain socket - it's system dependent.
+   For example, on Linux it's usually '/dev/log' but on OS/X it's
+   '/var/run/syslog'. You'll need to check your platform and use the
+   appropriate address (you may need to do this check at runtime if your
+   application needs to run on several platforms). On Windows, you pretty
+   much have to use the UDP option.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *socktype* was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Closes the socket to the remote host.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      The record is formatted, and then sent to the syslog server. If exception
+      information is present, it is *not* sent to the server.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2.1
+         (See: :issue:`12168`.) In earlier versions, the message sent to the
+         syslog daemons was always terminated with a NUL byte, because early
+         versions of these daemons expected a NUL terminated message - even
+         though it's not in the relevant specification (:rfc:`5424`). More recent
+         versions of these daemons don't expect the NUL byte but strip it off
+         if it's there, and even more recent daemons (which adhere more closely
+         to RFC 5424) pass the NUL byte on as part of the message.
+
+         To enable easier handling of syslog messages in the face of all these
+         differing daemon behaviours, the appending of the NUL byte has been
+         made configurable, through the use of a class-level attribute,
+         ``append_nul``. This defaults to ``True`` (preserving the existing
+         behaviour) but can be set to ``False`` on a ``SysLogHandler`` instance
+         in order for that instance to *not* append the NUL terminator.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         (See: :issue:`12419`.) In earlier versions, there was no facility for
+         an "ident" or "tag" prefix to identify the source of the message. This
+         can now be specified using a class-level attribute, defaulting to
+         ``""`` to preserve existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on
+         a ``SysLogHandler`` instance in order for that instance to prepend
+         the ident to every message handled. Note that the provided ident must
+         be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message exactly as is.
+
+   .. method:: encodePriority(facility, priority)
+
+      Encodes the facility and priority into an integer. You can pass in strings
+      or integers - if strings are passed, internal mapping dictionaries are
+      used to convert them to integers.
+
+      The symbolic ``LOG_`` values are defined in :class:`SysLogHandler` and
+      mirror the values defined in the ``sys/syslog.h`` header file.
+
+      **Priorities**
+
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | Name (string)            | Symbolic value|
+      +==========================+===============+
+      | ``alert``                | LOG_ALERT     |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | ``crit`` or ``critical`` | LOG_CRIT      |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | ``debug``                | LOG_DEBUG     |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | ``emerg`` or ``panic``   | LOG_EMERG     |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | ``err`` or ``error``     | LOG_ERR       |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | ``info``                 | LOG_INFO      |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | ``notice``               | LOG_NOTICE    |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+      | ``warn`` or ``warning``  | LOG_WARNING   |
+      +--------------------------+---------------+
+
+      **Facilities**
+
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | Name (string) | Symbolic value|
+      +===============+===============+
+      | ``auth``      | LOG_AUTH      |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``authpriv``  | LOG_AUTHPRIV  |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``cron``      | LOG_CRON      |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``daemon``    | LOG_DAEMON    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``ftp``       | LOG_FTP       |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``kern``      | LOG_KERN      |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``lpr``       | LOG_LPR       |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``mail``      | LOG_MAIL      |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``news``      | LOG_NEWS      |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``syslog``    | LOG_SYSLOG    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``user``      | LOG_USER      |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``uucp``      | LOG_UUCP      |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local0``    | LOG_LOCAL0    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local1``    | LOG_LOCAL1    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local2``    | LOG_LOCAL2    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local3``    | LOG_LOCAL3    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local4``    | LOG_LOCAL4    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local5``    | LOG_LOCAL5    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local6``    | LOG_LOCAL6    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+      | ``local7``    | LOG_LOCAL7    |
+      +---------------+---------------+
+
+   .. method:: mapPriority(levelname)
+
+      Maps a logging level name to a syslog priority name.
+      You may need to override this if you are using custom levels, or
+      if the default algorithm is not suitable for your needs. The
+      default algorithm maps ``DEBUG``, ``INFO``, ``WARNING``, ``ERROR`` and
+      ``CRITICAL`` to the equivalent syslog names, and all other level
+      names to 'warning'.
+
+.. _nt-eventlog-handler:
+
+NTEventLogHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`NTEventLogHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers`
+module, supports sending logging messages to a local Windows NT, Windows 2000 or
+Windows XP event log. Before you can use it, you need Mark Hammond's Win32
+extensions for Python installed.
+
+
+.. class:: NTEventLogHandler(appname, dllname=None, logtype='Application')
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`NTEventLogHandler` class. The *appname* is
+   used to define the application name as it appears in the event log. An
+   appropriate registry entry is created using this name. The *dllname* should give
+   the fully qualified pathname of a .dll or .exe which contains message
+   definitions to hold in the log (if not specified, ``'win32service.pyd'`` is used
+   - this is installed with the Win32 extensions and contains some basic
+   placeholder message definitions. Note that use of these placeholders will make
+   your event logs big, as the entire message source is held in the log. If you
+   want slimmer logs, you have to pass in the name of your own .dll or .exe which
+   contains the message definitions you want to use in the event log). The
+   *logtype* is one of ``'Application'``, ``'System'`` or ``'Security'``, and
+   defaults to ``'Application'``.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      At this point, you can remove the application name from the registry as a
+      source of event log entries. However, if you do this, you will not be able
+      to see the events as you intended in the Event Log Viewer - it needs to be
+      able to access the registry to get the .dll name. The current version does
+      not do this.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Determines the message ID, event category and event type, and then logs
+      the message in the NT event log.
+
+
+   .. method:: getEventCategory(record)
+
+      Returns the event category for the record. Override this if you want to
+      specify your own categories. This version returns 0.
+
+
+   .. method:: getEventType(record)
+
+      Returns the event type for the record. Override this if you want to
+      specify your own types. This version does a mapping using the handler's
+      typemap attribute, which is set up in :meth:`__init__` to a dictionary
+      which contains mappings for :const:`DEBUG`, :const:`INFO`,
+      :const:`WARNING`, :const:`ERROR` and :const:`CRITICAL`. If you are using
+      your own levels, you will either need to override this method or place a
+      suitable dictionary in the handler's *typemap* attribute.
+
+
+   .. method:: getMessageID(record)
+
+      Returns the message ID for the record. If you are using your own messages,
+      you could do this by having the *msg* passed to the logger being an ID
+      rather than a format string. Then, in here, you could use a dictionary
+      lookup to get the message ID. This version returns 1, which is the base
+      message ID in :file:`win32service.pyd`.
+
+.. _smtp-handler:
+
+SMTPHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`SMTPHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` module,
+supports sending logging messages to an email address via SMTP.
+
+
+.. class:: SMTPHandler(mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs, subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`SMTPHandler` class. The instance is
+   initialized with the from and to addresses and subject line of the email. The
+   *toaddrs* should be a list of strings. To specify a non-standard SMTP port, use
+   the (host, port) tuple format for the *mailhost* argument. If you use a string,
+   the standard SMTP port is used. If your SMTP server requires authentication, you
+   can specify a (username, password) tuple for the *credentials* argument.
+
+   To specify the use of a secure protocol (TLS), pass in a tuple to the
+   *secure* argument. This will only be used when authentication credentials are
+   supplied. The tuple should be either an empty tuple, or a single-value tuple
+   with the name of a keyfile, or a 2-value tuple with the names of the keyfile
+   and certificate file. (This tuple is passed to the
+   :meth:`smtplib.SMTP.starttls` method.)
+
+   A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server using the
+   *timeout* argument.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *timeout* argument was added.
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees.
+
+
+   .. method:: getSubject(record)
+
+      If you want to specify a subject line which is record-dependent, override
+      this method.
+
+.. _memory-handler:
+
+MemoryHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`MemoryHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` module,
+supports buffering of logging records in memory, periodically flushing them to a
+:dfn:`target` handler. Flushing occurs whenever the buffer is full, or when an
+event of a certain severity or greater is seen.
+
+:class:`MemoryHandler` is a subclass of the more general
+:class:`BufferingHandler`, which is an abstract class. This buffers logging
+records in memory. Whenever each record is added to the buffer, a check is made
+by calling :meth:`shouldFlush` to see if the buffer should be flushed.  If it
+should, then :meth:`flush` is expected to do the flushing.
+
+
+.. class:: BufferingHandler(capacity)
+
+   Initializes the handler with a buffer of the specified capacity. Here,
+   *capacity* means the number of logging records buffered.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Appends the record to the buffer. If :meth:`shouldFlush` returns true,
+      calls :meth:`flush` to process the buffer.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      You can override this to implement custom flushing behavior. This version
+      just zaps the buffer to empty.
+
+
+   .. method:: shouldFlush(record)
+
+      Returns true if the buffer is up to capacity. This method can be
+      overridden to implement custom flushing strategies.
+
+
+.. class:: MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=ERROR, target=None, flushOnClose=True)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`MemoryHandler` class. The instance is
+   initialized with a buffer size of *capacity* (number of records buffered).
+   If *flushLevel* is not specified, :const:`ERROR` is used. If no *target* is
+   specified, the target will need to be set using :meth:`setTarget` before this
+   handler does anything useful. If *flushOnClose* is specified as ``False``,
+   then the buffer is *not* flushed when the handler is closed. If not specified
+   or specified as ``True``, the previous behaviour of flushing the buffer will
+   occur when the handler is closed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *flushOnClose* parameter was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Calls :meth:`flush`, sets the target to ``None`` and clears the
+      buffer.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      For a :class:`MemoryHandler`, flushing means just sending the buffered
+      records to the target, if there is one. The buffer is also cleared when
+      this happens. Override if you want different behavior.
+
+
+   .. method:: setTarget(target)
+
+      Sets the target handler for this handler.
+
+
+   .. method:: shouldFlush(record)
+
+      Checks for buffer full or a record at the *flushLevel* or higher.
+
+
+.. _http-handler:
+
+HTTPHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`HTTPHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` module,
+supports sending logging messages to a Web server, using either ``GET`` or
+``POST`` semantics.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPHandler(host, url, method='GET', secure=False, credentials=None, context=None)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`HTTPHandler` class. The *host* can be
+   of the form ``host:port``, should you need to use a specific port number.  If
+   no *method* is specified, ``GET`` is used. If *secure* is true, a HTTPS
+   connection will be used. The *context* parameter may be set to a
+   :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance to configure the SSL settings used for the
+   HTTPS connection. If *credentials* is specified, it should be a 2-tuple
+   consisting of userid and password, which will be placed in a HTTP
+   'Authorization' header using Basic authentication. If you specify
+   credentials, you should also specify secure=True so that your userid and
+   password are not passed in cleartext across the wire.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *context* parameter was added.
+
+   .. method:: mapLogRecord(record)
+
+      Provides a dictionary, based on ``record``, which is to be URL-encoded
+      and sent to the web server. The default implementation just returns
+      ``record.__dict__``. This method can be overridden if e.g. only a
+      subset of :class:`~logging.LogRecord` is to be sent to the web server, or
+      if more specific customization of what's sent to the server is required.
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Sends the record to the Web server as a URL-encoded dictionary. The
+      :meth:`mapLogRecord` method is used to convert the record to the
+      dictionary to be sent.
+
+   .. note:: Since preparing a record for sending it to a Web server is not
+      the same as a generic formatting operation, using
+      :meth:`~logging.Handler.setFormatter` to specify a
+      :class:`~logging.Formatter` for a :class:`HTTPHandler` has no effect.
+      Instead of calling :meth:`~logging.Handler.format`, this handler calls
+      :meth:`mapLogRecord` and then :func:`urllib.parse.urlencode` to encode the
+      dictionary in a form suitable for sending to a Web server.
+
+
+.. _queue-handler:
+
+
+QueueHandler
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+The :class:`QueueHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` module,
+supports sending logging messages to a queue, such as those implemented in the
+:mod:`queue` or :mod:`multiprocessing` modules.
+
+Along with the :class:`QueueListener` class, :class:`QueueHandler` can be used
+to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from the one which does the
+logging. This is important in Web applications and also other service
+applications where threads servicing clients need to respond as quickly as
+possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via
+:class:`SMTPHandler`) are done on a separate thread.
+
+.. class:: QueueHandler(queue)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`QueueHandler` class. The instance is
+   initialized with the queue to send messages to. The *queue* can be any
+   queue-like object; it's used as-is by the :meth:`enqueue` method, which
+   needs to know how to send messages to it. The queue is not *required* to
+   have the task tracking API, which means that you can use
+   :class:`~queue.SimpleQueue` instances for *queue*.
+
+
+   .. method:: emit(record)
+
+      Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord. Should an exception
+      occur (e.g. because a bounded queue has filled up), the
+      :meth:`~logging.Handler.handleError` method is called to handle the
+      error. This can result in the record silently being dropped (if
+      :attr:`logging.raiseExceptions` is ``False``) or a message printed to
+      ``sys.stderr`` (if :attr:`logging.raiseExceptions` is ``True``).
+
+   .. method:: prepare(record)
+
+      Prepares a record for queuing. The object returned by this
+      method is enqueued.
+
+      The base implementation formats the record to merge the message,
+      arguments, and exception information, if present.  It also
+      removes unpickleable items from the record in-place.
+
+      You might want to override this method if you want to convert
+      the record to a dict or JSON string, or send a modified copy
+      of the record while leaving the original intact.
+
+   .. method:: enqueue(record)
+
+      Enqueues the record on the queue using ``put_nowait()``; you may
+      want to override this if you want to use blocking behaviour, or a
+      timeout, or a customized queue implementation.
+
+
+
+.. _queue-listener:
+
+QueueListener
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+The :class:`QueueListener` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers`
+module, supports receiving logging messages from a queue, such as those
+implemented in the :mod:`queue` or :mod:`multiprocessing` modules. The
+messages are received from a queue in an internal thread and passed, on
+the same thread, to one or more handlers for processing. While
+:class:`QueueListener` is not itself a handler, it is documented here
+because it works hand-in-hand with :class:`QueueHandler`.
+
+Along with the :class:`QueueHandler` class, :class:`QueueListener` can be used
+to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from the one which does the
+logging. This is important in Web applications and also other service
+applications where threads servicing clients need to respond as quickly as
+possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via
+:class:`SMTPHandler`) are done on a separate thread.
+
+.. class:: QueueListener(queue, *handlers, respect_handler_level=False)
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`QueueListener` class. The instance is
+   initialized with the queue to send messages to and a list of handlers which
+   will handle entries placed on the queue. The queue can be any queue-like
+   object; it's passed as-is to the :meth:`dequeue` method, which needs
+   to know how to get messages from it. The queue is not *required* to have the
+   task tracking API (though it's used if available), which means that you can
+   use :class:`~queue.SimpleQueue` instances for *queue*.
+
+   If ``respect_handler_level`` is ``True``, a handler's level is respected
+   (compared with the level for the message) when deciding whether to pass
+   messages to that handler; otherwise, the behaviour is as in previous Python
+   versions - to always pass each message to each handler.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The ``respect_handler_levels`` argument was added.
+
+   .. method:: dequeue(block)
+
+      Dequeues a record and return it, optionally blocking.
+
+      The base implementation uses ``get()``. You may want to override this
+      method if you want to use timeouts or work with custom queue
+      implementations.
+
+   .. method:: prepare(record)
+
+      Prepare a record for handling.
+
+      This implementation just returns the passed-in record. You may want to
+      override this method if you need to do any custom marshalling or
+      manipulation of the record before passing it to the handlers.
+
+   .. method:: handle(record)
+
+      Handle a record.
+
+      This just loops through the handlers offering them the record
+      to handle. The actual object passed to the handlers is that which
+      is returned from :meth:`prepare`.
+
+   .. method:: start()
+
+      Starts the listener.
+
+      This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for
+      LogRecords to process.
+
+   .. method:: stop()
+
+      Stops the listener.
+
+      This asks the thread to terminate, and then waits for it to do so.
+      Note that if you don't call this before your application exits, there
+      may be some records still left on the queue, which won't be processed.
+
+   .. method:: enqueue_sentinel()
+
+      Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit. This
+      implementation uses ``put_nowait()``.  You may want to override this
+      method if you want to use timeouts or work with custom queue
+      implementations.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`logging`
+      API reference for the logging module.
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.config`
+      Configuration API for the logging module.
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73ce9ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/logging.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1280 @@
+:mod:`logging` --- Logging facility for Python
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: logging
+   :synopsis: Flexible event logging system for applications.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@red-dove.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@red-dove.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/logging/__init__.py`
+
+.. index:: pair: Errors; logging
+
+.. sidebar:: Important
+
+   This page contains the API reference information. For tutorial
+   information and discussion of more advanced topics, see
+
+   * :ref:`Basic Tutorial <logging-basic-tutorial>`
+   * :ref:`Advanced Tutorial <logging-advanced-tutorial>`
+   * :ref:`Logging Cookbook <logging-cookbook>`
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines functions and classes which implement a flexible event
+logging system for applications and libraries.
+
+The key benefit of having the logging API provided by a standard library module
+is that all Python modules can participate in logging, so your application log
+can include your own messages integrated with messages from third-party
+modules.
+
+The module provides a lot of functionality and flexibility.  If you are
+unfamiliar with logging, the best way to get to grips with it is to see the
+tutorials (see the links on the right).
+
+The basic classes defined by the module, together with their functions, are
+listed below.
+
+* Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.
+* Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the appropriate
+  destination.
+* Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log records
+  to output.
+* Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.
+
+
+.. _logger:
+
+Logger Objects
+--------------
+
+Loggers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that Loggers should
+*NEVER* be instantiated directly, but always through the module-level function
+``logging.getLogger(name)``.  Multiple calls to :func:`getLogger` with the same
+name will always return a reference to the same Logger object.
+
+The ``name`` is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like
+``foo.bar.baz`` (though it could also be just plain ``foo``, for example).
+Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of loggers
+higher up in the list.  For example, given a logger with a name of ``foo``,
+loggers with names of ``foo.bar``, ``foo.bar.baz``, and ``foo.bam`` are all
+descendants of ``foo``.  The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the Python
+package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your loggers on a
+per-module basis using the recommended construction
+``logging.getLogger(__name__)``.  That's because in a module, ``__name__``
+is the module's name in the Python package namespace.
+
+
+.. class:: Logger
+
+   .. attribute:: Logger.propagate
+
+      If this attribute evaluates to true, events logged to this logger will be
+      passed to the handlers of higher level (ancestor) loggers, in addition to
+      any handlers attached to this logger. Messages are passed directly to the
+      ancestor loggers' handlers - neither the level nor filters of the ancestor
+      loggers in question are considered.
+
+      If this evaluates to false, logging messages are not passed to the handlers
+      of ancestor loggers.
+
+      The constructor sets this attribute to ``True``.
+
+      .. note:: If you attach a handler to a logger *and* one or more of its
+         ancestors, it may emit the same record multiple times. In general, you
+         should not need to attach a handler to more than one logger - if you just
+         attach it to the appropriate logger which is highest in the logger
+         hierarchy, then it will see all events logged by all descendant loggers,
+         provided that their propagate setting is left set to ``True``. A common
+         scenario is to attach handlers only to the root logger, and to let
+         propagation take care of the rest.
+
+   .. method:: Logger.setLevel(level)
+
+      Sets the threshold for this logger to *level*. Logging messages which are less
+      severe than *level* will be ignored; logging messages which have severity *level*
+      or higher will be emitted by whichever handler or handlers service this logger,
+      unless a handler's level has been set to a higher severity level than *level*.
+
+      When a logger is created, the level is set to :const:`NOTSET` (which causes
+      all messages to be processed when the logger is the root logger, or delegation
+      to the parent when the logger is a non-root logger). Note that the root logger
+      is created with level :const:`WARNING`.
+
+      The term 'delegation to the parent' means that if a logger has a level of
+      NOTSET, its chain of ancestor loggers is traversed until either an ancestor with
+      a level other than NOTSET is found, or the root is reached.
+
+      If an ancestor is found with a level other than NOTSET, then that ancestor's
+      level is treated as the effective level of the logger where the ancestor search
+      began, and is used to determine how a logging event is handled.
+
+      If the root is reached, and it has a level of NOTSET, then all messages will be
+      processed. Otherwise, the root's level will be used as the effective level.
+
+      See :ref:`levels` for a list of levels.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The *level* parameter now accepts a string representation of the
+         level such as 'INFO' as an alternative to the integer constants
+         such as :const:`INFO`. Note, however, that levels are internally stored
+         as integers, and methods such as e.g. :meth:`getEffectiveLevel` and
+         :meth:`isEnabledFor` will return/expect to be passed integers.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.isEnabledFor(lvl)
+
+      Indicates if a message of severity *lvl* would be processed by this logger.
+      This method checks first the module-level level set by
+      ``logging.disable(lvl)`` and then the logger's effective level as determined
+      by :meth:`getEffectiveLevel`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.getEffectiveLevel()
+
+      Indicates the effective level for this logger. If a value other than
+      :const:`NOTSET` has been set using :meth:`setLevel`, it is returned. Otherwise,
+      the hierarchy is traversed towards the root until a value other than
+      :const:`NOTSET` is found, and that value is returned. The value returned is
+      an integer, typically one of :const:`logging.DEBUG`, :const:`logging.INFO`
+      etc.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.getChild(suffix)
+
+      Returns a logger which is a descendant to this logger, as determined by the suffix.
+      Thus, ``logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi')`` would return the same
+      logger as would be returned by ``logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi')``. This is a
+      convenience method, useful when the parent logger is named using e.g. ``__name__``
+      rather than a literal string.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Logs a message with level :const:`DEBUG` on this logger. The *msg* is the
+      message format string, and the *args* are the arguments which are merged into
+      *msg* using the string formatting operator. (Note that this means that you can
+      use keywords in the format string, together with a single dictionary argument.)
+
+      There are three keyword arguments in *kwargs* which are inspected:
+      *exc_info*, *stack_info*, and *extra*.
+
+      If *exc_info* does not evaluate as false, it causes exception information to be
+      added to the logging message. If an exception tuple (in the format returned by
+      :func:`sys.exc_info`) or an exception instance is provided, it is used;
+      otherwise, :func:`sys.exc_info` is called to get the exception information.
+
+      The second optional keyword argument is *stack_info*, which defaults to
+      ``False``. If true, stack information is added to the logging
+      message, including the actual logging call. Note that this is not the same
+      stack information as that displayed through specifying *exc_info*: The
+      former is stack frames from the bottom of the stack up to the logging call
+      in the current thread, whereas the latter is information about stack frames
+      which have been unwound, following an exception, while searching for
+      exception handlers.
+
+      You can specify *stack_info* independently of *exc_info*, e.g. to just show
+      how you got to a certain point in your code, even when no exceptions were
+      raised. The stack frames are printed following a header line which says:
+
+      .. code-block:: none
+
+          Stack (most recent call last):
+
+      This mimics the ``Traceback (most recent call last):`` which is used when
+      displaying exception frames.
+
+      The third keyword argument is *extra* which can be used to pass a
+      dictionary which is used to populate the __dict__ of the LogRecord created for
+      the logging event with user-defined attributes. These custom attributes can then
+      be used as you like. For example, they could be incorporated into logged
+      messages. For example::
+
+         FORMAT = '%(asctime)-15s %(clientip)s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
+         logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
+         d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
+         logger = logging.getLogger('tcpserver')
+         logger.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)
+
+      would print something like
+
+      .. code-block:: none
+
+         2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset
+
+      The keys in the dictionary passed in *extra* should not clash with the keys used
+      by the logging system. (See the :class:`Formatter` documentation for more
+      information on which keys are used by the logging system.)
+
+      If you choose to use these attributes in logged messages, you need to exercise
+      some care. In the above example, for instance, the :class:`Formatter` has been
+      set up with a format string which expects 'clientip' and 'user' in the attribute
+      dictionary of the LogRecord. If these are missing, the message will not be
+      logged because a string formatting exception will occur. So in this case, you
+      always need to pass the *extra* dictionary with these keys.
+
+      While this might be annoying, this feature is intended for use in specialized
+      circumstances, such as multi-threaded servers where the same code executes in
+      many contexts, and interesting conditions which arise are dependent on this
+      context (such as remote client IP address and authenticated user name, in the
+      above example). In such circumstances, it is likely that specialized
+      :class:`Formatter`\ s would be used with particular :class:`Handler`\ s.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+         The *stack_info* parameter was added.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         The *exc_info* parameter can now accept exception instances.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.info(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Logs a message with level :const:`INFO` on this logger. The arguments are
+      interpreted as for :meth:`debug`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.warning(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Logs a message with level :const:`WARNING` on this logger. The arguments are
+      interpreted as for :meth:`debug`.
+
+      .. note:: There is an obsolete method ``warn`` which is functionally
+         identical to ``warning``. As ``warn`` is deprecated, please do not use
+         it - use ``warning`` instead.
+
+   .. method:: Logger.error(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Logs a message with level :const:`ERROR` on this logger. The arguments are
+      interpreted as for :meth:`debug`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.critical(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Logs a message with level :const:`CRITICAL` on this logger. The arguments are
+      interpreted as for :meth:`debug`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.log(lvl, msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Logs a message with integer level *lvl* on this logger. The other arguments are
+      interpreted as for :meth:`debug`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.exception(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Logs a message with level :const:`ERROR` on this logger. The arguments are
+      interpreted as for :meth:`debug`. Exception info is added to the logging
+      message. This method should only be called from an exception handler.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.addFilter(filter)
+
+      Adds the specified filter *filter* to this logger.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.removeFilter(filter)
+
+      Removes the specified filter *filter* from this logger.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.filter(record)
+
+      Applies this logger's filters to the record and returns a true value if the
+      record is to be processed. The filters are consulted in turn, until one of
+      them returns a false value. If none of them return a false value, the record
+      will be processed (passed to handlers). If one returns a false value, no
+      further processing of the record occurs.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.addHandler(hdlr)
+
+      Adds the specified handler *hdlr* to this logger.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.removeHandler(hdlr)
+
+      Removes the specified handler *hdlr* from this logger.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.findCaller(stack_info=False)
+
+      Finds the caller's source filename and line number. Returns the filename, line
+      number, function name and stack information as a 4-element tuple. The stack
+      information is returned as ``None`` unless *stack_info* is ``True``.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.handle(record)
+
+      Handles a record by passing it to all handlers associated with this logger and
+      its ancestors (until a false value of *propagate* is found). This method is used
+      for unpickled records received from a socket, as well as those created locally.
+      Logger-level filtering is applied using :meth:`~Logger.filter`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Logger.makeRecord(name, lvl, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None, extra=None, sinfo=None)
+
+      This is a factory method which can be overridden in subclasses to create
+      specialized :class:`LogRecord` instances.
+
+   .. method:: Logger.hasHandlers()
+
+      Checks to see if this logger has any handlers configured. This is done by
+      looking for handlers in this logger and its parents in the logger hierarchy.
+      Returns ``True`` if a handler was found, else ``False``. The method stops searching
+      up the hierarchy whenever a logger with the 'propagate' attribute set to
+      false is found - that will be the last logger which is checked for the
+      existence of handlers.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Loggers can now be pickled and unpickled.
+
+.. _levels:
+
+Logging Levels
+--------------
+
+The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table. These are
+primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels, and need them to
+have specific values relative to the predefined levels. If you define a level
+with the same numeric value, it overwrites the predefined value; the predefined
+name is lost.
+
++--------------+---------------+
+| Level        | Numeric value |
++==============+===============+
+| ``CRITICAL`` | 50            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``ERROR``    | 40            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``WARNING``  | 30            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``INFO``     | 20            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``DEBUG``    | 10            |
++--------------+---------------+
+| ``NOTSET``   | 0             |
++--------------+---------------+
+
+
+.. _handler:
+
+Handler Objects
+---------------
+
+Handlers have the following attributes and methods. Note that :class:`Handler`
+is never instantiated directly; this class acts as a base for more useful
+subclasses. However, the :meth:`__init__` method in subclasses needs to call
+:meth:`Handler.__init__`.
+
+.. class:: Handler
+
+   .. method:: Handler.__init__(level=NOTSET)
+
+      Initializes the :class:`Handler` instance by setting its level, setting the list
+      of filters to the empty list and creating a lock (using :meth:`createLock`) for
+      serializing access to an I/O mechanism.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.createLock()
+
+      Initializes a thread lock which can be used to serialize access to underlying
+      I/O functionality which may not be threadsafe.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.acquire()
+
+      Acquires the thread lock created with :meth:`createLock`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.release()
+
+      Releases the thread lock acquired with :meth:`acquire`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.setLevel(level)
+
+      Sets the threshold for this handler to *level*. Logging messages which are
+      less severe than *level* will be ignored. When a handler is created, the
+      level is set to :const:`NOTSET` (which causes all messages to be
+      processed).
+
+      See :ref:`levels` for a list of levels.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The *level* parameter now accepts a string representation of the
+         level such as 'INFO' as an alternative to the integer constants
+         such as :const:`INFO`.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.setFormatter(fmt)
+
+      Sets the :class:`Formatter` for this handler to *fmt*.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.addFilter(filter)
+
+      Adds the specified filter *filter* to this handler.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.removeFilter(filter)
+
+      Removes the specified filter *filter* from this handler.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.filter(record)
+
+      Applies this handler's filters to the record and returns a true value if the
+      record is to be processed. The filters are consulted in turn, until one of
+      them returns a false value. If none of them return a false value, the record
+      will be emitted. If one returns a false value, the handler will not emit the
+      record.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.flush()
+
+      Ensure all logging output has been flushed. This version does nothing and is
+      intended to be implemented by subclasses.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.close()
+
+      Tidy up any resources used by the handler. This version does no output but
+      removes the handler from an internal list of handlers which is closed when
+      :func:`shutdown` is called. Subclasses should ensure that this gets called
+      from overridden :meth:`close` methods.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.handle(record)
+
+      Conditionally emits the specified logging record, depending on filters which may
+      have been added to the handler. Wraps the actual emission of the record with
+      acquisition/release of the I/O thread lock.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.handleError(record)
+
+      This method should be called from handlers when an exception is encountered
+      during an :meth:`emit` call. If the module-level attribute
+      ``raiseExceptions`` is ``False``, exceptions get silently ignored. This is
+      what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care about
+      errors in the logging system, they are more interested in application
+      errors. You could, however, replace this with a custom handler if you wish.
+      The specified record is the one which was being processed when the exception
+      occurred. (The default value of ``raiseExceptions`` is ``True``, as that is
+      more useful during development).
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.format(record)
+
+      Do formatting for a record - if a formatter is set, use it. Otherwise, use the
+      default formatter for the module.
+
+
+   .. method:: Handler.emit(record)
+
+      Do whatever it takes to actually log the specified logging record. This version
+      is intended to be implemented by subclasses and so raises a
+      :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+For a list of handlers included as standard, see :mod:`logging.handlers`.
+
+.. _formatter-objects:
+
+Formatter Objects
+-----------------
+
+.. currentmodule:: logging
+
+:class:`Formatter` objects have the following attributes and methods. They are
+responsible for converting a :class:`LogRecord` to (usually) a string which can
+be interpreted by either a human or an external system. The base
+:class:`Formatter` allows a formatting string to be specified. If none is
+supplied, the default value of ``'%(message)s'`` is used, which just includes
+the message in the logging call. To have additional items of information in the
+formatted output (such as a timestamp), keep reading.
+
+A Formatter can be initialized with a format string which makes use of knowledge
+of the :class:`LogRecord` attributes - such as the default value mentioned above
+making use of the fact that the user's message and arguments are pre-formatted
+into a :class:`LogRecord`'s *message* attribute.  This format string contains
+standard Python %-style mapping keys. See section :ref:`old-string-formatting`
+for more information on string formatting.
+
+The useful mapping keys in a :class:`LogRecord` are given in the section on
+:ref:`logrecord-attributes`.
+
+
+.. class:: Formatter(fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%')
+
+   Returns a new instance of the :class:`Formatter` class.  The instance is
+   initialized with a format string for the message as a whole, as well as a
+   format string for the date/time portion of a message.  If no *fmt* is
+   specified, ``'%(message)s'`` is used.  If no *datefmt* is specified, a format
+   is used which is described in the :meth:`formatTime` documentation.
+
+   The *style* parameter can be one of '%', '{' or '$' and determines how
+   the format string will be merged with its data: using one of %-formatting,
+   :meth:`str.format` or :class:`string.Template`. See :ref:`formatting-styles`
+   for more information on using {- and $-formatting for log messages.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The *style* parameter was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: format(record)
+
+      The record's attribute dictionary is used as the operand to a string
+      formatting operation. Returns the resulting string. Before formatting the
+      dictionary, a couple of preparatory steps are carried out. The *message*
+      attribute of the record is computed using *msg* % *args*. If the
+      formatting string contains ``'(asctime)'``, :meth:`formatTime` is called
+      to format the event time. If there is exception information, it is
+      formatted using :meth:`formatException` and appended to the message. Note
+      that the formatted exception information is cached in attribute
+      *exc_text*. This is useful because the exception information can be
+      pickled and sent across the wire, but you should be careful if you have
+      more than one :class:`Formatter` subclass which customizes the formatting
+      of exception information. In this case, you will have to clear the cached
+      value after a formatter has done its formatting, so that the next
+      formatter to handle the event doesn't use the cached value but
+      recalculates it afresh.
+
+      If stack information is available, it's appended after the exception
+      information, using :meth:`formatStack` to transform it if necessary.
+
+
+   .. method:: formatTime(record, datefmt=None)
+
+      This method should be called from :meth:`format` by a formatter which
+      wants to make use of a formatted time. This method can be overridden in
+      formatters to provide for any specific requirement, but the basic behavior
+      is as follows: if *datefmt* (a string) is specified, it is used with
+      :func:`time.strftime` to format the creation time of the
+      record. Otherwise, the format '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu' is used, where the
+      uuu part is a millisecond value and the other letters are as per the
+      :func:`time.strftime` documentation.  An example time in this format is
+      ``2003-01-23 00:29:50,411``.  The resulting string is returned.
+
+      This function uses a user-configurable function to convert the creation
+      time to a tuple. By default, :func:`time.localtime` is used; to change
+      this for a particular formatter instance, set the ``converter`` attribute
+      to a function with the same signature as :func:`time.localtime` or
+      :func:`time.gmtime`. To change it for all formatters, for example if you
+      want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the ``converter``
+      attribute in the ``Formatter`` class.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Previously, the default format was hard-coded as in this example:
+         ``2010-09-06 22:38:15,292`` where the part before the comma is
+         handled by a strptime format string (``'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'``), and the
+         part after the comma is a millisecond value. Because strptime does not
+         have a format placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value is
+         appended using another format string, ``'%s,%03d'`` --- and both of these
+         format strings have been hardcoded into this method. With the change,
+         these strings are defined as class-level attributes which can be
+         overridden at the instance level when desired. The names of the
+         attributes are ``default_time_format`` (for the strptime format string)
+         and ``default_msec_format`` (for appending the millisecond value).
+
+   .. method:: formatException(exc_info)
+
+      Formats the specified exception information (a standard exception tuple as
+      returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`) as a string. This default implementation
+      just uses :func:`traceback.print_exception`. The resulting string is
+      returned.
+
+   .. method:: formatStack(stack_info)
+
+      Formats the specified stack information (a string as returned by
+      :func:`traceback.print_stack`, but with the last newline removed) as a
+      string. This default implementation just returns the input value.
+
+.. _filter:
+
+Filter Objects
+--------------
+
+``Filters`` can be used by ``Handlers`` and ``Loggers`` for more sophisticated
+filtering than is provided by levels. The base filter class only allows events
+which are below a certain point in the logger hierarchy. For example, a filter
+initialized with 'A.B' will allow events logged by loggers 'A.B', 'A.B.C',
+'A.B.C.D', 'A.B.D' etc. but not 'A.BB', 'B.A.B' etc. If initialized with the
+empty string, all events are passed.
+
+
+.. class:: Filter(name='')
+
+   Returns an instance of the :class:`Filter` class. If *name* is specified, it
+   names a logger which, together with its children, will have its events allowed
+   through the filter. If *name* is the empty string, allows every event.
+
+
+   .. method:: filter(record)
+
+      Is the specified record to be logged? Returns zero for no, nonzero for
+      yes. If deemed appropriate, the record may be modified in-place by this
+      method.
+
+Note that filters attached to handlers are consulted before an event is
+emitted by the handler, whereas filters attached to loggers are consulted
+whenever an event is logged (using :meth:`debug`, :meth:`info`,
+etc.), before sending an event to handlers. This means that events which have
+been generated by descendant loggers will not be filtered by a logger's filter
+setting, unless the filter has also been applied to those descendant loggers.
+
+You don't actually need to subclass ``Filter``: you can pass any instance
+which has a ``filter`` method with the same semantics.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   You don't need to create specialized ``Filter`` classes, or use other
+   classes with a ``filter`` method: you can use a function (or other
+   callable) as a filter. The filtering logic will check to see if the filter
+   object has a ``filter`` attribute: if it does, it's assumed to be a
+   ``Filter`` and its :meth:`~Filter.filter` method is called. Otherwise, it's
+   assumed to be a callable and called with the record as the single
+   parameter. The returned value should conform to that returned by
+   :meth:`~Filter.filter`.
+
+Although filters are used primarily to filter records based on more
+sophisticated criteria than levels, they get to see every record which is
+processed by the handler or logger they're attached to: this can be useful if
+you want to do things like counting how many records were processed by a
+particular logger or handler, or adding, changing or removing attributes in
+the LogRecord being processed. Obviously changing the LogRecord needs to be
+done with some care, but it does allow the injection of contextual information
+into logs (see :ref:`filters-contextual`).
+
+.. _log-record:
+
+LogRecord Objects
+-----------------
+
+:class:`LogRecord` instances are created automatically by the :class:`Logger`
+every time something is logged, and can be created manually via
+:func:`makeLogRecord` (for example, from a pickled event received over the
+wire).
+
+
+.. class:: LogRecord(name, level, pathname, lineno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None)
+
+   Contains all the information pertinent to the event being logged.
+
+   The primary information is passed in :attr:`msg` and :attr:`args`, which
+   are combined using ``msg % args`` to create the :attr:`message` field of the
+   record.
+
+   :param name:  The name of the logger used to log the event represented by
+                 this LogRecord. Note that this name will always have this
+                 value, even though it may be emitted by a handler attached to
+                 a different (ancestor) logger.
+   :param level: The numeric level of the logging event (one of DEBUG, INFO etc.)
+                 Note that this is converted to *two* attributes of the LogRecord:
+                 ``levelno`` for the numeric value and ``levelname`` for the
+                 corresponding level name.
+   :param pathname: The full pathname of the source file where the logging call
+                    was made.
+   :param lineno: The line number in the source file where the logging call was
+                  made.
+   :param msg: The event description message, possibly a format string with
+               placeholders for variable data.
+   :param args: Variable data to merge into the *msg* argument to obtain the
+                event description.
+   :param exc_info: An exception tuple with the current exception information,
+                    or ``None`` if no exception information is available.
+   :param func: The name of the function or method from which the logging call
+                was invoked.
+   :param sinfo: A text string representing stack information from the base of
+                 the stack in the current thread, up to the logging call.
+
+   .. method:: getMessage()
+
+      Returns the message for this :class:`LogRecord` instance after merging any
+      user-supplied arguments with the message. If the user-supplied message
+      argument to the logging call is not a string, :func:`str` is called on it to
+      convert it to a string. This allows use of user-defined classes as
+      messages, whose ``__str__`` method can return the actual format string to
+      be used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The creation of a ``LogRecord`` has been made more configurable by
+      providing a factory which is used to create the record. The factory can be
+      set using :func:`getLogRecordFactory` and :func:`setLogRecordFactory`
+      (see this for the factory's signature).
+
+   This functionality can be used to inject your own values into a
+   LogRecord at creation time. You can use the following pattern::
+
+      old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()
+
+      def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
+          record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
+          record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
+          return record
+
+      logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)
+
+   With this pattern, multiple factories could be chained, and as long
+   as they don't overwrite each other's attributes or unintentionally
+   overwrite the standard attributes listed above, there should be no
+   surprises.
+
+
+.. _logrecord-attributes:
+
+LogRecord attributes
+--------------------
+
+The LogRecord has a number of attributes, most of which are derived from the
+parameters to the constructor. (Note that the names do not always correspond
+exactly between the LogRecord constructor parameters and the LogRecord
+attributes.) These attributes can be used to merge data from the record into
+the format string. The following table lists (in alphabetical order) the
+attribute names, their meanings and the corresponding placeholder in a %-style
+format string.
+
+If you are using {}-formatting (:func:`str.format`), you can use
+``{attrname}`` as the placeholder in the format string. If you are using
+$-formatting (:class:`string.Template`), use the form ``${attrname}``. In
+both cases, of course, replace ``attrname`` with the actual attribute name
+you want to use.
+
+In the case of {}-formatting, you can specify formatting flags by placing them
+after the attribute name, separated from it with a colon. For example: a
+placeholder of ``{msecs:03d}`` would format a millisecond value of ``4`` as
+``004``. Refer to the :meth:`str.format` documentation for full details on
+the options available to you.
+
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Attribute name | Format                  | Description                                   |
++================+=========================+===============================================+
+| args           | You shouldn't need to   | The tuple of arguments merged into ``msg`` to |
+|                | format this yourself.   | produce ``message``, or a dict whose values   |
+|                |                         | are used for the merge (when there is only one|
+|                |                         | argument, and it is a dictionary).            |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| asctime        | ``%(asctime)s``         | Human-readable time when the                  |
+|                |                         | :class:`LogRecord` was created.  By default   |
+|                |                         | this is of the form '2003-07-08 16:49:45,896' |
+|                |                         | (the numbers after the comma are millisecond  |
+|                |                         | portion of the time).                         |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| created        | ``%(created)f``         | Time when the :class:`LogRecord` was created  |
+|                |                         | (as returned by :func:`time.time`).           |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| exc_info       | You shouldn't need to   | Exception tuple (à la ``sys.exc_info``) or,   |
+|                | format this yourself.   | if no exception has occurred, ``None``.       |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| filename       | ``%(filename)s``        | Filename portion of ``pathname``.             |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| funcName       | ``%(funcName)s``        | Name of function containing the logging call. |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| levelname      | ``%(levelname)s``       | Text logging level for the message            |
+|                |                         | (``'DEBUG'``, ``'INFO'``, ``'WARNING'``,      |
+|                |                         | ``'ERROR'``, ``'CRITICAL'``).                 |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| levelno        | ``%(levelno)s``         | Numeric logging level for the message         |
+|                |                         | (:const:`DEBUG`, :const:`INFO`,               |
+|                |                         | :const:`WARNING`, :const:`ERROR`,             |
+|                |                         | :const:`CRITICAL`).                           |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| lineno         | ``%(lineno)d``          | Source line number where the logging call was |
+|                |                         | issued (if available).                        |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| message        | ``%(message)s``         | The logged message, computed as ``msg %       |
+|                |                         | args``. This is set when                      |
+|                |                         | :meth:`Formatter.format` is invoked.          |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| module         | ``%(module)s``          | Module (name portion of ``filename``).        |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| msecs          | ``%(msecs)d``           | Millisecond portion of the time when the      |
+|                |                         | :class:`LogRecord` was created.               |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| msg            | You shouldn't need to   | The format string passed in the original      |
+|                | format this yourself.   | logging call. Merged with ``args`` to         |
+|                |                         | produce ``message``, or an arbitrary object   |
+|                |                         | (see :ref:`arbitrary-object-messages`).       |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| name           | ``%(name)s``            | Name of the logger used to log the call.      |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| pathname       | ``%(pathname)s``        | Full pathname of the source file where the    |
+|                |                         | logging call was issued (if available).       |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| process        | ``%(process)d``         | Process ID (if available).                    |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| processName    | ``%(processName)s``     | Process name (if available).                  |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| relativeCreated| ``%(relativeCreated)d`` | Time in milliseconds when the LogRecord was   |
+|                |                         | created, relative to the time the logging     |
+|                |                         | module was loaded.                            |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| stack_info     | You shouldn't need to   | Stack frame information (where available)     |
+|                | format this yourself.   | from the bottom of the stack in the current   |
+|                |                         | thread, up to and including the stack frame   |
+|                |                         | of the logging call which resulted in the     |
+|                |                         | creation of this record.                      |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| thread         | ``%(thread)d``          | Thread ID (if available).                     |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| threadName     | ``%(threadName)s``      | Thread name (if available).                   |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   *processName* was added.
+
+
+.. _logger-adapter:
+
+LoggerAdapter Objects
+---------------------
+
+:class:`LoggerAdapter` instances are used to conveniently pass contextual
+information into logging calls. For a usage example, see the section on
+:ref:`adding contextual information to your logging output <context-info>`.
+
+.. class:: LoggerAdapter(logger, extra)
+
+   Returns an instance of :class:`LoggerAdapter` initialized with an
+   underlying :class:`Logger` instance and a dict-like object.
+
+   .. method:: process(msg, kwargs)
+
+      Modifies the message and/or keyword arguments passed to a logging call in
+      order to insert contextual information. This implementation takes the object
+      passed as *extra* to the constructor and adds it to *kwargs* using key
+      'extra'. The return value is a (*msg*, *kwargs*) tuple which has the
+      (possibly modified) versions of the arguments passed in.
+
+In addition to the above, :class:`LoggerAdapter` supports the following
+methods of :class:`Logger`: :meth:`~Logger.debug`, :meth:`~Logger.info`,
+:meth:`~Logger.warning`, :meth:`~Logger.error`, :meth:`~Logger.exception`,
+:meth:`~Logger.critical`, :meth:`~Logger.log`, :meth:`~Logger.isEnabledFor`,
+:meth:`~Logger.getEffectiveLevel`, :meth:`~Logger.setLevel` and
+:meth:`~Logger.hasHandlers`. These methods have the same signatures as their
+counterparts in :class:`Logger`, so you can use the two types of instances
+interchangeably.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   The :meth:`~Logger.isEnabledFor`, :meth:`~Logger.getEffectiveLevel`,
+   :meth:`~Logger.setLevel` and :meth:`~Logger.hasHandlers` methods were added
+   to :class:`LoggerAdapter`.  These methods delegate to the underlying logger.
+
+
+Thread Safety
+-------------
+
+The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special work
+needing to be done by its clients. It achieves this though using threading
+locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module's shared data, and
+each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to its underlying I/O.
+
+If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the :mod:`signal`
+module, you may not be able to use logging from within such handlers. This is
+because lock implementations in the :mod:`threading` module are not always
+re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such signal handlers.
+
+
+Module-Level Functions
+----------------------
+
+In addition to the classes described above, there are a number of module-level
+functions.
+
+
+.. function:: getLogger(name=None)
+
+   Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is ``None``, return a
+   logger which is the root logger of the hierarchy. If specified, the name is
+   typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like *'a'*, *'a.b'* or *'a.b.c.d'*.
+   Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer who is using logging.
+
+   All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger instance.
+   This means that logger instances never need to be passed between different parts
+   of an application.
+
+
+.. function:: getLoggerClass()
+
+   Return either the standard :class:`Logger` class, or the last class passed to
+   :func:`setLoggerClass`. This function may be called from within a new class
+   definition, to ensure that installing a customized :class:`Logger` class will
+   not undo customizations already applied by other code. For example::
+
+      class MyLogger(logging.getLoggerClass()):
+          # ... override behaviour here
+
+
+.. function:: getLogRecordFactory()
+
+   Return a callable which is used to create a :class:`LogRecord`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      This function has been provided, along with :func:`setLogRecordFactory`,
+      to allow developers more control over how the :class:`LogRecord`
+      representing a logging event is constructed.
+
+   See :func:`setLogRecordFactory` for more information about the how the
+   factory is called.
+
+.. function:: debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Logs a message with level :const:`DEBUG` on the root logger. The *msg* is the
+   message format string, and the *args* are the arguments which are merged into
+   *msg* using the string formatting operator. (Note that this means that you can
+   use keywords in the format string, together with a single dictionary argument.)
+
+   There are three keyword arguments in *kwargs* which are inspected: *exc_info*
+   which, if it does not evaluate as false, causes exception information to be
+   added to the logging message. If an exception tuple (in the format returned by
+   :func:`sys.exc_info`) or an exception instance is provided, it is used;
+   otherwise, :func:`sys.exc_info` is called to get the exception information.
+
+   The second optional keyword argument is *stack_info*, which defaults to
+   ``False``. If true, stack information is added to the logging
+   message, including the actual logging call. Note that this is not the same
+   stack information as that displayed through specifying *exc_info*: The
+   former is stack frames from the bottom of the stack up to the logging call
+   in the current thread, whereas the latter is information about stack frames
+   which have been unwound, following an exception, while searching for
+   exception handlers.
+
+   You can specify *stack_info* independently of *exc_info*, e.g. to just show
+   how you got to a certain point in your code, even when no exceptions were
+   raised. The stack frames are printed following a header line which says:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       Stack (most recent call last):
+
+   This mimics the ``Traceback (most recent call last):`` which is used when
+   displaying exception frames.
+
+   The third optional keyword argument is *extra* which can be used to pass a
+   dictionary which is used to populate the __dict__ of the LogRecord created for
+   the logging event with user-defined attributes. These custom attributes can then
+   be used as you like. For example, they could be incorporated into logged
+   messages. For example::
+
+      FORMAT = '%(asctime)-15s %(clientip)s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
+      logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
+      d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
+      logging.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)
+
+   would print something like:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+      2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset
+
+   The keys in the dictionary passed in *extra* should not clash with the keys used
+   by the logging system. (See the :class:`Formatter` documentation for more
+   information on which keys are used by the logging system.)
+
+   If you choose to use these attributes in logged messages, you need to exercise
+   some care. In the above example, for instance, the :class:`Formatter` has been
+   set up with a format string which expects 'clientip' and 'user' in the attribute
+   dictionary of the LogRecord. If these are missing, the message will not be
+   logged because a string formatting exception will occur. So in this case, you
+   always need to pass the *extra* dictionary with these keys.
+
+   While this might be annoying, this feature is intended for use in specialized
+   circumstances, such as multi-threaded servers where the same code executes in
+   many contexts, and interesting conditions which arise are dependent on this
+   context (such as remote client IP address and authenticated user name, in the
+   above example). In such circumstances, it is likely that specialized
+   :class:`Formatter`\ s would be used with particular :class:`Handler`\ s.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *stack_info* parameter was added.
+
+.. function:: info(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Logs a message with level :const:`INFO` on the root logger. The arguments are
+   interpreted as for :func:`debug`.
+
+
+.. function:: warning(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Logs a message with level :const:`WARNING` on the root logger. The arguments
+   are interpreted as for :func:`debug`.
+
+   .. note:: There is an obsolete function ``warn`` which is functionally
+      identical to ``warning``. As ``warn`` is deprecated, please do not use
+      it - use ``warning`` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: error(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Logs a message with level :const:`ERROR` on the root logger. The arguments are
+   interpreted as for :func:`debug`.
+
+
+.. function:: critical(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Logs a message with level :const:`CRITICAL` on the root logger. The arguments
+   are interpreted as for :func:`debug`.
+
+
+.. function:: exception(msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Logs a message with level :const:`ERROR` on the root logger. The arguments are
+   interpreted as for :func:`debug`. Exception info is added to the logging
+   message. This function should only be called from an exception handler.
+
+.. function:: log(level, msg, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Logs a message with level *level* on the root logger. The other arguments are
+   interpreted as for :func:`debug`.
+
+   .. note:: The above module-level convenience functions, which delegate to the
+      root logger, call :func:`basicConfig` to ensure that at least one handler
+      is available. Because of this, they should *not* be used in threads,
+      in versions of Python earlier than 2.7.1 and 3.2, unless at least one
+      handler has been added to the root logger *before* the threads are
+      started. In earlier versions of Python, due to a thread safety shortcoming
+      in :func:`basicConfig`, this can (under rare circumstances) lead to
+      handlers being added multiple times to the root logger, which can in turn
+      lead to multiple messages for the same event.
+
+.. function:: disable(lvl=CRITICAL)
+
+   Provides an overriding level *lvl* for all loggers which takes precedence over
+   the logger's own level. When the need arises to temporarily throttle logging
+   output down across the whole application, this function can be useful. Its
+   effect is to disable all logging calls of severity *lvl* and below, so that
+   if you call it with a value of INFO, then all INFO and DEBUG events would be
+   discarded, whereas those of severity WARNING and above would be processed
+   according to the logger's effective level. If
+   ``logging.disable(logging.NOTSET)`` is called, it effectively removes this
+   overriding level, so that logging output again depends on the effective
+   levels of individual loggers.
+
+   Note that if you have defined any custom logging level higher than
+   ``CRITICAL`` (this is not recommended), you won't be able to rely on the
+   default value for the *lvl* parameter, but will have to explicitly supply a
+   suitable value.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *lvl* parameter was defaulted to level ``CRITICAL``. See Issue
+      #28524 for more information about this change.
+
+.. function:: addLevelName(lvl, levelName)
+
+   Associates level *lvl* with text *levelName* in an internal dictionary, which is
+   used to map numeric levels to a textual representation, for example when a
+   :class:`Formatter` formats a message. This function can also be used to define
+   your own levels. The only constraints are that all levels used must be
+   registered using this function, levels should be positive integers and they
+   should increase in increasing order of severity.
+
+   .. note:: If you are thinking of defining your own levels, please see the
+      section on :ref:`custom-levels`.
+
+.. function:: getLevelName(lvl)
+
+   Returns the textual representation of logging level *lvl*. If the level is one
+   of the predefined levels :const:`CRITICAL`, :const:`ERROR`, :const:`WARNING`,
+   :const:`INFO` or :const:`DEBUG` then you get the corresponding string. If you
+   have associated levels with names using :func:`addLevelName` then the name you
+   have associated with *lvl* is returned. If a numeric value corresponding to one
+   of the defined levels is passed in, the corresponding string representation is
+   returned. Otherwise, the string 'Level %s' % lvl is returned.
+
+   .. note:: Levels are internally integers (as they need to be compared in the
+      logging logic). This function is used to convert between an integer level
+      and the level name displayed in the formatted log output by means of the
+      ``%(levelname)s`` format specifier (see :ref:`logrecord-attributes`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      In Python versions earlier than 3.4, this function could also be passed a
+      text level, and would return the corresponding numeric value of the level.
+      This undocumented behaviour was considered a mistake, and was removed in
+      Python 3.4, but reinstated in 3.4.2 due to retain backward compatibility.
+
+.. function:: makeLogRecord(attrdict)
+
+   Creates and returns a new :class:`LogRecord` instance whose attributes are
+   defined by *attrdict*. This function is useful for taking a pickled
+   :class:`LogRecord` attribute dictionary, sent over a socket, and reconstituting
+   it as a :class:`LogRecord` instance at the receiving end.
+
+
+.. function:: basicConfig(**kwargs)
+
+   Does basic configuration for the logging system by creating a
+   :class:`StreamHandler` with a default :class:`Formatter` and adding it to the
+   root logger. The functions :func:`debug`, :func:`info`, :func:`warning`,
+   :func:`error` and :func:`critical` will call :func:`basicConfig` automatically
+   if no handlers are defined for the root logger.
+
+   This function does nothing if the root logger already has handlers
+   configured for it.
+
+   .. note:: This function should be called from the main thread
+      before other threads are started. In versions of Python prior to
+      2.7.1 and 3.2, if this function is called from multiple threads,
+      it is possible (in rare circumstances) that a handler will be added
+      to the root logger more than once, leading to unexpected results
+      such as messages being duplicated in the log.
+
+   The following keyword arguments are supported.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | Format       | Description                                 |
+   +==============+=============================================+
+   | *filename*   | Specifies that a FileHandler be created,    |
+   |              | using the specified filename, rather than a |
+   |              | StreamHandler.                              |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *filemode*   | If *filename* is specified, open the file   |
+   |              | in this :ref:`mode <filemodes>`. Defaults   |
+   |              | to ``'a'``.                                 |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *format*     | Use the specified format string for the     |
+   |              | handler.                                    |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *datefmt*    | Use the specified date/time format, as      |
+   |              | accepted by :func:`time.strftime`.          |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *style*      | If *format* is specified, use this style    |
+   |              | for the format string. One of ``'%'``,      |
+   |              | ``'{'`` or ``'$'`` for :ref:`printf-style   |
+   |              | <old-string-formatting>`,                   |
+   |              | :meth:`str.format` or                       |
+   |              | :class:`string.Template` respectively.      |
+   |              | Defaults to ``'%'``.                        |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *level*      | Set the root logger level to the specified  |
+   |              | :ref:`level <levels>`.                      |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *stream*     | Use the specified stream to initialize the  |
+   |              | StreamHandler. Note that this argument is   |
+   |              | incompatible with *filename* - if both      |
+   |              | are present, a ``ValueError`` is raised.    |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | *handlers*   | If specified, this should be an iterable of |
+   |              | already created handlers to add to the root |
+   |              | logger. Any handlers which don't already    |
+   |              | have a formatter set will be assigned the   |
+   |              | default formatter created in this function. |
+   |              | Note that this argument is incompatible     |
+   |              | with *filename* or *stream* - if both       |
+   |              | are present, a ``ValueError`` is raised.    |
+   +--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The *style* argument was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *handlers* argument was added. Additional checks were added to
+      catch situations where incompatible arguments are specified (e.g.
+      *handlers* together with *stream* or *filename*, or *stream*
+      together with *filename*).
+
+.. function:: shutdown()
+
+   Informs the logging system to perform an orderly shutdown by flushing and
+   closing all handlers. This should be called at application exit and no
+   further use of the logging system should be made after this call.
+
+
+.. function:: setLoggerClass(klass)
+
+   Tells the logging system to use the class *klass* when instantiating a logger.
+   The class should define :meth:`__init__` such that only a name argument is
+   required, and the :meth:`__init__` should call :meth:`Logger.__init__`. This
+   function is typically called before any loggers are instantiated by applications
+   which need to use custom logger behavior. After this call, as at any other
+   time, do not instantiate loggers directly using the subclass: continue to use
+   the :func:`logging.getLogger` API to get your loggers.
+
+
+.. function:: setLogRecordFactory(factory)
+
+   Set a callable which is used to create a :class:`LogRecord`.
+
+   :param factory: The factory callable to be used to instantiate a log record.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      This function has been provided, along with :func:`getLogRecordFactory`, to
+      allow developers more control over how the :class:`LogRecord` representing
+      a logging event is constructed.
+
+   The factory has the following signature:
+
+   ``factory(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None, **kwargs)``
+
+      :name: The logger name.
+      :level: The logging level (numeric).
+      :fn: The full pathname of the file where the logging call was made.
+      :lno: The line number in the file where the logging call was made.
+      :msg: The logging message.
+      :args: The arguments for the logging message.
+      :exc_info: An exception tuple, or ``None``.
+      :func: The name of the function or method which invoked the logging
+             call.
+      :sinfo: A stack traceback such as is provided by
+              :func:`traceback.print_stack`, showing the call hierarchy.
+      :kwargs: Additional keyword arguments.
+
+
+Module-Level Attributes
+-----------------------
+
+.. attribute:: lastResort
+
+   A "handler of last resort" is available through this attribute. This
+   is a :class:`StreamHandler` writing to ``sys.stderr`` with a level of
+   ``WARNING``, and is used to handle logging events in the absence of any
+   logging configuration. The end result is to just print the message to
+   ``sys.stderr``. This replaces the earlier error message saying that
+   "no handlers could be found for logger XYZ". If you need the earlier
+   behaviour for some reason, ``lastResort`` can be set to ``None``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+Integration with the warnings module
+------------------------------------
+
+The :func:`captureWarnings` function can be used to integrate :mod:`logging`
+with the :mod:`warnings` module.
+
+.. function:: captureWarnings(capture)
+
+   This function is used to turn the capture of warnings by logging on and
+   off.
+
+   If *capture* is ``True``, warnings issued by the :mod:`warnings` module will
+   be redirected to the logging system. Specifically, a warning will be
+   formatted using :func:`warnings.formatwarning` and the resulting string
+   logged to a logger named ``'py.warnings'`` with a severity of :const:`WARNING`.
+
+   If *capture* is ``False``, the redirection of warnings to the logging system
+   will stop, and warnings will be redirected to their original destinations
+   (i.e. those in effect before ``captureWarnings(True)`` was called).
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.config`
+      Configuration API for the logging module.
+
+   Module :mod:`logging.handlers`
+      Useful handlers included with the logging module.
+
+   :pep:`282` - A Logging System
+      The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python standard
+      library.
+
+   `Original Python logging package <https://www.red-dove.com/python_logging.html>`_
+      This is the original source for the :mod:`logging` package.  The version of the
+      package available from this site is suitable for use with Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x
+      and 2.2.x, which do not include the :mod:`logging` package in the standard
+      library.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/lzma.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/lzma.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cce6c23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/lzma.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,434 @@
+:mod:`lzma` --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: lzma
+   :synopsis: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/lzma.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides classes and convenience functions for compressing and
+decompressing data using the LZMA compression algorithm. Also included is a file
+interface supporting the ``.xz`` and legacy ``.lzma`` file formats used by the
+:program:`xz` utility, as well as raw compressed streams.
+
+The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the :mod:`bz2`
+module. However, note that :class:`LZMAFile` is *not* thread-safe, unlike
+:class:`bz2.BZ2File`, so if you need to use a single :class:`LZMAFile` instance
+from multiple threads, it is necessary to protect it with a lock.
+
+
+.. exception:: LZMAError
+
+   This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or
+   decompression, or while initializing the compressor/decompressor state.
+
+
+Reading and writing compressed files
+------------------------------------
+
+.. function:: open(filename, mode="rb", \*, format=None, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+
+   Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a :term:`file
+   object`.
+
+   The *filename* argument can be either an actual file name (given as a
+   :class:`str`, :class:`bytes` or :term:`path-like <path-like object>` object), in
+   which case the named file is opened, or it can be an existing file object
+   to read from or write to.
+
+   The *mode* argument can be any of ``"r"``, ``"rb"``, ``"w"``, ``"wb"``,
+   ``"x"``, ``"xb"``, ``"a"`` or ``"ab"`` for binary mode, or ``"rt"``,
+   ``"wt"``, ``"xt"``, or ``"at"`` for text mode. The default is ``"rb"``.
+
+   When opening a file for reading, the *format* and *filters* arguments have
+   the same meanings as for :class:`LZMADecompressor`. In this case, the *check*
+   and *preset* arguments should not be used.
+
+   When opening a file for writing, the *format*, *check*, *preset* and
+   *filters* arguments have the same meanings as for :class:`LZMACompressor`.
+
+   For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the :class:`LZMAFile`
+   constructor: ``LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...)``. In this case, the *encoding*,
+   *errors* and *newline* arguments must not be provided.
+
+   For text mode, a :class:`LZMAFile` object is created, and wrapped in an
+   :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` instance with the specified encoding, error
+   handling behavior, and line ending(s).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added support for the ``"x"``, ``"xb"`` and ``"xt"`` modes.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. class:: LZMAFile(filename=None, mode="r", \*, format=None, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)
+
+   Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary mode.
+
+   An :class:`LZMAFile` can wrap an already-open :term:`file object`, or operate
+   directly on a named file. The *filename* argument specifies either the file
+   object to wrap, or the name of the file to open (as a :class:`str`,
+   :class:`bytes` or :term:`path-like <path-like object>` object). When wrapping an
+   existing file object, the wrapped file will not be closed when the
+   :class:`LZMAFile` is closed.
+
+   The *mode* argument can be either ``"r"`` for reading (default), ``"w"`` for
+   overwriting, ``"x"`` for exclusive creation, or ``"a"`` for appending. These
+   can equivalently be given as ``"rb"``, ``"wb"``, ``"xb"`` and ``"ab"``
+   respectively.
+
+   If *filename* is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of
+   ``"w"`` does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to ``"a"``.
+
+   When opening a file for reading, the input file may be the concatenation of
+   multiple separate compressed streams. These are transparently decoded as a
+   single logical stream.
+
+   When opening a file for reading, the *format* and *filters* arguments have
+   the same meanings as for :class:`LZMADecompressor`. In this case, the *check*
+   and *preset* arguments should not be used.
+
+   When opening a file for writing, the *format*, *check*, *preset* and
+   *filters* arguments have the same meanings as for :class:`LZMACompressor`.
+
+   :class:`LZMAFile` supports all the members specified by
+   :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`, except for :meth:`detach` and :meth:`truncate`.
+   Iteration and the :keyword:`with` statement are supported.
+
+   The following method is also provided:
+
+   .. method:: peek(size=-1)
+
+      Return buffered data without advancing the file position. At least one
+      byte of data will be returned, unless EOF has been reached. The exact
+      number of bytes returned is unspecified (the *size* argument is ignored).
+
+      .. note:: While calling :meth:`peek` does not change the file position of
+         the :class:`LZMAFile`, it may change the position of the underlying
+         file object (e.g. if the :class:`LZMAFile` was constructed by passing a
+         file object for *filename*).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added support for the ``"x"`` and ``"xb"`` modes.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` method now accepts an argument of
+      ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+Compressing and decompressing data in memory
+--------------------------------------------
+
+.. class:: LZMACompressor(format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)
+
+   Create a compressor object, which can be used to compress data incrementally.
+
+   For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data, see
+   :func:`compress`.
+
+   The *format* argument specifies what container format should be used.
+   Possible values are:
+
+   * :const:`FORMAT_XZ`: The ``.xz`` container format.
+      This is the default format.
+
+   * :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`: The legacy ``.lzma`` container format.
+      This format is more limited than ``.xz`` -- it does not support integrity
+      checks or multiple filters.
+
+   * :const:`FORMAT_RAW`: A raw data stream, not using any container format.
+      This format specifier does not support integrity checks, and requires that
+      you always specify a custom filter chain (for both compression and
+      decompression). Additionally, data compressed in this manner cannot be
+      decompressed using :const:`FORMAT_AUTO` (see :class:`LZMADecompressor`).
+
+   The *check* argument specifies the type of integrity check to include in the
+   compressed data. This check is used when decompressing, to ensure that the
+   data has not been corrupted. Possible values are:
+
+   * :const:`CHECK_NONE`: No integrity check.
+     This is the default (and the only acceptable value) for
+     :const:`FORMAT_ALONE` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`.
+
+   * :const:`CHECK_CRC32`: 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.
+
+   * :const:`CHECK_CRC64`: 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.
+     This is the default for :const:`FORMAT_XZ`.
+
+   * :const:`CHECK_SHA256`: 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm.
+
+   If the specified check is not supported, an :class:`LZMAError` is raised.
+
+   The compression settings can be specified either as a preset compression
+   level (with the *preset* argument), or in detail as a custom filter chain
+   (with the *filters* argument).
+
+   The *preset* argument (if provided) should be an integer between ``0`` and
+   ``9`` (inclusive), optionally OR-ed with the constant
+   :const:`PRESET_EXTREME`. If neither *preset* nor *filters* are given, the
+   default behavior is to use :const:`PRESET_DEFAULT` (preset level ``6``).
+   Higher presets produce smaller output, but make the compression process
+   slower.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      In addition to being more CPU-intensive, compression with higher presets
+      also requires much more memory (and produces output that needs more memory
+      to decompress). With preset ``9`` for example, the overhead for an
+      :class:`LZMACompressor` object can be as high as 800 MiB. For this reason,
+      it is generally best to stick with the default preset.
+
+   The *filters* argument (if provided) should be a filter chain specifier.
+   See :ref:`filter-chain-specs` for details.
+
+   .. method:: compress(data)
+
+      Compress *data* (a :class:`bytes` object), returning a :class:`bytes`
+      object containing compressed data for at least part of the input. Some of
+      *data* may be buffered internally, for use in later calls to
+      :meth:`compress` and :meth:`flush`. The returned data should be
+      concatenated with the output of any previous calls to :meth:`compress`.
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      Finish the compression process, returning a :class:`bytes` object
+      containing any data stored in the compressor's internal buffers.
+
+      The compressor cannot be used after this method has been called.
+
+
+.. class:: LZMADecompressor(format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None, filters=None)
+
+   Create a decompressor object, which can be used to decompress data
+   incrementally.
+
+   For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed stream at
+   once, see :func:`decompress`.
+
+   The *format* argument specifies the container format that should be used. The
+   default is :const:`FORMAT_AUTO`, which can decompress both ``.xz`` and
+   ``.lzma`` files. Other possible values are :const:`FORMAT_XZ`,
+   :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`, and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`.
+
+   The *memlimit* argument specifies a limit (in bytes) on the amount of memory
+   that the decompressor can use. When this argument is used, decompression will
+   fail with an :class:`LZMAError` if it is not possible to decompress the input
+   within the given memory limit.
+
+   The *filters* argument specifies the filter chain that was used to create
+   the stream being decompressed. This argument is required if *format* is
+   :const:`FORMAT_RAW`, but should not be used for other formats.
+   See :ref:`filter-chain-specs` for more information about filter chains.
+
+   .. note::
+      This class does not transparently handle inputs containing multiple
+      compressed streams, unlike :func:`decompress` and :class:`LZMAFile`. To
+      decompress a multi-stream input with :class:`LZMADecompressor`, you must
+      create a new decompressor for each stream.
+
+   .. method:: decompress(data, max_length=-1)
+
+      Decompress *data* (a :term:`bytes-like object`), returning
+      uncompressed data as bytes. Some of *data* may be buffered
+      internally, for use in later calls to :meth:`decompress`. The
+      returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
+      previous calls to :meth:`decompress`.
+
+      If *max_length* is nonnegative, returns at most *max_length*
+      bytes of decompressed data. If this limit is reached and further
+      output can be produced, the :attr:`~.needs_input` attribute will
+      be set to ``False``. In this case, the next call to
+      :meth:`~.decompress` may provide *data* as ``b''`` to obtain
+      more of the output.
+
+      If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
+      because this was less than *max_length* bytes, or because
+      *max_length* was negative), the :attr:`~.needs_input` attribute
+      will be set to ``True``.
+
+      Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is reached
+      raises an `EOFError`.  Any data found after the end of the
+      stream is ignored and saved in the :attr:`~.unused_data` attribute.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         Added the *max_length* parameter.
+
+   .. attribute:: check
+
+      The ID of the integrity check used by the input stream. This may be
+      :const:`CHECK_UNKNOWN` until enough of the input has been decoded to
+      determine what integrity check it uses.
+
+   .. attribute:: eof
+
+      ``True`` if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.
+
+   .. attribute:: unused_data
+
+      Data found after the end of the compressed stream.
+
+      Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be ``b""``.
+
+   .. attribute:: needs_input
+
+      ``False`` if the :meth:`.decompress` method can provide more
+      decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed input.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. function:: compress(data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)
+
+   Compress *data* (a :class:`bytes` object), returning the compressed data as a
+   :class:`bytes` object.
+
+   See :class:`LZMACompressor` above for a description of the *format*, *check*,
+   *preset* and *filters* arguments.
+
+
+.. function:: decompress(data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None, filters=None)
+
+   Decompress *data* (a :class:`bytes` object), returning the uncompressed data
+   as a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+   If *data* is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed streams,
+   decompress all of these streams, and return the concatenation of the results.
+
+   See :class:`LZMADecompressor` above for a description of the *format*,
+   *memlimit* and *filters* arguments.
+
+
+Miscellaneous
+-------------
+
+.. function:: is_check_supported(check)
+
+   Returns true if the given integrity check is supported on this system.
+
+   :const:`CHECK_NONE` and :const:`CHECK_CRC32` are always supported.
+   :const:`CHECK_CRC64` and :const:`CHECK_SHA256` may be unavailable if you are
+   using a version of :program:`liblzma` that was compiled with a limited
+   feature set.
+
+
+.. _filter-chain-specs:
+
+Specifying custom filter chains
+-------------------------------
+
+A filter chain specifier is a sequence of dictionaries, where each dictionary
+contains the ID and options for a single filter. Each dictionary must contain
+the key ``"id"``, and may contain additional keys to specify filter-dependent
+options. Valid filter IDs are as follows:
+
+* Compression filters:
+   * :const:`FILTER_LZMA1` (for use with :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`)
+   * :const:`FILTER_LZMA2` (for use with :const:`FORMAT_XZ` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`)
+
+* Delta filter:
+   * :const:`FILTER_DELTA`
+
+* Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) filters:
+   * :const:`FILTER_X86`
+   * :const:`FILTER_IA64`
+   * :const:`FILTER_ARM`
+   * :const:`FILTER_ARMTHUMB`
+   * :const:`FILTER_POWERPC`
+   * :const:`FILTER_SPARC`
+
+A filter chain can consist of up to 4 filters, and cannot be empty. The last
+filter in the chain must be a compression filter, and any other filters must be
+delta or BCJ filters.
+
+Compression filters support the following options (specified as additional
+entries in the dictionary representing the filter):
+
+   * ``preset``: A compression preset to use as a source of default values for
+     options that are not specified explicitly.
+   * ``dict_size``: Dictionary size in bytes. This should be between 4 KiB and
+     1.5 GiB (inclusive).
+   * ``lc``: Number of literal context bits.
+   * ``lp``: Number of literal position bits. The sum ``lc + lp`` must be at
+     most 4.
+   * ``pb``: Number of position bits; must be at most 4.
+   * ``mode``: :const:`MODE_FAST` or :const:`MODE_NORMAL`.
+   * ``nice_len``: What should be considered a "nice length" for a match.
+     This should be 273 or less.
+   * ``mf``: What match finder to use -- :const:`MF_HC3`, :const:`MF_HC4`,
+     :const:`MF_BT2`, :const:`MF_BT3`, or :const:`MF_BT4`.
+   * ``depth``: Maximum search depth used by match finder. 0 (default) means to
+     select automatically based on other filter options.
+
+The delta filter stores the differences between bytes, producing more repetitive
+input for the compressor in certain circumstances. It supports one option,
+``dist``. This indicates the distance between bytes to be subtracted. The
+default is 1, i.e. take the differences between adjacent bytes.
+
+The BCJ filters are intended to be applied to machine code. They convert
+relative branches, calls and jumps in the code to use absolute addressing, with
+the aim of increasing the redundancy that can be exploited by the compressor.
+These filters support one option, ``start_offset``. This specifies the address
+that should be mapped to the beginning of the input data. The default is 0.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Reading in a compressed file::
+
+   import lzma
+   with lzma.open("file.xz") as f:
+       file_content = f.read()
+
+Creating a compressed file::
+
+   import lzma
+   data = b"Insert Data Here"
+   with lzma.open("file.xz", "w") as f:
+       f.write(data)
+
+Compressing data in memory::
+
+   import lzma
+   data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
+   data_out = lzma.compress(data_in)
+
+Incremental compression::
+
+   import lzma
+   lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor()
+   out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n")
+   out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
+   out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n")
+   out4 = lzc.flush()
+   # Concatenate all the partial results:
+   result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])
+
+Writing compressed data to an already-open file::
+
+   import lzma
+   with open("file.xz", "wb") as f:
+       f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
+       with lzma.open(f, "w") as lzf:
+           lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
+       f.write(b"Not compressed\n")
+
+Creating a compressed file using a custom filter chain::
+
+   import lzma
+   my_filters = [
+       {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5},
+       {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME},
+   ]
+   with lzma.open("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f:
+       f.write(b"blah blah blah")
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/macpath.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/macpath.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2af51c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/macpath.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+:mod:`macpath` --- Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: macpath
+   :synopsis: Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/macpath.py`
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.7 3.8
+
+--------------
+
+This module is the Mac OS 9 (and earlier) implementation of the :mod:`os.path`
+module. It can be used to manipulate old-style Macintosh pathnames on Mac OS X
+(or any other platform).
+
+The following functions are available in this module: :func:`normcase`,
+:func:`normpath`, :func:`isabs`, :func:`join`, :func:`split`, :func:`isdir`,
+:func:`isfile`, :func:`walk`, :func:`exists`. For other functions available in
+:mod:`os.path` dummy counterparts are available.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mailbox.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mailbox.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d901ad2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mailbox.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1593 @@
+:mod:`mailbox` --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: mailbox
+   :synopsis: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Gregory K. Johnson <gkj@gregorykjohnson.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Gregory K. Johnson <gkj@gregorykjohnson.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/mailbox.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines two classes, :class:`Mailbox` and :class:`Message`, for
+accessing and manipulating on-disk mailboxes and the messages they contain.
+:class:`Mailbox` offers a dictionary-like mapping from keys to messages.
+:class:`Message` extends the :mod:`email.message` module's
+:class:`~email.message.Message` class with format-specific state and behavior.
+Supported mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`email`
+      Represent and manipulate messages.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-objects:
+
+:class:`Mailbox` objects
+------------------------
+
+.. class:: Mailbox
+
+   A mailbox, which may be inspected and modified.
+
+   The :class:`Mailbox` class defines an interface and is not intended to be
+   instantiated.  Instead, format-specific subclasses should inherit from
+   :class:`Mailbox` and your code should instantiate a particular subclass.
+
+   The :class:`Mailbox` interface is dictionary-like, with small keys
+   corresponding to messages. Keys are issued by the :class:`Mailbox` instance
+   with which they will be used and are only meaningful to that :class:`Mailbox`
+   instance. A key continues to identify a message even if the corresponding
+   message is modified, such as by replacing it with another message.
+
+   Messages may be added to a :class:`Mailbox` instance using the set-like
+   method :meth:`add` and removed using a ``del`` statement or the set-like
+   methods :meth:`remove` and :meth:`discard`.
+
+   :class:`Mailbox` interface semantics differ from dictionary semantics in some
+   noteworthy ways. Each time a message is requested, a new representation
+   (typically a :class:`Message` instance) is generated based upon the current
+   state of the mailbox. Similarly, when a message is added to a
+   :class:`Mailbox` instance, the provided message representation's contents are
+   copied. In neither case is a reference to the message representation kept by
+   the :class:`Mailbox` instance.
+
+   The default :class:`Mailbox` iterator iterates over message representations,
+   not keys as the default dictionary iterator does. Moreover, modification of a
+   mailbox during iteration is safe and well-defined. Messages added to the
+   mailbox after an iterator is created will not be seen by the
+   iterator. Messages removed from the mailbox before the iterator yields them
+   will be silently skipped, though using a key from an iterator may result in a
+   :exc:`KeyError` exception if the corresponding message is subsequently
+   removed.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Be very cautious when modifying mailboxes that might be simultaneously
+      changed by some other process.  The safest mailbox format to use for such
+      tasks is Maildir; try to avoid using single-file formats such as mbox for
+      concurrent writing.  If you're modifying a mailbox, you *must* lock it by
+      calling the :meth:`lock` and :meth:`unlock` methods *before* reading any
+      messages in the file or making any changes by adding or deleting a
+      message.  Failing to lock the mailbox runs the risk of losing messages or
+      corrupting the entire mailbox.
+
+   :class:`Mailbox` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: add(message)
+
+      Add *message* to the mailbox and return the key that has been assigned to
+      it.
+
+      Parameter *message* may be a :class:`Message` instance, an
+      :class:`email.message.Message` instance, a string, a byte string, or a
+      file-like object (which should be open in binary mode). If *message* is
+      an instance of the
+      appropriate format-specific :class:`Message` subclass (e.g., if it's an
+      :class:`mboxMessage` instance and this is an :class:`mbox` instance), its
+      format-specific information is used. Otherwise, reasonable defaults for
+      format-specific information are used.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Support for binary input was added.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove(key)
+               __delitem__(key)
+               discard(key)
+
+      Delete the message corresponding to *key* from the mailbox.
+
+      If no such message exists, a :exc:`KeyError` exception is raised if the
+      method was called as :meth:`remove` or :meth:`__delitem__` but no
+      exception is raised if the method was called as :meth:`discard`. The
+      behavior of :meth:`discard` may be preferred if the underlying mailbox
+      format supports concurrent modification by other processes.
+
+
+   .. method:: __setitem__(key, message)
+
+      Replace the message corresponding to *key* with *message*. Raise a
+      :exc:`KeyError` exception if no message already corresponds to *key*.
+
+      As with :meth:`add`, parameter *message* may be a :class:`Message`
+      instance, an :class:`email.message.Message` instance, a string, a byte
+      string, or a file-like object (which should be open in binary mode). If
+      *message* is an
+      instance of the appropriate format-specific :class:`Message` subclass
+      (e.g., if it's an :class:`mboxMessage` instance and this is an
+      :class:`mbox` instance), its format-specific information is
+      used. Otherwise, the format-specific information of the message that
+      currently corresponds to *key* is left unchanged.
+
+
+   .. method:: iterkeys()
+               keys()
+
+      Return an iterator over all keys if called as :meth:`iterkeys` or return a
+      list of keys if called as :meth:`keys`.
+
+
+   .. method:: itervalues()
+               __iter__()
+               values()
+
+      Return an iterator over representations of all messages if called as
+      :meth:`itervalues` or :meth:`__iter__` or return a list of such
+      representations if called as :meth:`values`. The messages are represented
+      as instances of the appropriate format-specific :class:`Message` subclass
+      unless a custom message factory was specified when the :class:`Mailbox`
+      instance was initialized.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         The behavior of :meth:`__iter__` is unlike that of dictionaries, which
+         iterate over keys.
+
+
+   .. method:: iteritems()
+               items()
+
+      Return an iterator over (*key*, *message*) pairs, where *key* is a key and
+      *message* is a message representation, if called as :meth:`iteritems` or
+      return a list of such pairs if called as :meth:`items`. The messages are
+      represented as instances of the appropriate format-specific
+      :class:`Message` subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
+      when the :class:`Mailbox` instance was initialized.
+
+
+   .. method:: get(key, default=None)
+               __getitem__(key)
+
+      Return a representation of the message corresponding to *key*. If no such
+      message exists, *default* is returned if the method was called as
+      :meth:`get` and a :exc:`KeyError` exception is raised if the method was
+      called as :meth:`__getitem__`. The message is represented as an instance
+      of the appropriate format-specific :class:`Message` subclass unless a
+      custom message factory was specified when the :class:`Mailbox` instance
+      was initialized.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_message(key)
+
+      Return a representation of the message corresponding to *key* as an
+      instance of the appropriate format-specific :class:`Message` subclass, or
+      raise a :exc:`KeyError` exception if no such message exists.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_bytes(key)
+
+      Return a byte representation of the message corresponding to *key*, or
+      raise a :exc:`KeyError` exception if no such message exists.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: get_string(key)
+
+      Return a string representation of the message corresponding to *key*, or
+      raise a :exc:`KeyError` exception if no such message exists.  The
+      message is processed through :class:`email.message.Message` to
+      convert it to a 7bit clean representation.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_file(key)
+
+      Return a file-like representation of the message corresponding to *key*,
+      or raise a :exc:`KeyError` exception if no such message exists.  The
+      file-like object behaves as if open in binary mode.  This file should be
+      closed once it is no longer needed.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The file object really is a binary file; previously it was incorrectly
+         returned in text mode.  Also, the file-like object now supports the
+         context management protocol: you can use a :keyword:`with` statement to
+         automatically close it.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         Unlike other representations of messages, file-like representations are
+         not necessarily independent of the :class:`Mailbox` instance that
+         created them or of the underlying mailbox.  More specific documentation
+         is provided by each subclass.
+
+
+   .. method:: __contains__(key)
+
+      Return ``True`` if *key* corresponds to a message, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+   .. method:: __len__()
+
+      Return a count of messages in the mailbox.
+
+
+   .. method:: clear()
+
+      Delete all messages from the mailbox.
+
+
+   .. method:: pop(key, default=None)
+
+      Return a representation of the message corresponding to *key* and delete
+      the message. If no such message exists, return *default*. The message is
+      represented as an instance of the appropriate format-specific
+      :class:`Message` subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
+      when the :class:`Mailbox` instance was initialized.
+
+
+   .. method:: popitem()
+
+      Return an arbitrary (*key*, *message*) pair, where *key* is a key and
+      *message* is a message representation, and delete the corresponding
+      message. If the mailbox is empty, raise a :exc:`KeyError` exception. The
+      message is represented as an instance of the appropriate format-specific
+      :class:`Message` subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
+      when the :class:`Mailbox` instance was initialized.
+
+
+   .. method:: update(arg)
+
+      Parameter *arg* should be a *key*-to-*message* mapping or an iterable of
+      (*key*, *message*) pairs. Updates the mailbox so that, for each given
+      *key* and *message*, the message corresponding to *key* is set to
+      *message* as if by using :meth:`__setitem__`. As with :meth:`__setitem__`,
+      each *key* must already correspond to a message in the mailbox or else a
+      :exc:`KeyError` exception will be raised, so in general it is incorrect
+      for *arg* to be a :class:`Mailbox` instance.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         Unlike with dictionaries, keyword arguments are not supported.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      Write any pending changes to the filesystem. For some :class:`Mailbox`
+      subclasses, changes are always written immediately and :meth:`flush` does
+      nothing, but you should still make a habit of calling this method.
+
+
+   .. method:: lock()
+
+      Acquire an exclusive advisory lock on the mailbox so that other processes
+      know not to modify it. An :exc:`ExternalClashError` is raised if the lock
+      is not available. The particular locking mechanisms used depend upon the
+      mailbox format.  You should *always* lock the mailbox before making any
+      modifications to its contents.
+
+
+   .. method:: unlock()
+
+      Release the lock on the mailbox, if any.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Flush the mailbox, unlock it if necessary, and close any open files. For
+      some :class:`Mailbox` subclasses, this method does nothing.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-maildir:
+
+:class:`Maildir`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: Maildir(dirname, factory=None, create=True)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Mailbox` for mailboxes in Maildir format. Parameter
+   *factory* is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation
+   (which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation.
+   If *factory* is ``None``, :class:`MaildirMessage` is used as the default message
+   representation. If *create* is ``True``, the mailbox is created if it does not
+   exist.
+
+   It is for historical reasons that *dirname* is named as such rather than *path*.
+
+   Maildir is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the qmail mail
+   transfer agent and now widely supported by other programs. Messages in a
+   Maildir mailbox are stored in separate files within a common directory
+   structure. This design allows Maildir mailboxes to be accessed and modified
+   by multiple unrelated programs without data corruption, so file locking is
+   unnecessary.
+
+   Maildir mailboxes contain three subdirectories, namely: :file:`tmp`,
+   :file:`new`, and :file:`cur`. Messages are created momentarily in the
+   :file:`tmp` subdirectory and then moved to the :file:`new` subdirectory to
+   finalize delivery. A mail user agent may subsequently move the message to the
+   :file:`cur` subdirectory and store information about the state of the message
+   in a special "info" section appended to its file name.
+
+   Folders of the style introduced by the Courier mail transfer agent are also
+   supported. Any subdirectory of the main mailbox is considered a folder if
+   ``'.'`` is the first character in its name. Folder names are represented by
+   :class:`Maildir` without the leading ``'.'``. Each folder is itself a Maildir
+   mailbox but should not contain other folders. Instead, a logical nesting is
+   indicated using ``'.'`` to delimit levels, e.g., "Archived.2005.07".
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The Maildir specification requires the use of a colon (``':'``) in certain
+      message file names. However, some operating systems do not permit this
+      character in file names, If you wish to use a Maildir-like format on such
+      an operating system, you should specify another character to use
+      instead. The exclamation point (``'!'``) is a popular choice. For
+      example::
+
+         import mailbox
+         mailbox.Maildir.colon = '!'
+
+      The :attr:`colon` attribute may also be set on a per-instance basis.
+
+   :class:`Maildir` instances have all of the methods of :class:`Mailbox` in
+   addition to the following:
+
+
+   .. method:: list_folders()
+
+      Return a list of the names of all folders.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_folder(folder)
+
+      Return a :class:`Maildir` instance representing the folder whose name is
+      *folder*. A :exc:`NoSuchMailboxError` exception is raised if the folder
+      does not exist.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_folder(folder)
+
+      Create a folder whose name is *folder* and return a :class:`Maildir`
+      instance representing it.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_folder(folder)
+
+      Delete the folder whose name is *folder*. If the folder contains any
+      messages, a :exc:`NotEmptyError` exception will be raised and the folder
+      will not be deleted.
+
+
+   .. method:: clean()
+
+      Delete temporary files from the mailbox that have not been accessed in the
+      last 36 hours. The Maildir specification says that mail-reading programs
+      should do this occasionally.
+
+   Some :class:`Mailbox` methods implemented by :class:`Maildir` deserve special
+   remarks:
+
+
+   .. method:: add(message)
+               __setitem__(key, message)
+               update(arg)
+
+      .. warning::
+
+         These methods generate unique file names based upon the current process
+         ID. When using multiple threads, undetected name clashes may occur and
+         cause corruption of the mailbox unless threads are coordinated to avoid
+         using these methods to manipulate the same mailbox simultaneously.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      All changes to Maildir mailboxes are immediately applied, so this method
+      does nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: lock()
+               unlock()
+
+      Maildir mailboxes do not support (or require) locking, so these methods do
+      nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      :class:`Maildir` instances do not keep any open files and the underlying
+      mailboxes do not support locking, so this method does nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_file(key)
+
+      Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to modify or
+      remove the underlying message while the returned file remains open.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `maildir man page from qmail <http://www.qmail.org/man/man5/maildir.html>`_
+      The original specification of the format.
+
+   `Using maildir format <https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html>`_
+      Notes on Maildir by its inventor. Includes an updated name-creation scheme and
+      details on "info" semantics.
+
+   `maildir man page from Courier <http://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html>`_
+      Another specification of the format. Describes a common extension for supporting
+      folders.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-mbox:
+
+:class:`mbox`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: mbox(path, factory=None, create=True)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Mailbox` for mailboxes in mbox format. Parameter *factory*
+   is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which
+   behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If
+   *factory* is ``None``, :class:`mboxMessage` is used as the default message
+   representation. If *create* is ``True``, the mailbox is created if it does not
+   exist.
+
+   The mbox format is the classic format for storing mail on Unix systems. All
+   messages in an mbox mailbox are stored in a single file with the beginning of
+   each message indicated by a line whose first five characters are "From ".
+
+   Several variations of the mbox format exist to address perceived shortcomings in
+   the original. In the interest of compatibility, :class:`mbox` implements the
+   original format, which is sometimes referred to as :dfn:`mboxo`. This means that
+   the :mailheader:`Content-Length` header, if present, is ignored and that any
+   occurrences of "From " at the beginning of a line in a message body are
+   transformed to ">From " when storing the message, although occurrences of ">From
+   " are not transformed to "From " when reading the message.
+
+   Some :class:`Mailbox` methods implemented by :class:`mbox` deserve special
+   remarks:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_file(key)
+
+      Using the file after calling :meth:`flush` or :meth:`close` on the
+      :class:`mbox` instance may yield unpredictable results or raise an
+      exception.
+
+
+   .. method:: lock()
+               unlock()
+
+      Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the
+      :c:func:`flock` and :c:func:`lockf` system calls.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `mbox man page from qmail <http://www.qmail.org/man/man5/mbox.html>`_
+      A specification of the format and its variations.
+
+   `mbox man page from tin <http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox>`_
+      Another specification of the format, with details on locking.
+
+   `Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad <https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_
+      An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a variation.
+
+   `"mbox" is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats <https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml>`_
+      A history of mbox variations.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-mh:
+
+:class:`MH`
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: MH(path, factory=None, create=True)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Mailbox` for mailboxes in MH format. Parameter *factory*
+   is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which
+   behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If
+   *factory* is ``None``, :class:`MHMessage` is used as the default message
+   representation. If *create* is ``True``, the mailbox is created if it does not
+   exist.
+
+   MH is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the MH Message Handling
+   System, a mail user agent. Each message in an MH mailbox resides in its own
+   file. An MH mailbox may contain other MH mailboxes (called :dfn:`folders`) in
+   addition to messages. Folders may be nested indefinitely. MH mailboxes also
+   support :dfn:`sequences`, which are named lists used to logically group
+   messages without moving them to sub-folders. Sequences are defined in a file
+   called :file:`.mh_sequences` in each folder.
+
+   The :class:`MH` class manipulates MH mailboxes, but it does not attempt to
+   emulate all of :program:`mh`'s behaviors. In particular, it does not modify
+   and is not affected by the :file:`context` or :file:`.mh_profile` files that
+   are used by :program:`mh` to store its state and configuration.
+
+   :class:`MH` instances have all of the methods of :class:`Mailbox` in addition
+   to the following:
+
+
+   .. method:: list_folders()
+
+      Return a list of the names of all folders.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_folder(folder)
+
+      Return an :class:`MH` instance representing the folder whose name is
+      *folder*. A :exc:`NoSuchMailboxError` exception is raised if the folder
+      does not exist.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_folder(folder)
+
+      Create a folder whose name is *folder* and return an :class:`MH` instance
+      representing it.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_folder(folder)
+
+      Delete the folder whose name is *folder*. If the folder contains any
+      messages, a :exc:`NotEmptyError` exception will be raised and the folder
+      will not be deleted.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_sequences()
+
+      Return a dictionary of sequence names mapped to key lists. If there are no
+      sequences, the empty dictionary is returned.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_sequences(sequences)
+
+      Re-define the sequences that exist in the mailbox based upon *sequences*,
+      a dictionary of names mapped to key lists, like returned by
+      :meth:`get_sequences`.
+
+
+   .. method:: pack()
+
+      Rename messages in the mailbox as necessary to eliminate gaps in
+      numbering.  Entries in the sequences list are updated correspondingly.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         Already-issued keys are invalidated by this operation and should not be
+         subsequently used.
+
+   Some :class:`Mailbox` methods implemented by :class:`MH` deserve special
+   remarks:
+
+
+   .. method:: remove(key)
+               __delitem__(key)
+               discard(key)
+
+      These methods immediately delete the message. The MH convention of marking
+      a message for deletion by prepending a comma to its name is not used.
+
+
+   .. method:: lock()
+               unlock()
+
+      Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the
+      :c:func:`flock` and :c:func:`lockf` system calls. For MH mailboxes, locking
+      the mailbox means locking the :file:`.mh_sequences` file and, only for the
+      duration of any operations that affect them, locking individual message
+      files.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_file(key)
+
+      Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to remove the
+      underlying message while the returned file remains open.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush()
+
+      All changes to MH mailboxes are immediately applied, so this method does
+      nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      :class:`MH` instances do not keep any open files, so this method is
+      equivalent to :meth:`unlock`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `nmh - Message Handling System <http://www.nongnu.org/nmh/>`_
+      Home page of :program:`nmh`, an updated version of the original :program:`mh`.
+
+   `MH & nmh: Email for Users & Programmers <https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/>`_
+      A GPL-licensed book on :program:`mh` and :program:`nmh`, with some information
+      on the mailbox format.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-babyl:
+
+:class:`Babyl`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: Babyl(path, factory=None, create=True)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Mailbox` for mailboxes in Babyl format. Parameter
+   *factory* is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation
+   (which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation.
+   If *factory* is ``None``, :class:`BabylMessage` is used as the default message
+   representation. If *create* is ``True``, the mailbox is created if it does not
+   exist.
+
+   Babyl is a single-file mailbox format used by the Rmail mail user agent
+   included with Emacs. The beginning of a message is indicated by a line
+   containing the two characters Control-Underscore (``'\037'``) and Control-L
+   (``'\014'``). The end of a message is indicated by the start of the next
+   message or, in the case of the last message, a line containing a
+   Control-Underscore (``'\037'``) character.
+
+   Messages in a Babyl mailbox have two sets of headers, original headers and
+   so-called visible headers. Visible headers are typically a subset of the
+   original headers that have been reformatted or abridged to be more
+   attractive. Each message in a Babyl mailbox also has an accompanying list of
+   :dfn:`labels`, or short strings that record extra information about the
+   message, and a list of all user-defined labels found in the mailbox is kept
+   in the Babyl options section.
+
+   :class:`Babyl` instances have all of the methods of :class:`Mailbox` in
+   addition to the following:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_labels()
+
+      Return a list of the names of all user-defined labels used in the mailbox.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         The actual messages are inspected to determine which labels exist in
+         the mailbox rather than consulting the list of labels in the Babyl
+         options section, but the Babyl section is updated whenever the mailbox
+         is modified.
+
+   Some :class:`Mailbox` methods implemented by :class:`Babyl` deserve special
+   remarks:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_file(key)
+
+      In Babyl mailboxes, the headers of a message are not stored contiguously
+      with the body of the message. To generate a file-like representation, the
+      headers and body are copied together into an :class:`io.BytesIO` instance,
+      which has an API identical to that of a
+      file. As a result, the file-like object is truly independent of the
+      underlying mailbox but does not save memory compared to a string
+      representation.
+
+
+   .. method:: lock()
+               unlock()
+
+      Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the
+      :c:func:`flock` and :c:func:`lockf` system calls.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Format of Version 5 Babyl Files <https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL>`_
+      A specification of the Babyl format.
+
+   `Reading Mail with Rmail <https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html>`_
+      The Rmail manual, with some information on Babyl semantics.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-mmdf:
+
+:class:`MMDF`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: MMDF(path, factory=None, create=True)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Mailbox` for mailboxes in MMDF format. Parameter *factory*
+   is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which
+   behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If
+   *factory* is ``None``, :class:`MMDFMessage` is used as the default message
+   representation. If *create* is ``True``, the mailbox is created if it does not
+   exist.
+
+   MMDF is a single-file mailbox format invented for the Multichannel Memorandum
+   Distribution Facility, a mail transfer agent. Each message is in the same
+   form as an mbox message but is bracketed before and after by lines containing
+   four Control-A (``'\001'``) characters. As with the mbox format, the
+   beginning of each message is indicated by a line whose first five characters
+   are "From ", but additional occurrences of "From " are not transformed to
+   ">From " when storing messages because the extra message separator lines
+   prevent mistaking such occurrences for the starts of subsequent messages.
+
+   Some :class:`Mailbox` methods implemented by :class:`MMDF` deserve special
+   remarks:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_file(key)
+
+      Using the file after calling :meth:`flush` or :meth:`close` on the
+      :class:`MMDF` instance may yield unpredictable results or raise an
+      exception.
+
+
+   .. method:: lock()
+               unlock()
+
+      Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the
+      :c:func:`flock` and :c:func:`lockf` system calls.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `mmdf man page from tin <http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf>`_
+      A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a newsreader.
+
+   `MMDF <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF>`_
+      A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum Distribution
+      Facility.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-message-objects:
+
+:class:`Message` objects
+------------------------
+
+
+.. class:: Message(message=None)
+
+   A subclass of the :mod:`email.message` module's
+   :class:`~email.message.Message`. Subclasses of :class:`mailbox.Message` add
+   mailbox-format-specific state and behavior.
+
+   If *message* is omitted, the new instance is created in a default, empty state.
+   If *message* is an :class:`email.message.Message` instance, its contents are
+   copied; furthermore, any format-specific information is converted insofar as
+   possible if *message* is a :class:`Message` instance. If *message* is a string,
+   a byte string,
+   or a file, it should contain an :rfc:`2822`\ -compliant message, which is read
+   and parsed.  Files should be open in binary mode, but text mode files
+   are accepted for backward compatibility.
+
+   The format-specific state and behaviors offered by subclasses vary, but in
+   general it is only the properties that are not specific to a particular
+   mailbox that are supported (although presumably the properties are specific
+   to a particular mailbox format). For example, file offsets for single-file
+   mailbox formats and file names for directory-based mailbox formats are not
+   retained, because they are only applicable to the original mailbox. But state
+   such as whether a message has been read by the user or marked as important is
+   retained, because it applies to the message itself.
+
+   There is no requirement that :class:`Message` instances be used to represent
+   messages retrieved using :class:`Mailbox` instances. In some situations, the
+   time and memory required to generate :class:`Message` representations might
+   not be acceptable. For such situations, :class:`Mailbox` instances also
+   offer string and file-like representations, and a custom message factory may
+   be specified when a :class:`Mailbox` instance is initialized.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-maildirmessage:
+
+:class:`MaildirMessage`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: MaildirMessage(message=None)
+
+   A message with Maildir-specific behaviors. Parameter *message* has the same
+   meaning as with the :class:`Message` constructor.
+
+   Typically, a mail user agent application moves all of the messages in the
+   :file:`new` subdirectory to the :file:`cur` subdirectory after the first time
+   the user opens and closes the mailbox, recording that the messages are old
+   whether or not they've actually been read. Each message in :file:`cur` has an
+   "info" section added to its file name to store information about its state.
+   (Some mail readers may also add an "info" section to messages in
+   :file:`new`.)  The "info" section may take one of two forms: it may contain
+   "2," followed by a list of standardized flags (e.g., "2,FR") or it may
+   contain "1," followed by so-called experimental information. Standard flags
+   for Maildir messages are as follows:
+
+   +------+---------+--------------------------------+
+   | Flag | Meaning | Explanation                    |
+   +======+=========+================================+
+   | D    | Draft   | Under composition              |
+   +------+---------+--------------------------------+
+   | F    | Flagged | Marked as important            |
+   +------+---------+--------------------------------+
+   | P    | Passed  | Forwarded, resent, or bounced  |
+   +------+---------+--------------------------------+
+   | R    | Replied | Replied to                     |
+   +------+---------+--------------------------------+
+   | S    | Seen    | Read                           |
+   +------+---------+--------------------------------+
+   | T    | Trashed | Marked for subsequent deletion |
+   +------+---------+--------------------------------+
+
+   :class:`MaildirMessage` instances offer the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_subdir()
+
+      Return either "new" (if the message should be stored in the :file:`new`
+      subdirectory) or "cur" (if the message should be stored in the :file:`cur`
+      subdirectory).
+
+      .. note::
+
+         A message is typically moved from :file:`new` to :file:`cur` after its
+         mailbox has been accessed, whether or not the message is has been
+         read. A message ``msg`` has been read if ``"S" in msg.get_flags()`` is
+         ``True``.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_subdir(subdir)
+
+      Set the subdirectory the message should be stored in. Parameter *subdir*
+      must be either "new" or "cur".
+
+
+   .. method:: get_flags()
+
+      Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the
+      message complies with the standard Maildir format, the result is the
+      concatenation in alphabetical order of zero or one occurrence of each of
+      ``'D'``, ``'F'``, ``'P'``, ``'R'``, ``'S'``, and ``'T'``. The empty string
+      is returned if no flags are set or if "info" contains experimental
+      semantics.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_flags(flags)
+
+      Set the flags specified by *flags* and unset all others.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_flag(flag)
+
+      Set the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To add
+      more than one flag at a time, *flag* may be a string of more than one
+      character. The current "info" is overwritten whether or not it contains
+      experimental information rather than flags.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_flag(flag)
+
+      Unset the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To
+      remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* maybe a string of more than
+      one character.  If "info" contains experimental information rather than
+      flags, the current "info" is not modified.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_date()
+
+      Return the delivery date of the message as a floating-point number
+      representing seconds since the epoch.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_date(date)
+
+      Set the delivery date of the message to *date*, a floating-point number
+      representing seconds since the epoch.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_info()
+
+      Return a string containing the "info" for a message. This is useful for
+      accessing and modifying "info" that is experimental (i.e., not a list of
+      flags).
+
+
+   .. method:: set_info(info)
+
+      Set "info" to *info*, which should be a string.
+
+When a :class:`MaildirMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`mboxMessage` or :class:`MMDFMessage` instance, the :mailheader:`Status`
+and :mailheader:`X-Status` headers are omitted and the following conversions
+take place:
+
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Resulting state    | :class:`mboxMessage` or :class:`MMDFMessage` |
+|                    | state                                        |
++====================+==============================================+
+| "cur" subdirectory | O flag                                       |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| F flag             | F flag                                       |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| R flag             | A flag                                       |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| S flag             | R flag                                       |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| T flag             | D flag                                       |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+When a :class:`MaildirMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`MHMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++-------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Resulting state               | :class:`MHMessage` state |
++===============================+==========================+
+| "cur" subdirectory            | "unseen" sequence        |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| "cur" subdirectory and S flag | no "unseen" sequence     |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| F flag                        | "flagged" sequence       |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| R flag                        | "replied" sequence       |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------+
+
+When a :class:`MaildirMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`BabylMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+| Resulting state               | :class:`BabylMessage` state   |
++===============================+===============================+
+| "cur" subdirectory            | "unseen" label                |
++-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+| "cur" subdirectory and S flag | no "unseen" label             |
++-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+| P flag                        | "forwarded" or "resent" label |
++-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+| R flag                        | "answered" label              |
++-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+| T flag                        | "deleted" label               |
++-------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+
+.. _mailbox-mboxmessage:
+
+:class:`mboxMessage`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: mboxMessage(message=None)
+
+   A message with mbox-specific behaviors. Parameter *message* has the same meaning
+   as with the :class:`Message` constructor.
+
+   Messages in an mbox mailbox are stored together in a single file. The
+   sender's envelope address and the time of delivery are typically stored in a
+   line beginning with "From " that is used to indicate the start of a message,
+   though there is considerable variation in the exact format of this data among
+   mbox implementations. Flags that indicate the state of the message, such as
+   whether it has been read or marked as important, are typically stored in
+   :mailheader:`Status` and :mailheader:`X-Status` headers.
+
+   Conventional flags for mbox messages are as follows:
+
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | Flag | Meaning  | Explanation                    |
+   +======+==========+================================+
+   | R    | Read     | Read                           |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | O    | Old      | Previously detected by MUA     |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | D    | Deleted  | Marked for subsequent deletion |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | F    | Flagged  | Marked as important            |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | A    | Answered | Replied to                     |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+
+   The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the :mailheader:`Status` header, and the
+   "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the :mailheader:`X-Status` header. The
+   flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.
+
+   :class:`mboxMessage` instances offer the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_from()
+
+      Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the start of the
+      message in an mbox mailbox. The leading "From " and the trailing newline
+      are excluded.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_from(from_, time_=None)
+
+      Set the "From " line to *from_*, which should be specified without a
+      leading "From " or trailing newline. For convenience, *time_* may be
+      specified and will be formatted appropriately and appended to *from_*. If
+      *time_* is specified, it should be a :class:`time.struct_time` instance, a
+      tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`time.strftime`, or ``True`` (to use
+      :meth:`time.gmtime`).
+
+
+   .. method:: get_flags()
+
+      Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the
+      message complies with the conventional format, the result is the
+      concatenation in the following order of zero or one occurrence of each of
+      ``'R'``, ``'O'``, ``'D'``, ``'F'``, and ``'A'``.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_flags(flags)
+
+      Set the flags specified by *flags* and unset all others. Parameter *flags*
+      should be the concatenation in any order of zero or more occurrences of
+      each of ``'R'``, ``'O'``, ``'D'``, ``'F'``, and ``'A'``.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_flag(flag)
+
+      Set the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To add
+      more than one flag at a time, *flag* may be a string of more than one
+      character.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_flag(flag)
+
+      Unset the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To
+      remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* maybe a string of more than
+      one character.
+
+When an :class:`mboxMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`MaildirMessage` instance, a "From " line is generated based upon the
+:class:`MaildirMessage` instance's delivery date, and the following conversions
+take place:
+
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| Resulting state | :class:`MaildirMessage` state |
++=================+===============================+
+| R flag          | S flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| O flag          | "cur" subdirectory            |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| D flag          | T flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| F flag          | F flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| A flag          | R flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+
+When an :class:`mboxMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`MHMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| Resulting state   | :class:`MHMessage` state |
++===================+==========================+
+| R flag and O flag | no "unseen" sequence     |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| O flag            | "unseen" sequence        |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| F flag            | "flagged" sequence       |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| A flag            | "replied" sequence       |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+
+When an :class:`mboxMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`BabylMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| Resulting state   | :class:`BabylMessage` state |
++===================+=============================+
+| R flag and O flag | no "unseen" label           |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| O flag            | "unseen" label              |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| D flag            | "deleted" label             |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| A flag            | "answered" label            |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+When a :class:`Message` instance is created based upon an :class:`MMDFMessage`
+instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags directly correspond:
+
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| Resulting state | :class:`MMDFMessage` state |
++=================+============================+
+| R flag          | R flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| O flag          | O flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| D flag          | D flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| F flag          | F flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| A flag          | A flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+
+
+.. _mailbox-mhmessage:
+
+:class:`MHMessage`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: MHMessage(message=None)
+
+   A message with MH-specific behaviors. Parameter *message* has the same meaning
+   as with the :class:`Message` constructor.
+
+   MH messages do not support marks or flags in the traditional sense, but they
+   do support sequences, which are logical groupings of arbitrary messages. Some
+   mail reading programs (although not the standard :program:`mh` and
+   :program:`nmh`) use sequences in much the same way flags are used with other
+   formats, as follows:
+
+   +----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | Sequence | Explanation                              |
+   +==========+==========================================+
+   | unseen   | Not read, but previously detected by MUA |
+   +----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | replied  | Replied to                               |
+   +----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | flagged  | Marked as important                      |
+   +----------+------------------------------------------+
+
+   :class:`MHMessage` instances offer the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_sequences()
+
+      Return a list of the names of sequences that include this message.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_sequences(sequences)
+
+      Set the list of sequences that include this message.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_sequence(sequence)
+
+      Add *sequence* to the list of sequences that include this message.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_sequence(sequence)
+
+      Remove *sequence* from the list of sequences that include this message.
+
+When an :class:`MHMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`MaildirMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++--------------------+-------------------------------+
+| Resulting state    | :class:`MaildirMessage` state |
++====================+===============================+
+| "unseen" sequence  | no S flag                     |
++--------------------+-------------------------------+
+| "replied" sequence | R flag                        |
++--------------------+-------------------------------+
+| "flagged" sequence | F flag                        |
++--------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+When an :class:`MHMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`mboxMessage` or :class:`MMDFMessage` instance, the :mailheader:`Status`
+and :mailheader:`X-Status` headers are omitted and the following conversions
+take place:
+
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Resulting state    | :class:`mboxMessage` or :class:`MMDFMessage` |
+|                    | state                                        |
++====================+==============================================+
+| "unseen" sequence  | no R flag                                    |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| "replied" sequence | A flag                                       |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| "flagged" sequence | F flag                                       |
++--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+When an :class:`MHMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`BabylMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++--------------------+-----------------------------+
+| Resulting state    | :class:`BabylMessage` state |
++====================+=============================+
+| "unseen" sequence  | "unseen" label              |
++--------------------+-----------------------------+
+| "replied" sequence | "answered" label            |
++--------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+
+.. _mailbox-babylmessage:
+
+:class:`BabylMessage`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: BabylMessage(message=None)
+
+   A message with Babyl-specific behaviors. Parameter *message* has the same
+   meaning as with the :class:`Message` constructor.
+
+   Certain message labels, called :dfn:`attributes`, are defined by convention
+   to have special meanings. The attributes are as follows:
+
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | Label     | Explanation                              |
+   +===========+==========================================+
+   | unseen    | Not read, but previously detected by MUA |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | deleted   | Marked for subsequent deletion           |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | filed     | Copied to another file or mailbox        |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | answered  | Replied to                               |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | forwarded | Forwarded                                |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | edited    | Modified by the user                     |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+   | resent    | Resent                                   |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------+
+
+   By default, Rmail displays only visible headers. The :class:`BabylMessage`
+   class, though, uses the original headers because they are more
+   complete. Visible headers may be accessed explicitly if desired.
+
+   :class:`BabylMessage` instances offer the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_labels()
+
+      Return a list of labels on the message.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_labels(labels)
+
+      Set the list of labels on the message to *labels*.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_label(label)
+
+      Add *label* to the list of labels on the message.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_label(label)
+
+      Remove *label* from the list of labels on the message.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_visible()
+
+      Return an :class:`Message` instance whose headers are the message's
+      visible headers and whose body is empty.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_visible(visible)
+
+      Set the message's visible headers to be the same as the headers in
+      *message*.  Parameter *visible* should be a :class:`Message` instance, an
+      :class:`email.message.Message` instance, a string, or a file-like object
+      (which should be open in text mode).
+
+
+   .. method:: update_visible()
+
+      When a :class:`BabylMessage` instance's original headers are modified, the
+      visible headers are not automatically modified to correspond. This method
+      updates the visible headers as follows: each visible header with a
+      corresponding original header is set to the value of the original header,
+      each visible header without a corresponding original header is removed,
+      and any of :mailheader:`Date`, :mailheader:`From`, :mailheader:`Reply-To`,
+      :mailheader:`To`, :mailheader:`CC`, and :mailheader:`Subject` that are
+      present in the original headers but not the visible headers are added to
+      the visible headers.
+
+When a :class:`BabylMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`MaildirMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++-------------------+-------------------------------+
+| Resulting state   | :class:`MaildirMessage` state |
++===================+===============================+
+| "unseen" label    | no S flag                     |
++-------------------+-------------------------------+
+| "deleted" label   | T flag                        |
++-------------------+-------------------------------+
+| "answered" label  | R flag                        |
++-------------------+-------------------------------+
+| "forwarded" label | P flag                        |
++-------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+When a :class:`BabylMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`mboxMessage` or :class:`MMDFMessage` instance, the :mailheader:`Status`
+and :mailheader:`X-Status` headers are omitted and the following conversions
+take place:
+
++------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| Resulting state  | :class:`mboxMessage` or :class:`MMDFMessage` |
+|                  | state                                        |
++==================+==============================================+
+| "unseen" label   | no R flag                                    |
++------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| "deleted" label  | D flag                                       |
++------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| "answered" label | A flag                                       |
++------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+When a :class:`BabylMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`MHMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++------------------+--------------------------+
+| Resulting state  | :class:`MHMessage` state |
++==================+==========================+
+| "unseen" label   | "unseen" sequence        |
++------------------+--------------------------+
+| "answered" label | "replied" sequence       |
++------------------+--------------------------+
+
+
+.. _mailbox-mmdfmessage:
+
+:class:`MMDFMessage`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: MMDFMessage(message=None)
+
+   A message with MMDF-specific behaviors. Parameter *message* has the same meaning
+   as with the :class:`Message` constructor.
+
+   As with message in an mbox mailbox, MMDF messages are stored with the
+   sender's address and the delivery date in an initial line beginning with
+   "From ".  Likewise, flags that indicate the state of the message are
+   typically stored in :mailheader:`Status` and :mailheader:`X-Status` headers.
+
+   Conventional flags for MMDF messages are identical to those of mbox message
+   and are as follows:
+
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | Flag | Meaning  | Explanation                    |
+   +======+==========+================================+
+   | R    | Read     | Read                           |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | O    | Old      | Previously detected by MUA     |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | D    | Deleted  | Marked for subsequent deletion |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | F    | Flagged  | Marked as important            |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+   | A    | Answered | Replied to                     |
+   +------+----------+--------------------------------+
+
+   The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the :mailheader:`Status` header, and the
+   "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the :mailheader:`X-Status` header. The
+   flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.
+
+   :class:`MMDFMessage` instances offer the following methods, which are
+   identical to those offered by :class:`mboxMessage`:
+
+
+   .. method:: get_from()
+
+      Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the start of the
+      message in an mbox mailbox. The leading "From " and the trailing newline
+      are excluded.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_from(from_, time_=None)
+
+      Set the "From " line to *from_*, which should be specified without a
+      leading "From " or trailing newline. For convenience, *time_* may be
+      specified and will be formatted appropriately and appended to *from_*. If
+      *time_* is specified, it should be a :class:`time.struct_time` instance, a
+      tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`time.strftime`, or ``True`` (to use
+      :meth:`time.gmtime`).
+
+
+   .. method:: get_flags()
+
+      Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the
+      message complies with the conventional format, the result is the
+      concatenation in the following order of zero or one occurrence of each of
+      ``'R'``, ``'O'``, ``'D'``, ``'F'``, and ``'A'``.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_flags(flags)
+
+      Set the flags specified by *flags* and unset all others. Parameter *flags*
+      should be the concatenation in any order of zero or more occurrences of
+      each of ``'R'``, ``'O'``, ``'D'``, ``'F'``, and ``'A'``.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_flag(flag)
+
+      Set the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To add
+      more than one flag at a time, *flag* may be a string of more than one
+      character.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_flag(flag)
+
+      Unset the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To
+      remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* maybe a string of more than
+      one character.
+
+When an :class:`MMDFMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`MaildirMessage` instance, a "From " line is generated based upon the
+:class:`MaildirMessage` instance's delivery date, and the following conversions
+take place:
+
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| Resulting state | :class:`MaildirMessage` state |
++=================+===============================+
+| R flag          | S flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| O flag          | "cur" subdirectory            |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| D flag          | T flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| F flag          | F flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+| A flag          | R flag                        |
++-----------------+-------------------------------+
+
+When an :class:`MMDFMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`MHMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| Resulting state   | :class:`MHMessage` state |
++===================+==========================+
+| R flag and O flag | no "unseen" sequence     |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| O flag            | "unseen" sequence        |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| F flag            | "flagged" sequence       |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+| A flag            | "replied" sequence       |
++-------------------+--------------------------+
+
+When an :class:`MMDFMessage` instance is created based upon a
+:class:`BabylMessage` instance, the following conversions take place:
+
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| Resulting state   | :class:`BabylMessage` state |
++===================+=============================+
+| R flag and O flag | no "unseen" label           |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| O flag            | "unseen" label              |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| D flag            | "deleted" label             |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+| A flag            | "answered" label            |
++-------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+When an :class:`MMDFMessage` instance is created based upon an
+:class:`mboxMessage` instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags directly
+correspond:
+
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| Resulting state | :class:`mboxMessage` state |
++=================+============================+
+| R flag          | R flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| O flag          | O flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| D flag          | D flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| F flag          | F flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+| A flag          | A flag                     |
++-----------------+----------------------------+
+
+
+Exceptions
+----------
+
+The following exception classes are defined in the :mod:`mailbox` module:
+
+
+.. exception:: Error()
+
+   The based class for all other module-specific exceptions.
+
+
+.. exception:: NoSuchMailboxError()
+
+   Raised when a mailbox is expected but is not found, such as when instantiating a
+   :class:`Mailbox` subclass with a path that does not exist (and with the *create*
+   parameter set to ``False``), or when opening a folder that does not exist.
+
+
+.. exception:: NotEmptyError()
+
+   Raised when a mailbox is not empty but is expected to be, such as when deleting
+   a folder that contains messages.
+
+
+.. exception:: ExternalClashError()
+
+   Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of the program
+   causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing to acquire a lock that
+   another program already holds a lock, or when a uniquely-generated file name
+   already exists.
+
+
+.. exception:: FormatError()
+
+   Raised when the data in a file cannot be parsed, such as when an :class:`MH`
+   instance attempts to read a corrupted :file:`.mh_sequences` file.
+
+
+.. _mailbox-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+A simple example of printing the subjects of all messages in a mailbox that seem
+interesting::
+
+   import mailbox
+   for message in mailbox.mbox('~/mbox'):
+       subject = message['subject']       # Could possibly be None.
+       if subject and 'python' in subject.lower():
+           print(subject)
+
+To copy all mail from a Babyl mailbox to an MH mailbox, converting all of the
+format-specific information that can be converted::
+
+   import mailbox
+   destination = mailbox.MH('~/Mail')
+   destination.lock()
+   for message in mailbox.Babyl('~/RMAIL'):
+       destination.add(mailbox.MHMessage(message))
+   destination.flush()
+   destination.unlock()
+
+This example sorts mail from several mailing lists into different mailboxes,
+being careful to avoid mail corruption due to concurrent modification by other
+programs, mail loss due to interruption of the program, or premature termination
+due to malformed messages in the mailbox::
+
+   import mailbox
+   import email.errors
+
+   list_names = ('python-list', 'python-dev', 'python-bugs')
+
+   boxes = {name: mailbox.mbox('~/email/%s' % name) for name in list_names}
+   inbox = mailbox.Maildir('~/Maildir', factory=None)
+
+   for key in inbox.iterkeys():
+       try:
+           message = inbox[key]
+       except email.errors.MessageParseError:
+           continue                # The message is malformed. Just leave it.
+
+       for name in list_names:
+           list_id = message['list-id']
+           if list_id and name in list_id:
+               # Get mailbox to use
+               box = boxes[name]
+
+               # Write copy to disk before removing original.
+               # If there's a crash, you might duplicate a message, but
+               # that's better than losing a message completely.
+               box.lock()
+               box.add(message)
+               box.flush()
+               box.unlock()
+
+               # Remove original message
+               inbox.lock()
+               inbox.discard(key)
+               inbox.flush()
+               inbox.unlock()
+               break               # Found destination, so stop looking.
+
+   for box in boxes.itervalues():
+       box.close()
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mailcap.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mailcap.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..896afd1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mailcap.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+:mod:`mailcap` --- Mailcap file handling
+========================================
+
+.. module:: mailcap
+   :synopsis: Mailcap file handling.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/mailcap.py`
+
+--------------
+
+Mailcap files are used to configure how MIME-aware applications such as mail
+readers and Web browsers react to files with different MIME types. (The name
+"mailcap" is derived from the phrase "mail capability".)  For example, a mailcap
+file might contain a line like ``video/mpeg; xmpeg %s``.  Then, if the user
+encounters an email message or Web document with the MIME type
+:mimetype:`video/mpeg`, ``%s`` will be replaced by a filename (usually one
+belonging to a temporary file) and the :program:`xmpeg` program can be
+automatically started to view the file.
+
+The mailcap format is documented in :rfc:`1524`, "A User Agent Configuration
+Mechanism For Multimedia Mail Format Information," but is not an Internet
+standard.  However, mailcap files are supported on most Unix systems.
+
+
+.. function:: findmatch(caps, MIMEtype, key='view', filename='/dev/null', plist=[])
+
+   Return a 2-tuple; the first element is a string containing the command line to
+   be executed (which can be passed to :func:`os.system`), and the second element
+   is the mailcap entry for a given MIME type.  If no matching MIME type can be
+   found, ``(None, None)`` is returned.
+
+   *key* is the name of the field desired, which represents the type of activity to
+   be performed; the default value is 'view', since in the  most common case you
+   simply want to view the body of the MIME-typed data.  Other possible values
+   might be 'compose' and 'edit', if you wanted to create a new body of the given
+   MIME type or alter the existing body data.  See :rfc:`1524` for a complete list
+   of these fields.
+
+   *filename* is the filename to be substituted for ``%s`` in the command line; the
+   default value is ``'/dev/null'`` which is almost certainly not what you want, so
+   usually you'll override it by specifying a filename.
+
+   *plist* can be a list containing named parameters; the default value is simply
+   an empty list.  Each entry in the list must be a string containing the parameter
+   name, an equals sign (``'='``), and the parameter's value.  Mailcap entries can
+   contain  named parameters like ``%{foo}``, which will be replaced by the value
+   of the parameter named 'foo'.  For example, if the command line ``showpartial
+   %{id} %{number} %{total}`` was in a mailcap file, and *plist* was set to
+   ``['id=1', 'number=2', 'total=3']``, the resulting command line would be
+   ``'showpartial 1 2 3'``.
+
+   In a mailcap file, the "test" field can optionally be specified to test some
+   external condition (such as the machine architecture, or the window system in
+   use) to determine whether or not the mailcap line applies.  :func:`findmatch`
+   will automatically check such conditions and skip the entry if the check fails.
+
+
+.. function:: getcaps()
+
+   Returns a dictionary mapping MIME types to a list of mailcap file entries. This
+   dictionary must be passed to the :func:`findmatch` function.  An entry is stored
+   as a list of dictionaries, but it shouldn't be necessary to know the details of
+   this representation.
+
+   The information is derived from all of the mailcap files found on the system.
+   Settings in the user's mailcap file :file:`$HOME/.mailcap` will override
+   settings in the system mailcap files :file:`/etc/mailcap`,
+   :file:`/usr/etc/mailcap`, and :file:`/usr/local/etc/mailcap`.
+
+An example usage::
+
+   >>> import mailcap
+   >>> d = mailcap.getcaps()
+   >>> mailcap.findmatch(d, 'video/mpeg', filename='tmp1223')
+   ('xmpeg tmp1223', {'view': 'xmpeg %s'})
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/markup.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/markup.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1588aa8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/markup.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+.. _markup:
+
+**********************************
+Structured Markup Processing Tools
+**********************************
+
+Python supports a variety of modules to work with various forms of structured
+data markup.  This includes modules to work with the Standard Generalized Markup
+Language (SGML) and the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and several interfaces
+for working with the Extensible Markup Language (XML).
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   html.rst
+   html.parser.rst
+   html.entities.rst
+   xml.rst
+   xml.etree.elementtree.rst
+   xml.dom.rst
+   xml.dom.minidom.rst
+   xml.dom.pulldom.rst
+   xml.sax.rst
+   xml.sax.handler.rst
+   xml.sax.utils.rst
+   xml.sax.reader.rst
+   pyexpat.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/marshal.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/marshal.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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+:mod:`marshal` --- Internal Python object serialization
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: marshal
+   :synopsis: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different
+              constraints).
+
+--------------
+
+This module contains functions that can read and write Python values in a binary
+format.  The format is specific to Python, but independent of machine
+architecture issues (e.g., you can write a Python value to a file on a PC,
+transport the file to a Sun, and read it back there).  Details of the format are
+undocumented on purpose; it may change between Python versions (although it
+rarely does). [#]_
+
+.. index::
+   module: pickle
+   module: shelve
+
+This is not a general "persistence" module.  For general persistence and
+transfer of Python objects through RPC calls, see the modules :mod:`pickle` and
+:mod:`shelve`.  The :mod:`marshal` module exists mainly to support reading and
+writing the "pseudo-compiled" code for Python modules of :file:`.pyc` files.
+Therefore, the Python maintainers reserve the right to modify the marshal format
+in backward incompatible ways should the need arise.  If you're serializing and
+de-serializing Python objects, use the :mod:`pickle` module instead -- the
+performance is comparable, version independence is guaranteed, and pickle
+supports a substantially wider range of objects than marshal.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`marshal` module is not intended to be secure against erroneous or
+   maliciously constructed data.  Never unmarshal data received from an
+   untrusted or unauthenticated source.
+
+.. index:: object; code, code object
+
+Not all Python object types are supported; in general, only objects whose value
+is independent from a particular invocation of Python can be written and read by
+this module.  The following types are supported: booleans, integers, floating
+point numbers, complex numbers, strings, bytes, bytearrays, tuples, lists, sets,
+frozensets, dictionaries, and code objects, where it should be understood that
+tuples, lists, sets, frozensets and dictionaries are only supported as long as
+the values contained therein are themselves supported.  The
+singletons :const:`None`, :const:`Ellipsis` and :exc:`StopIteration` can also be
+marshalled and unmarshalled.
+For format *version* lower than 3, recursive lists, sets and dictionaries cannot
+be written (see below).
+
+There are functions that read/write files as well as functions operating on
+bytes-like objects.
+
+The module defines these functions:
+
+
+.. function:: dump(value, file[, version])
+
+   Write the value on the open file.  The value must be a supported type.  The
+   file must be a writeable :term:`binary file`.
+
+   If the value has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported type, a
+   :exc:`ValueError` exception is raised --- but garbage data will also be written
+   to the file.  The object will not be properly read back by :func:`load`.
+
+   The *version* argument indicates the data format that ``dump`` should use
+   (see below).
+
+
+.. function:: load(file)
+
+   Read one value from the open file and return it.  If no valid value is read
+   (e.g. because the data has a different Python version's incompatible marshal
+   format), raise :exc:`EOFError`, :exc:`ValueError` or :exc:`TypeError`.  The
+   file must be a readable :term:`binary file`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If an object containing an unsupported type was marshalled with :func:`dump`,
+      :func:`load` will substitute ``None`` for the unmarshallable type.
+
+
+.. function:: dumps(value[, version])
+
+   Return the bytes object that would be written to a file by ``dump(value, file)``.  The
+   value must be a supported type.  Raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception if value
+   has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported type.
+
+   The *version* argument indicates the data format that ``dumps`` should use
+   (see below).
+
+
+.. function:: loads(bytes)
+
+   Convert the :term:`bytes-like object` to a value.  If no valid value is found, raise
+   :exc:`EOFError`, :exc:`ValueError` or :exc:`TypeError`.  Extra bytes in the
+   input are ignored.
+
+
+In addition, the following constants are defined:
+
+.. data:: version
+
+   Indicates the format that the module uses. Version 0 is the historical
+   format, version 1 shares interned strings and version 2 uses a binary format
+   for floating point numbers.
+   Version 3 adds support for object instancing and recursion.
+   The current version is 4.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] The name of this module stems from a bit of terminology used by the designers of
+   Modula-3 (amongst others), who use the term "marshalling" for shipping of data
+   around in a self-contained form. Strictly speaking, "to marshal" means to
+   convert some data from internal to external form (in an RPC buffer for instance)
+   and "unmarshalling" for the reverse process.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/math.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/math.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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+:mod:`math` --- Mathematical functions
+======================================
+
+.. module:: math
+   :synopsis: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   from math import fsum
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to the mathematical functions defined by the C
+standard.
+
+These functions cannot be used with complex numbers; use the functions of the
+same name from the :mod:`cmath` module if you require support for complex
+numbers.  The distinction between functions which support complex numbers and
+those which don't is made since most users do not want to learn quite as much
+mathematics as required to understand complex numbers.  Receiving an exception
+instead of a complex result allows earlier detection of the unexpected complex
+number used as a parameter, so that the programmer can determine how and why it
+was generated in the first place.
+
+The following functions are provided by this module.  Except when explicitly
+noted otherwise, all return values are floats.
+
+
+Number-theoretic and representation functions
+---------------------------------------------
+
+.. function:: ceil(x)
+
+   Return the ceiling of *x*, the smallest integer greater than or equal to *x*.
+   If *x* is not a float, delegates to ``x.__ceil__()``, which should return an
+   :class:`~numbers.Integral` value.
+
+
+.. function:: copysign(x, y)
+
+   Return a float with the magnitude (absolute value) of *x* but the sign of
+   *y*.  On platforms that support signed zeros, ``copysign(1.0, -0.0)``
+   returns *-1.0*.
+
+
+.. function:: fabs(x)
+
+   Return the absolute value of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: factorial(x)
+
+   Return *x* factorial as an integer.  Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *x* is not integral or
+   is negative.
+
+
+.. function:: floor(x)
+
+   Return the floor of *x*, the largest integer less than or equal to *x*.
+   If *x* is not a float, delegates to ``x.__floor__()``, which should return an
+   :class:`~numbers.Integral` value.
+
+
+.. function:: fmod(x, y)
+
+   Return ``fmod(x, y)``, as defined by the platform C library. Note that the
+   Python expression ``x % y`` may not return the same result.  The intent of the C
+   standard is that ``fmod(x, y)`` be exactly (mathematically; to infinite
+   precision) equal to ``x - n*y`` for some integer *n* such that the result has
+   the same sign as *x* and magnitude less than ``abs(y)``.  Python's ``x % y``
+   returns a result with the sign of *y* instead, and may not be exactly computable
+   for float arguments. For example, ``fmod(-1e-100, 1e100)`` is ``-1e-100``, but
+   the result of Python's ``-1e-100 % 1e100`` is ``1e100-1e-100``, which cannot be
+   represented exactly as a float, and rounds to the surprising ``1e100``.  For
+   this reason, function :func:`fmod` is generally preferred when working with
+   floats, while Python's ``x % y`` is preferred when working with integers.
+
+
+.. function:: frexp(x)
+
+   Return the mantissa and exponent of *x* as the pair ``(m, e)``.  *m* is a float
+   and *e* is an integer such that ``x == m * 2**e`` exactly. If *x* is zero,
+   returns ``(0.0, 0)``, otherwise ``0.5 <= abs(m) < 1``.  This is used to "pick
+   apart" the internal representation of a float in a portable way.
+
+
+.. function:: fsum(iterable)
+
+   Return an accurate floating point sum of values in the iterable.  Avoids
+   loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial sums::
+
+        >>> sum([.1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1])
+        0.9999999999999999
+        >>> fsum([.1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1])
+        1.0
+
+   The algorithm's accuracy depends on IEEE-754 arithmetic guarantees and the
+   typical case where the rounding mode is half-even.  On some non-Windows
+   builds, the underlying C library uses extended precision addition and may
+   occasionally double-round an intermediate sum causing it to be off in its
+   least significant bit.
+
+   For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the `ASPN cookbook
+   recipes for accurate floating point summation
+   <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090/>`_\.
+
+
+.. function:: gcd(a, b)
+
+   Return the greatest common divisor of the integers *a* and *b*.  If either
+   *a* or *b* is nonzero, then the value of ``gcd(a, b)`` is the largest
+   positive integer that divides both *a* and *b*.  ``gcd(0, 0)`` returns
+   ``0``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the values *a* and *b* are close to each other and
+   ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to
+   given absolute and relative tolerances.
+
+   *rel_tol* is the relative tolerance -- it is the maximum allowed difference
+   between *a* and *b*, relative to the larger absolute value of *a* or *b*.
+   For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass ``rel_tol=0.05``.  The default
+   tolerance is ``1e-09``, which assures that the two values are the same
+   within about 9 decimal digits.  *rel_tol* must be greater than zero.
+
+   *abs_tol* is the minimum absolute tolerance -- useful for comparisons near
+   zero. *abs_tol* must be at least zero.
+
+   If no errors occur, the result will be:
+   ``abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)``.
+
+   The IEEE 754 special values of ``NaN``, ``inf``, and ``-inf`` will be
+   handled according to IEEE rules.  Specifically, ``NaN`` is not considered
+   close to any other value, including ``NaN``.  ``inf`` and ``-inf`` are only
+   considered close to themselves.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :pep:`485` -- A function for testing approximate equality
+
+
+.. function:: isfinite(x)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *x* is neither an infinity nor a NaN, and
+   ``False`` otherwise.  (Note that ``0.0`` *is* considered finite.)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: isinf(x)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *x* is a positive or negative infinity, and
+   ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: isnan(x)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *x* is a NaN (not a number), and ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: ldexp(x, i)
+
+   Return ``x * (2**i)``.  This is essentially the inverse of function
+   :func:`frexp`.
+
+
+.. function:: modf(x)
+
+   Return the fractional and integer parts of *x*.  Both results carry the sign
+   of *x* and are floats.
+
+
+.. function:: remainder(x, y)
+
+   Return the IEEE 754-style remainder of *x* with respect to *y*.  For
+   finite *x* and finite nonzero *y*, this is the difference ``x - n*y``,
+   where ``n`` is the closest integer to the exact value of the quotient ``x /
+   y``.  If ``x / y`` is exactly halfway between two consecutive integers, the
+   nearest *even* integer is used for ``n``.  The remainder ``r = remainder(x,
+   y)`` thus always satisfies ``abs(r) <= 0.5 * abs(y)``.
+
+   Special cases follow IEEE 754: in particular, ``remainder(x, math.inf)`` is
+   *x* for any finite *x*, and ``remainder(x, 0)`` and
+   ``remainder(math.inf, x)`` raise :exc:`ValueError` for any non-NaN *x*.
+   If the result of the remainder operation is zero, that zero will have
+   the same sign as *x*.
+
+   On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating-point, the result of this
+   operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error is introduced.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: trunc(x)
+
+   Return the :class:`~numbers.Real` value *x* truncated to an
+   :class:`~numbers.Integral` (usually an integer). Delegates to
+   :meth:`x.__trunc__() <object.__trunc__>`.
+
+
+Note that :func:`frexp` and :func:`modf` have a different call/return pattern
+than their C equivalents: they take a single argument and return a pair of
+values, rather than returning their second return value through an 'output
+parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).
+
+For the :func:`ceil`, :func:`floor`, and :func:`modf` functions, note that *all*
+floating-point numbers of sufficiently large magnitude are exact integers.
+Python floats typically carry no more than 53 bits of precision (the same as the
+platform C double type), in which case any float *x* with ``abs(x) >= 2**52``
+necessarily has no fractional bits.
+
+
+Power and logarithmic functions
+-------------------------------
+
+.. function:: exp(x)
+
+   Return *e* raised to the power *x*, where *e* = 2.718281... is the base
+   of natural logarithms.  This is usually more accurate than ``math.e ** x``
+   or ``pow(math.e, x)``.
+
+
+.. function:: expm1(x)
+
+   Return *e* raised to the power *x*, minus 1.  Here *e* is the base of natural
+   logarithms.  For small floats *x*, the subtraction in ``exp(x) - 1``
+   can result in a `significant loss of precision
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance>`_\; the :func:`expm1`
+   function provides a way to compute this quantity to full precision::
+
+      >>> from math import exp, expm1
+      >>> exp(1e-5) - 1  # gives result accurate to 11 places
+      1.0000050000069649e-05
+      >>> expm1(1e-5)    # result accurate to full precision
+      1.0000050000166668e-05
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: log(x[, base])
+
+   With one argument, return the natural logarithm of *x* (to base *e*).
+
+   With two arguments, return the logarithm of *x* to the given *base*,
+   calculated as ``log(x)/log(base)``.
+
+
+.. function:: log1p(x)
+
+   Return the natural logarithm of *1+x* (base *e*). The
+   result is calculated in a way which is accurate for *x* near zero.
+
+
+.. function:: log2(x)
+
+   Return the base-2 logarithm of *x*. This is usually more accurate than
+   ``log(x, 2)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :meth:`int.bit_length` returns the number of bits necessary to represent
+      an integer in binary, excluding the sign and leading zeros.
+
+
+.. function:: log10(x)
+
+   Return the base-10 logarithm of *x*.  This is usually more accurate
+   than ``log(x, 10)``.
+
+
+.. function:: pow(x, y)
+
+   Return ``x`` raised to the power ``y``.  Exceptional cases follow
+   Annex 'F' of the C99 standard as far as possible.  In particular,
+   ``pow(1.0, x)`` and ``pow(x, 0.0)`` always return ``1.0``, even
+   when ``x`` is a zero or a NaN.  If both ``x`` and ``y`` are finite,
+   ``x`` is negative, and ``y`` is not an integer then ``pow(x, y)``
+   is undefined, and raises :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   Unlike the built-in ``**`` operator, :func:`math.pow` converts both
+   its arguments to type :class:`float`.  Use ``**`` or the built-in
+   :func:`pow` function for computing exact integer powers.
+
+
+.. function:: sqrt(x)
+
+   Return the square root of *x*.
+
+
+Trigonometric functions
+-----------------------
+
+.. function:: acos(x)
+
+   Return the arc cosine of *x*, in radians.
+
+
+.. function:: asin(x)
+
+   Return the arc sine of *x*, in radians.
+
+
+.. function:: atan(x)
+
+   Return the arc tangent of *x*, in radians.
+
+
+.. function:: atan2(y, x)
+
+   Return ``atan(y / x)``, in radians. The result is between ``-pi`` and ``pi``.
+   The vector in the plane from the origin to point ``(x, y)`` makes this angle
+   with the positive X axis. The point of :func:`atan2` is that the signs of both
+   inputs are known to it, so it can compute the correct quadrant for the angle.
+   For example, ``atan(1)`` and ``atan2(1, 1)`` are both ``pi/4``, but ``atan2(-1,
+   -1)`` is ``-3*pi/4``.
+
+
+.. function:: cos(x)
+
+   Return the cosine of *x* radians.
+
+
+.. function:: hypot(x, y)
+
+   Return the Euclidean norm, ``sqrt(x*x + y*y)``. This is the length of the vector
+   from the origin to point ``(x, y)``.
+
+
+.. function:: sin(x)
+
+   Return the sine of *x* radians.
+
+
+.. function:: tan(x)
+
+   Return the tangent of *x* radians.
+
+
+Angular conversion
+------------------
+
+.. function:: degrees(x)
+
+   Convert angle *x* from radians to degrees.
+
+
+.. function:: radians(x)
+
+   Convert angle *x* from degrees to radians.
+
+
+Hyperbolic functions
+--------------------
+
+`Hyperbolic functions <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_function>`_
+are analogs of trigonometric functions that are based on hyperbolas
+instead of circles.
+
+.. function:: acosh(x)
+
+   Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: asinh(x)
+
+   Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: atanh(x)
+
+   Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: cosh(x)
+
+   Return the hyperbolic cosine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: sinh(x)
+
+   Return the hyperbolic sine of *x*.
+
+
+.. function:: tanh(x)
+
+   Return the hyperbolic tangent of *x*.
+
+
+Special functions
+-----------------
+
+.. function:: erf(x)
+
+   Return the `error function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ at
+   *x*.
+
+   The :func:`erf` function can be used to compute traditional statistical
+   functions such as the `cumulative standard normal distribution
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution#Cumulative_distribution_function>`_::
+
+     def phi(x):
+         'Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution'
+         return (1.0 + erf(x / sqrt(2.0))) / 2.0
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: erfc(x)
+
+   Return the complementary error function at *x*.  The `complementary error
+   function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ is defined as
+   ``1.0 - erf(x)``.  It is used for large values of *x* where a subtraction
+   from one would cause a `loss of significance
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance>`_\.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: gamma(x)
+
+   Return the `Gamma function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function>`_ at
+   *x*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: lgamma(x)
+
+   Return the natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma
+   function at *x*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+Constants
+---------
+
+.. data:: pi
+
+   The mathematical constant *π* = 3.141592..., to available precision.
+
+
+.. data:: e
+
+   The mathematical constant *e* = 2.718281..., to available precision.
+
+
+.. data:: tau
+
+   The mathematical constant *τ* = 6.283185..., to available precision.
+   Tau is a circle constant equal to 2\ *π*, the ratio of a circle's circumference to
+   its radius. To learn more about Tau, check out Vi Hart's video `Pi is (still)
+   Wrong <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jG7vhMMXagQ>`_, and start celebrating
+   `Tau day <https://tauday.com/>`_ by eating twice as much pie!
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: inf
+
+   A floating-point positive infinity.  (For negative infinity, use
+   ``-math.inf``.)  Equivalent to the output of ``float('inf')``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. data:: nan
+
+   A floating-point "not a number" (NaN) value.  Equivalent to the output of
+   ``float('nan')``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   The :mod:`math` module consists mostly of thin wrappers around the platform C
+   math library functions.  Behavior in exceptional cases follows Annex F of
+   the C99 standard where appropriate.  The current implementation will raise
+   :exc:`ValueError` for invalid operations like ``sqrt(-1.0)`` or ``log(0.0)``
+   (where C99 Annex F recommends signaling invalid operation or divide-by-zero),
+   and :exc:`OverflowError` for results that overflow (for example,
+   ``exp(1000.0)``).  A NaN will not be returned from any of the functions
+   above unless one or more of the input arguments was a NaN; in that case,
+   most functions will return a NaN, but (again following C99 Annex F) there
+   are some exceptions to this rule, for example ``pow(float('nan'), 0.0)`` or
+   ``hypot(float('nan'), float('inf'))``.
+
+   Note that Python makes no effort to distinguish signaling NaNs from
+   quiet NaNs, and behavior for signaling NaNs remains unspecified.
+   Typical behavior is to treat all NaNs as though they were quiet.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`cmath`
+      Complex number versions of many of these functions.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mimetypes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mimetypes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c445fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mimetypes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,269 @@
+:mod:`mimetypes` --- Map filenames to MIME types
+================================================
+
+.. module:: mimetypes
+   :synopsis: Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/mimetypes.py`
+
+.. index:: pair: MIME; content type
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`mimetypes` module converts between a filename or URL and the MIME type
+associated with the filename extension.  Conversions are provided from filename
+to MIME type and from MIME type to filename extension; encodings are not
+supported for the latter conversion.
+
+The module provides one class and a number of convenience functions. The
+functions are the normal interface to this module, but some applications may be
+interested in the class as well.
+
+The functions described below provide the primary interface for this module.  If
+the module has not been initialized, they will call :func:`init` if they rely on
+the information :func:`init` sets up.
+
+
+.. function:: guess_type(url, strict=True)
+
+   .. index:: pair: MIME; headers
+
+   Guess the type of a file based on its filename or URL, given by *url*.  The
+   return value is a tuple ``(type, encoding)`` where *type* is ``None`` if the
+   type can't be guessed (missing or unknown suffix) or a string of the form
+   ``'type/subtype'``, usable for a MIME :mailheader:`content-type` header.
+
+   *encoding* is ``None`` for no encoding or the name of the program used to encode
+   (e.g. :program:`compress` or :program:`gzip`). The encoding is suitable for use
+   as a :mailheader:`Content-Encoding` header, **not** as a
+   :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header. The mappings are table driven.
+   Encoding suffixes are case sensitive; type suffixes are first tried case
+   sensitively, then case insensitively.
+
+   The optional *strict* argument is a flag specifying whether the list of known MIME types
+   is limited to only the official types `registered with IANA
+   <https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml>`_.
+   When *strict* is ``True`` (the default), only the IANA types are supported; when
+   *strict* is ``False``, some additional non-standard but commonly used MIME types
+   are also recognized.
+
+
+.. function:: guess_all_extensions(type, strict=True)
+
+   Guess the extensions for a file based on its MIME type, given by *type*. The
+   return value is a list of strings giving all possible filename extensions,
+   including the leading dot (``'.'``).  The extensions are not guaranteed to have
+   been associated with any particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME
+   type *type* by :func:`guess_type`.
+
+   The optional *strict* argument has the same meaning as with the :func:`guess_type` function.
+
+
+.. function:: guess_extension(type, strict=True)
+
+   Guess the extension for a file based on its MIME type, given by *type*. The
+   return value is a string giving a filename extension, including the leading dot
+   (``'.'``).  The extension is not guaranteed to have been associated with any
+   particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type *type* by
+   :func:`guess_type`.  If no extension can be guessed for *type*, ``None`` is
+   returned.
+
+   The optional *strict* argument has the same meaning as with the :func:`guess_type` function.
+
+Some additional functions and data items are available for controlling the
+behavior of the module.
+
+
+.. function:: init(files=None)
+
+   Initialize the internal data structures.  If given, *files* must be a sequence
+   of file names which should be used to augment the default type map.  If omitted,
+   the file names to use are taken from :const:`knownfiles`; on Windows, the
+   current registry settings are loaded.  Each file named in *files* or
+   :const:`knownfiles` takes precedence over those named before it.  Calling
+   :func:`init` repeatedly is allowed.
+
+   Specifying an empty list for *files* will prevent the system defaults from
+   being applied: only the well-known values will be present from a built-in list.
+
+   If *files* is ``None`` the internal data structure is completely rebuilt to its
+   initial default value. This is a stable operation and will produce the same results
+   when called multiple times.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Previously, Windows registry settings were ignored.
+
+
+.. function:: read_mime_types(filename)
+
+   Load the type map given in the file *filename*, if it exists.  The type map is
+   returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions, including the leading dot
+   (``'.'``), to strings of the form ``'type/subtype'``.  If the file *filename*
+   does not exist or cannot be read, ``None`` is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: add_type(type, ext, strict=True)
+
+   Add a mapping from the MIME type *type* to the extension *ext*. When the
+   extension is already known, the new type will replace the old one. When the type
+   is already known the extension will be added to the list of known extensions.
+
+   When *strict* is ``True`` (the default), the mapping will be added to the
+   official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.
+
+
+.. data:: inited
+
+   Flag indicating whether or not the global data structures have been initialized.
+   This is set to ``True`` by :func:`init`.
+
+
+.. data:: knownfiles
+
+   .. index:: single: file; mime.types
+
+   List of type map file names commonly installed.  These files are typically named
+   :file:`mime.types` and are installed in different locations by different
+   packages.
+
+
+.. data:: suffix_map
+
+   Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow recognition of
+   encoded files for which the encoding and the type are indicated by the same
+   extension.  For example, the :file:`.tgz` extension is mapped to :file:`.tar.gz`
+   to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately.
+
+
+.. data:: encodings_map
+
+   Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.
+
+
+.. data:: types_map
+
+   Dictionary mapping filename extensions to MIME types.
+
+
+.. data:: common_types
+
+   Dictionary mapping filename extensions to non-standard, but commonly found MIME
+   types.
+
+
+An example usage of the module::
+
+   >>> import mimetypes
+   >>> mimetypes.init()
+   >>> mimetypes.knownfiles
+   ['/etc/mime.types', '/etc/httpd/mime.types', ... ]
+   >>> mimetypes.suffix_map['.tgz']
+   '.tar.gz'
+   >>> mimetypes.encodings_map['.gz']
+   'gzip'
+   >>> mimetypes.types_map['.tgz']
+   'application/x-tar-gz'
+
+
+.. _mimetypes-objects:
+
+MimeTypes Objects
+-----------------
+
+The :class:`MimeTypes` class may be useful for applications which may want more
+than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface similar to the one of the
+:mod:`mimetypes` module.
+
+
+.. class:: MimeTypes(filenames=(), strict=True)
+
+   This class represents a MIME-types database.  By default, it provides access to
+   the same database as the rest of this module. The initial database is a copy of
+   that provided by the module, and may be extended by loading additional
+   :file:`mime.types`\ -style files into the database using the :meth:`read` or
+   :meth:`readfp` methods.  The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before
+   loading additional data if the default data is not desired.
+
+   The optional *filenames* parameter can be used to cause additional files to be
+   loaded "on top" of the default database.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: MimeTypes.suffix_map
+
+      Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow recognition of
+      encoded files for which the encoding and the type are indicated by the same
+      extension.  For example, the :file:`.tgz` extension is mapped to :file:`.tar.gz`
+      to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately.  This is initially a
+      copy of the global :data:`suffix_map` defined in the module.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: MimeTypes.encodings_map
+
+      Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.  This is initially a
+      copy of the global :data:`encodings_map` defined in the module.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: MimeTypes.types_map
+
+      Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions to MIME types:
+      the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the second one is for
+      the standard types. They are initialized by :data:`common_types` and
+      :data:`types_map`.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: MimeTypes.types_map_inv
+
+      Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a list of filename
+      extensions: the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the
+      second one is for the standard types. They are initialized by
+      :data:`common_types` and :data:`types_map`.
+
+
+   .. method:: MimeTypes.guess_extension(type, strict=True)
+
+      Similar to the :func:`guess_extension` function, using the tables stored as part
+      of the object.
+
+
+   .. method:: MimeTypes.guess_type(url, strict=True)
+
+      Similar to the :func:`guess_type` function, using the tables stored as part of
+      the object.
+
+
+   .. method:: MimeTypes.guess_all_extensions(type, strict=True)
+
+      Similar to the :func:`guess_all_extensions` function, using the tables stored
+      as part of the object.
+
+
+   .. method:: MimeTypes.read(filename, strict=True)
+
+      Load MIME information from a file named *filename*.  This uses :meth:`readfp` to
+      parse the file.
+
+      If *strict* is ``True``, information will be added to list of standard types,
+      else to the list of non-standard types.
+
+
+   .. method:: MimeTypes.readfp(fp, strict=True)
+
+      Load MIME type information from an open file *fp*.  The file must have the format of
+      the standard :file:`mime.types` files.
+
+      If *strict* is ``True``, information will be added to the list of standard
+      types, else to the list of non-standard types.
+
+
+   .. method:: MimeTypes.read_windows_registry(strict=True)
+
+      Load MIME type information from the Windows registry.
+
+      .. availability:: Windows.
+
+      If *strict* is ``True``, information will be added to the list of standard
+      types, else to the list of non-standard types.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/misc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/misc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0943235
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/misc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+.. _misc:
+
+**********************
+Miscellaneous Services
+**********************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide miscellaneous services that are
+available in all Python versions.  Here's an overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   formatter.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mm.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mm.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8f79c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mm.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+.. _mmedia:
+
+*******************
+Multimedia Services
+*******************
+
+The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms or interfaces
+that are mainly useful for multimedia applications.  They are available at the
+discretion of the installation.  Here's an overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   audioop.rst
+   aifc.rst
+   sunau.rst
+   wave.rst
+   chunk.rst
+   colorsys.rst
+   imghdr.rst
+   sndhdr.rst
+   ossaudiodev.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mmap.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mmap.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0d2071
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/mmap.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
+:mod:`mmap` --- Memory-mapped file support
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: mmap
+   :synopsis: Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
+
+--------------
+
+Memory-mapped file objects behave like both :class:`bytearray` and like
+:term:`file objects <file object>`.  You can use mmap objects in most places
+where :class:`bytearray` are expected; for example, you can use the :mod:`re`
+module to search through a memory-mapped file.  You can also change a single
+byte by doing ``obj[index] = 97``, or change a subsequence by assigning to a
+slice: ``obj[i1:i2] = b'...'``.  You can also read and write data starting at
+the current file position, and :meth:`seek` through the file to different positions.
+
+A memory-mapped file is created by the :class:`~mmap.mmap` constructor, which is
+different on Unix and on Windows.  In either case you must provide a file
+descriptor for a file opened for update. If you wish to map an existing Python
+file object, use its :meth:`fileno` method to obtain the correct value for the
+*fileno* parameter.  Otherwise, you can open the file using the
+:func:`os.open` function, which returns a file descriptor directly (the file
+still needs to be closed when done).
+
+.. note::
+   If you want to create a memory-mapping for a writable, buffered file, you
+   should :func:`~io.IOBase.flush` the file first.  This is necessary to ensure
+   that local modifications to the buffers are actually available to the
+   mapping.
+
+For both the Unix and Windows versions of the constructor, *access* may be
+specified as an optional keyword parameter. *access* accepts one of four
+values: :const:`ACCESS_READ`, :const:`ACCESS_WRITE`, or :const:`ACCESS_COPY` to
+specify read-only, write-through or copy-on-write memory respectively, or
+:const:`ACCESS_DEFAULT` to defer to *prot*.  *access* can be used on both Unix
+and Windows.  If *access* is not specified, Windows mmap returns a
+write-through mapping.  The initial memory values for all three access types
+are taken from the specified file.  Assignment to an :const:`ACCESS_READ`
+memory map raises a :exc:`TypeError` exception.  Assignment to an
+:const:`ACCESS_WRITE` memory map affects both memory and the underlying file.
+Assignment to an :const:`ACCESS_COPY` memory map affects memory but does not
+update the underlying file.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added :const:`ACCESS_DEFAULT` constant.
+
+To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with the length.
+
+.. class:: mmap(fileno, length, tagname=None, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT[, offset])
+
+   **(Windows version)** Maps *length* bytes from the file specified by the
+   file handle *fileno*, and creates a mmap object.  If *length* is larger
+   than the current size of the file, the file is extended to contain *length*
+   bytes.  If *length* is ``0``, the maximum length of the map is the current
+   size of the file, except that if the file is empty Windows raises an
+   exception (you cannot create an empty mapping on Windows).
+
+   *tagname*, if specified and not ``None``, is a string giving a tag name for
+   the mapping.  Windows allows you to have many different mappings against
+   the same file.  If you specify the name of an existing tag, that tag is
+   opened, otherwise a new tag of this name is created.  If this parameter is
+   omitted or ``None``, the mapping is created without a name.  Avoiding the
+   use of the tag parameter will assist in keeping your code portable between
+   Unix and Windows.
+
+   *offset* may be specified as a non-negative integer offset. mmap references
+   will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the file. *offset*
+   defaults to 0.  *offset* must be a multiple of the :const:`ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY`.
+
+
+.. class:: mmap(fileno, length, flags=MAP_SHARED, prot=PROT_WRITE|PROT_READ, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT[, offset])
+   :noindex:
+
+   **(Unix version)** Maps *length* bytes from the file specified by the file
+   descriptor *fileno*, and returns a mmap object.  If *length* is ``0``, the
+   maximum length of the map will be the current size of the file when
+   :class:`~mmap.mmap` is called.
+
+   *flags* specifies the nature of the mapping. :const:`MAP_PRIVATE` creates a
+   private copy-on-write mapping, so changes to the contents of the mmap
+   object will be private to this process, and :const:`MAP_SHARED` creates a
+   mapping that's shared with all other processes mapping the same areas of
+   the file.  The default value is :const:`MAP_SHARED`.
+
+   *prot*, if specified, gives the desired memory protection; the two most
+   useful values are :const:`PROT_READ` and :const:`PROT_WRITE`, to specify
+   that the pages may be read or written.  *prot* defaults to
+   :const:`PROT_READ \| PROT_WRITE`.
+
+   *access* may be specified in lieu of *flags* and *prot* as an optional
+   keyword parameter.  It is an error to specify both *flags*, *prot* and
+   *access*.  See the description of *access* above for information on how to
+   use this parameter.
+
+   *offset* may be specified as a non-negative integer offset. mmap references
+   will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the file. *offset*
+   defaults to 0. *offset* must be a multiple of :const:`ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY`
+   which is equal to :const:`PAGESIZE` on Unix systems.
+
+   To ensure validity of the created memory mapping the file specified
+   by the descriptor *fileno* is internally automatically synchronized
+   with physical backing store on Mac OS X and OpenVMS.
+
+   This example shows a simple way of using :class:`~mmap.mmap`::
+
+      import mmap
+
+      # write a simple example file
+      with open("hello.txt", "wb") as f:
+          f.write(b"Hello Python!\n")
+
+      with open("hello.txt", "r+b") as f:
+          # memory-map the file, size 0 means whole file
+          mm = mmap.mmap(f.fileno(), 0)
+          # read content via standard file methods
+          print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello Python!\n"
+          # read content via slice notation
+          print(mm[:5])  # prints b"Hello"
+          # update content using slice notation;
+          # note that new content must have same size
+          mm[6:] = b" world!\n"
+          # ... and read again using standard file methods
+          mm.seek(0)
+          print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello  world!\n"
+          # close the map
+          mm.close()
+
+
+   :class:`~mmap.mmap` can also be used as a context manager in a :keyword:`with`
+   statement::
+
+      import mmap
+
+      with mmap.mmap(-1, 13) as mm:
+          mm.write(b"Hello world!")
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      Context manager support.
+
+
+   The next example demonstrates how to create an anonymous map and exchange
+   data between the parent and child processes::
+
+      import mmap
+      import os
+
+      mm = mmap.mmap(-1, 13)
+      mm.write(b"Hello world!")
+
+      pid = os.fork()
+
+      if pid == 0:  # In a child process
+          mm.seek(0)
+          print(mm.readline())
+
+          mm.close()
+
+
+   Memory-mapped file objects support the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Closes the mmap. Subsequent calls to other methods of the object will
+      result in a ValueError exception being raised. This will not close
+      the open file.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: closed
+
+      ``True`` if the file is closed.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: find(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+      Returns the lowest index in the object where the subsequence *sub* is
+      found, such that *sub* is contained in the range [*start*, *end*].
+      Optional arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.
+      Returns ``-1`` on failure.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+   .. method:: flush([offset[, size]])
+
+      Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to disk. Without
+      use of this call there is no guarantee that changes are written back before
+      the object is destroyed.  If *offset* and *size* are specified, only
+      changes to the given range of bytes will be flushed to disk; otherwise, the
+      whole extent of the mapping is flushed.  *offset* must be a multiple of the
+      :const:`PAGESIZE` or :const:`ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY`.
+
+      **(Windows version)** A nonzero value returned indicates success; zero
+      indicates failure.
+
+      **(Unix version)** A zero value is returned to indicate success. An
+      exception is raised when the call failed.
+
+
+   .. method:: move(dest, src, count)
+
+      Copy the *count* bytes starting at offset *src* to the destination index
+      *dest*.  If the mmap was created with :const:`ACCESS_READ`, then calls to
+      move will raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
+
+
+   .. method:: read([n])
+
+      Return a :class:`bytes` containing up to *n* bytes starting from the
+      current file position. If the argument is omitted, ``None`` or negative,
+      return all bytes from the current file position to the end of the
+      mapping. The file position is updated to point after the bytes that were
+      returned.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Argument can be omitted or ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: read_byte()
+
+      Returns a byte at the current file position as an integer, and advances
+      the file position by 1.
+
+
+   .. method:: readline()
+
+      Returns a single line, starting at the current file position and up to the
+      next newline.
+
+
+   .. method:: resize(newsize)
+
+      Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any. If the mmap was created
+      with :const:`ACCESS_READ` or :const:`ACCESS_COPY`, resizing the map will
+      raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
+
+
+   .. method:: rfind(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+      Returns the highest index in the object where the subsequence *sub* is
+      found, such that *sub* is contained in the range [*start*, *end*].
+      Optional arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.
+      Returns ``-1`` on failure.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+   .. method:: seek(pos[, whence])
+
+      Set the file's current position.  *whence* argument is optional and
+      defaults to ``os.SEEK_SET`` or ``0`` (absolute file positioning); other
+      values are ``os.SEEK_CUR`` or ``1`` (seek relative to the current
+      position) and ``os.SEEK_END`` or ``2`` (seek relative to the file's end).
+
+
+   .. method:: size()
+
+      Return the length of the file, which can be larger than the size of the
+      memory-mapped area.
+
+
+   .. method:: tell()
+
+      Returns the current position of the file pointer.
+
+
+   .. method:: write(bytes)
+
+      Write the bytes in *bytes* into memory at the current position of the
+      file pointer and return the number of bytes written (never less than
+      ``len(bytes)``, since if the write fails, a :exc:`ValueError` will be
+      raised).  The file position is updated to point after the bytes that
+      were written.  If the mmap was created with :const:`ACCESS_READ`, then
+      writing to it will raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         The number of bytes written is now returned.
+
+
+   .. method:: write_byte(byte)
+
+      Write the integer *byte* into memory at the current
+      position of the file pointer; the file position is advanced by ``1``. If
+      the mmap was created with :const:`ACCESS_READ`, then writing to it will
+      raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/modulefinder.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/modulefinder.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b39ce7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/modulefinder.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+:mod:`modulefinder` --- Find modules used by a script
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: modulefinder
+   :synopsis: Find modules used by a script.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: A.M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/modulefinder.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a :class:`ModuleFinder` class that can be used to determine
+the set of modules imported by a script. ``modulefinder.py`` can also be run as
+a script, giving the filename of a Python script as its argument, after which a
+report of the imported modules will be printed.
+
+
+.. function:: AddPackagePath(pkg_name, path)
+
+   Record that the package named *pkg_name* can be found in the specified *path*.
+
+
+.. function:: ReplacePackage(oldname, newname)
+
+   Allows specifying that the module named *oldname* is in fact the package named
+   *newname*.
+
+
+.. class:: ModuleFinder(path=None, debug=0, excludes=[], replace_paths=[])
+
+   This class provides :meth:`run_script` and :meth:`report` methods to determine
+   the set of modules imported by a script. *path* can be a list of directories to
+   search for modules; if not specified, ``sys.path`` is used.  *debug* sets the
+   debugging level; higher values make the class print debugging messages about
+   what it's doing. *excludes* is a list of module names to exclude from the
+   analysis. *replace_paths* is a list of ``(oldpath, newpath)`` tuples that will
+   be replaced in module paths.
+
+
+   .. method:: report()
+
+      Print a report to standard output that lists the modules imported by the
+      script and their paths, as well as modules that are missing or seem to be
+      missing.
+
+   .. method:: run_script(pathname)
+
+      Analyze the contents of the *pathname* file, which must contain Python
+      code.
+
+   .. attribute:: modules
+
+      A dictionary mapping module names to modules. See
+      :ref:`modulefinder-example`.
+
+
+.. _modulefinder-example:
+
+Example usage of :class:`ModuleFinder`
+--------------------------------------
+
+The script that is going to get analyzed later on (bacon.py)::
+
+   import re, itertools
+
+   try:
+       import baconhameggs
+   except ImportError:
+       pass
+
+   try:
+       import guido.python.ham
+   except ImportError:
+       pass
+
+
+The script that will output the report of bacon.py::
+
+   from modulefinder import ModuleFinder
+
+   finder = ModuleFinder()
+   finder.run_script('bacon.py')
+
+   print('Loaded modules:')
+   for name, mod in finder.modules.items():
+       print('%s: ' % name, end='')
+       print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3]))
+
+   print('-'*50)
+   print('Modules not imported:')
+   print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys()))
+
+Sample output (may vary depending on the architecture)::
+
+    Loaded modules:
+    _types:
+    copyreg:  _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__
+    sre_compile:  isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode
+    _sre:
+    sre_constants:  REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE
+    sys:
+    re:  __module__,finditer,_expand
+    itertools:
+    __main__:  re,itertools,baconhameggs
+    sre_parse:  _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE
+    array:
+    types:  __module__,IntType,TypeType
+    ---------------------------------------------------
+    Modules not imported:
+    guido.python.ham
+    baconhameggs
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/modules.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/modules.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b2a40a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/modules.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+.. _modules:
+
+*****************
+Importing Modules
+*****************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide new ways to import other Python
+modules and hooks for customizing the import process.
+
+The full list of modules described in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   zipimport.rst
+   pkgutil.rst
+   modulefinder.rst
+   runpy.rst
+   importlib.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/msilib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/msilib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83b3d49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/msilib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,563 @@
+:mod:`msilib` --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: msilib
+   :platform: Windows
+   :synopsis: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/msilib/__init__.py`
+
+.. index:: single: msi
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`msilib` supports the creation of Microsoft Installer (``.msi``) files.
+Because these files often contain an embedded "cabinet" file (``.cab``), it also
+exposes an API to create CAB files. Support for reading ``.cab`` files is
+currently not implemented; read support for the ``.msi`` database is possible.
+
+This package aims to provide complete access to all tables in an ``.msi`` file,
+therefore, it is a fairly low-level API. Two primary applications of this
+package are the :mod:`distutils` command ``bdist_msi``, and the creation of
+Python installer package itself (although that currently uses a different
+version of ``msilib``).
+
+The package contents can be roughly split into four parts: low-level CAB
+routines, low-level MSI routines, higher-level MSI routines, and standard table
+structures.
+
+
+.. function:: FCICreate(cabname, files)
+
+   Create a new CAB file named *cabname*. *files* must be a list of tuples, each
+   containing the name of the file on disk, and the name of the file inside the CAB
+   file.
+
+   The files are added to the CAB file in the order they appear in the list. All
+   files are added into a single CAB file, using the MSZIP compression algorithm.
+
+   Callbacks to Python for the various steps of MSI creation are currently not
+   exposed.
+
+
+.. function:: UuidCreate()
+
+   Return the string representation of a new unique identifier. This wraps the
+   Windows API functions :c:func:`UuidCreate` and :c:func:`UuidToString`.
+
+
+.. function:: OpenDatabase(path, persist)
+
+   Return a new database object by calling MsiOpenDatabase.   *path* is the file
+   name of the MSI file; *persist* can be one of the constants
+   ``MSIDBOPEN_CREATEDIRECT``, ``MSIDBOPEN_CREATE``, ``MSIDBOPEN_DIRECT``,
+   ``MSIDBOPEN_READONLY``, or ``MSIDBOPEN_TRANSACT``, and may include the flag
+   ``MSIDBOPEN_PATCHFILE``. See the Microsoft documentation for the meaning of
+   these flags; depending on the flags, an existing database is opened, or a new
+   one created.
+
+
+.. function:: CreateRecord(count)
+
+   Return a new record object by calling :c:func:`MSICreateRecord`. *count* is the
+   number of fields of the record.
+
+
+.. function:: init_database(name, schema, ProductName, ProductCode, ProductVersion, Manufacturer)
+
+   Create and return a new database *name*, initialize it with *schema*, and set
+   the properties *ProductName*, *ProductCode*, *ProductVersion*, and
+   *Manufacturer*.
+
+   *schema* must be a module object containing ``tables`` and
+   ``_Validation_records`` attributes; typically, :mod:`msilib.schema` should be
+   used.
+
+   The database will contain just the schema and the validation records when this
+   function returns.
+
+
+.. function:: add_data(database, table, records)
+
+   Add all *records* to the table named *table* in *database*.
+
+   The *table* argument must be one of the predefined tables in the MSI schema,
+   e.g. ``'Feature'``, ``'File'``, ``'Component'``, ``'Dialog'``, ``'Control'``,
+   etc.
+
+   *records* should be a list of tuples, each one containing all fields of a
+   record according to the schema of the table.  For optional fields,
+   ``None`` can be passed.
+
+   Field values can be ints, strings, or instances of the Binary class.
+
+
+.. class:: Binary(filename)
+
+   Represents entries in the Binary table; inserting such an object using
+   :func:`add_data` reads the file named *filename* into the table.
+
+
+.. function:: add_tables(database, module)
+
+   Add all table content from *module* to *database*. *module* must contain an
+   attribute *tables* listing all tables for which content should be added, and one
+   attribute per table that has the actual content.
+
+   This is typically used to install the sequence tables.
+
+
+.. function:: add_stream(database, name, path)
+
+   Add the file *path* into the ``_Stream`` table of *database*, with the stream
+   name *name*.
+
+
+.. function:: gen_uuid()
+
+   Return a new UUID, in the format that MSI typically requires (i.e. in curly
+   braces, and with all hexdigits in upper-case).
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `FCICreate <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb432265.aspx>`_
+   `UuidCreate <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379205.aspx>`_
+   `UuidToString <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379352.aspx>`_
+
+.. _database-objects:
+
+Database Objects
+----------------
+
+
+.. method:: Database.OpenView(sql)
+
+   Return a view object, by calling :c:func:`MSIDatabaseOpenView`. *sql* is the SQL
+   statement to execute.
+
+
+.. method:: Database.Commit()
+
+   Commit the changes pending in the current transaction, by calling
+   :c:func:`MSIDatabaseCommit`.
+
+
+.. method:: Database.GetSummaryInformation(count)
+
+   Return a new summary information object, by calling
+   :c:func:`MsiGetSummaryInformation`.  *count* is the maximum number of updated
+   values.
+
+.. method:: Database.Close()
+
+   Close the database object, through :c:func:`MsiCloseHandle`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `MSIDatabaseOpenView <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370082.aspx>`_
+   `MSIDatabaseCommit <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370075.aspx>`_
+   `MSIGetSummaryInformation <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370301.aspx>`_
+   `MsiCloseHandle <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370067.aspx>`_
+
+.. _view-objects:
+
+View Objects
+------------
+
+
+.. method:: View.Execute(params)
+
+   Execute the SQL query of the view, through :c:func:`MSIViewExecute`. If
+   *params* is not ``None``, it is a record describing actual values of the
+   parameter tokens in the query.
+
+
+.. method:: View.GetColumnInfo(kind)
+
+   Return a record describing the columns of the view, through calling
+   :c:func:`MsiViewGetColumnInfo`. *kind* can be either ``MSICOLINFO_NAMES`` or
+   ``MSICOLINFO_TYPES``.
+
+
+.. method:: View.Fetch()
+
+   Return a result record of the query, through calling :c:func:`MsiViewFetch`.
+
+
+.. method:: View.Modify(kind, data)
+
+   Modify the view, by calling :c:func:`MsiViewModify`. *kind* can be one of
+   ``MSIMODIFY_SEEK``, ``MSIMODIFY_REFRESH``, ``MSIMODIFY_INSERT``,
+   ``MSIMODIFY_UPDATE``, ``MSIMODIFY_ASSIGN``, ``MSIMODIFY_REPLACE``,
+   ``MSIMODIFY_MERGE``, ``MSIMODIFY_DELETE``, ``MSIMODIFY_INSERT_TEMPORARY``,
+   ``MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE``, ``MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_NEW``,
+   ``MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_FIELD``, or ``MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_DELETE``.
+
+   *data* must be a record describing the new data.
+
+
+.. method:: View.Close()
+
+   Close the view, through :c:func:`MsiViewClose`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `MsiViewExecute <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370513.aspx>`_
+   `MSIViewGetColumnInfo <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370516.aspx>`_
+   `MsiViewFetch <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370514.aspx>`_
+   `MsiViewModify <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370519.aspx>`_
+   `MsiViewClose <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370510.aspx>`_
+
+.. _summary-objects:
+
+Summary Information Objects
+---------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: SummaryInformation.GetProperty(field)
+
+   Return a property of the summary, through :c:func:`MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty`.
+   *field* is the name of the property, and can be one of the constants
+   ``PID_CODEPAGE``, ``PID_TITLE``, ``PID_SUBJECT``, ``PID_AUTHOR``,
+   ``PID_KEYWORDS``, ``PID_COMMENTS``, ``PID_TEMPLATE``, ``PID_LASTAUTHOR``,
+   ``PID_REVNUMBER``, ``PID_LASTPRINTED``, ``PID_CREATE_DTM``,
+   ``PID_LASTSAVE_DTM``, ``PID_PAGECOUNT``, ``PID_WORDCOUNT``, ``PID_CHARCOUNT``,
+   ``PID_APPNAME``, or ``PID_SECURITY``.
+
+
+.. method:: SummaryInformation.GetPropertyCount()
+
+   Return the number of summary properties, through
+   :c:func:`MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount`.
+
+
+.. method:: SummaryInformation.SetProperty(field, value)
+
+   Set a property through :c:func:`MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty`. *field* can have the
+   same values as in :meth:`GetProperty`, *value* is the new value of the property.
+   Possible value types are integer and string.
+
+
+.. method:: SummaryInformation.Persist()
+
+   Write the modified properties to the summary information stream, using
+   :c:func:`MsiSummaryInfoPersist`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370409.aspx>`_
+   `MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370488.aspx>`_
+   `MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370491.aspx>`_
+   `MsiSummaryInfoPersist <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370490.aspx>`_
+
+.. _record-objects:
+
+Record Objects
+--------------
+
+
+.. method:: Record.GetFieldCount()
+
+   Return the number of fields of the record, through
+   :c:func:`MsiRecordGetFieldCount`.
+
+
+.. method:: Record.GetInteger(field)
+
+   Return the value of *field* as an integer where possible.  *field* must
+   be an integer.
+
+
+.. method:: Record.GetString(field)
+
+   Return the value of *field* as a string where possible.  *field* must
+   be an integer.
+
+
+.. method:: Record.SetString(field, value)
+
+   Set *field* to *value* through :c:func:`MsiRecordSetString`. *field* must be an
+   integer; *value* a string.
+
+
+.. method:: Record.SetStream(field, value)
+
+   Set *field* to the contents of the file named *value*, through
+   :c:func:`MsiRecordSetStream`. *field* must be an integer; *value* a string.
+
+
+.. method:: Record.SetInteger(field, value)
+
+   Set *field* to *value* through :c:func:`MsiRecordSetInteger`. Both *field* and
+   *value* must be an integer.
+
+
+.. method:: Record.ClearData()
+
+   Set all fields of the record to 0, through :c:func:`MsiRecordClearData`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `MsiRecordGetFieldCount <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370366.aspx>`_
+   `MsiRecordSetString <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370373.aspx>`_
+   `MsiRecordSetStream <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370372.aspx>`_
+   `MsiRecordSetInteger <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370371.aspx>`_
+   `MsiRecordClearData <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370364.aspx>`_
+
+.. _msi-errors:
+
+Errors
+------
+
+All wrappers around MSI functions raise :exc:`MSIError`; the string inside the
+exception will contain more detail.
+
+
+.. _cab:
+
+CAB Objects
+-----------
+
+
+.. class:: CAB(name)
+
+   The class :class:`CAB` represents a CAB file. During MSI construction, files
+   will be added simultaneously to the ``Files`` table, and to a CAB file. Then,
+   when all files have been added, the CAB file can be written, then added to the
+   MSI file.
+
+   *name* is the name of the CAB file in the MSI file.
+
+
+   .. method:: append(full, file, logical)
+
+      Add the file with the pathname *full* to the CAB file, under the name
+      *logical*.  If there is already a file named *logical*, a new file name is
+      created.
+
+      Return the index of the file in the CAB file, and the new name of the file
+      inside the CAB file.
+
+
+   .. method:: commit(database)
+
+      Generate a CAB file, add it as a stream to the MSI file, put it into the
+      ``Media`` table, and remove the generated file from the disk.
+
+
+.. _msi-directory:
+
+Directory Objects
+-----------------
+
+
+.. class:: Directory(database, cab, basedir, physical,  logical, default, [componentflags])
+
+   Create a new directory in the Directory table. There is a current component at
+   each point in time for the directory, which is either explicitly created through
+   :meth:`start_component`, or implicitly when files are added for the first time.
+   Files are added into the current component, and into the cab file.  To create a
+   directory, a base directory object needs to be specified (can be ``None``), the
+   path to the physical directory, and a logical directory name.  *default*
+   specifies the DefaultDir slot in the directory table. *componentflags* specifies
+   the default flags that new components get.
+
+
+   .. method:: start_component(component=None, feature=None, flags=None, keyfile=None, uuid=None)
+
+      Add an entry to the Component table, and make this component the current
+      component for this directory. If no component name is given, the directory
+      name is used. If no *feature* is given, the current feature is used. If no
+      *flags* are given, the directory's default flags are used. If no *keyfile*
+      is given, the KeyPath is left null in the Component table.
+
+
+   .. method:: add_file(file, src=None, version=None, language=None)
+
+      Add a file to the current component of the directory, starting a new one
+      if there is no current component. By default, the file name in the source
+      and the file table will be identical. If the *src* file is specified, it
+      is interpreted relative to the current directory. Optionally, a *version*
+      and a *language* can be specified for the entry in the File table.
+
+
+   .. method:: glob(pattern, exclude=None)
+
+      Add a list of files to the current component as specified in the glob
+      pattern.  Individual files can be excluded in the *exclude* list.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove_pyc()
+
+      Remove ``.pyc`` files on uninstall.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Directory Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368295.aspx>`_
+   `File Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368596.aspx>`_
+   `Component Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368007.aspx>`_
+   `FeatureComponents Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368579.aspx>`_
+
+.. _features:
+
+Features
+--------
+
+
+.. class:: Feature(db, id, title, desc, display, level=1, parent=None, directory=None,  attributes=0)
+
+   Add a new record to the ``Feature`` table, using the values *id*, *parent.id*,
+   *title*, *desc*, *display*, *level*, *directory*, and *attributes*. The
+   resulting feature object can be passed to the :meth:`start_component` method of
+   :class:`Directory`.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_current()
+
+      Make this feature the current feature of :mod:`msilib`. New components are
+      automatically added to the default feature, unless a feature is explicitly
+      specified.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Feature Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368585.aspx>`_
+
+.. _msi-gui:
+
+GUI classes
+-----------
+
+:mod:`msilib` provides several classes that wrap the GUI tables in an MSI
+database. However, no standard user interface is provided; use
+:mod:`~distutils.command.bdist_msi` to create MSI files with a user-interface
+for installing Python packages.
+
+
+.. class:: Control(dlg, name)
+
+   Base class of the dialog controls. *dlg* is the dialog object the control
+   belongs to, and *name* is the control's name.
+
+
+   .. method:: event(event, argument, condition=1, ordering=None)
+
+      Make an entry into the ``ControlEvent`` table for this control.
+
+
+   .. method:: mapping(event, attribute)
+
+      Make an entry into the ``EventMapping`` table for this control.
+
+
+   .. method:: condition(action, condition)
+
+      Make an entry into the ``ControlCondition`` table for this control.
+
+
+.. class:: RadioButtonGroup(dlg, name, property)
+
+   Create a radio button control named *name*. *property* is the installer property
+   that gets set when a radio button is selected.
+
+
+   .. method:: add(name, x, y, width, height, text, value=None)
+
+      Add a radio button named *name* to the group, at the coordinates *x*, *y*,
+      *width*, *height*, and with the label *text*. If *value* is ``None``, it
+      defaults to *name*.
+
+
+.. class:: Dialog(db, name, x, y, w, h, attr, title, first,  default, cancel)
+
+   Return a new :class:`Dialog` object. An entry in the ``Dialog`` table is made,
+   with the specified coordinates, dialog attributes, title, name of the first,
+   default, and cancel controls.
+
+
+   .. method:: control(name, type, x, y, width, height,  attributes, property, text, control_next, help)
+
+      Return a new :class:`Control` object. An entry in the ``Control`` table is
+      made with the specified parameters.
+
+      This is a generic method; for specific types, specialized methods are
+      provided.
+
+
+   .. method:: text(name, x, y, width, height, attributes, text)
+
+      Add and return a ``Text`` control.
+
+
+   .. method:: bitmap(name, x, y, width, height, text)
+
+      Add and return a ``Bitmap`` control.
+
+
+   .. method:: line(name, x, y, width, height)
+
+      Add and return a ``Line`` control.
+
+
+   .. method:: pushbutton(name, x, y, width, height, attributes,  text, next_control)
+
+      Add and return a ``PushButton`` control.
+
+
+   .. method:: radiogroup(name, x, y, width, height,  attributes, property, text, next_control)
+
+      Add and return a ``RadioButtonGroup`` control.
+
+
+   .. method:: checkbox(name, x, y, width, height,  attributes, property, text, next_control)
+
+      Add and return a ``CheckBox`` control.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Dialog Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368286.aspx>`_
+   `Control Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368044.aspx>`_
+   `Control Types <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368039.aspx>`_
+   `ControlCondition Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368035.aspx>`_
+   `ControlEvent Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368037.aspx>`_
+   `EventMapping Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368559.aspx>`_
+   `RadioButton Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370962.aspx>`_
+
+.. _msi-tables:
+
+Precomputed tables
+------------------
+
+:mod:`msilib` provides a few subpackages that contain only schema and table
+definitions. Currently, these definitions are based on MSI version 2.0.
+
+
+.. data:: schema
+
+   This is the standard MSI schema for MSI 2.0, with the *tables* variable
+   providing a list of table definitions, and *_Validation_records* providing the
+   data for MSI validation.
+
+
+.. data:: sequence
+
+   This module contains table contents for the standard sequence tables:
+   *AdminExecuteSequence*, *AdminUISequence*, *AdvtExecuteSequence*,
+   *InstallExecuteSequence*, and *InstallUISequence*.
+
+
+.. data:: text
+
+   This module contains definitions for the UIText and ActionText tables, for the
+   standard installer actions.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/msvcrt.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/msvcrt.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd34ffb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/msvcrt.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+:mod:`msvcrt` --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: msvcrt
+   :platform: Windows
+   :synopsis: Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+--------------
+
+These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows platforms.
+Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the  Windows
+implementations of their services.  For example, the :mod:`getpass` module uses
+this in the implementation of the :func:`getpass` function.
+
+Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform API
+documentation.
+
+The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O
+api. The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is of limited use
+for internationalized applications. The wide char API should be used where
+ever possible.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Operations in this module now raise :exc:`OSError` where :exc:`IOError`
+   was raised.
+
+
+.. _msvcrt-files:
+
+File Operations
+---------------
+
+
+.. function:: locking(fd, mode, nbytes)
+
+   Lock part of a file based on file descriptor *fd* from the C runtime.  Raises
+   :exc:`OSError` on failure.  The locked region of the file extends from the
+   current file position for *nbytes* bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the
+   file.  *mode* must be one of the :const:`LK_\*` constants listed below. Multiple
+   regions in a file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap.  Adjacent
+   regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually.
+
+
+.. data:: LK_LOCK
+          LK_RLCK
+
+   Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, the program
+   immediately tries again after 1 second.  If, after 10 attempts, the bytes cannot
+   be locked, :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+
+.. data:: LK_NBLCK
+          LK_NBRLCK
+
+   Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, :exc:`OSError` is
+   raised.
+
+
+.. data:: LK_UNLCK
+
+   Unlocks the specified bytes, which must have been previously locked.
+
+
+.. function:: setmode(fd, flags)
+
+   Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor *fd*. To set it to
+   text mode, *flags* should be :const:`os.O_TEXT`; for binary, it should be
+   :const:`os.O_BINARY`.
+
+
+.. function:: open_osfhandle(handle, flags)
+
+   Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle *handle*.  The *flags*
+   parameter should be a bitwise OR of :const:`os.O_APPEND`, :const:`os.O_RDONLY`,
+   and :const:`os.O_TEXT`.  The returned file descriptor may be used as a parameter
+   to :func:`os.fdopen` to create a file object.
+
+
+.. function:: get_osfhandle(fd)
+
+   Return the file handle for the file descriptor *fd*.  Raises :exc:`OSError` if
+   *fd* is not recognized.
+
+
+.. _msvcrt-console:
+
+Console I/O
+-----------
+
+
+.. function:: kbhit()
+
+   Return true if a keypress is waiting to be read.
+
+
+.. function:: getch()
+
+   Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte string.
+   Nothing is echoed to the console.  This call will block if a keypress
+   is not already available, but will not wait for :kbd:`Enter` to be
+   pressed. If the pressed key was a special function key, this will
+   return ``'\000'`` or ``'\xe0'``; the next call will return the keycode.
+   The :kbd:`Control-C` keypress cannot be read with this function.
+
+
+.. function:: getwch()
+
+   Wide char variant of :func:`getch`, returning a Unicode value.
+
+
+.. function:: getche()
+
+   Similar to :func:`getch`, but the keypress will be echoed if it  represents a
+   printable character.
+
+
+.. function:: getwche()
+
+   Wide char variant of :func:`getche`, returning a Unicode value.
+
+
+.. function:: putch(char)
+
+   Print the byte string *char* to the console without buffering.
+
+
+.. function:: putwch(unicode_char)
+
+   Wide char variant of :func:`putch`, accepting a Unicode value.
+
+
+.. function:: ungetch(char)
+
+   Cause the byte string *char* to be "pushed back" into the console buffer;
+   it will be the next character read by :func:`getch` or :func:`getche`.
+
+
+.. function:: ungetwch(unicode_char)
+
+   Wide char variant of :func:`ungetch`, accepting a Unicode value.
+
+
+.. _msvcrt-other:
+
+Other Functions
+---------------
+
+
+.. function:: heapmin()
+
+   Force the :c:func:`malloc` heap to clean itself up and return unused blocks to
+   the operating system.  On failure, this raises :exc:`OSError`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/multiprocessing.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/multiprocessing.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..96e0dc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/multiprocessing.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2862 @@
+:mod:`multiprocessing` --- Process-based parallelism
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: multiprocessing
+   :synopsis: Process-based parallelism.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/multiprocessing/`
+
+--------------
+
+Introduction
+------------
+
+:mod:`multiprocessing` is a package that supports spawning processes using an
+API similar to the :mod:`threading` module.  The :mod:`multiprocessing` package
+offers both local and remote concurrency, effectively side-stepping the
+:term:`Global Interpreter Lock` by using subprocesses instead of threads.  Due
+to this, the :mod:`multiprocessing` module allows the programmer to fully
+leverage multiple processors on a given machine.  It runs on both Unix and
+Windows.
+
+The :mod:`multiprocessing` module also introduces APIs which do not have
+analogs in the :mod:`threading` module.  A prime example of this is the
+:class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool` object which offers a convenient means of
+parallelizing the execution of a function across multiple input values,
+distributing the input data across processes (data parallelism).  The following
+example demonstrates the common practice of defining such functions in a module
+so that child processes can successfully import that module.  This basic example
+of data parallelism using :class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool`, ::
+
+   from multiprocessing import Pool
+
+   def f(x):
+       return x*x
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       with Pool(5) as p:
+           print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))
+
+will print to standard output ::
+
+   [1, 4, 9]
+
+
+The :class:`Process` class
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In :mod:`multiprocessing`, processes are spawned by creating a :class:`Process`
+object and then calling its :meth:`~Process.start` method.  :class:`Process`
+follows the API of :class:`threading.Thread`.  A trivial example of a
+multiprocess program is ::
+
+   from multiprocessing import Process
+
+   def f(name):
+       print('hello', name)
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
+       p.start()
+       p.join()
+
+To show the individual process IDs involved, here is an expanded example::
+
+    from multiprocessing import Process
+    import os
+
+    def info(title):
+        print(title)
+        print('module name:', __name__)
+        print('parent process:', os.getppid())
+        print('process id:', os.getpid())
+
+    def f(name):
+        info('function f')
+        print('hello', name)
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        info('main line')
+        p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
+        p.start()
+        p.join()
+
+For an explanation of why the ``if __name__ == '__main__'`` part is
+necessary, see :ref:`multiprocessing-programming`.
+
+
+
+Contexts and start methods
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. _multiprocessing-start-methods:
+
+Depending on the platform, :mod:`multiprocessing` supports three ways
+to start a process.  These *start methods* are
+
+  *spawn*
+    The parent process starts a fresh python interpreter process.  The
+    child process will only inherit those resources necessary to run
+    the process objects :meth:`~Process.run` method.  In particular,
+    unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the parent process
+    will not be inherited.  Starting a process using this method is
+    rather slow compared to using *fork* or *forkserver*.
+
+    Available on Unix and Windows.  The default on Windows.
+
+  *fork*
+    The parent process uses :func:`os.fork` to fork the Python
+    interpreter.  The child process, when it begins, is effectively
+    identical to the parent process.  All resources of the parent are
+    inherited by the child process.  Note that safely forking a
+    multithreaded process is problematic.
+
+    Available on Unix only.  The default on Unix.
+
+  *forkserver*
+    When the program starts and selects the *forkserver* start method,
+    a server process is started.  From then on, whenever a new process
+    is needed, the parent process connects to the server and requests
+    that it fork a new process.  The fork server process is single
+    threaded so it is safe for it to use :func:`os.fork`.  No
+    unnecessary resources are inherited.
+
+    Available on Unix platforms which support passing file descriptors
+    over Unix pipes.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   *spawn* added on all unix platforms, and *forkserver* added for
+   some unix platforms.
+   Child processes no longer inherit all of the parents inheritable
+   handles on Windows.
+
+On Unix using the *spawn* or *forkserver* start methods will also
+start a *semaphore tracker* process which tracks the unlinked named
+semaphores created by processes of the program.  When all processes
+have exited the semaphore tracker unlinks any remaining semaphores.
+Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal
+there may be some "leaked" semaphores.  (Unlinking the named semaphores
+is a serious matter since the system allows only a limited number, and
+they will not be automatically unlinked until the next reboot.)
+
+To select a start method you use the :func:`set_start_method` in
+the ``if __name__ == '__main__'`` clause of the main module.  For
+example::
+
+       import multiprocessing as mp
+
+       def foo(q):
+           q.put('hello')
+
+       if __name__ == '__main__':
+           mp.set_start_method('spawn')
+           q = mp.Queue()
+           p = mp.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
+           p.start()
+           print(q.get())
+           p.join()
+
+:func:`set_start_method` should not be used more than once in the
+program.
+
+Alternatively, you can use :func:`get_context` to obtain a context
+object.  Context objects have the same API as the multiprocessing
+module, and allow one to use multiple start methods in the same
+program. ::
+
+       import multiprocessing as mp
+
+       def foo(q):
+           q.put('hello')
+
+       if __name__ == '__main__':
+           ctx = mp.get_context('spawn')
+           q = ctx.Queue()
+           p = ctx.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
+           p.start()
+           print(q.get())
+           p.join()
+
+Note that objects related to one context may not be compatible with
+processes for a different context.  In particular, locks created using
+the *fork* context cannot be passed to processes started using the
+*spawn* or *forkserver* start methods.
+
+A library which wants to use a particular start method should probably
+use :func:`get_context` to avoid interfering with the choice of the
+library user.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The ``'spawn'`` and ``'forkserver'`` start methods cannot currently
+   be used with "frozen" executables (i.e., binaries produced by
+   packages like **PyInstaller** and **cx_Freeze**) on Unix.
+   The ``'fork'`` start method does work.
+
+
+Exchanging objects between processes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+:mod:`multiprocessing` supports two types of communication channel between
+processes:
+
+**Queues**
+
+   The :class:`Queue` class is a near clone of :class:`queue.Queue`.  For
+   example::
+
+      from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
+
+      def f(q):
+          q.put([42, None, 'hello'])
+
+      if __name__ == '__main__':
+          q = Queue()
+          p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
+          p.start()
+          print(q.get())    # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
+          p.join()
+
+   Queues are thread and process safe.
+
+**Pipes**
+
+   The :func:`Pipe` function returns a pair of connection objects connected by a
+   pipe which by default is duplex (two-way).  For example::
+
+      from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe
+
+      def f(conn):
+          conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
+          conn.close()
+
+      if __name__ == '__main__':
+          parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
+          p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
+          p.start()
+          print(parent_conn.recv())   # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
+          p.join()
+
+   The two connection objects returned by :func:`Pipe` represent the two ends of
+   the pipe.  Each connection object has :meth:`~Connection.send` and
+   :meth:`~Connection.recv` methods (among others).  Note that data in a pipe
+   may become corrupted if two processes (or threads) try to read from or write
+   to the *same* end of the pipe at the same time.  Of course there is no risk
+   of corruption from processes using different ends of the pipe at the same
+   time.
+
+
+Synchronization between processes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+:mod:`multiprocessing` contains equivalents of all the synchronization
+primitives from :mod:`threading`.  For instance one can use a lock to ensure
+that only one process prints to standard output at a time::
+
+   from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
+
+   def f(l, i):
+       l.acquire()
+       try:
+           print('hello world', i)
+       finally:
+           l.release()
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       lock = Lock()
+
+       for num in range(10):
+           Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()
+
+Without using the lock output from the different processes is liable to get all
+mixed up.
+
+
+Sharing state between processes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+As mentioned above, when doing concurrent programming it is usually best to
+avoid using shared state as far as possible.  This is particularly true when
+using multiple processes.
+
+However, if you really do need to use some shared data then
+:mod:`multiprocessing` provides a couple of ways of doing so.
+
+**Shared memory**
+
+   Data can be stored in a shared memory map using :class:`Value` or
+   :class:`Array`.  For example, the following code ::
+
+      from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array
+
+      def f(n, a):
+          n.value = 3.1415927
+          for i in range(len(a)):
+              a[i] = -a[i]
+
+      if __name__ == '__main__':
+          num = Value('d', 0.0)
+          arr = Array('i', range(10))
+
+          p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))
+          p.start()
+          p.join()
+
+          print(num.value)
+          print(arr[:])
+
+   will print ::
+
+      3.1415927
+      [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
+
+   The ``'d'`` and ``'i'`` arguments used when creating ``num`` and ``arr`` are
+   typecodes of the kind used by the :mod:`array` module: ``'d'`` indicates a
+   double precision float and ``'i'`` indicates a signed integer.  These shared
+   objects will be process and thread-safe.
+
+   For more flexibility in using shared memory one can use the
+   :mod:`multiprocessing.sharedctypes` module which supports the creation of
+   arbitrary ctypes objects allocated from shared memory.
+
+**Server process**
+
+   A manager object returned by :func:`Manager` controls a server process which
+   holds Python objects and allows other processes to manipulate them using
+   proxies.
+
+   A manager returned by :func:`Manager` will support types
+   :class:`list`, :class:`dict`, :class:`~managers.Namespace`, :class:`Lock`,
+   :class:`RLock`, :class:`Semaphore`, :class:`BoundedSemaphore`,
+   :class:`Condition`, :class:`Event`, :class:`Barrier`,
+   :class:`Queue`, :class:`Value` and :class:`Array`.  For example, ::
+
+      from multiprocessing import Process, Manager
+
+      def f(d, l):
+          d[1] = '1'
+          d['2'] = 2
+          d[0.25] = None
+          l.reverse()
+
+      if __name__ == '__main__':
+          with Manager() as manager:
+              d = manager.dict()
+              l = manager.list(range(10))
+
+              p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l))
+              p.start()
+              p.join()
+
+              print(d)
+              print(l)
+
+   will print ::
+
+       {0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}
+       [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]
+
+   Server process managers are more flexible than using shared memory objects
+   because they can be made to support arbitrary object types.  Also, a single
+   manager can be shared by processes on different computers over a network.
+   They are, however, slower than using shared memory.
+
+
+Using a pool of workers
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool` class represents a pool of worker
+processes.  It has methods which allows tasks to be offloaded to the worker
+processes in a few different ways.
+
+For example::
+
+   from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError
+   import time
+   import os
+
+   def f(x):
+       return x*x
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       # start 4 worker processes
+       with Pool(processes=4) as pool:
+
+           # print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
+           print(pool.map(f, range(10)))
+
+           # print same numbers in arbitrary order
+           for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
+               print(i)
+
+           # evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously
+           res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,))      # runs in *only* one process
+           print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints "400"
+
+           # evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously
+           res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
+           print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints the PID of that process
+
+           # launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes
+           multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
+           print([res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results])
+
+           # make a single worker sleep for 10 secs
+           res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
+           try:
+               print(res.get(timeout=1))
+           except TimeoutError:
+               print("We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError")
+
+           print("For the moment, the pool remains available for more work")
+
+       # exiting the 'with'-block has stopped the pool
+       print("Now the pool is closed and no longer available")
+
+Note that the methods of a pool should only ever be used by the
+process which created it.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Functionality within this package requires that the ``__main__`` module be
+   importable by the children. This is covered in :ref:`multiprocessing-programming`
+   however it is worth pointing out here. This means that some examples, such
+   as the :class:`multiprocessing.pool.Pool` examples will not work in the
+   interactive interpreter. For example::
+
+      >>> from multiprocessing import Pool
+      >>> p = Pool(5)
+      >>> def f(x):
+      ...     return x*x
+      ...
+      >>> p.map(f, [1,2,3])
+      Process PoolWorker-1:
+      Process PoolWorker-2:
+      Process PoolWorker-3:
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+      AttributeError: 'module' object has no attribute 'f'
+      AttributeError: 'module' object has no attribute 'f'
+      AttributeError: 'module' object has no attribute 'f'
+
+   (If you try this it will actually output three full tracebacks
+   interleaved in a semi-random fashion, and then you may have to
+   stop the master process somehow.)
+
+
+Reference
+---------
+
+The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the
+:mod:`threading` module.
+
+
+:class:`Process` and exceptions
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. class:: Process(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}, \
+                   *, daemon=None)
+
+   Process objects represent activity that is run in a separate process. The
+   :class:`Process` class has equivalents of all the methods of
+   :class:`threading.Thread`.
+
+   The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments. *group*
+   should always be ``None``; it exists solely for compatibility with
+   :class:`threading.Thread`.  *target* is the callable object to be invoked by
+   the :meth:`run()` method.  It defaults to ``None``, meaning nothing is
+   called. *name* is the process name (see :attr:`name` for more details).
+   *args* is the argument tuple for the target invocation.  *kwargs* is a
+   dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation.  If provided,
+   the keyword-only *daemon* argument sets the process :attr:`daemon` flag
+   to ``True`` or ``False``.  If ``None`` (the default), this flag will be
+   inherited from the creating process.
+
+   By default, no arguments are passed to *target*.
+
+   If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it invokes the
+   base class constructor (:meth:`Process.__init__`) before doing anything else
+   to the process.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *daemon* argument.
+
+   .. method:: run()
+
+      Method representing the process's activity.
+
+      You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard :meth:`run`
+      method invokes the callable object passed to the object's constructor as
+      the target argument, if any, with sequential and keyword arguments taken
+      from the *args* and *kwargs* arguments, respectively.
+
+   .. method:: start()
+
+      Start the process's activity.
+
+      This must be called at most once per process object.  It arranges for the
+      object's :meth:`run` method to be invoked in a separate process.
+
+   .. method:: join([timeout])
+
+      If the optional argument *timeout* is ``None`` (the default), the method
+      blocks until the process whose :meth:`join` method is called terminates.
+      If *timeout* is a positive number, it blocks at most *timeout* seconds.
+      Note that the method returns ``None`` if its process terminates or if the
+      method times out.  Check the process's :attr:`exitcode` to determine if
+      it terminated.
+
+      A process can be joined many times.
+
+      A process cannot join itself because this would cause a deadlock.  It is
+      an error to attempt to join a process before it has been started.
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The process's name.  The name is a string used for identification purposes
+      only.  It has no semantics.  Multiple processes may be given the same
+      name.
+
+      The initial name is set by the constructor.  If no explicit name is
+      provided to the constructor, a name of the form
+      'Process-N\ :sub:`1`:N\ :sub:`2`:...:N\ :sub:`k`' is constructed, where
+      each N\ :sub:`k` is the N-th child of its parent.
+
+   .. method:: is_alive
+
+      Return whether the process is alive.
+
+      Roughly, a process object is alive from the moment the :meth:`start`
+      method returns until the child process terminates.
+
+   .. attribute:: daemon
+
+      The process's daemon flag, a Boolean value.  This must be set before
+      :meth:`start` is called.
+
+      The initial value is inherited from the creating process.
+
+      When a process exits, it attempts to terminate all of its daemonic child
+      processes.
+
+      Note that a daemonic process is not allowed to create child processes.
+      Otherwise a daemonic process would leave its children orphaned if it gets
+      terminated when its parent process exits. Additionally, these are **not**
+      Unix daemons or services, they are normal processes that will be
+      terminated (and not joined) if non-daemonic processes have exited.
+
+   In addition to the  :class:`threading.Thread` API, :class:`Process` objects
+   also support the following attributes and methods:
+
+   .. attribute:: pid
+
+      Return the process ID.  Before the process is spawned, this will be
+      ``None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: exitcode
+
+      The child's exit code.  This will be ``None`` if the process has not yet
+      terminated.  A negative value *-N* indicates that the child was terminated
+      by signal *N*.
+
+   .. attribute:: authkey
+
+      The process's authentication key (a byte string).
+
+      When :mod:`multiprocessing` is initialized the main process is assigned a
+      random string using :func:`os.urandom`.
+
+      When a :class:`Process` object is created, it will inherit the
+      authentication key of its parent process, although this may be changed by
+      setting :attr:`authkey` to another byte string.
+
+      See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`.
+
+   .. attribute:: sentinel
+
+      A numeric handle of a system object which will become "ready" when
+      the process ends.
+
+      You can use this value if you want to wait on several events at
+      once using :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait`.  Otherwise
+      calling :meth:`join()` is simpler.
+
+      On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the ``WaitForSingleObject``
+      and ``WaitForMultipleObjects`` family of API calls.  On Unix, this is
+      a file descriptor usable with primitives from the :mod:`select` module.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: terminate()
+
+      Terminate the process.  On Unix this is done using the ``SIGTERM`` signal;
+      on Windows :c:func:`TerminateProcess` is used.  Note that exit handlers and
+      finally clauses, etc., will not be executed.
+
+      Note that descendant processes of the process will *not* be terminated --
+      they will simply become orphaned.
+
+      .. warning::
+
+         If this method is used when the associated process is using a pipe or
+         queue then the pipe or queue is liable to become corrupted and may
+         become unusable by other process.  Similarly, if the process has
+         acquired a lock or semaphore etc. then terminating it is liable to
+         cause other processes to deadlock.
+
+   .. method:: kill()
+
+      Same as :meth:`terminate()` but using the ``SIGKILL`` signal on Unix.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the :class:`Process` object, releasing all resources associated
+      with it.  :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the underlying process
+      is still running.  Once :meth:`close` returns successfully, most
+      other methods and attributes of the :class:`Process` object will
+      raise :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   Note that the :meth:`start`, :meth:`join`, :meth:`is_alive`,
+   :meth:`terminate` and :attr:`exitcode` methods should only be called by
+   the process that created the process object.
+
+   Example usage of some of the methods of :class:`Process`:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> import multiprocessing, time, signal
+       >>> p = multiprocessing.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
+       >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
+       <Process(Process-1, initial)> False
+       >>> p.start()
+       >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
+       <Process(Process-1, started)> True
+       >>> p.terminate()
+       >>> time.sleep(0.1)
+       >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
+       <Process(Process-1, stopped[SIGTERM])> False
+       >>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
+       True
+
+.. exception:: ProcessError
+
+   The base class of all :mod:`multiprocessing` exceptions.
+
+.. exception:: BufferTooShort
+
+   Exception raised by :meth:`Connection.recv_bytes_into()` when the supplied
+   buffer object is too small for the message read.
+
+   If ``e`` is an instance of :exc:`BufferTooShort` then ``e.args[0]`` will give
+   the message as a byte string.
+
+.. exception:: AuthenticationError
+
+   Raised when there is an authentication error.
+
+.. exception:: TimeoutError
+
+   Raised by methods with a timeout when the timeout expires.
+
+Pipes and Queues
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+When using multiple processes, one generally uses message passing for
+communication between processes and avoids having to use any synchronization
+primitives like locks.
+
+For passing messages one can use :func:`Pipe` (for a connection between two
+processes) or a queue (which allows multiple producers and consumers).
+
+The :class:`Queue`, :class:`SimpleQueue` and :class:`JoinableQueue` types
+are multi-producer, multi-consumer :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)`
+queues modelled on the :class:`queue.Queue` class in the
+standard library.  They differ in that :class:`Queue` lacks the
+:meth:`~queue.Queue.task_done` and :meth:`~queue.Queue.join` methods introduced
+into Python 2.5's :class:`queue.Queue` class.
+
+If you use :class:`JoinableQueue` then you **must** call
+:meth:`JoinableQueue.task_done` for each task removed from the queue or else the
+semaphore used to count the number of unfinished tasks may eventually overflow,
+raising an exception.
+
+Note that one can also create a shared queue by using a manager object -- see
+:ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   :mod:`multiprocessing` uses the usual :exc:`queue.Empty` and
+   :exc:`queue.Full` exceptions to signal a timeout.  They are not available in
+   the :mod:`multiprocessing` namespace so you need to import them from
+   :mod:`queue`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   When an object is put on a queue, the object is pickled and a
+   background thread later flushes the pickled data to an underlying
+   pipe.  This has some consequences which are a little surprising,
+   but should not cause any practical difficulties -- if they really
+   bother you then you can instead use a queue created with a
+   :ref:`manager <multiprocessing-managers>`.
+
+   (1) After putting an object on an empty queue there may be an
+       infinitesimal delay before the queue's :meth:`~Queue.empty`
+       method returns :const:`False` and :meth:`~Queue.get_nowait` can
+       return without raising :exc:`queue.Empty`.
+
+   (2) If multiple processes are enqueuing objects, it is possible for
+       the objects to be received at the other end out-of-order.
+       However, objects enqueued by the same process will always be in
+       the expected order with respect to each other.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   If a process is killed using :meth:`Process.terminate` or :func:`os.kill`
+   while it is trying to use a :class:`Queue`, then the data in the queue is
+   likely to become corrupted.  This may cause any other process to get an
+   exception when it tries to use the queue later on.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   As mentioned above, if a child process has put items on a queue (and it has
+   not used :meth:`JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread
+   <multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread>`), then that process will
+   not terminate until all buffered items have been flushed to the pipe.
+
+   This means that if you try joining that process you may get a deadlock unless
+   you are sure that all items which have been put on the queue have been
+   consumed.  Similarly, if the child process is non-daemonic then the parent
+   process may hang on exit when it tries to join all its non-daemonic children.
+
+   Note that a queue created using a manager does not have this issue.  See
+   :ref:`multiprocessing-programming`.
+
+For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
+:ref:`multiprocessing-examples`.
+
+
+.. function:: Pipe([duplex])
+
+   Returns a pair ``(conn1, conn2)`` of
+   :class:`~multiprocessing.connection.Connection` objects representing the
+   ends of a pipe.
+
+   If *duplex* is ``True`` (the default) then the pipe is bidirectional.  If
+   *duplex* is ``False`` then the pipe is unidirectional: ``conn1`` can only be
+   used for receiving messages and ``conn2`` can only be used for sending
+   messages.
+
+
+.. class:: Queue([maxsize])
+
+   Returns a process shared queue implemented using a pipe and a few
+   locks/semaphores.  When a process first puts an item on the queue a feeder
+   thread is started which transfers objects from a buffer into the pipe.
+
+   The usual :exc:`queue.Empty` and :exc:`queue.Full` exceptions from the
+   standard library's :mod:`queue` module are raised to signal timeouts.
+
+   :class:`Queue` implements all the methods of :class:`queue.Queue` except for
+   :meth:`~queue.Queue.task_done` and :meth:`~queue.Queue.join`.
+
+   .. method:: qsize()
+
+      Return the approximate size of the queue.  Because of
+      multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this number is not reliable.
+
+      Note that this may raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` on Unix platforms like
+      Mac OS X where ``sem_getvalue()`` is not implemented.
+
+   .. method:: empty()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the queue is empty, ``False`` otherwise.  Because of
+      multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is not reliable.
+
+   .. method:: full()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the queue is full, ``False`` otherwise.  Because of
+      multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is not reliable.
+
+   .. method:: put(obj[, block[, timeout]])
+
+      Put obj into the queue.  If the optional argument *block* is ``True``
+      (the default) and *timeout* is ``None`` (the default), block if necessary until
+      a free slot is available.  If *timeout* is a positive number, it blocks at
+      most *timeout* seconds and raises the :exc:`queue.Full` exception if no
+      free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise (*block* is
+      ``False``), put an item on the queue if a free slot is immediately
+      available, else raise the :exc:`queue.Full` exception (*timeout* is
+      ignored in that case).
+
+   .. method:: put_nowait(obj)
+
+      Equivalent to ``put(obj, False)``.
+
+   .. method:: get([block[, timeout]])
+
+      Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args *block* is
+      ``True`` (the default) and *timeout* is ``None`` (the default), block if
+      necessary until an item is available.  If *timeout* is a positive number,
+      it blocks at most *timeout* seconds and raises the :exc:`queue.Empty`
+      exception if no item was available within that time.  Otherwise (block is
+      ``False``), return an item if one is immediately available, else raise the
+      :exc:`queue.Empty` exception (*timeout* is ignored in that case).
+
+   .. method:: get_nowait()
+
+      Equivalent to ``get(False)``.
+
+   :class:`multiprocessing.Queue` has a few additional methods not found in
+   :class:`queue.Queue`.  These methods are usually unnecessary for most
+   code:
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Indicate that no more data will be put on this queue by the current
+      process.  The background thread will quit once it has flushed all buffered
+      data to the pipe.  This is called automatically when the queue is garbage
+      collected.
+
+   .. method:: join_thread()
+
+      Join the background thread.  This can only be used after :meth:`close` has
+      been called.  It blocks until the background thread exits, ensuring that
+      all data in the buffer has been flushed to the pipe.
+
+      By default if a process is not the creator of the queue then on exit it
+      will attempt to join the queue's background thread.  The process can call
+      :meth:`cancel_join_thread` to make :meth:`join_thread` do nothing.
+
+   .. method:: cancel_join_thread()
+
+      Prevent :meth:`join_thread` from blocking.  In particular, this prevents
+      the background thread from being joined automatically when the process
+      exits -- see :meth:`join_thread`.
+
+      A better name for this method might be
+      ``allow_exit_without_flush()``.  It is likely to cause enqueued
+      data to lost, and you almost certainly will not need to use it.
+      It is really only there if you need the current process to exit
+      immediately without waiting to flush enqueued data to the
+      underlying pipe, and you don't care about lost data.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This class's functionality requires a functioning shared semaphore
+      implementation on the host operating system. Without one, the
+      functionality in this class will be disabled, and attempts to
+      instantiate a :class:`Queue` will result in an :exc:`ImportError`. See
+      :issue:`3770` for additional information.  The same holds true for any
+      of the specialized queue types listed below.
+
+.. class:: SimpleQueue()
+
+   It is a simplified :class:`Queue` type, very close to a locked :class:`Pipe`.
+
+   .. method:: empty()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the queue is empty, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   .. method:: get()
+
+      Remove and return an item from the queue.
+
+   .. method:: put(item)
+
+      Put *item* into the queue.
+
+
+.. class:: JoinableQueue([maxsize])
+
+   :class:`JoinableQueue`, a :class:`Queue` subclass, is a queue which
+   additionally has :meth:`task_done` and :meth:`join` methods.
+
+   .. method:: task_done()
+
+      Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete. Used by queue
+      consumers.  For each :meth:`~Queue.get` used to fetch a task, a subsequent
+      call to :meth:`task_done` tells the queue that the processing on the task
+      is complete.
+
+      If a :meth:`~queue.Queue.join` is currently blocking, it will resume when all
+      items have been processed (meaning that a :meth:`task_done` call was
+      received for every item that had been :meth:`~Queue.put` into the queue).
+
+      Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if called more times than there were items
+      placed in the queue.
+
+
+   .. method:: join()
+
+      Block until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed.
+
+      The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the
+      queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer calls
+      :meth:`task_done` to indicate that the item was retrieved and all work on
+      it is complete.  When the count of unfinished tasks drops to zero,
+      :meth:`~queue.Queue.join` unblocks.
+
+
+Miscellaneous
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: active_children()
+
+   Return list of all live children of the current process.
+
+   Calling this has the side effect of "joining" any processes which have
+   already finished.
+
+.. function:: cpu_count()
+
+   Return the number of CPUs in the system.
+
+   This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current process can
+   use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
+   ``len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))``
+
+   May raise :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :func:`os.cpu_count`
+
+.. function:: current_process()
+
+   Return the :class:`Process` object corresponding to the current process.
+
+   An analogue of :func:`threading.current_thread`.
+
+.. function:: freeze_support()
+
+   Add support for when a program which uses :mod:`multiprocessing` has been
+   frozen to produce a Windows executable.  (Has been tested with **py2exe**,
+   **PyInstaller** and **cx_Freeze**.)
+
+   One needs to call this function straight after the ``if __name__ ==
+   '__main__'`` line of the main module.  For example::
+
+      from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support
+
+      def f():
+          print('hello world!')
+
+      if __name__ == '__main__':
+          freeze_support()
+          Process(target=f).start()
+
+   If the ``freeze_support()`` line is omitted then trying to run the frozen
+   executable will raise :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+   Calling ``freeze_support()`` has no effect when invoked on any operating
+   system other than Windows.  In addition, if the module is being run
+   normally by the Python interpreter on Windows (the program has not been
+   frozen), then ``freeze_support()`` has no effect.
+
+.. function:: get_all_start_methods()
+
+   Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which
+   is the default.  The possible start methods are ``'fork'``,
+   ``'spawn'`` and ``'forkserver'``.  On Windows only ``'spawn'`` is
+   available.  On Unix ``'fork'`` and ``'spawn'`` are always
+   supported, with ``'fork'`` being the default.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: get_context(method=None)
+
+   Return a context object which has the same attributes as the
+   :mod:`multiprocessing` module.
+
+   If *method* is ``None`` then the default context is returned.
+   Otherwise *method* should be ``'fork'``, ``'spawn'``,
+   ``'forkserver'``.  :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the specified
+   start method is not available.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: get_start_method(allow_none=False)
+
+   Return the name of start method used for starting processes.
+
+   If the start method has not been fixed and *allow_none* is false,
+   then the start method is fixed to the default and the name is
+   returned.  If the start method has not been fixed and *allow_none*
+   is true then ``None`` is returned.
+
+   The return value can be ``'fork'``, ``'spawn'``, ``'forkserver'``
+   or ``None``.  ``'fork'`` is the default on Unix, while ``'spawn'`` is
+   the default on Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: set_executable()
+
+   Sets the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child process.
+   (By default :data:`sys.executable` is used).  Embedders will probably need to
+   do some thing like ::
+
+      set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))
+
+   before they can create child processes.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Now supported on Unix when the ``'spawn'`` start method is used.
+
+.. function:: set_start_method(method)
+
+   Set the method which should be used to start child processes.
+   *method* can be ``'fork'``, ``'spawn'`` or ``'forkserver'``.
+
+   Note that this should be called at most once, and it should be
+   protected inside the ``if __name__ == '__main__'`` clause of the
+   main module.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. note::
+
+   :mod:`multiprocessing` contains no analogues of
+   :func:`threading.active_count`, :func:`threading.enumerate`,
+   :func:`threading.settrace`, :func:`threading.setprofile`,
+   :class:`threading.Timer`, or :class:`threading.local`.
+
+
+Connection Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. currentmodule:: multiprocessing.connection
+
+Connection objects allow the sending and receiving of picklable objects or
+strings.  They can be thought of as message oriented connected sockets.
+
+Connection objects are usually created using
+:func:`Pipe <multiprocessing.Pipe>` -- see also
+:ref:`multiprocessing-listeners-clients`.
+
+.. class:: Connection
+
+   .. method:: send(obj)
+
+      Send an object to the other end of the connection which should be read
+      using :meth:`recv`.
+
+      The object must be picklable.  Very large pickles (approximately 32 MiB+,
+      though it depends on the OS) may raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception.
+
+   .. method:: recv()
+
+      Return an object sent from the other end of the connection using
+      :meth:`send`.  Blocks until there is something to receive.  Raises
+      :exc:`EOFError` if there is nothing left to receive
+      and the other end was closed.
+
+   .. method:: fileno()
+
+      Return the file descriptor or handle used by the connection.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the connection.
+
+      This is called automatically when the connection is garbage collected.
+
+   .. method:: poll([timeout])
+
+      Return whether there is any data available to be read.
+
+      If *timeout* is not specified then it will return immediately.  If
+      *timeout* is a number then this specifies the maximum time in seconds to
+      block.  If *timeout* is ``None`` then an infinite timeout is used.
+
+      Note that multiple connection objects may be polled at once by
+      using :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait`.
+
+   .. method:: send_bytes(buffer[, offset[, size]])
+
+      Send byte data from a :term:`bytes-like object` as a complete message.
+
+      If *offset* is given then data is read from that position in *buffer*.  If
+      *size* is given then that many bytes will be read from buffer.  Very large
+      buffers (approximately 32 MiB+, though it depends on the OS) may raise a
+      :exc:`ValueError` exception
+
+   .. method:: recv_bytes([maxlength])
+
+      Return a complete message of byte data sent from the other end of the
+      connection as a string.  Blocks until there is something to receive.
+      Raises :exc:`EOFError` if there is nothing left
+      to receive and the other end has closed.
+
+      If *maxlength* is specified and the message is longer than *maxlength*
+      then :exc:`OSError` is raised and the connection will no longer be
+      readable.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         This function used to raise :exc:`IOError`, which is now an
+         alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+   .. method:: recv_bytes_into(buffer[, offset])
+
+      Read into *buffer* a complete message of byte data sent from the other end
+      of the connection and return the number of bytes in the message.  Blocks
+      until there is something to receive.  Raises
+      :exc:`EOFError` if there is nothing left to receive and the other end was
+      closed.
+
+      *buffer* must be a writable :term:`bytes-like object`.  If
+      *offset* is given then the message will be written into the buffer from
+      that position.  Offset must be a non-negative integer less than the
+      length of *buffer* (in bytes).
+
+      If the buffer is too short then a :exc:`BufferTooShort` exception is
+      raised and the complete message is available as ``e.args[0]`` where ``e``
+      is the exception instance.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Connection objects themselves can now be transferred between processes
+      using :meth:`Connection.send` and :meth:`Connection.recv`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Connection objects now support the context management protocol -- see
+      :ref:`typecontextmanager`.  :meth:`~contextmanager.__enter__` returns the
+      connection object, and :meth:`~contextmanager.__exit__` calls :meth:`close`.
+
+For example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+    >>> from multiprocessing import Pipe
+    >>> a, b = Pipe()
+    >>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
+    >>> b.recv()
+    [1, 'hello', None]
+    >>> b.send_bytes(b'thank you')
+    >>> a.recv_bytes()
+    b'thank you'
+    >>> import array
+    >>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
+    >>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
+    >>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
+    >>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
+    >>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
+    >>> arr2
+    array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+    The :meth:`Connection.recv` method automatically unpickles the data it
+    receives, which can be a security risk unless you can trust the process
+    which sent the message.
+
+    Therefore, unless the connection object was produced using :func:`Pipe` you
+    should only use the :meth:`~Connection.recv` and :meth:`~Connection.send`
+    methods after performing some sort of authentication.  See
+    :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`.
+
+.. warning::
+
+    If a process is killed while it is trying to read or write to a pipe then
+    the data in the pipe is likely to become corrupted, because it may become
+    impossible to be sure where the message boundaries lie.
+
+
+Synchronization primitives
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. currentmodule:: multiprocessing
+
+Generally synchronization primitives are not as necessary in a multiprocess
+program as they are in a multithreaded program.  See the documentation for
+:mod:`threading` module.
+
+Note that one can also create synchronization primitives by using a manager
+object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
+
+.. class:: Barrier(parties[, action[, timeout]])
+
+   A barrier object: a clone of :class:`threading.Barrier`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. class:: BoundedSemaphore([value])
+
+   A bounded semaphore object: a close analog of
+   :class:`threading.BoundedSemaphore`.
+
+   A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ``acquire`` method's
+   first argument is named *block*, as is consistent with :meth:`Lock.acquire`.
+
+   .. note::
+      On Mac OS X, this is indistinguishable from :class:`Semaphore` because
+      ``sem_getvalue()`` is not implemented on that platform.
+
+.. class:: Condition([lock])
+
+   A condition variable: an alias for :class:`threading.Condition`.
+
+   If *lock* is specified then it should be a :class:`Lock` or :class:`RLock`
+   object from :mod:`multiprocessing`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The :meth:`~threading.Condition.wait_for` method was added.
+
+.. class:: Event()
+
+   A clone of :class:`threading.Event`.
+
+
+.. class:: Lock()
+
+   A non-recursive lock object: a close analog of :class:`threading.Lock`.
+   Once a process or thread has acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to
+   acquire it from any process or thread will block until it is released;
+   any process or thread may release it.  The concepts and behaviors of
+   :class:`threading.Lock` as it applies to threads are replicated here in
+   :class:`multiprocessing.Lock` as it applies to either processes or threads,
+   except as noted.
+
+   Note that :class:`Lock` is actually a factory function which returns an
+   instance of ``multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock`` initialized with a
+   default context.
+
+   :class:`Lock` supports the :term:`context manager` protocol and thus may be
+   used in :keyword:`with` statements.
+
+   .. method:: acquire(block=True, timeout=None)
+
+      Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.
+
+      With the *block* argument set to ``True`` (the default), the method call
+      will block until the lock is in an unlocked state, then set it to locked
+      and return ``True``.  Note that the name of this first argument differs
+      from that in :meth:`threading.Lock.acquire`.
+
+      With the *block* argument set to ``False``, the method call does not
+      block.  If the lock is currently in a locked state, return ``False``;
+      otherwise set the lock to a locked state and return ``True``.
+
+      When invoked with a positive, floating-point value for *timeout*, block
+      for at most the number of seconds specified by *timeout* as long as
+      the lock can not be acquired.  Invocations with a negative value for
+      *timeout* are equivalent to a *timeout* of zero.  Invocations with a
+      *timeout* value of ``None`` (the default) set the timeout period to
+      infinite.  Note that the treatment of negative or ``None`` values for
+      *timeout* differs from the implemented behavior in
+      :meth:`threading.Lock.acquire`.  The *timeout* argument has no practical
+      implications if the *block* argument is set to ``False`` and is thus
+      ignored.  Returns ``True`` if the lock has been acquired or ``False`` if
+      the timeout period has elapsed.
+
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release a lock.  This can be called from any process or thread, not only
+      the process or thread which originally acquired the lock.
+
+      Behavior is the same as in :meth:`threading.Lock.release` except that
+      when invoked on an unlocked lock, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+.. class:: RLock()
+
+   A recursive lock object: a close analog of :class:`threading.RLock`.  A
+   recursive lock must be released by the process or thread that acquired it.
+   Once a process or thread has acquired a recursive lock, the same process
+   or thread may acquire it again without blocking; that process or thread
+   must release it once for each time it has been acquired.
+
+   Note that :class:`RLock` is actually a factory function which returns an
+   instance of ``multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock`` initialized with a
+   default context.
+
+   :class:`RLock` supports the :term:`context manager` protocol and thus may be
+   used in :keyword:`with` statements.
+
+
+   .. method:: acquire(block=True, timeout=None)
+
+      Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.
+
+      When invoked with the *block* argument set to ``True``, block until the
+      lock is in an unlocked state (not owned by any process or thread) unless
+      the lock is already owned by the current process or thread.  The current
+      process or thread then takes ownership of the lock (if it does not
+      already have ownership) and the recursion level inside the lock increments
+      by one, resulting in a return value of ``True``.  Note that there are
+      several differences in this first argument's behavior compared to the
+      implementation of :meth:`threading.RLock.acquire`, starting with the name
+      of the argument itself.
+
+      When invoked with the *block* argument set to ``False``, do not block.
+      If the lock has already been acquired (and thus is owned) by another
+      process or thread, the current process or thread does not take ownership
+      and the recursion level within the lock is not changed, resulting in
+      a return value of ``False``.  If the lock is in an unlocked state, the
+      current process or thread takes ownership and the recursion level is
+      incremented, resulting in a return value of ``True``.
+
+      Use and behaviors of the *timeout* argument are the same as in
+      :meth:`Lock.acquire`.  Note that some of these behaviors of *timeout*
+      differ from the implemented behaviors in :meth:`threading.RLock.acquire`.
+
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after the
+      decrement the recursion level is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not
+      owned by any process or thread) and if any other processes or threads
+      are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one
+      of them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level is still
+      nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the calling process or
+      thread.
+
+      Only call this method when the calling process or thread owns the lock.
+      An :exc:`AssertionError` is raised if this method is called by a process
+      or thread other than the owner or if the lock is in an unlocked (unowned)
+      state.  Note that the type of exception raised in this situation
+      differs from the implemented behavior in :meth:`threading.RLock.release`.
+
+
+.. class:: Semaphore([value])
+
+   A semaphore object: a close analog of :class:`threading.Semaphore`.
+
+   A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ``acquire`` method's
+   first argument is named *block*, as is consistent with :meth:`Lock.acquire`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   On Mac OS X, ``sem_timedwait`` is unsupported, so calling ``acquire()`` with
+   a timeout will emulate that function's behavior using a sleeping loop.
+
+.. note::
+
+   If the SIGINT signal generated by :kbd:`Ctrl-C` arrives while the main thread is
+   blocked by a call to :meth:`BoundedSemaphore.acquire`, :meth:`Lock.acquire`,
+   :meth:`RLock.acquire`, :meth:`Semaphore.acquire`, :meth:`Condition.acquire`
+   or :meth:`Condition.wait` then the call will be immediately interrupted and
+   :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` will be raised.
+
+   This differs from the behaviour of :mod:`threading` where SIGINT will be
+   ignored while the equivalent blocking calls are in progress.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Some of this package's functionality requires a functioning shared semaphore
+   implementation on the host operating system. Without one, the
+   :mod:`multiprocessing.synchronize` module will be disabled, and attempts to
+   import it will result in an :exc:`ImportError`. See
+   :issue:`3770` for additional information.
+
+
+Shared :mod:`ctypes` Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+It is possible to create shared objects using shared memory which can be
+inherited by child processes.
+
+.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)
+
+   Return a :mod:`ctypes` object allocated from shared memory.  By default the
+   return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the object.  The object
+   itself can be accessed via the *value* attribute of a :class:`Value`.
+
+   *typecode_or_type* determines the type of the returned object: it is either a
+   ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the :mod:`array`
+   module.  *\*args* is passed on to the constructor for the type.
+
+   If *lock* is ``True`` (the default) then a new recursive lock
+   object is created to synchronize access to the value.  If *lock* is
+   a :class:`Lock` or :class:`RLock` object then that will be used to
+   synchronize access to the value.  If *lock* is ``False`` then
+   access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
+   by a lock, so it will not necessarily be "process-safe".
+
+   Operations like ``+=`` which involve a read and write are not
+   atomic.  So if, for instance, you want to atomically increment a
+   shared value it is insufficient to just do ::
+
+       counter.value += 1
+
+   Assuming the associated lock is recursive (which it is by default)
+   you can instead do ::
+
+       with counter.get_lock():
+           counter.value += 1
+
+   Note that *lock* is a keyword-only argument.
+
+.. function:: Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)
+
+   Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.  By default the return
+   value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the array.
+
+   *typecode_or_type* determines the type of the elements of the returned array:
+   it is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by
+   the :mod:`array` module.  If *size_or_initializer* is an integer, then it
+   determines the length of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.
+   Otherwise, *size_or_initializer* is a sequence which is used to initialize
+   the array and whose length determines the length of the array.
+
+   If *lock* is ``True`` (the default) then a new lock object is created to
+   synchronize access to the value.  If *lock* is a :class:`Lock` or
+   :class:`RLock` object then that will be used to synchronize access to the
+   value.  If *lock* is ``False`` then access to the returned object will not be
+   automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
+   "process-safe".
+
+   Note that *lock* is a keyword only argument.
+
+   Note that an array of :data:`ctypes.c_char` has *value* and *raw*
+   attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve strings.
+
+
+The :mod:`multiprocessing.sharedctypes` module
+>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
+
+.. module:: multiprocessing.sharedctypes
+   :synopsis: Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.
+
+The :mod:`multiprocessing.sharedctypes` module provides functions for allocating
+:mod:`ctypes` objects from shared memory which can be inherited by child
+processes.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Although it is possible to store a pointer in shared memory remember that
+   this will refer to a location in the address space of a specific process.
+   However, the pointer is quite likely to be invalid in the context of a second
+   process and trying to dereference the pointer from the second process may
+   cause a crash.
+
+.. function:: RawArray(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer)
+
+   Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.
+
+   *typecode_or_type* determines the type of the elements of the returned array:
+   it is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by
+   the :mod:`array` module.  If *size_or_initializer* is an integer then it
+   determines the length of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.
+   Otherwise *size_or_initializer* is a sequence which is used to initialize the
+   array and whose length determines the length of the array.
+
+   Note that setting and getting an element is potentially non-atomic -- use
+   :func:`Array` instead to make sure that access is automatically synchronized
+   using a lock.
+
+.. function:: RawValue(typecode_or_type, *args)
+
+   Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory.
+
+   *typecode_or_type* determines the type of the returned object: it is either a
+   ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the :mod:`array`
+   module.  *\*args* is passed on to the constructor for the type.
+
+   Note that setting and getting the value is potentially non-atomic -- use
+   :func:`Value` instead to make sure that access is automatically synchronized
+   using a lock.
+
+   Note that an array of :data:`ctypes.c_char` has ``value`` and ``raw``
+   attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve strings -- see
+   documentation for :mod:`ctypes`.
+
+.. function:: Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)
+
+   The same as :func:`RawArray` except that depending on the value of *lock* a
+   process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes
+   array.
+
+   If *lock* is ``True`` (the default) then a new lock object is created to
+   synchronize access to the value.  If *lock* is a
+   :class:`~multiprocessing.Lock` or :class:`~multiprocessing.RLock` object
+   then that will be used to synchronize access to the
+   value.  If *lock* is ``False`` then access to the returned object will not be
+   automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
+   "process-safe".
+
+   Note that *lock* is a keyword-only argument.
+
+.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)
+
+   The same as :func:`RawValue` except that depending on the value of *lock* a
+   process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes
+   object.
+
+   If *lock* is ``True`` (the default) then a new lock object is created to
+   synchronize access to the value.  If *lock* is a :class:`~multiprocessing.Lock` or
+   :class:`~multiprocessing.RLock` object then that will be used to synchronize access to the
+   value.  If *lock* is ``False`` then access to the returned object will not be
+   automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
+   "process-safe".
+
+   Note that *lock* is a keyword-only argument.
+
+.. function:: copy(obj)
+
+   Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory which is a copy of the
+   ctypes object *obj*.
+
+.. function:: synchronized(obj[, lock])
+
+   Return a process-safe wrapper object for a ctypes object which uses *lock* to
+   synchronize access.  If *lock* is ``None`` (the default) then a
+   :class:`multiprocessing.RLock` object is created automatically.
+
+   A synchronized wrapper will have two methods in addition to those of the
+   object it wraps: :meth:`get_obj` returns the wrapped object and
+   :meth:`get_lock` returns the lock object used for synchronization.
+
+   Note that accessing the ctypes object through the wrapper can be a lot slower
+   than accessing the raw ctypes object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Synchronized objects support the :term:`context manager` protocol.
+
+
+The table below compares the syntax for creating shared ctypes objects from
+shared memory with the normal ctypes syntax.  (In the table ``MyStruct`` is some
+subclass of :class:`ctypes.Structure`.)
+
+==================== ========================== ===========================
+ctypes               sharedctypes using type    sharedctypes using typecode
+==================== ========================== ===========================
+c_double(2.4)        RawValue(c_double, 2.4)    RawValue('d', 2.4)
+MyStruct(4, 6)       RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)
+(c_short * 7)()      RawArray(c_short, 7)       RawArray('h', 7)
+(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8) RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8)) RawArray('i', (9, 2, 8))
+==================== ========================== ===========================
+
+
+Below is an example where a number of ctypes objects are modified by a child
+process::
+
+   from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
+   from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
+   from ctypes import Structure, c_double
+
+   class Point(Structure):
+       _fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]
+
+   def modify(n, x, s, A):
+       n.value **= 2
+       x.value **= 2
+       s.value = s.value.upper()
+       for a in A:
+           a.x **= 2
+           a.y **= 2
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       lock = Lock()
+
+       n = Value('i', 7)
+       x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
+       s = Array('c', b'hello world', lock=lock)
+       A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)
+
+       p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))
+       p.start()
+       p.join()
+
+       print(n.value)
+       print(x.value)
+       print(s.value)
+       print([(a.x, a.y) for a in A])
+
+
+.. highlight:: none
+
+The results printed are ::
+
+    49
+    0.1111111111111111
+    HELLO WORLD
+    [(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]
+
+.. highlight:: python3
+
+
+.. _multiprocessing-managers:
+
+Managers
+~~~~~~~~
+
+Managers provide a way to create data which can be shared between different
+processes, including sharing over a network between processes running on
+different machines. A manager object controls a server process which manages
+*shared objects*.  Other processes can access the shared objects by using
+proxies.
+
+.. function:: multiprocessing.Manager()
+
+   Returns a started :class:`~multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager` object which
+   can be used for sharing objects between processes.  The returned manager
+   object corresponds to a spawned child process and has methods which will
+   create shared objects and return corresponding proxies.
+
+.. module:: multiprocessing.managers
+   :synopsis: Share data between process with shared objects.
+
+Manager processes will be shutdown as soon as they are garbage collected or
+their parent process exits.  The manager classes are defined in the
+:mod:`multiprocessing.managers` module:
+
+.. class:: BaseManager([address[, authkey]])
+
+   Create a BaseManager object.
+
+   Once created one should call :meth:`start` or ``get_server().serve_forever()`` to ensure
+   that the manager object refers to a started manager process.
+
+   *address* is the address on which the manager process listens for new
+   connections.  If *address* is ``None`` then an arbitrary one is chosen.
+
+   *authkey* is the authentication key which will be used to check the
+   validity of incoming connections to the server process.  If
+   *authkey* is ``None`` then ``current_process().authkey`` is used.
+   Otherwise *authkey* is used and it must be a byte string.
+
+   .. method:: start([initializer[, initargs]])
+
+      Start a subprocess to start the manager.  If *initializer* is not ``None``
+      then the subprocess will call ``initializer(*initargs)`` when it starts.
+
+   .. method:: get_server()
+
+      Returns a :class:`Server` object which represents the actual server under
+      the control of the Manager. The :class:`Server` object supports the
+      :meth:`serve_forever` method::
+
+      >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
+      >>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
+      >>> server = manager.get_server()
+      >>> server.serve_forever()
+
+      :class:`Server` additionally has an :attr:`address` attribute.
+
+   .. method:: connect()
+
+      Connect a local manager object to a remote manager process::
+
+      >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
+      >>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
+      >>> m.connect()
+
+   .. method:: shutdown()
+
+      Stop the process used by the manager.  This is only available if
+      :meth:`start` has been used to start the server process.
+
+      This can be called multiple times.
+
+   .. method:: register(typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[, method_to_typeid[, create_method]]]]])
+
+      A classmethod which can be used for registering a type or callable with
+      the manager class.
+
+      *typeid* is a "type identifier" which is used to identify a particular
+      type of shared object.  This must be a string.
+
+      *callable* is a callable used for creating objects for this type
+      identifier.  If a manager instance will be connected to the
+      server using the :meth:`connect` method, or if the
+      *create_method* argument is ``False`` then this can be left as
+      ``None``.
+
+      *proxytype* is a subclass of :class:`BaseProxy` which is used to create
+      proxies for shared objects with this *typeid*.  If ``None`` then a proxy
+      class is created automatically.
+
+      *exposed* is used to specify a sequence of method names which proxies for
+      this typeid should be allowed to access using
+      :meth:`BaseProxy._callmethod`.  (If *exposed* is ``None`` then
+      :attr:`proxytype._exposed_` is used instead if it exists.)  In the case
+      where no exposed list is specified, all "public methods" of the shared
+      object will be accessible.  (Here a "public method" means any attribute
+      which has a :meth:`~object.__call__` method and whose name does not begin
+      with ``'_'``.)
+
+      *method_to_typeid* is a mapping used to specify the return type of those
+      exposed methods which should return a proxy.  It maps method names to
+      typeid strings.  (If *method_to_typeid* is ``None`` then
+      :attr:`proxytype._method_to_typeid_` is used instead if it exists.)  If a
+      method's name is not a key of this mapping or if the mapping is ``None``
+      then the object returned by the method will be copied by value.
+
+      *create_method* determines whether a method should be created with name
+      *typeid* which can be used to tell the server process to create a new
+      shared object and return a proxy for it.  By default it is ``True``.
+
+   :class:`BaseManager` instances also have one read-only property:
+
+   .. attribute:: address
+
+      The address used by the manager.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Manager objects support the context management protocol -- see
+      :ref:`typecontextmanager`.  :meth:`~contextmanager.__enter__` starts the
+      server process (if it has not already started) and then returns the
+      manager object.  :meth:`~contextmanager.__exit__` calls :meth:`shutdown`.
+
+      In previous versions :meth:`~contextmanager.__enter__` did not start the
+      manager's server process if it was not already started.
+
+.. class:: SyncManager
+
+   A subclass of :class:`BaseManager` which can be used for the synchronization
+   of processes.  Objects of this type are returned by
+   :func:`multiprocessing.Manager`.
+
+   Its methods create and return :ref:`multiprocessing-proxy_objects` for a
+   number of commonly used data types to be synchronized across processes.
+   This notably includes shared lists and dictionaries.
+
+   .. method:: Barrier(parties[, action[, timeout]])
+
+      Create a shared :class:`threading.Barrier` object and return a
+      proxy for it.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: BoundedSemaphore([value])
+
+      Create a shared :class:`threading.BoundedSemaphore` object and return a
+      proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: Condition([lock])
+
+      Create a shared :class:`threading.Condition` object and return a proxy for
+      it.
+
+      If *lock* is supplied then it should be a proxy for a
+      :class:`threading.Lock` or :class:`threading.RLock` object.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         The :meth:`~threading.Condition.wait_for` method was added.
+
+   .. method:: Event()
+
+      Create a shared :class:`threading.Event` object and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: Lock()
+
+      Create a shared :class:`threading.Lock` object and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: Namespace()
+
+      Create a shared :class:`Namespace` object and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: Queue([maxsize])
+
+      Create a shared :class:`queue.Queue` object and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: RLock()
+
+      Create a shared :class:`threading.RLock` object and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: Semaphore([value])
+
+      Create a shared :class:`threading.Semaphore` object and return a proxy for
+      it.
+
+   .. method:: Array(typecode, sequence)
+
+      Create an array and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: Value(typecode, value)
+
+      Create an object with a writable ``value`` attribute and return a proxy
+      for it.
+
+   .. method:: dict()
+               dict(mapping)
+               dict(sequence)
+
+      Create a shared :class:`dict` object and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. method:: list()
+               list(sequence)
+
+      Create a shared :class:`list` object and return a proxy for it.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Shared objects are capable of being nested.  For example, a shared
+      container object such as a shared list can contain other shared objects
+      which will all be managed and synchronized by the :class:`SyncManager`.
+
+.. class:: Namespace
+
+   A type that can register with :class:`SyncManager`.
+
+   A namespace object has no public methods, but does have writable attributes.
+   Its representation shows the values of its attributes.
+
+   However, when using a proxy for a namespace object, an attribute beginning
+   with ``'_'`` will be an attribute of the proxy and not an attribute of the
+   referent:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+    >>> manager = multiprocessing.Manager()
+    >>> Global = manager.Namespace()
+    >>> Global.x = 10
+    >>> Global.y = 'hello'
+    >>> Global._z = 12.3    # this is an attribute of the proxy
+    >>> print(Global)
+    Namespace(x=10, y='hello')
+
+
+Customized managers
+>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
+
+To create one's own manager, one creates a subclass of :class:`BaseManager` and
+uses the :meth:`~BaseManager.register` classmethod to register new types or
+callables with the manager class.  For example::
+
+   from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
+
+   class MathsClass:
+       def add(self, x, y):
+           return x + y
+       def mul(self, x, y):
+           return x * y
+
+   class MyManager(BaseManager):
+       pass
+
+   MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       with MyManager() as manager:
+           maths = manager.Maths()
+           print(maths.add(4, 3))         # prints 7
+           print(maths.mul(7, 8))         # prints 56
+
+
+Using a remote manager
+>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
+
+It is possible to run a manager server on one machine and have clients use it
+from other machines (assuming that the firewalls involved allow it).
+
+Running the following commands creates a server for a single shared queue which
+remote clients can access::
+
+   >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
+   >>> from queue import Queue
+   >>> queue = Queue()
+   >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
+   >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
+   >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
+   >>> s = m.get_server()
+   >>> s.serve_forever()
+
+One client can access the server as follows::
+
+   >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
+   >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
+   >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
+   >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
+   >>> m.connect()
+   >>> queue = m.get_queue()
+   >>> queue.put('hello')
+
+Another client can also use it::
+
+   >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
+   >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
+   >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
+   >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
+   >>> m.connect()
+   >>> queue = m.get_queue()
+   >>> queue.get()
+   'hello'
+
+Local processes can also access that queue, using the code from above on the
+client to access it remotely::
+
+    >>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
+    >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
+    >>> class Worker(Process):
+    ...     def __init__(self, q):
+    ...         self.q = q
+    ...         super(Worker, self).__init__()
+    ...     def run(self):
+    ...         self.q.put('local hello')
+    ...
+    >>> queue = Queue()
+    >>> w = Worker(queue)
+    >>> w.start()
+    >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
+    ...
+    >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
+    >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
+    >>> s = m.get_server()
+    >>> s.serve_forever()
+
+.. _multiprocessing-proxy_objects:
+
+Proxy Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A proxy is an object which *refers* to a shared object which lives (presumably)
+in a different process.  The shared object is said to be the *referent* of the
+proxy.  Multiple proxy objects may have the same referent.
+
+A proxy object has methods which invoke corresponding methods of its referent
+(although not every method of the referent will necessarily be available through
+the proxy).  In this way, a proxy can be used just like its referent can:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> from multiprocessing import Manager
+   >>> manager = Manager()
+   >>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
+   >>> print(l)
+   [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
+   >>> print(repr(l))
+   <ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
+   >>> l[4]
+   16
+   >>> l[2:5]
+   [4, 9, 16]
+
+Notice that applying :func:`str` to a proxy will return the representation of
+the referent, whereas applying :func:`repr` will return the representation of
+the proxy.
+
+An important feature of proxy objects is that they are picklable so they can be
+passed between processes.  As such, a referent can contain
+:ref:`multiprocessing-proxy_objects`.  This permits nesting of these managed
+lists, dicts, and other :ref:`multiprocessing-proxy_objects`:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> a = manager.list()
+   >>> b = manager.list()
+   >>> a.append(b)         # referent of a now contains referent of b
+   >>> print(a, b)
+   [<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at ...>] []
+   >>> b.append('hello')
+   >>> print(a[0], b)
+   ['hello'] ['hello']
+
+Similarly, dict and list proxies may be nested inside one another::
+
+   >>> l_outer = manager.list([ manager.dict() for i in range(2) ])
+   >>> d_first_inner = l_outer[0]
+   >>> d_first_inner['a'] = 1
+   >>> d_first_inner['b'] = 2
+   >>> l_outer[1]['c'] = 3
+   >>> l_outer[1]['z'] = 26
+   >>> print(l_outer[0])
+   {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
+   >>> print(l_outer[1])
+   {'c': 3, 'z': 26}
+
+If standard (non-proxy) :class:`list` or :class:`dict` objects are contained
+in a referent, modifications to those mutable values will not be propagated
+through the manager because the proxy has no way of knowing when the values
+contained within are modified.  However, storing a value in a container proxy
+(which triggers a ``__setitem__`` on the proxy object) does propagate through
+the manager and so to effectively modify such an item, one could re-assign the
+modified value to the container proxy::
+
+   # create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)
+   lproxy = manager.list()
+   lproxy.append({})
+   # now mutate the dictionary
+   d = lproxy[0]
+   d['a'] = 1
+   d['b'] = 2
+   # at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
+   # updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
+   lproxy[0] = d
+
+This approach is perhaps less convenient than employing nested
+:ref:`multiprocessing-proxy_objects` for most use cases but also
+demonstrates a level of control over the synchronization.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The proxy types in :mod:`multiprocessing` do nothing to support comparisons
+   by value.  So, for instance, we have:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]
+       False
+
+   One should just use a copy of the referent instead when making comparisons.
+
+.. class:: BaseProxy
+
+   Proxy objects are instances of subclasses of :class:`BaseProxy`.
+
+   .. method:: _callmethod(methodname[, args[, kwds]])
+
+      Call and return the result of a method of the proxy's referent.
+
+      If ``proxy`` is a proxy whose referent is ``obj`` then the expression ::
+
+         proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)
+
+      will evaluate the expression ::
+
+         getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)
+
+      in the manager's process.
+
+      The returned value will be a copy of the result of the call or a proxy to
+      a new shared object -- see documentation for the *method_to_typeid*
+      argument of :meth:`BaseManager.register`.
+
+      If an exception is raised by the call, then is re-raised by
+      :meth:`_callmethod`.  If some other exception is raised in the manager's
+      process then this is converted into a :exc:`RemoteError` exception and is
+      raised by :meth:`_callmethod`.
+
+      Note in particular that an exception will be raised if *methodname* has
+      not been *exposed*.
+
+      An example of the usage of :meth:`_callmethod`:
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> l = manager.list(range(10))
+         >>> l._callmethod('__len__')
+         10
+         >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (slice(2, 7),)) # equivalent to l[2:7]
+         [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+         >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,))          # equivalent to l[20]
+         Traceback (most recent call last):
+         ...
+         IndexError: list index out of range
+
+   .. method:: _getvalue()
+
+      Return a copy of the referent.
+
+      If the referent is unpicklable then this will raise an exception.
+
+   .. method:: __repr__
+
+      Return a representation of the proxy object.
+
+   .. method:: __str__
+
+      Return the representation of the referent.
+
+
+Cleanup
+>>>>>>>
+
+A proxy object uses a weakref callback so that when it gets garbage collected it
+deregisters itself from the manager which owns its referent.
+
+A shared object gets deleted from the manager process when there are no longer
+any proxies referring to it.
+
+
+Process Pools
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. module:: multiprocessing.pool
+   :synopsis: Create pools of processes.
+
+One can create a pool of processes which will carry out tasks submitted to it
+with the :class:`Pool` class.
+
+.. class:: Pool([processes[, initializer[, initargs[, maxtasksperchild [, context]]]]])
+
+   A process pool object which controls a pool of worker processes to which jobs
+   can be submitted.  It supports asynchronous results with timeouts and
+   callbacks and has a parallel map implementation.
+
+   *processes* is the number of worker processes to use.  If *processes* is
+   ``None`` then the number returned by :func:`os.cpu_count` is used.
+
+   If *initializer* is not ``None`` then each worker process will call
+   ``initializer(*initargs)`` when it starts.
+
+   *maxtasksperchild* is the number of tasks a worker process can complete
+   before it will exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process, to enable
+   unused resources to be freed. The default *maxtasksperchild* is ``None``, which
+   means worker processes will live as long as the pool.
+
+   *context* can be used to specify the context used for starting
+   the worker processes.  Usually a pool is created using the
+   function :func:`multiprocessing.Pool` or the :meth:`Pool` method
+   of a context object.  In both cases *context* is set
+   appropriately.
+
+   Note that the methods of the pool object should only be called by
+   the process which created the pool.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      *maxtasksperchild*
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      *context*
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Worker processes within a :class:`Pool` typically live for the complete
+      duration of the Pool's work queue. A frequent pattern found in other
+      systems (such as Apache, mod_wsgi, etc) to free resources held by
+      workers is to allow a worker within a pool to complete only a set
+      amount of work before being exiting, being cleaned up and a new
+      process spawned to replace the old one. The *maxtasksperchild*
+      argument to the :class:`Pool` exposes this ability to the end user.
+
+   .. method:: apply(func[, args[, kwds]])
+
+      Call *func* with arguments *args* and keyword arguments *kwds*.  It blocks
+      until the result is ready. Given this blocks, :meth:`apply_async` is
+      better suited for performing work in parallel. Additionally, *func*
+      is only executed in one of the workers of the pool.
+
+   .. method:: apply_async(func[, args[, kwds[, callback[, error_callback]]]])
+
+      A variant of the :meth:`apply` method which returns a result object.
+
+      If *callback* is specified then it should be a callable which accepts a
+      single argument.  When the result becomes ready *callback* is applied to
+      it, that is unless the call failed, in which case the *error_callback*
+      is applied instead.
+
+      If *error_callback* is specified then it should be a callable which
+      accepts a single argument.  If the target function fails, then
+      the *error_callback* is called with the exception instance.
+
+      Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the thread which
+      handles the results will get blocked.
+
+   .. method:: map(func, iterable[, chunksize])
+
+      A parallel equivalent of the :func:`map` built-in function (it supports only
+      one *iterable* argument though).  It blocks until the result is ready.
+
+      This method chops the iterable into a number of chunks which it submits to
+      the process pool as separate tasks.  The (approximate) size of these
+      chunks can be specified by setting *chunksize* to a positive integer.
+
+      Note that it may cause high memory usage for very long iterables. Consider
+      using :meth:`imap` or :meth:`imap_unordered` with explicit *chunksize*
+      option for better efficiency.
+
+   .. method:: map_async(func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[, error_callback]]])
+
+      A variant of the :meth:`.map` method which returns a result object.
+
+      If *callback* is specified then it should be a callable which accepts a
+      single argument.  When the result becomes ready *callback* is applied to
+      it, that is unless the call failed, in which case the *error_callback*
+      is applied instead.
+
+      If *error_callback* is specified then it should be a callable which
+      accepts a single argument.  If the target function fails, then
+      the *error_callback* is called with the exception instance.
+
+      Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the thread which
+      handles the results will get blocked.
+
+   .. method:: imap(func, iterable[, chunksize])
+
+      A lazier version of :meth:`.map`.
+
+      The *chunksize* argument is the same as the one used by the :meth:`.map`
+      method.  For very long iterables using a large value for *chunksize* can
+      make the job complete **much** faster than using the default value of
+      ``1``.
+
+      Also if *chunksize* is ``1`` then the :meth:`!next` method of the iterator
+      returned by the :meth:`imap` method has an optional *timeout* parameter:
+      ``next(timeout)`` will raise :exc:`multiprocessing.TimeoutError` if the
+      result cannot be returned within *timeout* seconds.
+
+   .. method:: imap_unordered(func, iterable[, chunksize])
+
+      The same as :meth:`imap` except that the ordering of the results from the
+      returned iterator should be considered arbitrary.  (Only when there is
+      only one worker process is the order guaranteed to be "correct".)
+
+   .. method:: starmap(func, iterable[, chunksize])
+
+      Like :meth:`map` except that the elements of the *iterable* are expected
+      to be iterables that are unpacked as arguments.
+
+      Hence an *iterable* of ``[(1,2), (3, 4)]`` results in ``[func(1,2),
+      func(3,4)]``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: starmap_async(func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[, error_callback]]])
+
+      A combination of :meth:`starmap` and :meth:`map_async` that iterates over
+      *iterable* of iterables and calls *func* with the iterables unpacked.
+      Returns a result object.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Prevents any more tasks from being submitted to the pool.  Once all the
+      tasks have been completed the worker processes will exit.
+
+   .. method:: terminate()
+
+      Stops the worker processes immediately without completing outstanding
+      work.  When the pool object is garbage collected :meth:`terminate` will be
+      called immediately.
+
+   .. method:: join()
+
+      Wait for the worker processes to exit.  One must call :meth:`close` or
+      :meth:`terminate` before using :meth:`join`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Pool objects now support the context management protocol -- see
+      :ref:`typecontextmanager`.  :meth:`~contextmanager.__enter__` returns the
+      pool object, and :meth:`~contextmanager.__exit__` calls :meth:`terminate`.
+
+
+.. class:: AsyncResult
+
+   The class of the result returned by :meth:`Pool.apply_async` and
+   :meth:`Pool.map_async`.
+
+   .. method:: get([timeout])
+
+      Return the result when it arrives.  If *timeout* is not ``None`` and the
+      result does not arrive within *timeout* seconds then
+      :exc:`multiprocessing.TimeoutError` is raised.  If the remote call raised
+      an exception then that exception will be reraised by :meth:`get`.
+
+   .. method:: wait([timeout])
+
+      Wait until the result is available or until *timeout* seconds pass.
+
+   .. method:: ready()
+
+      Return whether the call has completed.
+
+   .. method:: successful()
+
+      Return whether the call completed without raising an exception.  Will
+      raise :exc:`AssertionError` if the result is not ready.
+
+The following example demonstrates the use of a pool::
+
+   from multiprocessing import Pool
+   import time
+
+   def f(x):
+       return x*x
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       with Pool(processes=4) as pool:         # start 4 worker processes
+           result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single process
+           print(result.get(timeout=1))        # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow
+
+           print(pool.map(f, range(10)))       # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
+
+           it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
+           print(next(it))                     # prints "0"
+           print(next(it))                     # prints "1"
+           print(it.next(timeout=1))           # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow
+
+           result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
+           print(result.get(timeout=1))        # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError
+
+
+.. _multiprocessing-listeners-clients:
+
+Listeners and Clients
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. module:: multiprocessing.connection
+   :synopsis: API for dealing with sockets.
+
+Usually message passing between processes is done using queues or by using
+:class:`~Connection` objects returned by
+:func:`~multiprocessing.Pipe`.
+
+However, the :mod:`multiprocessing.connection` module allows some extra
+flexibility.  It basically gives a high level message oriented API for dealing
+with sockets or Windows named pipes.  It also has support for *digest
+authentication* using the :mod:`hmac` module, and for polling
+multiple connections at the same time.
+
+
+.. function:: deliver_challenge(connection, authkey)
+
+   Send a randomly generated message to the other end of the connection and wait
+   for a reply.
+
+   If the reply matches the digest of the message using *authkey* as the key
+   then a welcome message is sent to the other end of the connection.  Otherwise
+   :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised.
+
+.. function:: answer_challenge(connection, authkey)
+
+   Receive a message, calculate the digest of the message using *authkey* as the
+   key, and then send the digest back.
+
+   If a welcome message is not received, then
+   :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised.
+
+.. function:: Client(address[, family[, authkey]])
+
+   Attempt to set up a connection to the listener which is using address
+   *address*, returning a :class:`~Connection`.
+
+   The type of the connection is determined by *family* argument, but this can
+   generally be omitted since it can usually be inferred from the format of
+   *address*. (See :ref:`multiprocessing-address-formats`)
+
+   If *authkey* is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be
+   used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No
+   authentication is done if *authkey* is None.
+   :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised if authentication fails.
+   See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`.
+
+.. class:: Listener([address[, family[, backlog[, authkey]]]])
+
+   A wrapper for a bound socket or Windows named pipe which is 'listening' for
+   connections.
+
+   *address* is the address to be used by the bound socket or named pipe of the
+   listener object.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If an address of '0.0.0.0' is used, the address will not be a connectable
+      end point on Windows. If you require a connectable end-point,
+      you should use '127.0.0.1'.
+
+   *family* is the type of socket (or named pipe) to use.  This can be one of
+   the strings ``'AF_INET'`` (for a TCP socket), ``'AF_UNIX'`` (for a Unix
+   domain socket) or ``'AF_PIPE'`` (for a Windows named pipe).  Of these only
+   the first is guaranteed to be available.  If *family* is ``None`` then the
+   family is inferred from the format of *address*.  If *address* is also
+   ``None`` then a default is chosen.  This default is the family which is
+   assumed to be the fastest available.  See
+   :ref:`multiprocessing-address-formats`.  Note that if *family* is
+   ``'AF_UNIX'`` and address is ``None`` then the socket will be created in a
+   private temporary directory created using :func:`tempfile.mkstemp`.
+
+   If the listener object uses a socket then *backlog* (1 by default) is passed
+   to the :meth:`~socket.socket.listen` method of the socket once it has been
+   bound.
+
+   If *authkey* is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be
+   used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No
+   authentication is done if *authkey* is None.
+   :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised if authentication fails.
+   See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`.
+
+   .. method:: accept()
+
+      Accept a connection on the bound socket or named pipe of the listener
+      object and return a :class:`~Connection` object.
+      If authentication is attempted and fails, then
+      :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object.  This is
+      called automatically when the listener is garbage collected.  However it
+      is advisable to call it explicitly.
+
+   Listener objects have the following read-only properties:
+
+   .. attribute:: address
+
+      The address which is being used by the Listener object.
+
+   .. attribute:: last_accepted
+
+      The address from which the last accepted connection came.  If this is
+      unavailable then it is ``None``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Listener objects now support the context management protocol -- see
+      :ref:`typecontextmanager`.  :meth:`~contextmanager.__enter__` returns the
+      listener object, and :meth:`~contextmanager.__exit__` calls :meth:`close`.
+
+.. function:: wait(object_list, timeout=None)
+
+   Wait till an object in *object_list* is ready.  Returns the list of
+   those objects in *object_list* which are ready.  If *timeout* is a
+   float then the call blocks for at most that many seconds.  If
+   *timeout* is ``None`` then it will block for an unlimited period.
+   A negative timeout is equivalent to a zero timeout.
+
+   For both Unix and Windows, an object can appear in *object_list* if
+   it is
+
+   * a readable :class:`~multiprocessing.connection.Connection` object;
+   * a connected and readable :class:`socket.socket` object; or
+   * the :attr:`~multiprocessing.Process.sentinel` attribute of a
+     :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` object.
+
+   A connection or socket object is ready when there is data available
+   to be read from it, or the other end has been closed.
+
+   **Unix**: ``wait(object_list, timeout)`` almost equivalent
+   ``select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout)``.  The difference is
+   that, if :func:`select.select` is interrupted by a signal, it can
+   raise :exc:`OSError` with an error number of ``EINTR``, whereas
+   :func:`wait` will not.
+
+   **Windows**: An item in *object_list* must either be an integer
+   handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the
+   documentation of the Win32 function ``WaitForMultipleObjects()``)
+   or it can be an object with a :meth:`fileno` method which returns a
+   socket handle or pipe handle.  (Note that pipe handles and socket
+   handles are **not** waitable handles.)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+**Examples**
+
+The following server code creates a listener which uses ``'secret password'`` as
+an authentication key.  It then waits for a connection and sends some data to
+the client::
+
+   from multiprocessing.connection import Listener
+   from array import array
+
+   address = ('localhost', 6000)     # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'
+
+   with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener:
+       with listener.accept() as conn:
+           print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted)
+
+           conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])
+
+           conn.send_bytes(b'hello')
+
+           conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))
+
+The following code connects to the server and receives some data from the
+server::
+
+   from multiprocessing.connection import Client
+   from array import array
+
+   address = ('localhost', 6000)
+
+   with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn:
+       print(conn.recv())                  # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]
+
+       print(conn.recv_bytes())            # => 'hello'
+
+       arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
+       print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr))    # => 8
+       print(arr)                          # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])
+
+The following code uses :func:`~multiprocessing.connection.wait` to
+wait for messages from multiple processes at once::
+
+   import time, random
+   from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process
+   from multiprocessing.connection import wait
+
+   def foo(w):
+       for i in range(10):
+           w.send((i, current_process().name))
+       w.close()
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       readers = []
+
+       for i in range(4):
+           r, w = Pipe(duplex=False)
+           readers.append(r)
+           p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,))
+           p.start()
+           # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that
+           # p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This
+           # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,
+           # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.
+           w.close()
+
+       while readers:
+           for r in wait(readers):
+               try:
+                   msg = r.recv()
+               except EOFError:
+                   readers.remove(r)
+               else:
+                   print(msg)
+
+
+.. _multiprocessing-address-formats:
+
+Address Formats
+>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
+
+* An ``'AF_INET'`` address is a tuple of the form ``(hostname, port)`` where
+  *hostname* is a string and *port* is an integer.
+
+* An ``'AF_UNIX'`` address is a string representing a filename on the
+  filesystem.
+
+* An ``'AF_PIPE'`` address is a string of the form
+   :samp:`r'\\\\.\\pipe\\{PipeName}'`.  To use :func:`Client` to connect to a named
+   pipe on a remote computer called *ServerName* one should use an address of the
+   form :samp:`r'\\\\{ServerName}\\pipe\\{PipeName}'` instead.
+
+Note that any string beginning with two backslashes is assumed by default to be
+an ``'AF_PIPE'`` address rather than an ``'AF_UNIX'`` address.
+
+
+.. _multiprocessing-auth-keys:
+
+Authentication keys
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+When one uses :meth:`Connection.recv <Connection.recv>`, the
+data received is automatically
+unpickled. Unfortunately unpickling data from an untrusted source is a security
+risk. Therefore :class:`Listener` and :func:`Client` use the :mod:`hmac` module
+to provide digest authentication.
+
+An authentication key is a byte string which can be thought of as a
+password: once a connection is established both ends will demand proof
+that the other knows the authentication key.  (Demonstrating that both
+ends are using the same key does **not** involve sending the key over
+the connection.)
+
+If authentication is requested but no authentication key is specified then the
+return value of ``current_process().authkey`` is used (see
+:class:`~multiprocessing.Process`).  This value will be automatically inherited by
+any :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` object that the current process creates.
+This means that (by default) all processes of a multi-process program will share
+a single authentication key which can be used when setting up connections
+between themselves.
+
+Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using :func:`os.urandom`.
+
+
+Logging
+~~~~~~~
+
+Some support for logging is available.  Note, however, that the :mod:`logging`
+package does not use process shared locks so it is possible (depending on the
+handler type) for messages from different processes to get mixed up.
+
+.. currentmodule:: multiprocessing
+.. function:: get_logger()
+
+   Returns the logger used by :mod:`multiprocessing`.  If necessary, a new one
+   will be created.
+
+   When first created the logger has level :data:`logging.NOTSET` and no
+   default handler. Messages sent to this logger will not by default propagate
+   to the root logger.
+
+   Note that on Windows child processes will only inherit the level of the
+   parent process's logger -- any other customization of the logger will not be
+   inherited.
+
+.. currentmodule:: multiprocessing
+.. function:: log_to_stderr()
+
+   This function performs a call to :func:`get_logger` but in addition to
+   returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a handler which sends
+   output to :data:`sys.stderr` using format
+   ``'[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s'``.
+
+Below is an example session with logging turned on::
+
+    >>> import multiprocessing, logging
+    >>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
+    >>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
+    >>> logger.warning('doomed')
+    [WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
+    >>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
+    [INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
+    [INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
+    [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
+    >>> del m
+    [INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
+    [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0
+
+For a full table of logging levels, see the :mod:`logging` module.
+
+
+The :mod:`multiprocessing.dummy` module
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. module:: multiprocessing.dummy
+   :synopsis: Dumb wrapper around threading.
+
+:mod:`multiprocessing.dummy` replicates the API of :mod:`multiprocessing` but is
+no more than a wrapper around the :mod:`threading` module.
+
+
+.. _multiprocessing-programming:
+
+Programming guidelines
+----------------------
+
+There are certain guidelines and idioms which should be adhered to when using
+:mod:`multiprocessing`.
+
+
+All start methods
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The following applies to all start methods.
+
+Avoid shared state
+
+    As far as possible one should try to avoid shifting large amounts of data
+    between processes.
+
+    It is probably best to stick to using queues or pipes for communication
+    between processes rather than using the lower level synchronization
+    primitives.
+
+Picklability
+
+    Ensure that the arguments to the methods of proxies are picklable.
+
+Thread safety of proxies
+
+    Do not use a proxy object from more than one thread unless you protect it
+    with a lock.
+
+    (There is never a problem with different processes using the *same* proxy.)
+
+Joining zombie processes
+
+    On Unix when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes a zombie.
+    There should never be very many because each time a new process starts (or
+    :func:`~multiprocessing.active_children` is called) all completed processes
+    which have not yet been joined will be joined.  Also calling a finished
+    process's :meth:`Process.is_alive <multiprocessing.Process.is_alive>` will
+    join the process.  Even so it is probably good
+    practice to explicitly join all the processes that you start.
+
+Better to inherit than pickle/unpickle
+
+    When using the *spawn* or *forkserver* start methods many types
+    from :mod:`multiprocessing` need to be picklable so that child
+    processes can use them.  However, one should generally avoid
+    sending shared objects to other processes using pipes or queues.
+    Instead you should arrange the program so that a process which
+    needs access to a shared resource created elsewhere can inherit it
+    from an ancestor process.
+
+Avoid terminating processes
+
+    Using the :meth:`Process.terminate <multiprocessing.Process.terminate>`
+    method to stop a process is liable to
+    cause any shared resources (such as locks, semaphores, pipes and queues)
+    currently being used by the process to become broken or unavailable to other
+    processes.
+
+    Therefore it is probably best to only consider using
+    :meth:`Process.terminate <multiprocessing.Process.terminate>` on processes
+    which never use any shared resources.
+
+Joining processes that use queues
+
+    Bear in mind that a process that has put items in a queue will wait before
+    terminating until all the buffered items are fed by the "feeder" thread to
+    the underlying pipe.  (The child process can call the
+    :meth:`Queue.cancel_join_thread <multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread>`
+    method of the queue to avoid this behaviour.)
+
+    This means that whenever you use a queue you need to make sure that all
+    items which have been put on the queue will eventually be removed before the
+    process is joined.  Otherwise you cannot be sure that processes which have
+    put items on the queue will terminate.  Remember also that non-daemonic
+    processes will be joined automatically.
+
+    An example which will deadlock is the following::
+
+        from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
+
+        def f(q):
+            q.put('X' * 1000000)
+
+        if __name__ == '__main__':
+            queue = Queue()
+            p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
+            p.start()
+            p.join()                    # this deadlocks
+            obj = queue.get()
+
+    A fix here would be to swap the last two lines (or simply remove the
+    ``p.join()`` line).
+
+Explicitly pass resources to child processes
+
+    On Unix using the *fork* start method, a child process can make
+    use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a
+    global resource.  However, it is better to pass the object as an
+    argument to the constructor for the child process.
+
+    Apart from making the code (potentially) compatible with Windows
+    and the other start methods this also ensures that as long as the
+    child process is still alive the object will not be garbage
+    collected in the parent process.  This might be important if some
+    resource is freed when the object is garbage collected in the
+    parent process.
+
+    So for instance ::
+
+        from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
+
+        def f():
+            ... do something using "lock" ...
+
+        if __name__ == '__main__':
+            lock = Lock()
+            for i in range(10):
+                Process(target=f).start()
+
+    should be rewritten as ::
+
+        from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
+
+        def f(l):
+            ... do something using "l" ...
+
+        if __name__ == '__main__':
+            lock = Lock()
+            for i in range(10):
+                Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()
+
+Beware of replacing :data:`sys.stdin` with a "file like object"
+
+    :mod:`multiprocessing` originally unconditionally called::
+
+        os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())
+
+    in the :meth:`multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap` method --- this resulted
+    in issues with processes-in-processes. This has been changed to::
+
+        sys.stdin.close()
+        sys.stdin = open(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDONLY), closefd=False)
+
+    Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each other
+    resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a potential danger
+    to applications which replace :func:`sys.stdin` with a "file-like object"
+    with output buffering.  This danger is that if multiple processes call
+    :meth:`~io.IOBase.close()` on this file-like object, it could result in the same
+    data being flushed to the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.
+
+    If you write a file-like object and implement your own caching, you can
+    make it fork-safe by storing the pid whenever you append to the cache,
+    and discarding the cache when the pid changes. For example::
+
+       @property
+       def cache(self):
+           pid = os.getpid()
+           if pid != self._pid:
+               self._pid = pid
+               self._cache = []
+           return self._cache
+
+    For more information, see :issue:`5155`, :issue:`5313` and :issue:`5331`
+
+The *spawn* and *forkserver* start methods
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There are a few extra restriction which don't apply to the *fork*
+start method.
+
+More picklability
+
+    Ensure that all arguments to :meth:`Process.__init__` are picklable.
+    Also, if you subclass :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` then make sure that
+    instances will be picklable when the :meth:`Process.start
+    <multiprocessing.Process.start>` method is called.
+
+Global variables
+
+    Bear in mind that if code run in a child process tries to access a global
+    variable, then the value it sees (if any) may not be the same as the value
+    in the parent process at the time that :meth:`Process.start
+    <multiprocessing.Process.start>` was called.
+
+    However, global variables which are just module level constants cause no
+    problems.
+
+Safe importing of main module
+
+    Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new Python
+    interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such a starting a new
+    process).
+
+    For example, using the *spawn* or *forkserver* start method
+    running the following module would fail with a
+    :exc:`RuntimeError`::
+
+        from multiprocessing import Process
+
+        def foo():
+            print('hello')
+
+        p = Process(target=foo)
+        p.start()
+
+    Instead one should protect the "entry point" of the program by using ``if
+    __name__ == '__main__':`` as follows::
+
+       from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support, set_start_method
+
+       def foo():
+           print('hello')
+
+       if __name__ == '__main__':
+           freeze_support()
+           set_start_method('spawn')
+           p = Process(target=foo)
+           p.start()
+
+    (The ``freeze_support()`` line can be omitted if the program will be run
+    normally instead of frozen.)
+
+    This allows the newly spawned Python interpreter to safely import the module
+    and then run the module's ``foo()`` function.
+
+    Similar restrictions apply if a pool or manager is created in the main
+    module.
+
+
+.. _multiprocessing-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Demonstration of how to create and use customized managers and proxies:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/mp_newtype.py
+   :language: python3
+
+
+Using :class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool`:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/mp_pool.py
+   :language: python3
+
+
+An example showing how to use queues to feed tasks to a collection of worker
+processes and collect the results:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/mp_workers.py
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/netdata.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/netdata.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4915016
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/netdata.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+
+.. _netdata:
+
+**********************
+Internet Data Handling
+**********************
+
+This chapter describes modules which support handling data formats commonly used
+on the Internet.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   email.rst
+   json.rst
+   mailcap.rst
+   mailbox.rst
+   mimetypes.rst
+   base64.rst
+   binhex.rst
+   binascii.rst
+   quopri.rst
+   uu.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/netrc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/netrc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d29ac4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/netrc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+
+:mod:`netrc` --- netrc file processing
+======================================
+
+.. module:: netrc
+   :synopsis: Loading of .netrc files.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@snark.thyrsus.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@snark.thyrsus.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/netrc.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :class:`~netrc.netrc` class parses and encapsulates the netrc file format used by
+the Unix :program:`ftp` program and other FTP clients.
+
+
+.. class:: netrc([file])
+
+   A :class:`~netrc.netrc` instance or subclass instance encapsulates data from  a netrc
+   file.  The initialization argument, if present, specifies the file to parse.  If
+   no argument is given, the file :file:`.netrc` in the user's home directory --
+   as determined by :func:`os.path.expanduser` -- will be read.  Otherwise,
+   a :exc:`FileNotFoundError` exception will be raised.
+   Parse errors will raise :exc:`NetrcParseError` with diagnostic
+   information including the file name, line number, and terminating token.
+   If no argument is specified on a POSIX system, the presence of passwords in
+   the :file:`.netrc` file will raise a :exc:`NetrcParseError` if the file
+   ownership or permissions are insecure (owned by a user other than the user
+   running the process, or accessible for read or write by any other user).
+   This implements security behavior equivalent to that of ftp and other
+   programs that use :file:`.netrc`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4 Added the POSIX permission check.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      :func:`os.path.expanduser` is used to find the location of the
+      :file:`.netrc` file when *file* is not passed as argument.
+
+
+.. exception:: NetrcParseError
+
+   Exception raised by the :class:`~netrc.netrc` class when syntactical errors are
+   encountered in source text.  Instances of this exception provide three
+   interesting attributes:  :attr:`msg` is a textual explanation of the error,
+   :attr:`filename` is the name of the source file, and :attr:`lineno` gives the
+   line number on which the error was found.
+
+
+.. _netrc-objects:
+
+netrc Objects
+-------------
+
+A :class:`~netrc.netrc` instance has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: netrc.authenticators(host)
+
+   Return a 3-tuple ``(login, account, password)`` of authenticators for *host*.
+   If the netrc file did not contain an entry for the given host, return the tuple
+   associated with the 'default' entry.  If neither matching host nor default entry
+   is available, return ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: netrc.__repr__()
+
+   Dump the class data as a string in the format of a netrc file. (This discards
+   comments and may reorder the entries.)
+
+Instances of :class:`~netrc.netrc` have public instance variables:
+
+
+.. attribute:: netrc.hosts
+
+   Dictionary mapping host names to ``(login, account, password)`` tuples.  The
+   'default' entry, if any, is represented as a pseudo-host by that name.
+
+
+.. attribute:: netrc.macros
+
+   Dictionary mapping macro names to string lists.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Passwords are limited to a subset of the ASCII character set.  All ASCII
+   punctuation is allowed in passwords, however, note that whitespace and
+   non-printable characters are not allowed in passwords.  This is a limitation
+   of the way the .netrc file is parsed and may be removed in the future.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/nis.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/nis.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10c67cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/nis.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+
+:mod:`nis` --- Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: nis
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fred Gansevles <Fred.Gansevles@cs.utwente.nl>
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`nis` module gives a thin wrapper around the NIS library, useful for
+central administration of several hosts.
+
+Because NIS exists only on Unix systems, this module is only available for Unix.
+
+The :mod:`nis` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: match(key, mapname, domain=default_domain)
+
+   Return the match for *key* in map *mapname*, or raise an error
+   (:exc:`nis.error`) if there is none. Both should be strings, *key* is 8-bit
+   clean. Return value is an arbitrary array of bytes (may contain ``NULL`` and
+   other joys).
+
+   Note that *mapname* is first checked if it is an alias to another name.
+
+   The *domain* argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the lookup. If
+   unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.
+
+
+.. function:: cat(mapname, domain=default_domain)
+
+   Return a dictionary mapping *key* to *value* such that ``match(key,
+   mapname)==value``. Note that both keys and values of the dictionary are
+   arbitrary arrays of bytes.
+
+   Note that *mapname* is first checked if it is an alias to another name.
+
+   The *domain* argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the lookup. If
+   unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.
+
+
+.. function:: maps(domain=default_domain)
+
+   Return a list of all valid maps.
+
+   The *domain* argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the lookup. If
+   unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.
+
+
+.. function:: get_default_domain()
+
+   Return the system default NIS domain.
+
+
+The :mod:`nis` module defines the following exception:
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   An error raised when a NIS function returns an error code.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/nntplib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/nntplib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56188c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/nntplib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,567 @@
+:mod:`nntplib` --- NNTP protocol client
+=======================================
+
+.. module:: nntplib
+   :synopsis: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets).
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/nntplib.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: NNTP; protocol
+   single: Network News Transfer Protocol
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines the class :class:`NNTP` which implements the client side of
+the Network News Transfer Protocol.  It can be used to implement a news reader
+or poster, or automated news processors.  It is compatible with :rfc:`3977`
+as well as the older :rfc:`977` and :rfc:`2980`.
+
+Here are two small examples of how it can be used.  To list some statistics
+about a newsgroup and print the subjects of the last 10 articles::
+
+   >>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.org')
+   >>> resp, count, first, last, name = s.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
+   >>> print('Group', name, 'has', count, 'articles, range', first, 'to', last)
+   Group gmane.comp.python.committers has 1096 articles, range 1 to 1096
+   >>> resp, overviews = s.over((last - 9, last))
+   >>> for id, over in overviews:
+   ...     print(id, nntplib.decode_header(over['subject']))
+   ...
+   1087 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
+   1088 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
+   1089 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
+   1090 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
+   1091 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
+   1092 Updated ssh key
+   1093 Re: Updated ssh key
+   1094 Re: Updated ssh key
+   1095 Hello fellow committers!
+   1096 Re: Hello fellow committers!
+   >>> s.quit()
+   '205 Bye!'
+
+To post an article from a binary file (this assumes that the article has valid
+headers, and that you have right to post on the particular newsgroup)::
+
+   >>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.org')
+   >>> f = open('article.txt', 'rb')
+   >>> s.post(f)
+   '240 Article posted successfully.'
+   >>> s.quit()
+   '205 Bye!'
+
+The module itself defines the following classes:
+
+
+.. class:: NNTP(host, port=119, user=None, password=None, readermode=None, usenetrc=False, [timeout])
+
+   Return a new :class:`NNTP` object, representing a connection
+   to the NNTP server running on host *host*, listening at port *port*.
+   An optional *timeout* can be specified for the socket connection.
+   If the optional *user* and *password* are provided, or if suitable
+   credentials are present in :file:`/.netrc` and the optional flag *usenetrc*
+   is true, the ``AUTHINFO USER`` and ``AUTHINFO PASS`` commands are used
+   to identify and authenticate the user to the server.  If the optional
+   flag *readermode* is true, then a ``mode reader`` command is sent before
+   authentication is performed.  Reader mode is sometimes necessary if you are
+   connecting to an NNTP server on the local machine and intend to call
+   reader-specific commands, such as ``group``.  If you get unexpected
+   :exc:`NNTPPermanentError`\ s, you might need to set *readermode*.
+   The :class:`NNTP` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement to
+   unconditionally consume :exc:`OSError` exceptions and to close the NNTP
+   connection when done, e.g.:
+
+    >>> from nntplib import NNTP
+    >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
+    ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
+    ... # doctest: +SKIP
+    ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
+    >>>
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *usenetrc* is now ``False`` by default.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added.
+
+.. class:: NNTP_SSL(host, port=563, user=None, password=None, ssl_context=None, readermode=None, usenetrc=False, [timeout])
+
+   Return a new :class:`NNTP_SSL` object, representing an encrypted
+   connection to the NNTP server running on host *host*, listening at
+   port *port*.  :class:`NNTP_SSL` objects have the same methods as
+   :class:`NNTP` objects.  If *port* is omitted, port 563 (NNTPS) is used.
+   *ssl_context* is also optional, and is a :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` object.
+   Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for best practices.
+   All other parameters behave the same as for :class:`NNTP`.
+
+   Note that SSL-on-563 is discouraged per :rfc:`4642`, in favor of
+   STARTTLS as described below.  However, some servers only support the
+   former.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The class now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+.. exception:: NNTPError
+
+   Derived from the standard exception :exc:`Exception`, this is the base
+   class for all exceptions raised by the :mod:`nntplib` module.  Instances
+   of this class have the following attribute:
+
+   .. attribute:: response
+
+      The response of the server if available, as a :class:`str` object.
+
+
+.. exception:: NNTPReplyError
+
+   Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the server.
+
+
+.. exception:: NNTPTemporaryError
+
+   Exception raised when a response code in the range 400--499 is received.
+
+
+.. exception:: NNTPPermanentError
+
+   Exception raised when a response code in the range 500--599 is received.
+
+
+.. exception:: NNTPProtocolError
+
+   Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does not begin
+   with a digit in the range 1--5.
+
+
+.. exception:: NNTPDataError
+
+   Exception raised when there is some error in the response data.
+
+
+.. _nntp-objects:
+
+NNTP Objects
+------------
+
+When connected, :class:`NNTP` and :class:`NNTP_SSL` objects support the
+following methods and attributes.
+
+Attributes
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. attribute:: NNTP.nntp_version
+
+   An integer representing the version of the NNTP protocol supported by the
+   server.  In practice, this should be ``2`` for servers advertising
+   :rfc:`3977` compliance and ``1`` for others.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. attribute:: NNTP.nntp_implementation
+
+   A string describing the software name and version of the NNTP server,
+   or :const:`None` if not advertised by the server.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+Methods
+^^^^^^^
+
+The *response* that is returned as the first item in the return tuple of almost
+all methods is the server's response: a string beginning with a three-digit
+code.  If the server's response indicates an error, the method raises one of
+the above exceptions.
+
+Many of the following methods take an optional keyword-only argument *file*.
+When the *file* argument is supplied, it must be either a :term:`file object`
+opened for binary writing, or the name of an on-disk file to be written to.
+The method will then write any data returned by the server (except for the
+response line and the terminating dot) to the file; any list of lines,
+tuples or objects that the method normally returns will be empty.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Many of the following methods have been reworked and fixed, which makes
+   them incompatible with their 3.1 counterparts.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.quit()
+
+   Send a ``QUIT`` command and close the connection.  Once this method has been
+   called, no other methods of the NNTP object should be called.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.getwelcome()
+
+   Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the initial
+   connection.  (This message sometimes contains disclaimers or help information
+   that may be relevant to the user.)
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.getcapabilities()
+
+   Return the :rfc:`3977` capabilities advertised by the server, as a
+   :class:`dict` instance mapping capability names to (possibly empty) lists
+   of values. On legacy servers which don't understand the ``CAPABILITIES``
+   command, an empty dictionary is returned instead.
+
+      >>> s = NNTP('news.gmane.org')
+      >>> 'POST' in s.getcapabilities()
+      True
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.login(user=None, password=None, usenetrc=True)
+
+   Send ``AUTHINFO`` commands with the user name and password.  If *user*
+   and *password* are ``None`` and *usenetrc* is true, credentials from
+   ``~/.netrc`` will be used if possible.
+
+   Unless intentionally delayed, login is normally performed during the
+   :class:`NNTP` object initialization and separately calling this function
+   is unnecessary.  To force authentication to be delayed, you must not set
+   *user* or *password* when creating the object, and must set *usenetrc* to
+   False.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.starttls(context=None)
+
+   Send a ``STARTTLS`` command.  This will enable encryption on the NNTP
+   connection.  The *context* argument is optional and should be a
+   :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object.  Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for best
+   practices.
+
+   Note that this may not be done after authentication information has
+   been transmitted, and authentication occurs by default if possible during a
+   :class:`NNTP` object initialization.  See :meth:`NNTP.login` for information
+   on suppressing this behavior.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The method now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+.. method:: NNTP.newgroups(date, *, file=None)
+
+   Send a ``NEWGROUPS`` command.  The *date* argument should be a
+   :class:`datetime.date` or :class:`datetime.datetime` object.
+   Return a pair ``(response, groups)`` where *groups* is a list representing
+   the groups that are new since the given *date*. If *file* is supplied,
+   though, then *groups* will be empty.
+
+      >>> from datetime import date, timedelta
+      >>> resp, groups = s.newgroups(date.today() - timedelta(days=3))
+      >>> len(groups) # doctest: +SKIP
+      85
+      >>> groups[0] # doctest: +SKIP
+      GroupInfo(group='gmane.network.tor.devel', last='4', first='1', flag='m')
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.newnews(group, date, *, file=None)
+
+   Send a ``NEWNEWS`` command.  Here, *group* is a group name or ``'*'``, and
+   *date* has the same meaning as for :meth:`newgroups`.  Return a pair
+   ``(response, articles)`` where *articles* is a list of message ids.
+
+   This command is frequently disabled by NNTP server administrators.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.list(group_pattern=None, *, file=None)
+
+   Send a ``LIST`` or ``LIST ACTIVE`` command.  Return a pair
+   ``(response, list)`` where *list* is a list of tuples representing all
+   the groups available from this NNTP server, optionally matching the
+   pattern string *group_pattern*.  Each tuple has the form
+   ``(group, last, first, flag)``, where *group* is a group name, *last*
+   and *first* are the last and first article numbers, and *flag* usually
+   takes one of these values:
+
+   * ``y``: Local postings and articles from peers are allowed.
+   * ``m``: The group is moderated and all postings must be approved.
+   * ``n``: No local postings are allowed, only articles from peers.
+   * ``j``: Articles from peers are filed in the junk group instead.
+   * ``x``: No local postings, and articles from peers are ignored.
+   * ``=foo.bar``: Articles are filed in the ``foo.bar`` group instead.
+
+   If *flag* has another value, then the status of the newsgroup should be
+   considered unknown.
+
+   This command can return very large results, especially if *group_pattern*
+   is not specified.  It is best to cache the results offline unless you
+   really need to refresh them.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *group_pattern* was added.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.descriptions(grouppattern)
+
+   Send a ``LIST NEWSGROUPS`` command, where *grouppattern* is a wildmat string as
+   specified in :rfc:`3977` (it's essentially the same as DOS or UNIX shell wildcard
+   strings).  Return a pair ``(response, descriptions)``, where *descriptions*
+   is a dictionary mapping group names to textual descriptions.
+
+      >>> resp, descs = s.descriptions('gmane.comp.python.*')
+      >>> len(descs) # doctest: +SKIP
+      295
+      >>> descs.popitem() # doctest: +SKIP
+      ('gmane.comp.python.bio.general', 'BioPython discussion list (Moderated)')
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.description(group)
+
+   Get a description for a single group *group*.  If more than one group matches
+   (if 'group' is a real wildmat string), return the first match.   If no group
+   matches, return an empty string.
+
+   This elides the response code from the server.  If the response code is needed,
+   use :meth:`descriptions`.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.group(name)
+
+   Send a ``GROUP`` command, where *name* is the group name.  The group is
+   selected as the current group, if it exists.  Return a tuple
+   ``(response, count, first, last, name)`` where *count* is the (estimated)
+   number of articles in the group, *first* is the first article number in
+   the group, *last* is the last article number in the group, and *name*
+   is the group name.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.over(message_spec, *, file=None)
+
+   Send an ``OVER`` command, or an ``XOVER`` command on legacy servers.
+   *message_spec* can be either a string representing a message id, or
+   a ``(first, last)`` tuple of numbers indicating a range of articles in
+   the current group, or a ``(first, None)`` tuple indicating a range of
+   articles starting from *first* to the last article in the current group,
+   or :const:`None` to select the current article in the current group.
+
+   Return a pair ``(response, overviews)``.  *overviews* is a list of
+   ``(article_number, overview)`` tuples, one for each article selected
+   by *message_spec*.  Each *overview* is a dictionary with the same number
+   of items, but this number depends on the server.  These items are either
+   message headers (the key is then the lower-cased header name) or metadata
+   items (the key is then the metadata name prepended with ``":"``).  The
+   following items are guaranteed to be present by the NNTP specification:
+
+   * the ``subject``, ``from``, ``date``, ``message-id`` and ``references``
+     headers
+   * the ``:bytes`` metadata: the number of bytes in the entire raw article
+     (including headers and body)
+   * the ``:lines`` metadata: the number of lines in the article body
+
+   The value of each item is either a string, or :const:`None` if not present.
+
+   It is advisable to use the :func:`decode_header` function on header
+   values when they may contain non-ASCII characters::
+
+      >>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
+      >>> resp, overviews = s.over((last, last))
+      >>> art_num, over = overviews[0]
+      >>> art_num
+      117216
+      >>> list(over.keys())
+      ['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']
+      >>> over['from']
+      '=?UTF-8?B?Ik1hcnRpbiB2LiBMw7Z3aXMi?= <martin@v.loewis.de>'
+      >>> nntplib.decode_header(over['from'])
+      '"Martin v. Löwis" <martin@v.loewis.de>'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.help(*, file=None)
+
+   Send a ``HELP`` command.  Return a pair ``(response, list)`` where *list* is a
+   list of help strings.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.stat(message_spec=None)
+
+   Send a ``STAT`` command, where *message_spec* is either a message id
+   (enclosed in ``'<'`` and ``'>'``) or an article number in the current group.
+   If *message_spec* is omitted or :const:`None`, the current article in the
+   current group is considered.  Return a triple ``(response, number, id)``
+   where *number* is the article number and *id* is the message id.
+
+      >>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
+      >>> resp, number, message_id = s.stat(first)
+      >>> number, message_id
+      (9099, '<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.next()
+
+   Send a ``NEXT`` command.  Return as for :meth:`.stat`.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.last()
+
+   Send a ``LAST`` command.  Return as for :meth:`.stat`.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.article(message_spec=None, *, file=None)
+
+   Send an ``ARTICLE`` command, where *message_spec* has the same meaning as
+   for :meth:`.stat`.  Return a tuple ``(response, info)`` where *info*
+   is a :class:`~collections.namedtuple` with three attributes *number*,
+   *message_id* and *lines* (in that order).  *number* is the article number
+   in the group (or 0 if the information is not available), *message_id* the
+   message id as a string, and *lines* a list of lines (without terminating
+   newlines) comprising the raw message including headers and body.
+
+      >>> resp, info = s.article('<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')
+      >>> info.number
+      0
+      >>> info.message_id
+      '<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>'
+      >>> len(info.lines)
+      65
+      >>> info.lines[0]
+      b'Path: main.gmane.org!not-for-mail'
+      >>> info.lines[1]
+      b'From: Neal Norwitz <neal@metaslash.com>'
+      >>> info.lines[-3:]
+      [b'There is a patch for 2.3 as well as 2.2.', b'', b'Neal']
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.head(message_spec=None, *, file=None)
+
+   Same as :meth:`article()`, but sends a ``HEAD`` command.  The *lines*
+   returned (or written to *file*) will only contain the message headers, not
+   the body.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.body(message_spec=None, *, file=None)
+
+   Same as :meth:`article()`, but sends a ``BODY`` command.  The *lines*
+   returned (or written to *file*) will only contain the message body, not the
+   headers.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.post(data)
+
+   Post an article using the ``POST`` command.  The *data* argument is either
+   a :term:`file object` opened for binary reading, or any iterable of bytes
+   objects (representing raw lines of the article to be posted).  It should
+   represent a well-formed news article, including the required headers.  The
+   :meth:`post` method automatically escapes lines beginning with ``.`` and
+   appends the termination line.
+
+   If the method succeeds, the server's response is returned.  If the server
+   refuses posting, a :class:`NNTPReplyError` is raised.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.ihave(message_id, data)
+
+   Send an ``IHAVE`` command. *message_id* is the id of the message to send
+   to the server (enclosed in  ``'<'`` and ``'>'``).  The *data* parameter
+   and the return value are the same as for :meth:`post()`.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.date()
+
+   Return a pair ``(response, date)``.  *date* is a :class:`~datetime.datetime`
+   object containing the current date and time of the server.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.slave()
+
+   Send a ``SLAVE`` command.  Return the server's *response*.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.set_debuglevel(level)
+
+   Set the instance's debugging level.  This controls the amount of debugging
+   output printed.  The default, ``0``, produces no debugging output.  A value of
+   ``1`` produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line
+   per request or response.  A value of ``2`` or higher produces the maximum amount
+   of debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the connection
+   (including message text).
+
+
+The following are optional NNTP extensions defined in :rfc:`2980`.  Some of
+them have been superseded by newer commands in :rfc:`3977`.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.xhdr(hdr, str, *, file=None)
+
+   Send an ``XHDR`` command.  The *hdr* argument is a header keyword, e.g.
+   ``'subject'``.  The *str* argument should have the form ``'first-last'``
+   where *first* and *last* are the first and last article numbers to search.
+   Return a pair ``(response, list)``, where *list* is a list of pairs ``(id,
+   text)``, where *id* is an article number (as a string) and *text* is the text of
+   the requested header for that article. If the *file* parameter is supplied, then
+   the output of the  ``XHDR`` command is stored in a file.  If *file* is a string,
+   then the method will open a file with that name, write to it  then close it.
+   If *file* is a :term:`file object`, then it will start calling :meth:`write` on
+   it to store the lines of the command output. If *file* is supplied, then the
+   returned *list* is an empty list.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.xover(start, end, *, file=None)
+
+   Send an ``XOVER`` command.  *start* and *end* are article numbers
+   delimiting the range of articles to select.  The return value is the
+   same of for :meth:`over()`.  It is recommended to use :meth:`over()`
+   instead, since it will automatically use the newer ``OVER`` command
+   if available.
+
+
+.. method:: NNTP.xpath(id)
+
+   Return a pair ``(resp, path)``, where *path* is the directory path to the
+   article with message ID *id*.  Most of the time, this extension is not
+   enabled by NNTP server administrators.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      The XPATH extension is not actively used.
+
+
+.. XXX deprecated:
+
+   .. method:: NNTP.xgtitle(name, *, file=None)
+
+      Process an ``XGTITLE`` command, returning a pair ``(response, list)``, where
+      *list* is a list of tuples containing ``(name, title)``. If the *file* parameter
+      is supplied, then the output of the  ``XGTITLE`` command is stored in a file.
+      If *file* is a string,  then the method will open a file with that name, write
+      to it  then close it.  If *file* is a :term:`file object`, then it will start
+      calling :meth:`write` on it to store the lines of the command output. If *file*
+      is supplied, then the returned *list* is an empty list. This is an optional NNTP
+      extension, and may not be supported by all servers.
+
+      :rfc:`2980` says "It is suggested that this extension be deprecated".  Use
+      :meth:`descriptions` or :meth:`description` instead.
+
+
+Utility functions
+-----------------
+
+The module also defines the following utility function:
+
+
+.. function:: decode_header(header_str)
+
+   Decode a header value, un-escaping any escaped non-ASCII characters.
+   *header_str* must be a :class:`str` object.  The unescaped value is
+   returned.  Using this function is recommended to display some headers
+   in a human readable form::
+
+      >>> decode_header("Some subject")
+      'Some subject'
+      >>> decode_header("=?ISO-8859-15?Q?D=E9buter_en_Python?=")
+      'Débuter en Python'
+      >>> decode_header("Re: =?UTF-8?B?cHJvYmzDqG1lIGRlIG1hdHJpY2U=?=")
+      'Re: problème de matrice'
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/numbers.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/numbers.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b59495
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/numbers.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+:mod:`numbers` --- Numeric abstract base classes
+================================================
+
+.. module:: numbers
+   :synopsis: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.).
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/numbers.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`numbers` module (:pep:`3141`) defines a hierarchy of numeric
+:term:`abstract base classes <abstract base class>` which progressively define
+more operations.  None of the types defined in this module can be instantiated.
+
+
+.. class:: Number
+
+   The root of the numeric hierarchy. If you just want to check if an argument
+   *x* is a number, without caring what kind, use ``isinstance(x, Number)``.
+
+
+The numeric tower
+-----------------
+
+.. class:: Complex
+
+   Subclasses of this type describe complex numbers and include the operations
+   that work on the built-in :class:`complex` type. These are: conversions to
+   :class:`complex` and :class:`bool`, :attr:`.real`, :attr:`.imag`, ``+``,
+   ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, :func:`abs`, :meth:`conjugate`, ``==``, and ``!=``. All
+   except ``-`` and ``!=`` are abstract.
+
+   .. attribute:: real
+
+      Abstract. Retrieves the real component of this number.
+
+   .. attribute:: imag
+
+      Abstract. Retrieves the imaginary component of this number.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: conjugate()
+
+      Abstract. Returns the complex conjugate. For example, ``(1+3j).conjugate()
+      == (1-3j)``.
+
+.. class:: Real
+
+   To :class:`Complex`, :class:`Real` adds the operations that work on real
+   numbers.
+
+   In short, those are: a conversion to :class:`float`, :func:`math.trunc`,
+   :func:`round`, :func:`math.floor`, :func:`math.ceil`, :func:`divmod`, ``//``,
+   ``%``, ``<``, ``<=``, ``>``, and ``>=``.
+
+   Real also provides defaults for :func:`complex`, :attr:`~Complex.real`,
+   :attr:`~Complex.imag`, and :meth:`~Complex.conjugate`.
+
+
+.. class:: Rational
+
+   Subtypes :class:`Real` and adds
+   :attr:`~Rational.numerator` and :attr:`~Rational.denominator` properties, which
+   should be in lowest terms. With these, it provides a default for
+   :func:`float`.
+
+   .. attribute:: numerator
+
+      Abstract.
+
+   .. attribute:: denominator
+
+      Abstract.
+
+
+.. class:: Integral
+
+   Subtypes :class:`Rational` and adds a conversion to :class:`int`.  Provides
+   defaults for :func:`float`, :attr:`~Rational.numerator`, and
+   :attr:`~Rational.denominator`.  Adds abstract methods for ``**`` and
+   bit-string operations: ``<<``, ``>>``, ``&``, ``^``, ``|``, ``~``.
+
+
+Notes for type implementors
+---------------------------
+
+Implementors should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash
+them to the same values. This may be subtle if there are two different
+extensions of the real numbers. For example, :class:`fractions.Fraction`
+implements :func:`hash` as follows::
+
+    def __hash__(self):
+        if self.denominator == 1:
+            # Get integers right.
+            return hash(self.numerator)
+        # Expensive check, but definitely correct.
+        if self == float(self):
+            return hash(float(self))
+        else:
+            # Use tuple's hash to avoid a high collision rate on
+            # simple fractions.
+            return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))
+
+
+Adding More Numeric ABCs
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There are, of course, more possible ABCs for numbers, and this would
+be a poor hierarchy if it precluded the possibility of adding
+those. You can add ``MyFoo`` between :class:`Complex` and
+:class:`Real` with::
+
+    class MyFoo(Complex): ...
+    MyFoo.register(Real)
+
+
+.. _implementing-the-arithmetic-operations:
+
+Implementing the arithmetic operations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+We want to implement the arithmetic operations so that mixed-mode
+operations either call an implementation whose author knew about the
+types of both arguments, or convert both to the nearest built in type
+and do the operation there. For subtypes of :class:`Integral`, this
+means that :meth:`__add__` and :meth:`__radd__` should be defined as::
+
+    class MyIntegral(Integral):
+
+        def __add__(self, other):
+            if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
+                return do_my_adding_stuff(self, other)
+            elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
+                return do_my_other_adding_stuff(self, other)
+            else:
+                return NotImplemented
+
+        def __radd__(self, other):
+            if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
+                return do_my_adding_stuff(other, self)
+            elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
+                return do_my_other_adding_stuff(other, self)
+            elif isinstance(other, Integral):
+                return int(other) + int(self)
+            elif isinstance(other, Real):
+                return float(other) + float(self)
+            elif isinstance(other, Complex):
+                return complex(other) + complex(self)
+            else:
+                return NotImplemented
+
+
+There are 5 different cases for a mixed-type operation on subclasses
+of :class:`Complex`. I'll refer to all of the above code that doesn't
+refer to ``MyIntegral`` and ``OtherTypeIKnowAbout`` as
+"boilerplate". ``a`` will be an instance of ``A``, which is a subtype
+of :class:`Complex` (``a : A <: Complex``), and ``b : B <:
+Complex``. I'll consider ``a + b``:
+
+    1. If ``A`` defines an :meth:`__add__` which accepts ``b``, all is
+       well.
+    2. If ``A`` falls back to the boilerplate code, and it were to
+       return a value from :meth:`__add__`, we'd miss the possibility
+       that ``B`` defines a more intelligent :meth:`__radd__`, so the
+       boilerplate should return :const:`NotImplemented` from
+       :meth:`__add__`. (Or ``A`` may not implement :meth:`__add__` at
+       all.)
+    3. Then ``B``'s :meth:`__radd__` gets a chance. If it accepts
+       ``a``, all is well.
+    4. If it falls back to the boilerplate, there are no more possible
+       methods to try, so this is where the default implementation
+       should live.
+    5. If ``B <: A``, Python tries ``B.__radd__`` before
+       ``A.__add__``. This is ok, because it was implemented with
+       knowledge of ``A``, so it can handle those instances before
+       delegating to :class:`Complex`.
+
+If ``A <: Complex`` and ``B <: Real`` without sharing any other knowledge,
+then the appropriate shared operation is the one involving the built
+in :class:`complex`, and both :meth:`__radd__` s land there, so ``a+b
+== b+a``.
+
+Because most of the operations on any given type will be very similar,
+it can be useful to define a helper function which generates the
+forward and reverse instances of any given operator. For example,
+:class:`fractions.Fraction` uses::
+
+    def _operator_fallbacks(monomorphic_operator, fallback_operator):
+        def forward(a, b):
+            if isinstance(b, (int, Fraction)):
+                return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
+            elif isinstance(b, float):
+                return fallback_operator(float(a), b)
+            elif isinstance(b, complex):
+                return fallback_operator(complex(a), b)
+            else:
+                return NotImplemented
+        forward.__name__ = '__' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
+        forward.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__
+
+        def reverse(b, a):
+            if isinstance(a, Rational):
+                # Includes ints.
+                return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
+            elif isinstance(a, numbers.Real):
+                return fallback_operator(float(a), float(b))
+            elif isinstance(a, numbers.Complex):
+                return fallback_operator(complex(a), complex(b))
+            else:
+                return NotImplemented
+        reverse.__name__ = '__r' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
+        reverse.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__
+
+        return forward, reverse
+
+    def _add(a, b):
+        """a + b"""
+        return Fraction(a.numerator * b.denominator +
+                        b.numerator * a.denominator,
+                        a.denominator * b.denominator)
+
+    __add__, __radd__ = _operator_fallbacks(_add, operator.add)
+
+    # ...
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/numeric.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/numeric.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c76a47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/numeric.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+
+.. _numeric:
+
+********************************
+Numeric and Mathematical Modules
+********************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functions
+and data types. The :mod:`numbers` module defines an abstract hierarchy of
+numeric types. The :mod:`math` and :mod:`cmath` modules contain various
+mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. The :mod:`decimal`
+module supports exact representations of decimal numbers, using arbitrary precision
+arithmetic.
+
+The following modules are documented in this chapter:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   numbers.rst
+   math.rst
+   cmath.rst
+   decimal.rst
+   fractions.rst
+   random.rst
+   statistics.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/operator.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/operator.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11152f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/operator.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,557 @@
+:mod:`operator` --- Standard operators as functions
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: operator
+   :synopsis: Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@automatrix.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/operator.py`
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   import operator
+   from operator import itemgetter, iadd
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`operator` module exports a set of efficient functions corresponding to
+the intrinsic operators of Python.  For example, ``operator.add(x, y)`` is
+equivalent to the expression ``x+y``. Many function names are those used for
+special methods, without the double underscores.  For backward compatibility,
+many of these have a variant with the double underscores kept. The variants
+without the double underscores are preferred for clarity.
+
+The functions fall into categories that perform object comparisons, logical
+operations, mathematical operations and sequence operations.
+
+The object comparison functions are useful for all objects, and are named after
+the rich comparison operators they support:
+
+
+.. function:: lt(a, b)
+              le(a, b)
+              eq(a, b)
+              ne(a, b)
+              ge(a, b)
+              gt(a, b)
+              __lt__(a, b)
+              __le__(a, b)
+              __eq__(a, b)
+              __ne__(a, b)
+              __ge__(a, b)
+              __gt__(a, b)
+
+   Perform "rich comparisons" between *a* and *b*. Specifically, ``lt(a, b)`` is
+   equivalent to ``a < b``, ``le(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a <= b``, ``eq(a,
+   b)`` is equivalent to ``a == b``, ``ne(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a != b``,
+   ``gt(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a > b`` and ``ge(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a
+   >= b``.  Note that these functions can return any value, which may
+   or may not be interpretable as a Boolean value.  See
+   :ref:`comparisons` for more information about rich comparisons.
+
+
+The logical operations are also generally applicable to all objects, and support
+truth tests, identity tests, and boolean operations:
+
+
+.. function:: not_(obj)
+              __not__(obj)
+
+   Return the outcome of :keyword:`not` *obj*.  (Note that there is no
+   :meth:`__not__` method for object instances; only the interpreter core defines
+   this operation.  The result is affected by the :meth:`__bool__` and
+   :meth:`__len__` methods.)
+
+
+.. function:: truth(obj)
+
+   Return :const:`True` if *obj* is true, and :const:`False` otherwise.  This is
+   equivalent to using the :class:`bool` constructor.
+
+
+.. function:: is_(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a is b``.  Tests object identity.
+
+
+.. function:: is_not(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a is not b``.  Tests object identity.
+
+
+The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:
+
+
+.. function:: abs(obj)
+              __abs__(obj)
+
+   Return the absolute value of *obj*.
+
+
+.. function:: add(a, b)
+              __add__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a + b``, for *a* and *b* numbers.
+
+
+.. function:: and_(a, b)
+              __and__(a, b)
+
+   Return the bitwise and of *a* and *b*.
+
+
+.. function:: floordiv(a, b)
+              __floordiv__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a // b``.
+
+
+.. function:: index(a)
+              __index__(a)
+
+   Return *a* converted to an integer.  Equivalent to ``a.__index__()``.
+
+
+.. function:: inv(obj)
+              invert(obj)
+              __inv__(obj)
+              __invert__(obj)
+
+   Return the bitwise inverse of the number *obj*.  This is equivalent to ``~obj``.
+
+
+.. function:: lshift(a, b)
+              __lshift__(a, b)
+
+   Return *a* shifted left by *b*.
+
+
+.. function:: mod(a, b)
+              __mod__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a % b``.
+
+
+.. function:: mul(a, b)
+              __mul__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a * b``, for *a* and *b* numbers.
+
+
+.. function:: matmul(a, b)
+              __matmul__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a @ b``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: neg(obj)
+              __neg__(obj)
+
+   Return *obj* negated (``-obj``).
+
+
+.. function:: or_(a, b)
+              __or__(a, b)
+
+   Return the bitwise or of *a* and *b*.
+
+
+.. function:: pos(obj)
+              __pos__(obj)
+
+   Return *obj* positive (``+obj``).
+
+
+.. function:: pow(a, b)
+              __pow__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a ** b``, for *a* and *b* numbers.
+
+
+.. function:: rshift(a, b)
+              __rshift__(a, b)
+
+   Return *a* shifted right by *b*.
+
+
+.. function:: sub(a, b)
+              __sub__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a - b``.
+
+
+.. function:: truediv(a, b)
+              __truediv__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a / b`` where 2/3 is .66 rather than 0.  This is also known as
+   "true" division.
+
+
+.. function:: xor(a, b)
+              __xor__(a, b)
+
+   Return the bitwise exclusive or of *a* and *b*.
+
+
+Operations which work with sequences (some of them with mappings too) include:
+
+.. function:: concat(a, b)
+              __concat__(a, b)
+
+   Return ``a + b`` for *a* and *b* sequences.
+
+
+.. function:: contains(a, b)
+              __contains__(a, b)
+
+   Return the outcome of the test ``b in a``. Note the reversed operands.
+
+
+.. function:: countOf(a, b)
+
+   Return the number of occurrences of *b* in *a*.
+
+
+.. function:: delitem(a, b)
+              __delitem__(a, b)
+
+   Remove the value of *a* at index *b*.
+
+
+.. function:: getitem(a, b)
+              __getitem__(a, b)
+
+   Return the value of *a* at index *b*.
+
+
+.. function:: indexOf(a, b)
+
+   Return the index of the first of occurrence of *b* in *a*.
+
+
+.. function:: setitem(a, b, c)
+              __setitem__(a, b, c)
+
+   Set the value of *a* at index *b* to *c*.
+
+
+.. function:: length_hint(obj, default=0)
+
+   Return an estimated length for the object *o*. First try to return its
+   actual length, then an estimate using :meth:`object.__length_hint__`, and
+   finally return the default value.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+The :mod:`operator` module also defines tools for generalized attribute and item
+lookups.  These are useful for making fast field extractors as arguments for
+:func:`map`, :func:`sorted`, :meth:`itertools.groupby`, or other functions that
+expect a function argument.
+
+
+.. function:: attrgetter(attr)
+              attrgetter(*attrs)
+
+   Return a callable object that fetches *attr* from its operand.
+   If more than one attribute is requested, returns a tuple of attributes.
+   The attribute names can also contain dots. For example:
+
+   * After ``f = attrgetter('name')``, the call ``f(b)`` returns ``b.name``.
+
+   * After ``f = attrgetter('name', 'date')``, the call ``f(b)`` returns
+     ``(b.name, b.date)``.
+
+   * After ``f = attrgetter('name.first', 'name.last')``, the call ``f(b)``
+     returns ``(b.name.first, b.name.last)``.
+
+   Equivalent to::
+
+      def attrgetter(*items):
+          if any(not isinstance(item, str) for item in items):
+              raise TypeError('attribute name must be a string')
+          if len(items) == 1:
+              attr = items[0]
+              def g(obj):
+                  return resolve_attr(obj, attr)
+          else:
+              def g(obj):
+                  return tuple(resolve_attr(obj, attr) for attr in items)
+          return g
+
+      def resolve_attr(obj, attr):
+          for name in attr.split("."):
+              obj = getattr(obj, name)
+          return obj
+
+
+.. function:: itemgetter(item)
+              itemgetter(*items)
+
+   Return a callable object that fetches *item* from its operand using the
+   operand's :meth:`__getitem__` method.  If multiple items are specified,
+   returns a tuple of lookup values.  For example:
+
+   * After ``f = itemgetter(2)``, the call ``f(r)`` returns ``r[2]``.
+
+   * After ``g = itemgetter(2, 5, 3)``, the call ``g(r)`` returns
+     ``(r[2], r[5], r[3])``.
+
+   Equivalent to::
+
+      def itemgetter(*items):
+          if len(items) == 1:
+              item = items[0]
+              def g(obj):
+                  return obj[item]
+          else:
+              def g(obj):
+                  return tuple(obj[item] for item in items)
+          return g
+
+   The items can be any type accepted by the operand's :meth:`__getitem__`
+   method.  Dictionaries accept any hashable value.  Lists, tuples, and
+   strings accept an index or a slice:
+
+      >>> itemgetter(1)('ABCDEFG')
+      'B'
+      >>> itemgetter(1,3,5)('ABCDEFG')
+      ('B', 'D', 'F')
+      >>> itemgetter(slice(2,None))('ABCDEFG')
+      'CDEFG'
+
+      >>> soldier = dict(rank='captain', name='dotterbart')
+      >>> itemgetter('rank')(soldier)
+      'captain'
+
+   Example of using :func:`itemgetter` to retrieve specific fields from a
+   tuple record:
+
+      >>> inventory = [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2), ('pear', 5), ('orange', 1)]
+      >>> getcount = itemgetter(1)
+      >>> list(map(getcount, inventory))
+      [3, 2, 5, 1]
+      >>> sorted(inventory, key=getcount)
+      [('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]
+
+
+.. function:: methodcaller(name[, args...])
+
+   Return a callable object that calls the method *name* on its operand.  If
+   additional arguments and/or keyword arguments are given, they will be given
+   to the method as well.  For example:
+
+   * After ``f = methodcaller('name')``, the call ``f(b)`` returns ``b.name()``.
+
+   * After ``f = methodcaller('name', 'foo', bar=1)``, the call ``f(b)``
+     returns ``b.name('foo', bar=1)``.
+
+   Equivalent to::
+
+      def methodcaller(name, *args, **kwargs):
+          def caller(obj):
+              return getattr(obj, name)(*args, **kwargs)
+          return caller
+
+
+.. _operator-map:
+
+Mapping Operators to Functions
+------------------------------
+
+This table shows how abstract operations correspond to operator symbols in the
+Python syntax and the functions in the :mod:`operator` module.
+
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Operation             | Syntax                  | Function                              |
++=======================+=========================+=======================================+
+| Addition              | ``a + b``               | ``add(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Concatenation         | ``seq1 + seq2``         | ``concat(seq1, seq2)``                |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Containment Test      | ``obj in seq``          | ``contains(seq, obj)``                |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Division              | ``a / b``               | ``truediv(a, b)``                     |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Division              | ``a // b``              | ``floordiv(a, b)``                    |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Bitwise And           | ``a & b``               | ``and_(a, b)``                        |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Bitwise Exclusive Or  | ``a ^ b``               | ``xor(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Bitwise Inversion     | ``~ a``                 | ``invert(a)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Bitwise Or            | ``a | b``               | ``or_(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Exponentiation        | ``a ** b``              | ``pow(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Identity              | ``a is b``              | ``is_(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Identity              | ``a is not b``          | ``is_not(a, b)``                      |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Indexed Assignment    | ``obj[k] = v``          | ``setitem(obj, k, v)``                |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Indexed Deletion      | ``del obj[k]``          | ``delitem(obj, k)``                   |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Indexing              | ``obj[k]``              | ``getitem(obj, k)``                   |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Left Shift            | ``a << b``              | ``lshift(a, b)``                      |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Modulo                | ``a % b``               | ``mod(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Multiplication        | ``a * b``               | ``mul(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Matrix Multiplication | ``a @ b``               | ``matmul(a, b)``                      |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Negation (Arithmetic) | ``- a``                 | ``neg(a)``                            |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Negation (Logical)    | ``not a``               | ``not_(a)``                           |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Positive              | ``+ a``                 | ``pos(a)``                            |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Right Shift           | ``a >> b``              | ``rshift(a, b)``                      |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Slice Assignment      | ``seq[i:j] = values``   | ``setitem(seq, slice(i, j), values)`` |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Slice Deletion        | ``del seq[i:j]``        | ``delitem(seq, slice(i, j))``         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Slicing               | ``seq[i:j]``            | ``getitem(seq, slice(i, j))``         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| String Formatting     | ``s % obj``             | ``mod(s, obj)``                       |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Subtraction           | ``a - b``               | ``sub(a, b)``                         |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Truth Test            | ``obj``                 | ``truth(obj)``                        |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Ordering              | ``a < b``               | ``lt(a, b)``                          |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Ordering              | ``a <= b``              | ``le(a, b)``                          |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Equality              | ``a == b``              | ``eq(a, b)``                          |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Difference            | ``a != b``              | ``ne(a, b)``                          |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Ordering              | ``a >= b``              | ``ge(a, b)``                          |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+| Ordering              | ``a > b``               | ``gt(a, b)``                          |
++-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
+
+In-place Operators
+------------------
+
+Many operations have an "in-place" version.  Listed below are functions
+providing a more primitive access to in-place operators than the usual syntax
+does; for example, the :term:`statement` ``x += y`` is equivalent to
+``x = operator.iadd(x, y)``.  Another way to put it is to say that
+``z = operator.iadd(x, y)`` is equivalent to the compound statement
+``z = x; z += y``.
+
+In those examples, note that when an in-place method is called, the computation
+and assignment are performed in two separate steps.  The in-place functions
+listed below only do the first step, calling the in-place method.  The second
+step, assignment, is not handled.
+
+For immutable targets such as strings, numbers, and tuples, the updated
+value is computed, but not assigned back to the input variable:
+
+>>> a = 'hello'
+>>> iadd(a, ' world')
+'hello world'
+>>> a
+'hello'
+
+For mutable targets such as lists and dictionaries, the in-place method
+will perform the update, so no subsequent assignment is necessary:
+
+>>> s = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
+>>> iadd(s, [' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'])
+['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
+>>> s
+['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
+
+.. function:: iadd(a, b)
+              __iadd__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = iadd(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a += b``.
+
+
+.. function:: iand(a, b)
+              __iand__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = iand(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a &= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: iconcat(a, b)
+              __iconcat__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = iconcat(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a += b`` for *a* and *b* sequences.
+
+
+.. function:: ifloordiv(a, b)
+              __ifloordiv__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = ifloordiv(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a //= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: ilshift(a, b)
+              __ilshift__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = ilshift(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a <<= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: imod(a, b)
+              __imod__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = imod(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a %= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: imul(a, b)
+              __imul__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = imul(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a *= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: imatmul(a, b)
+              __imatmul__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = imatmul(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a @= b``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: ior(a, b)
+              __ior__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = ior(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a |= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: ipow(a, b)
+              __ipow__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = ipow(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a **= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: irshift(a, b)
+              __irshift__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = irshift(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a >>= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: isub(a, b)
+              __isub__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = isub(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a -= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: itruediv(a, b)
+              __itruediv__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = itruediv(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a /= b``.
+
+
+.. function:: ixor(a, b)
+              __ixor__(a, b)
+
+   ``a = ixor(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``a ^= b``.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/optparse.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/optparse.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3afc77b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/optparse.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2037 @@
+:mod:`optparse` --- Parser for command line options
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: optparse
+   :synopsis: Command-line option parsing library.
+   :deprecated:
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/optparse.py`
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.2
+   The :mod:`optparse` module is deprecated and will not be developed further;
+   development will continue with the :mod:`argparse` module.
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`optparse` is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library for parsing
+command-line options than the old :mod:`getopt` module.  :mod:`optparse` uses a
+more declarative style of command-line parsing: you create an instance of
+:class:`OptionParser`, populate it with options, and parse the command
+line. :mod:`optparse` allows users to specify options in the conventional
+GNU/POSIX syntax, and additionally generates usage and help messages for you.
+
+Here's an example of using :mod:`optparse` in a simple script::
+
+   from optparse import OptionParser
+   ...
+   parser = OptionParser()
+   parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
+                     help="write report to FILE", metavar="FILE")
+   parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
+                     action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True,
+                     help="don't print status messages to stdout")
+
+   (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
+
+With these few lines of code, users of your script can now do the "usual thing"
+on the command-line, for example::
+
+   <yourscript> --file=outfile -q
+
+As it parses the command line, :mod:`optparse` sets attributes of the
+``options`` object returned by :meth:`parse_args` based on user-supplied
+command-line values.  When :meth:`parse_args` returns from parsing this command
+line, ``options.filename`` will be ``"outfile"`` and ``options.verbose`` will be
+``False``.  :mod:`optparse` supports both long and short options, allows short
+options to be merged together, and allows options to be associated with their
+arguments in a variety of ways.  Thus, the following command lines are all
+equivalent to the above example::
+
+   <yourscript> -f outfile --quiet
+   <yourscript> --quiet --file outfile
+   <yourscript> -q -foutfile
+   <yourscript> -qfoutfile
+
+Additionally, users can run one of  ::
+
+   <yourscript> -h
+   <yourscript> --help
+
+and :mod:`optparse` will print out a brief summary of your script's options:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+   Usage: <yourscript> [options]
+
+   Options:
+     -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+     -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
+     -q, --quiet           don't print status messages to stdout
+
+where the value of *yourscript* is determined at runtime (normally from
+``sys.argv[0]``).
+
+
+.. _optparse-background:
+
+Background
+----------
+
+:mod:`optparse` was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of programs
+with straightforward, conventional command-line interfaces.  To that end, it
+supports only the most common command-line syntax and semantics conventionally
+used under Unix.  If you are unfamiliar with these conventions, read this
+section to acquaint yourself with them.
+
+
+.. _optparse-terminology:
+
+Terminology
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+argument
+   a string entered on the command-line, and passed by the shell to ``execl()``
+   or ``execv()``.  In Python, arguments are elements of ``sys.argv[1:]``
+   (``sys.argv[0]`` is the name of the program being executed).  Unix shells
+   also use the term "word".
+
+   It is occasionally desirable to substitute an argument list other than
+   ``sys.argv[1:]``, so you should read "argument" as "an element of
+   ``sys.argv[1:]``, or of some other list provided as a substitute for
+   ``sys.argv[1:]``".
+
+option
+   an argument used to supply extra information to guide or customize the
+   execution of a program.  There are many different syntaxes for options; the
+   traditional Unix syntax is a hyphen ("-") followed by a single letter,
+   e.g. ``-x`` or ``-F``.  Also, traditional Unix syntax allows multiple
+   options to be merged into a single argument, e.g. ``-x -F`` is equivalent
+   to ``-xF``.  The GNU project introduced ``--`` followed by a series of
+   hyphen-separated words, e.g. ``--file`` or ``--dry-run``.  These are the
+   only two option syntaxes provided by :mod:`optparse`.
+
+   Some other option syntaxes that the world has seen include:
+
+   * a hyphen followed by a few letters, e.g. ``-pf`` (this is *not* the same
+     as multiple options merged into a single argument)
+
+   * a hyphen followed by a whole word, e.g. ``-file`` (this is technically
+     equivalent to the previous syntax, but they aren't usually seen in the same
+     program)
+
+   * a plus sign followed by a single letter, or a few letters, or a word, e.g.
+     ``+f``, ``+rgb``
+
+   * a slash followed by a letter, or a few letters, or a word, e.g. ``/f``,
+     ``/file``
+
+   These option syntaxes are not supported by :mod:`optparse`, and they never
+   will be.  This is deliberate: the first three are non-standard on any
+   environment, and the last only makes sense if you're exclusively targeting
+   VMS, MS-DOS, and/or Windows.
+
+option argument
+   an argument that follows an option, is closely associated with that option,
+   and is consumed from the argument list when that option is. With
+   :mod:`optparse`, option arguments may either be in a separate argument from
+   their option:
+
+   .. code-block:: text
+
+      -f foo
+      --file foo
+
+   or included in the same argument:
+
+   .. code-block:: text
+
+      -ffoo
+      --file=foo
+
+   Typically, a given option either takes an argument or it doesn't. Lots of
+   people want an "optional option arguments" feature, meaning that some options
+   will take an argument if they see it, and won't if they don't.  This is
+   somewhat controversial, because it makes parsing ambiguous: if ``-a`` takes
+   an optional argument and ``-b`` is another option entirely, how do we
+   interpret ``-ab``?  Because of this ambiguity, :mod:`optparse` does not
+   support this feature.
+
+positional argument
+   something leftover in the argument list after options have been parsed, i.e.
+   after options and their arguments have been parsed and removed from the
+   argument list.
+
+required option
+   an option that must be supplied on the command-line; note that the phrase
+   "required option" is self-contradictory in English.  :mod:`optparse` doesn't
+   prevent you from implementing required options, but doesn't give you much
+   help at it either.
+
+For example, consider this hypothetical command-line::
+
+   prog -v --report report.txt foo bar
+
+``-v`` and ``--report`` are both options.  Assuming that ``--report``
+takes one argument, ``report.txt`` is an option argument.  ``foo`` and
+``bar`` are positional arguments.
+
+
+.. _optparse-what-options-for:
+
+What are options for?
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Options are used to provide extra information to tune or customize the execution
+of a program.  In case it wasn't clear, options are usually *optional*.  A
+program should be able to run just fine with no options whatsoever.  (Pick a
+random program from the Unix or GNU toolsets.  Can it run without any options at
+all and still make sense?  The main exceptions are ``find``, ``tar``, and
+``dd``\ ---all of which are mutant oddballs that have been rightly criticized
+for their non-standard syntax and confusing interfaces.)
+
+Lots of people want their programs to have "required options".  Think about it.
+If it's required, then it's *not optional*!  If there is a piece of information
+that your program absolutely requires in order to run successfully, that's what
+positional arguments are for.
+
+As an example of good command-line interface design, consider the humble ``cp``
+utility, for copying files.  It doesn't make much sense to try to copy files
+without supplying a destination and at least one source. Hence, ``cp`` fails if
+you run it with no arguments.  However, it has a flexible, useful syntax that
+does not require any options at all::
+
+   cp SOURCE DEST
+   cp SOURCE ... DEST-DIR
+
+You can get pretty far with just that.  Most ``cp`` implementations provide a
+bunch of options to tweak exactly how the files are copied: you can preserve
+mode and modification time, avoid following symlinks, ask before clobbering
+existing files, etc.  But none of this distracts from the core mission of
+``cp``, which is to copy either one file to another, or several files to another
+directory.
+
+
+.. _optparse-what-positional-arguments-for:
+
+What are positional arguments for?
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Positional arguments are for those pieces of information that your program
+absolutely, positively requires to run.
+
+A good user interface should have as few absolute requirements as possible.  If
+your program requires 17 distinct pieces of information in order to run
+successfully, it doesn't much matter *how* you get that information from the
+user---most people will give up and walk away before they successfully run the
+program.  This applies whether the user interface is a command-line, a
+configuration file, or a GUI: if you make that many demands on your users, most
+of them will simply give up.
+
+In short, try to minimize the amount of information that users are absolutely
+required to supply---use sensible defaults whenever possible.  Of course, you
+also want to make your programs reasonably flexible.  That's what options are
+for.  Again, it doesn't matter if they are entries in a config file, widgets in
+the "Preferences" dialog of a GUI, or command-line options---the more options
+you implement, the more flexible your program is, and the more complicated its
+implementation becomes.  Too much flexibility has drawbacks as well, of course;
+too many options can overwhelm users and make your code much harder to maintain.
+
+
+.. _optparse-tutorial:
+
+Tutorial
+--------
+
+While :mod:`optparse` is quite flexible and powerful, it's also straightforward
+to use in most cases.  This section covers the code patterns that are common to
+any :mod:`optparse`\ -based program.
+
+First, you need to import the OptionParser class; then, early in the main
+program, create an OptionParser instance::
+
+   from optparse import OptionParser
+   ...
+   parser = OptionParser()
+
+Then you can start defining options.  The basic syntax is::
+
+   parser.add_option(opt_str, ...,
+                     attr=value, ...)
+
+Each option has one or more option strings, such as ``-f`` or ``--file``,
+and several option attributes that tell :mod:`optparse` what to expect and what
+to do when it encounters that option on the command line.
+
+Typically, each option will have one short option string and one long option
+string, e.g.::
+
+   parser.add_option("-f", "--file", ...)
+
+You're free to define as many short option strings and as many long option
+strings as you like (including zero), as long as there is at least one option
+string overall.
+
+The option strings passed to :meth:`OptionParser.add_option` are effectively
+labels for the
+option defined by that call.  For brevity, we will frequently refer to
+*encountering an option* on the command line; in reality, :mod:`optparse`
+encounters *option strings* and looks up options from them.
+
+Once all of your options are defined, instruct :mod:`optparse` to parse your
+program's command line::
+
+   (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
+
+(If you like, you can pass a custom argument list to :meth:`parse_args`, but
+that's rarely necessary: by default it uses ``sys.argv[1:]``.)
+
+:meth:`parse_args` returns two values:
+
+* ``options``, an object containing values for all of your options---e.g. if
+  ``--file`` takes a single string argument, then ``options.file`` will be the
+  filename supplied by the user, or ``None`` if the user did not supply that
+  option
+
+* ``args``, the list of positional arguments leftover after parsing options
+
+This tutorial section only covers the four most important option attributes:
+:attr:`~Option.action`, :attr:`~Option.type`, :attr:`~Option.dest`
+(destination), and :attr:`~Option.help`. Of these, :attr:`~Option.action` is the
+most fundamental.
+
+
+.. _optparse-understanding-option-actions:
+
+Understanding option actions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Actions tell :mod:`optparse` what to do when it encounters an option on the
+command line.  There is a fixed set of actions hard-coded into :mod:`optparse`;
+adding new actions is an advanced topic covered in section
+:ref:`optparse-extending-optparse`.  Most actions tell :mod:`optparse` to store
+a value in some variable---for example, take a string from the command line and
+store it in an attribute of ``options``.
+
+If you don't specify an option action, :mod:`optparse` defaults to ``store``.
+
+
+.. _optparse-store-action:
+
+The store action
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The most common option action is ``store``, which tells :mod:`optparse` to take
+the next argument (or the remainder of the current argument), ensure that it is
+of the correct type, and store it to your chosen destination.
+
+For example::
+
+   parser.add_option("-f", "--file",
+                     action="store", type="string", dest="filename")
+
+Now let's make up a fake command line and ask :mod:`optparse` to parse it::
+
+   args = ["-f", "foo.txt"]
+   (options, args) = parser.parse_args(args)
+
+When :mod:`optparse` sees the option string ``-f``, it consumes the next
+argument, ``foo.txt``, and stores it in ``options.filename``.  So, after this
+call to :meth:`parse_args`, ``options.filename`` is ``"foo.txt"``.
+
+Some other option types supported by :mod:`optparse` are ``int`` and ``float``.
+Here's an option that expects an integer argument::
+
+   parser.add_option("-n", type="int", dest="num")
+
+Note that this option has no long option string, which is perfectly acceptable.
+Also, there's no explicit action, since the default is ``store``.
+
+Let's parse another fake command-line.  This time, we'll jam the option argument
+right up against the option: since ``-n42`` (one argument) is equivalent to
+``-n 42`` (two arguments), the code ::
+
+   (options, args) = parser.parse_args(["-n42"])
+   print(options.num)
+
+will print ``42``.
+
+If you don't specify a type, :mod:`optparse` assumes ``string``.  Combined with
+the fact that the default action is ``store``, that means our first example can
+be a lot shorter::
+
+   parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename")
+
+If you don't supply a destination, :mod:`optparse` figures out a sensible
+default from the option strings: if the first long option string is
+``--foo-bar``, then the default destination is ``foo_bar``.  If there are no
+long option strings, :mod:`optparse` looks at the first short option string: the
+default destination for ``-f`` is ``f``.
+
+:mod:`optparse` also includes the built-in ``complex`` type.  Adding
+types is covered in section :ref:`optparse-extending-optparse`.
+
+
+.. _optparse-handling-boolean-options:
+
+Handling boolean (flag) options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Flag options---set a variable to true or false when a particular option is
+seen---are quite common.  :mod:`optparse` supports them with two separate actions,
+``store_true`` and ``store_false``.  For example, you might have a ``verbose``
+flag that is turned on with ``-v`` and off with ``-q``::
+
+   parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
+   parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")
+
+Here we have two different options with the same destination, which is perfectly
+OK.  (It just means you have to be a bit careful when setting default
+values---see below.)
+
+When :mod:`optparse` encounters ``-v`` on the command line, it sets
+``options.verbose`` to ``True``; when it encounters ``-q``,
+``options.verbose`` is set to ``False``.
+
+
+.. _optparse-other-actions:
+
+Other actions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Some other actions supported by :mod:`optparse` are:
+
+``"store_const"``
+   store a constant value
+
+``"append"``
+   append this option's argument to a list
+
+``"count"``
+   increment a counter by one
+
+``"callback"``
+   call a specified function
+
+These are covered in section :ref:`optparse-reference-guide`, Reference Guide
+and section :ref:`optparse-option-callbacks`.
+
+
+.. _optparse-default-values:
+
+Default values
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+All of the above examples involve setting some variable (the "destination") when
+certain command-line options are seen.  What happens if those options are never
+seen?  Since we didn't supply any defaults, they are all set to ``None``.  This
+is usually fine, but sometimes you want more control.  :mod:`optparse` lets you
+supply a default value for each destination, which is assigned before the
+command line is parsed.
+
+First, consider the verbose/quiet example.  If we want :mod:`optparse` to set
+``verbose`` to ``True`` unless ``-q`` is seen, then we can do this::
+
+   parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True)
+   parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")
+
+Since default values apply to the *destination* rather than to any particular
+option, and these two options happen to have the same destination, this is
+exactly equivalent::
+
+   parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
+   parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)
+
+Consider this::
+
+   parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=False)
+   parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)
+
+Again, the default value for ``verbose`` will be ``True``: the last default
+value supplied for any particular destination is the one that counts.
+
+A clearer way to specify default values is the :meth:`set_defaults` method of
+OptionParser, which you can call at any time before calling :meth:`parse_args`::
+
+   parser.set_defaults(verbose=True)
+   parser.add_option(...)
+   (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
+
+As before, the last value specified for a given option destination is the one
+that counts.  For clarity, try to use one method or the other of setting default
+values, not both.
+
+
+.. _optparse-generating-help:
+
+Generating help
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:mod:`optparse`'s ability to generate help and usage text automatically is
+useful for creating user-friendly command-line interfaces.  All you have to do
+is supply a :attr:`~Option.help` value for each option, and optionally a short
+usage message for your whole program.  Here's an OptionParser populated with
+user-friendly (documented) options::
+
+   usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
+   parser = OptionParser(usage=usage)
+   parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
+                     action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True,
+                     help="make lots of noise [default]")
+   parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
+                     action="store_false", dest="verbose",
+                     help="be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)")
+   parser.add_option("-f", "--filename",
+                     metavar="FILE", help="write output to FILE")
+   parser.add_option("-m", "--mode",
+                     default="intermediate",
+                     help="interaction mode: novice, intermediate, "
+                          "or expert [default: %default]")
+
+If :mod:`optparse` encounters either ``-h`` or ``--help`` on the
+command-line, or if you just call :meth:`parser.print_help`, it prints the
+following to standard output:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+   Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2
+
+   Options:
+     -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+     -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
+     -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
+     -f FILE, --filename=FILE
+                           write output to FILE
+     -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
+                           expert [default: intermediate]
+
+(If the help output is triggered by a help option, :mod:`optparse` exits after
+printing the help text.)
+
+There's a lot going on here to help :mod:`optparse` generate the best possible
+help message:
+
+* the script defines its own usage message::
+
+     usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
+
+  :mod:`optparse` expands ``%prog`` in the usage string to the name of the
+  current program, i.e. ``os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])``.  The expanded string
+  is then printed before the detailed option help.
+
+  If you don't supply a usage string, :mod:`optparse` uses a bland but sensible
+  default: ``"Usage: %prog [options]"``, which is fine if your script doesn't
+  take any positional arguments.
+
+* every option defines a help string, and doesn't worry about
+  line-wrapping---\ :mod:`optparse` takes care of wrapping lines and making
+  the help output look good.
+
+* options that take a value indicate this fact in their automatically-generated
+  help message, e.g. for the "mode" option::
+
+     -m MODE, --mode=MODE
+
+  Here, "MODE" is called the meta-variable: it stands for the argument that the
+  user is expected to supply to ``-m``/``--mode``.  By default,
+  :mod:`optparse` converts the destination variable name to uppercase and uses
+  that for the meta-variable.  Sometimes, that's not what you want---for
+  example, the ``--filename`` option explicitly sets ``metavar="FILE"``,
+  resulting in this automatically-generated option description::
+
+     -f FILE, --filename=FILE
+
+  This is important for more than just saving space, though: the manually
+  written help text uses the meta-variable ``FILE`` to clue the user in that
+  there's a connection between the semi-formal syntax ``-f FILE`` and the informal
+  semantic description "write output to FILE". This is a simple but effective
+  way to make your help text a lot clearer and more useful for end users.
+
+* options that have a default value can include ``%default`` in the help
+  string---\ :mod:`optparse` will replace it with :func:`str` of the option's
+  default value.  If an option has no default value (or the default value is
+  ``None``), ``%default`` expands to ``none``.
+
+Grouping Options
+++++++++++++++++
+
+When dealing with many options, it is convenient to group these options for
+better help output.  An :class:`OptionParser` can contain several option groups,
+each of which can contain several options.
+
+An option group is obtained using the class :class:`OptionGroup`:
+
+.. class:: OptionGroup(parser, title, description=None)
+
+   where
+
+   * parser is the :class:`OptionParser` instance the group will be inserted in
+     to
+   * title is the group title
+   * description, optional, is a long description of the group
+
+:class:`OptionGroup` inherits from :class:`OptionContainer` (like
+:class:`OptionParser`) and so the :meth:`add_option` method can be used to add
+an option to the group.
+
+Once all the options are declared, using the :class:`OptionParser` method
+:meth:`add_option_group` the group is added to the previously defined parser.
+
+Continuing with the parser defined in the previous section, adding an
+:class:`OptionGroup` to a parser is easy::
+
+    group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
+                        "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
+                        "It is believed that some of them bite.")
+    group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
+    parser.add_option_group(group)
+
+This would result in the following help output:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+   Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2
+
+   Options:
+     -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+     -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
+     -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
+     -f FILE, --filename=FILE
+                           write output to FILE
+     -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
+                           expert [default: intermediate]
+
+     Dangerous Options:
+       Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
+       of them bite.
+
+       -g                  Group option.
+
+A bit more complete example might involve using more than one group: still
+extending the previous example::
+
+    group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
+                        "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
+                        "It is believed that some of them bite.")
+    group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
+    parser.add_option_group(group)
+
+    group = OptionGroup(parser, "Debug Options")
+    group.add_option("-d", "--debug", action="store_true",
+                     help="Print debug information")
+    group.add_option("-s", "--sql", action="store_true",
+                     help="Print all SQL statements executed")
+    group.add_option("-e", action="store_true", help="Print every action done")
+    parser.add_option_group(group)
+
+that results in the following output:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+   Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2
+
+   Options:
+     -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+     -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
+     -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
+     -f FILE, --filename=FILE
+                           write output to FILE
+     -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
+                           [default: intermediate]
+
+     Dangerous Options:
+       Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
+       of them bite.
+
+       -g                  Group option.
+
+     Debug Options:
+       -d, --debug         Print debug information
+       -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
+       -e                  Print every action done
+
+Another interesting method, in particular when working programmatically with
+option groups is:
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.get_option_group(opt_str)
+
+   Return the :class:`OptionGroup` to which the short or long option
+   string *opt_str* (e.g. ``'-o'`` or ``'--option'``) belongs. If
+   there's no such :class:`OptionGroup`, return ``None``.
+
+.. _optparse-printing-version-string:
+
+Printing a version string
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Similar to the brief usage string, :mod:`optparse` can also print a version
+string for your program.  You have to supply the string as the ``version``
+argument to OptionParser::
+
+   parser = OptionParser(usage="%prog [-f] [-q]", version="%prog 1.0")
+
+``%prog`` is expanded just like it is in ``usage``.  Apart from that,
+``version`` can contain anything you like.  When you supply it, :mod:`optparse`
+automatically adds a ``--version`` option to your parser. If it encounters
+this option on the command line, it expands your ``version`` string (by
+replacing ``%prog``), prints it to stdout, and exits.
+
+For example, if your script is called ``/usr/bin/foo``:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ /usr/bin/foo --version
+   foo 1.0
+
+The following two methods can be used to print and get the ``version`` string:
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.print_version(file=None)
+
+   Print the version message for the current program (``self.version``) to
+   *file* (default stdout).  As with :meth:`print_usage`, any occurrence
+   of ``%prog`` in ``self.version`` is replaced with the name of the current
+   program.  Does nothing if ``self.version`` is empty or undefined.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.get_version()
+
+   Same as :meth:`print_version` but returns the version string instead of
+   printing it.
+
+
+.. _optparse-how-optparse-handles-errors:
+
+How :mod:`optparse` handles errors
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are two broad classes of errors that :mod:`optparse` has to worry about:
+programmer errors and user errors.  Programmer errors are usually erroneous
+calls to :func:`OptionParser.add_option`, e.g. invalid option strings, unknown
+option attributes, missing option attributes, etc.  These are dealt with in the
+usual way: raise an exception (either :exc:`optparse.OptionError` or
+:exc:`TypeError`) and let the program crash.
+
+Handling user errors is much more important, since they are guaranteed to happen
+no matter how stable your code is.  :mod:`optparse` can automatically detect
+some user errors, such as bad option arguments (passing ``-n 4x`` where
+``-n`` takes an integer argument), missing arguments (``-n`` at the end
+of the command line, where ``-n`` takes an argument of any type).  Also,
+you can call :func:`OptionParser.error` to signal an application-defined error
+condition::
+
+   (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
+   ...
+   if options.a and options.b:
+       parser.error("options -a and -b are mutually exclusive")
+
+In either case, :mod:`optparse` handles the error the same way: it prints the
+program's usage message and an error message to standard error and exits with
+error status 2.
+
+Consider the first example above, where the user passes ``4x`` to an option
+that takes an integer:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
+   Usage: foo [options]
+
+   foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: '4x'
+
+Or, where the user fails to pass a value at all:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ /usr/bin/foo -n
+   Usage: foo [options]
+
+   foo: error: -n option requires an argument
+
+:mod:`optparse`\ -generated error messages take care always to mention the
+option involved in the error; be sure to do the same when calling
+:func:`OptionParser.error` from your application code.
+
+If :mod:`optparse`'s default error-handling behaviour does not suit your needs,
+you'll need to subclass OptionParser and override its :meth:`~OptionParser.exit`
+and/or :meth:`~OptionParser.error` methods.
+
+
+.. _optparse-putting-it-all-together:
+
+Putting it all together
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Here's what :mod:`optparse`\ -based scripts usually look like::
+
+   from optparse import OptionParser
+   ...
+   def main():
+       usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg"
+       parser = OptionParser(usage)
+       parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
+                         help="read data from FILENAME")
+       parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
+                         action="store_true", dest="verbose")
+       parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
+                         action="store_false", dest="verbose")
+       ...
+       (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
+       if len(args) != 1:
+           parser.error("incorrect number of arguments")
+       if options.verbose:
+           print("reading %s..." % options.filename)
+       ...
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       main()
+
+
+.. _optparse-reference-guide:
+
+Reference Guide
+---------------
+
+
+.. _optparse-creating-parser:
+
+Creating the parser
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The first step in using :mod:`optparse` is to create an OptionParser instance.
+
+.. class:: OptionParser(...)
+
+   The OptionParser constructor has no required arguments, but a number of
+   optional keyword arguments.  You should always pass them as keyword
+   arguments, i.e. do not rely on the order in which the arguments are declared.
+
+   ``usage`` (default: ``"%prog [options]"``)
+      The usage summary to print when your program is run incorrectly or with a
+      help option.  When :mod:`optparse` prints the usage string, it expands
+      ``%prog`` to ``os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])`` (or to ``prog`` if you
+      passed that keyword argument).  To suppress a usage message, pass the
+      special value :data:`optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE`.
+
+   ``option_list`` (default: ``[]``)
+      A list of Option objects to populate the parser with.  The options in
+      ``option_list`` are added after any options in ``standard_option_list`` (a
+      class attribute that may be set by OptionParser subclasses), but before
+      any version or help options. Deprecated; use :meth:`add_option` after
+      creating the parser instead.
+
+   ``option_class`` (default: optparse.Option)
+      Class to use when adding options to the parser in :meth:`add_option`.
+
+   ``version`` (default: ``None``)
+      A version string to print when the user supplies a version option. If you
+      supply a true value for ``version``, :mod:`optparse` automatically adds a
+      version option with the single option string ``--version``.  The
+      substring ``%prog`` is expanded the same as for ``usage``.
+
+   ``conflict_handler`` (default: ``"error"``)
+      Specifies what to do when options with conflicting option strings are
+      added to the parser; see section
+      :ref:`optparse-conflicts-between-options`.
+
+   ``description`` (default: ``None``)
+      A paragraph of text giving a brief overview of your program.
+      :mod:`optparse` reformats this paragraph to fit the current terminal width
+      and prints it when the user requests help (after ``usage``, but before the
+      list of options).
+
+   ``formatter`` (default: a new :class:`IndentedHelpFormatter`)
+      An instance of optparse.HelpFormatter that will be used for printing help
+      text.  :mod:`optparse` provides two concrete classes for this purpose:
+      IndentedHelpFormatter and TitledHelpFormatter.
+
+   ``add_help_option`` (default: ``True``)
+      If true, :mod:`optparse` will add a help option (with option strings ``-h``
+      and ``--help``) to the parser.
+
+   ``prog``
+      The string to use when expanding ``%prog`` in ``usage`` and ``version``
+      instead of ``os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])``.
+
+   ``epilog`` (default: ``None``)
+      A paragraph of help text to print after the option help.
+
+.. _optparse-populating-parser:
+
+Populating the parser
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are several ways to populate the parser with options.  The preferred way
+is by using :meth:`OptionParser.add_option`, as shown in section
+:ref:`optparse-tutorial`.  :meth:`add_option` can be called in one of two ways:
+
+* pass it an Option instance (as returned by :func:`make_option`)
+
+* pass it any combination of positional and keyword arguments that are
+  acceptable to :func:`make_option` (i.e., to the Option constructor), and it
+  will create the Option instance for you
+
+The other alternative is to pass a list of pre-constructed Option instances to
+the OptionParser constructor, as in::
+
+   option_list = [
+       make_option("-f", "--filename",
+                   action="store", type="string", dest="filename"),
+       make_option("-q", "--quiet",
+                   action="store_false", dest="verbose"),
+       ]
+   parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)
+
+(:func:`make_option` is a factory function for creating Option instances;
+currently it is an alias for the Option constructor.  A future version of
+:mod:`optparse` may split Option into several classes, and :func:`make_option`
+will pick the right class to instantiate.  Do not instantiate Option directly.)
+
+
+.. _optparse-defining-options:
+
+Defining options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Each Option instance represents a set of synonymous command-line option strings,
+e.g. ``-f`` and ``--file``.  You can specify any number of short or
+long option strings, but you must specify at least one overall option string.
+
+The canonical way to create an :class:`Option` instance is with the
+:meth:`add_option` method of :class:`OptionParser`.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.add_option(option)
+            OptionParser.add_option(*opt_str, attr=value, ...)
+
+   To define an option with only a short option string::
+
+      parser.add_option("-f", attr=value, ...)
+
+   And to define an option with only a long option string::
+
+      parser.add_option("--foo", attr=value, ...)
+
+   The keyword arguments define attributes of the new Option object.  The most
+   important option attribute is :attr:`~Option.action`, and it largely
+   determines which other attributes are relevant or required.  If you pass
+   irrelevant option attributes, or fail to pass required ones, :mod:`optparse`
+   raises an :exc:`OptionError` exception explaining your mistake.
+
+   An option's *action* determines what :mod:`optparse` does when it encounters
+   this option on the command-line.  The standard option actions hard-coded into
+   :mod:`optparse` are:
+
+   ``"store"``
+      store this option's argument (default)
+
+   ``"store_const"``
+      store a constant value
+
+   ``"store_true"``
+      store a true value
+
+   ``"store_false"``
+      store a false value
+
+   ``"append"``
+      append this option's argument to a list
+
+   ``"append_const"``
+      append a constant value to a list
+
+   ``"count"``
+      increment a counter by one
+
+   ``"callback"``
+      call a specified function
+
+   ``"help"``
+      print a usage message including all options and the documentation for them
+
+   (If you don't supply an action, the default is ``"store"``.  For this action,
+   you may also supply :attr:`~Option.type` and :attr:`~Option.dest` option
+   attributes; see :ref:`optparse-standard-option-actions`.)
+
+As you can see, most actions involve storing or updating a value somewhere.
+:mod:`optparse` always creates a special object for this, conventionally called
+``options`` (it happens to be an instance of :class:`optparse.Values`).  Option
+arguments (and various other values) are stored as attributes of this object,
+according to the :attr:`~Option.dest` (destination) option attribute.
+
+For example, when you call ::
+
+   parser.parse_args()
+
+one of the first things :mod:`optparse` does is create the ``options`` object::
+
+   options = Values()
+
+If one of the options in this parser is defined with ::
+
+   parser.add_option("-f", "--file", action="store", type="string", dest="filename")
+
+and the command-line being parsed includes any of the following::
+
+   -ffoo
+   -f foo
+   --file=foo
+   --file foo
+
+then :mod:`optparse`, on seeing this option, will do the equivalent of ::
+
+   options.filename = "foo"
+
+The :attr:`~Option.type` and :attr:`~Option.dest` option attributes are almost
+as important as :attr:`~Option.action`, but :attr:`~Option.action` is the only
+one that makes sense for *all* options.
+
+
+.. _optparse-option-attributes:
+
+Option attributes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following option attributes may be passed as keyword arguments to
+:meth:`OptionParser.add_option`.  If you pass an option attribute that is not
+relevant to a particular option, or fail to pass a required option attribute,
+:mod:`optparse` raises :exc:`OptionError`.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.action
+
+   (default: ``"store"``)
+
+   Determines :mod:`optparse`'s behaviour when this option is seen on the
+   command line; the available options are documented :ref:`here
+   <optparse-standard-option-actions>`.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.type
+
+   (default: ``"string"``)
+
+   The argument type expected by this option (e.g., ``"string"`` or ``"int"``);
+   the available option types are documented :ref:`here
+   <optparse-standard-option-types>`.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.dest
+
+   (default: derived from option strings)
+
+   If the option's action implies writing or modifying a value somewhere, this
+   tells :mod:`optparse` where to write it: :attr:`~Option.dest` names an
+   attribute of the ``options`` object that :mod:`optparse` builds as it parses
+   the command line.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.default
+
+   The value to use for this option's destination if the option is not seen on
+   the command line.  See also :meth:`OptionParser.set_defaults`.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.nargs
+
+   (default: 1)
+
+   How many arguments of type :attr:`~Option.type` should be consumed when this
+   option is seen.  If > 1, :mod:`optparse` will store a tuple of values to
+   :attr:`~Option.dest`.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.const
+
+   For actions that store a constant value, the constant value to store.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.choices
+
+   For options of type ``"choice"``, the list of strings the user may choose
+   from.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.callback
+
+   For options with action ``"callback"``, the callable to call when this option
+   is seen.  See section :ref:`optparse-option-callbacks` for detail on the
+   arguments passed to the callable.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.callback_args
+               Option.callback_kwargs
+
+   Additional positional and keyword arguments to pass to ``callback`` after the
+   four standard callback arguments.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.help
+
+   Help text to print for this option when listing all available options after
+   the user supplies a :attr:`~Option.help` option (such as ``--help``).  If
+   no help text is supplied, the option will be listed without help text.  To
+   hide this option, use the special value :data:`optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP`.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.metavar
+
+   (default: derived from option strings)
+
+   Stand-in for the option argument(s) to use when printing help text.  See
+   section :ref:`optparse-tutorial` for an example.
+
+
+.. _optparse-standard-option-actions:
+
+Standard option actions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The various option actions all have slightly different requirements and effects.
+Most actions have several relevant option attributes which you may specify to
+guide :mod:`optparse`'s behaviour; a few have required attributes, which you
+must specify for any option using that action.
+
+* ``"store"`` [relevant: :attr:`~Option.type`, :attr:`~Option.dest`,
+  :attr:`~Option.nargs`, :attr:`~Option.choices`]
+
+  The option must be followed by an argument, which is converted to a value
+  according to :attr:`~Option.type` and stored in :attr:`~Option.dest`.  If
+  :attr:`~Option.nargs` > 1, multiple arguments will be consumed from the
+  command line; all will be converted according to :attr:`~Option.type` and
+  stored to :attr:`~Option.dest` as a tuple.  See the
+  :ref:`optparse-standard-option-types` section.
+
+  If :attr:`~Option.choices` is supplied (a list or tuple of strings), the type
+  defaults to ``"choice"``.
+
+  If :attr:`~Option.type` is not supplied, it defaults to ``"string"``.
+
+  If :attr:`~Option.dest` is not supplied, :mod:`optparse` derives a destination
+  from the first long option string (e.g., ``--foo-bar`` implies
+  ``foo_bar``). If there are no long option strings, :mod:`optparse` derives a
+  destination from the first short option string (e.g., ``-f`` implies ``f``).
+
+  Example::
+
+     parser.add_option("-f")
+     parser.add_option("-p", type="float", nargs=3, dest="point")
+
+  As it parses the command line ::
+
+     -f foo.txt -p 1 -3.5 4 -fbar.txt
+
+  :mod:`optparse` will set ::
+
+     options.f = "foo.txt"
+     options.point = (1.0, -3.5, 4.0)
+     options.f = "bar.txt"
+
+* ``"store_const"`` [required: :attr:`~Option.const`; relevant:
+  :attr:`~Option.dest`]
+
+  The value :attr:`~Option.const` is stored in :attr:`~Option.dest`.
+
+  Example::
+
+     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
+                       action="store_const", const=0, dest="verbose")
+     parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
+                       action="store_const", const=1, dest="verbose")
+     parser.add_option("--noisy",
+                       action="store_const", const=2, dest="verbose")
+
+  If ``--noisy`` is seen, :mod:`optparse` will set  ::
+
+     options.verbose = 2
+
+* ``"store_true"`` [relevant: :attr:`~Option.dest`]
+
+  A special case of ``"store_const"`` that stores a true value to
+  :attr:`~Option.dest`.
+
+* ``"store_false"`` [relevant: :attr:`~Option.dest`]
+
+  Like ``"store_true"``, but stores a false value.
+
+  Example::
+
+     parser.add_option("--clobber", action="store_true", dest="clobber")
+     parser.add_option("--no-clobber", action="store_false", dest="clobber")
+
+* ``"append"`` [relevant: :attr:`~Option.type`, :attr:`~Option.dest`,
+  :attr:`~Option.nargs`, :attr:`~Option.choices`]
+
+  The option must be followed by an argument, which is appended to the list in
+  :attr:`~Option.dest`.  If no default value for :attr:`~Option.dest` is
+  supplied, an empty list is automatically created when :mod:`optparse` first
+  encounters this option on the command-line.  If :attr:`~Option.nargs` > 1,
+  multiple arguments are consumed, and a tuple of length :attr:`~Option.nargs`
+  is appended to :attr:`~Option.dest`.
+
+  The defaults for :attr:`~Option.type` and :attr:`~Option.dest` are the same as
+  for the ``"store"`` action.
+
+  Example::
+
+     parser.add_option("-t", "--tracks", action="append", type="int")
+
+  If ``-t3`` is seen on the command-line, :mod:`optparse` does the equivalent
+  of::
+
+     options.tracks = []
+     options.tracks.append(int("3"))
+
+  If, a little later on, ``--tracks=4`` is seen, it does::
+
+     options.tracks.append(int("4"))
+
+  The ``append`` action calls the ``append`` method on the current value of the
+  option.  This means that any default value specified must have an ``append``
+  method.  It also means that if the default value is non-empty, the default
+  elements will be present in the parsed value for the option, with any values
+  from the command line appended after those default values::
+
+     >>> parser.add_option("--files", action="append", default=['~/.mypkg/defaults'])
+     >>> opts, args = parser.parse_args(['--files', 'overrides.mypkg'])
+     >>> opts.files
+     ['~/.mypkg/defaults', 'overrides.mypkg']
+
+* ``"append_const"`` [required: :attr:`~Option.const`; relevant:
+  :attr:`~Option.dest`]
+
+  Like ``"store_const"``, but the value :attr:`~Option.const` is appended to
+  :attr:`~Option.dest`; as with ``"append"``, :attr:`~Option.dest` defaults to
+  ``None``, and an empty list is automatically created the first time the option
+  is encountered.
+
+* ``"count"`` [relevant: :attr:`~Option.dest`]
+
+  Increment the integer stored at :attr:`~Option.dest`.  If no default value is
+  supplied, :attr:`~Option.dest` is set to zero before being incremented the
+  first time.
+
+  Example::
+
+     parser.add_option("-v", action="count", dest="verbosity")
+
+  The first time ``-v`` is seen on the command line, :mod:`optparse` does the
+  equivalent of::
+
+     options.verbosity = 0
+     options.verbosity += 1
+
+  Every subsequent occurrence of ``-v`` results in  ::
+
+     options.verbosity += 1
+
+* ``"callback"`` [required: :attr:`~Option.callback`; relevant:
+  :attr:`~Option.type`, :attr:`~Option.nargs`, :attr:`~Option.callback_args`,
+  :attr:`~Option.callback_kwargs`]
+
+  Call the function specified by :attr:`~Option.callback`, which is called as ::
+
+     func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)
+
+  See section :ref:`optparse-option-callbacks` for more detail.
+
+* ``"help"``
+
+  Prints a complete help message for all the options in the current option
+  parser.  The help message is constructed from the ``usage`` string passed to
+  OptionParser's constructor and the :attr:`~Option.help` string passed to every
+  option.
+
+  If no :attr:`~Option.help` string is supplied for an option, it will still be
+  listed in the help message.  To omit an option entirely, use the special value
+  :data:`optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP`.
+
+  :mod:`optparse` automatically adds a :attr:`~Option.help` option to all
+  OptionParsers, so you do not normally need to create one.
+
+  Example::
+
+     from optparse import OptionParser, SUPPRESS_HELP
+
+     # usually, a help option is added automatically, but that can
+     # be suppressed using the add_help_option argument
+     parser = OptionParser(add_help_option=False)
+
+     parser.add_option("-h", "--help", action="help")
+     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose",
+                       help="Be moderately verbose")
+     parser.add_option("--file", dest="filename",
+                       help="Input file to read data from")
+     parser.add_option("--secret", help=SUPPRESS_HELP)
+
+  If :mod:`optparse` sees either ``-h`` or ``--help`` on the command line,
+  it will print something like the following help message to stdout (assuming
+  ``sys.argv[0]`` is ``"foo.py"``):
+
+  .. code-block:: text
+
+     Usage: foo.py [options]
+
+     Options:
+       -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
+       -v                Be moderately verbose
+       --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from
+
+  After printing the help message, :mod:`optparse` terminates your process with
+  ``sys.exit(0)``.
+
+* ``"version"``
+
+  Prints the version number supplied to the OptionParser to stdout and exits.
+  The version number is actually formatted and printed by the
+  ``print_version()`` method of OptionParser.  Generally only relevant if the
+  ``version`` argument is supplied to the OptionParser constructor.  As with
+  :attr:`~Option.help` options, you will rarely create ``version`` options,
+  since :mod:`optparse` automatically adds them when needed.
+
+
+.. _optparse-standard-option-types:
+
+Standard option types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:mod:`optparse` has five built-in option types: ``"string"``, ``"int"``,
+``"choice"``, ``"float"`` and ``"complex"``.  If you need to add new
+option types, see section :ref:`optparse-extending-optparse`.
+
+Arguments to string options are not checked or converted in any way: the text on
+the command line is stored in the destination (or passed to the callback) as-is.
+
+Integer arguments (type ``"int"``) are parsed as follows:
+
+* if the number starts with ``0x``, it is parsed as a hexadecimal number
+
+* if the number starts with ``0``, it is parsed as an octal number
+
+* if the number starts with ``0b``, it is parsed as a binary number
+
+* otherwise, the number is parsed as a decimal number
+
+
+The conversion is done by calling :func:`int` with the appropriate base (2, 8,
+10, or 16).  If this fails, so will :mod:`optparse`, although with a more useful
+error message.
+
+``"float"`` and ``"complex"`` option arguments are converted directly with
+:func:`float` and :func:`complex`, with similar error-handling.
+
+``"choice"`` options are a subtype of ``"string"`` options.  The
+:attr:`~Option.choices` option attribute (a sequence of strings) defines the
+set of allowed option arguments.  :func:`optparse.check_choice` compares
+user-supplied option arguments against this master list and raises
+:exc:`OptionValueError` if an invalid string is given.
+
+
+.. _optparse-parsing-arguments:
+
+Parsing arguments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call its
+:meth:`parse_args` method::
+
+   (options, args) = parser.parse_args(args=None, values=None)
+
+where the input parameters are
+
+``args``
+   the list of arguments to process (default: ``sys.argv[1:]``)
+
+``values``
+   an :class:`optparse.Values` object to store option arguments in (default: a
+   new instance of :class:`Values`) -- if you give an existing object, the
+   option defaults will not be initialized on it
+
+and the return values are
+
+``options``
+   the same object that was passed in as ``values``, or the optparse.Values
+   instance created by :mod:`optparse`
+
+``args``
+   the leftover positional arguments after all options have been processed
+
+The most common usage is to supply neither keyword argument.  If you supply
+``values``, it will be modified with repeated :func:`setattr` calls (roughly one
+for every option argument stored to an option destination) and returned by
+:meth:`parse_args`.
+
+If :meth:`parse_args` encounters any errors in the argument list, it calls the
+OptionParser's :meth:`error` method with an appropriate end-user error message.
+This ultimately terminates your process with an exit status of 2 (the
+traditional Unix exit status for command-line errors).
+
+
+.. _optparse-querying-manipulating-option-parser:
+
+Querying and manipulating your option parser
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The default behavior of the option parser can be customized slightly, and you
+can also poke around your option parser and see what's there.  OptionParser
+provides several methods to help you out:
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args()
+
+   Set parsing to stop on the first non-option.  For example, if ``-a`` and
+   ``-b`` are both simple options that take no arguments, :mod:`optparse`
+   normally accepts this syntax::
+
+      prog -a arg1 -b arg2
+
+   and treats it as equivalent to  ::
+
+      prog -a -b arg1 arg2
+
+   To disable this feature, call :meth:`disable_interspersed_args`.  This
+   restores traditional Unix syntax, where option parsing stops with the first
+   non-option argument.
+
+   Use this if you have a command processor which runs another command which has
+   options of its own and you want to make sure these options don't get
+   confused.  For example, each command might have a different set of options.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args()
+
+   Set parsing to not stop on the first non-option, allowing interspersing
+   switches with command arguments.  This is the default behavior.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.get_option(opt_str)
+
+   Returns the Option instance with the option string *opt_str*, or ``None`` if
+   no options have that option string.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.has_option(opt_str)
+
+   Return true if the OptionParser has an option with option string *opt_str*
+   (e.g., ``-q`` or ``--verbose``).
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.remove_option(opt_str)
+
+   If the :class:`OptionParser` has an option corresponding to *opt_str*, that
+   option is removed.  If that option provided any other option strings, all of
+   those option strings become invalid. If *opt_str* does not occur in any
+   option belonging to this :class:`OptionParser`, raises :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+.. _optparse-conflicts-between-options:
+
+Conflicts between options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If you're not careful, it's easy to define options with conflicting option
+strings::
+
+   parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ...)
+   ...
+   parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ...)
+
+(This is particularly true if you've defined your own OptionParser subclass with
+some standard options.)
+
+Every time you add an option, :mod:`optparse` checks for conflicts with existing
+options.  If it finds any, it invokes the current conflict-handling mechanism.
+You can set the conflict-handling mechanism either in the constructor::
+
+   parser = OptionParser(..., conflict_handler=handler)
+
+or with a separate call::
+
+   parser.set_conflict_handler(handler)
+
+The available conflict handlers are:
+
+   ``"error"`` (default)
+      assume option conflicts are a programming error and raise
+      :exc:`OptionConflictError`
+
+   ``"resolve"``
+      resolve option conflicts intelligently (see below)
+
+
+As an example, let's define an :class:`OptionParser` that resolves conflicts
+intelligently and add conflicting options to it::
+
+   parser = OptionParser(conflict_handler="resolve")
+   parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ..., help="do no harm")
+   parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ..., help="be noisy")
+
+At this point, :mod:`optparse` detects that a previously-added option is already
+using the ``-n`` option string.  Since ``conflict_handler`` is ``"resolve"``,
+it resolves the situation by removing ``-n`` from the earlier option's list of
+option strings.  Now ``--dry-run`` is the only way for the user to activate
+that option.  If the user asks for help, the help message will reflect that::
+
+   Options:
+     --dry-run     do no harm
+     ...
+     -n, --noisy   be noisy
+
+It's possible to whittle away the option strings for a previously-added option
+until there are none left, and the user has no way of invoking that option from
+the command-line.  In that case, :mod:`optparse` removes that option completely,
+so it doesn't show up in help text or anywhere else. Carrying on with our
+existing OptionParser::
+
+   parser.add_option("--dry-run", ..., help="new dry-run option")
+
+At this point, the original ``-n``/``--dry-run`` option is no longer
+accessible, so :mod:`optparse` removes it, leaving this help text::
+
+   Options:
+     ...
+     -n, --noisy   be noisy
+     --dry-run     new dry-run option
+
+
+.. _optparse-cleanup:
+
+Cleanup
+^^^^^^^
+
+OptionParser instances have several cyclic references.  This should not be a
+problem for Python's garbage collector, but you may wish to break the cyclic
+references explicitly by calling :meth:`~OptionParser.destroy` on your
+OptionParser once you are done with it.  This is particularly useful in
+long-running applications where large object graphs are reachable from your
+OptionParser.
+
+
+.. _optparse-other-methods:
+
+Other methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+OptionParser supports several other public methods:
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.set_usage(usage)
+
+   Set the usage string according to the rules described above for the ``usage``
+   constructor keyword argument.  Passing ``None`` sets the default usage
+   string; use :data:`optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE` to suppress a usage message.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.print_usage(file=None)
+
+   Print the usage message for the current program (``self.usage``) to *file*
+   (default stdout).  Any occurrence of the string ``%prog`` in ``self.usage``
+   is replaced with the name of the current program.  Does nothing if
+   ``self.usage`` is empty or not defined.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.get_usage()
+
+   Same as :meth:`print_usage` but returns the usage string instead of
+   printing it.
+
+.. method:: OptionParser.set_defaults(dest=value, ...)
+
+   Set default values for several option destinations at once.  Using
+   :meth:`set_defaults` is the preferred way to set default values for options,
+   since multiple options can share the same destination.  For example, if
+   several "mode" options all set the same destination, any one of them can set
+   the default, and the last one wins::
+
+      parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
+                        dest="mode", const="advanced",
+                        default="novice")    # overridden below
+      parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
+                        dest="mode", const="novice",
+                        default="advanced")  # overrides above setting
+
+   To avoid this confusion, use :meth:`set_defaults`::
+
+      parser.set_defaults(mode="advanced")
+      parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
+                        dest="mode", const="advanced")
+      parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
+                        dest="mode", const="novice")
+
+
+.. _optparse-option-callbacks:
+
+Option Callbacks
+----------------
+
+When :mod:`optparse`'s built-in actions and types aren't quite enough for your
+needs, you have two choices: extend :mod:`optparse` or define a callback option.
+Extending :mod:`optparse` is more general, but overkill for a lot of simple
+cases.  Quite often a simple callback is all you need.
+
+There are two steps to defining a callback option:
+
+* define the option itself using the ``"callback"`` action
+
+* write the callback; this is a function (or method) that takes at least four
+  arguments, as described below
+
+
+.. _optparse-defining-callback-option:
+
+Defining a callback option
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+As always, the easiest way to define a callback option is by using the
+:meth:`OptionParser.add_option` method.  Apart from :attr:`~Option.action`, the
+only option attribute you must specify is ``callback``, the function to call::
+
+   parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=my_callback)
+
+``callback`` is a function (or other callable object), so you must have already
+defined ``my_callback()`` when you create this callback option. In this simple
+case, :mod:`optparse` doesn't even know if ``-c`` takes any arguments,
+which usually means that the option takes no arguments---the mere presence of
+``-c`` on the command-line is all it needs to know.  In some
+circumstances, though, you might want your callback to consume an arbitrary
+number of command-line arguments.  This is where writing callbacks gets tricky;
+it's covered later in this section.
+
+:mod:`optparse` always passes four particular arguments to your callback, and it
+will only pass additional arguments if you specify them via
+:attr:`~Option.callback_args` and :attr:`~Option.callback_kwargs`.  Thus, the
+minimal callback function signature is::
+
+   def my_callback(option, opt, value, parser):
+
+The four arguments to a callback are described below.
+
+There are several other option attributes that you can supply when you define a
+callback option:
+
+:attr:`~Option.type`
+   has its usual meaning: as with the ``"store"`` or ``"append"`` actions, it
+   instructs :mod:`optparse` to consume one argument and convert it to
+   :attr:`~Option.type`.  Rather than storing the converted value(s) anywhere,
+   though, :mod:`optparse` passes it to your callback function.
+
+:attr:`~Option.nargs`
+   also has its usual meaning: if it is supplied and > 1, :mod:`optparse` will
+   consume :attr:`~Option.nargs` arguments, each of which must be convertible to
+   :attr:`~Option.type`.  It then passes a tuple of converted values to your
+   callback.
+
+:attr:`~Option.callback_args`
+   a tuple of extra positional arguments to pass to the callback
+
+:attr:`~Option.callback_kwargs`
+   a dictionary of extra keyword arguments to pass to the callback
+
+
+.. _optparse-how-callbacks-called:
+
+How callbacks are called
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+All callbacks are called as follows::
+
+   func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)
+
+where
+
+``option``
+   is the Option instance that's calling the callback
+
+``opt_str``
+   is the option string seen on the command-line that's triggering the callback.
+   (If an abbreviated long option was used, ``opt_str`` will be the full,
+   canonical option string---e.g. if the user puts ``--foo`` on the
+   command-line as an abbreviation for ``--foobar``, then ``opt_str`` will be
+   ``"--foobar"``.)
+
+``value``
+   is the argument to this option seen on the command-line.  :mod:`optparse` will
+   only expect an argument if :attr:`~Option.type` is set; the type of ``value`` will be
+   the type implied by the option's type.  If :attr:`~Option.type` for this option is
+   ``None`` (no argument expected), then ``value`` will be ``None``.  If :attr:`~Option.nargs`
+   > 1, ``value`` will be a tuple of values of the appropriate type.
+
+``parser``
+   is the OptionParser instance driving the whole thing, mainly useful because
+   you can access some other interesting data through its instance attributes:
+
+   ``parser.largs``
+      the current list of leftover arguments, ie. arguments that have been
+      consumed but are neither options nor option arguments. Feel free to modify
+      ``parser.largs``, e.g. by adding more arguments to it.  (This list will
+      become ``args``, the second return value of :meth:`parse_args`.)
+
+   ``parser.rargs``
+      the current list of remaining arguments, ie. with ``opt_str`` and
+      ``value`` (if applicable) removed, and only the arguments following them
+      still there.  Feel free to modify ``parser.rargs``, e.g. by consuming more
+      arguments.
+
+   ``parser.values``
+      the object where option values are by default stored (an instance of
+      optparse.OptionValues).  This lets callbacks use the same mechanism as the
+      rest of :mod:`optparse` for storing option values; you don't need to mess
+      around with globals or closures.  You can also access or modify the
+      value(s) of any options already encountered on the command-line.
+
+``args``
+   is a tuple of arbitrary positional arguments supplied via the
+   :attr:`~Option.callback_args` option attribute.
+
+``kwargs``
+   is a dictionary of arbitrary keyword arguments supplied via
+   :attr:`~Option.callback_kwargs`.
+
+
+.. _optparse-raising-errors-in-callback:
+
+Raising errors in a callback
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The callback function should raise :exc:`OptionValueError` if there are any
+problems with the option or its argument(s).  :mod:`optparse` catches this and
+terminates the program, printing the error message you supply to stderr.  Your
+message should be clear, concise, accurate, and mention the option at fault.
+Otherwise, the user will have a hard time figuring out what they did wrong.
+
+
+.. _optparse-callback-example-1:
+
+Callback example 1: trivial callback
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Here's an example of a callback option that takes no arguments, and simply
+records that the option was seen::
+
+   def record_foo_seen(option, opt_str, value, parser):
+       parser.values.saw_foo = True
+
+   parser.add_option("--foo", action="callback", callback=record_foo_seen)
+
+Of course, you could do that with the ``"store_true"`` action.
+
+
+.. _optparse-callback-example-2:
+
+Callback example 2: check option order
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Here's a slightly more interesting example: record the fact that ``-a`` is
+seen, but blow up if it comes after ``-b`` in the command-line.  ::
+
+   def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
+       if parser.values.b:
+           raise OptionValueError("can't use -a after -b")
+       parser.values.a = 1
+   ...
+   parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order)
+   parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
+
+
+.. _optparse-callback-example-3:
+
+Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If you want to re-use this callback for several similar options (set a flag, but
+blow up if ``-b`` has already been seen), it needs a bit of work: the error
+message and the flag that it sets must be generalized.  ::
+
+   def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
+       if parser.values.b:
+           raise OptionValueError("can't use %s after -b" % opt_str)
+       setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
+   ...
+   parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='a')
+   parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
+   parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='c')
+
+
+.. _optparse-callback-example-4:
+
+Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Of course, you could put any condition in there---you're not limited to checking
+the values of already-defined options.  For example, if you have options that
+should not be called when the moon is full, all you have to do is this::
+
+   def check_moon(option, opt_str, value, parser):
+       if is_moon_full():
+           raise OptionValueError("%s option invalid when moon is full"
+                                  % opt_str)
+       setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
+   ...
+   parser.add_option("--foo",
+                     action="callback", callback=check_moon, dest="foo")
+
+(The definition of ``is_moon_full()`` is left as an exercise for the reader.)
+
+
+.. _optparse-callback-example-5:
+
+Callback example 5: fixed arguments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Things get slightly more interesting when you define callback options that take
+a fixed number of arguments.  Specifying that a callback option takes arguments
+is similar to defining a ``"store"`` or ``"append"`` option: if you define
+:attr:`~Option.type`, then the option takes one argument that must be
+convertible to that type; if you further define :attr:`~Option.nargs`, then the
+option takes :attr:`~Option.nargs` arguments.
+
+Here's an example that just emulates the standard ``"store"`` action::
+
+   def store_value(option, opt_str, value, parser):
+       setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
+   ...
+   parser.add_option("--foo",
+                     action="callback", callback=store_value,
+                     type="int", nargs=3, dest="foo")
+
+Note that :mod:`optparse` takes care of consuming 3 arguments and converting
+them to integers for you; all you have to do is store them.  (Or whatever;
+obviously you don't need a callback for this example.)
+
+
+.. _optparse-callback-example-6:
+
+Callback example 6: variable arguments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Things get hairy when you want an option to take a variable number of arguments.
+For this case, you must write a callback, as :mod:`optparse` doesn't provide any
+built-in capabilities for it.  And you have to deal with certain intricacies of
+conventional Unix command-line parsing that :mod:`optparse` normally handles for
+you.  In particular, callbacks should implement the conventional rules for bare
+``--`` and ``-`` arguments:
+
+* either ``--`` or ``-`` can be option arguments
+
+* bare ``--`` (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
+  processing and discard the ``--``
+
+* bare ``-`` (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
+  processing but keep the ``-`` (append it to ``parser.largs``)
+
+If you want an option that takes a variable number of arguments, there are
+several subtle, tricky issues to worry about.  The exact implementation you
+choose will be based on which trade-offs you're willing to make for your
+application (which is why :mod:`optparse` doesn't support this sort of thing
+directly).
+
+Nevertheless, here's a stab at a callback for an option with variable
+arguments::
+
+    def vararg_callback(option, opt_str, value, parser):
+        assert value is None
+        value = []
+
+        def floatable(str):
+            try:
+                float(str)
+                return True
+            except ValueError:
+                return False
+
+        for arg in parser.rargs:
+            # stop on --foo like options
+            if arg[:2] == "--" and len(arg) > 2:
+                break
+            # stop on -a, but not on -3 or -3.0
+            if arg[:1] == "-" and len(arg) > 1 and not floatable(arg):
+                break
+            value.append(arg)
+
+        del parser.rargs[:len(value)]
+        setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
+
+    ...
+    parser.add_option("-c", "--callback", dest="vararg_attr",
+                      action="callback", callback=vararg_callback)
+
+
+.. _optparse-extending-optparse:
+
+Extending :mod:`optparse`
+-------------------------
+
+Since the two major controlling factors in how :mod:`optparse` interprets
+command-line options are the action and type of each option, the most likely
+direction of extension is to add new actions and new types.
+
+
+.. _optparse-adding-new-types:
+
+Adding new types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To add new types, you need to define your own subclass of :mod:`optparse`'s
+:class:`Option` class.  This class has a couple of attributes that define
+:mod:`optparse`'s types: :attr:`~Option.TYPES` and :attr:`~Option.TYPE_CHECKER`.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.TYPES
+
+   A tuple of type names; in your subclass, simply define a new tuple
+   :attr:`TYPES` that builds on the standard one.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.TYPE_CHECKER
+
+   A dictionary mapping type names to type-checking functions.  A type-checking
+   function has the following signature::
+
+      def check_mytype(option, opt, value)
+
+   where ``option`` is an :class:`Option` instance, ``opt`` is an option string
+   (e.g., ``-f``), and ``value`` is the string from the command line that must
+   be checked and converted to your desired type.  ``check_mytype()`` should
+   return an object of the hypothetical type ``mytype``.  The value returned by
+   a type-checking function will wind up in the OptionValues instance returned
+   by :meth:`OptionParser.parse_args`, or be passed to a callback as the
+   ``value`` parameter.
+
+   Your type-checking function should raise :exc:`OptionValueError` if it
+   encounters any problems.  :exc:`OptionValueError` takes a single string
+   argument, which is passed as-is to :class:`OptionParser`'s :meth:`error`
+   method, which in turn prepends the program name and the string ``"error:"``
+   and prints everything to stderr before terminating the process.
+
+Here's a silly example that demonstrates adding a ``"complex"`` option type to
+parse Python-style complex numbers on the command line.  (This is even sillier
+than it used to be, because :mod:`optparse` 1.3 added built-in support for
+complex numbers, but never mind.)
+
+First, the necessary imports::
+
+   from copy import copy
+   from optparse import Option, OptionValueError
+
+You need to define your type-checker first, since it's referred to later (in the
+:attr:`~Option.TYPE_CHECKER` class attribute of your Option subclass)::
+
+   def check_complex(option, opt, value):
+       try:
+           return complex(value)
+       except ValueError:
+           raise OptionValueError(
+               "option %s: invalid complex value: %r" % (opt, value))
+
+Finally, the Option subclass::
+
+   class MyOption (Option):
+       TYPES = Option.TYPES + ("complex",)
+       TYPE_CHECKER = copy(Option.TYPE_CHECKER)
+       TYPE_CHECKER["complex"] = check_complex
+
+(If we didn't make a :func:`copy` of :attr:`Option.TYPE_CHECKER`, we would end
+up modifying the :attr:`~Option.TYPE_CHECKER` attribute of :mod:`optparse`'s
+Option class.  This being Python, nothing stops you from doing that except good
+manners and common sense.)
+
+That's it!  Now you can write a script that uses the new option type just like
+any other :mod:`optparse`\ -based script, except you have to instruct your
+OptionParser to use MyOption instead of Option::
+
+   parser = OptionParser(option_class=MyOption)
+   parser.add_option("-c", type="complex")
+
+Alternately, you can build your own option list and pass it to OptionParser; if
+you don't use :meth:`add_option` in the above way, you don't need to tell
+OptionParser which option class to use::
+
+   option_list = [MyOption("-c", action="store", type="complex", dest="c")]
+   parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)
+
+
+.. _optparse-adding-new-actions:
+
+Adding new actions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Adding new actions is a bit trickier, because you have to understand that
+:mod:`optparse` has a couple of classifications for actions:
+
+"store" actions
+   actions that result in :mod:`optparse` storing a value to an attribute of the
+   current OptionValues instance; these options require a :attr:`~Option.dest`
+   attribute to be supplied to the Option constructor.
+
+"typed" actions
+   actions that take a value from the command line and expect it to be of a
+   certain type; or rather, a string that can be converted to a certain type.
+   These options require a :attr:`~Option.type` attribute to the Option
+   constructor.
+
+These are overlapping sets: some default "store" actions are ``"store"``,
+``"store_const"``, ``"append"``, and ``"count"``, while the default "typed"
+actions are ``"store"``, ``"append"``, and ``"callback"``.
+
+When you add an action, you need to categorize it by listing it in at least one
+of the following class attributes of Option (all are lists of strings):
+
+.. attribute:: Option.ACTIONS
+
+   All actions must be listed in ACTIONS.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.STORE_ACTIONS
+
+   "store" actions are additionally listed here.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.TYPED_ACTIONS
+
+   "typed" actions are additionally listed here.
+
+.. attribute:: Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS
+
+   Actions that always take a type (i.e. whose options always take a value) are
+   additionally listed here.  The only effect of this is that :mod:`optparse`
+   assigns the default type, ``"string"``, to options with no explicit type
+   whose action is listed in :attr:`ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS`.
+
+In order to actually implement your new action, you must override Option's
+:meth:`take_action` method and add a case that recognizes your action.
+
+For example, let's add an ``"extend"`` action.  This is similar to the standard
+``"append"`` action, but instead of taking a single value from the command-line
+and appending it to an existing list, ``"extend"`` will take multiple values in
+a single comma-delimited string, and extend an existing list with them.  That
+is, if ``--names`` is an ``"extend"`` option of type ``"string"``, the command
+line ::
+
+   --names=foo,bar --names blah --names ding,dong
+
+would result in a list  ::
+
+   ["foo", "bar", "blah", "ding", "dong"]
+
+Again we define a subclass of Option::
+
+   class MyOption(Option):
+
+       ACTIONS = Option.ACTIONS + ("extend",)
+       STORE_ACTIONS = Option.STORE_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
+       TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
+       ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
+
+       def take_action(self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser):
+           if action == "extend":
+               lvalue = value.split(",")
+               values.ensure_value(dest, []).extend(lvalue)
+           else:
+               Option.take_action(
+                   self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser)
+
+Features of note:
+
+* ``"extend"`` both expects a value on the command-line and stores that value
+  somewhere, so it goes in both :attr:`~Option.STORE_ACTIONS` and
+  :attr:`~Option.TYPED_ACTIONS`.
+
+* to ensure that :mod:`optparse` assigns the default type of ``"string"`` to
+  ``"extend"`` actions, we put the ``"extend"`` action in
+  :attr:`~Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS` as well.
+
+* :meth:`MyOption.take_action` implements just this one new action, and passes
+  control back to :meth:`Option.take_action` for the standard :mod:`optparse`
+  actions.
+
+* ``values`` is an instance of the optparse_parser.Values class, which provides
+  the very useful :meth:`ensure_value` method. :meth:`ensure_value` is
+  essentially :func:`getattr` with a safety valve; it is called as ::
+
+     values.ensure_value(attr, value)
+
+  If the ``attr`` attribute of ``values`` doesn't exist or is ``None``, then
+  ensure_value() first sets it to ``value``, and then returns 'value. This is
+  very handy for actions like ``"extend"``, ``"append"``, and ``"count"``, all
+  of which accumulate data in a variable and expect that variable to be of a
+  certain type (a list for the first two, an integer for the latter).  Using
+  :meth:`ensure_value` means that scripts using your action don't have to worry
+  about setting a default value for the option destinations in question; they
+  can just leave the default as ``None`` and :meth:`ensure_value` will take care of
+  getting it right when it's needed.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/os.path.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/os.path.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef0e35d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/os.path.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,462 @@
+:mod:`os.path` --- Common pathname manipulations
+================================================
+
+.. module:: os.path
+   :synopsis: Operations on pathnames.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/posixpath.py` (for POSIX),
+:source:`Lib/ntpath.py` (for Windows NT),
+and :source:`Lib/macpath.py` (for Macintosh)
+
+.. index:: single: path; operations
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements some useful functions on pathnames. To read or
+write files see :func:`open`, and for accessing the filesystem see the
+:mod:`os` module. The path parameters can be passed as either strings,
+or bytes. Applications are encouraged to represent file names as
+(Unicode) character strings. Unfortunately, some file names may not be
+representable as strings on Unix, so applications that need to support
+arbitrary file names on Unix should use bytes objects to represent
+path names. Vice versa, using bytes objects cannot represent all file
+names on Windows (in the standard ``mbcs`` encoding), hence Windows
+applications should use string objects to access all files.
+
+Unlike a unix shell, Python does not do any *automatic* path expansions.
+Functions such as :func:`expanduser` and :func:`expandvars` can be invoked
+explicitly when an application desires shell-like path expansion.  (See also
+the :mod:`glob` module.)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+   The :mod:`pathlib` module offers high-level path objects.
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   All of these functions accept either only bytes or only string objects as
+   their parameters.  The result is an object of the same type, if a path or
+   file name is returned.
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   Since different operating systems have different path name conventions, there
+   are several versions of this module in the standard library.  The
+   :mod:`os.path` module is always the path module suitable for the operating
+   system Python is running on, and therefore usable for local paths.  However,
+   you can also import and use the individual modules if you want to manipulate
+   a path that is *always* in one of the different formats.  They all have the
+   same interface:
+
+   * :mod:`posixpath` for UNIX-style paths
+   * :mod:`ntpath` for Windows paths
+   * :mod:`macpath` for old-style MacOS paths
+
+
+.. function:: abspath(path)
+
+   Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname *path*. On most
+   platforms, this is equivalent to calling the function :func:`normpath` as
+   follows: ``normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: basename(path)
+
+   Return the base name of pathname *path*.  This is the second element of the
+   pair returned by passing *path* to the function :func:`split`.  Note that
+   the result of this function is different
+   from the Unix :program:`basename` program; where :program:`basename` for
+   ``'/foo/bar/'`` returns ``'bar'``, the :func:`basename` function returns an
+   empty string (``''``).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: commonpath(paths)
+
+   Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the sequence
+   *paths*.  Raise :exc:`ValueError` if *paths* contains both absolute and relative
+   pathnames, or if *paths* is empty.  Unlike :func:`commonprefix`, this
+   returns a valid path.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a sequence of :term:`path-like objects <path-like object>`.
+
+
+.. function:: commonprefix(list)
+
+   Return the longest path prefix (taken character-by-character) that is a
+   prefix of all paths in  *list*.  If *list* is empty, return the empty string
+   (``''``).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function may return invalid paths because it works a
+      character at a time.  To obtain a valid path, see
+      :func:`commonpath`.
+
+      ::
+
+        >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
+        '/usr/l'
+
+        >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
+        '/usr'
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: dirname(path)
+
+   Return the directory name of pathname *path*.  This is the first element of
+   the pair returned by passing *path* to the function :func:`split`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: exists(path)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *path* refers to an existing path or an open
+   file descriptor.  Returns ``False`` for broken symbolic links.  On
+   some platforms, this function may return ``False`` if permission is
+   not granted to execute :func:`os.stat` on the requested file, even
+   if the *path* physically exists.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *path* can now be an integer: ``True`` is returned if it is an
+       open file descriptor, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: lexists(path)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *path* refers to an existing path. Returns ``True`` for
+   broken symbolic links.   Equivalent to :func:`exists` on platforms lacking
+   :func:`os.lstat`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. index:: single: ~ (tilde); home directory expansion
+
+.. function:: expanduser(path)
+
+   On Unix and Windows, return the argument with an initial component of ``~`` or
+   ``~user`` replaced by that *user*'s home directory.
+
+   .. index:: module: pwd
+
+   On Unix, an initial ``~`` is replaced by the environment variable :envvar:`HOME`
+   if it is set; otherwise the current user's home directory is looked up in the
+   password directory through the built-in module :mod:`pwd`. An initial ``~user``
+   is looked up directly in the password directory.
+
+   On Windows, :envvar:`HOME` and :envvar:`USERPROFILE` will be used if set,
+   otherwise a combination of :envvar:`HOMEPATH` and :envvar:`HOMEDRIVE` will be
+   used.  An initial ``~user`` is handled by stripping the last directory component
+   from the created user path derived above.
+
+   If the expansion fails or if the path does not begin with a tilde, the path is
+   returned unchanged.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: $ (dollar); environment variables expansion
+   single: % (percent); environment variables expansion (Windows)
+
+.. function:: expandvars(path)
+
+   Return the argument with environment variables expanded.  Substrings of the form
+   ``$name`` or ``${name}`` are replaced by the value of environment variable
+   *name*.  Malformed variable names and references to non-existing variables are
+   left unchanged.
+
+   On Windows, ``%name%`` expansions are supported in addition to ``$name`` and
+   ``${name}``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: getatime(path)
+
+   Return the time of last access of *path*.  The return value is a floating point number giving
+   the number of seconds since the epoch (see the  :mod:`time` module).  Raise
+   :exc:`OSError` if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.
+
+
+.. function:: getmtime(path)
+
+   Return the time of last modification of *path*.  The return value is a floating point number
+   giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see the  :mod:`time` module).
+   Raise :exc:`OSError` if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: getctime(path)
+
+   Return the system's ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the time of the
+   last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is the creation time for *path*.
+   The return value is a number giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see
+   the  :mod:`time` module).  Raise :exc:`OSError` if the file does not exist or
+   is inaccessible.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: getsize(path)
+
+   Return the size, in bytes, of *path*.  Raise :exc:`OSError` if the file does
+   not exist or is inaccessible.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: isabs(path)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *path* is an absolute pathname.  On Unix, that means it
+   begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with a (back)slash after chopping
+   off a potential drive letter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: isfile(path)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *path* is an :func:`existing <exists>` regular file.
+   This follows symbolic links, so both :func:`islink` and :func:`isfile` can
+   be true for the same path.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: isdir(path)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *path* is an :func:`existing <exists>` directory.  This
+   follows symbolic links, so both :func:`islink` and :func:`isdir` can be true
+   for the same path.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: islink(path)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *path* refers to an :func:`existing <exists>` directory
+   entry that is a symbolic link.  Always ``False`` if symbolic links are not
+   supported by the Python runtime.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: ismount(path)
+
+   Return ``True`` if pathname *path* is a :dfn:`mount point`: a point in a
+   file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX, the
+   function checks whether *path*'s parent, :file:`{path}/..`, is on a different
+   device than *path*, or whether :file:`{path}/..` and *path* point to the same
+   i-node on the same device --- this should detect mount points for all Unix
+   and POSIX variants.  It is not able to reliably detect bind mounts on the
+   same filesystem.  On Windows, a drive letter root and a share UNC are
+   always mount points, and for any other path ``GetVolumePathName`` is called
+   to see if it is different from the input path.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      Support for detecting non-root mount points on Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: join(path, *paths)
+
+   Join one or more path components intelligently.  The return value is the
+   concatenation of *path* and any members of *\*paths* with exactly one
+   directory separator (``os.sep``) following each non-empty part except the
+   last, meaning that the result will only end in a separator if the last
+   part is empty.  If a component is an absolute path, all previous
+   components are thrown away and joining continues from the absolute path
+   component.
+
+   On Windows, the drive letter is not reset when an absolute path component
+   (e.g., ``r'\foo'``) is encountered.  If a component contains a drive
+   letter, all previous components are thrown away and the drive letter is
+   reset.  Note that since there is a current directory for each drive,
+   ``os.path.join("c:", "foo")`` represents a path relative to the current
+   directory on drive :file:`C:` (:file:`c:foo`), not :file:`c:\\foo`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *path* and *paths*.
+
+
+.. function:: normcase(path)
+
+   Normalize the case of a pathname.  On Windows, convert all characters in the
+   pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward slashes to backward slashes.
+   On other operating systems, return the path unchanged.
+   Raise a :exc:`TypeError` if the type of *path* is not ``str`` or ``bytes`` (directly
+   or indirectly through the :class:`os.PathLike` interface).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: normpath(path)
+
+   Normalize a pathname by collapsing redundant separators and up-level
+   references so that ``A//B``, ``A/B/``, ``A/./B`` and ``A/foo/../B`` all
+   become ``A/B``.  This string manipulation may change the meaning of a path
+   that contains symbolic links.  On Windows, it converts forward slashes to
+   backward slashes. To normalize case, use :func:`normcase`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: realpath(path)
+
+   Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating any symbolic
+   links encountered in the path (if they are supported by the operating system).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: relpath(path, start=os.curdir)
+
+   Return a relative filepath to *path* either from the current directory or
+   from an optional *start* directory.  This is a path computation:  the
+   filesystem is not accessed to confirm the existence or nature of *path* or
+   *start*.
+
+   *start* defaults to :attr:`os.curdir`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: samefile(path1, path2)
+
+   Return ``True`` if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or directory.
+   This is determined by the device number and i-node number and raises an
+   exception if an :func:`os.stat` call on either pathname fails.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added Windows support.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Windows now uses the same implementation as all other platforms.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: sameopenfile(fp1, fp2)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the file descriptors *fp1* and *fp2* refer to the same file.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added Windows support.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: samestat(stat1, stat2)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the stat tuples *stat1* and *stat2* refer to the same file.
+   These structures may have been returned by :func:`os.fstat`,
+   :func:`os.lstat`, or :func:`os.stat`.  This function implements the
+   underlying comparison used by :func:`samefile` and :func:`sameopenfile`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added Windows support.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: split(path)
+
+   Split the pathname *path* into a pair, ``(head, tail)`` where *tail* is the
+   last pathname component and *head* is everything leading up to that.  The
+   *tail* part will never contain a slash; if *path* ends in a slash, *tail*
+   will be empty.  If there is no slash in *path*, *head* will be empty.  If
+   *path* is empty, both *head* and *tail* are empty.  Trailing slashes are
+   stripped from *head* unless it is the root (one or more slashes only).  In
+   all cases, ``join(head, tail)`` returns a path to the same location as *path*
+   (but the strings may differ).  Also see the functions :func:`dirname` and
+   :func:`basename`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: splitdrive(path)
+
+   Split the pathname *path* into a pair ``(drive, tail)`` where *drive* is either
+   a mount point or the empty string.  On systems which do not use drive
+   specifications, *drive* will always be the empty string.  In all cases, ``drive
+   + tail`` will be the same as *path*.
+
+   On Windows, splits a pathname into drive/UNC sharepoint and relative path.
+
+   If the path contains a drive letter, drive will contain everything
+   up to and including the colon.
+   e.g. ``splitdrive("c:/dir")`` returns ``("c:", "/dir")``
+
+   If the path contains a UNC path, drive will contain the host name
+   and share, up to but not including the fourth separator.
+   e.g. ``splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")`` returns ``("//host/computer", "/dir")``
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: splitext(path)
+
+   Split the pathname *path* into a pair ``(root, ext)``  such that ``root + ext ==
+   path``, and *ext* is empty or begins with a period and contains at most one
+   period. Leading periods on the basename are  ignored; ``splitext('.cshrc')``
+   returns  ``('.cshrc', '')``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. data:: supports_unicode_filenames
+
+   ``True`` if arbitrary Unicode strings can be used as file names (within limitations
+   imposed by the file system).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/os.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/os.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5572b62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/os.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4197 @@
+:mod:`os` --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: os
+   :synopsis: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/os.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a portable way of using operating system dependent
+functionality.  If you just want to read or write a file see :func:`open`, if
+you want to manipulate paths, see the :mod:`os.path` module, and if you want to
+read all the lines in all the files on the command line see the :mod:`fileinput`
+module.  For creating temporary files and directories see the :mod:`tempfile`
+module, and for high-level file and directory handling see the :mod:`shutil`
+module.
+
+Notes on the availability of these functions:
+
+* The design of all built-in operating system dependent modules of Python is
+  such that as long as the same functionality is available, it uses the same
+  interface; for example, the function ``os.stat(path)`` returns stat
+  information about *path* in the same format (which happens to have originated
+  with the POSIX interface).
+
+* Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also available
+  through the :mod:`os` module, but using them is of course a threat to
+  portability.
+
+* All functions accepting path or file names accept both bytes and string
+  objects, and result in an object of the same type, if a path or file name is
+  returned.
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   All functions in this module raise :exc:`OSError` (or subclasses thereof) in
+   the case of invalid or inaccessible file names and paths, or other arguments
+   that have the correct type, but are not accepted by the operating system.
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   An alias for the built-in :exc:`OSError` exception.
+
+
+.. data:: name
+
+   The name of the operating system dependent module imported.  The following
+   names have currently been registered: ``'posix'``, ``'nt'``,
+   ``'java'``.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :attr:`sys.platform` has a finer granularity.  :func:`os.uname` gives
+      system-dependent version information.
+
+      The :mod:`platform` module provides detailed checks for the
+      system's identity.
+
+
+.. _os-filenames:
+.. _filesystem-encoding:
+
+File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables
+-------------------------------------------------------------
+
+In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables are
+represented using the string type. On some systems, decoding these strings to
+and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the operating system. Python
+uses the file system encoding to perform this conversion (see
+:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`).
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   On some systems, conversion using the file system encoding may fail. In this
+   case, Python uses the :ref:`surrogateescape encoding error handler
+   <surrogateescape>`, which means that undecodable bytes are replaced by a
+   Unicode character U+DCxx on decoding, and these are again translated to the
+   original byte on encoding.
+
+
+The file system encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes
+below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API
+functions may raise UnicodeErrors.
+
+
+.. _os-procinfo:
+
+Process Parameters
+------------------
+
+These functions and data items provide information and operate on the current
+process and user.
+
+
+.. function:: ctermid()
+
+   Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of the process.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: environ
+
+   A :term:`mapping` object representing the string environment. For example,
+   ``environ['HOME']`` is the pathname of your home directory (on some platforms),
+   and is equivalent to ``getenv("HOME")`` in C.
+
+   This mapping is captured the first time the :mod:`os` module is imported,
+   typically during Python startup as part of processing :file:`site.py`.  Changes
+   to the environment made after this time are not reflected in ``os.environ``,
+   except for changes made by modifying ``os.environ`` directly.
+
+   If the platform supports the :func:`putenv` function, this mapping may be used
+   to modify the environment as well as query the environment.  :func:`putenv` will
+   be called automatically when the mapping is modified.
+
+   On Unix, keys and values use :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` and
+   ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler. Use :data:`environb` if you would like
+   to use a different encoding.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Calling :func:`putenv` directly does not change ``os.environ``, so it's better
+      to modify ``os.environ``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On some platforms, including FreeBSD and Mac OS X, setting ``environ`` may
+      cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system documentation for
+      :c:func:`putenv`.
+
+   If :func:`putenv` is not provided, a modified copy of this mapping  may be
+   passed to the appropriate process-creation functions to cause  child processes
+   to use a modified environment.
+
+   If the platform supports the :func:`unsetenv` function, you can delete items in
+   this mapping to unset environment variables. :func:`unsetenv` will be called
+   automatically when an item is deleted from ``os.environ``, and when
+   one of the :meth:`pop` or :meth:`clear` methods is called.
+
+
+.. data:: environb
+
+   Bytes version of :data:`environ`: a :term:`mapping` object representing the
+   environment as byte strings. :data:`environ` and :data:`environb` are
+   synchronized (modify :data:`environb` updates :data:`environ`, and vice
+   versa).
+
+   :data:`environb` is only available if :data:`supports_bytes_environ` is
+   True.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: chdir(path)
+              fchdir(fd)
+              getcwd()
+   :noindex:
+
+   These functions are described in :ref:`os-file-dir`.
+
+
+.. function:: fsencode(filename)
+
+   Encode :term:`path-like <path-like object>` *filename* to the filesystem
+   encoding with ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler, or ``'strict'`` on
+   Windows; return :class:`bytes` unchanged.
+
+   :func:`fsdecode` is the reverse function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Support added to accept objects implementing the :class:`os.PathLike`
+      interface.
+
+
+.. function:: fsdecode(filename)
+
+   Decode the :term:`path-like <path-like object>` *filename* from the
+   filesystem encoding with ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler, or ``'strict'``
+   on Windows; return :class:`str` unchanged.
+
+   :func:`fsencode` is the reverse function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Support added to accept objects implementing the :class:`os.PathLike`
+      interface.
+
+
+.. function:: fspath(path)
+
+   Return the file system representation of the path.
+
+   If :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` is passed in, it is returned unchanged.
+   Otherwise :meth:`~os.PathLike.__fspath__` is called and its value is
+   returned as long as it is a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object.
+   In all other cases, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. class:: PathLike
+
+   An :term:`abstract base class` for objects representing a file system path,
+   e.g. :class:`pathlib.PurePath`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: __fspath__()
+
+      Return the file system path representation of the object.
+
+      The method should only return a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object,
+      with the preference being for :class:`str`.
+
+
+.. function:: getenv(key, default=None)
+
+   Return the value of the environment variable *key* if it exists, or
+   *default* if it doesn't. *key*, *default* and the result are str.
+
+   On Unix, keys and values are decoded with :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`
+   and ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler. Use :func:`os.getenvb` if you
+   would like to use a different encoding.
+
+   .. availability:: most flavors of Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: getenvb(key, default=None)
+
+   Return the value of the environment variable *key* if it exists, or
+   *default* if it doesn't. *key*, *default* and the result are bytes.
+
+   :func:`getenvb` is only available if :data:`supports_bytes_environ`
+   is True.
+
+   .. availability:: most flavors of Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: get_exec_path(env=None)
+
+   Returns the list of directories that will be searched for a named
+   executable, similar to a shell, when launching a process.
+   *env*, when specified, should be an environment variable dictionary
+   to lookup the PATH in.
+   By default, when *env* is ``None``, :data:`environ` is used.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: getegid()
+
+   Return the effective group id of the current process.  This corresponds to the
+   "set id" bit on the file being executed in the current process.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: geteuid()
+
+   .. index:: single: user; effective id
+
+   Return the current process's effective user id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getgid()
+
+   .. index:: single: process; group
+
+   Return the real group id of the current process.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getgrouplist(user, group)
+
+   Return list of group ids that *user* belongs to. If *group* is not in the
+   list, it is included; typically, *group* is specified as the group ID
+   field from the password record for *user*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: getgroups()
+
+   Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On Mac OS X, :func:`getgroups` behavior differs somewhat from
+      other Unix platforms. If the Python interpreter was built with a
+      deployment target of :const:`10.5` or earlier, :func:`getgroups` returns
+      the list of effective group ids associated with the current user process;
+      this list is limited to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16,
+      and may be modified by calls to :func:`setgroups` if suitably privileged.
+      If built with a deployment target greater than :const:`10.5`,
+      :func:`getgroups` returns the current group access list for the user
+      associated with the effective user id of the process; the group access
+      list may change over the lifetime of the process, it is not affected by
+      calls to :func:`setgroups`, and its length is not limited to 16.  The
+      deployment target value, :const:`MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET`, can be
+      obtained with :func:`sysconfig.get_config_var`.
+
+
+.. function:: getlogin()
+
+   Return the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal of the
+   process.  For most purposes, it is more useful to use
+   :func:`getpass.getuser` since the latter checks the environment variables
+   :envvar:`LOGNAME` or :envvar:`USERNAME` to find out who the user is, and
+   falls back to ``pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0]`` to get the login name of the
+   current real user id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: getpgid(pid)
+
+   Return the process group id of the process with process id *pid*. If *pid* is 0,
+   the process group id of the current process is returned.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+.. function:: getpgrp()
+
+   .. index:: single: process; group
+
+   Return the id of the current process group.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getpid()
+
+   .. index:: single: process; id
+
+   Return the current process id.
+
+
+.. function:: getppid()
+
+   .. index:: single: process; id of parent
+
+   Return the parent's process id.  When the parent process has exited, on Unix
+   the id returned is the one of the init process (1), on Windows it is still
+   the same id, which may be already reused by another process.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added support for Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: getpriority(which, who)
+
+   .. index:: single: process; scheduling priority
+
+   Get program scheduling priority.  The value *which* is one of
+   :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, or :const:`PRIO_USER`, and *who*
+   is interpreted relative to *which* (a process identifier for
+   :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, process group identifier for :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, and a
+   user ID for :const:`PRIO_USER`).  A zero value for *who* denotes
+   (respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process,
+   or the real user ID of the calling process.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: PRIO_PROCESS
+          PRIO_PGRP
+          PRIO_USER
+
+   Parameters for the :func:`getpriority` and :func:`setpriority` functions.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: getresuid()
+
+   Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process's
+   real, effective, and saved user ids.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: getresgid()
+
+   Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process's
+   real, effective, and saved group ids.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: getuid()
+
+   .. index:: single: user; id
+
+   Return the current process's real user id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: initgroups(username, gid)
+
+   Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of
+   the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified
+   group id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: putenv(key, value)
+
+   .. index:: single: environment variables; setting
+
+   Set the environment variable named *key* to the string *value*.  Such
+   changes to the environment affect subprocesses started with :func:`os.system`,
+   :func:`popen` or :func:`fork` and :func:`execv`.
+
+   .. availability:: most flavors of Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On some platforms, including FreeBSD and Mac OS X, setting ``environ`` may
+      cause memory leaks. Refer to the system documentation for putenv.
+
+   When :func:`putenv` is supported, assignments to items in ``os.environ`` are
+   automatically translated into corresponding calls to :func:`putenv`; however,
+   calls to :func:`putenv` don't update ``os.environ``, so it is actually
+   preferable to assign to items of ``os.environ``.
+
+
+.. function:: setegid(egid)
+
+   Set the current process's effective group id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: seteuid(euid)
+
+   Set the current process's effective user id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setgid(gid)
+
+   Set the current process' group id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setgroups(groups)
+
+   Set the list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process to
+   *groups*. *groups* must be a sequence, and each element must be an integer
+   identifying a group. This operation is typically available only to the superuser.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. note:: On Mac OS X, the length of *groups* may not exceed the
+      system-defined maximum number of effective group ids, typically 16.
+      See the documentation for :func:`getgroups` for cases where it may not
+      return the same group list set by calling setgroups().
+
+.. function:: setpgrp()
+
+   Call the system call :c:func:`setpgrp` or ``setpgrp(0, 0)`` depending on
+   which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setpgid(pid, pgrp)
+
+   Call the system call :c:func:`setpgid` to set the process group id of the
+   process with id *pid* to the process group with id *pgrp*.  See the Unix manual
+   for the semantics.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setpriority(which, who, priority)
+
+   .. index:: single: process; scheduling priority
+
+   Set program scheduling priority. The value *which* is one of
+   :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, or :const:`PRIO_USER`, and *who*
+   is interpreted relative to *which* (a process identifier for
+   :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, process group identifier for :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, and a
+   user ID for :const:`PRIO_USER`). A zero value for *who* denotes
+   (respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process,
+   or the real user ID of the calling process.
+   *priority* is a value in the range -20 to 19. The default priority is 0;
+   lower priorities cause more favorable scheduling.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: setregid(rgid, egid)
+
+   Set the current process's real and effective group ids.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setresgid(rgid, egid, sgid)
+
+   Set the current process's real, effective, and saved group ids.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: setresuid(ruid, euid, suid)
+
+   Set the current process's real, effective, and saved user ids.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: setreuid(ruid, euid)
+
+   Set the current process's real and effective user ids.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getsid(pid)
+
+   Call the system call :c:func:`getsid`.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setsid()
+
+   Call the system call :c:func:`setsid`.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: setuid(uid)
+
+   .. index:: single: user; id, setting
+
+   Set the current process's user id.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. placed in this section since it relates to errno.... a little weak
+.. function:: strerror(code)
+
+   Return the error message corresponding to the error code in *code*.
+   On platforms where :c:func:`strerror` returns ``NULL`` when given an unknown
+   error number, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+.. data:: supports_bytes_environ
+
+   ``True`` if the native OS type of the environment is bytes (eg. ``False`` on
+   Windows).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: umask(mask)
+
+   Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.
+
+
+.. function:: uname()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: gethostname() (in module socket)
+      single: gethostbyaddr() (in module socket)
+
+   Returns information identifying the current operating system.
+   The return value is an object with five attributes:
+
+   * :attr:`sysname` - operating system name
+   * :attr:`nodename` - name of machine on network (implementation-defined)
+   * :attr:`release` - operating system release
+   * :attr:`version` - operating system version
+   * :attr:`machine` - hardware identifier
+
+   For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
+   like a five-tuple containing :attr:`sysname`, :attr:`nodename`,
+   :attr:`release`, :attr:`version`, and :attr:`machine`
+   in that order.
+
+   Some systems truncate :attr:`nodename` to 8 characters or to the
+   leading component; a better way to get the hostname is
+   :func:`socket.gethostname`  or even
+   ``socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())``.
+
+   .. availability:: recent flavors of Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object
+      with named attributes.
+
+
+.. function:: unsetenv(key)
+
+   .. index:: single: environment variables; deleting
+
+   Unset (delete) the environment variable named *key*. Such changes to the
+   environment affect subprocesses started with :func:`os.system`, :func:`popen` or
+   :func:`fork` and :func:`execv`.
+
+   When :func:`unsetenv` is supported, deletion of items in ``os.environ`` is
+   automatically translated into a corresponding call to :func:`unsetenv`; however,
+   calls to :func:`unsetenv` don't update ``os.environ``, so it is actually
+   preferable to delete items of ``os.environ``.
+
+   .. availability:: most flavors of Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. _os-newstreams:
+
+File Object Creation
+--------------------
+
+This function creates new :term:`file objects <file object>`.  (See also
+:func:`~os.open` for opening file descriptors.)
+
+
+.. function:: fdopen(fd, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor *fd*.  This is an
+   alias of the :func:`open` built-in function and accepts the same arguments.
+   The only difference is that the first argument of :func:`fdopen` must always
+   be an integer.
+
+
+.. _os-fd-ops:
+
+File Descriptor Operations
+--------------------------
+
+These functions operate on I/O streams referenced using file descriptors.
+
+File descriptors are small integers corresponding to a file that has been opened
+by the current process.  For example, standard input is usually file descriptor
+0, standard output is 1, and standard error is 2.  Further files opened by a
+process will then be assigned 3, 4, 5, and so forth.  The name "file descriptor"
+is slightly deceptive; on Unix platforms, sockets and pipes are also referenced
+by file descriptors.
+
+The :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method can be used to obtain the file descriptor
+associated with a :term:`file object` when required.  Note that using the file
+descriptor directly will bypass the file object methods, ignoring aspects such
+as internal buffering of data.
+
+
+.. function:: close(fd)
+
+   Close file descriptor *fd*.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
+      descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`.  To close a "file
+      object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by :func:`popen` or
+      :func:`fdopen`, use its :meth:`~io.IOBase.close` method.
+
+
+.. function:: closerange(fd_low, fd_high)
+
+   Close all file descriptors from *fd_low* (inclusive) to *fd_high* (exclusive),
+   ignoring errors. Equivalent to (but much faster than)::
+
+      for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
+          try:
+              os.close(fd)
+          except OSError:
+              pass
+
+
+.. function:: device_encoding(fd)
+
+   Return a string describing the encoding of the device associated with *fd*
+   if it is connected to a terminal; else return :const:`None`.
+
+
+.. function:: dup(fd)
+
+   Return a duplicate of file descriptor *fd*. The new file descriptor is
+   :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   On Windows, when duplicating a standard stream (0: stdin, 1: stdout,
+   2: stderr), the new file descriptor is :ref:`inheritable
+   <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
+
+
+.. function:: dup2(fd, fd2, inheritable=True)
+
+   Duplicate file descriptor *fd* to *fd2*, closing the latter first if
+   necessary. Return *fd2*. The new file descriptor is :ref:`inheritable
+   <fd_inheritance>` by default or non-inheritable if *inheritable*
+   is ``False``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Add the optional *inheritable* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Return *fd2* on success. Previously, ``None`` was always returned.
+
+
+.. function:: fchmod(fd, mode)
+
+   Change the mode of the file given by *fd* to the numeric *mode*.  See the
+   docs for :func:`chmod` for possible values of *mode*.  As of Python 3.3, this
+   is equivalent to ``os.chmod(fd, mode)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: fchown(fd, uid, gid)
+
+   Change the owner and group id of the file given by *fd* to the numeric *uid*
+   and *gid*.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.  See
+   :func:`chown`.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.chown(fd, uid,
+   gid)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: fdatasync(fd)
+
+   Force write of file with filedescriptor *fd* to disk. Does not force update of
+   metadata.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. note::
+      This function is not available on MacOS.
+
+
+.. function:: fpathconf(fd, name)
+
+   Return system configuration information relevant to an open file. *name*
+   specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the
+   name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of
+   standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some platforms define
+   additional names as well.  The names known to the host operating system are
+   given in the ``pathconf_names`` dictionary.  For configuration variables not
+   included in that mapping, passing an integer for *name* is also accepted.
+
+   If *name* is a string and is not known, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  If a
+   specific value for *name* is not supported by the host system, even if it is
+   included in ``pathconf_names``, an :exc:`OSError` is raised with
+   :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number.
+
+   As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.pathconf(fd, name)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: fstat(fd)
+
+   Get the status of the file descriptor *fd*. Return a :class:`stat_result`
+   object.
+
+   As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.stat(fd)``.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :func:`.stat` function.
+
+
+.. function:: fstatvfs(fd)
+
+   Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with
+   file descriptor *fd*, like :func:`statvfs`.  As of Python 3.3, this is
+   equivalent to ``os.statvfs(fd)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: fsync(fd)
+
+   Force write of file with filedescriptor *fd* to disk.  On Unix, this calls the
+   native :c:func:`fsync` function; on Windows, the MS :c:func:`_commit` function.
+
+   If you're starting with a buffered Python :term:`file object` *f*, first do
+   ``f.flush()``, and then do ``os.fsync(f.fileno())``, to ensure that all internal
+   buffers associated with *f* are written to disk.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: ftruncate(fd, length)
+
+   Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor *fd*, so that it is at
+   most *length* bytes in size.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
+   ``os.truncate(fd, length)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for Windows
+
+.. function:: get_blocking(fd)
+
+   Get the blocking mode of the file descriptor: ``False`` if the
+   :data:`O_NONBLOCK` flag is set, ``True`` if the flag is cleared.
+
+   See also :func:`set_blocking` and :meth:`socket.socket.setblocking`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. function:: isatty(fd)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the file descriptor *fd* is open and connected to a
+   tty(-like) device, else ``False``.
+
+
+.. function:: lockf(fd, cmd, len)
+
+   Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.
+   *fd* is an open file descriptor.
+   *cmd* specifies the command to use - one of :data:`F_LOCK`, :data:`F_TLOCK`,
+   :data:`F_ULOCK` or :data:`F_TEST`.
+   *len* specifies the section of the file to lock.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: F_LOCK
+          F_TLOCK
+          F_ULOCK
+          F_TEST
+
+   Flags that specify what action :func:`lockf` will take.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: lseek(fd, pos, how)
+
+   Set the current position of file descriptor *fd* to position *pos*, modified
+   by *how*: :const:`SEEK_SET` or ``0`` to set the position relative to the
+   beginning of the file; :const:`SEEK_CUR` or ``1`` to set it relative to the
+   current position; :const:`SEEK_END` or ``2`` to set it relative to the end of
+   the file. Return the new cursor position in bytes, starting from the beginning.
+
+
+.. data:: SEEK_SET
+          SEEK_CUR
+          SEEK_END
+
+   Parameters to the :func:`lseek` function. Their values are 0, 1, and 2,
+   respectively.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Some operating systems could support additional values, like
+      :data:`os.SEEK_HOLE` or :data:`os.SEEK_DATA`.
+
+
+.. function:: open(path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Open the file *path* and set various flags according to *flags* and possibly
+   its mode according to *mode*.  When computing *mode*, the current umask value
+   is first masked out.  Return the file descriptor for the newly opened file.
+   The new file descriptor is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time documentation;
+   flag constants (like :const:`O_RDONLY` and :const:`O_WRONLY`) are defined in
+   the :mod:`os` module.  In particular, on Windows adding
+   :const:`O_BINARY` is needed to open files in binary mode.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>` with the *dir_fd* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is intended for low-level I/O.  For normal usage, use the
+      built-in function :func:`open`, which returns a :term:`file object` with
+      :meth:`~file.read` and :meth:`~file.write` methods (and many more).  To
+      wrap a file descriptor in a file object, use :func:`fdopen`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+      exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+      :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+The following constants are options for the *flags* parameter to the
+:func:`~os.open` function.  They can be combined using the bitwise OR operator
+``|``.  Some of them are not available on all platforms.  For descriptions of
+their availability and use, consult the :manpage:`open(2)` manual page on Unix
+or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windows.
+
+
+.. data:: O_RDONLY
+          O_WRONLY
+          O_RDWR
+          O_APPEND
+          O_CREAT
+          O_EXCL
+          O_TRUNC
+
+   The above constants are available on Unix and Windows.
+
+
+.. data:: O_DSYNC
+          O_RSYNC
+          O_SYNC
+          O_NDELAY
+          O_NONBLOCK
+          O_NOCTTY
+          O_CLOEXEC
+
+   The above constants are only available on Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Add :data:`O_CLOEXEC` constant.
+
+.. data:: O_BINARY
+          O_NOINHERIT
+          O_SHORT_LIVED
+          O_TEMPORARY
+          O_RANDOM
+          O_SEQUENTIAL
+          O_TEXT
+
+   The above constants are only available on Windows.
+
+
+.. data:: O_ASYNC
+          O_DIRECT
+          O_DIRECTORY
+          O_NOFOLLOW
+          O_NOATIME
+          O_PATH
+          O_TMPFILE
+          O_SHLOCK
+          O_EXLOCK
+
+   The above constants are extensions and not present if they are not defined by
+   the C library.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Add :data:`O_PATH` on systems that support it.
+      Add :data:`O_TMPFILE`, only available on Linux Kernel 3.11
+        or newer.
+
+
+.. function:: openpty()
+
+   .. index:: module: pty
+
+   Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors
+   ``(master, slave)`` for the pty and the tty, respectively. The new file
+   descriptors are :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`. For a (slightly) more
+   portable approach, use the :mod:`pty` module.
+
+   .. availability:: some flavors of Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.
+
+
+.. function:: pipe()
+
+   Create a pipe.  Return a pair of file descriptors ``(r, w)`` usable for
+   reading and writing, respectively. The new file descriptor is
+   :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.
+
+
+.. function:: pipe2(flags)
+
+   Create a pipe with *flags* set atomically.
+   *flags* can be constructed by ORing together one or more of these values:
+   :data:`O_NONBLOCK`, :data:`O_CLOEXEC`.
+   Return a pair of file descriptors ``(r, w)`` usable for reading and writing,
+   respectively.
+
+   .. availability:: some flavors of Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: posix_fallocate(fd, offset, len)
+
+   Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified by *fd*
+   starting from *offset* and continuing for *len* bytes.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: posix_fadvise(fd, offset, len, advice)
+
+   Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus allowing
+   the kernel to make optimizations.
+   The advice applies to the region of the file specified by *fd* starting at
+   *offset* and continuing for *len* bytes.
+   *advice* is one of :data:`POSIX_FADV_NORMAL`, :data:`POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL`,
+   :data:`POSIX_FADV_RANDOM`, :data:`POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE`,
+   :data:`POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED` or :data:`POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: POSIX_FADV_NORMAL
+          POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL
+          POSIX_FADV_RANDOM
+          POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE
+          POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED
+          POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED
+
+   Flags that can be used in *advice* in :func:`posix_fadvise` that specify
+   the access pattern that is likely to be used.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: pread(fd, n, offset)
+
+   Read at most *n* bytes from file descriptor *fd* at a position of *offset*,
+   leaving the file offset unchanged.
+
+   Return a bytestring containing the bytes read. If the end of the file
+   referred to by *fd* has been reached, an empty bytes object is returned.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: preadv(fd, buffers, offset, flags=0)
+
+   Read from a file descriptor *fd* at a position of *offset* into mutable
+   :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` *buffers*, leaving the file
+   offset unchanged.  Transfer data into each buffer until it is full and then
+   move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the rest of the data.
+
+   The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the following
+   flags:
+
+   - :data:`RWF_HIPRI`
+   - :data:`RWF_NOWAIT`
+
+   Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less than the
+   total capacity of all the objects.
+
+   The operating system may set a limit (:func:`sysconf` value
+   ``'SC_IOV_MAX'``) on the number of buffers that can be used.
+
+   Combine the functionality of :func:`os.readv` and :func:`os.pread`.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.30 and newer, FreeBSD 6.0 and newer,
+      OpenBSD 2.7 and newer. Using flags requires Linux 4.6 or newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: RWF_NOWAIT
+
+   Do not wait for data which is not immediately available. If this flag is
+   specified, the system call will return instantly if it would have to read
+   data from the backing storage or wait for a lock.
+
+   If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of bytes read.
+   If no bytes were read, it will return ``-1`` and set errno to
+   :data:`errno.EAGAIN`.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 4.14 and newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: RWF_HIPRI
+
+   High priority read/write. Allows block-based filesystems to use polling
+   of the device, which provides lower latency, but may use additional
+   resources.
+
+   Currently, on Linux, this feature is usable only on a file descriptor opened
+   using the :data:`O_DIRECT` flag.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 4.6 and newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: pwrite(fd, str, offset)
+
+   Write the bytestring in *str* to file descriptor *fd* at position of
+   *offset*, leaving the file offset unchanged.
+
+   Return the number of bytes actually written.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: pwritev(fd, buffers, offset, flags=0)
+
+   Write the *buffers* contents to file descriptor *fd* at a offset *offset*,
+   leaving the file offset unchanged.  *buffers* must be a sequence of
+   :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`. Buffers are processed in
+   array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written before
+   proceeding to the second, and so on.
+
+   The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the following
+   flags:
+
+   - :data:`RWF_DSYNC`
+   - :data:`RWF_SYNC`
+
+   Return the total number of bytes actually written.
+
+   The operating system may set a limit (:func:`sysconf` value
+   ``'SC_IOV_MAX'``) on the number of buffers that can be used.
+
+   Combine the functionality of :func:`os.writev` and :func:`os.pwrite`.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.30 and newer, FreeBSD 6.0 and newer,
+      OpenBSD 2.7 and newer. Using flags requires Linux 4.7 or newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: RWF_DSYNC
+
+   Provide a per-write equivalent of the :data:`O_DSYNC` ``open(2)`` flag. This
+   flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 4.7 and newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: RWF_SYNC
+
+   Provide a per-write equivalent of the :data:`O_SYNC` ``open(2)`` flag. This
+   flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 4.7 and newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: read(fd, n)
+
+   Read at most *n* bytes from file descriptor *fd*.
+
+   Return a bytestring containing the bytes read. If the end of the file
+   referred to by *fd* has been reached, an empty bytes object is returned.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
+      descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`.  To read a
+      "file object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by
+      :func:`popen` or :func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdin`, use its
+      :meth:`~file.read` or :meth:`~file.readline` methods.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+      exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+      :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. function:: sendfile(out, in, offset, count)
+              sendfile(out, in, offset, count, [headers], [trailers], flags=0)
+
+   Copy *count* bytes from file descriptor *in* to file descriptor *out*
+   starting at *offset*.
+   Return the number of bytes sent. When EOF is reached return 0.
+
+   The first function notation is supported by all platforms that define
+   :func:`sendfile`.
+
+   On Linux, if *offset* is given as ``None``, the bytes are read from the
+   current position of *in* and the position of *in* is updated.
+
+   The second case may be used on Mac OS X and FreeBSD where *headers* and
+   *trailers* are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written before and
+   after the data from *in* is written. It returns the same as the first case.
+
+   On Mac OS X and FreeBSD, a value of 0 for *count* specifies to send until
+   the end of *in* is reached.
+
+   All platforms support sockets as *out* file descriptor, and some platforms
+   allow other types (e.g. regular file, pipe) as well.
+
+   Cross-platform applications should not use *headers*, *trailers* and *flags*
+   arguments.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      For a higher-level wrapper of :func:`sendfile`, see
+      :meth:`socket.socket.sendfile`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: set_blocking(fd, blocking)
+
+   Set the blocking mode of the specified file descriptor. Set the
+   :data:`O_NONBLOCK` flag if blocking is ``False``, clear the flag otherwise.
+
+   See also :func:`get_blocking` and :meth:`socket.socket.setblocking`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. data:: SF_NODISKIO
+          SF_MNOWAIT
+          SF_SYNC
+
+   Parameters to the :func:`sendfile` function, if the implementation supports
+   them.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: readv(fd, buffers)
+
+   Read from a file descriptor *fd* into a number of mutable :term:`bytes-like
+   objects <bytes-like object>` *buffers*. Transfer data into each buffer until
+   it is full and then move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the
+   rest of the data.
+
+   Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less than the
+   total capacity of all the objects.
+
+   The operating system may set a limit (:func:`sysconf` value
+   ``'SC_IOV_MAX'``) on the number of buffers that can be used.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: tcgetpgrp(fd)
+
+   Return the process group associated with the terminal given by *fd* (an open
+   file descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open`).
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: tcsetpgrp(fd, pg)
+
+   Set the process group associated with the terminal given by *fd* (an open file
+   descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open`) to *pg*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: ttyname(fd)
+
+   Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with
+   file descriptor *fd*.  If *fd* is not associated with a terminal device, an
+   exception is raised.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: write(fd, str)
+
+   Write the bytestring in *str* to file descriptor *fd*.
+
+   Return the number of bytes actually written.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
+      descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`.  To write a "file
+      object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by :func:`popen` or
+      :func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdout` or :data:`sys.stderr`, use its
+      :meth:`~file.write` method.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+      exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+      :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. function:: writev(fd, buffers)
+
+   Write the contents of *buffers* to file descriptor *fd*. *buffers* must be
+   a sequence of :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`. Buffers are
+   processed in array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written
+   before proceeding to the second, and so on.
+
+   Returns the total number of bytes actually written.
+
+   The operating system may set a limit (:func:`sysconf` value
+   ``'SC_IOV_MAX'``) on the number of buffers that can be used.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. _terminal-size:
+
+Querying the size of a terminal
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: get_terminal_size(fd=STDOUT_FILENO)
+
+   Return the size of the terminal window as ``(columns, lines)``,
+   tuple of type :class:`terminal_size`.
+
+   The optional argument ``fd`` (default ``STDOUT_FILENO``, or standard
+   output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried.
+
+   If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an :exc:`OSError`
+   is raised.
+
+   :func:`shutil.get_terminal_size` is the high-level function which
+   should normally be used, ``os.get_terminal_size`` is the low-level
+   implementation.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+.. class:: terminal_size
+
+   A subclass of tuple, holding ``(columns, lines)`` of the terminal window size.
+
+   .. attribute:: columns
+
+      Width of the terminal window in characters.
+
+   .. attribute:: lines
+
+      Height of the terminal window in characters.
+
+
+.. _fd_inheritance:
+
+Inheritance of File Descriptors
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+A file descriptor has an "inheritable" flag which indicates if the file descriptor
+can be inherited by child processes.  Since Python 3.4, file descriptors
+created by Python are non-inheritable by default.
+
+On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes at the
+execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited.
+
+On Windows, non-inheritable handles and file descriptors are closed in child
+processes, except for standard streams (file descriptors 0, 1 and 2: stdin, stdout
+and stderr), which are always inherited.  Using :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` functions,
+all inheritable handles and all inheritable file descriptors are inherited.
+Using the :mod:`subprocess` module, all file descriptors except standard
+streams are closed, and inheritable handles are only inherited if the
+*close_fds* parameter is ``False``.
+
+.. function:: get_inheritable(fd)
+
+   Get the "inheritable" flag of the specified file descriptor (a boolean).
+
+.. function:: set_inheritable(fd, inheritable)
+
+   Set the "inheritable" flag of the specified file descriptor.
+
+.. function:: get_handle_inheritable(handle)
+
+   Get the "inheritable" flag of the specified handle (a boolean).
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+.. function:: set_handle_inheritable(handle, inheritable)
+
+   Set the "inheritable" flag of the specified handle.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. _os-file-dir:
+
+Files and Directories
+---------------------
+
+On some Unix platforms, many of these functions support one or more of these
+features:
+
+.. _path_fd:
+
+* **specifying a file descriptor:**
+  For some functions, the *path* argument can be not only a string giving a path
+  name, but also a file descriptor.  The function will then operate on the file
+  referred to by the descriptor.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the
+  ``f...`` version of the function.)
+
+  You can check whether or not *path* can be specified as a file descriptor on
+  your platform using :data:`os.supports_fd`.  If it is unavailable, using it
+  will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+  If the function also supports *dir_fd* or *follow_symlinks* arguments, it is
+  an error to specify one of those when supplying *path* as a file descriptor.
+
+.. _dir_fd:
+
+* **paths relative to directory descriptors:** If *dir_fd* is not ``None``, it
+  should be a file descriptor referring to a directory, and the path to operate
+  on should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.  If the
+  path is absolute, *dir_fd* is ignored.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call
+  the ``...at`` or ``f...at`` version of the function.)
+
+  You can check whether or not *dir_fd* is supported on your platform using
+  :data:`os.supports_dir_fd`.  If it is unavailable, using it will raise a
+  :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+.. _follow_symlinks:
+
+* **not following symlinks:** If *follow_symlinks* is
+  ``False``, and the last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link,
+  the function will operate on the symbolic link itself instead of the file the
+  link points to.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the ``l...`` version of
+  the function.)
+
+  You can check whether or not *follow_symlinks* is supported on your platform
+  using :data:`os.supports_follow_symlinks`.  If it is unavailable, using it
+  will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+
+
+.. function:: access(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Use the real uid/gid to test for access to *path*.  Note that most operations
+   will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine can be used in a
+   suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user has the specified access to
+   *path*.  *mode* should be :const:`F_OK` to test the existence of *path*, or it
+   can be the inclusive OR of one or more of :const:`R_OK`, :const:`W_OK`, and
+   :const:`X_OK` to test permissions.  Return :const:`True` if access is allowed,
+   :const:`False` if not. See the Unix man page :manpage:`access(2)` for more
+   information.
+
+   This function can support specifying :ref:`paths relative to directory
+   descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   If *effective_ids* is ``True``, :func:`access` will perform its access
+   checks using the effective uid/gid instead of the real uid/gid.
+   *effective_ids* may not be supported on your platform; you can check whether
+   or not it is available using :data:`os.supports_effective_ids`.  If it is
+   unavailable, using it will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Using :func:`access` to check if a user is authorized to e.g. open a file
+      before actually doing so using :func:`open` creates a security hole,
+      because the user might exploit the short time interval between checking
+      and opening the file to manipulate it. It's preferable to use :term:`EAFP`
+      techniques. For example::
+
+         if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
+             with open("myfile") as fp:
+                 return fp.read()
+         return "some default data"
+
+      is better written as::
+
+         try:
+             fp = open("myfile")
+         except PermissionError:
+             return "some default data"
+         else:
+             with fp:
+                 return fp.read()
+
+   .. note::
+
+      I/O operations may fail even when :func:`access` indicates that they would
+      succeed, particularly for operations on network filesystems which may have
+      permissions semantics beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *dir_fd*, *effective_ids*, and *follow_symlinks* parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. data:: F_OK
+          R_OK
+          W_OK
+          X_OK
+
+   Values to pass as the *mode* parameter of :func:`access` to test the
+   existence, readability, writability and executability of *path*,
+   respectively.
+
+
+.. function:: chdir(path)
+
+   .. index:: single: directory; changing
+
+   Change the current working directory to *path*.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`.  The
+   descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file.
+
+   This function can raise :exc:`OSError` and subclasses such as
+   :exc:`FileNotFoundError`, :exc:`PermissionError`, and :exc:`NotADirectoryError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added support for specifying *path* as a file descriptor
+      on some platforms.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: chflags(path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Set the flags of *path* to the numeric *flags*. *flags* may take a combination
+   (bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the :mod:`stat` module):
+
+   * :data:`stat.UF_NODUMP`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_IMMUTABLE`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_APPEND`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_OPAQUE`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_NOUNLINK`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_COMPRESSED`
+   * :data:`stat.UF_HIDDEN`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_ARCHIVED`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_IMMUTABLE`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_APPEND`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_NOUNLINK`
+   * :data:`stat.SF_SNAPSHOT`
+
+   This function can support :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *follow_symlinks* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: chmod(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Change the mode of *path* to the numeric *mode*. *mode* may take one of the
+   following values (as defined in the :mod:`stat` module) or bitwise ORed
+   combinations of them:
+
+   * :data:`stat.S_ISUID`
+   * :data:`stat.S_ISGID`
+   * :data:`stat.S_ENFMT`
+   * :data:`stat.S_ISVTX`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IREAD`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IWRITE`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IEXEC`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IRWXU`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IRUSR`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IWUSR`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IXUSR`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IRWXG`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IRGRP`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IWGRP`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IXGRP`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IRWXO`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IROTH`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IWOTH`
+   * :data:`stat.S_IXOTH`
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`,
+   :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not
+   following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Although Windows supports :func:`chmod`, you can only set the file's
+      read-only flag with it (via the ``stat.S_IWRITE`` and ``stat.S_IREAD``
+      constants or a corresponding integer value).  All other bits are ignored.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added support for specifying *path* as an open file descriptor,
+      and the *dir_fd* and *follow_symlinks* arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: chown(path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*.  To
+   leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`,
+   :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not
+   following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   See :func:`shutil.chown` for a higher-level function that accepts names in
+   addition to numeric ids.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*,
+      and the *dir_fd* and *follow_symlinks* arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Supports a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: chroot(path)
+
+   Change the root directory of the current process to *path*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: fchdir(fd)
+
+   Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file
+   descriptor *fd*.  The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an
+   open file.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.chdir(fd)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getcwd()
+
+   Return a string representing the current working directory.
+
+
+.. function:: getcwdb()
+
+   Return a bytestring representing the current working directory.
+
+
+.. function:: lchflags(path, flags)
+
+   Set the flags of *path* to the numeric *flags*, like :func:`chflags`, but do
+   not follow symbolic links.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
+   ``os.chflags(path, flags, follow_symlinks=False)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: lchmod(path, mode)
+
+   Change the mode of *path* to the numeric *mode*. If path is a symlink, this
+   affects the symlink rather than the target.  See the docs for :func:`chmod`
+   for possible values of *mode*.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
+   ``os.chmod(path, mode, follow_symlinks=False)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+.. function:: lchown(path, uid, gid)
+
+   Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*.  This
+   function will not follow symbolic links.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent
+   to ``os.chown(path, uid, gid, follow_symlinks=False)``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: link(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Create a hard link pointing to *src* named *dst*.
+
+   This function can support specifying *src_dir_fd* and/or *dst_dir_fd* to
+   supply :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>`, and :ref:`not
+   following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added Windows support.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added the *src_dir_fd*, *dst_dir_fd*, and *follow_symlinks* arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *src* and *dst*.
+
+
+.. function:: listdir(path='.')
+
+   Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by
+   *path*.  The list is in arbitrary order, and does not include the special
+   entries ``'.'`` and ``'..'`` even if they are present in the directory.
+
+   *path* may be a :term:`path-like object`.  If *path* is of type ``bytes``
+   (directly or indirectly through the :class:`PathLike` interface),
+   the filenames returned will also be of type ``bytes``;
+   in all other circumstances, they will be of type ``str``.
+
+   This function can also support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor
+   <path_fd>`; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.
+
+   .. note::
+      To encode ``str`` filenames to ``bytes``, use :func:`~os.fsencode`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :func:`scandir` function returns directory entries along with
+      file attribute information, giving better performance for many
+      common use cases.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The *path* parameter became optional.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: lstat(path, \*, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Perform the equivalent of an :c:func:`lstat` system call on the given path.
+   Similar to :func:`~os.stat`, but does not follow symbolic links. Return a
+   :class:`stat_result` object.
+
+   On platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias for
+   :func:`~os.stat`.
+
+   As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.stat(path, dir_fd=dir_fd,
+   follow_symlinks=False)``.
+
+   This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      The :func:`.stat` function.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *dir_fd* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *src* and *dst*.
+
+
+.. function:: mkdir(path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Create a directory named *path* with numeric mode *mode*.
+
+   If the directory already exists, :exc:`FileExistsError` is raised.
+
+   .. _mkdir_modebits:
+
+   On some systems, *mode* is ignored.  Where it is used, the current umask
+   value is first masked out.  If bits other than the last 9 (i.e. the last 3
+   digits of the octal representation of the *mode*) are set, their meaning is
+   platform-dependent.  On some platforms, they are ignored and you should call
+   :func:`chmod` explicitly to set them.
+
+   This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the
+   :mod:`tempfile` module's :func:`tempfile.mkdtemp` function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: makedirs(name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: directory; creating
+      single: UNC paths; and os.makedirs()
+
+   Recursive directory creation function.  Like :func:`mkdir`, but makes all
+   intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory.
+
+   The *mode* parameter is passed to :func:`mkdir` for creating the leaf
+   directory; see :ref:`the mkdir() description <mkdir_modebits>` for how it
+   is interpreted.  To set the file permission bits of any newly-created parent
+   directories you can set the umask before invoking :func:`makedirs`.  The
+   file permission bits of existing parent directories are not changed.
+
+   If *exist_ok* is ``False`` (the default), an :exc:`FileExistsError` is
+   raised if the target directory already exists.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :func:`makedirs` will become confused if the path elements to create
+      include :data:`pardir` (eg. ".." on UNIX systems).
+
+   This function handles UNC paths correctly.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *exist_ok* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4.1
+
+      Before Python 3.4.1, if *exist_ok* was ``True`` and the directory existed,
+      :func:`makedirs` would still raise an error if *mode* did not match the
+      mode of the existing directory. Since this behavior was impossible to
+      implement safely, it was removed in Python 3.4.1. See :issue:`21082`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *mode* argument no longer affects the file permission bits of
+      newly-created intermediate-level directories.
+
+
+.. function:: mkfifo(path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named *path* with numeric mode *mode*.
+   The current umask value is first masked out from the mode.
+
+   This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files.  FIFOs exist until they
+   are deleted (for example with :func:`os.unlink`). Generally, FIFOs are used as
+   rendezvous between "client" and "server" type processes: the server opens the
+   FIFO for reading, and the client opens it for writing.  Note that :func:`mkfifo`
+   doesn't open the FIFO --- it just creates the rendezvous point.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: mknod(path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named
+   *path*. *mode* specifies both the permissions to use and the type of node
+   to be created, being combined (bitwise OR) with one of ``stat.S_IFREG``,
+   ``stat.S_IFCHR``, ``stat.S_IFBLK``, and ``stat.S_IFIFO`` (those constants are
+   available in :mod:`stat`).  For ``stat.S_IFCHR`` and ``stat.S_IFBLK``,
+   *device* defines the newly created device special file (probably using
+   :func:`os.makedev`), otherwise it is ignored.
+
+   This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: major(device)
+
+   Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually the
+   :attr:`st_dev` or :attr:`st_rdev` field from :c:type:`stat`).
+
+
+.. function:: minor(device)
+
+   Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually the
+   :attr:`st_dev` or :attr:`st_rdev` field from :c:type:`stat`).
+
+
+.. function:: makedev(major, minor)
+
+   Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers.
+
+
+.. function:: pathconf(path, name)
+
+   Return system configuration information relevant to a named file. *name*
+   specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the
+   name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of
+   standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some platforms define
+   additional names as well.  The names known to the host operating system are
+   given in the ``pathconf_names`` dictionary.  For configuration variables not
+   included in that mapping, passing an integer for *name* is also accepted.
+
+   If *name* is a string and is not known, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  If a
+   specific value for *name* is not supported by the host system, even if it is
+   included in ``pathconf_names``, an :exc:`OSError` is raised with
+   :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor
+   <path_fd>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. data:: pathconf_names
+
+   Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:`pathconf` and :func:`fpathconf` to
+   the integer values defined for those names by the host operating system.  This
+   can be used to determine the set of names known to the system.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: readlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points.  The
+   result may be either an absolute or relative pathname; if it is relative, it
+   may be converted to an absolute pathname using
+   ``os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result)``.
+
+   If the *path* is a string object (directly or indirectly through a
+   :class:`PathLike` interface), the result will also be a string object,
+   and the call may raise a UnicodeDecodeError. If the *path* is a bytes
+   object (direct or indirectly), the result will be a bytes object.
+
+   This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: remove(path, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Remove (delete) the file *path*.  If *path* is a directory, an
+   :exc:`IsADirectoryError` is raised.  Use :func:`rmdir` to remove directories.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   On Windows, attempting to remove a file that is in use causes an exception to
+   be raised; on Unix, the directory entry is removed but the storage allocated
+   to the file is not made available until the original file is no longer in use.
+
+   This function is semantically identical to :func:`unlink`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: removedirs(name)
+
+   .. index:: single: directory; deleting
+
+   Remove directories recursively.  Works like :func:`rmdir` except that, if the
+   leaf directory is successfully removed, :func:`removedirs`  tries to
+   successively remove every parent directory mentioned in  *path* until an error
+   is raised (which is ignored, because it generally means that a parent directory
+   is not empty). For example, ``os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz')`` will first remove
+   the directory ``'foo/bar/baz'``, and then remove ``'foo/bar'`` and ``'foo'`` if
+   they are empty. Raises :exc:`OSError` if the leaf directory could not be
+   successfully removed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: rename(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)
+
+   Rename the file or directory *src* to *dst*. If *dst* exists, the operation
+   will fail with an :exc:`OSError` subclass in a number of cases:
+
+   On Windows, if *dst* exists a :exc:`FileExistsError` is always raised.
+
+   On Unix, if *src* is a file and *dst* is a directory or vice-versa, an
+   :exc:`IsADirectoryError` or a :exc:`NotADirectoryError` will be raised
+   respectively.  If both are directories and *dst* is empty, *dst* will be
+   silently replaced.  If *dst* is a non-empty directory, an :exc:`OSError`
+   is raised. If both are files, *dst* it will be replaced silently if the user
+   has permission.  The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if *src* and
+   *dst* are on different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
+   atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).
+
+   This function can support specifying *src_dir_fd* and/or *dst_dir_fd* to
+   supply :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>`.
+
+   If you want cross-platform overwriting of the destination, use :func:`replace`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *src_dir_fd* and *dst_dir_fd* arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *src* and *dst*.
+
+
+.. function:: renames(old, new)
+
+   Recursive directory or file renaming function. Works like :func:`rename`, except
+   creation of any intermediate directories needed to make the new pathname good is
+   attempted first. After the rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path
+   segments of the old name will be pruned away using :func:`removedirs`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function can fail with the new directory structure made if you lack
+      permissions needed to remove the leaf directory or file.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *old* and *new*.
+
+
+.. function:: replace(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)
+
+   Rename the file or directory *src* to *dst*.  If *dst* is a directory,
+   :exc:`OSError` will be raised.  If *dst* exists and is a file, it will
+   be replaced silently if the user has permission.  The operation may fail
+   if *src* and *dst* are on different filesystems.  If successful,
+   the renaming will be an atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).
+
+   This function can support specifying *src_dir_fd* and/or *dst_dir_fd* to
+   supply :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *src* and *dst*.
+
+
+.. function:: rmdir(path, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Remove (delete) the directory *path*.  If the directory does not exist or is
+   not empty, an :exc:`FileNotFoundError` or an :exc:`OSError` is raised
+   respectively.  In order to remove whole directory trees,
+   :func:`shutil.rmtree` can be used.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: scandir(path='.')
+
+   Return an iterator of :class:`os.DirEntry` objects corresponding to the
+   entries in the directory given by *path*. The entries are yielded in
+   arbitrary order, and the special entries ``'.'`` and ``'..'`` are not
+   included.
+
+   Using :func:`scandir` instead of :func:`listdir` can significantly
+   increase the performance of code that also needs file type or file
+   attribute information, because :class:`os.DirEntry` objects expose this
+   information if the operating system provides it when scanning a directory.
+   All :class:`os.DirEntry` methods may perform a system call, but
+   :func:`~os.DirEntry.is_dir` and :func:`~os.DirEntry.is_file` usually only
+   require a system call for symbolic links; :func:`os.DirEntry.stat`
+   always requires a system call on Unix but only requires one for
+   symbolic links on Windows.
+
+   *path* may be a :term:`path-like object`.  If *path* is of type ``bytes``
+   (directly or indirectly through the :class:`PathLike` interface),
+   the type of the :attr:`~os.DirEntry.name` and :attr:`~os.DirEntry.path`
+   attributes of each :class:`os.DirEntry` will be ``bytes``; in all other
+   circumstances, they will be of type ``str``.
+
+   This function can also support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor
+   <path_fd>`; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.
+
+   The :func:`scandir` iterator supports the :term:`context manager` protocol
+   and has the following method:
+
+   .. method:: scandir.close()
+
+      Close the iterator and free acquired resources.
+
+      This is called automatically when the iterator is exhausted or garbage
+      collected, or when an error happens during iterating.  However it
+      is advisable to call it explicitly or use the :keyword:`with`
+      statement.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   The following example shows a simple use of :func:`scandir` to display all
+   the files (excluding directories) in the given *path* that don't start with
+   ``'.'``. The ``entry.is_file()`` call will generally not make an additional
+   system call::
+
+      with os.scandir(path) as it:
+          for entry in it:
+              if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
+                  print(entry.name)
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On Unix-based systems, :func:`scandir` uses the system's
+      `opendir() <http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html>`_
+      and
+      `readdir() <http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html>`_
+      functions. On Windows, it uses the Win32
+      `FindFirstFileW <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
+      and
+      `FindNextFileW <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
+      functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Added support for the :term:`context manager` protocol and the
+      :func:`~scandir.close()` method.  If a :func:`scandir` iterator is neither
+      exhausted nor explicitly closed a :exc:`ResourceWarning` will be emitted
+      in its destructor.
+
+      The function accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added support for :ref:`file descriptors <path_fd>` on Unix.
+
+
+.. class:: DirEntry
+
+   Object yielded by :func:`scandir` to expose the file path and other file
+   attributes of a directory entry.
+
+   :func:`scandir` will provide as much of this information as possible without
+   making additional system calls. When a ``stat()`` or ``lstat()`` system call
+   is made, the ``os.DirEntry`` object will cache the result.
+
+   ``os.DirEntry`` instances are not intended to be stored in long-lived data
+   structures; if you know the file metadata has changed or if a long time has
+   elapsed since calling :func:`scandir`, call ``os.stat(entry.path)`` to fetch
+   up-to-date information.
+
+   Because the ``os.DirEntry`` methods can make operating system calls, they may
+   also raise :exc:`OSError`. If you need very fine-grained
+   control over errors, you can catch :exc:`OSError` when calling one of the
+   ``os.DirEntry`` methods and handle as appropriate.
+
+   To be directly usable as a :term:`path-like object`, ``os.DirEntry``
+   implements the :class:`PathLike` interface.
+
+   Attributes and methods on a ``os.DirEntry`` instance are as follows:
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      The entry's base filename, relative to the :func:`scandir` *path*
+      argument.
+
+      The :attr:`name` attribute will be ``bytes`` if the :func:`scandir`
+      *path* argument is of type ``bytes`` and ``str`` otherwise.  Use
+      :func:`~os.fsdecode` to decode byte filenames.
+
+   .. attribute:: path
+
+      The entry's full path name: equivalent to ``os.path.join(scandir_path,
+      entry.name)`` where *scandir_path* is the :func:`scandir` *path*
+      argument.  The path is only absolute if the :func:`scandir` *path*
+      argument was absolute.  If the :func:`scandir` *path*
+      argument was a :ref:`file descriptor <path_fd>`, the :attr:`path`
+      attribute is the same as the :attr:`name` attribute.
+
+      The :attr:`path` attribute will be ``bytes`` if the :func:`scandir`
+      *path* argument is of type ``bytes`` and ``str`` otherwise.  Use
+      :func:`~os.fsdecode` to decode byte filenames.
+
+   .. method:: inode()
+
+      Return the inode number of the entry.
+
+      The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object. Use
+      ``os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino`` to fetch up-to-date
+      information.
+
+      On the first, uncached call, a system call is required on Windows but
+      not on Unix.
+
+   .. method:: is_dir(\*, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+      Return ``True`` if this entry is a directory or a symbolic link pointing
+      to a directory; return ``False`` if the entry is or points to any other
+      kind of file, or if it doesn't exist anymore.
+
+      If *follow_symlinks* is ``False``, return ``True`` only if this entry
+      is a directory (without following symlinks); return ``False`` if the
+      entry is any other kind of file or if it doesn't exist anymore.
+
+      The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object, with a separate cache
+      for *follow_symlinks* ``True`` and ``False``. Call :func:`os.stat` along
+      with :func:`stat.S_ISDIR` to fetch up-to-date information.
+
+      On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in most cases.
+      Specifically, for non-symlinks, neither Windows or Unix require a system
+      call, except on certain Unix file systems, such as network file systems,
+      that return ``dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN``. If the entry is a symlink,
+      a system call will be required to follow the symlink unless
+      *follow_symlinks* is ``False``.
+
+      This method can raise :exc:`OSError`, such as :exc:`PermissionError`,
+      but :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is caught and not raised.
+
+   .. method:: is_file(\*, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+      Return ``True`` if this entry is a file or a symbolic link pointing to a
+      file; return ``False`` if the entry is or points to a directory or other
+      non-file entry, or if it doesn't exist anymore.
+
+      If *follow_symlinks* is ``False``, return ``True`` only if this entry
+      is a file (without following symlinks); return ``False`` if the entry is
+      a directory or other non-file entry, or if it doesn't exist anymore.
+
+      The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object. Caching, system calls
+      made, and exceptions raised are as per :func:`~os.DirEntry.is_dir`.
+
+   .. method:: is_symlink()
+
+      Return ``True`` if this entry is a symbolic link (even if broken);
+      return ``False`` if the entry points to a directory or any kind of file,
+      or if it doesn't exist anymore.
+
+      The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object. Call
+      :func:`os.path.islink` to fetch up-to-date information.
+
+      On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in most cases.
+      Specifically, neither Windows or Unix require a system call, except on
+      certain Unix file systems, such as network file systems, that return
+      ``dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN``.
+
+      This method can raise :exc:`OSError`, such as :exc:`PermissionError`,
+      but :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is caught and not raised.
+
+   .. method:: stat(\*, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+      Return a :class:`stat_result` object for this entry. This method
+      follows symbolic links by default; to stat a symbolic link add the
+      ``follow_symlinks=False`` argument.
+
+      On Unix, this method always requires a system call. On Windows, it
+      only requires a system call if *follow_symlinks* is ``True`` and the
+      entry is a symbolic link.
+
+      On Windows, the ``st_ino``, ``st_dev`` and ``st_nlink`` attributes of the
+      :class:`stat_result` are always set to zero. Call :func:`os.stat` to
+      get these attributes.
+
+      The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object, with a separate cache
+      for *follow_symlinks* ``True`` and ``False``. Call :func:`os.stat` to
+      fetch up-to-date information.
+
+   Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
+   and methods of ``os.DirEntry`` and of :class:`pathlib.Path`.  In
+   particular, the ``name`` attribute has the same
+   meaning, as do the ``is_dir()``, ``is_file()``, ``is_symlink()``
+   and ``stat()`` methods.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added support for the :class:`~os.PathLike` interface.  Added support
+      for :class:`bytes` paths on Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: stat(path, \*, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Get the status of a file or a file descriptor. Perform the equivalent of a
+   :c:func:`stat` system call on the given path. *path* may be specified as
+   either a string or bytes -- directly or indirectly through the :class:`PathLike`
+   interface -- or as an open file descriptor. Return a :class:`stat_result`
+   object.
+
+   This function normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the argument
+   ``follow_symlinks=False``, or use :func:`lstat`.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and
+   :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. index:: module: stat
+
+   Example::
+
+      >>> import os
+      >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
+      >>> statinfo
+      os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
+      st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
+      st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
+      >>> statinfo.st_size
+      264
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :func:`fstat` and :func:`lstat` functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added the *dir_fd* and *follow_symlinks* arguments, specifying a file
+      descriptor instead of a path.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. class:: stat_result
+
+   Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
+   :c:type:`stat` structure. It is used for the result of :func:`os.stat`,
+   :func:`os.fstat` and :func:`os.lstat`.
+
+   Attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: st_mode
+
+      File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).
+
+   .. attribute:: st_ino
+
+      Platform dependent, but if non-zero, uniquely identifies the
+      file for a given value of ``st_dev``. Typically:
+
+      * the inode number on Unix,
+      * the `file index
+        <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363788>`_ on
+        Windows
+
+   .. attribute:: st_dev
+
+      Identifier of the device on which this file resides.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_nlink
+
+      Number of hard links.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_uid
+
+      User identifier of the file owner.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_gid
+
+      Group identifier of the file owner.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_size
+
+      Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a symbolic link.
+      The size of a symbolic link is the length of the pathname it contains,
+      without a terminating null byte.
+
+   Timestamps:
+
+   .. attribute:: st_atime
+
+      Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_mtime
+
+      Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_ctime
+
+      Platform dependent:
+
+      * the time of most recent metadata change on Unix,
+      * the time of creation on Windows, expressed in seconds.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_atime_ns
+
+      Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_mtime_ns
+
+      Time of most recent content modification expressed in nanoseconds as an
+      integer.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_ctime_ns
+
+      Platform dependent:
+
+      * the time of most recent metadata change on Unix,
+      * the time of creation on Windows, expressed in nanoseconds as an
+        integer.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The exact meaning and resolution of the :attr:`st_atime`,
+      :attr:`st_mtime`, and :attr:`st_ctime` attributes depend on the operating
+      system and the file system. For example, on Windows systems using the FAT
+      or FAT32 file systems, :attr:`st_mtime` has 2-second resolution, and
+      :attr:`st_atime` has only 1-day resolution.  See your operating system
+      documentation for details.
+
+      Similarly, although :attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`,
+      and :attr:`st_ctime_ns` are always expressed in nanoseconds, many
+      systems do not provide nanosecond precision.  On systems that do
+      provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point object used to
+      store :attr:`st_atime`, :attr:`st_mtime`, and :attr:`st_ctime`
+      cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly inexact.
+      If you need the exact timestamps you should always use
+      :attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`, and :attr:`st_ctime_ns`.
+
+   On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may also be
+   available:
+
+   .. attribute:: st_blocks
+
+      Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.
+      This may be smaller than :attr:`st_size`/512 when the file has holes.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_blksize
+
+      "Preferred" blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing to a file in
+      smaller chunks may cause an inefficient read-modify-rewrite.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_rdev
+
+      Type of device if an inode device.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_flags
+
+      User defined flags for file.
+
+   On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes may be
+   available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use them):
+
+   .. attribute:: st_gen
+
+      File generation number.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_birthtime
+
+      Time of file creation.
+
+   On Solaris and derivatives, the following attributes may also be
+   available:
+
+   .. attribute:: st_fstype
+
+      String that uniquely identifies the type of the filesystem that
+      contains the file.
+
+   On Mac OS systems, the following attributes may also be available:
+
+   .. attribute:: st_rsize
+
+      Real size of the file.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_creator
+
+      Creator of the file.
+
+   .. attribute:: st_type
+
+      File type.
+
+   On Windows systems, the following attribute is also available:
+
+   .. attribute:: st_file_attributes
+
+      Windows file attributes: ``dwFileAttributes`` member of the
+      ``BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION`` structure returned by
+      :c:func:`GetFileInformationByHandle`. See the ``FILE_ATTRIBUTE_*``
+      constants in the :mod:`stat` module.
+
+   The standard module :mod:`stat` defines functions and constants that are
+   useful for extracting information from a :c:type:`stat` structure. (On
+   Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)
+
+   For backward compatibility, a :class:`stat_result` instance is also
+   accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and
+   portable) members of the :c:type:`stat` structure, in the order
+   :attr:`st_mode`, :attr:`st_ino`, :attr:`st_dev`, :attr:`st_nlink`,
+   :attr:`st_uid`, :attr:`st_gid`, :attr:`st_size`, :attr:`st_atime`,
+   :attr:`st_mtime`, :attr:`st_ctime`. More items may be added at the end by
+   some implementations. For compatibility with older Python versions,
+   accessing :class:`stat_result` as a tuple always returns integers.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added the :attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`, and
+      :attr:`st_ctime_ns` members.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      Added the :attr:`st_file_attributes` member on Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Windows now returns the file index as :attr:`st_ino` when
+      available.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      Added the :attr:`st_fstype` member to Solaris/derivatives.
+
+.. function:: statvfs(path)
+
+   Perform a :c:func:`statvfs` system call on the given path.  The return value is
+   an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the given path, and
+   correspond to the members of the :c:type:`statvfs` structure, namely:
+   :attr:`f_bsize`, :attr:`f_frsize`, :attr:`f_blocks`, :attr:`f_bfree`,
+   :attr:`f_bavail`, :attr:`f_files`, :attr:`f_ffree`, :attr:`f_favail`,
+   :attr:`f_flag`, :attr:`f_namemax`, :attr:`f_fsid`.
+
+   Two module-level constants are defined for the :attr:`f_flag` attribute's
+   bit-flags: if :const:`ST_RDONLY` is set, the filesystem is mounted
+   read-only, and if :const:`ST_NOSUID` is set, the semantics of
+   setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.
+
+   Additional module-level constants are defined for GNU/glibc based systems.
+   These are :const:`ST_NODEV` (disallow access to device special files),
+   :const:`ST_NOEXEC` (disallow program execution), :const:`ST_SYNCHRONOUS`
+   (writes are synced at once), :const:`ST_MANDLOCK` (allow mandatory locks on an FS),
+   :const:`ST_WRITE` (write on file/directory/symlink), :const:`ST_APPEND`
+   (append-only file), :const:`ST_IMMUTABLE` (immutable file), :const:`ST_NOATIME`
+   (do not update access times), :const:`ST_NODIRATIME` (do not update directory access
+   times), :const:`ST_RELATIME` (update atime relative to mtime/ctime).
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The :const:`ST_RDONLY` and :const:`ST_NOSUID` constants were added.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The :const:`ST_NODEV`, :const:`ST_NOEXEC`, :const:`ST_SYNCHRONOUS`,
+      :const:`ST_MANDLOCK`, :const:`ST_WRITE`, :const:`ST_APPEND`,
+      :const:`ST_IMMUTABLE`, :const:`ST_NOATIME`, :const:`ST_NODIRATIME`,
+      and :const:`ST_RELATIME` constants were added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      Added :attr:`f_fsid`.
+
+
+.. data:: supports_dir_fd
+
+   A :class:`~collections.abc.Set` object indicating which functions in the
+   :mod:`os` module permit use of their *dir_fd* parameter.  Different platforms
+   provide different functionality, and an option that might work on one might
+   be unsupported on another.  For consistency's sakes, functions that support
+   *dir_fd* always allow specifying the parameter, but will raise an exception
+   if the functionality is not actually available.
+
+   To check whether a particular function permits use of its *dir_fd*
+   parameter, use the ``in`` operator on ``supports_dir_fd``.  As an example,
+   this expression determines whether the *dir_fd* parameter of :func:`os.stat`
+   is locally available::
+
+       os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd
+
+   Currently *dir_fd* parameters only work on Unix platforms; none of them work
+   on Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: supports_effective_ids
+
+   A :class:`~collections.abc.Set` object indicating which functions in the
+   :mod:`os` module permit use of the *effective_ids* parameter for
+   :func:`os.access`.  If the local platform supports it, the collection will
+   contain :func:`os.access`, otherwise it will be empty.
+
+   To check whether you can use the *effective_ids* parameter for
+   :func:`os.access`, use the ``in`` operator on ``supports_effective_ids``,
+   like so::
+
+       os.access in os.supports_effective_ids
+
+   Currently *effective_ids* only works on Unix platforms; it does not work on
+   Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: supports_fd
+
+   A :class:`~collections.abc.Set` object indicating which functions in the
+   :mod:`os` module permit specifying their *path* parameter as an open file
+   descriptor.  Different platforms provide different functionality, and an
+   option that might work on one might be unsupported on another.  For
+   consistency's sakes, functions that support *fd* always allow specifying
+   the parameter, but will raise an exception if the functionality is not
+   actually available.
+
+   To check whether a particular function permits specifying an open file
+   descriptor for its *path* parameter, use the ``in`` operator on
+   ``supports_fd``. As an example, this expression determines whether
+   :func:`os.chdir` accepts open file descriptors when called on your local
+   platform::
+
+       os.chdir in os.supports_fd
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: supports_follow_symlinks
+
+   A :class:`~collections.abc.Set` object indicating which functions in the
+   :mod:`os` module permit use of their *follow_symlinks* parameter.  Different
+   platforms provide different functionality, and an option that might work on
+   one might be unsupported on another.  For consistency's sakes, functions that
+   support *follow_symlinks* always allow specifying the parameter, but will
+   raise an exception if the functionality is not actually available.
+
+   To check whether a particular function permits use of its *follow_symlinks*
+   parameter, use the ``in`` operator on ``supports_follow_symlinks``.  As an
+   example, this expression determines whether the *follow_symlinks* parameter
+   of :func:`os.stat` is locally available::
+
+       os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: symlink(src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Create a symbolic link pointing to *src* named *dst*.
+
+   On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not
+   morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is present, the type of the
+   symlink will be created to match. Otherwise, the symlink will be created
+   as a directory if *target_is_directory* is ``True`` or a file symlink (the
+   default) otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, *target_is_directory* is ignored.
+
+   Symbolic link support was introduced in Windows 6.0 (Vista).  :func:`symlink`
+   will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError` on Windows versions earlier than 6.0.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On Windows, the *SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege* is required in order to
+      successfully create symlinks. This privilege is not typically granted to
+      regular users but is available to accounts which can escalate privileges
+      to the administrator level. Either obtaining the privilege or running your
+      application as an administrator are ways to successfully create symlinks.
+
+
+      :exc:`OSError` is raised when the function is called by an unprivileged
+      user.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added the *dir_fd* argument, and now allow *target_is_directory*
+      on non-Windows platforms.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *src* and *dst*.
+
+
+.. function:: sync()
+
+   Force write of everything to disk.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: truncate(path, length)
+
+   Truncate the file corresponding to *path*, so that it is at most
+   *length* bytes in size.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for Windows
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: unlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)
+
+   Remove (delete) the file *path*.  This function is semantically
+   identical to :func:`remove`; the ``unlink`` name is its
+   traditional Unix name.  Please see the documentation for
+   :func:`remove` for further information.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The *dir_fd* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: utime(path, times=None, *[, ns], dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Set the access and modified times of the file specified by *path*.
+
+   :func:`utime` takes two optional parameters, *times* and *ns*.
+   These specify the times set on *path* and are used as follows:
+
+   - If *ns* is specified,
+     it must be a 2-tuple of the form ``(atime_ns, mtime_ns)``
+     where each member is an int expressing nanoseconds.
+   - If *times* is not ``None``,
+     it must be a 2-tuple of the form ``(atime, mtime)``
+     where each member is an int or float expressing seconds.
+   - If *times* is ``None`` and *ns* is unspecified,
+     this is equivalent to specifying ``ns=(atime_ns, mtime_ns)``
+     where both times are the current time.
+
+   It is an error to specify tuples for both *times* and *ns*.
+
+   Whether a directory can be given for *path*
+   depends on whether the operating system implements directories as files
+   (for example, Windows does not).  Note that the exact times you set here may
+   not be returned by a subsequent :func:`~os.stat` call, depending on the
+   resolution with which your operating system records access and modification
+   times; see :func:`~os.stat`.  The best way to preserve exact times is to
+   use the *st_atime_ns* and *st_mtime_ns* fields from the :func:`os.stat`
+   result object with the *ns* parameter to `utime`.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`,
+   :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not
+   following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*,
+      and the *dir_fd*, *follow_symlinks*, and *ns* parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: walk(top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: directory; walking
+      single: directory; traversal
+
+   Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
+   either top-down or bottom-up. For each directory in the tree rooted at directory
+   *top* (including *top* itself), it yields a 3-tuple ``(dirpath, dirnames,
+   filenames)``.
+
+   *dirpath* is a string, the path to the directory.  *dirnames* is a list of the
+   names of the subdirectories in *dirpath* (excluding ``'.'`` and ``'..'``).
+   *filenames* is a list of the names of the non-directory files in *dirpath*.
+   Note that the names in the lists contain no path components.  To get a full path
+   (which begins with *top*) to a file or directory in *dirpath*, do
+   ``os.path.join(dirpath, name)``.
+
+   If optional argument *topdown* is ``True`` or not specified, the triple for a
+   directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories
+   (directories are generated top-down).  If *topdown* is ``False``, the triple
+   for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories
+   (directories are generated bottom-up). No matter the value of *topdown*, the
+   list of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory and
+   its subdirectories are generated.
+
+   When *topdown* is ``True``, the caller can modify the *dirnames* list in-place
+   (perhaps using :keyword:`del` or slice assignment), and :func:`walk` will only
+   recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in *dirnames*; this can be
+   used to prune the search, impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform
+   :func:`walk` about directories the caller creates or renames before it resumes
+   :func:`walk` again.  Modifying *dirnames* when *topdown* is ``False`` has
+   no effect on the behavior of the walk, because in bottom-up mode the directories
+   in *dirnames* are generated before *dirpath* itself is generated.
+
+   By default, errors from the :func:`scandir` call are ignored.  If optional
+   argument *onerror* is specified, it should be a function; it will be called with
+   one argument, an :exc:`OSError` instance.  It can report the error to continue
+   with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk.  Note that the filename
+   is available as the ``filename`` attribute of the exception object.
+
+   By default, :func:`walk` will not walk down into symbolic links that resolve to
+   directories. Set *followlinks* to ``True`` to visit directories pointed to by
+   symlinks, on systems that support them.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Be aware that setting *followlinks* to ``True`` can lead to infinite
+      recursion if a link points to a parent directory of itself. :func:`walk`
+      does not keep track of the directories it visited already.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If you pass a relative pathname, don't change the current working directory
+      between resumptions of :func:`walk`.  :func:`walk` never changes the current
+      directory, and assumes that its caller doesn't either.
+
+   This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
+   directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any
+   CVS subdirectory::
+
+      import os
+      from os.path import join, getsize
+      for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/email'):
+          print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
+          print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
+          print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
+          if 'CVS' in dirs:
+              dirs.remove('CVS')  # don't visit CVS directories
+
+   In the next example (simple implementation of :func:`shutil.rmtree`),
+   walking the tree bottom-up is essential, :func:`rmdir` doesn't allow
+   deleting a directory before the directory is empty::
+
+      # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
+      # assuming there are no symbolic links.
+      # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
+      # could delete all your disk files.
+      import os
+      for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
+          for name in files:
+              os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
+          for name in dirs:
+              os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      This function now calls :func:`os.scandir` instead of :func:`os.listdir`,
+      making it faster by reducing the number of calls to :func:`os.stat`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: fwalk(top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *, follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: directory; walking
+      single: directory; traversal
+
+   This behaves exactly like :func:`walk`, except that it yields a 4-tuple
+   ``(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd)``, and it supports ``dir_fd``.
+
+   *dirpath*, *dirnames* and *filenames* are identical to :func:`walk` output,
+   and *dirfd* is a file descriptor referring to the directory *dirpath*.
+
+   This function always supports :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors
+   <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.  Note however
+   that, unlike other functions, the :func:`fwalk` default value for
+   *follow_symlinks* is ``False``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Since :func:`fwalk` yields file descriptors, those are only valid until
+      the next iteration step, so you should duplicate them (e.g. with
+      :func:`dup`) if you want to keep them longer.
+
+   This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
+   directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any
+   CVS subdirectory::
+
+      import os
+      for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/email'):
+          print(root, "consumes", end="")
+          print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
+                end="")
+          print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
+          if 'CVS' in dirs:
+              dirs.remove('CVS')  # don't visit CVS directories
+
+   In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential:
+   :func:`rmdir` doesn't allow deleting a directory before the directory is
+   empty::
+
+      # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
+      # assuming there are no symbolic links.
+      # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
+      # could delete all your disk files.
+      import os
+      for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
+          for name in files:
+              os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
+          for name in dirs:
+              os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added support for :class:`bytes` paths.
+
+
+Linux extended attributes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+These functions are all available on Linux only.
+
+.. function:: getxattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Return the value of the extended filesystem attribute *attribute* for
+   *path*. *attribute* can be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through the
+   :class:`PathLike` interface). If it is str, it is encoded with the filesystem
+   encoding.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and
+   :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *path* and *attribute*.
+
+
+.. function:: listxattr(path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Return a list of the extended filesystem attributes on *path*.  The
+   attributes in the list are represented as strings decoded with the filesystem
+   encoding.  If *path* is ``None``, :func:`listxattr` will examine the current
+   directory.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and
+   :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. function:: removexattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Removes the extended filesystem attribute *attribute* from *path*.
+   *attribute* should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through the
+   :class:`PathLike` interface). If it is a string, it is encoded
+   with the filesystem encoding.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and
+   :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *path* and *attribute*.
+
+
+.. function:: setxattr(path, attribute, value, flags=0, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Set the extended filesystem attribute *attribute* on *path* to *value*.
+   *attribute* must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs (directly or
+   indirectly through the :class:`PathLike` interface). If it is a str,
+   it is encoded with the filesystem encoding.  *flags* may be
+   :data:`XATTR_REPLACE` or :data:`XATTR_CREATE`. If :data:`XATTR_REPLACE` is
+   given and the attribute does not exist, ``EEXISTS`` will be raised.
+   If :data:`XATTR_CREATE` is given and the attribute already exists, the
+   attribute will not be created and ``ENODATA`` will be raised.
+
+   This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and
+   :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      A bug in Linux kernel versions less than 2.6.39 caused the flags argument
+      to be ignored on some filesystems.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *path* and *attribute*.
+
+
+.. data:: XATTR_SIZE_MAX
+
+   The maximum size the value of an extended attribute can be. Currently, this
+   is 64 KiB on Linux.
+
+
+.. data:: XATTR_CREATE
+
+   This is a possible value for the flags argument in :func:`setxattr`. It
+   indicates the operation must create an attribute.
+
+
+.. data:: XATTR_REPLACE
+
+   This is a possible value for the flags argument in :func:`setxattr`. It
+   indicates the operation must replace an existing attribute.
+
+
+.. _os-process:
+
+Process Management
+------------------
+
+These functions may be used to create and manage processes.
+
+The various :func:`exec\* <execl>` functions take a list of arguments for the new
+program loaded into the process.  In each case, the first of these arguments is
+passed to the new program as its own name rather than as an argument a user may
+have typed on a command line.  For the C programmer, this is the ``argv[0]``
+passed to a program's :c:func:`main`.  For example, ``os.execv('/bin/echo',
+['foo', 'bar'])`` will only print ``bar`` on standard output; ``foo`` will seem
+to be ignored.
+
+
+.. function:: abort()
+
+   Generate a :const:`SIGABRT` signal to the current process.  On Unix, the default
+   behavior is to produce a core dump; on Windows, the process immediately returns
+   an exit code of ``3``.  Be aware that calling this function will not call the
+   Python signal handler registered for :const:`SIGABRT` with
+   :func:`signal.signal`.
+
+
+.. function:: execl(path, arg0, arg1, ...)
+              execle(path, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
+              execlp(file, arg0, arg1, ...)
+              execlpe(file, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
+              execv(path, args)
+              execve(path, args, env)
+              execvp(file, args)
+              execvpe(file, args, env)
+
+   These functions all execute a new program, replacing the current process; they
+   do not return.  On Unix, the new executable is loaded into the current process,
+   and will have the same process id as the caller.  Errors will be reported as
+   :exc:`OSError` exceptions.
+
+   The current process is replaced immediately. Open file objects and
+   descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered
+   on these open files, you should flush them using
+   :func:`sys.stdout.flush` or :func:`os.fsync` before calling an
+   :func:`exec\* <execl>` function.
+
+   The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:`exec\* <execl>` functions differ in how
+   command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest
+   to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
+   individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the :func:`execl\*`
+   functions.  The "v" variants are good when the number of parameters is
+   variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the *args*
+   parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process should start with
+   the name of the command being run, but this is not enforced.
+
+   The variants which include a "p" near the end (:func:`execlp`,
+   :func:`execlpe`, :func:`execvp`, and :func:`execvpe`) will use the
+   :envvar:`PATH` environment variable to locate the program *file*.  When the
+   environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:`exec\*e <execl>` variants,
+   discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
+   the :envvar:`PATH` variable. The other variants, :func:`execl`, :func:`execle`,
+   :func:`execv`, and :func:`execve`, will not use the :envvar:`PATH` variable to
+   locate the executable; *path* must contain an appropriate absolute or relative
+   path.
+
+   For :func:`execle`, :func:`execlpe`, :func:`execve`, and :func:`execvpe` (note
+   that these all end in "e"), the *env* parameter must be a mapping which is
+   used to define the environment variables for the new process (these are used
+   instead of the current process' environment); the functions :func:`execl`,
+   :func:`execlp`, :func:`execv`, and :func:`execvp` all cause the new process to
+   inherit the environment of the current process.
+
+   For :func:`execve` on some platforms, *path* may also be specified as an open
+   file descriptor.  This functionality may not be supported on your platform;
+   you can check whether or not it is available using :data:`os.supports_fd`.
+   If it is unavailable, using it will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*
+      for :func:`execve`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+.. function:: _exit(n)
+
+   Exit the process with status *n*, without calling cleanup handlers, flushing
+   stdio buffers, etc.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The standard way to exit is ``sys.exit(n)``.  :func:`_exit` should
+      normally only be used in the child process after a :func:`fork`.
+
+The following exit codes are defined and can be used with :func:`_exit`,
+although they are not required.  These are typically used for system programs
+written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Some of these may not be available on all Unix platforms, since there is some
+   variation.  These constants are defined where they are defined by the underlying
+   platform.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_OK
+
+   Exit code that means no error occurred.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_USAGE
+
+   Exit code that means the command was used incorrectly, such as when the wrong
+   number of arguments are given.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_DATAERR
+
+   Exit code that means the input data was incorrect.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_NOINPUT
+
+   Exit code that means an input file did not exist or was not readable.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_NOUSER
+
+   Exit code that means a specified user did not exist.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_NOHOST
+
+   Exit code that means a specified host did not exist.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_UNAVAILABLE
+
+   Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_SOFTWARE
+
+   Exit code that means an internal software error was detected.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_OSERR
+
+   Exit code that means an operating system error was detected, such as the
+   inability to fork or create a pipe.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_OSFILE
+
+   Exit code that means some system file did not exist, could not be opened, or had
+   some other kind of error.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_CANTCREAT
+
+   Exit code that means a user specified output file could not be created.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_IOERR
+
+   Exit code that means that an error occurred while doing I/O on some file.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_TEMPFAIL
+
+   Exit code that means a temporary failure occurred.  This indicates something
+   that may not really be an error, such as a network connection that couldn't be
+   made during a retryable operation.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_PROTOCOL
+
+   Exit code that means that a protocol exchange was illegal, invalid, or not
+   understood.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_NOPERM
+
+   Exit code that means that there were insufficient permissions to perform the
+   operation (but not intended for file system problems).
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_CONFIG
+
+   Exit code that means that some kind of configuration error occurred.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: EX_NOTFOUND
+
+   Exit code that means something like "an entry was not found".
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: fork()
+
+   Fork a child process.  Return ``0`` in the child and the child's process id in the
+   parent.  If an error occurs :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+   Note that some platforms including FreeBSD <= 6.3 and Cygwin have
+   known issues when using fork() from a thread.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      See :mod:`ssl` for applications that use the SSL module with fork().
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: forkpty()
+
+   Fork a child process, using a new pseudo-terminal as the child's controlling
+   terminal. Return a pair of ``(pid, fd)``, where *pid* is ``0`` in the child, the
+   new child's process id in the parent, and *fd* is the file descriptor of the
+   master end of the pseudo-terminal.  For a more portable approach, use the
+   :mod:`pty` module.  If an error occurs :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+   .. availability:: some flavors of Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: kill(pid, sig)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: process; killing
+      single: process; signalling
+
+   Send signal *sig* to the process *pid*.  Constants for the specific signals
+   available on the host platform are defined in the :mod:`signal` module.
+
+   Windows: The :data:`signal.CTRL_C_EVENT` and
+   :data:`signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT` signals are special signals which can
+   only be sent to console processes which share a common console window,
+   e.g., some subprocesses. Any other value for *sig* will cause the process
+   to be unconditionally killed by the TerminateProcess API, and the exit code
+   will be set to *sig*. The Windows version of :func:`kill` additionally takes
+   process handles to be killed.
+
+   See also :func:`signal.pthread_kill`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      Windows support.
+
+
+.. function:: killpg(pgid, sig)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: process; killing
+      single: process; signalling
+
+   Send the signal *sig* to the process group *pgid*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: nice(increment)
+
+   Add *increment* to the process's "niceness".  Return the new niceness.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: plock(op)
+
+   Lock program segments into memory.  The value of *op* (defined in
+   ``<sys/lock.h>``) determines which segments are locked.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: popen(cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)
+
+   Open a pipe to or from command *cmd*.
+   The return value is an open file object
+   connected to the pipe, which can be read or written depending on whether *mode*
+   is ``'r'`` (default) or ``'w'``. The *buffering* argument has the same meaning as
+   the corresponding argument to the built-in :func:`open` function. The
+   returned file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.
+
+   The ``close`` method returns :const:`None` if the subprocess exited
+   successfully, or the subprocess's return code if there was an
+   error. On POSIX systems, if the return code is positive it
+   represents the return value of the process left-shifted by one
+   byte.  If the return code is negative, the process was terminated
+   by the signal given by the negated value of the return code.  (For
+   example, the return value might be ``- signal.SIGKILL`` if the
+   subprocess was killed.)  On Windows systems, the return value
+   contains the signed integer return code from the child process.
+
+   This is implemented using :class:`subprocess.Popen`; see that class's
+   documentation for more powerful ways to manage and communicate with
+   subprocesses.
+
+
+.. function:: register_at_fork(*, before=None, after_in_parent=None, \
+                               after_in_child=None)
+
+   Register callables to be executed when a new child process is forked
+   using :func:`os.fork` or similar process cloning APIs.
+   The parameters are optional and keyword-only.
+   Each specifies a different call point.
+
+   * *before* is a function called before forking a child process.
+   * *after_in_parent* is a function called from the parent process
+     after forking a child process.
+   * *after_in_child* is a function called from the child process.
+
+   These calls are only made if control is expected to return to the
+   Python interpreter.  A typical :mod:`subprocess` launch will not
+   trigger them as the child is not going to re-enter the interpreter.
+
+   Functions registered for execution before forking are called in
+   reverse registration order.  Functions registered for execution
+   after forking (either in the parent or in the child) are called
+   in registration order.
+
+   Note that :c:func:`fork` calls made by third-party C code may not
+   call those functions, unless it explicitly calls :c:func:`PyOS_BeforeFork`,
+   :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Parent` and :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child`.
+
+   There is no way to unregister a function.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: spawnl(mode, path, ...)
+              spawnle(mode, path, ..., env)
+              spawnlp(mode, file, ...)
+              spawnlpe(mode, file, ..., env)
+              spawnv(mode, path, args)
+              spawnve(mode, path, args, env)
+              spawnvp(mode, file, args)
+              spawnvpe(mode, file, args, env)
+
+   Execute the program *path* in a new process.
+
+   (Note that the :mod:`subprocess` module provides more powerful facilities for
+   spawning new processes and retrieving their results; using that module is
+   preferable to using these functions.  Check especially the
+   :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section.)
+
+   If *mode* is :const:`P_NOWAIT`, this function returns the process id of the new
+   process; if *mode* is :const:`P_WAIT`, returns the process's exit code if it
+   exits normally, or ``-signal``, where *signal* is the signal that killed the
+   process.  On Windows, the process id will actually be the process handle, so can
+   be used with the :func:`waitpid` function.
+
+   The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` functions differ in how
+   command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest
+   to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
+   individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the
+   :func:`spawnl\*` functions.  The "v" variants are good when the number of
+   parameters is variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as
+   the *args* parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process must
+   start with the name of the command being run.
+
+   The variants which include a second "p" near the end (:func:`spawnlp`,
+   :func:`spawnlpe`, :func:`spawnvp`, and :func:`spawnvpe`) will use the
+   :envvar:`PATH` environment variable to locate the program *file*.  When the
+   environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:`spawn\*e <spawnl>` variants,
+   discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
+   the :envvar:`PATH` variable.  The other variants, :func:`spawnl`,
+   :func:`spawnle`, :func:`spawnv`, and :func:`spawnve`, will not use the
+   :envvar:`PATH` variable to locate the executable; *path* must contain an
+   appropriate absolute or relative path.
+
+   For :func:`spawnle`, :func:`spawnlpe`, :func:`spawnve`, and :func:`spawnvpe`
+   (note that these all end in "e"), the *env* parameter must be a mapping
+   which is used to define the environment variables for the new process (they are
+   used instead of the current process' environment); the functions
+   :func:`spawnl`, :func:`spawnlp`, :func:`spawnv`, and :func:`spawnvp` all cause
+   the new process to inherit the environment of the current process.  Note that
+   keys and values in the *env* dictionary must be strings; invalid keys or
+   values will cause the function to fail, with a return value of ``127``.
+
+   As an example, the following calls to :func:`spawnlp` and :func:`spawnvpe` are
+   equivalent::
+
+      import os
+      os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')
+
+      L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
+      os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.  :func:`spawnlp`, :func:`spawnlpe`, :func:`spawnvp`
+      and :func:`spawnvpe` are not available on Windows.  :func:`spawnle` and
+      :func:`spawnve` are not thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the
+      :mod:`subprocess` module instead.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. data:: P_NOWAIT
+          P_NOWAITO
+
+   Possible values for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` family of
+   functions.  If either of these values is given, the :func:`spawn\*` functions
+   will return as soon as the new process has been created, with the process id as
+   the return value.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. data:: P_WAIT
+
+   Possible value for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` family of
+   functions.  If this is given as *mode*, the :func:`spawn\*` functions will not
+   return until the new process has run to completion and will return the exit code
+   of the process the run is successful, or ``-signal`` if a signal kills the
+   process.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. data:: P_DETACH
+          P_OVERLAY
+
+   Possible values for the *mode* parameter to the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` family of
+   functions.  These are less portable than those listed above. :const:`P_DETACH`
+   is similar to :const:`P_NOWAIT`, but the new process is detached from the
+   console of the calling process. If :const:`P_OVERLAY` is used, the current
+   process will be replaced; the :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>` function will not return.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: startfile(path[, operation])
+
+   Start a file with its associated application.
+
+   When *operation* is not specified or ``'open'``, this acts like double-clicking
+   the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an argument to the
+   :program:`start` command from the interactive command shell: the file is opened
+   with whatever application (if any) its extension is associated.
+
+   When another *operation* is given, it must be a "command verb" that specifies
+   what should be done with the file. Common verbs documented by Microsoft are
+   ``'print'`` and  ``'edit'`` (to be used on files) as well as ``'explore'`` and
+   ``'find'`` (to be used on directories).
+
+   :func:`startfile` returns as soon as the associated application is launched.
+   There is no option to wait for the application to close, and no way to retrieve
+   the application's exit status.  The *path* parameter is relative to the current
+   directory.  If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first character
+   is not a slash (``'/'``); the underlying Win32 :c:func:`ShellExecute` function
+   doesn't work if it is.  Use the :func:`os.path.normpath` function to ensure that
+   the path is properly encoded for Win32.
+
+   To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 :c:func:`ShellExecute`
+   function is not resolved until this function is first called.  If the function
+   cannot be resolved, :exc:`NotImplementedError` will be raised.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: system(command)
+
+   Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented by calling
+   the Standard C function :c:func:`system`, and has the same limitations.
+   Changes to :data:`sys.stdin`, etc. are not reflected in the environment of
+   the executed command. If *command* generates any output, it will be sent to
+   the interpreter standard output stream.
+
+   On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded in the
+   format specified for :func:`wait`.  Note that POSIX does not specify the
+   meaning of the return value of the C :c:func:`system` function, so the return
+   value of the Python function is system-dependent.
+
+   On Windows, the return value is that returned by the system shell after
+   running *command*.  The shell is given by the Windows environment variable
+   :envvar:`COMSPEC`: it is usually :program:`cmd.exe`, which returns the exit
+   status of the command run; on systems using a non-native shell, consult your
+   shell documentation.
+
+   The :mod:`subprocess` module provides more powerful facilities for spawning
+   new processes and retrieving their results; using that module is preferable
+   to using this function.  See the :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section in
+   the :mod:`subprocess` documentation for some helpful recipes.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: times()
+
+   Returns the current global process times.
+   The return value is an object with five attributes:
+
+   * :attr:`user` - user time
+   * :attr:`system` - system time
+   * :attr:`children_user` - user time of all child processes
+   * :attr:`children_system` - system time of all child processes
+   * :attr:`elapsed` - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past
+
+   For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a five-tuple
+   containing :attr:`user`, :attr:`system`, :attr:`children_user`,
+   :attr:`children_system`, and :attr:`elapsed` in that order.
+
+   See the Unix manual page
+   :manpage:`times(2)` or the corresponding Windows Platform API documentation.
+   On Windows, only :attr:`user` and :attr:`system` are known; the other
+   attributes are zero.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object
+      with named attributes.
+
+
+.. function:: wait()
+
+   Wait for completion of a child process, and return a tuple containing its pid
+   and exit status indication: a 16-bit number, whose low byte is the signal number
+   that killed the process, and whose high byte is the exit status (if the signal
+   number is zero); the high bit of the low byte is set if a core file was
+   produced.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+.. function:: waitid(idtype, id, options)
+
+   Wait for the completion of one or more child processes.
+   *idtype* can be :data:`P_PID`, :data:`P_PGID` or :data:`P_ALL`.
+   *id* specifies the pid to wait on.
+   *options* is constructed from the ORing of one or more of :data:`WEXITED`,
+   :data:`WSTOPPED` or :data:`WCONTINUED` and additionally may be ORed with
+   :data:`WNOHANG` or :data:`WNOWAIT`. The return value is an object
+   representing the data contained in the :c:type:`siginfo_t` structure, namely:
+   :attr:`si_pid`, :attr:`si_uid`, :attr:`si_signo`, :attr:`si_status`,
+   :attr:`si_code` or ``None`` if :data:`WNOHANG` is specified and there are no
+   children in a waitable state.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: P_PID
+          P_PGID
+          P_ALL
+
+   These are the possible values for *idtype* in :func:`waitid`. They affect
+   how *id* is interpreted.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: WEXITED
+          WSTOPPED
+          WNOWAIT
+
+   Flags that can be used in *options* in :func:`waitid` that specify what
+   child signal to wait for.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: CLD_EXITED
+          CLD_DUMPED
+          CLD_TRAPPED
+          CLD_CONTINUED
+
+   These are the possible values for :attr:`si_code` in the result returned by
+   :func:`waitid`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: waitpid(pid, options)
+
+   The details of this function differ on Unix and Windows.
+
+   On Unix: Wait for completion of a child process given by process id *pid*, and
+   return a tuple containing its process id and exit status indication (encoded as
+   for :func:`wait`).  The semantics of the call are affected by the value of the
+   integer *options*, which should be ``0`` for normal operation.
+
+   If *pid* is greater than ``0``, :func:`waitpid` requests status information for
+   that specific process.  If *pid* is ``0``, the request is for the status of any
+   child in the process group of the current process.  If *pid* is ``-1``, the
+   request pertains to any child of the current process.  If *pid* is less than
+   ``-1``, status is requested for any process in the process group ``-pid`` (the
+   absolute value of *pid*).
+
+   An :exc:`OSError` is raised with the value of errno when the syscall
+   returns -1.
+
+   On Windows: Wait for completion of a process given by process handle *pid*, and
+   return a tuple containing *pid*, and its exit status shifted left by 8 bits
+   (shifting makes cross-platform use of the function easier). A *pid* less than or
+   equal to ``0`` has no special meaning on Windows, and raises an exception. The
+   value of integer *options* has no effect. *pid* can refer to any process whose
+   id is known, not necessarily a child process. The :func:`spawn\* <spawnl>`
+   functions called with :const:`P_NOWAIT` return suitable process handles.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+      exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+      :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. function:: wait3(options)
+
+   Similar to :func:`waitpid`, except no process id argument is given and a
+   3-element tuple containing the child's process id, exit status indication,
+   and resource usage information is returned.  Refer to
+   :mod:`resource`.\ :func:`~resource.getrusage` for details on resource usage
+   information.  The option argument is the same as that provided to
+   :func:`waitpid` and :func:`wait4`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: wait4(pid, options)
+
+   Similar to :func:`waitpid`, except a 3-element tuple, containing the child's
+   process id, exit status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
+   Refer to :mod:`resource`.\ :func:`~resource.getrusage` for details on
+   resource usage information.  The arguments to :func:`wait4` are the same
+   as those provided to :func:`waitpid`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: WNOHANG
+
+   The option for :func:`waitpid` to return immediately if no child process status
+   is available immediately. The function returns ``(0, 0)`` in this case.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: WCONTINUED
+
+   This option causes child processes to be reported if they have been continued
+   from a job control stop since their status was last reported.
+
+   .. availability:: some Unix systems.
+
+
+.. data:: WUNTRACED
+
+   This option causes child processes to be reported if they have been stopped but
+   their current state has not been reported since they were stopped.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+The following functions take a process status code as returned by
+:func:`system`, :func:`wait`, or :func:`waitpid` as a parameter.  They may be
+used to determine the disposition of a process.
+
+.. function:: WCOREDUMP(status)
+
+   Return ``True`` if a core dump was generated for the process, otherwise
+   return ``False``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: WIFCONTINUED(status)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the process has been continued from a job control stop,
+   otherwise return ``False``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: WIFSTOPPED(status)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the process has been stopped, otherwise return
+   ``False``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: WIFSIGNALED(status)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the process exited due to a signal, otherwise return
+   ``False``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: WIFEXITED(status)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the process exited using the :manpage:`exit(2)` system call,
+   otherwise return ``False``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: WEXITSTATUS(status)
+
+   If ``WIFEXITED(status)`` is true, return the integer parameter to the
+   :manpage:`exit(2)` system call.  Otherwise, the return value is meaningless.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: WSTOPSIG(status)
+
+   Return the signal which caused the process to stop.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: WTERMSIG(status)
+
+   Return the signal which caused the process to exit.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+Interface to the scheduler
+--------------------------
+
+These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating
+system. They are only available on some Unix platforms. For more detailed
+information, consult your Unix manpages.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are supported by the
+operating system.
+
+.. data:: SCHED_OTHER
+
+   The default scheduling policy.
+
+.. data:: SCHED_BATCH
+
+   Scheduling policy for CPU-intensive processes that tries to preserve
+   interactivity on the rest of the computer.
+
+.. data:: SCHED_IDLE
+
+   Scheduling policy for extremely low priority background tasks.
+
+.. data:: SCHED_SPORADIC
+
+   Scheduling policy for sporadic server programs.
+
+.. data:: SCHED_FIFO
+
+   A First In First Out scheduling policy.
+
+.. data:: SCHED_RR
+
+   A round-robin scheduling policy.
+
+.. data:: SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK
+
+   This flag can be OR'ed with any other scheduling policy. When a process with
+   this flag set forks, its child's scheduling policy and priority are reset to
+   the default.
+
+
+.. class:: sched_param(sched_priority)
+
+   This class represents tunable scheduling parameters used in
+   :func:`sched_setparam`, :func:`sched_setscheduler`, and
+   :func:`sched_getparam`. It is immutable.
+
+   At the moment, there is only one possible parameter:
+
+   .. attribute:: sched_priority
+
+      The scheduling priority for a scheduling policy.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_get_priority_min(policy)
+
+   Get the minimum priority value for *policy*. *policy* is one of the
+   scheduling policy constants above.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_get_priority_max(policy)
+
+   Get the maximum priority value for *policy*. *policy* is one of the
+   scheduling policy constants above.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_setscheduler(pid, policy, param)
+
+   Set the scheduling policy for the process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0 means
+   the calling process. *policy* is one of the scheduling policy constants
+   above. *param* is a :class:`sched_param` instance.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_getscheduler(pid)
+
+   Return the scheduling policy for the process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0
+   means the calling process. The result is one of the scheduling policy
+   constants above.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_setparam(pid, param)
+
+   Set a scheduling parameters for the process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0 means
+   the calling process. *param* is a :class:`sched_param` instance.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_getparam(pid)
+
+   Return the scheduling parameters as a :class:`sched_param` instance for the
+   process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0 means the calling process.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_rr_get_interval(pid)
+
+   Return the round-robin quantum in seconds for the process with PID *pid*. A
+   *pid* of 0 means the calling process.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_yield()
+
+   Voluntarily relinquish the CPU.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_setaffinity(pid, mask)
+
+   Restrict the process with PID *pid* (or the current process if zero) to a
+   set of CPUs.  *mask* is an iterable of integers representing the set of
+   CPUs to which the process should be restricted.
+
+
+.. function:: sched_getaffinity(pid)
+
+   Return the set of CPUs the process with PID *pid* (or the current process
+   if zero) is restricted to.
+
+
+.. _os-path:
+
+Miscellaneous System Information
+--------------------------------
+
+
+.. function:: confstr(name)
+
+   Return string-valued system configuration values. *name* specifies the
+   configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the name of a
+   defined system value; these names are specified in a number of standards (POSIX,
+   Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.
+   The names known to the host operating system are given as the keys of the
+   ``confstr_names`` dictionary.  For configuration variables not included in that
+   mapping, passing an integer for *name* is also accepted.
+
+   If the configuration value specified by *name* isn't defined, ``None`` is
+   returned.
+
+   If *name* is a string and is not known, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  If a
+   specific value for *name* is not supported by the host system, even if it is
+   included in ``confstr_names``, an :exc:`OSError` is raised with
+   :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: confstr_names
+
+   Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:`confstr` to the integer values
+   defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
+   determine the set of names known to the system.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: cpu_count()
+
+   Return the number of CPUs in the system. Returns ``None`` if undetermined.
+
+   This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current process can
+   use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
+   ``len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))``
+
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: getloadavg()
+
+   Return the number of processes in the system run queue averaged over the last
+   1, 5, and 15 minutes or raises :exc:`OSError` if the load average was
+   unobtainable.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: sysconf(name)
+
+   Return integer-valued system configuration values. If the configuration value
+   specified by *name* isn't defined, ``-1`` is returned.  The comments regarding
+   the *name* parameter for :func:`confstr` apply here as well; the dictionary that
+   provides information on the known names is given by ``sysconf_names``.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. data:: sysconf_names
+
+   Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:`sysconf` to the integer values
+   defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
+   determine the set of names known to the system.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+The following data values are used to support path manipulation operations.  These
+are defined for all platforms.
+
+Higher-level operations on pathnames are defined in the :mod:`os.path` module.
+
+
+.. index:: single: . (dot); in pathnames
+.. data:: curdir
+
+   The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the current
+   directory. This is ``'.'`` for Windows and POSIX. Also available via
+   :mod:`os.path`.
+
+
+.. index:: single: ..; in pathnames
+.. data:: pardir
+
+   The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the parent
+   directory. This is ``'..'`` for Windows and POSIX. Also available via
+   :mod:`os.path`.
+
+
+.. index:: single: / (slash); in pathnames
+.. index:: single: \ (backslash); in pathnames (Windows)
+.. data:: sep
+
+   The character used by the operating system to separate pathname components.
+   This is ``'/'`` for POSIX and ``'\\'`` for Windows.  Note that knowing this
+   is not sufficient to be able to parse or concatenate pathnames --- use
+   :func:`os.path.split` and :func:`os.path.join` --- but it is occasionally
+   useful. Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
+
+
+.. index:: single: / (slash); in pathnames
+.. data:: altsep
+
+   An alternative character used by the operating system to separate pathname
+   components, or ``None`` if only one separator character exists.  This is set to
+   ``'/'`` on Windows systems where ``sep`` is a backslash. Also available via
+   :mod:`os.path`.
+
+
+.. index:: single: . (dot); in pathnames
+.. data:: extsep
+
+   The character which separates the base filename from the extension; for example,
+   the ``'.'`` in :file:`os.py`. Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
+
+
+.. index:: single: : (colon); path separator (POSIX)
+   single: ; (semicolon)
+.. data:: pathsep
+
+   The character conventionally used by the operating system to separate search
+   path components (as in :envvar:`PATH`), such as ``':'`` for POSIX or ``';'`` for
+   Windows. Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
+
+
+.. data:: defpath
+
+   The default search path used by :func:`exec\*p\* <execl>` and
+   :func:`spawn\*p\* <spawnl>` if the environment doesn't have a ``'PATH'``
+   key. Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
+
+
+.. data:: linesep
+
+   The string used to separate (or, rather, terminate) lines on the current
+   platform.  This may be a single character, such as ``'\n'`` for POSIX, or
+   multiple characters, for example, ``'\r\n'`` for Windows. Do not use
+   *os.linesep* as a line terminator when writing files opened in text mode (the
+   default); use a single ``'\n'`` instead, on all platforms.
+
+
+.. data:: devnull
+
+   The file path of the null device. For example: ``'/dev/null'`` for
+   POSIX, ``'nul'`` for Windows.  Also available via :mod:`os.path`.
+
+.. data:: RTLD_LAZY
+          RTLD_NOW
+          RTLD_GLOBAL
+          RTLD_LOCAL
+          RTLD_NODELETE
+          RTLD_NOLOAD
+          RTLD_DEEPBIND
+
+   Flags for use with the :func:`~sys.setdlopenflags` and
+   :func:`~sys.getdlopenflags` functions.  See the Unix manual page
+   :manpage:`dlopen(3)` for what the different flags mean.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+Random numbers
+--------------
+
+
+.. function:: getrandom(size, flags=0)
+
+   Get up to *size* random bytes. The function can return less bytes than
+   requested.
+
+   These bytes can be used to seed user-space random number generators or for
+   cryptographic purposes.
+
+   ``getrandom()`` relies on entropy gathered from device drivers and other
+   sources of environmental noise. Unnecessarily reading large quantities of
+   data will have a negative impact on  other users  of the ``/dev/random`` and
+   ``/dev/urandom`` devices.
+
+   The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of the
+   following values ORed together: :py:data:`os.GRND_RANDOM` and
+   :py:data:`GRND_NONBLOCK`.
+
+   See also the `Linux getrandom() manual page
+   <http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html>`_.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 3.17 and newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. function:: urandom(size)
+
+   Return a string of *size* random bytes suitable for cryptographic use.
+
+   This function returns random bytes from an OS-specific randomness source.  The
+   returned data should be unpredictable enough for cryptographic applications,
+   though its exact quality depends on the OS implementation.
+
+   On Linux, if the ``getrandom()`` syscall is available, it is used in
+   blocking mode: block until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized
+   (128 bits of entropy are collected by the kernel). See the :pep:`524` for
+   the rationale. On Linux, the :func:`getrandom` function can be used to get
+   random bytes in non-blocking mode (using the :data:`GRND_NONBLOCK` flag) or
+   to poll until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized.
+
+   On a Unix-like system, random bytes are read from the ``/dev/urandom``
+   device. If the ``/dev/urandom`` device is not available or not readable, the
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` exception is raised.
+
+   On Windows, it will use ``CryptGenRandom()``.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      The :mod:`secrets` module provides higher level functions. For an
+      easy-to-use interface to the random number generator provided by your
+      platform, please see :class:`random.SystemRandom`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.0
+      On Linux, ``getrandom()`` is now used in blocking mode to increase the
+      security.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5.2
+      On Linux, if the ``getrandom()`` syscall blocks (the urandom entropy pool
+      is not initialized yet), fall back on reading ``/dev/urandom``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      On Linux 3.17 and newer, the ``getrandom()`` syscall is now used
+      when available.  On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, the C ``getentropy()``
+      function is now used. These functions avoid the usage of an internal file
+      descriptor.
+
+.. data:: GRND_NONBLOCK
+
+   By  default, when reading from ``/dev/random``, :func:`getrandom` blocks if
+   no random bytes are available, and when reading from ``/dev/urandom``, it blocks
+   if the entropy pool has not yet been initialized.
+
+   If the :py:data:`GRND_NONBLOCK` flag is set, then :func:`getrandom` does not
+   block in these cases, but instead immediately raises :exc:`BlockingIOError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: GRND_RANDOM
+
+   If  this  bit  is  set,  then  random bytes are drawn from the
+   ``/dev/random`` pool instead of the ``/dev/urandom`` pool.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ossaudiodev.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ossaudiodev.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7d3dac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ossaudiodev.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,448 @@
+:mod:`ossaudiodev` --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
+=============================================================
+
+.. module:: ossaudiodev
+   :platform: Linux, FreeBSD
+   :synopsis: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
+
+--------------
+
+This module allows you to access the OSS (Open Sound System) audio interface.
+OSS is available for a wide range of open-source and commercial Unices, and is
+the standard audio interface for Linux and recent versions of FreeBSD.
+
+.. Things will get more complicated for future Linux versions, since
+   ALSA is in the standard kernel as of 2.5.x.  Presumably if you
+   use ALSA, you'll have to make sure its OSS compatibility layer
+   is active to use ossaudiodev, but you're going to need it for the vast
+   majority of Linux audio apps anyway.
+
+   Sounds like things are also complicated for other BSDs.  In response
+   to my python-dev query, Thomas Wouters said:
+
+   > Likewise, googling shows OpenBSD also uses OSS/Free -- the commercial
+   > OSS installation manual tells you to remove references to OSS/Free from the
+   > kernel :)
+
+   but Aleksander Piotrowsk actually has an OpenBSD box, and he quotes
+   from its <soundcard.h>:
+   >  * WARNING!  WARNING!
+   >  * This is an OSS (Linux) audio emulator.
+   >  * Use the Native NetBSD API for developing new code, and this
+   >  * only for compiling Linux programs.
+
+   There's also an ossaudio manpage on OpenBSD that explains things
+   further.  Presumably NetBSD and OpenBSD have a different standard
+   audio interface.  That's the great thing about standards, there are so
+   many to choose from ... ;-)
+
+   This probably all warrants a footnote or two, but I don't understand
+   things well enough right now to write it!   --GPW
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Operations in this module now raise :exc:`OSError` where :exc:`IOError`
+   was raised.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Open Sound System Programmer's Guide <http://www.opensound.com/pguide/oss.pdf>`_
+      the official documentation for the OSS C API
+
+   The module defines a large number of constants supplied by the OSS device
+   driver; see ``<sys/soundcard.h>`` on either Linux or FreeBSD for a listing.
+
+:mod:`ossaudiodev` defines the following variables and functions:
+
+
+.. exception:: OSSAudioError
+
+   This exception is raised on certain errors.  The argument is a string describing
+   what went wrong.
+
+   (If :mod:`ossaudiodev` receives an error from a system call such as
+   :c:func:`open`, :c:func:`write`, or :c:func:`ioctl`, it raises :exc:`OSError`.
+   Errors detected directly by :mod:`ossaudiodev` result in :exc:`OSSAudioError`.)
+
+   (For backwards compatibility, the exception class is also available as
+   ``ossaudiodev.error``.)
+
+
+.. function:: open(mode)
+              open(device, mode)
+
+   Open an audio device and return an OSS audio device object.  This object
+   supports many file-like methods, such as :meth:`read`, :meth:`write`, and
+   :meth:`fileno` (although there are subtle differences between conventional Unix
+   read/write semantics and those of OSS audio devices).  It also supports a number
+   of audio-specific methods; see below for the complete list of methods.
+
+   *device* is the audio device filename to use.  If it is not specified, this
+   module first looks in the environment variable :envvar:`AUDIODEV` for a device
+   to use.  If not found, it falls back to :file:`/dev/dsp`.
+
+   *mode* is one of ``'r'`` for read-only (record) access, ``'w'`` for
+   write-only (playback) access and ``'rw'`` for both. Since many sound cards
+   only allow one process to have the recorder or player open at a time, it is a
+   good idea to open the device only for the activity needed.  Further, some
+   sound cards are half-duplex: they can be opened for reading or writing, but
+   not both at once.
+
+   Note the unusual calling syntax: the *first* argument is optional, and the
+   second is required.  This is a historical artifact for compatibility with the
+   older :mod:`linuxaudiodev` module which :mod:`ossaudiodev` supersedes.
+
+   .. XXX it might also be motivated
+      by my unfounded-but-still-possibly-true belief that the default
+      audio device varies unpredictably across operating systems.  -GW
+
+
+.. function:: openmixer([device])
+
+   Open a mixer device and return an OSS mixer device object.   *device* is the
+   mixer device filename to use.  If it is not specified, this module first looks
+   in the environment variable :envvar:`MIXERDEV` for a device to use.  If not
+   found, it falls back to :file:`/dev/mixer`.
+
+
+.. _ossaudio-device-objects:
+
+Audio Device Objects
+--------------------
+
+Before you can write to or read from an audio device, you must call three
+methods in the correct order:
+
+#. :meth:`setfmt` to set the output format
+
+#. :meth:`channels` to set the number of channels
+
+#. :meth:`speed` to set the sample rate
+
+Alternately, you can use the :meth:`setparameters` method to set all three audio
+parameters at once.  This is more convenient, but may not be as flexible in all
+cases.
+
+The audio device objects returned by :func:`.open` define the following methods
+and (read-only) attributes:
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.close()
+
+   Explicitly close the audio device.  When you are done writing to or reading from
+   an audio device, you should explicitly close it.  A closed device cannot be used
+   again.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.fileno()
+
+   Return the file descriptor associated with the device.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.read(size)
+
+   Read *size* bytes from the audio input and return them as a Python string.
+   Unlike most Unix device drivers, OSS audio devices in blocking mode (the
+   default) will block :func:`read` until the entire requested amount of data is
+   available.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.write(data)
+
+   Write a :term:`bytes-like object` *data* to the audio device and return the
+   number of bytes written.  If the audio device is in blocking mode (the
+   default), the entire data is always written (again, this is different from
+   usual Unix device semantics).  If the device is in non-blocking mode, some
+   data may not be written---see :meth:`writeall`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.writeall(data)
+
+   Write a :term:`bytes-like object` *data* to the audio device: waits until
+   the audio device is able to accept data, writes as much data as it will
+   accept, and repeats until *data* has been completely written. If the device
+   is in blocking mode (the default), this has the same effect as
+   :meth:`write`; :meth:`writeall` is only useful in non-blocking mode.  Has
+   no return value, since the amount of data written is always equal to the
+   amount of data supplied.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Audio device objects also support the context management protocol, i.e. they can
+   be used in a :keyword:`with` statement.
+
+
+The following methods each map to exactly one :c:func:`ioctl` system call.  The
+correspondence is obvious: for example, :meth:`setfmt` corresponds to the
+``SNDCTL_DSP_SETFMT`` ioctl, and :meth:`sync` to ``SNDCTL_DSP_SYNC`` (this can
+be useful when consulting the OSS documentation).  If the underlying
+:c:func:`ioctl` fails, they all raise :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.nonblock()
+
+   Put the device into non-blocking mode.  Once in non-blocking mode, there is no
+   way to return it to blocking mode.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.getfmts()
+
+   Return a bitmask of the audio output formats supported by the soundcard.  Some
+   of the formats supported by OSS are:
+
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | Format                  | Description                                 |
+   +=========================+=============================================+
+   | :const:`AFMT_MU_LAW`    | a logarithmic encoding (used by Sun ``.au`` |
+   |                         | files and :file:`/dev/audio`)               |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_A_LAW`     | a logarithmic encoding                      |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_IMA_ADPCM` | a 4:1 compressed format defined by the      |
+   |                         | Interactive Multimedia Association          |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_U8`        | Unsigned, 8-bit audio                       |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_S16_LE`    | Signed, 16-bit audio, little-endian byte    |
+   |                         | order (as used by Intel processors)         |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_S16_BE`    | Signed, 16-bit audio, big-endian byte order |
+   |                         | (as used by 68k, PowerPC, Sparc)            |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_S8`        | Signed, 8 bit audio                         |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_U16_LE`    | Unsigned, 16-bit little-endian audio        |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`AFMT_U16_BE`    | Unsigned, 16-bit big-endian audio           |
+   +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+   Consult the OSS documentation for a full list of audio formats, and note that
+   most devices support only a subset of these formats.  Some older devices only
+   support :const:`AFMT_U8`; the most common format used today is
+   :const:`AFMT_S16_LE`.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.setfmt(format)
+
+   Try to set the current audio format to *format*---see :meth:`getfmts` for a
+   list.  Returns the audio format that the device was set to, which may not be the
+   requested format.  May also be used to return the current audio format---do this
+   by passing an "audio format" of :const:`AFMT_QUERY`.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.channels(nchannels)
+
+   Set the number of output channels to *nchannels*.  A value of 1 indicates
+   monophonic sound, 2 stereophonic.  Some devices may have more than 2 channels,
+   and some high-end devices may not support mono. Returns the number of channels
+   the device was set to.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.speed(samplerate)
+
+   Try to set the audio sampling rate to *samplerate* samples per second.  Returns
+   the rate actually set.  Most sound devices don't support arbitrary sampling
+   rates.  Common rates are:
+
+   +-------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | Rate  | Description                               |
+   +=======+===========================================+
+   | 8000  | default rate for :file:`/dev/audio`       |
+   +-------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | 11025 | speech recording                          |
+   +-------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | 22050 |                                           |
+   +-------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | 44100 | CD quality audio (at 16 bits/sample and 2 |
+   |       | channels)                                 |
+   +-------+-------------------------------------------+
+   | 96000 | DVD quality audio (at 24 bits/sample)     |
+   +-------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.sync()
+
+   Wait until the sound device has played every byte in its buffer.  (This happens
+   implicitly when the device is closed.)  The OSS documentation recommends closing
+   and re-opening the device rather than using :meth:`sync`.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.reset()
+
+   Immediately stop playing or recording and return the device to a state where it
+   can accept commands.  The OSS documentation recommends closing and re-opening
+   the device after calling :meth:`reset`.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.post()
+
+   Tell the driver that there is likely to be a pause in the output, making it
+   possible for the device to handle the pause more intelligently.  You might use
+   this after playing a spot sound effect, before waiting for user input, or before
+   doing disk I/O.
+
+The following convenience methods combine several ioctls, or one ioctl and some
+simple calculations.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.setparameters(format, nchannels, samplerate[, strict=False])
+
+   Set the key audio sampling parameters---sample format, number of channels, and
+   sampling rate---in one method call.  *format*,  *nchannels*, and *samplerate*
+   should be as specified in the :meth:`setfmt`, :meth:`channels`, and
+   :meth:`speed`  methods.  If *strict* is true, :meth:`setparameters` checks to
+   see if each parameter was actually set to the requested value, and raises
+   :exc:`OSSAudioError` if not.  Returns a tuple (*format*, *nchannels*,
+   *samplerate*) indicating the parameter values that were actually set by the
+   device driver (i.e., the same as the return values of :meth:`setfmt`,
+   :meth:`channels`, and :meth:`speed`).
+
+   For example,  ::
+
+      (fmt, channels, rate) = dsp.setparameters(fmt, channels, rate)
+
+   is equivalent to  ::
+
+      fmt = dsp.setfmt(fmt)
+      channels = dsp.channels(channels)
+      rate = dsp.rate(rate)
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.bufsize()
+
+   Returns the size of the hardware buffer, in samples.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.obufcount()
+
+   Returns the number of samples that are in the hardware buffer yet to be played.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_audio_device.obuffree()
+
+   Returns the number of samples that could be queued into the hardware buffer to
+   be played without blocking.
+
+Audio device objects also support several read-only attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: oss_audio_device.closed
+
+   Boolean indicating whether the device has been closed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: oss_audio_device.name
+
+   String containing the name of the device file.
+
+
+.. attribute:: oss_audio_device.mode
+
+   The I/O mode for the file, either ``"r"``, ``"rw"``, or ``"w"``.
+
+
+.. _mixer-device-objects:
+
+Mixer Device Objects
+--------------------
+
+The mixer object provides two file-like methods:
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.close()
+
+   This method closes the open mixer device file.  Any further attempts to use the
+   mixer after this file is closed will raise an :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.fileno()
+
+   Returns the file handle number of the open mixer device file.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Mixer objects also support the context management protocol.
+
+
+The remaining methods are specific to audio mixing:
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.controls()
+
+   This method returns a bitmask specifying the available mixer controls ("Control"
+   being a specific mixable "channel", such as :const:`SOUND_MIXER_PCM` or
+   :const:`SOUND_MIXER_SYNTH`).  This bitmask indicates a subset of all available
+   mixer controls---the :const:`SOUND_MIXER_\*` constants defined at module level.
+   To determine if, for example, the current mixer object supports a PCM mixer, use
+   the following Python code::
+
+      mixer=ossaudiodev.openmixer()
+      if mixer.controls() & (1 << ossaudiodev.SOUND_MIXER_PCM):
+          # PCM is supported
+          ... code ...
+
+   For most purposes, the :const:`SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME` (master volume) and
+   :const:`SOUND_MIXER_PCM` controls should suffice---but code that uses the mixer
+   should be flexible when it comes to choosing mixer controls.  On the Gravis
+   Ultrasound, for example, :const:`SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME` does not exist.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.stereocontrols()
+
+   Returns a bitmask indicating stereo mixer controls.  If a bit is set, the
+   corresponding control is stereo; if it is unset, the control is either
+   monophonic or not supported by the mixer (use in combination with
+   :meth:`controls` to determine which).
+
+   See the code example for the :meth:`controls` function for an example of getting
+   data from a bitmask.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.reccontrols()
+
+   Returns a bitmask specifying the mixer controls that may be used to record.  See
+   the code example for :meth:`controls` for an example of reading from a bitmask.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.get(control)
+
+   Returns the volume of a given mixer control.  The returned volume is a 2-tuple
+   ``(left_volume,right_volume)``.  Volumes are specified as numbers from 0
+   (silent) to 100 (full volume).  If the control is monophonic, a 2-tuple is still
+   returned, but both volumes are the same.
+
+   Raises :exc:`OSSAudioError` if an invalid control is specified, or
+   :exc:`OSError` if an unsupported control is specified.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.set(control, (left, right))
+
+   Sets the volume for a given mixer control to ``(left,right)``. ``left`` and
+   ``right`` must be ints and between 0 (silent) and 100 (full volume).  On
+   success, the new volume is returned as a 2-tuple. Note that this may not be
+   exactly the same as the volume specified, because of the limited resolution of
+   some soundcard's mixers.
+
+   Raises :exc:`OSSAudioError` if an invalid mixer control was specified, or if the
+   specified volumes were out-of-range.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.get_recsrc()
+
+   This method returns a bitmask indicating which control(s) are currently being
+   used as a recording source.
+
+
+.. method:: oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc(bitmask)
+
+   Call this function to specify a recording source.  Returns a bitmask indicating
+   the new recording source (or sources) if successful; raises :exc:`OSError` if an
+   invalid source was specified.  To set the current recording source to the
+   microphone input::
+
+      mixer.setrecsrc (1 << ossaudiodev.SOUND_MIXER_MIC)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/othergui.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/othergui.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4548459
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/othergui.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+.. _other-gui-packages:
+
+Other Graphical User Interface Packages
+=======================================
+
+Major cross-platform (Windows, Mac OS X, Unix-like) GUI toolkits are
+available for Python:
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `PyGObject <https://wiki.gnome.org/Projects/PyGObject>`_
+      PyGObject provides introspection bindings for C libraries using
+      `GObject <https://developer.gnome.org/gobject/stable/>`_.  One of
+      these libraries is the `GTK+ 3 <https://www.gtk.org/>`_ widget set.
+      GTK+ comes with many more widgets than Tkinter provides.  An online
+      `Python GTK+ 3 Tutorial <https://python-gtk-3-tutorial.readthedocs.io/>`_
+      is available.
+
+   `PyGTK <http://www.pygtk.org/>`_
+      PyGTK provides bindings for an older version
+      of the library, GTK+ 2.  It provides an object oriented interface that
+      is slightly higher level than the C one.  There are also bindings to
+      `GNOME <https://www.gnome.org/>`_.  An online `tutorial
+      <http://www.pygtk.org/pygtk2tutorial/index.html>`_ is available.
+
+   `PyQt <https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro>`_
+      PyQt is a :program:`sip`\ -wrapped binding to the Qt toolkit.  Qt is an
+      extensive C++ GUI application development framework that is
+      available for Unix, Windows and Mac OS X. :program:`sip` is a tool
+      for generating bindings for C++ libraries as Python classes, and
+      is specifically designed for Python.
+
+   `PySide <https://wiki.qt.io/PySide>`_
+      PySide is a newer binding to the Qt toolkit, provided by Nokia.
+      Compared to PyQt, its licensing scheme is friendlier to non-open source
+      applications.
+
+   `wxPython <https://www.wxpython.org>`_
+      wxPython is a cross-platform GUI toolkit for Python that is built around
+      the popular `wxWidgets <https://www.wxwidgets.org/>`_ (formerly wxWindows)
+      C++ toolkit.  It provides a native look and feel for applications on
+      Windows, Mac OS X, and Unix systems by using each platform's native
+      widgets where ever possible, (GTK+ on Unix-like systems).  In addition to
+      an extensive set of widgets, wxPython provides classes for online
+      documentation and context sensitive help, printing, HTML viewing,
+      low-level device context drawing, drag and drop, system clipboard access,
+      an XML-based resource format and more, including an ever growing library
+      of user-contributed modules.
+
+PyGTK, PyQt, and wxPython, all have a modern look and feel and more
+widgets than Tkinter. In addition, there are many other GUI toolkits for
+Python, both cross-platform, and platform-specific. See the `GUI Programming
+<https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming>`_ page in the Python Wiki for a
+much more complete list, and also for links to documents where the
+different GUI toolkits are compared.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/parser.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/parser.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a302681
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/parser.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,356 @@
+:mod:`parser` --- Access Python parse trees
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: parser
+   :synopsis: Access parse trees for Python source code.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+.. Copyright 1995 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Fred
+   L. Drake, Jr.  This copyright notice must be distributed on all copies, but
+   this document otherwise may be distributed as part of the Python
+   distribution.  No fee may be charged for this document in any representation,
+   either on paper or electronically.  This restriction does not affect other
+   elements in a distributed package in any way.
+
+.. index:: single: parsing; Python source code
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`parser` module provides an interface to Python's internal parser and
+byte-code compiler.  The primary purpose for this interface is to allow Python
+code to edit the parse tree of a Python expression and create executable code
+from this.  This is better than trying to parse and modify an arbitrary Python
+code fragment as a string because parsing is performed in a manner identical to
+the code forming the application.  It is also faster.
+
+.. note::
+
+   From Python 2.5 onward, it's much more convenient to cut in at the Abstract
+   Syntax Tree (AST) generation and compilation stage, using the :mod:`ast`
+   module.
+
+There are a few things to note about this module which are important to making
+use of the data structures created.  This is not a tutorial on editing the parse
+trees for Python code, but some examples of using the :mod:`parser` module are
+presented.
+
+Most importantly, a good understanding of the Python grammar processed by the
+internal parser is required.  For full information on the language syntax, refer
+to :ref:`reference-index`.  The parser
+itself is created from a grammar specification defined in the file
+:file:`Grammar/Grammar` in the standard Python distribution.  The parse trees
+stored in the ST objects created by this module are the actual output from the
+internal parser when created by the :func:`expr` or :func:`suite` functions,
+described below.  The ST objects created by :func:`sequence2st` faithfully
+simulate those structures.  Be aware that the values of the sequences which are
+considered "correct" will vary from one version of Python to another as the
+formal grammar for the language is revised.  However, transporting code from one
+Python version to another as source text will always allow correct parse trees
+to be created in the target version, with the only restriction being that
+migrating to an older version of the interpreter will not support more recent
+language constructs.  The parse trees are not typically compatible from one
+version to another, whereas source code has always been forward-compatible.
+
+Each element of the sequences returned by :func:`st2list` or :func:`st2tuple`
+has a simple form.  Sequences representing non-terminal elements in the grammar
+always have a length greater than one.  The first element is an integer which
+identifies a production in the grammar.  These integers are given symbolic names
+in the C header file :file:`Include/graminit.h` and the Python module
+:mod:`symbol`.  Each additional element of the sequence represents a component
+of the production as recognized in the input string: these are always sequences
+which have the same form as the parent.  An important aspect of this structure
+which should be noted is that keywords used to identify the parent node type,
+such as the keyword :keyword:`if` in an :const:`if_stmt`, are included in the
+node tree without any special treatment.  For example, the :keyword:`!if` keyword
+is represented by the tuple ``(1, 'if')``, where ``1`` is the numeric value
+associated with all :const:`NAME` tokens, including variable and function names
+defined by the user.  In an alternate form returned when line number information
+is requested, the same token might be represented as ``(1, 'if', 12)``, where
+the ``12`` represents the line number at which the terminal symbol was found.
+
+Terminal elements are represented in much the same way, but without any child
+elements and the addition of the source text which was identified.  The example
+of the :keyword:`if` keyword above is representative.  The various types of
+terminal symbols are defined in the C header file :file:`Include/token.h` and
+the Python module :mod:`token`.
+
+The ST objects are not required to support the functionality of this module,
+but are provided for three purposes: to allow an application to amortize the
+cost of processing complex parse trees, to provide a parse tree representation
+which conserves memory space when compared to the Python list or tuple
+representation, and to ease the creation of additional modules in C which
+manipulate parse trees.  A simple "wrapper" class may be created in Python to
+hide the use of ST objects.
+
+The :mod:`parser` module defines functions for a few distinct purposes.  The
+most important purposes are to create ST objects and to convert ST objects to
+other representations such as parse trees and compiled code objects, but there
+are also functions which serve to query the type of parse tree represented by an
+ST object.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`symbol`
+      Useful constants representing internal nodes of the parse tree.
+
+   Module :mod:`token`
+      Useful constants representing leaf nodes of the parse tree and functions for
+      testing node values.
+
+
+.. _creating-sts:
+
+Creating ST Objects
+-------------------
+
+ST objects may be created from source code or from a parse tree. When creating
+an ST object from source, different functions are used to create the ``'eval'``
+and ``'exec'`` forms.
+
+
+.. function:: expr(source)
+
+   The :func:`expr` function parses the parameter *source* as if it were an input
+   to ``compile(source, 'file.py', 'eval')``.  If the parse succeeds, an ST object
+   is created to hold the internal parse tree representation, otherwise an
+   appropriate exception is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: suite(source)
+
+   The :func:`suite` function parses the parameter *source* as if it were an input
+   to ``compile(source, 'file.py', 'exec')``.  If the parse succeeds, an ST object
+   is created to hold the internal parse tree representation, otherwise an
+   appropriate exception is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: sequence2st(sequence)
+
+   This function accepts a parse tree represented as a sequence and builds an
+   internal representation if possible.  If it can validate that the tree conforms
+   to the Python grammar and all nodes are valid node types in the host version of
+   Python, an ST object is created from the internal representation and returned
+   to the called.  If there is a problem creating the internal representation, or
+   if the tree cannot be validated, a :exc:`ParserError` exception is raised.  An
+   ST object created this way should not be assumed to compile correctly; normal
+   exceptions raised by compilation may still be initiated when the ST object is
+   passed to :func:`compilest`.  This may indicate problems not related to syntax
+   (such as a :exc:`MemoryError` exception), but may also be due to constructs such
+   as the result of parsing ``del f(0)``, which escapes the Python parser but is
+   checked by the bytecode compiler.
+
+   Sequences representing terminal tokens may be represented as either two-element
+   lists of the form ``(1, 'name')`` or as three-element lists of the form ``(1,
+   'name', 56)``.  If the third element is present, it is assumed to be a valid
+   line number.  The line number may be specified for any subset of the terminal
+   symbols in the input tree.
+
+
+.. function:: tuple2st(sequence)
+
+   This is the same function as :func:`sequence2st`.  This entry point is
+   maintained for backward compatibility.
+
+
+.. _converting-sts:
+
+Converting ST Objects
+---------------------
+
+ST objects, regardless of the input used to create them, may be converted to
+parse trees represented as list- or tuple- trees, or may be compiled into
+executable code objects.  Parse trees may be extracted with or without line
+numbering information.
+
+
+.. function:: st2list(st, line_info=False, col_info=False)
+
+   This function accepts an ST object from the caller in *st* and returns a
+   Python list representing the equivalent parse tree.  The resulting list
+   representation can be used for inspection or the creation of a new parse tree in
+   list form.  This function does not fail so long as memory is available to build
+   the list representation.  If the parse tree will only be used for inspection,
+   :func:`st2tuple` should be used instead to reduce memory consumption and
+   fragmentation.  When the list representation is required, this function is
+   significantly faster than retrieving a tuple representation and converting that
+   to nested lists.
+
+   If *line_info* is true, line number information will be included for all
+   terminal tokens as a third element of the list representing the token.  Note
+   that the line number provided specifies the line on which the token *ends*.
+   This information is omitted if the flag is false or omitted.
+
+
+.. function:: st2tuple(st, line_info=False, col_info=False)
+
+   This function accepts an ST object from the caller in *st* and returns a
+   Python tuple representing the equivalent parse tree.  Other than returning a
+   tuple instead of a list, this function is identical to :func:`st2list`.
+
+   If *line_info* is true, line number information will be included for all
+   terminal tokens as a third element of the list representing the token.  This
+   information is omitted if the flag is false or omitted.
+
+
+.. function:: compilest(st, filename='<syntax-tree>')
+
+   .. index::
+      builtin: exec
+      builtin: eval
+
+   The Python byte compiler can be invoked on an ST object to produce code objects
+   which can be used as part of a call to the built-in :func:`exec` or :func:`eval`
+   functions. This function provides the interface to the compiler, passing the
+   internal parse tree from *st* to the parser, using the source file name
+   specified by the *filename* parameter. The default value supplied for *filename*
+   indicates that the source was an ST object.
+
+   Compiling an ST object may result in exceptions related to compilation; an
+   example would be a :exc:`SyntaxError` caused by the parse tree for ``del f(0)``:
+   this statement is considered legal within the formal grammar for Python but is
+   not a legal language construct.  The :exc:`SyntaxError` raised for this
+   condition is actually generated by the Python byte-compiler normally, which is
+   why it can be raised at this point by the :mod:`parser` module.  Most causes of
+   compilation failure can be diagnosed programmatically by inspection of the parse
+   tree.
+
+
+.. _querying-sts:
+
+Queries on ST Objects
+---------------------
+
+Two functions are provided which allow an application to determine if an ST was
+created as an expression or a suite.  Neither of these functions can be used to
+determine if an ST was created from source code via :func:`expr` or
+:func:`suite` or from a parse tree via :func:`sequence2st`.
+
+
+.. function:: isexpr(st)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: compile
+
+   When *st* represents an ``'eval'`` form, this function returns true, otherwise
+   it returns false.  This is useful, since code objects normally cannot be queried
+   for this information using existing built-in functions.  Note that the code
+   objects created by :func:`compilest` cannot be queried like this either, and
+   are identical to those created by the built-in :func:`compile` function.
+
+
+.. function:: issuite(st)
+
+   This function mirrors :func:`isexpr` in that it reports whether an ST object
+   represents an ``'exec'`` form, commonly known as a "suite."  It is not safe to
+   assume that this function is equivalent to ``not isexpr(st)``, as additional
+   syntactic fragments may be supported in the future.
+
+
+.. _st-errors:
+
+Exceptions and Error Handling
+-----------------------------
+
+The parser module defines a single exception, but may also pass other built-in
+exceptions from other portions of the Python runtime environment.  See each
+function for information about the exceptions it can raise.
+
+
+.. exception:: ParserError
+
+   Exception raised when a failure occurs within the parser module.  This is
+   generally produced for validation failures rather than the built-in
+   :exc:`SyntaxError` raised during normal parsing. The exception argument is
+   either a string describing the reason of the failure or a tuple containing a
+   sequence causing the failure from a parse tree passed to :func:`sequence2st`
+   and an explanatory string.  Calls to :func:`sequence2st` need to be able to
+   handle either type of exception, while calls to other functions in the module
+   will only need to be aware of the simple string values.
+
+Note that the functions :func:`compilest`, :func:`expr`, and :func:`suite` may
+raise exceptions which are normally raised by the parsing and compilation
+process.  These include the built in exceptions :exc:`MemoryError`,
+:exc:`OverflowError`, :exc:`SyntaxError`, and :exc:`SystemError`.  In these
+cases, these exceptions carry all the meaning normally associated with them.
+Refer to the descriptions of each function for detailed information.
+
+
+.. _st-objects:
+
+ST Objects
+----------
+
+Ordered and equality comparisons are supported between ST objects. Pickling of
+ST objects (using the :mod:`pickle` module) is also supported.
+
+
+.. data:: STType
+
+   The type of the objects returned by :func:`expr`, :func:`suite` and
+   :func:`sequence2st`.
+
+ST objects have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: ST.compile(filename='<syntax-tree>')
+
+   Same as ``compilest(st, filename)``.
+
+
+.. method:: ST.isexpr()
+
+   Same as ``isexpr(st)``.
+
+
+.. method:: ST.issuite()
+
+   Same as ``issuite(st)``.
+
+
+.. method:: ST.tolist(line_info=False, col_info=False)
+
+   Same as ``st2list(st, line_info, col_info)``.
+
+
+.. method:: ST.totuple(line_info=False, col_info=False)
+
+   Same as ``st2tuple(st, line_info, col_info)``.
+
+
+Example: Emulation of :func:`compile`
+-------------------------------------
+
+While many useful operations may take place between parsing and bytecode
+generation, the simplest operation is to do nothing.  For this purpose, using
+the :mod:`parser` module to produce an intermediate data structure is equivalent
+to the code ::
+
+   >>> code = compile('a + 5', 'file.py', 'eval')
+   >>> a = 5
+   >>> eval(code)
+   10
+
+The equivalent operation using the :mod:`parser` module is somewhat longer, and
+allows the intermediate internal parse tree to be retained as an ST object::
+
+   >>> import parser
+   >>> st = parser.expr('a + 5')
+   >>> code = st.compile('file.py')
+   >>> a = 5
+   >>> eval(code)
+   10
+
+An application which needs both ST and code objects can package this code into
+readily available functions::
+
+   import parser
+
+   def load_suite(source_string):
+       st = parser.suite(source_string)
+       return st, st.compile()
+
+   def load_expression(source_string):
+       st = parser.expr(source_string)
+       return st, st.compile()
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pathlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pathlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b2df3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pathlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1114 @@
+
+:mod:`pathlib` --- Object-oriented filesystem paths
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: pathlib
+   :synopsis: Object-oriented filesystem paths
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pathlib.py`
+
+.. index:: single: path; operations
+
+--------------
+
+This module offers classes representing filesystem paths with semantics
+appropriate for different operating systems.  Path classes are divided
+between :ref:`pure paths <pure-paths>`, which provide purely computational
+operations without I/O, and :ref:`concrete paths <concrete-paths>`, which
+inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.
+
+.. image:: pathlib-inheritance.png
+   :align: center
+
+If you've never used this module before or just aren't sure which class is
+right for your task, :class:`Path` is most likely what you need. It instantiates
+a :ref:`concrete path <concrete-paths>` for the platform the code is running on.
+
+Pure paths are useful in some special cases; for example:
+
+#. If you want to manipulate Windows paths on a Unix machine (or vice versa).
+   You cannot instantiate a :class:`WindowsPath` when running on Unix, but you
+   can instantiate :class:`PureWindowsPath`.
+#. You want to make sure that your code only manipulates paths without actually
+   accessing the OS. In this case, instantiating one of the pure classes may be
+   useful since those simply don't have any OS-accessing operations.
+
+.. seealso::
+   :pep:`428`: The pathlib module -- object-oriented filesystem paths.
+
+.. seealso::
+   For low-level path manipulation on strings, you can also use the
+   :mod:`os.path` module.
+
+
+Basic use
+---------
+
+Importing the main class::
+
+   >>> from pathlib import Path
+
+Listing subdirectories::
+
+   >>> p = Path('.')
+   >>> [x for x in p.iterdir() if x.is_dir()]
+   [PosixPath('.hg'), PosixPath('docs'), PosixPath('dist'),
+    PosixPath('__pycache__'), PosixPath('build')]
+
+Listing Python source files in this directory tree::
+
+   >>> list(p.glob('**/*.py'))
+   [PosixPath('test_pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'),
+    PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
+    PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py')]
+
+Navigating inside a directory tree::
+
+   >>> p = Path('/etc')
+   >>> q = p / 'init.d' / 'reboot'
+   >>> q
+   PosixPath('/etc/init.d/reboot')
+   >>> q.resolve()
+   PosixPath('/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt')
+
+Querying path properties::
+
+   >>> q.exists()
+   True
+   >>> q.is_dir()
+   False
+
+Opening a file::
+
+   >>> with q.open() as f: f.readline()
+   ...
+   '#!/bin/bash\n'
+
+
+.. _pure-paths:
+
+Pure paths
+----------
+
+Pure path objects provide path-handling operations which don't actually
+access a filesystem.  There are three ways to access these classes, which
+we also call *flavours*:
+
+.. class:: PurePath(*pathsegments)
+
+   A generic class that represents the system's path flavour (instantiating
+   it creates either a :class:`PurePosixPath` or a :class:`PureWindowsPath`)::
+
+      >>> PurePath('setup.py')      # Running on a Unix machine
+      PurePosixPath('setup.py')
+
+   Each element of *pathsegments* can be either a string representing a
+   path segment, an object implementing the :class:`os.PathLike` interface
+   which returns a string, or another path object::
+
+      >>> PurePath('foo', 'some/path', 'bar')
+      PurePosixPath('foo/some/path/bar')
+      >>> PurePath(Path('foo'), Path('bar'))
+      PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
+
+   When *pathsegments* is empty, the current directory is assumed::
+
+      >>> PurePath()
+      PurePosixPath('.')
+
+   When several absolute paths are given, the last is taken as an anchor
+   (mimicking :func:`os.path.join`'s behaviour)::
+
+      >>> PurePath('/etc', '/usr', 'lib64')
+      PurePosixPath('/usr/lib64')
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', 'd:bar')
+      PureWindowsPath('d:bar')
+
+   However, in a Windows path, changing the local root doesn't discard the
+   previous drive setting::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
+
+   Spurious slashes and single dots are collapsed, but double dots (``'..'``)
+   are not, since this would change the meaning of a path in the face of
+   symbolic links::
+
+      >>> PurePath('foo//bar')
+      PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
+      >>> PurePath('foo/./bar')
+      PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
+      >>> PurePath('foo/../bar')
+      PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')
+
+   (a naïve approach would make ``PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')`` equivalent
+   to ``PurePosixPath('bar')``, which is wrong if ``foo`` is a symbolic link
+   to another directory)
+
+   Pure path objects implement the :class:`os.PathLike` interface, allowing them
+   to be used anywhere the interface is accepted.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added support for the :class:`os.PathLike` interface.
+
+.. class:: PurePosixPath(*pathsegments)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`PurePath`, this path flavour represents non-Windows
+   filesystem paths::
+
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/etc')
+      PurePosixPath('/etc')
+
+   *pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
+
+.. class:: PureWindowsPath(*pathsegments)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`PurePath`, this path flavour represents Windows
+   filesystem paths::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/')
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
+
+   *pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
+
+Regardless of the system you're running on, you can instantiate all of
+these classes, since they don't provide any operation that does system calls.
+
+
+General properties
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Paths are immutable and hashable.  Paths of a same flavour are comparable
+and orderable.  These properties respect the flavour's case-folding
+semantics::
+
+   >>> PurePosixPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('FOO')
+   False
+   >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PureWindowsPath('FOO')
+   True
+   >>> PureWindowsPath('FOO') in { PureWindowsPath('foo') }
+   True
+   >>> PureWindowsPath('C:') < PureWindowsPath('d:')
+   True
+
+Paths of a different flavour compare unequal and cannot be ordered::
+
+   >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('foo')
+   False
+   >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') < PurePosixPath('foo')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'PureWindowsPath' and 'PurePosixPath'
+
+
+Operators
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+The slash operator helps create child paths, similarly to :func:`os.path.join`::
+
+   >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
+   >>> p
+   PurePosixPath('/etc')
+   >>> p / 'init.d' / 'apache2'
+   PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
+   >>> q = PurePath('bin')
+   >>> '/usr' / q
+   PurePosixPath('/usr/bin')
+
+A path object can be used anywhere an object implementing :class:`os.PathLike`
+is accepted::
+
+   >>> import os
+   >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
+   >>> os.fspath(p)
+   '/etc'
+
+The string representation of a path is the raw filesystem path itself
+(in native form, e.g. with backslashes under Windows), which you can
+pass to any function taking a file path as a string::
+
+   >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
+   >>> str(p)
+   '/etc'
+   >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
+   >>> str(p)
+   'c:\\Program Files'
+
+Similarly, calling :class:`bytes` on a path gives the raw filesystem path as a
+bytes object, as encoded by :func:`os.fsencode`::
+
+   >>> bytes(p)
+   b'/etc'
+
+.. note::
+   Calling :class:`bytes` is only recommended under Unix.  Under Windows,
+   the unicode form is the canonical representation of filesystem paths.
+
+
+Accessing individual parts
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To access the individual "parts" (components) of a path, use the following
+property:
+
+.. data:: PurePath.parts
+
+   A tuple giving access to the path's various components::
+
+      >>> p = PurePath('/usr/bin/python3')
+      >>> p.parts
+      ('/', 'usr', 'bin', 'python3')
+
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/PSF')
+      >>> p.parts
+      ('c:\\', 'Program Files', 'PSF')
+
+   (note how the drive and local root are regrouped in a single part)
+
+
+Methods and properties
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   from pathlib import PurePosixPath, PureWindowsPath
+
+Pure paths provide the following methods and properties:
+
+.. data:: PurePath.drive
+
+   A string representing the drive letter or name, if any::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').drive
+      'c:'
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('/Program Files/').drive
+      ''
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').drive
+      ''
+
+   UNC shares are also considered drives::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share/foo.txt').drive
+      '\\\\host\\share'
+
+.. data:: PurePath.root
+
+   A string representing the (local or global) root, if any::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').root
+      '\\'
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').root
+      ''
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').root
+      '/'
+
+   UNC shares always have a root::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').root
+      '\\'
+
+.. data:: PurePath.anchor
+
+   The concatenation of the drive and root::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').anchor
+      'c:\\'
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').anchor
+      'c:'
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').anchor
+      '/'
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').anchor
+      '\\\\host\\share\\'
+
+
+.. data:: PurePath.parents
+
+   An immutable sequence providing access to the logical ancestors of
+   the path::
+
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar/setup.py')
+      >>> p.parents[0]
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar')
+      >>> p.parents[1]
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/foo')
+      >>> p.parents[2]
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/')
+
+
+.. data:: PurePath.parent
+
+   The logical parent of the path::
+
+      >>> p = PurePosixPath('/a/b/c/d')
+      >>> p.parent
+      PurePosixPath('/a/b/c')
+
+   You cannot go past an anchor, or empty path::
+
+      >>> p = PurePosixPath('/')
+      >>> p.parent
+      PurePosixPath('/')
+      >>> p = PurePosixPath('.')
+      >>> p.parent
+      PurePosixPath('.')
+
+   .. note::
+      This is a purely lexical operation, hence the following behaviour::
+
+         >>> p = PurePosixPath('foo/..')
+         >>> p.parent
+         PurePosixPath('foo')
+
+      If you want to walk an arbitrary filesystem path upwards, it is
+      recommended to first call :meth:`Path.resolve` so as to resolve
+      symlinks and eliminate `".."` components.
+
+
+.. data:: PurePath.name
+
+   A string representing the final path component, excluding the drive and
+   root, if any::
+
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').name
+      'setup.py'
+
+   UNC drive names are not considered::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share/setup.py').name
+      'setup.py'
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').name
+      ''
+
+
+.. data:: PurePath.suffix
+
+   The file extension of the final component, if any::
+
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').suffix
+      '.py'
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffix
+      '.gz'
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffix
+      ''
+
+
+.. data:: PurePath.suffixes
+
+   A list of the path's file extensions::
+
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gar').suffixes
+      ['.tar', '.gar']
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffixes
+      ['.tar', '.gz']
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffixes
+      []
+
+
+.. data:: PurePath.stem
+
+   The final path component, without its suffix::
+
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').stem
+      'library.tar'
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar').stem
+      'library'
+      >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').stem
+      'library'
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.as_posix()
+
+   Return a string representation of the path with forward slashes (``/``)::
+
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:\\windows')
+      >>> str(p)
+      'c:\\windows'
+      >>> p.as_posix()
+      'c:/windows'
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.as_uri()
+
+   Represent the path as a ``file`` URI.  :exc:`ValueError` is raised if
+   the path isn't absolute.
+
+      >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
+      >>> p.as_uri()
+      'file:///etc/passwd'
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows')
+      >>> p.as_uri()
+      'file:///c:/Windows'
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.is_absolute()
+
+   Return whether the path is absolute or not.  A path is considered absolute
+   if it has both a root and (if the flavour allows) a drive::
+
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
+      True
+      >>> PurePosixPath('a/b').is_absolute()
+      False
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/a/b').is_absolute()
+      True
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
+      False
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').is_absolute()
+      False
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').is_absolute()
+      True
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.is_reserved()
+
+   With :class:`PureWindowsPath`, return ``True`` if the path is considered
+   reserved under Windows, ``False`` otherwise.  With :class:`PurePosixPath`,
+   ``False`` is always returned.
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('nul').is_reserved()
+      True
+      >>> PurePosixPath('nul').is_reserved()
+      False
+
+   File system calls on reserved paths can fail mysteriously or have
+   unintended effects.
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.joinpath(*other)
+
+   Calling this method is equivalent to combining the path with each of
+   the *other* arguments in turn::
+
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('passwd')
+      PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath(PurePosixPath('passwd'))
+      PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
+      >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('init.d', 'apache2')
+      PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').joinpath('/Program Files')
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.match(pattern)
+
+   Match this path against the provided glob-style pattern.  Return ``True``
+   if matching is successful, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   If *pattern* is relative, the path can be either relative or absolute,
+   and matching is done from the right::
+
+      >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('*.py')
+      True
+      >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('b/*.py')
+      True
+      >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('a/*.py')
+      False
+
+   If *pattern* is absolute, the path must be absolute, and the whole path
+   must match::
+
+      >>> PurePath('/a.py').match('/*.py')
+      True
+      >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('/*.py')
+      False
+
+   As with other methods, case-sensitivity is observed::
+
+      >>> PureWindowsPath('b.py').match('*.PY')
+      True
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.relative_to(*other)
+
+   Compute a version of this path relative to the path represented by
+   *other*.  If it's impossible, ValueError is raised::
+
+      >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
+      >>> p.relative_to('/')
+      PurePosixPath('etc/passwd')
+      >>> p.relative_to('/etc')
+      PurePosixPath('passwd')
+      >>> p.relative_to('/usr')
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+        File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+        File "pathlib.py", line 694, in relative_to
+          .format(str(self), str(formatted)))
+      ValueError: '/etc/passwd' does not start with '/usr'
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.with_name(name)
+
+   Return a new path with the :attr:`name` changed.  If the original path
+   doesn't have a name, ValueError is raised::
+
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
+      >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/setup.py')
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
+      >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+        File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+        File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 751, in with_name
+          raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
+      ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name
+
+
+.. method:: PurePath.with_suffix(suffix)
+
+   Return a new path with the :attr:`suffix` changed.  If the original path
+   doesn't have a suffix, the new *suffix* is appended instead.  If the
+   *suffix* is an empty string, the original suffix is removed::
+
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
+      >>> p.with_suffix('.bz2')
+      PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2')
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README')
+      >>> p.with_suffix('.txt')
+      PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
+      >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
+      >>> p.with_suffix('')
+      PureWindowsPath('README')
+
+
+.. _concrete-paths:
+
+
+Concrete paths
+--------------
+
+Concrete paths are subclasses of the pure path classes.  In addition to
+operations provided by the latter, they also provide methods to do system
+calls on path objects.  There are three ways to instantiate concrete paths:
+
+.. class:: Path(*pathsegments)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`PurePath`, this class represents concrete paths of
+   the system's path flavour (instantiating it creates either a
+   :class:`PosixPath` or a :class:`WindowsPath`)::
+
+      >>> Path('setup.py')
+      PosixPath('setup.py')
+
+   *pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
+
+.. class:: PosixPath(*pathsegments)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Path` and :class:`PurePosixPath`, this class
+   represents concrete non-Windows filesystem paths::
+
+      >>> PosixPath('/etc')
+      PosixPath('/etc')
+
+   *pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
+
+.. class:: WindowsPath(*pathsegments)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Path` and :class:`PureWindowsPath`, this class
+   represents concrete Windows filesystem paths::
+
+      >>> WindowsPath('c:/Program Files/')
+      WindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
+
+   *pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
+
+You can only instantiate the class flavour that corresponds to your system
+(allowing system calls on non-compatible path flavours could lead to
+bugs or failures in your application)::
+
+   >>> import os
+   >>> os.name
+   'posix'
+   >>> Path('setup.py')
+   PosixPath('setup.py')
+   >>> PosixPath('setup.py')
+   PosixPath('setup.py')
+   >>> WindowsPath('setup.py')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+     File "pathlib.py", line 798, in __new__
+       % (cls.__name__,))
+   NotImplementedError: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system
+
+
+Methods
+^^^^^^^
+
+Concrete paths provide the following methods in addition to pure paths
+methods.  Many of these methods can raise an :exc:`OSError` if a system
+call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist):
+
+.. classmethod:: Path.cwd()
+
+   Return a new path object representing the current directory (as returned
+   by :func:`os.getcwd`)::
+
+      >>> Path.cwd()
+      PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')
+
+
+.. classmethod:: Path.home()
+
+   Return a new path object representing the user's home directory (as
+   returned by :func:`os.path.expanduser` with ``~`` construct)::
+
+      >>> Path.home()
+      PosixPath('/home/antoine')
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.stat()
+
+   Return information about this path (similarly to :func:`os.stat`).
+   The result is looked up at each call to this method.
+
+   ::
+
+      >>> p = Path('setup.py')
+      >>> p.stat().st_size
+      956
+      >>> p.stat().st_mtime
+      1327883547.852554
+
+
+.. method:: Path.chmod(mode)
+
+   Change the file mode and permissions, like :func:`os.chmod`::
+
+      >>> p = Path('setup.py')
+      >>> p.stat().st_mode
+      33277
+      >>> p.chmod(0o444)
+      >>> p.stat().st_mode
+      33060
+
+
+.. method:: Path.exists()
+
+   Whether the path points to an existing file or directory::
+
+      >>> Path('.').exists()
+      True
+      >>> Path('setup.py').exists()
+      True
+      >>> Path('/etc').exists()
+      True
+      >>> Path('nonexistentfile').exists()
+      False
+
+   .. note::
+      If the path points to a symlink, :meth:`exists` returns whether the
+      symlink *points to* an existing file or directory.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.expanduser()
+
+   Return a new path with expanded ``~`` and ``~user`` constructs,
+   as returned by :meth:`os.path.expanduser`::
+
+      >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
+      >>> p.expanduser()
+      PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.glob(pattern)
+
+   Glob the given relative *pattern* in the directory represented by this path,
+   yielding all matching files (of any kind)::
+
+      >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
+      [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
+      >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
+      [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]
+
+   The "``**``" pattern means "this directory and all subdirectories,
+   recursively".  In other words, it enables recursive globbing::
+
+      >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
+      [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
+       PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
+       PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
+       PosixPath('setup.py'),
+       PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
+
+   .. note::
+      Using the "``**``" pattern in large directory trees may consume
+      an inordinate amount of time.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.group()
+
+   Return the name of the group owning the file.  :exc:`KeyError` is raised
+   if the file's gid isn't found in the system database.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_dir()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path points to a directory (or a symbolic link
+   pointing to a directory), ``False`` if it points to another kind of file.
+
+   ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
+   other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_file()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path points to a regular file (or a symbolic link
+   pointing to a regular file), ``False`` if it points to another kind of file.
+
+   ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
+   other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_mount()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path is a :dfn:`mount point`: a point in a
+   file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX, the
+   function checks whether *path*'s parent, :file:`path/..`, is on a different
+   device than *path*, or whether :file:`path/..` and *path* point to the same
+   i-node on the same device --- this should detect mount points for all Unix
+   and POSIX variants.  Not implemented on Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_symlink()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path points to a symbolic link, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+   ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist; other errors (such
+   as permission errors) are propagated.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_socket()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path points to a Unix socket (or a symbolic link
+   pointing to a Unix socket), ``False`` if it points to another kind of file.
+
+   ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
+   other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_fifo()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path points to a FIFO (or a symbolic link
+   pointing to a FIFO), ``False`` if it points to another kind of file.
+
+   ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
+   other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_block_device()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path points to a block device (or a symbolic link
+   pointing to a block device), ``False`` if it points to another kind of file.
+
+   ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
+   other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.is_char_device()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the path points to a character device (or a symbolic link
+   pointing to a character device), ``False`` if it points to another kind of file.
+
+   ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
+   other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.iterdir()
+
+   When the path points to a directory, yield path objects of the directory
+   contents::
+
+      >>> p = Path('docs')
+      >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
+      ...
+      PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
+      PosixPath('docs/_templates')
+      PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
+      PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
+      PosixPath('docs/_build')
+      PosixPath('docs/_static')
+      PosixPath('docs/Makefile')
+
+.. method:: Path.lchmod(mode)
+
+   Like :meth:`Path.chmod` but, if the path points to a symbolic link, the
+   symbolic link's mode is changed rather than its target's.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.lstat()
+
+   Like :meth:`Path.stat` but, if the path points to a symbolic link, return
+   the symbolic link's information rather than its target's.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.mkdir(mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)
+
+   Create a new directory at this given path.  If *mode* is given, it is
+   combined with the process' ``umask`` value to determine the file mode
+   and access flags.  If the path already exists, :exc:`FileExistsError`
+   is raised.
+
+   If *parents* is true, any missing parents of this path are created
+   as needed; they are created with the default permissions without taking
+   *mode* into account (mimicking the POSIX ``mkdir -p`` command).
+
+   If *parents* is false (the default), a missing parent raises
+   :exc:`FileNotFoundError`.
+
+   If *exist_ok* is false (the default), :exc:`FileExistsError` is
+   raised if the target directory already exists.
+
+   If *exist_ok* is true, :exc:`FileExistsError` exceptions will be
+   ignored (same behavior as the POSIX ``mkdir -p`` command), but only if the
+   last path component is not an existing non-directory file.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *exist_ok* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.open(mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+
+   Open the file pointed to by the path, like the built-in :func:`open`
+   function does::
+
+      >>> p = Path('setup.py')
+      >>> with p.open() as f:
+      ...     f.readline()
+      ...
+      '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'
+
+
+.. method:: Path.owner()
+
+   Return the name of the user owning the file.  :exc:`KeyError` is raised
+   if the file's uid isn't found in the system database.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.read_bytes()
+
+   Return the binary contents of the pointed-to file as a bytes object::
+
+      >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
+      >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
+      20
+      >>> p.read_bytes()
+      b'Binary file contents'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.read_text(encoding=None, errors=None)
+
+   Return the decoded contents of the pointed-to file as a string::
+
+      >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
+      >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
+      18
+      >>> p.read_text()
+      'Text file contents'
+
+   The file is opened and then closed. The optional parameters have the same
+   meaning as in :func:`open`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.rename(target)
+
+   Rename this file or directory to the given *target*.  On Unix, if
+   *target* exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user
+   has permission.  *target* can be either a string or another path object::
+
+      >>> p = Path('foo')
+      >>> p.open('w').write('some text')
+      9
+      >>> target = Path('bar')
+      >>> p.rename(target)
+      >>> target.open().read()
+      'some text'
+
+
+.. method:: Path.replace(target)
+
+   Rename this file or directory to the given *target*.  If *target* points
+   to an existing file or directory, it will be unconditionally replaced.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.resolve(strict=False)
+
+   Make the path absolute, resolving any symlinks.  A new path object is
+   returned::
+
+      >>> p = Path()
+      >>> p
+      PosixPath('.')
+      >>> p.resolve()
+      PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')
+
+   "``..``" components are also eliminated (this is the only method to do so)::
+
+      >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
+      >>> p.resolve()
+      PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
+
+   If the path doesn't exist and *strict* is ``True``, :exc:`FileNotFoundError`
+   is raised.  If *strict* is ``False``, the path is resolved as far as possible
+   and any remainder is appended without checking whether it exists.  If an
+   infinite loop is encountered along the resolution path, :exc:`RuntimeError`
+   is raised.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      The *strict* argument (pre-3.6 behavior is strict).
+
+.. method:: Path.rglob(pattern)
+
+   This is like calling :func:`Path.glob` with "``**/``" added in front of the
+   given relative *pattern*::
+
+      >>> sorted(Path().rglob("*.py"))
+      [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
+       PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
+       PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
+       PosixPath('setup.py'),
+       PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
+
+
+.. method:: Path.rmdir()
+
+   Remove this directory.  The directory must be empty.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.samefile(other_path)
+
+   Return whether this path points to the same file as *other_path*, which
+   can be either a Path object, or a string.  The semantics are similar
+   to :func:`os.path.samefile` and :func:`os.path.samestat`.
+
+   An :exc:`OSError` can be raised if either file cannot be accessed for some
+   reason.
+
+   ::
+
+      >>> p = Path('spam')
+      >>> q = Path('eggs')
+      >>> p.samefile(q)
+      False
+      >>> p.samefile('spam')
+      True
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.symlink_to(target, target_is_directory=False)
+
+   Make this path a symbolic link to *target*.  Under Windows,
+   *target_is_directory* must be true (default ``False``) if the link's target
+   is a directory.  Under POSIX, *target_is_directory*'s value is ignored.
+
+   ::
+
+      >>> p = Path('mylink')
+      >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
+      >>> p.resolve()
+      PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
+      >>> p.stat().st_size
+      956
+      >>> p.lstat().st_size
+      8
+
+   .. note::
+      The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
+      of :func:`os.symlink`'s.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.touch(mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)
+
+   Create a file at this given path.  If *mode* is given, it is combined
+   with the process' ``umask`` value to determine the file mode and access
+   flags.  If the file already exists, the function succeeds if *exist_ok*
+   is true (and its modification time is updated to the current time),
+   otherwise :exc:`FileExistsError` is raised.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.unlink()
+
+   Remove this file or symbolic link.  If the path points to a directory,
+   use :func:`Path.rmdir` instead.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.write_bytes(data)
+
+   Open the file pointed to in bytes mode, write *data* to it, and close the
+   file::
+
+      >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
+      >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
+      20
+      >>> p.read_bytes()
+      b'Binary file contents'
+
+   An existing file of the same name is overwritten.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.write_text(data, encoding=None, errors=None)
+
+   Open the file pointed to in text mode, write *data* to it, and close the
+   file::
+
+      >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
+      >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
+      18
+      >>> p.read_text()
+      'Text file contents'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+Correspondence to tools in the :mod:`os` module
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+Below is a table mapping various :mod:`os` functions to their corresponding
+:class:`PurePath`/:class:`Path` equivalent.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Although :func:`os.path.relpath` and :meth:`PurePath.relative_to` have some
+   overlapping use-cases, their semantics differ enough to warrant not
+   considering them equivalent.
+
+====================================   ==============================
+os and os.path                         pathlib
+====================================   ==============================
+:func:`os.path.abspath`                :meth:`Path.resolve`
+:func:`os.chmod`                       :meth:`Path.chmod`
+:func:`os.mkdir`                       :meth:`Path.mkdir`
+:func:`os.rename`                      :meth:`Path.rename`
+:func:`os.replace`                     :meth:`Path.replace`
+:func:`os.rmdir`                       :meth:`Path.rmdir`
+:func:`os.remove`, :func:`os.unlink`   :meth:`Path.unlink`
+:func:`os.getcwd`                      :func:`Path.cwd`
+:func:`os.path.exists`                 :meth:`Path.exists`
+:func:`os.path.expanduser`             :meth:`Path.expanduser` and
+                                       :meth:`Path.home`
+:func:`os.path.isdir`                  :meth:`Path.is_dir`
+:func:`os.path.isfile`                 :meth:`Path.is_file`
+:func:`os.path.islink`                 :meth:`Path.is_symlink`
+:func:`os.stat`                        :meth:`Path.stat`,
+                                       :meth:`Path.owner`,
+                                       :meth:`Path.group`
+:func:`os.path.isabs`                  :meth:`PurePath.is_absolute`
+:func:`os.path.join`                   :func:`PurePath.joinpath`
+:func:`os.path.basename`               :data:`PurePath.name`
+:func:`os.path.dirname`                :data:`PurePath.parent`
+:func:`os.path.samefile`               :meth:`Path.samefile`
+:func:`os.path.splitext`               :data:`PurePath.suffix`
+====================================   ==============================
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pdb.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pdb.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7864e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pdb.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,536 @@
+.. _debugger:
+
+:mod:`pdb` --- The Python Debugger
+==================================
+
+.. module:: pdb
+   :synopsis: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pdb.py`
+
+.. index:: single: debugging
+
+--------------
+
+The module :mod:`pdb` defines an interactive source code debugger for Python
+programs.  It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and single stepping at
+the source line level, inspection of stack frames, source code listing, and
+evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the context of any stack frame.  It also
+supports post-mortem debugging and can be called under program control.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Pdb (class in pdb)
+   module: bdb
+   module: cmd
+
+The debugger is extensible -- it is actually defined as the class :class:`Pdb`.
+This is currently undocumented but easily understood by reading the source.  The
+extension interface uses the modules :mod:`bdb` and :mod:`cmd`.
+
+The debugger's prompt is ``(Pdb)``. Typical usage to run a program under control
+of the debugger is::
+
+   >>> import pdb
+   >>> import mymodule
+   >>> pdb.run('mymodule.test()')
+   > <string>(0)?()
+   (Pdb) continue
+   > <string>(1)?()
+   (Pdb) continue
+   NameError: 'spam'
+   > <string>(1)?()
+   (Pdb)
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Tab-completion via the :mod:`readline` module is available for commands and
+   command arguments, e.g. the current global and local names are offered as
+   arguments of the ``p`` command.
+
+:file:`pdb.py` can also be invoked as a script to debug other scripts.  For
+example::
+
+   python3 -m pdb myscript.py
+
+When invoked as a script, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem debugging if
+the program being debugged exits abnormally.  After post-mortem debugging (or
+after normal exit of the program), pdb will restart the program.  Automatic
+restarting preserves pdb's state (such as breakpoints) and in most cases is more
+useful than quitting the debugger upon program's exit.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+   :file:`pdb.py` now accepts a ``-c`` option that executes commands as if given
+   in a :file:`.pdbrc` file, see :ref:`debugger-commands`.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+   :file:`pdb.py` now accepts a ``-m`` option that execute modules similar to the way
+   ``python3 -m`` does. As with a script, the debugger will pause execution just
+   before the first line of the module.
+
+
+The typical usage to break into the debugger from a running program is to
+insert ::
+
+   import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
+
+at the location you want to break into the debugger.  You can then step through
+the code following this statement, and continue running without the debugger
+using the :pdbcmd:`continue` command.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+   The built-in :func:`breakpoint()`, when called with defaults, can be used
+   instead of ``import pdb; pdb.set_trace()``.
+
+The typical usage to inspect a crashed program is::
+
+   >>> import pdb
+   >>> import mymodule
+   >>> mymodule.test()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+     File "./mymodule.py", line 4, in test
+       test2()
+     File "./mymodule.py", line 3, in test2
+       print(spam)
+   NameError: spam
+   >>> pdb.pm()
+   > ./mymodule.py(3)test2()
+   -> print(spam)
+   (Pdb)
+
+
+The module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger in a
+slightly different way:
+
+.. function:: run(statement, globals=None, locals=None)
+
+   Execute the *statement* (given as a string or a code object) under debugger
+   control.  The debugger prompt appears before any code is executed; you can
+   set breakpoints and type :pdbcmd:`continue`, or you can step through the
+   statement using :pdbcmd:`step` or :pdbcmd:`next` (all these commands are
+   explained below).  The optional *globals* and *locals* arguments specify the
+   environment in which the code is executed; by default the dictionary of the
+   module :mod:`__main__` is used.  (See the explanation of the built-in
+   :func:`exec` or :func:`eval` functions.)
+
+
+.. function:: runeval(expression, globals=None, locals=None)
+
+   Evaluate the *expression* (given as a string or a code object) under debugger
+   control.  When :func:`runeval` returns, it returns the value of the
+   expression.  Otherwise this function is similar to :func:`run`.
+
+
+.. function:: runcall(function, *args, **kwds)
+
+   Call the *function* (a function or method object, not a string) with the
+   given arguments.  When :func:`runcall` returns, it returns whatever the
+   function call returned.  The debugger prompt appears as soon as the function
+   is entered.
+
+
+.. function:: set_trace(*, header=None)
+
+   Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame.  This is useful to hard-code
+   a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the code is not
+   otherwise being debugged (e.g. when an assertion fails).  If given,
+   *header* is printed to the console just before debugging begins.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The keyword-only argument *header*.
+
+
+.. function:: post_mortem(traceback=None)
+
+   Enter post-mortem debugging of the given *traceback* object.  If no
+   *traceback* is given, it uses the one of the exception that is currently
+   being handled (an exception must be being handled if the default is to be
+   used).
+
+
+.. function:: pm()
+
+   Enter post-mortem debugging of the traceback found in
+   :data:`sys.last_traceback`.
+
+
+The ``run*`` functions and :func:`set_trace` are aliases for instantiating the
+:class:`Pdb` class and calling the method of the same name.  If you want to
+access further features, you have to do this yourself:
+
+.. class:: Pdb(completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None, skip=None, \
+               nosigint=False, readrc=True)
+
+   :class:`Pdb` is the debugger class.
+
+   The *completekey*, *stdin* and *stdout* arguments are passed to the
+   underlying :class:`cmd.Cmd` class; see the description there.
+
+   The *skip* argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style module name
+   patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that originate in a module
+   that matches one of these patterns. [1]_
+
+   By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent when the
+   user presses :kbd:`Ctrl-C` on the console) when you give a ``continue`` command.
+   This allows you to break into the debugger again by pressing :kbd:`Ctrl-C`.  If you
+   want Pdb not to touch the SIGINT handler, set *nosigint* to true.
+
+   The *readrc* argument defaults to true and controls whether Pdb will load
+   .pdbrc files from the filesystem.
+
+   Example call to enable tracing with *skip*::
+
+      import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace()
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+      The *skip* argument.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *nosigint* argument.  Previously, a SIGINT handler was never set by
+      Pdb.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *readrc* argument.
+
+   .. method:: run(statement, globals=None, locals=None)
+               runeval(expression, globals=None, locals=None)
+               runcall(function, *args, **kwds)
+               set_trace()
+
+      See the documentation for the functions explained above.
+
+
+.. _debugger-commands:
+
+Debugger Commands
+-----------------
+
+The commands recognized by the debugger are listed below.  Most commands can be
+abbreviated to one or two letters as indicated; e.g. ``h(elp)`` means that
+either ``h`` or ``help`` can be used to enter the help command (but not ``he``
+or ``hel``, nor ``H`` or ``Help`` or ``HELP``).  Arguments to commands must be
+separated by whitespace (spaces or tabs).  Optional arguments are enclosed in
+square brackets (``[]``) in the command syntax; the square brackets must not be
+typed.  Alternatives in the command syntax are separated by a vertical bar
+(``|``).
+
+Entering a blank line repeats the last command entered.  Exception: if the last
+command was a :pdbcmd:`list` command, the next 11 lines are listed.
+
+Commands that the debugger doesn't recognize are assumed to be Python statements
+and are executed in the context of the program being debugged.  Python
+statements can also be prefixed with an exclamation point (``!``).  This is a
+powerful way to inspect the program being debugged; it is even possible to
+change a variable or call a function.  When an exception occurs in such a
+statement, the exception name is printed but the debugger's state is not
+changed.
+
+The debugger supports :ref:`aliases <debugger-aliases>`.  Aliases can have
+parameters which allows one a certain level of adaptability to the context under
+examination.
+
+Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by ``;;``.  (A
+single ``;`` is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands in a line
+that is passed to the Python parser.)  No intelligence is applied to separating
+the commands; the input is split at the first ``;;`` pair, even if it is in the
+middle of a quoted string.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: .pdbrc; file
+   triple: debugger; configuration; file
+
+If a file :file:`.pdbrc` exists in the user's home directory or in the current
+directory, it is read in and executed as if it had been typed at the debugger
+prompt.  This is particularly useful for aliases.  If both files exist, the one
+in the home directory is read first and aliases defined there can be overridden
+by the local file.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   :file:`.pdbrc` can now contain commands that continue debugging, such as
+   :pdbcmd:`continue` or :pdbcmd:`next`.  Previously, these commands had no
+   effect.
+
+
+.. pdbcommand:: h(elp) [command]
+
+   Without argument, print the list of available commands.  With a *command* as
+   argument, print help about that command.  ``help pdb`` displays the full
+   documentation (the docstring of the :mod:`pdb` module).  Since the *command*
+   argument must be an identifier, ``help exec`` must be entered to get help on
+   the ``!`` command.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: w(here)
+
+   Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom.  An arrow
+   indicates the current frame, which determines the context of most commands.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: d(own) [count]
+
+   Move the current frame *count* (default one) levels down in the stack trace
+   (to a newer frame).
+
+.. pdbcommand:: u(p) [count]
+
+   Move the current frame *count* (default one) levels up in the stack trace (to
+   an older frame).
+
+.. pdbcommand:: b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]
+
+   With a *lineno* argument, set a break there in the current file.  With a
+   *function* argument, set a break at the first executable statement within
+   that function.  The line number may be prefixed with a filename and a colon,
+   to specify a breakpoint in another file (probably one that hasn't been loaded
+   yet).  The file is searched on :data:`sys.path`.  Note that each breakpoint
+   is assigned a number to which all the other breakpoint commands refer.
+
+   If a second argument is present, it is an expression which must evaluate to
+   true before the breakpoint is honored.
+
+   Without argument, list all breaks, including for each breakpoint, the number
+   of times that breakpoint has been hit, the current ignore count, and the
+   associated condition if any.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]
+
+   Temporary breakpoint, which is removed automatically when it is first hit.
+   The arguments are the same as for :pdbcmd:`break`.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber [bpnumber ...]]
+
+   With a *filename:lineno* argument, clear all the breakpoints at this line.
+   With a space separated list of breakpoint numbers, clear those breakpoints.
+   Without argument, clear all breaks (but first ask confirmation).
+
+.. pdbcommand:: disable [bpnumber [bpnumber ...]]
+
+   Disable the breakpoints given as a space separated list of breakpoint
+   numbers.  Disabling a breakpoint means it cannot cause the program to stop
+   execution, but unlike clearing a breakpoint, it remains in the list of
+   breakpoints and can be (re-)enabled.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: enable [bpnumber [bpnumber ...]]
+
+   Enable the breakpoints specified.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: ignore bpnumber [count]
+
+   Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number.  If count is omitted,
+   the ignore count is set to 0.  A breakpoint becomes active when the ignore
+   count is zero.  When non-zero, the count is decremented each time the
+   breakpoint is reached and the breakpoint is not disabled and any associated
+   condition evaluates to true.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: condition bpnumber [condition]
+
+   Set a new *condition* for the breakpoint, an expression which must evaluate
+   to true before the breakpoint is honored.  If *condition* is absent, any
+   existing condition is removed; i.e., the breakpoint is made unconditional.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: commands [bpnumber]
+
+   Specify a list of commands for breakpoint number *bpnumber*.  The commands
+   themselves appear on the following lines.  Type a line containing just
+   ``end`` to terminate the commands. An example::
+
+      (Pdb) commands 1
+      (com) p some_variable
+      (com) end
+      (Pdb)
+
+   To remove all commands from a breakpoint, type ``commands`` and follow it
+   immediately with ``end``; that is, give no commands.
+
+   With no *bpnumber* argument, ``commands`` refers to the last breakpoint set.
+
+   You can use breakpoint commands to start your program up again.  Simply use
+   the :pdbcmd:`continue` command, or :pdbcmd:`step`,
+   or any other command that resumes execution.
+
+   Specifying any command resuming execution
+   (currently :pdbcmd:`continue`, :pdbcmd:`step`, :pdbcmd:`next`,
+   :pdbcmd:`return`, :pdbcmd:`jump`, :pdbcmd:`quit` and their abbreviations)
+   terminates the command list (as if
+   that command was immediately followed by end). This is because any time you
+   resume execution (even with a simple next or step), you may encounter another
+   breakpoint—which could have its own command list, leading to ambiguities about
+   which list to execute.
+
+   If you use the 'silent' command in the command list, the usual message about
+   stopping at a breakpoint is not printed.  This may be desirable for breakpoints
+   that are to print a specific message and then continue.  If none of the other
+   commands print anything, you see no sign that the breakpoint was reached.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: s(tep)
+
+   Execute the current line, stop at the first possible occasion (either in a
+   function that is called or on the next line in the current function).
+
+.. pdbcommand:: n(ext)
+
+   Continue execution until the next line in the current function is reached or
+   it returns.  (The difference between :pdbcmd:`next` and :pdbcmd:`step` is
+   that :pdbcmd:`step` stops inside a called function, while :pdbcmd:`next`
+   executes called functions at (nearly) full speed, only stopping at the next
+   line in the current function.)
+
+.. pdbcommand:: unt(il) [lineno]
+
+   Without argument, continue execution until the line with a number greater
+   than the current one is reached.
+
+   With a line number, continue execution until a line with a number greater or
+   equal to that is reached.  In both cases, also stop when the current frame
+   returns.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Allow giving an explicit line number.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: r(eturn)
+
+   Continue execution until the current function returns.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: c(ont(inue))
+
+   Continue execution, only stop when a breakpoint is encountered.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: j(ump) lineno
+
+   Set the next line that will be executed.  Only available in the bottom-most
+   frame.  This lets you jump back and execute code again, or jump forward to
+   skip code that you don't want to run.
+
+   It should be noted that not all jumps are allowed -- for instance it is not
+   possible to jump into the middle of a :keyword:`for` loop or out of a
+   :keyword:`finally` clause.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: l(ist) [first[, last]]
+
+   List source code for the current file.  Without arguments, list 11 lines
+   around the current line or continue the previous listing.  With ``.`` as
+   argument, list 11 lines around the current line.  With one argument,
+   list 11 lines around at that line.  With two arguments, list the given range;
+   if the second argument is less than the first, it is interpreted as a count.
+
+   The current line in the current frame is indicated by ``->``.  If an
+   exception is being debugged, the line where the exception was originally
+   raised or propagated is indicated by ``>>``, if it differs from the current
+   line.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The ``>>`` marker.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: ll | longlist
+
+   List all source code for the current function or frame.  Interesting lines
+   are marked as for :pdbcmd:`list`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. pdbcommand:: a(rgs)
+
+   Print the argument list of the current function.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: p expression
+
+   Evaluate the *expression* in the current context and print its value.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      ``print()`` can also be used, but is not a debugger command --- this executes the
+      Python :func:`print` function.
+
+
+.. pdbcommand:: pp expression
+
+   Like the :pdbcmd:`p` command, except the value of the expression is
+   pretty-printed using the :mod:`pprint` module.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: whatis expression
+
+   Print the type of the *expression*.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: source expression
+
+   Try to get source code for the given object and display it.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. pdbcommand:: display [expression]
+
+   Display the value of the expression if it changed, each time execution stops
+   in the current frame.
+
+   Without expression, list all display expressions for the current frame.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. pdbcommand:: undisplay [expression]
+
+   Do not display the expression any more in the current frame.  Without
+   expression, clear all display expressions for the current frame.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. pdbcommand:: interact
+
+   Start an interactive interpreter (using the :mod:`code` module) whose global
+   namespace contains all the (global and local) names found in the current
+   scope.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. _debugger-aliases:
+
+.. pdbcommand:: alias [name [command]]
+
+   Create an alias called *name* that executes *command*.  The command must
+   *not* be enclosed in quotes.  Replaceable parameters can be indicated by
+   ``%1``, ``%2``, and so on, while ``%*`` is replaced by all the parameters.
+   If no command is given, the current alias for *name* is shown. If no
+   arguments are given, all aliases are listed.
+
+   Aliases may be nested and can contain anything that can be legally typed at
+   the pdb prompt.  Note that internal pdb commands *can* be overridden by
+   aliases.  Such a command is then hidden until the alias is removed.  Aliasing
+   is recursively applied to the first word of the command line; all other words
+   in the line are left alone.
+
+   As an example, here are two useful aliases (especially when placed in the
+   :file:`.pdbrc` file)::
+
+      # Print instance variables (usage "pi classInst")
+      alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print("%1.",k,"=",%1.__dict__[k])
+      # Print instance variables in self
+      alias ps pi self
+
+.. pdbcommand:: unalias name
+
+   Delete the specified alias.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: ! statement
+
+   Execute the (one-line) *statement* in the context of the current stack frame.
+   The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first word of the statement
+   resembles a debugger command.  To set a global variable, you can prefix the
+   assignment command with a :keyword:`global` statement on the same line,
+   e.g.::
+
+      (Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l']
+      (Pdb)
+
+.. pdbcommand:: run [args ...]
+                restart [args ...]
+
+   Restart the debugged Python program.  If an argument is supplied, it is split
+   with :mod:`shlex` and the result is used as the new :data:`sys.argv`.
+   History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options are preserved.
+   :pdbcmd:`restart` is an alias for :pdbcmd:`run`.
+
+.. pdbcommand:: q(uit)
+
+   Quit from the debugger.  The program being executed is aborted.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module
+       is determined by the ``__name__`` in the frame globals.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/persistence.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/persistence.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5bb193
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/persistence.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+.. _persistence:
+
+****************
+Data Persistence
+****************
+
+The modules described in this chapter support storing Python data in a
+persistent form on disk.  The :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`marshal` modules can turn
+many Python data types into a stream of bytes and then recreate the objects from
+the bytes.  The various DBM-related modules support a family of hash-based file
+formats that store a mapping of strings to other strings.
+
+The list of modules described in this chapter is:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   pickle.rst
+   copyreg.rst
+   shelve.rst
+   marshal.rst
+   dbm.rst
+   sqlite3.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pickle.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pickle.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d01d8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pickle.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,937 @@
+:mod:`pickle` --- Python object serialization
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: pickle
+   :synopsis: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Jim Kerr <jbkerr@sr.hp.com>.
+.. sectionauthor:: Barry Warsaw <barry@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pickle.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: persistence
+   pair: persistent; objects
+   pair: serializing; objects
+   pair: marshalling; objects
+   pair: flattening; objects
+   pair: pickling; objects
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`pickle` module implements binary protocols for serializing and
+de-serializing a Python object structure.  *"Pickling"* is the process
+whereby a Python object hierarchy is converted into a byte stream, and
+*"unpickling"* is the inverse operation, whereby a byte stream
+(from a :term:`binary file` or :term:`bytes-like object`) is converted
+back into an object hierarchy.  Pickling (and unpickling) is alternatively
+known as "serialization", "marshalling," [#]_ or "flattening"; however, to
+avoid confusion, the terms used here are "pickling" and "unpickling".
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`pickle` module is not secure against erroneous or maliciously
+   constructed data.  Never unpickle data received from an untrusted or
+   unauthenticated source.
+
+
+Relationship to other Python modules
+------------------------------------
+
+Comparison with ``marshal``
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Python has a more primitive serialization module called :mod:`marshal`, but in
+general :mod:`pickle` should always be the preferred way to serialize Python
+objects.  :mod:`marshal` exists primarily to support Python's :file:`.pyc`
+files.
+
+The :mod:`pickle` module differs from :mod:`marshal` in several significant ways:
+
+* The :mod:`pickle` module keeps track of the objects it has already serialized,
+  so that later references to the same object won't be serialized again.
+  :mod:`marshal` doesn't do this.
+
+  This has implications both for recursive objects and object sharing.  Recursive
+  objects are objects that contain references to themselves.  These are not
+  handled by marshal, and in fact, attempting to marshal recursive objects will
+  crash your Python interpreter.  Object sharing happens when there are multiple
+  references to the same object in different places in the object hierarchy being
+  serialized.  :mod:`pickle` stores such objects only once, and ensures that all
+  other references point to the master copy.  Shared objects remain shared, which
+  can be very important for mutable objects.
+
+* :mod:`marshal` cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes and their
+  instances.  :mod:`pickle` can save and restore class instances transparently,
+  however the class definition must be importable and live in the same module as
+  when the object was stored.
+
+* The :mod:`marshal` serialization format is not guaranteed to be portable
+  across Python versions.  Because its primary job in life is to support
+  :file:`.pyc` files, the Python implementers reserve the right to change the
+  serialization format in non-backwards compatible ways should the need arise.
+  The :mod:`pickle` serialization format is guaranteed to be backwards compatible
+  across Python releases provided a compatible pickle protocol is chosen and
+  pickling and unpickling code deals with Python 2 to Python 3 type differences
+  if your data is crossing that unique breaking change language boundary.
+
+Comparison with ``json``
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are fundamental differences between the pickle protocols and
+`JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) <http://json.org>`_:
+
+* JSON is a text serialization format (it outputs unicode text, although
+  most of the time it is then encoded to ``utf-8``), while pickle is
+  a binary serialization format;
+
+* JSON is human-readable, while pickle is not;
+
+* JSON is interoperable and widely used outside of the Python ecosystem,
+  while pickle is Python-specific;
+
+* JSON, by default, can only represent a subset of the Python built-in
+  types, and no custom classes; pickle can represent an extremely large
+  number of Python types (many of them automatically, by clever usage
+  of Python's introspection facilities; complex cases can be tackled by
+  implementing :ref:`specific object APIs <pickle-inst>`).
+
+.. seealso::
+   The :mod:`json` module: a standard library module allowing JSON
+   serialization and deserialization.
+
+
+.. _pickle-protocols:
+
+Data stream format
+------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: External Data Representation
+
+The data format used by :mod:`pickle` is Python-specific.  This has the
+advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external standards such as
+JSON or XDR (which can't represent pointer sharing); however it means that
+non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct pickled Python objects.
+
+By default, the :mod:`pickle` data format uses a relatively compact binary
+representation.  If you need optimal size characteristics, you can efficiently
+:doc:`compress <archiving>` pickled data.
+
+The module :mod:`pickletools` contains tools for analyzing data streams
+generated by :mod:`pickle`.  :mod:`pickletools` source code has extensive
+comments about opcodes used by pickle protocols.
+
+There are currently 5 different protocols which can be used for pickling.
+The higher the protocol used, the more recent the version of Python needed
+to read the pickle produced.
+
+* Protocol version 0 is the original "human-readable" protocol and is
+  backwards compatible with earlier versions of Python.
+
+* Protocol version 1 is an old binary format which is also compatible with
+  earlier versions of Python.
+
+* Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3.  It provides much more
+  efficient pickling of :term:`new-style class`\es.  Refer to :pep:`307` for
+  information about improvements brought by protocol 2.
+
+* Protocol version 3 was added in Python 3.0.  It has explicit support for
+  :class:`bytes` objects and cannot be unpickled by Python 2.x.  This is
+  the default protocol, and the recommended protocol when compatibility with
+  other Python 3 versions is required.
+
+* Protocol version 4 was added in Python 3.4.  It adds support for very large
+  objects, pickling more kinds of objects, and some data format
+  optimizations.  Refer to :pep:`3154` for information about improvements
+  brought by protocol 4.
+
+.. note::
+   Serialization is a more primitive notion than persistence; although
+   :mod:`pickle` reads and writes file objects, it does not handle the issue of
+   naming persistent objects, nor the (even more complicated) issue of concurrent
+   access to persistent objects.  The :mod:`pickle` module can transform a complex
+   object into a byte stream and it can transform the byte stream into an object
+   with the same internal structure.  Perhaps the most obvious thing to do with
+   these byte streams is to write them onto a file, but it is also conceivable to
+   send them across a network or store them in a database.  The :mod:`shelve`
+   module provides a simple interface to pickle and unpickle objects on
+   DBM-style database files.
+
+
+Module Interface
+----------------
+
+To serialize an object hierarchy, you simply call the :func:`dumps` function.
+Similarly, to de-serialize a data stream, you call the :func:`loads` function.
+However, if you want more control over serialization and de-serialization,
+you can create a :class:`Pickler` or an :class:`Unpickler` object, respectively.
+
+The :mod:`pickle` module provides the following constants:
+
+
+.. data:: HIGHEST_PROTOCOL
+
+   An integer, the highest :ref:`protocol version <pickle-protocols>`
+   available.  This value can be passed as a *protocol* value to functions
+   :func:`dump` and :func:`dumps` as well as the :class:`Pickler`
+   constructor.
+
+.. data:: DEFAULT_PROTOCOL
+
+   An integer, the default :ref:`protocol version <pickle-protocols>` used
+   for pickling.  May be less than :data:`HIGHEST_PROTOCOL`.  Currently the
+   default protocol is 3, a new protocol designed for Python 3.
+
+
+The :mod:`pickle` module provides the following functions to make the pickling
+process more convenient:
+
+.. function:: dump(obj, file, protocol=None, \*, fix_imports=True)
+
+   Write a pickled representation of *obj* to the open :term:`file object` *file*.
+   This is equivalent to ``Pickler(file, protocol).dump(obj)``.
+
+   The optional *protocol* argument, an integer, tells the pickler to use
+   the given protocol; supported protocols are 0 to :data:`HIGHEST_PROTOCOL`.
+   If not specified, the default is :data:`DEFAULT_PROTOCOL`.  If a negative
+   number is specified, :data:`HIGHEST_PROTOCOL` is selected.
+
+   The *file* argument must have a write() method that accepts a single bytes
+   argument.  It can thus be an on-disk file opened for binary writing, an
+   :class:`io.BytesIO` instance, or any other custom object that meets this
+   interface.
+
+   If *fix_imports* is true and *protocol* is less than 3, pickle will try to
+   map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in Python 2, so
+   that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.
+
+.. function:: dumps(obj, protocol=None, \*, fix_imports=True)
+
+   Return the pickled representation of the object as a :class:`bytes` object,
+   instead of writing it to a file.
+
+   Arguments *protocol* and *fix_imports* have the same meaning as in
+   :func:`dump`.
+
+.. function:: load(file, \*, fix_imports=True, encoding="ASCII", errors="strict")
+
+   Read a pickled object representation from the open :term:`file object`
+   *file* and return the reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein.
+   This is equivalent to ``Unpickler(file).load()``.
+
+   The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
+   protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled object's
+   representation are ignored.
+
+   The argument *file* must have two methods, a read() method that takes an
+   integer argument, and a readline() method that requires no arguments.  Both
+   methods should return bytes.  Thus *file* can be an on-disk file opened for
+   binary reading, an :class:`io.BytesIO` object, or any other custom object
+   that meets this interface.
+
+   Optional keyword arguments are *fix_imports*, *encoding* and *errors*,
+   which are used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
+   by Python 2.  If *fix_imports* is true, pickle will try to map the old
+   Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The *encoding* and
+   *errors* tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string instances pickled by Python
+   2; these default to 'ASCII' and 'strict', respectively.  The *encoding* can
+   be 'bytes' to read these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.
+   Using ``encoding='latin1'`` is required for unpickling NumPy arrays and
+   instances of :class:`~datetime.datetime`, :class:`~datetime.date` and
+   :class:`~datetime.time` pickled by Python 2.
+
+.. function:: loads(bytes_object, \*, fix_imports=True, encoding="ASCII", errors="strict")
+
+   Read a pickled object hierarchy from a :class:`bytes` object and return the
+   reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein.
+
+   The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
+   protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled object's
+   representation are ignored.
+
+   Optional keyword arguments are *fix_imports*, *encoding* and *errors*,
+   which are used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
+   by Python 2.  If *fix_imports* is true, pickle will try to map the old
+   Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The *encoding* and
+   *errors* tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string instances pickled by Python
+   2; these default to 'ASCII' and 'strict', respectively.  The *encoding* can
+   be 'bytes' to read these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.
+   Using ``encoding='latin1'`` is required for unpickling NumPy arrays and
+   instances of :class:`~datetime.datetime`, :class:`~datetime.date` and
+   :class:`~datetime.time` pickled by Python 2.
+
+
+The :mod:`pickle` module defines three exceptions:
+
+.. exception:: PickleError
+
+   Common base class for the other pickling exceptions.  It inherits
+   :exc:`Exception`.
+
+.. exception:: PicklingError
+
+   Error raised when an unpicklable object is encountered by :class:`Pickler`.
+   It inherits :exc:`PickleError`.
+
+   Refer to :ref:`pickle-picklable` to learn what kinds of objects can be
+   pickled.
+
+.. exception:: UnpicklingError
+
+   Error raised when there is a problem unpickling an object, such as a data
+   corruption or a security violation.  It inherits :exc:`PickleError`.
+
+   Note that other exceptions may also be raised during unpickling, including
+   (but not necessarily limited to) AttributeError, EOFError, ImportError, and
+   IndexError.
+
+
+The :mod:`pickle` module exports two classes, :class:`Pickler` and
+:class:`Unpickler`:
+
+.. class:: Pickler(file, protocol=None, \*, fix_imports=True)
+
+   This takes a binary file for writing a pickle data stream.
+
+   The optional *protocol* argument, an integer, tells the pickler to use
+   the given protocol; supported protocols are 0 to :data:`HIGHEST_PROTOCOL`.
+   If not specified, the default is :data:`DEFAULT_PROTOCOL`.  If a negative
+   number is specified, :data:`HIGHEST_PROTOCOL` is selected.
+
+   The *file* argument must have a write() method that accepts a single bytes
+   argument.  It can thus be an on-disk file opened for binary writing, an
+   :class:`io.BytesIO` instance, or any other custom object that meets this
+   interface.
+
+   If *fix_imports* is true and *protocol* is less than 3, pickle will try to
+   map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in Python 2, so
+   that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.
+
+   .. method:: dump(obj)
+
+      Write a pickled representation of *obj* to the open file object given in
+      the constructor.
+
+   .. method:: persistent_id(obj)
+
+      Do nothing by default.  This exists so a subclass can override it.
+
+      If :meth:`persistent_id` returns ``None``, *obj* is pickled as usual.  Any
+      other value causes :class:`Pickler` to emit the returned value as a
+      persistent ID for *obj*.  The meaning of this persistent ID should be
+      defined by :meth:`Unpickler.persistent_load`.  Note that the value
+      returned by :meth:`persistent_id` cannot itself have a persistent ID.
+
+      See :ref:`pickle-persistent` for details and examples of uses.
+
+   .. attribute:: dispatch_table
+
+      A pickler object's dispatch table is a registry of *reduction
+      functions* of the kind which can be declared using
+      :func:`copyreg.pickle`.  It is a mapping whose keys are classes
+      and whose values are reduction functions.  A reduction function
+      takes a single argument of the associated class and should
+      conform to the same interface as a :meth:`__reduce__`
+      method.
+
+      By default, a pickler object will not have a
+      :attr:`dispatch_table` attribute, and it will instead use the
+      global dispatch table managed by the :mod:`copyreg` module.
+      However, to customize the pickling for a specific pickler object
+      one can set the :attr:`dispatch_table` attribute to a dict-like
+      object.  Alternatively, if a subclass of :class:`Pickler` has a
+      :attr:`dispatch_table` attribute then this will be used as the
+      default dispatch table for instances of that class.
+
+      See :ref:`pickle-dispatch` for usage examples.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: fast
+
+      Deprecated. Enable fast mode if set to a true value.  The fast mode
+      disables the usage of memo, therefore speeding the pickling process by not
+      generating superfluous PUT opcodes.  It should not be used with
+      self-referential objects, doing otherwise will cause :class:`Pickler` to
+      recurse infinitely.
+
+      Use :func:`pickletools.optimize` if you need more compact pickles.
+
+
+.. class:: Unpickler(file, \*, fix_imports=True, encoding="ASCII", errors="strict")
+
+   This takes a binary file for reading a pickle data stream.
+
+   The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
+   protocol argument is needed.
+
+   The argument *file* must have two methods, a read() method that takes an
+   integer argument, and a readline() method that requires no arguments.  Both
+   methods should return bytes.  Thus *file* can be an on-disk file object
+   opened for binary reading, an :class:`io.BytesIO` object, or any other
+   custom object that meets this interface.
+
+   Optional keyword arguments are *fix_imports*, *encoding* and *errors*,
+   which are used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
+   by Python 2.  If *fix_imports* is true, pickle will try to map the old
+   Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The *encoding* and
+   *errors* tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string instances pickled by Python
+   2; these default to 'ASCII' and 'strict', respectively.  The *encoding* can
+   be 'bytes' to read these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.
+
+   .. method:: load()
+
+      Read a pickled object representation from the open file object given in
+      the constructor, and return the reconstituted object hierarchy specified
+      therein.  Bytes past the pickled object's representation are ignored.
+
+   .. method:: persistent_load(pid)
+
+      Raise an :exc:`UnpicklingError` by default.
+
+      If defined, :meth:`persistent_load` should return the object specified by
+      the persistent ID *pid*.  If an invalid persistent ID is encountered, an
+      :exc:`UnpicklingError` should be raised.
+
+      See :ref:`pickle-persistent` for details and examples of uses.
+
+   .. method:: find_class(module, name)
+
+      Import *module* if necessary and return the object called *name* from it,
+      where the *module* and *name* arguments are :class:`str` objects.  Note,
+      unlike its name suggests, :meth:`find_class` is also used for finding
+      functions.
+
+      Subclasses may override this to gain control over what type of objects and
+      how they can be loaded, potentially reducing security risks. Refer to
+      :ref:`pickle-restrict` for details.
+
+
+.. _pickle-picklable:
+
+What can be pickled and unpickled?
+----------------------------------
+
+The following types can be pickled:
+
+* ``None``, ``True``, and ``False``
+
+* integers, floating point numbers, complex numbers
+
+* strings, bytes, bytearrays
+
+* tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable objects
+
+* functions defined at the top level of a module (using :keyword:`def`, not
+  :keyword:`lambda`)
+
+* built-in functions defined at the top level of a module
+
+* classes that are defined at the top level of a module
+
+* instances of such classes whose :attr:`~object.__dict__` or the result of
+  calling :meth:`__getstate__` is picklable  (see section :ref:`pickle-inst` for
+  details).
+
+Attempts to pickle unpicklable objects will raise the :exc:`PicklingError`
+exception; when this happens, an unspecified number of bytes may have already
+been written to the underlying file.  Trying to pickle a highly recursive data
+structure may exceed the maximum recursion depth, a :exc:`RecursionError` will be
+raised in this case.  You can carefully raise this limit with
+:func:`sys.setrecursionlimit`.
+
+Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by "fully qualified"
+name reference, not by value. [#]_  This means that only the function name is
+pickled, along with the name of the module the function is defined in.  Neither
+the function's code, nor any of its function attributes are pickled.  Thus the
+defining module must be importable in the unpickling environment, and the module
+must contain the named object, otherwise an exception will be raised. [#]_
+
+Similarly, classes are pickled by named reference, so the same restrictions in
+the unpickling environment apply.  Note that none of the class's code or data is
+pickled, so in the following example the class attribute ``attr`` is not
+restored in the unpickling environment::
+
+   class Foo:
+       attr = 'A class attribute'
+
+   picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo)
+
+These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be defined in
+the top level of a module.
+
+Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class's code and data are not
+pickled along with them.  Only the instance data are pickled.  This is done on
+purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods to the class and still
+load objects that were created with an earlier version of the class.  If you
+plan to have long-lived objects that will see many versions of a class, it may
+be worthwhile to put a version number in the objects so that suitable
+conversions can be made by the class's :meth:`__setstate__` method.
+
+
+.. _pickle-inst:
+
+Pickling Class Instances
+------------------------
+
+.. currentmodule:: None
+
+In this section, we describe the general mechanisms available to you to define,
+customize, and control how class instances are pickled and unpickled.
+
+In most cases, no additional code is needed to make instances picklable.  By
+default, pickle will retrieve the class and the attributes of an instance via
+introspection. When a class instance is unpickled, its :meth:`__init__` method
+is usually *not* invoked.  The default behaviour first creates an uninitialized
+instance and then restores the saved attributes.  The following code shows an
+implementation of this behaviour::
+
+   def save(obj):
+       return (obj.__class__, obj.__dict__)
+
+   def load(cls, attributes):
+       obj = cls.__new__(cls)
+       obj.__dict__.update(attributes)
+       return obj
+
+Classes can alter the default behaviour by providing one or several special
+methods:
+
+.. method:: object.__getnewargs_ex__()
+
+   In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implements the
+   :meth:`__getnewargs_ex__` method can dictate the values passed to the
+   :meth:`__new__` method upon unpickling.  The method must return a pair
+   ``(args, kwargs)`` where *args* is a tuple of positional arguments
+   and *kwargs* a dictionary of named arguments for constructing the
+   object.  Those will be passed to the :meth:`__new__` method upon
+   unpickling.
+
+   You should implement this method if the :meth:`__new__` method of your
+   class requires keyword-only arguments.  Otherwise, it is recommended for
+   compatibility to implement :meth:`__getnewargs__`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :meth:`__getnewargs_ex__` is now used in protocols 2 and 3.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__getnewargs__()
+
+   This method serves a similar purpose as :meth:`__getnewargs_ex__`, but
+   supports only positional arguments.  It must return a tuple of arguments
+   ``args`` which will be passed to the :meth:`__new__` method upon unpickling.
+
+   :meth:`__getnewargs__` will not be called if :meth:`__getnewargs_ex__` is
+   defined.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Before Python 3.6, :meth:`__getnewargs__` was called instead of
+      :meth:`__getnewargs_ex__` in protocols 2 and 3.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__getstate__()
+
+   Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled; if the class
+   defines the method :meth:`__getstate__`, it is called and the returned object
+   is pickled as the contents for the instance, instead of the contents of the
+   instance's dictionary.  If the :meth:`__getstate__` method is absent, the
+   instance's :attr:`~object.__dict__` is pickled as usual.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__setstate__(state)
+
+   Upon unpickling, if the class defines :meth:`__setstate__`, it is called with
+   the unpickled state.  In that case, there is no requirement for the state
+   object to be a dictionary.  Otherwise, the pickled state must be a dictionary
+   and its items are assigned to the new instance's dictionary.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If :meth:`__getstate__` returns a false value, the :meth:`__setstate__`
+      method will not be called upon unpickling.
+
+
+Refer to the section :ref:`pickle-state` for more information about how to use
+the methods :meth:`__getstate__` and :meth:`__setstate__`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   At unpickling time, some methods like :meth:`__getattr__`,
+   :meth:`__getattribute__`, or :meth:`__setattr__` may be called upon the
+   instance.  In case those methods rely on some internal invariant being
+   true, the type should implement :meth:`__getnewargs__` or
+   :meth:`__getnewargs_ex__` to establish such an invariant; otherwise,
+   neither :meth:`__new__` nor :meth:`__init__` will be called.
+
+.. index:: pair: copy; protocol
+
+As we shall see, pickle does not use directly the methods described above.  In
+fact, these methods are part of the copy protocol which implements the
+:meth:`__reduce__` special method.  The copy protocol provides a unified
+interface for retrieving the data necessary for pickling and copying
+objects. [#]_
+
+Although powerful, implementing :meth:`__reduce__` directly in your classes is
+error prone.  For this reason, class designers should use the high-level
+interface (i.e., :meth:`__getnewargs_ex__`, :meth:`__getstate__` and
+:meth:`__setstate__`) whenever possible.  We will show, however, cases where
+using :meth:`__reduce__` is the only option or leads to more efficient pickling
+or both.
+
+.. method:: object.__reduce__()
+
+   The interface is currently defined as follows.  The :meth:`__reduce__` method
+   takes no argument and shall return either a string or preferably a tuple (the
+   returned object is often referred to as the "reduce value").
+
+   If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the name of a
+   global variable.  It should be the object's local name relative to its
+   module; the pickle module searches the module namespace to determine the
+   object's module.  This behaviour is typically useful for singletons.
+
+   When a tuple is returned, it must be between two and five items long.
+   Optional items can either be omitted, or ``None`` can be provided as their
+   value.  The semantics of each item are in order:
+
+   .. XXX Mention __newobj__ special-case?
+
+   * A callable object that will be called to create the initial version of the
+     object.
+
+   * A tuple of arguments for the callable object.  An empty tuple must be given
+     if the callable does not accept any argument.
+
+   * Optionally, the object's state, which will be passed to the object's
+     :meth:`__setstate__` method as previously described.  If the object has no
+     such method then, the value must be a dictionary and it will be added to
+     the object's :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.
+
+   * Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding successive items.
+     These items will be appended to the object either using
+     ``obj.append(item)`` or, in batch, using ``obj.extend(list_of_items)``.
+     This is primarily used for list subclasses, but may be used by other
+     classes as long as they have :meth:`append` and :meth:`extend` methods with
+     the appropriate signature.  (Whether :meth:`append` or :meth:`extend` is
+     used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well as the number
+     of items to append, so both must be supported.)
+
+   * Optionally, an iterator (not a sequence) yielding successive key-value
+     pairs.  These items will be stored to the object using ``obj[key] =
+     value``.  This is primarily used for dictionary subclasses, but may be used
+     by other classes as long as they implement :meth:`__setitem__`.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__reduce_ex__(protocol)
+
+   Alternatively, a :meth:`__reduce_ex__` method may be defined.  The only
+   difference is this method should take a single integer argument, the protocol
+   version.  When defined, pickle will prefer it over the :meth:`__reduce__`
+   method.  In addition, :meth:`__reduce__` automatically becomes a synonym for
+   the extended version.  The main use for this method is to provide
+   backwards-compatible reduce values for older Python releases.
+
+.. currentmodule:: pickle
+
+.. _pickle-persistent:
+
+Persistence of External Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+   single: persistent_id (pickle protocol)
+   single: persistent_load (pickle protocol)
+
+For the benefit of object persistence, the :mod:`pickle` module supports the
+notion of a reference to an object outside the pickled data stream.  Such
+objects are referenced by a persistent ID, which should be either a string of
+alphanumeric characters (for protocol 0) [#]_ or just an arbitrary object (for
+any newer protocol).
+
+The resolution of such persistent IDs is not defined by the :mod:`pickle`
+module; it will delegate this resolution to the user defined methods on the
+pickler and unpickler, :meth:`~Pickler.persistent_id` and
+:meth:`~Unpickler.persistent_load` respectively.
+
+To pickle objects that have an external persistent id, the pickler must have a
+custom :meth:`~Pickler.persistent_id` method that takes an object as an
+argument and returns either ``None`` or the persistent id for that object.
+When ``None`` is returned, the pickler simply pickles the object as normal.
+When a persistent ID string is returned, the pickler will pickle that object,
+along with a marker so that the unpickler will recognize it as a persistent ID.
+
+To unpickle external objects, the unpickler must have a custom
+:meth:`~Unpickler.persistent_load` method that takes a persistent ID object and
+returns the referenced object.
+
+Here is a comprehensive example presenting how persistent ID can be used to
+pickle external objects by reference.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/dbpickle.py
+
+.. _pickle-dispatch:
+
+Dispatch Tables
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If one wants to customize pickling of some classes without disturbing
+any other code which depends on pickling, then one can create a
+pickler with a private dispatch table.
+
+The global dispatch table managed by the :mod:`copyreg` module is
+available as :data:`copyreg.dispatch_table`.  Therefore, one may
+choose to use a modified copy of :data:`copyreg.dispatch_table` as a
+private dispatch table.
+
+For example ::
+
+   f = io.BytesIO()
+   p = pickle.Pickler(f)
+   p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
+   p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
+
+creates an instance of :class:`pickle.Pickler` with a private dispatch
+table which handles the ``SomeClass`` class specially.  Alternatively,
+the code ::
+
+   class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
+       dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
+       dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
+   f = io.BytesIO()
+   p = MyPickler(f)
+
+does the same, but all instances of ``MyPickler`` will by default
+share the same dispatch table.  The equivalent code using the
+:mod:`copyreg` module is ::
+
+   copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass)
+   f = io.BytesIO()
+   p = pickle.Pickler(f)
+
+.. _pickle-state:
+
+Handling Stateful Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+   single: __getstate__() (copy protocol)
+   single: __setstate__() (copy protocol)
+
+Here's an example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a class.
+The :class:`TextReader` class opens a text file, and returns the line number and
+line contents each time its :meth:`!readline` method is called. If a
+:class:`TextReader` instance is pickled, all attributes *except* the file object
+member are saved. When the instance is unpickled, the file is reopened, and
+reading resumes from the last location. The :meth:`__setstate__` and
+:meth:`__getstate__` methods are used to implement this behavior. ::
+
+   class TextReader:
+       """Print and number lines in a text file."""
+
+       def __init__(self, filename):
+           self.filename = filename
+           self.file = open(filename)
+           self.lineno = 0
+
+       def readline(self):
+           self.lineno += 1
+           line = self.file.readline()
+           if not line:
+               return None
+           if line.endswith('\n'):
+               line = line[:-1]
+           return "%i: %s" % (self.lineno, line)
+
+       def __getstate__(self):
+           # Copy the object's state from self.__dict__ which contains
+           # all our instance attributes. Always use the dict.copy()
+           # method to avoid modifying the original state.
+           state = self.__dict__.copy()
+           # Remove the unpicklable entries.
+           del state['file']
+           return state
+
+       def __setstate__(self, state):
+           # Restore instance attributes (i.e., filename and lineno).
+           self.__dict__.update(state)
+           # Restore the previously opened file's state. To do so, we need to
+           # reopen it and read from it until the line count is restored.
+           file = open(self.filename)
+           for _ in range(self.lineno):
+               file.readline()
+           # Finally, save the file.
+           self.file = file
+
+
+A sample usage might be something like this::
+
+   >>> reader = TextReader("hello.txt")
+   >>> reader.readline()
+   '1: Hello world!'
+   >>> reader.readline()
+   '2: I am line number two.'
+   >>> new_reader = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(reader))
+   >>> new_reader.readline()
+   '3: Goodbye!'
+
+
+.. _pickle-restrict:
+
+Restricting Globals
+-------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: find_class() (pickle protocol)
+
+By default, unpickling will import any class or function that it finds in the
+pickle data.  For many applications, this behaviour is unacceptable as it
+permits the unpickler to import and invoke arbitrary code.  Just consider what
+this hand-crafted pickle data stream does when loaded::
+
+    >>> import pickle
+    >>> pickle.loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
+    hello world
+    0
+
+In this example, the unpickler imports the :func:`os.system` function and then
+apply the string argument "echo hello world".  Although this example is
+inoffensive, it is not difficult to imagine one that could damage your system.
+
+For this reason, you may want to control what gets unpickled by customizing
+:meth:`Unpickler.find_class`.  Unlike its name suggests,
+:meth:`Unpickler.find_class` is called whenever a global (i.e., a class or
+a function) is requested.  Thus it is possible to either completely forbid
+globals or restrict them to a safe subset.
+
+Here is an example of an unpickler allowing only few safe classes from the
+:mod:`builtins` module to be loaded::
+
+   import builtins
+   import io
+   import pickle
+
+   safe_builtins = {
+       'range',
+       'complex',
+       'set',
+       'frozenset',
+       'slice',
+   }
+
+   class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):
+
+       def find_class(self, module, name):
+           # Only allow safe classes from builtins.
+           if module == "builtins" and name in safe_builtins:
+               return getattr(builtins, name)
+           # Forbid everything else.
+           raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
+                                        (module, name))
+
+   def restricted_loads(s):
+       """Helper function analogous to pickle.loads()."""
+       return RestrictedUnpickler(io.BytesIO(s)).load()
+
+A sample usage of our unpickler working has intended::
+
+    >>> restricted_loads(pickle.dumps([1, 2, range(15)]))
+    [1, 2, range(0, 15)]
+    >>> restricted_loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'os.system' is forbidden
+    >>> restricted_loads(b'cbuiltins\neval\n'
+    ...                  b'(S\'getattr(__import__("os"), "system")'
+    ...                  b'("echo hello world")\'\ntR.')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'builtins.eval' is forbidden
+
+
+.. XXX Add note about how extension codes could evade our protection
+   mechanism (e.g. cached classes do not invokes find_class()).
+
+As our examples shows, you have to be careful with what you allow to be
+unpickled.  Therefore if security is a concern, you may want to consider
+alternatives such as the marshalling API in :mod:`xmlrpc.client` or
+third-party solutions.
+
+
+Performance
+-----------
+
+Recent versions of the pickle protocol (from protocol 2 and upwards) feature
+efficient binary encodings for several common features and built-in types.
+Also, the :mod:`pickle` module has a transparent optimizer written in C.
+
+
+.. _pickle-example:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+For the simplest code, use the :func:`dump` and :func:`load` functions. ::
+
+   import pickle
+
+   # An arbitrary collection of objects supported by pickle.
+   data = {
+       'a': [1, 2.0, 3, 4+6j],
+       'b': ("character string", b"byte string"),
+       'c': {None, True, False}
+   }
+
+   with open('data.pickle', 'wb') as f:
+       # Pickle the 'data' dictionary using the highest protocol available.
+       pickle.dump(data, f, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)
+
+
+The following example reads the resulting pickled data. ::
+
+   import pickle
+
+   with open('data.pickle', 'rb') as f:
+       # The protocol version used is detected automatically, so we do not
+       # have to specify it.
+       data = pickle.load(f)
+
+
+.. XXX: Add examples showing how to optimize pickles for size (like using
+.. pickletools.optimize() or the gzip module).
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`copyreg`
+      Pickle interface constructor registration for extension types.
+
+   Module :mod:`pickletools`
+      Tools for working with and analyzing pickled data.
+
+   Module :mod:`shelve`
+      Indexed databases of objects; uses :mod:`pickle`.
+
+   Module :mod:`copy`
+      Shallow and deep object copying.
+
+   Module :mod:`marshal`
+      High-performance serialization of built-in types.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Don't confuse this with the :mod:`marshal` module
+
+.. [#] This is why :keyword:`lambda` functions cannot be pickled:  all
+    :keyword:`!lambda` functions share the same name:  ``<lambda>``.
+
+.. [#] The exception raised will likely be an :exc:`ImportError` or an
+   :exc:`AttributeError` but it could be something else.
+
+.. [#] The :mod:`copy` module uses this protocol for shallow and deep copying
+   operations.
+
+.. [#] The limitation on alphanumeric characters is due to the fact
+   the persistent IDs, in protocol 0, are delimited by the newline
+   character.  Therefore if any kind of newline characters occurs in
+   persistent IDs, the resulting pickle will become unreadable.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pickletools.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pickletools.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..480f4a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pickletools.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+:mod:`pickletools` --- Tools for pickle developers
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: pickletools
+   :synopsis: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and
+              pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pickletools.py`
+
+--------------
+
+
+This module contains various constants relating to the intimate details of the
+:mod:`pickle` module, some lengthy comments about the implementation, and a
+few useful functions for analyzing pickled data.  The contents of this module
+are useful for Python core developers who are working on the :mod:`pickle`;
+ordinary users of the :mod:`pickle` module probably won't find the
+:mod:`pickletools` module relevant.
+
+Command line usage
+------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+When invoked from the command line, ``python -m pickletools`` will
+disassemble the contents of one or more pickle files.  Note that if
+you want to see the Python object stored in the pickle rather than the
+details of pickle format, you may want to use ``-m pickle`` instead.
+However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an
+untrusted source, ``-m pickletools`` is a safer option because it does
+not execute pickle bytecode.
+
+For example, with a tuple ``(1, 2)`` pickled in file ``x.pickle``:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m pickle x.pickle
+    (1, 2)
+
+    $ python -m pickletools x.pickle
+        0: \x80 PROTO      3
+        2: K    BININT1    1
+        4: K    BININT1    2
+        6: \x86 TUPLE2
+        7: q    BINPUT     0
+        9: .    STOP
+    highest protocol among opcodes = 2
+
+Command line options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. program:: pickletools
+
+.. cmdoption:: -a, --annotate
+
+   Annotate each line with a short opcode description.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -o, --output=<file>
+
+   Name of a file where the output should be written.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -l, --indentlevel=<num>
+
+   The number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK level.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -m, --memo
+
+   When multiple objects are disassembled, preserve memo between
+   disassemblies.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -p, --preamble=<preamble>
+
+   When more than one pickle file are specified, print given preamble
+   before each disassembly.
+
+
+
+Programmatic Interface
+----------------------
+
+
+.. function:: dis(pickle, out=None, memo=None, indentlevel=4, annotate=0)
+
+   Outputs a symbolic disassembly of the pickle to the file-like
+   object *out*, defaulting to ``sys.stdout``.  *pickle* can be a
+   string or a file-like object.  *memo* can be a Python dictionary
+   that will be used as the pickle's memo; it can be used to perform
+   disassemblies across multiple pickles created by the same
+   pickler. Successive levels, indicated by ``MARK`` opcodes in the
+   stream, are indented by *indentlevel* spaces.  If a nonzero value
+   is given to *annotate*, each opcode in the output is annotated with
+   a short description.  The value of *annotate* is used as a hint for
+   the column where annotation should start.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *annotate* argument.
+
+.. function:: genops(pickle)
+
+   Provides an :term:`iterator` over all of the opcodes in a pickle, returning a
+   sequence of ``(opcode, arg, pos)`` triples.  *opcode* is an instance of an
+   :class:`OpcodeInfo` class; *arg* is the decoded value, as a Python object, of
+   the opcode's argument; *pos* is the position at which this opcode is located.
+   *pickle* can be a string or a file-like object.
+
+.. function:: optimize(picklestring)
+
+   Returns a new equivalent pickle string after eliminating unused ``PUT``
+   opcodes. The optimized pickle is shorter, takes less transmission time,
+   requires less storage space, and unpickles more efficiently.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pipes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pipes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a22da1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pipes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+:mod:`pipes` --- Interface to shell pipelines
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: pipes
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pipes.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`pipes` module defines a class to abstract the concept of a *pipeline*
+--- a sequence of converters from one file to  another.
+
+Because the module uses :program:`/bin/sh` command lines, a POSIX or compatible
+shell for :func:`os.system` and :func:`os.popen` is required.
+
+The :mod:`pipes` module defines the following class:
+
+
+.. class:: Template()
+
+   An abstraction of a pipeline.
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> import pipes
+   >>> t = pipes.Template()
+   >>> t.append('tr a-z A-Z', '--')
+   >>> f = t.open('pipefile', 'w')
+   >>> f.write('hello world')
+   >>> f.close()
+   >>> open('pipefile').read()
+   'HELLO WORLD'
+
+
+.. _template-objects:
+
+Template Objects
+----------------
+
+Template objects following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Template.reset()
+
+   Restore a pipeline template to its initial state.
+
+
+.. method:: Template.clone()
+
+   Return a new, equivalent, pipeline template.
+
+
+.. method:: Template.debug(flag)
+
+   If *flag* is true, turn debugging on. Otherwise, turn debugging off. When
+   debugging is on, commands to be executed are printed, and the shell is given
+   ``set -x`` command to be more verbose.
+
+
+.. method:: Template.append(cmd, kind)
+
+   Append a new action at the end. The *cmd* variable must be a valid bourne shell
+   command. The *kind* variable consists of two letters.
+
+   The first letter can be either of ``'-'`` (which means the command reads its
+   standard input), ``'f'`` (which means the commands reads a given file on the
+   command line) or ``'.'`` (which means the commands reads no input, and hence
+   must be first.)
+
+   Similarly, the second letter can be either of ``'-'`` (which means  the command
+   writes to standard output), ``'f'`` (which means the  command writes a file on
+   the command line) or ``'.'`` (which means the command does not write anything,
+   and hence must be last.)
+
+
+.. method:: Template.prepend(cmd, kind)
+
+   Add a new action at the beginning. See :meth:`append` for explanations of the
+   arguments.
+
+
+.. method:: Template.open(file, mode)
+
+   Return a file-like object, open to *file*, but read from or written to by the
+   pipeline.  Note that only one of ``'r'``, ``'w'`` may be given.
+
+
+.. method:: Template.copy(infile, outfile)
+
+   Copy *infile* to *outfile* through the pipe.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pkgutil.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pkgutil.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fba0ea6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pkgutil.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,229 @@
+:mod:`pkgutil` --- Package extension utility
+============================================
+
+.. module:: pkgutil
+   :synopsis: Utilities for the import system.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pkgutil.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides utilities for the import system, in particular package
+support.
+
+.. class:: ModuleInfo(module_finder, name, ispkg)
+
+    A namedtuple that holds a brief summary of a module's info.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. function:: extend_path(path, name)
+
+   Extend the search path for the modules which comprise a package.  Intended
+   use is to place the following code in a package's :file:`__init__.py`::
+
+      from pkgutil import extend_path
+      __path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)
+
+   This will add to the package's ``__path__`` all subdirectories of directories
+   on ``sys.path`` named after the package.  This is useful if one wants to
+   distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple
+   directories.
+
+   It also looks for :file:`\*.pkg` files beginning where ``*`` matches the
+   *name* argument.  This feature is similar to :file:`\*.pth` files (see the
+   :mod:`site` module for more information), except that it doesn't special-case
+   lines starting with ``import``.  A :file:`\*.pkg` file is trusted at face
+   value: apart from checking for duplicates, all entries found in a
+   :file:`\*.pkg` file are added to the path, regardless of whether they exist
+   on the filesystem.  (This is a feature.)
+
+   If the input path is not a list (as is the case for frozen packages) it is
+   returned unchanged.  The input path is not modified; an extended copy is
+   returned.  Items are only appended to the copy at the end.
+
+   It is assumed that :data:`sys.path` is a sequence.  Items of :data:`sys.path`
+   that are not strings referring to existing directories are ignored. Unicode
+   items on :data:`sys.path` that cause errors when used as filenames may cause
+   this function to raise an exception (in line with :func:`os.path.isdir`
+   behavior).
+
+
+.. class:: ImpImporter(dirname=None)
+
+   :pep:`302` Finder that wraps Python's "classic" import algorithm.
+
+   If *dirname* is a string, a :pep:`302` finder is created that searches that
+   directory.  If *dirname* is ``None``, a :pep:`302` finder is created that
+   searches the current :data:`sys.path`, plus any modules that are frozen or
+   built-in.
+
+   Note that :class:`ImpImporter` does not currently support being used by
+   placement on :data:`sys.meta_path`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      This emulation is no longer needed, as the standard import mechanism
+      is now fully PEP 302 compliant and available in :mod:`importlib`.
+
+
+.. class:: ImpLoader(fullname, file, filename, etc)
+
+   :term:`Loader` that wraps Python's "classic" import algorithm.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      This emulation is no longer needed, as the standard import mechanism
+      is now fully PEP 302 compliant and available in :mod:`importlib`.
+
+
+.. function:: find_loader(fullname)
+
+   Retrieve a module :term:`loader` for the given *fullname*.
+
+   This is a backwards compatibility wrapper around
+   :func:`importlib.util.find_spec` that converts most failures to
+   :exc:`ImportError` and only returns the loader rather than the full
+   :class:`ModuleSpec`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying
+      on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Updated to be based on :pep:`451`
+
+.. function:: get_importer(path_item)
+
+   Retrieve a :term:`finder` for the given *path_item*.
+
+   The returned finder is cached in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` if it was
+   newly created by a path hook.
+
+   The cache (or part of it) can be cleared manually if a rescan of
+   :data:`sys.path_hooks` is necessary.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying
+      on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.
+
+
+.. function:: get_loader(module_or_name)
+
+   Get a :term:`loader` object for *module_or_name*.
+
+   If the module or package is accessible via the normal import mechanism, a
+   wrapper around the relevant part of that machinery is returned.  Returns
+   ``None`` if the module cannot be found or imported.  If the named module is
+   not already imported, its containing package (if any) is imported, in order
+   to establish the package ``__path__``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying
+      on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Updated to be based on :pep:`451`
+
+
+.. function:: iter_importers(fullname='')
+
+   Yield :term:`finder` objects for the given module name.
+
+   If fullname contains a '.', the finders will be for the package
+   containing fullname, otherwise they will be all registered top level
+   finders (i.e. those on both sys.meta_path and sys.path_hooks).
+
+   If the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a side
+   effect of invoking this function.
+
+   If no module name is specified, all top level finders are produced.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying
+      on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.
+
+
+.. function:: iter_modules(path=None, prefix='')
+
+   Yields :class:`ModuleInfo` for all submodules on *path*, or, if
+   *path* is ``None``, all top-level modules on ``sys.path``.
+
+   *path* should be either ``None`` or a list of paths to look for modules in.
+
+   *prefix* is a string to output on the front of every module name on output.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Only works for a :term:`finder` which defines an ``iter_modules()``
+      method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides
+      implementations for :class:`importlib.machinery.FileFinder` and
+      :class:`zipimport.zipimporter`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying
+      on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.
+
+
+.. function:: walk_packages(path=None, prefix='', onerror=None)
+
+   Yields :class:`ModuleInfo` for all modules recursively on
+   *path*, or, if *path* is ``None``, all accessible modules.
+
+   *path* should be either ``None`` or a list of paths to look for modules in.
+
+   *prefix* is a string to output on the front of every module name on output.
+
+   Note that this function must import all *packages* (*not* all modules!) on
+   the given *path*, in order to access the ``__path__`` attribute to find
+   submodules.
+
+   *onerror* is a function which gets called with one argument (the name of the
+   package which was being imported) if any exception occurs while trying to
+   import a package.  If no *onerror* function is supplied, :exc:`ImportError`\s
+   are caught and ignored, while all other exceptions are propagated,
+   terminating the search.
+
+   Examples::
+
+      # list all modules python can access
+      walk_packages()
+
+      # list all submodules of ctypes
+      walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.')
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Only works for a :term:`finder` which defines an ``iter_modules()``
+      method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides
+      implementations for :class:`importlib.machinery.FileFinder` and
+      :class:`zipimport.zipimporter`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying
+      on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.
+
+
+.. function:: get_data(package, resource)
+
+   Get a resource from a package.
+
+   This is a wrapper for the :term:`loader`
+   :meth:`get_data <importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data>` API.  The
+   *package* argument should be the name of a package, in standard module format
+   (``foo.bar``).  The *resource* argument should be in the form of a relative
+   filename, using ``/`` as the path separator.  The parent directory name
+   ``..`` is not allowed, and nor is a rooted name (starting with a ``/``).
+
+   The function returns a binary string that is the contents of the specified
+   resource.
+
+   For packages located in the filesystem, which have already been imported,
+   this is the rough equivalent of::
+
+      d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
+      data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()
+
+   If the package cannot be located or loaded, or it uses a :term:`loader`
+   which does not support :meth:`get_data <importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data>`,
+   then ``None`` is returned.  In particular, the :term:`loader` for
+   :term:`namespace packages <namespace package>` does not support
+   :meth:`get_data <importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data>`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/platform.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/platform.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d29dc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/platform.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,284 @@
+:mod:`platform` ---  Access to underlying platform's identifying data
+=====================================================================
+
+.. module:: platform
+   :synopsis: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Marc-André Lemburg <mal@egenix.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Bjorn Pettersen <bpettersen@corp.fairisaac.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/platform.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. note::
+
+   Specific platforms listed alphabetically, with Linux included in the Unix
+   section.
+
+
+Cross Platform
+--------------
+
+
+.. function:: architecture(executable=sys.executable, bits='', linkage='')
+
+   Queries the given executable (defaults to the Python interpreter binary) for
+   various architecture information.
+
+   Returns a tuple ``(bits, linkage)`` which contain information about the bit
+   architecture and the linkage format used for the executable. Both values are
+   returned as strings.
+
+   Values that cannot be determined are returned as given by the parameter presets.
+   If bits is given as ``''``, the ``sizeof(pointer)`` (or
+   ``sizeof(long)`` on Python version < 1.5.2) is used as indicator for the
+   supported pointer size.
+
+   The function relies on the system's :file:`file` command to do the actual work.
+   This is available on most if not all Unix  platforms and some non-Unix platforms
+   and then only if the executable points to the Python interpreter.  Reasonable
+   defaults are used when the above needs are not met.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On Mac OS X (and perhaps other platforms), executable files may be
+      universal files containing multiple architectures.
+
+      To get at the "64-bitness" of the current interpreter, it is more
+      reliable to query the :attr:`sys.maxsize` attribute::
+
+         is_64bits = sys.maxsize > 2**32
+
+
+.. function:: machine()
+
+   Returns the machine type, e.g. ``'i386'``. An empty string is returned if the
+   value cannot be determined.
+
+
+.. function:: node()
+
+   Returns the computer's network name (may not be fully qualified!). An empty
+   string is returned if the value cannot be determined.
+
+
+.. function:: platform(aliased=0, terse=0)
+
+   Returns a single string identifying the underlying platform with as much useful
+   information as possible.
+
+   The output is intended to be *human readable* rather than machine parseable. It
+   may look different on different platforms and this is intended.
+
+   If *aliased* is true, the function will use aliases for various platforms that
+   report system names which differ from their common names, for example SunOS will
+   be reported as Solaris.  The :func:`system_alias` function is used to implement
+   this.
+
+   Setting *terse* to true causes the function to return only the absolute minimum
+   information needed to identify the platform.
+
+
+.. function:: processor()
+
+   Returns the (real) processor name, e.g. ``'amdk6'``.
+
+   An empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined. Note that many
+   platforms do not provide this information or simply return the same value as for
+   :func:`machine`.  NetBSD does this.
+
+
+.. function:: python_build()
+
+   Returns a tuple ``(buildno, builddate)`` stating the Python build number and
+   date as strings.
+
+
+.. function:: python_compiler()
+
+   Returns a string identifying the compiler used for compiling Python.
+
+
+.. function:: python_branch()
+
+   Returns a string identifying the Python implementation SCM branch.
+
+
+.. function:: python_implementation()
+
+   Returns a string identifying the Python implementation. Possible return values
+   are: 'CPython', 'IronPython', 'Jython', 'PyPy'.
+
+
+.. function:: python_revision()
+
+   Returns a string identifying the Python implementation SCM revision.
+
+
+.. function:: python_version()
+
+   Returns the Python version as string ``'major.minor.patchlevel'``.
+
+   Note that unlike the Python ``sys.version``, the returned value will always
+   include the patchlevel (it defaults to 0).
+
+
+.. function:: python_version_tuple()
+
+   Returns the Python version as tuple ``(major, minor, patchlevel)`` of strings.
+
+   Note that unlike the Python ``sys.version``, the returned value will always
+   include the patchlevel (it defaults to ``'0'``).
+
+
+.. function:: release()
+
+   Returns the system's release, e.g. ``'2.2.0'`` or ``'NT'`` An empty string is
+   returned if the value cannot be determined.
+
+
+.. function:: system()
+
+   Returns the system/OS name, e.g. ``'Linux'``, ``'Windows'``, or ``'Java'``. An
+   empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined.
+
+
+.. function:: system_alias(system, release, version)
+
+   Returns ``(system, release, version)`` aliased to common marketing names used
+   for some systems.  It also does some reordering of the information in some cases
+   where it would otherwise cause confusion.
+
+
+.. function:: version()
+
+   Returns the system's release version, e.g. ``'#3 on degas'``. An empty string is
+   returned if the value cannot be determined.
+
+
+.. function:: uname()
+
+   Fairly portable uname interface. Returns a :func:`~collections.namedtuple`
+   containing six attributes: :attr:`system`, :attr:`node`, :attr:`release`,
+   :attr:`version`, :attr:`machine`, and :attr:`processor`.
+
+   Note that this adds a sixth attribute (:attr:`processor`) not present
+   in the :func:`os.uname` result.  Also, the attribute names are different
+   for the first two attributes; :func:`os.uname` names them
+   :attr:`sysname` and :attr:`nodename`.
+
+   Entries which cannot be determined are set to ``''``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.
+
+
+Java Platform
+-------------
+
+
+.. function:: java_ver(release='', vendor='', vminfo=('','',''), osinfo=('','',''))
+
+   Version interface for Jython.
+
+   Returns a tuple ``(release, vendor, vminfo, osinfo)`` with *vminfo* being a
+   tuple ``(vm_name, vm_release, vm_vendor)`` and *osinfo* being a tuple
+   ``(os_name, os_version, os_arch)``. Values which cannot be determined are set to
+   the defaults given as parameters (which all default to ``''``).
+
+
+Windows Platform
+----------------
+
+
+.. function:: win32_ver(release='', version='', csd='', ptype='')
+
+   Get additional version information from the Windows Registry and return a tuple
+   ``(release, version, csd, ptype)`` referring to OS release, version number,
+   CSD level (service pack) and OS type (multi/single processor).
+
+   As a hint: *ptype* is ``'Uniprocessor Free'`` on single processor NT machines
+   and ``'Multiprocessor Free'`` on multi processor machines. The *'Free'* refers
+   to the OS version being free of debugging code. It could also state *'Checked'*
+   which means the OS version uses debugging code, i.e. code that checks arguments,
+   ranges, etc.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This function works best with Mark Hammond's
+      :mod:`win32all` package installed, but also on Python 2.3 and
+      later (support for this was added in Python 2.6). It obviously
+      only runs on Win32 compatible platforms.
+
+
+Win95/98 specific
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. function:: popen(cmd, mode='r', bufsize=-1)
+
+   Portable :func:`popen` interface.  Find a working popen implementation
+   preferring :func:`win32pipe.popen`.  On Windows NT, :func:`win32pipe.popen`
+   should work; on Windows 9x it hangs due to bugs in the MS C library.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+      This function is obsolete.  Use the :mod:`subprocess` module.  Check
+      especially the :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section.
+
+
+Mac OS Platform
+---------------
+
+
+.. function:: mac_ver(release='', versioninfo=('','',''), machine='')
+
+   Get Mac OS version information and return it as tuple ``(release, versioninfo,
+   machine)`` with *versioninfo* being a tuple ``(version, dev_stage,
+   non_release_version)``.
+
+   Entries which cannot be determined are set to ``''``.  All tuple entries are
+   strings.
+
+
+Unix Platforms
+--------------
+
+
+.. function:: dist(distname='', version='', id='', supported_dists=('SuSE','debian','redhat','mandrake',...))
+
+   This is another name for :func:`linux_distribution`.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.5 3.8
+      See alternative like the `distro <https://pypi.org/project/distro>`_ package.
+
+.. function:: linux_distribution(distname='', version='', id='', supported_dists=('SuSE','debian','redhat','mandrake',...), full_distribution_name=1)
+
+   Tries to determine the name of the Linux OS distribution name.
+
+   ``supported_dists`` may be given to define the set of Linux distributions to
+   look for. It defaults to a list of currently supported Linux distributions
+   identified by their release file name.
+
+   If ``full_distribution_name`` is true (default), the full distribution read
+   from the OS is returned. Otherwise the short name taken from
+   ``supported_dists`` is used.
+
+   Returns a tuple ``(distname,version,id)`` which defaults to the args given as
+   parameters.  ``id`` is the item in parentheses after the version number.  It
+   is usually the version codename.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.5 3.8
+      See alternative like the `distro <https://pypi.org/project/distro>`_ package.
+
+.. function:: libc_ver(executable=sys.executable, lib='', version='', chunksize=16384)
+
+   Tries to determine the libc version against which the file executable (defaults
+   to the Python interpreter) is linked.  Returns a tuple of strings ``(lib,
+   version)`` which default to the given parameters in case the lookup fails.
+
+   Note that this function has intimate knowledge of how different libc versions
+   add symbols to the executable is probably only usable for executables compiled
+   using :program:`gcc`.
+
+   The file is read and scanned in chunks of *chunksize* bytes.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/plistlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/plistlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8bd6b63
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/plistlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,226 @@
+:mod:`plistlib` --- Generate and parse Mac OS X ``.plist`` files
+================================================================
+
+.. module:: plistlib
+   :synopsis: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Jack Jansen
+.. sectionauthor:: Georg Brandl <georg@python.org>
+.. (harvested from docstrings in the original file)
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/plistlib.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: plist; file
+   single: property list
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides an interface for reading and writing the "property list"
+files used mainly by Mac OS X and supports both binary and XML plist files.
+
+The property list (``.plist``) file format is a simple serialization supporting
+basic object types, like dictionaries, lists, numbers and strings.  Usually the
+top level object is a dictionary.
+
+To write out and to parse a plist file, use the :func:`dump` and
+:func:`load` functions.
+
+To work with plist data in bytes objects, use :func:`dumps`
+and :func:`loads`.
+
+Values can be strings, integers, floats, booleans, tuples, lists, dictionaries
+(but only with string keys), :class:`Data`, :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytesarray`
+or :class:`datetime.datetime` objects.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   New API, old API deprecated.  Support for binary format plists added.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `PList manual page <https://developer.apple.com/library/content/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/>`_
+      Apple's documentation of the file format.
+
+
+This module defines the following functions:
+
+.. function:: load(fp, \*, fmt=None, use_builtin_types=True, dict_type=dict)
+
+   Read a plist file. *fp* should be a readable and binary file object.
+   Return the unpacked root object (which usually is a
+   dictionary).
+
+   The *fmt* is the format of the file and the following values are valid:
+
+   * :data:`None`: Autodetect the file format
+
+   * :data:`FMT_XML`: XML file format
+
+   * :data:`FMT_BINARY`: Binary plist format
+
+   If *use_builtin_types* is true (the default) binary data will be returned
+   as instances of :class:`bytes`, otherwise it is returned as instances of
+   :class:`Data`.
+
+   The *dict_type* is the type used for dictionaries that are read from the
+   plist file.
+
+   XML data for the :data:`FMT_XML` format is parsed using the Expat parser
+   from :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` -- see its documentation for possible
+   exceptions on ill-formed XML.  Unknown elements will simply be ignored
+   by the plist parser.
+
+   The parser for the binary format raises :exc:`InvalidFileException`
+   when the file cannot be parsed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: loads(data, \*, fmt=None, use_builtin_types=True, dict_type=dict)
+
+   Load a plist from a bytes object. See :func:`load` for an explanation of
+   the keyword arguments.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: dump(value, fp, \*, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True, skipkeys=False)
+
+   Write *value* to a plist file. *Fp* should be a writable, binary
+   file object.
+
+   The *fmt* argument specifies the format of the plist file and can be
+   one of the following values:
+
+   * :data:`FMT_XML`: XML formatted plist file
+
+   * :data:`FMT_BINARY`: Binary formatted plist file
+
+   When *sort_keys* is true (the default) the keys for dictionaries will be
+   written to the plist in sorted order, otherwise they will be written in
+   the iteration order of the dictionary.
+
+   When *skipkeys* is false (the default) the function raises :exc:`TypeError`
+   when a key of a dictionary is not a string, otherwise such keys are skipped.
+
+   A :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if the object is of an unsupported type or
+   a container that contains objects of unsupported types.
+
+   An :exc:`OverflowError` will be raised for integer values that cannot
+   be represented in (binary) plist files.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: dumps(value, \*, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True, skipkeys=False)
+
+   Return *value* as a plist-formatted bytes object. See
+   the documentation for :func:`dump` for an explanation of the keyword
+   arguments of this function.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+The following functions are deprecated:
+
+.. function:: readPlist(pathOrFile)
+
+   Read a plist file. *pathOrFile* may be either a file name or a (readable
+   and binary) file object. Returns the unpacked root object (which usually
+   is a dictionary).
+
+   This function calls :func:`load` to do the actual work, see the documentation
+   of :func:`that function <load>` for an explanation of the keyword arguments.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4 Use :func:`load` instead.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Dict values in the result are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use
+      attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.
+
+
+.. function:: writePlist(rootObject, pathOrFile)
+
+   Write *rootObject* to an XML plist file. *pathOrFile* may be either a file name
+   or a (writable and binary) file object
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4 Use :func:`dump` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: readPlistFromBytes(data)
+
+   Read a plist data from a bytes object.  Return the root object.
+
+   See :func:`load` for a description of the keyword arguments.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4 Use :func:`loads` instead.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Dict values in the result are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use
+      attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.
+
+
+.. function:: writePlistToBytes(rootObject)
+
+   Return *rootObject* as an XML plist-formatted bytes object.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4 Use :func:`dumps` instead.
+
+
+The following classes are available:
+
+.. class:: Data(data)
+
+   Return a "data" wrapper object around the bytes object *data*.  This is used
+   in functions converting from/to plists to represent the ``<data>`` type
+   available in plists.
+
+   It has one attribute, :attr:`data`, that can be used to retrieve the Python
+   bytes object stored in it.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4 Use a :class:`bytes` object instead.
+
+
+The following constants are available:
+
+.. data:: FMT_XML
+
+   The XML format for plist files.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. data:: FMT_BINARY
+
+   The binary format for plist files
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Generating a plist::
+
+    pl = dict(
+        aString = "Doodah",
+        aList = ["A", "B", 12, 32.1, [1, 2, 3]],
+        aFloat = 0.1,
+        anInt = 728,
+        aDict = dict(
+            anotherString = "<hello & hi there!>",
+            aThirdString = "M\xe4ssig, Ma\xdf",
+            aTrueValue = True,
+            aFalseValue = False,
+        ),
+        someData = b"<binary gunk>",
+        someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
+        aDate = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(time.mktime(time.gmtime())),
+    )
+    with open(fileName, 'wb') as fp:
+        dump(pl, fp)
+
+Parsing a plist::
+
+    with open(fileName, 'rb') as fp:
+        pl = load(fp)
+    print(pl["aKey"])
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/poplib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/poplib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d72b660
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/poplib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,255 @@
+:mod:`poplib` --- POP3 protocol client
+======================================
+
+.. module:: poplib
+   :synopsis: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Andrew T. Csillag
+.. revised by ESR, January 2000
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/poplib.py`
+
+.. index:: pair: POP3; protocol
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines a class, :class:`POP3`, which encapsulates a connection to a
+POP3 server and implements the protocol as defined in :rfc:`1939`. The
+:class:`POP3` class supports both the minimal and optional command sets from
+:rfc:`1939`. The :class:`POP3` class also supports the ``STLS`` command introduced
+in :rfc:`2595` to enable encrypted communication on an already established connection.
+
+Additionally, this module provides a class :class:`POP3_SSL`, which provides
+support for connecting to POP3 servers that use SSL as an underlying protocol
+layer.
+
+Note that POP3, though widely supported, is obsolescent.  The implementation
+quality of POP3 servers varies widely, and too many are quite poor. If your
+mailserver supports IMAP, you would be better off using the
+:class:`imaplib.IMAP4` class, as IMAP servers tend to be better implemented.
+
+The :mod:`poplib` module provides two classes:
+
+
+.. class:: POP3(host, port=POP3_PORT[, timeout])
+
+   This class implements the actual POP3 protocol.  The connection is created when
+   the instance is initialized. If *port* is omitted, the standard POP3 port (110)
+   is used. The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the
+   connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will
+   be used).
+
+
+.. class:: POP3_SSL(host, port=POP3_SSL_PORT, keyfile=None, certfile=None, timeout=None, context=None)
+
+   This is a subclass of :class:`POP3` that connects to the server over an SSL
+   encrypted socket.  If *port* is not specified, 995, the standard POP3-over-SSL
+   port is used.  *timeout* works as in the :class:`POP3` constructor.
+   *context* is an optional :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object which allows
+   bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a
+   single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read :ref:`ssl-security`
+   for best practices.
+
+   *keyfile* and *certfile* are a legacy alternative to *context* - they can
+   point to PEM-formatted private key and certificate chain files,
+   respectively, for the SSL connection.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *context* parameter added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The class now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+       *keyfile* and *certfile* are deprecated in favor of *context*.
+       Please use :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` instead, or let
+       :func:`ssl.create_default_context` select the system's trusted CA
+       certificates for you.
+
+One exception is defined as an attribute of the :mod:`poplib` module:
+
+
+.. exception:: error_proto
+
+   Exception raised on any errors from this module (errors from :mod:`socket`
+   module are not caught). The reason for the exception is passed to the
+   constructor as a string.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`imaplib`
+      The standard Python IMAP module.
+
+   `Frequently Asked Questions About Fetchmail <http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html>`_
+      The FAQ for the :program:`fetchmail` POP/IMAP client collects information on
+      POP3 server variations and RFC noncompliance that may be useful if you need to
+      write an application based on the POP protocol.
+
+
+.. _pop3-objects:
+
+POP3 Objects
+------------
+
+All POP3 commands are represented by methods of the same name, in lower-case;
+most return the response text sent by the server.
+
+An :class:`POP3` instance has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.set_debuglevel(level)
+
+   Set the instance's debugging level.  This controls the amount of debugging
+   output printed.  The default, ``0``, produces no debugging output.  A value of
+   ``1`` produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line
+   per request.  A value of ``2`` or higher produces the maximum amount of
+   debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the control connection.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.getwelcome()
+
+   Returns the greeting string sent by the POP3 server.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.capa()
+
+   Query the server's capabilities as specified in :rfc:`2449`.
+   Returns a dictionary in the form ``{'name': ['param'...]}``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.user(username)
+
+   Send user command, response should indicate that a password is required.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.pass_(password)
+
+   Send password, response includes message count and mailbox size. Note: the
+   mailbox on the server is locked until :meth:`~poplib.quit` is called.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.apop(user, secret)
+
+   Use the more secure APOP authentication to log into the POP3 server.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.rpop(user)
+
+   Use RPOP authentication (similar to UNIX r-commands) to log into POP3 server.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.stat()
+
+   Get mailbox status.  The result is a tuple of 2 integers: ``(message count,
+   mailbox size)``.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.list([which])
+
+   Request message list, result is in the form ``(response, ['mesg_num octets',
+   ...], octets)``. If *which* is set, it is the message to list.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.retr(which)
+
+   Retrieve whole message number *which*, and set its seen flag. Result is in form
+   ``(response, ['line', ...], octets)``.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.dele(which)
+
+   Flag message number *which* for deletion.  On most servers deletions are not
+   actually performed until QUIT (the major exception is Eudora QPOP, which
+   deliberately violates the RFCs by doing pending deletes on any disconnect).
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.rset()
+
+   Remove any deletion marks for the mailbox.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.noop()
+
+   Do nothing.  Might be used as a keep-alive.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.quit()
+
+   Signoff:  commit changes, unlock mailbox, drop connection.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.top(which, howmuch)
+
+   Retrieves the message header plus *howmuch* lines of the message after the
+   header of message number *which*. Result is in form ``(response, ['line', ...],
+   octets)``.
+
+   The POP3 TOP command this method uses, unlike the RETR command, doesn't set the
+   message's seen flag; unfortunately, TOP is poorly specified in the RFCs and is
+   frequently broken in off-brand servers. Test this method by hand against the
+   POP3 servers you will use before trusting it.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.uidl(which=None)
+
+   Return message digest (unique id) list. If *which* is specified, result contains
+   the unique id for that message in the form ``'response mesgnum uid``, otherwise
+   result is list ``(response, ['mesgnum uid', ...], octets)``.
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.utf8()
+
+   Try to switch to UTF-8 mode. Returns the server response if successful,
+   raises :class:`error_proto` if not. Specified in :RFC:`6856`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: POP3.stls(context=None)
+
+   Start a TLS session on the active connection as specified in :rfc:`2595`.
+   This is only allowed before user authentication
+
+   *context* parameter is a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object which allows
+   bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into
+   a single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read :ref:`ssl-security`
+   for best practices.
+
+   This method supports hostname checking via
+   :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+   :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+Instances of :class:`POP3_SSL` have no additional methods. The interface of this
+subclass is identical to its parent.
+
+
+.. _pop3-example:
+
+POP3 Example
+------------
+
+Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox and
+retrieves and prints all messages::
+
+   import getpass, poplib
+
+   M = poplib.POP3('localhost')
+   M.user(getpass.getuser())
+   M.pass_(getpass.getpass())
+   numMessages = len(M.list()[1])
+   for i in range(numMessages):
+       for j in M.retr(i+1)[1]:
+           print(j)
+
+At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more extensive
+example of usage.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/posix.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/posix.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cbc550
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/posix.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+:mod:`posix` --- The most common POSIX system calls
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: posix
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os).
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to operating system functionality that is
+standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly disguised Unix
+interface).
+
+.. index:: module: os
+
+**Do not import this module directly.**  Instead, import the module :mod:`os`,
+which provides a *portable* version of this interface.  On Unix, the :mod:`os`
+module provides a superset of the :mod:`posix` interface.  On non-Unix operating
+systems the :mod:`posix` module is not available, but a subset is always
+available through the :mod:`os` interface.  Once :mod:`os` is imported, there is
+*no* performance penalty in using it instead of :mod:`posix`.  In addition,
+:mod:`os` provides some additional functionality, such as automatically calling
+:func:`~os.putenv` when an entry in ``os.environ`` is changed.
+
+Errors are reported as exceptions; the usual exceptions are given for type
+errors, while errors reported by the system calls raise :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. _posix-large-files:
+
+Large File Support
+------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: large files
+   single: file; large files
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Steve Clift <clift@mail.anacapa.net>
+
+Several operating systems (including AIX, HP-UX, Irix and Solaris) provide
+support for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where
+:c:type:`int` and :c:type:`long` are 32-bit values. This is typically accomplished
+by defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values. Such files are
+sometimes referred to as :dfn:`large files`.
+
+Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an :c:type:`off_t` is
+larger than a :c:type:`long` and the :c:type:`long long` type is available and is
+at least as large as an :c:type:`off_t`.
+It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain compiler flags
+to enable this mode. For example, it is enabled by default with recent versions
+of Irix, but with Solaris 2.6 and 2.7 you need to do something like::
+
+   CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
+           ./configure
+
+On large-file-capable Linux systems, this might work::
+
+   CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
+           ./configure
+
+
+.. _posix-contents:
+
+Notable Module Contents
+-----------------------
+
+In addition to many functions described in the :mod:`os` module documentation,
+:mod:`posix` defines the following data item:
+
+.. data:: environ
+
+   A dictionary representing the string environment at the time the interpreter
+   was started. Keys and values are bytes on Unix and str on Windows. For
+   example, ``environ[b'HOME']`` (``environ['HOME']`` on Windows) is the
+   pathname of your home directory, equivalent to ``getenv("HOME")`` in C.
+
+   Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment passed on by
+   :func:`~os.execv`, :func:`~os.popen` or :func:`~os.system`; if you need to
+   change the environment, pass ``environ`` to :func:`~os.execve` or add
+   variable assignments and export statements to the command string for
+   :func:`~os.system` or :func:`~os.popen`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      On Unix, keys and values are bytes.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :mod:`os` module provides an alternate implementation of ``environ``
+      which updates the environment on modification. Note also that updating
+      :data:`os.environ` will render this dictionary obsolete. Use of the
+      :mod:`os` module version of this is recommended over direct access to the
+      :mod:`posix` module.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pprint.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pprint.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..deadf18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pprint.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,374 @@
+:mod:`pprint` --- Data pretty printer
+=====================================
+
+.. module:: pprint
+   :synopsis: Data pretty printer.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pprint.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`pprint` module provides a capability to "pretty-print" arbitrary
+Python data structures in a form which can be used as input to the interpreter.
+If the formatted structures include objects which are not fundamental Python
+types, the representation may not be loadable.  This may be the case if objects
+such as files, sockets or classes are included, as well as many other
+objects which are not representable as Python literals.
+
+The formatted representation keeps objects on a single line if it can, and
+breaks them onto multiple lines if they don't fit within the allowed width.
+Construct :class:`PrettyPrinter` objects explicitly if you need to adjust the
+width constraint.
+
+Dictionaries are sorted by key before the display is computed.
+
+The :mod:`pprint` module defines one class:
+
+.. First the implementation class:
+
+
+.. index:: single: ...; placeholder
+
+.. class:: PrettyPrinter(indent=1, width=80, depth=None, stream=None, *, \
+                         compact=False)
+
+   Construct a :class:`PrettyPrinter` instance.  This constructor understands
+   several keyword parameters.  An output stream may be set using the *stream*
+   keyword; the only method used on the stream object is the file protocol's
+   :meth:`write` method.  If not specified, the :class:`PrettyPrinter` adopts
+   ``sys.stdout``.  The
+   amount of indentation added for each recursive level is specified by *indent*;
+   the default is one.  Other values can cause output to look a little odd, but can
+   make nesting easier to spot.  The number of levels which may be printed is
+   controlled by *depth*; if the data structure being printed is too deep, the next
+   contained level is replaced by ``...``.  By default, there is no constraint on
+   the depth of the objects being formatted.  The desired output width is
+   constrained using the *width* parameter; the default is 80 characters.  If a
+   structure cannot be formatted within the constrained width, a best effort will
+   be made.  If *compact* is false (the default) each item of a long sequence
+   will be formatted on a separate line.  If *compact* is true, as many items
+   as will fit within the *width* will be formatted on each output line.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added the *compact* parameter.
+
+      >>> import pprint
+      >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
+      >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
+      >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
+      >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
+      [   ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
+          'spam',
+          'eggs',
+          'lumberjack',
+          'knights',
+          'ni']
+      >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
+      >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
+      [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
+        'knights', 'ni'],
+       'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
+       'ni']
+      >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
+      ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
+      >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
+      >>> pp.pprint(tup)
+      ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))
+
+
+The :mod:`pprint` module also provides several shortcut functions:
+
+.. function:: pformat(object, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, compact=False)
+
+   Return the formatted representation of *object* as a string.  *indent*,
+   *width*, *depth* and *compact* will be passed to the :class:`PrettyPrinter`
+   constructor as formatting parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added the *compact* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: pprint(object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, \
+                     compact=False)
+
+   Prints the formatted representation of *object* on *stream*, followed by a
+   newline.  If *stream* is ``None``, ``sys.stdout`` is used.  This may be used
+   in the interactive interpreter instead of the :func:`print` function for
+   inspecting values (you can even reassign ``print = pprint.pprint`` for use
+   within a scope).  *indent*, *width*, *depth* and *compact* will be passed
+   to the :class:`PrettyPrinter` constructor as formatting parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added the *compact* parameter.
+
+      >>> import pprint
+      >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
+      >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
+      >>> pprint.pprint(stuff)
+      [<Recursion on list with id=...>,
+       'spam',
+       'eggs',
+       'lumberjack',
+       'knights',
+       'ni']
+
+
+.. function:: isreadable(object)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: eval
+
+   Determine if the formatted representation of *object* is "readable," or can be
+   used to reconstruct the value using :func:`eval`.  This always returns ``False``
+   for recursive objects.
+
+      >>> pprint.isreadable(stuff)
+      False
+
+
+.. function:: isrecursive(object)
+
+   Determine if *object* requires a recursive representation.
+
+
+One more support function is also defined:
+
+.. function:: saferepr(object)
+
+   Return a string representation of *object*, protected against recursive data
+   structures.  If the representation of *object* exposes a recursive entry, the
+   recursive reference will be represented as ``<Recursion on typename with
+   id=number>``.  The representation is not otherwise formatted.
+
+   >>> pprint.saferepr(stuff)
+   "[<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']"
+
+
+.. _prettyprinter-objects:
+
+PrettyPrinter Objects
+---------------------
+
+:class:`PrettyPrinter` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: PrettyPrinter.pformat(object)
+
+   Return the formatted representation of *object*.  This takes into account the
+   options passed to the :class:`PrettyPrinter` constructor.
+
+
+.. method:: PrettyPrinter.pprint(object)
+
+   Print the formatted representation of *object* on the configured stream,
+   followed by a newline.
+
+The following methods provide the implementations for the corresponding
+functions of the same names.  Using these methods on an instance is slightly
+more efficient since new :class:`PrettyPrinter` objects don't need to be
+created.
+
+
+.. method:: PrettyPrinter.isreadable(object)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: eval
+
+   Determine if the formatted representation of the object is "readable," or can be
+   used to reconstruct the value using :func:`eval`.  Note that this returns
+   ``False`` for recursive objects.  If the *depth* parameter of the
+   :class:`PrettyPrinter` is set and the object is deeper than allowed, this
+   returns ``False``.
+
+
+.. method:: PrettyPrinter.isrecursive(object)
+
+   Determine if the object requires a recursive representation.
+
+This method is provided as a hook to allow subclasses to modify the way objects
+are converted to strings.  The default implementation uses the internals of the
+:func:`saferepr` implementation.
+
+
+.. method:: PrettyPrinter.format(object, context, maxlevels, level)
+
+   Returns three values: the formatted version of *object* as a string, a flag
+   indicating whether the result is readable, and a flag indicating whether
+   recursion was detected.  The first argument is the object to be presented.  The
+   second is a dictionary which contains the :func:`id` of objects that are part of
+   the current presentation context (direct and indirect containers for *object*
+   that are affecting the presentation) as the keys; if an object needs to be
+   presented which is already represented in *context*, the third return value
+   should be ``True``.  Recursive calls to the :meth:`.format` method should add
+   additional entries for containers to this dictionary.  The third argument,
+   *maxlevels*, gives the requested limit to recursion; this will be ``0`` if there
+   is no requested limit.  This argument should be passed unmodified to recursive
+   calls. The fourth argument, *level*, gives the current level; recursive calls
+   should be passed a value less than that of the current call.
+
+
+.. _pprint-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+To demonstrate several uses of the :func:`pprint` function and its parameters,
+let's fetch information about a project from `PyPI <https://pypi.org>`_::
+
+   >>> import json
+   >>> import pprint
+   >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
+   >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/json') as resp:
+   ...     project_info = json.load(resp)['info']
+
+In its basic form, :func:`pprint` shows the whole object::
+
+   >>> pprint.pprint(project_info)
+   {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
+    'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
+    'bugtrack_url': None,
+    'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 3 - Alpha',
+                    'Intended Audience :: Developers',
+                    'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License',
+                    'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
+                    'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
+                    'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
+                    'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
+                    'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2',
+                    'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3',
+                    'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4',
+                    'Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools'],
+    'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
+                   '=======================\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'This is the description file for the project.\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
+                   'ReStructured Text. It\n'
+                   'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
+                   'should be written for\n'
+                   'that purpose.\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
+                   'the project, basic\n'
+                   'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
+                   'changelog in here is not\n'
+                   'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
+                   'most recent version\n'
+                   'may be appropriate.',
+    'description_content_type': None,
+    'docs_url': None,
+    'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
+    'downloads': {'last_day': -1, 'last_month': -1, 'last_week': -1},
+    'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
+    'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
+    'license': 'MIT',
+    'maintainer': None,
+    'maintainer_email': None,
+    'name': 'sampleproject',
+    'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
+    'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
+    'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
+    'project_urls': {'Download': 'UNKNOWN',
+                     'Homepage': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject'},
+    'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
+    'requires_dist': None,
+    'requires_python': None,
+    'summary': 'A sample Python project',
+    'version': '1.2.0'}
+
+The result can be limited to a certain *depth* (ellipsis is used for deeper
+contents)::
+
+   >>> pprint.pprint(project_info, depth=1)
+   {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
+    'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
+    'bugtrack_url': None,
+    'classifiers': [...],
+    'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
+                   '=======================\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'This is the description file for the project.\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
+                   'ReStructured Text. It\n'
+                   'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
+                   'should be written for\n'
+                   'that purpose.\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
+                   'the project, basic\n'
+                   'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
+                   'changelog in here is not\n'
+                   'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
+                   'most recent version\n'
+                   'may be appropriate.',
+    'description_content_type': None,
+    'docs_url': None,
+    'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
+    'downloads': {...},
+    'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
+    'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
+    'license': 'MIT',
+    'maintainer': None,
+    'maintainer_email': None,
+    'name': 'sampleproject',
+    'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
+    'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
+    'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
+    'project_urls': {...},
+    'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
+    'requires_dist': None,
+    'requires_python': None,
+    'summary': 'A sample Python project',
+    'version': '1.2.0'}
+
+Additionally, maximum character *width* can be suggested. If a long object
+cannot be split, the specified width will be exceeded::
+
+   >>> pprint.pprint(project_info, depth=1, width=60)
+   {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
+    'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
+    'bugtrack_url': None,
+    'classifiers': [...],
+    'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
+                   '=======================\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'This is the description file for the '
+                   'project.\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be '
+                   'written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
+                   'will be used to generate the project '
+                   'webpage on PyPI, and should be written '
+                   'for\n'
+                   'that purpose.\n'
+                   '\n'
+                   'Typical contents for this file would '
+                   'include an overview of the project, '
+                   'basic\n'
+                   'usage examples, etc. Generally, including '
+                   'the project changelog in here is not\n'
+                   'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s '
+                   'New" section for the most recent version\n'
+                   'may be appropriate.',
+    'description_content_type': None,
+    'docs_url': None,
+    'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
+    'downloads': {...},
+    'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
+    'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
+    'license': 'MIT',
+    'maintainer': None,
+    'maintainer_email': None,
+    'name': 'sampleproject',
+    'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
+    'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
+    'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
+    'project_urls': {...},
+    'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
+    'requires_dist': None,
+    'requires_python': None,
+    'summary': 'A sample Python project',
+    'version': '1.2.0'}
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/profile.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/profile.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..926d775
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/profile.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,669 @@
+.. _profile:
+
+********************
+The Python Profilers
+********************
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/profile.py` and :source:`Lib/pstats.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. _profiler-introduction:
+
+Introduction to the profilers
+=============================
+
+.. index::
+   single: deterministic profiling
+   single: profiling, deterministic
+
+:mod:`cProfile` and :mod:`profile` provide :dfn:`deterministic profiling` of
+Python programs. A :dfn:`profile` is a set of statistics that describes how
+often and for how long various parts of the program executed. These statistics
+can be formatted into reports via the :mod:`pstats` module.
+
+The Python standard library provides two different implementations of the same
+profiling interface:
+
+1. :mod:`cProfile` is recommended for most users; it's a C extension with
+   reasonable overhead that makes it suitable for profiling long-running
+   programs.  Based on :mod:`lsprof`, contributed by Brett Rosen and Ted
+   Czotter.
+
+2. :mod:`profile`, a pure Python module whose interface is imitated by
+   :mod:`cProfile`, but which adds significant overhead to profiled programs.
+   If you're trying to extend the profiler in some way, the task might be easier
+   with this module.  Originally designed and written by Jim Roskind.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution profile for a given
+   program, not for benchmarking purposes (for that, there is :mod:`timeit` for
+   reasonably accurate results).  This particularly applies to benchmarking
+   Python code against C code: the profilers introduce overhead for Python code,
+   but not for C-level functions, and so the C code would seem faster than any
+   Python one.
+
+
+.. _profile-instant:
+
+Instant User's Manual
+=====================
+
+This section is provided for users that "don't want to read the manual." It
+provides a very brief overview, and allows a user to rapidly perform profiling
+on an existing application.
+
+To profile a function that takes a single argument, you can do::
+
+   import cProfile
+   import re
+   cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")')
+
+(Use :mod:`profile` instead of :mod:`cProfile` if the latter is not available on
+your system.)
+
+The above action would run :func:`re.compile` and print profile results like
+the following::
+
+         197 function calls (192 primitive calls) in 0.002 seconds
+
+   Ordered by: standard name
+
+   ncalls  tottime  percall  cumtime  percall filename:lineno(function)
+        1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 <string>:1(<module>)
+        1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 re.py:212(compile)
+        1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 re.py:268(_compile)
+        1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 sre_compile.py:172(_compile_charset)
+        1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 sre_compile.py:201(_optimize_charset)
+        4    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 sre_compile.py:25(_identityfunction)
+      3/1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 sre_compile.py:33(_compile)
+
+The first line indicates that 197 calls were monitored.  Of those calls, 192
+were :dfn:`primitive`, meaning that the call was not induced via recursion. The
+next line: ``Ordered by: standard name``, indicates that the text string in the
+far right column was used to sort the output. The column headings include:
+
+ncalls
+   for the number of calls.
+
+tottime
+   for the total time spent in the given function (and excluding time made in
+   calls to sub-functions)
+
+percall
+   is the quotient of ``tottime`` divided by ``ncalls``
+
+cumtime
+   is the cumulative time spent in this and all subfunctions (from invocation
+   till exit). This figure is accurate *even* for recursive functions.
+
+percall
+   is the quotient of ``cumtime`` divided by primitive calls
+
+filename:lineno(function)
+   provides the respective data of each function
+
+When there are two numbers in the first column (for example ``3/1``), it means
+that the function recursed.  The second value is the number of primitive calls
+and the former is the total number of calls.  Note that when the function does
+not recurse, these two values are the same, and only the single figure is
+printed.
+
+Instead of printing the output at the end of the profile run, you can save the
+results to a file by specifying a filename to the :func:`run` function::
+
+   import cProfile
+   import re
+   cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")', 'restats')
+
+The :class:`pstats.Stats` class reads profile results from a file and formats
+them in various ways.
+
+The file :mod:`cProfile` can also be invoked as a script to profile another
+script.  For example::
+
+   python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py)
+
+``-o`` writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout
+
+``-s`` specifies one of the :func:`~pstats.Stats.sort_stats` sort values to sort
+the output by. This only applies when ``-o`` is not supplied.
+
+``-m`` specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      Added the ``-m`` option.
+
+The :mod:`pstats` module's :class:`~pstats.Stats` class has a variety of methods
+for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile results file::
+
+   import pstats
+   from pstats import SortKey
+   p = pstats.Stats('restats')
+   p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats()
+
+The :meth:`~pstats.Stats.strip_dirs` method removed the extraneous path from all
+the module names. The :meth:`~pstats.Stats.sort_stats` method sorted all the
+entries according to the standard module/line/name string that is printed. The
+:meth:`~pstats.Stats.print_stats` method printed out all the statistics.  You
+might try the following sort calls::
+
+   p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME)
+   p.print_stats()
+
+The first call will actually sort the list by function name, and the second call
+will print out the statistics.  The following are some interesting calls to
+experiment with::
+
+   p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)
+
+This sorts the profile by cumulative time in a function, and then only prints
+the ten most significant lines.  If you want to understand what algorithms are
+taking time, the above line is what you would use.
+
+If you were looking to see what functions were looping a lot, and taking a lot
+of time, you would do::
+
+   p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10)
+
+to sort according to time spent within each function, and then print the
+statistics for the top ten functions.
+
+You might also try::
+
+   p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('__init__')
+
+This will sort all the statistics by file name, and then print out statistics
+for only the class init methods (since they are spelled with ``__init__`` in
+them).  As one final example, you could try::
+
+   p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME, SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(.5, 'init')
+
+This line sorts statistics with a primary key of time, and a secondary key of
+cumulative time, and then prints out some of the statistics. To be specific, the
+list is first culled down to 50% (re: ``.5``) of its original size, then only
+lines containing ``init`` are maintained, and that sub-sub-list is printed.
+
+If you wondered what functions called the above functions, you could now (``p``
+is still sorted according to the last criteria) do::
+
+   p.print_callers(.5, 'init')
+
+and you would get a list of callers for each of the listed functions.
+
+If you want more functionality, you're going to have to read the manual, or
+guess what the following functions do::
+
+   p.print_callees()
+   p.add('restats')
+
+Invoked as a script, the :mod:`pstats` module is a statistics browser for
+reading and examining profile dumps.  It has a simple line-oriented interface
+(implemented using :mod:`cmd`) and interactive help.
+
+:mod:`profile` and :mod:`cProfile` Module Reference
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: cProfile
+.. module:: profile
+   :synopsis: Python source profiler.
+
+Both the :mod:`profile` and :mod:`cProfile` modules provide the following
+functions:
+
+.. function:: run(command, filename=None, sort=-1)
+
+   This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the :func:`exec`
+   function, and an optional file name.  In all cases this routine executes::
+
+      exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)
+
+   and gathers profiling statistics from the execution. If no file name is
+   present, then this function automatically creates a :class:`~pstats.Stats`
+   instance and prints a simple profiling report. If the sort value is specified,
+   it is passed to this :class:`~pstats.Stats` instance to control how the
+   results are sorted.
+
+.. function:: runctx(command, globals, locals, filename=None, sort=-1)
+
+   This function is similar to :func:`run`, with added arguments to supply the
+   globals and locals dictionaries for the *command* string. This routine
+   executes::
+
+      exec(command, globals, locals)
+
+   and gathers profiling statistics as in the :func:`run` function above.
+
+.. class:: Profile(timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True, builtins=True)
+
+   This class is normally only used if more precise control over profiling is
+   needed than what the :func:`cProfile.run` function provides.
+
+   A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to run via
+   the *timer* argument. This must be a function that returns a single number
+   representing the current time. If the number is an integer, the *timeunit*
+   specifies a multiplier that specifies the duration of each unit of time. For
+   example, if the timer returns times measured in thousands of seconds, the
+   time unit would be ``.001``.
+
+   Directly using the :class:`Profile` class allows formatting profile results
+   without writing the profile data to a file::
+
+      import cProfile, pstats, io
+      from pstats import SortKey
+      pr = cProfile.Profile()
+      pr.enable()
+      # ... do something ...
+      pr.disable()
+      s = io.StringIO()
+      sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE
+      ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby)
+      ps.print_stats()
+      print(s.getvalue())
+
+   .. method:: enable()
+
+      Start collecting profiling data.
+
+   .. method:: disable()
+
+      Stop collecting profiling data.
+
+   .. method:: create_stats()
+
+      Stop collecting profiling data and record the results internally
+      as the current profile.
+
+   .. method:: print_stats(sort=-1)
+
+      Create a :class:`~pstats.Stats` object based on the current
+      profile and print the results to stdout.
+
+   .. method:: dump_stats(filename)
+
+      Write the results of the current profile to *filename*.
+
+   .. method:: run(cmd)
+
+      Profile the cmd via :func:`exec`.
+
+   .. method:: runctx(cmd, globals, locals)
+
+      Profile the cmd via :func:`exec` with the specified global and
+      local environment.
+
+   .. method:: runcall(func, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Profile ``func(*args, **kwargs)``
+
+Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function actually
+returns.  If the interpreter is terminated (e.g. via a :func:`sys.exit` call
+during the called command/function execution) no profiling results will be
+printed.
+
+.. _profile-stats:
+
+The :class:`Stats` Class
+========================
+
+Analysis of the profiler data is done using the :class:`~pstats.Stats` class.
+
+.. module:: pstats
+   :synopsis: Statistics object for use with the profiler.
+
+.. class:: Stats(*filenames or profile, stream=sys.stdout)
+
+   This class constructor creates an instance of a "statistics object" from a
+   *filename* (or list of filenames) or from a :class:`Profile` instance. Output
+   will be printed to the stream specified by *stream*.
+
+   The file selected by the above constructor must have been created by the
+   corresponding version of :mod:`profile` or :mod:`cProfile`.  To be specific,
+   there is *no* file compatibility guaranteed with future versions of this
+   profiler, and there is no compatibility with files produced by other
+   profilers, or the same profiler run on a different operating system.  If
+   several files are provided, all the statistics for identical functions will
+   be coalesced, so that an overall view of several processes can be considered
+   in a single report.  If additional files need to be combined with data in an
+   existing :class:`~pstats.Stats` object, the :meth:`~pstats.Stats.add` method
+   can be used.
+
+   Instead of reading the profile data from a file, a :class:`cProfile.Profile`
+   or :class:`profile.Profile` object can be used as the profile data source.
+
+   :class:`Stats` objects have the following methods:
+
+   .. method:: strip_dirs()
+
+      This method for the :class:`Stats` class removes all leading path
+      information from file names.  It is very useful in reducing the size of
+      the printout to fit within (close to) 80 columns.  This method modifies
+      the object, and the stripped information is lost.  After performing a
+      strip operation, the object is considered to have its entries in a
+      "random" order, as it was just after object initialization and loading.
+      If :meth:`~pstats.Stats.strip_dirs` causes two function names to be
+      indistinguishable (they are on the same line of the same filename, and
+      have the same function name), then the statistics for these two entries
+      are accumulated into a single entry.
+
+
+   .. method:: add(*filenames)
+
+      This method of the :class:`Stats` class accumulates additional profiling
+      information into the current profiling object.  Its arguments should refer
+      to filenames created by the corresponding version of :func:`profile.run`
+      or :func:`cProfile.run`. Statistics for identically named (re: file, line,
+      name) functions are automatically accumulated into single function
+      statistics.
+
+
+   .. method:: dump_stats(filename)
+
+      Save the data loaded into the :class:`Stats` object to a file named
+      *filename*.  The file is created if it does not exist, and is overwritten
+      if it already exists.  This is equivalent to the method of the same name
+      on the :class:`profile.Profile` and :class:`cProfile.Profile` classes.
+
+
+   .. method:: sort_stats(*keys)
+
+      This method modifies the :class:`Stats` object by sorting it according to
+      the supplied criteria.  The argument can be either a string or a SortKey
+      enum identifying the basis of a sort (example: ``'time'``, ``'name'``,
+      ``SortKey.TIME`` or ``SortKey.NAME``). The SortKey enums argument have
+      advantage over the string argument in that it is more robust and less
+      error prone.
+
+      When more than one key is provided, then additional keys are used as
+      secondary criteria when there is equality in all keys selected before
+      them.  For example, ``sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILE)`` will sort
+      all the entries according to their function name, and resolve all ties
+      (identical function names) by sorting by file name.
+
+      For the string argument, abbreviations can be used for any key names, as
+      long as the abbreviation is unambiguous.
+
+      The following are the valid string and SortKey:
+
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | Valid String Arg | Valid enum Arg      | Meaning              |
+      +==================+=====================+======================+
+      | ``'calls'``      | SortKey.CALLS       | call count           |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'cumulative'`` | SortKey.CUMULATIVE  | cumulative time      |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'cumtime'``    | N/A                 | cumulative time      |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'file'``       | N/A                 | file name            |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'filename'``   | SortKey.FILENAME    | file name            |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'module'``     | N/A                 | file name            |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'ncalls'``     | N/A                 | call count           |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'pcalls'``     | SortKey.PCALLS      | primitive call count |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'line'``       | SortKey.LINE        | line number          |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'name'``       | SortKey.NAME        | function name        |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'nfl'``        | SortKey.NFL         | name/file/line       |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'stdname'``    | SortKey.STDNAME     | standard name        |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'time'``       | SortKey.TIME        | internal time        |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+      | ``'tottime'``    | N/A                 | internal time        |
+      +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+
+
+      Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order (placing most
+      time consuming items first), where as name, file, and line number searches
+      are in ascending order (alphabetical). The subtle distinction between
+      ``SortKey.NFL`` and ``SortKey.STDNAME`` is that the standard name is a
+      sort of the name as printed, which means that the embedded line numbers
+      get compared in an odd way.  For example, lines 3, 20, and 40 would (if
+      the file names were the same) appear in the string order 20, 3 and 40.
+      In contrast, ``SortKey.NFL`` does a numeric compare of the line numbers.
+      In fact, ``sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)`` is the same as
+      ``sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE)``.
+
+      For backward-compatibility reasons, the numeric arguments ``-1``, ``0``,
+      ``1``, and ``2`` are permitted.  They are interpreted as ``'stdname'``,
+      ``'calls'``, ``'time'``, and ``'cumulative'`` respectively.  If this old
+      style format (numeric) is used, only one sort key (the numeric key) will
+      be used, and additional arguments will be silently ignored.
+
+      .. For compatibility with the old profiler.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+         Added the SortKey enum.
+
+   .. method:: reverse_order()
+
+      This method for the :class:`Stats` class reverses the ordering of the
+      basic list within the object.  Note that by default ascending vs
+      descending order is properly selected based on the sort key of choice.
+
+      .. This method is provided primarily for compatibility with the old
+         profiler.
+
+
+   .. method:: print_stats(*restrictions)
+
+      This method for the :class:`Stats` class prints out a report as described
+      in the :func:`profile.run` definition.
+
+      The order of the printing is based on the last
+      :meth:`~pstats.Stats.sort_stats` operation done on the object (subject to
+      caveats in :meth:`~pstats.Stats.add` and
+      :meth:`~pstats.Stats.strip_dirs`).
+
+      The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list down to the
+      significant entries.  Initially, the list is taken to be the complete set
+      of profiled functions.  Each restriction is either an integer (to select a
+      count of lines), or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to
+      select a percentage of lines), or a string that will interpreted as a
+      regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is printed).
+      If several restrictions are provided, then they are applied sequentially.
+      For example::
+
+         print_stats(.1, 'foo:')
+
+      would first limit the printing to first 10% of list, and then only print
+      functions that were part of filename :file:`.\*foo:`.  In contrast, the
+      command::
+
+         print_stats('foo:', .1)
+
+      would limit the list to all functions having file names :file:`.\*foo:`,
+      and then proceed to only print the first 10% of them.
+
+
+   .. method:: print_callers(*restrictions)
+
+      This method for the :class:`Stats` class prints a list of all functions
+      that called each function in the profiled database.  The ordering is
+      identical to that provided by :meth:`~pstats.Stats.print_stats`, and the
+      definition of the restricting argument is also identical.  Each caller is
+      reported on its own line.  The format differs slightly depending on the
+      profiler that produced the stats:
+
+      * With :mod:`profile`, a number is shown in parentheses after each caller
+        to show how many times this specific call was made.  For convenience, a
+        second non-parenthesized number repeats the cumulative time spent in the
+        function at the right.
+
+      * With :mod:`cProfile`, each caller is preceded by three numbers: the
+        number of times this specific call was made, and the total and
+        cumulative times spent in the current function while it was invoked by
+        this specific caller.
+
+
+   .. method:: print_callees(*restrictions)
+
+      This method for the :class:`Stats` class prints a list of all function
+      that were called by the indicated function.  Aside from this reversal of
+      direction of calls (re: called vs was called by), the arguments and
+      ordering are identical to the :meth:`~pstats.Stats.print_callers` method.
+
+
+.. _deterministic-profiling:
+
+What Is Deterministic Profiling?
+================================
+
+:dfn:`Deterministic profiling` is meant to reflect the fact that all *function
+call*, *function return*, and *exception* events are monitored, and precise
+timings are made for the intervals between these events (during which time the
+user's code is executing).  In contrast, :dfn:`statistical profiling` (which is
+not done by this module) randomly samples the effective instruction pointer, and
+deduces where time is being spent.  The latter technique traditionally involves
+less overhead (as the code does not need to be instrumented), but provides only
+relative indications of where time is being spent.
+
+In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the presence
+of instrumented code is not required to do deterministic profiling.  Python
+automatically provides a :dfn:`hook` (optional callback) for each event.  In
+addition, the interpreted nature of Python tends to add so much overhead to
+execution, that deterministic profiling tends to only add small processing
+overhead in typical applications.  The result is that deterministic profiling is
+not that expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the
+execution of a Python program.
+
+Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising counts),
+and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call counts).  Internal
+time statistics can be used to identify "hot loops" that should be carefully
+optimized.  Cumulative time statistics should be used to identify high level
+errors in the selection of algorithms.  Note that the unusual handling of
+cumulative times in this profiler allows statistics for recursive
+implementations of algorithms to be directly compared to iterative
+implementations.
+
+
+.. _profile-limitations:
+
+Limitations
+===========
+
+One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information. There is a
+fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy.  The most
+obvious restriction is that the underlying "clock" is only ticking at a rate
+(typically) of about .001 seconds.  Hence no measurements will be more accurate
+than the underlying clock.  If enough measurements are taken, then the "error"
+will tend to average out. Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a
+second source of error.
+
+The second problem is that it "takes a while" from when an event is dispatched
+until the profiler's call to get the time actually *gets* the state of the
+clock.  Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the profiler event
+handler from the time that the clock's value was obtained (and then squirreled
+away), until the user's code is once again executing.  As a result, functions
+that are called many times, or call many functions, will typically accumulate
+this error. The error that accumulates in this fashion is typically less than
+the accuracy of the clock (less than one clock tick), but it *can* accumulate
+and become very significant.
+
+The problem is more important with :mod:`profile` than with the lower-overhead
+:mod:`cProfile`.  For this reason, :mod:`profile` provides a means of
+calibrating itself for a given platform so that this error can be
+probabilistically (on the average) removed. After the profiler is calibrated, it
+will be more accurate (in a least square sense), but it will sometimes produce
+negative numbers (when call counts are exceptionally low, and the gods of
+probability work against you :-). )  Do *not* be alarmed by negative numbers in
+the profile.  They should *only* appear if you have calibrated your profiler,
+and the results are actually better than without calibration.
+
+
+.. _profile-calibration:
+
+Calibration
+===========
+
+The profiler of the :mod:`profile` module subtracts a constant from each event
+handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the time function, and
+socking away the results.  By default, the constant is 0. The following
+procedure can be used to obtain a better constant for a given platform (see
+:ref:`profile-limitations`). ::
+
+   import profile
+   pr = profile.Profile()
+   for i in range(5):
+       print(pr.calibrate(10000))
+
+The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument, directly
+and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both. It then computes the
+hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that as a float.  For example,
+on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running Mac OS X, and using Python's time.process_time() as
+the timer, the magical number is about 4.04e-6.
+
+The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result. If your
+computer is *very* fast, or your timer function has poor resolution, you might
+have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get consistent results.
+
+When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it::
+
+   import profile
+
+   # 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter.
+   profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias
+
+   # 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance.
+   pr = profile.Profile()
+   pr.bias = your_computed_bias
+
+   # 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor.
+   pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias)
+
+If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant, and then
+your results will "less often" show up as negative in profile statistics.
+
+.. _profile-timers:
+
+Using a custom timer
+====================
+
+If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to force use
+of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing function you want
+to the :class:`Profile` class constructor::
+
+    pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func)
+
+The resulting profiler will then call ``your_time_func``. Depending on whether
+you are using :class:`profile.Profile` or :class:`cProfile.Profile`,
+``your_time_func``'s return value will be interpreted differently:
+
+:class:`profile.Profile`
+   ``your_time_func`` should return a single number, or a list of numbers whose
+   sum is the current time (like what :func:`os.times` returns).  If the
+   function returns a single time number, or the list of returned numbers has
+   length 2, then you will get an especially fast version of the dispatch
+   routine.
+
+   Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the timer function
+   that you choose (see :ref:`profile-calibration`).  For most machines, a timer
+   that returns a lone integer value will provide the best results in terms of
+   low overhead during profiling.  (:func:`os.times` is *pretty* bad, as it
+   returns a tuple of floating point values).  If you want to substitute a
+   better timer in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a
+   replacement dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the
+   appropriate calibration constant.
+
+:class:`cProfile.Profile`
+   ``your_time_func`` should return a single number.  If it returns integers,
+   you can also invoke the class constructor with a second argument specifying
+   the real duration of one unit of time.  For example, if
+   ``your_integer_time_func`` returns times measured in thousands of seconds,
+   you would construct the :class:`Profile` instance as follows::
+
+      pr = cProfile.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001)
+
+   As the :class:`cProfile.Profile` class cannot be calibrated, custom timer
+   functions should be used with care and should be as fast as possible.  For
+   the best results with a custom timer, it might be necessary to hard-code it
+   in the C source of the internal :mod:`_lsprof` module.
+
+Python 3.3 adds several new functions in :mod:`time` that can be used to make
+precise measurements of process or wall-clock time. For example, see
+:func:`time.perf_counter`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pty.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pty.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pty.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+:mod:`pty` --- Pseudo-terminal utilities
+========================================
+
+.. module:: pty
+   :platform: Linux
+   :synopsis: Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Linux.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Steen Lumholt
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pty.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`pty` module defines operations for handling the pseudo-terminal
+concept: starting another process and being able to write to and read from its
+controlling terminal programmatically.
+
+Because pseudo-terminal handling is highly platform dependent, there is code to
+do it only for Linux. (The Linux code is supposed to work on other platforms,
+but hasn't been tested yet.)
+
+The :mod:`pty` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: fork()
+
+   Fork. Connect the child's controlling terminal to a pseudo-terminal. Return
+   value is ``(pid, fd)``. Note that the child  gets *pid* 0, and the *fd* is
+   *invalid*. The parent's return value is the *pid* of the child, and *fd* is a
+   file descriptor connected to the child's controlling terminal (and also to the
+   child's standard input and output).
+
+
+.. function:: openpty()
+
+   Open a new pseudo-terminal pair, using :func:`os.openpty` if possible, or
+   emulation code for generic Unix systems. Return a pair of file descriptors
+   ``(master, slave)``, for the master and the slave end, respectively.
+
+
+.. function:: spawn(argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]])
+
+   Spawn a process, and connect its controlling terminal with the current
+   process's standard io. This is often used to baffle programs which insist on
+   reading from the controlling terminal. It is expected that the process
+   spawned behind the pty will eventually terminate, and when it does *spawn*
+   will return.
+
+   The functions *master_read* and *stdin_read* are passed a file descriptor
+   which they should read from, and they should always return a byte string. In
+   order to force spawn to return before the child process exits an
+   :exc:`OSError` should be thrown.
+
+   The default implementation for both functions will read and return up to 1024
+   bytes each time the function is called. The *master_read* callback is passed
+   the pseudoterminal’s master file descriptor to read output from the child
+   process, and *stdin_read* is passed file descriptor 0, to read from the
+   parent process's standard input.
+
+   Returning an empty byte string from either callback is interpreted as an
+   end-of-file (EOF) condition, and that callback will not be called after
+   that. If *stdin_read* signals EOF the controlling terminal can no longer
+   communicate with the parent process OR the child process. Unless the child
+   process will quit without any input, *spawn* will then loop forever. If
+   *master_read* signals EOF the same behavior results (on linux at least).
+
+   If both callbacks signal EOF then *spawn* will probably never return, unless
+   *select* throws an error on your platform when passed three empty lists. This
+   is a bug, documented in `issue 26228 <https://bugs.python.org/issue26228>`_.
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      :func:`spawn` now returns the status value from :func:`os.waitpid`
+      on the child process.
+
+Example
+-------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Steen Lumholt
+
+The following program acts like the Unix command :manpage:`script(1)`, using a
+pseudo-terminal to record all input and output of a terminal session in a
+"typescript". ::
+
+    import argparse
+    import os
+    import pty
+    import sys
+    import time
+
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+    parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true')
+    parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true')
+    parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript')
+    options = parser.parse_args()
+
+    shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh')
+    filename = options.filename
+    mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb'
+
+    with open(filename, mode) as script:
+        def read(fd):
+            data = os.read(fd, 1024)
+            script.write(data)
+            return data
+
+        print('Script started, file is', filename)
+        script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
+
+        pty.spawn(shell, read)
+
+        script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
+        print('Script done, file is', filename)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pwd.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pwd.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pwd.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+:mod:`pwd` --- The password database
+====================================
+
+.. module:: pwd
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to the Unix user account and password database.  It
+is available on all Unix versions.
+
+Password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes
+correspond to the members of the ``passwd`` structure (Attribute field below,
+see ``<pwd.h>``):
+
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+| Index | Attribute     | Meaning                     |
++=======+===============+=============================+
+| 0     | ``pw_name``   | Login name                  |
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+| 1     | ``pw_passwd`` | Optional encrypted password |
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+| 2     | ``pw_uid``    | Numerical user ID           |
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+| 3     | ``pw_gid``    | Numerical group ID          |
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+| 4     | ``pw_gecos``  | User name or comment field  |
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+| 5     | ``pw_dir``    | User home directory         |
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+| 6     | ``pw_shell``  | User command interpreter    |
++-------+---------------+-----------------------------+
+
+The uid and gid items are integers, all others are strings. :exc:`KeyError` is
+raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.
+
+.. note::
+
+   .. index:: module: crypt
+
+   In traditional Unix the field ``pw_passwd`` usually contains a password
+   encrypted with a DES derived algorithm (see module :mod:`crypt`).  However most
+   modern unices  use a so-called *shadow password* system.  On those unices the
+   *pw_passwd* field only contains an asterisk (``'*'``) or the  letter ``'x'``
+   where the encrypted password is stored in a file :file:`/etc/shadow` which is
+   not world readable.  Whether the *pw_passwd* field contains anything useful is
+   system-dependent.  If available, the :mod:`spwd` module should be used where
+   access to the encrypted password is required.
+
+It defines the following items:
+
+
+.. function:: getpwuid(uid)
+
+   Return the password database entry for the given numeric user ID.
+
+
+.. function:: getpwnam(name)
+
+   Return the password database entry for the given user name.
+
+
+.. function:: getpwall()
+
+   Return a list of all available password database entries, in arbitrary order.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`grp`
+      An interface to the group database, similar to this.
+
+   Module :mod:`spwd`
+      An interface to the shadow password database, similar to this.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/py_compile.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/py_compile.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cb5a4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/py_compile.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+:mod:`py_compile` --- Compile Python source files
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: py_compile
+   :synopsis: Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. documentation based on module docstrings
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/py_compile.py`
+
+.. index:: pair: file; byte-code
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`py_compile` module provides a function to generate a byte-code file
+from a source file, and another function used when the module source file is
+invoked as a script.
+
+Though not often needed, this function can be useful when installing modules for
+shared use, especially if some of the users may not have permission to write the
+byte-code cache files in the directory containing the source code.
+
+
+.. exception:: PyCompileError
+
+   Exception raised when an error occurs while attempting to compile the file.
+
+
+.. function:: compile(file, cfile=None, dfile=None, doraise=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP)
+
+   Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code cache file.
+   The source code is loaded from the file named *file*.  The byte-code is
+   written to *cfile*, which defaults to the :pep:`3147`/:pep:`488` path, ending
+   in ``.pyc``.
+   For example, if *file* is ``/foo/bar/baz.py`` *cfile* will default to
+   ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc`` for Python 3.2.  If *dfile* is
+   specified, it is used as the name of the source file in error messages when
+   instead of *file*.  If *doraise* is true, a :exc:`PyCompileError` is raised
+   when an error is encountered while compiling *file*. If *doraise* is false
+   (the default), an error string is written to ``sys.stderr``, but no exception
+   is raised.  This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e.
+   whatever *cfile* value was used.
+
+   If the path that *cfile* becomes (either explicitly specified or computed)
+   is a symlink or non-regular file, :exc:`FileExistsError` will be raised.
+   This is to act as a warning that import will turn those paths into regular
+   files if it is allowed to write byte-compiled files to those paths. This is
+   a side-effect of import using file renaming to place the final byte-compiled
+   file into place to prevent concurrent file writing issues.
+
+   *optimize* controls the optimization level and is passed to the built-in
+   :func:`compile` function.  The default of ``-1`` selects the optimization
+   level of the current interpreter.
+
+   *invalidation_mode* should be a member of the :class:`PycInvalidationMode`
+   enum and controls how the generated bytecode cache is invalidated at
+   runtime.  The default is :attr:`PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH` if
+   the :envvar:`SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH` environment variable is set, otherwise
+   the default is :attr:`PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Changed default value of *cfile* to be :PEP:`3147`-compliant.  Previous
+      default was *file* + ``'c'`` (``'o'`` if optimization was enabled).
+      Also added the *optimize* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Changed code to use :mod:`importlib` for the byte-code cache file writing.
+      This means file creation/writing semantics now match what :mod:`importlib`
+      does, e.g. permissions, write-and-move semantics, etc. Also added the
+      caveat that :exc:`FileExistsError` is raised if *cfile* is a symlink or
+      non-regular file.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The *invalidation_mode* parameter was added as specified in :pep:`552`.
+      If the :envvar:`SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH` environment variable is set,
+      *invalidation_mode* will be forced to
+      :attr:`PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
+      The :envvar:`SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH` environment variable no longer
+      overrides the value of the *invalidation_mode* argument, and determines
+      its default value instead.
+
+
+.. class:: PycInvalidationMode
+
+   A enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to determine
+   whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file. The ``.pyc`` file
+   indicates the desired invalidation mode in its header. See
+   :ref:`pyc-invalidation` for more information on how Python invalidates
+   ``.pyc`` files at runtime.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. attribute:: TIMESTAMP
+
+      The ``.pyc`` file includes the timestamp and size of the source file,
+      which Python will compare against the metadata of the source file at
+      runtime to determine if the ``.pyc`` file needs to be regenerated.
+
+   .. attribute:: CHECKED_HASH
+
+      The ``.pyc`` file includes a hash of the source file content, which Python
+      will compare against the source at runtime to determine if the ``.pyc``
+      file needs to be regenerated.
+
+   .. attribute:: UNCHECKED_HASH
+
+      Like :attr:`CHECKED_HASH`, the ``.pyc`` file includes a hash of the source
+      file content. However, Python will at runtime assume the ``.pyc`` file is
+      up to date and not validate the ``.pyc`` against the source file at all.
+
+      This option is useful when the ``.pycs`` are kept up to date by some
+      system external to Python like a build system.
+
+
+.. function:: main(args=None)
+
+   Compile several source files.  The files named in *args* (or on the command
+   line, if *args* is ``None``) are compiled and the resulting byte-code is
+   cached in the normal manner.  This function does not search a directory
+   structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named explicitly.
+   If ``'-'`` is the only parameter in args, the list of files is taken from
+   standard input.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added support for ``'-'``.
+
+When this module is run as a script, the :func:`main` is used to compile all the
+files named on the command line.  The exit status is nonzero if one of the files
+could not be compiled.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`compileall`
+      Utilities to compile all Python source files in a directory tree.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pyclbr.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pyclbr.rst.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+:mod:`pyclbr` --- Python class browser support
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: pyclbr
+   :synopsis: Supports information extraction for a Python class browser.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pyclbr.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`pyclbr` module provides limited information about the
+functions, classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module.  The
+information is sufficient to implement a module browser.  The
+information is extracted from the Python source code rather than by
+importing the module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code.
+This restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not
+implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension
+modules.
+
+
+.. function:: readmodule(module, path=None)
+
+   Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class
+   descriptors.  If possible, descriptors for imported base classes are
+   included.  Parameter *module* is a string with the name of the module
+   to read; it may be the name of a module within a package.  If given,
+   *path* is a sequence of directory paths prepended to ``sys.path``,
+   which is used to locate the module source code.
+
+
+.. function:: readmodule_ex(module, path=None)
+
+   Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class
+   descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with a
+   ``def`` or ``class`` statement.  The returned dictionary maps
+   module-level function and class names to their descriptors.  Nested
+   objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent.  As
+   with readmodule, *module* names the module to be read and *path* is
+   prepended to sys.path.  If the module being read is a package, the
+   returned dictionary has a key ``'__path__'`` whose value is a list
+   containing the package search path.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+   Descriptors for nested definitions.  They are accessed through the
+   new children attribute.  Each has a new parent attribute.
+
+The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of
+Function and Class classes.  Users are not expected to create instances
+of these classes.
+
+
+.. _pyclbr-function-objects:
+
+Function Objects
+----------------
+Class :class:`Function` instances describe functions defined by def
+statements.  They have the following attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: Function.file
+
+   Name of the file in which the function is defined.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Function.module
+
+   The name of the module defining the function described.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Function.name
+
+   The name of the function.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Function.lineno
+
+   The line number in the file where the definition starts.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Function.parent
+
+   For top-level functions, None.  For nested functions, the parent.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. attribute:: Function.children
+
+   A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and
+   classes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. _pyclbr-class-objects:
+
+Class Objects
+-------------
+Class :class:`Class` instances describe classes defined by class
+statements.  They have the same attributes as Functions and two more.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.file
+
+   Name of the file in which the class is defined.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.module
+
+   The name of the module defining the class described.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.name
+
+   The name of the class.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.lineno
+
+   The line number in the file where the definition starts.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.parent
+
+   For top-level classes, None.  For nested classes, the parent.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.children
+
+   A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and
+   classes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.super
+
+   A list of :class:`Class` objects which describe the immediate base
+   classes of the class being described.  Classes which are named as
+   superclasses but which are not discoverable by :func:`readmodule_ex`
+   are listed as a string with the class name instead of as
+   :class:`Class` objects.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Class.methods
+
+   A dictionary mapping method names to line numbers.  This can be
+   derived from the newer children dictionary, but remains for
+   back-compatibility.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pydoc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pydoc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f956b9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pydoc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
+:mod:`pydoc` --- Documentation generator and online help system
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: pydoc
+   :synopsis: Documentation generator and online help system.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/pydoc.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: documentation; generation
+   single: documentation; online
+   single: help; online
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`pydoc` module automatically generates documentation from Python
+modules.  The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the console,
+served to a Web browser, or saved to HTML files.
+
+For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation is
+derived from the docstring (i.e. the :attr:`__doc__` attribute) of the object,
+and recursively of its documentable members.  If there is no docstring,
+:mod:`pydoc` tries to obtain a description from the block of comment lines just
+above the definition of the class, function or method in the source file, or at
+the top of the module (see :func:`inspect.getcomments`).
+
+The built-in function :func:`help` invokes the online help system in the
+interactive interpreter, which uses :mod:`pydoc` to generate its documentation
+as text on the console.  The same text documentation can also be viewed from
+outside the Python interpreter by running :program:`pydoc` as a script at the
+operating system's command prompt. For example, running ::
+
+   pydoc sys
+
+at a shell prompt will display documentation on the :mod:`sys` module, in a
+style similar to the manual pages shown by the Unix :program:`man` command.  The
+argument to :program:`pydoc` can be the name of a function, module, or package,
+or a dotted reference to a class, method, or function within a module or module
+in a package.  If the argument to :program:`pydoc` looks like a path (that is,
+it contains the path separator for your operating system, such as a slash in
+Unix), and refers to an existing Python source file, then documentation is
+produced for that file.
+
+.. note::
+
+   In order to find objects and their documentation, :mod:`pydoc` imports the
+   module(s) to be documented.  Therefore, any code on module level will be
+   executed on that occasion.  Use an ``if __name__ == '__main__':`` guard to
+   only execute code when a file is invoked as a script and not just imported.
+
+When printing output to the console, :program:`pydoc` attempts to paginate the
+output for easier reading.  If the :envvar:`PAGER` environment variable is set,
+:program:`pydoc` will use its value as a pagination program.
+
+Specifying a ``-w`` flag before the argument will cause HTML documentation
+to be written out to a file in the current directory, instead of displaying text
+on the console.
+
+Specifying a ``-k`` flag before the argument will search the synopsis
+lines of all available modules for the keyword given as the argument, again in a
+manner similar to the Unix :program:`man` command.  The synopsis line of a
+module is the first line of its documentation string.
+
+You can also use :program:`pydoc` to start an HTTP server on the local machine
+that will serve documentation to visiting Web browsers.  :program:`pydoc -p 1234`
+will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to browse the
+documentation at ``http://localhost:1234/`` in your preferred Web browser.
+Specifying ``0`` as the port number will select an arbitrary unused port.
+
+:program:`pydoc -n <hostname>` will start the server listening at the given
+hostname.  By default the hostname is 'localhost' but if you want the server to
+be reached from other machines, you may want to change the host name that the
+server responds to.  During development this is especially useful if you want
+to run pydoc from within a container.
+
+:program:`pydoc -b` will start the server and additionally open a web
+browser to a module index page.  Each served page has a navigation bar at the
+top where you can *Get* help on an individual item, *Search* all modules with a
+keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the *Module index*, *Topics* and
+*Keywords* pages.
+
+When :program:`pydoc` generates documentation, it uses the current environment
+and path to locate modules.  Thus, invoking :program:`pydoc spam`
+documents precisely the version of the module you would get if you started the
+Python interpreter and typed ``import spam``.
+
+Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in
+``https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/`` where ``X`` and ``Y`` are the
+major and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter.  This can
+be overridden by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONDOCS` environment variable
+to a different URL or to a local directory containing the Library
+Reference Manual pages.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Added the ``-b`` option.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   The ``-g`` command line option was removed.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   :mod:`pydoc` now uses :func:`inspect.signature` rather than
+   :func:`inspect.getfullargspec` to extract signature information from
+   callables.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added the ``-n`` option.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pyexpat.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pyexpat.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e43b9ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/pyexpat.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,876 @@
+:mod:`xml.parsers.expat` --- Fast XML parsing using Expat
+=========================================================
+
+.. module:: xml.parsers.expat
+   :synopsis: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Paul Prescod <paul@prescod.net>
+
+--------------
+
+.. Markup notes:
+
+   Many of the attributes of the XMLParser objects are callbacks.  Since
+   signature information must be presented, these are described using the method
+   directive.  Since they are attributes which are set by client code, in-text
+   references to these attributes should be marked using the :member: role.
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`pyexpat` module is not secure against maliciously
+   constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+   :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+
+
+.. index:: single: Expat
+
+The :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module is a Python interface to the Expat
+non-validating XML parser. The module provides a single extension type,
+:class:`xmlparser`, that represents the current state of an XML parser.  After
+an :class:`xmlparser` object has been created, various attributes of the object
+can be set to handler functions.  When an XML document is then fed to the
+parser, the handler functions are called for the character data and markup in
+the XML document.
+
+.. index:: module: pyexpat
+
+This module uses the :mod:`pyexpat` module to provide access to the Expat
+parser.  Direct use of the :mod:`pyexpat` module is deprecated.
+
+This module provides one exception and one type object:
+
+
+.. exception:: ExpatError
+
+   The exception raised when Expat reports an error.  See section
+   :ref:`expaterror-objects` for more information on interpreting Expat errors.
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Alias for :exc:`ExpatError`.
+
+
+.. data:: XMLParserType
+
+   The type of the return values from the :func:`ParserCreate` function.
+
+The :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module contains two functions:
+
+
+.. function:: ErrorString(errno)
+
+   Returns an explanatory string for a given error number *errno*.
+
+
+.. function:: ParserCreate(encoding=None, namespace_separator=None)
+
+   Creates and returns a new :class:`xmlparser` object.   *encoding*, if specified,
+   must be a string naming the encoding  used by the XML data.  Expat doesn't
+   support as many encodings as Python does, and its repertoire of encodings can't
+   be extended; it supports UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1), and ASCII.  If
+   *encoding* [1]_ is given it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the
+   document.
+
+   Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled by providing a
+   value for *namespace_separator*.  The value must be a one-character string; a
+   :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if the string has an illegal length (``None``
+   is considered the same as omission).  When namespace processing is enabled,
+   element type names and attribute names that belong to a namespace will be
+   expanded.  The element name passed to the element handlers
+   :attr:`StartElementHandler` and :attr:`EndElementHandler` will be the
+   concatenation of the namespace URI, the namespace separator character, and the
+   local part of the name.  If the namespace separator is a zero byte (``chr(0)``)
+   then the namespace URI and the local part will be concatenated without any
+   separator.
+
+   For example, if *namespace_separator* is set to a space character (``' '``) and
+   the following document is parsed:
+
+   .. code-block:: xml
+
+      <?xml version="1.0"?>
+      <root xmlns    = "http://default-namespace.org/"
+            xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/">
+        <py:elem1 />
+        <elem2 xmlns="" />
+      </root>
+
+   :attr:`StartElementHandler` will receive the following strings for each
+   element::
+
+      http://default-namespace.org/ root
+      http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
+      elem2
+
+   Due to limitations in the ``Expat`` library used by :mod:`pyexpat`,
+   the :class:`xmlparser` instance returned can only be used to parse a single
+   XML document.  Call ``ParserCreate`` for each document to provide unique
+   parser instances.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `The Expat XML Parser <http://www.libexpat.org/>`_
+      Home page of the Expat project.
+
+
+.. _xmlparser-objects:
+
+XMLParser Objects
+-----------------
+
+:class:`xmlparser` objects have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.Parse(data[, isfinal])
+
+   Parses the contents of the string *data*, calling the appropriate handler
+   functions to process the parsed data.  *isfinal* must be true on the final call
+   to this method; it allows the parsing of a single file in fragments,
+   not the submission of multiple files.
+   *data* can be the empty string at any time.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.ParseFile(file)
+
+   Parse XML data reading from the object *file*.  *file* only needs to provide
+   the ``read(nbytes)`` method, returning the empty string when there's no more
+   data.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.SetBase(base)
+
+   Sets the base to be used for resolving relative URIs in system identifiers in
+   declarations.  Resolving relative identifiers is left to the application: this
+   value will be passed through as the *base* argument to the
+   :func:`ExternalEntityRefHandler`, :func:`NotationDeclHandler`, and
+   :func:`UnparsedEntityDeclHandler` functions.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.GetBase()
+
+   Returns a string containing the base set by a previous call to :meth:`SetBase`,
+   or ``None`` if  :meth:`SetBase` hasn't been called.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.GetInputContext()
+
+   Returns the input data that generated the current event as a string. The data is
+   in the encoding of the entity which contains the text. When called while an
+   event handler is not active, the return value is ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate(context[, encoding])
+
+   Create a "child" parser which can be used to parse an external parsed entity
+   referred to by content parsed by the parent parser.  The *context* parameter
+   should be the string passed to the :meth:`ExternalEntityRefHandler` handler
+   function, described below. The child parser is created with the
+   :attr:`ordered_attributes` and :attr:`specified_attributes` set to the values of
+   this parser.
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing(flag)
+
+   Control parsing of parameter entities (including the external DTD subset).
+   Possible *flag* values are :const:`XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER`,
+   :const:`XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE` and
+   :const:`XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS`.  Return true if setting the flag
+   was successful.
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.UseForeignDTD([flag])
+
+   Calling this with a true value for *flag* (the default) will cause Expat to call
+   the :attr:`ExternalEntityRefHandler` with :const:`None` for all arguments to
+   allow an alternate DTD to be loaded.  If the document does not contain a
+   document type declaration, the :attr:`ExternalEntityRefHandler` will still be
+   called, but the :attr:`StartDoctypeDeclHandler` and
+   :attr:`EndDoctypeDeclHandler` will not be called.
+
+   Passing a false value for *flag* will cancel a previous call that passed a true
+   value, but otherwise has no effect.
+
+   This method can only be called before the :meth:`Parse` or :meth:`ParseFile`
+   methods are called; calling it after either of those have been called causes
+   :exc:`ExpatError` to be raised with the :attr:`code` attribute set to
+   ``errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]``.
+
+:class:`xmlparser` objects have the following attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.buffer_size
+
+   The size of the buffer used when :attr:`buffer_text` is true.
+   A new buffer size can be set by assigning a new integer value
+   to this attribute.
+   When the size is changed, the buffer will be flushed.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.buffer_text
+
+   Setting this to true causes the :class:`xmlparser` object to buffer textual
+   content returned by Expat to avoid multiple calls to the
+   :meth:`CharacterDataHandler` callback whenever possible.  This can improve
+   performance substantially since Expat normally breaks character data into chunks
+   at every line ending.  This attribute is false by default, and may be changed at
+   any time.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.buffer_used
+
+   If :attr:`buffer_text` is enabled, the number of bytes stored in the buffer.
+   These bytes represent UTF-8 encoded text.  This attribute has no meaningful
+   interpretation when :attr:`buffer_text` is false.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.ordered_attributes
+
+   Setting this attribute to a non-zero integer causes the attributes to be
+   reported as a list rather than a dictionary.  The attributes are presented in
+   the order found in the document text.  For each attribute, two list entries are
+   presented: the attribute name and the attribute value.  (Older versions of this
+   module also used this format.)  By default, this attribute is false; it may be
+   changed at any time.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.specified_attributes
+
+   If set to a non-zero integer, the parser will report only those attributes which
+   were specified in the document instance and not those which were derived from
+   attribute declarations.  Applications which set this need to be especially
+   careful to use what additional information is available from the declarations as
+   needed to comply with the standards for the behavior of XML processors.  By
+   default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time.
+
+
+The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent error
+encountered by an :class:`xmlparser` object, and will only have correct values
+once a call to :meth:`Parse` or :meth:`ParseFile` has raised an
+:exc:`xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError` exception.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex
+
+   Byte index at which an error occurred.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.ErrorCode
+
+   Numeric code specifying the problem.  This value can be passed to the
+   :func:`ErrorString` function, or compared to one of the constants defined in the
+   ``errors`` object.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber
+
+   Column number at which an error occurred.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber
+
+   Line number at which an error occurred.
+
+The following attributes contain values relating to the current parse location
+in an :class:`xmlparser` object.  During a callback reporting a parse event they
+indicate the location of the first of the sequence of characters that generated
+the event.  When called outside of a callback, the position indicated will be
+just past the last parse event (regardless of whether there was an associated
+callback).
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex
+
+   Current byte index in the parser input.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber
+
+   Current column number in the parser input.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber
+
+   Current line number in the parser input.
+
+Here is the list of handlers that can be set.  To set a handler on an
+:class:`xmlparser` object *o*, use ``o.handlername = func``.  *handlername* must
+be taken from the following list, and *func* must be a callable object accepting
+the correct number of arguments.  The arguments are all strings, unless
+otherwise stated.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler(version, encoding, standalone)
+
+   Called when the XML declaration is parsed.  The XML declaration is the
+   (optional) declaration of the applicable version of the XML recommendation, the
+   encoding of the document text, and an optional "standalone" declaration.
+   *version* and *encoding* will be strings, and *standalone* will be ``1`` if the
+   document is declared standalone, ``0`` if it is declared not to be standalone,
+   or ``-1`` if the standalone clause was omitted. This is only available with
+   Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler(doctypeName, systemId, publicId, has_internal_subset)
+
+   Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration (``<!DOCTYPE
+   ...``).  The *doctypeName* is provided exactly as presented.  The *systemId* and
+   *publicId* parameters give the system and public identifiers if specified, or
+   ``None`` if omitted.  *has_internal_subset* will be true if the document
+   contains and internal document declaration subset. This requires Expat version
+   1.2 or newer.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler()
+
+   Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration. This requires
+   Expat version 1.2 or newer.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler(name, model)
+
+   Called once for each element type declaration.  *name* is the name of the
+   element type, and *model* is a representation of the content model.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler(elname, attname, type, default, required)
+
+   Called for each declared attribute for an element type.  If an attribute list
+   declaration declares three attributes, this handler is called three times, once
+   for each attribute.  *elname* is the name of the element to which the
+   declaration applies and *attname* is the name of the attribute declared.  The
+   attribute type is a string passed as *type*; the possible values are
+   ``'CDATA'``, ``'ID'``, ``'IDREF'``, ... *default* gives the default value for
+   the attribute used when the attribute is not specified by the document instance,
+   or ``None`` if there is no default value (``#IMPLIED`` values).  If the
+   attribute is required to be given in the document instance, *required* will be
+   true. This requires Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.StartElementHandler(name, attributes)
+
+   Called for the start of every element.  *name* is a string containing the
+   element name, and *attributes* is the element attributes. If
+   :attr:`ordered_attributes` is true, this is a list (see
+   :attr:`ordered_attributes` for a full description). Otherwise it's a
+   dictionary mapping names to values.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.EndElementHandler(name)
+
+   Called for the end of every element.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler(target, data)
+
+   Called for every processing instruction.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler(data)
+
+   Called for character data.  This will be called for normal character data, CDATA
+   marked content, and ignorable whitespace.  Applications which must distinguish
+   these cases can use the :attr:`StartCdataSectionHandler`,
+   :attr:`EndCdataSectionHandler`, and :attr:`ElementDeclHandler` callbacks to
+   collect the required information.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(entityName, base, systemId, publicId, notationName)
+
+   Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations.  This is only present for
+   version 1.2 of the Expat library; for more recent versions, use
+   :attr:`EntityDeclHandler` instead.  (The underlying function in the Expat
+   library has been declared obsolete.)
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler(entityName, is_parameter_entity, value, base, systemId, publicId, notationName)
+
+   Called for all entity declarations.  For parameter and internal entities,
+   *value* will be a string giving the declared contents of the entity; this will
+   be ``None`` for external entities.  The *notationName* parameter will be
+   ``None`` for parsed entities, and the name of the notation for unparsed
+   entities. *is_parameter_entity* will be true if the entity is a parameter entity
+   or false for general entities (most applications only need to be concerned with
+   general entities). This is only available starting with version 1.95.0 of the
+   Expat library.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler(notationName, base, systemId, publicId)
+
+   Called for notation declarations.  *notationName*, *base*, and *systemId*, and
+   *publicId* are strings if given.  If the public identifier is omitted,
+   *publicId* will be ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler(prefix, uri)
+
+   Called when an element contains a namespace declaration.  Namespace declarations
+   are processed before the :attr:`StartElementHandler` is called for the element
+   on which declarations are placed.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler(prefix)
+
+   Called when the closing tag is reached for an element  that contained a
+   namespace declaration.  This is called once for each namespace declaration on
+   the element in the reverse of the order for which the
+   :attr:`StartNamespaceDeclHandler` was called to indicate the start of each
+   namespace declaration's scope.  Calls to this handler are made after the
+   corresponding :attr:`EndElementHandler` for the end of the element.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.CommentHandler(data)
+
+   Called for comments.  *data* is the text of the comment, excluding the leading
+   ``'<!-``\ ``-'`` and trailing ``'-``\ ``->'``.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler()
+
+   Called at the start of a CDATA section.  This and :attr:`EndCdataSectionHandler`
+   are needed to be able to identify the syntactical start and end for CDATA
+   sections.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler()
+
+   Called at the end of a CDATA section.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.DefaultHandler(data)
+
+   Called for any characters in the XML document for which no applicable handler
+   has been specified.  This means characters that are part of a construct which
+   could be reported, but for which no handler has been supplied.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand(data)
+
+   This is the same as the :func:`DefaultHandler`,  but doesn't inhibit expansion
+   of internal entities. The entity reference will not be passed to the default
+   handler.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler()
+
+   Called if the XML document hasn't been declared as being a standalone document.
+   This happens when there is an external subset or a reference to a parameter
+   entity, but the XML declaration does not set standalone to ``yes`` in an XML
+   declaration.  If this handler returns ``0``, then the parser will raise an
+   :const:`XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE` error.  If this handler is not set, no
+   exception is raised by the parser for this condition.
+
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler(context, base, systemId, publicId)
+
+   Called for references to external entities.  *base* is the current base, as set
+   by a previous call to :meth:`SetBase`.  The public and system identifiers,
+   *systemId* and *publicId*, are strings if given; if the public identifier is not
+   given, *publicId* will be ``None``.  The *context* value is opaque and should
+   only be used as described below.
+
+   For external entities to be parsed, this handler must be implemented. It is
+   responsible for creating the sub-parser using
+   ``ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)``, initializing it with the appropriate
+   callbacks, and parsing the entity.  This handler should return an integer; if it
+   returns ``0``, the parser will raise an
+   :const:`XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING` error, otherwise parsing will
+   continue.
+
+   If this handler is not provided, external entities are reported by the
+   :attr:`DefaultHandler` callback, if provided.
+
+
+.. _expaterror-objects:
+
+ExpatError Exceptions
+---------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+
+:exc:`ExpatError` exceptions have a number of interesting attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: ExpatError.code
+
+   Expat's internal error number for the specific error.  The
+   :data:`errors.messages <xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages>` dictionary maps
+   these error numbers to Expat's error messages.  For example::
+
+      from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors
+
+      p = ParserCreate()
+      try:
+          p.Parse(some_xml_document)
+      except ExpatError as err:
+          print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code])
+
+   The :mod:`~xml.parsers.expat.errors` module also provides error message
+   constants and a dictionary :data:`~xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes` mapping
+   these messages back to the error codes, see below.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ExpatError.lineno
+
+   Line number on which the error was detected.  The first line is numbered ``1``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ExpatError.offset
+
+   Character offset into the line where the error occurred.  The first column is
+   numbered ``0``.
+
+
+.. _expat-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+The following program defines three handlers that just print out their
+arguments. ::
+
+   import xml.parsers.expat
+
+   # 3 handler functions
+   def start_element(name, attrs):
+       print('Start element:', name, attrs)
+   def end_element(name):
+       print('End element:', name)
+   def char_data(data):
+       print('Character data:', repr(data))
+
+   p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate()
+
+   p.StartElementHandler = start_element
+   p.EndElementHandler = end_element
+   p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data
+
+   p.Parse("""<?xml version="1.0"?>
+   <parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1>
+   <child2 name="fred">More text</child2>
+   </parent>""", 1)
+
+The output from this program is::
+
+   Start element: parent {'id': 'top'}
+   Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'}
+   Character data: 'Text goes here'
+   End element: child1
+   Character data: '\n'
+   Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'}
+   Character data: 'More text'
+   End element: child2
+   Character data: '\n'
+   End element: parent
+
+
+.. _expat-content-models:
+
+Content Model Descriptions
+--------------------------
+
+.. module:: xml.parsers.expat.model
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+Content models are described using nested tuples.  Each tuple contains four
+values: the type, the quantifier, the name, and a tuple of children.  Children
+are simply additional content model descriptions.
+
+The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the
+:mod:`xml.parsers.expat.model` module.  These constants can be collected in two
+groups: the model type group and the quantifier group.
+
+The constants in the model type group are:
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CTYPE_ANY
+   :noindex:
+
+   The element named by the model name was declared to have a content model of
+   ``ANY``.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CTYPE_CHOICE
+   :noindex:
+
+   The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is used for
+   content models such as ``(A | B | C)``.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CTYPE_EMPTY
+   :noindex:
+
+   Elements which are declared to be ``EMPTY`` have this model type.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CTYPE_MIXED
+   :noindex:
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CTYPE_NAME
+   :noindex:
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CTYPE_SEQ
+   :noindex:
+
+   Models which represent a series of models which follow one after the other are
+   indicated with this model type.  This is used for models such as ``(A, B, C)``.
+
+The constants in the quantifier group are:
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CQUANT_NONE
+   :noindex:
+
+   No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for ``A``.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CQUANT_OPT
+   :noindex:
+
+   The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for ``A?``.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CQUANT_PLUS
+   :noindex:
+
+   The model must occur one or more times (like ``A+``).
+
+
+.. data:: XML_CQUANT_REP
+   :noindex:
+
+   The model must occur zero or more times, as for ``A*``.
+
+
+.. _expat-errors:
+
+Expat error constants
+---------------------
+
+.. module:: xml.parsers.expat.errors
+
+The following constants are provided in the :mod:`xml.parsers.expat.errors`
+module.  These constants are useful in interpreting some of the attributes of
+the :exc:`ExpatError` exception objects raised when an error has occurred.
+Since for backwards compatibility reasons, the constants' value is the error
+*message* and not the numeric error *code*, you do this by comparing its
+:attr:`code` attribute with
+:samp:`errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_{CONSTANT_NAME}]`.
+
+The ``errors`` module has the following attributes:
+
+.. data:: codes
+
+   A dictionary mapping numeric error codes to their string descriptions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: messages
+
+   A dictionary mapping string descriptions to their error codes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF
+
+   An entity reference in an attribute value referred to an external entity instead
+   of an internal entity.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF
+
+   A character reference referred to a character which is illegal in XML (for
+   example, character ``0``, or '``&#0;``').
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF
+
+   An entity reference referred to an entity which was declared with a notation, so
+   cannot be parsed.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE
+
+   An attribute was used more than once in a start tag.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN
+
+   Raised when an input byte could not properly be assigned to a character; for
+   example, a NUL byte (value ``0``) in a UTF-8 input stream.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT
+
+   Something other than whitespace occurred after the document element.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI
+
+   An XML declaration was found somewhere other than the start of the input data.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS
+
+   The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to contain exactly
+   one top-level element)..
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY
+
+   Expat was not able to allocate memory internally.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF
+
+   A parameter entity reference was found where it was not allowed.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR
+
+   An incomplete character was found in the input.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF
+
+   An entity reference contained another reference to the same entity; possibly via
+   a different name, and possibly indirectly.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_SYNTAX
+
+   Some unspecified syntax error was encountered.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH
+
+   An end tag did not match the innermost open start tag.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN
+
+   Some token (such as a start tag) was not closed before the end of the stream or
+   the next token was encountered.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY
+
+   A reference was made to an entity which was not defined.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING
+
+   The document encoding is not supported by Expat.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION
+
+   A CDATA marked section was not closed.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE
+
+   The parser determined that the document was not "standalone" though it declared
+   itself to be in the XML declaration, and the :attr:`NotStandaloneHandler` was
+   set and returned ``0``.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD
+
+   An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled in, but
+   Expat was configured without DTD support.  This should never be reported by a
+   standard build of the :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING
+
+   A behavioral change was requested after parsing started that can only be changed
+   before parsing has started.  This is (currently) only raised by
+   :meth:`UseForeignDTD`.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX
+
+   An undeclared prefix was found when namespace processing was enabled.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX
+
+   The document attempted to remove the namespace declaration associated with a
+   prefix.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE
+
+   A parameter entity contained incomplete markup.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_XML_DECL
+
+   The document contained no document element at all.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL
+
+   There was an error parsing a text declaration in an external entity.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_PUBLICID
+
+   Characters were found in the public id that are not allowed.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED
+
+   The requested operation was made on a suspended parser, but isn't allowed.  This
+   includes attempts to provide additional input or to stop the parser.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED
+
+   An attempt to resume the parser was made when the parser had not been suspended.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_ABORTED
+
+   This should not be reported to Python applications.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_FINISHED
+
+   The requested operation was made on a parser which was finished parsing input,
+   but isn't allowed.  This includes attempts to provide additional input or to
+   stop the parser.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
+   appropriate standards. For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
+   not. See https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl
+   and https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/python.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/python.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f39613f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/python.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+.. _python:
+
+***********************
+Python Runtime Services
+***********************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of services related
+to the Python interpreter and its interaction with its environment.  Here's an
+overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   sys.rst
+   sysconfig.rst
+   builtins.rst
+   __main__.rst
+   warnings.rst
+   dataclasses.rst
+   contextlib.rst
+   abc.rst
+   atexit.rst
+   traceback.rst
+   __future__.rst
+   gc.rst
+   inspect.rst
+   site.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/queue.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/queue.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a42da1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/queue.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,285 @@
+:mod:`queue` --- A synchronized queue class
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: queue
+   :synopsis: A synchronized queue class.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/queue.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`queue` module implements multi-producer, multi-consumer queues.
+It is especially useful in threaded programming when information must be
+exchanged safely between multiple threads.  The :class:`Queue` class in this
+module implements all the required locking semantics.  It depends on the
+availability of thread support in Python; see the :mod:`threading`
+module.
+
+The module implements three types of queue, which differ only in the order in
+which the entries are retrieved.  In a :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)`
+queue, the first tasks added are the first retrieved. In a
+:abbr:`LIFO (last-in, first-out)` queue, the most recently added entry is
+the first retrieved (operating like a stack).  With a priority queue,
+the entries are kept sorted (using the :mod:`heapq` module) and the
+lowest valued entry is retrieved first.
+
+Internally, those three types of queues use locks to temporarily block
+competing threads; however, they are not designed to handle reentrancy
+within a thread.
+
+In addition, the module implements a "simple"
+:abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` queue type, :class:`SimpleQueue`, whose
+specific implementation provides additional guarantees
+in exchange for the smaller functionality.
+
+The :mod:`queue` module defines the following classes and exceptions:
+
+.. class:: Queue(maxsize=0)
+
+   Constructor for a :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` queue.  *maxsize* is
+   an integer that sets the upperbound
+   limit on the number of items that can be placed in the queue.  Insertion will
+   block once this size has been reached, until queue items are consumed.  If
+   *maxsize* is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.
+
+.. class:: LifoQueue(maxsize=0)
+
+   Constructor for a :abbr:`LIFO (last-in, first-out)` queue.  *maxsize* is
+   an integer that sets the upperbound
+   limit on the number of items that can be placed in the queue.  Insertion will
+   block once this size has been reached, until queue items are consumed.  If
+   *maxsize* is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.
+
+
+.. class:: PriorityQueue(maxsize=0)
+
+   Constructor for a priority queue.  *maxsize* is an integer that sets the upperbound
+   limit on the number of items that can be placed in the queue.  Insertion will
+   block once this size has been reached, until queue items are consumed.  If
+   *maxsize* is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.
+
+   The lowest valued entries are retrieved first (the lowest valued entry is the
+   one returned by ``sorted(list(entries))[0]``).  A typical pattern for entries
+   is a tuple in the form: ``(priority_number, data)``.
+
+   If the *data* elements are not comparable, the data can be wrapped in a class
+   that ignores the data item and only compares the priority number::
+
+        from dataclasses import dataclass, field
+        from typing import Any
+
+        @dataclass(order=True)
+        class PrioritizedItem:
+            priority: int
+            item: Any=field(compare=False)
+
+.. class:: SimpleQueue()
+
+   Constructor for an unbounded :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` queue.
+   Simple queues lack advanced functionality such as task tracking.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. exception:: Empty
+
+   Exception raised when non-blocking :meth:`~Queue.get` (or
+   :meth:`~Queue.get_nowait`) is called
+   on a :class:`Queue` object which is empty.
+
+
+.. exception:: Full
+
+   Exception raised when non-blocking :meth:`~Queue.put` (or
+   :meth:`~Queue.put_nowait`) is called
+   on a :class:`Queue` object which is full.
+
+
+.. _queueobjects:
+
+Queue Objects
+-------------
+
+Queue objects (:class:`Queue`, :class:`LifoQueue`, or :class:`PriorityQueue`)
+provide the public methods described below.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.qsize()
+
+   Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() > 0 doesn't
+   guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block, nor will qsize() < maxsize
+   guarantee that put() will not block.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.empty()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the queue is empty, ``False`` otherwise.  If empty()
+   returns ``True`` it doesn't guarantee that a subsequent call to put()
+   will not block.  Similarly, if empty() returns ``False`` it doesn't
+   guarantee that a subsequent call to get() will not block.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.full()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the queue is full, ``False`` otherwise.  If full()
+   returns ``True`` it doesn't guarantee that a subsequent call to get()
+   will not block.  Similarly, if full() returns ``False`` it doesn't
+   guarantee that a subsequent call to put() will not block.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.put(item, block=True, timeout=None)
+
+   Put *item* into the queue. If optional args *block* is true and *timeout* is
+   ``None`` (the default), block if necessary until a free slot is available. If
+   *timeout* is a positive number, it blocks at most *timeout* seconds and raises
+   the :exc:`Full` exception if no free slot was available within that time.
+   Otherwise (*block* is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot is
+   immediately available, else raise the :exc:`Full` exception (*timeout* is
+   ignored in that case).
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.put_nowait(item)
+
+   Equivalent to ``put(item, False)``.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.get(block=True, timeout=None)
+
+   Remove and return an item from the queue. If optional args *block* is true and
+   *timeout* is ``None`` (the default), block if necessary until an item is available.
+   If *timeout* is a positive number, it blocks at most *timeout* seconds and
+   raises the :exc:`Empty` exception if no item was available within that time.
+   Otherwise (*block* is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
+   else raise the :exc:`Empty` exception (*timeout* is ignored in that case).
+
+   Prior to 3.0 on POSIX systems, and for all versions on Windows, if
+   *block* is true and *timeout* is ``None``, this operation goes into
+   an uninterruptible wait on an underlying lock. This means that no exceptions
+   can occur, and in particular a SIGINT will not trigger a :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.get_nowait()
+
+   Equivalent to ``get(False)``.
+
+Two methods are offered to support tracking whether enqueued tasks have been
+fully processed by daemon consumer threads.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.task_done()
+
+   Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.  Used by queue consumer
+   threads.  For each :meth:`get` used to fetch a task, a subsequent call to
+   :meth:`task_done` tells the queue that the processing on the task is complete.
+
+   If a :meth:`join` is currently blocking, it will resume when all items have been
+   processed (meaning that a :meth:`task_done` call was received for every item
+   that had been :meth:`put` into the queue).
+
+   Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if called more times than there were items placed in
+   the queue.
+
+
+.. method:: Queue.join()
+
+   Blocks until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed.
+
+   The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the queue.
+   The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls :meth:`task_done` to
+   indicate that the item was retrieved and all work on it is complete. When the
+   count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, :meth:`join` unblocks.
+
+
+Example of how to wait for enqueued tasks to be completed::
+
+    def worker():
+        while True:
+            item = q.get()
+            if item is None:
+                break
+            do_work(item)
+            q.task_done()
+
+    q = queue.Queue()
+    threads = []
+    for i in range(num_worker_threads):
+        t = threading.Thread(target=worker)
+        t.start()
+        threads.append(t)
+
+    for item in source():
+        q.put(item)
+
+    # block until all tasks are done
+    q.join()
+
+    # stop workers
+    for i in range(num_worker_threads):
+        q.put(None)
+    for t in threads:
+        t.join()
+
+
+SimpleQueue Objects
+-------------------
+
+:class:`SimpleQueue` objects provide the public methods described below.
+
+.. method:: SimpleQueue.qsize()
+
+   Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() > 0 doesn't
+   guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleQueue.empty()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the queue is empty, ``False`` otherwise. If empty()
+   returns ``False`` it doesn't guarantee that a subsequent call to get()
+   will not block.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleQueue.put(item, block=True, timeout=None)
+
+   Put *item* into the queue.  The method never blocks and always succeeds
+   (except for potential low-level errors such as failure to allocate memory).
+   The optional args *block* and *timeout* are ignored and only provided
+   for compatibility with :meth:`Queue.put`.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+      This method has a C implementation which is reentrant.  That is, a
+      ``put()`` or ``get()`` call can be interrupted by another ``put()``
+      call in the same thread without deadlocking or corrupting internal
+      state inside the queue.  This makes it appropriate for use in
+      destructors such as ``__del__`` methods or :mod:`weakref` callbacks.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleQueue.put_nowait(item)
+
+   Equivalent to ``put(item)``, provided for compatibility with
+   :meth:`Queue.put_nowait`.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleQueue.get(block=True, timeout=None)
+
+   Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args *block* is true and
+   *timeout* is ``None`` (the default), block if necessary until an item is available.
+   If *timeout* is a positive number, it blocks at most *timeout* seconds and
+   raises the :exc:`Empty` exception if no item was available within that time.
+   Otherwise (*block* is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
+   else raise the :exc:`Empty` exception (*timeout* is ignored in that case).
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleQueue.get_nowait()
+
+   Equivalent to ``get(False)``.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Class :class:`multiprocessing.Queue`
+      A queue class for use in a multi-processing (rather than multi-threading)
+      context.
+
+   :class:`collections.deque` is an alternative implementation of unbounded
+   queues with fast atomic :meth:`~collections.deque.append` and
+   :meth:`~collections.deque.popleft` operations that do not require locking.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/quopri.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/quopri.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86717c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/quopri.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+:mod:`quopri` --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
+==============================================================
+
+.. module:: quopri
+   :synopsis: Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-printable encoding.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/quopri.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: quoted-printable; encoding
+   single: MIME; quoted-printable encoding
+
+--------------
+
+This module performs quoted-printable transport encoding and decoding, as
+defined in :rfc:`1521`: "MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One:
+Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies".
+The quoted-printable encoding is designed for data where there are relatively
+few nonprintable characters; the base64 encoding scheme available via the
+:mod:`base64` module is more compact if there are many such characters, as when
+sending a graphics file.
+
+.. function:: decode(input, output, header=False)
+
+   Decode the contents of the *input* file and write the resulting decoded binary
+   data to the *output* file. *input* and *output* must be :term:`binary file objects
+   <file object>`.  If the optional argument *header* is present and true, underscore
+   will be decoded as space. This is used to decode "Q"-encoded headers as
+   described in :rfc:`1522`: "MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
+   Part Two: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text".
+
+
+.. function:: encode(input, output, quotetabs, header=False)
+
+   Encode the contents of the *input* file and write the resulting quoted-printable
+   data to the *output* file. *input* and *output* must be
+   :term:`binary file objects <file object>`. *quotetabs*, a
+   non-optional flag which controls whether to encode embedded spaces
+   and tabs; when true it encodes such embedded whitespace, and when
+   false it leaves them unencoded.
+   Note that spaces and tabs appearing at the end of lines are always encoded,
+   as per :rfc:`1521`.  *header* is a flag which controls if spaces are encoded
+   as underscores as per :rfc:`1522`.
+
+
+.. function:: decodestring(s, header=False)
+
+   Like :func:`decode`, except that it accepts a source :class:`bytes` and
+   returns the corresponding decoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+
+.. function:: encodestring(s, quotetabs=False, header=False)
+
+   Like :func:`encode`, except that it accepts a source :class:`bytes` and
+   returns the corresponding encoded :class:`bytes`. By default, it sends a
+   ``False`` value to *quotetabs* parameter of the :func:`encode` function.
+
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`base64`
+      Encode and decode MIME base64 data
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/random.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/random.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,495 @@
+:mod:`random` --- Generate pseudo-random numbers
+================================================
+
+.. module:: random
+   :synopsis: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/random.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module implements pseudo-random number generators for various
+distributions.
+
+For integers, there is uniform selection from a range. For sequences, there is
+uniform selection of a random element, a function to generate a random
+permutation of a list in-place, and a function for random sampling without
+replacement.
+
+On the real line, there are functions to compute uniform, normal (Gaussian),
+lognormal, negative exponential, gamma, and beta distributions. For generating
+distributions of angles, the von Mises distribution is available.
+
+Almost all module functions depend on the basic function :func:`.random`, which
+generates a random float uniformly in the semi-open range [0.0, 1.0).  Python
+uses the Mersenne Twister as the core generator.  It produces 53-bit precision
+floats and has a period of 2\*\*19937-1.  The underlying implementation in C is
+both fast and threadsafe.  The Mersenne Twister is one of the most extensively
+tested random number generators in existence.  However, being completely
+deterministic, it is not suitable for all purposes, and is completely unsuitable
+for cryptographic purposes.
+
+The functions supplied by this module are actually bound methods of a hidden
+instance of the :class:`random.Random` class.  You can instantiate your own
+instances of :class:`Random` to get generators that don't share state.
+
+Class :class:`Random` can also be subclassed if you want to use a different
+basic generator of your own devising: in that case, override the :meth:`~Random.random`,
+:meth:`~Random.seed`, :meth:`~Random.getstate`, and :meth:`~Random.setstate` methods.
+Optionally, a new generator can supply a :meth:`~Random.getrandbits` method --- this
+allows :meth:`randrange` to produce selections over an arbitrarily large range.
+
+The :mod:`random` module also provides the :class:`SystemRandom` class which
+uses the system function :func:`os.urandom` to generate random numbers
+from sources provided by the operating system.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The pseudo-random generators of this module should not be used for
+   security purposes.  For security or cryptographic uses, see the
+   :mod:`secrets` module.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, "Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally
+   equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator", ACM Transactions on
+   Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol. 8, No. 1, January pp.3--30 1998.
+
+
+   `Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe
+   <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707/>`_ for a compatible alternative
+   random number generator with a long period and comparatively simple update
+   operations.
+
+
+Bookkeeping functions
+---------------------
+
+.. function:: seed(a=None, version=2)
+
+   Initialize the random number generator.
+
+   If *a* is omitted or ``None``, the current system time is used.  If
+   randomness sources are provided by the operating system, they are used
+   instead of the system time (see the :func:`os.urandom` function for details
+   on availability).
+
+   If *a* is an int, it is used directly.
+
+   With version 2 (the default), a :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, or :class:`bytearray`
+   object gets converted to an :class:`int` and all of its bits are used.
+
+   With version 1 (provided for reproducing random sequences from older versions
+   of Python), the algorithm for :class:`str` and :class:`bytes` generates a
+   narrower range of seeds.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Moved to the version 2 scheme which uses all of the bits in a string seed.
+
+.. function:: getstate()
+
+   Return an object capturing the current internal state of the generator.  This
+   object can be passed to :func:`setstate` to restore the state.
+
+
+.. function:: setstate(state)
+
+   *state* should have been obtained from a previous call to :func:`getstate`, and
+   :func:`setstate` restores the internal state of the generator to what it was at
+   the time :func:`getstate` was called.
+
+
+.. function:: getrandbits(k)
+
+   Returns a Python integer with *k* random bits. This method is supplied with
+   the MersenneTwister generator and some other generators may also provide it
+   as an optional part of the API. When available, :meth:`getrandbits` enables
+   :meth:`randrange` to handle arbitrarily large ranges.
+
+
+Functions for integers
+----------------------
+
+.. function:: randrange(stop)
+              randrange(start, stop[, step])
+
+   Return a randomly selected element from ``range(start, stop, step)``.  This is
+   equivalent to ``choice(range(start, stop, step))``, but doesn't actually build a
+   range object.
+
+   The positional argument pattern matches that of :func:`range`.  Keyword arguments
+   should not be used because the function may use them in unexpected ways.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      :meth:`randrange` is more sophisticated about producing equally distributed
+      values.  Formerly it used a style like ``int(random()*n)`` which could produce
+      slightly uneven distributions.
+
+.. function:: randint(a, b)
+
+   Return a random integer *N* such that ``a <= N <= b``.  Alias for
+   ``randrange(a, b+1)``.
+
+
+Functions for sequences
+-----------------------
+
+.. function:: choice(seq)
+
+   Return a random element from the non-empty sequence *seq*. If *seq* is empty,
+   raises :exc:`IndexError`.
+
+.. function:: choices(population, weights=None, *, cum_weights=None, k=1)
+
+   Return a *k* sized list of elements chosen from the *population* with replacement.
+   If the *population* is empty, raises :exc:`IndexError`.
+
+   If a *weights* sequence is specified, selections are made according to the
+   relative weights.  Alternatively, if a *cum_weights* sequence is given, the
+   selections are made according to the cumulative weights (perhaps computed
+   using :func:`itertools.accumulate`).  For example, the relative weights
+   ``[10, 5, 30, 5]`` are equivalent to the cumulative weights
+   ``[10, 15, 45, 50]``.  Internally, the relative weights are converted to
+   cumulative weights before making selections, so supplying the cumulative
+   weights saves work.
+
+   If neither *weights* nor *cum_weights* are specified, selections are made
+   with equal probability.  If a weights sequence is supplied, it must be
+   the same length as the *population* sequence.  It is a :exc:`TypeError`
+   to specify both *weights* and *cum_weights*.
+
+   The *weights* or *cum_weights* can use any numeric type that interoperates
+   with the :class:`float` values returned by :func:`random` (that includes
+   integers, floats, and fractions but excludes decimals).
+
+   For a given seed, the :func:`choices` function with equal weighting
+   typically produces a different sequence than repeated calls to
+   :func:`choice`.  The algorithm used by :func:`choices` uses floating
+   point arithmetic for internal consistency and speed.  The algorithm used
+   by :func:`choice` defaults to integer arithmetic with repeated selections
+   to avoid small biases from round-off error.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. function:: shuffle(x[, random])
+
+   Shuffle the sequence *x* in place.
+
+   The optional argument *random* is a 0-argument function returning a random
+   float in [0.0, 1.0); by default, this is the function :func:`.random`.
+
+   To shuffle an immutable sequence and return a new shuffled list, use
+   ``sample(x, k=len(x))`` instead.
+
+   Note that even for small ``len(x)``, the total number of permutations of *x*
+   can quickly grow larger than the period of most random number generators.
+   This implies that most permutations of a long sequence can never be
+   generated.  For example, a sequence of length 2080 is the largest that
+   can fit within the period of the Mersenne Twister random number generator.
+
+
+.. function:: sample(population, k)
+
+   Return a *k* length list of unique elements chosen from the population sequence
+   or set. Used for random sampling without replacement.
+
+   Returns a new list containing elements from the population while leaving the
+   original population unchanged.  The resulting list is in selection order so that
+   all sub-slices will also be valid random samples.  This allows raffle winners
+   (the sample) to be partitioned into grand prize and second place winners (the
+   subslices).
+
+   Members of the population need not be :term:`hashable` or unique.  If the population
+   contains repeats, then each occurrence is a possible selection in the sample.
+
+   To choose a sample from a range of integers, use a :func:`range` object as an
+   argument.  This is especially fast and space efficient for sampling from a large
+   population:  ``sample(range(10000000), k=60)``.
+
+   If the sample size is larger than the population size, a :exc:`ValueError`
+   is raised.
+
+Real-valued distributions
+-------------------------
+
+The following functions generate specific real-valued distributions. Function
+parameters are named after the corresponding variables in the distribution's
+equation, as used in common mathematical practice; most of these equations can
+be found in any statistics text.
+
+
+.. function:: random()
+
+   Return the next random floating point number in the range [0.0, 1.0).
+
+
+.. function:: uniform(a, b)
+
+   Return a random floating point number *N* such that ``a <= N <= b`` for
+   ``a <= b`` and ``b <= N <= a`` for ``b < a``.
+
+   The end-point value ``b`` may or may not be included in the range
+   depending on floating-point rounding in the equation ``a + (b-a) * random()``.
+
+
+.. function:: triangular(low, high, mode)
+
+   Return a random floating point number *N* such that ``low <= N <= high`` and
+   with the specified *mode* between those bounds.  The *low* and *high* bounds
+   default to zero and one.  The *mode* argument defaults to the midpoint
+   between the bounds, giving a symmetric distribution.
+
+
+.. function:: betavariate(alpha, beta)
+
+   Beta distribution.  Conditions on the parameters are ``alpha > 0`` and
+   ``beta > 0``. Returned values range between 0 and 1.
+
+
+.. function:: expovariate(lambd)
+
+   Exponential distribution.  *lambd* is 1.0 divided by the desired
+   mean.  It should be nonzero.  (The parameter would be called
+   "lambda", but that is a reserved word in Python.)  Returned values
+   range from 0 to positive infinity if *lambd* is positive, and from
+   negative infinity to 0 if *lambd* is negative.
+
+
+.. function:: gammavariate(alpha, beta)
+
+   Gamma distribution.  (*Not* the gamma function!)  Conditions on the
+   parameters are ``alpha > 0`` and ``beta > 0``.
+
+   The probability distribution function is::
+
+                 x ** (alpha - 1) * math.exp(-x / beta)
+       pdf(x) =  --------------------------------------
+                   math.gamma(alpha) * beta ** alpha
+
+
+.. function:: gauss(mu, sigma)
+
+   Gaussian distribution.  *mu* is the mean, and *sigma* is the standard
+   deviation.  This is slightly faster than the :func:`normalvariate` function
+   defined below.
+
+
+.. function:: lognormvariate(mu, sigma)
+
+   Log normal distribution.  If you take the natural logarithm of this
+   distribution, you'll get a normal distribution with mean *mu* and standard
+   deviation *sigma*.  *mu* can have any value, and *sigma* must be greater than
+   zero.
+
+
+.. function:: normalvariate(mu, sigma)
+
+   Normal distribution.  *mu* is the mean, and *sigma* is the standard deviation.
+
+
+.. function:: vonmisesvariate(mu, kappa)
+
+   *mu* is the mean angle, expressed in radians between 0 and 2\*\ *pi*, and *kappa*
+   is the concentration parameter, which must be greater than or equal to zero.  If
+   *kappa* is equal to zero, this distribution reduces to a uniform random angle
+   over the range 0 to 2\*\ *pi*.
+
+
+.. function:: paretovariate(alpha)
+
+   Pareto distribution.  *alpha* is the shape parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: weibullvariate(alpha, beta)
+
+   Weibull distribution.  *alpha* is the scale parameter and *beta* is the shape
+   parameter.
+
+
+Alternative Generator
+---------------------
+
+.. class:: Random([seed])
+
+   Class that implements the default pseudo-random number generator used by the
+   :mod:`random` module.
+
+.. class:: SystemRandom([seed])
+
+   Class that uses the :func:`os.urandom` function for generating random numbers
+   from sources provided by the operating system. Not available on all systems.
+   Does not rely on software state, and sequences are not reproducible. Accordingly,
+   the :meth:`seed` method has no effect and is ignored.
+   The :meth:`getstate` and :meth:`setstate` methods raise
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError` if called.
+
+
+Notes on Reproducibility
+------------------------
+
+Sometimes it is useful to be able to reproduce the sequences given by a pseudo
+random number generator.  By re-using a seed value, the same sequence should be
+reproducible from run to run as long as multiple threads are not running.
+
+Most of the random module's algorithms and seeding functions are subject to
+change across Python versions, but two aspects are guaranteed not to change:
+
+* If a new seeding method is added, then a backward compatible seeder will be
+  offered.
+
+* The generator's :meth:`~Random.random` method will continue to produce the same
+  sequence when the compatible seeder is given the same seed.
+
+.. _random-examples:
+
+Examples and Recipes
+--------------------
+
+Basic examples::
+
+   >>> random()                             # Random float:  0.0 <= x < 1.0
+   0.37444887175646646
+
+   >>> uniform(2.5, 10.0)                   # Random float:  2.5 <= x < 10.0
+   3.1800146073117523
+
+   >>> expovariate(1 / 5)                   # Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds
+   5.148957571865031
+
+   >>> randrange(10)                        # Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive
+   7
+
+   >>> randrange(0, 101, 2)                 # Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive
+   26
+
+   >>> choice(['win', 'lose', 'draw'])      # Single random element from a sequence
+   'draw'
+
+   >>> deck = 'ace two three four'.split()
+   >>> shuffle(deck)                        # Shuffle a list
+   >>> deck
+   ['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three']
+
+   >>> sample([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], k=4)    # Four samples without replacement
+   [40, 10, 50, 30]
+
+Simulations::
+
+   >>> # Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement)
+   >>> choices(['red', 'black', 'green'], [18, 18, 2], k=6)
+   ['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black']
+
+   >>> # Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck of 52 playing cards
+   >>> # and determine the proportion of cards with a ten-value
+   >>> # (a ten, jack, queen, or king).
+   >>> deck = collections.Counter(tens=16, low_cards=36)
+   >>> seen = sample(list(deck.elements()), k=20)
+   >>> seen.count('tens') / 20
+   0.15
+
+   >>> # Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins
+   >>> # of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time.
+   >>> def trial():
+   ...     return choices('HT', cum_weights=(0.60, 1.00), k=7).count('H') >= 5
+   ...
+   >>> sum(trial() for i in range(10000)) / 10000
+   0.4169
+
+   >>> # Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles
+   >>> def trial():
+   ...     return 2500 <= sorted(choices(range(10000), k=5))[2] < 7500
+   ...
+   >>> sum(trial() for i in range(10000)) / 10000
+   0.7958
+
+Example of `statistical bootstrapping
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)>`_ using resampling
+with replacement to estimate a confidence interval for the mean of a sample of
+size five::
+
+   # http://statistics.about.com/od/Applications/a/Example-Of-Bootstrapping.htm
+   from statistics import mean
+   from random import choices
+
+   data = 1, 2, 4, 4, 10
+   means = sorted(mean(choices(data, k=5)) for i in range(20))
+   print(f'The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90% confidence '
+         f'interval from {means[1]:.1f} to {means[-2]:.1f}')
+
+Example of a `resampling permutation test
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests>`_
+to determine the statistical significance or `p-value
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value>`_ of an observed difference
+between the effects of a drug versus a placebo::
+
+    # Example from "Statistics is Easy" by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson
+    from statistics import mean
+    from random import shuffle
+
+    drug = [54, 73, 53, 70, 73, 68, 52, 65, 65]
+    placebo = [54, 51, 58, 44, 55, 52, 42, 47, 58, 46]
+    observed_diff = mean(drug) - mean(placebo)
+
+    n = 10000
+    count = 0
+    combined = drug + placebo
+    for i in range(n):
+        shuffle(combined)
+        new_diff = mean(combined[:len(drug)]) - mean(combined[len(drug):])
+        count += (new_diff >= observed_diff)
+
+    print(f'{n} label reshufflings produced only {count} instances with a difference')
+    print(f'at least as extreme as the observed difference of {observed_diff:.1f}.')
+    print(f'The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null')
+    print(f'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.')
+
+Simulation of arrival times and service deliveries in a single server queue::
+
+    from random import expovariate, gauss
+    from statistics import mean, median, stdev
+
+    average_arrival_interval = 5.6
+    average_service_time = 5.0
+    stdev_service_time = 0.5
+
+    num_waiting = 0
+    arrivals = []
+    starts = []
+    arrival = service_end = 0.0
+    for i in range(20000):
+        if arrival <= service_end:
+            num_waiting += 1
+            arrival += expovariate(1.0 / average_arrival_interval)
+            arrivals.append(arrival)
+        else:
+            num_waiting -= 1
+            service_start = service_end if num_waiting else arrival
+            service_time = gauss(average_service_time, stdev_service_time)
+            service_end = service_start + service_time
+            starts.append(service_start)
+
+    waits = [start - arrival for arrival, start in zip(arrivals, starts)]
+    print(f'Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}.  Stdev wait: {stdev(waits):.1f}.')
+    print(f'Median wait: {median(waits):.1f}.  Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}.')
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Statistics for Hackers <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA>`_
+   a video tutorial by
+   `Jake Vanderplas <https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/>`_
+   on statistical analysis using just a few fundamental concepts
+   including simulation, sampling, shuffling, and cross-validation.
+
+   `Economics Simulation
+   <http://nbviewer.jupyter.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb>`_
+   a simulation of a marketplace by
+   `Peter Norvig <http://norvig.com/bio.html>`_ that shows effective
+   use of many of the tools and distributions provided by this module
+   (gauss, uniform, sample, betavariate, choice, triangular, and randrange).
+
+   `A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python)
+   <http://nbviewer.jupyter.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb>`_
+   a tutorial by `Peter Norvig <http://norvig.com/bio.html>`_ covering
+   the basics of probability theory, how to write simulations, and
+   how to perform data analysis using Python.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/re.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/re.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e6c7f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/re.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1687 @@
+:mod:`re` --- Regular expression operations
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: re
+   :synopsis: Regular expression operations.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fredrik Lundh <fredrik@pythonware.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Andrew M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/re.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides regular expression matching operations similar to
+those found in Perl.
+
+Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (:class:`str`)
+as well as 8-bit strings (:class:`bytes`).
+However, Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed:
+that is, you cannot match a Unicode string with a byte pattern or
+vice-versa; similarly, when asking for a substitution, the replacement
+string must be of the same type as both the pattern and the search string.
+
+Regular expressions use the backslash character (``'\'``) to indicate
+special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking
+their special meaning.  This collides with Python's usage of the same
+character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match
+a literal backslash, one might have to write ``'\\\\'`` as the pattern
+string, because the regular expression must be ``\\``, and each
+backslash must be expressed as ``\\`` inside a regular Python string
+literal.
+
+The solution is to use Python's raw string notation for regular expression
+patterns; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string literal
+prefixed with ``'r'``.  So ``r"\n"`` is a two-character string containing
+``'\'`` and ``'n'``, while ``"\n"`` is a one-character string containing a
+newline.  Usually patterns will be expressed in Python code using this raw
+string notation.
+
+It is important to note that most regular expression operations are available as
+module-level functions and methods on
+:ref:`compiled regular expressions <re-objects>`.  The functions are shortcuts
+that don't require you to compile a regex object first, but miss some
+fine-tuning parameters.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The third-party `regex <https://pypi.org/project/regex/>`_ module,
+   which has an API compatible with the standard library :mod:`re` module,
+   but offers additional functionality and a more thorough Unicode support.
+
+
+.. _re-syntax:
+
+Regular Expression Syntax
+-------------------------
+
+A regular expression (or RE) specifies a set of strings that matches it; the
+functions in this module let you check if a particular string matches a given
+regular expression (or if a given regular expression matches a particular
+string, which comes down to the same thing).
+
+Regular expressions can be concatenated to form new regular expressions; if *A*
+and *B* are both regular expressions, then *AB* is also a regular expression.
+In general, if a string *p* matches *A* and another string *q* matches *B*, the
+string *pq* will match AB.  This holds unless *A* or *B* contain low precedence
+operations; boundary conditions between *A* and *B*; or have numbered group
+references.  Thus, complex expressions can easily be constructed from simpler
+primitive expressions like the ones described here.  For details of the theory
+and implementation of regular expressions, consult the Friedl book [Frie09]_,
+or almost any textbook about compiler construction.
+
+A brief explanation of the format of regular expressions follows.  For further
+information and a gentler presentation, consult the :ref:`regex-howto`.
+
+Regular expressions can contain both special and ordinary characters. Most
+ordinary characters, like ``'A'``, ``'a'``, or ``'0'``, are the simplest regular
+expressions; they simply match themselves.  You can concatenate ordinary
+characters, so ``last`` matches the string ``'last'``.  (In the rest of this
+section, we'll write RE's in ``this special style``, usually without quotes, and
+strings to be matched ``'in single quotes'``.)
+
+Some characters, like ``'|'`` or ``'('``, are special. Special
+characters either stand for classes of ordinary characters, or affect
+how the regular expressions around them are interpreted.
+
+Repetition qualifiers (``*``, ``+``, ``?``, ``{m,n}``, etc) cannot be
+directly nested. This avoids ambiguity with the non-greedy modifier suffix
+``?``, and with other modifiers in other implementations. To apply a second
+repetition to an inner repetition, parentheses may be used. For example,
+the expression ``(?:a{6})*`` matches any multiple of six ``'a'`` characters.
+
+
+The special characters are:
+
+.. index:: single: . (dot); in regular expressions
+
+``.``
+   (Dot.)  In the default mode, this matches any character except a newline.  If
+   the :const:`DOTALL` flag has been specified, this matches any character
+   including a newline.
+
+.. index:: single: ^ (caret); in regular expressions
+
+``^``
+   (Caret.)  Matches the start of the string, and in :const:`MULTILINE` mode also
+   matches immediately after each newline.
+
+.. index:: single: $ (dollar); in regular expressions
+
+``$``
+   Matches the end of the string or just before the newline at the end of the
+   string, and in :const:`MULTILINE` mode also matches before a newline.  ``foo``
+   matches both 'foo' and 'foobar', while the regular expression ``foo$`` matches
+   only 'foo'.  More interestingly, searching for ``foo.$`` in ``'foo1\nfoo2\n'``
+   matches 'foo2' normally, but 'foo1' in :const:`MULTILINE` mode; searching for
+   a single ``$`` in ``'foo\n'`` will find two (empty) matches: one just before
+   the newline, and one at the end of the string.
+
+.. index:: single: * (asterisk); in regular expressions
+
+``*``
+   Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or more repetitions of the preceding RE, as
+   many repetitions as are possible.  ``ab*`` will match 'a', 'ab', or 'a' followed
+   by any number of 'b's.
+
+.. index:: single: + (plus); in regular expressions
+
+``+``
+   Causes the resulting RE to match 1 or more repetitions of the preceding RE.
+   ``ab+`` will match 'a' followed by any non-zero number of 'b's; it will not
+   match just 'a'.
+
+.. index:: single: ? (question mark); in regular expressions
+
+``?``
+   Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or 1 repetitions of the preceding RE.
+   ``ab?`` will match either 'a' or 'ab'.
+
+.. index::
+   single: *?; in regular expressions
+   single: +?; in regular expressions
+   single: ??; in regular expressions
+
+``*?``, ``+?``, ``??``
+   The ``'*'``, ``'+'``, and ``'?'`` qualifiers are all :dfn:`greedy`; they match
+   as much text as possible.  Sometimes this behaviour isn't desired; if the RE
+   ``<.*>`` is matched against ``'<a> b <c>'``, it will match the entire
+   string, and not just ``'<a>'``.  Adding ``?`` after the qualifier makes it
+   perform the match in :dfn:`non-greedy` or :dfn:`minimal` fashion; as *few*
+   characters as possible will be matched.  Using the RE ``<.*?>`` will match
+   only ``'<a>'``.
+
+.. index::
+   single: {} (curly brackets); in regular expressions
+
+``{m}``
+   Specifies that exactly *m* copies of the previous RE should be matched; fewer
+   matches cause the entire RE not to match.  For example, ``a{6}`` will match
+   exactly six ``'a'`` characters, but not five.
+
+``{m,n}``
+   Causes the resulting RE to match from *m* to *n* repetitions of the preceding
+   RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible.  For example,
+   ``a{3,5}`` will match from 3 to 5 ``'a'`` characters.  Omitting *m* specifies a
+   lower bound of zero,  and omitting *n* specifies an infinite upper bound.  As an
+   example, ``a{4,}b`` will match ``'aaaab'`` or a thousand ``'a'`` characters
+   followed by a ``'b'``, but not ``'aaab'``. The comma may not be omitted or the
+   modifier would be confused with the previously described form.
+
+``{m,n}?``
+   Causes the resulting RE to match from *m* to *n* repetitions of the preceding
+   RE, attempting to match as *few* repetitions as possible.  This is the
+   non-greedy version of the previous qualifier.  For example, on the
+   6-character string ``'aaaaaa'``, ``a{3,5}`` will match 5 ``'a'`` characters,
+   while ``a{3,5}?`` will only match 3 characters.
+
+.. index:: single: \ (backslash); in regular expressions
+
+``\``
+   Either escapes special characters (permitting you to match characters like
+   ``'*'``, ``'?'``, and so forth), or signals a special sequence; special
+   sequences are discussed below.
+
+   If you're not using a raw string to express the pattern, remember that Python
+   also uses the backslash as an escape sequence in string literals; if the escape
+   sequence isn't recognized by Python's parser, the backslash and subsequent
+   character are included in the resulting string.  However, if Python would
+   recognize the resulting sequence, the backslash should be repeated twice.  This
+   is complicated and hard to understand, so it's highly recommended that you use
+   raw strings for all but the simplest expressions.
+
+.. index::
+   single: [] (square brackets); in regular expressions
+
+``[]``
+   Used to indicate a set of characters.  In a set:
+
+   * Characters can be listed individually, e.g. ``[amk]`` will match ``'a'``,
+     ``'m'``, or ``'k'``.
+
+   .. index:: single: - (minus); in regular expressions
+
+   * Ranges of characters can be indicated by giving two characters and separating
+     them by a ``'-'``, for example ``[a-z]`` will match any lowercase ASCII letter,
+     ``[0-5][0-9]`` will match all the two-digits numbers from ``00`` to ``59``, and
+     ``[0-9A-Fa-f]`` will match any hexadecimal digit.  If ``-`` is escaped (e.g.
+     ``[a\-z]``) or if it's placed as the first or last character
+     (e.g. ``[-a]`` or ``[a-]``), it will match a literal ``'-'``.
+
+   * Special characters lose their special meaning inside sets.  For example,
+     ``[(+*)]`` will match any of the literal characters ``'('``, ``'+'``,
+     ``'*'``, or ``')'``.
+
+   .. index:: single: \ (backslash); in regular expressions
+
+   * Character classes such as ``\w`` or ``\S`` (defined below) are also accepted
+     inside a set, although the characters they match depends on whether
+     :const:`ASCII` or :const:`LOCALE` mode is in force.
+
+   .. index:: single: ^ (caret); in regular expressions
+
+   * Characters that are not within a range can be matched by :dfn:`complementing`
+     the set.  If the first character of the set is ``'^'``, all the characters
+     that are *not* in the set will be matched.  For example, ``[^5]`` will match
+     any character except ``'5'``, and ``[^^]`` will match any character except
+     ``'^'``.  ``^`` has no special meaning if it's not the first character in
+     the set.
+
+   * To match a literal ``']'`` inside a set, precede it with a backslash, or
+     place it at the beginning of the set.  For example, both ``[()[\]{}]`` and
+     ``[]()[{}]`` will both match a parenthesis.
+
+   .. .. index:: single: --; in regular expressions
+   .. .. index:: single: &&; in regular expressions
+   .. .. index:: single: ~~; in regular expressions
+   .. .. index:: single: ||; in regular expressions
+
+   * Support of nested sets and set operations as in `Unicode Technical
+     Standard #18`_ might be added in the future.  This would change the
+     syntax, so to facilitate this change a :exc:`FutureWarning` will be raised
+     in ambiguous cases for the time being.
+     That includes sets starting with a literal ``'['`` or containing literal
+     character sequences ``'--'``, ``'&&'``, ``'~~'``, and ``'||'``.  To
+     avoid a warning escape them with a backslash.
+
+   .. _Unicode Technical Standard #18: https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      :exc:`FutureWarning` is raised if a character set contains constructs
+      that will change semantically in the future.
+
+.. index:: single: | (vertical bar); in regular expressions
+
+``|``
+   ``A|B``, where *A* and *B* can be arbitrary REs, creates a regular expression that
+   will match either *A* or *B*.  An arbitrary number of REs can be separated by the
+   ``'|'`` in this way.  This can be used inside groups (see below) as well.  As
+   the target string is scanned, REs separated by ``'|'`` are tried from left to
+   right. When one pattern completely matches, that branch is accepted. This means
+   that once *A* matches, *B* will not be tested further, even if it would
+   produce a longer overall match.  In other words, the ``'|'`` operator is never
+   greedy.  To match a literal ``'|'``, use ``\|``, or enclose it inside a
+   character class, as in ``[|]``.
+
+.. index::
+   single: () (parentheses); in regular expressions
+
+``(...)``
+   Matches whatever regular expression is inside the parentheses, and indicates the
+   start and end of a group; the contents of a group can be retrieved after a match
+   has been performed, and can be matched later in the string with the ``\number``
+   special sequence, described below.  To match the literals ``'('`` or ``')'``,
+   use ``\(`` or ``\)``, or enclose them inside a character class: ``[(]``, ``[)]``.
+
+.. index:: single: (?; in regular expressions
+
+``(?...)``
+   This is an extension notation (a ``'?'`` following a ``'('`` is not meaningful
+   otherwise).  The first character after the ``'?'`` determines what the meaning
+   and further syntax of the construct is. Extensions usually do not create a new
+   group; ``(?P<name>...)`` is the only exception to this rule. Following are the
+   currently supported extensions.
+
+``(?aiLmsux)``
+   (One or more letters from the set ``'a'``, ``'i'``, ``'L'``, ``'m'``,
+   ``'s'``, ``'u'``, ``'x'``.)  The group matches the empty string; the
+   letters set the corresponding flags: :const:`re.A` (ASCII-only matching),
+   :const:`re.I` (ignore case), :const:`re.L` (locale dependent),
+   :const:`re.M` (multi-line), :const:`re.S` (dot matches all),
+   :const:`re.U` (Unicode matching), and :const:`re.X` (verbose),
+   for the entire regular expression.
+   (The flags are described in :ref:`contents-of-module-re`.)
+   This is useful if you wish to include the flags as part of the
+   regular expression, instead of passing a *flag* argument to the
+   :func:`re.compile` function.  Flags should be used first in the
+   expression string.
+
+.. index:: single: (?:; in regular expressions
+
+``(?:...)``
+   A non-capturing version of regular parentheses.  Matches whatever regular
+   expression is inside the parentheses, but the substring matched by the group
+   *cannot* be retrieved after performing a match or referenced later in the
+   pattern.
+
+``(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)``
+   (Zero or more letters from the set ``'a'``, ``'i'``, ``'L'``, ``'m'``,
+   ``'s'``, ``'u'``, ``'x'``, optionally followed by ``'-'`` followed by
+   one or more letters from the ``'i'``, ``'m'``, ``'s'``, ``'x'``.)
+   The letters set or remove the corresponding flags:
+   :const:`re.A` (ASCII-only matching), :const:`re.I` (ignore case),
+   :const:`re.L` (locale dependent), :const:`re.M` (multi-line),
+   :const:`re.S` (dot matches all), :const:`re.U` (Unicode matching),
+   and :const:`re.X` (verbose), for the part of the expression.
+   (The flags are described in :ref:`contents-of-module-re`.)
+
+   The letters ``'a'``, ``'L'`` and ``'u'`` are mutually exclusive when used
+   as inline flags, so they can't be combined or follow ``'-'``.  Instead,
+   when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides the matching mode
+   in the enclosing group.  In Unicode patterns ``(?a:...)`` switches to
+   ASCII-only matching, and ``(?u:...)`` switches to Unicode matching
+   (default).  In byte pattern ``(?L:...)`` switches to locale depending
+   matching, and ``(?a:...)`` switches to ASCII-only matching (default).
+   This override is only in effect for the narrow inline group, and the
+   original matching mode is restored outside of the group.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The letters ``'a'``, ``'L'`` and ``'u'`` also can be used in a group.
+
+.. index:: single: (?P<; in regular expressions
+
+``(?P<name>...)``
+   Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the group is
+   accessible via the symbolic group name *name*.  Group names must be valid
+   Python identifiers, and each group name must be defined only once within a
+   regular expression.  A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if
+   the group were not named.
+
+   Named groups can be referenced in three contexts.  If the pattern is
+   ``(?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote)`` (i.e. matching a string quoted with either
+   single or double quotes):
+
+   +---------------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+   | Context of reference to group "quote" | Ways to reference it             |
+   +=======================================+==================================+
+   | in the same pattern itself            | * ``(?P=quote)`` (as shown)      |
+   |                                       | * ``\1``                         |
+   +---------------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+   | when processing match object *m*      | * ``m.group('quote')``           |
+   |                                       | * ``m.end('quote')`` (etc.)      |
+   +---------------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+   | in a string passed to the *repl*      | * ``\g<quote>``                  |
+   | argument of ``re.sub()``              | * ``\g<1>``                      |
+   |                                       | * ``\1``                         |
+   +---------------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+
+.. index:: single: (?P=; in regular expressions
+
+``(?P=name)``
+   A backreference to a named group; it matches whatever text was matched by the
+   earlier group named *name*.
+
+.. index:: single: (?#; in regular expressions
+
+``(?#...)``
+   A comment; the contents of the parentheses are simply ignored.
+
+.. index:: single: (?=; in regular expressions
+
+``(?=...)``
+   Matches if ``...`` matches next, but doesn't consume any of the string.  This is
+   called a :dfn:`lookahead assertion`.  For example, ``Isaac (?=Asimov)`` will match
+   ``'Isaac '`` only if it's followed by ``'Asimov'``.
+
+.. index:: single: (?!; in regular expressions
+
+``(?!...)``
+   Matches if ``...`` doesn't match next.  This is a :dfn:`negative lookahead assertion`.
+   For example, ``Isaac (?!Asimov)`` will match ``'Isaac '`` only if it's *not*
+   followed by ``'Asimov'``.
+
+.. index:: single: (?<=; in regular expressions
+
+``(?<=...)``
+   Matches if the current position in the string is preceded by a match for ``...``
+   that ends at the current position.  This is called a :dfn:`positive lookbehind
+   assertion`. ``(?<=abc)def`` will find a match in ``'abcdef'``, since the
+   lookbehind will back up 3 characters and check if the contained pattern matches.
+   The contained pattern must only match strings of some fixed length, meaning that
+   ``abc`` or ``a|b`` are allowed, but ``a*`` and ``a{3,4}`` are not.  Note that
+   patterns which start with positive lookbehind assertions will not match at the
+   beginning of the string being searched; you will most likely want to use the
+   :func:`search` function rather than the :func:`match` function:
+
+      >>> import re
+      >>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
+      >>> m.group(0)
+      'def'
+
+   This example looks for a word following a hyphen:
+
+      >>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg')
+      >>> m.group(0)
+      'egg'
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for group references of fixed length.
+
+.. index:: single: (?<!; in regular expressions
+
+``(?<!...)``
+   Matches if the current position in the string is not preceded by a match for
+   ``...``.  This is called a :dfn:`negative lookbehind assertion`.  Similar to
+   positive lookbehind assertions, the contained pattern must only match strings of
+   some fixed length.  Patterns which start with negative lookbehind assertions may
+   match at the beginning of the string being searched.
+
+``(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)``
+   Will try to match with ``yes-pattern`` if the group with given *id* or
+   *name* exists, and with ``no-pattern`` if it doesn't. ``no-pattern`` is
+   optional and can be omitted. For example,
+   ``(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$)`` is a poor email matching pattern, which
+   will match with ``'<user@host.com>'`` as well as ``'user@host.com'``, but
+   not with ``'<user@host.com'`` nor ``'user@host.com>'``.
+
+
+The special sequences consist of ``'\'`` and a character from the list below.
+If the ordinary character is not an ASCII digit or an ASCII letter, then the
+resulting RE will match the second character.  For example, ``\$`` matches the
+character ``'$'``.
+
+.. index:: single: \ (backslash); in regular expressions
+
+``\number``
+   Matches the contents of the group of the same number.  Groups are numbered
+   starting from 1.  For example, ``(.+) \1`` matches ``'the the'`` or ``'55 55'``,
+   but not ``'thethe'`` (note the space after the group).  This special sequence
+   can only be used to match one of the first 99 groups.  If the first digit of
+   *number* is 0, or *number* is 3 octal digits long, it will not be interpreted as
+   a group match, but as the character with octal value *number*. Inside the
+   ``'['`` and ``']'`` of a character class, all numeric escapes are treated as
+   characters.
+
+.. index:: single: \A; in regular expressions
+
+``\A``
+   Matches only at the start of the string.
+
+.. index:: single: \b; in regular expressions
+
+``\b``
+   Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a word.
+   A word is defined as a sequence of word characters.  Note that formally,
+   ``\b`` is defined as the boundary between a ``\w`` and a ``\W`` character
+   (or vice versa), or between ``\w`` and the beginning/end of the string.
+   This means that ``r'\bfoo\b'`` matches ``'foo'``, ``'foo.'``, ``'(foo)'``,
+   ``'bar foo baz'`` but not ``'foobar'`` or ``'foo3'``.
+
+   By default Unicode alphanumerics are the ones used in Unicode patterns, but
+   this can be changed by using the :const:`ASCII` flag.  Word boundaries are
+   determined by the current locale if the :const:`LOCALE` flag is used.
+   Inside a character range, ``\b`` represents the backspace character, for
+   compatibility with Python's string literals.
+
+.. index:: single: \B; in regular expressions
+
+``\B``
+   Matches the empty string, but only when it is *not* at the beginning or end
+   of a word.  This means that ``r'py\B'`` matches ``'python'``, ``'py3'``,
+   ``'py2'``, but not ``'py'``, ``'py.'``, or ``'py!'``.
+   ``\B`` is just the opposite of ``\b``, so word characters in Unicode
+   patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore, although this can
+   be changed by using the :const:`ASCII` flag.  Word boundaries are
+   determined by the current locale if the :const:`LOCALE` flag is used.
+
+.. index:: single: \d; in regular expressions
+
+``\d``
+   For Unicode (str) patterns:
+      Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in
+      Unicode character category [Nd]).  This includes ``[0-9]``, and
+      also many other digit characters.  If the :const:`ASCII` flag is
+      used only ``[0-9]`` is matched.
+
+   For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:
+      Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to ``[0-9]``.
+
+.. index:: single: \D; in regular expressions
+
+``\D``
+   Matches any character which is not a decimal digit. This is
+   the opposite of ``\d``. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used this
+   becomes the equivalent of ``[^0-9]``.
+
+.. index:: single: \s; in regular expressions
+
+``\s``
+   For Unicode (str) patterns:
+      Matches Unicode whitespace characters (which includes
+      ``[ \t\n\r\f\v]``, and also many other characters, for example the
+      non-breaking spaces mandated by typography rules in many
+      languages). If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used, only
+      ``[ \t\n\r\f\v]`` is matched.
+
+   For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:
+      Matches characters considered whitespace in the ASCII character set;
+      this is equivalent to ``[ \t\n\r\f\v]``.
+
+.. index:: single: \S; in regular expressions
+
+``\S``
+   Matches any character which is not a whitespace character. This is
+   the opposite of ``\s``. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used this
+   becomes the equivalent of ``[^ \t\n\r\f\v]``.
+
+.. index:: single: \w; in regular expressions
+
+``\w``
+   For Unicode (str) patterns:
+      Matches Unicode word characters; this includes most characters
+      that can be part of a word in any language, as well as numbers and
+      the underscore. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used, only
+      ``[a-zA-Z0-9_]`` is matched.
+
+   For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:
+      Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII character set;
+      this is equivalent to ``[a-zA-Z0-9_]``.  If the :const:`LOCALE` flag is
+      used, matches characters considered alphanumeric in the current locale
+      and the underscore.
+
+.. index:: single: \W; in regular expressions
+
+``\W``
+   Matches any character which is not a word character. This is
+   the opposite of ``\w``. If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used this
+   becomes the equivalent of ``[^a-zA-Z0-9_]``.  If the :const:`LOCALE` flag is
+   used, matches characters considered alphanumeric in the current locale
+   and the underscore.
+
+.. index:: single: \Z; in regular expressions
+
+``\Z``
+   Matches only at the end of the string.
+
+.. index::
+   single: \a; in regular expressions
+   single: \b; in regular expressions
+   single: \f; in regular expressions
+   single: \n; in regular expressions
+   single: \N; in regular expressions
+   single: \r; in regular expressions
+   single: \t; in regular expressions
+   single: \u; in regular expressions
+   single: \U; in regular expressions
+   single: \v; in regular expressions
+   single: \x; in regular expressions
+   single: \\; in regular expressions
+
+Most of the standard escapes supported by Python string literals are also
+accepted by the regular expression parser::
+
+   \a      \b      \f      \n
+   \r      \t      \u      \U
+   \v      \x      \\
+
+(Note that ``\b`` is used to represent word boundaries, and means "backspace"
+only inside character classes.)
+
+``'\u'`` and ``'\U'`` escape sequences are only recognized in Unicode
+patterns.  In bytes patterns they are errors.  Unknown escapes of ASCII
+letters are reserved for future use and treated as errors.
+
+Octal escapes are included in a limited form.  If the first digit is a 0, or if
+there are three octal digits, it is considered an octal escape. Otherwise, it is
+a group reference.  As for string literals, octal escapes are always at most
+three digits in length.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   The ``'\u'`` and ``'\U'`` escape sequences have been added.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   Unknown escapes consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter now are errors.
+
+
+
+.. _contents-of-module-re:
+
+Module Contents
+---------------
+
+The module defines several functions, constants, and an exception. Some of the
+functions are simplified versions of the full featured methods for compiled
+regular expressions.  Most non-trivial applications always use the compiled
+form.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   Flag constants are now instances of :class:`RegexFlag`, which is a subclass of
+   :class:`enum.IntFlag`.
+
+.. function:: compile(pattern, flags=0)
+
+   Compile a regular expression pattern into a :ref:`regular expression object
+   <re-objects>`, which can be used for matching using its
+   :func:`~Pattern.match`, :func:`~Pattern.search` and other methods, described
+   below.
+
+   The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+   Values can be any of the following variables, combined using bitwise OR (the
+   ``|`` operator).
+
+   The sequence ::
+
+      prog = re.compile(pattern)
+      result = prog.match(string)
+
+   is equivalent to ::
+
+      result = re.match(pattern, string)
+
+   but using :func:`re.compile` and saving the resulting regular expression
+   object for reuse is more efficient when the expression will be used several
+   times in a single program.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The compiled versions of the most recent patterns passed to
+      :func:`re.compile` and the module-level matching functions are cached, so
+      programs that use only a few regular expressions at a time needn't worry
+      about compiling regular expressions.
+
+
+.. data:: A
+          ASCII
+
+   Make ``\w``, ``\W``, ``\b``, ``\B``, ``\d``, ``\D``, ``\s`` and ``\S``
+   perform ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only
+   meaningful for Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns.
+   Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?a)``.
+
+   Note that for backward compatibility, the :const:`re.U` flag still
+   exists (as well as its synonym :const:`re.UNICODE` and its embedded
+   counterpart ``(?u)``), but these are redundant in Python 3 since
+   matches are Unicode by default for strings (and Unicode matching
+   isn't allowed for bytes).
+
+
+.. data:: DEBUG
+
+   Display debug information about compiled expression.
+   No corresponding inline flag.
+
+
+.. data:: I
+          IGNORECASE
+
+   Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like ``[A-Z]`` will also
+   match lowercase letters.  Full Unicode matching (such as ``Ü`` matching
+   ``ü``) also works unless the :const:`re.ASCII` flag is used to disable
+   non-ASCII matches.  The current locale does not change the effect of this
+   flag unless the :const:`re.LOCALE` flag is also used.
+   Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?i)``.
+
+   Note that when the Unicode patterns ``[a-z]`` or ``[A-Z]`` are used in
+   combination with the :const:`IGNORECASE` flag, they will match the 52 ASCII
+   letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: 'İ' (U+0130, Latin capital
+   letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131, Latin small letter dotless i),
+   'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign).
+   If the :const:`ASCII` flag is used, only letters 'a' to 'z'
+   and 'A' to 'Z' are matched.
+
+.. data:: L
+          LOCALE
+
+   Make ``\w``, ``\W``, ``\b``, ``\B`` and case-insensitive matching
+   dependent on the current locale.  This flag can be used only with bytes
+   patterns.  The use of this flag is discouraged as the locale mechanism
+   is very unreliable, it only handles one "culture" at a time, and it only
+   works with 8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is already enabled by default
+   in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able to handle different
+   locales/languages.
+   Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?L)``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :const:`re.LOCALE` can be used only with bytes patterns and is
+      not compatible with :const:`re.ASCII`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Compiled regular expression objects with the :const:`re.LOCALE` flag no
+      longer depend on the locale at compile time.  Only the locale at
+      matching time affects the result of matching.
+
+
+.. data:: M
+          MULTILINE
+
+   When specified, the pattern character ``'^'`` matches at the beginning of the
+   string and at the beginning of each line (immediately following each newline);
+   and the pattern character ``'$'`` matches at the end of the string and at the
+   end of each line (immediately preceding each newline).  By default, ``'^'``
+   matches only at the beginning of the string, and ``'$'`` only at the end of the
+   string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end of the string.
+   Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?m)``.
+
+
+.. data:: S
+          DOTALL
+
+   Make the ``'.'`` special character match any character at all, including a
+   newline; without this flag, ``'.'`` will match anything *except* a newline.
+   Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?s)``.
+
+
+.. data:: X
+          VERBOSE
+
+   .. index:: single: # (hash); in regular expressions
+
+   This flag allows you to write regular expressions that look nicer and are
+   more readable by allowing you to visually separate logical sections of the
+   pattern and add comments. Whitespace within the pattern is ignored, except
+   when in a character class, or when preceded by an unescaped backslash,
+   or within tokens like ``*?``, ``(?:`` or ``(?P<...>``.
+   When a line contains a ``#`` that is not in a character class and is not
+   preceded by an unescaped backslash, all characters from the leftmost such
+   ``#`` through the end of the line are ignored.
+
+   This means that the two following regular expression objects that match a
+   decimal number are functionally equal::
+
+      a = re.compile(r"""\d +  # the integral part
+                         \.    # the decimal point
+                         \d *  # some fractional digits""", re.X)
+      b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*")
+
+   Corresponds to the inline flag ``(?x)``.
+
+
+.. function:: search(pattern, string, flags=0)
+
+   Scan through *string* looking for the first location where the regular expression
+   *pattern* produces a match, and return a corresponding :ref:`match object
+   <match-objects>`.  Return ``None`` if no position in the string matches the
+   pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some
+   point in the string.
+
+
+.. function:: match(pattern, string, flags=0)
+
+   If zero or more characters at the beginning of *string* match the regular
+   expression *pattern*, return a corresponding :ref:`match object
+   <match-objects>`.  Return ``None`` if the string does not match the pattern;
+   note that this is different from a zero-length match.
+
+   Note that even in :const:`MULTILINE` mode, :func:`re.match` will only match
+   at the beginning of the string and not at the beginning of each line.
+
+   If you want to locate a match anywhere in *string*, use :func:`search`
+   instead (see also :ref:`search-vs-match`).
+
+
+.. function:: fullmatch(pattern, string, flags=0)
+
+   If the whole *string* matches the regular expression *pattern*, return a
+   corresponding :ref:`match object <match-objects>`.  Return ``None`` if the
+   string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a
+   zero-length match.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: split(pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)
+
+   Split *string* by the occurrences of *pattern*.  If capturing parentheses are
+   used in *pattern*, then the text of all groups in the pattern are also returned
+   as part of the resulting list. If *maxsplit* is nonzero, at most *maxsplit*
+   splits occur, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final element
+   of the list. ::
+
+      >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
+      ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
+      >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
+      ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
+      >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
+      ['Words', 'words, words.']
+      >>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
+      ['0', '3', '9']
+
+   If there are capturing groups in the separator and it matches at the start of
+   the string, the result will start with an empty string.  The same holds for
+   the end of the string::
+
+      >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
+      ['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']
+
+   That way, separator components are always found at the same relative
+   indices within the result list.
+
+   Empty matches for the pattern split the string only when not adjacent
+   to a previous empty match.
+
+      >>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
+      ['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
+      >>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
+      ['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
+      >>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
+      ['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added the optional flags argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added support of splitting on a pattern that could match an empty string.
+
+
+.. function:: findall(pattern, string, flags=0)
+
+   Return all non-overlapping matches of *pattern* in *string*, as a list of
+   strings.  The *string* is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in
+   the order found.  If one or more groups are present in the pattern, return a
+   list of groups; this will be a list of tuples if the pattern has more than
+   one group.  Empty matches are included in the result.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.
+
+
+.. function:: finditer(pattern, string, flags=0)
+
+   Return an :term:`iterator` yielding :ref:`match objects <match-objects>` over
+   all non-overlapping matches for the RE *pattern* in *string*.  The *string*
+   is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in the order found.  Empty
+   matches are included in the result.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.
+
+
+.. function:: sub(pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)
+
+   Return the string obtained by replacing the leftmost non-overlapping occurrences
+   of *pattern* in *string* by the replacement *repl*.  If the pattern isn't found,
+   *string* is returned unchanged.  *repl* can be a string or a function; if it is
+   a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.  That is, ``\n`` is
+   converted to a single newline character, ``\r`` is converted to a carriage return, and
+   so forth.  Unknown escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and
+   treated as errors.  Other unknown escapes such as ``\&`` are left alone.
+   Backreferences, such
+   as ``\6``, are replaced with the substring matched by group 6 in the pattern.
+   For example::
+
+      >>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
+      ...        r'static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{',
+      ...        'def myfunc():')
+      'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'
+
+   If *repl* is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping occurrence of
+   *pattern*.  The function takes a single :ref:`match object <match-objects>`
+   argument, and returns the replacement string.  For example::
+
+      >>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
+      ...     if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
+      ...     else: return '-'
+      >>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
+      'pro--gram files'
+      >>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
+      'Baked Beans & Spam'
+
+   The pattern may be a string or a :ref:`pattern object <re-objects>`.
+
+   The optional argument *count* is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be
+   replaced; *count* must be a non-negative integer.  If omitted or zero, all
+   occurrences will be replaced. Empty matches for the pattern are replaced only
+   when not adjacent to a previous empty match, so ``sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')`` returns
+   ``'-a-b--d-'``.
+
+   .. index:: single: \g; in regular expressions
+
+   In string-type *repl* arguments, in addition to the character escapes and
+   backreferences described above,
+   ``\g<name>`` will use the substring matched by the group named ``name``, as
+   defined by the ``(?P<name>...)`` syntax. ``\g<number>`` uses the corresponding
+   group number; ``\g<2>`` is therefore equivalent to ``\2``, but isn't ambiguous
+   in a replacement such as ``\g<2>0``.  ``\20`` would be interpreted as a
+   reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the literal
+   character ``'0'``.  The backreference ``\g<0>`` substitutes in the entire
+   substring matched by the RE.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added the optional flags argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Unknown escapes in *pattern* consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter
+      now are errors.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Unknown escapes in *repl* consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter
+      now are errors.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Empty matches for the pattern are replaced when adjacent to a previous
+      non-empty match.
+
+
+.. function:: subn(pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)
+
+   Perform the same operation as :func:`sub`, but return a tuple ``(new_string,
+   number_of_subs_made)``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added the optional flags argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.
+
+
+.. function:: escape(pattern)
+
+   Escape special characters in *pattern*.
+   This is useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may
+   have regular expression metacharacters in it.  For example::
+
+      >>> print(re.escape('python.exe'))
+      python\.exe
+
+      >>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
+      >>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
+      [abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+
+
+      >>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
+      >>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
+      /|\-|\+|\*\*|\*
+
+   This functions must not be used for the replacement string in :func:`sub`
+   and :func:`subn`, only backslashes should be escaped.  For example::
+
+      >>> digits_re = r'\d+'
+      >>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
+      >>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
+      /usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The ``'_'`` character is no longer escaped.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Only characters that can have special meaning in a regular expression
+      are escaped.
+
+
+.. function:: purge()
+
+   Clear the regular expression cache.
+
+
+.. exception:: error(msg, pattern=None, pos=None)
+
+   Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here is not a
+   valid regular expression (for example, it might contain unmatched parentheses)
+   or when some other error occurs during compilation or matching.  It is never an
+   error if a string contains no match for a pattern.  The error instance has
+   the following additional attributes:
+
+   .. attribute:: msg
+
+      The unformatted error message.
+
+   .. attribute:: pattern
+
+      The regular expression pattern.
+
+   .. attribute:: pos
+
+      The index in *pattern* where compilation failed (may be ``None``).
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+
+      The line corresponding to *pos* (may be ``None``).
+
+   .. attribute:: colno
+
+      The column corresponding to *pos* (may be ``None``).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added additional attributes.
+
+.. _re-objects:
+
+Regular Expression Objects
+--------------------------
+
+Compiled regular expression objects support the following methods and
+attributes:
+
+.. method:: Pattern.search(string[, pos[, endpos]])
+
+   Scan through *string* looking for the first location where this regular
+   expression produces a match, and return a corresponding :ref:`match object
+   <match-objects>`.  Return ``None`` if no position in the string matches the
+   pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some
+   point in the string.
+
+   The optional second parameter *pos* gives an index in the string where the
+   search is to start; it defaults to ``0``.  This is not completely equivalent to
+   slicing the string; the ``'^'`` pattern character matches at the real beginning
+   of the string and at positions just after a newline, but not necessarily at the
+   index where the search is to start.
+
+   The optional parameter *endpos* limits how far the string will be searched; it
+   will be as if the string is *endpos* characters long, so only the characters
+   from *pos* to ``endpos - 1`` will be searched for a match.  If *endpos* is less
+   than *pos*, no match will be found; otherwise, if *rx* is a compiled regular
+   expression object, ``rx.search(string, 0, 50)`` is equivalent to
+   ``rx.search(string[:50], 0)``. ::
+
+      >>> pattern = re.compile("d")
+      >>> pattern.search("dog")     # Match at index 0
+      <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
+      >>> pattern.search("dog", 1)  # No match; search doesn't include the "d"
+
+
+.. method:: Pattern.match(string[, pos[, endpos]])
+
+   If zero or more characters at the *beginning* of *string* match this regular
+   expression, return a corresponding :ref:`match object <match-objects>`.
+   Return ``None`` if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is
+   different from a zero-length match.
+
+   The optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters have the same meaning as for the
+   :meth:`~Pattern.search` method. ::
+
+      >>> pattern = re.compile("o")
+      >>> pattern.match("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
+      >>> pattern.match("dog", 1)   # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
+      <re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>
+
+   If you want to locate a match anywhere in *string*, use
+   :meth:`~Pattern.search` instead (see also :ref:`search-vs-match`).
+
+
+.. method:: Pattern.fullmatch(string[, pos[, endpos]])
+
+   If the whole *string* matches this regular expression, return a corresponding
+   :ref:`match object <match-objects>`.  Return ``None`` if the string does not
+   match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.
+
+   The optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters have the same meaning as for the
+   :meth:`~Pattern.search` method. ::
+
+      >>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
+      >>> pattern.fullmatch("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
+      >>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre")     # No match as not the full string matches.
+      >>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3)   # Matches within given limits.
+      <re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: Pattern.split(string, maxsplit=0)
+
+   Identical to the :func:`split` function, using the compiled pattern.
+
+
+.. method:: Pattern.findall(string[, pos[, endpos]])
+
+   Similar to the :func:`findall` function, using the compiled pattern, but
+   also accepts optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters that limit the search
+   region like for :meth:`search`.
+
+
+.. method:: Pattern.finditer(string[, pos[, endpos]])
+
+   Similar to the :func:`finditer` function, using the compiled pattern, but
+   also accepts optional *pos* and *endpos* parameters that limit the search
+   region like for :meth:`search`.
+
+
+.. method:: Pattern.sub(repl, string, count=0)
+
+   Identical to the :func:`sub` function, using the compiled pattern.
+
+
+.. method:: Pattern.subn(repl, string, count=0)
+
+   Identical to the :func:`subn` function, using the compiled pattern.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Pattern.flags
+
+   The regex matching flags.  This is a combination of the flags given to
+   :func:`.compile`, any ``(?...)`` inline flags in the pattern, and implicit
+   flags such as :data:`UNICODE` if the pattern is a Unicode string.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Pattern.groups
+
+   The number of capturing groups in the pattern.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Pattern.groupindex
+
+   A dictionary mapping any symbolic group names defined by ``(?P<id>)`` to group
+   numbers.  The dictionary is empty if no symbolic groups were used in the
+   pattern.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Pattern.pattern
+
+   The pattern string from which the pattern object was compiled.
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added support of :func:`copy.copy` and :func:`copy.deepcopy`.  Compiled
+   regular expression objects are considered atomic.
+
+
+.. _match-objects:
+
+Match Objects
+-------------
+
+Match objects always have a boolean value of ``True``.
+Since :meth:`~Pattern.match` and :meth:`~Pattern.search` return ``None``
+when there is no match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple
+``if`` statement::
+
+   match = re.search(pattern, string)
+   if match:
+       process(match)
+
+Match objects support the following methods and attributes:
+
+
+.. method:: Match.expand(template)
+
+   Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the template
+   string *template*, as done by the :meth:`~Pattern.sub` method.
+   Escapes such as ``\n`` are converted to the appropriate characters,
+   and numeric backreferences (``\1``, ``\2``) and named backreferences
+   (``\g<1>``, ``\g<name>``) are replaced by the contents of the
+   corresponding group.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.
+
+.. method:: Match.group([group1, ...])
+
+   Returns one or more subgroups of the match.  If there is a single argument, the
+   result is a single string; if there are multiple arguments, the result is a
+   tuple with one item per argument. Without arguments, *group1* defaults to zero
+   (the whole match is returned). If a *groupN* argument is zero, the corresponding
+   return value is the entire matching string; if it is in the inclusive range
+   [1..99], it is the string matching the corresponding parenthesized group.  If a
+   group number is negative or larger than the number of groups defined in the
+   pattern, an :exc:`IndexError` exception is raised. If a group is contained in a
+   part of the pattern that did not match, the corresponding result is ``None``.
+   If a group is contained in a part of the pattern that matched multiple times,
+   the last match is returned. ::
+
+      >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
+      >>> m.group(0)       # The entire match
+      'Isaac Newton'
+      >>> m.group(1)       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
+      'Isaac'
+      >>> m.group(2)       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
+      'Newton'
+      >>> m.group(1, 2)    # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
+      ('Isaac', 'Newton')
+
+   If the regular expression uses the ``(?P<name>...)`` syntax, the *groupN*
+   arguments may also be strings identifying groups by their group name.  If a
+   string argument is not used as a group name in the pattern, an :exc:`IndexError`
+   exception is raised.
+
+   A moderately complicated example::
+
+      >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
+      >>> m.group('first_name')
+      'Malcolm'
+      >>> m.group('last_name')
+      'Reynolds'
+
+   Named groups can also be referred to by their index::
+
+      >>> m.group(1)
+      'Malcolm'
+      >>> m.group(2)
+      'Reynolds'
+
+   If a group matches multiple times, only the last match is accessible::
+
+      >>> m = re.match(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3")  # Matches 3 times.
+      >>> m.group(1)                        # Returns only the last match.
+      'c3'
+
+
+.. method:: Match.__getitem__(g)
+
+   This is identical to ``m.group(g)``.  This allows easier access to
+   an individual group from a match::
+
+      >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
+      >>> m[0]       # The entire match
+      'Isaac Newton'
+      >>> m[1]       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
+      'Isaac'
+      >>> m[2]       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
+      'Newton'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. method:: Match.groups(default=None)
+
+   Return a tuple containing all the subgroups of the match, from 1 up to however
+   many groups are in the pattern.  The *default* argument is used for groups that
+   did not participate in the match; it defaults to ``None``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
+      >>> m.groups()
+      ('24', '1632')
+
+   If we make the decimal place and everything after it optional, not all groups
+   might participate in the match.  These groups will default to ``None`` unless
+   the *default* argument is given::
+
+      >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
+      >>> m.groups()      # Second group defaults to None.
+      ('24', None)
+      >>> m.groups('0')   # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
+      ('24', '0')
+
+
+.. method:: Match.groupdict(default=None)
+
+   Return a dictionary containing all the *named* subgroups of the match, keyed by
+   the subgroup name.  The *default* argument is used for groups that did not
+   participate in the match; it defaults to ``None``.  For example::
+
+      >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
+      >>> m.groupdict()
+      {'first_name': 'Malcolm', 'last_name': 'Reynolds'}
+
+
+.. method:: Match.start([group])
+            Match.end([group])
+
+   Return the indices of the start and end of the substring matched by *group*;
+   *group* defaults to zero (meaning the whole matched substring). Return ``-1`` if
+   *group* exists but did not contribute to the match.  For a match object *m*, and
+   a group *g* that did contribute to the match, the substring matched by group *g*
+   (equivalent to ``m.group(g)``) is ::
+
+      m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]
+
+   Note that ``m.start(group)`` will equal ``m.end(group)`` if *group* matched a
+   null string.  For example, after ``m = re.search('b(c?)', 'cba')``,
+   ``m.start(0)`` is 1, ``m.end(0)`` is 2, ``m.start(1)`` and ``m.end(1)`` are both
+   2, and ``m.start(2)`` raises an :exc:`IndexError` exception.
+
+   An example that will remove *remove_this* from email addresses::
+
+      >>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
+      >>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
+      >>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
+      'tony@tiger.net'
+
+
+.. method:: Match.span([group])
+
+   For a match *m*, return the 2-tuple ``(m.start(group), m.end(group))``. Note
+   that if *group* did not contribute to the match, this is ``(-1, -1)``.
+   *group* defaults to zero, the entire match.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Match.pos
+
+   The value of *pos* which was passed to the :meth:`~Pattern.search` or
+   :meth:`~Pattern.match` method of a :ref:`regex object <re-objects>`.  This is
+   the index into the string at which the RE engine started looking for a match.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Match.endpos
+
+   The value of *endpos* which was passed to the :meth:`~Pattern.search` or
+   :meth:`~Pattern.match` method of a :ref:`regex object <re-objects>`.  This is
+   the index into the string beyond which the RE engine will not go.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Match.lastindex
+
+   The integer index of the last matched capturing group, or ``None`` if no group
+   was matched at all. For example, the expressions ``(a)b``, ``((a)(b))``, and
+   ``((ab))`` will have ``lastindex == 1`` if applied to the string ``'ab'``, while
+   the expression ``(a)(b)`` will have ``lastindex == 2``, if applied to the same
+   string.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Match.lastgroup
+
+   The name of the last matched capturing group, or ``None`` if the group didn't
+   have a name, or if no group was matched at all.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Match.re
+
+   The :ref:`regular expression object <re-objects>` whose :meth:`~Pattern.match` or
+   :meth:`~Pattern.search` method produced this match instance.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Match.string
+
+   The string passed to :meth:`~Pattern.match` or :meth:`~Pattern.search`.
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added support of :func:`copy.copy` and :func:`copy.deepcopy`.  Match objects
+   are considered atomic.
+
+
+.. _re-examples:
+
+Regular Expression Examples
+---------------------------
+
+
+Checking for a Pair
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In this example, we'll use the following helper function to display match
+objects a little more gracefully:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+   def displaymatch(match):
+       if match is None:
+           return None
+       return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())
+
+Suppose you are writing a poker program where a player's hand is represented as
+a 5-character string with each character representing a card, "a" for ace, "k"
+for king, "q" for queen, "j" for jack, "t" for 10, and "2" through "9"
+representing the card with that value.
+
+To see if a given string is a valid hand, one could do the following::
+
+   >>> valid = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
+   >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5q"))  # Valid.
+   "<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
+   >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5e"))  # Invalid.
+   >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt"))    # Invalid.
+   >>> displaymatch(valid.match("727ak"))  # Valid.
+   "<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"
+
+That last hand, ``"727ak"``, contained a pair, or two of the same valued cards.
+To match this with a regular expression, one could use backreferences as such::
+
+   >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
+   >>> displaymatch(pair.match("717ak"))     # Pair of 7s.
+   "<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
+   >>> displaymatch(pair.match("718ak"))     # No pairs.
+   >>> displaymatch(pair.match("354aa"))     # Pair of aces.
+   "<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"
+
+To find out what card the pair consists of, one could use the
+:meth:`~Match.group` method of the match object in the following manner:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+   >>> pair.match("717ak").group(1)
+   '7'
+
+   # Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
+   >>> pair.match("718ak").group(1)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
+       re.match(r".*(.).*\1", "718ak").group(1)
+   AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'
+
+   >>> pair.match("354aa").group(1)
+   'a'
+
+
+Simulating scanf()
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index:: single: scanf()
+
+Python does not currently have an equivalent to :c:func:`scanf`.  Regular
+expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than
+:c:func:`scanf` format strings.  The table below offers some more-or-less
+equivalent mappings between :c:func:`scanf` format tokens and regular
+expressions.
+
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`scanf` Token          | Regular Expression                          |
++================================+=============================================+
+| ``%c``                         | ``.``                                       |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%5c``                        | ``.{5}``                                    |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%d``                         | ``[-+]?\d+``                                |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%e``, ``%E``, ``%f``, ``%g`` | ``[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?`` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%i``                         | ``[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)``     |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%o``                         | ``[-+]?[0-7]+``                             |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%s``                         | ``\S+``                                     |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%u``                         | ``\d+``                                     |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| ``%x``, ``%X``                 | ``[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+``                |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+To extract the filename and numbers from a string like ::
+
+   /usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings
+
+you would use a :c:func:`scanf` format like ::
+
+   %s - %d errors, %d warnings
+
+The equivalent regular expression would be ::
+
+   (\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings
+
+
+.. _search-vs-match:
+
+search() vs. match()
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+Python offers two different primitive operations based on regular expressions:
+:func:`re.match` checks for a match only at the beginning of the string, while
+:func:`re.search` checks for a match anywhere in the string (this is what Perl
+does by default).
+
+For example::
+
+   >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
+   >>> re.search("c", "abcdef")   # Match
+   <re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
+
+Regular expressions beginning with ``'^'`` can be used with :func:`search` to
+restrict the match at the beginning of the string::
+
+   >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
+   >>> re.search("^c", "abcdef")  # No match
+   >>> re.search("^a", "abcdef")  # Match
+   <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>
+
+Note however that in :const:`MULTILINE` mode :func:`match` only matches at the
+beginning of the string, whereas using :func:`search` with a regular expression
+beginning with ``'^'`` will match at the beginning of each line. ::
+
+   >>> re.match('X', 'A\nB\nX', re.MULTILINE)  # No match
+   >>> re.search('^X', 'A\nB\nX', re.MULTILINE)  # Match
+   <re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>
+
+
+Making a Phonebook
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:func:`split` splits a string into a list delimited by the passed pattern.  The
+method is invaluable for converting textual data into data structures that can be
+easily read and modified by Python as demonstrated in the following example that
+creates a phonebook.
+
+First, here is the input.  Normally it may come from a file, here we are using
+triple-quoted string syntax::
+
+   >>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
+   ...
+   ... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
+   ... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
+   ...
+   ...
+   ... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""
+
+The entries are separated by one or more newlines. Now we convert the string
+into a list with each nonempty line having its own entry:
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   >>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
+   >>> entries
+   ['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
+   'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
+   'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
+   'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']
+
+Finally, split each entry into a list with first name, last name, telephone
+number, and address.  We use the ``maxsplit`` parameter of :func:`split`
+because the address has spaces, our splitting pattern, in it:
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 3) for entry in entries]
+   [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
+   ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
+   ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
+   ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]
+
+The ``:?`` pattern matches the colon after the last name, so that it does not
+occur in the result list.  With a ``maxsplit`` of ``4``, we could separate the
+house number from the street name:
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 4) for entry in entries]
+   [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
+   ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
+   ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
+   ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]
+
+
+Text Munging
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:func:`sub` replaces every occurrence of a pattern with a string or the
+result of a function.  This example demonstrates using :func:`sub` with
+a function to "munge" text, or randomize the order of all the characters
+in each word of a sentence except for the first and last characters::
+
+   >>> def repl(m):
+   ...     inner_word = list(m.group(2))
+   ...     random.shuffle(inner_word)
+   ...     return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3)
+   >>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly."
+   >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
+   'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.'
+   >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
+   'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'
+
+
+Finding all Adverbs
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:func:`findall` matches *all* occurrences of a pattern, not just the first
+one as :func:`search` does.  For example, if a writer wanted to
+find all of the adverbs in some text, they might use :func:`findall` in
+the following manner::
+
+   >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
+   >>> re.findall(r"\w+ly", text)
+   ['carefully', 'quickly']
+
+
+Finding all Adverbs and their Positions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the matched
+text, :func:`finditer` is useful as it provides :ref:`match objects
+<match-objects>` instead of strings.  Continuing with the previous example, if
+a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs *and their positions* in
+some text, they would use :func:`finditer` in the following manner::
+
+   >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
+   >>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly", text):
+   ...     print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
+   07-16: carefully
+   40-47: quickly
+
+
+Raw String Notation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Raw string notation (``r"text"``) keeps regular expressions sane.  Without it,
+every backslash (``'\'``) in a regular expression would have to be prefixed with
+another one to escape it.  For example, the two following lines of code are
+functionally identical::
+
+   >>> re.match(r"\W(.)\1\W", " ff ")
+   <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
+   >>> re.match("\\W(.)\\1\\W", " ff ")
+   <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
+
+When one wants to match a literal backslash, it must be escaped in the regular
+expression.  With raw string notation, this means ``r"\\"``.  Without raw string
+notation, one must use ``"\\\\"``, making the following lines of code
+functionally identical::
+
+   >>> re.match(r"\\", r"\\")
+   <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
+   >>> re.match("\\\\", r"\\")
+   <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
+
+
+Writing a Tokenizer
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A `tokenizer or scanner <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis>`_
+analyzes a string to categorize groups of characters.  This is a useful first
+step in writing a compiler or interpreter.
+
+The text categories are specified with regular expressions.  The technique is
+to combine those into a single master regular expression and to loop over
+successive matches::
+
+    import collections
+    import re
+
+    Token = collections.namedtuple('Token', ['type', 'value', 'line', 'column'])
+
+    def tokenize(code):
+        keywords = {'IF', 'THEN', 'ENDIF', 'FOR', 'NEXT', 'GOSUB', 'RETURN'}
+        token_specification = [
+            ('NUMBER',   r'\d+(\.\d*)?'),  # Integer or decimal number
+            ('ASSIGN',   r':='),           # Assignment operator
+            ('END',      r';'),            # Statement terminator
+            ('ID',       r'[A-Za-z]+'),    # Identifiers
+            ('OP',       r'[+\-*/]'),      # Arithmetic operators
+            ('NEWLINE',  r'\n'),           # Line endings
+            ('SKIP',     r'[ \t]+'),       # Skip over spaces and tabs
+            ('MISMATCH', r'.'),            # Any other character
+        ]
+        tok_regex = '|'.join('(?P<%s>%s)' % pair for pair in token_specification)
+        line_num = 1
+        line_start = 0
+        for mo in re.finditer(tok_regex, code):
+            kind = mo.lastgroup
+            value = mo.group()
+            column = mo.start() - line_start
+            if kind == 'NUMBER':
+                value = float(value) if '.' in value else int(value)
+            elif kind == 'ID' and value in keywords:
+                kind = value
+            elif kind == 'NEWLINE':
+                line_start = mo.end()
+                line_num += 1
+                continue
+            elif kind == 'SKIP':
+                continue
+            elif kind == 'MISMATCH':
+                raise RuntimeError(f'{value!r} unexpected on line {line_num}')
+            yield Token(kind, value, line_num, column)
+
+    statements = '''
+        IF quantity THEN
+            total := total + price * quantity;
+            tax := price * 0.05;
+        ENDIF;
+    '''
+
+    for token in tokenize(statements):
+        print(token)
+
+The tokenizer produces the following output::
+
+    Token(type='IF', value='IF', line=2, column=4)
+    Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=2, column=7)
+    Token(type='THEN', value='THEN', line=2, column=16)
+    Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=8)
+    Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=3, column=14)
+    Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=17)
+    Token(type='OP', value='+', line=3, column=23)
+    Token(type='ID', value='price', line=3, column=25)
+    Token(type='OP', value='*', line=3, column=31)
+    Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=3, column=33)
+    Token(type='END', value=';', line=3, column=41)
+    Token(type='ID', value='tax', line=4, column=8)
+    Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=4, column=12)
+    Token(type='ID', value='price', line=4, column=15)
+    Token(type='OP', value='*', line=4, column=21)
+    Token(type='NUMBER', value=0.05, line=4, column=23)
+    Token(type='END', value=';', line=4, column=27)
+    Token(type='ENDIF', value='ENDIF', line=5, column=4)
+    Token(type='END', value=';', line=5, column=9)
+
+
+.. [Frie09] Friedl, Jeffrey. Mastering Regular Expressions. 3rd ed., O'Reilly
+   Media, 2009. The third edition of the book no longer covers Python at all,
+   but the first edition covered writing good regular expression patterns in
+   great detail.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/readline.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/readline.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eae0a6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/readline.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,359 @@
+:mod:`readline` --- GNU readline interface
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: readline
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: GNU readline support for Python.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@pobox.com>
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`readline` module defines a number of functions to facilitate
+completion and reading/writing of history files from the Python interpreter.
+This module can be used directly, or via the :mod:`rlcompleter` module, which
+supports completion of Python identifiers at the interactive prompt.  Settings
+made using  this module affect the behaviour of both the interpreter's
+interactive prompt  and the prompts offered by the built-in :func:`input`
+function.
+
+Readline keybindings may be configured via an initialization file, typically
+``.inputrc`` in your home directory.  See `Readline Init File
+<https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#SEC9>`_
+in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and
+allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the
+Readline library in general.
+
+.. note::
+
+  The underlying Readline library API may be implemented by
+  the ``libedit`` library instead of GNU readline.
+  On macOS the :mod:`readline` module detects which library is being used
+  at run time.
+
+  The configuration file for ``libedit`` is different from that
+  of GNU readline. If you programmatically load configuration strings
+  you can check for the text "libedit" in :const:`readline.__doc__`
+  to differentiate between GNU readline and libedit.
+
+  If you use *editline*/``libedit`` readline emulation on macOS, the
+  initialization file located in your home directory is named
+  ``.editrc``. For example, the following content in ``~/.editrc`` will
+  turn ON *vi* keybindings and TAB completion::
+
+    python:bind -v
+    python:bind ^I rl_complete
+
+
+Init file
+---------
+
+The following functions relate to the init file and user configuration:
+
+
+.. function:: parse_and_bind(string)
+
+   Execute the init line provided in the *string* argument. This calls
+   :c:func:`rl_parse_and_bind` in the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: read_init_file([filename])
+
+   Execute a readline initialization file. The default filename is the last filename
+   used. This calls :c:func:`rl_read_init_file` in the underlying library.
+
+
+Line buffer
+-----------
+
+The following functions operate on the line buffer:
+
+
+.. function:: get_line_buffer()
+
+   Return the current contents of the line buffer (:c:data:`rl_line_buffer`
+   in the underlying library).
+
+
+.. function:: insert_text(string)
+
+   Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position.  This calls
+   :c:func:`rl_insert_text` in the underlying library, but ignores
+   the return value.
+
+
+.. function:: redisplay()
+
+   Change what's displayed on the screen to reflect the current contents of the
+   line buffer.  This calls :c:func:`rl_redisplay` in the underlying library.
+
+
+History file
+------------
+
+The following functions operate on a history file:
+
+
+.. function:: read_history_file([filename])
+
+   Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list.
+   The default filename is :file:`~/.history`.  This calls
+   :c:func:`read_history` in the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: write_history_file([filename])
+
+   Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any
+   existing file.  The default filename is :file:`~/.history`.  This calls
+   :c:func:`write_history` in the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: append_history_file(nelements[, filename])
+
+   Append the last *nelements* items of history to a file.  The default filename is
+   :file:`~/.history`.  The file must already exist.  This calls
+   :c:func:`append_history` in the underlying library.  This function
+   only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library
+   that supports it.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: get_history_length()
+              set_history_length(length)
+
+   Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history file.
+   The :func:`write_history_file` function uses this value to truncate
+   the history file, by calling :c:func:`history_truncate_file` in
+   the underlying library.  Negative values imply
+   unlimited history file size.
+
+
+History list
+------------
+
+The following functions operate on a global history list:
+
+
+.. function:: clear_history()
+
+   Clear the current history.  This calls :c:func:`clear_history` in the
+   underlying library.  The Python function only exists if Python was
+   compiled for a version of the library that supports it.
+
+
+.. function:: get_current_history_length()
+
+   Return the number of items currently in the history.  (This is different from
+   :func:`get_history_length`, which returns the maximum number of lines that will
+   be written to a history file.)
+
+
+.. function:: get_history_item(index)
+
+   Return the current contents of history item at *index*.  The item index
+   is one-based.  This calls :c:func:`history_get` in the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: remove_history_item(pos)
+
+   Remove history item specified by its position from the history.
+   The position is zero-based.  This calls :c:func:`remove_history` in
+   the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: replace_history_item(pos, line)
+
+   Replace history item specified by its position with *line*.
+   The position is zero-based.  This calls :c:func:`replace_history_entry`
+   in the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: add_history(line)
+
+   Append *line* to the history buffer, as if it was the last line typed.
+   This calls :c:func:`add_history` in the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: set_auto_history(enabled)
+
+   Enable or disable automatic calls to :c:func:`add_history` when reading
+   input via readline.  The *enabled* argument should be a Boolean value
+   that when true, enables auto history, and that when false, disables
+   auto history.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+      Auto history is enabled by default, and changes to this do not persist
+      across multiple sessions.
+
+
+Startup hooks
+-------------
+
+
+.. function:: set_startup_hook([function])
+
+   Set or remove the function invoked by the :c:data:`rl_startup_hook`
+   callback of the underlying library.  If *function* is specified, it will
+   be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ``None``, any function
+   already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
+   arguments just before readline prints the first prompt.
+
+
+.. function:: set_pre_input_hook([function])
+
+   Set or remove the function invoked by the :c:data:`rl_pre_input_hook`
+   callback of the underlying library.  If *function* is specified, it will
+   be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ``None``, any
+   function already installed is removed.  The hook is called
+   with no arguments after the first prompt has been printed and just before
+   readline starts reading input characters.  This function only exists
+   if Python was compiled for a version of the library that supports it.
+
+
+Completion
+----------
+
+The following functions relate to implementing a custom word completion
+function.  This is typically operated by the Tab key, and can suggest and
+automatically complete a word being typed.  By default, Readline is set up
+to be used by :mod:`rlcompleter` to complete Python identifiers for
+the interactive interpreter.  If the :mod:`readline` module is to be used
+with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.
+
+
+.. function:: set_completer([function])
+
+   Set or remove the completer function.  If *function* is specified, it will be
+   used as the new completer function; if omitted or ``None``, any completer
+   function already installed is removed.  The completer function is called as
+   ``function(text, state)``, for *state* in ``0``, ``1``, ``2``, ..., until it
+   returns a non-string value.  It should return the next possible completion
+   starting with *text*.
+
+   The installed completer function is invoked by the *entry_func* callback
+   passed to :c:func:`rl_completion_matches` in the underlying library.
+   The *text* string comes from the first parameter to the
+   :c:data:`rl_attempted_completion_function` callback of the
+   underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: get_completer()
+
+   Get the completer function, or ``None`` if no completer function has been set.
+
+
+.. function:: get_completion_type()
+
+   Get the type of completion being attempted.  This returns the
+   :c:data:`rl_completion_type` variable in the underlying library as
+   an integer.
+
+
+.. function:: get_begidx()
+              get_endidx()
+
+   Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope.
+   These indexes are the *start* and *end* arguments passed to the
+   :c:data:`rl_attempted_completion_function` callback of the
+   underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: set_completer_delims(string)
+              get_completer_delims()
+
+   Set or get the word delimiters for completion.  These determine the
+   start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion scope).
+   These functions access the :c:data:`rl_completer_word_break_characters`
+   variable in the underlying library.
+
+
+.. function:: set_completion_display_matches_hook([function])
+
+   Set or remove the completion display function.  If *function* is
+   specified, it will be used as the new completion display function;
+   if omitted or ``None``, any completion display function already
+   installed is removed.  This sets or clears the
+   :c:data:`rl_completion_display_matches_hook` callback in the
+   underlying library.  The completion display function is called as
+   ``function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length)`` once
+   each time matches need to be displayed.
+
+
+.. _readline-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+The following example demonstrates how to use the :mod:`readline` module's
+history reading and writing functions to automatically load and save a history
+file named :file:`.python_history` from the user's home directory.  The code
+below would normally be executed automatically during interactive sessions
+from the user's :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` file. ::
+
+   import atexit
+   import os
+   import readline
+
+   histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
+   try:
+       readline.read_history_file(histfile)
+       # default history len is -1 (infinite), which may grow unruly
+       readline.set_history_length(1000)
+   except FileNotFoundError:
+       pass
+
+   atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile)
+
+This code is actually automatically run when Python is run in
+:ref:`interactive mode <tut-interactive>` (see :ref:`rlcompleter-config`).
+
+The following example achieves the same goal but supports concurrent interactive
+sessions, by only appending the new history. ::
+
+   import atexit
+   import os
+   import readline
+   histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
+
+   try:
+       readline.read_history_file(histfile)
+       h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
+   except FileNotFoundError:
+       open(histfile, 'wb').close()
+       h_len = 0
+
+   def save(prev_h_len, histfile):
+       new_h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
+       readline.set_history_length(1000)
+       readline.append_history_file(new_h_len - prev_h_len, histfile)
+   atexit.register(save, h_len, histfile)
+
+The following example extends the :class:`code.InteractiveConsole` class to
+support history save/restore. ::
+
+   import atexit
+   import code
+   import os
+   import readline
+
+   class HistoryConsole(code.InteractiveConsole):
+       def __init__(self, locals=None, filename="<console>",
+                    histfile=os.path.expanduser("~/.console-history")):
+           code.InteractiveConsole.__init__(self, locals, filename)
+           self.init_history(histfile)
+
+       def init_history(self, histfile):
+           readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
+           if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"):
+               try:
+                   readline.read_history_file(histfile)
+               except FileNotFoundError:
+                   pass
+               atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile)
+
+       def save_history(self, histfile):
+           readline.set_history_length(1000)
+           readline.write_history_file(histfile)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/reprlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/reprlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a0c1b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/reprlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+:mod:`reprlib` --- Alternate :func:`repr` implementation
+========================================================
+
+.. module:: reprlib
+   :synopsis: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/reprlib.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`reprlib` module provides a means for producing object representations
+with limits on the size of the resulting strings. This is used in the Python
+debugger and may be useful in other contexts as well.
+
+This module provides a class, an instance, and a function:
+
+
+.. class:: Repr()
+
+   Class which provides formatting services useful in implementing functions
+   similar to the built-in :func:`repr`; size limits for  different object types
+   are added to avoid the generation of representations which are excessively long.
+
+
+.. data:: aRepr
+
+   This is an instance of :class:`Repr` which is used to provide the
+   :func:`.repr` function described below.  Changing the attributes of this
+   object will affect the size limits used by :func:`.repr` and the Python
+   debugger.
+
+
+.. function:: repr(obj)
+
+   This is the :meth:`~Repr.repr` method of ``aRepr``.  It returns a string
+   similar to that returned by the built-in function of the same name, but with
+   limits on most sizes.
+
+In addition to size-limiting tools, the module also provides a decorator for
+detecting recursive calls to :meth:`__repr__` and substituting a placeholder
+string instead.
+
+
+.. index:: single: ...; placeholder
+
+.. decorator:: recursive_repr(fillvalue="...")
+
+   Decorator for :meth:`__repr__` methods to detect recursive calls within the
+   same thread.  If a recursive call is made, the *fillvalue* is returned,
+   otherwise, the usual :meth:`__repr__` call is made.  For example:
+
+        >>> from reprlib import recursive_repr
+        >>> class MyList(list):
+        ...     @recursive_repr()
+        ...     def __repr__(self):
+        ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
+        ...
+        >>> m = MyList('abc')
+        >>> m.append(m)
+        >>> m.append('x')
+        >>> print(m)
+        <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. _repr-objects:
+
+Repr Objects
+------------
+
+:class:`Repr` instances provide several attributes which can be used to provide
+size limits for the representations of different object types,  and methods
+which format specific object types.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Repr.maxlevel
+
+   Depth limit on the creation of recursive representations.  The default is ``6``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Repr.maxdict
+               Repr.maxlist
+               Repr.maxtuple
+               Repr.maxset
+               Repr.maxfrozenset
+               Repr.maxdeque
+               Repr.maxarray
+
+   Limits on the number of entries represented for the named object type.  The
+   default is ``4`` for :attr:`maxdict`, ``5`` for :attr:`maxarray`, and  ``6`` for
+   the others.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Repr.maxlong
+
+   Maximum number of characters in the representation for an integer.  Digits
+   are dropped from the middle.  The default is ``40``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Repr.maxstring
+
+   Limit on the number of characters in the representation of the string.  Note
+   that the "normal" representation of the string is used as the character source:
+   if escape sequences are needed in the representation, these may be mangled when
+   the representation is shortened.  The default is ``30``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Repr.maxother
+
+   This limit is used to control the size of object types for which no specific
+   formatting method is available on the :class:`Repr` object. It is applied in a
+   similar manner as :attr:`maxstring`.  The default is ``20``.
+
+
+.. method:: Repr.repr(obj)
+
+   The equivalent to the built-in :func:`repr` that uses the formatting imposed by
+   the instance.
+
+
+.. method:: Repr.repr1(obj, level)
+
+   Recursive implementation used by :meth:`.repr`.  This uses the type of *obj* to
+   determine which formatting method to call, passing it *obj* and *level*.  The
+   type-specific methods should call :meth:`repr1` to perform recursive formatting,
+   with ``level - 1`` for the value of *level* in the recursive  call.
+
+
+.. method:: Repr.repr_TYPE(obj, level)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Formatting methods for specific types are implemented as methods with a name
+   based on the type name.  In the method name, **TYPE** is replaced by
+   ``'_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split())``. Dispatch to these methods is
+   handled by :meth:`repr1`. Type-specific methods which need to recursively
+   format a value should call ``self.repr1(subobj, level - 1)``.
+
+
+.. _subclassing-reprs:
+
+Subclassing Repr Objects
+------------------------
+
+The use of dynamic dispatching by :meth:`Repr.repr1` allows subclasses of
+:class:`Repr` to add support for additional built-in object types or to modify
+the handling of types already supported. This example shows how special support
+for file objects could be added::
+
+   import reprlib
+   import sys
+
+   class MyRepr(reprlib.Repr):
+
+       def repr_TextIOWrapper(self, obj, level):
+           if obj.name in {'<stdin>', '<stdout>', '<stderr>'}:
+               return obj.name
+           return repr(obj)
+
+   aRepr = MyRepr()
+   print(aRepr.repr(sys.stdin))         # prints '<stdin>'
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/resource.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/resource.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd49c87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/resource.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,350 @@
+:mod:`resource` --- Resource usage information
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: resource
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Jeremy Hylton <jeremy@alum.mit.edu>
+.. sectionauthor:: Jeremy Hylton <jeremy@alum.mit.edu>
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling system
+resources utilized by a program.
+
+Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and to
+request usage information about either the current process or its children.
+
+An :exc:`OSError` is raised on syscall failure.
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   A deprecated alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Following :pep:`3151`, this class was made an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+Resource Limits
+---------------
+
+Resources usage can be limited using the :func:`setrlimit` function described
+below. Each resource is controlled by a pair of limits: a soft limit and a hard
+limit. The soft limit is the current limit, and may be lowered or raised by a
+process over time. The soft limit can never exceed the hard limit. The hard
+limit can be lowered to any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised.
+(Only processes with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard
+limit.)
+
+The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent. They are
+described in the :manpage:`getrlimit(2)` man page.  The resources listed below
+are supported when the underlying operating system supports them; resources
+which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system are not defined in
+this module for those platforms.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIM_INFINITY
+
+   Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource.
+
+
+.. function:: getrlimit(resource)
+
+   Returns a tuple ``(soft, hard)`` with the current soft and hard limits of
+   *resource*. Raises :exc:`ValueError` if an invalid resource is specified, or
+   :exc:`error` if the underlying system call fails unexpectedly.
+
+
+.. function:: setrlimit(resource, limits)
+
+   Sets new limits of consumption of *resource*. The *limits* argument must be a
+   tuple ``(soft, hard)`` of two integers describing the new limits. A value of
+   :data:`~resource.RLIM_INFINITY` can be used to request a limit that is
+   unlimited.
+
+   Raises :exc:`ValueError` if an invalid resource is specified, if the new soft
+   limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries to raise its hard limit.
+   Specifying a limit of :data:`~resource.RLIM_INFINITY` when the hard or
+   system limit for that resource is not unlimited will result in a
+   :exc:`ValueError`.  A process with the effective UID of super-user can
+   request any valid limit value, including unlimited, but :exc:`ValueError`
+   will still be raised if the requested limit exceeds the system imposed
+   limit.
+
+   ``setrlimit`` may also raise :exc:`error` if the underlying system call
+   fails.
+
+.. function:: prlimit(pid, resource[, limits])
+
+   Combines :func:`setrlimit` and :func:`getrlimit` in one function and
+   supports to get and set the resources limits of an arbitrary process. If
+   *pid* is 0, then the call applies to the current process. *resource* and
+   *limits* have the same meaning as in :func:`setrlimit`, except that
+   *limits* is optional.
+
+   When *limits* is not given the function returns the *resource* limit of the
+   process *pid*. When *limits* is given the *resource* limit of the process is
+   set and the former resource limit is returned.
+
+   Raises :exc:`ProcessLookupError` when *pid* can't be found and
+   :exc:`PermissionError` when the user doesn't have ``CAP_SYS_RESOURCE`` for
+   the process.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.36 or later with glibc 2.13 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using the
+:func:`setrlimit` and :func:`getrlimit` functions described below. The values of
+these symbols are exactly the constants used by C programs.
+
+The Unix man page for :manpage:`getrlimit(2)` lists the available resources.
+Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote the same
+resource.  This module does not attempt to mask platform differences --- symbols
+not defined for a platform will not be available from this module on that
+platform.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_CORE
+
+   The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process can create.
+   This may result in the creation of a partial core file if a larger core would be
+   required to contain the entire process image.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_CPU
+
+   The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process can use. If
+   this limit is exceeded, a :const:`SIGXCPU` signal is sent to the process. (See
+   the :mod:`signal` module documentation for information about how to catch this
+   signal and do something useful, e.g. flush open files to disk.)
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_FSIZE
+
+   The maximum size of a file which the process may create.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_DATA
+
+   The maximum size (in bytes) of the process's heap.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_STACK
+
+   The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current process.  This only
+   affects the stack of the main thread in a multi-threaded process.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_RSS
+
+   The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the process.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_NPROC
+
+   The maximum number of processes the current process may create.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_NOFILE
+
+   The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current process.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_OFILE
+
+   The BSD name for :const:`RLIMIT_NOFILE`.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_MEMLOCK
+
+   The maximum address space which may be locked in memory.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_VMEM
+
+   The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_AS
+
+   The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by the process.
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE
+
+   The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.8 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_NICE
+
+   The ceiling for the process's nice level (calculated as 20 - rlim_cur).
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.12 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_RTPRIO
+
+   The ceiling of the real-time priority.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.12 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_RTTIME
+
+   The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can spend
+   under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.25 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_SIGPENDING
+
+   The number of signals which the process may queue.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.8 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_SBSIZE
+
+   The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user.
+   This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of mbufs,
+   that this user may hold at any time.
+
+   .. availability:: FreeBSD 9 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_SWAP
+
+   The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved or
+   used by all of this user id's processes.
+   This limit is enforced only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set.
+   Please see :manpage:`tuning(7)` for a complete description of this sysctl.
+
+   .. availability:: FreeBSD 9 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: RLIMIT_NPTS
+
+   The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.
+
+   .. availability:: FreeBSD 9 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+Resource Usage
+--------------
+
+These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:
+
+
+.. function:: getrusage(who)
+
+   This function returns an object that describes the resources consumed by either
+   the current process or its children, as specified by the *who* parameter.  The
+   *who* parameter should be specified using one of the :const:`RUSAGE_\*`
+   constants described below.
+
+   The fields of the return value each describe how a particular system resource
+   has been used, e.g. amount of time spent running is user mode or number of times
+   the process was swapped out of main memory. Some values are dependent on the
+   clock tick internal, e.g. the amount of memory the process is using.
+
+   For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as a tuple of 16
+   elements.
+
+   The fields :attr:`ru_utime` and :attr:`ru_stime` of the return value are
+   floating point values representing the amount of time spent executing in user
+   mode and the amount of time spent executing in system mode, respectively. The
+   remaining values are integers. Consult the :manpage:`getrusage(2)` man page for
+   detailed information about these values. A brief summary is presented here:
+
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | Index  | Field               | Resource                      |
+   +========+=====================+===============================+
+   | ``0``  | :attr:`ru_utime`    | time in user mode (float)     |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``1``  | :attr:`ru_stime`    | time in system mode (float)   |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``2``  | :attr:`ru_maxrss`   | maximum resident set size     |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``3``  | :attr:`ru_ixrss`    | shared memory size            |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``4``  | :attr:`ru_idrss`    | unshared memory size          |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``5``  | :attr:`ru_isrss`    | unshared stack size           |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``6``  | :attr:`ru_minflt`   | page faults not requiring I/O |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``7``  | :attr:`ru_majflt`   | page faults requiring I/O     |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``8``  | :attr:`ru_nswap`    | number of swap outs           |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``9``  | :attr:`ru_inblock`  | block input operations        |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``10`` | :attr:`ru_oublock`  | block output operations       |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``11`` | :attr:`ru_msgsnd`   | messages sent                 |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``12`` | :attr:`ru_msgrcv`   | messages received             |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``13`` | :attr:`ru_nsignals` | signals received              |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``14`` | :attr:`ru_nvcsw`    | voluntary context switches    |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | ``15`` | :attr:`ru_nivcsw`   | involuntary context switches  |
+   +--------+---------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+   This function will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if an invalid *who* parameter is
+   specified. It may also raise :exc:`error` exception in unusual circumstances.
+
+
+.. function:: getpagesize()
+
+   Returns the number of bytes in a system page. (This need not be the same as the
+   hardware page size.)
+
+The following :const:`RUSAGE_\*` symbols are passed to the :func:`getrusage`
+function to specify which processes information should be provided for.
+
+
+.. data:: RUSAGE_SELF
+
+   Pass to :func:`getrusage` to request resources consumed by the calling
+   process, which is the sum of resources used by all threads in the process.
+
+
+.. data:: RUSAGE_CHILDREN
+
+   Pass to :func:`getrusage` to request resources consumed by child processes
+   of the calling process which have been terminated and waited for.
+
+
+.. data:: RUSAGE_BOTH
+
+   Pass to :func:`getrusage` to request resources consumed by both the current
+   process and child processes.  May not be available on all systems.
+
+
+.. data:: RUSAGE_THREAD
+
+   Pass to :func:`getrusage` to request resources consumed by the current
+   thread.  May not be available on all systems.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/rlcompleter.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/rlcompleter.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40b09ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/rlcompleter.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+:mod:`rlcompleter` --- Completion function for GNU readline
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: rlcompleter
+   :synopsis: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/rlcompleter.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`rlcompleter` module defines a completion function suitable for the
+:mod:`readline` module by completing valid Python identifiers and keywords.
+
+When this module is imported on a Unix platform with the :mod:`readline` module
+available, an instance of the :class:`Completer` class is automatically created
+and its :meth:`complete` method is set as the :mod:`readline` completer.
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> import rlcompleter
+   >>> import readline
+   >>> readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
+   >>> readline. <TAB PRESSED>
+   readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(
+   readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(
+   readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(
+   >>> readline.
+
+The :mod:`rlcompleter` module is designed for use with Python's
+:ref:`interactive mode <tut-interactive>`.  Unless Python is run with the
+:option:`-S` option, the module is automatically imported and configured
+(see :ref:`rlcompleter-config`).
+
+On platforms without :mod:`readline`, the :class:`Completer` class defined by
+this module can still be used for custom purposes.
+
+
+.. _completer-objects:
+
+Completer Objects
+-----------------
+
+Completer objects have the following method:
+
+
+.. method:: Completer.complete(text, state)
+
+   Return the *state*\ th completion for *text*.
+
+   If called for *text* that doesn't include a period character (``'.'``), it will
+   complete from names currently defined in :mod:`__main__`, :mod:`builtins` and
+   keywords (as defined by the :mod:`keyword` module).
+
+   If called for a dotted name, it will try to evaluate anything without obvious
+   side-effects (functions will not be evaluated, but it can generate calls to
+   :meth:`__getattr__`) up to the last part, and find matches for the rest via the
+   :func:`dir` function.  Any exception raised during the evaluation of the
+   expression is caught, silenced and :const:`None` is returned.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/runpy.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/runpy.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af35e81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/runpy.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,179 @@
+:mod:`runpy` --- Locating and executing Python modules
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: runpy
+   :synopsis: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Nick Coghlan <ncoghlan@gmail.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/runpy.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`runpy` module is used to locate and run Python modules without
+importing them first. Its main use is to implement the :option:`-m` command
+line switch that allows scripts to be located using the Python module
+namespace rather than the filesystem.
+
+Note that this is *not* a sandbox module - all code is executed in the
+current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other
+modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned.
+
+Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are not
+guaranteed to work correctly after a :mod:`runpy` function has returned.
+If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case, :mod:`importlib`
+is likely to be a more suitable choice than this module.
+
+The :mod:`runpy` module provides two functions:
+
+
+.. function:: run_module(mod_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None, alter_sys=False)
+
+   .. index::
+      module: __main__
+
+   Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting module
+   globals dictionary. The module's code is first located using the standard
+   import mechanism (refer to :pep:`302` for details) and then executed in a
+   fresh module namespace.
+
+   The *mod_name* argument should be an absolute module name.
+   If the module name refers to a package rather than a normal
+   module, then that package is imported and the ``__main__`` submodule within
+   that package is then executed and the resulting module globals dictionary
+   returned.
+
+   The optional dictionary argument *init_globals* may be used to pre-populate
+   the module's globals dictionary before the code is executed. The supplied
+   dictionary will not be modified. If any of the special global variables
+   below are defined in the supplied dictionary, those definitions are
+   overridden by :func:`run_module`.
+
+   The special global variables ``__name__``, ``__spec__``, ``__file__``,
+   ``__cached__``, ``__loader__`` and ``__package__`` are set in the globals
+   dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
+   minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an
+   interpreter implementation detail).
+
+   ``__name__`` is set to *run_name* if this optional argument is not
+   :const:`None`, to ``mod_name + '.__main__'`` if the named module is a
+   package and to the *mod_name* argument otherwise.
+
+   ``__spec__`` will be set appropriately for the *actually* imported
+   module (that is, ``__spec__.name`` will always be *mod_name* or
+   ``mod_name + '.__main__``, never *run_name*).
+
+   ``__file__``, ``__cached__``, ``__loader__`` and ``__package__`` are
+   :ref:`set as normal <import-mod-attrs>` based on the module spec.
+
+   If the argument *alter_sys* is supplied and evaluates to :const:`True`,
+   then ``sys.argv[0]`` is updated with the value of ``__file__`` and
+   ``sys.modules[__name__]`` is updated with a temporary module object for the
+   module being executed. Both ``sys.argv[0]`` and ``sys.modules[__name__]``
+   are restored to their original values before the function returns.
+
+   Note that this manipulation of :mod:`sys` is not thread-safe. Other threads
+   may see the partially initialised module, as well as the altered list of
+   arguments. It is recommended that the :mod:`sys` module be left alone when
+   invoking this function from threaded code.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      The :option:`-m` option offering equivalent functionality from the
+      command line.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added ability to execute packages by looking for a ``__main__`` submodule.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added ``__cached__`` global variable (see :pep:`3147`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by
+      :pep:`451`. This allows ``__cached__`` to be set correctly for modules
+      run this way, as well as ensuring the real module name is always
+      accessible as ``__spec__.name``.
+
+.. function:: run_path(file_path, init_globals=None, run_name=None)
+
+   .. index::
+      module: __main__
+
+   Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the resulting
+   module globals dictionary. As with a script name supplied to the CPython
+   command line, the supplied path may refer to a Python source file, a
+   compiled bytecode file or a valid sys.path entry containing a ``__main__``
+   module (e.g. a zipfile containing a top-level ``__main__.py`` file).
+
+   For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a fresh
+   module namespace. For a valid sys.path entry (typically a zipfile or
+   directory), the entry is first added to the beginning of ``sys.path``. The
+   function then looks for and executes a :mod:`__main__` module using the
+   updated path. Note that there is no special protection against invoking
+   an existing :mod:`__main__` entry located elsewhere on ``sys.path`` if
+   there is no such module at the specified location.
+
+   The optional dictionary argument *init_globals* may be used to pre-populate
+   the module's globals dictionary before the code is executed. The supplied
+   dictionary will not be modified. If any of the special global variables
+   below are defined in the supplied dictionary, those definitions are
+   overridden by :func:`run_path`.
+
+   The special global variables ``__name__``, ``__spec__``, ``__file__``,
+   ``__cached__``, ``__loader__`` and ``__package__`` are set in the globals
+   dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
+   minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an
+   interpreter implementation detail).
+
+   ``__name__`` is set to *run_name* if this optional argument is not
+   :const:`None` and to ``'<run_path>'`` otherwise.
+
+   If the supplied path directly references a script file (whether as source
+   or as precompiled byte code), then ``__file__`` will be set to the
+   supplied path, and ``__spec__``, ``__cached__``, ``__loader__`` and
+   ``__package__`` will all be set to :const:`None`.
+
+   If the supplied path is a reference to a valid sys.path entry, then
+   ``__spec__`` will be set appropriately for the imported ``__main__``
+   module (that is, ``__spec__.name`` will always be ``__main__``).
+   ``__file__``, ``__cached__``, ``__loader__`` and ``__package__`` will be
+   :ref:`set as normal <import-mod-attrs>` based on the module spec.
+
+   A number of alterations are also made to the :mod:`sys` module. Firstly,
+   ``sys.path`` may be altered as described above. ``sys.argv[0]`` is updated
+   with the value of ``file_path`` and ``sys.modules[__name__]`` is updated
+   with a temporary module object for the module being executed. All
+   modifications to items in :mod:`sys` are reverted before the function
+   returns.
+
+   Note that, unlike :func:`run_module`, the alterations made to :mod:`sys`
+   are not optional in this function as these adjustments are essential to
+   allowing the execution of sys.path entries. As the thread-safety
+   limitations still apply, use of this function in threaded code should be
+   either serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :ref:`using-on-interface-options` for equivalent functionality on the
+      command line (``python path/to/script``).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by
+      :pep:`451`. This allows ``__cached__`` to be set correctly in the
+      case where ``__main__`` is imported from a valid sys.path entry rather
+      than being executed directly.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`338` -- Executing modules as scripts
+      PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.
+
+   :pep:`366` -- Main module explicit relative imports
+      PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.
+
+   :pep:`451` -- A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
+      PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow
+
+   :ref:`using-on-general` - CPython command line details
+
+   The :func:`importlib.import_module` function
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sched.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sched.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03753af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sched.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+:mod:`sched` --- Event scheduler
+================================
+
+.. module:: sched
+   :synopsis: General purpose event scheduler.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/sched.py`
+
+.. index:: single: event scheduling
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`sched` module defines a class which implements a general purpose event
+scheduler:
+
+.. class:: scheduler(timefunc=time.monotonic, delayfunc=time.sleep)
+
+   The :class:`scheduler` class defines a generic interface to scheduling events.
+   It needs two functions to actually deal with the "outside world" --- *timefunc*
+   should be callable without arguments, and return  a number (the "time", in any
+   units whatsoever).  The *delayfunc* function should be callable with one
+   argument, compatible with the output of *timefunc*, and should delay that many
+   time units. *delayfunc* will also be called with the argument ``0`` after each
+   event is run to allow other threads an opportunity to run in multi-threaded
+   applications.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *timefunc* and *delayfunc* parameters are optional.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :class:`scheduler` class can be safely used in multi-threaded
+      environments.
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> import sched, time
+   >>> s = sched.scheduler(time.time, time.sleep)
+   >>> def print_time(a='default'):
+   ...     print("From print_time", time.time(), a)
+   ...
+   >>> def print_some_times():
+   ...     print(time.time())
+   ...     s.enter(10, 1, print_time)
+   ...     s.enter(5, 2, print_time, argument=('positional',))
+   ...     s.enter(5, 1, print_time, kwargs={'a': 'keyword'})
+   ...     s.run()
+   ...     print(time.time())
+   ...
+   >>> print_some_times()
+   930343690.257
+   From print_time 930343695.274 positional
+   From print_time 930343695.275 keyword
+   From print_time 930343700.273 default
+   930343700.276
+
+.. _scheduler-objects:
+
+Scheduler Objects
+-----------------
+
+:class:`scheduler` instances have the following methods and attributes:
+
+
+.. method:: scheduler.enterabs(time, priority, action, argument=(), kwargs={})
+
+   Schedule a new event. The *time* argument should be a numeric type compatible
+   with the return value of the *timefunc* function passed  to the constructor.
+   Events scheduled for the same *time* will be executed in the order of their
+   *priority*. A lower number represents a higher priority.
+
+   Executing the event means executing ``action(*argument, **kwargs)``.
+   *argument* is a sequence holding the positional arguments for *action*.
+   *kwargs* is a dictionary holding the keyword arguments for *action*.
+
+   Return value is an event which may be used for later cancellation of the event
+   (see :meth:`cancel`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *argument* parameter is optional.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      *kwargs* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. method:: scheduler.enter(delay, priority, action, argument=(), kwargs={})
+
+   Schedule an event for *delay* more time units. Other than the relative time, the
+   other arguments, the effect and the return value are the same as those for
+   :meth:`enterabs`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *argument* parameter is optional.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      *kwargs* parameter was added.
+
+.. method:: scheduler.cancel(event)
+
+   Remove the event from the queue. If *event* is not an event currently in the
+   queue, this method will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+.. method:: scheduler.empty()
+
+   Return true if the event queue is empty.
+
+
+.. method:: scheduler.run(blocking=True)
+
+   Run all scheduled events. This method will wait  (using the :func:`delayfunc`
+   function passed to the constructor) for the next event, then execute it and so
+   on until there are no more scheduled events.
+
+   If *blocking* is false executes the scheduled events due to expire soonest
+   (if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled call in the
+   scheduler (if any).
+
+   Either *action* or *delayfunc* can raise an exception.  In either case, the
+   scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate the exception.  If an
+   exception is raised by *action*, the event will not be attempted in future calls
+   to :meth:`run`.
+
+   If a sequence of events takes longer to run than the time available before the
+   next event, the scheduler will simply fall behind.  No events will be dropped;
+   the calling code is responsible for canceling  events which are no longer
+   pertinent.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      *blocking* parameter was added.
+
+.. attribute:: scheduler.queue
+
+   Read-only attribute returning a list of upcoming events in the order they
+   will be run.  Each event is shown as a :term:`named tuple` with the
+   following fields:  time, priority, action, argument, kwargs.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/secrets.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/secrets.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28ce472
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/secrets.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
+:mod:`secrets` --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
+======================================================================
+
+.. module:: secrets
+   :synopsis: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Steven D'Aprano <steve+python@pearwood.info>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steven D'Aprano <steve+python@pearwood.info>
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   from secrets import *
+   __name__ = '<doctest>'
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/secrets.py`
+
+-------------
+
+The :mod:`secrets` module is used for generating cryptographically strong
+random numbers suitable for managing data such as passwords, account
+authentication, security tokens, and related secrets.
+
+In particularly, :mod:`secrets` should be used in preference to the
+default pseudo-random number generator in the :mod:`random` module, which
+is designed for modelling and simulation, not security or cryptography.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`506`
+
+
+Random numbers
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`secrets` module provides access to the most secure source of
+randomness that your operating system provides.
+
+.. class:: SystemRandom
+
+   A class for generating random numbers using the highest-quality
+   sources provided by the operating system.  See
+   :class:`random.SystemRandom` for additional details.
+
+.. function:: choice(sequence)
+
+   Return a randomly-chosen element from a non-empty sequence.
+
+.. function:: randbelow(n)
+
+   Return a random int in the range [0, *n*).
+
+.. function:: randbits(k)
+
+   Return an int with *k* random bits.
+
+
+Generating tokens
+-----------------
+
+The :mod:`secrets` module provides functions for generating secure
+tokens, suitable for applications such as password resets,
+hard-to-guess URLs, and similar.
+
+.. function:: token_bytes([nbytes=None])
+
+   Return a random byte string containing *nbytes* number of bytes.
+   If *nbytes* is ``None`` or not supplied, a reasonable default is
+   used.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> token_bytes(16)  #doctest:+SKIP
+      b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'
+
+
+.. function:: token_hex([nbytes=None])
+
+   Return a random text string, in hexadecimal.  The string has *nbytes*
+   random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits.  If *nbytes* is
+   ``None`` or not supplied, a reasonable default is used.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> token_hex(16)  #doctest:+SKIP
+      'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'
+
+.. function:: token_urlsafe([nbytes=None])
+
+   Return a random URL-safe text string, containing *nbytes* random
+   bytes.  The text is Base64 encoded, so on average each byte results
+   in approximately 1.3 characters.  If *nbytes* is ``None`` or not
+   supplied, a reasonable default is used.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> token_urlsafe(16)  #doctest:+SKIP
+      'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'
+
+
+How many bytes should tokens use?
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To be secure against
+`brute-force attacks <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack>`_,
+tokens need to have sufficient randomness.  Unfortunately, what is
+considered sufficient will necessarily increase as computers get more
+powerful and able to make more guesses in a shorter period.  As of 2015,
+it is believed that 32 bytes (256 bits) of randomness is sufficient for
+the typical use-case expected for the :mod:`secrets` module.
+
+For those who want to manage their own token length, you can explicitly
+specify how much randomness is used for tokens by giving an :class:`int`
+argument to the various ``token_*`` functions.  That argument is taken
+as the number of bytes of randomness to use.
+
+Otherwise, if no argument is provided, or if the argument is ``None``,
+the ``token_*`` functions will use a reasonable default instead.
+
+.. note::
+
+   That default is subject to change at any time, including during
+   maintenance releases.
+
+
+Other functions
+---------------
+
+.. function:: compare_digest(a, b)
+
+   Return ``True`` if strings *a* and *b* are equal, otherwise ``False``,
+   in such a way as to reduce the risk of
+   `timing attacks <https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/>`_.
+   See :func:`hmac.compare_digest` for additional details.
+
+
+Recipes and best practices
+--------------------------
+
+This section shows recipes and best practices for using :mod:`secrets`
+to manage a basic level of security.
+
+Generate an eight-character alphanumeric password:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+   import string
+   alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
+   password = ''.join(choice(alphabet) for i in range(8))
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   Applications should not
+   `store passwords in a recoverable format <http://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html>`_,
+   whether plain text or encrypted.  They should be salted and hashed
+   using a cryptographically-strong one-way (irreversible) hash function.
+
+
+Generate a ten-character alphanumeric password with at least one
+lowercase character, at least one uppercase character, and at least
+three digits:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+   import string
+   alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
+   while True:
+       password = ''.join(choice(alphabet) for i in range(10))
+       if (any(c.islower() for c in password)
+               and any(c.isupper() for c in password)
+               and sum(c.isdigit() for c in password) >= 3):
+           break
+
+
+Generate an `XKCD-style passphrase <https://xkcd.com/936/>`_:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+   # On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.
+   # Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.
+   with open('/usr/share/dict/words') as f:
+       words = [word.strip() for word in f]
+       password = ' '.join(choice(words) for i in range(4))
+
+
+Generate a hard-to-guess temporary URL containing a security token
+suitable for password recovery applications:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+   url = 'https://mydomain.com/reset=' + token_urlsafe()
+
+
+
+..
+   # This modeline must appear within the last ten lines of the file.
+   kate: indent-width 3; remove-trailing-space on; replace-tabs on; encoding utf-8;
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/select.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/select.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d65363
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/select.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,646 @@
+:mod:`select` --- Waiting for I/O completion
+============================================
+
+.. module:: select
+   :synopsis: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to the :c:func:`select` and :c:func:`poll` functions
+available in most operating systems, :c:func:`devpoll` available on
+Solaris and derivatives, :c:func:`epoll` available on Linux 2.5+ and
+:c:func:`kqueue` available on most BSD.
+Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets; on other operating systems,
+it also works for other file types (in particular, on Unix, it works on pipes).
+It cannot be used on regular files to determine whether a file has grown since
+it was last read.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :mod:`selectors` module allows high-level and efficient I/O
+   multiplexing, built upon the :mod:`select` module primitives. Users are
+   encouraged to use the :mod:`selectors` module instead, unless they want
+   precise control over the OS-level primitives used.
+
+
+The module defines the following:
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   A deprecated alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Following :pep:`3151`, this class was made an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. function:: devpoll()
+
+   (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.)  Returns a ``/dev/poll``
+   polling object; see section :ref:`devpoll-objects` below for the
+   methods supported by devpoll objects.
+
+   :c:func:`devpoll` objects are linked to the number of file
+   descriptors allowed at the time of instantiation. If your program
+   reduces this value, :c:func:`devpoll` will fail. If your program
+   increases this value, :c:func:`devpoll` may return an
+   incomplete list of active file descriptors.
+
+   The new file descriptor is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
+
+.. function:: epoll(sizehint=-1, flags=0)
+
+   (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.) Return an edge polling object,
+   which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for I/O
+   events.
+
+   *sizehint* informs epoll about the expected number of events to be
+   registered.  It must be positive, or `-1` to use the default. It is only
+   used on older systems where :c:func:`epoll_create1` is not available;
+   otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still checked).
+
+   *flags* is deprecated and completely ignored.  However, when supplied, its
+   value must be ``0`` or ``select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC``, otherwise ``OSError`` is
+   raised.
+
+   See the :ref:`epoll-objects` section below for the methods supported by
+   epolling objects.
+
+   ``epoll`` objects support the context management protocol: when used in a
+   :keyword:`with` statement, the new file descriptor is automatically closed
+   at the end of the block.
+
+   The new file descriptor is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *flags* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added.
+      The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      The *flags* parameter.  ``select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC`` is used by default now.
+      Use :func:`os.set_inheritable` to make the file descriptor inheritable.
+
+
+.. function:: poll()
+
+   (Not supported by all operating systems.)  Returns a polling object, which
+   supports registering and unregistering file descriptors, and then polling them
+   for I/O events; see section :ref:`poll-objects` below for the methods supported
+   by polling objects.
+
+
+.. function:: kqueue()
+
+   (Only supported on BSD.)  Returns a kernel queue object; see section
+   :ref:`kqueue-objects` below for the methods supported by kqueue objects.
+
+   The new file descriptor is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
+
+
+.. function:: kevent(ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ, flags=KQ_EV_ADD, fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)
+
+   (Only supported on BSD.)  Returns a kernel event object; see section
+   :ref:`kevent-objects` below for the methods supported by kevent objects.
+
+
+.. function:: select(rlist, wlist, xlist[, timeout])
+
+   This is a straightforward interface to the Unix :c:func:`select` system call.
+   The first three arguments are sequences of 'waitable objects': either
+   integers representing file descriptors or objects with a parameterless method
+   named :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` returning such an integer:
+
+   * *rlist*: wait until ready for reading
+   * *wlist*: wait until ready for writing
+   * *xlist*: wait for an "exceptional condition" (see the manual page for what
+     your system considers such a condition)
+
+   Empty sequences are allowed, but acceptance of three empty sequences is
+   platform-dependent. (It is known to work on Unix but not on Windows.)  The
+   optional *timeout* argument specifies a time-out as a floating point number
+   in seconds.  When the *timeout* argument is omitted the function blocks until
+   at least one file descriptor is ready.  A time-out value of zero specifies a
+   poll and never blocks.
+
+   The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready: subsets of the
+   first three arguments.  When the time-out is reached without a file descriptor
+   becoming ready, three empty lists are returned.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: socket() (in module socket)
+      single: popen() (in module os)
+
+   Among the acceptable object types in the sequences are Python :term:`file
+   objects <file object>` (e.g. ``sys.stdin``, or objects returned by
+   :func:`open` or :func:`os.popen`), socket objects returned by
+   :func:`socket.socket`.  You may also define a :dfn:`wrapper` class yourself,
+   as long as it has an appropriate :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method (that
+   really returns a file descriptor, not just a random integer).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      .. index:: single: WinSock
+
+      File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are.  On Windows,
+      the underlying :c:func:`select` function is provided by the WinSock
+      library, and does not handle file descriptors that don't originate from
+      WinSock.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+      a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+      :pep:`475` for the rationale), instead of raising
+      :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: PIPE_BUF
+
+   The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking to a pipe
+   when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by :func:`~select.select`,
+   :func:`poll` or another interface in this module.  This doesn't apply
+   to other kind of file-like objects such as sockets.
+
+   This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. _devpoll-objects:
+
+``/dev/poll`` Polling Objects
+-----------------------------
+
+Solaris and derivatives have ``/dev/poll``. While :c:func:`select` is
+O(highest file descriptor) and :c:func:`poll` is O(number of file
+descriptors), ``/dev/poll`` is O(active file descriptors).
+
+``/dev/poll`` behaviour is very close to the standard :c:func:`poll`
+object.
+
+
+.. method:: devpoll.close()
+
+   Close the file descriptor of the polling object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. attribute:: devpoll.closed
+
+   ``True`` if the polling object is closed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: devpoll.fileno()
+
+   Return the file descriptor number of the polling object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: devpoll.register(fd[, eventmask])
+
+   Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls to the
+   :meth:`poll` method will then check whether the file descriptor has any
+   pending I/O events.  *fd* can be either an integer, or an object with a
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method that returns an integer.  File objects
+   implement :meth:`!fileno`, so they can also be used as the argument.
+
+   *eventmask* is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to
+   check for. The constants are the same that with :c:func:`poll`
+   object. The default value is a combination of the constants :const:`POLLIN`,
+   :const:`POLLPRI`, and :const:`POLLOUT`.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an
+      error, but the result is undefined. The appropriate action is to
+      unregister or modify it first. This is an important difference
+      compared with :c:func:`poll`.
+
+
+.. method:: devpoll.modify(fd[, eventmask])
+
+   This method does an :meth:`unregister` followed by a
+   :meth:`register`. It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same
+   explicitly.
+
+
+.. method:: devpoll.unregister(fd)
+
+   Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just like the
+   :meth:`register` method, *fd* can be an integer or an object with a
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method that returns an integer.
+
+   Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is
+   safely ignored.
+
+
+.. method:: devpoll.poll([timeout])
+
+   Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly-empty list
+   containing ``(fd, event)`` 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or
+   errors to report. *fd* is the file descriptor, and *event* is a bitmask with
+   bits set for the reported events for that descriptor --- :const:`POLLIN` for
+   waiting input, :const:`POLLOUT` to indicate that the descriptor can be written
+   to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
+   descriptors had any events to report. If *timeout* is given, it specifies the
+   length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before
+   returning. If *timeout* is omitted, -1, or :const:`None`, the call will
+   block until there is an event for this poll object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+      a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+      :pep:`475` for the rationale), instead of raising
+      :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+
+.. _epoll-objects:
+
+Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
+----------------------------------------------
+
+   https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll
+
+   *eventmask*
+
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                | Meaning                                       |
+   +=========================+===============================================+
+   | :const:`EPOLLIN`        | Available for read                            |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLOUT`       | Available for write                           |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLPRI`       | Urgent data for read                          |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLERR`       | Error condition happened on the assoc. fd     |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLHUP`       | Hang up happened on the assoc. fd             |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLET`        | Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is     |
+   |                         | Level Trigger behavior                        |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLONESHOT`   | Set one-shot behavior. After one event is     |
+   |                         | pulled out, the fd is internally disabled     |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLEXCLUSIVE` | Wake only one epoll object when the           |
+   |                         | associated fd has an event. The default (if   |
+   |                         | this flag is not set) is to wake all epoll    |
+   |                         | objects polling on a fd.                      |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLRDHUP`     | Stream socket peer closed connection or shut  |
+   |                         | down writing half of connection.              |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLRDNORM`    | Equivalent to :const:`EPOLLIN`                |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLRDBAND`    | Priority data band can be read.               |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLWRNORM`    | Equivalent to :const:`EPOLLOUT`               |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLWRBAND`    | Priority data may be written.                 |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EPOLLMSG`       | Ignored.                                      |
+   +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      :const:`EPOLLEXCLUSIVE` was added.  It's only supported by Linux Kernel 4.5
+      or later.
+
+.. method:: epoll.close()
+
+   Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object.
+
+
+.. attribute:: epoll.closed
+
+   ``True`` if the epoll object is closed.
+
+
+.. method:: epoll.fileno()
+
+   Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.
+
+
+.. method:: epoll.fromfd(fd)
+
+   Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor.
+
+
+.. method:: epoll.register(fd[, eventmask])
+
+   Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.
+
+
+.. method:: epoll.modify(fd, eventmask)
+
+   Modify a registered file descriptor.
+
+
+.. method:: epoll.unregister(fd)
+
+   Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object.
+
+
+.. method:: epoll.poll(timeout=-1, maxevents=-1)
+
+   Wait for events. timeout in seconds (float)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+      a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+      :pep:`475` for the rationale), instead of raising
+      :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+
+.. _poll-objects:
+
+Polling Objects
+---------------
+
+The :c:func:`poll` system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides better
+scalability for network servers that service many, many clients at the same
+time. :c:func:`poll` scales better because the system call only requires listing
+the file descriptors of interest, while :c:func:`select` builds a bitmap, turns
+on bits for the fds of interest, and then afterward the whole bitmap has to be
+linearly scanned again. :c:func:`select` is O(highest file descriptor), while
+:c:func:`poll` is O(number of file descriptors).
+
+
+.. method:: poll.register(fd[, eventmask])
+
+   Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls to the
+   :meth:`poll` method will then check whether the file descriptor has any
+   pending I/O events.  *fd* can be either an integer, or an object with a
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method that returns an integer.  File objects
+   implement :meth:`!fileno`, so they can also be used as the argument.
+
+   *eventmask* is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to
+   check for, and can be a combination of the constants :const:`POLLIN`,
+   :const:`POLLPRI`, and :const:`POLLOUT`, described in the table below.  If not
+   specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types of events.
+
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant          | Meaning                                  |
+   +===================+==========================================+
+   | :const:`POLLIN`   | There is data to read                    |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`POLLPRI`  | There is urgent data to read             |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`POLLOUT`  | Ready for output: writing will not block |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`POLLERR`  | Error condition of some sort             |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`POLLHUP`  | Hung up                                  |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`POLLRDHUP`| Stream socket peer closed connection, or |
+   |                   | shut down writing half of connection     |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`POLLNVAL` | Invalid request: descriptor not open     |
+   +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+
+   Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an error, and has
+   the same effect as registering the descriptor exactly once.
+
+
+.. method:: poll.modify(fd, eventmask)
+
+   Modifies an already registered fd. This has the same effect as
+   ``register(fd, eventmask)``.  Attempting to modify a file descriptor
+   that was never registered causes an :exc:`OSError` exception with errno
+   :const:`ENOENT` to be raised.
+
+
+.. method:: poll.unregister(fd)
+
+   Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just like the
+   :meth:`register` method, *fd* can be an integer or an object with a
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method that returns an integer.
+
+   Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered causes a
+   :exc:`KeyError` exception to be raised.
+
+
+.. method:: poll.poll([timeout])
+
+   Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly-empty list
+   containing ``(fd, event)`` 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or
+   errors to report. *fd* is the file descriptor, and *event* is a bitmask with
+   bits set for the reported events for that descriptor --- :const:`POLLIN` for
+   waiting input, :const:`POLLOUT` to indicate that the descriptor can be written
+   to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
+   descriptors had any events to report. If *timeout* is given, it specifies the
+   length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before
+   returning. If *timeout* is omitted, negative, or :const:`None`, the call will
+   block until there is an event for this poll object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+      a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+      :pep:`475` for the rationale), instead of raising
+      :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+
+.. _kqueue-objects:
+
+Kqueue Objects
+--------------
+
+.. method:: kqueue.close()
+
+   Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object.
+
+
+.. attribute:: kqueue.closed
+
+   ``True`` if the kqueue object is closed.
+
+
+.. method:: kqueue.fileno()
+
+   Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.
+
+
+.. method:: kqueue.fromfd(fd)
+
+   Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor.
+
+
+.. method:: kqueue.control(changelist, max_events[, timeout]) -> eventlist
+
+   Low level interface to kevent
+
+   - changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or ``None``
+   - max_events must be 0 or a positive integer
+   - timeout in seconds (floats possible); the default is ``None``,
+     to wait forever
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+      a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+      :pep:`475` for the rationale), instead of raising
+      :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+
+.. _kevent-objects:
+
+Kevent Objects
+--------------
+
+https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2
+
+.. attribute:: kevent.ident
+
+   Value used to identify the event. The interpretation depends on the filter
+   but it's usually the file descriptor. In the constructor ident can either
+   be an int or an object with a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method. kevent
+   stores the integer internally.
+
+.. attribute:: kevent.filter
+
+   Name of the kernel filter.
+
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                  | Meaning                                     |
+   +===========================+=============================================+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_READ`   | Takes a descriptor and returns whenever     |
+   |                           | there is data available to read             |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_WRITE`  | Takes a descriptor and returns whenever     |
+   |                           | there is data available to write            |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_AIO`    | AIO requests                                |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_VNODE`  | Returns when one or more of the requested   |
+   |                           | events watched in *fflag* occurs            |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_PROC`   | Watch for events on a process id            |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_NETDEV` | Watch for events on a network device        |
+   |                           | [not available on Mac OS X]                 |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL` | Returns whenever the watched signal is      |
+   |                           | delivered to the process                    |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_FILTER_TIMER`  | Establishes an arbitrary timer              |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+.. attribute:: kevent.flags
+
+   Filter action.
+
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                  | Meaning                                     |
+   +===========================+=============================================+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_ADD`        | Adds or modifies an event                   |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_DELETE`     | Removes an event from the queue             |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_ENABLE`     | Permitscontrol() to returns the event       |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_DISABLE`    | Disablesevent                               |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_ONESHOT`    | Removes event after first occurrence        |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_CLEAR`      | Reset the state after an event is retrieved |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS`   | internal event                              |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_FLAG1`      | internal event                              |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_EOF`        | Filter specific EOF condition               |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_EV_ERROR`      | See return values                           |
+   +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. attribute:: kevent.fflags
+
+   Filter specific flags.
+
+   :const:`KQ_FILTER_READ` and  :const:`KQ_FILTER_WRITE` filter flags:
+
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                   | Meaning                                    |
+   +============================+============================================+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LOWAT`     | low water mark of a socket buffer          |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+   :const:`KQ_FILTER_VNODE` filter flags:
+
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                   | Meaning                                    |
+   +============================+============================================+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_DELETE`    | *unlink()* was called                      |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_WRITE`     | a write occurred                           |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXTEND`    | the file was extended                      |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB`    | an attribute was changed                   |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINK`      | the link count has changed                 |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_RENAME`    | the file was renamed                       |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_REVOKE`    | access to the file was revoked             |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+   :const:`KQ_FILTER_PROC` filter flags:
+
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                   | Meaning                                    |
+   +============================+============================================+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXIT`      | the process has exited                     |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_FORK`      | the process has called *fork()*            |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXEC`      | the process has executed a new process     |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK` | internal filter flag                       |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK` | internal filter flag                       |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_TRACK`     | follow a process across *fork()*           |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_CHILD`     | returned on the child process for          |
+   |                            | *NOTE_TRACK*                               |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR`  | unable to attach to a child                |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+   :const:`KQ_FILTER_NETDEV` filter flags (not available on Mac OS X):
+
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant                   | Meaning                                    |
+   +============================+============================================+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKUP`    | link is up                                 |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN`  | link is down                               |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKINV`   | link state is invalid                      |
+   +----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. attribute:: kevent.data
+
+   Filter specific data.
+
+
+.. attribute:: kevent.udata
+
+   User defined value.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/selectors.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/selectors.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d864a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/selectors.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+:mod:`selectors` --- High-level I/O multiplexing
+================================================
+
+.. module:: selectors
+   :synopsis: High-level I/O multiplexing.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/selectors.py`
+
+--------------
+
+Introduction
+------------
+
+This module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the
+:mod:`select` module primitives. Users are encouraged to use this module
+instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level primitives used.
+
+It defines a :class:`BaseSelector` abstract base class, along with several
+concrete implementations (:class:`KqueueSelector`, :class:`EpollSelector`...),
+that can be used to wait for I/O readiness notification on multiple file
+objects. In the following, "file object" refers to any object with a
+:meth:`fileno()` method, or a raw file descriptor. See :term:`file object`.
+
+:class:`DefaultSelector` is an alias to the most efficient implementation
+available on the current platform: this should be the default choice for most
+users.
+
+.. note::
+   The type of file objects supported depends on the platform: on Windows,
+   sockets are supported, but not pipes, whereas on Unix, both are supported
+   (some other types may be supported as well, such as fifos or special file
+   devices).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :mod:`select`
+      Low-level I/O multiplexing module.
+
+
+Classes
+-------
+
+Classes hierarchy::
+
+   BaseSelector
+   +-- SelectSelector
+   +-- PollSelector
+   +-- EpollSelector
+   +-- DevpollSelector
+   +-- KqueueSelector
+
+
+In the following, *events* is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events should
+be waited for on a given file object. It can be a combination of the modules
+constants below:
+
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | Constant              | Meaning                                       |
+   +=======================+===============================================+
+   | :const:`EVENT_READ`   | Available for read                            |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`EVENT_WRITE`  | Available for write                           |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. class:: SelectorKey
+
+   A :class:`SelectorKey` is a :class:`~collections.namedtuple` used to
+   associate a file object to its underlying file descriptor, selected event
+   mask and attached data. It is returned by several :class:`BaseSelector`
+   methods.
+
+   .. attribute:: fileobj
+
+      File object registered.
+
+   .. attribute:: fd
+
+      Underlying file descriptor.
+
+   .. attribute:: events
+
+      Events that must be waited for on this file object.
+
+   .. attribute:: data
+
+      Optional opaque data associated to this file object: for example, this
+      could be used to store a per-client session ID.
+
+
+.. class:: BaseSelector
+
+   A :class:`BaseSelector` is used to wait for I/O event readiness on multiple
+   file objects. It supports file stream registration, unregistration, and a
+   method to wait for I/O events on those streams, with an optional timeout.
+   It's an abstract base class, so cannot be instantiated. Use
+   :class:`DefaultSelector` instead, or one of :class:`SelectSelector`,
+   :class:`KqueueSelector` etc. if you want to specifically use an
+   implementation, and your platform supports it.
+   :class:`BaseSelector` and its concrete implementations support the
+   :term:`context manager` protocol.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: register(fileobj, events, data=None)
+
+      Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O events.
+
+      *fileobj* is the file object to monitor.  It may either be an integer
+      file descriptor or an object with a ``fileno()`` method.
+      *events* is a bitwise mask of events to monitor.
+      *data* is an opaque object.
+
+      This returns a new :class:`SelectorKey` instance, or raises a
+      :exc:`ValueError` in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or
+      :exc:`KeyError` if the file object is already registered.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: unregister(fileobj)
+
+      Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from monitoring. A
+      file object shall be unregistered prior to being closed.
+
+      *fileobj* must be a file object previously registered.
+
+      This returns the associated :class:`SelectorKey` instance, or raises a
+      :exc:`KeyError` if *fileobj* is not registered.  It will raise
+      :exc:`ValueError` if *fileobj* is invalid (e.g. it has no ``fileno()``
+      method or its ``fileno()`` method has an invalid return value).
+
+   .. method:: modify(fileobj, events, data=None)
+
+      Change a registered file object's monitored events or attached data.
+
+      This is equivalent to :meth:`BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj)` followed
+      by :meth:`BaseSelector.register(fileobj, events, data)`, except that it
+      can be implemented more efficiently.
+
+      This returns a new :class:`SelectorKey` instance, or raises a
+      :exc:`ValueError` in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or
+      :exc:`KeyError` if the file object is not registered.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: select(timeout=None)
+
+      Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the timeout
+      expires.
+
+      If ``timeout > 0``, this specifies the maximum wait time, in seconds.
+      If ``timeout <= 0``, the call won't block, and will report the currently
+      ready file objects.
+      If *timeout* is ``None``, the call will block until a monitored file object
+      becomes ready.
+
+      This returns a list of ``(key, events)`` tuples, one for each ready file
+      object.
+
+      *key* is the :class:`SelectorKey` instance corresponding to a ready file
+      object.
+      *events* is a bitmask of events ready on this file object.
+
+      .. note::
+          This method can return before any file object becomes ready or the
+          timeout has elapsed if the current process receives a signal: in this
+          case, an empty list will be returned.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         The selector is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted
+         by a signal if the signal handler did not raise an exception (see
+         :pep:`475` for the rationale), instead of returning an empty list
+         of events before the timeout.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the selector.
+
+      This must be called to make sure that any underlying resource is freed.
+      The selector shall not be used once it has been closed.
+
+   .. method:: get_key(fileobj)
+
+      Return the key associated with a registered file object.
+
+      This returns the :class:`SelectorKey` instance associated to this file
+      object, or raises :exc:`KeyError` if the file object is not registered.
+
+   .. abstractmethod:: get_map()
+
+      Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.
+
+      This returns a :class:`~collections.abc.Mapping` instance mapping
+      registered file objects to their associated :class:`SelectorKey`
+      instance.
+
+
+.. class:: DefaultSelector()
+
+   The default selector class, using the most efficient implementation
+   available on the current platform. This should be the default choice for
+   most users.
+
+
+.. class:: SelectSelector()
+
+   :func:`select.select`-based selector.
+
+
+.. class:: PollSelector()
+
+   :func:`select.poll`-based selector.
+
+
+.. class:: EpollSelector()
+
+   :func:`select.epoll`-based selector.
+
+   .. method:: fileno()
+
+      This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying
+      :func:`select.epoll` object.
+
+.. class:: DevpollSelector()
+
+   :func:`select.devpoll`-based selector.
+
+   .. method:: fileno()
+
+      This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying
+      :func:`select.devpoll` object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. class:: KqueueSelector()
+
+   :func:`select.kqueue`-based selector.
+
+   .. method:: fileno()
+
+      This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying
+      :func:`select.kqueue` object.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Here is a simple echo server implementation::
+
+   import selectors
+   import socket
+
+   sel = selectors.DefaultSelector()
+
+   def accept(sock, mask):
+       conn, addr = sock.accept()  # Should be ready
+       print('accepted', conn, 'from', addr)
+       conn.setblocking(False)
+       sel.register(conn, selectors.EVENT_READ, read)
+
+   def read(conn, mask):
+       data = conn.recv(1000)  # Should be ready
+       if data:
+           print('echoing', repr(data), 'to', conn)
+           conn.send(data)  # Hope it won't block
+       else:
+           print('closing', conn)
+           sel.unregister(conn)
+           conn.close()
+
+   sock = socket.socket()
+   sock.bind(('localhost', 1234))
+   sock.listen(100)
+   sock.setblocking(False)
+   sel.register(sock, selectors.EVENT_READ, accept)
+
+   while True:
+       events = sel.select()
+       for key, mask in events:
+           callback = key.data
+           callback(key.fileobj, mask)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shelve.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shelve.rst.txt
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index 0000000..f08c581
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shelve.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,203 @@
+:mod:`shelve` --- Python object persistence
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: shelve
+   :synopsis: Python object persistence.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/shelve.py`
+
+.. index:: module: pickle
+
+--------------
+
+A "shelf" is a persistent, dictionary-like object.  The difference with "dbm"
+databases is that the values (not the keys!) in a shelf can be essentially
+arbitrary Python objects --- anything that the :mod:`pickle` module can handle.
+This includes most class instances, recursive data types, and objects containing
+lots of shared  sub-objects.  The keys are ordinary strings.
+
+
+.. function:: open(filename, flag='c', protocol=None, writeback=False)
+
+   Open a persistent dictionary.  The filename specified is the base filename for
+   the underlying database.  As a side-effect, an extension may be added to the
+   filename and more than one file may be created.  By default, the underlying
+   database file is opened for reading and writing.  The optional *flag* parameter
+   has the same interpretation as the *flag* parameter of :func:`dbm.open`.
+
+   By default, version 3 pickles are used to serialize values.  The version of the
+   pickle protocol can be specified with the *protocol* parameter.
+
+   Because of Python semantics, a shelf cannot know when a mutable
+   persistent-dictionary entry is modified.  By default modified objects are
+   written *only* when assigned to the shelf (see :ref:`shelve-example`).  If the
+   optional *writeback* parameter is set to ``True``, all entries accessed are also
+   cached in memory, and written back on :meth:`~Shelf.sync` and
+   :meth:`~Shelf.close`; this can make it handier to mutate mutable entries in
+   the persistent dictionary, but, if many entries are accessed, it can consume
+   vast amounts of memory for the cache, and it can make the close operation
+   very slow since all accessed entries are written back (there is no way to
+   determine which accessed entries are mutable, nor which ones were actually
+   mutated).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Do not rely on the shelf being closed automatically; always call
+      :meth:`~Shelf.close` explicitly when you don't need it any more, or
+      use :func:`shelve.open` as a context manager::
+
+          with shelve.open('spam') as db:
+              db['eggs'] = 'eggs'
+
+.. warning::
+
+   Because the :mod:`shelve` module is backed by :mod:`pickle`, it is insecure
+   to load a shelf from an untrusted source.  Like with pickle, loading a shelf
+   can execute arbitrary code.
+
+Shelf objects support all methods supported by dictionaries.  This eases the
+transition from dictionary based scripts to those requiring persistent storage.
+
+Two additional methods are supported:
+
+.. method:: Shelf.sync()
+
+   Write back all entries in the cache if the shelf was opened with *writeback*
+   set to :const:`True`.  Also empty the cache and synchronize the persistent
+   dictionary on disk, if feasible.  This is called automatically when the shelf
+   is closed with :meth:`close`.
+
+.. method:: Shelf.close()
+
+   Synchronize and close the persistent *dict* object.  Operations on a closed
+   shelf will fail with a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Persistent dictionary recipe <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642/>`_
+   with widely supported storage formats and having the speed of native
+   dictionaries.
+
+
+Restrictions
+------------
+
+  .. index::
+     module: dbm.ndbm
+     module: dbm.gnu
+
+* The choice of which database package will be used (such as :mod:`dbm.ndbm` or
+  :mod:`dbm.gnu`) depends on which interface is available.  Therefore it is not
+  safe to open the database directly using :mod:`dbm`.  The database is also
+  (unfortunately) subject to the limitations of :mod:`dbm`, if it is used ---
+  this means that (the pickled representation of) the objects stored in the
+  database should be fairly small, and in rare cases key collisions may cause
+  the database to refuse updates.
+
+* The :mod:`shelve` module does not support *concurrent* read/write access to
+  shelved objects.  (Multiple simultaneous read accesses are safe.)  When a
+  program has a shelf open for writing, no other program should have it open for
+  reading or writing.  Unix file locking can be used to solve this, but this
+  differs across Unix versions and requires knowledge about the database
+  implementation used.
+
+
+.. class:: Shelf(dict, protocol=None, writeback=False, keyencoding='utf-8')
+
+   A subclass of :class:`collections.abc.MutableMapping` which stores pickled
+   values in the *dict* object.
+
+   By default, version 3 pickles are used to serialize values.  The version of the
+   pickle protocol can be specified with the *protocol* parameter. See the
+   :mod:`pickle` documentation for a discussion of the pickle protocols.
+
+   If the *writeback* parameter is ``True``, the object will hold a cache of all
+   entries accessed and write them back to the *dict* at sync and close times.
+   This allows natural operations on mutable entries, but can consume much more
+   memory and make sync and close take a long time.
+
+   The *keyencoding* parameter is the encoding used to encode keys before they
+   are used with the underlying dict.
+
+   A :class:`Shelf` object can also be used as a context manager, in which
+   case it will be automatically closed when the :keyword:`with` block ends.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the *keyencoding* parameter; previously, keys were always encoded in
+      UTF-8.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added context manager support.
+
+
+.. class:: BsdDbShelf(dict, protocol=None, writeback=False, keyencoding='utf-8')
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Shelf` which exposes :meth:`first`, :meth:`!next`,
+   :meth:`previous`, :meth:`last` and :meth:`set_location` which are available
+   in the third-party :mod:`bsddb` module from `pybsddb
+   <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`_ but not in other database
+   modules.  The *dict* object passed to the constructor must support those
+   methods.  This is generally accomplished by calling one of
+   :func:`bsddb.hashopen`, :func:`bsddb.btopen` or :func:`bsddb.rnopen`.  The
+   optional *protocol*, *writeback*, and *keyencoding* parameters have the same
+   interpretation as for the :class:`Shelf` class.
+
+
+.. class:: DbfilenameShelf(filename, flag='c', protocol=None, writeback=False)
+
+   A subclass of :class:`Shelf` which accepts a *filename* instead of a dict-like
+   object.  The underlying file will be opened using :func:`dbm.open`.  By
+   default, the file will be created and opened for both read and write.  The
+   optional *flag* parameter has the same interpretation as for the :func:`.open`
+   function.  The optional *protocol* and *writeback* parameters have the same
+   interpretation as for the :class:`Shelf` class.
+
+
+.. _shelve-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+To summarize the interface (``key`` is a string, ``data`` is an arbitrary
+object)::
+
+   import shelve
+
+   d = shelve.open(filename)  # open -- file may get suffix added by low-level
+                              # library
+
+   d[key] = data              # store data at key (overwrites old data if
+                              # using an existing key)
+   data = d[key]              # retrieve a COPY of data at key (raise KeyError
+                              # if no such key)
+   del d[key]                 # delete data stored at key (raises KeyError
+                              # if no such key)
+
+   flag = key in d            # true if the key exists
+   klist = list(d.keys())     # a list of all existing keys (slow!)
+
+   # as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:
+   d['xx'] = [0, 1, 2]        # this works as expected, but...
+   d['xx'].append(3)          # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL [0, 1, 2]!
+
+   # having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:
+   temp = d['xx']             # extracts the copy
+   temp.append(5)             # mutates the copy
+   d['xx'] = temp             # stores the copy right back, to persist it
+
+   # or, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True) would let you just code
+   # d['xx'].append(5) and have it work as expected, BUT it would also
+   # consume more memory and make the d.close() operation slower.
+
+   d.close()                  # close it
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`dbm`
+      Generic interface to ``dbm``-style databases.
+
+   Module :mod:`pickle`
+      Object serialization used by :mod:`shelve`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shlex.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shlex.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb335c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shlex.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,418 @@
+:mod:`shlex` --- Simple lexical analysis
+========================================
+
+.. module:: shlex
+   :synopsis: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@snark.thyrsus.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Gustavo Niemeyer <niemeyer@conectiva.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@snark.thyrsus.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Gustavo Niemeyer <niemeyer@conectiva.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/shlex.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :class:`~shlex.shlex` class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers for
+simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell.  This will often be useful
+for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files for Python
+applications) or for parsing quoted strings.
+
+The :mod:`shlex` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: split(s, comments=False, posix=True)
+
+   Split the string *s* using shell-like syntax. If *comments* is :const:`False`
+   (the default), the parsing of comments in the given string will be disabled
+   (setting the :attr:`~shlex.commenters` attribute of the
+   :class:`~shlex.shlex` instance to the empty string).  This function operates
+   in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX mode if the *posix* argument is
+   false.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Since the :func:`split` function instantiates a :class:`~shlex.shlex`
+      instance, passing ``None`` for *s* will read the string to split from
+      standard input.
+
+
+.. function:: quote(s)
+
+   Return a shell-escaped version of the string *s*.  The returned value is a
+   string that can safely be used as one token in a shell command line, for
+   cases where you cannot use a list.
+
+   This idiom would be unsafe:
+
+      >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
+      >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename)
+      >>> print(command)  # executed by a shell: boom!
+      ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~
+
+   :func:`quote` lets you plug the security hole:
+
+      >>> from shlex import quote
+      >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename))
+      >>> print(command)
+      ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
+      >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command))
+      >>> print(remote_command)
+      ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"''
+
+   The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with :func:`split`:
+
+      >>> from shlex import split
+      >>> remote_command = split(remote_command)
+      >>> remote_command
+      ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"]
+      >>> command = split(remote_command[-1])
+      >>> command
+      ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~']
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The :mod:`shlex` module defines the following class:
+
+
+.. class:: shlex(instream=None, infile=None, posix=False, punctuation_chars=False)
+
+   A :class:`~shlex.shlex` instance or subclass instance is a lexical analyzer
+   object.  The initialization argument, if present, specifies where to read
+   characters from.  It must be a file-/stream-like object with
+   :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.read` and :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.readline` methods, or
+   a string.  If no argument is given, input will be taken from ``sys.stdin``.
+   The second optional argument is a filename string, which sets the initial
+   value of the :attr:`~shlex.infile` attribute.  If the *instream*
+   argument is omitted or equal to ``sys.stdin``, this second argument
+   defaults to "stdin".  The *posix* argument defines the operational mode:
+   when *posix* is not true (default), the :class:`~shlex.shlex` instance will
+   operate in compatibility mode.  When operating in POSIX mode,
+   :class:`~shlex.shlex` will try to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell
+   parsing rules.  The *punctuation_chars* argument provides a way to make the
+   behaviour even closer to how real shells parse.  This can take a number of
+   values: the default value, ``False``, preserves the behaviour seen under
+   Python 3.5 and earlier.  If set to ``True``, then parsing of the characters
+   ``();<>|&`` is changed: any run of these characters (considered punctuation
+   characters) is returned as a single token.  If set to a non-empty string of
+   characters, those characters will be used as the punctuation characters.  Any
+   characters in the :attr:`wordchars` attribute that appear in
+   *punctuation_chars* will be removed from :attr:`wordchars`.  See
+   :ref:`improved-shell-compatibility` for more information.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *punctuation_chars* parameter was added.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`configparser`
+      Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows :file:`.ini` files.
+
+
+.. _shlex-objects:
+
+shlex Objects
+-------------
+
+A :class:`~shlex.shlex` instance has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: shlex.get_token()
+
+   Return a token.  If tokens have been stacked using :meth:`push_token`, pop a
+   token off the stack.  Otherwise, read one from the input stream.  If reading
+   encounters an immediate end-of-file, :attr:`eof` is returned (the empty
+   string (``''``) in non-POSIX mode, and ``None`` in POSIX mode).
+
+
+.. method:: shlex.push_token(str)
+
+   Push the argument onto the token stack.
+
+
+.. method:: shlex.read_token()
+
+   Read a raw token.  Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret source
+   requests.  (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and is documented here
+   only for the sake of completeness.)
+
+
+.. method:: shlex.sourcehook(filename)
+
+   When :class:`~shlex.shlex` detects a source request (see :attr:`source`
+   below) this method is given the following token as argument, and expected
+   to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open file-like object.
+
+   Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument.  If the result
+   is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source request in effect, or
+   the previous source was a stream (such as ``sys.stdin``), the result is left
+   alone.  Otherwise, if the result is a relative pathname, the directory part of
+   the name of the file immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is
+   prepended (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles ``#include
+   "file.h"``).
+
+   The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and returned as the
+   first component of the tuple, with :func:`open` called on it to yield the second
+   component. (Note: this is the reverse of the order of arguments in instance
+   initialization!)
+
+   This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory search paths,
+   addition of file extensions, and other namespace hacks. There is no
+   corresponding 'close' hook, but a shlex instance will call the
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.close` method of the sourced input stream when it returns
+   EOF.
+
+   For more explicit control of source stacking, use the :meth:`push_source` and
+   :meth:`pop_source` methods.
+
+
+.. method:: shlex.push_source(newstream, newfile=None)
+
+   Push an input source stream onto the input stack.  If the filename argument is
+   specified it will later be available for use in error messages.  This is the
+   same method used internally by the :meth:`sourcehook` method.
+
+
+.. method:: shlex.pop_source()
+
+   Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack. This is the same method
+   used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked input stream.
+
+
+.. method:: shlex.error_leader(infile=None, lineno=None)
+
+   This method generates an error message leader in the format of a Unix C compiler
+   error label; the format is ``'"%s", line %d: '``, where the ``%s`` is replaced
+   with the name of the current source file and the ``%d`` with the current input
+   line number (the optional arguments can be used to override these).
+
+   This convenience is provided to encourage :mod:`shlex` users to generate error
+   messages in the standard, parseable format understood by Emacs and other Unix
+   tools.
+
+Instances of :class:`~shlex.shlex` subclasses have some public instance
+variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for debugging:
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.commenters
+
+   The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners. All
+   characters from the comment beginner to end of line are ignored. Includes just
+   ``'#'`` by default.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.wordchars
+
+   The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character tokens.  By
+   default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and underscore.  In POSIX mode, the
+   accented characters in the Latin-1 set are also included.  If
+   :attr:`punctuation_chars` is not empty, the characters ``~-./*?=``, which can
+   appear in filename specifications and command line parameters, will also be
+   included in this attribute, and any characters which appear in
+   ``punctuation_chars`` will be removed from ``wordchars`` if they are present
+   there.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.whitespace
+
+   Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped.  Whitespace bounds
+   tokens.  By default, includes space, tab, linefeed and carriage-return.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.escape
+
+   Characters that will be considered as escape. This will be only used in POSIX
+   mode, and includes just ``'\'`` by default.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.quotes
+
+   Characters that will be considered string quotes.  The token accumulates until
+   the same quote is encountered again (thus, different quote types protect each
+   other as in the shell.)  By default, includes ASCII single and double quotes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.escapedquotes
+
+   Characters in :attr:`quotes` that will interpret escape characters defined in
+   :attr:`escape`.  This is only used in POSIX mode, and includes just ``'"'`` by
+   default.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.whitespace_split
+
+   If ``True``, tokens will only be split in whitespaces.  This is useful, for
+   example, for parsing command lines with :class:`~shlex.shlex`, getting
+   tokens in a similar way to shell arguments.  If this attribute is ``True``,
+   :attr:`punctuation_chars` will have no effect, and splitting will happen
+   only on whitespaces.  When using :attr:`punctuation_chars`, which is
+   intended to provide parsing closer to that implemented by shells, it is
+   advisable to leave ``whitespace_split`` as ``False`` (the default value).
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.infile
+
+   The name of the current input file, as initially set at class instantiation time
+   or stacked by later source requests.  It may be useful to examine this when
+   constructing error messages.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.instream
+
+   The input stream from which this :class:`~shlex.shlex` instance is reading
+   characters.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.source
+
+   This attribute is ``None`` by default.  If you assign a string to it, that
+   string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request similar to the
+   ``source`` keyword in various shells.  That is, the immediately following token
+   will be opened as a filename and input will be taken from that stream until
+   EOF, at which point the :meth:`~io.IOBase.close` method of that stream will be
+   called and the input source will again become the original input stream.  Source
+   requests may be stacked any number of levels deep.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.debug
+
+   If this attribute is numeric and ``1`` or more, a :class:`~shlex.shlex`
+   instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior.  If you need
+   to use this, you can read the module source code to learn the details.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.lineno
+
+   Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one).
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.token
+
+   The token buffer.  It may be useful to examine this when catching exceptions.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.eof
+
+   Token used to determine end of file. This will be set to the empty string
+   (``''``), in non-POSIX mode, and to ``None`` in POSIX mode.
+
+
+.. attribute:: shlex.punctuation_chars
+
+   Characters that will be considered punctuation. Runs of punctuation
+   characters will be returned as a single token. However, note that no
+   semantic validity checking will be performed: for example, '>>>' could be
+   returned as a token, even though it may not be recognised as such by shells.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. _shlex-parsing-rules:
+
+Parsing Rules
+-------------
+
+When operating in non-POSIX mode, :class:`~shlex.shlex` will try to obey to the
+following rules.
+
+* Quote characters are not recognized within words (``Do"Not"Separate`` is
+  parsed as the single word ``Do"Not"Separate``);
+
+* Escape characters are not recognized;
+
+* Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all characters
+  within the quotes;
+
+* Closing quotes separate words (``"Do"Separate`` is parsed as ``"Do"`` and
+  ``Separate``);
+
+* If :attr:`~shlex.whitespace_split` is ``False``, any character not
+  declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be returned as
+  a single-character token. If it is ``True``, :class:`~shlex.shlex` will only
+  split words in whitespaces;
+
+* EOF is signaled with an empty string (``''``);
+
+* It's not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.
+
+When operating in POSIX mode, :class:`~shlex.shlex` will try to obey to the
+following parsing rules.
+
+* Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words (``"Do"Not"Separate"`` is
+  parsed as the single word ``DoNotSeparate``);
+
+* Non-quoted escape characters (e.g. ``'\'``) preserve the literal value of the
+  next character that follows;
+
+* Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of
+  :attr:`~shlex.escapedquotes` (e.g. ``"'"``) preserve the literal value
+  of all characters within the quotes;
+
+* Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of
+  :attr:`~shlex.escapedquotes` (e.g. ``'"'``) preserves the literal value
+  of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the characters
+  mentioned in :attr:`~shlex.escape`.  The escape characters retain its
+  special meaning only when followed by the quote in use, or the escape
+  character itself. Otherwise the escape character will be considered a
+  normal character.
+
+* EOF is signaled with a :const:`None` value;
+
+* Quoted empty strings (``''``) are allowed.
+
+.. _improved-shell-compatibility:
+
+Improved Compatibility with Shells
+----------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+The :class:`shlex` class provides compatibility with the parsing performed by
+common Unix shells like ``bash``, ``dash``, and ``sh``.  To take advantage of
+this compatibility, specify the ``punctuation_chars`` argument in the
+constructor.  This defaults to ``False``, which preserves pre-3.6 behaviour.
+However, if it is set to ``True``, then parsing of the characters ``();<>|&``
+is changed: any run of these characters is returned as a single token.  While
+this is short of a full parser for shells (which would be out of scope for the
+standard library, given the multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow
+you to perform processing of command lines more easily than you could
+otherwise.  To illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet:
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+    >>> import shlex
+    >>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")"
+    >>> list(shlex.shlex(text))
+    ['a', '&', '&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&', '&', 'd', '|', '|', 'e', ';', 'f', '>',
+    "'abc'", ';', '(', 'def', '"ghi"', ')']
+    >>> list(shlex.shlex(text, punctuation_chars=True))
+    ['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', "'abc'",
+    ';', '(', 'def', '"ghi"', ')']
+
+Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and you'll
+need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens.
+
+Instead of passing ``True`` as the value for the punctuation_chars parameter,
+you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be used to determine
+which characters constitute punctuation. For example::
+
+    >>> import shlex
+    >>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|")
+    >>> list(s)
+    ['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c']
+
+.. note:: When ``punctuation_chars`` is specified, the :attr:`~shlex.wordchars`
+   attribute is augmented with the characters ``~-./*?=``.  That is because these
+   characters can appear in file names (including wildcards) and command-line
+   arguments (e.g. ``--color=auto``). Hence::
+
+      >>> import shlex
+      >>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?',
+      ...                 punctuation_chars=True)
+      >>> list(s)
+      ['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?']
+
+For best effect, ``punctuation_chars`` should be set in conjunction with
+``posix=True``. (Note that ``posix=False`` is the default for
+:class:`~shlex.shlex`.)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shutil.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shutil.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12e69a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/shutil.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,659 @@
+:mod:`shutil` --- High-level file operations
+============================================
+
+.. module:: shutil
+   :synopsis: High-level file operations, including copying.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. partly based on the docstrings
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/shutil.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: file; copying
+   single: copying files
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`shutil` module offers a number of high-level operations on files and
+collections of files.  In particular, functions are provided  which support file
+copying and removal. For operations on individual files, see also the
+:mod:`os` module.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   Even the higher-level file copying functions (:func:`shutil.copy`,
+   :func:`shutil.copy2`) cannot copy all file metadata.
+
+   On POSIX platforms, this means that file owner and group are lost as well
+   as ACLs.  On Mac OS, the resource fork and other metadata are not used.
+   This means that resources will be lost and file type and creator codes will
+   not be correct. On Windows, file owners, ACLs and alternate data streams
+   are not copied.
+
+
+.. _file-operations:
+
+Directory and files operations
+------------------------------
+
+.. function:: copyfileobj(fsrc, fdst[, length])
+
+   Copy the contents of the file-like object *fsrc* to the file-like object *fdst*.
+   The integer *length*, if given, is the buffer size. In particular, a negative
+   *length* value means to copy the data without looping over the source data in
+   chunks; by default the data is read in chunks to avoid uncontrolled memory
+   consumption. Note that if the current file position of the *fsrc* object is not
+   0, only the contents from the current file position to the end of the file will
+   be copied.
+
+
+.. function:: copyfile(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named *src* to a file named
+   *dst* and return *dst*.  *src* and *dst* are path names given as strings.
+   *dst* must be the complete target file name; look at :func:`shutil.copy`
+   for a copy that accepts a target directory path.  If *src* and *dst*
+   specify the same file, :exc:`SameFileError` is raised.
+
+   The destination location must be writable; otherwise, an :exc:`OSError`
+   exception will be raised. If *dst* already exists, it will be replaced.
+   Special files such as character or block devices and pipes cannot be
+   copied with this function.
+
+   If *follow_symlinks* is false and *src* is a symbolic link,
+   a new symbolic link will be created instead of copying the
+   file *src* points to.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`IOError` used to be raised instead of :exc:`OSError`.
+      Added *follow_symlinks* argument.
+      Now returns *dst*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Raise :exc:`SameFileError` instead of :exc:`Error`.  Since the former is
+      a subclass of the latter, this change is backward compatible.
+
+
+.. exception:: SameFileError
+
+   This exception is raised if source and destination in :func:`copyfile`
+   are the same file.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: copymode(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Copy the permission bits from *src* to *dst*.  The file contents, owner, and
+   group are unaffected.  *src* and *dst* are path names given as strings.
+   If *follow_symlinks* is false, and both *src* and *dst* are symbolic links,
+   :func:`copymode` will attempt to modify the mode of *dst* itself (rather
+   than the file it points to).  This functionality is not available on every
+   platform; please see :func:`copystat` for more information.  If
+   :func:`copymode` cannot modify symbolic links on the local platform, and it
+   is asked to do so, it will do nothing and return.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added *follow_symlinks* argument.
+
+.. function:: copystat(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time, and
+   flags from *src* to *dst*.  On Linux, :func:`copystat` also copies the
+   "extended attributes" where possible.  The file contents, owner, and
+   group are unaffected.  *src* and *dst* are path names given as strings.
+
+   If *follow_symlinks* is false, and *src* and *dst* both
+   refer to symbolic links, :func:`copystat` will operate on
+   the symbolic links themselves rather than the files the
+   symbolic links refer to—reading the information from the
+   *src* symbolic link, and writing the information to the
+   *dst* symbolic link.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Not all platforms provide the ability to examine and
+      modify symbolic links.  Python itself can tell you what
+      functionality is locally available.
+
+      * If ``os.chmod in os.supports_follow_symlinks`` is
+        ``True``, :func:`copystat` can modify the permission
+        bits of a symbolic link.
+
+      * If ``os.utime in os.supports_follow_symlinks`` is
+        ``True``, :func:`copystat` can modify the last access
+        and modification times of a symbolic link.
+
+      * If ``os.chflags in os.supports_follow_symlinks`` is
+        ``True``, :func:`copystat` can modify the flags of
+        a symbolic link.  (``os.chflags`` is not available on
+        all platforms.)
+
+      On platforms where some or all of this functionality
+      is unavailable, when asked to modify a symbolic link,
+      :func:`copystat` will copy everything it can.
+      :func:`copystat` never returns failure.
+
+      Please see :data:`os.supports_follow_symlinks`
+      for more information.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added *follow_symlinks* argument and support for Linux extended attributes.
+
+.. function:: copy(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Copies the file *src* to the file or directory *dst*.  *src* and *dst*
+   should be strings.  If *dst* specifies a directory, the file will be
+   copied into *dst* using the base filename from *src*.  Returns the
+   path to the newly created file.
+
+   If *follow_symlinks* is false, and *src* is a symbolic link,
+   *dst* will be created as a symbolic link.  If *follow_symlinks*
+   is true and *src* is a symbolic link, *dst* will be a copy of
+   the file *src* refers to.
+
+   :func:`~shutil.copy` copies the file data and the file's permission
+   mode (see :func:`os.chmod`).  Other metadata, like the
+   file's creation and modification times, is not preserved.
+   To preserve all file metadata from the original, use
+   :func:`~shutil.copy2` instead.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added *follow_symlinks* argument.
+      Now returns path to the newly created file.
+
+.. function:: copy2(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)
+
+   Identical to :func:`~shutil.copy` except that :func:`copy2`
+   also attempts to preserve file metadata.
+
+   When *follow_symlinks* is false, and *src* is a symbolic
+   link, :func:`copy2` attempts to copy all metadata from the
+   *src* symbolic link to the newly-created *dst* symbolic link.
+   However, this functionality is not available on all platforms.
+   On platforms where some or all of this functionality is
+   unavailable, :func:`copy2` will preserve all the metadata
+   it can; :func:`copy2` never returns failure.
+
+   :func:`copy2` uses :func:`copystat` to copy the file metadata.
+   Please see :func:`copystat` for more information
+   about platform support for modifying symbolic link metadata.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added *follow_symlinks* argument, try to copy extended
+      file system attributes too (currently Linux only).
+      Now returns path to the newly created file.
+
+.. function:: ignore_patterns(\*patterns)
+
+   This factory function creates a function that can be used as a callable for
+   :func:`copytree`\'s *ignore* argument, ignoring files and directories that
+   match one of the glob-style *patterns* provided.  See the example below.
+
+
+.. function:: copytree(src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None, \
+              copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False)
+
+   Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at *src*, returning the
+   destination directory.  The destination
+   directory, named by *dst*, must not already exist; it will be created as
+   well as missing parent directories.  Permissions and times of directories
+   are copied with :func:`copystat`, individual files are copied using
+   :func:`shutil.copy2`.
+
+   If *symlinks* is true, symbolic links in the source tree are represented as
+   symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of the original links will
+   be copied as far as the platform allows; if false or omitted, the contents
+   and metadata of the linked files are copied to the new tree.
+
+   When *symlinks* is false, if the file pointed by the symlink doesn't
+   exist, an exception will be added in the list of errors raised in
+   an :exc:`Error` exception at the end of the copy process.
+   You can set the optional *ignore_dangling_symlinks* flag to true if you
+   want to silence this exception. Notice that this option has no effect
+   on platforms that don't support :func:`os.symlink`.
+
+   If *ignore* is given, it must be a callable that will receive as its
+   arguments the directory being visited by :func:`copytree`, and a list of its
+   contents, as returned by :func:`os.listdir`.  Since :func:`copytree` is
+   called recursively, the *ignore* callable will be called once for each
+   directory that is copied.  The callable must return a sequence of directory
+   and file names relative to the current directory (i.e. a subset of the items
+   in its second argument); these names will then be ignored in the copy
+   process.  :func:`ignore_patterns` can be used to create such a callable that
+   ignores names based on glob-style patterns.
+
+   If exception(s) occur, an :exc:`Error` is raised with a list of reasons.
+
+   If *copy_function* is given, it must be a callable that will be used to copy
+   each file. It will be called with the source path and the destination path
+   as arguments. By default, :func:`shutil.copy2` is used, but any function
+   that supports the same signature (like :func:`shutil.copy`) can be used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Copy metadata when *symlinks* is false.
+      Now returns *dst*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the *copy_function* argument to be able to provide a custom copy
+      function.
+      Added the *ignore_dangling_symlinks* argument to silent dangling symlinks
+      errors when *symlinks* is false.
+
+
+.. function:: rmtree(path, ignore_errors=False, onerror=None)
+
+   .. index:: single: directory; deleting
+
+   Delete an entire directory tree; *path* must point to a directory (but not a
+   symbolic link to a directory).  If *ignore_errors* is true, errors resulting
+   from failed removals will be ignored; if false or omitted, such errors are
+   handled by calling a handler specified by *onerror* or, if that is omitted,
+   they raise an exception.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On platforms that support the necessary fd-based functions a symlink
+      attack resistant version of :func:`rmtree` is used by default.  On other
+      platforms, the :func:`rmtree` implementation is susceptible to a symlink
+      attack: given proper timing and circumstances, attackers can manipulate
+      symlinks on the filesystem to delete files they wouldn't be able to access
+      otherwise.  Applications can use the :data:`rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks`
+      function attribute to determine which case applies.
+
+   If *onerror* is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three
+   parameters: *function*, *path*, and *excinfo*.
+
+   The first parameter, *function*, is the function which raised the exception;
+   it depends on the platform and implementation.  The second parameter,
+   *path*, will be the path name passed to *function*.  The third parameter,
+   *excinfo*, will be the exception information returned by
+   :func:`sys.exc_info`.  Exceptions raised by *onerror* will not be caught.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added a symlink attack resistant version that is used automatically
+      if platform supports fd-based functions.
+
+   .. attribute:: rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks
+
+      Indicates whether the current platform and implementation provides a
+      symlink attack resistant version of :func:`rmtree`.  Currently this is
+      only true for platforms supporting fd-based directory access functions.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: move(src, dst, copy_function=copy2)
+
+   Recursively move a file or directory (*src*) to another location (*dst*)
+   and return the destination.
+
+   If the destination is an existing directory, then *src* is moved inside that
+   directory. If the destination already exists but is not a directory, it may
+   be overwritten depending on :func:`os.rename` semantics.
+
+   If the destination is on the current filesystem, then :func:`os.rename` is
+   used. Otherwise, *src* is copied to *dst* using *copy_function* and then
+   removed.  In case of symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of *src*
+   will be created in or as *dst* and *src* will be removed.
+
+   If *copy_function* is given, it must be a callable that takes two arguments
+   *src* and *dst*, and will be used to copy *src* to *dest* if
+   :func:`os.rename` cannot be used.  If the source is a directory,
+   :func:`copytree` is called, passing it the :func:`copy_function`. The
+   default *copy_function* is :func:`copy2`.  Using :func:`~shutil.copy` as the
+   *copy_function* allows the move to succeed when it is not possible to also
+   copy the metadata, at the expense of not copying any of the metadata.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added explicit symlink handling for foreign filesystems, thus adapting
+      it to the behavior of GNU's :program:`mv`.
+      Now returns *dst*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the *copy_function* keyword argument.
+
+.. function:: disk_usage(path)
+
+   Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a :term:`named tuple`
+   with the attributes *total*, *used* and *free*, which are the amount of
+   total, used and free space, in bytes.  On Windows, *path* must be a
+   directory; on Unix, it can be a file or directory.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. availability:: Unix, Windows.
+
+.. function:: chown(path, user=None, group=None)
+
+   Change owner *user* and/or *group* of the given *path*.
+
+   *user* can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to *group*. At
+   least one argument is required.
+
+   See also :func:`os.chown`, the underlying function.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: which(cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None)
+
+   Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given *cmd* was
+   called.  If no *cmd* would be called, return ``None``.
+
+   *mode* is a permission mask passed to :func:`os.access`, by default
+   determining if the file exists and executable.
+
+   When no *path* is specified, the results of :func:`os.environ` are used,
+   returning either the "PATH" value or a fallback of :attr:`os.defpath`.
+
+   On Windows, the current directory is always prepended to the *path* whether
+   or not you use the default or provide your own, which is the behavior the
+   command shell uses when finding executables.  Additionally, when finding the
+   *cmd* in the *path*, the ``PATHEXT`` environment variable is checked.  For
+   example, if you call ``shutil.which("python")``, :func:`which` will search
+   ``PATHEXT`` to know that it should look for ``python.exe`` within the *path*
+   directories.  For example, on Windows::
+
+      >>> shutil.which("python")
+      'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   This exception collects exceptions that are raised during a multi-file
+   operation. For :func:`copytree`, the exception argument is a list of 3-tuples
+   (*srcname*, *dstname*, *exception*).
+
+
+.. _shutil-copytree-example:
+
+copytree example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+This example is the implementation of the :func:`copytree` function, described
+above, with the docstring omitted.  It demonstrates many of the other functions
+provided by this module. ::
+
+   def copytree(src, dst, symlinks=False):
+       names = os.listdir(src)
+       os.makedirs(dst)
+       errors = []
+       for name in names:
+           srcname = os.path.join(src, name)
+           dstname = os.path.join(dst, name)
+           try:
+               if symlinks and os.path.islink(srcname):
+                   linkto = os.readlink(srcname)
+                   os.symlink(linkto, dstname)
+               elif os.path.isdir(srcname):
+                   copytree(srcname, dstname, symlinks)
+               else:
+                   copy2(srcname, dstname)
+               # XXX What about devices, sockets etc.?
+           except OSError as why:
+               errors.append((srcname, dstname, str(why)))
+           # catch the Error from the recursive copytree so that we can
+           # continue with other files
+           except Error as err:
+               errors.extend(err.args[0])
+       try:
+           copystat(src, dst)
+       except OSError as why:
+           # can't copy file access times on Windows
+           if why.winerror is None:
+               errors.extend((src, dst, str(why)))
+       if errors:
+           raise Error(errors)
+
+Another example that uses the :func:`ignore_patterns` helper::
+
+   from shutil import copytree, ignore_patterns
+
+   copytree(source, destination, ignore=ignore_patterns('*.pyc', 'tmp*'))
+
+This will copy everything except ``.pyc`` files and files or directories whose
+name starts with ``tmp``.
+
+Another example that uses the *ignore* argument to add a logging call::
+
+   from shutil import copytree
+   import logging
+
+   def _logpath(path, names):
+       logging.info('Working in %s', path)
+       return []   # nothing will be ignored
+
+   copytree(source, destination, ignore=_logpath)
+
+
+.. _shutil-rmtree-example:
+
+rmtree example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+This example shows how to remove a directory tree on Windows where some
+of the files have their read-only bit set. It uses the onerror callback
+to clear the readonly bit and reattempt the remove. Any subsequent failure
+will propagate. ::
+
+    import os, stat
+    import shutil
+
+    def remove_readonly(func, path, _):
+        "Clear the readonly bit and reattempt the removal"
+        os.chmod(path, stat.S_IWRITE)
+        func(path)
+
+    shutil.rmtree(directory, onerror=remove_readonly)
+
+.. _archiving-operations:
+
+Archiving operations
+--------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+    Added support for the *xztar* format.
+
+
+High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files are also
+provided.  They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules.
+
+.. function:: make_archive(base_name, format, [root_dir, [base_dir, [verbose, [dry_run, [owner, [group, [logger]]]]]]])
+
+   Create an archive file (such as zip or tar) and return its name.
+
+   *base_name* is the name of the file to create, including the path, minus
+   any format-specific extension. *format* is the archive format: one of
+   "zip" (if the :mod:`zlib` module is available), "tar", "gztar" (if the
+   :mod:`zlib` module is available), "bztar" (if the :mod:`bz2` module is
+   available), or "xztar" (if the :mod:`lzma` module is available).
+
+   *root_dir* is a directory that will be the root directory of the
+   archive; for example, we typically chdir into *root_dir* before creating the
+   archive.
+
+   *base_dir* is the directory where we start archiving from;
+   i.e. *base_dir* will be the common prefix of all files and
+   directories in the archive.
+
+   *root_dir* and *base_dir* both default to the current directory.
+
+   If *dry_run* is true, no archive is created, but the operations that would be
+   executed are logged to *logger*.
+
+   *owner* and *group* are used when creating a tar archive. By default,
+   uses the current owner and group.
+
+   *logger* must be an object compatible with :pep:`282`, usually an instance of
+   :class:`logging.Logger`.
+
+   The *verbose* argument is unused and deprecated.
+
+
+.. function:: get_archive_formats()
+
+   Return a list of supported formats for archiving.
+   Each element of the returned sequence is a tuple ``(name, description)``.
+
+   By default :mod:`shutil` provides these formats:
+
+   - *zip*: ZIP file (if the :mod:`zlib` module is available).
+   - *tar*: uncompressed tar file.
+   - *gztar*: gzip'ed tar-file (if the :mod:`zlib` module is available).
+   - *bztar*: bzip2'ed tar-file (if the :mod:`bz2` module is available).
+   - *xztar*: xz'ed tar-file (if the :mod:`lzma` module is available).
+
+   You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any existing
+   formats, by using :func:`register_archive_format`.
+
+
+.. function:: register_archive_format(name, function, [extra_args, [description]])
+
+   Register an archiver for the format *name*.
+
+   *function* is the callable that will be used to unpack archives. The callable
+   will receive the *base_name* of the file to create, followed by the
+   *base_dir* (which defaults to :data:`os.curdir`) to start archiving from.
+   Further arguments are passed as keyword arguments: *owner*, *group*,
+   *dry_run* and *logger* (as passed in :func:`make_archive`).
+
+   If given, *extra_args* is a sequence of ``(name, value)`` pairs that will be
+   used as extra keywords arguments when the archiver callable is used.
+
+   *description* is used by :func:`get_archive_formats` which returns the
+   list of archivers.  Defaults to an empty string.
+
+
+.. function:: unregister_archive_format(name)
+
+   Remove the archive format *name* from the list of supported formats.
+
+
+.. function:: unpack_archive(filename[, extract_dir[, format]])
+
+   Unpack an archive. *filename* is the full path of the archive.
+
+   *extract_dir* is the name of the target directory where the archive is
+   unpacked. If not provided, the current working directory is used.
+
+   *format* is the archive format: one of "zip", "tar", "gztar", "bztar", or
+   "xztar".  Or any other format registered with
+   :func:`register_unpack_format`.  If not provided, :func:`unpack_archive`
+   will use the archive file name extension and see if an unpacker was
+   registered for that extension.  In case none is found,
+   a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *filename* and *extract_dir*.
+
+
+.. function:: register_unpack_format(name, extensions, function[, extra_args[, description]])
+
+   Registers an unpack format. *name* is the name of the format and
+   *extensions* is a list of extensions corresponding to the format, like
+   ``.zip`` for Zip files.
+
+   *function* is the callable that will be used to unpack archives. The
+   callable will receive the path of the archive, followed by the directory
+   the archive must be extracted to.
+
+   When provided, *extra_args* is a sequence of ``(name, value)`` tuples that
+   will be passed as keywords arguments to the callable.
+
+   *description* can be provided to describe the format, and will be returned
+   by the :func:`get_unpack_formats` function.
+
+
+.. function:: unregister_unpack_format(name)
+
+   Unregister an unpack format. *name* is the name of the format.
+
+
+.. function:: get_unpack_formats()
+
+   Return a list of all registered formats for unpacking.
+   Each element of the returned sequence is a tuple
+   ``(name, extensions, description)``.
+
+   By default :mod:`shutil` provides these formats:
+
+   - *zip*: ZIP file (unpacking compressed files works only if the corresponding
+     module is available).
+   - *tar*: uncompressed tar file.
+   - *gztar*: gzip'ed tar-file (if the :mod:`zlib` module is available).
+   - *bztar*: bzip2'ed tar-file (if the :mod:`bz2` module is available).
+   - *xztar*: xz'ed tar-file (if the :mod:`lzma` module is available).
+
+   You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any existing
+   formats, by using :func:`register_unpack_format`.
+
+
+.. _shutil-archiving-example:
+
+Archiving example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In this example, we create a gzip'ed tar-file archive containing all files
+found in the :file:`.ssh` directory of the user::
+
+    >>> from shutil import make_archive
+    >>> import os
+    >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
+    >>> root_dir = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', '.ssh'))
+    >>> make_archive(archive_name, 'gztar', root_dir)
+    '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz'
+
+The resulting archive contains:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
+    drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./
+    -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys
+    -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config
+    -rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa
+    -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub
+    -rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa
+    -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub
+    -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts
+
+
+Querying the size of the output terminal
+----------------------------------------
+
+.. function:: get_terminal_size(fallback=(columns, lines))
+
+   Get the size of the terminal window.
+
+   For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, ``COLUMNS``
+   and ``LINES`` respectively, is checked. If the variable is defined and
+   the value is a positive integer, it is used.
+
+   When ``COLUMNS`` or ``LINES`` is not defined, which is the common case,
+   the terminal connected to :data:`sys.__stdout__` is queried
+   by invoking :func:`os.get_terminal_size`.
+
+   If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because
+   the system doesn't support querying, or because we are not
+   connected to a terminal, the value given in ``fallback`` parameter
+   is used. ``fallback`` defaults to ``(80, 24)`` which is the default
+   size used by many terminal emulators.
+
+   The value returned is a named tuple of type :class:`os.terminal_size`.
+
+   See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2,
+   `Other Environment Variables`_.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. _`Other Environment Variables`:
+   http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/signal.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/signal.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6716ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/signal.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,529 @@
+:mod:`signal` --- Set handlers for asynchronous events
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: signal
+   :synopsis: Set handlers for asynchronous events.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides mechanisms to use signal handlers in Python.
+
+
+General rules
+-------------
+
+The :func:`signal.signal` function allows defining custom handlers to be
+executed when a signal is received.  A small number of default handlers are
+installed: :const:`SIGPIPE` is ignored (so write errors on pipes and sockets
+can be reported as ordinary Python exceptions) and :const:`SIGINT` is
+translated into a :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception if the parent process
+has not changed it.
+
+A handler for a particular signal, once set, remains installed until it is
+explicitly reset (Python emulates the BSD style interface regardless of the
+underlying implementation), with the exception of the handler for
+:const:`SIGCHLD`, which follows the underlying implementation.
+
+
+Execution of Python signal handlers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C) signal
+handler.  Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which tells the
+:term:`virtual machine` to execute the corresponding Python signal handler
+at a later point(for example at the next :term:`bytecode` instruction).
+This has consequences:
+
+* It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like :const:`SIGFPE` or
+  :const:`SIGSEGV` that are caused by an invalid operation in C code.  Python
+  will return from the signal handler to the C code, which is likely to raise
+  the same signal again, causing Python to apparently hang.  From Python 3.3
+  onwards, you can use the :mod:`faulthandler` module to report on synchronous
+  errors.
+
+* A long-running calculation implemented purely in C (such as regular
+  expression matching on a large body of text) may run uninterrupted for an
+  arbitrary amount of time, regardless of any signals received.  The Python
+  signal handlers will be called when the calculation finishes.
+
+
+.. _signals-and-threads:
+
+
+Signals and threads
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Python signal handlers are always executed in the main Python thread,
+even if the signal was received in another thread.  This means that signals
+can't be used as a means of inter-thread communication.  You can use
+the synchronization primitives from the :mod:`threading` module instead.
+
+Besides, only the main thread is allowed to set a new signal handler.
+
+
+Module contents
+---------------
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   signal (SIG*), handler (:const:`SIG_DFL`, :const:`SIG_IGN`) and sigmask
+   (:const:`SIG_BLOCK`, :const:`SIG_UNBLOCK`, :const:`SIG_SETMASK`)
+   related constants listed below were turned into
+   :class:`enums <enum.IntEnum>`.
+   :func:`getsignal`, :func:`pthread_sigmask`, :func:`sigpending` and
+   :func:`sigwait` functions return human-readable
+   :class:`enums <enum.IntEnum>`.
+
+
+The variables defined in the :mod:`signal` module are:
+
+
+.. data:: SIG_DFL
+
+   This is one of two standard signal handling options; it will simply perform
+   the default function for the signal.  For example, on most systems the
+   default action for :const:`SIGQUIT` is to dump core and exit, while the
+   default action for :const:`SIGCHLD` is to simply ignore it.
+
+
+.. data:: SIG_IGN
+
+   This is another standard signal handler, which will simply ignore the given
+   signal.
+
+
+.. data:: SIG*
+
+   All the signal numbers are defined symbolically.  For example, the hangup signal
+   is defined as :const:`signal.SIGHUP`; the variable names are identical to the
+   names used in C programs, as found in ``<signal.h>``. The Unix man page for
+   ':c:func:`signal`' lists the existing signals (on some systems this is
+   :manpage:`signal(2)`, on others the list is in :manpage:`signal(7)`). Note that
+   not all systems define the same set of signal names; only those names defined by
+   the system are defined by this module.
+
+
+.. data:: CTRL_C_EVENT
+
+   The signal corresponding to the :kbd:`Ctrl+C` keystroke event. This signal can
+   only be used with :func:`os.kill`.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: CTRL_BREAK_EVENT
+
+   The signal corresponding to the :kbd:`Ctrl+Break` keystroke event. This signal can
+   only be used with :func:`os.kill`.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: NSIG
+
+   One more than the number of the highest signal number.
+
+
+.. data:: ITIMER_REAL
+
+   Decrements interval timer in real time, and delivers :const:`SIGALRM` upon
+   expiration.
+
+
+.. data:: ITIMER_VIRTUAL
+
+   Decrements interval timer only when the process is executing, and delivers
+   SIGVTALRM upon expiration.
+
+
+.. data:: ITIMER_PROF
+
+   Decrements interval timer both when the process executes and when the
+   system is executing on behalf of the process. Coupled with ITIMER_VIRTUAL,
+   this timer is usually used to profile the time spent by the application
+   in user and kernel space. SIGPROF is delivered upon expiration.
+
+
+.. data:: SIG_BLOCK
+
+   A possible value for the *how* parameter to :func:`pthread_sigmask`
+   indicating that signals are to be blocked.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: SIG_UNBLOCK
+
+   A possible value for the *how* parameter to :func:`pthread_sigmask`
+   indicating that signals are to be unblocked.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: SIG_SETMASK
+
+   A possible value for the *how* parameter to :func:`pthread_sigmask`
+   indicating that the signal mask is to be replaced.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+The :mod:`signal` module defines one exception:
+
+.. exception:: ItimerError
+
+   Raised to signal an error from the underlying :func:`setitimer` or
+   :func:`getitimer` implementation. Expect this error if an invalid
+   interval timer or a negative time is passed to :func:`setitimer`.
+   This error is a subtype of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      This error used to be a subtype of :exc:`IOError`, which is now an
+      alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: alarm(time)
+
+   If *time* is non-zero, this function requests that a :const:`SIGALRM` signal be
+   sent to the process in *time* seconds. Any previously scheduled alarm is
+   canceled (only one alarm can be scheduled at any time).  The returned value is
+   then the number of seconds before any previously set alarm was to have been
+   delivered. If *time* is zero, no alarm is scheduled, and any scheduled alarm is
+   canceled.  If the return value is zero, no alarm is currently scheduled.  (See
+   the Unix man page :manpage:`alarm(2)`.)
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getsignal(signalnum)
+
+   Return the current signal handler for the signal *signalnum*. The returned value
+   may be a callable Python object, or one of the special values
+   :const:`signal.SIG_IGN`, :const:`signal.SIG_DFL` or :const:`None`.  Here,
+   :const:`signal.SIG_IGN` means that the signal was previously ignored,
+   :const:`signal.SIG_DFL` means that the default way of handling the signal was
+   previously in use, and ``None`` means that the previous signal handler was not
+   installed from Python.
+
+
+.. function:: pause()
+
+   Cause the process to sleep until a signal is received; the appropriate handler
+   will then be called.  Returns nothing.  Not on Windows. (See the Unix man page
+   :manpage:`signal(2)`.)
+
+   See also :func:`sigwait`, :func:`sigwaitinfo`, :func:`sigtimedwait` and
+   :func:`sigpending`.
+
+
+.. function:: pthread_kill(thread_id, signalnum)
+
+   Send the signal *signalnum* to the thread *thread_id*, another thread in the
+   same process as the caller.  The target thread can be executing any code
+   (Python or not).  However, if the target thread is executing the Python
+   interpreter, the Python signal handlers will be :ref:`executed by the main
+   thread <signals-and-threads>`.  Therefore, the only point of sending a
+   signal to a particular Python thread would be to force a running system call
+   to fail with :exc:`InterruptedError`.
+
+   Use :func:`threading.get_ident()` or the :attr:`~threading.Thread.ident`
+   attribute of :class:`threading.Thread` objects to get a suitable value
+   for *thread_id*.
+
+   If *signalnum* is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is still
+   performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is still running.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`pthread_kill(3)` for further
+      information).
+
+   See also :func:`os.kill`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: pthread_sigmask(how, mask)
+
+   Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread.  The signal mask
+   is the set of signals whose delivery is currently blocked for the caller.
+   Return the old signal mask as a set of signals.
+
+   The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of *how*, as follows.
+
+   * :data:`SIG_BLOCK`: The set of blocked signals is the union of the current
+     set and the *mask* argument.
+   * :data:`SIG_UNBLOCK`: The signals in *mask* are removed from the current
+     set of blocked signals.  It is permissible to attempt to unblock a
+     signal which is not blocked.
+   * :data:`SIG_SETMASK`: The set of blocked signals is set to the *mask*
+     argument.
+
+   *mask* is a set of signal numbers (e.g. {:const:`signal.SIGINT`,
+   :const:`signal.SIGTERM`}). Use ``range(1, signal.NSIG)`` for a full mask
+   including all signals.
+
+   For example, ``signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, [])`` reads the
+   signal mask of the calling thread.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix. See the man page :manpage:`sigprocmask(3)` and
+      :manpage:`pthread_sigmask(3)` for further information.
+
+   See also :func:`pause`, :func:`sigpending` and :func:`sigwait`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: setitimer(which, seconds, interval=0.0)
+
+   Sets given interval timer (one of :const:`signal.ITIMER_REAL`,
+   :const:`signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL` or :const:`signal.ITIMER_PROF`) specified
+   by *which* to fire after *seconds* (float is accepted, different from
+   :func:`alarm`) and after that every *interval* seconds (if *interval*
+   is non-zero). The interval timer specified by *which* can be cleared by
+   setting *seconds* to zero.
+
+   When an interval timer fires, a signal is sent to the process.
+   The signal sent is dependent on the timer being used;
+   :const:`signal.ITIMER_REAL` will deliver :const:`SIGALRM`,
+   :const:`signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL` sends :const:`SIGVTALRM`,
+   and :const:`signal.ITIMER_PROF` will deliver :const:`SIGPROF`.
+
+   The old values are returned as a tuple: (delay, interval).
+
+   Attempting to pass an invalid interval timer will cause an
+   :exc:`ItimerError`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getitimer(which)
+
+   Returns current value of a given interval timer specified by *which*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: set_wakeup_fd(fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)
+
+   Set the wakeup file descriptor to *fd*.  When a signal is received, the
+   signal number is written as a single byte into the fd.  This can be used by
+   a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the signal to be fully
+   processed.
+
+   The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was not
+   enabled).  If *fd* is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled.
+   If not -1, *fd* must be non-blocking.  It is up to the library to remove
+   any bytes from *fd* before calling poll or select again.
+
+   When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from the main thread;
+   attempting to call it from other threads will cause a :exc:`ValueError`
+   exception to be raised.
+
+   There are two common ways to use this function. In both approaches,
+   you use the fd to wake up when a signal arrives, but then they
+   differ in how they determine *which* signal or signals have
+   arrived.
+
+   In the first approach, we read the data out of the fd's buffer, and
+   the byte values give you the signal numbers. This is simple, but in
+   rare cases it can run into a problem: generally the fd will have a
+   limited amount of buffer space, and if too many signals arrive too
+   quickly, then the buffer may become full, and some signals may be
+   lost. If you use this approach, then you should set
+   ``warn_on_full_buffer=True``, which will at least cause a warning
+   to be printed to stderr when signals are lost.
+
+   In the second approach, we use the wakeup fd *only* for wakeups,
+   and ignore the actual byte values. In this case, all we care about
+   is whether the fd's buffer is empty or non-empty; a full buffer
+   doesn't indicate a problem at all. If you use this approach, then
+   you should set ``warn_on_full_buffer=False``, so that your users
+   are not confused by spurious warning messages.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      On Windows, the function now also supports socket handles.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added ``warn_on_full_buffer`` parameter.
+
+.. function:: siginterrupt(signalnum, flag)
+
+   Change system call restart behaviour: if *flag* is :const:`False`, system
+   calls will be restarted when interrupted by signal *signalnum*, otherwise
+   system calls will be interrupted.  Returns nothing.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`siginterrupt(3)`
+      for further information).
+
+   Note that installing a signal handler with :func:`signal` will reset the
+   restart behaviour to interruptible by implicitly calling
+   :c:func:`siginterrupt` with a true *flag* value for the given signal.
+
+
+.. function:: signal(signalnum, handler)
+
+   Set the handler for signal *signalnum* to the function *handler*.  *handler* can
+   be a callable Python object taking two arguments (see below), or one of the
+   special values :const:`signal.SIG_IGN` or :const:`signal.SIG_DFL`.  The previous
+   signal handler will be returned (see the description of :func:`getsignal`
+   above).  (See the Unix man page :manpage:`signal(2)`.)
+
+   When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from the main thread;
+   attempting to call it from other threads will cause a :exc:`ValueError`
+   exception to be raised.
+
+   The *handler* is called with two arguments: the signal number and the current
+   stack frame (``None`` or a frame object; for a description of frame objects,
+   see the :ref:`description in the type hierarchy <frame-objects>` or see the
+   attribute descriptions in the :mod:`inspect` module).
+
+   On Windows, :func:`signal` can only be called with :const:`SIGABRT`,
+   :const:`SIGFPE`, :const:`SIGILL`, :const:`SIGINT`, :const:`SIGSEGV`,
+   :const:`SIGTERM`, or :const:`SIGBREAK`.
+   A :exc:`ValueError` will be raised in any other case.
+   Note that not all systems define the same set of signal names; an
+   :exc:`AttributeError` will be raised if a signal name is not defined as
+   ``SIG*`` module level constant.
+
+
+.. function:: sigpending()
+
+   Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the calling
+   thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while blocked).  Return the
+   set of the pending signals.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigpending(2)` for further
+      information).
+
+   See also :func:`pause`, :func:`pthread_sigmask` and :func:`sigwait`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: sigwait(sigset)
+
+   Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the
+   signals specified in the signal set *sigset*.  The function accepts the signal
+   (removes it from the pending list of signals), and returns the signal number.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigwait(3)` for further
+      information).
+
+   See also :func:`pause`, :func:`pthread_sigmask`, :func:`sigpending`,
+   :func:`sigwaitinfo` and :func:`sigtimedwait`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: sigwaitinfo(sigset)
+
+   Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the
+   signals specified in the signal set *sigset*.  The function accepts the
+   signal and removes it from the pending list of signals. If one of the
+   signals in *sigset* is already pending for the calling thread, the function
+   will return immediately with information about that signal. The signal
+   handler is not called for the delivered signal. The function raises an
+   :exc:`InterruptedError` if it is interrupted by a signal that is not in
+   *sigset*.
+
+   The return value is an object representing the data contained in the
+   :c:type:`siginfo_t` structure, namely: :attr:`si_signo`, :attr:`si_code`,
+   :attr:`si_errno`, :attr:`si_pid`, :attr:`si_uid`, :attr:`si_status`,
+   :attr:`si_band`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigwaitinfo(2)` for further
+      information).
+
+   See also :func:`pause`, :func:`sigwait` and :func:`sigtimedwait`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now retried if interrupted by a signal not in *sigset*
+      and the signal handler does not raise an exception (see :pep:`475` for
+      the rationale).
+
+
+.. function:: sigtimedwait(sigset, timeout)
+
+   Like :func:`sigwaitinfo`, but takes an additional *timeout* argument
+   specifying a timeout. If *timeout* is specified as :const:`0`, a poll is
+   performed. Returns :const:`None` if a timeout occurs.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigtimedwait(2)` for further
+      information).
+
+   See also :func:`pause`, :func:`sigwait` and :func:`sigwaitinfo`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now retried with the recomputed *timeout* if interrupted
+      by a signal not in *sigset* and the signal handler does not raise an
+      exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. _signal-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+Here is a minimal example program. It uses the :func:`alarm` function to limit
+the time spent waiting to open a file; this is useful if the file is for a
+serial device that may not be turned on, which would normally cause the
+:func:`os.open` to hang indefinitely.  The solution is to set a 5-second alarm
+before opening the file; if the operation takes too long, the alarm signal will
+be sent, and the handler raises an exception. ::
+
+   import signal, os
+
+   def handler(signum, frame):
+       print('Signal handler called with signal', signum)
+       raise OSError("Couldn't open device!")
+
+   # Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm
+   signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler)
+   signal.alarm(5)
+
+   # This open() may hang indefinitely
+   fd = os.open('/dev/ttyS0', os.O_RDWR)
+
+   signal.alarm(0)          # Disable the alarm
+
+Note on SIGPIPE
+---------------
+
+Piping output of your program to tools like :manpage:`head(1)` will
+cause a :const:`SIGPIPE` signal to be sent to your process when the receiver
+of its standard output closes early.  This results in an exception
+like :code:`BrokenPipeError: [Errno 32] Broken pipe`.  To handle this
+case, wrap your entry point to catch this exception as follows::
+
+    import os
+    import sys
+
+    def main():
+        try:
+            # simulate large output (your code replaces this loop)
+            for x in range(10000):
+                print("y")
+            # flush output here to force SIGPIPE to be triggered
+            # while inside this try block.
+            sys.stdout.flush()
+        except BrokenPipeError:
+            # Python flushes standard streams on exit; redirect remaining output
+            # to devnull to avoid another BrokenPipeError at shutdown
+            devnull = os.open(os.devnull, os.O_WRONLY)
+            os.dup2(devnull, sys.stdout.fileno())
+            sys.exit(1)  # Python exits with error code 1 on EPIPE
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        main()
+
+Do not set :const:`SIGPIPE`'s disposition to :const:`SIG_DFL`
+in order to avoid :exc:`BrokenPipeError`.  Doing that would cause
+your program to exit unexpectedly also whenever any socket connection
+is interrupted while your program is still writing to it.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/site.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/site.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7974e20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/site.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+:mod:`site` --- Site-specific configuration hook
+================================================
+
+.. module:: site
+   :synopsis: Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/site.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. highlightlang:: none
+
+**This module is automatically imported during initialization.** The automatic
+import can be suppressed using the interpreter's :option:`-S` option.
+
+.. index:: triple: module; search; path
+
+Importing this module will append site-specific paths to the module search path
+and add a few builtins, unless :option:`-S` was used.  In that case, this module
+can be safely imported with no automatic modifications to the module search path
+or additions to the builtins.  To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific
+additions, call the :func:`site.main` function.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Importing the module used to trigger paths manipulation even when using
+   :option:`-S`.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: site-packages; directory
+
+It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail part.
+For the head part, it uses ``sys.prefix`` and ``sys.exec_prefix``; empty heads
+are skipped.  For the tail part, it uses the empty string and then
+:file:`lib/site-packages` (on Windows) or
+:file:`lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` (on Unix and Macintosh).  For each
+of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing
+directory, and if so, adds it to ``sys.path`` and also inspects the newly
+added path for configuration files.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Support for the "site-python" directory has been removed.
+
+If a file named "pyvenv.cfg" exists one directory above sys.executable,
+sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and
+it is also checked for site-packages (sys.base_prefix and
+sys.base_exec_prefix will always be the "real" prefixes of the Python
+installation). If "pyvenv.cfg" (a bootstrap configuration file) contains
+the key "include-system-site-packages" set to anything other than "false"
+(case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will still also be
+searched for site-packages; otherwise they won't.
+
+.. index::
+   single: # (hash); comment
+   statement: import
+
+A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form :file:`{name}.pth`
+and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents are
+additional items (one per line) to be added to ``sys.path``.  Non-existing items
+are never added to ``sys.path``, and no check is made that the item refers to a
+directory rather than a file.  No item is added to ``sys.path`` more than
+once.  Blank lines and lines beginning with ``#`` are skipped.  Lines starting
+with ``import`` (followed by space or tab) are executed.
+
+.. index::
+   single: package
+   triple: path; configuration; file
+
+For example, suppose ``sys.prefix`` and ``sys.exec_prefix`` are set to
+:file:`/usr/local`.  The Python X.Y library is then installed in
+:file:`/usr/local/lib/python{X.Y}`.  Suppose this has
+a subdirectory :file:`/usr/local/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` with three
+subsubdirectories, :file:`foo`, :file:`bar` and :file:`spam`, and two path
+configuration files, :file:`foo.pth` and :file:`bar.pth`.  Assume
+:file:`foo.pth` contains the following::
+
+   # foo package configuration
+
+   foo
+   bar
+   bletch
+
+and :file:`bar.pth` contains::
+
+   # bar package configuration
+
+   bar
+
+Then the following version-specific directories are added to
+``sys.path``, in this order::
+
+   /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
+   /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo
+
+Note that :file:`bletch` is omitted because it doesn't exist; the :file:`bar`
+directory precedes the :file:`foo` directory because :file:`bar.pth` comes
+alphabetically before :file:`foo.pth`; and :file:`spam` is omitted because it is
+not mentioned in either path configuration file.
+
+.. index:: module: sitecustomize
+
+After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module named
+:mod:`sitecustomize`, which can perform arbitrary site-specific customizations.
+It is typically created by a system administrator in the site-packages
+directory.  If this import fails with an :exc:`ImportError` or its subclass
+exception, and the exception's :attr:`name` attribute equals to ``'sitecustomize'``,
+it is silently ignored.  If Python is started without output streams available, as
+with :file:`pythonw.exe` on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE),
+attempted output from :mod:`sitecustomize` is ignored.  Any other exception
+causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.
+
+.. index:: module: usercustomize
+
+After this, an attempt is made to import a module named :mod:`usercustomize`,
+which can perform arbitrary user-specific customizations, if
+:data:`ENABLE_USER_SITE` is true.  This file is intended to be created in the
+user site-packages directory (see below), which is part of ``sys.path`` unless
+disabled by :option:`-s`.  If this import fails with an :exc:`ImportError` or
+its subclass exception, and the exception's :attr:`name` attribute equals to
+``'usercustomize'``, it is silently ignored.
+
+Note that for some non-Unix systems, ``sys.prefix`` and ``sys.exec_prefix`` are
+empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of
+:mod:`sitecustomize` and :mod:`usercustomize` is still attempted.
+
+
+.. _rlcompleter-config:
+
+Readline configuration
+----------------------
+
+On systems that support :mod:`readline`, this module will also import and
+configure the :mod:`rlcompleter` module, if Python is started in
+:ref:`interactive mode <tut-interactive>` and without the :option:`-S` option.
+The default behavior is enable tab-completion and to use
+:file:`~/.python_history` as the history save file.  To disable it, delete (or
+override) the :data:`sys.__interactivehook__` attribute in your
+:mod:`sitecustomize` or :mod:`usercustomize` module or your
+:envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` file.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Activation of rlcompleter and history was made automatic.
+
+
+Module contents
+---------------
+
+.. data:: PREFIXES
+
+   A list of prefixes for site-packages directories.
+
+
+.. data:: ENABLE_USER_SITE
+
+   Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory.  ``True`` means
+   that it is enabled and was added to ``sys.path``.  ``False`` means that it
+   was disabled by user request (with :option:`-s` or
+   :envvar:`PYTHONNOUSERSITE`).  ``None`` means it was disabled for security
+   reasons (mismatch between user or group id and effective id) or by an
+   administrator.
+
+
+.. data:: USER_SITE
+
+   Path to the user site-packages for the running Python.  Can be ``None`` if
+   :func:`getusersitepackages` hasn't been called yet.  Default value is
+   :file:`~/.local/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` for UNIX and non-framework Mac
+   OS X builds, :file:`~/Library/Python/{X.Y}/lib/python/site-packages` for Mac
+   framework builds, and :file:`{%APPDATA%}\\Python\\Python{XY}\\site-packages`
+   on Windows.  This directory is a site directory, which means that
+   :file:`.pth` files in it will be processed.
+
+
+.. data:: USER_BASE
+
+   Path to the base directory for the user site-packages.  Can be ``None`` if
+   :func:`getuserbase` hasn't been called yet.  Default value is
+   :file:`~/.local` for UNIX and Mac OS X non-framework builds,
+   :file:`~/Library/Python/{X.Y}` for Mac framework builds, and
+   :file:`{%APPDATA%}\\Python` for Windows.  This value is used by Distutils to
+   compute the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python modules,
+   etc. for the :ref:`user installation scheme <inst-alt-install-user>`.
+   See also :envvar:`PYTHONUSERBASE`.
+
+
+.. function:: main()
+
+   Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module search
+   path.  This function is called automatically when this module is imported,
+   unless the Python interpreter was started with the :option:`-S` flag.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This function used to be called unconditionally.
+
+
+.. function:: addsitedir(sitedir, known_paths=None)
+
+   Add a directory to sys.path and process its :file:`.pth` files.  Typically
+   used in :mod:`sitecustomize` or :mod:`usercustomize` (see above).
+
+
+.. function:: getsitepackages()
+
+   Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: getuserbase()
+
+   Return the path of the user base directory, :data:`USER_BASE`.  If it is not
+   initialized yet, this function will also set it, respecting
+   :envvar:`PYTHONUSERBASE`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: getusersitepackages()
+
+   Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory,
+   :data:`USER_SITE`.  If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set
+   it, respecting :envvar:`PYTHONNOUSERSITE` and :data:`USER_BASE`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+The :mod:`site` module also provides a way to get the user directories from the
+command line:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 -m site --user-site
+   /home/user/.local/lib/python3.3/site-packages
+
+.. program:: site
+
+If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of
+:data:`sys.path` on the standard output, followed by the value of
+:data:`USER_BASE` and whether the directory exists, then the same thing for
+:data:`USER_SITE`, and finally the value of :data:`ENABLE_USER_SITE`.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --user-base
+
+   Print the path to the user base directory.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --user-site
+
+   Print the path to the user site-packages directory.
+
+If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed (always in
+this order), separated by :data:`os.pathsep`.
+
+If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values: ``0`` if
+the user site-packages directory is enabled, ``1`` if it was disabled by the
+user, ``2`` if it is disabled for security reasons or by an administrator, and a
+value greater than 2 if there is an error.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`370` -- Per user site-packages directory
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/smtpd.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/smtpd.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..85ee8a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/smtpd.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+:mod:`smtpd` --- SMTP Server
+============================
+
+.. module:: smtpd
+   :synopsis: A SMTP server implementation in Python.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Barry Warsaw <barry@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@moshez.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/smtpd.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module offers several classes to implement SMTP (email) servers.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    The `aiosmtpd <http://aiosmtpd.readthedocs.io/>`_ package is a recommended
+    replacement for this module.  It is based on :mod:`asyncio` and provides a
+    more straightforward API.  :mod:`smtpd` should be considered deprecated.
+
+Several server implementations are present; one is a generic
+do-nothing implementation, which can be overridden, while the other two offer
+specific mail-sending strategies.
+
+Additionally the SMTPChannel may be extended to implement very specific
+interaction behaviour with SMTP clients.
+
+The code supports :RFC:`5321`, plus the :rfc:`1870` SIZE and :rfc:`6531`
+SMTPUTF8 extensions.
+
+
+SMTPServer Objects
+------------------
+
+
+.. class:: SMTPServer(localaddr, remoteaddr, data_size_limit=33554432,\
+                      map=None, enable_SMTPUTF8=False, decode_data=False)
+
+   Create a new :class:`SMTPServer` object, which binds to local address
+   *localaddr*.  It will treat *remoteaddr* as an upstream SMTP relayer.  Both
+   *localaddr* and *remoteaddr* should be a :ref:`(host, port) <host_port>`
+   tuple.  The object inherits from :class:`asyncore.dispatcher`, and so will
+   insert itself into :mod:`asyncore`'s event loop on instantiation.
+
+   *data_size_limit* specifies the maximum number of bytes that will be
+   accepted in a ``DATA`` command.  A value of ``None`` or ``0`` means no
+   limit.
+
+   *map* is the socket map to use for connections (an initially empty
+   dictionary is a suitable value).  If not specified the :mod:`asyncore`
+   global socket map is used.
+
+   *enable_SMTPUTF8* determines whether the ``SMTPUTF8`` extension (as defined
+   in :RFC:`6531`) should be enabled.  The default is ``False``.
+   When ``True``, ``SMTPUTF8`` is accepted as a parameter to the ``MAIL``
+   command and when present is passed to :meth:`process_message` in the
+   ``kwargs['mail_options']`` list.  *decode_data* and *enable_SMTPUTF8*
+   cannot be set to ``True`` at the same time.
+
+   *decode_data* specifies whether the data portion of the SMTP transaction
+   should be decoded using UTF-8.  When *decode_data* is ``False`` (the
+   default), the server advertises the ``8BITMIME``
+   extension (:rfc:`6152`), accepts the ``BODY=8BITMIME`` parameter to
+   the ``MAIL`` command, and when present passes it to :meth:`process_message`
+   in the ``kwargs['mail_options']`` list. *decode_data* and *enable_SMTPUTF8*
+   cannot be set to ``True`` at the same time.
+
+   .. method:: process_message(peer, mailfrom, rcpttos, data, **kwargs)
+
+      Raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError` exception. Override this in subclasses to
+      do something useful with this message. Whatever was passed in the
+      constructor as *remoteaddr* will be available as the :attr:`_remoteaddr`
+      attribute. *peer* is the remote host's address, *mailfrom* is the envelope
+      originator, *rcpttos* are the envelope recipients and *data* is a string
+      containing the contents of the e-mail (which should be in :rfc:`5321`
+      format).
+
+      If the *decode_data* constructor keyword is set to ``True``, the *data*
+      argument will be a unicode string.  If it is set to ``False``, it
+      will be a bytes object.
+
+      *kwargs* is a dictionary containing additional information. It is empty
+      if ``decode_data=True`` was given as an init argument, otherwise
+      it contains the following keys:
+
+          *mail_options*:
+             a list of all received parameters to the ``MAIL``
+             command (the elements are uppercase strings; example:
+             ``['BODY=8BITMIME', 'SMTPUTF8']``).
+
+          *rcpt_options*:
+             same as *mail_options* but for the ``RCPT`` command.
+             Currently no ``RCPT TO`` options are supported, so for now
+             this will always be an empty list.
+
+      Implementations of ``process_message`` should use the ``**kwargs``
+      signature to accept arbitrary keyword arguments, since future feature
+      enhancements may add keys to the kwargs dictionary.
+
+      Return ``None`` to request a normal ``250 Ok`` response; otherwise
+      return the desired response string in :RFC:`5321` format.
+
+   .. attribute:: channel_class
+
+      Override this in subclasses to use a custom :class:`SMTPChannel` for
+      managing SMTP clients.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      The *map* constructor argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *localaddr* and *remoteaddr* may now contain IPv6 addresses.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      The *decode_data* and *enable_SMTPUTF8* constructor parameters, and the
+      *kwargs* parameter to :meth:`process_message` when *decode_data* is
+      ``False``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *decode_data* is now ``False`` by default.
+
+
+DebuggingServer Objects
+-----------------------
+
+
+.. class:: DebuggingServer(localaddr, remoteaddr)
+
+   Create a new debugging server.  Arguments are as per :class:`SMTPServer`.
+   Messages will be discarded, and printed on stdout.
+
+
+PureProxy Objects
+-----------------
+
+
+.. class:: PureProxy(localaddr, remoteaddr)
+
+   Create a new pure proxy server. Arguments are as per :class:`SMTPServer`.
+   Everything will be relayed to *remoteaddr*.  Note that running this has a good
+   chance to make you into an open relay, so please be careful.
+
+
+MailmanProxy Objects
+--------------------
+
+
+.. class:: MailmanProxy(localaddr, remoteaddr)
+
+   Create a new pure proxy server. Arguments are as per :class:`SMTPServer`.
+   Everything will be relayed to *remoteaddr*, unless local mailman configurations
+   knows about an address, in which case it will be handled via mailman.  Note that
+   running this has a good chance to make you into an open relay, so please be
+   careful.
+
+SMTPChannel Objects
+-------------------
+
+.. class:: SMTPChannel(server, conn, addr, data_size_limit=33554432,\
+                       map=None, enable_SMTPUTF8=False, decode_data=False)
+
+   Create a new :class:`SMTPChannel` object which manages the communication
+   between the server and a single SMTP client.
+
+   *conn* and *addr* are as per the instance variables described below.
+
+   *data_size_limit* specifies the maximum number of bytes that will be
+   accepted in a ``DATA`` command.  A value of ``None`` or ``0`` means no
+   limit.
+
+   *enable_SMTPUTF8* determines whether the ``SMTPUTF8`` extension (as defined
+   in :RFC:`6531`) should be enabled.  The default is ``False``.
+   *decode_data* and *enable_SMTPUTF8* cannot be set to ``True`` at the same
+   time.
+
+   A dictionary can be specified in *map* to avoid using a global socket map.
+
+   *decode_data* specifies whether the data portion of the SMTP transaction
+   should be decoded using UTF-8.  The default is ``False``.
+   *decode_data* and *enable_SMTPUTF8* cannot be set to ``True`` at the same
+   time.
+
+   To use a custom SMTPChannel implementation you need to override the
+   :attr:`SMTPServer.channel_class` of your :class:`SMTPServer`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *decode_data* and *enable_SMTPUTF8* parameters were added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *decode_data* is now ``False`` by default.
+
+   The :class:`SMTPChannel` has the following instance variables:
+
+   .. attribute:: smtp_server
+
+      Holds the :class:`SMTPServer` that spawned this channel.
+
+   .. attribute:: conn
+
+      Holds the socket object connecting to the client.
+
+   .. attribute:: addr
+
+      Holds the address of the client, the second value returned by
+      :func:`socket.accept <socket.socket.accept>`
+
+   .. attribute:: received_lines
+
+      Holds a list of the line strings (decoded using UTF-8) received from
+      the client. The lines have their ``"\r\n"`` line ending translated to
+      ``"\n"``.
+
+   .. attribute:: smtp_state
+
+      Holds the current state of the channel. This will be either
+      :attr:`COMMAND` initially and then :attr:`DATA` after the client sends
+      a "DATA" line.
+
+   .. attribute:: seen_greeting
+
+      Holds a string containing the greeting sent by the client in its "HELO".
+
+   .. attribute:: mailfrom
+
+      Holds a string containing the address identified in the "MAIL FROM:" line
+      from the client.
+
+   .. attribute:: rcpttos
+
+      Holds a list of strings containing the addresses identified in the
+      "RCPT TO:" lines from the client.
+
+   .. attribute:: received_data
+
+      Holds a string containing all of the data sent by the client during the
+      DATA state, up to but not including the terminating ``"\r\n.\r\n"``.
+
+   .. attribute:: fqdn
+
+      Holds the fully-qualified domain name of the server as returned by
+      :func:`socket.getfqdn`.
+
+   .. attribute:: peer
+
+      Holds the name of the client peer as returned by ``conn.getpeername()``
+      where ``conn`` is :attr:`conn`.
+
+   The :class:`SMTPChannel` operates by invoking methods named ``smtp_<command>``
+   upon reception of a command line from the client. Built into the base
+   :class:`SMTPChannel` class are methods for handling the following commands
+   (and responding to them appropriately):
+
+   ======== ===================================================================
+   Command  Action taken
+   ======== ===================================================================
+   HELO     Accepts the greeting from the client and stores it in
+            :attr:`seen_greeting`.  Sets server to base command mode.
+   EHLO     Accepts the greeting from the client and stores it in
+            :attr:`seen_greeting`.  Sets server to extended command mode.
+   NOOP     Takes no action.
+   QUIT     Closes the connection cleanly.
+   MAIL     Accepts the "MAIL FROM:" syntax and stores the supplied address as
+            :attr:`mailfrom`.  In extended command mode, accepts the
+            :rfc:`1870` SIZE attribute and responds appropriately based on the
+            value of *data_size_limit*.
+   RCPT     Accepts the "RCPT TO:" syntax and stores the supplied addresses in
+            the :attr:`rcpttos` list.
+   RSET     Resets the :attr:`mailfrom`, :attr:`rcpttos`, and
+            :attr:`received_data`, but not the greeting.
+   DATA     Sets the internal state to :attr:`DATA` and stores remaining lines
+            from the client in :attr:`received_data` until the terminator
+            ``"\r\n.\r\n"`` is received.
+   HELP     Returns minimal information on command syntax
+   VRFY     Returns code 252 (the server doesn't know if the address is valid)
+   EXPN     Reports that the command is not implemented.
+   ======== ===================================================================
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/smtplib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/smtplib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c3a5f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/smtplib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,586 @@
+:mod:`smtplib` --- SMTP protocol client
+=======================================
+
+.. module:: smtplib
+   :synopsis: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@snark.thyrsus.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/smtplib.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: SMTP; protocol
+   single: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`smtplib` module defines an SMTP client session object that can be used
+to send mail to any Internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon.  For
+details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult :rfc:`821` (Simple Mail Transfer
+Protocol) and :rfc:`1869` (SMTP Service Extensions).
+
+
+.. class:: SMTP(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[, timeout], source_address=None)
+
+   An :class:`SMTP` instance encapsulates an SMTP connection.  It has methods
+   that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP operations. If the optional
+   host and port parameters are given, the SMTP :meth:`connect` method is
+   called with those parameters during initialization.  If specified,
+   *local_hostname* is used as the FQDN of the local host in the HELO/EHLO
+   command.  Otherwise, the local hostname is found using
+   :func:`socket.getfqdn`.  If the :meth:`connect` call returns anything other
+   than a success code, an :exc:`SMTPConnectError` is raised. The optional
+   *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations
+   like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout
+   setting will be used).  If the timeout expires, :exc:`socket.timeout` is
+   raised.  The optional source_address parameter allows binding
+   to some specific source address in a machine with multiple network
+   interfaces, and/or to some specific source TCP port. It takes a 2-tuple
+   (host, port), for the socket to bind to as its source address before
+   connecting. If omitted (or if host or port are ``''`` and/or 0 respectively)
+   the OS default behavior will be used.
+
+   For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect,
+   :meth:`sendmail`, and :meth:`SMTP.quit` methods.
+   An example is included below.
+
+   The :class:`SMTP` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement.  When used
+   like this, the SMTP ``QUIT`` command is issued automatically when the
+   :keyword:`!with` statement exits.  E.g.::
+
+    >>> from smtplib import SMTP
+    >>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp:
+    ...     smtp.noop()
+    ...
+    (250, b'Ok')
+    >>>
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      source_address argument was added.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      The SMTPUTF8 extension (:rfc:`6531`) is now supported.
+
+
+.. class:: SMTP_SSL(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, keyfile=None, \
+                    certfile=None [, timeout], context=None, \
+                    source_address=None)
+
+   An :class:`SMTP_SSL` instance behaves exactly the same as instances of
+   :class:`SMTP`. :class:`SMTP_SSL` should be used for situations where SSL is
+   required from the beginning of the connection and using :meth:`starttls` is
+   not appropriate. If *host* is not specified, the local host is used. If
+   *port* is zero, the standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used.  The optional
+   arguments *local_hostname*, *timeout* and *source_address* have the same
+   meaning as they do in the :class:`SMTP` class.  *context*, also optional,
+   can contain a :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` and allows configuring various
+   aspects of the secure connection.  Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for
+   best practices.
+
+   *keyfile* and *certfile* are a legacy alternative to *context*, and can
+   point to a PEM formatted private key and certificate chain file for the
+   SSL connection.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *context* was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      source_address argument was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The class now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indication* (see
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+       *keyfile* and *certfile* are deprecated in favor of *context*.
+       Please use :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` instead, or let
+       :func:`ssl.create_default_context` select the system's trusted CA
+       certificates for you.
+
+
+.. class:: LMTP(host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None, source_address=None)
+
+   The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based on the
+   standard SMTP client. It's common to use Unix sockets for LMTP, so our
+   :meth:`connect` method must support that as well as a regular host:port
+   server. The optional arguments local_hostname and source_address have the
+   same meaning as they do in the :class:`SMTP` class. To specify a Unix
+   socket, you must use an absolute path for *host*, starting with a '/'.
+
+   Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism. When using a
+   Unix socket, LMTP generally don't support or require any authentication, but
+   your mileage might vary.
+
+
+A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPException
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`OSError` that is the base exception class for all
+   the other exceptions provided by this module.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      SMTPException became subclass of :exc:`OSError`
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPServerDisconnected
+
+   This exception is raised when the server unexpectedly disconnects, or when an
+   attempt is made to use the :class:`SMTP` instance before connecting it to a
+   server.
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPResponseException
+
+   Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code. These exceptions
+   are generated in some instances when the SMTP server returns an error code.  The
+   error code is stored in the :attr:`smtp_code` attribute of the error, and the
+   :attr:`smtp_error` attribute is set to the error message.
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPSenderRefused
+
+   Sender address refused.  In addition to the attributes set by on all
+   :exc:`SMTPResponseException` exceptions, this sets 'sender' to the string that
+   the SMTP server refused.
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPRecipientsRefused
+
+   All recipient addresses refused.  The errors for each recipient are accessible
+   through the attribute :attr:`recipients`, which is a dictionary of exactly the
+   same sort as :meth:`SMTP.sendmail` returns.
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPDataError
+
+   The SMTP server refused to accept the message data.
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPConnectError
+
+   Error occurred during establishment of a connection  with the server.
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPHeloError
+
+   The server refused our ``HELO`` message.
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPNotSupportedError
+
+    The command or option attempted is not supported by the server.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. exception:: SMTPAuthenticationError
+
+   SMTP authentication went wrong.  Most probably the server didn't accept the
+   username/password combination provided.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :rfc:`821` - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
+      Protocol definition for SMTP.  This document covers the model, operating
+      procedure, and protocol details for SMTP.
+
+   :rfc:`1869` - SMTP Service Extensions
+      Definition of the ESMTP extensions for SMTP.  This describes a framework for
+      extending SMTP with new commands, supporting dynamic discovery of the commands
+      provided by the server, and defines a few additional commands.
+
+
+.. _smtp-objects:
+
+SMTP Objects
+------------
+
+An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.set_debuglevel(level)
+
+   Set the debug output level.  A value of 1 or ``True`` for *level* results in
+   debug messages for connection and for all messages sent to and received from
+   the server.  A value of 2 for *level* results in these messages being
+   timestamped.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5 Added debuglevel 2.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.docmd(cmd, args='')
+
+   Send a command *cmd* to the server.  The optional argument *args* is simply
+   concatenated to the command, separated by a space.
+
+   This returns a 2-tuple composed of a numeric response code and the actual
+   response line (multiline responses are joined into one long line.)
+
+   In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.
+   It is used to implement other methods and may be useful for testing private
+   extensions.
+
+   If the connection to the server is lost while waiting for the reply,
+   :exc:`SMTPServerDisconnected` will be raised.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.connect(host='localhost', port=0)
+
+   Connect to a host on a given port.  The defaults are to connect to the local
+   host at the standard SMTP port (25). If the hostname ends with a colon (``':'``)
+   followed by a number, that suffix will be stripped off and the number
+   interpreted as the port number to use. This method is automatically invoked by
+   the constructor if a host is specified during instantiation.  Returns a
+   2-tuple of the response code and message sent by the server in its
+   connection response.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.helo(name='')
+
+   Identify yourself to the SMTP server using ``HELO``.  The hostname argument
+   defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local host.
+   The message returned by the server is stored as the :attr:`helo_resp` attribute
+   of the object.
+
+   In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.
+   It will be implicitly called by the :meth:`sendmail` when necessary.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.ehlo(name='')
+
+   Identify yourself to an ESMTP server using ``EHLO``.  The hostname argument
+   defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local host.  Examine the
+   response for ESMTP option and store them for use by :meth:`has_extn`.
+   Also sets several informational attributes: the message returned by
+   the server is stored as the :attr:`ehlo_resp` attribute, :attr:`does_esmtp`
+   is set to true or false depending on whether the server supports ESMTP, and
+   :attr:`esmtp_features` will be a dictionary containing the names of the
+   SMTP service extensions this server supports, and their parameters (if any).
+
+   Unless you wish to use :meth:`has_extn` before sending mail, it should not be
+   necessary to call this method explicitly.  It will be implicitly called by
+   :meth:`sendmail` when necessary.
+
+.. method:: SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed()
+
+   This method calls :meth:`ehlo` and/or :meth:`helo` if there has been no
+   previous ``EHLO`` or ``HELO`` command this session.  It tries ESMTP ``EHLO``
+   first.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPHeloError`
+     The server didn't reply properly to the ``HELO`` greeting.
+
+.. method:: SMTP.has_extn(name)
+
+   Return :const:`True` if *name* is in the set of SMTP service extensions returned
+   by the server, :const:`False` otherwise. Case is ignored.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.verify(address)
+
+   Check the validity of an address on this server using SMTP ``VRFY``. Returns a
+   tuple consisting of code 250 and a full :rfc:`822` address (including human
+   name) if the user address is valid. Otherwise returns an SMTP error code of 400
+   or greater and an error string.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Many sites disable SMTP ``VRFY`` in order to foil spammers.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.login(user, password, *, initial_response_ok=True)
+
+   Log in on an SMTP server that requires authentication. The arguments are the
+   username and the password to authenticate with. If there has been no previous
+   ``EHLO`` or ``HELO`` command this session, this method tries ESMTP ``EHLO``
+   first. This method will return normally if the authentication was successful, or
+   may raise the following exceptions:
+
+   :exc:`SMTPHeloError`
+      The server didn't reply properly to the ``HELO`` greeting.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPAuthenticationError`
+      The server didn't accept the username/password combination.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPNotSupportedError`
+      The ``AUTH`` command is not supported by the server.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPException`
+      No suitable authentication method was found.
+
+   Each of the authentication methods supported by :mod:`smtplib` are tried in
+   turn if they are advertised as supported by the server.  See :meth:`auth`
+   for a list of supported authentication methods.  *initial_response_ok* is
+   passed through to :meth:`auth`.
+
+   Optional keyword argument *initial_response_ok* specifies whether, for
+   authentication methods that support it, an "initial response" as specified
+   in :rfc:`4954` can be sent along with the ``AUTH`` command, rather than
+   requiring a challenge/response.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      :exc:`SMTPNotSupportedError` may be raised, and the
+      *initial_response_ok* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.auth(mechanism, authobject, *, initial_response_ok=True)
+
+   Issue an ``SMTP`` ``AUTH`` command for the specified authentication
+   *mechanism*, and handle the challenge response via *authobject*.
+
+   *mechanism* specifies which authentication mechanism is to
+   be used as argument to the ``AUTH`` command; the valid values are
+   those listed in the ``auth`` element of :attr:`esmtp_features`.
+
+   *authobject* must be a callable object taking an optional single argument:
+
+     data = authobject(challenge=None)
+
+   If optional keyword argument *initial_response_ok* is true,
+   ``authobject()`` will be called first with no argument.  It can return the
+   :rfc:`4954` "initial response" ASCII ``str`` which will be encoded and sent with
+   the ``AUTH`` command as below.  If the ``authobject()`` does not support an
+   initial response (e.g. because it requires a challenge), it should return
+   ``None`` when called with ``challenge=None``.  If *initial_response_ok* is
+   false, then ``authobject()`` will not be called first with ``None``.
+
+   If the initial response check returns ``None``, or if *initial_response_ok* is
+   false, ``authobject()`` will be called to process the server's challenge
+   response; the *challenge* argument it is passed will be a ``bytes``.  It
+   should return ASCII ``str`` *data* that will be base64 encoded and sent to the
+   server.
+
+   The ``SMTP`` class provides ``authobjects`` for the ``CRAM-MD5``, ``PLAIN``,
+   and ``LOGIN`` mechanisms; they are named ``SMTP.auth_cram_md5``,
+   ``SMTP.auth_plain``, and ``SMTP.auth_login`` respectively.  They all require
+   that the ``user`` and ``password`` properties of the ``SMTP`` instance are
+   set to appropriate values.
+
+   User code does not normally need to call ``auth`` directly, but can instead
+   call the :meth:`login` method, which will try each of the above mechanisms
+   in turn, in the order listed.  ``auth`` is exposed to facilitate the
+   implementation of authentication methods not (or not yet) supported
+   directly by :mod:`smtplib`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.starttls(keyfile=None, certfile=None, context=None)
+
+   Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode.  All SMTP
+   commands that follow will be encrypted.  You should then call :meth:`ehlo`
+   again.
+
+   If *keyfile* and *certfile* are provided, they are used to create an
+   :class:`ssl.SSLContext`.
+
+   Optional *context* parameter is an :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object; This is
+   an alternative to using a keyfile and a certfile and if specified both
+   *keyfile* and *certfile* should be ``None``.
+
+   If there has been no previous ``EHLO`` or ``HELO`` command this session,
+   this method tries ESMTP ``EHLO`` first.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+       *keyfile* and *certfile* are deprecated in favor of *context*.
+       Please use :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` instead, or let
+       :func:`ssl.create_default_context` select the system's trusted CA
+       certificates for you.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPHeloError`
+      The server didn't reply properly to the ``HELO`` greeting.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPNotSupportedError`
+     The server does not support the STARTTLS extension.
+
+   :exc:`RuntimeError`
+     SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *context* was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The method now supports hostname check with
+      :attr:`SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indicator* (see
+      :data:`~ssl.HAS_SNI`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The error raised for lack of STARTTLS support is now the
+      :exc:`SMTPNotSupportedError` subclass instead of the base
+      :exc:`SMTPException`.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())
+
+   Send mail.  The required arguments are an :rfc:`822` from-address string, a list
+   of :rfc:`822` to-address strings (a bare string will be treated as a list with 1
+   address), and a message string.  The caller may pass a list of ESMTP options
+   (such as ``8bitmime``) to be used in ``MAIL FROM`` commands as *mail_options*.
+   ESMTP options (such as ``DSN`` commands) that should be used with all ``RCPT``
+   commands can be passed as *rcpt_options*.  (If you need to use different ESMTP
+   options to different recipients you have to use the low-level methods such as
+   :meth:`mail`, :meth:`rcpt` and :meth:`data` to send the message.)
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The *from_addr* and *to_addrs* parameters are used to construct the message
+      envelope used by the transport agents.  ``sendmail`` does not modify the
+      message headers in any way.
+
+   *msg* may be a string containing characters in the ASCII range, or a byte
+   string.  A string is encoded to bytes using the ascii codec, and lone ``\r``
+   and ``\n`` characters are converted to ``\r\n`` characters.  A byte string is
+   not modified.
+
+   If there has been no previous ``EHLO`` or ``HELO`` command this session, this
+   method tries ESMTP ``EHLO`` first. If the server does ESMTP, message size and
+   each of the specified options will be passed to it (if the option is in the
+   feature set the server advertises).  If ``EHLO`` fails, ``HELO`` will be tried
+   and ESMTP options suppressed.
+
+   This method will return normally if the mail is accepted for at least one
+   recipient. Otherwise it will raise an exception.  That is, if this method does
+   not raise an exception, then someone should get your mail. If this method does
+   not raise an exception, it returns a dictionary, with one entry for each
+   recipient that was refused.  Each entry contains a tuple of the SMTP error code
+   and the accompanying error message sent by the server.
+
+   If ``SMTPUTF8`` is included in *mail_options*, and the server supports it,
+   *from_addr* and *to_addrs* may contain non-ASCII characters.
+
+   This method may raise the following exceptions:
+
+   :exc:`SMTPRecipientsRefused`
+      All recipients were refused.  Nobody got the mail.  The :attr:`recipients`
+      attribute of the exception object is a dictionary with information about the
+      refused recipients (like the one returned when at least one recipient was
+      accepted).
+
+   :exc:`SMTPHeloError`
+      The server didn't reply properly to the ``HELO`` greeting.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPSenderRefused`
+      The server didn't accept the *from_addr*.
+
+   :exc:`SMTPDataError`
+      The server replied with an unexpected error code (other than a refusal of a
+      recipient).
+
+   :exc:`SMTPNotSupportedError`
+      ``SMTPUTF8`` was given in the *mail_options* but is not supported by the
+      server.
+
+   Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an exception is
+   raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *msg* may be a byte string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      ``SMTPUTF8`` support added, and :exc:`SMTPNotSupportedError` may be
+      raised if ``SMTPUTF8`` is specified but the server does not support it.
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.send_message(msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None, \
+                              mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())
+
+   This is a convenience method for calling :meth:`sendmail` with the message
+   represented by an :class:`email.message.Message` object.  The arguments have
+   the same meaning as for :meth:`sendmail`, except that *msg* is a ``Message``
+   object.
+
+   If *from_addr* is ``None`` or *to_addrs* is ``None``, ``send_message`` fills
+   those arguments with addresses extracted from the headers of *msg* as
+   specified in :rfc:`5322`\: *from_addr* is set to the :mailheader:`Sender`
+   field if it is present, and otherwise to the :mailheader:`From` field.
+   *to_addrs* combines the values (if any) of the :mailheader:`To`,
+   :mailheader:`Cc`, and :mailheader:`Bcc` fields from *msg*.  If exactly one
+   set of :mailheader:`Resent-*` headers appear in the message, the regular
+   headers are ignored and the :mailheader:`Resent-*` headers are used instead.
+   If the message contains more than one set of :mailheader:`Resent-*` headers,
+   a :exc:`ValueError` is raised, since there is no way to unambiguously detect
+   the most recent set of :mailheader:`Resent-` headers.
+
+   ``send_message`` serializes *msg* using
+   :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator` with ``\r\n`` as the *linesep*, and
+   calls :meth:`sendmail` to transmit the resulting message.  Regardless of the
+   values of *from_addr* and *to_addrs*, ``send_message`` does not transmit any
+   :mailheader:`Bcc` or :mailheader:`Resent-Bcc` headers that may appear
+   in *msg*.  If any of the addresses in *from_addr* and *to_addrs* contain
+   non-ASCII characters and the server does not advertise ``SMTPUTF8`` support,
+   an :exc:`SMTPNotSupported` error is raised.  Otherwise the ``Message`` is
+   serialized with a clone of its :mod:`~email.policy` with the
+   :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8` attribute set to ``True``, and
+   ``SMTPUTF8`` and ``BODY=8BITMIME`` are added to *mail_options*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      Support for internationalized addresses (``SMTPUTF8``).
+
+
+.. method:: SMTP.quit()
+
+   Terminate the SMTP session and close the connection.  Return the result of
+   the SMTP ``QUIT`` command.
+
+
+Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands ``HELP``,
+``RSET``, ``NOOP``, ``MAIL``, ``RCPT``, and ``DATA`` are also supported.
+Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not documented
+here.  For details, consult the module code.
+
+
+.. _smtp-example:
+
+SMTP Example
+------------
+
+This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message envelope ('To'
+and 'From' addresses), and the message to be delivered.  Note that the headers
+to be included with the message must be included in the message as entered; this
+example doesn't do any processing of the :rfc:`822` headers.  In particular, the
+'To' and 'From' addresses must be included in the message headers explicitly. ::
+
+   import smtplib
+
+   def prompt(prompt):
+       return input(prompt).strip()
+
+   fromaddr = prompt("From: ")
+   toaddrs  = prompt("To: ").split()
+   print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")
+
+   # Add the From: and To: headers at the start!
+   msg = ("From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\n\r\n"
+          % (fromaddr, ", ".join(toaddrs)))
+   while True:
+       try:
+           line = input()
+       except EOFError:
+           break
+       if not line:
+           break
+       msg = msg + line
+
+   print("Message length is", len(msg))
+
+   server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
+   server.set_debuglevel(1)
+   server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
+   server.quit()
+
+.. note::
+
+   In general, you will want to use the :mod:`email` package's features to
+   construct an email message, which you can then send
+   via :meth:`~smtplib.SMTP.send_message`; see :ref:`email-examples`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sndhdr.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sndhdr.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bfa9a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sndhdr.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+:mod:`sndhdr` --- Determine type of sound file
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: sndhdr
+   :synopsis: Determine type of a sound file.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. Based on comments in the module source file.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/sndhdr.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: A-LAW
+   single: u-LAW
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`sndhdr` provides utility functions which attempt to determine the type
+of sound data which is in a file.  When these functions are able to determine
+what type of sound data is stored in a file, they return a
+:func:`~collections.namedtuple`, containing five attributes: (``filetype``,
+``framerate``, ``nchannels``, ``nframes``, ``sampwidth``). The value for *type*
+indicates the data type and will be one of the strings ``'aifc'``, ``'aiff'``,
+``'au'``, ``'hcom'``, ``'sndr'``, ``'sndt'``, ``'voc'``, ``'wav'``, ``'8svx'``,
+``'sb'``, ``'ub'``, or ``'ul'``.  The *sampling_rate* will be either the actual
+value or ``0`` if unknown or difficult to decode.  Similarly, *channels* will be
+either the number of channels or ``0`` if it cannot be determined or if the
+value is difficult to decode.  The value for *frames* will be either the number
+of frames or ``-1``.  The last item in the tuple, *bits_per_sample*, will either
+be the sample size in bits or ``'A'`` for A-LAW or ``'U'`` for u-LAW.
+
+
+.. function:: what(filename)
+
+   Determines the type of sound data stored in the file *filename* using
+   :func:`whathdr`.  If it succeeds, returns a namedtuple as described above, otherwise
+   ``None`` is returned.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.
+
+
+.. function:: whathdr(filename)
+
+   Determines the type of sound data stored in a file based on the file  header.
+   The name of the file is given by *filename*.  This function returns a namedtuple as
+   described above on success, or ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/socket.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/socket.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15c65b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/socket.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1876 @@
+:mod:`socket` --- Low-level networking interface
+================================================
+
+.. module:: socket
+   :synopsis: Low-level networking interface.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/socket.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to the BSD *socket* interface. It is available on
+all modern Unix systems, Windows, MacOS, and probably additional platforms.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the operating
+   system socket APIs.
+
+.. index:: object: socket
+
+The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix system
+call and library interface for sockets to Python's object-oriented style: the
+:func:`.socket` function returns a :dfn:`socket object` whose methods implement
+the various socket system calls.  Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than
+in the C interface: as with :meth:`read` and :meth:`write` operations on Python
+files, buffer allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length
+is implicit on send operations.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`socketserver`
+      Classes that simplify writing network servers.
+
+   Module :mod:`ssl`
+      A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
+
+
+Socket families
+---------------
+
+Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families
+are supported by this module.
+
+The address format required by a particular socket object is automatically
+selected based on the address family specified when the socket object was
+created.  Socket addresses are represented as follows:
+
+- The address of an :const:`AF_UNIX` socket bound to a file system node
+  is represented as a string, using the file system encoding and the
+  ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler (see :pep:`383`).  An address in
+  Linux's abstract namespace is returned as a :term:`bytes-like object` with
+  an initial null byte; note that sockets in this namespace can
+  communicate with normal file system sockets, so programs intended to
+  run on Linux may need to deal with both types of address.  A string or
+  bytes-like object can be used for either type of address when
+  passing it as an argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Previously, :const:`AF_UNIX` socket paths were assumed to use UTF-8
+      encoding.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+.. _host_port:
+
+- A pair ``(host, port)`` is used for the :const:`AF_INET` address family,
+  where *host* is a string representing either a hostname in Internet domain
+  notation like ``'daring.cwi.nl'`` or an IPv4 address like ``'100.50.200.5'``,
+  and *port* is an integer.
+
+  - For IPv4 addresses, two special forms are accepted instead of a host
+    address: ``''`` represents :const:`INADDR_ANY`, which is used to bind to all
+    interfaces, and the string ``'<broadcast>'`` represents
+    :const:`INADDR_BROADCAST`.  This behavior is not compatible with IPv6,
+    therefore, you may want to avoid these if you intend to support IPv6 with your
+    Python programs.
+
+- For :const:`AF_INET6` address family, a four-tuple ``(host, port, flowinfo,
+  scopeid)`` is used, where *flowinfo* and *scopeid* represent the ``sin6_flowinfo``
+  and ``sin6_scope_id`` members in :const:`struct sockaddr_in6` in C.  For
+  :mod:`socket` module methods, *flowinfo* and *scopeid* can be omitted just for
+  backward compatibility.  Note, however, omission of *scopeid* can cause problems
+  in manipulating scoped IPv6 addresses.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+     For multicast addresses (with *scopeid* meaningful) *address* may not contain
+     ``%scope`` (or ``zone id``) part. This information is superfluous and may
+     be safely omitted (recommended).
+
+- :const:`AF_NETLINK` sockets are represented as pairs ``(pid, groups)``.
+
+- Linux-only support for TIPC is available using the :const:`AF_TIPC`
+  address family.  TIPC is an open, non-IP based networked protocol designed
+  for use in clustered computer environments.  Addresses are represented by a
+  tuple, and the fields depend on the address type. The general tuple form is
+  ``(addr_type, v1, v2, v3 [, scope])``, where:
+
+  - *addr_type* is one of :const:`TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ`, :const:`TIPC_ADDR_NAME`,
+    or :const:`TIPC_ADDR_ID`.
+  - *scope* is one of :const:`TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE`, :const:`TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE`, and
+    :const:`TIPC_NODE_SCOPE`.
+  - If *addr_type* is :const:`TIPC_ADDR_NAME`, then *v1* is the server type, *v2* is
+    the port identifier, and *v3* should be 0.
+
+    If *addr_type* is :const:`TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ`, then *v1* is the server type, *v2*
+    is the lower port number, and *v3* is the upper port number.
+
+    If *addr_type* is :const:`TIPC_ADDR_ID`, then *v1* is the node, *v2* is the
+    reference, and *v3* should be set to 0.
+
+- A tuple ``(interface, )`` is used for the :const:`AF_CAN` address family,
+  where *interface* is a string representing a network interface name like
+  ``'can0'``. The network interface name ``''`` can be used to receive packets
+  from all network interfaces of this family.
+
+  - :const:`CAN_ISOTP` protocol require a tuple ``(interface, rx_addr, tx_addr)``
+    where both additional parameters are unsigned long integer that represent a
+    CAN identifier (standard or extended).
+
+- A string or a tuple ``(id, unit)`` is used for the :const:`SYSPROTO_CONTROL`
+  protocol of the :const:`PF_SYSTEM` family. The string is the name of a
+  kernel control using a dynamically-assigned ID. The tuple can be used if ID
+  and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a registered ID is
+  used.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+- :const:`AF_BLUETOOTH` supports the following protocols and address
+  formats:
+
+  - :const:`BTPROTO_L2CAP` accepts ``(bdaddr, psm)`` where ``bdaddr`` is
+    the Bluetooth address as a string and ``psm`` is an integer.
+
+  - :const:`BTPROTO_RFCOMM` accepts ``(bdaddr, channel)`` where ``bdaddr``
+    is the Bluetooth address as a string and ``channel`` is an integer.
+
+  - :const:`BTPROTO_HCI` accepts ``(device_id,)`` where ``device_id`` is
+    either an integer or a string with the Bluetooth address of the
+    interface. (This depends on your OS; NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD expect
+    a Bluetooth address while everything else expects an integer.)
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+       NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD support added.
+
+  - :const:`BTPROTO_SCO` accepts ``bdaddr`` where ``bdaddr`` is a
+    :class:`bytes` object containing the Bluetooth address in a
+    string format. (ex. ``b'12:23:34:45:56:67'``) This protocol is not
+    supported under FreeBSD.
+
+- :const:`AF_ALG` is a Linux-only socket based interface to Kernel
+  cryptography. An algorithm socket is configured with a tuple of two to four
+  elements ``(type, name [, feat [, mask]])``, where:
+
+  - *type* is the algorithm type as string, e.g. ``aead``, ``hash``,
+    ``skcipher`` or ``rng``.
+
+  - *name* is the algorithm name and operation mode as string, e.g.
+    ``sha256``, ``hmac(sha256)``, ``cbc(aes)`` or ``drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256``.
+
+  - *feat* and *mask* are unsigned 32bit integers.
+
+  .. availability:: Linux 2.6.38, some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+- :const:`AF_VSOCK` allows communication between virtual machines and
+  their hosts. The sockets are represented as a ``(CID, port)`` tuple
+  where the context ID or CID and port are integers.
+
+  .. availability:: Linux >= 4.8 QEMU >= 2.8 ESX >= 4.0 ESX Workstation >= 6.5.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+- :const:`AF_PACKET` is a low-level interface directly to network devices.
+  The packets are represented by the tuple
+  ``(ifname, proto[, pkttype[, hatype[, addr]]])`` where:
+
+  - *ifname* - String specifying the device name.
+  - *proto* - An in network-byte-order integer specifying the Ethernet
+    protocol number.
+  - *pkttype* - Optional integer specifying the packet type:
+
+    - ``PACKET_HOST`` (the default) - Packet addressed to the local host.
+    - ``PACKET_BROADCAST`` - Physical-layer broadcast packet.
+    - ``PACKET_MULTIHOST`` - Packet sent to a physical-layer multicast address.
+    - ``PACKET_OTHERHOST`` - Packet to some other host that has been caught by
+      a device driver in promiscuous mode.
+    - ``PACKET_OUTGOING`` - Packet originating from the local host that is
+      looped back to a packet socket.
+  - *hatype* - Optional integer specifying the ARP hardware address type.
+  - *addr* - Optional bytes-like object specifying the hardware physical
+    address, whose interpretation depends on the device.
+
+If you use a hostname in the *host* portion of IPv4/v6 socket address, the
+program may show a nondeterministic behavior, as Python uses the first address
+returned from the DNS resolution.  The socket address will be resolved
+differently into an actual IPv4/v6 address, depending on the results from DNS
+resolution and/or the host configuration.  For deterministic behavior use a
+numeric address in *host* portion.
+
+All errors raise exceptions.  The normal exceptions for invalid argument types
+and out-of-memory conditions can be raised; starting from Python 3.3, errors
+related to socket or address semantics raise :exc:`OSError` or one of its
+subclasses (they used to raise :exc:`socket.error`).
+
+Non-blocking mode is supported through :meth:`~socket.setblocking`.  A
+generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through
+:meth:`~socket.settimeout`.
+
+
+Module contents
+---------------
+
+The module :mod:`socket` exports the following elements.
+
+
+Exceptions
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   A deprecated alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Following :pep:`3151`, this class was made an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: herror
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`OSError`, this exception is raised for
+   address-related errors, i.e. for functions that use *h_errno* in the POSIX
+   C API, including :func:`gethostbyname_ex` and :func:`gethostbyaddr`.
+   The accompanying value is a pair ``(h_errno, string)`` representing an
+   error returned by a library call.  *h_errno* is a numeric value, while
+   *string* represents the description of *h_errno*, as returned by the
+   :c:func:`hstrerror` C function.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This class was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+.. exception:: gaierror
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`OSError`, this exception is raised for
+   address-related errors by :func:`getaddrinfo` and :func:`getnameinfo`.
+   The accompanying value is a pair ``(error, string)`` representing an error
+   returned by a library call.  *string* represents the description of
+   *error*, as returned by the :c:func:`gai_strerror` C function.  The
+   numeric *error* value will match one of the :const:`EAI_\*` constants
+   defined in this module.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This class was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+.. exception:: timeout
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`OSError`, this exception is raised when a timeout
+   occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a prior call to
+   :meth:`~socket.settimeout` (or implicitly through
+   :func:`~socket.setdefaulttimeout`).  The accompanying value is a string
+   whose value is currently always "timed out".
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This class was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+Constants
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+   The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now :class:`AddressFamily` and
+   :class:`SocketKind` :class:`.IntEnum` collections.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: AF_UNIX
+          AF_INET
+          AF_INET6
+
+   These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used for the
+   first argument to :func:`.socket`.  If the :const:`AF_UNIX` constant is not
+   defined then this protocol is unsupported.  More constants may be available
+   depending on the system.
+
+
+.. data:: SOCK_STREAM
+          SOCK_DGRAM
+          SOCK_RAW
+          SOCK_RDM
+          SOCK_SEQPACKET
+
+   These constants represent the socket types, used for the second argument to
+   :func:`.socket`.  More constants may be available depending on the system.
+   (Only :const:`SOCK_STREAM` and :const:`SOCK_DGRAM` appear to be generally
+   useful.)
+
+.. data:: SOCK_CLOEXEC
+          SOCK_NONBLOCK
+
+   These two constants, if defined, can be combined with the socket types and
+   allow you to set some flags atomically (thus avoiding possible race
+   conditions and the need for separate calls).
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      `Secure File Descriptor Handling <http://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html>`_
+      for a more thorough explanation.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: SO_*
+          SOMAXCONN
+          MSG_*
+          SOL_*
+          SCM_*
+          IPPROTO_*
+          IPPORT_*
+          INADDR_*
+          IP_*
+          IPV6_*
+          EAI_*
+          AI_*
+          NI_*
+          TCP_*
+
+   Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation on sockets
+   and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket module. They are
+   generally used in arguments to the :meth:`setsockopt` and :meth:`getsockopt`
+   methods of socket objects.  In most cases, only those symbols that are defined
+   in the Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values are
+   provided.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      ``SO_DOMAIN``, ``SO_PROTOCOL``, ``SO_PEERSEC``, ``SO_PASSSEC``,
+      ``TCP_USER_TIMEOUT``, ``TCP_CONGESTION`` were added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.5
+      On Windows, ``TCP_FASTOPEN``, ``TCP_KEEPCNT`` appear if run-time Windows
+      supports.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      ``TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT`` was added.
+
+      On Windows, ``TCP_KEEPIDLE``, ``TCP_KEEPINTVL`` appear if run-time Windows
+      supports.
+
+.. data:: AF_CAN
+          PF_CAN
+          SOL_CAN_*
+          CAN_*
+
+   Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are
+   also defined in the socket module.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.25.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: CAN_BCM
+          CAN_BCM_*
+
+   CAN_BCM, in the CAN protocol family, is the broadcast manager (BCM) protocol.
+   Broadcast manager constants, documented in the Linux documentation, are also
+   defined in the socket module.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.25.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES
+
+   Enables CAN FD support in a CAN_RAW socket. This is disabled by default.
+   This allows your application to send both CAN and CAN FD frames; however,
+   you must accept both CAN and CAN FD frames when reading from the socket.
+
+   This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 3.6.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. data:: CAN_ISOTP
+
+   CAN_ISOTP, in the CAN protocol family, is the ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2) protocol.
+   ISO-TP constants, documented in the Linux documentation.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.25.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: AF_PACKET
+          PF_PACKET
+          PACKET_*
+
+   Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are
+   also defined in the socket module.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.2.
+
+
+.. data:: AF_RDS
+          PF_RDS
+          SOL_RDS
+          RDS_*
+
+   Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are
+   also defined in the socket module.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.30.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: SIO_RCVALL
+          SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS
+          SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH
+          RCVALL_*
+
+   Constants for Windows' WSAIoctl(). The constants are used as arguments to the
+   :meth:`~socket.socket.ioctl` method of socket objects.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      ``SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH`` was added.
+
+
+.. data:: TIPC_*
+
+   TIPC related constants, matching the ones exported by the C socket API. See
+   the TIPC documentation for more information.
+
+.. data:: AF_ALG
+          SOL_ALG
+          ALG_*
+
+   Constants for Linux Kernel cryptography.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.38.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: AF_VSOCK
+          IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID
+          VMADDR*
+          SO_VM*
+
+   Constants for Linux host/guest communication.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 4.8.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: AF_LINK
+
+  .. availability:: BSD, OSX.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: has_ipv6
+
+   This constant contains a boolean value which indicates if IPv6 is supported on
+   this platform.
+
+.. data:: BDADDR_ANY
+          BDADDR_LOCAL
+
+   These are string constants containing Bluetooth addresses with special
+   meanings. For example, :const:`BDADDR_ANY` can be used to indicate
+   any address when specifying the binding socket with
+   :const:`BTPROTO_RFCOMM`.
+
+.. data:: HCI_FILTER
+          HCI_TIME_STAMP
+          HCI_DATA_DIR
+
+   For use with :const:`BTPROTO_HCI`. :const:`HCI_FILTER` is not
+   available for NetBSD or DragonFlyBSD. :const:`HCI_TIME_STAMP` and
+   :const:`HCI_DATA_DIR` are not available for FreeBSD, NetBSD, or
+   DragonFlyBSD.
+
+Functions
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+Creating sockets
+''''''''''''''''
+
+The following functions all create :ref:`socket objects <socket-objects>`.
+
+
+.. function:: socket(family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0, fileno=None)
+
+   Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and protocol
+   number.  The address family should be :const:`AF_INET` (the default),
+   :const:`AF_INET6`, :const:`AF_UNIX`, :const:`AF_CAN`, :const:`AF_PACKET`,
+   or :const:`AF_RDS`. The socket type should be :const:`SOCK_STREAM` (the
+   default), :const:`SOCK_DGRAM`, :const:`SOCK_RAW` or perhaps one of the other
+   ``SOCK_`` constants. The protocol number is usually zero and may be omitted
+   or in the case where the address family is :const:`AF_CAN` the protocol
+   should be one of :const:`CAN_RAW`, :const:`CAN_BCM` or :const:`CAN_ISOTP`.
+
+   If *fileno* is specified, the values for *family*, *type*, and *proto* are
+   auto-detected from the specified file descriptor.  Auto-detection can be
+   overruled by calling the function with explicit *family*, *type*, or *proto*
+   arguments.  This only affects how Python represents e.g. the return value
+   of :meth:`socket.getpeername` but not the actual OS resource.  Unlike
+   :func:`socket.fromfd`, *fileno* will return the same socket and not a
+   duplicate. This may help close a detached socket using
+   :meth:`socket.close()`.
+
+   The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The AF_CAN family was added.
+      The AF_RDS family was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+       The CAN_BCM protocol was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The returned socket is now non-inheritable.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+       The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      When :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` or :const:`SOCK_CLOEXEC`
+      bit flags are applied to *type* they are cleared, and
+      :attr:`socket.type` will not reflect them.  They are still passed
+      to the underlying system `socket()` call.  Therefore::
+
+          sock = socket.socket(
+              socket.AF_INET,
+              socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)
+
+      will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
+      ``SOCK_NONBLOCK``, but ``sock.type`` will be set to
+      ``socket.SOCK_STREAM``.
+
+.. function:: socketpair([family[, type[, proto]]])
+
+   Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address family, socket
+   type, and protocol number.  Address family, socket type, and protocol number are
+   as for the :func:`.socket` function above. The default family is :const:`AF_UNIX`
+   if defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is :const:`AF_INET`.
+
+   The newly created sockets are :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The returned socket objects now support the whole socket API, rather
+      than a subset.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The returned sockets are now non-inheritable.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Windows support added.
+
+
+.. function:: create_connection(address[, timeout[, source_address]])
+
+   Connect to a TCP service listening on the Internet *address* (a 2-tuple
+   ``(host, port)``), and return the socket object.  This is a higher-level
+   function than :meth:`socket.connect`: if *host* is a non-numeric hostname,
+   it will try to resolve it for both :data:`AF_INET` and :data:`AF_INET6`,
+   and then try to connect to all possible addresses in turn until a
+   connection succeeds.  This makes it easy to write clients that are
+   compatible to both IPv4 and IPv6.
+
+   Passing the optional *timeout* parameter will set the timeout on the
+   socket instance before attempting to connect.  If no *timeout* is
+   supplied, the global default timeout setting returned by
+   :func:`getdefaulttimeout` is used.
+
+   If supplied, *source_address* must be a 2-tuple ``(host, port)`` for the
+   socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.  If host or port
+   are '' or 0 respectively the OS default behavior will be used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *source_address* was added.
+
+
+.. function:: fromfd(fd, family, type, proto=0)
+
+   Duplicate the file descriptor *fd* (an integer as returned by a file object's
+   :meth:`fileno` method) and build a socket object from the result.  Address
+   family, socket type and protocol number are as for the :func:`.socket` function
+   above. The file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked ---
+   subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file descriptor is invalid.
+   This function is rarely needed, but can be used to get or set socket options on
+   a socket passed to a program as standard input or output (such as a server
+   started by the Unix inet daemon).  The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.
+
+   The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The returned socket is now non-inheritable.
+
+
+.. function:: fromshare(data)
+
+   Instantiate a socket from data obtained from the :meth:`socket.share`
+   method.  The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: SocketType
+
+   This is a Python type object that represents the socket object type. It is the
+   same as ``type(socket(...))``.
+
+
+Other functions
+'''''''''''''''
+
+The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
+
+
+.. function:: close(fd)
+
+   Close a socket file descriptor. This is like :func:`os.close`, but for
+   sockets. On some platforms (most noticeable Windows) :func:`os.close`
+   does not work for socket file descriptors.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: getaddrinfo(host, port, family=0, type=0, proto=0, flags=0)
+
+   Translate the *host*/*port* argument into a sequence of 5-tuples that contain
+   all the necessary arguments for creating a socket connected to that service.
+   *host* is a domain name, a string representation of an IPv4/v6 address
+   or ``None``. *port* is a string service name such as ``'http'``, a numeric
+   port number or ``None``.  By passing ``None`` as the value of *host*
+   and *port*, you can pass ``NULL`` to the underlying C API.
+
+   The *family*, *type* and *proto* arguments can be optionally specified
+   in order to narrow the list of addresses returned.  Passing zero as a
+   value for each of these arguments selects the full range of results.
+   The *flags* argument can be one or several of the ``AI_*`` constants,
+   and will influence how results are computed and returned.
+   For example, :const:`AI_NUMERICHOST` will disable domain name resolution
+   and will raise an error if *host* is a domain name.
+
+   The function returns a list of 5-tuples with the following structure:
+
+   ``(family, type, proto, canonname, sockaddr)``
+
+   In these tuples, *family*, *type*, *proto* are all integers and are
+   meant to be passed to the :func:`.socket` function.  *canonname* will be
+   a string representing the canonical name of the *host* if
+   :const:`AI_CANONNAME` is part of the *flags* argument; else *canonname*
+   will be empty.  *sockaddr* is a tuple describing a socket address, whose
+   format depends on the returned *family* (a ``(address, port)`` 2-tuple for
+   :const:`AF_INET`, a ``(address, port, flow info, scope id)`` 4-tuple for
+   :const:`AF_INET6`), and is meant to be passed to the :meth:`socket.connect`
+   method.
+
+   The following example fetches address information for a hypothetical TCP
+   connection to ``example.org`` on port 80 (results may differ on your
+   system if IPv6 isn't enabled)::
+
+      >>> socket.getaddrinfo("example.org", 80, proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP)
+      [(<AddressFamily.AF_INET6: 10>, <SocketType.SOCK_STREAM: 1>,
+       6, '', ('2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946', 80, 0, 0)),
+       (<AddressFamily.AF_INET: 2>, <SocketType.SOCK_STREAM: 1>,
+       6, '', ('93.184.216.34', 80))]
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      parameters can now be passed using keyword arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      for IPv6 multicast addresses, string representing an address will not
+      contain ``%scope`` part.
+
+.. function:: getfqdn([name])
+
+   Return a fully qualified domain name for *name*. If *name* is omitted or empty,
+   it is interpreted as the local host.  To find the fully qualified name, the
+   hostname returned by :func:`gethostbyaddr` is checked, followed by aliases for the
+   host, if available.  The first name which includes a period is selected.  In
+   case no fully qualified domain name is available, the hostname as returned by
+   :func:`gethostname` is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: gethostbyname(hostname)
+
+   Translate a host name to IPv4 address format.  The IPv4 address is returned as a
+   string, such as  ``'100.50.200.5'``.  If the host name is an IPv4 address itself
+   it is returned unchanged.  See :func:`gethostbyname_ex` for a more complete
+   interface. :func:`gethostbyname` does not support IPv6 name resolution, and
+   :func:`getaddrinfo` should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.
+
+
+.. function:: gethostbyname_ex(hostname)
+
+   Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface. Return a
+   triple ``(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)`` where *hostname* is the primary
+   host name responding to the given *ip_address*, *aliaslist* is a (possibly
+   empty) list of alternative host names for the same address, and *ipaddrlist* is
+   a list of IPv4 addresses for the same interface on the same host (often but not
+   always a single address). :func:`gethostbyname_ex` does not support IPv6 name
+   resolution, and :func:`getaddrinfo` should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
+   stack support.
+
+
+.. function:: gethostname()
+
+   Return a string containing the hostname of the machine where  the Python
+   interpreter is currently executing.
+
+   Note: :func:`gethostname` doesn't always return the fully qualified domain
+   name; use :func:`getfqdn` for that.
+
+
+.. function:: gethostbyaddr(ip_address)
+
+   Return a triple ``(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)`` where *hostname* is the
+   primary host name responding to the given *ip_address*, *aliaslist* is a
+   (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same address, and
+   *ipaddrlist* is a list of IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same
+   host (most likely containing only a single address). To find the fully qualified
+   domain name, use the function :func:`getfqdn`. :func:`gethostbyaddr` supports
+   both IPv4 and IPv6.
+
+
+.. function:: getnameinfo(sockaddr, flags)
+
+   Translate a socket address *sockaddr* into a 2-tuple ``(host, port)``. Depending
+   on the settings of *flags*, the result can contain a fully-qualified domain name
+   or numeric address representation in *host*.  Similarly, *port* can contain a
+   string port name or a numeric port number.
+
+   For IPv6 addresses, ``%scope`` is appended to the host part if *sockaddr*
+   contains meaningful *scopeid*. Usually this happens for multicast addresses.
+
+.. function:: getprotobyname(protocolname)
+
+   Translate an Internet protocol name (for example, ``'icmp'``) to a constant
+   suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to the :func:`.socket`
+   function.  This is usually only needed for sockets opened in "raw" mode
+   (:const:`SOCK_RAW`); for the normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen
+   automatically if the protocol is omitted or zero.
+
+
+.. function:: getservbyname(servicename[, protocolname])
+
+   Translate an Internet service name and protocol name to a port number for that
+   service.  The optional protocol name, if given, should be ``'tcp'`` or
+   ``'udp'``, otherwise any protocol will match.
+
+
+.. function:: getservbyport(port[, protocolname])
+
+   Translate an Internet port number and protocol name to a service name for that
+   service.  The optional protocol name, if given, should be ``'tcp'`` or
+   ``'udp'``, otherwise any protocol will match.
+
+
+.. function:: ntohl(x)
+
+   Convert 32-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.  On machines
+   where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+   otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap operation.
+
+
+.. function:: ntohs(x)
+
+   Convert 16-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.  On machines
+   where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+   otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap operation.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      In case *x* does not fit in 16-bit unsigned integer, but does fit in a
+      positive C int, it is silently truncated to 16-bit unsigned integer.
+      This silent truncation feature is deprecated, and will raise an
+      exception in future versions of Python.
+
+
+.. function:: htonl(x)
+
+   Convert 32-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.  On machines
+   where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+   otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap operation.
+
+
+.. function:: htons(x)
+
+   Convert 16-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.  On machines
+   where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+   otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap operation.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      In case *x* does not fit in 16-bit unsigned integer, but does fit in a
+      positive C int, it is silently truncated to 16-bit unsigned integer.
+      This silent truncation feature is deprecated, and will raise an
+      exception in future versions of Python.
+
+
+.. function:: inet_aton(ip_string)
+
+   Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for example,
+   '123.45.67.89') to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes object four characters in
+   length.  This is useful when conversing with a program that uses the standard C
+   library and needs objects of type :c:type:`struct in_addr`, which is the C type
+   for the 32-bit packed binary this function returns.
+
+   :func:`inet_aton` also accepts strings with less than three dots; see the
+   Unix manual page :manpage:`inet(3)` for details.
+
+   If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid,
+   :exc:`OSError` will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on
+   the underlying C implementation of :c:func:`inet_aton`.
+
+   :func:`inet_aton` does not support IPv6, and :func:`inet_pton` should be used
+   instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.
+
+
+.. function:: inet_ntoa(packed_ip)
+
+   Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a :term:`bytes-like object` four
+   bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string representation (for example,
+   '123.45.67.89').  This is useful when conversing with a program that uses the
+   standard C library and needs objects of type :c:type:`struct in_addr`, which
+   is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary data this function takes as an
+   argument.
+
+   If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes in
+   length, :exc:`OSError` will be raised. :func:`inet_ntoa` does not
+   support IPv6, and :func:`inet_ntop` should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
+   stack support.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. function:: inet_pton(address_family, ip_string)
+
+   Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a packed,
+   binary format. :func:`inet_pton` is useful when a library or network protocol
+   calls for an object of type :c:type:`struct in_addr` (similar to
+   :func:`inet_aton`) or :c:type:`struct in6_addr`.
+
+   Supported values for *address_family* are currently :const:`AF_INET` and
+   :const:`AF_INET6`. If the IP address string *ip_string* is invalid,
+   :exc:`OSError` will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on
+   both the value of *address_family* and the underlying implementation of
+   :c:func:`inet_pton`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (maybe not all platforms), Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Windows support added
+
+
+.. function:: inet_ntop(address_family, packed_ip)
+
+   Convert a packed IP address (a :term:`bytes-like object` of some number of
+   bytes) to its standard, family-specific string representation (for
+   example, ``'7.10.0.5'`` or ``'5aef:2b::8'``).
+   :func:`inet_ntop` is useful when a library or network protocol returns an
+   object of type :c:type:`struct in_addr` (similar to :func:`inet_ntoa`) or
+   :c:type:`struct in6_addr`.
+
+   Supported values for *address_family* are currently :const:`AF_INET` and
+   :const:`AF_INET6`. If the bytes object *packed_ip* is not the correct
+   length for the specified address family, :exc:`ValueError` will be raised.
+   :exc:`OSError` is raised for errors from the call to :func:`inet_ntop`.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (maybe not all platforms), Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Windows support added
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+..
+   XXX: Are sendmsg(), recvmsg() and CMSG_*() available on any
+   non-Unix platforms?  The old (obsolete?) 4.2BSD form of the
+   interface, in which struct msghdr has no msg_control or
+   msg_controllen members, is not currently supported.
+
+.. function:: CMSG_LEN(length)
+
+   Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary
+   data item with associated data of the given *length*.  This value
+   can often be used as the buffer size for :meth:`~socket.recvmsg` to
+   receive a single item of ancillary data, but :rfc:`3542` requires
+   portable applications to use :func:`CMSG_SPACE` and thus include
+   space for padding, even when the item will be the last in the
+   buffer.  Raises :exc:`OverflowError` if *length* is outside the
+   permissible range of values.
+
+   .. availability:: most Unix platforms, possibly others.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: CMSG_SPACE(length)
+
+   Return the buffer size needed for :meth:`~socket.recvmsg` to
+   receive an ancillary data item with associated data of the given
+   *length*, along with any trailing padding.  The buffer space needed
+   to receive multiple items is the sum of the :func:`CMSG_SPACE`
+   values for their associated data lengths.  Raises
+   :exc:`OverflowError` if *length* is outside the permissible range
+   of values.
+
+   Note that some systems might support ancillary data without
+   providing this function.  Also note that setting the buffer size
+   using the results of this function may not precisely limit the
+   amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional
+   data may be able to fit into the padding area.
+
+   .. availability:: most Unix platforms, possibly others.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: getdefaulttimeout()
+
+   Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects. A value
+   of ``None`` indicates that new socket objects have no timeout. When the socket
+   module is first imported, the default is ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: setdefaulttimeout(timeout)
+
+   Set the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects.  When
+   the socket module is first imported, the default is ``None``.  See
+   :meth:`~socket.settimeout` for possible values and their respective
+   meanings.
+
+
+.. function:: sethostname(name)
+
+   Set the machine's hostname to *name*.  This will raise an
+   :exc:`OSError` if you don't have enough rights.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: if_nameindex()
+
+   Return a list of network interface information
+   (index int, name string) tuples.
+   :exc:`OSError` if the system call fails.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: if_nametoindex(if_name)
+
+   Return a network interface index number corresponding to an
+   interface name.
+   :exc:`OSError` if no interface with the given name exists.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: if_indextoname(if_index)
+
+   Return a network interface name corresponding to an
+   interface index number.
+   :exc:`OSError` if no interface with the given index exists.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. _socket-objects:
+
+Socket Objects
+--------------
+
+Socket objects have the following methods.  Except for
+:meth:`~socket.makefile`, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable
+to sockets.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Support for the :term:`context manager` protocol was added.  Exiting the
+   context manager is equivalent to calling :meth:`~socket.close`.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.accept()
+
+   Accept a connection. The socket must be bound to an address and listening for
+   connections. The return value is a pair ``(conn, address)`` where *conn* is a
+   *new* socket object usable to send and receive data on the connection, and
+   *address* is the address bound to the socket on the other end of the connection.
+
+   The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The socket is now non-inheritable.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.bind(address)
+
+   Bind the socket to *address*.  The socket must not already be bound. (The format
+   of *address* depends on the address family --- see above.)
+
+
+.. method:: socket.close()
+
+   Mark the socket closed.  The underlying system resource (e.g. a file
+   descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from :meth:`makefile()`
+   are closed.  Once that happens, all future operations on the socket
+   object will fail. The remote end will receive no more data (after
+   queued data is flushed).
+
+   Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected, but
+   it is recommended to :meth:`close` them explicitly, or to use a
+   :keyword:`with` statement around them.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :exc:`OSError` is now raised if an error occurs when the underlying
+      :c:func:`close` call is made.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :meth:`close()` releases the resource associated with a connection but
+      does not necessarily close the connection immediately.  If you want
+      to close the connection in a timely fashion, call :meth:`shutdown()`
+      before :meth:`close()`.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.connect(address)
+
+   Connect to a remote socket at *address*. (The format of *address* depends on the
+   address family --- see above.)
+
+   If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits until the
+   connection completes, or raise a :exc:`socket.timeout` on timeout, if the
+   signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has
+   a timeout. For non-blocking sockets, the method raises an
+   :exc:`InterruptedError` exception if the connection is interrupted by a
+   signal (or the exception raised by the signal handler).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The method now waits until the connection completes instead of raising an
+      :exc:`InterruptedError` exception if the connection is interrupted by a
+      signal, the signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is
+      blocking or has a timeout (see the :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.connect_ex(address)
+
+   Like ``connect(address)``, but return an error indicator instead of raising an
+   exception for errors returned by the C-level :c:func:`connect` call (other
+   problems, such as "host not found," can still raise exceptions).  The error
+   indicator is ``0`` if the operation succeeded, otherwise the value of the
+   :c:data:`errno` variable.  This is useful to support, for example, asynchronous
+   connects.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.detach()
+
+   Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing the
+   underlying file descriptor.  The file descriptor is returned, and can
+   be reused for other purposes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. method:: socket.dup()
+
+   Duplicate the socket.
+
+   The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The socket is now non-inheritable.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.fileno()
+
+   Return the socket's file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on failure. This
+   is useful with :func:`select.select`.
+
+   Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be used where a
+   file descriptor can be used (such as :func:`os.fdopen`).  Unix does not have
+   this limitation.
+
+.. method:: socket.get_inheritable()
+
+   Get the :ref:`inheritable flag <fd_inheritance>` of the socket's file
+   descriptor or socket's handle: ``True`` if the socket can be inherited in
+   child processes, ``False`` if it cannot.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: socket.getpeername()
+
+   Return the remote address to which the socket is connected.  This is useful to
+   find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. (The format
+   of the address returned depends on the address family --- see above.)  On some
+   systems this function is not supported.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.getsockname()
+
+   Return the socket's own address.  This is useful to find out the port number of
+   an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. (The format of the address returned depends on
+   the address family --- see above.)
+
+
+.. method:: socket.getsockopt(level, optname[, buflen])
+
+   Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
+   :manpage:`getsockopt(2)`).  The needed symbolic constants (:const:`SO_\*` etc.)
+   are defined in this module.  If *buflen* is absent, an integer option is assumed
+   and its integer value is returned by the function.  If *buflen* is present, it
+   specifies the maximum length of the buffer used to receive the option in, and
+   this buffer is returned as a bytes object.  It is up to the caller to decode the
+   contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module :mod:`struct` for a way
+   to decode C structures encoded as byte strings).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.getblocking()
+
+   Return ``True`` if socket is in blocking mode, ``False`` if in
+   non-blocking.
+
+   This is equivalent to checking ``socket.gettimeout() == 0``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. method:: socket.gettimeout()
+
+   Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket operations,
+   or ``None`` if no timeout is set.  This reflects the last call to
+   :meth:`setblocking` or :meth:`settimeout`.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.ioctl(control, option)
+
+   :platform: Windows
+
+   The :meth:`ioctl` method is a limited interface to the WSAIoctl system
+   interface.  Please refer to the `Win32 documentation
+   <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx>`_ for more
+   information.
+
+   On other platforms, the generic :func:`fcntl.fcntl` and :func:`fcntl.ioctl`
+   functions may be used; they accept a socket object as their first argument.
+
+   Currently only the following control codes are supported:
+   ``SIO_RCVALL``, ``SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS``, and ``SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      ``SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH`` was added.
+
+.. method:: socket.listen([backlog])
+
+   Enable a server to accept connections.  If *backlog* is specified, it must
+   be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it specifies the number of
+   unaccepted connections that the system will allow before refusing new
+   connections. If not specified, a default reasonable value is chosen.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *backlog* parameter is now optional.
+
+.. method:: socket.makefile(mode='r', buffering=None, *, encoding=None, \
+                            errors=None, newline=None)
+
+   .. index:: single: I/O control; buffering
+
+   Return a :term:`file object` associated with the socket.  The exact returned
+   type depends on the arguments given to :meth:`makefile`.  These arguments are
+   interpreted the same way as by the built-in :func:`open` function, except
+   the only supported *mode* values are ``'r'`` (default), ``'w'`` and ``'b'``.
+
+   The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the file
+   object's internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state if a timeout
+   occurs.
+
+   Closing the file object returned by :meth:`makefile` won't close the
+   original socket unless all other file objects have been closed and
+   :meth:`socket.close` has been called on the socket object.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On Windows, the file-like object created by :meth:`makefile` cannot be
+      used where a file object with a file descriptor is expected, such as the
+      stream arguments of :meth:`subprocess.Popen`.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.recv(bufsize[, flags])
+
+   Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a bytes object representing the
+   data received.  The maximum amount of data to be received at once is specified
+   by *bufsize*.  See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of
+   the optional argument *flags*; it defaults to zero.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      For best match with hardware and network realities, the value of  *bufsize*
+      should be a relatively small power of 2, for example, 4096.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.recvfrom(bufsize[, flags])
+
+   Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a pair ``(bytes, address)``
+   where *bytes* is a bytes object representing the data received and *address* is the
+   address of the socket sending the data.  See the Unix manual page
+   :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the optional argument *flags*; it defaults
+   to zero. (The format of *address* depends on the address family --- see above.)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      For multicast IPv6 address, first item of *address* does not contain
+      ``%scope`` part anymore. In order to get full IPv6 address use
+      :func:`getnameinfo`.
+
+.. method:: socket.recvmsg(bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])
+
+   Receive normal data (up to *bufsize* bytes) and ancillary data from
+   the socket.  The *ancbufsize* argument sets the size in bytes of
+   the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
+   to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received.  Appropriate
+   buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using
+   :func:`CMSG_SPACE` or :func:`CMSG_LEN`, and items which do not fit
+   into the buffer might be truncated or discarded.  The *flags*
+   argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
+   :meth:`recv`.
+
+   The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(data, ancdata, msg_flags,
+   address)``.  The *data* item is a :class:`bytes` object holding the
+   non-ancillary data received.  The *ancdata* item is a list of zero
+   or more tuples ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)`` representing
+   the ancillary data (control messages) received: *cmsg_level* and
+   *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and
+   protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a
+   :class:`bytes` object holding the associated data.  The *msg_flags*
+   item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating conditions on
+   the received message; see your system documentation for details.
+   If the receiving socket is unconnected, *address* is the address of
+   the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its value is
+   unspecified.
+
+   On some systems, :meth:`sendmsg` and :meth:`recvmsg` can be used to
+   pass file descriptors between processes over an :const:`AF_UNIX`
+   socket.  When this facility is used (it is often restricted to
+   :const:`SOCK_STREAM` sockets), :meth:`recvmsg` will return, in its
+   ancillary data, items of the form ``(socket.SOL_SOCKET,
+   socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)``, where *fds* is a :class:`bytes` object
+   representing the new file descriptors as a binary array of the
+   native C :c:type:`int` type.  If :meth:`recvmsg` raises an
+   exception after the system call returns, it will first attempt to
+   close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.
+
+   Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
+   items which have been only partially received.  If an item appears
+   to extend beyond the end of the buffer, :meth:`recvmsg` will issue
+   a :exc:`RuntimeWarning`, and will return the part of it which is
+   inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated before the
+   start of its associated data.
+
+   On systems which support the :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism, the
+   following function will receive up to *maxfds* file descriptors,
+   returning the message data and a list containing the descriptors
+   (while ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control
+   messages being received).  See also :meth:`sendmsg`. ::
+
+      import socket, array
+
+      def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
+          fds = array.array("i")   # Array of ints
+          msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
+          for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
+              if (cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS):
+                  # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
+                  fds.fromstring(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
+          return msg, list(fds)
+
+   .. availability:: most Unix platforms, possibly others.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.recvmsg_into(buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])
+
+   Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
+   :meth:`recvmsg` would, but scatter the non-ancillary data into a
+   series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object.  The
+   *buffers* argument must be an iterable of objects that export
+   writable buffers (e.g. :class:`bytearray` objects); these will be
+   filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
+   has all been written or there are no more buffers.  The operating
+   system may set a limit (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``)
+   on the number of buffers that can be used.  The *ancbufsize* and
+   *flags* arguments have the same meaning as for :meth:`recvmsg`.
+
+   The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags,
+   address)``, where *nbytes* is the total number of bytes of
+   non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and *ancdata*,
+   *msg_flags* and *address* are the same as for :meth:`recvmsg`.
+
+   Example::
+
+      >>> import socket
+      >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
+      >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
+      >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
+      >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
+      >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
+      22
+      >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
+      (22, [], 0, None)
+      >>> [b1, b2, b3]
+      [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]
+
+   .. availability:: most Unix platforms, possibly others.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. method:: socket.recvfrom_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])
+
+   Receive data from the socket, writing it into *buffer* instead of creating a
+   new bytestring.  The return value is a pair ``(nbytes, address)`` where *nbytes* is
+   the number of bytes received and *address* is the address of the socket sending
+   the data.  See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the
+   optional argument *flags*; it defaults to zero.  (The format of *address*
+   depends on the address family --- see above.)
+
+
+.. method:: socket.recv_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])
+
+   Receive up to *nbytes* bytes from the socket, storing the data into a buffer
+   rather than creating a new bytestring.  If *nbytes* is not specified (or 0),
+   receive up to the size available in the given buffer.  Returns the number of
+   bytes received.  See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning
+   of the optional argument *flags*; it defaults to zero.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.send(bytes[, flags])
+
+   Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote socket.  The
+   optional *flags* argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv` above.
+   Returns the number of bytes sent. Applications are responsible for checking that
+   all data has been sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the
+   application needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data. For further
+   information on this topic, consult the :ref:`socket-howto`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.sendall(bytes[, flags])
+
+   Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote socket.  The
+   optional *flags* argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv` above.
+   Unlike :meth:`send`, this method continues to send data from *bytes* until
+   either all data has been sent or an error occurs.  ``None`` is returned on
+   success.  On error, an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how
+   much data, if any, was successfully sent.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The socket timeout is no more reset each time data is sent successfully.
+      The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.sendto(bytes, address)
+            socket.sendto(bytes, flags, address)
+
+   Send data to the socket.  The socket should not be connected to a remote socket,
+   since the destination socket is specified by *address*.  The optional *flags*
+   argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv` above.  Return the number of
+   bytes sent. (The format of *address* depends on the address family --- see
+   above.)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. method:: socket.sendmsg(buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])
+
+   Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
+   non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
+   into a single message.  The *buffers* argument specifies the
+   non-ancillary data as an iterable of
+   :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`
+   (e.g. :class:`bytes` objects); the operating system may set a limit
+   (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``) on the number of buffers
+   that can be used.  The *ancdata* argument specifies the ancillary
+   data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more tuples
+   ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)``, where *cmsg_level* and
+   *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and
+   protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a
+   bytes-like object holding the associated data.  Note that
+   some systems (in particular, systems without :func:`CMSG_SPACE`)
+   might support sending only one control message per call.  The
+   *flags* argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
+   :meth:`send`.  If *address* is supplied and not ``None``, it sets a
+   destination address for the message.  The return value is the
+   number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.
+
+   The following function sends the list of file descriptors *fds*
+   over an :const:`AF_UNIX` socket, on systems which support the
+   :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism.  See also :meth:`recvmsg`. ::
+
+      import socket, array
+
+      def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
+          return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])
+
+   .. availability:: most Unix platforms, possibly others.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+      an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+      an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+.. method:: socket.sendmsg_afalg([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[, flags]]])
+
+   Specialized version of :meth:`~socket.sendmsg` for :const:`AF_ALG` socket.
+   Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for :const:`AF_ALG` socket.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.38.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. method:: socket.sendfile(file, offset=0, count=None)
+
+   Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance
+   :mod:`os.sendfile` and return the total number of bytes which were sent.
+   *file* must be a regular file object opened in binary mode. If
+   :mod:`os.sendfile` is not available (e.g. Windows) or *file* is not a
+   regular file :meth:`send` will be used instead. *offset* tells from where to
+   start reading the file. If specified, *count* is the total number of bytes
+   to transmit as opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached. File
+   position is updated on return or also in case of error in which case
+   :meth:`file.tell() <io.IOBase.tell>` can be used to figure out the number of
+   bytes which were sent. The socket must be of :const:`SOCK_STREAM` type.
+   Non-blocking sockets are not supported.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. method:: socket.set_inheritable(inheritable)
+
+   Set the :ref:`inheritable flag <fd_inheritance>` of the socket's file
+   descriptor or socket's handle.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: socket.setblocking(flag)
+
+   Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if *flag* is false, the
+   socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.
+
+   This method is a shorthand for certain :meth:`~socket.settimeout` calls:
+
+   * ``sock.setblocking(True)`` is equivalent to ``sock.settimeout(None)``
+
+   * ``sock.setblocking(False)`` is equivalent to ``sock.settimeout(0.0)``
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The method no longer applies :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` flag on
+      :attr:`socket.type`.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.settimeout(value)
+
+   Set a timeout on blocking socket operations.  The *value* argument can be a
+   nonnegative floating point number expressing seconds, or ``None``.
+   If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations will raise a
+   :exc:`timeout` exception if the timeout period *value* has elapsed before
+   the operation has completed.  If zero is given, the socket is put in
+   non-blocking mode. If ``None`` is given, the socket is put in blocking mode.
+
+   For further information, please consult the :ref:`notes on socket timeouts <socket-timeouts>`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The method no longer toggles :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` flag on
+      :attr:`socket.type`.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.setsockopt(level, optname, value: int)
+.. method:: socket.setsockopt(level, optname, value: buffer)
+.. method:: socket.setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int)
+
+   .. index:: module: struct
+
+   Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
+   :manpage:`setsockopt(2)`).  The needed symbolic constants are defined in the
+   :mod:`socket` module (:const:`SO_\*` etc.).  The value can be an integer,
+   ``None`` or a :term:`bytes-like object` representing a buffer. In the later
+   case it is up to the caller to ensure that the bytestring contains the
+   proper bits (see the optional built-in module :mod:`struct` for a way to
+   encode C structures as bytestrings). When value is set to ``None``,
+   optlen argument is required. It's equivalent to call setsockopt C
+   function with optval=NULL and optlen=optlen.
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) form added.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.shutdown(how)
+
+   Shut down one or both halves of the connection.  If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RD`,
+   further receives are disallowed.  If *how* is :const:`SHUT_WR`, further sends
+   are disallowed.  If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RDWR`, further sends and receives are
+   disallowed.
+
+
+.. method:: socket.share(process_id)
+
+   Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target process.  The
+   target process must be provided with *process_id*.  The resulting bytes object
+   can then be passed to the target process using some form of interprocess
+   communication and the socket can be recreated there using :func:`fromshare`.
+   Once this method has been called, it is safe to close the socket since
+   the operating system has already duplicated it for the target process.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+Note that there are no methods :meth:`read` or :meth:`write`; use
+:meth:`~socket.recv` and :meth:`~socket.send` without *flags* argument instead.
+
+Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to the
+values given to the :class:`~socket.socket` constructor.
+
+
+.. attribute:: socket.family
+
+   The socket family.
+
+
+.. attribute:: socket.type
+
+   The socket type.
+
+
+.. attribute:: socket.proto
+
+   The socket protocol.
+
+
+
+.. _socket-timeouts:
+
+Notes on socket timeouts
+------------------------
+
+A socket object can be in one of three modes: blocking, non-blocking, or
+timeout.  Sockets are by default always created in blocking mode, but this
+can be changed by calling :func:`setdefaulttimeout`.
+
+* In *blocking mode*, operations block until complete or the system returns
+  an error (such as connection timed out).
+
+* In *non-blocking mode*, operations fail (with an error that is unfortunately
+  system-dependent) if they cannot be completed immediately: functions from the
+  :mod:`select` can be used to know when and whether a socket is available for
+  reading or writing.
+
+* In *timeout mode*, operations fail if they cannot be completed within the
+  timeout specified for the socket (they raise a :exc:`timeout` exception)
+  or if the system returns an error.
+
+.. note::
+   At the operating system level, sockets in *timeout mode* are internally set
+   in non-blocking mode.  Also, the blocking and timeout modes are shared between
+   file descriptors and socket objects that refer to the same network endpoint.
+   This implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g. you decide
+   to use the :meth:`~socket.fileno()` of a socket.
+
+Timeouts and the ``connect`` method
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :meth:`~socket.connect` operation is also subject to the timeout
+setting, and in general it is recommended to call :meth:`~socket.settimeout`
+before calling :meth:`~socket.connect` or pass a timeout parameter to
+:meth:`create_connection`.  However, the system network stack may also
+return a connection timeout error of its own regardless of any Python socket
+timeout setting.
+
+Timeouts and the ``accept`` method
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If :func:`getdefaulttimeout` is not :const:`None`, sockets returned by
+the :meth:`~socket.accept` method inherit that timeout.  Otherwise, the
+behaviour depends on settings of the listening socket:
+
+* if the listening socket is in *blocking mode* or in *timeout mode*,
+  the socket returned by :meth:`~socket.accept` is in *blocking mode*;
+
+* if the listening socket is in *non-blocking mode*, whether the socket
+  returned by :meth:`~socket.accept` is in blocking or non-blocking mode
+  is operating system-dependent.  If you want to ensure cross-platform
+  behaviour, it is recommended you manually override this setting.
+
+
+.. _socket-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a server that
+echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one client), and a client
+using it.  Note that a server must perform the sequence :func:`.socket`,
+:meth:`~socket.bind`, :meth:`~socket.listen`, :meth:`~socket.accept` (possibly
+repeating the :meth:`~socket.accept` to service more than one client), while a
+client only needs the sequence :func:`.socket`, :meth:`~socket.connect`.  Also
+note that the server does not :meth:`~socket.sendall`/:meth:`~socket.recv` on
+the socket it is listening on but on the new socket returned by
+:meth:`~socket.accept`.
+
+The first two examples support IPv4 only. ::
+
+   # Echo server program
+   import socket
+
+   HOST = ''                 # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
+   PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
+   with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
+       s.bind((HOST, PORT))
+       s.listen(1)
+       conn, addr = s.accept()
+       with conn:
+           print('Connected by', addr)
+           while True:
+               data = conn.recv(1024)
+               if not data: break
+               conn.sendall(data)
+
+::
+
+   # Echo client program
+   import socket
+
+   HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
+   PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
+   with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
+       s.connect((HOST, PORT))
+       s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
+       data = s.recv(1024)
+   print('Received', repr(data))
+
+The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both IPv4 and
+IPv6. The server side will listen to the first address family available (it
+should listen to both instead). On most of IPv6-ready systems, IPv6 will take
+precedence and the server may not accept IPv4 traffic. The client side will try
+to connect to the all addresses returned as a result of the name resolution, and
+sends traffic to the first one connected successfully. ::
+
+   # Echo server program
+   import socket
+   import sys
+
+   HOST = None               # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
+   PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
+   s = None
+   for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC,
+                                 socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0, socket.AI_PASSIVE):
+       af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
+       try:
+           s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
+       except OSError as msg:
+           s = None
+           continue
+       try:
+           s.bind(sa)
+           s.listen(1)
+       except OSError as msg:
+           s.close()
+           s = None
+           continue
+       break
+   if s is None:
+       print('could not open socket')
+       sys.exit(1)
+   conn, addr = s.accept()
+   with conn:
+       print('Connected by', addr)
+       while True:
+           data = conn.recv(1024)
+           if not data: break
+           conn.send(data)
+
+::
+
+   # Echo client program
+   import socket
+   import sys
+
+   HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
+   PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
+   s = None
+   for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
+       af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
+       try:
+           s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
+       except OSError as msg:
+           s = None
+           continue
+       try:
+           s.connect(sa)
+       except OSError as msg:
+           s.close()
+           s = None
+           continue
+       break
+   if s is None:
+       print('could not open socket')
+       sys.exit(1)
+   with s:
+       s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
+       data = s.recv(1024)
+   print('Received', repr(data))
+
+
+The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with raw
+sockets on Windows. The example requires administrator privileges to modify
+the interface::
+
+   import socket
+
+   # the public network interface
+   HOST = socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname())
+
+   # create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface
+   s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.IPPROTO_IP)
+   s.bind((HOST, 0))
+
+   # Include IP headers
+   s.setsockopt(socket.IPPROTO_IP, socket.IP_HDRINCL, 1)
+
+   # receive all packages
+   s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_ON)
+
+   # receive a package
+   print(s.recvfrom(65565))
+
+   # disabled promiscuous mode
+   s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF)
+
+The next example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to a CAN
+network using the raw socket protocol. To use CAN with the broadcast
+manager protocol instead, open a socket with::
+
+    socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_DGRAM, socket.CAN_BCM)
+
+After binding (:const:`CAN_RAW`) or connecting (:const:`CAN_BCM`) the socket, you
+can use the :meth:`socket.send`, and the :meth:`socket.recv` operations (and
+their counterparts) on the socket object as usual.
+
+This last example might require special privileges::
+
+   import socket
+   import struct
+
+
+   # CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>)
+
+   can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s"
+   can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt)
+
+   def build_can_frame(can_id, data):
+       can_dlc = len(data)
+       data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00')
+       return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data)
+
+   def dissect_can_frame(frame):
+       can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame)
+       return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])
+
+
+   # create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface
+   s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW)
+   s.bind(('vcan0',))
+
+   while True:
+       cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size)
+
+       print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf))
+
+       try:
+           s.send(cf)
+       except OSError:
+           print('Error sending CAN frame')
+
+       try:
+           s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03'))
+       except OSError:
+           print('Error sending CAN frame')
+
+Running an example several times with too small delay between executions, could
+lead to this error::
+
+   OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use
+
+This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a ``TIME_WAIT``
+state, and can't be immediately reused.
+
+There is a :mod:`socket` flag to set, in order to prevent this,
+:data:`socket.SO_REUSEADDR`::
+
+   s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+   s.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
+   s.bind((HOST, PORT))
+
+the :data:`SO_REUSEADDR` flag tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
+``TIME_WAIT`` state, without waiting for its natural timeout to expire.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   For an introduction to socket programming (in C), see the following papers:
+
+   - *An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial*, by Stuart Sechrest
+
+   - *An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial*, by Samuel J.  Leffler et
+     al,
+
+   both in the UNIX Programmer's Manual, Supplementary Documents 1 (sections
+   PS1:7 and PS1:8).  The platform-specific reference material for the various
+   socket-related system calls are also a valuable source of information on the
+   details of socket semantics.  For Unix, refer to the manual pages; for Windows,
+   see the WinSock (or Winsock 2) specification.  For IPv6-ready APIs, readers may
+   want to refer to :rfc:`3493` titled Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/socketserver.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/socketserver.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c8c8d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/socketserver.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,660 @@
+:mod:`socketserver` --- A framework for network servers
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: socketserver
+   :synopsis: A framework for network servers.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/socketserver.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`socketserver` module simplifies the task of writing network servers.
+
+There are four basic concrete server classes:
+
+
+.. class:: TCPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
+
+   This uses the Internet TCP protocol, which provides for
+   continuous streams of data between the client and server.
+   If *bind_and_activate* is true, the constructor automatically attempts to
+   invoke :meth:`~BaseServer.server_bind` and
+   :meth:`~BaseServer.server_activate`.  The other parameters are passed to
+   the :class:`BaseServer` base class.
+
+
+.. class:: UDPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
+
+   This uses datagrams, which are discrete packets of information that may
+   arrive out of order or be lost while in transit.  The parameters are
+   the same as for :class:`TCPServer`.
+
+
+.. class:: UnixStreamServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
+           UnixDatagramServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
+
+   These more infrequently used classes are similar to the TCP and
+   UDP classes, but use Unix domain sockets; they're not available on
+   non-Unix platforms.  The parameters are the same as for
+   :class:`TCPServer`.
+
+
+These four classes process requests :dfn:`synchronously`; each request must be
+completed before the next request can be started.  This isn't suitable if each
+request takes a long time to complete, because it requires a lot of computation,
+or because it returns a lot of data which the client is slow to process.  The
+solution is to create a separate process or thread to handle each request; the
+:class:`ForkingMixIn` and :class:`ThreadingMixIn` mix-in classes can be used to
+support asynchronous behaviour.
+
+Creating a server requires several steps.  First, you must create a request
+handler class by subclassing the :class:`BaseRequestHandler` class and
+overriding its :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.handle` method;
+this method will process incoming
+requests.  Second, you must instantiate one of the server classes, passing it
+the server's address and the request handler class. It is recommended to use
+the server in a :keyword:`with` statement. Then call the
+:meth:`~BaseServer.handle_request` or
+:meth:`~BaseServer.serve_forever` method of the server object to
+process one or many requests.  Finally, call :meth:`~BaseServer.server_close`
+to close the socket (unless you used a :keyword:`!with` statement).
+
+When inheriting from :class:`ThreadingMixIn` for threaded connection behavior,
+you should explicitly declare how you want your threads to behave on an abrupt
+shutdown.  The :class:`ThreadingMixIn` class defines an attribute
+*daemon_threads*, which indicates whether or not the server should wait for
+thread termination.  You should set the flag explicitly if you would like
+threads to behave autonomously; the default is :const:`False`, meaning that
+Python will not exit until all threads created by :class:`ThreadingMixIn` have
+exited.
+
+Server classes have the same external methods and attributes, no matter what
+network protocol they use.
+
+
+Server Creation Notes
+---------------------
+
+There are five classes in an inheritance diagram, four of which represent
+synchronous servers of four types::
+
+   +------------+
+   | BaseServer |
+   +------------+
+         |
+         v
+   +-----------+        +------------------+
+   | TCPServer |------->| UnixStreamServer |
+   +-----------+        +------------------+
+         |
+         v
+   +-----------+        +--------------------+
+   | UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer |
+   +-----------+        +--------------------+
+
+Note that :class:`UnixDatagramServer` derives from :class:`UDPServer`, not from
+:class:`UnixStreamServer` --- the only difference between an IP and a Unix
+stream server is the address family, which is simply repeated in both Unix
+server classes.
+
+
+.. class:: ForkingMixIn
+           ThreadingMixIn
+
+   Forking and threading versions of each type of server can be created
+   using these mix-in classes.  For instance, :class:`ThreadingUDPServer`
+   is created as follows::
+
+      class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer):
+          pass
+
+   The mix-in class comes first, since it overrides a method defined in
+   :class:`UDPServer`.  Setting the various attributes also changes the
+   behavior of the underlying server mechanism.
+
+   :class:`ForkingMixIn` and the Forking classes mentioned below are
+   only available on POSIX platforms that support :func:`~os.fork`.
+
+   :meth:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close` waits until all child
+   processes complete, except if
+   :attr:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close` attribute is false.
+
+   :meth:`socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close` waits until all non-daemon
+   threads complete, except if
+   :attr:`socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close` attribute is false. Use
+   daemonic threads by setting
+   :data:`ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads` to ``True`` to not wait until threads
+   complete.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      :meth:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close` and
+      :meth:`socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close` now waits until all
+      child processes and non-daemonic threads complete.
+      Add a new :attr:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close` class
+      attribute to opt-in for the pre-3.7 behaviour.
+
+
+.. class:: ForkingTCPServer
+           ForkingUDPServer
+           ThreadingTCPServer
+           ThreadingUDPServer
+
+   These classes are pre-defined using the mix-in classes.
+
+
+To implement a service, you must derive a class from :class:`BaseRequestHandler`
+and redefine its :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.handle` method.
+You can then run various versions of
+the service by combining one of the server classes with your request handler
+class.  The request handler class must be different for datagram or stream
+services.  This can be hidden by using the handler subclasses
+:class:`StreamRequestHandler` or :class:`DatagramRequestHandler`.
+
+Of course, you still have to use your head!  For instance, it makes no sense to
+use a forking server if the service contains state in memory that can be
+modified by different requests, since the modifications in the child process
+would never reach the initial state kept in the parent process and passed to
+each child.  In this case, you can use a threading server, but you will probably
+have to use locks to protect the integrity of the shared data.
+
+On the other hand, if you are building an HTTP server where all data is stored
+externally (for instance, in the file system), a synchronous class will
+essentially render the service "deaf" while one request is being handled --
+which may be for a very long time if a client is slow to receive all the data it
+has requested.  Here a threading or forking server is appropriate.
+
+In some cases, it may be appropriate to process part of a request synchronously,
+but to finish processing in a forked child depending on the request data.  This
+can be implemented by using a synchronous server and doing an explicit fork in
+the request handler class :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.handle` method.
+
+Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an environment
+that supports neither threads nor :func:`~os.fork` (or where these are too
+expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to maintain an explicit table of
+partially finished requests and to use :mod:`selectors` to decide which
+request to work on next (or whether to handle a new incoming request).  This is
+particularly important for stream services where each client can potentially be
+connected for a long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).  See
+:mod:`asyncore` for another way to manage this.
+
+.. XXX should data and methods be intermingled, or separate?
+   how should the distinction between class and instance variables be drawn?
+
+
+Server Objects
+--------------
+
+.. class:: BaseServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)
+
+   This is the superclass of all Server objects in the module.  It defines the
+   interface, given below, but does not implement most of the methods, which is
+   done in subclasses.  The two parameters are stored in the respective
+   :attr:`server_address` and :attr:`RequestHandlerClass` attributes.
+
+
+   .. method:: fileno()
+
+      Return an integer file descriptor for the socket on which the server is
+      listening.  This function is most commonly passed to :mod:`selectors`, to
+      allow monitoring multiple servers in the same process.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_request()
+
+      Process a single request.  This function calls the following methods in
+      order: :meth:`get_request`, :meth:`verify_request`, and
+      :meth:`process_request`.  If the user-provided
+      :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.handle` method of the
+      handler class raises an exception, the server's :meth:`handle_error` method
+      will be called.  If no request is received within :attr:`timeout`
+      seconds, :meth:`handle_timeout` will be called and :meth:`handle_request`
+      will return.
+
+
+   .. method:: serve_forever(poll_interval=0.5)
+
+      Handle requests until an explicit :meth:`shutdown` request.  Poll for
+      shutdown every *poll_interval* seconds.
+      Ignores the :attr:`timeout` attribute.  It
+      also calls :meth:`service_actions`, which may be used by a subclass or mixin
+      to provide actions specific to a given service.  For example, the
+      :class:`ForkingMixIn` class uses :meth:`service_actions` to clean up zombie
+      child processes.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Added ``service_actions`` call to the ``serve_forever`` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: service_actions()
+
+      This is called in the :meth:`serve_forever` loop. This method can be
+      overridden by subclasses or mixin classes to perform actions specific to
+      a given service, such as cleanup actions.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. method:: shutdown()
+
+      Tell the :meth:`serve_forever` loop to stop and wait until it does.
+
+
+   .. method:: server_close()
+
+      Clean up the server. May be overridden.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: address_family
+
+      The family of protocols to which the server's socket belongs.
+      Common examples are :const:`socket.AF_INET` and :const:`socket.AF_UNIX`.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: RequestHandlerClass
+
+      The user-provided request handler class; an instance of this class is created
+      for each request.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: server_address
+
+      The address on which the server is listening.  The format of addresses varies
+      depending on the protocol family;
+      see the documentation for the :mod:`socket` module
+      for details.  For Internet protocols, this is a tuple containing a string giving
+      the address, and an integer port number: ``('127.0.0.1', 80)``, for example.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: socket
+
+      The socket object on which the server will listen for incoming requests.
+
+
+   The server classes support the following class variables:
+
+   .. XXX should class variables be covered before instance variables, or vice versa?
+
+   .. attribute:: allow_reuse_address
+
+      Whether the server will allow the reuse of an address.  This defaults to
+      :const:`False`, and can be set in subclasses to change the policy.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: request_queue_size
+
+      The size of the request queue.  If it takes a long time to process a single
+      request, any requests that arrive while the server is busy are placed into a
+      queue, up to :attr:`request_queue_size` requests.  Once the queue is full,
+      further requests from clients will get a "Connection denied" error.  The default
+      value is usually 5, but this can be overridden by subclasses.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: socket_type
+
+      The type of socket used by the server; :const:`socket.SOCK_STREAM` and
+      :const:`socket.SOCK_DGRAM` are two common values.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: timeout
+
+      Timeout duration, measured in seconds, or :const:`None` if no timeout is
+      desired.  If :meth:`handle_request` receives no incoming requests within the
+      timeout period, the :meth:`handle_timeout` method is called.
+
+
+   There are various server methods that can be overridden by subclasses of base
+   server classes like :class:`TCPServer`; these methods aren't useful to external
+   users of the server object.
+
+   .. XXX should the default implementations of these be documented, or should
+      it be assumed that the user will look at socketserver.py?
+
+   .. method:: finish_request(request, client_address)
+
+      Actually processes the request by instantiating :attr:`RequestHandlerClass` and
+      calling its :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.handle` method.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_request()
+
+      Must accept a request from the socket, and return a 2-tuple containing the *new*
+      socket object to be used to communicate with the client, and the client's
+      address.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_error(request, client_address)
+
+      This function is called if the :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.handle`
+      method of a :attr:`RequestHandlerClass` instance raises
+      an exception.  The default action is to print the traceback to
+      standard error and continue handling further requests.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         Now only called for exceptions derived from the :exc:`Exception`
+         class.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle_timeout()
+
+      This function is called when the :attr:`timeout` attribute has been set to a
+      value other than :const:`None` and the timeout period has passed with no
+      requests being received.  The default action for forking servers is
+      to collect the status of any child processes that have exited, while
+      in threading servers this method does nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: process_request(request, client_address)
+
+      Calls :meth:`finish_request` to create an instance of the
+      :attr:`RequestHandlerClass`.  If desired, this function can create a new process
+      or thread to handle the request; the :class:`ForkingMixIn` and
+      :class:`ThreadingMixIn` classes do this.
+
+
+   .. Is there any point in documenting the following two functions?
+      What would the purpose of overriding them be: initializing server
+      instance variables, adding new network families?
+
+   .. method:: server_activate()
+
+      Called by the server's constructor to activate the server.  The default behavior
+      for a TCP server just invokes :meth:`~socket.socket.listen`
+      on the server's socket.  May be overridden.
+
+
+   .. method:: server_bind()
+
+      Called by the server's constructor to bind the socket to the desired address.
+      May be overridden.
+
+
+   .. method:: verify_request(request, client_address)
+
+      Must return a Boolean value; if the value is :const:`True`, the request will
+      be processed, and if it's :const:`False`, the request will be denied.  This
+      function can be overridden to implement access controls for a server. The
+      default implementation always returns :const:`True`.
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Support for the :term:`context manager` protocol was added.  Exiting the
+      context manager is equivalent to calling :meth:`server_close`.
+
+
+Request Handler Objects
+-----------------------
+
+.. class:: BaseRequestHandler
+
+   This is the superclass of all request handler objects.  It defines
+   the interface, given below.  A concrete request handler subclass must
+   define a new :meth:`handle` method, and can override any of
+   the other methods.  A new instance of the subclass is created for each
+   request.
+
+
+   .. method:: setup()
+
+      Called before the :meth:`handle` method to perform any initialization actions
+      required.  The default implementation does nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: handle()
+
+      This function must do all the work required to service a request.  The
+      default implementation does nothing.  Several instance attributes are
+      available to it; the request is available as :attr:`self.request`; the client
+      address as :attr:`self.client_address`; and the server instance as
+      :attr:`self.server`, in case it needs access to per-server information.
+
+      The type of :attr:`self.request` is different for datagram or stream
+      services.  For stream services, :attr:`self.request` is a socket object; for
+      datagram services, :attr:`self.request` is a pair of string and socket.
+
+
+   .. method:: finish()
+
+      Called after the :meth:`handle` method to perform any clean-up actions
+      required.  The default implementation does nothing.  If :meth:`setup`
+      raises an exception, this function will not be called.
+
+
+.. class:: StreamRequestHandler
+           DatagramRequestHandler
+
+   These :class:`BaseRequestHandler` subclasses override the
+   :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.setup` and :meth:`~BaseRequestHandler.finish`
+   methods, and provide :attr:`self.rfile` and :attr:`self.wfile` attributes.
+   The :attr:`self.rfile` and :attr:`self.wfile` attributes can be
+   read or written, respectively, to get the request data or return data
+   to the client.
+
+   The :attr:`rfile` attributes of both classes support the
+   :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` readable interface, and
+   :attr:`DatagramRequestHandler.wfile` supports the
+   :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` writable interface.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :attr:`StreamRequestHandler.wfile` also supports the
+      :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` writable interface.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+:class:`socketserver.TCPServer` Example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+This is the server side::
+
+   import socketserver
+
+   class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
+       """
+       The request handler class for our server.
+
+       It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must
+       override the handle() method to implement communication to the
+       client.
+       """
+
+       def handle(self):
+           # self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client
+           self.data = self.request.recv(1024).strip()
+           print("{} wrote:".format(self.client_address[0]))
+           print(self.data)
+           # just send back the same data, but upper-cased
+           self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
+
+       # Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999
+       with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server:
+           # Activate the server; this will keep running until you
+           # interrupt the program with Ctrl-C
+           server.serve_forever()
+
+An alternative request handler class that makes use of streams (file-like
+objects that simplify communication by providing the standard file interface)::
+
+   class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
+
+       def handle(self):
+           # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler;
+           # we can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls
+           self.data = self.rfile.readline().strip()
+           print("{} wrote:".format(self.client_address[0]))
+           print(self.data)
+           # Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back
+           # to the client
+           self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())
+
+The difference is that the ``readline()`` call in the second handler will call
+``recv()`` multiple times until it encounters a newline character, while the
+single ``recv()`` call in the first handler will just return what has been sent
+from the client in one ``sendall()`` call.
+
+
+This is the client side::
+
+   import socket
+   import sys
+
+   HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
+   data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])
+
+   # Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket)
+   with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
+       # Connect to server and send data
+       sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
+       sock.sendall(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"))
+
+       # Receive data from the server and shut down
+       received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")
+
+   print("Sent:     {}".format(data))
+   print("Received: {}".format(received))
+
+
+The output of the example should look something like this:
+
+Server:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python TCPServer.py
+   127.0.0.1 wrote:
+   b'hello world with TCP'
+   127.0.0.1 wrote:
+   b'python is nice'
+
+Client:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
+   Sent:     hello world with TCP
+   Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP
+   $ python TCPClient.py python is nice
+   Sent:     python is nice
+   Received: PYTHON IS NICE
+
+
+:class:`socketserver.UDPServer` Example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+This is the server side::
+
+   import socketserver
+
+   class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
+       """
+       This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that
+       self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since
+       there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly
+       when sending data back via sendto().
+       """
+
+       def handle(self):
+           data = self.request[0].strip()
+           socket = self.request[1]
+           print("{} wrote:".format(self.client_address[0]))
+           print(data)
+           socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
+       with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server:
+           server.serve_forever()
+
+This is the client side::
+
+   import socket
+   import sys
+
+   HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
+   data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])
+
+   # SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets
+   sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM)
+
+   # As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections.
+   # Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto().
+   sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
+   received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")
+
+   print("Sent:     {}".format(data))
+   print("Received: {}".format(received))
+
+The output of the example should look exactly like for the TCP server example.
+
+
+Asynchronous Mixins
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+To build asynchronous handlers, use the :class:`ThreadingMixIn` and
+:class:`ForkingMixIn` classes.
+
+An example for the :class:`ThreadingMixIn` class::
+
+   import socket
+   import threading
+   import socketserver
+
+   class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
+
+       def handle(self):
+           data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii')
+           cur_thread = threading.current_thread()
+           response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii')
+           self.request.sendall(response)
+
+   class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer):
+       pass
+
+   def client(ip, port, message):
+       with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
+           sock.connect((ip, port))
+           sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii'))
+           response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii')
+           print("Received: {}".format(response))
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       # Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port
+       HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0
+
+       server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler)
+       with server:
+           ip, port = server.server_address
+
+           # Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one
+           # more thread for each request
+           server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever)
+           # Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates
+           server_thread.daemon = True
+           server_thread.start()
+           print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name)
+
+           client(ip, port, "Hello World 1")
+           client(ip, port, "Hello World 2")
+           client(ip, port, "Hello World 3")
+
+           server.shutdown()
+
+
+The output of the example should look something like this:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python ThreadedTCPServer.py
+   Server loop running in thread: Thread-1
+   Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1
+   Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2
+   Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3
+
+
+The :class:`ForkingMixIn` class is used in the same way, except that the server
+will spawn a new process for each request.
+Available only on POSIX platforms that support :func:`~os.fork`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/spwd.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/spwd.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6cad2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/spwd.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+:mod:`spwd` --- The shadow password database
+============================================
+
+.. module:: spwd
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends).
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to the Unix shadow password database. It is
+available on various Unix versions.
+
+You must have enough privileges to access the shadow password database (this
+usually means you have to be root).
+
+Shadow password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
+attributes correspond to the members of the ``spwd`` structure (Attribute field
+below, see ``<shadow.h>``):
+
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| Index | Attribute     | Meaning                         |
++=======+===============+=================================+
+| 0     | ``sp_namp``   | Login name                      |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 1     | ``sp_pwdp``   | Encrypted password              |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 2     | ``sp_lstchg`` | Date of last change             |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 3     | ``sp_min``    | Minimal number of days between  |
+|       |               | changes                         |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 4     | ``sp_max``    | Maximum number of days between  |
+|       |               | changes                         |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 5     | ``sp_warn``   | Number of days before password  |
+|       |               | expires to warn user about it   |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 6     | ``sp_inact``  | Number of days after password   |
+|       |               | expires until account is        |
+|       |               | disabled                        |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 7     | ``sp_expire`` | Number of days since 1970-01-01 |
+|       |               | when account expires            |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+| 8     | ``sp_flag``   | Reserved                        |
++-------+---------------+---------------------------------+
+
+The sp_namp and sp_pwdp items are strings, all others are integers.
+:exc:`KeyError` is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.
+
+The following functions are defined:
+
+
+.. function:: getspnam(name)
+
+   Return the shadow password database entry for the given user name.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Raises a :exc:`PermissionError` instead of :exc:`KeyError` if the user
+      doesn't have privileges.
+
+.. function:: getspall()
+
+   Return a list of all available shadow password database entries, in arbitrary
+   order.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`grp`
+      An interface to the group database, similar to this.
+
+   Module :mod:`pwd`
+      An interface to the normal password database, similar to this.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sqlite3.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sqlite3.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e20b4b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sqlite3.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1103 @@
+:mod:`sqlite3` --- DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
+============================================================
+
+.. module:: sqlite3
+   :synopsis: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Gerhard Häring <gh@ghaering.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/sqlite3/`
+
+--------------
+
+SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database that
+doesn't require a separate server process and allows accessing the database
+using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language. Some applications can use
+SQLite for internal data storage.  It's also possible to prototype an
+application using SQLite and then port the code to a larger database such as
+PostgreSQL or Oracle.
+
+The sqlite3 module was written by Gerhard Häring.  It provides a SQL interface
+compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by :pep:`249`.
+
+To use the module, you must first create a :class:`Connection` object that
+represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
+:file:`example.db` file::
+
+   import sqlite3
+   conn = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
+
+You can also supply the special name ``:memory:`` to create a database in RAM.
+
+Once you have a :class:`Connection`, you can create a :class:`Cursor`  object
+and call its :meth:`~Cursor.execute` method to perform SQL commands::
+
+   c = conn.cursor()
+
+   # Create table
+   c.execute('''CREATE TABLE stocks
+                (date text, trans text, symbol text, qty real, price real)''')
+
+   # Insert a row of data
+   c.execute("INSERT INTO stocks VALUES ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)")
+
+   # Save (commit) the changes
+   conn.commit()
+
+   # We can also close the connection if we are done with it.
+   # Just be sure any changes have been committed or they will be lost.
+   conn.close()
+
+The data you've saved is persistent and is available in subsequent sessions::
+
+   import sqlite3
+   conn = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
+   c = conn.cursor()
+
+Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python variables.  You
+shouldn't assemble your query using Python's string operations because doing so
+is insecure; it makes your program vulnerable to an SQL injection attack
+(see https://xkcd.com/327/ for humorous example of what can go wrong).
+
+Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution.  Put ``?`` as a placeholder
+wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple of values as the
+second argument to the cursor's :meth:`~Cursor.execute` method.  (Other database
+modules may use a different placeholder, such as ``%s`` or ``:1``.) For
+example::
+
+   # Never do this -- insecure!
+   symbol = 'RHAT'
+   c.execute("SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '%s'" % symbol)
+
+   # Do this instead
+   t = ('RHAT',)
+   c.execute('SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol=?', t)
+   print(c.fetchone())
+
+   # Larger example that inserts many records at a time
+   purchases = [('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
+                ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSFT', 1000, 72.00),
+                ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
+               ]
+   c.executemany('INSERT INTO stocks VALUES (?,?,?,?,?)', purchases)
+
+To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either treat the
+cursor as an :term:`iterator`, call the cursor's :meth:`~Cursor.fetchone` method to
+retrieve a single matching row, or call :meth:`~Cursor.fetchall` to get a list of the
+matching rows.
+
+This example uses the iterator form::
+
+   >>> for row in c.execute('SELECT * FROM stocks ORDER BY price'):
+           print(row)
+
+   ('2006-01-05', 'BUY', 'RHAT', 100, 35.14)
+   ('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
+   ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.0)
+   ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSFT', 1000, 72.0)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite
+      The pysqlite web page -- sqlite3 is developed externally under the name
+      "pysqlite".
+
+   https://www.sqlite.org
+      The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
+      available data types for the supported SQL dialect.
+
+   https://www.w3schools.com/sql/
+      Tutorial, reference and examples for learning SQL syntax.
+
+   :pep:`249` - Database API Specification 2.0
+      PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.
+
+
+.. _sqlite3-module-contents:
+
+Module functions and constants
+------------------------------
+
+
+.. data:: version
+
+   The version number of this module, as a string. This is not the version of
+   the SQLite library.
+
+
+.. data:: version_info
+
+   The version number of this module, as a tuple of integers. This is not the
+   version of the SQLite library.
+
+
+.. data:: sqlite_version
+
+   The version number of the run-time SQLite library, as a string.
+
+
+.. data:: sqlite_version_info
+
+   The version number of the run-time SQLite library, as a tuple of integers.
+
+
+.. data:: PARSE_DECLTYPES
+
+   This constant is meant to be used with the *detect_types* parameter of the
+   :func:`connect` function.
+
+   Setting it makes the :mod:`sqlite3` module parse the declared type for each
+   column it returns.  It will parse out the first word of the declared type,
+   i. e.  for "integer primary key", it will parse out "integer", or for
+   "number(10)" it will parse out "number". Then for that column, it will look
+   into the converters dictionary and use the converter function registered for
+   that type there.
+
+
+.. data:: PARSE_COLNAMES
+
+   This constant is meant to be used with the *detect_types* parameter of the
+   :func:`connect` function.
+
+   Setting this makes the SQLite interface parse the column name for each column it
+   returns.  It will look for a string formed [mytype] in there, and then decide
+   that 'mytype' is the type of the column. It will try to find an entry of
+   'mytype' in the converters dictionary and then use the converter function found
+   there to return the value. The column name found in :attr:`Cursor.description`
+   is only the first word of the column name, i.  e. if you use something like
+   ``'as "x [datetime]"'`` in your SQL, then we will parse out everything until the
+   first blank for the column name: the column name would simply be "x".
+
+
+.. function:: connect(database[, timeout, detect_types, isolation_level, check_same_thread, factory, cached_statements, uri])
+
+   Opens a connection to the SQLite database file *database*. By default returns a
+   :class:`Connection` object, unless a custom *factory* is given.
+
+   *database* is a :term:`path-like object` giving the pathname (absolute or
+   relative to the current  working directory) of the database file to be opened.
+   You can use ``":memory:"`` to open a database connection to a database that
+   resides in RAM instead of on disk.
+
+   When a database is accessed by multiple connections, and one of the processes
+   modifies the database, the SQLite database is locked until that transaction is
+   committed. The *timeout* parameter specifies how long the connection should wait
+   for the lock to go away until raising an exception. The default for the timeout
+   parameter is 5.0 (five seconds).
+
+   For the *isolation_level* parameter, please see the
+   :attr:`~Connection.isolation_level` property of :class:`Connection` objects.
+
+   SQLite natively supports only the types TEXT, INTEGER, REAL, BLOB and NULL. If
+   you want to use other types you must add support for them yourself. The
+   *detect_types* parameter and the using custom **converters** registered with the
+   module-level :func:`register_converter` function allow you to easily do that.
+
+   *detect_types* defaults to 0 (i. e. off, no type detection), you can set it to
+   any combination of :const:`PARSE_DECLTYPES` and :const:`PARSE_COLNAMES` to turn
+   type detection on.
+
+   By default, *check_same_thread* is :const:`True` and only the creating thread may
+   use the connection. If set :const:`False`, the returned connection may be shared
+   across multiple threads. When using multiple threads with the same connection
+   writing operations should be serialized by the user to avoid data corruption.
+
+   By default, the :mod:`sqlite3` module uses its :class:`Connection` class for the
+   connect call.  You can, however, subclass the :class:`Connection` class and make
+   :func:`connect` use your class instead by providing your class for the *factory*
+   parameter.
+
+   Consult the section :ref:`sqlite3-types` of this manual for details.
+
+   The :mod:`sqlite3` module internally uses a statement cache to avoid SQL parsing
+   overhead. If you want to explicitly set the number of statements that are cached
+   for the connection, you can set the *cached_statements* parameter. The currently
+   implemented default is to cache 100 statements.
+
+   If *uri* is true, *database* is interpreted as a URI. This allows you
+   to specify options. For example, to open a database in read-only mode
+   you can use::
+
+       db = sqlite3.connect('file:path/to/database?mode=ro', uri=True)
+
+   More information about this feature, including a list of recognized options, can
+   be found in the `SQLite URI documentation <https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html>`_.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added the *uri* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      *database* can now also be a :term:`path-like object`, not only a string.
+
+
+.. function:: register_converter(typename, callable)
+
+   Registers a callable to convert a bytestring from the database into a custom
+   Python type. The callable will be invoked for all database values that are of
+   the type *typename*. Confer the parameter *detect_types* of the :func:`connect`
+   function for how the type detection works. Note that *typename* and the name of
+   the type in your query are matched in case-insensitive manner.
+
+
+.. function:: register_adapter(type, callable)
+
+   Registers a callable to convert the custom Python type *type* into one of
+   SQLite's supported types. The callable *callable* accepts as single parameter
+   the Python value, and must return a value of the following types: int,
+   float, str or bytes.
+
+
+.. function:: complete_statement(sql)
+
+   Returns :const:`True` if the string *sql* contains one or more complete SQL
+   statements terminated by semicolons. It does not verify that the SQL is
+   syntactically correct, only that there are no unclosed string literals and the
+   statement is terminated by a semicolon.
+
+   This can be used to build a shell for SQLite, as in the following example:
+
+
+   .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/complete_statement.py
+
+
+.. function:: enable_callback_tracebacks(flag)
+
+   By default you will not get any tracebacks in user-defined functions,
+   aggregates, converters, authorizer callbacks etc. If you want to debug them,
+   you can call this function with *flag* set to ``True``. Afterwards, you will
+   get tracebacks from callbacks on ``sys.stderr``. Use :const:`False` to
+   disable the feature again.
+
+
+.. _sqlite3-connection-objects:
+
+Connection Objects
+------------------
+
+.. class:: Connection
+
+   A SQLite database connection has the following attributes and methods:
+
+   .. attribute:: isolation_level
+
+      Get or set the current default isolation level. :const:`None` for autocommit mode or
+      one of "DEFERRED", "IMMEDIATE" or "EXCLUSIVE". See section
+      :ref:`sqlite3-controlling-transactions` for a more detailed explanation.
+
+   .. attribute:: in_transaction
+
+      :const:`True` if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted changes),
+      :const:`False` otherwise.  Read-only attribute.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: cursor(factory=Cursor)
+
+      The cursor method accepts a single optional parameter *factory*. If
+      supplied, this must be a callable returning an instance of :class:`Cursor`
+      or its subclasses.
+
+   .. method:: commit()
+
+      This method commits the current transaction. If you don't call this method,
+      anything you did since the last call to ``commit()`` is not visible from
+      other database connections. If you wonder why you don't see the data you've
+      written to the database, please check you didn't forget to call this method.
+
+   .. method:: rollback()
+
+      This method rolls back any changes to the database since the last call to
+      :meth:`commit`.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      This closes the database connection. Note that this does not automatically
+      call :meth:`commit`. If you just close your database connection without
+      calling :meth:`commit` first, your changes will be lost!
+
+   .. method:: execute(sql[, parameters])
+
+      This is a nonstandard shortcut that creates a cursor object by calling
+      the :meth:`~Connection.cursor` method, calls the cursor's
+      :meth:`~Cursor.execute` method with the *parameters* given, and returns
+      the cursor.
+
+   .. method:: executemany(sql[, parameters])
+
+      This is a nonstandard shortcut that creates a cursor object by
+      calling the :meth:`~Connection.cursor` method, calls the cursor's
+      :meth:`~Cursor.executemany` method with the *parameters* given, and
+      returns the cursor.
+
+   .. method:: executescript(sql_script)
+
+      This is a nonstandard shortcut that creates a cursor object by
+      calling the :meth:`~Connection.cursor` method, calls the cursor's
+      :meth:`~Cursor.executescript` method with the given *sql_script*, and
+      returns the cursor.
+
+   .. method:: create_function(name, num_params, func)
+
+      Creates a user-defined function that you can later use from within SQL
+      statements under the function name *name*. *num_params* is the number of
+      parameters the function accepts (if *num_params* is -1, the function may
+      take any number of arguments), and *func* is a Python callable that is
+      called as the SQL function.
+
+      The function can return any of the types supported by SQLite: bytes, str, int,
+      float and ``None``.
+
+      Example:
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/md5func.py
+
+
+   .. method:: create_aggregate(name, num_params, aggregate_class)
+
+      Creates a user-defined aggregate function.
+
+      The aggregate class must implement a ``step`` method, which accepts the number
+      of parameters *num_params* (if *num_params* is -1, the function may take
+      any number of arguments), and a ``finalize`` method which will return the
+      final result of the aggregate.
+
+      The ``finalize`` method can return any of the types supported by SQLite:
+      bytes, str, int, float and ``None``.
+
+      Example:
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/mysumaggr.py
+
+
+   .. method:: create_collation(name, callable)
+
+      Creates a collation with the specified *name* and *callable*. The callable will
+      be passed two string arguments. It should return -1 if the first is ordered
+      lower than the second, 0 if they are ordered equal and 1 if the first is ordered
+      higher than the second.  Note that this controls sorting (ORDER BY in SQL) so
+      your comparisons don't affect other SQL operations.
+
+      Note that the callable will get its parameters as Python bytestrings, which will
+      normally be encoded in UTF-8.
+
+      The following example shows a custom collation that sorts "the wrong way":
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/collation_reverse.py
+
+      To remove a collation, call ``create_collation`` with ``None`` as callable::
+
+         con.create_collation("reverse", None)
+
+
+   .. method:: interrupt()
+
+      You can call this method from a different thread to abort any queries that might
+      be executing on the connection. The query will then abort and the caller will
+      get an exception.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_authorizer(authorizer_callback)
+
+      This routine registers a callback. The callback is invoked for each attempt to
+      access a column of a table in the database. The callback should return
+      :const:`SQLITE_OK` if access is allowed, :const:`SQLITE_DENY` if the entire SQL
+      statement should be aborted with an error and :const:`SQLITE_IGNORE` if the
+      column should be treated as a NULL value. These constants are available in the
+      :mod:`sqlite3` module.
+
+      The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of operation is to be
+      authorized. The second and third argument will be arguments or :const:`None`
+      depending on the first argument. The 4th argument is the name of the database
+      ("main", "temp", etc.) if applicable. The 5th argument is the name of the
+      inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access attempt or
+      :const:`None` if this access attempt is directly from input SQL code.
+
+      Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible values for the first
+      argument and the meaning of the second and third argument depending on the first
+      one. All necessary constants are available in the :mod:`sqlite3` module.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_progress_handler(handler, n)
+
+      This routine registers a callback. The callback is invoked for every *n*
+      instructions of the SQLite virtual machine. This is useful if you want to
+      get called from SQLite during long-running operations, for example to update
+      a GUI.
+
+      If you want to clear any previously installed progress handler, call the
+      method with :const:`None` for *handler*.
+
+      Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will terminate the
+      currently executing query and cause it to raise an :exc:`OperationalError`
+      exception.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_trace_callback(trace_callback)
+
+      Registers *trace_callback* to be called for each SQL statement that is
+      actually executed by the SQLite backend.
+
+      The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as string) that
+      is being executed. The return value of the callback is ignored. Note that
+      the backend does not only run statements passed to the :meth:`Cursor.execute`
+      methods.  Other sources include the transaction management of the Python
+      module and the execution of triggers defined in the current database.
+
+      Passing :const:`None` as *trace_callback* will disable the trace callback.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+   .. method:: enable_load_extension(enabled)
+
+      This routine allows/disallows the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions
+      from shared libraries.  SQLite extensions can define new functions,
+      aggregates or whole new virtual table implementations.  One well-known
+      extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.
+
+      Loadable extensions are disabled by default. See [#f1]_.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/load_extension.py
+
+   .. method:: load_extension(path)
+
+      This routine loads a SQLite extension from a shared library.  You have to
+      enable extension loading with :meth:`enable_load_extension` before you can
+      use this routine.
+
+      Loadable extensions are disabled by default. See [#f1]_.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. attribute:: row_factory
+
+      You can change this attribute to a callable that accepts the cursor and the
+      original row as a tuple and will return the real result row.  This way, you can
+      implement more advanced ways of returning results, such  as returning an object
+      that can also access columns by name.
+
+      Example:
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/row_factory.py
+
+      If returning a tuple doesn't suffice and you want name-based access to
+      columns, you should consider setting :attr:`row_factory` to the
+      highly-optimized :class:`sqlite3.Row` type. :class:`Row` provides both
+      index-based and case-insensitive name-based access to columns with almost no
+      memory overhead. It will probably be better than your own custom
+      dictionary-based approach or even a db_row based solution.
+
+      .. XXX what's a db_row-based solution?
+
+
+   .. attribute:: text_factory
+
+      Using this attribute you can control what objects are returned for the ``TEXT``
+      data type. By default, this attribute is set to :class:`str` and the
+      :mod:`sqlite3` module will return Unicode objects for ``TEXT``. If you want to
+      return bytestrings instead, you can set it to :class:`bytes`.
+
+      You can also set it to any other callable that accepts a single bytestring
+      parameter and returns the resulting object.
+
+      See the following example code for illustration:
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/text_factory.py
+
+
+   .. attribute:: total_changes
+
+      Returns the total number of database rows that have been modified, inserted, or
+      deleted since the database connection was opened.
+
+
+   .. method:: iterdump
+
+      Returns an iterator to dump the database in an SQL text format.  Useful when
+      saving an in-memory database for later restoration.  This function provides
+      the same capabilities as the :kbd:`.dump` command in the :program:`sqlite3`
+      shell.
+
+      Example::
+
+         # Convert file existing_db.db to SQL dump file dump.sql
+         import sqlite3
+
+         con = sqlite3.connect('existing_db.db')
+         with open('dump.sql', 'w') as f:
+             for line in con.iterdump():
+                 f.write('%s\n' % line)
+         con.close()
+
+
+   .. method:: backup(target, *, pages=0, progress=None, name="main", sleep=0.250)
+
+      This method makes a backup of a SQLite database even while it's being accessed
+      by other clients, or concurrently by the same connection.  The copy will be
+      written into the mandatory argument *target*, that must be another
+      :class:`Connection` instance.
+
+      By default, or when *pages* is either ``0`` or a negative integer, the entire
+      database is copied in a single step; otherwise the method performs a loop
+      copying up to *pages* pages at a time.
+
+      If *progress* is specified, it must either be ``None`` or a callable object that
+      will be executed at each iteration with three integer arguments, respectively
+      the *status* of the last iteration, the *remaining* number of pages still to be
+      copied and the *total* number of pages.
+
+      The *name* argument specifies the database name that will be copied: it must be
+      a string containing either ``"main"``, the default, to indicate the main
+      database, ``"temp"`` to indicate the temporary database or the name specified
+      after the ``AS`` keyword in an ``ATTACH DATABASE`` statement for an attached
+      database.
+
+      The *sleep* argument specifies the number of seconds to sleep by between
+      successive attempts to backup remaining pages, can be specified either as an
+      integer or a floating point value.
+
+      Example 1, copy an existing database into another::
+
+         import sqlite3
+
+         def progress(status, remaining, total):
+             print(f'Copied {total-remaining} of {total} pages...')
+
+         con = sqlite3.connect('existing_db.db')
+         bck = sqlite3.connect('backup.db')
+         with bck:
+             con.backup(bck, pages=1, progress=progress)
+         bck.close()
+         con.close()
+
+      Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy::
+
+         import sqlite3
+
+         source = sqlite3.connect('existing_db.db')
+         dest = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
+         source.backup(dest)
+
+      Availability: SQLite 3.6.11 or higher
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. _sqlite3-cursor-objects:
+
+Cursor Objects
+--------------
+
+.. class:: Cursor
+
+   A :class:`Cursor` instance has the following attributes and methods.
+
+   .. index:: single: ? (question mark); in SQL statements
+   .. index:: single: : (colon); in SQL statements
+
+   .. method:: execute(sql[, parameters])
+
+      Executes an SQL statement. The SQL statement may be parameterized (i. e.
+      placeholders instead of SQL literals). The :mod:`sqlite3` module supports two
+      kinds of placeholders: question marks (qmark style) and named placeholders
+      (named style).
+
+      Here's an example of both styles:
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/execute_1.py
+
+      :meth:`execute` will only execute a single SQL statement. If you try to execute
+      more than one statement with it, it will raise a :exc:`.Warning`. Use
+      :meth:`executescript` if you want to execute multiple SQL statements with one
+      call.
+
+
+   .. method:: executemany(sql, seq_of_parameters)
+
+      Executes an SQL command against all parameter sequences or mappings found in
+      the sequence *seq_of_parameters*.  The :mod:`sqlite3` module also allows
+      using an :term:`iterator` yielding parameters instead of a sequence.
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/executemany_1.py
+
+      Here's a shorter example using a :term:`generator`:
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/executemany_2.py
+
+
+   .. method:: executescript(sql_script)
+
+      This is a nonstandard convenience method for executing multiple SQL statements
+      at once. It issues a ``COMMIT`` statement first, then executes the SQL script it
+      gets as a parameter.
+
+      *sql_script* can be an instance of :class:`str`.
+
+      Example:
+
+      .. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/executescript.py
+
+
+   .. method:: fetchone()
+
+      Fetches the next row of a query result set, returning a single sequence,
+      or :const:`None` when no more data is available.
+
+
+   .. method:: fetchmany(size=cursor.arraysize)
+
+      Fetches the next set of rows of a query result, returning a list.  An empty
+      list is returned when no more rows are available.
+
+      The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the *size* parameter.
+      If it is not given, the cursor's arraysize determines the number of rows
+      to be fetched. The method should try to fetch as many rows as indicated by
+      the size parameter. If this is not possible due to the specified number of
+      rows not being available, fewer rows may be returned.
+
+      Note there are performance considerations involved with the *size* parameter.
+      For optimal performance, it is usually best to use the arraysize attribute.
+      If the *size* parameter is used, then it is best for it to retain the same
+      value from one :meth:`fetchmany` call to the next.
+
+   .. method:: fetchall()
+
+      Fetches all (remaining) rows of a query result, returning a list.  Note that
+      the cursor's arraysize attribute can affect the performance of this operation.
+      An empty list is returned when no rows are available.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Close the cursor now (rather than whenever ``__del__`` is called).
+
+      The cursor will be unusable from this point forward; a :exc:`ProgrammingError`
+      exception will be raised if any operation is attempted with the cursor.
+
+   .. attribute:: rowcount
+
+      Although the :class:`Cursor` class of the :mod:`sqlite3` module implements this
+      attribute, the database engine's own support for the determination of "rows
+      affected"/"rows selected" is quirky.
+
+      For :meth:`executemany` statements, the number of modifications are summed up
+      into :attr:`rowcount`.
+
+      As required by the Python DB API Spec, the :attr:`rowcount` attribute "is -1 in
+      case no ``executeXX()`` has been performed on the cursor or the rowcount of the
+      last operation is not determinable by the interface". This includes ``SELECT``
+      statements because we cannot determine the number of rows a query produced
+      until all rows were fetched.
+
+      With SQLite versions before 3.6.5, :attr:`rowcount` is set to 0 if
+      you make a ``DELETE FROM table`` without any condition.
+
+   .. attribute:: lastrowid
+
+      This read-only attribute provides the rowid of the last modified row. It is
+      only set if you issued an ``INSERT`` or a ``REPLACE`` statement using the
+      :meth:`execute` method.  For operations other than ``INSERT`` or
+      ``REPLACE`` or when :meth:`executemany` is called, :attr:`lastrowid` is
+      set to :const:`None`.
+
+      If the ``INSERT`` or ``REPLACE`` statement failed to insert the previous
+      successful rowid is returned.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         Added support for the ``REPLACE`` statement.
+
+   .. attribute:: arraysize
+
+      Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned by :meth:`fetchmany`.
+      The default value is 1 which means a single row would be fetched per call.
+
+   .. attribute:: description
+
+      This read-only attribute provides the column names of the last query. To
+      remain compatible with the Python DB API, it returns a 7-tuple for each
+      column where the last six items of each tuple are :const:`None`.
+
+      It is set for ``SELECT`` statements without any matching rows as well.
+
+   .. attribute:: connection
+
+      This read-only attribute provides the SQLite database :class:`Connection`
+      used by the :class:`Cursor` object.  A :class:`Cursor` object created by
+      calling :meth:`con.cursor() <Connection.cursor>` will have a
+      :attr:`connection` attribute that refers to *con*::
+
+         >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
+         >>> cur = con.cursor()
+         >>> cur.connection == con
+         True
+
+.. _sqlite3-row-objects:
+
+Row Objects
+-----------
+
+.. class:: Row
+
+   A :class:`Row` instance serves as a highly optimized
+   :attr:`~Connection.row_factory` for :class:`Connection` objects.
+   It tries to mimic a tuple in most of its features.
+
+   It supports mapping access by column name and index, iteration,
+   representation, equality testing and :func:`len`.
+
+   If two :class:`Row` objects have exactly the same columns and their
+   members are equal, they compare equal.
+
+   .. method:: keys
+
+      This method returns a list of column names. Immediately after a query,
+      it is the first member of each tuple in :attr:`Cursor.description`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support of slicing.
+
+Let's assume we initialize a table as in the example given above::
+
+   conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
+   c = conn.cursor()
+   c.execute('''create table stocks
+   (date text, trans text, symbol text,
+    qty real, price real)''')
+   c.execute("""insert into stocks
+             values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")
+   conn.commit()
+   c.close()
+
+Now we plug :class:`Row` in::
+
+   >>> conn.row_factory = sqlite3.Row
+   >>> c = conn.cursor()
+   >>> c.execute('select * from stocks')
+   <sqlite3.Cursor object at 0x7f4e7dd8fa80>
+   >>> r = c.fetchone()
+   >>> type(r)
+   <class 'sqlite3.Row'>
+   >>> tuple(r)
+   ('2006-01-05', 'BUY', 'RHAT', 100.0, 35.14)
+   >>> len(r)
+   5
+   >>> r[2]
+   'RHAT'
+   >>> r.keys()
+   ['date', 'trans', 'symbol', 'qty', 'price']
+   >>> r['qty']
+   100.0
+   >>> for member in r:
+   ...     print(member)
+   ...
+   2006-01-05
+   BUY
+   RHAT
+   100.0
+   35.14
+
+
+.. _sqlite3-exceptions:
+
+Exceptions
+----------
+
+.. exception:: Warning
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`Exception`.
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  It is a subclass
+   of :exc:`Exception`.
+
+.. exception:: DatabaseError
+
+   Exception raised for errors that are related to the database.
+
+.. exception:: IntegrityError
+
+   Exception raised when the relational integrity of the database is affected,
+   e.g. a foreign key check fails.  It is a subclass of :exc:`DatabaseError`.
+
+.. exception:: ProgrammingError
+
+   Exception raised for programming errors, e.g. table not found or already
+   exists, syntax error in the SQL statement, wrong number of parameters
+   specified, etc.  It is a subclass of :exc:`DatabaseError`.
+
+.. exception:: OperationalError
+
+   Exception raised for errors that are related to the database's operation
+   and not necessarily under the control of the programmer, e.g. an unexpected
+   disconnect occurs, the data source name is not found, a transaction could
+   not be processed, etc.  It is a subclass of :exc:`DatabaseError`.
+
+.. exception:: NotSupportedError
+
+   Exception raised in case a method or database API was used which is not
+   supported by the database, e.g. calling the :meth:`~Connection.rollback`
+   method on a connection that does not support transaction or has
+   transactions turned off.  It is a subclass of :exc:`DatabaseError`.
+
+
+.. _sqlite3-types:
+
+SQLite and Python types
+-----------------------
+
+
+Introduction
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+SQLite natively supports the following types: ``NULL``, ``INTEGER``,
+``REAL``, ``TEXT``, ``BLOB``.
+
+The following Python types can thus be sent to SQLite without any problem:
+
++-------------------------------+-------------+
+| Python type                   | SQLite type |
++===============================+=============+
+| :const:`None`                 | ``NULL``    |
++-------------------------------+-------------+
+| :class:`int`                  | ``INTEGER`` |
++-------------------------------+-------------+
+| :class:`float`                | ``REAL``    |
++-------------------------------+-------------+
+| :class:`str`                  | ``TEXT``    |
++-------------------------------+-------------+
+| :class:`bytes`                | ``BLOB``    |
++-------------------------------+-------------+
+
+
+This is how SQLite types are converted to Python types by default:
+
++-------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| SQLite type | Python type                                  |
++=============+==============================================+
+| ``NULL``    | :const:`None`                                |
++-------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``INTEGER`` | :class:`int`                                 |
++-------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``REAL``    | :class:`float`                               |
++-------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``TEXT``    | depends on :attr:`~Connection.text_factory`, |
+|             | :class:`str` by default                      |
++-------------+----------------------------------------------+
+| ``BLOB``    | :class:`bytes`                               |
++-------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+The type system of the :mod:`sqlite3` module is extensible in two ways: you can
+store additional Python types in a SQLite database via object adaptation, and
+you can let the :mod:`sqlite3` module convert SQLite types to different Python
+types via converters.
+
+
+Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+As described before, SQLite supports only a limited set of types natively. To
+use other Python types with SQLite, you must **adapt** them to one of the
+sqlite3 module's supported types for SQLite: one of NoneType, int, float,
+str, bytes.
+
+There are two ways to enable the :mod:`sqlite3` module to adapt a custom Python
+type to one of the supported ones.
+
+
+Letting your object adapt itself
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+This is a good approach if you write the class yourself. Let's suppose you have
+a class like this::
+
+   class Point:
+       def __init__(self, x, y):
+           self.x, self.y = x, y
+
+Now you want to store the point in a single SQLite column.  First you'll have to
+choose one of the supported types first to be used for representing the point.
+Let's just use str and separate the coordinates using a semicolon. Then you need
+to give your class a method ``__conform__(self, protocol)`` which must return
+the converted value. The parameter *protocol* will be :class:`PrepareProtocol`.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/adapter_point_1.py
+
+
+Registering an adapter callable
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+The other possibility is to create a function that converts the type to the
+string representation and register the function with :meth:`register_adapter`.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/adapter_point_2.py
+
+The :mod:`sqlite3` module has two default adapters for Python's built-in
+:class:`datetime.date` and :class:`datetime.datetime` types.  Now let's suppose
+we want to store :class:`datetime.datetime` objects not in ISO representation,
+but as a Unix timestamp.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/adapter_datetime.py
+
+
+Converting SQLite values to custom Python types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Writing an adapter lets you send custom Python types to SQLite. But to make it
+really useful we need to make the Python to SQLite to Python roundtrip work.
+
+Enter converters.
+
+Let's go back to the :class:`Point` class. We stored the x and y coordinates
+separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.
+
+First, we'll define a converter function that accepts the string as a parameter
+and constructs a :class:`Point` object from it.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Converter functions **always** get called with a :class:`bytes` object, no
+   matter under which data type you sent the value to SQLite.
+
+::
+
+   def convert_point(s):
+       x, y = map(float, s.split(b";"))
+       return Point(x, y)
+
+Now you need to make the :mod:`sqlite3` module know that what you select from
+the database is actually a point. There are two ways of doing this:
+
+* Implicitly via the declared type
+
+* Explicitly via the column name
+
+Both ways are described in section :ref:`sqlite3-module-contents`, in the entries
+for the constants :const:`PARSE_DECLTYPES` and :const:`PARSE_COLNAMES`.
+
+The following example illustrates both approaches.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/converter_point.py
+
+
+Default adapters and converters
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are default adapters for the date and datetime types in the datetime
+module. They will be sent as ISO dates/ISO timestamps to SQLite.
+
+The default converters are registered under the name "date" for
+:class:`datetime.date` and under the name "timestamp" for
+:class:`datetime.datetime`.
+
+This way, you can use date/timestamps from Python without any additional
+fiddling in most cases. The format of the adapters is also compatible with the
+experimental SQLite date/time functions.
+
+The following example demonstrates this.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/pysqlite_datetime.py
+
+If a timestamp stored in SQLite has a fractional part longer than 6
+numbers, its value will be truncated to microsecond precision by the
+timestamp converter.
+
+
+.. _sqlite3-controlling-transactions:
+
+Controlling Transactions
+------------------------
+
+The underlying ``sqlite3`` library operates in ``autocommit`` mode by default,
+but the Python :mod:`sqlite3` module by default does not.
+
+``autocommit`` mode means that statements that modify the database take effect
+immediately.  A ``BEGIN`` or ``SAVEPOINT`` statement disables ``autocommit``
+mode, and a ``COMMIT``, a ``ROLLBACK``, or a ``RELEASE`` that ends the
+outermost transaction, turns ``autocommit`` mode back on.
+
+The Python :mod:`sqlite3` module by default issues a ``BEGIN`` statement
+implicitly before a Data Modification Language (DML) statement (i.e.
+``INSERT``/``UPDATE``/``DELETE``/``REPLACE``).
+
+You can control which kind of ``BEGIN`` statements :mod:`sqlite3` implicitly
+executes via the *isolation_level* parameter to the :func:`connect`
+call, or via the :attr:`isolation_level` property of connections.
+If you specify no *isolation_level*, a plain ``BEGIN`` is used, which is
+equivalent to specifying ``DEFERRED``.  Other possible values are ``IMMEDIATE``
+and ``EXCLUSIVE``.
+
+You can disable the :mod:`sqlite3` module's implicit transaction management by
+setting :attr:`isolation_level` to ``None``.  This will leave the underlying
+``sqlite3`` library operating in ``autocommit`` mode.  You can then completely
+control the transaction state by explicitly issuing ``BEGIN``, ``ROLLBACK``,
+``SAVEPOINT``, and ``RELEASE`` statements in your code.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   :mod:`sqlite3` used to implicitly commit an open transaction before DDL
+   statements.  This is no longer the case.
+
+
+Using :mod:`sqlite3` efficiently
+--------------------------------
+
+
+Using shortcut methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Using the nonstandard :meth:`execute`, :meth:`executemany` and
+:meth:`executescript` methods of the :class:`Connection` object, your code can
+be written more concisely because you don't have to create the (often
+superfluous) :class:`Cursor` objects explicitly. Instead, the :class:`Cursor`
+objects are created implicitly and these shortcut methods return the cursor
+objects. This way, you can execute a ``SELECT`` statement and iterate over it
+directly using only a single call on the :class:`Connection` object.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/shortcut_methods.py
+
+
+Accessing columns by name instead of by index
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+One useful feature of the :mod:`sqlite3` module is the built-in
+:class:`sqlite3.Row` class designed to be used as a row factory.
+
+Rows wrapped with this class can be accessed both by index (like tuples) and
+case-insensitively by name:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/rowclass.py
+
+
+Using the connection as a context manager
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Connection objects can be used as context managers
+that automatically commit or rollback transactions.  In the event of an
+exception, the transaction is rolled back; otherwise, the transaction is
+committed:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/sqlite3/ctx_manager.py
+
+
+Common issues
+-------------
+
+Multithreading
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Older SQLite versions had issues with sharing connections between threads.
+That's why the Python module disallows sharing connections and cursors between
+threads. If you still try to do so, you will get an exception at runtime.
+
+The only exception is calling the :meth:`~Connection.interrupt` method, which
+only makes sense to call from a different thread.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#f1] The sqlite3 module is not built with loadable extension support by
+   default, because some platforms (notably Mac OS X) have SQLite
+   libraries which are compiled without this feature. To get loadable
+   extension support, you must pass --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions to
+   configure.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ssl.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ssl.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1133ebf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/ssl.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2724 @@
+:mod:`ssl` --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: ssl
+   :synopsis: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Bill Janssen <bill.janssen@gmail.com>
+.. sectionauthor::  Bill Janssen <bill.janssen@gmail.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/ssl.py`
+
+.. index:: single: OpenSSL; (use in module ssl)
+
+.. index:: TLS, SSL, Transport Layer Security, Secure Sockets Layer
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as "Secure
+Sockets Layer") encryption and peer authentication facilities for network
+sockets, both client-side and server-side.  This module uses the OpenSSL
+library. It is available on all modern Unix systems, Windows, Mac OS X, and
+probably additional platforms, as long as OpenSSL is installed on that platform.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the
+   operating system socket APIs.  The installed version of OpenSSL may also
+   cause variations in behavior. For example, TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 come with
+   openssl version 1.0.1.
+
+.. warning::
+   Don't use this module without reading the :ref:`ssl-security`.  Doing so
+   may lead to a false sense of security, as the default settings of the
+   ssl module are not necessarily appropriate for your application.
+
+
+This section documents the objects and functions in the ``ssl`` module; for more
+general information about TLS, SSL, and certificates, the reader is referred to
+the documents in the "See Also" section at the bottom.
+
+This module provides a class, :class:`ssl.SSLSocket`, which is derived from the
+:class:`socket.socket` type, and provides a socket-like wrapper that also
+encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket with SSL.  It supports
+additional methods such as :meth:`getpeercert`, which retrieves the
+certificate of the other side of the connection, and :meth:`cipher`,which
+retrieves the cipher being used for the secure connection.
+
+For more sophisticated applications, the :class:`ssl.SSLContext` class
+helps manage settings and certificates, which can then be inherited
+by SSL sockets created through the :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket` method.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5.3
+   Updated to support linking with OpenSSL 1.1.0
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+   OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
+   In the future the ssl module will require at least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or
+   1.1.0.
+
+
+Functions, Constants, and Exceptions
+------------------------------------
+
+
+Socket creation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Since Python 3.2 and 2.7.9, it is recommended to use the
+:meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket` of an :class:`SSLContext` instance to wrap
+sockets as :class:`SSLSocket` objects. The helper functions
+:func:`create_default_context` returns a new context with secure default
+settings. The old :func:`wrap_socket` function is deprecated since it is
+both inefficient and has no support for server name indication (SNI) and
+hostname matching.
+
+Client socket example with default context and IPv4/IPv6 dual stack::
+
+    import socket
+    import ssl
+
+    hostname = 'www.python.org'
+    context = ssl.create_default_context()
+
+    with socket.create_connection((hostname, 443)) as sock:
+        with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
+            print(ssock.version())
+
+
+Client socket example with custom context and IPv4::
+
+    hostname = 'www.python.org'
+    # PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname
+    context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
+    context.load_verify_locations('path/to/cabundle.pem')
+
+    with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
+        with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
+            print(ssock.version())
+
+
+Server socket example listening on localhost IPv4::
+
+    context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
+    context.load_cert_chain('/path/to/certchain.pem', '/path/to/private.key')
+
+    with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
+        sock.bind(('127.0.0.1', 8443))
+        sock.listen(5)
+        with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=True) as ssock:
+            conn, addr = ssock.accept()
+            ...
+
+
+Context creation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A convenience function helps create :class:`SSLContext` objects for common
+purposes.
+
+.. function:: create_default_context(purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH, cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)
+
+   Return a new :class:`SSLContext` object with default settings for
+   the given *purpose*.  The settings are chosen by the :mod:`ssl` module,
+   and usually represent a higher security level than when calling the
+   :class:`SSLContext` constructor directly.
+
+   *cafile*, *capath*, *cadata* represent optional CA certificates to
+   trust for certificate verification, as in
+   :meth:`SSLContext.load_verify_locations`.  If all three are
+   :const:`None`, this function can choose to trust the system's default
+   CA certificates instead.
+
+   The settings are: :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS`, :data:`OP_NO_SSLv2`, and
+   :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3` with high encryption cipher suites without RC4 and
+   without unauthenticated cipher suites. Passing :data:`~Purpose.SERVER_AUTH`
+   as *purpose* sets :data:`~SSLContext.verify_mode` to :data:`CERT_REQUIRED`
+   and either loads CA certificates (when at least one of *cafile*, *capath* or
+   *cadata* is given) or uses :meth:`SSLContext.load_default_certs` to load
+   default CA certificates.
+
+   .. note::
+      The protocol, options, cipher and other settings may change to more
+      restrictive values anytime without prior deprecation.  The values
+      represent a fair balance between compatibility and security.
+
+      If your application needs specific settings, you should create a
+      :class:`SSLContext` and apply the settings yourself.
+
+   .. note::
+      If you find that when certain older clients or servers attempt to connect
+      with a :class:`SSLContext` created by this function that they get an error
+      stating "Protocol or cipher suite mismatch", it may be that they only
+      support SSL3.0 which this function excludes using the
+      :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3`. SSL3.0 is widely considered to be `completely broken
+      <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE>`_. If you still wish to continue to
+      use this function but still allow SSL 3.0 connections you can re-enable
+      them using::
+
+         ctx = ssl.create_default_context(Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
+         ctx.options &= ~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4.4
+
+     RC4 was dropped from the default cipher string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+     ChaCha20/Poly1305 was added to the default cipher string.
+
+     3DES was dropped from the default cipher string.
+
+
+Exceptions
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. exception:: SSLError
+
+   Raised to signal an error from the underlying SSL implementation
+   (currently provided by the OpenSSL library).  This signifies some
+   problem in the higher-level encryption and authentication layer that's
+   superimposed on the underlying network connection.  This error
+   is a subtype of :exc:`OSError`.  The error code and message of
+   :exc:`SSLError` instances are provided by the OpenSSL library.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`SSLError` used to be a subtype of :exc:`socket.error`.
+
+   .. attribute:: library
+
+      A string mnemonic designating the OpenSSL submodule in which the error
+      occurred, such as ``SSL``, ``PEM`` or ``X509``.  The range of possible
+      values depends on the OpenSSL version.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: reason
+
+      A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred, for
+      example ``CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED``.  The range of possible
+      values depends on the OpenSSL version.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. exception:: SSLZeroReturnError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised when trying to read or write and
+   the SSL connection has been closed cleanly.  Note that this doesn't
+   mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been closed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. exception:: SSLWantReadError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised by a :ref:`non-blocking SSL socket
+   <ssl-nonblocking>` when trying to read or write data, but more data needs
+   to be received on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be
+   fulfilled.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. exception:: SSLWantWriteError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised by a :ref:`non-blocking SSL socket
+   <ssl-nonblocking>` when trying to read or write data, but more data needs
+   to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be
+   fulfilled.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. exception:: SSLSyscallError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised when a system error was encountered
+   while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket.  Unfortunately,
+   there is no easy way to inspect the original errno number.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. exception:: SSLEOFError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised when the SSL connection has been
+   terminated abruptly.  Generally, you shouldn't try to reuse the underlying
+   transport when this error is encountered.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. exception:: SSLCertVerificationError
+
+   A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised when certificate validation has
+   failed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. attribute:: verify_code
+
+      A numeric error number that denotes the verification error.
+
+   .. attribute:: verify_message
+
+      A human readable string of the verification error.
+
+.. exception:: CertificateError
+
+   An alias for :exc:`SSLCertVerificationError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The exception is now an alias for :exc:`SSLCertVerificationError`.
+
+
+Random generation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. function:: RAND_bytes(num)
+
+   Return *num* cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes. Raises an
+   :class:`SSLError` if the PRNG has not been seeded with enough data or if the
+   operation is not supported by the current RAND method. :func:`RAND_status`
+   can be used to check the status of the PRNG and :func:`RAND_add` can be used
+   to seed the PRNG.
+
+   For almost all applications :func:`os.urandom` is preferable.
+
+   Read the Wikipedia article, `Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number
+   generator (CSPRNG)
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator>`_,
+   to get the requirements of a cryptographically generator.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: RAND_pseudo_bytes(num)
+
+   Return (bytes, is_cryptographic): bytes are *num* pseudo-random bytes,
+   is_cryptographic is ``True`` if the bytes generated are cryptographically
+   strong. Raises an :class:`SSLError` if the operation is not supported by the
+   current RAND method.
+
+   Generated pseudo-random byte sequences will be unique if they are of
+   sufficient length, but are not necessarily unpredictable. They can be used
+   for non-cryptographic purposes and for certain purposes in cryptographic
+   protocols, but usually not for key generation etc.
+
+   For almost all applications :func:`os.urandom` is preferable.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      OpenSSL has deprecated :func:`ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes`, use
+      :func:`ssl.RAND_bytes` instead.
+
+.. function:: RAND_status()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been seeded
+   with 'enough' randomness, and ``False`` otherwise.  You can use
+   :func:`ssl.RAND_egd` and :func:`ssl.RAND_add` to increase the randomness of
+   the pseudo-random number generator.
+
+.. function:: RAND_egd(path)
+
+   If you are running an entropy-gathering daemon (EGD) somewhere, and *path*
+   is the pathname of a socket connection open to it, this will read 256 bytes
+   of randomness from the socket, and add it to the SSL pseudo-random number
+   generator to increase the security of generated secret keys.  This is
+   typically only necessary on systems without better sources of randomness.
+
+   See http://egd.sourceforge.net/ or http://prngd.sourceforge.net/ for sources
+   of entropy-gathering daemons.
+
+   .. availability:: not available with LibreSSL and OpenSSL > 1.1.0.
+
+.. function:: RAND_add(bytes, entropy)
+
+   Mix the given *bytes* into the SSL pseudo-random number generator.  The
+   parameter *entropy* (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy contained in
+   string (so you can always use :const:`0.0`).  See :rfc:`1750` for more
+   information on sources of entropy.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+Certificate handling
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+   import ssl
+
+.. function:: match_hostname(cert, hostname)
+
+   Verify that *cert* (in decoded format as returned by
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.getpeercert`) matches the given *hostname*.  The rules
+   applied are those for checking the identity of HTTPS servers as outlined
+   in :rfc:`2818`, :rfc:`5280` and :rfc:`6125`.  In addition to HTTPS, this
+   function should be suitable for checking the identity of servers in
+   various SSL-based protocols such as FTPS, IMAPS, POPS and others.
+
+   :exc:`CertificateError` is raised on failure. On success, the function
+   returns nothing::
+
+      >>> cert = {'subject': ((('commonName', 'example.com'),),)}
+      >>> ssl.match_hostname(cert, "example.com")
+      >>> ssl.match_hostname(cert, "example.org")
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+        File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+        File "/home/py3k/Lib/ssl.py", line 130, in match_hostname
+      ssl.CertificateError: hostname 'example.org' doesn't match 'example.com'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3.3
+      The function now follows :rfc:`6125`, section 6.4.3 and does neither
+      match multiple wildcards (e.g. ``*.*.com`` or ``*a*.example.org``) nor
+      a wildcard inside an internationalized domain names (IDN) fragment.
+      IDN A-labels such as ``www*.xn--pthon-kva.org`` are still supported,
+      but ``x*.python.org`` no longer matches ``xn--tda.python.org``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Matching of IP addresses, when present in the subjectAltName field
+      of the certificate, is now supported.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The function is no longer used to TLS connections. Hostname matching
+      is now performed by OpenSSL.
+
+      Allow wildcard when it is the leftmost and the only character
+      in that segment. Partial wildcards like ``www*.example.com`` are no
+      longer supported.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: cert_time_to_seconds(cert_time)
+
+   Return the time in seconds since the Epoch, given the ``cert_time``
+   string representing the "notBefore" or "notAfter" date from a
+   certificate in ``"%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z"`` strptime format (C
+   locale).
+
+   Here's an example:
+
+   .. doctest:: newcontext
+
+      >>> import ssl
+      >>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
+      >>> timestamp  # doctest: +SKIP
+      1515144883
+      >>> from datetime import datetime
+      >>> print(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp))  # doctest: +SKIP
+      2018-01-05 09:34:43
+
+   "notBefore" or "notAfter" dates must use GMT (:rfc:`5280`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Interpret the input time as a time in UTC as specified by 'GMT'
+      timezone in the input string. Local timezone was used
+      previously. Return an integer (no fractions of a second in the
+      input format)
+
+.. function:: get_server_certificate(addr, ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS, ca_certs=None)
+
+   Given the address ``addr`` of an SSL-protected server, as a (*hostname*,
+   *port-number*) pair, fetches the server's certificate, and returns it as a
+   PEM-encoded string.  If ``ssl_version`` is specified, uses that version of
+   the SSL protocol to attempt to connect to the server.  If ``ca_certs`` is
+   specified, it should be a file containing a list of root certificates, the
+   same format as used for the same parameter in
+   :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket`.  The call will attempt to validate the
+   server certificate against that set of root certificates, and will fail
+   if the validation attempt fails.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This function is now IPv6-compatible.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The default *ssl_version* is changed from :data:`PROTOCOL_SSLv3` to
+      :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS` for maximum compatibility with modern servers.
+
+.. function:: DER_cert_to_PEM_cert(DER_cert_bytes)
+
+   Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a PEM-encoded
+   string version of the same certificate.
+
+.. function:: PEM_cert_to_DER_cert(PEM_cert_string)
+
+   Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded sequence of
+   bytes for that same certificate.
+
+.. function:: get_default_verify_paths()
+
+   Returns a named tuple with paths to OpenSSL's default cafile and capath.
+   The paths are the same as used by
+   :meth:`SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths`. The return value is a
+   :term:`named tuple` ``DefaultVerifyPaths``:
+
+   * :attr:`cafile` - resolved path to cafile or ``None`` if the file doesn't exist,
+   * :attr:`capath` - resolved path to capath or ``None`` if the directory doesn't exist,
+   * :attr:`openssl_cafile_env` - OpenSSL's environment key that points to a cafile,
+   * :attr:`openssl_cafile` - hard coded path to a cafile,
+   * :attr:`openssl_capath_env` - OpenSSL's environment key that points to a capath,
+   * :attr:`openssl_capath` - hard coded path to a capath directory
+
+   .. availability:: LibreSSL ignores the environment vars
+     :attr:`openssl_cafile_env` and :attr:`openssl_capath_env`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: enum_certificates(store_name)
+
+   Retrieve certificates from Windows' system cert store. *store_name* may be
+   one of ``CA``, ``ROOT`` or ``MY``. Windows may provide additional cert
+   stores, too.
+
+   The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples.
+   The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either
+   :const:`x509_asn` for X.509 ASN.1 data or :const:`pkcs_7_asn` for
+   PKCS#7 ASN.1 data. Trust specifies the purpose of the certificate as a set
+   of OIDS or exactly ``True`` if the certificate is trustworthy for all
+   purposes.
+
+   Example::
+
+      >>> ssl.enum_certificates("CA")
+      [(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}),
+       (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)]
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: enum_crls(store_name)
+
+   Retrieve CRLs from Windows' system cert store. *store_name* may be
+   one of ``CA``, ``ROOT`` or ``MY``. Windows may provide additional cert
+   stores, too.
+
+   The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples.
+   The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either
+   :const:`x509_asn` for X.509 ASN.1 data or :const:`pkcs_7_asn` for
+   PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: wrap_socket(sock, keyfile=None, certfile=None, \
+       server_side=False, cert_reqs=CERT_NONE, ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS, \
+       ca_certs=None, do_handshake_on_connect=True, \
+       suppress_ragged_eofs=True, ciphers=None)
+
+   Takes an instance ``sock`` of :class:`socket.socket`, and returns an instance
+   of :class:`ssl.SSLSocket`, a subtype of :class:`socket.socket`, which wraps
+   the underlying socket in an SSL context.  ``sock`` must be a
+   :data:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM` socket; other socket types are unsupported.
+
+   Internally, function creates a :class:`SSLContext` with protocol
+   *ssl_version* and :attr:`SSLContext.options` set to *cert_reqs*. If
+   parameters *keyfile*, *certfile*, *ca_certs* or *ciphers* are set, then
+   the values are passed to :meth:`SSLContext.load_cert_chain`,
+   :meth:`SSLContext.load_verify_locations`, and
+   :meth:`SSLContext.set_ciphers`.
+
+   The arguments *server_side*, *do_handshake_on_connect*, and
+   *suppress_ragged_eofs* have the same meaning as
+   :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+
+      Since Python 3.2 and 2.7.9, it is recommended to use the
+      :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket` instead of :func:`wrap_socket`. The
+      top-level function is limited and creates an insecure client socket
+      without server name indication or hostname matching.
+
+Constants
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+   All constants are now :class:`enum.IntEnum` or :class:`enum.IntFlag` collections.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: CERT_NONE
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_mode`, or the ``cert_reqs``
+   parameter to :func:`wrap_socket`.  Except for :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT`,
+   it is the default mode.  With client-side sockets, just about any
+   cert is accepted.  Validation errors, such as untrusted or expired cert,
+   are ignored and do not abort the TLS/SSL handshake.
+
+   In server mode, no certificate is requested from the client, so the client
+   does not send any for client cert authentication.
+
+   See the discussion of :ref:`ssl-security` below.
+
+.. data:: CERT_OPTIONAL
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_mode`, or the ``cert_reqs``
+   parameter to :func:`wrap_socket`.  In client mode, :const:`CERT_OPTIONAL`
+   has the same meaning as :const:`CERT_REQUIRED`. It is recommended to
+   use :const:`CERT_REQUIRED` for client-side sockets instead.
+
+   In server mode, a client certificate request is sent to the client.  The
+   client may either ignore the request or send a certificate in order
+   perform TLS client cert authentication.  If the client chooses to send
+   a certificate, it is verified.  Any verification error immediately aborts
+   the TLS handshake.
+
+   Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to
+   be passed, either to :meth:`SSLContext.load_verify_locations` or as a
+   value of the ``ca_certs`` parameter to :func:`wrap_socket`.
+
+.. data:: CERT_REQUIRED
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_mode`, or the ``cert_reqs``
+   parameter to :func:`wrap_socket`.  In this mode, certificates are
+   required from the other side of the socket connection; an :class:`SSLError`
+   will be raised if no certificate is provided, or if its validation fails.
+   This mode is **not** sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as
+   it does not match hostnames.  :attr:`~SSLContext.check_hostname` must be
+   enabled as well to verify the authenticity of a cert.
+   :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT` uses :const:`CERT_REQUIRED` and
+   enables :attr:`~SSLContext.check_hostname` by default.
+
+   With server socket, this mode provides mandatory TLS client cert
+   authentication.  A client certificate request is sent to the client and
+   the client must provide a valid and trusted certificate.
+
+   Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to
+   be passed, either to :meth:`SSLContext.load_verify_locations` or as a
+   value of the ``ca_certs`` parameter to :func:`wrap_socket`.
+
+.. class:: VerifyMode
+
+   :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection of CERT_* constants.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: VERIFY_DEFAULT
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_flags`. In this mode, certificate
+   revocation lists (CRLs) are not checked. By default OpenSSL does neither
+   require nor verify CRLs.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_flags`. In this mode, only the
+   peer cert is check but non of the intermediate CA certificates. The mode
+   requires a valid CRL that is signed by the peer cert's issuer (its direct
+   ancestor CA). If no proper has been loaded
+   :attr:`SSLContext.load_verify_locations`, validation will fail.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_flags`. In this mode, CRLs of
+   all certificates in the peer cert chain are checked.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: VERIFY_X509_STRICT
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_flags` to disable workarounds
+   for broken X.509 certificates.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST
+
+   Possible value for :attr:`SSLContext.verify_flags`. It instructs OpenSSL to
+   prefer trusted certificates when building the trust chain to validate a
+   certificate. This flag is enabled by default.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4.4
+
+.. class:: VerifyFlags
+
+   :class:`enum.IntFlag` collection of VERIFY_* constants.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_TLS
+
+   Selects the highest protocol version that both the client and server support.
+   Despite the name, this option can select both "SSL" and "TLS" protocols.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT
+
+   Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version like :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS`,
+   but only support client-side :class:`SSLSocket` connections. The protocol
+   enables :data:`CERT_REQUIRED` and :attr:`~SSLContext.check_hostname` by
+   default.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER
+
+   Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version like :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS`,
+   but only support server-side :class:`SSLSocket` connections.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_SSLv23
+
+   Alias for :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      Use :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS` instead.
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_SSLv2
+
+   Selects SSL version 2 as the channel encryption protocol.
+
+   This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
+   ``OPENSSL_NO_SSL2`` flag.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      SSL version 2 is insecure.  Its use is highly discouraged.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      OpenSSL has removed support for SSLv2.
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_SSLv3
+
+   Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol.
+
+   This protocol is not be available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
+   ``OPENSSL_NO_SSLv3`` flag.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      SSL version 3 is insecure.  Its use is highly discouraged.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+      protocol :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS` with flags like :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3` instead.
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_TLSv1
+
+   Selects TLS version 1.0 as the channel encryption protocol.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+      protocol :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS` with flags like :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3` instead.
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1
+
+   Selects TLS version 1.1 as the channel encryption protocol.
+   Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+      protocol :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS` with flags like :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3` instead.
+
+.. data:: PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2
+
+   Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol. This is the
+   most modern version, and probably the best choice for maximum protection,
+   if both sides can speak it.  Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+      protocol :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS` with flags like :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3` instead.
+
+.. data:: OP_ALL
+
+   Enables workarounds for various bugs present in other SSL implementations.
+   This option is set by default.  It does not necessarily set the same
+   flags as OpenSSL's ``SSL_OP_ALL`` constant.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_SSLv2
+
+   Prevents an SSLv2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
+   conjunction with :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS`.  It prevents the peers from
+   choosing SSLv2 as the protocol version.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      SSLv2 is deprecated
+
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_SSLv3
+
+   Prevents an SSLv3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
+   conjunction with :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS`.  It prevents the peers from
+   choosing SSLv3 as the protocol version.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+      SSLv3 is deprecated
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_TLSv1
+
+   Prevents a TLSv1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
+   conjunction with :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS`.  It prevents the peers from
+   choosing TLSv1 as the protocol version.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0, use the new
+      :attr:`SSLContext.minimum_version` and
+      :attr:`SSLContext.maximum_version` instead.
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_TLSv1_1
+
+   Prevents a TLSv1.1 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction
+   with :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS`. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.1 as
+   the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0.
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_TLSv1_2
+
+   Prevents a TLSv1.2 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction
+   with :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS`. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.2 as
+   the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0.
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_TLSv1_3
+
+   Prevents a TLSv1.3 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction
+   with :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS`. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.3 as
+   the protocol version. TLS 1.3 is available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 or later.
+   When Python has been compiled against an older version of OpenSSL, the
+   flag defaults to *0*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0. It was added to 2.7.15,
+      3.6.3 and 3.7.0 for backwards compatibility with OpenSSL 1.0.2.
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
+
+   Disable all renegotiation in TLSv1.2 and earlier. Do not send
+   HelloRequest messages, and ignore renegotiation requests via ClientHello.
+
+   This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h and later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE
+
+   Use the server's cipher ordering preference, rather than the client's.
+   This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2 server sockets.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: OP_SINGLE_DH_USE
+
+   Prevents re-use of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
+   improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
+   This option only applies to server sockets.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE
+
+   Prevents re-use of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
+   improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
+   This option only applies to server sockets.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT
+
+   Send dummy Change Cipher Spec (CCS) messages in TLS 1.3 handshake to make
+   a TLS 1.3 connection look more like a TLS 1.2 connection.
+
+   This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_COMPRESSION
+
+   Disable compression on the SSL channel.  This is useful if the application
+   protocol supports its own compression scheme.
+
+   This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.0.0 and later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. class:: Options
+
+   :class:`enum.IntFlag` collection of OP_* constants.
+
+.. data:: OP_NO_TICKET
+
+   Prevent client side from requesting a session ticket.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: HAS_ALPN
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the *Application-Layer
+   Protocol Negotiation* TLS extension as described in :rfc:`7301`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. data:: HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support not checking subject
+   common name and :attr:`SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name` is
+   writeable.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: HAS_ECDH
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Elliptic Curve-based
+   Diffie-Hellman key exchange.  This should be true unless the feature was
+   explicitly disabled by the distributor.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: HAS_SNI
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the *Server Name
+   Indication* extension (as defined in :rfc:`6066`).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: HAS_NPN
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the *Next Protocol
+   Negotiation* as described in the `Application Layer Protocol
+   Negotiation <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation>`_.
+   When true, you can use the :meth:`SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` method to advertise
+   which protocols you want to support.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: HAS_SSLv2
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 2.0 protocol.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: HAS_SSLv3
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 3.0 protocol.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: HAS_TLSv1
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.0 protocol.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: HAS_TLSv1_1
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.1 protocol.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: HAS_TLSv1_2
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.2 protocol.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: HAS_TLSv1_3
+
+   Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.3 protocol.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES
+
+   List of supported TLS channel binding types.  Strings in this list
+   can be used as arguments to :meth:`SSLSocket.get_channel_binding`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: OPENSSL_VERSION
+
+   The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the interpreter::
+
+    >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION
+    'OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
+
+   A tuple of five integers representing version information about the
+   OpenSSL library::
+
+    >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
+    (1, 0, 2, 11, 15)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
+
+   The raw version number of the OpenSSL library, as a single integer::
+
+    >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
+    268443839
+    >>> hex(ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER)
+    '0x100020bf'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE
+          ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR
+          ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*
+
+   Alert Descriptions from :rfc:`5246` and others. The `IANA TLS Alert Registry
+   <https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6>`_
+   contains this list and references to the RFCs where their meaning is defined.
+
+   Used as the return value of the callback function in
+   :meth:`SSLContext.set_servername_callback`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. class:: AlertDescription
+
+   :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection of ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* constants.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: Purpose.SERVER_AUTH
+
+   Option for :func:`create_default_context` and
+   :meth:`SSLContext.load_default_certs`.  This value indicates that the
+   context may be used to authenticate Web servers (therefore, it will
+   be used to create client-side sockets).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH
+
+   Option for :func:`create_default_context` and
+   :meth:`SSLContext.load_default_certs`.  This value indicates that the
+   context may be used to authenticate Web clients (therefore, it will
+   be used to create server-side sockets).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. class:: SSLErrorNumber
+
+   :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection of SSL_ERROR_* constants.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. class:: TLSVersion
+
+   :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection of SSL and TLS versions for
+   :attr:`SSLContext.maximum_version` and :attr:`SSLContext.minimum_version`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. attribute:: TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED
+.. attribute:: TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED
+
+   The minimum or maximum supported SSL or TLS version. These are magic
+   constants. Their values don't reflect the lowest and highest available
+   TLS/SSL versions.
+
+.. attribute:: TLSVersion.SSLv3
+.. attribute:: TLSVersion.TLSv1
+.. attribute:: TLSVersion.TLSv1_1
+.. attribute:: TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
+.. attribute:: TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
+
+   SSL 3.0 to TLS 1.3.
+
+SSL Sockets
+-----------
+
+.. class:: SSLSocket(socket.socket)
+
+   SSL sockets provide the following methods of :ref:`socket-objects`:
+
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.accept()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.bind()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.close()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.connect()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.detach()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.fileno()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.getpeername()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.getsockname()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.getsockopt()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.setsockopt()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.gettimeout()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.settimeout()`,
+     :meth:`~socket.socket.setblocking()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.listen()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.makefile()`
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.recv()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.recv_into()`
+     (but passing a non-zero ``flags`` argument is not allowed)
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.send()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.sendall()` (with
+     the same limitation)
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.sendfile()` (but :mod:`os.sendfile` will be used
+     for plain-text sockets only, else :meth:`~socket.socket.send()` will be used)
+   - :meth:`~socket.socket.shutdown()`
+
+   However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop
+   of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects, diverge from
+   the specification of normal, OS-level sockets.  See especially the
+   :ref:`notes on non-blocking sockets <ssl-nonblocking>`.
+
+   Instances of :class:`SSLSocket` must be created using the
+   :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket` method.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The :meth:`sendfile` method was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The :meth:`shutdown` does not reset the socket timeout each time bytes
+      are received or sent. The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration
+      of the shutdown.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+      It is deprecated to create a :class:`SSLSocket` instance directly, use
+      :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket` to wrap a socket.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      :class:`SSLSocket` instances must to created with
+      :meth:`~SSLContext.wrap_socket`. In earlier versions, it was possible
+      to create instances directly. This was never documented or officially
+      supported.
+
+SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.read(len=1024, buffer=None)
+
+   Read up to *len* bytes of data from the SSL socket and return the result as
+   a ``bytes`` instance. If *buffer* is specified, then read into the buffer
+   instead, and return the number of bytes read.
+
+   Raise :exc:`SSLWantReadError` or :exc:`SSLWantWriteError` if the socket is
+   :ref:`non-blocking <ssl-nonblocking>` and the read would block.
+
+   As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to :meth:`read` can also
+   cause write operations.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The socket timeout is no more reset each time bytes are received or sent.
+      The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration to read up to *len*
+      bytes.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+      Use :meth:`~SSLSocket.recv` instead of :meth:`~SSLSocket.read`.
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.write(buf)
+
+   Write *buf* to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes written. The
+   *buf* argument must be an object supporting the buffer interface.
+
+   Raise :exc:`SSLWantReadError` or :exc:`SSLWantWriteError` if the socket is
+   :ref:`non-blocking <ssl-nonblocking>` and the write would block.
+
+   As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to :meth:`write` can
+   also cause read operations.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The socket timeout is no more reset each time bytes are received or sent.
+      The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration to write *buf*.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+      Use :meth:`~SSLSocket.send` instead of :meth:`~SSLSocket.write`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :meth:`~SSLSocket.read` and :meth:`~SSLSocket.write` methods are the
+   low-level methods that read and write unencrypted, application-level data
+   and decrypt/encrypt it to encrypted, wire-level data. These methods
+   require an active SSL connection, i.e. the handshake was completed and
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.unwrap` was not called.
+
+   Normally you should use the socket API methods like
+   :meth:`~socket.socket.recv` and :meth:`~socket.socket.send` instead of these
+   methods.
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.do_handshake()
+
+   Perform the SSL setup handshake.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The handshake method also performs :func:`match_hostname` when the
+      :attr:`~SSLContext.check_hostname` attribute of the socket's
+      :attr:`~SSLSocket.context` is true.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The socket timeout is no more reset each time bytes are received or sent.
+      The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration of the handshake.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Hostname or IP address is matched by OpenSSL during handshake. The
+      function :func:`match_hostname` is no longer used. In case OpenSSL
+      refuses a hostname or IP address, the handshake is aborted early and
+      a TLS alert message is send to the peer.
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.getpeercert(binary_form=False)
+
+   If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the connection,
+   return ``None``.  If the SSL handshake hasn't been done yet, raise
+   :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   If the ``binary_form`` parameter is :const:`False`, and a certificate was
+   received from the peer, this method returns a :class:`dict` instance.  If the
+   certificate was not validated, the dict is empty.  If the certificate was
+   validated, it returns a dict with several keys, amongst them ``subject``
+   (the principal for which the certificate was issued) and ``issuer``
+   (the principal issuing the certificate).  If a certificate contains an
+   instance of the *Subject Alternative Name* extension (see :rfc:`3280`),
+   there will also be a ``subjectAltName`` key in the dictionary.
+
+   The ``subject`` and ``issuer`` fields are tuples containing the sequence
+   of relative distinguished names (RDNs) given in the certificate's data
+   structure for the respective fields, and each RDN is a sequence of
+   name-value pairs.  Here is a real-world example::
+
+      {'issuer': ((('countryName', 'IL'),),
+                  (('organizationName', 'StartCom Ltd.'),),
+                  (('organizationalUnitName',
+                    'Secure Digital Certificate Signing'),),
+                  (('commonName',
+                    'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA'),)),
+       'notAfter': 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT',
+       'notBefore': 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT',
+       'serialNumber': '95F0',
+       'subject': ((('description', '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z'),),
+                   (('countryName', 'US'),),
+                   (('stateOrProvinceName', 'California'),),
+                   (('localityName', 'San Francisco'),),
+                   (('organizationName', 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.'),),
+                   (('commonName', '*.eff.org'),),
+                   (('emailAddress', 'hostmaster@eff.org'),)),
+       'subjectAltName': (('DNS', '*.eff.org'), ('DNS', 'eff.org')),
+       'version': 3}
+
+   .. note::
+
+      To validate a certificate for a particular service, you can use the
+      :func:`match_hostname` function.
+
+   If the ``binary_form`` parameter is :const:`True`, and a certificate was
+   provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form of the entire certificate
+   as a sequence of bytes, or :const:`None` if the peer did not provide a
+   certificate.  Whether the peer provides a certificate depends on the SSL
+   socket's role:
+
+   * for a client SSL socket, the server will always provide a certificate,
+     regardless of whether validation was required;
+
+   * for a server SSL socket, the client will only provide a certificate
+     when requested by the server; therefore :meth:`getpeercert` will return
+     :const:`None` if you used :const:`CERT_NONE` (rather than
+     :const:`CERT_OPTIONAL` or :const:`CERT_REQUIRED`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The returned dictionary includes additional items such as ``issuer``
+      and ``notBefore``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      :exc:`ValueError` is raised when the handshake isn't done.
+      The returned dictionary includes additional X509v3 extension items
+        such as ``crlDistributionPoints``, ``caIssuers`` and ``OCSP`` URIs.
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.cipher()
+
+   Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being used, the
+   version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number of secret
+   bits being used.  If no connection has been established, returns ``None``.
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.shared_ciphers()
+
+   Return the list of ciphers shared by the client during the handshake.  Each
+   entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing the name of the
+   cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number
+   of secret bits the cipher uses.  :meth:`~SSLSocket.shared_ciphers` returns
+   ``None`` if no connection has been established or the socket is a client
+   socket.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.compression()
+
+   Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or ``None``
+   if the connection isn't compressed.
+
+   If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression mechanism,
+   you can use :data:`OP_NO_COMPRESSION` to disable SSL-level compression.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.get_channel_binding(cb_type="tls-unique")
+
+   Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object.  Returns
+   ``None`` if not connected or the handshake has not been completed.
+
+   The *cb_type* parameter allow selection of the desired channel binding
+   type. Valid channel binding types are listed in the
+   :data:`CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES` list.  Currently only the 'tls-unique' channel
+   binding, defined by :rfc:`5929`, is supported.  :exc:`ValueError` will be
+   raised if an unsupported channel binding type is requested.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol()
+
+   Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  If
+   :meth:`SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols` was not called, if the other party does
+   not support ALPN, if this socket does not support any of the client's
+   proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not happened yet, ``None`` is
+   returned.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol()
+
+   Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the TLS/SSL
+   handshake. If :meth:`SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` was not called, or
+   if the other party does not support NPN, or if the handshake has not yet
+   happened, this will return ``None``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.unwrap()
+
+   Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer from the
+   underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket object.  This can be
+   used to go from encrypted operation over a connection to unencrypted.  The
+   returned socket should always be used for further communication with the
+   other side of the connection, rather than the original socket.
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake()
+
+   Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client. PHA
+   can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a server-side socket,
+   after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA enabled on both sides, see
+   :attr:`SSLContext.post_handshake_auth`.
+
+   The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately. The server-side
+   sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event and expects the
+   client to respond with a certificate on the next read event.
+
+   If any precondition isn't met (e.g. not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled), an
+   :exc:`SSLError` is raised.
+
+   .. note::
+      Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled. Without TLS 1.3
+      support, the method raises :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7.1
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.version()
+
+   Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection
+   as a string, or ``None`` is no secure connection is established.
+   As of this writing, possible return values include ``"SSLv2"``,
+   ``"SSLv3"``, ``"TLSv1"``, ``"TLSv1.1"`` and ``"TLSv1.2"``.
+   Recent OpenSSL versions may define more return values.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. method:: SSLSocket.pending()
+
+   Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read, pending on
+   the connection.
+
+.. attribute:: SSLSocket.context
+
+   The :class:`SSLContext` object this SSL socket is tied to.  If the SSL
+   socket was created using the deprecated :func:`wrap_socket` function
+   (rather than :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket`), this is a custom context
+   object created for this SSL socket.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. attribute:: SSLSocket.server_side
+
+   A boolean which is ``True`` for server-side sockets and ``False`` for
+   client-side sockets.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. attribute:: SSLSocket.server_hostname
+
+   Hostname of the server: :class:`str` type, or ``None`` for server-side
+   socket or if the hostname was not specified in the constructor.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The attribute is now always ASCII text. When ``server_hostname`` is
+      an internationalized domain name (IDN), this attribute now stores the
+      A-label form (``"xn--pythn-mua.org"``), rather than the U-label form
+      (``"pythön.org"``).
+
+.. attribute:: SSLSocket.session
+
+   The :class:`SSLSession` for this SSL connection. The session is available
+   for client and server side sockets after the TLS handshake has been
+   performed. For client sockets the session can be set before
+   :meth:`~SSLSocket.do_handshake` has been called to reuse a session.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. attribute:: SSLSocket.session_reused
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+SSL Contexts
+------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL connections,
+such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and private key(s).
+It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side sockets, in order
+to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
+
+.. class:: SSLContext(protocol=PROTOCOL_TLS)
+
+   Create a new SSL context.  You may pass *protocol* which must be one
+   of the ``PROTOCOL_*`` constants defined in this module.  The parameter
+   specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use.  Typically, the
+   server chooses a particular protocol version, and the client must adapt
+   to the server's choice.  Most of the versions are not interoperable
+   with the other versions.  If not specified, the default is
+   :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS`; it provides the most compatibility with other
+   versions.
+
+   Here's a table showing which versions in a client (down the side) can connect
+   to which versions in a server (along the top):
+
+     .. table::
+
+       ========================  ============  ============  =============  =========  ===========  ===========
+        *client* / **server**    **SSLv2**     **SSLv3**     **TLS** [3]_   **TLSv1**  **TLSv1.1**  **TLSv1.2**
+       ------------------------  ------------  ------------  -------------  ---------  -----------  -----------
+        *SSLv2*                    yes           no            no [1]_        no         no         no
+        *SSLv3*                    no            yes           no [2]_        no         no         no
+        *TLS* (*SSLv23*) [3]_      no [1]_       no [2]_       yes            yes        yes        yes
+        *TLSv1*                    no            no            yes            yes        no         no
+        *TLSv1.1*                  no            no            yes            no         yes        no
+        *TLSv1.2*                  no            no            yes            no         no         yes
+       ========================  ============  ============  =============  =========  ===========  ===========
+
+   .. rubric:: Footnotes
+   .. [1] :class:`SSLContext` disables SSLv2 with :data:`OP_NO_SSLv2` by default.
+   .. [2] :class:`SSLContext` disables SSLv3 with :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3` by default.
+   .. [3] TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS` in
+      OpenSSL >= 1.1.1. There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
+      TLS 1.3.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :func:`create_default_context` lets the :mod:`ssl` module choose
+      security settings for a given purpose.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+      The context is created with secure default values. The options
+      :data:`OP_NO_COMPRESSION`, :data:`OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE`,
+      :data:`OP_SINGLE_DH_USE`, :data:`OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE`,
+      :data:`OP_NO_SSLv2` (except for :data:`PROTOCOL_SSLv2`),
+      and :data:`OP_NO_SSLv3` (except for :data:`PROTOCOL_SSLv3`) are
+      set by default. The initial cipher suite list contains only ``HIGH``
+      ciphers, no ``NULL`` ciphers and no ``MD5`` ciphers (except for
+      :data:`PROTOCOL_SSLv2`).
+
+
+:class:`SSLContext` objects have the following methods and attributes:
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.cert_store_stats()
+
+   Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count of
+   X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate revocation
+   lists as dictionary.
+
+   Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert::
+
+      >>> context.cert_store_stats()
+      {'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2}
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.load_cert_chain(certfile, keyfile=None, password=None)
+
+   Load a private key and the corresponding certificate.  The *certfile*
+   string must be the path to a single file in PEM format containing the
+   certificate as well as any number of CA certificates needed to establish
+   the certificate's authenticity.  The *keyfile* string, if present, must
+   point to a file containing the private key in.  Otherwise the private
+   key will be taken from *certfile* as well.  See the discussion of
+   :ref:`ssl-certificates` for more information on how the certificate
+   is stored in the *certfile*.
+
+   The *password* argument may be a function to call to get the password for
+   decrypting the private key.  It will only be called if the private key is
+   encrypted and a password is necessary.  It will be called with no arguments,
+   and it should return a string, bytes, or bytearray.  If the return value is
+   a string it will be encoded as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key.
+   Alternatively a string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly
+   as the *password* argument.  It will be ignored if the private key is not
+   encrypted and no password is needed.
+
+   If the *password* argument is not specified and a password is required,
+   OpenSSL's built-in password prompting mechanism will be used to
+   interactively prompt the user for a password.
+
+   An :class:`SSLError` is raised if the private key doesn't
+   match with the certificate.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      New optional argument *password*.
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.load_default_certs(purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH)
+
+   Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates from
+   default locations. On Windows it loads CA certs from the ``CA`` and
+   ``ROOT`` system stores. On other systems it calls
+   :meth:`SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths`. In the future the method may
+   load CA certificates from other locations, too.
+
+   The *purpose* flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are loaded. The
+   default settings :data:`Purpose.SERVER_AUTH` loads certificates, that are
+   flagged and trusted for TLS web server authentication (client side
+   sockets). :data:`Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH` loads CA certificates for client
+   certificate verification on the server side.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.load_verify_locations(cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)
+
+   Load a set of "certification authority" (CA) certificates used to validate
+   other peers' certificates when :data:`verify_mode` is other than
+   :data:`CERT_NONE`.  At least one of *cafile* or *capath* must be specified.
+
+   This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in PEM or
+   DER format. In order to make use of CRLs, :attr:`SSLContext.verify_flags`
+   must be configured properly.
+
+   The *cafile* string, if present, is the path to a file of concatenated
+   CA certificates in PEM format. See the discussion of
+   :ref:`ssl-certificates` for more information about how to arrange the
+   certificates in this file.
+
+   The *capath* string, if present, is
+   the path to a directory containing several CA certificates in PEM format,
+   following an `OpenSSL specific layout
+   <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations.html>`_.
+
+   The *cadata* object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one or more
+   PEM-encoded certificates or a :term:`bytes-like object` of DER-encoded
+   certificates. Like with *capath* extra lines around PEM-encoded
+   certificates are ignored but at least one certificate must be present.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      New optional argument *cadata*
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.get_ca_certs(binary_form=False)
+
+   Get a list of loaded "certification authority" (CA) certificates. If the
+   ``binary_form`` parameter is :const:`False` each list
+   entry is a dict like the output of :meth:`SSLSocket.getpeercert`. Otherwise
+   the method returns a list of DER-encoded certificates. The returned list
+   does not contain certificates from *capath* unless a certificate was
+   requested and loaded by a SSL connection.
+
+   .. note::
+      Certificates in a capath directory aren't loaded unless they have
+      been used at least once.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.get_ciphers()
+
+   Get a list of enabled ciphers. The list is in order of cipher priority.
+   See :meth:`SSLContext.set_ciphers`.
+
+   Example::
+
+       >>> ctx = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23)
+       >>> ctx.set_ciphers('ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA')
+       >>> ctx.get_ciphers()  # OpenSSL 1.0.x
+       [{'alg_bits': 256,
+         'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
+                        'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
+         'id': 50380848,
+         'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
+         'protocol': 'TLSv1/SSLv3',
+         'strength_bits': 256},
+        {'alg_bits': 128,
+         'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
+                        'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
+         'id': 50380847,
+         'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
+         'protocol': 'TLSv1/SSLv3',
+         'strength_bits': 128}]
+
+   On OpenSSL 1.1 and newer the cipher dict contains additional fields::
+
+       >>> ctx.get_ciphers()  # OpenSSL 1.1+
+       [{'aead': True,
+         'alg_bits': 256,
+         'auth': 'auth-rsa',
+         'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
+                        'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
+         'digest': None,
+         'id': 50380848,
+         'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
+         'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
+         'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
+         'strength_bits': 256,
+         'symmetric': 'aes-256-gcm'},
+        {'aead': True,
+         'alg_bits': 128,
+         'auth': 'auth-rsa',
+         'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
+                        'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
+         'digest': None,
+         'id': 50380847,
+         'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
+         'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
+         'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
+         'strength_bits': 128,
+         'symmetric': 'aes-128-gcm'}]
+
+   .. availability:: OpenSSL 1.0.2+.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()
+
+   Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates from
+   a filesystem path defined when building the OpenSSL library.  Unfortunately,
+   there's no easy way to know whether this method succeeds: no error is
+   returned if no certificates are to be found.  When the OpenSSL library is
+   provided as part of the operating system, though, it is likely to be
+   configured properly.
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_ciphers(ciphers)
+
+   Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
+   It should be a string in the `OpenSSL cipher list format
+   <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html>`_.
+   If no cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
+   configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an
+   :class:`SSLError` will be raised.
+
+   .. note::
+      when connected, the :meth:`SSLSocket.cipher` method of SSL sockets will
+      give the currently selected cipher.
+
+      OpenSSL 1.1.1 has TLS 1.3 cipher suites enabled by default. The suites
+      cannot be disabled with :meth:`~SSLContext.set_ciphers`.
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(protocols)
+
+   Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS
+   handshake. It should be a list of ASCII strings, like ``['http/1.1',
+   'spdy/2']``, ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen
+   during the handshake, and will play out according to :rfc:`7301`. After a
+   successful handshake, the :meth:`SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol` method will
+   return the agreed-upon protocol.
+
+   This method will raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` if :data:`HAS_ALPN` is
+   False.
+
+   OpenSSL 1.1.0 to 1.1.0e will abort the handshake and raise :exc:`SSLError`
+   when both sides support ALPN but cannot agree on a protocol. 1.1.0f+
+   behaves like 1.0.2, :meth:`SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol` returns None.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(protocols)
+
+   Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS
+   handshake. It should be a list of strings, like ``['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']``,
+   ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen during the
+   handshake, and will play out according to the `Application Layer Protocol Negotiation
+   <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation>`_. After a
+   successful handshake, the :meth:`SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol` method will
+   return the agreed-upon protocol.
+
+   This method will raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` if :data:`HAS_NPN` is
+   False.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.sni_callback
+
+   Register a callback function that will be called after the TLS Client Hello
+   handshake message has been received by the SSL/TLS server when the TLS client
+   specifies a server name indication. The server name indication mechanism
+   is specified in :rfc:`6066` section 3 - Server Name Indication.
+
+   Only one callback can be set per ``SSLContext``.  If *sni_callback*
+   is set to ``None`` then the callback is disabled. Calling this function a
+   subsequent time will disable the previously registered callback.
+
+   The callback function will be called with three
+   arguments; the first being the :class:`ssl.SSLSocket`, the second is a string
+   that represents the server name that the client is intending to communicate
+   (or :const:`None` if the TLS Client Hello does not contain a server name)
+   and the third argument is the original :class:`SSLContext`. The server name
+   argument is text. For internationalized domain name, the server
+   name is an IDN A-label (``"xn--pythn-mua.org"``).
+
+   A typical use of this callback is to change the :class:`ssl.SSLSocket`'s
+   :attr:`SSLSocket.context` attribute to a new object of type
+   :class:`SSLContext` representing a certificate chain that matches the server
+   name.
+
+   Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only limited
+   methods and attributes are usable like
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol` and :attr:`SSLSocket.context`.
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.getpeercert`, :meth:`SSLSocket.getpeercert`,
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.cipher` and :meth:`SSLSocket.compress` methods require that
+   the TLS connection has progressed beyond the TLS Client Hello and therefore
+   will not contain return meaningful values nor can they be called safely.
+
+   The *sni_callback* function must return ``None`` to allow the
+   TLS negotiation to continue.  If a TLS failure is required, a constant
+   :const:`ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* <ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR>` can be
+   returned.  Other return values will result in a TLS fatal error with
+   :const:`ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR`.
+
+   If an exception is raised from the *sni_callback* function the TLS
+   connection will terminate with a fatal TLS alert message
+   :const:`ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE`.
+
+   This method will raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` if the OpenSSL library
+   had OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT defined when it was built.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.set_servername_callback(server_name_callback)
+
+   This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility. When possible,
+   you should use :attr:`sni_callback` instead. The given *server_name_callback*
+   is similar to *sni_callback*, except that when the server hostname is an
+   IDN-encoded internationalized domain name, the *server_name_callback*
+   receives a decoded U-label (``"pythön.org"``).
+
+   If there is an decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection will
+   terminate with an :const:`ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR` fatal TLS
+   alert message to the client.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.load_dh_params(dhfile)
+
+   Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange.
+   Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the expense of
+   computational resources (both on the server and on the client).
+   The *dhfile* parameter should be the path to a file containing DH
+   parameters in PEM format.
+
+   This setting doesn't apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
+   :data:`OP_SINGLE_DH_USE` option to further improve security.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve(curve_name)
+
+   Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key
+   exchange.  ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while arguably
+   as secure.  The *curve_name* parameter should be a string describing
+   a well-known elliptic curve, for example ``prime256v1`` for a widely
+   supported curve.
+
+   This setting doesn't apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
+   :data:`OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE` option to further improve security.
+
+   This method is not available if :data:`HAS_ECDH` is ``False``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. seealso::
+      `SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy <https://vincent.bernat.im/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy>`_
+         Vincent Bernat.
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=False, \
+      do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True, \
+      server_hostname=None, session=None)
+
+   Wrap an existing Python socket *sock* and return an instance of
+   :attr:`SSLContext.sslsocket_class` (default :class:`SSLSocket`). The
+   returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its settings and certificates.
+   *sock* must be a :data:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM` socket; other
+   socket types are unsupported.
+
+   The parameter ``server_side`` is a boolean which identifies whether
+   server-side or client-side behavior is desired from this socket.
+
+   For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the
+   underlying socket isn't connected yet, the context construction will be
+   performed after :meth:`connect` is called on the socket.  For
+   server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is assumed
+   to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping is
+   automatically performed on client connections accepted via the
+   :meth:`accept` method. The method may raise :exc:`SSLError`.
+
+   On client connections, the optional parameter *server_hostname* specifies
+   the hostname of the service which we are connecting to.  This allows a
+   single server to host multiple SSL-based services with distinct certificates,
+   quite similarly to HTTP virtual hosts. Specifying *server_hostname* will
+   raise a :exc:`ValueError` if *server_side* is true.
+
+   The parameter ``do_handshake_on_connect`` specifies whether to do the SSL
+   handshake automatically after doing a :meth:`socket.connect`, or whether the
+   application program will call it explicitly, by invoking the
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.do_handshake` method.  Calling
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.do_handshake` explicitly gives the program control over the
+   blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in the handshake.
+
+   The parameter ``suppress_ragged_eofs`` specifies how the
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.recv` method should signal unexpected EOF from the other end
+   of the connection.  If specified as :const:`True` (the default), it returns a
+   normal EOF (an empty bytes object) in response to unexpected EOF errors
+   raised from the underlying socket; if :const:`False`, it will raise the
+   exceptions back to the caller.
+
+   *session*, see :attr:`~SSLSocket.session`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Always allow a server_hostname to be passed, even if OpenSSL does not
+      have SNI.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *session* argument was added.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The method returns on instance of :attr:`SSLContext.sslsocket_class`
+      instead of hard-coded :class:`SSLSocket`.
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.sslsocket_class
+
+   The return type of :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket`, defaults to
+   :class:`SSLSocket`. The attribute can be overridden on instance of class
+   in order to return a custom subclass of :class:`SSLSocket`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.wrap_bio(incoming, outgoing, server_side=False, \
+                                server_hostname=None, session=None)
+
+   Wrap the BIO objects *incoming* and *outgoing* and return an instance of
+   :attr:`SSLContext.sslobject_class` (default :class:`SSLObject`). The SSL
+   routines will read input data from the incoming BIO and write data to the
+   outgoing BIO.
+
+   The *server_side*, *server_hostname* and *session* parameters have the
+   same meaning as in :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *session* argument was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The method returns on instance of :attr:`SSLContext.sslobject_class`
+      instead of hard-coded :class:`SSLObject`.
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.sslobject_class
+
+   The return type of :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_bio`, defaults to
+   :class:`SSLObject`. The attribute can be overridden on instance of class
+   in order to return a custom subclass of :class:`SSLObject`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. method:: SSLContext.session_stats()
+
+   Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this context.
+   A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each `piece of information <https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_sess_number.html>`_ to their
+   numeric values.  For example, here is the total number of hits and misses
+   in the session cache since the context was created::
+
+      >>> stats = context.session_stats()
+      >>> stats['hits'], stats['misses']
+      (0, 0)
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.check_hostname
+
+   Whether to match the peer cert's hostname with :func:`match_hostname` in
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.do_handshake`. The context's
+   :attr:`~SSLContext.verify_mode` must be set to :data:`CERT_OPTIONAL` or
+   :data:`CERT_REQUIRED`, and you must pass *server_hostname* to
+   :meth:`~SSLContext.wrap_socket` in order to match the hostname.  Enabling
+   hostname checking automatically sets :attr:`~SSLContext.verify_mode` from
+   :data:`CERT_NONE` to :data:`CERT_REQUIRED`.  It cannot be set back to
+   :data:`CERT_NONE` as long as hostname checking is enabled.
+
+   Example::
+
+      import socket, ssl
+
+      context = ssl.SSLContext()
+      context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
+      context.check_hostname = True
+      context.load_default_certs()
+
+      s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+      ssl_sock = context.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname='www.verisign.com')
+      ssl_sock.connect(('www.verisign.com', 443))
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      :attr:`~SSLContext.verify_mode` is now automatically changed
+      to :data:`CERT_REQUIRED`  when hostname checking is enabled and
+      :attr:`~SSLContext.verify_mode` is :data:`CERT_NONE`. Previously
+      the same operation would have failed with a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+     This features requires OpenSSL 0.9.8f or newer.
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.maximum_version
+
+   A :class:`TLSVersion` enum member representing the highest supported
+   TLS version. The value defaults to :attr:`TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED`.
+   The attribute is read-only for protocols other than :attr:`PROTOCOL_TLS`,
+   :attr:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT`, and :attr:`PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER`.
+
+   The attributes :attr:`~SSLContext.maximum_version`,
+   :attr:`~SSLContext.minimum_version` and
+   :attr:`SSLContext.options` all affect the supported SSL
+   and TLS versions of the context. The implementation does not prevent
+   invalid combination. For example a context with
+   :attr:`OP_NO_TLSv1_2` in :attr:`~SSLContext.options` and
+   :attr:`~SSLContext.maximum_version` set to :attr:`TLSVersion.TLSv1_2`
+   will not be able to establish a TLS 1.2 connection.
+
+   .. note::
+
+     This attribute is not available unless the ssl module is compiled
+     with OpenSSL 1.1.0g or newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.minimum_version
+
+   Like :attr:`SSLContext.maximum_version` except it is the lowest
+   supported version or :attr:`TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+     This attribute is not available unless the ssl module is compiled
+     with OpenSSL 1.1.0g or newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.options
+
+   An integer representing the set of SSL options enabled on this context.
+   The default value is :data:`OP_ALL`, but you can specify other options
+   such as :data:`OP_NO_SSLv2` by ORing them together.
+
+   .. note::
+      With versions of OpenSSL older than 0.9.8m, it is only possible
+      to set options, not to clear them.  Attempting to clear an option
+      (by resetting the corresponding bits) will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :attr:`SSLContext.options` returns :class:`Options` flags:
+
+         >>> ssl.create_default_context().options  # doctest: +SKIP
+         <Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391>
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth
+
+   Enable TLS 1.3 post-handshake client authentication. Post-handshake auth
+   is disabled by default and a server can only request a TLS client
+   certificate during the initial handshake. When enabled, a server may
+   request a TLS client certificate at any time after the handshake.
+
+   When enabled on client-side sockets, the client signals the server that
+   it supports post-handshake authentication.
+
+   When enabled on server-side sockets, :attr:`SSLContext.verify_mode` must
+   be set to :data:`CERT_OPTIONAL` or :data:`CERT_REQUIRED`, too. The
+   actual client cert exchange is delayed until
+   :meth:`SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake` is called and some I/O is
+   performed.
+
+   .. note::
+      Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled. Without TLS 1.3
+      support, the property value is None and can't be modified
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7.1
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.protocol
+
+   The protocol version chosen when constructing the context.  This attribute
+   is read-only.
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name
+
+   Whether :attr:`~SSLContext.check_hostname` falls back to verify the cert's
+   subject common name in the absence of a subject alternative name
+   extension (default: true).
+
+   .. note::
+      Only writeable with OpenSSL 1.1.0 or higher.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.verify_flags
+
+   The flags for certificate verification operations. You can set flags like
+   :data:`VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF` by ORing them together. By default OpenSSL
+   does neither require nor verify certificate revocation lists (CRLs).
+   Available only with openssl version 0.9.8+.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :attr:`SSLContext.verify_flags` returns :class:`VerifyFlags` flags:
+
+         >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_flags  # doctest: +SKIP
+         <VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768>
+
+.. attribute:: SSLContext.verify_mode
+
+   Whether to try to verify other peers' certificates and how to behave
+   if verification fails.  This attribute must be one of
+   :data:`CERT_NONE`, :data:`CERT_OPTIONAL` or :data:`CERT_REQUIRED`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :attr:`SSLContext.verify_mode` returns :class:`VerifyMode` enum:
+
+         >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_mode
+         <VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2>
+
+.. index:: single: certificates
+
+.. index:: single: X509 certificate
+
+.. _ssl-certificates:
+
+Certificates
+------------
+
+Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system.  In this
+system, each *principal*, (which may be a machine, or a person, or an
+organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key.  One part of the key
+is public, and is called the *public key*; the other part is kept secret, and is
+called the *private key*.  The two parts are related, in that if you encrypt a
+message with one of the parts, you can decrypt it with the other part, and
+**only** with the other part.
+
+A certificate contains information about two principals.  It contains the name
+of a *subject*, and the subject's public key.  It also contains a statement by a
+second principal, the *issuer*, that the subject is who they claim to be, and
+that this is indeed the subject's public key.  The issuer's statement is signed
+with the issuer's private key, which only the issuer knows.  However, anyone can
+verify the issuer's statement by finding the issuer's public key, decrypting the
+statement with it, and comparing it to the other information in the certificate.
+The certificate also contains information about the time period over which it is
+valid.  This is expressed as two fields, called "notBefore" and "notAfter".
+
+In the Python use of certificates, a client or server can use a certificate to
+prove who they are.  The other side of a network connection can also be required
+to produce a certificate, and that certificate can be validated to the
+satisfaction of the client or server that requires such validation.  The
+connection attempt can be set to raise an exception if the validation fails.
+Validation is done automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the
+application need not concern itself with its mechanics.  But the application
+does usually need to provide sets of certificates to allow this process to take
+place.
+
+Python uses files to contain certificates.  They should be formatted as "PEM"
+(see :rfc:`1422`), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped with a header line
+and a footer line::
+
+      -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+      ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
+      -----END CERTIFICATE-----
+
+Certificate chains
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence of
+certificates, sometimes called a *certificate chain*.  This chain should start
+with the specific certificate for the principal who "is" the client or server,
+and then the certificate for the issuer of that certificate, and then the
+certificate for the issuer of *that* certificate, and so on up the chain till
+you get to a certificate which is *self-signed*, that is, a certificate which
+has the same subject and issuer, sometimes called a *root certificate*.  The
+certificates should just be concatenated together in the certificate file.  For
+example, suppose we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate
+to the certificate of the certification authority that signed our server
+certificate, to the root certificate of the agency which issued the
+certification authority's certificate::
+
+      -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+      ... (certificate for your server)...
+      -----END CERTIFICATE-----
+      -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+      ... (the certificate for the CA)...
+      -----END CERTIFICATE-----
+      -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+      ... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
+      -----END CERTIFICATE-----
+
+CA certificates
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If you are going to require validation of the other side of the connection's
+certificate, you need to provide a "CA certs" file, filled with the certificate
+chains for each issuer you are willing to trust.  Again, this file just contains
+these chains concatenated together.  For validation, Python will use the first
+chain it finds in the file which matches.  The platform's certificates file can
+be used by calling :meth:`SSLContext.load_default_certs`, this is done
+automatically with :func:`.create_default_context`.
+
+Combined key and certificate
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in this
+case, only the ``certfile`` parameter to :meth:`SSLContext.load_cert_chain`
+and :func:`wrap_socket` needs to be passed.  If the private key is stored
+with the certificate, it should come before the first certificate in
+the certificate chain::
+
+   -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
+   ... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
+   -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
+   -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
+   ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
+   -----END CERTIFICATE-----
+
+Self-signed certificates
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted connection
+services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that service.  There are
+many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates, such as buying one from a
+certification authority.  Another common practice is to generate a self-signed
+certificate.  The simplest way to do this is with the OpenSSL package, using
+something like the following::
+
+  % openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
+  Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
+  .......++++++
+  .............................++++++
+  writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
+  -----
+  You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
+  into your certificate request.
+  What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
+  There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
+  For some fields there will be a default value,
+  If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
+  -----
+  Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
+  State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
+  Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
+  Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
+  Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
+  Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
+  Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
+  %
+
+The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its own root
+certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache of known (and trusted)
+root certificates.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Testing for SSL support
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user code
+should use the following idiom::
+
+   try:
+       import ssl
+   except ImportError:
+       pass
+   else:
+       ...  # do something that requires SSL support
+
+Client-side operation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This example creates a SSL context with the recommended security settings
+for client sockets, including automatic certificate verification::
+
+   >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
+
+If you prefer to tune security settings yourself, you might create
+a context from scratch (but beware that you might not get the settings
+right)::
+
+   >>> context = ssl.SSLContext()
+   >>> context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
+   >>> context.check_hostname = True
+   >>> context.load_verify_locations("/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt")
+
+(this snippet assumes your operating system places a bundle of all CA
+certificates in ``/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt``; if not, you'll get an
+error and have to adjust the location)
+
+When you use the context to connect to a server, :const:`CERT_REQUIRED`
+validates the server certificate: it ensures that the server certificate
+was signed with one of the CA certificates, and checks the signature for
+correctness::
+
+   >>> conn = context.wrap_socket(socket.socket(socket.AF_INET),
+   ...                            server_hostname="www.python.org")
+   >>> conn.connect(("www.python.org", 443))
+
+You may then fetch the certificate::
+
+   >>> cert = conn.getpeercert()
+
+Visual inspection shows that the certificate does identify the desired service
+(that is, the HTTPS host ``www.python.org``)::
+
+   >>> pprint.pprint(cert)
+   {'OCSP': ('http://ocsp.digicert.com',),
+    'caIssuers': ('http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt',),
+    'crlDistributionPoints': ('http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
+                              'http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl'),
+    'issuer': ((('countryName', 'US'),),
+               (('organizationName', 'DigiCert Inc'),),
+               (('organizationalUnitName', 'www.digicert.com'),),
+               (('commonName', 'DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA'),)),
+    'notAfter': 'Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT',
+    'notBefore': 'Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT',
+    'serialNumber': '01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26',
+    'subject': ((('businessCategory', 'Private Organization'),),
+                (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3', 'US'),),
+                (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2', 'Delaware'),),
+                (('serialNumber', '3359300'),),
+                (('streetAddress', '16 Allen Rd'),),
+                (('postalCode', '03894-4801'),),
+                (('countryName', 'US'),),
+                (('stateOrProvinceName', 'NH'),),
+                (('localityName', 'Wolfeboro,'),),
+                (('organizationName', 'Python Software Foundation'),),
+                (('commonName', 'www.python.org'),)),
+    'subjectAltName': (('DNS', 'www.python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'pypi.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'docs.python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'testpypi.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'bugs.python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'wiki.python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'hg.python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'mail.python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'packaging.python.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'pythonhosted.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'www.pythonhosted.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'test.pythonhosted.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'us.pycon.org'),
+                       ('DNS', 'id.python.org')),
+    'version': 3}
+
+Now the SSL channel is established and the certificate verified, you can
+proceed to talk with the server::
+
+   >>> conn.sendall(b"HEAD / HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: linuxfr.org\r\n\r\n")
+   >>> pprint.pprint(conn.recv(1024).split(b"\r\n"))
+   [b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK',
+    b'Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT',
+    b'Server: nginx',
+    b'Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8',
+    b'X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN',
+    b'Content-Length: 45679',
+    b'Accept-Ranges: bytes',
+    b'Via: 1.1 varnish',
+    b'Age: 2188',
+    b'X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY',
+    b'X-Cache: HIT',
+    b'X-Cache-Hits: 11',
+    b'Vary: Cookie',
+    b'Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains',
+    b'Connection: close',
+    b'',
+    b'']
+
+See the discussion of :ref:`ssl-security` below.
+
+
+Server-side operation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+For server operation, typically you'll need to have a server certificate, and
+private key, each in a file.  You'll first create a context holding the key
+and the certificate, so that clients can check your authenticity.  Then
+you'll open a socket, bind it to a port, call :meth:`listen` on it, and start
+waiting for clients to connect::
+
+   import socket, ssl
+
+   context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
+   context.load_cert_chain(certfile="mycertfile", keyfile="mykeyfile")
+
+   bindsocket = socket.socket()
+   bindsocket.bind(('myaddr.mydomain.com', 10023))
+   bindsocket.listen(5)
+
+When a client connects, you'll call :meth:`accept` on the socket to get the
+new socket from the other end, and use the context's :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket`
+method to create a server-side SSL socket for the connection::
+
+   while True:
+       newsocket, fromaddr = bindsocket.accept()
+       connstream = context.wrap_socket(newsocket, server_side=True)
+       try:
+           deal_with_client(connstream)
+       finally:
+           connstream.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR)
+           connstream.close()
+
+Then you'll read data from the ``connstream`` and do something with it till you
+are finished with the client (or the client is finished with you)::
+
+   def deal_with_client(connstream):
+       data = connstream.recv(1024)
+       # empty data means the client is finished with us
+       while data:
+           if not do_something(connstream, data):
+               # we'll assume do_something returns False
+               # when we're finished with client
+               break
+           data = connstream.recv(1024)
+       # finished with client
+
+And go back to listening for new client connections (of course, a real server
+would probably handle each client connection in a separate thread, or put
+the sockets in :ref:`non-blocking mode <ssl-nonblocking>` and use an event loop).
+
+
+.. _ssl-nonblocking:
+
+Notes on non-blocking sockets
+-----------------------------
+
+SSL sockets behave slightly different than regular sockets in
+non-blocking mode. When working with non-blocking sockets, there are
+thus several things you need to be aware of:
+
+- Most :class:`SSLSocket` methods will raise either
+  :exc:`SSLWantWriteError` or :exc:`SSLWantReadError` instead of
+  :exc:`BlockingIOError` if an I/O operation would
+  block. :exc:`SSLWantReadError` will be raised if a read operation on
+  the underlying socket is necessary, and :exc:`SSLWantWriteError` for
+  a write operation on the underlying socket. Note that attempts to
+  *write* to an SSL socket may require *reading* from the underlying
+  socket first, and attempts to *read* from the SSL socket may require
+  a prior *write* to the underlying socket.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+     In earlier Python versions, the :meth:`!SSLSocket.send` method
+     returned zero instead of raising :exc:`SSLWantWriteError` or
+     :exc:`SSLWantReadError`.
+
+- Calling :func:`~select.select` tells you that the OS-level socket can be
+  read from (or written to), but it does not imply that there is sufficient
+  data at the upper SSL layer.  For example, only part of an SSL frame might
+  have arrived.  Therefore, you must be ready to handle :meth:`SSLSocket.recv`
+  and :meth:`SSLSocket.send` failures, and retry after another call to
+  :func:`~select.select`.
+
+- Conversely, since the SSL layer has its own framing, a SSL socket may
+  still have data available for reading without :func:`~select.select`
+  being aware of it.  Therefore, you should first call
+  :meth:`SSLSocket.recv` to drain any potentially available data, and then
+  only block on a :func:`~select.select` call if still necessary.
+
+  (of course, similar provisions apply when using other primitives such as
+  :func:`~select.poll`, or those in the :mod:`selectors` module)
+
+- The SSL handshake itself will be non-blocking: the
+  :meth:`SSLSocket.do_handshake` method has to be retried until it returns
+  successfully.  Here is a synopsis using :func:`~select.select` to wait for
+  the socket's readiness::
+
+    while True:
+        try:
+            sock.do_handshake()
+            break
+        except ssl.SSLWantReadError:
+            select.select([sock], [], [])
+        except ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
+            select.select([], [sock], [])
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The :mod:`asyncio` module supports :ref:`non-blocking SSL sockets
+   <ssl-nonblocking>` and provides a
+   higher level API. It polls for events using the :mod:`selectors` module and
+   handles :exc:`SSLWantWriteError`, :exc:`SSLWantReadError` and
+   :exc:`BlockingIOError` exceptions. It runs the SSL handshake asynchronously
+   as well.
+
+
+Memory BIO Support
+------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+Ever since the SSL module was introduced in Python 2.6, the :class:`SSLSocket`
+class has provided two related but distinct areas of functionality:
+
+- SSL protocol handling
+- Network IO
+
+The network IO API is identical to that provided by :class:`socket.socket`,
+from which :class:`SSLSocket` also inherits. This allows an SSL socket to be
+used as a drop-in replacement for a regular socket, making it very easy to add
+SSL support to an existing application.
+
+Combining SSL protocol handling and network IO usually works well, but there
+are some cases where it doesn't. An example is async IO frameworks that want to
+use a different IO multiplexing model than the "select/poll on a file
+descriptor" (readiness based) model that is assumed by :class:`socket.socket`
+and by the internal OpenSSL socket IO routines. This is mostly relevant for
+platforms like Windows where this model is not efficient. For this purpose, a
+reduced scope variant of :class:`SSLSocket` called :class:`SSLObject` is
+provided.
+
+.. class:: SSLObject
+
+   A reduced-scope variant of :class:`SSLSocket` representing an SSL protocol
+   instance that does not contain any network IO methods. This class is
+   typically used by framework authors that want to implement asynchronous IO
+   for SSL through memory buffers.
+
+   This class implements an interface on top of a low-level SSL object as
+   implemented by OpenSSL. This object captures the state of an SSL connection
+   but does not provide any network IO itself. IO needs to be performed through
+   separate "BIO" objects which are OpenSSL's IO abstraction layer.
+
+   This class has no public constructor.  An :class:`SSLObject` instance
+   must be created using the :meth:`~SSLContext.wrap_bio` method. This
+   method will create the :class:`SSLObject` instance and bind it to a
+   pair of BIOs. The *incoming* BIO is used to pass data from Python to the
+   SSL protocol instance, while the *outgoing* BIO is used to pass data the
+   other way around.
+
+   The following methods are available:
+
+   - :attr:`~SSLSocket.context`
+   - :attr:`~SSLSocket.server_side`
+   - :attr:`~SSLSocket.server_hostname`
+   - :attr:`~SSLSocket.session`
+   - :attr:`~SSLSocket.session_reused`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.read`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.write`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.getpeercert`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.cipher`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.shared_ciphers`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.compression`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.pending`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.do_handshake`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.unwrap`
+   - :meth:`~SSLSocket.get_channel_binding`
+
+   When compared to :class:`SSLSocket`, this object lacks the following
+   features:
+
+   - Any form of network IO; ``recv()`` and ``send()`` read and write only to
+     the underlying :class:`MemoryBIO` buffers.
+
+   - There is no *do_handshake_on_connect* machinery. You must always manually
+     call :meth:`~SSLSocket.do_handshake` to start the handshake.
+
+   - There is no handling of *suppress_ragged_eofs*. All end-of-file conditions
+     that are in violation of the protocol are reported via the
+     :exc:`SSLEOFError` exception.
+
+   - The method :meth:`~SSLSocket.unwrap` call does not return anything,
+     unlike for an SSL socket where it returns the underlying socket.
+
+   - The *server_name_callback* callback passed to
+     :meth:`SSLContext.set_servername_callback` will get an :class:`SSLObject`
+     instance instead of a :class:`SSLSocket` instance as its first parameter.
+
+   Some notes related to the use of :class:`SSLObject`:
+
+   - All IO on an :class:`SSLObject` is :ref:`non-blocking <ssl-nonblocking>`.
+     This means that for example :meth:`~SSLSocket.read` will raise an
+     :exc:`SSLWantReadError` if it needs more data than the incoming BIO has
+     available.
+
+   - There is no module-level ``wrap_bio()`` call like there is for
+     :meth:`~SSLContext.wrap_socket`. An :class:`SSLObject` is always created
+     via an :class:`SSLContext`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      :class:`SSLObject` instances must to created with
+      :meth:`~SSLContext.wrap_bio`. In earlier versions, it was possible to
+      create instances directly. This was never documented or officially
+      supported.
+
+An SSLObject communicates with the outside world using memory buffers. The
+class :class:`MemoryBIO` provides a memory buffer that can be used for this
+purpose.  It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO) object:
+
+.. class:: MemoryBIO
+
+   A memory buffer that can be used to pass data between Python and an SSL
+   protocol instance.
+
+   .. attribute:: MemoryBIO.pending
+
+      Return the number of bytes currently in the memory buffer.
+
+   .. attribute:: MemoryBIO.eof
+
+      A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the end-of-file
+      position.
+
+   .. method:: MemoryBIO.read(n=-1)
+
+      Read up to *n* bytes from the memory buffer. If *n* is not specified or
+      negative, all bytes are returned.
+
+   .. method:: MemoryBIO.write(buf)
+
+      Write the bytes from *buf* to the memory BIO. The *buf* argument must be an
+      object supporting the buffer protocol.
+
+      The return value is the number of bytes written, which is always equal to
+      the length of *buf*.
+
+   .. method:: MemoryBIO.write_eof()
+
+      Write an EOF marker to the memory BIO. After this method has been called, it
+      is illegal to call :meth:`~MemoryBIO.write`. The attribute :attr:`eof` will
+      become true after all data currently in the buffer has been read.
+
+
+SSL session
+-----------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. class:: SSLSession
+
+   Session object used by :attr:`~SSLSocket.session`.
+
+   .. attribute:: id
+   .. attribute:: time
+   .. attribute:: timeout
+   .. attribute:: ticket_lifetime_hint
+   .. attribute:: has_ticket
+
+
+.. _ssl-security:
+
+Security considerations
+-----------------------
+
+Best defaults
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+For **client use**, if you don't have any special requirements for your
+security policy, it is highly recommended that you use the
+:func:`create_default_context` function to create your SSL context.
+It will load the system's trusted CA certificates, enable certificate
+validation and hostname checking, and try to choose reasonably secure
+protocol and cipher settings.
+
+For example, here is how you would use the :class:`smtplib.SMTP` class to
+create a trusted, secure connection to a SMTP server::
+
+   >>> import ssl, smtplib
+   >>> smtp = smtplib.SMTP("mail.python.org", port=587)
+   >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
+   >>> smtp.starttls(context=context)
+   (220, b'2.0.0 Ready to start TLS')
+
+If a client certificate is needed for the connection, it can be added with
+:meth:`SSLContext.load_cert_chain`.
+
+By contrast, if you create the SSL context by calling the :class:`SSLContext`
+constructor yourself, it will not have certificate validation nor hostname
+checking enabled by default.  If you do so, please read the paragraphs below
+to achieve a good security level.
+
+Manual settings
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Verifying certificates
+''''''''''''''''''''''
+
+When calling the :class:`SSLContext` constructor directly,
+:const:`CERT_NONE` is the default.  Since it does not authenticate the other
+peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of time you
+would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you're talking to.
+Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to use
+:const:`CERT_REQUIRED`.  However, it is in itself not sufficient; you also
+have to check that the server certificate, which can be obtained by calling
+:meth:`SSLSocket.getpeercert`, matches the desired service.  For many
+protocols and applications, the service can be identified by the hostname;
+in this case, the :func:`match_hostname` function can be used.  This common
+check is automatically performed when :attr:`SSLContext.check_hostname` is
+enabled.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Hostname matchings is now performed by OpenSSL. Python no longer uses
+   :func:`match_hostname`.
+
+In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL layer
+(rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism), you'll also have
+to specify :const:`CERT_REQUIRED` and similarly check the client certificate.
+
+
+Protocol versions
+'''''''''''''''''
+
+SSL versions 2 and 3 are considered insecure and are therefore dangerous to
+use.  If you want maximum compatibility between clients and servers, it is
+recommended to use :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT` or
+:const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER` as the protocol version. SSLv2 and SSLv3 are
+disabled by default.
+
+::
+
+   >>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
+   >>> client_context.options |= ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1
+   >>> client_context.options |= ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1
+
+
+The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.2 and later (if
+supported by your system) connections to a server. :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT`
+implies certificate validation and hostname checks by default. You have to
+load certificates into the context.
+
+
+Cipher selection
+''''''''''''''''
+
+If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers
+enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the
+:meth:`SSLContext.set_ciphers` method.  Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
+ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want
+to further restrict the cipher choice. Be sure to read OpenSSL's documentation
+about the `cipher list format <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT>`_.
+If you want to check which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use
+:meth:`SSLContext.get_ciphers` or the ``openssl ciphers`` command on your
+system.
+
+Multi-processing
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using,
+for example the :mod:`multiprocessing` or :mod:`concurrent.futures` modules),
+be aware that OpenSSL's internal random number generator does not properly
+handle forked processes.  Applications must change the PRNG state of the
+parent process if they use any SSL feature with :func:`os.fork`.  Any
+successful call of :func:`~ssl.RAND_add`, :func:`~ssl.RAND_bytes` or
+:func:`~ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes` is sufficient.
+
+
+.. _ssl-tlsv1_3:
+
+TLS 1.3
+-------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+Python has provisional and experimental support for TLS 1.3 with OpenSSL
+1.1.1.  The new protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version
+of TLS/SSL.  Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.
+
+- TLS 1.3 uses a disjunct set of cipher suites. All AES-GCM and
+  ChaCha20 cipher suites are enabled by default.  The method
+  :meth:`SSLContext.set_ciphers` cannot enable or disable any TLS 1.3
+  ciphers yet, but :meth:`SSLContext.get_ciphers` returns them.
+- Session tickets are no longer sent as part of the initial handshake and
+  are handled differently.  :attr:`SSLSocket.session` and :class:`SSLSession`
+  are not compatible with TLS 1.3.
+- Client-side certificates are also no longer verified during the initial
+  handshake.  A server can request a certificate at any time.  Clients
+  process certificate requests while they send or receive application data
+  from the server.
+- TLS 1.3 features like early data, deferred TLS client cert request,
+  signature algorithm configuration, and rekeying are not supported yet.
+
+
+.. _ssl-libressl:
+
+LibreSSL support
+----------------
+
+LibreSSL is a fork of OpenSSL 1.0.1. The ssl module has limited support for
+LibreSSL. Some features are not available when the ssl module is compiled
+with LibreSSL.
+
+* LibreSSL >= 2.6.1 no longer supports NPN. The methods
+  :meth:`SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` and
+  :meth:`SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol` are not available.
+* :meth:`SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths` ignores the env vars
+  :envvar:`SSL_CERT_FILE` and :envvar:`SSL_CERT_PATH` although
+  :func:`get_default_verify_paths` still reports them.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Class :class:`socket.socket`
+       Documentation of underlying :mod:`socket` class
+
+   `SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction <https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html>`_
+       Intro from the Apache HTTP Server documentation
+
+   :rfc:`RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management <1422>`
+       Steve Kent
+
+   :rfc:`RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security <4086>`
+       Donald E., Jeffrey I. Schiller
+
+   :rfc:`RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile <5280>`
+       D. Cooper
+
+   :rfc:`RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2 <5246>`
+       T. Dierks et. al.
+
+   :rfc:`RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions <6066>`
+       D. Eastlake
+
+   `IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters <https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml>`_
+       IANA
+
+   :rfc:`RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) <7525>`
+       IETF
+
+   `Mozilla's Server Side TLS recommendations <https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS>`_
+       Mozilla
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stat.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stat.rst.txt
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,427 @@
+:mod:`stat` --- Interpreting :func:`~os.stat` results
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: stat
+   :synopsis: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(),
+              os.lstat() and os.fstat().
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@automatrix.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/stat.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`stat` module defines constants and functions for interpreting the
+results of :func:`os.stat`, :func:`os.fstat` and :func:`os.lstat` (if they
+exist).  For complete details about the :c:func:`stat`, :c:func:`fstat` and
+:c:func:`lstat` calls, consult the documentation for your system.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The stat module is backed by a C implementation.
+
+The :mod:`stat` module defines the following functions to test for specific file
+types:
+
+
+.. function:: S_ISDIR(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a directory.
+
+
+.. function:: S_ISCHR(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a character special device file.
+
+
+.. function:: S_ISBLK(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a block special device file.
+
+
+.. function:: S_ISREG(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a regular file.
+
+
+.. function:: S_ISFIFO(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a FIFO (named pipe).
+
+
+.. function:: S_ISLNK(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a symbolic link.
+
+
+.. function:: S_ISSOCK(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a socket.
+
+.. function:: S_ISDOOR(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a door.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: S_ISPORT(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from an event port.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: S_ISWHT(mode)
+
+   Return non-zero if the mode is from a whiteout.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+Two additional functions are defined for more general manipulation of the file's
+mode:
+
+
+.. function:: S_IMODE(mode)
+
+   Return the portion of the file's mode that can be set by
+   :func:`os.chmod`\ ---that is, the file's permission bits, plus the sticky
+   bit, set-group-id, and set-user-id bits (on systems that support them).
+
+
+.. function:: S_IFMT(mode)
+
+   Return the portion of the file's mode that describes the file type (used by the
+   :func:`S_IS\*` functions above).
+
+Normally, you would use the :func:`os.path.is\*` functions for testing the type
+of a file; the functions here are useful when you are doing multiple tests of
+the same file and wish to avoid the overhead of the :c:func:`stat` system call
+for each test.  These are also useful when checking for information about a file
+that isn't handled by :mod:`os.path`, like the tests for block and character
+devices.
+
+Example::
+
+   import os, sys
+   from stat import *
+
+   def walktree(top, callback):
+       '''recursively descend the directory tree rooted at top,
+          calling the callback function for each regular file'''
+
+       for f in os.listdir(top):
+           pathname = os.path.join(top, f)
+           mode = os.stat(pathname).st_mode
+           if S_ISDIR(mode):
+               # It's a directory, recurse into it
+               walktree(pathname, callback)
+           elif S_ISREG(mode):
+               # It's a file, call the callback function
+               callback(pathname)
+           else:
+               # Unknown file type, print a message
+               print('Skipping %s' % pathname)
+
+   def visitfile(file):
+       print('visiting', file)
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile)
+
+An additional utility function is provided to convert a file's mode in a human
+readable string:
+
+.. function:: filemode(mode)
+
+   Convert a file's mode to a string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The function supports :data:`S_IFDOOR`, :data:`S_IFPORT` and
+      :data:`S_IFWHT`.
+
+
+All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple returned
+by :func:`os.stat`, :func:`os.fstat` or :func:`os.lstat`.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_MODE
+
+   Inode protection mode.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_INO
+
+   Inode number.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_DEV
+
+   Device inode resides on.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_NLINK
+
+   Number of links to the inode.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_UID
+
+   User id of the owner.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_GID
+
+   Group id of the owner.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_SIZE
+
+   Size in bytes of a plain file; amount of data waiting on some special files.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_ATIME
+
+   Time of last access.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_MTIME
+
+   Time of last modification.
+
+
+.. data:: ST_CTIME
+
+   The "ctime" as reported by the operating system.  On some systems (like Unix) is
+   the time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is the
+   creation time (see platform documentation for details).
+
+The interpretation of "file size" changes according to the file type.  For plain
+files this is the size of the file in bytes.  For FIFOs and sockets under most
+flavors of Unix (including Linux in particular), the "size" is the number of
+bytes waiting to be read at the time of the call to :func:`os.stat`,
+:func:`os.fstat`, or :func:`os.lstat`; this can sometimes be useful, especially
+for polling one of these special files after a non-blocking open.  The meaning
+of the size field for other character and block devices varies more, depending
+on the implementation of the underlying system call.
+
+The variables below define the flags used in the :data:`ST_MODE` field.
+
+Use of the functions above is more portable than use of the first set of flags:
+
+.. data:: S_IFSOCK
+
+   Socket.
+
+.. data:: S_IFLNK
+
+   Symbolic link.
+
+.. data:: S_IFREG
+
+   Regular file.
+
+.. data:: S_IFBLK
+
+   Block device.
+
+.. data:: S_IFDIR
+
+   Directory.
+
+.. data:: S_IFCHR
+
+   Character device.
+
+.. data:: S_IFIFO
+
+   FIFO.
+
+.. data:: S_IFDOOR
+
+   Door.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: S_IFPORT
+
+   Event port.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: S_IFWHT
+
+   Whiteout.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. note::
+
+   :data:`S_IFDOOR`, :data:`S_IFPORT` or :data:`S_IFWHT` are defined as
+   0 when the platform does not have support for the file types.
+
+The following flags can also be used in the *mode* argument of :func:`os.chmod`:
+
+.. data:: S_ISUID
+
+   Set UID bit.
+
+.. data:: S_ISGID
+
+   Set-group-ID bit.  This bit has several special uses.  For a directory
+   it indicates that BSD semantics is to be used for that directory:
+   files created there inherit their group ID from the directory, not
+   from the effective group ID of the creating process, and directories
+   created there will also get the :data:`S_ISGID` bit set.  For a
+   file that does not have the group execution bit (:data:`S_IXGRP`)
+   set, the set-group-ID bit indicates mandatory file/record locking
+   (see also :data:`S_ENFMT`).
+
+.. data:: S_ISVTX
+
+   Sticky bit.  When this bit is set on a directory it means that a file
+   in that directory can be renamed or deleted only by the owner of the
+   file, by the owner of the directory, or by a privileged process.
+
+.. data:: S_IRWXU
+
+   Mask for file owner permissions.
+
+.. data:: S_IRUSR
+
+   Owner has read permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IWUSR
+
+   Owner has write permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IXUSR
+
+   Owner has execute permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IRWXG
+
+   Mask for group permissions.
+
+.. data:: S_IRGRP
+
+   Group has read permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IWGRP
+
+   Group has write permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IXGRP
+
+   Group has execute permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IRWXO
+
+   Mask for permissions for others (not in group).
+
+.. data:: S_IROTH
+
+   Others have read permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IWOTH
+
+   Others have write permission.
+
+.. data:: S_IXOTH
+
+   Others have execute permission.
+
+.. data:: S_ENFMT
+
+   System V file locking enforcement.  This flag is shared with :data:`S_ISGID`:
+   file/record locking is enforced on files that do not have the group
+   execution bit (:data:`S_IXGRP`) set.
+
+.. data:: S_IREAD
+
+   Unix V7 synonym for :data:`S_IRUSR`.
+
+.. data:: S_IWRITE
+
+   Unix V7 synonym for :data:`S_IWUSR`.
+
+.. data:: S_IEXEC
+
+   Unix V7 synonym for :data:`S_IXUSR`.
+
+The following flags can be used in the *flags* argument of :func:`os.chflags`:
+
+.. data:: UF_NODUMP
+
+   Do not dump the file.
+
+.. data:: UF_IMMUTABLE
+
+   The file may not be changed.
+
+.. data:: UF_APPEND
+
+   The file may only be appended to.
+
+.. data:: UF_OPAQUE
+
+   The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack.
+
+.. data:: UF_NOUNLINK
+
+   The file may not be renamed or deleted.
+
+.. data:: UF_COMPRESSED
+
+   The file is stored compressed (Mac OS X 10.6+).
+
+.. data:: UF_HIDDEN
+
+   The file should not be displayed in a GUI (Mac OS X 10.5+).
+
+.. data:: SF_ARCHIVED
+
+   The file may be archived.
+
+.. data:: SF_IMMUTABLE
+
+   The file may not be changed.
+
+.. data:: SF_APPEND
+
+   The file may only be appended to.
+
+.. data:: SF_NOUNLINK
+
+   The file may not be renamed or deleted.
+
+.. data:: SF_SNAPSHOT
+
+   The file is a snapshot file.
+
+See the \*BSD or Mac OS systems man page :manpage:`chflags(2)` for more information.
+
+On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use when
+testing bits in the ``st_file_attributes`` member returned by :func:`os.stat`.
+See the `Windows API documentation
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx>`_
+for more detail on the meaning of these constants.
+
+.. data:: FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY
+          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/statistics.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/statistics.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,454 @@
+:mod:`statistics` --- Mathematical statistics functions
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: statistics
+   :synopsis: mathematical statistics functions
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Steven D'Aprano <steve+python@pearwood.info>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steven D'Aprano <steve+python@pearwood.info>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/statistics.py`
+
+.. testsetup:: *
+
+   from statistics import *
+   __name__ = '<doctest>'
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides functions for calculating mathematical statistics of
+numeric (:class:`Real`-valued) data.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Unless explicitly noted otherwise, these functions support :class:`int`,
+   :class:`float`, :class:`decimal.Decimal` and :class:`fractions.Fraction`.
+   Behaviour with other types (whether in the numeric tower or not) is
+   currently unsupported.  Mixed types are also undefined and
+   implementation-dependent.  If your input data consists of mixed types,
+   you may be able to use :func:`map` to ensure a consistent result, e.g.
+   ``map(float, input_data)``.
+
+Averages and measures of central location
+-----------------------------------------
+
+These functions calculate an average or typical value from a population
+or sample.
+
+=======================  =============================================
+:func:`mean`             Arithmetic mean ("average") of data.
+:func:`harmonic_mean`    Harmonic mean of data.
+:func:`median`           Median (middle value) of data.
+:func:`median_low`       Low median of data.
+:func:`median_high`      High median of data.
+:func:`median_grouped`   Median, or 50th percentile, of grouped data.
+:func:`mode`             Mode (most common value) of discrete data.
+=======================  =============================================
+
+Measures of spread
+------------------
+
+These functions calculate a measure of how much the population or sample
+tends to deviate from the typical or average values.
+
+=======================  =============================================
+:func:`pstdev`           Population standard deviation of data.
+:func:`pvariance`        Population variance of data.
+:func:`stdev`            Sample standard deviation of data.
+:func:`variance`         Sample variance of data.
+=======================  =============================================
+
+
+Function details
+----------------
+
+Note: The functions do not require the data given to them to be sorted.
+However, for reading convenience, most of the examples show sorted sequences.
+
+.. function:: mean(data)
+
+   Return the sample arithmetic mean of *data* which can be a sequence or iterator.
+
+   The arithmetic mean is the sum of the data divided by the number of data
+   points.  It is commonly called "the average", although it is only one of many
+   different mathematical averages.  It is a measure of the central location of
+   the data.
+
+   If *data* is empty, :exc:`StatisticsError` will be raised.
+
+   Some examples of use:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> mean([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
+      2.8
+      >>> mean([-1.0, 2.5, 3.25, 5.75])
+      2.625
+
+      >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
+      >>> mean([F(3, 7), F(1, 21), F(5, 3), F(1, 3)])
+      Fraction(13, 21)
+
+      >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
+      >>> mean([D("0.5"), D("0.75"), D("0.625"), D("0.375")])
+      Decimal('0.5625')
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The mean is strongly affected by outliers and is not a robust estimator
+      for central location: the mean is not necessarily a typical example of the
+      data points.  For more robust, although less efficient, measures of
+      central location, see :func:`median` and :func:`mode`.  (In this case,
+      "efficient" refers to statistical efficiency rather than computational
+      efficiency.)
+
+      The sample mean gives an unbiased estimate of the true population mean,
+      which means that, taken on average over all the possible samples,
+      ``mean(sample)`` converges on the true mean of the entire population.  If
+      *data* represents the entire population rather than a sample, then
+      ``mean(data)`` is equivalent to calculating the true population mean μ.
+
+
+.. function:: harmonic_mean(data)
+
+   Return the harmonic mean of *data*, a sequence or iterator of
+   real-valued numbers.
+
+   The harmonic mean, sometimes called the subcontrary mean, is the
+   reciprocal of the arithmetic :func:`mean` of the reciprocals of the
+   data. For example, the harmonic mean of three values *a*, *b* and *c*
+   will be equivalent to ``3/(1/a + 1/b + 1/c)``.
+
+   The harmonic mean is a type of average, a measure of the central
+   location of the data.  It is often appropriate when averaging quantities
+   which are rates or ratios, for example speeds. For example:
+
+   Suppose an investor purchases an equal value of shares in each of
+   three companies, with P/E (price/earning) ratios of 2.5, 3 and 10.
+   What is the average P/E ratio for the investor's portfolio?
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> harmonic_mean([2.5, 3, 10])  # For an equal investment portfolio.
+      3.6
+
+   Using the arithmetic mean would give an average of about 5.167, which
+   is too high.
+
+   :exc:`StatisticsError` is raised if *data* is empty, or any element
+   is less than zero.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. function:: median(data)
+
+   Return the median (middle value) of numeric data, using the common "mean of
+   middle two" method.  If *data* is empty, :exc:`StatisticsError` is raised.
+   *data* can be a sequence or iterator.
+
+   The median is a robust measure of central location, and is less affected by
+   the presence of outliers in your data.  When the number of data points is
+   odd, the middle data point is returned:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> median([1, 3, 5])
+      3
+
+   When the number of data points is even, the median is interpolated by taking
+   the average of the two middle values:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> median([1, 3, 5, 7])
+      4.0
+
+   This is suited for when your data is discrete, and you don't mind that the
+   median may not be an actual data point.
+
+   If your data is ordinal (supports order operations) but not numeric (doesn't
+   support addition), you should use :func:`median_low` or :func:`median_high`
+   instead.
+
+   .. seealso:: :func:`median_low`, :func:`median_high`, :func:`median_grouped`
+
+
+.. function:: median_low(data)
+
+   Return the low median of numeric data.  If *data* is empty,
+   :exc:`StatisticsError` is raised.  *data* can be a sequence or iterator.
+
+   The low median is always a member of the data set.  When the number of data
+   points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When it is even, the smaller of
+   the two middle values is returned.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> median_low([1, 3, 5])
+      3
+      >>> median_low([1, 3, 5, 7])
+      3
+
+   Use the low median when your data are discrete and you prefer the median to
+   be an actual data point rather than interpolated.
+
+
+.. function:: median_high(data)
+
+   Return the high median of data.  If *data* is empty, :exc:`StatisticsError`
+   is raised.  *data* can be a sequence or iterator.
+
+   The high median is always a member of the data set.  When the number of data
+   points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When it is even, the larger of
+   the two middle values is returned.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> median_high([1, 3, 5])
+      3
+      >>> median_high([1, 3, 5, 7])
+      5
+
+   Use the high median when your data are discrete and you prefer the median to
+   be an actual data point rather than interpolated.
+
+
+.. function:: median_grouped(data, interval=1)
+
+   Return the median of grouped continuous data, calculated as the 50th
+   percentile, using interpolation.  If *data* is empty, :exc:`StatisticsError`
+   is raised.  *data* can be a sequence or iterator.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> median_grouped([52, 52, 53, 54])
+      52.5
+
+   In the following example, the data are rounded, so that each value represents
+   the midpoint of data classes, e.g. 1 is the midpoint of the class 0.5--1.5, 2
+   is the midpoint of 1.5--2.5, 3 is the midpoint of 2.5--3.5, etc.  With the data
+   given, the middle value falls somewhere in the class 3.5--4.5, and
+   interpolation is used to estimate it:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> median_grouped([1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5])
+      3.7
+
+   Optional argument *interval* represents the class interval, and defaults
+   to 1.  Changing the class interval naturally will change the interpolation:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> median_grouped([1, 3, 3, 5, 7], interval=1)
+      3.25
+      >>> median_grouped([1, 3, 3, 5, 7], interval=2)
+      3.5
+
+   This function does not check whether the data points are at least
+   *interval* apart.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      Under some circumstances, :func:`median_grouped` may coerce data points to
+      floats.  This behaviour is likely to change in the future.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      * "Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences", Frederick J Gravetter and
+        Larry B Wallnau (8th Edition).
+
+      * The `SSMEDIAN
+        <https://help.gnome.org/users/gnumeric/stable/gnumeric.html#gnumeric-function-SSMEDIAN>`_
+        function in the Gnome Gnumeric spreadsheet, including `this discussion
+        <https://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnumeric-list/2011-April/msg00018.html>`_.
+
+
+.. function:: mode(data)
+
+   Return the most common data point from discrete or nominal *data*.  The mode
+   (when it exists) is the most typical value, and is a robust measure of
+   central location.
+
+   If *data* is empty, or if there is not exactly one most common value,
+   :exc:`StatisticsError` is raised.
+
+   ``mode`` assumes discrete data, and returns a single value. This is the
+   standard treatment of the mode as commonly taught in schools:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> mode([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
+      3
+
+   The mode is unique in that it is the only statistic which also applies
+   to nominal (non-numeric) data:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
+      'red'
+
+
+.. function:: pstdev(data, mu=None)
+
+   Return the population standard deviation (the square root of the population
+   variance).  See :func:`pvariance` for arguments and other details.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> pstdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
+      0.986893273527251
+
+
+.. function:: pvariance(data, mu=None)
+
+   Return the population variance of *data*, a non-empty iterable of real-valued
+   numbers.  Variance, or second moment about the mean, is a measure of the
+   variability (spread or dispersion) of data.  A large variance indicates that
+   the data is spread out; a small variance indicates it is clustered closely
+   around the mean.
+
+   If the optional second argument *mu* is given, it should be the mean of
+   *data*.  If it is missing or ``None`` (the default), the mean is
+   automatically calculated.
+
+   Use this function to calculate the variance from the entire population.  To
+   estimate the variance from a sample, the :func:`variance` function is usually
+   a better choice.
+
+   Raises :exc:`StatisticsError` if *data* is empty.
+
+   Examples:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> data = [0.0, 0.25, 0.25, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.75, 3.25]
+      >>> pvariance(data)
+      1.25
+
+   If you have already calculated the mean of your data, you can pass it as the
+   optional second argument *mu* to avoid recalculation:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> mu = mean(data)
+      >>> pvariance(data, mu)
+      1.25
+
+   This function does not attempt to verify that you have passed the actual mean
+   as *mu*.  Using arbitrary values for *mu* may lead to invalid or impossible
+   results.
+
+   Decimals and Fractions are supported:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
+      >>> pvariance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
+      Decimal('24.815')
+
+      >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
+      >>> pvariance([F(1, 4), F(5, 4), F(1, 2)])
+      Fraction(13, 72)
+
+   .. note::
+
+      When called with the entire population, this gives the population variance
+      σ².  When called on a sample instead, this is the biased sample variance
+      s², also known as variance with N degrees of freedom.
+
+      If you somehow know the true population mean μ, you may use this function
+      to calculate the variance of a sample, giving the known population mean as
+      the second argument.  Provided the data points are representative
+      (e.g. independent and identically distributed), the result will be an
+      unbiased estimate of the population variance.
+
+
+.. function:: stdev(data, xbar=None)
+
+   Return the sample standard deviation (the square root of the sample
+   variance).  See :func:`variance` for arguments and other details.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> stdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
+      1.0810874155219827
+
+
+.. function:: variance(data, xbar=None)
+
+   Return the sample variance of *data*, an iterable of at least two real-valued
+   numbers.  Variance, or second moment about the mean, is a measure of the
+   variability (spread or dispersion) of data.  A large variance indicates that
+   the data is spread out; a small variance indicates it is clustered closely
+   around the mean.
+
+   If the optional second argument *xbar* is given, it should be the mean of
+   *data*.  If it is missing or ``None`` (the default), the mean is
+   automatically calculated.
+
+   Use this function when your data is a sample from a population. To calculate
+   the variance from the entire population, see :func:`pvariance`.
+
+   Raises :exc:`StatisticsError` if *data* has fewer than two values.
+
+   Examples:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
+      >>> variance(data)
+      1.3720238095238095
+
+   If you have already calculated the mean of your data, you can pass it as the
+   optional second argument *xbar* to avoid recalculation:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> m = mean(data)
+      >>> variance(data, m)
+      1.3720238095238095
+
+   This function does not attempt to verify that you have passed the actual mean
+   as *xbar*.  Using arbitrary values for *xbar* can lead to invalid or
+   impossible results.
+
+   Decimal and Fraction values are supported:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
+      >>> variance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
+      Decimal('31.01875')
+
+      >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
+      >>> variance([F(1, 6), F(1, 2), F(5, 3)])
+      Fraction(67, 108)
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This is the sample variance s² with Bessel's correction, also known as
+      variance with N-1 degrees of freedom.  Provided that the data points are
+      representative (e.g. independent and identically distributed), the result
+      should be an unbiased estimate of the true population variance.
+
+      If you somehow know the actual population mean μ you should pass it to the
+      :func:`pvariance` function as the *mu* parameter to get the variance of a
+      sample.
+
+Exceptions
+----------
+
+A single exception is defined:
+
+.. exception:: StatisticsError
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`ValueError` for statistics-related exceptions.
+
+..
+   # This modelines must appear within the last ten lines of the file.
+   kate: indent-width 3; remove-trailing-space on; replace-tabs on; encoding utf-8;
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stdtypes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stdtypes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d35c171
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stdtypes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4744 @@
+.. XXX: reference/datamodel and this have quite a few overlaps!
+
+
+.. _bltin-types:
+
+**************
+Built-in Types
+**************
+
+The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the
+interpreter.
+
+.. index:: pair: built-in; types
+
+The principal built-in types are numerics, sequences, mappings, classes,
+instances and exceptions.
+
+Some collection classes are mutable.  The methods that add, subtract, or
+rearrange their members in place, and don't return a specific item, never return
+the collection instance itself but ``None``.
+
+Some operations are supported by several object types; in particular,
+practically all objects can be compared, tested for truth value, and converted
+to a string (with the :func:`repr` function or the slightly different
+:func:`str` function).  The latter function is implicitly used when an object is
+written by the :func:`print` function.
+
+
+.. _truth:
+
+Truth Value Testing
+===================
+
+.. index::
+   statement: if
+   statement: while
+   pair: truth; value
+   pair: Boolean; operations
+   single: false
+
+Any object can be tested for truth value, for use in an :keyword:`if` or
+:keyword:`while` condition or as operand of the Boolean operations below.
+
+.. index:: single: true
+
+By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either a
+:meth:`__bool__` method that returns ``False`` or a :meth:`__len__` method that
+returns zero, when called with the object. [1]_  Here are most of the built-in
+objects considered false:
+
+  .. index::
+     single: None (Built-in object)
+     single: False (Built-in object)
+
+* constants defined to be false: ``None`` and ``False``.
+
+* zero of any numeric type: ``0``, ``0.0``, ``0j``, ``Decimal(0)``,
+  ``Fraction(0, 1)``
+
+* empty sequences and collections: ``''``, ``()``, ``[]``, ``{}``, ``set()``,
+  ``range(0)``
+
+.. index::
+   operator: or
+   operator: and
+   single: False
+   single: True
+
+Operations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always return ``0``
+or ``False`` for false and ``1`` or ``True`` for true, unless otherwise stated.
+(Important exception: the Boolean operations ``or`` and ``and`` always return
+one of their operands.)
+
+
+.. _boolean:
+
+Boolean Operations --- :keyword:`!and`, :keyword:`!or`, :keyword:`!not`
+=======================================================================
+
+.. index:: pair: Boolean; operations
+
+These are the Boolean operations, ordered by ascending priority:
+
++-------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| Operation   | Result                          | Notes |
++=============+=================================+=======+
+| ``x or y``  | if *x* is false, then *y*, else | \(1)  |
+|             | *x*                             |       |
++-------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``x and y`` | if *x* is false, then *x*, else | \(2)  |
+|             | *y*                             |       |
++-------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``not x``   | if *x* is false, then ``True``, | \(3)  |
+|             | else ``False``                  |       |
++-------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+
+.. index::
+   operator: and
+   operator: or
+   operator: not
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second
+   argument if the first one is false.
+
+(2)
+   This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second
+   argument if the first one is true.
+
+(3)
+   ``not`` has a lower priority than non-Boolean operators, so ``not a == b`` is
+   interpreted as ``not (a == b)``, and ``a == not b`` is a syntax error.
+
+
+.. _stdcomparisons:
+
+Comparisons
+===========
+
+.. index::
+   pair: chaining; comparisons
+   pair: operator; comparison
+   operator: ==
+   operator: < (less)
+   operator: <=
+   operator: > (greater)
+   operator: >=
+   operator: !=
+   operator: is
+   operator: is not
+
+There are eight comparison operations in Python.  They all have the same
+priority (which is higher than that of the Boolean operations).  Comparisons can
+be chained arbitrarily; for example, ``x < y <= z`` is equivalent to ``x < y and
+y <= z``, except that *y* is evaluated only once (but in both cases *z* is not
+evaluated at all when ``x < y`` is found to be false).
+
+This table summarizes the comparison operations:
+
++------------+-------------------------+
+| Operation  | Meaning                 |
++============+=========================+
+| ``<``      | strictly less than      |
++------------+-------------------------+
+| ``<=``     | less than or equal      |
++------------+-------------------------+
+| ``>``      | strictly greater than   |
++------------+-------------------------+
+| ``>=``     | greater than or equal   |
++------------+-------------------------+
+| ``==``     | equal                   |
++------------+-------------------------+
+| ``!=``     | not equal               |
++------------+-------------------------+
+| ``is``     | object identity         |
++------------+-------------------------+
+| ``is not`` | negated object identity |
++------------+-------------------------+
+
+.. index::
+   pair: object; numeric
+   pair: objects; comparing
+
+Objects of different types, except different numeric types, never compare equal.
+Furthermore, some types (for example, function objects) support only a degenerate
+notion of comparison where any two objects of that type are unequal.  The ``<``,
+``<=``, ``>`` and ``>=`` operators will raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception when
+comparing a complex number with another built-in numeric type, when the objects
+are of different types that cannot be compared, or in other cases where there is
+no defined ordering.
+
+.. index::
+   single: __eq__() (instance method)
+   single: __ne__() (instance method)
+   single: __lt__() (instance method)
+   single: __le__() (instance method)
+   single: __gt__() (instance method)
+   single: __ge__() (instance method)
+
+Non-identical instances of a class normally compare as non-equal unless the
+class defines the :meth:`__eq__` method.
+
+Instances of a class cannot be ordered with respect to other instances of the
+same class, or other types of object, unless the class defines enough of the
+methods :meth:`__lt__`, :meth:`__le__`, :meth:`__gt__`, and :meth:`__ge__` (in
+general, :meth:`__lt__` and :meth:`__eq__` are sufficient, if you want the
+conventional meanings of the comparison operators).
+
+The behavior of the :keyword:`is` and :keyword:`is not` operators cannot be
+customized; also they can be applied to any two objects and never raise an
+exception.
+
+.. index::
+   operator: in
+   operator: not in
+
+Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, :keyword:`in` and
+:keyword:`not in`, are supported by types that are :term:`iterable` or
+implement the :meth:`__contains__` method.
+
+.. _typesnumeric:
+
+Numeric Types --- :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`complex`
+================================================================
+
+.. index::
+   object: numeric
+   object: Boolean
+   object: integer
+   object: floating point
+   object: complex number
+   pair: C; language
+
+There are three distinct numeric types: :dfn:`integers`, :dfn:`floating
+point numbers`, and :dfn:`complex numbers`.  In addition, Booleans are a
+subtype of integers.  Integers have unlimited precision.  Floating point
+numbers are usually implemented using :c:type:`double` in C; information
+about the precision and internal representation of floating point
+numbers for the machine on which your program is running is available
+in :data:`sys.float_info`.  Complex numbers have a real and imaginary
+part, which are each a floating point number.  To extract these parts
+from a complex number *z*, use ``z.real`` and ``z.imag``. (The standard
+library includes additional numeric types, :mod:`fractions` that hold
+rationals, and :mod:`decimal` that hold floating-point numbers with
+user-definable precision.)
+
+.. index::
+   pair: numeric; literals
+   pair: integer; literals
+   pair: floating point; literals
+   pair: complex number; literals
+   pair: hexadecimal; literals
+   pair: octal; literals
+   pair: binary; literals
+
+Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in functions
+and operators.  Unadorned integer literals (including hex, octal and binary
+numbers) yield integers.  Numeric literals containing a decimal point or an
+exponent sign yield floating point numbers.  Appending ``'j'`` or ``'J'`` to a
+numeric literal yields an imaginary number (a complex number with a zero real
+part) which you can add to an integer or float to get a complex number with real
+and imaginary parts.
+
+.. index::
+   single: arithmetic
+   builtin: int
+   builtin: float
+   builtin: complex
+   single: operator; + (plus)
+   single: + (plus); unary operator
+   single: + (plus); binary operator
+   single: operator; - (minus)
+   single: - (minus); unary operator
+   single: - (minus); binary operator
+   operator: * (asterisk)
+   operator: / (slash)
+   operator: //
+   operator: % (percent)
+   operator: **
+
+Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic operator has
+operands of different numeric types, the operand with the "narrower" type is
+widened to that of the other, where integer is narrower than floating point,
+which is narrower than complex.  Comparisons between numbers of mixed type use
+the same rule. [2]_ The constructors :func:`int`, :func:`float`, and
+:func:`complex` can be used to produce numbers of a specific type.
+
+All numeric types (except complex) support the following operations, sorted by
+ascending priority (all numeric operations have a higher priority than
+comparison operations):
+
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| Operation           | Result                          | Notes   | Full documentation |
++=====================+=================================+=========+====================+
+| ``x + y``           | sum of *x* and *y*              |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``x - y``           | difference of *x* and *y*       |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``x * y``           | product of *x* and *y*          |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``x / y``           | quotient of *x* and *y*         |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``x // y``          | floored quotient of *x* and     | \(1)    |                    |
+|                     | *y*                             |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``x % y``           | remainder of ``x / y``          | \(2)    |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``-x``              | *x* negated                     |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``+x``              | *x* unchanged                   |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``abs(x)``          | absolute value or magnitude of  |         | :func:`abs`        |
+|                     | *x*                             |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``int(x)``          | *x* converted to integer        | \(3)\(6)| :func:`int`        |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``float(x)``        | *x* converted to floating point | \(4)\(6)| :func:`float`      |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``complex(re, im)`` | a complex number with real part | \(6)    | :func:`complex`    |
+|                     | *re*, imaginary part *im*.      |         |                    |
+|                     | *im* defaults to zero.          |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+|  ``c.conjugate()``  | conjugate of the complex number |         |                    |
+|                     | *c*                             |         |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``divmod(x, y)``    | the pair ``(x // y, x % y)``    | \(2)    | :func:`divmod`     |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``pow(x, y)``       | *x* to the power *y*            | \(5)    | :func:`pow`        |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+| ``x ** y``          | *x* to the power *y*            | \(5)    |                    |
++---------------------+---------------------------------+---------+--------------------+
+
+.. index::
+   triple: operations on; numeric; types
+   single: conjugate() (complex number method)
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   Also referred to as integer division.  The resultant value is a whole
+   integer, though the result's type is not necessarily int.  The result is
+   always rounded towards minus infinity: ``1//2`` is ``0``, ``(-1)//2`` is
+   ``-1``, ``1//(-2)`` is ``-1``, and ``(-1)//(-2)`` is ``0``.
+
+(2)
+   Not for complex numbers.  Instead convert to floats using :func:`abs` if
+   appropriate.
+
+(3)
+   .. index::
+      module: math
+      single: floor() (in module math)
+      single: ceil() (in module math)
+      single: trunc() (in module math)
+      pair: numeric; conversions
+      pair: C; language
+
+   Conversion from floating point to integer may round or truncate
+   as in C; see functions :func:`math.floor` and :func:`math.ceil` for
+   well-defined conversions.
+
+(4)
+   float also accepts the strings "nan" and "inf" with an optional prefix "+"
+   or "-" for Not a Number (NaN) and positive or negative infinity.
+
+(5)
+   Python defines ``pow(0, 0)`` and ``0 ** 0`` to be ``1``, as is common for
+   programming languages.
+
+(6)
+   The numeric literals accepted include the digits ``0`` to ``9`` or any
+   Unicode equivalent (code points with the ``Nd`` property).
+
+   See http://www.unicode.org/Public/10.0.0/ucd/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt
+   for a complete list of code points with the ``Nd`` property.
+
+
+All :class:`numbers.Real` types (:class:`int` and :class:`float`) also include
+the following operations:
+
++--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| Operation          | Result                                      |
++====================+=============================================+
+| :func:`math.trunc(\| *x* truncated to :class:`~numbers.Integral` |
+| x) <math.trunc>`   |                                             |
++--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| :func:`round(x[,   | *x* rounded to *n* digits,                  |
+| n]) <round>`       | rounding half to even. If *n* is            |
+|                    | omitted, it defaults to 0.                  |
++--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| :func:`math.floor(\| the greatest :class:`~numbers.Integral`     |
+| x) <math.floor>`   | <= *x*                                      |
++--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+| :func:`math.ceil(x)| the least :class:`~numbers.Integral` >= *x* |
+| <math.ceil>`       |                                             |
++--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+For additional numeric operations see the :mod:`math` and :mod:`cmath`
+modules.
+
+.. XXXJH exceptions: overflow (when? what operations?) zerodivision
+
+
+.. _bitstring-ops:
+
+Bitwise Operations on Integer Types
+-----------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   triple: operations on; integer; types
+   pair: bitwise; operations
+   pair: shifting; operations
+   pair: masking; operations
+   operator: | (vertical bar)
+   operator: ^ (caret)
+   operator: & (ampersand)
+   operator: <<
+   operator: >>
+   operator: ~ (tilde)
+
+Bitwise operations only make sense for integers. The result of bitwise
+operations is calculated as though carried out in two's complement with an
+infinite number of sign bits.
+
+The priorities of the binary bitwise operations are all lower than the numeric
+operations and higher than the comparisons; the unary operation ``~`` has the
+same priority as the other unary numeric operations (``+`` and ``-``).
+
+This table lists the bitwise operations sorted in ascending priority:
+
++------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| Operation  | Result                         | Notes    |
++============+================================+==========+
+| ``x | y``  | bitwise :dfn:`or` of *x* and   | \(4)     |
+|            | *y*                            |          |
++------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``x ^ y``  | bitwise :dfn:`exclusive or` of | \(4)     |
+|            | *x* and *y*                    |          |
++------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``x & y``  | bitwise :dfn:`and` of *x* and  | \(4)     |
+|            | *y*                            |          |
++------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``x << n`` | *x* shifted left by *n* bits   | (1)(2)   |
++------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``x >> n`` | *x* shifted right by *n* bits  | (1)(3)   |
++------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``~x``     | the bits of *x* inverted       |          |
++------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   Negative shift counts are illegal and cause a :exc:`ValueError` to be raised.
+
+(2)
+   A left shift by *n* bits is equivalent to multiplication by ``pow(2, n)``
+   without overflow check.
+
+(3)
+   A right shift by *n* bits is equivalent to division by ``pow(2, n)`` without
+   overflow check.
+
+(4)
+   Performing these calculations with at least one extra sign extension bit in
+   a finite two's complement representation (a working bit-width of
+   ``1 + max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length())`` or more) is sufficient to get the
+   same result as if there were an infinite number of sign bits.
+
+
+Additional Methods on Integer Types
+-----------------------------------
+
+The int type implements the :class:`numbers.Integral` :term:`abstract base
+class`. In addition, it provides a few more methods:
+
+.. method:: int.bit_length()
+
+    Return the number of bits necessary to represent an integer in binary,
+    excluding the sign and leading zeros::
+
+        >>> n = -37
+        >>> bin(n)
+        '-0b100101'
+        >>> n.bit_length()
+        6
+
+    More precisely, if ``x`` is nonzero, then ``x.bit_length()`` is the
+    unique positive integer ``k`` such that ``2**(k-1) <= abs(x) < 2**k``.
+    Equivalently, when ``abs(x)`` is small enough to have a correctly
+    rounded logarithm, then ``k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2))``.
+    If ``x`` is zero, then ``x.bit_length()`` returns ``0``.
+
+    Equivalent to::
+
+        def bit_length(self):
+            s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
+            s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
+            return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+.. method:: int.to_bytes(length, byteorder, \*, signed=False)
+
+    Return an array of bytes representing an integer.
+
+        >>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
+        b'\x04\x00'
+        >>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
+        b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
+        >>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
+        b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
+        >>> x = 1000
+        >>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
+        b'\xe8\x03'
+
+    The integer is represented using *length* bytes.  An :exc:`OverflowError`
+    is raised if the integer is not representable with the given number of
+    bytes.
+
+    The *byteorder* argument determines the byte order used to represent the
+    integer.  If *byteorder* is ``"big"``, the most significant byte is at the
+    beginning of the byte array.  If *byteorder* is ``"little"``, the most
+    significant byte is at the end of the byte array.  To request the native
+    byte order of the host system, use :data:`sys.byteorder` as the byte order
+    value.
+
+    The *signed* argument determines whether two's complement is used to
+    represent the integer.  If *signed* is ``False`` and a negative integer is
+    given, an :exc:`OverflowError` is raised. The default value for *signed*
+    is ``False``.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. classmethod:: int.from_bytes(bytes, byteorder, \*, signed=False)
+
+    Return the integer represented by the given array of bytes.
+
+        >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='big')
+        16
+        >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='little')
+        4096
+        >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=True)
+        -1024
+        >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=False)
+        64512
+        >>> int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder='big')
+        16711680
+
+    The argument *bytes* must either be a :term:`bytes-like object` or an
+    iterable producing bytes.
+
+    The *byteorder* argument determines the byte order used to represent the
+    integer.  If *byteorder* is ``"big"``, the most significant byte is at the
+    beginning of the byte array.  If *byteorder* is ``"little"``, the most
+    significant byte is at the end of the byte array.  To request the native
+    byte order of the host system, use :data:`sys.byteorder` as the byte order
+    value.
+
+    The *signed* argument indicates whether two's complement is used to
+    represent the integer.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+Additional Methods on Float
+---------------------------
+
+The float type implements the :class:`numbers.Real` :term:`abstract base
+class`. float also has the following additional methods.
+
+.. method:: float.as_integer_ratio()
+
+   Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the
+   original float and with a positive denominator.  Raises
+   :exc:`OverflowError` on infinities and a :exc:`ValueError` on
+   NaNs.
+
+.. method:: float.is_integer()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the float instance is finite with integral
+   value, and ``False`` otherwise::
+
+      >>> (-2.0).is_integer()
+      True
+      >>> (3.2).is_integer()
+      False
+
+Two methods support conversion to
+and from hexadecimal strings.  Since Python's floats are stored
+internally as binary numbers, converting a float to or from a
+*decimal* string usually involves a small rounding error.  In
+contrast, hexadecimal strings allow exact representation and
+specification of floating-point numbers.  This can be useful when
+debugging, and in numerical work.
+
+
+.. method:: float.hex()
+
+   Return a representation of a floating-point number as a hexadecimal
+   string.  For finite floating-point numbers, this representation
+   will always include a leading ``0x`` and a trailing ``p`` and
+   exponent.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: float.fromhex(s)
+
+   Class method to return the float represented by a hexadecimal
+   string *s*.  The string *s* may have leading and trailing
+   whitespace.
+
+
+Note that :meth:`float.hex` is an instance method, while
+:meth:`float.fromhex` is a class method.
+
+A hexadecimal string takes the form::
+
+   [sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]
+
+where the optional ``sign`` may by either ``+`` or ``-``, ``integer``
+and ``fraction`` are strings of hexadecimal digits, and ``exponent``
+is a decimal integer with an optional leading sign.  Case is not
+significant, and there must be at least one hexadecimal digit in
+either the integer or the fraction.  This syntax is similar to the
+syntax specified in section 6.4.4.2 of the C99 standard, and also to
+the syntax used in Java 1.5 onwards.  In particular, the output of
+:meth:`float.hex` is usable as a hexadecimal floating-point literal in
+C or Java code, and hexadecimal strings produced by C's ``%a`` format
+character or Java's ``Double.toHexString`` are accepted by
+:meth:`float.fromhex`.
+
+
+Note that the exponent is written in decimal rather than hexadecimal,
+and that it gives the power of 2 by which to multiply the coefficient.
+For example, the hexadecimal string ``0x3.a7p10`` represents the
+floating-point number ``(3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) * 2.0**10``, or
+``3740.0``::
+
+   >>> float.fromhex('0x3.a7p10')
+   3740.0
+
+
+Applying the reverse conversion to ``3740.0`` gives a different
+hexadecimal string representing the same number::
+
+   >>> float.hex(3740.0)
+   '0x1.d380000000000p+11'
+
+
+.. _numeric-hash:
+
+Hashing of numeric types
+------------------------
+
+For numbers ``x`` and ``y``, possibly of different types, it's a requirement
+that ``hash(x) == hash(y)`` whenever ``x == y`` (see the :meth:`__hash__`
+method documentation for more details).  For ease of implementation and
+efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including :class:`int`,
+:class:`float`, :class:`decimal.Decimal` and :class:`fractions.Fraction`)
+Python's hash for numeric types is based on a single mathematical function
+that's defined for any rational number, and hence applies to all instances of
+:class:`int` and :class:`fractions.Fraction`, and all finite instances of
+:class:`float` and :class:`decimal.Decimal`.  Essentially, this function is
+given by reduction modulo ``P`` for a fixed prime ``P``.  The value of ``P`` is
+made available to Python as the :attr:`modulus` attribute of
+:data:`sys.hash_info`.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   Currently, the prime used is ``P = 2**31 - 1`` on machines with 32-bit C
+   longs and ``P = 2**61 - 1`` on machines with 64-bit C longs.
+
+Here are the rules in detail:
+
+- If ``x = m / n`` is a nonnegative rational number and ``n`` is not divisible
+  by ``P``, define ``hash(x)`` as ``m * invmod(n, P) % P``, where ``invmod(n,
+  P)`` gives the inverse of ``n`` modulo ``P``.
+
+- If ``x = m / n`` is a nonnegative rational number and ``n`` is
+  divisible by ``P`` (but ``m`` is not) then ``n`` has no inverse
+  modulo ``P`` and the rule above doesn't apply; in this case define
+  ``hash(x)`` to be the constant value ``sys.hash_info.inf``.
+
+- If ``x = m / n`` is a negative rational number define ``hash(x)``
+  as ``-hash(-x)``.  If the resulting hash is ``-1``, replace it with
+  ``-2``.
+
+- The particular values ``sys.hash_info.inf``, ``-sys.hash_info.inf``
+  and ``sys.hash_info.nan`` are used as hash values for positive
+  infinity, negative infinity, or nans (respectively).  (All hashable
+  nans have the same hash value.)
+
+- For a :class:`complex` number ``z``, the hash values of the real
+  and imaginary parts are combined by computing ``hash(z.real) +
+  sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)``, reduced modulo
+  ``2**sys.hash_info.width`` so that it lies in
+  ``range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width -
+  1))``.  Again, if the result is ``-1``, it's replaced with ``-2``.
+
+
+To clarify the above rules, here's some example Python code,
+equivalent to the built-in hash, for computing the hash of a rational
+number, :class:`float`, or :class:`complex`::
+
+
+   import sys, math
+
+   def hash_fraction(m, n):
+       """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.
+
+       Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
+       Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).
+
+       """
+       P = sys.hash_info.modulus
+       # Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
+       while m % P == n % P == 0:
+           m, n = m // P, n // P
+
+       if n % P == 0:
+           hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
+       else:
+           # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
+           # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
+           hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
+       if m < 0:
+           hash_value = -hash_value
+       if hash_value == -1:
+           hash_value = -2
+       return hash_value
+
+   def hash_float(x):
+       """Compute the hash of a float x."""
+
+       if math.isnan(x):
+           return sys.hash_info.nan
+       elif math.isinf(x):
+           return sys.hash_info.inf if x > 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
+       else:
+           return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())
+
+   def hash_complex(z):
+       """Compute the hash of a complex number z."""
+
+       hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
+       # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
+       M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
+       hash_value = (hash_value & (M - 1)) - (hash_value & M)
+       if hash_value == -1:
+           hash_value = -2
+       return hash_value
+
+.. _typeiter:
+
+Iterator Types
+==============
+
+.. index::
+   single: iterator protocol
+   single: protocol; iterator
+   single: sequence; iteration
+   single: container; iteration over
+
+Python supports a concept of iteration over containers.  This is implemented
+using two distinct methods; these are used to allow user-defined classes to
+support iteration.  Sequences, described below in more detail, always support
+the iteration methods.
+
+One method needs to be defined for container objects to provide iteration
+support:
+
+.. XXX duplicated in reference/datamodel!
+
+.. method:: container.__iter__()
+
+   Return an iterator object.  The object is required to support the iterator
+   protocol described below.  If a container supports different types of
+   iteration, additional methods can be provided to specifically request
+   iterators for those iteration types.  (An example of an object supporting
+   multiple forms of iteration would be a tree structure which supports both
+   breadth-first and depth-first traversal.)  This method corresponds to the
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter` slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C
+   API.
+
+The iterator objects themselves are required to support the following two
+methods, which together form the :dfn:`iterator protocol`:
+
+
+.. method:: iterator.__iter__()
+
+   Return the iterator object itself.  This is required to allow both containers
+   and iterators to be used with the :keyword:`for` and :keyword:`in` statements.
+   This method corresponds to the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter` slot of the type structure for
+   Python objects in the Python/C API.
+
+
+.. method:: iterator.__next__()
+
+   Return the next item from the container.  If there are no further items, raise
+   the :exc:`StopIteration` exception.  This method corresponds to the
+   :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext` slot of the type structure for Python objects in the
+   Python/C API.
+
+Python defines several iterator objects to support iteration over general and
+specific sequence types, dictionaries, and other more specialized forms.  The
+specific types are not important beyond their implementation of the iterator
+protocol.
+
+Once an iterator's :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method raises
+:exc:`StopIteration`, it must continue to do so on subsequent calls.
+Implementations that do not obey this property are deemed broken.
+
+
+.. _generator-types:
+
+Generator Types
+---------------
+
+Python's :term:`generator`\s provide a convenient way to implement the iterator
+protocol.  If a container object's :meth:`__iter__` method is implemented as a
+generator, it will automatically return an iterator object (technically, a
+generator object) supplying the :meth:`__iter__` and :meth:`~generator.__next__`
+methods.
+More information about generators can be found in :ref:`the documentation for
+the yield expression <yieldexpr>`.
+
+
+.. _typesseq:
+
+Sequence Types --- :class:`list`, :class:`tuple`, :class:`range`
+================================================================
+
+There are three basic sequence types: lists, tuples, and range objects.
+Additional sequence types tailored for processing of
+:ref:`binary data <binaryseq>` and :ref:`text strings <textseq>` are
+described in dedicated sections.
+
+
+.. _typesseq-common:
+
+Common Sequence Operations
+--------------------------
+
+.. index:: object: sequence
+
+The operations in the following table are supported by most sequence types,
+both mutable and immutable. The :class:`collections.abc.Sequence` ABC is
+provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on
+custom sequence types.
+
+This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority.  In the
+table, *s* and *t* are sequences of the same type, *n*, *i*, *j* and *k* are
+integers and *x* is an arbitrary object that meets any type and value
+restrictions imposed by *s*.
+
+The ``in`` and ``not in`` operations have the same priorities as the
+comparison operations. The ``+`` (concatenation) and ``*`` (repetition)
+operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. [3]_
+
+.. index::
+   triple: operations on; sequence; types
+   builtin: len
+   builtin: min
+   builtin: max
+   pair: concatenation; operation
+   pair: repetition; operation
+   pair: subscript; operation
+   pair: slice; operation
+   operator: in
+   operator: not in
+   single: count() (sequence method)
+   single: index() (sequence method)
+
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| Operation                | Result                         | Notes    |
++==========================+================================+==========+
+| ``x in s``               | ``True`` if an item of *s* is  | \(1)     |
+|                          | equal to *x*, else ``False``   |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``x not in s``           | ``False`` if an item of *s* is | \(1)     |
+|                          | equal to *x*, else ``True``    |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``s + t``                | the concatenation of *s* and   | (6)(7)   |
+|                          | *t*                            |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``s * n`` or             | equivalent to adding *s* to    | (2)(7)   |
+| ``n * s``                | itself *n* times               |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``s[i]``                 | *i*\ th item of *s*, origin 0  | \(3)     |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``s[i:j]``               | slice of *s* from *i* to *j*   | (3)(4)   |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``s[i:j:k]``             | slice of *s* from *i* to *j*   | (3)(5)   |
+|                          | with step *k*                  |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``len(s)``               | length of *s*                  |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``min(s)``               | smallest item of *s*           |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``max(s)``               | largest item of *s*            |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``s.index(x[, i[, j]])`` | index of the first occurrence  | \(8)     |
+|                          | of *x* in *s* (at or after     |          |
+|                          | index *i* and before index *j*)|          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+| ``s.count(x)``           | total number of occurrences of |          |
+|                          | *x* in *s*                     |          |
++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
+
+Sequences of the same type also support comparisons.  In particular, tuples
+and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements.
+This means that to compare equal, every element must compare equal and the
+two sequences must be of the same type and have the same length.  (For full
+details see :ref:`comparisons` in the language reference.)
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   While the ``in`` and ``not in`` operations are used only for simple
+   containment testing in the general case, some specialised sequences
+   (such as :class:`str`, :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`) also use
+   them for subsequence testing::
+
+      >>> "gg" in "eggs"
+      True
+
+(2)
+   Values of *n* less than ``0`` are treated as ``0`` (which yields an empty
+   sequence of the same type as *s*).  Note that items in the sequence *s*
+   are not copied; they are referenced multiple times.  This often haunts
+   new Python programmers; consider::
+
+      >>> lists = [[]] * 3
+      >>> lists
+      [[], [], []]
+      >>> lists[0].append(3)
+      >>> lists
+      [[3], [3], [3]]
+
+   What has happened is that ``[[]]`` is a one-element list containing an empty
+   list, so all three elements of ``[[]] * 3`` are references to this single empty
+   list.  Modifying any of the elements of ``lists`` modifies this single list.
+   You can create a list of different lists this way::
+
+      >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
+      >>> lists[0].append(3)
+      >>> lists[1].append(5)
+      >>> lists[2].append(7)
+      >>> lists
+      [[3], [5], [7]]
+
+   Further explanation is available in the FAQ entry
+   :ref:`faq-multidimensional-list`.
+
+(3)
+   If *i* or *j* is negative, the index is relative to the end of sequence *s*:
+   ``len(s) + i`` or ``len(s) + j`` is substituted.  But note that ``-0`` is
+   still ``0``.
+
+(4)
+   The slice of *s* from *i* to *j* is defined as the sequence of items with index
+   *k* such that ``i <= k < j``.  If *i* or *j* is greater than ``len(s)``, use
+   ``len(s)``.  If *i* is omitted or ``None``, use ``0``.  If *j* is omitted or
+   ``None``, use ``len(s)``.  If *i* is greater than or equal to *j*, the slice is
+   empty.
+
+(5)
+   The slice of *s* from *i* to *j* with step *k* is defined as the sequence of
+   items with index  ``x = i + n*k`` such that ``0 <= n < (j-i)/k``.  In other words,
+   the indices are ``i``, ``i+k``, ``i+2*k``, ``i+3*k`` and so on, stopping when
+   *j* is reached (but never including *j*).  When *k* is positive,
+   *i* and *j* are reduced to ``len(s)`` if they are greater.
+   When *k* is negative, *i* and *j* are reduced to ``len(s) - 1`` if
+   they are greater.  If *i* or *j* are omitted or ``None``, they become
+   "end" values (which end depends on the sign of *k*).  Note, *k* cannot be zero.
+   If *k* is ``None``, it is treated like ``1``.
+
+(6)
+   Concatenating immutable sequences always results in a new object.  This
+   means that building up a sequence by repeated concatenation will have a
+   quadratic runtime cost in the total sequence length.  To get a linear
+   runtime cost, you must switch to one of the alternatives below:
+
+   * if concatenating :class:`str` objects, you can build a list and use
+     :meth:`str.join` at the end or else write to an :class:`io.StringIO`
+     instance and retrieve its value when complete
+
+   * if concatenating :class:`bytes` objects, you can similarly use
+     :meth:`bytes.join` or :class:`io.BytesIO`, or you can do in-place
+     concatenation with a :class:`bytearray` object.  :class:`bytearray`
+     objects are mutable and have an efficient overallocation mechanism
+
+   * if concatenating :class:`tuple` objects, extend a :class:`list` instead
+
+   * for other types, investigate the relevant class documentation
+
+
+(7)
+  Some sequence types (such as :class:`range`) only support item sequences
+  that follow specific patterns, and hence don't support sequence
+  concatenation or repetition.
+
+(8)
+   ``index`` raises :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not found in *s*.
+   Not all implementations support passing the additional arguments *i* and *j*.
+   These arguments allow efficient searching of subsections of the sequence. Passing
+   the extra arguments is roughly equivalent to using ``s[i:j].index(x)``, only
+   without copying any data and with the returned index being relative to
+   the start of the sequence rather than the start of the slice.
+
+
+.. _typesseq-immutable:
+
+Immutable Sequence Types
+------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   triple: immutable; sequence; types
+   object: tuple
+   builtin: hash
+
+The only operation that immutable sequence types generally implement that is
+not also implemented by mutable sequence types is support for the :func:`hash`
+built-in.
+
+This support allows immutable sequences, such as :class:`tuple` instances, to
+be used as :class:`dict` keys and stored in :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset`
+instances.
+
+Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values will
+result in :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. _typesseq-mutable:
+
+Mutable Sequence Types
+----------------------
+
+.. index::
+   triple: mutable; sequence; types
+   object: list
+   object: bytearray
+
+The operations in the following table are defined on mutable sequence types.
+The :class:`collections.abc.MutableSequence` ABC is provided to make it
+easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types.
+
+In the table *s* is an instance of a mutable sequence type, *t* is any
+iterable object and *x* is an arbitrary object that meets any type
+and value restrictions imposed by *s* (for example, :class:`bytearray` only
+accepts integers that meet the value restriction ``0 <= x <= 255``).
+
+
+.. index::
+   triple: operations on; sequence; types
+   triple: operations on; list; type
+   pair: subscript; assignment
+   pair: slice; assignment
+   statement: del
+   single: append() (sequence method)
+   single: clear() (sequence method)
+   single: copy() (sequence method)
+   single: extend() (sequence method)
+   single: insert() (sequence method)
+   single: pop() (sequence method)
+   single: remove() (sequence method)
+   single: reverse() (sequence method)
+
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| Operation                    | Result                         | Notes               |
++==============================+================================+=====================+
+| ``s[i] = x``                 | item *i* of *s* is replaced by |                     |
+|                              | *x*                            |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s[i:j] = t``               | slice of *s* from *i* to *j*   |                     |
+|                              | is replaced by the contents of |                     |
+|                              | the iterable *t*               |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``del s[i:j]``               | same as ``s[i:j] = []``        |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s[i:j:k] = t``             | the elements of ``s[i:j:k]``   | \(1)                |
+|                              | are replaced by those of *t*   |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``del s[i:j:k]``             | removes the elements of        |                     |
+|                              | ``s[i:j:k]`` from the list     |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.append(x)``              | appends *x* to the end of the  |                     |
+|                              | sequence (same as              |                     |
+|                              | ``s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]``)    |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.clear()``                | removes all items from *s*     | \(5)                |
+|                              | (same as ``del s[:]``)         |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.copy()``                 | creates a shallow copy of *s*  | \(5)                |
+|                              | (same as ``s[:]``)             |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.extend(t)`` or           | extends *s* with the           |                     |
+| ``s += t``                   | contents of *t* (for the       |                     |
+|                              | most part the same as          |                     |
+|                              | ``s[len(s):len(s)] = t``)      |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s *= n``                   | updates *s* with its contents  | \(6)                |
+|                              | repeated *n* times             |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.insert(i, x)``           | inserts *x* into *s* at the    |                     |
+|                              | index given by *i*             |                     |
+|                              | (same as ``s[i:i] = [x]``)     |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.pop([i])``               | retrieves the item at *i* and  | \(2)                |
+|                              | also removes it from *s*       |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.remove(x)``              | remove the first item from *s* | \(3)                |
+|                              | where ``s[i]`` is equal to *x* |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``s.reverse()``              | reverses the items of *s* in   | \(4)                |
+|                              | place                          |                     |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   *t* must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.
+
+(2)
+   The optional argument *i* defaults to ``-1``, so that by default the last
+   item is removed and returned.
+
+(3)
+   ``remove`` raises :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not found in *s*.
+
+(4)
+   The :meth:`reverse` method modifies the sequence in place for economy of
+   space when reversing a large sequence.  To remind users that it operates by
+   side effect, it does not return the reversed sequence.
+
+(5)
+   :meth:`clear` and :meth:`!copy` are included for consistency with the
+   interfaces of mutable containers that don't support slicing operations
+   (such as :class:`dict` and :class:`set`)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      :meth:`clear` and :meth:`!copy` methods.
+
+(6)
+   The value *n* is an integer, or an object implementing
+   :meth:`~object.__index__`.  Zero and negative values of *n* clear
+   the sequence.  Items in the sequence are not copied; they are referenced
+   multiple times, as explained for ``s * n`` under :ref:`typesseq-common`.
+
+
+.. _typesseq-list:
+
+Lists
+-----
+
+.. index:: object: list
+
+Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
+homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by
+application).
+
+.. class:: list([iterable])
+
+   Lists may be constructed in several ways:
+
+   * Using a pair of square brackets to denote the empty list: ``[]``
+   * Using square brackets, separating items with commas: ``[a]``, ``[a, b, c]``
+   * Using a list comprehension: ``[x for x in iterable]``
+   * Using the type constructor: ``list()`` or ``list(iterable)``
+
+   The constructor builds a list whose items are the same and in the same
+   order as *iterable*'s items.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a
+   container that supports iteration, or an iterator object.  If *iterable*
+   is already a list, a copy is made and returned, similar to ``iterable[:]``.
+   For example, ``list('abc')`` returns ``['a', 'b', 'c']`` and
+   ``list( (1, 2, 3) )`` returns ``[1, 2, 3]``.
+   If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty list, ``[]``.
+
+
+   Many other operations also produce lists, including the :func:`sorted`
+   built-in.
+
+   Lists implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` and
+   :ref:`mutable <typesseq-mutable>` sequence operations. Lists also provide the
+   following additional method:
+
+   .. method:: list.sort(*, key=None, reverse=False)
+
+      This method sorts the list in place, using only ``<`` comparisons
+      between items. Exceptions are not suppressed - if any comparison operations
+      fail, the entire sort operation will fail (and the list will likely be left
+      in a partially modified state).
+
+      :meth:`sort` accepts two arguments that can only be passed by keyword
+      (:ref:`keyword-only arguments <keyword-only_parameter>`):
+
+      *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a
+      comparison key from each list element (for example, ``key=str.lower``).
+      The key corresponding to each item in the list is calculated once and
+      then used for the entire sorting process. The default value of ``None``
+      means that list items are sorted directly without calculating a separate
+      key value.
+
+      The :func:`functools.cmp_to_key` utility is available to convert a 2.x
+      style *cmp* function to a *key* function.
+
+      *reverse* is a boolean value.  If set to ``True``, then the list elements
+      are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.
+
+      This method modifies the sequence in place for economy of space when
+      sorting a large sequence.  To remind users that it operates by side
+      effect, it does not return the sorted sequence (use :func:`sorted` to
+      explicitly request a new sorted list instance).
+
+      The :meth:`sort` method is guaranteed to be stable.  A sort is stable if it
+      guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that compare equal
+      --- this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by
+      department, then by salary grade).
+
+      .. impl-detail::
+
+         While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate, or even
+         inspect, the list is undefined.  The C implementation of Python makes the
+         list appear empty for the duration, and raises :exc:`ValueError` if it can
+         detect that the list has been mutated during a sort.
+
+
+.. _typesseq-tuple:
+
+Tuples
+------
+
+.. index:: object: tuple
+
+Tuples are immutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
+heterogeneous data (such as the 2-tuples produced by the :func:`enumerate`
+built-in). Tuples are also used for cases where an immutable sequence of
+homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a :class:`set` or
+:class:`dict` instance).
+
+.. class:: tuple([iterable])
+
+   Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways:
+
+   * Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: ``()``
+   * Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: ``a,`` or ``(a,)``
+   * Separating items with commas: ``a, b, c`` or ``(a, b, c)``
+   * Using the :func:`tuple` built-in: ``tuple()`` or ``tuple(iterable)``
+
+   The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the same
+   order as *iterable*'s items.  *iterable* may be either a sequence, a
+   container that supports iteration, or an iterator object.  If *iterable*
+   is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For example,
+   ``tuple('abc')`` returns ``('a', 'b', 'c')`` and
+   ``tuple( [1, 2, 3] )`` returns ``(1, 2, 3)``.
+   If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, ``()``.
+
+   Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the parentheses.
+   The parentheses are optional, except in the empty tuple case, or
+   when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity. For example,
+   ``f(a, b, c)`` is a function call with three arguments, while
+   ``f((a, b, c))`` is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole argument.
+
+   Tuples implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` sequence
+   operations.
+
+For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer than
+access by index, :func:`collections.namedtuple` may be a more appropriate
+choice than a simple tuple object.
+
+
+.. _typesseq-range:
+
+Ranges
+------
+
+.. index:: object: range
+
+The :class:`range` type represents an immutable sequence of numbers and is
+commonly used for looping a specific number of times in :keyword:`for`
+loops.
+
+.. class:: range(stop)
+           range(start, stop[, step])
+
+   The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either built-in
+   :class:`int` or any object that implements the ``__index__`` special
+   method).  If the *step* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``1``.
+   If the *start* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``0``.
+   If *step* is zero, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+   For a positive *step*, the contents of a range ``r`` are determined by the
+   formula ``r[i] = start + step*i`` where ``i >= 0`` and
+   ``r[i] < stop``.
+
+   For a negative *step*, the contents of the range are still determined by
+   the formula ``r[i] = start + step*i``, but the constraints are ``i >= 0``
+   and ``r[i] > stop``.
+
+   A range object will be empty if ``r[0]`` does not meet the value
+   constraint. Ranges do support negative indices, but these are interpreted
+   as indexing from the end of the sequence determined by the positive
+   indices.
+
+   Ranges containing absolute values larger than :data:`sys.maxsize` are
+   permitted but some features (such as :func:`len`) may raise
+   :exc:`OverflowError`.
+
+   Range examples::
+
+      >>> list(range(10))
+      [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
+      >>> list(range(1, 11))
+      [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
+      >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
+      [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
+      >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
+      [0, 3, 6, 9]
+      >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
+      [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
+      >>> list(range(0))
+      []
+      >>> list(range(1, 0))
+      []
+
+   Ranges implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` sequence operations
+   except concatenation and repetition (due to the fact that range objects can
+   only represent sequences that follow a strict pattern and repetition and
+   concatenation will usually violate that pattern).
+
+   .. attribute:: start
+
+      The value of the *start* parameter (or ``0`` if the parameter was
+      not supplied)
+
+   .. attribute:: stop
+
+      The value of the *stop* parameter
+
+   .. attribute:: step
+
+      The value of the *step* parameter (or ``1`` if the parameter was
+      not supplied)
+
+The advantage of the :class:`range` type over a regular :class:`list` or
+:class:`tuple` is that a :class:`range` object will always take the same
+(small) amount of memory, no matter the size of the range it represents (as it
+only stores the ``start``, ``stop`` and ``step`` values, calculating individual
+items and subranges as needed).
+
+Range objects implement the :class:`collections.abc.Sequence` ABC, and provide
+features such as containment tests, element index lookup, slicing and
+support for negative indices (see :ref:`typesseq`):
+
+   >>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
+   >>> r
+   range(0, 20, 2)
+   >>> 11 in r
+   False
+   >>> 10 in r
+   True
+   >>> r.index(10)
+   5
+   >>> r[5]
+   10
+   >>> r[:5]
+   range(0, 10, 2)
+   >>> r[-1]
+   18
+
+Testing range objects for equality with ``==`` and ``!=`` compares
+them as sequences.  That is, two range objects are considered equal if
+they represent the same sequence of values.  (Note that two range
+objects that compare equal might have different :attr:`~range.start`,
+:attr:`~range.stop` and :attr:`~range.step` attributes, for example
+``range(0) == range(2, 1, 3)`` or ``range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2)``.)
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Implement the Sequence ABC.
+   Support slicing and negative indices.
+   Test :class:`int` objects for membership in constant time instead of
+   iterating through all items.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Define '==' and '!=' to compare range objects based on the
+   sequence of values they define (instead of comparing based on
+   object identity).
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+   The :attr:`~range.start`, :attr:`~range.stop` and :attr:`~range.step`
+   attributes.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   * The `linspace recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000/>`_
+     shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating
+     point applications.
+
+.. index::
+   single: string; text sequence type
+   single: str (built-in class); (see also string)
+   object: string
+
+.. _textseq:
+
+Text Sequence Type --- :class:`str`
+===================================
+
+Textual data in Python is handled with :class:`str` objects, or :dfn:`strings`.
+Strings are immutable
+:ref:`sequences <typesseq>` of Unicode code points.  String literals are
+written in a variety of ways:
+
+* Single quotes: ``'allows embedded "double" quotes'``
+* Double quotes: ``"allows embedded 'single' quotes"``.
+* Triple quoted: ``'''Three single quotes'''``, ``"""Three double quotes"""``
+
+Triple quoted strings may span multiple lines - all associated whitespace will
+be included in the string literal.
+
+String literals that are part of a single expression and have only whitespace
+between them will be implicitly converted to a single string literal. That
+is, ``("spam " "eggs") == "spam eggs"``.
+
+See :ref:`strings` for more about the various forms of string literal,
+including supported escape sequences, and the ``r`` ("raw") prefix that
+disables most escape sequence processing.
+
+Strings may also be created from other objects using the :class:`str`
+constructor.
+
+Since there is no separate "character" type, indexing a string produces
+strings of length 1. That is, for a non-empty string *s*, ``s[0] == s[0:1]``.
+
+.. index::
+   object: io.StringIO
+
+There is also no mutable string type, but :meth:`str.join` or
+:class:`io.StringIO` can be used to efficiently construct strings from
+multiple fragments.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   For backwards compatibility with the Python 2 series, the ``u`` prefix is
+   once again permitted on string literals. It has no effect on the meaning
+   of string literals and cannot be combined with the ``r`` prefix.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: string; str (built-in class)
+
+.. class:: str(object='')
+           str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+
+   Return a :ref:`string <textseq>` version of *object*.  If *object* is not
+   provided, returns the empty string.  Otherwise, the behavior of ``str()``
+   depends on whether *encoding* or *errors* is given, as follows.
+
+   If neither *encoding* nor *errors* is given, ``str(object)`` returns
+   :meth:`object.__str__() <object.__str__>`, which is the "informal" or nicely
+   printable string representation of *object*.  For string objects, this is
+   the string itself.  If *object* does not have a :meth:`~object.__str__`
+   method, then :func:`str` falls back to returning
+   :meth:`repr(object) <repr>`.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: buffer protocol; str (built-in class)
+      single: bytes; str (built-in class)
+
+   If at least one of *encoding* or *errors* is given, *object* should be a
+   :term:`bytes-like object` (e.g. :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`).  In
+   this case, if *object* is a :class:`bytes` (or :class:`bytearray`) object,
+   then ``str(bytes, encoding, errors)`` is equivalent to
+   :meth:`bytes.decode(encoding, errors) <bytes.decode>`.  Otherwise, the bytes
+   object underlying the buffer object is obtained before calling
+   :meth:`bytes.decode`.  See :ref:`binaryseq` and
+   :ref:`bufferobjects` for information on buffer objects.
+
+   Passing a :class:`bytes` object to :func:`str` without the *encoding*
+   or *errors* arguments falls under the first case of returning the informal
+   string representation (see also the :option:`-b` command-line option to
+   Python).  For example::
+
+      >>> str(b'Zoot!')
+      "b'Zoot!'"
+
+   For more information on the ``str`` class and its methods, see
+   :ref:`textseq` and the :ref:`string-methods` section below.  To output
+   formatted strings, see the :ref:`f-strings` and :ref:`formatstrings`
+   sections.  In addition, see the :ref:`stringservices` section.
+
+
+.. index::
+   pair: string; methods
+
+.. _string-methods:
+
+String Methods
+--------------
+
+.. index::
+   module: re
+
+Strings implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` sequence
+operations, along with the additional methods described below.
+
+Strings also support two styles of string formatting, one providing a large
+degree of flexibility and customization (see :meth:`str.format`,
+:ref:`formatstrings` and :ref:`string-formatting`) and the other based on C
+``printf`` style formatting that handles a narrower range of types and is
+slightly harder to use correctly, but is often faster for the cases it can
+handle (:ref:`old-string-formatting`).
+
+The :ref:`textservices` section of the standard library covers a number of
+other modules that provide various text related utilities (including regular
+expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
+
+.. method:: str.capitalize()
+
+   Return a copy of the string with its first character capitalized and the
+   rest lowercased.
+
+
+.. method:: str.casefold()
+
+   Return a casefolded copy of the string. Casefolded strings may be used for
+   caseless matching.
+
+   Casefolding is similar to lowercasing but more aggressive because it is
+   intended to remove all case distinctions in a string. For example, the German
+   lowercase letter ``'ß'`` is equivalent to ``"ss"``. Since it is already
+   lowercase, :meth:`lower` would do nothing to ``'ß'``; :meth:`casefold`
+   converts it to ``"ss"``.
+
+   The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode
+   Standard.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. method:: str.center(width[, fillchar])
+
+   Return centered in a string of length *width*. Padding is done using the
+   specified *fillchar* (default is an ASCII space). The original string is
+   returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+
+
+
+.. method:: str.count(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring *sub* in the
+   range [*start*, *end*].  Optional arguments *start* and *end* are
+   interpreted as in slice notation.
+
+
+.. method:: str.encode(encoding="utf-8", errors="strict")
+
+   Return an encoded version of the string as a bytes object. Default encoding
+   is ``'utf-8'``. *errors* may be given to set a different error handling scheme.
+   The default for *errors* is ``'strict'``, meaning that encoding errors raise
+   a :exc:`UnicodeError`. Other possible
+   values are ``'ignore'``, ``'replace'``, ``'xmlcharrefreplace'``,
+   ``'backslashreplace'`` and any other name registered via
+   :func:`codecs.register_error`, see section :ref:`error-handlers`. For a
+   list of possible encodings, see section :ref:`standard-encodings`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Support for keyword arguments added.
+
+
+.. method:: str.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return ``True`` if the string ends with the specified *suffix*, otherwise return
+   ``False``.  *suffix* can also be a tuple of suffixes to look for.  With optional
+   *start*, test beginning at that position.  With optional *end*, stop comparing
+   at that position.
+
+
+.. method:: str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
+
+   Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced by one or
+   more spaces, depending on the current column and the given tab size.  Tab
+   positions occur every *tabsize* characters (default is 8, giving tab
+   positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on).  To expand the string, the current
+   column is set to zero and the string is examined character by character.  If
+   the character is a tab (``\t``), one or more space characters are inserted
+   in the result until the current column is equal to the next tab position.
+   (The tab character itself is not copied.)  If the character is a newline
+   (``\n``) or return (``\r``), it is copied and the current column is reset to
+   zero.  Any other character is copied unchanged and the current column is
+   incremented by one regardless of how the character is represented when
+   printed.
+
+      >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
+      '01      012     0123    01234'
+      >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
+      '01  012 0123    01234'
+
+
+.. method:: str.find(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return the lowest index in the string where substring *sub* is found within
+   the slice ``s[start:end]``.  Optional arguments *start* and *end* are
+   interpreted as in slice notation.  Return ``-1`` if *sub* is not found.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :meth:`~str.find` method should be used only if you need to know the
+      position of *sub*.  To check if *sub* is a substring or not, use the
+      :keyword:`in` operator::
+
+         >>> 'Py' in 'Python'
+         True
+
+
+.. method:: str.format(*args, **kwargs)
+
+   Perform a string formatting operation.  The string on which this method is
+   called can contain literal text or replacement fields delimited by braces
+   ``{}``.  Each replacement field contains either the numeric index of a
+   positional argument, or the name of a keyword argument.  Returns a copy of
+   the string where each replacement field is replaced with the string value of
+   the corresponding argument.
+
+      >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
+      'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'
+
+   See :ref:`formatstrings` for a description of the various formatting options
+   that can be specified in format strings.
+
+   .. note::
+      When formatting a number (:class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`complex`,
+      :class:`decimal.Decimal` and subclasses) with the ``n`` type
+      (ex: ``'{:n}'.format(1234)``), the function temporarily sets the
+      ``LC_CTYPE`` locale to the ``LC_NUMERIC`` locale to decode
+      ``decimal_point`` and ``thousands_sep`` fields of :c:func:`localeconv` if
+      they are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ``LC_NUMERIC`` locale is
+      different than the ``LC_CTYPE`` locale.  This temporary change affects
+      other threads.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      When formatting a number with the ``n`` type, the function sets
+      temporarily the ``LC_CTYPE`` locale to the ``LC_NUMERIC`` locale in some
+      cases.
+
+
+.. method:: str.format_map(mapping)
+
+   Similar to ``str.format(**mapping)``, except that ``mapping`` is
+   used directly and not copied to a :class:`dict`.  This is useful
+   if for example ``mapping`` is a dict subclass:
+
+   >>> class Default(dict):
+   ...     def __missing__(self, key):
+   ...         return key
+   ...
+   >>> '{name} was born in {country}'.format_map(Default(name='Guido'))
+   'Guido was born in country'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. method:: str.index(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Like :meth:`~str.find`, but raise :exc:`ValueError` when the substring is
+   not found.
+
+
+.. method:: str.isalnum()
+
+   Return true if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at
+   least one character, false otherwise.  A character ``c`` is alphanumeric if one
+   of the following returns ``True``: ``c.isalpha()``, ``c.isdecimal()``,
+   ``c.isdigit()``, or ``c.isnumeric()``.
+
+
+.. method:: str.isalpha()
+
+   Return true if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least
+   one character, false otherwise.  Alphabetic characters are those characters defined
+   in the Unicode character database as "Letter", i.e., those with general category
+   property being one of "Lm", "Lt", "Lu", "Ll", or "Lo".  Note that this is different
+   from the "Alphabetic" property defined in the Unicode Standard.
+
+
+.. method:: str.isascii()
+
+   Return true if the string is empty or all characters in the string are ASCII,
+   false otherwise.
+   ASCII characters have code points in the range U+0000-U+007F.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. method:: str.isdecimal()
+
+   Return true if all characters in the string are decimal
+   characters and there is at least one character, false
+   otherwise. Decimal characters are those that can be used to form
+   numbers in base 10, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT
+   ZERO.  Formally a decimal character is a character in the Unicode
+   General Category "Nd".
+
+
+.. method:: str.isdigit()
+
+   Return true if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one
+   character, false otherwise.  Digits include decimal characters and digits that need
+   special handling, such as the compatibility superscript digits.
+   This covers digits which cannot be used to form numbers in base 10,
+   like the Kharosthi numbers.  Formally, a digit is a character that has the
+   property value Numeric_Type=Digit or Numeric_Type=Decimal.
+
+
+.. method:: str.isidentifier()
+
+   Return true if the string is a valid identifier according to the language
+   definition, section :ref:`identifiers`.
+
+   Use :func:`keyword.iskeyword` to test for reserved identifiers such as
+   :keyword:`def` and :keyword:`class`.
+
+.. method:: str.islower()
+
+   Return true if all cased characters [4]_ in the string are lowercase and
+   there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.
+
+
+.. method:: str.isnumeric()
+
+   Return true if all characters in the string are numeric
+   characters, and there is at least one character, false
+   otherwise. Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters
+   that have the Unicode numeric value property, e.g. U+2155,
+   VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH.  Formally, numeric characters are those with the property
+   value Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal or Numeric_Type=Numeric.
+
+
+.. method:: str.isprintable()
+
+   Return true if all characters in the string are printable or the string is
+   empty, false otherwise.  Nonprintable characters are those characters defined
+   in the Unicode character database as "Other" or "Separator", excepting the
+   ASCII space (0x20) which is considered printable.  (Note that printable
+   characters in this context are those which should not be escaped when
+   :func:`repr` is invoked on a string.  It has no bearing on the handling of
+   strings written to :data:`sys.stdout` or :data:`sys.stderr`.)
+
+
+.. method:: str.isspace()
+
+   Return true if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is
+   at least one character, false otherwise.  Whitespace characters  are those
+   characters defined in the Unicode character database as "Other" or "Separator"
+   and those with bidirectional property being one of "WS", "B", or "S".
+
+.. method:: str.istitle()
+
+   Return true if the string is a titlecased string and there is at least one
+   character, for example uppercase characters may only follow uncased characters
+   and lowercase characters only cased ones.  Return false otherwise.
+
+
+.. method:: str.isupper()
+
+   Return true if all cased characters [4]_ in the string are uppercase and
+   there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.
+
+
+.. method:: str.join(iterable)
+
+   Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in *iterable*.
+   A :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if there are any non-string values in
+   *iterable*, including :class:`bytes` objects.  The separator between
+   elements is the string providing this method.
+
+
+.. method:: str.ljust(width[, fillchar])
+
+   Return the string left justified in a string of length *width*. Padding is
+   done using the specified *fillchar* (default is an ASCII space). The
+   original string is returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+
+
+.. method:: str.lower()
+
+   Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters [4]_ converted to
+   lowercase.
+
+   The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode
+   Standard.
+
+
+.. method:: str.lstrip([chars])
+
+   Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed.  The *chars*
+   argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.  If omitted
+   or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to removing whitespace.  The *chars*
+   argument is not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped::
+
+      >>> '   spacious   '.lstrip()
+      'spacious   '
+      >>> 'www.example.com'.lstrip('cmowz.')
+      'example.com'
+
+
+.. staticmethod:: str.maketrans(x[, y[, z]])
+
+   This static method returns a translation table usable for :meth:`str.translate`.
+
+   If there is only one argument, it must be a dictionary mapping Unicode
+   ordinals (integers) or characters (strings of length 1) to Unicode ordinals,
+   strings (of arbitrary lengths) or ``None``.  Character keys will then be
+   converted to ordinals.
+
+   If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length, and in the
+   resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped to the character at
+   the same position in y.  If there is a third argument, it must be a string,
+   whose characters will be mapped to ``None`` in the result.
+
+
+.. method:: str.partition(sep)
+
+   Split the string at the first occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
+   containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
+   after the separator.  If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
+   the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
+
+
+.. method:: str.replace(old, new[, count])
+
+   Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring *old* replaced by
+   *new*.  If the optional argument *count* is given, only the first *count*
+   occurrences are replaced.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return the highest index in the string where substring *sub* is found, such
+   that *sub* is contained within ``s[start:end]``.  Optional arguments *start*
+   and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.  Return ``-1`` on failure.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Like :meth:`rfind` but raises :exc:`ValueError` when the substring *sub* is not
+   found.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rjust(width[, fillchar])
+
+   Return the string right justified in a string of length *width*. Padding is
+   done using the specified *fillchar* (default is an ASCII space). The
+   original string is returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rpartition(sep)
+
+   Split the string at the last occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
+   containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
+   after the separator.  If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
+   two empty strings, followed by the string itself.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
+
+   Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the delimiter string.
+   If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits are done, the *rightmost*
+   ones.  If *sep* is not specified or ``None``, any whitespace string is a
+   separator.  Except for splitting from the right, :meth:`rsplit` behaves like
+   :meth:`split` which is described in detail below.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rstrip([chars])
+
+   Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed.  The *chars*
+   argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.  If omitted
+   or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to removing whitespace.  The *chars*
+   argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped::
+
+      >>> '   spacious   '.rstrip()
+      '   spacious'
+      >>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
+      'mississ'
+
+
+.. method:: str.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
+
+   Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the delimiter
+   string.  If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits are done (thus,
+   the list will have at most ``maxsplit+1`` elements).  If *maxsplit* is not
+   specified or ``-1``, then there is no limit on the number of splits
+   (all possible splits are made).
+
+   If *sep* is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
+   deemed to delimit empty strings (for example, ``'1,,2'.split(',')`` returns
+   ``['1', '', '2']``).  The *sep* argument may consist of multiple characters
+   (for example, ``'1<>2<>3'.split('<>')`` returns ``['1', '2', '3']``).
+   Splitting an empty string with a specified separator returns ``['']``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
+      ['1', '2', '3']
+      >>> '1,2,3'.split(',', maxsplit=1)
+      ['1', '2,3']
+      >>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
+      ['1', '2', '', '3', '']
+
+   If *sep* is not specified or is ``None``, a different splitting algorithm is
+   applied: runs of consecutive whitespace are regarded as a single separator,
+   and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or end if the
+   string has leading or trailing whitespace.  Consequently, splitting an empty
+   string or a string consisting of just whitespace with a ``None`` separator
+   returns ``[]``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> '1 2 3'.split()
+      ['1', '2', '3']
+      >>> '1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
+      ['1', '2 3']
+      >>> '   1   2   3   '.split()
+      ['1', '2', '3']
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: universal newlines; str.splitlines method
+
+.. method:: str.splitlines([keepends])
+
+   Return a list of the lines in the string, breaking at line boundaries.  Line
+   breaks are not included in the resulting list unless *keepends* is given and
+   true.
+
+   This method splits on the following line boundaries.  In particular, the
+   boundaries are a superset of :term:`universal newlines`.
+
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | Representation        | Description                 |
+   +=======================+=============================+
+   | ``\n``                | Line Feed                   |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\r``                | Carriage Return             |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\r\n``              | Carriage Return + Line Feed |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\v`` or ``\x0b``    | Line Tabulation             |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\f`` or ``\x0c``    | Form Feed                   |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\x1c``              | File Separator              |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\x1d``              | Group Separator             |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\x1e``              | Record Separator            |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\x85``              | Next Line (C1 Control Code) |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\u2028``            | Line Separator              |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+   | ``\u2029``            | Paragraph Separator         |
+   +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+
+      ``\v`` and ``\f`` added to list of line boundaries.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
+      ['ab c', '', 'de fg', 'kl']
+      >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
+      ['ab c\n', '\n', 'de fg\r', 'kl\r\n']
+
+   Unlike :meth:`~str.split` when a delimiter string *sep* is given, this
+   method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a terminal line
+   break does not result in an extra line::
+
+      >>> "".splitlines()
+      []
+      >>> "One line\n".splitlines()
+      ['One line']
+
+   For comparison, ``split('\n')`` gives::
+
+      >>> ''.split('\n')
+      ['']
+      >>> 'Two lines\n'.split('\n')
+      ['Two lines', '']
+
+
+.. method:: str.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return ``True`` if string starts with the *prefix*, otherwise return ``False``.
+   *prefix* can also be a tuple of prefixes to look for.  With optional *start*,
+   test string beginning at that position.  With optional *end*, stop comparing
+   string at that position.
+
+
+.. method:: str.strip([chars])
+
+   Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing characters removed.
+   The *chars* argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.
+   If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to removing whitespace.
+   The *chars* argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its
+   values are stripped::
+
+      >>> '   spacious   '.strip()
+      'spacious'
+      >>> 'www.example.com'.strip('cmowz.')
+      'example'
+
+   The outermost leading and trailing *chars* argument values are stripped
+   from the string. Characters are removed from the leading end until
+   reaching a string character that is not contained in the set of
+   characters in *chars*. A similar action takes place on the trailing end.
+   For example::
+
+      >>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
+      >>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
+      'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'
+
+
+.. method:: str.swapcase()
+
+   Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
+   vice versa. Note that it is not necessarily true that
+   ``s.swapcase().swapcase() == s``.
+
+
+.. method:: str.title()
+
+   Return a titlecased version of the string where words start with an uppercase
+   character and the remaining characters are lowercase.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> 'Hello world'.title()
+      'Hello World'
+
+   The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a word as
+   groups of consecutive letters.  The definition works in many contexts but
+   it means that apostrophes in contractions and possessives form word
+   boundaries, which may not be the desired result::
+
+        >>> "they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
+        "They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"
+
+   A workaround for apostrophes can be constructed using regular expressions::
+
+        >>> import re
+        >>> def titlecase(s):
+        ...     return re.sub(r"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
+        ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0].upper() +
+        ...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
+        ...                   s)
+        ...
+        >>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
+        "They're Bill's Friends."
+
+
+.. method:: str.translate(table)
+
+   Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped through
+   the given translation table.  The table must be an object that implements
+   indexing via :meth:`__getitem__`, typically a :term:`mapping` or
+   :term:`sequence`.  When indexed by a Unicode ordinal (an integer), the
+   table object can do any of the following: return a Unicode ordinal or a
+   string, to map the character to one or more other characters; return
+   ``None``, to delete the character from the return string; or raise a
+   :exc:`LookupError` exception, to map the character to itself.
+
+   You can use :meth:`str.maketrans` to create a translation map from
+   character-to-character mappings in different formats.
+
+   See also the :mod:`codecs` module for a more flexible approach to custom
+   character mappings.
+
+
+.. method:: str.upper()
+
+   Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters [4]_ converted to
+   uppercase.  Note that ``s.upper().isupper()`` might be ``False`` if ``s``
+   contains uncased characters or if the Unicode category of the resulting
+   character(s) is not "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), but e.g. "Lt" (Letter,
+   titlecase).
+
+   The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode
+   Standard.
+
+
+.. method:: str.zfill(width)
+
+   Return a copy of the string left filled with ASCII ``'0'`` digits to
+   make a string of length *width*. A leading sign prefix (``'+'``/``'-'``)
+   is handled by inserting the padding *after* the sign character rather
+   than before. The original string is returned if *width* is less than
+   or equal to ``len(s)``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> "42".zfill(5)
+      '00042'
+      >>> "-42".zfill(5)
+      '-0042'
+
+
+
+.. _old-string-formatting:
+
+``printf``-style String Formatting
+----------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: formatting, string (%)
+   single: interpolation, string (%)
+   single: string; formatting, printf
+   single: string; interpolation, printf
+   single: printf-style formatting
+   single: sprintf-style formatting
+   single: % (percent); printf-style formatting
+
+.. note::
+
+   The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that
+   lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and
+   dictionaries correctly).  Using the newer :ref:`formatted string literals
+   <f-strings>`, the :meth:`str.format` interface, or :ref:`template strings
+   <template-strings>` may help avoid these errors.  Each of these
+   alternatives provides their own trade-offs and benefits of simplicity,
+   flexibility, and/or extensibility.
+
+String objects have one unique built-in operation: the ``%`` operator (modulo).
+This is also known as the string *formatting* or *interpolation* operator.
+Given ``format % values`` (where *format* is a string), ``%`` conversion
+specifications in *format* are replaced with zero or more elements of *values*.
+The effect is similar to using the :c:func:`sprintf` in the C language.
+
+If *format* requires a single argument, *values* may be a single non-tuple
+object. [5]_  Otherwise, *values* must be a tuple with exactly the number of
+items specified by the format string, or a single mapping object (for example, a
+dictionary).
+
+.. index::
+   single: () (parentheses); in printf-style formatting
+   single: * (asterisk); in printf-style formatting
+   single: . (dot); in printf-style formatting
+
+A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the following
+components, which must occur in this order:
+
+#. The ``'%'`` character, which marks the start of the specifier.
+
+#. Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of characters
+   (for example, ``(somename)``).
+
+#. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some conversion
+   types.
+
+#. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ``'*'`` (asterisk), the
+   actual width is read from the next element of the tuple in *values*, and the
+   object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision.
+
+#. Precision (optional), given as a ``'.'`` (dot) followed by the precision.  If
+   specified as ``'*'`` (an asterisk), the actual precision is read from the next
+   element of the tuple in *values*, and the value to convert comes after the
+   precision.
+
+#. Length modifier (optional).
+
+#. Conversion type.
+
+When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then the
+formats in the string *must* include a parenthesised mapping key into that
+dictionary inserted immediately after the ``'%'`` character. The mapping key
+selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For example:
+
+   >>> print('%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
+   ...       {'language': "Python", "number": 2})
+   Python has 002 quote types.
+
+In this case no ``*`` specifiers may occur in a format (since they require a
+sequential parameter list).
+
+The conversion flag characters are:
+
+.. index::
+   single: # (hash); in printf-style formatting
+   single: - (minus); in printf-style formatting
+   single: + (plus); in printf-style formatting
+   single: space; in printf-style formatting
+
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| Flag    | Meaning                                                             |
++=========+=====================================================================+
+| ``'#'`` | The value conversion will use the "alternate form" (where defined   |
+|         | below).                                                             |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``'0'`` | The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.              |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``'-'`` | The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ``'0'``         |
+|         | conversion if both are given).                                      |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``' '`` | (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty |
+|         | string) produced by a signed conversion.                            |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``'+'`` | A sign character (``'+'`` or ``'-'``) will precede the conversion   |
+|         | (overrides a "space" flag).                                         |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+A length modifier (``h``, ``l``, or ``L``) may be present, but is ignored as it
+is not necessary for Python -- so e.g. ``%ld`` is identical to ``%d``.
+
+The conversion types are:
+
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| Conversion | Meaning                                             | Notes |
++============+=====================================================+=======+
+| ``'d'``    | Signed integer decimal.                             |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'i'``    | Signed integer decimal.                             |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'o'``    | Signed octal value.                                 | \(1)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'u'``    | Obsolete type -- it is identical to ``'d'``.        | \(6)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'x'``    | Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).                     | \(2)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'X'``    | Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).                     | \(2)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'e'``    | Floating point exponential format (lowercase).      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'E'``    | Floating point exponential format (uppercase).      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'f'``    | Floating point decimal format.                      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'F'``    | Floating point decimal format.                      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'g'``    | Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential   | \(4)  |
+|            | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than |       |
+|            | precision, decimal format otherwise.                |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'G'``    | Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential   | \(4)  |
+|            | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than |       |
+|            | precision, decimal format otherwise.                |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'c'``    | Single character (accepts integer or single         |       |
+|            | character string).                                  |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'r'``    | String (converts any Python object using            | \(5)  |
+|            | :func:`repr`).                                      |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'s'``    | String (converts any Python object using            | \(5)  |
+|            | :func:`str`).                                       |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'a'``    | String (converts any Python object using            | \(5)  |
+|            | :func:`ascii`).                                     |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'%'``    | No argument is converted, results in a ``'%'``      |       |
+|            | character in the result.                            |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (``'0o'``) to be
+   inserted before the first digit.
+
+(2)
+   The alternate form causes a leading ``'0x'`` or ``'0X'`` (depending on whether
+   the ``'x'`` or ``'X'`` format was used) to be inserted before the first digit.
+
+(3)
+   The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, even if
+   no digits follow it.
+
+   The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal point and
+   defaults to 6.
+
+(4)
+   The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, and
+   trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise be.
+
+   The precision determines the number of significant digits before and after the
+   decimal point and defaults to 6.
+
+(5)
+   If precision is ``N``, the output is truncated to ``N`` characters.
+
+(6)
+   See :pep:`237`.
+
+Since Python strings have an explicit length, ``%s`` conversions do not assume
+that ``'\0'`` is the end of the string.
+
+.. XXX Examples?
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   ``%f`` conversions for numbers whose absolute value is over 1e50 are no
+   longer replaced by ``%g`` conversions.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: buffer protocol; binary sequence types
+
+.. _binaryseq:
+
+Binary Sequence Types --- :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray`, :class:`memoryview`
+=================================================================================
+
+.. index::
+   object: bytes
+   object: bytearray
+   object: memoryview
+   module: array
+
+The core built-in types for manipulating binary data are :class:`bytes` and
+:class:`bytearray`. They are supported by :class:`memoryview` which uses
+the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` to access the memory of other
+binary objects without needing to make a copy.
+
+The :mod:`array` module supports efficient storage of basic data types like
+32-bit integers and IEEE754 double-precision floating values.
+
+.. _typebytes:
+
+Bytes Objects
+-------------
+
+.. index:: object: bytes
+
+Bytes objects are immutable sequences of single bytes. Since many major
+binary protocols are based on the ASCII text encoding, bytes objects offer
+several methods that are only valid when working with ASCII compatible
+data and are closely related to string objects in a variety of other ways.
+
+.. class:: bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
+
+   Firstly, the syntax for bytes literals is largely the same as that for string
+   literals, except that a ``b`` prefix is added:
+
+   * Single quotes: ``b'still allows embedded "double" quotes'``
+   * Double quotes: ``b"still allows embedded 'single' quotes"``.
+   * Triple quoted: ``b'''3 single quotes'''``, ``b"""3 double quotes"""``
+
+   Only ASCII characters are permitted in bytes literals (regardless of the
+   declared source code encoding). Any binary values over 127 must be entered
+   into bytes literals using the appropriate escape sequence.
+
+   As with string literals, bytes literals may also use a ``r`` prefix to disable
+   processing of escape sequences. See :ref:`strings` for more about the various
+   forms of bytes literal, including supported escape sequences.
+
+   While bytes literals and representations are based on ASCII text, bytes
+   objects actually behave like immutable sequences of integers, with each
+   value in the sequence restricted such that ``0 <= x < 256`` (attempts to
+   violate this restriction will trigger :exc:`ValueError`). This is done
+   deliberately to emphasise that while many binary formats include ASCII based
+   elements and can be usefully manipulated with some text-oriented algorithms,
+   this is not generally the case for arbitrary binary data (blindly applying
+   text processing algorithms to binary data formats that are not ASCII
+   compatible will usually lead to data corruption).
+
+   In addition to the literal forms, bytes objects can be created in a number of
+   other ways:
+
+   * A zero-filled bytes object of a specified length: ``bytes(10)``
+   * From an iterable of integers: ``bytes(range(20))``
+   * Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:  ``bytes(obj)``
+
+   Also see the :ref:`bytes <func-bytes>` built-in.
+
+   Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte, hexadecimal
+   numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
+   the bytes type has an additional class method to read data in that format:
+
+   .. classmethod:: fromhex(string)
+
+      This :class:`bytes` class method returns a bytes object, decoding the
+      given string object.  The string must contain two hexadecimal digits per
+      byte, with ASCII whitespace being ignored.
+
+      >>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
+      b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2'
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         :meth:`bytes.fromhex` now skips all ASCII whitespace in the string,
+         not just spaces.
+
+   A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytes object into its
+   hexadecimal representation.
+
+   .. method:: hex()
+
+      Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
+      byte in the instance.
+
+      >>> b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'.hex()
+      'f0f1f2'
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+Since bytes objects are sequences of integers (akin to a tuple), for a bytes
+object *b*, ``b[0]`` will be an integer, while ``b[0:1]`` will be a bytes
+object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings, where both indexing
+and slicing will produce a string of length 1)
+
+The representation of bytes objects uses the literal format (``b'...'``)
+since it is often more useful than e.g. ``bytes([46, 46, 46])``.  You can
+always convert a bytes object into a list of integers using ``list(b)``.
+
+.. note::
+   For Python 2.x users: In the Python 2.x series, a variety of implicit
+   conversions between 8-bit strings (the closest thing 2.x offers to a
+   built-in binary data type) and Unicode strings were permitted. This was a
+   backwards compatibility workaround to account for the fact that Python
+   originally only supported 8-bit text, and Unicode text was a later
+   addition. In Python 3.x, those implicit conversions are gone - conversions
+   between 8-bit binary data and Unicode text must be explicit, and bytes and
+   string objects will always compare unequal.
+
+
+.. _typebytearray:
+
+Bytearray Objects
+-----------------
+
+.. index:: object: bytearray
+
+:class:`bytearray` objects are a mutable counterpart to :class:`bytes`
+objects.
+
+.. class:: bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
+
+   There is no dedicated literal syntax for bytearray objects, instead
+   they are always created by calling the constructor:
+
+   * Creating an empty instance: ``bytearray()``
+   * Creating a zero-filled instance with a given length: ``bytearray(10)``
+   * From an iterable of integers: ``bytearray(range(20))``
+   * Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:  ``bytearray(b'Hi!')``
+
+   As bytearray objects are mutable, they support the
+   :ref:`mutable <typesseq-mutable>` sequence operations in addition to the
+   common bytes and bytearray operations described in :ref:`bytes-methods`.
+
+   Also see the :ref:`bytearray <func-bytearray>` built-in.
+
+   Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte, hexadecimal
+   numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
+   the bytearray type has an additional class method to read data in that format:
+
+   .. classmethod:: fromhex(string)
+
+      This :class:`bytearray` class method returns bytearray object, decoding
+      the given string object.  The string must contain two hexadecimal digits
+      per byte, with ASCII whitespace being ignored.
+
+      >>> bytearray.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
+      bytearray(b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2')
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         :meth:`bytearray.fromhex` now skips all ASCII whitespace in the string,
+         not just spaces.
+
+   A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytearray object into its
+   hexadecimal representation.
+
+   .. method:: hex()
+
+      Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
+      byte in the instance.
+
+      >>> bytearray(b'\xf0\xf1\xf2').hex()
+      'f0f1f2'
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+Since bytearray objects are sequences of integers (akin to a list), for a
+bytearray object *b*, ``b[0]`` will be an integer, while ``b[0:1]`` will be
+a bytearray object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings, where
+both indexing and slicing will produce a string of length 1)
+
+The representation of bytearray objects uses the bytes literal format
+(``bytearray(b'...')``) since it is often more useful than e.g.
+``bytearray([46, 46, 46])``.  You can always convert a bytearray object into
+a list of integers using ``list(b)``.
+
+
+.. _bytes-methods:
+
+Bytes and Bytearray Operations
+------------------------------
+
+.. index:: pair: bytes; methods
+           pair: bytearray; methods
+
+Both bytes and bytearray objects support the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>`
+sequence operations. They interoperate not just with operands of the same
+type, but with any :term:`bytes-like object`. Due to this flexibility, they can be
+freely mixed in operations without causing errors. However, the return type
+of the result may depend on the order of operands.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The methods on bytes and bytearray objects don't accept strings as their
+   arguments, just as the methods on strings don't accept bytes as their
+   arguments.  For example, you have to write::
+
+      a = "abc"
+      b = a.replace("a", "f")
+
+   and::
+
+      a = b"abc"
+      b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")
+
+Some bytes and bytearray operations assume the use of ASCII compatible
+binary formats, and hence should be avoided when working with arbitrary
+binary data. These restrictions are covered below.
+
+.. note::
+   Using these ASCII based operations to manipulate binary data that is not
+   stored in an ASCII based format may lead to data corruption.
+
+The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects can be used with
+arbitrary binary data.
+
+.. method:: bytes.count(sub[, start[, end]])
+            bytearray.count(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of subsequence *sub* in
+   the range [*start*, *end*].  Optional arguments *start* and *end* are
+   interpreted as in slice notation.
+
+   The subsequence to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object` or an
+   integer in the range 0 to 255.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.decode(encoding="utf-8", errors="strict")
+            bytearray.decode(encoding="utf-8", errors="strict")
+
+   Return a string decoded from the given bytes.  Default encoding is
+   ``'utf-8'``. *errors* may be given to set a different
+   error handling scheme.  The default for *errors* is ``'strict'``, meaning
+   that encoding errors raise a :exc:`UnicodeError`.  Other possible values are
+   ``'ignore'``, ``'replace'`` and any other name registered via
+   :func:`codecs.register_error`, see section :ref:`error-handlers`. For a
+   list of possible encodings, see section :ref:`standard-encodings`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Passing the *encoding* argument to :class:`str` allows decoding any
+      :term:`bytes-like object` directly, without needing to make a temporary
+      bytes or bytearray object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added support for keyword arguments.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])
+            bytearray.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return ``True`` if the binary data ends with the specified *suffix*,
+   otherwise return ``False``.  *suffix* can also be a tuple of suffixes to
+   look for.  With optional *start*, test beginning at that position.  With
+   optional *end*, stop comparing at that position.
+
+   The suffix(es) to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.find(sub[, start[, end]])
+            bytearray.find(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return the lowest index in the data where the subsequence *sub* is found,
+   such that *sub* is contained in the slice ``s[start:end]``.  Optional
+   arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.  Return
+   ``-1`` if *sub* is not found.
+
+   The subsequence to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object` or an
+   integer in the range 0 to 255.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :meth:`~bytes.find` method should be used only if you need to know the
+      position of *sub*.  To check if *sub* is a substring or not, use the
+      :keyword:`in` operator::
+
+         >>> b'Py' in b'Python'
+         True
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.index(sub[, start[, end]])
+            bytearray.index(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Like :meth:`~bytes.find`, but raise :exc:`ValueError` when the
+   subsequence is not found.
+
+   The subsequence to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object` or an
+   integer in the range 0 to 255.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.join(iterable)
+            bytearray.join(iterable)
+
+   Return a bytes or bytearray object which is the concatenation of the
+   binary data sequences in *iterable*.  A :exc:`TypeError` will be raised
+   if there are any values in *iterable* that are not :term:`bytes-like
+   objects <bytes-like object>`, including :class:`str` objects.  The
+   separator between elements is the contents of the bytes or
+   bytearray object providing this method.
+
+
+.. staticmethod:: bytes.maketrans(from, to)
+                  bytearray.maketrans(from, to)
+
+   This static method returns a translation table usable for
+   :meth:`bytes.translate` that will map each character in *from* into the
+   character at the same position in *to*; *from* and *to* must both be
+   :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` and have the same length.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.partition(sep)
+            bytearray.partition(sep)
+
+   Split the sequence at the first occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
+   containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
+   bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.
+   If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple
+   containing a copy of the original sequence, followed by two empty bytes or
+   bytearray objects.
+
+   The separator to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.replace(old, new[, count])
+            bytearray.replace(old, new[, count])
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with all occurrences of subsequence *old*
+   replaced by *new*.  If the optional argument *count* is given, only the
+   first *count* occurrences are replaced.
+
+   The subsequence to search for and its replacement may be any
+   :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])
+            bytearray.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return the highest index in the sequence where the subsequence *sub* is
+   found, such that *sub* is contained within ``s[start:end]``.  Optional
+   arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation. Return
+   ``-1`` on failure.
+
+   The subsequence to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object` or an
+   integer in the range 0 to 255.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])
+            bytearray.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])
+
+   Like :meth:`~bytes.rfind` but raises :exc:`ValueError` when the
+   subsequence *sub* is not found.
+
+   The subsequence to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object` or an
+   integer in the range 0 to 255.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.rpartition(sep)
+            bytearray.rpartition(sep)
+
+   Split the sequence at the last occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
+   containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
+   bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.
+   If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple
+   containing two empty bytes or bytearray objects, followed by a copy of the
+   original sequence.
+
+   The separator to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])
+            bytearray.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])
+
+   Return ``True`` if the binary data starts with the specified *prefix*,
+   otherwise return ``False``.  *prefix* can also be a tuple of prefixes to
+   look for.  With optional *start*, test beginning at that position.  With
+   optional *end*, stop comparing at that position.
+
+   The prefix(es) to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.translate(table, delete=b'')
+            bytearray.translate(table, delete=b'')
+
+   Return a copy of the bytes or bytearray object where all bytes occurring in
+   the optional argument *delete* are removed, and the remaining bytes have
+   been mapped through the given translation table, which must be a bytes
+   object of length 256.
+
+   You can use the :func:`bytes.maketrans` method to create a translation
+   table.
+
+   Set the *table* argument to ``None`` for translations that only delete
+   characters::
+
+      >>> b'read this short text'.translate(None, b'aeiou')
+      b'rd ths shrt txt'
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *delete* is now supported as a keyword argument.
+
+
+The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects have default behaviours
+that assume the use of ASCII compatible binary formats, but can still be used
+with arbitrary binary data by passing appropriate arguments. Note that all of
+the bytearray methods in this section do *not* operate in place, and instead
+produce new objects.
+
+.. method:: bytes.center(width[, fillbyte])
+            bytearray.center(width[, fillbyte])
+
+   Return a copy of the object centered in a sequence of length *width*.
+   Padding is done using the specified *fillbyte* (default is an ASCII
+   space). For :class:`bytes` objects, the original sequence is returned if
+   *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place -
+      it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.ljust(width[, fillbyte])
+            bytearray.ljust(width[, fillbyte])
+
+   Return a copy of the object left justified in a sequence of length *width*.
+   Padding is done using the specified *fillbyte* (default is an ASCII
+   space). For :class:`bytes` objects, the original sequence is returned if
+   *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place -
+      it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.lstrip([chars])
+            bytearray.lstrip([chars])
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed.  The
+   *chars* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
+   be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
+   ASCII characters.  If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults
+   to removing ASCII whitespace.  The *chars* argument is not a prefix;
+   rather, all combinations of its values are stripped::
+
+      >>> b'   spacious   '.lstrip()
+      b'spacious   '
+      >>> b'www.example.com'.lstrip(b'cmowz.')
+      b'example.com'
+
+   The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
+   :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place -
+      it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.rjust(width[, fillbyte])
+            bytearray.rjust(width[, fillbyte])
+
+   Return a copy of the object right justified in a sequence of length *width*.
+   Padding is done using the specified *fillbyte* (default is an ASCII
+   space). For :class:`bytes` objects, the original sequence is returned if
+   *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place -
+      it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
+            bytearray.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
+
+   Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using *sep*
+   as the delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits
+   are done, the *rightmost* ones.  If *sep* is not specified or ``None``,
+   any subsequence consisting solely of ASCII whitespace is a separator.
+   Except for splitting from the right, :meth:`rsplit` behaves like
+   :meth:`split` which is described in detail below.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.rstrip([chars])
+            bytearray.rstrip([chars])
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes removed.  The
+   *chars* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
+   be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
+   ASCII characters.  If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to
+   removing ASCII whitespace.  The *chars* argument is not a suffix; rather,
+   all combinations of its values are stripped::
+
+      >>> b'   spacious   '.rstrip()
+      b'   spacious'
+      >>> b'mississippi'.rstrip(b'ipz')
+      b'mississ'
+
+   The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
+   :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place -
+      it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
+            bytearray.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
+
+   Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using *sep*
+   as the delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given and non-negative, at most
+   *maxsplit* splits are done (thus, the list will have at most ``maxsplit+1``
+   elements).  If *maxsplit* is not specified or is ``-1``, then there is no
+   limit on the number of splits (all possible splits are made).
+
+   If *sep* is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
+   deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example, ``b'1,,2'.split(b',')``
+   returns ``[b'1', b'', b'2']``).  The *sep* argument may consist of a
+   multibyte sequence (for example, ``b'1<>2<>3'.split(b'<>')`` returns
+   ``[b'1', b'2', b'3']``). Splitting an empty sequence with a specified
+   separator returns ``[b'']`` or ``[bytearray(b'')]`` depending on the type
+   of object being split.  The *sep* argument may be any
+   :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',')
+      [b'1', b'2', b'3']
+      >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',', maxsplit=1)
+      [b'1', b'2,3']
+      >>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
+      [b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
+
+   If *sep* is not specified or is ``None``, a different splitting algorithm
+   is applied: runs of consecutive ASCII whitespace are regarded as a single
+   separator, and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or
+   end if the sequence has leading or trailing whitespace.  Consequently,
+   splitting an empty sequence or a sequence consisting solely of ASCII
+   whitespace without a specified separator returns ``[]``.
+
+   For example::
+
+
+      >>> b'1 2 3'.split()
+      [b'1', b'2', b'3']
+      >>> b'1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
+      [b'1', b'2 3']
+      >>> b'   1   2   3   '.split()
+      [b'1', b'2', b'3']
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.strip([chars])
+            bytearray.strip([chars])
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing bytes
+   removed. The *chars* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
+   byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is
+   usually used with ASCII characters.  If omitted or ``None``, the *chars*
+   argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace. The *chars* argument is
+   not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are
+   stripped::
+
+      >>> b'   spacious   '.strip()
+      b'spacious'
+      >>> b'www.example.com'.strip(b'cmowz.')
+      b'example'
+
+   The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
+   :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place -
+      it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects assume the use of ASCII
+compatible binary formats and should not be applied to arbitrary binary data.
+Note that all of the bytearray methods in this section do *not* operate in
+place, and instead produce new objects.
+
+.. method:: bytes.capitalize()
+            bytearray.capitalize()
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with each byte interpreted as an ASCII
+   character, and the first byte capitalized and the rest lowercased.
+   Non-ASCII byte values are passed through unchanged.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
+            bytearray.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence where all ASCII tab characters are replaced
+   by one or more ASCII spaces, depending on the current column and the given
+   tab size.  Tab positions occur every *tabsize* bytes (default is 8,
+   giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on).  To expand the
+   sequence, the current column is set to zero and the sequence is examined
+   byte by byte.  If the byte is an ASCII tab character (``b'\t'``), one or
+   more space characters are inserted in the result until the current column
+   is equal to the next tab position. (The tab character itself is not
+   copied.)  If the current byte is an ASCII newline (``b'\n'``) or
+   carriage return (``b'\r'``), it is copied and the current column is reset
+   to zero.  Any other byte value is copied unchanged and the current column
+   is incremented by one regardless of how the byte value is represented when
+   printed::
+
+      >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
+      b'01      012     0123    01234'
+      >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
+      b'01  012 0123    01234'
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.isalnum()
+            bytearray.isalnum()
+
+   Return true if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetical ASCII characters
+   or ASCII decimal digits and the sequence is not empty, false otherwise.
+   Alphabetic ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``. ASCII decimal
+   digits are those byte values in the sequence ``b'0123456789'``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalnum()
+      True
+      >>> b'ABC abc1'.isalnum()
+      False
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.isalpha()
+            bytearray.isalpha()
+
+   Return true if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetic ASCII characters
+   and the sequence is not empty, false otherwise.  Alphabetic ASCII
+   characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'ABCabc'.isalpha()
+      True
+      >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalpha()
+      False
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.isascii()
+            bytearray.isascii()
+
+   Return true if the sequence is empty or all bytes in the sequence are ASCII,
+   false otherwise.
+   ASCII bytes are in the range 0-0x7F.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.isdigit()
+            bytearray.isdigit()
+
+   Return true if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII decimal digits
+   and the sequence is not empty, false otherwise. ASCII decimal digits are
+   those byte values in the sequence ``b'0123456789'``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'1234'.isdigit()
+      True
+      >>> b'1.23'.isdigit()
+      False
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.islower()
+            bytearray.islower()
+
+   Return true if there is at least one lowercase ASCII character
+   in the sequence and no uppercase ASCII characters, false otherwise.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'hello world'.islower()
+      True
+      >>> b'Hello world'.islower()
+      False
+
+   Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``. Uppercase ASCII characters
+   are those byte values in the sequence ``b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.isspace()
+            bytearray.isspace()
+
+   Return true if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII whitespace and the
+   sequence is not empty, false otherwise.  ASCII whitespace characters are
+   those byte values in the sequence ``b' \t\n\r\x0b\f'`` (space, tab, newline,
+   carriage return, vertical tab, form feed).
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.istitle()
+            bytearray.istitle()
+
+   Return true if the sequence is ASCII titlecase and the sequence is not
+   empty, false otherwise. See :meth:`bytes.title` for more details on the
+   definition of "titlecase".
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'Hello World'.istitle()
+      True
+      >>> b'Hello world'.istitle()
+      False
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.isupper()
+            bytearray.isupper()
+
+   Return true if there is at least one uppercase alphabetic ASCII character
+   in the sequence and no lowercase ASCII characters, false otherwise.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'HELLO WORLD'.isupper()
+      True
+      >>> b'Hello world'.isupper()
+      False
+
+   Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``. Uppercase ASCII characters
+   are those byte values in the sequence ``b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.lower()
+            bytearray.lower()
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with all the uppercase ASCII characters
+   converted to their corresponding lowercase counterpart.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'Hello World'.lower()
+      b'hello world'
+
+   Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``. Uppercase ASCII characters
+   are those byte values in the sequence ``b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: universal newlines; bytes.splitlines method
+   single: universal newlines; bytearray.splitlines method
+
+.. method:: bytes.splitlines(keepends=False)
+            bytearray.splitlines(keepends=False)
+
+   Return a list of the lines in the binary sequence, breaking at ASCII
+   line boundaries. This method uses the :term:`universal newlines` approach
+   to splitting lines. Line breaks are not included in the resulting list
+   unless *keepends* is given and true.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
+      [b'ab c', b'', b'de fg', b'kl']
+      >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
+      [b'ab c\n', b'\n', b'de fg\r', b'kl\r\n']
+
+   Unlike :meth:`~bytes.split` when a delimiter string *sep* is given, this
+   method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a terminal line
+   break does not result in an extra line::
+
+      >>> b"".split(b'\n'), b"Two lines\n".split(b'\n')
+      ([b''], [b'Two lines', b''])
+      >>> b"".splitlines(), b"One line\n".splitlines()
+      ([], [b'One line'])
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.swapcase()
+            bytearray.swapcase()
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII characters
+   converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart and vice-versa.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'Hello World'.swapcase()
+      b'hELLO wORLD'
+
+   Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``. Uppercase ASCII characters
+   are those byte values in the sequence ``b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
+
+   Unlike :func:`str.swapcase()`, it is always the case that
+   ``bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin`` for the binary versions. Case
+   conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not generally
+   true for arbitrary Unicode code points.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.title()
+            bytearray.title()
+
+   Return a titlecased version of the binary sequence where words start with
+   an uppercase ASCII character and the remaining characters are lowercase.
+   Uncased byte values are left unmodified.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'Hello world'.title()
+      b'Hello World'
+
+   Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``. Uppercase ASCII characters
+   are those byte values in the sequence ``b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
+   All other byte values are uncased.
+
+   The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a word as
+   groups of consecutive letters.  The definition works in many contexts but
+   it means that apostrophes in contractions and possessives form word
+   boundaries, which may not be the desired result::
+
+        >>> b"they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
+        b"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"
+
+   A workaround for apostrophes can be constructed using regular expressions::
+
+        >>> import re
+        >>> def titlecase(s):
+        ...     return re.sub(rb"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
+        ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
+        ...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
+        ...                   s)
+        ...
+        >>> titlecase(b"they're bill's friends.")
+        b"They're Bill's Friends."
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.upper()
+            bytearray.upper()
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII characters
+   converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b'Hello World'.upper()
+      b'HELLO WORLD'
+
+   Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+   ``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``. Uppercase ASCII characters
+   are those byte values in the sequence ``b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. method:: bytes.zfill(width)
+            bytearray.zfill(width)
+
+   Return a copy of the sequence left filled with ASCII ``b'0'`` digits to
+   make a sequence of length *width*. A leading sign prefix (``b'+'``/
+   ``b'-'``) is handled by inserting the padding *after* the sign character
+   rather than before. For :class:`bytes` objects, the original sequence is
+   returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(seq)``.
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> b"42".zfill(5)
+      b'00042'
+      >>> b"-42".zfill(5)
+      b'-0042'
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+      always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+
+.. _bytes-formatting:
+
+``printf``-style Bytes Formatting
+----------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: formatting; bytes (%)
+   single: formatting; bytearray (%)
+   single: interpolation; bytes (%)
+   single: interpolation; bytearray (%)
+   single: bytes; formatting
+   single: bytearray; formatting
+   single: bytes; interpolation
+   single: bytearray; interpolation
+   single: printf-style formatting
+   single: sprintf-style formatting
+   single: % (percent); printf-style formatting
+
+.. note::
+
+   The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that
+   lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and
+   dictionaries correctly).  If the value being printed may be a tuple or
+   dictionary, wrap it in a tuple.
+
+Bytes objects (``bytes``/``bytearray``) have one unique built-in operation:
+the ``%`` operator (modulo).
+This is also known as the bytes *formatting* or *interpolation* operator.
+Given ``format % values`` (where *format* is a bytes object), ``%`` conversion
+specifications in *format* are replaced with zero or more elements of *values*.
+The effect is similar to using the :c:func:`sprintf` in the C language.
+
+If *format* requires a single argument, *values* may be a single non-tuple
+object. [5]_  Otherwise, *values* must be a tuple with exactly the number of
+items specified by the format bytes object, or a single mapping object (for
+example, a dictionary).
+
+.. index::
+   single: () (parentheses); in printf-style formatting
+   single: * (asterisk); in printf-style formatting
+   single: . (dot); in printf-style formatting
+
+A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the following
+components, which must occur in this order:
+
+#. The ``'%'`` character, which marks the start of the specifier.
+
+#. Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of characters
+   (for example, ``(somename)``).
+
+#. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some conversion
+   types.
+
+#. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ``'*'`` (asterisk), the
+   actual width is read from the next element of the tuple in *values*, and the
+   object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision.
+
+#. Precision (optional), given as a ``'.'`` (dot) followed by the precision.  If
+   specified as ``'*'`` (an asterisk), the actual precision is read from the next
+   element of the tuple in *values*, and the value to convert comes after the
+   precision.
+
+#. Length modifier (optional).
+
+#. Conversion type.
+
+When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then the
+formats in the bytes object *must* include a parenthesised mapping key into that
+dictionary inserted immediately after the ``'%'`` character. The mapping key
+selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For example:
+
+   >>> print(b'%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
+   ...       {b'language': b"Python", b"number": 2})
+   b'Python has 002 quote types.'
+
+In this case no ``*`` specifiers may occur in a format (since they require a
+sequential parameter list).
+
+The conversion flag characters are:
+
+.. index::
+   single: # (hash); in printf-style formatting
+   single: - (minus); in printf-style formatting
+   single: + (plus); in printf-style formatting
+   single: space; in printf-style formatting
+
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| Flag    | Meaning                                                             |
++=========+=====================================================================+
+| ``'#'`` | The value conversion will use the "alternate form" (where defined   |
+|         | below).                                                             |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``'0'`` | The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.              |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``'-'`` | The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ``'0'``         |
+|         | conversion if both are given).                                      |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``' '`` | (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty |
+|         | string) produced by a signed conversion.                            |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``'+'`` | A sign character (``'+'`` or ``'-'``) will precede the conversion   |
+|         | (overrides a "space" flag).                                         |
++---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+A length modifier (``h``, ``l``, or ``L``) may be present, but is ignored as it
+is not necessary for Python -- so e.g. ``%ld`` is identical to ``%d``.
+
+The conversion types are:
+
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| Conversion | Meaning                                             | Notes |
++============+=====================================================+=======+
+| ``'d'``    | Signed integer decimal.                             |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'i'``    | Signed integer decimal.                             |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'o'``    | Signed octal value.                                 | \(1)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'u'``    | Obsolete type -- it is identical to ``'d'``.        | \(8)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'x'``    | Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).                     | \(2)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'X'``    | Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).                     | \(2)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'e'``    | Floating point exponential format (lowercase).      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'E'``    | Floating point exponential format (uppercase).      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'f'``    | Floating point decimal format.                      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'F'``    | Floating point decimal format.                      | \(3)  |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'g'``    | Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential   | \(4)  |
+|            | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than |       |
+|            | precision, decimal format otherwise.                |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'G'``    | Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential   | \(4)  |
+|            | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than |       |
+|            | precision, decimal format otherwise.                |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'c'``    | Single byte (accepts integer or single              |       |
+|            | byte objects).                                      |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'b'``    | Bytes (any object that follows the                  | \(5)  |
+|            | :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` or has       |       |
+|            | :meth:`__bytes__`).                                 |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'s'``    | ``'s'`` is an alias for ``'b'`` and should only     | \(6)  |
+|            | be used for Python2/3 code bases.                   |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'a'``    | Bytes (converts any Python object using             | \(5)  |
+|            | ``repr(obj).encode('ascii','backslashreplace)``).   |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'r'``    | ``'r'`` is an alias for ``'a'`` and should only     | \(7)  |
+|            | be used for Python2/3 code bases.                   |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'%'``    | No argument is converted, results in a ``'%'``      |       |
+|            | character in the result.                            |       |
++------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (``'0o'``) to be
+   inserted before the first digit.
+
+(2)
+   The alternate form causes a leading ``'0x'`` or ``'0X'`` (depending on whether
+   the ``'x'`` or ``'X'`` format was used) to be inserted before the first digit.
+
+(3)
+   The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, even if
+   no digits follow it.
+
+   The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal point and
+   defaults to 6.
+
+(4)
+   The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, and
+   trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise be.
+
+   The precision determines the number of significant digits before and after the
+   decimal point and defaults to 6.
+
+(5)
+   If precision is ``N``, the output is truncated to ``N`` characters.
+
+(6)
+   ``b'%s'`` is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x series.
+
+(7)
+   ``b'%r'`` is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x series.
+
+(8)
+   See :pep:`237`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The bytearray version of this method does *not* operate in place - it
+   always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`461` - Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. _typememoryview:
+
+Memory Views
+------------
+
+:class:`memoryview` objects allow Python code to access the internal data
+of an object that supports the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` without
+copying.
+
+.. class:: memoryview(obj)
+
+   Create a :class:`memoryview` that references *obj*.  *obj* must support the
+   buffer protocol.  Built-in objects that support the buffer protocol include
+   :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.
+
+   A :class:`memoryview` has the notion of an *element*, which is the
+   atomic memory unit handled by the originating object *obj*.  For many
+   simple types such as :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`, an element
+   is a single byte, but other types such as :class:`array.array` may have
+   bigger elements.
+
+   ``len(view)`` is equal to the length of :class:`~memoryview.tolist`.
+   If ``view.ndim = 0``, the length is 1. If ``view.ndim = 1``, the length
+   is equal to the number of elements in the view. For higher dimensions,
+   the length is equal to the length of the nested list representation of
+   the view. The :class:`~memoryview.itemsize` attribute will give you the
+   number of bytes in a single element.
+
+   A :class:`memoryview` supports slicing and indexing to expose its data.
+   One-dimensional slicing will result in a subview::
+
+    >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
+    >>> v[1]
+    98
+    >>> v[-1]
+    103
+    >>> v[1:4]
+    <memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350>
+    >>> bytes(v[1:4])
+    b'bce'
+
+   If :class:`~memoryview.format` is one of the native format specifiers
+   from the :mod:`struct` module, indexing with an integer or a tuple of
+   integers is also supported and returns a single *element* with
+   the correct type.  One-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed
+   with an integer or a one-integer tuple.  Multi-dimensional memoryviews
+   can be indexed with tuples of exactly *ndim* integers where *ndim* is
+   the number of dimensions.  Zero-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed
+   with the empty tuple.
+
+   Here is an example with a non-byte format::
+
+      >>> import array
+      >>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
+      >>> m = memoryview(a)
+      >>> m[0]
+      -11111111
+      >>> m[-1]
+      44444444
+      >>> m[::2].tolist()
+      [-11111111, -33333333]
+
+   If the underlying object is writable, the memoryview supports
+   one-dimensional slice assignment. Resizing is not allowed::
+
+      >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg')
+      >>> v = memoryview(data)
+      >>> v.readonly
+      False
+      >>> v[0] = ord(b'z')
+      >>> data
+      bytearray(b'zbcefg')
+      >>> v[1:4] = b'123'
+      >>> data
+      bytearray(b'z123fg')
+      >>> v[2:3] = b'spam'
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+        File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+      ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
+      >>> v[2:6] = b'spam'
+      >>> data
+      bytearray(b'z1spam')
+
+   One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats
+   'B', 'b' or 'c' are also hashable. The hash is defined as
+   ``hash(m) == hash(m.tobytes())``::
+
+      >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
+      >>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg')
+      True
+      >>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce')
+      True
+      >>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2])
+      True
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      One-dimensional memoryviews can now be sliced.
+      One-dimensional memoryviews with formats 'B', 'b' or 'c' are now hashable.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      memoryview is now registered automatically with
+      :class:`collections.abc.Sequence`
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      memoryviews can now be indexed with tuple of integers.
+
+   :class:`memoryview` has several methods:
+
+   .. method:: __eq__(exporter)
+
+      A memoryview and a :pep:`3118` exporter are equal if their shapes are
+      equivalent and if all corresponding values are equal when the operands'
+      respective format codes are interpreted using :mod:`struct` syntax.
+
+      For the subset of :mod:`struct` format strings currently supported by
+      :meth:`tolist`, ``v`` and ``w`` are equal if ``v.tolist() == w.tolist()``::
+
+         >>> import array
+         >>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
+         >>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
+         >>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1])
+         >>> x = memoryview(a)
+         >>> y = memoryview(b)
+         >>> x == a == y == b
+         True
+         >>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
+         True
+         >>> z = y[::-2]
+         >>> z == c
+         True
+         >>> z.tolist() == c.tolist()
+         True
+
+      If either format string is not supported by the :mod:`struct` module,
+      then the objects will always compare as unequal (even if the format
+      strings and buffer contents are identical)::
+
+         >>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
+         >>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
+         ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)]
+         ...
+         >>> point = BEPoint(100, 200)
+         >>> a = memoryview(point)
+         >>> b = memoryview(point)
+         >>> a == point
+         False
+         >>> a == b
+         False
+
+      Note that, as with floating point numbers, ``v is w`` does *not* imply
+      ``v == w`` for memoryview objects.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Previous versions compared the raw memory disregarding the item format
+         and the logical array structure.
+
+   .. method:: tobytes()
+
+      Return the data in the buffer as a bytestring.  This is equivalent to
+      calling the :class:`bytes` constructor on the memoryview. ::
+
+         >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
+         >>> m.tobytes()
+         b'abc'
+         >>> bytes(m)
+         b'abc'
+
+      For non-contiguous arrays the result is equal to the flattened list
+      representation with all elements converted to bytes. :meth:`tobytes`
+      supports all format strings, including those that are not in
+      :mod:`struct` module syntax.
+
+   .. method:: hex()
+
+      Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
+      byte in the buffer. ::
+
+         >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
+         >>> m.hex()
+         '616263'
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. method:: tolist()
+
+      Return the data in the buffer as a list of elements. ::
+
+         >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist()
+         [97, 98, 99]
+         >>> import array
+         >>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
+         >>> m = memoryview(a)
+         >>> m.tolist()
+         [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         :meth:`tolist` now supports all single character native formats in
+         :mod:`struct` module syntax as well as multi-dimensional
+         representations.
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release the underlying buffer exposed by the memoryview object.  Many
+      objects take special actions when a view is held on them (for example,
+      a :class:`bytearray` would temporarily forbid resizing); therefore,
+      calling release() is handy to remove these restrictions (and free any
+      dangling resources) as soon as possible.
+
+      After this method has been called, any further operation on the view
+      raises a :class:`ValueError` (except :meth:`release()` itself which can
+      be called multiple times)::
+
+         >>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
+         >>> m.release()
+         >>> m[0]
+         Traceback (most recent call last):
+           File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+         ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object
+
+      The context management protocol can be used for a similar effect,
+      using the ``with`` statement::
+
+         >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m:
+         ...     m[0]
+         ...
+         97
+         >>> m[0]
+         Traceback (most recent call last):
+           File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+         ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: cast(format[, shape])
+
+      Cast a memoryview to a new format or shape. *shape* defaults to
+      ``[byte_length//new_itemsize]``, which means that the result view
+      will be one-dimensional. The return value is a new memoryview, but
+      the buffer itself is not copied. Supported casts are 1D -> C-:term:`contiguous`
+      and C-contiguous -> 1D.
+
+      The destination format is restricted to a single element native format in
+      :mod:`struct` syntax. One of the formats must be a byte format
+      ('B', 'b' or 'c'). The byte length of the result must be the same
+      as the original length.
+
+      Cast 1D/long to 1D/unsigned bytes::
+
+         >>> import array
+         >>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3])
+         >>> x = memoryview(a)
+         >>> x.format
+         'l'
+         >>> x.itemsize
+         8
+         >>> len(x)
+         3
+         >>> x.nbytes
+         24
+         >>> y = x.cast('B')
+         >>> y.format
+         'B'
+         >>> y.itemsize
+         1
+         >>> len(y)
+         24
+         >>> y.nbytes
+         24
+
+      Cast 1D/unsigned bytes to 1D/char::
+
+         >>> b = bytearray(b'zyz')
+         >>> x = memoryview(b)
+         >>> x[0] = b'a'
+         Traceback (most recent call last):
+           File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+         ValueError: memoryview: invalid value for format "B"
+         >>> y = x.cast('c')
+         >>> y[0] = b'a'
+         >>> b
+         bytearray(b'ayz')
+
+      Cast 1D/bytes to 3D/ints to 1D/signed char::
+
+         >>> import struct
+         >>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12)))
+         >>> x = memoryview(buf)
+         >>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3])
+         >>> y.tolist()
+         [[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
+         >>> y.format
+         'i'
+         >>> y.itemsize
+         4
+         >>> len(y)
+         2
+         >>> y.nbytes
+         48
+         >>> z = y.cast('b')
+         >>> z.format
+         'b'
+         >>> z.itemsize
+         1
+         >>> len(z)
+         48
+         >>> z.nbytes
+         48
+
+      Cast 1D/unsigned long to 2D/unsigned long::
+
+         >>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6)))
+         >>> x = memoryview(buf)
+         >>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3])
+         >>> len(y)
+         2
+         >>> y.nbytes
+         48
+         >>> y.tolist()
+         [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         The source format is no longer restricted when casting to a byte view.
+
+   There are also several readonly attributes available:
+
+   .. attribute:: obj
+
+      The underlying object of the memoryview::
+
+         >>> b  = bytearray(b'xyz')
+         >>> m = memoryview(b)
+         >>> m.obj is b
+         True
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: nbytes
+
+      ``nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())``. This is
+      the amount of space in bytes that the array would use in a contiguous
+      representation. It is not necessarily equal to ``len(m)``::
+
+         >>> import array
+         >>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5])
+         >>> m = memoryview(a)
+         >>> len(m)
+         5
+         >>> m.nbytes
+         20
+         >>> y = m[::2]
+         >>> len(y)
+         3
+         >>> y.nbytes
+         12
+         >>> len(y.tobytes())
+         12
+
+      Multi-dimensional arrays::
+
+         >>> import struct
+         >>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
+         >>> x = memoryview(buf)
+         >>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4])
+         >>> y.tolist()
+         [[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
+         >>> len(y)
+         3
+         >>> y.nbytes
+         96
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: readonly
+
+      A bool indicating whether the memory is read only.
+
+   .. attribute:: format
+
+      A string containing the format (in :mod:`struct` module style) for each
+      element in the view. A memoryview can be created from exporters with
+      arbitrary format strings, but some methods (e.g. :meth:`tolist`) are
+      restricted to native single element formats.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         format ``'B'`` is now handled according to the struct module syntax.
+         This means that ``memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97``.
+
+   .. attribute:: itemsize
+
+      The size in bytes of each element of the memoryview::
+
+         >>> import array, struct
+         >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002]))
+         >>> m.itemsize
+         2
+         >>> m[0]
+         32000
+         >>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize
+         True
+
+   .. attribute:: ndim
+
+      An integer indicating how many dimensions of a multi-dimensional array the
+      memory represents.
+
+   .. attribute:: shape
+
+      A tuple of integers the length of :attr:`ndim` giving the shape of the
+      memory as an N-dimensional array.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         An empty tuple instead of ``None`` when ndim = 0.
+
+   .. attribute:: strides
+
+      A tuple of integers the length of :attr:`ndim` giving the size in bytes to
+      access each element for each dimension of the array.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         An empty tuple instead of ``None`` when ndim = 0.
+
+   .. attribute:: suboffsets
+
+      Used internally for PIL-style arrays. The value is informational only.
+
+   .. attribute:: c_contiguous
+
+      A bool indicating whether the memory is C-:term:`contiguous`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: f_contiguous
+
+      A bool indicating whether the memory is Fortran :term:`contiguous`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. attribute:: contiguous
+
+      A bool indicating whether the memory is :term:`contiguous`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. _types-set:
+
+Set Types --- :class:`set`, :class:`frozenset`
+==============================================
+
+.. index:: object: set
+
+A :dfn:`set` object is an unordered collection of distinct :term:`hashable` objects.
+Common uses include membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and
+computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union, difference, and
+symmetric difference.
+(For other containers see the built-in :class:`dict`, :class:`list`,
+and :class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.)
+
+Like other collections, sets support ``x in set``, ``len(set)``, and ``for x in
+set``.  Being an unordered collection, sets do not record element position or
+order of insertion.  Accordingly, sets do not support indexing, slicing, or
+other sequence-like behavior.
+
+There are currently two built-in set types, :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset`.
+The :class:`set` type is mutable --- the contents can be changed using methods
+like :meth:`~set.add` and :meth:`~set.remove`.  Since it is mutable, it has no
+hash value and cannot be used as either a dictionary key or as an element of
+another set.  The :class:`frozenset` type is immutable and :term:`hashable` ---
+its contents cannot be altered after it is created; it can therefore be used as
+a dictionary key or as an element of another set.
+
+Non-empty sets (not frozensets) can be created by placing a comma-separated list
+of elements within braces, for example: ``{'jack', 'sjoerd'}``, in addition to the
+:class:`set` constructor.
+
+The constructors for both classes work the same:
+
+.. class:: set([iterable])
+           frozenset([iterable])
+
+   Return a new set or frozenset object whose elements are taken from
+   *iterable*.  The elements of a set must be :term:`hashable`.  To
+   represent sets of sets, the inner sets must be :class:`frozenset`
+   objects.  If *iterable* is not specified, a new empty set is
+   returned.
+
+   Instances of :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` provide the following
+   operations:
+
+   .. describe:: len(s)
+
+      Return the number of elements in set *s* (cardinality of *s*).
+
+   .. describe:: x in s
+
+      Test *x* for membership in *s*.
+
+   .. describe:: x not in s
+
+      Test *x* for non-membership in *s*.
+
+   .. method:: isdisjoint(other)
+
+      Return ``True`` if the set has no elements in common with *other*.  Sets are
+      disjoint if and only if their intersection is the empty set.
+
+   .. method:: issubset(other)
+               set <= other
+
+      Test whether every element in the set is in *other*.
+
+   .. method:: set < other
+
+      Test whether the set is a proper subset of *other*, that is,
+      ``set <= other and set != other``.
+
+   .. method:: issuperset(other)
+               set >= other
+
+      Test whether every element in *other* is in the set.
+
+   .. method:: set > other
+
+      Test whether the set is a proper superset of *other*, that is, ``set >=
+      other and set != other``.
+
+   .. method:: union(*others)
+               set | other | ...
+
+      Return a new set with elements from the set and all others.
+
+   .. method:: intersection(*others)
+               set & other & ...
+
+      Return a new set with elements common to the set and all others.
+
+   .. method:: difference(*others)
+               set - other - ...
+
+      Return a new set with elements in the set that are not in the others.
+
+   .. method:: symmetric_difference(other)
+               set ^ other
+
+      Return a new set with elements in either the set or *other* but not both.
+
+   .. method:: copy()
+
+      Return a shallow copy of the set.
+
+
+   Note, the non-operator versions of :meth:`union`, :meth:`intersection`,
+   :meth:`difference`, and :meth:`symmetric_difference`, :meth:`issubset`, and
+   :meth:`issuperset` methods will accept any iterable as an argument.  In
+   contrast, their operator based counterparts require their arguments to be
+   sets.  This precludes error-prone constructions like ``set('abc') & 'cbs'``
+   in favor of the more readable ``set('abc').intersection('cbs')``.
+
+   Both :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` support set to set comparisons. Two
+   sets are equal if and only if every element of each set is contained in the
+   other (each is a subset of the other). A set is less than another set if and
+   only if the first set is a proper subset of the second set (is a subset, but
+   is not equal). A set is greater than another set if and only if the first set
+   is a proper superset of the second set (is a superset, but is not equal).
+
+   Instances of :class:`set` are compared to instances of :class:`frozenset`
+   based on their members.  For example, ``set('abc') == frozenset('abc')``
+   returns ``True`` and so does ``set('abc') in set([frozenset('abc')])``.
+
+   The subset and equality comparisons do not generalize to a total ordering
+   function.  For example, any two nonempty disjoint sets are not equal and are not
+   subsets of each other, so *all* of the following return ``False``: ``a<b``,
+   ``a==b``, or ``a>b``.
+
+   Since sets only define partial ordering (subset relationships), the output of
+   the :meth:`list.sort` method is undefined for lists of sets.
+
+   Set elements, like dictionary keys, must be :term:`hashable`.
+
+   Binary operations that mix :class:`set` instances with :class:`frozenset`
+   return the type of the first operand.  For example: ``frozenset('ab') |
+   set('bc')`` returns an instance of :class:`frozenset`.
+
+   The following table lists operations available for :class:`set` that do not
+   apply to immutable instances of :class:`frozenset`:
+
+   .. method:: update(*others)
+               set |= other | ...
+
+      Update the set, adding elements from all others.
+
+   .. method:: intersection_update(*others)
+               set &= other & ...
+
+      Update the set, keeping only elements found in it and all others.
+
+   .. method:: difference_update(*others)
+               set -= other | ...
+
+      Update the set, removing elements found in others.
+
+   .. method:: symmetric_difference_update(other)
+               set ^= other
+
+      Update the set, keeping only elements found in either set, but not in both.
+
+   .. method:: add(elem)
+
+      Add element *elem* to the set.
+
+   .. method:: remove(elem)
+
+      Remove element *elem* from the set.  Raises :exc:`KeyError` if *elem* is
+      not contained in the set.
+
+   .. method:: discard(elem)
+
+      Remove element *elem* from the set if it is present.
+
+   .. method:: pop()
+
+      Remove and return an arbitrary element from the set.  Raises
+      :exc:`KeyError` if the set is empty.
+
+   .. method:: clear()
+
+      Remove all elements from the set.
+
+
+   Note, the non-operator versions of the :meth:`update`,
+   :meth:`intersection_update`, :meth:`difference_update`, and
+   :meth:`symmetric_difference_update` methods will accept any iterable as an
+   argument.
+
+   Note, the *elem* argument to the :meth:`__contains__`, :meth:`remove`, and
+   :meth:`discard` methods may be a set.  To support searching for an equivalent
+   frozenset, a temporary one is created from *elem*.
+
+
+.. _typesmapping:
+
+Mapping Types --- :class:`dict`
+===============================
+
+.. index::
+   object: mapping
+   object: dictionary
+   triple: operations on; mapping; types
+   triple: operations on; dictionary; type
+   statement: del
+   builtin: len
+
+A :term:`mapping` object maps :term:`hashable` values to arbitrary objects.
+Mappings are mutable objects.  There is currently only one standard mapping
+type, the :dfn:`dictionary`.  (For other containers see the built-in
+:class:`list`, :class:`set`, and :class:`tuple` classes, and the
+:mod:`collections` module.)
+
+A dictionary's keys are *almost* arbitrary values.  Values that are not
+:term:`hashable`, that is, values containing lists, dictionaries or other
+mutable types (that are compared by value rather than by object identity) may
+not be used as keys.  Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for
+numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (such as ``1`` and ``1.0``)
+then they can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.  (Note
+however, that since computers store floating-point numbers as approximations it
+is usually unwise to use them as dictionary keys.)
+
+Dictionaries can be created by placing a comma-separated list of ``key: value``
+pairs within braces, for example: ``{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}`` or ``{4098:
+'jack', 4127: 'sjoerd'}``, or by the :class:`dict` constructor.
+
+.. class:: dict(**kwarg)
+           dict(mapping, **kwarg)
+           dict(iterable, **kwarg)
+
+   Return a new dictionary initialized from an optional positional argument
+   and a possibly empty set of keyword arguments.
+
+   If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
+   If a positional argument is given and it is a mapping object, a dictionary
+   is created with the same key-value pairs as the mapping object.  Otherwise,
+   the positional argument must be an :term:`iterable` object.  Each item in
+   the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two objects.  The
+   first object of each item becomes a key in the new dictionary, and the
+   second object the corresponding value.  If a key occurs more than once, the
+   last value for that key becomes the corresponding value in the new
+   dictionary.
+
+   If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are
+   added to the dictionary created from the positional argument.  If a key
+   being added is already present, the value from the keyword argument
+   replaces the value from the positional argument.
+
+   To illustrate, the following examples all return a dictionary equal to
+   ``{"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}``::
+
+      >>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
+      >>> b = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
+      >>> c = dict(zip(['one', 'two', 'three'], [1, 2, 3]))
+      >>> d = dict([('two', 2), ('one', 1), ('three', 3)])
+      >>> e = dict({'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2})
+      >>> a == b == c == d == e
+      True
+
+   Providing keyword arguments as in the first example only works for keys that
+   are valid Python identifiers.  Otherwise, any valid keys can be used.
+
+
+   These are the operations that dictionaries support (and therefore, custom
+   mapping types should support too):
+
+   .. describe:: len(d)
+
+      Return the number of items in the dictionary *d*.
+
+   .. describe:: d[key]
+
+      Return the item of *d* with key *key*.  Raises a :exc:`KeyError` if *key* is
+      not in the map.
+
+      .. index:: __missing__()
+
+      If a subclass of dict defines a method :meth:`__missing__` and *key*
+      is not present, the ``d[key]`` operation calls that method with the key *key*
+      as argument.  The ``d[key]`` operation then returns or raises whatever is
+      returned or raised by the ``__missing__(key)`` call.
+      No other operations or methods invoke :meth:`__missing__`. If
+      :meth:`__missing__` is not defined, :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+      :meth:`__missing__` must be a method; it cannot be an instance variable::
+
+          >>> class Counter(dict):
+          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
+          ...         return 0
+          >>> c = Counter()
+          >>> c['red']
+          0
+          >>> c['red'] += 1
+          >>> c['red']
+          1
+
+      The example above shows part of the implementation of
+      :class:`collections.Counter`.  A different ``__missing__`` method is used
+      by :class:`collections.defaultdict`.
+
+   .. describe:: d[key] = value
+
+      Set ``d[key]`` to *value*.
+
+   .. describe:: del d[key]
+
+      Remove ``d[key]`` from *d*.  Raises a :exc:`KeyError` if *key* is not in the
+      map.
+
+   .. describe:: key in d
+
+      Return ``True`` if *d* has a key *key*, else ``False``.
+
+   .. describe:: key not in d
+
+      Equivalent to ``not key in d``.
+
+   .. describe:: iter(d)
+
+      Return an iterator over the keys of the dictionary.  This is a shortcut
+      for ``iter(d.keys())``.
+
+   .. method:: clear()
+
+      Remove all items from the dictionary.
+
+   .. method:: copy()
+
+      Return a shallow copy of the dictionary.
+
+   .. classmethod:: fromkeys(iterable[, value])
+
+      Create a new dictionary with keys from *iterable* and values set to *value*.
+
+      :meth:`fromkeys` is a class method that returns a new dictionary. *value*
+      defaults to ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: get(key[, default])
+
+      Return the value for *key* if *key* is in the dictionary, else *default*.
+      If *default* is not given, it defaults to ``None``, so that this method
+      never raises a :exc:`KeyError`.
+
+   .. method:: items()
+
+      Return a new view of the dictionary's items (``(key, value)`` pairs).
+      See the :ref:`documentation of view objects <dict-views>`.
+
+   .. method:: keys()
+
+      Return a new view of the dictionary's keys.  See the :ref:`documentation
+      of view objects <dict-views>`.
+
+   .. method:: pop(key[, default])
+
+      If *key* is in the dictionary, remove it and return its value, else return
+      *default*.  If *default* is not given and *key* is not in the dictionary,
+      a :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+
+   .. method:: popitem()
+
+      Remove and return a ``(key, value)`` pair from the dictionary.
+      Pairs are returned in :abbr:`LIFO (last-in, first-out)` order.
+
+      :meth:`popitem` is useful to destructively iterate over a dictionary, as
+      often used in set algorithms.  If the dictionary is empty, calling
+      :meth:`popitem` raises a :exc:`KeyError`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         LIFO order is now guaranteed. In prior versions, :meth:`popitem` would
+         return an arbitrary key/value pair.
+
+   .. method:: setdefault(key[, default])
+
+      If *key* is in the dictionary, return its value.  If not, insert *key*
+      with a value of *default* and return *default*.  *default* defaults to
+      ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: update([other])
+
+      Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from *other*, overwriting
+      existing keys.  Return ``None``.
+
+      :meth:`update` accepts either another dictionary object or an iterable of
+      key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length two).  If keyword
+      arguments are specified, the dictionary is then updated with those
+      key/value pairs: ``d.update(red=1, blue=2)``.
+
+   .. method:: values()
+
+      Return a new view of the dictionary's values.  See the
+      :ref:`documentation of view objects <dict-views>`.
+
+   Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same ``(key,
+   value)`` pairs. Order comparisons ('<', '<=', '>=', '>') raise
+   :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   Dictionaries preserve insertion order.  Note that updating a key does not
+   affect the order.  Keys added after deletion are inserted at the end. ::
+
+      >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
+      >>> d
+      {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
+      >>> list(d)
+      ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
+      >>> list(d.values())
+      [1, 2, 3, 4]
+      >>> d["one"] = 42
+      >>> d
+      {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
+      >>> del d["two"]
+      >>> d["two"] = None
+      >>> d
+      {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order.  This behavior was
+      an implementation detail of CPython from 3.6.
+
+.. seealso::
+   :class:`types.MappingProxyType` can be used to create a read-only view
+   of a :class:`dict`.
+
+
+.. _dict-views:
+
+Dictionary view objects
+-----------------------
+
+The objects returned by :meth:`dict.keys`, :meth:`dict.values` and
+:meth:`dict.items` are *view objects*.  They provide a dynamic view on the
+dictionary's entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view
+reflects these changes.
+
+Dictionary views can be iterated over to yield their respective data, and
+support membership tests:
+
+.. describe:: len(dictview)
+
+   Return the number of entries in the dictionary.
+
+.. describe:: iter(dictview)
+
+   Return an iterator over the keys, values or items (represented as tuples of
+   ``(key, value)``) in the dictionary.
+
+   Keys and values are iterated over in insertion order.
+   This allows the creation of ``(value, key)`` pairs
+   using :func:`zip`: ``pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())``.  Another way to
+   create the same list is ``pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()]``.
+
+   Iterating views while adding or deleting entries in the dictionary may raise
+   a :exc:`RuntimeError` or fail to iterate over all entries.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order.
+
+.. describe:: x in dictview
+
+   Return ``True`` if *x* is in the underlying dictionary's keys, values or
+   items (in the latter case, *x* should be a ``(key, value)`` tuple).
+
+
+Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and hashable.  If all
+values are hashable, so that ``(key, value)`` pairs are unique and hashable,
+then the items view is also set-like.  (Values views are not treated as set-like
+since the entries are generally not unique.)  For set-like views, all of the
+operations defined for the abstract base class :class:`collections.abc.Set` are
+available (for example, ``==``, ``<``, or ``^``).
+
+An example of dictionary view usage::
+
+   >>> dishes = {'eggs': 2, 'sausage': 1, 'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500}
+   >>> keys = dishes.keys()
+   >>> values = dishes.values()
+
+   >>> # iteration
+   >>> n = 0
+   >>> for val in values:
+   ...     n += val
+   >>> print(n)
+   504
+
+   >>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
+   >>> list(keys)
+   ['eggs', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam']
+   >>> list(values)
+   [2, 1, 1, 500]
+
+   >>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
+   >>> del dishes['eggs']
+   >>> del dishes['sausage']
+   >>> list(keys)
+   ['bacon', 'spam']
+
+   >>> # set operations
+   >>> keys & {'eggs', 'bacon', 'salad'}
+   {'bacon'}
+   >>> keys ^ {'sausage', 'juice'}
+   {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'}
+
+
+.. _typecontextmanager:
+
+Context Manager Types
+=====================
+
+.. index::
+   single: context manager
+   single: context management protocol
+   single: protocol; context management
+
+Python's :keyword:`with` statement supports the concept of a runtime context
+defined by a context manager.  This is implemented using a pair of methods
+that allow user-defined classes to define a runtime context that is entered
+before the statement body is executed and exited when the statement ends:
+
+
+.. method:: contextmanager.__enter__()
+
+   Enter the runtime context and return either this object or another object
+   related to the runtime context. The value returned by this method is bound to
+   the identifier in the :keyword:`!as` clause of :keyword:`with` statements using
+   this context manager.
+
+   An example of a context manager that returns itself is a :term:`file object`.
+   File objects return themselves from __enter__() to allow :func:`open` to be
+   used as the context expression in a :keyword:`with` statement.
+
+   An example of a context manager that returns a related object is the one
+   returned by :func:`decimal.localcontext`. These managers set the active
+   decimal context to a copy of the original decimal context and then return the
+   copy. This allows changes to be made to the current decimal context in the body
+   of the :keyword:`with` statement without affecting code outside the
+   :keyword:`!with` statement.
+
+
+.. method:: contextmanager.__exit__(exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)
+
+   Exit the runtime context and return a Boolean flag indicating if any exception
+   that occurred should be suppressed. If an exception occurred while executing the
+   body of the :keyword:`with` statement, the arguments contain the exception type,
+   value and traceback information. Otherwise, all three arguments are ``None``.
+
+   Returning a true value from this method will cause the :keyword:`with` statement
+   to suppress the exception and continue execution with the statement immediately
+   following the :keyword:`!with` statement. Otherwise the exception continues
+   propagating after this method has finished executing. Exceptions that occur
+   during execution of this method will replace any exception that occurred in the
+   body of the :keyword:`!with` statement.
+
+   The exception passed in should never be reraised explicitly - instead, this
+   method should return a false value to indicate that the method completed
+   successfully and does not want to suppress the raised exception. This allows
+   context management code to easily detect whether or not an :meth:`__exit__`
+   method has actually failed.
+
+Python defines several context managers to support easy thread synchronisation,
+prompt closure of files or other objects, and simpler manipulation of the active
+decimal arithmetic context. The specific types are not treated specially beyond
+their implementation of the context management protocol. See the
+:mod:`contextlib` module for some examples.
+
+Python's :term:`generator`\s and the :class:`contextlib.contextmanager` decorator
+provide a convenient way to implement these protocols.  If a generator function is
+decorated with the :class:`contextlib.contextmanager` decorator, it will return a
+context manager implementing the necessary :meth:`__enter__` and
+:meth:`__exit__` methods, rather than the iterator produced by an undecorated
+generator function.
+
+Note that there is no specific slot for any of these methods in the type
+structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. Extension types wanting to
+define these methods must provide them as a normal Python accessible method.
+Compared to the overhead of setting up the runtime context, the overhead of a
+single class dictionary lookup is negligible.
+
+
+.. _typesother:
+
+Other Built-in Types
+====================
+
+The interpreter supports several other kinds of objects. Most of these support
+only one or two operations.
+
+
+.. _typesmodules:
+
+Modules
+-------
+
+The only special operation on a module is attribute access: ``m.name``, where
+*m* is a module and *name* accesses a name defined in *m*'s symbol table.
+Module attributes can be assigned to.  (Note that the :keyword:`import`
+statement is not, strictly speaking, an operation on a module object; ``import
+foo`` does not require a module object named *foo* to exist, rather it requires
+an (external) *definition* for a module named *foo* somewhere.)
+
+A special attribute of every module is :attr:`~object.__dict__`. This is the
+dictionary containing the module's symbol table. Modifying this dictionary will
+actually change the module's symbol table, but direct assignment to the
+:attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute is not possible (you can write
+``m.__dict__['a'] = 1``, which defines ``m.a`` to be ``1``, but you can't write
+``m.__dict__ = {}``).  Modifying :attr:`~object.__dict__` directly is
+not recommended.
+
+Modules built into the interpreter are written like this: ``<module 'sys'
+(built-in)>``.  If loaded from a file, they are written as ``<module 'os' from
+'/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>``.
+
+
+.. _typesobjects:
+
+Classes and Class Instances
+---------------------------
+
+See :ref:`objects` and :ref:`class` for these.
+
+
+.. _typesfunctions:
+
+Functions
+---------
+
+Function objects are created by function definitions.  The only operation on a
+function object is to call it: ``func(argument-list)``.
+
+There are really two flavors of function objects: built-in functions and
+user-defined functions.  Both support the same operation (to call the function),
+but the implementation is different, hence the different object types.
+
+See :ref:`function` for more information.
+
+
+.. _typesmethods:
+
+Methods
+-------
+
+.. index:: object: method
+
+Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation. There are
+two flavors: built-in methods (such as :meth:`append` on lists) and class
+instance methods.  Built-in methods are described with the types that support
+them.
+
+If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through an
+instance, you get a special object: a :dfn:`bound method` (also called
+:dfn:`instance method`) object. When called, it will add the ``self`` argument
+to the argument list.  Bound methods have two special read-only attributes:
+``m.__self__`` is the object on which the method operates, and ``m.__func__`` is
+the function implementing the method.  Calling ``m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)``
+is completely equivalent to calling ``m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2, ...,
+arg-n)``.
+
+Like function objects, bound method objects support getting arbitrary
+attributes.  However, since method attributes are actually stored on the
+underlying function object (``meth.__func__``), setting method attributes on
+bound methods is disallowed.  Attempting to set an attribute on a method
+results in an :exc:`AttributeError` being raised.  In order to set a method
+attribute, you need to explicitly set it on the underlying function object::
+
+   >>> class C:
+   ...     def method(self):
+   ...         pass
+   ...
+   >>> c = C()
+   >>> c.method.whoami = 'my name is method'  # can't set on the method
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   AttributeError: 'method' object has no attribute 'whoami'
+   >>> c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is method'
+   >>> c.method.whoami
+   'my name is method'
+
+See :ref:`types` for more information.
+
+
+.. index:: object; code, code object
+
+.. _bltin-code-objects:
+
+Code Objects
+------------
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: compile
+   single: __code__ (function object attribute)
+
+Code objects are used by the implementation to represent "pseudo-compiled"
+executable Python code such as a function body. They differ from function
+objects because they don't contain a reference to their global execution
+environment.  Code objects are returned by the built-in :func:`compile` function
+and can be extracted from function objects through their :attr:`__code__`
+attribute. See also the :mod:`code` module.
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: exec
+   builtin: eval
+
+A code object can be executed or evaluated by passing it (instead of a source
+string) to the :func:`exec` or :func:`eval`  built-in functions.
+
+See :ref:`types` for more information.
+
+
+.. _bltin-type-objects:
+
+Type Objects
+------------
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: type
+   module: types
+
+Type objects represent the various object types.  An object's type is accessed
+by the built-in function :func:`type`.  There are no special operations on
+types.  The standard module :mod:`types` defines names for all standard built-in
+types.
+
+Types are written like this: ``<class 'int'>``.
+
+
+.. _bltin-null-object:
+
+The Null Object
+---------------
+
+This object is returned by functions that don't explicitly return a value.  It
+supports no special operations.  There is exactly one null object, named
+``None`` (a built-in name).  ``type(None)()`` produces the same singleton.
+
+It is written as ``None``.
+
+
+.. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
+.. _bltin-ellipsis-object:
+
+The Ellipsis Object
+-------------------
+
+This object is commonly used by slicing (see :ref:`slicings`).  It supports no
+special operations.  There is exactly one ellipsis object, named
+:const:`Ellipsis` (a built-in name).  ``type(Ellipsis)()`` produces the
+:const:`Ellipsis` singleton.
+
+It is written as ``Ellipsis`` or ``...``.
+
+
+.. _bltin-notimplemented-object:
+
+The NotImplemented Object
+-------------------------
+
+This object is returned from comparisons and binary operations when they are
+asked to operate on types they don't support. See :ref:`comparisons` for more
+information.  There is exactly one ``NotImplemented`` object.
+``type(NotImplemented)()`` produces the singleton instance.
+
+It is written as ``NotImplemented``.
+
+
+.. _bltin-boolean-values:
+
+Boolean Values
+--------------
+
+Boolean values are the two constant objects ``False`` and ``True``.  They are
+used to represent truth values (although other values can also be considered
+false or true).  In numeric contexts (for example when used as the argument to
+an arithmetic operator), they behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively.
+The built-in function :func:`bool` can be used to convert any value to a
+Boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section
+:ref:`truth` above).
+
+.. index::
+   single: False
+   single: True
+   pair: Boolean; values
+
+They are written as ``False`` and ``True``, respectively.
+
+
+.. _typesinternal:
+
+Internal Objects
+----------------
+
+See :ref:`types` for this information.  It describes stack frame objects,
+traceback objects, and slice objects.
+
+
+.. _specialattrs:
+
+Special Attributes
+==================
+
+The implementation adds a few special read-only attributes to several object
+types, where they are relevant.  Some of these are not reported by the
+:func:`dir` built-in function.
+
+
+.. attribute:: object.__dict__
+
+   A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object's (writable)
+   attributes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: instance.__class__
+
+   The class to which a class instance belongs.
+
+
+.. attribute:: class.__bases__
+
+   The tuple of base classes of a class object.
+
+
+.. attribute:: definition.__name__
+
+   The name of the class, function, method, descriptor, or
+   generator instance.
+
+
+.. attribute:: definition.__qualname__
+
+   The :term:`qualified name` of the class, function, method, descriptor,
+   or generator instance.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. attribute:: class.__mro__
+
+   This attribute is a tuple of classes that are considered when looking for
+   base classes during method resolution.
+
+
+.. method:: class.mro()
+
+   This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method
+   resolution order for its instances.  It is called at class instantiation, and
+   its result is stored in :attr:`~class.__mro__`.
+
+
+.. method:: class.__subclasses__
+
+   Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate subclasses.  This
+   method returns a list of all those references still alive.
+   Example::
+
+      >>> int.__subclasses__()
+      [<class 'bool'>]
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Additional information on these special methods may be found in the Python
+   Reference Manual (:ref:`customization`).
+
+.. [2] As a consequence, the list ``[1, 2]`` is considered equal to ``[1.0, 2.0]``, and
+   similarly for tuples.
+
+.. [3] They must have since the parser can't tell the type of the operands.
+
+.. [4] Cased characters are those with general category property being one of
+   "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), "Ll" (Letter, lowercase), or "Lt" (Letter, titlecase).
+
+.. [5] To format only a tuple you should therefore provide a singleton tuple whose only
+   element is the tuple to be formatted.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/string.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/string.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..46b2bfc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/string.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,845 @@
+:mod:`string` --- Common string operations
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: string
+   :synopsis: Common string operations.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/string.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`textseq`
+
+   :ref:`string-methods`
+
+String constants
+----------------
+
+The constants defined in this module are:
+
+
+.. data:: ascii_letters
+
+   The concatenation of the :const:`ascii_lowercase` and :const:`ascii_uppercase`
+   constants described below.  This value is not locale-dependent.
+
+
+.. data:: ascii_lowercase
+
+   The lowercase letters ``'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``.  This value is not
+   locale-dependent and will not change.
+
+
+.. data:: ascii_uppercase
+
+   The uppercase letters ``'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.  This value is not
+   locale-dependent and will not change.
+
+
+.. data:: digits
+
+   The string ``'0123456789'``.
+
+
+.. data:: hexdigits
+
+   The string ``'0123456789abcdefABCDEF'``.
+
+
+.. data:: octdigits
+
+   The string ``'01234567'``.
+
+
+.. data:: punctuation
+
+   String of ASCII characters which are considered punctuation characters
+   in the ``C`` locale.
+
+
+.. data:: printable
+
+   String of ASCII characters which are considered printable.  This is a
+   combination of :const:`digits`, :const:`ascii_letters`, :const:`punctuation`,
+   and :const:`whitespace`.
+
+
+.. data:: whitespace
+
+   A string containing all ASCII characters that are considered whitespace.
+   This includes the characters space, tab, linefeed, return, formfeed, and
+   vertical tab.
+
+
+.. _string-formatting:
+
+Custom String Formatting
+------------------------
+
+The built-in string class provides the ability to do complex variable
+substitutions and value formatting via the :meth:`~str.format` method described in
+:pep:`3101`.  The :class:`Formatter` class in the :mod:`string` module allows
+you to create and customize your own string formatting behaviors using the same
+implementation as the built-in :meth:`~str.format` method.
+
+
+.. class:: Formatter
+
+   The :class:`Formatter` class has the following public methods:
+
+   .. method:: format(format_string, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      The primary API method.  It takes a format string and
+      an arbitrary set of positional and keyword arguments.
+      It is just a wrapper that calls :meth:`vformat`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         A format string argument is now :ref:`positional-only
+         <positional-only_parameter>`.
+
+   .. method:: vformat(format_string, args, kwargs)
+
+      This function does the actual work of formatting.  It is exposed as a
+      separate function for cases where you want to pass in a predefined
+      dictionary of arguments, rather than unpacking and repacking the
+      dictionary as individual arguments using the ``*args`` and ``**kwargs``
+      syntax.  :meth:`vformat` does the work of breaking up the format string
+      into character data and replacement fields.  It calls the various
+      methods described below.
+
+   In addition, the :class:`Formatter` defines a number of methods that are
+   intended to be replaced by subclasses:
+
+   .. method:: parse(format_string)
+
+      Loop over the format_string and return an iterable of tuples
+      (*literal_text*, *field_name*, *format_spec*, *conversion*).  This is used
+      by :meth:`vformat` to break the string into either literal text, or
+      replacement fields.
+
+      The values in the tuple conceptually represent a span of literal text
+      followed by a single replacement field.  If there is no literal text
+      (which can happen if two replacement fields occur consecutively), then
+      *literal_text* will be a zero-length string.  If there is no replacement
+      field, then the values of *field_name*, *format_spec* and *conversion*
+      will be ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: get_field(field_name, args, kwargs)
+
+      Given *field_name* as returned by :meth:`parse` (see above), convert it to
+      an object to be formatted.  Returns a tuple (obj, used_key).  The default
+      version takes strings of the form defined in :pep:`3101`, such as
+      "0[name]" or "label.title".  *args* and *kwargs* are as passed in to
+      :meth:`vformat`.  The return value *used_key* has the same meaning as the
+      *key* parameter to :meth:`get_value`.
+
+   .. method:: get_value(key, args, kwargs)
+
+      Retrieve a given field value.  The *key* argument will be either an
+      integer or a string.  If it is an integer, it represents the index of the
+      positional argument in *args*; if it is a string, then it represents a
+      named argument in *kwargs*.
+
+      The *args* parameter is set to the list of positional arguments to
+      :meth:`vformat`, and the *kwargs* parameter is set to the dictionary of
+      keyword arguments.
+
+      For compound field names, these functions are only called for the first
+      component of the field name; Subsequent components are handled through
+      normal attribute and indexing operations.
+
+      So for example, the field expression '0.name' would cause
+      :meth:`get_value` to be called with a *key* argument of 0.  The ``name``
+      attribute will be looked up after :meth:`get_value` returns by calling the
+      built-in :func:`getattr` function.
+
+      If the index or keyword refers to an item that does not exist, then an
+      :exc:`IndexError` or :exc:`KeyError` should be raised.
+
+   .. method:: check_unused_args(used_args, args, kwargs)
+
+      Implement checking for unused arguments if desired.  The arguments to this
+      function is the set of all argument keys that were actually referred to in
+      the format string (integers for positional arguments, and strings for
+      named arguments), and a reference to the *args* and *kwargs* that was
+      passed to vformat.  The set of unused args can be calculated from these
+      parameters.  :meth:`check_unused_args` is assumed to raise an exception if
+      the check fails.
+
+   .. method:: format_field(value, format_spec)
+
+      :meth:`format_field` simply calls the global :func:`format` built-in.  The
+      method is provided so that subclasses can override it.
+
+   .. method:: convert_field(value, conversion)
+
+      Converts the value (returned by :meth:`get_field`) given a conversion type
+      (as in the tuple returned by the :meth:`parse` method).  The default
+      version understands 's' (str), 'r' (repr) and 'a' (ascii) conversion
+      types.
+
+
+.. _formatstrings:
+
+Format String Syntax
+--------------------
+
+The :meth:`str.format` method and the :class:`Formatter` class share the same
+syntax for format strings (although in the case of :class:`Formatter`,
+subclasses can define their own format string syntax).  The syntax is
+related to that of :ref:`formatted string literals <f-strings>`, but
+there are differences.
+
+.. index::
+   single: {} (curly brackets); in string formatting
+   single: . (dot); in string formatting
+   single: [] (square brackets); in string formatting
+   single: ! (exclamation); in string formatting
+   single: : (colon); in string formatting
+
+Format strings contain "replacement fields" surrounded by curly braces ``{}``.
+Anything that is not contained in braces is considered literal text, which is
+copied unchanged to the output.  If you need to include a brace character in the
+literal text, it can be escaped by doubling: ``{{`` and ``}}``.
+
+The grammar for a replacement field is as follows:
+
+   .. productionlist:: sf
+      replacement_field: "{" [`field_name`] ["!" `conversion`] [":" `format_spec`] "}"
+      field_name: arg_name ("." `attribute_name` | "[" `element_index` "]")*
+      arg_name: [`identifier` | `digit`+]
+      attribute_name: `identifier`
+      element_index: `digit`+ | `index_string`
+      index_string: <any source character except "]"> +
+      conversion: "r" | "s" | "a"
+      format_spec: <described in the next section>
+
+In less formal terms, the replacement field can start with a *field_name* that specifies
+the object whose value is to be formatted and inserted
+into the output instead of the replacement field.
+The *field_name* is optionally followed by a  *conversion* field, which is
+preceded by an exclamation point ``'!'``, and a *format_spec*, which is preceded
+by a colon ``':'``.  These specify a non-default format for the replacement value.
+
+See also the :ref:`formatspec` section.
+
+The *field_name* itself begins with an *arg_name* that is either a number or a
+keyword.  If it's a number, it refers to a positional argument, and if it's a keyword,
+it refers to a named keyword argument.  If the numerical arg_names in a format string
+are 0, 1, 2, ... in sequence, they can all be omitted (not just some)
+and the numbers 0, 1, 2, ... will be automatically inserted in that order.
+Because *arg_name* is not quote-delimited, it is not possible to specify arbitrary
+dictionary keys (e.g., the strings ``'10'`` or ``':-]'``) within a format string.
+The *arg_name* can be followed by any number of index or
+attribute expressions. An expression of the form ``'.name'`` selects the named
+attribute using :func:`getattr`, while an expression of the form ``'[index]'``
+does an index lookup using :func:`__getitem__`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   The positional argument specifiers can be omitted for :meth:`str.format`,
+   so ``'{} {}'.format(a, b)`` is equivalent to ``'{0} {1}'.format(a, b)``.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The positional argument specifiers can be omitted for :class:`Formatter`.
+
+Some simple format string examples::
+
+   "First, thou shalt count to {0}"  # References first positional argument
+   "Bring me a {}"                   # Implicitly references the first positional argument
+   "From {} to {}"                   # Same as "From {0} to {1}"
+   "My quest is {name}"              # References keyword argument 'name'
+   "Weight in tons {0.weight}"       # 'weight' attribute of first positional arg
+   "Units destroyed: {players[0]}"   # First element of keyword argument 'players'.
+
+The *conversion* field causes a type coercion before formatting.  Normally, the
+job of formatting a value is done by the :meth:`__format__` method of the value
+itself.  However, in some cases it is desirable to force a type to be formatted
+as a string, overriding its own definition of formatting.  By converting the
+value to a string before calling :meth:`__format__`, the normal formatting logic
+is bypassed.
+
+Three conversion flags are currently supported: ``'!s'`` which calls :func:`str`
+on the value, ``'!r'`` which calls :func:`repr` and ``'!a'`` which calls
+:func:`ascii`.
+
+Some examples::
+
+   "Harold's a clever {0!s}"        # Calls str() on the argument first
+   "Bring out the holy {name!r}"    # Calls repr() on the argument first
+   "More {!a}"                      # Calls ascii() on the argument first
+
+The *format_spec* field contains a specification of how the value should be
+presented, including such details as field width, alignment, padding, decimal
+precision and so on.  Each value type can define its own "formatting
+mini-language" or interpretation of the *format_spec*.
+
+Most built-in types support a common formatting mini-language, which is
+described in the next section.
+
+A *format_spec* field can also include nested replacement fields within it.
+These nested replacement fields may contain a field name, conversion flag
+and format specification, but deeper nesting is
+not allowed.  The replacement fields within the
+format_spec are substituted before the *format_spec* string is interpreted.
+This allows the formatting of a value to be dynamically specified.
+
+See the :ref:`formatexamples` section for some examples.
+
+
+.. _formatspec:
+
+Format Specification Mini-Language
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+"Format specifications" are used within replacement fields contained within a
+format string to define how individual values are presented (see
+:ref:`formatstrings` and :ref:`f-strings`).
+They can also be passed directly to the built-in
+:func:`format` function.  Each formattable type may define how the format
+specification is to be interpreted.
+
+Most built-in types implement the following options for format specifications,
+although some of the formatting options are only supported by the numeric types.
+
+A general convention is that an empty format string (``""``) produces
+the same result as if you had called :func:`str` on the value. A
+non-empty format string typically modifies the result.
+
+The general form of a *standard format specifier* is:
+
+.. productionlist:: sf
+   format_spec: [[`fill`]`align`][`sign`][#][0][`width`][`grouping_option`][.`precision`][`type`]
+   fill: <any character>
+   align: "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
+   sign: "+" | "-" | " "
+   width: `digit`+
+   grouping_option: "_" | ","
+   precision: `digit`+
+   type: "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g" | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"
+
+If a valid *align* value is specified, it can be preceded by a *fill*
+character that can be any character and defaults to a space if omitted.
+It is not possible to use a literal curly brace ("``{``" or "``}``") as
+the *fill* character in a :ref:`formatted string literal
+<f-strings>` or when using the :meth:`str.format`
+method.  However, it is possible to insert a curly brace
+with a nested replacement field.  This limitation doesn't
+affect the :func:`format` function.
+
+The meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:
+
+   .. index::
+      single: < (less); in string formatting
+      single: > (greater); in string formatting
+      single: = (equals); in string formatting
+      single: ^ (caret); in string formatting
+
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option  | Meaning                                                  |
+   +=========+==========================================================+
+   | ``'<'`` | Forces the field to be left-aligned within the available |
+   |         | space (this is the default for most objects).            |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'>'`` | Forces the field to be right-aligned within the          |
+   |         | available space (this is the default for numbers).       |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'='`` | Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any)  |
+   |         | but before the digits.  This is used for printing fields |
+   |         | in the form '+000000120'. This alignment option is only  |
+   |         | valid for numeric types.  It becomes the default when '0'|
+   |         | immediately precedes the field width.                    |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'^'`` | Forces the field to be centered within the available     |
+   |         | space.                                                   |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+Note that unless a minimum field width is defined, the field width will always
+be the same size as the data to fill it, so that the alignment option has no
+meaning in this case.
+
+The *sign* option is only valid for number types, and can be one of the
+following:
+
+   .. index::
+      single: + (plus); in string formatting
+      single: - (minus); in string formatting
+      single: space; in string formatting
+
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option  | Meaning                                                  |
+   +=========+==========================================================+
+   | ``'+'`` | indicates that a sign should be used for both            |
+   |         | positive as well as negative numbers.                    |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'-'`` | indicates that a sign should be used only for negative   |
+   |         | numbers (this is the default behavior).                  |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | space   | indicates that a leading space should be used on         |
+   |         | positive numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers.  |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. index:: single: # (hash); in string formatting
+
+The ``'#'`` option causes the "alternate form" to be used for the
+conversion.  The alternate form is defined differently for different
+types.  This option is only valid for integer, float, complex and
+Decimal types. For integers, when binary, octal, or hexadecimal output
+is used, this option adds the prefix respective ``'0b'``, ``'0o'``, or
+``'0x'`` to the output value. For floats, complex and Decimal the
+alternate form causes the result of the conversion to always contain a
+decimal-point character, even if no digits follow it. Normally, a
+decimal-point character appears in the result of these conversions
+only if a digit follows it. In addition, for ``'g'`` and ``'G'``
+conversions, trailing zeros are not removed from the result.
+
+.. index:: single: , (comma); in string formatting
+
+The ``','`` option signals the use of a comma for a thousands separator.
+For a locale aware separator, use the ``'n'`` integer presentation type
+instead.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   Added the ``','`` option (see also :pep:`378`).
+
+.. index:: single: _ (underscore); in string formatting
+
+The ``'_'`` option signals the use of an underscore for a thousands
+separator for floating point presentation types and for integer
+presentation type ``'d'``.  For integer presentation types ``'b'``,
+``'o'``, ``'x'``, and ``'X'``, underscores will be inserted every 4
+digits.  For other presentation types, specifying this option is an
+error.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   Added the ``'_'`` option (see also :pep:`515`).
+
+*width* is a decimal integer defining the minimum field width.  If not
+specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.
+
+When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the *width* field by a zero
+(``'0'``) character enables
+sign-aware zero-padding for numeric types.  This is equivalent to a *fill*
+character of ``'0'`` with an *alignment* type of ``'='``.
+
+The *precision* is a decimal number indicating how many digits should be
+displayed after the decimal point for a floating point value formatted with
+``'f'`` and ``'F'``, or before and after the decimal point for a floating point
+value formatted with ``'g'`` or ``'G'``.  For non-number types the field
+indicates the maximum field size - in other words, how many characters will be
+used from the field content. The *precision* is not allowed for integer values.
+
+Finally, the *type* determines how the data should be presented.
+
+The available string presentation types are:
+
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Type    | Meaning                                                  |
+   +=========+==========================================================+
+   | ``'s'`` | String format. This is the default type for strings and  |
+   |         | may be omitted.                                          |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | None    | The same as ``'s'``.                                     |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The available integer presentation types are:
+
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Type    | Meaning                                                  |
+   +=========+==========================================================+
+   | ``'b'`` | Binary format. Outputs the number in base 2.             |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'c'`` | Character. Converts the integer to the corresponding     |
+   |         | unicode character before printing.                       |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'d'`` | Decimal Integer. Outputs the number in base 10.          |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'o'`` | Octal format. Outputs the number in base 8.              |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'x'`` | Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using         |
+   |         | lower-case letters for the digits above 9.               |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'X'`` | Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using         |
+   |         | upper-case letters for the digits above 9.               |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'n'`` | Number. This is the same as ``'d'``, except that it uses |
+   |         | the current locale setting to insert the appropriate     |
+   |         | number separator characters.                             |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | None    | The same as ``'d'``.                                     |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted
+with the floating point presentation types listed below (except
+``'n'`` and ``None``). When doing so, :func:`float` is used to convert the
+integer to a floating point number before formatting.
+
+The available presentation types for floating point and decimal values are:
+
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Type    | Meaning                                                  |
+   +=========+==========================================================+
+   | ``'e'`` | Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific       |
+   |         | notation using the letter 'e' to indicate the exponent.  |
+   |         | The default precision is ``6``.                          |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'E'`` | Exponent notation. Same as ``'e'`` except it uses an     |
+   |         | upper case 'E' as the separator character.               |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'f'`` | Fixed-point notation. Displays the number as a           |
+   |         | fixed-point number.  The default precision is ``6``.     |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'F'`` | Fixed-point notation. Same as ``'f'``, but converts      |
+   |         | ``nan`` to  ``NAN`` and ``inf`` to ``INF``.              |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'g'`` | General format.  For a given precision ``p >= 1``,       |
+   |         | this rounds the number to ``p`` significant digits and   |
+   |         | then formats the result in either fixed-point format     |
+   |         | or in scientific notation, depending on its magnitude.   |
+   |         |                                                          |
+   |         | The precise rules are as follows: suppose that the       |
+   |         | result formatted with presentation type ``'e'`` and      |
+   |         | precision ``p-1`` would have exponent ``exp``.  Then     |
+   |         | if ``-4 <= exp < p``, the number is formatted            |
+   |         | with presentation type ``'f'`` and precision             |
+   |         | ``p-1-exp``.  Otherwise, the number is formatted         |
+   |         | with presentation type ``'e'`` and precision ``p-1``.    |
+   |         | In both cases insignificant trailing zeros are removed   |
+   |         | from the significand, and the decimal point is also      |
+   |         | removed if there are no remaining digits following it.   |
+   |         |                                                          |
+   |         | Positive and negative infinity, positive and negative    |
+   |         | zero, and nans, are formatted as ``inf``, ``-inf``,      |
+   |         | ``0``, ``-0`` and ``nan`` respectively, regardless of    |
+   |         | the precision.                                           |
+   |         |                                                          |
+   |         | A precision of ``0`` is treated as equivalent to a       |
+   |         | precision of ``1``.  The default precision is ``6``.     |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'G'`` | General format. Same as ``'g'`` except switches to       |
+   |         | ``'E'`` if the number gets too large. The                |
+   |         | representations of infinity and NaN are uppercased, too. |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'n'`` | Number. This is the same as ``'g'``, except that it uses |
+   |         | the current locale setting to insert the appropriate     |
+   |         | number separator characters.                             |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'%'`` | Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays    |
+   |         | in fixed (``'f'``) format, followed by a percent sign.   |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | None    | Similar to ``'g'``, except that fixed-point notation,    |
+   |         | when used, has at least one digit past the decimal point.|
+   |         | The default precision is as high as needed to represent  |
+   |         | the particular value. The overall effect is to match the |
+   |         | output of :func:`str` as altered by the other format     |
+   |         | modifiers.                                               |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. _formatexamples:
+
+Format examples
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This section contains examples of the :meth:`str.format` syntax and
+comparison with the old ``%``-formatting.
+
+In most of the cases the syntax is similar to the old ``%``-formatting, with the
+addition of the ``{}`` and with ``:`` used instead of ``%``.
+For example, ``'%03.2f'`` can be translated to ``'{:03.2f}'``.
+
+The new format syntax also supports new and different options, shown in the
+following examples.
+
+Accessing arguments by position::
+
+   >>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
+   'a, b, c'
+   >>> '{}, {}, {}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')  # 3.1+ only
+   'a, b, c'
+   >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
+   'c, b, a'
+   >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc')      # unpacking argument sequence
+   'c, b, a'
+   >>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad')   # arguments' indices can be repeated
+   'abracadabra'
+
+Accessing arguments by name::
+
+   >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
+   'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
+   >>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
+   >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
+   'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
+
+Accessing arguments' attributes::
+
+   >>> c = 3-5j
+   >>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
+   ...  'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
+   'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
+   >>> class Point:
+   ...     def __init__(self, x, y):
+   ...         self.x, self.y = x, y
+   ...     def __str__(self):
+   ...         return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
+   ...
+   >>> str(Point(4, 2))
+   'Point(4, 2)'
+
+Accessing arguments' items::
+
+   >>> coord = (3, 5)
+   >>> 'X: {0[0]};  Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
+   'X: 3;  Y: 5'
+
+Replacing ``%s`` and ``%r``::
+
+   >>> "repr() shows quotes: {!r}; str() doesn't: {!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
+   "repr() shows quotes: 'test1'; str() doesn't: test2"
+
+Aligning the text and specifying a width::
+
+   >>> '{:<30}'.format('left aligned')
+   'left aligned                  '
+   >>> '{:>30}'.format('right aligned')
+   '                 right aligned'
+   >>> '{:^30}'.format('centered')
+   '           centered           '
+   >>> '{:*^30}'.format('centered')  # use '*' as a fill char
+   '***********centered***********'
+
+Replacing ``%+f``, ``%-f``, and ``% f`` and specifying a sign::
+
+   >>> '{:+f}; {:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show it always
+   '+3.140000; -3.140000'
+   >>> '{: f}; {: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show a space for positive numbers
+   ' 3.140000; -3.140000'
+   >>> '{:-f}; {:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show only the minus -- same as '{:f}; {:f}'
+   '3.140000; -3.140000'
+
+Replacing ``%x`` and ``%o`` and converting the value to different bases::
+
+   >>> # format also supports binary numbers
+   >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:x};  oct: {0:o};  bin: {0:b}".format(42)
+   'int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010'
+   >>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
+   >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:#x};  oct: {0:#o};  bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
+   'int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010'
+
+Using the comma as a thousands separator::
+
+   >>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
+   '1,234,567,890'
+
+Expressing a percentage::
+
+   >>> points = 19
+   >>> total = 22
+   >>> 'Correct answers: {:.2%}'.format(points/total)
+   'Correct answers: 86.36%'
+
+Using type-specific formatting::
+
+   >>> import datetime
+   >>> d = datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
+   >>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
+   '2010-07-04 12:15:58'
+
+Nesting arguments and more complex examples::
+
+   >>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
+   ...     '{0:{fill}{align}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
+   ...
+   'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
+   '^^^^^center^^^^^'
+   '>>>>>>>>>>>right'
+   >>>
+   >>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
+   >>> '{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}'.format(*octets)
+   'C0A80001'
+   >>> int(_, 16)
+   3232235521
+   >>>
+   >>> width = 5
+   >>> for num in range(5,12): #doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+   ...     for base in 'dXob':
+   ...         print('{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width), end=' ')
+   ...     print()
+   ...
+       5     5     5   101
+       6     6     6   110
+       7     7     7   111
+       8     8    10  1000
+       9     9    11  1001
+      10     A    12  1010
+      11     B    13  1011
+
+
+
+.. _template-strings:
+
+Template strings
+----------------
+
+Template strings provide simpler string substitutions as described in
+:pep:`292`.  A primary use case for template strings is for
+internationalization (i18n) since in that context, the simpler syntax and
+functionality makes it easier to translate than other built-in string
+formatting facilities in Python.  As an example of a library built on template
+strings for i18n, see the
+`flufl.i18n <http://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/>`_ package.
+
+.. index:: single: $ (dollar); in template strings
+
+Template strings support ``$``-based substitutions, using the following rules:
+
+* ``$$`` is an escape; it is replaced with a single ``$``.
+
+* ``$identifier`` names a substitution placeholder matching a mapping key of
+  ``"identifier"``.  By default, ``"identifier"`` is restricted to any
+  case-insensitive ASCII alphanumeric string (including underscores) that
+  starts with an underscore or ASCII letter.  The first non-identifier
+  character after the ``$`` character terminates this placeholder
+  specification.
+
+* ``${identifier}`` is equivalent to ``$identifier``.  It is required when
+  valid identifier characters follow the placeholder but are not part of the
+  placeholder, such as ``"${noun}ification"``.
+
+Any other appearance of ``$`` in the string will result in a :exc:`ValueError`
+being raised.
+
+The :mod:`string` module provides a :class:`Template` class that implements
+these rules.  The methods of :class:`Template` are:
+
+
+.. class:: Template(template)
+
+   The constructor takes a single argument which is the template string.
+
+
+   .. method:: substitute(mapping, **kwds)
+
+      Performs the template substitution, returning a new string.  *mapping* is
+      any dictionary-like object with keys that match the placeholders in the
+      template.  Alternatively, you can provide keyword arguments, where the
+      keywords are the placeholders.  When both *mapping* and *kwds* are given
+      and there are duplicates, the placeholders from *kwds* take precedence.
+
+
+   .. method:: safe_substitute(mapping, **kwds)
+
+      Like :meth:`substitute`, except that if placeholders are missing from
+      *mapping* and *kwds*, instead of raising a :exc:`KeyError` exception, the
+      original placeholder will appear in the resulting string intact.  Also,
+      unlike with :meth:`substitute`, any other appearances of the ``$`` will
+      simply return ``$`` instead of raising :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+      While other exceptions may still occur, this method is called "safe"
+      because it always tries to return a usable string instead of
+      raising an exception.  In another sense, :meth:`safe_substitute` may be
+      anything other than safe, since it will silently ignore malformed
+      templates containing dangling delimiters, unmatched braces, or
+      placeholders that are not valid Python identifiers.
+
+   :class:`Template` instances also provide one public data attribute:
+
+   .. attribute:: template
+
+      This is the object passed to the constructor's *template* argument.  In
+      general, you shouldn't change it, but read-only access is not enforced.
+
+Here is an example of how to use a Template::
+
+   >>> from string import Template
+   >>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
+   >>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
+   'tim likes kung pao'
+   >>> d = dict(who='tim')
+   >>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+   ...
+   ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11
+   >>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+   ...
+   KeyError: 'what'
+   >>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
+   'tim likes $what'
+
+Advanced usage: you can derive subclasses of :class:`Template` to customize
+the placeholder syntax, delimiter character, or the entire regular expression
+used to parse template strings.  To do this, you can override these class
+attributes:
+
+* *delimiter* -- This is the literal string describing a placeholder
+  introducing delimiter.  The default value is ``$``.  Note that this should
+  *not* be a regular expression, as the implementation will call
+  :meth:`re.escape` on this string as needed.  Note further that you cannot
+  change the delimiter after class creation (i.e. a different delimiter must
+  be set in the subclass's class namespace).
+
+* *idpattern* -- This is the regular expression describing the pattern for
+  non-braced placeholders.  The default value is the regular expression
+  ``(?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*)``.  If this is given and *braceidpattern* is
+  ``None`` this pattern will also apply to braced placeholders.
+
+  .. note::
+
+     Since default *flags* is ``re.IGNORECASE``, pattern ``[a-z]`` can match
+     with some non-ASCII characters. That's why we use the local ``a`` flag
+     here.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+     *braceidpattern* can be used to define separate patterns used inside and
+     outside the braces.
+
+* *braceidpattern* -- This is like *idpattern* but describes the pattern for
+  braced placeholders.  Defaults to ``None`` which means to fall back to
+  *idpattern* (i.e. the same pattern is used both inside and outside braces).
+  If given, this allows you to define different patterns for braced and
+  unbraced placeholders.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+* *flags* -- The regular expression flags that will be applied when compiling
+  the regular expression used for recognizing substitutions.  The default value
+  is ``re.IGNORECASE``.  Note that ``re.VERBOSE`` will always be added to the
+  flags, so custom *idpattern*\ s must follow conventions for verbose regular
+  expressions.
+
+  .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+Alternatively, you can provide the entire regular expression pattern by
+overriding the class attribute *pattern*.  If you do this, the value must be a
+regular expression object with four named capturing groups.  The capturing
+groups correspond to the rules given above, along with the invalid placeholder
+rule:
+
+* *escaped* -- This group matches the escape sequence, e.g. ``$$``, in the
+  default pattern.
+
+* *named* -- This group matches the unbraced placeholder name; it should not
+  include the delimiter in capturing group.
+
+* *braced* -- This group matches the brace enclosed placeholder name; it should
+  not include either the delimiter or braces in the capturing group.
+
+* *invalid* -- This group matches any other delimiter pattern (usually a single
+  delimiter), and it should appear last in the regular expression.
+
+
+Helper functions
+----------------
+
+.. function:: capwords(s, sep=None)
+
+   Split the argument into words using :meth:`str.split`, capitalize each word
+   using :meth:`str.capitalize`, and join the capitalized words using
+   :meth:`str.join`.  If the optional second argument *sep* is absent
+   or ``None``, runs of whitespace characters are replaced by a single space
+   and leading and trailing whitespace are removed, otherwise *sep* is used to
+   split and join the words.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stringprep.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stringprep.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/stringprep.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+:mod:`stringprep` --- Internet String Preparation
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: stringprep
+   :synopsis: String preparation, as per RFC 3453
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/stringprep.py`
+
+--------------
+
+When identifying things (such as host names) in the internet, it is often
+necessary to compare such identifications for "equality". Exactly how this
+comparison is executed may depend on the application domain, e.g. whether it
+should be case-insensitive or not. It may be also necessary to restrict the
+possible identifications, to allow only identifications consisting of
+"printable" characters.
+
+:rfc:`3454` defines a procedure for "preparing" Unicode strings in internet
+protocols. Before passing strings onto the wire, they are processed with the
+preparation procedure, after which they have a certain normalized form. The RFC
+defines a set of tables, which can be combined into profiles. Each profile must
+define which tables it uses, and what other optional parts of the ``stringprep``
+procedure are part of the profile. One example of a ``stringprep`` profile is
+``nameprep``, which is used for internationalized domain names.
+
+The module :mod:`stringprep` only exposes the tables from :rfc:`3454`. As these
+tables would be very large to represent them as dictionaries or lists, the
+module uses the Unicode character database internally. The module source code
+itself was generated using the ``mkstringprep.py`` utility.
+
+As a result, these tables are exposed as functions, not as data structures.
+There are two kinds of tables in the RFC: sets and mappings. For a set,
+:mod:`stringprep` provides the "characteristic function", i.e. a function that
+returns true if the parameter is part of the set. For mappings, it provides the
+mapping function: given the key, it returns the associated value. Below is a
+list of all functions available in the module.
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_a1(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableA.1 (Unassigned code points in Unicode 3.2).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_b1(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableB.1 (Commonly mapped to nothing).
+
+
+.. function:: map_table_b2(code)
+
+   Return the mapped value for *code* according to tableB.2 (Mapping for
+   case-folding used with NFKC).
+
+
+.. function:: map_table_b3(code)
+
+   Return the mapped value for *code* according to tableB.3 (Mapping for
+   case-folding used with no normalization).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c11(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.1.1  (ASCII space characters).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c12(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.1.2  (Non-ASCII space characters).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c11_c12(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.1  (Space characters, union of C.1.1 and
+   C.1.2).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c21(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.2.1  (ASCII control characters).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c22(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.2.2  (Non-ASCII control characters).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c21_c22(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.2  (Control characters, union of C.2.1 and
+   C.2.2).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c3(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.3  (Private use).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c4(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.4  (Non-character code points).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c5(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.5  (Surrogate codes).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c6(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.6  (Inappropriate for plain text).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c7(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.7  (Inappropriate for canonical
+   representation).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c8(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.8  (Change display properties or are
+   deprecated).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_c9(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableC.9  (Tagging characters).
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_d1(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableD.1  (Characters with bidirectional property
+   "R" or "AL").
+
+
+.. function:: in_table_d2(code)
+
+   Determine whether *code* is in tableD.2  (Characters with bidirectional property
+   "L").
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/struct.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/struct.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df2416e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/struct.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,474 @@
+:mod:`struct` --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: struct
+   :synopsis: Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/struct.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: C; structures
+   triple: packing; binary; data
+
+--------------
+
+This module performs conversions between Python values and C structs represented
+as Python :class:`bytes` objects.  This can be used in handling binary data
+stored in files or from network connections, among other sources.  It uses
+:ref:`struct-format-strings` as compact descriptions of the layout of the C
+structs and the intended conversion to/from Python values.
+
+.. note::
+
+   By default, the result of packing a given C struct includes pad bytes in
+   order to maintain proper alignment for the C types involved; similarly,
+   alignment is taken into account when unpacking.  This behavior is chosen so
+   that the bytes of a packed struct correspond exactly to the layout in memory
+   of the corresponding C struct.  To handle platform-independent data formats
+   or omit implicit pad bytes, use ``standard`` size and alignment instead of
+   ``native`` size and alignment: see :ref:`struct-alignment` for details.
+
+Several :mod:`struct` functions (and methods of :class:`Struct`) take a *buffer*
+argument.  This refers to objects that implement the :ref:`bufferobjects` and
+provide either a readable or read-writable buffer.  The most common types used
+for that purpose are :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`, but many other types
+that can be viewed as an array of bytes implement the buffer protocol, so that
+they can be read/filled without additional copying from a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+
+Functions and Exceptions
+------------------------
+
+The module defines the following exception and functions:
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Exception raised on various occasions; argument is a string describing what
+   is wrong.
+
+
+.. function:: pack(format, v1, v2, ...)
+
+   Return a bytes object containing the values *v1*, *v2*, ... packed according
+   to the format string *format*.  The arguments must match the values required by
+   the format exactly.
+
+
+.. function:: pack_into(format, buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)
+
+   Pack the values *v1*, *v2*, ... according to the format string *format* and
+   write the packed bytes into the writable buffer *buffer* starting at
+   position *offset*.  Note that *offset* is a required argument.
+
+
+.. function:: unpack(format, buffer)
+
+   Unpack from the buffer *buffer* (presumably packed by ``pack(format, ...)``)
+   according to the format string *format*.  The result is a tuple even if it
+   contains exactly one item.  The buffer's size in bytes must match the
+   size required by the format, as reflected by :func:`calcsize`.
+
+
+.. function:: unpack_from(format, buffer, offset=0)
+
+   Unpack from *buffer* starting at position *offset*, according to the format
+   string *format*.  The result is a tuple even if it contains exactly one
+   item.  The buffer's size in bytes, minus *offset*, must be at least
+   the size required by the format, as reflected by :func:`calcsize`.
+
+
+.. function:: iter_unpack(format, buffer)
+
+   Iteratively unpack from the buffer *buffer* according to the format
+   string *format*.  This function returns an iterator which will read
+   equally-sized chunks from the buffer until all its contents have been
+   consumed.  The buffer's size in bytes must be a multiple of the size
+   required by the format, as reflected by :func:`calcsize`.
+
+   Each iteration yields a tuple as specified by the format string.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: calcsize(format)
+
+   Return the size of the struct (and hence of the bytes object produced by
+   ``pack(format, ...)``) corresponding to the format string *format*.
+
+
+.. _struct-format-strings:
+
+Format Strings
+--------------
+
+Format strings are the mechanism used to specify the expected layout when
+packing and unpacking data.  They are built up from :ref:`format-characters`,
+which specify the type of data being packed/unpacked.  In addition, there are
+special characters for controlling the :ref:`struct-alignment`.
+
+
+.. _struct-alignment:
+
+Byte Order, Size, and Alignment
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+By default, C types are represented in the machine's native format and byte
+order, and properly aligned by skipping pad bytes if necessary (according to the
+rules used by the C compiler).
+
+.. index::
+   single: @ (at); in struct format strings
+   single: = (equals); in struct format strings
+   single: < (less); in struct format strings
+   single: > (greater); in struct format strings
+   single: ! (exclamation); in struct format strings
+
+Alternatively, the first character of the format string can be used to indicate
+the byte order, size and alignment of the packed data, according to the
+following table:
+
++-----------+------------------------+----------+-----------+
+| Character | Byte order             | Size     | Alignment |
++===========+========================+==========+===========+
+| ``@``     | native                 | native   | native    |
++-----------+------------------------+----------+-----------+
+| ``=``     | native                 | standard | none      |
++-----------+------------------------+----------+-----------+
+| ``<``     | little-endian          | standard | none      |
++-----------+------------------------+----------+-----------+
+| ``>``     | big-endian             | standard | none      |
++-----------+------------------------+----------+-----------+
+| ``!``     | network (= big-endian) | standard | none      |
++-----------+------------------------+----------+-----------+
+
+If the first character is not one of these, ``'@'`` is assumed.
+
+Native byte order is big-endian or little-endian, depending on the host
+system. For example, Intel x86 and AMD64 (x86-64) are little-endian;
+Motorola 68000 and PowerPC G5 are big-endian; ARM and Intel Itanium feature
+switchable endianness (bi-endian). Use ``sys.byteorder`` to check the
+endianness of your system.
+
+Native size and alignment are determined using the C compiler's
+``sizeof`` expression.  This is always combined with native byte order.
+
+Standard size depends only on the format character;  see the table in
+the :ref:`format-characters` section.
+
+Note the difference between ``'@'`` and ``'='``: both use native byte order, but
+the size and alignment of the latter is standardized.
+
+The form ``'!'`` is available for those poor souls who claim they can't remember
+whether network byte order is big-endian or little-endian.
+
+There is no way to indicate non-native byte order (force byte-swapping); use the
+appropriate choice of ``'<'`` or ``'>'``.
+
+Notes:
+
+(1) Padding is only automatically added between successive structure members.
+    No padding is added at the beginning or the end of the encoded struct.
+
+(2) No padding is added when using non-native size and alignment, e.g.
+    with '<', '>', '=', and '!'.
+
+(3) To align the end of a structure to the alignment requirement of a
+    particular type, end the format with the code for that type with a repeat
+    count of zero.  See :ref:`struct-examples`.
+
+
+.. _format-characters:
+
+Format Characters
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Format characters have the following meaning; the conversion between C and
+Python values should be obvious given their types.  The 'Standard size' column
+refers to the size of the packed value in bytes when using standard size; that
+is, when the format string starts with one of ``'<'``, ``'>'``, ``'!'`` or
+``'='``.  When using native size, the size of the packed value is
+platform-dependent.
+
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| Format | C Type                   | Python type        | Standard size  | Notes      |
++========+==========================+====================+================+============+
+| ``x``  | pad byte                 | no value           |                |            |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``c``  | :c:type:`char`           | bytes of length 1  | 1              |            |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``b``  | :c:type:`signed char`    | integer            | 1              | \(1),\(3)  |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``B``  | :c:type:`unsigned char`  | integer            | 1              | \(3)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``?``  | :c:type:`_Bool`          | bool               | 1              | \(1)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``h``  | :c:type:`short`          | integer            | 2              | \(3)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``H``  | :c:type:`unsigned short` | integer            | 2              | \(3)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``i``  | :c:type:`int`            | integer            | 4              | \(3)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``I``  | :c:type:`unsigned int`   | integer            | 4              | \(3)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``l``  | :c:type:`long`           | integer            | 4              | \(3)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``L``  | :c:type:`unsigned long`  | integer            | 4              | \(3)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``q``  | :c:type:`long long`      | integer            | 8              | \(2), \(3) |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``Q``  | :c:type:`unsigned long   | integer            | 8              | \(2), \(3) |
+|        | long`                    |                    |                |            |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``n``  | :c:type:`ssize_t`        | integer            |                | \(4)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``N``  | :c:type:`size_t`         | integer            |                | \(4)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``e``  | \(7)                     | float              | 2              | \(5)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``f``  | :c:type:`float`          | float              | 4              | \(5)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``d``  | :c:type:`double`         | float              | 8              | \(5)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``s``  | :c:type:`char[]`         | bytes              |                |            |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``p``  | :c:type:`char[]`         | bytes              |                |            |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+| ``P``  | :c:type:`void \*`        | integer            |                | \(6)       |
++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Added support for the ``'n'`` and ``'N'`` formats.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   Added support for the ``'e'`` format.
+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   .. index:: single: ? (question mark); in struct format strings
+
+   The ``'?'`` conversion code corresponds to the :c:type:`_Bool` type defined by
+   C99. If this type is not available, it is simulated using a :c:type:`char`. In
+   standard mode, it is always represented by one byte.
+
+(2)
+   The ``'q'`` and ``'Q'`` conversion codes are available in native mode only if
+   the platform C compiler supports C :c:type:`long long`, or, on Windows,
+   :c:type:`__int64`.  They are always available in standard modes.
+
+(3)
+   When attempting to pack a non-integer using any of the integer conversion
+   codes, if the non-integer has a :meth:`__index__` method then that method is
+   called to convert the argument to an integer before packing.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Use of the :meth:`__index__` method for non-integers is new in 3.2.
+
+(4)
+   The ``'n'`` and ``'N'`` conversion codes are only available for the native
+   size (selected as the default or with the ``'@'`` byte order character).
+   For the standard size, you can use whichever of the other integer formats
+   fits your application.
+
+(5)
+   For the ``'f'``, ``'d'`` and ``'e'`` conversion codes, the packed
+   representation uses the IEEE 754 binary32, binary64 or binary16 format (for
+   ``'f'``, ``'d'`` or ``'e'`` respectively), regardless of the floating-point
+   format used by the platform.
+
+(6)
+   The ``'P'`` format character is only available for the native byte ordering
+   (selected as the default or with the ``'@'`` byte order character). The byte
+   order character ``'='`` chooses to use little- or big-endian ordering based
+   on the host system. The struct module does not interpret this as native
+   ordering, so the ``'P'`` format is not available.
+
+(7)
+   The IEEE 754 binary16 "half precision" type was introduced in the 2008
+   revision of the `IEEE 754 standard <ieee 754 standard_>`_. It has a sign
+   bit, a 5-bit exponent and 11-bit precision (with 10 bits explicitly stored),
+   and can represent numbers between approximately ``6.1e-05`` and ``6.5e+04``
+   at full precision. This type is not widely supported by C compilers: on a
+   typical machine, an unsigned short can be used for storage, but not for math
+   operations. See the Wikipedia page on the `half-precision floating-point
+   format <half precision format_>`_ for more information.
+
+
+A format character may be preceded by an integral repeat count.  For example,
+the format string ``'4h'`` means exactly the same as ``'hhhh'``.
+
+Whitespace characters between formats are ignored; a count and its format must
+not contain whitespace though.
+
+For the ``'s'`` format character, the count is interpreted as the length of the
+bytes, not a repeat count like for the other format characters; for example,
+``'10s'`` means a single 10-byte string, while ``'10c'`` means 10 characters.
+If a count is not given, it defaults to 1.  For packing, the string is
+truncated or padded with null bytes as appropriate to make it fit. For
+unpacking, the resulting bytes object always has exactly the specified number
+of bytes.  As a special case, ``'0s'`` means a single, empty string (while
+``'0c'`` means 0 characters).
+
+When packing a value ``x`` using one of the integer formats (``'b'``,
+``'B'``, ``'h'``, ``'H'``, ``'i'``, ``'I'``, ``'l'``, ``'L'``,
+``'q'``, ``'Q'``), if ``x`` is outside the valid range for that format
+then :exc:`struct.error` is raised.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   In 3.0, some of the integer formats wrapped out-of-range values and
+   raised :exc:`DeprecationWarning` instead of :exc:`struct.error`.
+
+The ``'p'`` format character encodes a "Pascal string", meaning a short
+variable-length string stored in a *fixed number of bytes*, given by the count.
+The first byte stored is the length of the string, or 255, whichever is
+smaller.  The bytes of the string follow.  If the string passed in to
+:func:`pack` is too long (longer than the count minus 1), only the leading
+``count-1`` bytes of the string are stored.  If the string is shorter than
+``count-1``, it is padded with null bytes so that exactly count bytes in all
+are used.  Note that for :func:`unpack`, the ``'p'`` format character consumes
+``count`` bytes, but that the string returned can never contain more than 255
+bytes.
+
+.. index:: single: ? (question mark); in struct format strings
+
+For the ``'?'`` format character, the return value is either :const:`True` or
+:const:`False`. When packing, the truth value of the argument object is used.
+Either 0 or 1 in the native or standard bool representation will be packed, and
+any non-zero value will be ``True`` when unpacking.
+
+
+
+.. _struct-examples:
+
+Examples
+^^^^^^^^
+
+.. note::
+   All examples assume a native byte order, size, and alignment with a
+   big-endian machine.
+
+A basic example of packing/unpacking three integers::
+
+   >>> from struct import *
+   >>> pack('hhl', 1, 2, 3)
+   b'\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
+   >>> unpack('hhl', b'\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
+   (1, 2, 3)
+   >>> calcsize('hhl')
+   8
+
+Unpacked fields can be named by assigning them to variables or by wrapping
+the result in a named tuple::
+
+    >>> record = b'raymond   \x32\x12\x08\x01\x08'
+    >>> name, serialnum, school, gradelevel = unpack('<10sHHb', record)
+
+    >>> from collections import namedtuple
+    >>> Student = namedtuple('Student', 'name serialnum school gradelevel')
+    >>> Student._make(unpack('<10sHHb', record))
+    Student(name=b'raymond   ', serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)
+
+The ordering of format characters may have an impact on size since the padding
+needed to satisfy alignment requirements is different::
+
+    >>> pack('ci', b'*', 0x12131415)
+    b'*\x00\x00\x00\x12\x13\x14\x15'
+    >>> pack('ic', 0x12131415, b'*')
+    b'\x12\x13\x14\x15*'
+    >>> calcsize('ci')
+    8
+    >>> calcsize('ic')
+    5
+
+The following format ``'llh0l'`` specifies two pad bytes at the end, assuming
+longs are aligned on 4-byte boundaries::
+
+    >>> pack('llh0l', 1, 2, 3)
+    b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00'
+
+This only works when native size and alignment are in effect; standard size and
+alignment does not enforce any alignment.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`array`
+      Packed binary storage of homogeneous data.
+
+   Module :mod:`xdrlib`
+      Packing and unpacking of XDR data.
+
+
+.. _struct-objects:
+
+Classes
+-------
+
+The :mod:`struct` module also defines the following type:
+
+
+.. class:: Struct(format)
+
+   Return a new Struct object which writes and reads binary data according to
+   the format string *format*.  Creating a Struct object once and calling its
+   methods is more efficient than calling the :mod:`struct` functions with the
+   same format since the format string only needs to be compiled once.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The compiled versions of the most recent format strings passed to
+      :class:`Struct` and the module-level functions are cached, so programs
+      that use only a few format strings needn't worry about reusing a single
+      :class:`Struct` instance.
+
+   Compiled Struct objects support the following methods and attributes:
+
+   .. method:: pack(v1, v2, ...)
+
+      Identical to the :func:`pack` function, using the compiled format.
+      (``len(result)`` will equal :attr:`size`.)
+
+
+   .. method:: pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)
+
+      Identical to the :func:`pack_into` function, using the compiled format.
+
+
+   .. method:: unpack(buffer)
+
+      Identical to the :func:`unpack` function, using the compiled format.
+      The buffer's size in bytes must equal :attr:`size`.
+
+
+   .. method:: unpack_from(buffer, offset=0)
+
+      Identical to the :func:`unpack_from` function, using the compiled format.
+      The buffer's size in bytes, minus *offset*, must be at least
+      :attr:`size`.
+
+
+   .. method:: iter_unpack(buffer)
+
+      Identical to the :func:`iter_unpack` function, using the compiled format.
+      The buffer's size in bytes must be a multiple of :attr:`size`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. attribute:: format
+
+      The format string used to construct this Struct object.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         The format string type is now :class:`str` instead of :class:`bytes`.
+
+   .. attribute:: size
+
+      The calculated size of the struct (and hence of the bytes object produced
+      by the :meth:`pack` method) corresponding to :attr:`format`.
+
+
+.. _half precision format: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format
+
+.. _ieee 754 standard: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_floating_point#IEEE_754-2008
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/subprocess.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/subprocess.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9ace66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/subprocess.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1401 @@
+:mod:`subprocess` --- Subprocess management
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: subprocess
+   :synopsis: Subprocess management.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Peter Åstrand <astrand@lysator.liu.se>
+.. sectionauthor:: Peter Åstrand <astrand@lysator.liu.se>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/subprocess.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`subprocess` module allows you to spawn new processes, connect to their
+input/output/error pipes, and obtain their return codes.  This module intends to
+replace several older modules and functions::
+
+   os.system
+   os.spawn*
+
+Information about how the :mod:`subprocess` module can be used to replace these
+modules and functions can be found in the following sections.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`324` -- PEP proposing the subprocess module
+
+
+Using the :mod:`subprocess` Module
+----------------------------------
+
+The recommended approach to invoking subprocesses is to use the :func:`run`
+function for all use cases it can handle. For more advanced use cases, the
+underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly.
+
+The :func:`run` function was added in Python 3.5; if you need to retain
+compatibility with older versions, see the :ref:`call-function-trio` section.
+
+
+.. function:: run(args, *, stdin=None, input=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,\
+                  capture_output=False, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None, \
+                  check=False, encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, env=None, \
+                  universal_newlines=None)
+
+   Run the command described by *args*.  Wait for command to complete, then
+   return a :class:`CompletedProcess` instance.
+
+   The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones, described below
+   in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` (hence the use of keyword-only notation
+   in the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is largely the
+   same as that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - most of the arguments to
+   this function are passed through to that interface. (*timeout*,  *input*,
+   *check*, and *capture_output* are not.)
+
+   If *capture_output* is true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
+   When used, the internal :class:`Popen` object is automatically created with
+   ``stdout=PIPE`` and ``stderr=PIPE``. The *stdout* and *stderr* arguments may
+   not be supplied at the same time as *capture_output*.  If you wish to capture
+   and combine both streams into one, use ``stdout=PIPE`` and ``stderr=STDOUT``
+   instead of *capture_output*.
+
+   The *timeout* argument is passed to :meth:`Popen.communicate`. If the timeout
+   expires, the child process will be killed and waited for.  The
+   :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception will be re-raised after the child process
+   has terminated.
+
+   The *input* argument is passed to :meth:`Popen.communicate` and thus to the
+   subprocess's stdin.  If used it must be a byte sequence, or a string if
+   *encoding* or *errors* is specified or *text* is true.  When
+   used, the internal :class:`Popen` object is automatically created with
+   ``stdin=PIPE``, and the *stdin* argument may not be used as well.
+
+   If *check* is true, and the process exits with a non-zero exit code, a
+   :exc:`CalledProcessError` exception will be raised. Attributes of that
+   exception hold the arguments, the exit code, and stdout and stderr if they
+   were captured.
+
+   If *encoding* or *errors* are specified, or *text* is true,
+   file objects for stdin, stdout and stderr are opened in text mode using the
+   specified *encoding* and *errors* or the :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` default.
+   The *universal_newlines* argument is equivalent  to *text* and is provided
+   for backwards compatibility. By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.
+
+   If *env* is not ``None``, it must be a mapping that defines the environment
+   variables for the new process; these are used instead of the default
+   behavior of inheriting the current process' environment. It is passed directly
+   to :class:`Popen`.
+
+   Examples::
+
+      >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
+      CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)
+
+      >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+      subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1
+
+      >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], capture_output=True)
+      CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
+      stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n', stderr=b'')
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+      Added *encoding* and *errors* parameters
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      Added the *text* parameter, as a more understandable alias of *universal_newlines*.
+      Added the *capture_output* parameter.
+
+.. class:: CompletedProcess
+
+   The return value from :func:`run`, representing a process that has finished.
+
+   .. attribute:: args
+
+      The arguments used to launch the process. This may be a list or a string.
+
+   .. attribute:: returncode
+
+      Exit status of the child process. Typically, an exit status of 0 indicates
+      that it ran successfully.
+
+      A negative value ``-N`` indicates that the child was terminated by signal
+      ``N`` (POSIX only).
+
+   .. attribute:: stdout
+
+      Captured stdout from the child process. A bytes sequence, or a string if
+      :func:`run` was called with an encoding, errors, or text=True.
+      ``None`` if stdout was not captured.
+
+      If you ran the process with ``stderr=subprocess.STDOUT``, stdout and
+      stderr will be combined in this attribute, and :attr:`stderr` will be
+      ``None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: stderr
+
+      Captured stderr from the child process. A bytes sequence, or a string if
+      :func:`run` was called with an encoding, errors, or text=True.
+      ``None`` if stderr was not captured.
+
+   .. method:: check_returncode()
+
+      If :attr:`returncode` is non-zero, raise a :exc:`CalledProcessError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. data:: DEVNULL
+
+   Special value that can be used as the *stdin*, *stdout* or *stderr* argument
+   to :class:`Popen` and indicates that the special file :data:`os.devnull`
+   will be used.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: PIPE
+
+   Special value that can be used as the *stdin*, *stdout* or *stderr* argument
+   to :class:`Popen` and indicates that a pipe to the standard stream should be
+   opened.  Most useful with :meth:`Popen.communicate`.
+
+
+.. data:: STDOUT
+
+   Special value that can be used as the *stderr* argument to :class:`Popen` and
+   indicates that standard error should go into the same handle as standard
+   output.
+
+
+.. exception:: SubprocessError
+
+    Base class for all other exceptions from this module.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. exception:: TimeoutExpired
+
+    Subclass of :exc:`SubprocessError`, raised when a timeout expires
+    while waiting for a child process.
+
+    .. attribute:: cmd
+
+        Command that was used to spawn the child process.
+
+    .. attribute:: timeout
+
+        Timeout in seconds.
+
+    .. attribute:: output
+
+        Output of the child process if it was captured by :func:`run` or
+        :func:`check_output`.  Otherwise, ``None``.
+
+    .. attribute:: stdout
+
+        Alias for output, for symmetry with :attr:`stderr`.
+
+    .. attribute:: stderr
+
+        Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by :func:`run`.
+        Otherwise, ``None``.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+        *stdout* and *stderr* attributes added
+
+.. exception:: CalledProcessError
+
+    Subclass of :exc:`SubprocessError`, raised when a process run by
+    :func:`check_call` or :func:`check_output` returns a non-zero exit status.
+
+    .. attribute:: returncode
+
+        Exit status of the child process.  If the process exited due to a
+        signal, this will be the negative signal number.
+
+    .. attribute:: cmd
+
+        Command that was used to spawn the child process.
+
+    .. attribute:: output
+
+        Output of the child process if it was captured by :func:`run` or
+        :func:`check_output`.  Otherwise, ``None``.
+
+    .. attribute:: stdout
+
+        Alias for output, for symmetry with :attr:`stderr`.
+
+    .. attribute:: stderr
+
+        Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by :func:`run`.
+        Otherwise, ``None``.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+        *stdout* and *stderr* attributes added
+
+
+.. _frequently-used-arguments:
+
+Frequently Used Arguments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To support a wide variety of use cases, the :class:`Popen` constructor (and
+the convenience functions) accept a large number of optional arguments. For
+most typical use cases, many of these arguments can be safely left at their
+default values. The arguments that are most commonly needed are:
+
+   *args* is required for all calls and should be a string, or a sequence of
+   program arguments. Providing a sequence of arguments is generally
+   preferred, as it allows the module to take care of any required escaping
+   and quoting of arguments (e.g. to permit spaces in file names). If passing
+   a single string, either *shell* must be :const:`True` (see below) or else
+   the string must simply name the program to be executed without specifying
+   any arguments.
+
+   *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* specify the executed program's standard input,
+   standard output and standard error file handles, respectively.  Valid values
+   are :data:`PIPE`, :data:`DEVNULL`, an existing file descriptor (a positive
+   integer), an existing file object, and ``None``.  :data:`PIPE` indicates
+   that a new pipe to the child should be created.  :data:`DEVNULL` indicates
+   that the special file :data:`os.devnull` will be used.  With the default
+   settings of ``None``, no redirection will occur; the child's file handles
+   will be inherited from the parent.  Additionally, *stderr* can be
+   :data:`STDOUT`, which indicates that the stderr data from the child
+   process should be captured into the same file handle as for *stdout*.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: universal newlines; subprocess module
+
+   If *encoding* or *errors* are specified, or *text* (also known as
+   *universal_newlines*) is true,
+   the file objects *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* will be opened in text
+   mode using the *encoding* and *errors* specified in the call or the
+   defaults for :class:`io.TextIOWrapper`.
+
+   For *stdin*, line ending characters ``'\n'`` in the input will be converted
+   to the default line separator :data:`os.linesep`. For *stdout* and *stderr*,
+   all line endings in the output will be converted to ``'\n'``.  For more
+   information see the documentation of the :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` class
+   when the *newline* argument to its constructor is ``None``.
+
+   If text mode is not used, *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* will be opened as
+   binary streams. No encoding or line ending conversion is performed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      Added *encoding* and *errors* parameters.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      Added the *text* parameter as an alias for *universal_newlines*.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The newlines attribute of the file objects :attr:`Popen.stdin`,
+      :attr:`Popen.stdout` and :attr:`Popen.stderr` are not updated by
+      the :meth:`Popen.communicate` method.
+
+   If *shell* is ``True``, the specified command will be executed through
+   the shell.  This can be useful if you are using Python primarily for the
+   enhanced control flow it offers over most system shells and still want
+   convenient access to other shell features such as shell pipes, filename
+   wildcards, environment variable expansion, and expansion of ``~`` to a
+   user's home directory.  However, note that Python itself offers
+   implementations of many shell-like features (in particular, :mod:`glob`,
+   :mod:`fnmatch`, :func:`os.walk`, :func:`os.path.expandvars`,
+   :func:`os.path.expanduser`, and :mod:`shutil`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      When *universal_newlines* is ``True``, the class uses the encoding
+      :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding(False) <locale.getpreferredencoding>`
+      instead of ``locale.getpreferredencoding()``.  See the
+      :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` class for more information on this change.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Read the `Security Considerations`_ section before using ``shell=True``.
+
+These options, along with all of the other options, are described in more
+detail in the :class:`Popen` constructor documentation.
+
+
+Popen Constructor
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The underlying process creation and management in this module is handled by
+the :class:`Popen` class. It offers a lot of flexibility so that developers
+are able to handle the less common cases not covered by the convenience
+functions.
+
+
+.. class:: Popen(args, bufsize=-1, executable=None, stdin=None, stdout=None, \
+                 stderr=None, preexec_fn=None, close_fds=True, shell=False, \
+                 cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None, \
+                 startupinfo=None, creationflags=0, restore_signals=True, \
+                 start_new_session=False, pass_fds=(), *, \
+                 encoding=None, errors=None, text=None)
+
+   Execute a child program in a new process.  On POSIX, the class uses
+   :meth:`os.execvp`-like behavior to execute the child program.  On Windows,
+   the class uses the Windows ``CreateProcess()`` function.  The arguments to
+   :class:`Popen` are as follows.
+
+   *args* should be a sequence of program arguments or else a single string.
+   By default, the program to execute is the first item in *args* if *args* is
+   a sequence.  If *args* is a string, the interpretation is
+   platform-dependent and described below.  See the *shell* and *executable*
+   arguments for additional differences from the default behavior.  Unless
+   otherwise stated, it is recommended to pass *args* as a sequence.
+
+   On POSIX, if *args* is a string, the string is interpreted as the name or
+   path of the program to execute.  However, this can only be done if not
+   passing arguments to the program.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :meth:`shlex.split` can be useful when determining the correct
+      tokenization for *args*, especially in complex cases::
+
+         >>> import shlex, subprocess
+         >>> command_line = input()
+         /bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output "spam spam.txt" -cmd "echo '$MONEY'"
+         >>> args = shlex.split(command_line)
+         >>> print(args)
+         ['/bin/vikings', '-input', 'eggs.txt', '-output', 'spam spam.txt', '-cmd', "echo '$MONEY'"]
+         >>> p = subprocess.Popen(args) # Success!
+
+      Note in particular that options (such as *-input*) and arguments (such
+      as *eggs.txt*) that are separated by whitespace in the shell go in separate
+      list elements, while arguments that need quoting or backslash escaping when
+      used in the shell (such as filenames containing spaces or the *echo* command
+      shown above) are single list elements.
+
+   On Windows, if *args* is a sequence, it will be converted to a string in a
+   manner described in :ref:`converting-argument-sequence`.  This is because
+   the underlying ``CreateProcess()`` operates on strings.
+
+   The *shell* argument (which defaults to ``False``) specifies whether to use
+   the shell as the program to execute.  If *shell* is ``True``, it is
+   recommended to pass *args* as a string rather than as a sequence.
+
+   On POSIX with ``shell=True``, the shell defaults to :file:`/bin/sh`.  If
+   *args* is a string, the string specifies the command
+   to execute through the shell.  This means that the string must be
+   formatted exactly as it would be when typed at the shell prompt.  This
+   includes, for example, quoting or backslash escaping filenames with spaces in
+   them.  If *args* is a sequence, the first item specifies the command string, and
+   any additional items will be treated as additional arguments to the shell
+   itself.  That is to say, :class:`Popen` does the equivalent of::
+
+      Popen(['/bin/sh', '-c', args[0], args[1], ...])
+
+   On Windows with ``shell=True``, the :envvar:`COMSPEC` environment variable
+   specifies the default shell.  The only time you need to specify
+   ``shell=True`` on Windows is when the command you wish to execute is built
+   into the shell (e.g. :command:`dir` or :command:`copy`).  You do not need
+   ``shell=True`` to run a batch file or console-based executable.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Read the `Security Considerations`_ section before using ``shell=True``.
+
+   *bufsize* will be supplied as the corresponding argument to the
+   :func:`open` function when creating the stdin/stdout/stderr pipe
+   file objects:
+
+   - :const:`0` means unbuffered (read and write are one
+     system call and can return short)
+   - :const:`1` means line buffered
+     (only usable if ``universal_newlines=True`` i.e., in a text mode)
+   - any other positive value means use a buffer of approximately that
+     size
+   - negative bufsize (the default) means the system default of
+     io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE will be used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3.1
+      *bufsize* now defaults to -1 to enable buffering by default to match the
+      behavior that most code expects.  In versions prior to Python 3.2.4 and
+      3.3.1 it incorrectly defaulted to :const:`0` which was unbuffered
+      and allowed short reads.  This was unintentional and did not match the
+      behavior of Python 2 as most code expected.
+
+   The *executable* argument specifies a replacement program to execute.   It
+   is very seldom needed.  When ``shell=False``, *executable* replaces the
+   program to execute specified by *args*.  However, the original *args* is
+   still passed to the program.  Most programs treat the program specified
+   by *args* as the command name, which can then be different from the program
+   actually executed.  On POSIX, the *args* name
+   becomes the display name for the executable in utilities such as
+   :program:`ps`.  If ``shell=True``, on POSIX the *executable* argument
+   specifies a replacement shell for the default :file:`/bin/sh`.
+
+   *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* specify the executed program's standard input,
+   standard output and standard error file handles, respectively.  Valid values
+   are :data:`PIPE`, :data:`DEVNULL`, an existing file descriptor (a positive
+   integer), an existing :term:`file object`, and ``None``.  :data:`PIPE`
+   indicates that a new pipe to the child should be created.  :data:`DEVNULL`
+   indicates that the special file :data:`os.devnull` will be used. With the
+   default settings of ``None``, no redirection will occur; the child's file
+   handles will be inherited from the parent.  Additionally, *stderr* can be
+   :data:`STDOUT`, which indicates that the stderr data from the applications
+   should be captured into the same file handle as for stdout.
+
+   If *preexec_fn* is set to a callable object, this object will be called in the
+   child process just before the child is executed.
+   (POSIX only)
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      The *preexec_fn* parameter is not safe to use in the presence of threads
+      in your application.  The child process could deadlock before exec is
+      called.
+      If you must use it, keep it trivial!  Minimize the number of libraries
+      you call into.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If you need to modify the environment for the child use the *env*
+      parameter rather than doing it in a *preexec_fn*.
+      The *start_new_session* parameter can take the place of a previously
+      common use of *preexec_fn* to call os.setsid() in the child.
+
+   If *close_fds* is true, all file descriptors except :const:`0`, :const:`1` and
+   :const:`2` will be closed before the child process is executed.  Otherwise
+   when *close_fds* is false, file descriptors obey their inheritable flag
+   as described in :ref:`fd_inheritance`.
+
+   On Windows, if *close_fds* is true then no handles will be inherited by the
+   child process unless explicitly passed in the ``handle_list`` element of
+   :attr:`STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList`, or by standard handle redirection.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The default for *close_fds* was changed from :const:`False` to
+      what is described above.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      On Windows the default for *close_fds* was changed from :const:`False` to
+      :const:`True` when redirecting the standard handles. It's now possible to
+      set *close_fds* to :const:`True` when redirecting the standard handles.
+
+   *pass_fds* is an optional sequence of file descriptors to keep open
+   between the parent and child.  Providing any *pass_fds* forces
+   *close_fds* to be :const:`True`.  (POSIX only)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *pass_fds* parameter was added.
+
+   If *cwd* is not ``None``, the function changes the working directory to
+   *cwd* before executing the child.  *cwd* can be a :class:`str` and
+   :term:`path-like <path-like object>` object.  In particular, the function
+   looks for *executable* (or for the first item in *args*) relative to *cwd*
+   if the executable path is a relative path.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *cwd* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   If *restore_signals* is true (the default) all signals that Python has set to
+   SIG_IGN are restored to SIG_DFL in the child process before the exec.
+   Currently this includes the SIGPIPE, SIGXFZ and SIGXFSZ signals.
+   (POSIX only)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *restore_signals* was added.
+
+   If *start_new_session* is true the setsid() system call will be made in the
+   child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  (POSIX only)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *start_new_session* was added.
+
+   If *env* is not ``None``, it must be a mapping that defines the environment
+   variables for the new process; these are used instead of the default
+   behavior of inheriting the current process' environment.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If specified, *env* must provide any variables required for the program to
+      execute.  On Windows, in order to run a `side-by-side assembly`_ the
+      specified *env* **must** include a valid :envvar:`SystemRoot`.
+
+   .. _side-by-side assembly: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly
+
+   If *encoding* or *errors* are specified, or *text* is true, the file objects
+   *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* are opened in text mode with the specified
+   encoding and *errors*, as described above in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments`.
+   The *universal_newlines* argument is equivalent  to *text* and is provided
+   for backwards compatibility. By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      *encoding* and *errors* were added.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      *text* was added as a more readable alias for *universal_newlines*.
+
+   If given, *startupinfo* will be a :class:`STARTUPINFO` object, which is
+   passed to the underlying ``CreateProcess`` function.
+   *creationflags*, if given, can be one or more of the following flags:
+
+      * :data:`CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE`
+      * :data:`CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP`
+      * :data:`ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS`
+      * :data:`BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS`
+      * :data:`HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS`
+      * :data:`IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS`
+      * :data:`NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS`
+      * :data:`REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS`
+      * :data:`CREATE_NO_WINDOW`
+      * :data:`DETACHED_PROCESS`
+      * :data:`CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE`
+      * :data:`CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB`
+
+   Popen objects are supported as context managers via the :keyword:`with` statement:
+   on exit, standard file descriptors are closed, and the process is waited for.
+   ::
+
+      with Popen(["ifconfig"], stdout=PIPE) as proc:
+          log.write(proc.stdout.read())
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added context manager support.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Popen destructor now emits a :exc:`ResourceWarning` warning if the child
+      process is still running.
+
+
+Exceptions
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Exceptions raised in the child process, before the new program has started to
+execute, will be re-raised in the parent.
+
+The most common exception raised is :exc:`OSError`.  This occurs, for example,
+when trying to execute a non-existent file.  Applications should prepare for
+:exc:`OSError` exceptions.
+
+A :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if :class:`Popen` is called with invalid
+arguments.
+
+:func:`check_call` and :func:`check_output` will raise
+:exc:`CalledProcessError` if the called process returns a non-zero return
+code.
+
+All of the functions and methods that accept a *timeout* parameter, such as
+:func:`call` and :meth:`Popen.communicate` will raise :exc:`TimeoutExpired` if
+the timeout expires before the process exits.
+
+Exceptions defined in this module all inherit from :exc:`SubprocessError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The :exc:`SubprocessError` base class was added.
+
+
+Security Considerations
+-----------------------
+
+Unlike some other popen functions, this implementation will never
+implicitly call a system shell.  This means that all characters,
+including shell metacharacters, can safely be passed to child processes.
+If the shell is invoked explicitly, via ``shell=True``, it is the application's
+responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and metacharacters are
+quoted appropriately to avoid
+`shell injection <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
+vulnerabilities.
+
+When using ``shell=True``, the :func:`shlex.quote` function can be
+used to properly escape whitespace and shell metacharacters in strings
+that are going to be used to construct shell commands.
+
+
+Popen Objects
+-------------
+
+Instances of the :class:`Popen` class have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Popen.poll()
+
+   Check if child process has terminated.  Set and return
+   :attr:`~Popen.returncode` attribute. Otherwise, returns ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: Popen.wait(timeout=None)
+
+   Wait for child process to terminate.  Set and return
+   :attr:`~Popen.returncode` attribute.
+
+   If the process does not terminate after *timeout* seconds, raise a
+   :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception.  It is safe to catch this exception and
+   retry the wait.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This will deadlock when using ``stdout=PIPE`` or ``stderr=PIPE``
+      and the child process generates enough output to a pipe such that
+      it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to accept more data.
+      Use :meth:`Popen.communicate` when using pipes to avoid that.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The function is implemented using a busy loop (non-blocking call and
+      short sleeps). Use the :mod:`asyncio` module for an asynchronous wait:
+      see :class:`asyncio.create_subprocess_exec`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *timeout* was added.
+
+.. method:: Popen.communicate(input=None, timeout=None)
+
+   Interact with process: Send data to stdin.  Read data from stdout and stderr,
+   until end-of-file is reached.  Wait for process to terminate.  The optional
+   *input* argument should be data to be sent to the child process, or
+   ``None``, if no data should be sent to the child.  If streams were opened in
+   text mode, *input* must be a string.  Otherwise, it must be bytes.
+
+   :meth:`communicate` returns a tuple ``(stdout_data, stderr_data)``.
+   The data will be strings if streams were opened in text mode; otherwise,
+   bytes.
+
+   Note that if you want to send data to the process's stdin, you need to create
+   the Popen object with ``stdin=PIPE``.  Similarly, to get anything other than
+   ``None`` in the result tuple, you need to give ``stdout=PIPE`` and/or
+   ``stderr=PIPE`` too.
+
+   If the process does not terminate after *timeout* seconds, a
+   :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception will be raised.  Catching this exception and
+   retrying communication will not lose any output.
+
+   The child process is not killed if the timeout expires, so in order to
+   cleanup properly a well-behaved application should kill the child process and
+   finish communication::
+
+      proc = subprocess.Popen(...)
+      try:
+          outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15)
+      except TimeoutExpired:
+          proc.kill()
+          outs, errs = proc.communicate()
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The data read is buffered in memory, so do not use this method if the data
+      size is large or unlimited.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *timeout* was added.
+
+
+.. method:: Popen.send_signal(signal)
+
+   Sends the signal *signal* to the child.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for :meth:`terminate`. CTRL_C_EVENT and
+      CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be sent to processes started with a *creationflags*
+      parameter which includes `CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP`.
+
+
+.. method:: Popen.terminate()
+
+   Stop the child. On Posix OSs the method sends SIGTERM to the
+   child. On Windows the Win32 API function :c:func:`TerminateProcess` is called
+   to stop the child.
+
+
+.. method:: Popen.kill()
+
+   Kills the child. On Posix OSs the function sends SIGKILL to the child.
+   On Windows :meth:`kill` is an alias for :meth:`terminate`.
+
+
+The following attributes are also available:
+
+.. attribute:: Popen.args
+
+   The *args* argument as it was passed to :class:`Popen` -- a
+   sequence of program arguments or else a single string.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. attribute:: Popen.stdin
+
+   If the *stdin* argument was :data:`PIPE`, this attribute is a writeable
+   stream object as returned by :func:`open`. If the *encoding* or *errors*
+   arguments were specified or the *universal_newlines* argument was ``True``,
+   the stream is a text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the *stdin*
+   argument was not :data:`PIPE`, this attribute is ``None``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Popen.stdout
+
+   If the *stdout* argument was :data:`PIPE`, this attribute is a readable
+   stream object as returned by :func:`open`. Reading from the stream provides
+   output from the child process. If the *encoding* or *errors* arguments were
+   specified or the *universal_newlines* argument was ``True``, the stream is a
+   text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the *stdout* argument was not
+   :data:`PIPE`, this attribute is ``None``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Popen.stderr
+
+   If the *stderr* argument was :data:`PIPE`, this attribute is a readable
+   stream object as returned by :func:`open`. Reading from the stream provides
+   error output from the child process. If the *encoding* or *errors* arguments
+   were specified or the *universal_newlines* argument was ``True``, the stream
+   is a text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the *stderr* argument was
+   not :data:`PIPE`, this attribute is ``None``.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   Use :meth:`~Popen.communicate` rather than :attr:`.stdin.write <Popen.stdin>`,
+   :attr:`.stdout.read <Popen.stdout>` or :attr:`.stderr.read <Popen.stderr>` to avoid
+   deadlocks due to any of the other OS pipe buffers filling up and blocking the
+   child process.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Popen.pid
+
+   The process ID of the child process.
+
+   Note that if you set the *shell* argument to ``True``, this is the process ID
+   of the spawned shell.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Popen.returncode
+
+   The child return code, set by :meth:`poll` and :meth:`wait` (and indirectly
+   by :meth:`communicate`).  A ``None`` value indicates that the process
+   hasn't terminated yet.
+
+   A negative value ``-N`` indicates that the child was terminated by signal
+   ``N`` (POSIX only).
+
+
+Windows Popen Helpers
+---------------------
+
+The :class:`STARTUPINFO` class and following constants are only available
+on Windows.
+
+.. class:: STARTUPINFO(*, dwFlags=0, hStdInput=None, hStdOutput=None, \
+                       hStdError=None, wShowWindow=0, lpAttributeList=None)
+
+   Partial support of the Windows
+   `STARTUPINFO <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx>`__
+   structure is used for :class:`Popen` creation.  The following attributes can
+   be set by passing them as keyword-only arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Keyword-only argument support was added.
+
+   .. attribute:: dwFlags
+
+      A bit field that determines whether certain :class:`STARTUPINFO`
+      attributes are used when the process creates a window. ::
+
+         si = subprocess.STARTUPINFO()
+         si.dwFlags = subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES | subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW
+
+   .. attribute:: hStdInput
+
+      If :attr:`dwFlags` specifies :data:`STARTF_USESTDHANDLES`, this attribute
+      is the standard input handle for the process. If
+      :data:`STARTF_USESTDHANDLES` is not specified, the default for standard
+      input is the keyboard buffer.
+
+   .. attribute:: hStdOutput
+
+      If :attr:`dwFlags` specifies :data:`STARTF_USESTDHANDLES`, this attribute
+      is the standard output handle for the process. Otherwise, this attribute
+      is ignored and the default for standard output is the console window's
+      buffer.
+
+   .. attribute:: hStdError
+
+      If :attr:`dwFlags` specifies :data:`STARTF_USESTDHANDLES`, this attribute
+      is the standard error handle for the process. Otherwise, this attribute is
+      ignored and the default for standard error is the console window's buffer.
+
+   .. attribute:: wShowWindow
+
+      If :attr:`dwFlags` specifies :data:`STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW`, this attribute
+      can be any of the values that can be specified in the ``nCmdShow``
+      parameter for the
+      `ShowWindow <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx>`__
+      function, except for ``SW_SHOWDEFAULT``. Otherwise, this attribute is
+      ignored.
+
+      :data:`SW_HIDE` is provided for this attribute. It is used when
+      :class:`Popen` is called with ``shell=True``.
+
+   .. attribute:: lpAttributeList
+
+      A dictionary of additional attributes for process creation as given in
+      ``STARTUPINFOEX``, see
+      `UpdateProcThreadAttribute <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx>`__.
+
+      Supported attributes:
+
+      **handle_list**
+         Sequence of handles that will be inherited. *close_fds* must be true if
+         non-empty.
+
+         The handles must be temporarily made inheritable by
+         :func:`os.set_handle_inheritable` when passed to the :class:`Popen`
+         constructor, else :class:`OSError` will be raised with Windows error
+         ``ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER`` (87).
+
+         .. warning::
+
+            In a multithreaded process, use caution to avoid leaking handles
+            that are marked inheritable when combining this feature with
+            concurrent calls to other process creation functions that inherit
+            all handles such as :func:`os.system`.  This also applies to
+            standard handle redirection, which temporarily creates inheritable
+            handles.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+Windows Constants
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :mod:`subprocess` module exposes the following constants.
+
+.. data:: STD_INPUT_HANDLE
+
+   The standard input device. Initially, this is the console input buffer,
+   ``CONIN$``.
+
+.. data:: STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE
+
+   The standard output device. Initially, this is the active console screen
+   buffer, ``CONOUT$``.
+
+.. data:: STD_ERROR_HANDLE
+
+   The standard error device. Initially, this is the active console screen
+   buffer, ``CONOUT$``.
+
+.. data:: SW_HIDE
+
+   Hides the window. Another window will be activated.
+
+.. data:: STARTF_USESTDHANDLES
+
+   Specifies that the :attr:`STARTUPINFO.hStdInput`,
+   :attr:`STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput`, and :attr:`STARTUPINFO.hStdError` attributes
+   contain additional information.
+
+.. data:: STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW
+
+   Specifies that the :attr:`STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow` attribute contains
+   additional information.
+
+.. data:: CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE
+
+   The new process has a new console, instead of inheriting its parent's
+   console (the default).
+
+.. data:: CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   group will be created. This flag is necessary for using :func:`os.kill`
+   on the subprocess.
+
+   This flag is ignored if :data:`CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE` is specified.
+
+.. data:: ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will have an above average priority.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will have a below average priority.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will have a high priority.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will have an idle (lowest) priority.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will have an normal priority. (default)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will have realtime priority.
+   You should almost never use REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS, because this interrupts
+   system threads that manage mouse input, keyboard input, and background disk
+   flushing. This class can be appropriate for applications that "talk" directly
+   to hardware or that perform brief tasks that should have limited interruptions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: CREATE_NO_WINDOW
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will not create a window.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: DETACHED_PROCESS
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   will not inherit its parent's console.
+   This value cannot be used with CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   does not inherit the error mode of the calling process. Instead, the new
+   process gets the default error mode.
+   This feature is particularly useful for multithreaded shell applications
+   that run with hard errors disabled.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. data:: CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB
+
+   A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
+   is not associated with the job.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. _call-function-trio:
+
+Older high-level API
+--------------------
+
+Prior to Python 3.5, these three functions comprised the high level API to
+subprocess. You can now use :func:`run` in many cases, but lots of existing code
+calls these functions.
+
+.. function:: call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None)
+
+   Run the command described by *args*.  Wait for command to complete, then
+   return the :attr:`~Popen.returncode` attribute.
+
+   Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use :func:`run` instead:
+
+       run(...).returncode
+
+   To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of :data:`DEVNULL`.
+
+   The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.
+   The full function signature is the
+   same as that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - this function passes all
+   supplied arguments other than *timeout* directly through to that interface.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Do not use ``stdout=PIPE`` or ``stderr=PIPE`` with this
+      function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
+      output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes are
+      not being read from.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *timeout* was added.
+
+.. function:: check_call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None)
+
+   Run command with arguments.  Wait for command to complete. If the return
+   code was zero then return, otherwise raise :exc:`CalledProcessError`. The
+   :exc:`CalledProcessError` object will have the return code in the
+   :attr:`~CalledProcessError.returncode` attribute.
+
+   Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use :func:`run` instead:
+
+       run(..., check=True)
+
+   To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of :data:`DEVNULL`.
+
+   The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.
+   The full function signature is the
+   same as that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - this function passes all
+   supplied arguments other than *timeout* directly through to that interface.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Do not use ``stdout=PIPE`` or ``stderr=PIPE`` with this
+      function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
+      output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes are
+      not being read from.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *timeout* was added.
+
+
+.. function:: check_output(args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None, shell=False, \
+                           cwd=None, encoding=None, errors=None, \
+                           universal_newlines=None, timeout=None, text=None)
+
+   Run command with arguments and return its output.
+
+   If the return code was non-zero it raises a :exc:`CalledProcessError`. The
+   :exc:`CalledProcessError` object will have the return code in the
+   :attr:`~CalledProcessError.returncode` attribute and any output in the
+   :attr:`~CalledProcessError.output` attribute.
+
+   This is equivalent to::
+
+       run(..., check=True, stdout=PIPE).stdout
+
+   The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.
+   The full function signature is largely the same as that of :func:`run` -
+   most arguments are passed directly through to that interface.
+   However, explicitly passing ``input=None`` to inherit the parent's
+   standard input file handle is not supported.
+
+   By default, this function will return the data as encoded bytes. The actual
+   encoding of the output data may depend on the command being invoked, so the
+   decoding to text will often need to be handled at the application level.
+
+   This behaviour may be overridden by setting *text*, *encoding*, *errors*,
+   or *universal_newlines* to ``True`` as described in
+   :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` and :func:`run`.
+
+   To also capture standard error in the result, use
+   ``stderr=subprocess.STDOUT``::
+
+      >>> subprocess.check_output(
+      ...     "ls non_existent_file; exit 0",
+      ...     stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
+      ...     shell=True)
+      'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *timeout* was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Support for the *input* keyword argument was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *encoding* and *errors* were added.  See :func:`run` for details.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      *text* was added as a more readable alias for *universal_newlines*.
+
+
+.. _subprocess-replacements:
+
+Replacing Older Functions with the :mod:`subprocess` Module
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+In this section, "a becomes b" means that b can be used as a replacement for a.
+
+.. note::
+
+   All "a" functions in this section fail (more or less) silently if the
+   executed program cannot be found; the "b" replacements raise :exc:`OSError`
+   instead.
+
+   In addition, the replacements using :func:`check_output` will fail with a
+   :exc:`CalledProcessError` if the requested operation produces a non-zero
+   return code. The output is still available as the
+   :attr:`~CalledProcessError.output` attribute of the raised exception.
+
+In the following examples, we assume that the relevant functions have already
+been imported from the :mod:`subprocess` module.
+
+
+Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+   output=`mycmd myarg`
+
+becomes::
+
+   output = check_output(["mycmd", "myarg"])
+
+Replacing shell pipeline
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+   output=`dmesg | grep hda`
+
+becomes::
+
+   p1 = Popen(["dmesg"], stdout=PIPE)
+   p2 = Popen(["grep", "hda"], stdin=p1.stdout, stdout=PIPE)
+   p1.stdout.close()  # Allow p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits.
+   output = p2.communicate()[0]
+
+The p1.stdout.close() call after starting the p2 is important in order for p1
+to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits before p1.
+
+Alternatively, for trusted input, the shell's own pipeline support may still
+be used directly:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+   output=`dmesg | grep hda`
+
+becomes::
+
+   output=check_output("dmesg | grep hda", shell=True)
+
+
+Replacing :func:`os.system`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+::
+
+   sts = os.system("mycmd" + " myarg")
+   # becomes
+   sts = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
+
+Notes:
+
+* Calling the program through the shell is usually not required.
+
+A more realistic example would look like this::
+
+   try:
+       retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
+       if retcode < 0:
+           print("Child was terminated by signal", -retcode, file=sys.stderr)
+       else:
+           print("Child returned", retcode, file=sys.stderr)
+   except OSError as e:
+       print("Execution failed:", e, file=sys.stderr)
+
+
+Replacing the :func:`os.spawn <os.spawnl>` family
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+P_NOWAIT example::
+
+   pid = os.spawnlp(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
+   ==>
+   pid = Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"]).pid
+
+P_WAIT example::
+
+   retcode = os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
+   ==>
+   retcode = call(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"])
+
+Vector example::
+
+   os.spawnvp(os.P_NOWAIT, path, args)
+   ==>
+   Popen([path] + args[1:])
+
+Environment example::
+
+   os.spawnlpe(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg", env)
+   ==>
+   Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"], env={"PATH": "/usr/bin"})
+
+
+
+Replacing :func:`os.popen`, :func:`os.popen2`, :func:`os.popen3`
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+::
+
+   (child_stdin, child_stdout) = os.popen2(cmd, mode, bufsize)
+   ==>
+   p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
+             stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
+   (child_stdin, child_stdout) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)
+
+::
+
+   (child_stdin,
+    child_stdout,
+    child_stderr) = os.popen3(cmd, mode, bufsize)
+   ==>
+   p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
+             stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, close_fds=True)
+   (child_stdin,
+    child_stdout,
+    child_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout, p.stderr)
+
+::
+
+   (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = os.popen4(cmd, mode, bufsize)
+   ==>
+   p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
+             stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=STDOUT, close_fds=True)
+   (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)
+
+Return code handling translates as follows::
+
+   pipe = os.popen(cmd, 'w')
+   ...
+   rc = pipe.close()
+   if rc is not None and rc >> 8:
+       print("There were some errors")
+   ==>
+   process = Popen(cmd, stdin=PIPE)
+   ...
+   process.stdin.close()
+   if process.wait() != 0:
+       print("There were some errors")
+
+
+Replacing functions from the :mod:`popen2` module
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. note::
+
+   If the cmd argument to popen2 functions is a string, the command is executed
+   through /bin/sh.  If it is a list, the command is directly executed.
+
+::
+
+   (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2("somestring", bufsize, mode)
+   ==>
+   p = Popen("somestring", shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
+             stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
+   (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)
+
+::
+
+   (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize, mode)
+   ==>
+   p = Popen(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize=bufsize,
+             stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
+   (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)
+
+:class:`popen2.Popen3` and :class:`popen2.Popen4` basically work as
+:class:`subprocess.Popen`, except that:
+
+* :class:`Popen` raises an exception if the execution fails.
+
+* The *capturestderr* argument is replaced with the *stderr* argument.
+
+* ``stdin=PIPE`` and ``stdout=PIPE`` must be specified.
+
+* popen2 closes all file descriptors by default, but you have to specify
+  ``close_fds=True`` with :class:`Popen` to guarantee this behavior on
+  all platforms or past Python versions.
+
+
+Legacy Shell Invocation Functions
+---------------------------------
+
+This module also provides the following legacy functions from the 2.x
+``commands`` module. These operations implicitly invoke the system shell and
+none of the guarantees described above regarding security and exception
+handling consistency are valid for these functions.
+
+.. function:: getstatusoutput(cmd)
+
+   Return ``(exitcode, output)`` of executing *cmd* in a shell.
+
+   Execute the string *cmd* in a shell with :meth:`Popen.check_output` and
+   return a 2-tuple ``(exitcode, output)``. The locale encoding is used;
+   see the notes on :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` for more details.
+
+   A trailing newline is stripped from the output.
+   The exit code for the command can be interpreted as the return code
+   of subprocess.  Example::
+
+      >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('ls /bin/ls')
+      (0, '/bin/ls')
+      >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('cat /bin/junk')
+      (1, 'cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory')
+      >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/junk')
+      (127, 'sh: /bin/junk: not found')
+      >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/kill $$')
+      (-15, '')
+
+   .. availability:: POSIX & Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3.4
+      Windows support was added.
+
+      The function now returns (exitcode, output) instead of (status, output)
+      as it did in Python 3.3.3 and earlier.  exitcode has the same value as
+      :attr:`~Popen.returncode`.
+
+
+.. function:: getoutput(cmd)
+
+   Return output (stdout and stderr) of executing *cmd* in a shell.
+
+   Like :func:`getstatusoutput`, except the exit code is ignored and the return
+   value is a string containing the command's output.  Example::
+
+      >>> subprocess.getoutput('ls /bin/ls')
+      '/bin/ls'
+
+   .. availability:: POSIX & Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3.4
+      Windows support added
+
+
+Notes
+-----
+
+.. _converting-argument-sequence:
+
+Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+On Windows, an *args* sequence is converted to a string that can be parsed
+using the following rules (which correspond to the rules used by the MS C
+runtime):
+
+1. Arguments are delimited by white space, which is either a
+   space or a tab.
+
+2. A string surrounded by double quotation marks is
+   interpreted as a single argument, regardless of white space
+   contained within.  A quoted string can be embedded in an
+   argument.
+
+3. A double quotation mark preceded by a backslash is
+   interpreted as a literal double quotation mark.
+
+4. Backslashes are interpreted literally, unless they
+   immediately precede a double quotation mark.
+
+5. If backslashes immediately precede a double quotation mark,
+   every pair of backslashes is interpreted as a literal
+   backslash.  If the number of backslashes is odd, the last
+   backslash escapes the next double quotation mark as
+   described in rule 3.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :mod:`shlex`
+      Module which provides function to parse and escape command lines.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sunau.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sunau.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2064fd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sunau.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,276 @@
+:mod:`sunau` --- Read and write Sun AU files
+============================================
+
+.. module:: sunau
+   :synopsis: Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/sunau.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`sunau` module provides a convenient interface to the Sun AU sound
+format.  Note that this module is interface-compatible with the modules
+:mod:`aifc` and :mod:`wave`.
+
+An audio file consists of a header followed by the data.  The fields of the
+header are:
+
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Field         | Contents                                      |
++===============+===============================================+
+| magic word    | The four bytes ``.snd``.                      |
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| header size   | Size of the header, including info, in bytes. |
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| data size     | Physical size of the data, in bytes.          |
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| encoding      | Indicates how the audio samples are encoded.  |
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| sample rate   | The sampling rate.                            |
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| # of channels | The number of channels in the samples.        |
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| info          | ASCII string giving a description of the      |
+|               | audio file (padded with null bytes).          |
++---------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+Apart from the info field, all header fields are 4 bytes in size. They are all
+32-bit unsigned integers encoded in big-endian byte order.
+
+The :mod:`sunau` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: open(file, mode)
+
+   If *file* is a string, open the file by that name, otherwise treat it as a
+   seekable file-like object. *mode* can be any of
+
+   ``'r'``
+      Read only mode.
+
+   ``'w'``
+      Write only mode.
+
+   Note that it does not allow read/write files.
+
+   A *mode* of ``'r'`` returns an :class:`AU_read` object, while a *mode* of ``'w'``
+   or ``'wb'`` returns an :class:`AU_write` object.
+
+
+.. function:: openfp(file, mode)
+
+   A synonym for :func:`.open`, maintained for backwards compatibility.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.7 3.9
+
+
+The :mod:`sunau` module defines the following exception:
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   An error raised when something is impossible because of Sun AU specs or
+   implementation deficiency.
+
+
+The :mod:`sunau` module defines the following data items:
+
+.. data:: AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC
+
+   An integer every valid Sun AU file begins with, stored in big-endian form.  This
+   is the string ``.snd`` interpreted as an integer.
+
+
+.. data:: AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8
+
+   Values of the encoding field from the AU header which are supported by this
+   module.
+
+
+.. data:: AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3
+          AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5
+
+   Additional known values of the encoding field from the AU header, but which are
+   not supported by this module.
+
+
+.. _au-read-objects:
+
+AU_read Objects
+---------------
+
+AU_read objects, as returned by :func:`.open` above, have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.close()
+
+   Close the stream, and make the instance unusable. (This is  called automatically
+   on deletion.)
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getnchannels()
+
+   Returns number of audio channels (1 for mono, 2 for stereo).
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getsampwidth()
+
+   Returns sample width in bytes.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getframerate()
+
+   Returns sampling frequency.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getnframes()
+
+   Returns number of audio frames.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getcomptype()
+
+   Returns compression type. Supported compression types are ``'ULAW'``, ``'ALAW'``
+   and ``'NONE'``.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getcompname()
+
+   Human-readable version of :meth:`getcomptype`.  The supported types have the
+   respective names ``'CCITT G.711 u-law'``, ``'CCITT G.711 A-law'`` and ``'not
+   compressed'``.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getparams()
+
+   Returns a :func:`~collections.namedtuple` ``(nchannels, sampwidth,
+   framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)``, equivalent to output of the
+   :meth:`get\*` methods.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.readframes(n)
+
+   Reads and returns at most *n* frames of audio, as a :class:`bytes` object.  The data
+   will be returned in linear format.  If the original data is in u-LAW format, it
+   will be converted.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.rewind()
+
+   Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream.
+
+The following two methods define a term "position" which is compatible between
+them, and is otherwise implementation dependent.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.setpos(pos)
+
+   Set the file pointer to the specified position.  Only values returned from
+   :meth:`tell` should be used for *pos*.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.tell()
+
+   Return current file pointer position.  Note that the returned value has nothing
+   to do with the actual position in the file.
+
+The following two functions are defined for compatibility with the  :mod:`aifc`,
+and don't do anything interesting.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getmarkers()
+
+   Returns ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_read.getmark(id)
+
+   Raise an error.
+
+
+.. _au-write-objects:
+
+AU_write Objects
+----------------
+
+AU_write objects, as returned by :func:`.open` above, have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.setnchannels(n)
+
+   Set the number of channels.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.setsampwidth(n)
+
+   Set the sample width (in bytes.)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added support for 24-bit samples.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.setframerate(n)
+
+   Set the frame rate.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.setnframes(n)
+
+   Set the number of frames. This can be later changed, when and if more  frames
+   are written.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.setcomptype(type, name)
+
+   Set the compression type and description. Only ``'NONE'`` and ``'ULAW'`` are
+   supported on output.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.setparams(tuple)
+
+   The *tuple* should be ``(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype,
+   compname)``, with values valid for the :meth:`set\*` methods.  Set all
+   parameters.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.tell()
+
+   Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer for the
+   :meth:`AU_read.tell` and :meth:`AU_read.setpos` methods.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.writeframesraw(data)
+
+   Write audio frames, without correcting *nframes*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Any :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.writeframes(data)
+
+   Write audio frames and make sure *nframes* is correct.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Any :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. method:: AU_write.close()
+
+   Make sure *nframes* is correct, and close the file.
+
+   This method is called upon deletion.
+
+Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling  :meth:`writeframes`
+or :meth:`writeframesraw`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/superseded.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/superseded.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50a5983
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/superseded.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+.. _superseded:
+
+******************
+Superseded Modules
+******************
+
+The modules described in this chapter are deprecated and only kept for
+backwards compatibility. They have been superseded by other modules.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   optparse.rst
+   imp.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/symbol.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/symbol.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4499693
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/symbol.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+:mod:`symbol` --- Constants used with Python parse trees
+========================================================
+
+.. module:: symbol
+   :synopsis: Constants representing internal nodes of the parse tree.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/symbol.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of internal
+nodes of the parse tree.  Unlike most Python constants, these use lower-case
+names.  Refer to the file :file:`Grammar/Grammar` in the Python distribution for
+the definitions of the names in the context of the language grammar.  The
+specific numeric values which the names map to may change between Python
+versions.
+
+This module also provides one additional data object:
+
+
+.. data:: sym_name
+
+   Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in this module
+   back to name strings, allowing more human-readable representation of parse trees
+   to be generated.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/symtable.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/symtable.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba2caff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/symtable.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,188 @@
+:mod:`symtable` --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: symtable
+   :synopsis: Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/symtable.py`
+
+--------------
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Jeremy Hylton <jeremy@alum.mit.edu>
+.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
+
+
+Symbol tables are generated by the compiler from AST just before bytecode is
+generated.  The symbol table is responsible for calculating the scope of every
+identifier in the code.  :mod:`symtable` provides an interface to examine these
+tables.
+
+
+Generating Symbol Tables
+------------------------
+
+.. function:: symtable(code, filename, compile_type)
+
+   Return the toplevel :class:`SymbolTable` for the Python source *code*.
+   *filename* is the name of the file containing the code.  *compile_type* is
+   like the *mode* argument to :func:`compile`.
+
+
+Examining Symbol Tables
+-----------------------
+
+.. class:: SymbolTable
+
+   A namespace table for a block.  The constructor is not public.
+
+   .. method:: get_type()
+
+      Return the type of the symbol table.  Possible values are ``'class'``,
+      ``'module'``, and ``'function'``.
+
+   .. method:: get_id()
+
+      Return the table's identifier.
+
+   .. method:: get_name()
+
+      Return the table's name.  This is the name of the class if the table is
+      for a class, the name of the function if the table is for a function, or
+      ``'top'`` if the table is global (:meth:`get_type` returns ``'module'``).
+
+   .. method:: get_lineno()
+
+      Return the number of the first line in the block this table represents.
+
+   .. method:: is_optimized()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the locals in this table can be optimized.
+
+   .. method:: is_nested()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the block is a nested class or function.
+
+   .. method:: has_children()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the block has nested namespaces within it.  These can
+      be obtained with :meth:`get_children`.
+
+   .. method:: has_exec()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the block uses ``exec``.
+
+   .. method:: get_identifiers()
+
+      Return a list of names of symbols in this table.
+
+   .. method:: lookup(name)
+
+      Lookup *name* in the table and return a :class:`Symbol` instance.
+
+   .. method:: get_symbols()
+
+      Return a list of :class:`Symbol` instances for names in the table.
+
+   .. method:: get_children()
+
+      Return a list of the nested symbol tables.
+
+
+.. class:: Function
+
+   A namespace for a function or method.  This class inherits
+   :class:`SymbolTable`.
+
+   .. method:: get_parameters()
+
+      Return a tuple containing names of parameters to this function.
+
+   .. method:: get_locals()
+
+      Return a tuple containing names of locals in this function.
+
+   .. method:: get_globals()
+
+      Return a tuple containing names of globals in this function.
+
+   .. method:: get_frees()
+
+      Return a tuple containing names of free variables in this function.
+
+
+.. class:: Class
+
+   A namespace of a class.  This class inherits :class:`SymbolTable`.
+
+   .. method:: get_methods()
+
+      Return a tuple containing the names of methods declared in the class.
+
+
+.. class:: Symbol
+
+   An entry in a :class:`SymbolTable` corresponding to an identifier in the
+   source.  The constructor is not public.
+
+   .. method:: get_name()
+
+      Return the symbol's name.
+
+   .. method:: is_referenced()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is used in its block.
+
+   .. method:: is_imported()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is created from an import statement.
+
+   .. method:: is_parameter()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is a parameter.
+
+   .. method:: is_global()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is global.
+
+   .. method:: is_declared_global()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is declared global with a global statement.
+
+   .. method:: is_local()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is local to its block.
+
+   .. method:: is_free()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is referenced in its block, but not assigned
+      to.
+
+   .. method:: is_assigned()
+
+      Return ``True`` if the symbol is assigned to in its block.
+
+   .. method:: is_namespace()
+
+      Return ``True`` if name binding introduces new namespace.
+
+      If the name is used as the target of a function or class statement, this
+      will be true.
+
+      For example::
+
+         >>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec")
+         >>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace()
+         True
+
+      Note that a single name can be bound to multiple objects.  If the result
+      is ``True``, the name may also be bound to other objects, like an int or
+      list, that does not introduce a new namespace.
+
+   .. method:: get_namespaces()
+
+      Return a list of namespaces bound to this name.
+
+   .. method:: get_namespace()
+
+      Return the namespace bound to this name.  If more than one namespace is
+      bound, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sys.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sys.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a8c2ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sys.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1530 @@
+:mod:`sys` --- System-specific parameters and functions
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: sys
+   :synopsis: Access system-specific parameters and functions.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
+interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter. It is
+always available.
+
+
+.. data:: abiflags
+
+   On POSIX systems where Python was built with the standard ``configure``
+   script, this contains the ABI flags as specified by :pep:`3149`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: argv
+
+   The list of command line arguments passed to a Python script. ``argv[0]`` is the
+   script name (it is operating system dependent whether this is a full pathname or
+   not).  If the command was executed using the :option:`-c` command line option to
+   the interpreter, ``argv[0]`` is set to the string ``'-c'``.  If no script name
+   was passed to the Python interpreter, ``argv[0]`` is the empty string.
+
+   To loop over the standard input, or the list of files given on the
+   command line, see the :mod:`fileinput` module.
+
+   .. note::
+      On Unix, command line arguments are passed by bytes from OS.  Python decodes
+      them with filesystem encoding and "surrogateescape" error handler.
+      When you need original bytes, you can get it by
+      ``[os.fsencode(arg) for arg in sys.argv]``.
+
+
+.. data:: base_exec_prefix
+
+   Set during Python startup, before ``site.py`` is run, to the same value as
+   :data:`exec_prefix`. If not running in a
+   :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>`, the values will stay the same; if
+   ``site.py`` finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of
+   :data:`prefix` and :data:`exec_prefix` will be changed to point to the
+   virtual environment, whereas :data:`base_prefix` and
+   :data:`base_exec_prefix` will remain pointing to the base Python
+   installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: base_prefix
+
+   Set during Python startup, before ``site.py`` is run, to the same value as
+   :data:`prefix`. If not running in a :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>`, the values
+   will stay the same; if ``site.py`` finds that a virtual environment is in
+   use, the values of :data:`prefix` and :data:`exec_prefix` will be changed to
+   point to the virtual environment, whereas :data:`base_prefix` and
+   :data:`base_exec_prefix` will remain pointing to the base Python
+   installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: byteorder
+
+   An indicator of the native byte order.  This will have the value ``'big'`` on
+   big-endian (most-significant byte first) platforms, and ``'little'`` on
+   little-endian (least-significant byte first) platforms.
+
+
+.. data:: builtin_module_names
+
+   A tuple of strings giving the names of all modules that are compiled into this
+   Python interpreter.  (This information is not available in any other way ---
+   ``modules.keys()`` only lists the imported modules.)
+
+
+.. function:: call_tracing(func, args)
+
+   Call ``func(*args)``, while tracing is enabled.  The tracing state is saved,
+   and restored afterwards.  This is intended to be called from a debugger from
+   a checkpoint, to recursively debug some other code.
+
+
+.. data:: copyright
+
+   A string containing the copyright pertaining to the Python interpreter.
+
+
+.. function:: _clear_type_cache()
+
+   Clear the internal type cache. The type cache is used to speed up attribute
+   and method lookups. Use the function *only* to drop unnecessary references
+   during reference leak debugging.
+
+   This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only.
+
+
+.. function:: _current_frames()
+
+   Return a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost stack frame
+   currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. Note that
+   functions in the :mod:`traceback` module can build the call stack given such a
+   frame.
+
+   This is most useful for debugging deadlock:  this function does not require the
+   deadlocked threads' cooperation, and such threads' call stacks are frozen for as
+   long as they remain deadlocked.  The frame returned for a non-deadlocked thread
+   may bear no relationship to that thread's current activity by the time calling
+   code examines the frame.
+
+   This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only.
+
+
+.. function:: breakpointhook()
+
+   This hook function is called by built-in :func:`breakpoint`.  By default,
+   it drops you into the :mod:`pdb` debugger, but it can be set to any other
+   function so that you can choose which debugger gets used.
+
+   The signature of this function is dependent on what it calls.  For example,
+   the default binding (e.g. ``pdb.set_trace()``) expects no arguments, but
+   you might bind it to a function that expects additional arguments
+   (positional and/or keyword).  The built-in ``breakpoint()`` function passes
+   its ``*args`` and ``**kws`` straight through.  Whatever
+   ``breakpointhooks()`` returns is returned from ``breakpoint()``.
+
+   The default implementation first consults the environment variable
+   :envvar:`PYTHONBREAKPOINT`.  If that is set to ``"0"`` then this function
+   returns immediately; i.e. it is a no-op.  If the environment variable is
+   not set, or is set to the empty string, ``pdb.set_trace()`` is called.
+   Otherwise this variable should name a function to run, using Python's
+   dotted-import nomenclature, e.g. ``package.subpackage.module.function``.
+   In this case, ``package.subpackage.module`` would be imported and the
+   resulting module must have a callable named ``function()``.  This is run,
+   passing in ``*args`` and ``**kws``, and whatever ``function()`` returns,
+   ``sys.breakpointhook()`` returns to the built-in :func:`breakpoint`
+   function.
+
+   Note that if anything goes wrong while importing the callable named by
+   :envvar:`PYTHONBREAKPOINT`, a :exc:`RuntimeWarning` is reported and the
+   breakpoint is ignored.
+
+   Also note that if ``sys.breakpointhook()`` is overridden programmatically,
+   :envvar:`PYTHONBREAKPOINT` is *not* consulted.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: _debugmallocstats()
+
+   Print low-level information to stderr about the state of CPython's memory
+   allocator.
+
+   If Python is configured --with-pydebug, it also performs some expensive
+   internal consistency checks.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      This function is specific to CPython.  The exact output format is not
+      defined here, and may change.
+
+
+.. data:: dllhandle
+
+   Integer specifying the handle of the Python DLL.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. function:: displayhook(value)
+
+   If *value* is not ``None``, this function prints ``repr(value)`` to
+   ``sys.stdout``, and saves *value* in ``builtins._``. If ``repr(value)`` is
+   not encodable to ``sys.stdout.encoding`` with ``sys.stdout.errors`` error
+   handler (which is probably ``'strict'``), encode it to
+   ``sys.stdout.encoding`` with ``'backslashreplace'`` error handler.
+
+   ``sys.displayhook`` is called on the result of evaluating an :term:`expression`
+   entered in an interactive Python session.  The display of these values can be
+   customized by assigning another one-argument function to ``sys.displayhook``.
+
+   Pseudo-code::
+
+       def displayhook(value):
+           if value is None:
+               return
+           # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion
+           builtins._ = None
+           text = repr(value)
+           try:
+               sys.stdout.write(text)
+           except UnicodeEncodeError:
+               bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace')
+               if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'):
+                   sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes)
+               else:
+                   text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict')
+                   sys.stdout.write(text)
+           sys.stdout.write("\n")
+           builtins._ = value
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Use ``'backslashreplace'`` error handler on :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError`.
+
+
+.. data:: dont_write_bytecode
+
+   If this is true, Python won't try to write ``.pyc`` files on the
+   import of source modules.  This value is initially set to ``True`` or
+   ``False`` depending on the :option:`-B` command line option and the
+   :envvar:`PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE` environment variable, but you can set it
+   yourself to control bytecode file generation.
+
+
+.. function:: excepthook(type, value, traceback)
+
+   This function prints out a given traceback and exception to ``sys.stderr``.
+
+   When an exception is raised and uncaught, the interpreter calls
+   ``sys.excepthook`` with three arguments, the exception class, exception
+   instance, and a traceback object.  In an interactive session this happens just
+   before control is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just
+   before the program exits.  The handling of such top-level exceptions can be
+   customized by assigning another three-argument function to ``sys.excepthook``.
+
+
+.. data:: __breakpointhook__
+          __displayhook__
+          __excepthook__
+
+   These objects contain the original values of ``breakpointhook``,
+   ``displayhook``, and ``excepthook`` at the start of the program.  They are
+   saved so that ``breakpointhook``, ``displayhook`` and ``excepthook`` can be
+   restored in case they happen to get replaced with broken or alternative
+   objects.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      __breakpointhook__
+
+
+.. function:: exc_info()
+
+   This function returns a tuple of three values that give information about the
+   exception that is currently being handled.  The information returned is specific
+   both to the current thread and to the current stack frame.  If the current stack
+   frame is not handling an exception, the information is taken from the calling
+   stack frame, or its caller, and so on until a stack frame is found that is
+   handling an exception.  Here, "handling an exception" is defined as "executing
+   an except clause."  For any stack frame, only information about the exception
+   being currently handled is accessible.
+
+   .. index:: object: traceback
+
+   If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, a tuple containing
+   three ``None`` values is returned.  Otherwise, the values returned are
+   ``(type, value, traceback)``.  Their meaning is: *type* gets the type of the
+   exception being handled (a subclass of :exc:`BaseException`); *value* gets
+   the exception instance (an instance of the exception type); *traceback* gets
+   a traceback object (see the Reference Manual) which encapsulates the call
+   stack at the point where the exception originally occurred.
+
+
+.. data:: exec_prefix
+
+   A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the platform-dependent
+   Python files are installed; by default, this is also ``'/usr/local'``.  This can
+   be set at build time with the ``--exec-prefix`` argument to the
+   :program:`configure` script.  Specifically, all configuration files (e.g. the
+   :file:`pyconfig.h` header file) are installed in the directory
+   :file:`{exec_prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}/config`, and shared library modules are
+   installed in :file:`{exec_prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}/lib-dynload`, where *X.Y*
+   is the version number of Python, for example ``3.2``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If a :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>` is in effect, this
+      value will be changed in ``site.py`` to point to the virtual environment.
+      The value for the Python installation will still be available, via
+      :data:`base_exec_prefix`.
+
+
+.. data:: executable
+
+   A string giving the absolute path of the executable binary for the Python
+   interpreter, on systems where this makes sense. If Python is unable to retrieve
+   the real path to its executable, :data:`sys.executable` will be an empty string
+   or ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: exit([arg])
+
+   Exit from Python.  This is implemented by raising the :exc:`SystemExit`
+   exception, so cleanup actions specified by finally clauses of :keyword:`try`
+   statements are honored, and it is possible to intercept the exit attempt at
+   an outer level.
+
+   The optional argument *arg* can be an integer giving the exit status
+   (defaulting to zero), or another type of object.  If it is an integer, zero
+   is considered "successful termination" and any nonzero value is considered
+   "abnormal termination" by shells and the like.  Most systems require it to be
+   in the range 0--127, and produce undefined results otherwise.  Some systems
+   have a convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes, but
+   these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use 2 for command
+   line syntax errors and 1 for all other kind of errors.  If another type of
+   object is passed, ``None`` is equivalent to passing zero, and any other
+   object is printed to :data:`stderr` and results in an exit code of 1.  In
+   particular, ``sys.exit("some error message")`` is a quick way to exit a
+   program when an error occurs.
+
+   Since :func:`exit` ultimately "only" raises an exception, it will only exit
+   the process when called from the main thread, and the exception is not
+   intercepted.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      If an error occurs in the cleanup after the Python interpreter
+      has caught :exc:`SystemExit` (such as an error flushing buffered data
+      in the standard streams), the exit status is changed to 120.
+
+
+.. data:: flags
+
+   The :term:`struct sequence` *flags* exposes the status of command line
+   flags. The attributes are read only.
+
+   ============================= =============================
+   attribute                     flag
+   ============================= =============================
+   :const:`debug`                :option:`-d`
+   :const:`inspect`              :option:`-i`
+   :const:`interactive`          :option:`-i`
+   :const:`isolated`             :option:`-I`
+   :const:`optimize`             :option:`-O` or :option:`-OO`
+   :const:`dont_write_bytecode`  :option:`-B`
+   :const:`no_user_site`         :option:`-s`
+   :const:`no_site`              :option:`-S`
+   :const:`ignore_environment`   :option:`-E`
+   :const:`verbose`              :option:`-v`
+   :const:`bytes_warning`        :option:`-b`
+   :const:`quiet`                :option:`-q`
+   :const:`hash_randomization`   :option:`-R`
+   :const:`dev_mode`             :option:`-X` ``dev``
+   :const:`utf8_mode`            :option:`-X` ``utf8``
+   ============================= =============================
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added ``quiet`` attribute for the new :option:`-q` flag.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2.3
+      The ``hash_randomization`` attribute.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Removed obsolete ``division_warning`` attribute.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added ``isolated`` attribute for :option:`-I` ``isolated`` flag.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added ``dev_mode`` attribute for the new :option:`-X` ``dev`` flag
+      and ``utf8_mode`` attribute for the new  :option:`-X` ``utf8`` flag.
+
+
+.. data:: float_info
+
+   A :term:`struct sequence` holding information about the float type. It
+   contains low level information about the precision and internal
+   representation.  The values correspond to the various floating-point
+   constants defined in the standard header file :file:`float.h` for the 'C'
+   programming language; see section 5.2.4.2.2 of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard
+   [C99]_, 'Characteristics of floating types', for details.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|l|L|
+
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | attribute           | float.h macro  | explanation                                      |
+   +=====================+================+==================================================+
+   | :const:`epsilon`    | DBL_EPSILON    | difference between 1 and the least value greater |
+   |                     |                | than 1 that is representable as a float          |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`dig`        | DBL_DIG        | maximum number of decimal digits that can be     |
+   |                     |                | faithfully represented in a float;  see below    |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`mant_dig`   | DBL_MANT_DIG   | float precision: the number of base-``radix``    |
+   |                     |                | digits in the significand of a float             |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`max`        | DBL_MAX        | maximum representable finite float               |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`max_exp`    | DBL_MAX_EXP    | maximum integer e such that ``radix**(e-1)`` is  |
+   |                     |                | a representable finite float                     |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`max_10_exp` | DBL_MAX_10_EXP | maximum integer e such that ``10**e`` is in the  |
+   |                     |                | range of representable finite floats             |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`min`        | DBL_MIN        | minimum positive normalized float                |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`min_exp`    | DBL_MIN_EXP    | minimum integer e such that ``radix**(e-1)`` is  |
+   |                     |                | a normalized float                               |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`min_10_exp` | DBL_MIN_10_EXP | minimum integer e such that ``10**e`` is a       |
+   |                     |                | normalized float                                 |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`radix`      | FLT_RADIX      | radix of exponent representation                 |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`rounds`     | FLT_ROUNDS     | integer constant representing the rounding mode  |
+   |                     |                | used for arithmetic operations.  This reflects   |
+   |                     |                | the value of the system FLT_ROUNDS macro at      |
+   |                     |                | interpreter startup time.  See section 5.2.4.2.2 |
+   |                     |                | of the C99 standard for an explanation of the    |
+   |                     |                | possible values and their meanings.              |
+   +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+
+   The attribute :attr:`sys.float_info.dig` needs further explanation.  If
+   ``s`` is any string representing a decimal number with at most
+   :attr:`sys.float_info.dig` significant digits, then converting ``s`` to a
+   float and back again will recover a string representing the same decimal
+   value::
+
+      >>> import sys
+      >>> sys.float_info.dig
+      15
+      >>> s = '3.14159265358979'    # decimal string with 15 significant digits
+      >>> format(float(s), '.15g')  # convert to float and back -> same value
+      '3.14159265358979'
+
+   But for strings with more than :attr:`sys.float_info.dig` significant digits,
+   this isn't always true::
+
+      >>> s = '9876543211234567'    # 16 significant digits is too many!
+      >>> format(float(s), '.16g')  # conversion changes value
+      '9876543211234568'
+
+.. data:: float_repr_style
+
+   A string indicating how the :func:`repr` function behaves for
+   floats.  If the string has value ``'short'`` then for a finite
+   float ``x``, ``repr(x)`` aims to produce a short string with the
+   property that ``float(repr(x)) == x``.  This is the usual behaviour
+   in Python 3.1 and later.  Otherwise, ``float_repr_style`` has value
+   ``'legacy'`` and ``repr(x)`` behaves in the same way as it did in
+   versions of Python prior to 3.1.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: getallocatedblocks()
+
+   Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the interpreter,
+   regardless of their size.  This function is mainly useful for tracking
+   and debugging memory leaks.  Because of the interpreter's internal
+   caches, the result can vary from call to call; you may have to call
+   :func:`_clear_type_cache()` and :func:`gc.collect()` to get more
+   predictable results.
+
+   If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
+   information, :func:`getallocatedblocks()` is allowed to return 0 instead.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: getandroidapilevel()
+
+   Return the build time API version of Android as an integer.
+
+   .. availability:: Android.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: getcheckinterval()
+
+   Return the interpreter's "check interval"; see :func:`setcheckinterval`.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+      Use :func:`getswitchinterval` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: getdefaultencoding()
+
+   Return the name of the current default string encoding used by the Unicode
+   implementation.
+
+
+.. function:: getdlopenflags()
+
+   Return the current value of the flags that are used for
+   :c:func:`dlopen` calls.  Symbolic names for the flag values can be
+   found in the :mod:`os` module (``RTLD_xxx`` constants, e.g.
+   :data:`os.RTLD_LAZY`).
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+
+.. function:: getfilesystemencoding()
+
+   Return the name of the encoding used to convert between Unicode
+   filenames and bytes filenames. For best compatibility, str should be
+   used for filenames in all cases, although representing filenames as bytes
+   is also supported. Functions accepting or returning filenames should support
+   either str or bytes and internally convert to the system's preferred
+   representation.
+
+   This encoding is always ASCII-compatible.
+
+   :func:`os.fsencode` and :func:`os.fsdecode` should be used to ensure that
+   the correct encoding and errors mode are used.
+
+   * In the UTF-8 mode, the encoding is ``utf-8`` on any platform.
+
+   * On Mac OS X, the encoding is ``'utf-8'``.
+
+   * On Unix, the encoding is the locale encoding.
+
+   * On Windows, the encoding may be ``'utf-8'`` or ``'mbcs'``, depending
+     on user configuration.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      :func:`getfilesystemencoding` result cannot be ``None`` anymore.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Windows is no longer guaranteed to return ``'mbcs'``. See :pep:`529`
+      and :func:`_enablelegacywindowsfsencoding` for more information.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Return 'utf-8' in the UTF-8 mode.
+
+
+.. function:: getfilesystemencodeerrors()
+
+   Return the name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames
+   and bytes filenames. The encoding name is returned from
+   :func:`getfilesystemencoding`.
+
+   :func:`os.fsencode` and :func:`os.fsdecode` should be used to ensure that
+   the correct encoding and errors mode are used.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. function:: getrefcount(object)
+
+   Return the reference count of the *object*.  The count returned is generally one
+   higher than you might expect, because it includes the (temporary) reference as
+   an argument to :func:`getrefcount`.
+
+
+.. function:: getrecursionlimit()
+
+   Return the current value of the recursion limit, the maximum depth of the Python
+   interpreter stack.  This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an
+   overflow of the C stack and crashing Python.  It can be set by
+   :func:`setrecursionlimit`.
+
+
+.. function:: getsizeof(object[, default])
+
+   Return the size of an object in bytes. The object can be any type of
+   object. All built-in objects will return correct results, but this
+   does not have to hold true for third-party extensions as it is implementation
+   specific.
+
+   Only the memory consumption directly attributed to the object is
+   accounted for, not the memory consumption of objects it refers to.
+
+   If given, *default* will be returned if the object does not provide means to
+   retrieve the size.  Otherwise a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised.
+
+   :func:`getsizeof` calls the object's ``__sizeof__`` method and adds an
+   additional garbage collector overhead if the object is managed by the garbage
+   collector.
+
+   See `recursive sizeof recipe <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504>`_
+   for an example of using :func:`getsizeof` recursively to find the size of
+   containers and all their contents.
+
+.. function:: getswitchinterval()
+
+   Return the interpreter's "thread switch interval"; see
+   :func:`setswitchinterval`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: _getframe([depth])
+
+   Return a frame object from the call stack.  If optional integer *depth* is
+   given, return the frame object that many calls below the top of the stack.  If
+   that is deeper than the call stack, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  The default
+   for *depth* is zero, returning the frame at the top of the call stack.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only.
+      It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.
+
+
+.. function:: getprofile()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: profile function
+      single: profiler
+
+   Get the profiler function as set by :func:`setprofile`.
+
+
+.. function:: gettrace()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: trace function
+      single: debugger
+
+   Get the trace function as set by :func:`settrace`.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      The :func:`gettrace` function is intended only for implementing debuggers,
+      profilers, coverage tools and the like.  Its behavior is part of the
+      implementation platform, rather than part of the language definition, and
+      thus may not be available in all Python implementations.
+
+
+.. function:: getwindowsversion()
+
+   Return a named tuple describing the Windows version
+   currently running.  The named elements are *major*, *minor*,
+   *build*, *platform*, *service_pack*, *service_pack_minor*,
+   *service_pack_major*, *suite_mask*, *product_type* and
+   *platform_version*. *service_pack* contains a string,
+   *platform_version* a 3-tuple and all other values are
+   integers. The components can also be accessed by name, so
+   ``sys.getwindowsversion()[0]`` is equivalent to
+   ``sys.getwindowsversion().major``. For compatibility with prior
+   versions, only the first 5 elements are retrievable by indexing.
+
+   *platform* will be :const:`2 (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT)`.
+
+   *product_type* may be one of the following values:
+
+   +---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | Constant                              | Meaning                         |
+   +=======================================+=================================+
+   | :const:`1 (VER_NT_WORKSTATION)`       | The system is a workstation.    |
+   +---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | :const:`2 (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)` | The system is a domain          |
+   |                                       | controller.                     |
+   +---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | :const:`3 (VER_NT_SERVER)`            | The system is a server, but not |
+   |                                       | a domain controller.            |
+   +---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+
+   This function wraps the Win32 :c:func:`GetVersionEx` function; see the
+   Microsoft documentation on :c:func:`OSVERSIONINFOEX` for more information
+   about these fields.
+
+   *platform_version* returns the accurate major version, minor version and
+   build number of the current operating system, rather than the version that
+   is being emulated for the process. It is intended for use in logging rather
+   than for feature detection.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Changed to a named tuple and added *service_pack_minor*,
+      *service_pack_major*, *suite_mask*, and *product_type*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *platform_version*
+
+
+.. function:: get_asyncgen_hooks()
+
+   Returns an *asyncgen_hooks* object, which is similar to a
+   :class:`~collections.namedtuple` of the form `(firstiter, finalizer)`,
+   where *firstiter* and *finalizer* are expected to be either ``None`` or
+   functions which take an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator` as an
+   argument, and are used to schedule finalization of an asynchronous
+   generator by an event loop.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      See :pep:`525` for more details.
+
+   .. note::
+      This function has been added on a provisional basis (see :pep:`411`
+      for details.)
+
+
+.. function:: get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()
+
+   Get the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by
+   :func:`set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. note::
+      This function has been added on a provisional basis (see :pep:`411`
+      for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.
+
+
+.. function:: get_coroutine_wrapper()
+
+   Returns ``None``, or a wrapper set by :func:`set_coroutine_wrapper`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      See :pep:`492` for more details.
+
+   .. note::
+      This function has been added on a provisional basis (see :pep:`411`
+      for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      The coroutine wrapper functionality has been deprecated, and
+      will be removed in 3.8. See :issue:`32591` for details.
+
+
+.. data:: hash_info
+
+   A :term:`struct sequence` giving parameters of the numeric hash
+   implementation.  For more details about hashing of numeric types, see
+   :ref:`numeric-hash`.
+
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | attribute           | explanation                                      |
+   +=====================+==================================================+
+   | :const:`width`      | width in bits used for hash values               |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`modulus`    | prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme     |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`inf`        | hash value returned for a positive infinity      |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`nan`        | hash value returned for a nan                    |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`imag`       | multiplier used for the imaginary part of a      |
+   |                     | complex number                                   |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`algorithm`  | name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, |
+   |                     | and memoryview                                   |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`hash_bits`  | internal output size of the hash algorithm       |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`seed_bits`  | size of the seed key of the hash algorithm       |
+   +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added *algorithm*, *hash_bits* and *seed_bits*
+
+
+.. data:: hexversion
+
+   The version number encoded as a single integer.  This is guaranteed to increase
+   with each version, including proper support for non-production releases.  For
+   example, to test that the Python interpreter is at least version 1.5.2, use::
+
+      if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0:
+          # use some advanced feature
+          ...
+      else:
+          # use an alternative implementation or warn the user
+          ...
+
+   This is called ``hexversion`` since it only really looks meaningful when viewed
+   as the result of passing it to the built-in :func:`hex` function.  The
+   :term:`struct sequence`  :data:`sys.version_info` may be used for a more
+   human-friendly encoding of the same information.
+
+   More details of ``hexversion`` can be found at :ref:`apiabiversion`.
+
+
+.. data:: implementation
+
+   An object containing information about the implementation of the
+   currently running Python interpreter.  The following attributes are
+   required to exist in all Python implementations.
+
+   *name* is the implementation's identifier, e.g. ``'cpython'``.  The actual
+   string is defined by the Python implementation, but it is guaranteed to be
+   lower case.
+
+   *version* is a named tuple, in the same format as
+   :data:`sys.version_info`.  It represents the version of the Python
+   *implementation*.  This has a distinct meaning from the specific
+   version of the Python *language* to which the currently running
+   interpreter conforms, which ``sys.version_info`` represents.  For
+   example, for PyPy 1.8 ``sys.implementation.version`` might be
+   ``sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final', 0)``, whereas ``sys.version_info``
+   would be ``sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0)``.  For CPython they
+   are the same value, since it is the reference implementation.
+
+   *hexversion* is the implementation version in hexadecimal format, like
+   :data:`sys.hexversion`.
+
+   *cache_tag* is the tag used by the import machinery in the filenames of
+   cached modules.  By convention, it would be a composite of the
+   implementation's name and version, like ``'cpython-33'``.  However, a
+   Python implementation may use some other value if appropriate.  If
+   ``cache_tag`` is set to ``None``, it indicates that module caching should
+   be disabled.
+
+   :data:`sys.implementation` may contain additional attributes specific to
+   the Python implementation.  These non-standard attributes must start with
+   an underscore, and are not described here.  Regardless of its contents,
+   :data:`sys.implementation` will not change during a run of the interpreter,
+   nor between implementation versions.  (It may change between Python
+   language versions, however.)  See :pep:`421` for more information.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: int_info
+
+   A :term:`struct sequence` that holds information about Python's internal
+   representation of integers.  The attributes are read only.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +-------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+   | Attribute               | Explanation                                  |
+   +=========================+==============================================+
+   | :const:`bits_per_digit` | number of bits held in each digit.  Python   |
+   |                         | integers are stored internally in base       |
+   |                         | ``2**int_info.bits_per_digit``               |
+   +-------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`sizeof_digit`   | size in bytes of the C type used to          |
+   |                         | represent a digit                            |
+   +-------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. data:: __interactivehook__
+
+   When this attribute exists, its value is automatically called (with no
+   arguments) when the interpreter is launched in :ref:`interactive mode
+   <tut-interactive>`.  This is done after the :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` file is
+   read, so that you can set this hook there.  The :mod:`site` module
+   :ref:`sets this <rlcompleter-config>`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: intern(string)
+
+   Enter *string* in the table of "interned" strings and return the interned string
+   -- which is *string* itself or a copy. Interning strings is useful to gain a
+   little performance on dictionary lookup -- if the keys in a dictionary are
+   interned, and the lookup key is interned, the key comparisons (after hashing)
+   can be done by a pointer compare instead of a string compare.  Normally, the
+   names used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the dictionaries
+   used to hold module, class or instance attributes have interned keys.
+
+   Interned strings are not immortal; you must keep a reference to the return
+   value of :func:`intern` around to benefit from it.
+
+
+.. function:: is_finalizing()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if the Python interpreter is
+   :term:`shutting down <interpreter shutdown>`, :const:`False` otherwise.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. data:: last_type
+          last_value
+          last_traceback
+
+   These three variables are not always defined; they are set when an exception is
+   not handled and the interpreter prints an error message and a stack traceback.
+   Their intended use is to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module
+   and engage in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command
+   that caused the error.  (Typical use is ``import pdb; pdb.pm()`` to enter the
+   post-mortem debugger; see :mod:`pdb` module for
+   more information.)
+
+   The meaning of the variables is the same as that of the return values from
+   :func:`exc_info` above.
+
+
+.. data:: maxsize
+
+   An integer giving the maximum value a variable of type :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` can
+   take.  It's usually ``2**31 - 1`` on a 32-bit platform and ``2**63 - 1`` on a
+   64-bit platform.
+
+
+.. data:: maxunicode
+
+   An integer giving the value of the largest Unicode code point,
+   i.e. ``1114111`` (``0x10FFFF`` in hexadecimal).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Before :pep:`393`, ``sys.maxunicode`` used to be either ``0xFFFF``
+      or ``0x10FFFF``, depending on the configuration option that specified
+      whether Unicode characters were stored as UCS-2 or UCS-4.
+
+
+.. data:: meta_path
+
+    A list of :term:`meta path finder` objects that have their
+    :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` methods called to see if one
+    of the objects can find the module to be imported. The
+    :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` method is called with at
+    least the absolute name of the module being imported. If the module to be
+    imported is contained in a package, then the parent package's :attr:`__path__`
+    attribute is passed in as a second argument. The method returns a
+    :term:`module spec`, or ``None`` if the module cannot be found.
+
+    .. seealso::
+
+        :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder`
+          The abstract base class defining the interface of finder objects on
+          :data:`meta_path`.
+        :class:`importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec`
+          The concrete class which
+          :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` should return
+          instances of.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+
+        :term:`Module specs <module spec>` were introduced in Python 3.4, by
+        :pep:`451`. Earlier versions of Python looked for a method called
+        :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module`.
+        This is still called as a fallback if a :data:`meta_path` entry doesn't
+        have a :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` method.
+
+.. data:: modules
+
+   This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have already been
+   loaded.  This can be manipulated to force reloading of modules and other tricks.
+   However, replacing the dictionary will not necessarily work as expected and
+   deleting essential items from the dictionary may cause Python to fail.
+
+
+.. data:: path
+
+   .. index:: triple: module; search; path
+
+   A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules. Initialized from
+   the environment variable :envvar:`PYTHONPATH`, plus an installation-dependent
+   default.
+
+   As initialized upon program startup, the first item of this list, ``path[0]``,
+   is the directory containing the script that was used to invoke the Python
+   interpreter.  If the script directory is not available (e.g.  if the interpreter
+   is invoked interactively or if the script is read from standard input),
+   ``path[0]`` is the empty string, which directs Python to search modules in the
+   current directory first.  Notice that the script directory is inserted *before*
+   the entries inserted as a result of :envvar:`PYTHONPATH`.
+
+   A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes.  Only strings
+   and bytes should be added to :data:`sys.path`; all other data types are
+   ignored during import.
+
+
+   .. seealso::
+      Module :mod:`site` This describes how to use .pth files to extend
+      :data:`sys.path`.
+
+
+.. data:: path_hooks
+
+    A list of callables that take a path argument to try to create a
+    :term:`finder` for the path. If a finder can be created, it is to be
+    returned by the callable, else raise :exc:`ImportError`.
+
+    Originally specified in :pep:`302`.
+
+
+.. data:: path_importer_cache
+
+    A dictionary acting as a cache for :term:`finder` objects. The keys are
+    paths that have been passed to :data:`sys.path_hooks` and the values are
+    the finders that are found. If a path is a valid file system path but no
+    finder is found on :data:`sys.path_hooks` then ``None`` is
+    stored.
+
+    Originally specified in :pep:`302`.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+       ``None`` is stored instead of :class:`imp.NullImporter` when no finder
+       is found.
+
+
+.. data:: platform
+
+   This string contains a platform identifier that can be used to append
+   platform-specific components to :data:`sys.path`, for instance.
+
+   For Unix systems, except on Linux, this is the lowercased OS name as
+   returned by ``uname -s`` with the first part of the version as returned by
+   ``uname -r`` appended, e.g. ``'sunos5'`` or ``'freebsd8'``, *at the time
+   when Python was built*.  Unless you want to test for a specific system
+   version, it is therefore recommended to use the following idiom::
+
+      if sys.platform.startswith('freebsd'):
+          # FreeBSD-specific code here...
+      elif sys.platform.startswith('linux'):
+          # Linux-specific code here...
+
+   For other systems, the values are:
+
+   ================ ===========================
+   System           ``platform`` value
+   ================ ===========================
+   Linux            ``'linux'``
+   Windows          ``'win32'``
+   Windows/Cygwin   ``'cygwin'``
+   Mac OS X         ``'darwin'``
+   ================ ===========================
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      On Linux, :attr:`sys.platform` doesn't contain the major version anymore.
+      It is always ``'linux'``, instead of ``'linux2'`` or ``'linux3'``.  Since
+      older Python versions include the version number, it is recommended to
+      always use the ``startswith`` idiom presented above.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :attr:`os.name` has a coarser granularity.  :func:`os.uname` gives
+      system-dependent version information.
+
+      The :mod:`platform` module provides detailed checks for the
+      system's identity.
+
+
+.. data:: prefix
+
+   A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the platform
+   independent Python files are installed; by default, this is the string
+   ``'/usr/local'``.  This can be set at build time with the ``--prefix``
+   argument to the :program:`configure` script.  The main collection of Python
+   library modules is installed in the directory :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}`
+   while the platform independent header files (all except :file:`pyconfig.h`) are
+   stored in :file:`{prefix}/include/python{X.Y}`, where *X.Y* is the version
+   number of Python, for example ``3.2``.
+
+   .. note:: If a :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>` is in effect, this
+      value will be changed in ``site.py`` to point to the virtual
+      environment. The value for the Python installation will still be
+      available, via :data:`base_prefix`.
+
+
+.. data:: ps1
+          ps2
+
+   .. index::
+      single: interpreter prompts
+      single: prompts, interpreter
+      single: >>>; interpreter prompt
+      single: ...; interpreter prompt
+
+   Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the interpreter.  These
+   are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.  Their initial
+   values in this case are ``'>>> '`` and ``'... '``.  If a non-string object is
+   assigned to either variable, its :func:`str` is re-evaluated each time the
+   interpreter prepares to read a new interactive command; this can be used to
+   implement a dynamic prompt.
+
+
+.. function:: setcheckinterval(interval)
+
+   Set the interpreter's "check interval".  This integer value determines how often
+   the interpreter checks for periodic things such as thread switches and signal
+   handlers.  The default is ``100``, meaning the check is performed every 100
+   Python virtual instructions. Setting it to a larger value may increase
+   performance for programs using threads.  Setting it to a value ``<=`` 0 checks
+   every virtual instruction, maximizing responsiveness as well as overhead.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+      This function doesn't have an effect anymore, as the internal logic for
+      thread switching and asynchronous tasks has been rewritten.  Use
+      :func:`setswitchinterval` instead.
+
+
+.. function:: setdlopenflags(n)
+
+   Set the flags used by the interpreter for :c:func:`dlopen` calls, such as when
+   the interpreter loads extension modules.  Among other things, this will enable a
+   lazy resolving of symbols when importing a module, if called as
+   ``sys.setdlopenflags(0)``.  To share symbols across extension modules, call as
+   ``sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)``.  Symbolic names for the flag values
+   can be found in the :mod:`os` module (``RTLD_xxx`` constants, e.g.
+   :data:`os.RTLD_LAZY`).
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+.. function:: setprofile(profilefunc)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: profile function
+      single: profiler
+
+   Set the system's profile function, which allows you to implement a Python source
+   code profiler in Python.  See chapter :ref:`profile` for more information on the
+   Python profiler.  The system's profile function is called similarly to the
+   system's trace function (see :func:`settrace`), but it is called with different events,
+   for example it isn't called for each executed line of code (only on call and return,
+   but the return event is reported even when an exception has been set). The function is
+   thread-specific, but there is no way for the profiler to know about context switches between
+   threads, so it does not make sense to use this in the presence of multiple threads. Also,
+   its return value is not used, so it can simply return ``None``.  Error in the profile
+   function will cause itself unset.
+
+   Profile functions should have three arguments: *frame*, *event*, and
+   *arg*. *frame* is the current stack frame.  *event* is a string: ``'call'``,
+   ``'return'``, ``'c_call'``, ``'c_return'``, or ``'c_exception'``. *arg* depends
+   on the event type.
+
+   The events have the following meaning:
+
+   ``'call'``
+      A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
+      profile function is called; *arg* is ``None``.
+
+   ``'return'``
+      A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The profile
+      function is called; *arg* is the value that will be returned, or ``None``
+      if the event is caused by an exception being raised.
+
+   ``'c_call'``
+      A C function is about to be called.  This may be an extension function or
+      a built-in.  *arg* is the C function object.
+
+   ``'c_return'``
+      A C function has returned. *arg* is the C function object.
+
+   ``'c_exception'``
+      A C function has raised an exception.  *arg* is the C function object.
+
+.. function:: setrecursionlimit(limit)
+
+   Set the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack to *limit*.  This limit
+   prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing
+   Python.
+
+   The highest possible limit is platform-dependent.  A user may need to set the
+   limit higher when they have a program that requires deep recursion and a platform
+   that supports a higher limit.  This should be done with care, because a too-high
+   limit can lead to a crash.
+
+   If the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth, a
+   :exc:`RecursionError` exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5.1
+      A :exc:`RecursionError` exception is now raised if the new limit is too
+      low at the current recursion depth.
+
+
+.. function:: setswitchinterval(interval)
+
+   Set the interpreter's thread switch interval (in seconds).  This floating-point
+   value determines the ideal duration of the "timeslices" allocated to
+   concurrently running Python threads.  Please note that the actual value
+   can be higher, especially if long-running internal functions or methods
+   are used.  Also, which thread becomes scheduled at the end of the interval
+   is the operating system's decision.  The interpreter doesn't have its
+   own scheduler.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: settrace(tracefunc)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: trace function
+      single: debugger
+
+   Set the system's trace function, which allows you to implement a Python
+   source code debugger in Python.  The function is thread-specific; for a
+   debugger to support multiple threads, it must register a trace function using
+   :func:`settrace` for each thread being debugged or use :func:`threading.settrace`.
+
+   Trace functions should have three arguments: *frame*, *event*, and
+   *arg*. *frame* is the current stack frame.  *event* is a string: ``'call'``,
+   ``'line'``, ``'return'``, ``'exception'`` or ``'opcode'``.  *arg* depends on
+   the event type.
+
+   The trace function is invoked (with *event* set to ``'call'``) whenever a new
+   local scope is entered; it should return a reference to a local trace
+   function to be used that scope, or ``None`` if the scope shouldn't be traced.
+
+   The local trace function should return a reference to itself (or to another
+   function for further tracing in that scope), or ``None`` to turn off tracing
+   in that scope.
+
+   If there is any error occurred in the trace function, it will be unset, just
+   like ``settrace(None)`` is called.
+
+   The events have the following meaning:
+
+   ``'call'``
+      A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
+      global trace function is called; *arg* is ``None``; the return value
+      specifies the local trace function.
+
+   ``'line'``
+      The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or re-execute the
+      condition of a loop.  The local trace function is called; *arg* is
+      ``None``; the return value specifies the new local trace function.  See
+      :file:`Objects/lnotab_notes.txt` for a detailed explanation of how this
+      works.
+      Per-line events may be disabled for a frame by setting
+      :attr:`f_trace_lines` to :const:`False` on that frame.
+
+   ``'return'``
+      A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The local trace
+      function is called; *arg* is the value that will be returned, or ``None``
+      if the event is caused by an exception being raised.  The trace function's
+      return value is ignored.
+
+   ``'exception'``
+      An exception has occurred.  The local trace function is called; *arg* is a
+      tuple ``(exception, value, traceback)``; the return value specifies the
+      new local trace function.
+
+   ``'opcode'``
+      The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see :mod:`dis` for
+      opcode details).  The local trace function is called; *arg* is
+      ``None``; the return value specifies the new local trace function.
+      Per-opcode events are not emitted by default: they must be explicitly
+      requested by setting :attr:`f_trace_opcodes` to :const:`True` on the
+      frame.
+
+   Note that as an exception is propagated down the chain of callers, an
+   ``'exception'`` event is generated at each level.
+
+   For more information on code and frame objects, refer to :ref:`types`.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      The :func:`settrace` function is intended only for implementing debuggers,
+      profilers, coverage tools and the like.  Its behavior is part of the
+      implementation platform, rather than part of the language definition, and
+      thus may not be available in all Python implementations.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+
+      ``'opcode'`` event type added; :attr:`f_trace_lines` and
+      :attr:`f_trace_opcodes` attributes added to frames
+
+.. function:: set_asyncgen_hooks(firstiter, finalizer)
+
+   Accepts two optional keyword arguments which are callables that accept an
+   :term:`asynchronous generator iterator` as an argument. The *firstiter*
+   callable will be called when an asynchronous generator is iterated for the
+   first time. The *finalizer* will be called when an asynchronous generator
+   is about to be garbage collected.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      See :pep:`525` for more details, and for a reference example of a
+      *finalizer* method see the implementation of
+      ``asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens`` in
+      :source:`Lib/asyncio/base_events.py`
+
+   .. note::
+      This function has been added on a provisional basis (see :pep:`411`
+      for details.)
+
+.. function:: set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(depth)
+
+   Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking. When
+   enabled, the ``cr_origin`` attribute on coroutine objects will
+   contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
+   describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
+   with the most recent call first. When disabled, ``cr_origin`` will
+   be None.
+
+   To enable, pass a *depth* value greater than zero; this sets the
+   number of frames whose information will be captured. To disable,
+   pass set *depth* to zero.
+
+   This setting is thread-specific.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. note::
+      This function has been added on a provisional basis (see :pep:`411`
+      for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.
+
+.. function:: set_coroutine_wrapper(wrapper)
+
+   Allows intercepting creation of :term:`coroutine` objects (only ones that
+   are created by an :keyword:`async def` function; generators decorated with
+   :func:`types.coroutine` or :func:`asyncio.coroutine` will not be
+   intercepted).
+
+   The *wrapper* argument must be either:
+
+   * a callable that accepts one argument (a coroutine object);
+   * ``None``, to reset the wrapper.
+
+   If called twice, the new wrapper replaces the previous one.  The function
+   is thread-specific.
+
+   The *wrapper* callable cannot define new coroutines directly or indirectly::
+
+        def wrapper(coro):
+            async def wrap(coro):
+                return await coro
+            return wrap(coro)
+        sys.set_coroutine_wrapper(wrapper)
+
+        async def foo():
+            pass
+
+        # The following line will fail with a RuntimeError, because
+        # ``wrapper`` creates a ``wrap(coro)`` coroutine:
+        foo()
+
+   See also :func:`get_coroutine_wrapper`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      See :pep:`492` for more details.
+
+   .. note::
+      This function has been added on a provisional basis (see :pep:`411`
+      for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.7
+      The coroutine wrapper functionality has been deprecated, and
+      will be removed in 3.8. See :issue:`32591` for details.
+
+.. function:: _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()
+
+   Changes the default filesystem encoding and errors mode to 'mbcs' and
+   'replace' respectively, for consistency with versions of Python prior to 3.6.
+
+   This is equivalent to defining the :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING`
+   environment variable before launching Python.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      See :pep:`529` for more details.
+
+.. data:: stdin
+          stdout
+          stderr
+
+   :term:`File objects <file object>` used by the interpreter for standard
+   input, output and errors:
+
+   * ``stdin`` is used for all interactive input (including calls to
+     :func:`input`);
+   * ``stdout`` is used for the output of :func:`print` and :term:`expression`
+     statements and for the prompts of :func:`input`;
+   * The interpreter's own prompts and its error messages go to ``stderr``.
+
+   These streams are regular :term:`text files <text file>` like those
+   returned by the :func:`open` function.  Their parameters are chosen as
+   follows:
+
+   * The character encoding is platform-dependent.  Non-Windows
+     platforms use the locale encoding (see
+     :meth:`locale.getpreferredencoding()`).
+
+     On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device.  Non-character
+     devices such as disk files and pipes use the system locale
+     encoding (i.e. the ANSI codepage).  Non-console character
+     devices such as NUL (i.e. where isatty() returns True) use the
+     value of the console input and output codepages at startup,
+     respectively for stdin and stdout/stderr. This defaults to the
+     system locale encoding if the process is not initially attached
+     to a console.
+
+     The special behaviour of the console can be overridden
+     by setting the environment variable PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO
+     before starting Python. In that case, the console codepages are
+     used as for any other character device.
+
+     Under all platforms, you can override the character encoding by
+     setting the :envvar:`PYTHONIOENCODING` environment variable before
+     starting Python or by using the new :option:`-X` ``utf8`` command
+     line option and :envvar:`PYTHONUTF8` environment variable.  However,
+     for the Windows console, this only applies when
+     :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO` is also set.
+
+   * When interactive, ``stdout`` and ``stderr`` streams are line-buffered.
+     Otherwise, they are block-buffered like regular text files.  You can
+     override this value with the :option:`-u` command-line option.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      To write or read binary data from/to the standard streams, use the
+      underlying binary :data:`~io.TextIOBase.buffer` object.  For example, to
+      write bytes to :data:`stdout`, use ``sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')``.
+
+      However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in which
+      context its code will be executed), be aware that the standard streams
+      may be replaced with file-like objects like :class:`io.StringIO` which
+      do not support the :attr:`~io.BufferedIOBase.buffer` attribute.
+
+
+.. data:: __stdin__
+          __stdout__
+          __stderr__
+
+   These objects contain the original values of ``stdin``, ``stderr`` and
+   ``stdout`` at the start of the program.  They are used during finalization,
+   and could be useful to print to the actual standard stream no matter if the
+   ``sys.std*`` object has been redirected.
+
+   It can also be used to restore the actual files to known working file objects
+   in case they have been overwritten with a broken object.  However, the
+   preferred way to do this is to explicitly save the previous stream before
+   replacing it, and restore the saved object.
+
+   .. note::
+       Under some conditions ``stdin``, ``stdout`` and ``stderr`` as well as the
+       original values ``__stdin__``, ``__stdout__`` and ``__stderr__`` can be
+       ``None``. It is usually the case for Windows GUI apps that aren't connected
+       to a console and Python apps started with :program:`pythonw`.
+
+
+.. data:: thread_info
+
+   A :term:`struct sequence` holding information about the thread
+   implementation.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|p{0.7\linewidth}|
+
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Attribute        | Explanation                                             |
+   +==================+=========================================================+
+   | :const:`name`    | Name of the thread implementation:                      |
+   |                  |                                                         |
+   |                  |  * ``'nt'``: Windows threads                            |
+   |                  |  * ``'pthread'``: POSIX threads                         |
+   |                  |  * ``'solaris'``: Solaris threads                       |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`lock`    | Name of the lock implementation:                        |
+   |                  |                                                         |
+   |                  |  * ``'semaphore'``: a lock uses a semaphore             |
+   |                  |  * ``'mutex+cond'``: a lock uses a mutex                |
+   |                  |    and a condition variable                             |
+   |                  |  * ``None`` if this information is unknown              |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
+   | :const:`version` | Name and version of the thread library. It is a string, |
+   |                  | or ``None`` if this information is unknown.             |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: tracebacklimit
+
+   When this variable is set to an integer value, it determines the maximum number
+   of levels of traceback information printed when an unhandled exception occurs.
+   The default is ``1000``.  When set to ``0`` or less, all traceback information
+   is suppressed and only the exception type and value are printed.
+
+
+.. data:: version
+
+   A string containing the version number of the Python interpreter plus additional
+   information on the build number and compiler used.  This string is displayed
+   when the interactive interpreter is started.  Do not extract version information
+   out of it, rather, use :data:`version_info` and the functions provided by the
+   :mod:`platform` module.
+
+
+.. data:: api_version
+
+   The C API version for this interpreter.  Programmers may find this useful when
+   debugging version conflicts between Python and extension modules.
+
+
+.. data:: version_info
+
+   A tuple containing the five components of the version number: *major*, *minor*,
+   *micro*, *releaselevel*, and *serial*.  All values except *releaselevel* are
+   integers; the release level is ``'alpha'``, ``'beta'``, ``'candidate'``, or
+   ``'final'``.  The ``version_info`` value corresponding to the Python version 2.0
+   is ``(2, 0, 0, 'final', 0)``.  The components can also be accessed by name,
+   so ``sys.version_info[0]`` is equivalent to ``sys.version_info.major``
+   and so on.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added named component attributes.
+
+.. data:: warnoptions
+
+   This is an implementation detail of the warnings framework; do not modify this
+   value.  Refer to the :mod:`warnings` module for more information on the warnings
+   framework.
+
+
+.. data:: winver
+
+   The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms. This is
+   stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL.  The value is normally the
+   first three characters of :const:`version`.  It is provided in the :mod:`sys`
+   module for informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the
+   registry keys used by Python.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+
+.. data:: _xoptions
+
+   A dictionary of the various implementation-specific flags passed through
+   the :option:`-X` command-line option.  Option names are either mapped to
+   their values, if given explicitly, or to :const:`True`.  Example:
+
+   .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+      $ ./python -Xa=b -Xc
+      Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)
+      [GCC 4.4.3] on linux2
+      Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
+      >>> import sys
+      >>> sys._xoptions
+      {'a': 'b', 'c': True}
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      This is a CPython-specific way of accessing options passed through
+      :option:`-X`.  Other implementations may export them through other
+      means, or not at all.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. rubric:: Citations
+
+.. [C99] ISO/IEC 9899:1999.  "Programming languages -- C."  A public draft of this standard is available at http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf\ .
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sysconfig.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sysconfig.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5a1da8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/sysconfig.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,258 @@
+:mod:`sysconfig` --- Provide access to Python's configuration information
+=========================================================================
+
+.. module:: sysconfig
+   :synopsis: Python's configuration information
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Tarek Ziadé <tarek@ziade.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Tarek Ziadé <tarek@ziade.org>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/sysconfig.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: configuration information
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`sysconfig` module provides access to Python's configuration
+information like the list of installation paths and the configuration variables
+relevant for the current platform.
+
+Configuration variables
+-----------------------
+
+A Python distribution contains a :file:`Makefile` and a :file:`pyconfig.h`
+header file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and
+third-party C extensions compiled using :mod:`distutils`.
+
+:mod:`sysconfig` puts all variables found in these files in a dictionary that
+can be accessed using :func:`get_config_vars` or :func:`get_config_var`.
+
+Notice that on Windows, it's a much smaller set.
+
+.. function:: get_config_vars(\*args)
+
+   With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration variables
+   relevant for the current platform.
+
+   With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up each
+   argument in the configuration variable dictionary.
+
+   For each argument, if the value is not found, return ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_config_var(name)
+
+   Return the value of a single variable *name*. Equivalent to
+   ``get_config_vars().get(name)``.
+
+   If *name* is not found, return ``None``.
+
+Example of usage::
+
+   >>> import sysconfig
+   >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED')
+   0
+   >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR')
+   '/usr/local/lib'
+   >>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX')
+   ['ar', 'g++']
+
+
+Installation paths
+------------------
+
+Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the platform and on
+the installation options.  These schemes are stored in :mod:`sysconfig` under
+unique identifiers based on the value returned by :const:`os.name`.
+
+Every new component that is installed using :mod:`distutils` or a
+Distutils-based system will follow the same scheme to copy its file in the right
+places.
+
+Python currently supports seven schemes:
+
+- *posix_prefix*: scheme for Posix platforms like Linux or Mac OS X.  This is
+  the default scheme used when Python or a component is installed.
+- *posix_home*: scheme for Posix platforms used when a *home* option is used
+  upon installation.  This scheme is used when a component is installed through
+  Distutils with a specific home prefix.
+- *posix_user*: scheme for Posix platforms used when a component is installed
+  through Distutils and the *user* option is used.  This scheme defines paths
+  located under the user home directory.
+- *nt*: scheme for NT platforms like Windows.
+- *nt_user*: scheme for NT platforms, when the *user* option is used.
+
+Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a unique
+identifier.  Python currently uses eight paths:
+
+- *stdlib*: directory containing the standard Python library files that are not
+  platform-specific.
+- *platstdlib*: directory containing the standard Python library files that are
+  platform-specific.
+- *platlib*: directory for site-specific, platform-specific files.
+- *purelib*: directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files.
+- *include*: directory for non-platform-specific header files.
+- *platinclude*: directory for platform-specific header files.
+- *scripts*: directory for script files.
+- *data*: directory for data files.
+
+:mod:`sysconfig` provides some functions to determine these paths.
+
+.. function:: get_scheme_names()
+
+   Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in
+   :mod:`sysconfig`.
+
+
+.. function:: get_path_names()
+
+   Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in
+   :mod:`sysconfig`.
+
+
+.. function:: get_path(name, [scheme, [vars, [expand]]])
+
+   Return an installation path corresponding to the path *name*, from the
+   install scheme named *scheme*.
+
+   *name* has to be a value from the list returned by :func:`get_path_names`.
+
+   :mod:`sysconfig` stores installation paths corresponding to each path name,
+   for each platform, with variables to be expanded.  For instance the *stdlib*
+   path for the *nt* scheme is: ``{base}/Lib``.
+
+   :func:`get_path` will use the variables returned by :func:`get_config_vars`
+   to expand the path.  All variables have default values for each platform so
+   one may call this function and get the default value.
+
+   If *scheme* is provided, it must be a value from the list returned by
+   :func:`get_scheme_names`.  Otherwise, the default scheme for the current
+   platform is used.
+
+   If *vars* is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will update
+   the dictionary return by :func:`get_config_vars`.
+
+   If *expand* is set to ``False``, the path will not be expanded using the
+   variables.
+
+   If *name* is not found, return ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_paths([scheme, [vars, [expand]]])
+
+   Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding to an
+   installation scheme. See :func:`get_path` for more information.
+
+   If *scheme* is not provided, will use the default scheme for the current
+   platform.
+
+   If *vars* is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will
+   update the dictionary used to expand the paths.
+
+   If *expand* is set to false, the paths will not be expanded.
+
+   If *scheme* is not an existing scheme, :func:`get_paths` will raise a
+   :exc:`KeyError`.
+
+
+Other functions
+---------------
+
+.. function:: get_python_version()
+
+   Return the ``MAJOR.MINOR`` Python version number as a string.  Similar to
+   ``'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_platform()
+
+   Return a string that identifies the current platform.
+
+   This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build directories and
+   platform-specific built distributions.  Typically includes the OS name and
+   version and the architecture (as supplied by 'os.uname()'), although the
+   exact information included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel
+   version isn't particularly important.
+
+   Examples of returned values:
+
+   - linux-i586
+   - linux-alpha (?)
+   - solaris-2.6-sun4u
+
+   Windows will return one of:
+
+   - win-amd64 (64bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and EM64T)
+   - win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)
+
+   Mac OS X can return:
+
+   - macosx-10.6-ppc
+   - macosx-10.4-ppc64
+   - macosx-10.3-i386
+   - macosx-10.4-fat
+
+   For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns :data:`sys.platform`.
+
+
+.. function:: is_python_build()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the running Python interpreter was built from source and
+   is being run from its built location, and not from a location resulting from
+   e.g. running ``make install`` or installing via a binary installer.
+
+
+.. function:: parse_config_h(fp[, vars])
+
+   Parse a :file:`config.h`\-style file.
+
+   *fp* is a file-like object pointing to the :file:`config.h`\-like file.
+
+   A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned.  If an optional
+   dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used instead of a new
+   dictionary, and updated with the values read in the file.
+
+
+.. function:: get_config_h_filename()
+
+   Return the path of :file:`pyconfig.h`.
+
+.. function:: get_makefile_filename()
+
+   Return the path of :file:`Makefile`.
+
+Using :mod:`sysconfig` as a script
+----------------------------------
+
+You can use :mod:`sysconfig` as a script with Python's *-m* option:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m sysconfig
+    Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386"
+    Python version: "3.2"
+    Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix"
+
+    Paths:
+            data = "/usr/local"
+            include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include"
+            platinclude = "."
+            platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
+            platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
+            purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
+            scripts = "/usr/local/bin"
+            stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
+
+    Variables:
+            AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0"
+            AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0"
+            AR = "ar"
+            ARFLAGS = "rc"
+            ...
+
+This call will print in the standard output the information returned by
+:func:`get_platform`, :func:`get_python_version`, :func:`get_path` and
+:func:`get_config_vars`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/syslog.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/syslog.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7151527
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/syslog.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+:mod:`syslog` --- Unix syslog library routines
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: syslog
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides an interface to the Unix ``syslog`` library routines.
+Refer to the Unix manual pages for a detailed description of the ``syslog``
+facility.
+
+This module wraps the system ``syslog`` family of routines.  A pure Python
+library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the
+:mod:`logging.handlers` module as :class:`SysLogHandler`.
+
+The module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: syslog(message)
+              syslog(priority, message)
+
+   Send the string *message* to the system logger.  A trailing newline is added
+   if necessary.  Each message is tagged with a priority composed of a
+   *facility* and a *level*.  The optional *priority* argument, which defaults
+   to :const:`LOG_INFO`, determines the message priority.  If the facility is
+   not encoded in *priority* using logical-or (``LOG_INFO | LOG_USER``), the
+   value given in the :func:`openlog` call is used.
+
+   If :func:`openlog` has not been called prior to the call to :func:`syslog`,
+   ``openlog()`` will be called with no arguments.
+
+
+.. function:: openlog([ident[, logoption[, facility]]])
+
+   Logging options of subsequent :func:`syslog` calls can be set by calling
+   :func:`openlog`.  :func:`syslog` will call :func:`openlog` with no arguments
+   if the log is not currently open.
+
+   The optional *ident* keyword argument is a string which is prepended to every
+   message, and defaults to ``sys.argv[0]`` with leading path components
+   stripped.  The optional *logoption* keyword argument (default is 0) is a bit
+   field -- see below for possible values to combine.  The optional *facility*
+   keyword argument (default is :const:`LOG_USER`) sets the default facility for
+   messages which do not have a facility explicitly encoded.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      In previous versions, keyword arguments were not allowed, and *ident* was
+      required.  The default for *ident* was dependent on the system libraries,
+      and often was ``python`` instead of the name of the Python program file.
+
+
+.. function:: closelog()
+
+   Reset the syslog module values and call the system library ``closelog()``.
+
+   This causes the module to behave as it does when initially imported.  For
+   example, :func:`openlog` will be called on the first :func:`syslog` call (if
+   :func:`openlog` hasn't already been called), and *ident* and other
+   :func:`openlog` parameters are reset to defaults.
+
+
+.. function:: setlogmask(maskpri)
+
+   Set the priority mask to *maskpri* and return the previous mask value.  Calls
+   to :func:`syslog` with a priority level not set in *maskpri* are ignored.
+   The default is to log all priorities.  The function ``LOG_MASK(pri)``
+   calculates the mask for the individual priority *pri*.  The function
+   ``LOG_UPTO(pri)`` calculates the mask for all priorities up to and including
+   *pri*.
+
+The module defines the following constants:
+
+Priority levels (high to low):
+   :const:`LOG_EMERG`, :const:`LOG_ALERT`, :const:`LOG_CRIT`, :const:`LOG_ERR`,
+   :const:`LOG_WARNING`, :const:`LOG_NOTICE`, :const:`LOG_INFO`,
+   :const:`LOG_DEBUG`.
+
+Facilities:
+   :const:`LOG_KERN`, :const:`LOG_USER`, :const:`LOG_MAIL`, :const:`LOG_DAEMON`,
+   :const:`LOG_AUTH`, :const:`LOG_LPR`, :const:`LOG_NEWS`, :const:`LOG_UUCP`,
+   :const:`LOG_CRON`, :const:`LOG_SYSLOG`, :const:`LOG_LOCAL0` to
+   :const:`LOG_LOCAL7`, and, if defined in ``<syslog.h>``,
+   :const:`LOG_AUTHPRIV`.
+
+Log options:
+   :const:`LOG_PID`, :const:`LOG_CONS`, :const:`LOG_NDELAY`, and, if defined
+   in ``<syslog.h>``, :const:`LOG_ODELAY`, :const:`LOG_NOWAIT`, and
+   :const:`LOG_PERROR`.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Simple example
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A simple set of examples::
+
+   import syslog
+
+   syslog.syslog('Processing started')
+   if error:
+       syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started')
+
+An example of setting some log options, these would include the process ID in
+logged messages, and write the messages to the destination facility used for
+mail logging::
+
+   syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL)
+   syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tabnanny.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tabnanny.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfe688a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tabnanny.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+:mod:`tabnanny` --- Detection of ambiguous indentation
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: tabnanny
+   :synopsis: Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python
+              source files in a directory tree.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Tim Peters <tim_one@users.sourceforge.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Peter Funk <pf@artcom-gmbh.de>
+
+.. rudimentary documentation based on module comments
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tabnanny.py`
+
+--------------
+
+For the time being this module is intended to be called as a script. However it
+is possible to import it into an IDE and use the function :func:`check`
+described below.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The API provided by this module is likely to change in future releases; such
+   changes may not be backward compatible.
+
+
+.. function:: check(file_or_dir)
+
+   If *file_or_dir* is a directory and not a symbolic link, then recursively
+   descend the directory tree named by *file_or_dir*, checking all :file:`.py`
+   files along the way.  If *file_or_dir* is an ordinary Python source file, it
+   is checked for whitespace related problems.  The diagnostic messages are
+   written to standard output using the :func:`print` function.
+
+
+.. data:: verbose
+
+   Flag indicating whether to print verbose messages. This is incremented by the
+   ``-v`` option if called as a script.
+
+
+.. data:: filename_only
+
+   Flag indicating whether to print only the filenames of files containing
+   whitespace related problems.  This is set to true by the ``-q`` option if called
+   as a script.
+
+
+.. exception:: NannyNag
+
+   Raised by :func:`process_tokens` if detecting an ambiguous indent. Captured and
+   handled in :func:`check`.
+
+
+.. function:: process_tokens(tokens)
+
+   This function is used by :func:`check` to process tokens generated by the
+   :mod:`tokenize` module.
+
+.. XXX document errprint, format_witnesses, Whitespace, check_equal, indents,
+   reset_globals
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`tokenize`
+      Lexical scanner for Python source code.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tarfile.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tarfile.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cd0715
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tarfile.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,877 @@
+:mod:`tarfile` --- Read and write tar archive files
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: tarfile
+   :synopsis: Read and write tar-format archive files.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Lars Gustäbel <lars@gustaebel.de>
+.. sectionauthor:: Lars Gustäbel <lars@gustaebel.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tarfile.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`tarfile` module makes it possible to read and write tar
+archives, including those using gzip, bz2 and lzma compression.
+Use the :mod:`zipfile` module to read or write :file:`.zip` files, or the
+higher-level functions in :ref:`shutil <archiving-operations>`.
+
+Some facts and figures:
+
+* reads and writes :mod:`gzip`, :mod:`bz2` and :mod:`lzma` compressed archives
+  if the respective modules are available.
+
+* read/write support for the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.
+
+* read/write support for the GNU tar format including *longname* and *longlink*
+  extensions, read-only support for all variants of the *sparse* extension
+  including restoration of sparse files.
+
+* read/write support for the POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.
+
+* handles directories, regular files, hardlinks, symbolic links, fifos,
+  character devices and block devices and is able to acquire and restore file
+  information like timestamp, access permissions and owner.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Added support for :mod:`lzma` compression.
+
+
+.. function:: open(name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None, bufsize=10240, \*\*kwargs)
+
+   Return a :class:`TarFile` object for the pathname *name*. For detailed
+   information on :class:`TarFile` objects and the keyword arguments that are
+   allowed, see :ref:`tarfile-objects`.
+
+   *mode* has to be a string of the form ``'filemode[:compression]'``, it defaults
+   to ``'r'``. Here is a full list of mode combinations:
+
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | mode             | action                                      |
+   +==================+=============================================+
+   | ``'r' or 'r:*'`` | Open for reading with transparent           |
+   |                  | compression (recommended).                  |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r:'``         | Open for reading exclusively without        |
+   |                  | compression.                                |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r:gz'``       | Open for reading with gzip compression.     |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r:bz2'``      | Open for reading with bzip2 compression.    |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r:xz'``       | Open for reading with lzma compression.     |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'x'`` or       | Create a tarfile exclusively without        |
+   | ``'x:'``         | compression.                                |
+   |                  | Raise an :exc:`FileExistsError` exception   |
+   |                  | if it already exists.                       |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'x:gz'``       | Create a tarfile with gzip compression.     |
+   |                  | Raise an :exc:`FileExistsError` exception   |
+   |                  | if it already exists.                       |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'x:bz2'``      | Create a tarfile with bzip2 compression.    |
+   |                  | Raise an :exc:`FileExistsError` exception   |
+   |                  | if it already exists.                       |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'x:xz'``       | Create a tarfile with lzma compression.     |
+   |                  | Raise an :exc:`FileExistsError` exception   |
+   |                  | if it already exists.                       |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'a' or 'a:'``  | Open for appending with no compression. The |
+   |                  | file is created if it does not exist.       |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w' or 'w:'``  | Open for uncompressed writing.              |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w:gz'``       | Open for gzip compressed writing.           |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w:bz2'``      | Open for bzip2 compressed writing.          |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w:xz'``       | Open for lzma compressed writing.           |
+   +------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+   Note that ``'a:gz'``, ``'a:bz2'`` or ``'a:xz'`` is not possible. If *mode*
+   is not suitable to open a certain (compressed) file for reading,
+   :exc:`ReadError` is raised. Use *mode* ``'r'`` to avoid this.  If a
+   compression method is not supported, :exc:`CompressionError` is raised.
+
+   If *fileobj* is specified, it is used as an alternative to a :term:`file object`
+   opened in binary mode for *name*. It is supposed to be at position 0.
+
+   For modes ``'w:gz'``, ``'r:gz'``, ``'w:bz2'``, ``'r:bz2'``, ``'x:gz'``,
+   ``'x:bz2'``, :func:`tarfile.open` accepts the keyword argument
+   *compresslevel* (default ``9``) to specify the compression level of the file.
+
+   For special purposes, there is a second format for *mode*:
+   ``'filemode|[compression]'``.  :func:`tarfile.open` will return a :class:`TarFile`
+   object that processes its data as a stream of blocks.  No random seeking will
+   be done on the file. If given, *fileobj* may be any object that has a
+   :meth:`read` or :meth:`write` method (depending on the *mode*). *bufsize*
+   specifies the blocksize and defaults to ``20 * 512`` bytes. Use this variant
+   in combination with e.g. ``sys.stdin``, a socket :term:`file object` or a tape
+   device. However, such a :class:`TarFile` object is limited in that it does
+   not allow random access, see :ref:`tar-examples`.  The currently
+   possible modes:
+
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | Mode        | Action                                     |
+   +=============+============================================+
+   | ``'r|*'``   | Open a *stream* of tar blocks for reading  |
+   |             | with transparent compression.              |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r|'``    | Open a *stream* of uncompressed tar blocks |
+   |             | for reading.                               |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r|gz'``  | Open a gzip compressed *stream* for        |
+   |             | reading.                                   |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r|bz2'`` | Open a bzip2 compressed *stream* for       |
+   |             | reading.                                   |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'r|xz'``  | Open an lzma compressed *stream* for       |
+   |             | reading.                                   |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w|'``    | Open an uncompressed *stream* for writing. |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w|gz'``  | Open a gzip compressed *stream* for        |
+   |             | writing.                                   |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w|bz2'`` | Open a bzip2 compressed *stream* for       |
+   |             | writing.                                   |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``'w|xz'``  | Open an lzma compressed *stream* for       |
+   |             | writing.                                   |
+   +-------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The ``'x'`` (exclusive creation) mode was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *name* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. class:: TarFile
+
+   Class for reading and writing tar archives. Do not use this class directly:
+   use :func:`tarfile.open` instead. See :ref:`tarfile-objects`.
+
+
+.. function:: is_tarfile(name)
+
+   Return :const:`True` if *name* is a tar archive file, that the :mod:`tarfile`
+   module can read.
+
+
+The :mod:`tarfile` module defines the following exceptions:
+
+
+.. exception:: TarError
+
+   Base class for all :mod:`tarfile` exceptions.
+
+
+.. exception:: ReadError
+
+   Is raised when a tar archive is opened, that either cannot be handled by the
+   :mod:`tarfile` module or is somehow invalid.
+
+
+.. exception:: CompressionError
+
+   Is raised when a compression method is not supported or when the data cannot be
+   decoded properly.
+
+
+.. exception:: StreamError
+
+   Is raised for the limitations that are typical for stream-like :class:`TarFile`
+   objects.
+
+
+.. exception:: ExtractError
+
+   Is raised for *non-fatal* errors when using :meth:`TarFile.extract`, but only if
+   :attr:`TarFile.errorlevel`\ ``== 2``.
+
+
+.. exception:: HeaderError
+
+   Is raised by :meth:`TarInfo.frombuf` if the buffer it gets is invalid.
+
+
+The following constants are available at the module level:
+
+.. data:: ENCODING
+
+   The default character encoding: ``'utf-8'`` on Windows, the value returned by
+   :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` otherwise.
+
+
+Each of the following constants defines a tar archive format that the
+:mod:`tarfile` module is able to create. See section :ref:`tar-formats` for
+details.
+
+
+.. data:: USTAR_FORMAT
+
+   POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.
+
+
+.. data:: GNU_FORMAT
+
+   GNU tar format.
+
+
+.. data:: PAX_FORMAT
+
+   POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.
+
+
+.. data:: DEFAULT_FORMAT
+
+   The default format for creating archives. This is currently :const:`GNU_FORMAT`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`zipfile`
+      Documentation of the :mod:`zipfile` standard module.
+
+   :ref:`archiving-operations`
+      Documentation of the higher-level archiving facilities provided by the
+      standard :mod:`shutil` module.
+
+   `GNU tar manual, Basic Tar Format <https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html>`_
+      Documentation for tar archive files, including GNU tar extensions.
+
+
+.. _tarfile-objects:
+
+TarFile Objects
+---------------
+
+The :class:`TarFile` object provides an interface to a tar archive. A tar
+archive is a sequence of blocks. An archive member (a stored file) is made up of
+a header block followed by data blocks. It is possible to store a file in a tar
+archive several times. Each archive member is represented by a :class:`TarInfo`
+object, see :ref:`tarinfo-objects` for details.
+
+A :class:`TarFile` object can be used as a context manager in a :keyword:`with`
+statement. It will automatically be closed when the block is completed. Please
+note that in the event of an exception an archive opened for writing will not
+be finalized; only the internally used file object will be closed. See the
+:ref:`tar-examples` section for a use case.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+   Added support for the context management protocol.
+
+.. class:: TarFile(name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None, format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, tarinfo=TarInfo, dereference=False, ignore_zeros=False, encoding=ENCODING, errors='surrogateescape', pax_headers=None, debug=0, errorlevel=0)
+
+   All following arguments are optional and can be accessed as instance attributes
+   as well.
+
+   *name* is the pathname of the archive. *name* may be a :term:`path-like object`.
+   It can be omitted if *fileobj* is given.
+   In this case, the file object's :attr:`name` attribute is used if it exists.
+
+   *mode* is either ``'r'`` to read from an existing archive, ``'a'`` to append
+   data to an existing file, ``'w'`` to create a new file overwriting an existing
+   one, or ``'x'`` to create a new file only if it does not already exist.
+
+   If *fileobj* is given, it is used for reading or writing data. If it can be
+   determined, *mode* is overridden by *fileobj*'s mode. *fileobj* will be used
+   from position 0.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      *fileobj* is not closed, when :class:`TarFile` is closed.
+
+   *format* controls the archive format. It must be one of the constants
+   :const:`USTAR_FORMAT`, :const:`GNU_FORMAT` or :const:`PAX_FORMAT` that are
+   defined at module level.
+
+   The *tarinfo* argument can be used to replace the default :class:`TarInfo` class
+   with a different one.
+
+   If *dereference* is :const:`False`, add symbolic and hard links to the archive. If it
+   is :const:`True`, add the content of the target files to the archive. This has no
+   effect on systems that do not support symbolic links.
+
+   If *ignore_zeros* is :const:`False`, treat an empty block as the end of the archive.
+   If it is :const:`True`, skip empty (and invalid) blocks and try to get as many members
+   as possible. This is only useful for reading concatenated or damaged archives.
+
+   *debug* can be set from ``0`` (no debug messages) up to ``3`` (all debug
+   messages). The messages are written to ``sys.stderr``.
+
+   If *errorlevel* is ``0``, all errors are ignored when using :meth:`TarFile.extract`.
+   Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output, when debugging
+   is enabled.  If ``1``, all *fatal* errors are raised as :exc:`OSError`
+   exceptions. If ``2``, all *non-fatal* errors are raised as :exc:`TarError`
+   exceptions as well.
+
+   The *encoding* and *errors* arguments define the character encoding to be
+   used for reading or writing the archive and how conversion errors are going
+   to be handled. The default settings will work for most users.
+   See section :ref:`tar-unicode` for in-depth information.
+
+   The *pax_headers* argument is an optional dictionary of strings which
+   will be added as a pax global header if *format* is :const:`PAX_FORMAT`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Use ``'surrogateescape'`` as the default for the *errors* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The ``'x'`` (exclusive creation) mode was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *name* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: TarFile.open(...)
+
+   Alternative constructor. The :func:`tarfile.open` function is actually a
+   shortcut to this classmethod.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.getmember(name)
+
+   Return a :class:`TarInfo` object for member *name*. If *name* can not be found
+   in the archive, :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If a member occurs more than once in the archive, its last occurrence is assumed
+      to be the most up-to-date version.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.getmembers()
+
+   Return the members of the archive as a list of :class:`TarInfo` objects. The
+   list has the same order as the members in the archive.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.getnames()
+
+   Return the members as a list of their names. It has the same order as the list
+   returned by :meth:`getmembers`.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.list(verbose=True, *, members=None)
+
+   Print a table of contents to ``sys.stdout``. If *verbose* is :const:`False`,
+   only the names of the members are printed. If it is :const:`True`, output
+   similar to that of :program:`ls -l` is produced. If optional *members* is
+   given, it must be a subset of the list returned by :meth:`getmembers`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the *members* parameter.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.next()
+
+   Return the next member of the archive as a :class:`TarInfo` object, when
+   :class:`TarFile` is opened for reading. Return :const:`None` if there is no more
+   available.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.extractall(path=".", members=None, *, numeric_owner=False)
+
+   Extract all members from the archive to the current working directory or
+   directory *path*. If optional *members* is given, it must be a subset of the
+   list returned by :meth:`getmembers`. Directory information like owner,
+   modification time and permissions are set after all members have been extracted.
+   This is done to work around two problems: A directory's modification time is
+   reset each time a file is created in it. And, if a directory's permissions do
+   not allow writing, extracting files to it will fail.
+
+   If *numeric_owner* is :const:`True`, the uid and gid numbers from the tarfile
+   are used to set the owner/group for the extracted files. Otherwise, the named
+   values from the tarfile are used.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection.
+      It is possible that files are created outside of *path*, e.g. members
+      that have absolute filenames starting with ``"/"`` or filenames with two
+      dots ``".."``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the *numeric_owner* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *path* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.extract(member, path="", set_attrs=True, *, numeric_owner=False)
+
+   Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory, using its
+   full name. Its file information is extracted as accurately as possible. *member*
+   may be a filename or a :class:`TarInfo` object. You can specify a different
+   directory using *path*. *path* may be a :term:`path-like object`.
+   File attributes (owner, mtime, mode) are set unless *set_attrs* is false.
+
+   If *numeric_owner* is :const:`True`, the uid and gid numbers from the tarfile
+   are used to set the owner/group for the extracted files. Otherwise, the named
+   values from the tarfile are used.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :meth:`extract` method does not take care of several extraction issues.
+      In most cases you should consider using the :meth:`extractall` method.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      See the warning for :meth:`extractall`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the *set_attrs* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the *numeric_owner* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *path* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.extractfile(member)
+
+   Extract a member from the archive as a file object. *member* may be a filename
+   or a :class:`TarInfo` object. If *member* is a regular file or a link, an
+   :class:`io.BufferedReader` object is returned. Otherwise, :const:`None` is
+   returned.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Return an :class:`io.BufferedReader` object.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.add(name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *, filter=None)
+
+   Add the file *name* to the archive. *name* may be any type of file
+   (directory, fifo, symbolic link, etc.). If given, *arcname* specifies an
+   alternative name for the file in the archive. Directories are added
+   recursively by default. This can be avoided by setting *recursive* to
+   :const:`False`. Recursion adds entries in sorted order.
+   If *filter* is given, it
+   should be a function that takes a :class:`TarInfo` object argument and
+   returns the changed :class:`TarInfo` object. If it instead returns
+   :const:`None` the :class:`TarInfo` object will be excluded from the
+   archive. See :ref:`tar-examples` for an example.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the *filter* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Recursion adds entries in sorted order.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.addfile(tarinfo, fileobj=None)
+
+   Add the :class:`TarInfo` object *tarinfo* to the archive. If *fileobj* is given,
+   it should be a :term:`binary file`, and
+   ``tarinfo.size`` bytes are read from it and added to the archive.  You can
+   create :class:`TarInfo` objects directly, or by using :meth:`gettarinfo`.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.gettarinfo(name=None, arcname=None, fileobj=None)
+
+   Create a :class:`TarInfo` object from the result of :func:`os.stat` or
+   equivalent on an existing file.  The file is either named by *name*, or
+   specified as a :term:`file object` *fileobj* with a file descriptor.
+   *name* may be a :term:`path-like object`.  If
+   given, *arcname* specifies an alternative name for the file in the
+   archive, otherwise, the name is taken from *fileobj*’s
+   :attr:`~io.FileIO.name` attribute, or the *name* argument.  The name
+   should be a text string.
+
+   You can modify
+   some of the :class:`TarInfo`’s attributes before you add it using :meth:`addfile`.
+   If the file object is not an ordinary file object positioned at the
+   beginning of the file, attributes such as :attr:`~TarInfo.size` may need
+   modifying.  This is the case for objects such as :class:`~gzip.GzipFile`.
+   The :attr:`~TarInfo.name` may also be modified, in which case *arcname*
+   could be a dummy string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The *name* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: TarFile.close()
+
+   Close the :class:`TarFile`. In write mode, two finishing zero blocks are
+   appended to the archive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarFile.pax_headers
+
+   A dictionary containing key-value pairs of pax global headers.
+
+
+
+.. _tarinfo-objects:
+
+TarInfo Objects
+---------------
+
+A :class:`TarInfo` object represents one member in a :class:`TarFile`. Aside
+from storing all required attributes of a file (like file type, size, time,
+permissions, owner etc.), it provides some useful methods to determine its type.
+It does *not* contain the file's data itself.
+
+:class:`TarInfo` objects are returned by :class:`TarFile`'s methods
+:meth:`getmember`, :meth:`getmembers` and :meth:`gettarinfo`.
+
+
+.. class:: TarInfo(name="")
+
+   Create a :class:`TarInfo` object.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: TarInfo.frombuf(buf, encoding, errors)
+
+   Create and return a :class:`TarInfo` object from string buffer *buf*.
+
+   Raises :exc:`HeaderError` if the buffer is invalid.
+
+
+.. classmethod:: TarInfo.fromtarfile(tarfile)
+
+   Read the next member from the :class:`TarFile` object *tarfile* and return it as
+   a :class:`TarInfo` object.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.tobuf(format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, encoding=ENCODING, errors='surrogateescape')
+
+   Create a string buffer from a :class:`TarInfo` object. For information on the
+   arguments see the constructor of the :class:`TarFile` class.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Use ``'surrogateescape'`` as the default for the *errors* argument.
+
+
+A ``TarInfo`` object has the following public data attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.name
+
+   Name of the archive member.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.size
+
+   Size in bytes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.mtime
+
+   Time of last modification.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.mode
+
+   Permission bits.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.type
+
+   File type.  *type* is usually one of these constants: :const:`REGTYPE`,
+   :const:`AREGTYPE`, :const:`LNKTYPE`, :const:`SYMTYPE`, :const:`DIRTYPE`,
+   :const:`FIFOTYPE`, :const:`CONTTYPE`, :const:`CHRTYPE`, :const:`BLKTYPE`,
+   :const:`GNUTYPE_SPARSE`.  To determine the type of a :class:`TarInfo` object
+   more conveniently, use the ``is*()`` methods below.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.linkname
+
+   Name of the target file name, which is only present in :class:`TarInfo` objects
+   of type :const:`LNKTYPE` and :const:`SYMTYPE`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.uid
+
+   User ID of the user who originally stored this member.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.gid
+
+   Group ID of the user who originally stored this member.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.uname
+
+   User name.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.gname
+
+   Group name.
+
+
+.. attribute:: TarInfo.pax_headers
+
+   A dictionary containing key-value pairs of an associated pax extended header.
+
+
+A :class:`TarInfo` object also provides some convenient query methods:
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.isfile()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if the :class:`Tarinfo` object is a regular file.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.isreg()
+
+   Same as :meth:`isfile`.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.isdir()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if it is a directory.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.issym()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if it is a symbolic link.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.islnk()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if it is a hard link.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.ischr()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if it is a character device.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.isblk()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if it is a block device.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.isfifo()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if it is a FIFO.
+
+
+.. method:: TarInfo.isdev()
+
+   Return :const:`True` if it is one of character device, block device or FIFO.
+
+
+.. _tarfile-commandline:
+.. program:: tarfile
+
+Command-Line Interface
+----------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+The :mod:`tarfile` module provides a simple command-line interface to interact
+with tar archives.
+
+If you want to create a new tar archive, specify its name after the :option:`-c`
+option and then list the filename(s) that should be included:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt
+
+Passing a directory is also acceptable:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/
+
+If you want to extract a tar archive into the current directory, use
+the :option:`-e` option:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar
+
+You can also extract a tar archive into a different directory by passing the
+directory's name:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/
+
+For a list of the files in a tar archive, use the :option:`-l` option:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m tarfile -l monty.tar
+
+
+Command-line options
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. cmdoption:: -l <tarfile>
+               --list <tarfile>
+
+   List files in a tarfile.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -c <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
+               --create <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
+
+   Create tarfile from source files.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -e <tarfile> [<output_dir>]
+               --extract <tarfile> [<output_dir>]
+
+   Extract tarfile into the current directory if *output_dir* is not specified.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -t <tarfile>
+               --test <tarfile>
+
+   Test whether the tarfile is valid or not.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -v, --verbose
+
+   Verbose output.
+
+.. _tar-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+How to extract an entire tar archive to the current working directory::
+
+   import tarfile
+   tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
+   tar.extractall()
+   tar.close()
+
+How to extract a subset of a tar archive with :meth:`TarFile.extractall` using
+a generator function instead of a list::
+
+   import os
+   import tarfile
+
+   def py_files(members):
+       for tarinfo in members:
+           if os.path.splitext(tarinfo.name)[1] == ".py":
+               yield tarinfo
+
+   tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
+   tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
+   tar.close()
+
+How to create an uncompressed tar archive from a list of filenames::
+
+   import tarfile
+   tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w")
+   for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
+       tar.add(name)
+   tar.close()
+
+The same example using the :keyword:`with` statement::
+
+    import tarfile
+    with tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w") as tar:
+        for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
+            tar.add(name)
+
+How to read a gzip compressed tar archive and display some member information::
+
+   import tarfile
+   tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
+   for tarinfo in tar:
+       print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is", end="")
+       if tarinfo.isreg():
+           print("a regular file.")
+       elif tarinfo.isdir():
+           print("a directory.")
+       else:
+           print("something else.")
+   tar.close()
+
+How to create an archive and reset the user information using the *filter*
+parameter in :meth:`TarFile.add`::
+
+    import tarfile
+    def reset(tarinfo):
+        tarinfo.uid = tarinfo.gid = 0
+        tarinfo.uname = tarinfo.gname = "root"
+        return tarinfo
+    tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w:gz")
+    tar.add("foo", filter=reset)
+    tar.close()
+
+
+.. _tar-formats:
+
+Supported tar formats
+---------------------
+
+There are three tar formats that can be created with the :mod:`tarfile` module:
+
+* The POSIX.1-1988 ustar format (:const:`USTAR_FORMAT`). It supports filenames
+  up to a length of at best 256 characters and linknames up to 100 characters. The
+  maximum file size is 8 GiB. This is an old and limited but widely
+  supported format.
+
+* The GNU tar format (:const:`GNU_FORMAT`). It supports long filenames and
+  linknames, files bigger than 8 GiB and sparse files. It is the de facto
+  standard on GNU/Linux systems. :mod:`tarfile` fully supports the GNU tar
+  extensions for long names, sparse file support is read-only.
+
+* The POSIX.1-2001 pax format (:const:`PAX_FORMAT`). It is the most flexible
+  format with virtually no limits. It supports long filenames and linknames, large
+  files and stores pathnames in a portable way. However, not all tar
+  implementations today are able to handle pax archives properly.
+
+  The *pax* format is an extension to the existing *ustar* format. It uses extra
+  headers for information that cannot be stored otherwise. There are two flavours
+  of pax headers: Extended headers only affect the subsequent file header, global
+  headers are valid for the complete archive and affect all following files. All
+  the data in a pax header is encoded in *UTF-8* for portability reasons.
+
+There are some more variants of the tar format which can be read, but not
+created:
+
+* The ancient V7 format. This is the first tar format from Unix Seventh Edition,
+  storing only regular files and directories. Names must not be longer than 100
+  characters, there is no user/group name information. Some archives have
+  miscalculated header checksums in case of fields with non-ASCII characters.
+
+* The SunOS tar extended format. This format is a variant of the POSIX.1-2001
+  pax format, but is not compatible.
+
+.. _tar-unicode:
+
+Unicode issues
+--------------
+
+The tar format was originally conceived to make backups on tape drives with the
+main focus on preserving file system information. Nowadays tar archives are
+commonly used for file distribution and exchanging archives over networks. One
+problem of the original format (which is the basis of all other formats) is
+that there is no concept of supporting different character encodings. For
+example, an ordinary tar archive created on a *UTF-8* system cannot be read
+correctly on a *Latin-1* system if it contains non-*ASCII* characters. Textual
+metadata (like filenames, linknames, user/group names) will appear damaged.
+Unfortunately, there is no way to autodetect the encoding of an archive. The
+pax format was designed to solve this problem. It stores non-ASCII metadata
+using the universal character encoding *UTF-8*.
+
+The details of character conversion in :mod:`tarfile` are controlled by the
+*encoding* and *errors* keyword arguments of the :class:`TarFile` class.
+
+*encoding* defines the character encoding to use for the metadata in the
+archive. The default value is :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` or ``'ascii'``
+as a fallback. Depending on whether the archive is read or written, the
+metadata must be either decoded or encoded. If *encoding* is not set
+appropriately, this conversion may fail.
+
+The *errors* argument defines how characters are treated that cannot be
+converted. Possible values are listed in section :ref:`error-handlers`.
+The default scheme is ``'surrogateescape'`` which Python also uses for its
+file system calls, see :ref:`os-filenames`.
+
+In case of :const:`PAX_FORMAT` archives, *encoding* is generally not needed
+because all the metadata is stored using *UTF-8*. *encoding* is only used in
+the rare cases when binary pax headers are decoded or when strings with
+surrogate characters are stored.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/telnetlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/telnetlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ba4264
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/telnetlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,252 @@
+:mod:`telnetlib` --- Telnet client
+==================================
+
+.. module:: telnetlib
+   :synopsis: Telnet client class.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@pobox.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/telnetlib.py`
+
+.. index:: single: protocol; Telnet
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`telnetlib` module provides a :class:`Telnet` class that implements the
+Telnet protocol.  See :rfc:`854` for details about the protocol. In addition, it
+provides symbolic constants for the protocol characters (see below), and for the
+telnet options. The symbolic names of the telnet options follow the definitions
+in ``arpa/telnet.h``, with the leading ``TELOPT_`` removed. For symbolic names
+of options which are traditionally not included in ``arpa/telnet.h``, see the
+module source itself.
+
+The symbolic constants for the telnet commands are: IAC, DONT, DO, WONT, WILL,
+SE (Subnegotiation End), NOP (No Operation), DM (Data Mark), BRK (Break), IP
+(Interrupt process), AO (Abort output), AYT (Are You There), EC (Erase
+Character), EL (Erase Line), GA (Go Ahead), SB (Subnegotiation Begin).
+
+
+.. class:: Telnet(host=None, port=0[, timeout])
+
+   :class:`Telnet` represents a connection to a Telnet server. The instance is
+   initially not connected by default; the :meth:`open` method must be used to
+   establish a connection.  Alternatively, the host name and optional port
+   number can be passed to the constructor too, in which case the connection to
+   the server will be established before the constructor returns.  The optional
+   *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations
+   like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout
+   setting will be used).
+
+   Do not reopen an already connected instance.
+
+   This class has many :meth:`read_\*` methods.  Note that some of them  raise
+   :exc:`EOFError` when the end of the connection is read, because they can return
+   an empty string for other reasons.  See the individual descriptions below.
+
+   A :class:`Telnet` object is a context manager and can be used in a
+   :keyword:`with` statement.  When the :keyword:`!with` block ends, the
+   :meth:`close` method is called::
+
+       >>> from telnetlib import Telnet
+       >>> with Telnet('localhost', 23) as tn:
+       ...     tn.interact()
+       ...
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6 Context manager support added
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :rfc:`854` - Telnet Protocol Specification
+      Definition of the Telnet protocol.
+
+
+.. _telnet-objects:
+
+Telnet Objects
+--------------
+
+:class:`Telnet` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_until(expected, timeout=None)
+
+   Read until a given byte string, *expected*, is encountered or until *timeout*
+   seconds have passed.
+
+   When no match is found, return whatever is available instead, possibly empty
+   bytes.  Raise :exc:`EOFError` if the connection is closed and no cooked data
+   is available.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_all()
+
+   Read all data until EOF as bytes; block until connection closed.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_some()
+
+   Read at least one byte of cooked data unless EOF is hit. Return ``b''`` if
+   EOF is hit.  Block if no data is immediately available.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_very_eager()
+
+   Read everything that can be without blocking in I/O (eager).
+
+   Raise :exc:`EOFError` if connection closed and no cooked data available.
+   Return ``b''`` if no cooked data available otherwise. Do not block unless in
+   the midst of an IAC sequence.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_eager()
+
+   Read readily available data.
+
+   Raise :exc:`EOFError` if connection closed and no cooked data available.
+   Return ``b''`` if no cooked data available otherwise. Do not block unless in
+   the midst of an IAC sequence.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_lazy()
+
+   Process and return data already in the queues (lazy).
+
+   Raise :exc:`EOFError` if connection closed and no data available. Return
+   ``b''`` if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do not block unless in the
+   midst of an IAC sequence.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_very_lazy()
+
+   Return any data available in the cooked queue (very lazy).
+
+   Raise :exc:`EOFError` if connection closed and no data available. Return
+   ``b''`` if no cooked data available otherwise.  This method never blocks.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.read_sb_data()
+
+   Return the data collected between a SB/SE pair (suboption begin/end). The
+   callback should access these data when it was invoked with a ``SE`` command.
+   This method never blocks.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.open(host, port=0[, timeout])
+
+   Connect to a host. The optional second argument is the port number, which
+   defaults to the standard Telnet port (23). The optional *timeout* parameter
+   specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection
+   attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used).
+
+   Do not try to reopen an already connected instance.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.msg(msg, *args)
+
+   Print a debug message when the debug level is ``>`` 0. If extra arguments are
+   present, they are substituted in the message using the standard string
+   formatting operator.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.set_debuglevel(debuglevel)
+
+   Set the debug level.  The higher the value of *debuglevel*, the more debug
+   output you get (on ``sys.stdout``).
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.close()
+
+   Close the connection.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.get_socket()
+
+   Return the socket object used internally.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.fileno()
+
+   Return the file descriptor of the socket object used internally.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.write(buffer)
+
+   Write a byte string to the socket, doubling any IAC characters. This can
+   block if the connection is blocked.  May raise :exc:`OSError` if the
+   connection is closed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      This method used to raise :exc:`socket.error`, which is now an alias
+      of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.interact()
+
+   Interaction function, emulates a very dumb Telnet client.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.mt_interact()
+
+   Multithreaded version of :meth:`interact`.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.expect(list, timeout=None)
+
+   Read until one from a list of a regular expressions matches.
+
+   The first argument is a list of regular expressions, either compiled
+   (:ref:`regex objects <re-objects>`) or uncompiled (byte strings). The
+   optional second argument is a timeout, in seconds; the default is to block
+   indefinitely.
+
+   Return a tuple of three items: the index in the list of the first regular
+   expression that matches; the match object returned; and the bytes read up
+   till and including the match.
+
+   If end of file is found and no bytes were read, raise :exc:`EOFError`.
+   Otherwise, when nothing matches, return ``(-1, None, data)`` where *data* is
+   the bytes received so far (may be empty bytes if a timeout happened).
+
+   If a regular expression ends with a greedy match (such as ``.*``) or if more
+   than one expression can match the same input, the results are
+   non-deterministic, and may depend on the I/O timing.
+
+
+.. method:: Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback(callback)
+
+   Each time a telnet option is read on the input flow, this *callback* (if set) is
+   called with the following parameters: callback(telnet socket, command
+   (DO/DONT/WILL/WONT), option).  No other action is done afterwards by telnetlib.
+
+
+.. _telnet-example:
+
+Telnet Example
+--------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Peter Funk <pf@artcom-gmbh.de>
+
+
+A simple example illustrating typical use::
+
+   import getpass
+   import telnetlib
+
+   HOST = "localhost"
+   user = input("Enter your remote account: ")
+   password = getpass.getpass()
+
+   tn = telnetlib.Telnet(HOST)
+
+   tn.read_until(b"login: ")
+   tn.write(user.encode('ascii') + b"\n")
+   if password:
+       tn.read_until(b"Password: ")
+       tn.write(password.encode('ascii') + b"\n")
+
+   tn.write(b"ls\n")
+   tn.write(b"exit\n")
+
+   print(tn.read_all().decode('ascii'))
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tempfile.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tempfile.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..746adb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tempfile.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,333 @@
+:mod:`tempfile` --- Generate temporary files and directories
+============================================================
+
+.. module:: tempfile
+   :synopsis: Generate temporary files and directories.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Zack Weinberg <zack@codesourcery.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tempfile.py`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: temporary; file name
+   pair: temporary; file
+
+--------------
+
+This module creates temporary files and directories.  It works on all
+supported platforms. :class:`TemporaryFile`, :class:`NamedTemporaryFile`,
+:class:`TemporaryDirectory`, and :class:`SpooledTemporaryFile` are high-level
+interfaces which provide automatic cleanup and can be used as
+context managers. :func:`mkstemp` and
+:func:`mkdtemp` are lower-level functions which require manual cleanup.
+
+All the user-callable functions and constructors take additional arguments which
+allow direct control over the location and name of temporary files and
+directories. Files names used by this module include a string of
+random characters which allows those files to be securely created in
+shared temporary directories.
+To maintain backward compatibility, the argument order is somewhat odd; it
+is recommended to use keyword arguments for clarity.
+
+The module defines the following user-callable items:
+
+.. function:: TemporaryFile(mode='w+b', buffering=None, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)
+
+   Return a :term:`file-like object` that can be used as a temporary storage area.
+   The file is created securely, using the same rules as :func:`mkstemp`. It will be destroyed as soon
+   as it is closed (including an implicit close when the object is garbage
+   collected).  Under Unix, the directory entry for the file is either not created at all or is removed
+   immediately after the file is created.  Other platforms do not support
+   this; your code should not rely on a temporary file created using this
+   function having or not having a visible name in the file system.
+
+   The resulting object can be used as a context manager (see
+   :ref:`tempfile-examples`).  On completion of the context or
+   destruction of the file object the temporary file will be removed
+   from the filesystem.
+
+   The *mode* parameter defaults to ``'w+b'`` so that the file created can
+   be read and written without being closed.  Binary mode is used so that it
+   behaves consistently on all platforms without regard for the data that is
+   stored.  *buffering*, *encoding* and *newline* are interpreted as for
+   :func:`open`.
+
+   The *dir*, *prefix* and *suffix* parameters have the same meaning and
+   defaults as with :func:`mkstemp`.
+
+   The returned object is a true file object on POSIX platforms.  On other
+   platforms, it is a file-like object whose :attr:`!file` attribute is the
+   underlying true file object.
+
+   The :py:data:`os.O_TMPFILE` flag is used if it is available and works
+   (Linux-specific, requires Linux kernel 3.11 or later).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+      The :py:data:`os.O_TMPFILE` flag is now used if available.
+
+
+.. function:: NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w+b', buffering=None, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None, delete=True)
+
+   This function operates exactly as :func:`TemporaryFile` does, except that
+   the file is guaranteed to have a visible name in the file system (on
+   Unix, the directory entry is not unlinked).  That name can be retrieved
+   from the :attr:`name` attribute of the returned
+   file-like object.  Whether the name can be
+   used to open the file a second time, while the named temporary file is
+   still open, varies across platforms (it can be so used on Unix; it cannot
+   on Windows NT or later).  If *delete* is true (the default), the file is
+   deleted as soon as it is closed.
+   The returned object is always a file-like object whose :attr:`!file`
+   attribute is the underlying true file object. This file-like object can
+   be used in a :keyword:`with` statement, just like a normal file.
+
+
+.. function:: SpooledTemporaryFile(max_size=0, mode='w+b', buffering=None, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)
+
+   This function operates exactly as :func:`TemporaryFile` does, except that
+   data is spooled in memory until the file size exceeds *max_size*, or
+   until the file's :func:`fileno` method is called, at which point the
+   contents are written to disk and operation proceeds as with
+   :func:`TemporaryFile`.
+
+   The resulting file has one additional method, :func:`rollover`, which
+   causes the file to roll over to an on-disk file regardless of its size.
+
+   The returned object is a file-like object whose :attr:`_file` attribute
+   is either an :class:`io.BytesIO` or :class:`io.StringIO` object (depending on
+   whether binary or text *mode* was specified) or a true file
+   object, depending on whether :func:`rollover` has been called.  This
+   file-like object can be used in a :keyword:`with` statement, just like
+   a normal file.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      the truncate method now accepts a ``size`` argument.
+
+
+.. function:: TemporaryDirectory(suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)
+
+   This function securely creates a temporary directory using the same rules as :func:`mkdtemp`.
+   The resulting object can be used as a context manager (see
+   :ref:`tempfile-examples`).  On completion of the context or destruction
+   of the temporary directory object the newly created temporary directory
+   and all its contents are removed from the filesystem.
+
+   The directory name can be retrieved from the :attr:`name` attribute of the
+   returned object.  When the returned object is used as a context manager, the
+   :attr:`name` will be assigned to the target of the :keyword:`!as` clause in
+   the :keyword:`with` statement, if there is one.
+
+   The directory can be explicitly cleaned up by calling the
+   :func:`cleanup` method.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: mkstemp(suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None, text=False)
+
+   Creates a temporary file in the most secure manner possible.  There are
+   no race conditions in the file's creation, assuming that the platform
+   properly implements the :const:`os.O_EXCL` flag for :func:`os.open`.  The
+   file is readable and writable only by the creating user ID.  If the
+   platform uses permission bits to indicate whether a file is executable,
+   the file is executable by no one.  The file descriptor is not inherited
+   by child processes.
+
+   Unlike :func:`TemporaryFile`, the user of :func:`mkstemp` is responsible
+   for deleting the temporary file when done with it.
+
+   If *suffix* is not ``None``, the file name will end with that suffix,
+   otherwise there will be no suffix.  :func:`mkstemp` does not put a dot
+   between the file name and the suffix; if you need one, put it at the
+   beginning of *suffix*.
+
+   If *prefix* is not ``None``, the file name will begin with that prefix;
+   otherwise, a default prefix is used.  The default is the return value of
+   :func:`gettempprefix` or :func:`gettempprefixb`, as appropriate.
+
+   If *dir* is not ``None``, the file will be created in that directory;
+   otherwise, a default directory is used.  The default directory is chosen
+   from a platform-dependent list, but the user of the application can
+   control the directory location by setting the *TMPDIR*, *TEMP* or *TMP*
+   environment variables.  There is thus no guarantee that the generated
+   filename will have any nice properties, such as not requiring quoting
+   when passed to external commands via ``os.popen()``.
+
+   If any of *suffix*, *prefix*, and *dir* are not
+   ``None``, they must be the same type.
+   If they are bytes, the returned name will be bytes instead of str.
+   If you want to force a bytes return value with otherwise default behavior,
+   pass ``suffix=b''``.
+
+   If *text* is specified, it indicates whether to open the file in binary
+   mode (the default) or text mode.  On some platforms, this makes no
+   difference.
+
+   :func:`mkstemp` returns a tuple containing an OS-level handle to an open
+   file (as would be returned by :func:`os.open`) and the absolute pathname
+   of that file, in that order.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *suffix*, *prefix*, and *dir* may now be supplied in bytes in order to
+      obtain a bytes return value.  Prior to this, only str was allowed.
+      *suffix* and *prefix* now accept and default to ``None`` to cause
+      an appropriate default value to be used.
+
+
+.. function:: mkdtemp(suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)
+
+   Creates a temporary directory in the most secure manner possible. There
+   are no race conditions in the directory's creation.  The directory is
+   readable, writable, and searchable only by the creating user ID.
+
+   The user of :func:`mkdtemp` is responsible for deleting the temporary
+   directory and its contents when done with it.
+
+   The *prefix*, *suffix*, and *dir* arguments are the same as for
+   :func:`mkstemp`.
+
+   :func:`mkdtemp` returns the absolute pathname of the new directory.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *suffix*, *prefix*, and *dir* may now be supplied in bytes in order to
+      obtain a bytes return value.  Prior to this, only str was allowed.
+      *suffix* and *prefix* now accept and default to ``None`` to cause
+      an appropriate default value to be used.
+
+
+.. function:: gettempdir()
+
+   Return the name of the directory used for temporary files. This
+   defines the default value for the *dir* argument to all functions
+   in this module.
+
+   Python searches a standard list of directories to find one which
+   the calling user can create files in.  The list is:
+
+   #. The directory named by the :envvar:`TMPDIR` environment variable.
+
+   #. The directory named by the :envvar:`TEMP` environment variable.
+
+   #. The directory named by the :envvar:`TMP` environment variable.
+
+   #. A platform-specific location:
+
+      * On Windows, the directories :file:`C:\\TEMP`, :file:`C:\\TMP`,
+        :file:`\\TEMP`, and :file:`\\TMP`, in that order.
+
+      * On all other platforms, the directories :file:`/tmp`, :file:`/var/tmp`, and
+        :file:`/usr/tmp`, in that order.
+
+   #. As a last resort, the current working directory.
+
+   The result of this search is cached, see the description of
+   :data:`tempdir` below.
+
+.. function:: gettempdirb()
+
+   Same as :func:`gettempdir` but the return value is in bytes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. function:: gettempprefix()
+
+   Return the filename prefix used to create temporary files.  This does not
+   contain the directory component.
+
+.. function:: gettempprefixb()
+
+   Same as :func:`gettempprefix` but the return value is in bytes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+The module uses a global variable to store the name of the directory
+used for temporary files returned by :func:`gettempdir`.  It can be
+set directly to override the selection process, but this is discouraged.
+All functions in this module take a *dir* argument which can be used
+to specify the directory and this is the recommended approach.
+
+.. data:: tempdir
+
+   When set to a value other than ``None``, this variable defines the
+   default value for the *dir* argument to the functions defined in this
+   module.
+
+   If ``tempdir`` is ``None`` (the default) at any call to any of the above
+   functions except :func:`gettempprefix` it is initialized following the
+   algorithm described in :func:`gettempdir`.
+
+.. _tempfile-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Here are some examples of typical usage of the :mod:`tempfile` module::
+
+    >>> import tempfile
+
+    # create a temporary file and write some data to it
+    >>> fp = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
+    >>> fp.write(b'Hello world!')
+    # read data from file
+    >>> fp.seek(0)
+    >>> fp.read()
+    b'Hello world!'
+    # close the file, it will be removed
+    >>> fp.close()
+
+    # create a temporary file using a context manager
+    >>> with tempfile.TemporaryFile() as fp:
+    ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
+    ...     fp.seek(0)
+    ...     fp.read()
+    b'Hello world!'
+    >>>
+    # file is now closed and removed
+
+    # create a temporary directory using the context manager
+    >>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
+    ...     print('created temporary directory', tmpdirname)
+    >>>
+    # directory and contents have been removed
+
+
+Deprecated functions and variables
+----------------------------------
+
+A historical way to create temporary files was to first generate a
+file name with the :func:`mktemp` function and then create a file
+using this name. Unfortunately this is not secure, because a different
+process may create a file with this name in the time between the call
+to :func:`mktemp` and the subsequent attempt to create the file by the
+first process. The solution is to combine the two steps and create the
+file immediately. This approach is used by :func:`mkstemp` and the
+other functions described above.
+
+.. function:: mktemp(suffix='', prefix='tmp', dir=None)
+
+   .. deprecated:: 2.3
+      Use :func:`mkstemp` instead.
+
+   Return an absolute pathname of a file that did not exist at the time the
+   call is made.  The *prefix*, *suffix*, and *dir* arguments are similar
+   to those of :func:`mkstemp`, except that bytes file names, ``suffix=None``
+   and ``prefix=None`` are not supported.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Use of this function may introduce a security hole in your program.  By
+      the time you get around to doing anything with the file name it returns,
+      someone else may have beaten you to the punch.  :func:`mktemp` usage can
+      be replaced easily with :func:`NamedTemporaryFile`, passing it the
+      ``delete=False`` parameter::
+
+         >>> f = NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False)
+         >>> f.name
+         '/tmp/tmptjujjt'
+         >>> f.write(b"Hello World!\n")
+         13
+         >>> f.close()
+         >>> os.unlink(f.name)
+         >>> os.path.exists(f.name)
+         False
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/termios.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/termios.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d75a87c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/termios.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+:mod:`termios` --- POSIX style tty control
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: termios
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: POSIX style tty control.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: POSIX; I/O control
+   pair: tty; I/O control
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides an interface to the POSIX calls for tty I/O control. For a
+complete description of these calls, see :manpage:`termios(3)` Unix manual
+page.  It is only available for those Unix versions that support POSIX
+*termios* style tty I/O control configured during installation.
+
+All functions in this module take a file descriptor *fd* as their first
+argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
+``sys.stdin.fileno()``, or a :term:`file object`, such as ``sys.stdin`` itself.
+
+This module also defines all the constants needed to work with the functions
+provided here; these have the same name as their counterparts in C.  Please
+refer to your system documentation for more information on using these terminal
+control interfaces.
+
+The module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: tcgetattr(fd)
+
+   Return a list containing the tty attributes for file descriptor *fd*, as
+   follows: ``[iflag, oflag, cflag, lflag, ispeed, ospeed, cc]`` where *cc* is a
+   list of the tty special characters (each a string of length 1, except the
+   items with indices :const:`VMIN` and :const:`VTIME`, which are integers when
+   these fields are defined).  The interpretation of the flags and the speeds as
+   well as the indexing in the *cc* array must be done using the symbolic
+   constants defined in the :mod:`termios` module.
+
+
+.. function:: tcsetattr(fd, when, attributes)
+
+   Set the tty attributes for file descriptor *fd* from the *attributes*, which is
+   a list like the one returned by :func:`tcgetattr`.  The *when* argument
+   determines when the attributes are changed: :const:`TCSANOW` to change
+   immediately, :const:`TCSADRAIN` to change after transmitting all queued output,
+   or :const:`TCSAFLUSH` to change after transmitting all queued output and
+   discarding all queued input.
+
+
+.. function:: tcsendbreak(fd, duration)
+
+   Send a break on file descriptor *fd*.  A zero *duration* sends a break for
+   0.25--0.5 seconds; a nonzero *duration* has a system dependent meaning.
+
+
+.. function:: tcdrain(fd)
+
+   Wait until all output written to file descriptor *fd* has been transmitted.
+
+
+.. function:: tcflush(fd, queue)
+
+   Discard queued data on file descriptor *fd*.  The *queue* selector specifies
+   which queue: :const:`TCIFLUSH` for the input queue, :const:`TCOFLUSH` for the
+   output queue, or :const:`TCIOFLUSH` for both queues.
+
+
+.. function:: tcflow(fd, action)
+
+   Suspend or resume input or output on file descriptor *fd*.  The *action*
+   argument can be :const:`TCOOFF` to suspend output, :const:`TCOON` to restart
+   output, :const:`TCIOFF` to suspend input, or :const:`TCION` to restart input.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`tty`
+      Convenience functions for common terminal control operations.
+
+
+.. _termios-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+Here's a function that prompts for a password with echoing turned off.  Note the
+technique using a separate :func:`tcgetattr` call and a :keyword:`try` ...
+:keyword:`finally` statement to ensure that the old tty attributes are restored
+exactly no matter what happens::
+
+   def getpass(prompt="Password: "):
+       import termios, sys
+       fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
+       old = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
+       new = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
+       new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO          # lflags
+       try:
+           termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new)
+           passwd = input(prompt)
+       finally:
+           termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old)
+       return passwd
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/test.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/test.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..de79cdf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/test.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1406 @@
+:mod:`test` --- Regression tests package for Python
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: test
+   :synopsis: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Brett Cannon <brett@python.org>
+
+.. note::
+   The :mod:`test` package is meant for internal use by Python only. It is
+   documented for the benefit of the core developers of Python. Any use of
+   this package outside of Python's standard library is discouraged as code
+   mentioned here can change or be removed without notice between releases of
+   Python.
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`test` package contains all regression tests for Python as well as the
+modules :mod:`test.support` and :mod:`test.regrtest`.
+:mod:`test.support` is used to enhance your tests while
+:mod:`test.regrtest` drives the testing suite.
+
+Each module in the :mod:`test` package whose name starts with ``test_`` is a
+testing suite for a specific module or feature. All new tests should be written
+using the :mod:`unittest` or :mod:`doctest` module.  Some older tests are
+written using a "traditional" testing style that compares output printed to
+``sys.stdout``; this style of test is considered deprecated.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`unittest`
+      Writing PyUnit regression tests.
+
+   Module :mod:`doctest`
+      Tests embedded in documentation strings.
+
+
+.. _writing-tests:
+
+Writing Unit Tests for the :mod:`test` package
+----------------------------------------------
+
+It is preferred that tests that use the :mod:`unittest` module follow a few
+guidelines. One is to name the test module by starting it with ``test_`` and end
+it with the name of the module being tested. The test methods in the test module
+should start with ``test_`` and end with a description of what the method is
+testing. This is needed so that the methods are recognized by the test driver as
+test methods. Also, no documentation string for the method should be included. A
+comment (such as ``# Tests function returns only True or False``) should be used
+to provide documentation for test methods. This is done because documentation
+strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test is being run is not
+stated.
+
+A basic boilerplate is often used::
+
+   import unittest
+   from test import support
+
+   class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):
+
+       # Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary
+
+       def setUp(self):
+           ... code to execute in preparation for tests ...
+
+       def tearDown(self):
+           ... code to execute to clean up after tests ...
+
+       def test_feature_one(self):
+           # Test feature one.
+           ... testing code ...
+
+       def test_feature_two(self):
+           # Test feature two.
+           ... testing code ...
+
+       ... more test methods ...
+
+   class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
+       ... same structure as MyTestCase1 ...
+
+   ... more test classes ...
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       unittest.main()
+
+This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by :mod:`test.regrtest`,
+on its own as a script that supports the :mod:`unittest` CLI, or via the
+``python -m unittest`` CLI.
+
+The goal for regression testing is to try to break code. This leads to a few
+guidelines to be followed:
+
+* The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and constants. This
+  includes not just the external API that is to be presented to the outside
+  world but also "private" code.
+
+* Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests are being
+  written) is preferred. Blackbox testing (testing only the published user
+  interface) is not complete enough to make sure all boundary and edge cases
+  are tested.
+
+* Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones. This makes
+  sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but also that improper
+  values are handled correctly.
+
+* Exhaust as many code paths as possible. Test where branching occurs and thus
+  tailor input to make sure as many different paths through the code are taken.
+
+* Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code. This will
+  make sure that the error does not crop up again if the code is changed in the
+  future.
+
+* Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove all temporary
+  files).
+
+* If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating system then
+  verify the condition already exists before attempting the test.
+
+* Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible. This
+  minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes possible anomalous
+  behavior from side-effects of importing a module.
+
+* Try to maximize code reuse. On occasion, tests will vary by something as small
+  as what type of input is used. Minimize code duplication by subclassing a
+  basic test class with a class that specifies the input::
+
+     class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin:
+
+         func = mySuperWhammyFunction
+
+         def test_func(self):
+             self.func(self.arg)
+
+     class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
+         arg = [1, 2, 3]
+
+     class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
+         arg = 'abc'
+
+     class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
+         arg = (1, 2, 3)
+
+  When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit from
+  :class:`unittest.TestCase` are run as tests.  The :class:`Mixin` class in the example above
+  does not have any data and so can't be run by itself, thus it does not
+  inherit from :class:`unittest.TestCase`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Test Driven Development
+      A book by Kent Beck on writing tests before code.
+
+
+.. _regrtest:
+
+Running tests using the command-line interface
+----------------------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`test` package can be run as a script to drive Python's regression
+test suite, thanks to the :option:`-m` option: :program:`python -m test`. Under
+the hood, it uses :mod:`test.regrtest`; the call :program:`python -m
+test.regrtest` used in previous Python versions still works.  Running the
+script by itself automatically starts running all regression tests in the
+:mod:`test` package. It does this by finding all modules in the package whose
+name starts with ``test_``, importing them, and executing the function
+:func:`test_main` if present or loading the tests via
+unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if ``test_main`` does not exist.  The
+names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script. Specifying a single
+regression test (:program:`python -m test test_spam`) will minimize output and
+only print whether the test passed or failed.
+
+Running :mod:`test` directly allows what resources are available for
+tests to use to be set. You do this by using the ``-u`` command-line
+option. Specifying ``all`` as the value for the ``-u`` option enables all
+possible resources: :program:`python -m test -uall`.
+If all but one resource is desired (a more common case), a
+comma-separated list of resources that are not desired may be listed after
+``all``. The command :program:`python -m test -uall,-audio,-largefile`
+will run :mod:`test` with all resources except the ``audio`` and
+``largefile`` resources. For a list of all resources and more command-line
+options, run :program:`python -m test -h`.
+
+Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform the
+tests are being executed on. On Unix, you can run :program:`make test` at the
+top-level directory where Python was built. On Windows,
+executing :program:`rt.bat` from your :file:`PCbuild` directory will run all
+regression tests.
+
+
+:mod:`test.support` --- Utilities for the Python test suite
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: test.support
+   :synopsis: Support for Python's regression test suite.
+
+
+The :mod:`test.support` module provides support for Python's regression
+test suite.
+
+.. note::
+
+   :mod:`test.support` is not a public module.  It is documented here to help
+   Python developers write tests.  The API of this module is subject to change
+   without backwards compatibility concerns between releases.
+
+
+This module defines the following exceptions:
+
+.. exception:: TestFailed
+
+   Exception to be raised when a test fails. This is deprecated in favor of
+   :mod:`unittest`\ -based tests and :class:`unittest.TestCase`'s assertion
+   methods.
+
+
+.. exception:: ResourceDenied
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`unittest.SkipTest`. Raised when a resource (such as a
+   network connection) is not available. Raised by the :func:`requires`
+   function.
+
+
+The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following constants:
+
+.. data:: verbose
+
+   ``True`` when verbose output is enabled. Should be checked when more
+   detailed information is desired about a running test. *verbose* is set by
+   :mod:`test.regrtest`.
+
+
+.. data:: is_jython
+
+   ``True`` if the running interpreter is Jython.
+
+
+.. data:: is_android
+
+   ``True`` if the system is Android.
+
+
+.. data:: unix_shell
+
+   Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise ``None``.
+
+
+.. data:: FS_NONASCII
+
+   A non-ASCII character encodable by :func:`os.fsencode`.
+
+
+.. data:: TESTFN
+
+   Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file.  Any
+   temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked (removed).
+
+
+.. data:: TESTFN_UNICODE
+
+    Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file.
+
+
+.. data:: TESTFN_ENCODING
+
+   Set to :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`.
+
+
+.. data:: TESTFN_UNENCODABLE
+
+   Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded by file
+   system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ``None`` if it's not possible to
+   generate such a filename.
+
+
+.. data:: TESTFN_UNDECODABLE
+
+   Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be decoded by
+   file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ``None`` if it's not
+   possible to generate such a filename.
+
+
+.. data:: TESTFN_NONASCII
+
+   Set to a filename containing the :data:`FS_NONASCII` character.
+
+
+.. data:: IPV6_ENABLED
+
+    Set to ``True`` if IPV6 is enabled on this host, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. data:: SAVEDCWD
+
+   Set to :func:`os.getcwd`.
+
+
+.. data:: PGO
+
+   Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO.
+
+
+.. data:: PIPE_MAX_SIZE
+
+   A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer size,
+   to make writes blocking.
+
+
+.. data:: SOCK_MAX_SIZE
+
+   A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket buffer size,
+   to make writes blocking.
+
+
+.. data:: TEST_SUPPORT_DIR
+
+   Set to the top level directory that contains :mod:`test.support`.
+
+
+.. data:: TEST_HOME_DIR
+
+   Set to the top level directory for the test package.
+
+
+.. data:: TEST_DATA_DIR
+
+   Set to the ``data`` directory within the test package.
+
+
+.. data:: MAX_Py_ssize_t
+
+   Set to :data:`sys.maxsize` for big memory tests.
+
+
+.. data:: max_memuse
+
+   Set by :func:`set_memlimit` as the memory limit for big memory tests.
+   Limited by :data:`MAX_Py_ssize_t`.
+
+
+.. data:: real_max_memuse
+
+   Set by :func:`set_memlimit` as the memory limit for big memory tests.  Not
+   limited by :data:`MAX_Py_ssize_t`.
+
+
+.. data:: MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS
+
+   Return ``True`` if running on CPython, not on Windows, and configuration
+   not set with ``WITH_DOC_STRINGS``.
+
+
+.. data:: HAVE_DOCSTRINGS
+
+   Check for presence of docstrings.
+
+.. data:: TEST_HTTP_URL
+
+   Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests.
+
+
+
+The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions:
+
+.. function:: forget(module_name)
+
+   Remove the module named *module_name* from ``sys.modules`` and delete any
+   byte-compiled files of the module.
+
+
+.. function:: unload(name)
+
+   Delete *name* from ``sys.modules``.
+
+
+.. function:: unlink(filename)
+
+   Call :func:`os.unlink` on *filename*.  On Windows platforms, this is
+   wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence fo the file.
+
+
+.. function:: rmdir(filename)
+
+   Call :func:`os.rmdir` on *filename*.  On Windows platforms, this is
+   wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the file.
+
+
+.. function:: rmtree(path)
+
+   Call :func:`shutil.rmtree` on *path* or call :func:`os.lstat` and
+   :func:`os.rmdir` to remove a path and its contents.  On Windows platforms,
+   this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the files.
+
+
+.. function:: make_legacy_pyc(source)
+
+   Move a PEP 3147/488 pyc file to its legacy pyc location and return the file
+   system path to the legacy pyc file.  The *source* value is the file system
+   path to the source file.  It does not need to exist, however the PEP
+   3147/488 pyc file must exist.
+
+
+.. function:: is_resource_enabled(resource)
+
+   Return ``True`` if *resource* is enabled and available. The list of
+   available resources is only set when :mod:`test.regrtest` is executing the
+   tests.
+
+
+.. function:: python_is_optimized()
+
+   Return ``True`` if Python was not built with ``-O0`` or ``-Og``.
+
+
+.. function:: with_pymalloc()
+
+   Return :data:`_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC`.
+
+
+.. function:: requires(resource, msg=None)
+
+   Raise :exc:`ResourceDenied` if *resource* is not available. *msg* is the
+   argument to :exc:`ResourceDenied` if it is raised. Always returns
+   ``True`` if called by a function whose ``__name__`` is ``'__main__'``.
+   Used when tests are executed by :mod:`test.regrtest`.
+
+
+.. function:: system_must_validate_cert(f)
+
+   Raise :exc:`unittest.SkipTest` on TLS certification validation failures.
+
+
+.. function:: sortdict(dict)
+
+   Return a repr of *dict* with keys sorted.
+
+
+.. function:: findfile(filename, subdir=None)
+
+   Return the path to the file named *filename*. If no match is found
+   *filename* is returned. This does not equal a failure since it could be the
+   path to the file.
+
+   Setting *subdir* indicates a relative path to use to find the file
+   rather than looking directly in the path directories.
+
+
+.. function:: create_empty_file(filename)
+
+   Create an empty file with *filename*.  If it already exists, truncate it.
+
+
+.. function:: fd_count()
+
+   Count the number of open file descriptors.
+
+
+.. function:: match_test(test)
+
+   Match *test* to patterns set in :func:`set_match_tests`.
+
+
+.. function:: set_match_tests(patterns)
+
+   Define match test with regular expression *patterns*.
+
+
+.. function:: run_unittest(\*classes)
+
+   Execute :class:`unittest.TestCase` subclasses passed to the function. The
+   function scans the classes for methods starting with the prefix ``test_``
+   and executes the tests individually.
+
+   It is also legal to pass strings as parameters; these should be keys in
+   ``sys.modules``. Each associated module will be scanned by
+   ``unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()``. This is usually seen in the
+   following :func:`test_main` function::
+
+      def test_main():
+          support.run_unittest(__name__)
+
+   This will run all tests defined in the named module.
+
+
+.. function:: run_doctest(module, verbosity=None, optionflags=0)
+
+   Run :func:`doctest.testmod` on the given *module*.  Return
+   ``(failure_count, test_count)``.
+
+   If *verbosity* is ``None``, :func:`doctest.testmod` is run with verbosity
+   set to :data:`verbose`.  Otherwise, it is run with verbosity set to
+   ``None``.  *optionflags* is passed as ``optionflags`` to
+   :func:`doctest.testmod`.
+
+
+.. function:: setswitchinterval(interval)
+
+   Set the :func:`sys.setswitchinterval` to the given *interval*.  Defines
+   a minimum interval for Android systems to prevent the system from hanging.
+
+
+.. function:: check_impl_detail(**guards)
+
+   Use this check to guard CPython's implementation-specific tests or to
+   run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments::
+
+      check_impl_detail()               # Only on CPython (default).
+      check_impl_detail(jython=True)    # Only on Jython.
+      check_impl_detail(cpython=False)  # Everywhere except CPython.
+
+
+.. function:: check_warnings(\*filters, quiet=True)
+
+   A convenience wrapper for :func:`warnings.catch_warnings()` that makes it
+   easier to test that a warning was correctly raised.  It is approximately
+   equivalent to calling ``warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)`` with
+   :meth:`warnings.simplefilter` set to ``always`` and with the option to
+   automatically validate the results that are recorded.
+
+   ``check_warnings`` accepts 2-tuples of the form ``("message regexp",
+   WarningCategory)`` as positional arguments. If one or more *filters* are
+   provided, or if the optional keyword argument *quiet* is ``False``,
+   it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected:  each specified filter
+   must match at least one of the warnings raised by the enclosed code or the
+   test fails, and if any warnings are raised that do not match any of the
+   specified filters the test fails.  To disable the first of these checks,
+   set *quiet* to ``True``.
+
+   If no arguments are specified, it defaults to::
+
+      check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True)
+
+   In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised.
+
+   On entry to the context manager, a :class:`WarningRecorder` instance is
+   returned. The underlying warnings list from
+   :func:`~warnings.catch_warnings` is available via the recorder object's
+   :attr:`warnings` attribute.  As a convenience, the attributes of the object
+   representing the most recent warning can also be accessed directly through
+   the recorder object (see example below).  If no warning has been raised,
+   then any of the attributes that would otherwise be expected on an object
+   representing a warning will return ``None``.
+
+   The recorder object also has a :meth:`reset` method, which clears the
+   warnings list.
+
+   The context manager is designed to be used like this::
+
+      with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning),
+                          ("", UserWarning)):
+          exec('assert(False, "Hey!")')
+          warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!"))
+
+   In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other warning was
+   raised, :func:`check_warnings` would raise an error.
+
+   When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather than
+   just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can be used::
+
+      with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w:
+          warnings.warn("foo")
+          assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo"
+          warnings.warn("bar")
+          assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar"
+          assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo"
+          assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar"
+          w.reset()
+          assert len(w.warnings) == 0
+
+
+   Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the captured
+   warnings directly.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      New optional arguments *filters* and *quiet*.
+
+
+.. function:: check_no_resource_warning(testcase)
+
+   Context manager to check that no :exc:`ResourceWarning` was raised.  You
+   must remove the object which may emit :exc:`ResourceWarning` before the
+   end of the context manager.
+
+
+.. function:: set_memlimit(limit)
+
+   Set the values for :data:`max_memuse` and :data:`real_max_memuse` for big
+   memory tests.
+
+
+.. function:: record_original_stdout(stdout)
+
+   Store the value from *stdout*.  It is meant to hold the stdout at the
+   time the regrtest began.
+
+
+.. function:: get_original_stdout
+
+   Return the original stdout set by :func:`record_original_stdout` or
+   ``sys.stdout`` if it's not set.
+
+
+.. function:: strip_python_strerr(stderr)
+
+   Strip the *stderr* of a Python process from potential debug output
+   emitted by the interpreter.  This will typically be run on the result of
+   :meth:`subprocess.Popen.communicate`.
+
+
+.. function:: args_from_interpreter_flags()
+
+   Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current settings
+   in ``sys.flags`` and ``sys.warnoptions``.
+
+
+.. function:: optim_args_from_interpreter_flags()
+
+   Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
+   optimization settings in ``sys.flags``.
+
+
+.. function:: captured_stdin()
+              captured_stdout()
+              captured_stderr()
+
+   A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with
+   :class:`io.StringIO` object.
+
+   Example use with output streams::
+
+      with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr:
+          print("hello")
+          print("error", file=sys.stderr)
+      assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n"
+      assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n"
+
+   Example use with input stream::
+
+      with captured_stdin() as stdin:
+          stdin.write('hello\n')
+          stdin.seek(0)
+          # call test code that consumes from sys.stdin
+          captured = input()
+      self.assertEqual(captured, "hello")
+
+
+.. function:: temp_dir(path=None, quiet=False)
+
+   A context manager that creates a temporary directory at *path* and
+   yields the directory.
+
+   If *path* is ``None``, the temporary directory is created using
+   :func:`tempfile.mkdtemp`.  If *quiet* is ``False``, the context manager
+   raises an exception on error.  Otherwise, if *path* is specified and
+   cannot be created, only a warning is issued.
+
+
+.. function:: change_cwd(path, quiet=False)
+
+   A context manager that temporarily changes the current working
+   directory to *path* and yields the directory.
+
+   If *quiet* is ``False``, the context manager raises an exception
+   on error.  Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current
+   working directory the same.
+
+
+.. function:: temp_cwd(name='tempcwd', quiet=False)
+
+   A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and
+   changes the current working directory (CWD).
+
+   The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current
+   directory with name *name* before temporarily changing the current
+   working directory.  If *name* is ``None``, the temporary directory is
+   created using :func:`tempfile.mkdtemp`.
+
+   If *quiet* is ``False`` and it is not possible to create or change
+   the CWD, an error is raised.  Otherwise, only a warning is raised
+   and the original CWD is used.
+
+
+.. function:: temp_umask(umask)
+
+   A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask.
+
+
+.. function:: transient_internet(resource_name, *, timeout=30.0, errnos=())
+
+   A context manager that raises :exc:`ResourceDenied` when various issues
+   with the internet connection manifest themselves as exceptions.
+
+
+.. function:: disable_faulthandler()
+
+   A context manager that replaces ``sys.stderr`` with ``sys.__stderr__``.
+
+
+.. function:: gc_collect()
+
+   Force as many objects as possible to be collected.  This is needed because
+   timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage collector.  This means
+   that ``__del__`` methods may be called later than expected and weakrefs
+   may remain alive for longer than expected.
+
+
+.. function:: disable_gc()
+
+   A context manager that disables the garbage collector upon entry and
+   reenables it upon exit.
+
+
+.. function:: swap_attr(obj, attr, new_val)
+
+   Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object.
+
+   Usage::
+
+      with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5):
+          ...
+
+   This will set ``obj.attr`` to 5 for the duration of the ``with`` block,
+   restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ``attr`` doesn't
+   exist on ``obj``, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the
+   block.
+
+   The old value (or ``None`` if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to the
+   target of the "as" clause, if there is one.
+
+
+.. function:: swap_item(obj, attr, new_val)
+
+   Context manager to swap out an item with a new object.
+
+   Usage::
+
+      with swap_item(obj, "item", 5):
+          ...
+
+   This will set ``obj["item"]`` to 5 for the duration of the ``with`` block,
+   restoring the old value at the end of the block. If ``item`` doesn't
+   exist on ``obj``, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the
+   block.
+
+   The old value (or ``None`` if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to the
+   target of the "as" clause, if there is one.
+
+
+.. function:: wait_threads_exit(timeout=60.0)
+
+   Context manager to wait until all threads created in the ``with`` statement
+   exit.
+
+
+.. function:: start_threads(threads, unlock=None)
+
+   Context manager to start *threads*.  It attempts to join the threads upon
+   exit.
+
+
+.. function:: calcobjsize(fmt)
+
+   Return :func:`struct.calcsize` for ``nP{fmt}0n`` or, if ``gettotalrefcount``
+   exists, ``2PnP{fmt}0P``.
+
+
+.. function:: calcvobjsize(fmt)
+
+   Return :func:`struct.calcsize` for ``nPn{fmt}0n`` or, if ``gettotalrefcount``
+   exists, ``2PnPn{fmt}0P``.
+
+
+.. function:: checksizeof(test, o, size)
+
+   For testcase *test*, assert that the ``sys.getsizeof`` for *o* plus the GC
+   header size equals *size*.
+
+
+.. function:: can_symlink()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the OS supports symbolic links, ``False``
+   otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: can_xattr()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the OS supports xattr, ``False``
+   otherwise.
+
+
+.. decorator:: skip_unless_symlink
+
+   A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic links.
+
+
+.. decorator:: skip_unless_xattr
+
+   A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr.
+
+
+.. decorator:: skip_unless_bind_unix_socket
+
+   A decorator for running tests that require a functional bind() for Unix
+   sockets.
+
+
+.. decorator:: anticipate_failure(condition)
+
+   A decorator to conditionally mark tests with
+   :func:`unittest.expectedFailure`. Any use of this decorator should
+   have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.
+
+
+.. decorator:: run_with_locale(catstr, *locales)
+
+   A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly
+   resetting it after it has finished.  *catstr* is the locale category as
+   a string (for example ``"LC_ALL"``).  The *locales* passed will be tried
+   sequentially, and the first valid locale will be used.
+
+
+.. decorator:: run_with_tz(tz)
+
+   A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone, correctly
+   resetting it after it has finished.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_freebsd_version(*min_version)
+
+   Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD.  If the
+   FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, raise :exc:`unittest.SkipTest`.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_linux_version(*min_version)
+
+   Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux.  If the
+   Linux version is less than the minimum, raise :exc:`unittest.SkipTest`.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_mac_version(*min_version)
+
+   Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Mac OS X.  If the
+   MAC OS X version is less than the minimum, raise :exc:`unittest.SkipTest`.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_IEEE_754
+
+   Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_zlib
+
+   Decorator for skipping tests if :mod:`zlib` doesn't exist.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_gzip
+
+   Decorator for skipping tests if :mod:`gzip` doesn't exist.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_bz2
+
+   Decorator for skipping tests if :mod:`bz2` doesn't exist.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_lzma
+
+   Decorator for skipping tests if :mod:`lzma` doesn't exist.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_resource(resource)
+
+   Decorator for skipping tests if *resource* is not available.
+
+
+.. decorator:: requires_docstrings
+
+   Decorator for only running the test if :data:`HAVE_DOCSTRINGS`.
+
+
+.. decorator:: cpython_only(test)
+
+   Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython.
+
+
+.. decorator:: impl_detail(msg=None, **guards)
+
+   Decorator for invoking :func:`check_impl_detail` on *guards*.  If that
+   returns ``False``, then uses *msg* as the reason for skipping the test.
+
+
+.. decorator:: no_tracing(func)
+
+   Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the test.
+
+
+.. decorator:: refcount_test(test)
+
+   Decorator for tests which involve reference counting.  The decorator does
+   not run the test if it is not run by CPython.  Any trace function is unset
+   for the duration of the test to prevent unexpected refcounts caused by
+   the trace function.
+
+
+.. decorator:: reap_threads(func)
+
+   Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test fails.
+
+
+.. decorator:: bigmemtest(size, memuse, dry_run=True)
+
+   Decorator for bigmem tests.
+
+   *size* is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary, test-interpreted
+   units.)  *memuse* is the number of bytes per unit for the test, or a good
+   estimate of it.  For example, a test that needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB
+   each, could be decorated with ``@bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2)``.
+
+   The *size* argument is normally passed to the decorated test method as an
+   extra argument.  If *dry_run* is ``True``, the value passed to the test
+   method may be less than the requested value.  If *dry_run* is ``False``, it
+   means the test doesn't support dummy runs when ``-M`` is not specified.
+
+
+.. decorator:: bigaddrspacetest(f)
+
+   Decorator for tests that fill the address space.  *f* is the function to
+   wrap.
+
+
+.. function:: make_bad_fd()
+
+   Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a temporary file,
+   and returning its descriptor.
+
+
+.. function:: check_syntax_error(testcase, statement, errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None)
+
+   Test for syntax errors in *statement* by attempting to compile *statement*.
+   *testcase* is the :mod:`unittest` instance for the test.  *errtext* is the
+   text of the error raised by :exc:`SyntaxError`.  If *lineno* is not None,
+   compares to the line of the :exc:`SyntaxError`.  If *offset* is not None,
+   compares to the offset of the :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+
+
+.. function:: open_urlresource(url, *args, **kw)
+
+   Open *url*.  If open fails, raises :exc:`TestFailed`.
+
+
+.. function:: import_module(name, deprecated=False, *, required_on())
+
+   This function imports and returns the named module. Unlike a normal
+   import, this function raises :exc:`unittest.SkipTest` if the module
+   cannot be imported.
+
+   Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import
+   if *deprecated* is ``True``.  If a module is required on a platform but
+   optional for others, set *required_on* to an iterable of platform prefixes
+   which will be compared against :data:`sys.platform`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: import_fresh_module(name, fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False)
+
+   This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python module
+   by removing the named module from ``sys.modules`` before doing the import.
+   Note that unlike :func:`reload`, the original module is not affected by
+   this operation.
+
+   *fresh* is an iterable of additional module names that are also removed
+   from the ``sys.modules`` cache before doing the import.
+
+   *blocked* is an iterable of module names that are replaced with ``None``
+   in the module cache during the import to ensure that attempts to import
+   them raise :exc:`ImportError`.
+
+   The named module and any modules named in the *fresh* and *blocked*
+   parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted into
+   ``sys.modules`` when the fresh import is complete.
+
+   Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import
+   if *deprecated* is ``True``.
+
+   This function will raise :exc:`ImportError` if the named module cannot be
+   imported.
+
+   Example use::
+
+      # Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the
+      # version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the
+      # C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback
+      # implementation
+      py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings'])
+      c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings'])
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: modules_setup()
+
+   Return a copy of :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+
+.. function:: modules_cleanup(oldmodules)
+
+   Remove modules except for *oldmodules* and ``encodings`` in order to
+   preserve internal cache.
+
+
+.. function:: threading_setup()
+
+   Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads.
+
+
+.. function:: threading_cleanup(*original_values)
+
+   Cleanup up threads not specified in *original_values*.  Designed to emit
+   a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background.
+
+
+.. function:: join_thread(thread, timeout=30.0)
+
+   Join a *thread* within *timeout*.  Raise an :exc:`AssertionError` if thread
+   is still alive after *timeout* seconds.
+
+
+.. function:: reap_children()
+
+   Use this at the end of ``test_main`` whenever sub-processes are started.
+   This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies) stick around to
+   hog resources and create problems when looking for refleaks.
+
+
+.. function:: get_attribute(obj, name)
+
+   Get an attribute, raising :exc:`unittest.SkipTest` if :exc:`AttributeError`
+   is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: bind_port(sock, host=HOST)
+
+   Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number.  Relies on
+   ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port.  This is
+   important as many tests may be running simultaneously, especially in a
+   buildbot environment.  This method raises an exception if the
+   ``sock.family`` is :const:`~socket.AF_INET` and ``sock.type`` is
+   :const:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`, and the socket has
+   :const:`~socket.SO_REUSEADDR` or :const:`~socket.SO_REUSEPORT` set on it.
+   Tests should never set these socket options for TCP/IP sockets.
+   The only case for setting these options is testing multicasting via
+   multiple UDP sockets.
+
+   Additionally, if the :const:`~socket.SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE` socket option is
+   available (i.e. on Windows), it will be set on the socket.  This will
+   prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the duration of the
+   test.
+
+
+.. function:: bind_unix_socket(sock, addr)
+
+   Bind a unix socket, raising :exc:`unittest.SkipTest` if
+   :exc:`PermissionError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: find_unused_port(family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM)
+
+   Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding.  This is
+   achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and type as
+   the ``sock`` parameter (default is :const:`~socket.AF_INET`,
+   :const:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`),
+   and binding it to the specified host address (defaults to ``0.0.0.0``)
+   with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused ephemeral port from the OS.
+   The temporary socket is then closed and deleted, and the ephemeral port is
+   returned.
+
+   Either this method or :func:`bind_port` should be used for any tests
+   where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular port for the
+   duration of the test.
+   Which one to use depends on whether the calling code is creating a Python
+   socket, or if an unused port needs to be provided in a constructor
+   or passed to an external program (i.e. the ``-accept`` argument to
+   openssl's s_server mode).  Always prefer :func:`bind_port` over
+   :func:`find_unused_port` where possible.  Using a hard coded port is
+   discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test impossible to
+   run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots.
+
+
+.. function:: load_package_tests(pkg_dir, loader, standard_tests, pattern)
+
+   Generic implementation of the :mod:`unittest` ``load_tests`` protocol for
+   use in test packages.  *pkg_dir* is the root directory of the package;
+   *loader*, *standard_tests*, and *pattern* are the arguments expected by
+   ``load_tests``.  In simple cases, the test package's ``__init__.py``
+   can be the following::
+
+      import os
+      from test.support import load_package_tests
+
+      def load_tests(*args):
+          return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args)
+
+
+.. function:: fs_is_case_insensitive(directory)
+
+   Return ``True`` if the file system for *directory* is case-insensitive.
+
+
+.. function:: detect_api_mismatch(ref_api, other_api, *, ignore=())
+
+   Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of *ref_api* not
+   found on *other_api*, except for a defined list of items to be
+   ignored in this check specified in *ignore*.
+
+   By default this skips private attributes beginning with '_' but
+   includes all magic methods, i.e. those starting and ending in '__'.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. function:: patch(test_instance, object_to_patch, attr_name, new_value)
+
+   Override *object_to_patch.attr_name* with *new_value*.  Also add
+   cleanup procedure to *test_instance* to restore *object_to_patch* for
+   *attr_name*.  The *attr_name* should be a valid attribute for
+   *object_to_patch*.
+
+
+.. function:: run_in_subinterp(code)
+
+   Run *code* in subinterpreter.  Raise :exc:`unittest.SkipTest` if
+   :mod:`tracemalloc` is enabled.
+
+
+.. function:: check_free_after_iterating(test, iter, cls, args=())
+
+   Assert that *iter* is deallocated after iterating.
+
+
+.. function:: missing_compiler_executable(cmd_names=[])
+
+   Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are listed
+   in *cmd_names* or all the compiler executables when *cmd_names* is empty
+   and return the first missing executable or ``None`` when none is found
+   missing.
+
+
+.. function:: check__all__(test_case, module, name_of_module=None, extra=(), blacklist=())
+
+   Assert that the ``__all__`` variable of *module* contains all public names.
+
+   The module's public names (its API) are detected automatically
+   based on whether they match the public name convention and were defined in
+   *module*.
+
+   The *name_of_module* argument can specify (as a string or tuple thereof) what
+   module(s) an API could be defined in order to be detected as a public
+   API. One case for this is when *module* imports part of its public API from
+   other modules, possibly a C backend (like ``csv`` and its ``_csv``).
+
+   The *extra* argument can be a set of names that wouldn't otherwise be automatically
+   detected as "public", like objects without a proper ``__module__``
+   attribute. If provided, it will be added to the automatically detected ones.
+
+   The *blacklist* argument can be a set of names that must not be treated as part of
+   the public API even though their names indicate otherwise.
+
+   Example use::
+
+      import bar
+      import foo
+      import unittest
+      from test import support
+
+      class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+          def test__all__(self):
+              support.check__all__(self, foo)
+
+      class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+          def test__all__(self):
+              extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'}
+              blacklist = {'baz'}  # Undocumented name.
+              # bar imports part of its API from _bar.
+              support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'),
+                                   extra=extra, blacklist=blacklist)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following classes:
+
+.. class:: TransientResource(exc, **kwargs)
+
+   Instances are a context manager that raises :exc:`ResourceDenied` if the
+   specified exception type is raised.  Any keyword arguments are treated as
+   attribute/value pairs to be compared against any exception raised within the
+   :keyword:`with` statement.  Only if all pairs match properly against
+   attributes on the exception is :exc:`ResourceDenied` raised.
+
+
+.. class:: EnvironmentVarGuard()
+
+   Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables.  Instances can
+   be used as a context manager and have a complete dictionary interface for
+   querying/modifying the underlying ``os.environ``. After exit from the
+   context manager all changes to environment variables done through this
+   instance will be rolled back.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added dictionary interface.
+
+.. method:: EnvironmentVarGuard.set(envvar, value)
+
+   Temporarily set the environment variable ``envvar`` to the value of
+   ``value``.
+
+
+.. method:: EnvironmentVarGuard.unset(envvar)
+
+   Temporarily unset the environment variable ``envvar``.
+
+
+.. class:: SuppressCrashReport()
+
+   A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on tests that
+   are expected to crash a subprocess.
+
+   On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using
+   `SetErrorMode <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx>`_.
+
+   On UNIX, :func:`resource.setrlimit` is used to set
+   :attr:`resource.RLIMIT_CORE`'s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump file
+   creation.
+
+   On both platforms, the old value is restored by :meth:`__exit__`.
+
+
+.. class:: CleanImport(*module_names)
+
+   A context manager to force import to return a new module reference.  This
+   is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the emission of a
+   DeprecationWarning on import.  Example usage::
+
+      with CleanImport('foo'):
+          importlib.import_module('foo')  # New reference.
+
+
+.. class:: DirsOnSysPath(*paths)
+
+   A context manager to temporarily add directories to sys.path.
+
+   This makes a copy of :data:`sys.path`, appends any directories given
+   as positional arguments, then reverts :data:`sys.path` to the copied
+   settings when the context ends.
+
+   Note that *all* :data:`sys.path` modifications in the body of the
+   context manager, including replacement of the object,
+   will be reverted at the end of the block.
+
+
+.. class:: SaveSignals()
+
+   Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python signal
+   handler.
+
+
+.. class:: Matcher()
+
+   .. method:: matches(self, d, **kwargs)
+
+      Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments.
+
+
+   .. method:: match_value(self, k, dv, v)
+
+      Try to match a single stored value (*dv*) with a supplied value (*v*).
+
+
+.. class:: WarningsRecorder()
+
+   Class used to record warnings for unit tests. See documentation of
+   :func:`check_warnings` above for more details.
+
+
+.. class:: BasicTestRunner()
+
+   .. method:: run(test)
+
+      Run *test* and return the result.
+
+
+.. class:: TestHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler)
+
+   Class for logging support.
+
+
+.. class:: FakePath(path)
+
+   Simple :term:`path-like object`.  It implements the :meth:`__fspath__`
+   method which just returns the *path* argument.  If *path* is an exception,
+   it will be raised in :meth:`!__fspath__`.
+
+
+:mod:`test.support.script_helper` --- Utilities for the Python execution tests
+==============================================================================
+
+.. module:: test.support.script_helper
+   :synopsis: Support for Python's script execution tests.
+
+
+The :mod:`test.support.script_helper` module provides support for Python's
+script execution tests.
+
+.. function:: interpreter_requires_environment()
+
+   Return ``True`` if ``sys.executable interpreter`` requires environment
+   variables in order to be able to run at all.
+
+   This is designed to be used with ``@unittest.skipIf()`` to annotate tests
+   that need to use an ``assert_python*()`` function to launch an isolated
+   mode (``-I``) or no environment mode (``-E``) sub-interpreter process.
+
+   A normal build & test does not run into this situation but it can happen
+   when trying to run the standard library test suite from an interpreter that
+   doesn't have an obvious home with Python's current home finding logic.
+
+   Setting :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` is one way to get most of the testsuite to run
+   in that situation.  :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` or :envvar:`PYTHONUSERSITE` are
+   other common environment variables that might impact whether or not the
+   interpreter can start.
+
+
+.. function:: run_python_until_end(*args, **env_vars)
+
+   Set up the environment based on *env_vars* for running the interpreter
+   in a subprocess.  The values can include ``__isolated``, ``__cleanenv``,
+   ``__cwd``, and ``TERM``.
+
+
+.. function:: assert_python_ok(*args, **env_vars)
+
+   Assert that running the interpreter with *args* and optional environment
+   variables *env_vars* succeeds (``rc == 0``) and return a ``(return code,
+   stdout, stderr)`` tuple.
+
+   If the ``__cleanenv`` keyword is set, *env_vars* is used as a fresh
+   environment.
+
+   Python is started in isolated mode (command line option ``-I``),
+   except if the ``__isolated`` keyword is set to ``False``.
+
+
+.. function:: assert_python_failure(*args, **env_vars)
+
+   Assert that running the interpreter with *args* and optional environment
+   variables *env_vars* fails (``rc != 0``) and return a ``(return code,
+   stdout, stderr)`` tuple.
+
+   See :func:`assert_python_ok` for more options.
+
+
+.. function:: spawn_python(*args, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw)
+
+   Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments.
+
+   *kw* is extra keyword args to pass to :func:`subprocess.Popen`. Returns a
+   :class:`subprocess.Popen` object.
+
+
+.. function:: kill_python(p)
+
+   Run the given :class:`subprocess.Popen` process until completion and return
+   stdout.
+
+
+.. function:: make_script(script_dir, script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False)
+
+   Create script containing *source* in path *script_dir* and *script_basename*.
+   If *omit_suffix* is ``False``, append ``.py`` to the name.  Return the full
+   script path.
+
+
+.. function:: make_zip_script(zip_dir, zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None)
+
+   Create zip file at *zip_dir* and *zip_basename* with extension ``zip`` which
+   contains the files in *script_name*. *name_in_zip* is the archive name.
+   Return a tuple containing ``(full path, full path of archive name)``.
+
+
+.. function:: make_pkg(pkg_dir, init_source='')
+
+   Create a directory named *pkg_dir* containing an ``__init__`` file with
+   *init_source* as its contents.
+
+
+.. function:: make_zip_pkg(zip_dir, zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, \
+                           source, depth=1, compiled=False)
+
+   Create a zip package directory with a path of *zip_dir* and *zip_basename*
+   containing an empty ``__init__`` file and a file *script_basename*
+   containing the *source*.  If *compiled* is ``True``, both source files will
+   be compiled and added to the zip package.  Return a tuple of the full zip
+   path and the archive name for the zip file.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/text.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/text.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47b6784
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/text.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. _stringservices:
+.. _textservices:
+
+************************
+Text Processing Services
+************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of string
+manipulation operations and other text processing services.
+
+The :mod:`codecs` module described under :ref:`binaryservices` is also
+highly relevant to text processing. In addition, see the documentation for
+Python's built-in string type in :ref:`textseq`.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   string.rst
+   re.rst
+   difflib.rst
+   textwrap.rst
+   unicodedata.rst
+   stringprep.rst
+   readline.rst
+   rlcompleter.rst
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/textwrap.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/textwrap.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f11ef4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/textwrap.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,299 @@
+:mod:`textwrap` --- Text wrapping and filling
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: textwrap
+   :synopsis: Text wrapping and filling
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/textwrap.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`textwrap` module provides some convenience functions,
+as well as :class:`TextWrapper`, the class that does all the work.
+If you're just wrapping or filling one or two text strings, the convenience
+functions should be good enough; otherwise, you should use an instance of
+:class:`TextWrapper` for efficiency.
+
+.. function:: wrap(text, width=70, **kwargs)
+
+   Wraps the single paragraph in *text* (a string) so every line is at most
+   *width* characters long.  Returns a list of output lines, without final
+   newlines.
+
+   Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
+   :class:`TextWrapper`, documented below.  *width* defaults to ``70``.
+
+   See the :meth:`TextWrapper.wrap` method for additional details on how
+   :func:`wrap` behaves.
+
+
+.. function:: fill(text, width=70, **kwargs)
+
+   Wraps the single paragraph in *text*, and returns a single string containing the
+   wrapped paragraph.  :func:`fill` is shorthand for  ::
+
+      "\n".join(wrap(text, ...))
+
+   In particular, :func:`fill` accepts exactly the same keyword arguments as
+   :func:`wrap`.
+
+
+.. function:: shorten(text, width, **kwargs)
+
+   Collapse and truncate the given *text* to fit in the given *width*.
+
+   First the whitespace in *text* is collapsed (all whitespace is replaced by
+   single spaces).  If the result fits in the *width*, it is returned.
+   Otherwise, enough words are dropped from the end so that the remaining words
+   plus the :attr:`placeholder` fit within :attr:`width`::
+
+      >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=12)
+      'Hello world!'
+      >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=11)
+      'Hello [...]'
+      >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello world", width=10, placeholder="...")
+      'Hello...'
+
+   Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
+   :class:`TextWrapper`, documented below.  Note that the whitespace is
+   collapsed before the text is passed to the :class:`TextWrapper` :meth:`fill`
+   function, so changing the value of :attr:`.tabsize`, :attr:`.expand_tabs`,
+   :attr:`.drop_whitespace`, and :attr:`.replace_whitespace` will have no effect.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: dedent(text)
+
+   Remove any common leading whitespace from every line in *text*.
+
+   This can be used to make triple-quoted strings line up with the left edge of the
+   display, while still presenting them in the source code in indented form.
+
+   Note that tabs and spaces are both treated as whitespace, but they are not
+   equal: the lines ``"  hello"`` and ``"\thello"`` are considered to have no
+   common leading whitespace.
+
+   Lines containing only whitespace are ignored in the input and normalized to a
+   single newline character in the output.
+
+   For example::
+
+      def test():
+          # end first line with \ to avoid the empty line!
+          s = '''\
+          hello
+            world
+          '''
+          print(repr(s))          # prints '    hello\n      world\n    '
+          print(repr(dedent(s)))  # prints 'hello\n  world\n'
+
+
+.. function:: indent(text, prefix, predicate=None)
+
+   Add *prefix* to the beginning of selected lines in *text*.
+
+   Lines are separated by calling ``text.splitlines(True)``.
+
+   By default, *prefix* is added to all lines that do not consist
+   solely of whitespace (including any line endings).
+
+   For example::
+
+      >>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld'
+      >>> indent(s, '  ')
+      '  hello\n\n \n  world'
+
+   The optional *predicate* argument can be used to control which lines
+   are indented. For example, it is easy to add *prefix* to even empty
+   and whitespace-only lines::
+
+      >>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True))
+      + hello
+      +
+      +
+      + world
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+:func:`wrap`, :func:`fill` and :func:`shorten` work by creating a
+:class:`TextWrapper` instance and calling a single method on it.  That
+instance is not reused, so for applications that process many text
+strings using :func:`wrap` and/or :func:`fill`, it may be more efficient to
+create your own :class:`TextWrapper` object.
+
+Text is preferably wrapped on whitespaces and right after the hyphens in
+hyphenated words; only then will long words be broken if necessary, unless
+:attr:`TextWrapper.break_long_words` is set to false.
+
+.. class:: TextWrapper(**kwargs)
+
+   The :class:`TextWrapper` constructor accepts a number of optional keyword
+   arguments.  Each keyword argument corresponds to an instance attribute, so
+   for example ::
+
+      wrapper = TextWrapper(initial_indent="* ")
+
+   is the same as  ::
+
+      wrapper = TextWrapper()
+      wrapper.initial_indent = "* "
+
+   You can re-use the same :class:`TextWrapper` object many times, and you can
+   change any of its options through direct assignment to instance attributes
+   between uses.
+
+   The :class:`TextWrapper` instance attributes (and keyword arguments to the
+   constructor) are as follows:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: width
+
+      (default: ``70``) The maximum length of wrapped lines.  As long as there
+      are no individual words in the input text longer than :attr:`width`,
+      :class:`TextWrapper` guarantees that no output line will be longer than
+      :attr:`width` characters.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: expand_tabs
+
+      (default: ``True``) If true, then all tab characters in *text* will be
+      expanded to spaces using the :meth:`expandtabs` method of *text*.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: tabsize
+
+      (default: ``8``) If :attr:`expand_tabs` is true, then all tab characters
+      in *text* will be expanded to zero or more spaces, depending on the
+      current column and the given tab size.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+   .. attribute:: replace_whitespace
+
+      (default: ``True``) If true, after tab expansion but before wrapping,
+      the :meth:`wrap` method will replace each whitespace character
+      with a single space.  The whitespace characters replaced are
+      as follows: tab, newline, vertical tab, formfeed, and carriage
+      return (``'\t\n\v\f\r'``).
+
+      .. note::
+
+         If :attr:`expand_tabs` is false and :attr:`replace_whitespace` is true,
+         each tab character will be replaced by a single space, which is *not*
+         the same as tab expansion.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         If :attr:`replace_whitespace` is false, newlines may appear in the
+         middle of a line and cause strange output. For this reason, text should
+         be split into paragraphs (using :meth:`str.splitlines` or similar)
+         which are wrapped separately.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: drop_whitespace
+
+      (default: ``True``) If true, whitespace at the beginning and ending of
+      every line (after wrapping but before indenting) is dropped.
+      Whitespace at the beginning of the paragraph, however, is not dropped
+      if non-whitespace follows it.  If whitespace being dropped takes up an
+      entire line, the whole line is dropped.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: initial_indent
+
+      (default: ``''``) String that will be prepended to the first line of
+      wrapped output.  Counts towards the length of the first line.  The empty
+      string is not indented.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: subsequent_indent
+
+      (default: ``''``) String that will be prepended to all lines of wrapped
+      output except the first.  Counts towards the length of each line except
+      the first.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: fix_sentence_endings
+
+      (default: ``False``) If true, :class:`TextWrapper` attempts to detect
+      sentence endings and ensure that sentences are always separated by exactly
+      two spaces.  This is generally desired for text in a monospaced font.
+      However, the sentence detection algorithm is imperfect: it assumes that a
+      sentence ending consists of a lowercase letter followed by one of ``'.'``,
+      ``'!'``, or ``'?'``, possibly followed by one of ``'"'`` or ``"'"``,
+      followed by a space.  One problem with this is algorithm is that it is
+      unable to detect the difference between "Dr." in ::
+
+         [...] Dr. Frankenstein's monster [...]
+
+      and "Spot." in ::
+
+         [...] See Spot. See Spot run [...]
+
+      :attr:`fix_sentence_endings` is false by default.
+
+      Since the sentence detection algorithm relies on ``string.lowercase`` for
+      the definition of "lowercase letter," and a convention of using two spaces
+      after a period to separate sentences on the same line, it is specific to
+      English-language texts.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: break_long_words
+
+      (default: ``True``) If true, then words longer than :attr:`width` will be
+      broken in order to ensure that no lines are longer than :attr:`width`.  If
+      it is false, long words will not be broken, and some lines may be longer
+      than :attr:`width`.  (Long words will be put on a line by themselves, in
+      order to minimize the amount by which :attr:`width` is exceeded.)
+
+
+   .. attribute:: break_on_hyphens
+
+      (default: ``True``) If true, wrapping will occur preferably on whitespaces
+      and right after hyphens in compound words, as it is customary in English.
+      If false, only whitespaces will be considered as potentially good places
+      for line breaks, but you need to set :attr:`break_long_words` to false if
+      you want truly insecable words.  Default behaviour in previous versions
+      was to always allow breaking hyphenated words.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: max_lines
+
+      (default: ``None``) If not ``None``, then the output will contain at most
+      *max_lines* lines, with *placeholder* appearing at the end of the output.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+   .. index:: single: ...; placeholder
+
+   .. attribute:: placeholder
+
+      (default: ``' [...]'``) String that will appear at the end of the output
+      text if it has been truncated.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+   :class:`TextWrapper` also provides some public methods, analogous to the
+   module-level convenience functions:
+
+   .. method:: wrap(text)
+
+      Wraps the single paragraph in *text* (a string) so every line is at most
+      :attr:`width` characters long.  All wrapping options are taken from
+      instance attributes of the :class:`TextWrapper` instance.  Returns a list
+      of output lines, without final newlines.  If the wrapped output has no
+      content, the returned list is empty.
+
+
+   .. method:: fill(text)
+
+      Wraps the single paragraph in *text*, and returns a single string
+      containing the wrapped paragraph.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/threading.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/threading.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c58a6ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/threading.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,998 @@
+:mod:`threading` --- Thread-based parallelism
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: threading
+   :synopsis: Thread-based parallelism.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/threading.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the lower
+level :mod:`_thread` module.  See also the :mod:`queue` module.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   This module used to be optional, it is now always available.
+
+.. note::
+
+   While they are not listed below, the ``camelCase`` names used for some
+   methods and functions in this module in the Python 2.x series are still
+   supported by this module.
+
+
+This module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: active_count()
+
+   Return the number of :class:`Thread` objects currently alive.  The returned
+   count is equal to the length of the list returned by :func:`.enumerate`.
+
+
+.. function:: current_thread()
+
+   Return the current :class:`Thread` object, corresponding to the caller's thread
+   of control.  If the caller's thread of control was not created through the
+   :mod:`threading` module, a dummy thread object with limited functionality is
+   returned.
+
+
+.. function:: get_ident()
+
+   Return the 'thread identifier' of the current thread.  This is a nonzero
+   integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended as a magic cookie
+   to be used e.g. to index a dictionary of thread-specific data.  Thread
+   identifiers may be recycled when a thread exits and another thread is
+   created.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: enumerate()
+
+   Return a list of all :class:`Thread` objects currently alive.  The list
+   includes daemonic threads, dummy thread objects created by
+   :func:`current_thread`, and the main thread.  It excludes terminated threads
+   and threads that have not yet been started.
+
+
+.. function:: main_thread()
+
+   Return the main :class:`Thread` object.  In normal conditions, the
+   main thread is the thread from which the Python interpreter was
+   started.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. function:: settrace(func)
+
+   .. index:: single: trace function
+
+   Set a trace function for all threads started from the :mod:`threading` module.
+   The *func* will be passed to  :func:`sys.settrace` for each thread, before its
+   :meth:`~Thread.run` method is called.
+
+
+.. function:: setprofile(func)
+
+   .. index:: single: profile function
+
+   Set a profile function for all threads started from the :mod:`threading` module.
+   The *func* will be passed to  :func:`sys.setprofile` for each thread, before its
+   :meth:`~Thread.run` method is called.
+
+
+.. function:: stack_size([size])
+
+   Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The optional
+   *size* argument specifies the stack size to be used for subsequently created
+   threads, and must be 0 (use platform or configured default) or a positive
+   integer value of at least 32,768 (32 KiB). If *size* is not specified,
+   0 is used.  If changing the thread stack size is
+   unsupported, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.  If the specified stack size is
+   invalid, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32 KiB
+   is currently the minimum supported stack size value to guarantee sufficient
+   stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note that some platforms may have
+   particular restrictions on values for the stack size, such as requiring a
+   minimum stack size > 32 KiB or requiring allocation in multiples of the system
+   memory page size - platform documentation should be referred to for more
+   information (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size is
+   the suggested approach in the absence of more specific information).
+
+   .. availability:: Windows, systems with POSIX threads.
+
+
+This module also defines the following constant:
+
+.. data:: TIMEOUT_MAX
+
+   The maximum value allowed for the *timeout* parameter of blocking functions
+   (:meth:`Lock.acquire`, :meth:`RLock.acquire`, :meth:`Condition.wait`, etc.).
+   Specifying a timeout greater than this value will raise an
+   :exc:`OverflowError`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+This module defines a number of classes, which are detailed in the sections
+below.
+
+The design of this module is loosely based on Java's threading model. However,
+where Java makes locks and condition variables basic behavior of every object,
+they are separate objects in Python.  Python's :class:`Thread` class supports a
+subset of the behavior of Java's Thread class; currently, there are no
+priorities, no thread groups, and threads cannot be destroyed, stopped,
+suspended, resumed, or interrupted.  The static methods of Java's Thread class,
+when implemented, are mapped to module-level functions.
+
+All of the methods described below are executed atomically.
+
+
+Thread-Local Data
+-----------------
+
+Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific.  To manage
+thread-local data, just create an instance of :class:`local` (or a
+subclass) and store attributes on it::
+
+  mydata = threading.local()
+  mydata.x = 1
+
+The instance's values will be different for separate threads.
+
+
+.. class:: local()
+
+   A class that represents thread-local data.
+
+   For more details and extensive examples, see the documentation string of the
+   :mod:`_threading_local` module.
+
+
+.. _thread-objects:
+
+Thread Objects
+--------------
+
+The :class:`Thread` class represents an activity that is run in a separate
+thread of control.  There are two ways to specify the activity: by passing a
+callable object to the constructor, or by overriding the :meth:`~Thread.run`
+method in a subclass.  No other methods (except for the constructor) should be
+overridden in a subclass.  In other words, *only*  override the
+:meth:`~Thread.__init__` and :meth:`~Thread.run` methods of this class.
+
+Once a thread object is created, its activity must be started by calling the
+thread's :meth:`~Thread.start` method.  This invokes the :meth:`~Thread.run`
+method in a separate thread of control.
+
+Once the thread's activity is started, the thread is considered 'alive'. It
+stops being alive when its :meth:`~Thread.run` method terminates -- either
+normally, or by raising an unhandled exception.  The :meth:`~Thread.is_alive`
+method tests whether the thread is alive.
+
+Other threads can call a thread's :meth:`~Thread.join` method.  This blocks
+the calling thread until the thread whose :meth:`~Thread.join` method is
+called is terminated.
+
+A thread has a name.  The name can be passed to the constructor, and read or
+changed through the :attr:`~Thread.name` attribute.
+
+A thread can be flagged as a "daemon thread".  The significance of this flag is
+that the entire Python program exits when only daemon threads are left.  The
+initial value is inherited from the creating thread.  The flag can be set
+through the :attr:`~Thread.daemon` property or the *daemon* constructor
+argument.
+
+.. note::
+   Daemon threads are abruptly stopped at shutdown.  Their resources (such
+   as open files, database transactions, etc.) may not be released properly.
+   If you want your threads to stop gracefully, make them non-daemonic and
+   use a suitable signalling mechanism such as an :class:`Event`.
+
+There is a "main thread" object; this corresponds to the initial thread of
+control in the Python program.  It is not a daemon thread.
+
+There is the possibility that "dummy thread objects" are created. These are
+thread objects corresponding to "alien threads", which are threads of control
+started outside the threading module, such as directly from C code.  Dummy
+thread objects have limited functionality; they are always considered alive and
+daemonic, and cannot be :meth:`~Thread.join`\ ed.  They are never deleted,
+since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads.
+
+
+.. class:: Thread(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}, *, \
+                  daemon=None)
+
+   This constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.  Arguments
+   are:
+
+   *group* should be ``None``; reserved for future extension when a
+   :class:`ThreadGroup` class is implemented.
+
+   *target* is the callable object to be invoked by the :meth:`run` method.
+   Defaults to ``None``, meaning nothing is called.
+
+   *name* is the thread name.  By default, a unique name is constructed of the
+   form "Thread-*N*" where *N* is a small decimal number.
+
+   *args* is the argument tuple for the target invocation.  Defaults to ``()``.
+
+   *kwargs* is a dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation.
+   Defaults to ``{}``.
+
+   If not ``None``, *daemon* explicitly sets whether the thread is daemonic.
+   If ``None`` (the default), the daemonic property is inherited from the
+   current thread.
+
+   If the subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure to invoke the
+   base class constructor (``Thread.__init__()``) before doing anything else to
+   the thread.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *daemon* argument.
+
+   .. method:: start()
+
+      Start the thread's activity.
+
+      It must be called at most once per thread object.  It arranges for the
+      object's :meth:`~Thread.run` method to be invoked in a separate thread
+      of control.
+
+      This method will raise a :exc:`RuntimeError` if called more than once
+      on the same thread object.
+
+   .. method:: run()
+
+      Method representing the thread's activity.
+
+      You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard :meth:`run`
+      method invokes the callable object passed to the object's constructor as
+      the *target* argument, if any, with positional and keyword arguments taken
+      from the *args* and *kwargs* arguments, respectively.
+
+   .. method:: join(timeout=None)
+
+      Wait until the thread terminates. This blocks the calling thread until
+      the thread whose :meth:`~Thread.join` method is called terminates -- either
+      normally or through an unhandled exception -- or until the optional
+      timeout occurs.
+
+      When the *timeout* argument is present and not ``None``, it should be a
+      floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+      (or fractions thereof). As :meth:`~Thread.join` always returns ``None``,
+      you must call :meth:`~Thread.is_alive` after :meth:`~Thread.join` to
+      decide whether a timeout happened -- if the thread is still alive, the
+      :meth:`~Thread.join` call timed out.
+
+      When the *timeout* argument is not present or ``None``, the operation will
+      block until the thread terminates.
+
+      A thread can be :meth:`~Thread.join`\ ed many times.
+
+      :meth:`~Thread.join` raises a :exc:`RuntimeError` if an attempt is made
+      to join the current thread as that would cause a deadlock. It is also
+      an error to :meth:`~Thread.join` a thread before it has been started
+      and attempts to do so raise the same exception.
+
+   .. attribute:: name
+
+      A string used for identification purposes only. It has no semantics.
+      Multiple threads may be given the same name.  The initial name is set by
+      the constructor.
+
+   .. method:: getName()
+               setName()
+
+      Old getter/setter API for :attr:`~Thread.name`; use it directly as a
+      property instead.
+
+   .. attribute:: ident
+
+      The 'thread identifier' of this thread or ``None`` if the thread has not
+      been started.  This is a nonzero integer.  See the :func:`get_ident`
+      function.  Thread identifiers may be recycled when a thread exits and
+      another thread is created.  The identifier is available even after the
+      thread has exited.
+
+   .. method:: is_alive()
+
+      Return whether the thread is alive.
+
+      This method returns ``True`` just before the :meth:`~Thread.run` method
+      starts until just after the :meth:`~Thread.run` method terminates.  The
+      module function :func:`.enumerate` returns a list of all alive threads.
+
+   .. attribute:: daemon
+
+      A boolean value indicating whether this thread is a daemon thread (True)
+      or not (False).  This must be set before :meth:`~Thread.start` is called,
+      otherwise :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.  Its initial value is inherited
+      from the creating thread; the main thread is not a daemon thread and
+      therefore all threads created in the main thread default to
+      :attr:`~Thread.daemon` = ``False``.
+
+      The entire Python program exits when no alive non-daemon threads are left.
+
+   .. method:: isDaemon()
+               setDaemon()
+
+      Old getter/setter API for :attr:`~Thread.daemon`; use it directly as a
+      property instead.
+
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   In CPython, due to the :term:`Global Interpreter Lock`, only one thread
+   can execute Python code at once (even though certain performance-oriented
+   libraries might overcome this limitation).
+   If you want your application to make better use of the computational
+   resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use
+   :mod:`multiprocessing` or :class:`concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor`.
+   However, threading is still an appropriate model if you want to run
+   multiple I/O-bound tasks simultaneously.
+
+
+.. _lock-objects:
+
+Lock Objects
+------------
+
+A primitive lock is a synchronization primitive that is not owned by a
+particular thread when locked.  In Python, it is currently the lowest level
+synchronization primitive available, implemented directly by the :mod:`_thread`
+extension module.
+
+A primitive lock is in one of two states, "locked" or "unlocked". It is created
+in the unlocked state.  It has two basic methods, :meth:`~Lock.acquire` and
+:meth:`~Lock.release`.  When the state is unlocked, :meth:`~Lock.acquire`
+changes the state to locked and returns immediately.  When the state is locked,
+:meth:`~Lock.acquire` blocks until a call to :meth:`~Lock.release` in another
+thread changes it to unlocked, then the :meth:`~Lock.acquire` call resets it
+to locked and returns.  The :meth:`~Lock.release` method should only be
+called in the locked state; it changes the state to unlocked and returns
+immediately. If an attempt is made to release an unlocked lock, a
+:exc:`RuntimeError` will be raised.
+
+Locks also support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`.
+
+When more than one thread is blocked in :meth:`~Lock.acquire` waiting for the
+state to turn to unlocked, only one thread proceeds when a :meth:`~Lock.release`
+call resets the state to unlocked; which one of the waiting threads proceeds
+is not defined, and may vary across implementations.
+
+All methods are executed atomically.
+
+
+.. class:: Lock()
+
+   The class implementing primitive lock objects.  Once a thread has acquired a
+   lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it block, until it is released; any
+   thread may release it.
+
+   Note that ``Lock`` is actually a factory function which returns an instance
+   of the most efficient version of the concrete Lock class that is supported
+   by the platform.
+
+
+   .. method:: acquire(blocking=True, timeout=-1)
+
+      Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.
+
+      When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to ``True`` (the default),
+      block until the lock is unlocked, then set it to locked and return ``True``.
+
+      When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to ``False``, do not block.
+      If a call with *blocking* set to ``True`` would block, return ``False``
+      immediately; otherwise, set the lock to locked and return ``True``.
+
+      When invoked with the floating-point *timeout* argument set to a positive
+      value, block for at most the number of seconds specified by *timeout*
+      and as long as the lock cannot be acquired.  A *timeout* argument of ``-1``
+      specifies an unbounded wait.  It is forbidden to specify a *timeout*
+      when *blocking* is false.
+
+      The return value is ``True`` if the lock is acquired successfully,
+      ``False`` if not (for example if the *timeout* expired).
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The *timeout* parameter is new.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Lock acquisition can now be interrupted by signals on POSIX if the
+         underlying threading implementation supports it.
+
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release a lock.  This can be called from any thread, not only the thread
+      which has acquired the lock.
+
+      When the lock is locked, reset it to unlocked, and return.  If any other threads
+      are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of them
+      to proceed.
+
+      When invoked on an unlocked lock, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+      There is no return value.
+
+
+.. _rlock-objects:
+
+RLock Objects
+-------------
+
+A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired multiple
+times by the same thread.  Internally, it uses the concepts of "owning thread"
+and "recursion level" in addition to the locked/unlocked state used by primitive
+locks.  In the locked state, some thread owns the lock; in the unlocked state,
+no thread owns it.
+
+To lock the lock, a thread calls its :meth:`~RLock.acquire` method; this
+returns once the thread owns the lock.  To unlock the lock, a thread calls
+its :meth:`~Lock.release` method. :meth:`~Lock.acquire`/:meth:`~Lock.release`
+call pairs may be nested; only the final :meth:`~Lock.release` (the
+:meth:`~Lock.release` of the outermost pair) resets the lock to unlocked and
+allows another thread blocked in :meth:`~Lock.acquire` to proceed.
+
+Reentrant locks also support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`.
+
+
+.. class:: RLock()
+
+   This class implements reentrant lock objects.  A reentrant lock must be
+   released by the thread that acquired it.  Once a thread has acquired a
+   reentrant lock, the same thread may acquire it again without blocking; the
+   thread must release it once for each time it has acquired it.
+
+   Note that ``RLock`` is actually a factory function which returns an instance
+   of the most efficient version of the concrete RLock class that is supported
+   by the platform.
+
+
+   .. method:: acquire(blocking=True, timeout=-1)
+
+      Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.
+
+      When invoked without arguments: if this thread already owns the lock, increment
+      the recursion level by one, and return immediately.  Otherwise, if another
+      thread owns the lock, block until the lock is unlocked.  Once the lock is
+      unlocked (not owned by any thread), then grab ownership, set the recursion level
+      to one, and return.  If more than one thread is blocked waiting until the lock
+      is unlocked, only one at a time will be able to grab ownership of the lock.
+      There is no return value in this case.
+
+      When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to true, do the same thing as when
+      called without arguments, and return true.
+
+      When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to false, do not block.  If a call
+      without an argument would block, return false immediately; otherwise, do the
+      same thing as when called without arguments, and return true.
+
+      When invoked with the floating-point *timeout* argument set to a positive
+      value, block for at most the number of seconds specified by *timeout*
+      and as long as the lock cannot be acquired.  Return true if the lock has
+      been acquired, false if the timeout has elapsed.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The *timeout* parameter is new.
+
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after the decrement it is
+      zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not owned by any thread), and if any other
+      threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one
+      of them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level is still
+      nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the calling thread.
+
+      Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock. A
+      :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised if this method is called when the lock is
+      unlocked.
+
+      There is no return value.
+
+
+.. _condition-objects:
+
+Condition Objects
+-----------------
+
+A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this can be
+passed in or one will be created by default.  Passing one in is useful when
+several condition variables must share the same lock.  The lock is part of
+the condition object: you don't have to track it separately.
+
+A condition variable obeys the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`:
+using the ``with`` statement acquires the associated lock for the duration of
+the enclosed block.  The :meth:`~Condition.acquire` and
+:meth:`~Condition.release` methods also call the corresponding methods of
+the associated lock.
+
+Other methods must be called with the associated lock held.  The
+:meth:`~Condition.wait` method releases the lock, and then blocks until
+another thread awakens it by calling :meth:`~Condition.notify` or
+:meth:`~Condition.notify_all`.  Once awakened, :meth:`~Condition.wait`
+re-acquires the lock and returns.  It is also possible to specify a timeout.
+
+The :meth:`~Condition.notify` method wakes up one of the threads waiting for
+the condition variable, if any are waiting.  The :meth:`~Condition.notify_all`
+method wakes up all threads waiting for the condition variable.
+
+Note: the :meth:`~Condition.notify` and :meth:`~Condition.notify_all` methods
+don't release the lock; this means that the thread or threads awakened will
+not return from their :meth:`~Condition.wait` call immediately, but only when
+the thread that called :meth:`~Condition.notify` or :meth:`~Condition.notify_all`
+finally relinquishes ownership of the lock.
+
+The typical programming style using condition variables uses the lock to
+synchronize access to some shared state; threads that are interested in a
+particular change of state call :meth:`~Condition.wait` repeatedly until they
+see the desired state, while threads that modify the state call
+:meth:`~Condition.notify` or :meth:`~Condition.notify_all` when they change
+the state in such a way that it could possibly be a desired state for one
+of the waiters.  For example, the following code is a generic
+producer-consumer situation with unlimited buffer capacity::
+
+   # Consume one item
+   with cv:
+       while not an_item_is_available():
+           cv.wait()
+       get_an_available_item()
+
+   # Produce one item
+   with cv:
+       make_an_item_available()
+       cv.notify()
+
+The ``while`` loop checking for the application's condition is necessary
+because :meth:`~Condition.wait` can return after an arbitrary long time,
+and the condition which prompted the :meth:`~Condition.notify` call may
+no longer hold true.  This is inherent to multi-threaded programming.  The
+:meth:`~Condition.wait_for` method can be used to automate the condition
+checking, and eases the computation of timeouts::
+
+   # Consume an item
+   with cv:
+       cv.wait_for(an_item_is_available)
+       get_an_available_item()
+
+To choose between :meth:`~Condition.notify` and :meth:`~Condition.notify_all`,
+consider whether one state change can be interesting for only one or several
+waiting threads.  E.g. in a typical producer-consumer situation, adding one
+item to the buffer only needs to wake up one consumer thread.
+
+
+.. class:: Condition(lock=None)
+
+   This class implements condition variable objects.  A condition variable
+   allows one or more threads to wait until they are notified by another thread.
+
+   If the *lock* argument is given and not ``None``, it must be a :class:`Lock`
+   or :class:`RLock` object, and it is used as the underlying lock.  Otherwise,
+   a new :class:`RLock` object is created and used as the underlying lock.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      changed from a factory function to a class.
+
+   .. method:: acquire(*args)
+
+      Acquire the underlying lock. This method calls the corresponding method on
+      the underlying lock; the return value is whatever that method returns.
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release the underlying lock. This method calls the corresponding method on
+      the underlying lock; there is no return value.
+
+   .. method:: wait(timeout=None)
+
+      Wait until notified or until a timeout occurs. If the calling thread has
+      not acquired the lock when this method is called, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is
+      raised.
+
+      This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks until it is
+      awakened by a :meth:`notify` or :meth:`notify_all` call for the same
+      condition variable in another thread, or until the optional timeout
+      occurs.  Once awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.
+
+      When the *timeout* argument is present and not ``None``, it should be a
+      floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+      (or fractions thereof).
+
+      When the underlying lock is an :class:`RLock`, it is not released using
+      its :meth:`release` method, since this may not actually unlock the lock
+      when it was acquired multiple times recursively.  Instead, an internal
+      interface of the :class:`RLock` class is used, which really unlocks it
+      even when it has been recursively acquired several times. Another internal
+      interface is then used to restore the recursion level when the lock is
+      reacquired.
+
+      The return value is ``True`` unless a given *timeout* expired, in which
+      case it is ``False``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Previously, the method always returned ``None``.
+
+   .. method:: wait_for(predicate, timeout=None)
+
+      Wait until a condition evaluates to true.  *predicate* should be a
+      callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean value.
+      A *timeout* may be provided giving the maximum time to wait.
+
+      This utility method may call :meth:`wait` repeatedly until the predicate
+      is satisfied, or until a timeout occurs. The return value is
+      the last return value of the predicate and will evaluate to
+      ``False`` if the method timed out.
+
+      Ignoring the timeout feature, calling this method is roughly equivalent to
+      writing::
+
+        while not predicate():
+            cv.wait()
+
+      Therefore, the same rules apply as with :meth:`wait`: The lock must be
+      held when called and is re-acquired on return.  The predicate is evaluated
+      with the lock held.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. method:: notify(n=1)
+
+      By default, wake up one thread waiting on this condition, if any.  If the
+      calling thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
+      :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+      This method wakes up at most *n* of the threads waiting for the condition
+      variable; it is a no-op if no threads are waiting.
+
+      The current implementation wakes up exactly *n* threads, if at least *n*
+      threads are waiting.  However, it's not safe to rely on this behavior.
+      A future, optimized implementation may occasionally wake up more than
+      *n* threads.
+
+      Note: an awakened thread does not actually return from its :meth:`wait`
+      call until it can reacquire the lock.  Since :meth:`notify` does not
+      release the lock, its caller should.
+
+   .. method:: notify_all()
+
+      Wake up all threads waiting on this condition.  This method acts like
+      :meth:`notify`, but wakes up all waiting threads instead of one. If the
+      calling thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
+      :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. _semaphore-objects:
+
+Semaphore Objects
+-----------------
+
+This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of computer
+science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra (he
+used the names ``P()`` and ``V()`` instead of :meth:`~Semaphore.acquire` and
+:meth:`~Semaphore.release`).
+
+A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
+:meth:`~Semaphore.acquire` call and incremented by each :meth:`~Semaphore.release`
+call.  The counter can never go below zero; when :meth:`~Semaphore.acquire`
+finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other thread calls
+:meth:`~Semaphore.release`.
+
+Semaphores also support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`.
+
+
+.. class:: Semaphore(value=1)
+
+   This class implements semaphore objects.  A semaphore manages an atomic
+   counter representing the number of :meth:`release` calls minus the number of
+   :meth:`acquire` calls, plus an initial value.  The :meth:`acquire` method
+   blocks if necessary until it can return without making the counter negative.
+   If not given, *value* defaults to 1.
+
+   The optional argument gives the initial *value* for the internal counter; it
+   defaults to ``1``. If the *value* given is less than 0, :exc:`ValueError` is
+   raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      changed from a factory function to a class.
+
+   .. method:: acquire(blocking=True, timeout=None)
+
+      Acquire a semaphore.
+
+      When invoked without arguments:
+
+      * If the internal counter is larger than zero on entry, decrement it by
+        one and return true immediately.
+      * If the internal counter is zero on entry, block until awoken by a call to
+        :meth:`~Semaphore.release`.  Once awoken (and the counter is greater
+        than 0), decrement the counter by 1 and return true.  Exactly one
+        thread will be awoken by each call to :meth:`~Semaphore.release`.  The
+        order in which threads are awoken should not be relied on.
+
+      When invoked with *blocking* set to false, do not block.  If a call
+      without an argument would block, return false immediately; otherwise, do
+      the same thing as when called without arguments, and return true.
+
+      When invoked with a *timeout* other than ``None``, it will block for at
+      most *timeout* seconds.  If acquire does not complete successfully in
+      that interval, return false.  Return true otherwise.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The *timeout* parameter is new.
+
+   .. method:: release()
+
+      Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by one.  When it
+      was zero on entry and another thread is waiting for it to become larger
+      than zero again, wake up that thread.
+
+
+.. class:: BoundedSemaphore(value=1)
+
+   Class implementing bounded semaphore objects.  A bounded semaphore checks to
+   make sure its current value doesn't exceed its initial value.  If it does,
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised. In most situations semaphores are used to guard
+   resources with limited capacity.  If the semaphore is released too many times
+   it's a sign of a bug.  If not given, *value* defaults to 1.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      changed from a factory function to a class.
+
+
+.. _semaphore-examples:
+
+:class:`Semaphore` Example
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for example,
+a database server.  In any situation where the size of the resource is fixed,
+you should use a bounded semaphore.  Before spawning any worker threads, your
+main thread would initialize the semaphore::
+
+   maxconnections = 5
+   # ...
+   pool_sema = BoundedSemaphore(value=maxconnections)
+
+Once spawned, worker threads call the semaphore's acquire and release methods
+when they need to connect to the server::
+
+   with pool_sema:
+       conn = connectdb()
+       try:
+           # ... use connection ...
+       finally:
+           conn.close()
+
+The use of a bounded semaphore reduces the chance that a programming error which
+causes the semaphore to be released more than it's acquired will go undetected.
+
+
+.. _event-objects:
+
+Event Objects
+-------------
+
+This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between threads: one
+thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.
+
+An event object manages an internal flag that can be set to true with the
+:meth:`~Event.set` method and reset to false with the :meth:`~Event.clear`
+method.  The :meth:`~Event.wait` method blocks until the flag is true.
+
+
+.. class:: Event()
+
+   Class implementing event objects.  An event manages a flag that can be set to
+   true with the :meth:`~Event.set` method and reset to false with the
+   :meth:`clear` method.  The :meth:`wait` method blocks until the flag is true.
+   The flag is initially false.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      changed from a factory function to a class.
+
+   .. method:: is_set()
+
+      Return true if and only if the internal flag is true.
+
+   .. method:: set()
+
+      Set the internal flag to true. All threads waiting for it to become true
+      are awakened. Threads that call :meth:`wait` once the flag is true will
+      not block at all.
+
+   .. method:: clear()
+
+      Reset the internal flag to false. Subsequently, threads calling
+      :meth:`wait` will block until :meth:`.set` is called to set the internal
+      flag to true again.
+
+   .. method:: wait(timeout=None)
+
+      Block until the internal flag is true.  If the internal flag is true on
+      entry, return immediately.  Otherwise, block until another thread calls
+      :meth:`.set` to set the flag to true, or until the optional timeout occurs.
+
+      When the timeout argument is present and not ``None``, it should be a
+      floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+      (or fractions thereof).
+
+      This method returns true if and only if the internal flag has been set to
+      true, either before the wait call or after the wait starts, so it will
+      always return ``True`` except if a timeout is given and the operation
+      times out.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+         Previously, the method always returned ``None``.
+
+
+.. _timer-objects:
+
+Timer Objects
+-------------
+
+This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain amount
+of time has passed --- a timer.  :class:`Timer` is a subclass of :class:`Thread`
+and as such also functions as an example of creating custom threads.
+
+Timers are started, as with threads, by calling their :meth:`~Timer.start`
+method.  The timer can be stopped (before its action has begun) by calling the
+:meth:`~Timer.cancel` method.  The interval the timer will wait before
+executing its action may not be exactly the same as the interval specified by
+the user.
+
+For example::
+
+   def hello():
+       print("hello, world")
+
+   t = Timer(30.0, hello)
+   t.start()  # after 30 seconds, "hello, world" will be printed
+
+
+.. class:: Timer(interval, function, args=None, kwargs=None)
+
+   Create a timer that will run *function* with arguments *args* and  keyword
+   arguments *kwargs*, after *interval* seconds have passed.
+   If *args* is ``None`` (the default) then an empty list will be used.
+   If *kwargs* is ``None`` (the default) then an empty dict will be used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      changed from a factory function to a class.
+
+   .. method:: cancel()
+
+      Stop the timer, and cancel the execution of the timer's action.  This will
+      only work if the timer is still in its waiting stage.
+
+
+Barrier Objects
+---------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+This class provides a simple synchronization primitive for use by a fixed number
+of threads that need to wait for each other.  Each of the threads tries to pass
+the barrier by calling the :meth:`~Barrier.wait` method and will block until
+all of the threads have made their :meth:`~Barrier.wait` calls. At this point,
+the threads are released simultaneously.
+
+The barrier can be reused any number of times for the same number of threads.
+
+As an example, here is a simple way to synchronize a client and server thread::
+
+   b = Barrier(2, timeout=5)
+
+   def server():
+       start_server()
+       b.wait()
+       while True:
+           connection = accept_connection()
+           process_server_connection(connection)
+
+   def client():
+       b.wait()
+       while True:
+           connection = make_connection()
+           process_client_connection(connection)
+
+
+.. class:: Barrier(parties, action=None, timeout=None)
+
+   Create a barrier object for *parties* number of threads.  An *action*, when
+   provided, is a callable to be called by one of the threads when they are
+   released.  *timeout* is the default timeout value if none is specified for
+   the :meth:`wait` method.
+
+   .. method:: wait(timeout=None)
+
+      Pass the barrier.  When all the threads party to the barrier have called
+      this function, they are all released simultaneously.  If a *timeout* is
+      provided, it is used in preference to any that was supplied to the class
+      constructor.
+
+      The return value is an integer in the range 0 to *parties* -- 1, different
+      for each thread.  This can be used to select a thread to do some special
+      housekeeping, e.g.::
+
+         i = barrier.wait()
+         if i == 0:
+             # Only one thread needs to print this
+             print("passed the barrier")
+
+      If an *action* was provided to the constructor, one of the threads will
+      have called it prior to being released.  Should this call raise an error,
+      the barrier is put into the broken state.
+
+      If the call times out, the barrier is put into the broken state.
+
+      This method may raise a :class:`BrokenBarrierError` exception if the
+      barrier is broken or reset while a thread is waiting.
+
+   .. method:: reset()
+
+      Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any threads waiting on it
+      will receive the :class:`BrokenBarrierError` exception.
+
+      Note that using this function may can require some external
+      synchronization if there are other threads whose state is unknown.  If a
+      barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and create a new one.
+
+   .. method:: abort()
+
+      Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active or future
+      calls to :meth:`wait` to fail with the :class:`BrokenBarrierError`.  Use
+      this for example if one of the needs to abort, to avoid deadlocking the
+      application.
+
+      It may be preferable to simply create the barrier with a sensible
+      *timeout* value to automatically guard against one of the threads going
+      awry.
+
+   .. attribute:: parties
+
+      The number of threads required to pass the barrier.
+
+   .. attribute:: n_waiting
+
+      The number of threads currently waiting in the barrier.
+
+   .. attribute:: broken
+
+      A boolean that is ``True`` if the barrier is in the broken state.
+
+
+.. exception:: BrokenBarrierError
+
+   This exception, a subclass of :exc:`RuntimeError`, is raised when the
+   :class:`Barrier` object is reset or broken.
+
+
+.. _with-locks:
+
+Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the :keyword:`!with` statement
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+All of the objects provided by this module that have :meth:`acquire` and
+:meth:`release` methods can be used as context managers for a :keyword:`with`
+statement.  The :meth:`acquire` method will be called when the block is
+entered, and :meth:`release` will be called when the block is exited.  Hence,
+the following snippet::
+
+   with some_lock:
+       # do something...
+
+is equivalent to::
+
+   some_lock.acquire()
+   try:
+       # do something...
+   finally:
+       some_lock.release()
+
+Currently, :class:`Lock`, :class:`RLock`, :class:`Condition`,
+:class:`Semaphore`, and :class:`BoundedSemaphore` objects may be used as
+:keyword:`with` statement context managers.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/time.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/time.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4230c19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/time.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,887 @@
+:mod:`time` --- Time access and conversions
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: time
+   :synopsis: Time access and conversions.
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides various time-related functions. For related
+functionality, see also the :mod:`datetime` and :mod:`calendar` modules.
+
+Although this module is always available,
+not all functions are available on all platforms.  Most of the functions
+defined in this module call platform C library functions with the same name.  It
+may sometimes be helpful to consult the platform documentation, because the
+semantics of these functions varies among platforms.
+
+An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order.
+
+.. _epoch:
+
+.. index:: single: epoch
+
+* The :dfn:`epoch` is the point where the time starts, and is platform
+  dependent.  For Unix, the epoch is January 1, 1970, 00:00:00 (UTC).
+  To find out what the epoch is on a given platform, look at
+  ``time.gmtime(0)``.
+
+.. _leap seconds: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second
+
+.. index:: seconds since the epoch
+
+* The term :dfn:`seconds since the epoch` refers to the total number
+  of elapsed seconds since the epoch, typically excluding
+  `leap seconds`_.  Leap seconds are excluded from this total on all
+  POSIX-compliant platforms.
+
+.. index:: single: Year 2038
+
+* The functions in this module may not handle dates and times before the epoch or
+  far in the future.  The cut-off point in the future is determined by the C
+  library; for 32-bit systems, it is typically in 2038.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Year 2000
+   single: Y2K
+
+.. _time-y2kissues:
+
+* **Year 2000 (Y2K) issues**: Python depends on the platform's C library, which
+  generally doesn't have year 2000 issues, since all dates and times are
+  represented internally as seconds since the epoch.  Function :func:`strptime`
+  can parse 2-digit years when given ``%y`` format code.  When 2-digit years are
+  parsed, they are converted according to the POSIX and ISO C standards: values
+  69--99 are mapped to 1969--1999, and values 0--68 are mapped to 2000--2068.
+
+.. index::
+   single: UTC
+   single: Coordinated Universal Time
+   single: Greenwich Mean Time
+
+* UTC is Coordinated Universal Time (formerly known as Greenwich Mean Time, or
+  GMT).  The acronym UTC is not a mistake but a compromise between English and
+  French.
+
+.. index:: single: Daylight Saving Time
+
+* DST is Daylight Saving Time, an adjustment of the timezone by (usually) one
+  hour during part of the year.  DST rules are magic (determined by local law) and
+  can change from year to year.  The C library has a table containing the local
+  rules (often it is read from a system file for flexibility) and is the only
+  source of True Wisdom in this respect.
+
+* The precision of the various real-time functions may be less than suggested by
+  the units in which their value or argument is expressed. E.g. on most Unix
+  systems, the clock "ticks" only 50 or 100 times a second.
+
+* On the other hand, the precision of :func:`.time` and :func:`sleep` is better
+  than their Unix equivalents: times are expressed as floating point numbers,
+  :func:`.time` returns the most accurate time available (using Unix
+  :c:func:`gettimeofday` where available), and :func:`sleep` will accept a time
+  with a nonzero fraction (Unix :c:func:`select` is used to implement this, where
+  available).
+
+* The time value as returned by :func:`gmtime`, :func:`localtime`, and
+  :func:`strptime`, and accepted by :func:`asctime`, :func:`mktime` and
+  :func:`strftime`, is a sequence of 9 integers.  The return values of
+  :func:`gmtime`, :func:`localtime`, and :func:`strptime` also offer attribute
+  names for individual fields.
+
+  See :class:`struct_time` for a description of these objects.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+     The :class:`struct_time` type was extended to provide the :attr:`tm_gmtoff`
+     and :attr:`tm_zone` attributes when platform supports corresponding
+     ``struct tm`` members.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+     The :class:`struct_time` attributes :attr:`tm_gmtoff` and :attr:`tm_zone`
+     are now available on all platforms.
+
+* Use the following functions to convert between time representations:
+
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+  | From                    | To                      | Use                     |
+  +=========================+=========================+=========================+
+  | seconds since the epoch | :class:`struct_time` in | :func:`gmtime`          |
+  |                         | UTC                     |                         |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+  | seconds since the epoch | :class:`struct_time` in | :func:`localtime`       |
+  |                         | local time              |                         |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+  | :class:`struct_time` in | seconds since the epoch | :func:`calendar.timegm` |
+  | UTC                     |                         |                         |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+  | :class:`struct_time` in | seconds since the epoch | :func:`mktime`          |
+  | local time              |                         |                         |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+
+
+.. _time-functions:
+
+Functions
+---------
+
+.. function:: asctime([t])
+
+   Convert a tuple or :class:`struct_time` representing a time as returned by
+   :func:`gmtime` or :func:`localtime` to a string of the following
+   form: ``'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'``.  If *t* is not provided, the current time
+   as returned by :func:`localtime` is used. Locale information is not used by
+   :func:`asctime`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Unlike the C function of the same name, :func:`asctime` does not add a
+      trailing newline.
+
+
+.. function:: clock()
+
+   .. index::
+      single: CPU time
+      single: processor time
+      single: benchmarking
+
+   On Unix, return the current processor time as a floating point number expressed
+   in seconds.  The precision, and in fact the very definition of the meaning of
+   "processor time", depends on that of the C function of the same name.
+
+   On Windows, this function returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first
+   call to this function, as a floating point number, based on the Win32 function
+   :c:func:`QueryPerformanceCounter`. The resolution is typically better than one
+   microsecond.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 3.8
+      The behaviour of this function depends on the platform: use
+      :func:`perf_counter` or :func:`process_time` instead, depending on your
+      requirements, to have a well defined behaviour.
+
+.. function:: pthread_getcpuclockid(thread_id)
+
+   Return the *clk_id* of the thread-specific CPU-time clock for the specified *thread_id*.
+
+   Use :func:`threading.get_ident` or the :attr:`~threading.Thread.ident`
+   attribute of :class:`threading.Thread` objects to get a suitable value
+   for *thread_id*.
+
+   .. warning::
+      Passing an invalid or expired *thread_id* may result in
+      undefined behavior, such as segmentation fault.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix (see the man page for :manpage:`pthread_getcpuclockid(3)` for
+      further information).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: clock_getres(clk_id)
+
+   Return the resolution (precision) of the specified clock *clk_id*.  Refer to
+   :ref:`time-clock-id-constants` for a list of accepted values for *clk_id*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: clock_gettime(clk_id) -> float
+
+   Return the time of the specified clock *clk_id*.  Refer to
+   :ref:`time-clock-id-constants` for a list of accepted values for *clk_id*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: clock_gettime_ns(clk_id) -> int
+
+   Similar to :func:`clock_gettime` but return time as nanoseconds.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: clock_settime(clk_id, time: float)
+
+   Set the time of the specified clock *clk_id*.  Currently,
+   :data:`CLOCK_REALTIME` is the only accepted value for *clk_id*.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: clock_settime_ns(clk_id, time: int)
+
+   Similar to :func:`clock_settime` but set time with nanoseconds.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: ctime([secs])
+
+   Convert a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a string representing
+   local time. If *secs* is not provided or :const:`None`, the current time as
+   returned by :func:`.time` is used.  ``ctime(secs)`` is equivalent to
+   ``asctime(localtime(secs))``. Locale information is not used by :func:`ctime`.
+
+
+.. function:: get_clock_info(name)
+
+   Get information on the specified clock as a namespace object.
+   Supported clock names and the corresponding functions to read their value
+   are:
+
+   * ``'clock'``: :func:`time.clock`
+   * ``'monotonic'``: :func:`time.monotonic`
+   * ``'perf_counter'``: :func:`time.perf_counter`
+   * ``'process_time'``: :func:`time.process_time`
+   * ``'thread_time'``: :func:`time.thread_time`
+   * ``'time'``: :func:`time.time`
+
+   The result has the following attributes:
+
+   - *adjustable*: ``True`` if the clock can be changed automatically (e.g. by
+     a NTP daemon) or manually by the system administrator, ``False`` otherwise
+   - *implementation*: The name of the underlying C function used to get
+     the clock value.  Refer to :ref:`time-clock-id-constants` for possible values.
+   - *monotonic*: ``True`` if the clock cannot go backward,
+     ``False`` otherwise
+   - *resolution*: The resolution of the clock in seconds (:class:`float`)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: gmtime([secs])
+
+   Convert a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a :class:`struct_time` in
+   UTC in which the dst flag is always zero.  If *secs* is not provided or
+   :const:`None`, the current time as returned by :func:`.time` is used.  Fractions
+   of a second are ignored.  See above for a description of the
+   :class:`struct_time` object. See :func:`calendar.timegm` for the inverse of this
+   function.
+
+
+.. function:: localtime([secs])
+
+   Like :func:`gmtime` but converts to local time.  If *secs* is not provided or
+   :const:`None`, the current time as returned by :func:`.time` is used.  The dst
+   flag is set to ``1`` when DST applies to the given time.
+
+
+.. function:: mktime(t)
+
+   This is the inverse function of :func:`localtime`.  Its argument is the
+   :class:`struct_time` or full 9-tuple (since the dst flag is needed; use ``-1``
+   as the dst flag if it is unknown) which expresses the time in *local* time, not
+   UTC.  It returns a floating point number, for compatibility with :func:`.time`.
+   If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either
+   :exc:`OverflowError` or :exc:`ValueError` will be raised (which depends on
+   whether the invalid value is caught by Python or the underlying C libraries).
+   The earliest date for which it can generate a time is platform-dependent.
+
+
+.. function:: monotonic() -> float
+
+   Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a monotonic clock, i.e. a clock
+   that cannot go backwards.  The clock is not affected by system clock updates.
+   The reference point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the
+   difference between the results of consecutive calls is valid.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function is now always available and always system-wide.
+
+
+.. function:: monotonic_ns() -> int
+
+   Similar to :func:`monotonic`, but return time as nanoseconds.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: perf_counter() -> float
+
+   .. index::
+      single: benchmarking
+
+   Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a performance counter, i.e. a
+   clock with the highest available resolution to measure a short duration.  It
+   does include time elapsed during sleep and is system-wide.  The reference
+   point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between
+   the results of consecutive calls is valid.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: perf_counter_ns() -> int
+
+   Similar to :func:`perf_counter`, but return time as nanoseconds.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: process_time() -> float
+
+   .. index::
+      single: CPU time
+      single: processor time
+      single: benchmarking
+
+   Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system and user
+   CPU time of the current process.  It does not include time elapsed during
+   sleep.  It is process-wide by definition.  The reference point of the
+   returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between the results
+   of consecutive calls is valid.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: process_time_ns() -> int
+
+   Similar to :func:`process_time` but return time as nanoseconds.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: sleep(secs)
+
+   Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of seconds.
+   The argument may be a floating point number to indicate a more precise sleep
+   time. The actual suspension time may be less than that requested because any
+   caught signal will terminate the :func:`sleep` following execution of that
+   signal's catching routine.  Also, the suspension time may be longer than
+   requested by an arbitrary amount because of the scheduling of other activity
+   in the system.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The function now sleeps at least *secs* even if the sleep is interrupted
+      by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+      :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: % (percent); datetime format
+
+.. function:: strftime(format[, t])
+
+   Convert a tuple or :class:`struct_time` representing a time as returned by
+   :func:`gmtime` or :func:`localtime` to a string as specified by the *format*
+   argument.  If *t* is not provided, the current time as returned by
+   :func:`localtime` is used.  *format* must be a string.  :exc:`ValueError` is
+   raised if any field in *t* is outside of the allowed range.
+
+   0 is a legal argument for any position in the time tuple; if it is normally
+   illegal the value is forced to a correct one.
+
+   The following directives can be embedded in the *format* string. They are shown
+   without the optional field width and precision specification, and are replaced
+   by the indicated characters in the :func:`strftime` result:
+
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | Directive | Meaning                                        | Notes |
+   +===========+================================================+=======+
+   | ``%a``    | Locale's abbreviated weekday name.             |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%A``    | Locale's full weekday name.                    |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%b``    | Locale's abbreviated month name.               |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%B``    | Locale's full month name.                      |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%c``    | Locale's appropriate date and time             |       |
+   |           | representation.                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%d``    | Day of the month as a decimal number [01,31].  |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%H``    | Hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number       |       |
+   |           | [00,23].                                       |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%I``    | Hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number       |       |
+   |           | [01,12].                                       |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%j``    | Day of the year as a decimal number [001,366]. |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%m``    | Month as a decimal number [01,12].             |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%M``    | Minute as a decimal number [00,59].            |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%p``    | Locale's equivalent of either AM or PM.        | \(1)  |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%S``    | Second as a decimal number [00,61].            | \(2)  |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%U``    | Week number of the year (Sunday as the first   | \(3)  |
+   |           | day of the week) as a decimal number [00,53].  |       |
+   |           | All days in a new year preceding the first     |       |
+   |           | Sunday are considered to be in week 0.         |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%w``    | Weekday as a decimal number [0(Sunday),6].     |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%W``    | Week number of the year (Monday as the first   | \(3)  |
+   |           | day of the week) as a decimal number [00,53].  |       |
+   |           | All days in a new year preceding the first     |       |
+   |           | Monday are considered to be in week 0.         |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%x``    | Locale's appropriate date representation.      |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%X``    | Locale's appropriate time representation.      |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%y``    | Year without century as a decimal number       |       |
+   |           | [00,99].                                       |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%Y``    | Year with century as a decimal number.         |       |
+   |           |                                                |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%z``    | Time zone offset indicating a positive or      |       |
+   |           | negative time difference from UTC/GMT of the   |       |
+   |           | form +HHMM or -HHMM, where H represents decimal|       |
+   |           | hour digits and M represents decimal minute    |       |
+   |           | digits [-23:59, +23:59].                       |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%Z``    | Time zone name (no characters if no time zone  |       |
+   |           | exists).                                       |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+   | ``%%``    | A literal ``'%'`` character.                   |       |
+   +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+
+   Notes:
+
+   (1)
+      When used with the :func:`strptime` function, the ``%p`` directive only affects
+      the output hour field if the ``%I`` directive is used to parse the hour.
+
+   (2)
+      The range really is ``0`` to ``61``; value ``60`` is valid in
+      timestamps representing `leap seconds`_ and value ``61`` is supported
+      for historical reasons.
+
+   (3)
+      When used with the :func:`strptime` function, ``%U`` and ``%W`` are only used in
+      calculations when the day of the week and the year are specified.
+
+   Here is an example, a format for dates compatible with that specified  in the
+   :rfc:`2822` Internet email standard.  [#]_ ::
+
+      >>> from time import gmtime, strftime
+      >>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
+      'Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000'
+
+   Additional directives may be supported on certain platforms, but only the
+   ones listed here have a meaning standardized by ANSI C.  To see the full set
+   of format codes supported on your platform, consult the :manpage:`strftime(3)`
+   documentation.
+
+   On some platforms, an optional field width and precision specification can
+   immediately follow the initial ``'%'`` of a directive in the following order;
+   this is also not portable. The field width is normally 2 except for ``%j`` where
+   it is 3.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: % (percent); datetime format
+
+.. function:: strptime(string[, format])
+
+   Parse a string representing a time according to a format.  The return value
+   is a :class:`struct_time` as returned by :func:`gmtime` or
+   :func:`localtime`.
+
+   The *format* parameter uses the same directives as those used by
+   :func:`strftime`; it defaults to ``"%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y"`` which matches the
+   formatting returned by :func:`ctime`. If *string* cannot be parsed according
+   to *format*, or if it has excess data after parsing, :exc:`ValueError` is
+   raised. The default values used to fill in any missing data when more
+   accurate values cannot be inferred are ``(1900, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, -1)``.
+   Both *string* and *format* must be strings.
+
+   For example:
+
+      >>> import time
+      >>> time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")   # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+      time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,
+                       tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)
+
+   Support for the ``%Z`` directive is based on the values contained in ``tzname``
+   and whether ``daylight`` is true.  Because of this, it is platform-specific
+   except for recognizing UTC and GMT which are always known (and are considered to
+   be non-daylight savings timezones).
+
+   Only the directives specified in the documentation are supported.  Because
+   ``strftime()`` is implemented per platform it can sometimes offer more
+   directives than those listed.  But ``strptime()`` is independent of any platform
+   and thus does not necessarily support all directives available that are not
+   documented as supported.
+
+
+.. class:: struct_time
+
+   The type of the time value sequence returned by :func:`gmtime`,
+   :func:`localtime`, and :func:`strptime`.  It is an object with a :term:`named
+   tuple` interface: values can be accessed by index and by attribute name.  The
+   following values are present:
+
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | Index | Attribute         | Values                          |
+   +=======+===================+=================================+
+   | 0     | :attr:`tm_year`   | (for example, 1993)             |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 1     | :attr:`tm_mon`    | range [1, 12]                   |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 2     | :attr:`tm_mday`   | range [1, 31]                   |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 3     | :attr:`tm_hour`   | range [0, 23]                   |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 4     | :attr:`tm_min`    | range [0, 59]                   |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 5     | :attr:`tm_sec`    | range [0, 61]; see **(2)** in   |
+   |       |                   | :func:`strftime` description    |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 6     | :attr:`tm_wday`   | range [0, 6], Monday is 0       |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 7     | :attr:`tm_yday`   | range [1, 366]                  |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | 8     | :attr:`tm_isdst`  | 0, 1 or -1; see below           |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | N/A   | :attr:`tm_zone`   | abbreviation of timezone name   |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+   | N/A   | :attr:`tm_gmtoff` | offset east of UTC in seconds   |
+   +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
+
+   Note that unlike the C structure, the month value is a range of [1, 12], not
+   [0, 11].
+
+   In calls to :func:`mktime`, :attr:`tm_isdst` may be set to 1 when daylight
+   savings time is in effect, and 0 when it is not.  A value of -1 indicates that
+   this is not known, and will usually result in the correct state being filled in.
+
+   When a tuple with an incorrect length is passed to a function expecting a
+   :class:`struct_time`, or having elements of the wrong type, a
+   :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+.. function:: time() -> float
+
+   Return the time in seconds since the epoch_ as a floating point
+   number. The specific date of the epoch and the handling of
+   `leap seconds`_ is platform dependent.
+   On Windows and most Unix systems, the epoch is January 1, 1970,
+   00:00:00 (UTC) and leap seconds are not counted towards the time
+   in seconds since the epoch. This is commonly referred to as
+   `Unix time <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time>`_.
+   To find out what the epoch is on a given platform, look at
+   ``gmtime(0)``.
+
+   Note that even though the time is always returned as a floating point
+   number, not all systems provide time with a better precision than 1 second.
+   While this function normally returns non-decreasing values, it can return a
+   lower value than a previous call if the system clock has been set back
+   between the two calls.
+
+   The number returned by :func:`.time` may be converted into a more common
+   time format (i.e. year, month, day, hour, etc...) in UTC by passing it to
+   :func:`gmtime` function or in local time by passing it to the
+   :func:`localtime` function. In both cases a
+   :class:`struct_time` object is returned, from which the components
+   of the calendar date may be accessed as attributes.
+
+
+.. function:: thread_time() -> float
+
+   .. index::
+      single: CPU time
+      single: processor time
+      single: benchmarking
+
+   Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system and user
+   CPU time of the current thread.  It does not include time elapsed during
+   sleep.  It is thread-specific by definition.  The reference point of the
+   returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between the results
+   of consecutive calls in the same thread is valid.
+
+   .. availability::  Windows, Linux, Unix systems supporting
+      ``CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: thread_time_ns() -> int
+
+   Similar to :func:`thread_time` but return time as nanoseconds.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. function:: time_ns() -> int
+
+   Similar to :func:`time` but returns time as an integer number of nanoseconds
+   since the epoch_.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. function:: tzset()
+
+   Reset the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment
+   variable :envvar:`TZ` specifies how this is done. It will also set the variables
+   ``tzname`` (from the :envvar:`TZ` environment variable), ``timezone`` (non-DST
+   seconds West of UTC), ``altzone`` (DST seconds west of UTC) and ``daylight``
+   (to 0 if this timezone does not have any daylight saving time rules, or to
+   nonzero if there is a time, past, present or future when daylight saving time
+   applies).
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Although in many cases, changing the :envvar:`TZ` environment variable may
+      affect the output of functions like :func:`localtime` without calling
+      :func:`tzset`, this behavior should not be relied on.
+
+      The :envvar:`TZ` environment variable should contain no whitespace.
+
+   The standard format of the :envvar:`TZ` environment variable is (whitespace
+   added for clarity)::
+
+      std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]
+
+   Where the components are:
+
+   ``std`` and ``dst``
+      Three or more alphanumerics giving the timezone abbreviations. These will be
+      propagated into time.tzname
+
+   ``offset``
+      The offset has the form: ``± hh[:mm[:ss]]``. This indicates the value
+      added the local time to arrive at UTC.  If preceded by a '-', the timezone
+      is east of the Prime Meridian; otherwise, it is west. If no offset follows
+      dst, summer time is assumed to be one hour ahead of standard time.
+
+   ``start[/time], end[/time]``
+      Indicates when to change to and back from DST. The format of the
+      start and end dates are one of the following:
+
+      :samp:`J{n}`
+         The Julian day *n* (1 <= *n* <= 365). Leap days are not counted, so in
+         all years February 28 is day 59 and March 1 is day 60.
+
+      :samp:`{n}`
+         The zero-based Julian day (0 <= *n* <= 365). Leap days are counted, and
+         it is possible to refer to February 29.
+
+      :samp:`M{m}.{n}.{d}`
+         The *d*'th day (0 <= *d* <= 6) of week *n* of month *m* of the year (1
+         <= *n* <= 5, 1 <= *m* <= 12, where week 5 means "the last *d* day in
+         month *m*" which may occur in either the fourth or the fifth
+         week). Week 1 is the first week in which the *d*'th day occurs. Day
+         zero is a Sunday.
+
+      ``time`` has the same format as ``offset`` except that no leading sign
+      ('-' or '+') is allowed. The default, if time is not given, is 02:00:00.
+
+   ::
+
+      >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
+      >>> time.tzset()
+      >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
+      '02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT'
+      >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
+      >>> time.tzset()
+      >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
+      '16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST'
+
+   On many Unix systems (including \*BSD, Linux, Solaris, and Darwin), it is more
+   convenient to use the system's zoneinfo (:manpage:`tzfile(5)`)  database to
+   specify the timezone rules. To do this, set the  :envvar:`TZ` environment
+   variable to the path of the required timezone  datafile, relative to the root of
+   the systems 'zoneinfo' timezone database, usually located at
+   :file:`/usr/share/zoneinfo`. For example,  ``'US/Eastern'``,
+   ``'Australia/Melbourne'``, ``'Egypt'`` or  ``'Europe/Amsterdam'``. ::
+
+      >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'US/Eastern'
+      >>> time.tzset()
+      >>> time.tzname
+      ('EST', 'EDT')
+      >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'Egypt'
+      >>> time.tzset()
+      >>> time.tzname
+      ('EET', 'EEST')
+
+
+.. _time-clock-id-constants:
+
+Clock ID Constants
+------------------
+
+These constants are used as parameters for :func:`clock_getres` and
+:func:`clock_gettime`.
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_BOOTTIME
+
+   Identical to :data:`CLOCK_MONOTONIC`, except it also includes any time that
+   the system is suspended.
+
+   This allows applications to get a suspend-aware monotonic  clock  without
+   having to deal with the complications of :data:`CLOCK_REALTIME`, which may
+   have  discontinuities if the time is changed using ``settimeofday()`` or
+   similar.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.39 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_HIGHRES
+
+   The Solaris OS has a ``CLOCK_HIGHRES`` timer that attempts to use an optimal
+   hardware source, and may give close to nanosecond resolution.
+   ``CLOCK_HIGHRES`` is the nonadjustable, high-resolution clock.
+
+   .. availability:: Solaris.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_MONOTONIC
+
+   Clock that cannot be set and represents monotonic time since some unspecified
+   starting point.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW
+
+   Similar to :data:`CLOCK_MONOTONIC`, but provides access to a raw
+   hardware-based time that is not subject to NTP adjustments.
+
+   .. availability:: Linux 2.6.28 and newer, macOS 10.12 and newer.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID
+
+   High-resolution per-process timer from the CPU.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_PROF
+
+   High-resolution per-process timer from the CPU.
+
+   .. availability:: FreeBSD, NetBSD 7 or later, OpenBSD.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID
+
+   Thread-specific CPU-time clock.
+
+   .. availability::  Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_UPTIME
+
+   Time whose absolute value is the time the system has been running and not
+   suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement, both absolute and
+   interval.
+
+   .. availability:: FreeBSD, OpenBSD 5.5 or later.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+The following constant is the only parameter that can be sent to
+:func:`clock_settime`.
+
+.. data:: CLOCK_REALTIME
+
+   System-wide real-time clock.  Setting this clock requires appropriate
+   privileges.
+
+   .. availability:: Unix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. _time-timezone-constants:
+
+Timezone Constants
+-------------------
+
+.. data:: altzone
+
+   The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined.
+   This is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe,
+   including the UK).  Only use this if ``daylight`` is nonzero.  See note below.
+
+.. data:: daylight
+
+   Nonzero if a DST timezone is defined.  See note below.
+
+.. data:: timezone
+
+   The offset of the local (non-DST) timezone, in seconds west of UTC (negative in
+   most of Western Europe, positive in the US, zero in the UK).  See note below.
+
+.. data:: tzname
+
+   A tuple of two strings: the first is the name of the local non-DST timezone, the
+   second is the name of the local DST timezone.  If no DST timezone is defined,
+   the second string should not be used.  See note below.
+
+.. note::
+
+   For the above Timezone constants (:data:`altzone`, :data:`daylight`, :data:`timezone`,
+   and :data:`tzname`), the value is determined by the timezone rules in effect
+   at module load time or the last time :func:`tzset` is called and may be incorrect
+   for times in the past.  It is recommended to use the :attr:`tm_gmtoff` and
+   :attr:`tm_zone` results from :func:`localtime` to obtain timezone information.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`datetime`
+      More object-oriented interface to dates and times.
+
+   Module :mod:`locale`
+      Internationalization services.  The locale setting affects the interpretation
+      of many format specifiers in :func:`strftime` and :func:`strptime`.
+
+   Module :mod:`calendar`
+      General calendar-related functions.   :func:`~calendar.timegm` is the
+      inverse of :func:`gmtime` from this module.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] The use of ``%Z`` is now deprecated, but the ``%z`` escape that expands to the
+   preferred  hour/minute offset is not supported by all ANSI C libraries. Also, a
+   strict reading of the original 1982 :rfc:`822` standard calls for a two-digit
+   year (%y rather than %Y), but practice moved to 4-digit years long before the
+   year 2000.  After that, :rfc:`822` became obsolete and the 4-digit year has
+   been first recommended by :rfc:`1123` and then mandated by :rfc:`2822`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/timeit.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/timeit.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef7a4e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/timeit.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,371 @@
+:mod:`timeit` --- Measure execution time of small code snippets
+===============================================================
+
+.. module:: timeit
+   :synopsis: Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/timeit.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: Benchmarking
+   single: Performance
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a simple way to time small bits of Python code. It has both
+a :ref:`timeit-command-line-interface` as well as a :ref:`callable <python-interface>`
+one.  It avoids a number of common traps for measuring execution times.
+See also Tim Peters' introduction to the "Algorithms" chapter in the *Python
+Cookbook*, published by O'Reilly.
+
+
+Basic Examples
+--------------
+
+The following example shows how the :ref:`timeit-command-line-interface`
+can be used to compare three different expressions:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3 -m timeit '"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))'
+   10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop
+   $ python3 -m timeit '"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])'
+   10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop
+   $ python3 -m timeit '"-".join(map(str, range(100)))'
+   10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop
+
+This can be achieved from the :ref:`python-interface` with::
+
+   >>> import timeit
+   >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000)
+   0.3018611848820001
+   >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000)
+   0.2727368790656328
+   >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000)
+   0.23702679807320237
+
+A callable can also be passed from the :ref:`python-interface`::
+
+   >>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000)
+   0.19665591977536678
+
+Note however that :func:`.timeit` will automatically determine the number of
+repetitions only when the command-line interface is used.  In the
+:ref:`timeit-examples` section you can find more advanced examples.
+
+
+.. _python-interface:
+
+Python Interface
+----------------
+
+The module defines three convenience functions and a public class:
+
+
+.. function:: timeit(stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default timer>, number=1000000, globals=None)
+
+   Create a :class:`Timer` instance with the given statement, *setup* code and
+   *timer* function and run its :meth:`.timeit` method with *number* executions.
+   The optional *globals* argument specifies a namespace in which to execute the
+   code.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The optional *globals* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. function:: repeat(stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None)
+
+   Create a :class:`Timer` instance with the given statement, *setup* code and
+   *timer* function and run its :meth:`.repeat` method with the given *repeat*
+   count and *number* executions.  The optional *globals* argument specifies a
+   namespace in which to execute the code.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The optional *globals* parameter was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Default value of *repeat* changed from 3 to 5.
+
+.. function:: default_timer()
+
+   The default timer, which is always :func:`time.perf_counter`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :func:`time.perf_counter` is now the default timer.
+
+
+.. class:: Timer(stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer function>, globals=None)
+
+   Class for timing execution speed of small code snippets.
+
+   The constructor takes a statement to be timed, an additional statement used
+   for setup, and a timer function.  Both statements default to ``'pass'``;
+   the timer function is platform-dependent (see the module doc string).
+   *stmt* and *setup* may also contain multiple statements separated by ``;``
+   or newlines, as long as they don't contain multi-line string literals.  The
+   statement will by default be executed within timeit's namespace; this behavior
+   can be controlled by passing a namespace to *globals*.
+
+   To measure the execution time of the first statement, use the :meth:`.timeit`
+   method.  The :meth:`.repeat` and :meth:`.autorange` methods are convenience
+   methods to call :meth:`.timeit` multiple times.
+
+   The execution time of *setup* is excluded from the overall timed execution run.
+
+   The *stmt* and *setup* parameters can also take objects that are callable
+   without arguments.  This will embed calls to them in a timer function that
+   will then be executed by :meth:`.timeit`.  Note that the timing overhead is a
+   little larger in this case because of the extra function calls.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The optional *globals* parameter was added.
+
+   .. method:: Timer.timeit(number=1000000)
+
+      Time *number* executions of the main statement.  This executes the setup
+      statement once, and then returns the time it takes to execute the main
+      statement a number of times, measured in seconds as a float.
+      The argument is the number of times through the loop, defaulting to one
+      million.  The main statement, the setup statement and the timer function
+      to be used are passed to the constructor.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         By default, :meth:`.timeit` temporarily turns off :term:`garbage
+         collection` during the timing.  The advantage of this approach is that
+         it makes independent timings more comparable.  The disadvantage is
+         that GC may be an important component of the performance of the
+         function being measured.  If so, GC can be re-enabled as the first
+         statement in the *setup* string.  For example::
+
+            timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit()
+
+
+   .. method:: Timer.autorange(callback=None)
+
+      Automatically determine how many times to call :meth:`.timeit`.
+
+      This is a convenience function that calls :meth:`.timeit` repeatedly
+      so that the total time >= 0.2 second, returning the eventual
+      (number of loops, time taken for that number of loops). It calls
+      :meth:`.timeit` with increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5,
+      10, 20, 50, ... until the time taken is at least 0.2 second.
+
+      If *callback* is given and is not ``None``, it will be called after
+      each trial with two arguments: ``callback(number, time_taken)``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+   .. method:: Timer.repeat(repeat=5, number=1000000)
+
+      Call :meth:`.timeit` a few times.
+
+      This is a convenience function that calls the :meth:`.timeit` repeatedly,
+      returning a list of results.  The first argument specifies how many times
+      to call :meth:`.timeit`.  The second argument specifies the *number*
+      argument for :meth:`.timeit`.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         It's tempting to calculate mean and standard deviation from the result
+         vector and report these.  However, this is not very useful.
+         In a typical case, the lowest value gives a lower bound for how fast
+         your machine can run the given code snippet; higher values in the
+         result vector are typically not caused by variability in Python's
+         speed, but by other processes interfering with your timing accuracy.
+         So the :func:`min` of the result is probably the only number you
+         should be interested in.  After that, you should look at the entire
+         vector and apply common sense rather than statistics.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         Default value of *repeat* changed from 3 to 5.
+
+
+   .. method:: Timer.print_exc(file=None)
+
+      Helper to print a traceback from the timed code.
+
+      Typical use::
+
+         t = Timer(...)       # outside the try/except
+         try:
+             t.timeit(...)    # or t.repeat(...)
+         except Exception:
+             t.print_exc()
+
+      The advantage over the standard traceback is that source lines in the
+      compiled template will be displayed.  The optional *file* argument directs
+      where the traceback is sent; it defaults to :data:`sys.stderr`.
+
+
+.. _timeit-command-line-interface:
+
+Command-Line Interface
+----------------------
+
+When called as a program from the command line, the following form is used::
+
+   python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-h] [statement ...]
+
+Where the following options are understood:
+
+.. program:: timeit
+
+.. cmdoption:: -n N, --number=N
+
+   how many times to execute 'statement'
+
+.. cmdoption:: -r N, --repeat=N
+
+   how many times to repeat the timer (default 5)
+
+.. cmdoption:: -s S, --setup=S
+
+   statement to be executed once initially (default ``pass``)
+
+.. cmdoption:: -p, --process
+
+   measure process time, not wallclock time, using :func:`time.process_time`
+   instead of :func:`time.perf_counter`, which is the default
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. cmdoption:: -u, --unit=U
+
+    specify a time unit for timer output; can select nsec, usec, msec, or sec
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. cmdoption:: -v, --verbose
+
+   print raw timing results; repeat for more digits precision
+
+.. cmdoption:: -h, --help
+
+   print a short usage message and exit
+
+A multi-line statement may be given by specifying each line as a separate
+statement argument; indented lines are possible by enclosing an argument in
+quotes and using leading spaces.  Multiple :option:`-s` options are treated
+similarly.
+
+If :option:`-n` is not given, a suitable number of loops is calculated by trying
+successive powers of 10 until the total time is at least 0.2 seconds.
+
+:func:`default_timer` measurements can be affected by other programs running on
+the same machine, so the best thing to do when accurate timing is necessary is
+to repeat the timing a few times and use the best time.  The :option:`-r`
+option is good for this; the default of 5 repetitions is probably enough in
+most cases.  You can use :func:`time.process_time` to measure CPU time.
+
+.. note::
+
+   There is a certain baseline overhead associated with executing a pass statement.
+   The code here doesn't try to hide it, but you should be aware of it.  The
+   baseline overhead can be measured by invoking the program without arguments,
+   and it might differ between Python versions.
+
+
+.. _timeit-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+It is possible to provide a setup statement that is executed only once at the beginning:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python -m timeit -s 'text = "sample string"; char = "g"'  'char in text'
+   5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop
+   $ python -m timeit -s 'text = "sample string"; char = "g"'  'text.find(char)'
+   1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop
+
+::
+
+   >>> import timeit
+   >>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
+   0.41440500499993504
+   >>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
+   1.7246671520006203
+
+The same can be done using the :class:`Timer` class and its methods::
+
+   >>> import timeit
+   >>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
+   >>> t.timeit()
+   0.3955516149999312
+   >>> t.repeat()
+   [0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]
+
+
+The following examples show how to time expressions that contain multiple lines.
+Here we compare the cost of using :func:`hasattr` vs. :keyword:`try`/:keyword:`except`
+to test for missing and present object attributes:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python -m timeit 'try:' '  str.__bool__' 'except AttributeError:' '  pass'
+   20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop
+   $ python -m timeit 'if hasattr(str, "__bool__"): pass'
+   50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop
+
+   $ python -m timeit 'try:' '  int.__bool__' 'except AttributeError:' '  pass'
+   200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop
+   $ python -m timeit 'if hasattr(int, "__bool__"): pass'
+   100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop
+
+::
+
+   >>> import timeit
+   >>> # attribute is missing
+   >>> s = """\
+   ... try:
+   ...     str.__bool__
+   ... except AttributeError:
+   ...     pass
+   ... """
+   >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
+   0.9138244460009446
+   >>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
+   >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
+   0.5829014980008651
+   >>>
+   >>> # attribute is present
+   >>> s = """\
+   ... try:
+   ...     int.__bool__
+   ... except AttributeError:
+   ...     pass
+   ... """
+   >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
+   0.04215312199994514
+   >>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
+   >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
+   0.08588060699912603
+
+
+To give the :mod:`timeit` module access to functions you define, you can pass a
+*setup* parameter which contains an import statement::
+
+   def test():
+       """Stupid test function"""
+       L = [i for i in range(100)]
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       import timeit
+       print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test"))
+
+Another option is to pass :func:`globals` to the  *globals* parameter, which will cause the code
+to be executed within your current global namespace.  This can be more convenient
+than individually specifying imports::
+
+   def f(x):
+       return x**2
+   def g(x):
+       return x**4
+   def h(x):
+       return x**8
+
+   import timeit
+   print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tk.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tk.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95cd1c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tk.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+.. _tkinter:
+
+*********************************
+Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
+*********************************
+
+.. index::
+   single: GUI
+   single: Graphical User Interface
+   single: Tkinter
+   single: Tk
+
+Tk/Tcl has long been an integral part of Python.  It provides a robust and
+platform independent windowing toolkit, that is available to Python programmers
+using the :mod:`tkinter` package, and its extension, the :mod:`tkinter.tix` and
+the :mod:`tkinter.ttk` modules.
+
+The :mod:`tkinter` package is a thin object-oriented layer on top of Tcl/Tk. To
+use :mod:`tkinter`, you don't need to write Tcl code, but you will need to
+consult the Tk documentation, and occasionally the Tcl documentation.
+:mod:`tkinter` is a set of wrappers that implement the Tk widgets as Python
+classes.  In addition, the internal module :mod:`_tkinter` provides a threadsafe
+mechanism which allows Python and Tcl to interact.
+
+:mod:`tkinter`'s chief virtues are that it is fast, and that it usually comes
+bundled with Python. Although its standard documentation is weak, good
+material is available, which includes: references, tutorials, a book and
+others. :mod:`tkinter` is also famous for having an outdated look and feel,
+which has been vastly improved in Tk 8.5. Nevertheless, there are many other
+GUI libraries that you could be interested in. For more information about
+alternatives, see the :ref:`other-gui-packages` section.
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   tkinter.rst
+   tkinter.ttk.rst
+   tkinter.tix.rst
+   tkinter.scrolledtext.rst
+   idle.rst
+   othergui.rst
+
+.. Other sections I have in mind are
+   Tkinter internals
+   Freezing Tkinter applications
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1fc051
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,863 @@
+:mod:`tkinter` --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: tkinter
+   :synopsis: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@Python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`tkinter` package ("Tk interface") is the standard Python interface to
+the Tk GUI toolkit.  Both Tk and :mod:`tkinter` are available on most Unix
+platforms, as well as on Windows systems.  (Tk itself is not part of Python; it
+is maintained at ActiveState.)
+
+Running ``python -m tkinter`` from the command line should open a window
+demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that :mod:`tkinter` is
+properly installed on your system, and also showing what version of Tcl/Tk is
+installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation specific to that version.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Tkinter documentation:
+
+   `Python Tkinter Resources <https://wiki.python.org/moin/TkInter>`_
+      The Python Tkinter Topic Guide provides a great deal of information on using Tk
+      from Python and links to other sources of information on Tk.
+
+   `TKDocs <http://www.tkdocs.com/>`_
+      Extensive tutorial plus friendlier widget pages for some of the widgets.
+
+   `Tkinter 8.5 reference: a GUI for Python <https://web.archive.org/web/20190524140835/https://infohost.nmt.edu/tcc/help/pubs/tkinter/web/index.html>`_
+      On-line reference material.
+
+   `Tkinter docs from effbot <http://effbot.org/tkinterbook/>`_
+      Online reference for tkinter supported by effbot.org.
+
+   `Programming Python <http://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html>`_
+      Book by Mark Lutz, has excellent coverage of Tkinter.
+
+   `Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers <https://www.amazon.com/Modern-Tkinter-Python-Developers-ebook/dp/B0071QDNLO/>`_
+      Book by Mark Roseman about building attractive and modern graphical user interfaces with Python and Tkinter.
+
+   `Python and Tkinter Programming <https://www.manning.com/books/python-and-tkinter-programming>`_
+      Book by John Grayson (ISBN 1-884777-81-3).
+
+   Tcl/Tk documentation:
+
+   `Tk commands <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm>`_
+      Most commands are available as :mod:`tkinter` or :mod:`tkinter.ttk` classes.
+      Change '8.6' to match the version of your Tcl/Tk installation.
+
+   `Tcl/Tk recent man pages <https://www.tcl.tk/doc/>`_
+      Recent Tcl/Tk manuals on www.tcl.tk.
+
+   `ActiveState Tcl Home Page <https://tcl.tk>`_
+      The Tk/Tcl development is largely taking place at ActiveState.
+
+   `Tcl and the Tk Toolkit <https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/020163337X>`_
+      Book by John Ousterhout, the inventor of Tcl.
+
+   `Practical Programming in Tcl and Tk <http://www.beedub.com/book/>`_
+      Brent Welch's encyclopedic book.
+
+
+Tkinter Modules
+---------------
+
+Most of the time, :mod:`tkinter` is all you really need, but a number of
+additional modules are available as well.  The Tk interface is located in a
+binary module named :mod:`_tkinter`. This module contains the low-level
+interface to Tk, and should never be used directly by application programmers.
+It is usually a shared library (or DLL), but might in some cases be statically
+linked with the Python interpreter.
+
+In addition to the Tk interface module, :mod:`tkinter` includes a number of
+Python modules, :mod:`tkinter.constants` being one of the most important.
+Importing :mod:`tkinter` will automatically import :mod:`tkinter.constants`,
+so, usually, to use Tkinter all you need is a simple import statement::
+
+   import tkinter
+
+Or, more often::
+
+   from tkinter import *
+
+
+.. class:: Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=1)
+
+   The :class:`Tk` class is instantiated without arguments. This creates a toplevel
+   widget of Tk which usually is the main window of an application. Each instance
+   has its own associated Tcl interpreter.
+
+   .. FIXME: The following keyword arguments are currently recognized:
+
+
+.. function:: Tcl(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=0)
+
+   The :func:`Tcl` function is a factory function which creates an object much like
+   that created by the :class:`Tk` class, except that it does not initialize the Tk
+   subsystem.  This is most often useful when driving the Tcl interpreter in an
+   environment where one doesn't want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or
+   where one cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server).  An object
+   created by the :func:`Tcl` object can have a Toplevel window created (and the Tk
+   subsystem initialized) by calling its :meth:`loadtk` method.
+
+
+Other modules that provide Tk support include:
+
+:mod:`tkinter.scrolledtext`
+   Text widget with a vertical scroll bar built in.
+
+:mod:`tkinter.colorchooser`
+   Dialog to let the user choose a color.
+
+:mod:`tkinter.commondialog`
+   Base class for the dialogs defined in the other modules listed here.
+
+:mod:`tkinter.filedialog`
+   Common dialogs to allow the user to specify a file to open or save.
+
+:mod:`tkinter.font`
+   Utilities to help work with fonts.
+
+:mod:`tkinter.messagebox`
+   Access to standard Tk dialog boxes.
+
+:mod:`tkinter.simpledialog`
+   Basic dialogs and convenience functions.
+
+:mod:`tkinter.dnd`
+   Drag-and-drop support for :mod:`tkinter`. This is experimental and should
+   become deprecated when it is replaced  with the Tk DND.
+
+:mod:`turtle`
+   Turtle graphics in a Tk window.
+
+
+Tkinter Life Preserver
+----------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Matt Conway
+
+
+This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk or
+Tkinter.  Rather, it is intended as a stop gap, providing some introductory
+orientation on the system.
+
+Credits:
+
+* Tk was written by John Ousterhout while at Berkeley.
+
+* Tkinter was written by Steen Lumholt and Guido van Rossum.
+
+* This Life Preserver was written by Matt Conway at the University of Virginia.
+
+* The HTML rendering, and some liberal editing, was produced from a FrameMaker
+  version by Ken Manheimer.
+
+* Fredrik Lundh elaborated and revised the class interface descriptions, to get
+  them current with Tk 4.2.
+
+* Mike Clarkson converted the documentation to LaTeX, and compiled the  User
+  Interface chapter of the reference manual.
+
+
+How To Use This Section
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This section is designed in two parts: the first half (roughly) covers
+background material, while the second half can be taken to the keyboard as a
+handy reference.
+
+When trying to answer questions of the form "how do I do blah", it is often best
+to find out how to do "blah" in straight Tk, and then convert this back into the
+corresponding :mod:`tkinter` call. Python programmers can often guess at the
+correct Python command by looking at the Tk documentation. This means that in
+order to use Tkinter, you will have to know a little bit about Tk. This document
+can't fulfill that role, so the best we can do is point you to the best
+documentation that exists. Here are some hints:
+
+* The authors strongly suggest getting a copy of the Tk man pages.
+  Specifically, the man pages in the ``manN`` directory are most useful.
+  The ``man3`` man pages describe the C interface to the Tk library and thus
+  are not especially helpful for script writers.
+
+* Addison-Wesley publishes a book called Tcl and the Tk Toolkit by John
+  Ousterhout (ISBN 0-201-63337-X) which is a good introduction to Tcl and Tk for
+  the novice.  The book is not exhaustive, and for many details it defers to the
+  man pages.
+
+* :file:`tkinter/__init__.py` is a last resort for most, but can be a good
+  place to go when nothing else makes sense.
+
+
+A Simple Hello World Program
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+::
+
+    import tkinter as tk
+
+    class Application(tk.Frame):
+        def __init__(self, master=None):
+            super().__init__(master)
+            self.master = master
+            self.pack()
+            self.create_widgets()
+
+        def create_widgets(self):
+            self.hi_there = tk.Button(self)
+            self.hi_there["text"] = "Hello World\n(click me)"
+            self.hi_there["command"] = self.say_hi
+            self.hi_there.pack(side="top")
+
+            self.quit = tk.Button(self, text="QUIT", fg="red",
+                                  command=self.master.destroy)
+            self.quit.pack(side="bottom")
+
+        def say_hi(self):
+            print("hi there, everyone!")
+
+    root = tk.Tk()
+    app = Application(master=root)
+    app.mainloop()
+
+
+A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk
+-----------------------------
+
+The class hierarchy looks complicated, but in actual practice, application
+programmers almost always refer to the classes at the very bottom of the
+hierarchy.
+
+Notes:
+
+* These classes are provided for the purposes of organizing certain functions
+  under one namespace. They aren't meant to be instantiated independently.
+
+* The :class:`Tk` class is meant to be instantiated only once in an application.
+  Application programmers need not instantiate one explicitly, the system creates
+  one whenever any of the other classes are instantiated.
+
+* The :class:`Widget` class is not meant to be instantiated, it is meant only
+  for subclassing to make "real" widgets (in C++, this is called an 'abstract
+  class').
+
+To make use of this reference material, there will be times when you will need
+to know how to read short passages of Tk and how to identify the various parts
+of a Tk command.   (See section :ref:`tkinter-basic-mapping` for the
+:mod:`tkinter` equivalents of what's below.)
+
+Tk scripts are Tcl programs.  Like all Tcl programs, Tk scripts are just lists
+of tokens separated by spaces.  A Tk widget is just its *class*, the *options*
+that help configure it, and the *actions* that make it do useful things.
+
+To make a widget in Tk, the command is always of the form::
+
+   classCommand newPathname options
+
+*classCommand*
+   denotes which kind of widget to make (a button, a label, a menu...)
+
+.. index:: single: . (dot); in Tkinter
+
+*newPathname*
+   is the new name for this widget.  All names in Tk must be unique.  To help
+   enforce this, widgets in Tk are named with *pathnames*, just like files in a
+   file system.  The top level widget, the *root*, is called ``.`` (period) and
+   children are delimited by more periods.  For example,
+   ``.myApp.controlPanel.okButton`` might be the name of a widget.
+
+*options*
+   configure the widget's appearance and in some cases, its behavior.  The options
+   come in the form of a list of flags and values. Flags are preceded by a '-',
+   like Unix shell command flags, and values are put in quotes if they are more
+   than one word.
+
+For example::
+
+   button   .fred   -fg red -text "hi there"
+      ^       ^     \______________________/
+      |       |                |
+    class    new            options
+   command  widget  (-opt val -opt val ...)
+
+Once created, the pathname to the widget becomes a new command.  This new
+*widget command* is the programmer's handle for getting the new widget to
+perform some *action*.  In C, you'd express this as someAction(fred,
+someOptions), in C++, you would express this as fred.someAction(someOptions),
+and in Tk, you say::
+
+   .fred someAction someOptions
+
+Note that the object name, ``.fred``, starts with a dot.
+
+As you'd expect, the legal values for *someAction* will depend on the widget's
+class: ``.fred disable`` works if fred is a button (fred gets greyed out), but
+does not work if fred is a label (disabling of labels is not supported in Tk).
+
+The legal values of *someOptions* is action dependent.  Some actions, like
+``disable``, require no arguments, others, like a text-entry box's ``delete``
+command, would need arguments to specify what range of text to delete.
+
+
+.. _tkinter-basic-mapping:
+
+Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter
+-----------------------------
+
+Class commands in Tk correspond to class constructors in Tkinter. ::
+
+   button .fred                =====>  fred = Button()
+
+The master of an object is implicit in the new name given to it at creation
+time.  In Tkinter, masters are specified explicitly. ::
+
+   button .panel.fred          =====>  fred = Button(panel)
+
+The configuration options in Tk are given in lists of hyphened tags followed by
+values.  In Tkinter, options are specified as keyword-arguments in the instance
+constructor, and keyword-args for configure calls or as instance indices, in
+dictionary style, for established instances.  See section
+:ref:`tkinter-setting-options` on setting options. ::
+
+   button .fred -fg red        =====>  fred = Button(panel, fg="red")
+   .fred configure -fg red     =====>  fred["fg"] = red
+                               OR ==>  fred.config(fg="red")
+
+In Tk, to perform an action on a widget, use the widget name as a command, and
+follow it with an action name, possibly with arguments (options).  In Tkinter,
+you call methods on the class instance to invoke actions on the widget.  The
+actions (methods) that a given widget can perform are listed in
+:file:`tkinter/__init__.py`. ::
+
+   .fred invoke                =====>  fred.invoke()
+
+To give a widget to the packer (geometry manager), you call pack with optional
+arguments.  In Tkinter, the Pack class holds all this functionality, and the
+various forms of the pack command are implemented as methods.  All widgets in
+:mod:`tkinter` are subclassed from the Packer, and so inherit all the packing
+methods. See the :mod:`tkinter.tix` module documentation for additional
+information on the Form geometry manager. ::
+
+   pack .fred -side left       =====>  fred.pack(side="left")
+
+
+How Tk and Tkinter are Related
+------------------------------
+
+From the top down:
+
+Your App Here (Python)
+   A Python application makes a :mod:`tkinter` call.
+
+tkinter (Python Package)
+   This call (say, for example, creating a button widget), is implemented in
+   the :mod:`tkinter` package, which is written in Python.  This Python
+   function will parse the commands and the arguments and convert them into a
+   form that makes them look as if they had come from a Tk script instead of
+   a Python script.
+
+_tkinter (C)
+   These commands and their arguments will be passed to a C function in the
+   :mod:`_tkinter` - note the underscore - extension module.
+
+Tk Widgets (C and Tcl)
+   This C function is able to make calls into other C modules, including the C
+   functions that make up the Tk library.  Tk is implemented in C and some Tcl.
+   The Tcl part of the Tk widgets is used to bind certain default behaviors to
+   widgets, and is executed once at the point where the Python :mod:`tkinter`
+   package is imported. (The user never sees this stage).
+
+Tk (C)
+   The Tk part of the Tk Widgets implement the final mapping to ...
+
+Xlib (C)
+   the Xlib library to draw graphics on the screen.
+
+
+Handy Reference
+---------------
+
+
+.. _tkinter-setting-options:
+
+Setting Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Options control things like the color and border width of a widget. Options can
+be set in three ways:
+
+At object creation time, using keyword arguments
+   ::
+
+      fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue")
+
+After object creation, treating the option name like a dictionary index
+   ::
+
+      fred["fg"] = "red"
+      fred["bg"] = "blue"
+
+Use the config() method to update multiple attrs subsequent to object creation
+   ::
+
+      fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")
+
+For a complete explanation of a given option and its behavior, see the Tk man
+pages for the widget in question.
+
+Note that the man pages list "STANDARD OPTIONS" and "WIDGET SPECIFIC OPTIONS"
+for each widget.  The former is a list of options that are common to many
+widgets, the latter are the options that are idiosyncratic to that particular
+widget.  The Standard Options are documented on the :manpage:`options(3)` man
+page.
+
+No distinction between standard and widget-specific options is made in this
+document.  Some options don't apply to some kinds of widgets. Whether a given
+widget responds to a particular option depends on the class of the widget;
+buttons have a ``command`` option, labels do not.
+
+The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget's man page, or
+can be queried at runtime by calling the :meth:`config` method without
+arguments, or by calling the :meth:`keys` method on that widget.  The return
+value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of the option as a
+string (for example, ``'relief'``) and whose values are 5-tuples.
+
+Some options, like ``bg`` are synonyms for common options with long names
+(``bg`` is shorthand for "background"). Passing the ``config()`` method the name
+of a shorthand option will return a 2-tuple, not 5-tuple. The 2-tuple passed
+back will contain the name of the synonym and the "real" option (such as
+``('bg', 'background')``).
+
++-------+---------------------------------+--------------+
+| Index | Meaning                         | Example      |
++=======+=================================+==============+
+| 0     | option name                     | ``'relief'`` |
++-------+---------------------------------+--------------+
+| 1     | option name for database lookup | ``'relief'`` |
++-------+---------------------------------+--------------+
+| 2     | option class for database       | ``'Relief'`` |
+|       | lookup                          |              |
++-------+---------------------------------+--------------+
+| 3     | default value                   | ``'raised'`` |
++-------+---------------------------------+--------------+
+| 4     | current value                   | ``'groove'`` |
++-------+---------------------------------+--------------+
+
+Example::
+
+   >>> print(fred.config())
+   {'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')}
+
+Of course, the dictionary printed will include all the options available and
+their values.  This is meant only as an example.
+
+
+The Packer
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index:: single: packing (widgets)
+
+The packer is one of Tk's geometry-management mechanisms.    Geometry managers
+are used to specify the relative positioning of the positioning of widgets
+within their container - their mutual *master*.  In contrast to the more
+cumbersome *placer* (which is used less commonly, and we do not cover here), the
+packer takes qualitative relationship specification - *above*, *to the left of*,
+*filling*, etc - and works everything out to determine the exact placement
+coordinates for you.
+
+The size of any *master* widget is determined by the size of the "slave widgets"
+inside.  The packer is used to control where slave widgets appear inside the
+master into which they are packed.  You can pack widgets into frames, and frames
+into other frames, in order to achieve the kind of layout you desire.
+Additionally, the arrangement is dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental
+changes to the configuration, once it is packed.
+
+Note that widgets do not appear until they have had their geometry specified
+with a geometry manager.  It's a common early mistake to leave out the geometry
+specification, and then be surprised when the widget is created but nothing
+appears.  A widget will appear only after it has had, for example, the packer's
+:meth:`pack` method applied to it.
+
+The pack() method can be called with keyword-option/value pairs that control
+where the widget is to appear within its container, and how it is to behave when
+the main application window is resized.  Here are some examples::
+
+   fred.pack()                     # defaults to side = "top"
+   fred.pack(side="left")
+   fred.pack(expand=1)
+
+
+Packer Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+For more extensive information on the packer and the options that it can take,
+see the man pages and page 183 of John Ousterhout's book.
+
+anchor
+   Anchor type.  Denotes where the packer is to place each slave in its parcel.
+
+expand
+   Boolean, ``0`` or ``1``.
+
+fill
+   Legal values: ``'x'``, ``'y'``, ``'both'``, ``'none'``.
+
+ipadx and ipady
+   A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the slave widget.
+
+padx and pady
+   A distance - designating external padding on each side of the slave widget.
+
+side
+   Legal values are: ``'left'``, ``'right'``, ``'top'``, ``'bottom'``.
+
+
+Coupling Widget Variables
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The current-value setting of some widgets (like text entry widgets) can be
+connected directly to application variables by using special options.  These
+options are ``variable``, ``textvariable``, ``onvalue``, ``offvalue``, and
+``value``.  This connection works both ways: if the variable changes for any
+reason, the widget it's connected to will be updated to reflect the new value.
+
+Unfortunately, in the current implementation of :mod:`tkinter` it is not
+possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget through a
+``variable`` or ``textvariable`` option.  The only kinds of variables for which
+this works are variables that are subclassed from a class called Variable,
+defined in :mod:`tkinter`.
+
+There are many useful subclasses of Variable already defined:
+:class:`StringVar`, :class:`IntVar`, :class:`DoubleVar`, and
+:class:`BooleanVar`.  To read the current value of such a variable, call the
+:meth:`get` method on it, and to change its value you call the :meth:`!set`
+method.  If you follow this protocol, the widget will always track the value of
+the variable, with no further intervention on your part.
+
+For example::
+
+   class App(Frame):
+       def __init__(self, master=None):
+           super().__init__(master)
+           self.pack()
+
+           self.entrythingy = Entry()
+           self.entrythingy.pack()
+
+           # here is the application variable
+           self.contents = StringVar()
+           # set it to some value
+           self.contents.set("this is a variable")
+           # tell the entry widget to watch this variable
+           self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents
+
+           # and here we get a callback when the user hits return.
+           # we will have the program print out the value of the
+           # application variable when the user hits return
+           self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
+                                 self.print_contents)
+
+       def print_contents(self, event):
+           print("hi. contents of entry is now ---->",
+                 self.contents.get())
+
+
+The Window Manager
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index:: single: window manager (widgets)
+
+In Tk, there is a utility command, ``wm``, for interacting with the window
+manager.  Options to the ``wm`` command allow you to control things like titles,
+placement, icon bitmaps, and the like.  In :mod:`tkinter`, these commands have
+been implemented as methods on the :class:`Wm` class.  Toplevel widgets are
+subclassed from the :class:`Wm` class, and so can call the :class:`Wm` methods
+directly.
+
+To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can often just
+refer to the widget's master.  Of course if the widget has been packed inside of
+a frame, the master won't represent a toplevel window.  To get at the toplevel
+window that contains an arbitrary widget, you can call the :meth:`_root` method.
+This method begins with an underscore to denote the fact that this function is
+part of the implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality.
+
+Here are some examples of typical usage::
+
+   import tkinter as tk
+
+   class App(tk.Frame):
+       def __init__(self, master=None):
+           super().__init__(master)
+           self.pack()
+
+   # create the application
+   myapp = App()
+
+   #
+   # here are method calls to the window manager class
+   #
+   myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
+   myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)
+
+   # start the program
+   myapp.mainloop()
+
+
+Tk Option Data Types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index:: single: Tk Option Data Types
+
+anchor
+   Legal values are points of the compass: ``"n"``, ``"ne"``, ``"e"``, ``"se"``,
+   ``"s"``, ``"sw"``, ``"w"``, ``"nw"``, and also ``"center"``.
+
+bitmap
+   There are eight built-in, named bitmaps: ``'error'``, ``'gray25'``,
+   ``'gray50'``, ``'hourglass'``, ``'info'``, ``'questhead'``, ``'question'``,
+   ``'warning'``.  To specify an X bitmap filename, give the full path to the file,
+   preceded with an ``@``, as in ``"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"``.
+
+boolean
+   You can pass integers 0 or 1 or the strings ``"yes"`` or ``"no"``.
+
+callback
+   This is any Python function that takes no arguments.  For example::
+
+      def print_it():
+          print("hi there")
+      fred["command"] = print_it
+
+color
+   Colors can be given as the names of X colors in the rgb.txt file, or as strings
+   representing RGB values in 4 bit: ``"#RGB"``, 8 bit: ``"#RRGGBB"``, 12 bit"
+   ``"#RRRGGGBBB"``, or 16 bit ``"#RRRRGGGGBBBB"`` ranges, where R,G,B here
+   represent any legal hex digit.  See page 160 of Ousterhout's book for details.
+
+cursor
+   The standard X cursor names from :file:`cursorfont.h` can be used, without the
+   ``XC_`` prefix.  For example to get a hand cursor (:const:`XC_hand2`), use the
+   string ``"hand2"``.  You can also specify a bitmap and mask file of your own.
+   See page 179 of Ousterhout's book.
+
+distance
+   Screen distances can be specified in either pixels or absolute distances.
+   Pixels are given as numbers and absolute distances as strings, with the trailing
+   character denoting units: ``c`` for centimetres, ``i`` for inches, ``m`` for
+   millimetres, ``p`` for printer's points.  For example, 3.5 inches is expressed
+   as ``"3.5i"``.
+
+font
+   Tk uses a list font name format, such as ``{courier 10 bold}``. Font sizes with
+   positive numbers are measured in points; sizes with negative numbers are
+   measured in pixels.
+
+geometry
+   This is a string of the form ``widthxheight``, where width and height are
+   measured in pixels for most widgets (in characters for widgets displaying text).
+   For example: ``fred["geometry"] = "200x100"``.
+
+justify
+   Legal values are the strings: ``"left"``, ``"center"``, ``"right"``, and
+   ``"fill"``.
+
+region
+   This is a string with four space-delimited elements, each of which is a legal
+   distance (see above).  For example: ``"2 3 4 5"`` and ``"3i 2i 4.5i 2i"`` and
+   ``"3c 2c 4c 10.43c"``  are all legal regions.
+
+relief
+   Determines what the border style of a widget will be.  Legal values are:
+   ``"raised"``, ``"sunken"``, ``"flat"``, ``"groove"``, and ``"ridge"``.
+
+scrollcommand
+   This is almost always the :meth:`!set` method of some scrollbar widget, but can
+   be any widget method that takes a single argument.
+
+wrap:
+   Must be one of: ``"none"``, ``"char"``, or ``"word"``.
+
+
+Bindings and Events
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+   single: bind (widgets)
+   single: events (widgets)
+
+The bind method from the widget command allows you to watch for certain events
+and to have a callback function trigger when that event type occurs.  The form
+of the bind method is::
+
+   def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''):
+
+where:
+
+sequence
+   is a string that denotes the target kind of event.  (See the bind man page and
+   page 201 of John Ousterhout's book for details).
+
+func
+   is a Python function, taking one argument, to be invoked when the event occurs.
+   An Event instance will be passed as the argument. (Functions deployed this way
+   are commonly known as *callbacks*.)
+
+add
+   is optional, either ``''`` or ``'+'``.  Passing an empty string denotes that
+   this binding is to replace any other bindings that this event is associated
+   with.  Passing a ``'+'`` means that this function is to be added to the list
+   of functions bound to this event type.
+
+For example::
+
+   def turn_red(self, event):
+       event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red"
+
+   self.button.bind("<Enter>", self.turn_red)
+
+Notice how the widget field of the event is being accessed in the
+``turn_red()`` callback.  This field contains the widget that caught the X
+event.  The following table lists the other event fields you can access, and how
+they are denoted in Tk, which can be useful when referring to the Tk man pages.
+
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| Tk | Tkinter Event Field | Tk | Tkinter Event Field |
++====+=====================+====+=====================+
+| %f | focus               | %A | char                |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %h | height              | %E | send_event          |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %k | keycode             | %K | keysym              |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %s | state               | %N | keysym_num          |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %t | time                | %T | type                |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %w | width               | %W | widget              |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %x | x                   | %X | x_root              |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %y | y                   | %Y | y_root              |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+
+
+The index Parameter
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A number of widgets require "index" parameters to be passed.  These are used to
+point at a specific place in a Text widget, or to particular characters in an
+Entry widget, or to particular menu items in a Menu widget.
+
+Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.)
+   Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the text being
+   displayed.  You can use these :mod:`tkinter` functions to access these special
+   points in text widgets:
+
+Text widget indexes
+   The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best described in the Tk
+   man pages.
+
+Menu indexes (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.)
+   Some options and methods for menus manipulate specific menu entries. Anytime a
+   menu index is needed for an option or a parameter, you may pass in:
+
+   * an integer which refers to the numeric position of the entry in the widget,
+     counted from the top, starting with 0;
+
+   * the string ``"active"``, which refers to the menu position that is currently
+     under the cursor;
+
+   * the string ``"last"`` which refers to the last menu item;
+
+   * An integer preceded by ``@``, as in ``@6``, where the integer is interpreted
+     as a y pixel coordinate in the menu's coordinate system;
+
+   * the string ``"none"``, which indicates no menu entry at all, most often used
+     with menu.activate() to deactivate all entries, and finally,
+
+   * a text string that is pattern matched against the label of the menu entry, as
+     scanned from the top of the menu to the bottom.  Note that this index type is
+     considered after all the others, which means that matches for menu items
+     labelled ``last``, ``active``, or ``none`` may be interpreted as the above
+     literals, instead.
+
+
+Images
+^^^^^^
+
+Images of different formats can be created through the corresponding subclass
+of :class:`tkinter.Image`:
+
+* :class:`BitmapImage` for images in XBM format.
+
+* :class:`PhotoImage` for images in PGM, PPM, GIF and PNG formats. The latter
+  is supported starting with Tk 8.6.
+
+Either type of image is created through either the ``file`` or the ``data``
+option (other options are available as well).
+
+The image object can then be used wherever an ``image`` option is supported by
+some widget (e.g. labels, buttons, menus). In these cases, Tk will not keep a
+reference to the image. When the last Python reference to the image object is
+deleted, the image data is deleted as well, and Tk will display an empty box
+wherever the image was used.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    The `Pillow <http://python-pillow.org/>`_ package adds support for
+    formats such as BMP, JPEG, TIFF, and WebP, among others.
+
+.. _tkinter-file-handlers:
+
+File Handlers
+-------------
+
+Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will be
+called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file descriptor.
+Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor. Example code::
+
+   import tkinter
+   widget = tkinter.Tk()
+   mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
+   widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
+   ...
+   widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)
+
+This feature is not available on Windows.
+
+Since you don't know how many bytes are available for reading, you may not
+want to use the :class:`~io.BufferedIOBase` or :class:`~io.TextIOBase`
+:meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` or :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` methods,
+since these will insist on reading a predefined number of bytes.
+For sockets, the :meth:`~socket.socket.recv` or
+:meth:`~socket.socket.recvfrom` methods will work fine; for other files,
+use raw reads or ``os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)``.
+
+
+.. method:: Widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, func)
+
+   Registers the file handler callback function *func*. The *file* argument
+   may either be an object with a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method (such as
+   a file or socket object), or an integer file descriptor. The *mask*
+   argument is an ORed combination of any of the three constants below.
+   The callback is called as follows::
+
+      callback(file, mask)
+
+
+.. method:: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)
+
+   Unregisters a file handler.
+
+
+.. data:: READABLE
+          WRITABLE
+          EXCEPTION
+
+   Constants used in the *mask* arguments.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..138720e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+:mod:`tkinter.scrolledtext` --- Scrolled Text Widget
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: tkinter.scrolledtext
+   :platform: Tk
+   :synopsis: Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`tkinter.scrolledtext` module provides a class of the same name which
+implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll bar configured to do
+the "right thing."  Using the :class:`ScrolledText` class is a lot easier than
+setting up a text widget and scroll bar directly.  The constructor is the same
+as that of the :class:`tkinter.Text` class.
+
+The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a :class:`Frame`, and the
+methods of the :class:`Grid` and :class:`Pack` geometry managers are acquired
+from the :class:`Frame` object.  This allows the :class:`ScrolledText` widget to
+be used directly to achieve most normal geometry management behavior.
+
+Should more specific control be necessary, the following attributes are
+available:
+
+
+.. attribute:: ScrolledText.frame
+
+   The frame which surrounds the text and scroll bar widgets.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ScrolledText.vbar
+
+   The scroll bar widget.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.tix.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.tix.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88b936c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.tix.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,583 @@
+:mod:`tkinter.tix` --- Extension widgets for Tk
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: tkinter.tix
+   :synopsis: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Mike Clarkson <mikeclarkson@users.sourceforge.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/tix.py`
+
+.. index:: single: Tix
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.6
+   This Tk extension is unmaintained and should not be used in new code.  Use
+   :mod:`tkinter.ttk` instead.
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`tkinter.tix` (Tk Interface Extension) module provides an additional
+rich set of widgets. Although the standard Tk library has many useful widgets,
+they are far from complete. The :mod:`tkinter.tix` library provides most of the
+commonly needed widgets that are missing from standard Tk: :class:`HList`,
+:class:`ComboBox`, :class:`Control` (a.k.a. SpinBox) and an assortment of
+scrollable widgets.
+:mod:`tkinter.tix` also includes many more widgets that are generally useful in
+a wide range of applications: :class:`NoteBook`, :class:`FileEntry`,
+:class:`PanedWindow`, etc; there are more than 40 of them.
+
+With all these new widgets, you can introduce new interaction techniques into
+applications, creating more useful and more intuitive user interfaces. You can
+design your application by choosing the most appropriate widgets to match the
+special needs of your application and users.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Tix Homepage <http://tix.sourceforge.net/>`_
+      The home page for :mod:`Tix`.  This includes links to additional documentation
+      and downloads.
+
+   `Tix Man Pages <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/>`_
+      On-line version of the man pages and reference material.
+
+   `Tix Programming Guide <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/docs/tix-book/tix.book.html>`_
+      On-line version of the programmer's reference material.
+
+   `Tix Development Applications <http://tix.sourceforge.net/Tixapps/src/Tide.html>`_
+      Tix applications for development of Tix and Tkinter programs. Tide applications
+      work under Tk or Tkinter, and include :program:`TixInspect`, an inspector to
+      remotely modify and debug Tix/Tk/Tkinter applications.
+
+
+Using Tix
+---------
+
+
+.. class:: Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tix')
+
+   Toplevel widget of Tix which represents mostly the main window of an
+   application. It has an associated Tcl interpreter.
+
+   Classes in the :mod:`tkinter.tix` module subclasses the classes in the
+   :mod:`tkinter`. The former imports the latter, so to use :mod:`tkinter.tix`
+   with Tkinter, all you need to do is to import one module. In general, you
+   can just import :mod:`tkinter.tix`, and replace the toplevel call to
+   :class:`tkinter.Tk` with :class:`tix.Tk`::
+
+      from tkinter import tix
+      from tkinter.constants import *
+      root = tix.Tk()
+
+To use :mod:`tkinter.tix`, you must have the Tix widgets installed, usually
+alongside your installation of the Tk widgets. To test your installation, try
+the following::
+
+   from tkinter import tix
+   root = tix.Tk()
+   root.tk.eval('package require Tix')
+
+
+Tix Widgets
+-----------
+
+`Tix <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/TixIntro.htm>`_
+introduces over 40 widget classes to the :mod:`tkinter` repertoire.
+
+
+Basic Widgets
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: Balloon()
+
+   A `Balloon
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixBalloon.htm>`_ that
+   pops up over a widget to provide help.  When the user moves the cursor inside a
+   widget to which a Balloon widget has been bound, a small pop-up window with a
+   descriptive message will be shown on the screen.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Balloon}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/Balloon.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: ButtonBox()
+
+   The `ButtonBox
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixButtonBox.htm>`_
+   widget creates a box of buttons, such as is commonly used for ``Ok Cancel``.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ButtonBox}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/BtnBox.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: ComboBox()
+
+   The `ComboBox
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixComboBox.htm>`_
+   widget is similar to the combo box control in MS Windows. The user can select a
+   choice by either typing in the entry subwidget or selecting from the listbox
+   subwidget.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ComboBox}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/ComboBox.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: Control()
+
+   The `Control
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixControl.htm>`_
+   widget is also known as the :class:`SpinBox` widget. The user can adjust the
+   value by pressing the two arrow buttons or by entering the value directly into
+   the entry. The new value will be checked against the user-defined upper and
+   lower limits.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Control}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/Control.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: LabelEntry()
+
+   The `LabelEntry
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelEntry.htm>`_
+   widget packages an entry widget and a label into one mega widget. It can
+   be used to simplify the creation of "entry-form" type of interface.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{LabelEntry}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/LabEntry.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: LabelFrame()
+
+   The `LabelFrame
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelFrame.htm>`_
+   widget packages a frame widget and a label into one mega widget.  To create
+   widgets inside a LabelFrame widget, one creates the new widgets relative to the
+   :attr:`frame` subwidget and manage them inside the :attr:`frame` subwidget.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{LabelFrame}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/LabFrame.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: Meter()
+
+   The `Meter
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixMeter.htm>`_ widget
+   can be used to show the progress of a background job which may take a long time
+   to execute.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Meter}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/Meter.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: OptionMenu()
+
+   The `OptionMenu
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixOptionMenu.htm>`_
+   creates a menu button of options.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{OptionMenu}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/OptMenu.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: PopupMenu()
+
+   The `PopupMenu
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPopupMenu.htm>`_
+   widget can be used as a replacement of the ``tk_popup`` command. The advantage
+   of the :mod:`Tix` :class:`PopupMenu` widget is it requires less application code
+   to manipulate.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{PopupMenu}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/PopMenu.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: Select()
+
+   The `Select
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixSelect.htm>`_ widget
+   is a container of button subwidgets. It can be used to provide radio-box or
+   check-box style of selection options for the user.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Select}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/Select.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: StdButtonBox()
+
+   The `StdButtonBox
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixStdButtonBox.htm>`_
+   widget is a group of standard buttons for Motif-like dialog boxes.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{StdButtonBox}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/StdBBox.tcl}
+
+
+File Selectors
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: DirList()
+
+   The `DirList
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirList.htm>`_
+   widget displays a list view of a directory, its previous directories and its
+   sub-directories. The user can choose one of the directories displayed in the
+   list or change to another directory.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{DirList}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/DirList.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: DirTree()
+
+   The `DirTree
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirTree.htm>`_
+   widget displays a tree view of a directory, its previous directories and its
+   sub-directories. The user can choose one of the directories displayed in the
+   list or change to another directory.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{DirTree}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/DirTree.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: DirSelectDialog()
+
+   The `DirSelectDialog
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirSelectDialog.htm>`_
+   widget presents the directories in the file system in a dialog window.  The user
+   can use this dialog window to navigate through the file system to select the
+   desired directory.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{DirSelectDialog}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/DirDlg.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: DirSelectBox()
+
+   The :class:`DirSelectBox` is similar to the standard Motif(TM)
+   directory-selection box. It is generally used for the user to choose a
+   directory.  DirSelectBox stores the directories mostly recently selected into
+   a ComboBox widget so that they can be quickly selected again.
+
+
+.. class:: ExFileSelectBox()
+
+   The `ExFileSelectBox
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixExFileSelectBox.htm>`_
+   widget is usually embedded in a tixExFileSelectDialog widget. It provides a
+   convenient method for the user to select files. The style of the
+   :class:`ExFileSelectBox` widget is very similar to the standard file dialog on
+   MS Windows 3.1.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ExFileSelectDialog}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/EFileDlg.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: FileSelectBox()
+
+   The `FileSelectBox
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileSelectBox.htm>`_
+   is similar to the standard Motif(TM) file-selection box. It is generally used
+   for the user to choose a file. FileSelectBox stores the files mostly recently
+   selected into a :class:`ComboBox` widget so that they can be quickly selected
+   again.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{FileSelectDialog}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/FileDlg.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: FileEntry()
+
+   The `FileEntry
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileEntry.htm>`_
+   widget can be used to input a filename. The user can type in the filename
+   manually. Alternatively, the user can press the button widget that sits next to
+   the entry, which will bring up a file selection dialog.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{FileEntry}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/FileEnt.tcl}
+
+
+Hierarchical ListBox
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: HList()
+
+   The `HList
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixHList.htm>`_ widget
+   can be used to display any data that have a hierarchical structure, for example,
+   file system directory trees. The list entries are indented and connected by
+   branch lines according to their places in the hierarchy.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{HList}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/HList1.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: CheckList()
+
+   The `CheckList
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixCheckList.htm>`_
+   widget displays a list of items to be selected by the user. CheckList acts
+   similarly to the Tk checkbutton or radiobutton widgets, except it is capable of
+   handling many more items than checkbuttons or radiobuttons.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ CheckList}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/ChkList.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledHList (1)}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/SHList.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledHList (2)}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/SHList2.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: Tree()
+
+   The `Tree
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTree.htm>`_ widget
+   can be used to display hierarchical data in a tree form. The user can adjust the
+   view of the tree by opening or closing parts of the tree.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Tree}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/Tree.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Tree (Dynamic)}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/DynTree.tcl}
+
+
+Tabular ListBox
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: TList()
+
+   The `TList
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTList.htm>`_ widget
+   can be used to display data in a tabular format. The list entries of a
+   :class:`TList` widget are similar to the entries in the Tk listbox widget.  The
+   main differences are (1) the :class:`TList` widget can display the list entries
+   in a two dimensional format and (2) you can use graphical images as well as
+   multiple colors and fonts for the list entries.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledTList (1)}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/STList1.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledTList (2)}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/STList2.tcl}
+.. Grid has yet to be added to Python
+.. \subsubsection{Grid Widget}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Simple Grid}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/SGrid0.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledGrid}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/SGrid1.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Editable Grid}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/EditGrid.tcl}
+
+
+Manager Widgets
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: PanedWindow()
+
+   The `PanedWindow
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPanedWindow.htm>`_
+   widget allows the user to interactively manipulate the sizes of several panes.
+   The panes can be arranged either vertically or horizontally.  The user changes
+   the sizes of the panes by dragging the resize handle between two panes.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{PanedWindow}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/PanedWin.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: ListNoteBook()
+
+   The `ListNoteBook
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixListNoteBook.htm>`_
+   widget is very similar to the :class:`TixNoteBook` widget: it can be used to
+   display many windows in a limited space using a notebook metaphor. The notebook
+   is divided into a stack of pages (windows). At one time only one of these pages
+   can be shown. The user can navigate through these pages by choosing the name of
+   the desired page in the :attr:`hlist` subwidget.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ListNoteBook}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/ListNBK.tcl}
+
+
+.. class:: NoteBook()
+
+   The `NoteBook
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixNoteBook.htm>`_
+   widget can be used to display many windows in a limited space using a notebook
+   metaphor. The notebook is divided into a stack of pages. At one time only one of
+   these pages can be shown. The user can navigate through these pages by choosing
+   the visual "tabs" at the top of the NoteBook widget.
+
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{NoteBook}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/NoteBook.tcl}
+
+.. \subsubsection{Scrolled Widgets}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledListBox}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/SListBox.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledText}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/SText.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{ScrolledWindow}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/SWindow.tcl}
+.. Python Demo of:
+.. \ulink{Canvas Object View}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/CObjView.tcl}
+
+
+Image Types
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :mod:`tkinter.tix` module adds:
+
+* `pixmap <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/pixmap.htm>`_
+  capabilities to all :mod:`tkinter.tix` and :mod:`tkinter` widgets to create
+  color images from XPM files.
+
+  .. Python Demo of:
+  .. \ulink{XPM Image In Button}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/Xpm.tcl}
+  .. Python Demo of:
+  .. \ulink{XPM Image In Menu}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/Xpm1.tcl}
+
+* `Compound
+  <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/compound.htm>`_ image
+  types can be used to create images that consists of multiple horizontal lines;
+  each line is composed of a series of items (texts, bitmaps, images or spaces)
+  arranged from left to right. For example, a compound image can be used to
+  display a bitmap and a text string simultaneously in a Tk :class:`Button`
+  widget.
+
+  .. Python Demo of:
+  .. \ulink{Compound Image In Buttons}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/CmpImg.tcl}
+  .. Python Demo of:
+  .. \ulink{Compound Image In NoteBook}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/CmpImg2.tcl}
+  .. Python Demo of:
+  .. \ulink{Compound Image Notebook Color Tabs}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/CmpImg4.tcl}
+  .. Python Demo of:
+  .. \ulink{Compound Image Icons}{http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/demos/samples/CmpImg3.tcl}
+
+
+Miscellaneous Widgets
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: InputOnly()
+
+   The `InputOnly
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixInputOnly.htm>`_
+   widgets are to accept inputs from the user, which can be done with the ``bind``
+   command (Unix only).
+
+
+Form Geometry Manager
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In addition, :mod:`tkinter.tix` augments :mod:`tkinter` by providing:
+
+
+.. class:: Form()
+
+   The `Form
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixForm.htm>`_ geometry
+   manager based on attachment rules for all Tk widgets.
+
+
+Tix Commands
+------------
+
+
+.. class:: tixCommand()
+
+   The `tix commands
+   <http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tix.htm>`_ provide
+   access to miscellaneous elements of :mod:`Tix`'s internal state and the
+   :mod:`Tix` application context.  Most of the information manipulated by these
+   methods pertains to the application as a whole, or to a screen or display,
+   rather than to a particular window.
+
+   To view the current settings, the common usage is::
+
+      from tkinter import tix
+      root = tix.Tk()
+      print(root.tix_configure())
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_configure(cnf=None, **kw)
+
+   Query or modify the configuration options of the Tix application context. If no
+   option is specified, returns a dictionary all of the available options.  If
+   option is specified with no value, then the method returns a list describing the
+   one named option (this list will be identical to the corresponding sublist of
+   the value returned if no option is specified).  If one or more option-value
+   pairs are specified, then the method modifies the given option(s) to have the
+   given value(s); in this case the method returns an empty string. Option may be
+   any of the configuration options.
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_cget(option)
+
+   Returns the current value of the configuration option given by *option*. Option
+   may be any of the configuration options.
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_getbitmap(name)
+
+   Locates a bitmap file of the name ``name.xpm`` or ``name`` in one of the bitmap
+   directories (see the :meth:`tix_addbitmapdir` method).  By using
+   :meth:`tix_getbitmap`, you can avoid hard coding the pathnames of the bitmap
+   files in your application. When successful, it returns the complete pathname of
+   the bitmap file, prefixed with the character ``@``.  The returned value can be
+   used to configure the ``bitmap`` option of the Tk and Tix widgets.
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir(directory)
+
+   Tix maintains a list of directories under which the :meth:`tix_getimage` and
+   :meth:`tix_getbitmap` methods will search for image files.  The standard bitmap
+   directory is :file:`$TIX_LIBRARY/bitmaps`. The :meth:`tix_addbitmapdir` method
+   adds *directory* into this list. By using this method, the image files of an
+   applications can also be located using the :meth:`tix_getimage` or
+   :meth:`tix_getbitmap` method.
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_filedialog([dlgclass])
+
+   Returns the file selection dialog that may be shared among different calls from
+   this application.  This method will create a file selection dialog widget when
+   it is called the first time. This dialog will be returned by all subsequent
+   calls to :meth:`tix_filedialog`.  An optional dlgclass parameter can be passed
+   as a string to specified what type of file selection dialog widget is desired.
+   Possible options are ``tix``, ``FileSelectDialog`` or ``tixExFileSelectDialog``.
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_getimage(self, name)
+
+   Locates an image file of the name :file:`name.xpm`, :file:`name.xbm` or
+   :file:`name.ppm` in one of the bitmap directories (see the
+   :meth:`tix_addbitmapdir` method above). If more than one file with the same name
+   (but different extensions) exist, then the image type is chosen according to the
+   depth of the X display: xbm images are chosen on monochrome displays and color
+   images are chosen on color displays. By using :meth:`tix_getimage`, you can
+   avoid hard coding the pathnames of the image files in your application. When
+   successful, this method returns the name of the newly created image, which can
+   be used to configure the ``image`` option of the Tk and Tix widgets.
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_option_get(name)
+
+   Gets the options maintained by the Tix scheme mechanism.
+
+
+.. method:: tixCommand.tix_resetoptions(newScheme, newFontSet[, newScmPrio])
+
+   Resets the scheme and fontset of the Tix application to *newScheme* and
+   *newFontSet*, respectively.  This affects only those widgets created after this
+   call.  Therefore, it is best to call the resetoptions method before the creation
+   of any widgets in a Tix application.
+
+   The optional parameter *newScmPrio* can be given to reset the priority level of
+   the Tk options set by the Tix schemes.
+
+   Because of the way Tk handles the X option database, after Tix has been has
+   imported and inited, it is not possible to reset the color schemes and font sets
+   using the :meth:`tix_config` method. Instead, the :meth:`tix_resetoptions`
+   method must be used.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.ttk.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.ttk.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76ecfcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tkinter.ttk.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1528 @@
+:mod:`tkinter.ttk` --- Tk themed widgets
+========================================
+
+.. module:: tkinter.ttk
+   :synopsis: Tk themed widget set
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Guilherme Polo <ggpolo@gmail.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/ttk.py`
+
+.. index:: single: ttk
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`tkinter.ttk` module provides access to the Tk themed widget set,
+introduced in Tk 8.5. If Python has not been compiled against Tk 8.5, this
+module can still be accessed if *Tile* has been installed.  The former
+method using Tk 8.5 provides additional benefits including anti-aliased font
+rendering under X11 and window transparency (requiring a composition
+window manager on X11).
+
+The basic idea for :mod:`tkinter.ttk` is to separate, to the extent possible,
+the code implementing a widget's behavior from the code implementing its
+appearance.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Tk Widget Styling Support <https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md>`_
+      A document introducing theming support for Tk
+
+
+Using Ttk
+---------
+
+To start using Ttk, import its module::
+
+   from tkinter import ttk
+
+To override the basic Tk widgets, the import should follow the Tk import::
+
+   from tkinter import *
+   from tkinter.ttk import *
+
+That code causes several :mod:`tkinter.ttk` widgets (:class:`Button`,
+:class:`Checkbutton`, :class:`Entry`, :class:`Frame`, :class:`Label`,
+:class:`LabelFrame`, :class:`Menubutton`, :class:`PanedWindow`,
+:class:`Radiobutton`, :class:`Scale` and :class:`Scrollbar`) to
+automatically replace the Tk widgets.
+
+This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a better
+look and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets are not
+completely compatible. The main difference is that widget options such as
+"fg", "bg" and others related to widget styling are no
+longer present in Ttk widgets.  Instead, use  the :class:`ttk.Style` class
+for improved styling effects.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets <http://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt>`_
+     A monograph (using Tcl terminology) about differences typically
+     encountered when moving applications to use the new widgets.
+
+
+Ttk Widgets
+-----------
+
+Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter:
+:class:`Button`, :class:`Checkbutton`, :class:`Entry`, :class:`Frame`,
+:class:`Label`, :class:`LabelFrame`, :class:`Menubutton`, :class:`PanedWindow`,
+:class:`Radiobutton`, :class:`Scale`, :class:`Scrollbar`, and :class:`Spinbox`.
+The other six are new: :class:`Combobox`, :class:`Notebook`,
+:class:`Progressbar`, :class:`Separator`, :class:`Sizegrip` and
+:class:`Treeview`. And all them are subclasses of :class:`Widget`.
+
+Using the Ttk widgets gives the application an improved look and feel.
+As discussed above, there are differences in how the styling is coded.
+
+Tk code::
+
+   l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
+   l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
+
+
+Ttk code::
+
+   style = ttk.Style()
+   style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white")
+
+   l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
+   l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
+
+For more information about TtkStyling_, see the :class:`Style` class
+documentation.
+
+Widget
+------
+
+:class:`ttk.Widget` defines standard options and methods supported by Tk
+themed widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated.
+
+
+Standard Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+All the :mod:`ttk` Widgets accepts the following options:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option    | Description                                                  |
+   +===========+==============================================================+
+   | class     | Specifies the window class. The class is used when querying  |
+   |           | the option database for the window's other options, to       |
+   |           | determine the default bindtags for the window, and to select |
+   |           | the widget's default layout and style. This option is        |
+   |           | read-only, and may only be specified when the window is      |
+   |           | created.                                                     |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | cursor    | Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget. If set |
+   |           | to the empty string (the default), the cursor is inherited   |
+   |           | for the parent widget.                                       |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | takefocus | Determines whether the window accepts the focus during       |
+   |           | keyboard traversal. 0, 1 or an empty string is returned.     |
+   |           | If 0 is returned, it means that the window should be skipped |
+   |           | entirely during keyboard traversal. If 1, it means that the  |
+   |           | window should receive the input focus as long as it is       |
+   |           | viewable. And an empty string means that the traversal       |
+   |           | scripts make the decision about whether or not to focus      |
+   |           | on the window.                                               |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | style     | May be used to specify a custom widget style.                |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Scrollable Widget Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following options are supported by widgets that are controlled by a
+scrollbar.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +----------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option         | Description                                             |
+   +================+=========================================================+
+   | xscrollcommand | Used to communicate with horizontal scrollbars.         |
+   |                |                                                         |
+   |                | When the view in the widget's window change, the widget |
+   |                | will generate a Tcl command based on the scrollcommand. |
+   |                |                                                         |
+   |                | Usually this option consists of the method              |
+   |                | :meth:`Scrollbar.set` of some scrollbar. This will cause|
+   |                | the scrollbar to be updated whenever the view in the    |
+   |                | window changes.                                         |
+   +----------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
+   | yscrollcommand | Used to communicate with vertical scrollbars.           |
+   |                | For some more information, see above.                   |
+   +----------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Label Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following options are supported by labels, buttons and other button-like
+widgets.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|p{0.7\linewidth}|
+
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option       | Description                                               |
+   +==============+===========================================================+
+   | text         | Specifies a text string to be displayed inside the widget.|
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | textvariable | Specifies a name whose value will be used in place of the |
+   |              | text option resource.                                     |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | underline    | If set, specifies the index (0-based) of a character to   |
+   |              | underline in the text string. The underline character is  |
+   |              | used for mnemonic activation.                             |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | image        | Specifies an image to display. This is a list of 1 or more|
+   |              | elements. The first element is the default image name. The|
+   |              | rest of the list if a sequence of statespec/value pairs as|
+   |              | defined by :meth:`Style.map`, specifying different images |
+   |              | to use when the widget is in a particular state or a      |
+   |              | combination of states. All images in the list should have |
+   |              | the same size.                                            |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | compound     | Specifies how to display the image relative to the text,  |
+   |              | in the case both text and images options are present.     |
+   |              | Valid values are:                                         |
+   |              |                                                           |
+   |              | * text: display text only                                 |
+   |              | * image: display image only                               |
+   |              | * top, bottom, left, right: display image above, below,   |
+   |              |   left of, or right of the text, respectively.            |
+   |              | * none: the default. display the image if present,        |
+   |              |   otherwise the text.                                     |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | width        | If greater than zero, specifies how much space, in        |
+   |              | character widths, to allocate for the text label, if less |
+   |              | than zero, specifies a minimum width. If zero or          |
+   |              | unspecified, the natural width of the text label is used. |
+   +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Compatibility Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +--------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option | Description                                                    |
+   +========+================================================================+
+   | state  | May be set to "normal" or "disabled" to control the "disabled" |
+   |        | state bit. This is a write-only option: setting it changes the |
+   |        | widget state, but the :meth:`Widget.state` method does not     |
+   |        | affect this option.                                            |
+   +--------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+Widget States
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The widget state is a bitmap of independent state flags.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Flag       | Description                                                 |
+   +============+=============================================================+
+   | active     | The mouse cursor is over the widget and pressing a mouse    |
+   |            | button will cause some action to occur                      |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | disabled   | Widget is disabled under program control                    |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | focus      | Widget has keyboard focus                                   |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | pressed    | Widget is being pressed                                     |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | selected   | "On", "true", or "current" for things like Checkbuttons and |
+   |            | radiobuttons                                                |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | background | Windows and Mac have a notion of an "active" or foreground  |
+   |            | window. The *background* state is set for widgets in a      |
+   |            | background window, and cleared for those in the foreground  |
+   |            | window                                                      |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | readonly   | Widget should not allow user modification                   |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | alternate  | A widget-specific alternate display format                  |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | invalid    | The widget's value is invalid                               |
+   +------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+A state specification is a sequence of state names, optionally prefixed with
+an exclamation point indicating that the bit is off.
+
+
+ttk.Widget
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Besides the methods described below, the :class:`ttk.Widget` supports the
+methods :meth:`tkinter.Widget.cget` and :meth:`tkinter.Widget.configure`.
+
+.. class:: Widget
+
+   .. method:: identify(x, y)
+
+      Returns the name of the element at position *x* *y*, or the empty string
+      if the point does not lie within any element.
+
+      *x* and *y* are pixel coordinates relative to the widget.
+
+
+   .. method:: instate(statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw)
+
+      Test the widget's state. If a callback is not specified, returns ``True``
+      if the widget state matches *statespec* and ``False`` otherwise. If callback
+      is specified then it is called with args if widget state matches
+      *statespec*.
+
+
+   .. method:: state(statespec=None)
+
+      Modify or inquire widget state. If *statespec* is specified, sets the
+      widget state according to it and return a new *statespec* indicating
+      which flags were changed. If *statespec* is not specified, returns
+      the currently-enabled state flags.
+
+   *statespec* will usually be a list or a tuple.
+
+
+Combobox
+--------
+
+The :class:`ttk.Combobox` widget combines a text field with a pop-down list of
+values. This widget is a subclass of :class:`Entry`.
+
+Besides the methods inherited from :class:`Widget`: :meth:`Widget.cget`,
+:meth:`Widget.configure`, :meth:`Widget.identify`, :meth:`Widget.instate`
+and :meth:`Widget.state`, and the following inherited from :class:`Entry`:
+:meth:`Entry.bbox`, :meth:`Entry.delete`, :meth:`Entry.icursor`,
+:meth:`Entry.index`, :meth:`Entry.insert`, :meth:`Entry.selection`,
+:meth:`Entry.xview`, it has some other methods, described at
+:class:`ttk.Combobox`.
+
+
+Options
+^^^^^^^
+
+This widget accepts the following specific options:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option          | Description                                            |
+   +=================+========================================================+
+   | exportselection | Boolean value. If set, the widget selection is linked  |
+   |                 | to the Window Manager selection (which can be returned |
+   |                 | by invoking Misc.selection_get, for example).          |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | justify         | Specifies how the text is aligned within the widget.   |
+   |                 | One of "left", "center", or "right".                   |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | height          | Specifies the height of the pop-down listbox, in rows. |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | postcommand     | A script (possibly registered with Misc.register) that |
+   |                 | is called immediately before displaying the values. It |
+   |                 | may specify which values to display.                   |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | state           | One of "normal", "readonly", or "disabled". In the     |
+   |                 | "readonly" state, the value may not be edited directly,|
+   |                 | and the user can only selection of the values from the |
+   |                 | dropdown list. In the "normal" state, the text field is|
+   |                 | directly editable. In the "disabled" state, no         |
+   |                 | interaction is possible.                               |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | textvariable    | Specifies a name whose value is linked to the widget   |
+   |                 | value. Whenever the value associated with that name    |
+   |                 | changes, the widget value is updated, and vice versa.  |
+   |                 | See :class:`tkinter.StringVar`.                        |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | values          | Specifies the list of values to display in the         |
+   |                 | drop-down listbox.                                     |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | width           | Specifies an integer value indicating the desired width|
+   |                 | of the entry window, in average-size characters of the |
+   |                 | widget's font.                                         |
+   +-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Virtual events
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The combobox widgets generates a **<<ComboboxSelected>>** virtual event
+when the user selects an element from the list of values.
+
+
+ttk.Combobox
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Combobox
+
+   .. method:: current(newindex=None)
+
+      If *newindex* is specified, sets the combobox value to the element
+      position *newindex*. Otherwise, returns the index of the current value or
+      -1 if the current value is not in the values list.
+
+
+   .. method:: get()
+
+      Returns the current value of the combobox.
+
+
+   .. method:: set(value)
+
+      Sets the value of the combobox to *value*.
+
+
+Spinbox
+-------
+The :class:`ttk.Spinbox` widget is a :class:`ttk.Entry` enhanced with increment
+and decrement arrows.  It can be used for numbers or lists of string values.
+This widget is a subclass of :class:`Entry`.
+
+Besides the methods inherited from :class:`Widget`: :meth:`Widget.cget`,
+:meth:`Widget.configure`, :meth:`Widget.identify`, :meth:`Widget.instate`
+and :meth:`Widget.state`, and the following inherited from :class:`Entry`:
+:meth:`Entry.bbox`, :meth:`Entry.delete`, :meth:`Entry.icursor`,
+:meth:`Entry.index`, :meth:`Entry.insert`, :meth:`Entry.xview`,
+it has some other methods, described at :class:`ttk.Spinbox`.
+
+Options
+^^^^^^^
+
+This widget accepts the following specific options:
+
+  .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| Option               | Description                                          |
++======================+======================================================+
+| from                 | Float value.  If set, this is the minimum value to   |
+|                      | which the decrement button will decrement.  Must be  |
+|                      | spelled as ``from_`` when used as an argument, since |
+|                      | ``from`` is a Python keyword.                        |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| to                   | Float value.  If set, this is the maximum value to   |
+|                      | which the increment button will increment.           |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| increment            | Float value.  Specifies the amount which the         |
+|                      | increment/decrement buttons change the               |
+|                      | value. Defaults to 1.0.                              |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| values               | Sequence of string or float values.  If specified,   |
+|                      | the increment/decrement buttons will cycle through   |
+|                      | the items in this sequence rather than incrementing  |
+|                      | or decrementing numbers.                             |
+|                      |                                                      |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| wrap                 | Boolean value.  If ``True``, increment and decrement |
+|                      | buttons will cycle from the ``to`` value to the      |
+|                      | ``from`` value or the ``from`` value to the ``to``   |
+|                      | value, respectively.                                 |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| format               | String value.  This specifies the format of numbers  |
+|                      | set by the increment/decrement buttons.  It must be  |
+|                      | in the form "%W.Pf", where W is the padded width of  |
+|                      | the value, P is the precision, and '%' and 'f' are   |
+|                      | literal.                                             |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| command              | Python callable.  Will be called with no arguments   |
+|                      | whenever either of the increment or decrement buttons|
+|                      | are pressed.                                         |
+|                      |                                                      |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Virtual events
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The spinbox widget generates an **<<Increment>>** virtual event when the
+user presses <Up>, and a **<<Decrement>>** virtual event when the user
+presses <Down>.
+
+ttk.Spinbox
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Spinbox
+
+   .. method:: get()
+
+      Returns the current value of the spinbox.
+
+
+   .. method:: set(value)
+
+      Sets the value of the spinbox to *value*.
+
+
+Notebook
+--------
+
+Ttk Notebook widget manages a collection of windows and displays a single
+one at a time. Each child window is associated with a tab, which the user
+may select to change the currently-displayed window.
+
+
+Options
+^^^^^^^
+
+This widget accepts the following specific options:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option  | Description                                                    |
+   +=========+================================================================+
+   | height  | If present and greater than zero, specifies the desired height |
+   |         | of the pane area (not including internal padding or tabs).     |
+   |         | Otherwise, the maximum height of all panes is used.            |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | padding | Specifies the amount of extra space to add around the outside  |
+   |         | of the notebook. The padding is a list up to four length       |
+   |         | specifications left top right bottom. If fewer than four       |
+   |         | elements are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults |
+   |         | to left, and top defaults to left.                             |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | width   | If present and greater than zero, specified the desired width  |
+   |         | of the pane area (not including internal padding). Otherwise,  |
+   |         | the maximum width of all panes is used.                        |
+   +---------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Tab Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+There are also specific options for tabs:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option    | Description                                                  |
+   +===========+==============================================================+
+   | state     | Either "normal", "disabled" or "hidden". If "disabled", then |
+   |           | the tab is not selectable. If "hidden", then the tab is not  |
+   |           | shown.                                                       |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | sticky    | Specifies how the child window is positioned within the pane |
+   |           | area. Value is a string containing zero or more of the       |
+   |           | characters "n", "s", "e" or "w". Each letter refers to a     |
+   |           | side (north, south, east or west) that the child window will |
+   |           | stick to, as per the :meth:`grid` geometry manager.          |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | padding   | Specifies the amount of extra space to add between the       |
+   |           | notebook and this pane. Syntax is the same as for the option |
+   |           | padding used by this widget.                                 |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | text      | Specifies a text to be displayed in the tab.                 |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | image     | Specifies an image to display in the tab. See the option     |
+   |           | image described in :class:`Widget`.                          |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | compound  | Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in  |
+   |           | the case both options text and image are present. See        |
+   |           | `Label Options`_ for legal values.                           |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | underline | Specifies the index (0-based) of a character to underline in |
+   |           | the text string. The underlined character is used for        |
+   |           | mnemonic activation if :meth:`Notebook.enable_traversal` is  |
+   |           | called.                                                      |
+   +-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Tab Identifiers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The tab_id present in several methods of :class:`ttk.Notebook` may take any
+of the following forms:
+
+* An integer between zero and the number of tabs
+* The name of a child window
+* A positional specification of the form "@x,y", which identifies the tab
+* The literal string "current", which identifies the currently-selected tab
+* The literal string "end", which returns the number of tabs (only valid for
+  :meth:`Notebook.index`)
+
+
+Virtual Events
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This widget generates a **<<NotebookTabChanged>>** virtual event after a new
+tab is selected.
+
+
+ttk.Notebook
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Notebook
+
+   .. method:: add(child, **kw)
+
+      Adds a new tab to the notebook.
+
+      If window is currently managed by the notebook but hidden, it is
+      restored to its previous position.
+
+      See `Tab Options`_ for the list of available options.
+
+
+   .. method:: forget(tab_id)
+
+      Removes the tab specified by *tab_id*, unmaps and unmanages the
+      associated window.
+
+
+   .. method:: hide(tab_id)
+
+      Hides the tab specified by *tab_id*.
+
+      The tab will not be displayed, but the associated window remains
+      managed by the notebook and its configuration remembered. Hidden tabs
+      may be restored with the :meth:`add` command.
+
+
+   .. method:: identify(x, y)
+
+      Returns the name of the tab element at position *x*, *y*, or the empty
+      string if none.
+
+
+   .. method:: index(tab_id)
+
+      Returns the numeric index of the tab specified by *tab_id*, or the total
+      number of tabs if *tab_id* is the string "end".
+
+
+   .. method:: insert(pos, child, **kw)
+
+      Inserts a pane at the specified position.
+
+      *pos* is either the string "end", an integer index, or the name of a
+      managed child. If *child* is already managed by the notebook, moves it to
+      the specified position.
+
+      See `Tab Options`_ for the list of available options.
+
+
+   .. method:: select(tab_id=None)
+
+      Selects the specified *tab_id*.
+
+      The associated child window will be displayed, and the
+      previously-selected window (if different) is unmapped. If *tab_id* is
+      omitted, returns the widget name of the currently selected pane.
+
+
+   .. method:: tab(tab_id, option=None, **kw)
+
+      Query or modify the options of the specific *tab_id*.
+
+      If *kw* is not given, returns a dictionary of the tab option values. If
+      *option* is specified, returns the value of that *option*. Otherwise,
+      sets the options to the corresponding values.
+
+
+   .. method:: tabs()
+
+      Returns a list of windows managed by the notebook.
+
+
+   .. method:: enable_traversal()
+
+      Enable keyboard traversal for a toplevel window containing this notebook.
+
+      This will extend the bindings for the toplevel window containing the
+      notebook as follows:
+
+      * :kbd:`Control-Tab`: selects the tab following the currently selected one.
+      * :kbd:`Shift-Control-Tab`: selects the tab preceding the currently selected one.
+      * :kbd:`Alt-K`: where *K* is the mnemonic (underlined) character of any tab, will
+        select that tab.
+
+      Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for traversal,
+      including nested notebooks. However, notebook traversal only works
+      properly if all panes have the notebook they are in as master.
+
+
+Progressbar
+-----------
+
+The :class:`ttk.Progressbar` widget shows the status of a long-running
+operation. It can operate in two modes:  1) the determinate mode which shows the
+amount completed relative to the total amount of work to be done and 2) the
+indeterminate mode which provides an animated display to let the user know that
+work is progressing.
+
+
+Options
+^^^^^^^
+
+This widget accepts the following specific options:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option   | Description                                                   |
+   +==========+===============================================================+
+   | orient   | One of "horizontal" or "vertical". Specifies the orientation  |
+   |          | of the progress bar.                                          |
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | length   | Specifies the length of the long axis of the progress bar     |
+   |          | (width if horizontal, height if vertical).                    |
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | mode     | One of "determinate" or "indeterminate".                      |
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | maximum  | A number specifying the maximum value. Defaults to 100.       |
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | value    | The current value of the progress bar. In "determinate" mode, |
+   |          | this represents the amount of work completed. In              |
+   |          | "indeterminate" mode, it is interpreted as modulo *maximum*;  |
+   |          | that is, the progress bar completes one "cycle" when its value|
+   |          | increases by *maximum*.                                       |
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | variable | A name which is linked to the option value. If specified, the |
+   |          | value of the progress bar is automatically set to the value of|
+   |          | this name whenever the latter is modified.                    |
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | phase    | Read-only option. The widget periodically increments the value|
+   |          | of this option whenever its value is greater than 0 and, in   |
+   |          | determinate mode, less than maximum. This option may be used  |
+   |          | by the current theme to provide additional animation effects. |
+   +----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+ttk.Progressbar
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Progressbar
+
+   .. method:: start(interval=None)
+
+      Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer event that calls
+      :meth:`Progressbar.step` every *interval* milliseconds. If omitted,
+      *interval* defaults to 50 milliseconds.
+
+
+   .. method:: step(amount=None)
+
+      Increments the progress bar's value by *amount*.
+
+      *amount* defaults to 1.0 if omitted.
+
+
+   .. method:: stop()
+
+      Stop autoincrement mode: cancels any recurring timer event initiated by
+      :meth:`Progressbar.start` for this progress bar.
+
+
+Separator
+---------
+
+The :class:`ttk.Separator` widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator
+bar.
+
+It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget`.
+
+
+Options
+^^^^^^^
+
+This widget accepts the following specific option:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +--------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option | Description                                                    |
+   +========+================================================================+
+   | orient | One of "horizontal" or "vertical". Specifies the orientation of|
+   |        | the separator.                                                 |
+   +--------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Sizegrip
+--------
+
+The :class:`ttk.Sizegrip` widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to
+resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip.
+
+This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides the
+ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget`.
+
+
+Platform-specific notes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+* On MacOS X, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size grip
+  by default. Adding a :class:`Sizegrip` is harmless, since the built-in
+  grip will just mask the widget.
+
+
+Bugs
+^^^^
+
+* If the containing toplevel's position was specified relative to the right
+  or bottom of the screen (e.g. ....), the :class:`Sizegrip` widget will
+  not resize the window.
+* This widget supports only "southeast" resizing.
+
+
+Treeview
+--------
+
+The :class:`ttk.Treeview` widget displays a hierarchical collection of items.
+Each item has a textual label, an optional image, and an optional list of data
+values. The data values are displayed in successive columns after the tree
+label.
+
+The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by setting
+the widget option ``displaycolumns``. The tree widget can also display column
+headings. Columns may be accessed by number or symbolic names listed in the
+widget option columns. See `Column Identifiers`_.
+
+Each item is identified by a unique name. The widget will generate item IDs
+if they are not supplied by the caller. There is a distinguished root item,
+named ``{}``. The root item itself is not displayed; its children appear at the
+top level of the hierarchy.
+
+Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate event bindings
+with individual items and control the appearance of the item.
+
+The Treeview widget supports horizontal and vertical scrolling, according to
+the options described in `Scrollable Widget Options`_ and the methods
+:meth:`Treeview.xview` and :meth:`Treeview.yview`.
+
+
+Options
+^^^^^^^
+
+This widget accepts the following specific options:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|p{0.7\linewidth}|
+
+   +----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option         | Description                                            |
+   +================+========================================================+
+   | columns        | A list of column identifiers, specifying the number of |
+   |                | columns and their names.                               |
+   +----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | displaycolumns | A list of column identifiers (either symbolic or       |
+   |                | integer indices) specifying which data columns are     |
+   |                | displayed and the order in which they appear, or the   |
+   |                | string "#all".                                         |
+   +----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | height         | Specifies the number of rows which should be visible.  |
+   |                | Note: the requested width is determined from the sum   |
+   |                | of the column widths.                                  |
+   +----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | padding        | Specifies the internal padding for the widget. The     |
+   |                | padding is a list of up to four length specifications. |
+   +----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | selectmode     | Controls how the built-in class bindings manage the    |
+   |                | selection. One of "extended", "browse" or "none".      |
+   |                | If set to "extended" (the default), multiple items may |
+   |                | be selected. If "browse", only a single item will be   |
+   |                | selected at a time. If "none", the selection will not  |
+   |                | be changed.                                            |
+   |                |                                                        |
+   |                | Note that the application code and tag bindings can set|
+   |                | the selection however they wish, regardless of the     |
+   |                | value  of this option.                                 |
+   +----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+   | show           | A list containing zero or more of the following values,|
+   |                | specifying which elements of the tree to display.      |
+   |                |                                                        |
+   |                | * tree: display tree labels in column #0.              |
+   |                | * headings: display the heading row.                   |
+   |                |                                                        |
+   |                | The default is "tree headings", i.e., show all         |
+   |                | elements.                                              |
+   |                |                                                        |
+   |                | **Note**: Column #0 always refers to the tree column,  |
+   |                | even if show="tree" is not specified.                  |
+   +----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Item Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following item options may be specified for items in the insert and item
+widget commands.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option | Description                                                   |
+   +========+===============================================================+
+   | text   | The textual label to display for the item.                    |
+   +--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | image  | A Tk Image, displayed to the left of the label.               |
+   +--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | values | The list of values associated with the item.                  |
+   |        |                                                               |
+   |        | Each item should have the same number of values as the widget |
+   |        | option columns. If there are fewer values than columns, the   |
+   |        | remaining values are assumed empty. If there are more values  |
+   |        | than columns, the extra values are ignored.                   |
+   +--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | open   | True/False value indicating whether the item's children should|
+   |        | be displayed or hidden.                                       |
+   +--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | tags   | A list of tags associated with this item.                     |
+   +--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Tag Options
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following options may be specified on tags:
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Option     | Description                                               |
+   +============+===========================================================+
+   | foreground | Specifies the text foreground color.                      |
+   +------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | background | Specifies the cell or item background color.              |
+   +------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | font       | Specifies the font to use when drawing text.              |
+   +------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+   | image      | Specifies the item image, in case the item's image option |
+   |            | is empty.                                                 |
+   +------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Column Identifiers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Column identifiers take any of the following forms:
+
+* A symbolic name from the list of columns option.
+* An integer n, specifying the nth data column.
+* A string of the form #n, where n is an integer, specifying the nth display
+  column.
+
+Notes:
+
+* Item's option values may be displayed in a different order than the order
+  in which they are stored.
+* Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even if show="tree" is not
+  specified.
+
+A data column number is an index into an item's option values list; a display
+column number is the column number in the tree where the values are displayed.
+Tree labels are displayed in column #0. If option displaycolumns is not set,
+then data column n is displayed in column #n+1. Again, **column #0 always
+refers to the tree column**.
+
+
+Virtual Events
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The Treeview widget generates the following virtual events.
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | Event              | Description                                      |
+   +====================+==================================================+
+   | <<TreeviewSelect>> | Generated whenever the selection changes.        |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | <<TreeviewOpen>>   | Generated just before settings the focus item to |
+   |                    | open=True.                                       |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+   | <<TreeviewClose>>  | Generated just after setting the focus item to   |
+   |                    | open=False.                                      |
+   +--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
+
+The :meth:`Treeview.focus` and :meth:`Treeview.selection` methods can be used
+to determine the affected item or items.
+
+
+ttk.Treeview
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Treeview
+
+   .. method:: bbox(item, column=None)
+
+      Returns the bounding box (relative to the treeview widget's window) of
+      the specified *item* in the form (x, y, width, height).
+
+      If *column* is specified, returns the bounding box of that cell. If the
+      *item* is not visible (i.e., if it is a descendant of a closed item or is
+      scrolled offscreen), returns an empty string.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_children(item=None)
+
+      Returns the list of children belonging to *item*.
+
+      If *item* is not specified, returns root children.
+
+
+   .. method:: set_children(item, *newchildren)
+
+      Replaces *item*'s child with *newchildren*.
+
+      Children present in *item* that are not present in *newchildren* are
+      detached from the tree. No items in *newchildren* may be an ancestor of
+      *item*. Note that not specifying *newchildren* results in detaching
+      *item*'s children.
+
+
+   .. method:: column(column, option=None, **kw)
+
+      Query or modify the options for the specified *column*.
+
+      If *kw* is not given, returns a dict of the column option values. If
+      *option* is specified then the value for that *option* is returned.
+      Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values.
+
+      The valid options/values are:
+
+      * id
+         Returns the column name. This is a read-only option.
+      * anchor: One of the standard Tk anchor values.
+         Specifies how the text in this column should be aligned with respect
+         to the cell.
+      * minwidth: width
+         The minimum width of the column in pixels. The treeview widget will
+         not make the column any smaller than specified by this option when
+         the widget is resized or the user drags a column.
+      * stretch: True/False
+         Specifies whether the column's width should be adjusted when
+         the widget is resized.
+      * width: width
+         The width of the column in pixels.
+
+      To configure the tree column, call this with column = "#0"
+
+   .. method:: delete(*items)
+
+      Delete all specified *items* and all their descendants.
+
+      The root item may not be deleted.
+
+
+   .. method:: detach(*items)
+
+      Unlinks all of the specified *items* from the tree.
+
+      The items and all of their descendants are still present, and may be
+      reinserted at another point in the tree, but will not be displayed.
+
+      The root item may not be detached.
+
+
+   .. method:: exists(item)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if the specified *item* is present in the tree.
+
+
+   .. method:: focus(item=None)
+
+      If *item* is specified, sets the focus item to *item*. Otherwise, returns
+      the current focus item, or '' if there is none.
+
+
+   .. method:: heading(column, option=None, **kw)
+
+      Query or modify the heading options for the specified *column*.
+
+      If *kw* is not given, returns a dict of the heading option values. If
+      *option* is specified then the value for that *option* is returned.
+      Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values.
+
+      The valid options/values are:
+
+      * text: text
+         The text to display in the column heading.
+      * image: imageName
+         Specifies an image to display to the right of the column heading.
+      * anchor: anchor
+         Specifies how the heading text should be aligned. One of the standard
+         Tk anchor values.
+      * command: callback
+         A callback to be invoked when the heading label is pressed.
+
+      To configure the tree column heading, call this with column = "#0".
+
+
+   .. method:: identify(component, x, y)
+
+      Returns a description of the specified *component* under the point given
+      by *x* and *y*, or the empty string if no such *component* is present at
+      that position.
+
+
+   .. method:: identify_row(y)
+
+      Returns the item ID of the item at position *y*.
+
+
+   .. method:: identify_column(x)
+
+      Returns the data column identifier of the cell at position *x*.
+
+      The tree column has ID #0.
+
+
+   .. method:: identify_region(x, y)
+
+      Returns one of:
+
+      +-----------+--------------------------------------+
+      | region    | meaning                              |
+      +===========+======================================+
+      | heading   | Tree heading area.                   |
+      +-----------+--------------------------------------+
+      | separator | Space between two columns headings.  |
+      +-----------+--------------------------------------+
+      | tree      | The tree area.                       |
+      +-----------+--------------------------------------+
+      | cell      | A data cell.                         |
+      +-----------+--------------------------------------+
+
+      Availability: Tk 8.6.
+
+
+   .. method:: identify_element(x, y)
+
+      Returns the element at position *x*, *y*.
+
+      Availability: Tk 8.6.
+
+
+   .. method:: index(item)
+
+      Returns the integer index of *item* within its parent's list of children.
+
+
+   .. method:: insert(parent, index, iid=None, **kw)
+
+      Creates a new item and returns the item identifier of the newly created
+      item.
+
+      *parent* is the item ID of the parent item, or the empty string to create
+      a new top-level item. *index* is an integer, or the value "end",
+      specifying where in the list of parent's children to insert the new item.
+      If *index* is less than or equal to zero, the new node is inserted at
+      the beginning; if *index* is greater than or equal to the current number
+      of children, it is inserted at the end. If *iid* is specified, it is used
+      as the item identifier; *iid* must not already exist in the tree.
+      Otherwise, a new unique identifier is generated.
+
+      See `Item Options`_ for the list of available points.
+
+
+   .. method:: item(item, option=None, **kw)
+
+      Query or modify the options for the specified *item*.
+
+      If no options are given, a dict with options/values for the item is
+      returned.
+      If *option* is specified then the value for that option is returned.
+      Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values as given by *kw*.
+
+
+   .. method:: move(item, parent, index)
+
+      Moves *item* to position *index* in *parent*'s list of children.
+
+      It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants. If *index* is
+      less than or equal to zero, *item* is moved to the beginning; if greater
+      than or equal to the number of children, it is moved to the end. If *item*
+      was detached it is reattached.
+
+
+   .. method:: next(item)
+
+      Returns the identifier of *item*'s next sibling, or '' if *item* is the
+      last child of its parent.
+
+
+   .. method:: parent(item)
+
+      Returns the ID of the parent of *item*, or '' if *item* is at the top
+      level of the hierarchy.
+
+
+   .. method:: prev(item)
+
+      Returns the identifier of *item*'s previous sibling, or '' if *item* is
+      the first child of its parent.
+
+
+   .. method:: reattach(item, parent, index)
+
+      An alias for :meth:`Treeview.move`.
+
+
+   .. method:: see(item)
+
+      Ensure that *item* is visible.
+
+      Sets all of *item*'s ancestors open option to ``True``, and scrolls the
+      widget if necessary so that *item* is within the visible portion of
+      the tree.
+
+
+   .. method:: selection(selop=None, items=None)
+
+      If *selop* is not specified, returns selected items. Otherwise, it will
+      act according to the following selection methods.
+
+      .. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.8
+         Using ``selection()`` for changing the selection state is deprecated.
+         Use the following selection methods instead.
+
+
+   .. method:: selection_set(*items)
+
+      *items* becomes the new selection.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         *items* can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.
+
+
+   .. method:: selection_add(*items)
+
+      Add *items* to the selection.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         *items* can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.
+
+
+   .. method:: selection_remove(*items)
+
+      Remove *items* from the selection.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         *items* can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.
+
+
+   .. method:: selection_toggle(*items)
+
+      Toggle the selection state of each item in *items*.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         *items* can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.
+
+
+   .. method:: set(item, column=None, value=None)
+
+      With one argument, returns a dictionary of column/value pairs for the
+      specified *item*. With two arguments, returns the current value of the
+      specified *column*. With three arguments, sets the value of given
+      *column* in given *item* to the specified *value*.
+
+
+   .. method:: tag_bind(tagname, sequence=None, callback=None)
+
+      Bind a callback for the given event *sequence* to the tag *tagname*.
+      When an event is delivered to an item, the callbacks for each of the
+      item's tags option are called.
+
+
+   .. method:: tag_configure(tagname, option=None, **kw)
+
+      Query or modify the options for the specified *tagname*.
+
+      If *kw* is not given, returns a dict of the option settings for
+      *tagname*. If *option* is specified, returns the value for that *option*
+      for the specified *tagname*. Otherwise, sets the options to the
+      corresponding values for the given *tagname*.
+
+
+   .. method:: tag_has(tagname, item=None)
+
+      If *item* is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether the specified
+      *item* has the given *tagname*. Otherwise, returns a list of all items
+      that have the specified tag.
+
+      Availability: Tk 8.6
+
+
+   .. method:: xview(*args)
+
+      Query or modify horizontal position of the treeview.
+
+
+   .. method:: yview(*args)
+
+      Query or modify vertical position of the treeview.
+
+
+.. _TtkStyling:
+
+Ttk Styling
+-----------
+
+Each widget in :mod:`ttk` is assigned a style, which specifies the set of
+elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with dynamic
+and default settings for element options. By default the style name is the
+same as the widget's class name, but it may be overridden by the widget's style
+option. If you don't know the class name of a widget, use the method
+:meth:`Misc.winfo_class` (somewidget.winfo_class()).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Tcl'2004 conference presentation <http://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf>`_
+      This document explains how the theme engine works
+
+
+.. class:: Style
+
+   This class is used to manipulate the style database.
+
+
+   .. method:: configure(style, query_opt=None, **kw)
+
+      Query or set the default value of the specified option(s) in *style*.
+
+      Each key in *kw* is an option and each value is a string identifying
+      the value for that option.
+
+      For example, to change every default button to be a flat button with
+      some padding and a different background color::
+
+         from tkinter import ttk
+         import tkinter
+
+         root = tkinter.Tk()
+
+         ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat",
+            background="#ccc")
+
+         btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample")
+         btn.pack()
+
+         root.mainloop()
+
+
+   .. method:: map(style, query_opt=None, **kw)
+
+      Query or sets dynamic values of the specified option(s) in *style*.
+
+      Each key in *kw* is an option and each value should be a list or a
+      tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples, lists, or
+      some other preference. A statespec is a compound of one
+      or more states and then a value.
+
+      An example may make it more understandable::
+
+         import tkinter
+         from tkinter import ttk
+
+         root = tkinter.Tk()
+
+         style = ttk.Style()
+         style.map("C.TButton",
+             foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')],
+             background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')]
+             )
+
+         colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack()
+
+         root.mainloop()
+
+
+      Note that the order of the (states, value) sequences for an option does
+      matter, if the order is changed to ``[('active', 'blue'), ('pressed',
+      'red')]`` in the foreground option, for example, the result would be a
+      blue foreground when the widget were in active or pressed states.
+
+
+   .. method:: lookup(style, option, state=None, default=None)
+
+      Returns the value specified for *option* in *style*.
+
+      If *state* is specified, it is expected to be a sequence of one or more
+      states. If the *default* argument is set, it is used as a fallback value
+      in case no specification for option is found.
+
+      To check what font a Button uses by default::
+
+         from tkinter import ttk
+
+         print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font"))
+
+
+   .. method:: layout(style, layoutspec=None)
+
+      Define the widget layout for given *style*. If *layoutspec* is omitted,
+      return the layout specification for given style.
+
+      *layoutspec*, if specified, is expected to be a list or some other
+      sequence type (excluding strings), where each item should be a tuple and
+      the first item is the layout name and the second item should have the
+      format described in `Layouts`_.
+
+      To understand the format, see the following example (it is not
+      intended to do anything useful)::
+
+         from tkinter import ttk
+         import tkinter
+
+         root = tkinter.Tk()
+
+         style = ttk.Style()
+         style.layout("TMenubutton", [
+            ("Menubutton.background", None),
+            ("Menubutton.button", {"children":
+                [("Menubutton.focus", {"children":
+                    [("Menubutton.padding", {"children":
+                        [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})]
+                    })]
+                })]
+            }),
+         ])
+
+         mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text')
+         mbtn.pack()
+         root.mainloop()
+
+
+   .. method:: element_create(elementname, etype, *args, **kw)
+
+      Create a new element in the current theme, of the given *etype* which is
+      expected to be either "image", "from" or "vsapi". The latter is only
+      available in Tk 8.6a for Windows XP and Vista and is not described here.
+
+      If "image" is used, *args* should contain the default image name followed
+      by statespec/value pairs (this is the imagespec), and *kw* may have the
+      following options:
+
+       * border=padding
+          padding is a list of up to four integers, specifying the left, top,
+          right, and bottom borders, respectively.
+
+       * height=height
+          Specifies a minimum height for the element. If less than zero, the
+          base image's height is used as a default.
+
+       * padding=padding
+          Specifies the element's interior padding. Defaults to border's value
+          if not specified.
+
+       * sticky=spec
+          Specifies how the image is placed within the final parcel. spec
+          contains zero or more characters "n", "s", "w", or "e".
+
+       * width=width
+          Specifies a minimum width for the element. If less than zero, the
+          base image's width is used as a default.
+
+      If "from" is used as the value of *etype*,
+      :meth:`element_create` will clone an existing
+      element. *args* is expected to contain a themename, from which
+      the element will be cloned, and optionally an element to clone from.
+      If this element to clone from is not specified, an empty element will
+      be used. *kw* is discarded.
+
+
+   .. method:: element_names()
+
+      Returns the list of elements defined in the current theme.
+
+
+   .. method:: element_options(elementname)
+
+      Returns the list of *elementname*'s options.
+
+
+   .. method:: theme_create(themename, parent=None, settings=None)
+
+      Create a new theme.
+
+      It is an error if *themename* already exists. If *parent* is specified,
+      the new theme will inherit styles, elements and layouts from the parent
+      theme. If *settings* are present they are expected to have the same
+      syntax used for :meth:`theme_settings`.
+
+
+   .. method:: theme_settings(themename, settings)
+
+      Temporarily sets the current theme to *themename*, apply specified
+      *settings* and then restore the previous theme.
+
+      Each key in *settings* is a style and each value may contain the keys
+      'configure', 'map', 'layout' and 'element create' and they are expected
+      to have the same format as specified by the methods
+      :meth:`Style.configure`, :meth:`Style.map`, :meth:`Style.layout` and
+      :meth:`Style.element_create` respectively.
+
+      As an example, let's change the Combobox for the default theme a bit::
+
+         from tkinter import ttk
+         import tkinter
+
+         root = tkinter.Tk()
+
+         style = ttk.Style()
+         style.theme_settings("default", {
+            "TCombobox": {
+                "configure": {"padding": 5},
+                "map": {
+                    "background": [("active", "green2"),
+                                   ("!disabled", "green4")],
+                    "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")],
+                    "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"),
+                                   ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")]
+                }
+            }
+         })
+
+         combo = ttk.Combobox().pack()
+
+         root.mainloop()
+
+
+   .. method:: theme_names()
+
+      Returns a list of all known themes.
+
+
+   .. method:: theme_use(themename=None)
+
+      If *themename* is not given, returns the theme in use.  Otherwise, sets
+      the current theme to *themename*, refreshes all widgets and emits a
+      <<ThemeChanged>> event.
+
+
+Layouts
+^^^^^^^
+
+A layout can be just ``None``, if it takes no options, or a dict of
+options specifying how to arrange the element. The layout mechanism
+uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an
+initial cavity, each element is allocated a parcel. Valid
+options/values are:
+
+ * side: whichside
+    Specifies which side of the cavity to place the element; one of
+    top, right, bottom or left. If omitted, the element occupies the
+    entire cavity.
+
+ * sticky: nswe
+    Specifies where the element is placed inside its allocated parcel.
+
+ * unit: 0 or 1
+    If set to 1, causes the element and all of its descendants to be treated as
+    a single element for the purposes of :meth:`Widget.identify` et al. It's
+    used for things like scrollbar thumbs with grips.
+
+ * children: [sublayout... ]
+    Specifies a list of elements to place inside the element. Each
+    element is a tuple (or other sequence type) where the first item is
+    the layout name, and the other is a `Layout`_.
+
+.. _Layout: `Layouts`_
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/token.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/token.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3739910
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/token.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+:mod:`token` --- Constants used with Python parse trees
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: token
+   :synopsis: Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/token.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of leaf nodes
+of the parse tree (terminal tokens).  Refer to the file :file:`Grammar/Grammar`
+in the Python distribution for the definitions of the names in the context of
+the language grammar.  The specific numeric values which the names map to may
+change between Python versions.
+
+The module also provides a mapping from numeric codes to names and some
+functions.  The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header files.
+
+
+.. data:: tok_name
+
+   Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in this module
+   back to name strings, allowing more human-readable representation of parse trees
+   to be generated.
+
+
+.. function:: ISTERMINAL(x)
+
+   Return true for terminal token values.
+
+
+.. function:: ISNONTERMINAL(x)
+
+   Return true for non-terminal token values.
+
+
+.. function:: ISEOF(x)
+
+   Return true if *x* is the marker indicating the end of input.
+
+
+The token constants are:
+
+.. data:: ENDMARKER
+          NAME
+          NUMBER
+          STRING
+          NEWLINE
+          INDENT
+          DEDENT
+          LPAR
+          RPAR
+          LSQB
+          RSQB
+          COLON
+          COMMA
+          SEMI
+          PLUS
+          MINUS
+          STAR
+          SLASH
+          VBAR
+          AMPER
+          LESS
+          GREATER
+          EQUAL
+          DOT
+          PERCENT
+          LBRACE
+          RBRACE
+          EQEQUAL
+          NOTEQUAL
+          LESSEQUAL
+          GREATEREQUAL
+          TILDE
+          CIRCUMFLEX
+          LEFTSHIFT
+          RIGHTSHIFT
+          DOUBLESTAR
+          PLUSEQUAL
+          MINEQUAL
+          STAREQUAL
+          SLASHEQUAL
+          PERCENTEQUAL
+          AMPEREQUAL
+          VBAREQUAL
+          CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL
+          LEFTSHIFTEQUAL
+          RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL
+          DOUBLESTAREQUAL
+          DOUBLESLASH
+          DOUBLESLASHEQUAL
+          AT
+          ATEQUAL
+          RARROW
+          ELLIPSIS
+          OP
+          ERRORTOKEN
+          N_TOKENS
+          NT_OFFSET
+
+
+The following token type values aren't used by the C tokenizer but are needed for
+the :mod:`tokenize` module.
+
+.. data:: COMMENT
+
+   Token value used to indicate a comment.
+
+
+.. data:: NL
+
+   Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline.  The
+   :data:`NEWLINE` token indicates the end of a logical line of Python code;
+   ``NL`` tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued over
+   multiple physical lines.
+
+
+.. data:: ENCODING
+
+   Token value that indicates the encoding used to decode the source bytes
+   into text. The first token returned by :func:`tokenize.tokenize` will
+   always be an ``ENCODING`` token.
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Added :data:`AWAIT` and :data:`ASYNC` tokens.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added :data:`COMMENT`, :data:`NL` and :data:`ENCODING` tokens.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Removed :data:`AWAIT` and :data:`ASYNC` tokens. "async" and "await" are
+   now tokenized as :data:`NAME` tokens.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tokenize.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tokenize.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c0a0ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tokenize.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,269 @@
+:mod:`tokenize` --- Tokenizer for Python source
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: tokenize
+   :synopsis: Lexical scanner for Python source code.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Ka Ping Yee
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tokenize.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`tokenize` module provides a lexical scanner for Python source code,
+implemented in Python.  The scanner in this module returns comments as tokens
+as well, making it useful for implementing "pretty-printers," including
+colorizers for on-screen displays.
+
+To simplify token stream handling, all :ref:`operator <operators>` and
+:ref:`delimiter <delimiters>` tokens and :data:`Ellipsis` are returned using
+the generic :data:`~token.OP` token type.  The exact
+type can be determined by checking the ``exact_type`` property on the
+:term:`named tuple` returned from :func:`tokenize.tokenize`.
+
+Tokenizing Input
+----------------
+
+The primary entry point is a :term:`generator`:
+
+.. function:: tokenize(readline)
+
+   The :func:`.tokenize` generator requires one argument, *readline*, which
+   must be a callable object which provides the same interface as the
+   :meth:`io.IOBase.readline` method of file objects.  Each call to the
+   function should return one line of input as bytes.
+
+   The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type; the
+   token string; a 2-tuple ``(srow, scol)`` of ints specifying the row and
+   column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple ``(erow, ecol)`` of
+   ints specifying the row and column where the token ends in the source; and
+   the line on which the token was found. The line passed (the last tuple item)
+   is the *logical* line; continuation lines are included.  The 5 tuple is
+   returned as a :term:`named tuple` with the field names:
+   ``type string start end line``.
+
+   The returned :term:`named tuple` has an additional property named
+   ``exact_type`` that contains the exact operator type for
+   :data:`~token.OP` tokens.  For all other token types ``exact_type``
+   equals the named tuple ``type`` field.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Added support for named tuples.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added support for ``exact_type``.
+
+   :func:`.tokenize` determines the source encoding of the file by looking for a
+   UTF-8 BOM or encoding cookie, according to :pep:`263`.
+
+
+All constants from the :mod:`token` module are also exported from
+:mod:`tokenize`.
+
+Another function is provided to reverse the tokenization process. This is
+useful for creating tools that tokenize a script, modify the token stream, and
+write back the modified script.
+
+
+.. function:: untokenize(iterable)
+
+    Converts tokens back into Python source code.  The *iterable* must return
+    sequences with at least two elements, the token type and the token string.
+    Any additional sequence elements are ignored.
+
+    The reconstructed script is returned as a single string.  The result is
+    guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so that the conversion is
+    lossless and round-trips are assured.  The guarantee applies only to the
+    token type and token string as the spacing between tokens (column
+    positions) may change.
+
+    It returns bytes, encoded using the :data:`~token.ENCODING` token, which
+    is the first token sequence output by :func:`.tokenize`.
+
+
+:func:`.tokenize` needs to detect the encoding of source files it tokenizes. The
+function it uses to do this is available:
+
+.. function:: detect_encoding(readline)
+
+    The :func:`detect_encoding` function is used to detect the encoding that
+    should be used to decode a Python source file. It requires one argument,
+    readline, in the same way as the :func:`.tokenize` generator.
+
+    It will call readline a maximum of twice, and return the encoding used
+    (as a string) and a list of any lines (not decoded from bytes) it has read
+    in.
+
+    It detects the encoding from the presence of a UTF-8 BOM or an encoding
+    cookie as specified in :pep:`263`. If both a BOM and a cookie are present,
+    but disagree, a :exc:`SyntaxError` will be raised. Note that if the BOM is found,
+    ``'utf-8-sig'`` will be returned as an encoding.
+
+    If no encoding is specified, then the default of ``'utf-8'`` will be
+    returned.
+
+    Use :func:`.open` to open Python source files: it uses
+    :func:`detect_encoding` to detect the file encoding.
+
+
+.. function:: open(filename)
+
+   Open a file in read only mode using the encoding detected by
+   :func:`detect_encoding`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. exception:: TokenError
+
+   Raised when either a docstring or expression that may be split over several
+   lines is not completed anywhere in the file, for example::
+
+      """Beginning of
+      docstring
+
+   or::
+
+      [1,
+       2,
+       3
+
+Note that unclosed single-quoted strings do not cause an error to be
+raised. They are tokenized as :data:`~token.ERRORTOKEN`, followed by the
+tokenization of their contents.
+
+
+.. _tokenize-cli:
+
+Command-Line Usage
+------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The :mod:`tokenize` module can be executed as a script from the command line.
+It is as simple as:
+
+.. code-block:: sh
+
+   python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py]
+
+The following options are accepted:
+
+.. program:: tokenize
+
+.. cmdoption:: -h, --help
+
+   show this help message and exit
+
+.. cmdoption:: -e, --exact
+
+   display token names using the exact type
+
+If :file:`filename.py` is specified its contents are tokenized to stdout.
+Otherwise, tokenization is performed on stdin.
+
+Examples
+------------------
+
+Example of a script rewriter that transforms float literals into Decimal
+objects::
+
+    from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP
+    from io import BytesIO
+
+    def decistmt(s):
+        """Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements.
+
+        >>> from decimal import Decimal
+        >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)'
+        >>> decistmt(s)
+        "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))"
+
+        The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library.
+        Known cases are "e-007" (Windows) and "e-07" (not Windows).  Since
+        we're only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn't close to 5, the
+        rest of the output should be platform-independent.
+
+        >>> exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+        -3.21716034272e-0...7
+
+        Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all
+        platforms.
+
+        >>> exec(decistmt(s))
+        -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7
+        """
+        result = []
+        g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline)  # tokenize the string
+        for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g:
+            if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval:  # replace NUMBER tokens
+                result.extend([
+                    (NAME, 'Decimal'),
+                    (OP, '('),
+                    (STRING, repr(tokval)),
+                    (OP, ')')
+                ])
+            else:
+                result.append((toknum, tokval))
+        return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8')
+
+Example of tokenizing from the command line.  The script::
+
+    def say_hello():
+        print("Hello, World!")
+
+    say_hello()
+
+will be tokenized to the following output where the first column is the range
+of the line/column coordinates where the token is found, the second column is
+the name of the token, and the final column is the value of the token (if any)
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m tokenize hello.py
+    0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
+    1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
+    1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
+    1,13-1,14:          OP             '('
+    1,14-1,15:          OP             ')'
+    1,15-1,16:          OP             ':'
+    1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
+    2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
+    2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
+    2,9-2,10:           OP             '('
+    2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
+    2,25-2,26:          OP             ')'
+    2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
+    3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
+    4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
+    4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
+    4,9-4,10:           OP             '('
+    4,10-4,11:          OP             ')'
+    4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
+    5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''
+
+The exact token type names can be displayed using the :option:`-e` option:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m tokenize -e hello.py
+    0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
+    1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
+    1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
+    1,13-1,14:          LPAR           '('
+    1,14-1,15:          RPAR           ')'
+    1,15-1,16:          COLON          ':'
+    1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
+    2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
+    2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
+    2,9-2,10:           LPAR           '('
+    2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
+    2,25-2,26:          RPAR           ')'
+    2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
+    3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
+    4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
+    4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
+    4,9-4,10:           LPAR           '('
+    4,10-4,11:          RPAR           ')'
+    4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
+    5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/trace.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/trace.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5cb7029
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/trace.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,213 @@
+:mod:`trace` --- Trace or track Python statement execution
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: trace
+   :synopsis: Trace or track Python statement execution.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/trace.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`trace` module allows you to trace program execution, generate
+annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee relationships and
+list functions executed during a program run.  It can be used in another program
+or from the command line.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Coverage.py <https://coverage.readthedocs.io/>`_
+      A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML
+      output along with advanced features such as branch coverage.
+
+.. _trace-cli:
+
+Command-Line Usage
+------------------
+
+The :mod:`trace` module can be invoked from the command line.  It can be as
+simple as ::
+
+   python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ...
+
+The above will execute :file:`somefile.py` and generate annotated listings of
+all Python modules imported during the execution into the current directory.
+
+.. program:: trace
+
+.. cmdoption:: --help
+
+   Display usage and exit.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --version
+
+   Display the version of the module and exit.
+
+Main options
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking
+:mod:`trace`.  The :option:`--listfuncs <-l>` option is mutually exclusive with
+the :option:`--trace <-t>` and :option:`--count <-c>` options. When
+:option:`--listfuncs <-l>` is provided, neither :option:`--count <-c>` nor
+:option:`--trace <-t>` are accepted, and vice versa.
+
+.. program:: trace
+
+.. cmdoption:: -c, --count
+
+   Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion that shows
+   how many times each statement was executed.  See also
+   :option:`--coverdir <-C>`, :option:`--file <-f>` and
+   :option:`--no-report <-R>` below.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -t, --trace
+
+   Display lines as they are executed.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -l, --listfuncs
+
+   Display the functions executed by running the program.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -r, --report
+
+   Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the
+   :option:`--count <-c>` and :option:`--file <-f>` option.  This does not
+   execute any code.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -T, --trackcalls
+
+   Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program.
+
+Modifiers
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. program:: trace
+
+.. cmdoption:: -f, --file=<file>
+
+   Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs.  Should be
+   used with the :option:`--count <-c>` option.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -C, --coverdir=<dir>
+
+   Directory where the report files go.  The coverage report for
+   ``package.module`` is written to file :file:`{dir}/{package}/{module}.cover`.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -m, --missing
+
+   When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not executed with
+   ``>>>>>>``.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -s, --summary
+
+   When using :option:`--count <-c>` or :option:`--report <-r>`, write a brief
+   summary to stdout for each file processed.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -R, --no-report
+
+   Do not generate annotated listings.  This is useful if you intend to make
+   several runs with :option:`--count <-c>`, and then produce a single set of
+   annotated listings at the end.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -g, --timing
+
+   Prefix each line with the time since the program started.  Only used while
+   tracing.
+
+Filters
+^^^^^^^
+
+These options may be repeated multiple times.
+
+.. program:: trace
+
+.. cmdoption:: --ignore-module=<mod>
+
+   Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is a
+   package).  The argument can be a list of names separated by a comma.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --ignore-dir=<dir>
+
+   Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and subdirectories.
+   The argument can be a list of directories separated by :data:`os.pathsep`.
+
+.. _trace-api:
+
+Programmatic Interface
+----------------------
+
+.. class:: Trace(count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0, ignoremods=(),\
+                 ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None, timing=False)
+
+   Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or expression.  All
+   parameters are optional.  *count* enables counting of line numbers.  *trace*
+   enables line execution tracing.  *countfuncs* enables listing of the
+   functions called during the run.  *countcallers* enables call relationship
+   tracking.  *ignoremods* is a list of modules or packages to ignore.
+   *ignoredirs* is a list of directories whose modules or packages should be
+   ignored.  *infile* is the name of the file from which to read stored count
+   information.  *outfile* is the name of the file in which to write updated
+   count information.  *timing* enables a timestamp relative to when tracing was
+   started to be displayed.
+
+    .. method:: run(cmd)
+
+       Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with
+       the current tracing parameters.  *cmd* must be a string or code object,
+       suitable for passing into :func:`exec`.
+
+    .. method:: runctx(cmd, globals=None, locals=None)
+
+       Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the
+       current tracing parameters, in the defined global and local
+       environments.  If not defined, *globals* and *locals* default to empty
+       dictionaries.
+
+    .. method:: runfunc(func, *args, **kwds)
+
+       Call *func* with the given arguments under control of the :class:`Trace`
+       object with the current tracing parameters.
+
+    .. method:: results()
+
+       Return a :class:`CoverageResults` object that contains the cumulative
+       results of all previous calls to ``run``, ``runctx`` and ``runfunc``
+       for the given :class:`Trace` instance.  Does not reset the accumulated
+       trace results.
+
+.. class:: CoverageResults
+
+   A container for coverage results, created by :meth:`Trace.results`.  Should
+   not be created directly by the user.
+
+    .. method:: update(other)
+
+       Merge in data from another :class:`CoverageResults` object.
+
+    .. method:: write_results(show_missing=True, summary=False, coverdir=None)
+
+       Write coverage results.  Set *show_missing* to show lines that had no
+       hits.  Set *summary* to include in the output the coverage summary per
+       module.  *coverdir* specifies the directory into which the coverage
+       result files will be output.  If ``None``, the results for each source
+       file are placed in its directory.
+
+A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface::
+
+   import sys
+   import trace
+
+   # create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to
+   # do tracing or line-counting or both.
+   tracer = trace.Trace(
+       ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix],
+       trace=0,
+       count=1)
+
+   # run the new command using the given tracer
+   tracer.run('main()')
+
+   # make a report, placing output in the current directory
+   r = tracer.results()
+   r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/traceback.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/traceback.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..462a6a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/traceback.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,486 @@
+:mod:`traceback` --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback
+========================================================
+
+.. module:: traceback
+   :synopsis: Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/traceback.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print stack
+traces of Python programs.  It exactly mimics the behavior of the Python
+interpreter when it prints a stack trace.  This is useful when you want to print
+stack traces under program control, such as in a "wrapper" around the
+interpreter.
+
+.. index:: object: traceback
+
+The module uses traceback objects --- this is the object type that is stored in
+the :data:`sys.last_traceback` variable and returned as the third item from
+:func:`sys.exc_info`.
+
+The module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: print_tb(tb, limit=None, file=None)
+
+   Print up to *limit* stack trace entries from traceback object *tb* (starting
+   from the caller's frame) if *limit* is positive.  Otherwise, print the last
+   ``abs(limit)`` entries.  If *limit* is omitted or ``None``, all entries are
+   printed.  If *file* is omitted or ``None``, the output goes to
+   ``sys.stderr``; otherwise it should be an open file or file-like object to
+   receive the output.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+       Added negative *limit* support.
+
+
+.. function:: print_exception(etype, value, tb, limit=None, file=None, chain=True)
+
+   Print exception information and stack trace entries from traceback object
+   *tb* to *file*. This differs from :func:`print_tb` in the following
+   ways:
+
+   * if *tb* is not ``None``, it prints a header ``Traceback (most recent
+     call last):``
+
+   * it prints the exception *etype* and *value* after the stack trace
+
+   .. index:: single: ^ (caret); marker
+
+   * if *type(value)* is :exc:`SyntaxError` and *value* has the appropriate
+     format, it prints the line where the syntax error occurred with a caret
+     indicating the approximate position of the error.
+
+   The optional *limit* argument has the same meaning as for :func:`print_tb`.
+   If *chain* is true (the default), then chained exceptions (the
+   :attr:`__cause__` or :attr:`__context__` attributes of the exception) will be
+   printed as well, like the interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled
+   exception.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *etype* argument is ignored and inferred from the type of *value*.
+
+
+.. function:: print_exc(limit=None, file=None, chain=True)
+
+   This is a shorthand for ``print_exception(*sys.exc_info(), limit, file,
+   chain)``.
+
+
+.. function:: print_last(limit=None, file=None, chain=True)
+
+   This is a shorthand for ``print_exception(sys.last_type, sys.last_value,
+   sys.last_traceback, limit, file, chain)``.  In general it will work only
+   after an exception has reached an interactive prompt (see
+   :data:`sys.last_type`).
+
+
+.. function:: print_stack(f=None, limit=None, file=None)
+
+   Print up to *limit* stack trace entries (starting from the invocation
+   point) if *limit* is positive.  Otherwise, print the last ``abs(limit)``
+   entries.  If *limit* is omitted or ``None``, all entries are printed.
+   The optional *f* argument can be used to specify an alternate stack frame
+   to start.  The optional *file* argument has the same meaning as for
+   :func:`print_tb`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+          Added negative *limit* support.
+
+
+.. function:: extract_tb(tb, limit=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`StackSummary` object representing a list of "pre-processed"
+   stack trace entries extracted from the traceback object *tb*.  It is useful
+   for alternate formatting of stack traces.  The optional *limit* argument has
+   the same meaning as for :func:`print_tb`.  A "pre-processed" stack trace
+   entry is a :class:`FrameSummary` object containing attributes
+   :attr:`~FrameSummary.filename`, :attr:`~FrameSummary.lineno`,
+   :attr:`~FrameSummary.name`, and :attr:`~FrameSummary.line` representing the
+   information that is usually printed for a stack trace.  The
+   :attr:`~FrameSummary.line` is a string with leading and trailing
+   whitespace stripped; if the source is not available it is ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: extract_stack(f=None, limit=None)
+
+   Extract the raw traceback from the current stack frame.  The return value has
+   the same format as for :func:`extract_tb`.  The optional *f* and *limit*
+   arguments have the same meaning as for :func:`print_stack`.
+
+
+.. function:: format_list(extracted_list)
+
+   Given a list of tuples or :class:`FrameSummary` objects as returned by
+   :func:`extract_tb` or :func:`extract_stack`, return a list of strings ready
+   for printing.  Each string in the resulting list corresponds to the item with
+   the same index in the argument list.  Each string ends in a newline; the
+   strings may contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source
+   text line is not ``None``.
+
+
+.. function:: format_exception_only(etype, value)
+
+   Format the exception part of a traceback.  The arguments are the exception
+   type and value such as given by ``sys.last_type`` and ``sys.last_value``.
+   The return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline.  Normally,
+   the list contains a single string; however, for :exc:`SyntaxError`
+   exceptions, it contains several lines that (when printed) display detailed
+   information about where the syntax error occurred.  The message indicating
+   which exception occurred is the always last string in the list.
+
+
+.. function:: format_exception(etype, value, tb, limit=None, chain=True)
+
+   Format a stack trace and the exception information.  The arguments  have the
+   same meaning as the corresponding arguments to :func:`print_exception`.  The
+   return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline and some
+   containing internal newlines.  When these lines are concatenated and printed,
+   exactly the same text is printed as does :func:`print_exception`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The *etype* argument is ignored and inferred from the type of *value*.
+
+
+.. function:: format_exc(limit=None, chain=True)
+
+   This is like ``print_exc(limit)`` but returns a string instead of printing to
+   a file.
+
+
+.. function:: format_tb(tb, limit=None)
+
+   A shorthand for ``format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit))``.
+
+
+.. function:: format_stack(f=None, limit=None)
+
+   A shorthand for ``format_list(extract_stack(f, limit))``.
+
+.. function:: clear_frames(tb)
+
+   Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a traceback *tb*
+   by calling the :meth:`clear` method of each frame object.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. function:: walk_stack(f)
+
+   Walk a stack following ``f.f_back`` from the given frame, yielding the frame
+   and line number for each frame. If *f* is ``None``, the current stack is
+   used. This helper is used with :meth:`StackSummary.extract`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. function:: walk_tb(tb)
+
+   Walk a traceback following ``tb_next`` yielding the frame and line number
+   for each frame. This helper is used with :meth:`StackSummary.extract`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+The module also defines the following classes:
+
+:class:`TracebackException` Objects
+-----------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+:class:`TracebackException` objects are created from actual exceptions to
+capture data for later printing in a lightweight fashion.
+
+.. class:: TracebackException(exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)
+
+   Capture an exception for later rendering. *limit*, *lookup_lines* and
+   *capture_locals* are as for the :class:`StackSummary` class.
+
+   Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback.
+
+   .. attribute:: __cause__
+
+      A :class:`TracebackException` of the original ``__cause__``.
+
+   .. attribute:: __context__
+
+      A :class:`TracebackException` of the original ``__context__``.
+
+   .. attribute:: __suppress_context__
+
+      The ``__suppress_context__`` value from the original exception.
+
+   .. attribute:: stack
+
+      A :class:`StackSummary` representing the traceback.
+
+   .. attribute:: exc_type
+
+      The class of the original traceback.
+
+   .. attribute:: filename
+
+      For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred.
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+
+      For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred.
+
+   .. attribute:: text
+
+      For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred.
+
+   .. attribute:: offset
+
+      For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error occurred.
+
+   .. attribute:: msg
+
+      For syntax errors - the compiler error message.
+
+   .. classmethod:: from_exception(exc, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)
+
+      Capture an exception for later rendering. *limit*, *lookup_lines* and
+      *capture_locals* are as for the :class:`StackSummary` class.
+
+      Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback.
+
+   .. method:: format(*, chain=True)
+
+      Format the exception.
+
+      If *chain* is not ``True``, ``__cause__`` and ``__context__`` will not
+      be formatted.
+
+      The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline and
+      some containing internal newlines. :func:`~traceback.print_exception`
+      is a wrapper around this method which just prints the lines to a file.
+
+      The message indicating which exception occurred is always the last
+      string in the output.
+
+   .. method::  format_exception_only()
+
+      Format the exception part of the traceback.
+
+      The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline.
+
+      Normally, the generator emits a single string; however, for
+      :exc:`SyntaxError` exceptions, it emits several lines that (when
+      printed) display detailed information about where the syntax
+      error occurred.
+
+      The message indicating which exception occurred is always the last
+      string in the output.
+
+
+:class:`StackSummary` Objects
+-----------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+:class:`StackSummary` objects represent a call stack ready for formatting.
+
+.. class:: StackSummary
+
+   .. classmethod:: extract(frame_gen, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)
+
+      Construct a :class:`StackSummary` object from a frame generator (such as
+      is returned by :func:`~traceback.walk_stack` or
+      :func:`~traceback.walk_tb`).
+
+      If *limit* is supplied, only this many frames are taken from *frame_gen*.
+      If *lookup_lines* is ``False``, the returned :class:`FrameSummary`
+      objects will not have read their lines in yet, making the cost of
+      creating the :class:`StackSummary` cheaper (which may be valuable if it
+      may not actually get formatted). If *capture_locals* is ``True`` the
+      local variables in each :class:`FrameSummary` are captured as object
+      representations.
+
+   .. classmethod:: from_list(a_list)
+
+      Construct a :class:`StackSummary` object from a supplied list of
+      :class:`FrameSummary` objects or old-style list of tuples.  Each tuple
+      should be a 4-tuple with filename, lineno, name, line as the elements.
+
+   .. method:: format()
+
+      Returns a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in the
+      resulting list corresponds to a single frame from the stack.
+      Each string ends in a newline; the strings may contain internal
+      newlines as well, for those items with source text lines.
+
+      For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few
+      repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the exact
+      number of further repetitions.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         Long sequences of repeated frames are now abbreviated.
+
+
+:class:`FrameSummary` Objects
+-----------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+:class:`FrameSummary` objects represent a single frame in a traceback.
+
+.. class:: FrameSummary(filename, lineno, name, lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None)
+
+   Represent a single frame in the traceback or stack that is being formatted
+   or printed. It may optionally have a stringified version of the frames
+   locals included in it. If *lookup_line* is ``False``, the source code is not
+   looked up until the :class:`FrameSummary` has the :attr:`~FrameSummary.line`
+   attribute accessed (which also happens when casting it to a tuple).
+   :attr:`~FrameSummary.line` may be directly provided, and will prevent line
+   lookups happening at all. *locals* is an optional local variable
+   dictionary, and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the
+   summary for later display.
+
+.. _traceback-example:
+
+Traceback Examples
+------------------
+
+This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to (but
+less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop.  For a more
+complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the :mod:`code`
+module. ::
+
+   import sys, traceback
+
+   def run_user_code(envdir):
+       source = input(">>> ")
+       try:
+           exec(source, envdir)
+       except Exception:
+           print("Exception in user code:")
+           print("-"*60)
+           traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout)
+           print("-"*60)
+
+   envdir = {}
+   while True:
+       run_user_code(envdir)
+
+
+The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and format the
+exception and traceback:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+   import sys, traceback
+
+   def lumberjack():
+       bright_side_of_death()
+
+   def bright_side_of_death():
+       return tuple()[0]
+
+   try:
+       lumberjack()
+   except IndexError:
+       exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback = sys.exc_info()
+       print("*** print_tb:")
+       traceback.print_tb(exc_traceback, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
+       print("*** print_exception:")
+       # exc_type below is ignored on 3.5 and later
+       traceback.print_exception(exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback,
+                                 limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
+       print("*** print_exc:")
+       traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
+       print("*** format_exc, first and last line:")
+       formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines()
+       print(formatted_lines[0])
+       print(formatted_lines[-1])
+       print("*** format_exception:")
+       # exc_type below is ignored on 3.5 and later
+       print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc_type, exc_value,
+                                             exc_traceback)))
+       print("*** extract_tb:")
+       print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc_traceback)))
+       print("*** format_tb:")
+       print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc_traceback)))
+       print("*** tb_lineno:", exc_traceback.tb_lineno)
+
+The output for the example would look similar to this:
+
+.. testoutput::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   *** print_tb:
+     File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
+       lumberjack()
+   *** print_exception:
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
+       lumberjack()
+     File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
+       bright_side_of_death()
+   IndexError: tuple index out of range
+   *** print_exc:
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
+       lumberjack()
+     File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
+       bright_side_of_death()
+   IndexError: tuple index out of range
+   *** format_exc, first and last line:
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+   IndexError: tuple index out of range
+   *** format_exception:
+   ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n',
+    '  File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n',
+    '  File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_death()\n',
+    '  File "<doctest...>", line 7, in bright_side_of_death\n    return tuple()[0]\n',
+    'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
+   *** extract_tb:
+   [<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>,
+    <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>,
+    <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_death>]
+   *** format_tb:
+   ['  File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n',
+    '  File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_death()\n',
+    '  File "<doctest...>", line 7, in bright_side_of_death\n    return tuple()[0]\n']
+   *** tb_lineno: 10
+
+
+The following example shows the different ways to print and format the stack::
+
+   >>> import traceback
+   >>> def another_function():
+   ...     lumberstack()
+   ...
+   >>> def lumberstack():
+   ...     traceback.print_stack()
+   ...     print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))
+   ...     print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))
+   ...
+   >>> another_function()
+     File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>
+       another_function()
+     File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function
+       lumberstack()
+     File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack
+       traceback.print_stack()
+   [('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'),
+    ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'),
+    ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')]
+   ['  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n    another_function()\n',
+    '  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n',
+    '  File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n']
+
+
+This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+   >>> import traceback
+   >>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'),
+   ...                        ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')])
+   ['  File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n    spam.eggs()\n',
+    '  File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n    return "bacon"\n']
+   >>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
+   >>> traceback.format_exception_only(type(an_error), an_error)
+   ['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tracemalloc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tracemalloc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d327c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tracemalloc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,693 @@
+:mod:`tracemalloc` --- Trace memory allocations
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: tracemalloc
+   :synopsis: Trace memory allocations.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tracemalloc.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by
+Python. It provides the following information:
+
+* Traceback where an object was allocated
+* Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number:
+  total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks
+* Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks
+
+To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be started
+as early as possible by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONTRACEMALLOC` environment
+variable to ``1``, or by using :option:`-X` ``tracemalloc`` command line
+option. The :func:`tracemalloc.start` function can be called at runtime to
+start tracing Python memory allocations.
+
+By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most recent
+frame (1 frame). To store 25 frames at startup: set the
+:envvar:`PYTHONTRACEMALLOC` environment variable to ``25``, or use the
+:option:`-X` ``tracemalloc=25`` command line option.
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Display the top 10
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Display the 10 files allocating the most memory::
+
+    import tracemalloc
+
+    tracemalloc.start()
+
+    # ... run your application ...
+
+    snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
+    top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')
+
+    print("[ Top 10 ]")
+    for stat in top_stats[:10]:
+        print(stat)
+
+
+Example of output of the Python test suite::
+
+    [ Top 10 ]
+    <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
+    <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
+    <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
+    <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
+    <string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB
+
+We can see that Python loaded ``4855 KiB`` data (bytecode and constants) from
+modules and that the :mod:`collections` module allocated ``244 KiB`` to build
+:class:`~collections.namedtuple` types.
+
+See :meth:`Snapshot.statistics` for more options.
+
+
+Compute differences
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Take two snapshots and display the differences::
+
+    import tracemalloc
+    tracemalloc.start()
+    # ... start your application ...
+
+    snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
+    # ... call the function leaking memory ...
+    snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
+
+    top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')
+
+    print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
+    for stat in top_stats[:10]:
+        print(stat)
+
+Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test suite::
+
+    [ Top 10 differences ]
+    <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
+    <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
+    /usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B
+
+We can see that Python has loaded ``8173 KiB`` of module data (bytecode and
+constants), and that this is ``4428 KiB`` more than had been loaded before the
+tests, when the previous snapshot was taken. Similarly, the :mod:`linecache`
+module has cached ``940 KiB`` of Python source code to format tracebacks, all
+of it since the previous snapshot.
+
+If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk using
+the :meth:`Snapshot.dump` method to analyze the snapshot offline. Then use the
+:meth:`Snapshot.load` method reload the snapshot.
+
+
+Get the traceback of a memory block
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block::
+
+    import tracemalloc
+
+    # Store 25 frames
+    tracemalloc.start(25)
+
+    # ... run your application ...
+
+    snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
+    top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')
+
+    # pick the biggest memory block
+    stat = top_stats[0]
+    print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
+    for line in stat.traceback.format():
+        print(line)
+
+Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25 frames)::
+
+    903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
+        import pdb
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
+      File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
+        import doctest
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
+        support.run_doctest(pickletools)
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
+        test_runner()
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
+        display_failure=not verbose)
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
+        match_tests=ns.match_tests)
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
+        main()
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
+        regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
+        exec(code, run_globals)
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
+        "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)
+
+We can see that the most memory was allocated in the :mod:`importlib` module to
+load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: ``870.1 KiB``. The traceback is
+where the :mod:`importlib` loaded data most recently: on the ``import pdb``
+line of the :mod:`doctest` module. The traceback may change if a new module is
+loaded.
+
+
+Pretty top
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty output,
+ignoring ``<frozen importlib._bootstrap>`` and ``<unknown>`` files::
+
+    import linecache
+    import os
+    import tracemalloc
+
+    def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
+        snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
+            tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
+            tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
+        ))
+        top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)
+
+        print("Top %s lines" % limit)
+        for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
+            frame = stat.traceback[0]
+            # replace "/path/to/module/file.py" with "module/file.py"
+            filename = os.sep.join(frame.filename.split(os.sep)[-2:])
+            print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
+                  % (index, filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
+            line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
+            if line:
+                print('    %s' % line)
+
+        other = top_stats[limit:]
+        if other:
+            size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
+            print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
+        total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
+        print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))
+
+    tracemalloc.start()
+
+    # ... run your application ...
+
+    snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
+    display_top(snapshot)
+
+Example of output of the Python test suite::
+
+    Top 10 lines
+    #1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
+        _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
+    #2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
+        _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
+    #3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
+        exec(class_definition, namespace)
+    #4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
+        cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
+    #5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
+        testMethod()
+    #6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
+        lines = fp.readlines()
+    #7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
+        for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
+    #8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
+    #9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
+        self.data = set()
+    #10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
+        _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
+    6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
+    Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB
+
+See :meth:`Snapshot.statistics` for more options.
+
+
+API
+---
+
+Functions
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. function:: clear_traces()
+
+   Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.
+
+   See also :func:`stop`.
+
+
+.. function:: get_object_traceback(obj)
+
+   Get the traceback where the Python object *obj* was allocated.
+   Return a :class:`Traceback` instance, or ``None`` if the :mod:`tracemalloc`
+   module is not tracing memory allocations or did not trace the allocation of
+   the object.
+
+   See also :func:`gc.get_referrers` and :func:`sys.getsizeof` functions.
+
+
+.. function:: get_traceback_limit()
+
+   Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a trace.
+
+   The :mod:`tracemalloc` module must be tracing memory allocations to
+   get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised.
+
+   The limit is set by the :func:`start` function.
+
+
+.. function:: get_traced_memory()
+
+   Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the
+   :mod:`tracemalloc` module as a tuple: ``(current: int, peak: int)``.
+
+
+.. function:: get_tracemalloc_memory()
+
+   Get the memory usage in bytes of the :mod:`tracemalloc` module used to store
+   traces of memory blocks.
+   Return an :class:`int`.
+
+
+.. function:: is_tracing()
+
+    ``True`` if the :mod:`tracemalloc` module is tracing Python memory
+    allocations, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+    See also :func:`start` and :func:`stop` functions.
+
+
+.. function:: start(nframe: int=1)
+
+   Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python memory
+   allocators. Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited to *nframe*
+   frames. By default, a trace of a memory block only stores the most recent
+   frame: the limit is ``1``. *nframe* must be greater or equal to ``1``.
+
+   Storing more than ``1`` frame is only useful to compute statistics grouped
+   by ``'traceback'`` or to compute cumulative statistics: see the
+   :meth:`Snapshot.compare_to` and :meth:`Snapshot.statistics` methods.
+
+   Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the
+   :mod:`tracemalloc` module. Use the :func:`get_tracemalloc_memory` function
+   to measure how much memory is used by the :mod:`tracemalloc` module.
+
+   The :envvar:`PYTHONTRACEMALLOC` environment variable
+   (``PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME``) and the :option:`-X` ``tracemalloc=NFRAME``
+   command line option can be used to start tracing at startup.
+
+   See also :func:`stop`, :func:`is_tracing` and :func:`get_traceback_limit`
+   functions.
+
+
+.. function:: stop()
+
+   Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python memory
+   allocators. Also clears all previously collected traces of memory blocks
+   allocated by Python.
+
+   Call :func:`take_snapshot` function to take a snapshot of traces before
+   clearing them.
+
+   See also :func:`start`, :func:`is_tracing` and :func:`clear_traces`
+   functions.
+
+
+.. function:: take_snapshot()
+
+   Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Return a new
+   :class:`Snapshot` instance.
+
+   The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the
+   :mod:`tracemalloc` module started to trace memory allocations.
+
+   Tracebacks of traces are limited to :func:`get_traceback_limit` frames. Use
+   the *nframe* parameter of the :func:`start` function to store more frames.
+
+   The :mod:`tracemalloc` module must be tracing memory allocations to take a
+   snapshot, see the :func:`start` function.
+
+   See also the :func:`get_object_traceback` function.
+
+
+DomainFilter
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: DomainFilter(inclusive: bool, domain: int)
+
+   Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   .. attribute:: inclusive
+
+      If *inclusive* is ``True`` (include), match memory blocks allocated
+      in the address space :attr:`domain`.
+
+      If *inclusive* is ``False`` (exclude), match memory blocks not allocated
+      in the address space :attr:`domain`.
+
+   .. attribute:: domain
+
+      Address space of a memory block (``int``). Read-only property.
+
+
+Filter
+^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Filter(inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str, lineno: int=None, all_frames: bool=False, domain: int=None)
+
+   Filter on traces of memory blocks.
+
+   See the :func:`fnmatch.fnmatch` function for the syntax of
+   *filename_pattern*. The ``'.pyc'`` file extension is
+   replaced with ``'.py'``.
+
+   Examples:
+
+   * ``Filter(True, subprocess.__file__)`` only includes traces of the
+     :mod:`subprocess` module
+   * ``Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__)`` excludes traces of the
+     :mod:`tracemalloc` module
+   * ``Filter(False, "<unknown>")`` excludes empty tracebacks
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      The ``'.pyo'`` file extension is no longer replaced with ``'.py'``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added the :attr:`domain` attribute.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: domain
+
+      Address space of a memory block (``int`` or ``None``).
+
+      tracemalloc uses the domain ``0`` to trace memory allocations made by
+      Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.
+
+   .. attribute:: inclusive
+
+      If *inclusive* is ``True`` (include), only match memory blocks allocated
+      in a file with a name matching :attr:`filename_pattern` at line number
+      :attr:`lineno`.
+
+      If *inclusive* is ``False`` (exclude), ignore memory blocks allocated in
+      a file with a name matching :attr:`filename_pattern` at line number
+      :attr:`lineno`.
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+
+      Line number (``int``) of the filter. If *lineno* is ``None``, the filter
+      matches any line number.
+
+   .. attribute:: filename_pattern
+
+      Filename pattern of the filter (``str``). Read-only property.
+
+   .. attribute:: all_frames
+
+      If *all_frames* is ``True``, all frames of the traceback are checked. If
+      *all_frames* is ``False``, only the most recent frame is checked.
+
+      This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is ``1``.  See the
+      :func:`get_traceback_limit` function and :attr:`Snapshot.traceback_limit`
+      attribute.
+
+
+Frame
+^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Frame
+
+   Frame of a traceback.
+
+   The :class:`Traceback` class is a sequence of :class:`Frame` instances.
+
+   .. attribute:: filename
+
+      Filename (``str``).
+
+   .. attribute:: lineno
+
+      Line number (``int``).
+
+
+Snapshot
+^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Snapshot
+
+   Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.
+
+   The :func:`take_snapshot` function creates a snapshot instance.
+
+   .. method:: compare_to(old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
+
+      Compute the differences with an old snapshot. Get statistics as a sorted
+      list of :class:`StatisticDiff` instances grouped by *key_type*.
+
+      See the :meth:`Snapshot.statistics` method for *key_type* and *cumulative*
+      parameters.
+
+      The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: absolute value
+      of :attr:`StatisticDiff.size_diff`, :attr:`StatisticDiff.size`, absolute
+      value of :attr:`StatisticDiff.count_diff`, :attr:`Statistic.count` and
+      then by :attr:`StatisticDiff.traceback`.
+
+
+   .. method:: dump(filename)
+
+      Write the snapshot into a file.
+
+      Use :meth:`load` to reload the snapshot.
+
+
+   .. method:: filter_traces(filters)
+
+      Create a new :class:`Snapshot` instance with a filtered :attr:`traces`
+      sequence, *filters* is a list of :class:`DomainFilter` and
+      :class:`Filter` instances.  If *filters* is an empty list, return a new
+      :class:`Snapshot` instance with a copy of the traces.
+
+      All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored if no
+      inclusive filters match it. A trace is ignored if at least one exclusive
+      filter matches it.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+         :class:`DomainFilter` instances are now also accepted in *filters*.
+
+
+   .. classmethod:: load(filename)
+
+      Load a snapshot from a file.
+
+      See also :meth:`dump`.
+
+
+   .. method:: statistics(key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
+
+      Get statistics as a sorted list of :class:`Statistic` instances grouped
+      by *key_type*:
+
+      =====================  ========================
+      key_type               description
+      =====================  ========================
+      ``'filename'``         filename
+      ``'lineno'``           filename and line number
+      ``'traceback'``        traceback
+      =====================  ========================
+
+      If *cumulative* is ``True``, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of
+      all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame.
+      The cumulative mode can only be used with *key_type* equals to
+      ``'filename'`` and ``'lineno'``.
+
+      The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
+      :attr:`Statistic.size`, :attr:`Statistic.count` and then by
+      :attr:`Statistic.traceback`.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: traceback_limit
+
+      Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of :attr:`traces`:
+      result of the :func:`get_traceback_limit` when the snapshot was taken.
+
+   .. attribute:: traces
+
+      Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of
+      :class:`Trace` instances.
+
+      The sequence has an undefined order. Use the :meth:`Snapshot.statistics`
+      method to get a sorted list of statistics.
+
+
+Statistic
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Statistic
+
+   Statistic on memory allocations.
+
+   :func:`Snapshot.statistics` returns a list of :class:`Statistic` instances.
+
+   See also the :class:`StatisticDiff` class.
+
+   .. attribute:: count
+
+      Number of memory blocks (``int``).
+
+   .. attribute:: size
+
+      Total size of memory blocks in bytes (``int``).
+
+   .. attribute:: traceback
+
+      Traceback where the memory block was allocated, :class:`Traceback`
+      instance.
+
+
+StatisticDiff
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: StatisticDiff
+
+   Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new
+   :class:`Snapshot` instance.
+
+   :func:`Snapshot.compare_to` returns a list of :class:`StatisticDiff`
+   instances. See also the :class:`Statistic` class.
+
+   .. attribute:: count
+
+      Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (``int``): ``0`` if
+      the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.
+
+   .. attribute:: count_diff
+
+      Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the new
+      snapshots (``int``): ``0`` if the memory blocks have been allocated in
+      the new snapshot.
+
+   .. attribute:: size
+
+      Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot (``int``):
+      ``0`` if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.
+
+   .. attribute:: size_diff
+
+      Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the old and
+      the new snapshots (``int``): ``0`` if the memory blocks have been
+      allocated in the new snapshot.
+
+   .. attribute:: traceback
+
+      Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, :class:`Traceback`
+      instance.
+
+
+Trace
+^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Trace
+
+   Trace of a memory block.
+
+   The :attr:`Snapshot.traces` attribute is a sequence of :class:`Trace`
+   instances.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added the :attr:`domain` attribute.
+
+   .. attribute:: domain
+
+      Address space of a memory block (``int``). Read-only property.
+
+      tracemalloc uses the domain ``0`` to trace memory allocations made by
+      Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.
+
+   .. attribute:: size
+
+      Size of the memory block in bytes (``int``).
+
+   .. attribute:: traceback
+
+      Traceback where the memory block was allocated, :class:`Traceback`
+      instance.
+
+
+Traceback
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Traceback
+
+   Sequence of :class:`Frame` instances sorted from the oldest frame to the
+   most recent frame.
+
+   A traceback contains at least ``1`` frame. If the ``tracemalloc`` module
+   failed to get a frame, the filename ``"<unknown>"`` at line number ``0`` is
+   used.
+
+   When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to
+   :func:`get_traceback_limit` frames. See the :func:`take_snapshot` function.
+
+   The :attr:`Trace.traceback` attribute is an instance of :class:`Traceback`
+   instance.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.
+
+   .. method:: format(limit=None, most_recent_first=False)
+
+      Format the traceback as a list of lines with newlines. Use the
+      :mod:`linecache` module to retrieve lines from the source code.
+      If *limit* is set, format the *limit* most recent frames if *limit*
+      is positive. Otherwise, format the ``abs(limit)`` oldest frames.
+      If *most_recent_first* is ``True``, the order of the formatted frames
+      is reversed, returning the most recent frame first instead of last.
+
+      Similar to the :func:`traceback.format_tb` function, except that
+      :meth:`.format` does not include newlines.
+
+      Example::
+
+          print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
+          for line in traceback:
+              print(line)
+
+      Output::
+
+          Traceback (most recent call first):
+            File "test.py", line 9
+              obj = Object()
+            File "test.py", line 12
+              tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tty.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tty.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b30bc3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/tty.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+:mod:`tty` --- Terminal control functions
+=========================================
+
+.. module:: tty
+   :platform: Unix
+   :synopsis: Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Steen Lumholt
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tty.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`tty` module defines functions for putting the tty into cbreak and raw
+modes.
+
+Because it requires the :mod:`termios` module, it will work only on Unix.
+
+The :mod:`tty` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: setraw(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)
+
+   Change the mode of the file descriptor *fd* to raw. If *when* is omitted, it
+   defaults to :const:`termios.TCSAFLUSH`, and is passed to
+   :func:`termios.tcsetattr`.
+
+
+.. function:: setcbreak(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)
+
+   Change the mode of file descriptor *fd* to cbreak. If *when* is omitted, it
+   defaults to :const:`termios.TCSAFLUSH`, and is passed to
+   :func:`termios.tcsetattr`.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`termios`
+      Low-level terminal control interface.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/turtle.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/turtle.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d7f060
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/turtle.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2440 @@
+=================================
+:mod:`turtle` --- Turtle graphics
+=================================
+
+.. module:: turtle
+   :synopsis: An educational framework for simple graphics applications
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Gregor Lingl <gregor.lingl@aon.at>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/turtle.py`
+
+.. testsetup:: default
+
+   from turtle import *
+   turtle = Turtle()
+
+--------------
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+Turtle graphics is a popular way for introducing programming to kids.  It was
+part of the original Logo programming language developed by Wally Feurzeig,
+Seymour Papert and Cynthia Solomon in 1967.
+
+Imagine a robotic turtle starting at (0, 0) in the x-y plane.  After an ``import turtle``, give it the
+command ``turtle.forward(15)``, and it moves (on-screen!) 15 pixels in the
+direction it is facing, drawing a line as it moves.  Give it the command
+``turtle.right(25)``, and it rotates in-place 25 degrees clockwise.
+
+.. sidebar:: Turtle star
+
+   Turtle can draw intricate shapes using programs that repeat simple
+   moves.
+
+   .. image:: turtle-star.*
+      :align: center
+
+   .. literalinclude:: ../includes/turtle-star.py
+
+By combining together these and similar commands, intricate shapes and pictures
+can easily be drawn.
+
+The :mod:`turtle` module is an extended reimplementation of the same-named
+module from the Python standard distribution up to version Python 2.5.
+
+It tries to keep the merits of the old turtle module and to be (nearly) 100%
+compatible with it.  This means in the first place to enable the learning
+programmer to use all the commands, classes and methods interactively when using
+the module from within IDLE run with the ``-n`` switch.
+
+The turtle module provides turtle graphics primitives, in both object-oriented
+and procedure-oriented ways.  Because it uses :mod:`tkinter` for the underlying
+graphics, it needs a version of Python installed with Tk support.
+
+The object-oriented interface uses essentially two+two classes:
+
+1. The :class:`TurtleScreen` class defines graphics windows as a playground for
+   the drawing turtles.  Its constructor needs a :class:`tkinter.Canvas` or a
+   :class:`ScrolledCanvas` as argument.  It should be used when :mod:`turtle` is
+   used as part of some application.
+
+   The function :func:`Screen` returns a singleton object of a
+   :class:`TurtleScreen` subclass. This function should be used when
+   :mod:`turtle` is used as a standalone tool for doing graphics.
+   As a singleton object, inheriting from its class is not possible.
+
+   All methods of TurtleScreen/Screen also exist as functions, i.e. as part of
+   the procedure-oriented interface.
+
+2. :class:`RawTurtle` (alias: :class:`RawPen`) defines Turtle objects which draw
+   on a :class:`TurtleScreen`.  Its constructor needs a Canvas, ScrolledCanvas
+   or TurtleScreen as argument, so the RawTurtle objects know where to draw.
+
+   Derived from RawTurtle is the subclass :class:`Turtle` (alias: :class:`Pen`),
+   which draws on "the" :class:`Screen` instance which is automatically
+   created, if not already present.
+
+   All methods of RawTurtle/Turtle also exist as functions, i.e. part of the
+   procedure-oriented interface.
+
+The procedural interface provides functions which are derived from the methods
+of the classes :class:`Screen` and :class:`Turtle`.  They have the same names as
+the corresponding methods.  A screen object is automatically created whenever a
+function derived from a Screen method is called.  An (unnamed) turtle object is
+automatically created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method
+is called.
+
+To use multiple turtles on a screen one has to use the object-oriented interface.
+
+.. note::
+   In the following documentation the argument list for functions is given.
+   Methods, of course, have the additional first argument *self* which is
+   omitted here.
+
+
+Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods
+=================================================
+
+Turtle methods
+--------------
+
+Turtle motion
+   Move and draw
+      | :func:`forward` | :func:`fd`
+      | :func:`backward` | :func:`bk` | :func:`back`
+      | :func:`right` | :func:`rt`
+      | :func:`left` | :func:`lt`
+      | :func:`goto` | :func:`setpos` | :func:`setposition`
+      | :func:`setx`
+      | :func:`sety`
+      | :func:`setheading` | :func:`seth`
+      | :func:`home`
+      | :func:`circle`
+      | :func:`dot`
+      | :func:`stamp`
+      | :func:`clearstamp`
+      | :func:`clearstamps`
+      | :func:`undo`
+      | :func:`speed`
+
+   Tell Turtle's state
+      | :func:`position` | :func:`pos`
+      | :func:`towards`
+      | :func:`xcor`
+      | :func:`ycor`
+      | :func:`heading`
+      | :func:`distance`
+
+   Setting and measurement
+      | :func:`degrees`
+      | :func:`radians`
+
+Pen control
+   Drawing state
+      | :func:`pendown` | :func:`pd` | :func:`down`
+      | :func:`penup` | :func:`pu` | :func:`up`
+      | :func:`pensize` | :func:`width`
+      | :func:`pen`
+      | :func:`isdown`
+
+   Color control
+      | :func:`color`
+      | :func:`pencolor`
+      | :func:`fillcolor`
+
+   Filling
+      | :func:`filling`
+      | :func:`begin_fill`
+      | :func:`end_fill`
+
+   More drawing control
+      | :func:`reset`
+      | :func:`clear`
+      | :func:`write`
+
+Turtle state
+   Visibility
+      | :func:`showturtle` | :func:`st`
+      | :func:`hideturtle` | :func:`ht`
+      | :func:`isvisible`
+
+   Appearance
+      | :func:`shape`
+      | :func:`resizemode`
+      | :func:`shapesize` | :func:`turtlesize`
+      | :func:`shearfactor`
+      | :func:`settiltangle`
+      | :func:`tiltangle`
+      | :func:`tilt`
+      | :func:`shapetransform`
+      | :func:`get_shapepoly`
+
+Using events
+   | :func:`onclick`
+   | :func:`onrelease`
+   | :func:`ondrag`
+
+Special Turtle methods
+   | :func:`begin_poly`
+   | :func:`end_poly`
+   | :func:`get_poly`
+   | :func:`clone`
+   | :func:`getturtle` | :func:`getpen`
+   | :func:`getscreen`
+   | :func:`setundobuffer`
+   | :func:`undobufferentries`
+
+
+Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
+------------------------------
+
+Window control
+   | :func:`bgcolor`
+   | :func:`bgpic`
+   | :func:`clear` | :func:`clearscreen`
+   | :func:`reset` | :func:`resetscreen`
+   | :func:`screensize`
+   | :func:`setworldcoordinates`
+
+Animation control
+   | :func:`delay`
+   | :func:`tracer`
+   | :func:`update`
+
+Using screen events
+   | :func:`listen`
+   | :func:`onkey` | :func:`onkeyrelease`
+   | :func:`onkeypress`
+   | :func:`onclick` | :func:`onscreenclick`
+   | :func:`ontimer`
+   | :func:`mainloop` | :func:`done`
+
+Settings and special methods
+   | :func:`mode`
+   | :func:`colormode`
+   | :func:`getcanvas`
+   | :func:`getshapes`
+   | :func:`register_shape` | :func:`addshape`
+   | :func:`turtles`
+   | :func:`window_height`
+   | :func:`window_width`
+
+Input methods
+   | :func:`textinput`
+   | :func:`numinput`
+
+Methods specific to Screen
+   | :func:`bye`
+   | :func:`exitonclick`
+   | :func:`setup`
+   | :func:`title`
+
+
+Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
+=======================================================
+
+Most of the examples in this section refer to a Turtle instance called
+``turtle``.
+
+Turtle motion
+-------------
+
+.. function:: forward(distance)
+              fd(distance)
+
+   :param distance: a number (integer or float)
+
+   Move the turtle forward by the specified *distance*, in the direction the
+   turtle is headed.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,0.00)
+      >>> turtle.forward(25)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (25.00,0.00)
+      >>> turtle.forward(-75)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (-50.00,0.00)
+
+
+.. function:: back(distance)
+              bk(distance)
+              backward(distance)
+
+   :param distance: a number
+
+   Move the turtle backward by *distance*, opposite to the direction the
+   turtle is headed.  Do not change the turtle's heading.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.goto(0, 0)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,0.00)
+      >>> turtle.backward(30)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (-30.00,0.00)
+
+
+.. function:: right(angle)
+              rt(angle)
+
+   :param angle: a number (integer or float)
+
+   Turn turtle right by *angle* units.  (Units are by default degrees, but
+   can be set via the :func:`degrees` and :func:`radians` functions.)  Angle
+   orientation depends on the turtle mode, see :func:`mode`.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.setheading(22)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      22.0
+      >>> turtle.right(45)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      337.0
+
+
+.. function:: left(angle)
+              lt(angle)
+
+   :param angle: a number (integer or float)
+
+   Turn turtle left by *angle* units.  (Units are by default degrees, but
+   can be set via the :func:`degrees` and :func:`radians` functions.)  Angle
+   orientation depends on the turtle mode, see :func:`mode`.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.setheading(22)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      22.0
+      >>> turtle.left(45)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      67.0
+
+
+.. function:: goto(x, y=None)
+              setpos(x, y=None)
+              setposition(x, y=None)
+
+   :param x: a number or a pair/vector of numbers
+   :param y: a number or ``None``
+
+   If *y* is ``None``, *x* must be a pair of coordinates or a :class:`Vec2D`
+   (e.g. as returned by :func:`pos`).
+
+   Move turtle to an absolute position.  If the pen is down, draw line.  Do
+   not change the turtle's orientation.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.goto(0, 0)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> tp = turtle.pos()
+       >>> tp
+       (0.00,0.00)
+       >>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
+       >>> turtle.pos()
+       (60.00,30.00)
+       >>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
+       >>> turtle.pos()
+       (20.00,80.00)
+       >>> turtle.setpos(tp)
+       >>> turtle.pos()
+       (0.00,0.00)
+
+
+.. function:: setx(x)
+
+   :param x: a number (integer or float)
+
+   Set the turtle's first coordinate to *x*, leave second coordinate
+   unchanged.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.goto(0, 240)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,240.00)
+      >>> turtle.setx(10)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (10.00,240.00)
+
+
+.. function:: sety(y)
+
+   :param y: a number (integer or float)
+
+   Set the turtle's second coordinate to *y*, leave first coordinate unchanged.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.goto(0, 40)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,40.00)
+      >>> turtle.sety(-10)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,-10.00)
+
+
+.. function:: setheading(to_angle)
+              seth(to_angle)
+
+   :param to_angle: a number (integer or float)
+
+   Set the orientation of the turtle to *to_angle*.  Here are some common
+   directions in degrees:
+
+   =================== ====================
+    standard mode           logo mode
+   =================== ====================
+      0 - east                0 - north
+     90 - north              90 - east
+    180 - west              180 - south
+    270 - south             270 - west
+   =================== ====================
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.setheading(90)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      90.0
+
+
+.. function:: home()
+
+   Move turtle to the origin -- coordinates (0,0) -- and set its heading to
+   its start-orientation (which depends on the mode, see :func:`mode`).
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.setheading(90)
+      >>> turtle.goto(0, -10)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      90.0
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,-10.00)
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,0.00)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      0.0
+
+
+.. function:: circle(radius, extent=None, steps=None)
+
+   :param radius: a number
+   :param extent: a number (or ``None``)
+   :param steps: an integer (or ``None``)
+
+   Draw a circle with given *radius*.  The center is *radius* units left of
+   the turtle; *extent* -- an angle -- determines which part of the circle
+   is drawn.  If *extent* is not given, draw the entire circle.  If *extent*
+   is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc is the current pen
+   position.  Draw the arc in counterclockwise direction if *radius* is
+   positive, otherwise in clockwise direction.  Finally the direction of the
+   turtle is changed by the amount of *extent*.
+
+   As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon, *steps*
+   determines the number of steps to use.  If not given, it will be
+   calculated automatically.  May be used to draw regular polygons.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,0.00)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      0.0
+      >>> turtle.circle(50)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (-0.00,0.00)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      0.0
+      >>> turtle.circle(120, 180)  # draw a semicircle
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,240.00)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      180.0
+
+
+.. function:: dot(size=None, *color)
+
+   :param size: an integer >= 1 (if given)
+   :param color: a colorstring or a numeric color tuple
+
+   Draw a circular dot with diameter *size*, using *color*.  If *size* is
+   not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used.
+
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.dot()
+      >>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (100.00,-0.00)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      0.0
+
+
+.. function:: stamp()
+
+   Stamp a copy of the turtle shape onto the canvas at the current turtle
+   position.  Return a stamp_id for that stamp, which can be used to delete
+   it by calling ``clearstamp(stamp_id)``.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.color("blue")
+      >>> turtle.stamp()
+      11
+      >>> turtle.fd(50)
+
+
+.. function:: clearstamp(stampid)
+
+   :param stampid: an integer, must be return value of previous
+                   :func:`stamp` call
+
+   Delete stamp with given *stampid*.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (150.00,-0.00)
+      >>> turtle.color("blue")
+      >>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
+      >>> turtle.fd(50)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (200.00,-0.00)
+      >>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (200.00,-0.00)
+
+
+.. function:: clearstamps(n=None)
+
+   :param n: an integer (or ``None``)
+
+   Delete all or first/last *n* of turtle's stamps.  If *n* is ``None``, delete
+   all stamps, if *n* > 0 delete first *n* stamps, else if *n* < 0 delete
+   last *n* stamps.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> for i in range(8):
+      ...     turtle.stamp(); turtle.fd(30)
+      13
+      14
+      15
+      16
+      17
+      18
+      19
+      20
+      >>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
+      >>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
+      >>> turtle.clearstamps()
+
+
+.. function:: undo()
+
+   Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s).  Number of available
+   undo actions is determined by the size of the undobuffer.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> for i in range(4):
+      ...     turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
+      ...
+      >>> for i in range(8):
+      ...     turtle.undo()
+
+
+.. function:: speed(speed=None)
+
+   :param speed: an integer in the range 0..10 or a speedstring (see below)
+
+   Set the turtle's speed to an integer value in the range 0..10.  If no
+   argument is given, return current speed.
+
+   If input is a number greater than 10 or smaller than 0.5, speed is set
+   to 0.  Speedstrings are mapped to speedvalues as follows:
+
+   * "fastest":  0
+   * "fast":  10
+   * "normal":  6
+   * "slow":  3
+   * "slowest":  1
+
+   Speeds from 1 to 10 enforce increasingly faster animation of line drawing
+   and turtle turning.
+
+   Attention: *speed* = 0 means that *no* animation takes
+   place. forward/back makes turtle jump and likewise left/right make the
+   turtle turn instantly.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.speed()
+      3
+      >>> turtle.speed('normal')
+      >>> turtle.speed()
+      6
+      >>> turtle.speed(9)
+      >>> turtle.speed()
+      9
+
+
+Tell Turtle's state
+-------------------
+
+.. function:: position()
+              pos()
+
+   Return the turtle's current location (x,y) (as a :class:`Vec2D` vector).
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.pos()
+      (440.00,-0.00)
+
+
+.. function:: towards(x, y=None)
+
+   :param x: a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance
+   :param y: a number if *x* is a number, else ``None``
+
+   Return the angle between the line from turtle position to position specified
+   by (x,y), the vector or the other turtle.  This depends on the turtle's start
+   orientation which depends on the mode - "standard"/"world" or "logo").
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
+      >>> turtle.towards(0,0)
+      225.0
+
+
+.. function:: xcor()
+
+   Return the turtle's x coordinate.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.left(50)
+      >>> turtle.forward(100)
+      >>> turtle.pos()
+      (64.28,76.60)
+      >>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
+      64.27876
+
+
+.. function:: ycor()
+
+   Return the turtle's y coordinate.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.left(60)
+      >>> turtle.forward(100)
+      >>> print(turtle.pos())
+      (50.00,86.60)
+      >>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
+      86.60254
+
+
+.. function:: heading()
+
+   Return the turtle's current heading (value depends on the turtle mode, see
+   :func:`mode`).
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.left(67)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      67.0
+
+
+.. function:: distance(x, y=None)
+
+   :param x: a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance
+   :param y: a number if *x* is a number, else ``None``
+
+   Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or the given
+   other turtle, in turtle step units.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.distance(30,40)
+      50.0
+      >>> turtle.distance((30,40))
+      50.0
+      >>> joe = Turtle()
+      >>> joe.forward(77)
+      >>> turtle.distance(joe)
+      77.0
+
+
+Settings for measurement
+------------------------
+
+.. function:: degrees(fullcircle=360.0)
+
+   :param fullcircle: a number
+
+   Set angle measurement units, i.e. set number of "degrees" for a full circle.
+   Default value is 360 degrees.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.left(90)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      90.0
+
+      Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
+      grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
+      >>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      100.0
+      >>> turtle.degrees(360)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      90.0
+
+
+.. function:: radians()
+
+   Set the angle measurement units to radians.  Equivalent to
+   ``degrees(2*math.pi)``.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.left(90)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      90.0
+      >>> turtle.radians()
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      1.5707963267948966
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> turtle.degrees(360)
+
+
+Pen control
+-----------
+
+Drawing state
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: pendown()
+              pd()
+              down()
+
+   Pull the pen down -- drawing when moving.
+
+
+.. function:: penup()
+              pu()
+              up()
+
+   Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.
+
+
+.. function:: pensize(width=None)
+              width(width=None)
+
+   :param width: a positive number
+
+   Set the line thickness to *width* or return it.  If resizemode is set to
+   "auto" and turtleshape is a polygon, that polygon is drawn with the same line
+   thickness.  If no argument is given, the current pensize is returned.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.pensize()
+      1
+      >>> turtle.pensize(10)   # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn
+
+
+.. function:: pen(pen=None, **pendict)
+
+   :param pen: a dictionary with some or all of the below listed keys
+   :param pendict: one or more keyword-arguments with the below listed keys as keywords
+
+   Return or set the pen's attributes in a "pen-dictionary" with the following
+   key/value pairs:
+
+   * "shown": True/False
+   * "pendown": True/False
+   * "pencolor": color-string or color-tuple
+   * "fillcolor": color-string or color-tuple
+   * "pensize": positive number
+   * "speed": number in range 0..10
+   * "resizemode": "auto" or "user" or "noresize"
+   * "stretchfactor": (positive number, positive number)
+   * "outline": positive number
+   * "tilt": number
+
+   This dictionary can be used as argument for a subsequent call to :func:`pen`
+   to restore the former pen-state.  Moreover one or more of these attributes
+   can be provided as keyword-arguments.  This can be used to set several pen
+   attributes in one statement.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+      >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
+      >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
+      [('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
+       ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
+       ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
+       ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
+      >>> penstate=turtle.pen()
+      >>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
+      >>> turtle.penup()
+      >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
+      [('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
+      >>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
+      >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
+      [('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]
+
+.. function:: isdown()
+
+   Return ``True`` if pen is down, ``False`` if it's up.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.penup()
+      >>> turtle.isdown()
+      False
+      >>> turtle.pendown()
+      >>> turtle.isdown()
+      True
+
+
+Color control
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: pencolor(*args)
+
+   Return or set the pencolor.
+
+   Four input formats are allowed:
+
+   ``pencolor()``
+      Return the current pencolor as color specification string or
+      as a tuple (see example).  May be used as input to another
+      color/pencolor/fillcolor call.
+
+   ``pencolor(colorstring)``
+      Set pencolor to *colorstring*, which is a Tk color specification string,
+      such as ``"red"``, ``"yellow"``, or ``"#33cc8c"``.
+
+   ``pencolor((r, g, b))``
+      Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of *r*, *g*, and
+      *b*.  Each of *r*, *g*, and *b* must be in the range 0..colormode, where
+      colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see :func:`colormode`).
+
+   ``pencolor(r, g, b)``
+      Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by *r*, *g*, and *b*.  Each of
+      *r*, *g*, and *b* must be in the range 0..colormode.
+
+    If turtleshape is a polygon, the outline of that polygon is drawn with the
+    newly set pencolor.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> colormode()
+       1.0
+       >>> turtle.pencolor()
+       'red'
+       >>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
+       >>> turtle.pencolor()
+       'brown'
+       >>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
+       >>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
+       >>> turtle.pencolor()
+       (0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
+       >>> colormode(255)
+       >>> turtle.pencolor()
+       (51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
+       >>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
+       >>> turtle.pencolor()
+       (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
+
+
+.. function:: fillcolor(*args)
+
+   Return or set the fillcolor.
+
+   Four input formats are allowed:
+
+   ``fillcolor()``
+      Return the current fillcolor as color specification string, possibly
+      in tuple format (see example).  May be used as input to another
+      color/pencolor/fillcolor call.
+
+   ``fillcolor(colorstring)``
+      Set fillcolor to *colorstring*, which is a Tk color specification string,
+      such as ``"red"``, ``"yellow"``, or ``"#33cc8c"``.
+
+   ``fillcolor((r, g, b))``
+      Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of *r*, *g*, and
+      *b*.  Each of *r*, *g*, and *b* must be in the range 0..colormode, where
+      colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see :func:`colormode`).
+
+   ``fillcolor(r, g, b)``
+      Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by *r*, *g*, and *b*.  Each of
+      *r*, *g*, and *b* must be in the range 0..colormode.
+
+    If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn
+    with the newly set fillcolor.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
+       >>> turtle.fillcolor()
+       'violet'
+       >>> turtle.pencolor()
+       (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
+       >>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143))  # Integers, not floats
+       >>> turtle.fillcolor()
+       (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
+       >>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
+       >>> turtle.fillcolor()
+       (255.0, 255.0, 255.0)
+
+
+.. function:: color(*args)
+
+   Return or set pencolor and fillcolor.
+
+   Several input formats are allowed.  They use 0 to 3 arguments as
+   follows:
+
+   ``color()``
+      Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a pair of color
+      specification strings or tuples as returned by :func:`pencolor` and
+      :func:`fillcolor`.
+
+   ``color(colorstring)``, ``color((r,g,b))``, ``color(r,g,b)``
+      Inputs as in :func:`pencolor`, set both, fillcolor and pencolor, to the
+      given value.
+
+   ``color(colorstring1, colorstring2)``, ``color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))``
+      Equivalent to ``pencolor(colorstring1)`` and ``fillcolor(colorstring2)``
+      and analogously if the other input format is used.
+
+    If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon is drawn
+    with the newly set colors.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
+       >>> turtle.color()
+       ('red', 'green')
+       >>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
+       >>> color()
+       ((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))
+
+
+See also: Screen method :func:`colormode`.
+
+
+Filling
+~~~~~~~
+
+.. doctest::
+   :hide:
+
+   >>> turtle.home()
+
+.. function:: filling()
+
+   Return fillstate (``True`` if filling, ``False`` else).
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> turtle.begin_fill()
+       >>> if turtle.filling():
+       ...    turtle.pensize(5)
+       ... else:
+       ...    turtle.pensize(3)
+
+
+
+.. function:: begin_fill()
+
+   To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled.
+
+
+.. function:: end_fill()
+
+   Fill the shape drawn after the last call to :func:`begin_fill`.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
+      >>> turtle.begin_fill()
+      >>> turtle.circle(80)
+      >>> turtle.end_fill()
+
+
+More drawing control
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: reset()
+
+   Delete the turtle's drawings from the screen, re-center the turtle and set
+   variables to the default values.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
+      >>> turtle.left(100)
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,-22.00)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      100.0
+      >>> turtle.reset()
+      >>> turtle.position()
+      (0.00,0.00)
+      >>> turtle.heading()
+      0.0
+
+
+.. function:: clear()
+
+   Delete the turtle's drawings from the screen.  Do not move turtle.  State and
+   position of the turtle as well as drawings of other turtles are not affected.
+
+
+.. function:: write(arg, move=False, align="left", font=("Arial", 8, "normal"))
+
+   :param arg: object to be written to the TurtleScreen
+   :param move: True/False
+   :param align: one of the strings "left", "center" or right"
+   :param font: a triple (fontname, fontsize, fonttype)
+
+   Write text - the string representation of *arg* - at the current turtle
+   position according to *align* ("left", "center" or right") and with the given
+   font.  If *move* is true, the pen is moved to the bottom-right corner of the
+   text.  By default, *move* is ``False``.
+
+   >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
+   >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)
+
+
+Turtle state
+------------
+
+Visibility
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: hideturtle()
+              ht()
+
+   Make the turtle invisible.  It's a good idea to do this while you're in the
+   middle of doing some complex drawing, because hiding the turtle speeds up the
+   drawing observably.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.hideturtle()
+
+
+.. function:: showturtle()
+              st()
+
+   Make the turtle visible.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.showturtle()
+
+
+.. function:: isvisible()
+
+   Return ``True`` if the Turtle is shown, ``False`` if it's hidden.
+
+   >>> turtle.hideturtle()
+   >>> turtle.isvisible()
+   False
+   >>> turtle.showturtle()
+   >>> turtle.isvisible()
+   True
+
+
+Appearance
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: shape(name=None)
+
+   :param name: a string which is a valid shapename
+
+   Set turtle shape to shape with given *name* or, if name is not given, return
+   name of current shape.  Shape with *name* must exist in the TurtleScreen's
+   shape dictionary.  Initially there are the following polygon shapes: "arrow",
+   "turtle", "circle", "square", "triangle", "classic".  To learn about how to
+   deal with shapes see Screen method :func:`register_shape`.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.shape()
+      'classic'
+      >>> turtle.shape("turtle")
+      >>> turtle.shape()
+      'turtle'
+
+
+.. function:: resizemode(rmode=None)
+
+   :param rmode: one of the strings "auto", "user", "noresize"
+
+   Set resizemode to one of the values: "auto", "user", "noresize".  If *rmode*
+   is not given, return current resizemode.  Different resizemodes have the
+   following effects:
+
+   - "auto": adapts the appearance of the turtle corresponding to the value of pensize.
+   - "user": adapts the appearance of the turtle according to the values of
+     stretchfactor and outlinewidth (outline), which are set by
+     :func:`shapesize`.
+   - "noresize": no adaption of the turtle's appearance takes place.
+
+   resizemode("user") is called by :func:`shapesize` when used with arguments.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.resizemode()
+      'noresize'
+      >>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
+      >>> turtle.resizemode()
+      'auto'
+
+
+.. function:: shapesize(stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None)
+              turtlesize(stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None)
+
+   :param stretch_wid: positive number
+   :param stretch_len: positive number
+   :param outline: positive number
+
+   Return or set the pen's attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or outline.  Set
+   resizemode to "user".  If and only if resizemode is set to "user", the turtle
+   will be displayed stretched according to its stretchfactors: *stretch_wid* is
+   stretchfactor perpendicular to its orientation, *stretch_len* is
+   stretchfactor in direction of its orientation, *outline* determines the width
+   of the shapes's outline.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.shapesize()
+      (1.0, 1.0, 1)
+      >>> turtle.resizemode("user")
+      >>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
+      >>> turtle.shapesize()
+      (5, 5, 12)
+      >>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
+      >>> turtle.shapesize()
+      (5, 5, 8)
+
+
+.. function:: shearfactor(shear=None)
+
+   :param shear: number (optional)
+
+   Set or return the current shearfactor. Shear the turtleshape according to
+   the given shearfactor shear, which is the tangent of the shear angle.
+   Do *not* change the turtle's heading (direction of movement).
+   If shear is not given: return the current shearfactor, i. e. the
+   tangent of the shear angle, by which lines parallel to the
+   heading of the turtle are sheared.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+       >>> turtle.shape("circle")
+       >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
+       >>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
+       >>> turtle.shearfactor()
+       0.5
+
+
+.. function:: tilt(angle)
+
+   :param angle: a number
+
+   Rotate the turtleshape by *angle* from its current tilt-angle, but do *not*
+   change the turtle's heading (direction of movement).
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.reset()
+      >>> turtle.shape("circle")
+      >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
+      >>> turtle.tilt(30)
+      >>> turtle.fd(50)
+      >>> turtle.tilt(30)
+      >>> turtle.fd(50)
+
+
+.. function:: settiltangle(angle)
+
+   :param angle: a number
+
+   Rotate the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by *angle*,
+   regardless of its current tilt-angle.  *Do not* change the turtle's heading
+   (direction of movement).
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.reset()
+      >>> turtle.shape("circle")
+      >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
+      >>> turtle.settiltangle(45)
+      >>> turtle.fd(50)
+      >>> turtle.settiltangle(-45)
+      >>> turtle.fd(50)
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.1
+
+
+.. function:: tiltangle(angle=None)
+
+   :param angle: a number (optional)
+
+   Set or return the current tilt-angle. If angle is given, rotate the
+   turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle,
+   regardless of its current tilt-angle. Do *not* change the turtle's
+   heading (direction of movement).
+   If angle is not given: return the current tilt-angle, i. e. the angle
+   between the orientation of the turtleshape and the heading of the
+   turtle (its direction of movement).
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.reset()
+      >>> turtle.shape("circle")
+      >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
+      >>> turtle.tilt(45)
+      >>> turtle.tiltangle()
+      45.0
+
+
+.. function:: shapetransform(t11=None, t12=None, t21=None, t22=None)
+
+   :param t11: a number (optional)
+   :param t12: a number (optional)
+   :param t21: a number (optional)
+   :param t12: a number (optional)
+
+   Set or return the current transformation matrix of the turtle shape.
+
+   If none of the matrix elements are given, return the transformation
+   matrix as a tuple of 4 elements.
+   Otherwise set the given elements and transform the turtleshape
+   according to the matrix consisting of first row t11, t12 and
+   second row t21, 22. The determinant t11 * t22 - t12 * t21 must not be
+   zero, otherwise an error is raised.
+   Modify stretchfactor, shearfactor and tiltangle according to the
+   given matrix.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle = Turtle()
+      >>> turtle.shape("square")
+      >>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
+      >>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
+      >>> turtle.shapetransform()
+      (4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)
+
+
+.. function:: get_shapepoly()
+
+   Return the current shape polygon as tuple of coordinate pairs. This
+   can be used to define a new shape or components of a compound shape.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.shape("square")
+      >>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
+      >>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
+      ((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))
+
+
+Using events
+------------
+
+.. function:: onclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)
+
+   :param fun: a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+               coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
+   :param btn: number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
+   :param add: ``True`` or ``False`` -- if ``True``, a new binding will be
+               added, otherwise it will replace a former binding
+
+   Bind *fun* to mouse-click events on this turtle.  If *fun* is ``None``,
+   existing bindings are removed.  Example for the anonymous turtle, i.e. the
+   procedural way:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> def turn(x, y):
+      ...     left(180)
+      ...
+      >>> onclick(turn)  # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.
+      >>> onclick(None)  # event-binding will be removed
+
+
+.. function:: onrelease(fun, btn=1, add=None)
+
+   :param fun: a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+               coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
+   :param btn: number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
+   :param add: ``True`` or ``False`` -- if ``True``, a new binding will be
+               added, otherwise it will replace a former binding
+
+   Bind *fun* to mouse-button-release events on this turtle.  If *fun* is
+   ``None``, existing bindings are removed.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
+      ...     def glow(self,x,y):
+      ...         self.fillcolor("red")
+      ...     def unglow(self,x,y):
+      ...         self.fillcolor("")
+      ...
+      >>> turtle = MyTurtle()
+      >>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow)     # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,
+      >>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent.
+
+
+.. function:: ondrag(fun, btn=1, add=None)
+
+   :param fun: a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+               coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
+   :param btn: number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
+   :param add: ``True`` or ``False`` -- if ``True``, a new binding will be
+               added, otherwise it will replace a former binding
+
+   Bind *fun* to mouse-move events on this turtle.  If *fun* is ``None``,
+   existing bindings are removed.
+
+   Remark: Every sequence of mouse-move-events on a turtle is preceded by a
+   mouse-click event on that turtle.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)
+
+   Subsequently, clicking and dragging the Turtle will move it across
+   the screen thereby producing handdrawings (if pen is down).
+
+
+Special Turtle methods
+----------------------
+
+.. function:: begin_poly()
+
+   Start recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position is first
+   vertex of polygon.
+
+
+.. function:: end_poly()
+
+   Stop recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position is last
+   vertex of polygon.  This will be connected with the first vertex.
+
+
+.. function:: get_poly()
+
+   Return the last recorded polygon.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.home()
+      >>> turtle.begin_poly()
+      >>> turtle.fd(100)
+      >>> turtle.left(20)
+      >>> turtle.fd(30)
+      >>> turtle.left(60)
+      >>> turtle.fd(50)
+      >>> turtle.end_poly()
+      >>> p = turtle.get_poly()
+      >>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)
+
+
+.. function:: clone()
+
+   Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading and
+   turtle properties.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> mick = Turtle()
+      >>> joe = mick.clone()
+
+
+.. function:: getturtle()
+              getpen()
+
+   Return the Turtle object itself.  Only reasonable use: as a function to
+   return the "anonymous turtle":
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> pet = getturtle()
+      >>> pet.fd(50)
+      >>> pet
+      <turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>
+
+
+.. function:: getscreen()
+
+   Return the :class:`TurtleScreen` object the turtle is drawing on.
+   TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
+      >>> ts
+      <turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
+      >>> ts.bgcolor("pink")
+
+
+.. function:: setundobuffer(size)
+
+   :param size: an integer or ``None``
+
+   Set or disable undobuffer.  If *size* is an integer an empty undobuffer of
+   given size is installed.  *size* gives the maximum number of turtle actions
+   that can be undone by the :func:`undo` method/function.  If *size* is
+   ``None``, the undobuffer is disabled.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)
+
+
+.. function:: undobufferentries()
+
+   Return number of entries in the undobuffer.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> while undobufferentries():
+      ...     undo()
+
+
+
+.. _compoundshapes:
+
+Compound shapes
+---------------
+
+To use compound turtle shapes, which consist of several polygons of different
+color, you must use the helper class :class:`Shape` explicitly as described
+below:
+
+1. Create an empty Shape object of type "compound".
+2. Add as many components to this object as desired, using the
+   :meth:`addcomponent` method.
+
+   For example:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> s = Shape("compound")
+      >>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
+      >>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
+      >>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
+      >>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")
+
+3. Now add the Shape to the Screen's shapelist and use it:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> register_shape("myshape", s)
+      >>> shape("myshape")
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :class:`Shape` class is used internally by the :func:`register_shape`
+   method in different ways.  The application programmer has to deal with the
+   Shape class *only* when using compound shapes like shown above!
+
+
+Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
+==========================================================
+
+Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance called
+``screen``.
+
+.. doctest::
+   :hide:
+
+   >>> screen = Screen()
+
+Window control
+--------------
+
+.. function:: bgcolor(*args)
+
+   :param args: a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a
+                3-tuple of such numbers
+
+
+   Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
+      >>> screen.bgcolor()
+      'orange'
+      >>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
+      >>> screen.bgcolor()
+      (128.0, 0.0, 128.0)
+
+
+.. function:: bgpic(picname=None)
+
+   :param picname: a string, name of a gif-file or ``"nopic"``, or ``None``
+
+   Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage.  If *picname*
+   is a filename, set the corresponding image as background.  If *picname* is
+   ``"nopic"``, delete background image, if present.  If *picname* is ``None``,
+   return the filename of the current backgroundimage. ::
+
+       >>> screen.bgpic()
+       'nopic'
+       >>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
+       >>> screen.bgpic()
+       "landscape.gif"
+
+
+.. function:: clear()
+              clearscreen()
+
+   Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen.  Reset the now
+   empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background, no background
+   image, no event bindings and tracing on.
+
+   .. note::
+      This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the
+      name ``clearscreen``.  The global function ``clear`` is a different one
+      derived from the Turtle method ``clear``.
+
+
+.. function:: reset()
+              resetscreen()
+
+   Reset all Turtles on the Screen to their initial state.
+
+   .. note::
+      This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the
+      name ``resetscreen``.  The global function ``reset`` is another one
+      derived from the Turtle method ``reset``.
+
+
+.. function:: screensize(canvwidth=None, canvheight=None, bg=None)
+
+   :param canvwidth: positive integer, new width of canvas in pixels
+   :param canvheight: positive integer, new height of canvas in pixels
+   :param bg: colorstring or color-tuple, new background color
+
+   If no arguments are given, return current (canvaswidth, canvasheight).  Else
+   resize the canvas the turtles are drawing on.  Do not alter the drawing
+   window.  To observe hidden parts of the canvas, use the scrollbars. With this
+   method, one can make visible those parts of a drawing which were outside the
+   canvas before.
+
+      >>> screen.screensize()
+      (400, 300)
+      >>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
+      >>> screen.screensize()
+      (2000, 1500)
+
+   e.g. to search for an erroneously escaped turtle ;-)
+
+
+.. function:: setworldcoordinates(llx, lly, urx, ury)
+
+   :param llx: a number, x-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas
+   :param lly: a number, y-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas
+   :param urx: a number, x-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas
+   :param ury: a number, y-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas
+
+   Set up user-defined coordinate system and switch to mode "world" if
+   necessary.  This performs a ``screen.reset()``.  If mode "world" is already
+   active, all drawings are redrawn according to the new coordinates.
+
+   **ATTENTION**: in user-defined coordinate systems angles may appear
+   distorted.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.reset()
+      >>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
+      >>> for _ in range(72):
+      ...     left(10)
+      ...
+      >>> for _ in range(8):
+      ...     left(45); fd(2)   # a regular octagon
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :hide:
+
+      >>> screen.reset()
+      >>> for t in turtles():
+      ...      t.reset()
+
+
+Animation control
+-----------------
+
+.. function:: delay(delay=None)
+
+   :param delay: positive integer
+
+   Set or return the drawing *delay* in milliseconds.  (This is approximately
+   the time interval between two consecutive canvas updates.)  The longer the
+   drawing delay, the slower the animation.
+
+   Optional argument:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.delay()
+      10
+      >>> screen.delay(5)
+      >>> screen.delay()
+      5
+
+
+.. function:: tracer(n=None, delay=None)
+
+   :param n: nonnegative integer
+   :param delay: nonnegative integer
+
+   Turn turtle animation on/off and set delay for update drawings.  If
+   *n* is given, only each n-th regular screen update is really
+   performed.  (Can be used to accelerate the drawing of complex
+   graphics.)  When called without arguments, returns the currently
+   stored value of n. Second argument sets delay value (see
+   :func:`delay`).
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
+      >>> dist = 2
+      >>> for i in range(200):
+      ...     fd(dist)
+      ...     rt(90)
+      ...     dist += 2
+
+
+.. function:: update()
+
+   Perform a TurtleScreen update. To be used when tracer is turned off.
+
+See also the RawTurtle/Turtle method :func:`speed`.
+
+
+Using screen events
+-------------------
+
+.. function:: listen(xdummy=None, ydummy=None)
+
+   Set focus on TurtleScreen (in order to collect key-events).  Dummy arguments
+   are provided in order to be able to pass :func:`listen` to the onclick method.
+
+
+.. function:: onkey(fun, key)
+              onkeyrelease(fun, key)
+
+   :param fun: a function with no arguments or ``None``
+   :param key: a string: key (e.g. "a") or key-symbol (e.g. "space")
+
+   Bind *fun* to key-release event of key.  If *fun* is ``None``, event bindings
+   are removed. Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen
+   must have the focus. (See method :func:`listen`.)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> def f():
+      ...     fd(50)
+      ...     lt(60)
+      ...
+      >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
+      >>> screen.listen()
+
+
+.. function:: onkeypress(fun, key=None)
+
+   :param fun: a function with no arguments or ``None``
+   :param key: a string: key (e.g. "a") or key-symbol (e.g. "space")
+
+   Bind *fun* to key-press event of key if key is given,
+   or to any key-press-event if no key is given.
+   Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen
+   must have focus. (See method :func:`listen`.)
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> def f():
+      ...     fd(50)
+      ...
+      >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
+      >>> screen.listen()
+
+
+.. function:: onclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)
+              onscreenclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)
+
+   :param fun: a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+               coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
+   :param btn: number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
+   :param add: ``True`` or ``False`` -- if ``True``, a new binding will be
+               added, otherwise it will replace a former binding
+
+   Bind *fun* to mouse-click events on this screen.  If *fun* is ``None``,
+   existing bindings are removed.
+
+   Example for a TurtleScreen instance named ``screen`` and a Turtle instance
+   named turtle:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will
+      >>>                             # make the turtle move to the clicked point.
+      >>> screen.onclick(None)        # remove event binding again
+
+   .. note::
+      This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the
+      name ``onscreenclick``.  The global function ``onclick`` is another one
+      derived from the Turtle method ``onclick``.
+
+
+.. function:: ontimer(fun, t=0)
+
+   :param fun: a function with no arguments
+   :param t: a number >= 0
+
+   Install a timer that calls *fun* after *t* milliseconds.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> running = True
+      >>> def f():
+      ...     if running:
+      ...         fd(50)
+      ...         lt(60)
+      ...         screen.ontimer(f, 250)
+      >>> f()   ### makes the turtle march around
+      >>> running = False
+
+
+.. function:: mainloop()
+              done()
+
+   Starts event loop - calling Tkinter's mainloop function.
+   Must be the last statement in a turtle graphics program.
+   Must *not* be used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode
+   (No subprocess) - for interactive use of turtle graphics. ::
+
+      >>> screen.mainloop()
+
+
+Input methods
+-------------
+
+.. function:: textinput(title, prompt)
+
+   :param title: string
+   :param prompt: string
+
+   Pop up a dialog window for input of a string. Parameter title is
+   the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing
+   what information to input.
+   Return the string input. If the dialog is canceled, return ``None``. ::
+
+      >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")
+
+
+.. function:: numinput(title, prompt, default=None, minval=None, maxval=None)
+
+   :param title: string
+   :param prompt: string
+   :param default: number (optional)
+   :param minval: number (optional)
+   :param maxval: number (optional)
+
+   Pop up a dialog window for input of a number. title is the title of the
+   dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what numerical information
+   to input. default: default value, minval: minimum value for input,
+   maxval: maximum value for input
+   The number input must be in the range minval .. maxval if these are
+   given. If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for
+   correction.
+   Return the number input. If the dialog is canceled,  return ``None``. ::
+
+      >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)
+
+
+Settings and special methods
+----------------------------
+
+.. function:: mode(mode=None)
+
+   :param mode: one of the strings "standard", "logo" or "world"
+
+   Set turtle mode ("standard", "logo" or "world") and perform reset.  If mode
+   is not given, current mode is returned.
+
+   Mode "standard" is compatible with old :mod:`turtle`.  Mode "logo" is
+   compatible with most Logo turtle graphics.  Mode "world" uses user-defined
+   "world coordinates". **Attention**: in this mode angles appear distorted if
+   ``x/y`` unit-ratio doesn't equal 1.
+
+   ============ ========================= ===================
+       Mode      Initial turtle heading     positive angles
+   ============ ========================= ===================
+    "standard"    to the right (east)       counterclockwise
+      "logo"        upward    (north)         clockwise
+   ============ ========================= ===================
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> mode("logo")   # resets turtle heading to north
+      >>> mode()
+      'logo'
+
+
+.. function:: colormode(cmode=None)
+
+   :param cmode: one of the values 1.0 or 255
+
+   Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255.  Subsequently *r*, *g*, *b*
+   values of color triples have to be in the range 0..\ *cmode*.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.colormode(1)
+      >>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
+      Traceback (most recent call last):
+           ...
+      TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
+      >>> screen.colormode()
+      1.0
+      >>> screen.colormode(255)
+      >>> screen.colormode()
+      255
+      >>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)
+
+
+.. function:: getcanvas()
+
+   Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen.  Useful for insiders who know what to
+   do with a Tkinter Canvas.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
+      >>> cv
+      <turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>
+
+
+.. function:: getshapes()
+
+   Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.getshapes()
+      ['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']
+
+
+.. function:: register_shape(name, shape=None)
+              addshape(name, shape=None)
+
+   There are three different ways to call this function:
+
+   (1) *name* is the name of a gif-file and *shape* is ``None``: Install the
+       corresponding image shape. ::
+
+       >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")
+
+       .. note::
+          Image shapes *do not* rotate when turning the turtle, so they do not
+          display the heading of the turtle!
+
+   (2) *name* is an arbitrary string and *shape* is a tuple of pairs of
+       coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape.
+
+       .. doctest::
+
+          >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))
+
+   (3) *name* is an arbitrary string and shape is a (compound) :class:`Shape`
+       object: Install the corresponding compound shape.
+
+   Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen's shapelist.  Only thusly registered
+   shapes can be used by issuing the command ``shape(shapename)``.
+
+
+.. function:: turtles()
+
+   Return the list of turtles on the screen.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
+      ...     turtle.color("red")
+
+
+.. function:: window_height()
+
+   Return the height of the turtle window. ::
+
+       >>> screen.window_height()
+       480
+
+
+.. function:: window_width()
+
+   Return the width of the turtle window. ::
+
+       >>> screen.window_width()
+       640
+
+
+.. _screenspecific:
+
+Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. function:: bye()
+
+   Shut the turtlegraphics window.
+
+
+.. function:: exitonclick()
+
+   Bind bye() method to mouse clicks on the Screen.
+
+
+   If the value "using_IDLE" in the configuration dictionary is ``False``
+   (default value), also enter mainloop.  Remark: If IDLE with the ``-n`` switch
+   (no subprocess) is used, this value should be set to ``True`` in
+   :file:`turtle.cfg`.  In this case IDLE's own mainloop is active also for the
+   client script.
+
+
+.. function:: setup(width=_CFG["width"], height=_CFG["height"], startx=_CFG["leftright"], starty=_CFG["topbottom"])
+
+   Set the size and position of the main window.  Default values of arguments
+   are stored in the configuration dictionary and can be changed via a
+   :file:`turtle.cfg` file.
+
+   :param width: if an integer, a size in pixels, if a float, a fraction of the
+                 screen; default is 50% of screen
+   :param height: if an integer, the height in pixels, if a float, a fraction of
+                  the screen; default is 75% of screen
+   :param startx: if positive, starting position in pixels from the left
+                  edge of the screen, if negative from the right edge, if ``None``,
+                  center window horizontally
+   :param starty: if positive, starting position in pixels from the top
+                  edge of the screen, if negative from the bottom edge, if ``None``,
+                  center window vertically
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
+      >>>              # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen
+      >>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
+      >>>              # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers
+
+
+.. function:: title(titlestring)
+
+   :param titlestring: a string that is shown in the titlebar of the turtle
+                       graphics window
+
+   Set title of turtle window to *titlestring*.
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")
+
+
+Public classes
+==============
+
+
+.. class:: RawTurtle(canvas)
+           RawPen(canvas)
+
+   :param canvas: a :class:`tkinter.Canvas`, a :class:`ScrolledCanvas` or a
+                  :class:`TurtleScreen`
+
+   Create a turtle.  The turtle has all methods described above as "methods of
+   Turtle/RawTurtle".
+
+
+.. class:: Turtle()
+
+   Subclass of RawTurtle, has the same interface but draws on a default
+   :class:`Screen` object created automatically when needed for the first time.
+
+
+.. class:: TurtleScreen(cv)
+
+   :param cv: a :class:`tkinter.Canvas`
+
+   Provides screen oriented methods like :func:`setbg` etc. that are described
+   above.
+
+.. class:: Screen()
+
+   Subclass of TurtleScreen, with :ref:`four methods added <screenspecific>`.
+
+
+.. class:: ScrolledCanvas(master)
+
+   :param master: some Tkinter widget to contain the ScrolledCanvas, i.e.
+      a Tkinter-canvas with scrollbars added
+
+   Used by class Screen, which thus automatically provides a ScrolledCanvas as
+   playground for the turtles.
+
+.. class:: Shape(type_, data)
+
+   :param type\_: one of the strings "polygon", "image", "compound"
+
+   Data structure modeling shapes.  The pair ``(type_, data)`` must follow this
+   specification:
+
+
+   =========== ===========
+   *type_*     *data*
+   =========== ===========
+   "polygon"   a polygon-tuple, i.e. a tuple of pairs of coordinates
+   "image"     an image  (in this form only used internally!)
+   "compound"  ``None`` (a compound shape has to be constructed using the
+               :meth:`addcomponent` method)
+   =========== ===========
+
+   .. method:: addcomponent(poly, fill, outline=None)
+
+      :param poly: a polygon, i.e. a tuple of pairs of numbers
+      :param fill: a color the *poly* will be filled with
+      :param outline: a color for the poly's outline (if given)
+
+      Example:
+
+      .. doctest::
+
+         >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
+         >>> s = Shape("compound")
+         >>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
+         >>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape()
+
+      See :ref:`compoundshapes`.
+
+
+.. class:: Vec2D(x, y)
+
+   A two-dimensional vector class, used as a helper class for implementing
+   turtle graphics.  May be useful for turtle graphics programs too.  Derived
+   from tuple, so a vector is a tuple!
+
+   Provides (for *a*, *b* vectors, *k* number):
+
+   * ``a + b`` vector addition
+   * ``a - b`` vector subtraction
+   * ``a * b`` inner product
+   * ``k * a`` and ``a * k`` multiplication with scalar
+   * ``abs(a)`` absolute value of a
+   * ``a.rotate(angle)`` rotation
+
+
+Help and configuration
+======================
+
+How to use help
+---------------
+
+The public methods of the Screen and Turtle classes are documented extensively
+via docstrings.  So these can be used as online-help via the Python help
+facilities:
+
+- When using IDLE, tooltips show the signatures and first lines of the
+  docstrings of typed in function-/method calls.
+
+- Calling :func:`help` on methods or functions displays the docstrings::
+
+     >>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
+     Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:
+
+     bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
+         Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.
+
+         Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
+         in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.
+
+
+           >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
+           >>> screen.bgcolor()
+           "orange"
+           >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
+           >>> screen.bgcolor()
+           "#800080"
+
+     >>> help(Turtle.penup)
+     Help on method penup in module turtle:
+
+     penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
+         Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.
+
+         Aliases: penup | pu | up
+
+         No argument
+
+         >>> turtle.penup()
+
+- The docstrings of the functions which are derived from methods have a modified
+  form::
+
+     >>> help(bgcolor)
+     Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:
+
+     bgcolor(*args)
+         Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.
+
+         Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
+         in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.
+
+         Example::
+
+           >>> bgcolor("orange")
+           >>> bgcolor()
+           "orange"
+           >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
+           >>> bgcolor()
+           "#800080"
+
+     >>> help(penup)
+     Help on function penup in module turtle:
+
+     penup()
+         Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.
+
+         Aliases: penup | pu | up
+
+         No argument
+
+         Example:
+         >>> penup()
+
+These modified docstrings are created automatically together with the function
+definitions that are derived from the methods at import time.
+
+
+Translation of docstrings into different languages
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+There is a utility to create a dictionary the keys of which are the method names
+and the values of which are the docstrings of the public methods of the classes
+Screen and Turtle.
+
+.. function:: write_docstringdict(filename="turtle_docstringdict")
+
+   :param filename: a string, used as filename
+
+   Create and write docstring-dictionary to a Python script with the given
+   filename.  This function has to be called explicitly (it is not used by the
+   turtle graphics classes).  The docstring dictionary will be written to the
+   Python script :file:`{filename}.py`.  It is intended to serve as a template
+   for translation of the docstrings into different languages.
+
+If you (or your students) want to use :mod:`turtle` with online help in your
+native language, you have to translate the docstrings and save the resulting
+file as e.g. :file:`turtle_docstringdict_german.py`.
+
+If you have an appropriate entry in your :file:`turtle.cfg` file this dictionary
+will be read in at import time and will replace the original English docstrings.
+
+At the time of this writing there are docstring dictionaries in German and in
+Italian.  (Requests please to glingl@aon.at.)
+
+
+
+How to configure Screen and Turtles
+-----------------------------------
+
+The built-in default configuration mimics the appearance and behaviour of the
+old turtle module in order to retain best possible compatibility with it.
+
+If you want to use a different configuration which better reflects the features
+of this module or which better fits to your needs, e.g. for use in a classroom,
+you can prepare a configuration file ``turtle.cfg`` which will be read at import
+time and modify the configuration according to its settings.
+
+The built in configuration would correspond to the following turtle.cfg::
+
+   width = 0.5
+   height = 0.75
+   leftright = None
+   topbottom = None
+   canvwidth = 400
+   canvheight = 300
+   mode = standard
+   colormode = 1.0
+   delay = 10
+   undobuffersize = 1000
+   shape = classic
+   pencolor = black
+   fillcolor = black
+   resizemode = noresize
+   visible = True
+   language = english
+   exampleturtle = turtle
+   examplescreen = screen
+   title = Python Turtle Graphics
+   using_IDLE = False
+
+Short explanation of selected entries:
+
+- The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the :meth:`Screen.setup`
+  method.
+- Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method
+  :meth:`Screen.screensize`.
+- *shape* can be any of the built-in shapes, e.g: arrow, turtle, etc.  For more
+  info try ``help(shape)``.
+- If you want to use no fillcolor (i.e. make the turtle transparent), you have
+  to write ``fillcolor = ""`` (but all nonempty strings must not have quotes in
+  the cfg-file).
+- If you want to reflect the turtle its state, you have to use ``resizemode =
+  auto``.
+- If you set e.g. ``language = italian`` the docstringdict
+  :file:`turtle_docstringdict_italian.py` will be loaded at import time (if
+  present on the import path, e.g. in the same directory as :mod:`turtle`.
+- The entries *exampleturtle* and *examplescreen* define the names of these
+  objects as they occur in the docstrings.  The transformation of
+  method-docstrings to function-docstrings will delete these names from the
+  docstrings.
+- *using_IDLE*: Set this to ``True`` if you regularly work with IDLE and its -n
+  switch ("no subprocess").  This will prevent :func:`exitonclick` to enter the
+  mainloop.
+
+There can be a :file:`turtle.cfg` file in the directory where :mod:`turtle` is
+stored and an additional one in the current working directory.  The latter will
+override the settings of the first one.
+
+The :file:`Lib/turtledemo` directory contains a :file:`turtle.cfg` file.  You can
+study it as an example and see its effects when running the demos (preferably
+not from within the demo-viewer).
+
+
+:mod:`turtledemo` --- Demo scripts
+==================================
+
+.. module:: turtledemo
+   :synopsis: A viewer for example turtle scripts
+
+The :mod:`turtledemo` package includes a set of demo scripts.  These
+scripts can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as follows::
+
+   python -m turtledemo
+
+Alternatively, you can run the demo scripts individually.  For example, ::
+
+   python -m turtledemo.bytedesign
+
+The :mod:`turtledemo` package directory contains:
+
+- A demo viewer :file:`__main__.py` which can be used to view the sourcecode
+  of the scripts and run them at the same time.
+- Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the :mod:`turtle`
+  module.  Examples can be accessed via the Examples menu.  They can also
+  be run standalone.
+- A :file:`turtle.cfg` file which serves as an example of how to write
+  and use such files.
+
+The demo scripts are:
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|L|
+
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| Name           | Description                  | Features              |
++================+==============================+=======================+
+| bytedesign     | complex classical            | :func:`tracer`, delay,|
+|                | turtle graphics pattern      | :func:`update`        |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| chaos          | graphs Verhulst dynamics,    | world coordinates     |
+|                | shows that computer's        |                       |
+|                | computations can generate    |                       |
+|                | results sometimes against the|                       |
+|                | common sense expectations    |                       |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| clock          | analog clock showing time    | turtles as clock's    |
+|                | of your computer             | hands, ontimer        |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| colormixer     | experiment with r, g, b      | :func:`ondrag`        |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| forest         | 3 breadth-first trees        | randomization         |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| fractalcurves  | Hilbert & Koch curves        | recursion             |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| lindenmayer    | ethnomathematics             | L-System              |
+|                | (indian kolams)              |                       |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| minimal_hanoi  | Towers of Hanoi              | Rectangular Turtles   |
+|                |                              | as Hanoi discs        |
+|                |                              | (shape, shapesize)    |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| nim            | play the classical nim game  | turtles as nimsticks, |
+|                | with three heaps of sticks   | event driven (mouse,  |
+|                | against the computer.        | keyboard)             |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| paint          | super minimalistic           | :func:`onclick`       |
+|                | drawing program              |                       |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| peace          | elementary                   | turtle: appearance    |
+|                |                              | and animation         |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| penrose        | aperiodic tiling with        | :func:`stamp`         |
+|                | kites and darts              |                       |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| planet_and_moon| simulation of                | compound shapes,      |
+|                | gravitational system         | :class:`Vec2D`        |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| round_dance    | dancing turtles rotating     | compound shapes, clone|
+|                | pairwise in opposite         | shapesize, tilt,      |
+|                | direction                    | get_shapepoly, update |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| sorting_animate| visual demonstration of      | simple alignment,     |
+|                | different sorting methods    | randomization         |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| tree           | a (graphical) breadth        | :func:`clone`         |
+|                | first tree (using generators)|                       |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| two_canvases   | simple design                | turtles on two        |
+|                |                              | canvases              |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| wikipedia      | a pattern from the wikipedia | :func:`clone`,        |
+|                | article on turtle graphics   | :func:`undo`          |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+| yinyang        | another elementary example   | :func:`circle`        |
++----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
+
+Have fun!
+
+
+Changes since Python 2.6
+========================
+
+- The methods :meth:`Turtle.tracer`, :meth:`Turtle.window_width` and
+  :meth:`Turtle.window_height` have been eliminated.
+  Methods with these names and functionality are now available only
+  as methods of :class:`Screen`. The functions derived from these remain
+  available. (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods were merely
+  duplications of the corresponding
+  :class:`TurtleScreen`/:class:`Screen`-methods.)
+
+- The method :meth:`Turtle.fill` has been eliminated.
+  The behaviour of :meth:`begin_fill` and :meth:`end_fill`
+  have changed slightly: now  every filling-process must be completed with an
+  ``end_fill()`` call.
+
+- A method :meth:`Turtle.filling` has been added. It returns a boolean
+  value: ``True`` if a filling process is under way, ``False`` otherwise.
+  This behaviour corresponds to a ``fill()`` call without arguments in
+  Python 2.6.
+
+Changes since Python 3.0
+========================
+
+- The methods :meth:`Turtle.shearfactor`, :meth:`Turtle.shapetransform` and
+  :meth:`Turtle.get_shapepoly` have been added. Thus the full range of
+  regular linear transforms is now available for transforming turtle shapes.
+  :meth:`Turtle.tiltangle` has been enhanced in functionality: it now can
+  be used to get or set the tiltangle. :meth:`Turtle.settiltangle` has been
+  deprecated.
+
+- The method :meth:`Screen.onkeypress` has been added as a complement to
+  :meth:`Screen.onkey` which in fact binds actions to the keyrelease event.
+  Accordingly the latter has got an alias: :meth:`Screen.onkeyrelease`.
+
+- The method  :meth:`Screen.mainloop` has been added. So when working only
+  with Screen and Turtle objects one must not additionally import
+  :func:`mainloop` anymore.
+
+- Two input methods has been added :meth:`Screen.textinput` and
+  :meth:`Screen.numinput`. These popup input dialogs and return
+  strings and numbers respectively.
+
+- Two example scripts :file:`tdemo_nim.py` and :file:`tdemo_round_dance.py`
+  have been added to the :file:`Lib/turtledemo` directory.
+
+
+.. doctest::
+   :hide:
+
+   >>> for turtle in turtles():
+   ...      turtle.reset()
+   >>> turtle.penup()
+   >>> turtle.goto(-200,25)
+   >>> turtle.pendown()
+   >>> turtle.write("No one expects the Spanish Inquisition!",
+   ...      font=("Arial", 20, "normal"))
+   >>> turtle.penup()
+   >>> turtle.goto(-100,-50)
+   >>> turtle.pendown()
+   >>> turtle.write("Our two chief Turtles are...",
+   ...      font=("Arial", 16, "normal"))
+   >>> turtle.penup()
+   >>> turtle.goto(-450,-75)
+   >>> turtle.write(str(turtles()))
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/types.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/types.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b19aa02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/types.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,374 @@
+:mod:`types` --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
+===================================================================
+
+.. module:: types
+   :synopsis: Names for built-in types.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/types.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines utility functions to assist in dynamic creation of
+new types.
+
+It also defines names for some object types that are used by the standard
+Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like :class:`int` or
+:class:`str` are.
+
+Finally, it provides some additional type-related utility classes and functions
+that are not fundamental enough to be builtins.
+
+
+Dynamic Type Creation
+---------------------
+
+.. function:: new_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None, exec_body=None)
+
+   Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass.
+
+   The first three arguments are the components that make up a class
+   definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the
+   keyword arguments (such as ``metaclass``).
+
+   The *exec_body* argument is a callback that is used to populate the
+   freshly created class namespace. It should accept the class namespace
+   as its sole argument and update the namespace directly with the class
+   contents. If no callback is provided, it has the same effect as passing
+   in ``lambda ns: ns``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. function:: prepare_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None)
+
+   Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class namespace.
+
+   The arguments are the components that make up a class definition header:
+   the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword arguments
+   (such as ``metaclass``).
+
+   The return value is a 3-tuple: ``metaclass, namespace, kwds``
+
+   *metaclass* is the appropriate metaclass, *namespace* is the
+   prepared class namespace and *kwds* is an updated copy of the passed
+   in *kwds* argument with any ``'metaclass'`` entry removed. If no *kwds*
+   argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+      The default value for the ``namespace`` element of the returned
+      tuple has changed.  Now an insertion-order-preserving mapping is
+      used when the metaclass does not have a ``__prepare__`` method.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`metaclasses`
+      Full details of the class creation process supported by these functions
+
+   :pep:`3115` - Metaclasses in Python 3000
+      Introduced the ``__prepare__`` namespace hook
+
+.. function:: resolve_bases(bases)
+
+   Resolve MRO entries dynamically as specified by :pep:`560`.
+
+   This function looks for items in *bases* that are not instances of
+   :class:`type`, and returns a tuple where each such object that has
+   an ``__mro_entries__`` method is replaced with an unpacked result of
+   calling this method.  If a *bases* item is an instance of :class:`type`,
+   or it doesn't have an ``__mro_entries__`` method, then it is included in
+   the return tuple unchanged.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`560` - Core support for typing module and generic types
+
+
+Standard Interpreter Types
+--------------------------
+
+This module provides names for many of the types that are required to
+implement a Python interpreter. It deliberately avoids including some of
+the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as the
+``listiterator`` type.
+
+Typical use of these names is for :func:`isinstance` or
+:func:`issubclass` checks.
+
+Standard names are defined for the following types:
+
+.. data:: FunctionType
+          LambdaType
+
+   The type of user-defined functions and functions created by
+   :keyword:`lambda`  expressions.
+
+
+.. data:: GeneratorType
+
+   The type of :term:`generator`-iterator objects, created by
+   generator functions.
+
+
+.. data:: CoroutineType
+
+   The type of :term:`coroutine` objects, created by
+   :keyword:`async def` functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. data:: AsyncGeneratorType
+
+   The type of :term:`asynchronous generator`-iterator objects, created by
+   asynchronous generator functions.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: CodeType
+
+   .. index:: builtin: compile
+
+   The type for code objects such as returned by :func:`compile`.
+
+
+.. data:: MethodType
+
+   The type of methods of user-defined class instances.
+
+
+.. data:: BuiltinFunctionType
+          BuiltinMethodType
+
+   The type of built-in functions like :func:`len` or :func:`sys.exit`, and
+   methods of built-in classes.  (Here, the term "built-in" means "written in
+   C".)
+
+
+.. data:: WrapperDescriptorType
+
+   The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes such as
+   :meth:`object.__init__` or :meth:`object.__lt__`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: MethodWrapperType
+
+   The type of *bound* methods of some built-in data types and base classes.
+   For example it is the type of :code:`object().__str__`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: MethodDescriptorType
+
+   The type of methods of some built-in data types such as :meth:`str.join`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. data:: ClassMethodDescriptorType
+
+   The type of *unbound* class methods of some built-in data types such as
+   ``dict.__dict__['fromkeys']``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. class:: ModuleType(name, doc=None)
+
+   The type of :term:`modules <module>`. Constructor takes the name of the
+   module to be created and optionally its :term:`docstring`.
+
+   .. note::
+      Use :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec` to create a new module if you
+      wish to set the various import-controlled attributes.
+
+   .. attribute:: __doc__
+
+      The :term:`docstring` of the module. Defaults to ``None``.
+
+   .. attribute:: __loader__
+
+      The :term:`loader` which loaded the module. Defaults to ``None``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Defaults to ``None``. Previously the attribute was optional.
+
+   .. attribute:: __name__
+
+      The name of the module.
+
+   .. attribute:: __package__
+
+      Which :term:`package` a module belongs to. If the module is top-level
+      (i.e. not a part of any specific package) then the attribute should be set
+      to ``''``, else it should be set to the name of the package (which can be
+      :attr:`__name__` if the module is a package itself). Defaults to ``None``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Defaults to ``None``. Previously the attribute was optional.
+
+
+.. class:: TracebackType(tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)
+
+   The type of traceback objects such as found in ``sys.exc_info()[2]``.
+
+   See :ref:`the language reference <traceback-objects>` for details of the
+   available attributes and operations, and guidance on creating tracebacks
+   dynamically.
+
+
+.. data:: FrameType
+
+   The type of frame objects such as found in ``tb.tb_frame`` if ``tb`` is a
+   traceback object.
+
+   See :ref:`the language reference <frame-objects>` for details of the
+   available attributes and operations.
+
+
+.. data:: GetSetDescriptorType
+
+   The type of objects defined in extension modules with ``PyGetSetDef``, such
+   as ``FrameType.f_locals`` or ``array.array.typecode``.  This type is used as
+   descriptor for object attributes; it has the same purpose as the
+   :class:`property` type, but for classes defined in extension modules.
+
+
+.. data:: MemberDescriptorType
+
+   The type of objects defined in extension modules with ``PyMemberDef``, such
+   as ``datetime.timedelta.days``.  This type is used as descriptor for simple C
+   data members which use standard conversion functions; it has the same purpose
+   as the :class:`property` type, but for classes defined in extension modules.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      In other implementations of Python, this type may be identical to
+      ``GetSetDescriptorType``.
+
+.. class:: MappingProxyType(mapping)
+
+   Read-only proxy of a mapping. It provides a dynamic view on the mapping's
+   entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the view reflects these
+   changes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. describe:: key in proxy
+
+      Return ``True`` if the underlying mapping has a key *key*, else
+      ``False``.
+
+   .. describe:: proxy[key]
+
+      Return the item of the underlying mapping with key *key*.  Raises a
+      :exc:`KeyError` if *key* is not in the underlying mapping.
+
+   .. describe:: iter(proxy)
+
+      Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping.  This is a
+      shortcut for ``iter(proxy.keys())``.
+
+   .. describe:: len(proxy)
+
+      Return the number of items in the underlying mapping.
+
+   .. method:: copy()
+
+      Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping.
+
+   .. method:: get(key[, default])
+
+      Return the value for *key* if *key* is in the underlying mapping, else
+      *default*.  If *default* is not given, it defaults to ``None``, so that
+      this method never raises a :exc:`KeyError`.
+
+   .. method:: items()
+
+      Return a new view of the underlying mapping's items (``(key, value)``
+      pairs).
+
+   .. method:: keys()
+
+      Return a new view of the underlying mapping's keys.
+
+   .. method:: values()
+
+      Return a new view of the underlying mapping's values.
+
+
+Additional Utility Classes and Functions
+----------------------------------------
+
+.. class:: SimpleNamespace
+
+   A simple :class:`object` subclass that provides attribute access to its
+   namespace, as well as a meaningful repr.
+
+   Unlike :class:`object`, with ``SimpleNamespace`` you can add and remove
+   attributes.  If a ``SimpleNamespace`` object is initialized with keyword
+   arguments, those are directly added to the underlying namespace.
+
+   The type is roughly equivalent to the following code::
+
+       class SimpleNamespace:
+           def __init__(self, **kwargs):
+               self.__dict__.update(kwargs)
+
+           def __repr__(self):
+               keys = sorted(self.__dict__)
+               items = ("{}={!r}".format(k, self.__dict__[k]) for k in keys)
+               return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))
+
+           def __eq__(self, other):
+               return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
+
+   ``SimpleNamespace`` may be useful as a replacement for ``class NS: pass``.
+   However, for a structured record type use :func:`~collections.namedtuple`
+   instead.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. function:: DynamicClassAttribute(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)
+
+   Route attribute access on a class to __getattr__.
+
+   This is a descriptor, used to define attributes that act differently when
+   accessed through an instance and through a class.  Instance access remains
+   normal, but access to an attribute through a class will be routed to the
+   class's __getattr__ method; this is done by raising AttributeError.
+
+   This allows one to have properties active on an instance, and have virtual
+   attributes on the class with the same name (see Enum for an example).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+Coroutine Utility Functions
+---------------------------
+
+.. function:: coroutine(gen_func)
+
+   This function transforms a :term:`generator` function into a
+   :term:`coroutine function` which returns a generator-based coroutine.
+   The generator-based coroutine is still a :term:`generator iterator`,
+   but is also considered to be a :term:`coroutine` object and is
+   :term:`awaitable`.  However, it may not necessarily implement
+   the :meth:`__await__` method.
+
+   If *gen_func* is a generator function, it will be modified in-place.
+
+   If *gen_func* is not a generator function, it will be wrapped. If it
+   returns an instance of :class:`collections.abc.Generator`, the instance
+   will be wrapped in an *awaitable* proxy object.  All other types
+   of objects will be returned as is.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/typing.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/typing.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5adc81c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/typing.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1143 @@
+:mod:`typing` --- Support for type hints
+========================================
+
+.. module:: typing
+   :synopsis: Support for type hints (see PEP 484).
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/typing.py`
+
+.. note::
+
+   The typing module has been included in the standard library on a
+   :term:`provisional basis <provisional api>`. New features might
+   be added and API may change even between minor releases if deemed
+   necessary by the core developers.
+
+--------------
+
+This module supports type hints as specified by :pep:`484` and :pep:`526`.
+The most fundamental support consists of the types :data:`Any`, :data:`Union`,
+:data:`Tuple`, :data:`Callable`, :class:`TypeVar`, and
+:class:`Generic`.  For full specification please see :pep:`484`.  For
+a simplified introduction to type hints see :pep:`483`.
+
+
+The function below takes and returns a string and is annotated as follows::
+
+   def greeting(name: str) -> str:
+       return 'Hello ' + name
+
+In the function ``greeting``, the argument ``name`` is expected to be of type
+:class:`str` and the return type :class:`str`. Subtypes are accepted as
+arguments.
+
+Type aliases
+------------
+
+A type alias is defined by assigning the type to the alias. In this example,
+``Vector`` and ``List[float]`` will be treated as interchangeable synonyms::
+
+   from typing import List
+   Vector = List[float]
+
+   def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
+       return [scalar * num for num in vector]
+
+   # typechecks; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
+   new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])
+
+Type aliases are useful for simplifying complex type signatures. For example::
+
+   from typing import Dict, Tuple, Sequence
+
+   ConnectionOptions = Dict[str, str]
+   Address = Tuple[str, int]
+   Server = Tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]
+
+   def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
+       ...
+
+   # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
+   # being exactly equivalent to this one.
+   def broadcast_message(
+           message: str,
+           servers: Sequence[Tuple[Tuple[str, int], Dict[str, str]]]) -> None:
+       ...
+
+Note that ``None`` as a type hint is a special case and is replaced by
+``type(None)``.
+
+.. _distinct:
+
+NewType
+-------
+
+Use the :func:`NewType` helper function to create distinct types::
+
+   from typing import NewType
+
+   UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
+   some_id = UserId(524313)
+
+The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
+of the original type. This is useful in helping catch logical errors::
+
+   def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
+       ...
+
+   # typechecks
+   user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))
+
+   # does not typecheck; an int is not a UserId
+   user_b = get_user_name(-1)
+
+You may still perform all ``int`` operations on a variable of type ``UserId``,
+but the result will always be of type ``int``. This lets you pass in a
+``UserId`` wherever an ``int`` might be expected, but will prevent you from
+accidentally creating a ``UserId`` in an invalid way::
+
+   # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
+   output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)
+
+Note that these checks are enforced only by the static type checker. At runtime
+the statement ``Derived = NewType('Derived', Base)`` will make ``Derived`` a
+function that immediately returns whatever parameter you pass it. That means
+the expression ``Derived(some_value)`` does not create a new class or introduce
+any overhead beyond that of a regular function call.
+
+More precisely, the expression ``some_value is Derived(some_value)`` is always
+true at runtime.
+
+This also means that it is not possible to create a subtype of ``Derived``
+since it is an identity function at runtime, not an actual type::
+
+   from typing import NewType
+
+   UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
+
+   # Fails at runtime and does not typecheck
+   class AdminUserId(UserId): pass
+
+However, it is possible to create a :func:`NewType` based on a 'derived' ``NewType``::
+
+   from typing import NewType
+
+   UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
+
+   ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)
+
+and typechecking for ``ProUserId`` will work as expected.
+
+See :pep:`484` for more details.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to be *equivalent* to
+   one another. Doing ``Alias = Original`` will make the static type checker
+   treat ``Alias`` as being *exactly equivalent* to ``Original`` in all cases.
+   This is useful when you want to simplify complex type signatures.
+
+   In contrast, ``NewType`` declares one type to be a *subtype* of another.
+   Doing ``Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)`` will make the static type
+   checker treat ``Derived`` as a *subclass* of ``Original``, which means a
+   value of type ``Original`` cannot be used in places where a value of type
+   ``Derived`` is expected. This is useful when you want to prevent logic
+   errors with minimal runtime cost.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+Callable
+--------
+
+Frameworks expecting callback functions of specific signatures might be
+type hinted using ``Callable[[Arg1Type, Arg2Type], ReturnType]``.
+
+For example::
+
+   from typing import Callable
+
+   def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
+       # Body
+
+   def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
+                   on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
+       # Body
+
+It is possible to declare the return type of a callable without specifying
+the call signature by substituting a literal ellipsis
+for the list of arguments in the type hint: ``Callable[..., ReturnType]``.
+
+.. _generics:
+
+Generics
+--------
+
+Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be statically
+inferred in a generic way, abstract base classes have been extended to support
+subscription to denote expected types for container elements.
+
+::
+
+   from typing import Mapping, Sequence
+
+   def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
+                       overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...
+
+Generics can be parameterized by using a new factory available in typing
+called :class:`TypeVar`.
+
+::
+
+   from typing import Sequence, TypeVar
+
+   T = TypeVar('T')      # Declare type variable
+
+   def first(l: Sequence[T]) -> T:   # Generic function
+       return l[0]
+
+
+User-defined generic types
+--------------------------
+
+A user-defined class can be defined as a generic class.
+
+::
+
+   from typing import TypeVar, Generic
+   from logging import Logger
+
+   T = TypeVar('T')
+
+   class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
+       def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
+           self.name = name
+           self.logger = logger
+           self.value = value
+
+       def set(self, new: T) -> None:
+           self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
+           self.value = new
+
+       def get(self) -> T:
+           self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
+           return self.value
+
+       def log(self, message: str) -> None:
+           self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)
+
+``Generic[T]`` as a base class defines that the class ``LoggedVar`` takes a
+single type parameter ``T`` . This also makes ``T`` valid as a type within the
+class body.
+
+The :class:`Generic` base class uses a metaclass that defines
+:meth:`__getitem__` so that ``LoggedVar[t]`` is valid as a type::
+
+   from typing import Iterable
+
+   def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
+       for var in vars:
+           var.set(0)
+
+A generic type can have any number of type variables, and type variables may
+be constrained::
+
+   from typing import TypeVar, Generic
+   ...
+
+   T = TypeVar('T')
+   S = TypeVar('S', int, str)
+
+   class StrangePair(Generic[T, S]):
+       ...
+
+Each type variable argument to :class:`Generic` must be distinct.
+This is thus invalid::
+
+   from typing import TypeVar, Generic
+   ...
+
+   T = TypeVar('T')
+
+   class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
+       ...
+
+You can use multiple inheritance with :class:`Generic`::
+
+   from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sized
+
+   T = TypeVar('T')
+
+   class LinkedList(Sized, Generic[T]):
+       ...
+
+When inheriting from generic classes, some type variables could be fixed::
+
+    from typing import TypeVar, Mapping
+
+    T = TypeVar('T')
+
+    class MyDict(Mapping[str, T]):
+        ...
+
+In this case ``MyDict`` has a single parameter, ``T``.
+
+Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes
+:data:`Any` for each position. In the following example, ``MyIterable`` is
+not generic but implicitly inherits from ``Iterable[Any]``::
+
+   from typing import Iterable
+
+   class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
+
+User defined generic type aliases are also supported. Examples::
+
+   from typing import TypeVar, Iterable, Tuple, Union
+   S = TypeVar('S')
+   Response = Union[Iterable[S], int]
+
+   # Return type here is same as Union[Iterable[str], int]
+   def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
+       ...
+
+   T = TypeVar('T', int, float, complex)
+   Vec = Iterable[Tuple[T, T]]
+
+   def inproduct(v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[Tuple[T, T]]
+       return sum(x*y for x, y in v)
+
+The metaclass used by :class:`Generic` is a subclass of :class:`abc.ABCMeta`.
+A generic class can be an ABC by including abstract methods or properties,
+and generic classes can also have ABCs as base classes without a metaclass
+conflict. Generic metaclasses are not supported. The outcome of parameterizing
+generics is cached, and most types in the typing module are hashable and
+comparable for equality.
+
+
+The :data:`Any` type
+--------------------
+
+A special kind of type is :data:`Any`. A static type checker will treat
+every type as being compatible with :data:`Any` and :data:`Any` as being
+compatible with every type.
+
+This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call on a
+value of type on :data:`Any` and assign it to any variable::
+
+   from typing import Any
+
+   a = None    # type: Any
+   a = []      # OK
+   a = 2       # OK
+
+   s = ''      # type: str
+   s = a       # OK
+
+   def foo(item: Any) -> int:
+       # Typechecks; 'item' could be any type,
+       # and that type might have a 'bar' method
+       item.bar()
+       ...
+
+Notice that no typechecking is performed when assigning a value of type
+:data:`Any` to a more precise type. For example, the static type checker did
+not report an error when assigning ``a`` to ``s`` even though ``s`` was
+declared to be of type :class:`str` and receives an :class:`int` value at
+runtime!
+
+Furthermore, all functions without a return type or parameter types will
+implicitly default to using :data:`Any`::
+
+   def legacy_parser(text):
+       ...
+       return data
+
+   # A static type checker will treat the above
+   # as having the same signature as:
+   def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
+       ...
+       return data
+
+This behavior allows :data:`Any` to be used as an *escape hatch* when you
+need to mix dynamically and statically typed code.
+
+Contrast the behavior of :data:`Any` with the behavior of :class:`object`.
+Similar to :data:`Any`, every type is a subtype of :class:`object`. However,
+unlike :data:`Any`, the reverse is not true: :class:`object` is *not* a
+subtype of every other type.
+
+That means when the type of a value is :class:`object`, a type checker will
+reject almost all operations on it, and assigning it to a variable (or using
+it as a return value) of a more specialized type is a type error. For example::
+
+   def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
+       # Fails; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
+       item.magic()
+       ...
+
+   def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
+       # Typechecks
+       item.magic()
+       ...
+
+   # Typechecks, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
+   hash_a(42)
+   hash_a("foo")
+
+   # Typechecks, since Any is compatible with all types
+   hash_b(42)
+   hash_b("foo")
+
+Use :class:`object` to indicate that a value could be any type in a typesafe
+manner. Use :data:`Any` to indicate that a value is dynamically typed.
+
+Classes, functions, and decorators
+----------------------------------
+
+The module defines the following classes, functions and decorators:
+
+.. class:: TypeVar
+
+    Type variable.
+
+    Usage::
+
+      T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
+      A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be str or bytes
+
+    Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
+    checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
+    as for generic function definitions.  See class Generic for more
+    information on generic types.  Generic functions work as follows::
+
+       def repeat(x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
+           """Return a list containing n references to x."""
+           return [x]*n
+
+       def longest(x: A, y: A) -> A:
+           """Return the longest of two strings."""
+           return x if len(x) >= len(y) else y
+
+    The latter example's signature is essentially the overloading
+    of ``(str, str) -> str`` and ``(bytes, bytes) -> bytes``.  Also note
+    that if the arguments are instances of some subclass of :class:`str`,
+    the return type is still plain :class:`str`.
+
+    At runtime, ``isinstance(x, T)`` will raise :exc:`TypeError`.  In general,
+    :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass` should not be used with types.
+
+    Type variables may be marked covariant or contravariant by passing
+    ``covariant=True`` or ``contravariant=True``.  See :pep:`484` for more
+    details.  By default type variables are invariant.  Alternatively,
+    a type variable may specify an upper bound using ``bound=<type>``.
+    This means that an actual type substituted (explicitly or implicitly)
+    for the type variable must be a subclass of the boundary type,
+    see :pep:`484`.
+
+.. class:: Generic
+
+   Abstract base class for generic types.
+
+   A generic type is typically declared by inheriting from an
+   instantiation of this class with one or more type variables.
+   For example, a generic mapping type might be defined as::
+
+      class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
+          def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
+              ...
+              # Etc.
+
+   This class can then be used as follows::
+
+      X = TypeVar('X')
+      Y = TypeVar('Y')
+
+      def lookup_name(mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
+          try:
+              return mapping[key]
+          except KeyError:
+              return default
+
+.. class:: Type(Generic[CT_co])
+
+   A variable annotated with ``C`` may accept a value of type ``C``. In
+   contrast, a variable annotated with ``Type[C]`` may accept values that are
+   classes themselves -- specifically, it will accept the *class object* of
+   ``C``. For example::
+
+      a = 3         # Has type 'int'
+      b = int       # Has type 'Type[int]'
+      c = type(a)   # Also has type 'Type[int]'
+
+   Note that ``Type[C]`` is covariant::
+
+      class User: ...
+      class BasicUser(User): ...
+      class ProUser(User): ...
+      class TeamUser(User): ...
+
+      # Accepts User, BasicUser, ProUser, TeamUser, ...
+      def make_new_user(user_class: Type[User]) -> User:
+          # ...
+          return user_class()
+
+   The fact that ``Type[C]`` is covariant implies that all subclasses of
+   ``C`` should implement the same constructor signature and class method
+   signatures as ``C``. The type checker should flag violations of this,
+   but should also allow constructor calls in subclasses that match the
+   constructor calls in the indicated base class. How the type checker is
+   required to handle this particular case may change in future revisions of
+   :pep:`484`.
+
+   The only legal parameters for :class:`Type` are classes, :data:`Any`,
+   :ref:`type variables <generics>`, and unions of any of these types.
+   For example::
+
+      def new_non_team_user(user_class: Type[Union[BaseUser, ProUser]]): ...
+
+   ``Type[Any]`` is equivalent to ``Type`` which in turn is equivalent
+   to ``type``, which is the root of Python's metaclass hierarchy.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. class:: Iterable(Generic[T_co])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Iterable`.
+
+.. class:: Iterator(Iterable[T_co])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Iterator`.
+
+.. class:: Reversible(Iterable[T_co])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Reversible`.
+
+.. class:: SupportsInt
+
+    An ABC with one abstract method ``__int__``.
+
+.. class:: SupportsFloat
+
+    An ABC with one abstract method ``__float__``.
+
+.. class:: SupportsComplex
+
+    An ABC with one abstract method ``__complex__``.
+
+.. class:: SupportsBytes
+
+    An ABC with one abstract method ``__bytes__``.
+
+.. class:: SupportsAbs
+
+    An ABC with one abstract method ``__abs__`` that is covariant
+    in its return type.
+
+.. class:: SupportsRound
+
+    An ABC with one abstract method ``__round__``
+    that is covariant in its return type.
+
+.. class:: Container(Generic[T_co])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Container`.
+
+.. class:: Hashable
+
+   An alias to :class:`collections.abc.Hashable`
+
+.. class:: Sized
+
+   An alias to :class:`collections.abc.Sized`
+
+.. class:: Collection(Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Collection`
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.0
+
+.. class:: AbstractSet(Sized, Collection[T_co])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Set`.
+
+.. class:: MutableSet(AbstractSet[T])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.MutableSet`.
+
+.. class:: Mapping(Sized, Collection[KT], Generic[VT_co])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Mapping`.
+    This type can be used as follows::
+
+      def get_position_in_index(word_list: Mapping[str, int], word: str) -> int:
+          return word_list[word]
+
+.. class:: MutableMapping(Mapping[KT, VT])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.MutableMapping`.
+
+.. class:: Sequence(Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])
+
+    A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Sequence`.
+
+.. class:: MutableSequence(Sequence[T])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.MutableSequence`.
+
+.. class:: ByteString(Sequence[int])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.ByteString`.
+
+   This type represents the types :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray`,
+   and :class:`memoryview`.
+
+   As a shorthand for this type, :class:`bytes` can be used to
+   annotate arguments of any of the types mentioned above.
+
+.. class:: Deque(deque, MutableSequence[T])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.deque`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.4
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.1
+
+.. class:: List(list, MutableSequence[T])
+
+   Generic version of :class:`list`.
+   Useful for annotating return types. To annotate arguments it is preferred
+   to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`Sequence` or
+   :class:`Iterable`.
+
+   This type may be used as follows::
+
+      T = TypeVar('T', int, float)
+
+      def vec2(x: T, y: T) -> List[T]:
+          return [x, y]
+
+      def keep_positives(vector: Sequence[T]) -> List[T]:
+          return [item for item in vector if item > 0]
+
+.. class:: Set(set, MutableSet[T])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`builtins.set <set>`.
+   Useful for annotating return types. To annotate arguments it is preferred
+   to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`AbstractSet`.
+
+.. class:: FrozenSet(frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`builtins.frozenset <frozenset>`.
+
+.. class:: MappingView(Sized, Iterable[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.MappingView`.
+
+.. class:: KeysView(MappingView[KT_co], AbstractSet[KT_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.KeysView`.
+
+.. class:: ItemsView(MappingView, Generic[KT_co, VT_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.ItemsView`.
+
+.. class:: ValuesView(MappingView[VT_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.ValuesView`.
+
+.. class:: Awaitable(Generic[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Awaitable`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. class:: Coroutine(Awaitable[V_co], Generic[T_co T_contra, V_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.Coroutine`.
+   The variance and order of type variables
+   correspond to those of :class:`Generator`, for example::
+
+      from typing import List, Coroutine
+      c = None # type: Coroutine[List[str], str, int]
+      ...
+      x = c.send('hi') # type: List[str]
+      async def bar() -> None:
+          x = await c # type: int
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.3
+
+.. class:: AsyncIterable(Generic[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.AsyncIterable`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. class:: AsyncIterator(AsyncIterable[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.abc.AsyncIterator`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. class:: ContextManager(Generic[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`contextlib.AbstractContextManager`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.4
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.0
+
+.. class:: AsyncContextManager(Generic[T_co])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.4
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.2
+
+.. class:: Dict(dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`dict`.
+   Useful for annotating return types. To annotate arguments it is preferred
+   to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`Mapping`.
+
+   This type can be used as follows::
+
+      def count_words(text: str) -> Dict[str, int]:
+          ...
+
+.. class:: DefaultDict(collections.defaultdict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.defaultdict`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. class:: OrderedDict(collections.OrderedDict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.OrderedDict`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7.2
+
+.. class:: Counter(collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.Counter`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.4
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.1
+
+.. class:: ChainMap(collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT, VT])
+
+   A generic version of :class:`collections.ChainMap`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.4
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.1
+
+.. class:: Generator(Iterator[T_co], Generic[T_co, T_contra, V_co])
+
+   A generator can be annotated by the generic type
+   ``Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]``. For example::
+
+      def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
+          sent = yield 0
+          while sent >= 0:
+              sent = yield round(sent)
+          return 'Done'
+
+   Note that unlike many other generics in the typing module, the ``SendType``
+   of :class:`Generator` behaves contravariantly, not covariantly or
+   invariantly.
+
+   If your generator will only yield values, set the ``SendType`` and
+   ``ReturnType`` to ``None``::
+
+      def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
+          while True:
+              yield start
+              start += 1
+
+   Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of
+   either ``Iterable[YieldType]`` or ``Iterator[YieldType]``::
+
+      def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
+          while True:
+              yield start
+              start += 1
+
+.. class:: AsyncGenerator(AsyncIterator[T_co], Generic[T_co, T_contra])
+
+   An async generator can be annotated by the generic type
+   ``AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]``. For example::
+
+      async def echo_round() -> AsyncGenerator[int, float]:
+          sent = yield 0
+          while sent >= 0.0:
+              rounded = await round(sent)
+              sent = yield rounded
+
+   Unlike normal generators, async generators cannot return a value, so there
+   is no ``ReturnType`` type parameter. As with :class:`Generator`, the
+   ``SendType`` behaves contravariantly.
+
+   If your generator will only yield values, set the ``SendType`` to
+   ``None``::
+
+      async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
+          while True:
+              yield start
+              start = await increment(start)
+
+   Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of
+   either ``AsyncIterable[YieldType]`` or ``AsyncIterator[YieldType]``::
+
+      async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
+          while True:
+              yield start
+              start = await increment(start)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.1
+
+.. class:: Text
+
+   ``Text`` is an alias for ``str``. It is provided to supply a forward
+   compatible path for Python 2 code: in Python 2, ``Text`` is an alias for
+   ``unicode``.
+
+   Use ``Text`` to indicate that a value must contain a unicode string in
+   a manner that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3::
+
+       def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
+           return text + u' \u2713'
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. class:: IO
+           TextIO
+           BinaryIO
+
+   Generic type ``IO[AnyStr]`` and its subclasses ``TextIO(IO[str])``
+   and ``BinaryIO(IO[bytes])``
+   represent the types of I/O streams such as returned by
+   :func:`open`.
+
+.. class:: Pattern
+           Match
+
+   These type aliases
+   correspond to the return types from :func:`re.compile` and
+   :func:`re.match`.  These types (and the corresponding functions)
+   are generic in ``AnyStr`` and can be made specific by writing
+   ``Pattern[str]``, ``Pattern[bytes]``, ``Match[str]``, or
+   ``Match[bytes]``.
+
+.. class:: NamedTuple
+
+   Typed version of :func:`collections.namedtuple`.
+
+   Usage::
+
+       class Employee(NamedTuple):
+           name: str
+           id: int
+
+   This is equivalent to::
+
+       Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])
+
+   To give a field a default value, you can assign to it in the class body::
+
+      class Employee(NamedTuple):
+          name: str
+          id: int = 3
+
+      employee = Employee('Guido')
+      assert employee.id == 3
+
+   Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a default.
+
+   The resulting class has two extra attributes: ``_field_types``,
+   giving a dict mapping field names to types, and ``_field_defaults``, a dict
+   mapping field names to default values.  (The field names are in the
+   ``_fields`` attribute, which is part of the namedtuple API.)
+
+   ``NamedTuple`` subclasses can also have docstrings and methods::
+
+      class Employee(NamedTuple):
+          """Represents an employee."""
+          name: str
+          id: int = 3
+
+          def __repr__(self) -> str:
+              return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'
+
+   Backward-compatible usage::
+
+       Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added support for :pep:`526` variable annotation syntax.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.1
+      Added support for default values, methods, and docstrings.
+
+.. class:: ForwardRef
+
+   A class used for internal typing representation of string forward references.
+   For example, ``List["SomeClass"]`` is implicitly transformed into
+   ``List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]``.  This class should not be instantiated by
+   a user, but may be used by introspection tools.
+
+.. function:: NewType(typ)
+
+   A helper function to indicate a distinct types to a typechecker,
+   see :ref:`distinct`. At runtime it returns a function that returns
+   its argument. Usage::
+
+      UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
+      first_user = UserId(1)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+.. function:: cast(typ, val)
+
+   Cast a value to a type.
+
+   This returns the value unchanged.  To the type checker this
+   signals that the return value has the designated type, but at
+   runtime we intentionally don't check anything (we want this
+   to be as fast as possible).
+
+.. function:: get_type_hints(obj[, globals[, locals]])
+
+   Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method, module
+   or class object.
+
+   This is often the same as ``obj.__annotations__``. In addition,
+   forward references encoded as string literals are handled by evaluating
+   them in ``globals`` and ``locals`` namespaces. If necessary,
+   ``Optional[t]`` is added for function and method annotations if a default
+   value equal to ``None`` is set. For a class ``C``, return
+   a dictionary constructed by merging all the ``__annotations__`` along
+   ``C.__mro__`` in reverse order.
+
+.. decorator:: overload
+
+   The ``@overload`` decorator allows describing functions and methods
+   that support multiple different combinations of argument types. A series
+   of ``@overload``-decorated definitions must be followed by exactly one
+   non-``@overload``-decorated definition (for the same function/method).
+   The ``@overload``-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the
+   type checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
+   non-``@overload``-decorated definition, while the latter is used at
+   runtime but should be ignored by a type checker.  At runtime, calling
+   a ``@overload``-decorated function directly will raise
+   :exc:`NotImplementedError`. An example of overload that gives a more
+   precise type than can be expressed using a union or a type variable::
+
+      @overload
+      def process(response: None) -> None:
+          ...
+      @overload
+      def process(response: int) -> Tuple[int, str]:
+          ...
+      @overload
+      def process(response: bytes) -> str:
+          ...
+      def process(response):
+          <actual implementation>
+
+   See :pep:`484` for details and comparison with other typing semantics.
+
+.. decorator:: no_type_check
+
+   Decorator to indicate that annotations are not type hints.
+
+   This works as class or function :term:`decorator`.  With a class, it
+   applies recursively to all methods defined in that class (but not
+   to methods defined in its superclasses or subclasses).
+
+   This mutates the function(s) in place.
+
+.. decorator:: no_type_check_decorator
+
+   Decorator to give another decorator the :func:`no_type_check` effect.
+
+   This wraps the decorator with something that wraps the decorated
+   function in :func:`no_type_check`.
+
+.. decorator:: type_check_only
+
+   Decorator to mark a class or function to be unavailable at runtime.
+
+   This decorator is itself not available at runtime. It is mainly
+   intended to mark classes that are defined in type stub files if
+   an implementation returns an instance of a private class::
+
+      @type_check_only
+      class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
+          code: int
+          def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...
+
+      def fetch_response() -> Response: ...
+
+   Note that returning instances of private classes is not recommended.
+   It is usually preferable to make such classes public.
+
+.. data:: Any
+
+   Special type indicating an unconstrained type.
+
+   * Every type is compatible with :data:`Any`.
+   * :data:`Any` is compatible with every type.
+
+.. data:: NoReturn
+
+   Special type indicating that a function never returns.
+   For example::
+
+      from typing import NoReturn
+
+      def stop() -> NoReturn:
+          raise RuntimeError('no way')
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.4
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6.2
+
+.. data:: Union
+
+   Union type; ``Union[X, Y]`` means either X or Y.
+
+   To define a union, use e.g. ``Union[int, str]``.  Details:
+
+   * The arguments must be types and there must be at least one.
+
+   * Unions of unions are flattened, e.g.::
+
+       Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]
+
+   * Unions of a single argument vanish, e.g.::
+
+       Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int
+
+   * Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.::
+
+       Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str]
+
+   * When comparing unions, the argument order is ignored, e.g.::
+
+       Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]
+
+   * You cannot subclass or instantiate a union.
+
+   * You cannot write ``Union[X][Y]``.
+
+   * You can use ``Optional[X]`` as a shorthand for ``Union[X, None]``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Don't remove explicit subclasses from unions at runtime.
+
+.. data:: Optional
+
+   Optional type.
+
+   ``Optional[X]`` is equivalent to ``Union[X, None]``.
+
+   Note that this is not the same concept as an optional argument,
+   which is one that has a default.  An optional argument with a
+   default does not require the ``Optional`` qualifier on its type
+   annotation just because it is optional. For example::
+
+      def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
+          ...
+
+   On the other hand, if an explicit value of ``None`` is allowed, the
+   use of ``Optional`` is appropriate, whether the argument is optional
+   or not. For example::
+
+      def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
+          ...
+
+.. data:: Tuple
+
+   Tuple type; ``Tuple[X, Y]`` is the type of a tuple of two items
+   with the first item of type X and the second of type Y.
+
+   Example: ``Tuple[T1, T2]`` is a tuple of two elements corresponding
+   to type variables T1 and T2.  ``Tuple[int, float, str]`` is a tuple
+   of an int, a float and a string.
+
+   To specify a variable-length tuple of homogeneous type,
+   use literal ellipsis, e.g. ``Tuple[int, ...]``. A plain :data:`Tuple`
+   is equivalent to ``Tuple[Any, ...]``, and in turn to :class:`tuple`.
+
+.. data:: Callable
+
+   Callable type; ``Callable[[int], str]`` is a function of (int) -> str.
+
+   The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two
+   values: the argument list and the return type.  The argument list
+   must be a list of types or an ellipsis; the return type must be
+   a single type.
+
+   There is no syntax to indicate optional or keyword arguments;
+   such function types are rarely used as callback types.
+   ``Callable[..., ReturnType]`` (literal ellipsis) can be used to
+   type hint a callable taking any number of arguments and returning
+   ``ReturnType``.  A plain :data:`Callable` is equivalent to
+   ``Callable[..., Any]``, and in turn to
+   :class:`collections.abc.Callable`.
+
+.. data:: ClassVar
+
+   Special type construct to mark class variables.
+
+   As introduced in :pep:`526`, a variable annotation wrapped in ClassVar
+   indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as a class variable
+   and should not be set on instances of that class. Usage::
+
+      class Starship:
+          stats: ClassVar[Dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
+          damage: int = 10                     # instance variable
+
+   :data:`ClassVar` accepts only types and cannot be further subscribed.
+
+   :data:`ClassVar` is not a class itself, and should not
+   be used with :func:`isinstance` or :func:`issubclass`.
+   :data:`ClassVar` does not change Python runtime behavior, but
+   it can be used by third-party type checkers. For example, a type checker
+   might flag the following code as an error::
+
+      enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
+      enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
+      Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.3
+
+.. data:: AnyStr
+
+   ``AnyStr`` is a type variable defined as
+   ``AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)``.
+
+   It is meant to be used for functions that may accept any kind of string
+   without allowing different kinds of strings to mix. For example::
+
+      def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
+          return a + b
+
+      concat(u"foo", u"bar")  # Ok, output has type 'unicode'
+      concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # Ok, output has type 'bytes'
+      concat(u"foo", b"bar")  # Error, cannot mix unicode and bytes
+
+.. data:: TYPE_CHECKING
+
+   A special constant that is assumed to be ``True`` by 3rd party static
+   type checkers. It is ``False`` at runtime. Usage::
+
+      if TYPE_CHECKING:
+          import expensive_mod
+
+      def fun(arg: 'expensive_mod.SomeType') -> None:
+          local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()
+
+   Note that the first type annotation must be enclosed in quotes, making it a
+   "forward reference", to hide the ``expensive_mod`` reference from the
+   interpreter runtime.  Type annotations for local variables are not
+   evaluated, so the second annotation does not need to be enclosed in quotes.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5.2
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/undoc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/undoc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2444080
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/undoc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. _undoc:
+
+********************
+Undocumented Modules
+********************
+
+Here's a quick listing of modules that are currently undocumented, but that
+should be documented.  Feel free to contribute documentation for them!  (Send
+via email to docs@python.org.)
+
+The idea and original contents for this chapter were taken from a posting by
+Fredrik Lundh; the specific contents of this chapter have been substantially
+revised.
+
+
+Platform specific modules
+=========================
+
+These modules are used to implement the :mod:`os.path` module, and are not
+documented beyond this mention.  There's little need to document these.
+
+:mod:`ntpath`
+   --- Implementation of :mod:`os.path` on Win32 and Win64 platforms.
+
+:mod:`posixpath`
+   --- Implementation of :mod:`os.path` on POSIX.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unicodedata.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unicodedata.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59548f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unicodedata.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
+:mod:`unicodedata` --- Unicode Database
+=======================================
+
+.. module:: unicodedata
+   :synopsis: Access the Unicode Database.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Marc-André Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Marc-André Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+.. index::
+   single: Unicode
+   single: character
+   pair: Unicode; database
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD) which
+defines character properties for all Unicode characters. The data contained in
+this database is compiled from the `UCD version 11.0.0
+<http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd>`_.
+
+The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode
+Standard Annex #44, `"Unicode Character Database"
+<http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-6.html>`_.  It defines the
+following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: lookup(name)
+
+   Look up character by name.  If a character with the given name is found, return
+   the corresponding character.  If not found, :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Support for name aliases [#]_ and named sequences [#]_ has been added.
+
+
+.. function:: name(chr[, default])
+
+   Returns the name assigned to the character *chr* as a string. If no
+   name is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given, :exc:`ValueError` is
+   raised.
+
+
+.. function:: decimal(chr[, default])
+
+   Returns the decimal value assigned to the character *chr* as integer.
+   If no such value is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given,
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: digit(chr[, default])
+
+   Returns the digit value assigned to the character *chr* as integer.
+   If no such value is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given,
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: numeric(chr[, default])
+
+   Returns the numeric value assigned to the character *chr* as float.
+   If no such value is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given,
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: category(chr)
+
+   Returns the general category assigned to the character *chr* as
+   string.
+
+
+.. function:: bidirectional(chr)
+
+   Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character *chr* as
+   string. If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned.
+
+
+.. function:: combining(chr)
+
+   Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character *chr*
+   as integer. Returns ``0`` if no combining class is defined.
+
+
+.. function:: east_asian_width(chr)
+
+   Returns the east asian width assigned to the character *chr* as
+   string.
+
+
+.. function:: mirrored(chr)
+
+   Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character *chr* as
+   integer. Returns ``1`` if the character has been identified as a "mirrored"
+   character in bidirectional text, ``0`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: decomposition(chr)
+
+   Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the character
+   *chr* as string. An empty string is returned in case no such mapping is
+   defined.
+
+
+.. function:: normalize(form, unistr)
+
+   Return the normal form *form* for the Unicode string *unistr*. Valid values for
+   *form* are 'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD', and 'NFKD'.
+
+   The Unicode standard defines various normalization forms of a Unicode string,
+   based on the definition of canonical equivalence and compatibility equivalence.
+   In Unicode, several characters can be expressed in various way. For example, the
+   character U+00C7 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA) can also be expressed as
+   the sequence U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) U+0327 (COMBINING CEDILLA).
+
+   For each character, there are two normal forms: normal form C and normal form D.
+   Normal form D (NFD) is also known as canonical decomposition, and translates
+   each character into its decomposed form. Normal form C (NFC) first applies a
+   canonical decomposition, then composes pre-combined characters again.
+
+   In addition to these two forms, there are two additional normal forms based on
+   compatibility equivalence. In Unicode, certain characters are supported which
+   normally would be unified with other characters. For example, U+2160 (ROMAN
+   NUMERAL ONE) is really the same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I).
+   However, it is supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character
+   sets (e.g. gb2312).
+
+   The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility decomposition, i.e.
+   replace all compatibility characters with their equivalents. The normal form KC
+   (NFKC) first applies the compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical
+   composition.
+
+   Even if two unicode strings are normalized and look the same to
+   a human reader, if one has combining characters and the other
+   doesn't, they may not compare equal.
+
+
+In addition, the module exposes the following constant:
+
+.. data:: unidata_version
+
+   The version of the Unicode database used in this module.
+
+
+.. data:: ucd_3_2_0
+
+   This is an object that has the same methods as the entire module, but uses the
+   Unicode database version 3.2 instead, for applications that require this
+   specific version of the Unicode database (such as IDNA).
+
+Examples:
+
+   >>> import unicodedata
+   >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
+   '{'
+   >>> unicodedata.name('/')
+   'SOLIDUS'
+   >>> unicodedata.decimal('9')
+   9
+   >>> unicodedata.decimal('a')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ValueError: not a decimal
+   >>> unicodedata.category('A')  # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
+   'Lu'
+   >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\u0660') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
+   'AN'
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt
+
+.. [#] http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00b9bc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1266 @@
+:mod:`unittest.mock` --- getting started
+========================================
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Michael Foord <michael@python.org>
+.. currentmodule:: unittest.mock
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. _getting-started:
+
+Using Mock
+----------
+
+Mock Patching Methods
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Common uses for :class:`Mock` objects include:
+
+* Patching methods
+* Recording method calls on objects
+
+You might want to replace a method on an object to check that
+it is called with the correct arguments by another part of the system:
+
+    >>> real = SomeClass()
+    >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method')
+    >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
+    <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'>
+
+Once our mock has been used (``real.method`` in this example) it has methods
+and attributes that allow you to make assertions about how it has been used.
+
+.. note::
+
+    In most of these examples the :class:`Mock` and :class:`MagicMock` classes
+    are interchangeable. As the ``MagicMock`` is the more capable class it makes
+    a sensible one to use by default.
+
+Once the mock has been called its :attr:`~Mock.called` attribute is set to
+``True``. More importantly we can use the :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` or
+:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with` method to check that it was called with
+the correct arguments.
+
+This example tests that calling ``ProductionClass().method`` results in a call to
+the ``something`` method:
+
+    >>> class ProductionClass:
+    ...     def method(self):
+    ...         self.something(1, 2, 3)
+    ...     def something(self, a, b, c):
+    ...         pass
+    ...
+    >>> real = ProductionClass()
+    >>> real.something = MagicMock()
+    >>> real.method()
+    >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
+
+
+
+Mock for Method Calls on an Object
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In the last example we patched a method directly on an object to check that it
+was called correctly. Another common use case is to pass an object into a
+method (or some part of the system under test) and then check that it is used
+in the correct way.
+
+The simple ``ProductionClass`` below has a ``closer`` method. If it is called with
+an object then it calls ``close`` on it.
+
+    >>> class ProductionClass:
+    ...     def closer(self, something):
+    ...         something.close()
+    ...
+
+So to test it we need to pass in an object with a ``close`` method and check
+that it was called correctly.
+
+    >>> real = ProductionClass()
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> real.closer(mock)
+    >>> mock.close.assert_called_with()
+
+We don't have to do any work to provide the 'close' method on our mock.
+Accessing close creates it. So, if 'close' hasn't already been called then
+accessing it in the test will create it, but :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with`
+will raise a failure exception.
+
+
+Mocking Classes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A common use case is to mock out classes instantiated by your code under test.
+When you patch a class, then that class is replaced with a mock. Instances
+are created by *calling the class*. This means you access the "mock instance"
+by looking at the return value of the mocked class.
+
+In the example below we have a function ``some_function`` that instantiates ``Foo``
+and calls a method on it. The call to :func:`patch` replaces the class ``Foo`` with a
+mock. The ``Foo`` instance is the result of calling the mock, so it is configured
+by modifying the mock :attr:`~Mock.return_value`.
+
+    >>> def some_function():
+    ...     instance = module.Foo()
+    ...     return instance.method()
+    ...
+    >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock:
+    ...     instance = mock.return_value
+    ...     instance.method.return_value = 'the result'
+    ...     result = some_function()
+    ...     assert result == 'the result'
+
+
+Naming your mocks
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+It can be useful to give your mocks a name. The name is shown in the repr of
+the mock and can be helpful when the mock appears in test failure messages. The
+name is also propagated to attributes or methods of the mock:
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo')
+    >>> mock
+    <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'>
+    >>> mock.method
+    <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>
+
+
+Tracking all Calls
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Often you want to track more than a single call to a method. The
+:attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` attribute records all calls
+to child attributes of the mock - and also to their children.
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock()
+    >>> mock.method()
+    <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
+    >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53)
+    <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'>
+    >>> mock.mock_calls
+    [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
+
+If you make an assertion about ``mock_calls`` and any unexpected methods
+have been called, then the assertion will fail. This is useful because as well
+as asserting that the calls you expected have been made, you are also checking
+that they were made in the right order and with no additional calls:
+
+You use the :data:`call` object to construct lists for comparing with
+``mock_calls``:
+
+    >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
+    >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
+    True
+
+However, parameters to calls that return mocks are not recorded, which means it is not
+possible to track nested calls where the parameters used to create ancestors are important:
+
+    >>> m = Mock()
+    >>> m.factory(important=True).deliver()
+    <Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'>
+    >>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver()
+    True
+
+
+Setting Return Values and Attributes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> mock.return_value = 3
+    >>> mock()
+    3
+
+Of course you can do the same for methods on the mock:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> mock.method.return_value = 3
+    >>> mock.method()
+    3
+
+The return value can also be set in the constructor:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
+    >>> mock()
+    3
+
+If you need an attribute setting on your mock, just do it:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> mock.x = 3
+    >>> mock.x
+    3
+
+Sometimes you want to mock up a more complex situation, like for example
+``mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")``. If we wanted this call to
+return a list, then we have to configure the result of the nested call.
+
+We can use :data:`call` to construct the set of calls in a "chained call" like
+this for easy assertion afterwards:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value
+    >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo']
+    >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")
+    ['foo']
+    >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list()
+    >>> mock.mock_calls
+    [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')]
+    >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
+    True
+
+It is the call to ``.call_list()`` that turns our call object into a list of
+calls representing the chained calls.
+
+
+Raising exceptions with mocks
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A useful attribute is :attr:`~Mock.side_effect`. If you set this to an
+exception class or instance then the exception will be raised when the mock
+is called.
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!'))
+    >>> mock()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    Exception: Boom!
+
+
+Side effect functions and iterables
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+``side_effect`` can also be set to a function or an iterable. The use case for
+``side_effect`` as an iterable is where your mock is going to be called several
+times, and you want each call to return a different value. When you set
+``side_effect`` to an iterable every call to the mock returns the next value
+from the iterable:
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6])
+    >>> mock()
+    4
+    >>> mock()
+    5
+    >>> mock()
+    6
+
+
+For more advanced use cases, like dynamically varying the return values
+depending on what the mock is called with, ``side_effect`` can be a function.
+The function will be called with the same arguments as the mock. Whatever the
+function returns is what the call returns:
+
+    >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2}
+    >>> def side_effect(*args):
+    ...     return vals[args]
+    ...
+    >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
+    >>> mock(1, 2)
+    1
+    >>> mock(2, 3)
+    2
+
+
+Creating a Mock from an Existing Object
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to the
+implementation of your mocks rather than your real code. Suppose you have a
+class that implements ``some_method``. In a test for another class, you
+provide a mock of this object that *also* provides ``some_method``. If later
+you refactor the first class, so that it no longer has ``some_method`` - then
+your tests will continue to pass even though your code is now broken!
+
+:class:`Mock` allows you to provide an object as a specification for the mock,
+using the *spec* keyword argument. Accessing methods / attributes on the
+mock that don't exist on your specification object will immediately raise an
+attribute error. If you change the implementation of your specification, then
+tests that use that class will start failing immediately without you having to
+instantiate the class in those tests.
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
+    >>> mock.old_method()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ...
+    AttributeError: object has no attribute 'old_method'
+
+Using a specification also enables a smarter matching of calls made to the
+mock, regardless of whether some parameters were passed as positional or
+named arguments::
+
+   >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
+   ...
+   >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
+   >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
+   <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
+   >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)
+
+If you want this smarter matching to also work with method calls on the mock,
+you can use :ref:`auto-speccing <auto-speccing>`.
+
+If you want a stronger form of specification that prevents the setting
+of arbitrary attributes as well as the getting of them then you can use
+*spec_set* instead of *spec*.
+
+
+
+Patch Decorators
+----------------
+
+.. note::
+
+   With :func:`patch` it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where
+   they are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide
+   read :ref:`where to patch <where-to-patch>`.
+
+
+A common need in tests is to patch a class attribute or a module attribute,
+for example patching a builtin or patching a class in a module to test that it
+is instantiated. Modules and classes are effectively global, so patching on
+them has to be undone after the test or the patch will persist into other
+tests and cause hard to diagnose problems.
+
+mock provides three convenient decorators for this: :func:`patch`, :func:`patch.object` and
+:func:`patch.dict`. ``patch`` takes a single string, of the form
+``package.module.Class.attribute`` to specify the attribute you are patching. It
+also optionally takes a value that you want the attribute (or class or
+whatever) to be replaced with. 'patch.object' takes an object and the name of
+the attribute you would like patched, plus optionally the value to patch it
+with.
+
+``patch.object``:
+
+    >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
+    >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
+    ... def test():
+    ...     assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+    >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original
+
+    >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
+    ... def test():
+    ...     from package.module import attribute
+    ...     assert attribute is sentinel.attribute
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+
+If you are patching a module (including :mod:`builtins`) then use :func:`patch`
+instead of :func:`patch.object`:
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle)
+    >>> with patch('builtins.open', mock):
+    ...     handle = open('filename', 'r')
+    ...
+    >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r')
+    >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned"
+
+The module name can be 'dotted', in the form ``package.module`` if needed:
+
+    >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
+    ... def test():
+    ...     from package.module import ClassName
+    ...     assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+
+A nice pattern is to actually decorate test methods themselves:
+
+    >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
+    ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
+    ...     def test_something(self):
+    ...         self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute)
+    ...
+    >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
+    >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
+    >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original
+
+If you want to patch with a Mock, you can use :func:`patch` with only one argument
+(or :func:`patch.object` with two arguments). The mock will be created for you and
+passed into the test function / method:
+
+    >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
+    ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
+    ...     def test_something(self, mock_method):
+    ...         SomeClass.static_method()
+    ...         mock_method.assert_called_with()
+    ...
+    >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
+
+You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:
+
+    >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
+    ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName1')
+    ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName2')
+    ...     def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1):
+    ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1)
+    ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2)
+    ...
+    >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
+
+When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated
+function in the same order they applied (the normal *Python* order that
+decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example
+above the mock for ``test_module.ClassName2`` is passed in first.
+
+There is also :func:`patch.dict` for setting values in a dictionary just
+during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test
+ends:
+
+   >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
+   >>> original = foo.copy()
+   >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
+   ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
+   ...
+   >>> assert foo == original
+
+``patch``, ``patch.object`` and ``patch.dict`` can all be used as context managers.
+
+Where you use :func:`patch` to create a mock for you, you can get a reference to the
+mock using the "as" form of the with statement:
+
+    >>> class ProductionClass:
+    ...     def method(self):
+    ...         pass
+    ...
+    >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method:
+    ...     mock_method.return_value = None
+    ...     real = ProductionClass()
+    ...     real.method(1, 2, 3)
+    ...
+    >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
+
+
+As an alternative ``patch``, ``patch.object`` and ``patch.dict`` can be used as
+class decorators. When used in this way it is the same as applying the
+decorator individually to every method whose name starts with "test".
+
+
+.. _further-examples:
+
+Further Examples
+----------------
+
+
+Here are some more examples for some slightly more advanced scenarios.
+
+
+Mocking chained calls
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Mocking chained calls is actually straightforward with mock once you
+understand the :attr:`~Mock.return_value` attribute. When a mock is called for
+the first time, or you fetch its ``return_value`` before it has been called, a
+new :class:`Mock` is created.
+
+This means that you can see how the object returned from a call to a mocked
+object has been used by interrogating the ``return_value`` mock:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3)
+    <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'>
+    >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3)
+
+From here it is a simple step to configure and then make assertions about
+chained calls. Of course another alternative is writing your code in a more
+testable way in the first place...
+
+So, suppose we have some code that looks a little bit like this:
+
+    >>> class Something:
+    ...     def __init__(self):
+    ...         self.backend = BackendProvider()
+    ...     def method(self):
+    ...         response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
+    ...         # more code
+
+Assuming that ``BackendProvider`` is already well tested, how do we test
+``method()``? Specifically, we want to test that the code section ``# more
+code`` uses the response object in the correct way.
+
+As this chain of calls is made from an instance attribute we can monkey patch
+the ``backend`` attribute on a ``Something`` instance. In this particular case
+we are only interested in the return value from the final call to
+``start_call`` so we don't have much configuration to do. Let's assume the
+object it returns is 'file-like', so we'll ensure that our response object
+uses the builtin :func:`open` as its ``spec``.
+
+To do this we create a mock instance as our mock backend and create a mock
+response object for it. To set the response as the return value for that final
+``start_call`` we could do this::
+
+    mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response
+
+We can do that in a slightly nicer way using the :meth:`~Mock.configure_mock`
+method to directly set the return value for us:
+
+    >>> something = Something()
+    >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open)
+    >>> mock_backend = Mock()
+    >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response}
+    >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config)
+
+With these we monkey patch the "mock backend" in place and can make the real
+call:
+
+    >>> something.backend = mock_backend
+    >>> something.method()
+
+Using :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` we can check the chained call with a single
+assert. A chained call is several calls in one line of code, so there will be
+several entries in ``mock_calls``. We can use :meth:`call.call_list` to create
+this list of calls for us:
+
+    >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
+    >>> call_list = chained.call_list()
+    >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list
+
+
+Partial mocking
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In some tests I wanted to mock out a call to :meth:`datetime.date.today`
+to return a known date, but I didn't want to prevent the code under test from
+creating new date objects. Unfortunately :class:`datetime.date` is written in C, and
+so I couldn't just monkey-patch out the static :meth:`date.today` method.
+
+I found a simple way of doing this that involved effectively wrapping the date
+class with a mock, but passing through calls to the constructor to the real
+class (and returning real instances).
+
+The :func:`patch decorator <patch>` is used here to
+mock out the ``date`` class in the module under test. The :attr:`side_effect`
+attribute on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns
+a real date. When the mock date class is called a real date will be
+constructed and returned by ``side_effect``.
+
+    >>> from datetime import date
+    >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
+    ...     mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8)
+    ...     mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw)
+    ...
+    ...     assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8)
+    ...     assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8)
+    ...
+
+Note that we don't patch :class:`datetime.date` globally, we patch ``date`` in the
+module that *uses* it. See :ref:`where to patch <where-to-patch>`.
+
+When ``date.today()`` is called a known date is returned, but calls to the
+``date(...)`` constructor still return normal dates. Without this you can find
+yourself having to calculate an expected result using exactly the same
+algorithm as the code under test, which is a classic testing anti-pattern.
+
+Calls to the date constructor are recorded in the ``mock_date`` attributes
+(``call_count`` and friends) which may also be useful for your tests.
+
+An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin classes,
+is discussed in `this blog entry
+<https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/>`_.
+
+
+Mocking a Generator Method
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A Python generator is a function or method that uses the :keyword:`yield` statement
+to return a series of values when iterated over [#]_.
+
+A generator method / function is called to return the generator object. It is
+the generator object that is then iterated over. The protocol method for
+iteration is :meth:`~container.__iter__`, so we can
+mock this using a :class:`MagicMock`.
+
+Here's an example class with an "iter" method implemented as a generator:
+
+    >>> class Foo:
+    ...     def iter(self):
+    ...         for i in [1, 2, 3]:
+    ...             yield i
+    ...
+    >>> foo = Foo()
+    >>> list(foo.iter())
+    [1, 2, 3]
+
+
+How would we mock this class, and in particular its "iter" method?
+
+To configure the values returned from the iteration (implicit in the call to
+:class:`list`), we need to configure the object returned by the call to ``foo.iter()``.
+
+    >>> mock_foo = MagicMock()
+    >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3])
+    >>> list(mock_foo.iter())
+    [1, 2, 3]
+
+.. [#] There are also generator expressions and more `advanced uses
+    <http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html>`_ of generators, but we aren't
+    concerned about them here. A very good introduction to generators and how
+    powerful they are is: `Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers
+    <http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/>`_.
+
+
+Applying the same patch to every test method
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+If you want several patches in place for multiple test methods the obvious way
+is to apply the patch decorators to every method. This can feel like unnecessary
+repetition. For Python 2.6 or more recent you can use :func:`patch` (in all its
+various forms) as a class decorator. This applies the patches to all test
+methods on the class. A test method is identified by methods whose names start
+with ``test``:
+
+    >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass')
+    ... class MyTest(TestCase):
+    ...
+    ...     def test_one(self, MockSomeClass):
+    ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
+    ...
+    ...     def test_two(self, MockSomeClass):
+    ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
+    ...
+    ...     def not_a_test(self):
+    ...         return 'something'
+    ...
+    >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one()
+    >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two()
+    >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test()
+    'something'
+
+An alternative way of managing patches is to use the :ref:`start-and-stop`.
+These allow you to move the patching into your ``setUp`` and ``tearDown`` methods.
+
+    >>> class MyTest(TestCase):
+    ...     def setUp(self):
+    ...         self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
+    ...         self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start()
+    ...
+    ...     def test_foo(self):
+    ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
+    ...
+    ...     def tearDown(self):
+    ...         self.patcher.stop()
+    ...
+    >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
+
+If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is "undone" by
+calling ``stop``. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an
+exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called.
+:meth:`unittest.TestCase.addCleanup` makes this easier:
+
+    >>> class MyTest(TestCase):
+    ...     def setUp(self):
+    ...         patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
+    ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
+    ...         self.mock_foo = patcher.start()
+    ...
+    ...     def test_foo(self):
+    ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
+    ...
+    >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
+
+
+Mocking Unbound Methods
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Whilst writing tests today I needed to patch an *unbound method* (patching the
+method on the class rather than on the instance). I needed self to be passed
+in as the first argument because I want to make asserts about which objects
+were calling this particular method. The issue is that you can't patch with a
+mock for this, because if you replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn't
+become a bound method when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn't get
+self passed in. The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real
+function instead. The :func:`patch` decorator makes it so simple to
+patch out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a
+nuisance.
+
+If you pass ``autospec=True`` to patch then it does the patching with a
+*real* function object. This function object has the same signature as the one
+it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood. You still get your
+mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before. What it means though, is
+that if you use it to patch out an unbound method on a class the mocked
+function will be turned into a bound method if it is fetched from an instance.
+It will have ``self`` passed in as the first argument, which is exactly what I
+wanted:
+
+    >>> class Foo:
+    ...   def foo(self):
+    ...     pass
+    ...
+    >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo:
+    ...   mock_foo.return_value = 'foo'
+    ...   foo = Foo()
+    ...   foo.foo()
+    ...
+    'foo'
+    >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo)
+
+If we don't use ``autospec=True`` then the unbound method is patched out
+with a Mock instance instead, and isn't called with ``self``.
+
+
+Checking multiple calls with mock
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+mock has a nice API for making assertions about how your mock objects are used.
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None
+    >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs')
+    >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs')
+
+If your mock is only being called once you can use the
+:meth:`assert_called_once_with` method that also asserts that the
+:attr:`call_count` is one.
+
+    >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
+    >>> mock.foo_bar()
+    >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    AssertionError: Expected to be called once. Called 2 times.
+
+Both ``assert_called_with`` and ``assert_called_once_with`` make assertions about
+the *most recent* call. If your mock is going to be called several times, and
+you want to make assertions about *all* those calls you can use
+:attr:`~Mock.call_args_list`:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+    >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
+    >>> mock(4, 5, 6)
+    >>> mock()
+    >>> mock.call_args_list
+    [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
+
+The :data:`call` helper makes it easy to make assertions about these calls. You
+can build up a list of expected calls and compare it to ``call_args_list``. This
+looks remarkably similar to the repr of the ``call_args_list``:
+
+    >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
+    >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
+    True
+
+
+Coping with mutable arguments
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Another situation is rare, but can bite you, is when your mock is called with
+mutable arguments. ``call_args`` and ``call_args_list`` store *references* to the
+arguments. If the arguments are mutated by the code under test then you can no
+longer make assertions about what the values were when the mock was called.
+
+Here's some example code that shows the problem. Imagine the following functions
+defined in 'mymodule'::
+
+    def frob(val):
+        pass
+
+    def grob(val):
+        "First frob and then clear val"
+        frob(val)
+        val.clear()
+
+When we try to test that ``grob`` calls ``frob`` with the correct argument look
+what happens:
+
+    >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
+    ...     val = {6}
+    ...     mymodule.grob(val)
+    ...
+    >>> val
+    set()
+    >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6})
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {})
+    Called with: ((set(),), {})
+
+One possibility would be for mock to copy the arguments you pass in. This
+could then cause problems if you do assertions that rely on object identity
+for equality.
+
+Here's one solution that uses the :attr:`side_effect`
+functionality. If you provide a ``side_effect`` function for a mock then
+``side_effect`` will be called with the same args as the mock. This gives us an
+opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later assertions. In this
+example I'm using *another* mock to store the arguments so that I can use the
+mock methods for doing the assertion. Again a helper function sets this up for
+me.
+
+    >>> from copy import deepcopy
+    >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT
+    >>> def copy_call_args(mock):
+    ...     new_mock = Mock()
+    ...     def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
+    ...         args = deepcopy(args)
+    ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
+    ...         new_mock(*args, **kwargs)
+    ...         return DEFAULT
+    ...     mock.side_effect = side_effect
+    ...     return new_mock
+    ...
+    >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
+    ...     new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob)
+    ...     val = {6}
+    ...     mymodule.grob(val)
+    ...
+    >>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6})
+    >>> new_mock.call_args
+    call({6})
+
+``copy_call_args`` is called with the mock that will be called. It returns a new
+mock that we do the assertion on. The ``side_effect`` function makes a copy of
+the args and calls our ``new_mock`` with the copy.
+
+.. note::
+
+    If your mock is only going to be used once there is an easier way of
+    checking arguments at the point they are called. You can simply do the
+    checking inside a ``side_effect`` function.
+
+        >>> def side_effect(arg):
+        ...     assert arg == {6}
+        ...
+        >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
+        >>> mock({6})
+        >>> mock(set())
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+        AssertionError
+
+An alternative approach is to create a subclass of :class:`Mock` or
+:class:`MagicMock` that copies (using :func:`copy.deepcopy`) the arguments.
+Here's an example implementation:
+
+    >>> from copy import deepcopy
+    >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock):
+    ...     def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
+    ...         args = deepcopy(args)
+    ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
+    ...         return super(CopyingMock, self).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
+    ...
+    >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None)
+    >>> arg = set()
+    >>> c(arg)
+    >>> arg.add(1)
+    >>> c.assert_called_with(set())
+    >>> c.assert_called_with(arg)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    AssertionError: Expected call: mock({1})
+    Actual call: mock(set())
+    >>> c.foo
+    <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
+
+When you subclass ``Mock`` or ``MagicMock`` all dynamically created attributes,
+and the ``return_value`` will use your subclass automatically. That means all
+children of a ``CopyingMock`` will also have the type ``CopyingMock``.
+
+
+Nesting Patches
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches you
+can end up with nested with statements indenting further and further to the
+right:
+
+    >>> class MyTest(TestCase):
+    ...
+    ...     def test_foo(self):
+    ...         with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo:
+    ...             with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar:
+    ...                 with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam:
+    ...                     assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
+    ...                     assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
+    ...                     assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
+    ...
+    >>> original = mymodule.Foo
+    >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo()
+    >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original
+
+With unittest ``cleanup`` functions and the :ref:`start-and-stop` we can
+achieve the same effect without the nested indentation. A simple helper
+method, ``create_patch``, puts the patch in place and returns the created mock
+for us:
+
+    >>> class MyTest(TestCase):
+    ...
+    ...     def create_patch(self, name):
+    ...         patcher = patch(name)
+    ...         thing = patcher.start()
+    ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
+    ...         return thing
+    ...
+    ...     def test_foo(self):
+    ...         mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo')
+    ...         mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar')
+    ...         mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam')
+    ...
+    ...         assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
+    ...         assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
+    ...         assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
+    ...
+    >>> original = mymodule.Foo
+    >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
+    >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original
+
+
+Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+You may want to mock a dictionary, or other container object, recording all
+access to it whilst having it still behave like a dictionary.
+
+We can do this with :class:`MagicMock`, which will behave like a dictionary,
+and using :data:`~Mock.side_effect` to delegate dictionary access to a real
+underlying dictionary that is under our control.
+
+When the :meth:`__getitem__` and :meth:`__setitem__` methods of our ``MagicMock`` are called
+(normal dictionary access) then ``side_effect`` is called with the key (and in
+the case of ``__setitem__`` the value too). We can also control what is returned.
+
+After the ``MagicMock`` has been used we can use attributes like
+:data:`~Mock.call_args_list` to assert about how the dictionary was used:
+
+    >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
+    >>> def getitem(name):
+    ...      return my_dict[name]
+    ...
+    >>> def setitem(name, val):
+    ...     my_dict[name] = val
+    ...
+    >>> mock = MagicMock()
+    >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
+    >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem
+
+.. note::
+
+    An alternative to using ``MagicMock`` is to use ``Mock`` and *only* provide
+    the magic methods you specifically want:
+
+        >>> mock = Mock()
+        >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem)
+        >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem)
+
+    A *third* option is to use ``MagicMock`` but passing in ``dict`` as the *spec*
+    (or *spec_set*) argument so that the ``MagicMock`` created only has
+    dictionary magic methods available:
+
+        >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict)
+        >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
+        >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem
+
+With these side effect functions in place, the ``mock`` will behave like a normal
+dictionary but recording the access. It even raises a :exc:`KeyError` if you try
+to access a key that doesn't exist.
+
+    >>> mock['a']
+    1
+    >>> mock['c']
+    3
+    >>> mock['d']
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    KeyError: 'd'
+    >>> mock['b'] = 'fish'
+    >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs'
+    >>> mock['b']
+    'fish'
+    >>> mock['d']
+    'eggs'
+
+After it has been used you can make assertions about the access using the normal
+mock methods and attributes:
+
+    >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list
+    [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')]
+    >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list
+    [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')]
+    >>> my_dict
+    {'a': 1, 'c': 3, 'b': 'fish', 'd': 'eggs'}
+
+
+Mock subclasses and their attributes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There are various reasons why you might want to subclass :class:`Mock`. One
+reason might be to add helper methods. Here's a silly example:
+
+    >>> class MyMock(MagicMock):
+    ...     def has_been_called(self):
+    ...         return self.called
+    ...
+    >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None)
+    >>> mymock
+    <MyMock id='...'>
+    >>> mymock.has_been_called()
+    False
+    >>> mymock()
+    >>> mymock.has_been_called()
+    True
+
+The standard behaviour for ``Mock`` instances is that attributes and the return
+value mocks are of the same type as the mock they are accessed on. This ensures
+that ``Mock`` attributes are ``Mocks`` and ``MagicMock`` attributes are ``MagicMocks``
+[#]_. So if you're subclassing to add helper methods then they'll also be
+available on the attributes and return value mock of instances of your
+subclass.
+
+    >>> mymock.foo
+    <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
+    >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
+    False
+    >>> mymock.foo()
+    <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
+    >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
+    True
+
+Sometimes this is inconvenient. For example, `one user
+<https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105>`_ is subclassing mock to
+created a `Twisted adaptor
+<https://twistedmatrix.com/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html>`_.
+Having this applied to attributes too actually causes errors.
+
+``Mock`` (in all its flavours) uses a method called ``_get_child_mock`` to create
+these "sub-mocks" for attributes and return values. You can prevent your
+subclass being used for attributes by overriding this method. The signature is
+that it takes arbitrary keyword arguments (``**kwargs``) which are then passed
+onto the mock constructor:
+
+    >>> class Subclass(MagicMock):
+    ...     def _get_child_mock(self, **kwargs):
+    ...         return MagicMock(**kwargs)
+    ...
+    >>> mymock = Subclass()
+    >>> mymock.foo
+    <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
+    >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass)
+    >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass)
+    >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass)
+
+.. [#] An exception to this rule are the non-callable mocks. Attributes use the
+    callable variant because otherwise non-callable mocks couldn't have callable
+    methods.
+
+
+Mocking imports with patch.dict
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+One situation where mocking can be hard is where you have a local import inside
+a function. These are harder to mock because they aren't using an object from
+the module namespace that we can patch out.
+
+Generally local imports are to be avoided. They are sometimes done to prevent
+circular dependencies, for which there is *usually* a much better way to solve
+the problem (refactor the code) or to prevent "up front costs" by delaying the
+import. This can also be solved in better ways than an unconditional local
+import (store the module as a class or module attribute and only do the import
+on first use).
+
+That aside there is a way to use ``mock`` to affect the results of an import.
+Importing fetches an *object* from the :data:`sys.modules` dictionary. Note that it
+fetches an *object*, which need not be a module. Importing a module for the
+first time results in a module object being put in `sys.modules`, so usually
+when you import something you get a module back. This need not be the case
+however.
+
+This means you can use :func:`patch.dict` to *temporarily* put a mock in place
+in :data:`sys.modules`. Any imports whilst this patch is active will fetch the mock.
+When the patch is complete (the decorated function exits, the with statement
+body is complete or ``patcher.stop()`` is called) then whatever was there
+previously will be restored safely.
+
+Here's an example that mocks out the 'fooble' module.
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
+    ...    import fooble
+    ...    fooble.blob()
+    ...
+    <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'>
+    >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules
+    >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with()
+
+As you can see the ``import fooble`` succeeds, but on exit there is no 'fooble'
+left in :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+This also works for the ``from module import name`` form:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
+    ...    from fooble import blob
+    ...    blob.blip()
+    ...
+    <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'>
+    >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with()
+
+With slightly more work you can also mock package imports:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module}
+    >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules):
+    ...    from package.module import fooble
+    ...    fooble()
+    ...
+    <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'>
+    >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()
+
+
+Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :class:`Mock` class allows you to track the *order* of method calls on
+your mock objects through the :attr:`~Mock.method_calls` attribute. This
+doesn't allow you to track the order of calls between separate mock objects,
+however we can use :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` to achieve the same effect.
+
+Because mocks track calls to child mocks in ``mock_calls``, and accessing an
+arbitrary attribute of a mock creates a child mock, we can create our separate
+mocks from a parent one. Calls to those child mock will then all be recorded,
+in order, in the ``mock_calls`` of the parent:
+
+    >>> manager = Mock()
+    >>> mock_foo = manager.foo
+    >>> mock_bar = manager.bar
+
+    >>> mock_foo.something()
+    <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'>
+    >>> mock_bar.other.thing()
+    <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'>
+
+    >>> manager.mock_calls
+    [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
+
+We can then assert about the calls, including the order, by comparing with
+the ``mock_calls`` attribute on the manager mock:
+
+    >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
+    >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls
+    True
+
+If ``patch`` is creating, and putting in place, your mocks then you can attach
+them to a manager mock using the :meth:`~Mock.attach_mock` method. After
+attaching calls will be recorded in ``mock_calls`` of the manager.
+
+    >>> manager = MagicMock()
+    >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1:
+    ...     with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2:
+    ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1')
+    ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2')
+    ...         MockClass1().foo()
+    ...         MockClass2().bar()
+    ...
+    <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'>
+    <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'>
+    >>> manager.mock_calls
+    [call.MockClass1(),
+     call.MockClass1().foo(),
+     call.MockClass2(),
+     call.MockClass2().bar()]
+
+If many calls have been made, but you're only interested in a particular
+sequence of them then an alternative is to use the
+:meth:`~Mock.assert_has_calls` method. This takes a list of calls (constructed
+with the :data:`call` object). If that sequence of calls are in
+:attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` then the assert succeeds.
+
+    >>> m = MagicMock()
+    >>> m().foo().bar().baz()
+    <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'>
+    >>> m.one().two().three()
+    <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'>
+    >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list()
+    >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls)
+
+Even though the chained call ``m.one().two().three()`` aren't the only calls that
+have been made to the mock, the assert still succeeds.
+
+Sometimes a mock may have several calls made to it, and you are only interested
+in asserting about *some* of those calls. You may not even care about the
+order. In this case you can pass ``any_order=True`` to ``assert_has_calls``:
+
+    >>> m = MagicMock()
+    >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50')
+    (...)
+    >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)]
+    >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)
+
+
+More complex argument matching
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Using the same basic concept as :data:`ANY` we can implement matchers to do more
+complex assertions on objects used as arguments to mocks.
+
+Suppose we expect some object to be passed to a mock that by default
+compares equal based on object identity (which is the Python default for user
+defined classes). To use :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` we would need to pass
+in the exact same object. If we are only interested in some of the attributes
+of this object then we can create a matcher that will check these attributes
+for us.
+
+You can see in this example how a 'standard' call to ``assert_called_with`` isn't
+sufficient:
+
+    >>> class Foo:
+    ...     def __init__(self, a, b):
+    ...         self.a, self.b = a, b
+    ...
+    >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+    >>> mock(Foo(1, 2))
+    >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2))
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    AssertionError: Expected: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
+    Actual call: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
+
+A comparison function for our ``Foo`` class might look something like this:
+
+    >>> def compare(self, other):
+    ...     if not type(self) == type(other):
+    ...         return False
+    ...     if self.a != other.a:
+    ...         return False
+    ...     if self.b != other.b:
+    ...         return False
+    ...     return True
+    ...
+
+And a matcher object that can use comparison functions like this for its
+equality operation would look something like this:
+
+    >>> class Matcher:
+    ...     def __init__(self, compare, some_obj):
+    ...         self.compare = compare
+    ...         self.some_obj = some_obj
+    ...     def __eq__(self, other):
+    ...         return self.compare(self.some_obj, other)
+    ...
+
+Putting all this together:
+
+    >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2))
+    >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo)
+
+The ``Matcher`` is instantiated with our compare function and the ``Foo`` object
+we want to compare against. In ``assert_called_with`` the ``Matcher`` equality
+method will be called, which compares the object the mock was called with
+against the one we created our matcher with. If they match then
+``assert_called_with`` passes, and if they don't an :exc:`AssertionError` is raised:
+
+    >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4))
+    >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {})
+    Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {})
+
+With a bit of tweaking you could have the comparison function raise the
+:exc:`AssertionError` directly and provide a more useful failure message.
+
+As of version 1.5, the Python testing library `PyHamcrest
+<https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/>`_ provides similar functionality,
+that may be useful here, in the form of its equality matcher
+(`hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality
+<https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality>`_).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.mock.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.mock.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.mock.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2426 @@
+
+:mod:`unittest.mock` --- mock object library
+============================================
+
+.. module:: unittest.mock
+   :synopsis: Mock object library.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Michael Foord <michael@python.org>
+.. currentmodule:: unittest.mock
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/unittest/mock.py`
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`unittest.mock` is a library for testing in Python. It allows you to
+replace parts of your system under test with mock objects and make assertions
+about how they have been used.
+
+:mod:`unittest.mock` provides a core :class:`Mock` class removing the need to
+create a host of stubs throughout your test suite. After performing an
+action, you can make assertions about which methods / attributes were used
+and arguments they were called with. You can also specify return values and
+set needed attributes in the normal way.
+
+Additionally, mock provides a :func:`patch` decorator that handles patching
+module and class level attributes within the scope of a test, along with
+:const:`sentinel` for creating unique objects. See the `quick guide`_ for
+some examples of how to use :class:`Mock`, :class:`MagicMock` and
+:func:`patch`.
+
+Mock is very easy to use and is designed for use with :mod:`unittest`. Mock
+is based on the 'action -> assertion' pattern instead of 'record -> replay'
+used by many mocking frameworks.
+
+There is a backport of :mod:`unittest.mock` for earlier versions of Python,
+available as `mock on PyPI <https://pypi.org/project/mock>`_.
+
+
+Quick Guide
+-----------
+
+:class:`Mock` and :class:`MagicMock` objects create all attributes and
+methods as you access them and store details of how they have been used. You
+can configure them, to specify return values or limit what attributes are
+available, and then make assertions about how they have been used:
+
+    >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock
+    >>> thing = ProductionClass()
+    >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3)
+    >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
+    3
+    >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')
+
+:attr:`side_effect` allows you to perform side effects, including raising an
+exception when a mock is called:
+
+   >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo'))
+   >>> mock()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+   KeyError: 'foo'
+
+   >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
+   >>> def side_effect(arg):
+   ...     return values[arg]
+   ...
+   >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
+   >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c')
+   (1, 2, 3)
+   >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
+   >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
+   (5, 4, 3)
+
+Mock has many other ways you can configure it and control its behaviour. For
+example the *spec* argument configures the mock to take its specification
+from another object. Attempting to access attributes or methods on the mock
+that don't exist on the spec will fail with an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+The :func:`patch` decorator / context manager makes it easy to mock classes or
+objects in a module under test. The object you specify will be replaced with a
+mock (or other object) during the test and restored when the test ends:
+
+    >>> from unittest.mock import patch
+    >>> @patch('module.ClassName2')
+    ... @patch('module.ClassName1')
+    ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2):
+    ...     module.ClassName1()
+    ...     module.ClassName2()
+    ...     assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1
+    ...     assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2
+    ...     assert MockClass1.called
+    ...     assert MockClass2.called
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+
+.. note::
+
+   When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated
+   function in the same order they applied (the normal *Python* order that
+   decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example
+   above the mock for ``module.ClassName1`` is passed in first.
+
+   With :func:`patch` it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where they
+   are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide
+   read :ref:`where to patch <where-to-patch>`.
+
+As well as a decorator :func:`patch` can be used as a context manager in a with
+statement:
+
+    >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method:
+    ...     thing = ProductionClass()
+    ...     thing.method(1, 2, 3)
+    ...
+    >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
+
+
+There is also :func:`patch.dict` for setting values in a dictionary just
+during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test
+ends:
+
+   >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
+   >>> original = foo.copy()
+   >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
+   ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
+   ...
+   >>> assert foo == original
+
+Mock supports the mocking of Python :ref:`magic methods <magic-methods>`. The
+easiest way of using magic methods is with the :class:`MagicMock` class. It
+allows you to do things like:
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock()
+    >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz'
+    >>> str(mock)
+    'foobarbaz'
+    >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with()
+
+Mock allows you to assign functions (or other Mock instances) to magic methods
+and they will be called appropriately. The :class:`MagicMock` class is just a Mock
+variant that has all of the magic methods pre-created for you (well, all the
+useful ones anyway).
+
+The following is an example of using magic methods with the ordinary Mock
+class:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock()
+    >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee')
+    >>> str(mock)
+    'wheeeeee'
+
+For ensuring that the mock objects in your tests have the same api as the
+objects they are replacing, you can use :ref:`auto-speccing <auto-speccing>`.
+Auto-speccing can be done through the *autospec* argument to patch, or the
+:func:`create_autospec` function. Auto-speccing creates mock objects that
+have the same attributes and methods as the objects they are replacing, and
+any functions and methods (including constructors) have the same call
+signature as the real object.
+
+This ensures that your mocks will fail in the same way as your production
+code if they are used incorrectly:
+
+   >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec
+   >>> def function(a, b, c):
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy')
+   >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3)
+   'fishy'
+   >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
+   >>> mock_function('wrong arguments')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+   TypeError: <lambda>() takes exactly 3 arguments (1 given)
+
+:func:`create_autospec` can also be used on classes, where it copies the signature of
+the ``__init__`` method, and on callable objects where it copies the signature of
+the ``__call__`` method.
+
+
+
+The Mock Class
+--------------
+
+
+:class:`Mock` is a flexible mock object intended to replace the use of stubs and
+test doubles throughout your code. Mocks are callable and create attributes as
+new mocks when you access them [#]_. Accessing the same attribute will always
+return the same mock. Mocks record how you use them, allowing you to make
+assertions about what your code has done to them.
+
+:class:`MagicMock` is a subclass of :class:`Mock` with all the magic methods
+pre-created and ready to use. There are also non-callable variants, useful
+when you are mocking out objects that aren't callable:
+:class:`NonCallableMock` and :class:`NonCallableMagicMock`
+
+The :func:`patch` decorators makes it easy to temporarily replace classes
+in a particular module with a :class:`Mock` object. By default :func:`patch` will create
+a :class:`MagicMock` for you. You can specify an alternative class of :class:`Mock` using
+the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
+
+
+.. class:: Mock(spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, **kwargs)
+
+    Create a new :class:`Mock` object. :class:`Mock` takes several optional arguments
+    that specify the behaviour of the Mock object:
+
+    * *spec*: This can be either a list of strings or an existing object (a
+      class or instance) that acts as the specification for the mock object. If
+      you pass in an object then a list of strings is formed by calling dir on
+      the object (excluding unsupported magic attributes and methods).
+      Accessing any attribute not in this list will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+      If *spec* is an object (rather than a list of strings) then
+      :attr:`~instance.__class__` returns the class of the spec object. This
+      allows mocks to pass :func:`isinstance` tests.
+
+    * *spec_set*: A stricter variant of *spec*. If used, attempting to *set*
+      or get an attribute on the mock that isn't on the object passed as
+      *spec_set* will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+    * *side_effect*: A function to be called whenever the Mock is called. See
+      the :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` attribute. Useful for raising exceptions or
+      dynamically changing return values. The function is called with the same
+      arguments as the mock, and unless it returns :data:`DEFAULT`, the return
+      value of this function is used as the return value.
+
+      Alternatively *side_effect* can be an exception class or instance. In
+      this case the exception will be raised when the mock is called.
+
+      If *side_effect* is an iterable then each call to the mock will return
+      the next value from the iterable.
+
+      A *side_effect* can be cleared by setting it to ``None``.
+
+    * *return_value*: The value returned when the mock is called. By default
+      this is a new Mock (created on first access). See the
+      :attr:`return_value` attribute.
+
+    * *unsafe*: By default if any attribute starts with *assert* or
+      *assret* will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`. Passing ``unsafe=True``
+      will allow access to these attributes.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+    * *wraps*: Item for the mock object to wrap. If *wraps* is not ``None`` then
+      calling the Mock will pass the call through to the wrapped object
+      (returning the real result). Attribute access on the mock will return a
+      Mock object that wraps the corresponding attribute of the wrapped
+      object (so attempting to access an attribute that doesn't exist will
+      raise an :exc:`AttributeError`).
+
+      If the mock has an explicit *return_value* set then calls are not passed
+      to the wrapped object and the *return_value* is returned instead.
+
+    * *name*: If the mock has a name then it will be used in the repr of the
+      mock. This can be useful for debugging. The name is propagated to child
+      mocks.
+
+    Mocks can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be
+    used to set attributes on the mock after it is created. See the
+    :meth:`configure_mock` method for details.
+
+    .. method:: assert_called(*args, **kwargs)
+
+        Assert that the mock was called at least once.
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.method()
+            <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.method.assert_called()
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+    .. method:: assert_called_once(*args, **kwargs)
+
+        Assert that the mock was called exactly once.
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.method()
+            <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
+            >>> mock.method()
+            <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+    .. method:: assert_called_with(*args, **kwargs)
+
+        This method is a convenient way of asserting that calls are made in a
+        particular way:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
+            <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
+
+    .. method:: assert_called_once_with(*args, **kwargs)
+
+       Assert that the mock was called exactly once and that that call was
+       with the specified arguments.
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> mock('foo', bar='baz')
+            >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz')
+            >>> mock('other', bar='values')
+            >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+              ...
+            AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.
+
+
+    .. method:: assert_any_call(*args, **kwargs)
+
+        assert the mock has been called with the specified arguments.
+
+        The assert passes if the mock has *ever* been called, unlike
+        :meth:`assert_called_with` and :meth:`assert_called_once_with` that
+        only pass if the call is the most recent one, and in the case of
+        :meth:`assert_called_once_with` it must also be the only call.
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing')
+            >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else')
+            >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing')
+
+
+    .. method:: assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=False)
+
+        assert the mock has been called with the specified calls.
+        The :attr:`mock_calls` list is checked for the calls.
+
+        If *any_order* is false (the default) then the calls must be
+        sequential. There can be extra calls before or after the
+        specified calls.
+
+        If *any_order* is true then the calls can be in any order, but
+        they must all appear in :attr:`mock_calls`.
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> mock(1)
+            >>> mock(2)
+            >>> mock(3)
+            >>> mock(4)
+            >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)]
+            >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls)
+            >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)]
+            >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)
+
+    .. method:: assert_not_called()
+
+        Assert the mock was never called.
+
+            >>> m = Mock()
+            >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
+            >>> obj = m.hello()
+            >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+              ...
+            AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+    .. method:: reset_mock(*, return_value=False, side_effect=False)
+
+        The reset_mock method resets all the call attributes on a mock object:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> mock('hello')
+            >>> mock.called
+            True
+            >>> mock.reset_mock()
+            >>> mock.called
+            False
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+           Added two keyword only argument to the reset_mock function.
+
+        This can be useful where you want to make a series of assertions that
+        reuse the same object. Note that :meth:`reset_mock` *doesn't* clear the
+        return value, :attr:`side_effect` or any child attributes you have
+        set using normal assignment by default. In case you want to reset
+        *return_value* or :attr:`side_effect`, then pass the corresponding
+        parameter as ``True``. Child mocks and the return value mock
+        (if any) are reset as well.
+
+        .. note:: *return_value*, and :attr:`side_effect` are keyword only
+                  argument.
+
+
+    .. method:: mock_add_spec(spec, spec_set=False)
+
+        Add a spec to a mock. *spec* can either be an object or a
+        list of strings. Only attributes on the *spec* can be fetched as
+        attributes from the mock.
+
+        If *spec_set* is true then only attributes on the spec can be set.
+
+
+    .. method:: attach_mock(mock, attribute)
+
+        Attach a mock as an attribute of this one, replacing its name and
+        parent. Calls to the attached mock will be recorded in the
+        :attr:`method_calls` and :attr:`mock_calls` attributes of this one.
+
+
+    .. method:: configure_mock(**kwargs)
+
+        Set attributes on the mock through keyword arguments.
+
+        Attributes plus return values and side effects can be set on child
+        mocks using standard dot notation and unpacking a dictionary in the
+        method call:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
+            >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs)
+            >>> mock.method()
+            3
+            >>> mock.other()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+              ...
+            KeyError
+
+        The same thing can be achieved in the constructor call to mocks:
+
+            >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
+            >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
+            >>> mock.some_attribute
+            'eggs'
+            >>> mock.method()
+            3
+            >>> mock.other()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+              ...
+            KeyError
+
+        :meth:`configure_mock` exists to make it easier to do configuration
+        after the mock has been created.
+
+
+    .. method:: __dir__()
+
+        :class:`Mock` objects limit the results of ``dir(some_mock)`` to useful results.
+        For mocks with a *spec* this includes all the permitted attributes
+        for the mock.
+
+        See :data:`FILTER_DIR` for what this filtering does, and how to
+        switch it off.
+
+
+    .. method:: _get_child_mock(**kw)
+
+        Create the child mocks for attributes and return value.
+        By default child mocks will be the same type as the parent.
+        Subclasses of Mock may want to override this to customize the way
+        child mocks are made.
+
+        For non-callable mocks the callable variant will be used (rather than
+        any custom subclass).
+
+
+    .. attribute:: called
+
+        A boolean representing whether or not the mock object has been called:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> mock.called
+            False
+            >>> mock()
+            >>> mock.called
+            True
+
+    .. attribute:: call_count
+
+        An integer telling you how many times the mock object has been called:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> mock.call_count
+            0
+            >>> mock()
+            >>> mock()
+            >>> mock.call_count
+            2
+
+
+    .. attribute:: return_value
+
+        Set this to configure the value returned by calling the mock:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.return_value = 'fish'
+            >>> mock()
+            'fish'
+
+        The default return value is a mock object and you can configure it in
+        the normal way:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute
+            >>> mock.return_value()
+            <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with()
+
+        :attr:`return_value` can also be set in the constructor:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
+            >>> mock.return_value
+            3
+            >>> mock()
+            3
+
+
+    .. attribute:: side_effect
+
+        This can either be a function to be called when the mock is called,
+        an iterable or an exception (class or instance) to be raised.
+
+        If you pass in a function it will be called with same arguments as the
+        mock and unless the function returns the :data:`DEFAULT` singleton the
+        call to the mock will then return whatever the function returns. If the
+        function returns :data:`DEFAULT` then the mock will return its normal
+        value (from the :attr:`return_value`).
+
+        If you pass in an iterable, it is used to retrieve an iterator which
+        must yield a value on every call.  This value can either be an exception
+        instance to be raised, or a value to be returned from the call to the
+        mock (:data:`DEFAULT` handling is identical to the function case).
+
+        An example of a mock that raises an exception (to test exception
+        handling of an API):
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!')
+            >>> mock()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+              ...
+            Exception: Boom!
+
+        Using :attr:`side_effect` to return a sequence of values:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1]
+            >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
+            (3, 2, 1)
+
+        Using a callable:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
+            >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
+            ...     return DEFAULT
+            ...
+            >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
+            >>> mock()
+            3
+
+        :attr:`side_effect` can be set in the constructor. Here's an example that
+        adds one to the value the mock is called with and returns it:
+
+            >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1
+            >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
+            >>> mock(3)
+            4
+            >>> mock(-8)
+            -7
+
+        Setting :attr:`side_effect` to ``None`` clears it:
+
+            >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3)
+            >>> m()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+             ...
+            KeyError
+            >>> m.side_effect = None
+            >>> m()
+            3
+
+
+    .. attribute:: call_args
+
+        This is either ``None`` (if the mock hasn't been called), or the
+        arguments that the mock was last called with. This will be in the
+        form of a tuple: the first member is any ordered arguments the mock
+        was called with (or an empty tuple) and the second member is any
+        keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary).
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> print(mock.call_args)
+            None
+            >>> mock()
+            >>> mock.call_args
+            call()
+            >>> mock.call_args == ()
+            True
+            >>> mock(3, 4)
+            >>> mock.call_args
+            call(3, 4)
+            >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),)
+            True
+            >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
+            >>> mock.call_args
+            call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
+
+        :attr:`call_args`, along with members of the lists :attr:`call_args_list`,
+        :attr:`method_calls` and :attr:`mock_calls` are :data:`call` objects.
+        These are tuples, so they can be unpacked to get at the individual
+        arguments and make more complex assertions. See
+        :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`.
+
+
+    .. attribute:: call_args_list
+
+        This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in sequence
+        (so the length of the list is the number of times it has been
+        called). Before any calls have been made it is an empty list. The
+        :data:`call` object can be used for conveniently constructing lists of
+        calls to compare with :attr:`call_args_list`.
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+            >>> mock()
+            >>> mock(3, 4)
+            >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!')
+            >>> mock.call_args_list
+            [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')]
+            >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)]
+            >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
+            True
+
+        Members of :attr:`call_args_list` are :data:`call` objects. These can be
+        unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See
+        :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`.
+
+
+    .. attribute:: method_calls
+
+        As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track calls to
+        methods and attributes, and *their* methods and attributes:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.method()
+            <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.property.method.attribute()
+            <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.method_calls
+            [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]
+
+        Members of :attr:`method_calls` are :data:`call` objects. These can be
+        unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See
+        :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`.
+
+
+    .. attribute:: mock_calls
+
+        :attr:`mock_calls` records *all* calls to the mock object, its methods,
+        magic methods *and* return value mocks.
+
+            >>> mock = MagicMock()
+            >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3)
+            >>> mock.first(a=3)
+            <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'>
+            >>> mock.second()
+            <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'>
+            >>> int(mock)
+            1
+            >>> result(1)
+            <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'>
+            >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(),
+            ... call.__int__(), call()(1)]
+            >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
+            True
+
+        Members of :attr:`mock_calls` are :data:`call` objects. These can be
+        unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See
+        :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`.
+
+        .. note::
+
+            The way :attr:`mock_calls` are recorded means that where nested
+            calls are made, the parameters of ancestor calls are not recorded
+            and so will always compare equal:
+
+                >>> mock = MagicMock()
+                >>> mock.top(a=3).bottom()
+                <MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'>
+                >>> mock.mock_calls
+                [call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]
+                >>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom()
+                True
+
+    .. attribute:: __class__
+
+        Normally the :attr:`__class__` attribute of an object will return its type.
+        For a mock object with a :attr:`spec`, ``__class__`` returns the spec class
+        instead. This allows mock objects to pass :func:`isinstance` tests for the
+        object they are replacing / masquerading as:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock(spec=3)
+            >>> isinstance(mock, int)
+            True
+
+        :attr:`__class__` is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
+        :func:`isinstance` check without forcing you to use a spec:
+
+            >>> mock = Mock()
+            >>> mock.__class__ = dict
+            >>> isinstance(mock, dict)
+            True
+
+.. class:: NonCallableMock(spec=None, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs)
+
+    A non-callable version of :class:`Mock`. The constructor parameters have the same
+    meaning of :class:`Mock`, with the exception of *return_value* and *side_effect*
+    which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.
+
+Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a :attr:`spec` or
+:attr:`spec_set` are able to pass :func:`isinstance` tests:
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
+    >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
+    True
+    >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass())
+    >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
+    True
+
+The :class:`Mock` classes have support for mocking magic methods. See :ref:`magic
+methods <magic-methods>` for the full details.
+
+The mock classes and the :func:`patch` decorators all take arbitrary keyword
+arguments for configuration. For the :func:`patch` decorators the keywords are
+passed to the constructor of the mock being created. The keyword arguments
+are for configuring attributes of the mock:
+
+        >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish')
+        >>> m.attribute
+        3
+        >>> m.other
+        'fish'
+
+The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same way,
+using dotted notation. As you can't use dotted names directly in a call you
+have to create a dictionary and unpack it using ``**``:
+
+    >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
+    >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
+    >>> mock.some_attribute
+    'eggs'
+    >>> mock.method()
+    3
+    >>> mock.other()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    KeyError
+
+A callable mock which was created with a *spec* (or a *spec_set*) will
+introspect the specification object's signature when matching calls to
+the mock.  Therefore, it can match the actual call's arguments regardless
+of whether they were passed positionally or by name::
+
+   >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
+   ...
+   >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
+   >>> mock(1, 2, c=3)
+   <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
+   >>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
+   >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)
+
+This applies to :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with`,
+:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with`, :meth:`~Mock.assert_has_calls` and
+:meth:`~Mock.assert_any_call`.  When :ref:`auto-speccing`, it will also
+apply to method calls on the mock object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added signature introspection on specced and autospecced mock objects.
+
+
+.. class:: PropertyMock(*args, **kwargs)
+
+   A mock intended to be used as a property, or other descriptor, on a class.
+   :class:`PropertyMock` provides :meth:`__get__` and :meth:`__set__` methods
+   so you can specify a return value when it is fetched.
+
+   Fetching a :class:`PropertyMock` instance from an object calls the mock, with
+   no args. Setting it calls the mock with the value being set.
+
+        >>> class Foo:
+        ...     @property
+        ...     def foo(self):
+        ...         return 'something'
+        ...     @foo.setter
+        ...     def foo(self, value):
+        ...         pass
+        ...
+        >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo:
+        ...     mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock'
+        ...     this_foo = Foo()
+        ...     print(this_foo.foo)
+        ...     this_foo.foo = 6
+        ...
+        mockity-mock
+        >>> mock_foo.mock_calls
+        [call(), call(6)]
+
+Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can't directly attach a
+:class:`PropertyMock` to a mock object. Instead you can attach it to the mock type
+object::
+
+    >>> m = MagicMock()
+    >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3)
+    >>> type(m).foo = p
+    >>> m.foo
+    3
+    >>> p.assert_called_once_with()
+
+
+Calling
+~~~~~~~
+
+Mock objects are callable. The call will return the value set as the
+:attr:`~Mock.return_value` attribute. The default return value is a new Mock
+object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed (either
+explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the same one
+returned each time.
+
+Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes
+like :attr:`~Mock.call_args` and :attr:`~Mock.call_args_list`.
+
+If :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` is set then it will be called after the call has
+been recorded, so if :attr:`side_effect` raises an exception the call is still
+recorded.
+
+The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to make
+:attr:`~Mock.side_effect` an exception class or instance:
+
+        >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError)
+        >>> m(1, 2, 3)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+          ...
+        IndexError
+        >>> m.mock_calls
+        [call(1, 2, 3)]
+        >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!')
+        >>> m('two', 'three', 'four')
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+          ...
+        KeyError: 'Bang!'
+        >>> m.mock_calls
+        [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]
+
+If :attr:`side_effect` is a function then whatever that function returns is what
+calls to the mock return. The :attr:`side_effect` function is called with the
+same arguments as the mock. This allows you to vary the return value of the
+call dynamically, based on the input:
+
+        >>> def side_effect(value):
+        ...     return value + 1
+        ...
+        >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
+        >>> m(1)
+        2
+        >>> m(2)
+        3
+        >>> m.mock_calls
+        [call(1), call(2)]
+
+If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new mock), or
+any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this. Either return
+:attr:`mock.return_value` from inside :attr:`side_effect`, or return :data:`DEFAULT`:
+
+        >>> m = MagicMock()
+        >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
+        ...     return m.return_value
+        ...
+        >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
+        >>> m.return_value = 3
+        >>> m()
+        3
+        >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
+        ...     return DEFAULT
+        ...
+        >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
+        >>> m()
+        3
+
+To remove a :attr:`side_effect`, and return to the default behaviour, set the
+:attr:`side_effect` to ``None``:
+
+        >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
+        >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
+        ...     return 3
+        ...
+        >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
+        >>> m()
+        3
+        >>> m.side_effect = None
+        >>> m()
+        6
+
+The :attr:`side_effect` can also be any iterable object. Repeated calls to the mock
+will return values from the iterable (until the iterable is exhausted and
+a :exc:`StopIteration` is raised):
+
+        >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3])
+        >>> m()
+        1
+        >>> m()
+        2
+        >>> m()
+        3
+        >>> m()
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+          ...
+        StopIteration
+
+If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised instead of
+returned::
+
+        >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66)
+        >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable)
+        >>> m()
+        33
+        >>> m()
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+         ...
+        ValueError
+        >>> m()
+        66
+
+
+.. _deleting-attributes:
+
+Deleting Attributes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Mock objects create attributes on demand. This allows them to pretend to be
+objects of any type.
+
+You may want a mock object to return ``False`` to a :func:`hasattr` call, or raise an
+:exc:`AttributeError` when an attribute is fetched. You can do this by providing
+an object as a :attr:`spec` for a mock, but that isn't always convenient.
+
+You "block" attributes by deleting them. Once deleted, accessing an attribute
+will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock()
+    >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
+    True
+    >>> del mock.m
+    >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
+    False
+    >>> del mock.f
+    >>> mock.f
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    AttributeError: f
+
+
+Mock names and the name attribute
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Since "name" is an argument to the :class:`Mock` constructor, if you want your
+mock object to have a "name" attribute you can't just pass it in at creation
+time. There are two alternatives. One option is to use
+:meth:`~Mock.configure_mock`::
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock()
+    >>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name')
+    >>> mock.name
+    'my_name'
+
+A simpler option is to simply set the "name" attribute after mock creation::
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock()
+    >>> mock.name = "foo"
+
+
+Attaching Mocks as Attributes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return
+value) it becomes a "child" of that mock. Calls to the child are recorded in
+the :attr:`~Mock.method_calls` and :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` attributes of the
+parent. This is useful for configuring child mocks and then attaching them to
+the parent, or for attaching mocks to a parent that records all calls to the
+children and allows you to make assertions about the order of calls between
+mocks:
+
+    >>> parent = MagicMock()
+    >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
+    >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
+    >>> parent.child1 = child1
+    >>> parent.child2 = child2
+    >>> child1(1)
+    >>> child2(2)
+    >>> parent.mock_calls
+    [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]
+
+The exception to this is if the mock has a name. This allows you to prevent
+the "parenting" if for some reason you don't want it to happen.
+
+    >>> mock = MagicMock()
+    >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child')
+    >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child
+    >>> mock.attribute()
+    <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'>
+    >>> mock.mock_calls
+    []
+
+Mocks created for you by :func:`patch` are automatically given names. To
+attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the :meth:`~Mock.attach_mock`
+method:
+
+    >>> thing1 = object()
+    >>> thing2 = object()
+    >>> parent = MagicMock()
+    >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1:
+    ...     with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2:
+    ...         parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1')
+    ...         parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2')
+    ...         child1('one')
+    ...         child2('two')
+    ...
+    >>> parent.mock_calls
+    [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]
+
+
+.. [#] The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that have
+       leading and trailing double underscores). Mock doesn't create these but
+       instead raises an :exc:`AttributeError`. This is because the interpreter
+       will often implicitly request these methods, and gets *very* confused to
+       get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method. If you need magic
+       method support see :ref:`magic methods <magic-methods>`.
+
+
+The patchers
+------------
+
+The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope of
+the function they decorate. They automatically handle the unpatching for you,
+even if exceptions are raised. All of these functions can also be used in with
+statements or as class decorators.
+
+
+patch
+~~~~~
+
+.. note::
+
+    :func:`patch` is straightforward to use. The key is to do the patching in the
+    right namespace. See the section `where to patch`_.
+
+.. function:: patch(target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)
+
+    :func:`patch` acts as a function decorator, class decorator or a context
+    manager. Inside the body of the function or with statement, the *target*
+    is patched with a *new* object. When the function/with statement exits
+    the patch is undone.
+
+    If *new* is omitted, then the target is replaced with a
+    :class:`MagicMock`. If :func:`patch` is used as a decorator and *new* is
+    omitted, the created mock is passed in as an extra argument to the
+    decorated function. If :func:`patch` is used as a context manager the created
+    mock is returned by the context manager.
+
+    *target* should be a string in the form ``'package.module.ClassName'``. The
+    *target* is imported and the specified object replaced with the *new*
+    object, so the *target* must be importable from the environment you are
+    calling :func:`patch` from. The target is imported when the decorated function
+    is executed, not at decoration time.
+
+    The *spec* and *spec_set* keyword arguments are passed to the :class:`MagicMock`
+    if patch is creating one for you.
+
+    In addition you can pass ``spec=True`` or ``spec_set=True``, which causes
+    patch to pass in the object being mocked as the spec/spec_set object.
+
+    *new_callable* allows you to specify a different class, or callable object,
+    that will be called to create the *new* object. By default :class:`MagicMock` is
+    used.
+
+    A more powerful form of *spec* is *autospec*. If you set ``autospec=True``
+    then the mock will be created with a spec from the object being replaced.
+    All attributes of the mock will also have the spec of the corresponding
+    attribute of the object being replaced. Methods and functions being mocked
+    will have their arguments checked and will raise a :exc:`TypeError` if they are
+    called with the wrong signature. For mocks
+    replacing a class, their return value (the 'instance') will have the same
+    spec as the class. See the :func:`create_autospec` function and
+    :ref:`auto-speccing`.
+
+    Instead of ``autospec=True`` you can pass ``autospec=some_object`` to use an
+    arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being replaced.
+
+    By default :func:`patch` will fail to replace attributes that don't exist.
+    If you pass in ``create=True``, and the attribute doesn't exist, patch will
+    create the attribute for you when the patched function is called, and delete
+    it again after the patched function has exited. This is useful for writing
+    tests against attributes that your production code creates at runtime. It is
+    off by default because it can be dangerous. With it switched on you can
+    write passing tests against APIs that don't actually exist!
+
+    .. note::
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+           If you are patching builtins in a module then you don't
+           need to pass ``create=True``, it will be added by default.
+
+    Patch can be used as a :class:`TestCase` class decorator. It works by
+    decorating each test method in the class. This reduces the boilerplate
+    code when your test methods share a common patchings set. :func:`patch` finds
+    tests by looking for method names that start with ``patch.TEST_PREFIX``.
+    By default this is ``'test'``, which matches the way :mod:`unittest` finds tests.
+    You can specify an alternative prefix by setting ``patch.TEST_PREFIX``.
+
+    Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement. Here the
+    patching applies to the indented block after the with statement. If you
+    use "as" then the patched object will be bound to the name after the
+    "as"; very useful if :func:`patch` is creating a mock object for you.
+
+    :func:`patch` takes arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be passed to
+    the :class:`Mock` (or *new_callable*) on construction.
+
+    ``patch.dict(...)``, ``patch.multiple(...)`` and ``patch.object(...)`` are
+    available for alternate use-cases.
+
+:func:`patch` as function decorator, creating the mock for you and passing it into
+the decorated function:
+
+    >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass')
+    ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class):
+    ...     print(mock_class is SomeClass)
+    ...
+    >>> function(None)
+    True
+
+Patching a class replaces the class with a :class:`MagicMock` *instance*. If the
+class is instantiated in the code under test then it will be the
+:attr:`~Mock.return_value` of the mock that will be used.
+
+If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use
+:attr:`~Mock.side_effect` to return a new mock each time. Alternatively you
+can set the *return_value* to be anything you want.
+
+To configure return values on methods of *instances* on the patched class
+you must do this on the :attr:`return_value`. For example:
+
+    >>> class Class:
+    ...     def method(self):
+    ...         pass
+    ...
+    >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass:
+    ...     instance = MockClass.return_value
+    ...     instance.method.return_value = 'foo'
+    ...     assert Class() is instance
+    ...     assert Class().method() == 'foo'
+    ...
+
+If you use *spec* or *spec_set* and :func:`patch` is replacing a *class*, then the
+return value of the created mock will have the same spec.
+
+    >>> Original = Class
+    >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True)
+    >>> MockClass = patcher.start()
+    >>> instance = MockClass()
+    >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original)
+    >>> patcher.stop()
+
+The *new_callable* argument is useful where you want to use an alternative
+class to the default :class:`MagicMock` for the created mock. For example, if
+you wanted a :class:`NonCallableMock` to be used:
+
+    >>> thing = object()
+    >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing:
+    ...     assert thing is mock_thing
+    ...     thing()
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable
+
+Another use case might be to replace an object with an :class:`io.StringIO` instance:
+
+    >>> from io import StringIO
+    >>> def foo():
+    ...     print('Something')
+    ...
+    >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO)
+    ... def test(mock_stdout):
+    ...     foo()
+    ...     assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n'
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+
+When :func:`patch` is creating a mock for you, it is common that the first thing
+you need to do is to configure the mock. Some of that configuration can be done
+in the call to patch. Any arbitrary keywords you pass into the call will be
+used to set attributes on the created mock:
+
+    >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two')
+    >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
+    >>> mock_thing.first
+    'one'
+    >>> mock_thing.second
+    'two'
+
+As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the
+:attr:`~Mock.return_value` and :attr:`~Mock.side_effect`, of child mocks can
+also be configured. These aren't syntactically valid to pass in directly as
+keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be expanded
+into a :func:`patch` call using ``**``:
+
+    >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
+    >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config)
+    >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
+    >>> mock_thing.method()
+    3
+    >>> mock_thing.other()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    KeyError
+
+By default, attempting to patch a function in a module (or a method or an
+attribute in a class) that does not exist will fail with :exc:`AttributeError`::
+
+    >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42)
+    ... def test():
+    ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing'
+
+but adding ``create=True`` in the call to :func:`patch` will make the previous example
+work as expected::
+
+    >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True)
+    ... def test(mock_stdout):
+    ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+
+
+patch.object
+~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: patch.object(target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)
+
+    patch the named member (*attribute*) on an object (*target*) with a mock
+    object.
+
+    :func:`patch.object` can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context
+    manager. Arguments *new*, *spec*, *create*, *spec_set*, *autospec* and
+    *new_callable* have the same meaning as for :func:`patch`. Like :func:`patch`,
+    :func:`patch.object` takes arbitrary keyword arguments for configuring the mock
+    object it creates.
+
+    When used as a class decorator :func:`patch.object` honours ``patch.TEST_PREFIX``
+    for choosing which methods to wrap.
+
+You can either call :func:`patch.object` with three arguments or two arguments. The
+three argument form takes the object to be patched, the attribute name and the
+object to replace the attribute with.
+
+When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object, and a
+mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the decorated
+function:
+
+    >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
+    ... def test(mock_method):
+    ...     SomeClass.class_method(3)
+    ...     mock_method.assert_called_with(3)
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+
+*spec*, *create* and the other arguments to :func:`patch.object` have the same
+meaning as they do for :func:`patch`.
+
+
+patch.dict
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: patch.dict(in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs)
+
+    Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the dictionary
+    to its original state after the test.
+
+    *in_dict* can be a dictionary or a mapping like container. If it is a
+    mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and deleting items
+    plus iterating over keys.
+
+    *in_dict* can also be a string specifying the name of the dictionary, which
+    will then be fetched by importing it.
+
+    *values* can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary. *values*
+    can also be an iterable of ``(key, value)`` pairs.
+
+    If *clear* is true then the dictionary will be cleared before the new
+    values are set.
+
+    :func:`patch.dict` can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments to set
+    values in the dictionary.
+
+    :func:`patch.dict` can be used as a context manager, decorator or class
+    decorator. When used as a class decorator :func:`patch.dict` honours
+    ``patch.TEST_PREFIX`` for choosing which methods to wrap.
+
+:func:`patch.dict` can be used to add members to a dictionary, or simply let a test
+change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is restored when the test
+ends.
+
+    >>> foo = {}
+    >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
+    ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
+    ...
+    >>> assert foo == {}
+
+    >>> import os
+    >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
+    ...     print(os.environ['newkey'])
+    ...
+    newvalue
+    >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ
+
+Keywords can be used in the :func:`patch.dict` call to set values in the dictionary:
+
+    >>> mymodule = MagicMock()
+    >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish'
+    >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule):
+    ...     import mymodule
+    ...     mymodule.function('some', 'args')
+    ...
+    'fish'
+
+:func:`patch.dict` can be used with dictionary like objects that aren't actually
+dictionaries. At the very minimum they must support item getting, setting,
+deleting and either iteration or membership test. This corresponds to the
+magic methods :meth:`__getitem__`, :meth:`__setitem__`, :meth:`__delitem__` and either
+:meth:`__iter__` or :meth:`__contains__`.
+
+    >>> class Container:
+    ...     def __init__(self):
+    ...         self.values = {}
+    ...     def __getitem__(self, name):
+    ...         return self.values[name]
+    ...     def __setitem__(self, name, value):
+    ...         self.values[name] = value
+    ...     def __delitem__(self, name):
+    ...         del self.values[name]
+    ...     def __iter__(self):
+    ...         return iter(self.values)
+    ...
+    >>> thing = Container()
+    >>> thing['one'] = 1
+    >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3):
+    ...     assert thing['one'] == 2
+    ...     assert thing['two'] == 3
+    ...
+    >>> assert thing['one'] == 1
+    >>> assert list(thing) == ['one']
+
+
+patch.multiple
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: patch.multiple(target, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)
+
+    Perform multiple patches in a single call. It takes the object to be
+    patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by importing)
+    and keyword arguments for the patches::
+
+        with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'):
+            ...
+
+    Use :data:`DEFAULT` as the value if you want :func:`patch.multiple` to create
+    mocks for you. In this case the created mocks are passed into a decorated
+    function by keyword, and a dictionary is returned when :func:`patch.multiple` is
+    used as a context manager.
+
+    :func:`patch.multiple` can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context
+    manager. The arguments *spec*, *spec_set*, *create*, *autospec* and
+    *new_callable* have the same meaning as for :func:`patch`. These arguments will
+    be applied to *all* patches done by :func:`patch.multiple`.
+
+    When used as a class decorator :func:`patch.multiple` honours ``patch.TEST_PREFIX``
+    for choosing which methods to wrap.
+
+If you want :func:`patch.multiple` to create mocks for you, then you can use
+:data:`DEFAULT` as the value. If you use :func:`patch.multiple` as a decorator
+then the created mocks are passed into the decorated function by keyword.
+
+    >>> thing = object()
+    >>> other = object()
+
+    >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
+    ... def test_function(thing, other):
+    ...     assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock)
+    ...     assert isinstance(other, MagicMock)
+    ...
+    >>> test_function()
+
+:func:`patch.multiple` can be nested with other ``patch`` decorators, but put arguments
+passed by keyword *after* any of the standard arguments created by :func:`patch`:
+
+    >>> @patch('sys.exit')
+    ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
+    ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing):
+    ...     assert 'other' in repr(other)
+    ...     assert 'thing' in repr(thing)
+    ...     assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit)
+    ...
+    >>> test_function()
+
+If :func:`patch.multiple` is used as a context manager, the value returned by the
+context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are keyed by name::
+
+    >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values:
+    ...     assert 'other' in repr(values['other'])
+    ...     assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing'])
+    ...     assert values['thing'] is thing
+    ...     assert values['other'] is other
+    ...
+
+
+.. _start-and-stop:
+
+patch methods: start and stop
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+All the patchers have :meth:`start` and :meth:`stop` methods. These make it simpler to do
+patching in ``setUp`` methods or where you want to do multiple patches without
+nesting decorators or with statements.
+
+To use them call :func:`patch`, :func:`patch.object` or :func:`patch.dict` as
+normal and keep a reference to the returned ``patcher`` object. You can then
+call :meth:`start` to put the patch in place and :meth:`stop` to undo it.
+
+If you are using :func:`patch` to create a mock for you then it will be returned by
+the call to ``patcher.start``.
+
+    >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName')
+    >>> from package import module
+    >>> original = module.ClassName
+    >>> new_mock = patcher.start()
+    >>> assert module.ClassName is not original
+    >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock
+    >>> patcher.stop()
+    >>> assert module.ClassName is original
+    >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock
+
+
+A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the ``setUp``
+method of a :class:`TestCase`:
+
+    >>> class MyTest(TestCase):
+    ...     def setUp(self):
+    ...         self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1')
+    ...         self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2')
+    ...         self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start()
+    ...         self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start()
+    ...
+    ...     def tearDown(self):
+    ...         self.patcher1.stop()
+    ...         self.patcher2.stop()
+    ...
+    ...     def test_something(self):
+    ...         assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1
+    ...         assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2
+    ...
+    >>> MyTest('test_something').run()
+
+.. caution::
+
+    If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is "undone" by
+    calling ``stop``. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an
+    exception is raised in the ``setUp`` then ``tearDown`` is not called.
+    :meth:`unittest.TestCase.addCleanup` makes this easier:
+
+        >>> class MyTest(TestCase):
+        ...     def setUp(self):
+        ...         patcher = patch('package.module.Class')
+        ...         self.MockClass = patcher.start()
+        ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
+        ...
+        ...     def test_something(self):
+        ...         assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass
+        ...
+
+    As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the ``patcher``
+    object.
+
+It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using
+:func:`patch.stopall`.
+
+.. function:: patch.stopall
+
+    Stop all active patches. Only stops patches started with ``start``.
+
+
+.. _patch-builtins:
+
+patch builtins
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+You can patch any builtins within a module. The following example patches
+builtin :func:`ord`:
+
+    >>> @patch('__main__.ord')
+    ... def test(mock_ord):
+    ...     mock_ord.return_value = 101
+    ...     print(ord('c'))
+    ...
+    >>> test()
+    101
+
+
+TEST_PREFIX
+~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+All of the patchers can be used as class decorators. When used in this way
+they wrap every test method on the class. The patchers recognise methods that
+start with ``'test'`` as being test methods. This is the same way that the
+:class:`unittest.TestLoader` finds test methods by default.
+
+It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests. You can
+inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting ``patch.TEST_PREFIX``:
+
+    >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo'
+    >>> value = 3
+    >>>
+    >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three')
+    ... class Thing:
+    ...     def foo_one(self):
+    ...         print(value)
+    ...     def foo_two(self):
+    ...         print(value)
+    ...
+    >>>
+    >>> Thing().foo_one()
+    not three
+    >>> Thing().foo_two()
+    not three
+    >>> value
+    3
+
+
+Nesting Patch Decorators
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the
+decorators.
+
+You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:
+
+    >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
+    ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
+    ... def test(mock1, mock2):
+    ...     assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1
+    ...     assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2
+    ...     SomeClass.static_method('foo')
+    ...     SomeClass.class_method('bar')
+    ...     return mock1, mock2
+    ...
+    >>> mock1, mock2 = test()
+    >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo')
+    >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar')
+
+
+Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards. This is the
+standard way that Python applies decorators. The order of the created mocks
+passed into your test function matches this order.
+
+
+.. _where-to-patch:
+
+Where to patch
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+:func:`patch` works by (temporarily) changing the object that a *name* points to with
+another one. There can be many names pointing to any individual object, so
+for patching to work you must ensure that you patch the name used by the system
+under test.
+
+The basic principle is that you patch where an object is *looked up*, which
+is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined. A couple of
+examples will help to clarify this.
+
+Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following structure::
+
+    a.py
+        -> Defines SomeClass
+
+    b.py
+        -> from a import SomeClass
+        -> some_function instantiates SomeClass
+
+Now we want to test ``some_function`` but we want to mock out ``SomeClass`` using
+:func:`patch`. The problem is that when we import module b, which we will have to
+do then it imports ``SomeClass`` from module a. If we use :func:`patch` to mock out
+``a.SomeClass`` then it will have no effect on our test; module b already has a
+reference to the *real* ``SomeClass`` and it looks like our patching had no
+effect.
+
+The key is to patch out ``SomeClass`` where it is used (or where it is looked up).
+In this case ``some_function`` will actually look up ``SomeClass`` in module b,
+where we have imported it. The patching should look like::
+
+    @patch('b.SomeClass')
+
+However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of ``from a import
+SomeClass`` module b does ``import a`` and ``some_function`` uses ``a.SomeClass``. Both
+of these import forms are common. In this case the class we want to patch is
+being looked up in the module and so we have to patch ``a.SomeClass`` instead::
+
+    @patch('a.SomeClass')
+
+
+Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Both patch_ and patch.object_ correctly patch and restore descriptors: class
+methods, static methods and properties. You should patch these on the *class*
+rather than an instance. They also work with *some* objects
+that proxy attribute access, like the `django settings object
+<http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198>`_.
+
+
+MagicMock and magic method support
+----------------------------------
+
+.. _magic-methods:
+
+Mocking Magic Methods
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+:class:`Mock` supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also known as
+"magic methods". This allows mock objects to replace containers or other
+objects that implement Python protocols.
+
+Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods [#]_, this
+support has been specially implemented. This means that only specific magic
+methods are supported. The supported list includes *almost* all of them. If
+there are any missing that you need please let us know.
+
+You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a function
+or a mock instance. If you are using a function then it *must* take ``self`` as
+the first argument [#]_.
+
+   >>> def __str__(self):
+   ...     return 'fooble'
+   ...
+   >>> mock = Mock()
+   >>> mock.__str__ = __str__
+   >>> str(mock)
+   'fooble'
+
+   >>> mock = Mock()
+   >>> mock.__str__ = Mock()
+   >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble'
+   >>> str(mock)
+   'fooble'
+
+   >>> mock = Mock()
+   >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([]))
+   >>> list(mock)
+   []
+
+One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in a
+:keyword:`with` statement:
+
+   >>> mock = Mock()
+   >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo')
+   >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False)
+   >>> with mock as m:
+   ...     assert m == 'foo'
+   ...
+   >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with()
+   >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None)
+
+Calls to magic methods do not appear in :attr:`~Mock.method_calls`, but they
+are recorded in :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   If you use the *spec* keyword argument to create a mock then attempting to
+   set a magic method that isn't in the spec will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+The full list of supported magic methods is:
+
+* ``__hash__``, ``__sizeof__``, ``__repr__`` and ``__str__``
+* ``__dir__``, ``__format__`` and ``__subclasses__``
+* ``__floor__``, ``__trunc__`` and ``__ceil__``
+* Comparisons: ``__lt__``, ``__gt__``, ``__le__``, ``__ge__``,
+  ``__eq__`` and ``__ne__``
+* Container methods: ``__getitem__``, ``__setitem__``, ``__delitem__``,
+  ``__contains__``, ``__len__``, ``__iter__``, ``__reversed__``
+  and ``__missing__``
+* Context manager: ``__enter__`` and ``__exit__``
+* Unary numeric methods: ``__neg__``, ``__pos__`` and ``__invert__``
+* The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants):
+  ``__add__``, ``__sub__``, ``__mul__``, ``__matmul__``, ``__div__``, ``__truediv__``,
+  ``__floordiv__``, ``__mod__``, ``__divmod__``, ``__lshift__``,
+  ``__rshift__``, ``__and__``, ``__xor__``, ``__or__``, and ``__pow__``
+* Numeric conversion methods: ``__complex__``, ``__int__``, ``__float__``
+  and ``__index__``
+* Descriptor methods: ``__get__``, ``__set__`` and ``__delete__``
+* Pickling: ``__reduce__``, ``__reduce_ex__``, ``__getinitargs__``,
+  ``__getnewargs__``, ``__getstate__`` and ``__setstate__``
+
+
+The following methods exist but are *not* supported as they are either in use
+by mock, can't be set dynamically, or can cause problems:
+
+* ``__getattr__``, ``__setattr__``, ``__init__`` and ``__new__``
+* ``__prepare__``, ``__instancecheck__``, ``__subclasscheck__``, ``__del__``
+
+
+
+Magic Mock
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There are two ``MagicMock`` variants: :class:`MagicMock` and :class:`NonCallableMagicMock`.
+
+
+.. class:: MagicMock(*args, **kw)
+
+   ``MagicMock`` is a subclass of :class:`Mock` with default implementations
+   of most of the magic methods. You can use ``MagicMock`` without having to
+   configure the magic methods yourself.
+
+   The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for :class:`Mock`.
+
+   If you use the *spec* or *spec_set* arguments then *only* magic methods
+   that exist in the spec will be created.
+
+
+.. class:: NonCallableMagicMock(*args, **kw)
+
+    A non-callable version of :class:`MagicMock`.
+
+    The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for
+    :class:`MagicMock`, with the exception of *return_value* and
+    *side_effect* which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.
+
+The magic methods are setup with :class:`MagicMock` objects, so you can configure them
+and use them in the usual way:
+
+   >>> mock = MagicMock()
+   >>> mock[3] = 'fish'
+   >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish')
+   >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result'
+   >>> mock[2]
+   'result'
+
+By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects of a
+specific type. These methods are preconfigured with a default return value, so
+that they can be used without you having to do anything if you aren't interested
+in the return value. You can still *set* the return value manually if you want
+to change the default.
+
+Methods and their defaults:
+
+* ``__lt__``: NotImplemented
+* ``__gt__``: NotImplemented
+* ``__le__``: NotImplemented
+* ``__ge__``: NotImplemented
+* ``__int__``: 1
+* ``__contains__``: False
+* ``__len__``: 0
+* ``__iter__``: iter([])
+* ``__exit__``: False
+* ``__complex__``: 1j
+* ``__float__``: 1.0
+* ``__bool__``: True
+* ``__index__``: 1
+* ``__hash__``: default hash for the mock
+* ``__str__``: default str for the mock
+* ``__sizeof__``: default sizeof for the mock
+
+For example:
+
+   >>> mock = MagicMock()
+   >>> int(mock)
+   1
+   >>> len(mock)
+   0
+   >>> list(mock)
+   []
+   >>> object() in mock
+   False
+
+The two equality methods, :meth:`__eq__` and :meth:`__ne__`, are special.
+They do the default equality comparison on identity, using the
+:attr:`~Mock.side_effect` attribute, unless you change their return value to
+return something else::
+
+   >>> MagicMock() == 3
+   False
+   >>> MagicMock() != 3
+   True
+   >>> mock = MagicMock()
+   >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True
+   >>> mock == 3
+   True
+
+The return value of :meth:`MagicMock.__iter__` can be any iterable object and isn't
+required to be an iterator:
+
+   >>> mock = MagicMock()
+   >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c']
+   >>> list(mock)
+   ['a', 'b', 'c']
+   >>> list(mock)
+   ['a', 'b', 'c']
+
+If the return value *is* an iterator, then iterating over it once will consume
+it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list:
+
+   >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c'])
+   >>> list(mock)
+   ['a', 'b', 'c']
+   >>> list(mock)
+   []
+
+``MagicMock`` has all of the supported magic methods configured except for some
+of the obscure and obsolete ones. You can still set these up if you want.
+
+Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in ``MagicMock`` are:
+
+* ``__subclasses__``
+* ``__dir__``
+* ``__format__``
+* ``__get__``, ``__set__`` and ``__delete__``
+* ``__reversed__`` and ``__missing__``
+* ``__reduce__``, ``__reduce_ex__``, ``__getinitargs__``, ``__getnewargs__``,
+  ``__getstate__`` and ``__setstate__``
+* ``__getformat__`` and ``__setformat__``
+
+
+
+.. [#] Magic methods *should* be looked up on the class rather than the
+   instance. Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying this
+   rule. The supported protocol methods should work with all supported versions
+   of Python.
+.. [#] The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each ``Mock``
+   instance is kept isolated from the others.
+
+
+Helpers
+-------
+
+sentinel
+~~~~~~~~
+
+.. data:: sentinel
+
+   The ``sentinel`` object provides a convenient way of providing unique
+   objects for your tests.
+
+   Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name. Accessing
+   the same attribute will always return the same object. The objects
+   returned have a sensible repr so that test failure messages are readable.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The ``sentinel`` attributes now preserve their identity when they are
+      :mod:`copied <copy>` or :mod:`pickled <pickle>`.
+
+Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed as an
+argument to another method, or returned. It can be common to create named
+sentinel objects to test this. :data:`sentinel` provides a convenient way of
+creating and testing the identity of objects like this.
+
+In this example we monkey patch ``method`` to return ``sentinel.some_object``:
+
+    >>> real = ProductionClass()
+    >>> real.method = Mock(name="method")
+    >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object
+    >>> result = real.method()
+    >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object
+    >>> sentinel.some_object
+    sentinel.some_object
+
+
+DEFAULT
+~~~~~~~
+
+
+.. data:: DEFAULT
+
+    The :data:`DEFAULT` object is a pre-created sentinel (actually
+    ``sentinel.DEFAULT``). It can be used by :attr:`~Mock.side_effect`
+    functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used.
+
+
+call
+~~~~
+
+.. function:: call(*args, **kwargs)
+
+    :func:`call` is a helper object for making simpler assertions, for comparing with
+    :attr:`~Mock.call_args`, :attr:`~Mock.call_args_list`,
+    :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` and :attr:`~Mock.method_calls`. :func:`call` can also be
+    used with :meth:`~Mock.assert_has_calls`.
+
+        >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
+        >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar')
+        >>> m()
+        >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()]
+        True
+
+.. method:: call.call_list()
+
+    For a call object that represents multiple calls, :meth:`call_list`
+    returns a list of all the intermediate calls as well as the
+    final call.
+
+``call_list`` is particularly useful for making assertions on "chained calls". A
+chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code. This results in
+multiple entries in :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` on a mock. Manually constructing
+the sequence of calls can be tedious.
+
+:meth:`~call.call_list` can construct the sequence of calls from the same
+chained call:
+
+    >>> m = MagicMock()
+    >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
+    <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'>
+    >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
+    >>> kall.call_list()
+    [call(1),
+     call().method(arg='foo'),
+     call().method().other('bar'),
+     call().method().other()(2.0)]
+    >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list()
+    True
+
+.. _calls-as-tuples:
+
+A ``call`` object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or
+(name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was constructed. When
+you construct them yourself this isn't particularly interesting, but the ``call``
+objects that are in the :attr:`Mock.call_args`, :attr:`Mock.call_args_list` and
+:attr:`Mock.mock_calls` attributes can be introspected to get at the individual
+arguments they contain.
+
+The ``call`` objects in :attr:`Mock.call_args` and :attr:`Mock.call_args_list`
+are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword args) whereas the ``call`` objects
+in :attr:`Mock.mock_calls`, along with ones you construct yourself, are
+three-tuples of (name, positional args, keyword args).
+
+You can use their "tupleness" to pull out the individual arguments for more
+complex introspection and assertions. The positional arguments are a tuple
+(an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the keyword
+arguments are a dictionary:
+
+    >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
+    >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two')
+    >>> kall = m.call_args
+    >>> args, kwargs = kall
+    >>> args
+    (1, 2, 3)
+    >>> kwargs
+    {'arg2': 'two', 'arg': 'one'}
+    >>> args is kall[0]
+    True
+    >>> kwargs is kall[1]
+    True
+
+    >>> m = MagicMock()
+    >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three')
+    <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
+    >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0]
+    >>> name, args, kwargs = kall
+    >>> name
+    'foo'
+    >>> args
+    (4, 5, 6)
+    >>> kwargs
+    {'arg2': 'three', 'arg': 'two'}
+    >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0]
+    True
+
+
+create_autospec
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: create_autospec(spec, spec_set=False, instance=False, **kwargs)
+
+    Create a mock object using another object as a spec. Attributes on the
+    mock will use the corresponding attribute on the *spec* object as their
+    spec.
+
+    Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked to
+    ensure that they are called with the correct signature.
+
+    If *spec_set* is ``True`` then attempting to set attributes that don't exist
+    on the spec object will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+    If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the
+    instance of the class) will have the same spec. You can use a class as the
+    spec for an instance object by passing ``instance=True``. The returned mock
+    will only be callable if instances of the mock are callable.
+
+    :func:`create_autospec` also takes arbitrary keyword arguments that are passed to
+    the constructor of the created mock.
+
+See :ref:`auto-speccing` for examples of how to use auto-speccing with
+:func:`create_autospec` and the *autospec* argument to :func:`patch`.
+
+
+ANY
+~~~
+
+.. data:: ANY
+
+Sometimes you may need to make assertions about *some* of the arguments in a
+call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or want to pull
+them individually out of :attr:`~Mock.call_args` and make more complex
+assertions on them.
+
+To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal to
+*everything*. Calls to :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` and
+:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with` will then succeed no matter what was
+passed in.
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
+    >>> mock('foo', bar=object())
+    >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY)
+
+:data:`ANY` can also be used in comparisons with call lists like
+:attr:`~Mock.mock_calls`:
+
+    >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
+    >>> m(1)
+    >>> m(1, 2)
+    >>> m(object())
+    >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY]
+    True
+
+
+
+FILTER_DIR
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. data:: FILTER_DIR
+
+:data:`FILTER_DIR` is a module level variable that controls the way mock objects
+respond to :func:`dir` (only for Python 2.6 or more recent). The default is ``True``,
+which uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members. If you
+dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic purposes, then
+set ``mock.FILTER_DIR = False``.
+
+With filtering on, ``dir(some_mock)`` shows only useful attributes and will
+include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn't normally be shown.
+If the mock was created with a *spec* (or *autospec* of course) then all the
+attributes from the original are shown, even if they haven't been accessed
+yet:
+
+    >>> dir(Mock())
+    ['assert_any_call',
+     'assert_called_once_with',
+     'assert_called_with',
+     'assert_has_calls',
+     'attach_mock',
+     ...
+    >>> from urllib import request
+    >>> dir(Mock(spec=request))
+    ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler',
+     'AbstractDigestAuthHandler',
+     'AbstractHTTPHandler',
+     'BaseHandler',
+     ...
+
+Many of the not-very-useful (private to :class:`Mock` rather than the thing being
+mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes have been
+filtered from the result of calling :func:`dir` on a :class:`Mock`. If you dislike this
+behaviour you can switch it off by setting the module level switch
+:data:`FILTER_DIR`:
+
+    >>> from unittest import mock
+    >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False
+    >>> dir(mock.Mock())
+    ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value',
+     '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect',
+     '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc',
+     '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value',
+     '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect',
+     '__call__',
+     '__class__',
+     ...
+
+Alternatively you can just use ``vars(my_mock)`` (instance members) and
+``dir(type(my_mock))`` (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective of
+:data:`mock.FILTER_DIR`.
+
+
+mock_open
+~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: mock_open(mock=None, read_data=None)
+
+   A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of :func:`open`. It works
+   for :func:`open` called directly or used as a context manager.
+
+   The *mock* argument is the mock object to configure. If ``None`` (the
+   default) then a :class:`MagicMock` will be created for you, with the API limited
+   to methods or attributes available on standard file handles.
+
+   *read_data* is a string for the :meth:`~io.IOBase.read`,
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline`, and :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines` methods
+   of the file handle to return.  Calls to those methods will take data from
+   *read_data* until it is depleted.  The mock of these methods is pretty
+   simplistic: every time the *mock* is called, the *read_data* is rewound to
+   the start.  If you need more control over the data that you are feeding to
+   the tested code you will need to customize this mock for yourself.  When that
+   is insufficient, one of the in-memory filesystem packages on `PyPI
+   <https://pypi.org>`_ can offer a realistic filesystem for testing.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` and :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines` support.
+      The mock of :meth:`~io.IOBase.read` changed to consume *read_data* rather
+      than returning it on each call.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *read_data* is now reset on each call to the *mock*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
+      Added :meth:`__iter__` to implementation so that iteration (such as in for
+      loops) correctly consumes *read_data*.
+
+Using :func:`open` as a context manager is a great way to ensure your file handles
+are closed properly and is becoming common::
+
+    with open('/some/path', 'w') as f:
+        f.write('something')
+
+The issue is that even if you mock out the call to :func:`open` it is the
+*returned object* that is used as a context manager (and has :meth:`__enter__` and
+:meth:`__exit__` called).
+
+Mocking context managers with a :class:`MagicMock` is common enough and fiddly
+enough that a helper function is useful.
+
+    >>> m = mock_open()
+    >>> with patch('__main__.open', m):
+    ...     with open('foo', 'w') as h:
+    ...         h.write('some stuff')
+    ...
+    >>> m.mock_calls
+    [call('foo', 'w'),
+     call().__enter__(),
+     call().write('some stuff'),
+     call().__exit__(None, None, None)]
+    >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w')
+    >>> handle = m()
+    >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff')
+
+And for reading files:
+
+    >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m:
+    ...     with open('foo') as h:
+    ...         result = h.read()
+    ...
+    >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo')
+    >>> assert result == 'bibble'
+
+
+.. _auto-speccing:
+
+Autospeccing
+~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Autospeccing is based on the existing :attr:`spec` feature of mock. It limits the
+api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is recursive
+(implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the same api as
+the attributes of the spec. In addition mocked functions / methods have the
+same call signature as the original so they raise a :exc:`TypeError` if they are
+called incorrectly.
+
+Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here's why it is needed.
+
+:class:`Mock` is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers from two flaws
+when used to mock out objects from a system under test. One of these flaws is
+specific to the :class:`Mock` api and the other is a more general problem with using
+mock objects.
+
+First the problem specific to :class:`Mock`. :class:`Mock` has two assert methods that are
+extremely handy: :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` and
+:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with`.
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(name='Thing', return_value=None)
+    >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
+    >>> mock.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
+    >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
+    >>> mock.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+    AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.
+
+Because mocks auto-create attributes on demand, and allow you to call them
+with arbitrary arguments, if you misspell one of these assert methods then
+your assertion is gone:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+    >>> mock = Mock(name='Thing', return_value=None)
+    >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
+    >>> mock.assret_called_once_with(4, 5, 6)
+
+Your tests can pass silently and incorrectly because of the typo.
+
+The second issue is more general to mocking. If you refactor some of your
+code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using the
+*old api* but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still pass. This
+means your tests can all pass even though your code is broken.
+
+Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well as
+unit tests. Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy, but if you
+don't test how your units are "wired together" there is still lots of room
+for bugs that tests might have caught.
+
+:mod:`mock` already provides a feature to help with this, called speccing. If you
+use a class or instance as the :attr:`spec` for a mock then you can only access
+attributes on the mock that exist on the real class:
+
+    >>> from urllib import request
+    >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request)
+    >>> mock.assret_called_with
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+    AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
+
+The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same issue
+with any methods on the mock:
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
+    >>> mock.has_data()
+    <mock.Mock object at 0x...>
+    >>> mock.has_data.assret_called_with()
+
+Auto-speccing solves this problem. You can either pass ``autospec=True`` to
+:func:`patch` / :func:`patch.object` or use the :func:`create_autospec` function to create a
+mock with a spec. If you use the ``autospec=True`` argument to :func:`patch` then the
+object that is being replaced will be used as the spec object. Because the
+speccing is done "lazily" (the spec is created as attributes on the mock are
+accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects (like
+modules that import modules that import modules) without a big performance
+hit.
+
+Here's an example of it in use:
+
+    >>> from urllib import request
+    >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True)
+    >>> mock_request = patcher.start()
+    >>> request is mock_request
+    True
+    >>> mock_request.Request
+    <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>
+
+You can see that :class:`request.Request` has a spec. :class:`request.Request` takes two
+arguments in the constructor (one of which is *self*). Here's what happens if
+we try to call it incorrectly:
+
+    >>> req = request.Request()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+    TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)
+
+The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e. the return value of
+specced mocks):
+
+    >>> req = request.Request('foo')
+    >>> req
+    <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>
+
+:class:`Request` objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating our
+mocked out :class:`request.Request` is a non-callable mock. With the spec in place
+any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error:
+
+    >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
+    <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'>
+    >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+    AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
+    >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs')
+
+In many cases you will just be able to add ``autospec=True`` to your existing
+:func:`patch` calls and then be protected against bugs due to typos and api
+changes.
+
+As well as using *autospec* through :func:`patch` there is a
+:func:`create_autospec` for creating autospecced mocks directly:
+
+    >>> from urllib import request
+    >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request)
+    >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar')
+    <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>
+
+This isn't without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is not
+the default behaviour. In order to know what attributes are available on the
+spec object, autospec has to introspect (access attributes) the spec. As you
+traverse attributes on the mock a corresponding traversal of the original
+object is happening under the hood. If any of your specced objects have
+properties or descriptors that can trigger code execution then you may not be
+able to use autospec. On the other hand it is much better to design your
+objects so that introspection is safe [#]_.
+
+A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to be
+created in the :meth:`__init__` method and not to exist on the class at all.
+*autospec* can't know about any dynamically created attributes and restricts
+the api to visible attributes.
+
+    >>> class Something:
+    ...   def __init__(self):
+    ...     self.a = 33
+    ...
+    >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
+    ...   thing = Something()
+    ...   thing.a
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'
+
+There are a few different ways of resolving this problem. The easiest, but
+not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the required
+attributes on the mock after creation. Just because *autospec* doesn't allow
+you to fetch attributes that don't exist on the spec it doesn't prevent you
+setting them:
+
+    >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
+    ...   thing = Something()
+    ...   thing.a = 33
+    ...
+
+There is a more aggressive version of both *spec* and *autospec* that *does*
+prevent you setting non-existent attributes. This is useful if you want to
+ensure your code only *sets* valid attributes too, but obviously it prevents
+this particular scenario:
+
+    >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True):
+    ...   thing = Something()
+    ...   thing.a = 33
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+    AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'
+
+Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes as
+default values for instance members initialised in :meth:`__init__`. Note that if
+you are only setting default attributes in :meth:`__init__` then providing them via
+class attributes (shared between instances of course) is faster too. e.g.
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+    class Something:
+        a = 33
+
+This brings up another issue. It is relatively common to provide a default
+value of ``None`` for members that will later be an object of a different type.
+``None`` would be useless as a spec because it wouldn't let you access *any*
+attributes or methods on it. As ``None`` is *never* going to be useful as a
+spec, and probably indicates a member that will normally of some other type,
+autospec doesn't use a spec for members that are set to ``None``. These will
+just be ordinary mocks (well - MagicMocks):
+
+    >>> class Something:
+    ...     member = None
+    ...
+    >>> mock = create_autospec(Something)
+    >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz()
+    <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'>
+
+If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn't to your liking
+then there are more options. One of these is simply to use an instance as the
+spec rather than the class. The other is to create a subclass of the
+production class and add the defaults to the subclass without affecting the
+production class. Both of these require you to use an alternative object as
+the spec. Thankfully :func:`patch` supports this - you can simply pass the
+alternative object as the *autospec* argument:
+
+    >>> class Something:
+    ...   def __init__(self):
+    ...     self.a = 33
+    ...
+    >>> class SomethingForTest(Something):
+    ...   a = 33
+    ...
+    >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest)
+    >>> mock = p.start()
+    >>> mock.a
+    <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'>
+
+
+.. [#] This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects. Calling
+   a mocked class to create a mock instance *does not* create a real instance.
+   It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to :func:`dir` - that are done.
+
+Sealing mocks
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. function:: seal(mock)
+
+    Seal will disable the automatic creation of mocks when accessing an attribute of
+    the mock being sealed or any of its attributes that are already mocks recursively.
+
+    If a mock instance with a name or a spec is assigned to an attribute
+    it won't be considered in the sealing chain. This allows one to prevent seal from
+    fixing part of the mock object.
+
+        >>> mock = Mock()
+        >>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2
+        >>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name")
+        >>> seal(mock)
+        >>> mock.new_attribute  # This will raise AttributeError.
+        >>> mock.submock.attribute2  # This will raise AttributeError.
+        >>> mock.not_submock.attribute2  # This won't raise.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.7
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbe1429
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unittest.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2337 @@
+:mod:`unittest` --- Unit testing framework
+==========================================
+
+.. module:: unittest
+   :synopsis: Unit testing framework for Python.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Steve Purcell <stephen_purcell@yahoo.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steve Purcell <stephen_purcell@yahoo.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/unittest/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+(If you are already familiar with the basic concepts of testing, you might want
+to skip to :ref:`the list of assert methods <assert-methods>`.)
+
+The :mod:`unittest` unit testing framework was originally inspired by JUnit
+and has a similar flavor as major unit testing frameworks in other
+languages.  It supports test automation, sharing of setup and shutdown code
+for tests, aggregation of tests into collections, and independence of the
+tests from the reporting framework.
+
+To achieve this, :mod:`unittest` supports some important concepts in an
+object-oriented way:
+
+test fixture
+   A :dfn:`test fixture` represents the preparation needed to perform one or more
+   tests, and any associate cleanup actions.  This may involve, for example,
+   creating temporary or proxy databases, directories, or starting a server
+   process.
+
+test case
+   A :dfn:`test case` is the individual unit of testing.  It checks for a specific
+   response to a particular set of inputs.  :mod:`unittest` provides a base class,
+   :class:`TestCase`, which may be used to create new test cases.
+
+test suite
+   A :dfn:`test suite` is a collection of test cases, test suites, or both.  It is
+   used to aggregate tests that should be executed together.
+
+test runner
+   A :dfn:`test runner` is a component which orchestrates the execution of tests
+   and provides the outcome to the user.  The runner may use a graphical interface,
+   a textual interface, or return a special value to indicate the results of
+   executing the tests.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`doctest`
+      Another test-support module with a very different flavor.
+
+   `Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns <https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm>`_
+      Kent Beck's original paper on testing frameworks using the pattern shared
+      by :mod:`unittest`.
+
+   `Nose <https://nose.readthedocs.io/>`_ and `pytest <https://docs.pytest.org/>`_
+      Third-party unittest frameworks with a lighter-weight syntax for writing
+      tests.  For example, ``assert func(10) == 42``.
+
+   `The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy <https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy>`_
+      An extensive list of Python testing tools including functional testing
+      frameworks and mock object libraries.
+
+   `Testing in Python Mailing List <http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python>`_
+      A special-interest-group for discussion of testing, and testing tools,
+      in Python.
+
+   The script :file:`Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py` in the Python source distribution is
+   a GUI tool for test discovery and execution.  This is intended largely for ease of use
+   for those new to unit testing.  For production environments it is
+   recommended that tests be driven by a continuous integration system such as
+   `Buildbot <https://buildbot.net/>`_, `Jenkins <https://jenkins.io/>`_
+   or  `Hudson <http://hudson-ci.org/>`_.
+
+
+.. _unittest-minimal-example:
+
+Basic example
+-------------
+
+The :mod:`unittest` module provides a rich set of tools for constructing and
+running tests.  This section demonstrates that a small subset of the tools
+suffice to meet the needs of most users.
+
+Here is a short script to test three string methods::
+
+  import unittest
+
+  class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):
+
+      def test_upper(self):
+          self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')
+
+      def test_isupper(self):
+          self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
+          self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())
+
+      def test_split(self):
+          s = 'hello world'
+          self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
+          # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
+          with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+              s.split(2)
+
+  if __name__ == '__main__':
+      unittest.main()
+
+
+A testcase is created by subclassing :class:`unittest.TestCase`.  The three
+individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with the letters
+``test``.  This naming convention informs the test runner about which methods
+represent tests.
+
+The crux of each test is a call to :meth:`~TestCase.assertEqual` to check for an
+expected result; :meth:`~TestCase.assertTrue` or :meth:`~TestCase.assertFalse`
+to verify a condition; or :meth:`~TestCase.assertRaises` to verify that a
+specific exception gets raised.  These methods are used instead of the
+:keyword:`assert` statement so the test runner can accumulate all test results
+and produce a report.
+
+The :meth:`~TestCase.setUp` and :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown` methods allow you
+to define instructions that will be executed before and after each test method.
+They are covered in more detail in the section :ref:`organizing-tests`.
+
+The final block shows a simple way to run the tests. :func:`unittest.main`
+provides a command-line interface to the test script.  When run from the command
+line, the above script produces an output that looks like this::
+
+   ...
+   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Ran 3 tests in 0.000s
+
+   OK
+
+Passing the ``-v`` option to your test script will instruct :func:`unittest.main`
+to enable a higher level of verbosity, and produce the following output::
+
+   test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods) ... ok
+   test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods) ... ok
+   test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods) ... ok
+
+   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Ran 3 tests in 0.001s
+
+   OK
+
+The above examples show the most commonly used :mod:`unittest` features which
+are sufficient to meet many everyday testing needs.  The remainder of the
+documentation explores the full feature set from first principles.
+
+
+.. _unittest-command-line-interface:
+
+Command-Line Interface
+----------------------
+
+The unittest module can be used from the command line to run tests from
+modules, classes or even individual test methods::
+
+   python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2
+   python -m unittest test_module.TestClass
+   python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method
+
+You can pass in a list with any combination of module names, and fully
+qualified class or method names.
+
+Test modules can be specified by file path as well::
+
+   python -m unittest tests/test_something.py
+
+This allows you to use the shell filename completion to specify the test module.
+The file specified must still be importable as a module. The path is converted
+to a module name by removing the '.py' and converting path separators into '.'.
+If you want to execute a test file that isn't importable as a module you should
+execute the file directly instead.
+
+You can run tests with more detail (higher verbosity) by passing in the -v flag::
+
+   python -m unittest -v test_module
+
+When executed without arguments :ref:`unittest-test-discovery` is started::
+
+   python -m unittest
+
+For a list of all the command-line options::
+
+   python -m unittest -h
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   In earlier versions it was only possible to run individual test methods and
+   not modules or classes.
+
+
+Command-line options
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+:program:`unittest` supports these command-line options:
+
+.. program:: unittest
+
+.. cmdoption:: -b, --buffer
+
+   The standard output and standard error streams are buffered during the test
+   run. Output during a passing test is discarded. Output is echoed normally
+   on test fail or error and is added to the failure messages.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -c, --catch
+
+   :kbd:`Control-C` during the test run waits for the current test to end and then
+   reports all the results so far. A second :kbd:`Control-C` raises the normal
+   :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception.
+
+   See `Signal Handling`_ for the functions that provide this functionality.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -f, --failfast
+
+   Stop the test run on the first error or failure.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -k
+
+   Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or substring.
+   This option may be used multiple times, in which case all test cases that
+   match of the given patterns are included.
+
+   Patterns that contain a wildcard character (``*``) are matched against the
+   test name using :meth:`fnmatch.fnmatchcase`; otherwise simple case-sensitive
+   substring matching is used.
+
+   Patterns are matched against the fully qualified test method name as
+   imported by the test loader.
+
+   For example, ``-k foo`` matches ``foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something``,
+   ``bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo``, but not ``bar_tests.FooTest.test_something``.
+
+.. cmdoption:: --locals
+
+   Show local variables in tracebacks.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+   The command-line options ``-b``, ``-c`` and ``-f`` were added.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+   The command-line option ``--locals``.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+   The command-line option ``-k``.
+
+The command line can also be used for test discovery, for running all of the
+tests in a project or just a subset.
+
+
+.. _unittest-test-discovery:
+
+Test Discovery
+--------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+Unittest supports simple test discovery. In order to be compatible with test
+discovery, all of the test files must be :ref:`modules <tut-modules>` or
+:ref:`packages <tut-packages>` (including :term:`namespace packages
+<namespace package>`) importable from the top-level directory of
+the project (this means that their filenames must be valid :ref:`identifiers
+<identifiers>`).
+
+Test discovery is implemented in :meth:`TestLoader.discover`, but can also be
+used from the command line. The basic command-line usage is::
+
+   cd project_directory
+   python -m unittest discover
+
+.. note::
+
+   As a shortcut, ``python -m unittest`` is the equivalent of
+   ``python -m unittest discover``. If you want to pass arguments to test
+   discovery the ``discover`` sub-command must be used explicitly.
+
+The ``discover`` sub-command has the following options:
+
+.. program:: unittest discover
+
+.. cmdoption:: -v, --verbose
+
+   Verbose output
+
+.. cmdoption:: -s, --start-directory directory
+
+   Directory to start discovery (``.`` default)
+
+.. cmdoption:: -p, --pattern pattern
+
+   Pattern to match test files (``test*.py`` default)
+
+.. cmdoption:: -t, --top-level-directory directory
+
+   Top level directory of project (defaults to start directory)
+
+The :option:`-s`, :option:`-p`, and :option:`-t` options can be passed in
+as positional arguments in that order. The following two command lines
+are equivalent::
+
+   python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py"
+   python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py"
+
+As well as being a path it is possible to pass a package name, for example
+``myproject.subpackage.test``, as the start directory. The package name you
+supply will then be imported and its location on the filesystem will be used
+as the start directory.
+
+.. caution::
+
+    Test discovery loads tests by importing them. Once test discovery has found
+    all the test files from the start directory you specify it turns the paths
+    into package names to import. For example :file:`foo/bar/baz.py` will be
+    imported as ``foo.bar.baz``.
+
+    If you have a package installed globally and attempt test discovery on
+    a different copy of the package then the import *could* happen from the
+    wrong place. If this happens test discovery will warn you and exit.
+
+    If you supply the start directory as a package name rather than a
+    path to a directory then discover assumes that whichever location it
+    imports from is the location you intended, so you will not get the
+    warning.
+
+Test modules and packages can customize test loading and discovery by through
+the `load_tests protocol`_.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Test discovery supports :term:`namespace packages <namespace package>`.
+
+
+.. _organizing-tests:
+
+Organizing test code
+--------------------
+
+The basic building blocks of unit testing are :dfn:`test cases` --- single
+scenarios that must be set up and checked for correctness.  In :mod:`unittest`,
+test cases are represented by :class:`unittest.TestCase` instances.
+To make your own test cases you must write subclasses of
+:class:`TestCase` or use :class:`FunctionTestCase`.
+
+The testing code of a :class:`TestCase` instance should be entirely self
+contained, such that it can be run either in isolation or in arbitrary
+combination with any number of other test cases.
+
+The simplest :class:`TestCase` subclass will simply implement a test method
+(i.e. a method whose name starts with ``test``) in order to perform specific
+testing code::
+
+   import unittest
+
+   class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+       def test_default_widget_size(self):
+           widget = Widget('The widget')
+           self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50))
+
+Note that in order to test something, we use one of the :meth:`assert\*`
+methods provided by the :class:`TestCase` base class.  If the test fails, an
+exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and :mod:`unittest`
+will identify the test case as a :dfn:`failure`.  Any other exceptions will be
+treated as :dfn:`errors`.
+
+Tests can be numerous, and their set-up can be repetitive.  Luckily, we
+can factor out set-up code by implementing a method called
+:meth:`~TestCase.setUp`, which the testing framework will automatically
+call for every single test we run::
+
+   import unittest
+
+   class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+       def setUp(self):
+           self.widget = Widget('The widget')
+
+       def test_default_widget_size(self):
+           self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50),
+                            'incorrect default size')
+
+       def test_widget_resize(self):
+           self.widget.resize(100,150)
+           self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150),
+                            'wrong size after resize')
+
+.. note::
+   The order in which the various tests will be run is determined
+   by sorting the test method names with respect to the built-in
+   ordering for strings.
+
+If the :meth:`~TestCase.setUp` method raises an exception while the test is
+running, the framework will consider the test to have suffered an error, and
+the test method will not be executed.
+
+Similarly, we can provide a :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown` method that tidies up
+after the test method has been run::
+
+   import unittest
+
+   class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+       def setUp(self):
+           self.widget = Widget('The widget')
+
+       def tearDown(self):
+           self.widget.dispose()
+
+If :meth:`~TestCase.setUp` succeeded, :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown` will be
+run whether the test method succeeded or not.
+
+Such a working environment for the testing code is called a
+:dfn:`test fixture`.  A new TestCase instance is created as a unique
+test fixture used to execute each individual test method.  Thus
+:meth:`~TestCase.setUp`, :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown`, and :meth:`~TestCase.__init__`
+will be called once per test.
+
+It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests together
+according to the features they test.  :mod:`unittest` provides a mechanism for
+this: the :dfn:`test suite`, represented by :mod:`unittest`'s
+:class:`TestSuite` class.  In most cases, calling :func:`unittest.main` will do
+the right thing and collect all the module's test cases for you and execute
+them.
+
+However, should you want to customize the building of your test suite,
+you can do it yourself::
+
+   def suite():
+       suite = unittest.TestSuite()
+       suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size'))
+       suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize'))
+       return suite
+
+   if __name__ == '__main__':
+       runner = unittest.TextTestRunner()
+       runner.run(suite())
+
+You can place the definitions of test cases and test suites in the same modules
+as the code they are to test (such as :file:`widget.py`), but there are several
+advantages to placing the test code in a separate module, such as
+:file:`test_widget.py`:
+
+* The test module can be run standalone from the command line.
+
+* The test code can more easily be separated from shipped code.
+
+* There is less temptation to change test code to fit the code it tests without
+  a good reason.
+
+* Test code should be modified much less frequently than the code it tests.
+
+* Tested code can be refactored more easily.
+
+* Tests for modules written in C must be in separate modules anyway, so why not
+  be consistent?
+
+* If the testing strategy changes, there is no need to change the source code.
+
+
+.. _legacy-unit-tests:
+
+Re-using old test code
+----------------------
+
+Some users will find that they have existing test code that they would like to
+run from :mod:`unittest`, without converting every old test function to a
+:class:`TestCase` subclass.
+
+For this reason, :mod:`unittest` provides a :class:`FunctionTestCase` class.
+This subclass of :class:`TestCase` can be used to wrap an existing test
+function.  Set-up and tear-down functions can also be provided.
+
+Given the following test function::
+
+   def testSomething():
+       something = makeSomething()
+       assert something.name is not None
+       # ...
+
+one can create an equivalent test case instance as follows, with optional
+set-up and tear-down methods::
+
+   testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething,
+                                        setUp=makeSomethingDB,
+                                        tearDown=deleteSomethingDB)
+
+.. note::
+
+   Even though :class:`FunctionTestCase` can be used to quickly convert an
+   existing test base over to a :mod:`unittest`\ -based system, this approach is
+   not recommended.  Taking the time to set up proper :class:`TestCase`
+   subclasses will make future test refactorings infinitely easier.
+
+In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the :mod:`doctest`
+module.  If so, :mod:`doctest` provides a :class:`DocTestSuite` class that can
+automatically build :class:`unittest.TestSuite` instances from the existing
+:mod:`doctest`\ -based tests.
+
+
+.. _unittest-skipping:
+
+Skipping tests and expected failures
+------------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+Unittest supports skipping individual test methods and even whole classes of
+tests.  In addition, it supports marking a test as an "expected failure," a test
+that is broken and will fail, but shouldn't be counted as a failure on a
+:class:`TestResult`.
+
+Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the :func:`skip` :term:`decorator`
+or one of its conditional variants, calling :meth:`TestCase.skipTest` within a
+:meth:`~TestCase.setUp` or test method, or raising :exc:`SkipTest` directly.
+
+Basic skipping looks like this::
+
+   class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+
+       @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping")
+       def test_nothing(self):
+           self.fail("shouldn't happen")
+
+       @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3),
+                        "not supported in this library version")
+       def test_format(self):
+           # Tests that work for only a certain version of the library.
+           pass
+
+       @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
+       def test_windows_support(self):
+           # windows specific testing code
+           pass
+
+       def test_maybe_skipped(self):
+           if not external_resource_available():
+               self.skipTest("external resource not available")
+           # test code that depends on the external resource
+           pass
+
+This is the output of running the example above in verbose mode::
+
+   test_format (__main__.MyTestCase) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version'
+   test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping'
+   test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase) ... skipped 'external resource not available'
+   test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase) ... skipped 'requires Windows'
+
+   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Ran 4 tests in 0.005s
+
+   OK (skipped=4)
+
+Classes can be skipped just like methods::
+
+   @unittest.skip("showing class skipping")
+   class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+       def test_not_run(self):
+           pass
+
+:meth:`TestCase.setUp` can also skip the test.  This is useful when a resource
+that needs to be set up is not available.
+
+Expected failures use the :func:`expectedFailure` decorator. ::
+
+   class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+       @unittest.expectedFailure
+       def test_fail(self):
+           self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken")
+
+It's easy to roll your own skipping decorators by making a decorator that calls
+:func:`skip` on the test when it wants it to be skipped.  This decorator skips
+the test unless the passed object has a certain attribute::
+
+   def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr):
+       if hasattr(obj, attr):
+           return lambda func: func
+       return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr))
+
+The following decorators and exception implement test skipping and expected failures:
+
+.. decorator:: skip(reason)
+
+   Unconditionally skip the decorated test.  *reason* should describe why the
+   test is being skipped.
+
+.. decorator:: skipIf(condition, reason)
+
+   Skip the decorated test if *condition* is true.
+
+.. decorator:: skipUnless(condition, reason)
+
+   Skip the decorated test unless *condition* is true.
+
+.. decorator:: expectedFailure
+
+   Mark the test as an expected failure.  If the test fails it will be
+   considered a success.  If the test passes, it will be considered a failure.
+
+.. exception:: SkipTest(reason)
+
+   This exception is raised to skip a test.
+
+   Usually you can use :meth:`TestCase.skipTest` or one of the skipping
+   decorators instead of raising this directly.
+
+Skipped tests will not have :meth:`~TestCase.setUp` or :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown` run around them.
+Skipped classes will not have :meth:`~TestCase.setUpClass` or :meth:`~TestCase.tearDownClass` run.
+Skipped modules will not have :func:`setUpModule` or :func:`tearDownModule` run.
+
+
+.. _subtests:
+
+Distinguishing test iterations using subtests
+---------------------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+When there are very small differences among your tests, for
+instance some parameters, unittest allows you to distinguish them inside
+the body of a test method using the :meth:`~TestCase.subTest` context manager.
+
+For example, the following test::
+
+   class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
+
+       def test_even(self):
+           """
+           Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
+           """
+           for i in range(0, 6):
+               with self.subTest(i=i):
+                   self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
+
+will produce the following output::
+
+   ======================================================================
+   FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest) (i=1)
+   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
+       self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
+   AssertionError: 1 != 0
+
+   ======================================================================
+   FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest) (i=3)
+   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
+       self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
+   AssertionError: 1 != 0
+
+   ======================================================================
+   FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest) (i=5)
+   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
+       self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
+   AssertionError: 1 != 0
+
+Without using a subtest, execution would stop after the first failure,
+and the error would be less easy to diagnose because the value of ``i``
+wouldn't be displayed::
+
+   ======================================================================
+   FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest)
+   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
+       self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
+   AssertionError: 1 != 0
+
+
+.. _unittest-contents:
+
+Classes and functions
+---------------------
+
+This section describes in depth the API of :mod:`unittest`.
+
+
+.. _testcase-objects:
+
+Test cases
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. class:: TestCase(methodName='runTest')
+
+   Instances of the :class:`TestCase` class represent the logical test units
+   in the :mod:`unittest` universe.  This class is intended to be used as a base
+   class, with specific tests being implemented by concrete subclasses.  This class
+   implements the interface needed by the test runner to allow it to drive the
+   tests, and methods that the test code can use to check for and report various
+   kinds of failure.
+
+   Each instance of :class:`TestCase` will run a single base method: the method
+   named *methodName*.
+   In most uses of :class:`TestCase`, you will neither change
+   the *methodName* nor reimplement the default ``runTest()`` method.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      :class:`TestCase` can be instantiated successfully without providing a
+      *methodName*. This makes it easier to experiment with :class:`TestCase`
+      from the interactive interpreter.
+
+   :class:`TestCase` instances provide three groups of methods: one group used
+   to run the test, another used by the test implementation to check conditions
+   and report failures, and some inquiry methods allowing information about the
+   test itself to be gathered.
+
+   Methods in the first group (running the test) are:
+
+   .. method:: setUp()
+
+      Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called immediately
+      before calling the test method; other than :exc:`AssertionError` or :exc:`SkipTest`,
+      any exception raised by this method will be considered an error rather than
+      a test failure. The default implementation does nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: tearDown()
+
+      Method called immediately after the test method has been called and the
+      result recorded.  This is called even if the test method raised an
+      exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need to be particularly
+      careful about checking internal state.  Any exception, other than
+      :exc:`AssertionError` or :exc:`SkipTest`, raised by this method will be
+      considered an additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing
+      the total number of reported errors). This method will only be called if
+      the :meth:`setUp` succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test method.
+      The default implementation does nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: setUpClass()
+
+      A class method called before tests in an individual class are run.
+      ``setUpClass`` is called with the class as the only argument
+      and must be decorated as a :func:`classmethod`::
+
+        @classmethod
+        def setUpClass(cls):
+            ...
+
+      See `Class and Module Fixtures`_ for more details.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: tearDownClass()
+
+      A class method called after tests in an individual class have run.
+      ``tearDownClass`` is called with the class as the only argument
+      and must be decorated as a :meth:`classmethod`::
+
+        @classmethod
+        def tearDownClass(cls):
+            ...
+
+      See `Class and Module Fixtures`_ for more details.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: run(result=None)
+
+      Run the test, collecting the result into the :class:`TestResult` object
+      passed as *result*.  If *result* is omitted or ``None``, a temporary
+      result object is created (by calling the :meth:`defaultTestResult`
+      method) and used. The result object is returned to :meth:`run`'s
+      caller.
+
+      The same effect may be had by simply calling the :class:`TestCase`
+      instance.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Previous versions of ``run`` did not return the result. Neither did
+         calling an instance.
+
+   .. method:: skipTest(reason)
+
+      Calling this during a test method or :meth:`setUp` skips the current
+      test.  See :ref:`unittest-skipping` for more information.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: subTest(msg=None, **params)
+
+      Return a context manager which executes the enclosed code block as a
+      subtest.  *msg* and *params* are optional, arbitrary values which are
+      displayed whenever a subtest fails, allowing you to identify them
+      clearly.
+
+      A test case can contain any number of subtest declarations, and
+      they can be arbitrarily nested.
+
+      See :ref:`subtests` for more information.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+   .. method:: debug()
+
+      Run the test without collecting the result.  This allows exceptions raised
+      by the test to be propagated to the caller, and can be used to support
+      running tests under a debugger.
+
+   .. _assert-methods:
+
+   The :class:`TestCase` class provides several assert methods to check for and
+   report failures.  The following table lists the most commonly used methods
+   (see the tables below for more assert methods):
+
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | Method                                  | Checks that                 | New in        |
+   +=========================================+=============================+===============+
+   | :meth:`assertEqual(a, b)                | ``a == b``                  |               |
+   | <TestCase.assertEqual>`                 |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertNotEqual(a, b)             | ``a != b``                  |               |
+   | <TestCase.assertNotEqual>`              |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertTrue(x)                    | ``bool(x) is True``         |               |
+   | <TestCase.assertTrue>`                  |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertFalse(x)                   | ``bool(x) is False``        |               |
+   | <TestCase.assertFalse>`                 |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertIs(a, b)                   | ``a is b``                  | 3.1           |
+   | <TestCase.assertIs>`                    |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertIsNot(a, b)                | ``a is not b``              | 3.1           |
+   | <TestCase.assertIsNot>`                 |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertIsNone(x)                  | ``x is None``               | 3.1           |
+   | <TestCase.assertIsNone>`                |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertIsNotNone(x)               | ``x is not None``           | 3.1           |
+   | <TestCase.assertIsNotNone>`             |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertIn(a, b)                   | ``a in b``                  | 3.1           |
+   | <TestCase.assertIn>`                    |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertNotIn(a, b)                | ``a not in b``              | 3.1           |
+   | <TestCase.assertNotIn>`                 |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertIsInstance(a, b)           | ``isinstance(a, b)``        | 3.2           |
+   | <TestCase.assertIsInstance>`            |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+   | :meth:`assertNotIsInstance(a, b)        | ``not isinstance(a, b)``    | 3.2           |
+   | <TestCase.assertNotIsInstance>`         |                             |               |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+
+
+   All the assert methods accept a *msg* argument that, if specified, is used
+   as the error message on failure (see also :data:`longMessage`).
+   Note that the *msg* keyword argument can be passed to :meth:`assertRaises`,
+   :meth:`assertRaisesRegex`, :meth:`assertWarns`, :meth:`assertWarnsRegex`
+   only when they are used as a context manager.
+
+   .. method:: assertEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *first* and *second* are equal.  If the values do not
+      compare equal, the test will fail.
+
+      In addition, if *first* and *second* are the exact same type and one of
+      list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset or str or any type that a subclass
+      registers with :meth:`addTypeEqualityFunc` the type-specific equality
+      function will be called in order to generate a more useful default
+      error message (see also the :ref:`list of type-specific methods
+      <type-specific-methods>`).
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+         Added the automatic calling of type-specific equality function.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         :meth:`assertMultiLineEqual` added as the default type equality
+         function for comparing strings.
+
+
+   .. method:: assertNotEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *first* and *second* are not equal.  If the values do
+      compare equal, the test will fail.
+
+   .. method:: assertTrue(expr, msg=None)
+               assertFalse(expr, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *expr* is true (or false).
+
+      Note that this is equivalent to ``bool(expr) is True`` and not to ``expr
+      is True`` (use ``assertIs(expr, True)`` for the latter).  This method
+      should also be avoided when more specific methods are available (e.g.
+      ``assertEqual(a, b)`` instead of ``assertTrue(a == b)``), because they
+      provide a better error message in case of failure.
+
+
+   .. method:: assertIs(first, second, msg=None)
+               assertIsNot(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *first* and *second* evaluate (or don't evaluate) to the
+      same object.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertIsNone(expr, msg=None)
+               assertIsNotNone(expr, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *expr* is (or is not) ``None``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertIn(first, second, msg=None)
+               assertNotIn(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *first* is (or is not) in *second*.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertIsInstance(obj, cls, msg=None)
+               assertNotIsInstance(obj, cls, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *obj* is (or is not) an instance of *cls* (which can be a
+      class or a tuple of classes, as supported by :func:`isinstance`).
+      To check for the exact type, use :func:`assertIs(type(obj), cls) <assertIs>`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+
+   It is also possible to check the production of exceptions, warnings, and
+   log messages using the following methods:
+
+   +---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------+
+   | Method                                                  | Checks that                          | New in     |
+   +=========================================================+======================================+============+
+   | :meth:`assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds)            | ``fun(*args, **kwds)`` raises *exc*  |            |
+   | <TestCase.assertRaises>`                                |                                      |            |
+   +---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------+
+   | :meth:`assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds)    | ``fun(*args, **kwds)`` raises *exc*  | 3.1        |
+   | <TestCase.assertRaisesRegex>`                           | and the message matches regex *r*    |            |
+   +---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------+
+   | :meth:`assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds)            | ``fun(*args, **kwds)`` raises *warn* | 3.2        |
+   | <TestCase.assertWarns>`                                 |                                      |            |
+   +---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------+
+   | :meth:`assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds)    | ``fun(*args, **kwds)`` raises *warn* | 3.2        |
+   | <TestCase.assertWarnsRegex>`                            | and the message matches regex *r*    |            |
+   +---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------+
+   | :meth:`assertLogs(logger, level)                        | The ``with`` block logs on *logger*  | 3.4        |
+   | <TestCase.assertLogs>`                                  | with minimum *level*                 |            |
+   +---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------+
+
+   .. method:: assertRaises(exception, callable, *args, **kwds)
+               assertRaises(exception, *, msg=None)
+
+      Test that an exception is raised when *callable* is called with any
+      positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to
+      :meth:`assertRaises`.  The test passes if *exception* is raised, is an
+      error if another exception is raised, or fails if no exception is raised.
+      To catch any of a group of exceptions, a tuple containing the exception
+      classes may be passed as *exception*.
+
+      If only the *exception* and possibly the *msg* arguments are given,
+      return a context manager so that the code under test can be written
+      inline rather than as a function::
+
+         with self.assertRaises(SomeException):
+             do_something()
+
+      When used as a context manager, :meth:`assertRaises` accepts the
+      additional keyword argument *msg*.
+
+      The context manager will store the caught exception object in its
+      :attr:`exception` attribute.  This can be useful if the intention
+      is to perform additional checks on the exception raised::
+
+         with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
+             do_something()
+
+         the_exception = cm.exception
+         self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3)
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+         Added the ability to use :meth:`assertRaises` as a context manager.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Added the :attr:`exception` attribute.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager.
+
+
+   .. method:: assertRaisesRegex(exception, regex, callable, *args, **kwds)
+               assertRaisesRegex(exception, regex, *, msg=None)
+
+      Like :meth:`assertRaises` but also tests that *regex* matches
+      on the string representation of the raised exception.  *regex* may be
+      a regular expression object or a string containing a regular expression
+      suitable for use by :func:`re.search`.  Examples::
+
+         self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$",
+                                int, 'XYZ')
+
+      or::
+
+         with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'):
+            int('XYZ')
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+         Added under the name ``assertRaisesRegexp``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Renamed to :meth:`assertRaisesRegex`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager.
+
+
+   .. method:: assertWarns(warning, callable, *args, **kwds)
+               assertWarns(warning, *, msg=None)
+
+      Test that a warning is triggered when *callable* is called with any
+      positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to
+      :meth:`assertWarns`.  The test passes if *warning* is triggered and
+      fails if it isn't.  Any exception is an error.
+      To catch any of a group of warnings, a tuple containing the warning
+      classes may be passed as *warnings*.
+
+      If only the *warning* and possibly the *msg* arguments are given,
+      return a context manager so that the code under test can be written
+      inline rather than as a function::
+
+         with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning):
+             do_something()
+
+      When used as a context manager, :meth:`assertWarns` accepts the
+      additional keyword argument *msg*.
+
+      The context manager will store the caught warning object in its
+      :attr:`warning` attribute, and the source line which triggered the
+      warnings in the :attr:`filename` and :attr:`lineno` attributes.
+      This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks
+      on the warning caught::
+
+         with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm:
+             do_something()
+
+         self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename)
+         self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno)
+
+      This method works regardless of the warning filters in place when it
+      is called.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager.
+
+
+   .. method:: assertWarnsRegex(warning, regex, callable, *args, **kwds)
+               assertWarnsRegex(warning, regex, *, msg=None)
+
+      Like :meth:`assertWarns` but also tests that *regex* matches on the
+      message of the triggered warning.  *regex* may be a regular expression
+      object or a string containing a regular expression suitable for use
+      by :func:`re.search`.  Example::
+
+         self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning,
+                               r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated',
+                               legacy_function, 'XYZ')
+
+      or::
+
+         with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'):
+             frobnicate('/etc/passwd')
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager.
+
+   .. method:: assertLogs(logger=None, level=None)
+
+      A context manager to test that at least one message is logged on
+      the *logger* or one of its children, with at least the given
+      *level*.
+
+      If given, *logger* should be a :class:`logging.Logger` object or a
+      :class:`str` giving the name of a logger.  The default is the root
+      logger, which will catch all messages.
+
+      If given, *level* should be either a numeric logging level or
+      its string equivalent (for example either ``"ERROR"`` or
+      :attr:`logging.ERROR`).  The default is :attr:`logging.INFO`.
+
+      The test passes if at least one message emitted inside the ``with``
+      block matches the *logger* and *level* conditions, otherwise it fails.
+
+      The object returned by the context manager is a recording helper
+      which keeps tracks of the matching log messages.  It has two
+      attributes:
+
+      .. attribute:: records
+
+         A list of :class:`logging.LogRecord` objects of the matching
+         log messages.
+
+      .. attribute:: output
+
+         A list of :class:`str` objects with the formatted output of
+         matching messages.
+
+      Example::
+
+         with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm:
+            logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message')
+            logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message')
+         self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message',
+                                      'ERROR:foo.bar:second message'])
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+   There are also other methods used to perform more specific checks, such as:
+
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | Method                                | Checks that                    | New in       |
+   +=======================================+================================+==============+
+   | :meth:`assertAlmostEqual(a, b)        | ``round(a-b, 7) == 0``         |              |
+   | <TestCase.assertAlmostEqual>`         |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)     | ``round(a-b, 7) != 0``         |              |
+   | <TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual>`      |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertGreater(a, b)            | ``a > b``                      | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertGreater>`             |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertGreaterEqual(a, b)       | ``a >= b``                     | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertGreaterEqual>`        |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertLess(a, b)               | ``a < b``                      | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertLess>`                |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertLessEqual(a, b)          | ``a <= b``                     | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertLessEqual>`           |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertRegex(s, r)              | ``r.search(s)``                | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertRegex>`               |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertNotRegex(s, r)           | ``not r.search(s)``            | 3.2          |
+   | <TestCase.assertNotRegex>`            |                                |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertCountEqual(a, b)         | *a* and *b* have the same      | 3.2          |
+   | <TestCase.assertCountEqual>`          | elements in the same number,   |              |
+   |                                       | regardless of their order.     |              |
+   +---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
+
+
+   .. method:: assertAlmostEqual(first, second, places=7, msg=None, delta=None)
+               assertNotAlmostEqual(first, second, places=7, msg=None, delta=None)
+
+      Test that *first* and *second* are approximately (or not approximately)
+      equal by computing the difference, rounding to the given number of
+      decimal *places* (default 7), and comparing to zero.  Note that these
+      methods round the values to the given number of *decimal places* (i.e.
+      like the :func:`round` function) and not *significant digits*.
+
+      If *delta* is supplied instead of *places* then the difference
+      between *first* and *second* must be less or equal to (or greater than) *delta*.
+
+      Supplying both *delta* and *places* raises a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         :meth:`assertAlmostEqual` automatically considers almost equal objects
+         that compare equal.  :meth:`assertNotAlmostEqual` automatically fails
+         if the objects compare equal.  Added the *delta* keyword argument.
+
+
+   .. method:: assertGreater(first, second, msg=None)
+               assertGreaterEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+               assertLess(first, second, msg=None)
+               assertLessEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that *first* is respectively >, >=, < or <= than *second* depending
+      on the method name.  If not, the test will fail::
+
+         >>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4)
+         AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4"
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertRegex(text, regex, msg=None)
+               assertNotRegex(text, regex, msg=None)
+
+      Test that a *regex* search matches (or does not match) *text*.  In case
+      of failure, the error message will include the pattern and the *text* (or
+      the pattern and the part of *text* that unexpectedly matched).  *regex*
+      may be a regular expression object or a string containing a regular
+      expression suitable for use by :func:`re.search`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+         Added under the name ``assertRegexpMatches``.
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         The method ``assertRegexpMatches()`` has been renamed to
+         :meth:`.assertRegex`.
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+         :meth:`.assertNotRegex`.
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+         The name ``assertNotRegexpMatches`` is a deprecated alias
+         for :meth:`.assertNotRegex`.
+
+
+   .. method:: assertCountEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that sequence *first* contains the same elements as *second*,
+      regardless of their order. When they don't, an error message listing the
+      differences between the sequences will be generated.
+
+      Duplicate elements are *not* ignored when comparing *first* and
+      *second*. It verifies whether each element has the same count in both
+      sequences. Equivalent to:
+      ``assertEqual(Counter(list(first)), Counter(list(second)))``
+      but works with sequences of unhashable objects as well.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. _type-specific-methods:
+
+   The :meth:`assertEqual` method dispatches the equality check for objects of
+   the same type to different type-specific methods.  These methods are already
+   implemented for most of the built-in types, but it's also possible to
+   register new methods using :meth:`addTypeEqualityFunc`:
+
+   .. method:: addTypeEqualityFunc(typeobj, function)
+
+      Registers a type-specific method called by :meth:`assertEqual` to check
+      if two objects of exactly the same *typeobj* (not subclasses) compare
+      equal.  *function* must take two positional arguments and a third msg=None
+      keyword argument just as :meth:`assertEqual` does.  It must raise
+      :data:`self.failureException(msg) <failureException>` when inequality
+      between the first two parameters is detected -- possibly providing useful
+      information and explaining the inequalities in details in the error
+      message.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   The list of type-specific methods automatically used by
+   :meth:`~TestCase.assertEqual` are summarized in the following table.  Note
+   that it's usually not necessary to invoke these methods directly.
+
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+   | Method                                  | Used to compare             | New in       |
+   +=========================================+=============================+==============+
+   | :meth:`assertMultiLineEqual(a, b)       | strings                     | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual>`        |                             |              |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertSequenceEqual(a, b)        | sequences                   | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertSequenceEqual>`         |                             |              |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertListEqual(a, b)            | lists                       | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertListEqual>`             |                             |              |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertTupleEqual(a, b)           | tuples                      | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertTupleEqual>`            |                             |              |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertSetEqual(a, b)             | sets or frozensets          | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertSetEqual>`              |                             |              |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+   | :meth:`assertDictEqual(a, b)            | dicts                       | 3.1          |
+   | <TestCase.assertDictEqual>`             |                             |              |
+   +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+
+
+
+   .. method:: assertMultiLineEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that the multiline string *first* is equal to the string *second*.
+      When not equal a diff of the two strings highlighting the differences
+      will be included in the error message. This method is used by default
+      when comparing strings with :meth:`assertEqual`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertSequenceEqual(first, second, msg=None, seq_type=None)
+
+      Tests that two sequences are equal.  If a *seq_type* is supplied, both
+      *first* and *second* must be instances of *seq_type* or a failure will
+      be raised.  If the sequences are different an error message is
+      constructed that shows the difference between the two.
+
+      This method is not called directly by :meth:`assertEqual`, but
+      it's used to implement :meth:`assertListEqual` and
+      :meth:`assertTupleEqual`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertListEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+               assertTupleEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Tests that two lists or tuples are equal.  If not, an error message is
+      constructed that shows only the differences between the two.  An error
+      is also raised if either of the parameters are of the wrong type.
+      These methods are used by default when comparing lists or tuples with
+      :meth:`assertEqual`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertSetEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Tests that two sets are equal.  If not, an error message is constructed
+      that lists the differences between the sets.  This method is used by
+      default when comparing sets or frozensets with :meth:`assertEqual`.
+
+      Fails if either of *first* or *second* does not have a :meth:`set.difference`
+      method.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: assertDictEqual(first, second, msg=None)
+
+      Test that two dictionaries are equal.  If not, an error message is
+      constructed that shows the differences in the dictionaries. This
+      method will be used by default to compare dictionaries in
+      calls to :meth:`assertEqual`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+
+   .. _other-methods-and-attrs:
+
+   Finally the :class:`TestCase` provides the following methods and attributes:
+
+
+   .. method:: fail(msg=None)
+
+      Signals a test failure unconditionally, with *msg* or ``None`` for
+      the error message.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: failureException
+
+      This class attribute gives the exception raised by the test method.  If a
+      test framework needs to use a specialized exception, possibly to carry
+      additional information, it must subclass this exception in order to "play
+      fair" with the framework.  The initial value of this attribute is
+      :exc:`AssertionError`.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: longMessage
+
+      This class attribute determines what happens when a custom failure message
+      is passed as the msg argument to an assertXYY call that fails.
+      ``True`` is the default value. In this case, the custom message is appended
+      to the end of the standard failure message.
+      When set to ``False``, the custom message replaces the standard message.
+
+      The class setting can be overridden in individual test methods by assigning
+      an instance attribute, self.longMessage, to ``True`` or ``False`` before
+      calling the assert methods.
+
+      The class setting gets reset before each test call.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. attribute:: maxDiff
+
+      This attribute controls the maximum length of diffs output by assert
+      methods that report diffs on failure. It defaults to 80*8 characters.
+      Assert methods affected by this attribute are
+      :meth:`assertSequenceEqual` (including all the sequence comparison
+      methods that delegate to it), :meth:`assertDictEqual` and
+      :meth:`assertMultiLineEqual`.
+
+      Setting ``maxDiff`` to ``None`` means that there is no maximum length of
+      diffs.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   Testing frameworks can use the following methods to collect information on
+   the test:
+
+
+   .. method:: countTestCases()
+
+      Return the number of tests represented by this test object.  For
+      :class:`TestCase` instances, this will always be ``1``.
+
+
+   .. method:: defaultTestResult()
+
+      Return an instance of the test result class that should be used for this
+      test case class (if no other result instance is provided to the
+      :meth:`run` method).
+
+      For :class:`TestCase` instances, this will always be an instance of
+      :class:`TestResult`; subclasses of :class:`TestCase` should override this
+      as necessary.
+
+
+   .. method:: id()
+
+      Return a string identifying the specific test case.  This is usually the
+      full name of the test method, including the module and class name.
+
+
+   .. method:: shortDescription()
+
+      Returns a description of the test, or ``None`` if no description
+      has been provided.  The default implementation of this method
+      returns the first line of the test method's docstring, if available,
+      or ``None``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+         In 3.1 this was changed to add the test name to the short description
+         even in the presence of a docstring.  This caused compatibility issues
+         with unittest extensions and adding the test name was moved to the
+         :class:`TextTestResult` in Python 3.2.
+
+
+   .. method:: addCleanup(function, *args, **kwargs)
+
+      Add a function to be called after :meth:`tearDown` to cleanup resources
+      used during the test. Functions will be called in reverse order to the
+      order they are added (:abbr:`LIFO (last-in, first-out)`).  They
+      are called with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into
+      :meth:`addCleanup` when they are added.
+
+      If :meth:`setUp` fails, meaning that :meth:`tearDown` is not called,
+      then any cleanup functions added will still be called.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: doCleanups()
+
+      This method is called unconditionally after :meth:`tearDown`, or
+      after :meth:`setUp` if :meth:`setUp` raises an exception.
+
+      It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by
+      :meth:`addCleanup`. If you need cleanup functions to be called
+      *prior* to :meth:`tearDown` then you can call :meth:`doCleanups`
+      yourself.
+
+      :meth:`doCleanups` pops methods off the stack of cleanup
+      functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+.. class:: FunctionTestCase(testFunc, setUp=None, tearDown=None, description=None)
+
+   This class implements the portion of the :class:`TestCase` interface which
+   allows the test runner to drive the test, but does not provide the methods
+   which test code can use to check and report errors.  This is used to create
+   test cases using legacy test code, allowing it to be integrated into a
+   :mod:`unittest`-based test framework.
+
+
+.. _deprecated-aliases:
+
+Deprecated aliases
+##################
+
+For historical reasons, some of the :class:`TestCase` methods had one or more
+aliases that are now deprecated.  The following table lists the correct names
+along with their deprecated aliases:
+
+   ==============================  ====================== =======================
+    Method Name                     Deprecated alias       Deprecated alias
+   ==============================  ====================== =======================
+    :meth:`.assertEqual`            failUnlessEqual        assertEquals
+    :meth:`.assertNotEqual`         failIfEqual            assertNotEquals
+    :meth:`.assertTrue`             failUnless             assert\_
+    :meth:`.assertFalse`            failIf
+    :meth:`.assertRaises`           failUnlessRaises
+    :meth:`.assertAlmostEqual`      failUnlessAlmostEqual  assertAlmostEquals
+    :meth:`.assertNotAlmostEqual`   failIfAlmostEqual      assertNotAlmostEquals
+    :meth:`.assertRegex`                                   assertRegexpMatches
+    :meth:`.assertNotRegex`                                assertNotRegexpMatches
+    :meth:`.assertRaisesRegex`                             assertRaisesRegexp
+   ==============================  ====================== =======================
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.1
+         The fail* aliases listed in the second column have been deprecated.
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+         The assert* aliases listed in the third column have been deprecated.
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+         ``assertRegexpMatches`` and ``assertRaisesRegexp`` have been renamed to
+         :meth:`.assertRegex` and :meth:`.assertRaisesRegex`.
+   .. deprecated:: 3.5
+         The ``assertNotRegexpMatches`` name is deprecated in favor of :meth:`.assertNotRegex`.
+
+.. _testsuite-objects:
+
+Grouping tests
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. class:: TestSuite(tests=())
+
+   This class represents an aggregation of individual test cases and test suites.
+   The class presents the interface needed by the test runner to allow it to be run
+   as any other test case.  Running a :class:`TestSuite` instance is the same as
+   iterating over the suite, running each test individually.
+
+   If *tests* is given, it must be an iterable of individual test cases or other
+   test suites that will be used to build the suite initially. Additional methods
+   are provided to add test cases and suites to the collection later on.
+
+   :class:`TestSuite` objects behave much like :class:`TestCase` objects, except
+   they do not actually implement a test.  Instead, they are used to aggregate
+   tests into groups of tests that should be run together. Some additional
+   methods are available to add tests to :class:`TestSuite` instances:
+
+
+   .. method:: TestSuite.addTest(test)
+
+      Add a :class:`TestCase` or :class:`TestSuite` to the suite.
+
+
+   .. method:: TestSuite.addTests(tests)
+
+      Add all the tests from an iterable of :class:`TestCase` and :class:`TestSuite`
+      instances to this test suite.
+
+      This is equivalent to iterating over *tests*, calling :meth:`addTest` for
+      each element.
+
+   :class:`TestSuite` shares the following methods with :class:`TestCase`:
+
+
+   .. method:: run(result)
+
+      Run the tests associated with this suite, collecting the result into the
+      test result object passed as *result*.  Note that unlike
+      :meth:`TestCase.run`, :meth:`TestSuite.run` requires the result object to
+      be passed in.
+
+
+   .. method:: debug()
+
+      Run the tests associated with this suite without collecting the
+      result. This allows exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the
+      caller and can be used to support running tests under a debugger.
+
+
+   .. method:: countTestCases()
+
+      Return the number of tests represented by this test object, including all
+      individual tests and sub-suites.
+
+
+   .. method:: __iter__()
+
+      Tests grouped by a :class:`TestSuite` are always accessed by iteration.
+      Subclasses can lazily provide tests by overriding :meth:`__iter__`. Note
+      that this method may be called several times on a single suite (for
+      example when counting tests or comparing for equality) so the tests
+      returned by repeated iterations before :meth:`TestSuite.run` must be the
+      same for each call iteration. After :meth:`TestSuite.run`, callers should
+      not rely on the tests returned by this method unless the caller uses a
+      subclass that overrides :meth:`TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex` to preserve
+      test references.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         In earlier versions the :class:`TestSuite` accessed tests directly rather
+         than through iteration, so overriding :meth:`__iter__` wasn't sufficient
+         for providing tests.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         In earlier versions the :class:`TestSuite` held references to each
+         :class:`TestCase` after :meth:`TestSuite.run`. Subclasses can restore
+         that behavior by overriding :meth:`TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex`.
+
+   In the typical usage of a :class:`TestSuite` object, the :meth:`run` method
+   is invoked by a :class:`TestRunner` rather than by the end-user test harness.
+
+
+Loading and running tests
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. class:: TestLoader()
+
+   The :class:`TestLoader` class is used to create test suites from classes and
+   modules.  Normally, there is no need to create an instance of this class; the
+   :mod:`unittest` module provides an instance that can be shared as
+   :data:`unittest.defaultTestLoader`.  Using a subclass or instance, however,
+   allows customization of some configurable properties.
+
+   :class:`TestLoader` objects have the following attributes:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: errors
+
+      A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading tests. Not reset
+      by the loader at any point. Fatal errors are signalled by the relevant
+      a method raising an exception to the caller. Non-fatal errors are also
+      indicated by a synthetic test that will raise the original error when
+      run.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+   :class:`TestLoader` objects have the following methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: loadTestsFromTestCase(testCaseClass)
+
+      Return a suite of all test cases contained in the :class:`TestCase`\ -derived
+      :class:`testCaseClass`.
+
+      A test case instance is created for each method named by
+      :meth:`getTestCaseNames`. By default these are the method names
+      beginning with ``test``. If :meth:`getTestCaseNames` returns no
+      methods, but the :meth:`runTest` method is implemented, a single test
+      case is created for that method instead.
+
+
+   .. method:: loadTestsFromModule(module, pattern=None)
+
+      Return a suite of all test cases contained in the given module. This
+      method searches *module* for classes derived from :class:`TestCase` and
+      creates an instance of the class for each test method defined for the
+      class.
+
+      .. note::
+
+         While using a hierarchy of :class:`TestCase`\ -derived classes can be
+         convenient in sharing fixtures and helper functions, defining test
+         methods on base classes that are not intended to be instantiated
+         directly does not play well with this method.  Doing so, however, can
+         be useful when the fixtures are different and defined in subclasses.
+
+      If a module provides a ``load_tests`` function it will be called to
+      load the tests. This allows modules to customize test loading.
+      This is the `load_tests protocol`_.  The *pattern* argument is passed as
+      the third argument to ``load_tests``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+         Support for ``load_tests`` added.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         The undocumented and unofficial *use_load_tests* default argument is
+         deprecated and ignored, although it is still accepted for backward
+         compatibility.  The method also now accepts a keyword-only argument
+         *pattern* which is passed to ``load_tests`` as the third argument.
+
+
+   .. method:: loadTestsFromName(name, module=None)
+
+      Return a suite of all test cases given a string specifier.
+
+      The specifier *name* is a "dotted name" that may resolve either to a
+      module, a test case class, a test method within a test case class, a
+      :class:`TestSuite` instance, or a callable object which returns a
+      :class:`TestCase` or :class:`TestSuite` instance.  These checks are
+      applied in the order listed here; that is, a method on a possible test
+      case class will be picked up as "a test method within a test case class",
+      rather than "a callable object".
+
+      For example, if you have a module :mod:`SampleTests` containing a
+      :class:`TestCase`\ -derived class :class:`SampleTestCase` with three test
+      methods (:meth:`test_one`, :meth:`test_two`, and :meth:`test_three`), the
+      specifier ``'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'`` would cause this method to
+      return a suite which will run all three test methods. Using the specifier
+      ``'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'`` would cause it to return a test
+      suite which will run only the :meth:`test_two` test method. The specifier
+      can refer to modules and packages which have not been imported; they will
+      be imported as a side-effect.
+
+      The method optionally resolves *name* relative to the given *module*.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         If an :exc:`ImportError` or :exc:`AttributeError` occurs while traversing
+         *name* then a synthetic test that raises that error when run will be
+         returned. These errors are included in the errors accumulated by
+         self.errors.
+
+
+   .. method:: loadTestsFromNames(names, module=None)
+
+      Similar to :meth:`loadTestsFromName`, but takes a sequence of names rather
+      than a single name.  The return value is a test suite which supports all
+      the tests defined for each name.
+
+
+   .. method:: getTestCaseNames(testCaseClass)
+
+      Return a sorted sequence of method names found within *testCaseClass*;
+      this should be a subclass of :class:`TestCase`.
+
+
+   .. method:: discover(start_dir, pattern='test*.py', top_level_dir=None)
+
+      Find all the test modules by recursing into subdirectories from the
+      specified start directory, and return a TestSuite object containing them.
+      Only test files that match *pattern* will be loaded. (Using shell style
+      pattern matching.) Only module names that are importable (i.e. are valid
+      Python identifiers) will be loaded.
+
+      All test modules must be importable from the top level of the project. If
+      the start directory is not the top level directory then the top level
+      directory must be specified separately.
+
+      If importing a module fails, for example due to a syntax error, then
+      this will be recorded as a single error and discovery will continue.  If
+      the import failure is due to :exc:`SkipTest` being raised, it will be
+      recorded as a skip instead of an error.
+
+      If a package (a directory containing a file named :file:`__init__.py`) is
+      found, the package will be checked for a ``load_tests`` function. If this
+      exists then it will be called
+      ``package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern)``. Test discovery takes care
+      to ensure that a package is only checked for tests once during an
+      invocation, even if the load_tests function itself calls
+      ``loader.discover``.
+
+      If ``load_tests`` exists then discovery does *not* recurse into the
+      package, ``load_tests`` is responsible for loading all tests in the
+      package.
+
+      The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute so that
+      packages can continue discovery themselves. *top_level_dir* is stored so
+      ``load_tests`` does not need to pass this argument in to
+      ``loader.discover()``.
+
+      *start_dir* can be a dotted module name as well as a directory.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Modules that raise :exc:`SkipTest` on import are recorded as skips,
+           not errors.
+         Discovery works for :term:`namespace packages <namespace package>`.
+         Paths are sorted before being imported so that execution order is
+           the same even if the underlying file system's ordering is not
+           dependent on file name.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+         Found packages are now checked for ``load_tests`` regardless of
+         whether their path matches *pattern*, because it is impossible for
+         a package name to match the default pattern.
+
+
+   The following attributes of a :class:`TestLoader` can be configured either by
+   subclassing or assignment on an instance:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: testMethodPrefix
+
+      String giving the prefix of method names which will be interpreted as test
+      methods.  The default value is ``'test'``.
+
+      This affects :meth:`getTestCaseNames` and all the :meth:`loadTestsFrom\*`
+      methods.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: sortTestMethodsUsing
+
+      Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them in
+      :meth:`getTestCaseNames` and all the :meth:`loadTestsFrom\*` methods.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: suiteClass
+
+      Callable object that constructs a test suite from a list of tests. No
+      methods on the resulting object are needed.  The default value is the
+      :class:`TestSuite` class.
+
+      This affects all the :meth:`loadTestsFrom\*` methods.
+
+   .. attribute:: testNamePatterns
+
+      List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test methods
+      have to match to be included in test suites (see ``-v`` option).
+
+      If this attribute is not ``None`` (the default), all test methods to be
+      included in test suites must match one of the patterns in this list.
+      Note that matches are always performed using :meth:`fnmatch.fnmatchcase`,
+      so unlike patterns passed to the ``-v`` option, simple substring patterns
+      will have to be converted using ``*`` wildcards.
+
+      This affects all the :meth:`loadTestsFrom\*` methods.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. class:: TestResult
+
+   This class is used to compile information about which tests have succeeded
+   and which have failed.
+
+   A :class:`TestResult` object stores the results of a set of tests.  The
+   :class:`TestCase` and :class:`TestSuite` classes ensure that results are
+   properly recorded; test authors do not need to worry about recording the
+   outcome of tests.
+
+   Testing frameworks built on top of :mod:`unittest` may want access to the
+   :class:`TestResult` object generated by running a set of tests for reporting
+   purposes; a :class:`TestResult` instance is returned by the
+   :meth:`TestRunner.run` method for this purpose.
+
+   :class:`TestResult` instances have the following attributes that will be of
+   interest when inspecting the results of running a set of tests:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: errors
+
+      A list containing 2-tuples of :class:`TestCase` instances and strings
+      holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents a test which raised an
+      unexpected exception.
+
+   .. attribute:: failures
+
+      A list containing 2-tuples of :class:`TestCase` instances and strings
+      holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents a test where a failure
+      was explicitly signalled using the :meth:`TestCase.assert\*` methods.
+
+   .. attribute:: skipped
+
+      A list containing 2-tuples of :class:`TestCase` instances and strings
+      holding the reason for skipping the test.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+   .. attribute:: expectedFailures
+
+      A list containing 2-tuples of :class:`TestCase` instances and strings
+      holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple represents an expected failure
+      of the test case.
+
+   .. attribute:: unexpectedSuccesses
+
+      A list containing :class:`TestCase` instances that were marked as expected
+      failures, but succeeded.
+
+   .. attribute:: shouldStop
+
+      Set to ``True`` when the execution of tests should stop by :meth:`stop`.
+
+   .. attribute:: testsRun
+
+      The total number of tests run so far.
+
+   .. attribute:: buffer
+
+      If set to true, ``sys.stdout`` and ``sys.stderr`` will be buffered in between
+      :meth:`startTest` and :meth:`stopTest` being called. Collected output will
+      only be echoed onto the real ``sys.stdout`` and ``sys.stderr`` if the test
+      fails or errors. Any output is also attached to the failure / error message.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. attribute:: failfast
+
+      If set to true :meth:`stop` will be called on the first failure or error,
+      halting the test run.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. attribute:: tb_locals
+
+      If set to true then local variables will be shown in tracebacks.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+   .. method:: wasSuccessful()
+
+      Return ``True`` if all tests run so far have passed, otherwise returns
+      ``False``.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+         Returns ``False`` if there were any :attr:`unexpectedSuccesses`
+         from tests marked with the :func:`expectedFailure` decorator.
+
+   .. method:: stop()
+
+      This method can be called to signal that the set of tests being run should
+      be aborted by setting the :attr:`shouldStop` attribute to ``True``.
+      :class:`TestRunner` objects should respect this flag and return without
+      running any additional tests.
+
+      For example, this feature is used by the :class:`TextTestRunner` class to
+      stop the test framework when the user signals an interrupt from the
+      keyboard.  Interactive tools which provide :class:`TestRunner`
+      implementations can use this in a similar manner.
+
+   The following methods of the :class:`TestResult` class are used to maintain
+   the internal data structures, and may be extended in subclasses to support
+   additional reporting requirements.  This is particularly useful in building
+   tools which support interactive reporting while tests are being run.
+
+
+   .. method:: startTest(test)
+
+      Called when the test case *test* is about to be run.
+
+   .. method:: stopTest(test)
+
+      Called after the test case *test* has been executed, regardless of the
+      outcome.
+
+   .. method:: startTestRun()
+
+      Called once before any tests are executed.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: stopTestRun()
+
+      Called once after all tests are executed.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: addError(test, err)
+
+      Called when the test case *test* raises an unexpected exception. *err* is a
+      tuple of the form returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`: ``(type, value,
+      traceback)``.
+
+      The default implementation appends a tuple ``(test, formatted_err)`` to
+      the instance's :attr:`errors` attribute, where *formatted_err* is a
+      formatted traceback derived from *err*.
+
+
+   .. method:: addFailure(test, err)
+
+      Called when the test case *test* signals a failure. *err* is a tuple of
+      the form returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`: ``(type, value, traceback)``.
+
+      The default implementation appends a tuple ``(test, formatted_err)`` to
+      the instance's :attr:`failures` attribute, where *formatted_err* is a
+      formatted traceback derived from *err*.
+
+
+   .. method:: addSuccess(test)
+
+      Called when the test case *test* succeeds.
+
+      The default implementation does nothing.
+
+
+   .. method:: addSkip(test, reason)
+
+      Called when the test case *test* is skipped.  *reason* is the reason the
+      test gave for skipping.
+
+      The default implementation appends a tuple ``(test, reason)`` to the
+      instance's :attr:`skipped` attribute.
+
+
+   .. method:: addExpectedFailure(test, err)
+
+      Called when the test case *test* fails, but was marked with the
+      :func:`expectedFailure` decorator.
+
+      The default implementation appends a tuple ``(test, formatted_err)`` to
+      the instance's :attr:`expectedFailures` attribute, where *formatted_err*
+      is a formatted traceback derived from *err*.
+
+
+   .. method:: addUnexpectedSuccess(test)
+
+      Called when the test case *test* was marked with the
+      :func:`expectedFailure` decorator, but succeeded.
+
+      The default implementation appends the test to the instance's
+      :attr:`unexpectedSuccesses` attribute.
+
+
+   .. method:: addSubTest(test, subtest, outcome)
+
+      Called when a subtest finishes.  *test* is the test case
+      corresponding to the test method.  *subtest* is a custom
+      :class:`TestCase` instance describing the subtest.
+
+      If *outcome* is :const:`None`, the subtest succeeded.  Otherwise,
+      it failed with an exception where *outcome* is a tuple of the form
+      returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`: ``(type, value, traceback)``.
+
+      The default implementation does nothing when the outcome is a
+      success, and records subtest failures as normal failures.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. class:: TextTestResult(stream, descriptions, verbosity)
+
+   A concrete implementation of :class:`TestResult` used by the
+   :class:`TextTestRunner`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      This class was previously named ``_TextTestResult``. The old name still
+      exists as an alias but is deprecated.
+
+
+.. data:: defaultTestLoader
+
+   Instance of the :class:`TestLoader` class intended to be shared.  If no
+   customization of the :class:`TestLoader` is needed, this instance can be used
+   instead of repeatedly creating new instances.
+
+
+.. class:: TextTestRunner(stream=None, descriptions=True, verbosity=1, failfast=False, \
+                          buffer=False, resultclass=None, warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False)
+
+   A basic test runner implementation that outputs results to a stream. If *stream*
+   is ``None``, the default, :data:`sys.stderr` is used as the output stream. This class
+   has a few configurable parameters, but is essentially very simple.  Graphical
+   applications which run test suites should provide alternate implementations. Such
+   implementations should accept ``**kwargs`` as the interface to construct runners
+   changes when features are added to unittest.
+
+   By default this runner shows :exc:`DeprecationWarning`,
+   :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`, :exc:`ResourceWarning` and
+   :exc:`ImportWarning` even if they are :ref:`ignored by default
+   <warning-ignored>`. Deprecation warnings caused by :ref:`deprecated unittest
+   methods <deprecated-aliases>` are also special-cased and, when the warning
+   filters are ``'default'`` or ``'always'``, they will appear only once
+   per-module, in order to avoid too many warning messages.  This behavior can
+   be overridden using Python's :option:`!-Wd` or :option:`!-Wa` options
+   (see :ref:`Warning control <using-on-warnings>`) and leaving
+   *warnings* to ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added the ``warnings`` argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The default stream is set to :data:`sys.stderr` at instantiation time rather
+      than import time.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the tb_locals parameter.
+
+   .. method:: _makeResult()
+
+      This method returns the instance of ``TestResult`` used by :meth:`run`.
+      It is not intended to be called directly, but can be overridden in
+      subclasses to provide a custom ``TestResult``.
+
+      ``_makeResult()`` instantiates the class or callable passed in the
+      ``TextTestRunner`` constructor as the ``resultclass`` argument. It
+      defaults to :class:`TextTestResult` if no ``resultclass`` is provided.
+      The result class is instantiated with the following arguments::
+
+        stream, descriptions, verbosity
+
+   .. method:: run(test)
+
+      This method is the main public interface to the ``TextTestRunner``. This
+      method takes a :class:`TestSuite` or :class:`TestCase` instance. A
+      :class:`TestResult` is created by calling
+      :func:`_makeResult` and the test(s) are run and the
+      results printed to stdout.
+
+
+.. function:: main(module='__main__', defaultTest=None, argv=None, testRunner=None, \
+                   testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader, exit=True, verbosity=1, \
+                   failfast=None, catchbreak=None, buffer=None, warnings=None)
+
+   A command-line program that loads a set of tests from *module* and runs them;
+   this is primarily for making test modules conveniently executable.
+   The simplest use for this function is to include the following line at the
+   end of a test script::
+
+      if __name__ == '__main__':
+          unittest.main()
+
+   You can run tests with more detailed information by passing in the verbosity
+   argument::
+
+      if __name__ == '__main__':
+          unittest.main(verbosity=2)
+
+   The *defaultTest* argument is either the name of a single test or an
+   iterable of test names to run if no test names are specified via *argv*.  If
+   not specified or ``None`` and no test names are provided via *argv*, all
+   tests found in *module* are run.
+
+   The *argv* argument can be a list of options passed to the program, with the
+   first element being the program name.  If not specified or ``None``,
+   the values of :data:`sys.argv` are used.
+
+   The *testRunner* argument can either be a test runner class or an already
+   created instance of it. By default ``main`` calls :func:`sys.exit` with
+   an exit code indicating success or failure of the tests run.
+
+   The *testLoader* argument has to be a :class:`TestLoader` instance,
+   and defaults to :data:`defaultTestLoader`.
+
+   ``main`` supports being used from the interactive interpreter by passing in the
+   argument ``exit=False``. This displays the result on standard output without
+   calling :func:`sys.exit`::
+
+      >>> from unittest import main
+      >>> main(module='test_module', exit=False)
+
+   The *failfast*, *catchbreak* and *buffer* parameters have the same
+   effect as the same-name `command-line options`_.
+
+   The *warnings* argument specifies the :ref:`warning filter <warning-filter>`
+   that should be used while running the tests.  If it's not specified, it will
+   remain ``None`` if a :option:`!-W` option is passed to :program:`python`
+   (see :ref:`Warning control <using-on-warnings>`),
+   otherwise it will be set to ``'default'``.
+
+   Calling ``main`` actually returns an instance of the ``TestProgram`` class.
+   This stores the result of the tests run as the ``result`` attribute.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      The *exit* parameter was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The *verbosity*, *failfast*, *catchbreak*, *buffer*
+      and *warnings* parameters were added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The *defaultTest* parameter was changed to also accept an iterable of
+      test names.
+
+
+load_tests Protocol
+###################
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+Modules or packages can customize how tests are loaded from them during normal
+test runs or test discovery by implementing a function called ``load_tests``.
+
+If a test module defines ``load_tests`` it will be called by
+:meth:`TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule` with the following arguments::
+
+    load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)
+
+where *pattern* is passed straight through from ``loadTestsFromModule``.  It
+defaults to ``None``.
+
+It should return a :class:`TestSuite`.
+
+*loader* is the instance of :class:`TestLoader` doing the loading.
+*standard_tests* are the tests that would be loaded by default from the
+module. It is common for test modules to only want to add or remove tests
+from the standard set of tests.
+The third argument is used when loading packages as part of test discovery.
+
+A typical ``load_tests`` function that loads tests from a specific set of
+:class:`TestCase` classes may look like::
+
+    test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3)
+
+    def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern):
+        suite = TestSuite()
+        for test_class in test_cases:
+            tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class)
+            suite.addTests(tests)
+        return suite
+
+If discovery is started in a directory containing a package, either from the
+command line or by calling :meth:`TestLoader.discover`, then the package
+:file:`__init__.py` will be checked for ``load_tests``.  If that function does
+not exist, discovery will recurse into the package as though it were just
+another directory.  Otherwise, discovery of the package's tests will be left up
+to ``load_tests`` which is called with the following arguments::
+
+    load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)
+
+This should return a :class:`TestSuite` representing all the tests
+from the package. (``standard_tests`` will only contain tests
+collected from :file:`__init__.py`.)
+
+Because the pattern is passed into ``load_tests`` the package is free to
+continue (and potentially modify) test discovery. A 'do nothing'
+``load_tests`` function for a test package would look like::
+
+    def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern):
+        # top level directory cached on loader instance
+        this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
+        package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern)
+        standard_tests.addTests(package_tests)
+        return standard_tests
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Discovery no longer checks package names for matching *pattern* due to the
+   impossibility of package names matching the default pattern.
+
+
+
+Class and Module Fixtures
+-------------------------
+
+Class and module level fixtures are implemented in :class:`TestSuite`. When
+the test suite encounters a test from a new class then :meth:`tearDownClass`
+from the previous class (if there is one) is called, followed by
+:meth:`setUpClass` from the new class.
+
+Similarly if a test is from a different module from the previous test then
+``tearDownModule`` from the previous module is run, followed by
+``setUpModule`` from the new module.
+
+After all the tests have run the final ``tearDownClass`` and
+``tearDownModule`` are run.
+
+Note that shared fixtures do not play well with [potential] features like test
+parallelization and they break test isolation. They should be used with care.
+
+The default ordering of tests created by the unittest test loaders is to group
+all tests from the same modules and classes together. This will lead to
+``setUpClass`` / ``setUpModule`` (etc) being called exactly once per class and
+module. If you randomize the order, so that tests from different modules and
+classes are adjacent to each other, then these shared fixture functions may be
+called multiple times in a single test run.
+
+Shared fixtures are not intended to work with suites with non-standard
+ordering. A ``BaseTestSuite`` still exists for frameworks that don't want to
+support shared fixtures.
+
+If there are any exceptions raised during one of the shared fixture functions
+the test is reported as an error. Because there is no corresponding test
+instance an ``_ErrorHolder`` object (that has the same interface as a
+:class:`TestCase`) is created to represent the error. If you are just using
+the standard unittest test runner then this detail doesn't matter, but if you
+are a framework author it may be relevant.
+
+
+setUpClass and tearDownClass
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+These must be implemented as class methods::
+
+    import unittest
+
+    class Test(unittest.TestCase):
+        @classmethod
+        def setUpClass(cls):
+            cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject()
+
+        @classmethod
+        def tearDownClass(cls):
+            cls._connection.destroy()
+
+If you want the ``setUpClass`` and ``tearDownClass`` on base classes called
+then you must call up to them yourself. The implementations in
+:class:`TestCase` are empty.
+
+If an exception is raised during a ``setUpClass`` then the tests in the class
+are not run and the ``tearDownClass`` is not run. Skipped classes will not
+have ``setUpClass`` or ``tearDownClass`` run. If the exception is a
+:exc:`SkipTest` exception then the class will be reported as having been skipped
+instead of as an error.
+
+
+setUpModule and tearDownModule
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+These should be implemented as functions::
+
+    def setUpModule():
+        createConnection()
+
+    def tearDownModule():
+        closeConnection()
+
+If an exception is raised in a ``setUpModule`` then none of the tests in the
+module will be run and the ``tearDownModule`` will not be run. If the exception is a
+:exc:`SkipTest` exception then the module will be reported as having been skipped
+instead of as an error.
+
+
+Signal Handling
+---------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+The :option:`-c/--catch <unittest -c>` command-line option to unittest,
+along with the ``catchbreak`` parameter to :func:`unittest.main()`, provide
+more friendly handling of control-C during a test run. With catch break
+behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to complete,
+and the test run will then end and report all the results so far. A second
+control-c will raise a :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` in the usual way.
+
+The control-c handling signal handler attempts to remain compatible with code or
+tests that install their own :const:`signal.SIGINT` handler. If the ``unittest``
+handler is called but *isn't* the installed :const:`signal.SIGINT` handler,
+i.e. it has been replaced by the system under test and delegated to, then it
+calls the default handler. This will normally be the expected behavior by code
+that replaces an installed handler and delegates to it. For individual tests
+that need ``unittest`` control-c handling disabled the :func:`removeHandler`
+decorator can be used.
+
+There are a few utility functions for framework authors to enable control-c
+handling functionality within test frameworks.
+
+.. function:: installHandler()
+
+   Install the control-c handler. When a :const:`signal.SIGINT` is received
+   (usually in response to the user pressing control-c) all registered results
+   have :meth:`~TestResult.stop` called.
+
+
+.. function:: registerResult(result)
+
+   Register a :class:`TestResult` object for control-c handling. Registering a
+   result stores a weak reference to it, so it doesn't prevent the result from
+   being garbage collected.
+
+   Registering a :class:`TestResult` object has no side-effects if control-c
+   handling is not enabled, so test frameworks can unconditionally register
+   all results they create independently of whether or not handling is enabled.
+
+
+.. function:: removeResult(result)
+
+   Remove a registered result. Once a result has been removed then
+   :meth:`~TestResult.stop` will no longer be called on that result object in
+   response to a control-c.
+
+
+.. function:: removeHandler(function=None)
+
+   When called without arguments this function removes the control-c handler
+   if it has been installed. This function can also be used as a test decorator
+   to temporarily remove the handler while the test is being executed::
+
+      @unittest.removeHandler
+      def test_signal_handling(self):
+          ...
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unix.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unix.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04d4081
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/unix.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. _unix:
+
+**********************
+Unix Specific Services
+**********************
+
+The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to features that are
+unique to the Unix operating system, or in some cases to some or many variants
+of it.  Here's an overview:
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   posix.rst
+   pwd.rst
+   spwd.rst
+   grp.rst
+   crypt.rst
+   termios.rst
+   tty.rst
+   pty.rst
+   fcntl.rst
+   pipes.rst
+   resource.rst
+   nis.rst
+   syslog.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.error.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.error.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7d47ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.error.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+:mod:`urllib.error` --- Exception classes raised by urllib.request
+==================================================================
+
+.. module:: urllib.error
+   :synopsis: Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Jeremy Hylton <jeremy@alum.mit.edu>
+.. sectionauthor:: Senthil Kumaran <orsenthil@gmail.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/urllib/error.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`urllib.error` module defines the exception classes for exceptions
+raised by :mod:`urllib.request`.  The base exception class is :exc:`URLError`.
+
+The following exceptions are raised by :mod:`urllib.error` as appropriate:
+
+.. exception:: URLError
+
+   The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they run into
+   a problem.  It is a subclass of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+   .. attribute:: reason
+
+      The reason for this error.  It can be a message string or another
+      exception instance.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :exc:`URLError` has been made a subclass of :exc:`OSError` instead
+      of :exc:`IOError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: HTTPError
+
+   Though being an exception (a subclass of :exc:`URLError`), an
+   :exc:`HTTPError` can also function as a non-exceptional file-like return
+   value (the same thing that :func:`~urllib.request.urlopen` returns).  This
+   is useful when handling exotic HTTP errors, such as requests for
+   authentication.
+
+   .. attribute:: code
+
+      An HTTP status code as defined in :rfc:`2616`.  This numeric value corresponds
+      to a value found in the dictionary of codes as found in
+      :attr:`http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses`.
+
+   .. attribute:: reason
+
+      This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error.
+
+   .. attribute:: headers
+
+      The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the
+      :exc:`HTTPError`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. exception:: ContentTooShortError(msg, content)
+
+   This exception is raised when the :func:`~urllib.request.urlretrieve`
+   function detects that
+   the amount of the downloaded data is less than the expected amount (given by
+   the *Content-Length* header).  The :attr:`content` attribute stores the
+   downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.parse.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.parse.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ddc3ee2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.parse.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,666 @@
+:mod:`urllib.parse` --- Parse URLs into components
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: urllib.parse
+   :synopsis: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/urllib/parse.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: WWW
+   single: World Wide Web
+   single: URL
+   pair: URL; parsing
+   pair: relative; URL
+
+--------------
+
+This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
+strings up in components (addressing scheme, network location, path etc.), to
+combine the components back into a URL string, and to convert a "relative URL"
+to an absolute URL given a "base URL."
+
+The module has been designed to match the Internet RFC on Relative Uniform
+Resource Locators. It supports the following URL schemes: ``file``, ``ftp``,
+``gopher``, ``hdl``, ``http``, ``https``, ``imap``, ``mailto``, ``mms``,
+``news``, ``nntp``, ``prospero``, ``rsync``, ``rtsp``, ``rtspu``, ``sftp``,
+``shttp``, ``sip``, ``sips``, ``snews``, ``svn``, ``svn+ssh``, ``telnet``,
+``wais``, ``ws``, ``wss``.
+
+The :mod:`urllib.parse` module defines functions that fall into two broad
+categories: URL parsing and URL quoting. These are covered in detail in
+the following sections.
+
+URL Parsing
+-----------
+
+The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its components,
+or on combining URL components into a URL string.
+
+.. function:: urlparse(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
+
+   Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item :term:`named tuple`.  This
+   corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
+   ``scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment``.
+   Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty. The components are not broken up in
+   smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single string), and %
+   escapes are not expanded. The delimiters as shown above are not part of the
+   result, except for a leading slash in the *path* component, which is retained if
+   present.  For example:
+
+      >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
+      >>> o = urlparse('http://www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
+      >>> o   # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+      ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+                  params='', query='', fragment='')
+      >>> o.scheme
+      'http'
+      >>> o.port
+      80
+      >>> o.geturl()
+      'http://www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html'
+
+   Following the syntax specifications in :rfc:`1808`, urlparse recognizes
+   a netloc only if it is properly introduced by '//'.  Otherwise the
+   input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to start with
+   a path component.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+       >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
+       >>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
+       ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+                  params='', query='', fragment='')
+       >>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
+       ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+                  params='', query='', fragment='')
+       >>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
+       ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
+                  query='', fragment='')
+
+   The *scheme* argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
+   used only if the URL does not specify one.  It should be the same type
+   (text or bytes) as *urlstring*, except that the default value ``''`` is
+   always allowed, and is automatically converted to ``b''`` if appropriate.
+
+   If the *allow_fragments* argument is false, fragment identifiers are not
+   recognized.  Instead, they are parsed as part of the path, parameters
+   or query component, and :attr:`fragment` is set to the empty string in
+   the return value.
+
+   The return value is a :term:`named tuple`, which means that its items can
+   be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:
+
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | Attribute        | Index | Value                    | Value if not present |
+   +==================+=======+==========================+======================+
+   | :attr:`scheme`   | 0     | URL scheme specifier     | *scheme* parameter   |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`netloc`   | 1     | Network location part    | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`path`     | 2     | Hierarchical path        | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`params`   | 3     | Parameters for last path | empty string         |
+   |                  |       | element                  |                      |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`query`    | 4     | Query component          | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`fragment` | 5     | Fragment identifier      | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`username` |       | User name                | :const:`None`        |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`password` |       | Password                 | :const:`None`        |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`hostname` |       | Host name (lower case)   | :const:`None`        |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`port`     |       | Port number as integer,  | :const:`None`        |
+   |                  |       | if present               |                      |
+   +------------------+-------+--------------------------+----------------------+
+
+   Reading the :attr:`port` attribute will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if
+   an invalid port is specified in the URL.  See section
+   :ref:`urlparse-result-object` for more information on the result object.
+
+   Unmatched square brackets in the :attr:`netloc` attribute will raise a
+   :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   Characters in the :attr:`netloc` attribute that decompose under NFKC
+   normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ``/``, ``?``,
+   ``#``, ``@``, or ``:`` will raise a :exc:`ValueError`. If the URL is
+   decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.
+
+   As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few additional methods
+   and attributes that are particularly useful. One such method is :meth:`_replace`.
+   The :meth:`_replace` method will return a new ParseResult object replacing specified
+   fields with new values.
+
+   .. doctest::
+      :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+       >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
+       >>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
+       >>> u
+       ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+                   params='', query='', fragment='')
+       >>> u._replace(scheme='http')
+       ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+                   params='', query='', fragment='')
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes (unless *allow_fragment* is
+      false), in accordance with :rfc:`3986`.  Previously, a whitelist of
+      schemes that support fragments existed.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Out-of-range port numbers now raise :exc:`ValueError`, instead of
+      returning :const:`None`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.3
+      Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will
+      now raise :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+.. function:: parse_qs(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None)
+
+   Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
+   :mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded`).  Data are returned as a
+   dictionary.  The dictionary keys are the unique query variable names and the
+   values are lists of values for each name.
+
+   The optional argument *keep_blank_values* is a flag indicating whether blank
+   values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value
+   indicates that blanks should be retained as  blank strings.  The default false
+   value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were
+   not included.
+
+   The optional argument *strict_parsing* is a flag indicating what to do with
+   parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are silently ignored.  If true,
+   errors raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception.
+
+   The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to decode
+   percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the
+   :meth:`bytes.decode` method.
+
+   The optional argument *max_num_fields* is the maximum number of fields to
+   read. If set, then throws a :exc:`ValueError` if there are more than
+   *max_num_fields* fields read.
+
+   Use the :func:`urllib.parse.urlencode` function (with the ``doseq``
+   parameter set to ``True``) to convert such dictionaries into query
+   strings.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Add *encoding* and *errors* parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
+      Added *max_num_fields* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: parse_qsl(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None)
+
+   Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
+   :mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded`).  Data are returned as a list of
+   name, value pairs.
+
+   The optional argument *keep_blank_values* is a flag indicating whether blank
+   values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value
+   indicates that blanks should be retained as  blank strings.  The default false
+   value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were
+   not included.
+
+   The optional argument *strict_parsing* is a flag indicating what to do with
+   parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are silently ignored.  If true,
+   errors raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception.
+
+   The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to decode
+   percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the
+   :meth:`bytes.decode` method.
+
+   The optional argument *max_num_fields* is the maximum number of fields to
+   read. If set, then throws a :exc:`ValueError` if there are more than
+   *max_num_fields* fields read.
+
+   Use the :func:`urllib.parse.urlencode` function to convert such lists of pairs into
+   query strings.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Add *encoding* and *errors* parameters.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
+      Added *max_num_fields* parameter.
+
+.. function:: urlunparse(parts)
+
+   Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by ``urlparse()``. The *parts*
+   argument can be any six-item iterable. This may result in a slightly
+   different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had
+   unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ``?`` with an empty query; the RFC
+   states that these are equivalent).
+
+
+.. function:: urlsplit(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
+
+   This is similar to :func:`urlparse`, but does not split the params from the URL.
+   This should generally be used instead of :func:`urlparse` if the more recent URL
+   syntax allowing parameters to be applied to each segment of the *path* portion
+   of the URL (see :rfc:`2396`) is wanted.  A separate function is needed to
+   separate the path segments and parameters.  This function returns a 5-item
+   :term:`named tuple`::
+
+      (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).
+
+   The return value is a :term:`named tuple`, its items can be accessed by index
+   or as named attributes:
+
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | Attribute        | Index | Value                   | Value if not present |
+   +==================+=======+=========================+======================+
+   | :attr:`scheme`   | 0     | URL scheme specifier    | *scheme* parameter   |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`netloc`   | 1     | Network location part   | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`path`     | 2     | Hierarchical path       | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`query`    | 3     | Query component         | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`fragment` | 4     | Fragment identifier     | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`username` |       | User name               | :const:`None`        |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`password` |       | Password                | :const:`None`        |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`hostname` |       | Host name (lower case)  | :const:`None`        |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`port`     |       | Port number as integer, | :const:`None`        |
+   |                  |       | if present              |                      |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+
+   Reading the :attr:`port` attribute will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if
+   an invalid port is specified in the URL.  See section
+   :ref:`urlparse-result-object` for more information on the result object.
+
+   Unmatched square brackets in the :attr:`netloc` attribute will raise a
+   :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   Characters in the :attr:`netloc` attribute that decompose under NFKC
+   normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ``/``, ``?``,
+   ``#``, ``@``, or ``:`` will raise a :exc:`ValueError`. If the URL is
+   decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Out-of-range port numbers now raise :exc:`ValueError`, instead of
+      returning :const:`None`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7.3
+      Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will
+      now raise :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+.. function:: urlunsplit(parts)
+
+   Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by :func:`urlsplit` into a
+   complete URL as a string. The *parts* argument can be any five-item
+   iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the
+   URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ?
+   with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).
+
+
+.. function:: urljoin(base, url, allow_fragments=True)
+
+   Construct a full ("absolute") URL by combining a "base URL" (*base*) with
+   another URL (*url*).  Informally, this uses components of the base URL, in
+   particular the addressing scheme, the network location and (part of) the
+   path, to provide missing components in the relative URL.  For example:
+
+      >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
+      >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
+      'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'
+
+   The *allow_fragments* argument has the same meaning and default as for
+   :func:`urlparse`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If *url* is an absolute URL (that is, starting with ``//`` or ``scheme://``),
+      the *url*'s host name and/or scheme will be present in the result.  For example:
+
+   .. doctest::
+
+      >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+      ...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
+      'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'
+
+   If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the *url* with :func:`urlsplit` and
+   :func:`urlunsplit`, removing possible *scheme* and *netloc* parts.
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+      Behaviour updated to match the semantics defined in :rfc:`3986`.
+
+
+.. function:: urldefrag(url)
+
+   If *url* contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version of *url*
+   with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier as a separate
+   string.  If there is no fragment identifier in *url*, return *url* unmodified
+   and an empty string.
+
+   The return value is a :term:`named tuple`, its items can be accessed by index
+   or as named attributes:
+
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | Attribute        | Index | Value                   | Value if not present |
+   +==================+=======+=========================+======================+
+   | :attr:`url`      | 0     | URL with no fragment    | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+   | :attr:`fragment` | 1     | Fragment identifier     | empty string         |
+   +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
+
+   See section :ref:`urlparse-result-object` for more information on the result
+   object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Result is a structured object rather than a simple 2-tuple.
+
+.. _parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes:
+
+Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes
+---------------------------
+
+The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on character
+strings only. In practice, it is useful to be able to manipulate properly
+quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes. Accordingly, the
+URL parsing functions in this module all operate on :class:`bytes` and
+:class:`bytearray` objects in addition to :class:`str` objects.
+
+If :class:`str` data is passed in, the result will also contain only
+:class:`str` data. If :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` data is
+passed in, the result will contain only :class:`bytes` data.
+
+Attempting to mix :class:`str` data with :class:`bytes` or
+:class:`bytearray` in a single function call will result in a
+:exc:`TypeError` being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII
+byte values will trigger :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError`.
+
+To support easier conversion of result objects between :class:`str` and
+:class:`bytes`, all return values from URL parsing functions provide
+either an :meth:`encode` method (when the result contains :class:`str`
+data) or a :meth:`decode` method (when the result contains :class:`bytes`
+data). The signatures of these methods match those of the corresponding
+:class:`str` and :class:`bytes` methods (except that the default encoding
+is ``'ascii'`` rather than ``'utf-8'``). Each produces a value of a
+corresponding type that contains either :class:`bytes` data (for
+:meth:`encode` methods) or :class:`str` data (for
+:meth:`decode` methods).
+
+Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs
+that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from
+bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods.
+
+The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing
+functions. The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing
+or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the
+individual URL quoting functions.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded byte sequences
+
+
+.. _urlparse-result-object:
+
+Structured Parse Results
+------------------------
+
+The result objects from the :func:`urlparse`, :func:`urlsplit`  and
+:func:`urldefrag` functions are subclasses of the :class:`tuple` type.
+These subclasses add the attributes listed in the documentation for
+those functions, the encoding and decoding support described in the
+previous section, as well as an additional method:
+
+.. method:: urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl()
+
+   Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string. This may
+   differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be normalized to lower
+   case and empty components may be dropped. Specifically, empty parameters,
+   queries, and fragment identifiers will be removed.
+
+   For :func:`urldefrag` results, only empty fragment identifiers will be removed.
+   For :func:`urlsplit` and :func:`urlparse` results, all noted changes will be
+   made to the URL returned by this method.
+
+   The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through the original
+   parsing function:
+
+      >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
+      >>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
+      >>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
+      >>> r1.geturl()
+      'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
+      >>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
+      >>> r2.geturl()
+      'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
+
+
+The following classes provide the implementations of the structured parse
+results when operating on :class:`str` objects:
+
+.. class:: DefragResult(url, fragment)
+
+   Concrete class for :func:`urldefrag` results containing :class:`str`
+   data. The :meth:`encode` method returns a :class:`DefragResultBytes`
+   instance.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. class:: ParseResult(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)
+
+   Concrete class for :func:`urlparse` results containing :class:`str`
+   data. The :meth:`encode` method returns a :class:`ParseResultBytes`
+   instance.
+
+.. class:: SplitResult(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)
+
+   Concrete class for :func:`urlsplit` results containing :class:`str`
+   data. The :meth:`encode` method returns a :class:`SplitResultBytes`
+   instance.
+
+
+The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results when
+operating on :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` objects:
+
+.. class:: DefragResultBytes(url, fragment)
+
+   Concrete class for :func:`urldefrag` results containing :class:`bytes`
+   data. The :meth:`decode` method returns a :class:`DefragResult`
+   instance.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. class:: ParseResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)
+
+   Concrete class for :func:`urlparse` results containing :class:`bytes`
+   data. The :meth:`decode` method returns a :class:`ParseResult`
+   instance.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. class:: SplitResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)
+
+   Concrete class for :func:`urlsplit` results containing :class:`bytes`
+   data. The :meth:`decode` method returns a :class:`SplitResult`
+   instance.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+URL Quoting
+-----------
+
+The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it safe
+for use as URL components by quoting special characters and appropriately
+encoding non-ASCII text. They also support reversing these operations to
+recreate the original data from the contents of a URL component if that
+task isn't already covered by the URL parsing functions above.
+
+.. function:: quote(string, safe='/', encoding=None, errors=None)
+
+   Replace special characters in *string* using the ``%xx`` escape. Letters,
+   digits, and the characters ``'_.-~'`` are never quoted. By default, this
+   function is intended for quoting the path section of URL. The optional *safe*
+   parameter specifies additional ASCII characters that should not be quoted
+   --- its default value is ``'/'``.
+
+   *string* may be either a :class:`str` or a :class:`bytes`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Moved from :rfc:`2396` to :rfc:`3986` for quoting URL strings. "~" is now
+      included in the set of reserved characters.
+
+   The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to deal with
+   non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the :meth:`str.encode` method.
+   *encoding* defaults to ``'utf-8'``.
+   *errors* defaults to ``'strict'``, meaning unsupported characters raise a
+   :class:`UnicodeEncodeError`.
+   *encoding* and *errors* must not be supplied if *string* is a
+   :class:`bytes`, or a :class:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+   Note that ``quote(string, safe, encoding, errors)`` is equivalent to
+   ``quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe)``.
+
+   Example: ``quote('/El Niño/')`` yields ``'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'``.
+
+
+.. function:: quote_plus(string, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None)
+
+   Like :func:`quote`, but also replace spaces by plus signs, as required for
+   quoting HTML form values when building up a query string to go into a URL.
+   Plus signs in the original string are escaped unless they are included in
+   *safe*.  It also does not have *safe* default to ``'/'``.
+
+   Example: ``quote_plus('/El Niño/')`` yields ``'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'``.
+
+
+.. function:: quote_from_bytes(bytes, safe='/')
+
+   Like :func:`quote`, but accepts a :class:`bytes` object rather than a
+   :class:`str`, and does not perform string-to-bytes encoding.
+
+   Example: ``quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef')`` yields
+   ``'a%26%EF'``.
+
+
+.. function:: unquote(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')
+
+   Replace ``%xx`` escapes by their single-character equivalent.
+   The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to decode
+   percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the
+   :meth:`bytes.decode` method.
+
+   *string* must be a :class:`str`.
+
+   *encoding* defaults to ``'utf-8'``.
+   *errors* defaults to ``'replace'``, meaning invalid sequences are replaced
+   by a placeholder character.
+
+   Example: ``unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')`` yields ``'/El Niño/'``.
+
+
+.. function:: unquote_plus(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')
+
+   Like :func:`unquote`, but also replace plus signs by spaces, as required for
+   unquoting HTML form values.
+
+   *string* must be a :class:`str`.
+
+   Example: ``unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')`` yields ``'/El Niño/'``.
+
+
+.. function:: unquote_to_bytes(string)
+
+   Replace ``%xx`` escapes by their single-octet equivalent, and return a
+   :class:`bytes` object.
+
+   *string* may be either a :class:`str` or a :class:`bytes`.
+
+   If it is a :class:`str`, unescaped non-ASCII characters in *string*
+   are encoded into UTF-8 bytes.
+
+   Example: ``unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')`` yields ``b'a&\xef'``.
+
+
+.. function:: urlencode(query, doseq=False, safe='', encoding=None, \
+                        errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)
+
+   Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which may
+   contain :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` objects, to a percent-encoded ASCII
+   text string.  If the resultant string is to be used as a *data* for POST
+   operation with the :func:`~urllib.request.urlopen` function, then
+   it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it would result in a
+   :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   The resulting string is a series of ``key=value`` pairs separated by ``'&'``
+   characters, where both *key* and *value* are quoted using the *quote_via*
+   function.  By default, :func:`quote_plus` is used to quote the values, which
+   means spaces are quoted as a ``'+'`` character and '/' characters are
+   encoded as ``%2F``, which follows the standard for GET requests
+   (``application/x-www-form-urlencoded``).  An alternate function that can be
+   passed as *quote_via* is :func:`quote`, which will encode spaces as ``%20``
+   and not encode '/' characters.  For maximum control of what is quoted, use
+   ``quote`` and specify a value for *safe*.
+
+   When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the *query*
+   argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second is a
+   value. The value element in itself can be a sequence and in that case, if
+   the optional parameter *doseq* is evaluates to ``True``, individual
+   ``key=value`` pairs separated by ``'&'`` are generated for each element of
+   the value sequence for the key.  The order of parameters in the encoded
+   string will match the order of parameter tuples in the sequence.
+
+   The *safe*, *encoding*, and *errors* parameters are passed down to
+   *quote_via* (the *encoding* and *errors* parameters are only passed
+   when a query element is a :class:`str`).
+
+   To reverse this encoding process, :func:`parse_qs` and :func:`parse_qsl` are
+   provided in this module to parse query strings into Python data structures.
+
+   Refer to :ref:`urllib examples <urllib-examples>` to find out how urlencode
+   method can be used for generating query string for a URL or data for POST.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Query parameter supports bytes and string objects.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      *quote_via* parameter.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :rfc:`3986` - Uniform Resource Identifiers
+      This is the current standard (STD66). Any changes to urllib.parse module
+      should conform to this. Certain deviations could be observed, which are
+      mostly for backward compatibility purposes and for certain de-facto
+      parsing requirements as commonly observed in major browsers.
+
+   :rfc:`2732` - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL's.
+      This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.
+
+   :rfc:`2396` - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax
+      Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both Uniform Resource
+      Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).
+
+   :rfc:`2368` - The mailto URL scheme.
+      Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.
+
+   :rfc:`1808` - Relative Uniform Resource Locators
+      This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an absolute and a
+      relative URL, including a fair number of "Abnormal Examples" which govern the
+      treatment of border cases.
+
+   :rfc:`1738` - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)
+      This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.request.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.request.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1bc81e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.request.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1586 @@
+:mod:`urllib.request` --- Extensible library for opening URLs
+=============================================================
+
+.. module:: urllib.request
+   :synopsis: Extensible library for opening URLs.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Jeremy Hylton <jeremy@alum.mit.edu>
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@users.sourceforge.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Senthil Kumaran <senthil@uthcode.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/urllib/request.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`urllib.request` module defines functions and classes which help in
+opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world --- basic and digest
+authentication, redirections, cookies and more.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    The `Requests package <http://docs.python-requests.org/>`_
+    is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface.
+
+
+The :mod:`urllib.request` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: urlopen(url, data=None[, timeout], *, cafile=None, capath=None, cadefault=False, context=None)
+
+   Open the URL *url*, which can be either a string or a
+   :class:`Request` object.
+
+   *data* must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to the
+   server, or ``None`` if no such data is needed.  See :class:`Request`
+   for details.
+
+   urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes ``Connection:close`` header
+   in its HTTP requests.
+
+   The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
+   blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified,
+   the global default timeout setting will be used).  This actually
+   only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.
+
+   If *context* is specified, it must be a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance
+   describing the various SSL options. See :class:`~http.client.HTTPSConnection`
+   for more details.
+
+   The optional *cafile* and *capath* parameters specify a set of trusted
+   CA certificates for HTTPS requests.  *cafile* should point to a single
+   file containing a bundle of CA certificates, whereas *capath* should
+   point to a directory of hashed certificate files.  More information can
+   be found in :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations`.
+
+   The *cadefault* parameter is ignored.
+
+   This function always returns an object which can work as a
+   :term:`context manager` and has methods such as
+
+   * :meth:`~urllib.response.addinfourl.geturl` --- return the URL of the resource retrieved,
+     commonly used to determine if a redirect was followed
+
+   * :meth:`~urllib.response.addinfourl.info` --- return the meta-information of the page, such as headers,
+     in the form of an :func:`email.message_from_string` instance (see
+     `Quick Reference to HTTP Headers <http://jkorpela.fi/http.html>`_)
+
+   * :meth:`~urllib.response.addinfourl.getcode` -- return the HTTP status code of the response.
+
+   For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a
+   :class:`http.client.HTTPResponse` object slightly modified. In addition
+   to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains the
+   same information as the :attr:`~http.client.HTTPResponse.reason`
+   attribute --- the reason phrase returned by server --- instead of
+   the response headers as it is specified in the documentation for
+   :class:`~http.client.HTTPResponse`.
+
+   For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by legacy
+   :class:`URLopener` and :class:`FancyURLopener` classes, this function
+   returns a :class:`urllib.response.addinfourl` object.
+
+   Raises :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError` on protocol errors.
+
+   Note that ``None`` may be returned if no handler handles the request (though
+   the default installed global :class:`OpenerDirector` uses
+   :class:`UnknownHandler` to ensure this never happens).
+
+   In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a ``*_proxy``
+   environment variable like :envvar:`http_proxy` is set),
+   :class:`ProxyHandler` is default installed and makes sure the requests are
+   handled through the proxy.
+
+   The legacy ``urllib.urlopen`` function from Python 2.6 and earlier has been
+   discontinued; :func:`urllib.request.urlopen` corresponds to the old
+   ``urllib2.urlopen``.  Proxy handling, which was done by passing a dictionary
+   parameter to ``urllib.urlopen``, can be obtained by using
+   :class:`ProxyHandler` objects.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *cafile* and *capath* were added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if
+      :data:`ssl.HAS_SNI` is true).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      *data* can be an iterable object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      *cadefault* was added.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4.3
+      *context* was added.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.6
+
+       *cafile*, *capath* and *cadefault* are deprecated in favor of *context*.
+       Please use :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` instead, or let
+       :func:`ssl.create_default_context` select the system's trusted CA
+       certificates for you.
+
+.. function:: install_opener(opener)
+
+   Install an :class:`OpenerDirector` instance as the default global opener.
+   Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that
+   opener; otherwise, simply call :meth:`OpenerDirector.open` instead of
+   :func:`~urllib.request.urlopen`.  The code does not check for a real
+   :class:`OpenerDirector`, and any class with the appropriate interface will
+   work.
+
+
+.. function:: build_opener([handler, ...])
+
+   Return an :class:`OpenerDirector` instance, which chains the handlers in the
+   order given. *handler*\s can be either instances of :class:`BaseHandler`, or
+   subclasses of :class:`BaseHandler` (in which case it must be possible to call
+   the constructor without any parameters).  Instances of the following classes
+   will be in front of the *handler*\s, unless the *handler*\s contain them,
+   instances of them or subclasses of them: :class:`ProxyHandler` (if proxy
+   settings are detected), :class:`UnknownHandler`, :class:`HTTPHandler`,
+   :class:`HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`, :class:`HTTPRedirectHandler`,
+   :class:`FTPHandler`, :class:`FileHandler`, :class:`HTTPErrorProcessor`.
+
+   If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the :mod:`ssl` module
+   can be imported), :class:`HTTPSHandler` will also be added.
+
+   A :class:`BaseHandler` subclass may also change its :attr:`handler_order`
+   attribute to modify its position in the handlers list.
+
+
+.. function:: pathname2url(path)
+
+   Convert the pathname *path* from the local syntax for a path to the form used in
+   the path component of a URL.  This does not produce a complete URL.  The return
+   value will already be quoted using the :func:`~urllib.parse.quote` function.
+
+
+.. function:: url2pathname(path)
+
+   Convert the path component *path* from a percent-encoded URL to the local syntax for a
+   path.  This does not accept a complete URL.  This function uses
+   :func:`~urllib.parse.unquote` to decode *path*.
+
+.. function:: getproxies()
+
+   This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL
+   mappings. It scans the environment for variables named ``<scheme>_proxy``,
+   in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it
+   cannot find it, looks for proxy information from Mac OSX System
+   Configuration for Mac OS X and Windows Systems Registry for Windows.
+   If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree),
+   lowercase is preferred.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If the environment variable ``REQUEST_METHOD`` is set, which usually
+      indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment
+      variable ``HTTP_PROXY`` (uppercase ``_PROXY``) will be ignored. This is
+      because that variable can be injected by a client using the "Proxy:" HTTP
+      header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use
+      ``ProxyHandler`` explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in
+      lowercase (or at least the ``_proxy`` suffix).
+
+
+The following classes are provided:
+
+.. class:: Request(url, data=None, headers={}, origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)
+
+   This class is an abstraction of a URL request.
+
+   *url* should be a string containing a valid URL.
+
+   *data* must be an object specifying additional data to send to the
+   server, or ``None`` if no such data is needed.  Currently HTTP
+   requests are the only ones that use *data*.  The supported object
+   types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables.  If no
+   ``Content-Length`` nor ``Transfer-Encoding`` header field
+   has been provided, :class:`HTTPHandler` will set these headers according
+   to the type of *data*.  ``Content-Length`` will be used to send
+   bytes objects, while ``Transfer-Encoding: chunked`` as specified in
+   :rfc:`7230`, Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files and other iterables.
+
+   For an HTTP POST request method, *data* should be a buffer in the
+   standard :mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded` format.  The
+   :func:`urllib.parse.urlencode` function takes a mapping or sequence
+   of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format. It should
+   be encoded to bytes before being used as the *data* parameter.
+
+   *headers* should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if
+   :meth:`add_header` was called with each key and value as arguments.
+   This is often used to "spoof" the ``User-Agent`` header value, which is
+   used by a browser to identify itself -- some HTTP servers only
+   allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed to scripts.
+   For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as ``"Mozilla/5.0
+   (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127 Firefox/2.0.0.11"``, while
+   :mod:`urllib`'s default user agent string is
+   ``"Python-urllib/2.6"`` (on Python 2.6).
+
+   An appropriate ``Content-Type`` header should be included if the *data*
+   argument is present.  If this header has not been provided and *data*
+   is not None, ``Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded`` will
+   be added as a default.
+
+   The final two arguments are only of interest for correct handling
+   of third-party HTTP cookies:
+
+   *origin_req_host* should be the request-host of the origin
+   transaction, as defined by :rfc:`2965`.  It defaults to
+   ``http.cookiejar.request_host(self)``.  This is the host name or IP
+   address of the original request that was initiated by the user.
+   For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document,
+   this should be the request-host of the request for the page
+   containing the image.
+
+   *unverifiable* should indicate whether the request is unverifiable,
+   as defined by :rfc:`2965`.  It defaults to ``False``.  An unverifiable
+   request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to
+   approve.  For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML
+   document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic
+   fetching of the image, this should be true.
+
+   *method* should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that
+   will be used (e.g. ``'HEAD'``).  If provided, its value is stored in the
+   :attr:`~Request.method` attribute and is used by :meth:`get_method()`.
+   The default is ``'GET'`` if *data* is ``None`` or ``'POST'`` otherwise.
+   Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the
+   :attr:`~Request.method` attribute in the class itself.
+
+   .. note::
+      The request will not work as expected if the data object is unable
+      to deliver its content more than once (e.g. a file or an iterable
+      that can produce the content only once) and the request is retried
+      for HTTP redirects or authentication.  The *data* is sent to the
+      HTTP server right away after the headers.  There is no support for
+      a 100-continue expectation in the library.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      :attr:`Request.method` argument is added to the Request class.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Default :attr:`Request.method` may be indicated at the class level.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Do not raise an error if the ``Content-Length`` has not been
+      provided and *data* is neither ``None`` nor a bytes object.
+      Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding instead.
+
+.. class:: OpenerDirector()
+
+   The :class:`OpenerDirector` class opens URLs via :class:`BaseHandler`\ s chained
+   together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors.
+
+
+.. class:: BaseHandler()
+
+   This is the base class for all registered handlers --- and handles only the
+   simple mechanics of registration.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPDefaultErrorHandler()
+
+   A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses
+   are turned into :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` exceptions.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPRedirectHandler()
+
+   A class to handle redirections.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPCookieProcessor(cookiejar=None)
+
+   A class to handle HTTP Cookies.
+
+
+.. class:: ProxyHandler(proxies=None)
+
+   Cause requests to go through a proxy. If *proxies* is given, it must be a
+   dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read
+   the list of proxies from the environment variables
+   ``<protocol>_proxy``.  If no proxy environment variables are set, then
+   in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained from the registry's
+   Internet Settings section, and in a Mac OS X environment proxy information
+   is retrieved from the OS X System Configuration Framework.
+
+   To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.
+
+   The :envvar:`no_proxy` environment variable can be used to specify hosts
+   which shouldn't be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated
+   list of hostname suffixes, optionally with ``:port`` appended, for example
+   ``cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080``.
+
+    .. note::
+
+       ``HTTP_PROXY`` will be ignored if a variable ``REQUEST_METHOD`` is set;
+       see the documentation on :func:`~urllib.request.getproxies`.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPPasswordMgr()
+
+   Keep a database of  ``(realm, uri) -> (user, password)`` mappings.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()
+
+   Keep a database of  ``(realm, uri) -> (user, password)`` mappings. A realm of
+   ``None`` is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm
+   fits.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth()
+
+   A variant of :class:`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm` that also has a
+   database of ``uri -> is_authenticated`` mappings.  Can be used by a
+   BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials
+   immediately instead of waiting for a ``401`` response first.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. class:: AbstractBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
+
+   This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote
+   host and to a proxy. *password_mgr*, if given, should be something that is
+   compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section
+   :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must be
+   supported.  If *passwd_mgr* also provides ``is_authenticated`` and
+   ``update_authenticated`` methods (see
+   :ref:`http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth`), then the handler will use the
+   ``is_authenticated`` result for a given URI to determine whether or not to
+   send authentication credentials with the request.  If ``is_authenticated``
+   returns ``True`` for the URI, credentials are sent.  If ``is_authenticated``
+   is ``False``, credentials are not sent, and then if a ``401`` response is
+   received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials.  If
+   authentication succeeds, ``update_authenticated`` is called to set
+   ``is_authenticated`` ``True`` for the URI, so that subsequent requests to
+   the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the
+   authentication credentials.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.5
+      Added ``is_authenticated`` support.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
+
+   Handle authentication with the remote host. *password_mgr*, if given, should
+   be something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to
+   section :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must
+   be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a :exc:`ValueError` when
+   presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.
+
+
+.. class:: ProxyBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
+
+   Handle authentication with the proxy. *password_mgr*, if given, should be
+   something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section
+   :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must be
+   supported.
+
+
+.. class:: AbstractDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
+
+   This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote
+   host and to a proxy. *password_mgr*, if given, should be something that is
+   compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section
+   :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must be
+   supported.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
+
+   Handle authentication with the remote host. *password_mgr*, if given, should
+   be something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to
+   section :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must
+   be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic
+   Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried
+   first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent
+   to Basic Authentication handler to Handle.  This Handler method will raise a
+   :exc:`ValueError` when presented with an authentication scheme other than
+   Digest or Basic.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Raise :exc:`ValueError` on unsupported Authentication Scheme.
+
+
+
+.. class:: ProxyDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
+
+   Handle authentication with the proxy. *password_mgr*, if given, should be
+   something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section
+   :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must be
+   supported.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPHandler()
+
+   A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPSHandler(debuglevel=0, context=None, check_hostname=None)
+
+   A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs.  *context* and *check_hostname*
+   have the same meaning as in :class:`http.client.HTTPSConnection`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      *context* and *check_hostname* were added.
+
+
+.. class:: FileHandler()
+
+   Open local files.
+
+.. class:: DataHandler()
+
+   Open data URLs.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. class:: FTPHandler()
+
+   Open FTP URLs.
+
+
+.. class:: CacheFTPHandler()
+
+   Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays.
+
+
+.. class:: UnknownHandler()
+
+   A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.
+
+
+.. class:: HTTPErrorProcessor()
+
+   Process HTTP error responses.
+
+
+.. _request-objects:
+
+Request Objects
+---------------
+
+The following methods describe :class:`Request`'s public interface,
+and so all may be overridden in subclasses.  It also defines several
+public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed
+request.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.full_url
+
+   The original URL passed to the constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+
+   Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter. Getting
+   :attr:`~Request.full_url` returns the original request URL with the
+   fragment, if it was present.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.type
+
+   The URI scheme.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.host
+
+   The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port
+   separated by a colon.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.origin_req_host
+
+   The original host for the request, without port.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.selector
+
+   The URI path.  If the :class:`Request` uses a proxy, then selector
+   will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.data
+
+   The entity body for the request, or ``None`` if not specified.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Changing value of :attr:`Request.data` now deletes "Content-Length"
+      header if it was previously set or calculated.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.unverifiable
+
+   boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined
+   by :rfc:`2965`.
+
+.. attribute:: Request.method
+
+   The HTTP request method to use.  By default its value is :const:`None`,
+   which means that :meth:`~Request.get_method` will do its normal computation
+   of the method to be used.  Its value can be set (thus overriding the default
+   computation in :meth:`~Request.get_method`) either by providing a default
+   value by setting it at the class level in a :class:`Request` subclass, or by
+   passing a value in to the :class:`Request` constructor via the *method*
+   argument.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      A default value can now be set in subclasses; previously it could only
+      be set via the constructor argument.
+
+
+.. method:: Request.get_method()
+
+   Return a string indicating the HTTP request method.  If
+   :attr:`Request.method` is not ``None``, return its value, otherwise return
+   ``'GET'`` if :attr:`Request.data` is ``None``, or ``'POST'`` if it's not.
+   This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      get_method now looks at the value of :attr:`Request.method`.
+
+
+.. method:: Request.add_header(key, val)
+
+   Add another header to the request.  Headers are currently ignored by all
+   handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the list of headers sent
+   to the server.  Note that there cannot be more than one header with the same
+   name, and later calls will overwrite previous calls in case the *key* collides.
+   Currently, this is no loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have
+   meaning when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining the
+   same functionality using only one header.
+
+
+.. method:: Request.add_unredirected_header(key, header)
+
+   Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.
+
+
+.. method:: Request.has_header(header)
+
+   Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both regular and
+   unredirected).
+
+
+.. method:: Request.remove_header(header)
+
+   Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular and
+   unredirected headers).
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. method:: Request.get_full_url()
+
+   Return the URL given in the constructor.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+
+   Returns :attr:`Request.full_url`
+
+
+.. method:: Request.set_proxy(host, type)
+
+   Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The *host* and *type* will
+   replace those of the instance, and the instance's selector will be the original
+   URL given in the constructor.
+
+
+.. method:: Request.get_header(header_name, default=None)
+
+   Return the value of the given header. If the header is not present, return
+   the default value.
+
+
+.. method:: Request.header_items()
+
+   Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request headers.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The request methods add_data, has_data, get_data, get_type, get_host,
+   get_selector, get_origin_req_host and is_unverifiable that were deprecated
+   since 3.3 have been removed.
+
+
+.. _opener-director-objects:
+
+OpenerDirector Objects
+----------------------
+
+:class:`OpenerDirector` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: OpenerDirector.add_handler(handler)
+
+   *handler* should be an instance of :class:`BaseHandler`.  The following methods
+   are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a
+   special case).  Note that, in the following, *protocol* should be replaced
+   with the actual protocol to handle, for example :meth:`http_response` would
+   be the HTTP protocol response handler.  Also *type* should be replaced with
+   the actual HTTP code, for example :meth:`http_error_404` would handle HTTP
+   404 errors.
+
+   * :meth:`<protocol>_open` --- signal that the handler knows how to open *protocol*
+     URLs.
+
+     See |protocol_open|_ for more information.
+
+   * :meth:`http_error_\<type\>` --- signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP
+     errors with HTTP error code *type*.
+
+     See |http_error_nnn|_ for more information.
+
+   * :meth:`<protocol>_error` --- signal that the handler knows how to handle errors
+     from (non-\ ``http``) *protocol*.
+
+   * :meth:`<protocol>_request` --- signal that the handler knows how to pre-process
+     *protocol* requests.
+
+     See |protocol_request|_ for more information.
+
+   * :meth:`<protocol>_response` --- signal that the handler knows how to
+     post-process *protocol* responses.
+
+     See |protocol_response|_ for more information.
+
+.. |protocol_open| replace:: :meth:`BaseHandler.<protocol>_open`
+.. |http_error_nnn| replace:: :meth:`BaseHandler.http_error_\<nnn\>`
+.. |protocol_request| replace:: :meth:`BaseHandler.<protocol>_request`
+.. |protocol_response| replace:: :meth:`BaseHandler.<protocol>_response`
+
+.. method:: OpenerDirector.open(url, data=None[, timeout])
+
+   Open the given *url* (which can be a request object or a string), optionally
+   passing the given *data*. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised are
+   the same as those of :func:`urlopen` (which simply calls the :meth:`open`
+   method on the currently installed global :class:`OpenerDirector`).  The
+   optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking
+   operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default
+   timeout setting will be used). The timeout feature actually works only for
+   HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections).
+
+
+.. method:: OpenerDirector.error(proto, *args)
+
+   Handle an error of the given protocol.  This will call the registered error
+   handlers for the given protocol with the given arguments (which are protocol
+   specific).  The HTTP protocol is a special case which uses the HTTP response
+   code to determine the specific error handler; refer to the :meth:`http_error_\<type\>`
+   methods of the handler classes.
+
+   Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of :func:`urlopen`.
+
+OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:
+
+The order in which these methods are called within each stage is determined by
+sorting the handler instances.
+
+#. Every handler with a method named like :meth:`<protocol>_request` has that
+   method called to pre-process the request.
+
+#. Handlers with a method named like :meth:`<protocol>_open` are called to handle
+   the request. This stage ends when a handler either returns a non-\ :const:`None`
+   value (ie. a response), or raises an exception (usually
+   :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError`).  Exceptions are allowed to propagate.
+
+   In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named
+   :meth:`default_open`.  If all such methods return :const:`None`, the algorithm
+   is repeated for methods named like :meth:`<protocol>_open`.  If all such methods
+   return :const:`None`, the algorithm is repeated for methods named
+   :meth:`unknown_open`.
+
+   Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of the parent
+   :class:`OpenerDirector` instance's :meth:`~OpenerDirector.open` and
+   :meth:`~OpenerDirector.error` methods.
+
+#. Every handler with a method named like :meth:`<protocol>_response` has that
+   method called to post-process the response.
+
+
+.. _base-handler-objects:
+
+BaseHandler Objects
+-------------------
+
+:class:`BaseHandler` objects provide a couple of methods that are directly
+useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived classes.  These are
+intended for direct use:
+
+
+.. method:: BaseHandler.add_parent(director)
+
+   Add a director as parent.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseHandler.close()
+
+   Remove any parents.
+
+The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from
+:class:`BaseHandler`.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining
+   :meth:`<protocol>_request` or :meth:`<protocol>_response` methods are named
+   :class:`\*Processor`; all others are named :class:`\*Handler`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: BaseHandler.parent
+
+   A valid :class:`OpenerDirector`, which can be used to open using a different
+   protocol, or handle errors.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseHandler.default_open(req)
+
+   This method is *not* defined in :class:`BaseHandler`, but subclasses should
+   define it if they want to catch all URLs.
+
+   This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent
+   :class:`OpenerDirector`.  It should return a file-like object as described in
+   the return value of the :meth:`open` of :class:`OpenerDirector`, or ``None``.
+   It should raise :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError`, unless a truly exceptional
+   thing happens (for example, :exc:`MemoryError` should not be mapped to
+   :exc:`URLError`).
+
+   This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method.
+
+
+.. _protocol_open:
+.. method:: BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)
+   :noindex:
+
+   This method is *not* defined in :class:`BaseHandler`, but subclasses should
+   define it if they want to handle URLs with the given protocol.
+
+   This method, if defined, will be called by the parent :class:`OpenerDirector`.
+   Return values should be the same as for  :meth:`default_open`.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseHandler.unknown_open(req)
+
+   This method is *not* defined in :class:`BaseHandler`, but subclasses should
+   define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to
+   open it.
+
+   This method, if implemented, will be called by the :attr:`parent`
+   :class:`OpenerDirector`.  Return values should be the same as for
+   :meth:`default_open`.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseHandler.http_error_default(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
+
+   This method is *not* defined in :class:`BaseHandler`, but subclasses should
+   override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP
+   errors.  It will be called automatically by the  :class:`OpenerDirector` getting
+   the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances.
+
+   *req* will be a :class:`Request` object, *fp* will be a file-like object with
+   the HTTP error body, *code* will be the three-digit code of the error, *msg*
+   will be the user-visible explanation of the code and *hdrs* will be a mapping
+   object with the headers of the error.
+
+   Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of
+   :func:`urlopen`.
+
+
+.. _http_error_nnn:
+.. method:: BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
+
+   *nnn* should be a three-digit HTTP error code.  This method is also not defined
+   in :class:`BaseHandler`, but will be called, if it exists, on an instance of a
+   subclass, when an HTTP error with code *nnn* occurs.
+
+   Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP errors.
+
+   Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same as for
+   :meth:`http_error_default`.
+
+
+.. _protocol_request:
+.. method:: BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)
+   :noindex:
+
+   This method is *not* defined in :class:`BaseHandler`, but subclasses should
+   define it if they want to pre-process requests of the given protocol.
+
+   This method, if defined, will be called by the parent :class:`OpenerDirector`.
+   *req* will be a :class:`Request` object. The return value should be a
+   :class:`Request` object.
+
+
+.. _protocol_response:
+.. method:: BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)
+   :noindex:
+
+   This method is *not* defined in :class:`BaseHandler`, but subclasses should
+   define it if they want to post-process responses of the given protocol.
+
+   This method, if defined, will be called by the parent :class:`OpenerDirector`.
+   *req* will be a :class:`Request` object. *response* will be an object
+   implementing the same interface as the return value of :func:`urlopen`.  The
+   return value should implement the same interface as the return value of
+   :func:`urlopen`.
+
+
+.. _http-redirect-handler:
+
+HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
+---------------------------
+
+.. note::
+
+   Some HTTP redirections require action from this module's client code.  If this
+   is the case, :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` is raised.  See :rfc:`2616` for
+   details of the precise meanings of the various redirection codes.
+
+   An :class:`HTTPError` exception raised as a security consideration if the
+   HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a redirected URL which is not an HTTP,
+   HTTPS or FTP URL.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs, newurl)
+
+   Return a :class:`Request` or ``None`` in response to a redirect. This is called
+   by the default implementations of the :meth:`http_error_30\*` methods when a
+   redirection is received from the server.  If a redirection should take place,
+   return a new :class:`Request` to allow :meth:`http_error_30\*` to perform the
+   redirect to *newurl*.  Otherwise, raise :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` if
+   no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return ``None`` if you
+   can't but another handler might.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow :rfc:`2616`,
+      which says that 301 and 302 responses to ``POST`` requests must not be
+      automatically redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality, browsers
+      do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a
+      ``GET``, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
+
+   Redirect to the ``Location:`` or ``URI:`` URL.  This method is called by the
+   parent :class:`OpenerDirector` when getting an HTTP 'moved permanently' response.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
+
+   The same as :meth:`http_error_301`, but called for the 'found' response.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
+
+   The same as :meth:`http_error_301`, but called for the 'see other' response.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
+
+   The same as :meth:`http_error_301`, but called for the 'temporary redirect'
+   response.
+
+
+.. _http-cookie-processor:
+
+HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
+---------------------------
+
+:class:`HTTPCookieProcessor` instances have one attribute:
+
+.. attribute:: HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar
+
+   The :class:`http.cookiejar.CookieJar` in which cookies are stored.
+
+
+.. _proxy-handler:
+
+ProxyHandler Objects
+--------------------
+
+
+.. method:: ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)
+   :noindex:
+
+   The :class:`ProxyHandler` will have a method :meth:`<protocol>_open` for every
+   *protocol* which has a proxy in the *proxies* dictionary given in the
+   constructor.  The method will modify requests to go through the proxy, by
+   calling ``request.set_proxy()``, and call the next handler in the chain to
+   actually execute the protocol.
+
+
+.. _http-password-mgr:
+
+HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
+-----------------------
+
+These methods are available on :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr` and
+:class:`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm` objects.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(realm, uri, user, passwd)
+
+   *uri* can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. *realm*, *user* and
+   *passwd* must be strings. This causes ``(user, passwd)`` to be used as
+   authentication tokens when authentication for *realm* and a super-URI of any of
+   the given URIs is given.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(realm, authuri)
+
+   Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any.  This method will return
+   ``(None, None)`` if there is no matching user/password.
+
+   For :class:`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm` objects, the realm ``None`` will be
+   searched if the given *realm* has no matching user/password.
+
+
+.. _http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth:
+
+HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
+------------------------------------
+
+This password manager extends :class:`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm` to support
+tracking URIs for which authentication credentials should always be sent.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password(realm, uri, user, \
+            passwd, is_authenticated=False)
+
+   *realm*, *uri*, *user*, *passwd* are as for
+   :meth:`HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password`.  *is_authenticated* sets the initial
+   value of the ``is_authenticated`` flag for the given URI or list of URIs.
+   If *is_authenticated* is specified as ``True``, *realm* is ignored.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(realm, authuri)
+
+   Same as for :class:`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm` objects
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated(self, uri, \
+            is_authenticated=False)
+
+   Update the ``is_authenticated`` flag for the given *uri* or list
+   of URIs.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated(self, authuri)
+
+   Returns the current state of the ``is_authenticated`` flag for
+   the given URI.
+
+
+.. _abstract-basic-auth-handler:
+
+AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
+--------------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)
+
+   Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying
+   the request.  *authreq* should be the name of the header where the information
+   about the realm is included in the request, *host* specifies the URL and path to
+   authenticate for, *req* should be the (failed) :class:`Request` object, and
+   *headers* should be the error headers.
+
+   *host* is either an authority (e.g. ``"python.org"``) or a URL containing an
+   authority component (e.g. ``"http://python.org/"``). In either case, the
+   authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, ``"python.org"`` and
+   ``"python.org:80"`` are fine, ``"joe:password@python.org"`` is not).
+
+
+.. _http-basic-auth-handler:
+
+HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
+----------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code,  msg, hdrs)
+
+   Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
+
+
+.. _proxy-basic-auth-handler:
+
+ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
+-----------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407(req, fp, code,  msg, hdrs)
+
+   Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
+
+
+.. _abstract-digest-auth-handler:
+
+AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
+---------------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)
+
+   *authreq* should be the name of the header where the information about the realm
+   is included in the request, *host* should be the host to authenticate to, *req*
+   should be the (failed) :class:`Request` object, and *headers* should be the
+   error headers.
+
+
+.. _http-digest-auth-handler:
+
+HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
+-----------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code,  msg, hdrs)
+
+   Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
+
+
+.. _proxy-digest-auth-handler:
+
+ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
+------------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407(req, fp, code,  msg, hdrs)
+
+   Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
+
+
+.. _http-handler-objects:
+
+HTTPHandler Objects
+-------------------
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPHandler.http_open(req)
+
+   Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
+   ``req.has_data()``.
+
+
+.. _https-handler-objects:
+
+HTTPSHandler Objects
+--------------------
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPSHandler.https_open(req)
+
+   Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
+   ``req.has_data()``.
+
+
+.. _file-handler-objects:
+
+FileHandler Objects
+-------------------
+
+
+.. method:: FileHandler.file_open(req)
+
+   Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is
+   ``'localhost'``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      This method is applicable only for local hostnames.  When a remote
+      hostname is given, an :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError` is raised.
+
+
+.. _data-handler-objects:
+
+DataHandler Objects
+-------------------
+
+.. method:: DataHandler.data_open(req)
+
+   Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL
+   itself. The data URL syntax is specified in :rfc:`2397`. This implementation
+   ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped
+   in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don't
+   mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this
+   implementation will raise an :exc:`ValueError` in that case.
+
+
+.. _ftp-handler-objects:
+
+FTPHandler Objects
+------------------
+
+
+.. method:: FTPHandler.ftp_open(req)
+
+   Open the FTP file indicated by *req*. The login is always done with empty
+   username and password.
+
+
+.. _cacheftp-handler-objects:
+
+CacheFTPHandler Objects
+-----------------------
+
+:class:`CacheFTPHandler` objects are :class:`FTPHandler` objects with the
+following additional methods:
+
+
+.. method:: CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout(t)
+
+   Set timeout of connections to *t* seconds.
+
+
+.. method:: CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns(m)
+
+   Set maximum number of cached connections to *m*.
+
+
+.. _unknown-handler-objects:
+
+UnknownHandler Objects
+----------------------
+
+
+.. method:: UnknownHandler.unknown_open()
+
+   Raise a :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError` exception.
+
+
+.. _http-error-processor-objects:
+
+HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
+--------------------------
+
+.. method:: HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response(request, response)
+
+   Process HTTP error responses.
+
+   For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.
+
+   For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the
+   :meth:`http_error_\<type\>` handler methods, via :meth:`OpenerDirector.error`.
+   Eventually, :class:`HTTPDefaultErrorHandler` will raise an
+   :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` if no other handler handles the error.
+
+
+.. method:: HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response(request, response)
+
+   Process HTTPS error responses.
+
+   The behavior is same as :meth:`http_response`.
+
+
+.. _urllib-request-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in
+:ref:`urllib-howto`.
+
+This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of
+it. ::
+
+   >>> import urllib.request
+   >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
+   ...     print(f.read(300))
+   ...
+   b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
+   xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">\n\n<head>\n
+   <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />\n
+   <title>Python Programming '
+
+Note that urlopen returns a bytes object.  This is because there is no way
+for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte stream
+it receives from the HTTP server. In general, a program will decode
+the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses
+the appropriate encoding.
+
+The following W3C document, https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset\ , lists
+the various ways in which an (X)HTML or an XML document could have specified its
+encoding information.
+
+As the python.org website uses *utf-8* encoding as specified in its meta tag, we
+will use the same for decoding the bytes object. ::
+
+   >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
+   ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
+   ...
+   <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm
+
+It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the
+:term:`context manager` approach. ::
+
+   >>> import urllib.request
+   >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
+   >>> print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
+   <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm
+
+In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a CGI
+and reading the data it returns to us. Note that this example will only work
+when the Python installation supports SSL. ::
+
+   >>> import urllib.request
+   >>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
+   ...                       data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
+   >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
+   ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
+   ...
+   Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"
+
+The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is::
+
+   #!/usr/bin/env python
+   import sys
+   data = sys.stdin.read()
+   print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)
+
+Here is an example of doing a ``PUT`` request using :class:`Request`::
+
+    import urllib.request
+    DATA = b'some data'
+    req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA,method='PUT')
+    with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
+        pass
+    print(f.status)
+    print(f.reason)
+
+Use of Basic HTTP Authentication::
+
+   import urllib.request
+   # Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
+   auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
+   auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
+                             uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
+                             user='klem',
+                             passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
+   opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
+   # ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
+   urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
+   urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html')
+
+:func:`build_opener` provides many handlers by default, including a
+:class:`ProxyHandler`.  By default, :class:`ProxyHandler` uses the environment
+variables named ``<scheme>_proxy``, where ``<scheme>`` is the URL scheme
+involved.  For example, the :envvar:`http_proxy` environment variable is read to
+obtain the HTTP proxy's URL.
+
+This example replaces the default :class:`ProxyHandler` with one that uses
+programmatically-supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy authorization support with
+:class:`ProxyBasicAuthHandler`. ::
+
+   proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
+   proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
+   proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')
+
+   opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
+   # This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
+   opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html')
+
+Adding HTTP headers:
+
+Use the *headers* argument to the :class:`Request` constructor, or::
+
+   import urllib.request
+   req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
+   req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
+   # Customize the default User-Agent header value:
+   req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
+   r = urllib.request.urlopen(req)
+
+:class:`OpenerDirector` automatically adds a :mailheader:`User-Agent` header to
+every :class:`Request`.  To change this::
+
+   import urllib.request
+   opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
+   opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
+   opener.open('http://www.example.com/')
+
+Also, remember that a few standard headers (:mailheader:`Content-Length`,
+:mailheader:`Content-Type` and :mailheader:`Host`)
+are added when the :class:`Request` is passed to :func:`urlopen` (or
+:meth:`OpenerDirector.open`).
+
+.. _urllib-examples:
+
+Here is an example session that uses the ``GET`` method to retrieve a URL
+containing parameters::
+
+   >>> import urllib.request
+   >>> import urllib.parse
+   >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
+   >>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
+   >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
+   ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
+   ...
+
+The following example uses the ``POST`` method instead. Note that params output
+from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen as data::
+
+   >>> import urllib.request
+   >>> import urllib.parse
+   >>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
+   >>> data = data.encode('ascii')
+   >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
+   ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
+   ...
+
+The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy, overriding
+environment settings::
+
+   >>> import urllib.request
+   >>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
+   >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
+   >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
+   ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
+   ...
+
+The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings::
+
+   >>> import urllib.request
+   >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
+   >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
+   ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
+   ...
+
+
+Legacy interface
+----------------
+
+The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module
+``urllib`` (as opposed to ``urllib2``).  They might become deprecated at
+some point in the future.
+
+.. function:: urlretrieve(url, filename=None, reporthook=None, data=None)
+
+   Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file. If the URL
+   points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless filename is supplied.
+   Return a tuple ``(filename, headers)`` where *filename* is the
+   local file name under which the object can be found, and *headers* is whatever
+   the :meth:`info` method of the object returned by :func:`urlopen` returned (for
+   a remote object). Exceptions are the same as for :func:`urlopen`.
+
+   The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if
+   absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third
+   argument, if present, is a callable that will be called once on
+   establishment of the network connection and once after each block read
+   thereafter.  The callable will be passed three arguments; a count of blocks
+   transferred so far, a block size in bytes, and the total size of the file.  The
+   third argument may be ``-1`` on older FTP servers which do not return a file
+   size in response to a retrieval request.
+
+   The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario::
+
+      >>> import urllib.request
+      >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
+      >>> html = open(local_filename)
+      >>> html.close()
+
+   If the *url* uses the :file:`http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*
+   argument may be given to specify a ``POST`` request (normally the request
+   type is ``GET``).  The *data* argument must be a bytes object in standard
+   :mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded` format; see the
+   :func:`urllib.parse.urlencode` function.
+
+   :func:`urlretrieve` will raise :exc:`ContentTooShortError` when it detects that
+   the amount of data available  was less than the expected amount (which is the
+   size reported by a  *Content-Length* header). This can occur, for example, when
+   the  download is interrupted.
+
+   The *Content-Length* is treated as a lower bound: if there's more data  to read,
+   urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is available,  it raises the
+   exception.
+
+   You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored  in the
+   :attr:`content` attribute of the exception instance.
+
+   If no *Content-Length* header was supplied, urlretrieve can not check the size
+   of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it.  In this case you just have
+   to assume that the download was successful.
+
+.. function:: urlcleanup()
+
+   Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous
+   calls to :func:`urlretrieve`.
+
+.. class:: URLopener(proxies=None, **x509)
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+   Base class for opening and reading URLs.  Unless you need to support opening
+   objects using schemes other than :file:`http:`, :file:`ftp:`, or :file:`file:`,
+   you probably want to use :class:`FancyURLopener`.
+
+   By default, the :class:`URLopener` class sends a :mailheader:`User-Agent` header
+   of ``urllib/VVV``, where *VVV* is the :mod:`urllib` version number.
+   Applications can define their own :mailheader:`User-Agent` header by subclassing
+   :class:`URLopener` or :class:`FancyURLopener` and setting the class attribute
+   :attr:`version` to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.
+
+   The optional *proxies* parameter should be a dictionary mapping scheme names to
+   proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies off completely.  Its default
+   value is ``None``, in which case environmental proxy settings will be used if
+   present, as discussed in the definition of :func:`urlopen`, above.
+
+   Additional keyword parameters, collected in *x509*, may be used for
+   authentication of the client when using the :file:`https:` scheme.  The keywords
+   *key_file* and *cert_file* are supported to provide an  SSL key and certificate;
+   both are needed to support client authentication.
+
+   :class:`URLopener` objects will raise an :exc:`OSError` exception if the server
+   returns an error code.
+
+   .. method:: open(fullurl, data=None)
+
+      Open *fullurl* using the appropriate protocol.  This method sets up cache and
+      proxy information, then calls the appropriate open method with its input
+      arguments.  If the scheme is not recognized, :meth:`open_unknown` is called.
+      The *data* argument has the same meaning as the *data* argument of
+      :func:`urlopen`.
+
+      This method always quotes *fullurl* using :func:`~urllib.parse.quote`.
+
+   .. method:: open_unknown(fullurl, data=None)
+
+      Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.
+
+
+   .. method:: retrieve(url, filename=None, reporthook=None, data=None)
+
+      Retrieves the contents of *url* and places it in *filename*.  The return value
+      is a tuple consisting of a local filename and either an
+      :class:`email.message.Message` object containing the response headers (for remote
+      URLs) or ``None`` (for local URLs).  The caller must then open and read the
+      contents of *filename*.  If *filename* is not given and the URL refers to a
+      local file, the input filename is returned.  If the URL is non-local and
+      *filename* is not given, the filename is the output of :func:`tempfile.mktemp`
+      with a suffix that matches the suffix of the last path component of the input
+      URL.  If *reporthook* is given, it must be a function accepting three numeric
+      parameters: A chunk number, the maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the download
+      (-1 if unknown).  It will be called once at the start and after each chunk of data is read from the
+      network.  *reporthook* is ignored for local URLs.
+
+      If the *url* uses the :file:`http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*
+      argument may be given to specify a ``POST`` request (normally the request type
+      is ``GET``).  The *data* argument must in standard
+      :mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded` format; see the
+      :func:`urllib.parse.urlencode` function.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: version
+
+      Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object.  To get
+      :mod:`urllib` to tell servers that it is a particular user agent, set this in a
+      subclass as a class variable or in the constructor before calling the base
+      constructor.
+
+
+.. class:: FancyURLopener(...)
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.3
+
+   :class:`FancyURLopener` subclasses :class:`URLopener` providing default handling
+   for the following HTTP response codes: 301, 302, 303, 307 and 401.  For the 30x
+   response codes listed above, the :mailheader:`Location` header is used to fetch
+   the actual URL.  For 401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP
+   authentication is performed.  For the 30x response codes, recursion is bounded
+   by the value of the *maxtries* attribute, which defaults to 10.
+
+   For all other response codes, the method :meth:`http_error_default` is called
+   which you can override in subclasses to handle the error appropriately.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      According to the letter of :rfc:`2616`, 301 and 302 responses to POST requests
+      must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user.  In
+      reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing
+      the POST to a GET, and :mod:`urllib` reproduces this behaviour.
+
+   The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for :class:`URLopener`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      When performing basic authentication, a :class:`FancyURLopener` instance calls
+      its :meth:`prompt_user_passwd` method.  The default implementation asks the
+      users for the required information on the controlling terminal.  A subclass may
+      override this method to support more appropriate behavior if needed.
+
+   The :class:`FancyURLopener` class offers one additional method that should be
+   overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:
+
+   .. method:: prompt_user_passwd(host, realm)
+
+      Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the
+      specified security realm.  The return value should be a tuple, ``(user,
+      password)``, which can be used for basic authentication.
+
+      The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application
+      should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local
+      environment.
+
+
+:mod:`urllib.request` Restrictions
+----------------------------------
+
+  .. index::
+     pair: HTTP; protocol
+     pair: FTP; protocol
+
+* Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP (versions 0.9 and
+  1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.
+
+  .. versionchanged:: 3.4 Added support for data URLs.
+
+* The caching feature of :func:`urlretrieve` has been disabled until someone
+  finds the time to hack proper processing of Expiration time headers.
+
+* There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in the cache.
+
+* For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local file but the
+  file can't be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using the FTP protocol.  This
+  can sometimes cause confusing error messages.
+
+* The :func:`urlopen` and :func:`urlretrieve` functions can cause arbitrarily
+  long delays while waiting for a network connection to be set up.  This means
+  that it is difficult to build an interactive Web client using these functions
+  without using threads.
+
+  .. index::
+     single: HTML
+     pair: HTTP; protocol
+
+* The data returned by :func:`urlopen` or :func:`urlretrieve` is the raw data
+  returned by the server.  This may be binary data (such as an image), plain text
+  or (for example) HTML.  The HTTP protocol provides type information in the reply
+  header, which can be inspected by looking at the :mailheader:`Content-Type`
+  header.  If the returned data is HTML, you can use the module
+  :mod:`html.parser` to parse it.
+
+  .. index:: single: FTP
+
+* The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a file and a
+  directory.  This can lead to unexpected behavior when attempting to read a URL
+  that points to a file that is not accessible.  If the URL ends in a ``/``, it is
+  assumed to refer to a directory and will be handled accordingly.  But if an
+  attempt to read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found or
+  is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path is treated as a
+  directory in order to handle the case when a directory is specified by a URL but
+  the trailing ``/`` has been left off.  This can cause misleading results when
+  you try to fetch a file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP
+  code will try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory
+  listing for the unreadable file. If fine-grained control is needed, consider
+  using the :mod:`ftplib` module, subclassing :class:`FancyURLopener`, or changing
+  *_urlopener* to meet your needs.
+
+
+
+:mod:`urllib.response` --- Response classes used by urllib
+==========================================================
+
+.. module:: urllib.response
+   :synopsis: Response classes used by urllib.
+
+The :mod:`urllib.response` module defines functions and classes which define a
+minimal file like interface, including ``read()`` and ``readline()``. The
+typical response object is an addinfourl instance, which defines an ``info()``
+method and that returns headers and a ``geturl()`` method that returns the url.
+Functions defined by this module are used internally by the
+:mod:`urllib.request` module.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.robotparser.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.robotparser.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3b90e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.robotparser.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
+:mod:`urllib.robotparser` ---  Parser for robots.txt
+====================================================
+
+.. module:: urllib.robotparser
+   :synopsis: Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
+              fetchability of other URLs.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip@pobox.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/urllib/robotparser.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: WWW
+   single: World Wide Web
+   single: URL
+   single: robots.txt
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides a single class, :class:`RobotFileParser`, which answers
+questions about whether or not a particular user agent can fetch a URL on the
+Web site that published the :file:`robots.txt` file.  For more details on the
+structure of :file:`robots.txt` files, see http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html.
+
+
+.. class:: RobotFileParser(url='')
+
+   This class provides methods to read, parse and answer questions about the
+   :file:`robots.txt` file at *url*.
+
+   .. method:: set_url(url)
+
+      Sets the URL referring to a :file:`robots.txt` file.
+
+   .. method:: read()
+
+      Reads the :file:`robots.txt` URL and feeds it to the parser.
+
+   .. method:: parse(lines)
+
+      Parses the lines argument.
+
+   .. method:: can_fetch(useragent, url)
+
+      Returns ``True`` if the *useragent* is allowed to fetch the *url*
+      according to the rules contained in the parsed :file:`robots.txt`
+      file.
+
+   .. method:: mtime()
+
+      Returns the time the ``robots.txt`` file was last fetched.  This is
+      useful for long-running web spiders that need to check for new
+      ``robots.txt`` files periodically.
+
+   .. method:: modified()
+
+      Sets the time the ``robots.txt`` file was last fetched to the current
+      time.
+
+   .. method:: crawl_delay(useragent)
+
+      Returns the value of the ``Crawl-delay`` parameter from ``robots.txt``
+      for the *useragent* in question.  If there is no such parameter or it
+      doesn't apply to the *useragent* specified or the ``robots.txt`` entry
+      for this parameter has invalid syntax, return ``None``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   .. method:: request_rate(useragent)
+
+      Returns the contents of the ``Request-rate`` parameter from
+      ``robots.txt`` as a :term:`named tuple` ``RequestRate(requests, seconds)``.
+      If there is no such parameter or it doesn't apply to the *useragent*
+      specified or the ``robots.txt`` entry for this parameter has invalid
+      syntax, return ``None``.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+The following example demonstrates basic use of the :class:`RobotFileParser`
+class::
+
+   >>> import urllib.robotparser
+   >>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
+   >>> rp.set_url("http://www.musi-cal.com/robots.txt")
+   >>> rp.read()
+   >>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
+   >>> rrate.requests
+   3
+   >>> rrate.seconds
+   20
+   >>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
+   6
+   >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/search?city=San+Francisco")
+   False
+   >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/")
+   True
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..624e164
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/urllib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`urllib` --- URL handling modules
+======================================
+
+.. module:: urllib
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/urllib/`
+
+--------------
+
+``urllib`` is a package that collects several modules for working with URLs:
+
+* :mod:`urllib.request` for opening and reading URLs
+* :mod:`urllib.error` containing the exceptions raised by :mod:`urllib.request`
+* :mod:`urllib.parse` for parsing URLs
+* :mod:`urllib.robotparser` for parsing ``robots.txt`` files
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/uu.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/uu.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0bc8021
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/uu.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+:mod:`uu` --- Encode and decode uuencode files
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: uu
+   :synopsis: Encode and decode files in uuencode format.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Lance Ellinghouse
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/uu.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module encodes and decodes files in uuencode format, allowing arbitrary
+binary data to be transferred over ASCII-only connections. Wherever a file
+argument is expected, the methods accept a file-like object.  For backwards
+compatibility, a string containing a pathname is also accepted, and the
+corresponding file will be opened for reading and writing; the pathname ``'-'``
+is understood to mean the standard input or output.  However, this interface is
+deprecated; it's better for the caller to open the file itself, and be sure
+that, when required, the mode is ``'rb'`` or ``'wb'`` on Windows.
+
+.. index::
+   single: Jansen, Jack
+   single: Ellinghouse, Lance
+
+This code was contributed by Lance Ellinghouse, and modified by Jack Jansen.
+
+The :mod:`uu` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: encode(in_file, out_file, name=None, mode=None, *, backtick=False)
+
+   Uuencode file *in_file* into file *out_file*.  The uuencoded file will have
+   the header specifying *name* and *mode* as the defaults for the results of
+   decoding the file. The default defaults are taken from *in_file*, or ``'-'``
+   and ``0o666`` respectively.  If *backtick* is true, zeros are represented by
+   ``'`'`` instead of spaces.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added the *backtick* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: decode(in_file, out_file=None, mode=None, quiet=False)
+
+   This call decodes uuencoded file *in_file* placing the result on file
+   *out_file*. If *out_file* is a pathname, *mode* is used to set the permission
+   bits if the file must be created. Defaults for *out_file* and *mode* are taken
+   from the uuencode header.  However, if the file specified in the header already
+   exists, a :exc:`uu.Error` is raised.
+
+   :func:`decode` may print a warning to standard error if the input was produced
+   by an incorrect uuencoder and Python could recover from that error.  Setting
+   *quiet* to a true value silences this warning.
+
+
+.. exception:: Error()
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`Exception`, this can be raised by :func:`uu.decode` under
+   various situations, such as described above, but also including a badly
+   formatted header, or truncated input file.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`binascii`
+      Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII conversions.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/uuid.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/uuid.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..415e25b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/uuid.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,303 @@
+:mod:`uuid` --- UUID objects according to :rfc:`4122`
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: uuid
+   :synopsis: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122
+.. moduleauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@zesty.ca>
+.. sectionauthor:: George Yoshida <quiver@users.sourceforge.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/uuid.py`
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides immutable :class:`UUID` objects (the :class:`UUID` class)
+and the functions :func:`uuid1`, :func:`uuid3`, :func:`uuid4`, :func:`uuid5` for
+generating version 1, 3, 4, and 5 UUIDs as specified in :rfc:`4122`.
+
+If all you want is a unique ID, you should probably call :func:`uuid1` or
+:func:`uuid4`.  Note that :func:`uuid1` may compromise privacy since it creates
+a UUID containing the computer's network address.  :func:`uuid4` creates a
+random UUID.
+
+Depending on support from the underlying platform, :func:`uuid1` may or may
+not return a "safe" UUID.  A safe UUID is one which is generated using
+synchronization methods that ensure no two processes can obtain the same
+UUID.  All instances of :class:`UUID` have an :attr:`is_safe` attribute
+which relays any information about the UUID's safety, using this enumeration:
+
+.. class:: SafeUUID
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   .. attribute:: SafeUUID.safe
+
+      The UUID was generated by the platform in a multiprocessing-safe way.
+
+   .. attribute:: SafeUUID.unsafe
+
+      The UUID was not generated in a multiprocessing-safe way.
+
+   .. attribute:: SafeUUID.unknown
+
+      The platform does not provide information on whether the UUID was
+      generated safely or not.
+
+.. class:: UUID(hex=None, bytes=None, bytes_le=None, fields=None, int=None, version=None, *, is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown)
+
+   Create a UUID from either a string of 32 hexadecimal digits, a string of 16
+   bytes in big-endian order as the *bytes* argument, a string of 16 bytes in
+   little-endian order as the *bytes_le* argument, a tuple of six integers
+   (32-bit *time_low*, 16-bit *time_mid*, 16-bit *time_hi_version*,
+   8-bit *clock_seq_hi_variant*, 8-bit *clock_seq_low*, 48-bit *node*) as the
+   *fields* argument, or a single 128-bit integer as the *int* argument.
+   When a string of hex digits is given, curly braces, hyphens,
+   and a URN prefix are all optional.  For example, these
+   expressions all yield the same UUID::
+
+      UUID('{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}')
+      UUID('12345678123456781234567812345678')
+      UUID('urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678')
+      UUID(bytes=b'\x12\x34\x56\x78'*4)
+      UUID(bytes_le=b'\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56' +
+                    b'\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78')
+      UUID(fields=(0x12345678, 0x1234, 0x5678, 0x12, 0x34, 0x567812345678))
+      UUID(int=0x12345678123456781234567812345678)
+
+   Exactly one of *hex*, *bytes*, *bytes_le*, *fields*, or *int* must be given.
+   The *version* argument is optional; if given, the resulting UUID will have its
+   variant and version number set according to :rfc:`4122`, overriding bits in the
+   given *hex*, *bytes*, *bytes_le*, *fields*, or *int*.
+
+   Comparison of UUID objects are made by way of comparing their
+   :attr:`UUID.int` attributes.  Comparison with a non-UUID object
+   raises a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   ``str(uuid)`` returns a string in the form
+   ``12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678`` where the 32 hexadecimal digits
+   represent the UUID.
+
+:class:`UUID` instances have these read-only attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.bytes
+
+   The UUID as a 16-byte string (containing the six integer fields in big-endian
+   byte order).
+
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.bytes_le
+
+   The UUID as a 16-byte string (with *time_low*, *time_mid*, and *time_hi_version*
+   in little-endian byte order).
+
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.fields
+
+   A tuple of the six integer fields of the UUID, which are also available as six
+   individual attributes and two derived attributes:
+
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | Field                        | Meaning                       |
+   +==============================+===============================+
+   | :attr:`time_low`             | the first 32 bits of the UUID |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`time_mid`             | the next 16 bits of the UUID  |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`time_hi_version`      | the next 16 bits of the UUID  |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`clock_seq_hi_variant` | the next 8 bits of the UUID   |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`clock_seq_low`        | the next 8 bits of the UUID   |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`node`                 | the last 48 bits of the UUID  |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`time`                 | the 60-bit timestamp          |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   | :attr:`clock_seq`            | the 14-bit sequence number    |
+   +------------------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.hex
+
+   The UUID as a 32-character hexadecimal string.
+
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.int
+
+   The UUID as a 128-bit integer.
+
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.urn
+
+   The UUID as a URN as specified in :rfc:`4122`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.variant
+
+   The UUID variant, which determines the internal layout of the UUID. This will be
+   one of the constants :const:`RESERVED_NCS`, :const:`RFC_4122`,
+   :const:`RESERVED_MICROSOFT`, or :const:`RESERVED_FUTURE`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.version
+
+   The UUID version number (1 through 5, meaningful only when the variant is
+   :const:`RFC_4122`).
+
+.. attribute:: UUID.is_safe
+
+   An enumeration of :class:`SafeUUID` which indicates whether the platform
+   generated the UUID in a multiprocessing-safe way.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: getnode()
+
+   Get the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer.  The first time this
+   runs, it may launch a separate program, which could be quite slow.  If all
+   attempts to obtain the hardware address fail, we choose a random 48-bit
+   number with the multicast bit (least significant bit of the first octet)
+   set to 1 as recommended in :rfc:`4122`.  "Hardware address" means the MAC
+   address of a network interface.  On a machine with multiple network
+   interfaces, universally administered MAC addresses (i.e. where the second
+   least significant bit of the first octet is *unset*) will be preferred over
+   locally administered MAC addresses, but with no other ordering guarantees.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Universally administered MAC addresses are preferred over locally
+      administered MAC addresses, since the former are guaranteed to be
+      globally unique, while the latter are not.
+
+.. index:: single: getnode
+
+
+.. function:: uuid1(node=None, clock_seq=None)
+
+   Generate a UUID from a host ID, sequence number, and the current time. If *node*
+   is not given, :func:`getnode` is used to obtain the hardware address. If
+   *clock_seq* is given, it is used as the sequence number; otherwise a random
+   14-bit sequence number is chosen.
+
+.. index:: single: uuid1
+
+
+.. function:: uuid3(namespace, name)
+
+   Generate a UUID based on the MD5 hash of a namespace identifier (which is a
+   UUID) and a name (which is a string).
+
+.. index:: single: uuid3
+
+
+.. function:: uuid4()
+
+   Generate a random UUID.
+
+.. index:: single: uuid4
+
+
+.. function:: uuid5(namespace, name)
+
+   Generate a UUID based on the SHA-1 hash of a namespace identifier (which is a
+   UUID) and a name (which is a string).
+
+.. index:: single: uuid5
+
+The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following namespace identifiers for use with
+:func:`uuid3` or :func:`uuid5`.
+
+
+.. data:: NAMESPACE_DNS
+
+   When this namespace is specified, the *name* string is a fully-qualified domain
+   name.
+
+
+.. data:: NAMESPACE_URL
+
+   When this namespace is specified, the *name* string is a URL.
+
+
+.. data:: NAMESPACE_OID
+
+   When this namespace is specified, the *name* string is an ISO OID.
+
+
+.. data:: NAMESPACE_X500
+
+   When this namespace is specified, the *name* string is an X.500 DN in DER or a
+   text output format.
+
+The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following constants for the possible values
+of the :attr:`variant` attribute:
+
+
+.. data:: RESERVED_NCS
+
+   Reserved for NCS compatibility.
+
+
+.. data:: RFC_4122
+
+   Specifies the UUID layout given in :rfc:`4122`.
+
+
+.. data:: RESERVED_MICROSOFT
+
+   Reserved for Microsoft compatibility.
+
+
+.. data:: RESERVED_FUTURE
+
+   Reserved for future definition.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :rfc:`4122` - A Universally Unique IDentifier (UUID) URN Namespace
+      This specification defines a Uniform Resource Name namespace for UUIDs, the
+      internal format of UUIDs, and methods of generating UUIDs.
+
+
+.. _uuid-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+Here are some examples of typical usage of the :mod:`uuid` module::
+
+   >>> import uuid
+
+   >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
+   >>> uuid.uuid1()
+   UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')
+
+   >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
+   >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
+   UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')
+
+   >>> # make a random UUID
+   >>> uuid.uuid4()
+   UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')
+
+   >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
+   >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
+   UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')
+
+   >>> # make a UUID from a string of hex digits (braces and hyphens ignored)
+   >>> x = uuid.UUID('{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}')
+
+   >>> # convert a UUID to a string of hex digits in standard form
+   >>> str(x)
+   '00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f'
+
+   >>> # get the raw 16 bytes of the UUID
+   >>> x.bytes
+   b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f'
+
+   >>> # make a UUID from a 16-byte string
+   >>> uuid.UUID(bytes=x.bytes)
+   UUID('00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f')
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/venv.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/venv.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d61df48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/venv.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,478 @@
+:mod:`venv` --- Creation of virtual environments
+================================================
+
+.. module:: venv
+   :synopsis: Creation of virtual environments.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@yahoo.co.uk>
+.. sectionauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@yahoo.co.uk>
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/venv/`
+
+.. index:: pair: Environments; virtual
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`venv` module provides support for creating lightweight "virtual
+environments" with their own site directories, optionally isolated from system
+site directories.  Each virtual environment has its own Python binary (which
+matches the version of the binary that was used to create this environment) and
+can have its own independent set of installed Python packages in its site
+directories.
+
+See :pep:`405` for more information about Python virtual environments.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments
+   <https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments>`__
+
+.. note::
+   The ``pyvenv`` script has been deprecated as of Python 3.6 in favor of using
+   ``python3 -m venv`` to help prevent any potential confusion as to which
+   Python interpreter a virtual environment will be based on.
+
+
+Creating virtual environments
+-----------------------------
+
+.. include:: /using/venv-create.inc
+
+
+.. _venv-def:
+
+.. note:: A virtual environment is a Python environment such that the Python
+   interpreter, libraries and scripts installed into it are isolated from those
+   installed in other virtual environments, and (by default) any libraries
+   installed in a "system" Python, i.e., one which is installed as part of your
+   operating system.
+
+   A virtual environment is a directory tree which contains Python executable
+   files and other files which indicate that it is a virtual environment.
+
+   Common installation tools such as ``Setuptools`` and ``pip`` work as
+   expected with virtual environments. In other words, when a virtual
+   environment is active, they install Python packages into the virtual
+   environment without needing to be told to do so explicitly.
+
+   When a virtual environment is active (i.e., the virtual environment's Python
+   interpreter is running), the attributes :attr:`sys.prefix` and
+   :attr:`sys.exec_prefix` point to the base directory of the virtual
+   environment, whereas :attr:`sys.base_prefix` and
+   :attr:`sys.base_exec_prefix` point to the non-virtual environment Python
+   installation which was used to create the virtual environment. If a virtual
+   environment is not active, then :attr:`sys.prefix` is the same as
+   :attr:`sys.base_prefix` and :attr:`sys.exec_prefix` is the same as
+   :attr:`sys.base_exec_prefix` (they all point to a non-virtual environment
+   Python installation).
+
+   When a virtual environment is active, any options that change the
+   installation path will be ignored from all distutils configuration files to
+   prevent projects being inadvertently installed outside of the virtual
+   environment.
+
+   When working in a command shell, users can make a virtual environment active
+   by running an ``activate`` script in the virtual environment's executables
+   directory (the precise filename is shell-dependent), which prepends the
+   virtual environment's directory for executables to the ``PATH`` environment
+   variable for the running shell. There should be no need in other
+   circumstances to activate a virtual environment—scripts installed into
+   virtual environments have a "shebang" line which points to the virtual
+   environment's Python interpreter. This means that the script will run with
+   that interpreter regardless of the value of ``PATH``. On Windows, "shebang"
+   line processing is supported if you have the Python Launcher for Windows
+   installed (this was added to Python in 3.3 - see :pep:`397` for more
+   details). Thus, double-clicking an installed script in a Windows Explorer
+   window should run the script with the correct interpreter without there
+   needing to be any reference to its virtual environment in ``PATH``.
+
+
+.. _venv-api:
+
+API
+---
+
+.. highlight:: python
+
+The high-level method described above makes use of a simple API which provides
+mechanisms for third-party virtual environment creators to customize environment
+creation according to their needs, the :class:`EnvBuilder` class.
+
+.. class:: EnvBuilder(system_site_packages=False, clear=False, \
+                      symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, \
+                      prompt=None)
+
+    The :class:`EnvBuilder` class accepts the following keyword arguments on
+    instantiation:
+
+    * ``system_site_packages`` -- a Boolean value indicating that the system Python
+      site-packages should be available to the environment (defaults to ``False``).
+
+    * ``clear`` -- a Boolean value which, if true, will delete the contents of
+      any existing target directory, before creating the environment.
+
+    * ``symlinks`` -- a Boolean value indicating whether to attempt to symlink the
+      Python binary rather than copying.
+
+    * ``upgrade`` -- a Boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an existing
+      environment with the running Python - for use when that Python has been
+      upgraded in-place (defaults to ``False``).
+
+    * ``with_pip`` -- a Boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
+      installed in the virtual environment. This uses :mod:`ensurepip` with
+      the ``--default-pip`` option.
+
+    * ``prompt`` -- a String to be used after virtual environment is activated
+      (defaults to ``None`` which means directory name of the environment would
+      be used).
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+       Added the ``with_pip`` parameter
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.6
+       Added the ``prompt`` parameter
+
+    Creators of third-party virtual environment tools will be free to use the
+    provided ``EnvBuilder`` class as a base class.
+
+    The returned env-builder is an object which has a method, ``create``:
+
+    .. method:: create(env_dir)
+
+        This method takes as required argument the path (absolute or relative to
+        the current directory) of the target directory which is to contain the
+        virtual environment.  The ``create`` method will either create the
+        environment in the specified directory, or raise an appropriate
+        exception.
+
+        The ``create`` method of the ``EnvBuilder`` class illustrates the hooks
+        available for subclass customization::
+
+            def create(self, env_dir):
+                """
+                Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory.
+                env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in.
+                """
+                env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir)
+                context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir)
+                self.create_configuration(context)
+                self.setup_python(context)
+                self.setup_scripts(context)
+                self.post_setup(context)
+
+        Each of the methods :meth:`ensure_directories`,
+        :meth:`create_configuration`, :meth:`setup_python`,
+        :meth:`setup_scripts` and :meth:`post_setup` can be overridden.
+
+    .. method:: ensure_directories(env_dir)
+
+        Creates the environment directory and all necessary directories, and
+        returns a context object.  This is just a holder for attributes (such as
+        paths), for use by the other methods. The directories are allowed to
+        exist already, as long as either ``clear`` or ``upgrade`` were
+        specified to allow operating on an existing environment directory.
+
+    .. method:: create_configuration(context)
+
+        Creates the ``pyvenv.cfg`` configuration file in the environment.
+
+    .. method:: setup_python(context)
+
+        Creates a copy or symlink to the Python executable in the environment.
+        On POSIX systems, if a specific executable ``python3.x`` was used,
+        symlinks to ``python`` and ``python3`` will be created pointing to that
+        executable, unless files with those names already exist.
+
+    .. method:: setup_scripts(context)
+
+        Installs activation scripts appropriate to the platform into the virtual
+        environment.
+
+    .. method:: post_setup(context)
+
+        A placeholder method which can be overridden in third party
+        implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual environment or
+        perform other post-creation steps.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
+       Windows now uses redirector scripts for ``python[w].exe`` instead of
+       copying the actual binaries. In 3.7.2 only :meth:`setup_python` does
+       nothing unless running from a build in the source tree.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.7.3
+       Windows copies the redirector scripts as part of :meth:`setup_python`
+       instead of :meth:`setup_scripts`. This was not the case in 3.7.2.
+       When using symlinks, the original executables will be linked.
+
+    In addition, :class:`EnvBuilder` provides this utility method that can be
+    called from :meth:`setup_scripts` or :meth:`post_setup` in subclasses to
+    assist in installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.
+
+    .. method:: install_scripts(context, path)
+
+        *path* is the path to a directory that should contain subdirectories
+        "common", "posix", "nt", each containing scripts destined for the bin
+        directory in the environment.  The contents of "common" and the
+        directory corresponding to :data:`os.name` are copied after some text
+        replacement of placeholders:
+
+        * ``__VENV_DIR__`` is replaced with the absolute path of the environment
+          directory.
+
+        * ``__VENV_NAME__`` is replaced with the environment name (final path
+          segment of environment directory).
+
+        * ``__VENV_PROMPT__`` is replaced with the prompt (the environment
+          name surrounded by parentheses and with a following space)
+
+        * ``__VENV_BIN_NAME__`` is replaced with the name of the bin directory
+          (either ``bin`` or ``Scripts``).
+
+        * ``__VENV_PYTHON__`` is replaced with the absolute path of the
+          environment's executable.
+
+        The directories are allowed to exist (for when an existing environment
+        is being upgraded).
+
+There is also a module-level convenience function:
+
+.. function:: create(env_dir, system_site_packages=False, clear=False, \
+                     symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None)
+
+    Create an :class:`EnvBuilder` with the given keyword arguments, and call its
+    :meth:`~EnvBuilder.create` method with the *env_dir* argument.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+       Added the ``with_pip`` parameter
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+       Added the ``prompt`` parameter
+
+An example of extending ``EnvBuilder``
+--------------------------------------
+
+The following script shows how to extend :class:`EnvBuilder` by implementing a
+subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created virtual environment::
+
+    import os
+    import os.path
+    from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
+    import sys
+    from threading import Thread
+    from urllib.parse import urlparse
+    from urllib.request import urlretrieve
+    import venv
+
+    class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder):
+        """
+        This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or
+        easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment.
+
+        :param nodist: If True, setuptools and pip are not installed into the
+                       created virtual environment.
+        :param nopip: If True, pip is not installed into the created
+                      virtual environment.
+        :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the
+                         installation can be monitored by passing a progress
+                         callable. If specified, it is called with two
+                         arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a
+                         context indicating where the string is coming from.
+                         The context argument can have one of three values:
+                         'main', indicating that it is called from virtualize()
+                         itself, and 'stdout' and 'stderr', which are obtained
+                         by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess
+                         which is used to install the app.
+
+                         If a callable is not specified, default progress
+                         information is output to sys.stderr.
+        """
+
+        def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
+            self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False)
+            self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False)
+            self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None)
+            self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False)
+            super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
+
+        def post_setup(self, context):
+            """
+            Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the
+            virtual environment being created.
+
+            :param context: The information for the virtual environment
+                            creation request being processed.
+            """
+            os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir
+            if not self.nodist:
+                self.install_setuptools(context)
+            # Can't install pip without setuptools
+            if not self.nopip and not self.nodist:
+                self.install_pip(context)
+
+        def reader(self, stream, context):
+            """
+            Read lines from a subprocess' output stream and either pass to a progress
+            callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr.
+            """
+            progress = self.progress
+            while True:
+                s = stream.readline()
+                if not s:
+                    break
+                if progress is not None:
+                    progress(s, context)
+                else:
+                    if not self.verbose:
+                        sys.stderr.write('.')
+                    else:
+                        sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8'))
+                    sys.stderr.flush()
+            stream.close()
+
+        def install_script(self, context, name, url):
+            _, _, path, _, _, _ = urlparse(url)
+            fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
+            binpath = context.bin_path
+            distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
+            # Download script into the virtual environment's binaries folder
+            urlretrieve(url, distpath)
+            progress = self.progress
+            if self.verbose:
+                term = '\n'
+            else:
+                term = ''
+            if progress is not None:
+                progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main')
+            else:
+                sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term))
+                sys.stderr.flush()
+            # Install in the virtual environment
+            args = [context.env_exe, fn]
+            p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath)
+            t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout'))
+            t1.start()
+            t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr'))
+            t2.start()
+            p.wait()
+            t1.join()
+            t2.join()
+            if progress is not None:
+                progress('done.', 'main')
+            else:
+                sys.stderr.write('done.\n')
+            # Clean up - no longer needed
+            os.unlink(distpath)
+
+        def install_setuptools(self, context):
+            """
+            Install setuptools in the virtual environment.
+
+            :param context: The information for the virtual environment
+                            creation request being processed.
+            """
+            url = 'https://bitbucket.org/pypa/setuptools/downloads/ez_setup.py'
+            self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url)
+            # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded
+            pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz')
+            files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path))
+            for f in files:
+                f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f)
+                os.unlink(f)
+
+        def install_pip(self, context):
+            """
+            Install pip in the virtual environment.
+
+            :param context: The information for the virtual environment
+                            creation request being processed.
+            """
+            url = 'https://raw.github.com/pypa/pip/master/contrib/get-pip.py'
+            self.install_script(context, 'pip', url)
+
+    def main(args=None):
+        compatible = True
+        if sys.version_info < (3, 3):
+            compatible = False
+        elif not hasattr(sys, 'base_prefix'):
+            compatible = False
+        if not compatible:
+            raise ValueError('This script is only for use with '
+                             'Python 3.3 or later')
+        else:
+            import argparse
+
+            parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__,
+                                             description='Creates virtual Python '
+                                                         'environments in one or '
+                                                         'more target '
+                                                         'directories.')
+            parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+',
+                                help='A directory in which to create the
+                                     'virtual environment.')
+            parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False,
+                                action='store_true', dest='nodist',
+                                help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the "
+                                     "virtual environment.")
+            parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False,
+                                action='store_true', dest='nopip',
+                                help="Don't install pip in the virtual "
+                                     "environment.")
+            parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False,
+                                action='store_true', dest='system_site',
+                                help='Give the virtual environment access to the '
+                                     'system site-packages dir.')
+            if os.name == 'nt':
+                use_symlinks = False
+            else:
+                use_symlinks = True
+            parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks,
+                                action='store_true', dest='symlinks',
+                                help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, '
+                                     'when symlinks are not the default for '
+                                     'the platform.')
+            parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true',
+                                dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the '
+                                                   'virtual environment '
+                                                   'directory if it already '
+                                                   'exists, before virtual '
+                                                   'environment creation.')
+            parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true',
+                                dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual '
+                                                     'environment directory to '
+                                                     'use this version of '
+                                                     'Python, assuming Python '
+                                                     'has been upgraded '
+                                                     'in-place.')
+            parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true',
+                                dest='verbose', help='Display the output '
+                                                   'from the scripts which '
+                                                   'install setuptools and pip.')
+            options = parser.parse_args(args)
+            if options.upgrade and options.clear:
+                raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.')
+            builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site,
+                                           clear=options.clear,
+                                           symlinks=options.symlinks,
+                                           upgrade=options.upgrade,
+                                           nodist=options.nodist,
+                                           nopip=options.nopip,
+                                           verbose=options.verbose)
+            for d in options.dirs:
+                builder.create(d)
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        rc = 1
+        try:
+            main()
+            rc = 0
+        except Exception as e:
+            print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr)
+        sys.exit(rc)
+
+
+This script is also available for download `online
+<https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395>`_.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/warnings.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/warnings.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d121f32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/warnings.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,516 @@
+:mod:`warnings` --- Warning control
+===================================
+
+.. module:: warnings
+   :synopsis: Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/warnings.py`
+
+.. index:: single: warnings
+
+--------------
+
+Warning messages are typically issued in situations where it is useful to alert
+the user of some condition in a program, where that condition (normally) doesn't
+warrant raising an exception and terminating the program.  For example, one
+might want to issue a warning when a program uses an obsolete module.
+
+Python programmers issue warnings by calling the :func:`warn` function defined
+in this module.  (C programmers use :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx`; see
+:ref:`exceptionhandling` for details).
+
+Warning messages are normally written to ``sys.stderr``, but their disposition
+can be changed flexibly, from ignoring all warnings to turning them into
+exceptions.  The disposition of warnings can vary based on the warning category
+(see below), the text of the warning message, and the source location where it
+is issued.  Repetitions of a particular warning for the same source location are
+typically suppressed.
+
+There are two stages in warning control: first, each time a warning is issued, a
+determination is made whether a message should be issued or not; next, if a
+message is to be issued, it is formatted and printed using a user-settable hook.
+
+The determination whether to issue a warning message is controlled by the
+warning filter, which is a sequence of matching rules and actions. Rules can be
+added to the filter by calling :func:`filterwarnings` and reset to its default
+state by calling :func:`resetwarnings`.
+
+The printing of warning messages is done by calling :func:`showwarning`, which
+may be overridden; the default implementation of this function formats the
+message by calling :func:`formatwarning`, which is also available for use by
+custom implementations.
+
+.. seealso::
+   :func:`logging.captureWarnings` allows you to handle all warnings with
+   the standard logging infrastructure.
+
+
+.. _warning-categories:
+
+Warning Categories
+------------------
+
+There are a number of built-in exceptions that represent warning categories.
+This categorization is useful to be able to filter out groups of warnings.
+
+While these are technically
+:ref:`built-in exceptions <warning-categories-as-exceptions>`, they are
+documented here, because conceptually they belong to the warnings mechanism.
+
+User code can define additional warning categories by subclassing one of the
+standard warning categories.  A warning category must always be a subclass of
+the :exc:`Warning` class.
+
+The following warnings category classes are currently defined:
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|p{0.6\linewidth}|
+
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| Class                            | Description                                   |
++==================================+===============================================+
+| :exc:`Warning`                   | This is the base class of all warning         |
+|                                  | category classes.  It is a subclass of        |
+|                                  | :exc:`Exception`.                             |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`UserWarning`               | The default category for :func:`warn`.        |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`DeprecationWarning`        | Base category for warnings about deprecated   |
+|                                  | features when those warnings are intended for |
+|                                  | other Python developers (ignored by default,  |
+|                                  | unless triggered by code in ``__main__``).    |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`SyntaxWarning`             | Base category for warnings about dubious      |
+|                                  | syntactic features.                           |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`RuntimeWarning`            | Base category for warnings about dubious      |
+|                                  | runtime features.                             |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`FutureWarning`             | Base category for warnings about deprecated   |
+|                                  | features when those warnings are intended for |
+|                                  | end users of applications that are written in |
+|                                  | Python.                                       |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` | Base category for warnings about features     |
+|                                  | that will be deprecated in the future         |
+|                                  | (ignored by default).                         |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`ImportWarning`             | Base category for warnings triggered during   |
+|                                  | the process of importing a module (ignored by |
+|                                  | default).                                     |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`UnicodeWarning`            | Base category for warnings related to         |
+|                                  | Unicode.                                      |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`BytesWarning`              | Base category for warnings related to         |
+|                                  | :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.        |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`ResourceWarning`           | Base category for warnings related to         |
+|                                  | resource usage.                               |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Previously :exc:`DeprecationWarning` and :exc:`FutureWarning` were
+   distinguished based on whether a feature was being removed entirely or
+   changing its behaviour. They are now distinguished based on their
+   intended audience and the way they're handled by the default warnings
+   filters.
+
+
+.. _warning-filter:
+
+The Warnings Filter
+-------------------
+
+The warnings filter controls whether warnings are ignored, displayed, or turned
+into errors (raising an exception).
+
+Conceptually, the warnings filter maintains an ordered list of filter
+specifications; any specific warning is matched against each filter
+specification in the list in turn until a match is found; the filter determines
+the disposition of the match.  Each entry is a tuple of the form (*action*,
+*message*, *category*, *module*, *lineno*), where:
+
+* *action* is one of the following strings:
+
+  +---------------+----------------------------------------------+
+  | Value         | Disposition                                  |
+  +===============+==============================================+
+  | ``"default"`` | print the first occurrence of matching       |
+  |               | warnings for each location (module +         |
+  |               | line number) where the warning is issued     |
+  +---------------+----------------------------------------------+
+  | ``"error"``   | turn matching warnings into exceptions       |
+  +---------------+----------------------------------------------+
+  | ``"ignore"``  | never print matching warnings                |
+  +---------------+----------------------------------------------+
+  | ``"always"``  | always print matching warnings               |
+  +---------------+----------------------------------------------+
+  | ``"module"``  | print the first occurrence of matching       |
+  |               | warnings for each module where the warning   |
+  |               | is issued (regardless of line number)        |
+  +---------------+----------------------------------------------+
+  | ``"once"``    | print only the first occurrence of matching  |
+  |               | warnings, regardless of location             |
+  +---------------+----------------------------------------------+
+
+* *message* is a string containing a regular expression that the start of
+  the warning message must match.  The expression is compiled to always be
+  case-insensitive.
+
+* *category* is a class (a subclass of :exc:`Warning`) of which the warning
+  category must be a subclass in order to match.
+
+* *module* is a string containing a regular expression that the module name must
+  match.  The expression is compiled to be case-sensitive.
+
+* *lineno* is an integer that the line number where the warning occurred must
+  match, or ``0`` to match all line numbers.
+
+Since the :exc:`Warning` class is derived from the built-in :exc:`Exception`
+class, to turn a warning into an error we simply raise ``category(message)``.
+
+If a warning is reported and doesn't match any registered filter then the
+"default" action is applied (hence its name).
+
+
+.. _describing-warning-filters:
+
+Describing Warning Filters
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The warnings filter is initialized by :option:`-W` options passed to the Python
+interpreter command line and the :envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS` environment variable.
+The interpreter saves the arguments for all supplied entries without
+interpretation in ``sys.warnoptions``; the :mod:`warnings` module parses these
+when it is first imported (invalid options are ignored, after printing a
+message to ``sys.stderr``).
+
+Individual warnings filters are specified as a sequence of fields separated by
+colons::
+
+   action:message:category:module:line
+
+The meaning of each of these fields is as described in :ref:`warning-filter`.
+When listing multiple filters on a single line (as for
+:envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS`), the individual filters are separated by commas,and
+the filters listed later take precedence over those listed before them (as
+they're applied left-to-right, and the most recently applied filters take
+precedence over earlier ones).
+
+Commonly used warning filters apply to either all warnings, warnings in a
+particular category, or warnings raised by particular modules or packages.
+Some examples::
+
+   default                      # Show all warnings (even those ignored by default)
+   ignore                       # Ignore all warnings
+   error                        # Convert all warnings to errors
+   error::ResourceWarning       # Treat ResourceWarning messages as errors
+   default::DeprecationWarning  # Show DeprecationWarning messages
+   ignore,default:::mymodule    # Only report warnings triggered by "mymodule"
+   error:::mymodule[.*]         # Convert warnings to errors in "mymodule"
+                                # and any subpackages of "mymodule"
+
+
+.. _default-warning-filter:
+
+Default Warning Filter
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+By default, Python installs several warning filters, which can be overridden by
+the :option:`-W` command-line option, the :envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS` environment
+variable and calls to :func:`filterwarnings`.
+
+In regular release builds, the default warning filter has the following entries
+(in order of precedence)::
+
+    default::DeprecationWarning:__main__
+    ignore::DeprecationWarning
+    ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning
+    ignore::ImportWarning
+    ignore::ResourceWarning
+
+In debug builds, the list of default warning filters is empty.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   :exc:`DeprecationWarning` is now ignored by default in addition to
+   :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+  :exc:`DeprecationWarning` is once again shown by default when triggered
+  directly by code in ``__main__``.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+  :exc:`BytesWarning` no longer appears in the default filter list and is
+  instead configured via :data:`sys.warnoptions` when :option:`-b` is specified
+  twice.
+
+
+.. _warning-disable:
+
+Overriding the default filter
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Developers of applications written in Python may wish to hide *all* Python level
+warnings from their users by default, and only display them when running tests
+or otherwise working on the application. The :data:`sys.warnoptions` attribute
+used to pass filter configurations to the interpreter can be used as a marker to
+indicate whether or not warnings should be disabled::
+
+    import sys
+
+    if not sys.warnoptions:
+        import warnings
+        warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
+
+Developers of test runners for Python code are advised to instead ensure that
+*all* warnings are displayed by default for the code under test, using code
+like::
+
+    import sys
+
+    if not sys.warnoptions:
+        import os, warnings
+        warnings.simplefilter("default") # Change the filter in this process
+        os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # Also affect subprocesses
+
+Finally, developers of interactive shells that run user code in a namespace
+other than ``__main__`` are advised to ensure that :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+messages are made visible by default, using code like the following (where
+``user_ns`` is the module used to execute code entered interactively)::
+
+    import warnings
+    warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning,
+                                       module=user_ns.get("__name__"))
+
+
+.. _warning-suppress:
+
+Temporarily Suppressing Warnings
+--------------------------------
+
+If you are using code that you know will raise a warning, such as a deprecated
+function, but do not want to see the warning (even when warnings have been
+explicitly configured via the command line), then it is possible to suppress
+the warning using the :class:`catch_warnings` context manager::
+
+    import warnings
+
+    def fxn():
+        warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)
+
+    with warnings.catch_warnings():
+        warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
+        fxn()
+
+While within the context manager all warnings will simply be ignored. This
+allows you to use known-deprecated code without having to see the warning while
+not suppressing the warning for other code that might not be aware of its use
+of deprecated code.  Note: this can only be guaranteed in a single-threaded
+application. If two or more threads use the :class:`catch_warnings` context
+manager at the same time, the behavior is undefined.
+
+
+
+.. _warning-testing:
+
+Testing Warnings
+----------------
+
+To test warnings raised by code, use the :class:`catch_warnings` context
+manager. With it you can temporarily mutate the warnings filter to facilitate
+your testing. For instance, do the following to capture all raised warnings to
+check::
+
+    import warnings
+
+    def fxn():
+        warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)
+
+    with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w:
+        # Cause all warnings to always be triggered.
+        warnings.simplefilter("always")
+        # Trigger a warning.
+        fxn()
+        # Verify some things
+        assert len(w) == 1
+        assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning)
+        assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message)
+
+One can also cause all warnings to be exceptions by using ``error`` instead of
+``always``. One thing to be aware of is that if a warning has already been
+raised because of a ``once``/``default`` rule, then no matter what filters are
+set the warning will not be seen again unless the warnings registry related to
+the warning has been cleared.
+
+Once the context manager exits, the warnings filter is restored to its state
+when the context was entered. This prevents tests from changing the warnings
+filter in unexpected ways between tests and leading to indeterminate test
+results. The :func:`showwarning` function in the module is also restored to
+its original value.  Note: this can only be guaranteed in a single-threaded
+application. If two or more threads use the :class:`catch_warnings` context
+manager at the same time, the behavior is undefined.
+
+When testing multiple operations that raise the same kind of warning, it
+is important to test them in a manner that confirms each operation is raising
+a new warning (e.g. set warnings to be raised as exceptions and check the
+operations raise exceptions, check that the length of the warning list
+continues to increase after each operation, or else delete the previous
+entries from the warnings list before each new operation).
+
+
+.. _warning-ignored:
+
+Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies
+----------------------------------------------
+
+Warning categories that are primarily of interest to Python developers (rather
+than end users of applications written in Python) are ignored by default.
+
+Notably, this "ignored by default" list includes :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+(for every module except ``__main__``), which means developers should make sure
+to test their code with typically ignored warnings made visible in order to
+receive timely notifications of future breaking API changes (whether in the
+standard library or third party packages).
+
+In the ideal case, the code will have a suitable test suite, and the test runner
+will take care of implicitly enabling all warnings when running tests
+(the test runner provided by the :mod:`unittest` module does this).
+
+In less ideal cases, applications can be checked for use of deprecated
+interfaces by passing :option:`-Wd <-W>` to the Python interpreter (this is
+shorthand for :option:`!-W default`) or setting ``PYTHONWARNINGS=default`` in
+the environment. This enables default handling for all warnings, including those
+that are ignored by default. To change what action is taken for encountered
+warnings you can change what argument is passed to :option:`-W` (e.g.
+:option:`!-W error`). See the :option:`-W` flag for more details on what is
+possible.
+
+
+.. _warning-functions:
+
+Available Functions
+-------------------
+
+
+.. function:: warn(message, category=None, stacklevel=1, source=None)
+
+   Issue a warning, or maybe ignore it or raise an exception.  The *category*
+   argument, if given, must be a warning category class (see above); it defaults to
+   :exc:`UserWarning`.  Alternatively *message* can be a :exc:`Warning` instance,
+   in which case *category* will be ignored and ``message.__class__`` will be used.
+   In this case the message text will be ``str(message)``. This function raises an
+   exception if the particular warning issued is changed into an error by the
+   warnings filter see above.  The *stacklevel* argument can be used by wrapper
+   functions written in Python, like this::
+
+      def deprecation(message):
+          warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
+
+   This makes the warning refer to :func:`deprecation`'s caller, rather than to the
+   source of :func:`deprecation` itself (since the latter would defeat the purpose
+   of the warning message).
+
+   *source*, if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
+   :exc:`ResourceWarning`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added *source* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: warn_explicit(message, category, filename, lineno, module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None, source=None)
+
+   This is a low-level interface to the functionality of :func:`warn`, passing in
+   explicitly the message, category, filename and line number, and optionally the
+   module name and the registry (which should be the ``__warningregistry__``
+   dictionary of the module).  The module name defaults to the filename with
+   ``.py`` stripped; if no registry is passed, the warning is never suppressed.
+   *message* must be a string and *category* a subclass of :exc:`Warning` or
+   *message* may be a :exc:`Warning` instance, in which case *category* will be
+   ignored.
+
+   *module_globals*, if supplied, should be the global namespace in use by the code
+   for which the warning is issued.  (This argument is used to support displaying
+   source for modules found in zipfiles or other non-filesystem import
+   sources).
+
+   *source*, if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
+   :exc:`ResourceWarning`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Add the *source* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: showwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, file=None, line=None)
+
+   Write a warning to a file.  The default implementation calls
+   ``formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line)`` and writes the
+   resulting string to *file*, which defaults to ``sys.stderr``.  You may replace
+   this function with any callable by assigning to ``warnings.showwarning``.
+   *line* is a line of source code to be included in the warning
+   message; if *line* is not supplied, :func:`showwarning` will
+   try to read the line specified by *filename* and *lineno*.
+
+
+.. function:: formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line=None)
+
+   Format a warning the standard way.  This returns a string which may contain
+   embedded newlines and ends in a newline.  *line* is a line of source code to
+   be included in the warning message; if *line* is not supplied,
+   :func:`formatwarning` will try to read the line specified by *filename* and
+   *lineno*.
+
+
+.. function:: filterwarnings(action, message='', category=Warning, module='', lineno=0, append=False)
+
+   Insert an entry into the list of :ref:`warnings filter specifications
+   <warning-filter>`.  The entry is inserted at the front by default; if
+   *append* is true, it is inserted at the end.  This checks the types of the
+   arguments, compiles the *message* and *module* regular expressions, and
+   inserts them as a tuple in the list of warnings filters.  Entries closer to
+   the front of the list override entries later in the list, if both match a
+   particular warning.  Omitted arguments default to a value that matches
+   everything.
+
+
+.. function:: simplefilter(action, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)
+
+   Insert a simple entry into the list of :ref:`warnings filter specifications
+   <warning-filter>`.  The meaning of the function parameters is as for
+   :func:`filterwarnings`, but regular expressions are not needed as the filter
+   inserted always matches any message in any module as long as the category and
+   line number match.
+
+
+.. function:: resetwarnings()
+
+   Reset the warnings filter.  This discards the effect of all previous calls to
+   :func:`filterwarnings`, including that of the :option:`-W` command line options
+   and calls to :func:`simplefilter`.
+
+
+Available Context Managers
+--------------------------
+
+.. class:: catch_warnings(\*, record=False, module=None)
+
+    A context manager that copies and, upon exit, restores the warnings filter
+    and the :func:`showwarning` function.
+    If the *record* argument is :const:`False` (the default) the context manager
+    returns :class:`None` on entry. If *record* is :const:`True`, a list is
+    returned that is progressively populated with objects as seen by a custom
+    :func:`showwarning` function (which also suppresses output to ``sys.stdout``).
+    Each object in the list has attributes with the same names as the arguments to
+    :func:`showwarning`.
+
+    The *module* argument takes a module that will be used instead of the
+    module returned when you import :mod:`warnings` whose filter will be
+    protected. This argument exists primarily for testing the :mod:`warnings`
+    module itself.
+
+    .. note::
+
+        The :class:`catch_warnings` manager works by replacing and
+        then later restoring the module's
+        :func:`showwarning` function and internal list of filter
+        specifications.  This means the context manager is modifying
+        global state and therefore is not thread-safe.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/wave.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/wave.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60d19a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/wave.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
+:mod:`wave` --- Read and write WAV files
+========================================
+
+.. module:: wave
+   :synopsis: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
+.. Documentations stolen from comments in file.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/wave.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`wave` module provides a convenient interface to the WAV sound format.
+It does not support compression/decompression, but it does support mono/stereo.
+
+The :mod:`wave` module defines the following function and exception:
+
+
+.. function:: open(file, mode=None)
+
+   If *file* is a string, open the file by that name, otherwise treat it as a
+   file-like object.  *mode* can be:
+
+   ``'rb'``
+      Read only mode.
+
+   ``'wb'``
+      Write only mode.
+
+   Note that it does not allow read/write WAV files.
+
+   A *mode* of ``'rb'`` returns a :class:`Wave_read` object, while a *mode* of
+   ``'wb'`` returns a :class:`Wave_write` object.  If *mode* is omitted and a
+   file-like object is passed as *file*, ``file.mode`` is used as the default
+   value for *mode*.
+
+   If you pass in a file-like object, the wave object will not close it when its
+   :meth:`close` method is called; it is the caller's responsibility to close
+   the file object.
+
+   The :func:`.open` function may be used in a :keyword:`with` statement.  When
+   the :keyword:`!with` block completes, the :meth:`Wave_read.close()
+   <wave.Wave_read.close>` or :meth:`Wave_write.close()
+   <wave.Wave_write.close()>` method is called.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added support for unseekable files.
+
+.. function:: openfp(file, mode)
+
+   A synonym for :func:`.open`, maintained for backwards compatibility.
+
+   .. deprecated-removed:: 3.7 3.9
+
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   An error raised when something is impossible because it violates the WAV
+   specification or hits an implementation deficiency.
+
+
+.. _wave-read-objects:
+
+Wave_read Objects
+-----------------
+
+Wave_read objects, as returned by :func:`.open`, have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.close()
+
+   Close the stream if it was opened by :mod:`wave`, and make the instance
+   unusable.  This is called automatically on object collection.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getnchannels()
+
+   Returns number of audio channels (``1`` for mono, ``2`` for stereo).
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getsampwidth()
+
+   Returns sample width in bytes.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getframerate()
+
+   Returns sampling frequency.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getnframes()
+
+   Returns number of audio frames.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getcomptype()
+
+   Returns compression type (``'NONE'`` is the only supported type).
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getcompname()
+
+   Human-readable version of :meth:`getcomptype`. Usually ``'not compressed'``
+   parallels ``'NONE'``.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getparams()
+
+   Returns a :func:`~collections.namedtuple` ``(nchannels, sampwidth,
+   framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)``, equivalent to output of the
+   :meth:`get\*` methods.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.readframes(n)
+
+   Reads and returns at most *n* frames of audio, as a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.rewind()
+
+   Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream.
+
+The following two methods are defined for compatibility with the :mod:`aifc`
+module, and don't do anything interesting.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getmarkers()
+
+   Returns ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.getmark(id)
+
+   Raise an error.
+
+The following two methods define a term "position" which is compatible between
+them, and is otherwise implementation dependent.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.setpos(pos)
+
+   Set the file pointer to the specified position.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_read.tell()
+
+   Return current file pointer position.
+
+
+.. _wave-write-objects:
+
+Wave_write Objects
+------------------
+
+For seekable output streams, the ``wave`` header will automatically be updated
+to reflect the number of frames actually written.  For unseekable streams, the
+*nframes* value must be accurate when the first frame data is written.  An
+accurate *nframes* value can be achieved either by calling
+:meth:`~Wave_write.setnframes` or :meth:`~Wave_write.setparams` with the number
+of frames that will be written before :meth:`~Wave_write.close` is called and
+then using :meth:`~Wave_write.writeframesraw` to write the frame data, or by
+calling :meth:`~Wave_write.writeframes` with all of the frame data to be
+written.  In the latter case :meth:`~Wave_write.writeframes` will calculate
+the number of frames in the data and set *nframes* accordingly before writing
+the frame data.
+
+Wave_write objects, as returned by :func:`.open`, have the following methods:
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Added support for unseekable files.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.close()
+
+   Make sure *nframes* is correct, and close the file if it was opened by
+   :mod:`wave`.  This method is called upon object collection.  It will raise
+   an exception if the output stream is not seekable and *nframes* does not
+   match the number of frames actually written.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.setnchannels(n)
+
+   Set the number of channels.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.setsampwidth(n)
+
+   Set the sample width to *n* bytes.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.setframerate(n)
+
+   Set the frame rate to *n*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      A non-integral input to this method is rounded to the nearest
+      integer.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.setnframes(n)
+
+   Set the number of frames to *n*.  This will be changed later if the number
+   of frames actually written is different (this update attempt will
+   raise an error if the output stream is not seekable).
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.setcomptype(type, name)
+
+   Set the compression type and description. At the moment, only compression type
+   ``NONE`` is supported, meaning no compression.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.setparams(tuple)
+
+   The *tuple* should be ``(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype,
+   compname)``, with values valid for the :meth:`set\*` methods.  Sets all
+   parameters.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.tell()
+
+   Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer for the
+   :meth:`Wave_read.tell` and :meth:`Wave_read.setpos` methods.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.writeframesraw(data)
+
+   Write audio frames, without correcting *nframes*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Any :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+.. method:: Wave_write.writeframes(data)
+
+   Write audio frames and make sure *nframes* is correct.  It will raise an
+   error if the output stream is not seekable and the total number of frames
+   that have been written after *data* has been written does not match the
+   previously set value for *nframes*.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Any :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+
+
+Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling :meth:`writeframes`
+or :meth:`writeframesraw`, and any attempt to do so will raise
+:exc:`wave.Error`.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/weakref.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/weakref.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d8a0b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/weakref.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,578 @@
+:mod:`weakref` --- Weak references
+==================================
+
+.. module:: weakref
+   :synopsis: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. moduleauthor:: Neil Schemenauer <nas@arctrix.com>
+.. moduleauthor:: Martin von Löwis <martin@loewis.home.cs.tu-berlin.de>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/weakref.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`weakref` module allows the Python programmer to create :dfn:`weak
+references` to objects.
+
+.. When making changes to the examples in this file, be sure to update
+   Lib/test/test_weakref.py::libreftest too!
+
+In the following, the term :dfn:`referent` means the object which is referred to
+by a weak reference.
+
+A weak reference to an object is not enough to keep the object alive: when the
+only remaining references to a referent are weak references,
+:term:`garbage collection` is free to destroy the referent and reuse its memory
+for something else.  However, until the object is actually destroyed the weak
+reference may return the object even if there are no strong references to it.
+
+A primary use for weak references is to implement caches or
+mappings holding large objects, where it's desired that a large object not be
+kept alive solely because it appears in a cache or mapping.
+
+For example, if you have a number of large binary image objects, you may wish to
+associate a name with each.  If you used a Python dictionary to map names to
+images, or images to names, the image objects would remain alive just because
+they appeared as values or keys in the dictionaries.  The
+:class:`WeakKeyDictionary` and :class:`WeakValueDictionary` classes supplied by
+the :mod:`weakref` module are an alternative, using weak references to construct
+mappings that don't keep objects alive solely because they appear in the mapping
+objects.  If, for example, an image object is a value in a
+:class:`WeakValueDictionary`, then when the last remaining references to that
+image object are the weak references held by weak mappings, garbage collection
+can reclaim the object, and its corresponding entries in weak mappings are
+simply deleted.
+
+:class:`WeakKeyDictionary` and :class:`WeakValueDictionary` use weak references
+in their implementation, setting up callback functions on the weak references
+that notify the weak dictionaries when a key or value has been reclaimed by
+garbage collection.  :class:`WeakSet` implements the :class:`set` interface,
+but keeps weak references to its elements, just like a
+:class:`WeakKeyDictionary` does.
+
+:class:`finalize` provides a straight forward way to register a
+cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.
+This is simpler to use than setting up a callback function on a raw
+weak reference, since the module automatically ensures that the finalizer
+remains alive until the object is collected.
+
+Most programs should find that using one of these weak container types
+or :class:`finalize` is all they need -- it's not usually necessary to
+create your own weak references directly.  The low-level machinery is
+exposed by the :mod:`weakref` module for the benefit of advanced uses.
+
+Not all objects can be weakly referenced; those objects which can include class
+instances, functions written in Python (but not in C), instance methods, sets,
+frozensets, some :term:`file objects <file object>`, :term:`generators <generator>`,
+type objects, sockets, arrays, deques, regular expression pattern objects, and code
+objects.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Added support for thread.lock, threading.Lock, and code objects.
+
+Several built-in types such as :class:`list` and :class:`dict` do not directly
+support weak references but can add support through subclassing::
+
+   class Dict(dict):
+       pass
+
+   obj = Dict(red=1, green=2, blue=3)   # this object is weak referenceable
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   Other built-in types such as :class:`tuple` and :class:`int` do not support weak
+   references even when subclassed.
+
+Extension types can easily be made to support weak references; see
+:ref:`weakref-support`.
+
+
+.. class:: ref(object[, callback])
+
+   Return a weak reference to *object*.  The original object can be retrieved by
+   calling the reference object if the referent is still alive; if the referent is
+   no longer alive, calling the reference object will cause :const:`None` to be
+   returned.  If *callback* is provided and not :const:`None`, and the returned
+   weakref object is still alive, the callback will be called when the object is
+   about to be finalized; the weak reference object will be passed as the only
+   parameter to the callback; the referent will no longer be available.
+
+   It is allowable for many weak references to be constructed for the same object.
+   Callbacks registered for each weak reference will be called from the most
+   recently registered callback to the oldest registered callback.
+
+   Exceptions raised by the callback will be noted on the standard error output,
+   but cannot be propagated; they are handled in exactly the same way as exceptions
+   raised from an object's :meth:`__del__` method.
+
+   Weak references are :term:`hashable` if the *object* is hashable.  They will
+   maintain their hash value even after the *object* was deleted.  If
+   :func:`hash` is called the first time only after the *object* was deleted,
+   the call will raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+   Weak references support tests for equality, but not ordering.  If the referents
+   are still alive, two references have the same equality relationship as their
+   referents (regardless of the *callback*).  If either referent has been deleted,
+   the references are equal only if the reference objects are the same object.
+
+   This is a subclassable type rather than a factory function.
+
+   .. attribute:: __callback__
+
+      This read-only attribute returns the callback currently associated to the
+      weakref.  If there is no callback or if the referent of the weakref is
+      no longer alive then this attribute will have value ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      Added the :attr:`__callback__` attribute.
+
+
+.. function:: proxy(object[, callback])
+
+   Return a proxy to *object* which uses a weak reference.  This supports use of
+   the proxy in most contexts instead of requiring the explicit dereferencing used
+   with weak reference objects.  The returned object will have a type of either
+   ``ProxyType`` or ``CallableProxyType``, depending on whether *object* is
+   callable.  Proxy objects are not :term:`hashable` regardless of the referent; this
+   avoids a number of problems related to their fundamentally mutable nature, and
+   prevent their use as dictionary keys.  *callback* is the same as the parameter
+   of the same name to the :func:`ref` function.
+
+
+.. function:: getweakrefcount(object)
+
+   Return the number of weak references and proxies which refer to *object*.
+
+
+.. function:: getweakrefs(object)
+
+   Return a list of all weak reference and proxy objects which refer to *object*.
+
+
+.. class:: WeakKeyDictionary([dict])
+
+   Mapping class that references keys weakly.  Entries in the dictionary will be
+   discarded when there is no longer a strong reference to the key.  This can be
+   used to associate additional data with an object owned by other parts of an
+   application without adding attributes to those objects.  This can be especially
+   useful with objects that override attribute accesses.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Caution: Because a :class:`WeakKeyDictionary` is built on top of a Python
+      dictionary, it must not change size when iterating over it.  This can be
+      difficult to ensure for a :class:`WeakKeyDictionary` because actions
+      performed by the program during iteration may cause items in the
+      dictionary to vanish "by magic" (as a side effect of garbage collection).
+
+:class:`WeakKeyDictionary` objects have an additional method that
+exposes the internal references directly.  The references are not guaranteed to
+be "live" at the time they are used, so the result of calling the references
+needs to be checked before being used.  This can be used to avoid creating
+references that will cause the garbage collector to keep the keys around longer
+than needed.
+
+
+.. method:: WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs()
+
+   Return an iterable of the weak references to the keys.
+
+
+.. class:: WeakValueDictionary([dict])
+
+   Mapping class that references values weakly.  Entries in the dictionary will be
+   discarded when no strong reference to the value exists any more.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Caution:  Because a :class:`WeakValueDictionary` is built on top of a Python
+      dictionary, it must not change size when iterating over it.  This can be
+      difficult to ensure for a :class:`WeakValueDictionary` because actions performed
+      by the program during iteration may cause items in the dictionary to vanish "by
+      magic" (as a side effect of garbage collection).
+
+:class:`WeakValueDictionary` objects have an additional method that has the
+same issues as the :meth:`keyrefs` method of :class:`WeakKeyDictionary`
+objects.
+
+
+.. method:: WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs()
+
+   Return an iterable of the weak references to the values.
+
+
+.. class:: WeakSet([elements])
+
+   Set class that keeps weak references to its elements.  An element will be
+   discarded when no strong reference to it exists any more.
+
+
+.. class:: WeakMethod(method)
+
+   A custom :class:`ref` subclass which simulates a weak reference to a bound
+   method (i.e., a method defined on a class and looked up on an instance).
+   Since a bound method is ephemeral, a standard weak reference cannot keep
+   hold of it.  :class:`WeakMethod` has special code to recreate the bound
+   method until either the object or the original function dies::
+
+      >>> class C:
+      ...     def method(self):
+      ...         print("method called!")
+      ...
+      >>> c = C()
+      >>> r = weakref.ref(c.method)
+      >>> r()
+      >>> r = weakref.WeakMethod(c.method)
+      >>> r()
+      <bound method C.method of <__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220>>
+      >>> r()()
+      method called!
+      >>> del c
+      >>> gc.collect()
+      0
+      >>> r()
+      >>>
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. class:: finalize(obj, func, *args, **kwargs)
+
+   Return a callable finalizer object which will be called when *obj*
+   is garbage collected. Unlike an ordinary weak reference, a finalizer
+   will always survive until the reference object is collected, greatly
+   simplifying lifecycle management.
+
+   A finalizer is considered *alive* until it is called (either explicitly
+   or at garbage collection), and after that it is *dead*.  Calling a live
+   finalizer returns the result of evaluating ``func(*arg, **kwargs)``,
+   whereas calling a dead finalizer returns :const:`None`.
+
+   Exceptions raised by finalizer callbacks during garbage collection
+   will be shown on the standard error output, but cannot be
+   propagated.  They are handled in the same way as exceptions raised
+   from an object's :meth:`__del__` method or a weak reference's
+   callback.
+
+   When the program exits, each remaining live finalizer is called
+   unless its :attr:`atexit` attribute has been set to false.  They
+   are called in reverse order of creation.
+
+   A finalizer will never invoke its callback during the later part of
+   the :term:`interpreter shutdown` when module globals are liable to have
+   been replaced by :const:`None`.
+
+   .. method:: __call__()
+
+      If *self* is alive then mark it as dead and return the result of
+      calling ``func(*args, **kwargs)``.  If *self* is dead then return
+      :const:`None`.
+
+   .. method:: detach()
+
+      If *self* is alive then mark it as dead and return the tuple
+      ``(obj, func, args, kwargs)``.  If *self* is dead then return
+      :const:`None`.
+
+   .. method:: peek()
+
+      If *self* is alive then return the tuple ``(obj, func, args,
+      kwargs)``.  If *self* is dead then return :const:`None`.
+
+   .. attribute:: alive
+
+      Property which is true if the finalizer is alive, false otherwise.
+
+   .. attribute:: atexit
+
+      A writable boolean property which by default is true.  When the
+      program exits, it calls all remaining live finalizers for which
+      :attr:`.atexit` is true.  They are called in reverse order of
+      creation.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      It is important to ensure that *func*, *args* and *kwargs* do
+      not own any references to *obj*, either directly or indirectly,
+      since otherwise *obj* will never be garbage collected.  In
+      particular, *func* should not be a bound method of *obj*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. data:: ReferenceType
+
+   The type object for weak references objects.
+
+
+.. data:: ProxyType
+
+   The type object for proxies of objects which are not callable.
+
+
+.. data:: CallableProxyType
+
+   The type object for proxies of callable objects.
+
+
+.. data:: ProxyTypes
+
+   Sequence containing all the type objects for proxies.  This can make it simpler
+   to test if an object is a proxy without being dependent on naming both proxy
+   types.
+
+
+.. exception:: ReferenceError
+
+   Exception raised when a proxy object is used but the underlying object has been
+   collected.  This is the same as the standard :exc:`ReferenceError` exception.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`205` - Weak References
+      The proposal and rationale for this feature, including links to earlier
+      implementations and information about similar features in other languages.
+
+
+.. _weakref-objects:
+
+Weak Reference Objects
+----------------------
+
+Weak reference objects have no methods and no attributes besides
+:attr:`ref.__callback__`. A weak reference object allows the referent to be
+obtained, if it still exists, by calling it:
+
+   >>> import weakref
+   >>> class Object:
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> o = Object()
+   >>> r = weakref.ref(o)
+   >>> o2 = r()
+   >>> o is o2
+   True
+
+If the referent no longer exists, calling the reference object returns
+:const:`None`:
+
+   >>> del o, o2
+   >>> print(r())
+   None
+
+Testing that a weak reference object is still live should be done using the
+expression ``ref() is not None``.  Normally, application code that needs to use
+a reference object should follow this pattern::
+
+   # r is a weak reference object
+   o = r()
+   if o is None:
+       # referent has been garbage collected
+       print("Object has been deallocated; can't frobnicate.")
+   else:
+       print("Object is still live!")
+       o.do_something_useful()
+
+Using a separate test for "liveness" creates race conditions in threaded
+applications; another thread can cause a weak reference to become invalidated
+before the weak reference is called; the idiom shown above is safe in threaded
+applications as well as single-threaded applications.
+
+Specialized versions of :class:`ref` objects can be created through subclassing.
+This is used in the implementation of the :class:`WeakValueDictionary` to reduce
+the memory overhead for each entry in the mapping.  This may be most useful to
+associate additional information with a reference, but could also be used to
+insert additional processing on calls to retrieve the referent.
+
+This example shows how a subclass of :class:`ref` can be used to store
+additional information about an object and affect the value that's returned when
+the referent is accessed::
+
+   import weakref
+
+   class ExtendedRef(weakref.ref):
+       def __init__(self, ob, callback=None, **annotations):
+           super(ExtendedRef, self).__init__(ob, callback)
+           self.__counter = 0
+           for k, v in annotations.items():
+               setattr(self, k, v)
+
+       def __call__(self):
+           """Return a pair containing the referent and the number of
+           times the reference has been called.
+           """
+           ob = super(ExtendedRef, self).__call__()
+           if ob is not None:
+               self.__counter += 1
+               ob = (ob, self.__counter)
+           return ob
+
+
+.. _weakref-example:
+
+Example
+-------
+
+This simple example shows how an application can use object IDs to retrieve
+objects that it has seen before.  The IDs of the objects can then be used in
+other data structures without forcing the objects to remain alive, but the
+objects can still be retrieved by ID if they do.
+
+.. Example contributed by Tim Peters.
+
+::
+
+   import weakref
+
+   _id2obj_dict = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
+
+   def remember(obj):
+       oid = id(obj)
+       _id2obj_dict[oid] = obj
+       return oid
+
+   def id2obj(oid):
+       return _id2obj_dict[oid]
+
+
+.. _finalize-examples:
+
+Finalizer Objects
+-----------------
+
+The main benefit of using :class:`finalize` is that it makes it simple
+to register a callback without needing to preserve the returned finalizer
+object.  For instance
+
+    >>> import weakref
+    >>> class Object:
+    ...     pass
+    ...
+    >>> kenny = Object()
+    >>> weakref.finalize(kenny, print, "You killed Kenny!")  #doctest:+ELLIPSIS
+    <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
+    >>> del kenny
+    You killed Kenny!
+
+The finalizer can be called directly as well.  However the finalizer
+will invoke the callback at most once.
+
+    >>> def callback(x, y, z):
+    ...     print("CALLBACK")
+    ...     return x + y + z
+    ...
+    >>> obj = Object()
+    >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
+    >>> assert f.alive
+    >>> assert f() == 6
+    CALLBACK
+    >>> assert not f.alive
+    >>> f()                     # callback not called because finalizer dead
+    >>> del obj                 # callback not called because finalizer dead
+
+You can unregister a finalizer using its :meth:`~finalize.detach`
+method.  This kills the finalizer and returns the arguments passed to
+the constructor when it was created.
+
+    >>> obj = Object()
+    >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
+    >>> f.detach()                                           #doctest:+ELLIPSIS
+    (<...Object object ...>, <function callback ...>, (1, 2), {'z': 3})
+    >>> newobj, func, args, kwargs = _
+    >>> assert not f.alive
+    >>> assert newobj is obj
+    >>> assert func(*args, **kwargs) == 6
+    CALLBACK
+
+Unless you set the :attr:`~finalize.atexit` attribute to
+:const:`False`, a finalizer will be called when the program exits if it
+is still alive.  For instance
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +SKIP
+
+   >>> obj = Object()
+   >>> weakref.finalize(obj, print, "obj dead or exiting")
+   <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
+   >>> exit()
+   obj dead or exiting
+
+
+Comparing finalizers with :meth:`__del__` methods
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+Suppose we want to create a class whose instances represent temporary
+directories.  The directories should be deleted with their contents
+when the first of the following events occurs:
+
+* the object is garbage collected,
+* the object's :meth:`remove` method is called, or
+* the program exits.
+
+We might try to implement the class using a :meth:`__del__` method as
+follows::
+
+    class TempDir:
+        def __init__(self):
+            self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
+
+        def remove(self):
+            if self.name is not None:
+                shutil.rmtree(self.name)
+                self.name = None
+
+        @property
+        def removed(self):
+            return self.name is None
+
+        def __del__(self):
+            self.remove()
+
+Starting with Python 3.4, :meth:`__del__` methods no longer prevent
+reference cycles from being garbage collected, and module globals are
+no longer forced to :const:`None` during :term:`interpreter shutdown`.
+So this code should work without any issues on CPython.
+
+However, handling of :meth:`__del__` methods is notoriously implementation
+specific, since it depends on internal details of the interpreter's garbage
+collector implementation.
+
+A more robust alternative can be to define a finalizer which only references
+the specific functions and objects that it needs, rather than having access
+to the full state of the object::
+
+    class TempDir:
+        def __init__(self):
+            self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
+            self._finalizer = weakref.finalize(self, shutil.rmtree, self.name)
+
+        def remove(self):
+            self._finalizer()
+
+        @property
+        def removed(self):
+            return not self._finalizer.alive
+
+Defined like this, our finalizer only receives a reference to the details
+it needs to clean up the directory appropriately. If the object never gets
+garbage collected the finalizer will still be called at exit.
+
+The other advantage of weakref based finalizers is that they can be used to
+register finalizers for classes where the definition is controlled by a
+third party, such as running code when a module is unloaded::
+
+    import weakref, sys
+    def unloading_module():
+        # implicit reference to the module globals from the function body
+    weakref.finalize(sys.modules[__name__], unloading_module)
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   If you create a finalizer object in a daemonic thread just as the program
+   exits then there is the possibility that the finalizer
+   does not get called at exit.  However, in a daemonic thread
+   :func:`atexit.register`, ``try: ... finally: ...`` and ``with: ...``
+   do not guarantee that cleanup occurs either.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/webbrowser.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/webbrowser.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9dc5551
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/webbrowser.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+:mod:`webbrowser` --- Convenient Web-browser controller
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: webbrowser
+   :synopsis: Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/webbrowser.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`webbrowser` module provides a high-level interface to allow displaying
+Web-based documents to users. Under most circumstances, simply calling the
+:func:`.open` function from this module will do the right thing.
+
+Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode browsers
+will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11 display isn't
+available.  If text-mode browsers are used, the calling process will block until
+the user exits the browser.
+
+If the environment variable :envvar:`BROWSER` exists, it is interpreted as the
+:data:`os.pathsep`-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the platform
+defaults.  When the value of a list part contains the string ``%s``, then it is
+interpreted as a literal browser command line to be used with the argument URL
+substituted for ``%s``; if the part does not contain ``%s``, it is simply
+interpreted as the name of the browser to launch. [1]_
+
+For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix, the
+controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the browser, but
+allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the display.  If remote
+browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling process will launch a new
+browser and wait.
+
+The script :program:`webbrowser` can be used as a command-line interface for the
+module. It accepts a URL as the argument. It accepts the following optional
+parameters: ``-n`` opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible;
+``-t`` opens the URL in a new browser page ("tab"). The options are,
+naturally, mutually exclusive.  Usage example::
+
+   python -m webbrowser -t "http://www.python.org"
+
+The following exception is defined:
+
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   Exception raised when a browser control error occurs.
+
+The following functions are defined:
+
+
+.. function:: open(url, new=0, autoraise=True)
+
+   Display *url* using the default browser. If *new* is 0, the *url* is opened
+   in the same browser window if possible.  If *new* is 1, a new browser window
+   is opened if possible.  If *new* is 2, a new browser page ("tab") is opened
+   if possible.  If *autoraise* is ``True``, the window is raised if possible
+   (note that under many window managers this will occur regardless of the
+   setting of this variable).
+
+   Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this function,
+   may work and start the operating system's associated program.  However, this
+   is neither supported nor portable.
+
+
+.. function:: open_new(url)
+
+   Open *url* in a new window of the default browser, if possible, otherwise, open
+   *url* in the only browser window.
+
+.. function:: open_new_tab(url)
+
+   Open *url* in a new page ("tab") of the default browser, if possible, otherwise
+   equivalent to :func:`open_new`.
+
+
+.. function:: get(using=None)
+
+   Return a controller object for the browser type *using*.  If *using* is
+   ``None``, return a controller for a default browser appropriate to the
+   caller's environment.
+
+
+.. function:: register(name, constructor, instance=None, *, preferred=False)
+
+   Register the browser type *name*.  Once a browser type is registered, the
+   :func:`get` function can return a controller for that browser type.  If
+   *instance* is not provided, or is ``None``, *constructor* will be called without
+   parameters to create an instance when needed.  If *instance* is provided,
+   *constructor* will never be called, and may be ``None``.
+
+   Setting *preferred* to ``True`` makes this browser a preferred result for
+   a :func:`get` call with no argument.  Otherwise, this entry point is only
+   useful if you plan to either set the :envvar:`BROWSER` variable or call
+   :func:`get` with a nonempty argument matching the name of a handler you
+   declare.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      *preferred* keyword-only parameter was added.
+
+A number of browser types are predefined.  This table gives the type names that
+may be passed to the :func:`get` function and the corresponding instantiations
+for the controller classes, all defined in this module.
+
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| Type Name              | Class Name                              | Notes |
++========================+=========================================+=======+
+| ``'mozilla'``          | :class:`Mozilla('mozilla')`             |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'firefox'``          | :class:`Mozilla('mozilla')`             |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'netscape'``         | :class:`Mozilla('netscape')`            |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'galeon'``           | :class:`Galeon('galeon')`               |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'epiphany'``         | :class:`Galeon('epiphany')`             |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'skipstone'``        | :class:`BackgroundBrowser('skipstone')` |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'kfmclient'``        | :class:`Konqueror()`                    | \(1)  |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'konqueror'``        | :class:`Konqueror()`                    | \(1)  |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'kfm'``              | :class:`Konqueror()`                    | \(1)  |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'mosaic'``           | :class:`BackgroundBrowser('mosaic')`    |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'opera'``            | :class:`Opera()`                        |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'grail'``            | :class:`Grail()`                        |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'links'``            | :class:`GenericBrowser('links')`        |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'elinks'``           | :class:`Elinks('elinks')`               |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'lynx'``             | :class:`GenericBrowser('lynx')`         |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'w3m'``              | :class:`GenericBrowser('w3m')`          |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'windows-default'``  | :class:`WindowsDefault`                 | \(2)  |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'macosx'``           | :class:`MacOSX('default')`              | \(3)  |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'safari'``           | :class:`MacOSX('safari')`               | \(3)  |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'google-chrome'``    | :class:`Chrome('google-chrome')`        |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'chrome'``           | :class:`Chrome('chrome')`               |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'chromium'``         | :class:`Chromium('chromium')`           |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+| ``'chromium-browser'`` | :class:`Chromium('chromium-browser')`   |       |
++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   "Konqueror" is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for Unix, and
+   only makes sense to use if KDE is running.  Some way of reliably detecting KDE
+   would be nice; the :envvar:`KDEDIR` variable is not sufficient.  Note also that
+   the name "kfm" is used even when using the :program:`konqueror` command with KDE
+   2 --- the implementation selects the best strategy for running Konqueror.
+
+(2)
+   Only on Windows platforms.
+
+(3)
+   Only on Mac OS X platform.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+   Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added.
+
+Here are some simple examples::
+
+   url = 'http://docs.python.org/'
+
+   # Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open.
+   webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)
+
+   # Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible.
+   webbrowser.open_new(url)
+
+
+.. _browser-controllers:
+
+Browser Controller Objects
+--------------------------
+
+Browser controllers provide these methods which parallel three of the
+module-level convenience functions:
+
+
+.. method:: controller.open(url, new=0, autoraise=True)
+
+   Display *url* using the browser handled by this controller. If *new* is 1, a new
+   browser window is opened if possible. If *new* is 2, a new browser page ("tab")
+   is opened if possible.
+
+
+.. method:: controller.open_new(url)
+
+   Open *url* in a new window of the browser handled by this controller, if
+   possible, otherwise, open *url* in the only browser window.  Alias
+   :func:`open_new`.
+
+
+.. method:: controller.open_new_tab(url)
+
+   Open *url* in a new page ("tab") of the browser handled by this controller, if
+   possible, otherwise equivalent to :func:`open_new`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Executables named here without a full path will be searched in the
+       directories given in the :envvar:`PATH` environment variable.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/windows.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/windows.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b60d4e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/windows.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+.. _mswin-specific-services:
+
+****************************
+MS Windows Specific Services
+****************************
+
+This chapter describes modules that are only available on MS Windows platforms.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+
+   msilib.rst
+   msvcrt.rst
+   winreg.rst
+   winsound.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/winreg.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/winreg.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9c0261
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/winreg.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,756 @@
+:mod:`winreg` --- Windows registry access
+=========================================
+
+.. module:: winreg
+   :platform: Windows
+   :synopsis: Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Mark Hammond <MarkH@ActiveState.com>
+
+--------------
+
+These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python.  Instead of using an
+integer as the registry handle, a :ref:`handle object <handle-object>` is used
+to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the programmer neglects
+to explicitly close them.
+
+.. _exception-changed:
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   Several functions in this module used to raise a
+   :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+.. _functions:
+
+Functions
+------------------
+
+This module offers the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: CloseKey(hkey)
+
+   Closes a previously opened registry key.  The *hkey* argument specifies a
+   previously opened key.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If *hkey* is not closed using this method (or via :meth:`hkey.Close()
+      <PyHKEY.Close>`), it is closed when the *hkey* object is destroyed by
+      Python.
+
+
+.. function:: ConnectRegistry(computer_name, key)
+
+   Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another computer,
+   and returns a :ref:`handle object <handle-object>`.
+
+   *computer_name* is the name of the remote computer, of the form
+   ``r"\\computername"``.  If ``None``, the local computer is used.
+
+   *key* is the predefined handle to connect to.
+
+   The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
+   :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. function:: CreateKey(key, sub_key)
+
+   Creates or opens the specified key, returning a
+   :ref:`handle object <handle-object>`.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that names the key this method opens or creates.
+
+   If *key* is one of the predefined keys, *sub_key* may be ``None``. In that
+   case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function.
+
+   If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.
+
+   The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
+   :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. function:: CreateKeyEx(key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_WRITE)
+
+   Creates or opens the specified key, returning a
+   :ref:`handle object <handle-object>`.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that names the key this method opens or creates.
+
+   *reserved* is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero.
+
+   *access* is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired
+   security access for the key.  Default is :const:`KEY_WRITE`.  See
+   :ref:`Access Rights <access-rights>` for other allowed values.
+
+   If *key* is one of the predefined keys, *sub_key* may be ``None``. In that
+   case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function.
+
+   If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.
+
+   The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
+   :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. function:: DeleteKey(key, sub_key)
+
+   Deletes the specified key.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the *key*
+   parameter.  This value must not be ``None``, and the key may not have subkeys.
+
+   *This method can not delete keys with subkeys.*
+
+   If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed.
+   If the method fails, an :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. function:: DeleteKeyEx(key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY, reserved=0)
+
+   Deletes the specified key.
+
+   .. note::
+      The :func:`DeleteKeyEx` function is implemented with the RegDeleteKeyEx
+      Windows API function, which is specific to 64-bit versions of Windows.
+      See the `RegDeleteKeyEx documentation
+      <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724847%28VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the
+   *key* parameter. This value must not be ``None``, and the key may not have
+   subkeys.
+
+   *reserved* is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero.
+
+   *access* is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired
+   security access for the key.  Default is :const:`KEY_WOW64_64KEY`.  See
+   :ref:`Access Rights <access-rights>` for other allowed values.
+
+   *This method can not delete keys with subkeys.*
+
+   If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is
+   removed. If the method fails, an :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+
+   On unsupported Windows versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. function:: DeleteValue(key, value)
+
+   Removes a named value from a registry key.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *value* is a string that identifies the value to remove.
+
+
+.. function:: EnumKey(key, index)
+
+   Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *index* is an integer that identifies the index of the key to retrieve.
+
+   The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called.  It is
+   typically called repeatedly until an :exc:`OSError` exception is
+   raised, indicating, no more values are available.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. function:: EnumValue(key, index)
+
+   Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *index* is an integer that identifies the index of the value to retrieve.
+
+   The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is
+   typically called repeatedly, until an :exc:`OSError` exception is
+   raised, indicating no more values.
+
+   The result is a tuple of 3 items:
+
+   +-------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | Index | Meaning                                    |
+   +=======+============================================+
+   | ``0`` | A string that identifies the value name    |
+   +-------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``1`` | An object that holds the value data, and   |
+   |       | whose type depends on the underlying       |
+   |       | registry type                              |
+   +-------+--------------------------------------------+
+   | ``2`` | An integer that identifies the type of the |
+   |       | value data (see table in docs for          |
+   |       | :meth:`SetValueEx`)                        |
+   +-------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: % (percent); environment variables expansion (Windows)
+
+.. function:: ExpandEnvironmentStrings(str)
+
+   Expands environment variable placeholders ``%NAME%`` in strings like
+   :const:`REG_EXPAND_SZ`::
+
+      >>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%')
+      'C:\\Windows'
+
+
+.. function:: FlushKey(key)
+
+   Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   It is not necessary to call :func:`FlushKey` to change a key. Registry changes are
+   flushed to disk by the registry using its lazy flusher.  Registry changes are
+   also flushed to disk at system shutdown.  Unlike :func:`CloseKey`, the
+   :func:`FlushKey` method returns only when all the data has been written to the
+   registry. An application should only call :func:`FlushKey` if it requires
+   absolute certainty that registry changes are on disk.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If you don't know whether a :func:`FlushKey` call is required, it probably
+      isn't.
+
+
+.. function:: LoadKey(key, sub_key, file_name)
+
+   Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration information
+   from a specified file into that subkey.
+
+   *key* is a handle returned by :func:`ConnectRegistry` or one of the constants
+   :const:`HKEY_USERS` or :const:`HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that identifies the subkey to load.
+
+   *file_name* is the name of the file to load registry data from. This file must
+   have been created with the :func:`SaveKey` function. Under the file allocation
+   table (FAT) file system, the filename may not have an extension.
+
+   A call to :func:`LoadKey` fails if the calling process does not have the
+   :const:`SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE` privilege.  Note that privileges are different
+   from permissions -- see the `RegLoadKey documentation
+   <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__ for
+   more details.
+
+   If *key* is a handle returned by :func:`ConnectRegistry`, then the path
+   specified in *file_name* is relative to the remote computer.
+
+
+.. function:: OpenKey(key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)
+              OpenKeyEx(key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)
+
+   Opens the specified key, returning a :ref:`handle object <handle-object>`.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that identifies the sub_key to open.
+
+   *reserved* is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is zero.
+
+   *access* is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired
+   security access for the key.  Default is :const:`KEY_READ`.  See :ref:`Access
+   Rights <access-rights>` for other allowed values.
+
+   The result is a new handle to the specified key.
+
+   If the function fails, :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      Allow the use of named arguments.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      See :ref:`above <exception-changed>`.
+
+
+.. function:: QueryInfoKey(key)
+
+   Returns information about a key, as a tuple.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   The result is a tuple of 3 items:
+
+   +-------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | Index | Meaning                                     |
+   +=======+=============================================+
+   | ``0`` | An integer giving the number of sub keys    |
+   |       | this key has.                               |
+   +-------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``1`` | An integer giving the number of values this |
+   |       | key has.                                    |
+   +-------+---------------------------------------------+
+   | ``2`` | An integer giving when the key was last     |
+   |       | modified (if available) as 100's of         |
+   |       | nanoseconds since Jan 1, 1601.              |
+   +-------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. function:: QueryValue(key, sub_key)
+
+   Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which the value is
+   associated.  If this parameter is ``None`` or empty, the function retrieves the
+   value set by the :func:`SetValue` method for the key identified by *key*.
+
+   Values in the registry have name, type, and data components. This method
+   retrieves the data for a key's first value that has a NULL name. But the
+   underlying API call doesn't return the type, so always use
+   :func:`QueryValueEx` if possible.
+
+
+.. function:: QueryValueEx(key, value_name)
+
+   Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated with
+   an open registry key.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *value_name* is a string indicating the value to query.
+
+   The result is a tuple of 2 items:
+
+   +-------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | Index | Meaning                                 |
+   +=======+=========================================+
+   | ``0`` | The value of the registry item.         |
+   +-------+-----------------------------------------+
+   | ``1`` | An integer giving the registry type for |
+   |       | this value (see table in docs for       |
+   |       | :meth:`SetValueEx`)                     |
+   +-------+-----------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. function:: SaveKey(key, file_name)
+
+   Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *file_name* is the name of the file to save registry data to.  This file
+   cannot already exist. If this filename includes an extension, it cannot be
+   used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by the :meth:`LoadKey`
+   method.
+
+   If *key* represents a key on a remote computer, the path described by
+   *file_name* is relative to the remote computer. The caller of this method must
+   possess the :const:`SeBackupPrivilege` security privilege.  Note that
+   privileges are different than permissions -- see the
+   `Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions documentation
+   <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__
+   for more details.
+
+   This function passes NULL for *security_attributes* to the API.
+
+
+.. function:: SetValue(key, sub_key, type, value)
+
+   Associates a value with a specified key.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *sub_key* is a string that names the subkey with which the value is associated.
+
+   *type* is an integer that specifies the type of the data. Currently this must be
+   :const:`REG_SZ`, meaning only strings are supported.  Use the :func:`SetValueEx`
+   function for support for other data types.
+
+   *value* is a string that specifies the new value.
+
+   If the key specified by the *sub_key* parameter does not exist, the SetValue
+   function creates it.
+
+   Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048
+   bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration
+   registry.  This helps the registry perform efficiently.
+
+   The key identified by the *key* parameter must have been opened with
+   :const:`KEY_SET_VALUE` access.
+
+
+.. function:: SetValueEx(key, value_name, reserved, type, value)
+
+   Stores data in the value field of an open registry key.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   *value_name* is a string that names the subkey with which the value is
+   associated.
+
+   *reserved* can be anything -- zero is always passed to the API.
+
+   *type* is an integer that specifies the type of the data. See
+   :ref:`Value Types <value-types>` for the available types.
+
+   *value* is a string that specifies the new value.
+
+   This method can also set additional value and type information for the specified
+   key.  The key identified by the key parameter must have been opened with
+   :const:`KEY_SET_VALUE` access.
+
+   To open the key, use the :func:`CreateKey` or :func:`OpenKey` methods.
+
+   Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048
+   bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration
+   registry.  This helps the registry perform efficiently.
+
+
+.. function:: DisableReflectionKey(key)
+
+   Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a 64-bit
+   operating system.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined :ref:`HKEY_* constants
+   <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   Will generally raise :exc:`NotImplemented` if executed on a 32-bit operating
+   system.
+
+   If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but has no
+   effect.  Disabling reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any
+   subkeys.
+
+
+.. function:: EnableReflectionKey(key)
+
+   Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined :ref:`HKEY_* constants
+   <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   Will generally raise :exc:`NotImplemented` if executed on a 32-bit operating
+   system.
+
+   Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any subkeys.
+
+
+.. function:: QueryReflectionKey(key)
+
+   Determines the reflection state for the specified key.
+
+   *key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+   :ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
+
+   Returns ``True`` if reflection is disabled.
+
+   Will generally raise :exc:`NotImplemented` if executed on a 32-bit
+   operating system.
+
+
+.. _constants:
+
+Constants
+------------------
+
+The following constants are defined for use in many :mod:`_winreg` functions.
+
+.. _hkey-constants:
+
+HKEY_* Constants
+++++++++++++++++
+
+.. data:: HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT
+
+   Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes) of
+   documents and the properties associated with those types. Shell and
+   COM applications use the information stored under this key.
+
+
+.. data:: HKEY_CURRENT_USER
+
+   Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of
+   the current user. These preferences include the settings of
+   environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers,
+   network connections, and application preferences.
+
+.. data:: HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE
+
+   Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state
+   of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory,
+   and installed hardware and software.
+
+.. data:: HKEY_USERS
+
+   Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user
+   configuration for new users on the local computer and the user
+   configuration for the current user.
+
+.. data:: HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA
+
+   Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access
+   performance data. The data is not actually stored in the registry;
+   the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from
+   its source.
+
+
+.. data:: HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG
+
+   Contains information about the current hardware profile of the
+   local computer system.
+
+.. data:: HKEY_DYN_DATA
+
+   This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.
+
+
+.. _access-rights:
+
+Access Rights
++++++++++++++
+
+For more information, see `Registry Key Security and Access
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
+
+.. data:: KEY_ALL_ACCESS
+
+   Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, :const:`KEY_QUERY_VALUE`,
+   :const:`KEY_SET_VALUE`, :const:`KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY`,
+   :const:`KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS`, :const:`KEY_NOTIFY`,
+   and :const:`KEY_CREATE_LINK` access rights.
+
+.. data:: KEY_WRITE
+
+   Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, :const:`KEY_SET_VALUE`, and
+   :const:`KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY` access rights.
+
+.. data:: KEY_READ
+
+   Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, :const:`KEY_QUERY_VALUE`,
+   :const:`KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS`, and :const:`KEY_NOTIFY` values.
+
+.. data:: KEY_EXECUTE
+
+   Equivalent to :const:`KEY_READ`.
+
+.. data:: KEY_QUERY_VALUE
+
+   Required to query the values of a registry key.
+
+.. data:: KEY_SET_VALUE
+
+   Required to create, delete, or set a registry value.
+
+.. data:: KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY
+
+   Required to create a subkey of a registry key.
+
+.. data:: KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS
+
+   Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key.
+
+.. data:: KEY_NOTIFY
+
+   Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for
+   subkeys of a registry key.
+
+.. data:: KEY_CREATE_LINK
+
+   Reserved for system use.
+
+
+.. _64-bit-access-rights:
+
+64-bit Specific
+***************
+
+For more information, see `Accessing an Alternate Registry View
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx>`__.
+
+.. data:: KEY_WOW64_64KEY
+
+   Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
+   the 64-bit registry view.
+
+.. data:: KEY_WOW64_32KEY
+
+   Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
+   the 32-bit registry view.
+
+
+.. _value-types:
+
+Value Types
++++++++++++
+
+For more information, see `Registry Value Types
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
+
+.. data:: REG_BINARY
+
+   Binary data in any form.
+
+.. data:: REG_DWORD
+
+   32-bit number.
+
+.. data:: REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN
+
+   A 32-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to :const:`REG_DWORD`.
+
+.. data:: REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN
+
+   A 32-bit number in big-endian format.
+
+.. data:: REG_EXPAND_SZ
+
+   Null-terminated string containing references to environment
+   variables (``%PATH%``).
+
+.. data:: REG_LINK
+
+   A Unicode symbolic link.
+
+.. data:: REG_MULTI_SZ
+
+   A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null characters.
+   (Python handles this termination automatically.)
+
+.. data:: REG_NONE
+
+   No defined value type.
+
+.. data:: REG_QWORD
+
+   A 64-bit number.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN
+
+   A 64-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to :const:`REG_QWORD`.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. data:: REG_RESOURCE_LIST
+
+   A device-driver resource list.
+
+.. data:: REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR
+
+   A hardware setting.
+
+.. data:: REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST
+
+   A hardware resource list.
+
+.. data:: REG_SZ
+
+   A null-terminated string.
+
+
+.. _handle-object:
+
+Registry Handle Objects
+-----------------------
+
+This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when the
+object is destroyed.  To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the
+:meth:`~PyHKEY.Close` method on the object, or the :func:`CloseKey` function.
+
+All registry functions in this module return one of these objects.
+
+All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also accept
+an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged.
+
+Handle objects provide semantics for :meth:`__bool__` -- thus ::
+
+   if handle:
+       print("Yes")
+
+will print ``Yes`` if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed or
+detached).
+
+The object also support comparison semantics, so handle objects will compare
+true if they both reference the same underlying Windows handle value.
+
+Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in
+:func:`int` function), in which case the underlying Windows handle value is
+returned.  You can also use the :meth:`~PyHKEY.Detach` method to return the
+integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from the handle object.
+
+
+.. method:: PyHKEY.Close()
+
+   Closes the underlying Windows handle.
+
+   If the handle is already closed, no error is raised.
+
+
+.. method:: PyHKEY.Detach()
+
+   Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object.
+
+   The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before it is
+   detached.  If the handle is already detached or closed, this will return
+   zero.
+
+   After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated, but the
+   handle is not closed.  You would call this function when you need the
+   underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime of the handle object.
+
+.. method:: PyHKEY.__enter__()
+            PyHKEY.__exit__(\*exc_info)
+
+   The HKEY object implements :meth:`~object.__enter__` and
+   :meth:`~object.__exit__` and thus supports the context protocol for the
+   :keyword:`with` statement::
+
+      with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key:
+          ...  # work with key
+
+   will automatically close *key* when control leaves the :keyword:`with` block.
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/winsound.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/winsound.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..372f792
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/winsound.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,161 @@
+:mod:`winsound` --- Sound-playing interface for Windows
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: winsound
+   :platform: Windows
+   :synopsis: Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Toby Dickenson <htrd90@zepler.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`winsound` module provides access to the basic sound-playing machinery
+provided by Windows platforms.  It includes functions and several constants.
+
+
+.. function:: Beep(frequency, duration)
+
+   Beep the PC's speaker. The *frequency* parameter specifies frequency, in hertz,
+   of the sound, and must be in the range 37 through 32,767. The *duration*
+   parameter specifies the number of milliseconds the sound should last.  If the
+   system is not able to beep the speaker, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: PlaySound(sound, flags)
+
+   Call the underlying :c:func:`PlaySound` function from the Platform API.  The
+   *sound* parameter may be a filename, a system sound alias, audio data as a
+   :term:`bytes-like object`, or ``None``.  Its
+   interpretation depends on the value of *flags*, which can be a bitwise ORed
+   combination of the constants described below. If the *sound* parameter is
+   ``None``, any currently playing waveform sound is stopped. If the system
+   indicates an error, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. function:: MessageBeep(type=MB_OK)
+
+   Call the underlying :c:func:`MessageBeep` function from the Platform API.  This
+   plays a sound as specified in the registry.  The *type* argument specifies which
+   sound to play; possible values are ``-1``, ``MB_ICONASTERISK``,
+   ``MB_ICONEXCLAMATION``, ``MB_ICONHAND``, ``MB_ICONQUESTION``, and ``MB_OK``, all
+   described below.  The value ``-1`` produces a "simple beep"; this is the final
+   fallback if a sound cannot be played otherwise.  If the system indicates an
+   error, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_FILENAME
+
+   The *sound* parameter is the name of a WAV file. Do not use with
+   :const:`SND_ALIAS`.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_ALIAS
+
+   The *sound* parameter is a sound association name from the registry.  If the
+   registry contains no such name, play the system default sound unless
+   :const:`SND_NODEFAULT` is also specified. If no default sound is registered,
+   raise :exc:`RuntimeError`. Do not use with :const:`SND_FILENAME`.
+
+   All Win32 systems support at least the following; most systems support many
+   more:
+
+   +--------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | :func:`PlaySound` *name* | Corresponding Control Panel Sound name |
+   +==========================+========================================+
+   | ``'SystemAsterisk'``     | Asterisk                               |
+   +--------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | ``'SystemExclamation'``  | Exclamation                            |
+   +--------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | ``'SystemExit'``         | Exit Windows                           |
+   +--------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | ``'SystemHand'``         | Critical Stop                          |
+   +--------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+   | ``'SystemQuestion'``     | Question                               |
+   +--------------------------+----------------------------------------+
+
+   For example::
+
+      import winsound
+      # Play Windows exit sound.
+      winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS)
+
+      # Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because
+      # "*" probably isn't the registered name of any sound).
+      winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS)
+
+
+.. data:: SND_LOOP
+
+   Play the sound repeatedly.  The :const:`SND_ASYNC` flag must also be used to
+   avoid blocking.  Cannot be used with :const:`SND_MEMORY`.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_MEMORY
+
+   The *sound* parameter to :func:`PlaySound` is a memory image of a WAV file, as a
+   :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This module does not support playing from a memory image asynchronously, so a
+      combination of this flag and :const:`SND_ASYNC` will raise :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_PURGE
+
+   Stop playing all instances of the specified sound.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_ASYNC
+
+   Return immediately, allowing sounds to play asynchronously.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_NODEFAULT
+
+   If the specified sound cannot be found, do not play the system default sound.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_NOSTOP
+
+   Do not interrupt sounds currently playing.
+
+
+.. data:: SND_NOWAIT
+
+   Return immediately if the sound driver is busy.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.
+
+
+.. data:: MB_ICONASTERISK
+
+   Play the ``SystemDefault`` sound.
+
+
+.. data:: MB_ICONEXCLAMATION
+
+   Play the ``SystemExclamation`` sound.
+
+
+.. data:: MB_ICONHAND
+
+   Play the ``SystemHand`` sound.
+
+
+.. data:: MB_ICONQUESTION
+
+   Play the ``SystemQuestion`` sound.
+
+
+.. data:: MB_OK
+
+   Play the ``SystemDefault`` sound.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/wsgiref.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/wsgiref.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d9b7b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/wsgiref.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,781 @@
+:mod:`wsgiref` --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
+==============================================================
+
+.. module:: wsgiref
+   :synopsis: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Phillip J. Eby <pje@telecommunity.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Phillip J. Eby <pje@telecommunity.com>
+
+--------------
+
+The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a standard interface between web
+server software and web applications written in Python. Having a standard
+interface makes it easy to use an application that supports WSGI with a number
+of different web servers.
+
+Only authors of web servers and programming frameworks need to know every detail
+and corner case of the WSGI design.  You don't need to understand every detail
+of WSGI just to install a WSGI application or to write a web application using
+an existing framework.
+
+:mod:`wsgiref` is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification that can
+be used to add WSGI support to a web server or framework.  It provides utilities
+for manipulating WSGI environment variables and response headers, base classes
+for implementing WSGI servers, a demo HTTP server that serves WSGI applications,
+and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and applications for conformance
+to the WSGI specification (:pep:`3333`).
+
+See `wsgi.readthedocs.io <https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/>`_ for more information about WSGI, and links
+to tutorials and other resources.
+
+.. XXX If you're just trying to write a web application...
+
+
+:mod:`wsgiref.util` -- WSGI environment utilities
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: wsgiref.util
+   :synopsis: WSGI environment utilities.
+
+
+This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with WSGI
+environments.  A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP request
+variables as described in :pep:`3333`.  All of the functions taking an *environ*
+parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be supplied; please see
+:pep:`3333` for a detailed specification.
+
+
+.. function:: guess_scheme(environ)
+
+   Return a guess for whether ``wsgi.url_scheme`` should be "http" or "https", by
+   checking for a ``HTTPS`` environment variable in the *environ* dictionary.  The
+   return value is a string.
+
+   This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a CGI-like
+   protocol such as FastCGI.  Typically, servers providing such protocols will
+   include a ``HTTPS`` variable with a value of "1" "yes", or "on" when a request
+   is received via SSL.  So, this function returns "https" if such a value is
+   found, and "http" otherwise.
+
+
+.. function:: request_uri(environ, include_query=True)
+
+   Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string, using the
+   algorithm found in the "URL Reconstruction" section of :pep:`3333`.  If
+   *include_query* is false, the query string is not included in the resulting URI.
+
+
+.. function:: application_uri(environ)
+
+   Similar to :func:`request_uri`, except that the ``PATH_INFO`` and
+   ``QUERY_STRING`` variables are ignored.  The result is the base URI of the
+   application object addressed by the request.
+
+
+.. function:: shift_path_info(environ)
+
+   Shift a single name from ``PATH_INFO`` to ``SCRIPT_NAME`` and return the name.
+   The *environ* dictionary is *modified* in-place; use a copy if you need to keep
+   the original ``PATH_INFO`` or ``SCRIPT_NAME`` intact.
+
+   If there are no remaining path segments in ``PATH_INFO``, ``None`` is returned.
+
+   Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a request URI path,
+   for example to treat the path as a series of dictionary keys. This routine
+   modifies the passed-in environment to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI
+   application that is located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI
+   application at ``/foo``, and the request URI path is ``/foo/bar/baz``, and the
+   WSGI application at ``/foo`` calls :func:`shift_path_info`, it will receive the
+   string "bar", and the environment will be updated to be suitable for passing to
+   a WSGI application at ``/foo/bar``.  That is, ``SCRIPT_NAME`` will change from
+   ``/foo`` to ``/foo/bar``, and ``PATH_INFO`` will change from ``/bar/baz`` to
+   ``/baz``.
+
+   When ``PATH_INFO`` is just a "/", this routine returns an empty string and
+   appends a trailing slash to ``SCRIPT_NAME``, even though empty path segments are
+   normally ignored, and ``SCRIPT_NAME`` doesn't normally end in a slash.  This is
+   intentional behavior, to ensure that an application can tell the difference
+   between URIs ending in ``/x`` from ones ending in ``/x/`` when using this
+   routine to do object traversal.
+
+
+.. function:: setup_testing_defaults(environ)
+
+   Update *environ* with trivial defaults for testing purposes.
+
+   This routine adds various parameters required for WSGI, including ``HTTP_HOST``,
+   ``SERVER_NAME``, ``SERVER_PORT``, ``REQUEST_METHOD``, ``SCRIPT_NAME``,
+   ``PATH_INFO``, and all of the :pep:`3333`\ -defined ``wsgi.*`` variables.  It
+   only supplies default values, and does not replace any existing settings for
+   these variables.
+
+   This routine is intended to make it easier for unit tests of WSGI servers and
+   applications to set up dummy environments.  It should NOT be used by actual WSGI
+   servers or applications, since the data is fake!
+
+   Example usage::
+
+      from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
+      from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server
+
+      # A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the
+      # environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults
+      def simple_app(environ, start_response):
+          setup_testing_defaults(environ)
+
+          status = '200 OK'
+          headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]
+
+          start_response(status, headers)
+
+          ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
+                 for key, value in environ.items()]
+          return ret
+
+      with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
+          print("Serving on port 8000...")
+          httpd.serve_forever()
+
+
+In addition to the environment functions above, the :mod:`wsgiref.util` module
+also provides these miscellaneous utilities:
+
+
+.. function:: is_hop_by_hop(header_name)
+
+   Return true if 'header_name' is an HTTP/1.1 "Hop-by-Hop" header, as defined by
+   :rfc:`2616`.
+
+
+.. class:: FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=8192)
+
+   A wrapper to convert a file-like object to an :term:`iterator`.  The resulting objects
+   support both :meth:`__getitem__` and :meth:`__iter__` iteration styles, for
+   compatibility with Python 2.1 and Jython. As the object is iterated over, the
+   optional *blksize* parameter will be repeatedly passed to the *filelike*
+   object's :meth:`read` method to obtain bytestrings to yield.  When :meth:`read`
+   returns an empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable.
+
+   If *filelike* has a :meth:`close` method, the returned object will also have a
+   :meth:`close` method, and it will invoke the *filelike* object's :meth:`close`
+   method when called.
+
+   Example usage::
+
+      from io import StringIO
+      from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper
+
+      # We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object
+      filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
+      wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)
+
+      for chunk in wrapper:
+          print(chunk)
+
+
+
+:mod:`wsgiref.headers` -- WSGI response header tools
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: wsgiref.headers
+   :synopsis: WSGI response header tools.
+
+
+This module provides a single class, :class:`Headers`, for convenient
+manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface.
+
+
+.. class:: Headers([headers])
+
+   Create a mapping-like object wrapping *headers*, which must be a list of header
+   name/value tuples as described in :pep:`3333`. The default value of *headers* is
+   an empty list.
+
+   :class:`Headers` objects support typical mapping operations including
+   :meth:`__getitem__`, :meth:`get`, :meth:`__setitem__`, :meth:`setdefault`,
+   :meth:`__delitem__` and :meth:`__contains__`.  For each of
+   these methods, the key is the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the
+   value is the first value associated with that header name.  Setting a header
+   deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a new value at the end of
+   the wrapped header list.  Headers' existing order is generally maintained, with
+   new headers added to the end of the wrapped list.
+
+   Unlike a dictionary, :class:`Headers` objects do not raise an error when you try
+   to get or delete a key that isn't in the wrapped header list. Getting a
+   nonexistent header just returns ``None``, and deleting a nonexistent header does
+   nothing.
+
+   :class:`Headers` objects also support :meth:`keys`, :meth:`values`, and
+   :meth:`items` methods.  The lists returned by :meth:`keys` and :meth:`items` can
+   include the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued header.  The
+   ``len()`` of a :class:`Headers` object is the same as the length of its
+   :meth:`items`, which is the same as the length of the wrapped header list.  In
+   fact, the :meth:`items` method just returns a copy of the wrapped header list.
+
+   Calling ``bytes()`` on a :class:`Headers` object returns a formatted bytestring
+   suitable for transmission as HTTP response headers.  Each header is placed on a
+   line with its value, separated by a colon and a space. Each line is terminated
+   by a carriage return and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a
+   blank line.
+
+   In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features, :class:`Headers`
+   objects also have the following methods for querying and adding multi-valued
+   headers, and for adding headers with MIME parameters:
+
+
+   .. method:: Headers.get_all(name)
+
+      Return a list of all the values for the named header.
+
+      The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in the original
+      header list or were added to this instance, and may contain duplicates.  Any
+      fields deleted and re-inserted are always appended to the header list.  If no
+      fields exist with the given name, returns an empty list.
+
+
+   .. method:: Headers.add_header(name, value, **_params)
+
+      Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME parameters specified
+      via keyword arguments.
+
+      *name* is the header field to add.  Keyword arguments can be used to set MIME
+      parameters for the header field.  Each parameter must be a string or ``None``.
+      Underscores in parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are illegal
+      in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names include dashes.  If the
+      parameter value is a string, it is added to the header value parameters in the
+      form ``name="value"``. If it is ``None``, only the parameter name is added.
+      (This is used for MIME parameters without a value.)  Example usage::
+
+         h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')
+
+      The above will add a header that looks like this::
+
+         Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      *headers* parameter is optional.
+
+
+:mod:`wsgiref.simple_server` -- a simple WSGI HTTP server
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: wsgiref.simple_server
+   :synopsis: A simple WSGI HTTP server.
+
+
+This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on :mod:`http.server`)
+that serves WSGI applications.  Each server instance serves a single WSGI
+application on a given host and port.  If you want to serve multiple
+applications on a single host and port, you should create a WSGI application
+that parses ``PATH_INFO`` to select which application to invoke for each
+request.  (E.g., using the :func:`shift_path_info` function from
+:mod:`wsgiref.util`.)
+
+
+.. function:: make_server(host, port, app, server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler)
+
+   Create a new WSGI server listening on *host* and *port*, accepting connections
+   for *app*.  The return value is an instance of the supplied *server_class*, and
+   will process requests using the specified *handler_class*.  *app* must be a WSGI
+   application object, as defined by :pep:`3333`.
+
+   Example usage::
+
+      from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app
+
+      with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
+          print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")
+
+          # Respond to requests until process is killed
+          httpd.serve_forever()
+
+          # Alternative: serve one request, then exit
+          httpd.handle_request()
+
+
+.. function:: demo_app(environ, start_response)
+
+   This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns a text page
+   containing the message "Hello world!" and a list of the key/value pairs provided
+   in the *environ* parameter.  It's useful for verifying that a WSGI server (such
+   as :mod:`wsgiref.simple_server`) is able to run a simple WSGI application
+   correctly.
+
+
+.. class:: WSGIServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)
+
+   Create a :class:`WSGIServer` instance.  *server_address* should be a
+   ``(host,port)`` tuple, and *RequestHandlerClass* should be the subclass of
+   :class:`http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler` that will be used to process
+   requests.
+
+   You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the :func:`make_server`
+   function can handle all the details for you.
+
+   :class:`WSGIServer` is a subclass of :class:`http.server.HTTPServer`, so all
+   of its methods (such as :meth:`serve_forever` and :meth:`handle_request`) are
+   available. :class:`WSGIServer` also provides these WSGI-specific methods:
+
+
+   .. method:: WSGIServer.set_app(application)
+
+      Sets the callable *application* as the WSGI application that will receive
+      requests.
+
+
+   .. method:: WSGIServer.get_app()
+
+      Returns the currently-set application callable.
+
+   Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods, as
+   :meth:`set_app` is normally called by :func:`make_server`, and the
+   :meth:`get_app` exists mainly for the benefit of request handler instances.
+
+
+.. class:: WSGIRequestHandler(request, client_address, server)
+
+   Create an HTTP handler for the given *request* (i.e. a socket), *client_address*
+   (a ``(host,port)`` tuple), and *server* (:class:`WSGIServer` instance).
+
+   You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they are
+   automatically created as needed by :class:`WSGIServer` objects.  You can,
+   however, subclass this class and supply it as a *handler_class* to the
+   :func:`make_server` function.  Some possibly relevant methods for overriding in
+   subclasses:
+
+
+   .. method:: WSGIRequestHandler.get_environ()
+
+      Returns a dictionary containing the WSGI environment for a request.  The default
+      implementation copies the contents of the :class:`WSGIServer` object's
+      :attr:`base_environ` dictionary attribute and then adds various headers derived
+      from the HTTP request.  Each call to this method should return a new dictionary
+      containing all of the relevant CGI environment variables as specified in
+      :pep:`3333`.
+
+
+   .. method:: WSGIRequestHandler.get_stderr()
+
+      Return the object that should be used as the ``wsgi.errors`` stream. The default
+      implementation just returns ``sys.stderr``.
+
+
+   .. method:: WSGIRequestHandler.handle()
+
+      Process the HTTP request.  The default implementation creates a handler instance
+      using a :mod:`wsgiref.handlers` class to implement the actual WSGI application
+      interface.
+
+
+:mod:`wsgiref.validate` --- WSGI conformance checker
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: wsgiref.validate
+   :synopsis: WSGI conformance checker.
+
+
+When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or middleware,
+it can be useful to validate the new code's conformance using
+:mod:`wsgiref.validate`.  This module provides a function that creates WSGI
+application objects that validate communications between a WSGI server or
+gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both sides for protocol
+conformance.
+
+Note that this utility does not guarantee complete :pep:`3333` compliance; an
+absence of errors from this module does not necessarily mean that errors do not
+exist.  However, if this module does produce an error, then it is virtually
+certain that either the server or application is not 100% compliant.
+
+This module is based on the :mod:`paste.lint` module from Ian Bicking's "Python
+Paste" library.
+
+
+.. function:: validator(application)
+
+   Wrap *application* and return a new WSGI application object.  The returned
+   application will forward all requests to the original *application*, and will
+   check that both the *application* and the server invoking it are conforming to
+   the WSGI specification and to :rfc:`2616`.
+
+   Any detected nonconformance results in an :exc:`AssertionError` being raised;
+   note, however, that how these errors are handled is server-dependent.  For
+   example, :mod:`wsgiref.simple_server` and other servers based on
+   :mod:`wsgiref.handlers` (that don't override the error handling methods to do
+   something else) will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and
+   dump the traceback to ``sys.stderr`` or some other error stream.
+
+   This wrapper may also generate output using the :mod:`warnings` module to
+   indicate behaviors that are questionable but which may not actually be
+   prohibited by :pep:`3333`.  Unless they are suppressed using Python command-line
+   options or the :mod:`warnings` API, any such warnings will be written to
+   ``sys.stderr`` (*not* ``wsgi.errors``, unless they happen to be the same
+   object).
+
+   Example usage::
+
+      from wsgiref.validate import validator
+      from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server
+
+      # Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the
+      # standard, so the validator is going to break
+      def simple_app(environ, start_response):
+          status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
+          headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')]  # HTTP Headers
+          start_response(status, headers)
+
+          # This is going to break because we need to return a list, and
+          # the validator is going to inform us
+          return b"Hello World"
+
+      # This is the application wrapped in a validator
+      validator_app = validator(simple_app)
+
+      with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
+          print("Listening on port 8000....")
+          httpd.serve_forever()
+
+
+:mod:`wsgiref.handlers` -- server/gateway base classes
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: wsgiref.handlers
+   :synopsis: WSGI server/gateway base classes.
+
+
+This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers and
+gateways.  These base classes handle most of the work of communicating with a
+WSGI application, as long as they are given a CGI-like environment, along with
+input, output, and error streams.
+
+
+.. class:: CGIHandler()
+
+   CGI-based invocation via ``sys.stdin``, ``sys.stdout``, ``sys.stderr`` and
+   ``os.environ``.  This is useful when you have a WSGI application and want to run
+   it as a CGI script.  Simply invoke ``CGIHandler().run(app)``, where ``app`` is
+   the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.
+
+   This class is a subclass of :class:`BaseCGIHandler` that sets ``wsgi.run_once``
+   to true, ``wsgi.multithread`` to false, and ``wsgi.multiprocess`` to true, and
+   always uses :mod:`sys` and :mod:`os` to obtain the necessary CGI streams and
+   environment.
+
+
+.. class:: IISCGIHandler()
+
+   A specialized alternative to :class:`CGIHandler`, for use when deploying on
+   Microsoft's IIS web server, without having set the config allowPathInfo
+   option (IIS>=7) or metabase allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7).
+
+   By default, IIS gives a ``PATH_INFO`` that duplicates the ``SCRIPT_NAME`` at
+   the front, causing problems for WSGI applications that wish to implement
+   routing. This handler strips any such duplicated path.
+
+   IIS can be configured to pass the correct ``PATH_INFO``, but this causes
+   another bug where ``PATH_TRANSLATED`` is wrong. Luckily this variable is
+   rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS<7, though, the
+   setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting all other script
+   mappings, many of which break when exposed to the ``PATH_TRANSLATED`` bug.
+   For this reason IIS<7 is almost never deployed with the fix. (Even IIS7
+   rarely uses it because there is still no UI for it.)
+
+   There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so a
+   separate handler class is provided.  It is used in the same way as
+   :class:`CGIHandler`, i.e., by calling ``IISCGIHandler().run(app)``, where
+   ``app`` is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. class:: BaseCGIHandler(stdin, stdout, stderr, environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)
+
+   Similar to :class:`CGIHandler`, but instead of using the :mod:`sys` and
+   :mod:`os` modules, the CGI environment and I/O streams are specified explicitly.
+   The *multithread* and *multiprocess* values are used to set the
+   ``wsgi.multithread`` and ``wsgi.multiprocess`` flags for any applications run by
+   the handler instance.
+
+   This class is a subclass of :class:`SimpleHandler` intended for use with
+   software other than HTTP "origin servers".  If you are writing a gateway
+   protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI, SCGI, etc.) that uses a
+   ``Status:`` header to send an HTTP status, you probably want to subclass this
+   instead of :class:`SimpleHandler`.
+
+
+.. class:: SimpleHandler(stdin, stdout, stderr, environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)
+
+   Similar to :class:`BaseCGIHandler`, but designed for use with HTTP origin
+   servers.  If you are writing an HTTP server implementation, you will probably
+   want to subclass this instead of :class:`BaseCGIHandler`.
+
+   This class is a subclass of :class:`BaseHandler`.  It overrides the
+   :meth:`__init__`, :meth:`get_stdin`, :meth:`get_stderr`, :meth:`add_cgi_vars`,
+   :meth:`_write`, and :meth:`_flush` methods to support explicitly setting the
+   environment and streams via the constructor.  The supplied environment and
+   streams are stored in the :attr:`stdin`, :attr:`stdout`, :attr:`stderr`, and
+   :attr:`environ` attributes.
+
+   The :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.write` method of *stdout* should write
+   each chunk in full, like :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`.
+
+
+.. class:: BaseHandler()
+
+   This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications.  Each instance
+   will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle you could create a
+   subclass that was reusable for multiple requests.
+
+   :class:`BaseHandler` instances have only one method intended for external use:
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.run(app)
+
+      Run the specified WSGI application, *app*.
+
+   All of the other :class:`BaseHandler` methods are invoked by this method in the
+   process of running the application, and thus exist primarily to allow
+   customizing the process.
+
+   The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass:
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler._write(data)
+
+      Buffer the bytes *data* for transmission to the client.  It's okay if this
+      method actually transmits the data; :class:`BaseHandler` just separates write
+      and flush operations for greater efficiency when the underlying system actually
+      has such a distinction.
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler._flush()
+
+      Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client.  It's okay if this method
+      is a no-op (i.e., if :meth:`_write` actually sends the data).
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.get_stdin()
+
+      Return an input stream object suitable for use as the ``wsgi.input`` of the
+      request currently being processed.
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.get_stderr()
+
+      Return an output stream object suitable for use as the ``wsgi.errors`` of the
+      request currently being processed.
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars()
+
+      Insert CGI variables for the current request into the :attr:`environ` attribute.
+
+   Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to override. This list
+   is only a summary, however, and does not include every method that can be
+   overridden.  You should consult the docstrings and source code for additional
+   information before attempting to create a customized :class:`BaseHandler`
+   subclass.
+
+   Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.wsgi_multithread
+
+      The value to be used for the ``wsgi.multithread`` environment variable.  It
+      defaults to true in :class:`BaseHandler`, but may have a different default (or
+      be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.wsgi_multiprocess
+
+      The value to be used for the ``wsgi.multiprocess`` environment variable.  It
+      defaults to true in :class:`BaseHandler`, but may have a different default (or
+      be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.wsgi_run_once
+
+      The value to be used for the ``wsgi.run_once`` environment variable.  It
+      defaults to false in :class:`BaseHandler`, but :class:`CGIHandler` sets it to
+      true by default.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.os_environ
+
+      The default environment variables to be included in every request's WSGI
+      environment.  By default, this is a copy of ``os.environ`` at the time that
+      :mod:`wsgiref.handlers` was imported, but subclasses can either create their own
+      at the class or instance level.  Note that the dictionary should be considered
+      read-only, since the default value is shared between multiple classes and
+      instances.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.server_software
+
+      If the :attr:`origin_server` attribute is set, this attribute's value is used to
+      set the default ``SERVER_SOFTWARE`` WSGI environment variable, and also to set a
+      default ``Server:`` header in HTTP responses.  It is ignored for handlers (such
+      as :class:`BaseCGIHandler` and :class:`CGIHandler`) that are not HTTP origin
+      servers.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         The term "Python" is replaced with implementation specific term like
+         "CPython", "Jython" etc.
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.get_scheme()
+
+      Return the URL scheme being used for the current request.  The default
+      implementation uses the :func:`guess_scheme` function from :mod:`wsgiref.util`
+      to guess whether the scheme should be "http" or "https", based on the current
+      request's :attr:`environ` variables.
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.setup_environ()
+
+      Set the :attr:`environ` attribute to a fully-populated WSGI environment.  The
+      default implementation uses all of the above methods and attributes, plus the
+      :meth:`get_stdin`, :meth:`get_stderr`, and :meth:`add_cgi_vars` methods and the
+      :attr:`wsgi_file_wrapper` attribute.  It also inserts a ``SERVER_SOFTWARE`` key
+      if not present, as long as the :attr:`origin_server` attribute is a true value
+      and the :attr:`server_software` attribute is set.
+
+   Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling:
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.log_exception(exc_info)
+
+      Log the *exc_info* tuple in the server log.  *exc_info* is a ``(type, value,
+      traceback)`` tuple.  The default implementation simply writes the traceback to
+      the request's ``wsgi.errors`` stream and flushes it.  Subclasses can override
+      this method to change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback to
+      an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed suitable.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.traceback_limit
+
+      The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output by the default
+      :meth:`log_exception` method.  If ``None``, all frames are included.
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.error_output(environ, start_response)
+
+      This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page for the user.  It is
+      only invoked if an error occurs before headers are sent to the client.
+
+      This method can access the current error information using ``sys.exc_info()``,
+      and should pass that information to *start_response* when calling it (as
+      described in the "Error Handling" section of :pep:`3333`).
+
+      The default implementation just uses the :attr:`error_status`,
+      :attr:`error_headers`, and :attr:`error_body` attributes to generate an output
+      page.  Subclasses can override this to produce more dynamic error output.
+
+      Note, however, that it's not recommended from a security perspective to spit out
+      diagnostics to any old user; ideally, you should have to do something special to
+      enable diagnostic output, which is why the default implementation doesn't
+      include any.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.error_status
+
+      The HTTP status used for error responses.  This should be a status string as
+      defined in :pep:`3333`; it defaults to a 500 code and message.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.error_headers
+
+      The HTTP headers used for error responses.  This should be a list of WSGI
+      response headers (``(name, value)`` tuples), as described in :pep:`3333`.  The
+      default list just sets the content type to ``text/plain``.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.error_body
+
+      The error response body.  This should be an HTTP response body bytestring. It
+      defaults to the plain text, "A server error occurred.  Please contact the
+      administrator."
+
+   Methods and attributes for :pep:`3333`'s "Optional Platform-Specific File
+   Handling" feature:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper
+
+      A ``wsgi.file_wrapper`` factory, or ``None``.  The default value of this
+      attribute is the :class:`wsgiref.util.FileWrapper` class.
+
+
+   .. method:: BaseHandler.sendfile()
+
+      Override to implement platform-specific file transmission.  This method is
+      called only if the application's return value is an instance of the class
+      specified by the :attr:`wsgi_file_wrapper` attribute.  It should return a true
+      value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so that the default
+      transmission code will not be executed. The default implementation of this
+      method just returns a false value.
+
+   Miscellaneous methods and attributes:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.origin_server
+
+      This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler's :meth:`_write` and
+      :meth:`_flush` are being used to communicate directly to the client, rather than
+      via a CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a special
+      ``Status:`` header.
+
+      This attribute's default value is true in :class:`BaseHandler`, but false in
+      :class:`BaseCGIHandler` and :class:`CGIHandler`.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: BaseHandler.http_version
+
+      If :attr:`origin_server` is true, this string attribute is used to set the HTTP
+      version of the response set to the client.  It defaults to ``"1.0"``.
+
+
+.. function:: read_environ()
+
+   Transcode CGI variables from ``os.environ`` to PEP 3333 "bytes in unicode"
+   strings, returning a new dictionary.  This function is used by
+   :class:`CGIHandler` and :class:`IISCGIHandler` in place of directly using
+   ``os.environ``, which is not necessarily WSGI-compliant on all platforms
+   and web servers using Python 3 -- specifically, ones where the OS's
+   actual environment is Unicode (i.e. Windows), or ones where the environment
+   is bytes, but the system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything
+   other than ISO-8859-1 (e.g. Unix systems using UTF-8).
+
+   If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you probably want
+   to use this routine instead of just copying values out of ``os.environ``
+   directly.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+This is a working "Hello World" WSGI application::
+
+   from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server
+
+   # Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
+   # object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to
+   # use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can
+   # use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function
+   # is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the
+   # second variable is the callable object (see PEP 333).
+   def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
+       status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
+       headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]  # HTTP Headers
+       start_response(status, headers)
+
+       # The returned object is going to be printed
+       return [b"Hello World"]
+
+   with make_server('', 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
+       print("Serving on port 8000...")
+
+       # Serve until process is killed
+       httpd.serve_forever()
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xdrlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xdrlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42a03a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xdrlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,278 @@
+:mod:`xdrlib` --- Encode and decode XDR data
+============================================
+
+.. module:: xdrlib
+   :synopsis: Encoders and decoders for the External Data Representation (XDR).
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xdrlib.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: XDR
+   single: External Data Representation
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`xdrlib` module supports the External Data Representation Standard as
+described in :rfc:`1014`, written by Sun Microsystems, Inc. June 1987.  It
+supports most of the data types described in the RFC.
+
+The :mod:`xdrlib` module defines two classes, one for packing variables into XDR
+representation, and another for unpacking from XDR representation.  There are
+also two exception classes.
+
+
+.. class:: Packer()
+
+   :class:`Packer` is the class for packing data into XDR representation. The
+   :class:`Packer` class is instantiated with no arguments.
+
+
+.. class:: Unpacker(data)
+
+   ``Unpacker`` is the complementary class which unpacks XDR data values from a
+   string buffer.  The input buffer is given as *data*.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :rfc:`1014` - XDR: External Data Representation Standard
+      This RFC defined the encoding of data which was XDR at the time this module was
+      originally written.  It has apparently been obsoleted by :rfc:`1832`.
+
+   :rfc:`1832` - XDR: External Data Representation Standard
+      Newer RFC that provides a revised definition of XDR.
+
+
+.. _xdr-packer-objects:
+
+Packer Objects
+--------------
+
+:class:`Packer` instances have the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.get_buffer()
+
+   Returns the current pack buffer as a string.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.reset()
+
+   Resets the pack buffer to the empty string.
+
+In general, you can pack any of the most common XDR data types by calling the
+appropriate ``pack_type()`` method.  Each method takes a single argument, the
+value to pack.  The following simple data type packing methods are supported:
+:meth:`pack_uint`, :meth:`pack_int`, :meth:`pack_enum`, :meth:`pack_bool`,
+:meth:`pack_uhyper`, and :meth:`pack_hyper`.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_float(value)
+
+   Packs the single-precision floating point number *value*.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_double(value)
+
+   Packs the double-precision floating point number *value*.
+
+The following methods support packing strings, bytes, and opaque data:
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_fstring(n, s)
+
+   Packs a fixed length string, *s*.  *n* is the length of the string but it is
+   *not* packed into the data buffer.  The string is padded with null bytes if
+   necessary to guaranteed 4 byte alignment.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_fopaque(n, data)
+
+   Packs a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to :meth:`pack_fstring`.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_string(s)
+
+   Packs a variable length string, *s*.  The length of the string is first packed
+   as an unsigned integer, then the string data is packed with
+   :meth:`pack_fstring`.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_opaque(data)
+
+   Packs a variable length opaque data string, similarly to :meth:`pack_string`.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_bytes(bytes)
+
+   Packs a variable length byte stream, similarly to :meth:`pack_string`.
+
+The following methods support packing arrays and lists:
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_list(list, pack_item)
+
+   Packs a *list* of homogeneous items.  This method is useful for lists with an
+   indeterminate size; i.e. the size is not available until the entire list has
+   been walked.  For each item in the list, an unsigned integer ``1`` is packed
+   first, followed by the data value from the list.  *pack_item* is the function
+   that is called to pack the individual item.  At the end of the list, an unsigned
+   integer ``0`` is packed.
+
+   For example, to pack a list of integers, the code might appear like this::
+
+      import xdrlib
+      p = xdrlib.Packer()
+      p.pack_list([1, 2, 3], p.pack_int)
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_farray(n, array, pack_item)
+
+   Packs a fixed length list (*array*) of homogeneous items.  *n* is the length of
+   the list; it is *not* packed into the buffer, but a :exc:`ValueError` exception
+   is raised if ``len(array)`` is not equal to *n*.  As above, *pack_item* is the
+   function used to pack each element.
+
+
+.. method:: Packer.pack_array(list, pack_item)
+
+   Packs a variable length *list* of homogeneous items.  First, the length of the
+   list is packed as an unsigned integer, then each element is packed as in
+   :meth:`pack_farray` above.
+
+
+.. _xdr-unpacker-objects:
+
+Unpacker Objects
+----------------
+
+The :class:`Unpacker` class offers the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.reset(data)
+
+   Resets the string buffer with the given *data*.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.get_position()
+
+   Returns the current unpack position in the data buffer.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.set_position(position)
+
+   Sets the data buffer unpack position to *position*.  You should be careful about
+   using :meth:`get_position` and :meth:`set_position`.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.get_buffer()
+
+   Returns the current unpack data buffer as a string.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.done()
+
+   Indicates unpack completion.  Raises an :exc:`Error` exception if all of the
+   data has not been unpacked.
+
+In addition, every data type that can be packed with a :class:`Packer`, can be
+unpacked with an :class:`Unpacker`.  Unpacking methods are of the form
+``unpack_type()``, and take no arguments.  They return the unpacked object.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_float()
+
+   Unpacks a single-precision floating point number.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_double()
+
+   Unpacks a double-precision floating point number, similarly to
+   :meth:`unpack_float`.
+
+In addition, the following methods unpack strings, bytes, and opaque data:
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_fstring(n)
+
+   Unpacks and returns a fixed length string.  *n* is the number of characters
+   expected.  Padding with null bytes to guaranteed 4 byte alignment is assumed.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_fopaque(n)
+
+   Unpacks and returns a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to
+   :meth:`unpack_fstring`.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_string()
+
+   Unpacks and returns a variable length string.  The length of the string is first
+   unpacked as an unsigned integer, then the string data is unpacked with
+   :meth:`unpack_fstring`.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_opaque()
+
+   Unpacks and returns a variable length opaque data string, similarly to
+   :meth:`unpack_string`.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_bytes()
+
+   Unpacks and returns a variable length byte stream, similarly to
+   :meth:`unpack_string`.
+
+The following methods support unpacking arrays and lists:
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_list(unpack_item)
+
+   Unpacks and returns a list of homogeneous items.  The list is unpacked one
+   element at a time by first unpacking an unsigned integer flag.  If the flag is
+   ``1``, then the item is unpacked and appended to the list.  A flag of ``0``
+   indicates the end of the list.  *unpack_item* is the function that is called to
+   unpack the items.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_farray(n, unpack_item)
+
+   Unpacks and returns (as a list) a fixed length array of homogeneous items.  *n*
+   is number of list elements to expect in the buffer. As above, *unpack_item* is
+   the function used to unpack each element.
+
+
+.. method:: Unpacker.unpack_array(unpack_item)
+
+   Unpacks and returns a variable length *list* of homogeneous items. First, the
+   length of the list is unpacked as an unsigned integer, then each element is
+   unpacked as in :meth:`unpack_farray` above.
+
+
+.. _xdr-exceptions:
+
+Exceptions
+----------
+
+Exceptions in this module are coded as class instances:
+
+
+.. exception:: Error
+
+   The base exception class.  :exc:`Error` has a single public attribute
+   :attr:`msg` containing the description of the error.
+
+
+.. exception:: ConversionError
+
+   Class derived from :exc:`Error`.  Contains no additional instance variables.
+
+Here is an example of how you would catch one of these exceptions::
+
+   import xdrlib
+   p = xdrlib.Packer()
+   try:
+       p.pack_double(8.01)
+   except xdrlib.ConversionError as instance:
+       print('packing the double failed:', instance.msg)
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c68b037
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
+:mod:`xml.dom.minidom` --- Minimal DOM implementation
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: xml.dom.minidom
+   :synopsis: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Paul Prescod <paul@prescod.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Paul Prescod <paul@prescod.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py`
+
+--------------
+
+:mod:`xml.dom.minidom` is a minimal implementation of the Document Object
+Model interface, with an API similar to that in other languages.  It is intended
+to be simpler than the full DOM and also significantly smaller.  Users who are
+not already proficient with the DOM should consider using the
+:mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module for their XML processing instead.
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` module is not secure against
+   maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+   unauthenticated data see :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+
+
+DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM.  With
+:mod:`xml.dom.minidom`, this is done through the parse functions::
+
+   from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString
+
+   dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')  # parse an XML file by name
+
+   datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')
+   dom2 = parse(datasource)  # parse an open file
+
+   dom3 = parseString('<myxml>Some data<empty/> some more data</myxml>')
+
+The :func:`parse` function can take either a filename or an open file object.
+
+
+.. function:: parse(filename_or_file, parser=None, bufsize=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`Document` from the given input. *filename_or_file* may be
+   either a file name, or a file-like object. *parser*, if given, must be a SAX2
+   parser object. This function will change the document handler of the parser and
+   activate namespace support; other parser configuration (like setting an entity
+   resolver) must have been done in advance.
+
+If you have XML in a string, you can use the :func:`parseString` function
+instead:
+
+
+.. function:: parseString(string, parser=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`Document` that represents the *string*. This method creates an
+   :class:`io.StringIO` object for the string and passes that on to :func:`parse`.
+
+Both functions return a :class:`Document` object representing the content of the
+document.
+
+What the :func:`parse` and :func:`parseString` functions do is connect an XML
+parser with a "DOM builder" that can accept parse events from any SAX parser and
+convert them into a DOM tree.  The name of the functions are perhaps misleading,
+but are easy to grasp when learning the interfaces.  The parsing of the document
+will be completed before these functions return; it's simply that these
+functions do not provide a parser implementation themselves.
+
+You can also create a :class:`Document` by calling a method on a "DOM
+Implementation" object.  You can get this object either by calling the
+:func:`getDOMImplementation` function in the :mod:`xml.dom` package or the
+:mod:`xml.dom.minidom` module.  Once you have a :class:`Document`, you
+can add child nodes to it to populate the DOM::
+
+   from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation
+
+   impl = getDOMImplementation()
+
+   newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None)
+   top_element = newdoc.documentElement
+   text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.')
+   top_element.appendChild(text)
+
+Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your XML
+document through its properties and methods.  These properties are defined in
+the DOM specification.  The main property of the document object is the
+:attr:`documentElement` property.  It gives you the main element in the XML
+document: the one that holds all others.  Here is an example program::
+
+   dom3 = parseString("<myxml>Some data</myxml>")
+   assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml"
+
+When you are finished with a DOM tree, you may optionally call the
+:meth:`unlink` method to encourage early cleanup of the now-unneeded
+objects.  :meth:`unlink` is an :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`\ -specific
+extension to the DOM API that renders the node and its descendants are
+essentially useless.  Otherwise, Python's garbage collector will
+eventually take care of the objects in the tree.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification <https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/>`_
+      The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`.
+
+
+.. _minidom-objects:
+
+DOM Objects
+-----------
+
+The definition of the DOM API for Python is given as part of the :mod:`xml.dom`
+module documentation.  This section lists the differences between the API and
+:mod:`xml.dom.minidom`.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.unlink()
+
+   Break internal references within the DOM so that it will be garbage collected on
+   versions of Python without cyclic GC.  Even when cyclic GC is available, using
+   this can make large amounts of memory available sooner, so calling this on DOM
+   objects as soon as they are no longer needed is good practice.  This only needs
+   to be called on the :class:`Document` object, but may be called on child nodes
+   to discard children of that node.
+
+   You can avoid calling this method explicitly by using the :keyword:`with`
+   statement. The following code will automatically unlink *dom* when the
+   :keyword:`!with` block is exited::
+
+      with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom:
+          ... # Work with dom.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.writexml(writer, indent="", addindent="", newl="")
+
+   Write XML to the writer object.  The writer receives texts but not bytes as input,
+   it should have a :meth:`write` method which matches that of the file object
+   interface.  The *indent* parameter is the indentation of the current node.
+   The *addindent* parameter is the incremental indentation to use for subnodes
+   of the current one.  The *newl* parameter specifies the string to use to
+   terminate newlines.
+
+   For the :class:`Document` node, an additional keyword argument *encoding* can
+   be used to specify the encoding field of the XML header.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.toxml(encoding=None)
+
+   Return a string or byte string containing the XML represented by
+   the DOM node.
+
+   With an explicit *encoding* [1]_ argument, the result is a byte
+   string in the specified encoding.
+   With no *encoding* argument, the result is a Unicode string, and the
+   XML declaration in the resulting string does not specify an
+   encoding. Encoding this string in an encoding other than UTF-8 is
+   likely incorrect, since UTF-8 is the default encoding of XML.
+
+.. method:: Node.toprettyxml(indent="\\t", newl="\\n", encoding=None)
+
+   Return a pretty-printed version of the document. *indent* specifies the
+   indentation string and defaults to a tabulator; *newl* specifies the string
+   emitted at the end of each line and defaults to ``\n``.
+
+   The *encoding* argument behaves like the corresponding argument of
+   :meth:`toxml`.
+
+
+.. _dom-example:
+
+DOM Example
+-----------
+
+This example program is a fairly realistic example of a simple program. In this
+particular case, we do not take much advantage of the flexibility of the DOM.
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../includes/minidom-example.py
+
+
+.. _minidom-and-dom:
+
+minidom and the DOM standard
+----------------------------
+
+The :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` module is essentially a DOM 1.0-compatible DOM with
+some DOM 2 features (primarily namespace features).
+
+Usage of the DOM interface in Python is straight-forward.  The following mapping
+rules apply:
+
+* Interfaces are accessed through instance objects. Applications should not
+  instantiate the classes themselves; they should use the creator functions
+  available on the :class:`Document` object. Derived interfaces support all
+  operations (and attributes) from the base interfaces, plus any new operations.
+
+* Operations are used as methods. Since the DOM uses only :keyword:`in`
+  parameters, the arguments are passed in normal order (from left to right).
+  There are no optional arguments. ``void`` operations return ``None``.
+
+* IDL attributes map to instance attributes. For compatibility with the OMG IDL
+  language mapping for Python, an attribute ``foo`` can also be accessed through
+  accessor methods :meth:`_get_foo` and :meth:`_set_foo`.  ``readonly``
+  attributes must not be changed; this is not enforced at runtime.
+
+* The types ``short int``, ``unsigned int``, ``unsigned long long``, and
+  ``boolean`` all map to Python integer objects.
+
+* The type ``DOMString`` maps to Python strings. :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` supports
+  either bytes or strings, but will normally produce strings.
+  Values of type ``DOMString`` may also be ``None`` where allowed to have the IDL
+  ``null`` value by the DOM specification from the W3C.
+
+* ``const`` declarations map to variables in their respective scope (e.g.
+  ``xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE``); they must not be changed.
+
+* ``DOMException`` is currently not supported in :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`.
+  Instead, :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` uses standard Python exceptions such as
+  :exc:`TypeError` and :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+* :class:`NodeList` objects are implemented using Python's built-in list type.
+  These objects provide the interface defined in the DOM specification, but with
+  earlier versions of Python they do not support the official API.  They are,
+  however, much more "Pythonic" than the interface defined in the W3C
+  recommendations.
+
+The following interfaces have no implementation in :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`:
+
+* :class:`DOMTimeStamp`
+
+* :class:`EntityReference`
+
+Most of these reflect information in the XML document that is not of general
+utility to most DOM users.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] The encoding name included in the XML output should conform to
+   the appropriate standards. For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but
+   "UTF8" is not valid in an XML document's declaration, even though
+   Python accepts it as an encoding name.
+   See https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl
+   and https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4974f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+:mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` --- Support for building partial DOM trees
+=================================================================
+
+.. module:: xml.dom.pulldom
+   :synopsis: Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Paul Prescod <paul@prescod.net>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` module provides a "pull parser" which can also be
+asked to produce DOM-accessible fragments of the document where necessary. The
+basic concept involves pulling "events" from a stream of incoming XML and
+processing them. In contrast to SAX which also employs an event-driven
+processing model together with callbacks, the user of a pull parser is
+responsible for explicitly pulling events from the stream, looping over those
+events until either processing is finished or an error condition occurs.
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` module is not secure against
+   maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+   unauthenticated data see :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
+
+   The SAX parser no longer processes general external entities by default to
+   increase security by default. To enable processing of external entities,
+   pass a custom parser instance in::
+
+      from xml.dom.pulldom import parse
+      from xml.sax import make_parser
+      from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges
+
+      parser = make_parser()
+      parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True)
+      parse(filename, parser=parser)
+
+
+Example::
+
+   from xml.dom import pulldom
+
+   doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml')
+   for event, node in doc:
+       if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item':
+           if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50:
+               doc.expandNode(node)
+               print(node.toxml())
+
+``event`` is a constant and can be one of:
+
+* :data:`START_ELEMENT`
+* :data:`END_ELEMENT`
+* :data:`COMMENT`
+* :data:`START_DOCUMENT`
+* :data:`END_DOCUMENT`
+* :data:`CHARACTERS`
+* :data:`PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION`
+* :data:`IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE`
+
+``node`` is an object of type :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Document`,
+:class:`xml.dom.minidom.Element` or :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Text`.
+
+Since the document is treated as a "flat" stream of events, the document "tree"
+is implicitly traversed and the desired elements are found regardless of their
+depth in the tree. In other words, one does not need to consider hierarchical
+issues such as recursive searching of the document nodes, although if the
+context of elements were important, one would either need to maintain some
+context-related state (i.e. remembering where one is in the document at any
+given point) or to make use of the :func:`DOMEventStream.expandNode` method
+and switch to DOM-related processing.
+
+
+.. class:: PullDom(documentFactory=None)
+
+   Subclass of :class:`xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler`.
+
+
+.. class:: SAX2DOM(documentFactory=None)
+
+   Subclass of :class:`xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler`.
+
+
+.. function:: parse(stream_or_string, parser=None, bufsize=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`DOMEventStream` from the given input. *stream_or_string* may be
+   either a file name, or a file-like object. *parser*, if given, must be an
+   :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` object. This function will change the
+   document handler of the
+   parser and activate namespace support; other parser configuration (like
+   setting an entity resolver) must have been done in advance.
+
+If you have XML in a string, you can use the :func:`parseString` function instead:
+
+.. function:: parseString(string, parser=None)
+
+   Return a :class:`DOMEventStream` that represents the (Unicode) *string*.
+
+.. data:: default_bufsize
+
+   Default value for the *bufsize* parameter to :func:`parse`.
+
+   The value of this variable can be changed before calling :func:`parse` and
+   the new value will take effect.
+
+.. _domeventstream-objects:
+
+DOMEventStream Objects
+----------------------
+
+.. class:: DOMEventStream(stream, parser, bufsize)
+
+
+   .. method:: getEvent()
+
+      Return a tuple containing *event* and the current *node* as
+      :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Document` if event equals :data:`START_DOCUMENT`,
+      :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Element` if event equals :data:`START_ELEMENT` or
+      :data:`END_ELEMENT` or :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Text` if event equals
+      :data:`CHARACTERS`.
+      The current node does not contain information about its children, unless
+      :func:`expandNode` is called.
+
+   .. method:: expandNode(node)
+
+      Expands all children of *node* into *node*. Example::
+
+          from xml.dom import pulldom
+
+          xml = '<html><title>Foo</title> <p>Some text <div>and more</div></p> </html>'
+          doc = pulldom.parseString(xml)
+          for event, node in doc:
+              if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p':
+                  # Following statement only prints '<p/>'
+                  print(node.toxml())
+                  doc.expandNode(node)
+                  # Following statement prints node with all its children '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
+                  print(node.toxml())
+
+   .. method:: DOMEventStream.reset()
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18519a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.dom.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1033 @@
+:mod:`xml.dom` --- The Document Object Model API
+================================================
+
+.. module:: xml.dom
+   :synopsis: Document Object Model API for Python.
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Paul Prescod <paul@prescod.net>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The Document Object Model, or "DOM," is a cross-language API from the World Wide
+Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML documents.  A DOM
+implementation presents an XML document as a tree structure, or allows client
+code to build such a structure from scratch.  It then gives access to the
+structure through a set of objects which provided well-known interfaces.
+
+The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications.  SAX only allows you
+a view of one bit of the document at a time.  If you are looking at one SAX
+element, you have no access to another.  If you are looking at a text node, you
+have no access to a containing element. When you write a SAX application, you
+need to keep track of your program's position in the document somewhere in your
+own code.  SAX does not do it for you.  Also, if you need to look ahead in the
+XML document, you are just out of luck.
+
+Some applications are simply impossible in an event driven model with no access
+to a tree.  Of course you could build some sort of tree yourself in SAX events,
+but the DOM allows you to avoid writing that code.  The DOM is a standard tree
+representation for XML data.
+
+The Document Object Model is being defined by the W3C in stages, or "levels" in
+their terminology.  The Python mapping of the API is substantially based on the
+DOM Level 2 recommendation.
+
+.. What if your needs are somewhere between SAX and the DOM?  Perhaps
+   you cannot afford to load the entire tree in memory but you find the
+   SAX model somewhat cumbersome and low-level.  There is also a module
+   called xml.dom.pulldom that allows you to build trees of only the
+   parts of a document that you need structured access to.  It also has
+   features that allow you to find your way around the DOM.
+   See http://www.prescod.net/python/pulldom
+
+DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM.  How this is
+accomplished is not covered at all by DOM Level 1, and Level 2 provides only
+limited improvements: There is a :class:`DOMImplementation` object class which
+provides access to :class:`Document` creation methods, but no way to access an
+XML reader/parser/Document builder in an implementation-independent way. There
+is also no well-defined way to access these methods without an existing
+:class:`Document` object.  In Python, each DOM implementation will provide a
+function :func:`getDOMImplementation`. DOM Level 3 adds a Load/Store
+specification, which defines an interface to the reader, but this is not yet
+available in the Python standard library.
+
+Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your XML
+document through its properties and methods.  These properties are defined in
+the DOM specification; this portion of the reference manual describes the
+interpretation of the specification in Python.
+
+The specification provided by the W3C defines the DOM API for Java, ECMAScript,
+and OMG IDL.  The Python mapping defined here is based in large part on the IDL
+version of the specification, but strict compliance is not required (though
+implementations are free to support the strict mapping from IDL).  See section
+:ref:`dom-conformance` for a detailed discussion of mapping requirements.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification <https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/>`_
+      The W3C recommendation upon which the Python DOM API is based.
+
+   `Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification <https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/>`_
+      The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`.
+
+   `Python Language Mapping Specification <http://www.omg.org/cgi-bin/doc?formal/02-11-05.pdf>`_
+      This specifies the mapping from OMG IDL to Python.
+
+
+Module Contents
+---------------
+
+The :mod:`xml.dom` contains the following functions:
+
+
+.. function:: registerDOMImplementation(name, factory)
+
+   Register the *factory* function with the name *name*.  The factory function
+   should return an object which implements the :class:`DOMImplementation`
+   interface.  The factory function can return the same object every time, or a new
+   one for each call, as appropriate for the specific implementation (e.g. if that
+   implementation supports some customization).
+
+
+.. function:: getDOMImplementation(name=None, features=())
+
+   Return a suitable DOM implementation. The *name* is either well-known, the
+   module name of a DOM implementation, or ``None``. If it is not ``None``, imports
+   the corresponding module and returns a :class:`DOMImplementation` object if the
+   import succeeds.  If no name is given, and if the environment variable
+   :envvar:`PYTHON_DOM` is set, this variable is used to find the implementation.
+
+   If name is not given, this examines the available implementations to find one
+   with the required feature set.  If no implementation can be found, raise an
+   :exc:`ImportError`.  The features list must be a sequence of ``(feature,
+   version)`` pairs which are passed to the :meth:`hasFeature` method on available
+   :class:`DOMImplementation` objects.
+
+Some convenience constants are also provided:
+
+
+.. data:: EMPTY_NAMESPACE
+
+   The value used to indicate that no namespace is associated with a node in the
+   DOM.  This is typically found as the :attr:`namespaceURI` of a node, or used as
+   the *namespaceURI* parameter to a namespaces-specific method.
+
+
+.. data:: XML_NAMESPACE
+
+   The namespace URI associated with the reserved prefix ``xml``, as defined by
+   `Namespaces in XML <https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/>`_ (section 4).
+
+
+.. data:: XMLNS_NAMESPACE
+
+   The namespace URI for namespace declarations, as defined by `Document Object
+   Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification
+   <https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html>`_ (section 1.1.8).
+
+
+.. data:: XHTML_NAMESPACE
+
+   The URI of the XHTML namespace as defined by `XHTML 1.0: The Extensible
+   HyperText Markup Language <https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/>`_ (section 3.1.1).
+
+
+In addition, :mod:`xml.dom` contains a base :class:`Node` class and the DOM
+exception classes.  The :class:`Node` class provided by this module does not
+implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM specification;
+concrete DOM implementations must provide those.  The :class:`Node` class
+provided as part of this module does provide the constants used for the
+:attr:`nodeType` attribute on concrete :class:`Node` objects; they are located
+within the class rather than at the module level to conform with the DOM
+specifications.
+
+.. Should the Node documentation go here?
+
+
+.. _dom-objects:
+
+Objects in the DOM
+------------------
+
+The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from the W3C.
+
+Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as simple
+strings.  It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so this usage is not
+yet documented.
+
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| Interface                      | Section                           | Purpose                         |
++================================+===================================+=================================+
+| :class:`DOMImplementation`     | :ref:`dom-implementation-objects` | Interface to the underlying     |
+|                                |                                   | implementation.                 |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`Node`                  | :ref:`dom-node-objects`           | Base interface for most objects |
+|                                |                                   | in a document.                  |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`NodeList`              | :ref:`dom-nodelist-objects`       | Interface for a sequence of     |
+|                                |                                   | nodes.                          |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`DocumentType`          | :ref:`dom-documenttype-objects`   | Information about the           |
+|                                |                                   | declarations needed to process  |
+|                                |                                   | a document.                     |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`Document`              | :ref:`dom-document-objects`       | Object which represents an      |
+|                                |                                   | entire document.                |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`Element`               | :ref:`dom-element-objects`        | Element nodes in the document   |
+|                                |                                   | hierarchy.                      |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`Attr`                  | :ref:`dom-attr-objects`           | Attribute value nodes on        |
+|                                |                                   | element nodes.                  |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`Comment`               | :ref:`dom-comment-objects`        | Representation of comments in   |
+|                                |                                   | the source document.            |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`Text`                  | :ref:`dom-text-objects`           | Nodes containing textual        |
+|                                |                                   | content from the document.      |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :class:`ProcessingInstruction` | :ref:`dom-pi-objects`             | Processing instruction          |
+|                                |                                   | representation.                 |
++--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+
+An additional section describes the exceptions defined for working with the DOM
+in Python.
+
+
+.. _dom-implementation-objects:
+
+DOMImplementation Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`DOMImplementation` interface provides a way for applications to
+determine the availability of particular features in the DOM they are using.
+DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new :class:`Document` and
+:class:`DocumentType` objects using the :class:`DOMImplementation` as well.
+
+
+.. method:: DOMImplementation.hasFeature(feature, version)
+
+   Return true if the feature identified by the pair of strings *feature* and
+   *version* is implemented.
+
+
+.. method:: DOMImplementation.createDocument(namespaceUri, qualifiedName, doctype)
+
+   Return a new :class:`Document` object (the root of the DOM), with a child
+   :class:`Element` object having the given *namespaceUri* and *qualifiedName*. The
+   *doctype* must be a :class:`DocumentType` object created by
+   :meth:`createDocumentType`, or ``None``. In the Python DOM API, the first two
+   arguments can also be ``None`` in order to indicate that no :class:`Element`
+   child is to be created.
+
+
+.. method:: DOMImplementation.createDocumentType(qualifiedName, publicId, systemId)
+
+   Return a new :class:`DocumentType` object that encapsulates the given
+   *qualifiedName*, *publicId*, and *systemId* strings, representing the
+   information contained in an XML document type declaration.
+
+
+.. _dom-node-objects:
+
+Node Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.nodeType
+
+   An integer representing the node type.  Symbolic constants for the types are on
+   the :class:`Node` object: :const:`ELEMENT_NODE`, :const:`ATTRIBUTE_NODE`,
+   :const:`TEXT_NODE`, :const:`CDATA_SECTION_NODE`, :const:`ENTITY_NODE`,
+   :const:`PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE`, :const:`COMMENT_NODE`,
+   :const:`DOCUMENT_NODE`, :const:`DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE`, :const:`NOTATION_NODE`.
+   This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.parentNode
+
+   The parent of the current node, or ``None`` for the document node. The value is
+   always a :class:`Node` object or ``None``.  For :class:`Element` nodes, this
+   will be the parent element, except for the root element, in which case it will
+   be the :class:`Document` object. For :class:`Attr` nodes, this is always
+   ``None``. This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.attributes
+
+   A :class:`NamedNodeMap` of attribute objects.  Only elements have actual values
+   for this; others provide ``None`` for this attribute. This is a read-only
+   attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.previousSibling
+
+   The node that immediately precedes this one with the same parent.  For
+   instance the element with an end-tag that comes just before the *self*
+   element's start-tag.  Of course, XML documents are made up of more than just
+   elements so the previous sibling could be text, a comment, or something else.
+   If this node is the first child of the parent, this attribute will be
+   ``None``. This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.nextSibling
+
+   The node that immediately follows this one with the same parent.  See also
+   :attr:`previousSibling`.  If this is the last child of the parent, this
+   attribute will be ``None``. This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.childNodes
+
+   A list of nodes contained within this node. This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.firstChild
+
+   The first child of the node, if there are any, or ``None``. This is a read-only
+   attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.lastChild
+
+   The last child of the node, if there are any, or ``None``. This is a read-only
+   attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.localName
+
+   The part of the :attr:`tagName` following the colon if there is one, else the
+   entire :attr:`tagName`.  The value is a string.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.prefix
+
+   The part of the :attr:`tagName` preceding the colon if there is one, else the
+   empty string.  The value is a string, or ``None``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.namespaceURI
+
+   The namespace associated with the element name.  This will be a string or
+   ``None``.  This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.nodeName
+
+   This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for
+   details.  You can always get the information you would get here from another
+   property such as the :attr:`tagName` property for elements or the :attr:`name`
+   property for attributes. For all node types, the value of this attribute will be
+   either a string or ``None``.  This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Node.nodeValue
+
+   This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for
+   details.  The situation is similar to that with :attr:`nodeName`.  The value is
+   a string or ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.hasAttributes()
+
+   Returns true if the node has any attributes.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.hasChildNodes()
+
+   Returns true if the node has any child nodes.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.isSameNode(other)
+
+   Returns true if *other* refers to the same node as this node. This is especially
+   useful for DOM implementations which use any sort of proxy architecture (because
+   more than one object can refer to the same node).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This is based on a proposed DOM Level 3 API which is still in the "working
+      draft" stage, but this particular interface appears uncontroversial.  Changes
+      from the W3C will not necessarily affect this method in the Python DOM interface
+      (though any new W3C API for this would also be supported).
+
+
+.. method:: Node.appendChild(newChild)
+
+   Add a new child node to this node at the end of the list of
+   children, returning *newChild*. If the node was already in
+   the tree, it is removed first.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.insertBefore(newChild, refChild)
+
+   Insert a new child node before an existing child.  It must be the case that
+   *refChild* is a child of this node; if not, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+   *newChild* is returned. If *refChild* is ``None``, it inserts *newChild* at the
+   end of the children's list.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.removeChild(oldChild)
+
+   Remove a child node.  *oldChild* must be a child of this node; if not,
+   :exc:`ValueError` is raised.  *oldChild* is returned on success.  If *oldChild*
+   will not be used further, its :meth:`unlink` method should be called.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.replaceChild(newChild, oldChild)
+
+   Replace an existing node with a new node. It must be the case that  *oldChild*
+   is a child of this node; if not, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.normalize()
+
+   Join adjacent text nodes so that all stretches of text are stored as single
+   :class:`Text` instances.  This simplifies processing text from a DOM tree for
+   many applications.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.cloneNode(deep)
+
+   Clone this node.  Setting *deep* means to clone all child nodes as well.  This
+   returns the clone.
+
+
+.. _dom-nodelist-objects:
+
+NodeList Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A :class:`NodeList` represents a sequence of nodes.  These objects are used in
+two ways in the DOM Core recommendation:  an :class:`Element` object provides
+one as its list of child nodes, and the :meth:`getElementsByTagName` and
+:meth:`getElementsByTagNameNS` methods of :class:`Node` return objects with this
+interface to represent query results.
+
+The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines one method and one attribute for these
+objects:
+
+
+.. method:: NodeList.item(i)
+
+   Return the *i*'th item from the sequence, if there is one, or ``None``.  The
+   index *i* is not allowed to be less than zero or greater than or equal to the
+   length of the sequence.
+
+
+.. attribute:: NodeList.length
+
+   The number of nodes in the sequence.
+
+In addition, the Python DOM interface requires that some additional support is
+provided to allow :class:`NodeList` objects to be used as Python sequences.  All
+:class:`NodeList` implementations must include support for
+:meth:`~object.__len__` and
+:meth:`~object.__getitem__`; this allows iteration over the :class:`NodeList` in
+:keyword:`for` statements and proper support for the :func:`len` built-in
+function.
+
+If a DOM implementation supports modification of the document, the
+:class:`NodeList` implementation must also support the
+:meth:`~object.__setitem__` and :meth:`~object.__delitem__` methods.
+
+
+.. _dom-documenttype-objects:
+
+DocumentType Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Information about the notations and entities declared by a document (including
+the external subset if the parser uses it and can provide the information) is
+available from a :class:`DocumentType` object.  The :class:`DocumentType` for a
+document is available from the :class:`Document` object's :attr:`doctype`
+attribute; if there is no ``DOCTYPE`` declaration for the document, the
+document's :attr:`doctype` attribute will be set to ``None`` instead of an
+instance of this interface.
+
+:class:`DocumentType` is a specialization of :class:`Node`, and adds the
+following attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocumentType.publicId
+
+   The public identifier for the external subset of the document type definition.
+   This will be a string or ``None``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocumentType.systemId
+
+   The system identifier for the external subset of the document type definition.
+   This will be a URI as a string, or ``None``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocumentType.internalSubset
+
+   A string giving the complete internal subset from the document. This does not
+   include the brackets which enclose the subset.  If the document has no internal
+   subset, this should be ``None``.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocumentType.name
+
+   The name of the root element as given in the ``DOCTYPE`` declaration, if
+   present.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocumentType.entities
+
+   This is a :class:`NamedNodeMap` giving the definitions of external entities.
+   For entity names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided
+   (others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation).  This may be
+   ``None`` if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no entities are
+   defined.
+
+
+.. attribute:: DocumentType.notations
+
+   This is a :class:`NamedNodeMap` giving the definitions of notations. For
+   notation names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided
+   (others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation).  This may be
+   ``None`` if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no notations
+   are defined.
+
+
+.. _dom-document-objects:
+
+Document Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+A :class:`Document` represents an entire XML document, including its constituent
+elements, attributes, processing instructions, comments etc.  Remember that it
+inherits properties from :class:`Node`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Document.documentElement
+
+   The one and only root element of the document.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createElement(tagName)
+
+   Create and return a new element node.  The element is not inserted into the
+   document when it is created.  You need to explicitly insert it with one of the
+   other methods such as :meth:`insertBefore` or :meth:`appendChild`.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createElementNS(namespaceURI, tagName)
+
+   Create and return a new element with a namespace.  The *tagName* may have a
+   prefix.  The element is not inserted into the document when it is created.  You
+   need to explicitly insert it with one of the other methods such as
+   :meth:`insertBefore` or :meth:`appendChild`.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createTextNode(data)
+
+   Create and return a text node containing the data passed as a parameter.  As
+   with the other creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the
+   tree.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createComment(data)
+
+   Create and return a comment node containing the data passed as a parameter.  As
+   with the other creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the
+   tree.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createProcessingInstruction(target, data)
+
+   Create and return a processing instruction node containing the *target* and
+   *data* passed as parameters.  As with the other creation methods, this one does
+   not insert the node into the tree.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createAttribute(name)
+
+   Create and return an attribute node.  This method does not associate the
+   attribute node with any particular element.  You must use
+   :meth:`setAttributeNode` on the appropriate :class:`Element` object to use the
+   newly created attribute instance.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createAttributeNS(namespaceURI, qualifiedName)
+
+   Create and return an attribute node with a namespace.  The *tagName* may have a
+   prefix.  This method does not associate the attribute node with any particular
+   element.  You must use :meth:`setAttributeNode` on the appropriate
+   :class:`Element` object to use the newly created attribute instance.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.getElementsByTagName(tagName)
+
+   Search for all descendants (direct children, children's children, etc.) with a
+   particular element type name.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.getElementsByTagNameNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+   Search for all descendants (direct children, children's children, etc.) with a
+   particular namespace URI and localname.  The localname is the part of the
+   namespace after the prefix.
+
+
+.. _dom-element-objects:
+
+Element Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`Element` is a subclass of :class:`Node`, so inherits all the attributes
+of that class.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Element.tagName
+
+   The element type name.  In a namespace-using document it may have colons in it.
+   The value is a string.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.getElementsByTagName(tagName)
+
+   Same as equivalent method in the :class:`Document` class.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.getElementsByTagNameNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+   Same as equivalent method in the :class:`Document` class.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.hasAttribute(name)
+
+   Returns true if the element has an attribute named by *name*.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.hasAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+   Returns true if the element has an attribute named by *namespaceURI* and
+   *localName*.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.getAttribute(name)
+
+   Return the value of the attribute named by *name* as a string. If no such
+   attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the attribute had no value.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.getAttributeNode(attrname)
+
+   Return the :class:`Attr` node for the attribute named by *attrname*.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.getAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+   Return the value of the attribute named by *namespaceURI* and *localName* as a
+   string. If no such attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the
+   attribute had no value.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.getAttributeNodeNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+   Return an attribute value as a node, given a *namespaceURI* and *localName*.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.removeAttribute(name)
+
+   Remove an attribute by name.  If there is no matching attribute, a
+   :exc:`NotFoundErr` is raised.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.removeAttributeNode(oldAttr)
+
+   Remove and return *oldAttr* from the attribute list, if present. If *oldAttr* is
+   not present, :exc:`NotFoundErr` is raised.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.removeAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+   Remove an attribute by name.  Note that it uses a localName, not a qname.  No
+   exception is raised if there is no matching attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.setAttribute(name, value)
+
+   Set an attribute value from a string.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.setAttributeNode(newAttr)
+
+   Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if
+   necessary if the :attr:`name` attribute matches.  If a replacement occurs, the
+   old attribute node will be returned.  If *newAttr* is already in use,
+   :exc:`InuseAttributeErr` will be raised.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.setAttributeNodeNS(newAttr)
+
+   Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if
+   necessary if the :attr:`namespaceURI` and :attr:`localName` attributes match.
+   If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned.  If *newAttr*
+   is already in use, :exc:`InuseAttributeErr` will be raised.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.setAttributeNS(namespaceURI, qname, value)
+
+   Set an attribute value from a string, given a *namespaceURI* and a *qname*.
+   Note that a qname is the whole attribute name.  This is different than above.
+
+
+.. _dom-attr-objects:
+
+Attr Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`Attr` inherits from :class:`Node`, so inherits all its attributes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Attr.name
+
+   The attribute name.
+   In a namespace-using document it may include a colon.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Attr.localName
+
+   The part of the name following the colon if there is one, else the
+   entire name.
+   This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Attr.prefix
+
+   The part of the name preceding the colon if there is one, else the
+   empty string.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Attr.value
+
+   The text value of the attribute.  This is a synonym for the
+   :attr:`nodeValue` attribute.
+
+
+.. _dom-attributelist-objects:
+
+NamedNodeMap Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`NamedNodeMap` does *not* inherit from :class:`Node`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: NamedNodeMap.length
+
+   The length of the attribute list.
+
+
+.. method:: NamedNodeMap.item(index)
+
+   Return an attribute with a particular index.  The order you get the attributes
+   in is arbitrary but will be consistent for the life of a DOM.  Each item is an
+   attribute node.  Get its value with the :attr:`value` attribute.
+
+There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping behavior.
+You can use them or you can use the standardized :meth:`getAttribute\*` family
+of methods on the :class:`Element` objects.
+
+
+.. _dom-comment-objects:
+
+Comment Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`Comment` represents a comment in the XML document.  It is a subclass of
+:class:`Node`, but cannot have child nodes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Comment.data
+
+   The content of the comment as a string.  The attribute contains all characters
+   between the leading ``<!-``\ ``-`` and trailing ``-``\ ``->``, but does not
+   include them.
+
+
+.. _dom-text-objects:
+
+Text and CDATASection Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :class:`Text` interface represents text in the XML document.  If the parser
+and DOM implementation support the DOM's XML extension, portions of the text
+enclosed in CDATA marked sections are stored in :class:`CDATASection` objects.
+These two interfaces are identical, but provide different values for the
+:attr:`nodeType` attribute.
+
+These interfaces extend the :class:`Node` interface.  They cannot have child
+nodes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Text.data
+
+   The content of the text node as a string.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The use of a :class:`CDATASection` node does not indicate that the node
+   represents a complete CDATA marked section, only that the content of the node
+   was part of a CDATA section.  A single CDATA section may be represented by more
+   than one node in the document tree.  There is no way to determine whether two
+   adjacent :class:`CDATASection` nodes represent different CDATA marked sections.
+
+
+.. _dom-pi-objects:
+
+ProcessingInstruction Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits from the
+:class:`Node` interface and cannot have child nodes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ProcessingInstruction.target
+
+   The content of the processing instruction up to the first whitespace character.
+   This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ProcessingInstruction.data
+
+   The content of the processing instruction following the first whitespace
+   character.
+
+
+.. _dom-exceptions:
+
+Exceptions
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines a single exception, :exc:`DOMException`,
+and a number of constants that allow applications to determine what sort of
+error occurred. :exc:`DOMException` instances carry a :attr:`code` attribute
+that provides the appropriate value for the specific exception.
+
+The Python DOM interface provides the constants, but also expands the set of
+exceptions so that a specific exception exists for each of the exception codes
+defined by the DOM.  The implementations must raise the appropriate specific
+exception, each of which carries the appropriate value for the :attr:`code`
+attribute.
+
+
+.. exception:: DOMException
+
+   Base exception class used for all specific DOM exceptions.  This exception class
+   cannot be directly instantiated.
+
+
+.. exception:: DomstringSizeErr
+
+   Raised when a specified range of text does not fit into a string. This is not
+   known to be used in the Python DOM implementations, but may be received from DOM
+   implementations not written in Python.
+
+
+.. exception:: HierarchyRequestErr
+
+   Raised when an attempt is made to insert a node where the node type is not
+   allowed.
+
+
+.. exception:: IndexSizeErr
+
+   Raised when an index or size parameter to a method is negative or exceeds the
+   allowed values.
+
+
+.. exception:: InuseAttributeErr
+
+   Raised when an attempt is made to insert an :class:`Attr` node that is already
+   present elsewhere in the document.
+
+
+.. exception:: InvalidAccessErr
+
+   Raised if a parameter or an operation is not supported on the underlying object.
+
+
+.. exception:: InvalidCharacterErr
+
+   This exception is raised when a string parameter contains a character that is
+   not permitted in the context it's being used in by the XML 1.0 recommendation.
+   For example, attempting to create an :class:`Element` node with a space in the
+   element type name will cause this error to be raised.
+
+
+.. exception:: InvalidModificationErr
+
+   Raised when an attempt is made to modify the type of a node.
+
+
+.. exception:: InvalidStateErr
+
+   Raised when an attempt is made to use an object that is not defined or is no
+   longer usable.
+
+
+.. exception:: NamespaceErr
+
+   If an attempt is made to change any object in a way that is not permitted with
+   regard to the `Namespaces in XML <https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/>`_
+   recommendation, this exception is raised.
+
+
+.. exception:: NotFoundErr
+
+   Exception when a node does not exist in the referenced context.  For example,
+   :meth:`NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem` will raise this if the node passed in does
+   not exist in the map.
+
+
+.. exception:: NotSupportedErr
+
+   Raised when the implementation does not support the requested type of object or
+   operation.
+
+
+.. exception:: NoDataAllowedErr
+
+   This is raised if data is specified for a node which does not support data.
+
+   .. XXX  a better explanation is needed!
+
+
+.. exception:: NoModificationAllowedErr
+
+   Raised on attempts to modify an object where modifications are not allowed (such
+   as for read-only nodes).
+
+
+.. exception:: SyntaxErr
+
+   Raised when an invalid or illegal string is specified.
+
+   .. XXX  how is this different from InvalidCharacterErr?
+
+
+.. exception:: WrongDocumentErr
+
+   Raised when a node is inserted in a different document than it currently belongs
+   to, and the implementation does not support migrating the node from one document
+   to the other.
+
+The exception codes defined in the DOM recommendation map to the exceptions
+described above according to this table:
+
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| Constant                             | Exception                       |
++======================================+=================================+
+| :const:`DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR`          | :exc:`DomstringSizeErr`         |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR`       | :exc:`HierarchyRequestErr`      |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`INDEX_SIZE_ERR`              | :exc:`IndexSizeErr`             |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR`         | :exc:`InuseAttributeErr`        |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`INVALID_ACCESS_ERR`          | :exc:`InvalidAccessErr`         |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR`       | :exc:`InvalidCharacterErr`      |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR`    | :exc:`InvalidModificationErr`   |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`INVALID_STATE_ERR`           | :exc:`InvalidStateErr`          |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`NAMESPACE_ERR`               | :exc:`NamespaceErr`             |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`NOT_FOUND_ERR`               | :exc:`NotFoundErr`              |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR`           | :exc:`NotSupportedErr`          |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR`         | :exc:`NoDataAllowedErr`         |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR` | :exc:`NoModificationAllowedErr` |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`SYNTAX_ERR`                  | :exc:`SyntaxErr`                |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| :const:`WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR`          | :exc:`WrongDocumentErr`         |
++--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+
+
+.. _dom-conformance:
+
+Conformance
+-----------
+
+This section describes the conformance requirements and relationships between
+the Python DOM API, the W3C DOM recommendations, and the OMG IDL mapping for
+Python.
+
+
+.. _dom-type-mapping:
+
+Type Mapping
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The IDL types used in the DOM specification are mapped to Python types
+according to the following table.
+
++------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+| IDL Type         | Python Type                               |
++==================+===========================================+
+| ``boolean``      | ``bool`` or ``int``                       |
++------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+| ``int``          | ``int``                                   |
++------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+| ``long int``     | ``int``                                   |
++------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+| ``unsigned int`` | ``int``                                   |
++------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+| ``DOMString``    | ``str`` or ``bytes``                      |
++------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+| ``null``         | ``None``                                  |
++------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+
+.. _dom-accessor-methods:
+
+Accessor Methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The mapping from OMG IDL to Python defines accessor functions for IDL
+``attribute`` declarations in much the way the Java mapping does.
+Mapping the IDL declarations ::
+
+   readonly attribute string someValue;
+            attribute string anotherValue;
+
+yields three accessor functions:  a "get" method for :attr:`someValue`
+(:meth:`_get_someValue`), and "get" and "set" methods for :attr:`anotherValue`
+(:meth:`_get_anotherValue` and :meth:`_set_anotherValue`).  The mapping, in
+particular, does not require that the IDL attributes are accessible as normal
+Python attributes:  ``object.someValue`` is *not* required to work, and may
+raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
+
+The Python DOM API, however, *does* require that normal attribute access work.
+This means that the typical surrogates generated by Python IDL compilers are not
+likely to work, and wrapper objects may be needed on the client if the DOM
+objects are accessed via CORBA. While this does require some additional
+consideration for CORBA DOM clients, the implementers with experience using DOM
+over CORBA from Python do not consider this a problem.  Attributes that are
+declared ``readonly`` may not restrict write access in all DOM
+implementations.
+
+In the Python DOM API, accessor functions are not required.  If provided, they
+should take the form defined by the Python IDL mapping, but these methods are
+considered unnecessary since the attributes are accessible directly from Python.
+"Set" accessors should never be provided for ``readonly`` attributes.
+
+The IDL definitions do not fully embody the requirements of the W3C DOM API,
+such as the notion of certain objects, such as the return value of
+:meth:`getElementsByTagName`, being "live".  The Python DOM API does not require
+implementations to enforce such requirements.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1205 @@
+:mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` --- The ElementTree XML API
+========================================================
+
+.. module:: xml.etree.ElementTree
+   :synopsis: Implementation of the ElementTree API.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fredrik Lundh <fredrik@pythonware.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module implements a simple and efficient API
+for parsing and creating XML data.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   This module will use a fast implementation whenever available.
+   The :mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree` module is deprecated.
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module is not secure against
+   maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+   unauthenticated data see :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+
+Tutorial
+--------
+
+This is a short tutorial for using :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` (``ET`` in
+short).  The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks and basic
+concepts of the module.
+
+XML tree and elements
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+XML is an inherently hierarchical data format, and the most natural way to
+represent it is with a tree.  ``ET`` has two classes for this purpose -
+:class:`ElementTree` represents the whole XML document as a tree, and
+:class:`Element` represents a single node in this tree.  Interactions with
+the whole document (reading and writing to/from files) are usually done
+on the :class:`ElementTree` level.  Interactions with a single XML element
+and its sub-elements are done on the :class:`Element` level.
+
+.. _elementtree-parsing-xml:
+
+Parsing XML
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+We'll be using the following XML document as the sample data for this section:
+
+.. code-block:: xml
+
+   <?xml version="1.0"?>
+   <data>
+       <country name="Liechtenstein">
+           <rank>1</rank>
+           <year>2008</year>
+           <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
+           <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
+       </country>
+       <country name="Singapore">
+           <rank>4</rank>
+           <year>2011</year>
+           <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
+       </country>
+       <country name="Panama">
+           <rank>68</rank>
+           <year>2011</year>
+           <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
+           <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
+       </country>
+   </data>
+
+We can import this data by reading from a file::
+
+   import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
+   tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml')
+   root = tree.getroot()
+
+Or directly from a string::
+
+   root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string)
+
+:func:`fromstring` parses XML from a string directly into an :class:`Element`,
+which is the root element of the parsed tree.  Other parsing functions may
+create an :class:`ElementTree`.  Check the documentation to be sure.
+
+As an :class:`Element`, ``root`` has a tag and a dictionary of attributes::
+
+   >>> root.tag
+   'data'
+   >>> root.attrib
+   {}
+
+It also has children nodes over which we can iterate::
+
+   >>> for child in root:
+   ...     print(child.tag, child.attrib)
+   ...
+   country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'}
+   country {'name': 'Singapore'}
+   country {'name': 'Panama'}
+
+Children are nested, and we can access specific child nodes by index::
+
+   >>> root[0][1].text
+   '2008'
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   Not all elements of the XML input will end up as elements of the
+   parsed tree. Currently, this module skips over any XML comments,
+   processing instructions, and document type declarations in the
+   input. Nevertheless, trees built using this module's API rather
+   than parsing from XML text can have comments and processing
+   instructions in them; they will be included when generating XML
+   output. A document type declaration may be accessed by passing a
+   custom :class:`TreeBuilder` instance to the :class:`XMLParser`
+   constructor.
+
+
+.. _elementtree-pull-parsing:
+
+Pull API for non-blocking parsing
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Most parsing functions provided by this module require the whole document
+to be read at once before returning any result.  It is possible to use an
+:class:`XMLParser` and feed data into it incrementally, but it is a push API that
+calls methods on a callback target, which is too low-level and inconvenient for
+most needs.  Sometimes what the user really wants is to be able to parse XML
+incrementally, without blocking operations, while enjoying the convenience of
+fully constructed :class:`Element` objects.
+
+The most powerful tool for doing this is :class:`XMLPullParser`.  It does not
+require a blocking read to obtain the XML data, and is instead fed with data
+incrementally with :meth:`XMLPullParser.feed` calls.  To get the parsed XML
+elements, call :meth:`XMLPullParser.read_events`.  Here is an example::
+
+   >>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end'])
+   >>> parser.feed('<mytag>sometext')
+   >>> list(parser.read_events())
+   [('start', <Element 'mytag' at 0x7fa66db2be58>)]
+   >>> parser.feed(' more text</mytag>')
+   >>> for event, elem in parser.read_events():
+   ...     print(event)
+   ...     print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text)
+   ...
+   end
+
+The obvious use case is applications that operate in a non-blocking fashion
+where the XML data is being received from a socket or read incrementally from
+some storage device.  In such cases, blocking reads are unacceptable.
+
+Because it's so flexible, :class:`XMLPullParser` can be inconvenient to use for
+simpler use-cases.  If you don't mind your application blocking on reading XML
+data but would still like to have incremental parsing capabilities, take a look
+at :func:`iterparse`.  It can be useful when you're reading a large XML document
+and don't want to hold it wholly in memory.
+
+Finding interesting elements
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`Element` has some useful methods that help iterate recursively over all
+the sub-tree below it (its children, their children, and so on).  For example,
+:meth:`Element.iter`::
+
+   >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'):
+   ...     print(neighbor.attrib)
+   ...
+   {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'}
+   {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'}
+   {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'}
+   {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'}
+   {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'}
+
+:meth:`Element.findall` finds only elements with a tag which are direct
+children of the current element.  :meth:`Element.find` finds the *first* child
+with a particular tag, and :attr:`Element.text` accesses the element's text
+content.  :meth:`Element.get` accesses the element's attributes::
+
+   >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
+   ...     rank = country.find('rank').text
+   ...     name = country.get('name')
+   ...     print(name, rank)
+   ...
+   Liechtenstein 1
+   Singapore 4
+   Panama 68
+
+More sophisticated specification of which elements to look for is possible by
+using :ref:`XPath <elementtree-xpath>`.
+
+Modifying an XML File
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+:class:`ElementTree` provides a simple way to build XML documents and write them to files.
+The :meth:`ElementTree.write` method serves this purpose.
+
+Once created, an :class:`Element` object may be manipulated by directly changing
+its fields (such as :attr:`Element.text`), adding and modifying attributes
+(:meth:`Element.set` method), as well as adding new children (for example
+with :meth:`Element.append`).
+
+Let's say we want to add one to each country's rank, and add an ``updated``
+attribute to the rank element::
+
+   >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'):
+   ...     new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1
+   ...     rank.text = str(new_rank)
+   ...     rank.set('updated', 'yes')
+   ...
+   >>> tree.write('output.xml')
+
+Our XML now looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: xml
+
+   <?xml version="1.0"?>
+   <data>
+       <country name="Liechtenstein">
+           <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
+           <year>2008</year>
+           <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
+           <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
+       </country>
+       <country name="Singapore">
+           <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
+           <year>2011</year>
+           <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
+       </country>
+       <country name="Panama">
+           <rank updated="yes">69</rank>
+           <year>2011</year>
+           <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
+           <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
+       </country>
+   </data>
+
+We can remove elements using :meth:`Element.remove`.  Let's say we want to
+remove all countries with a rank higher than 50::
+
+   >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
+   ...     rank = int(country.find('rank').text)
+   ...     if rank > 50:
+   ...         root.remove(country)
+   ...
+   >>> tree.write('output.xml')
+
+Our XML now looks like this:
+
+.. code-block:: xml
+
+   <?xml version="1.0"?>
+   <data>
+       <country name="Liechtenstein">
+           <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
+           <year>2008</year>
+           <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
+           <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
+       </country>
+       <country name="Singapore">
+           <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
+           <year>2011</year>
+           <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
+           <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
+       </country>
+   </data>
+
+Building XML documents
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The :func:`SubElement` function also provides a convenient way to create new
+sub-elements for a given element::
+
+   >>> a = ET.Element('a')
+   >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b')
+   >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c')
+   >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd')
+   >>> ET.dump(a)
+   <a><b /><c><d /></c></a>
+
+Parsing XML with Namespaces
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If the XML input has `namespaces
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_namespace>`__, tags and attributes
+with prefixes in the form ``prefix:sometag`` get expanded to
+``{uri}sometag`` where the *prefix* is replaced by the full *URI*.
+Also, if there is a `default namespace
+<https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting>`__,
+that full URI gets prepended to all of the non-prefixed tags.
+
+Here is an XML example that incorporates two namespaces, one with the
+prefix "fictional" and the other serving as the default namespace:
+
+.. code-block:: xml
+
+    <?xml version="1.0"?>
+    <actors xmlns:fictional="http://characters.example.com"
+            xmlns="http://people.example.com">
+        <actor>
+            <name>John Cleese</name>
+            <fictional:character>Lancelot</fictional:character>
+            <fictional:character>Archie Leach</fictional:character>
+        </actor>
+        <actor>
+            <name>Eric Idle</name>
+            <fictional:character>Sir Robin</fictional:character>
+            <fictional:character>Gunther</fictional:character>
+            <fictional:character>Commander Clement</fictional:character>
+        </actor>
+    </actors>
+
+One way to search and explore this XML example is to manually add the
+URI to every tag or attribute in the xpath of a
+:meth:`~Element.find` or :meth:`~Element.findall`::
+
+    root = fromstring(xml_text)
+    for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'):
+        name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name')
+        print(name.text)
+        for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'):
+            print(' |-->', char.text)
+
+A better way to search the namespaced XML example is to create a
+dictionary with your own prefixes and use those in the search functions::
+
+    ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com',
+          'role': 'http://characters.example.com'}
+
+    for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns):
+        name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns)
+        print(name.text)
+        for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns):
+            print(' |-->', char.text)
+
+These two approaches both output::
+
+    John Cleese
+     |--> Lancelot
+     |--> Archie Leach
+    Eric Idle
+     |--> Sir Robin
+     |--> Gunther
+     |--> Commander Clement
+
+
+Additional resources
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+See http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm for tutorials and links to other
+docs.
+
+
+.. _elementtree-xpath:
+
+XPath support
+-------------
+
+This module provides limited support for
+`XPath expressions <https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath>`_ for locating elements in a
+tree.  The goal is to support a small subset of the abbreviated syntax; a full
+XPath engine is outside the scope of the module.
+
+Example
+^^^^^^^
+
+Here's an example that demonstrates some of the XPath capabilities of the
+module.  We'll be using the ``countrydata`` XML document from the
+:ref:`Parsing XML <elementtree-parsing-xml>` section::
+
+   import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
+
+   root = ET.fromstring(countrydata)
+
+   # Top-level elements
+   root.findall(".")
+
+   # All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level
+   # elements
+   root.findall("./country/neighbor")
+
+   # Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child
+   root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']")
+
+   # 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore'
+   root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year")
+
+   # All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent
+   root.findall(".//neighbor[2]")
+
+Supported XPath syntax
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| Syntax                | Meaning                                              |
++=======================+======================================================+
+| ``tag``               | Selects all child elements with the given tag.       |
+|                       | For example, ``spam`` selects all child elements     |
+|                       | named ``spam``, and ``spam/egg`` selects all         |
+|                       | grandchildren named ``egg`` in all children named    |
+|                       | ``spam``.                                            |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``*``                 | Selects all child elements.  For example, ``*/egg``  |
+|                       | selects all grandchildren named ``egg``.             |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``.``                 | Selects the current node.  This is mostly useful     |
+|                       | at the beginning of the path, to indicate that it's  |
+|                       | a relative path.                                     |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``//``                | Selects all subelements, on all levels beneath the   |
+|                       | current  element.  For example, ``.//egg`` selects   |
+|                       | all ``egg`` elements in the entire tree.             |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``..``                | Selects the parent element.  Returns ``None`` if the |
+|                       | path attempts to reach the ancestors of the start    |
+|                       | element (the element ``find`` was called on).        |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``[@attrib]``         | Selects all elements that have the given attribute.  |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``[@attrib='value']`` | Selects all elements for which the given attribute   |
+|                       | has the given value.  The value cannot contain       |
+|                       | quotes.                                              |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``[tag]``             | Selects all elements that have a child named         |
+|                       | ``tag``.  Only immediate children are supported.     |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``[.='text']``        | Selects all elements whose complete text content,    |
+|                       | including descendants, equals the given ``text``.    |
+|                       |                                                      |
+|                       | .. versionadded:: 3.7                                |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``[tag='text']``      | Selects all elements that have a child named         |
+|                       | ``tag`` whose complete text content, including       |
+|                       | descendants, equals the given ``text``.              |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``[position]``        | Selects all elements that are located at the given   |
+|                       | position.  The position can be either an integer     |
+|                       | (1 is the first position), the expression ``last()`` |
+|                       | (for the last position), or a position relative to   |
+|                       | the last position (e.g. ``last()-1``).               |
++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+
+
+Predicates (expressions within square brackets) must be preceded by a tag
+name, an asterisk, or another predicate.  ``position`` predicates must be
+preceded by a tag name.
+
+Reference
+---------
+
+.. _elementtree-functions:
+
+Functions
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. function:: Comment(text=None)
+
+   Comment element factory.  This factory function creates a special element
+   that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard serializer.  The
+   comment string can be either a bytestring or a Unicode string.  *text* is a
+   string containing the comment string.  Returns an element instance
+   representing a comment.
+
+   Note that :class:`XMLParser` skips over comments in the input
+   instead of creating comment objects for them. An :class:`ElementTree` will
+   only contain comment nodes if they have been inserted into to
+   the tree using one of the :class:`Element` methods.
+
+.. function:: dump(elem)
+
+   Writes an element tree or element structure to sys.stdout.  This function
+   should be used for debugging only.
+
+   The exact output format is implementation dependent.  In this version, it's
+   written as an ordinary XML file.
+
+   *elem* is an element tree or an individual element.
+
+
+.. function:: fromstring(text, parser=None)
+
+   Parses an XML section from a string constant.  Same as :func:`XML`.  *text*
+   is a string containing XML data.  *parser* is an optional parser instance.
+   If not given, the standard :class:`XMLParser` parser is used.
+   Returns an :class:`Element` instance.
+
+
+.. function:: fromstringlist(sequence, parser=None)
+
+   Parses an XML document from a sequence of string fragments.  *sequence* is a
+   list or other sequence containing XML data fragments.  *parser* is an
+   optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard :class:`XMLParser`
+   parser is used.  Returns an :class:`Element` instance.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: iselement(element)
+
+   Checks if an object appears to be a valid element object.  *element* is an
+   element instance.  Returns a true value if this is an element object.
+
+
+.. function:: iterparse(source, events=None, parser=None)
+
+   Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and reports what's
+   going on to the user.  *source* is a filename or :term:`file object`
+   containing XML data.  *events* is a sequence of events to report back.  The
+   supported events are the strings ``"start"``, ``"end"``, ``"start-ns"`` and
+   ``"end-ns"`` (the "ns" events are used to get detailed namespace
+   information).  If *events* is omitted, only ``"end"`` events are reported.
+   *parser* is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
+   :class:`XMLParser` parser is used.  *parser* must be a subclass of
+   :class:`XMLParser` and can only use the default :class:`TreeBuilder` as a
+   target.  Returns an :term:`iterator` providing ``(event, elem)`` pairs.
+
+   Note that while :func:`iterparse` builds the tree incrementally, it issues
+   blocking reads on *source* (or the file it names).  As such, it's unsuitable
+   for applications where blocking reads can't be made.  For fully non-blocking
+   parsing, see :class:`XMLPullParser`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :func:`iterparse` only guarantees that it has seen the ">" character of a
+      starting tag when it emits a "start" event, so the attributes are defined,
+      but the contents of the text and tail attributes are undefined at that
+      point.  The same applies to the element children; they may or may not be
+      present.
+
+      If you need a fully populated element, look for "end" events instead.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      The *parser* argument.
+
+.. function:: parse(source, parser=None)
+
+   Parses an XML section into an element tree.  *source* is a filename or file
+   object containing XML data.  *parser* is an optional parser instance.  If
+   not given, the standard :class:`XMLParser` parser is used.  Returns an
+   :class:`ElementTree` instance.
+
+
+.. function:: ProcessingInstruction(target, text=None)
+
+   PI element factory.  This factory function creates a special element that
+   will be serialized as an XML processing instruction.  *target* is a string
+   containing the PI target.  *text* is a string containing the PI contents, if
+   given.  Returns an element instance, representing a processing instruction.
+
+   Note that :class:`XMLParser` skips over processing instructions
+   in the input instead of creating comment objects for them. An
+   :class:`ElementTree` will only contain processing instruction nodes if
+   they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the
+   :class:`Element` methods.
+
+.. function:: register_namespace(prefix, uri)
+
+   Registers a namespace prefix.  The registry is global, and any existing
+   mapping for either the given prefix or the namespace URI will be removed.
+   *prefix* is a namespace prefix.  *uri* is a namespace uri.  Tags and
+   attributes in this namespace will be serialized with the given prefix, if at
+   all possible.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. function:: SubElement(parent, tag, attrib={}, **extra)
+
+   Subelement factory.  This function creates an element instance, and appends
+   it to an existing element.
+
+   The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either
+   bytestrings or Unicode strings.  *parent* is the parent element.  *tag* is
+   the subelement name.  *attrib* is an optional dictionary, containing element
+   attributes.  *extra* contains additional attributes, given as keyword
+   arguments.  Returns an element instance.
+
+
+.. function:: tostring(element, encoding="us-ascii", method="xml", *, \
+                       short_empty_elements=True)
+
+   Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
+   subelements.  *element* is an :class:`Element` instance.  *encoding* [1]_ is
+   the output encoding (default is US-ASCII).  Use ``encoding="unicode"`` to
+   generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a bytestring is generated).  *method*
+   is either ``"xml"``, ``"html"`` or ``"text"`` (default is ``"xml"``).
+   *short_empty_elements* has the same meaning as in :meth:`ElementTree.write`.
+   Returns an (optionally) encoded string containing the XML data.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      The *short_empty_elements* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: tostringlist(element, encoding="us-ascii", method="xml", *, \
+                           short_empty_elements=True)
+
+   Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
+   subelements.  *element* is an :class:`Element` instance.  *encoding* [1]_ is
+   the output encoding (default is US-ASCII).  Use ``encoding="unicode"`` to
+   generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a bytestring is generated).  *method*
+   is either ``"xml"``, ``"html"`` or ``"text"`` (default is ``"xml"``).
+   *short_empty_elements* has the same meaning as in :meth:`ElementTree.write`.
+   Returns a list of (optionally) encoded strings containing the XML data.
+   It does not guarantee any specific sequence, except that
+   ``b"".join(tostringlist(element)) == tostring(element)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      The *short_empty_elements* parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: XML(text, parser=None)
+
+   Parses an XML section from a string constant.  This function can be used to
+   embed "XML literals" in Python code.  *text* is a string containing XML
+   data.  *parser* is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
+   :class:`XMLParser` parser is used.  Returns an :class:`Element` instance.
+
+
+.. function:: XMLID(text, parser=None)
+
+   Parses an XML section from a string constant, and also returns a dictionary
+   which maps from element id:s to elements.  *text* is a string containing XML
+   data.  *parser* is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
+   :class:`XMLParser` parser is used.  Returns a tuple containing an
+   :class:`Element` instance and a dictionary.
+
+
+.. _elementtree-element-objects:
+
+Element Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Element(tag, attrib={}, **extra)
+
+   Element class.  This class defines the Element interface, and provides a
+   reference implementation of this interface.
+
+   The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either
+   bytestrings or Unicode strings.  *tag* is the element name.  *attrib* is
+   an optional dictionary, containing element attributes.  *extra* contains
+   additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: tag
+
+      A string identifying what kind of data this element represents (the
+      element type, in other words).
+
+
+   .. attribute:: text
+                  tail
+
+      These attributes can be used to hold additional data associated with
+      the element.  Their values are usually strings but may be any
+      application-specific object.  If the element is created from
+      an XML file, the *text* attribute holds either the text between
+      the element's start tag and its first child or end tag, or ``None``, and
+      the *tail* attribute holds either the text between the element's
+      end tag and the next tag, or ``None``.  For the XML data
+
+      .. code-block:: xml
+
+         <a><b>1<c>2<d/>3</c></b>4</a>
+
+      the *a* element has ``None`` for both *text* and *tail* attributes,
+      the *b* element has *text* ``"1"`` and *tail* ``"4"``,
+      the *c* element has *text* ``"2"`` and *tail* ``None``,
+      and the *d* element has *text* ``None`` and *tail* ``"3"``.
+
+      To collect the inner text of an element, see :meth:`itertext`, for
+      example ``"".join(element.itertext())``.
+
+      Applications may store arbitrary objects in these attributes.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: attrib
+
+      A dictionary containing the element's attributes.  Note that while the
+      *attrib* value is always a real mutable Python dictionary, an ElementTree
+      implementation may choose to use another internal representation, and
+      create the dictionary only if someone asks for it.  To take advantage of
+      such implementations, use the dictionary methods below whenever possible.
+
+   The following dictionary-like methods work on the element attributes.
+
+
+   .. method:: clear()
+
+      Resets an element.  This function removes all subelements, clears all
+      attributes, and sets the text and tail attributes to ``None``.
+
+
+   .. method:: get(key, default=None)
+
+      Gets the element attribute named *key*.
+
+      Returns the attribute value, or *default* if the attribute was not found.
+
+
+   .. method:: items()
+
+      Returns the element attributes as a sequence of (name, value) pairs.  The
+      attributes are returned in an arbitrary order.
+
+
+   .. method:: keys()
+
+      Returns the elements attribute names as a list.  The names are returned
+      in an arbitrary order.
+
+
+   .. method:: set(key, value)
+
+      Set the attribute *key* on the element to *value*.
+
+   The following methods work on the element's children (subelements).
+
+
+   .. method:: append(subelement)
+
+      Adds the element *subelement* to the end of this element's internal list
+      of subelements.  Raises :exc:`TypeError` if *subelement* is not an
+      :class:`Element`.
+
+
+   .. method:: extend(subelements)
+
+      Appends *subelements* from a sequence object with zero or more elements.
+      Raises :exc:`TypeError` if a subelement is not an :class:`Element`.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: find(match, namespaces=None)
+
+      Finds the first subelement matching *match*.  *match* may be a tag name
+      or a :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`.  Returns an element instance
+      or ``None``.  *namespaces* is an optional mapping from namespace prefix
+      to full name.
+
+
+   .. method:: findall(match, namespaces=None)
+
+      Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or
+      :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`.  Returns a list containing all matching
+      elements in document order.  *namespaces* is an optional mapping from
+      namespace prefix to full name.
+
+
+   .. method:: findtext(match, default=None, namespaces=None)
+
+      Finds text for the first subelement matching *match*.  *match* may be
+      a tag name or a :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`.  Returns the text content
+      of the first matching element, or *default* if no element was found.
+      Note that if the matching element has no text content an empty string
+      is returned. *namespaces* is an optional mapping from namespace prefix
+      to full name.
+
+
+   .. method:: getchildren()
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.2
+         Use ``list(elem)`` or iteration.
+
+
+   .. method:: getiterator(tag=None)
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.2
+         Use method :meth:`Element.iter` instead.
+
+
+   .. method:: insert(index, subelement)
+
+      Inserts *subelement* at the given position in this element.  Raises
+      :exc:`TypeError` if *subelement* is not an :class:`Element`.
+
+
+   .. method:: iter(tag=None)
+
+      Creates a tree :term:`iterator` with the current element as the root.
+      The iterator iterates over this element and all elements below it, in
+      document (depth first) order.  If *tag* is not ``None`` or ``'*'``, only
+      elements whose tag equals *tag* are returned from the iterator.  If the
+      tree structure is modified during iteration, the result is undefined.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: iterfind(match, namespaces=None)
+
+      Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or
+      :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`.  Returns an iterable yielding all
+      matching elements in document order. *namespaces* is an optional mapping
+      from namespace prefix to full name.
+
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: itertext()
+
+      Creates a text iterator.  The iterator loops over this element and all
+      subelements, in document order, and returns all inner text.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: makeelement(tag, attrib)
+
+      Creates a new element object of the same type as this element.  Do not
+      call this method, use the :func:`SubElement` factory function instead.
+
+
+   .. method:: remove(subelement)
+
+      Removes *subelement* from the element.  Unlike the find\* methods this
+      method compares elements based on the instance identity, not on tag value
+      or contents.
+
+   :class:`Element` objects also support the following sequence type methods
+   for working with subelements: :meth:`~object.__delitem__`,
+   :meth:`~object.__getitem__`, :meth:`~object.__setitem__`,
+   :meth:`~object.__len__`.
+
+   Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ``False``.  This behavior
+   will change in future versions.  Use specific ``len(elem)`` or ``elem is
+   None`` test instead. ::
+
+     element = root.find('foo')
+
+     if not element:  # careful!
+         print("element not found, or element has no subelements")
+
+     if element is None:
+         print("element not found")
+
+
+.. _elementtree-elementtree-objects:
+
+ElementTree Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: ElementTree(element=None, file=None)
+
+   ElementTree wrapper class.  This class represents an entire element
+   hierarchy, and adds some extra support for serialization to and from
+   standard XML.
+
+   *element* is the root element.  The tree is initialized with the contents
+   of the XML *file* if given.
+
+
+   .. method:: _setroot(element)
+
+      Replaces the root element for this tree.  This discards the current
+      contents of the tree, and replaces it with the given element.  Use with
+      care.  *element* is an element instance.
+
+
+   .. method:: find(match, namespaces=None)
+
+      Same as :meth:`Element.find`, starting at the root of the tree.
+
+
+   .. method:: findall(match, namespaces=None)
+
+      Same as :meth:`Element.findall`, starting at the root of the tree.
+
+
+   .. method:: findtext(match, default=None, namespaces=None)
+
+      Same as :meth:`Element.findtext`, starting at the root of the tree.
+
+
+   .. method:: getiterator(tag=None)
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.2
+         Use method :meth:`ElementTree.iter` instead.
+
+
+   .. method:: getroot()
+
+      Returns the root element for this tree.
+
+
+   .. method:: iter(tag=None)
+
+      Creates and returns a tree iterator for the root element.  The iterator
+      loops over all elements in this tree, in section order.  *tag* is the tag
+      to look for (default is to return all elements).
+
+
+   .. method:: iterfind(match, namespaces=None)
+
+      Same as :meth:`Element.iterfind`, starting at the root of the tree.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+   .. method:: parse(source, parser=None)
+
+      Loads an external XML section into this element tree.  *source* is a file
+      name or :term:`file object`.  *parser* is an optional parser instance.
+      If not given, the standard :class:`XMLParser` parser is used.  Returns the
+      section root element.
+
+
+   .. method:: write(file, encoding="us-ascii", xml_declaration=None, \
+                     default_namespace=None, method="xml", *, \
+                     short_empty_elements=True)
+
+      Writes the element tree to a file, as XML.  *file* is a file name, or a
+      :term:`file object` opened for writing.  *encoding* [1]_ is the output
+      encoding (default is US-ASCII).
+      *xml_declaration* controls if an XML declaration should be added to the
+      file.  Use ``False`` for never, ``True`` for always, ``None``
+      for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default is ``None``).
+      *default_namespace* sets the default XML namespace (for "xmlns").
+      *method* is either ``"xml"``, ``"html"`` or ``"text"`` (default is
+      ``"xml"``).
+      The keyword-only *short_empty_elements* parameter controls the formatting
+      of elements that contain no content.  If ``True`` (the default), they are
+      emitted as a single self-closed tag, otherwise they are emitted as a pair
+      of start/end tags.
+
+      The output is either a string (:class:`str`) or binary (:class:`bytes`).
+      This is controlled by the *encoding* argument.  If *encoding* is
+      ``"unicode"``, the output is a string; otherwise, it's binary.  Note that
+      this may conflict with the type of *file* if it's an open
+      :term:`file object`; make sure you do not try to write a string to a
+      binary stream and vice versa.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+         The *short_empty_elements* parameter.
+
+
+This is the XML file that is going to be manipulated::
+
+    <html>
+        <head>
+            <title>Example page</title>
+        </head>
+        <body>
+            <p>Moved to <a href="http://example.org/">example.org</a>
+            or <a href="http://example.com/">example.com</a>.</p>
+        </body>
+    </html>
+
+Example of changing the attribute "target" of every link in first paragraph::
+
+    >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree
+    >>> tree = ElementTree()
+    >>> tree.parse("index.xhtml")
+    <Element 'html' at 0xb77e6fac>
+    >>> p = tree.find("body/p")     # Finds first occurrence of tag p in body
+    >>> p
+    <Element 'p' at 0xb77ec26c>
+    >>> links = list(p.iter("a"))   # Returns list of all links
+    >>> links
+    [<Element 'a' at 0xb77ec2ac>, <Element 'a' at 0xb77ec1cc>]
+    >>> for i in links:             # Iterates through all found links
+    ...     i.attrib["target"] = "blank"
+    >>> tree.write("output.xhtml")
+
+.. _elementtree-qname-objects:
+
+QName Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: QName(text_or_uri, tag=None)
+
+   QName wrapper.  This can be used to wrap a QName attribute value, in order
+   to get proper namespace handling on output.  *text_or_uri* is a string
+   containing the QName value, in the form {uri}local, or, if the tag argument
+   is given, the URI part of a QName.  If *tag* is given, the first argument is
+   interpreted as a URI, and this argument is interpreted as a local name.
+   :class:`QName` instances are opaque.
+
+
+
+.. _elementtree-treebuilder-objects:
+
+TreeBuilder Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: TreeBuilder(element_factory=None)
+
+   Generic element structure builder.  This builder converts a sequence of
+   start, data, and end method calls to a well-formed element structure.  You
+   can use this class to build an element structure using a custom XML parser,
+   or a parser for some other XML-like format.  *element_factory*, when given,
+   must be a callable accepting two positional arguments: a tag and
+   a dict of attributes.  It is expected to return a new element instance.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Flushes the builder buffers, and returns the toplevel document
+      element.  Returns an :class:`Element` instance.
+
+
+   .. method:: data(data)
+
+      Adds text to the current element.  *data* is a string.  This should be
+      either a bytestring, or a Unicode string.
+
+
+   .. method:: end(tag)
+
+      Closes the current element.  *tag* is the element name.  Returns the
+      closed element.
+
+
+   .. method:: start(tag, attrs)
+
+      Opens a new element.  *tag* is the element name.  *attrs* is a dictionary
+      containing element attributes.  Returns the opened element.
+
+
+   In addition, a custom :class:`TreeBuilder` object can provide the
+   following method:
+
+   .. method:: doctype(name, pubid, system)
+
+      Handles a doctype declaration.  *name* is the doctype name.  *pubid* is
+      the public identifier.  *system* is the system identifier.  This method
+      does not exist on the default :class:`TreeBuilder` class.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. _elementtree-xmlparser-objects:
+
+XMLParser Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. class:: XMLParser(html=0, target=None, encoding=None)
+
+   This class is the low-level building block of the module.  It uses
+   :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` for efficient, event-based parsing of XML.  It can
+   be fed XML data incrementally with the :meth:`feed` method, and parsing
+   events are translated to a push API - by invoking callbacks on the *target*
+   object.  If *target* is omitted, the standard :class:`TreeBuilder` is used.
+   The *html* argument was historically used for backwards compatibility and is
+   now deprecated.  If *encoding* [1]_ is given, the value overrides the
+   encoding specified in the XML file.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.4
+      The *html* argument.  The remaining arguments should be passed via
+      keyword to prepare for the removal of the *html* argument.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Finishes feeding data to the parser.  Returns the result of calling the
+      ``close()`` method of the *target* passed during construction; by default,
+      this is the toplevel document element.
+
+
+   .. method:: doctype(name, pubid, system)
+
+      .. deprecated:: 3.2
+         Define the :meth:`TreeBuilder.doctype` method on a custom TreeBuilder
+         target.
+
+
+   .. method:: feed(data)
+
+      Feeds data to the parser.  *data* is encoded data.
+
+   :meth:`XMLParser.feed` calls *target*\'s ``start(tag, attrs_dict)`` method
+   for each opening tag, its ``end(tag)`` method for each closing tag, and data
+   is processed by method ``data(data)``.  :meth:`XMLParser.close` calls
+   *target*\'s method ``close()``. :class:`XMLParser` can be used not only for
+   building a tree structure. This is an example of counting the maximum depth
+   of an XML file::
+
+    >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser
+    >>> class MaxDepth:                     # The target object of the parser
+    ...     maxDepth = 0
+    ...     depth = 0
+    ...     def start(self, tag, attrib):   # Called for each opening tag.
+    ...         self.depth += 1
+    ...         if self.depth > self.maxDepth:
+    ...             self.maxDepth = self.depth
+    ...     def end(self, tag):             # Called for each closing tag.
+    ...         self.depth -= 1
+    ...     def data(self, data):
+    ...         pass            # We do not need to do anything with data.
+    ...     def close(self):    # Called when all data has been parsed.
+    ...         return self.maxDepth
+    ...
+    >>> target = MaxDepth()
+    >>> parser = XMLParser(target=target)
+    >>> exampleXml = """
+    ... <a>
+    ...   <b>
+    ...   </b>
+    ...   <b>
+    ...     <c>
+    ...       <d>
+    ...       </d>
+    ...     </c>
+    ...   </b>
+    ... </a>"""
+    >>> parser.feed(exampleXml)
+    >>> parser.close()
+    4
+
+
+.. _elementtree-xmlpullparser-objects:
+
+XMLPullParser Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: XMLPullParser(events=None)
+
+   A pull parser suitable for non-blocking applications.  Its input-side API is
+   similar to that of :class:`XMLParser`, but instead of pushing calls to a
+   callback target, :class:`XMLPullParser` collects an internal list of parsing
+   events and lets the user read from it. *events* is a sequence of events to
+   report back.  The supported events are the strings ``"start"``, ``"end"``,
+   ``"start-ns"`` and ``"end-ns"`` (the "ns" events are used to get detailed
+   namespace information).  If *events* is omitted, only ``"end"`` events are
+   reported.
+
+   .. method:: feed(data)
+
+      Feed the given bytes data to the parser.
+
+   .. method:: close()
+
+      Signal the parser that the data stream is terminated. Unlike
+      :meth:`XMLParser.close`, this method always returns :const:`None`.
+      Any events not yet retrieved when the parser is closed can still be
+      read with :meth:`read_events`.
+
+   .. method:: read_events()
+
+      Return an iterator over the events which have been encountered in the
+      data fed to the
+      parser.  The iterator yields ``(event, elem)`` pairs, where *event* is a
+      string representing the type of event (e.g. ``"end"``) and *elem* is the
+      encountered :class:`Element` object.
+
+      Events provided in a previous call to :meth:`read_events` will not be
+      yielded again.  Events are consumed from the internal queue only when
+      they are retrieved from the iterator, so multiple readers iterating in
+      parallel over iterators obtained from :meth:`read_events` will have
+      unpredictable results.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :class:`XMLPullParser` only guarantees that it has seen the ">"
+      character of a starting tag when it emits a "start" event, so the
+      attributes are defined, but the contents of the text and tail attributes
+      are undefined at that point.  The same applies to the element children;
+      they may or may not be present.
+
+      If you need a fully populated element, look for "end" events instead.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+Exceptions
+^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: ParseError
+
+   XML parse error, raised by the various parsing methods in this module when
+   parsing fails.  The string representation of an instance of this exception
+   will contain a user-friendly error message.  In addition, it will have
+   the following attributes available:
+
+   .. attribute:: code
+
+      A numeric error code from the expat parser. See the documentation of
+      :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` for the list of error codes and their meanings.
+
+   .. attribute:: position
+
+      A tuple of *line*, *column* numbers, specifying where the error occurred.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
+   appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
+   not.  See https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl
+   and https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb86b6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+.. _xml:
+
+XML Processing Modules
+======================
+
+.. module:: xml
+   :synopsis: Package containing XML processing modules
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Christian Heimes <christian@python.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Georg Brandl <georg@python.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/`
+
+--------------
+
+Python's interfaces for processing XML are grouped in the ``xml`` package.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The XML modules are not secure against erroneous or maliciously
+   constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+   unauthenticated data see the :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities` and
+   :ref:`defused-packages` sections.
+
+It is important to note that modules in the :mod:`xml` package require that
+there be at least one SAX-compliant XML parser available. The Expat parser is
+included with Python, so the :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module will always be
+available.
+
+The documentation for the :mod:`xml.dom` and :mod:`xml.sax` packages are the
+definition of the Python bindings for the DOM and SAX interfaces.
+
+The XML handling submodules are:
+
+* :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree`: the ElementTree API, a simple and lightweight
+  XML processor
+
+..
+
+* :mod:`xml.dom`: the DOM API definition
+* :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`: a minimal DOM implementation
+* :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom`: support for building partial DOM trees
+
+..
+
+* :mod:`xml.sax`: SAX2 base classes and convenience functions
+* :mod:`xml.parsers.expat`: the Expat parser binding
+
+
+.. _xml-vulnerabilities:
+
+XML vulnerabilities
+-------------------
+
+The XML processing modules are not secure against maliciously constructed data.
+An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out denial of service attacks,
+access local files, generate network connections to other machines, or
+circumvent firewalls.
+
+The following table gives an overview of the known attacks and whether
+the various modules are vulnerable to them.
+
+=========================  ==============   ===============   ==============   ==============   ==============
+kind                       sax              etree             minidom          pulldom          xmlrpc
+=========================  ==============   ===============   ==============   ==============   ==============
+billion laughs             **Vulnerable**   **Vulnerable**    **Vulnerable**   **Vulnerable**   **Vulnerable**
+quadratic blowup           **Vulnerable**   **Vulnerable**    **Vulnerable**   **Vulnerable**   **Vulnerable**
+external entity expansion  Safe (4)         Safe    (1)       Safe    (2)      Safe (4)         Safe    (3)
+`DTD`_ retrieval           Safe (4)         Safe              Safe             Safe (4)         Safe
+decompression bomb         Safe             Safe              Safe             Safe             **Vulnerable**
+=========================  ==============   ===============   ==============   ==============   ==============
+
+1. :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` doesn't expand external entities and raises a
+   :exc:`ParserError` when an entity occurs.
+2. :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` doesn't expand external entities and simply returns
+   the unexpanded entity verbatim.
+3. :mod:`xmlrpclib` doesn't expand external entities and omits them.
+4. Since Python 3.7.1, external general entities are no longer processed by
+   default.
+
+
+billion laughs / exponential entity expansion
+  The `Billion Laughs`_ attack -- also known as exponential entity expansion --
+  uses multiple levels of nested entities. Each entity refers to another entity
+  several times, and the final entity definition contains a small string.
+  The exponential expansion results in several gigabytes of text and
+  consumes lots of memory and CPU time.
+
+quadratic blowup entity expansion
+  A quadratic blowup attack is similar to a `Billion Laughs`_ attack; it abuses
+  entity expansion, too. Instead of nested entities it repeats one large entity
+  with a couple of thousand chars over and over again. The attack isn't as
+  efficient as the exponential case but it avoids triggering parser countermeasures
+  that forbid deeply-nested entities.
+
+external entity expansion
+  Entity declarations can contain more than just text for replacement. They can
+  also point to external resources or local files. The XML
+  parser accesses the resource and embeds the content into the XML document.
+
+`DTD`_ retrieval
+  Some XML libraries like Python's :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` retrieve document type
+  definitions from remote or local locations. The feature has similar
+  implications as the external entity expansion issue.
+
+decompression bomb
+  Decompression bombs (aka `ZIP bomb`_) apply to all XML libraries
+  that can parse compressed XML streams such as gzipped HTTP streams or
+  LZMA-compressed
+  files. For an attacker it can reduce the amount of transmitted data by three
+  magnitudes or more.
+
+The documentation for `defusedxml`_ on PyPI has further information about
+all known attack vectors with examples and references.
+
+.. _defused-packages:
+
+The :mod:`defusedxml` and :mod:`defusedexpat` Packages
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+`defusedxml`_ is a pure Python package with modified subclasses of all stdlib
+XML parsers that prevent any potentially malicious operation. Use of this
+package is recommended for any server code that parses untrusted XML data. The
+package also ships with example exploits and extended documentation on more
+XML exploits such as XPath injection.
+
+`defusedexpat`_ provides a modified libexpat and a patched
+:mod:`pyexpat` module that have countermeasures against entity expansion
+DoS attacks. The :mod:`defusedexpat` module still allows a sane and configurable amount of entity
+expansions. The modifications may be included in some future release of Python,
+but will not be included in any bugfix releases of
+Python because they break backward compatibility.
+
+
+.. _defusedxml: https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/
+.. _defusedexpat: https://pypi.org/project/defusedexpat/
+.. _Billion Laughs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs
+.. _ZIP bomb: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb
+.. _DTD: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.handler.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.handler.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae0877c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.handler.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,415 @@
+:mod:`xml.sax.handler` --- Base classes for SAX handlers
+========================================================
+
+.. module:: xml.sax.handler
+   :synopsis: Base classes for SAX event handlers.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Lars Marius Garshol <larsga@garshol.priv.no>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/sax/handler.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The SAX API defines four kinds of handlers: content handlers, DTD handlers,
+error handlers, and entity resolvers. Applications normally only need to
+implement those interfaces whose events they are interested in; they can
+implement the interfaces in a single object or in multiple objects. Handler
+implementations should inherit from the base classes provided in the module
+:mod:`xml.sax.handler`, so that all methods get default implementations.
+
+
+.. class:: ContentHandler
+
+   This is the main callback interface in SAX, and the one most important to
+   applications. The order of events in this interface mirrors the order of the
+   information in the document.
+
+
+.. class:: DTDHandler
+
+   Handle DTD events.
+
+   This interface specifies only those DTD events required for basic parsing
+   (unparsed entities and attributes).
+
+
+.. class:: EntityResolver
+
+   Basic interface for resolving entities. If you create an object implementing
+   this interface, then register the object with your Parser, the parser will call
+   the method in your object to resolve all external entities.
+
+
+.. class:: ErrorHandler
+
+   Interface used by the parser to present error and warning messages to the
+   application.  The methods of this object control whether errors are immediately
+   converted to exceptions or are handled in some other way.
+
+In addition to these classes, :mod:`xml.sax.handler` provides symbolic constants
+for the feature and property names.
+
+
+.. data:: feature_namespaces
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"``
+   | true: Perform Namespace processing.
+   | false: Optionally do not perform Namespace processing (implies
+     namespace-prefixes; default).
+   | access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+
+
+.. data:: feature_namespace_prefixes
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"``
+   | true: Report the original prefixed names and attributes used for Namespace
+     declarations.
+   | false: Do not report attributes used for Namespace declarations, and
+     optionally do not report original prefixed names (default).
+   | access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+
+
+.. data:: feature_string_interning
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"``
+   | true: All element names, prefixes, attribute names, Namespace URIs, and
+     local names are interned using the built-in intern function.
+   | false: Names are not necessarily interned, although they may be (default).
+   | access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+
+
+.. data:: feature_validation
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"``
+   | true: Report all validation errors (implies external-general-entities and
+     external-parameter-entities).
+   | false: Do not report validation errors.
+   | access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+
+
+.. data:: feature_external_ges
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"``
+   | true: Include all external general (text) entities.
+   | false: Do not include external general entities.
+   | access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+
+
+.. data:: feature_external_pes
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"``
+   | true: Include all external parameter entities, including the external DTD
+     subset.
+   | false: Do not include any external parameter entities, even the external
+     DTD subset.
+   | access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+
+
+.. data:: all_features
+
+   List of all features.
+
+
+.. data:: property_lexical_handler
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"``
+   | data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.LexicalHandler (not supported in Python 2)
+   | description: An optional extension handler for lexical events like
+     comments.
+   | access: read/write
+
+
+.. data:: property_declaration_handler
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"``
+   | data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (not supported in Python 2)
+   | description: An optional extension handler for DTD-related events other
+     than notations and unparsed entities.
+   | access: read/write
+
+
+.. data:: property_dom_node
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"``
+   | data type: org.w3c.dom.Node (not supported in Python 2)
+   | description: When parsing, the current DOM node being visited if this is
+     a DOM iterator; when not parsing, the root DOM node for iteration.
+   | access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+
+
+.. data:: property_xml_string
+
+   | value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"``
+   | data type: String
+   | description: The literal string of characters that was the source for the
+     current event.
+   | access: read-only
+
+
+.. data:: all_properties
+
+   List of all known property names.
+
+
+.. _content-handler-objects:
+
+ContentHandler Objects
+----------------------
+
+Users are expected to subclass :class:`ContentHandler` to support their
+application.  The following methods are called by the parser on the appropriate
+events in the input document:
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator(locator)
+
+   Called by the parser to give the application a locator for locating the origin
+   of document events.
+
+   SAX parsers are strongly encouraged (though not absolutely required) to supply a
+   locator: if it does so, it must supply the locator to the application by
+   invoking this method before invoking any of the other methods in the
+   DocumentHandler interface.
+
+   The locator allows the application to determine the end position of any
+   document-related event, even if the parser is not reporting an error. Typically,
+   the application will use this information for reporting its own errors (such as
+   character content that does not match an application's business rules). The
+   information returned by the locator is probably not sufficient for use with a
+   search engine.
+
+   Note that the locator will return correct information only during the invocation
+   of the events in this interface. The application should not attempt to use it at
+   any other time.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.startDocument()
+
+   Receive notification of the beginning of a document.
+
+   The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, before any other methods in
+   this interface or in DTDHandler (except for :meth:`setDocumentLocator`).
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.endDocument()
+
+   Receive notification of the end of a document.
+
+   The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, and it will be the last method
+   invoked during the parse. The parser shall not invoke this method until it has
+   either abandoned parsing (because of an unrecoverable error) or reached the end
+   of input.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping(prefix, uri)
+
+   Begin the scope of a prefix-URI Namespace mapping.
+
+   The information from this event is not necessary for normal Namespace
+   processing: the SAX XML reader will automatically replace prefixes for element
+   and attribute names when the ``feature_namespaces`` feature is enabled (the
+   default).
+
+   There are cases, however, when applications need to use prefixes in character
+   data or in attribute values, where they cannot safely be expanded automatically;
+   the :meth:`startPrefixMapping` and :meth:`endPrefixMapping` events supply the
+   information to the application to expand prefixes in those contexts itself, if
+   necessary.
+
+   .. XXX This is not really the default, is it? MvL
+
+   Note that :meth:`startPrefixMapping` and :meth:`endPrefixMapping` events are not
+   guaranteed to be properly nested relative to each-other: all
+   :meth:`startPrefixMapping` events will occur before the corresponding
+   :meth:`startElement` event, and all :meth:`endPrefixMapping` events will occur
+   after the corresponding :meth:`endElement` event, but their order is not
+   guaranteed.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping(prefix)
+
+   End the scope of a prefix-URI mapping.
+
+   See :meth:`startPrefixMapping` for details. This event will always occur after
+   the corresponding :meth:`endElement` event, but the order of
+   :meth:`endPrefixMapping` events is not otherwise guaranteed.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.startElement(name, attrs)
+
+   Signals the start of an element in non-namespace mode.
+
+   The *name* parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name of the element type as a
+   string and the *attrs* parameter holds an object of the
+   :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes`
+   interface (see :ref:`attributes-objects`) containing the attributes of
+   the element.  The object passed as *attrs* may be re-used by the parser; holding
+   on to a reference to it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.
+   To keep a copy of the attributes, use the :meth:`copy` method of the *attrs*
+   object.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.endElement(name)
+
+   Signals the end of an element in non-namespace mode.
+
+   The *name* parameter contains the name of the element type, just as with the
+   :meth:`startElement` event.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.startElementNS(name, qname, attrs)
+
+   Signals the start of an element in namespace mode.
+
+   The *name* parameter contains the name of the element type as a ``(uri,
+   localname)`` tuple, the *qname* parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name used in
+   the source document, and the *attrs* parameter holds an instance of the
+   :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS` interface (see
+   :ref:`attributes-ns-objects`)
+   containing the attributes of the element.  If no namespace is associated with
+   the element, the *uri* component of *name* will be ``None``.  The object passed
+   as *attrs* may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is not
+   a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.  To keep a copy of the
+   attributes, use the :meth:`copy` method of the *attrs* object.
+
+   Parsers may set the *qname* parameter to ``None``, unless the
+   ``feature_namespace_prefixes`` feature is activated.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.endElementNS(name, qname)
+
+   Signals the end of an element in namespace mode.
+
+   The *name* parameter contains the name of the element type, just as with the
+   :meth:`startElementNS` method, likewise the *qname* parameter.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.characters(content)
+
+   Receive notification of character data.
+
+   The Parser will call this method to report each chunk of character data. SAX
+   parsers may return all contiguous character data in a single chunk, or they may
+   split it into several chunks; however, all of the characters in any single event
+   must come from the same external entity so that the Locator provides useful
+   information.
+
+   *content* may be a string or bytes instance; the ``expat`` reader module
+   always produces strings.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The earlier SAX 1 interface provided by the Python XML Special Interest Group
+      used a more Java-like interface for this method.  Since most parsers used from
+      Python did not take advantage of the older interface, the simpler signature was
+      chosen to replace it.  To convert old code to the new interface, use *content*
+      instead of slicing content with the old *offset* and *length* parameters.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace(whitespace)
+
+   Receive notification of ignorable whitespace in element content.
+
+   Validating Parsers must use this method to report each chunk of ignorable
+   whitespace (see the W3C XML 1.0 recommendation, section 2.10): non-validating
+   parsers may also use this method if they are capable of parsing and using
+   content models.
+
+   SAX parsers may return all contiguous whitespace in a single chunk, or they may
+   split it into several chunks; however, all of the characters in any single event
+   must come from the same external entity, so that the Locator provides useful
+   information.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.processingInstruction(target, data)
+
+   Receive notification of a processing instruction.
+
+   The Parser will invoke this method once for each processing instruction found:
+   note that processing instructions may occur before or after the main document
+   element.
+
+   A SAX parser should never report an XML declaration (XML 1.0, section 2.8) or a
+   text declaration (XML 1.0, section 4.3.1) using this method.
+
+
+.. method:: ContentHandler.skippedEntity(name)
+
+   Receive notification of a skipped entity.
+
+   The Parser will invoke this method once for each entity skipped. Non-validating
+   processors may skip entities if they have not seen the declarations (because,
+   for example, the entity was declared in an external DTD subset). All processors
+   may skip external entities, depending on the values of the
+   ``feature_external_ges`` and the ``feature_external_pes`` properties.
+
+
+.. _dtd-handler-objects:
+
+DTDHandler Objects
+------------------
+
+:class:`DTDHandler` instances provide the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: DTDHandler.notationDecl(name, publicId, systemId)
+
+   Handle a notation declaration event.
+
+
+.. method:: DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl(name, publicId, systemId, ndata)
+
+   Handle an unparsed entity declaration event.
+
+
+.. _entity-resolver-objects:
+
+EntityResolver Objects
+----------------------
+
+
+.. method:: EntityResolver.resolveEntity(publicId, systemId)
+
+   Resolve the system identifier of an entity and return either the system
+   identifier to read from as a string, or an InputSource to read from. The default
+   implementation returns *systemId*.
+
+
+.. _sax-error-handler:
+
+ErrorHandler Objects
+--------------------
+
+Objects with this interface are used to receive error and warning information
+from the :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader`.  If you create an object that
+implements this interface, then register the object with your
+:class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader`, the parser
+will call the methods in your object to report all warnings and errors. There
+are three levels of errors available: warnings, (possibly) recoverable errors,
+and unrecoverable errors.  All methods take a :exc:`SAXParseException` as the
+only parameter.  Errors and warnings may be converted to an exception by raising
+the passed-in exception object.
+
+
+.. method:: ErrorHandler.error(exception)
+
+   Called when the parser encounters a recoverable error.  If this method does not
+   raise an exception, parsing may continue, but further document information
+   should not be expected by the application.  Allowing the parser to continue may
+   allow additional errors to be discovered in the input document.
+
+
+.. method:: ErrorHandler.fatalError(exception)
+
+   Called when the parser encounters an error it cannot recover from; parsing is
+   expected to terminate when this method returns.
+
+
+.. method:: ErrorHandler.warning(exception)
+
+   Called when the parser presents minor warning information to the application.
+   Parsing is expected to continue when this method returns, and document
+   information will continue to be passed to the application. Raising an exception
+   in this method will cause parsing to end.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.reader.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.reader.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b6e431
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.reader.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,393 @@
+:mod:`xml.sax.xmlreader` --- Interface for XML parsers
+======================================================
+
+.. module:: xml.sax.xmlreader
+   :synopsis: Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must implement.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Lars Marius Garshol <larsga@garshol.priv.no>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py`
+
+--------------
+
+SAX parsers implement the :class:`XMLReader` interface. They are implemented in
+a Python module, which must provide a function :func:`create_parser`. This
+function is invoked by  :func:`xml.sax.make_parser` with no arguments to create
+a new  parser object.
+
+
+.. class:: XMLReader()
+
+   Base class which can be inherited by SAX parsers.
+
+
+.. class:: IncrementalParser()
+
+   In some cases, it is desirable not to parse an input source at once, but to feed
+   chunks of the document as they get available. Note that the reader will normally
+   not read the entire file, but read it in chunks as well; still :meth:`parse`
+   won't return until the entire document is processed. So these interfaces should
+   be used if the blocking behaviour of :meth:`parse` is not desirable.
+
+   When the parser is instantiated it is ready to begin accepting data from the
+   feed method immediately. After parsing has been finished with a call to close
+   the reset method must be called to make the parser ready to accept new data,
+   either from feed or using the parse method.
+
+   Note that these methods must *not* be called during parsing, that is, after
+   parse has been called and before it returns.
+
+   By default, the class also implements the parse method of the XMLReader
+   interface using the feed, close and reset methods of the IncrementalParser
+   interface as a convenience to SAX 2.0 driver writers.
+
+
+.. class:: Locator()
+
+   Interface for associating a SAX event with a document location. A locator object
+   will return valid results only during calls to DocumentHandler methods; at any
+   other time, the results are unpredictable. If information is not available,
+   methods may return ``None``.
+
+
+.. class:: InputSource(system_id=None)
+
+   Encapsulation of the information needed by the :class:`XMLReader` to read
+   entities.
+
+   This class may include information about the public identifier, system
+   identifier, byte stream (possibly with character encoding information) and/or
+   the character stream of an entity.
+
+   Applications will create objects of this class for use in the
+   :meth:`XMLReader.parse` method and for returning from
+   EntityResolver.resolveEntity.
+
+   An :class:`InputSource` belongs to the application, the :class:`XMLReader` is
+   not allowed to modify :class:`InputSource` objects passed to it from the
+   application, although it may make copies and modify those.
+
+
+.. class:: AttributesImpl(attrs)
+
+   This is an implementation of the :class:`Attributes` interface (see section
+   :ref:`attributes-objects`).  This is a dictionary-like object which
+   represents the element attributes in a :meth:`startElement` call. In addition
+   to the most useful dictionary operations, it supports a number of other
+   methods as described by the interface. Objects of this class should be
+   instantiated by readers; *attrs* must be a dictionary-like object containing
+   a mapping from attribute names to attribute values.
+
+
+.. class:: AttributesNSImpl(attrs, qnames)
+
+   Namespace-aware variant of :class:`AttributesImpl`, which will be passed to
+   :meth:`startElementNS`. It is derived from :class:`AttributesImpl`, but
+   understands attribute names as two-tuples of *namespaceURI* and
+   *localname*. In addition, it provides a number of methods expecting qualified
+   names as they appear in the original document.  This class implements the
+   :class:`AttributesNS` interface (see section :ref:`attributes-ns-objects`).
+
+
+.. _xmlreader-objects:
+
+XMLReader Objects
+-----------------
+
+The :class:`XMLReader` interface supports the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.parse(source)
+
+   Process an input source, producing SAX events. The *source* object can be a
+   system identifier (a string identifying the input source -- typically a file
+   name or a URL), a file-like object, or an :class:`InputSource` object. When
+   :meth:`parse` returns, the input is completely processed, and the parser object
+   can be discarded or reset.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support of character streams.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.getContentHandler()
+
+   Return the current :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler`.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.setContentHandler(handler)
+
+   Set the current :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler`.  If no
+   :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler` is set, content events will be
+   discarded.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.getDTDHandler()
+
+   Return the current :class:`~xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler`.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.setDTDHandler(handler)
+
+   Set the current :class:`~xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler`.  If no
+   :class:`~xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler` is set, DTD
+   events will be discarded.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.getEntityResolver()
+
+   Return the current :class:`~xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver`.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.setEntityResolver(handler)
+
+   Set the current :class:`~xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver`.  If no
+   :class:`~xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver` is set,
+   attempts to resolve an external entity will result in opening the system
+   identifier for the entity, and fail if it is not available.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.getErrorHandler()
+
+   Return the current :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler`.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.setErrorHandler(handler)
+
+   Set the current error handler.  If no :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler`
+   is set, errors will be raised as exceptions, and warnings will be printed.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.setLocale(locale)
+
+   Allow an application to set the locale for errors and warnings.
+
+   SAX parsers are not required to provide localization for errors and warnings; if
+   they cannot support the requested locale, however, they must raise a SAX
+   exception.  Applications may request a locale change in the middle of a parse.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.getFeature(featurename)
+
+   Return the current setting for feature *featurename*.  If the feature is not
+   recognized, :exc:`SAXNotRecognizedException` is raised. The well-known
+   featurenames are listed in the module :mod:`xml.sax.handler`.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.setFeature(featurename, value)
+
+   Set the *featurename* to *value*. If the feature is not recognized,
+   :exc:`SAXNotRecognizedException` is raised. If the feature or its setting is not
+   supported by the parser, *SAXNotSupportedException* is raised.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.getProperty(propertyname)
+
+   Return the current setting for property *propertyname*. If the property is not
+   recognized, a :exc:`SAXNotRecognizedException` is raised. The well-known
+   propertynames are listed in the module :mod:`xml.sax.handler`.
+
+
+.. method:: XMLReader.setProperty(propertyname, value)
+
+   Set the *propertyname* to *value*. If the property is not recognized,
+   :exc:`SAXNotRecognizedException` is raised. If the property or its setting is
+   not supported by the parser, *SAXNotSupportedException* is raised.
+
+
+.. _incremental-parser-objects:
+
+IncrementalParser Objects
+-------------------------
+
+Instances of :class:`IncrementalParser` offer the following additional methods:
+
+
+.. method:: IncrementalParser.feed(data)
+
+   Process a chunk of *data*.
+
+
+.. method:: IncrementalParser.close()
+
+   Assume the end of the document. That will check well-formedness conditions that
+   can be checked only at the end, invoke handlers, and may clean up resources
+   allocated during parsing.
+
+
+.. method:: IncrementalParser.reset()
+
+   This method is called after close has been called to reset the parser so that it
+   is ready to parse new documents. The results of calling parse or feed after
+   close without calling reset are undefined.
+
+
+.. _locator-objects:
+
+Locator Objects
+---------------
+
+Instances of :class:`Locator` provide these methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Locator.getColumnNumber()
+
+   Return the column number where the current event begins.
+
+
+.. method:: Locator.getLineNumber()
+
+   Return the line number where the current event begins.
+
+
+.. method:: Locator.getPublicId()
+
+   Return the public identifier for the current event.
+
+
+.. method:: Locator.getSystemId()
+
+   Return the system identifier for the current event.
+
+
+.. _input-source-objects:
+
+InputSource Objects
+-------------------
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.setPublicId(id)
+
+   Sets the public identifier of this :class:`InputSource`.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.getPublicId()
+
+   Returns the public identifier of this :class:`InputSource`.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.setSystemId(id)
+
+   Sets the system identifier of this :class:`InputSource`.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.getSystemId()
+
+   Returns the system identifier of this :class:`InputSource`.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.setEncoding(encoding)
+
+   Sets the character encoding of this :class:`InputSource`.
+
+   The encoding must be a string acceptable for an XML encoding declaration (see
+   section 4.3.3 of the XML recommendation).
+
+   The encoding attribute of the :class:`InputSource` is ignored if the
+   :class:`InputSource` also contains a character stream.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.getEncoding()
+
+   Get the character encoding of this InputSource.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.setByteStream(bytefile)
+
+   Set the byte stream (a :term:`binary file`) for this input source.
+
+   The SAX parser will ignore this if there is also a character stream specified,
+   but it will use a byte stream in preference to opening a URI connection itself.
+
+   If the application knows the character encoding of the byte stream, it should
+   set it with the setEncoding method.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.getByteStream()
+
+   Get the byte stream for this input source.
+
+   The getEncoding method will return the character encoding for this byte stream,
+   or ``None`` if unknown.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.setCharacterStream(charfile)
+
+   Set the character stream (a :term:`text file`) for this input source.
+
+   If there is a character stream specified, the SAX parser will ignore any byte
+   stream and will not attempt to open a URI connection to the system identifier.
+
+
+.. method:: InputSource.getCharacterStream()
+
+   Get the character stream for this input source.
+
+
+.. _attributes-objects:
+
+The :class:`Attributes` Interface
+---------------------------------
+
+:class:`Attributes` objects implement a portion of the :term:`mapping protocol
+<mapping>`, including the methods :meth:`~collections.abc.Mapping.copy`,
+:meth:`~collections.abc.Mapping.get`, :meth:`~object.__contains__`,
+:meth:`~collections.abc.Mapping.items`, :meth:`~collections.abc.Mapping.keys`,
+and :meth:`~collections.abc.Mapping.values`.  The following methods
+are also provided:
+
+
+.. method:: Attributes.getLength()
+
+   Return the number of attributes.
+
+
+.. method:: Attributes.getNames()
+
+   Return the names of the attributes.
+
+
+.. method:: Attributes.getType(name)
+
+   Returns the type of the attribute *name*, which is normally ``'CDATA'``.
+
+
+.. method:: Attributes.getValue(name)
+
+   Return the value of attribute *name*.
+
+.. getValueByQName, getNameByQName, getQNameByName, getQNames available
+.. here already, but documented only for derived class.
+
+
+.. _attributes-ns-objects:
+
+The :class:`AttributesNS` Interface
+-----------------------------------
+
+This interface is a subtype of the :class:`Attributes` interface (see section
+:ref:`attributes-objects`).  All methods supported by that interface are also
+available on :class:`AttributesNS` objects.
+
+The following methods are also available:
+
+
+.. method:: AttributesNS.getValueByQName(name)
+
+   Return the value for a qualified name.
+
+
+.. method:: AttributesNS.getNameByQName(name)
+
+   Return the ``(namespace, localname)`` pair for a qualified *name*.
+
+
+.. method:: AttributesNS.getQNameByName(name)
+
+   Return the qualified name for a ``(namespace, localname)`` pair.
+
+
+.. method:: AttributesNS.getQNames()
+
+   Return the qualified names of all attributes.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3460e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
+:mod:`xml.sax` --- Support for SAX2 parsers
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: xml.sax
+   :synopsis: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Lars Marius Garshol <larsga@garshol.priv.no>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`xml.sax` package provides a number of modules which implement the
+Simple API for XML (SAX) interface for Python.  The package itself provides the
+SAX exceptions and the convenience functions which will be most used by users of
+the SAX API.
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`xml.sax` module is not secure against maliciously
+   constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+   :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
+
+   The SAX parser no longer processes general external entities by default
+   to increase security. Before, the parser created network connections
+   to fetch remote files or loaded local files from the file
+   system for DTD and entities. The feature can be enabled again with method
+   :meth:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature` on the parser object
+   and argument :data:`~xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges`.
+
+The convenience functions are:
+
+
+.. function:: make_parser(parser_list=[])
+
+   Create and return a SAX :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` object.  The
+   first parser found will
+   be used.  If *parser_list* is provided, it must be a list of strings which
+   name modules that have a function named :func:`create_parser`.  Modules listed
+   in *parser_list* will be used before modules in the default list of parsers.
+
+
+.. function:: parse(filename_or_stream, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())
+
+   Create a SAX parser and use it to parse a document.  The document, passed in as
+   *filename_or_stream*, can be a filename or a file object.  The *handler*
+   parameter needs to be a SAX :class:`~handler.ContentHandler` instance.  If
+   *error_handler* is given, it must be a SAX :class:`~handler.ErrorHandler`
+   instance; if
+   omitted,  :exc:`SAXParseException` will be raised on all errors.  There is no
+   return value; all work must be done by the *handler* passed in.
+
+
+.. function:: parseString(string, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())
+
+   Similar to :func:`parse`, but parses from a buffer *string* received as a
+   parameter.  *string* must be a :class:`str` instance or a
+   :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support of :class:`str` instances.
+
+A typical SAX application uses three kinds of objects: readers, handlers and
+input sources.  "Reader" in this context is another term for parser, i.e. some
+piece of code that reads the bytes or characters from the input source, and
+produces a sequence of events. The events then get distributed to the handler
+objects, i.e. the reader invokes a method on the handler.  A SAX application
+must therefore obtain a reader object, create or open the input sources, create
+the handlers, and connect these objects all together.  As the final step of
+preparation, the reader is called to parse the input. During parsing, methods on
+the handler objects are called based on structural and syntactic events from the
+input data.
+
+For these objects, only the interfaces are relevant; they are normally not
+instantiated by the application itself.  Since Python does not have an explicit
+notion of interface, they are formally introduced as classes, but applications
+may use implementations which do not inherit from the provided classes.  The
+:class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource`, :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator`,
+:class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes`, :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS`,
+and :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` interfaces are defined in the
+module :mod:`xml.sax.xmlreader`.  The handler interfaces are defined in
+:mod:`xml.sax.handler`.  For convenience,
+:class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource` (which is often
+instantiated directly) and the handler classes are also available from
+:mod:`xml.sax`.  These interfaces are described below.
+
+In addition to these classes, :mod:`xml.sax` provides the following exception
+classes.
+
+
+.. exception:: SAXException(msg, exception=None)
+
+   Encapsulate an XML error or warning.  This class can contain basic error or
+   warning information from either the XML parser or the application: it can be
+   subclassed to provide additional functionality or to add localization.  Note
+   that although the handlers defined in the
+   :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler` interface
+   receive instances of this exception, it is not required to actually raise the
+   exception --- it is also useful as a container for information.
+
+   When instantiated, *msg* should be a human-readable description of the error.
+   The optional *exception* parameter, if given, should be ``None`` or an exception
+   that was caught by the parsing code and is being passed along as information.
+
+   This is the base class for the other SAX exception classes.
+
+
+.. exception:: SAXParseException(msg, exception, locator)
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`SAXException` raised on parse errors. Instances of this
+   class are passed to the methods of the SAX
+   :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler` interface to provide information
+   about the parse error.  This class supports the SAX
+   :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator` interface as well as the
+   :class:`SAXException` interface.
+
+
+.. exception:: SAXNotRecognizedException(msg, exception=None)
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`SAXException` raised when a SAX
+   :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` is
+   confronted with an unrecognized feature or property.  SAX applications and
+   extensions may use this class for similar purposes.
+
+
+.. exception:: SAXNotSupportedException(msg, exception=None)
+
+   Subclass of :exc:`SAXException` raised when a SAX
+   :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` is asked to
+   enable a feature that is not supported, or to set a property to a value that the
+   implementation does not support.  SAX applications and extensions may use this
+   class for similar purposes.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `SAX: The Simple API for XML <http://www.saxproject.org/>`_
+      This site is the focal point for the definition of the SAX API.  It provides a
+      Java implementation and online documentation.  Links to implementations and
+      historical information are also available.
+
+   Module :mod:`xml.sax.handler`
+      Definitions of the interfaces for application-provided objects.
+
+   Module :mod:`xml.sax.saxutils`
+      Convenience functions for use in SAX applications.
+
+   Module :mod:`xml.sax.xmlreader`
+      Definitions of the interfaces for parser-provided objects.
+
+
+.. _sax-exception-objects:
+
+SAXException Objects
+--------------------
+
+The :class:`SAXException` exception class supports the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: SAXException.getMessage()
+
+   Return a human-readable message describing the error condition.
+
+
+.. method:: SAXException.getException()
+
+   Return an encapsulated exception object, or ``None``.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.utils.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.utils.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e46fefd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xml.sax.utils.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+:mod:`xml.sax.saxutils` --- SAX Utilities
+=========================================
+
+.. module:: xml.sax.saxutils
+   :synopsis: Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Lars Marius Garshol <larsga@garshol.priv.no>
+.. sectionauthor:: Martin v. Löwis <martin@v.loewis.de>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The module :mod:`xml.sax.saxutils` contains a number of classes and functions
+that are commonly useful when creating SAX applications, either in direct use,
+or as base classes.
+
+
+.. function:: escape(data, entities={})
+
+   Escape ``'&'``, ``'<'``, and ``'>'`` in a string of data.
+
+   You can escape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional
+   *entities* parameter.  The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be
+   replaced with its corresponding value.  The characters ``'&'``, ``'<'`` and
+   ``'>'`` are always escaped, even if *entities* is provided.
+
+
+.. function:: unescape(data, entities={})
+
+   Unescape ``'&amp;'``, ``'&lt;'``, and ``'&gt;'`` in a string of data.
+
+   You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional
+   *entities* parameter.  The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be
+   replaced with its corresponding value.  ``'&amp'``, ``'&lt;'``, and ``'&gt;'``
+   are always unescaped, even if *entities* is provided.
+
+
+.. function:: quoteattr(data, entities={})
+
+   Similar to :func:`escape`, but also prepares *data* to be used as an
+   attribute value.  The return value is a quoted version of *data* with any
+   additional required replacements. :func:`quoteattr` will select a quote
+   character based on the content of *data*, attempting to avoid encoding any
+   quote characters in the string.  If both single- and double-quote characters
+   are already in *data*, the double-quote characters will be encoded and *data*
+   will be wrapped in double-quotes.  The resulting string can be used directly
+   as an attribute value::
+
+      >>> print("<element attr=%s>" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef"))
+      <element attr="ab ' cd &quot; ef">
+
+   This function is useful when generating attribute values for HTML or any SGML
+   using the reference concrete syntax.
+
+
+.. class:: XMLGenerator(out=None, encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False)
+
+   This class implements the :class:`~xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler` interface
+   by writing SAX
+   events back into an XML document. In other words, using an :class:`XMLGenerator`
+   as the content handler will reproduce the original document being parsed. *out*
+   should be a file-like object which will default to *sys.stdout*. *encoding* is
+   the encoding of the output stream which defaults to ``'iso-8859-1'``.
+   *short_empty_elements* controls the formatting of elements that contain no
+   content:  if ``False`` (the default) they are emitted as a pair of start/end
+   tags, if set to ``True`` they are emitted as a single self-closed tag.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *short_empty_elements* parameter.
+
+
+.. class:: XMLFilterBase(base)
+
+   This class is designed to sit between an
+   :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` and the client
+   application's event handlers.  By default, it does nothing but pass requests up
+   to the reader and events on to the handlers unmodified, but subclasses can
+   override specific methods to modify the event stream or the configuration
+   requests as they pass through.
+
+
+.. function:: prepare_input_source(source, base='')
+
+   This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and returns a
+   fully resolved :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource` object ready for
+   reading.  The input source can be given as a string, a file-like object, or
+   an :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource` object; parsers will use this
+   function to implement the polymorphic *source* argument to their
+   :meth:`parse` method.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.client.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.client.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27d92e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.client.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,606 @@
+:mod:`xmlrpc.client` --- XML-RPC client access
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: xmlrpc.client
+   :synopsis: XML-RPC client access.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Fredrik Lundh <fredrik@pythonware.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Eric S. Raymond <esr@snark.thyrsus.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xmlrpc/client.py`
+
+.. XXX Not everything is documented yet.  It might be good to describe
+   Marshaller, Unmarshaller, getparser and Transport.
+
+--------------
+
+XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP(S) as a
+transport.  With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a remote
+server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured data.  This module
+supports writing XML-RPC client code; it handles all the details of translating
+between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire.
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`xmlrpc.client` module is not secure against maliciously
+   constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+   :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+   For HTTPS URIs, :mod:`xmlrpc.client` now performs all the necessary
+   certificate and hostname checks by default.
+
+.. class:: ServerProxy(uri, transport=None, encoding=None, verbose=False, \
+                       allow_none=False, use_datetime=False, \
+                       use_builtin_types=False, *, context=None)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *use_builtin_types* flag was added.
+
+   A :class:`ServerProxy` instance is an object that manages communication with a
+   remote XML-RPC server.  The required first argument is a URI (Uniform Resource
+   Indicator), and will normally be the URL of the server.  The optional second
+   argument is a transport factory instance; by default it is an internal
+   :class:`SafeTransport` instance for https: URLs and an internal HTTP
+   :class:`Transport` instance otherwise.  The optional third argument is an
+   encoding, by default UTF-8. The optional fourth argument is a debugging flag.
+
+   The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy instance.
+   If *allow_none* is true,  the Python constant ``None`` will be translated into
+   XML; the default behaviour is for ``None`` to raise a :exc:`TypeError`. This is
+   a commonly-used extension to the XML-RPC specification, but isn't supported by
+   all clients and servers; see `http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php
+   <https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php>`_
+   for a description.
+   The *use_builtin_types* flag can be used to cause date/time values
+   to be presented as :class:`datetime.datetime` objects and binary data to be
+   presented as :class:`bytes` objects; this flag is false by default.
+   :class:`datetime.datetime`, :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray` objects
+   may be passed to calls.
+   The obsolete *use_datetime* flag is similar to *use_builtin_types* but it
+   applies only to date/time values.
+
+   Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension for HTTP
+   Basic Authentication: ``http://user:pass@host:port/path``.  The  ``user:pass``
+   portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP 'Authorization' header, and sent to
+   the remote server as part of the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC
+   method.  You only need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic
+   Authentication user and password. If an HTTPS URL is provided, *context* may
+   be :class:`ssl.SSLContext` and configures the SSL settings of the underlying
+   HTTPS connection.
+
+   The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be used to invoke
+   corresponding RPC calls on the remote server.  If the remote server supports the
+   introspection API, the proxy can also be used to query the remote server for the
+   methods it supports (service discovery) and fetch other server-associated
+   metadata.
+
+   Types that are conformable (e.g. that can be marshalled through XML),
+   include the following (and except where noted, they are unmarshalled
+   as the same Python type):
+
+   .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | XML-RPC type         | Python type                                           |
+   +======================+=======================================================+
+   | ``boolean``          | :class:`bool`                                         |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``int``, ``i1``,     | :class:`int` in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647. |
+   | ``i2``,  ``i4``,     | Values get the ``<int>`` tag.                         |
+   | ``i8`` or            |                                                       |
+   | ``biginteger``       |                                                       |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``double`` or        | :class:`float`.  Values get the ``<double>`` tag.     |
+   | ``float``            |                                                       |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``string``           | :class:`str`                                          |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``array``            | :class:`list` or :class:`tuple` containing            |
+   |                      | conformable elements.  Arrays are returned as         |
+   |                      | :class:`lists <list>`.                                |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``struct``           | :class:`dict`.  Keys must be strings, values may be   |
+   |                      | any conformable type.  Objects of user-defined        |
+   |                      | classes can be passed in; only their                  |
+   |                      | :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute is transmitted.    |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``dateTime.iso8601`` | :class:`DateTime` or :class:`datetime.datetime`.      |
+   |                      | Returned type depends on values of                    |
+   |                      | *use_builtin_types* and *use_datetime* flags.         |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``base64``           | :class:`Binary`, :class:`bytes` or                    |
+   |                      | :class:`bytearray`.  Returned type depends on the     |
+   |                      | value of the *use_builtin_types* flag.                |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``nil``              | The ``None`` constant.  Passing is allowed only if    |
+   |                      | *allow_none* is true.                                 |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+   | ``bigdecimal``       | :class:`decimal.Decimal`.  Returned type only.        |
+   +----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
+
+   This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC.  Method calls may also
+   raise a special :exc:`Fault` instance, used to signal XML-RPC server errors, or
+   :exc:`ProtocolError` used to signal an error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer.
+   Both :exc:`Fault` and :exc:`ProtocolError` derive from a base class called
+   :exc:`Error`.  Note that the xmlrpc client module currently does not marshal
+   instances of subclasses of built-in types.
+
+   When passing strings, characters special to XML such as ``<``, ``>``, and ``&``
+   will be automatically escaped.  However, it's the caller's responsibility to
+   ensure that the string is free of characters that aren't allowed in XML, such as
+   the control characters with ASCII values between 0 and 31 (except, of course,
+   tab, newline and carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC
+   request that isn't well-formed XML.  If you have to pass arbitrary bytes
+   via XML-RPC, use :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` classes or the
+   :class:`Binary` wrapper class described below.
+
+   :class:`Server` is retained as an alias for :class:`ServerProxy` for backwards
+   compatibility.  New code should use :class:`ServerProxy`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added the *context* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Added support of type tags with prefixes (e.g. ``ex:nil``).
+      Added support of unmarshalling additional types used by Apache XML-RPC
+      implementation for numerics: ``i1``, ``i2``, ``i8``, ``biginteger``,
+      ``float`` and ``bigdecimal``.
+      See http://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html for a description.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `XML-RPC HOWTO <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html>`_
+      A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in several languages.
+      Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC client developer needs to know.
+
+   `XML-RPC Introspection <http://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.net/introspection.html>`_
+      Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.
+
+   `XML-RPC Specification <http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html>`_
+      The official specification.
+
+   `Unofficial XML-RPC Errata <http://effbot.org/zone/xmlrpc-errata.htm>`_
+      Fredrik Lundh's "unofficial errata, intended to clarify certain
+      details in the XML-RPC specification, as well as hint at
+      'best practices' to use when designing your own XML-RPC
+      implementations."
+
+.. _serverproxy-objects:
+
+ServerProxy Objects
+-------------------
+
+A :class:`ServerProxy` instance has a method corresponding to each remote
+procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server.  Calling the method performs an
+RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature (e.g. the same method name
+can be overloaded with multiple argument signatures).  The RPC finishes by
+returning a value, which may be either returned data in a conformant type or a
+:class:`Fault` or :class:`ProtocolError` object indicating an error.
+
+Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common methods
+grouped under the reserved :attr:`~ServerProxy.system` attribute:
+
+
+.. method:: ServerProxy.system.listMethods()
+
+   This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system) method
+   supported by the XML-RPC server.
+
+
+.. method:: ServerProxy.system.methodSignature(name)
+
+   This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC
+   server. It returns an array of possible signatures for this method. A signature
+   is an array of types. The first of these types is the return type of the method,
+   the rest are parameters.
+
+   Because multiple signatures (ie. overloading) is permitted, this method returns
+   a list of signatures rather than a singleton.
+
+   Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters expected by a
+   method. For instance if a method expects one array of structs as a parameter,
+   and it returns a string, its signature is simply "string, array". If it expects
+   three integers and returns a string, its signature is "string, int, int, int".
+
+   If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is returned. In
+   Python this means that the type of the returned  value will be something other
+   than list.
+
+
+.. method:: ServerProxy.system.methodHelp(name)
+
+   This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC
+   server.  It returns a documentation string describing the use of that method. If
+   no such string is available, an empty string is returned. The documentation
+   string may contain HTML markup.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+   Instances of :class:`ServerProxy` support the :term:`context manager` protocol
+   for closing the underlying transport.
+
+
+A working example follows. The server code::
+
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
+
+   def is_even(n):
+       return n % 2 == 0
+
+   server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
+   print("Listening on port 8000...")
+   server.register_function(is_even, "is_even")
+   server.serve_forever()
+
+The client code for the preceding server::
+
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy:
+       print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3)))
+       print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))
+
+.. _datetime-objects:
+
+DateTime Objects
+----------------
+
+.. class:: DateTime
+
+   This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time
+   tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a :class:`datetime.datetime`
+   instance.  It has the following methods, supported mainly for internal
+   use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:
+
+
+   .. method:: decode(string)
+
+      Accept a string as the instance's new time value.
+
+
+   .. method:: encode(out)
+
+      Write the XML-RPC encoding of this :class:`DateTime` item to the *out* stream
+      object.
+
+   It also supports certain of Python's built-in operators through rich comparison
+   and :meth:`__repr__` methods.
+
+A working example follows. The server code::
+
+   import datetime
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   def today():
+       today = datetime.datetime.today()
+       return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)
+
+   server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
+   print("Listening on port 8000...")
+   server.register_function(today, "today")
+   server.serve_forever()
+
+The client code for the preceding server::
+
+   import xmlrpc.client
+   import datetime
+
+   proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
+
+   today = proxy.today()
+   # convert the ISO8601 string to a datetime object
+   converted = datetime.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
+   print("Today: %s" % converted.strftime("%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M"))
+
+.. _binary-objects:
+
+Binary Objects
+--------------
+
+.. class:: Binary
+
+   This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include NULs). The
+   primary access to the content of a :class:`Binary` object is provided by an
+   attribute:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: data
+
+      The binary data encapsulated by the :class:`Binary` instance.  The data is
+      provided as a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+   :class:`Binary` objects have the following methods, supported mainly for
+   internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:
+
+
+   .. method:: decode(bytes)
+
+      Accept a base64 :class:`bytes` object and decode it as the instance's new data.
+
+
+   .. method:: encode(out)
+
+      Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the *out* stream object.
+
+      The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per
+      :rfc:`RFC 2045 section 6.8 <2045#section-6.8>`,
+      which was the de facto standard base64 specification when the
+      XML-RPC spec was written.
+
+   It also supports certain of Python's built-in operators through :meth:`__eq__`
+   and :meth:`__ne__` methods.
+
+Example usage of the binary objects.  We're going to transfer an image over
+XMLRPC::
+
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   def python_logo():
+       with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle:
+           return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read())
+
+   server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
+   print("Listening on port 8000...")
+   server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo')
+
+   server.serve_forever()
+
+The client gets the image and saves it to a file::
+
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
+   with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle:
+       handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data)
+
+.. _fault-objects:
+
+Fault Objects
+-------------
+
+.. class:: Fault
+
+   A :class:`Fault` object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC fault tag. Fault
+   objects have the following attributes:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: faultCode
+
+      A string indicating the fault type.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: faultString
+
+      A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the fault.
+
+In the following example we're going to intentionally cause a :exc:`Fault` by
+returning a complex type object.  The server code::
+
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
+
+   # A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a
+   # complex number
+   def add(x, y):
+       return x+y+0j
+
+   server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
+   print("Listening on port 8000...")
+   server.register_function(add, 'add')
+
+   server.serve_forever()
+
+The client code for the preceding server::
+
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
+   try:
+       proxy.add(2, 5)
+   except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err:
+       print("A fault occurred")
+       print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode)
+       print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)
+
+
+
+.. _protocol-error-objects:
+
+ProtocolError Objects
+---------------------
+
+.. class:: ProtocolError
+
+   A :class:`ProtocolError` object describes a protocol error in the underlying
+   transport layer (such as a 404 'not found' error if the server named by the URI
+   does not exist).  It has the following attributes:
+
+
+   .. attribute:: url
+
+      The URI or URL that triggered the error.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: errcode
+
+      The error code.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: errmsg
+
+      The error message or diagnostic string.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: headers
+
+      A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that triggered the
+      error.
+
+In the following example we're going to intentionally cause a :exc:`ProtocolError`
+by providing an invalid URI::
+
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   # create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests
+   proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/")
+
+   try:
+       proxy.some_method()
+   except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err:
+       print("A protocol error occurred")
+       print("URL: %s" % err.url)
+       print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers)
+       print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode)
+       print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)
+
+MultiCall Objects
+-----------------
+
+The :class:`MultiCall` object provides a way to encapsulate multiple calls to a
+remote server into a single request [#]_.
+
+
+.. class:: MultiCall(server)
+
+   Create an object used to boxcar method calls. *server* is the eventual target of
+   the call. Calls can be made to the result object, but they will immediately
+   return ``None``, and only store the call name and parameters in the
+   :class:`MultiCall` object. Calling the object itself causes all stored calls to
+   be transmitted as a single ``system.multicall`` request. The result of this call
+   is a :term:`generator`; iterating over this generator yields the individual
+   results.
+
+A usage example of this class follows.  The server code::
+
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
+
+   def add(x, y):
+       return x + y
+
+   def subtract(x, y):
+       return x - y
+
+   def multiply(x, y):
+       return x * y
+
+   def divide(x, y):
+       return x // y
+
+   # A simple server with simple arithmetic functions
+   server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
+   print("Listening on port 8000...")
+   server.register_multicall_functions()
+   server.register_function(add, 'add')
+   server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract')
+   server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply')
+   server.register_function(divide, 'divide')
+   server.serve_forever()
+
+The client code for the preceding server::
+
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
+   multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy)
+   multicall.add(7, 3)
+   multicall.subtract(7, 3)
+   multicall.multiply(7, 3)
+   multicall.divide(7, 3)
+   result = multicall()
+
+   print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result))
+
+
+Convenience Functions
+---------------------
+
+.. function:: dumps(params, methodname=None, methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)
+
+   Convert *params* into an XML-RPC request. or into a response if *methodresponse*
+   is true. *params* can be either a tuple of arguments or an instance of the
+   :exc:`Fault` exception class.  If *methodresponse* is true, only a single value
+   can be returned, meaning that *params* must be of length 1. *encoding*, if
+   supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default is UTF-8.
+   Python's :const:`None` value cannot be used in standard XML-RPC; to allow using
+   it via an extension,  provide a true value for *allow_none*.
+
+
+.. function:: loads(data, use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False)
+
+   Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a ``(params,
+   methodname)``.  *params* is a tuple of argument; *methodname* is a string, or
+   ``None`` if no method name is present in the packet. If the XML-RPC packet
+   represents a fault condition, this function will raise a :exc:`Fault` exception.
+   The *use_builtin_types* flag can be used to cause date/time values to be
+   presented as :class:`datetime.datetime` objects and binary data to be
+   presented as :class:`bytes` objects; this flag is false by default.
+
+   The obsolete *use_datetime* flag is similar to *use_builtin_types* but it
+   applies only to date/time values.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *use_builtin_types* flag was added.
+
+
+.. _xmlrpc-client-example:
+
+Example of Client Usage
+-----------------------
+
+::
+
+   # simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification)
+   from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error
+
+   # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server
+   with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy:
+
+       print(proxy)
+
+       try:
+           print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41))
+       except Error as v:
+           print("ERROR", v)
+
+To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a custom
+transport.  The following example shows how::
+
+   import http.client
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport):
+
+       def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None):
+           self.proxy = host, port
+           self.proxy_headers = headers
+
+       def make_connection(self, host):
+           connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy)
+           connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers)
+           self._connection = host, connection
+           return connection
+
+   transport = ProxiedTransport()
+   transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080)
+   server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport)
+   print(server.examples.getStateName(41))
+
+
+Example of Client and Server Usage
+----------------------------------
+
+See :ref:`simplexmlrpcserver-example`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] This approach has been first presented in `a discussion on xmlrpc.com
+   <https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic>`_.
+.. the link now points to webarchive since the one at
+.. http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader%241208 is broken (and webadmin
+.. doesn't reply)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae68157
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+:mod:`xmlrpc` --- XMLRPC server and client modules
+==================================================
+
+XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP as a
+transport.  With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a remote
+server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured data.
+
+``xmlrpc`` is a package that collects server and client modules implementing
+XML-RPC.  The modules are:
+
+* :mod:`xmlrpc.client`
+* :mod:`xmlrpc.server`
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.server.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.server.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d561e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/xmlrpc.server.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,445 @@
+:mod:`xmlrpc.server` --- Basic XML-RPC servers
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: xmlrpc.server
+   :synopsis: Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Brian Quinlan <brianq@activestate.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xmlrpc/server.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`xmlrpc.server` module provides a basic server framework for XML-RPC
+servers written in Python.  Servers can either be free standing, using
+:class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer`, or embedded in a CGI environment, using
+:class:`CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler`.
+
+
+.. warning::
+
+   The :mod:`xmlrpc.server` module is not secure against maliciously
+   constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+   :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+
+
+.. class:: SimpleXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
+               logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None,\
+               bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=False)
+
+   Create a new server instance.  This class provides methods for registration of
+   functions that can be called by the XML-RPC protocol.  The *requestHandler*
+   parameter should be a factory for request handler instances; it defaults to
+   :class:`SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler`.  The *addr* and *requestHandler* parameters
+   are passed to the :class:`socketserver.TCPServer` constructor.  If *logRequests*
+   is true (the default), requests will be logged; setting this parameter to false
+   will turn off logging.   The *allow_none* and *encoding* parameters are passed
+   on to :mod:`xmlrpc.client` and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned
+   from the server. The *bind_and_activate* parameter controls whether
+   :meth:`server_bind` and :meth:`server_activate` are called immediately by the
+   constructor; it defaults to true. Setting it to false allows code to manipulate
+   the *allow_reuse_address* class variable before the address is bound.
+   The *use_builtin_types* parameter is passed to the
+   :func:`~xmlrpc.client.loads` function and controls which types are processed
+   when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *use_builtin_types* flag was added.
+
+
+.. class:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler(allow_none=False, encoding=None,\
+               use_builtin_types=False)
+
+   Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI environment.  The
+   *allow_none* and *encoding* parameters are passed on to :mod:`xmlrpc.client`
+   and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned from the server.
+   The *use_builtin_types* parameter is passed to the
+   :func:`~xmlrpc.client.loads` function and controls which types are processed
+   when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *use_builtin_types* flag was added.
+
+
+.. class:: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler()
+
+   Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler supports ``POST``
+   requests and modifies logging so that the *logRequests* parameter to the
+   :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` constructor parameter is honored.
+
+
+.. _simple-xmlrpc-servers:
+
+SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects
+--------------------------
+
+The :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` class is based on
+:class:`socketserver.TCPServer` and provides a means of creating simple, stand
+alone XML-RPC servers.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function(function=None, name=None)
+
+   Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If *name* is given,
+   it will be the method name associated with *function*, otherwise
+   ``function.__name__`` will be used.  *name* is a string, and may contain
+   characters not legal in Python identifiers, including the period character.
+
+   This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a decorator,
+   *name* can only be given as a keyword argument to register *function* under
+   *name*.  If no *name* is given, ``function.__name__`` will be used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      :meth:`register_function` can be used as a decorator.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance(instance, allow_dotted_names=False)
+
+   Register an object which is used to expose method names which have not been
+   registered using :meth:`register_function`.  If *instance* contains a
+   :meth:`_dispatch` method, it is called with the requested method name and the
+   parameters from the request.  Its API is ``def _dispatch(self, method, params)``
+   (note that *params* does not represent a variable argument list).  If it calls
+   an underlying function to perform its task, that function is called as
+   ``func(*params)``, expanding the parameter list. The return value from
+   :meth:`_dispatch` is returned to the client as the result.  If *instance* does
+   not have a :meth:`_dispatch` method, it is searched for an attribute matching
+   the name of the requested method.
+
+   If the optional *allow_dotted_names* argument is true and the instance does not
+   have a :meth:`_dispatch` method, then if the requested method name contains
+   periods, each component of the method name is searched for individually, with
+   the effect that a simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from
+   this search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the return
+   value is passed back to the client.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Enabling the *allow_dotted_names* option allows intruders to access your
+      module's global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on
+      your machine.  Only use this option on a secure, closed network.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions()
+
+   Registers the XML-RPC introspection functions ``system.listMethods``,
+   ``system.methodHelp`` and ``system.methodSignature``.
+
+
+.. method:: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions()
+
+   Registers the XML-RPC multicall function system.multicall.
+
+
+.. attribute:: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths
+
+   An attribute value that must be a tuple listing valid path portions of the URL
+   for receiving XML-RPC requests.  Requests posted to other paths will result in a
+   404 "no such page" HTTP error.  If this tuple is empty, all paths will be
+   considered valid. The default value is ``('/', '/RPC2')``.
+
+
+.. _simplexmlrpcserver-example:
+
+SimpleXMLRPCServer Example
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+Server code::
+
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler
+
+   # Restrict to a particular path.
+   class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
+       rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)
+
+   # Create server
+   with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
+                           requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
+       server.register_introspection_functions()
+
+       # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
+       # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
+       server.register_function(pow)
+
+       # Register a function under a different name
+       def adder_function(x, y):
+           return x + y
+       server.register_function(adder_function, 'add')
+
+       # Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are
+       # published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just 'mul').
+       class MyFuncs:
+           def mul(self, x, y):
+               return x * y
+
+       server.register_instance(MyFuncs())
+
+       # Run the server's main loop
+       server.serve_forever()
+
+The following client code will call the methods made available by the preceding
+server::
+
+   import xmlrpc.client
+
+   s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000')
+   print(s.pow(2,3))  # Returns 2**3 = 8
+   print(s.add(2,3))  # Returns 5
+   print(s.mul(5,2))  # Returns 5*2 = 10
+
+   # Print list of available methods
+   print(s.system.listMethods())
+
+:meth:`register_function` can also be used as a decorator. The previous server
+example can register functions in a decorator way::
+
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
+   from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler
+
+   class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
+       rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)
+
+   with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
+                           requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
+       server.register_introspection_functions()
+
+       # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
+       # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
+       server.register_function(pow)
+
+       # Register a function under a different name, using
+       # register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given
+       # as a keyword argument.
+       @server.register_function(name='add')
+       def adder_function(x, y):
+           return x + y
+
+       # Register a function under function.__name__.
+       @server.register_function
+       def mul(x, y):
+           return x * y
+
+       server.serve_forever()
+
+The following example included in the :file:`Lib/xmlrpc/server.py` module shows
+a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall function.
+
+.. warning::
+
+  Enabling the *allow_dotted_names* option allows intruders to access your
+  module's global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on
+  your machine.  Only use this example only within a secure, closed network.
+
+::
+
+    import datetime
+
+    class ExampleService:
+        def getData(self):
+            return '42'
+
+        class currentTime:
+            @staticmethod
+            def getCurrentTime():
+                return datetime.datetime.now()
+
+    with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
+        server.register_function(pow)
+        server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
+        server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True)
+        server.register_multicall_functions()
+        print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000')
+        try:
+            server.serve_forever()
+        except KeyboardInterrupt:
+            print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.")
+            sys.exit(0)
+
+This ExampleService demo can be invoked from the command line::
+
+    python -m xmlrpc.server
+
+
+The client that interacts with the above server is included in
+`Lib/xmlrpc/client.py`::
+
+    server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000")
+
+    try:
+        print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime())
+    except Error as v:
+        print("ERROR", v)
+
+    multi = MultiCall(server)
+    multi.getData()
+    multi.pow(2,9)
+    multi.add(1,2)
+    try:
+        for response in multi():
+            print(response)
+    except Error as v:
+        print("ERROR", v)
+
+This client which interacts with the demo XMLRPC server can be invoked as::
+
+    python -m xmlrpc.client
+
+
+CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
+-----------------------
+
+The :class:`CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler` class can be used to handle XML-RPC
+requests sent to Python CGI scripts.
+
+
+.. method:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function(function=None, name=None)
+
+   Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If *name* is given,
+   it will be the method name associated with *function*, otherwise
+   ``function.__name__`` will be used.  *name* is a string, and may contain
+   characters not legal in Python identifiers, including the period character.
+
+   This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a decorator,
+   *name* can only be given as a keyword argument to register *function* under
+   *name*.  If no *name* is given, ``function.__name__`` will be used.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      :meth:`register_function` can be used as a decorator.
+
+
+.. method:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance(instance)
+
+   Register an object which is used to expose method names  which have not been
+   registered using :meth:`register_function`. If  instance contains a
+   :meth:`_dispatch` method, it is called with the  requested method name and the
+   parameters from the  request; the return value is returned to the client as the
+   result. If instance does not have a :meth:`_dispatch` method, it is searched
+   for an attribute matching the name of the requested method; if  the requested
+   method name contains periods, each  component of the method name is searched for
+   individually,  with the effect that a simple hierarchical search is performed.
+   The value found from this search is then called with the  parameters from the
+   request, and the return value is passed  back to the client.
+
+
+.. method:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions()
+
+   Register the XML-RPC introspection functions  ``system.listMethods``,
+   ``system.methodHelp`` and  ``system.methodSignature``.
+
+
+.. method:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions()
+
+   Register the XML-RPC multicall function ``system.multicall``.
+
+
+.. method:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request(request_text=None)
+
+   Handle an XML-RPC request. If *request_text* is given, it should be the POST
+   data provided by the HTTP server,  otherwise the contents of stdin will be used.
+
+Example::
+
+   class MyFuncs:
+       def mul(self, x, y):
+           return x * y
+
+
+   handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
+   handler.register_function(pow)
+   handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
+   handler.register_introspection_functions()
+   handler.register_instance(MyFuncs())
+   handler.handle_request()
+
+
+Documenting XMLRPC server
+-------------------------
+
+These classes extend the above classes to serve HTML documentation in response
+to HTTP GET requests.  Servers can either be free standing, using
+:class:`DocXMLRPCServer`, or embedded in a CGI environment, using
+:class:`DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler`.
+
+
+.. class:: DocXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
+               logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None,\
+               bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=True)
+
+   Create a new server instance. All parameters have the same meaning as for
+   :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer`; *requestHandler* defaults to
+   :class:`DocXMLRPCRequestHandler`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      The *use_builtin_types* flag was added.
+
+
+.. class:: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
+
+   Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI environment.
+
+
+.. class:: DocXMLRPCRequestHandler()
+
+   Create a new request handler instance. This request handler supports XML-RPC
+   POST requests, documentation GET requests, and modifies logging so that the
+   *logRequests* parameter to the :class:`DocXMLRPCServer` constructor parameter is
+   honored.
+
+
+.. _doc-xmlrpc-servers:
+
+DocXMLRPCServer Objects
+-----------------------
+
+The :class:`DocXMLRPCServer` class is derived from :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer`
+and provides a means of creating self-documenting, stand alone XML-RPC
+servers. HTTP POST requests are handled as XML-RPC method calls. HTTP GET
+requests are handled by generating pydoc-style HTML documentation. This allows a
+server to provide its own web-based documentation.
+
+
+.. method:: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title(server_title)
+
+   Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation. This title will be used
+   inside the HTML "title" element.
+
+
+.. method:: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name(server_name)
+
+   Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation. This name will appear at
+   the top of the generated documentation inside a "h1" element.
+
+
+.. method:: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation(server_documentation)
+
+   Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation. This description
+   will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in the documentation.
+
+
+DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
+--------------------------
+
+The :class:`DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler` class is derived from
+:class:`CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler` and provides a means of creating
+self-documenting, XML-RPC CGI scripts. HTTP POST requests are handled as XML-RPC
+method calls. HTTP GET requests are handled by generating pydoc-style HTML
+documentation. This allows a server to provide its own web-based documentation.
+
+
+.. method:: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title(server_title)
+
+   Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation. This title will be used
+   inside the HTML "title" element.
+
+
+.. method:: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name(server_name)
+
+   Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation. This name will appear at
+   the top of the generated documentation inside a "h1" element.
+
+
+.. method:: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation(server_documentation)
+
+   Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation. This description
+   will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in the documentation.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipapp.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipapp.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7283152
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipapp.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,449 @@
+:mod:`zipapp` --- Manage executable Python zip archives
+=======================================================
+
+.. module:: zipapp
+   :synopsis: Manage executable Python zip archives
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/zipapp.py`
+
+.. index::
+   single: Executable Zip Files
+
+--------------
+
+This module provides tools to manage the creation of zip files containing
+Python code, which can be  :ref:`executed directly by the Python interpreter
+<using-on-interface-options>`.  The module provides both a
+:ref:`zipapp-command-line-interface` and a :ref:`zipapp-python-api`.
+
+
+Basic Example
+-------------
+
+The following example shows how the :ref:`zipapp-command-line-interface`
+can be used to create an executable archive from a directory containing
+Python code.  When run, the archive will execute the ``main`` function from
+the module ``myapp`` in the archive.
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main"
+   $ python myapp.pyz
+   <output from myapp>
+
+
+.. _zipapp-command-line-interface:
+
+Command-Line Interface
+----------------------
+
+When called as a program from the command line, the following form is used:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python -m zipapp source [options]
+
+If *source* is a directory, this will create an archive from the contents of
+*source*.  If *source* is a file, it should be an archive, and it will be
+copied to the target archive (or the contents of its shebang line will be
+displayed if the --info option is specified).
+
+The following options are understood:
+
+.. program:: zipapp
+
+.. cmdoption:: -o <output>, --output=<output>
+
+   Write the output to a file named *output*.  If this option is not specified,
+   the output filename will be the same as the input *source*, with the
+   extension ``.pyz`` added.  If an explicit filename is given, it is used as
+   is (so a ``.pyz`` extension should be included if required).
+
+   An output filename must be specified if the *source* is an archive (and in
+   that case, *output* must not be the same as *source*).
+
+.. cmdoption:: -p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter>
+
+   Add a ``#!`` line to the archive specifying *interpreter* as the command
+   to run.  Also, on POSIX, make the archive executable.  The default is to
+   write no ``#!`` line, and not make the file executable.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn>
+
+   Write a ``__main__.py`` file to the archive that executes *mainfn*.  The
+   *mainfn* argument should have the form "pkg.mod:fn", where "pkg.mod" is a
+   package/module in the archive, and "fn" is a callable in the given module.
+   The ``__main__.py`` file will execute that callable.
+
+   :option:`--main` cannot be specified when copying an archive.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -c, --compress
+
+   Compress files with the deflate method, reducing the size of the output
+   file. By default, files are stored uncompressed in the archive.
+
+   :option:`--compress` has no effect when copying an archive.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. cmdoption:: --info
+
+   Display the interpreter embedded in the archive, for diagnostic purposes.  In
+   this case, any other options are ignored and SOURCE must be an archive, not a
+   directory.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -h, --help
+
+   Print a short usage message and exit.
+
+
+.. _zipapp-python-api:
+
+Python API
+----------
+
+The module defines two convenience functions:
+
+
+.. function:: create_archive(source, target=None, interpreter=None, main=None, filter=None, compressed=False)
+
+   Create an application archive from *source*.  The source can be any
+   of the following:
+
+   * The name of a directory, or a :term:`path-like object` referring
+     to a directory, in which case a new application archive will be
+     created from the content of that directory.
+   * The name of an existing application archive file, or a :term:`path-like object`
+     referring to such a file, in which case the file is copied to
+     the target (modifying it to reflect the value given for the *interpreter*
+     argument).  The file name should include the ``.pyz`` extension, if required.
+   * A file object open for reading in bytes mode.  The content of the
+     file should be an application archive, and the file object is
+     assumed to be positioned at the start of the archive.
+
+   The *target* argument determines where the resulting archive will be
+   written:
+
+   * If it is the name of a file, or a :term:`path-like object`,
+     the archive will be written to that file.
+   * If it is an open file object, the archive will be written to that
+     file object, which must be open for writing in bytes mode.
+   * If the target is omitted (or ``None``), the source must be a directory
+     and the target will be a file with the same name as the source, with
+     a ``.pyz`` extension added.
+
+   The *interpreter* argument specifies the name of the Python
+   interpreter with which the archive will be executed.  It is written as
+   a "shebang" line at the start of the archive.  On POSIX, this will be
+   interpreted by the OS, and on Windows it will be handled by the Python
+   launcher.  Omitting the *interpreter* results in no shebang line being
+   written.  If an interpreter is specified, and the target is a
+   filename, the executable bit of the target file will be set.
+
+   The *main* argument specifies the name of a callable which will be
+   used as the main program for the archive.  It can only be specified if
+   the source is a directory, and the source does not already contain a
+   ``__main__.py`` file.  The *main* argument should take the form
+   "pkg.module:callable" and the archive will be run by importing
+   "pkg.module" and executing the given callable with no arguments.  It
+   is an error to omit *main* if the source is a directory and does not
+   contain a ``__main__.py`` file, as otherwise the resulting archive
+   would not be executable.
+
+   The optional *filter* argument specifies a callback function that
+   is passed a Path object representing the path to the file being added
+   (relative to the source directory).  It should return ``True`` if the
+   file is to be added.
+
+   The optional *compressed* argument determines whether files are
+   compressed.  If set to ``True``, files in the archive are compressed
+   with the deflate method; otherwise, files are stored uncompressed.
+   This argument has no effect when copying an existing archive.
+
+   If a file object is specified for *source* or *target*, it is the
+   caller's responsibility to close it after calling create_archive.
+
+   When copying an existing archive, file objects supplied only need
+   ``read`` and ``readline``, or ``write`` methods.  When creating an
+   archive from a directory, if the target is a file object it will be
+   passed to the ``zipfile.ZipFile`` class, and must supply the methods
+   needed by that class.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      Added the *filter* and *compressed* arguments.
+
+.. function:: get_interpreter(archive)
+
+   Return the interpreter specified in the ``#!`` line at the start of the
+   archive.  If there is no ``#!`` line, return :const:`None`.
+   The *archive* argument can be a filename or a file-like object open
+   for reading in bytes mode.  It is assumed to be at the start of the archive.
+
+
+.. _zipapp-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Pack up a directory into an archive, and run it.
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python -m zipapp myapp
+   $ python myapp.pyz
+   <output from myapp>
+
+The same can be done using the :func:`create_archive` function::
+
+   >>> import zipapp
+   >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', 'myapp')
+
+To make the application directly executable on POSIX, specify an interpreter
+to use.
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python"
+   $ ./myapp.pyz
+   <output from myapp>
+
+To replace the shebang line on an existing archive, create a modified archive
+using the :func:`create_archive` function::
+
+   >>> import zipapp
+   >>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3')
+
+To update the file in place, do the replacement in memory using a :class:`BytesIO`
+object, and then overwrite the source afterwards.  Note that there is a risk
+when overwriting a file in place that an error will result in the loss of
+the original file.  This code does not protect against such errors, but
+production code should do so.  Also, this method will only work if the archive
+fits in memory::
+
+   >>> import zipapp
+   >>> import io
+   >>> temp = io.BytesIO()
+   >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2')
+   >>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f:
+   >>>     f.write(temp.getvalue())
+
+
+.. _zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter:
+
+Specifying the Interpreter
+--------------------------
+
+Note that if you specify an interpreter and then distribute your application
+archive, you need to ensure that the interpreter used is portable.  The Python
+launcher for Windows supports most common forms of POSIX ``#!`` line, but there
+are other issues to consider:
+
+* If you use "/usr/bin/env python" (or other forms of the "python" command,
+  such as "/usr/bin/python"), you need to consider that your users may have
+  either Python 2 or Python 3 as their default, and write your code to work
+  under both versions.
+* If you use an explicit version, for example "/usr/bin/env python3" your
+  application will not work for users who do not have that version.  (This
+  may be what you want if you have not made your code Python 2 compatible).
+* There is no way to say "python X.Y or later", so be careful of using an
+  exact version like "/usr/bin/env python3.4" as you will need to change your
+  shebang line for users of Python 3.5, for example.
+
+Typically, you should use an "/usr/bin/env python2" or "/usr/bin/env python3",
+depending on whether your code is written for Python 2 or 3.
+
+
+Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp
+--------------------------------------------
+
+Using the :mod:`zipapp` module, it is possible to create self-contained Python
+programs, which can be distributed to end users who only need to have a
+suitable version of Python installed on their system.  The key to doing this
+is to bundle all of the application's dependencies into the archive, along
+with the application code.
+
+The steps to create a standalone archive are as follows:
+
+1. Create your application in a directory as normal, so you have a ``myapp``
+   directory containing a ``__main__.py`` file, and any supporting application
+   code.
+
+2. Install all of your application's dependencies into the ``myapp`` directory,
+   using pip:
+
+   .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+      $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp
+
+   (this assumes you have your project requirements in a ``requirements.txt``
+   file - if not, you can just list the dependencies manually on the pip command
+   line).
+
+3. Optionally, delete the ``.dist-info`` directories created by pip in the
+   ``myapp`` directory. These hold metadata for pip to manage the packages, and
+   as you won't be making any further use of pip they aren't required -
+   although it won't do any harm if you leave them.
+
+4. Package the application using:
+
+   .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+      $ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp
+
+This will produce a standalone executable, which can be run on any machine with
+the appropriate interpreter available. See :ref:`zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter`
+for details. It can be shipped to users as a single file.
+
+On Unix, the ``myapp.pyz`` file is executable as it stands.  You can rename the
+file to remove the ``.pyz`` extension if you prefer a "plain" command name.  On
+Windows, the ``myapp.pyz[w]`` file is executable by virtue of the fact that
+the Python interpreter registers the ``.pyz`` and ``.pyzw`` file extensions
+when installed.
+
+
+Making a Windows executable
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+On Windows, registration of the ``.pyz`` extension is optional, and
+furthermore, there are certain places that don't recognise registered
+extensions "transparently" (the simplest example is that
+``subprocess.run(['myapp'])`` won't find your application - you need to
+explicitly specify the extension).
+
+On Windows, therefore, it is often preferable to create an executable from the
+zipapp.  This is relatively easy, although it does require a C compiler.  The
+basic approach relies on the fact that zipfiles can have arbitrary data
+prepended, and Windows exe files can have arbitrary data appended.  So by
+creating a suitable launcher and tacking the ``.pyz`` file onto the end of it,
+you end up with a single-file executable that runs your application.
+
+A suitable launcher can be as simple as the following::
+
+   #define Py_LIMITED_API 1
+   #include "Python.h"
+
+   #define WIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN
+   #include <windows.h>
+
+   #ifdef WINDOWS
+   int WINAPI wWinMain(
+       HINSTANCE hInstance,      /* handle to current instance */
+       HINSTANCE hPrevInstance,  /* handle to previous instance */
+       LPWSTR lpCmdLine,         /* pointer to command line */
+       int nCmdShow              /* show state of window */
+   )
+   #else
+   int wmain()
+   #endif
+   {
+       wchar_t **myargv = _alloca((__argc + 1) * sizeof(wchar_t*));
+       myargv[0] = __wargv[0];
+       memcpy(myargv + 1, __wargv, __argc * sizeof(wchar_t *));
+       return Py_Main(__argc+1, myargv);
+   }
+
+If you define the ``WINDOWS`` preprocessor symbol, this will generate a
+GUI executable, and without it, a console executable.
+
+To compile the executable, you can either just use the standard MSVC
+command line tools, or you can take advantage of the fact that distutils
+knows how to compile Python source::
+
+   >>> from distutils.ccompiler import new_compiler
+   >>> import distutils.sysconfig
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> import os
+   >>> from pathlib import Path
+
+   >>> def compile(src):
+   >>>     src = Path(src)
+   >>>     cc = new_compiler()
+   >>>     exe = src.stem
+   >>>     cc.add_include_dir(distutils.sysconfig.get_python_inc())
+   >>>     cc.add_library_dir(os.path.join(sys.base_exec_prefix, 'libs'))
+   >>>     # First the CLI executable
+   >>>     objs = cc.compile([str(src)])
+   >>>     cc.link_executable(objs, exe)
+   >>>     # Now the GUI executable
+   >>>     cc.define_macro('WINDOWS')
+   >>>     objs = cc.compile([str(src)])
+   >>>     cc.link_executable(objs, exe + 'w')
+
+   >>> if __name__ == "__main__":
+   >>>     compile("zastub.c")
+
+The resulting launcher uses the "Limited ABI", so it will run unchanged with
+any version of Python 3.x.  All it needs is for Python (``python3.dll``) to be
+on the user's ``PATH``.
+
+For a fully standalone distribution, you can distribute the launcher with your
+application appended, bundled with the Python "embedded" distribution.  This
+will run on any PC with the appropriate architecture (32 bit or 64 bit).
+
+
+Caveats
+~~~~~~~
+
+There are some limitations to the process of bundling your application into
+a single file.  In most, if not all, cases they can be addressed without
+needing major changes to your application.
+
+1. If your application depends on a package that includes a C extension, that
+   package cannot be run from a zip file (this is an OS limitation, as executable
+   code must be present in the filesystem for the OS loader to load it). In this
+   case, you can exclude that dependency from the zipfile, and either require
+   your users to have it installed, or ship it alongside your zipfile and add code
+   to your ``__main__.py`` to include the directory containing the unzipped
+   module in ``sys.path``. In this case, you will need to make sure to ship
+   appropriate binaries for your target architecture(s) (and potentially pick the
+   correct version to add to ``sys.path`` at runtime, based on the user's machine).
+
+2. If you are shipping a Windows executable as described above, you either need to
+   ensure that your users have ``python3.dll`` on their PATH (which is not the
+   default behaviour of the installer) or you should bundle your application with
+   the embedded distribution.
+
+3. The suggested launcher above uses the Python embedding API.  This means that in
+   your application, ``sys.executable`` will be your application, and *not* a
+   conventional Python interpreter.  Your code and its dependencies need to be
+   prepared for this possibility.  For example, if your application uses the
+   :mod:`multiprocessing` module, it will need to call
+   :func:`multiprocessing.set_executable` to let the module know where to find the
+   standard Python interpreter.
+
+
+The Python Zip Application Archive Format
+-----------------------------------------
+
+Python has been able to execute zip files which contain a ``__main__.py`` file
+since version 2.6.  In order to be executed by Python, an application archive
+simply has to be a standard zip file containing a ``__main__.py`` file which
+will be run as the entry point for the application.  As usual for any Python
+script, the parent of the script (in this case the zip file) will be placed on
+:data:`sys.path` and thus further modules can be imported from the zip file.
+
+The zip file format allows arbitrary data to be prepended to a zip file.  The
+zip application format uses this ability to prepend a standard POSIX "shebang"
+line to the file (``#!/path/to/interpreter``).
+
+Formally, the Python zip application format is therefore:
+
+1. An optional shebang line, containing the characters ``b'#!'`` followed by an
+   interpreter name, and then a newline (``b'\n'``) character.  The interpreter
+   name can be anything acceptable to the OS "shebang" processing, or the Python
+   launcher on Windows.  The interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows,
+   and in :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding()` on POSIX.
+2. Standard zipfile data, as generated by the :mod:`zipfile` module.  The
+   zipfile content *must* include a file called ``__main__.py`` (which must be
+   in the "root" of the zipfile - i.e., it cannot be in a subdirectory).  The
+   zipfile data can be compressed or uncompressed.
+
+If an application archive has a shebang line, it may have the executable bit set
+on POSIX systems, to allow it to be executed directly.
+
+There is no requirement that the tools in this module are used to create
+application archives - the module is a convenience, but archives in the above
+format created by any means are acceptable to Python.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipfile.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipfile.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6fb03a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipfile.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,734 @@
+:mod:`zipfile` --- Work with ZIP archives
+=========================================
+
+.. module:: zipfile
+   :synopsis: Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: James C. Ahlstrom <jim@interet.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: James C. Ahlstrom <jim@interet.com>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/zipfile.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The ZIP file format is a common archive and compression standard. This module
+provides tools to create, read, write, append, and list a ZIP file.  Any
+advanced use of this module will require an understanding of the format, as
+defined in `PKZIP Application Note`_.
+
+This module does not currently handle multi-disk ZIP files.
+It can handle ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions
+(that is ZIP files that are more than 4 GiB in size).  It supports
+decryption of encrypted files in ZIP archives, but it currently cannot
+create an encrypted file.  Decryption is extremely slow as it is
+implemented in native Python rather than C.
+
+The module defines the following items:
+
+.. exception:: BadZipFile
+
+   The error raised for bad ZIP files.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. exception:: BadZipfile
+
+   Alias of :exc:`BadZipFile`, for compatibility with older Python versions.
+
+   .. deprecated:: 3.2
+
+
+.. exception:: LargeZipFile
+
+   The error raised when a ZIP file would require ZIP64 functionality but that has
+   not been enabled.
+
+
+.. class:: ZipFile
+   :noindex:
+
+   The class for reading and writing ZIP files.  See section
+   :ref:`zipfile-objects` for constructor details.
+
+
+.. class:: PyZipFile
+   :noindex:
+
+   Class for creating ZIP archives containing Python libraries.
+
+
+.. class:: ZipInfo(filename='NoName', date_time=(1980,1,1,0,0,0))
+
+   Class used to represent information about a member of an archive. Instances
+   of this class are returned by the :meth:`.getinfo` and :meth:`.infolist`
+   methods of :class:`ZipFile` objects.  Most users of the :mod:`zipfile` module
+   will not need to create these, but only use those created by this
+   module. *filename* should be the full name of the archive member, and
+   *date_time* should be a tuple containing six fields which describe the time
+   of the last modification to the file; the fields are described in section
+   :ref:`zipinfo-objects`.
+
+
+.. function:: is_zipfile(filename)
+
+   Returns ``True`` if *filename* is a valid ZIP file based on its magic number,
+   otherwise returns ``False``.  *filename* may be a file or file-like object too.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Support for file and file-like objects.
+
+
+.. data:: ZIP_STORED
+
+   The numeric constant for an uncompressed archive member.
+
+
+.. data:: ZIP_DEFLATED
+
+   The numeric constant for the usual ZIP compression method.  This requires the
+   :mod:`zlib` module.
+
+
+.. data:: ZIP_BZIP2
+
+   The numeric constant for the BZIP2 compression method.  This requires the
+   :mod:`bz2` module.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. data:: ZIP_LZMA
+
+   The numeric constant for the LZMA compression method.  This requires the
+   :mod:`lzma` module.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The ZIP file format specification has included support for bzip2 compression
+      since 2001, and for LZMA compression since 2006. However, some tools
+      (including older Python releases) do not support these compression
+      methods, and may either refuse to process the ZIP file altogether,
+      or fail to extract individual files.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `PKZIP Application Note`_
+      Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of the format and
+      algorithms used.
+
+   `Info-ZIP Home Page <http://www.info-zip.org/>`_
+      Information about the Info-ZIP project's ZIP archive programs and development
+      libraries.
+
+
+.. _zipfile-objects:
+
+ZipFile Objects
+---------------
+
+
+.. class:: ZipFile(file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED, allowZip64=True, \
+                   compresslevel=None)
+
+   Open a ZIP file, where *file* can be a path to a file (a string), a
+   file-like object or a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   The *mode* parameter should be ``'r'`` to read an existing
+   file, ``'w'`` to truncate and write a new file, ``'a'`` to append to an
+   existing file, or ``'x'`` to exclusively create and write a new file.
+   If *mode* is ``'x'`` and *file* refers to an existing file,
+   a :exc:`FileExistsError` will be raised.
+   If *mode* is ``'a'`` and *file* refers to an existing ZIP
+   file, then additional files are added to it.  If *file* does not refer to a
+   ZIP file, then a new ZIP archive is appended to the file.  This is meant for
+   adding a ZIP archive to another file (such as :file:`python.exe`).  If
+   *mode* is ``'a'`` and the file does not exist at all, it is created.
+   If *mode* is ``'r'`` or ``'a'``, the file should be seekable.
+
+   *compression* is the ZIP compression method to use when writing the archive,
+   and should be :const:`ZIP_STORED`, :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED`,
+   :const:`ZIP_BZIP2` or :const:`ZIP_LZMA`; unrecognized
+   values will cause :exc:`NotImplementedError` to be raised.  If
+   :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED`, :const:`ZIP_BZIP2` or :const:`ZIP_LZMA` is specified
+   but the corresponding module (:mod:`zlib`, :mod:`bz2` or :mod:`lzma`) is not
+   available, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised. The default is :const:`ZIP_STORED`.
+
+   If *allowZip64* is ``True`` (the default) zipfile will create ZIP files that
+   use the ZIP64 extensions when the zipfile is larger than 4 GiB. If it is
+   ``false`` :mod:`zipfile` will raise an exception when the ZIP file would
+   require ZIP64 extensions.
+
+   The *compresslevel* parameter controls the compression level to use when
+   writing files to the archive.
+   When using :const:`ZIP_STORED` or :const:`ZIP_LZMA` it has no effect.
+   When using :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED` integers ``0`` through ``9`` are accepted
+   (see :class:`zlib <zlib.compressobj>` for more information).
+   When using :const:`ZIP_BZIP2` integers ``1`` through ``9`` are accepted
+   (see :class:`bz2 <bz2.BZ2File>` for more information).
+
+   If the file is created with mode ``'w'``, ``'x'`` or ``'a'`` and then
+   :meth:`closed <close>` without adding any files to the archive, the appropriate
+   ZIP structures for an empty archive will be written to the file.
+
+   ZipFile is also a context manager and therefore supports the
+   :keyword:`with` statement.  In the example, *myzip* is closed after the
+   :keyword:`!with` statement's suite is finished---even if an exception occurs::
+
+      with ZipFile('spam.zip', 'w') as myzip:
+          myzip.write('eggs.txt')
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      Added the ability to use :class:`ZipFile` as a context manager.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added support for :mod:`bzip2 <bz2>` and :mod:`lzma` compression.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Added support for writing to unseekable streams.
+      Added support for the ``'x'`` mode.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Previously, a plain :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised for unrecognized
+      compression values.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.2
+      The *file* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Add the *compresslevel* parameter.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.close()
+
+   Close the archive file.  You must call :meth:`close` before exiting your program
+   or essential records will not be written.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.getinfo(name)
+
+   Return a :class:`ZipInfo` object with information about the archive member
+   *name*.  Calling :meth:`getinfo` for a name not currently contained in the
+   archive will raise a :exc:`KeyError`.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.infolist()
+
+   Return a list containing a :class:`ZipInfo` object for each member of the
+   archive.  The objects are in the same order as their entries in the actual ZIP
+   file on disk if an existing archive was opened.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.namelist()
+
+   Return a list of archive members by name.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.open(name, mode='r', pwd=None, *, force_zip64=False)
+
+   Access a member of the archive as a binary file-like object.  *name*
+   can be either the name of a file within the archive or a :class:`ZipInfo`
+   object.  The *mode* parameter, if included, must be ``'r'`` (the default)
+   or ``'w'``.  *pwd* is the password used to decrypt encrypted ZIP files.
+
+   :meth:`~ZipFile.open` is also a context manager and therefore supports the
+   :keyword:`with` statement::
+
+      with ZipFile('spam.zip') as myzip:
+          with myzip.open('eggs.txt') as myfile:
+              print(myfile.read())
+
+   With *mode* ``'r'`` the file-like object
+   (``ZipExtFile``) is read-only and provides the following methods:
+   :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read`, :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline`,
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines`, :meth:`~io.IOBase.seek`,
+   :meth:`~io.IOBase.tell`, :meth:`__iter__`, :meth:`~iterator.__next__`.
+   These objects can operate independently of the ZipFile.
+
+   With ``mode='w'``, a writable file handle is returned, which supports the
+   :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.write` method.  While a writable file handle is open,
+   attempting to read or write other files in the ZIP file will raise a
+   :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+   When writing a file, if the file size is not known in advance but may exceed
+   2 GiB, pass ``force_zip64=True`` to ensure that the header format is
+   capable of supporting large files.  If the file size is known in advance,
+   construct a :class:`ZipInfo` object with :attr:`~ZipInfo.file_size` set, and
+   use that as the *name* parameter.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :meth:`.open`, :meth:`read` and :meth:`extract` methods can take a filename
+      or a :class:`ZipInfo` object.  You will appreciate this when trying to read a
+      ZIP file that contains members with duplicate names.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Removed support of ``mode='U'``.  Use :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` for reading
+      compressed text files in :term:`universal newlines` mode.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      :meth:`open` can now be used to write files into the archive with the
+      ``mode='w'`` option.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Calling :meth:`.open` on a closed ZipFile will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
+      Previously, a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.extract(member, path=None, pwd=None)
+
+   Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory; *member*
+   must be its full name or a :class:`ZipInfo` object.  Its file information is
+   extracted as accurately as possible.  *path* specifies a different directory
+   to extract to.  *member* can be a filename or a :class:`ZipInfo` object.
+   *pwd* is the password used for encrypted files.
+
+   Returns the normalized path created (a directory or new file).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If a member filename is an absolute path, a drive/UNC sharepoint and
+      leading (back)slashes will be stripped, e.g.: ``///foo/bar`` becomes
+      ``foo/bar`` on Unix, and ``C:\foo\bar`` becomes ``foo\bar`` on Windows.
+      And all ``".."`` components in a member filename will be removed, e.g.:
+      ``../../foo../../ba..r`` becomes ``foo../ba..r``.  On Windows illegal
+      characters (``:``, ``<``, ``>``, ``|``, ``"``, ``?``, and ``*``)
+      replaced by underscore (``_``).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Calling :meth:`extract` on a closed ZipFile will raise a
+      :exc:`ValueError`.  Previously, a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.2
+      The *path* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.extractall(path=None, members=None, pwd=None)
+
+   Extract all members from the archive to the current working directory.  *path*
+   specifies a different directory to extract to.  *members* is optional and must
+   be a subset of the list returned by :meth:`namelist`.  *pwd* is the password
+   used for encrypted files.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection.
+      It is possible that files are created outside of *path*, e.g. members
+      that have absolute filenames starting with ``"/"`` or filenames with two
+      dots ``".."``.  This module attempts to prevent that.
+      See :meth:`extract` note.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Calling :meth:`extractall` on a closed ZipFile will raise a
+      :exc:`ValueError`.  Previously, a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.2
+      The *path* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.printdir()
+
+   Print a table of contents for the archive to ``sys.stdout``.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.setpassword(pwd)
+
+   Set *pwd* as default password to extract encrypted files.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.read(name, pwd=None)
+
+   Return the bytes of the file *name* in the archive.  *name* is the name of the
+   file in the archive, or a :class:`ZipInfo` object.  The archive must be open for
+   read or append. *pwd* is the password used for encrypted  files and, if specified,
+   it will override the default password set with :meth:`setpassword`.  Calling
+   :meth:`read` on a ZipFile that uses a compression method other than
+   :const:`ZIP_STORED`, :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED`, :const:`ZIP_BZIP2` or
+   :const:`ZIP_LZMA` will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`. An error will also
+   be raised if the corresponding compression module is not available.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Calling :meth:`read` on a closed ZipFile will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
+      Previously, a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.testzip()
+
+   Read all the files in the archive and check their CRC's and file headers.
+   Return the name of the first bad file, or else return ``None``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Calling :meth:`testzip` on a closed ZipFile will raise a
+      :exc:`ValueError`.  Previously, a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.write(filename, arcname=None, compress_type=None, \
+                          compresslevel=None)
+
+   Write the file named *filename* to the archive, giving it the archive name
+   *arcname* (by default, this will be the same as *filename*, but without a drive
+   letter and with leading path separators removed).  If given, *compress_type*
+   overrides the value given for the *compression* parameter to the constructor for
+   the new entry. Similarly, *compresslevel* will override the constructor if
+   given.
+   The archive must be open with mode ``'w'``, ``'x'`` or ``'a'``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      Archive names should be relative to the archive root, that is, they should not
+      start with a path separator.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If ``arcname`` (or ``filename``, if ``arcname`` is  not given) contains a null
+      byte, the name of the file in the archive will be truncated at the null byte.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Calling :meth:`write` on a ZipFile created with mode ``'r'`` or
+      a closed ZipFile will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.  Previously,
+      a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+
+.. method:: ZipFile.writestr(zinfo_or_arcname, data, compress_type=None, \
+                             compresslevel=None)
+
+   Write a file into the archive.  The contents is *data*, which may be either
+   a :class:`str` or a :class:`bytes` instance; if it is a :class:`str`,
+   it is encoded as UTF-8 first.  *zinfo_or_arcname* is either the file
+   name it will be given in the archive, or a :class:`ZipInfo` instance.  If it's
+   an instance, at least the filename, date, and time must be given.  If it's a
+   name, the date and time is set to the current date and time.
+   The archive must be opened with mode ``'w'``, ``'x'`` or ``'a'``.
+
+   If given, *compress_type* overrides the value given for the *compression*
+   parameter to the constructor for the new entry, or in the *zinfo_or_arcname*
+   (if that is a :class:`ZipInfo` instance). Similarly, *compresslevel* will
+   override the constructor if given.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      When passing a :class:`ZipInfo` instance as the *zinfo_or_arcname* parameter,
+      the compression method used will be that specified in the *compress_type*
+      member of the given :class:`ZipInfo` instance.  By default, the
+      :class:`ZipInfo` constructor sets this member to :const:`ZIP_STORED`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The *compress_type* argument.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Calling :meth:`writestr` on a ZipFile created with mode ``'r'`` or
+      a closed ZipFile will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.  Previously,
+      a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised.
+
+
+The following data attributes are also available:
+
+.. attribute:: ZipFile.filename
+
+   Name of the ZIP file.
+
+.. attribute:: ZipFile.debug
+
+   The level of debug output to use.  This may be set from ``0`` (the default, no
+   output) to ``3`` (the most output).  Debugging information is written to
+   ``sys.stdout``.
+
+.. attribute:: ZipFile.comment
+
+   The comment associated with the ZIP file as a :class:`bytes` object.
+   If assigning a comment to a
+   :class:`ZipFile` instance created with mode ``'w'``, ``'x'`` or ``'a'``,
+   it should be no longer than 65535 bytes.  Comments longer than this will be
+   truncated.
+
+
+.. _pyzipfile-objects:
+
+PyZipFile Objects
+-----------------
+
+The :class:`PyZipFile` constructor takes the same parameters as the
+:class:`ZipFile` constructor, and one additional parameter, *optimize*.
+
+.. class:: PyZipFile(file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED, allowZip64=True, \
+                     optimize=-1)
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+      The *optimize* parameter.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.
+
+   Instances have one method in addition to those of :class:`ZipFile` objects:
+
+   .. method:: PyZipFile.writepy(pathname, basename='', filterfunc=None)
+
+      Search for files :file:`\*.py` and add the corresponding file to the
+      archive.
+
+      If the *optimize* parameter to :class:`PyZipFile` was not given or ``-1``,
+      the corresponding file is a :file:`\*.pyc` file, compiling if necessary.
+
+      If the *optimize* parameter to :class:`PyZipFile` was ``0``, ``1`` or
+      ``2``, only files with that optimization level (see :func:`compile`) are
+      added to the archive, compiling if necessary.
+
+      If *pathname* is a file, the filename must end with :file:`.py`, and
+      just the (corresponding :file:`\*.pyc`) file is added at the top level
+      (no path information).  If *pathname* is a file that does not end with
+      :file:`.py`, a :exc:`RuntimeError` will be raised.  If it is a directory,
+      and the directory is not a package directory, then all the files
+      :file:`\*.pyc` are added at the top level.  If the directory is a
+      package directory, then all :file:`\*.pyc` are added under the package
+      name as a file path, and if any subdirectories are package directories,
+      all of these are added recursively in sorted order.
+
+      *basename* is intended for internal use only.
+
+      *filterfunc*, if given, must be a function taking a single string
+      argument.  It will be passed each path (including each individual full
+      file path) before it is added to the archive.  If *filterfunc* returns a
+      false value, the path will not be added, and if it is a directory its
+      contents will be ignored.  For example, if our test files are all either
+      in ``test`` directories or start with the string ``test_``, we can use a
+      *filterfunc* to exclude them::
+
+          >>> zf = PyZipFile('myprog.zip')
+          >>> def notests(s):
+          ...     fn = os.path.basename(s)
+          ...     return (not (fn == 'test' or fn.startswith('test_')))
+          >>> zf.writepy('myprog', filterfunc=notests)
+
+      The :meth:`writepy` method makes archives with file names like
+      this::
+
+         string.pyc                   # Top level name
+         test/__init__.pyc            # Package directory
+         test/testall.pyc             # Module test.testall
+         test/bogus/__init__.pyc      # Subpackage directory
+         test/bogus/myfile.pyc        # Submodule test.bogus.myfile
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.4
+         The *filterfunc* parameter.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.6.2
+         The *pathname* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         Recursion sorts directory entries.
+
+
+.. _zipinfo-objects:
+
+ZipInfo Objects
+---------------
+
+Instances of the :class:`ZipInfo` class are returned by the :meth:`.getinfo` and
+:meth:`.infolist` methods of :class:`ZipFile` objects.  Each object stores
+information about a single member of the ZIP archive.
+
+There is one classmethod to make a :class:`ZipInfo` instance for a filesystem
+file:
+
+.. classmethod:: ZipInfo.from_file(filename, arcname=None)
+
+   Construct a :class:`ZipInfo` instance for a file on the filesystem, in
+   preparation for adding it to a zip file.
+
+   *filename* should be the path to a file or directory on the filesystem.
+
+   If *arcname* is specified, it is used as the name within the archive.
+   If *arcname* is not specified, the name will be the same as *filename*, but
+   with any drive letter and leading path separators removed.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6.2
+      The *filename* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+Instances have the following methods and attributes:
+
+.. method:: ZipInfo.is_dir()
+
+   Return ``True`` if this archive member is a directory.
+
+   This uses the entry's name: directories should always end with ``/``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.filename
+
+   Name of the file in the archive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.date_time
+
+   The time and date of the last modification to the archive member.  This is a
+   tuple of six values:
+
+   +-------+--------------------------+
+   | Index | Value                    |
+   +=======+==========================+
+   | ``0`` | Year (>= 1980)           |
+   +-------+--------------------------+
+   | ``1`` | Month (one-based)        |
+   +-------+--------------------------+
+   | ``2`` | Day of month (one-based) |
+   +-------+--------------------------+
+   | ``3`` | Hours (zero-based)       |
+   +-------+--------------------------+
+   | ``4`` | Minutes (zero-based)     |
+   +-------+--------------------------+
+   | ``5`` | Seconds (zero-based)     |
+   +-------+--------------------------+
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The ZIP file format does not support timestamps before 1980.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.compress_type
+
+   Type of compression for the archive member.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.comment
+
+   Comment for the individual archive member as a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.extra
+
+   Expansion field data.  The `PKZIP Application Note`_ contains
+   some comments on the internal structure of the data contained in this
+   :class:`bytes` object.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.create_system
+
+   System which created ZIP archive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.create_version
+
+   PKZIP version which created ZIP archive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.extract_version
+
+   PKZIP version needed to extract archive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.reserved
+
+   Must be zero.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.flag_bits
+
+   ZIP flag bits.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.volume
+
+   Volume number of file header.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.internal_attr
+
+   Internal attributes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.external_attr
+
+   External file attributes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.header_offset
+
+   Byte offset to the file header.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.CRC
+
+   CRC-32 of the uncompressed file.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.compress_size
+
+   Size of the compressed data.
+
+
+.. attribute:: ZipInfo.file_size
+
+   Size of the uncompressed file.
+
+
+.. _zipfile-commandline:
+.. program:: zipfile
+
+Command-Line Interface
+----------------------
+
+The :mod:`zipfile` module provides a simple command-line interface to interact
+with ZIP archives.
+
+If you want to create a new ZIP archive, specify its name after the :option:`-c`
+option and then list the filename(s) that should be included:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt
+
+Passing a directory is also acceptable:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/
+
+If you want to extract a ZIP archive into the specified directory, use
+the :option:`-e` option:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/
+
+For a list of the files in a ZIP archive, use the :option:`-l` option:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m zipfile -l monty.zip
+
+
+Command-line options
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. cmdoption:: -l <zipfile>
+               --list <zipfile>
+
+   List files in a zipfile.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -c <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
+               --create <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
+
+   Create zipfile from source files.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -e <zipfile> <output_dir>
+               --extract <zipfile> <output_dir>
+
+   Extract zipfile into target directory.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -t <zipfile>
+               --test <zipfile>
+
+   Test whether the zipfile is valid or not.
+
+
+.. _PKZIP Application Note: https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipimport.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zipimport.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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+:mod:`zipimport` --- Import modules from Zip archives
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: zipimport
+   :synopsis: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives.
+
+.. moduleauthor:: Just van Rossum <just@letterror.com>
+
+--------------
+
+This module adds the ability to import Python modules (:file:`\*.py`,
+:file:`\*.pyc`) and packages from ZIP-format archives. It is usually not
+needed to use the :mod:`zipimport` module explicitly; it is automatically used
+by the built-in :keyword:`import` mechanism for :data:`sys.path` items that are paths
+to ZIP archives.
+
+Typically, :data:`sys.path` is a list of directory names as strings.  This module
+also allows an item of :data:`sys.path` to be a string naming a ZIP file archive.
+The ZIP archive can contain a subdirectory structure to support package imports,
+and a path within the archive can be specified to only import from a
+subdirectory.  For example, the path :file:`example.zip/lib/` would only
+import from the :file:`lib/` subdirectory within the archive.
+
+Any files may be present in the ZIP archive, but only files :file:`.py` and
+:file:`.pyc` are available for import.  ZIP import of dynamic modules
+(:file:`.pyd`, :file:`.so`) is disallowed. Note that if an archive only contains
+:file:`.py` files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
+corresponding :file:`.pyc` file, meaning that if a ZIP archive
+doesn't contain :file:`.pyc` files, importing may be rather slow.
+
+ZIP archives with an archive comment are currently not supported.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `PKZIP Application Note <https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT>`_
+      Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of the format and
+      algorithms used.
+
+   :pep:`273` - Import Modules from Zip Archives
+      Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation. Python 2.3
+      follows the specification in PEP 273, but uses an implementation written by Just
+      van Rossum that uses the import hooks described in PEP 302.
+
+   :pep:`302` - New Import Hooks
+      The PEP to add the import hooks that help this module work.
+
+
+This module defines an exception:
+
+.. exception:: ZipImportError
+
+   Exception raised by zipimporter objects. It's a subclass of :exc:`ImportError`,
+   so it can be caught as :exc:`ImportError`, too.
+
+
+.. _zipimporter-objects:
+
+zipimporter Objects
+-------------------
+
+:class:`zipimporter` is the class for importing ZIP files.
+
+.. class:: zipimporter(archivepath)
+
+   Create a new zipimporter instance. *archivepath* must be a path to a ZIP
+   file, or to a specific path within a ZIP file.  For example, an *archivepath*
+   of :file:`foo/bar.zip/lib` will look for modules in the :file:`lib` directory
+   inside the ZIP file :file:`foo/bar.zip` (provided that it exists).
+
+   :exc:`ZipImportError` is raised if *archivepath* doesn't point to a valid ZIP
+   archive.
+
+   .. method:: find_module(fullname[, path])
+
+      Search for a module specified by *fullname*. *fullname* must be the fully
+      qualified (dotted) module name. It returns the zipimporter instance itself
+      if the module was found, or :const:`None` if it wasn't. The optional
+      *path* argument is ignored---it's there for compatibility with the
+      importer protocol.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_code(fullname)
+
+      Return the code object for the specified module. Raise
+      :exc:`ZipImportError` if the module couldn't be found.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_data(pathname)
+
+      Return the data associated with *pathname*. Raise :exc:`OSError` if the
+      file wasn't found.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+         :exc:`IOError` used to be raised instead of :exc:`OSError`.
+
+
+   .. method:: get_filename(fullname)
+
+      Return the value ``__file__`` would be set to if the specified module
+      was imported. Raise :exc:`ZipImportError` if the module couldn't be
+      found.
+
+      .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
+   .. method:: get_source(fullname)
+
+      Return the source code for the specified module. Raise
+      :exc:`ZipImportError` if the module couldn't be found, return
+      :const:`None` if the archive does contain the module, but has no source
+      for it.
+
+
+   .. method:: is_package(fullname)
+
+      Return ``True`` if the module specified by *fullname* is a package. Raise
+      :exc:`ZipImportError` if the module couldn't be found.
+
+
+   .. method:: load_module(fullname)
+
+      Load the module specified by *fullname*. *fullname* must be the fully
+      qualified (dotted) module name. It returns the imported module, or raises
+      :exc:`ZipImportError` if it wasn't found.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: archive
+
+      The file name of the importer's associated ZIP file, without a possible
+      subpath.
+
+
+   .. attribute:: prefix
+
+      The subpath within the ZIP file where modules are searched.  This is the
+      empty string for zipimporter objects which point to the root of the ZIP
+      file.
+
+   The :attr:`archive` and :attr:`prefix` attributes, when combined with a
+   slash, equal the original *archivepath* argument given to the
+   :class:`zipimporter` constructor.
+
+
+.. _zipimport-examples:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that the
+:mod:`zipimport` module is not explicitly used.
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ unzip -l example.zip
+   Archive:  example.zip
+     Length     Date   Time    Name
+    --------    ----   ----    ----
+        8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
+    --------                   -------
+        8467                   1 file
+   $ ./python
+   Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
+   >>> import jwzthreading
+   >>> jwzthreading.__file__
+   'example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/library/zlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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+:mod:`zlib` --- Compression compatible with :program:`gzip`
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: zlib
+   :synopsis: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines
+              compatible with gzip.
+
+--------------
+
+For applications that require data compression, the functions in this module
+allow compression and decompression, using the zlib library. The zlib library
+has its own home page at http://www.zlib.net.   There are known
+incompatibilities between the Python module and versions of the zlib library
+earlier than 1.1.3; 1.1.3 has a security vulnerability, so we recommend using
+1.1.4 or later.
+
+zlib's functions have many options and often need to be used in a particular
+order.  This documentation doesn't attempt to cover all of the permutations;
+consult the zlib manual at http://www.zlib.net/manual.html for authoritative
+information.
+
+For reading and writing ``.gz`` files see the :mod:`gzip` module.
+
+The available exception and functions in this module are:
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+   Exception raised on compression and decompression errors.
+
+
+.. function:: adler32(data[, value])
+
+   Computes an Adler-32 checksum of *data*.  (An Adler-32 checksum is almost as
+   reliable as a CRC32 but can be computed much more quickly.)  The result
+   is an unsigned 32-bit integer.  If *value* is present, it is used as
+   the starting value of the checksum; otherwise, a default value of 1
+   is used.  Passing in *value* allows computing a running checksum over the
+   concatenation of several inputs.  The algorithm is not cryptographically
+   strong, and should not be used for authentication or digital signatures.  Since
+   the algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable
+   for use as a general hash algorithm.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.0
+      Always returns an unsigned value.
+      To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and
+      platforms, use ``adler32(data) & 0xffffffff``.
+
+
+.. function:: compress(data, level=-1)
+
+   Compresses the bytes in *data*, returning a bytes object containing compressed data.
+   *level* is an integer from ``0`` to ``9`` or ``-1`` controlling the level of compression;
+   ``1`` (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest and produces the least compression, ``9`` (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION)
+   is slowest and produces the most.  ``0`` (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no compression.
+   The default value is ``-1`` (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).  Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default
+   compromise between speed and compression (currently equivalent to level 6).
+   Raises the :exc:`error` exception if any error occurs.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *level* can now be used as a keyword parameter.
+
+
+.. function:: compressobj(level=-1, method=DEFLATED, wbits=MAX_WBITS, memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL, strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])
+
+   Returns a compression object, to be used for compressing data streams that won't
+   fit into memory at once.
+
+   *level* is the compression level -- an integer from ``0`` to ``9`` or ``-1``.
+   A value of ``1`` (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest and produces the least compression,
+   while a value of ``9`` (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) is slowest and produces the most.
+   ``0`` (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no compression.  The default value is ``-1`` (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).
+   Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default compromise between speed and compression
+   (currently equivalent to level 6).
+
+   *method* is the compression algorithm. Currently, the only supported value is
+   :const:`DEFLATED`.
+
+   The *wbits* argument controls the size of the history buffer (or the
+   "window size") used when compressing data, and whether a header and
+   trailer is included in the output.  It can take several ranges of values,
+   defaulting to ``15`` (MAX_WBITS):
+
+   * +9 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size, which
+     therefore ranges between 512 and 32768.  Larger values produce
+     better compression at the expense of greater memory usage.  The
+     resulting output will include a zlib-specific header and trailer.
+
+   * −9 to −15: Uses the absolute value of *wbits* as the
+     window size logarithm, while producing a raw output stream with no
+     header or trailing checksum.
+
+   * +25 to +31 = 16 + (9 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value as the
+     window size logarithm, while including a basic :program:`gzip` header
+     and trailing checksum in the output.
+
+   The *memLevel* argument controls the amount of memory used for the
+   internal compression state. Valid values range from ``1`` to ``9``.
+   Higher values use more memory, but are faster and produce smaller output.
+
+   *strategy* is used to tune the compression algorithm. Possible values are
+   :const:`Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY`, :const:`Z_FILTERED`, :const:`Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY`,
+   :const:`Z_RLE` (zlib 1.2.0.1) and :const:`Z_FIXED` (zlib 1.2.2.2).
+
+   *zdict* is a predefined compression dictionary. This is a sequence of bytes
+   (such as a :class:`bytes` object) containing subsequences that are expected
+   to occur frequently in the data that is to be compressed. Those subsequences
+   that are expected to be most common should come at the end of the dictionary.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *zdict* parameter and keyword argument support.
+
+
+.. function:: crc32(data[, value])
+
+   .. index::
+      single: Cyclic Redundancy Check
+      single: checksum; Cyclic Redundancy Check
+
+   Computes a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) checksum of *data*. The
+   result is an unsigned 32-bit integer. If *value* is present, it is used
+   as the starting value of the checksum; otherwise, a default value of 0
+   is used.  Passing in *value* allows computing a running checksum over the
+   concatenation of several inputs.  The algorithm is not cryptographically
+   strong, and should not be used for authentication or digital signatures.  Since
+   the algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable
+   for use as a general hash algorithm.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.0
+      Always returns an unsigned value.
+      To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and
+      platforms, use ``crc32(data) & 0xffffffff``.
+
+
+.. function:: decompress(data, wbits=MAX_WBITS, bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE)
+
+   Decompresses the bytes in *data*, returning a bytes object containing the
+   uncompressed data.  The *wbits* parameter depends on
+   the format of *data*, and is discussed further below.
+   If *bufsize* is given, it is used as the initial size of the output
+   buffer.  Raises the :exc:`error` exception if any error occurs.
+
+   .. _decompress-wbits:
+
+   The *wbits* parameter controls the size of the history buffer
+   (or "window size"), and what header and trailer format is expected.
+   It is similar to the parameter for :func:`compressobj`, but accepts
+   more ranges of values:
+
+   * +8 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size.  The input
+     must include a zlib header and trailer.
+
+   * 0: Automatically determine the window size from the zlib header.
+     Only supported since zlib 1.2.3.5.
+
+   * −8 to −15: Uses the absolute value of *wbits* as the window size
+     logarithm.  The input must be a raw stream with no header or trailer.
+
+   * +24 to +31 = 16 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value as
+     the window size logarithm.  The input must include a gzip header and
+     trailer.
+
+   * +40 to +47 = 32 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value as
+     the window size logarithm, and automatically accepts either
+     the zlib or gzip format.
+
+   When decompressing a stream, the window size must not be smaller
+   than the size originally used to compress the stream; using a too-small
+   value may result in an :exc:`error` exception. The default *wbits* value
+   corresponds to the largest window size and requires a zlib header and
+   trailer to be included.
+
+   *bufsize* is the initial size of the buffer used to hold decompressed data.  If
+   more space is required, the buffer size will be increased as needed, so you
+   don't have to get this value exactly right; tuning it will only save a few calls
+   to :c:func:`malloc`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *wbits* and *bufsize* can be used as keyword arguments.
+
+.. function:: decompressobj(wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])
+
+   Returns a decompression object, to be used for decompressing data streams that
+   won't fit into memory at once.
+
+   The *wbits* parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or the
+   "window size"), and what header and trailer format is expected.  It has
+   the same meaning as `described for decompress() <#decompress-wbits>`__.
+
+   The *zdict* parameter specifies a predefined compression dictionary. If
+   provided, this must be the same dictionary as was used by the compressor that
+   produced the data that is to be decompressed.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If *zdict* is a mutable object (such as a :class:`bytearray`), you must not
+      modify its contents between the call to :func:`decompressobj` and the first
+      call to the decompressor's ``decompress()`` method.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added the *zdict* parameter.
+
+
+Compression objects support the following methods:
+
+
+.. method:: Compress.compress(data)
+
+   Compress *data*, returning a bytes object containing compressed data for at least
+   part of the data in *data*.  This data should be concatenated to the output
+   produced by any preceding calls to the :meth:`compress` method.  Some input may
+   be kept in internal buffers for later processing.
+
+
+.. method:: Compress.flush([mode])
+
+   All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the remaining compressed
+   output is returned.  *mode* can be selected from the constants
+   :const:`Z_NO_FLUSH`, :const:`Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH`, :const:`Z_SYNC_FLUSH`,
+   :const:`Z_FULL_FLUSH`, :const:`Z_BLOCK` (zlib 1.2.3.4), or :const:`Z_FINISH`,
+   defaulting to :const:`Z_FINISH`.  Except :const:`Z_FINISH`, all constants
+   allow compressing further bytestrings of data, while :const:`Z_FINISH` finishes the
+   compressed stream and prevents compressing any more data.  After calling :meth:`flush`
+   with *mode* set to :const:`Z_FINISH`, the :meth:`compress` method cannot be called again;
+   the only realistic action is to delete the object.
+
+
+.. method:: Compress.copy()
+
+   Returns a copy of the compression object.  This can be used to efficiently
+   compress a set of data that share a common initial prefix.
+
+
+Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: Decompress.unused_data
+
+   A bytes object which contains any bytes past the end of the compressed data. That is,
+   this remains ``b""`` until the last byte that contains compression data is
+   available.  If the whole bytestring turned out to contain compressed data, this is
+   ``b""``, an empty bytes object.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Decompress.unconsumed_tail
+
+   A bytes object that contains any data that was not consumed by the last
+   :meth:`decompress` call because it exceeded the limit for the uncompressed data
+   buffer.  This data has not yet been seen by the zlib machinery, so you must feed
+   it (possibly with further data concatenated to it) back to a subsequent
+   :meth:`decompress` method call in order to get correct output.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Decompress.eof
+
+   A boolean indicating whether the end of the compressed data stream has been
+   reached.
+
+   This makes it possible to distinguish between a properly-formed compressed
+   stream, and an incomplete or truncated one.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. method:: Decompress.decompress(data, max_length=0)
+
+   Decompress *data*, returning a bytes object containing the uncompressed data
+   corresponding to at least part of the data in *string*.  This data should be
+   concatenated to the output produced by any preceding calls to the
+   :meth:`decompress` method.  Some of the input data may be preserved in internal
+   buffers for later processing.
+
+   If the optional parameter *max_length* is non-zero then the return value will be
+   no longer than *max_length*. This may mean that not all of the compressed input
+   can be processed; and unconsumed data will be stored in the attribute
+   :attr:`unconsumed_tail`. This bytestring must be passed to a subsequent call to
+   :meth:`decompress` if decompression is to continue.  If *max_length* is zero
+   then the whole input is decompressed, and :attr:`unconsumed_tail` is empty.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      *max_length* can be used as a keyword argument.
+
+
+.. method:: Decompress.flush([length])
+
+   All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the remaining
+   uncompressed output is returned.  After calling :meth:`flush`, the
+   :meth:`decompress` method cannot be called again; the only realistic action is
+   to delete the object.
+
+   The optional parameter *length* sets the initial size of the output buffer.
+
+
+.. method:: Decompress.copy()
+
+   Returns a copy of the decompression object.  This can be used to save the state
+   of the decompressor midway through the data stream in order to speed up random
+   seeks into the stream at a future point.
+
+
+Information about the version of the zlib library in use is available through
+the following constants:
+
+
+.. data:: ZLIB_VERSION
+
+   The version string of the zlib library that was used for building the module.
+   This may be different from the zlib library actually used at runtime, which
+   is available as :const:`ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION`.
+
+
+.. data:: ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION
+
+   The version string of the zlib library actually loaded by the interpreter.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   Module :mod:`gzip`
+      Reading and writing :program:`gzip`\ -format files.
+
+   http://www.zlib.net
+      The zlib library home page.
+
+   http://www.zlib.net/manual.html
+      The zlib manual explains  the semantics and usage of the library's many
+      functions.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/license.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/license.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac0e2b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/license.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,915 @@
+.. highlightlang:: none
+
+.. _history-and-license:
+
+*******************
+History and License
+*******************
+
+
+History of the software
+=======================
+
+Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting
+Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl/) in the Netherlands as a
+successor of a language called ABC.  Guido remains Python's principal author,
+although it includes many contributions from others.
+
+In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National
+Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us/) in Reston,
+Virginia where he released several versions of the software.
+
+In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to
+form the BeOpen PythonLabs team.  In October of the same year, the PythonLabs
+team moved to Digital Creations (now Zope Corporation; see
+http://www.zope.com/).  In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see
+https://www.python.org/psf/) was formed, a non-profit organization created
+specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property.  Zope Corporation is a
+sponsoring member of the PSF.
+
+All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org/ for the Open
+Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also
+been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases.
+
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| Release        | Derived from | Year       | Owner      | GPL compatible? |
++================+==============+============+============+=================+
+| 0.9.0 thru 1.2 | n/a          | 1991-1995  | CWI        | yes             |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 1.3 thru 1.5.2 | 1.2          | 1995-1999  | CNRI       | yes             |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 1.6            | 1.5.2        | 2000       | CNRI       | no              |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 2.0            | 1.6          | 2000       | BeOpen.com | no              |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 1.6.1          | 1.6          | 2001       | CNRI       | no              |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 2.1            | 2.0+1.6.1    | 2001       | PSF        | no              |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 2.0.1          | 2.0+1.6.1    | 2001       | PSF        | yes             |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 2.1.1          | 2.1+2.0.1    | 2001       | PSF        | yes             |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 2.1.2          | 2.1.1        | 2002       | PSF        | yes             |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 2.1.3          | 2.1.2        | 2002       | PSF        | yes             |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+| 2.2 and above  | 2.1.1        | 2001-now   | PSF        | yes             |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
+
+.. note::
+
+   GPL-compatible doesn't mean that we're distributing Python under the GPL.  All
+   Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without
+   making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to
+   combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others
+   don't.
+
+Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido's direction to
+make these releases possible.
+
+
+Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python
+============================================================
+
+
+PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON |release|
+------------------------------------------
+
+.. parsed-literal::
+
+   1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
+      the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python
+      |release| software in source or binary form and its associated documentation.
+
+   2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
+      grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
+      analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
+      distribute, and otherwise use Python |release| alone or in any derivative
+      version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
+      copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001-2019 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
+      Reserved" are retained in Python |release| alone or in any derivative version
+      prepared by Licensee.
+
+   3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
+      incorporates Python |release| or any part thereof, and wants to make the
+      derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
+      agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python
+      |release|.
+
+   4. PSF is making Python |release| available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
+      PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
+      EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
+      WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
+      USE OF PYTHON |release| WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+   5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON |release|
+      FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
+      MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON |release|, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
+      THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.
+
+   6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
+      its terms and conditions.
+
+   7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
+      of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
+      Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
+      trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
+      third party.
+
+   8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python |release|, Licensee agrees
+      to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.
+
+
+BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0
+-------------------------------------------
+
+BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1
+
+.. parsed-literal::
+
+   1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at
+      160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
+      ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
+      form and its associated documentation ("the Software").
+
+   2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
+      BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
+      to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
+      works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
+      version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
+      Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.
+
+   3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
+      BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
+      EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
+      WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
+      USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+   4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
+      ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
+      MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
+      ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.
+
+   5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
+      its terms and conditions.
+
+   6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
+      by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
+      Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
+      agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
+      Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
+      trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
+      third party.  As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at
+      http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions
+      granted on that web page.
+
+   7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
+      bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.
+
+
+CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1
+---------------------------------------
+
+.. parsed-literal::
+
+   1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
+      Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
+      ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and
+      otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
+      associated documentation.
+
+   2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
+      grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
+      analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
+      distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
+      provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright,
+      i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
+      Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
+      prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement,
+      Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1
+      is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License
+      Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
+      Internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
+      1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
+      Internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013."
+
+   3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
+      incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
+      work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
+      include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.
+
+   4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.  CNRI
+      MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
+      BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
+      OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
+      PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+   5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
+      ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
+      MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
+      THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.
+
+   6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
+      its terms and conditions.
+
+   7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
+      law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
+      law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
+      Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions.
+      Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
+      1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
+      under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
+      Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
+      with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
+      this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
+      partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
+      does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
+      sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
+      party.
+
+   8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing
+      or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
+      conditions of this License Agreement.
+
+
+CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+.. parsed-literal::
+
+   Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
+   Netherlands.  All rights reserved.
+
+   Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
+   documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
+   the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
+   notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
+   the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
+   publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
+   prior permission.
+
+   STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
+   SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
+   EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
+   OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
+   DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
+   ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
+   SOFTWARE.
+
+
+Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software
+=======================================================
+
+This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements
+for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution.
+
+
+Mersenne Twister
+----------------
+
+The :mod:`_random` module includes code based on a download from
+http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html. The following are
+the verbatim comments from the original code::
+
+   A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
+   Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.
+
+   Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
+   or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).
+
+   Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
+   All rights reserved.
+
+   Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+   modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+   are met:
+
+    1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+    2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+       documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+    3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
+       products derived from this software without specific prior written
+       permission.
+
+   THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+   "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+   LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+   A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
+   CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
+   EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
+   PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
+   PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+   LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+   NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+   SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+
+   Any feedback is very welcome.
+   http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
+   email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)
+
+
+Sockets
+-------
+
+The :mod:`socket` module uses the functions, :func:`getaddrinfo`, and
+:func:`getnameinfo`, which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE
+Project, http://www.wide.ad.jp/. ::
+
+   Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
+   All rights reserved.
+
+   Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+   modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+   are met:
+   1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+      notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+   2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+      notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+      documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+   3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
+      may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+      without specific prior written permission.
+
+   THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+   ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+   IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+   ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+   FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+   DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+   OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+   HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+   LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+   OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+   SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+
+Asynchronous socket services
+----------------------------
+
+The :mod:`asynchat` and :mod:`asyncore` modules contain the following notice::
+
+   Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing
+
+                           All Rights Reserved
+
+   Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
+   its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
+   granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
+   copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
+   notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
+   Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
+   distribution of the software without specific, written prior
+   permission.
+
+   SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
+   INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
+   NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
+   CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+   OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
+   NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
+   CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+
+Cookie management
+-----------------
+
+The :mod:`http.cookies` module contains the following notice::
+
+   Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>
+
+                  All Rights Reserved
+
+   Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
+   and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
+   granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
+   copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
+   notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
+   Timothy O'Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
+   pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
+   prior permission.
+
+   Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
+   SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
+   AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR
+   ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+   WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+   WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
+   ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
+   PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+
+Execution tracing
+-----------------
+
+The :mod:`trace` module contains the following notice::
+
+   portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
+   err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
+   Python 2.2 license.
+   Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx
+   http://zooko.com/
+   mailto:zooko@zooko.com
+
+   Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
+   Author: Skip Montanaro
+
+   Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
+   Author: Andrew Dalke
+
+   Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
+   Author: Skip Montanaro
+
+   Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.
+
+
+   Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
+   its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
+   granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
+   and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
+   supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
+   Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
+   distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.
+
+
+UUencode and UUdecode functions
+-------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`uu` module contains the following notice::
+
+   Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
+   Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
+                          All Rights Reserved
+   Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
+   documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
+   provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
+   both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
+   supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
+   not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
+   of the software without specific, written prior permission.
+   LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
+   THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+   FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
+   FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+   WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+   ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
+   OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+   Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
+   - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
+     between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
+     version is still 5 times faster, though.
+   - Arguments more compliant with Python standard
+
+
+XML Remote Procedure Calls
+--------------------------
+
+The :mod:`xmlrpc.client` module contains the following notice::
+
+       The XML-RPC client interface is
+
+   Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
+   Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh
+
+   By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
+   associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
+   and will comply with the following terms and conditions:
+
+   Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
+   its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
+   hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
+   all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
+   notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
+   Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
+   pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
+   prior permission.
+
+   SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
+   TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
+   ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
+   BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
+   DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+   WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
+   ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
+   OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+
+test_epoll
+----------
+
+The :mod:`test_epoll` module contains the following notice::
+
+  Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
+
+  Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+  a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+  "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+  without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+  distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+  permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+  the following conditions:
+
+  The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+  included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+  THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+  EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+  MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+  NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+  LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+  OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+  WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+
+Select kqueue
+-------------
+
+The :mod:`select` module contains the following notice for the kqueue
+interface::
+
+  Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
+  All rights reserved.
+
+  Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+  modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+  are met:
+  1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+     notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+  2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+     notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+     documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+  THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+  ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+  IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+  ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+  FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+  DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+  OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+  HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+  LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+  OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+  SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+
+SipHash24
+---------
+
+The file :file:`Python/pyhash.c` contains Marek Majkowski' implementation of
+Dan Bernstein's SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note::
+
+  <MIT License>
+  Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org>
+
+  Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+  of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+  in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+  to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+  copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+  furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+  The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+  all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+  </MIT License>
+
+  Original location:
+     https://github.com/majek/csiphash/
+
+  Solution inspired by code from:
+     Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
+     djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
+     Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)
+
+
+strtod and dtoa
+---------------
+
+The file :file:`Python/dtoa.c`, which supplies C functions dtoa and
+strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived
+from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available
+from http://www.netlib.org/fp/.  The original file, as retrieved on
+March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing
+notice::
+
+   /****************************************************************
+    *
+    * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
+    *
+    * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
+    *
+    * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
+    * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
+    * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
+    * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
+    * documentation for such software.
+    *
+    * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
+    * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
+    * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
+    * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
+    *
+    ***************************************************************/
+
+
+OpenSSL
+-------
+
+The modules :mod:`hashlib`, :mod:`posix`, :mod:`ssl`, :mod:`crypt` use
+the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the
+operating system. Additionally, the Windows and Mac OS X installers for
+Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy
+of the OpenSSL license here::
+
+
+  LICENSE ISSUES
+  ==============
+
+  The OpenSSL toolkit stays under a dual license, i.e. both the conditions of
+  the OpenSSL License and the original SSLeay license apply to the toolkit.
+  See below for the actual license texts. Actually both licenses are BSD-style
+  Open Source licenses. In case of any license issues related to OpenSSL
+  please contact openssl-core@openssl.org.
+
+  OpenSSL License
+  ---------------
+
+    /* ====================================================================
+     * Copyright (c) 1998-2008 The OpenSSL Project.  All rights reserved.
+     *
+     * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+     * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+     * are met:
+     *
+     * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+     *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+     *
+     * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+     *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in
+     *    the documentation and/or other materials provided with the
+     *    distribution.
+     *
+     * 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this
+     *    software must display the following acknowledgment:
+     *    "This product includes software developed by the OpenSSL Project
+     *    for use in the OpenSSL Toolkit. (http://www.openssl.org/)"
+     *
+     * 4. The names "OpenSSL Toolkit" and "OpenSSL Project" must not be used to
+     *    endorse or promote products derived from this software without
+     *    prior written permission. For written permission, please contact
+     *    openssl-core@openssl.org.
+     *
+     * 5. Products derived from this software may not be called "OpenSSL"
+     *    nor may "OpenSSL" appear in their names without prior written
+     *    permission of the OpenSSL Project.
+     *
+     * 6. Redistributions of any form whatsoever must retain the following
+     *    acknowledgment:
+     *    "This product includes software developed by the OpenSSL Project
+     *    for use in the OpenSSL Toolkit (http://www.openssl.org/)"
+     *
+     * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE OpenSSL PROJECT ``AS IS'' AND ANY
+     * EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+     * IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
+     * PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE OpenSSL PROJECT OR
+     * ITS CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+     * SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT
+     * NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
+     * LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+     * HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
+     * STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
+     * ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
+     * OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+     * ====================================================================
+     *
+     * This product includes cryptographic software written by Eric Young
+     * (eay@cryptsoft.com).  This product includes software written by Tim
+     * Hudson (tjh@cryptsoft.com).
+     *
+     */
+
+ Original SSLeay License
+ -----------------------
+
+    /* Copyright (C) 1995-1998 Eric Young (eay@cryptsoft.com)
+     * All rights reserved.
+     *
+     * This package is an SSL implementation written
+     * by Eric Young (eay@cryptsoft.com).
+     * The implementation was written so as to conform with Netscapes SSL.
+     *
+     * This library is free for commercial and non-commercial use as long as
+     * the following conditions are aheared to.  The following conditions
+     * apply to all code found in this distribution, be it the RC4, RSA,
+     * lhash, DES, etc., code; not just the SSL code.  The SSL documentation
+     * included with this distribution is covered by the same copyright terms
+     * except that the holder is Tim Hudson (tjh@cryptsoft.com).
+     *
+     * Copyright remains Eric Young's, and as such any Copyright notices in
+     * the code are not to be removed.
+     * If this package is used in a product, Eric Young should be given attribution
+     * as the author of the parts of the library used.
+     * This can be in the form of a textual message at program startup or
+     * in documentation (online or textual) provided with the package.
+     *
+     * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+     * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+     * are met:
+     * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the copyright
+     *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+     * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+     *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+     *    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+     * 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
+     *    must display the following acknowledgement:
+     *    "This product includes cryptographic software written by
+     *     Eric Young (eay@cryptsoft.com)"
+     *    The word 'cryptographic' can be left out if the rouines from the library
+     *    being used are not cryptographic related :-).
+     * 4. If you include any Windows specific code (or a derivative thereof) from
+     *    the apps directory (application code) you must include an acknowledgement:
+     *    "This product includes software written by Tim Hudson (tjh@cryptsoft.com)"
+     *
+     * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY ERIC YOUNG ``AS IS'' AND
+     * ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+     * IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+     * ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+     * FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+     * DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+     * OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+     * HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+     * LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+     * OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+     * SUCH DAMAGE.
+     *
+     * The licence and distribution terms for any publically available version or
+     * derivative of this code cannot be changed.  i.e. this code cannot simply be
+     * copied and put under another distribution licence
+     * [including the GNU Public Licence.]
+     */
+
+
+expat
+-----
+
+The :mod:`pyexpat` extension is built using an included copy of the expat
+sources unless the build is configured ``--with-system-expat``::
+
+  Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd
+                                 and Clark Cooper
+
+  Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+  a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+  "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+  without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+  distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+  permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+  the following conditions:
+
+  The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+  in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+  THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+  EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+  MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
+  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+  CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
+  TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
+  SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+
+
+libffi
+------
+
+The :mod:`_ctypes` extension is built using an included copy of the libffi
+sources unless the build is configured ``--with-system-libffi``::
+
+   Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.
+
+   Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+   a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+   ``Software''), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+   without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+   distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+   permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+   the following conditions:
+
+   The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+   in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+   THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED ``AS IS'', WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+   EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+   MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+   NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
+   HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
+   WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+   OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+   DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+
+
+zlib
+----
+
+The :mod:`zlib` extension is built using an included copy of the zlib
+sources if the zlib version found on the system is too old to be
+used for the build::
+
+  Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler
+
+  This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
+  warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+  arising from the use of this software.
+
+  Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+  including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+  freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+  1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+     claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+     in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+     appreciated but is not required.
+
+  2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+     misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+  3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.
+
+  Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
+  jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu
+
+
+cfuhash
+-------
+
+The implementation of the hash table used by the :mod:`tracemalloc` is based
+on the cfuhash project::
+
+   Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
+   All rights reserved.
+
+   This code is released under the BSD license:
+
+   Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+   modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+   are met:
+
+     * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
+       copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
+       disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
+       with the distribution.
+
+     * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
+       contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
+       from this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+   THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+   "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+   LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
+   FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+   COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
+   INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
+   (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
+   SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+   HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
+   STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
+   ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
+   OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+
+libmpdec
+--------
+
+The :mod:`_decimal` module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec
+library unless the build is configured ``--with-system-libmpdec``::
+
+   Copyright (c) 2008-2016 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.
+
+   Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+   modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+   are met:
+
+   1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+      notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+   2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+      notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+      documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+   THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
+   ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+   IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+   ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+   FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+   DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+   OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+   HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+   LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+   OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+   SUCH DAMAGE.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/compound_stmts.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/compound_stmts.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d84274
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/compound_stmts.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,853 @@
+.. _compound:
+
+*******************
+Compound statements
+*******************
+
+.. index:: pair: compound; statement
+
+Compound statements contain (groups of) other statements; they affect or control
+the execution of those other statements in some way.  In general, compound
+statements span multiple lines, although in simple incarnations a whole compound
+statement may be contained in one line.
+
+The :keyword:`if`, :keyword:`while` and :keyword:`for` statements implement
+traditional control flow constructs.  :keyword:`try` specifies exception
+handlers and/or cleanup code for a group of statements, while the
+:keyword:`with` statement allows the execution of initialization and
+finalization code around a block of code.  Function and class definitions are
+also syntactically compound statements.
+
+.. index::
+   single: clause
+   single: suite
+   single: ; (semicolon)
+
+A compound statement consists of one or more 'clauses.'  A clause consists of a
+header and a 'suite.'  The clause headers of a particular compound statement are
+all at the same indentation level. Each clause header begins with a uniquely
+identifying keyword and ends with a colon.  A suite is a group of statements
+controlled by a clause.  A suite can be one or more semicolon-separated simple
+statements on the same line as the header, following the header's colon, or it
+can be one or more indented statements on subsequent lines.  Only the latter
+form of a suite can contain nested compound statements; the following is illegal,
+mostly because it wouldn't be clear to which :keyword:`if` clause a following
+:keyword:`else` clause would belong::
+
+   if test1: if test2: print(x)
+
+Also note that the semicolon binds tighter than the colon in this context, so
+that in the following example, either all or none of the :func:`print` calls are
+executed::
+
+   if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)
+
+Summarizing:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   compound_stmt: `if_stmt`
+                : | `while_stmt`
+                : | `for_stmt`
+                : | `try_stmt`
+                : | `with_stmt`
+                : | `funcdef`
+                : | `classdef`
+                : | `async_with_stmt`
+                : | `async_for_stmt`
+                : | `async_funcdef`
+   suite: `stmt_list` NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT `statement`+ DEDENT
+   statement: `stmt_list` NEWLINE | `compound_stmt`
+   stmt_list: `simple_stmt` (";" `simple_stmt`)* [";"]
+
+.. index::
+   single: NEWLINE token
+   single: DEDENT token
+   pair: dangling; else
+
+Note that statements always end in a ``NEWLINE`` possibly followed by a
+``DEDENT``.  Also note that optional continuation clauses always begin with a
+keyword that cannot start a statement, thus there are no ambiguities (the
+'dangling :keyword:`else`' problem is solved in Python by requiring nested
+:keyword:`if` statements to be indented).
+
+The formatting of the grammar rules in the following sections places each clause
+on a separate line for clarity.
+
+
+.. _if:
+.. _elif:
+.. _else:
+
+The :keyword:`!if` statement
+============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: if
+   keyword: elif
+   keyword: else
+   single: : (colon); compound statement
+
+The :keyword:`if` statement is used for conditional execution:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   if_stmt: "if" `expression` ":" `suite`
+          : ("elif" `expression` ":" `suite`)*
+          : ["else" ":" `suite`]
+
+It selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one by one
+until one is found to be true (see section :ref:`booleans` for the definition of
+true and false); then that suite is executed (and no other part of the
+:keyword:`if` statement is executed or evaluated).  If all expressions are
+false, the suite of the :keyword:`else` clause, if present, is executed.
+
+
+.. _while:
+
+The :keyword:`!while` statement
+===============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: while
+   keyword: else
+   pair: loop; statement
+   single: : (colon); compound statement
+
+The :keyword:`while` statement is used for repeated execution as long as an
+expression is true:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   while_stmt: "while" `expression` ":" `suite`
+             : ["else" ":" `suite`]
+
+This repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the first
+suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time it is tested) the
+suite of the :keyword:`!else` clause, if present, is executed and the loop
+terminates.
+
+.. index::
+   statement: break
+   statement: continue
+
+A :keyword:`break` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop
+without executing the :keyword:`!else` clause's suite.  A :keyword:`continue`
+statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and goes back
+to testing the expression.
+
+
+.. _for:
+
+The :keyword:`!for` statement
+=============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: for
+   keyword: in
+   keyword: else
+   pair: target; list
+   pair: loop; statement
+   object: sequence
+   single: : (colon); compound statement
+
+The :keyword:`for` statement is used to iterate over the elements of a sequence
+(such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   for_stmt: "for" `target_list` "in" `expression_list` ":" `suite`
+           : ["else" ":" `suite`]
+
+The expression list is evaluated once; it should yield an iterable object.  An
+iterator is created for the result of the ``expression_list``.  The suite is
+then executed once for each item provided by the iterator, in the order returned
+by the iterator.  Each item in turn is assigned to the target list using the
+standard rules for assignments (see :ref:`assignment`), and then the suite is
+executed.  When the items are exhausted (which is immediately when the sequence
+is empty or an iterator raises a :exc:`StopIteration` exception), the suite in
+the :keyword:`!else` clause, if present, is executed, and the loop terminates.
+
+.. index::
+   statement: break
+   statement: continue
+
+A :keyword:`break` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop
+without executing the :keyword:`!else` clause's suite.  A :keyword:`continue`
+statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and continues
+with the next item, or with the :keyword:`!else` clause if there is no next
+item.
+
+The for-loop makes assignments to the variables(s) in the target list.
+This overwrites all previous assignments to those variables including
+those made in the suite of the for-loop::
+
+   for i in range(10):
+       print(i)
+       i = 5             # this will not affect the for-loop
+                         # because i will be overwritten with the next
+                         # index in the range
+
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: range
+
+Names in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished, but if the
+sequence is empty, they will not have been assigned to at all by the loop.  Hint:
+the built-in function :func:`range` returns an iterator of integers suitable to
+emulate the effect of Pascal's ``for i := a to b do``; e.g., ``list(range(3))``
+returns the list ``[0, 1, 2]``.
+
+.. note::
+
+   .. index::
+      single: loop; over mutable sequence
+      single: mutable sequence; loop over
+
+   There is a subtlety when the sequence is being modified by the loop (this can
+   only occur for mutable sequences, e.g. lists).  An internal counter is used
+   to keep track of which item is used next, and this is incremented on each
+   iteration.  When this counter has reached the length of the sequence the loop
+   terminates.  This means that if the suite deletes the current (or a previous)
+   item from the sequence, the next item will be skipped (since it gets the
+   index of the current item which has already been treated).  Likewise, if the
+   suite inserts an item in the sequence before the current item, the current
+   item will be treated again the next time through the loop. This can lead to
+   nasty bugs that can be avoided by making a temporary copy using a slice of
+   the whole sequence, e.g., ::
+
+      for x in a[:]:
+          if x < 0: a.remove(x)
+
+
+.. _try:
+.. _except:
+.. _finally:
+
+The :keyword:`!try` statement
+=============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: try
+   keyword: except
+   keyword: finally
+   keyword: else
+   keyword: as
+   single: : (colon); compound statement
+
+The :keyword:`try` statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code
+for a group of statements:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   try_stmt: `try1_stmt` | `try2_stmt`
+   try1_stmt: "try" ":" `suite`
+            : ("except" [`expression` ["as" `identifier`]] ":" `suite`)+
+            : ["else" ":" `suite`]
+            : ["finally" ":" `suite`]
+   try2_stmt: "try" ":" `suite`
+            : "finally" ":" `suite`
+
+
+The :keyword:`except` clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers. When no
+exception occurs in the :keyword:`try` clause, no exception handler is executed.
+When an exception occurs in the :keyword:`!try` suite, a search for an exception
+handler is started.  This search inspects the except clauses in turn until one
+is found that matches the exception.  An expression-less except clause, if
+present, must be last; it matches any exception.  For an except clause with an
+expression, that expression is evaluated, and the clause matches the exception
+if the resulting object is "compatible" with the exception.  An object is
+compatible with an exception if it is the class or a base class of the exception
+object or a tuple containing an item compatible with the exception.
+
+If no except clause matches the exception, the search for an exception handler
+continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.  [#]_
+
+If the evaluation of an expression in the header of an except clause raises an
+exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and a search starts for
+the new exception in the surrounding code and on the call stack (it is treated
+as if the entire :keyword:`try` statement raised the exception).
+
+.. index:: single: as; except clause
+
+When a matching except clause is found, the exception is assigned to the target
+specified after the :keyword:`!as` keyword in that except clause, if present, and
+the except clause's suite is executed.  All except clauses must have an
+executable block.  When the end of this block is reached, execution continues
+normally after the entire try statement.  (This means that if two nested
+handlers exist for the same exception, and the exception occurs in the try
+clause of the inner handler, the outer handler will not handle the exception.)
+
+When an exception has been assigned using ``as target``, it is cleared at the
+end of the except clause.  This is as if ::
+
+   except E as N:
+       foo
+
+was translated to ::
+
+   except E as N:
+       try:
+           foo
+       finally:
+           del N
+
+This means the exception must be assigned to a different name to be able to
+refer to it after the except clause.  Exceptions are cleared because with the
+traceback attached to them, they form a reference cycle with the stack frame,
+keeping all locals in that frame alive until the next garbage collection occurs.
+
+.. index::
+   module: sys
+   object: traceback
+
+Before an except clause's suite is executed, details about the exception are
+stored in the :mod:`sys` module and can be accessed via :func:`sys.exc_info`.
+:func:`sys.exc_info` returns a 3-tuple consisting of the exception class, the
+exception instance and a traceback object (see section :ref:`types`) identifying
+the point in the program where the exception occurred.  :func:`sys.exc_info`
+values are restored to their previous values (before the call) when returning
+from a function that handled an exception.
+
+.. index::
+   keyword: else
+   statement: return
+   statement: break
+   statement: continue
+
+The optional :keyword:`!else` clause is executed if the control flow leaves the
+:keyword:`try` suite, no exception was raised, and no :keyword:`return`,
+:keyword:`continue`, or :keyword:`break` statement was executed.  Exceptions in
+the :keyword:`!else` clause are not handled by the preceding :keyword:`except`
+clauses.
+
+.. index:: keyword: finally
+
+If :keyword:`finally` is present, it specifies a 'cleanup' handler.  The
+:keyword:`try` clause is executed, including any :keyword:`except` and
+:keyword:`!else` clauses.  If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is
+not handled, the exception is temporarily saved. The :keyword:`!finally` clause
+is executed.  If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at the end of the
+:keyword:`!finally` clause.  If the :keyword:`!finally` clause raises another
+exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new exception.
+If the :keyword:`!finally` clause executes a :keyword:`return` or :keyword:`break`
+statement, the saved exception is discarded::
+
+   >>> def f():
+   ...     try:
+   ...         1/0
+   ...     finally:
+   ...         return 42
+   ...
+   >>> f()
+   42
+
+The exception information is not available to the program during execution of
+the :keyword:`finally` clause.
+
+.. index::
+   statement: return
+   statement: break
+   statement: continue
+
+When a :keyword:`return`, :keyword:`break` or :keyword:`continue` statement is
+executed in the :keyword:`try` suite of a :keyword:`!try`...\ :keyword:`!finally`
+statement, the :keyword:`finally` clause is also executed 'on the way out.' A
+:keyword:`continue` statement is illegal in the :keyword:`!finally` clause. (The
+reason is a problem with the current implementation --- this restriction may be
+lifted in the future).
+
+The return value of a function is determined by the last :keyword:`return`
+statement executed.  Since the :keyword:`finally` clause always executes, a
+:keyword:`!return` statement executed in the :keyword:`!finally` clause will
+always be the last one executed::
+
+   >>> def foo():
+   ...     try:
+   ...         return 'try'
+   ...     finally:
+   ...         return 'finally'
+   ...
+   >>> foo()
+   'finally'
+
+Additional information on exceptions can be found in section :ref:`exceptions`,
+and information on using the :keyword:`raise` statement to generate exceptions
+may be found in section :ref:`raise`.
+
+
+.. _with:
+.. _as:
+
+The :keyword:`!with` statement
+==============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: with
+   keyword: as
+   single: as; with statement
+   single: , (comma); with statement
+   single: : (colon); compound statement
+
+The :keyword:`with` statement is used to wrap the execution of a block with
+methods defined by a context manager (see section :ref:`context-managers`).
+This allows common :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except`...\ :keyword:`finally`
+usage patterns to be encapsulated for convenient reuse.
+
+.. productionlist::
+   with_stmt: "with" `with_item` ("," `with_item`)* ":" `suite`
+   with_item: `expression` ["as" `target`]
+
+The execution of the :keyword:`with` statement with one "item" proceeds as follows:
+
+#. The context expression (the expression given in the :token:`with_item`) is
+   evaluated to obtain a context manager.
+
+#. The context manager's :meth:`__exit__` is loaded for later use.
+
+#. The context manager's :meth:`__enter__` method is invoked.
+
+#. If a target was included in the :keyword:`with` statement, the return value
+   from :meth:`__enter__` is assigned to it.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The :keyword:`with` statement guarantees that if the :meth:`__enter__`
+      method returns without an error, then :meth:`__exit__` will always be
+      called. Thus, if an error occurs during the assignment to the target list,
+      it will be treated the same as an error occurring within the suite would
+      be. See step 6 below.
+
+#. The suite is executed.
+
+#. The context manager's :meth:`__exit__` method is invoked.  If an exception
+   caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and traceback are passed as
+   arguments to :meth:`__exit__`. Otherwise, three :const:`None` arguments are
+   supplied.
+
+   If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value from the
+   :meth:`__exit__` method was false, the exception is reraised.  If the return
+   value was true, the exception is suppressed, and execution continues with the
+   statement following the :keyword:`with` statement.
+
+   If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the return
+   value from :meth:`__exit__` is ignored, and execution proceeds at the normal
+   location for the kind of exit that was taken.
+
+With more than one item, the context managers are processed as if multiple
+:keyword:`with` statements were nested::
+
+   with A() as a, B() as b:
+       suite
+
+is equivalent to ::
+
+   with A() as a:
+       with B() as b:
+           suite
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+   Support for multiple context expressions.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`343` - The "with" statement
+      The specification, background, and examples for the Python :keyword:`with`
+      statement.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: parameter; function definition
+
+.. _function:
+.. _def:
+
+Function definitions
+====================
+
+.. index::
+   statement: def
+   pair: function; definition
+   pair: function; name
+   pair: name; binding
+   object: user-defined function
+   object: function
+   pair: function; name
+   pair: name; binding
+   single: () (parentheses); function definition
+   single: , (comma); parameter list
+   single: : (colon); compound statement
+
+A function definition defines a user-defined function object (see section
+:ref:`types`):
+
+.. productionlist::
+   funcdef: [`decorators`] "def" `funcname` "(" [`parameter_list`] ")"
+          : ["->" `expression`] ":" `suite`
+   decorators: `decorator`+
+   decorator: "@" `dotted_name` ["(" [`argument_list` [","]] ")"] NEWLINE
+   dotted_name: `identifier` ("." `identifier`)*
+   parameter_list: `defparameter` ("," `defparameter`)* ["," [`parameter_list_starargs`]]
+                 : | `parameter_list_starargs`
+   parameter_list_starargs: "*" [`parameter`] ("," `defparameter`)* ["," ["**" `parameter` [","]]]
+                          : | "**" `parameter` [","]
+   parameter: `identifier` [":" `expression`]
+   defparameter: `parameter` ["=" `expression`]
+   funcname: `identifier`
+
+
+A function definition is an executable statement.  Its execution binds the
+function name in the current local namespace to a function object (a wrapper
+around the executable code for the function).  This function object contains a
+reference to the current global namespace as the global namespace to be used
+when the function is called.
+
+The function definition does not execute the function body; this gets executed
+only when the function is called. [#]_
+
+.. index::
+   single: @ (at); function definition
+
+A function definition may be wrapped by one or more :term:`decorator` expressions.
+Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function is defined, in the scope
+that contains the function definition.  The result must be a callable, which is
+invoked with the function object as the only argument. The returned value is
+bound to the function name instead of the function object.  Multiple decorators
+are applied in nested fashion. For example, the following code ::
+
+   @f1(arg)
+   @f2
+   def func(): pass
+
+is roughly equivalent to ::
+
+   def func(): pass
+   func = f1(arg)(f2(func))
+
+except that the original function is not temporarily bound to the name ``func``.
+
+.. index::
+   triple: default; parameter; value
+   single: argument; function definition
+   single: = (equals); function definition
+
+When one or more :term:`parameters <parameter>` have the form *parameter* ``=``
+*expression*, the function is said to have "default parameter values."  For a
+parameter with a default value, the corresponding :term:`argument` may be
+omitted from a call, in which
+case the parameter's default value is substituted.  If a parameter has a default
+value, all following parameters up until the "``*``" must also have a default
+value --- this is a syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.
+
+**Default parameter values are evaluated from left to right when the function
+definition is executed.** This means that the expression is evaluated once, when
+the function is defined, and that the same "pre-computed" value is used for each
+call.  This is especially important to understand when a default parameter is a
+mutable object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the
+object (e.g. by appending an item to a list), the default value is in effect
+modified.  This is generally not what was intended.  A way around this is to use
+``None`` as the default, and explicitly test for it in the body of the function,
+e.g.::
+
+   def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
+       if penguin is None:
+           penguin = []
+       penguin.append("property of the zoo")
+       return penguin
+
+.. index::
+   single: * (asterisk); function definition
+   single: **; function definition
+
+Function call semantics are described in more detail in section :ref:`calls`. A
+function call always assigns values to all parameters mentioned in the parameter
+list, either from position arguments, from keyword arguments, or from default
+values.  If the form "``*identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a tuple
+receiving any excess positional parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple.
+If the form "``**identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a new
+ordered mapping receiving any excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a
+new empty mapping of the same type.  Parameters after "``*``" or
+"``*identifier``" are keyword-only parameters and may only be passed
+used keyword arguments.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: function; annotations
+   single: ->; function annotations
+   single: : (colon); function annotations
+
+Parameters may have an :term:`annotation <function annotation>` of the form "``: expression``"
+following the parameter name.  Any parameter may have an annotation, even those of the form
+``*identifier`` or ``**identifier``.  Functions may have "return" annotation of
+the form "``-> expression``" after the parameter list.  These annotations can be
+any valid Python expression.  The presence of annotations does not change the
+semantics of a function.  The annotation values are available as values of
+a dictionary keyed by the parameters' names in the :attr:`__annotations__`
+attribute of the function object.  If the ``annotations`` import from
+:mod:`__future__` is used, annotations are preserved as strings at runtime which
+enables postponed evaluation.  Otherwise, they are evaluated when the function
+definition is executed.  In this case annotations may be evaluated in
+a different order than they appear in the source code.
+
+.. index:: pair: lambda; expression
+
+It is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound to a
+name), for immediate use in expressions.  This uses lambda expressions, described in
+section :ref:`lambda`.  Note that the lambda expression is merely a shorthand for a
+simplified function definition; a function defined in a ":keyword:`def`"
+statement can be passed around or assigned to another name just like a function
+defined by a lambda expression.  The ":keyword:`!def`" form is actually more powerful
+since it allows the execution of multiple statements and annotations.
+
+**Programmer's note:** Functions are first-class objects.  A "``def``" statement
+executed inside a function definition defines a local function that can be
+returned or passed around.  Free variables used in the nested function can
+access the local variables of the function containing the def.  See section
+:ref:`naming` for details.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3107` - Function Annotations
+      The original specification for function annotations.
+
+   :pep:`484` - Type Hints
+      Definition of a standard meaning for annotations: type hints.
+
+   :pep:`526` - Syntax for Variable Annotations
+      Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class
+      variables and instance variables
+
+   :pep:`563` - Postponed Evaluation of Annotations
+      Support for forward references within annotations by preserving
+      annotations in a string form at runtime instead of eager evaluation.
+
+
+.. _class:
+
+Class definitions
+=================
+
+.. index::
+   object: class
+   statement: class
+   pair: class; definition
+   pair: class; name
+   pair: name; binding
+   pair: execution; frame
+   single: inheritance
+   single: docstring
+   single: () (parentheses); class definition
+   single: , (comma); expression list
+   single: : (colon); compound statement
+
+A class definition defines a class object (see section :ref:`types`):
+
+.. productionlist::
+   classdef: [`decorators`] "class" `classname` [`inheritance`] ":" `suite`
+   inheritance: "(" [`argument_list`] ")"
+   classname: `identifier`
+
+A class definition is an executable statement.  The inheritance list usually
+gives a list of base classes (see :ref:`metaclasses` for more advanced uses), so
+each item in the list should evaluate to a class object which allows
+subclassing.  Classes without an inheritance list inherit, by default, from the
+base class :class:`object`; hence, ::
+
+   class Foo:
+       pass
+
+is equivalent to ::
+
+   class Foo(object):
+       pass
+
+The class's suite is then executed in a new execution frame (see :ref:`naming`),
+using a newly created local namespace and the original global namespace.
+(Usually, the suite contains mostly function definitions.)  When the class's
+suite finishes execution, its execution frame is discarded but its local
+namespace is saved. [#]_ A class object is then created using the inheritance
+list for the base classes and the saved local namespace for the attribute
+dictionary.  The class name is bound to this class object in the original local
+namespace.
+
+The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
+in the new class's ``__dict__``.  Note that this is reliable only right
+after the class is created and only for classes that were defined using
+the definition syntax.
+
+Class creation can be customized heavily using :ref:`metaclasses <metaclasses>`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: @ (at); class definition
+
+Classes can also be decorated: just like when decorating functions, ::
+
+   @f1(arg)
+   @f2
+   class Foo: pass
+
+is roughly equivalent to ::
+
+   class Foo: pass
+   Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))
+
+The evaluation rules for the decorator expressions are the same as for function
+decorators.  The result is then bound to the class name.
+
+**Programmer's note:** Variables defined in the class definition are class
+attributes; they are shared by instances.  Instance attributes can be set in a
+method with ``self.name = value``.  Both class and instance attributes are
+accessible through the notation "``self.name``", and an instance attribute hides
+a class attribute with the same name when accessed in this way.  Class
+attributes can be used as defaults for instance attributes, but using mutable
+values there can lead to unexpected results.  :ref:`Descriptors <descriptors>`
+can be used to create instance variables with different implementation details.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3115` - Metaclasses in Python 3000
+      The proposal that changed the declaration of metaclasses to the current
+      syntax, and the semantics for how classes with metaclasses are
+      constructed.
+
+   :pep:`3129` - Class Decorators
+      The proposal that added class decorators.  Function and method decorators
+      were introduced in :pep:`318`.
+
+
+.. _async:
+
+Coroutines
+==========
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. index:: statement: async def
+.. _`async def`:
+
+Coroutine function definition
+-----------------------------
+
+.. productionlist::
+   async_funcdef: [`decorators`] "async" "def" `funcname` "(" [`parameter_list`] ")"
+                : ["->" `expression`] ":" `suite`
+
+.. index::
+   keyword: async
+   keyword: await
+
+Execution of Python coroutines can be suspended and resumed at many points
+(see :term:`coroutine`).  Inside the body of a coroutine function, ``await`` and
+``async`` identifiers become reserved keywords; :keyword:`await` expressions,
+:keyword:`async for` and :keyword:`async with` can only be used in
+coroutine function bodies.
+
+Functions defined with ``async def`` syntax are always coroutine functions,
+even if they do not contain ``await`` or ``async`` keywords.
+
+It is a :exc:`SyntaxError` to use a ``yield from`` expression inside the body
+of a coroutine function.
+
+An example of a coroutine function::
+
+    async def func(param1, param2):
+        do_stuff()
+        await some_coroutine()
+
+
+.. index:: statement: async for
+.. _`async for`:
+
+The :keyword:`!async for` statement
+-----------------------------------
+
+.. productionlist::
+   async_for_stmt: "async" `for_stmt`
+
+An :term:`asynchronous iterable` is able to call asynchronous code in its
+*iter* implementation, and :term:`asynchronous iterator` can call asynchronous
+code in its *next* method.
+
+The ``async for`` statement allows convenient iteration over asynchronous
+iterators.
+
+The following code::
+
+    async for TARGET in ITER:
+        BLOCK
+    else:
+        BLOCK2
+
+Is semantically equivalent to::
+
+    iter = (ITER)
+    iter = type(iter).__aiter__(iter)
+    running = True
+    while running:
+        try:
+            TARGET = await type(iter).__anext__(iter)
+        except StopAsyncIteration:
+            running = False
+        else:
+            BLOCK
+    else:
+        BLOCK2
+
+See also :meth:`__aiter__` and :meth:`__anext__` for details.
+
+It is a :exc:`SyntaxError` to use an ``async for`` statement outside the
+body of a coroutine function.
+
+
+.. index:: statement: async with
+.. _`async with`:
+
+The :keyword:`!async with` statement
+------------------------------------
+
+.. productionlist::
+   async_with_stmt: "async" `with_stmt`
+
+An :term:`asynchronous context manager` is a :term:`context manager` that is
+able to suspend execution in its *enter* and *exit* methods.
+
+The following code::
+
+    async with EXPR as VAR:
+        BLOCK
+
+Is semantically equivalent to::
+
+    mgr = (EXPR)
+    aexit = type(mgr).__aexit__
+    aenter = type(mgr).__aenter__(mgr)
+
+    VAR = await aenter
+    try:
+        BLOCK
+    except:
+        if not await aexit(mgr, *sys.exc_info()):
+            raise
+    else:
+        await aexit(mgr, None, None, None)
+
+See also :meth:`__aenter__` and :meth:`__aexit__` for details.
+
+It is a :exc:`SyntaxError` to use an ``async with`` statement outside the
+body of a coroutine function.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`492` - Coroutines with async and await syntax
+      The proposal that made coroutines a proper standalone concept in Python,
+      and added supporting syntax.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] The exception is propagated to the invocation stack unless
+   there is a :keyword:`finally` clause which happens to raise another
+   exception. That new exception causes the old one to be lost.
+
+.. [#] A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function body is
+   transformed into the function's ``__doc__`` attribute and therefore the
+   function's :term:`docstring`.
+
+.. [#] A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class body is
+   transformed into the namespace's ``__doc__`` item and therefore the class's
+   :term:`docstring`.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/datamodel.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/datamodel.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..962ec7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/datamodel.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2727 @@
+
+.. _datamodel:
+
+**********
+Data model
+**********
+
+
+.. _objects:
+
+Objects, values and types
+=========================
+
+.. index::
+   single: object
+   single: data
+
+:dfn:`Objects` are Python's abstraction for data.  All data in a Python program
+is represented by objects or by relations between objects. (In a sense, and in
+conformance to Von Neumann's model of a "stored program computer," code is also
+represented by objects.)
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: id
+   builtin: type
+   single: identity of an object
+   single: value of an object
+   single: type of an object
+   single: mutable object
+   single: immutable object
+
+.. XXX it *is* now possible in some cases to change an object's
+   type, under certain controlled conditions
+
+Every object has an identity, a type and a value.  An object's *identity* never
+changes once it has been created; you may think of it as the object's address in
+memory.  The ':keyword:`is`' operator compares the identity of two objects; the
+:func:`id` function returns an integer representing its identity.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   For CPython, ``id(x)`` is the memory address where ``x`` is stored.
+
+An object's type determines the operations that the object supports (e.g., "does
+it have a length?") and also defines the possible values for objects of that
+type.  The :func:`type` function returns an object's type (which is an object
+itself).  Like its identity, an object's :dfn:`type` is also unchangeable.
+[#]_
+
+The *value* of some objects can change.  Objects whose value can
+change are said to be *mutable*; objects whose value is unchangeable once they
+are created are called *immutable*. (The value of an immutable container object
+that contains a reference to a mutable object can change when the latter's value
+is changed; however the container is still considered immutable, because the
+collection of objects it contains cannot be changed.  So, immutability is not
+strictly the same as having an unchangeable value, it is more subtle.) An
+object's mutability is determined by its type; for instance, numbers, strings
+and tuples are immutable, while dictionaries and lists are mutable.
+
+.. index::
+   single: garbage collection
+   single: reference counting
+   single: unreachable object
+
+Objects are never explicitly destroyed; however, when they become unreachable
+they may be garbage-collected.  An implementation is allowed to postpone garbage
+collection or omit it altogether --- it is a matter of implementation quality
+how garbage collection is implemented, as long as no objects are collected that
+are still reachable.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   CPython currently uses a reference-counting scheme with (optional) delayed
+   detection of cyclically linked garbage, which collects most objects as soon
+   as they become unreachable, but is not guaranteed to collect garbage
+   containing circular references.  See the documentation of the :mod:`gc`
+   module for information on controlling the collection of cyclic garbage.
+   Other implementations act differently and CPython may change.
+   Do not depend on immediate finalization of objects when they become
+   unreachable (so you should always close files explicitly).
+
+Note that the use of the implementation's tracing or debugging facilities may
+keep objects alive that would normally be collectable. Also note that catching
+an exception with a ':keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except`' statement may keep
+objects alive.
+
+Some objects contain references to "external" resources such as open files or
+windows.  It is understood that these resources are freed when the object is
+garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not guaranteed to happen,
+such objects also provide an explicit way to release the external resource,
+usually a :meth:`close` method. Programs are strongly recommended to explicitly
+close such objects.  The ':keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`finally`' statement
+and the ':keyword:`with`' statement provide convenient ways to do this.
+
+.. index:: single: container
+
+Some objects contain references to other objects; these are called *containers*.
+Examples of containers are tuples, lists and dictionaries.  The references are
+part of a container's value.  In most cases, when we talk about the value of a
+container, we imply the values, not the identities of the contained objects;
+however, when we talk about the mutability of a container, only the identities
+of the immediately contained objects are implied.  So, if an immutable container
+(like a tuple) contains a reference to a mutable object, its value changes if
+that mutable object is changed.
+
+Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior.  Even the importance of
+object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types, operations that
+compute new values may actually return a reference to any existing object with
+the same type and value, while for mutable objects this is not allowed.  E.g.,
+after ``a = 1; b = 1``, ``a`` and ``b`` may or may not refer to the same object
+with the value one, depending on the implementation, but after ``c = []; d =
+[]``, ``c`` and ``d`` are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly
+created empty lists. (Note that ``c = d = []`` assigns the same object to both
+``c`` and ``d``.)
+
+
+.. _types:
+
+The standard type hierarchy
+===========================
+
+.. index::
+   single: type
+   pair: data; type
+   pair: type; hierarchy
+   pair: extension; module
+   pair: C; language
+
+Below is a list of the types that are built into Python.  Extension modules
+(written in C, Java, or other languages, depending on the implementation) can
+define additional types.  Future versions of Python may add types to the type
+hierarchy (e.g., rational numbers, efficiently stored arrays of integers, etc.),
+although such additions will often be provided via the standard library instead.
+
+.. index::
+   single: attribute
+   pair: special; attribute
+   triple: generic; special; attribute
+
+Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing 'special
+attributes.'  These are attributes that provide access to the implementation and
+are not intended for general use.  Their definition may change in the future.
+
+None
+   .. index:: object: None
+
+   This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value. This
+   object is accessed through the built-in name ``None``. It is used to signify the
+   absence of a value in many situations, e.g., it is returned from functions that
+   don't explicitly return anything. Its truth value is false.
+
+NotImplemented
+   .. index:: object: NotImplemented
+
+   This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value. This
+   object is accessed through the built-in name ``NotImplemented``. Numeric methods
+   and rich comparison methods should return this value if they do not implement the
+   operation for the operands provided.  (The interpreter will then try the
+   reflected operation, or some other fallback, depending on the operator.)  Its
+   truth value is true.
+
+   See
+   :ref:`implementing-the-arithmetic-operations`
+   for more details.
+
+
+Ellipsis
+   .. index::
+      object: Ellipsis
+      single: ...; ellipsis literal
+
+   This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value. This
+   object is accessed through the literal ``...`` or the built-in name
+   ``Ellipsis``.  Its truth value is true.
+
+:class:`numbers.Number`
+   .. index:: object: numeric
+
+   These are created by numeric literals and returned as results by arithmetic
+   operators and arithmetic built-in functions.  Numeric objects are immutable;
+   once created their value never changes.  Python numbers are of course strongly
+   related to mathematical numbers, but subject to the limitations of numerical
+   representation in computers.
+
+   Python distinguishes between integers, floating point numbers, and complex
+   numbers:
+
+   :class:`numbers.Integral`
+      .. index:: object: integer
+
+      These represent elements from the mathematical set of integers (positive and
+      negative).
+
+      There are two types of integers:
+
+      Integers (:class:`int`)
+
+         These represent numbers in an unlimited range, subject to available (virtual)
+         memory only.  For the purpose of shift and mask operations, a binary
+         representation is assumed, and negative numbers are represented in a variant of
+         2's complement which gives the illusion of an infinite string of sign bits
+         extending to the left.
+
+      Booleans (:class:`bool`)
+         .. index::
+            object: Boolean
+            single: False
+            single: True
+
+         These represent the truth values False and True.  The two objects representing
+         the values ``False`` and ``True`` are the only Boolean objects. The Boolean type is a
+         subtype of the integer type, and Boolean values behave like the values 0 and 1,
+         respectively, in almost all contexts, the exception being that when converted to
+         a string, the strings ``"False"`` or ``"True"`` are returned, respectively.
+
+      .. index:: pair: integer; representation
+
+      The rules for integer representation are intended to give the most meaningful
+      interpretation of shift and mask operations involving negative integers.
+
+   :class:`numbers.Real` (:class:`float`)
+      .. index::
+         object: floating point
+         pair: floating point; number
+         pair: C; language
+         pair: Java; language
+
+      These represent machine-level double precision floating point numbers. You are
+      at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or Java
+      implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow. Python does not
+      support single-precision floating point numbers; the savings in processor and
+      memory usage that are usually the reason for using these are dwarfed by the
+      overhead of using objects in Python, so there is no reason to complicate the
+      language with two kinds of floating point numbers.
+
+   :class:`numbers.Complex` (:class:`complex`)
+      .. index::
+         object: complex
+         pair: complex; number
+
+      These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double precision
+      floating point numbers.  The same caveats apply as for floating point numbers.
+      The real and imaginary parts of a complex number ``z`` can be retrieved through
+      the read-only attributes ``z.real`` and ``z.imag``.
+
+Sequences
+   .. index::
+      builtin: len
+      object: sequence
+      single: index operation
+      single: item selection
+      single: subscription
+
+   These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers. The
+   built-in function :func:`len` returns the number of items of a sequence. When
+   the length of a sequence is *n*, the index set contains the numbers 0, 1,
+   ..., *n*-1.  Item *i* of sequence *a* is selected by ``a[i]``.
+
+   .. index:: single: slicing
+
+   Sequences also support slicing: ``a[i:j]`` selects all items with index *k* such
+   that *i* ``<=`` *k* ``<`` *j*.  When used as an expression, a slice is a
+   sequence of the same type.  This implies that the index set is renumbered so
+   that it starts at 0.
+
+   Some sequences also support "extended slicing" with a third "step" parameter:
+   ``a[i:j:k]`` selects all items of *a* with index *x* where ``x = i + n*k``, *n*
+   ``>=`` ``0`` and *i* ``<=`` *x* ``<`` *j*.
+
+   Sequences are distinguished according to their mutability:
+
+   Immutable sequences
+      .. index::
+         object: immutable sequence
+         object: immutable
+
+      An object of an immutable sequence type cannot change once it is created.  (If
+      the object contains references to other objects, these other objects may be
+      mutable and may be changed; however, the collection of objects directly
+      referenced by an immutable object cannot change.)
+
+      The following types are immutable sequences:
+
+      .. index::
+         single: string; immutable sequences
+
+      Strings
+         .. index::
+            builtin: chr
+            builtin: ord
+            single: character
+            single: integer
+            single: Unicode
+
+         A string is a sequence of values that represent Unicode code points.
+         All the code points in the range ``U+0000 - U+10FFFF`` can be
+         represented in a string.  Python doesn't have a :c:type:`char` type;
+         instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string
+         object with length ``1``.  The built-in function :func:`ord`
+         converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the
+         range ``0 - 10FFFF``; :func:`chr` converts an integer in the range
+         ``0 - 10FFFF`` to the corresponding length ``1`` string object.
+         :meth:`str.encode` can be used to convert a :class:`str` to
+         :class:`bytes` using the given text encoding, and
+         :meth:`bytes.decode` can be used to achieve the opposite.
+
+      Tuples
+         .. index::
+            object: tuple
+            pair: singleton; tuple
+            pair: empty; tuple
+
+         The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects. Tuples of two or
+         more items are formed by comma-separated lists of expressions.  A tuple
+         of one item (a 'singleton') can be formed by affixing a comma to an
+         expression (an expression by itself does not create a tuple, since
+         parentheses must be usable for grouping of expressions).  An empty
+         tuple can be formed by an empty pair of parentheses.
+
+      Bytes
+         .. index:: bytes, byte
+
+         A bytes object is an immutable array.  The items are 8-bit bytes,
+         represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  Bytes literals
+         (like ``b'abc'``) and the built-in :func:`bytes()` constructor
+         can be used to create bytes objects.  Also, bytes objects can be
+         decoded to strings via the :meth:`~bytes.decode` method.
+
+   Mutable sequences
+      .. index::
+         object: mutable sequence
+         object: mutable
+         pair: assignment; statement
+         single: subscription
+         single: slicing
+
+      Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created.  The subscription and
+      slicing notations can be used as the target of assignment and :keyword:`del`
+      (delete) statements.
+
+      There are currently two intrinsic mutable sequence types:
+
+      Lists
+         .. index:: object: list
+
+         The items of a list are arbitrary Python objects.  Lists are formed by
+         placing a comma-separated list of expressions in square brackets. (Note
+         that there are no special cases needed to form lists of length 0 or 1.)
+
+      Byte Arrays
+         .. index:: bytearray
+
+         A bytearray object is a mutable array. They are created by the built-in
+         :func:`bytearray` constructor.  Aside from being mutable
+         (and hence unhashable), byte arrays otherwise provide the same interface
+         and functionality as immutable :class:`bytes` objects.
+
+      .. index:: module: array
+
+      The extension module :mod:`array` provides an additional example of a
+      mutable sequence type, as does the :mod:`collections` module.
+
+Set types
+   .. index::
+      builtin: len
+      object: set type
+
+   These represent unordered, finite sets of unique, immutable objects. As such,
+   they cannot be indexed by any subscript. However, they can be iterated over, and
+   the built-in function :func:`len` returns the number of items in a set. Common
+   uses for sets are fast membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence,
+   and computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union, difference,
+   and symmetric difference.
+
+   For set elements, the same immutability rules apply as for dictionary keys. Note
+   that numeric types obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers
+   compare equal (e.g., ``1`` and ``1.0``), only one of them can be contained in a
+   set.
+
+   There are currently two intrinsic set types:
+
+   Sets
+      .. index:: object: set
+
+      These represent a mutable set. They are created by the built-in :func:`set`
+      constructor and can be modified afterwards by several methods, such as
+      :meth:`~set.add`.
+
+   Frozen sets
+      .. index:: object: frozenset
+
+      These represent an immutable set.  They are created by the built-in
+      :func:`frozenset` constructor.  As a frozenset is immutable and
+      :term:`hashable`, it can be used again as an element of another set, or as
+      a dictionary key.
+
+Mappings
+   .. index::
+      builtin: len
+      single: subscription
+      object: mapping
+
+   These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets. The
+   subscript notation ``a[k]`` selects the item indexed by ``k`` from the mapping
+   ``a``; this can be used in expressions and as the target of assignments or
+   :keyword:`del` statements. The built-in function :func:`len` returns the number
+   of items in a mapping.
+
+   There is currently a single intrinsic mapping type:
+
+   Dictionaries
+      .. index:: object: dictionary
+
+      These represent finite sets of objects indexed by nearly arbitrary values.  The
+      only types of values not acceptable as keys are values containing lists or
+      dictionaries or other mutable types that are compared by value rather than by
+      object identity, the reason being that the efficient implementation of
+      dictionaries requires a key's hash value to remain constant. Numeric types used
+      for keys obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare
+      equal (e.g., ``1`` and ``1.0``) then they can be used interchangeably to index
+      the same dictionary entry.
+
+      Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ``{...}`` notation (see
+      section :ref:`dict`).
+
+      .. index::
+         module: dbm.ndbm
+         module: dbm.gnu
+
+      The extension modules :mod:`dbm.ndbm` and :mod:`dbm.gnu` provide
+      additional examples of mapping types, as does the :mod:`collections`
+      module.
+
+Callable types
+   .. index::
+      object: callable
+      pair: function; call
+      single: invocation
+      pair: function; argument
+
+   These are the types to which the function call operation (see section
+   :ref:`calls`) can be applied:
+
+   User-defined functions
+      .. index::
+         pair: user-defined; function
+         object: function
+         object: user-defined function
+
+      A user-defined function object is created by a function definition (see
+      section :ref:`function`).  It should be called with an argument list
+      containing the same number of items as the function's formal parameter
+      list.
+
+      Special attributes:
+
+      .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|l|
+
+      .. index::
+         single: __doc__ (function attribute)
+         single: __name__ (function attribute)
+         single: __module__ (function attribute)
+         single: __dict__ (function attribute)
+         single: __defaults__ (function attribute)
+         single: __closure__ (function attribute)
+         single: __code__ (function attribute)
+         single: __globals__ (function attribute)
+         single: __annotations__ (function attribute)
+         single: __kwdefaults__ (function attribute)
+         pair: global; namespace
+
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | Attribute               | Meaning                       |           |
+      +=========================+===============================+===========+
+      | :attr:`__doc__`         | The function's documentation  | Writable  |
+      |                         | string, or ``None`` if        |           |
+      |                         | unavailable; not inherited by |           |
+      |                         | subclasses.                   |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`~definition.\    | The function's name.          | Writable  |
+      | __name__`               |                               |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`~definition.\    | The function's                | Writable  |
+      | __qualname__`           | :term:`qualified name`.       |           |
+      |                         |                               |           |
+      |                         | .. versionadded:: 3.3         |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`__module__`      | The name of the module the    | Writable  |
+      |                         | function was defined in, or   |           |
+      |                         | ``None`` if unavailable.      |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`__defaults__`    | A tuple containing default    | Writable  |
+      |                         | argument values for those     |           |
+      |                         | arguments that have defaults, |           |
+      |                         | or ``None`` if no arguments   |           |
+      |                         | have a default value.         |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`__code__`        | The code object representing  | Writable  |
+      |                         | the compiled function body.   |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`__globals__`     | A reference to the dictionary | Read-only |
+      |                         | that holds the function's     |           |
+      |                         | global variables --- the      |           |
+      |                         | global namespace of the       |           |
+      |                         | module in which the function  |           |
+      |                         | was defined.                  |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`~object.__dict__`| The namespace supporting      | Writable  |
+      |                         | arbitrary function            |           |
+      |                         | attributes.                   |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`__closure__`     | ``None`` or a tuple of cells  | Read-only |
+      |                         | that contain bindings for the |           |
+      |                         | function's free variables.    |           |
+      |                         | See below for information on  |           |
+      |                         | the ``cell_contents``         |           |
+      |                         | attribute.                    |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`__annotations__` | A dict containing annotations | Writable  |
+      |                         | of parameters.  The keys of   |           |
+      |                         | the dict are the parameter    |           |
+      |                         | names, and ``'return'`` for   |           |
+      |                         | the return annotation, if     |           |
+      |                         | provided.                     |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+      | :attr:`__kwdefaults__`  | A dict containing defaults    | Writable  |
+      |                         | for keyword-only parameters.  |           |
+      +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+
+
+      Most of the attributes labelled "Writable" check the type of the assigned value.
+
+      Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes, which
+      can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions.  Regular attribute
+      dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes. *Note that the current
+      implementation only supports function attributes on user-defined functions.
+      Function attributes on built-in functions may be supported in the future.*
+
+      A cell object has the attribute ``cell_contents``. This can be used to get
+      the value of the cell, as well as set the value.
+
+      Additional information about a function's definition can be retrieved from its
+      code object; see the description of internal types below.
+
+   Instance methods
+      .. index::
+         object: method
+         object: user-defined method
+         pair: user-defined; method
+
+      An instance method object combines a class, a class instance and any
+      callable object (normally a user-defined function).
+
+      .. index::
+         single: __func__ (method attribute)
+         single: __self__ (method attribute)
+         single: __doc__ (method attribute)
+         single: __name__ (method attribute)
+         single: __module__ (method attribute)
+
+      Special read-only attributes: :attr:`__self__` is the class instance object,
+      :attr:`__func__` is the function object; :attr:`__doc__` is the method's
+      documentation (same as ``__func__.__doc__``); :attr:`~definition.__name__` is the
+      method name (same as ``__func__.__name__``); :attr:`__module__` is the
+      name of the module the method was defined in, or ``None`` if unavailable.
+
+      Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function
+      attributes on the underlying function object.
+
+      User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of a
+      class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a
+      user-defined function object or a class method object.
+
+      When an instance method object is created by retrieving a user-defined
+      function object from a class via one of its instances, its
+      :attr:`__self__` attribute is the instance, and the method object is said
+      to be bound.  The new method's :attr:`__func__` attribute is the original
+      function object.
+
+      When a user-defined method object is created by retrieving another method
+      object from a class or instance, the behaviour is the same as for a
+      function object, except that the :attr:`__func__` attribute of the new
+      instance is not the original method object but its :attr:`__func__`
+      attribute.
+
+      When an instance method object is created by retrieving a class method
+      object from a class or instance, its :attr:`__self__` attribute is the
+      class itself, and its :attr:`__func__` attribute is the function object
+      underlying the class method.
+
+      When an instance method object is called, the underlying function
+      (:attr:`__func__`) is called, inserting the class instance
+      (:attr:`__self__`) in front of the argument list.  For instance, when
+      :class:`C` is a class which contains a definition for a function
+      :meth:`f`, and ``x`` is an instance of :class:`C`, calling ``x.f(1)`` is
+      equivalent to calling ``C.f(x, 1)``.
+
+      When an instance method object is derived from a class method object, the
+      "class instance" stored in :attr:`__self__` will actually be the class
+      itself, so that calling either ``x.f(1)`` or ``C.f(1)`` is equivalent to
+      calling ``f(C,1)`` where ``f`` is the underlying function.
+
+      Note that the transformation from function object to instance method
+      object happens each time the attribute is retrieved from the instance.  In
+      some cases, a fruitful optimization is to assign the attribute to a local
+      variable and call that local variable. Also notice that this
+      transformation only happens for user-defined functions; other callable
+      objects (and all non-callable objects) are retrieved without
+      transformation.  It is also important to note that user-defined functions
+      which are attributes of a class instance are not converted to bound
+      methods; this *only* happens when the function is an attribute of the
+      class.
+
+   Generator functions
+      .. index::
+         single: generator; function
+         single: generator; iterator
+
+      A function or method which uses the :keyword:`yield` statement (see section
+      :ref:`yield`) is called a :dfn:`generator function`.  Such a function, when
+      called, always returns an iterator object which can be used to execute the
+      body of the function:  calling the iterator's :meth:`iterator.__next__`
+      method will cause the function to execute until it provides a value
+      using the :keyword:`!yield` statement.  When the function executes a
+      :keyword:`return` statement or falls off the end, a :exc:`StopIteration`
+      exception is raised and the iterator will have reached the end of the set of
+      values to be returned.
+
+   Coroutine functions
+      .. index::
+         single: coroutine; function
+
+      A function or method which is defined using :keyword:`async def` is called
+      a :dfn:`coroutine function`.  Such a function, when called, returns a
+      :term:`coroutine` object.  It may contain :keyword:`await` expressions,
+      as well as :keyword:`async with` and :keyword:`async for` statements. See
+      also the :ref:`coroutine-objects` section.
+
+   Asynchronous generator functions
+      .. index::
+         single: asynchronous generator; function
+         single: asynchronous generator; asynchronous iterator
+
+      A function or method which is defined using :keyword:`async def` and
+      which uses the :keyword:`yield` statement is called a
+      :dfn:`asynchronous generator function`.  Such a function, when called,
+      returns an asynchronous iterator object which can be used in an
+      :keyword:`async for` statement to execute the body of the function.
+
+      Calling the asynchronous iterator's :meth:`aiterator.__anext__` method
+      will return an :term:`awaitable` which when awaited
+      will execute until it provides a value using the :keyword:`yield`
+      expression.  When the function executes an empty :keyword:`return`
+      statement or falls off the end, a :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` exception
+      is raised and the asynchronous iterator will have reached the end of
+      the set of values to be yielded.
+
+   Built-in functions
+      .. index::
+         object: built-in function
+         object: function
+         pair: C; language
+
+      A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function.  Examples of
+      built-in functions are :func:`len` and :func:`math.sin` (:mod:`math` is a
+      standard built-in module). The number and type of the arguments are
+      determined by the C function. Special read-only attributes:
+      :attr:`__doc__` is the function's documentation string, or ``None`` if
+      unavailable; :attr:`~definition.__name__` is the function's name; :attr:`__self__` is
+      set to ``None`` (but see the next item); :attr:`__module__` is the name of
+      the module the function was defined in or ``None`` if unavailable.
+
+   Built-in methods
+      .. index::
+         object: built-in method
+         object: method
+         pair: built-in; method
+
+      This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time containing
+      an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra argument.  An example of
+      a built-in method is ``alist.append()``, assuming *alist* is a list object. In
+      this case, the special read-only attribute :attr:`__self__` is set to the object
+      denoted by *alist*.
+
+   Classes
+      Classes are callable.  These objects normally act as factories for new
+      instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types that
+      override :meth:`__new__`.  The arguments of the call are passed to
+      :meth:`__new__` and, in the typical case, to :meth:`__init__` to
+      initialize the new instance.
+
+   Class Instances
+      Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a
+      :meth:`__call__` method in their class.
+
+
+Modules
+   .. index::
+      statement: import
+      object: module
+
+   Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created by
+   the :ref:`import system <importsystem>` as invoked either by the
+   :keyword:`import` statement, or by calling
+   functions such as :func:`importlib.import_module` and built-in
+   :func:`__import__`.  A module object has a namespace implemented by a
+   dictionary object (this is the dictionary referenced by the ``__globals__``
+   attribute of functions defined in the module).  Attribute references are
+   translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ``m.x`` is equivalent to
+   ``m.__dict__["x"]``. A module object does not contain the code object used
+   to initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the initialization is
+   done).
+
+   Attribute assignment updates the module's namespace dictionary, e.g.,
+   ``m.x = 1`` is equivalent to ``m.__dict__["x"] = 1``.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: __name__ (module attribute)
+      single: __doc__ (module attribute)
+      single: __file__ (module attribute)
+      single: __annotations__ (module attribute)
+      pair: module; namespace
+
+   Predefined (writable) attributes: :attr:`__name__` is the module's name;
+   :attr:`__doc__` is the module's documentation string, or ``None`` if
+   unavailable; :attr:`__annotations__` (optional) is a dictionary containing
+   :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>` collected during module
+   body execution; :attr:`__file__` is the pathname of the file from which the
+   module was loaded, if it was loaded from a file. The :attr:`__file__`
+   attribute may be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules
+   that are statically linked into the interpreter; for extension modules
+   loaded dynamically from a shared library, it is the pathname of the shared
+   library file.
+
+   .. index:: single: __dict__ (module attribute)
+
+   Special read-only attribute: :attr:`~object.__dict__` is the module's
+   namespace as a dictionary object.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      Because of the way CPython clears module dictionaries, the module
+      dictionary will be cleared when the module falls out of scope even if the
+      dictionary still has live references.  To avoid this, copy the dictionary
+      or keep the module around while using its dictionary directly.
+
+Custom classes
+   Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see section
+   :ref:`class`).  A class has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object.
+   Class attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g.,
+   ``C.x`` is translated to ``C.__dict__["x"]`` (although there are a number of
+   hooks which allow for other means of locating attributes). When the attribute
+   name is not found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes.
+   This search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which
+   behaves correctly even in the presence of 'diamond' inheritance structures
+   where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a common ancestor.
+   Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be found in the
+   documentation accompanying the 2.3 release at
+   https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/.
+
+   .. XXX: Could we add that MRO doc as an appendix to the language ref?
+
+   .. index::
+      object: class
+      object: class instance
+      object: instance
+      pair: class object; call
+      single: container
+      object: dictionary
+      pair: class; attribute
+
+   When a class attribute reference (for class :class:`C`, say) would yield a
+   class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object whose
+   :attr:`__self__` attribute is :class:`C`.  When it would yield a static
+   method object, it is transformed into the object wrapped by the static method
+   object. See section :ref:`descriptors` for another way in which attributes
+   retrieved from a class may differ from those actually contained in its
+   :attr:`~object.__dict__`.
+
+   .. index:: triple: class; attribute; assignment
+
+   Class attribute assignments update the class's dictionary, never the dictionary
+   of a base class.
+
+   .. index:: pair: class object; call
+
+   A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see below).
+
+   .. index::
+      single: __name__ (class attribute)
+      single: __module__ (class attribute)
+      single: __dict__ (class attribute)
+      single: __bases__ (class attribute)
+      single: __doc__ (class attribute)
+      single: __annotations__ (class attribute)
+
+   Special attributes: :attr:`~definition.__name__` is the class name; :attr:`__module__` is
+   the module name in which the class was defined; :attr:`~object.__dict__` is the
+   dictionary containing the class's namespace; :attr:`~class.__bases__` is a
+   tuple containing the base classes, in the order of their occurrence in the
+   base class list; :attr:`__doc__` is the class's documentation string,
+   or ``None`` if undefined; :attr:`__annotations__` (optional) is a dictionary
+   containing :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>` collected during
+   class body execution.
+
+Class instances
+   .. index::
+      object: class instance
+      object: instance
+      pair: class; instance
+      pair: class instance; attribute
+
+   A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).  A class
+   instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the first place
+   in which attribute references are searched.  When an attribute is not found
+   there, and the instance's class has an attribute by that name, the search
+   continues with the class attributes.  If a class attribute is found that is a
+   user-defined function object, it is transformed into an instance method
+   object whose :attr:`__self__` attribute is the instance.  Static method and
+   class method objects are also transformed; see above under "Classes".  See
+   section :ref:`descriptors` for another way in which attributes of a class
+   retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually stored in
+   the class's :attr:`~object.__dict__`.  If no class attribute is found, and the
+   object's class has a :meth:`__getattr__` method, that is called to satisfy
+   the lookup.
+
+   .. index:: triple: class instance; attribute; assignment
+
+   Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance's dictionary, never a
+   class's dictionary.  If the class has a :meth:`__setattr__` or
+   :meth:`__delattr__` method, this is called instead of updating the instance
+   dictionary directly.
+
+   .. index::
+      object: numeric
+      object: sequence
+      object: mapping
+
+   Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if they have
+   methods with certain special names.  See section :ref:`specialnames`.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: __dict__ (instance attribute)
+      single: __class__ (instance attribute)
+
+   Special attributes: :attr:`~object.__dict__` is the attribute dictionary;
+   :attr:`~instance.__class__` is the instance's class.
+
+I/O objects (also known as file objects)
+   .. index::
+      builtin: open
+      module: io
+      single: popen() (in module os)
+      single: makefile() (socket method)
+      single: sys.stdin
+      single: sys.stdout
+      single: sys.stderr
+      single: stdio
+      single: stdin (in module sys)
+      single: stdout (in module sys)
+      single: stderr (in module sys)
+
+   A :term:`file object` represents an open file.  Various shortcuts are
+   available to create file objects: the :func:`open` built-in function, and
+   also :func:`os.popen`, :func:`os.fdopen`, and the
+   :meth:`~socket.socket.makefile` method of socket objects (and perhaps by
+   other functions or methods provided by extension modules).
+
+   The objects ``sys.stdin``, ``sys.stdout`` and ``sys.stderr`` are
+   initialized to file objects corresponding to the interpreter's standard
+   input, output and error streams; they are all open in text mode and
+   therefore follow the interface defined by the :class:`io.TextIOBase`
+   abstract class.
+
+Internal types
+   .. index::
+      single: internal type
+      single: types, internal
+
+   A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the user. Their
+   definitions may change with future versions of the interpreter, but they are
+   mentioned here for completeness.
+
+   .. index:: bytecode, object; code, code object
+
+   Code objects
+      Code objects represent *byte-compiled* executable Python code, or :term:`bytecode`.
+      The difference between a code object and a function object is that the function
+      object contains an explicit reference to the function's globals (the module in
+      which it was defined), while a code object contains no context; also the default
+      argument values are stored in the function object, not in the code object
+      (because they represent values calculated at run-time).  Unlike function
+      objects, code objects are immutable and contain no references (directly or
+      indirectly) to mutable objects.
+
+      .. index::
+         single: co_argcount (code object attribute)
+         single: co_code (code object attribute)
+         single: co_consts (code object attribute)
+         single: co_filename (code object attribute)
+         single: co_firstlineno (code object attribute)
+         single: co_flags (code object attribute)
+         single: co_lnotab (code object attribute)
+         single: co_name (code object attribute)
+         single: co_names (code object attribute)
+         single: co_nlocals (code object attribute)
+         single: co_stacksize (code object attribute)
+         single: co_varnames (code object attribute)
+         single: co_cellvars (code object attribute)
+         single: co_freevars (code object attribute)
+
+      Special read-only attributes: :attr:`co_name` gives the function name;
+      :attr:`co_argcount` is the number of positional arguments (including arguments
+      with default values); :attr:`co_nlocals` is the number of local variables used
+      by the function (including arguments); :attr:`co_varnames` is a tuple containing
+      the names of the local variables (starting with the argument names);
+      :attr:`co_cellvars` is a tuple containing the names of local variables that are
+      referenced by nested functions; :attr:`co_freevars` is a tuple containing the
+      names of free variables; :attr:`co_code` is a string representing the sequence
+      of bytecode instructions; :attr:`co_consts` is a tuple containing the literals
+      used by the bytecode; :attr:`co_names` is a tuple containing the names used by
+      the bytecode; :attr:`co_filename` is the filename from which the code was
+      compiled; :attr:`co_firstlineno` is the first line number of the function;
+      :attr:`co_lnotab` is a string encoding the mapping from bytecode offsets to
+      line numbers (for details see the source code of the interpreter);
+      :attr:`co_stacksize` is the required stack size (including local variables);
+      :attr:`co_flags` is an integer encoding a number of flags for the interpreter.
+
+      .. index:: object: generator
+
+      The following flag bits are defined for :attr:`co_flags`: bit ``0x04`` is set if
+      the function uses the ``*arguments`` syntax to accept an arbitrary number of
+      positional arguments; bit ``0x08`` is set if the function uses the
+      ``**keywords`` syntax to accept arbitrary keyword arguments; bit ``0x20`` is set
+      if the function is a generator.
+
+      Future feature declarations (``from __future__ import division``) also use bits
+      in :attr:`co_flags` to indicate whether a code object was compiled with a
+      particular feature enabled: bit ``0x2000`` is set if the function was compiled
+      with future division enabled; bits ``0x10`` and ``0x1000`` were used in earlier
+      versions of Python.
+
+      Other bits in :attr:`co_flags` are reserved for internal use.
+
+      .. index:: single: documentation string
+
+      If a code object represents a function, the first item in :attr:`co_consts` is
+      the documentation string of the function, or ``None`` if undefined.
+
+   .. _frame-objects:
+
+   Frame objects
+      .. index:: object: frame
+
+      Frame objects represent execution frames.  They may occur in traceback objects
+      (see below), and are also passed to registered trace functions.
+
+      .. index::
+         single: f_back (frame attribute)
+         single: f_code (frame attribute)
+         single: f_globals (frame attribute)
+         single: f_locals (frame attribute)
+         single: f_lasti (frame attribute)
+         single: f_builtins (frame attribute)
+
+      Special read-only attributes: :attr:`f_back` is to the previous stack frame
+      (towards the caller), or ``None`` if this is the bottom stack frame;
+      :attr:`f_code` is the code object being executed in this frame; :attr:`f_locals`
+      is the dictionary used to look up local variables; :attr:`f_globals` is used for
+      global variables; :attr:`f_builtins` is used for built-in (intrinsic) names;
+      :attr:`f_lasti` gives the precise instruction (this is an index into the
+      bytecode string of the code object).
+
+      .. index::
+         single: f_trace (frame attribute)
+         single: f_trace_lines (frame attribute)
+         single: f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute)
+         single: f_lineno (frame attribute)
+
+      Special writable attributes: :attr:`f_trace`, if not ``None``, is a function
+      called for various events during code execution (this is used by the debugger).
+      Normally an event is triggered for each new source line - this can be
+      disabled by setting :attr:`f_trace_lines` to :const:`False`.
+
+      Implementations *may* allow per-opcode events to be requested by setting
+      :attr:`f_trace_opcodes` to :const:`True`. Note that this may lead to
+      undefined interpreter behaviour if exceptions raised by the trace
+      function escape to the function being traced.
+
+      :attr:`f_lineno` is the current line number of the frame --- writing to this
+      from within a trace function jumps to the given line (only for the bottom-most
+      frame).  A debugger can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next Statement)
+      by writing to f_lineno.
+
+      Frame objects support one method:
+
+      .. method:: frame.clear()
+
+         This method clears all references to local variables held by the
+         frame.  Also, if the frame belonged to a generator, the generator
+         is finalized.  This helps break reference cycles involving frame
+         objects (for example when catching an exception and storing its
+         traceback for later use).
+
+         :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised if the frame is currently executing.
+
+         .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. _traceback-objects:
+
+   Traceback objects
+      .. index::
+         object: traceback
+         pair: stack; trace
+         pair: exception; handler
+         pair: execution; stack
+         single: exc_info (in module sys)
+         single: last_traceback (in module sys)
+         single: sys.exc_info
+         single: sys.last_traceback
+
+      Traceback objects represent a stack trace of an exception.  A traceback object
+      is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and may also be explicitly
+      created by calling :class:`types.TracebackType`.
+
+      For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception handler
+      unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback object is
+      inserted in front of the current traceback.  When an exception handler is
+      entered, the stack trace is made available to the program. (See section
+      :ref:`try`.) It is accessible as the third item of the
+      tuple returned by ``sys.exc_info()``, and as the ``__traceback__`` attribute
+      of the caught exception.
+
+      When the program contains no suitable
+      handler, the stack trace is written (nicely formatted) to the standard error
+      stream; if the interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user
+      as ``sys.last_traceback``.
+
+      For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the traceback
+      to determine how the ``tb_next`` attributes should be linked to form a
+      full stack trace.
+
+      .. index::
+         single: tb_frame (traceback attribute)
+         single: tb_lineno (traceback attribute)
+         single: tb_lasti (traceback attribute)
+         statement: try
+
+      Special read-only attributes:
+      :attr:`tb_frame` points to the execution frame of the current level;
+      :attr:`tb_lineno` gives the line number where the exception occurred;
+      :attr:`tb_lasti` indicates the precise instruction.
+      The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from the
+      line number of its frame object if the exception occurred in a
+      :keyword:`try` statement with no matching except clause or with a
+      finally clause.
+
+      .. index::
+         single: tb_next (traceback attribute)
+
+      Special writable attribute: :attr:`tb_next` is the next level in the stack
+      trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or ``None`` if
+      there is no next level.
+
+      .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+         Traceback objects can now be explicitly instantiated from Python code,
+         and the ``tb_next`` attribute of existing instances can be updated.
+
+   Slice objects
+      .. index:: builtin: slice
+
+      Slice objects are used to represent slices for :meth:`__getitem__`
+      methods.  They are also created by the built-in :func:`slice` function.
+
+      .. index::
+         single: start (slice object attribute)
+         single: stop (slice object attribute)
+         single: step (slice object attribute)
+
+      Special read-only attributes: :attr:`~slice.start` is the lower bound;
+      :attr:`~slice.stop` is the upper bound; :attr:`~slice.step` is the step
+      value; each is ``None`` if omitted.  These attributes can have any type.
+
+      Slice objects support one method:
+
+      .. method:: slice.indices(self, length)
+
+         This method takes a single integer argument *length* and computes
+         information about the slice that the slice object would describe if
+         applied to a sequence of *length* items.  It returns a tuple of three
+         integers; respectively these are the *start* and *stop* indices and the
+         *step* or stride length of the slice. Missing or out-of-bounds indices
+         are handled in a manner consistent with regular slices.
+
+   Static method objects
+      Static method objects provide a way of defeating the transformation of function
+      objects to method objects described above. A static method object is a wrapper
+      around any other object, usually a user-defined method object. When a static
+      method object is retrieved from a class or a class instance, the object actually
+      returned is the wrapped object, which is not subject to any further
+      transformation. Static method objects are not themselves callable, although the
+      objects they wrap usually are. Static method objects are created by the built-in
+      :func:`staticmethod` constructor.
+
+   Class method objects
+      A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around another
+      object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved from classes and
+      class instances. The behaviour of class method objects upon such retrieval is
+      described above, under "User-defined methods". Class method objects are created
+      by the built-in :func:`classmethod` constructor.
+
+
+.. _specialnames:
+
+Special method names
+====================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: operator; overloading
+   single: __getitem__() (mapping object method)
+
+A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special syntax
+(such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by defining methods
+with special names. This is Python's approach to :dfn:`operator overloading`,
+allowing classes to define their own behavior with respect to language
+operators.  For instance, if a class defines a method named :meth:`__getitem__`,
+and ``x`` is an instance of this class, then ``x[i]`` is roughly equivalent
+to ``type(x).__getitem__(x, i)``.  Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an
+operation raise an exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically
+:exc:`AttributeError` or :exc:`TypeError`).
+
+Setting a special method to ``None`` indicates that the corresponding
+operation is not available.  For example, if a class sets
+:meth:`__iter__` to ``None``, the class is not iterable, so calling
+:func:`iter` on its instances will raise a :exc:`TypeError` (without
+falling back to :meth:`__getitem__`). [#]_
+
+When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is important that
+the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it makes sense for the
+object being modelled.  For example, some sequences may work well with retrieval
+of individual elements, but extracting a slice may not make sense.  (One example
+of this is the :class:`~xml.dom.NodeList` interface in the W3C's Document
+Object Model.)
+
+
+.. _customization:
+
+Basic customization
+-------------------
+
+.. method:: object.__new__(cls[, ...])
+
+   .. index:: pair: subclassing; immutable types
+
+   Called to create a new instance of class *cls*.  :meth:`__new__` is a static
+   method (special-cased so you need not declare it as such) that takes the class
+   of which an instance was requested as its first argument.  The remaining
+   arguments are those passed to the object constructor expression (the call to the
+   class).  The return value of :meth:`__new__` should be the new object instance
+   (usually an instance of *cls*).
+
+   Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by invoking the
+   superclass's :meth:`__new__` method using ``super().__new__(cls[, ...])``
+   with appropriate arguments and then modifying the newly-created instance
+   as necessary before returning it.
+
+   If :meth:`__new__` returns an instance of *cls*, then the new instance's
+   :meth:`__init__` method will be invoked like ``__init__(self[, ...])``, where
+   *self* is the new instance and the remaining arguments are the same as were
+   passed to :meth:`__new__`.
+
+   If :meth:`__new__` does not return an instance of *cls*, then the new instance's
+   :meth:`__init__` method will not be invoked.
+
+   :meth:`__new__` is intended mainly to allow subclasses of immutable types (like
+   int, str, or tuple) to customize instance creation.  It is also commonly
+   overridden in custom metaclasses in order to customize class creation.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__init__(self[, ...])
+
+   .. index:: pair: class; constructor
+
+   Called after the instance has been created (by :meth:`__new__`), but before
+   it is returned to the caller.  The arguments are those passed to the
+   class constructor expression.  If a base class has an :meth:`__init__`
+   method, the derived class's :meth:`__init__` method, if any, must explicitly
+   call it to ensure proper initialization of the base class part of the
+   instance; for example: ``super().__init__([args...])``.
+
+   Because :meth:`__new__` and :meth:`__init__` work together in constructing
+   objects (:meth:`__new__` to create it, and :meth:`__init__` to customize it),
+   no non-``None`` value may be returned by :meth:`__init__`; doing so will
+   cause a :exc:`TypeError` to be raised at runtime.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__del__(self)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: destructor
+      single: finalizer
+      statement: del
+
+   Called when the instance is about to be destroyed.  This is also called a
+   finalizer or (improperly) a destructor.  If a base class has a
+   :meth:`__del__` method, the derived class's :meth:`__del__` method,
+   if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper deletion of the base
+   class part of the instance.
+
+   It is possible (though not recommended!) for the :meth:`__del__` method
+   to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a new reference to
+   it.  This is called object *resurrection*.  It is implementation-dependent
+   whether :meth:`__del__` is called a second time when a resurrected object
+   is about to be destroyed; the current :term:`CPython` implementation
+   only calls it once.
+
+   It is not guaranteed that :meth:`__del__` methods are called for objects
+   that still exist when the interpreter exits.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      ``del x`` doesn't directly call ``x.__del__()`` --- the former decrements
+      the reference count for ``x`` by one, and the latter is only called when
+      ``x``'s reference count reaches zero.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+      It is possible for a reference cycle to prevent the reference count
+      of an object from going to zero.  In this case, the cycle will be
+      later detected and deleted by the :term:`cyclic garbage collector
+      <garbage collection>`.  A common cause of reference cycles is when
+      an exception has been caught in a local variable.  The frame's
+      locals then reference the exception, which references its own
+      traceback, which references the locals of all frames caught in the
+      traceback.
+
+      .. seealso::
+         Documentation for the :mod:`gc` module.
+
+   .. warning::
+
+      Due to the precarious circumstances under which :meth:`__del__` methods are
+      invoked, exceptions that occur during their execution are ignored, and a warning
+      is printed to ``sys.stderr`` instead.  In particular:
+
+      * :meth:`__del__` can be invoked when arbitrary code is being executed,
+        including from any arbitrary thread.  If :meth:`__del__` needs to take
+        a lock or invoke any other blocking resource, it may deadlock as
+        the resource may already be taken by the code that gets interrupted
+        to execute :meth:`__del__`.
+
+      * :meth:`__del__` can be executed during interpreter shutdown.  As a
+        consequence, the global variables it needs to access (including other
+        modules) may already have been deleted or set to ``None``. Python
+        guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single underscore
+        are deleted from their module before other globals are deleted; if
+        no other references to such globals exist, this may help in assuring
+        that imported modules are still available at the time when the
+        :meth:`__del__` method is called.
+
+
+   .. index::
+      single: repr() (built-in function); __repr__() (object method)
+
+.. method:: object.__repr__(self)
+
+   Called by the :func:`repr` built-in function to compute the "official" string
+   representation of an object.  If at all possible, this should look like a
+   valid Python expression that could be used to recreate an object with the
+   same value (given an appropriate environment).  If this is not possible, a
+   string of the form ``<...some useful description...>`` should be returned.
+   The return value must be a string object. If a class defines :meth:`__repr__`
+   but not :meth:`__str__`, then :meth:`__repr__` is also used when an
+   "informal" string representation of instances of that class is required.
+
+   This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the representation
+   is information-rich and unambiguous.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: string; __str__() (object method)
+      single: format() (built-in function); __str__() (object method)
+      single: print() (built-in function); __str__() (object method)
+
+
+.. method:: object.__str__(self)
+
+   Called by :func:`str(object) <str>` and the built-in functions
+   :func:`format` and :func:`print` to compute the "informal" or nicely
+   printable string representation of an object.  The return value must be a
+   :ref:`string <textseq>` object.
+
+   This method differs from :meth:`object.__repr__` in that there is no
+   expectation that :meth:`__str__` return a valid Python expression: a more
+   convenient or concise representation can be used.
+
+   The default implementation defined by the built-in type :class:`object`
+   calls :meth:`object.__repr__`.
+
+   .. XXX what about subclasses of string?
+
+
+.. method:: object.__bytes__(self)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: bytes
+
+   Called by :ref:`bytes <func-bytes>` to compute a byte-string representation
+   of an object. This should return a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+   .. index::
+      single: string; __format__() (object method)
+      pair: string; conversion
+      builtin: print
+
+
+.. method:: object.__format__(self, format_spec)
+
+   Called by the :func:`format` built-in function,
+   and by extension, evaluation of :ref:`formatted string literals
+   <f-strings>` and the :meth:`str.format` method, to produce a "formatted"
+   string representation of an object. The *format_spec* argument is
+   a string that contains a description of the formatting options desired.
+   The interpretation of the *format_spec* argument is up to the type
+   implementing :meth:`__format__`, however most classes will either
+   delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or use a similar
+   formatting option syntax.
+
+   See :ref:`formatspec` for a description of the standard formatting syntax.
+
+   The return value must be a string object.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The __format__ method of ``object`` itself raises a :exc:`TypeError`
+      if passed any non-empty string.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      ``object.__format__(x, '')`` is now equivalent to ``str(x)`` rather
+      than ``format(str(self), '')``.
+
+
+.. _richcmpfuncs:
+.. method:: object.__lt__(self, other)
+            object.__le__(self, other)
+            object.__eq__(self, other)
+            object.__ne__(self, other)
+            object.__gt__(self, other)
+            object.__ge__(self, other)
+
+   .. index::
+      single: comparisons
+
+   These are the so-called "rich comparison" methods. The correspondence between
+   operator symbols and method names is as follows: ``x<y`` calls ``x.__lt__(y)``,
+   ``x<=y`` calls ``x.__le__(y)``, ``x==y`` calls ``x.__eq__(y)``, ``x!=y`` calls
+   ``x.__ne__(y)``, ``x>y`` calls ``x.__gt__(y)``, and ``x>=y`` calls
+   ``x.__ge__(y)``.
+
+   A rich comparison method may return the singleton ``NotImplemented`` if it does
+   not implement the operation for a given pair of arguments. By convention,
+   ``False`` and ``True`` are returned for a successful comparison. However, these
+   methods can return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a Boolean
+   context (e.g., in the condition of an ``if`` statement), Python will call
+   :func:`bool` on the value to determine if the result is true or false.
+
+   By default, :meth:`__ne__` delegates to :meth:`__eq__` and
+   inverts the result unless it is ``NotImplemented``.  There are no other
+   implied relationships among the comparison operators, for example,
+   the truth of ``(x<y or x==y)`` does not imply ``x<=y``.
+   To automatically generate ordering operations from a single root operation,
+   see :func:`functools.total_ordering`.
+
+   See the paragraph on :meth:`__hash__` for
+   some important notes on creating :term:`hashable` objects which support
+   custom comparison operations and are usable as dictionary keys.
+
+   There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used when the
+   left argument does not support the operation but the right argument does);
+   rather, :meth:`__lt__` and :meth:`__gt__` are each other's reflection,
+   :meth:`__le__` and :meth:`__ge__` are each other's reflection, and
+   :meth:`__eq__` and :meth:`__ne__` are their own reflection.
+   If the operands are of different types, and right operand's type is
+   a direct or indirect subclass of the left operand's type,
+   the reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise
+   the left operand's method has priority.  Virtual subclassing is
+   not considered.
+
+.. method:: object.__hash__(self)
+
+   .. index::
+      object: dictionary
+      builtin: hash
+
+   Called by built-in function :func:`hash` and for operations on members of
+   hashed collections including :class:`set`, :class:`frozenset`, and
+   :class:`dict`.  :meth:`__hash__` should return an integer. The only required
+   property is that objects which compare equal have the same hash value; it is
+   advised to mix together the hash values of the components of the object that
+   also play a part in comparison of objects by packing them into a tuple and
+   hashing the tuple. Example::
+
+       def __hash__(self):
+           return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))
+
+   .. note::
+
+     :func:`hash` truncates the value returned from an object's custom
+     :meth:`__hash__` method to the size of a :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.  This is
+     typically 8 bytes on 64-bit builds and 4 bytes on 32-bit builds.  If an
+     object's   :meth:`__hash__` must interoperate on builds of different bit
+     sizes, be sure to check the width on all supported builds.  An easy way
+     to do this is with
+     ``python -c "import sys; print(sys.hash_info.width)"``.
+
+   If a class does not define an :meth:`__eq__` method it should not define a
+   :meth:`__hash__` operation either; if it defines :meth:`__eq__` but not
+   :meth:`__hash__`, its instances will not be usable as items in hashable
+   collections.  If a class defines mutable objects and implements an
+   :meth:`__eq__` method, it should not implement :meth:`__hash__`, since the
+   implementation of hashable collections requires that a key's hash value is
+   immutable (if the object's hash value changes, it will be in the wrong hash
+   bucket).
+
+   User-defined classes have :meth:`__eq__` and :meth:`__hash__` methods
+   by default; with them, all objects compare unequal (except with themselves)
+   and ``x.__hash__()`` returns an appropriate value such that ``x == y``
+   implies both that ``x is y`` and ``hash(x) == hash(y)``.
+
+   A class that overrides :meth:`__eq__` and does not define :meth:`__hash__`
+   will have its :meth:`__hash__` implicitly set to ``None``.  When the
+   :meth:`__hash__` method of a class is ``None``, instances of the class will
+   raise an appropriate :exc:`TypeError` when a program attempts to retrieve
+   their hash value, and will also be correctly identified as unhashable when
+   checking ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable)``.
+
+   If a class that overrides :meth:`__eq__` needs to retain the implementation
+   of :meth:`__hash__` from a parent class, the interpreter must be told this
+   explicitly by setting ``__hash__ = <ParentClass>.__hash__``.
+
+   If a class that does not override :meth:`__eq__` wishes to suppress hash
+   support, it should include ``__hash__ = None`` in the class definition.
+   A class which defines its own :meth:`__hash__` that explicitly raises
+   a :exc:`TypeError` would be incorrectly identified as hashable by
+   an ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable)`` call.
+
+
+   .. note::
+
+      By default, the :meth:`__hash__` values of str, bytes and datetime
+      objects are "salted" with an unpredictable random value.  Although they
+      remain constant within an individual Python process, they are not
+      predictable between repeated invocations of Python.
+
+      This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused
+      by carefully-chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a
+      dict insertion, O(n^2) complexity.  See
+      http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.
+
+      Changing hash values affects the iteration order of sets.
+      Python has never made guarantees about this ordering
+      (and it typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds).
+
+      See also :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Hash randomization is enabled by default.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__bool__(self)
+
+   .. index:: single: __len__() (mapping object method)
+
+   Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation
+   ``bool()``; should return ``False`` or ``True``.  When this method is not
+   defined, :meth:`__len__` is called, if it is defined, and the object is
+   considered true if its result is nonzero.  If a class defines neither
+   :meth:`__len__` nor :meth:`__bool__`, all its instances are considered
+   true.
+
+
+.. _attribute-access:
+
+Customizing attribute access
+----------------------------
+
+The following methods can be defined to customize the meaning of attribute
+access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of ``x.name``) for class instances.
+
+.. XXX explain how descriptors interfere here!
+
+
+.. method:: object.__getattr__(self, name)
+
+   Called when the default attribute access fails with an :exc:`AttributeError`
+   (either :meth:`__getattribute__` raises an :exc:`AttributeError` because
+   *name* is not an instance attribute or an attribute in the class tree
+   for ``self``; or :meth:`__get__` of a *name* property raises
+   :exc:`AttributeError`).  This method should either return the (computed)
+   attribute value or raise an :exc:`AttributeError` exception.
+
+   Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,
+   :meth:`__getattr__` is not called.  (This is an intentional asymmetry between
+   :meth:`__getattr__` and :meth:`__setattr__`.) This is done both for efficiency
+   reasons and because otherwise :meth:`__getattr__` would have no way to access
+   other attributes of the instance.  Note that at least for instance variables,
+   you can fake total control by not inserting any values in the instance attribute
+   dictionary (but instead inserting them in another object).  See the
+   :meth:`__getattribute__` method below for a way to actually get total control
+   over attribute access.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__getattribute__(self, name)
+
+   Called unconditionally to implement attribute accesses for instances of the
+   class. If the class also defines :meth:`__getattr__`, the latter will not be
+   called unless :meth:`__getattribute__` either calls it explicitly or raises an
+   :exc:`AttributeError`. This method should return the (computed) attribute value
+   or raise an :exc:`AttributeError` exception. In order to avoid infinite
+   recursion in this method, its implementation should always call the base class
+   method with the same name to access any attributes it needs, for example,
+   ``object.__getattribute__(self, name)``.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This method may still be bypassed when looking up special methods as the
+      result of implicit invocation via language syntax or built-in functions.
+      See :ref:`special-lookup`.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__setattr__(self, name, value)
+
+   Called when an attribute assignment is attempted.  This is called instead of
+   the normal mechanism (i.e. store the value in the instance dictionary).
+   *name* is the attribute name, *value* is the value to be assigned to it.
+
+   If :meth:`__setattr__` wants to assign to an instance attribute, it should
+   call the base class method with the same name, for example,
+   ``object.__setattr__(self, name, value)``.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__delattr__(self, name)
+
+   Like :meth:`__setattr__` but for attribute deletion instead of assignment.  This
+   should only be implemented if ``del obj.name`` is meaningful for the object.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__dir__(self)
+
+   Called when :func:`dir` is called on the object. A sequence must be
+   returned. :func:`dir` converts the returned sequence to a list and sorts it.
+
+
+Customizing module attribute access
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+   single: __getattr__ (module attribute)
+   single: __dir__ (module attribute)
+   single: __class__ (module attribute)
+
+Special names ``__getattr__`` and ``__dir__`` can be also used to customize
+access to module attributes. The ``__getattr__`` function at the module level
+should accept one argument which is the name of an attribute and return the
+computed value or raise an :exc:`AttributeError`. If an attribute is
+not found on a module object through the normal lookup, i.e.
+:meth:`object.__getattribute__`, then ``__getattr__`` is searched in
+the module ``__dict__`` before raising an :exc:`AttributeError`. If found,
+it is called with the attribute name and the result is returned.
+
+The ``__dir__`` function should accept no arguments, and return a list of
+strings that represents the names accessible on module. If present, this
+function overrides the standard :func:`dir` search on a module.
+
+For a more fine grained customization of the module behavior (setting
+attributes, properties, etc.), one can set the ``__class__`` attribute of
+a module object to a subclass of :class:`types.ModuleType`. For example::
+
+   import sys
+   from types import ModuleType
+
+   class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
+       def __repr__(self):
+           return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'
+
+       def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
+           print(f'Setting {attr}...')
+           super().__setattr__(attr, value)
+
+   sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule
+
+.. note::
+   Defining module ``__getattr__`` and setting module ``__class__`` only
+   affect lookups made using the attribute access syntax -- directly accessing
+   the module globals (whether by code within the module, or via a reference
+   to the module's globals dictionary) is unaffected.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   ``__class__`` module attribute is now writable.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+   ``__getattr__`` and ``__dir__`` module attributes.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`562` - Module __getattr__ and __dir__
+      Describes the ``__getattr__`` and ``__dir__`` functions on modules.
+
+
+.. _descriptors:
+
+Implementing Descriptors
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following methods only apply when an instance of the class containing the
+method (a so-called *descriptor* class) appears in an *owner* class (the
+descriptor must be in either the owner's class dictionary or in the class
+dictionary for one of its parents).  In the examples below, "the attribute"
+refers to the attribute whose name is the key of the property in the owner
+class' :attr:`~object.__dict__`.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__get__(self, instance, owner)
+
+   Called to get the attribute of the owner class (class attribute access) or of an
+   instance of that class (instance attribute access). *owner* is always the owner
+   class, while *instance* is the instance that the attribute was accessed through,
+   or ``None`` when the attribute is accessed through the *owner*.  This method
+   should return the (computed) attribute value or raise an :exc:`AttributeError`
+   exception.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__set__(self, instance, value)
+
+   Called to set the attribute on an instance *instance* of the owner class to a
+   new value, *value*.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__delete__(self, instance)
+
+   Called to delete the attribute on an instance *instance* of the owner class.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__set_name__(self, owner, name)
+
+   Called at the time the owning class *owner* is created. The
+   descriptor has been assigned to *name*.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+The attribute :attr:`__objclass__` is interpreted by the :mod:`inspect` module
+as specifying the class where this object was defined (setting this
+appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of dynamic class attributes).
+For callables, it may indicate that an instance of the given type (or a
+subclass) is expected or required as the first positional argument (for example,
+CPython sets this attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).
+
+
+.. _descriptor-invocation:
+
+Invoking Descriptors
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with "binding behavior", one
+whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the descriptor
+protocol:  :meth:`__get__`, :meth:`__set__`, and :meth:`__delete__`. If any of
+those methods are defined for an object, it is said to be a descriptor.
+
+The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
+attribute from an object's dictionary. For instance, ``a.x`` has a lookup chain
+starting with ``a.__dict__['x']``, then ``type(a).__dict__['x']``, and
+continuing through the base classes of ``type(a)`` excluding metaclasses.
+
+However, if the looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor
+methods, then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor
+method instead.  Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which
+descriptor methods were defined and how they were called.
+
+The starting point for descriptor invocation is a binding, ``a.x``. How the
+arguments are assembled depends on ``a``:
+
+Direct Call
+   The simplest and least common call is when user code directly invokes a
+   descriptor method:    ``x.__get__(a)``.
+
+Instance Binding
+   If binding to an object instance, ``a.x`` is transformed into the call:
+   ``type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a, type(a))``.
+
+Class Binding
+   If binding to a class, ``A.x`` is transformed into the call:
+   ``A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A)``.
+
+Super Binding
+   If ``a`` is an instance of :class:`super`, then the binding ``super(B, obj).m()``
+   searches ``obj.__class__.__mro__`` for the base class ``A``
+   immediately preceding ``B`` and then invokes the descriptor with the call:
+   ``A.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, obj.__class__)``.
+
+For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends on the
+which descriptor methods are defined.  A descriptor can define any combination
+of :meth:`__get__`, :meth:`__set__` and :meth:`__delete__`.  If it does not
+define :meth:`__get__`, then accessing the attribute will return the descriptor
+object itself unless there is a value in the object's instance dictionary.  If
+the descriptor defines :meth:`__set__` and/or :meth:`__delete__`, it is a data
+descriptor; if it defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor.  Normally, data
+descriptors define both :meth:`__get__` and :meth:`__set__`, while non-data
+descriptors have just the :meth:`__get__` method.  Data descriptors with
+:meth:`__set__` and :meth:`__get__` defined always override a redefinition in an
+instance dictionary.  In contrast, non-data descriptors can be overridden by
+instances.
+
+Python methods (including :func:`staticmethod` and :func:`classmethod`) are
+implemented as non-data descriptors.  Accordingly, instances can redefine and
+override methods.  This allows individual instances to acquire behaviors that
+differ from other instances of the same class.
+
+The :func:`property` function is implemented as a data descriptor. Accordingly,
+instances cannot override the behavior of a property.
+
+
+.. _slots:
+
+__slots__
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+*__slots__* allow us to explicitly declare data members (like
+properties) and deny the creation of *__dict__* and *__weakref__*
+(unless explicitly declared in *__slots__* or available in a parent.)
+
+The space saved over using *__dict__* can be significant.
+Attribute lookup speed can be significantly improved as well.
+
+.. data:: object.__slots__
+
+   This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence of
+   strings with variable names used by instances.  *__slots__* reserves space
+   for the declared variables and prevents the automatic creation of *__dict__*
+   and *__weakref__* for each instance.
+
+
+Notes on using *__slots__*
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+* When inheriting from a class without *__slots__*, the *__dict__* and
+  *__weakref__* attribute of the instances will always be accessible.
+
+* Without a *__dict__* variable, instances cannot be assigned new variables not
+  listed in the *__slots__* definition.  Attempts to assign to an unlisted
+  variable name raises :exc:`AttributeError`. If dynamic assignment of new
+  variables is desired, then add ``'__dict__'`` to the sequence of strings in
+  the *__slots__* declaration.
+
+* Without a *__weakref__* variable for each instance, classes defining
+  *__slots__* do not support weak references to its instances. If weak reference
+  support is needed, then add ``'__weakref__'`` to the sequence of strings in the
+  *__slots__* declaration.
+
+* *__slots__* are implemented at the class level by creating descriptors
+  (:ref:`descriptors`) for each variable name.  As a result, class attributes
+  cannot be used to set default values for instance variables defined by
+  *__slots__*; otherwise, the class attribute would overwrite the descriptor
+  assignment.
+
+* The action of a *__slots__* declaration is not limited to the class
+  where it is defined.  *__slots__* declared in parents are available in
+  child classes. However, child subclasses will get a *__dict__*  and
+  *__weakref__* unless they also define *__slots__* (which should only
+  contain names of any *additional* slots).
+
+* If a class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the instance variable
+  defined by the base class slot is inaccessible (except by retrieving its
+  descriptor directly from the base class). This renders the meaning of the
+  program undefined.  In the future, a check may be added to prevent this.
+
+* Nonempty *__slots__* does not work for classes derived from "variable-length"
+  built-in types such as :class:`int`, :class:`bytes` and :class:`tuple`.
+
+* Any non-string iterable may be assigned to *__slots__*. Mappings may also be
+  used; however, in the future, special meaning may be assigned to the values
+  corresponding to each key.
+
+* *__class__* assignment works only if both classes have the same *__slots__*.
+
+* Multiple inheritance with multiple slotted parent classes can be used,
+  but only one parent is allowed to have attributes created by slots
+  (the other bases must have empty slot layouts) - violations raise
+  :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+.. _class-customization:
+
+Customizing class creation
+--------------------------
+
+Whenever a class inherits from another class, *__init_subclass__* is
+called on that class. This way, it is possible to write classes which
+change the behavior of subclasses. This is closely related to class
+decorators, but where class decorators only affect the specific class they're
+applied to, ``__init_subclass__`` solely applies to future subclasses of the
+class defining the method.
+
+.. classmethod:: object.__init_subclass__(cls)
+
+   This method is called whenever the containing class is subclassed.
+   *cls* is then the new subclass. If defined as a normal instance method,
+   this method is implicitly converted to a class method.
+
+   Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to
+   the parent's class ``__init_subclass__``. For compatibility with
+   other classes using ``__init_subclass__``, one should take out the
+   needed keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base
+   class, as in::
+
+       class Philosopher:
+           def __init_subclass__(cls, default_name, **kwargs):
+               super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
+               cls.default_name = default_name
+
+       class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
+           pass
+
+   The default implementation ``object.__init_subclass__`` does
+   nothing, but raises an error if it is called with any arguments.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The metaclass hint ``metaclass`` is consumed by the rest of the type
+      machinery, and is never passed to ``__init_subclass__`` implementations.
+      The actual metaclass (rather than the explicit hint) can be accessed as
+      ``type(cls)``.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. _metaclasses:
+
+Metaclasses
+^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+   single: metaclass
+   builtin: type
+   single: = (equals); class definition
+
+By default, classes are constructed using :func:`type`. The class body is
+executed in a new namespace and the class name is bound locally to the
+result of ``type(name, bases, namespace)``.
+
+The class creation process can be customized by passing the ``metaclass``
+keyword argument in the class definition line, or by inheriting from an
+existing class that included such an argument. In the following example,
+both ``MyClass`` and ``MySubclass`` are instances of ``Meta``::
+
+   class Meta(type):
+       pass
+
+   class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
+       pass
+
+   class MySubclass(MyClass):
+       pass
+
+Any other keyword arguments that are specified in the class definition are
+passed through to all metaclass operations described below.
+
+When a class definition is executed, the following steps occur:
+
+* MRO entries are resolved;
+* the appropriate metaclass is determined;
+* the class namespace is prepared;
+* the class body is executed;
+* the class object is created.
+
+
+Resolving MRO entries
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+If a base that appears in class definition is not an instance of :class:`type`,
+then an ``__mro_entries__`` method is searched on it. If found, it is called
+with the original bases tuple. This method must return a tuple of classes that
+will be used instead of this base. The tuple may be empty, in such case
+the original base is ignored.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`560` - Core support for typing module and generic types
+
+
+Determining the appropriate metaclass
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. index::
+    single: metaclass hint
+
+The appropriate metaclass for a class definition is determined as follows:
+
+* if no bases and no explicit metaclass are given, then :func:`type` is used;
+* if an explicit metaclass is given and it is *not* an instance of
+  :func:`type`, then it is used directly as the metaclass;
+* if an instance of :func:`type` is given as the explicit metaclass, or
+  bases are defined, then the most derived metaclass is used.
+
+The most derived metaclass is selected from the explicitly specified
+metaclass (if any) and the metaclasses (i.e. ``type(cls)``) of all specified
+base classes. The most derived metaclass is one which is a subtype of *all*
+of these candidate metaclasses. If none of the candidate metaclasses meets
+that criterion, then the class definition will fail with ``TypeError``.
+
+
+.. _prepare:
+
+Preparing the class namespace
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+    single: __prepare__ (metaclass method)
+
+Once the appropriate metaclass has been identified, then the class namespace
+is prepared. If the metaclass has a ``__prepare__`` attribute, it is called
+as ``namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds)`` (where the
+additional keyword arguments, if any, come from the class definition).
+
+If the metaclass has no ``__prepare__`` attribute, then the class namespace
+is initialised as an empty ordered mapping.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3115` - Metaclasses in Python 3000
+      Introduced the ``__prepare__`` namespace hook
+
+
+Executing the class body
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+    single: class; body
+
+The class body is executed (approximately) as
+``exec(body, globals(), namespace)``. The key difference from a normal
+call to :func:`exec` is that lexical scoping allows the class body (including
+any methods) to reference names from the current and outer scopes when the
+class definition occurs inside a function.
+
+However, even when the class definition occurs inside the function, methods
+defined inside the class still cannot see names defined at the class scope.
+Class variables must be accessed through the first parameter of instance or
+class methods, or through the implicit lexically scoped ``__class__`` reference
+described in the next section.
+
+.. _class-object-creation:
+
+Creating the class object
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. index::
+    single: __class__ (method cell)
+    single: __classcell__ (class namespace entry)
+
+
+Once the class namespace has been populated by executing the class body,
+the class object is created by calling
+``metaclass(name, bases, namespace, **kwds)`` (the additional keywords
+passed here are the same as those passed to ``__prepare__``).
+
+This class object is the one that will be referenced by the zero-argument
+form of :func:`super`. ``__class__`` is an implicit closure reference
+created by the compiler if any methods in a class body refer to either
+``__class__`` or ``super``. This allows the zero argument form of
+:func:`super` to correctly identify the class being defined based on
+lexical scoping, while the class or instance that was used to make the
+current call is identified based on the first argument passed to the method.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   In CPython 3.6 and later, the ``__class__`` cell is passed to the metaclass
+   as a ``__classcell__`` entry in the class namespace. If present, this must
+   be propagated up to the ``type.__new__`` call in order for the class to be
+   initialised correctly.
+   Failing to do so will result in a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` in Python 3.6,
+   and a :exc:`RuntimeError` in Python 3.8.
+
+When using the default metaclass :class:`type`, or any metaclass that ultimately
+calls ``type.__new__``, the following additional customisation steps are
+invoked after creating the class object:
+
+* first, ``type.__new__`` collects all of the descriptors in the class
+  namespace that define a :meth:`~object.__set_name__` method;
+* second, all of these ``__set_name__`` methods are called with the class
+  being defined and the assigned name of that particular descriptor;
+* finally, the :meth:`~object.__init_subclass__` hook is called on the
+  immediate parent of the new class in its method resolution order.
+
+After the class object is created, it is passed to the class decorators
+included in the class definition (if any) and the resulting object is bound
+in the local namespace as the defined class.
+
+When a new class is created by ``type.__new__``, the object provided as the
+namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the original
+object is discarded. The new copy is wrapped in a read-only proxy, which
+becomes the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute of the class object.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3135` - New super
+      Describes the implicit ``__class__`` closure reference
+
+
+Uses for metaclasses
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The potential uses for metaclasses are boundless. Some ideas that have been
+explored include enum, logging, interface checking, automatic delegation,
+automatic property creation, proxies, frameworks, and automatic resource
+locking/synchronization.
+
+
+Customizing instance and subclass checks
+----------------------------------------
+
+The following methods are used to override the default behavior of the
+:func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass` built-in functions.
+
+In particular, the metaclass :class:`abc.ABCMeta` implements these methods in
+order to allow the addition of Abstract Base Classes (ABCs) as "virtual base
+classes" to any class or type (including built-in types), including other
+ABCs.
+
+.. method:: class.__instancecheck__(self, instance)
+
+   Return true if *instance* should be considered a (direct or indirect)
+   instance of *class*. If defined, called to implement ``isinstance(instance,
+   class)``.
+
+
+.. method:: class.__subclasscheck__(self, subclass)
+
+   Return true if *subclass* should be considered a (direct or indirect)
+   subclass of *class*.  If defined, called to implement ``issubclass(subclass,
+   class)``.
+
+
+Note that these methods are looked up on the type (metaclass) of a class.  They
+cannot be defined as class methods in the actual class.  This is consistent with
+the lookup of special methods that are called on instances, only in this
+case the instance is itself a class.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3119` - Introducing Abstract Base Classes
+      Includes the specification for customizing :func:`isinstance` and
+      :func:`issubclass` behavior through :meth:`~class.__instancecheck__` and
+      :meth:`~class.__subclasscheck__`, with motivation for this functionality
+      in the context of adding Abstract Base Classes (see the :mod:`abc`
+      module) to the language.
+
+
+Emulating generic types
+-----------------------
+
+One can implement the generic class syntax as specified by :pep:`484`
+(for example ``List[int]``) by defining a special method:
+
+.. classmethod:: object.__class_getitem__(cls, key)
+
+   Return an object representing the specialization of a generic class
+   by type arguments found in *key*.
+
+This method is looked up on the class object itself, and when defined in
+the class body, this method is implicitly a class method.  Note, this
+mechanism is primarily reserved for use with static type hints, other usage
+is discouraged.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`560` - Core support for typing module and generic types
+
+
+.. _callable-types:
+
+Emulating callable objects
+--------------------------
+
+
+.. method:: object.__call__(self[, args...])
+
+   .. index:: pair: call; instance
+
+   Called when the instance is "called" as a function; if this method is defined,
+   ``x(arg1, arg2, ...)`` is a shorthand for ``x.__call__(arg1, arg2, ...)``.
+
+
+.. _sequence-types:
+
+Emulating container types
+-------------------------
+
+The following methods can be defined to implement container objects.  Containers
+usually are sequences (such as lists or tuples) or mappings (like dictionaries),
+but can represent other containers as well.  The first set of methods is used
+either to emulate a sequence or to emulate a mapping; the difference is that for
+a sequence, the allowable keys should be the integers *k* for which ``0 <= k <
+N`` where *N* is the length of the sequence, or slice objects, which define a
+range of items.  It is also recommended that mappings provide the methods
+:meth:`keys`, :meth:`values`, :meth:`items`, :meth:`get`, :meth:`clear`,
+:meth:`setdefault`, :meth:`pop`, :meth:`popitem`, :meth:`!copy`, and
+:meth:`update` behaving similar to those for Python's standard dictionary
+objects.  The :mod:`collections.abc` module provides a
+:class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping`
+abstract base class to help create those methods from a base set of
+:meth:`__getitem__`, :meth:`__setitem__`, :meth:`__delitem__`, and :meth:`keys`.
+Mutable sequences should provide methods :meth:`append`, :meth:`count`,
+:meth:`index`, :meth:`extend`, :meth:`insert`, :meth:`pop`, :meth:`remove`,
+:meth:`reverse` and :meth:`sort`, like Python standard list objects.  Finally,
+sequence types should implement addition (meaning concatenation) and
+multiplication (meaning repetition) by defining the methods :meth:`__add__`,
+:meth:`__radd__`, :meth:`__iadd__`, :meth:`__mul__`, :meth:`__rmul__` and
+:meth:`__imul__` described below; they should not define other numerical
+operators.  It is recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
+:meth:`__contains__` method to allow efficient use of the ``in`` operator; for
+mappings, ``in`` should search the mapping's keys; for sequences, it should
+search through the values.  It is further recommended that both mappings and
+sequences implement the :meth:`__iter__` method to allow efficient iteration
+through the container; for mappings, :meth:`__iter__` should be the same as
+:meth:`keys`; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.
+
+.. method:: object.__len__(self)
+
+   .. index::
+      builtin: len
+      single: __bool__() (object method)
+
+   Called to implement the built-in function :func:`len`.  Should return the length
+   of the object, an integer ``>=`` 0.  Also, an object that doesn't define a
+   :meth:`__bool__` method and whose :meth:`__len__` method returns zero is
+   considered to be false in a Boolean context.
+
+   .. impl-detail::
+
+      In CPython, the length is required to be at most :attr:`sys.maxsize`.
+      If the length is larger than :attr:`!sys.maxsize` some features (such as
+      :func:`len`) may raise :exc:`OverflowError`.  To prevent raising
+      :exc:`!OverflowError` by truth value testing, an object must define a
+      :meth:`__bool__` method.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__length_hint__(self)
+
+   Called to implement :func:`operator.length_hint`. Should return an estimated
+   length for the object (which may be greater or less than the actual length).
+   The length must be an integer ``>=`` 0. This method is purely an
+   optimization and is never required for correctness.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. index:: object: slice
+
+.. note::
+
+   Slicing is done exclusively with the following three methods.  A call like ::
+
+      a[1:2] = b
+
+   is translated to ::
+
+      a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b
+
+   and so forth.  Missing slice items are always filled in with ``None``.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__getitem__(self, key)
+
+   Called to implement evaluation of ``self[key]``. For sequence types, the
+   accepted keys should be integers and slice objects.  Note that the special
+   interpretation of negative indexes (if the class wishes to emulate a sequence
+   type) is up to the :meth:`__getitem__` method. If *key* is of an inappropriate
+   type, :exc:`TypeError` may be raised; if of a value outside the set of indexes
+   for the sequence (after any special interpretation of negative values),
+   :exc:`IndexError` should be raised. For mapping types, if *key* is missing (not
+   in the container), :exc:`KeyError` should be raised.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      :keyword:`for` loops expect that an :exc:`IndexError` will be raised for illegal
+      indexes to allow proper detection of the end of the sequence.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__setitem__(self, key, value)
+
+   Called to implement assignment to ``self[key]``.  Same note as for
+   :meth:`__getitem__`.  This should only be implemented for mappings if the
+   objects support changes to the values for keys, or if new keys can be added, or
+   for sequences if elements can be replaced.  The same exceptions should be raised
+   for improper *key* values as for the :meth:`__getitem__` method.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__delitem__(self, key)
+
+   Called to implement deletion of ``self[key]``.  Same note as for
+   :meth:`__getitem__`.  This should only be implemented for mappings if the
+   objects support removal of keys, or for sequences if elements can be removed
+   from the sequence.  The same exceptions should be raised for improper *key*
+   values as for the :meth:`__getitem__` method.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__missing__(self, key)
+
+   Called by :class:`dict`\ .\ :meth:`__getitem__` to implement ``self[key]`` for dict subclasses
+   when key is not in the dictionary.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__iter__(self)
+
+   This method is called when an iterator is required for a container. This method
+   should return a new iterator object that can iterate over all the objects in the
+   container.  For mappings, it should iterate over the keys of the container.
+
+   Iterator objects also need to implement this method; they are required to return
+   themselves.  For more information on iterator objects, see :ref:`typeiter`.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__reversed__(self)
+
+   Called (if present) by the :func:`reversed` built-in to implement
+   reverse iteration.  It should return a new iterator object that iterates
+   over all the objects in the container in reverse order.
+
+   If the :meth:`__reversed__` method is not provided, the :func:`reversed`
+   built-in will fall back to using the sequence protocol (:meth:`__len__` and
+   :meth:`__getitem__`).  Objects that support the sequence protocol should
+   only provide :meth:`__reversed__` if they can provide an implementation
+   that is more efficient than the one provided by :func:`reversed`.
+
+
+The membership test operators (:keyword:`in` and :keyword:`not in`) are normally
+implemented as an iteration through a sequence.  However, container objects can
+supply the following special method with a more efficient implementation, which
+also does not require the object be a sequence.
+
+.. method:: object.__contains__(self, item)
+
+   Called to implement membership test operators.  Should return true if *item*
+   is in *self*, false otherwise.  For mapping objects, this should consider the
+   keys of the mapping rather than the values or the key-item pairs.
+
+   For objects that don't define :meth:`__contains__`, the membership test first
+   tries iteration via :meth:`__iter__`, then the old sequence iteration
+   protocol via :meth:`__getitem__`, see :ref:`this section in the language
+   reference <membership-test-details>`.
+
+
+.. _numeric-types:
+
+Emulating numeric types
+-----------------------
+
+The following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects. Methods
+corresponding to operations that are not supported by the particular kind of
+number implemented (e.g., bitwise operations for non-integral numbers) should be
+left undefined.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__add__(self, other)
+            object.__sub__(self, other)
+            object.__mul__(self, other)
+            object.__matmul__(self, other)
+            object.__truediv__(self, other)
+            object.__floordiv__(self, other)
+            object.__mod__(self, other)
+            object.__divmod__(self, other)
+            object.__pow__(self, other[, modulo])
+            object.__lshift__(self, other)
+            object.__rshift__(self, other)
+            object.__and__(self, other)
+            object.__xor__(self, other)
+            object.__or__(self, other)
+
+   .. index::
+      builtin: divmod
+      builtin: pow
+      builtin: pow
+
+   These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations
+   (``+``, ``-``, ``*``, ``@``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%``, :func:`divmod`,
+   :func:`pow`, ``**``, ``<<``, ``>>``, ``&``, ``^``, ``|``).  For instance, to
+   evaluate the expression ``x + y``, where *x* is an instance of a class that
+   has an :meth:`__add__` method, ``x.__add__(y)`` is called.  The
+   :meth:`__divmod__` method should be the equivalent to using
+   :meth:`__floordiv__` and :meth:`__mod__`; it should not be related to
+   :meth:`__truediv__`.  Note that :meth:`__pow__` should be defined to accept
+   an optional third argument if the ternary version of the built-in :func:`pow`
+   function is to be supported.
+
+   If one of those methods does not support the operation with the supplied
+   arguments, it should return ``NotImplemented``.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__radd__(self, other)
+            object.__rsub__(self, other)
+            object.__rmul__(self, other)
+            object.__rmatmul__(self, other)
+            object.__rtruediv__(self, other)
+            object.__rfloordiv__(self, other)
+            object.__rmod__(self, other)
+            object.__rdivmod__(self, other)
+            object.__rpow__(self, other)
+            object.__rlshift__(self, other)
+            object.__rrshift__(self, other)
+            object.__rand__(self, other)
+            object.__rxor__(self, other)
+            object.__ror__(self, other)
+
+   .. index::
+      builtin: divmod
+      builtin: pow
+
+   These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations
+   (``+``, ``-``, ``*``, ``@``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%``, :func:`divmod`,
+   :func:`pow`, ``**``, ``<<``, ``>>``, ``&``, ``^``, ``|``) with reflected
+   (swapped) operands.  These functions are only called if the left operand does
+   not support the corresponding operation [#]_ and the operands are of different
+   types. [#]_ For instance, to evaluate the expression ``x - y``, where *y* is
+   an instance of a class that has an :meth:`__rsub__` method, ``y.__rsub__(x)``
+   is called if ``x.__sub__(y)`` returns *NotImplemented*.
+
+   .. index:: builtin: pow
+
+   Note that ternary :func:`pow` will not try calling :meth:`__rpow__` (the
+   coercion rules would become too complicated).
+
+   .. note::
+
+      If the right operand's type is a subclass of the left operand's type and that
+      subclass provides the reflected method for the operation, this method will be
+      called before the left operand's non-reflected method.  This behavior allows
+      subclasses to override their ancestors' operations.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__iadd__(self, other)
+            object.__isub__(self, other)
+            object.__imul__(self, other)
+            object.__imatmul__(self, other)
+            object.__itruediv__(self, other)
+            object.__ifloordiv__(self, other)
+            object.__imod__(self, other)
+            object.__ipow__(self, other[, modulo])
+            object.__ilshift__(self, other)
+            object.__irshift__(self, other)
+            object.__iand__(self, other)
+            object.__ixor__(self, other)
+            object.__ior__(self, other)
+
+   These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic assignments
+   (``+=``, ``-=``, ``*=``, ``@=``, ``/=``, ``//=``, ``%=``, ``**=``, ``<<=``,
+   ``>>=``, ``&=``, ``^=``, ``|=``).  These methods should attempt to do the
+   operation in-place (modifying *self*) and return the result (which could be,
+   but does not have to be, *self*).  If a specific method is not defined, the
+   augmented assignment falls back to the normal methods.  For instance, if *x*
+   is an instance of a class with an :meth:`__iadd__` method, ``x += y`` is
+   equivalent to ``x = x.__iadd__(y)`` . Otherwise, ``x.__add__(y)`` and
+   ``y.__radd__(x)`` are considered, as with the evaluation of ``x + y``. In
+   certain situations, augmented assignment can result in unexpected errors (see
+   :ref:`faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error`), but this behavior is in fact
+   part of the data model.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__neg__(self)
+            object.__pos__(self)
+            object.__abs__(self)
+            object.__invert__(self)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: abs
+
+   Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (``-``, ``+``, :func:`abs`
+   and ``~``).
+
+
+.. method:: object.__complex__(self)
+            object.__int__(self)
+            object.__float__(self)
+
+   .. index::
+      builtin: complex
+      builtin: int
+      builtin: float
+
+   Called to implement the built-in functions :func:`complex`,
+   :func:`int` and :func:`float`.  Should return a value
+   of the appropriate type.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__index__(self)
+
+   Called to implement :func:`operator.index`, and whenever Python needs to
+   losslessly convert the numeric object to an integer object (such as in
+   slicing, or in the built-in :func:`bin`, :func:`hex` and :func:`oct`
+   functions). Presence of this method indicates that the numeric object is
+   an integer type.  Must return an integer.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      In order to have a coherent integer type class, when :meth:`__index__` is
+      defined :meth:`__int__` should also be defined, and both should return
+      the same value.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__round__(self, [,ndigits])
+            object.__trunc__(self)
+            object.__floor__(self)
+            object.__ceil__(self)
+
+   .. index:: builtin: round
+
+   Called to implement the built-in function :func:`round` and :mod:`math`
+   functions :func:`~math.trunc`, :func:`~math.floor` and :func:`~math.ceil`.
+   Unless *ndigits* is passed to :meth:`!__round__` all these methods should
+   return the value of the object truncated to an :class:`~numbers.Integral`
+   (typically an :class:`int`).
+
+   If :meth:`__int__` is not defined then the built-in function :func:`int`
+   falls back to :meth:`__trunc__`.
+
+
+.. _context-managers:
+
+With Statement Context Managers
+-------------------------------
+
+A :dfn:`context manager` is an object that defines the runtime context to be
+established when executing a :keyword:`with` statement. The context manager
+handles the entry into, and the exit from, the desired runtime context for the
+execution of the block of code.  Context managers are normally invoked using the
+:keyword:`!with` statement (described in section :ref:`with`), but can also be
+used by directly invoking their methods.
+
+.. index::
+   statement: with
+   single: context manager
+
+Typical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various kinds of
+global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened files, etc.
+
+For more information on context managers, see :ref:`typecontextmanager`.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__enter__(self)
+
+   Enter the runtime context related to this object. The :keyword:`with` statement
+   will bind this method's return value to the target(s) specified in the
+   :keyword:`!as` clause of the statement, if any.
+
+
+.. method:: object.__exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)
+
+   Exit the runtime context related to this object. The parameters describe the
+   exception that caused the context to be exited. If the context was exited
+   without an exception, all three arguments will be :const:`None`.
+
+   If an exception is supplied, and the method wishes to suppress the exception
+   (i.e., prevent it from being propagated), it should return a true value.
+   Otherwise, the exception will be processed normally upon exit from this method.
+
+   Note that :meth:`__exit__` methods should not reraise the passed-in exception;
+   this is the caller's responsibility.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`343` - The "with" statement
+      The specification, background, and examples for the Python :keyword:`with`
+      statement.
+
+
+.. _special-lookup:
+
+Special method lookup
+---------------------
+
+For custom classes, implicit invocations of special methods are only guaranteed
+to work correctly if defined on an object's type, not in the object's instance
+dictionary.  That behaviour is the reason why the following code raises an
+exception::
+
+   >>> class C:
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> c = C()
+   >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
+   >>> len(c)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()
+
+The rationale behind this behaviour lies with a number of special methods such
+as :meth:`__hash__` and :meth:`__repr__` that are implemented by all objects,
+including type objects. If the implicit lookup of these methods used the
+conventional lookup process, they would fail when invoked on the type object
+itself::
+
+   >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
+   True
+   >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument
+
+Incorrectly attempting to invoke an unbound method of a class in this way is
+sometimes referred to as 'metaclass confusion', and is avoided by bypassing
+the instance when looking up special methods::
+
+   >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
+   True
+   >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
+   True
+
+In addition to bypassing any instance attributes in the interest of
+correctness, implicit special method lookup generally also bypasses the
+:meth:`__getattribute__` method even of the object's metaclass::
+
+   >>> class Meta(type):
+   ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
+   ...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
+   ...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
+   ...
+   >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
+   ...     def __len__(self):
+   ...         return 10
+   ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
+   ...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
+   ...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
+   ...
+   >>> c = C()
+   >>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
+   Class getattribute invoked
+   10
+   >>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
+   Metaclass getattribute invoked
+   10
+   >>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
+   10
+
+Bypassing the :meth:`__getattribute__` machinery in this fashion
+provides significant scope for speed optimisations within the
+interpreter, at the cost of some flexibility in the handling of
+special methods (the special method *must* be set on the class
+object itself in order to be consistently invoked by the interpreter).
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: coroutine
+
+Coroutines
+==========
+
+
+Awaitable Objects
+-----------------
+
+An :term:`awaitable` object generally implements an :meth:`__await__` method.
+:term:`Coroutine` objects returned from :keyword:`async def` functions
+are awaitable.
+
+.. note::
+
+   The :term:`generator iterator` objects returned from generators
+   decorated with :func:`types.coroutine` or :func:`asyncio.coroutine`
+   are also awaitable, but they do not implement :meth:`__await__`.
+
+.. method:: object.__await__(self)
+
+   Must return an :term:`iterator`.  Should be used to implement
+   :term:`awaitable` objects.  For instance, :class:`asyncio.Future` implements
+   this method to be compatible with the :keyword:`await` expression.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. seealso:: :pep:`492` for additional information about awaitable objects.
+
+
+.. _coroutine-objects:
+
+Coroutine Objects
+-----------------
+
+:term:`Coroutine` objects are :term:`awaitable` objects.
+A coroutine's execution can be controlled by calling :meth:`__await__` and
+iterating over the result.  When the coroutine has finished executing and
+returns, the iterator raises :exc:`StopIteration`, and the exception's
+:attr:`~StopIteration.value` attribute holds the return value.  If the
+coroutine raises an exception, it is propagated by the iterator.  Coroutines
+should not directly raise unhandled :exc:`StopIteration` exceptions.
+
+Coroutines also have the methods listed below, which are analogous to
+those of generators (see :ref:`generator-methods`).  However, unlike
+generators, coroutines do not directly support iteration.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5.2
+   It is a :exc:`RuntimeError` to await on a coroutine more than once.
+
+
+.. method:: coroutine.send(value)
+
+   Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine.  If *value* is ``None``,
+   this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by
+   :meth:`__await__`.  If *value* is not ``None``, this method delegates
+   to the :meth:`~generator.send` method of the iterator that caused
+   the coroutine to suspend.  The result (return value,
+   :exc:`StopIteration`, or other exception) is the same as when
+   iterating over the :meth:`__await__` return value, described above.
+
+.. method:: coroutine.throw(type[, value[, traceback]])
+
+   Raises the specified exception in the coroutine.  This method delegates
+   to the :meth:`~generator.throw` method of the iterator that caused
+   the coroutine to suspend, if it has such a method.  Otherwise,
+   the exception is raised at the suspension point.  The result
+   (return value, :exc:`StopIteration`, or other exception) is the same as
+   when iterating over the :meth:`__await__` return value, described
+   above.  If the exception is not caught in the coroutine, it propagates
+   back to the caller.
+
+.. method:: coroutine.close()
+
+   Causes the coroutine to clean itself up and exit.  If the coroutine
+   is suspended, this method first delegates to the :meth:`~generator.close`
+   method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend, if it
+   has such a method.  Then it raises :exc:`GeneratorExit` at the
+   suspension point, causing the coroutine to immediately clean itself up.
+   Finally, the coroutine is marked as having finished executing, even if
+   it was never started.
+
+   Coroutine objects are automatically closed using the above process when
+   they are about to be destroyed.
+
+.. _async-iterators:
+
+Asynchronous Iterators
+----------------------
+
+An *asynchronous iterator* can call asynchronous code in
+its ``__anext__`` method.
+
+Asynchronous iterators can be used in an :keyword:`async for` statement.
+
+.. method:: object.__aiter__(self)
+
+   Must return an *asynchronous iterator* object.
+
+.. method:: object.__anext__(self)
+
+   Must return an *awaitable* resulting in a next value of the iterator.  Should
+   raise a :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` error when the iteration is over.
+
+An example of an asynchronous iterable object::
+
+    class Reader:
+        async def readline(self):
+            ...
+
+        def __aiter__(self):
+            return self
+
+        async def __anext__(self):
+            val = await self.readline()
+            if val == b'':
+                raise StopAsyncIteration
+            return val
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Prior to Python 3.7, ``__aiter__`` could return an *awaitable*
+   that would resolve to an
+   :term:`asynchronous iterator <asynchronous iterator>`.
+
+   Starting with Python 3.7, ``__aiter__`` must return an
+   asynchronous iterator object.  Returning anything else
+   will result in a :exc:`TypeError` error.
+
+
+.. _async-context-managers:
+
+Asynchronous Context Managers
+-----------------------------
+
+An *asynchronous context manager* is a *context manager* that is able to
+suspend execution in its ``__aenter__`` and ``__aexit__`` methods.
+
+Asynchronous context managers can be used in an :keyword:`async with` statement.
+
+.. method:: object.__aenter__(self)
+
+   This method is semantically similar to the :meth:`__enter__`, with only
+   difference that it must return an *awaitable*.
+
+.. method:: object.__aexit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)
+
+   This method is semantically similar to the :meth:`__exit__`, with only
+   difference that it must return an *awaitable*.
+
+An example of an asynchronous context manager class::
+
+    class AsyncContextManager:
+        async def __aenter__(self):
+            await log('entering context')
+
+        async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
+            await log('exiting context')
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] It *is* possible in some cases to change an object's type, under certain
+   controlled conditions. It generally isn't a good idea though, since it can
+   lead to some very strange behaviour if it is handled incorrectly.
+
+.. [#] The :meth:`__hash__`, :meth:`__iter__`, :meth:`__reversed__`, and
+   :meth:`__contains__` methods have special handling for this; others
+   will still raise a :exc:`TypeError`, but may do so by relying on
+   the behavior that ``None`` is not callable.
+
+.. [#] "Does not support" here means that the class has no such method, or
+   the method returns ``NotImplemented``.  Do not set the method to
+   ``None`` if you want to force fallback to the right operand's reflected
+   method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly
+   *blocking* such fallback.
+
+.. [#] For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the non-reflected method
+   (such as :meth:`__add__`) fails the operation is not supported, which is why the
+   reflected method is not called.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/executionmodel.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/executionmodel.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49cb86b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/executionmodel.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,266 @@
+
+.. _execmodel:
+
+***************
+Execution model
+***************
+
+.. index::
+   single: execution model
+   pair: code; block
+
+.. _prog_structure:
+
+Structure of a program
+======================
+
+.. index:: block
+
+A Python program is constructed from code blocks.
+A :dfn:`block` is a piece of Python program text that is executed as a unit.
+The following are blocks: a module, a function body, and a class definition.
+Each command typed interactively is a block.  A script file (a file given as
+standard input to the interpreter or specified as a command line argument to the
+interpreter) is a code block.  A script command (a command specified on the
+interpreter command line with the :option:`-c` option) is a code block.  The string
+argument passed to the built-in functions :func:`eval` and :func:`exec` is a
+code block.
+
+.. index:: pair: execution; frame
+
+A code block is executed in an :dfn:`execution frame`.  A frame contains some
+administrative information (used for debugging) and determines where and how
+execution continues after the code block's execution has completed.
+
+.. _naming:
+
+Naming and binding
+==================
+
+.. index::
+   single: namespace
+   single: scope
+
+.. _bind_names:
+
+Binding of names
+----------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: name
+   pair: binding; name
+
+:dfn:`Names` refer to objects.  Names are introduced by name binding operations.
+
+.. index:: single: from; import statement
+
+The following constructs bind names: formal parameters to functions,
+:keyword:`import` statements, class and function definitions (these bind the
+class or function name in the defining block), and targets that are identifiers
+if occurring in an assignment, :keyword:`for` loop header, or after
+:keyword:`!as` in a :keyword:`with` statement or :keyword:`except` clause.
+The :keyword:`!import` statement
+of the form ``from ... import *`` binds all names defined in the imported
+module, except those beginning with an underscore.  This form may only be used
+at the module level.
+
+A target occurring in a :keyword:`del` statement is also considered bound for
+this purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the name).
+
+Each assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a class or
+function definition or at the module level (the top-level code block).
+
+.. index:: pair: free; variable
+
+If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block, unless
+declared as :keyword:`nonlocal` or :keyword:`global`.  If a name is bound at
+the module level, it is a global variable.  (The variables of the module code
+block are local and global.)  If a variable is used in a code block but not
+defined there, it is a :dfn:`free variable`.
+
+Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to the :dfn:`binding` of
+that name established by the following name resolution rules.
+
+.. _resolve_names:
+
+Resolution of names
+-------------------
+
+.. index:: scope
+
+A :dfn:`scope` defines the visibility of a name within a block.  If a local
+variable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block.  If the
+definition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks contained
+within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces a different binding
+for the name.
+
+.. index:: single: environment
+
+When a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest enclosing
+scope.  The set of all such scopes visible to a code block is called the block's
+:dfn:`environment`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: NameError (built-in exception)
+   single: UnboundLocalError
+
+When a name is not found at all, a :exc:`NameError` exception is raised.
+If the current scope is a function scope, and the name refers to a local
+variable that has not yet been bound to a value at the point where the name is
+used, an :exc:`UnboundLocalError` exception is raised.
+:exc:`UnboundLocalError` is a subclass of :exc:`NameError`.
+
+If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all uses of the
+name within the block are treated as references to the current block.  This can
+lead to errors when a name is used within a block before it is bound.  This rule
+is subtle.  Python lacks declarations and allows name binding operations to
+occur anywhere within a code block.  The local variables of a code block can be
+determined by scanning the entire text of the block for name binding operations.
+
+If the :keyword:`global` statement occurs within a block, all uses of the name
+specified in the statement refer to the binding of that name in the top-level
+namespace.  Names are resolved in the top-level namespace by searching the
+global namespace, i.e. the namespace of the module containing the code block,
+and the builtins namespace, the namespace of the module :mod:`builtins`.  The
+global namespace is searched first.  If the name is not found there, the
+builtins namespace is searched.  The :keyword:`!global` statement must precede
+all uses of the name.
+
+The :keyword:`global` statement has the same scope as a name binding operation
+in the same block.  If the nearest enclosing scope for a free variable contains
+a global statement, the free variable is treated as a global.
+
+.. XXX say more about "nonlocal" semantics here
+
+The :keyword:`nonlocal` statement causes corresponding names to refer
+to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope.
+:exc:`SyntaxError` is raised at compile time if the given name does not
+exist in any enclosing function scope.
+
+.. index:: module: __main__
+
+The namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a module is
+imported.  The main module for a script is always called :mod:`__main__`.
+
+Class definition blocks and arguments to :func:`exec` and :func:`eval` are
+special in the context of name resolution.
+A class definition is an executable statement that may use and define names.
+These references follow the normal rules for name resolution with an exception
+that unbound local variables are looked up in the global namespace.
+The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary of
+the class. The scope of names defined in a class block is limited to the
+class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of methods -- this includes
+comprehensions and generator expressions since they are implemented using a
+function scope.  This means that the following will fail::
+
+   class A:
+       a = 42
+       b = list(a + i for i in range(10))
+
+.. _restrict_exec:
+
+Builtins and restricted execution
+---------------------------------
+
+.. index:: pair: restricted; execution
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   Users should not touch ``__builtins__``; it is strictly an implementation
+   detail.  Users wanting to override values in the builtins namespace should
+   :keyword:`import` the :mod:`builtins` module and modify its
+   attributes appropriately.
+
+The builtins namespace associated with the execution of a code block
+is actually found by looking up the name ``__builtins__`` in its
+global namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the
+latter case the module's dictionary is used).  By default, when in the
+:mod:`__main__` module, ``__builtins__`` is the built-in module
+:mod:`builtins`; when in any other module, ``__builtins__`` is an
+alias for the dictionary of the :mod:`builtins` module itself.
+
+
+.. _dynamic-features:
+
+Interaction with dynamic features
+---------------------------------
+
+Name resolution of free variables occurs at runtime, not at compile time.
+This means that the following code will print 42::
+
+   i = 10
+   def f():
+       print(i)
+   i = 42
+   f()
+
+.. XXX from * also invalid with relative imports (at least currently)
+
+The :func:`eval` and :func:`exec` functions do not have access to the full
+environment for resolving names.  Names may be resolved in the local and global
+namespaces of the caller.  Free variables are not resolved in the nearest
+enclosing namespace, but in the global namespace.  [#]_ The :func:`exec` and
+:func:`eval` functions have optional arguments to override the global and local
+namespace.  If only one namespace is specified, it is used for both.
+
+
+.. _exceptions:
+
+Exceptions
+==========
+
+.. index:: single: exception
+
+.. index::
+   single: raise an exception
+   single: handle an exception
+   single: exception handler
+   single: errors
+   single: error handling
+
+Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of a code
+block in order to handle errors or other exceptional conditions.  An exception
+is *raised* at the point where the error is detected; it may be *handled* by the
+surrounding code block or by any code block that directly or indirectly invoked
+the code block where the error occurred.
+
+The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time error
+(such as division by zero).  A Python program can also explicitly raise an
+exception with the :keyword:`raise` statement. Exception handlers are specified
+with the :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`except` statement.  The :keyword:`finally`
+clause of such a statement can be used to specify cleanup code which does not
+handle the exception, but is executed whether an exception occurred or not in
+the preceding code.
+
+.. index:: single: termination model
+
+Python uses the "termination" model of error handling: an exception handler can
+find out what happened and continue execution at an outer level, but it cannot
+repair the cause of the error and retry the failing operation (except by
+re-entering the offending piece of code from the top).
+
+.. index:: single: SystemExit (built-in exception)
+
+When an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates execution of
+the program, or returns to its interactive main loop.  In either case, it prints
+a stack traceback, except when the exception is :exc:`SystemExit`.
+
+Exceptions are identified by class instances.  The :keyword:`except` clause is
+selected depending on the class of the instance: it must reference the class of
+the instance or a base class thereof.  The instance can be received by the
+handler and can carry additional information about the exceptional condition.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Exception messages are not part of the Python API.  Their contents may change
+   from one version of Python to the next without warning and should not be
+   relied on by code which will run under multiple versions of the interpreter.
+
+See also the description of the :keyword:`try` statement in section :ref:`try`
+and :keyword:`raise` statement in section :ref:`raise`.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these operations
+       is not available at the time the module is compiled.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/expressions.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/expressions.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..990600e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/expressions.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1887 @@
+
+.. _expressions:
+
+***********
+Expressions
+***********
+
+.. index:: expression, BNF
+
+This chapter explains the meaning of the elements of expressions in Python.
+
+**Syntax Notes:** In this and the following chapters, extended BNF notation will
+be used to describe syntax, not lexical analysis.  When (one alternative of) a
+syntax rule has the form
+
+.. productionlist:: *
+   name: `othername`
+
+and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of ``name`` are the same
+as for ``othername``.
+
+
+.. _conversions:
+
+Arithmetic conversions
+======================
+
+.. index:: pair: arithmetic; conversion
+
+When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase "the numeric
+arguments are converted to a common type," this means that the operator
+implementation for built-in types works as follows:
+
+* If either argument is a complex number, the other is converted to complex;
+
+* otherwise, if either argument is a floating point number, the other is
+  converted to floating point;
+
+* otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.
+
+Some additional rules apply for certain operators (e.g., a string as a left
+argument to the '%' operator).  Extensions must define their own conversion
+behavior.
+
+
+.. _atoms:
+
+Atoms
+=====
+
+.. index:: atom
+
+Atoms are the most basic elements of expressions.  The simplest atoms are
+identifiers or literals.  Forms enclosed in parentheses, brackets or braces are
+also categorized syntactically as atoms.  The syntax for atoms is:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   atom: `identifier` | `literal` | `enclosure`
+   enclosure: `parenth_form` | `list_display` | `dict_display` | `set_display`
+            : | `generator_expression` | `yield_atom`
+
+
+.. _atom-identifiers:
+
+Identifiers (Names)
+-------------------
+
+.. index:: name, identifier
+
+An identifier occurring as an atom is a name.  See section :ref:`identifiers`
+for lexical definition and section :ref:`naming` for documentation of naming and
+binding.
+
+.. index:: exception: NameError
+
+When the name is bound to an object, evaluation of the atom yields that object.
+When a name is not bound, an attempt to evaluate it raises a :exc:`NameError`
+exception.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: name; mangling
+   pair: private; names
+
+**Private name mangling:** When an identifier that textually occurs in a class
+definition begins with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two
+or more underscores, it is considered a :dfn:`private name` of that class.
+Private names are transformed to a longer form before code is generated for
+them.  The transformation inserts the class name, with leading underscores
+removed and a single underscore inserted, in front of the name.  For example,
+the identifier ``__spam`` occurring in a class named ``Ham`` will be transformed
+to ``_Ham__spam``.  This transformation is independent of the syntactical
+context in which the identifier is used.  If the transformed name is extremely
+long (longer than 255 characters), implementation defined truncation may happen.
+If the class name consists only of underscores, no transformation is done.
+
+
+.. _atom-literals:
+
+Literals
+--------
+
+.. index:: single: literal
+
+Python supports string and bytes literals and various numeric literals:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   literal: `stringliteral` | `bytesliteral`
+          : | `integer` | `floatnumber` | `imagnumber`
+
+Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (string, bytes,
+integer, floating point number, complex number) with the given value.  The value
+may be approximated in the case of floating point and imaginary (complex)
+literals.  See section :ref:`literals` for details.
+
+.. index::
+   triple: immutable; data; type
+   pair: immutable; object
+
+All literals correspond to immutable data types, and hence the object's identity
+is less important than its value.  Multiple evaluations of literals with the
+same value (either the same occurrence in the program text or a different
+occurrence) may obtain the same object or a different object with the same
+value.
+
+
+.. _parenthesized:
+
+Parenthesized forms
+-------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: parenthesized form
+   single: () (parentheses); tuple display
+
+A parenthesized form is an optional expression list enclosed in parentheses:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   parenth_form: "(" [`starred_expression`] ")"
+
+A parenthesized expression list yields whatever that expression list yields: if
+the list contains at least one comma, it yields a tuple; otherwise, it yields
+the single expression that makes up the expression list.
+
+.. index:: pair: empty; tuple
+
+An empty pair of parentheses yields an empty tuple object.  Since tuples are
+immutable, the same rules as for literals apply (i.e., two occurrences of the empty
+tuple may or may not yield the same object).
+
+.. index::
+   single: comma; tuple display
+   pair: tuple; display
+   single: , (comma); tuple display
+
+Note that tuples are not formed by the parentheses, but rather by use of the
+comma operator.  The exception is the empty tuple, for which parentheses *are*
+required --- allowing unparenthesized "nothing" in expressions would cause
+ambiguities and allow common typos to pass uncaught.
+
+
+.. _comprehensions:
+
+Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries
+-----------------------------------------
+
+For constructing a list, a set or a dictionary Python provides special syntax
+called "displays", each of them in two flavors:
+
+* either the container contents are listed explicitly, or
+
+* they are computed via a set of looping and filtering instructions, called a
+  :dfn:`comprehension`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: for; in comprehensions
+   single: if; in comprehensions
+   single: async for; in comprehensions
+
+Common syntax elements for comprehensions are:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   comprehension: `expression` `comp_for`
+   comp_for: ["async"] "for" `target_list` "in" `or_test` [`comp_iter`]
+   comp_iter: `comp_for` | `comp_if`
+   comp_if: "if" `expression_nocond` [`comp_iter`]
+
+The comprehension consists of a single expression followed by at least one
+:keyword:`!for` clause and zero or more :keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!if` clauses.
+In this case, the elements of the new container are those that would be produced
+by considering each of the :keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!if` clauses a block,
+nesting from left to right, and evaluating the expression to produce an element
+each time the innermost block is reached.
+
+However, aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause,
+the comprehension is executed in a separate implicitly nested scope. This ensures
+that names assigned to in the target list don't "leak" into the enclosing scope.
+
+The iterable expression in the leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause is evaluated
+directly in the enclosing scope and then passed as an argument to the implictly
+nested scope. Subsequent :keyword:`!for` clauses and any filter condition in the
+leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause cannot be evaluated in the enclosing scope as
+they may depend on the values obtained from the leftmost iterable. For example:
+``[x*y for x in range(10) for y in range(x, x+10)]``.
+
+To ensure the comprehension always results in a container of the appropriate
+type, ``yield`` and ``yield from`` expressions are prohibited in the implicitly
+nested scope (in Python 3.7, such expressions emit :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+when compiled, in Python 3.8+ they will emit :exc:`SyntaxError`).
+
+.. index::
+   single: await; in comprehensions
+
+Since Python 3.6, in an :keyword:`async def` function, an :keyword:`!async for`
+clause may be used to iterate over a :term:`asynchronous iterator`.
+A comprehension in an :keyword:`!async def` function may consist of either a
+:keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!async for` clause following the leading
+expression, may contain additional :keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!async for`
+clauses, and may also use :keyword:`await` expressions.
+If a comprehension contains either :keyword:`!async for` clauses
+or :keyword:`!await` expressions it is called an
+:dfn:`asynchronous comprehension`.  An asynchronous comprehension may
+suspend the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.
+See also :pep:`530`.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+   Asynchronous comprehensions were introduced.
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.7
+   ``yield`` and ``yield from`` deprecated in the implicitly nested scope.
+
+
+.. _lists:
+
+List displays
+-------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: list; display
+   pair: list; comprehensions
+   pair: empty; list
+   object: list
+   single: [] (square brackets); list expression
+   single: , (comma); expression list
+
+A list display is a possibly empty series of expressions enclosed in square
+brackets:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   list_display: "[" [`starred_list` | `comprehension`] "]"
+
+A list display yields a new list object, the contents being specified by either
+a list of expressions or a comprehension.  When a comma-separated list of
+expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated from left to right and
+placed into the list object in that order.  When a comprehension is supplied,
+the list is constructed from the elements resulting from the comprehension.
+
+
+.. _set:
+
+Set displays
+------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: set; display
+   object: set
+   single: {} (curly brackets); set expression
+   single: , (comma); expression list
+
+A set display is denoted by curly braces and distinguishable from dictionary
+displays by the lack of colons separating keys and values:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   set_display: "{" (`starred_list` | `comprehension`) "}"
+
+A set display yields a new mutable set object, the contents being specified by
+either a sequence of expressions or a comprehension.  When a comma-separated
+list of expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated from left to right
+and added to the set object.  When a comprehension is supplied, the set is
+constructed from the elements resulting from the comprehension.
+
+An empty set cannot be constructed with ``{}``; this literal constructs an empty
+dictionary.
+
+
+.. _dict:
+
+Dictionary displays
+-------------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: dictionary; display
+   key, datum, key/datum pair
+   object: dictionary
+   single: {} (curly brackets); dictionary expression
+   single: : (colon); in dictionary expressions
+   single: , (comma); in dictionary displays
+
+A dictionary display is a possibly empty series of key/datum pairs enclosed in
+curly braces:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   dict_display: "{" [`key_datum_list` | `dict_comprehension`] "}"
+   key_datum_list: `key_datum` ("," `key_datum`)* [","]
+   key_datum: `expression` ":" `expression` | "**" `or_expr`
+   dict_comprehension: `expression` ":" `expression` `comp_for`
+
+A dictionary display yields a new dictionary object.
+
+If a comma-separated sequence of key/datum pairs is given, they are evaluated
+from left to right to define the entries of the dictionary: each key object is
+used as a key into the dictionary to store the corresponding datum.  This means
+that you can specify the same key multiple times in the key/datum list, and the
+final dictionary's value for that key will be the last one given.
+
+.. index::
+   unpacking; dictionary
+   single: **; in dictionary displays
+
+A double asterisk ``**`` denotes :dfn:`dictionary unpacking`.
+Its operand must be a :term:`mapping`.  Each mapping item is added
+to the new dictionary.  Later values replace values already set by
+earlier key/datum pairs and earlier dictionary unpackings.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+   Unpacking into dictionary displays, originally proposed by :pep:`448`.
+
+A dict comprehension, in contrast to list and set comprehensions, needs two
+expressions separated with a colon followed by the usual "for" and "if" clauses.
+When the comprehension is run, the resulting key and value elements are inserted
+in the new dictionary in the order they are produced.
+
+.. index:: pair: immutable; object
+           hashable
+
+Restrictions on the types of the key values are listed earlier in section
+:ref:`types`.  (To summarize, the key type should be :term:`hashable`, which excludes
+all mutable objects.)  Clashes between duplicate keys are not detected; the last
+datum (textually rightmost in the display) stored for a given key value
+prevails.
+
+
+.. _genexpr:
+
+Generator expressions
+---------------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: generator; expression
+   object: generator
+   single: () (parentheses); generator expression
+
+A generator expression is a compact generator notation in parentheses:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   generator_expression: "(" `expression` `comp_for` ")"
+
+A generator expression yields a new generator object.  Its syntax is the same as
+for comprehensions, except that it is enclosed in parentheses instead of
+brackets or curly braces.
+
+Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the
+:meth:`~generator.__next__` method is called for the generator object (in the same
+fashion as normal generators).  However, the iterable expression in the
+leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause is immediately evaluated, so that an error
+produced by it will be emitted at the point where the generator expression
+is defined, rather than at the point where the first value is retrieved.
+Subsequent :keyword:`!for` clauses and any filter condition in the leftmost
+:keyword:`!for` clause cannot be evaluated in the enclosing scope as they may
+depend on the values obtained from the leftmost iterable. For example:
+``(x*y for x in range(10) for y in range(x, x+10))``.
+
+The parentheses can be omitted on calls with only one argument.  See section
+:ref:`calls` for details.
+
+To avoid interfering with the expected operation of the generator expression
+itself, ``yield`` and ``yield from`` expressions are prohibited in the
+implicitly defined generator (in Python 3.7, such expressions emit
+:exc:`DeprecationWarning` when compiled, in Python 3.8+ they will emit
+:exc:`SyntaxError`).
+
+If a generator expression contains either :keyword:`!async for`
+clauses or :keyword:`await` expressions it is called an
+:dfn:`asynchronous generator expression`.  An asynchronous generator
+expression returns a new asynchronous generator object,
+which is an asynchronous iterator (see :ref:`async-iterators`).
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+   Asynchronous generator expressions were introduced.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Prior to Python 3.7, asynchronous generator expressions could
+   only appear in :keyword:`async def` coroutines.  Starting
+   with 3.7, any function can use asynchronous generator expressions.
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.7
+   ``yield`` and ``yield from`` deprecated in the implicitly nested scope.
+
+
+.. _yieldexpr:
+
+Yield expressions
+-----------------
+
+.. index::
+   keyword: yield
+   keyword: from
+   pair: yield; expression
+   pair: generator; function
+
+.. productionlist::
+   yield_atom: "(" `yield_expression` ")"
+   yield_expression: "yield" [`expression_list` | "from" `expression`]
+
+The yield expression is used when defining a :term:`generator` function
+or an :term:`asynchronous generator` function and
+thus can only be used in the body of a function definition.  Using a yield
+expression in a function's body causes that function to be a generator,
+and using it in an :keyword:`async def` function's body causes that
+coroutine function to be an asynchronous generator. For example::
+
+    def gen():  # defines a generator function
+        yield 123
+
+    async def agen(): # defines an asynchronous generator function
+        yield 123
+
+Due to their side effects on the containing scope, ``yield`` expressions
+are not permitted as part of the implicitly defined scopes used to
+implement comprehensions and generator expressions (in Python 3.7, such
+expressions emit :exc:`DeprecationWarning` when compiled, in Python 3.8+
+they will emit :exc:`SyntaxError`)..
+
+.. deprecated:: 3.7
+   Yield expressions deprecated in the implicitly nested scopes used to
+   implement comprehensions and generator expressions.
+
+Generator functions are described below, while asynchronous generator
+functions are described separately in section
+:ref:`asynchronous-generator-functions`.
+
+When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
+generator.  That generator then controls the execution of the generator function.
+The execution starts when one of the generator's methods is called.  At that
+time, the execution proceeds to the first yield expression, where it is
+suspended again, returning the value of :token:`expression_list` to the generator's
+caller.  By suspended, we mean that all local state is retained, including the
+current bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
+evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the execution
+is resumed by calling one of the
+generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the yield expression
+were just another external call.  The value of the yield expression after
+resuming depends on the method which resumed the execution.  If
+:meth:`~generator.__next__` is used (typically via either a :keyword:`for` or
+the :func:`next` builtin) then the result is :const:`None`.  Otherwise, if
+:meth:`~generator.send` is used, then the result will be the value passed in to
+that method.
+
+.. index:: single: coroutine
+
+All of this makes generator functions quite similar to coroutines; they yield
+multiple times, they have more than one entry point and their execution can be
+suspended.  The only difference is that a generator function cannot control
+where the execution should continue after it yields; the control is always
+transferred to the generator's caller.
+
+Yield expressions are allowed anywhere in a :keyword:`try` construct.  If the
+generator is not resumed before it is
+finalized (by reaching a zero reference count or by being garbage collected),
+the generator-iterator's :meth:`~generator.close` method will be called,
+allowing any pending :keyword:`finally` clauses to execute.
+
+.. index::
+   single: from; yield from expression
+
+When ``yield from <expr>`` is used, it treats the supplied expression as
+a subiterator. All values produced by that subiterator are passed directly
+to the caller of the current generator's methods. Any values passed in with
+:meth:`~generator.send` and any exceptions passed in with
+:meth:`~generator.throw` are passed to the underlying iterator if it has the
+appropriate methods.  If this is not the case, then :meth:`~generator.send`
+will raise :exc:`AttributeError` or :exc:`TypeError`, while
+:meth:`~generator.throw` will just raise the passed in exception immediately.
+
+When the underlying iterator is complete, the :attr:`~StopIteration.value`
+attribute of the raised :exc:`StopIteration` instance becomes the value of
+the yield expression. It can be either set explicitly when raising
+:exc:`StopIteration`, or automatically when the subiterator is a generator
+(by returning a value from the subgenerator).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Added ``yield from <expr>`` to delegate control flow to a subiterator.
+
+The parentheses may be omitted when the yield expression is the sole expression
+on the right hand side of an assignment statement.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`255` - Simple Generators
+      The proposal for adding generators and the :keyword:`yield` statement to Python.
+
+   :pep:`342` - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators
+      The proposal to enhance the API and syntax of generators, making them
+      usable as simple coroutines.
+
+   :pep:`380` - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
+      The proposal to introduce the :token:`yield_from` syntax, making delegation
+      to subgenerators easy.
+
+   :pep:`525` - Asynchronous Generators
+      The proposal that expanded on :pep:`492` by adding generator capabilities to
+      coroutine functions.
+
+.. index:: object: generator
+.. _generator-methods:
+
+Generator-iterator methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This subsection describes the methods of a generator iterator.  They can
+be used to control the execution of a generator function.
+
+Note that calling any of the generator methods below when the generator
+is already executing raises a :exc:`ValueError` exception.
+
+.. index:: exception: StopIteration
+
+
+.. method:: generator.__next__()
+
+   Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the last
+   executed yield expression.  When a generator function is resumed with a
+   :meth:`~generator.__next__` method, the current yield expression always
+   evaluates to :const:`None`.  The execution then continues to the next yield
+   expression, where the generator is suspended again, and the value of the
+   :token:`expression_list` is returned to :meth:`__next__`'s caller.  If the
+   generator exits without yielding another value, a :exc:`StopIteration`
+   exception is raised.
+
+   This method is normally called implicitly, e.g. by a :keyword:`for` loop, or
+   by the built-in :func:`next` function.
+
+
+.. method:: generator.send(value)
+
+   Resumes the execution and "sends" a value into the generator function.  The
+   *value* argument becomes the result of the current yield expression.  The
+   :meth:`send` method returns the next value yielded by the generator, or
+   raises :exc:`StopIteration` if the generator exits without yielding another
+   value.  When :meth:`send` is called to start the generator, it must be called
+   with :const:`None` as the argument, because there is no yield expression that
+   could receive the value.
+
+
+.. method:: generator.throw(type[, value[, traceback]])
+
+   Raises an exception of type ``type`` at the point where the generator was paused,
+   and returns the next value yielded by the generator function.  If the generator
+   exits without yielding another value, a :exc:`StopIteration` exception is
+   raised.  If the generator function does not catch the passed-in exception, or
+   raises a different exception, then that exception propagates to the caller.
+
+.. index:: exception: GeneratorExit
+
+
+.. method:: generator.close()
+
+   Raises a :exc:`GeneratorExit` at the point where the generator function was
+   paused.  If the generator function then exits gracefully, is already closed,
+   or raises :exc:`GeneratorExit` (by not catching the exception), close
+   returns to its caller.  If the generator yields a value, a
+   :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.  If the generator raises any other exception,
+   it is propagated to the caller.  :meth:`close` does nothing if the generator
+   has already exited due to an exception or normal exit.
+
+.. index:: single: yield; examples
+
+Examples
+^^^^^^^^
+
+Here is a simple example that demonstrates the behavior of generators and
+generator functions::
+
+   >>> def echo(value=None):
+   ...     print("Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.")
+   ...     try:
+   ...         while True:
+   ...             try:
+   ...                 value = (yield value)
+   ...             except Exception as e:
+   ...                 value = e
+   ...     finally:
+   ...         print("Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.")
+   ...
+   >>> generator = echo(1)
+   >>> print(next(generator))
+   Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.
+   1
+   >>> print(next(generator))
+   None
+   >>> print(generator.send(2))
+   2
+   >>> generator.throw(TypeError, "spam")
+   TypeError('spam',)
+   >>> generator.close()
+   Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.
+
+For examples using ``yield from``, see :ref:`pep-380` in "What's New in
+Python."
+
+.. _asynchronous-generator-functions:
+
+Asynchronous generator functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The presence of a yield expression in a function or method defined using
+:keyword:`async def` further defines the function as an
+:term:`asynchronous generator` function.
+
+When an asynchronous generator function is called, it returns an
+asynchronous iterator known as an asynchronous generator object.
+That object then controls the execution of the generator function.
+An asynchronous generator object is typically used in an
+:keyword:`async for` statement in a coroutine function analogously to
+how a generator object would be used in a :keyword:`for` statement.
+
+Calling one of the asynchronous generator's methods returns an
+:term:`awaitable` object, and the execution starts when this object
+is awaited on. At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
+expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of
+:token:`expression_list` to the awaiting coroutine. As with a generator,
+suspension means that all local state is retained, including the
+current bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
+evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the execution
+is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the asynchronous
+generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the yield
+expression were just another external call. The value of the yield expression
+after resuming depends on the method which resumed the execution.  If
+:meth:`~agen.__anext__` is used then the result is :const:`None`. Otherwise, if
+:meth:`~agen.asend` is used, then the result will be the value passed in to
+that method.
+
+In an asynchronous generator function, yield expressions are allowed anywhere
+in a :keyword:`try` construct. However, if an asynchronous generator is not
+resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a zero reference count or by
+being garbage collected), then a yield expression within a :keyword:`!try`
+construct could result in a failure to execute pending :keyword:`finally`
+clauses.  In this case, it is the responsibility of the event loop or
+scheduler running the asynchronous generator to call the asynchronous
+generator-iterator's :meth:`~agen.aclose` method and run the resulting
+coroutine object, thus allowing any pending :keyword:`!finally` clauses
+to execute.
+
+To take care of finalization, an event loop should define
+a *finalizer* function which takes an asynchronous generator-iterator
+and presumably calls :meth:`~agen.aclose` and executes the coroutine.
+This  *finalizer* may be registered by calling :func:`sys.set_asyncgen_hooks`.
+When first iterated over, an asynchronous generator-iterator will store the
+registered *finalizer* to be called upon finalization. For a reference example
+of a *finalizer* method see the implementation of
+``asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens`` in :source:`Lib/asyncio/base_events.py`.
+
+The expression ``yield from <expr>`` is a syntax error when used in an
+asynchronous generator function.
+
+.. index:: object: asynchronous-generator
+.. _asynchronous-generator-methods:
+
+Asynchronous generator-iterator methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+This subsection describes the methods of an asynchronous generator iterator,
+which are used to control the execution of a generator function.
+
+
+.. index:: exception: StopAsyncIteration
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: agen.__anext__()
+
+   Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the asynchronous
+   generator or resumes it at the last executed yield expression.  When an
+   asynchronous generator function is resumed with an :meth:`~agen.__anext__`
+   method, the current yield expression always evaluates to :const:`None` in
+   the returned awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield
+   expression. The value of the :token:`expression_list` of the yield
+   expression is the value of the :exc:`StopIteration` exception raised by
+   the completing coroutine.  If the asynchronous generator exits without
+   yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises a
+   :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` exception, signalling that the asynchronous
+   iteration has completed.
+
+   This method is normally called implicitly by a :keyword:`async for` loop.
+
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: agen.asend(value)
+
+   Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
+   asynchronous generator. As with the :meth:`~generator.send()` method for a
+   generator, this "sends" a value into the asynchronous generator function,
+   and the *value* argument becomes the result of the current yield expression.
+   The awaitable returned by the :meth:`asend` method will return the next
+   value yielded by the generator as the value of the raised
+   :exc:`StopIteration`, or raises :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` if the
+   asynchronous generator exits without yielding another value.  When
+   :meth:`asend` is called to start the asynchronous
+   generator, it must be called with :const:`None` as the argument,
+   because there is no yield expression that could receive the value.
+
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: agen.athrow(type[, value[, traceback]])
+
+   Returns an awaitable that raises an exception of type ``type`` at the point
+   where the asynchronous generator was paused, and returns the next value
+   yielded by the generator function as the value of the raised
+   :exc:`StopIteration` exception.  If the asynchronous generator exits
+   without yielding another value, a :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` exception is
+   raised by the awaitable.
+   If the generator function does not catch the passed-in exception, or
+   raises a different exception, then when the awaitable is run that exception
+   propagates to the caller of the awaitable.
+
+.. index:: exception: GeneratorExit
+
+
+.. coroutinemethod:: agen.aclose()
+
+   Returns an awaitable that when run will throw a :exc:`GeneratorExit` into
+   the asynchronous generator function at the point where it was paused.
+   If the asynchronous generator function then exits gracefully, is already
+   closed, or raises :exc:`GeneratorExit` (by not catching the exception),
+   then the returned awaitable will raise a :exc:`StopIteration` exception.
+   Any further awaitables returned by subsequent calls to the asynchronous
+   generator will raise a :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` exception.  If the
+   asynchronous generator yields a value, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised
+   by the awaitable.  If the asynchronous generator raises any other exception,
+   it is propagated to the caller of the awaitable.  If the asynchronous
+   generator has already exited due to an exception or normal exit, then
+   further calls to :meth:`aclose` will return an awaitable that does nothing.
+
+.. _primaries:
+
+Primaries
+=========
+
+.. index:: single: primary
+
+Primaries represent the most tightly bound operations of the language. Their
+syntax is:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   primary: `atom` | `attributeref` | `subscription` | `slicing` | `call`
+
+
+.. _attribute-references:
+
+Attribute references
+--------------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: attribute; reference
+   single: . (dot); attribute reference
+
+An attribute reference is a primary followed by a period and a name:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   attributeref: `primary` "." `identifier`
+
+.. index::
+   exception: AttributeError
+   object: module
+   object: list
+
+The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute
+references, which most objects do.  This object is then asked to produce the
+attribute whose name is the identifier.  This production can be customized by
+overriding the :meth:`__getattr__` method.  If this attribute is not available,
+the exception :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.  Otherwise, the type and value of
+the object produced is determined by the object.  Multiple evaluations of the
+same attribute reference may yield different objects.
+
+
+.. _subscriptions:
+
+Subscriptions
+-------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: subscription
+   single: [] (square brackets); subscription
+
+.. index::
+   object: sequence
+   object: mapping
+   object: string
+   object: tuple
+   object: list
+   object: dictionary
+   pair: sequence; item
+
+A subscription selects an item of a sequence (string, tuple or list) or mapping
+(dictionary) object:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   subscription: `primary` "[" `expression_list` "]"
+
+The primary must evaluate to an object that supports subscription (lists or
+dictionaries for example).  User-defined objects can support subscription by
+defining a :meth:`__getitem__` method.
+
+For built-in objects, there are two types of objects that support subscription:
+
+If the primary is a mapping, the expression list must evaluate to an object
+whose value is one of the keys of the mapping, and the subscription selects the
+value in the mapping that corresponds to that key.  (The expression list is a
+tuple except if it has exactly one item.)
+
+If the primary is a sequence, the expression list must evaluate to an integer
+or a slice (as discussed in the following section).
+
+The formal syntax makes no special provision for negative indices in
+sequences; however, built-in sequences all provide a :meth:`__getitem__`
+method that interprets negative indices by adding the length of the sequence
+to the index (so that ``x[-1]`` selects the last item of ``x``).  The
+resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the number of items in
+the sequence, and the subscription selects the item whose index is that value
+(counting from zero). Since the support for negative indices and slicing
+occurs in the object's :meth:`__getitem__` method, subclasses overriding
+this method will need to explicitly add that support.
+
+.. index::
+   single: character
+   pair: string; item
+
+A string's items are characters.  A character is not a separate data type but a
+string of exactly one character.
+
+
+.. _slicings:
+
+Slicings
+--------
+
+.. index::
+   single: slicing
+   single: slice
+   single: : (colon); slicing
+   single: , (comma); slicing
+
+.. index::
+   object: sequence
+   object: string
+   object: tuple
+   object: list
+
+A slicing selects a range of items in a sequence object (e.g., a string, tuple
+or list).  Slicings may be used as expressions or as targets in assignment or
+:keyword:`del` statements.  The syntax for a slicing:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   slicing: `primary` "[" `slice_list` "]"
+   slice_list: `slice_item` ("," `slice_item`)* [","]
+   slice_item: `expression` | `proper_slice`
+   proper_slice: [`lower_bound`] ":" [`upper_bound`] [ ":" [`stride`] ]
+   lower_bound: `expression`
+   upper_bound: `expression`
+   stride: `expression`
+
+There is ambiguity in the formal syntax here: anything that looks like an
+expression list also looks like a slice list, so any subscription can be
+interpreted as a slicing.  Rather than further complicating the syntax, this is
+disambiguated by defining that in this case the interpretation as a subscription
+takes priority over the interpretation as a slicing (this is the case if the
+slice list contains no proper slice).
+
+.. index::
+   single: start (slice object attribute)
+   single: stop (slice object attribute)
+   single: step (slice object attribute)
+
+The semantics for a slicing are as follows.  The primary is indexed (using the
+same :meth:`__getitem__` method as
+normal subscription) with a key that is constructed from the slice list, as
+follows.  If the slice list contains at least one comma, the key is a tuple
+containing the conversion of the slice items; otherwise, the conversion of the
+lone slice item is the key.  The conversion of a slice item that is an
+expression is that expression.  The conversion of a proper slice is a slice
+object (see section :ref:`types`) whose :attr:`~slice.start`,
+:attr:`~slice.stop` and :attr:`~slice.step` attributes are the values of the
+expressions given as lower bound, upper bound and stride, respectively,
+substituting ``None`` for missing expressions.
+
+
+.. index::
+   object: callable
+   single: call
+   single: argument; call semantics
+   single: () (parentheses); call
+   single: , (comma); argument list
+   single: = (equals); in function calls
+
+.. _calls:
+
+Calls
+-----
+
+A call calls a callable object (e.g., a :term:`function`) with a possibly empty
+series of :term:`arguments <argument>`:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   call: `primary` "(" [`argument_list` [","] | `comprehension`] ")"
+   argument_list: `positional_arguments` ["," `starred_and_keywords`]
+                :   ["," `keywords_arguments`]
+                : | `starred_and_keywords` ["," `keywords_arguments`]
+                : | `keywords_arguments`
+   positional_arguments: ["*"] `expression` ("," ["*"] `expression`)*
+   starred_and_keywords: ("*" `expression` | `keyword_item`)
+                : ("," "*" `expression` | "," `keyword_item`)*
+   keywords_arguments: (`keyword_item` | "**" `expression`)
+                : ("," `keyword_item` | "," "**" `expression`)*
+   keyword_item: `identifier` "=" `expression`
+
+An optional trailing comma may be present after the positional and keyword arguments
+but does not affect the semantics.
+
+.. index::
+   single: parameter; call semantics
+
+The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions, built-in
+functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods of class
+instances, and all objects having a :meth:`__call__` method are callable).  All
+argument expressions are evaluated before the call is attempted.  Please refer
+to section :ref:`function` for the syntax of formal :term:`parameter` lists.
+
+.. XXX update with kwonly args PEP
+
+If keyword arguments are present, they are first converted to positional
+arguments, as follows.  First, a list of unfilled slots is created for the
+formal parameters.  If there are N positional arguments, they are placed in the
+first N slots.  Next, for each keyword argument, the identifier is used to
+determine the corresponding slot (if the identifier is the same as the first
+formal parameter name, the first slot is used, and so on).  If the slot is
+already filled, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised. Otherwise, the value of
+the argument is placed in the slot, filling it (even if the expression is
+``None``, it fills the slot).  When all arguments have been processed, the slots
+that are still unfilled are filled with the corresponding default value from the
+function definition.  (Default values are calculated, once, when the function is
+defined; thus, a mutable object such as a list or dictionary used as default
+value will be shared by all calls that don't specify an argument value for the
+corresponding slot; this should usually be avoided.)  If there are any unfilled
+slots for which no default value is specified, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is
+raised.  Otherwise, the list of filled slots is used as the argument list for
+the call.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   An implementation may provide built-in functions whose positional parameters
+   do not have names, even if they are 'named' for the purpose of documentation,
+   and which therefore cannot be supplied by keyword.  In CPython, this is the
+   case for functions implemented in C that use :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` to
+   parse their arguments.
+
+If there are more positional arguments than there are formal parameter slots, a
+:exc:`TypeError` exception is raised, unless a formal parameter using the syntax
+``*identifier`` is present; in this case, that formal parameter receives a tuple
+containing the excess positional arguments (or an empty tuple if there were no
+excess positional arguments).
+
+If any keyword argument does not correspond to a formal parameter name, a
+:exc:`TypeError` exception is raised, unless a formal parameter using the syntax
+``**identifier`` is present; in this case, that formal parameter receives a
+dictionary containing the excess keyword arguments (using the keywords as keys
+and the argument values as corresponding values), or a (new) empty dictionary if
+there were no excess keyword arguments.
+
+.. index::
+   single: * (asterisk); in function calls
+   single: unpacking; in function calls
+
+If the syntax ``*expression`` appears in the function call, ``expression`` must
+evaluate to an :term:`iterable`.  Elements from these iterables are
+treated as if they were additional positional arguments.  For the call
+``f(x1, x2, *y, x3, x4)``, if *y* evaluates to a sequence *y1*, ..., *yM*,
+this is equivalent to a call with M+4 positional arguments *x1*, *x2*,
+*y1*, ..., *yM*, *x3*, *x4*.
+
+A consequence of this is that although the ``*expression`` syntax may appear
+*after* explicit keyword arguments, it is processed *before* the
+keyword arguments (and any ``**expression`` arguments -- see below).  So::
+
+   >>> def f(a, b):
+   ...     print(a, b)
+   ...
+   >>> f(b=1, *(2,))
+   2 1
+   >>> f(a=1, *(2,))
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: f() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
+   >>> f(1, *(2,))
+   1 2
+
+It is unusual for both keyword arguments and the ``*expression`` syntax to be
+used in the same call, so in practice this confusion does not arise.
+
+.. index::
+   single: **; in function calls
+
+If the syntax ``**expression`` appears in the function call, ``expression`` must
+evaluate to a :term:`mapping`, the contents of which are treated as
+additional keyword arguments.  If a keyword is already present
+(as an explicit keyword argument, or from another unpacking),
+a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
+
+Formal parameters using the syntax ``*identifier`` or ``**identifier`` cannot be
+used as positional argument slots or as keyword argument names.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   Function calls accept any number of ``*`` and ``**`` unpackings,
+   positional arguments may follow iterable unpackings (``*``),
+   and keyword arguments may follow dictionary unpackings (``**``).
+   Originally proposed by :pep:`448`.
+
+A call always returns some value, possibly ``None``, unless it raises an
+exception.  How this value is computed depends on the type of the callable
+object.
+
+If it is---
+
+a user-defined function:
+   .. index::
+      pair: function; call
+      triple: user-defined; function; call
+      object: user-defined function
+      object: function
+
+   The code block for the function is executed, passing it the argument list.  The
+   first thing the code block will do is bind the formal parameters to the
+   arguments; this is described in section :ref:`function`.  When the code block
+   executes a :keyword:`return` statement, this specifies the return value of the
+   function call.
+
+a built-in function or method:
+   .. index::
+      pair: function; call
+      pair: built-in function; call
+      pair: method; call
+      pair: built-in method; call
+      object: built-in method
+      object: built-in function
+      object: method
+      object: function
+
+   The result is up to the interpreter; see :ref:`built-in-funcs` for the
+   descriptions of built-in functions and methods.
+
+a class object:
+   .. index::
+      object: class
+      pair: class object; call
+
+   A new instance of that class is returned.
+
+a class instance method:
+   .. index::
+      object: class instance
+      object: instance
+      pair: class instance; call
+
+   The corresponding user-defined function is called, with an argument list that is
+   one longer than the argument list of the call: the instance becomes the first
+   argument.
+
+a class instance:
+   .. index::
+      pair: instance; call
+      single: __call__() (object method)
+
+   The class must define a :meth:`__call__` method; the effect is then the same as
+   if that method was called.
+
+
+.. index:: keyword: await
+.. _await:
+
+Await expression
+================
+
+Suspend the execution of :term:`coroutine` on an :term:`awaitable` object.
+Can only be used inside a :term:`coroutine function`.
+
+.. productionlist::
+   await_expr: "await" `primary`
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. _power:
+
+The power operator
+==================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: power; operation
+   operator: **
+
+The power operator binds more tightly than unary operators on its left; it binds
+less tightly than unary operators on its right.  The syntax is:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   power: (`await_expr` | `primary`) ["**" `u_expr`]
+
+Thus, in an unparenthesized sequence of power and unary operators, the operators
+are evaluated from right to left (this does not constrain the evaluation order
+for the operands): ``-1**2`` results in ``-1``.
+
+The power operator has the same semantics as the built-in :func:`pow` function,
+when called with two arguments: it yields its left argument raised to the power
+of its right argument.  The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
+type, and the result is of that type.
+
+For int operands, the result has the same type as the operands unless the second
+argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a
+float result is delivered. For example, ``10**2`` returns ``100``, but
+``10**-2`` returns ``0.01``.
+
+Raising ``0.0`` to a negative power results in a :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`.
+Raising a negative number to a fractional power results in a :class:`complex`
+number. (In earlier versions it raised a :exc:`ValueError`.)
+
+
+.. _unary:
+
+Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
+=======================================
+
+.. index::
+   triple: unary; arithmetic; operation
+   triple: unary; bitwise; operation
+
+All unary arithmetic and bitwise operations have the same priority:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   u_expr: `power` | "-" `u_expr` | "+" `u_expr` | "~" `u_expr`
+
+.. index::
+   single: negation
+   single: minus
+   single: operator; - (minus)
+   single: - (minus); unary operator
+
+The unary ``-`` (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric argument.
+
+.. index::
+   single: plus
+   single: operator; + (plus)
+   single: + (plus); unary operator
+
+The unary ``+`` (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged.
+
+.. index::
+   single: inversion
+   operator: ~ (tilde)
+
+The unary ``~`` (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its integer
+argument.  The bitwise inversion of ``x`` is defined as ``-(x+1)``.  It only
+applies to integral numbers.
+
+.. index:: exception: TypeError
+
+In all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type, a
+:exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
+
+
+.. _binary:
+
+Binary arithmetic operations
+============================
+
+.. index:: triple: binary; arithmetic; operation
+
+The binary arithmetic operations have the conventional priority levels.  Note
+that some of these operations also apply to certain non-numeric types.  Apart
+from the power operator, there are only two levels, one for multiplicative
+operators and one for additive operators:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   m_expr: `u_expr` | `m_expr` "*" `u_expr` | `m_expr` "@" `m_expr` |
+         : `m_expr` "//" `u_expr` | `m_expr` "/" `u_expr` |
+         : `m_expr` "%" `u_expr`
+   a_expr: `m_expr` | `a_expr` "+" `m_expr` | `a_expr` "-" `m_expr`
+
+.. index::
+   single: multiplication
+   operator: * (asterisk)
+
+The ``*`` (multiplication) operator yields the product of its arguments.  The
+arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument must be an integer and
+the other must be a sequence. In the former case, the numbers are converted to a
+common type and then multiplied together.  In the latter case, sequence
+repetition is performed; a negative repetition factor yields an empty sequence.
+
+.. index::
+   single: matrix multiplication
+   operator: @ (at)
+
+The ``@`` (at) operator is intended to be used for matrix multiplication.  No
+builtin Python types implement this operator.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. index::
+   exception: ZeroDivisionError
+   single: division
+   operator: / (slash)
+   operator: //
+
+The ``/`` (division) and ``//`` (floor division) operators yield the quotient of
+their arguments.  The numeric arguments are first converted to a common type.
+Division of integers yields a float, while floor division of integers results in an
+integer; the result is that of mathematical division with the 'floor' function
+applied to the result.  Division by zero raises the :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`
+exception.
+
+.. index::
+   single: modulo
+   operator: % (percent)
+
+The ``%`` (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the first
+argument by the second.  The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
+type.  A zero right argument raises the :exc:`ZeroDivisionError` exception.  The
+arguments may be floating point numbers, e.g., ``3.14%0.7`` equals ``0.34``
+(since ``3.14`` equals ``4*0.7 + 0.34``.)  The modulo operator always yields a
+result with the same sign as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of
+the result is strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand
+[#]_.
+
+The floor division and modulo operators are connected by the following
+identity: ``x == (x//y)*y + (x%y)``.  Floor division and modulo are also
+connected with the built-in function :func:`divmod`: ``divmod(x, y) == (x//y,
+x%y)``. [#]_.
+
+In addition to performing the modulo operation on numbers, the ``%`` operator is
+also overloaded by string objects to perform old-style string formatting (also
+known as interpolation).  The syntax for string formatting is described in the
+Python Library Reference, section :ref:`old-string-formatting`.
+
+The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the :func:`divmod`
+function are not defined for complex numbers.  Instead, convert to a floating
+point number using the :func:`abs` function if appropriate.
+
+.. index::
+   single: addition
+   single: operator; + (plus)
+   single: + (plus); binary operator
+
+The ``+`` (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.  The arguments
+must either both be numbers or both be sequences of the same type.  In the
+former case, the numbers are converted to a common type and then added together.
+In the latter case, the sequences are concatenated.
+
+.. index::
+   single: subtraction
+   single: operator; - (minus)
+   single: - (minus); binary operator
+
+The ``-`` (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its arguments.  The
+numeric arguments are first converted to a common type.
+
+
+.. _shifting:
+
+Shifting operations
+===================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: shifting; operation
+   operator: <<
+   operator: >>
+
+The shifting operations have lower priority than the arithmetic operations:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   shift_expr: `a_expr` | `shift_expr` ("<<" | ">>") `a_expr`
+
+These operators accept integers as arguments.  They shift the first argument to
+the left or right by the number of bits given by the second argument.
+
+.. index:: exception: ValueError
+
+A right shift by *n* bits is defined as floor division by ``pow(2,n)``.  A left
+shift by *n* bits is defined as multiplication with ``pow(2,n)``.
+
+
+.. _bitwise:
+
+Binary bitwise operations
+=========================
+
+.. index:: triple: binary; bitwise; operation
+
+Each of the three bitwise operations has a different priority level:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   and_expr: `shift_expr` | `and_expr` "&" `shift_expr`
+   xor_expr: `and_expr` | `xor_expr` "^" `and_expr`
+   or_expr: `xor_expr` | `or_expr` "|" `xor_expr`
+
+.. index::
+   pair: bitwise; and
+   operator: & (ampersand)
+
+The ``&`` operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be
+integers.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: bitwise; xor
+   pair: exclusive; or
+   operator: ^ (caret)
+
+The ``^`` operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments, which
+must be integers.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: bitwise; or
+   pair: inclusive; or
+   operator: | (vertical bar)
+
+The ``|`` operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments, which
+must be integers.
+
+
+.. _comparisons:
+
+Comparisons
+===========
+
+.. index::
+   single: comparison
+   pair: C; language
+   operator: < (less)
+   operator: > (greater)
+   operator: <=
+   operator: >=
+   operator: ==
+   operator: !=
+
+Unlike C, all comparison operations in Python have the same priority, which is
+lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or bitwise operation.  Also unlike
+C, expressions like ``a < b < c`` have the interpretation that is conventional
+in mathematics:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   comparison: `or_expr` (`comp_operator` `or_expr`)*
+   comp_operator: "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="
+                : | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"
+
+Comparisons yield boolean values: ``True`` or ``False``.
+
+.. index:: pair: chaining; comparisons
+
+Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g., ``x < y <= z`` is equivalent to
+``x < y and y <= z``, except that ``y`` is evaluated only once (but in both
+cases ``z`` is not evaluated at all when ``x < y`` is found to be false).
+
+Formally, if *a*, *b*, *c*, ..., *y*, *z* are expressions and *op1*, *op2*, ...,
+*opN* are comparison operators, then ``a op1 b op2 c ... y opN z`` is equivalent
+to ``a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z``, except that each expression is
+evaluated at most once.
+
+Note that ``a op1 b op2 c`` doesn't imply any kind of comparison between *a* and
+*c*, so that, e.g., ``x < y > z`` is perfectly legal (though perhaps not
+pretty).
+
+Value comparisons
+-----------------
+
+The operators ``<``, ``>``, ``==``, ``>=``, ``<=``, and ``!=`` compare the
+values of two objects.  The objects do not need to have the same type.
+
+Chapter :ref:`objects` states that objects have a value (in addition to type
+and identity).  The value of an object is a rather abstract notion in Python:
+For example, there is no canonical access method for an object's value.  Also,
+there is no requirement that the value of an object should be constructed in a
+particular way, e.g. comprised of all its data attributes. Comparison operators
+implement a particular notion of what the value of an object is.  One can think
+of them as defining the value of an object indirectly, by means of their
+comparison implementation.
+
+Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of :class:`object`, they
+inherit the default comparison behavior from :class:`object`.  Types can
+customize their comparison behavior by implementing
+:dfn:`rich comparison methods` like :meth:`__lt__`, described in
+:ref:`customization`.
+
+The default behavior for equality comparison (``==`` and ``!=``) is based on
+the identity of the objects.  Hence, equality comparison of instances with the
+same identity results in equality, and equality comparison of instances with
+different identities results in inequality.  A motivation for this default
+behavior is the desire that all objects should be reflexive (i.e. ``x is y``
+implies ``x == y``).
+
+A default order comparison (``<``, ``>``, ``<=``, and ``>=``) is not provided;
+an attempt raises :exc:`TypeError`.  A motivation for this default behavior is
+the lack of a similar invariant as for equality.
+
+The behavior of the default equality comparison, that instances with different
+identities are always unequal, may be in contrast to what types will need that
+have a sensible definition of object value and value-based equality.  Such
+types will need to customize their comparison behavior, and in fact, a number
+of built-in types have done that.
+
+The following list describes the comparison behavior of the most important
+built-in types.
+
+* Numbers of built-in numeric types (:ref:`typesnumeric`) and of the standard
+  library types :class:`fractions.Fraction` and :class:`decimal.Decimal` can be
+  compared within and across their types, with the restriction that complex
+  numbers do not support order comparison.  Within the limits of the types
+  involved, they compare mathematically (algorithmically) correct without loss
+  of precision.
+
+  The not-a-number values ``float('NaN')`` and ``decimal.Decimal('NaN')`` are
+  special.  Any ordered comparison of a number to a not-a-number value is false.
+  A counter-intuitive implication is that not-a-number values are not equal to
+  themselves.  For example, if ``x = float('NaN')``, ``3 < x``, ``x < 3``, ``x
+  == x``, ``x != x`` are all false.  This behavior is compliant with IEEE 754.
+
+* Binary sequences (instances of :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`) can be
+  compared within and across their types.  They compare lexicographically using
+  the numeric values of their elements.
+
+* Strings (instances of :class:`str`) compare lexicographically using the
+  numerical Unicode code points (the result of the built-in function
+  :func:`ord`) of their characters. [#]_
+
+  Strings and binary sequences cannot be directly compared.
+
+* Sequences (instances of :class:`tuple`, :class:`list`, or :class:`range`) can
+  be compared only within each of their types, with the restriction that ranges
+  do not support order comparison.  Equality comparison across these types
+  results in inequality, and ordering comparison across these types raises
+  :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+  Sequences compare lexicographically using comparison of corresponding
+  elements, whereby reflexivity of the elements is enforced.
+
+  In enforcing reflexivity of elements, the comparison of collections assumes
+  that for a collection element ``x``, ``x == x`` is always true.  Based on
+  that assumption, element identity is compared first, and element comparison
+  is performed only for distinct elements.  This approach yields the same
+  result as a strict element comparison would, if the compared elements are
+  reflexive.  For non-reflexive elements, the result is different than for
+  strict element comparison, and may be surprising:  The non-reflexive
+  not-a-number values for example result in the following comparison behavior
+  when used in a list::
+
+    >>> nan = float('NaN')
+    >>> nan is nan
+    True
+    >>> nan == nan
+    False                 <-- the defined non-reflexive behavior of NaN
+    >>> [nan] == [nan]
+    True                  <-- list enforces reflexivity and tests identity first
+
+  Lexicographical comparison between built-in collections works as follows:
+
+  - For two collections to compare equal, they must be of the same type, have
+    the same length, and each pair of corresponding elements must compare
+    equal (for example, ``[1,2] == (1,2)`` is false because the type is not the
+    same).
+
+  - Collections that support order comparison are ordered the same as their
+    first unequal elements (for example, ``[1,2,x] <= [1,2,y]`` has the same
+    value as ``x <= y``).  If a corresponding element does not exist, the
+    shorter collection is ordered first (for example, ``[1,2] < [1,2,3]`` is
+    true).
+
+* Mappings (instances of :class:`dict`) compare equal if and only if they have
+  equal `(key, value)` pairs. Equality comparison of the keys and values
+  enforces reflexivity.
+
+  Order comparisons (``<``, ``>``, ``<=``, and ``>=``) raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+* Sets (instances of :class:`set` or :class:`frozenset`) can be compared within
+  and across their types.
+
+  They define order
+  comparison operators to mean subset and superset tests.  Those relations do
+  not define total orderings (for example, the two sets ``{1,2}`` and ``{2,3}``
+  are not equal, nor subsets of one another, nor supersets of one
+  another).  Accordingly, sets are not appropriate arguments for functions
+  which depend on total ordering (for example, :func:`min`, :func:`max`, and
+  :func:`sorted` produce undefined results given a list of sets as inputs).
+
+  Comparison of sets enforces reflexivity of its elements.
+
+* Most other built-in types have no comparison methods implemented, so they
+  inherit the default comparison behavior.
+
+User-defined classes that customize their comparison behavior should follow
+some consistency rules, if possible:
+
+* Equality comparison should be reflexive.
+  In other words, identical objects should compare equal:
+
+    ``x is y`` implies ``x == y``
+
+* Comparison should be symmetric.
+  In other words, the following expressions should have the same result:
+
+    ``x == y`` and ``y == x``
+
+    ``x != y`` and ``y != x``
+
+    ``x < y`` and ``y > x``
+
+    ``x <= y`` and ``y >= x``
+
+* Comparison should be transitive.
+  The following (non-exhaustive) examples illustrate that:
+
+    ``x > y and y > z`` implies ``x > z``
+
+    ``x < y and y <= z`` implies ``x < z``
+
+* Inverse comparison should result in the boolean negation.
+  In other words, the following expressions should have the same result:
+
+    ``x == y`` and ``not x != y``
+
+    ``x < y`` and ``not x >= y`` (for total ordering)
+
+    ``x > y`` and ``not x <= y`` (for total ordering)
+
+  The last two expressions apply to totally ordered collections (e.g. to
+  sequences, but not to sets or mappings). See also the
+  :func:`~functools.total_ordering` decorator.
+
+* The :func:`hash` result should be consistent with equality.
+  Objects that are equal should either have the same hash value,
+  or be marked as unhashable.
+
+Python does not enforce these consistency rules. In fact, the not-a-number
+values are an example for not following these rules.
+
+
+.. _in:
+.. _not in:
+.. _membership-test-details:
+
+Membership test operations
+--------------------------
+
+The operators :keyword:`in` and :keyword:`not in` test for membership.  ``x in
+s`` evaluates to ``True`` if *x* is a member of *s*, and ``False`` otherwise.
+``x not in s`` returns the negation of ``x in s``.  All built-in sequences and
+set types support this as well as dictionary, for which :keyword:`!in` tests
+whether the dictionary has a given key. For container types such as list, tuple,
+set, frozenset, dict, or collections.deque, the expression ``x in y`` is equivalent
+to ``any(x is e or x == e for e in y)``.
+
+For the string and bytes types, ``x in y`` is ``True`` if and only if *x* is a
+substring of *y*.  An equivalent test is ``y.find(x) != -1``.  Empty strings are
+always considered to be a substring of any other string, so ``"" in "abc"`` will
+return ``True``.
+
+For user-defined classes which define the :meth:`__contains__` method, ``x in
+y`` returns ``True`` if ``y.__contains__(x)`` returns a true value, and
+``False`` otherwise.
+
+For user-defined classes which do not define :meth:`__contains__` but do define
+:meth:`__iter__`, ``x in y`` is ``True`` if some value ``z``, for which the
+expression ``x is z or x == z`` is true, is produced while iterating over ``y``.
+If an exception is raised during the iteration, it is as if :keyword:`in` raised
+that exception.
+
+Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines
+:meth:`__getitem__`, ``x in y`` is ``True`` if and only if there is a non-negative
+integer index *i* such that ``x is y[i] or x == y[i]``, and no lower integer index
+raises the :exc:`IndexError` exception.  (If any other exception is raised, it is as
+if :keyword:`in` raised that exception).
+
+.. index::
+   operator: in
+   operator: not in
+   pair: membership; test
+   object: sequence
+
+The operator :keyword:`not in` is defined to have the inverse truth value of
+:keyword:`in`.
+
+.. index::
+   operator: is
+   operator: is not
+   pair: identity; test
+
+
+.. _is:
+.. _is not:
+
+Identity comparisons
+--------------------
+
+The operators :keyword:`is` and :keyword:`is not` test for an object's identity: ``x
+is y`` is true if and only if *x* and *y* are the same object.  An Object's identity
+is determined using the :meth:`id` function.  ``x is not y`` yields the inverse
+truth value. [#]_
+
+
+.. _booleans:
+.. _and:
+.. _or:
+.. _not:
+
+Boolean operations
+==================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: Conditional; expression
+   pair: Boolean; operation
+
+.. productionlist::
+   or_test: `and_test` | `or_test` "or" `and_test`
+   and_test: `not_test` | `and_test` "and" `not_test`
+   not_test: `comparison` | "not" `not_test`
+
+In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used by
+control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as false:
+``False``, ``None``, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and containers
+(including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and frozensets).  All
+other values are interpreted as true.  User-defined objects can customize their
+truth value by providing a :meth:`__bool__` method.
+
+.. index:: operator: not
+
+The operator :keyword:`not` yields ``True`` if its argument is false, ``False``
+otherwise.
+
+.. index:: operator: and
+
+The expression ``x and y`` first evaluates *x*; if *x* is false, its value is
+returned; otherwise, *y* is evaluated and the resulting value is returned.
+
+.. index:: operator: or
+
+The expression ``x or y`` first evaluates *x*; if *x* is true, its value is
+returned; otherwise, *y* is evaluated and the resulting value is returned.
+
+Note that neither :keyword:`and` nor :keyword:`or` restrict the value and type
+they return to ``False`` and ``True``, but rather return the last evaluated
+argument.  This is sometimes useful, e.g., if ``s`` is a string that should be
+replaced by a default value if it is empty, the expression ``s or 'foo'`` yields
+the desired value.  Because :keyword:`not` has to create a new value, it
+returns a boolean value regardless of the type of its argument
+(for example, ``not 'foo'`` produces ``False`` rather than ``''``.)
+
+
+.. _if_expr:
+
+Conditional expressions
+=======================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: conditional; expression
+   pair: ternary; operator
+   single: if; conditional expression
+   single: else; conditional expression
+
+.. productionlist::
+   conditional_expression: `or_test` ["if" `or_test` "else" `expression`]
+   expression: `conditional_expression` | `lambda_expr`
+   expression_nocond: `or_test` | `lambda_expr_nocond`
+
+Conditional expressions (sometimes called a "ternary operator") have the lowest
+priority of all Python operations.
+
+The expression ``x if C else y`` first evaluates the condition, *C* rather than *x*.
+If *C* is true, *x* is evaluated and its value is returned; otherwise, *y* is
+evaluated and its value is returned.
+
+See :pep:`308` for more details about conditional expressions.
+
+
+.. _lambdas:
+.. _lambda:
+
+Lambdas
+=======
+
+.. index::
+   pair: lambda; expression
+   pair: lambda; form
+   pair: anonymous; function
+   single: : (colon); lambda expression
+
+.. productionlist::
+   lambda_expr: "lambda" [`parameter_list`] ":" `expression`
+   lambda_expr_nocond: "lambda" [`parameter_list`] ":" `expression_nocond`
+
+Lambda expressions (sometimes called lambda forms) are used to create anonymous
+functions. The expression ``lambda parameters: expression`` yields a function
+object.  The unnamed object behaves like a function object defined with:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   def <lambda>(parameters):
+       return expression
+
+See section :ref:`function` for the syntax of parameter lists.  Note that
+functions created with lambda expressions cannot contain statements or
+annotations.
+
+
+.. _exprlists:
+
+Expression lists
+================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: expression; list
+   single: , (comma); expression list
+
+.. productionlist::
+   expression_list: `expression` ("," `expression`)* [","]
+   starred_list: `starred_item` ("," `starred_item`)* [","]
+   starred_expression: `expression` | (`starred_item` ",")* [`starred_item`]
+   starred_item: `expression` | "*" `or_expr`
+
+.. index:: object: tuple
+
+Except when part of a list or set display, an expression list
+containing at least one comma yields a tuple.  The length of
+the tuple is the number of expressions in the list.  The expressions are
+evaluated from left to right.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: iterable; unpacking
+   single: * (asterisk); in expression lists
+
+An asterisk ``*`` denotes :dfn:`iterable unpacking`.  Its operand must be
+an :term:`iterable`.  The iterable is expanded into a sequence of items,
+which are included in the new tuple, list, or set, at the site of
+the unpacking.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+   Iterable unpacking in expression lists, originally proposed by :pep:`448`.
+
+.. index:: pair: trailing; comma
+
+The trailing comma is required only to create a single tuple (a.k.a. a
+*singleton*); it is optional in all other cases.  A single expression without a
+trailing comma doesn't create a tuple, but rather yields the value of that
+expression. (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of parentheses:
+``()``.)
+
+
+.. _evalorder:
+
+Evaluation order
+================
+
+.. index:: pair: evaluation; order
+
+Python evaluates expressions from left to right.  Notice that while evaluating
+an assignment, the right-hand side is evaluated before the left-hand side.
+
+In the following lines, expressions will be evaluated in the arithmetic order of
+their suffixes::
+
+   expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4
+   (expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4)
+   {expr1: expr2, expr3: expr4}
+   expr1 + expr2 * (expr3 - expr4)
+   expr1(expr2, expr3, *expr4, **expr5)
+   expr3, expr4 = expr1, expr2
+
+
+.. _operator-summary:
+
+Operator precedence
+===================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: operator; precedence
+
+The following table summarizes the operator precedence in Python, from lowest
+precedence (least binding) to highest precedence (most binding).  Operators in
+the same box have the same precedence.  Unless the syntax is explicitly given,
+operators are binary.  Operators in the same box group left to right (except for
+exponentiation, which groups from right to left).
+
+Note that comparisons, membership tests, and identity tests, all have the same
+precedence and have a left-to-right chaining feature as described in the
+:ref:`comparisons` section.
+
+
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| Operator                                      | Description                         |
++===============================================+=====================================+
+| :keyword:`lambda`                             | Lambda expression                   |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :keyword:`if <if_expr>` -- :keyword:`!else`   | Conditional expression              |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :keyword:`or`                                 | Boolean OR                          |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :keyword:`and`                                | Boolean AND                         |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :keyword:`not` ``x``                          | Boolean NOT                         |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :keyword:`in`, :keyword:`not in`,             | Comparisons, including membership   |
+| :keyword:`is`, :keyword:`is not`, ``<``,      | tests and identity tests            |
+| ``<=``, ``>``, ``>=``, ``!=``, ``==``         |                                     |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``|``                                         | Bitwise OR                          |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``^``                                         | Bitwise XOR                         |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``&``                                         | Bitwise AND                         |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``<<``, ``>>``                                | Shifts                              |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``+``, ``-``                                  | Addition and subtraction            |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``*``, ``@``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%``            | Multiplication, matrix              |
+|                                               | multiplication, division, floor     |
+|                                               | division, remainder [#]_            |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``+x``, ``-x``, ``~x``                        | Positive, negative, bitwise NOT     |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``**``                                        | Exponentiation [#]_                 |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :keyword:`await` ``x``                        | Await expression                    |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``x[index]``, ``x[index:index]``,             | Subscription, slicing,              |
+| ``x(arguments...)``, ``x.attribute``          | call, attribute reference           |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| ``(expressions...)``,                         | Binding or tuple display,           |
+| ``[expressions...]``,                         | list display,                       |
+| ``{key: value...}``,                          | dictionary display,                 |
+| ``{expressions...}``                          | set display                         |
++-----------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] While ``abs(x%y) < abs(y)`` is true mathematically, for floats it may not be
+   true numerically due to roundoff.  For example, and assuming a platform on which
+   a Python float is an IEEE 754 double-precision number, in order that ``-1e-100 %
+   1e100`` have the same sign as ``1e100``, the computed result is ``-1e-100 +
+   1e100``, which is numerically exactly equal to ``1e100``.  The function
+   :func:`math.fmod` returns a result whose sign matches the sign of the
+   first argument instead, and so returns ``-1e-100`` in this case. Which approach
+   is more appropriate depends on the application.
+
+.. [#] If x is very close to an exact integer multiple of y, it's possible for
+   ``x//y`` to be one larger than ``(x-x%y)//y`` due to rounding.  In such
+   cases, Python returns the latter result, in order to preserve that
+   ``divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y`` be very close to ``x``.
+
+.. [#] The Unicode standard distinguishes between :dfn:`code points`
+   (e.g. U+0041) and :dfn:`abstract characters` (e.g. "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A").
+   While most abstract characters in Unicode are only represented using one
+   code point, there is a number of abstract characters that can in addition be
+   represented using a sequence of more than one code point.  For example, the
+   abstract character "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA" can be represented
+   as a single :dfn:`precomposed character` at code position U+00C7, or as a
+   sequence of a :dfn:`base character` at code position U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL
+   LETTER C), followed by a :dfn:`combining character` at code position U+0327
+   (COMBINING CEDILLA).
+
+   The comparison operators on strings compare at the level of Unicode code
+   points. This may be counter-intuitive to humans.  For example,
+   ``"\u00C7" == "\u0043\u0327"`` is ``False``, even though both strings
+   represent the same abstract character "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA".
+
+   To compare strings at the level of abstract characters (that is, in a way
+   intuitive to humans), use :func:`unicodedata.normalize`.
+
+.. [#] Due to automatic garbage-collection, free lists, and the dynamic nature of
+   descriptors, you may notice seemingly unusual behaviour in certain uses of
+   the :keyword:`is` operator, like those involving comparisons between instance
+   methods, or constants.  Check their documentation for more info.
+
+.. [#] The ``%`` operator is also used for string formatting; the same
+   precedence applies.
+
+.. [#] The power operator ``**`` binds less tightly than an arithmetic or
+   bitwise unary operator on its right, that is, ``2**-1`` is ``0.5``.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/grammar.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/grammar.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83d0f85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/grammar.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+Full Grammar specification
+==========================
+
+This is the full Python grammar, as it is read by the parser generator and used
+to parse Python source files:
+
+.. literalinclude:: ../../Grammar/Grammar
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/import.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/import.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88290c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/import.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1073 @@
+
+.. _importsystem:
+
+*****************
+The import system
+*****************
+
+.. index:: single: import machinery
+
+Python code in one :term:`module` gains access to the code in another module
+by the process of :term:`importing` it.  The :keyword:`import` statement is
+the most common way of invoking the import machinery, but it is not the only
+way.  Functions such as :func:`importlib.import_module` and built-in
+:func:`__import__` can also be used to invoke the import machinery.
+
+The :keyword:`import` statement combines two operations; it searches for the
+named module, then it binds the results of that search to a name in the local
+scope.  The search operation of the :keyword:`!import` statement is defined as
+a call to the :func:`__import__` function, with the appropriate arguments.
+The return value of :func:`__import__` is used to perform the name
+binding operation of the :keyword:`!import` statement.  See the
+:keyword:`!import` statement for the exact details of that name binding
+operation.
+
+A direct call to :func:`__import__` performs only the module search and, if
+found, the module creation operation.  While certain side-effects may occur,
+such as the importing of parent packages, and the updating of various caches
+(including :data:`sys.modules`), only the :keyword:`import` statement performs
+a name binding operation.
+
+When an :keyword:`import` statement is executed, the standard builtin
+:func:`__import__` function is called. Other mechanisms for invoking the
+import system (such as :func:`importlib.import_module`) may choose to bypass
+:func:`__import__` and use their own solutions to implement import semantics.
+
+When a module is first imported, Python searches for the module and if found,
+it creates a module object [#fnmo]_, initializing it.  If the named module
+cannot be found, a :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised.  Python implements various
+strategies to search for the named module when the import machinery is
+invoked.  These strategies can be modified and extended by using various hooks
+described in the sections below.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+   The import system has been updated to fully implement the second phase
+   of :pep:`302`. There is no longer any implicit import machinery - the full
+   import system is exposed through :data:`sys.meta_path`. In addition,
+   native namespace package support has been implemented (see :pep:`420`).
+
+
+:mod:`importlib`
+================
+
+The :mod:`importlib` module provides a rich API for interacting with the
+import system.  For example :func:`importlib.import_module` provides a
+recommended, simpler API than built-in :func:`__import__` for invoking the
+import machinery.  Refer to the :mod:`importlib` library documentation for
+additional detail.
+
+
+
+Packages
+========
+
+.. index::
+    single: package
+
+Python has only one type of module object, and all modules are of this type,
+regardless of whether the module is implemented in Python, C, or something
+else.  To help organize modules and provide a naming hierarchy, Python has a
+concept of :term:`packages <package>`.
+
+You can think of packages as the directories on a file system and modules as
+files within directories, but don't take this analogy too literally since
+packages and modules need not originate from the file system.  For the
+purposes of this documentation, we'll use this convenient analogy of
+directories and files.  Like file system directories, packages are organized
+hierarchically, and packages may themselves contain subpackages, as well as
+regular modules.
+
+It's important to keep in mind that all packages are modules, but not all
+modules are packages.  Or put another way, packages are just a special kind of
+module.  Specifically, any module that contains a ``__path__`` attribute is
+considered a package.
+
+All modules have a name.  Subpackage names are separated from their parent
+package name by dots, akin to Python's standard attribute access syntax.  Thus
+you might have a module called :mod:`sys` and a package called :mod:`email`,
+which in turn has a subpackage called :mod:`email.mime` and a module within
+that subpackage called :mod:`email.mime.text`.
+
+
+Regular packages
+----------------
+
+.. index::
+    pair: package; regular
+
+Python defines two types of packages, :term:`regular packages <regular
+package>` and :term:`namespace packages <namespace package>`.  Regular
+packages are traditional packages as they existed in Python 3.2 and earlier.
+A regular package is typically implemented as a directory containing an
+``__init__.py`` file.  When a regular package is imported, this
+``__init__.py`` file is implicitly executed, and the objects it defines are
+bound to names in the package's namespace.  The ``__init__.py`` file can
+contain the same Python code that any other module can contain, and Python
+will add some additional attributes to the module when it is imported.
+
+For example, the following file system layout defines a top level ``parent``
+package with three subpackages::
+
+    parent/
+        __init__.py
+        one/
+            __init__.py
+        two/
+            __init__.py
+        three/
+            __init__.py
+
+Importing ``parent.one`` will implicitly execute ``parent/__init__.py`` and
+``parent/one/__init__.py``.  Subsequent imports of ``parent.two`` or
+``parent.three`` will execute ``parent/two/__init__.py`` and
+``parent/three/__init__.py`` respectively.
+
+
+Namespace packages
+------------------
+
+.. index::
+    pair: package; namespace
+    pair: package; portion
+
+A namespace package is a composite of various :term:`portions <portion>`,
+where each portion contributes a subpackage to the parent package.  Portions
+may reside in different locations on the file system.  Portions may also be
+found in zip files, on the network, or anywhere else that Python searches
+during import.  Namespace packages may or may not correspond directly to
+objects on the file system; they may be virtual modules that have no concrete
+representation.
+
+Namespace packages do not use an ordinary list for their ``__path__``
+attribute. They instead use a custom iterable type which will automatically
+perform a new search for package portions on the next import attempt within
+that package if the path of their parent package (or :data:`sys.path` for a
+top level package) changes.
+
+With namespace packages, there is no ``parent/__init__.py`` file.  In fact,
+there may be multiple ``parent`` directories found during import search, where
+each one is provided by a different portion.  Thus ``parent/one`` may not be
+physically located next to ``parent/two``.  In this case, Python will create a
+namespace package for the top-level ``parent`` package whenever it or one of
+its subpackages is imported.
+
+See also :pep:`420` for the namespace package specification.
+
+
+Searching
+=========
+
+To begin the search, Python needs the :term:`fully qualified <qualified name>`
+name of the module (or package, but for the purposes of this discussion, the
+difference is immaterial) being imported.  This name may come from various
+arguments to the :keyword:`import` statement, or from the parameters to the
+:func:`importlib.import_module` or :func:`__import__` functions.
+
+This name will be used in various phases of the import search, and it may be
+the dotted path to a submodule, e.g. ``foo.bar.baz``.  In this case, Python
+first tries to import ``foo``, then ``foo.bar``, and finally ``foo.bar.baz``.
+If any of the intermediate imports fail, a :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised.
+
+
+The module cache
+----------------
+
+.. index::
+    single: sys.modules
+
+The first place checked during import search is :data:`sys.modules`.  This
+mapping serves as a cache of all modules that have been previously imported,
+including the intermediate paths.  So if ``foo.bar.baz`` was previously
+imported, :data:`sys.modules` will contain entries for ``foo``, ``foo.bar``,
+and ``foo.bar.baz``.  Each key will have as its value the corresponding module
+object.
+
+During import, the module name is looked up in :data:`sys.modules` and if
+present, the associated value is the module satisfying the import, and the
+process completes.  However, if the value is ``None``, then a
+:exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised.  If the module name is missing, Python will
+continue searching for the module.
+
+:data:`sys.modules` is writable.  Deleting a key may not destroy the
+associated module (as other modules may hold references to it),
+but it will invalidate the cache entry for the named module, causing
+Python to search anew for the named module upon its next
+import. The key can also be assigned to ``None``, forcing the next import
+of the module to result in a :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError`.
+
+Beware though, as if you keep a reference to the module object,
+invalidate its cache entry in :data:`sys.modules`, and then re-import the
+named module, the two module objects will *not* be the same. By contrast,
+:func:`importlib.reload` will reuse the *same* module object, and simply
+reinitialise the module contents by rerunning the module's code.
+
+
+Finders and loaders
+-------------------
+
+.. index::
+    single: finder
+    single: loader
+    single: module spec
+
+If the named module is not found in :data:`sys.modules`, then Python's import
+protocol is invoked to find and load the module.  This protocol consists of
+two conceptual objects, :term:`finders <finder>` and :term:`loaders <loader>`.
+A finder's job is to determine whether it can find the named module using
+whatever strategy it knows about. Objects that implement both of these
+interfaces are referred to as :term:`importers <importer>` - they return
+themselves when they find that they can load the requested module.
+
+Python includes a number of default finders and importers.  The first one
+knows how to locate built-in modules, and the second knows how to locate
+frozen modules.  A third default finder searches an :term:`import path`
+for modules.  The :term:`import path` is a list of locations that may
+name file system paths or zip files.  It can also be extended to search
+for any locatable resource, such as those identified by URLs.
+
+The import machinery is extensible, so new finders can be added to extend the
+range and scope of module searching.
+
+Finders do not actually load modules.  If they can find the named module, they
+return a :dfn:`module spec`, an encapsulation of the module's import-related
+information, which the import machinery then uses when loading the module.
+
+The following sections describe the protocol for finders and loaders in more
+detail, including how you can create and register new ones to extend the
+import machinery.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   In previous versions of Python, finders returned :term:`loaders <loader>`
+   directly, whereas now they return module specs which *contain* loaders.
+   Loaders are still used during import but have fewer responsibilities.
+
+Import hooks
+------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: import hooks
+   single: meta hooks
+   single: path hooks
+   pair: hooks; import
+   pair: hooks; meta
+   pair: hooks; path
+
+The import machinery is designed to be extensible; the primary mechanism for
+this are the *import hooks*.  There are two types of import hooks: *meta
+hooks* and *import path hooks*.
+
+Meta hooks are called at the start of import processing, before any other
+import processing has occurred, other than :data:`sys.modules` cache look up.
+This allows meta hooks to override :data:`sys.path` processing, frozen
+modules, or even built-in modules.  Meta hooks are registered by adding new
+finder objects to :data:`sys.meta_path`, as described below.
+
+Import path hooks are called as part of :data:`sys.path` (or
+``package.__path__``) processing, at the point where their associated path
+item is encountered.  Import path hooks are registered by adding new callables
+to :data:`sys.path_hooks` as described below.
+
+
+The meta path
+-------------
+
+.. index::
+    single: sys.meta_path
+    pair: finder; find_spec
+
+When the named module is not found in :data:`sys.modules`, Python next
+searches :data:`sys.meta_path`, which contains a list of meta path finder
+objects.  These finders are queried in order to see if they know how to handle
+the named module.  Meta path finders must implement a method called
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec()` which takes three arguments:
+a name, an import path, and (optionally) a target module.  The meta path
+finder can use any strategy it wants to determine whether it can handle
+the named module or not.
+
+If the meta path finder knows how to handle the named module, it returns a
+spec object.  If it cannot handle the named module, it returns ``None``.  If
+:data:`sys.meta_path` processing reaches the end of its list without returning
+a spec, then a :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised.  Any other exceptions
+raised are simply propagated up, aborting the import process.
+
+The :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec()` method of meta path
+finders is called with two or three arguments.  The first is the fully
+qualified name of the module being imported, for example ``foo.bar.baz``.
+The second argument is the path entries to use for the module search.  For
+top-level modules, the second argument is ``None``, but for submodules or
+subpackages, the second argument is the value of the parent package's
+``__path__`` attribute. If the appropriate ``__path__`` attribute cannot
+be accessed, a :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised.  The third argument
+is an existing module object that will be the target of loading later.
+The import system passes in a target module only during reload.
+
+The meta path may be traversed multiple times for a single import request.
+For example, assuming none of the modules involved has already been cached,
+importing ``foo.bar.baz`` will first perform a top level import, calling
+``mpf.find_spec("foo", None, None)`` on each meta path finder (``mpf``). After
+``foo`` has been imported, ``foo.bar`` will be imported by traversing the
+meta path a second time, calling
+``mpf.find_spec("foo.bar", foo.__path__, None)``. Once ``foo.bar`` has been
+imported, the final traversal will call
+``mpf.find_spec("foo.bar.baz", foo.bar.__path__, None)``.
+
+Some meta path finders only support top level imports. These importers will
+always return ``None`` when anything other than ``None`` is passed as the
+second argument.
+
+Python's default :data:`sys.meta_path` has three meta path finders, one that
+knows how to import built-in modules, one that knows how to import frozen
+modules, and one that knows how to import modules from an :term:`import path`
+(i.e. the :term:`path based finder`).
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` method of meta path
+   finders replaced :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module`, which
+   is now deprecated.  While it will continue to work without change, the
+   import machinery will try it only if the finder does not implement
+   ``find_spec()``.
+
+
+Loading
+=======
+
+If and when a module spec is found, the import machinery will use it (and
+the loader it contains) when loading the module.  Here is an approximation
+of what happens during the loading portion of import::
+
+    module = None
+    if spec.loader is not None and hasattr(spec.loader, 'create_module'):
+        # It is assumed 'exec_module' will also be defined on the loader.
+        module = spec.loader.create_module(spec)
+    if module is None:
+        module = ModuleType(spec.name)
+    # The import-related module attributes get set here:
+    _init_module_attrs(spec, module)
+
+    if spec.loader is None:
+        if spec.submodule_search_locations is not None:
+            # namespace package
+            sys.modules[spec.name] = module
+        else:
+            # unsupported
+            raise ImportError
+    elif not hasattr(spec.loader, 'exec_module'):
+        module = spec.loader.load_module(spec.name)
+        # Set __loader__ and __package__ if missing.
+    else:
+        sys.modules[spec.name] = module
+        try:
+            spec.loader.exec_module(module)
+        except BaseException:
+            try:
+                del sys.modules[spec.name]
+            except KeyError:
+                pass
+            raise
+    return sys.modules[spec.name]
+
+Note the following details:
+
+ * If there is an existing module object with the given name in
+   :data:`sys.modules`, import will have already returned it.
+
+ * The module will exist in :data:`sys.modules` before the loader
+   executes the module code.  This is crucial because the module code may
+   (directly or indirectly) import itself; adding it to :data:`sys.modules`
+   beforehand prevents unbounded recursion in the worst case and multiple
+   loading in the best.
+
+ * If loading fails, the failing module -- and only the failing module --
+   gets removed from :data:`sys.modules`.  Any module already in the
+   :data:`sys.modules` cache, and any module that was successfully loaded
+   as a side-effect, must remain in the cache.  This contrasts with
+   reloading where even the failing module is left in :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+ * After the module is created but before execution, the import machinery
+   sets the import-related module attributes ("_init_module_attrs" in
+   the pseudo-code example above), as summarized in a
+   :ref:`later section <import-mod-attrs>`.
+
+ * Module execution is the key moment of loading in which the module's
+   namespace gets populated.  Execution is entirely delegated to the
+   loader, which gets to decide what gets populated and how.
+
+ * The module created during loading and passed to exec_module() may
+   not be the one returned at the end of import [#fnlo]_.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The import system has taken over the boilerplate responsibilities of
+   loaders.  These were previously performed by the
+   :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` method.
+
+Loaders
+-------
+
+Module loaders provide the critical function of loading: module execution.
+The import machinery calls the :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module`
+method with a single argument, the module object to execute.  Any value
+returned from :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` is ignored.
+
+Loaders must satisfy the following requirements:
+
+ * If the module is a Python module (as opposed to a built-in module or a
+   dynamically loaded extension), the loader should execute the module's code
+   in the module's global name space (``module.__dict__``).
+
+ * If the loader cannot execute the module, it should raise an
+   :exc:`ImportError`, although any other exception raised during
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` will be propagated.
+
+In many cases, the finder and loader can be the same object; in such cases the
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` method would just return a
+spec with the loader set to ``self``.
+
+Module loaders may opt in to creating the module object during loading
+by implementing a :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.create_module` method.
+It takes one argument, the module spec, and returns the new module object
+to use during loading.  ``create_module()`` does not need to set any attributes
+on the module object.  If the method returns ``None``, the
+import machinery will create the new module itself.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+   The :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.create_module` method of loaders.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   The :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` method was replaced by
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` and the import
+   machinery assumed all the boilerplate responsibilities of loading.
+
+   For compatibility with existing loaders, the import machinery will use
+   the ``load_module()`` method of loaders if it exists and the loader does
+   not also implement ``exec_module()``.  However, ``load_module()`` has been
+   deprecated and loaders should implement ``exec_module()`` instead.
+
+   The ``load_module()`` method must implement all the boilerplate loading
+   functionality described above in addition to executing the module.  All
+   the same constraints apply, with some additional clarification:
+
+    * If there is an existing module object with the given name in
+      :data:`sys.modules`, the loader must use that existing module.
+      (Otherwise, :func:`importlib.reload` will not work correctly.)  If the
+      named module does not exist in :data:`sys.modules`, the loader
+      must create a new module object and add it to :data:`sys.modules`.
+
+    * The module *must* exist in :data:`sys.modules` before the loader
+      executes the module code, to prevent unbounded recursion or multiple
+      loading.
+
+    * If loading fails, the loader must remove any modules it has inserted
+      into :data:`sys.modules`, but it must remove **only** the failing
+      module(s), and only if the loader itself has loaded the module(s)
+      explicitly.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+   A :exc:`DeprecationWarning` is raised when ``exec_module()`` is defined but
+   ``create_module()`` is not.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   An :exc:`ImportError` is raised when ``exec_module()`` is defined but
+   ``create_module()`` is not.
+
+Submodules
+----------
+
+When a submodule is loaded using any mechanism (e.g. ``importlib`` APIs, the
+``import`` or ``import-from`` statements, or built-in ``__import__()``) a
+binding is placed in the parent module's namespace to the submodule object.
+For example, if package ``spam`` has a submodule ``foo``, after importing
+``spam.foo``, ``spam`` will have an attribute ``foo`` which is bound to the
+submodule.  Let's say you have the following directory structure::
+
+    spam/
+        __init__.py
+        foo.py
+        bar.py
+
+and ``spam/__init__.py`` has the following lines in it::
+
+    from .foo import Foo
+    from .bar import Bar
+
+then executing the following puts a name binding to ``foo`` and ``bar`` in the
+``spam`` module::
+
+    >>> import spam
+    >>> spam.foo
+    <module 'spam.foo' from '/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py'>
+    >>> spam.bar
+    <module 'spam.bar' from '/tmp/imports/spam/bar.py'>
+
+Given Python's familiar name binding rules this might seem surprising, but
+it's actually a fundamental feature of the import system.  The invariant
+holding is that if you have ``sys.modules['spam']`` and
+``sys.modules['spam.foo']`` (as you would after the above import), the latter
+must appear as the ``foo`` attribute of the former.
+
+Module spec
+-----------
+
+The import machinery uses a variety of information about each module
+during import, especially before loading.  Most of the information is
+common to all modules.  The purpose of a module's spec is to encapsulate
+this import-related information on a per-module basis.
+
+Using a spec during import allows state to be transferred between import
+system components, e.g. between the finder that creates the module spec
+and the loader that executes it.  Most importantly, it allows the
+import machinery to perform the boilerplate operations of loading,
+whereas without a module spec the loader had that responsibility.
+
+The module's spec is exposed as the ``__spec__`` attribute on a module object.
+See :class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec` for details on the contents of
+the module spec.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. _import-mod-attrs:
+
+Import-related module attributes
+--------------------------------
+
+The import machinery fills in these attributes on each module object
+during loading, based on the module's spec, before the loader executes
+the module.
+
+.. attribute:: __name__
+
+   The ``__name__`` attribute must be set to the fully-qualified name of
+   the module.  This name is used to uniquely identify the module in
+   the import system.
+
+.. attribute:: __loader__
+
+   The ``__loader__`` attribute must be set to the loader object that
+   the import machinery used when loading the module.  This is mostly
+   for introspection, but can be used for additional loader-specific
+   functionality, for example getting data associated with a loader.
+
+.. attribute:: __package__
+
+   The module's ``__package__`` attribute must be set.  Its value must
+   be a string, but it can be the same value as its ``__name__``.  When
+   the module is a package, its ``__package__`` value should be set to
+   its ``__name__``.  When the module is not a package, ``__package__``
+   should be set to the empty string for top-level modules, or for
+   submodules, to the parent package's name.  See :pep:`366` for further
+   details.
+
+   This attribute is used instead of ``__name__`` to calculate explicit
+   relative imports for main modules, as defined in :pep:`366`. It is
+   expected to have the same value as ``__spec__.parent``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      The value of ``__package__`` is expected to be the same as
+      ``__spec__.parent``.
+
+.. attribute:: __spec__
+
+   The ``__spec__`` attribute must be set to the module spec that was
+   used when importing the module. Setting ``__spec__``
+   appropriately applies equally to :ref:`modules initialized during
+   interpreter startup <programs>`.  The one exception is ``__main__``,
+   where ``__spec__`` is :ref:`set to None in some cases <main_spec>`.
+
+   When ``__package__`` is not defined, ``__spec__.parent`` is used as
+   a fallback.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      ``__spec__.parent`` is used as a fallback when ``__package__`` is
+      not defined.
+
+.. attribute:: __path__
+
+   If the module is a package (either regular or namespace), the module
+   object's ``__path__`` attribute must be set.  The value must be
+   iterable, but may be empty if ``__path__`` has no further significance.
+   If ``__path__`` is not empty, it must produce strings when iterated
+   over. More details on the semantics of ``__path__`` are given
+   :ref:`below <package-path-rules>`.
+
+   Non-package modules should not have a ``__path__`` attribute.
+
+.. attribute:: __file__
+.. attribute:: __cached__
+
+   ``__file__`` is optional. If set, this attribute's value must be a
+   string.  The import system may opt to leave ``__file__`` unset if it
+   has no semantic meaning (e.g. a module loaded from a database).
+
+   If ``__file__`` is set, it may also be appropriate to set the
+   ``__cached__`` attribute which is the path to any compiled version of
+   the code (e.g. byte-compiled file). The file does not need to exist
+   to set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the
+   compiled file would exist (see :pep:`3147`).
+
+   It is also appropriate to set ``__cached__`` when ``__file__`` is not
+   set.  However, that scenario is quite atypical.  Ultimately, the
+   loader is what makes use of ``__file__`` and/or ``__cached__``.  So
+   if a loader can load from a cached module but otherwise does not load
+   from a file, that atypical scenario may be appropriate.
+
+.. _package-path-rules:
+
+module.__path__
+---------------
+
+By definition, if a module has a ``__path__`` attribute, it is a package.
+
+A package's ``__path__`` attribute is used during imports of its subpackages.
+Within the import machinery, it functions much the same as :data:`sys.path`,
+i.e. providing a list of locations to search for modules during import.
+However, ``__path__`` is typically much more constrained than
+:data:`sys.path`.
+
+``__path__`` must be an iterable of strings, but it may be empty.
+The same rules used for :data:`sys.path` also apply to a package's
+``__path__``, and :data:`sys.path_hooks` (described below) are
+consulted when traversing a package's ``__path__``.
+
+A package's ``__init__.py`` file may set or alter the package's ``__path__``
+attribute, and this was typically the way namespace packages were implemented
+prior to :pep:`420`.  With the adoption of :pep:`420`, namespace packages no
+longer need to supply ``__init__.py`` files containing only ``__path__``
+manipulation code; the import machinery automatically sets ``__path__``
+correctly for the namespace package.
+
+Module reprs
+------------
+
+By default, all modules have a usable repr, however depending on the
+attributes set above, and in the module's spec, you can more explicitly
+control the repr of module objects.
+
+If the module has a spec (``__spec__``), the import machinery will try
+to generate a repr from it.  If that fails or there is no spec, the import
+system will craft a default repr using whatever information is available
+on the module.  It will try to use the ``module.__name__``,
+``module.__file__``, and ``module.__loader__`` as input into the repr,
+with defaults for whatever information is missing.
+
+Here are the exact rules used:
+
+ * If the module has a ``__spec__`` attribute, the information in the spec
+   is used to generate the repr.  The "name", "loader", "origin", and
+   "has_location" attributes are consulted.
+
+ * If the module has a ``__file__`` attribute, this is used as part of the
+   module's repr.
+
+ * If the module has no ``__file__`` but does have a ``__loader__`` that is not
+   ``None``, then the loader's repr is used as part of the module's repr.
+
+ * Otherwise, just use the module's ``__name__`` in the repr.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Use of :meth:`loader.module_repr() <importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr>`
+   has been deprecated and the module spec is now used by the import
+   machinery to generate a module repr.
+
+   For backward compatibility with Python 3.3, the module repr will be
+   generated by calling the loader's
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr` method, if defined, before
+   trying either approach described above.  However, the method is deprecated.
+
+.. _pyc-invalidation:
+
+Cached bytecode invalidation
+----------------------------
+
+Before Python loads cached bytecode from ``.pyc`` file, it checks whether the
+cache is up-to-date with the source ``.py`` file. By default, Python does this
+by storing the source's last-modified timestamp and size in the cache file when
+writing it. At runtime, the import system then validates the cache file by
+checking the stored metadata in the cache file against at source's
+metadata.
+
+Python also supports "hash-based" cache files, which store a hash of the source
+file's contents rather than its metadata. There are two variants of hash-based
+``.pyc`` files: checked and unchecked. For checked hash-based ``.pyc`` files,
+Python validates the cache file by hashing the source file and comparing the
+resulting hash with the hash in the cache file. If a checked hash-based cache
+file is found to be invalid, Python regenerates it and writes a new checked
+hash-based cache file. For unchecked hash-based ``.pyc`` files, Python simply
+assumes the cache file is valid if it exists. Hash-based ``.pyc`` files
+validation behavior may be overridden with the :option:`--check-hash-based-pycs`
+flag.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+   Added hash-based ``.pyc`` files. Previously, Python only supported
+   timestamp-based invalidation of bytecode caches.
+
+
+The Path Based Finder
+=====================
+
+.. index::
+    single: path based finder
+
+As mentioned previously, Python comes with several default meta path finders.
+One of these, called the :term:`path based finder`
+(:class:`~importlib.machinery.PathFinder`), searches an :term:`import path`,
+which contains a list of :term:`path entries <path entry>`.  Each path
+entry names a location to search for modules.
+
+The path based finder itself doesn't know how to import anything. Instead, it
+traverses the individual path entries, associating each of them with a
+path entry finder that knows how to handle that particular kind of path.
+
+The default set of path entry finders implement all the semantics for finding
+modules on the file system, handling special file types such as Python source
+code (``.py`` files), Python byte code (``.pyc`` files) and
+shared libraries (e.g. ``.so`` files). When supported by the :mod:`zipimport`
+module in the standard library, the default path entry finders also handle
+loading all of these file types (other than shared libraries) from zipfiles.
+
+Path entries need not be limited to file system locations.  They can refer to
+URLs, database queries, or any other location that can be specified as a
+string.
+
+The path based finder provides additional hooks and protocols so that you
+can extend and customize the types of searchable path entries.  For example,
+if you wanted to support path entries as network URLs, you could write a hook
+that implements HTTP semantics to find modules on the web.  This hook (a
+callable) would return a :term:`path entry finder` supporting the protocol
+described below, which was then used to get a loader for the module from the
+web.
+
+A word of warning: this section and the previous both use the term *finder*,
+distinguishing between them by using the terms :term:`meta path finder` and
+:term:`path entry finder`.  These two types of finders are very similar,
+support similar protocols, and function in similar ways during the import
+process, but it's important to keep in mind that they are subtly different.
+In particular, meta path finders operate at the beginning of the import
+process, as keyed off the :data:`sys.meta_path` traversal.
+
+By contrast, path entry finders are in a sense an implementation detail
+of the path based finder, and in fact, if the path based finder were to be
+removed from :data:`sys.meta_path`, none of the path entry finder semantics
+would be invoked.
+
+
+Path entry finders
+------------------
+
+.. index::
+    single: sys.path
+    single: sys.path_hooks
+    single: sys.path_importer_cache
+    single: PYTHONPATH
+
+The :term:`path based finder` is responsible for finding and loading
+Python modules and packages whose location is specified with a string
+:term:`path entry`.  Most path entries name locations in the file system,
+but they need not be limited to this.
+
+As a meta path finder, the :term:`path based finder` implements the
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` protocol previously
+described, however it exposes additional hooks that can be used to
+customize how modules are found and loaded from the :term:`import path`.
+
+Three variables are used by the :term:`path based finder`, :data:`sys.path`,
+:data:`sys.path_hooks` and :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`.  The ``__path__``
+attributes on package objects are also used.  These provide additional ways
+that the import machinery can be customized.
+
+:data:`sys.path` contains a list of strings providing search locations for
+modules and packages.  It is initialized from the :data:`PYTHONPATH`
+environment variable and various other installation- and
+implementation-specific defaults.  Entries in :data:`sys.path` can name
+directories on the file system, zip files, and potentially other "locations"
+(see the :mod:`site` module) that should be searched for modules, such as
+URLs, or database queries.  Only strings and bytes should be present on
+:data:`sys.path`; all other data types are ignored.  The encoding of bytes
+entries is determined by the individual :term:`path entry finders <path entry
+finder>`.
+
+The :term:`path based finder` is a :term:`meta path finder`, so the import
+machinery begins the :term:`import path` search by calling the path
+based finder's :meth:`~importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec` method as
+described previously.  When the ``path`` argument to
+:meth:`~importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec` is given, it will be a
+list of string paths to traverse - typically a package's ``__path__``
+attribute for an import within that package.  If the ``path`` argument is
+``None``, this indicates a top level import and :data:`sys.path` is used.
+
+The path based finder iterates over every entry in the search path, and
+for each of these, looks for an appropriate :term:`path entry finder`
+(:class:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder`) for the
+path entry.  Because this can be an expensive operation (e.g. there may be
+`stat()` call overheads for this search), the path based finder maintains
+a cache mapping path entries to path entry finders.  This cache is maintained
+in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` (despite the name, this cache actually
+stores finder objects rather than being limited to :term:`importer` objects).
+In this way, the expensive search for a particular :term:`path entry`
+location's :term:`path entry finder` need only be done once.  User code is
+free to remove cache entries from :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` forcing
+the path based finder to perform the path entry search again [#fnpic]_.
+
+If the path entry is not present in the cache, the path based finder iterates
+over every callable in :data:`sys.path_hooks`.  Each of the :term:`path entry
+hooks <path entry hook>` in this list is called with a single argument, the
+path entry to be searched.  This callable may either return a :term:`path
+entry finder` that can handle the path entry, or it may raise
+:exc:`ImportError`.  An :exc:`ImportError` is used by the path based finder to
+signal that the hook cannot find a :term:`path entry finder`
+for that :term:`path entry`.  The
+exception is ignored and :term:`import path` iteration continues.  The hook
+should expect either a string or bytes object; the encoding of bytes objects
+is up to the hook (e.g. it may be a file system encoding, UTF-8, or something
+else), and if the hook cannot decode the argument, it should raise
+:exc:`ImportError`.
+
+If :data:`sys.path_hooks` iteration ends with no :term:`path entry finder`
+being returned, then the path based finder's
+:meth:`~importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec` method will store ``None``
+in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` (to indicate that there is no finder for
+this path entry) and return ``None``, indicating that this
+:term:`meta path finder` could not find the module.
+
+If a :term:`path entry finder` *is* returned by one of the :term:`path entry
+hook` callables on :data:`sys.path_hooks`, then the following protocol is used
+to ask the finder for a module spec, which is then used when loading the
+module.
+
+The current working directory -- denoted by an empty string -- is handled
+slightly differently from other entries on :data:`sys.path`. First, if the
+current working directory is found to not exist, no value is stored in
+:data:`sys.path_importer_cache`. Second, the value for the current working
+directory is looked up fresh for each module lookup. Third, the path used for
+:data:`sys.path_importer_cache` and returned by
+:meth:`importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec` will be the actual current
+working directory and not the empty string.
+
+Path entry finder protocol
+--------------------------
+
+In order to support imports of modules and initialized packages and also to
+contribute portions to namespace packages, path entry finders must implement
+the :meth:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec` method.
+
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec` takes two argument, the
+fully qualified name of the module being imported, and the (optional) target
+module.  ``find_spec()`` returns a fully populated spec for the module.
+This spec will always have "loader" set (with one exception).
+
+To indicate to the import machinery that the spec represents a namespace
+:term:`portion`. the path entry finder sets "loader" on the spec to
+``None`` and "submodule_search_locations" to a list containing the
+portion.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec` replaced
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader` and
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module`, both of which
+   are now deprecated, but will be used if ``find_spec()`` is not defined.
+
+   Older path entry finders may implement one of these two deprecated methods
+   instead of ``find_spec()``.  The methods are still respected for the
+   sake of backward compatibility.  However, if ``find_spec()`` is
+   implemented on the path entry finder, the legacy methods are ignored.
+
+   :meth:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader` takes one argument, the
+   fully qualified name of the module being imported.  ``find_loader()``
+   returns a 2-tuple where the first item is the loader and the second item
+   is a namespace :term:`portion`.  When the first item (i.e. the loader) is
+   ``None``, this means that while the path entry finder does not have a
+   loader for the named module, it knows that the path entry contributes to
+   a namespace portion for the named module.  This will almost always be the
+   case where Python is asked to import a namespace package that has no
+   physical presence on the file system.  When a path entry finder returns
+   ``None`` for the loader, the second item of the 2-tuple return value must
+   be a sequence, although it can be empty.
+
+   If ``find_loader()`` returns a non-``None`` loader value, the portion is
+   ignored and the loader is returned from the path based finder, terminating
+   the search through the path entries.
+
+   For backwards compatibility with other implementations of the import
+   protocol, many path entry finders also support the same,
+   traditional ``find_module()`` method that meta path finders support.
+   However path entry finder ``find_module()`` methods are never called
+   with a ``path`` argument (they are expected to record the appropriate
+   path information from the initial call to the path hook).
+
+   The ``find_module()`` method on path entry finders is deprecated,
+   as it does not allow the path entry finder to contribute portions to
+   namespace packages.  If both ``find_loader()`` and ``find_module()``
+   exist on a path entry finder, the import system will always call
+   ``find_loader()`` in preference to ``find_module()``.
+
+
+Replacing the standard import system
+====================================
+
+The most reliable mechanism for replacing the entire import system is to
+delete the default contents of :data:`sys.meta_path`, replacing them
+entirely with a custom meta path hook.
+
+If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements
+without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then replacing
+the builtin :func:`__import__` function may be sufficient. This technique
+may also be employed at the module level to only alter the behaviour of
+import statements within that module.
+
+To selectively prevent import of some modules from a hook early on the
+meta path (rather than disabling the standard import system entirely),
+it is sufficient to raise :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` directly from
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` instead of returning
+``None``. The latter indicates that the meta path search should continue,
+while raising an exception terminates it immediately.
+
+.. _relativeimports:
+
+Package Relative Imports
+========================
+
+Relative imports use leading dots. A single leading dot indicates a relative
+import, starting with the current package. Two or more leading dots indicate a
+relative import to the parent(s) of the current package, one level per dot
+after the first. For example, given the following package layout::
+
+    package/
+        __init__.py
+        subpackage1/
+            __init__.py
+            moduleX.py
+            moduleY.py
+        subpackage2/
+            __init__.py
+            moduleZ.py
+        moduleA.py
+
+In either ``subpackage1/moduleX.py`` or ``subpackage1/__init__.py``,
+the following are valid relative imports::
+
+    from .moduleY import spam
+    from .moduleY import spam as ham
+    from . import moduleY
+    from ..subpackage1 import moduleY
+    from ..subpackage2.moduleZ import eggs
+    from ..moduleA import foo
+
+Absolute imports may use either the ``import <>`` or ``from <> import <>``
+syntax, but relative imports may only use the second form; the reason
+for this is that::
+
+    import XXX.YYY.ZZZ
+
+should expose ``XXX.YYY.ZZZ`` as a usable expression, but .moduleY is
+not a valid expression.
+
+
+Special considerations for __main__
+===================================
+
+The :mod:`__main__` module is a special case relative to Python's import
+system.  As noted :ref:`elsewhere <programs>`, the ``__main__`` module
+is directly initialized at interpreter startup, much like :mod:`sys` and
+:mod:`builtins`.  However, unlike those two, it doesn't strictly
+qualify as a built-in module.  This is because the manner in which
+``__main__`` is initialized depends on the flags and other options with
+which the interpreter is invoked.
+
+.. _main_spec:
+
+__main__.__spec__
+-----------------
+
+Depending on how :mod:`__main__` is initialized, ``__main__.__spec__``
+gets set appropriately or to ``None``.
+
+When Python is started with the :option:`-m` option, ``__spec__`` is set
+to the module spec of the corresponding module or package. ``__spec__`` is
+also populated when the ``__main__`` module is loaded as part of executing a
+directory, zipfile or other :data:`sys.path` entry.
+
+In :ref:`the remaining cases <using-on-interface-options>`
+``__main__.__spec__`` is set to ``None``, as the code used to populate the
+:mod:`__main__` does not correspond directly with an importable module:
+
+- interactive prompt
+- :option:`-c` option
+- running from stdin
+- running directly from a source or bytecode file
+
+Note that ``__main__.__spec__`` is always ``None`` in the last case,
+*even if* the file could technically be imported directly as a module
+instead. Use the :option:`-m` switch if valid module metadata is desired
+in :mod:`__main__`.
+
+Note also that even when ``__main__`` corresponds with an importable module
+and ``__main__.__spec__`` is set accordingly, they're still considered
+*distinct* modules. This is due to the fact that blocks guarded by
+``if __name__ == "__main__":`` checks only execute when the module is used
+to populate the ``__main__`` namespace, and not during normal import.
+
+
+Open issues
+===========
+
+XXX It would be really nice to have a diagram.
+
+XXX * (import_machinery.rst) how about a section devoted just to the
+attributes of modules and packages, perhaps expanding upon or supplanting the
+related entries in the data model reference page?
+
+XXX runpy, pkgutil, et al in the library manual should all get "See Also"
+links at the top pointing to the new import system section.
+
+XXX Add more explanation regarding the different ways in which
+``__main__`` is initialized?
+
+XXX Add more info on ``__main__`` quirks/pitfalls (i.e. copy from
+:pep:`395`).
+
+
+References
+==========
+
+The import machinery has evolved considerably since Python's early days.  The
+original `specification for packages
+<https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/>`_ is still available to read,
+although some details have changed since the writing of that document.
+
+The original specification for :data:`sys.meta_path` was :pep:`302`, with
+subsequent extension in :pep:`420`.
+
+:pep:`420` introduced :term:`namespace packages <namespace package>` for
+Python 3.3.  :pep:`420` also introduced the :meth:`find_loader` protocol as an
+alternative to :meth:`find_module`.
+
+:pep:`366` describes the addition of the ``__package__`` attribute for
+explicit relative imports in main modules.
+
+:pep:`328` introduced absolute and explicit relative imports and initially
+proposed ``__name__`` for semantics :pep:`366` would eventually specify for
+``__package__``.
+
+:pep:`338` defines executing modules as scripts.
+
+:pep:`451` adds the encapsulation of per-module import state in spec
+objects.  It also off-loads most of the boilerplate responsibilities of
+loaders back onto the import machinery.  These changes allow the
+deprecation of several APIs in the import system and also addition of new
+methods to finders and loaders.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#fnmo] See :class:`types.ModuleType`.
+
+.. [#fnlo] The importlib implementation avoids using the return value
+   directly. Instead, it gets the module object by looking the module name up
+   in :data:`sys.modules`.  The indirect effect of this is that an imported
+   module may replace itself in :data:`sys.modules`.  This is
+   implementation-specific behavior that is not guaranteed to work in other
+   Python implementations.
+
+.. [#fnpic] In legacy code, it is possible to find instances of
+   :class:`imp.NullImporter` in the :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`.  It
+   is recommended that code be changed to use ``None`` instead.  See
+   :ref:`portingpythoncode` for more details.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a66673b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+.. _reference-index:
+
+#################################
+  The Python Language Reference
+#################################
+
+This reference manual describes the syntax and "core semantics" of the
+language. It is terse, but attempts to be exact and complete. The semantics of
+non-essential built-in object types and of the built-in functions and modules
+are described in :ref:`library-index`. For an informal introduction to the
+language, see :ref:`tutorial-index`. For C or C++ programmers, two additional
+manuals exist: :ref:`extending-index` describes the high-level picture of how to
+write a Python extension module, and the :ref:`c-api-index` describes the
+interfaces available to C/C++ programmers in detail.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+   :numbered:
+
+   introduction.rst
+   lexical_analysis.rst
+   datamodel.rst
+   executionmodel.rst
+   import.rst
+   expressions.rst
+   simple_stmts.rst
+   compound_stmts.rst
+   toplevel_components.rst
+   grammar.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/introduction.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/introduction.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb7e390
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/introduction.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+
+.. _introduction:
+
+************
+Introduction
+************
+
+This reference manual describes the Python programming language. It is not
+intended as a tutorial.
+
+While I am trying to be as precise as possible, I chose to use English rather
+than formal specifications for everything except syntax and lexical analysis.
+This should make the document more understandable to the average reader, but
+will leave room for ambiguities. Consequently, if you were coming from Mars and
+tried to re-implement Python from this document alone, you might have to guess
+things and in fact you would probably end up implementing quite a different
+language. On the other hand, if you are using Python and wonder what the precise
+rules about a particular area of the language are, you should definitely be able
+to find them here. If you would like to see a more formal definition of the
+language, maybe you could volunteer your time --- or invent a cloning machine
+:-).
+
+It is dangerous to add too many implementation details to a language reference
+document --- the implementation may change, and other implementations of the
+same language may work differently.  On the other hand, CPython is the one
+Python implementation in widespread use (although alternate implementations
+continue to gain support), and its particular quirks are sometimes worth being
+mentioned, especially where the implementation imposes additional limitations.
+Therefore, you'll find short "implementation notes" sprinkled throughout the
+text.
+
+Every Python implementation comes with a number of built-in and standard
+modules.  These are documented in :ref:`library-index`.  A few built-in modules
+are mentioned when they interact in a significant way with the language
+definition.
+
+
+.. _implementations:
+
+Alternate Implementations
+=========================
+
+Though there is one Python implementation which is by far the most popular,
+there are some alternate implementations which are of particular interest to
+different audiences.
+
+Known implementations include:
+
+CPython
+   This is the original and most-maintained implementation of Python, written in C.
+   New language features generally appear here first.
+
+Jython
+   Python implemented in Java.  This implementation can be used as a scripting
+   language for Java applications, or can be used to create applications using the
+   Java class libraries.  It is also often used to create tests for Java libraries.
+   More information can be found at `the Jython website <http://www.jython.org/>`_.
+
+Python for .NET
+   This implementation actually uses the CPython implementation, but is a managed
+   .NET application and makes .NET libraries available.  It was created by Brian
+   Lloyd.  For more information, see the `Python for .NET home page
+   <https://pythonnet.github.io/>`_.
+
+IronPython
+   An alternate Python for .NET.  Unlike Python.NET, this is a complete Python
+   implementation that generates IL, and compiles Python code directly to .NET
+   assemblies.  It was created by Jim Hugunin, the original creator of Jython.  For
+   more information, see `the IronPython website <http://ironpython.net/>`_.
+
+PyPy
+   An implementation of Python written completely in Python. It supports several
+   advanced features not found in other implementations like stackless support
+   and a Just in Time compiler. One of the goals of the project is to encourage
+   experimentation with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
+   interpreter (since it is written in Python).  Additional information is
+   available on `the PyPy project's home page <http://pypy.org/>`_.
+
+Each of these implementations varies in some way from the language as documented
+in this manual, or introduces specific information beyond what's covered in the
+standard Python documentation.  Please refer to the implementation-specific
+documentation to determine what else you need to know about the specific
+implementation you're using.
+
+
+.. _notation:
+
+Notation
+========
+
+.. index:: BNF, grammar, syntax, notation
+
+The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a modified BNF grammar
+notation.  This uses the following style of definition:
+
+.. productionlist:: *
+   name: `lc_letter` (`lc_letter` | "_")*
+   lc_letter: "a"..."z"
+
+The first line says that a ``name`` is an ``lc_letter`` followed by a sequence
+of zero or more ``lc_letter``\ s and underscores.  An ``lc_letter`` in turn is
+any of the single characters ``'a'`` through ``'z'``.  (This rule is actually
+adhered to for the names defined in lexical and grammar rules in this document.)
+
+Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule) and
+``::=``.  A vertical bar (``|``) is used to separate alternatives; it is the
+least binding operator in this notation.  A star (``*``) means zero or more
+repetitions of the preceding item; likewise, a plus (``+``) means one or more
+repetitions, and a phrase enclosed in square brackets (``[ ]``) means zero or
+one occurrences (in other words, the enclosed phrase is optional).  The ``*``
+and ``+`` operators bind as tightly as possible; parentheses are used for
+grouping.  Literal strings are enclosed in quotes.  White space is only
+meaningful to separate tokens. Rules are normally contained on a single line;
+rules with many alternatives may be formatted alternatively with each line after
+the first beginning with a vertical bar.
+
+.. index:: lexical definitions, ASCII
+
+In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions are used:
+Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice of any single
+character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII characters.  A phrase between
+angular brackets (``<...>``) gives an informal description of the symbol
+defined; e.g., this could be used to describe the notion of 'control character'
+if needed.
+
+Even though the notation used is almost the same, there is a big difference
+between the meaning of lexical and syntactic definitions: a lexical definition
+operates on the individual characters of the input source, while a syntax
+definition operates on the stream of tokens generated by the lexical analysis.
+All uses of BNF in the next chapter ("Lexical Analysis") are lexical
+definitions; uses in subsequent chapters are syntactic definitions.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/lexical_analysis.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/lexical_analysis.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b90f3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/lexical_analysis.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,930 @@
+
+.. _lexical:
+
+****************
+Lexical analysis
+****************
+
+.. index:: lexical analysis, parser, token
+
+A Python program is read by a *parser*.  Input to the parser is a stream of
+*tokens*, generated by the *lexical analyzer*.  This chapter describes how the
+lexical analyzer breaks a file into tokens.
+
+Python reads program text as Unicode code points; the encoding of a source file
+can be given by an encoding declaration and defaults to UTF-8, see :pep:`3120`
+for details.  If the source file cannot be decoded, a :exc:`SyntaxError` is
+raised.
+
+
+.. _line-structure:
+
+Line structure
+==============
+
+.. index:: line structure
+
+A Python program is divided into a number of *logical lines*.
+
+
+.. _logical-lines:
+
+Logical lines
+-------------
+
+.. index:: logical line, physical line, line joining, NEWLINE token
+
+The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE.  Statements
+cannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is allowed by the
+syntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements). A logical line is
+constructed from one or more *physical lines* by following the explicit or
+implicit *line joining* rules.
+
+
+.. _physical-lines:
+
+Physical lines
+--------------
+
+A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by an end-of-line
+sequence.  In source files and strings, any of the standard platform line
+termination sequences can be used - the Unix form using ASCII LF (linefeed),
+the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return followed by linefeed),
+or the old Macintosh form using the ASCII CR (return) character.  All of these
+forms can be used equally, regardless of platform. The end of input also serves
+as an implicit terminator for the final physical line.
+
+When embedding Python, source code strings should be passed to Python APIs using
+the standard C conventions for newline characters (the ``\n`` character,
+representing ASCII LF, is the line terminator).
+
+
+.. _comments:
+
+Comments
+--------
+
+.. index:: comment, hash character
+   single: # (hash); comment
+
+A comment starts with a hash character (``#``) that is not part of a string
+literal, and ends at the end of the physical line.  A comment signifies the end
+of the logical line unless the implicit line joining rules are invoked. Comments
+are ignored by the syntax.
+
+
+.. _encodings:
+
+Encoding declarations
+---------------------
+
+.. index:: source character set, encoding declarations (source file)
+   single: # (hash); source encoding declaration
+
+If a comment in the first or second line of the Python script matches the
+regular expression ``coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+)``, this comment is processed as an
+encoding declaration; the first group of this expression names the encoding of
+the source code file. The encoding declaration must appear on a line of its
+own. If it is the second line, the first line must also be a comment-only line.
+The recommended forms of an encoding expression are ::
+
+   # -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*-
+
+which is recognized also by GNU Emacs, and ::
+
+   # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name>
+
+which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar's VIM.
+
+If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8.  In
+addition, if the first bytes of the file are the UTF-8 byte-order mark
+(``b'\xef\xbb\xbf'``), the declared file encoding is UTF-8 (this is supported,
+among others, by Microsoft's :program:`notepad`).
+
+If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by Python. The
+encoding is used for all lexical analysis, including string literals, comments
+and identifiers.
+
+.. XXX there should be a list of supported encodings.
+
+
+.. _explicit-joining:
+
+Explicit line joining
+---------------------
+
+.. index:: physical line, line joining, line continuation, backslash character
+
+Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using backslash
+characters (``\``), as follows: when a physical line ends in a backslash that is
+not part of a string literal or comment, it is joined with the following forming
+a single logical line, deleting the backslash and the following end-of-line
+character.  For example::
+
+   if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
+      and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
+      and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60:   # Looks like a valid date
+           return 1
+
+A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment.  A backslash does not
+continue a comment.  A backslash does not continue a token except for string
+literals (i.e., tokens other than string literals cannot be split across
+physical lines using a backslash).  A backslash is illegal elsewhere on a line
+outside a string literal.
+
+
+.. _implicit-joining:
+
+Implicit line joining
+---------------------
+
+Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be split over
+more than one physical line without using backslashes. For example::
+
+   month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart',      # These are the
+                  'April',   'Mei',      'Juni',       # Dutch names
+                  'Juli',    'Augustus', 'September',  # for the months
+                  'Oktober', 'November', 'December']   # of the year
+
+Implicitly continued lines can carry comments.  The indentation of the
+continuation lines is not important.  Blank continuation lines are allowed.
+There is no NEWLINE token between implicit continuation lines.  Implicitly
+continued lines can also occur within triple-quoted strings (see below); in that
+case they cannot carry comments.
+
+
+.. _blank-lines:
+
+Blank lines
+-----------
+
+.. index:: single: blank line
+
+A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly a
+comment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated).  During interactive
+input of statements, handling of a blank line may differ depending on the
+implementation of the read-eval-print loop.  In the standard interactive
+interpreter, an entirely blank logical line (i.e. one containing not even
+whitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line statement.
+
+
+.. _indentation:
+
+Indentation
+-----------
+
+.. index:: indentation, leading whitespace, space, tab, grouping, statement grouping
+
+Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a logical line is used
+to compute the indentation level of the line, which in turn is used to determine
+the grouping of statements.
+
+Tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces such that the
+total number of characters up to and including the replacement is a multiple of
+eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by Unix).  The total number
+of spaces preceding the first non-blank character then determines the line's
+indentation.  Indentation cannot be split over multiple physical lines using
+backslashes; the whitespace up to the first backslash determines the
+indentation.
+
+Indentation is rejected as inconsistent if a source file mixes tabs and spaces
+in a way that makes the meaning dependent on the worth of a tab in spaces; a
+:exc:`TabError` is raised in that case.
+
+**Cross-platform compatibility note:** because of the nature of text editors on
+non-UNIX platforms, it is unwise to use a mixture of spaces and tabs for the
+indentation in a single source file.  It should also be noted that different
+platforms may explicitly limit the maximum indentation level.
+
+A formfeed character may be present at the start of the line; it will be ignored
+for the indentation calculations above.  Formfeed characters occurring elsewhere
+in the leading whitespace have an undefined effect (for instance, they may reset
+the space count to zero).
+
+.. index:: INDENT token, DEDENT token
+
+The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT and
+DEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows.
+
+Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on the stack;
+this will never be popped off again.  The numbers pushed on the stack will
+always be strictly increasing from bottom to top.  At the beginning of each
+logical line, the line's indentation level is compared to the top of the stack.
+If it is equal, nothing happens. If it is larger, it is pushed on the stack, and
+one INDENT token is generated.  If it is smaller, it *must* be one of the
+numbers occurring on the stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger are
+popped off, and for each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated.  At the
+end of the file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on the
+stack that is larger than zero.
+
+Here is an example of a correctly (though confusingly) indented piece of Python
+code::
+
+   def perm(l):
+           # Compute the list of all permutations of l
+       if len(l) <= 1:
+                     return [l]
+       r = []
+       for i in range(len(l)):
+                s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
+                p = perm(s)
+                for x in p:
+                 r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
+       return r
+
+The following example shows various indentation errors::
+
+    def perm(l):                       # error: first line indented
+   for i in range(len(l)):             # error: not indented
+       s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
+           p = perm(l[:i] + l[i+1:])   # error: unexpected indent
+           for x in p:
+                   r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
+               return r                # error: inconsistent dedent
+
+(Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the last
+error is found by the lexical analyzer --- the indentation of ``return r`` does
+not match a level popped off the stack.)
+
+
+.. _whitespace:
+
+Whitespace between tokens
+-------------------------
+
+Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the whitespace
+characters space, tab and formfeed can be used interchangeably to separate
+tokens.  Whitespace is needed between two tokens only if their concatenation
+could otherwise be interpreted as a different token (e.g., ab is one token, but
+a b is two tokens).
+
+
+.. _other-tokens:
+
+Other tokens
+============
+
+Besides NEWLINE, INDENT and DEDENT, the following categories of tokens exist:
+*identifiers*, *keywords*, *literals*, *operators*, and *delimiters*. Whitespace
+characters (other than line terminators, discussed earlier) are not tokens, but
+serve to delimit tokens. Where ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longest
+possible string that forms a legal token, when read from left to right.
+
+
+.. _identifiers:
+
+Identifiers and keywords
+========================
+
+.. index:: identifier, name
+
+Identifiers (also referred to as *names*) are described by the following lexical
+definitions.
+
+The syntax of identifiers in Python is based on the Unicode standard annex
+UAX-31, with elaboration and changes as defined below; see also :pep:`3131` for
+further details.
+
+Within the ASCII range (U+0001..U+007F), the valid characters for identifiers
+are the same as in Python 2.x: the uppercase and lowercase letters ``A`` through
+``Z``, the underscore ``_`` and, except for the first character, the digits
+``0`` through ``9``.
+
+Python 3.0 introduces additional characters from outside the ASCII range (see
+:pep:`3131`).  For these characters, the classification uses the version of the
+Unicode Character Database as included in the :mod:`unicodedata` module.
+
+Identifiers are unlimited in length.  Case is significant.
+
+.. productionlist::
+   identifier: `xid_start` `xid_continue`*
+   id_start: <all characters in general categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, Nl, the underscore, and characters with the Other_ID_Start property>
+   id_continue: <all characters in `id_start`, plus characters in the categories Mn, Mc, Nd, Pc and others with the Other_ID_Continue property>
+   xid_start: <all characters in `id_start` whose NFKC normalization is in "id_start xid_continue*">
+   xid_continue: <all characters in `id_continue` whose NFKC normalization is in "id_continue*">
+
+The Unicode category codes mentioned above stand for:
+
+* *Lu* - uppercase letters
+* *Ll* - lowercase letters
+* *Lt* - titlecase letters
+* *Lm* - modifier letters
+* *Lo* - other letters
+* *Nl* - letter numbers
+* *Mn* - nonspacing marks
+* *Mc* - spacing combining marks
+* *Nd* - decimal numbers
+* *Pc* - connector punctuations
+* *Other_ID_Start* - explicit list of characters in `PropList.txt
+  <http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt>`_ to support backwards
+  compatibility
+* *Other_ID_Continue* - likewise
+
+All identifiers are converted into the normal form NFKC while parsing; comparison
+of identifiers is based on NFKC.
+
+A non-normative HTML file listing all valid identifier characters for Unicode
+4.1 can be found at
+https://www.dcl.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/home/loewis/table-3131.html.
+
+
+.. _keywords:
+
+Keywords
+--------
+
+.. index::
+   single: keyword
+   single: reserved word
+
+The following identifiers are used as reserved words, or *keywords* of the
+language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers.  They must be spelled
+exactly as written here:
+
+.. sourcecode:: text
+
+   False      await      else       import     pass
+   None       break      except     in         raise
+   True       class      finally    is         return
+   and        continue   for        lambda     try
+   as         def        from       nonlocal   while
+   assert     del        global     not        with
+   async      elif       if         or         yield
+
+.. index::
+   single: _, identifiers
+   single: __, identifiers
+.. _id-classes:
+
+Reserved classes of identifiers
+-------------------------------
+
+Certain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special meanings.  These
+classes are identified by the patterns of leading and trailing underscore
+characters:
+
+``_*``
+   Not imported by ``from module import *``.  The special identifier ``_`` is used
+   in the interactive interpreter to store the result of the last evaluation; it is
+   stored in the :mod:`builtins` module.  When not in interactive mode, ``_``
+   has no special meaning and is not defined. See section :ref:`import`.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      The name ``_`` is often used in conjunction with internationalization;
+      refer to the documentation for the :mod:`gettext` module for more
+      information on this convention.
+
+``__*__``
+   System-defined names. These names are defined by the interpreter and its
+   implementation (including the standard library).  Current system names are
+   discussed in the :ref:`specialnames` section and elsewhere.  More will likely
+   be defined in future versions of Python.  *Any* use of ``__*__`` names, in
+   any context, that does not follow explicitly documented use, is subject to
+   breakage without warning.
+
+``__*``
+   Class-private names.  Names in this category, when used within the context of a
+   class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form to help avoid name
+   clashes between "private" attributes of base and derived classes. See section
+   :ref:`atom-identifiers`.
+
+
+.. _literals:
+
+Literals
+========
+
+.. index:: literal, constant
+
+Literals are notations for constant values of some built-in types.
+
+
+.. index:: string literal, bytes literal, ASCII
+   single: ' (single quote); string literal
+   single: " (double quote); string literal
+   single: u'; string literal
+   single: u"; string literal
+.. _strings:
+
+String and Bytes literals
+-------------------------
+
+String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   stringliteral: [`stringprefix`](`shortstring` | `longstring`)
+   stringprefix: "r" | "u" | "R" | "U" | "f" | "F"
+               : | "fr" | "Fr" | "fR" | "FR" | "rf" | "rF" | "Rf" | "RF"
+   shortstring: "'" `shortstringitem`* "'" | '"' `shortstringitem`* '"'
+   longstring: "'''" `longstringitem`* "'''" | '"""' `longstringitem`* '"""'
+   shortstringitem: `shortstringchar` | `stringescapeseq`
+   longstringitem: `longstringchar` | `stringescapeseq`
+   shortstringchar: <any source character except "\" or newline or the quote>
+   longstringchar: <any source character except "\">
+   stringescapeseq: "\" <any source character>
+
+.. productionlist::
+   bytesliteral: `bytesprefix`(`shortbytes` | `longbytes`)
+   bytesprefix: "b" | "B" | "br" | "Br" | "bR" | "BR" | "rb" | "rB" | "Rb" | "RB"
+   shortbytes: "'" `shortbytesitem`* "'" | '"' `shortbytesitem`* '"'
+   longbytes: "'''" `longbytesitem`* "'''" | '"""' `longbytesitem`* '"""'
+   shortbytesitem: `shortbyteschar` | `bytesescapeseq`
+   longbytesitem: `longbyteschar` | `bytesescapeseq`
+   shortbyteschar: <any ASCII character except "\" or newline or the quote>
+   longbyteschar: <any ASCII character except "\">
+   bytesescapeseq: "\" <any ASCII character>
+
+One syntactic restriction not indicated by these productions is that whitespace
+is not allowed between the :token:`stringprefix` or :token:`bytesprefix` and the
+rest of the literal. The source character set is defined by the encoding
+declaration; it is UTF-8 if no encoding declaration is given in the source file;
+see section :ref:`encodings`.
+
+.. index:: triple-quoted string, Unicode Consortium, raw string
+   single: """; string literal
+   single: '''; string literal
+
+In plain English: Both types of literals can be enclosed in matching single quotes
+(``'``) or double quotes (``"``).  They can also be enclosed in matching groups
+of three single or double quotes (these are generally referred to as
+*triple-quoted strings*).  The backslash (``\``) character is used to escape
+characters that otherwise have a special meaning, such as newline, backslash
+itself, or the quote character.
+
+.. index::
+   single: b'; bytes literal
+   single: b"; bytes literal
+
+Bytes literals are always prefixed with ``'b'`` or ``'B'``; they produce an
+instance of the :class:`bytes` type instead of the :class:`str` type.  They
+may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of 128 or greater
+must be expressed with escapes.
+
+.. index::
+   single: r'; raw string literal
+   single: r"; raw string literal
+
+Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter ``'r'``
+or ``'R'``; such strings are called :dfn:`raw strings` and treat backslashes as
+literal characters.  As a result, in string literals, ``'\U'`` and ``'\u'``
+escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. Given that Python 2.x's raw
+unicode literals behave differently than Python 3.x's the ``'ur'`` syntax
+is not supported.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+   The ``'rb'`` prefix of raw bytes literals has been added as a synonym
+   of ``'br'``.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+   Support for the unicode legacy literal (``u'value'``) was reintroduced
+   to simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases.
+   See :pep:`414` for more information.
+
+.. index::
+   single: f'; formatted string literal
+   single: f"; formatted string literal
+
+A string literal with ``'f'`` or ``'F'`` in its prefix is a
+:dfn:`formatted string literal`; see :ref:`f-strings`.  The ``'f'`` may be
+combined with ``'r'``, but not with ``'b'`` or ``'u'``, therefore raw
+formatted strings are possible, but formatted bytes literals are not.
+
+In triple-quoted literals, unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed (and are
+retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the literal.  (A
+"quote" is the character used to open the literal, i.e. either ``'`` or ``"``.)
+
+.. index:: physical line, escape sequence, Standard C, C
+   single: \ (backslash); escape sequence
+   single: \\; escape sequence
+   single: \a; escape sequence
+   single: \b; escape sequence
+   single: \f; escape sequence
+   single: \n; escape sequence
+   single: \r; escape sequence
+   single: \t; escape sequence
+   single: \v; escape sequence
+   single: \x; escape sequence
+   single: \N; escape sequence
+   single: \u; escape sequence
+   single: \U; escape sequence
+
+Unless an ``'r'`` or ``'R'`` prefix is present, escape sequences in string and
+bytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those used by
+Standard C.  The recognized escape sequences are:
+
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| Escape Sequence | Meaning                         | Notes |
++=================+=================================+=======+
+| ``\newline``    | Backslash and newline ignored   |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\\``          | Backslash (``\``)               |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\'``          | Single quote (``'``)            |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\"``          | Double quote (``"``)            |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\a``          | ASCII Bell (BEL)                |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\b``          | ASCII Backspace (BS)            |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\f``          | ASCII Formfeed (FF)             |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\n``          | ASCII Linefeed (LF)             |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\r``          | ASCII Carriage Return (CR)      |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\t``          | ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB)      |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\v``          | ASCII Vertical Tab (VT)         |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\ooo``        | Character with octal value      | (1,3) |
+|                 | *ooo*                           |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\xhh``        | Character with hex value *hh*   | (2,3) |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+
+Escape sequences only recognized in string literals are:
+
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| Escape Sequence | Meaning                         | Notes |
++=================+=================================+=======+
+| ``\N{name}``    | Character named *name* in the   | \(4)  |
+|                 | Unicode database                |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\uxxxx``      | Character with 16-bit hex value | \(5)  |
+|                 | *xxxx*                          |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+| ``\Uxxxxxxxx``  | Character with 32-bit hex value | \(6)  |
+|                 | *xxxxxxxx*                      |       |
++-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+
+
+Notes:
+
+(1)
+   As in Standard C, up to three octal digits are accepted.
+
+(2)
+   Unlike in Standard C, exactly two hex digits are required.
+
+(3)
+   In a bytes literal, hexadecimal and octal escapes denote the byte with the
+   given value. In a string literal, these escapes denote a Unicode character
+   with the given value.
+
+(4)
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+      Support for name aliases [#]_ has been added.
+
+(5)
+   Exactly four hex digits are required.
+
+(6)
+   Any Unicode character can be encoded this way.  Exactly eight hex digits
+   are required.
+
+
+.. index:: unrecognized escape sequence
+
+Unlike Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the string
+unchanged, i.e., *the backslash is left in the result*.  (This behavior is
+useful when debugging: if an escape sequence is mistyped, the resulting output
+is more easily recognized as broken.)  It is also important to note that the
+escape sequences only recognized in string literals fall into the category of
+unrecognized escapes for bytes literals.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      Unrecognized escape sequences produce a DeprecationWarning.  In
+      some future version of Python they will be a SyntaxError.
+
+Even in a raw literal, quotes can be escaped with a backslash, but the
+backslash remains in the result; for example, ``r"\""`` is a valid string
+literal consisting of two characters: a backslash and a double quote; ``r"\"``
+is not a valid string literal (even a raw string cannot end in an odd number of
+backslashes).  Specifically, *a raw literal cannot end in a single backslash*
+(since the backslash would escape the following quote character).  Note also
+that a single backslash followed by a newline is interpreted as those two
+characters as part of the literal, *not* as a line continuation.
+
+
+.. _string-concatenation:
+
+String literal concatenation
+----------------------------
+
+Multiple adjacent string or bytes literals (delimited by whitespace), possibly
+using different quoting conventions, are allowed, and their meaning is the same
+as their concatenation.  Thus, ``"hello" 'world'`` is equivalent to
+``"helloworld"``.  This feature can be used to reduce the number of backslashes
+needed, to split long strings conveniently across long lines, or even to add
+comments to parts of strings, for example::
+
+   re.compile("[A-Za-z_]"       # letter or underscore
+              "[A-Za-z0-9_]*"   # letter, digit or underscore
+             )
+
+Note that this feature is defined at the syntactical level, but implemented at
+compile time.  The '+' operator must be used to concatenate string expressions
+at run time.  Also note that literal concatenation can use different quoting
+styles for each component (even mixing raw strings and triple quoted strings),
+and formatted string literals may be concatenated with plain string literals.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: formatted string literal
+   single: interpolated string literal
+   single: string; formatted literal
+   single: string; interpolated literal
+   single: f-string
+   single: {} (curly brackets); in formatted string literal
+   single: ! (exclamation); in formatted string literal
+   single: : (colon); in formatted string literal
+.. _f-strings:
+
+Formatted string literals
+-------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+A :dfn:`formatted string literal` or :dfn:`f-string` is a string literal
+that is prefixed with ``'f'`` or ``'F'``.  These strings may contain
+replacement fields, which are expressions delimited by curly braces ``{}``.
+While other string literals always have a constant value, formatted strings
+are really expressions evaluated at run time.
+
+Escape sequences are decoded like in ordinary string literals (except when
+a literal is also marked as a raw string).  After decoding, the grammar
+for the contents of the string is:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   f_string: (`literal_char` | "{{" | "}}" | `replacement_field`)*
+   replacement_field: "{" `f_expression` ["!" `conversion`] [":" `format_spec`] "}"
+   f_expression: (`conditional_expression` | "*" `or_expr`)
+               :   ("," `conditional_expression` | "," "*" `or_expr`)* [","]
+               : | `yield_expression`
+   conversion: "s" | "r" | "a"
+   format_spec: (`literal_char` | NULL | `replacement_field`)*
+   literal_char: <any code point except "{", "}" or NULL>
+
+The parts of the string outside curly braces are treated literally,
+except that any doubled curly braces ``'{{'`` or ``'}}'`` are replaced
+with the corresponding single curly brace.  A single opening curly
+bracket ``'{'`` marks a replacement field, which starts with a
+Python expression.  After the expression, there may be a conversion field,
+introduced by an exclamation point ``'!'``.  A format specifier may also
+be appended, introduced by a colon ``':'``.  A replacement field ends
+with a closing curly bracket ``'}'``.
+
+Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular
+Python expressions surrounded by parentheses, with a few exceptions.
+An empty expression is not allowed, and a :keyword:`lambda` expression
+must be surrounded by explicit parentheses.  Replacement expressions
+can contain line breaks (e.g. in triple-quoted strings), but they
+cannot contain comments.  Each expression is evaluated in the context
+where the formatted string literal appears, in order from left to right.
+
+If a conversion is specified, the result of evaluating the expression
+is converted before formatting.  Conversion ``'!s'`` calls :func:`str` on
+the result, ``'!r'`` calls :func:`repr`, and ``'!a'`` calls :func:`ascii`.
+
+The result is then formatted using the :func:`format` protocol.  The
+format specifier is passed to the :meth:`__format__` method of the
+expression or conversion result.  An empty string is passed when the
+format specifier is omitted.  The formatted result is then included in
+the final value of the whole string.
+
+Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields. These nested
+fields may include their own conversion fields and :ref:`format specifiers
+<formatspec>`, but may not include more deeply-nested replacement fields. The
+:ref:`format specifier mini-language <formatspec>` is the same as that used by
+the string .format() method.
+
+Formatted string literals may be concatenated, but replacement fields
+cannot be split across literals.
+
+Some examples of formatted string literals::
+
+   >>> name = "Fred"
+   >>> f"He said his name is {name!r}."
+   "He said his name is 'Fred'."
+   >>> f"He said his name is {repr(name)}."  # repr() is equivalent to !r
+   "He said his name is 'Fred'."
+   >>> width = 10
+   >>> precision = 4
+   >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
+   >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
+   'result:      12.35'
+   >>> today = datetime(year=2017, month=1, day=27)
+   >>> f"{today:%B %d, %Y}"  # using date format specifier
+   'January 27, 2017'
+   >>> number = 1024
+   >>> f"{number:#0x}"  # using integer format specifier
+   '0x400'
+
+A consequence of sharing the same syntax as regular string literals is
+that characters in the replacement fields must not conflict with the
+quoting used in the outer formatted string literal::
+
+   f"abc {a["x"]} def"    # error: outer string literal ended prematurely
+   f"abc {a['x']} def"    # workaround: use different quoting
+
+Backslashes are not allowed in format expressions and will raise
+an error::
+
+   f"newline: {ord('\n')}"  # raises SyntaxError
+
+To include a value in which a backslash escape is required, create
+a temporary variable.
+
+   >>> newline = ord('\n')
+   >>> f"newline: {newline}"
+   'newline: 10'
+
+Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings, even if they do not
+include expressions.
+
+::
+
+   >>> def foo():
+   ...     f"Not a docstring"
+   ...
+   >>> foo.__doc__ is None
+   True
+
+See also :pep:`498` for the proposal that added formatted string literals,
+and :meth:`str.format`, which uses a related format string mechanism.
+
+
+.. _numbers:
+
+Numeric literals
+----------------
+
+.. index:: number, numeric literal, integer literal
+   floating point literal, hexadecimal literal
+   octal literal, binary literal, decimal literal, imaginary literal, complex literal
+
+There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating point numbers, and
+imaginary numbers.  There are no complex literals (complex numbers can be formed
+by adding a real number and an imaginary number).
+
+Note that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like ``-1`` is
+actually an expression composed of the unary operator '``-``' and the literal
+``1``.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: 0b; integer literal
+   single: 0o; integer literal
+   single: 0x; integer literal
+   single: _ (underscore); in numeric literal
+
+.. _integers:
+
+Integer literals
+----------------
+
+Integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   integer: `decinteger` | `bininteger` | `octinteger` | `hexinteger`
+   decinteger: `nonzerodigit` (["_"] `digit`)* | "0"+ (["_"] "0")*
+   bininteger: "0" ("b" | "B") (["_"] `bindigit`)+
+   octinteger: "0" ("o" | "O") (["_"] `octdigit`)+
+   hexinteger: "0" ("x" | "X") (["_"] `hexdigit`)+
+   nonzerodigit: "1"..."9"
+   digit: "0"..."9"
+   bindigit: "0" | "1"
+   octdigit: "0"..."7"
+   hexdigit: `digit` | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"
+
+There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can be
+stored in available memory.
+
+Underscores are ignored for determining the numeric value of the literal.  They
+can be used to group digits for enhanced readability.  One underscore can occur
+between digits, and after base specifiers like ``0x``.
+
+Note that leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed. This is
+for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python used before version
+3.0.
+
+Some examples of integer literals::
+
+   7     2147483647                        0o177    0b100110111
+   3     79228162514264337593543950336     0o377    0xdeadbeef
+         100_000_000_000                   0b_1110_0101
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: . (dot); in numeric literal
+   single: e; in numeric literal
+   single: _ (underscore); in numeric literal
+.. _floating:
+
+Floating point literals
+-----------------------
+
+Floating point literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   floatnumber: `pointfloat` | `exponentfloat`
+   pointfloat: [`digitpart`] `fraction` | `digitpart` "."
+   exponentfloat: (`digitpart` | `pointfloat`) `exponent`
+   digitpart: `digit` (["_"] `digit`)*
+   fraction: "." `digitpart`
+   exponent: ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] `digitpart`
+
+Note that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using radix 10.
+For example, ``077e010`` is legal, and denotes the same number as ``77e10``. The
+allowed range of floating point literals is implementation-dependent.  As in
+integer literals, underscores are supported for digit grouping.
+
+Some examples of floating point literals::
+
+   3.14    10.    .001    1e100    3.14e-10    0e0    3.14_15_93
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+   Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals.
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: j; in numeric literal
+.. _imaginary:
+
+Imaginary literals
+------------------
+
+Imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   imagnumber: (`floatnumber` | `digitpart`) ("j" | "J")
+
+An imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0.  Complex
+numbers are represented as a pair of floating point numbers and have the same
+restrictions on their range.  To create a complex number with a nonzero real
+part, add a floating point number to it, e.g., ``(3+4j)``.  Some examples of
+imaginary literals::
+
+   3.14j   10.j    10j     .001j   1e100j   3.14e-10j   3.14_15_93j
+
+
+.. _operators:
+
+Operators
+=========
+
+.. index:: single: operators
+
+The following tokens are operators:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+
+   +       -       *       **      /       //      %      @
+   <<      >>      &       |       ^       ~
+   <       >       <=      >=      ==      !=
+
+
+.. _delimiters:
+
+Delimiters
+==========
+
+.. index:: single: delimiters
+
+The following tokens serve as delimiters in the grammar:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   (       )       [       ]       {       }
+   ,       :       .       ;       @       =       ->
+   +=      -=      *=      /=      //=     %=      @=
+   &=      |=      ^=      >>=     <<=     **=
+
+The period can also occur in floating-point and imaginary literals.  A sequence
+of three periods has a special meaning as an ellipsis literal. The second half
+of the list, the augmented assignment operators, serve lexically as delimiters,
+but also perform an operation.
+
+The following printing ASCII characters have special meaning as part of other
+tokens or are otherwise significant to the lexical analyzer:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   '       "       #       \
+
+The following printing ASCII characters are not used in Python.  Their
+occurrence outside string literals and comments is an unconditional error:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   $       ?       `
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/simple_stmts.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/simple_stmts.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1779832
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/simple_stmts.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1008 @@
+
+.. _simple:
+
+*****************
+Simple statements
+*****************
+
+.. index:: pair: simple; statement
+
+A simple statement is comprised within a single logical line. Several simple
+statements may occur on a single line separated by semicolons.  The syntax for
+simple statements is:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   simple_stmt: `expression_stmt`
+              : | `assert_stmt`
+              : | `assignment_stmt`
+              : | `augmented_assignment_stmt`
+              : | `annotated_assignment_stmt`
+              : | `pass_stmt`
+              : | `del_stmt`
+              : | `return_stmt`
+              : | `yield_stmt`
+              : | `raise_stmt`
+              : | `break_stmt`
+              : | `continue_stmt`
+              : | `import_stmt`
+              : | `future_stmt`
+              : | `global_stmt`
+              : | `nonlocal_stmt`
+
+
+.. _exprstmts:
+
+Expression statements
+=====================
+
+.. index::
+   pair: expression; statement
+   pair: expression; list
+.. index:: pair: expression; list
+
+Expression statements are used (mostly interactively) to compute and write a
+value, or (usually) to call a procedure (a function that returns no meaningful
+result; in Python, procedures return the value ``None``).  Other uses of
+expression statements are allowed and occasionally useful.  The syntax for an
+expression statement is:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   expression_stmt: `starred_expression`
+
+An expression statement evaluates the expression list (which may be a single
+expression).
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: repr
+   object: None
+   pair: string; conversion
+   single: output
+   pair: standard; output
+   pair: writing; values
+   pair: procedure; call
+
+In interactive mode, if the value is not ``None``, it is converted to a string
+using the built-in :func:`repr` function and the resulting string is written to
+standard output on a line by itself (except if the result is ``None``, so that
+procedure calls do not cause any output.)
+
+.. _assignment:
+
+Assignment statements
+=====================
+
+.. index::
+   single: = (equals); assignment statement
+   pair: assignment; statement
+   pair: binding; name
+   pair: rebinding; name
+   object: mutable
+   pair: attribute; assignment
+
+Assignment statements are used to (re)bind names to values and to modify
+attributes or items of mutable objects:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   assignment_stmt: (`target_list` "=")+ (`starred_expression` | `yield_expression`)
+   target_list: `target` ("," `target`)* [","]
+   target: `identifier`
+         : | "(" [`target_list`] ")"
+         : | "[" [`target_list`] "]"
+         : | `attributeref`
+         : | `subscription`
+         : | `slicing`
+         : | "*" `target`
+
+(See section :ref:`primaries` for the syntax definitions for *attributeref*,
+*subscription*, and *slicing*.)
+
+An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that this can be
+a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter yielding a tuple) and
+assigns the single resulting object to each of the target lists, from left to
+right.
+
+.. index::
+   single: target
+   pair: target; list
+
+Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target (list).
+When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute reference, subscription
+or slicing), the mutable object must ultimately perform the assignment and
+decide about its validity, and may raise an exception if the assignment is
+unacceptable.  The rules observed by various types and the exceptions raised are
+given with the definition of the object types (see section :ref:`types`).
+
+.. index:: triple: target; list; assignment
+   single: , (comma); in target list
+   single: * (asterisk); in assignment target list
+   single: [] (square brackets); in assignment target list
+   single: () (parentheses); in assignment target list
+
+Assignment of an object to a target list, optionally enclosed in parentheses or
+square brackets, is recursively defined as follows.
+
+* If the target list is a single target with no trailing comma,
+  optionally in parentheses, the object is assigned to that target.
+
+* Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of
+  items as there are targets in the target list, and the items are assigned,
+  from left to right, to the corresponding targets.
+
+  * If the target list contains one target prefixed with an asterisk, called a
+    "starred" target: The object must be an iterable with at least as many items
+    as there are targets in the target list, minus one.  The first items of the
+    iterable are assigned, from left to right, to the targets before the starred
+    target.  The final items of the iterable are assigned to the targets after
+    the starred target.  A list of the remaining items in the iterable is then
+    assigned to the starred target (the list can be empty).
+
+  * Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of items as there
+    are targets in the target list, and the items are assigned, from left to
+    right, to the corresponding targets.
+
+Assignment of an object to a single target is recursively defined as follows.
+
+* If the target is an identifier (name):
+
+  * If the name does not occur in a :keyword:`global` or :keyword:`nonlocal`
+    statement in the current code block: the name is bound to the object in the
+    current local namespace.
+
+  * Otherwise: the name is bound to the object in the global namespace or the
+    outer namespace determined by :keyword:`nonlocal`, respectively.
+
+  .. index:: single: destructor
+
+  The name is rebound if it was already bound.  This may cause the reference
+  count for the object previously bound to the name to reach zero, causing the
+  object to be deallocated and its destructor (if it has one) to be called.
+
+  .. index:: pair: attribute; assignment
+
+* If the target is an attribute reference: The primary expression in the
+  reference is evaluated.  It should yield an object with assignable attributes;
+  if this is not the case, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.  That object is then
+  asked to assign the assigned object to the given attribute; if it cannot
+  perform the assignment, it raises an exception (usually but not necessarily
+  :exc:`AttributeError`).
+
+  .. _attr-target-note:
+
+  Note: If the object is a class instance and the attribute reference occurs on
+  both sides of the assignment operator, the RHS expression, ``a.x`` can access
+  either an instance attribute or (if no instance attribute exists) a class
+  attribute.  The LHS target ``a.x`` is always set as an instance attribute,
+  creating it if necessary.  Thus, the two occurrences of ``a.x`` do not
+  necessarily refer to the same attribute: if the RHS expression refers to a
+  class attribute, the LHS creates a new instance attribute as the target of the
+  assignment::
+
+     class Cls:
+         x = 3             # class variable
+     inst = Cls()
+     inst.x = inst.x + 1   # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3
+
+  This description does not necessarily apply to descriptor attributes, such as
+  properties created with :func:`property`.
+
+  .. index::
+     pair: subscription; assignment
+     object: mutable
+
+* If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the reference is
+  evaluated.  It should yield either a mutable sequence object (such as a list)
+  or a mapping object (such as a dictionary).  Next, the subscript expression is
+  evaluated.
+
+  .. index::
+     object: sequence
+     object: list
+
+  If the primary is a mutable sequence object (such as a list), the subscript
+  must yield an integer.  If it is negative, the sequence's length is added to
+  it.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the
+  sequence's length, and the sequence is asked to assign the assigned object to
+  its item with that index.  If the index is out of range, :exc:`IndexError` is
+  raised (assignment to a subscripted sequence cannot add new items to a list).
+
+  .. index::
+     object: mapping
+     object: dictionary
+
+  If the primary is a mapping object (such as a dictionary), the subscript must
+  have a type compatible with the mapping's key type, and the mapping is then
+  asked to create a key/datum pair which maps the subscript to the assigned
+  object.  This can either replace an existing key/value pair with the same key
+  value, or insert a new key/value pair (if no key with the same value existed).
+
+  For user-defined objects, the :meth:`__setitem__` method is called with
+  appropriate arguments.
+
+  .. index:: pair: slicing; assignment
+
+* If the target is a slicing: The primary expression in the reference is
+  evaluated.  It should yield a mutable sequence object (such as a list).  The
+  assigned object should be a sequence object of the same type.  Next, the lower
+  and upper bound expressions are evaluated, insofar they are present; defaults
+  are zero and the sequence's length.  The bounds should evaluate to integers.
+  If either bound is negative, the sequence's length is added to it.  The
+  resulting bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence's length,
+  inclusive.  Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the slice with
+  the items of the assigned sequence.  The length of the slice may be different
+  from the length of the assigned sequence, thus changing the length of the
+  target sequence, if the target sequence allows it.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   In the current implementation, the syntax for targets is taken to be the same
+   as for expressions, and invalid syntax is rejected during the code generation
+   phase, causing less detailed error messages.
+
+Although the definition of assignment implies that overlaps between the
+left-hand side and the right-hand side are 'simultaneous' (for example ``a, b =
+b, a`` swaps two variables), overlaps *within* the collection of assigned-to
+variables occur left-to-right, sometimes resulting in confusion.  For instance,
+the following program prints ``[0, 2]``::
+
+   x = [0, 1]
+   i = 0
+   i, x[i] = 1, 2         # i is updated, then x[i] is updated
+   print(x)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3132` - Extended Iterable Unpacking
+      The specification for the ``*target`` feature.
+
+
+.. _augassign:
+
+Augmented assignment statements
+-------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: augmented; assignment
+   single: statement; assignment, augmented
+   single: +=; augmented assignment
+   single: -=; augmented assignment
+   single: *=; augmented assignment
+   single: /=; augmented assignment
+   single: %=; augmented assignment
+   single: &=; augmented assignment
+   single: ^=; augmented assignment
+   single: |=; augmented assignment
+   single: **=; augmented assignment
+   single: //=; augmented assignment
+   single: >>=; augmented assignment
+   single: <<=; augmented assignment
+
+Augmented assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a binary
+operation and an assignment statement:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   augmented_assignment_stmt: `augtarget` `augop` (`expression_list` | `yield_expression`)
+   augtarget: `identifier` | `attributeref` | `subscription` | `slicing`
+   augop: "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
+        : | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="
+
+(See section :ref:`primaries` for the syntax definitions of the last three
+symbols.)
+
+An augmented assignment evaluates the target (which, unlike normal assignment
+statements, cannot be an unpacking) and the expression list, performs the binary
+operation specific to the type of assignment on the two operands, and assigns
+the result to the original target.  The target is only evaluated once.
+
+An augmented assignment expression like ``x += 1`` can be rewritten as ``x = x +
+1`` to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect. In the augmented
+version, ``x`` is only evaluated once. Also, when possible, the actual operation
+is performed *in-place*, meaning that rather than creating a new object and
+assigning that to the target, the old object is modified instead.
+
+Unlike normal assignments, augmented assignments evaluate the left-hand side
+*before* evaluating the right-hand side.  For example, ``a[i] += f(x)`` first
+looks-up ``a[i]``, then it evaluates ``f(x)`` and performs the addition, and
+lastly, it writes the result back to ``a[i]``.
+
+With the exception of assigning to tuples and multiple targets in a single
+statement, the assignment done by augmented assignment statements is handled the
+same way as normal assignments. Similarly, with the exception of the possible
+*in-place* behavior, the binary operation performed by augmented assignment is
+the same as the normal binary operations.
+
+For targets which are attribute references, the same :ref:`caveat about class
+and instance attributes <attr-target-note>` applies as for regular assignments.
+
+
+.. _annassign:
+
+Annotated assignment statements
+-------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: annotated; assignment
+   single: statement; assignment, annotated
+   single: : (colon); annotated variable
+
+:term:`Annotation <variable annotation>` assignment is the combination, in a single
+statement, of a variable or attribute annotation and an optional assignment statement:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   annotated_assignment_stmt: `augtarget` ":" `expression` ["=" `expression`]
+
+The difference from normal :ref:`assignment` is that only single target and
+only single right hand side value is allowed.
+
+For simple names as assignment targets, if in class or module scope,
+the annotations are evaluated and stored in a special class or module
+attribute :attr:`__annotations__`
+that is a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to
+evaluated annotations. This attribute is writable and is automatically
+created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations
+are found statically.
+
+For expressions as assignment targets, the annotations are evaluated if
+in class or module scope, but not stored.
+
+If a name is annotated in a function scope, then this name is local for
+that scope. Annotations are never evaluated and stored in function scopes.
+
+If the right hand side is present, an annotated
+assignment performs the actual assignment before evaluating annotations
+(where applicable). If the right hand side is not present for an expression
+target, then the interpreter evaluates the target except for the last
+:meth:`__setitem__` or :meth:`__setattr__` call.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`526` - Syntax for Variable Annotations
+      The proposal that added syntax for annotating the types of variables
+      (including class variables and instance variables), instead of expressing
+      them through comments.
+
+   :pep:`484` - Type hints
+      The proposal that added the :mod:`typing` module to provide a standard
+      syntax for type annotations that can be used in static analysis tools and
+      IDEs.
+
+
+.. _assert:
+
+The :keyword:`!assert` statement
+================================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: assert
+   pair: debugging; assertions
+   single: , (comma); expression list
+
+Assert statements are a convenient way to insert debugging assertions into a
+program:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   assert_stmt: "assert" `expression` ["," `expression`]
+
+The simple form, ``assert expression``, is equivalent to ::
+
+   if __debug__:
+       if not expression: raise AssertionError
+
+The extended form, ``assert expression1, expression2``, is equivalent to ::
+
+   if __debug__:
+       if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)
+
+.. index::
+   single: __debug__
+   exception: AssertionError
+
+These equivalences assume that :const:`__debug__` and :exc:`AssertionError` refer to
+the built-in variables with those names.  In the current implementation, the
+built-in variable :const:`__debug__` is ``True`` under normal circumstances,
+``False`` when optimization is requested (command line option :option:`-O`).  The current
+code generator emits no code for an assert statement when optimization is
+requested at compile time.  Note that it is unnecessary to include the source
+code for the expression that failed in the error message; it will be displayed
+as part of the stack trace.
+
+Assignments to :const:`__debug__` are illegal.  The value for the built-in variable
+is determined when the interpreter starts.
+
+
+.. _pass:
+
+The :keyword:`!pass` statement
+==============================
+
+.. index::
+   statement: pass
+   pair: null; operation
+           pair: null; operation
+
+.. productionlist::
+   pass_stmt: "pass"
+
+:keyword:`pass` is a null operation --- when it is executed, nothing happens.
+It is useful as a placeholder when a statement is required syntactically, but no
+code needs to be executed, for example::
+
+   def f(arg): pass    # a function that does nothing (yet)
+
+   class C: pass       # a class with no methods (yet)
+
+
+.. _del:
+
+The :keyword:`!del` statement
+=============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: del
+   pair: deletion; target
+   triple: deletion; target; list
+
+.. productionlist::
+   del_stmt: "del" `target_list`
+
+Deletion is recursively defined very similar to the way assignment is defined.
+Rather than spelling it out in full details, here are some hints.
+
+Deletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left to right.
+
+.. index::
+   statement: global
+   pair: unbinding; name
+
+Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or global
+namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a :keyword:`global` statement
+in the same code block.  If the name is unbound, a :exc:`NameError` exception
+will be raised.
+
+.. index:: pair: attribute; deletion
+
+Deletion of attribute references, subscriptions and slicings is passed to the
+primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general equivalent to
+assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even this is determined by
+the sliced object).
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.2
+   Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it
+   occurs as a free variable in a nested block.
+
+
+.. _return:
+
+The :keyword:`!return` statement
+================================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: return
+   pair: function; definition
+   pair: class; definition
+
+.. productionlist::
+   return_stmt: "return" [`expression_list`]
+
+:keyword:`return` may only occur syntactically nested in a function definition,
+not within a nested class definition.
+
+If an expression list is present, it is evaluated, else ``None`` is substituted.
+
+:keyword:`return` leaves the current function call with the expression list (or
+``None``) as return value.
+
+.. index:: keyword: finally
+
+When :keyword:`return` passes control out of a :keyword:`try` statement with a
+:keyword:`finally` clause, that :keyword:`!finally` clause is executed before
+really leaving the function.
+
+In a generator function, the :keyword:`return` statement indicates that the
+generator is done and will cause :exc:`StopIteration` to be raised. The returned
+value (if any) is used as an argument to construct :exc:`StopIteration` and
+becomes the :attr:`StopIteration.value` attribute.
+
+In an asynchronous generator function, an empty :keyword:`return` statement
+indicates that the asynchronous generator is done and will cause
+:exc:`StopAsyncIteration` to be raised.  A non-empty :keyword:`!return`
+statement is a syntax error in an asynchronous generator function.
+
+.. _yield:
+
+The :keyword:`!yield` statement
+===============================
+
+.. index::
+   statement: yield
+   single: generator; function
+   single: generator; iterator
+   single: function; generator
+   exception: StopIteration
+
+.. productionlist::
+   yield_stmt: `yield_expression`
+
+A :keyword:`yield` statement is semantically equivalent to a :ref:`yield
+expression <yieldexpr>`. The yield statement can be used to omit the parentheses
+that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield expression
+statement. For example, the yield statements ::
+
+  yield <expr>
+  yield from <expr>
+
+are equivalent to the yield expression statements ::
+
+  (yield <expr>)
+  (yield from <expr>)
+
+Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a :term:`generator`
+function, and are only used in the body of the generator function.  Using yield
+in a function definition is sufficient to cause that definition to create a
+generator function instead of a normal function.
+
+For full details of :keyword:`yield` semantics, refer to the
+:ref:`yieldexpr` section.
+
+.. _raise:
+
+The :keyword:`!raise` statement
+===============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: raise
+   single: exception
+   pair: raising; exception
+   single: __traceback__ (exception attribute)
+
+.. productionlist::
+   raise_stmt: "raise" [`expression` ["from" `expression`]]
+
+If no expressions are present, :keyword:`raise` re-raises the last exception
+that was active in the current scope.  If no exception is active in the current
+scope, a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception is raised indicating that this is an
+error.
+
+Otherwise, :keyword:`raise` evaluates the first expression as the exception
+object.  It must be either a subclass or an instance of :class:`BaseException`.
+If it is a class, the exception instance will be obtained when needed by
+instantiating the class with no arguments.
+
+The :dfn:`type` of the exception is the exception instance's class, the
+:dfn:`value` is the instance itself.
+
+.. index:: object: traceback
+
+A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception is raised
+and attached to it as the :attr:`__traceback__` attribute, which is writable.
+You can create an exception and set your own traceback in one step using the
+:meth:`with_traceback` exception method (which returns the same exception
+instance, with its traceback set to its argument), like so::
+
+   raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)
+
+.. index:: pair: exception; chaining
+           __cause__ (exception attribute)
+           __context__ (exception attribute)
+
+The ``from`` clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second
+*expression* must be another exception class or instance, which will then be
+attached to the raised exception as the :attr:`__cause__` attribute (which is
+writable).  If the raised exception is not handled, both exceptions will be
+printed::
+
+   >>> try:
+   ...     print(1 / 0)
+   ... except Exception as exc:
+   ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
+   ...
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
+   ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
+
+   The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
+
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
+   RuntimeError: Something bad happened
+
+A similar mechanism works implicitly if an exception is raised inside an
+exception handler or a :keyword:`finally` clause: the previous exception is then
+attached as the new exception's :attr:`__context__` attribute::
+
+   >>> try:
+   ...     print(1 / 0)
+   ... except:
+   ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
+   ...
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
+   ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
+
+   During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
+
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
+   RuntimeError: Something bad happened
+
+Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying :const:`None` in
+the ``from`` clause::
+
+   >>> try:
+   ...     print(1 / 0)
+   ... except:
+   ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
+   ...
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
+   RuntimeError: Something bad happened
+
+Additional information on exceptions can be found in section :ref:`exceptions`,
+and information about handling exceptions is in section :ref:`try`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.3
+    :const:`None` is now permitted as ``Y`` in ``raise X from Y``.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+    The ``__suppress_context__`` attribute to suppress automatic display of the
+    exception context.
+
+.. _break:
+
+The :keyword:`!break` statement
+===============================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: break
+   statement: for
+   statement: while
+   pair: loop; statement
+
+.. productionlist::
+   break_stmt: "break"
+
+:keyword:`break` may only occur syntactically nested in a :keyword:`for` or
+:keyword:`while` loop, but not nested in a function or class definition within
+that loop.
+
+.. index:: keyword: else
+           pair: loop control; target
+
+It terminates the nearest enclosing loop, skipping the optional :keyword:`!else`
+clause if the loop has one.
+
+If a :keyword:`for` loop is terminated by :keyword:`break`, the loop control
+target keeps its current value.
+
+.. index:: keyword: finally
+
+When :keyword:`break` passes control out of a :keyword:`try` statement with a
+:keyword:`finally` clause, that :keyword:`!finally` clause is executed before
+really leaving the loop.
+
+
+.. _continue:
+
+The :keyword:`!continue` statement
+==================================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: continue
+   statement: for
+   statement: while
+   pair: loop; statement
+   keyword: finally
+
+.. productionlist::
+   continue_stmt: "continue"
+
+:keyword:`continue` may only occur syntactically nested in a :keyword:`for` or
+:keyword:`while` loop, but not nested in a function or class definition or
+:keyword:`finally` clause within that loop.  It continues with the next
+cycle of the nearest enclosing loop.
+
+When :keyword:`continue` passes control out of a :keyword:`try` statement with a
+:keyword:`finally` clause, that :keyword:`!finally` clause is executed before
+really starting the next loop cycle.
+
+
+.. _import:
+.. _from:
+
+The :keyword:`!import` statement
+================================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: import
+   single: module; importing
+   pair: name; binding
+   keyword: from
+   keyword: as
+   exception: ImportError
+   single: , (comma); import statement
+
+.. productionlist::
+   import_stmt: "import" `module` ["as" `identifier`] ("," `module` ["as" `identifier`])*
+              : | "from" `relative_module` "import" `identifier` ["as" `identifier`]
+              : ("," `identifier` ["as" `identifier`])*
+              : | "from" `relative_module` "import" "(" `identifier` ["as" `identifier`]
+              : ("," `identifier` ["as" `identifier`])* [","] ")"
+              : | "from" `module` "import" "*"
+   module: (`identifier` ".")* `identifier`
+   relative_module: "."* `module` | "."+
+
+The basic import statement (no :keyword:`from` clause) is executed in two
+steps:
+
+#. find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary
+#. define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where
+   the :keyword:`import` statement occurs.
+
+When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by
+commas) the two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just
+as though the clauses had been separated out into individual import
+statements.
+
+The details of the first step, finding and loading modules are described in
+greater detail in the section on the :ref:`import system <importsystem>`,
+which also describes the various types of packages and modules that can
+be imported, as well as all the hooks that can be used to customize
+the import system. Note that failures in this step may indicate either
+that the module could not be located, *or* that an error occurred while
+initializing the module, which includes execution of the module's code.
+
+If the requested module is retrieved successfully, it will be made
+available in the local namespace in one of three ways:
+
+.. index:: single: as; import statement
+
+* If the module name is followed by :keyword:`!as`, then the name
+  following :keyword:`!as` is bound directly to the imported module.
+* If no other name is specified, and the module being imported is a top
+  level module, the module's name is bound in the local namespace as a
+  reference to the imported module
+* If the module being imported is *not* a top level module, then the name
+  of the top level package that contains the module is bound in the local
+  namespace as a reference to the top level package. The imported module
+  must be accessed using its full qualified name rather than directly
+
+
+.. index::
+   pair: name; binding
+   single: from; import statement
+
+The :keyword:`from` form uses a slightly more complex process:
+
+#. find the module specified in the :keyword:`from` clause, loading and
+   initializing it if necessary;
+#. for each of the identifiers specified in the :keyword:`import` clauses:
+
+   #. check if the imported module has an attribute by that name
+   #. if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then
+      check the imported module again for that attribute
+   #. if the attribute is not found, :exc:`ImportError` is raised.
+   #. otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the local namespace,
+      using the name in the :keyword:`!as` clause if it is present,
+      otherwise using the attribute name
+
+Examples::
+
+   import foo                 # foo imported and bound locally
+   import foo.bar.baz         # foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
+   import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo.bar.baz imported and bound as fbb
+   from foo.bar import baz    # foo.bar.baz imported and bound as baz
+   from foo import attr       # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr
+
+.. index:: single: * (asterisk); import statement
+
+If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star (``'*'``), all public
+names defined in the module are bound in the local namespace for the scope
+where the :keyword:`import` statement occurs.
+
+.. index:: single: __all__ (optional module attribute)
+
+The *public names* defined by a module are determined by checking the module's
+namespace for a variable named ``__all__``; if defined, it must be a sequence
+of strings which are names defined or imported by that module.  The names
+given in ``__all__`` are all considered public and are required to exist.  If
+``__all__`` is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found
+in the module's namespace which do not begin with an underscore character
+(``'_'``).  ``__all__`` should contain the entire public API. It is intended
+to avoid accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as
+library modules which were imported and used within the module).
+
+The wild card form of import --- ``from module import *`` --- is only allowed at
+the module level.  Attempting to use it in class or function definitions will
+raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+
+.. index::
+    single: relative; import
+
+When specifying what module to import you do not have to specify the absolute
+name of the module. When a module or package is contained within another
+package it is possible to make a relative import within the same top package
+without having to mention the package name. By using leading dots in the
+specified module or package after :keyword:`from` you can specify how high to
+traverse up the current package hierarchy without specifying exact names. One
+leading dot means the current package where the module making the import
+exists. Two dots means up one package level. Three dots is up two levels, etc.
+So if you execute ``from . import mod`` from a module in the ``pkg`` package
+then you will end up importing ``pkg.mod``. If you execute ``from ..subpkg2
+import mod`` from within ``pkg.subpkg1`` you will import ``pkg.subpkg2.mod``.
+The specification for relative imports is contained in
+the :ref:`relativeimports` section.
+
+:func:`importlib.import_module` is provided to support applications that
+determine dynamically the modules to be loaded.
+
+
+.. _future:
+
+Future statements
+-----------------
+
+.. index::
+   pair: future; statement
+   single: __future__; future statement
+
+A :dfn:`future statement` is a directive to the compiler that a particular
+module should be compiled using syntax or semantics that will be available in a
+specified future release of Python where the feature becomes standard.
+
+The future statement is intended to ease migration to future versions of Python
+that introduce incompatible changes to the language.  It allows use of the new
+features on a per-module basis before the release in which the feature becomes
+standard.
+
+.. productionlist:: *
+   future_stmt: "from" "__future__" "import" `feature` ["as" `identifier`]
+              : ("," `feature` ["as" `identifier`])*
+              : | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" `feature` ["as" `identifier`]
+              : ("," `feature` ["as" `identifier`])* [","] ")"
+   feature: `identifier`
+
+A future statement must appear near the top of the module.  The only lines that
+can appear before a future statement are:
+
+* the module docstring (if any),
+* comments,
+* blank lines, and
+* other future statements.
+
+The only feature in Python 3.7 that requires using the future statement is
+``annotations``.
+
+All historical features enabled by the future statement are still recognized
+by Python 3.  The list includes ``absolute_import``, ``division``,
+``generators``, ``generator_stop``, ``unicode_literals``,
+``print_function``, ``nested_scopes`` and ``with_statement``.  They are
+all redundant because they are always enabled, and only kept for
+backwards compatibility.
+
+A future statement is recognized and treated specially at compile time: Changes
+to the semantics of core constructs are often implemented by generating
+different code.  It may even be the case that a new feature introduces new
+incompatible syntax (such as a new reserved word), in which case the compiler
+may need to parse the module differently.  Such decisions cannot be pushed off
+until runtime.
+
+For any given release, the compiler knows which feature names have been defined,
+and raises a compile-time error if a future statement contains a feature not
+known to it.
+
+The direct runtime semantics are the same as for any import statement: there is
+a standard module :mod:`__future__`, described later, and it will be imported in
+the usual way at the time the future statement is executed.
+
+The interesting runtime semantics depend on the specific feature enabled by the
+future statement.
+
+Note that there is nothing special about the statement::
+
+   import __future__ [as name]
+
+That is not a future statement; it's an ordinary import statement with no
+special semantics or syntax restrictions.
+
+Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions :func:`exec` and :func:`compile`
+that occur in a module :mod:`M` containing a future statement will, by default,
+use the new syntax or semantics associated with the future statement.  This can
+be controlled by optional arguments to :func:`compile` --- see the documentation
+of that function for details.
+
+A future statement typed at an interactive interpreter prompt will take effect
+for the rest of the interpreter session.  If an interpreter is started with the
+:option:`-i` option, is passed a script name to execute, and the script includes
+a future statement, it will be in effect in the interactive session started
+after the script is executed.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`236` - Back to the __future__
+      The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.
+
+
+.. _global:
+
+The :keyword:`!global` statement
+================================
+
+.. index::
+   ! statement: global
+   triple: global; name; binding
+   single: , (comma); identifier list
+
+.. productionlist::
+   global_stmt: "global" `identifier` ("," `identifier`)*
+
+The :keyword:`global` statement is a declaration which holds for the entire
+current code block.  It means that the listed identifiers are to be interpreted
+as globals.  It would be impossible to assign to a global variable without
+:keyword:`!global`, although free variables may refer to globals without being
+declared global.
+
+Names listed in a :keyword:`global` statement must not be used in the same code
+block textually preceding that :keyword:`!global` statement.
+
+Names listed in a :keyword:`global` statement must not be defined as formal
+parameters or in a :keyword:`for` loop control target, :keyword:`class`
+definition, function definition, :keyword:`import` statement, or variable
+annotation.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   The current implementation does not enforce some of these restrictions, but
+   programs should not abuse this freedom, as future implementations may enforce
+   them or silently change the meaning of the program.
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: exec
+   builtin: eval
+   builtin: compile
+
+**Programmer's note:** :keyword:`global` is a directive to the parser.  It
+applies only to code parsed at the same time as the :keyword:`!global` statement.
+In particular, a :keyword:`!global` statement contained in a string or code
+object supplied to the built-in :func:`exec` function does not affect the code
+block *containing* the function call, and code contained in such a string is
+unaffected by :keyword:`!global` statements in the code containing the function
+call.  The same applies to the :func:`eval` and :func:`compile` functions.
+
+
+.. _nonlocal:
+
+The :keyword:`!nonlocal` statement
+==================================
+
+.. index:: statement: nonlocal
+   single: , (comma); identifier list
+
+.. productionlist::
+   nonlocal_stmt: "nonlocal" `identifier` ("," `identifier`)*
+
+.. XXX add when implemented
+                : ["=" (`target_list` "=")+ starred_expression]
+                : | "nonlocal" identifier augop expression_list
+
+The :keyword:`nonlocal` statement causes the listed identifiers to refer to
+previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing scope excluding globals.
+This is important because the default behavior for binding is to search the
+local namespace first.  The statement allows encapsulated code to rebind
+variables outside of the local scope besides the global (module) scope.
+
+.. XXX not implemented
+   The :keyword:`nonlocal` statement may prepend an assignment or augmented
+   assignment, but not an expression.
+
+Names listed in a :keyword:`nonlocal` statement, unlike those listed in a
+:keyword:`global` statement, must refer to pre-existing bindings in an
+enclosing scope (the scope in which a new binding should be created cannot
+be determined unambiguously).
+
+Names listed in a :keyword:`nonlocal` statement must not collide with
+pre-existing bindings in the local scope.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3104` - Access to Names in Outer Scopes
+      The specification for the :keyword:`nonlocal` statement.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/toplevel_components.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/toplevel_components.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5ffb37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/reference/toplevel_components.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
+
+.. _top-level:
+
+********************
+Top-level components
+********************
+
+.. index:: single: interpreter
+
+The Python interpreter can get its input from a number of sources: from a script
+passed to it as standard input or as program argument, typed in interactively,
+from a module source file, etc.  This chapter gives the syntax used in these
+cases.
+
+
+.. _programs:
+
+Complete Python programs
+========================
+
+.. index:: single: program
+
+.. index::
+   module: sys
+   module: __main__
+   module: builtins
+
+While a language specification need not prescribe how the language interpreter
+is invoked, it is useful to have a notion of a complete Python program.  A
+complete Python program is executed in a minimally initialized environment: all
+built-in and standard modules are available, but none have been initialized,
+except for :mod:`sys` (various system services), :mod:`builtins` (built-in
+functions, exceptions and ``None``) and :mod:`__main__`.  The latter is used to
+provide the local and global namespace for execution of the complete program.
+
+The syntax for a complete Python program is that for file input, described in
+the next section.
+
+.. index::
+   single: interactive mode
+   module: __main__
+
+The interpreter may also be invoked in interactive mode; in this case, it does
+not read and execute a complete program but reads and executes one statement
+(possibly compound) at a time.  The initial environment is identical to that of
+a complete program; each statement is executed in the namespace of
+:mod:`__main__`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: UNIX
+   single: Windows
+   single: command line
+   single: standard input
+
+A complete program can be passed to the interpreter
+in three forms: with the :option:`-c` *string* command line option, as a file
+passed as the first command line argument, or as standard input.  If the file
+or standard input is a tty device, the interpreter enters interactive mode;
+otherwise, it executes the file as a complete program.
+
+
+.. _file-input:
+
+File input
+==========
+
+All input read from non-interactive files has the same form:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   file_input: (NEWLINE | `statement`)*
+
+This syntax is used in the following situations:
+
+* when parsing a complete Python program (from a file or from a string);
+
+* when parsing a module;
+
+* when parsing a string passed to the :func:`exec` function;
+
+
+.. _interactive:
+
+Interactive input
+=================
+
+Input in interactive mode is parsed using the following grammar:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   interactive_input: [`stmt_list`] NEWLINE | `compound_stmt` NEWLINE
+
+Note that a (top-level) compound statement must be followed by a blank line in
+interactive mode; this is needed to help the parser detect the end of the input.
+
+
+.. _expression-input:
+
+Expression input
+================
+
+.. index:: single: input
+.. index:: builtin: eval
+
+:func:`eval` is used for expression input.  It ignores leading whitespace. The
+string argument to :func:`eval` must have the following form:
+
+.. productionlist::
+   eval_input: `expression_list` NEWLINE*
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/appendix.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/appendix.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..241a812
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/appendix.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,124 @@
+.. _tut-appendix:
+
+********
+Appendix
+********
+
+
+.. _tut-interac:
+
+Interactive Mode
+================
+
+.. _tut-error:
+
+Error Handling
+--------------
+
+When an error occurs, the interpreter prints an error message and a stack trace.
+In interactive mode, it then returns to the primary prompt; when input came from
+a file, it exits with a nonzero exit status after printing the stack trace.
+(Exceptions handled by an :keyword:`except` clause in a :keyword:`try` statement
+are not errors in this context.)  Some errors are unconditionally fatal and
+cause an exit with a nonzero exit; this applies to internal inconsistencies and
+some cases of running out of memory.  All error messages are written to the
+standard error stream; normal output from executed commands is written to
+standard output.
+
+Typing the interrupt character (usually :kbd:`Control-C` or :kbd:`Delete`) to the primary or
+secondary prompt cancels the input and returns to the primary prompt. [#]_
+Typing an interrupt while a command is executing raises the
+:exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception, which may be handled by a :keyword:`try`
+statement.
+
+
+.. _tut-scripts:
+
+Executable Python Scripts
+-------------------------
+
+On BSD'ish Unix systems, Python scripts can be made directly executable, like
+shell scripts, by putting the line ::
+
+   #!/usr/bin/env python3.5
+
+(assuming that the interpreter is on the user's :envvar:`PATH`) at the beginning
+of the script and giving the file an executable mode.  The ``#!`` must be the
+first two characters of the file.  On some platforms, this first line must end
+with a Unix-style line ending (``'\n'``), not a Windows (``'\r\n'``) line
+ending.  Note that the hash, or pound, character, ``'#'``, is used to start a
+comment in Python.
+
+The script can be given an executable mode, or permission, using the
+:program:`chmod` command.
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ chmod +x myscript.py
+
+On Windows systems, there is no notion of an "executable mode".  The Python
+installer automatically associates ``.py`` files with ``python.exe`` so that
+a double-click on a Python file will run it as a script.  The extension can
+also be ``.pyw``, in that case, the console window that normally appears is
+suppressed.
+
+
+.. _tut-startup:
+
+The Interactive Startup File
+----------------------------
+
+When you use Python interactively, it is frequently handy to have some standard
+commands executed every time the interpreter is started.  You can do this by
+setting an environment variable named :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` to the name of a
+file containing your start-up commands.  This is similar to the :file:`.profile`
+feature of the Unix shells.
+
+This file is only read in interactive sessions, not when Python reads commands
+from a script, and not when :file:`/dev/tty` is given as the explicit source of
+commands (which otherwise behaves like an interactive session).  It is executed
+in the same namespace where interactive commands are executed, so that objects
+that it defines or imports can be used without qualification in the interactive
+session. You can also change the prompts ``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2`` in this
+file.
+
+If you want to read an additional start-up file from the current directory, you
+can program this in the global start-up file using code like ``if
+os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'): exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read())``.
+If you want to use the startup file in a script, you must do this explicitly
+in the script::
+
+   import os
+   filename = os.environ.get('PYTHONSTARTUP')
+   if filename and os.path.isfile(filename):
+       with open(filename) as fobj:
+           startup_file = fobj.read()
+       exec(startup_file)
+
+
+.. _tut-customize:
+
+The Customization Modules
+-------------------------
+
+Python provides two hooks to let you customize it: :mod:`sitecustomize` and
+:mod:`usercustomize`.  To see how it works, you need first to find the location
+of your user site-packages directory.  Start Python and run this code::
+
+   >>> import site
+   >>> site.getusersitepackages()
+   '/home/user/.local/lib/python3.5/site-packages'
+
+Now you can create a file named :file:`usercustomize.py` in that directory and
+put anything you want in it.  It will affect every invocation of Python, unless
+it is started with the :option:`-s` option to disable the automatic import.
+
+:mod:`sitecustomize` works in the same way, but is typically created by an
+administrator of the computer in the global site-packages directory, and is
+imported before :mod:`usercustomize`.  See the documentation of the :mod:`site`
+module for more details.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] A problem with the GNU Readline package may prevent this.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/appetite.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/appetite.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/appetite.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+.. _tut-intro:
+
+**********************
+Whetting Your Appetite
+**********************
+
+If you do much work on computers, eventually you find that there's some task
+you'd like to automate.  For example, you may wish to perform a
+search-and-replace over a large number of text files, or rename and rearrange a
+bunch of photo files in a complicated way. Perhaps you'd like to write a small
+custom database, or a specialized GUI application, or a simple game.
+
+If you're a professional software developer, you may have to work with several
+C/C++/Java libraries but find the usual write/compile/test/re-compile cycle is
+too slow.  Perhaps you're writing a test suite for such a library and find
+writing the testing code a tedious task.  Or maybe you've written a program that
+could use an extension language, and you don't want to design and implement a
+whole new language for your application.
+
+Python is just the language for you.
+
+You could write a Unix shell script or Windows batch files for some of these
+tasks, but shell scripts are best at moving around files and changing text data,
+not well-suited for GUI applications or games. You could write a C/C++/Java
+program, but it can take a lot of development time to get even a first-draft
+program.  Python is simpler to use, available on Windows, Mac OS X, and Unix
+operating systems, and will help you get the job done more quickly.
+
+Python is simple to use, but it is a real programming language, offering much
+more structure and support for large programs than shell scripts or batch files
+can offer.  On the other hand, Python also offers much more error checking than
+C, and, being a *very-high-level language*, it has high-level data types built
+in, such as flexible arrays and dictionaries.  Because of its more general data
+types Python is applicable to a much larger problem domain than Awk or even
+Perl, yet many things are at least as easy in Python as in those languages.
+
+Python allows you to split your program into modules that can be reused in other
+Python programs.  It comes with a large collection of standard modules that you
+can use as the basis of your programs --- or as examples to start learning to
+program in Python.  Some of these modules provide things like file I/O, system
+calls, sockets, and even interfaces to graphical user interface toolkits like
+Tk.
+
+Python is an interpreted language, which can save you considerable time during
+program development because no compilation and linking is necessary.  The
+interpreter can be used interactively, which makes it easy to experiment with
+features of the language, to write throw-away programs, or to test functions
+during bottom-up program development. It is also a handy desk calculator.
+
+Python enables programs to be written compactly and readably.  Programs written
+in Python are typically much shorter than equivalent C,  C++, or Java programs,
+for several reasons:
+
+* the high-level data types allow you to express complex operations in a single
+  statement;
+
+* statement grouping is done by indentation instead of beginning and ending
+  brackets;
+
+* no variable or argument declarations are necessary.
+
+Python is *extensible*: if you know how to program in C it is easy to add a new
+built-in function or module to the interpreter, either to perform critical
+operations at maximum speed, or to link Python programs to libraries that may
+only be available in binary form (such as a vendor-specific graphics library).
+Once you are really hooked, you can link the Python interpreter into an
+application written in C and use it as an extension or command language for that
+application.
+
+By the way, the language is named after the BBC show "Monty Python's Flying
+Circus" and has nothing to do with reptiles.  Making references to Monty
+Python skits in documentation is not only allowed, it is encouraged!
+
+Now that you are all excited about Python, you'll want to examine it in some
+more detail.  Since the best way to learn a language is to use it, the tutorial
+invites you to play with the Python interpreter as you read.
+
+In the next chapter, the mechanics of using the interpreter are explained.  This
+is rather mundane information, but essential for trying out the examples shown
+later.
+
+The rest of the tutorial introduces various features of the Python language and
+system through examples, beginning with simple expressions, statements and data
+types, through functions and modules, and finally touching upon advanced
+concepts like exceptions and user-defined classes.
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/classes.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/classes.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2538c31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/classes.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,922 @@
+.. _tut-classes:
+
+*******
+Classes
+*******
+
+Classes provide a means of bundling data and functionality together.  Creating
+a new class creates a new *type* of object, allowing new *instances* of that
+type to be made.  Each class instance can have attributes attached to it for
+maintaining its state.  Class instances can also have methods (defined by its
+class) for modifying its state.
+
+Compared with other programming languages, Python's class mechanism adds classes
+with a minimum of new syntax and semantics.  It is a mixture of the class
+mechanisms found in C++ and Modula-3.  Python classes provide all the standard
+features of Object Oriented Programming: the class inheritance mechanism allows
+multiple base classes, a derived class can override any methods of its base
+class or classes, and a method can call the method of a base class with the same
+name.  Objects can contain arbitrary amounts and kinds of data.  As is true for
+modules, classes partake of the dynamic nature of Python: they are created at
+runtime, and can be modified further after creation.
+
+In C++ terminology, normally class members (including the data members) are
+*public* (except see below :ref:`tut-private`), and all member functions are
+*virtual*.  As in Modula-3, there are no shorthands for referencing the object's
+members from its methods: the method function is declared with an explicit first
+argument representing the object, which is provided implicitly by the call.  As
+in Smalltalk, classes themselves are objects.  This provides semantics for
+importing and renaming.  Unlike C++ and Modula-3, built-in types can be used as
+base classes for extension by the user.  Also, like in C++, most built-in
+operators with special syntax (arithmetic operators, subscripting etc.) can be
+redefined for class instances.
+
+(Lacking universally accepted terminology to talk about classes, I will make
+occasional use of Smalltalk and C++ terms.  I would use Modula-3 terms, since
+its object-oriented semantics are closer to those of Python than C++, but I
+expect that few readers have heard of it.)
+
+
+.. _tut-object:
+
+A Word About Names and Objects
+==============================
+
+Objects have individuality, and multiple names (in multiple scopes) can be bound
+to the same object.  This is known as aliasing in other languages.  This is
+usually not appreciated on a first glance at Python, and can be safely ignored
+when dealing with immutable basic types (numbers, strings, tuples).  However,
+aliasing has a possibly surprising effect on the semantics of Python code
+involving mutable objects such as lists, dictionaries, and most other types.
+This is usually used to the benefit of the program, since aliases behave like
+pointers in some respects.  For example, passing an object is cheap since only a
+pointer is passed by the implementation; and if a function modifies an object
+passed as an argument, the caller will see the change --- this eliminates the
+need for two different argument passing mechanisms as in Pascal.
+
+
+.. _tut-scopes:
+
+Python Scopes and Namespaces
+============================
+
+Before introducing classes, I first have to tell you something about Python's
+scope rules.  Class definitions play some neat tricks with namespaces, and you
+need to know how scopes and namespaces work to fully understand what's going on.
+Incidentally, knowledge about this subject is useful for any advanced Python
+programmer.
+
+Let's begin with some definitions.
+
+A *namespace* is a mapping from names to objects.  Most namespaces are currently
+implemented as Python dictionaries, but that's normally not noticeable in any
+way (except for performance), and it may change in the future.  Examples of
+namespaces are: the set of built-in names (containing functions such as :func:`abs`, and
+built-in exception names); the global names in a module; and the local names in
+a function invocation.  In a sense the set of attributes of an object also form
+a namespace.  The important thing to know about namespaces is that there is
+absolutely no relation between names in different namespaces; for instance, two
+different modules may both define a function ``maximize`` without confusion ---
+users of the modules must prefix it with the module name.
+
+By the way, I use the word *attribute* for any name following a dot --- for
+example, in the expression ``z.real``, ``real`` is an attribute of the object
+``z``.  Strictly speaking, references to names in modules are attribute
+references: in the expression ``modname.funcname``, ``modname`` is a module
+object and ``funcname`` is an attribute of it.  In this case there happens to be
+a straightforward mapping between the module's attributes and the global names
+defined in the module: they share the same namespace!  [#]_
+
+Attributes may be read-only or writable.  In the latter case, assignment to
+attributes is possible.  Module attributes are writable: you can write
+``modname.the_answer = 42``.  Writable attributes may also be deleted with the
+:keyword:`del` statement.  For example, ``del modname.the_answer`` will remove
+the attribute :attr:`the_answer` from the object named by ``modname``.
+
+Namespaces are created at different moments and have different lifetimes.  The
+namespace containing the built-in names is created when the Python interpreter
+starts up, and is never deleted.  The global namespace for a module is created
+when the module definition is read in; normally, module namespaces also last
+until the interpreter quits.  The statements executed by the top-level
+invocation of the interpreter, either read from a script file or interactively,
+are considered part of a module called :mod:`__main__`, so they have their own
+global namespace.  (The built-in names actually also live in a module; this is
+called :mod:`builtins`.)
+
+The local namespace for a function is created when the function is called, and
+deleted when the function returns or raises an exception that is not handled
+within the function.  (Actually, forgetting would be a better way to describe
+what actually happens.)  Of course, recursive invocations each have their own
+local namespace.
+
+A *scope* is a textual region of a Python program where a namespace is directly
+accessible.  "Directly accessible" here means that an unqualified reference to a
+name attempts to find the name in the namespace.
+
+Although scopes are determined statically, they are used dynamically. At any
+time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces
+are directly accessible:
+
+* the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains the local names
+* the scopes of any enclosing functions, which are searched starting with the
+  nearest enclosing scope, contains non-local, but also non-global names
+* the next-to-last scope contains the current module's global names
+* the outermost scope (searched last) is the namespace containing built-in names
+
+If a name is declared global, then all references and assignments go directly to
+the middle scope containing the module's global names.  To rebind variables
+found outside of the innermost scope, the :keyword:`nonlocal` statement can be
+used; if not declared nonlocal, those variables are read-only (an attempt to
+write to such a variable will simply create a *new* local variable in the
+innermost scope, leaving the identically named outer variable unchanged).
+
+Usually, the local scope references the local names of the (textually) current
+function.  Outside functions, the local scope references the same namespace as
+the global scope: the module's namespace. Class definitions place yet another
+namespace in the local scope.
+
+It is important to realize that scopes are determined textually: the global
+scope of a function defined in a module is that module's namespace, no matter
+from where or by what alias the function is called.  On the other hand, the
+actual search for names is done dynamically, at run time --- however, the
+language definition is evolving towards static name resolution, at "compile"
+time, so don't rely on dynamic name resolution!  (In fact, local variables are
+already determined statically.)
+
+A special quirk of Python is that -- if no :keyword:`global` statement is in
+effect -- assignments to names always go into the innermost scope.  Assignments
+do not copy data --- they just bind names to objects.  The same is true for
+deletions: the statement ``del x`` removes the binding of ``x`` from the
+namespace referenced by the local scope.  In fact, all operations that introduce
+new names use the local scope: in particular, :keyword:`import` statements and
+function definitions bind the module or function name in the local scope.
+
+The :keyword:`global` statement can be used to indicate that particular
+variables live in the global scope and should be rebound there; the
+:keyword:`nonlocal` statement indicates that particular variables live in
+an enclosing scope and should be rebound there.
+
+.. _tut-scopeexample:
+
+Scopes and Namespaces Example
+-----------------------------
+
+This is an example demonstrating how to reference the different scopes and
+namespaces, and how :keyword:`global` and :keyword:`nonlocal` affect variable
+binding::
+
+   def scope_test():
+       def do_local():
+           spam = "local spam"
+
+       def do_nonlocal():
+           nonlocal spam
+           spam = "nonlocal spam"
+
+       def do_global():
+           global spam
+           spam = "global spam"
+
+       spam = "test spam"
+       do_local()
+       print("After local assignment:", spam)
+       do_nonlocal()
+       print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
+       do_global()
+       print("After global assignment:", spam)
+
+   scope_test()
+   print("In global scope:", spam)
+
+The output of the example code is:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   After local assignment: test spam
+   After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
+   After global assignment: nonlocal spam
+   In global scope: global spam
+
+Note how the *local* assignment (which is default) didn't change *scope_test*\'s
+binding of *spam*.  The :keyword:`nonlocal` assignment changed *scope_test*\'s
+binding of *spam*, and the :keyword:`global` assignment changed the module-level
+binding.
+
+You can also see that there was no previous binding for *spam* before the
+:keyword:`global` assignment.
+
+
+.. _tut-firstclasses:
+
+A First Look at Classes
+=======================
+
+Classes introduce a little bit of new syntax, three new object types, and some
+new semantics.
+
+
+.. _tut-classdefinition:
+
+Class Definition Syntax
+-----------------------
+
+The simplest form of class definition looks like this::
+
+   class ClassName:
+       <statement-1>
+       .
+       .
+       .
+       <statement-N>
+
+Class definitions, like function definitions (:keyword:`def` statements) must be
+executed before they have any effect.  (You could conceivably place a class
+definition in a branch of an :keyword:`if` statement, or inside a function.)
+
+In practice, the statements inside a class definition will usually be function
+definitions, but other statements are allowed, and sometimes useful --- we'll
+come back to this later.  The function definitions inside a class normally have
+a peculiar form of argument list, dictated by the calling conventions for
+methods --- again, this is explained later.
+
+When a class definition is entered, a new namespace is created, and used as the
+local scope --- thus, all assignments to local variables go into this new
+namespace.  In particular, function definitions bind the name of the new
+function here.
+
+When a class definition is left normally (via the end), a *class object* is
+created.  This is basically a wrapper around the contents of the namespace
+created by the class definition; we'll learn more about class objects in the
+next section.  The original local scope (the one in effect just before the class
+definition was entered) is reinstated, and the class object is bound here to the
+class name given in the class definition header (:class:`ClassName` in the
+example).
+
+
+.. _tut-classobjects:
+
+Class Objects
+-------------
+
+Class objects support two kinds of operations: attribute references and
+instantiation.
+
+*Attribute references* use the standard syntax used for all attribute references
+in Python: ``obj.name``.  Valid attribute names are all the names that were in
+the class's namespace when the class object was created.  So, if the class
+definition looked like this::
+
+   class MyClass:
+       """A simple example class"""
+       i = 12345
+
+       def f(self):
+           return 'hello world'
+
+then ``MyClass.i`` and ``MyClass.f`` are valid attribute references, returning
+an integer and a function object, respectively. Class attributes can also be
+assigned to, so you can change the value of ``MyClass.i`` by assignment.
+:attr:`__doc__` is also a valid attribute, returning the docstring belonging to
+the class: ``"A simple example class"``.
+
+Class *instantiation* uses function notation.  Just pretend that the class
+object is a parameterless function that returns a new instance of the class.
+For example (assuming the above class)::
+
+   x = MyClass()
+
+creates a new *instance* of the class and assigns this object to the local
+variable ``x``.
+
+The instantiation operation ("calling" a class object) creates an empty object.
+Many classes like to create objects with instances customized to a specific
+initial state. Therefore a class may define a special method named
+:meth:`__init__`, like this::
+
+   def __init__(self):
+       self.data = []
+
+When a class defines an :meth:`__init__` method, class instantiation
+automatically invokes :meth:`__init__` for the newly-created class instance.  So
+in this example, a new, initialized instance can be obtained by::
+
+   x = MyClass()
+
+Of course, the :meth:`__init__` method may have arguments for greater
+flexibility.  In that case, arguments given to the class instantiation operator
+are passed on to :meth:`__init__`.  For example, ::
+
+   >>> class Complex:
+   ...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
+   ...         self.r = realpart
+   ...         self.i = imagpart
+   ...
+   >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
+   >>> x.r, x.i
+   (3.0, -4.5)
+
+
+.. _tut-instanceobjects:
+
+Instance Objects
+----------------
+
+Now what can we do with instance objects?  The only operations understood by
+instance objects are attribute references.  There are two kinds of valid
+attribute names, data attributes and methods.
+
+*data attributes* correspond to "instance variables" in Smalltalk, and to "data
+members" in C++.  Data attributes need not be declared; like local variables,
+they spring into existence when they are first assigned to.  For example, if
+``x`` is the instance of :class:`MyClass` created above, the following piece of
+code will print the value ``16``, without leaving a trace::
+
+   x.counter = 1
+   while x.counter < 10:
+       x.counter = x.counter * 2
+   print(x.counter)
+   del x.counter
+
+The other kind of instance attribute reference is a *method*. A method is a
+function that "belongs to" an object.  (In Python, the term method is not unique
+to class instances: other object types can have methods as well.  For example,
+list objects have methods called append, insert, remove, sort, and so on.
+However, in the following discussion, we'll use the term method exclusively to
+mean methods of class instance objects, unless explicitly stated otherwise.)
+
+.. index:: object: method
+
+Valid method names of an instance object depend on its class.  By definition,
+all attributes of a class that are function  objects define corresponding
+methods of its instances.  So in our example, ``x.f`` is a valid method
+reference, since ``MyClass.f`` is a function, but ``x.i`` is not, since
+``MyClass.i`` is not.  But ``x.f`` is not the same thing as ``MyClass.f`` --- it
+is a *method object*, not a function object.
+
+
+.. _tut-methodobjects:
+
+Method Objects
+--------------
+
+Usually, a method is called right after it is bound::
+
+   x.f()
+
+In the :class:`MyClass` example, this will return the string ``'hello world'``.
+However, it is not necessary to call a method right away: ``x.f`` is a method
+object, and can be stored away and called at a later time.  For example::
+
+   xf = x.f
+   while True:
+       print(xf())
+
+will continue to print ``hello world`` until the end of time.
+
+What exactly happens when a method is called?  You may have noticed that
+``x.f()`` was called without an argument above, even though the function
+definition for :meth:`f` specified an argument.  What happened to the argument?
+Surely Python raises an exception when a function that requires an argument is
+called without any --- even if the argument isn't actually used...
+
+Actually, you may have guessed the answer: the special thing about methods is
+that the instance object is passed as the first argument of the function.  In our
+example, the call ``x.f()`` is exactly equivalent to ``MyClass.f(x)``.  In
+general, calling a method with a list of *n* arguments is equivalent to calling
+the corresponding function with an argument list that is created by inserting
+the method's instance object before the first argument.
+
+If you still don't understand how methods work, a look at the implementation can
+perhaps clarify matters.  When a non-data attribute of an instance is
+referenced, the instance's class is searched.  If the name denotes a valid class
+attribute that is a function object, a method object is created by packing
+(pointers to) the instance object and the function object just found together in
+an abstract object: this is the method object.  When the method object is called
+with an argument list, a new argument list is constructed from the instance
+object and the argument list, and the function object is called with this new
+argument list.
+
+
+.. _tut-class-and-instance-variables:
+
+Class and Instance Variables
+----------------------------
+
+Generally speaking, instance variables are for data unique to each instance
+and class variables are for attributes and methods shared by all instances
+of the class::
+
+    class Dog:
+
+        kind = 'canine'         # class variable shared by all instances
+
+        def __init__(self, name):
+            self.name = name    # instance variable unique to each instance
+
+    >>> d = Dog('Fido')
+    >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
+    >>> d.kind                  # shared by all dogs
+    'canine'
+    >>> e.kind                  # shared by all dogs
+    'canine'
+    >>> d.name                  # unique to d
+    'Fido'
+    >>> e.name                  # unique to e
+    'Buddy'
+
+As discussed in :ref:`tut-object`, shared data can have possibly surprising
+effects with involving :term:`mutable` objects such as lists and dictionaries.
+For example, the *tricks* list in the following code should not be used as a
+class variable because just a single list would be shared by all *Dog*
+instances::
+
+    class Dog:
+
+        tricks = []             # mistaken use of a class variable
+
+        def __init__(self, name):
+            self.name = name
+
+        def add_trick(self, trick):
+            self.tricks.append(trick)
+
+    >>> d = Dog('Fido')
+    >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
+    >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
+    >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
+    >>> d.tricks                # unexpectedly shared by all dogs
+    ['roll over', 'play dead']
+
+Correct design of the class should use an instance variable instead::
+
+    class Dog:
+
+        def __init__(self, name):
+            self.name = name
+            self.tricks = []    # creates a new empty list for each dog
+
+        def add_trick(self, trick):
+            self.tricks.append(trick)
+
+    >>> d = Dog('Fido')
+    >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
+    >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
+    >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
+    >>> d.tricks
+    ['roll over']
+    >>> e.tricks
+    ['play dead']
+
+
+.. _tut-remarks:
+
+Random Remarks
+==============
+
+.. These should perhaps be placed more carefully...
+
+Data attributes override method attributes with the same name; to avoid
+accidental name conflicts, which may cause hard-to-find bugs in large programs,
+it is wise to use some kind of convention that minimizes the chance of
+conflicts.  Possible conventions include capitalizing method names, prefixing
+data attribute names with a small unique string (perhaps just an underscore), or
+using verbs for methods and nouns for data attributes.
+
+Data attributes may be referenced by methods as well as by ordinary users
+("clients") of an object.  In other words, classes are not usable to implement
+pure abstract data types.  In fact, nothing in Python makes it possible to
+enforce data hiding --- it is all based upon convention.  (On the other hand,
+the Python implementation, written in C, can completely hide implementation
+details and control access to an object if necessary; this can be used by
+extensions to Python written in C.)
+
+Clients should use data attributes with care --- clients may mess up invariants
+maintained by the methods by stamping on their data attributes.  Note that
+clients may add data attributes of their own to an instance object without
+affecting the validity of the methods, as long as name conflicts are avoided ---
+again, a naming convention can save a lot of headaches here.
+
+There is no shorthand for referencing data attributes (or other methods!) from
+within methods.  I find that this actually increases the readability of methods:
+there is no chance of confusing local variables and instance variables when
+glancing through a method.
+
+Often, the first argument of a method is called ``self``.  This is nothing more
+than a convention: the name ``self`` has absolutely no special meaning to
+Python.  Note, however, that by not following the convention your code may be
+less readable to other Python programmers, and it is also conceivable that a
+*class browser* program might be written that relies upon such a convention.
+
+Any function object that is a class attribute defines a method for instances of
+that class.  It is not necessary that the function definition is textually
+enclosed in the class definition: assigning a function object to a local
+variable in the class is also ok.  For example::
+
+   # Function defined outside the class
+   def f1(self, x, y):
+       return min(x, x+y)
+
+   class C:
+       f = f1
+
+       def g(self):
+           return 'hello world'
+
+       h = g
+
+Now ``f``, ``g`` and ``h`` are all attributes of class :class:`C` that refer to
+function objects, and consequently they are all methods of instances of
+:class:`C` --- ``h`` being exactly equivalent to ``g``.  Note that this practice
+usually only serves to confuse the reader of a program.
+
+Methods may call other methods by using method attributes of the ``self``
+argument::
+
+   class Bag:
+       def __init__(self):
+           self.data = []
+
+       def add(self, x):
+           self.data.append(x)
+
+       def addtwice(self, x):
+           self.add(x)
+           self.add(x)
+
+Methods may reference global names in the same way as ordinary functions.  The
+global scope associated with a method is the module containing its
+definition.  (A class is never used as a global scope.)  While one
+rarely encounters a good reason for using global data in a method, there are
+many legitimate uses of the global scope: for one thing, functions and modules
+imported into the global scope can be used by methods, as well as functions and
+classes defined in it.  Usually, the class containing the method is itself
+defined in this global scope, and in the next section we'll find some good
+reasons why a method would want to reference its own class.
+
+Each value is an object, and therefore has a *class* (also called its *type*).
+It is stored as ``object.__class__``.
+
+
+.. _tut-inheritance:
+
+Inheritance
+===========
+
+Of course, a language feature would not be worthy of the name "class" without
+supporting inheritance.  The syntax for a derived class definition looks like
+this::
+
+   class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
+       <statement-1>
+       .
+       .
+       .
+       <statement-N>
+
+The name :class:`BaseClassName` must be defined in a scope containing the
+derived class definition.  In place of a base class name, other arbitrary
+expressions are also allowed.  This can be useful, for example, when the base
+class is defined in another module::
+
+   class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):
+
+Execution of a derived class definition proceeds the same as for a base class.
+When the class object is constructed, the base class is remembered.  This is
+used for resolving attribute references: if a requested attribute is not found
+in the class, the search proceeds to look in the base class.  This rule is
+applied recursively if the base class itself is derived from some other class.
+
+There's nothing special about instantiation of derived classes:
+``DerivedClassName()`` creates a new instance of the class.  Method references
+are resolved as follows: the corresponding class attribute is searched,
+descending down the chain of base classes if necessary, and the method reference
+is valid if this yields a function object.
+
+Derived classes may override methods of their base classes.  Because methods
+have no special privileges when calling other methods of the same object, a
+method of a base class that calls another method defined in the same base class
+may end up calling a method of a derived class that overrides it.  (For C++
+programmers: all methods in Python are effectively ``virtual``.)
+
+An overriding method in a derived class may in fact want to extend rather than
+simply replace the base class method of the same name. There is a simple way to
+call the base class method directly: just call ``BaseClassName.methodname(self,
+arguments)``.  This is occasionally useful to clients as well.  (Note that this
+only works if the base class is accessible as ``BaseClassName`` in the global
+scope.)
+
+Python has two built-in functions that work with inheritance:
+
+* Use :func:`isinstance` to check an instance's type: ``isinstance(obj, int)``
+  will be ``True`` only if ``obj.__class__`` is :class:`int` or some class
+  derived from :class:`int`.
+
+* Use :func:`issubclass` to check class inheritance: ``issubclass(bool, int)``
+  is ``True`` since :class:`bool` is a subclass of :class:`int`.  However,
+  ``issubclass(float, int)`` is ``False`` since :class:`float` is not a
+  subclass of :class:`int`.
+
+
+
+.. _tut-multiple:
+
+Multiple Inheritance
+--------------------
+
+Python supports a form of multiple inheritance as well.  A class definition with
+multiple base classes looks like this::
+
+   class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
+       <statement-1>
+       .
+       .
+       .
+       <statement-N>
+
+For most purposes, in the simplest cases, you can think of the search for
+attributes inherited from a parent class as depth-first, left-to-right, not
+searching twice in the same class where there is an overlap in the hierarchy.
+Thus, if an attribute is not found in :class:`DerivedClassName`, it is searched
+for in :class:`Base1`, then (recursively) in the base classes of :class:`Base1`,
+and if it was not found there, it was searched for in :class:`Base2`, and so on.
+
+In fact, it is slightly more complex than that; the method resolution order
+changes dynamically to support cooperative calls to :func:`super`.  This
+approach is known in some other multiple-inheritance languages as
+call-next-method and is more powerful than the super call found in
+single-inheritance languages.
+
+Dynamic ordering is necessary because all cases of multiple inheritance exhibit
+one or more diamond relationships (where at least one of the parent classes
+can be accessed through multiple paths from the bottommost class).  For example,
+all classes inherit from :class:`object`, so any case of multiple inheritance
+provides more than one path to reach :class:`object`.  To keep the base classes
+from being accessed more than once, the dynamic algorithm linearizes the search
+order in a way that preserves the left-to-right ordering specified in each
+class, that calls each parent only once, and that is monotonic (meaning that a
+class can be subclassed without affecting the precedence order of its parents).
+Taken together, these properties make it possible to design reliable and
+extensible classes with multiple inheritance.  For more detail, see
+https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/.
+
+
+.. _tut-private:
+
+Private Variables
+=================
+
+"Private" instance variables that cannot be accessed except from inside an
+object don't exist in Python.  However, there is a convention that is followed
+by most Python code: a name prefixed with an underscore (e.g. ``_spam``) should
+be treated as a non-public part of the API (whether it is a function, a method
+or a data member).  It should be considered an implementation detail and subject
+to change without notice.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: name; mangling
+
+Since there is a valid use-case for class-private members (namely to avoid name
+clashes of names with names defined by subclasses), there is limited support for
+such a mechanism, called :dfn:`name mangling`.  Any identifier of the form
+``__spam`` (at least two leading underscores, at most one trailing underscore)
+is textually replaced with ``_classname__spam``, where ``classname`` is the
+current class name with leading underscore(s) stripped.  This mangling is done
+without regard to the syntactic position of the identifier, as long as it
+occurs within the definition of a class.
+
+Name mangling is helpful for letting subclasses override methods without
+breaking intraclass method calls.  For example::
+
+   class Mapping:
+       def __init__(self, iterable):
+           self.items_list = []
+           self.__update(iterable)
+
+       def update(self, iterable):
+           for item in iterable:
+               self.items_list.append(item)
+
+       __update = update   # private copy of original update() method
+
+   class MappingSubclass(Mapping):
+
+       def update(self, keys, values):
+           # provides new signature for update()
+           # but does not break __init__()
+           for item in zip(keys, values):
+               self.items_list.append(item)
+
+The above example would work even if ``MappingSubclass`` were to introduce a
+``__update`` identifier since it is replaced with ``_Mapping__update`` in the
+``Mapping`` class  and ``_MappingSubclass__update`` in the ``MappingSubclass``
+class respectively.
+
+Note that the mangling rules are designed mostly to avoid accidents; it still is
+possible to access or modify a variable that is considered private.  This can
+even be useful in special circumstances, such as in the debugger.
+
+Notice that code passed to ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` does not consider the
+classname of the invoking class to be the current class; this is similar to the
+effect of the ``global`` statement, the effect of which is likewise restricted
+to code that is byte-compiled together.  The same restriction applies to
+``getattr()``, ``setattr()`` and ``delattr()``, as well as when referencing
+``__dict__`` directly.
+
+
+.. _tut-odds:
+
+Odds and Ends
+=============
+
+Sometimes it is useful to have a data type similar to the Pascal "record" or C
+"struct", bundling together a few named data items.  An empty class definition
+will do nicely::
+
+   class Employee:
+       pass
+
+   john = Employee()  # Create an empty employee record
+
+   # Fill the fields of the record
+   john.name = 'John Doe'
+   john.dept = 'computer lab'
+   john.salary = 1000
+
+A piece of Python code that expects a particular abstract data type can often be
+passed a class that emulates the methods of that data type instead.  For
+instance, if you have a function that formats some data from a file object, you
+can define a class with methods :meth:`read` and :meth:`!readline` that get the
+data from a string buffer instead, and pass it as an argument.
+
+.. (Unfortunately, this technique has its limitations: a class can't define
+   operations that are accessed by special syntax such as sequence subscripting
+   or arithmetic operators, and assigning such a "pseudo-file" to sys.stdin will
+   not cause the interpreter to read further input from it.)
+
+Instance method objects have attributes, too: ``m.__self__`` is the instance
+object with the method :meth:`m`, and ``m.__func__`` is the function object
+corresponding to the method.
+
+
+.. _tut-iterators:
+
+Iterators
+=========
+
+By now you have probably noticed that most container objects can be looped over
+using a :keyword:`for` statement::
+
+   for element in [1, 2, 3]:
+       print(element)
+   for element in (1, 2, 3):
+       print(element)
+   for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
+       print(key)
+   for char in "123":
+       print(char)
+   for line in open("myfile.txt"):
+       print(line, end='')
+
+This style of access is clear, concise, and convenient.  The use of iterators
+pervades and unifies Python.  Behind the scenes, the :keyword:`for` statement
+calls :func:`iter` on the container object.  The function returns an iterator
+object that defines the method :meth:`~iterator.__next__` which accesses
+elements in the container one at a time.  When there are no more elements,
+:meth:`~iterator.__next__` raises a :exc:`StopIteration` exception which tells the
+:keyword:`!for` loop to terminate.  You can call the :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method
+using the :func:`next` built-in function; this example shows how it all works::
+
+   >>> s = 'abc'
+   >>> it = iter(s)
+   >>> it
+   <iterator object at 0x00A1DB50>
+   >>> next(it)
+   'a'
+   >>> next(it)
+   'b'
+   >>> next(it)
+   'c'
+   >>> next(it)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+       next(it)
+   StopIteration
+
+Having seen the mechanics behind the iterator protocol, it is easy to add
+iterator behavior to your classes.  Define an :meth:`__iter__` method which
+returns an object with a :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method.  If the class
+defines :meth:`__next__`, then :meth:`__iter__` can just return ``self``::
+
+   class Reverse:
+       """Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards."""
+       def __init__(self, data):
+           self.data = data
+           self.index = len(data)
+
+       def __iter__(self):
+           return self
+
+       def __next__(self):
+           if self.index == 0:
+               raise StopIteration
+           self.index = self.index - 1
+           return self.data[self.index]
+
+::
+
+   >>> rev = Reverse('spam')
+   >>> iter(rev)
+   <__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50>
+   >>> for char in rev:
+   ...     print(char)
+   ...
+   m
+   a
+   p
+   s
+
+
+.. _tut-generators:
+
+Generators
+==========
+
+:term:`Generator`\s are a simple and powerful tool for creating iterators.  They
+are written like regular functions but use the :keyword:`yield` statement
+whenever they want to return data.  Each time :func:`next` is called on it, the
+generator resumes where it left off (it remembers all the data values and which
+statement was last executed).  An example shows that generators can be trivially
+easy to create::
+
+   def reverse(data):
+       for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
+           yield data[index]
+
+::
+
+   >>> for char in reverse('golf'):
+   ...     print(char)
+   ...
+   f
+   l
+   o
+   g
+
+Anything that can be done with generators can also be done with class-based
+iterators as described in the previous section.  What makes generators so
+compact is that the :meth:`__iter__` and :meth:`~generator.__next__` methods
+are created automatically.
+
+Another key feature is that the local variables and execution state are
+automatically saved between calls.  This made the function easier to write and
+much more clear than an approach using instance variables like ``self.index``
+and ``self.data``.
+
+In addition to automatic method creation and saving program state, when
+generators terminate, they automatically raise :exc:`StopIteration`. In
+combination, these features make it easy to create iterators with no more effort
+than writing a regular function.
+
+
+.. _tut-genexps:
+
+Generator Expressions
+=====================
+
+Some simple generators can be coded succinctly as expressions using a syntax
+similar to list comprehensions but with parentheses instead of square brackets.
+These expressions are designed for situations where the generator is used right
+away by an enclosing function.  Generator expressions are more compact but less
+versatile than full generator definitions and tend to be more memory friendly
+than equivalent list comprehensions.
+
+Examples::
+
+   >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))                 # sum of squares
+   285
+
+   >>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
+   >>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
+   >>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))         # dot product
+   260
+
+   >>> from math import pi, sin
+   >>> sine_table = {x: sin(x*pi/180) for x in range(0, 91)}
+
+   >>> unique_words = set(word  for line in page  for word in line.split())
+
+   >>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)
+
+   >>> data = 'golf'
+   >>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
+   ['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']
+
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Except for one thing.  Module objects have a secret read-only attribute called
+   :attr:`~object.__dict__` which returns the dictionary used to implement the module's
+   namespace; the name :attr:`~object.__dict__` is an attribute but not a global name.
+   Obviously, using this violates the abstraction of namespace implementation, and
+   should be restricted to things like post-mortem debuggers.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/controlflow.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/controlflow.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..482a343
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/controlflow.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,764 @@
+.. _tut-morecontrol:
+
+***********************
+More Control Flow Tools
+***********************
+
+Besides the :keyword:`while` statement just introduced, Python knows the usual
+control flow statements known from other languages, with some twists.
+
+
+.. _tut-if:
+
+:keyword:`!if` Statements
+=========================
+
+Perhaps the most well-known statement type is the :keyword:`if` statement.  For
+example::
+
+   >>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
+   Please enter an integer: 42
+   >>> if x < 0:
+   ...     x = 0
+   ...     print('Negative changed to zero')
+   ... elif x == 0:
+   ...     print('Zero')
+   ... elif x == 1:
+   ...     print('Single')
+   ... else:
+   ...     print('More')
+   ...
+   More
+
+There can be zero or more :keyword:`elif` parts, and the :keyword:`else` part is
+optional.  The keyword ':keyword:`!elif`' is short for 'else if', and is useful
+to avoid excessive indentation.  An  :keyword:`!if` ... :keyword:`!elif` ...
+:keyword:`!elif` ... sequence is a substitute for the ``switch`` or
+``case`` statements found in other languages.
+
+
+.. _tut-for:
+
+:keyword:`!for` Statements
+==========================
+
+.. index::
+   statement: for
+
+The :keyword:`for` statement in Python differs a bit from what you may be used
+to in C or Pascal.  Rather than always iterating over an arithmetic progression
+of numbers (like in Pascal), or giving the user the ability to define both the
+iteration step and halting condition (as C), Python's :keyword:`!for` statement
+iterates over the items of any sequence (a list or a string), in the order that
+they appear in the sequence.  For example (no pun intended):
+
+.. One suggestion was to give a real C example here, but that may only serve to
+   confuse non-C programmers.
+
+::
+
+   >>> # Measure some strings:
+   ... words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
+   >>> for w in words:
+   ...     print(w, len(w))
+   ...
+   cat 3
+   window 6
+   defenestrate 12
+
+If you need to modify the sequence you are iterating over while inside the loop
+(for example to duplicate selected items), it is recommended that you first
+make a copy.  Iterating over a sequence does not implicitly make a copy.  The
+slice notation makes this especially convenient::
+
+   >>> for w in words[:]:  # Loop over a slice copy of the entire list.
+   ...     if len(w) > 6:
+   ...         words.insert(0, w)
+   ...
+   >>> words
+   ['defenestrate', 'cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
+
+With ``for w in words:``, the example would attempt to create an infinite list,
+inserting ``defenestrate`` over and over again.
+
+
+.. _tut-range:
+
+The :func:`range` Function
+==========================
+
+If you do need to iterate over a sequence of numbers, the built-in function
+:func:`range` comes in handy.  It generates arithmetic progressions::
+
+    >>> for i in range(5):
+    ...     print(i)
+    ...
+    0
+    1
+    2
+    3
+    4
+
+The given end point is never part of the generated sequence; ``range(10)`` generates
+10 values, the legal indices for items of a sequence of length 10.  It
+is possible to let the range start at another number, or to specify a different
+increment (even negative; sometimes this is called the 'step')::
+
+    range(5, 10)
+       5, 6, 7, 8, 9
+
+    range(0, 10, 3)
+       0, 3, 6, 9
+
+    range(-10, -100, -30)
+      -10, -40, -70
+
+To iterate over the indices of a sequence, you can combine :func:`range` and
+:func:`len` as follows::
+
+   >>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
+   >>> for i in range(len(a)):
+   ...     print(i, a[i])
+   ...
+   0 Mary
+   1 had
+   2 a
+   3 little
+   4 lamb
+
+In most such cases, however, it is convenient to use the :func:`enumerate`
+function, see :ref:`tut-loopidioms`.
+
+A strange thing happens if you just print a range::
+
+   >>> print(range(10))
+   range(0, 10)
+
+In many ways the object returned by :func:`range` behaves as if it is a list,
+but in fact it isn't. It is an object which returns the successive items of
+the desired sequence when you iterate over it, but it doesn't really make
+the list, thus saving space.
+
+We say such an object is *iterable*, that is, suitable as a target for
+functions and constructs that expect something from which they can
+obtain successive items until the supply is exhausted. We have seen that
+the :keyword:`for` statement is such an *iterator*. The function :func:`list`
+is another; it creates lists from iterables::
+
+
+   >>> list(range(5))
+   [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as argument.
+
+
+.. _tut-break:
+
+:keyword:`!break` and :keyword:`!continue` Statements, and :keyword:`!else` Clauses on Loops
+============================================================================================
+
+The :keyword:`break` statement, like in C, breaks out of the innermost enclosing
+:keyword:`for` or :keyword:`while` loop.
+
+Loop statements may have an :keyword:`!else` clause; it is executed when the loop
+terminates through exhaustion of the list (with :keyword:`for`) or when the
+condition becomes false (with :keyword:`while`), but not when the loop is
+terminated by a :keyword:`break` statement.  This is exemplified by the
+following loop, which searches for prime numbers::
+
+   >>> for n in range(2, 10):
+   ...     for x in range(2, n):
+   ...         if n % x == 0:
+   ...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
+   ...             break
+   ...     else:
+   ...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
+   ...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
+   ...
+   2 is a prime number
+   3 is a prime number
+   4 equals 2 * 2
+   5 is a prime number
+   6 equals 2 * 3
+   7 is a prime number
+   8 equals 2 * 4
+   9 equals 3 * 3
+
+(Yes, this is the correct code.  Look closely: the ``else`` clause belongs to
+the :keyword:`for` loop, **not** the :keyword:`if` statement.)
+
+When used with a loop, the ``else`` clause has more in common with the
+``else`` clause of a :keyword:`try` statement than it does that of
+:keyword:`if` statements: a :keyword:`!try` statement's ``else`` clause runs
+when no exception occurs, and a loop's ``else`` clause runs when no ``break``
+occurs. For more on the :keyword:`!try` statement and exceptions, see
+:ref:`tut-handling`.
+
+The :keyword:`continue` statement, also borrowed from C, continues with the next
+iteration of the loop::
+
+    >>> for num in range(2, 10):
+    ...     if num % 2 == 0:
+    ...         print("Found an even number", num)
+    ...         continue
+    ...     print("Found a number", num)
+    Found an even number 2
+    Found a number 3
+    Found an even number 4
+    Found a number 5
+    Found an even number 6
+    Found a number 7
+    Found an even number 8
+    Found a number 9
+
+.. _tut-pass:
+
+:keyword:`!pass` Statements
+===========================
+
+The :keyword:`pass` statement does nothing. It can be used when a statement is
+required syntactically but the program requires no action. For example::
+
+   >>> while True:
+   ...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
+   ...
+
+This is commonly used for creating minimal classes::
+
+   >>> class MyEmptyClass:
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+
+Another place :keyword:`pass` can be used is as a place-holder for a function or
+conditional body when you are working on new code, allowing you to keep thinking
+at a more abstract level.  The :keyword:`!pass` is silently ignored::
+
+   >>> def initlog(*args):
+   ...     pass   # Remember to implement this!
+   ...
+
+.. _tut-functions:
+
+Defining Functions
+==================
+
+We can create a function that writes the Fibonacci series to an arbitrary
+boundary::
+
+   >>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series up to n
+   ...     """Print a Fibonacci series up to n."""
+   ...     a, b = 0, 1
+   ...     while a < n:
+   ...         print(a, end=' ')
+   ...         a, b = b, a+b
+   ...     print()
+   ...
+   >>> # Now call the function we just defined:
+   ... fib(2000)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597
+
+.. index::
+   single: documentation strings
+   single: docstrings
+   single: strings, documentation
+
+The keyword :keyword:`def` introduces a function *definition*.  It must be
+followed by the function name and the parenthesized list of formal parameters.
+The statements that form the body of the function start at the next line, and
+must be indented.
+
+The first statement of the function body can optionally be a string literal;
+this string literal is the function's documentation string, or :dfn:`docstring`.
+(More about docstrings can be found in the section :ref:`tut-docstrings`.)
+There are tools which use docstrings to automatically produce online or printed
+documentation, or to let the user interactively browse through code; it's good
+practice to include docstrings in code that you write, so make a habit of it.
+
+The *execution* of a function introduces a new symbol table used for the local
+variables of the function.  More precisely, all variable assignments in a
+function store the value in the local symbol table; whereas variable references
+first look in the local symbol table, then in the local symbol tables of
+enclosing functions, then in the global symbol table, and finally in the table
+of built-in names. Thus, global variables and variables of enclosing functions
+cannot be directly assigned a value within a function (unless, for global
+variables, named in a :keyword:`global` statement, or, for variables of enclosing
+functions, named in a :keyword:`nonlocal` statement), although they may be
+referenced.
+
+The actual parameters (arguments) to a function call are introduced in the local
+symbol table of the called function when it is called; thus, arguments are
+passed using *call by value* (where the *value* is always an object *reference*,
+not the value of the object). [#]_ When a function calls another function, a new
+local symbol table is created for that call.
+
+A function definition introduces the function name in the current symbol table.
+The value of the function name has a type that is recognized by the interpreter
+as a user-defined function.  This value can be assigned to another name which
+can then also be used as a function.  This serves as a general renaming
+mechanism::
+
+   >>> fib
+   <function fib at 10042ed0>
+   >>> f = fib
+   >>> f(100)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89
+
+Coming from other languages, you might object that ``fib`` is not a function but
+a procedure since it doesn't return a value.  In fact, even functions without a
+:keyword:`return` statement do return a value, albeit a rather boring one.  This
+value is called ``None`` (it's a built-in name).  Writing the value ``None`` is
+normally suppressed by the interpreter if it would be the only value written.
+You can see it if you really want to using :func:`print`::
+
+   >>> fib(0)
+   >>> print(fib(0))
+   None
+
+It is simple to write a function that returns a list of the numbers of the
+Fibonacci series, instead of printing it::
+
+   >>> def fib2(n):  # return Fibonacci series up to n
+   ...     """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
+   ...     result = []
+   ...     a, b = 0, 1
+   ...     while a < n:
+   ...         result.append(a)    # see below
+   ...         a, b = b, a+b
+   ...     return result
+   ...
+   >>> f100 = fib2(100)    # call it
+   >>> f100                # write the result
+   [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
+
+This example, as usual, demonstrates some new Python features:
+
+* The :keyword:`return` statement returns with a value from a function.
+  :keyword:`!return` without an expression argument returns ``None``. Falling off
+  the end of a function also returns ``None``.
+
+* The statement ``result.append(a)`` calls a *method* of the list object
+  ``result``.  A method is a function that 'belongs' to an object and is named
+  ``obj.methodname``, where ``obj`` is some object (this may be an expression),
+  and ``methodname`` is the name of a method that is defined by the object's type.
+  Different types define different methods.  Methods of different types may have
+  the same name without causing ambiguity.  (It is possible to define your own
+  object types and methods, using *classes*, see :ref:`tut-classes`)
+  The method :meth:`append` shown in the example is defined for list objects; it
+  adds a new element at the end of the list.  In this example it is equivalent to
+  ``result = result + [a]``, but more efficient.
+
+
+.. _tut-defining:
+
+More on Defining Functions
+==========================
+
+It is also possible to define functions with a variable number of arguments.
+There are three forms, which can be combined.
+
+
+.. _tut-defaultargs:
+
+Default Argument Values
+-----------------------
+
+The most useful form is to specify a default value for one or more arguments.
+This creates a function that can be called with fewer arguments than it is
+defined to allow.  For example::
+
+   def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
+       while True:
+           ok = input(prompt)
+           if ok in ('y', 'ye', 'yes'):
+               return True
+           if ok in ('n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'):
+               return False
+           retries = retries - 1
+           if retries < 0:
+               raise ValueError('invalid user response')
+           print(reminder)
+
+This function can be called in several ways:
+
+* giving only the mandatory argument:
+  ``ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?')``
+* giving one of the optional arguments:
+  ``ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2)``
+* or even giving all arguments:
+  ``ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes or no!')``
+
+This example also introduces the :keyword:`in` keyword. This tests whether or
+not a sequence contains a certain value.
+
+The default values are evaluated at the point of function definition in the
+*defining* scope, so that ::
+
+   i = 5
+
+   def f(arg=i):
+       print(arg)
+
+   i = 6
+   f()
+
+will print ``5``.
+
+**Important warning:**  The default value is evaluated only once. This makes a
+difference when the default is a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or
+instances of most classes.  For example, the following function accumulates the
+arguments passed to it on subsequent calls::
+
+   def f(a, L=[]):
+       L.append(a)
+       return L
+
+   print(f(1))
+   print(f(2))
+   print(f(3))
+
+This will print ::
+
+   [1]
+   [1, 2]
+   [1, 2, 3]
+
+If you don't want the default to be shared between subsequent calls, you can
+write the function like this instead::
+
+   def f(a, L=None):
+       if L is None:
+           L = []
+       L.append(a)
+       return L
+
+
+.. _tut-keywordargs:
+
+Keyword Arguments
+-----------------
+
+Functions can also be called using :term:`keyword arguments <keyword argument>`
+of the form ``kwarg=value``.  For instance, the following function::
+
+   def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
+       print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
+       print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
+       print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
+       print("-- It's", state, "!")
+
+accepts one required argument (``voltage``) and three optional arguments
+(``state``, ``action``, and ``type``).  This function can be called in any
+of the following ways::
+
+   parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
+   parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
+   parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
+   parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
+   parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
+   parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword
+
+but all the following calls would be invalid::
+
+   parrot()                     # required argument missing
+   parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
+   parrot(110, voltage=220)     # duplicate value for the same argument
+   parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # unknown keyword argument
+
+In a function call, keyword arguments must follow positional arguments.
+All the keyword arguments passed must match one of the arguments
+accepted by the function (e.g. ``actor`` is not a valid argument for the
+``parrot`` function), and their order is not important.  This also includes
+non-optional arguments (e.g. ``parrot(voltage=1000)`` is valid too).
+No argument may receive a value more than once.
+Here's an example that fails due to this restriction::
+
+   >>> def function(a):
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> function(0, a=0)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: function() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
+
+When a final formal parameter of the form ``**name`` is present, it receives a
+dictionary (see :ref:`typesmapping`) containing all keyword arguments except for
+those corresponding to a formal parameter.  This may be combined with a formal
+parameter of the form ``*name`` (described in the next subsection) which
+receives a :ref:`tuple <tut-tuples>` containing the positional
+arguments beyond the formal parameter list.  (``*name`` must occur
+before ``**name``.) For example, if we define a function like this::
+
+   def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
+       print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
+       print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
+       for arg in arguments:
+           print(arg)
+       print("-" * 40)
+       for kw in keywords:
+           print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])
+
+It could be called like this::
+
+   cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
+              "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
+              shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
+              client="John Cleese",
+              sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")
+
+and of course it would print:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   -- Do you have any Limburger ?
+   -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
+   It's very runny, sir.
+   It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
+   ----------------------------------------
+   shopkeeper : Michael Palin
+   client : John Cleese
+   sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch
+
+Note that the order in which the keyword arguments are printed is guaranteed
+to match the order in which they were provided in the function call.
+
+
+.. _tut-arbitraryargs:
+
+Arbitrary Argument Lists
+------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: * (asterisk); in function calls
+
+Finally, the least frequently used option is to specify that a function can be
+called with an arbitrary number of arguments.  These arguments will be wrapped
+up in a tuple (see :ref:`tut-tuples`).  Before the variable number of arguments,
+zero or more normal arguments may occur. ::
+
+   def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
+       file.write(separator.join(args))
+
+
+Normally, these ``variadic`` arguments will be last in the list of formal
+parameters, because they scoop up all remaining input arguments that are
+passed to the function. Any formal parameters which occur after the ``*args``
+parameter are 'keyword-only' arguments, meaning that they can only be used as
+keywords rather than positional arguments. ::
+
+   >>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
+   ...     return sep.join(args)
+   ...
+   >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
+   'earth/mars/venus'
+   >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
+   'earth.mars.venus'
+
+.. _tut-unpacking-arguments:
+
+Unpacking Argument Lists
+------------------------
+
+The reverse situation occurs when the arguments are already in a list or tuple
+but need to be unpacked for a function call requiring separate positional
+arguments.  For instance, the built-in :func:`range` function expects separate
+*start* and *stop* arguments.  If they are not available separately, write the
+function call with the  ``*`` operator to unpack the arguments out of a list
+or tuple::
+
+   >>> list(range(3, 6))            # normal call with separate arguments
+   [3, 4, 5]
+   >>> args = [3, 6]
+   >>> list(range(*args))            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
+   [3, 4, 5]
+
+.. index::
+   single: **; in function calls
+
+In the same fashion, dictionaries can deliver keyword arguments with the
+``**`` operator::
+
+   >>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
+   ...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
+   ...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
+   ...     print("E's", state, "!")
+   ...
+   >>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
+   >>> parrot(**d)
+   -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !
+
+
+.. _tut-lambda:
+
+Lambda Expressions
+------------------
+
+Small anonymous functions can be created with the :keyword:`lambda` keyword.
+This function returns the sum of its two arguments: ``lambda a, b: a+b``.
+Lambda functions can be used wherever function objects are required.  They are
+syntactically restricted to a single expression.  Semantically, they are just
+syntactic sugar for a normal function definition.  Like nested function
+definitions, lambda functions can reference variables from the containing
+scope::
+
+   >>> def make_incrementor(n):
+   ...     return lambda x: x + n
+   ...
+   >>> f = make_incrementor(42)
+   >>> f(0)
+   42
+   >>> f(1)
+   43
+
+The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function.  Another use
+is to pass a small function as an argument::
+
+   >>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
+   >>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
+   >>> pairs
+   [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]
+
+
+.. _tut-docstrings:
+
+Documentation Strings
+---------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: docstrings
+   single: documentation strings
+   single: strings, documentation
+
+Here are some conventions about the content and formatting of documentation
+strings.
+
+The first line should always be a short, concise summary of the object's
+purpose.  For brevity, it should not explicitly state the object's name or type,
+since these are available by other means (except if the name happens to be a
+verb describing a function's operation).  This line should begin with a capital
+letter and end with a period.
+
+If there are more lines in the documentation string, the second line should be
+blank, visually separating the summary from the rest of the description.  The
+following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing the object's calling
+conventions, its side effects, etc.
+
+The Python parser does not strip indentation from multi-line string literals in
+Python, so tools that process documentation have to strip indentation if
+desired.  This is done using the following convention. The first non-blank line
+*after* the first line of the string determines the amount of indentation for
+the entire documentation string.  (We can't use the first line since it is
+generally adjacent to the string's opening quotes so its indentation is not
+apparent in the string literal.)  Whitespace "equivalent" to this indentation is
+then stripped from the start of all lines of the string.  Lines that are
+indented less should not occur, but if they occur all their leading whitespace
+should be stripped.  Equivalence of whitespace should be tested after expansion
+of tabs (to 8 spaces, normally).
+
+Here is an example of a multi-line docstring::
+
+   >>> def my_function():
+   ...     """Do nothing, but document it.
+   ...
+   ...     No, really, it doesn't do anything.
+   ...     """
+   ...     pass
+   ...
+   >>> print(my_function.__doc__)
+   Do nothing, but document it.
+
+       No, really, it doesn't do anything.
+
+
+.. _tut-annotations:
+
+Function Annotations
+--------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Zachary Ware <zachary.ware@gmail.com>
+.. index::
+   pair: function; annotations
+   single: ->; function annotations
+   single: : (colon); function annotations
+
+:ref:`Function annotations <function>` are completely optional metadata
+information about the types used by user-defined functions (see :pep:`3107` and
+:pep:`484` for more information).
+
+:term:`Annotations <function annotation>` are stored in the :attr:`__annotations__`
+attribute of the function as a dictionary and have no effect on any other part of the
+function.  Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the parameter name, followed
+by an expression evaluating to the value of the annotation.  Return annotations are
+defined by a literal ``->``, followed by an expression, between the parameter
+list and the colon denoting the end of the :keyword:`def` statement.  The
+following example has a positional argument, a keyword argument, and the return
+value annotated::
+
+   >>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
+   ...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
+   ...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
+   ...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
+   ...
+   >>> f('spam')
+   Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
+   Arguments: spam eggs
+   'spam and eggs'
+
+.. _tut-codingstyle:
+
+Intermezzo: Coding Style
+========================
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Georg Brandl <georg@python.org>
+.. index:: pair: coding; style
+
+Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a
+good time to talk about *coding style*.  Most languages can be written (or more
+concise, *formatted*) in different styles; some are more readable than others.
+Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting
+a nice coding style helps tremendously for that.
+
+For Python, :pep:`8` has emerged as the style guide that most projects adhere to;
+it promotes a very readable and eye-pleasing coding style.  Every Python
+developer should read it at some point; here are the most important points
+extracted for you:
+
+* Use 4-space indentation, and no tabs.
+
+  4 spaces are a good compromise between small indentation (allows greater
+  nesting depth) and large indentation (easier to read).  Tabs introduce
+  confusion, and are best left out.
+
+* Wrap lines so that they don't exceed 79 characters.
+
+  This helps users with small displays and makes it possible to have several
+  code files side-by-side on larger displays.
+
+* Use blank lines to separate functions and classes, and larger blocks of
+  code inside functions.
+
+* When possible, put comments on a line of their own.
+
+* Use docstrings.
+
+* Use spaces around operators and after commas, but not directly inside
+  bracketing constructs: ``a = f(1, 2) + g(3, 4)``.
+
+* Name your classes and functions consistently; the convention is to use
+  ``UpperCamelCase`` for classes and ``lowercase_with_underscores`` for functions
+  and methods.  Always use ``self`` as the name for the first method argument
+  (see :ref:`tut-firstclasses` for more on classes and methods).
+
+* Don't use fancy encodings if your code is meant to be used in international
+  environments.  Python's default, UTF-8, or even plain ASCII work best in any
+  case.
+
+* Likewise, don't use non-ASCII characters in identifiers if there is only the
+  slightest chance people speaking a different language will read or maintain
+  the code.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Actually, *call by object reference* would be a better description,
+   since if a mutable object is passed, the caller will see any changes the
+   callee makes to it (items inserted into a list).
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/datastructures.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/datastructures.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4db3f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/datastructures.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,712 @@
+.. _tut-structures:
+
+***************
+Data Structures
+***************
+
+This chapter describes some things you've learned about already in more detail,
+and adds some new things as well.
+
+.. _tut-morelists:
+
+More on Lists
+=============
+
+The list data type has some more methods.  Here are all of the methods of list
+objects:
+
+
+.. method:: list.append(x)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Add an item to the end of the list.  Equivalent to ``a[len(a):] = [x]``.
+
+
+.. method:: list.extend(iterable)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable.  Equivalent to
+   ``a[len(a):] = iterable``.
+
+
+.. method:: list.insert(i, x)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Insert an item at a given position.  The first argument is the index of the
+   element before which to insert, so ``a.insert(0, x)`` inserts at the front of
+   the list, and ``a.insert(len(a), x)`` is equivalent to ``a.append(x)``.
+
+
+.. method:: list.remove(x)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Remove the first item from the list whose value is equal to *x*.  It raises a
+   :exc:`ValueError` if there is no such item.
+
+
+.. method:: list.pop([i])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Remove the item at the given position in the list, and return it.  If no index
+   is specified, ``a.pop()`` removes and returns the last item in the list.  (The
+   square brackets around the *i* in the method signature denote that the parameter
+   is optional, not that you should type square brackets at that position.  You
+   will see this notation frequently in the Python Library Reference.)
+
+
+.. method:: list.clear()
+   :noindex:
+
+   Remove all items from the list.  Equivalent to ``del a[:]``.
+
+
+.. method:: list.index(x[, start[, end]])
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return zero-based index in the list of the first item whose value is equal to *x*.
+   Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if there is no such item.
+
+   The optional arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in the slice
+   notation and are used to limit the search to a particular subsequence of
+   the list.  The returned index is computed relative to the beginning of the full
+   sequence rather than the *start* argument.
+
+
+.. method:: list.count(x)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return the number of times *x* appears in the list.
+
+
+.. method:: list.sort(key=None, reverse=False)
+   :noindex:
+
+   Sort the items of the list in place (the arguments can be used for sort
+   customization, see :func:`sorted` for their explanation).
+
+
+.. method:: list.reverse()
+   :noindex:
+
+   Reverse the elements of the list in place.
+
+
+.. method:: list.copy()
+   :noindex:
+
+   Return a shallow copy of the list.  Equivalent to ``a[:]``.
+
+
+An example that uses most of the list methods::
+
+    >>> fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
+    >>> fruits.count('apple')
+    2
+    >>> fruits.count('tangerine')
+    0
+    >>> fruits.index('banana')
+    3
+    >>> fruits.index('banana', 4)  # Find next banana starting a position 4
+    6
+    >>> fruits.reverse()
+    >>> fruits
+    ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
+    >>> fruits.append('grape')
+    >>> fruits
+    ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
+    >>> fruits.sort()
+    >>> fruits
+    ['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
+    >>> fruits.pop()
+    'pear'
+
+You might have noticed that methods like ``insert``, ``remove`` or ``sort`` that
+only modify the list have no return value printed -- they return the default
+``None``. [1]_  This is a design principle for all mutable data structures in
+Python.
+
+
+.. _tut-lists-as-stacks:
+
+Using Lists as Stacks
+---------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
+
+
+The list methods make it very easy to use a list as a stack, where the last
+element added is the first element retrieved ("last-in, first-out").  To add an
+item to the top of the stack, use :meth:`append`.  To retrieve an item from the
+top of the stack, use :meth:`pop` without an explicit index.  For example::
+
+   >>> stack = [3, 4, 5]
+   >>> stack.append(6)
+   >>> stack.append(7)
+   >>> stack
+   [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
+   >>> stack.pop()
+   7
+   >>> stack
+   [3, 4, 5, 6]
+   >>> stack.pop()
+   6
+   >>> stack.pop()
+   5
+   >>> stack
+   [3, 4]
+
+
+.. _tut-lists-as-queues:
+
+Using Lists as Queues
+---------------------
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Ka-Ping Yee <ping@lfw.org>
+
+It is also possible to use a list as a queue, where the first element added is
+the first element retrieved ("first-in, first-out"); however, lists are not
+efficient for this purpose.  While appends and pops from the end of list are
+fast, doing inserts or pops from the beginning of a list is slow (because all
+of the other elements have to be shifted by one).
+
+To implement a queue, use :class:`collections.deque` which was designed to
+have fast appends and pops from both ends.  For example::
+
+   >>> from collections import deque
+   >>> queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
+   >>> queue.append("Terry")           # Terry arrives
+   >>> queue.append("Graham")          # Graham arrives
+   >>> queue.popleft()                 # The first to arrive now leaves
+   'Eric'
+   >>> queue.popleft()                 # The second to arrive now leaves
+   'John'
+   >>> queue                           # Remaining queue in order of arrival
+   deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])
+
+
+.. _tut-listcomps:
+
+List Comprehensions
+-------------------
+
+List comprehensions provide a concise way to create lists.
+Common applications are to make new lists where each element is the result of
+some operations applied to each member of another sequence or iterable, or to
+create a subsequence of those elements that satisfy a certain condition.
+
+For example, assume we want to create a list of squares, like::
+
+   >>> squares = []
+   >>> for x in range(10):
+   ...     squares.append(x**2)
+   ...
+   >>> squares
+   [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
+
+Note that this creates (or overwrites) a variable named ``x`` that still exists
+after the loop completes.  We can calculate the list of squares without any
+side effects using::
+
+   squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))
+
+or, equivalently::
+
+   squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]
+
+which is more concise and readable.
+
+A list comprehension consists of brackets containing an expression followed
+by a :keyword:`!for` clause, then zero or more :keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!if`
+clauses.  The result will be a new list resulting from evaluating the expression
+in the context of the :keyword:`!for` and :keyword:`!if` clauses which follow it.
+For example, this listcomp combines the elements of two lists if they are not
+equal::
+
+   >>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
+   [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]
+
+and it's equivalent to::
+
+   >>> combs = []
+   >>> for x in [1,2,3]:
+   ...     for y in [3,1,4]:
+   ...         if x != y:
+   ...             combs.append((x, y))
+   ...
+   >>> combs
+   [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]
+
+Note how the order of the :keyword:`for` and :keyword:`if` statements is the
+same in both these snippets.
+
+If the expression is a tuple (e.g. the ``(x, y)`` in the previous example),
+it must be parenthesized. ::
+
+   >>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
+   >>> # create a new list with the values doubled
+   >>> [x*2 for x in vec]
+   [-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
+   >>> # filter the list to exclude negative numbers
+   >>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
+   [0, 2, 4]
+   >>> # apply a function to all the elements
+   >>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
+   [4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
+   >>> # call a method on each element
+   >>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
+   >>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
+   ['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
+   >>> # create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
+   >>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
+   [(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
+   >>> # the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised
+   >>> [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+       [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
+                  ^
+   SyntaxError: invalid syntax
+   >>> # flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
+   >>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
+   >>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
+   [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
+
+List comprehensions can contain complex expressions and nested functions::
+
+   >>> from math import pi
+   >>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
+   ['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']
+
+Nested List Comprehensions
+--------------------------
+
+The initial expression in a list comprehension can be any arbitrary expression,
+including another list comprehension.
+
+Consider the following example of a 3x4 matrix implemented as a list of
+3 lists of length 4::
+
+   >>> matrix = [
+   ...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
+   ...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
+   ...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
+   ... ]
+
+The following list comprehension will transpose rows and columns::
+
+   >>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
+   [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]
+
+As we saw in the previous section, the nested listcomp is evaluated in
+the context of the :keyword:`for` that follows it, so this example is
+equivalent to::
+
+   >>> transposed = []
+   >>> for i in range(4):
+   ...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
+   ...
+   >>> transposed
+   [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]
+
+which, in turn, is the same as::
+
+   >>> transposed = []
+   >>> for i in range(4):
+   ...     # the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp
+   ...     transposed_row = []
+   ...     for row in matrix:
+   ...         transposed_row.append(row[i])
+   ...     transposed.append(transposed_row)
+   ...
+   >>> transposed
+   [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]
+
+In the real world, you should prefer built-in functions to complex flow statements.
+The :func:`zip` function would do a great job for this use case::
+
+   >>> list(zip(*matrix))
+   [(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]
+
+See :ref:`tut-unpacking-arguments` for details on the asterisk in this line.
+
+.. _tut-del:
+
+The :keyword:`!del` statement
+=============================
+
+There is a way to remove an item from a list given its index instead of its
+value: the :keyword:`del` statement.  This differs from the :meth:`pop` method
+which returns a value.  The :keyword:`!del` statement can also be used to remove
+slices from a list or clear the entire list (which we did earlier by assignment
+of an empty list to the slice).  For example::
+
+   >>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
+   >>> del a[0]
+   >>> a
+   [1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
+   >>> del a[2:4]
+   >>> a
+   [1, 66.25, 1234.5]
+   >>> del a[:]
+   >>> a
+   []
+
+:keyword:`del` can also be used to delete entire variables::
+
+   >>> del a
+
+Referencing the name ``a`` hereafter is an error (at least until another value
+is assigned to it).  We'll find other uses for :keyword:`del` later.
+
+
+.. _tut-tuples:
+
+Tuples and Sequences
+====================
+
+We saw that lists and strings have many common properties, such as indexing and
+slicing operations.  They are two examples of *sequence* data types (see
+:ref:`typesseq`).  Since Python is an evolving language, other sequence data
+types may be added.  There is also another standard sequence data type: the
+*tuple*.
+
+A tuple consists of a number of values separated by commas, for instance::
+
+   >>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
+   >>> t[0]
+   12345
+   >>> t
+   (12345, 54321, 'hello!')
+   >>> # Tuples may be nested:
+   ... u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
+   >>> u
+   ((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
+   >>> # Tuples are immutable:
+   ... t[0] = 88888
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
+   >>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
+   ... v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
+   >>> v
+   ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
+
+
+As you see, on output tuples are always enclosed in parentheses, so that nested
+tuples are interpreted correctly; they may be input with or without surrounding
+parentheses, although often parentheses are necessary anyway (if the tuple is
+part of a larger expression).  It is not possible to assign to the individual
+items of a tuple, however it is possible to create tuples which contain mutable
+objects, such as lists.
+
+Though tuples may seem similar to lists, they are often used in different
+situations and for different purposes.
+Tuples are :term:`immutable`, and usually contain a heterogeneous sequence of
+elements that are accessed via unpacking (see later in this section) or indexing
+(or even by attribute in the case of :func:`namedtuples <collections.namedtuple>`).
+Lists are :term:`mutable`, and their elements are usually homogeneous and are
+accessed by iterating over the list.
+
+A special problem is the construction of tuples containing 0 or 1 items: the
+syntax has some extra quirks to accommodate these.  Empty tuples are constructed
+by an empty pair of parentheses; a tuple with one item is constructed by
+following a value with a comma (it is not sufficient to enclose a single value
+in parentheses). Ugly, but effective.  For example::
+
+   >>> empty = ()
+   >>> singleton = 'hello',    # <-- note trailing comma
+   >>> len(empty)
+   0
+   >>> len(singleton)
+   1
+   >>> singleton
+   ('hello',)
+
+The statement ``t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'`` is an example of *tuple packing*:
+the values ``12345``, ``54321`` and ``'hello!'`` are packed together in a tuple.
+The reverse operation is also possible::
+
+   >>> x, y, z = t
+
+This is called, appropriately enough, *sequence unpacking* and works for any
+sequence on the right-hand side.  Sequence unpacking requires that there are as
+many variables on the left side of the equals sign as there are elements in the
+sequence.  Note that multiple assignment is really just a combination of tuple
+packing and sequence unpacking.
+
+
+.. _tut-sets:
+
+Sets
+====
+
+Python also includes a data type for *sets*.  A set is an unordered collection
+with no duplicate elements.  Basic uses include membership testing and
+eliminating duplicate entries.  Set objects also support mathematical operations
+like union, intersection, difference, and symmetric difference.
+
+Curly braces or the :func:`set` function can be used to create sets.  Note: to
+create an empty set you have to use ``set()``, not ``{}``; the latter creates an
+empty dictionary, a data structure that we discuss in the next section.
+
+Here is a brief demonstration::
+
+   >>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
+   >>> print(basket)                      # show that duplicates have been removed
+   {'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
+   >>> 'orange' in basket                 # fast membership testing
+   True
+   >>> 'crabgrass' in basket
+   False
+
+   >>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
+   ...
+   >>> a = set('abracadabra')
+   >>> b = set('alacazam')
+   >>> a                                  # unique letters in a
+   {'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
+   >>> a - b                              # letters in a but not in b
+   {'r', 'd', 'b'}
+   >>> a | b                              # letters in a or b or both
+   {'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
+   >>> a & b                              # letters in both a and b
+   {'a', 'c'}
+   >>> a ^ b                              # letters in a or b but not both
+   {'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
+
+Similarly to :ref:`list comprehensions <tut-listcomps>`, set comprehensions
+are also supported::
+
+   >>> a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
+   >>> a
+   {'r', 'd'}
+
+
+.. _tut-dictionaries:
+
+Dictionaries
+============
+
+Another useful data type built into Python is the *dictionary* (see
+:ref:`typesmapping`). Dictionaries are sometimes found in other languages as
+"associative memories" or "associative arrays".  Unlike sequences, which are
+indexed by a range of numbers, dictionaries are indexed by *keys*, which can be
+any immutable type; strings and numbers can always be keys.  Tuples can be used
+as keys if they contain only strings, numbers, or tuples; if a tuple contains
+any mutable object either directly or indirectly, it cannot be used as a key.
+You can't use lists as keys, since lists can be modified in place using index
+assignments, slice assignments, or methods like :meth:`append` and
+:meth:`extend`.
+
+It is best to think of a dictionary as a set of *key: value* pairs,
+with the requirement that the keys are unique (within one dictionary). A pair of
+braces creates an empty dictionary: ``{}``. Placing a comma-separated list of
+key:value pairs within the braces adds initial key:value pairs to the
+dictionary; this is also the way dictionaries are written on output.
+
+The main operations on a dictionary are storing a value with some key and
+extracting the value given the key.  It is also possible to delete a key:value
+pair with ``del``. If you store using a key that is already in use, the old
+value associated with that key is forgotten.  It is an error to extract a value
+using a non-existent key.
+
+Performing ``list(d)`` on a dictionary returns a list of all the keys
+used in the dictionary, in insertion order (if you want it sorted, just use
+``sorted(d)`` instead). To check whether a single key is in the
+dictionary, use the :keyword:`in` keyword.
+
+Here is a small example using a dictionary::
+
+   >>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
+   >>> tel['guido'] = 4127
+   >>> tel
+   {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
+   >>> tel['jack']
+   4098
+   >>> del tel['sape']
+   >>> tel['irv'] = 4127
+   >>> tel
+   {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
+   >>> list(tel)
+   ['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
+   >>> sorted(tel)
+   ['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
+   >>> 'guido' in tel
+   True
+   >>> 'jack' not in tel
+   False
+
+The :func:`dict` constructor builds dictionaries directly from sequences of
+key-value pairs::
+
+   >>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
+   {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
+
+In addition, dict comprehensions can be used to create dictionaries from
+arbitrary key and value expressions::
+
+   >>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
+   {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}
+
+When the keys are simple strings, it is sometimes easier to specify pairs using
+keyword arguments::
+
+   >>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
+   {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
+
+
+.. _tut-loopidioms:
+
+Looping Techniques
+==================
+
+When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can be
+retrieved at the same time using the :meth:`items` method. ::
+
+   >>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
+   >>> for k, v in knights.items():
+   ...     print(k, v)
+   ...
+   gallahad the pure
+   robin the brave
+
+When looping through a sequence, the position index and corresponding value can
+be retrieved at the same time using the :func:`enumerate` function. ::
+
+   >>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
+   ...     print(i, v)
+   ...
+   0 tic
+   1 tac
+   2 toe
+
+To loop over two or more sequences at the same time, the entries can be paired
+with the :func:`zip` function. ::
+
+   >>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
+   >>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
+   >>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
+   ...     print('What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a))
+   ...
+   What is your name?  It is lancelot.
+   What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
+   What is your favorite color?  It is blue.
+
+To loop over a sequence in reverse, first specify the sequence in a forward
+direction and then call the :func:`reversed` function. ::
+
+   >>> for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
+   ...     print(i)
+   ...
+   9
+   7
+   5
+   3
+   1
+
+To loop over a sequence in sorted order, use the :func:`sorted` function which
+returns a new sorted list while leaving the source unaltered. ::
+
+   >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
+   >>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
+   ...     print(f)
+   ...
+   apple
+   banana
+   orange
+   pear
+
+It is sometimes tempting to change a list while you are looping over it;
+however, it is often simpler and safer to create a new list instead. ::
+
+   >>> import math
+   >>> raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
+   >>> filtered_data = []
+   >>> for value in raw_data:
+   ...     if not math.isnan(value):
+   ...         filtered_data.append(value)
+   ...
+   >>> filtered_data
+   [56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]
+
+
+.. _tut-conditions:
+
+More on Conditions
+==================
+
+The conditions used in ``while`` and ``if`` statements can contain any
+operators, not just comparisons.
+
+The comparison operators ``in`` and ``not in`` check whether a value occurs
+(does not occur) in a sequence.  The operators ``is`` and ``is not`` compare
+whether two objects are really the same object; this only matters for mutable
+objects like lists.  All comparison operators have the same priority, which is
+lower than that of all numerical operators.
+
+Comparisons can be chained.  For example, ``a < b == c`` tests whether ``a`` is
+less than ``b`` and moreover ``b`` equals ``c``.
+
+Comparisons may be combined using the Boolean operators ``and`` and ``or``, and
+the outcome of a comparison (or of any other Boolean expression) may be negated
+with ``not``.  These have lower priorities than comparison operators; between
+them, ``not`` has the highest priority and ``or`` the lowest, so that ``A and
+not B or C`` is equivalent to ``(A and (not B)) or C``. As always, parentheses
+can be used to express the desired composition.
+
+The Boolean operators ``and`` and ``or`` are so-called *short-circuit*
+operators: their arguments are evaluated from left to right, and evaluation
+stops as soon as the outcome is determined.  For example, if ``A`` and ``C`` are
+true but ``B`` is false, ``A and B and C`` does not evaluate the expression
+``C``.  When used as a general value and not as a Boolean, the return value of a
+short-circuit operator is the last evaluated argument.
+
+It is possible to assign the result of a comparison or other Boolean expression
+to a variable.  For example, ::
+
+   >>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
+   >>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
+   >>> non_null
+   'Trondheim'
+
+Note that in Python, unlike C, assignment cannot occur inside expressions. C
+programmers may grumble about this, but it avoids a common class of problems
+encountered in C programs: typing ``=`` in an expression when ``==`` was
+intended.
+
+
+.. _tut-comparing:
+
+Comparing Sequences and Other Types
+===================================
+
+Sequence objects may be compared to other objects with the same sequence type.
+The comparison uses *lexicographical* ordering: first the first two items are
+compared, and if they differ this determines the outcome of the comparison; if
+they are equal, the next two items are compared, and so on, until either
+sequence is exhausted. If two items to be compared are themselves sequences of
+the same type, the lexicographical comparison is carried out recursively.  If
+all items of two sequences compare equal, the sequences are considered equal.
+If one sequence is an initial sub-sequence of the other, the shorter sequence is
+the smaller (lesser) one.  Lexicographical ordering for strings uses the Unicode
+code point number to order individual characters.  Some examples of comparisons
+between sequences of the same type::
+
+   (1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
+   [1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
+   'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
+   (1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
+   (1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
+   (1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
+   (1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)
+
+Note that comparing objects of different types with ``<`` or ``>`` is legal
+provided that the objects have appropriate comparison methods.  For example,
+mixed numeric types are compared according to their numeric value, so 0 equals
+0.0, etc.  Otherwise, rather than providing an arbitrary ordering, the
+interpreter will raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] Other languages may return the mutated object, which allows method
+       chaining, such as ``d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();``.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/errors.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/errors.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e287bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/errors.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,414 @@
+.. _tut-errors:
+
+*********************
+Errors and Exceptions
+*********************
+
+Until now error messages haven't been more than mentioned, but if you have tried
+out the examples you have probably seen some.  There are (at least) two
+distinguishable kinds of errors: *syntax errors* and *exceptions*.
+
+
+.. _tut-syntaxerrors:
+
+Syntax Errors
+=============
+
+Syntax errors, also known as parsing errors, are perhaps the most common kind of
+complaint you get while you are still learning Python::
+
+   >>> while True print('Hello world')
+     File "<stdin>", line 1
+       while True print('Hello world')
+                      ^
+   SyntaxError: invalid syntax
+
+The parser repeats the offending line and displays a little 'arrow' pointing at
+the earliest point in the line where the error was detected.  The error is
+caused by (or at least detected at) the token *preceding* the arrow: in the
+example, the error is detected at the function :func:`print`, since a colon
+(``':'``) is missing before it.  File name and line number are printed so you
+know where to look in case the input came from a script.
+
+
+.. _tut-exceptions:
+
+Exceptions
+==========
+
+Even if a statement or expression is syntactically correct, it may cause an
+error when an attempt is made to execute it. Errors detected during execution
+are called *exceptions* and are not unconditionally fatal: you will soon learn
+how to handle them in Python programs.  Most exceptions are not handled by
+programs, however, and result in error messages as shown here::
+
+   >>> 10 * (1/0)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
+   >>> 4 + spam*3
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
+   >>> '2' + 2
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly
+
+The last line of the error message indicates what happened. Exceptions come in
+different types, and the type is printed as part of the message: the types in
+the example are :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`, :exc:`NameError` and :exc:`TypeError`.
+The string printed as the exception type is the name of the built-in exception
+that occurred.  This is true for all built-in exceptions, but need not be true
+for user-defined exceptions (although it is a useful convention). Standard
+exception names are built-in identifiers (not reserved keywords).
+
+The rest of the line provides detail based on the type of exception and what
+caused it.
+
+The preceding part of the error message shows the context where the exception
+happened, in the form of a stack traceback. In general it contains a stack
+traceback listing source lines; however, it will not display lines read from
+standard input.
+
+:ref:`bltin-exceptions` lists the built-in exceptions and their meanings.
+
+
+.. _tut-handling:
+
+Handling Exceptions
+===================
+
+It is possible to write programs that handle selected exceptions. Look at the
+following example, which asks the user for input until a valid integer has been
+entered, but allows the user to interrupt the program (using :kbd:`Control-C` or
+whatever the operating system supports); note that a user-generated interruption
+is signalled by raising the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception. ::
+
+   >>> while True:
+   ...     try:
+   ...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
+   ...         break
+   ...     except ValueError:
+   ...         print("Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...")
+   ...
+
+The :keyword:`try` statement works as follows.
+
+* First, the *try clause* (the statement(s) between the :keyword:`try` and
+  :keyword:`except` keywords) is executed.
+
+* If no exception occurs, the *except clause* is skipped and execution of the
+  :keyword:`try` statement is finished.
+
+* If an exception occurs during execution of the try clause, the rest of the
+  clause is skipped.  Then if its type matches the exception named after the
+  :keyword:`except` keyword, the except clause is executed, and then execution
+  continues after the :keyword:`try` statement.
+
+* If an exception occurs which does not match the exception named in the except
+  clause, it is passed on to outer :keyword:`try` statements; if no handler is
+  found, it is an *unhandled exception* and execution stops with a message as
+  shown above.
+
+A :keyword:`try` statement may have more than one except clause, to specify
+handlers for different exceptions.  At most one handler will be executed.
+Handlers only handle exceptions that occur in the corresponding try clause, not
+in other handlers of the same :keyword:`!try` statement.  An except clause may
+name multiple exceptions as a parenthesized tuple, for example::
+
+   ... except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError):
+   ...     pass
+
+A class in an :keyword:`except` clause is compatible with an exception if it is
+the same class or a base class thereof (but not the other way around --- an
+except clause listing a derived class is not compatible with a base class).  For
+example, the following code will print B, C, D in that order::
+
+   class B(Exception):
+       pass
+
+   class C(B):
+       pass
+
+   class D(C):
+       pass
+
+   for cls in [B, C, D]:
+       try:
+           raise cls()
+       except D:
+           print("D")
+       except C:
+           print("C")
+       except B:
+           print("B")
+
+Note that if the except clauses were reversed (with ``except B`` first), it
+would have printed B, B, B --- the first matching except clause is triggered.
+
+The last except clause may omit the exception name(s), to serve as a wildcard.
+Use this with extreme caution, since it is easy to mask a real programming error
+in this way!  It can also be used to print an error message and then re-raise
+the exception (allowing a caller to handle the exception as well)::
+
+   import sys
+
+   try:
+       f = open('myfile.txt')
+       s = f.readline()
+       i = int(s.strip())
+   except OSError as err:
+       print("OS error: {0}".format(err))
+   except ValueError:
+       print("Could not convert data to an integer.")
+   except:
+       print("Unexpected error:", sys.exc_info()[0])
+       raise
+
+The :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`except` statement has an optional *else
+clause*, which, when present, must follow all except clauses.  It is useful for
+code that must be executed if the try clause does not raise an exception.  For
+example::
+
+   for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
+       try:
+           f = open(arg, 'r')
+       except OSError:
+           print('cannot open', arg)
+       else:
+           print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
+           f.close()
+
+The use of the :keyword:`!else` clause is better than adding additional code to
+the :keyword:`try` clause because it avoids accidentally catching an exception
+that wasn't raised by the code being protected by the :keyword:`!try` ...
+:keyword:`!except` statement.
+
+When an exception occurs, it may have an associated value, also known as the
+exception's *argument*. The presence and type of the argument depend on the
+exception type.
+
+The except clause may specify a variable after the exception name.  The
+variable is bound to an exception instance with the arguments stored in
+``instance.args``.  For convenience, the exception instance defines
+:meth:`__str__` so the arguments can be printed directly without having to
+reference ``.args``.  One may also instantiate an exception first before
+raising it and add any attributes to it as desired. ::
+
+   >>> try:
+   ...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
+   ... except Exception as inst:
+   ...     print(type(inst))    # the exception instance
+   ...     print(inst.args)     # arguments stored in .args
+   ...     print(inst)          # __str__ allows args to be printed directly,
+   ...                          # but may be overridden in exception subclasses
+   ...     x, y = inst.args     # unpack args
+   ...     print('x =', x)
+   ...     print('y =', y)
+   ...
+   <class 'Exception'>
+   ('spam', 'eggs')
+   ('spam', 'eggs')
+   x = spam
+   y = eggs
+
+If an exception has arguments, they are printed as the last part ('detail') of
+the message for unhandled exceptions.
+
+Exception handlers don't just handle exceptions if they occur immediately in the
+try clause, but also if they occur inside functions that are called (even
+indirectly) in the try clause. For example::
+
+   >>> def this_fails():
+   ...     x = 1/0
+   ...
+   >>> try:
+   ...     this_fails()
+   ... except ZeroDivisionError as err:
+   ...     print('Handling run-time error:', err)
+   ...
+   Handling run-time error: division by zero
+
+
+.. _tut-raising:
+
+Raising Exceptions
+==================
+
+The :keyword:`raise` statement allows the programmer to force a specified
+exception to occur. For example::
+
+   >>> raise NameError('HiThere')
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   NameError: HiThere
+
+The sole argument to :keyword:`raise` indicates the exception to be raised.
+This must be either an exception instance or an exception class (a class that
+derives from :class:`Exception`).  If an exception class is passed, it will
+be implicitly instantiated by calling its constructor with no arguments::
+
+   raise ValueError  # shorthand for 'raise ValueError()'
+
+If you need to determine whether an exception was raised but don't intend to
+handle it, a simpler form of the :keyword:`raise` statement allows you to
+re-raise the exception::
+
+   >>> try:
+   ...     raise NameError('HiThere')
+   ... except NameError:
+   ...     print('An exception flew by!')
+   ...     raise
+   ...
+   An exception flew by!
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
+   NameError: HiThere
+
+
+.. _tut-userexceptions:
+
+User-defined Exceptions
+=======================
+
+Programs may name their own exceptions by creating a new exception class (see
+:ref:`tut-classes` for more about Python classes).  Exceptions should typically
+be derived from the :exc:`Exception` class, either directly or indirectly.
+
+Exception classes can be defined which do anything any other class can do, but
+are usually kept simple, often only offering a number of attributes that allow
+information about the error to be extracted by handlers for the exception.  When
+creating a module that can raise several distinct errors, a common practice is
+to create a base class for exceptions defined by that module, and subclass that
+to create specific exception classes for different error conditions::
+
+   class Error(Exception):
+       """Base class for exceptions in this module."""
+       pass
+
+   class InputError(Error):
+       """Exception raised for errors in the input.
+
+       Attributes:
+           expression -- input expression in which the error occurred
+           message -- explanation of the error
+       """
+
+       def __init__(self, expression, message):
+           self.expression = expression
+           self.message = message
+
+   class TransitionError(Error):
+       """Raised when an operation attempts a state transition that's not
+       allowed.
+
+       Attributes:
+           previous -- state at beginning of transition
+           next -- attempted new state
+           message -- explanation of why the specific transition is not allowed
+       """
+
+       def __init__(self, previous, next, message):
+           self.previous = previous
+           self.next = next
+           self.message = message
+
+Most exceptions are defined with names that end in "Error", similar to the
+naming of the standard exceptions.
+
+Many standard modules define their own exceptions to report errors that may
+occur in functions they define.  More information on classes is presented in
+chapter :ref:`tut-classes`.
+
+
+.. _tut-cleanup:
+
+Defining Clean-up Actions
+=========================
+
+The :keyword:`try` statement has another optional clause which is intended to
+define clean-up actions that must be executed under all circumstances.  For
+example::
+
+   >>> try:
+   ...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
+   ... finally:
+   ...     print('Goodbye, world!')
+   ...
+   Goodbye, world!
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
+   KeyboardInterrupt
+
+A *finally clause* is always executed before leaving the :keyword:`try`
+statement, whether an exception has occurred or not. When an exception has
+occurred in the :keyword:`!try` clause and has not been handled by an
+:keyword:`except` clause (or it has occurred in an :keyword:`!except` or
+:keyword:`!else` clause), it is re-raised after the :keyword:`finally` clause has
+been executed.  The :keyword:`!finally` clause is also executed "on the way out"
+when any other clause of the :keyword:`!try` statement is left via a
+:keyword:`break`, :keyword:`continue` or :keyword:`return` statement.  A more
+complicated example::
+
+   >>> def divide(x, y):
+   ...     try:
+   ...         result = x / y
+   ...     except ZeroDivisionError:
+   ...         print("division by zero!")
+   ...     else:
+   ...         print("result is", result)
+   ...     finally:
+   ...         print("executing finally clause")
+   ...
+   >>> divide(2, 1)
+   result is 2.0
+   executing finally clause
+   >>> divide(2, 0)
+   division by zero!
+   executing finally clause
+   >>> divide("2", "1")
+   executing finally clause
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+     File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
+   TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'
+
+As you can see, the :keyword:`finally` clause is executed in any event.  The
+:exc:`TypeError` raised by dividing two strings is not handled by the
+:keyword:`except` clause and therefore re-raised after the :keyword:`!finally`
+clause has been executed.
+
+In real world applications, the :keyword:`finally` clause is useful for
+releasing external resources (such as files or network connections), regardless
+of whether the use of the resource was successful.
+
+
+.. _tut-cleanup-with:
+
+Predefined Clean-up Actions
+===========================
+
+Some objects define standard clean-up actions to be undertaken when the object
+is no longer needed, regardless of whether or not the operation using the object
+succeeded or failed. Look at the following example, which tries to open a file
+and print its contents to the screen. ::
+
+   for line in open("myfile.txt"):
+       print(line, end="")
+
+The problem with this code is that it leaves the file open for an indeterminate
+amount of time after this part of the code has finished executing.
+This is not an issue in simple scripts, but can be a problem for larger
+applications. The :keyword:`with` statement allows objects like files to be
+used in a way that ensures they are always cleaned up promptly and correctly. ::
+
+   with open("myfile.txt") as f:
+       for line in f:
+           print(line, end="")
+
+After the statement is executed, the file *f* is always closed, even if a
+problem was encountered while processing the lines. Objects which, like files,
+provide predefined clean-up actions will indicate this in their documentation.
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/floatingpoint.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/floatingpoint.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c0eb52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/floatingpoint.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,300 @@
+.. testsetup::
+
+    import math
+
+.. _tut-fp-issues:
+
+**************************************************
+Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations
+**************************************************
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Tim Peters <tim_one@users.sourceforge.net>
+
+
+Floating-point numbers are represented in computer hardware as base 2 (binary)
+fractions.  For example, the decimal fraction ::
+
+   0.125
+
+has value 1/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000, and in the same way the binary fraction ::
+
+   0.001
+
+has value 0/2 + 0/4 + 1/8.  These two fractions have identical values, the only
+real difference being that the first is written in base 10 fractional notation,
+and the second in base 2.
+
+Unfortunately, most decimal fractions cannot be represented exactly as binary
+fractions.  A consequence is that, in general, the decimal floating-point
+numbers you enter are only approximated by the binary floating-point numbers
+actually stored in the machine.
+
+The problem is easier to understand at first in base 10.  Consider the fraction
+1/3.  You can approximate that as a base 10 fraction::
+
+   0.3
+
+or, better, ::
+
+   0.33
+
+or, better, ::
+
+   0.333
+
+and so on.  No matter how many digits you're willing to write down, the result
+will never be exactly 1/3, but will be an increasingly better approximation of
+1/3.
+
+In the same way, no matter how many base 2 digits you're willing to use, the
+decimal value 0.1 cannot be represented exactly as a base 2 fraction.  In base
+2, 1/10 is the infinitely repeating fraction ::
+
+   0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011...
+
+Stop at any finite number of bits, and you get an approximation.  On most
+machines today, floats are approximated using a binary fraction with
+the numerator using the first 53 bits starting with the most significant bit and
+with the denominator as a power of two.  In the case of 1/10, the binary fraction
+is ``3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55`` which is close to but not exactly
+equal to the true value of 1/10.
+
+Many users are not aware of the approximation because of the way values are
+displayed.  Python only prints a decimal approximation to the true decimal
+value of the binary approximation stored by the machine.  On most machines, if
+Python were to print the true decimal value of the binary approximation stored
+for 0.1, it would have to display ::
+
+   >>> 0.1
+   0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625
+
+That is more digits than most people find useful, so Python keeps the number
+of digits manageable by displaying a rounded value instead ::
+
+   >>> 1 / 10
+   0.1
+
+Just remember, even though the printed result looks like the exact value
+of 1/10, the actual stored value is the nearest representable binary fraction.
+
+Interestingly, there are many different decimal numbers that share the same
+nearest approximate binary fraction.  For example, the numbers ``0.1`` and
+``0.10000000000000001`` and
+``0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625`` are all
+approximated by ``3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55``.  Since all of these decimal
+values share the same approximation, any one of them could be displayed
+while still preserving the invariant ``eval(repr(x)) == x``.
+
+Historically, the Python prompt and built-in :func:`repr` function would choose
+the one with 17 significant digits, ``0.10000000000000001``.   Starting with
+Python 3.1, Python (on most systems) is now able to choose the shortest of
+these and simply display ``0.1``.
+
+Note that this is in the very nature of binary floating-point: this is not a bug
+in Python, and it is not a bug in your code either.  You'll see the same kind of
+thing in all languages that support your hardware's floating-point arithmetic
+(although some languages may not *display* the difference by default, or in all
+output modes).
+
+For more pleasant output, you may wish to use string formatting to produce a limited number of significant digits::
+
+   >>> format(math.pi, '.12g')  # give 12 significant digits
+   '3.14159265359'
+
+   >>> format(math.pi, '.2f')   # give 2 digits after the point
+   '3.14'
+
+   >>> repr(math.pi)
+   '3.141592653589793'
+
+
+It's important to realize that this is, in a real sense, an illusion: you're
+simply rounding the *display* of the true machine value.
+
+One illusion may beget another.  For example, since 0.1 is not exactly 1/10,
+summing three values of 0.1 may not yield exactly 0.3, either::
+
+   >>> .1 + .1 + .1 == .3
+   False
+
+Also, since the 0.1 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 1/10 and
+0.3 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 3/10, then pre-rounding with
+:func:`round` function cannot help::
+
+   >>> round(.1, 1) + round(.1, 1) + round(.1, 1) == round(.3, 1)
+   False
+
+Though the numbers cannot be made closer to their intended exact values,
+the :func:`round` function can be useful for post-rounding so that results
+with inexact values become comparable to one another::
+
+    >>> round(.1 + .1 + .1, 10) == round(.3, 10)
+    True
+
+Binary floating-point arithmetic holds many surprises like this.  The problem
+with "0.1" is explained in precise detail below, in the "Representation Error"
+section.  See `The Perils of Floating Point <http://www.lahey.com/float.htm>`_
+for a more complete account of other common surprises.
+
+As that says near the end, "there are no easy answers."  Still, don't be unduly
+wary of floating-point!  The errors in Python float operations are inherited
+from the floating-point hardware, and on most machines are on the order of no
+more than 1 part in 2\*\*53 per operation.  That's more than adequate for most
+tasks, but you do need to keep in mind that it's not decimal arithmetic and
+that every float operation can suffer a new rounding error.
+
+While pathological cases do exist, for most casual use of floating-point
+arithmetic you'll see the result you expect in the end if you simply round the
+display of your final results to the number of decimal digits you expect.
+:func:`str` usually suffices, and for finer control see the :meth:`str.format`
+method's format specifiers in :ref:`formatstrings`.
+
+For use cases which require exact decimal representation, try using the
+:mod:`decimal` module which implements decimal arithmetic suitable for
+accounting applications and high-precision applications.
+
+Another form of exact arithmetic is supported by the :mod:`fractions` module
+which implements arithmetic based on rational numbers (so the numbers like
+1/3 can be represented exactly).
+
+If you are a heavy user of floating point operations you should take a look
+at the Numerical Python package and many other packages for mathematical and
+statistical operations supplied by the SciPy project. See <https://scipy.org>.
+
+Python provides tools that may help on those rare occasions when you really
+*do* want to know the exact value of a float.  The
+:meth:`float.as_integer_ratio` method expresses the value of a float as a
+fraction::
+
+   >>> x = 3.14159
+   >>> x.as_integer_ratio()
+   (3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)
+
+Since the ratio is exact, it can be used to losslessly recreate the
+original value::
+
+    >>> x == 3537115888337719 / 1125899906842624
+    True
+
+The :meth:`float.hex` method expresses a float in hexadecimal (base
+16), again giving the exact value stored by your computer::
+
+   >>> x.hex()
+   '0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1'
+
+This precise hexadecimal representation can be used to reconstruct
+the float value exactly::
+
+    >>> x == float.fromhex('0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1')
+    True
+
+Since the representation is exact, it is useful for reliably porting values
+across different versions of Python (platform independence) and exchanging
+data with other languages that support the same format (such as Java and C99).
+
+Another helpful tool is the :func:`math.fsum` function which helps mitigate
+loss-of-precision during summation.  It tracks "lost digits" as values are
+added onto a running total.  That can make a difference in overall accuracy
+so that the errors do not accumulate to the point where they affect the
+final total:
+
+   >>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
+   False
+   >>> math.fsum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
+   True
+
+.. _tut-fp-error:
+
+Representation Error
+====================
+
+This section explains the "0.1" example in detail, and shows how you can perform
+an exact analysis of cases like this yourself.  Basic familiarity with binary
+floating-point representation is assumed.
+
+:dfn:`Representation error` refers to the fact that some (most, actually)
+decimal fractions cannot be represented exactly as binary (base 2) fractions.
+This is the chief reason why Python (or Perl, C, C++, Java, Fortran, and many
+others) often won't display the exact decimal number you expect.
+
+Why is that?  1/10 is not exactly representable as a binary fraction. Almost all
+machines today (November 2000) use IEEE-754 floating point arithmetic, and
+almost all platforms map Python floats to IEEE-754 "double precision".  754
+doubles contain 53 bits of precision, so on input the computer strives to
+convert 0.1 to the closest fraction it can of the form *J*/2**\ *N* where *J* is
+an integer containing exactly 53 bits.  Rewriting ::
+
+   1 / 10 ~= J / (2**N)
+
+as ::
+
+   J ~= 2**N / 10
+
+and recalling that *J* has exactly 53 bits (is ``>= 2**52`` but ``< 2**53``),
+the best value for *N* is 56::
+
+    >>> 2**52 <=  2**56 // 10  < 2**53
+    True
+
+That is, 56 is the only value for *N* that leaves *J* with exactly 53 bits.  The
+best possible value for *J* is then that quotient rounded::
+
+   >>> q, r = divmod(2**56, 10)
+   >>> r
+   6
+
+Since the remainder is more than half of 10, the best approximation is obtained
+by rounding up::
+
+   >>> q+1
+   7205759403792794
+
+Therefore the best possible approximation to 1/10 in 754 double precision is::
+
+   7205759403792794 / 2 ** 56
+
+Dividing both the numerator and denominator by two reduces the fraction to::
+
+   3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55
+
+Note that since we rounded up, this is actually a little bit larger than 1/10;
+if we had not rounded up, the quotient would have been a little bit smaller than
+1/10.  But in no case can it be *exactly* 1/10!
+
+So the computer never "sees" 1/10:  what it sees is the exact fraction given
+above, the best 754 double approximation it can get::
+
+   >>> 0.1 * 2 ** 55
+   3602879701896397.0
+
+If we multiply that fraction by 10\*\*55, we can see the value out to
+55 decimal digits::
+
+   >>> 3602879701896397 * 10 ** 55 // 2 ** 55
+   1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625
+
+meaning that the exact number stored in the computer is equal to
+the decimal value 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.
+Instead of displaying the full decimal value, many languages (including
+older versions of Python), round the result to 17 significant digits::
+
+   >>> format(0.1, '.17f')
+   '0.10000000000000001'
+
+The :mod:`fractions` and :mod:`decimal` modules make these calculations
+easy::
+
+   >>> from decimal import Decimal
+   >>> from fractions import Fraction
+
+   >>> Fraction.from_float(0.1)
+   Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)
+
+   >>> (0.1).as_integer_ratio()
+   (3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)
+
+   >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
+   Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
+
+   >>> format(Decimal.from_float(0.1), '.17')
+   '0.10000000000000001'
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ee011e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+.. _tutorial-index:
+
+######################
+  The Python Tutorial
+######################
+
+Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient
+high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to
+object-oriented programming. Python's elegant syntax and dynamic typing,
+together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting
+and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.
+
+The Python interpreter and the extensive standard library are freely available
+in source or binary form for all major platforms from the Python Web site,
+https://www.python.org/, and may be freely distributed. The same site also
+contains distributions of and pointers to many free third party Python modules,
+programs and tools, and additional documentation.
+
+The Python interpreter is easily extended with new functions and data types
+implemented in C or C++ (or other languages callable from C). Python is also
+suitable as an extension language for customizable applications.
+
+This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and
+features of the Python language and system. It helps to have a Python
+interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all examples are self-contained,
+so the tutorial can be read off-line as well.
+
+For a description of standard objects and modules, see :ref:`library-index`.
+:ref:`reference-index` gives a more formal definition of the language.  To write
+extensions in C or C++, read :ref:`extending-index` and
+:ref:`c-api-index`. There are also several books covering Python in depth.
+
+This tutorial does not attempt to be comprehensive and cover every single
+feature, or even every commonly used feature. Instead, it introduces many of
+Python's most noteworthy features, and will give you a good idea of the
+language's flavor and style. After reading it, you will be able to read and
+write Python modules and programs, and you will be ready to learn more about the
+various Python library modules described in :ref:`library-index`.
+
+The :ref:`glossary` is also worth going through.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :numbered:
+
+   appetite.rst
+   interpreter.rst
+   introduction.rst
+   controlflow.rst
+   datastructures.rst
+   modules.rst
+   inputoutput.rst
+   errors.rst
+   classes.rst
+   stdlib.rst
+   stdlib2.rst
+   venv.rst
+   whatnow.rst
+   interactive.rst
+   floatingpoint.rst
+   appendix.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/inputoutput.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/inputoutput.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7942786
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/inputoutput.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,503 @@
+.. _tut-io:
+
+****************
+Input and Output
+****************
+
+There are several ways to present the output of a program; data can be printed
+in a human-readable form, or written to a file for future use. This chapter will
+discuss some of the possibilities.
+
+
+.. _tut-formatting:
+
+Fancier Output Formatting
+=========================
+
+So far we've encountered two ways of writing values: *expression statements* and
+the :func:`print` function.  (A third way is using the :meth:`write` method
+of file objects; the standard output file can be referenced as ``sys.stdout``.
+See the Library Reference for more information on this.)
+
+Often you'll want more control over the formatting of your output than simply
+printing space-separated values. There are several ways to format output.
+
+* To use :ref:`formatted string literals <tut-f-strings>`, begin a string
+  with ``f`` or ``F`` before the opening quotation mark or triple quotation mark.
+  Inside this string, you can write a Python expression between ``{`` and ``}``
+  characters that can refer to variables or literal values.
+
+  ::
+
+     >>> year = 2016
+     >>> event = 'Referendum'
+     >>> f'Results of the {year} {event}'
+     'Results of the 2016 Referendum'
+
+* The :meth:`str.format` method of strings requires more manual
+  effort.  You'll still use ``{`` and ``}`` to mark where a variable
+  will be substituted and can provide detailed formatting directives,
+  but you'll also need to provide the information to be formatted.
+
+  ::
+
+     >>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
+     >>> no_votes = 43_132_495
+     >>> percentage = yes_votes / (yes_votes + no_votes)
+     >>> '{:-9} YES votes  {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
+     ' 42572654 YES votes  49.67%'
+
+* Finally, you can do all the string handling yourself by using string slicing and
+  concatenation operations to create any layout you can imagine.  The
+  string type has some methods that perform useful operations for padding
+  strings to a given column width.
+
+When you don't need fancy output but just want a quick display of some
+variables for debugging purposes, you can convert any value to a string with
+the :func:`repr` or :func:`str` functions.
+
+The :func:`str` function is meant to return representations of values which are
+fairly human-readable, while :func:`repr` is meant to generate representations
+which can be read by the interpreter (or will force a :exc:`SyntaxError` if
+there is no equivalent syntax).  For objects which don't have a particular
+representation for human consumption, :func:`str` will return the same value as
+:func:`repr`.  Many values, such as numbers or structures like lists and
+dictionaries, have the same representation using either function.  Strings, in
+particular, have two distinct representations.
+
+Some examples::
+
+   >>> s = 'Hello, world.'
+   >>> str(s)
+   'Hello, world.'
+   >>> repr(s)
+   "'Hello, world.'"
+   >>> str(1/7)
+   '0.14285714285714285'
+   >>> x = 10 * 3.25
+   >>> y = 200 * 200
+   >>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...'
+   >>> print(s)
+   The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
+   >>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:
+   ... hello = 'hello, world\n'
+   >>> hellos = repr(hello)
+   >>> print(hellos)
+   'hello, world\n'
+   >>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object:
+   ... repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
+   "(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"
+
+The :mod:`string` module contains a :class:`~string.Template` class that offers
+yet another way to substitute values into strings, using placeholders like
+``$x`` and replacing them with values from a dictionary, but offers much less
+control of the formatting.
+
+
+.. _tut-f-strings:
+
+Formatted String Literals
+-------------------------
+
+:ref:`Formatted string literals <f-strings>` (also called f-strings for
+short) let you include the value of Python expressions inside a string by
+prefixing the string with ``f`` or ``F`` and writing expressions as
+``{expression}``.
+
+An optional format specifier can follow the expression. This allows greater
+control over how the value is formatted. The following example rounds pi to
+three places after the decimal::
+
+   >>> import math
+   >>> print(f'The value of pi is approximately {math.pi:.3f}.')
+   The value of pi is approximately 3.142.
+
+Passing an integer after the ``':'`` will cause that field to be a minimum
+number of characters wide.  This is useful for making columns line up. ::
+
+   >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
+   >>> for name, phone in table.items():
+   ...     print(f'{name:10} ==> {phone:10d}')
+   ...
+   Sjoerd     ==>       4127
+   Jack       ==>       4098
+   Dcab       ==>       7678
+
+Other modifiers can be used to convert the value before it is formatted.
+``'!a'`` applies :func:`ascii`, ``'!s'`` applies :func:`str`, and ``'!r'``
+applies :func:`repr`::
+
+   >>> animals = 'eels'
+   >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals}.')
+   My hovercraft is full of eels.
+   >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals!r}.')
+   My hovercraft is full of 'eels'.
+
+For a reference on these format specifications, see
+the reference guide for the :ref:`formatspec`.
+
+.. _tut-string-format:
+
+The String format() Method
+--------------------------
+
+Basic usage of the :meth:`str.format` method looks like this::
+
+   >>> print('We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni'))
+   We are the knights who say "Ni!"
+
+The brackets and characters within them (called format fields) are replaced with
+the objects passed into the :meth:`str.format` method.  A number in the
+brackets can be used to refer to the position of the object passed into the
+:meth:`str.format` method. ::
+
+   >>> print('{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
+   spam and eggs
+   >>> print('{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
+   eggs and spam
+
+If keyword arguments are used in the :meth:`str.format` method, their values
+are referred to by using the name of the argument. ::
+
+   >>> print('This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
+   ...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible'))
+   This spam is absolutely horrible.
+
+Positional and keyword arguments can be arbitrarily combined::
+
+   >>> print('The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred',
+                                                          other='Georg'))
+   The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.
+
+If you have a really long format string that you don't want to split up, it
+would be nice if you could reference the variables to be formatted by name
+instead of by position.  This can be done by simply passing the dict and using
+square brackets ``'[]'`` to access the keys ::
+
+   >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
+   >>> print('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
+   ...       'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
+   Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678
+
+This could also be done by passing the table as keyword arguments with the '**'
+notation. ::
+
+   >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
+   >>> print('Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table))
+   Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678
+
+This is particularly useful in combination with the built-in function
+:func:`vars`, which returns a dictionary containing all local variables.
+
+As an example, the following lines produce a tidily-aligned
+set of columns giving integers and their squares and cubes::
+
+   >>> for x in range(1, 11):
+   ...     print('{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x))
+   ...
+    1   1    1
+    2   4    8
+    3   9   27
+    4  16   64
+    5  25  125
+    6  36  216
+    7  49  343
+    8  64  512
+    9  81  729
+   10 100 1000
+
+For a complete overview of string formatting with :meth:`str.format`, see
+:ref:`formatstrings`.
+
+
+Manual String Formatting
+------------------------
+
+Here's the same table of squares and cubes, formatted manually::
+
+   >>> for x in range(1, 11):
+   ...     print(repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), end=' ')
+   ...     # Note use of 'end' on previous line
+   ...     print(repr(x*x*x).rjust(4))
+   ...
+    1   1    1
+    2   4    8
+    3   9   27
+    4  16   64
+    5  25  125
+    6  36  216
+    7  49  343
+    8  64  512
+    9  81  729
+   10 100 1000
+
+(Note that the one space between each column was added by the
+way :func:`print` works: it always adds spaces between its arguments.)
+
+The :meth:`str.rjust` method of string objects right-justifies a string in a
+field of a given width by padding it with spaces on the left. There are
+similar methods :meth:`str.ljust` and :meth:`str.center`. These methods do
+not write anything, they just return a new string. If the input string is too
+long, they don't truncate it, but return it unchanged; this will mess up your
+column lay-out but that's usually better than the alternative, which would be
+lying about a value. (If you really want truncation you can always add a
+slice operation, as in ``x.ljust(n)[:n]``.)
+
+There is another method, :meth:`str.zfill`, which pads a numeric string on the
+left with zeros.  It understands about plus and minus signs::
+
+   >>> '12'.zfill(5)
+   '00012'
+   >>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
+   '-003.14'
+   >>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
+   '3.14159265359'
+
+
+Old string formatting
+---------------------
+
+The ``%`` operator can also be used for string formatting. It interprets the
+left argument much like a :c:func:`sprintf`\ -style format string to be applied
+to the right argument, and returns the string resulting from this formatting
+operation. For example::
+
+   >>> import math
+   >>> print('The value of pi is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi)
+   The value of pi is approximately 3.142.
+
+More information can be found in the :ref:`old-string-formatting` section.
+
+
+.. _tut-files:
+
+Reading and Writing Files
+=========================
+
+.. index::
+   builtin: open
+   object: file
+
+:func:`open` returns a :term:`file object`, and is most commonly used with
+two arguments: ``open(filename, mode)``.
+
+::
+
+   >>> f = open('workfile', 'w')
+
+.. XXX str(f) is <io.TextIOWrapper object at 0x82e8dc4>
+
+   >>> print(f)
+   <open file 'workfile', mode 'w' at 80a0960>
+
+The first argument is a string containing the filename.  The second argument is
+another string containing a few characters describing the way in which the file
+will be used.  *mode* can be ``'r'`` when the file will only be read, ``'w'``
+for only writing (an existing file with the same name will be erased), and
+``'a'`` opens the file for appending; any data written to the file is
+automatically added to the end.  ``'r+'`` opens the file for both reading and
+writing. The *mode* argument is optional; ``'r'`` will be assumed if it's
+omitted.
+
+Normally, files are opened in :dfn:`text mode`, that means, you read and write
+strings from and to the file, which are encoded in a specific encoding. If
+encoding is not specified, the default is platform dependent (see
+:func:`open`). ``'b'`` appended to the mode opens the file in
+:dfn:`binary mode`: now the data is read and written in the form of bytes
+objects.  This mode should be used for all files that don't contain text.
+
+In text mode, the default when reading is to convert platform-specific line
+endings (``\n`` on Unix, ``\r\n`` on Windows) to just ``\n``.  When writing in
+text mode, the default is to convert occurrences of ``\n`` back to
+platform-specific line endings.  This behind-the-scenes modification
+to file data is fine for text files, but will corrupt binary data like that in
+:file:`JPEG` or :file:`EXE` files.  Be very careful to use binary mode when
+reading and writing such files.
+
+It is good practice to use the :keyword:`with` keyword when dealing
+with file objects.  The advantage is that the file is properly closed
+after its suite finishes, even if an exception is raised at some
+point.  Using :keyword:`!with` is also much shorter than writing
+equivalent :keyword:`try`\ -\ :keyword:`finally` blocks::
+
+    >>> with open('workfile') as f:
+    ...     read_data = f.read()
+    >>> f.closed
+    True
+
+If you're not using the :keyword:`with` keyword, then you should call
+``f.close()`` to close the file and immediately free up any system
+resources used by it. If you don't explicitly close a file, Python's
+garbage collector will eventually destroy the object and close the
+open file for you, but the file may stay open for a while.  Another
+risk is that different Python implementations will do this clean-up at
+different times.
+
+After a file object is closed, either by a :keyword:`with` statement
+or by calling ``f.close()``, attempts to use the file object will
+automatically fail. ::
+
+   >>> f.close()
+   >>> f.read()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.
+
+
+.. _tut-filemethods:
+
+Methods of File Objects
+-----------------------
+
+The rest of the examples in this section will assume that a file object called
+``f`` has already been created.
+
+To read a file's contents, call ``f.read(size)``, which reads some quantity of
+data and returns it as a string (in text mode) or bytes object (in binary mode).
+*size* is an optional numeric argument.  When *size* is omitted or negative, the
+entire contents of the file will be read and returned; it's your problem if the
+file is twice as large as your machine's memory. Otherwise, at most *size* bytes
+are read and returned.
+If the end of the file has been reached, ``f.read()`` will return an empty
+string (``''``).  ::
+
+   >>> f.read()
+   'This is the entire file.\n'
+   >>> f.read()
+   ''
+
+``f.readline()`` reads a single line from the file; a newline character (``\n``)
+is left at the end of the string, and is only omitted on the last line of the
+file if the file doesn't end in a newline.  This makes the return value
+unambiguous; if ``f.readline()`` returns an empty string, the end of the file
+has been reached, while a blank line is represented by ``'\n'``, a string
+containing only a single newline.  ::
+
+   >>> f.readline()
+   'This is the first line of the file.\n'
+   >>> f.readline()
+   'Second line of the file\n'
+   >>> f.readline()
+   ''
+
+For reading lines from a file, you can loop over the file object. This is memory
+efficient, fast, and leads to simple code::
+
+   >>> for line in f:
+   ...     print(line, end='')
+   ...
+   This is the first line of the file.
+   Second line of the file
+
+If you want to read all the lines of a file in a list you can also use
+``list(f)`` or ``f.readlines()``.
+
+``f.write(string)`` writes the contents of *string* to the file, returning
+the number of characters written. ::
+
+   >>> f.write('This is a test\n')
+   15
+
+Other types of objects need to be converted -- either to a string (in text mode)
+or a bytes object (in binary mode) -- before writing them::
+
+   >>> value = ('the answer', 42)
+   >>> s = str(value)  # convert the tuple to string
+   >>> f.write(s)
+   18
+
+``f.tell()`` returns an integer giving the file object's current position in the file
+represented as number of bytes from the beginning of the file when in binary mode and
+an opaque number when in text mode.
+
+To change the file object's position, use ``f.seek(offset, from_what)``.  The position is computed
+from adding *offset* to a reference point; the reference point is selected by
+the *from_what* argument.  A *from_what* value of 0 measures from the beginning
+of the file, 1 uses the current file position, and 2 uses the end of the file as
+the reference point.  *from_what* can be omitted and defaults to 0, using the
+beginning of the file as the reference point. ::
+
+   >>> f = open('workfile', 'rb+')
+   >>> f.write(b'0123456789abcdef')
+   16
+   >>> f.seek(5)      # Go to the 6th byte in the file
+   5
+   >>> f.read(1)
+   b'5'
+   >>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # Go to the 3rd byte before the end
+   13
+   >>> f.read(1)
+   b'd'
+
+In text files (those opened without a ``b`` in the mode string), only seeks
+relative to the beginning of the file are allowed (the exception being seeking
+to the very file end with ``seek(0, 2)``) and the only valid *offset* values are
+those returned from the ``f.tell()``, or zero. Any other *offset* value produces
+undefined behaviour.
+
+File objects have some additional methods, such as :meth:`~file.isatty` and
+:meth:`~file.truncate` which are less frequently used; consult the Library
+Reference for a complete guide to file objects.
+
+
+.. _tut-json:
+
+Saving structured data with :mod:`json`
+---------------------------------------
+
+.. index:: module: json
+
+Strings can easily be written to and read from a file.  Numbers take a bit more
+effort, since the :meth:`read` method only returns strings, which will have to
+be passed to a function like :func:`int`, which takes a string like ``'123'``
+and returns its numeric value 123.  When you want to save more complex data
+types like nested lists and dictionaries, parsing and serializing by hand
+becomes complicated.
+
+Rather than having users constantly writing and debugging code to save
+complicated data types to files, Python allows you to use the popular data
+interchange format called `JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)
+<http://json.org>`_.  The standard module called :mod:`json` can take Python
+data hierarchies, and convert them to string representations; this process is
+called :dfn:`serializing`.  Reconstructing the data from the string representation
+is called :dfn:`deserializing`.  Between serializing and deserializing, the
+string representing the object may have been stored in a file or data, or
+sent over a network connection to some distant machine.
+
+.. note::
+   The JSON format is commonly used by modern applications to allow for data
+   exchange.  Many programmers are already familiar with it, which makes
+   it a good choice for interoperability.
+
+If you have an object ``x``, you can view its JSON string representation with a
+simple line of code::
+
+   >>> import json
+   >>> json.dumps([1, 'simple', 'list'])
+   '[1, "simple", "list"]'
+
+Another variant of the :func:`~json.dumps` function, called :func:`~json.dump`,
+simply serializes the object to a :term:`text file`.  So if ``f`` is a
+:term:`text file` object opened for writing, we can do this::
+
+   json.dump(x, f)
+
+To decode the object again, if ``f`` is a :term:`text file` object which has
+been opened for reading::
+
+   x = json.load(f)
+
+This simple serialization technique can handle lists and dictionaries, but
+serializing arbitrary class instances in JSON requires a bit of extra effort.
+The reference for the :mod:`json` module contains an explanation of this.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :mod:`pickle` - the pickle module
+
+   Contrary to :ref:`JSON <tut-json>`, *pickle* is a protocol which allows
+   the serialization of arbitrarily complex Python objects.  As such, it is
+   specific to Python and cannot be used to communicate with applications
+   written in other languages.  It is also insecure by default:
+   deserializing pickle data coming from an untrusted source can execute
+   arbitrary code, if the data was crafted by a skilled attacker.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/interactive.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/interactive.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0eb1fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/interactive.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+.. _tut-interacting:
+
+**************************************************
+Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
+**************************************************
+
+Some versions of the Python interpreter support editing of the current input
+line and history substitution, similar to facilities found in the Korn shell and
+the GNU Bash shell.  This is implemented using the `GNU Readline`_ library,
+which supports various styles of editing.  This library has its own
+documentation which we won't duplicate here.
+
+
+.. _tut-keybindings:
+
+Tab Completion and History Editing
+==================================
+
+Completion of variable and module names is
+:ref:`automatically enabled <rlcompleter-config>` at interpreter startup so
+that the :kbd:`Tab` key invokes the completion function; it looks at
+Python statement names, the current local variables, and the available
+module names.  For dotted expressions such as ``string.a``, it will evaluate
+the expression up to the final ``'.'`` and then suggest completions from
+the attributes of the resulting object.  Note that this may execute
+application-defined code if an object with a :meth:`__getattr__` method
+is part of the expression.  The default configuration also saves your
+history into a file named :file:`.python_history` in your user directory.
+The history will be available again during the next interactive interpreter
+session.
+
+
+.. _tut-commentary:
+
+Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter
+===========================================
+
+This facility is an enormous step forward compared to earlier versions of the
+interpreter; however, some wishes are left: It would be nice if the proper
+indentation were suggested on continuation lines (the parser knows if an indent
+token is required next).  The completion mechanism might use the interpreter's
+symbol table.  A command to check (or even suggest) matching parentheses,
+quotes, etc., would also be useful.
+
+One alternative enhanced interactive interpreter that has been around for quite
+some time is IPython_, which features tab completion, object exploration and
+advanced history management.  It can also be thoroughly customized and embedded
+into other applications.  Another similar enhanced interactive environment is
+bpython_.
+
+
+.. _GNU Readline: https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html
+.. _IPython: https://ipython.org/
+.. _bpython: https://www.bpython-interpreter.org/
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/interpreter.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/interpreter.rst.txt
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+.. _tut-using:
+
+****************************
+Using the Python Interpreter
+****************************
+
+
+.. _tut-invoking:
+
+Invoking the Interpreter
+========================
+
+The Python interpreter is usually installed as :file:`/usr/local/bin/python3.7`
+on those machines where it is available; putting :file:`/usr/local/bin` in your
+Unix shell's search path makes it possible to start it by typing the command:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+   python3.7
+
+to the shell. [#]_ Since the choice of the directory where the interpreter lives
+is an installation option, other places are possible; check with your local
+Python guru or system administrator.  (E.g., :file:`/usr/local/python` is a
+popular alternative location.)
+
+On Windows machines where you have installed from the :ref:`Microsoft Store
+<windows-store>`, the :file:`python3.7` command will be available. If you have
+the :ref:`py.exe launcher <launcher>` installed, you can use the :file:`py`
+command. See :ref:`setting-envvars` for other ways to launch Python.
+
+Typing an end-of-file character (:kbd:`Control-D` on Unix, :kbd:`Control-Z` on
+Windows) at the primary prompt causes the interpreter to exit with a zero exit
+status.  If that doesn't work, you can exit the interpreter by typing the
+following command: ``quit()``.
+
+The interpreter's line-editing features include interactive editing, history
+substitution and code completion on systems that support readline.  Perhaps the
+quickest check to see whether command line editing is supported is typing
+:kbd:`Control-P` to the first Python prompt you get.  If it beeps, you have command
+line editing; see Appendix :ref:`tut-interacting` for an introduction to the
+keys.  If nothing appears to happen, or if ``^P`` is echoed, command line
+editing isn't available; you'll only be able to use backspace to remove
+characters from the current line.
+
+The interpreter operates somewhat like the Unix shell: when called with standard
+input connected to a tty device, it reads and executes commands interactively;
+when called with a file name argument or with a file as standard input, it reads
+and executes a *script* from that file.
+
+A second way of starting the interpreter is ``python -c command [arg] ...``,
+which executes the statement(s) in *command*, analogous to the shell's
+:option:`-c` option.  Since Python statements often contain spaces or other
+characters that are special to the shell, it is usually advised to quote
+*command* in its entirety with single quotes.
+
+Some Python modules are also useful as scripts.  These can be invoked using
+``python -m module [arg] ...``, which executes the source file for *module* as
+if you had spelled out its full name on the command line.
+
+When a script file is used, it is sometimes useful to be able to run the script
+and enter interactive mode afterwards.  This can be done by passing :option:`-i`
+before the script.
+
+All command line options are described in :ref:`using-on-general`.
+
+
+.. _tut-argpassing:
+
+Argument Passing
+----------------
+
+When known to the interpreter, the script name and additional arguments
+thereafter are turned into a list of strings and assigned to the ``argv``
+variable in the ``sys`` module.  You can access this list by executing ``import
+sys``.  The length of the list is at least one; when no script and no arguments
+are given, ``sys.argv[0]`` is an empty string.  When the script name is given as
+``'-'`` (meaning  standard input), ``sys.argv[0]`` is set to ``'-'``.  When
+:option:`-c` *command* is used, ``sys.argv[0]`` is set to ``'-c'``.  When
+:option:`-m` *module* is used, ``sys.argv[0]``  is set to the full name of the
+located module.  Options found after  :option:`-c` *command* or :option:`-m`
+*module* are not consumed  by the Python interpreter's option processing but
+left in ``sys.argv`` for  the command or module to handle.
+
+
+.. _tut-interactive:
+
+Interactive Mode
+----------------
+
+When commands are read from a tty, the interpreter is said to be in *interactive
+mode*.  In this mode it prompts for the next command with the *primary prompt*,
+usually three greater-than signs (``>>>``); for continuation lines it prompts
+with the *secondary prompt*, by default three dots (``...``). The interpreter
+prints a welcome message stating its version number and a copyright notice
+before printing the first prompt:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python3.7
+   Python 3.7 (default, Sep 16 2015, 09:25:04)
+   [GCC 4.8.2] on linux
+   Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
+   >>>
+
+.. XXX update for new releases
+
+Continuation lines are needed when entering a multi-line construct. As an
+example, take a look at this :keyword:`if` statement::
+
+   >>> the_world_is_flat = True
+   >>> if the_world_is_flat:
+   ...     print("Be careful not to fall off!")
+   ...
+   Be careful not to fall off!
+
+
+For more on interactive mode, see :ref:`tut-interac`.
+
+
+.. _tut-interp:
+
+The Interpreter and Its Environment
+===================================
+
+
+.. _tut-source-encoding:
+
+Source Code Encoding
+--------------------
+
+By default, Python source files are treated as encoded in UTF-8.  In that
+encoding, characters of most languages in the world can be used simultaneously
+in string literals, identifiers and comments --- although the standard library
+only uses ASCII characters for identifiers, a convention that any portable code
+should follow.  To display all these characters properly, your editor must
+recognize that the file is UTF-8, and it must use a font that supports all the
+characters in the file.
+
+To declare an encoding other than the default one, a special comment line
+should be added as the *first* line of the file.  The syntax is as follows::
+
+   # -*- coding: encoding -*-
+
+where *encoding* is one of the valid :mod:`codecs` supported by Python.
+
+For example, to declare that Windows-1252 encoding is to be used, the first
+line of your source code file should be::
+
+   # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-
+
+One exception to the *first line* rule is when the source code starts with a
+:ref:`UNIX "shebang" line <tut-scripts>`.  In this case, the encoding
+declaration should be added as the second line of the file.  For example::
+
+   #!/usr/bin/env python3
+   # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] On Unix, the Python 3.x interpreter is by default not installed with the
+   executable named ``python``, so that it does not conflict with a
+   simultaneously installed Python 2.x executable.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/introduction.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/introduction.rst.txt
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+.. _tut-informal:
+
+**********************************
+An Informal Introduction to Python
+**********************************
+
+In the following examples, input and output are distinguished by the presence or
+absence of prompts (:term:`>>>` and :term:`...`): to repeat the example, you must type
+everything after the prompt, when the prompt appears; lines that do not begin
+with a prompt are output from the interpreter. Note that a secondary prompt on a
+line by itself in an example means you must type a blank line; this is used to
+end a multi-line command.
+
+.. index:: single: # (hash); comment
+
+Many of the examples in this manual, even those entered at the interactive
+prompt, include comments.  Comments in Python start with the hash character,
+``#``, and extend to the end of the physical line.  A comment may appear at the
+start of a line or following whitespace or code, but not within a string
+literal.  A hash character within a string literal is just a hash character.
+Since comments are to clarify code and are not interpreted by Python, they may
+be omitted when typing in examples.
+
+Some examples::
+
+   # this is the first comment
+   spam = 1  # and this is the second comment
+             # ... and now a third!
+   text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes."
+
+
+.. _tut-calculator:
+
+Using Python as a Calculator
+============================
+
+Let's try some simple Python commands.  Start the interpreter and wait for the
+primary prompt, ``>>>``.  (It shouldn't take long.)
+
+
+.. _tut-numbers:
+
+Numbers
+-------
+
+The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression at it
+and it will write the value.  Expression syntax is straightforward: the
+operators ``+``, ``-``, ``*`` and ``/`` work just like in most other languages
+(for example, Pascal or C); parentheses (``()``) can be used for grouping.
+For example::
+
+   >>> 2 + 2
+   4
+   >>> 50 - 5*6
+   20
+   >>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
+   5.0
+   >>> 8 / 5  # division always returns a floating point number
+   1.6
+
+The integer numbers (e.g. ``2``, ``4``, ``20``) have type :class:`int`,
+the ones with a fractional part (e.g. ``5.0``, ``1.6``) have type
+:class:`float`.  We will see more about numeric types later in the tutorial.
+
+Division (``/``) always returns a float.  To do :term:`floor division` and
+get an integer result (discarding any fractional result) you can use the ``//``
+operator; to calculate the remainder you can use ``%``::
+
+   >>> 17 / 3  # classic division returns a float
+   5.666666666666667
+   >>>
+   >>> 17 // 3  # floor division discards the fractional part
+   5
+   >>> 17 % 3  # the % operator returns the remainder of the division
+   2
+   >>> 5 * 3 + 2  # result * divisor + remainder
+   17
+
+With Python, it is possible to use the ``**`` operator to calculate powers [#]_::
+
+   >>> 5 ** 2  # 5 squared
+   25
+   >>> 2 ** 7  # 2 to the power of 7
+   128
+
+The equal sign (``=``) is used to assign a value to a variable. Afterwards, no
+result is displayed before the next interactive prompt::
+
+   >>> width = 20
+   >>> height = 5 * 9
+   >>> width * height
+   900
+
+If a variable is not "defined" (assigned a value), trying to use it will
+give you an error::
+
+   >>> n  # try to access an undefined variable
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   NameError: name 'n' is not defined
+
+There is full support for floating point; operators with mixed type operands
+convert the integer operand to floating point::
+
+   >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1
+   14.0
+
+In interactive mode, the last printed expression is assigned to the variable
+``_``.  This means that when you are using Python as a desk calculator, it is
+somewhat easier to continue calculations, for example::
+
+   >>> tax = 12.5 / 100
+   >>> price = 100.50
+   >>> price * tax
+   12.5625
+   >>> price + _
+   113.0625
+   >>> round(_, 2)
+   113.06
+
+This variable should be treated as read-only by the user.  Don't explicitly
+assign a value to it --- you would create an independent local variable with the
+same name masking the built-in variable with its magic behavior.
+
+In addition to :class:`int` and :class:`float`, Python supports other types of
+numbers, such as :class:`~decimal.Decimal` and :class:`~fractions.Fraction`.
+Python also has built-in support for :ref:`complex numbers <typesnumeric>`,
+and uses the ``j`` or ``J`` suffix to indicate the imaginary part
+(e.g. ``3+5j``).
+
+
+.. _tut-strings:
+
+Strings
+-------
+
+Besides numbers, Python can also manipulate strings, which can be expressed
+in several ways.  They can be enclosed in single quotes (``'...'``) or
+double quotes (``"..."``) with the same result [#]_.  ``\`` can be used
+to escape quotes::
+
+   >>> 'spam eggs'  # single quotes
+   'spam eggs'
+   >>> 'doesn\'t'  # use \' to escape the single quote...
+   "doesn't"
+   >>> "doesn't"  # ...or use double quotes instead
+   "doesn't"
+   >>> '"Yes," they said.'
+   '"Yes," they said.'
+   >>> "\"Yes,\" they said."
+   '"Yes," they said.'
+   >>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
+   '"Isn\'t," they said.'
+
+In the interactive interpreter, the output string is enclosed in quotes and
+special characters are escaped with backslashes.  While this might sometimes
+look different from the input (the enclosing quotes could change), the two
+strings are equivalent.  The string is enclosed in double quotes if
+the string contains a single quote and no double quotes, otherwise it is
+enclosed in single quotes.  The :func:`print` function produces a more
+readable output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped
+and special characters::
+
+   >>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
+   '"Isn\'t," they said.'
+   >>> print('"Isn\'t," they said.')
+   "Isn't," they said.
+   >>> s = 'First line.\nSecond line.'  # \n means newline
+   >>> s  # without print(), \n is included in the output
+   'First line.\nSecond line.'
+   >>> print(s)  # with print(), \n produces a new line
+   First line.
+   Second line.
+
+If you don't want characters prefaced by ``\`` to be interpreted as
+special characters, you can use *raw strings* by adding an ``r`` before
+the first quote::
+
+   >>> print('C:\some\name')  # here \n means newline!
+   C:\some
+   ame
+   >>> print(r'C:\some\name')  # note the r before the quote
+   C:\some\name
+
+String literals can span multiple lines.  One way is using triple-quotes:
+``"""..."""`` or ``'''...'''``.  End of lines are automatically
+included in the string, but it's possible to prevent this by adding a ``\`` at
+the end of the line.  The following example::
+
+   print("""\
+   Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
+        -h                        Display this usage message
+        -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
+   """)
+
+produces the following output (note that the initial newline is not included):
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+   Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
+        -h                        Display this usage message
+        -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
+
+Strings can be concatenated (glued together) with the ``+`` operator, and
+repeated with ``*``::
+
+   >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium'
+   >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
+   'unununium'
+
+Two or more *string literals* (i.e. the ones enclosed between quotes) next
+to each other are automatically concatenated. ::
+
+   >>> 'Py' 'thon'
+   'Python'
+
+This feature is particularly useful when you want to break long strings::
+
+   >>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
+   ...         'to have them joined together.')
+   >>> text
+   'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'
+
+This only works with two literals though, not with variables or expressions::
+
+   >>> prefix = 'Py'
+   >>> prefix 'thon'  # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal
+     File "<stdin>", line 1
+       prefix 'thon'
+                   ^
+   SyntaxError: invalid syntax
+   >>> ('un' * 3) 'ium'
+     File "<stdin>", line 1
+       ('un' * 3) 'ium'
+                      ^
+   SyntaxError: invalid syntax
+
+If you want to concatenate variables or a variable and a literal, use ``+``::
+
+   >>> prefix + 'thon'
+   'Python'
+
+Strings can be *indexed* (subscripted), with the first character having index 0.
+There is no separate character type; a character is simply a string of size
+one::
+
+   >>> word = 'Python'
+   >>> word[0]  # character in position 0
+   'P'
+   >>> word[5]  # character in position 5
+   'n'
+
+Indices may also be negative numbers, to start counting from the right::
+
+   >>> word[-1]  # last character
+   'n'
+   >>> word[-2]  # second-last character
+   'o'
+   >>> word[-6]
+   'P'
+
+Note that since -0 is the same as 0, negative indices start from -1.
+
+In addition to indexing, *slicing* is also supported.  While indexing is used
+to obtain individual characters, *slicing* allows you to obtain substring::
+
+   >>> word[0:2]  # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)
+   'Py'
+   >>> word[2:5]  # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)
+   'tho'
+
+Note how the start is always included, and the end always excluded.  This
+makes sure that ``s[:i] + s[i:]`` is always equal to ``s``::
+
+   >>> word[:2] + word[2:]
+   'Python'
+   >>> word[:4] + word[4:]
+   'Python'
+
+Slice indices have useful defaults; an omitted first index defaults to zero, an
+omitted second index defaults to the size of the string being sliced. ::
+
+   >>> word[:2]   # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)
+   'Py'
+   >>> word[4:]   # characters from position 4 (included) to the end
+   'on'
+   >>> word[-2:]  # characters from the second-last (included) to the end
+   'on'
+
+One way to remember how slices work is to think of the indices as pointing
+*between* characters, with the left edge of the first character numbered 0.
+Then the right edge of the last character of a string of *n* characters has
+index *n*, for example::
+
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    | P | y | t | h | o | n |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    0   1   2   3   4   5   6
+   -6  -5  -4  -3  -2  -1
+
+The first row of numbers gives the position of the indices 0...6 in the string;
+the second row gives the corresponding negative indices. The slice from *i* to
+*j* consists of all characters between the edges labeled *i* and *j*,
+respectively.
+
+For non-negative indices, the length of a slice is the difference of the
+indices, if both are within bounds.  For example, the length of ``word[1:3]`` is
+2.
+
+Attempting to use an index that is too large will result in an error::
+
+   >>> word[42]  # the word only has 6 characters
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   IndexError: string index out of range
+
+However, out of range slice indexes are handled gracefully when used for
+slicing::
+
+   >>> word[4:42]
+   'on'
+   >>> word[42:]
+   ''
+
+Python strings cannot be changed --- they are :term:`immutable`.
+Therefore, assigning to an indexed position in the string results in an error::
+
+   >>> word[0] = 'J'
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
+   >>> word[2:] = 'py'
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+   TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
+
+If you need a different string, you should create a new one::
+
+   >>> 'J' + word[1:]
+   'Jython'
+   >>> word[:2] + 'py'
+   'Pypy'
+
+The built-in function :func:`len` returns the length of a string::
+
+   >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
+   >>> len(s)
+   34
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`textseq`
+      Strings are examples of *sequence types*, and support the common
+      operations supported by such types.
+
+   :ref:`string-methods`
+      Strings support a large number of methods for
+      basic transformations and searching.
+
+   :ref:`f-strings`
+      String literals that have embedded expressions.
+
+   :ref:`formatstrings`
+      Information about string formatting with :meth:`str.format`.
+
+   :ref:`old-string-formatting`
+      The old formatting operations invoked when strings are
+      the left operand of the ``%`` operator are described in more detail here.
+
+
+.. _tut-lists:
+
+Lists
+-----
+
+Python knows a number of *compound* data types, used to group together other
+values.  The most versatile is the *list*, which can be written as a list of
+comma-separated values (items) between square brackets.  Lists might contain
+items of different types, but usually the items all have the same type. ::
+
+   >>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
+   >>> squares
+   [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
+
+Like strings (and all other built-in :term:`sequence` types), lists can be
+indexed and sliced::
+
+   >>> squares[0]  # indexing returns the item
+   1
+   >>> squares[-1]
+   25
+   >>> squares[-3:]  # slicing returns a new list
+   [9, 16, 25]
+
+All slice operations return a new list containing the requested elements.  This
+means that the following slice returns a new (shallow) copy of the list::
+
+   >>> squares[:]
+   [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
+
+Lists also support operations like concatenation::
+
+   >>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
+   [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
+
+Unlike strings, which are :term:`immutable`, lists are a :term:`mutable`
+type, i.e. it is possible to change their content::
+
+    >>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # something's wrong here
+    >>> 4 ** 3  # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65!
+    64
+    >>> cubes[3] = 64  # replace the wrong value
+    >>> cubes
+    [1, 8, 27, 64, 125]
+
+You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using
+the :meth:`~list.append` *method* (we will see more about methods later)::
+
+   >>> cubes.append(216)  # add the cube of 6
+   >>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # and the cube of 7
+   >>> cubes
+   [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]
+
+Assignment to slices is also possible, and this can even change the size of the
+list or clear it entirely::
+
+   >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
+   >>> letters
+   ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
+   >>> # replace some values
+   >>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
+   >>> letters
+   ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
+   >>> # now remove them
+   >>> letters[2:5] = []
+   >>> letters
+   ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
+   >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list
+   >>> letters[:] = []
+   >>> letters
+   []
+
+The built-in function :func:`len` also applies to lists::
+
+   >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
+   >>> len(letters)
+   4
+
+It is possible to nest lists (create lists containing other lists), for
+example::
+
+   >>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
+   >>> n = [1, 2, 3]
+   >>> x = [a, n]
+   >>> x
+   [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
+   >>> x[0]
+   ['a', 'b', 'c']
+   >>> x[0][1]
+   'b'
+
+.. _tut-firststeps:
+
+First Steps Towards Programming
+===============================
+
+Of course, we can use Python for more complicated tasks than adding two and two
+together.  For instance, we can write an initial sub-sequence of the
+`Fibonacci series <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number>`_
+as follows::
+
+   >>> # Fibonacci series:
+   ... # the sum of two elements defines the next
+   ... a, b = 0, 1
+   >>> while a < 10:
+   ...     print(a)
+   ...     a, b = b, a+b
+   ...
+   0
+   1
+   1
+   2
+   3
+   5
+   8
+
+This example introduces several new features.
+
+* The first line contains a *multiple assignment*: the variables ``a`` and ``b``
+  simultaneously get the new values 0 and 1.  On the last line this is used again,
+  demonstrating that the expressions on the right-hand side are all evaluated
+  first before any of the assignments take place.  The right-hand side expressions
+  are evaluated  from the left to the right.
+
+* The :keyword:`while` loop executes as long as the condition (here: ``a < 10``)
+  remains true.  In Python, like in C, any non-zero integer value is true; zero is
+  false.  The condition may also be a string or list value, in fact any sequence;
+  anything with a non-zero length is true, empty sequences are false.  The test
+  used in the example is a simple comparison.  The standard comparison operators
+  are written the same as in C: ``<`` (less than), ``>`` (greater than), ``==``
+  (equal to), ``<=`` (less than or equal to), ``>=`` (greater than or equal to)
+  and ``!=`` (not equal to).
+
+* The *body* of the loop is *indented*: indentation is Python's way of grouping
+  statements.  At the interactive prompt, you have to type a tab or space(s) for
+  each indented line.  In practice you will prepare more complicated input
+  for Python with a text editor; all decent text editors have an auto-indent
+  facility.  When a compound statement is entered interactively, it must be
+  followed by a blank line to indicate completion (since the parser cannot
+  guess when you have typed the last line).  Note that each line within a basic
+  block must be indented by the same amount.
+
+* The :func:`print` function writes the value of the argument(s) it is given.
+  It differs from just writing the expression you want to write (as we did
+  earlier in the calculator examples) in the way it handles multiple arguments,
+  floating point quantities, and strings.  Strings are printed without quotes,
+  and a space is inserted between items, so you can format things nicely, like
+  this::
+
+     >>> i = 256*256
+     >>> print('The value of i is', i)
+     The value of i is 65536
+
+  The keyword argument *end* can be used to avoid the newline after the output,
+  or end the output with a different string::
+
+     >>> a, b = 0, 1
+     >>> while a < 1000:
+     ...     print(a, end=',')
+     ...     a, b = b, a+b
+     ...
+     0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] Since ``**`` has higher precedence than ``-``, ``-3**2`` will be
+   interpreted as ``-(3**2)`` and thus result in ``-9``.  To avoid this
+   and get ``9``, you can use ``(-3)**2``.
+
+.. [#] Unlike other languages, special characters such as ``\n`` have the
+   same meaning with both single (``'...'``) and double (``"..."``) quotes.
+   The only difference between the two is that within single quotes you don't
+   need to escape ``"`` (but you have to escape ``\'``) and vice versa.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/modules.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/modules.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0a68fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/modules.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,572 @@
+.. _tut-modules:
+
+*******
+Modules
+*******
+
+If you quit from the Python interpreter and enter it again, the definitions you
+have made (functions and variables) are lost. Therefore, if you want to write a
+somewhat longer program, you are better off using a text editor to prepare the
+input for the interpreter and running it with that file as input instead.  This
+is known as creating a *script*.  As your program gets longer, you may want to
+split it into several files for easier maintenance.  You may also want to use a
+handy function that you've written in several programs without copying its
+definition into each program.
+
+To support this, Python has a way to put definitions in a file and use them in a
+script or in an interactive instance of the interpreter. Such a file is called a
+*module*; definitions from a module can be *imported* into other modules or into
+the *main* module (the collection of variables that you have access to in a
+script executed at the top level and in calculator mode).
+
+A module is a file containing Python definitions and statements.  The file name
+is the module name with the suffix :file:`.py` appended.  Within a module, the
+module's name (as a string) is available as the value of the global variable
+``__name__``.  For instance, use your favorite text editor to create a file
+called :file:`fibo.py` in the current directory with the following contents::
+
+   # Fibonacci numbers module
+
+   def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series up to n
+       a, b = 0, 1
+       while a < n:
+           print(a, end=' ')
+           a, b = b, a+b
+       print()
+
+   def fib2(n):   # return Fibonacci series up to n
+       result = []
+       a, b = 0, 1
+       while a < n:
+           result.append(a)
+           a, b = b, a+b
+       return result
+
+Now enter the Python interpreter and import this module with the following
+command::
+
+   >>> import fibo
+
+This does not enter the names of the functions defined in ``fibo``  directly in
+the current symbol table; it only enters the module name ``fibo`` there. Using
+the module name you can access the functions::
+
+   >>> fibo.fib(1000)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
+   >>> fibo.fib2(100)
+   [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
+   >>> fibo.__name__
+   'fibo'
+
+If you intend to use a function often you can assign it to a local name::
+
+   >>> fib = fibo.fib
+   >>> fib(500)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
+
+
+.. _tut-moremodules:
+
+More on Modules
+===============
+
+A module can contain executable statements as well as function definitions.
+These statements are intended to initialize the module. They are executed only
+the *first* time the module name is encountered in an import statement. [#]_
+(They are also run if the file is executed as a script.)
+
+Each module has its own private symbol table, which is used as the global symbol
+table by all functions defined in the module. Thus, the author of a module can
+use global variables in the module without worrying about accidental clashes
+with a user's global variables. On the other hand, if you know what you are
+doing you can touch a module's global variables with the same notation used to
+refer to its functions, ``modname.itemname``.
+
+Modules can import other modules.  It is customary but not required to place all
+:keyword:`import` statements at the beginning of a module (or script, for that
+matter).  The imported module names are placed in the importing module's global
+symbol table.
+
+There is a variant of the :keyword:`import` statement that imports names from a
+module directly into the importing module's symbol table.  For example::
+
+   >>> from fibo import fib, fib2
+   >>> fib(500)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
+
+This does not introduce the module name from which the imports are taken in the
+local symbol table (so in the example, ``fibo`` is not defined).
+
+There is even a variant to import all names that a module defines::
+
+   >>> from fibo import *
+   >>> fib(500)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
+
+This imports all names except those beginning with an underscore (``_``).
+In most cases Python programmers do not use this facility since it introduces
+an unknown set of names into the interpreter, possibly hiding some things
+you have already defined.
+
+Note that in general the practice of importing ``*`` from a module or package is
+frowned upon, since it often causes poorly readable code. However, it is okay to
+use it to save typing in interactive sessions.
+
+If the module name is followed by :keyword:`!as`, then the name
+following :keyword:`!as` is bound directly to the imported module.
+
+::
+
+   >>> import fibo as fib
+   >>> fib.fib(500)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
+
+This is effectively importing the module in the same way that ``import fibo``
+will do, with the only difference of it being available as ``fib``.
+
+It can also be used when utilising :keyword:`from` with similar effects::
+
+   >>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
+   >>> fibonacci(500)
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   For efficiency reasons, each module is only imported once per interpreter
+   session.  Therefore, if you change your modules, you must restart the
+   interpreter -- or, if it's just one module you want to test interactively,
+   use :func:`importlib.reload`, e.g. ``import importlib;
+   importlib.reload(modulename)``.
+
+
+.. _tut-modulesasscripts:
+
+Executing modules as scripts
+----------------------------
+
+When you run a Python module with ::
+
+   python fibo.py <arguments>
+
+the code in the module will be executed, just as if you imported it, but with
+the ``__name__`` set to ``"__main__"``.  That means that by adding this code at
+the end of your module::
+
+   if __name__ == "__main__":
+       import sys
+       fib(int(sys.argv[1]))
+
+you can make the file usable as a script as well as an importable module,
+because the code that parses the command line only runs if the module is
+executed as the "main" file:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ python fibo.py 50
+   0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34
+
+If the module is imported, the code is not run::
+
+   >>> import fibo
+   >>>
+
+This is often used either to provide a convenient user interface to a module, or
+for testing purposes (running the module as a script executes a test suite).
+
+
+.. _tut-searchpath:
+
+The Module Search Path
+----------------------
+
+.. index:: triple: module; search; path
+
+When a module named :mod:`spam` is imported, the interpreter first searches for
+a built-in module with that name. If not found, it then searches for a file
+named :file:`spam.py` in a list of directories given by the variable
+:data:`sys.path`.  :data:`sys.path` is initialized from these locations:
+
+* The directory containing the input script (or the current directory when no
+  file is specified).
+* :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` (a list of directory names, with the same syntax as the
+  shell variable :envvar:`PATH`).
+* The installation-dependent default.
+
+.. note::
+   On file systems which support symlinks, the directory containing the input
+   script is calculated after the symlink is followed. In other words the
+   directory containing the symlink is **not** added to the module search path.
+
+After initialization, Python programs can modify :data:`sys.path`.  The
+directory containing the script being run is placed at the beginning of the
+search path, ahead of the standard library path. This means that scripts in that
+directory will be loaded instead of modules of the same name in the library
+directory. This is an error unless the replacement is intended.  See section
+:ref:`tut-standardmodules` for more information.
+
+.. %
+    Do we need stuff on zip files etc. ? DUBOIS
+
+"Compiled" Python files
+-----------------------
+
+To speed up loading modules, Python caches the compiled version of each module
+in the ``__pycache__`` directory under the name :file:`module.{version}.pyc`,
+where the version encodes the format of the compiled file; it generally contains
+the Python version number.  For example, in CPython release 3.3 the compiled
+version of spam.py would be cached as ``__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc``.  This
+naming convention allows compiled modules from different releases and different
+versions of Python to coexist.
+
+Python checks the modification date of the source against the compiled version
+to see if it's out of date and needs to be recompiled.  This is a completely
+automatic process.  Also, the compiled modules are platform-independent, so the
+same library can be shared among systems with different architectures.
+
+Python does not check the cache in two circumstances.  First, it always
+recompiles and does not store the result for the module that's loaded directly
+from the command line.  Second, it does not check the cache if there is no
+source module.  To support a non-source (compiled only) distribution, the
+compiled module must be in the source directory, and there must not be a source
+module.
+
+Some tips for experts:
+
+* You can use the :option:`-O` or :option:`-OO` switches on the Python command
+  to reduce the size of a compiled module.  The ``-O`` switch removes assert
+  statements, the ``-OO`` switch removes both assert statements and __doc__
+  strings.  Since some programs may rely on having these available, you should
+  only use this option if you know what you're doing.  "Optimized" modules have
+  an ``opt-`` tag and are usually smaller.  Future releases may
+  change the effects of optimization.
+
+* A program doesn't run any faster when it is read from a ``.pyc``
+  file than when it is read from a ``.py`` file; the only thing that's faster
+  about ``.pyc`` files is the speed with which they are loaded.
+
+* The module :mod:`compileall` can create .pyc files for all modules in a
+  directory.
+
+* There is more detail on this process, including a flow chart of the
+  decisions, in :pep:`3147`.
+
+
+.. _tut-standardmodules:
+
+Standard Modules
+================
+
+.. index:: module: sys
+
+Python comes with a library of standard modules, described in a separate
+document, the Python Library Reference ("Library Reference" hereafter).  Some
+modules are built into the interpreter; these provide access to operations that
+are not part of the core of the language but are nevertheless built in, either
+for efficiency or to provide access to operating system primitives such as
+system calls.  The set of such modules is a configuration option which also
+depends on the underlying platform.  For example, the :mod:`winreg` module is only
+provided on Windows systems. One particular module deserves some attention:
+:mod:`sys`, which is built into every Python interpreter.  The variables
+``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2`` define the strings used as primary and secondary
+prompts::
+
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.ps1
+   '>>> '
+   >>> sys.ps2
+   '... '
+   >>> sys.ps1 = 'C> '
+   C> print('Yuck!')
+   Yuck!
+   C>
+
+
+These two variables are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.
+
+The variable ``sys.path`` is a list of strings that determines the interpreter's
+search path for modules. It is initialized to a default path taken from the
+environment variable :envvar:`PYTHONPATH`, or from a built-in default if
+:envvar:`PYTHONPATH` is not set.  You can modify it using standard list
+operations::
+
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.path.append('/ufs/guido/lib/python')
+
+
+.. _tut-dir:
+
+The :func:`dir` Function
+========================
+
+The built-in function :func:`dir` is used to find out which names a module
+defines.  It returns a sorted list of strings::
+
+   >>> import fibo, sys
+   >>> dir(fibo)
+   ['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
+   >>> dir(sys)  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+   ['__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__', '__loader__', '__name__',
+    '__package__', '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__',
+    '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_getframe',
+    '_home', '_mercurial', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'api_version', 'argv',
+    'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder',
+    'call_tracing', 'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook',
+    'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info', 'excepthook', 'exec_prefix',
+    'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info', 'float_repr_style',
+    'getcheckinterval', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
+    'getfilesystemencoding', 'getobjects', 'getprofile', 'getrecursionlimit',
+    'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval', 'gettotalrefcount',
+    'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',
+    'intern', 'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path',
+    'path_hooks', 'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1',
+    'setcheckinterval', 'setdlopenflags', 'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit',
+    'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr', 'stdin', 'stdout',
+    'thread_info', 'version', 'version_info', 'warnoptions']
+
+Without arguments, :func:`dir` lists the names you have defined currently::
+
+   >>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+   >>> import fibo
+   >>> fib = fibo.fib
+   >>> dir()
+   ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']
+
+Note that it lists all types of names: variables, modules, functions, etc.
+
+.. index:: module: builtins
+
+:func:`dir` does not list the names of built-in functions and variables.  If you
+want a list of those, they are defined in the standard module
+:mod:`builtins`::
+
+   >>> import builtins
+   >>> dir(builtins)  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+   ['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
+    'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
+    'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
+    'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
+    'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
+    'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
+    'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',
+    'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',
+    'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',
+    'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',
+    'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
+    'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
+    'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',
+    'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',
+    'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',
+    'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',
+    'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',
+    'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',
+    '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',
+    'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
+    'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',
+    'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',
+    'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',
+    'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',
+    'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',
+    'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',
+    'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',
+    'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',
+    'zip']
+
+.. _tut-packages:
+
+Packages
+========
+
+Packages are a way of structuring Python's module namespace by using "dotted
+module names".  For example, the module name :mod:`A.B` designates a submodule
+named ``B`` in a package named ``A``.  Just like the use of modules saves the
+authors of different modules from having to worry about each other's global
+variable names, the use of dotted module names saves the authors of multi-module
+packages like NumPy or Pillow from having to worry about
+each other's module names.
+
+Suppose you want to design a collection of modules (a "package") for the uniform
+handling of sound files and sound data.  There are many different sound file
+formats (usually recognized by their extension, for example: :file:`.wav`,
+:file:`.aiff`, :file:`.au`), so you may need to create and maintain a growing
+collection of modules for the conversion between the various file formats.
+There are also many different operations you might want to perform on sound data
+(such as mixing, adding echo, applying an equalizer function, creating an
+artificial stereo effect), so in addition you will be writing a never-ending
+stream of modules to perform these operations.  Here's a possible structure for
+your package (expressed in terms of a hierarchical filesystem):
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+   sound/                          Top-level package
+         __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
+         formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
+                 __init__.py
+                 wavread.py
+                 wavwrite.py
+                 aiffread.py
+                 aiffwrite.py
+                 auread.py
+                 auwrite.py
+                 ...
+         effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
+                 __init__.py
+                 echo.py
+                 surround.py
+                 reverse.py
+                 ...
+         filters/                  Subpackage for filters
+                 __init__.py
+                 equalizer.py
+                 vocoder.py
+                 karaoke.py
+                 ...
+
+When importing the package, Python searches through the directories on
+``sys.path`` looking for the package subdirectory.
+
+The :file:`__init__.py` files are required to make Python treat directories
+containing the file as packages.  This prevents directories with a common name,
+such as ``string``, unintentionally hiding valid modules that occur later
+on the module search path. In the simplest case, :file:`__init__.py` can just be
+an empty file, but it can also execute initialization code for the package or
+set the ``__all__`` variable, described later.
+
+Users of the package can import individual modules from the package, for
+example::
+
+   import sound.effects.echo
+
+This loads the submodule :mod:`sound.effects.echo`.  It must be referenced with
+its full name. ::
+
+   sound.effects.echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)
+
+An alternative way of importing the submodule is::
+
+   from sound.effects import echo
+
+This also loads the submodule :mod:`echo`, and makes it available without its
+package prefix, so it can be used as follows::
+
+   echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)
+
+Yet another variation is to import the desired function or variable directly::
+
+   from sound.effects.echo import echofilter
+
+Again, this loads the submodule :mod:`echo`, but this makes its function
+:func:`echofilter` directly available::
+
+   echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)
+
+Note that when using ``from package import item``, the item can be either a
+submodule (or subpackage) of the package, or some  other name defined in the
+package, like a function, class or variable.  The ``import`` statement first
+tests whether the item is defined in the package; if not, it assumes it is a
+module and attempts to load it.  If it fails to find it, an :exc:`ImportError`
+exception is raised.
+
+Contrarily, when using syntax like ``import item.subitem.subsubitem``, each item
+except for the last must be a package; the last item can be a module or a
+package but can't be a class or function or variable defined in the previous
+item.
+
+
+.. _tut-pkg-import-star:
+
+Importing \* From a Package
+---------------------------
+
+.. index:: single: __all__
+
+Now what happens when the user writes ``from sound.effects import *``?  Ideally,
+one would hope that this somehow goes out to the filesystem, finds which
+submodules are present in the package, and imports them all.  This could take a
+long time and importing sub-modules might have unwanted side-effects that should
+only happen when the sub-module is explicitly imported.
+
+The only solution is for the package author to provide an explicit index of the
+package.  The :keyword:`import` statement uses the following convention: if a package's
+:file:`__init__.py` code defines a list named ``__all__``, it is taken to be the
+list of module names that should be imported when ``from package import *`` is
+encountered.  It is up to the package author to keep this list up-to-date when a
+new version of the package is released.  Package authors may also decide not to
+support it, if they don't see a use for importing \* from their package.  For
+example, the file :file:`sound/effects/__init__.py` could contain the following
+code::
+
+   __all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]
+
+This would mean that ``from sound.effects import *`` would import the three
+named submodules of the :mod:`sound` package.
+
+If ``__all__`` is not defined, the statement ``from sound.effects import *``
+does *not* import all submodules from the package :mod:`sound.effects` into the
+current namespace; it only ensures that the package :mod:`sound.effects` has
+been imported (possibly running any initialization code in :file:`__init__.py`)
+and then imports whatever names are defined in the package.  This includes any
+names defined (and submodules explicitly loaded) by :file:`__init__.py`.  It
+also includes any submodules of the package that were explicitly loaded by
+previous :keyword:`import` statements.  Consider this code::
+
+   import sound.effects.echo
+   import sound.effects.surround
+   from sound.effects import *
+
+In this example, the :mod:`echo` and :mod:`surround` modules are imported in the
+current namespace because they are defined in the :mod:`sound.effects` package
+when the ``from...import`` statement is executed.  (This also works when
+``__all__`` is defined.)
+
+Although certain modules are designed to export only names that follow certain
+patterns when you use ``import *``, it is still considered bad practice in
+production code.
+
+Remember, there is nothing wrong with using ``from package import
+specific_submodule``!  In fact, this is the recommended notation unless the
+importing module needs to use submodules with the same name from different
+packages.
+
+
+Intra-package References
+------------------------
+
+When packages are structured into subpackages (as with the :mod:`sound` package
+in the example), you can use absolute imports to refer to submodules of siblings
+packages.  For example, if the module :mod:`sound.filters.vocoder` needs to use
+the :mod:`echo` module in the :mod:`sound.effects` package, it can use ``from
+sound.effects import echo``.
+
+You can also write relative imports, with the ``from module import name`` form
+of import statement.  These imports use leading dots to indicate the current and
+parent packages involved in the relative import.  From the :mod:`surround`
+module for example, you might use::
+
+   from . import echo
+   from .. import formats
+   from ..filters import equalizer
+
+Note that relative imports are based on the name of the current module.  Since
+the name of the main module is always ``"__main__"``, modules intended for use
+as the main module of a Python application must always use absolute imports.
+
+
+Packages in Multiple Directories
+--------------------------------
+
+Packages support one more special attribute, :attr:`__path__`.  This is
+initialized to be a list containing the name of the directory holding the
+package's :file:`__init__.py` before the code in that file is executed.  This
+variable can be modified; doing so affects future searches for modules and
+subpackages contained in the package.
+
+While this feature is not often needed, it can be used to extend the set of
+modules found in a package.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] In fact function definitions are also 'statements' that are 'executed'; the
+   execution of a module-level function definition enters the function name in
+   the module's global symbol table.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/stdlib.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/stdlib.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5ec8ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/stdlib.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,340 @@
+.. _tut-brieftour:
+
+**********************************
+Brief Tour of the Standard Library
+**********************************
+
+
+.. _tut-os-interface:
+
+Operating System Interface
+==========================
+
+The :mod:`os` module provides dozens of functions for interacting with the
+operating system::
+
+   >>> import os
+   >>> os.getcwd()      # Return the current working directory
+   'C:\\Python37'
+   >>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs')   # Change current working directory
+   >>> os.system('mkdir today')   # Run the command mkdir in the system shell
+   0
+
+Be sure to use the ``import os`` style instead of ``from os import *``.  This
+will keep :func:`os.open` from shadowing the built-in :func:`open` function which
+operates much differently.
+
+.. index:: builtin: help
+
+The built-in :func:`dir` and :func:`help` functions are useful as interactive
+aids for working with large modules like :mod:`os`::
+
+   >>> import os
+   >>> dir(os)
+   <returns a list of all module functions>
+   >>> help(os)
+   <returns an extensive manual page created from the module's docstrings>
+
+For daily file and directory management tasks, the :mod:`shutil` module provides
+a higher level interface that is easier to use::
+
+   >>> import shutil
+   >>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
+   'archive.db'
+   >>> shutil.move('/build/executables', 'installdir')
+   'installdir'
+
+
+.. _tut-file-wildcards:
+
+File Wildcards
+==============
+
+The :mod:`glob` module provides a function for making file lists from directory
+wildcard searches::
+
+   >>> import glob
+   >>> glob.glob('*.py')
+   ['primes.py', 'random.py', 'quote.py']
+
+
+.. _tut-command-line-arguments:
+
+Command Line Arguments
+======================
+
+Common utility scripts often need to process command line arguments. These
+arguments are stored in the :mod:`sys` module's *argv* attribute as a list.  For
+instance the following output results from running ``python demo.py one two
+three`` at the command line::
+
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> print(sys.argv)
+   ['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']
+
+The :mod:`getopt` module processes *sys.argv* using the conventions of the Unix
+:func:`getopt` function.  More powerful and flexible command line processing is
+provided by the :mod:`argparse` module.
+
+
+.. _tut-stderr:
+
+Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
+================================================
+
+The :mod:`sys` module also has attributes for *stdin*, *stdout*, and *stderr*.
+The latter is useful for emitting warnings and error messages to make them
+visible even when *stdout* has been redirected::
+
+   >>> sys.stderr.write('Warning, log file not found starting a new one\n')
+   Warning, log file not found starting a new one
+
+The most direct way to terminate a script is to use ``sys.exit()``.
+
+
+.. _tut-string-pattern-matching:
+
+String Pattern Matching
+=======================
+
+The :mod:`re` module provides regular expression tools for advanced string
+processing. For complex matching and manipulation, regular expressions offer
+succinct, optimized solutions::
+
+   >>> import re
+   >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
+   ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
+   >>> re.sub(r'(\b[a-z]+) \1', r'\1', 'cat in the the hat')
+   'cat in the hat'
+
+When only simple capabilities are needed, string methods are preferred because
+they are easier to read and debug::
+
+   >>> 'tea for too'.replace('too', 'two')
+   'tea for two'
+
+
+.. _tut-mathematics:
+
+Mathematics
+===========
+
+The :mod:`math` module gives access to the underlying C library functions for
+floating point math::
+
+   >>> import math
+   >>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
+   0.70710678118654757
+   >>> math.log(1024, 2)
+   10.0
+
+The :mod:`random` module provides tools for making random selections::
+
+   >>> import random
+   >>> random.choice(['apple', 'pear', 'banana'])
+   'apple'
+   >>> random.sample(range(100), 10)   # sampling without replacement
+   [30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]
+   >>> random.random()    # random float
+   0.17970987693706186
+   >>> random.randrange(6)    # random integer chosen from range(6)
+   4
+
+The :mod:`statistics` module calculates basic statistical properties
+(the mean, median, variance, etc.) of numeric data::
+
+    >>> import statistics
+    >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
+    >>> statistics.mean(data)
+    1.6071428571428572
+    >>> statistics.median(data)
+    1.25
+    >>> statistics.variance(data)
+    1.3720238095238095
+
+The SciPy project <https://scipy.org> has many other modules for numerical
+computations.
+
+.. _tut-internet-access:
+
+Internet Access
+===============
+
+There are a number of modules for accessing the internet and processing internet
+protocols. Two of the simplest are :mod:`urllib.request` for retrieving data
+from URLs and :mod:`smtplib` for sending mail::
+
+   >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
+   >>> with urlopen('http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/cgi-bin/timer.pl') as response:
+   ...     for line in response:
+   ...         line = line.decode('utf-8')  # Decoding the binary data to text.
+   ...         if 'EST' in line or 'EDT' in line:  # look for Eastern Time
+   ...             print(line)
+
+   <BR>Nov. 25, 09:43:32 PM EST
+
+   >>> import smtplib
+   >>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
+   >>> server.sendmail('soothsayer@example.org', 'jcaesar@example.org',
+   ... """To: jcaesar@example.org
+   ... From: soothsayer@example.org
+   ...
+   ... Beware the Ides of March.
+   ... """)
+   >>> server.quit()
+
+(Note that the second example needs a mailserver running on localhost.)
+
+
+.. _tut-dates-and-times:
+
+Dates and Times
+===============
+
+The :mod:`datetime` module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times in
+both simple and complex ways. While date and time arithmetic is supported, the
+focus of the implementation is on efficient member extraction for output
+formatting and manipulation.  The module also supports objects that are timezone
+aware. ::
+
+   >>> # dates are easily constructed and formatted
+   >>> from datetime import date
+   >>> now = date.today()
+   >>> now
+   datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
+   >>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
+   '12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'
+
+   >>> # dates support calendar arithmetic
+   >>> birthday = date(1964, 7, 31)
+   >>> age = now - birthday
+   >>> age.days
+   14368
+
+
+.. _tut-data-compression:
+
+Data Compression
+================
+
+Common data archiving and compression formats are directly supported by modules
+including: :mod:`zlib`, :mod:`gzip`, :mod:`bz2`, :mod:`lzma`, :mod:`zipfile` and
+:mod:`tarfile`. ::
+
+   >>> import zlib
+   >>> s = b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
+   >>> len(s)
+   41
+   >>> t = zlib.compress(s)
+   >>> len(t)
+   37
+   >>> zlib.decompress(t)
+   b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
+   >>> zlib.crc32(s)
+   226805979
+
+
+.. _tut-performance-measurement:
+
+Performance Measurement
+=======================
+
+Some Python users develop a deep interest in knowing the relative performance of
+different approaches to the same problem. Python provides a measurement tool
+that answers those questions immediately.
+
+For example, it may be tempting to use the tuple packing and unpacking feature
+instead of the traditional approach to swapping arguments. The :mod:`timeit`
+module quickly demonstrates a modest performance advantage::
+
+   >>> from timeit import Timer
+   >>> Timer('t=a; a=b; b=t', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
+   0.57535828626024577
+   >>> Timer('a,b = b,a', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
+   0.54962537085770791
+
+In contrast to :mod:`timeit`'s fine level of granularity, the :mod:`profile` and
+:mod:`pstats` modules provide tools for identifying time critical sections in
+larger blocks of code.
+
+
+.. _tut-quality-control:
+
+Quality Control
+===============
+
+One approach for developing high quality software is to write tests for each
+function as it is developed and to run those tests frequently during the
+development process.
+
+The :mod:`doctest` module provides a tool for scanning a module and validating
+tests embedded in a program's docstrings.  Test construction is as simple as
+cutting-and-pasting a typical call along with its results into the docstring.
+This improves the documentation by providing the user with an example and it
+allows the doctest module to make sure the code remains true to the
+documentation::
+
+   def average(values):
+       """Computes the arithmetic mean of a list of numbers.
+
+       >>> print(average([20, 30, 70]))
+       40.0
+       """
+       return sum(values) / len(values)
+
+   import doctest
+   doctest.testmod()   # automatically validate the embedded tests
+
+The :mod:`unittest` module is not as effortless as the :mod:`doctest` module,
+but it allows a more comprehensive set of tests to be maintained in a separate
+file::
+
+   import unittest
+
+   class TestStatisticalFunctions(unittest.TestCase):
+
+       def test_average(self):
+           self.assertEqual(average([20, 30, 70]), 40.0)
+           self.assertEqual(round(average([1, 5, 7]), 1), 4.3)
+           with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
+               average([])
+           with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
+               average(20, 30, 70)
+
+   unittest.main()  # Calling from the command line invokes all tests
+
+
+.. _tut-batteries-included:
+
+Batteries Included
+==================
+
+Python has a "batteries included" philosophy.  This is best seen through the
+sophisticated and robust capabilities of its larger packages. For example:
+
+* The :mod:`xmlrpc.client` and :mod:`xmlrpc.server` modules make implementing
+  remote procedure calls into an almost trivial task.  Despite the modules
+  names, no direct knowledge or handling of XML is needed.
+
+* The :mod:`email` package is a library for managing email messages, including
+  MIME and other :rfc:`2822`-based message documents. Unlike :mod:`smtplib` and
+  :mod:`poplib` which actually send and receive messages, the email package has
+  a complete toolset for building or decoding complex message structures
+  (including attachments) and for implementing internet encoding and header
+  protocols.
+
+* The :mod:`json` package provides robust support for parsing this
+  popular data interchange format.  The :mod:`csv` module supports
+  direct reading and writing of files in Comma-Separated Value format,
+  commonly supported by databases and spreadsheets.  XML processing is
+  supported by the :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree`, :mod:`xml.dom` and
+  :mod:`xml.sax` packages. Together, these modules and packages
+  greatly simplify data interchange between Python applications and
+  other tools.
+
+* The :mod:`sqlite3` module is a wrapper for the SQLite database
+  library, providing a persistent database that can be updated and
+  accessed using slightly nonstandard SQL syntax.
+
+* Internationalization is supported by a number of modules including
+  :mod:`gettext`, :mod:`locale`, and the :mod:`codecs` package.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/stdlib2.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/stdlib2.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9947231
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/stdlib2.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,405 @@
+.. _tut-brieftourtwo:
+
+**********************************************
+Brief Tour of the Standard Library --- Part II
+**********************************************
+
+This second tour covers more advanced modules that support professional
+programming needs.  These modules rarely occur in small scripts.
+
+
+.. _tut-output-formatting:
+
+Output Formatting
+=================
+
+The :mod:`reprlib` module provides a version of :func:`repr` customized for
+abbreviated displays of large or deeply nested containers::
+
+   >>> import reprlib
+   >>> reprlib.repr(set('supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'))
+   "{'a', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', ...}"
+
+The :mod:`pprint` module offers more sophisticated control over printing both
+built-in and user defined objects in a way that is readable by the interpreter.
+When the result is longer than one line, the "pretty printer" adds line breaks
+and indentation to more clearly reveal data structure::
+
+   >>> import pprint
+   >>> t = [[[['black', 'cyan'], 'white', ['green', 'red']], [['magenta',
+   ...     'yellow'], 'blue']]]
+   ...
+   >>> pprint.pprint(t, width=30)
+   [[[['black', 'cyan'],
+      'white',
+      ['green', 'red']],
+     [['magenta', 'yellow'],
+      'blue']]]
+
+The :mod:`textwrap` module formats paragraphs of text to fit a given screen
+width::
+
+   >>> import textwrap
+   >>> doc = """The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns
+   ... a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate
+   ... the wrapped lines."""
+   ...
+   >>> print(textwrap.fill(doc, width=40))
+   The wrap() method is just like fill()
+   except that it returns a list of strings
+   instead of one big string with newlines
+   to separate the wrapped lines.
+
+The :mod:`locale` module accesses a database of culture specific data formats.
+The grouping attribute of locale's format function provides a direct way of
+formatting numbers with group separators::
+
+   >>> import locale
+   >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'English_United States.1252')
+   'English_United States.1252'
+   >>> conv = locale.localeconv()          # get a mapping of conventions
+   >>> x = 1234567.8
+   >>> locale.format("%d", x, grouping=True)
+   '1,234,567'
+   >>> locale.format_string("%s%.*f", (conv['currency_symbol'],
+   ...                      conv['frac_digits'], x), grouping=True)
+   '$1,234,567.80'
+
+
+.. _tut-templating:
+
+Templating
+==========
+
+The :mod:`string` module includes a versatile :class:`~string.Template` class
+with a simplified syntax suitable for editing by end-users.  This allows users
+to customize their applications without having to alter the application.
+
+The format uses placeholder names formed by ``$`` with valid Python identifiers
+(alphanumeric characters and underscores).  Surrounding the placeholder with
+braces allows it to be followed by more alphanumeric letters with no intervening
+spaces.  Writing ``$$`` creates a single escaped ``$``::
+
+   >>> from string import Template
+   >>> t = Template('${village}folk send $$10 to $cause.')
+   >>> t.substitute(village='Nottingham', cause='the ditch fund')
+   'Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.'
+
+The :meth:`~string.Template.substitute` method raises a :exc:`KeyError` when a
+placeholder is not supplied in a dictionary or a keyword argument.  For
+mail-merge style applications, user supplied data may be incomplete and the
+:meth:`~string.Template.safe_substitute` method may be more appropriate ---
+it will leave placeholders unchanged if data is missing::
+
+   >>> t = Template('Return the $item to $owner.')
+   >>> d = dict(item='unladen swallow')
+   >>> t.substitute(d)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   KeyError: 'owner'
+   >>> t.safe_substitute(d)
+   'Return the unladen swallow to $owner.'
+
+Template subclasses can specify a custom delimiter.  For example, a batch
+renaming utility for a photo browser may elect to use percent signs for
+placeholders such as the current date, image sequence number, or file format::
+
+   >>> import time, os.path
+   >>> photofiles = ['img_1074.jpg', 'img_1076.jpg', 'img_1077.jpg']
+   >>> class BatchRename(Template):
+   ...     delimiter = '%'
+   >>> fmt = input('Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  ')
+   Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f
+
+   >>> t = BatchRename(fmt)
+   >>> date = time.strftime('%d%b%y')
+   >>> for i, filename in enumerate(photofiles):
+   ...     base, ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
+   ...     newname = t.substitute(d=date, n=i, f=ext)
+   ...     print('{0} --> {1}'.format(filename, newname))
+
+   img_1074.jpg --> Ashley_0.jpg
+   img_1076.jpg --> Ashley_1.jpg
+   img_1077.jpg --> Ashley_2.jpg
+
+Another application for templating is separating program logic from the details
+of multiple output formats.  This makes it possible to substitute custom
+templates for XML files, plain text reports, and HTML web reports.
+
+
+.. _tut-binary-formats:
+
+Working with Binary Data Record Layouts
+=======================================
+
+The :mod:`struct` module provides :func:`~struct.pack` and
+:func:`~struct.unpack` functions for working with variable length binary
+record formats.  The following example shows
+how to loop through header information in a ZIP file without using the
+:mod:`zipfile` module.  Pack codes ``"H"`` and ``"I"`` represent two and four
+byte unsigned numbers respectively.  The ``"<"`` indicates that they are
+standard size and in little-endian byte order::
+
+   import struct
+
+   with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f:
+       data = f.read()
+
+   start = 0
+   for i in range(3):                      # show the first 3 file headers
+       start += 14
+       fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])
+       crc32, comp_size, uncomp_size, filenamesize, extra_size = fields
+
+       start += 16
+       filename = data[start:start+filenamesize]
+       start += filenamesize
+       extra = data[start:start+extra_size]
+       print(filename, hex(crc32), comp_size, uncomp_size)
+
+       start += extra_size + comp_size     # skip to the next header
+
+
+.. _tut-multi-threading:
+
+Multi-threading
+===============
+
+Threading is a technique for decoupling tasks which are not sequentially
+dependent.  Threads can be used to improve the responsiveness of applications
+that accept user input while other tasks run in the background.  A related use
+case is running I/O in parallel with computations in another thread.
+
+The following code shows how the high level :mod:`threading` module can run
+tasks in background while the main program continues to run::
+
+   import threading, zipfile
+
+   class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
+       def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
+           threading.Thread.__init__(self)
+           self.infile = infile
+           self.outfile = outfile
+
+       def run(self):
+           f = zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED)
+           f.write(self.infile)
+           f.close()
+           print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)
+
+   background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
+   background.start()
+   print('The main program continues to run in foreground.')
+
+   background.join()    # Wait for the background task to finish
+   print('Main program waited until background was done.')
+
+The principal challenge of multi-threaded applications is coordinating threads
+that share data or other resources.  To that end, the threading module provides
+a number of synchronization primitives including locks, events, condition
+variables, and semaphores.
+
+While those tools are powerful, minor design errors can result in problems that
+are difficult to reproduce.  So, the preferred approach to task coordination is
+to concentrate all access to a resource in a single thread and then use the
+:mod:`queue` module to feed that thread with requests from other threads.
+Applications using :class:`~queue.Queue` objects for inter-thread communication and
+coordination are easier to design, more readable, and more reliable.
+
+
+.. _tut-logging:
+
+Logging
+=======
+
+The :mod:`logging` module offers a full featured and flexible logging system.
+At its simplest, log messages are sent to a file or to ``sys.stderr``::
+
+   import logging
+   logging.debug('Debugging information')
+   logging.info('Informational message')
+   logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
+   logging.error('Error occurred')
+   logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')
+
+This produces the following output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
+   ERROR:root:Error occurred
+   CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down
+
+By default, informational and debugging messages are suppressed and the output
+is sent to standard error.  Other output options include routing messages
+through email, datagrams, sockets, or to an HTTP Server.  New filters can select
+different routing based on message priority: :const:`~logging.DEBUG`,
+:const:`~logging.INFO`, :const:`~logging.WARNING`, :const:`~logging.ERROR`,
+and :const:`~logging.CRITICAL`.
+
+The logging system can be configured directly from Python or can be loaded from
+a user editable configuration file for customized logging without altering the
+application.
+
+
+.. _tut-weak-references:
+
+Weak References
+===============
+
+Python does automatic memory management (reference counting for most objects and
+:term:`garbage collection` to eliminate cycles).  The memory is freed shortly
+after the last reference to it has been eliminated.
+
+This approach works fine for most applications but occasionally there is a need
+to track objects only as long as they are being used by something else.
+Unfortunately, just tracking them creates a reference that makes them permanent.
+The :mod:`weakref` module provides tools for tracking objects without creating a
+reference.  When the object is no longer needed, it is automatically removed
+from a weakref table and a callback is triggered for weakref objects.  Typical
+applications include caching objects that are expensive to create::
+
+   >>> import weakref, gc
+   >>> class A:
+   ...     def __init__(self, value):
+   ...         self.value = value
+   ...     def __repr__(self):
+   ...         return str(self.value)
+   ...
+   >>> a = A(10)                   # create a reference
+   >>> d = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
+   >>> d['primary'] = a            # does not create a reference
+   >>> d['primary']                # fetch the object if it is still alive
+   10
+   >>> del a                       # remove the one reference
+   >>> gc.collect()                # run garbage collection right away
+   0
+   >>> d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+       d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
+     File "C:/python37/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__
+       o = self.data[key]()
+   KeyError: 'primary'
+
+
+.. _tut-list-tools:
+
+Tools for Working with Lists
+============================
+
+Many data structure needs can be met with the built-in list type. However,
+sometimes there is a need for alternative implementations with different
+performance trade-offs.
+
+The :mod:`array` module provides an :class:`~array.array()` object that is like
+a list that stores only homogeneous data and stores it more compactly.  The
+following example shows an array of numbers stored as two byte unsigned binary
+numbers (typecode ``"H"``) rather than the usual 16 bytes per entry for regular
+lists of Python int objects::
+
+   >>> from array import array
+   >>> a = array('H', [4000, 10, 700, 22222])
+   >>> sum(a)
+   26932
+   >>> a[1:3]
+   array('H', [10, 700])
+
+The :mod:`collections` module provides a :class:`~collections.deque()` object
+that is like a list with faster appends and pops from the left side but slower
+lookups in the middle. These objects are well suited for implementing queues
+and breadth first tree searches::
+
+   >>> from collections import deque
+   >>> d = deque(["task1", "task2", "task3"])
+   >>> d.append("task4")
+   >>> print("Handling", d.popleft())
+   Handling task1
+
+::
+
+   unsearched = deque([starting_node])
+   def breadth_first_search(unsearched):
+       node = unsearched.popleft()
+       for m in gen_moves(node):
+           if is_goal(m):
+               return m
+           unsearched.append(m)
+
+In addition to alternative list implementations, the library also offers other
+tools such as the :mod:`bisect` module with functions for manipulating sorted
+lists::
+
+   >>> import bisect
+   >>> scores = [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
+   >>> bisect.insort(scores, (300, 'ruby'))
+   >>> scores
+   [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (300, 'ruby'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
+
+The :mod:`heapq` module provides functions for implementing heaps based on
+regular lists.  The lowest valued entry is always kept at position zero.  This
+is useful for applications which repeatedly access the smallest element but do
+not want to run a full list sort::
+
+   >>> from heapq import heapify, heappop, heappush
+   >>> data = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0]
+   >>> heapify(data)                      # rearrange the list into heap order
+   >>> heappush(data, -5)                 # add a new entry
+   >>> [heappop(data) for i in range(3)]  # fetch the three smallest entries
+   [-5, 0, 1]
+
+
+.. _tut-decimal-fp:
+
+Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic
+=================================
+
+The :mod:`decimal` module offers a :class:`~decimal.Decimal` datatype for
+decimal floating point arithmetic.  Compared to the built-in :class:`float`
+implementation of binary floating point, the class is especially helpful for
+
+* financial applications and other uses which require exact decimal
+  representation,
+* control over precision,
+* control over rounding to meet legal or regulatory requirements,
+* tracking of significant decimal places, or
+* applications where the user expects the results to match calculations done by
+  hand.
+
+For example, calculating a 5% tax on a 70 cent phone charge gives different
+results in decimal floating point and binary floating point. The difference
+becomes significant if the results are rounded to the nearest cent::
+
+   >>> from decimal import *
+   >>> round(Decimal('0.70') * Decimal('1.05'), 2)
+   Decimal('0.74')
+   >>> round(.70 * 1.05, 2)
+   0.73
+
+The :class:`~decimal.Decimal` result keeps a trailing zero, automatically
+inferring four place significance from multiplicands with two place
+significance.  Decimal reproduces mathematics as done by hand and avoids
+issues that can arise when binary floating point cannot exactly represent
+decimal quantities.
+
+Exact representation enables the :class:`~decimal.Decimal` class to perform
+modulo calculations and equality tests that are unsuitable for binary floating
+point::
+
+   >>> Decimal('1.00') % Decimal('.10')
+   Decimal('0.00')
+   >>> 1.00 % 0.10
+   0.09999999999999995
+
+   >>> sum([Decimal('0.1')]*10) == Decimal('1.0')
+   True
+   >>> sum([0.1]*10) == 1.0
+   False
+
+The :mod:`decimal` module provides arithmetic with as much precision as needed::
+
+   >>> getcontext().prec = 36
+   >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
+   Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857')
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/venv.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/venv.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc4136e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/venv.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,210 @@
+
+.. _tut-venv:
+
+*********************************
+Virtual Environments and Packages
+*********************************
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+Python applications will often use packages and modules that don't
+come as part of the standard library.  Applications will sometimes
+need a specific version of a library, because the application may
+require that a particular bug has been fixed or the application may be
+written using an obsolete version of the library's interface.
+
+This means it may not be possible for one Python installation to meet
+the requirements of every application.  If application A needs version
+1.0 of a particular module but application B needs version 2.0, then
+the requirements are in conflict and installing either version 1.0 or 2.0
+will leave one application unable to run.
+
+The solution for this problem is to create a :term:`virtual environment`, a
+self-contained directory tree that contains a Python installation for a
+particular version of Python, plus a number of additional packages.
+
+Different applications can then use different virtual environments.
+To resolve the earlier example of conflicting requirements,
+application A can have its own virtual environment with version 1.0
+installed while application B has another virtual environment with version 2.0.
+If application B requires a library be upgraded to version 3.0, this will
+not affect application A's environment.
+
+
+Creating Virtual Environments
+=============================
+
+The module used to create and manage virtual environments is called
+:mod:`venv`.  :mod:`venv` will usually install the most recent version of
+Python that you have available. If you have multiple versions of Python on your
+system, you can select a specific Python version by running ``python3`` or
+whichever version you want.
+
+To create a virtual environment, decide upon a directory where you want to
+place it, and run the :mod:`venv` module as a script with the directory path::
+
+   python3 -m venv tutorial-env
+
+This will create the ``tutorial-env`` directory if it doesn't exist,
+and also create directories inside it containing a copy of the Python
+interpreter, the standard library, and various supporting files.
+
+Once you've created a virtual environment, you may activate it.
+
+On Windows, run::
+
+  tutorial-env\Scripts\activate.bat
+
+On Unix or MacOS, run::
+
+  source tutorial-env/bin/activate
+
+(This script is written for the bash shell.  If you use the
+:program:`csh` or :program:`fish` shells, there are alternate
+``activate.csh`` and ``activate.fish`` scripts you should use
+instead.)
+
+Activating the virtual environment will change your shell's prompt to show what
+virtual environment you're using, and modify the environment so that running
+``python`` will get you that particular version and installation of Python.
+For example:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  $ source ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
+  (tutorial-env) $ python
+  Python 3.5.1 (default, May  6 2016, 10:59:36)
+    ...
+  >>> import sys
+  >>> sys.path
+  ['', '/usr/local/lib/python35.zip', ...,
+  '~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
+  >>>
+
+
+Managing Packages with pip
+==========================
+
+You can install, upgrade, and remove packages using a program called
+:program:`pip`.  By default ``pip`` will install packages from the Python
+Package Index, <https://pypi.org>.  You can browse the Python
+Package Index by going to it in your web browser, or you can use ``pip``'s
+limited search feature:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip search astronomy
+  skyfield               - Elegant astronomy for Python
+  gary                   - Galactic astronomy and gravitational dynamics.
+  novas                  - The United States Naval Observatory NOVAS astronomy library
+  astroobs               - Provides astronomy ephemeris to plan telescope observations
+  PyAstronomy            - A collection of astronomy related tools for Python.
+  ...
+
+``pip`` has a number of subcommands: "search", "install", "uninstall",
+"freeze", etc.  (Consult the :ref:`installing-index` guide for
+complete documentation for ``pip``.)
+
+You can install the latest version of a package by specifying a package's name:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip install novas
+  Collecting novas
+    Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz (136kB)
+  Installing collected packages: novas
+    Running setup.py install for novas
+  Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3
+
+You can also install a specific version of a package by giving the
+package name  followed by ``==`` and the version number:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip install requests==2.6.0
+  Collecting requests==2.6.0
+    Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
+  Installing collected packages: requests
+  Successfully installed requests-2.6.0
+
+If you re-run this command, ``pip`` will notice that the requested
+version is already installed and do nothing.  You can supply a
+different version number to get that version, or you can run ``pip
+install --upgrade`` to upgrade the package to the latest version:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip install --upgrade requests
+  Collecting requests
+  Installing collected packages: requests
+    Found existing installation: requests 2.6.0
+      Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
+        Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
+  Successfully installed requests-2.7.0
+
+``pip uninstall`` followed by one or more package names will remove the
+packages from the virtual environment.
+
+``pip show`` will display information about a particular package:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip show requests
+  ---
+  Metadata-Version: 2.0
+  Name: requests
+  Version: 2.7.0
+  Summary: Python HTTP for Humans.
+  Home-page: http://python-requests.org
+  Author: Kenneth Reitz
+  Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
+  License: Apache 2.0
+  Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
+  Requires:
+
+``pip list`` will display all of the packages installed in the virtual
+environment:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip list
+  novas (3.1.1.3)
+  numpy (1.9.2)
+  pip (7.0.3)
+  requests (2.7.0)
+  setuptools (16.0)
+
+``pip freeze`` will produce a similar list of the installed packages,
+but the output uses the format that ``pip install`` expects.
+A common convention is to put this list in a ``requirements.txt`` file:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip freeze > requirements.txt
+  (tutorial-env) $ cat requirements.txt
+  novas==3.1.1.3
+  numpy==1.9.2
+  requests==2.7.0
+
+The ``requirements.txt`` can then be committed to version control and
+shipped as part of an application.  Users can then install all the
+necessary packages with ``install -r``:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+  (tutorial-env) $ pip install -r requirements.txt
+  Collecting novas==3.1.1.3 (from -r requirements.txt (line 1))
+    ...
+  Collecting numpy==1.9.2 (from -r requirements.txt (line 2))
+    ...
+  Collecting requests==2.7.0 (from -r requirements.txt (line 3))
+    ...
+  Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
+    Running setup.py install for novas
+  Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0
+
+``pip`` has many more options.  Consult the :ref:`installing-index`
+guide for complete documentation for ``pip``.  When you've written
+a package and want to make it available on the Python Package Index,
+consult the :ref:`distributing-index` guide.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/whatnow.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/whatnow.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3208201
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/tutorial/whatnow.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+.. _tut-whatnow:
+
+*********
+What Now?
+*********
+
+Reading this tutorial has probably reinforced your interest in using Python ---
+you should be eager to apply Python to solving your real-world problems. Where
+should you go to learn more?
+
+This tutorial is part of Python's documentation set.   Some other documents in
+the set are:
+
+* :ref:`library-index`:
+
+  You should browse through this manual, which gives complete (though terse)
+  reference material about types, functions, and the modules in the standard
+  library.  The standard Python distribution includes a *lot* of additional code.
+  There are modules to read Unix mailboxes, retrieve documents via HTTP, generate
+  random numbers, parse command-line options, write CGI programs, compress data,
+  and many other tasks. Skimming through the Library Reference will give you an
+  idea of what's available.
+
+* :ref:`installing-index` explains how to install additional modules written
+  by other Python users.
+
+* :ref:`reference-index`: A detailed explanation of Python's syntax and
+  semantics.  It's heavy reading, but is useful as a complete guide to the
+  language itself.
+
+More Python resources:
+
+* https://www.python.org:  The major Python Web site.  It contains code,
+  documentation, and pointers to Python-related pages around the Web.  This Web
+  site is mirrored in various places around the world, such as Europe, Japan, and
+  Australia; a mirror may be faster than the main site, depending on your
+  geographical location.
+
+* https://docs.python.org:  Fast access to Python's  documentation.
+
+* https://pypi.org: The Python Package Index, previously also nicknamed
+  the Cheese Shop [#]_, is an index of user-created Python modules that are available
+  for download.  Once you begin releasing code, you can register it here so that
+  others can find it.
+
+* https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/: The Python Cookbook is a
+  sizable collection of code examples, larger modules, and useful scripts.
+  Particularly notable contributions are collected in a book also titled Python
+  Cookbook (O'Reilly & Associates, ISBN 0-596-00797-3.)
+
+* http://www.pyvideo.org collects links to Python-related videos from
+  conferences and user-group meetings.
+
+* https://scipy.org: The Scientific Python project includes modules for fast
+  array computations and manipulations plus a host of packages for such
+  things as linear algebra, Fourier transforms, non-linear solvers,
+  random number distributions, statistical analysis and the like.
+
+For Python-related questions and problem reports, you can post to the newsgroup
+:newsgroup:`comp.lang.python`, or send them to the mailing list at
+python-list@python.org.  The newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed, so
+messages posted to one will automatically be forwarded to the other.  There are
+hundreds of postings a day, asking (and
+answering) questions, suggesting new features, and announcing new modules.
+Mailing list archives are available at https://mail.python.org/pipermail/.
+
+Before posting, be sure to check the list of
+:ref:`Frequently Asked Questions <faq-index>` (also called the FAQ).  The
+FAQ answers many of the questions that come up again and again, and may
+already contain the solution for your problem.
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [#] "Cheese Shop" is a Monty Python's sketch: a customer enters a cheese shop,
+   but whatever cheese he asks for, the clerk says it's missing.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/cmdline.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/cmdline.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dca89ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/cmdline.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,918 @@
+.. highlightlang:: sh
+
+.. ATTENTION: You probably should update Misc/python.man, too, if you modify
+   this file.
+
+.. _using-on-general:
+
+Command line and environment
+============================
+
+The CPython interpreter scans the command line and the environment for various
+settings.
+
+.. impl-detail::
+
+   Other implementations' command line schemes may differ.  See
+   :ref:`implementations` for further resources.
+
+
+.. _using-on-cmdline:
+
+Command line
+------------
+
+When invoking Python, you may specify any of these options::
+
+    python [-bBdEhiIOqsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]
+
+The most common use case is, of course, a simple invocation of a script::
+
+    python myscript.py
+
+
+.. _using-on-interface-options:
+
+Interface options
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The interpreter interface resembles that of the UNIX shell, but provides some
+additional methods of invocation:
+
+* When called with standard input connected to a tty device, it prompts for
+  commands and executes them until an EOF (an end-of-file character, you can
+  produce that with :kbd:`Ctrl-D` on UNIX or :kbd:`Ctrl-Z, Enter` on Windows) is read.
+* When called with a file name argument or with a file as standard input, it
+  reads and executes a script from that file.
+* When called with a directory name argument, it reads and executes an
+  appropriately named script from that directory.
+* When called with ``-c command``, it executes the Python statement(s) given as
+  *command*.  Here *command* may contain multiple statements separated by
+  newlines. Leading whitespace is significant in Python statements!
+* When called with ``-m module-name``, the given module is located on the
+  Python module path and executed as a script.
+
+In non-interactive mode, the entire input is parsed before it is executed.
+
+An interface option terminates the list of options consumed by the interpreter,
+all consecutive arguments will end up in :data:`sys.argv` -- note that the first
+element, subscript zero (``sys.argv[0]``), is a string reflecting the program's
+source.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -c <command>
+
+   Execute the Python code in *command*.  *command* can be one or more
+   statements separated by newlines, with significant leading whitespace as in
+   normal module code.
+
+   If this option is given, the first element of :data:`sys.argv` will be
+   ``"-c"`` and the current directory will be added to the start of
+   :data:`sys.path` (allowing modules in that directory to be imported as top
+   level modules).
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -m <module-name>
+
+   Search :data:`sys.path` for the named module and execute its contents as
+   the :mod:`__main__` module.
+
+   Since the argument is a *module* name, you must not give a file extension
+   (``.py``).  The module name should be a valid absolute Python module name, but
+   the implementation may not always enforce this (e.g. it may allow you to
+   use a name that includes a hyphen).
+
+   Package names (including namespace packages) are also permitted. When a
+   package name is supplied instead
+   of a normal module, the interpreter will execute ``<pkg>.__main__`` as
+   the main module. This behaviour is deliberately similar to the handling
+   of directories and zipfiles that are passed to the interpreter as the
+   script argument.
+
+   .. note::
+
+      This option cannot be used with built-in modules and extension modules
+      written in C, since they do not have Python module files. However, it
+      can still be used for precompiled modules, even if the original source
+      file is not available.
+
+   If this option is given, the first element of :data:`sys.argv` will be the
+   full path to the module file (while the module file is being located, the
+   first element will be set to ``"-m"``). As with the :option:`-c` option,
+   the current directory will be added to the start of :data:`sys.path`.
+
+   Many standard library modules contain code that is invoked on their execution
+   as a script.  An example is the :mod:`timeit` module::
+
+       python -mtimeit -s 'setup here' 'benchmarked code here'
+       python -mtimeit -h # for details
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :func:`runpy.run_module`
+         Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code
+
+      :pep:`338` -- Executing modules as scripts
+
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+      Supply the package name to run a ``__main__`` submodule.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      namespace packages are also supported
+
+
+.. describe:: -
+
+   Read commands from standard input (:data:`sys.stdin`).  If standard input is
+   a terminal, :option:`-i` is implied.
+
+   If this option is given, the first element of :data:`sys.argv` will be
+   ``"-"`` and the current directory will be added to the start of
+   :data:`sys.path`.
+
+
+.. describe:: <script>
+
+   Execute the Python code contained in *script*, which must be a filesystem
+   path (absolute or relative) referring to either a Python file, a directory
+   containing a ``__main__.py`` file, or a zipfile containing a
+   ``__main__.py`` file.
+
+   If this option is given, the first element of :data:`sys.argv` will be the
+   script name as given on the command line.
+
+   If the script name refers directly to a Python file, the directory
+   containing that file is added to the start of :data:`sys.path`, and the
+   file is executed as the :mod:`__main__` module.
+
+   If the script name refers to a directory or zipfile, the script name is
+   added to the start of :data:`sys.path` and the ``__main__.py`` file in
+   that location is executed as the :mod:`__main__` module.
+
+   .. seealso::
+      :func:`runpy.run_path`
+         Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code
+
+
+If no interface option is given, :option:`-i` is implied, ``sys.argv[0]`` is
+an empty string (``""``) and the current directory will be added to the
+start of :data:`sys.path`.  Also, tab-completion and history editing is
+automatically enabled, if available on your platform (see
+:ref:`rlcompleter-config`).
+
+.. seealso::  :ref:`tut-invoking`
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+   Automatic enabling of tab-completion and history editing.
+
+
+Generic options
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. cmdoption:: -?
+               -h
+               --help
+
+   Print a short description of all command line options.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -V
+               --version
+
+   Print the Python version number and exit.  Example output could be:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       Python 3.7.0b2+
+
+   When given twice, print more information about the build, like:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       Python 3.7.0b2+ (3.7:0c076caaa8, Sep 22 2018, 12:04:24)
+       [GCC 6.2.0 20161005]
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      The ``-VV`` option.
+
+.. _using-on-misc-options:
+
+Miscellaneous options
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. cmdoption:: -b
+
+   Issue a warning when comparing :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` with
+   :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` with :class:`int`.  Issue an error when the
+   option is given twice (:option:`!-bb`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Affects comparisons of :class:`bytes` with :class:`int`.
+
+.. cmdoption:: -B
+
+   If given, Python won't try to write ``.pyc`` files on the
+   import of source modules.  See also :envvar:`PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE`.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never
+
+   Control the validation behavior of hash-based ``.pyc`` files. See
+   :ref:`pyc-invalidation`. When set to ``default``, checked and unchecked
+   hash-based bytecode cache files are validated according to their default
+   semantics. When set to ``always``, all hash-based ``.pyc`` files, whether
+   checked or unchecked, are validated against their corresponding source
+   file. When set to ``never``, hash-based ``.pyc`` files are not validated
+   against their corresponding source files.
+
+   The semantics of timestamp-based ``.pyc`` files are unaffected by this
+   option.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -d
+
+   Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
+   options).  See also :envvar:`PYTHONDEBUG`.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -E
+
+   Ignore all :envvar:`PYTHON*` environment variables, e.g.
+   :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` and :envvar:`PYTHONHOME`, that might be set.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -i
+
+   When a script is passed as first argument or the :option:`-c` option is used,
+   enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when
+   :data:`sys.stdin` does not appear to be a terminal.  The
+   :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` file is not read.
+
+   This can be useful to inspect global variables or a stack trace when a script
+   raises an exception.  See also :envvar:`PYTHONINSPECT`.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -I
+
+   Run Python in isolated mode. This also implies -E and -s.
+   In isolated mode :data:`sys.path` contains neither the script's directory nor
+   the user's site-packages directory. All :envvar:`PYTHON*` environment
+   variables are ignored, too. Further restrictions may be imposed to prevent
+   the user from injecting malicious code.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -O
+
+   Remove assert statements and any code conditional on the value of
+   :const:`__debug__`.  Augment the filename for compiled
+   (:term:`bytecode`) files by adding ``.opt-1`` before the ``.pyc``
+   extension (see :pep:`488`).  See also :envvar:`PYTHONOPTIMIZE`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Modify ``.pyc`` filenames according to :pep:`488`.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -OO
+
+   Do :option:`-O` and also discard docstrings.  Augment the filename
+   for compiled (:term:`bytecode`) files by adding ``.opt-2`` before the
+   ``.pyc`` extension (see :pep:`488`).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+      Modify ``.pyc`` filenames according to :pep:`488`.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -q
+
+   Don't display the copyright and version messages even in interactive mode.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -R
+
+   Turn on hash randomization. This option only has an effect if the
+   :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` environment variable is set to ``0``, since hash
+   randomization is enabled by default.
+
+   On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash randomization,
+   so that the :meth:`__hash__` values of str, bytes and datetime
+   are "salted" with an unpredictable random value.  Although they remain
+   constant within an individual Python process, they are not predictable
+   between repeated invocations of Python.
+
+   Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a
+   denial-of-service caused by carefully-chosen inputs that exploit the worst
+   case performance of a dict construction, O(n^2) complexity.  See
+   http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.
+
+   :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` allows you to set a fixed value for the hash
+   seed secret.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The option is no longer ignored.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2.3
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -s
+
+   Don't add the :data:`user site-packages directory <site.USER_SITE>` to
+   :data:`sys.path`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :pep:`370` -- Per user site-packages directory
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -S
+
+   Disable the import of the module :mod:`site` and the site-dependent
+   manipulations of :data:`sys.path` that it entails.  Also disable these
+   manipulations if :mod:`site` is explicitly imported later (call
+   :func:`site.main` if you want them to be triggered).
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -u
+
+   Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.  This option has no
+   effect on the stdin stream.
+
+   See also :envvar:`PYTHONUNBUFFERED`.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      The text layer of the stdout and stderr streams now is unbuffered.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -v
+
+   Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the place
+   (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  When given twice
+   (:option:`!-vv`), print a message for each file that is checked for when
+   searching for a module.  Also provides information on module cleanup at exit.
+   See also :envvar:`PYTHONVERBOSE`.
+
+
+.. _using-on-warnings:
+.. cmdoption:: -W arg
+
+   Warning control.  Python's warning machinery by default prints warning
+   messages to :data:`sys.stderr`.  A typical warning message has the following
+   form:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       file:line: category: message
+
+   By default, each warning is printed once for each source line where it
+   occurs.  This option controls how often warnings are printed.
+
+   Multiple :option:`-W` options may be given; when a warning matches more than
+   one option, the action for the last matching option is performed.  Invalid
+   :option:`-W` options are ignored (though, a warning message is printed about
+   invalid options when the first warning is issued).
+
+   Warnings can also be controlled using the :envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS`
+   environment variable and from within a Python program using the
+   :mod:`warnings` module.
+
+   The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to all
+   warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise ignored by
+   default)::
+
+       -Wdefault  # Warn once per call location
+       -Werror    # Convert to exceptions
+       -Walways   # Warn every time
+       -Wmodule   # Warn once per calling module
+       -Wonce     # Warn once per Python process
+       -Wignore   # Never warn
+
+   The action names can be abbreviated as desired (e.g. ``-Wi``, ``-Wd``,
+   ``-Wa``, ``-We``) and the interpreter will resolve them to the appropriate
+   action name.
+
+   See :ref:`warning-filter` and :ref:`describing-warning-filters` for more
+   details.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -x
+
+   Skip the first line of the source, allowing use of non-Unix forms of
+   ``#!cmd``.  This is intended for a DOS specific hack only.
+
+
+.. cmdoption:: -X
+
+   Reserved for various implementation-specific options.  CPython currently
+   defines the following possible values:
+
+   * ``-X faulthandler`` to enable :mod:`faulthandler`;
+   * ``-X showrefcount`` to output the total reference count and number of used
+     memory blocks when the program finishes or after each statement in the
+     interactive interpreter. This only works on debug builds.
+   * ``-X tracemalloc`` to start tracing Python memory allocations using the
+     :mod:`tracemalloc` module. By default, only the most recent frame is
+     stored in a traceback of a trace. Use ``-X tracemalloc=NFRAME`` to start
+     tracing with a traceback limit of *NFRAME* frames. See the
+     :func:`tracemalloc.start` for more information.
+   * ``-X showalloccount`` to output the total count of allocated objects for
+     each type when the program finishes. This only works when Python was built with
+     ``COUNT_ALLOCS`` defined.
+   * ``-X importtime`` to show how long each import takes. It shows module
+     name, cumulative time (including nested imports) and self time (excluding
+     nested imports).  Note that its output may be broken in multi-threaded
+     application.  Typical usage is ``python3 -X importtime -c 'import
+     asyncio'``.  See also :envvar:`PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME`.
+   * ``-X dev``: enable CPython's "development mode", introducing additional
+     runtime checks which are too expensive to be enabled by default. It should
+     not be more verbose than the default if the code is correct: new warnings
+     are only emitted when an issue is detected. Effect of the developer mode:
+
+     * Add ``default`` warning filter, as :option:`-W` ``default``.
+     * Install debug hooks on memory allocators: see the
+       :c:func:`PyMem_SetupDebugHooks` C function.
+     * Enable the :mod:`faulthandler` module to dump the Python traceback
+       on a crash.
+     * Enable :ref:`asyncio debug mode <asyncio-debug-mode>`.
+     * Set the :attr:`~sys.flags.dev_mode` attribute of :attr:`sys.flags` to
+       ``True``
+
+   * ``-X utf8`` enables UTF-8 mode for operating system interfaces, overriding
+     the default locale-aware mode. ``-X utf8=0`` explicitly disables UTF-8
+     mode (even when it would otherwise activate automatically).
+     See :envvar:`PYTHONUTF8` for more details.
+
+   It also allows passing arbitrary values and retrieving them through the
+   :data:`sys._xoptions` dictionary.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+      The :option:`-X` option was added.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+      The ``-X faulthandler`` option.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+      The ``-X showrefcount`` and ``-X tracemalloc`` options.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      The ``-X showalloccount`` option.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      The ``-X importtime``, ``-X dev`` and ``-X utf8`` options.
+
+
+Options you shouldn't use
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. cmdoption:: -J
+
+   Reserved for use by Jython_.
+
+.. _Jython: http://www.jython.org/
+
+
+.. _using-on-envvars:
+
+Environment variables
+---------------------
+
+These environment variables influence Python's behavior, they are processed
+before the command-line switches other than -E or -I.  It is customary that
+command-line switches override environmental variables where there is a
+conflict.
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONHOME
+
+   Change the location of the standard Python libraries.  By default, the
+   libraries are searched in :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{version}` and
+   :file:`{exec_prefix}/lib/python{version}`, where :file:`{prefix}` and
+   :file:`{exec_prefix}` are installation-dependent directories, both defaulting
+   to :file:`/usr/local`.
+
+   When :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` is set to a single directory, its value replaces
+   both :file:`{prefix}` and :file:`{exec_prefix}`.  To specify different values
+   for these, set :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` to :file:`{prefix}:{exec_prefix}`.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONPATH
+
+   Augment the default search path for module files.  The format is the same as
+   the shell's :envvar:`PATH`: one or more directory pathnames separated by
+   :data:`os.pathsep` (e.g. colons on Unix or semicolons on Windows).
+   Non-existent directories are silently ignored.
+
+   In addition to normal directories, individual :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` entries
+   may refer to zipfiles containing pure Python modules (in either source or
+   compiled form). Extension modules cannot be imported from zipfiles.
+
+   The default search path is installation dependent, but generally begins with
+   :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{version}` (see :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` above).  It
+   is *always* appended to :envvar:`PYTHONPATH`.
+
+   An additional directory will be inserted in the search path in front of
+   :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` as described above under
+   :ref:`using-on-interface-options`. The search path can be manipulated from
+   within a Python program as the variable :data:`sys.path`.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONSTARTUP
+
+   If this is the name of a readable file, the Python commands in that file are
+   executed before the first prompt is displayed in interactive mode.  The file
+   is executed in the same namespace where interactive commands are executed so
+   that objects defined or imported in it can be used without qualification in
+   the interactive session.  You can also change the prompts :data:`sys.ps1` and
+   :data:`sys.ps2` and the hook :data:`sys.__interactivehook__` in this file.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONOPTIMIZE
+
+   If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+   :option:`-O` option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent to specifying
+   :option:`-O` multiple times.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONBREAKPOINT
+
+   If this is set, it names a callable using dotted-path notation.  The module
+   containing the callable will be imported and then the callable will be run
+   by the default implementation of :func:`sys.breakpointhook` which itself is
+   called by built-in :func:`breakpoint`.  If not set, or set to the empty
+   string, it is equivalent to the value "pdb.set_trace".  Setting this to the
+   string "0" causes the default implementation of :func:`sys.breakpointhook`
+   to do nothing but return immediately.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONDEBUG
+
+   If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+   :option:`-d` option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent to specifying
+   :option:`-d` multiple times.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONINSPECT
+
+   If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+   :option:`-i` option.
+
+   This variable can also be modified by Python code using :data:`os.environ`
+   to force inspect mode on program termination.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONUNBUFFERED
+
+   If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+   :option:`-u` option.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONVERBOSE
+
+   If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+   :option:`-v` option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent to specifying
+   :option:`-v` multiple times.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONCASEOK
+
+   If this is set, Python ignores case in :keyword:`import` statements.  This
+   only works on Windows and OS X.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE
+
+   If this is set to a non-empty string, Python won't try to write ``.pyc``
+   files on the import of source modules.  This is equivalent to
+   specifying the :option:`-B` option.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONHASHSEED
+
+   If this variable is not set or set to ``random``, a random value is used
+   to seed the hashes of str, bytes and datetime objects.
+
+   If :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` is set to an integer value, it is used as a fixed
+   seed for generating the hash() of the types covered by the hash
+   randomization.
+
+   Its purpose is to allow repeatable hashing, such as for selftests for the
+   interpreter itself, or to allow a cluster of python processes to share hash
+   values.
+
+   The integer must be a decimal number in the range [0,4294967295].  Specifying
+   the value 0 will disable hash randomization.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.2.3
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONIOENCODING
+
+   If this is set before running the interpreter, it overrides the encoding used
+   for stdin/stdout/stderr, in the syntax ``encodingname:errorhandler``.  Both
+   the ``encodingname`` and the ``:errorhandler`` parts are optional and have
+   the same meaning as in :func:`str.encode`.
+
+   For stderr, the ``:errorhandler`` part is ignored; the handler will always be
+   ``'backslashreplace'``.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+      The ``encodingname`` part is now optional.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      On Windows, the encoding specified by this variable is ignored for interactive
+      console buffers unless :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO` is also specified.
+      Files and pipes redirected through the standard streams are not affected.
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONNOUSERSITE
+
+   If this is set, Python won't add the :data:`user site-packages directory
+   <site.USER_SITE>` to :data:`sys.path`.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :pep:`370` -- Per user site-packages directory
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONUSERBASE
+
+   Defines the :data:`user base directory <site.USER_BASE>`, which is used to
+   compute the path of the :data:`user site-packages directory <site.USER_SITE>`
+   and :ref:`Distutils installation paths <inst-alt-install-user>` for
+   ``python setup.py install --user``.
+
+   .. seealso::
+
+      :pep:`370` -- Per user site-packages directory
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONEXECUTABLE
+
+   If this environment variable is set, ``sys.argv[0]`` will be set to its
+   value instead of the value got through the C runtime.  Only works on
+   Mac OS X.
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONWARNINGS
+
+   This is equivalent to the :option:`-W` option. If set to a comma
+   separated string, it is equivalent to specifying :option:`-W` multiple
+   times, with filters later in the list taking precedence over those earlier
+   in the list.
+
+   The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to all
+   warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise ignored by
+   default)::
+
+       PYTHONWARNINGS=default  # Warn once per call location
+       PYTHONWARNINGS=error    # Convert to exceptions
+       PYTHONWARNINGS=always   # Warn every time
+       PYTHONWARNINGS=module   # Warn once per calling module
+       PYTHONWARNINGS=once     # Warn once per Python process
+       PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore   # Never warn
+
+   See :ref:`warning-filter` and :ref:`describing-warning-filters` for more
+   details.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONFAULTHANDLER
+
+   If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string,
+   :func:`faulthandler.enable` is called at startup: install a handler for
+   :const:`SIGSEGV`, :const:`SIGFPE`, :const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS` and
+   :const:`SIGILL` signals to dump the Python traceback.  This is equivalent to
+   :option:`-X` ``faulthandler`` option.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC
+
+   If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, start tracing
+   Python memory allocations using the :mod:`tracemalloc` module. The value of
+   the variable is the maximum number of frames stored in a traceback of a
+   trace. For example, ``PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1`` stores only the most recent
+   frame. See the :func:`tracemalloc.start` for more information.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME
+
+   If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, Python will
+   show how long each import takes.  This is exactly equivalent to setting
+   ``-X importtime`` on the command line.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG
+
+   If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable the
+   :ref:`debug mode <asyncio-debug-mode>` of the :mod:`asyncio` module.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONMALLOC
+
+   Set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.
+
+   Set the family of memory allocators used by Python:
+
+   * ``default``: use the :ref:`default memory allocators
+     <default-memory-allocators>`.
+   * ``malloc``: use the :c:func:`malloc` function of the C library
+     for all domains (:c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW`, :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM`,
+     :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ`).
+   * ``pymalloc``: use the :ref:`pymalloc allocator <pymalloc>` for
+     :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM` and :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ` domains and use
+     the :c:func:`malloc` function for the :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW` domain.
+
+   Install debug hooks:
+
+   * ``debug``: install debug hooks on top of the :ref:`default memory
+     allocators <default-memory-allocators>`.
+   * ``malloc_debug``: same as ``malloc`` but also install debug hooks
+   * ``pymalloc_debug``: same as ``pymalloc`` but also install debug hooks
+
+   See the :ref:`default memory allocators <default-memory-allocators>` and the
+   :c:func:`PyMem_SetupDebugHooks` function (install debug hooks on Python
+   memory allocators).
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+      Added the ``"default"`` allocator.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONMALLOCSTATS
+
+   If set to a non-empty string, Python will print statistics of the
+   :ref:`pymalloc memory allocator <pymalloc>` every time a new pymalloc object
+   arena is created, and on shutdown.
+
+   This variable is ignored if the :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable
+   is used to force the :c:func:`malloc` allocator of the C library, or if
+   Python is configured without ``pymalloc`` support.
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+      This variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.
+      It now has no effect if set to an empty string.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING
+
+   If set to a non-empty string, the default filesystem encoding and errors mode
+   will revert to their pre-3.6 values of 'mbcs' and 'replace', respectively.
+   Otherwise, the new defaults 'utf-8' and 'surrogatepass' are used.
+
+   This may also be enabled at runtime with
+   :func:`sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()`.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+      See :pep:`529` for more details.
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO
+
+   If set to a non-empty string, does not use the new console reader and
+   writer. This means that Unicode characters will be encoded according to
+   the active console code page, rather than using utf-8.
+
+   This variable is ignored if the standard streams are redirected (to files
+   or pipes) rather than referring to console buffers.
+
+   .. availability:: Windows.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE
+
+   If set to the value ``0``, causes the main Python command line application
+   to skip coercing the legacy ASCII-based C and POSIX locales to a more
+   capable UTF-8 based alternative.
+
+   If this variable is *not* set (or is set to a value other than ``0``), the
+   ``LC_ALL`` locale override environment variable is also not set, and the
+   current locale reported for the ``LC_CTYPE`` category is either the default
+   ``C`` locale, or else the explicitly ASCII-based ``POSIX`` locale, then the
+   Python CLI will attempt to configure the following locales for the
+   ``LC_CTYPE`` category in the order listed before loading the interpreter
+   runtime:
+
+   * ``C.UTF-8``
+   * ``C.utf8``
+   * ``UTF-8``
+
+   If setting one of these locale categories succeeds, then the ``LC_CTYPE``
+   environment variable will also be set accordingly in the current process
+   environment before the Python runtime is initialized. This ensures that in
+   addition to being seen by both the interpreter itself and other locale-aware
+   components running in the same process (such as the GNU ``readline``
+   library), the updated setting is also seen in subprocesses (regardless of
+   whether or not those processes are running a Python interpreter), as well as
+   in operations that query the environment rather than the current C locale
+   (such as Python's own :func:`locale.getdefaultlocale`).
+
+   Configuring one of these locales (either explicitly or via the above
+   implicit locale coercion) automatically enables the ``surrogateescape``
+   :ref:`error handler <error-handlers>` for :data:`sys.stdin` and
+   :data:`sys.stdout` (:data:`sys.stderr` continues to use ``backslashreplace``
+   as it does in any other locale). This stream handling behavior can be
+   overridden using :envvar:`PYTHONIOENCODING` as usual.
+
+   For debugging purposes, setting ``PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn`` will cause
+   Python to emit warning messages on ``stderr`` if either the locale coercion
+   activates, or else if a locale that *would* have triggered coercion is
+   still active when the Python runtime is initialized.
+
+   Also note that even when locale coercion is disabled, or when it fails to
+   find a suitable target locale, :envvar:`PYTHONUTF8` will still activate by
+   default in legacy ASCII-based locales. Both features must be disabled in
+   order to force the interpreter to use ``ASCII`` instead of ``UTF-8`` for
+   system interfaces.
+
+   .. availability:: \*nix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      See :pep:`538` for more details.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONDEVMODE
+
+   If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable the
+   CPython "development mode". See the :option:`-X` ``dev`` option.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONUTF8
+
+   If set to ``1``, enables the interpreter's UTF-8 mode, where ``UTF-8`` is
+   used as the text encoding for system interfaces, regardless of the
+   current locale setting.
+
+   This means that:
+
+    * :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding()` returns ``'UTF-8'`` (the locale
+      encoding is ignored).
+    * :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding()` returns ``'UTF-8'`` (the locale
+      encoding is ignored, and the function's ``do_setlocale`` parameter has no
+      effect).
+    * :data:`sys.stdin`, :data:`sys.stdout`, and :data:`sys.stderr` all use
+      UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the ``surrogateescape``
+      :ref:`error handler <error-handlers>` being enabled for :data:`sys.stdin`
+      and :data:`sys.stdout` (:data:`sys.stderr` continues to use
+      ``backslashreplace`` as it does in the default locale-aware mode)
+
+   As a consequence of the changes in those lower level APIs, other higher
+   level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:
+
+    * Command line arguments, environment variables and filenames are decoded
+      to text using the UTF-8 encoding.
+    * :func:`os.fsdecode()` and :func:`os.fsencode()` use the UTF-8 encoding.
+    * :func:`open()`, :func:`io.open()`, and :func:`codecs.open()` use the UTF-8
+      encoding by default. However, they still use the strict error handler by
+      default so that attempting to open a binary file in text mode is likely
+      to raise an exception rather than producing nonsense data.
+
+   Note that the standard stream settings in UTF-8 mode can be overridden by
+   :envvar:`PYTHONIOENCODING` (just as they can be in the default locale-aware
+   mode).
+
+   If set to ``0``, the interpreter runs in its default locale-aware mode.
+
+   Setting any other non-empty string causes an error during interpreter
+   initialisation.
+
+   If this environment variable is not set at all, then the interpreter defaults
+   to using the current locale settings, *unless* the current locale is
+   identified as a legacy ASCII-based locale
+   (as described for :envvar:`PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE`), and locale coercion is
+   either disabled or fails. In such legacy locales, the interpreter will
+   default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless explicitly instructed not to do so.
+
+   Also available as the :option:`-X` ``utf8`` option.
+
+   .. availability:: \*nix.
+
+   .. versionadded:: 3.7
+      See :pep:`540` for more details.
+
+
+Debug-mode variables
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Setting these variables only has an effect in a debug build of Python, that is,
+if Python was configured with the ``--with-pydebug`` build option.
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONTHREADDEBUG
+
+   If set, Python will print threading debug info.
+
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHONDUMPREFS
+
+   If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive after
+   shutting down the interpreter.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f0aa7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+.. _using-index:
+
+##########################
+  Python Setup and Usage
+##########################
+
+
+This part of the documentation is devoted to general information on the setup
+of the Python environment on different platforms, the invocation of the
+interpreter and things that make working with Python easier.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+   :numbered:
+
+   cmdline.rst
+   unix.rst
+   windows.rst
+   mac.rst
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/mac.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/mac.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e685993
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/mac.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,183 @@
+
+.. _using-on-mac:
+
+***************************
+Using Python on a Macintosh
+***************************
+
+:Author: Bob Savage <bobsavage@mac.com>
+
+
+Python on a Macintosh running Mac OS X is in principle very similar to Python on
+any other Unix platform, but there are a number of additional features such as
+the IDE and the Package Manager that are worth pointing out.
+
+.. _getting-osx:
+
+Getting and Installing MacPython
+================================
+
+Mac OS X 10.8 comes with Python 2.7 pre-installed by Apple.  If you wish, you
+are invited to install the most recent version of Python 3 from the Python
+website (https://www.python.org).  A current "universal binary" build of Python,
+which runs natively on the Mac's new Intel and legacy PPC CPU's, is available
+there.
+
+What you get after installing is a number of things:
+
+* A :file:`Python 3.7` folder in your :file:`Applications` folder. In here
+  you find IDLE, the development environment that is a standard part of official
+  Python distributions; PythonLauncher, which handles double-clicking Python
+  scripts from the Finder; and the "Build Applet" tool, which allows you to
+  package Python scripts as standalone applications on your system.
+
+* A framework :file:`/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework`, which includes the
+  Python executable and libraries. The installer adds this location to your shell
+  path. To uninstall MacPython, you can simply remove these three things. A
+  symlink to the Python executable is placed in /usr/local/bin/.
+
+The Apple-provided build of Python is installed in
+:file:`/System/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework` and :file:`/usr/bin/python`,
+respectively. You should never modify or delete these, as they are
+Apple-controlled and are used by Apple- or third-party software.  Remember that
+if you choose to install a newer Python version from python.org, you will have
+two different but functional Python installations on your computer, so it will
+be important that your paths and usages are consistent with what you want to do.
+
+IDLE includes a help menu that allows you to access Python documentation. If you
+are completely new to Python you should start reading the tutorial introduction
+in that document.
+
+If you are familiar with Python on other Unix platforms you should read the
+section on running Python scripts from the Unix shell.
+
+
+How to run a Python script
+--------------------------
+
+Your best way to get started with Python on Mac OS X is through the IDLE
+integrated development environment, see section :ref:`ide` and use the Help menu
+when the IDE is running.
+
+If you want to run Python scripts from the Terminal window command line or from
+the Finder you first need an editor to create your script. Mac OS X comes with a
+number of standard Unix command line editors, :program:`vim` and
+:program:`emacs` among them. If you want a more Mac-like editor,
+:program:`BBEdit` or :program:`TextWrangler` from Bare Bones Software (see
+http://www.barebones.com/products/bbedit/index.html) are good choices, as is
+:program:`TextMate` (see https://macromates.com/). Other editors include
+:program:`Gvim` (http://macvim-dev.github.io/macvim/) and :program:`Aquamacs`
+(http://aquamacs.org/).
+
+To run your script from the Terminal window you must make sure that
+:file:`/usr/local/bin` is in your shell search path.
+
+To run your script from the Finder you have two options:
+
+* Drag it to :program:`PythonLauncher`
+
+* Select :program:`PythonLauncher` as the default application to open your
+  script (or any .py script) through the finder Info window and double-click it.
+  :program:`PythonLauncher` has various preferences to control how your script is
+  launched. Option-dragging allows you to change these for one invocation, or use
+  its Preferences menu to change things globally.
+
+
+.. _osx-gui-scripts:
+
+Running scripts with a GUI
+--------------------------
+
+With older versions of Python, there is one Mac OS X quirk that you need to be
+aware of: programs that talk to the Aqua window manager (in other words,
+anything that has a GUI) need to be run in a special way. Use :program:`pythonw`
+instead of :program:`python` to start such scripts.
+
+With Python 3.7, you can use either :program:`python` or :program:`pythonw`.
+
+
+Configuration
+-------------
+
+Python on OS X honors all standard Unix environment variables such as
+:envvar:`PYTHONPATH`, but setting these variables for programs started from the
+Finder is non-standard as the Finder does not read your :file:`.profile` or
+:file:`.cshrc` at startup. You need to create a file
+:file:`~/.MacOSX/environment.plist`. See Apple's Technical Document QA1067 for
+details.
+
+For more information on installation Python packages in MacPython, see section
+:ref:`mac-package-manager`.
+
+
+.. _ide:
+
+The IDE
+=======
+
+MacPython ships with the standard IDLE development environment. A good
+introduction to using IDLE can be found at
+http://www.hashcollision.org/hkn/python/idle_intro/index.html.
+
+
+.. _mac-package-manager:
+
+Installing Additional Python Packages
+=====================================
+
+There are several methods to install additional Python packages:
+
+* Packages can be installed via the standard Python distutils mode (``python
+  setup.py install``).
+
+* Many packages can also be installed via the :program:`setuptools` extension
+  or :program:`pip` wrapper, see https://pip.pypa.io/.
+
+
+GUI Programming on the Mac
+==========================
+
+There are several options for building GUI applications on the Mac with Python.
+
+*PyObjC* is a Python binding to Apple's Objective-C/Cocoa framework, which is
+the foundation of most modern Mac development. Information on PyObjC is
+available from https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/.
+
+The standard Python GUI toolkit is :mod:`tkinter`, based on the cross-platform
+Tk toolkit (https://www.tcl.tk). An Aqua-native version of Tk is bundled with OS
+X by Apple, and the latest version can be downloaded and installed from
+https://www.activestate.com; it can also be built from source.
+
+*wxPython* is another popular cross-platform GUI toolkit that runs natively on
+Mac OS X. Packages and documentation are available from https://www.wxpython.org.
+
+*PyQt* is another popular cross-platform GUI toolkit that runs natively on Mac
+OS X. More information can be found at
+https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro.
+
+
+Distributing Python Applications on the Mac
+===========================================
+
+The "Build Applet" tool that is placed in the MacPython 3.6 folder is fine for
+packaging small Python scripts on your own machine to run as a standard Mac
+application. This tool, however, is not robust enough to distribute Python
+applications to other users.
+
+The standard tool for deploying standalone Python applications on the Mac is
+:program:`py2app`. More information on installing and using py2app can be found
+at http://undefined.org/python/#py2app.
+
+
+Other Resources
+===============
+
+The MacPython mailing list is an excellent support resource for Python users and
+developers on the Mac:
+
+https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/
+
+Another useful resource is the MacPython wiki:
+
+https://wiki.python.org/moin/MacPython
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/unix.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/unix.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+.. highlightlang:: sh
+
+.. _using-on-unix:
+
+********************************
+ Using Python on Unix platforms
+********************************
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Shriphani Palakodety
+
+
+Getting and installing the latest version of Python
+===================================================
+
+On Linux
+--------
+
+Python comes preinstalled on most Linux distributions, and is available as a
+package on all others.  However there are certain features you might want to use
+that are not available on your distro's package.  You can easily compile the
+latest version of Python from source.
+
+In the event that Python doesn't come preinstalled and isn't in the repositories as
+well, you can easily make packages for your own distro.  Have a look at the
+following links:
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html
+      for Debian users
+   https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging
+      for OpenSuse users
+   https://docs-old.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora_Draft_Documentation/0.1/html/RPM_Guide/ch-creating-rpms.html
+      for Fedora users
+   http://www.slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html
+      for Slackware users
+
+
+On FreeBSD and OpenBSD
+----------------------
+
+* FreeBSD users, to add the package use::
+
+     pkg install python3
+
+* OpenBSD users, to add the package use::
+
+     pkg_add -r python
+
+     pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/<insert your architecture here>/python-<version>.tgz
+
+  For example i386 users get the 2.5.1 version of Python using::
+
+     pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz
+
+
+On OpenSolaris
+--------------
+
+You can get Python from `OpenCSW <https://www.opencsw.org/>`_.  Various versions
+of Python are available and can be installed with e.g. ``pkgutil -i python27``.
+
+
+.. _building-python-on-unix:
+
+Building Python
+===============
+
+If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is get the
+`source <https://www.python.org/downloads/source/>`_. You can download either the
+latest release's source or just grab a fresh `clone
+<https://devguide.python.org/setup/#getting-the-source-code>`_.  (If you want
+to contribute patches, you will need a clone.)
+
+The build process consists in the usual ::
+
+   ./configure
+   make
+   make install
+
+invocations. Configuration options and caveats for specific Unix platforms are
+extensively documented in the :source:`README.rst` file in the root of the Python
+source tree.
+
+.. warning::
+
+   ``make install`` can overwrite or masquerade the :file:`python3` binary.
+   ``make altinstall`` is therefore recommended instead of ``make install``
+   since it only installs :file:`{exec_prefix}/bin/python{version}`.
+
+
+Python-related paths and files
+==============================
+
+These are subject to difference depending on local installation conventions;
+:envvar:`prefix` (``${prefix}``) and :envvar:`exec_prefix` (``${exec_prefix}``)
+are installation-dependent and should be interpreted as for GNU software; they
+may be the same.
+
+For example, on most Linux systems, the default for both is :file:`/usr`.
+
++-----------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| File/directory                                | Meaning                                  |
++===============================================+==========================================+
+| :file:`{exec_prefix}/bin/python3`             | Recommended location of the interpreter. |
++-----------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{version}`,         | Recommended locations of the directories |
+| :file:`{exec_prefix}/lib/python{version}`     | containing the standard modules.         |
++-----------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
+| :file:`{prefix}/include/python{version}`,     | Recommended locations of the directories |
+| :file:`{exec_prefix}/include/python{version}` | containing the include files needed for  |
+|                                               | developing Python extensions and         |
+|                                               | embedding the interpreter.               |
++-----------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
+
+
+Miscellaneous
+=============
+
+To easily use Python scripts on Unix, you need to make them executable,
+e.g. with
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ chmod +x script
+
+and put an appropriate Shebang line at the top of the script.  A good choice is
+usually ::
+
+   #!/usr/bin/env python3
+
+which searches for the Python interpreter in the whole :envvar:`PATH`.  However,
+some Unices may not have the :program:`env` command, so you may need to hardcode
+``/usr/bin/python3`` as the interpreter path.
+
+To use shell commands in your Python scripts, look at the :mod:`subprocess` module.
+
+
+Editors and IDEs
+================
+
+There are a number of IDEs that support Python programming language.
+Many editors and IDEs provide syntax highlighting, debugging tools, and :pep:`8` checks.
+
+Please go to `Python Editors <https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors>`_ and
+`Integrated Development Environments <https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments>`_
+for a comprehensive list.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/windows.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/windows.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcc618c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/using/windows.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1132 @@
+.. highlightlang:: none
+
+.. _using-on-windows:
+
+*************************
+ Using Python on Windows
+*************************
+
+.. sectionauthor:: Robert Lehmann <lehmannro@gmail.com>
+.. sectionauthor:: Steve Dower <steve.dower@microsoft.com>
+
+This document aims to give an overview of Windows-specific behaviour you should
+know about when using Python on Microsoft Windows.
+
+Unlike most Unix systems and services, Windows does not include a system
+supported installation of Python. To make Python available, the CPython team
+has compiled Windows installers (MSI packages) with every `release
+<https://www.python.org/download/releases/>`_ for many years. These installers
+are primarily intended to add a per-user installation of Python, with the
+core interpreter and library being used by a single user. The installer is also
+able to install for all users of a single machine, and a separate ZIP file is
+available for application-local distributions.
+
+As specified in :pep:`11`, a Python release only supports a Windows platform
+while Microsoft considers the platform under extended support. This means that
+Python |version| supports Windows Vista and newer. If you require Windows XP
+support then please install Python 3.4.
+
+There are a number of different installers available for Windows, each with
+certain benefits and downsides.
+
+:ref:`windows-full` contains all components and is the best option for
+developers using Python for any kind of project.
+
+:ref:`windows-store` is a simple installation of Python that is suitable for
+running scripts and packages, and using IDLE or other development environments.
+It requires Windows 10, but can be safely installed without corrupting other
+programs. It also provides many convenient commands for launching Python and
+its tools.
+
+:ref:`windows-nuget` are lightweight installations intended for continuous
+integration systems. It can be used to build Python packages or run scripts,
+but is not updateable and has no user interface tools.
+
+:ref:`windows-embeddable` is a minimal package of Python suitable for
+embedding into a larger application.
+
+
+.. _windows-full:
+
+The full installer
+==================
+
+Installation steps
+------------------
+
+Four Python |version| installers are available for download - two each for the
+32-bit and 64-bit versions of the interpreter. The *web installer* is a small
+initial download, and it will automatically download the required components as
+necessary. The *offline installer* includes the components necessary for a
+default installation and only requires an internet connection for optional
+features. See :ref:`install-layout-option` for other ways to avoid downloading
+during installation.
+
+After starting the installer, one of two options may be selected:
+
+.. image:: win_installer.png
+
+If you select "Install Now":
+
+* You will *not* need to be an administrator (unless a system update for the
+  C Runtime Library is required or you install the :ref:`launcher` for all
+  users)
+* Python will be installed into your user directory
+* The :ref:`launcher` will be installed according to the option at the bottom
+  of the first page
+* The standard library, test suite, launcher and pip will be installed
+* If selected, the install directory will be added to your :envvar:`PATH`
+* Shortcuts will only be visible for the current user
+
+Selecting "Customize installation" will allow you to select the features to
+install, the installation location and other options or post-install actions.
+To install debugging symbols or binaries, you will need to use this option.
+
+To perform an all-users installation, you should select "Customize
+installation". In this case:
+
+* You may be required to provide administrative credentials or approval
+* Python will be installed into the Program Files directory
+* The :ref:`launcher` will be installed into the Windows directory
+* Optional features may be selected during installation
+* The standard library can be pre-compiled to bytecode
+* If selected, the install directory will be added to the system :envvar:`PATH`
+* Shortcuts are available for all users
+
+.. _max-path:
+
+Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation
+--------------------------------
+
+Windows historically has limited path lengths to 260 characters. This meant that
+paths longer than this would not resolve and errors would result.
+
+In the latest versions of Windows, this limitation can be expanded to
+approximately 32,000 characters. Your administrator will need to activate the
+"Enable Win32 long paths" group policy, or set the registry value
+``HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem@LongPathsEnabled``
+to ``1``.
+
+This allows the :func:`open` function, the :mod:`os` module and most other
+path functionality to accept and return paths longer than 260 characters when
+using strings. (Use of bytes as paths is deprecated on Windows, and this feature
+is not available when using bytes.)
+
+After changing the above option, no further configuration is required.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+   Support for long paths was enabled in Python.
+
+.. _install-quiet-option:
+
+Installing Without UI
+---------------------
+
+All of the options available in the installer UI can also be specified from the
+command line, allowing scripted installers to replicate an installation on many
+machines without user interaction.  These options may also be set without
+suppressing the UI in order to change some of the defaults.
+
+To completely hide the installer UI and install Python silently, pass the
+``/quiet`` option. To skip past the user interaction but still display
+progress and errors, pass the ``/passive`` option. The ``/uninstall``
+option may be passed to immediately begin removing Python - no prompt will be
+displayed.
+
+All other options are passed as ``name=value``, where the value is usually
+``0`` to disable a feature, ``1`` to enable a feature, or a path. The full list
+of available options is shown below.
+
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Name                      | Description                          | Default                  |
++===========================+======================================+==========================+
+| InstallAllUsers           | Perform a system-wide installation.  | 0                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| TargetDir                 | The installation directory           | Selected based on        |
+|                           |                                      | InstallAllUsers          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| DefaultAllUsersTargetDir  | The default installation directory   | :file:`%ProgramFiles%\\\ |
+|                           | for all-user installs                | Python X.Y` or :file:`\  |
+|                           |                                      | %ProgramFiles(x86)%\\\   |
+|                           |                                      | Python X.Y`              |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| DefaultJustForMeTargetDir | The default install directory for    | :file:`%LocalAppData%\\\ |
+|                           | just-for-me installs                 | Programs\\PythonXY` or   |
+|                           |                                      | :file:`%LocalAppData%\\\ |
+|                           |                                      | Programs\\PythonXY-32` or|
+|                           |                                      | :file:`%LocalAppData%\\\ |
+|                           |                                      | Programs\\PythonXY-64`   |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| DefaultCustomTargetDir    | The default custom install directory | (empty)                  |
+|                           | displayed in the UI                  |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| AssociateFiles            | Create file associations if the      | 1                        |
+|                           | launcher is also installed.          |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| CompileAll                | Compile all ``.py`` files to         | 0                        |
+|                           | ``.pyc``.                            |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| PrependPath               | Add install and Scripts directories  | 0                        |
+|                           | to :envvar:`PATH` and ``.PY`` to     |                          |
+|                           | :envvar:`PATHEXT`                    |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Shortcuts                 | Create shortcuts for the interpreter,| 1                        |
+|                           | documentation and IDLE if installed. |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_doc               | Install Python manual                | 1                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_debug             | Install debug binaries               | 0                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_dev               | Install developer headers and        | 1                        |
+|                           | libraries                            |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_exe               | Install :file:`python.exe` and       | 1                        |
+|                           | related files                        |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_launcher          | Install :ref:`launcher`.             | 1                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| InstallLauncherAllUsers   | Installs :ref:`launcher` for all     | 1                        |
+|                           | users.                               |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_lib               | Install standard library and         | 1                        |
+|                           | extension modules                    |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_pip               | Install bundled pip and setuptools   | 1                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_symbols           | Install debugging symbols (`*`.pdb)  | 0                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_tcltk             | Install Tcl/Tk support and IDLE      | 1                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_test              | Install standard library test suite  | 1                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| Include_tools             | Install utility scripts              | 1                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| LauncherOnly              | Only installs the launcher. This     | 0                        |
+|                           | will override most other options.    |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| SimpleInstall             | Disable most install UI              | 0                        |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+| SimpleInstallDescription  | A custom message to display when the | (empty)                  |
+|                           | simplified install UI is used.       |                          |
++---------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+
+For example, to silently install a default, system-wide Python installation,
+you could use the following command (from an elevated command prompt)::
+
+    python-3.7.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0
+
+To allow users to easily install a personal copy of Python without the test
+suite, you could provide a shortcut with the following command. This will
+display a simplified initial page and disallow customization::
+
+    python-3.7.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
+        SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription="Just for me, no test suite."
+
+(Note that omitting the launcher also omits file associations, and is only
+recommended for per-user installs when there is also a system-wide installation
+that included the launcher.)
+
+The options listed above can also be provided in a file named ``unattend.xml``
+alongside the executable. This file specifies a list of options and values.
+When a value is provided as an attribute, it will be converted to a number if
+possible. Values provided as element text are always left as strings. This
+example file sets the same options as the previous example:
+
+.. code-block:: xml
+
+    <Options>
+        <Option Name="InstallAllUsers" Value="no" />
+        <Option Name="Include_launcher" Value="0" />
+        <Option Name="Include_test" Value="no" />
+        <Option Name="SimpleInstall" Value="yes" />
+        <Option Name="SimpleInstallDescription">Just for me, no test suite</Option>
+    </Options>
+
+.. _install-layout-option:
+
+Installing Without Downloading
+------------------------------
+
+As some features of Python are not included in the initial installer download,
+selecting those features may require an internet connection.  To avoid this
+need, all possible components may be downloaded on-demand to create a complete
+*layout* that will no longer require an internet connection regardless of the
+selected features. Note that this download may be bigger than required, but
+where a large number of installations are going to be performed it is very
+useful to have a locally cached copy.
+
+Execute the following command from Command Prompt to download all possible
+required files.  Remember to substitute ``python-3.7.0.exe`` for the actual
+name of your installer, and to create layouts in their own directories to
+avoid collisions between files with the same name.
+
+::
+
+    python-3.7.0.exe /layout [optional target directory]
+
+You may also specify the ``/quiet`` option to hide the progress display.
+
+Modifying an install
+--------------------
+
+Once Python has been installed, you can add or remove features through the
+Programs and Features tool that is part of Windows. Select the Python entry and
+choose "Uninstall/Change" to open the installer in maintenance mode.
+
+"Modify" allows you to add or remove features by modifying the checkboxes -
+unchanged checkboxes will not install or remove anything. Some options cannot be
+changed in this mode, such as the install directory; to modify these, you will
+need to remove and then reinstall Python completely.
+
+"Repair" will verify all the files that should be installed using the current
+settings and replace any that have been removed or modified.
+
+"Uninstall" will remove Python entirely, with the exception of the
+:ref:`launcher`, which has its own entry in Programs and Features.
+
+
+.. _windows-store:
+
+The Microsoft Store package
+===========================
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7.2
+
+.. note::
+   The Microsoft Store package is currently considered unstable while its
+   interactions with other tools and other copies of Python are evaluated.
+   While Python itself is stable, this installation method may change its
+   behavior and capabilities during Python 3.7 releases.
+
+The Microsoft Store package is an easily installable Python interpreter that
+is intended mainly for interactive use, for example, by students.
+
+To install the package, ensure you have the latest Windows 10 updates and
+search the Microsoft Store app for "Python |version|". Ensure that the app
+you select is published by the Python Software Foundation, and install it.
+
+.. warning::
+   Python will always be available for free on the Microsoft Store. If you
+   are asked to pay for it, you have not selected the correct package.
+
+After installation, Python may be launched by finding it in Start.
+Alternatively, it will be available from any Command Prompt or PowerShell
+session by typing ``python``. Further, pip and IDLE may be used by typing
+``pip`` or ``idle``. IDLE can also be found in Start.
+
+All three commands are also available with version number suffixes, for
+example, as ``python3.exe`` and ``python3.x.exe`` as well as
+``python.exe`` (where ``3.x`` is the specific version you want to launch,
+such as |version|).
+
+Virtual environments can be created with ``python -m venv`` and activated
+and used as normal.
+
+If you have installed another version of Python and added it to your
+``PATH`` variable, it will be available as ``python.exe`` rather than the
+one from the Microsoft Store. To access the new installation, use
+``python3.exe`` or ``python3.x.exe``.
+
+To remove Python, open Settings and use Apps and Features, or else find
+Python in Start and right-click to select Uninstall. Uninstalling will
+remove all packages you installed directly into this Python installation, but
+will not remove any virtual environments
+
+Known Issues
+------------
+
+Currently, the ``py.exe`` launcher cannot be used to start Python when it
+has been installed from the Microsoft Store.
+
+Because of restrictions on Microsoft Store apps, Python scripts may not have
+full write access to shared locations such as ``TEMP`` and the registry.
+Instead, it will write to a private copy. If your scripts must modify the
+shared locations, you will need to install the full installer.
+
+
+.. _windows-nuget:
+
+The nuget.org packages
+======================
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5.2
+
+The nuget.org package is a reduced size Python environment intended for use on
+continuous integration and build systems that do not have a system-wide
+install of Python. While nuget is "the package manager for .NET", it also works
+perfectly fine for packages containing build-time tools.
+
+Visit `nuget.org <https://www.nuget.org/>`_ for the most up-to-date information
+on using nuget. What follows is a summary that is sufficient for Python
+developers.
+
+The ``nuget.exe`` command line tool may be downloaded directly from
+``https://aka.ms/nugetclidl``, for example, using curl or PowerShell. With the
+tool, the latest version of Python for 64-bit or 32-bit machines is installed
+using::
+
+   nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
+   nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
+
+To select a particular version, add a ``-Version 3.x.y``. The output directory
+may be changed from ``.``, and the package will be installed into a
+subdirectory. By default, the subdirectory is named the same as the package,
+and without the ``-ExcludeVersion`` option this name will include the specific
+version installed. Inside the subdirectory is a ``tools`` directory that
+contains the Python installation::
+
+   # Without -ExcludeVersion
+   > .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
+   Python 3.5.2
+
+   # With -ExcludeVersion
+   > .\python\tools\python.exe -V
+   Python 3.5.2
+
+In general, nuget packages are not upgradeable, and newer versions should be
+installed side-by-side and referenced using the full path. Alternatively,
+delete the package directory manually and install it again. Many CI systems
+will do this automatically if they do not preserve files between builds.
+
+Alongside the ``tools`` directory is a ``build\native`` directory. This
+contains a MSBuild properties file ``python.props`` that can be used in a
+C++ project to reference the Python install. Including the settings will
+automatically use the headers and import libraries in your build.
+
+The package information pages on nuget.org are
+`www.nuget.org/packages/python <https://www.nuget.org/packages/python>`_
+for the 64-bit version and `www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86
+<https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86>`_ for the 32-bit version.
+
+
+.. _windows-embeddable:
+
+The embeddable package
+======================
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+The embedded distribution is a ZIP file containing a minimal Python environment.
+It is intended for acting as part of another application, rather than being
+directly accessed by end-users.
+
+When extracted, the embedded distribution is (almost) fully isolated from the
+user's system, including environment variables, system registry settings, and
+installed packages. The standard library is included as pre-compiled and
+optimized ``.pyc`` files in a ZIP, and ``python3.dll``, ``python37.dll``,
+``python.exe`` and ``pythonw.exe`` are all provided. Tcl/tk (including all
+dependants, such as Idle), pip and the Python documentation are not included.
+
+.. note::
+
+    The embedded distribution does not include the `Microsoft C Runtime
+    <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=48145>`_ and it is
+    the responsibility of the application installer to provide this. The
+    runtime may have already been installed on a user's system previously or
+    automatically via Windows Update, and can be detected by finding
+    ``ucrtbase.dll`` in the system directory.
+
+Third-party packages should be installed by the application installer alongside
+the embedded distribution. Using pip to manage dependencies as for a regular
+Python installation is not supported with this distribution, though with some
+care it may be possible to include and use pip for automatic updates. In
+general, third-party packages should be treated as part of the application
+("vendoring") so that the developer can ensure compatibility with newer
+versions before providing updates to users.
+
+The two recommended use cases for this distribution are described below.
+
+Python Application
+------------------
+
+An application written in Python does not necessarily require users to be aware
+of that fact. The embedded distribution may be used in this case to include a
+private version of Python in an install package. Depending on how transparent it
+should be (or conversely, how professional it should appear), there are two
+options.
+
+Using a specialized executable as a launcher requires some coding, but provides
+the most transparent experience for users. With a customized launcher, there are
+no obvious indications that the program is running on Python: icons can be
+customized, company and version information can be specified, and file
+associations behave properly. In most cases, a custom launcher should simply be
+able to call ``Py_Main`` with a hard-coded command line.
+
+The simpler approach is to provide a batch file or generated shortcut that
+directly calls the ``python.exe`` or ``pythonw.exe`` with the required
+command-line arguments. In this case, the application will appear to be Python
+and not its actual name, and users may have trouble distinguishing it from other
+running Python processes or file associations.
+
+With the latter approach, packages should be installed as directories alongside
+the Python executable to ensure they are available on the path. With the
+specialized launcher, packages can be located in other locations as there is an
+opportunity to specify the search path before launching the application.
+
+Embedding Python
+----------------
+
+Applications written in native code often require some form of scripting
+language, and the embedded Python distribution can be used for this purpose. In
+general, the majority of the application is in native code, and some part will
+either invoke ``python.exe`` or directly use ``python3.dll``. For either case,
+extracting the embedded distribution to a subdirectory of the application
+installation is sufficient to provide a loadable Python interpreter.
+
+As with the application use, packages can be installed to any location as there
+is an opportunity to specify search paths before initializing the interpreter.
+Otherwise, there is no fundamental differences between using the embedded
+distribution and a regular installation.
+
+
+Alternative bundles
+===================
+
+Besides the standard CPython distribution, there are modified packages including
+additional functionality.  The following is a list of popular versions and their
+key features:
+
+`ActivePython <https://www.activestate.com/activepython/>`_
+    Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation, PyWin32
+
+`Anaconda <https://www.anaconda.com/download/>`_
+    Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy and pandas) and the
+    ``conda`` package manager.
+
+`Canopy <https://www.enthought.com/product/canopy/>`_
+    A "comprehensive Python analysis environment" with editors and other
+    development tools.
+
+`WinPython <https://winpython.github.io/>`_
+    Windows-specific distribution with prebuilt scientific packages and
+    tools for building packages.
+
+Note that these packages may not include the latest versions of Python or
+other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core Python team.
+
+
+
+Configuring Python
+==================
+
+To run Python conveniently from a command prompt, you might consider changing
+some default environment variables in Windows.  While the installer provides an
+option to configure the PATH and PATHEXT variables for you, this is only
+reliable for a single, system-wide installation.  If you regularly use multiple
+versions of Python, consider using the :ref:`launcher`.
+
+
+.. _setting-envvars:
+
+Excursus: Setting environment variables
+---------------------------------------
+
+Windows allows environment variables to be configured permanently at both the
+User level and the System level, or temporarily in a command prompt.
+
+To temporarily set environment variables, open Command Prompt and use the
+:command:`set` command:
+
+.. code-block:: doscon
+
+    C:\>set PATH=C:\Program Files\Python 3.7;%PATH%
+    C:\>set PYTHONPATH=%PYTHONPATH%;C:\My_python_lib
+    C:\>python
+
+These changes will apply to any further commands executed in that console, and
+will be inherited by any applications started from the console.
+
+Including the variable name within percent signs will expand to the existing
+value, allowing you to add your new value at either the start or the end.
+Modifying :envvar:`PATH` by adding the directory containing
+:program:`python.exe` to the start is a common way to ensure the correct version
+of Python is launched.
+
+To permanently modify the default environment variables, click Start and search
+for 'edit environment variables', or open System properties, :guilabel:`Advanced
+system settings` and click the :guilabel:`Environment Variables` button.
+In this dialog, you can add or modify User and System variables. To change
+System variables, you need non-restricted access to your machine
+(i.e. Administrator rights).
+
+.. note::
+
+    Windows will concatenate User variables *after* System variables, which may
+    cause unexpected results when modifying :envvar:`PATH`.
+
+    The :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` variable is used by all versions of Python 2 and
+    Python 3, so you should not permanently configure this variable unless it
+    only includes code that is compatible with all of your installed Python
+    versions.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/wdsi/help/folder-variables
+      Environment variables in Windows NT
+
+    https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754250.aspx
+      The SET command, for temporarily modifying environment variables
+
+    https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc755104.aspx
+      The SETX command, for permanently modifying environment variables
+
+    https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/310519/how-to-manage-environment-variables-in-windows-xp
+      How To Manage Environment Variables in Windows XP
+
+    https://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/~louis/software/faq/q1.html
+      Setting Environment variables, Louis J. Farrugia
+
+.. _windows-path-mod:
+
+Finding the Python executable
+-----------------------------
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+
+Besides using the automatically created start menu entry for the Python
+interpreter, you might want to start Python in the command prompt. The
+installer has an option to set that up for you.
+
+On the first page of the installer, an option labelled "Add Python to PATH"
+may be selected to have the installer add the install location into the
+:envvar:`PATH`.  The location of the :file:`Scripts\\` folder is also added.
+This allows you to type :command:`python` to run the interpreter, and
+:command:`pip` for the package installer. Thus, you can also execute your
+scripts with command line options, see :ref:`using-on-cmdline` documentation.
+
+If you don't enable this option at install time, you can always re-run the
+installer, select Modify, and enable it.  Alternatively, you can manually
+modify the :envvar:`PATH` using the directions in :ref:`setting-envvars`.  You
+need to set your :envvar:`PATH` environment variable to include the directory
+of your Python installation, delimited by a semicolon from other entries.  An
+example variable could look like this (assuming the first two entries already
+existed)::
+
+    C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Program Files\Python 3.7
+
+.. _launcher:
+
+Python Launcher for Windows
+===========================
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+The Python launcher for Windows is a utility which aids in locating and
+executing of different Python versions.  It allows scripts (or the
+command-line) to indicate a preference for a specific Python version, and
+will locate and execute that version.
+
+Unlike the :envvar:`PATH` variable, the launcher will correctly select the most
+appropriate version of Python. It will prefer per-user installations over
+system-wide ones, and orders by language version rather than using the most
+recently installed version.
+
+The launcher was originally specified in :pep:`397`.
+
+Getting started
+---------------
+
+From the command-line
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+
+System-wide installations of Python 3.3 and later will put the launcher on your
+:envvar:`PATH`. The launcher is compatible with all available versions of
+Python, so it does not matter which version is installed. To check that the
+launcher is available, execute the following command in Command Prompt:
+
+::
+
+  py
+
+You should find that the latest version of Python you have installed is
+started - it can be exited as normal, and any additional command-line
+arguments specified will be sent directly to Python.
+
+If you have multiple versions of Python installed (e.g., 2.7 and |version|) you
+will have noticed that Python |version| was started - to launch Python 2.7, try
+the command:
+
+::
+
+  py -2.7
+
+If you want the latest version of Python 2.x you have installed, try the
+command:
+
+::
+
+  py -2
+
+You should find the latest version of Python 2.x starts.
+
+If you see the following error, you do not have the launcher installed:
+
+::
+
+  'py' is not recognized as an internal or external command,
+  operable program or batch file.
+
+Per-user installations of Python do not add the launcher to :envvar:`PATH`
+unless the option was selected on installation.
+
+Virtual environments
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+If the launcher is run with no explicit Python version specification, and a
+virtual environment (created with the standard library :mod:`venv` module or
+the external ``virtualenv`` tool) active, the launcher will run the virtual
+environment's interpreter rather than the global one.  To run the global
+interpreter, either deactivate the virtual environment, or explicitly specify
+the global Python version.
+
+From a script
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Let's create a test Python script - create a file called ``hello.py`` with the
+following contents
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+    #! python
+    import sys
+    sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,))
+
+From the directory in which hello.py lives, execute the command:
+
+::
+
+   py hello.py
+
+You should notice the version number of your latest Python 2.x installation
+is printed.  Now try changing the first line to be:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+    #! python3
+
+Re-executing the command should now print the latest Python 3.x information.
+As with the above command-line examples, you can specify a more explicit
+version qualifier.  Assuming you have Python 2.6 installed, try changing the
+first line to ``#! python2.6`` and you should find the 2.6 version
+information printed.
+
+Note that unlike interactive use, a bare "python" will use the latest
+version of Python 2.x that you have installed.  This is for backward
+compatibility and for compatibility with Unix, where the command ``python``
+typically refers to Python 2.
+
+From file associations
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The launcher should have been associated with Python files (i.e. ``.py``,
+``.pyw``, ``.pyc`` files) when it was installed.  This means that
+when you double-click on one of these files from Windows explorer the launcher
+will be used, and therefore you can use the same facilities described above to
+have the script specify the version which should be used.
+
+The key benefit of this is that a single launcher can support multiple Python
+versions at the same time depending on the contents of the first line.
+
+Shebang Lines
+-------------
+
+If the first line of a script file starts with ``#!``, it is known as a
+"shebang" line.  Linux and other Unix like operating systems have native
+support for such lines and they are commonly used on such systems to indicate
+how a script should be executed.  This launcher allows the same facilities to
+be used with Python scripts on Windows and the examples above demonstrate their
+use.
+
+To allow shebang lines in Python scripts to be portable between Unix and
+Windows, this launcher supports a number of 'virtual' commands to specify
+which interpreter to use.  The supported virtual commands are:
+
+* ``/usr/bin/env python``
+* ``/usr/bin/python``
+* ``/usr/local/bin/python``
+* ``python``
+
+For example, if the first line of your script starts with
+
+.. code-block:: sh
+
+  #! /usr/bin/python
+
+The default Python will be located and used.  As many Python scripts written
+to work on Unix will already have this line, you should find these scripts can
+be used by the launcher without modification.  If you are writing a new script
+on Windows which you hope will be useful on Unix, you should use one of the
+shebang lines starting with ``/usr``.
+
+Any of the above virtual commands can be suffixed with an explicit version
+(either just the major version, or the major and minor version).
+Furthermore the 32-bit version can be requested by adding "-32" after the
+minor version. I.e. ``/usr/bin/python2.7-32`` will request usage of the
+32-bit python 2.7.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+   Beginning with python launcher 3.7 it is possible to request 64-bit version
+   by the "-64" suffix. Furthermore it is possible to specify a major and
+   architecture without minor (i.e. ``/usr/bin/python3-64``).
+
+The ``/usr/bin/env`` form of shebang line has one further special property.
+Before looking for installed Python interpreters, this form will search the
+executable :envvar:`PATH` for a Python executable. This corresponds to the
+behaviour of the Unix ``env`` program, which performs a :envvar:`PATH` search.
+
+Arguments in shebang lines
+--------------------------
+
+The shebang lines can also specify additional options to be passed to the
+Python interpreter.  For example, if you have a shebang line:
+
+.. code-block:: sh
+
+  #! /usr/bin/python -v
+
+Then Python will be started with the ``-v`` option
+
+Customization
+-------------
+
+Customization via INI files
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Two .ini files will be searched by the launcher - ``py.ini`` in the current
+user's "application data" directory (i.e. the directory returned by calling the
+Windows function ``SHGetFolderPath`` with ``CSIDL_LOCAL_APPDATA``) and ``py.ini`` in the
+same directory as the launcher. The same .ini files are used for both the
+'console' version of the launcher (i.e. py.exe) and for the 'windows' version
+(i.e. pyw.exe).
+
+Customization specified in the "application directory" will have precedence over
+the one next to the executable, so a user, who may not have write access to the
+.ini file next to the launcher, can override commands in that global .ini file.
+
+Customizing default Python versions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+In some cases, a version qualifier can be included in a command to dictate
+which version of Python will be used by the command. A version qualifier
+starts with a major version number and can optionally be followed by a period
+('.') and a minor version specifier. Furthermore it is possible to specifiy
+if a 32 or 64 bit implementation shall be requested by adding "-32" or "-64".
+
+For example, a shebang line of ``#!python`` has no version qualifier, while
+``#!python3`` has a version qualifier which specifies only a major version.
+
+If no version qualifiers are found in a command, the environment
+variable :envvar:`PY_PYTHON` can be set to specify the default version
+qualifier. If it is not set, the default is "3". The variable can
+specify any value that may be passed on the command line, such as "3",
+"3.7", "3.7-32" or "3.7-64". (Note that the "-64" option is only
+available with the launcher included with Python 3.7 or newer.)
+
+If no minor version qualifiers are found, the environment variable
+``PY_PYTHON{major}`` (where ``{major}`` is the current major version qualifier
+as determined above) can be set to specify the full version. If no such option
+is found, the launcher will enumerate the installed Python versions and use
+the latest minor release found for the major version, which is likely,
+although not guaranteed, to be the most recently installed version in that
+family.
+
+On 64-bit Windows with both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the same
+(major.minor) Python version installed, the 64-bit version will always be
+preferred. This will be true for both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the
+launcher - a 32-bit launcher will prefer to execute a 64-bit Python installation
+of the specified version if available. This is so the behavior of the launcher
+can be predicted knowing only what versions are installed on the PC and
+without regard to the order in which they were installed (i.e., without knowing
+whether a 32 or 64-bit version of Python and corresponding launcher was
+installed last). As noted above, an optional "-32" or "-64" suffix can be
+used on a version specifier to change this behaviour.
+
+Examples:
+
+* If no relevant options are set, the commands ``python`` and
+  ``python2`` will use the latest Python 2.x version installed and
+  the command ``python3`` will use the latest Python 3.x installed.
+
+* The commands ``python3.1`` and ``python2.7`` will not consult any
+  options at all as the versions are fully specified.
+
+* If ``PY_PYTHON=3``, the commands ``python`` and ``python3`` will both use
+  the latest installed Python 3 version.
+
+* If ``PY_PYTHON=3.1-32``, the command ``python`` will use the 32-bit
+  implementation of 3.1 whereas the command ``python3`` will use the latest
+  installed Python (PY_PYTHON was not considered at all as a major
+  version was specified.)
+
+* If ``PY_PYTHON=3`` and ``PY_PYTHON3=3.1``, the commands
+  ``python`` and ``python3`` will both use specifically 3.1
+
+In addition to environment variables, the same settings can be configured
+in the .INI file used by the launcher.  The section in the INI file is
+called ``[defaults]`` and the key name will be the same as the
+environment variables without the leading ``PY_`` prefix (and note that
+the key names in the INI file are case insensitive.)  The contents of
+an environment variable will override things specified in the INI file.
+
+For example:
+
+* Setting ``PY_PYTHON=3.1`` is equivalent to the INI file containing:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+  [defaults]
+  python=3.1
+
+* Setting ``PY_PYTHON=3`` and ``PY_PYTHON3=3.1`` is equivalent to the INI file
+  containing:
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+  [defaults]
+  python=3
+  python3=3.1
+
+Diagnostics
+-----------
+
+If an environment variable ``PYLAUNCH_DEBUG`` is set (to any value), the
+launcher will print diagnostic information to stderr (i.e. to the console).
+While this information manages to be simultaneously verbose *and* terse, it
+should allow you to see what versions of Python were located, why a
+particular version was chosen and the exact command-line used to execute the
+target Python.
+
+
+
+.. _finding_modules:
+
+Finding modules
+===============
+
+Python usually stores its library (and thereby your site-packages folder) in the
+installation directory.  So, if you had installed Python to
+:file:`C:\\Python\\`, the default library would reside in
+:file:`C:\\Python\\Lib\\` and third-party modules should be stored in
+:file:`C:\\Python\\Lib\\site-packages\\`.
+
+To completely override :data:`sys.path`, create a ``._pth`` file with the same
+name as the DLL (``python37._pth``) or the executable (``python._pth``) and
+specify one line for each path to add to :data:`sys.path`. The file based on the
+DLL name overrides the one based on the executable, which allows paths to be
+restricted for any program loading the runtime if desired.
+
+When the file exists, all registry and environment variables are ignored,
+isolated mode is enabled, and :mod:`site` is not imported unless one line in the
+file specifies ``import site``. Blank paths and lines starting with ``#`` are
+ignored. Each path may be absolute or relative to the location of the file.
+Import statements other than to ``site`` are not permitted, and arbitrary code
+cannot be specified.
+
+Note that ``.pth`` files (without leading underscore) will be processed normally
+by the :mod:`site` module when ``import site`` has been specified.
+
+When no ``._pth`` file is found, this is how :data:`sys.path` is populated on
+Windows:
+
+* An empty entry is added at the start, which corresponds to the current
+  directory.
+
+* If the environment variable :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` exists, as described in
+  :ref:`using-on-envvars`, its entries are added next.  Note that on Windows,
+  paths in this variable must be separated by semicolons, to distinguish them
+  from the colon used in drive identifiers (``C:\`` etc.).
+
+* Additional "application paths" can be added in the registry as subkeys of
+  :samp:`\\SOFTWARE\\Python\\PythonCore\\{version}\\PythonPath` under both the
+  ``HKEY_CURRENT_USER`` and ``HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE`` hives.  Subkeys which have
+  semicolon-delimited path strings as their default value will cause each path
+  to be added to :data:`sys.path`.  (Note that all known installers only use
+  HKLM, so HKCU is typically empty.)
+
+* If the environment variable :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` is set, it is assumed as
+  "Python Home".  Otherwise, the path of the main Python executable is used to
+  locate a "landmark file" (either ``Lib\os.py`` or ``pythonXY.zip``) to deduce
+  the "Python Home".  If a Python home is found, the relevant sub-directories
+  added to :data:`sys.path` (``Lib``, ``plat-win``, etc) are based on that
+  folder.  Otherwise, the core Python path is constructed from the PythonPath
+  stored in the registry.
+
+* If the Python Home cannot be located, no :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` is specified in
+  the environment, and no registry entries can be found, a default path with
+  relative entries is used (e.g. ``.\Lib;.\plat-win``, etc).
+
+If a ``pyvenv.cfg`` file is found alongside the main executable or in the
+directory one level above the executable, the following variations apply:
+
+* If ``home`` is an absolute path and :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` is not set, this
+  path is used instead of the path to the main executable when deducing the
+  home location.
+
+The end result of all this is:
+
+* When running :file:`python.exe`, or any other .exe in the main Python
+  directory (either an installed version, or directly from the PCbuild
+  directory), the core path is deduced, and the core paths in the registry are
+  ignored.  Other "application paths" in the registry are always read.
+
+* When Python is hosted in another .exe (different directory, embedded via COM,
+  etc), the "Python Home" will not be deduced, so the core path from the
+  registry is used.  Other "application paths" in the registry are always read.
+
+* If Python can't find its home and there are no registry value (frozen .exe,
+  some very strange installation setup) you get a path with some default, but
+  relative, paths.
+
+For those who want to bundle Python into their application or distribution, the
+following advice will prevent conflicts with other installations:
+
+* Include a ``._pth`` file alongside your executable containing the
+  directories to include. This will ignore paths listed in the registry and
+  environment variables, and also ignore :mod:`site` unless ``import site`` is
+  listed.
+
+* If you are loading :file:`python3.dll` or :file:`python37.dll` in your own
+  executable, explicitly call :c:func:`Py_SetPath` or (at least)
+  :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName` before :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+* Clear and/or overwrite :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` and set :envvar:`PYTHONHOME`
+  before launching :file:`python.exe` from your application.
+
+* If you cannot use the previous suggestions (for example, you are a
+  distribution that allows people to run :file:`python.exe` directly), ensure
+  that the landmark file (:file:`Lib\\os.py`) exists in your install directory.
+  (Note that it will not be detected inside a ZIP file, but a correctly named
+  ZIP file will be detected instead.)
+
+These will ensure that the files in a system-wide installation will not take
+precedence over the copy of the standard library bundled with your application.
+Otherwise, your users may experience problems using your application. Note that
+the first suggestion is the best, as the others may still be susceptible to
+non-standard paths in the registry and user site-packages.
+
+.. versionchanged::
+   3.6
+
+      * Adds ``._pth`` file support and removes ``applocal`` option from
+        ``pyvenv.cfg``.
+      * Adds ``pythonXX.zip`` as a potential landmark when directly adjacent
+        to the executable.
+
+.. deprecated::
+   3.6
+
+      Modules specified in the registry under ``Modules`` (not ``PythonPath``)
+      may be imported by :class:`importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder`.
+      This finder is enabled on Windows in 3.6.0 and earlier, but may need to
+      be explicitly added to :attr:`sys.meta_path` in the future.
+
+Additional modules
+==================
+
+Even though Python aims to be portable among all platforms, there are features
+that are unique to Windows.  A couple of modules, both in the standard library
+and external, and snippets exist to use these features.
+
+The Windows-specific standard modules are documented in
+:ref:`mswin-specific-services`.
+
+PyWin32
+-------
+
+The `PyWin32 <https://pypi.org/project/pywin32>`_ module by Mark Hammond
+is a collection of modules for advanced Windows-specific support.  This includes
+utilities for:
+
+* `Component Object Model
+  <https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/desktop/com/component-object-model--com--portal>`_
+  (COM)
+* Win32 API calls
+* Registry
+* Event log
+* `Microsoft Foundation Classes <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/fe1cf721%28VS.80%29.aspx>`_ (MFC)
+  user interfaces
+
+`PythonWin <https://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/
+https://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/>`_ is a sample MFC application
+shipped with PyWin32.  It is an embeddable IDE with a built-in debugger.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Win32 How Do I...? <http://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html>`_
+      by Tim Golden
+
+   `Python and COM <http://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html>`_
+      by David and Paul Boddie
+
+
+cx_Freeze
+---------
+
+`cx_Freeze <https://anthony-tuininga.github.io/cx_Freeze/>`_ is a :mod:`distutils`
+extension (see :ref:`extending-distutils`) which wraps Python scripts into
+executable Windows programs (:file:`{*}.exe` files).  When you have done this,
+you can distribute your application without requiring your users to install
+Python.
+
+
+WConio
+------
+
+Since Python's advanced terminal handling layer, :mod:`curses`, is restricted to
+Unix-like systems, there is a library exclusive to Windows as well: Windows
+Console I/O for Python.
+
+`WConio <http://newcenturycomputers.net/projects/wconio.html>`_ is a wrapper for
+Turbo-C's :file:`CONIO.H`, used to create text user interfaces.
+
+
+
+Compiling Python on Windows
+===========================
+
+If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is get the
+`source <https://www.python.org/downloads/source/>`_. You can download either the
+latest release's source or just grab a fresh `checkout
+<https://devguide.python.org/setup/#getting-the-source-code>`_.
+
+The source tree contains a build solution and project files for Microsoft
+Visual Studio 2015, which is the compiler used to build the official Python
+releases. These files are in the :file:`PCbuild` directory.
+
+Check :file:`PCbuild/readme.txt` for general information on the build process.
+
+
+For extension modules, consult :ref:`building-on-windows`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Python + Windows + distutils + SWIG + gcc MinGW <http://sebsauvage.net/python/mingw.html>`_
+      or "Creating Python extensions in C/C++ with SWIG and compiling them with
+      MinGW gcc under Windows" or "Installing Python extension with distutils
+      and without Microsoft Visual C++" by Sébastien Sauvage, 2003
+
+   `MingW -- Python extensions <http://www.mingw.org/wiki/FAQ#toc14>`_
+
+
+Other Platforms
+===============
+
+With ongoing development of Python, some platforms that used to be supported
+earlier are no longer supported (due to the lack of users or developers).
+Check :pep:`11` for details on all unsupported platforms.
+
+* `Windows CE <http://pythonce.sourceforge.net/>`_ is still supported.
+* The `Cygwin <https://cygwin.com/>`_ installer offers to install the Python
+  interpreter as well (cf. `Cygwin package source
+  <ftp://ftp.uni-erlangen.de/pub/pc/gnuwin32/cygwin/mirrors/cygnus/
+  release/python>`_, `Maintainer releases
+  <http://www.tishler.net/jason/software/python/>`_)
+
+See `Python for Windows <https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/>`_
+for detailed information about platforms with pre-compiled installers.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.0.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.0.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e6a39e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.0.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1205 @@
+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.0
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling and Moshe Zadka
+
+.. |release| replace:: 1.02
+
+.. $Id: whatsnew20.tex 50964 2006-07-30 03:03:43Z fred.drake $
+
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+A new release of Python, version 2.0, was released on October 16, 2000. This
+article covers the exciting new features in 2.0, highlights some other useful
+changes, and points out a few incompatible changes that may require rewriting
+code.
+
+Python's development never completely stops between releases, and a steady flow
+of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted. A host of minor fixes,
+a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and better error messages went into
+2.0; to list them all would be impossible, but they're certainly significant.
+Consult the publicly-available CVS logs if you want to see the full list.  This
+progress is due to the five developers working for  PythonLabs are now getting
+paid to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved communication
+resulting  from moving to SourceForge.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+What About Python 1.6?
+======================
+
+Python 1.6 can be thought of as the Contractual Obligations Python release.
+After the core development team left CNRI in May 2000, CNRI requested that a 1.6
+release be created, containing all the work on Python that had been performed at
+CNRI.  Python 1.6 therefore represents the state of the CVS tree as of May 2000,
+with the most significant new feature being Unicode support.  Development
+continued after May, of course, so the 1.6 tree received a few fixes to ensure
+that it's forward-compatible with Python 2.0.  1.6 is therefore part of Python's
+evolution, and not a side branch.
+
+So, should you take much interest in Python 1.6?  Probably not.  The 1.6final
+and 2.0beta1 releases were made on the same day (September 5, 2000), the plan
+being to finalize Python 2.0 within a month or so.  If you have applications to
+maintain, there seems little point in breaking things by moving to 1.6, fixing
+them, and then having another round of breakage within a month by moving to 2.0;
+you're better off just going straight to 2.0.  Most of the really interesting
+features described in this document are only in 2.0, because a lot of work was
+done between May and September.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+New Development Process
+=======================
+
+The most important change in Python 2.0 may not be to the code at all, but to
+how Python is developed: in May 2000 the Python developers began using the tools
+made available by SourceForge for storing  source code, tracking bug reports,
+and managing the queue of patch submissions.  To report bugs or submit patches
+for Python 2.0, use the bug tracking and patch manager tools available from
+Python's project page, located at https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/.
+
+The most important of the services now hosted at SourceForge is the Python CVS
+tree, the version-controlled repository containing the source code for Python.
+Previously, there were roughly 7 or so people who had write access to the CVS
+tree, and all patches had to be inspected and checked in by one of the people on
+this short list. Obviously, this wasn't very scalable.  By moving the CVS tree
+to SourceForge, it became possible to grant write access to more people; as of
+September 2000 there were 27 people able to check in changes, a fourfold
+increase.  This makes possible large-scale changes that wouldn't be attempted if
+they'd have to be filtered through the small group of core developers.  For
+example, one day Peter Schneider-Kamp took it into his head to drop K&R C
+compatibility and convert the C source for Python to ANSI C. After getting
+approval on the python-dev mailing list, he launched into a flurry of checkins
+that lasted about a week, other developers joined in to help, and the job was
+done.  If there were only 5 people with write access, probably that task would
+have been viewed as "nice, but not worth the time and effort needed" and it
+would never have gotten done.
+
+The shift to using SourceForge's services has resulted in a remarkable increase
+in the speed of development.  Patches now get submitted, commented on, revised
+by people other than the original submitter, and bounced back and forth between
+people until the patch is deemed worth checking in.  Bugs are tracked in one
+central location and can be assigned to a specific person for fixing, and we can
+count the number of open bugs to measure progress.  This didn't come without a
+cost: developers now have more e-mail to deal with, more mailing lists to
+follow, and special tools had to be written for the new environment. For
+example, SourceForge sends default patch and bug notification e-mail messages
+that are completely unhelpful, so Ka-Ping Yee wrote an HTML screen-scraper that
+sends more useful messages.
+
+The ease of adding code caused a few initial growing pains, such as code was
+checked in before it was ready or without getting clear agreement from the
+developer group.  The approval process that has emerged is somewhat similar to
+that used by the Apache group. Developers can vote +1, +0, -0, or -1 on a patch;
++1 and -1 denote acceptance or rejection, while +0 and -0 mean the developer is
+mostly indifferent to the change, though with a slight positive or negative
+slant.  The most significant change from the Apache model is that the voting is
+essentially advisory, letting Guido van Rossum, who has Benevolent Dictator For
+Life status, know what the general opinion is. He can still ignore the result of
+a vote, and approve or reject a change even if the community disagrees with him.
+
+Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and is
+usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good design.
+Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy mailing list threads,
+making the discussion hard to follow, and no one can read every posting to
+python-dev.  Therefore, a relatively formal process has been set up to write
+Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs), modelled on the Internet RFC process.  PEPs
+are draft documents that describe a proposed new feature, and are continually
+revised until the community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting
+the proposal.  Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1, "PEP Purpose and
+Guidelines":
+
+
+.. epigraph::
+
+   PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.  A PEP is a design document
+   providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for
+   Python.  The PEP should provide a concise technical specification of the feature
+   and a rationale for the feature.
+
+   We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing new features, for
+   collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions
+   that have gone into Python.  The PEP author is responsible for building
+   consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions.
+
+Read the rest of PEP 1 for the details of the PEP editorial process, style, and
+format.  PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge, though they're not
+part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also available in HTML form from
+https://www.python.org/dev/peps/.  As of September 2000, there are 25 PEPS, ranging
+from PEP 201, "Lockstep Iteration", to PEP 225, "Elementwise/Objectwise
+Operators".
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Unicode
+=======
+
+The largest new feature in Python 2.0 is a new fundamental data type: Unicode
+strings.  Unicode uses 16-bit numbers to represent characters instead of the
+8-bit number used by ASCII, meaning that 65,536 distinct characters can be
+supported.
+
+The final interface for Unicode support was arrived at through countless
+often-stormy discussions on the python-dev mailing list, and mostly implemented by
+Marc-André Lemburg, based on a Unicode string type implementation by Fredrik
+Lundh.  A detailed explanation of the interface was written up as :pep:`100`,
+"Python Unicode Integration". This article will simply cover the most
+significant points about the Unicode interfaces.
+
+In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as ``u"string"``.  Arbitrary
+Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence, ``\uHHHH``, where
+*HHHH* is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to FFFF.  The existing
+``\xHHHH`` escape sequence can also be used, and octal escapes can be used for
+characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by ``\777``.
+
+Unicode strings, just like regular strings, are an immutable sequence type.
+They can be indexed and sliced, but not modified in place. Unicode strings have
+an ``encode( [encoding] )`` method that returns an 8-bit string in the desired
+encoding.  Encodings are named by strings, such as ``'ascii'``, ``'utf-8'``,
+``'iso-8859-1'``, or whatever.  A codec API is defined for implementing and
+registering new encodings that are then available throughout a Python program.
+If an encoding isn't specified, the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII,
+though it can be changed for your Python installation by calling the
+``sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)`` function in a customized version of
+:file:`site.py`.
+
+Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the default
+ASCII encoding; the result of ``'a' + u'bc'`` is ``u'abc'``.
+
+New built-in functions have been added, and existing built-ins modified to
+support Unicode:
+
+* ``unichr(ch)`` returns a Unicode string 1 character long, containing the
+  character *ch*.
+
+* ``ord(u)``, where *u* is a 1-character regular or Unicode string, returns the
+  number of the character as an integer.
+
+* ``unicode(string [, encoding]  [, errors] )`` creates a Unicode string
+  from an 8-bit string.  ``encoding`` is a string naming the encoding to use. The
+  ``errors`` parameter specifies the treatment of characters that are invalid for
+  the current encoding; passing ``'strict'`` as the value causes an exception to
+  be raised on any encoding error, while ``'ignore'`` causes errors to be silently
+  ignored and ``'replace'`` uses U+FFFD, the official replacement character, in
+  case of any problems.
+
+* The ``exec`` statement, and various built-ins such as ``eval()``,
+  ``getattr()``, and ``setattr()`` will also accept Unicode strings as well as
+  regular strings.  (It's possible that the process of fixing this missed some
+  built-ins; if you find a built-in function that accepts strings but doesn't
+  accept Unicode strings at all, please report it as a bug.)
+
+A new module, :mod:`unicodedata`, provides an interface to Unicode character
+properties.  For example, ``unicodedata.category(u'A')`` returns the 2-character
+string 'Lu', the 'L' denoting it's a letter, and 'u' meaning that it's
+uppercase. ``unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')`` returns 'AN', meaning that
+U+0660 is an Arabic number.
+
+The :mod:`codecs` module contains functions to look up existing encodings and
+register new ones.  Unless you want to implement a new encoding, you'll most
+often use the ``codecs.lookup(encoding)`` function, which returns a
+4-element tuple: ``(encode_func, decode_func, stream_reader, stream_writer)``.
+
+* *encode_func* is a function that takes a Unicode string, and returns a 2-tuple
+  ``(string, length)``.  *string* is an 8-bit string containing a portion (perhaps
+  all) of the Unicode string converted into the given encoding, and *length* tells
+  you how much of the Unicode string was converted.
+
+* *decode_func* is the opposite of *encode_func*, taking an 8-bit string and
+  returning a 2-tuple ``(ustring, length)``, consisting of the resulting Unicode
+  string *ustring* and the integer *length* telling how much of the 8-bit string
+  was consumed.
+
+* *stream_reader* is a class that supports decoding input from a stream.
+  *stream_reader(file_obj)* returns an object that supports the :meth:`read`,
+  :meth:`readline`, and :meth:`readlines` methods.  These methods will all
+  translate from the given encoding and return Unicode strings.
+
+* *stream_writer*, similarly, is a class that supports encoding output to a
+  stream.  *stream_writer(file_obj)* returns an object that supports the
+  :meth:`write` and :meth:`writelines` methods.  These methods expect Unicode
+  strings, translating them to the given encoding on output.
+
+For example, the following code writes a Unicode string into a file,  encoding
+it as UTF-8::
+
+   import codecs
+
+   unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...'
+
+   (UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode,
+    UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8')
+
+   output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') )
+   output.write( unistr )
+   output.close()
+
+The following code would then read UTF-8 input from the file::
+
+   input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') )
+   print repr(input.read())
+   input.close()
+
+Unicode-aware regular expressions are available through the :mod:`re` module,
+which has a new underlying implementation called SRE written by Fredrik Lundh of
+Secret Labs AB.
+
+A ``-U`` command line option was added which causes the Python compiler to
+interpret all string literals as Unicode string literals. This is intended to be
+used in testing and future-proofing your Python code, since some future version
+of Python may drop support for 8-bit strings and provide only Unicode strings.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+List Comprehensions
+===================
+
+Lists are a workhorse data type in Python, and many programs manipulate a list
+at some point.  Two common operations on lists are to loop over them, and either
+pick out the elements that meet a certain criterion, or apply some function to
+each element.  For example, given a list of strings, you might want to pull out
+all the strings containing a given substring, or strip off trailing whitespace
+from each line.
+
+The existing :func:`map` and :func:`filter` functions can be used for this
+purpose, but they require a function as one of their arguments.  This is fine if
+there's an existing built-in function that can be passed directly, but if there
+isn't, you have to create a little function to do the required work, and
+Python's scoping rules make the result ugly if the little function needs
+additional information.  Take the first example in the previous paragraph,
+finding all the strings in the list containing a given substring.  You could
+write the following to do it::
+
+   # Given the list L, make a list of all strings
+   # containing the substring S.
+   sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S:
+                        string.find(s, substring) != -1,
+                     L)
+
+Because of Python's scoping rules, a default argument is used so that the
+anonymous function created by the :keyword:`lambda` expression knows what
+substring is being searched for.  List comprehensions make this cleaner::
+
+   sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ]
+
+List comprehensions have the form::
+
+   [ expression for expr in sequence1
+                for expr2 in sequence2 ...
+                for exprN in sequenceN
+                if condition ]
+
+The :keyword:`!for`...\ :keyword:`!in` clauses contain the sequences to be
+iterated over.  The sequences do not have to be the same length, because they
+are *not* iterated over in parallel, but from left to right; this is explained
+more clearly in the following paragraphs.  The elements of the generated list
+will be the successive values of *expression*.  The final :keyword:`!if` clause
+is optional; if present, *expression* is only evaluated and added to the result
+if *condition* is true.
+
+To make the semantics very clear, a list comprehension is equivalent to the
+following Python code::
+
+   for expr1 in sequence1:
+       for expr2 in sequence2:
+       ...
+           for exprN in sequenceN:
+                if (condition):
+                     # Append the value of
+                     # the expression to the
+                     # resulting list.
+
+This means that when there are multiple :keyword:`!for`...\ :keyword:`!in`
+clauses, the resulting list will be equal to the product of the lengths of all
+the sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9 elements
+long::
+
+   seq1 = 'abc'
+   seq2 = (1,2,3)
+   >>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
+   [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1),
+   ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]
+
+To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python's grammar, if *expression* is
+creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first list
+comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is correct::
+
+   # Syntax error
+   [ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
+   # Correct
+   [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
+
+The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional programming
+language Haskell (https://www.haskell.org).  Greg Ewing argued most effectively
+for adding them to Python and wrote the initial list comprehension patch, which
+was then discussed for a seemingly endless time on the python-dev mailing list
+and kept up-to-date by Skip Montanaro.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Augmented Assignment
+====================
+
+Augmented assignment operators, another long-requested feature, have been added
+to Python 2.0.  Augmented assignment operators include ``+=``, ``-=``, ``*=``,
+and so forth.  For example, the statement ``a += 2`` increments the value of the
+variable  ``a`` by 2, equivalent to the slightly lengthier ``a = a + 2``.
+
+The full list of supported assignment operators is ``+=``, ``-=``, ``*=``,
+``/=``, ``%=``, ``**=``, ``&=``, ``|=``, ``^=``, ``>>=``, and ``<<=``.  Python
+classes can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods
+named :meth:`__iadd__`, :meth:`__isub__`, etc.  For example, the following
+:class:`Number` class stores a number and supports using += to create a new
+instance with an incremented value.
+
+.. The empty groups below prevent conversion to guillemets.
+
+::
+
+   class Number:
+       def __init__(self, value):
+           self.value = value
+       def __iadd__(self, increment):
+           return Number( self.value + increment)
+
+   n = Number(5)
+   n += 3
+   print n.value
+
+The :meth:`__iadd__` special method is called with the value of the increment,
+and should return a new instance with an appropriately modified value; this
+return value is bound as the new value of the variable on the left-hand side.
+
+Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C programming
+language, and most C-derived languages, such as :program:`awk`, C++, Java, Perl,
+and PHP also support them.  The augmented assignment patch was implemented by
+Thomas Wouters.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+String Methods
+==============
+
+Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the :mod:`string` module,
+which was usually a front-end for the :mod:`strop` module written in C.  The
+addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the :mod:`strop` module, because the
+functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept either 8-bit or
+Unicode strings.  For functions such as :func:`string.replace`, which takes 3
+string arguments, that means eight possible permutations, and correspondingly
+complicated code.
+
+Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making string
+manipulation functionality available through methods on both 8-bit strings and
+Unicode strings.   ::
+
+   >>> 'andrew'.capitalize()
+   'Andrew'
+   >>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux')
+   'hlinuxtname'
+   >>> 'moshe'.find('sh')
+   2
+
+One thing that hasn't changed, a noteworthy April Fools' joke notwithstanding,
+is that Python strings are immutable. Thus, the string methods return new
+strings, and do not modify the string on which they operate.
+
+The old :mod:`string` module is still around for backwards compatibility, but it
+mostly acts as a front-end to the new string methods.
+
+Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they did exist
+in JPython for quite some time, are :meth:`startswith` and :meth:`endswith`.
+``s.startswith(t)`` is equivalent to ``s[:len(t)] == t``, while
+``s.endswith(t)`` is equivalent to ``s[-len(t):] == t``.
+
+One other method which deserves special mention is :meth:`join`.  The
+:meth:`join` method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of strings,
+and is equivalent to the :func:`string.join` function from the old :mod:`string`
+module, with the arguments reversed. In other words, ``s.join(seq)`` is
+equivalent to the old ``string.join(seq, s)``.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Garbage Collection of Cycles
+============================
+
+The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement garbage
+collection.  Every Python object maintains a count of the number of references
+pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references are created or
+destroyed.  Once the reference count reaches zero, the object is no longer
+accessible, since you need to have a reference to an object to access it, and if
+the count is zero, no references exist any longer.
+
+Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it's easy to understand and
+implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly fast, and reacts
+well with other libraries that implement their own memory handling schemes.  The
+major problem with reference counting is that it sometimes doesn't realise that
+objects are no longer accessible, resulting in a memory leak.  This happens when
+there are cycles of references.
+
+Consider the simplest possible cycle,  a class instance which has a reference to
+itself::
+
+   instance = SomeClass()
+   instance.myself = instance
+
+After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference count of
+``instance`` is 2; one reference is from the variable named ``'instance'``, and
+the other is from the ``myself`` attribute of the instance.
+
+If the next line of code is ``del instance``, what happens?  The reference count
+of ``instance`` is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1; the
+reference in the ``myself`` attribute still exists.  Yet the instance is no
+longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted.  Several objects
+can participate in a cycle if they have references to each other, causing all of
+the objects to be leaked.
+
+Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle detection
+algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the objects involved.
+A new :mod:`gc` module provides functions to perform a garbage collection,
+obtain debugging statistics, and tuning the collector's parameters.
+
+Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore will result
+in some additional overhead.  It is hoped that after we've gotten experience
+with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1 will be able to minimize
+the overhead with careful tuning.  It's not yet obvious how much performance is
+lost, because benchmarking this is tricky and depends crucially on how often the
+program creates and destroys objects.  The detection of cycles can be disabled
+when Python is compiled, if you can't afford even a tiny speed penalty or
+suspect that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the
+:option:`!--without-cycle-gc` switch when running the :program:`configure`
+script.
+
+Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution.  An early
+implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby Kelsey.  The
+current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a visit to CNRI, and
+Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two different implementations, which
+were later integrated by Neil.  Lots of other people offered suggestions along
+the way; the March 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list contain most of
+the relevant discussion, especially in the threads titled "Reference cycle
+collection for Python" and "Finalization again".
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Other Core Changes
+==================
+
+Various minor changes have been made to Python's syntax and built-in functions.
+None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they're handy conveniences.
+
+
+Minor Language Changes
+----------------------
+
+A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a tuple of
+arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments. In Python 1.5 and earlier,
+you'd use the :func:`apply` built-in function: ``apply(f, args, kw)`` calls the
+function :func:`f` with the argument tuple *args* and the keyword arguments in
+the dictionary *kw*.  :func:`apply`  is the same in 2.0, but thanks to a patch
+from Greg Ewing, ``f(*args, **kw)`` is a shorter and clearer way to achieve the
+same effect.  This syntax is symmetrical with the syntax for defining
+functions::
+
+   def f(*args, **kw):
+       # args is a tuple of positional args,
+       # kw is a dictionary of keyword args
+       ...
+
+The ``print`` statement can now have its output directed to a file-like
+object by following the ``print`` with  ``>> file``, similar to the
+redirection operator in Unix shells. Previously you'd either have to use the
+:meth:`write` method of the file-like object, which lacks the convenience and
+simplicity of ``print``, or you could assign a new value to
+``sys.stdout`` and then restore the old value.  For sending output to standard
+error, it's much easier to write this::
+
+   print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied"
+
+Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax ``import module
+as name`` or ``from module import name as othername``.  The patch was submitted
+by Thomas Wouters.
+
+A new format style is available when using the ``%`` operator; '%r' will insert
+the :func:`repr` of its argument.  This was also added from symmetry
+considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing '%s' format style,
+which inserts the :func:`str` of its argument.  For example, ``'%r %s' % ('abc',
+'abc')`` returns a string containing ``'abc' abc``.
+
+Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python's built-in
+:keyword:`in` operator and implemented a custom version.  ``obj in seq`` returns
+true if *obj* is present in the sequence *seq*; Python computes this by simply
+trying every index of the sequence until either *obj* is found or an
+:exc:`IndexError` is encountered.  Moshe Zadka contributed a patch which adds a
+:meth:`__contains__` magic method for providing a custom implementation for
+:keyword:`!in`. Additionally, new built-in objects written in C can define what
+:keyword:`!in` means for them via a new slot in the sequence protocol.
+
+Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting objects.
+Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to fill up the C stack
+and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion logic to fix this problem.  On
+a related note, comparing recursive objects recursed infinitely and crashed;
+Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code to no longer crash, producing a useful result
+instead.  For example, after this code::
+
+   a = []
+   b = []
+   a.append(a)
+   b.append(b)
+
+The comparison ``a==b`` returns true, because the two recursive data structures
+are isomorphic. See the thread "trashcan and PR#7" in the April 2000 archives of
+the python-dev mailing list for the discussion leading up to this
+implementation, and some useful relevant links.    Note that comparisons can now
+also raise exceptions. In earlier versions of Python, a comparison operation
+such as ``cmp(a,b)`` would always produce an answer, even if a user-defined
+:meth:`__cmp__` method encountered an error, since the resulting exception would
+simply be silently swallowed.
+
+.. Starting URL:
+.. https://www.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2000-April/004834.html
+
+Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium processor,
+mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState.  (Confusingly, ``sys.platform`` is still
+``'win32'`` on Win64 because it seems that for ease of porting, MS Visual C++
+treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.) PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the
+Python CE page at http://pythonce.sourceforge.net/ for more information.
+
+Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in Python 2.0.
+Dynamic loading works, if you specify "configure --with-dyld --with-suffix=.x".
+Consult the README in the Python source distribution for more instructions.
+
+An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python's warts, the often-confusing
+:exc:`NameError` exception when code refers to a local variable before the
+variable has been assigned a value.  For example, the following code raises an
+exception on the ``print`` statement in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a
+:exc:`NameError` exception is raised, while 2.0 raises a new
+:exc:`UnboundLocalError` exception. :exc:`UnboundLocalError` is a subclass of
+:exc:`NameError`, so any existing code that expects :exc:`NameError` to be
+raised should still work. ::
+
+   def f():
+       print "i=",i
+       i = i + 1
+   f()
+
+Two new exceptions, :exc:`TabError` and :exc:`IndentationError`, have been
+introduced.  They're both subclasses of :exc:`SyntaxError`, and are raised when
+Python code is found to be improperly indented.
+
+
+Changes to Built-in Functions
+-----------------------------
+
+A new built-in, ``zip(seq1, seq2, ...)``, has been added.  :func:`zip`
+returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element from each of
+the argument sequences.  The difference between :func:`zip` and ``map(None,
+seq1, seq2)`` is that :func:`map` pads the sequences with ``None`` if the
+sequences aren't all of the same length, while :func:`zip` truncates the
+returned list to the length of the shortest argument sequence.
+
+The :func:`int` and :func:`long` functions now accept an optional "base"
+parameter when the first argument is a string. ``int('123', 10)`` returns 123,
+while ``int('123', 16)`` returns 291.  ``int(123, 16)`` raises a
+:exc:`TypeError` exception with the message "can't convert non-string with
+explicit base".
+
+A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added to the
+:mod:`sys` module.  ``sys.version_info`` is a tuple ``(major, minor, micro,
+level, serial)`` For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1, ``sys.version_info``
+would be ``(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)``. *level* is a string such as ``"alpha"``,
+``"beta"``, or ``"final"`` for a final release.
+
+Dictionaries have an odd new method, ``setdefault(key, default)``, which
+behaves similarly to the existing :meth:`get` method.  However, if the key is
+missing, :meth:`setdefault` both returns the value of *default* as :meth:`get`
+would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value for *key*.  Thus,
+the following lines of code::
+
+   if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key]
+   else:
+       dict[key] = []
+       return dict[key]
+
+can be reduced to a single ``return dict.setdefault(key, [])`` statement.
+
+The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway
+recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF..
+Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the maximum
+recursion depth can be read and modified using :func:`sys.getrecursionlimit` and
+:func:`sys.setrecursionlimit`. The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum
+value for a given platform can be found by running a new script,
+:file:`Misc/find_recursionlimit.py`.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Porting to 2.0
+==============
+
+New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases, and the
+record has been pretty good.  However, some changes are considered useful
+enough, usually because they fix initial design decisions that turned out to be
+actively mistaken, that breaking backward compatibility can't always be avoided.
+This section lists the changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to
+break.
+
+The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
+arguments accepted by some methods.  Some methods would take multiple arguments
+and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods such as
+:meth:`append` and :meth:`insert`. In earlier versions of Python, if ``L`` is
+a list, ``L.append( 1,2 )`` appends the tuple ``(1,2)`` to the list.  In Python
+2.0 this causes a :exc:`TypeError` exception to be raised, with the message:
+'append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given'.  The fix is to simply add an
+extra set of parentheses to pass both values as a tuple:  ``L.append( (1,2) )``.
+
+The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they used an
+old function in Python's C interface to parse their arguments; 2.0 modernizes
+them to use :func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`, the current argument parsing function,
+which provides more helpful error messages and treats multi-argument calls as
+errors.  If you absolutely must use 2.0 but can't fix your code, you can edit
+:file:`Objects/listobject.c` and define the preprocessor symbol
+``NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND`` to preserve the old behaviour; this isn't recommended.
+
+Some of the functions in the :mod:`socket` module are still forgiving in this
+way.  For example, :func:`socket.connect( ('hostname', 25) )` is the correct
+form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but :func:`socket.connect(
+'hostname', 25 )` also works. :func:`socket.connect_ex` and :func:`socket.bind`
+are similarly easy-going.  2.0alpha1 tightened these functions up, but because
+the documentation actually used the erroneous multiple argument form, many
+people wrote code which would break with the stricter checking.  GvR backed out
+the changes in the face of public reaction, so for the :mod:`socket` module, the
+documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked as
+deprecated; it *will* be tightened up again in a future Python version.
+
+The ``\x`` escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits.  Previously
+it would consume all the hex digits following the 'x' and take the lowest 8 bits
+of the result, so ``\x123456`` was equivalent to ``\x56``.
+
+The :exc:`AttributeError` and :exc:`NameError` exceptions have a more friendly
+error message, whose text will be something like ``'Spam' instance has no
+attribute 'eggs'`` or ``name 'eggs' is not defined``.  Previously the error
+message was just the missing attribute name ``eggs``, and code written to take
+advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.
+
+Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more
+interchangeable.  In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to allow
+reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the :meth:`tell` method of file
+objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer.  Some code would
+subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to multiply a sequence
+or slice a string, but this raised a :exc:`TypeError`.  In 2.0, long integers
+can be used to multiply or slice a sequence, and it'll behave as you'd
+intuitively expect it to; ``3L * 'abc'`` produces 'abcabcabc', and
+``(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]`` produces (2,3). Long integers can also be used in various
+contexts where previously only integers were accepted, such as in the
+:meth:`seek` method of file objects, and in the formats supported by the ``%``
+operator (``%d``, ``%i``, ``%x``, etc.).  For example, ``"%d" % 2L**64`` will
+produce the string ``18446744073709551616``.
+
+The subtlest long integer change of all is that the :func:`str` of a long
+integer no longer has a trailing 'L' character, though :func:`repr` still
+includes it.  The 'L' annoyed many people who wanted to print long integers that
+looked just like regular integers, since they had to go out of their way to chop
+off the character.  This is no longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does
+``str(longval)[:-1]`` and assumes the 'L' is there, will now lose the final
+digit.
+
+Taking the :func:`repr` of a float now uses a different formatting precision
+than :func:`str`.  :func:`repr` uses ``%.17g`` format string for C's
+:func:`sprintf`, while :func:`str` uses ``%.12g`` as before.  The effect is that
+:func:`repr` may occasionally show more decimal places than  :func:`str`, for
+certain numbers.  For example, the number 8.1 can't be represented exactly in
+binary, so ``repr(8.1)`` is ``'8.0999999999999996'``, while str(8.1) is
+``'8.1'``.
+
+The ``-X`` command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into
+strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions will now
+always be classes.  The :mod:`exceptions` module containing the standard
+exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module, written by Barry
+Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.
+
+.. Commented out for now -- I don't think anyone will care.
+   The pattern and match objects provided by SRE are C types, not Python
+   class instances as in 1.5.  This means you can no longer inherit from
+   \class{RegexObject} or \class{MatchObject}, but that shouldn't be much
+   of a problem since no one should have been doing that in the first
+   place.
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Extending/Embedding Changes
+===========================
+
+Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to people
+writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in a larger
+application.  If you aren't dealing with Python's C API, you can safely skip
+this section.
+
+The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions compiled
+for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0.  On Windows, it's not
+possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party extension built for Python 1.5.x
+due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python will raise an exception and the import
+will fail.
+
+Users of Jim Fulton's ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out that
+hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by
+:func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass`. This means you no longer have to
+remember to write code such as ``if type(obj) == myExtensionClass``, but can use
+the more natural ``if isinstance(obj, myExtensionClass)``.
+
+The :file:`Python/importdl.c` file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support
+dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and reorganised by
+Greg Stein.  :file:`importdl.c` is now quite small, and platform-specific code
+has been moved into a bunch of :file:`Python/dynload_\*.c` files.  Another
+cleanup: there were also a number of :file:`my\*.h` files in the Include/
+directory that held various portability hacks; they've been merged into a single
+file, :file:`Include/pyport.h`.
+
+Vladimir Marangozov's long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed, to make
+it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator instead of C's
+standard :func:`malloc`.  For documentation, read the comments in
+:file:`Include/pymem.h` and :file:`Include/objimpl.h`.  For the lengthy
+discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the Web archives of
+the 'patches' and 'python-dev' lists at python.org.
+
+Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support POSIX
+threads.  Therefore, Python's POSIX threading support now works on the
+Macintosh.  Threading support using the user-space GNU ``pth`` library was also
+contributed.
+
+Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too.  Windows supports thread locks
+that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common case when
+there's no contention, they use simpler functions which are an order of
+magnitude faster.  A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is twice as slow as
+an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the difference is only 10%.  These
+improvements were contributed by Yakov Markovitch.
+
+Python 2.0's source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python now
+requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a compiler that
+only supports K&R C.
+
+Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its bytecode,
+limiting the size of source files.  In particular, this affected the maximum
+size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python source; occasionally people who
+are generating Python code would run into this limit.  A patch by Charles G.
+Waldman raises the limit from ``2^16`` to ``2^{32}``.
+
+Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a module's
+dictionary at module initialization time were added: :func:`PyModule_AddObject`,
+:func:`PyModule_AddIntConstant`, and :func:`PyModule_AddStringConstant`.  Each
+of these functions takes a module object, a null-terminated C string containing
+the name to be added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the
+name.  This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C
+string.
+
+A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers. :func:`PyOS_getsig` gets
+a signal handler and :func:`PyOS_setsig` will set a new handler.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
+=========================================
+
+Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair -- there was no way
+to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what compiler options
+to use for extension modules.  Software authors had to go through an arduous
+ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration files, which only really work on
+Unix and leave Windows and MacOS unsupported.  Python users faced wildly
+differing installation instructions which varied between different extension
+packages, which made administering a Python installation something of  a chore.
+
+The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created the
+Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier.  They form the
+:mod:`distutils` package, a new part of Python's standard library. In the best
+case, installing a Python module from source will require the same steps: first
+you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive, and the run "``python
+setup.py install``".  The platform will be automatically detected, the compiler
+will be recognized, C extension modules will be compiled, and the distribution
+installed into the proper directory.  Optional command-line arguments provide
+more control over the installation process, the distutils package offers many
+places to override defaults -- separating the build from the install, building
+or installing in non-default directories, and more.
+
+In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a :file:`setup.py` script.  For
+the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a minimal
+:file:`setup.py` can be just a few lines long::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
+          py_modules = ["module1", "module2"])
+
+The :file:`setup.py` file isn't much more complicated if the software consists
+of a few packages::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup
+   setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
+          packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"])
+
+A C extension can be the most complicated case; here's an example taken from
+the PyXML package::
+
+   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
+
+   expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat',
+        define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)],
+        include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok',
+                         'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ],
+        sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c',
+                    'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c',
+                    'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ]
+          )
+   setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4",
+          ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] )
+
+The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary distributions.
+The "sdist" command, run by "``python setup.py sdist``', builds a source
+distribution such as :file:`foo-1.0.tar.gz`. Adding new commands isn't
+difficult, "bdist_rpm" and "bdist_wininst" commands have already been
+contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows installer for the
+software, respectively.  Commands to create other distribution formats such as
+Debian packages and Solaris :file:`.pkg` files are in various stages of
+development.
+
+All this is documented in a new manual, *Distributing Python Modules*, that
+joins the basic set of Python documentation.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+XML Modules
+===========
+
+Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the :mod:`xmllib`
+module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender.  Since 1.5.2's release, two different
+interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2 (version 2 of the Simple
+API for XML) provides an event-driven interface with some similarities to
+:mod:`xmllib`, and the DOM (Document Object Model) provides a tree-based
+interface, transforming an XML document into a tree of nodes that can be
+traversed and modified.  Python 2.0 includes a SAX2 interface and a stripped-down
+DOM interface as part of the :mod:`xml` package. Here we will give a brief
+overview of these new interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source
+code for complete details. The Python XML SIG is also working on improved
+documentation.
+
+
+SAX2 Support
+------------
+
+SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML.  To use SAX, you must
+write a SAX handler class.  Handler classes inherit from various classes
+provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be called by the
+XML parser.  For example, the :meth:`startElement` and :meth:`endElement`
+methods are called for every starting and end tag encountered by the parser, the
+:meth:`characters` method is called for every chunk of character data, and so
+forth.
+
+The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document doesn't
+have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if you are
+processing really huge documents.  However, writing the SAX handler class can
+get very complicated if you're trying to modify the document structure in some
+elaborate way.
+
+For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a message
+for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file :file:`hamlet.xml`
+using it::
+
+   from xml import sax
+
+   class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler):
+       def startElement(self, name, attrs):
+           print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys()
+
+       def endElement(self, name):
+           print 'End of element:', name
+
+   # Create a parser object
+   parser = sax.make_parser()
+
+   # Tell it what handler to use
+   handler = SimpleHandler()
+   parser.setContentHandler( handler )
+
+   # Parse a file!
+   parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' )
+
+For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO at
+http://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html.
+
+
+DOM Support
+-----------
+
+The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML document.  A
+top-level :class:`Document` instance is the root of the tree, and has a single
+child which is the top-level :class:`Element` instance. This :class:`Element`
+has children nodes representing character data and any sub-elements, which may
+have further children of their own, and so forth.  Using the DOM you can
+traverse the resulting tree any way you like, access element and attribute
+values, insert and delete nodes, and convert the tree back into XML.
+
+The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a DOM
+tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and then produce a
+new XML document as output.  You can also construct a DOM tree manually and
+convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of producing XML output than
+simply writing ``<tag1>``...\ ``</tag1>`` to a file.
+
+The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`
+module.  It's a lightweight implementation of the Level 1 DOM with support for
+XML namespaces.  The  :func:`parse` and :func:`parseString` convenience
+functions are provided for generating a DOM tree::
+
+   from xml.dom import minidom
+   doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml')
+
+``doc`` is a :class:`Document` instance.  :class:`Document`, like all the other
+DOM classes such as :class:`Element` and :class:`Text`, is a subclass of the
+:class:`Node` base class.  All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain
+common methods, such as :meth:`toxml` which returns a string containing the XML
+representation of the node and its children.  Each class also has special
+methods of its own; for example, :class:`Element` and :class:`Document`
+instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag name.
+Continuing from the previous 2-line example::
+
+   perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' )
+   print perslist[0].toxml()
+   print perslist[1].toxml()
+
+For the *Hamlet* XML file, the above few lines output::
+
+   <PERSONA>CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. </PERSONA>
+   <PERSONA>HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king.</PERSONA>
+
+The root element of the document is available as ``doc.documentElement``, and
+its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing nodes::
+
+   root = doc.documentElement
+
+   # Remove the first child
+   root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] )
+
+   # Move the new first child to the end
+   root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] )
+
+   # Insert the new first child (originally,
+   # the third child) before the 20th child.
+   root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] )
+
+Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete listing of
+the different :class:`Node` classes and their various methods.
+
+
+Relationship to PyXML
+---------------------
+
+The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python code for a
+while.  Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available from the SIG's Web
+pages at https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig. The PyXML distribution also used
+the package name ``xml``.  If you've written programs that used PyXML, you're
+probably wondering about its compatibility with the 2.0 :mod:`xml` package.
+
+The answer is that Python 2.0's :mod:`xml` package isn't compatible with PyXML,
+but can be made compatible by installing a recent version PyXML.  Many
+applications can get by with the XML support that is included with Python 2.0,
+but more complicated applications will require that the full PyXML package will
+be installed.  When installed, PyXML versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the
+:mod:`xml` package shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the
+standard package, adding a bunch of additional features.  Some of the additional
+features in PyXML include:
+
+* 4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.
+
+* The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.
+
+* The :mod:`sgmlop` parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Module changes
+==============
+
+Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python's extensive standard
+library; some of the affected modules include :mod:`readline`,
+:mod:`ConfigParser`, :mod:`cgi`, :mod:`calendar`, :mod:`posix`, :mod:`readline`,
+:mod:`xmllib`, :mod:`aifc`, :mod:`chunk, wave`, :mod:`random`, :mod:`shelve`,
+and :mod:`nntplib`.  Consult the CVS logs for the exact patch-by-patch details.
+
+Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the :mod:`socket` module.  OpenSSL
+is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which encrypts the data being
+sent over a socket.  When compiling Python, you can edit :file:`Modules/Setup`
+to include SSL support, which adds an additional function to the :mod:`socket`
+module: ``socket.ssl(socket, keyfile, certfile)``, which takes a socket
+object and returns an SSL socket.  The :mod:`httplib` and :mod:`urllib` modules
+were also changed to support ``https://`` URLs, though no one has implemented
+FTP or SMTP over SSL.
+
+The :mod:`httplib` module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to support HTTP/1.1.
+Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of :mod:`httplib` is provided,
+though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting code to
+use a different set of interfaces.
+
+The :mod:`Tkinter` module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and
+support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped.  The Tkinter module now
+supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets. Also, Fredrik Lundh
+contributed an optimization which makes operations like ``create_line`` and
+``create_polygon`` much faster, especially when using lots of coordinates.
+
+The :mod:`curses` module has been greatly extended, starting from Oliver
+Andrich's enhanced version, to provide many additional functions from ncurses
+and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set support, pads, and
+mouse support.  This means the module is no longer compatible with operating
+systems that only have BSD curses, but there don't seem to be any currently
+maintained OSes that fall into this category.
+
+As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0's Unicode support, the underlying
+implementation of the regular expressions provided by the :mod:`re` module has
+been changed.  SRE, a new regular expression engine written by Fredrik Lundh and
+partially funded by Hewlett Packard, supports matching against both 8-bit
+strings and Unicode strings.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+New modules
+===========
+
+A number of new modules were added.  We'll simply list them with brief
+descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a particular
+module.
+
+* :mod:`atexit`:  For registering functions to be called before the Python
+  interpreter exits. Code that currently sets ``sys.exitfunc`` directly should be
+  changed to  use the :mod:`atexit` module instead, importing :mod:`atexit` and
+  calling :func:`atexit.register` with  the function to be called on exit.
+  (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)
+
+* :mod:`codecs`, :mod:`encodings`, :mod:`unicodedata`:  Added as part of the new
+  Unicode support.
+
+* :mod:`filecmp`: Supersedes the old :mod:`cmp`, :mod:`cmpcache` and
+  :mod:`dircmp` modules, which have now become deprecated. (Contributed by Gordon
+  MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)
+
+* :mod:`gettext`: This module provides internationalization (I18N) and
+  localization (L10N) support for Python programs by providing an interface to the
+  GNU gettext message catalog library. (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate
+  contributions by Martin  von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)
+
+* :mod:`linuxaudiodev`: Support for the :file:`/dev/audio` device on Linux, a
+  twin to the existing :mod:`sunaudiodev` module. (Contributed by Peter Bosch,
+  with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)
+
+* :mod:`mmap`: An interface to memory-mapped files on both Windows and Unix.  A
+  file's contents can be mapped directly into memory, at which point it behaves
+  like a mutable string, so its contents can be read and modified.  They can even
+  be passed to functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the :mod:`re`
+  module. (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M. Kuchling.)
+
+* :mod:`pyexpat`: An interface to the Expat XML parser. (Contributed by Paul
+  Prescod.)
+
+* :mod:`robotparser`: Parse a :file:`robots.txt` file, which is used for writing
+  Web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a Web site.  The parser accepts
+  the contents of a :file:`robots.txt` file, builds a set of rules from it, and
+  can then answer questions about the fetchability of a given URL.  (Contributed
+  by Skip Montanaro.)
+
+* :mod:`tabnanny`: A module/script to  check Python source code for ambiguous
+  indentation. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)
+
+* :mod:`UserString`: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave like
+  strings.
+
+* :mod:`webbrowser`: A module that provides a platform independent way to launch
+  a web browser on a specific URL. For each platform, various browsers are tried
+  in a specific order. The user can alter which browser is launched by setting the
+  *BROWSER* environment variable.  (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond's patch
+  to :mod:`urllib` which added similar functionality, but the final module comes
+  from code originally  implemented by Fred Drake as
+  :file:`Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py`, and adapted for the standard library by
+  Fred.)
+
+* :mod:`_winreg`: An interface to the Windows registry.  :mod:`_winreg` is an
+  adaptation of functions that have been part of PythonWin since 1995, but has now
+  been added to the core  distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode.
+  :mod:`_winreg` was written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.
+
+* :mod:`zipfile`: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format archives.  These
+  are archives produced by :program:`PKZIP` on DOS/Windows or :program:`zip` on
+  Unix, not to be confused with :program:`gzip`\ -format files (which are
+  supported by the :mod:`gzip` module) (Contributed by James C. Ahlstrom.)
+
+* :mod:`imputil`: A module that provides a simpler way for writing customized
+  import hooks, in comparison to the existing :mod:`ihooks` module.  (Implemented
+  by Greg Stein, with much discussion on python-dev along the way.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+IDLE Improvements
+=================
+
+IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter. Python
+2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and improvements.  A
+partial list:
+
+* UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax
+  highlighting and auto-indentation.
+
+* The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level functions
+  in a module.
+
+* Tab width is now a user settable option. When opening an existing Python file,
+  IDLE automatically detects the indentation conventions, and adapts.
+
+* There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms, used to open
+  the Python documentation in a browser.
+
+* IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to  the vanilla Python
+  interpreter.
+
+* Call tips were added in many places.
+
+* IDLE can now be installed as a package.
+
+* In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.
+
+* Three new keystroke commands: Check module (:kbd:`Alt-F5`), Import module (:kbd:`F5`) and
+  Run script (:kbd:`Ctrl-F5`).
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Deleted and Deprecated Modules
+==============================
+
+A few modules have been dropped because they're obsolete, or because there are
+now better ways to do the same thing.  The :mod:`stdwin` module is gone; it was
+for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that's no longer developed.
+
+A number of modules have been moved to the :file:`lib-old` subdirectory:
+:mod:`cmp`, :mod:`cmpcache`, :mod:`dircmp`, :mod:`dump`,  :mod:`find`,
+:mod:`grep`, :mod:`packmail`,  :mod:`poly`, :mod:`util`, :mod:`whatsound`,
+:mod:`zmod`.  If you have code which relies on a module  that's been moved to
+:file:`lib-old`, you can simply add that directory to ``sys.path``   to get them
+back, but you're encouraged to update any code that uses these modules.
+
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The authors would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on
+various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy
+Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert, Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir
+Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.1.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.1.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9537361
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.1.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,794 @@
+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.1
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling
+
+.. |release| replace:: 1.01
+
+.. $Id: whatsnew21.tex 50964 2006-07-30 03:03:43Z fred.drake $
+
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 2.1.  While there aren't as
+many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are still some pleasant
+surprises in store.  2.1 is the first release to be steered through the use of
+Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so most of the sizable changes have
+accompanying PEPs that provide more complete documentation and a design
+rationale for the change.  This article doesn't attempt to document the new
+features completely, but simply provides an overview of the new features for
+Python programmers. Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific
+PEP, for more details about any new feature that particularly interests you.
+
+One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate the pace
+of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months. 2.1 is the first
+release to come out at this faster pace, with the first alpha appearing in
+January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was released.
+
+The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 227: Nested Scopes
+======================
+
+The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python's scoping rules.  In Python 2.0,
+at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to look up variable
+names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace.  This often surprised
+people because it didn't match their intuitive expectations.  For example, a
+nested recursive function definition doesn't work::
+
+   def f():
+       ...
+       def g(value):
+           ...
+           return g(value-1) + 1
+       ...
+
+The function :func:`g` will always raise a :exc:`NameError` exception, because
+the binding of the name ``g`` isn't in either its local namespace or in the
+module-level namespace.  This isn't much of a problem in practice (how often do
+you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using
+the :keyword:`lambda` expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.
+In code which uses :keyword:`lambda` you can often find local variables being
+copied by passing them as the default values of arguments. ::
+
+   def find(self, name):
+       "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
+       L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
+                  self.list_attribute)
+       return L
+
+The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers
+greatly as a result.
+
+The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has been added
+to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the ``name=name``
+default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.  Put simply, when a
+given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment,
+or the :keyword:`def`, :keyword:`class`, or :keyword:`import` statements),
+references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the
+enclosing scope.  A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of
+the implementation, can be found in the PEP.
+
+This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same
+variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a
+function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely
+though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first
+place.
+
+One side effect of the change is that the ``from module import *`` and
+``exec`` statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
+certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that ``from
+module import *`` is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython
+interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the implementation of
+nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to
+generate different code to access variables in a containing scope.  ``from
+module import *`` and ``exec`` make it impossible for the compiler to
+figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are
+unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function
+definitions or :keyword:`lambda` expressions with free variables, the compiler
+will flag this by raising a :exc:`SyntaxError` exception.
+
+To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example::
+
+   x = 1
+   def f():
+       # The next line is a syntax error
+       exec 'x=2'
+       def g():
+           return x
+
+Line 4 containing the ``exec`` statement is a syntax error, since
+``exec`` would define a new local variable named ``x`` whose value should
+be accessed by :func:`g`.
+
+This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since ``exec`` is rarely used in
+most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor design
+anyway).
+
+Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced gradually; in
+Python 2.1, they aren't enabled by default, but can be turned on within a module
+by using a future statement as described in PEP 236.  (See the following section
+for further discussion of PEP 236.)  In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become
+the default and there will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had
+all of 2.1's lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`227` - Statically Nested Scopes
+      Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 236: __future__ Directives
+==============================
+
+The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers of
+breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make the
+Pythoneers take a more conservative approach.  This approach consists of
+introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality in release N that
+will become compulsory in release N+1.
+
+The syntax uses a ``from...import`` statement using the reserved module name
+:mod:`__future__`.  Nested scopes can be enabled by the following statement::
+
+   from __future__ import nested_scopes
+
+While it looks like a normal :keyword:`import` statement, it's not; there are
+strict rules on where such a future statement can be put. They can only be at
+the top of a module, and must precede any Python code or regular
+:keyword:`!import` statements.  This is because such statements can affect how
+the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates bytecode, so they must
+precede any statement that will result in bytecodes being produced.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`236` - Back to the :mod:`__future__`
+      Written by Tim Peters, and primarily implemented by Jeremy Hylton.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
+=========================
+
+In earlier versions, Python's support for implementing comparisons on user-defined
+classes and extension types was quite simple. Classes could implement a
+:meth:`__cmp__` method that was given two instances of a class, and could only
+return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they weren't; the method couldn't
+raise an exception or return anything other than a Boolean value.  Users of
+Numeric Python often found this model too weak and restrictive, because in the
+number-crunching programs that numeric Python is used for, it would be more
+useful to be able to perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning
+a matrix containing the results of a given comparison for each element.  If the
+two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to raise an
+exception to signal the error.
+
+In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this need.
+Python classes can now individually overload each of the ``<``, ``<=``, ``>``,
+``>=``, ``==``, and ``!=`` operations.  The new magic method names are:
+
++-----------+----------------+
+| Operation | Method name    |
++===========+================+
+| ``<``     | :meth:`__lt__` |
++-----------+----------------+
+| ``<=``    | :meth:`__le__` |
++-----------+----------------+
+| ``>``     | :meth:`__gt__` |
++-----------+----------------+
+| ``>=``    | :meth:`__ge__` |
++-----------+----------------+
+| ``==``    | :meth:`__eq__` |
++-----------+----------------+
+| ``!=``    | :meth:`__ne__` |
++-----------+----------------+
+
+(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators ``.LT.``.
+``.LE.``, &c.  Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite familiar with
+these names and will find them easy to remember.)
+
+Each of these magic methods is of the form ``method(self, other)``, where
+``self`` will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while
+``other`` will be the object on the right-hand side.  For example, the
+expression ``A < B`` will cause ``A.__lt__(B)`` to be called.
+
+Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a matrix, a
+list, or any other Python object.  Alternatively they can raise an exception if
+the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or otherwise meaningless.
+
+The built-in ``cmp(A,B)`` function can use the rich comparison machinery,
+and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison operation to
+use; this is given as one of the strings ``"<"``, ``"<="``, ``">"``, ``">="``,
+``"=="``, or ``"!="``.  If called without the optional third argument,
+:func:`cmp` will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions of Python;
+otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return any Python object.
+
+There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers; there's a new
+slot ``tp_richcmp`` in type objects and an API for performing a given rich
+comparison.  I won't cover the C API here, but will refer you to PEP 207, or to
+2.1's C API documentation, for the full list of related functions.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`207` - Rich Comparisons
+      Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David Ascher, and
+      implemented by Guido van Rossum.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 230: Warning Framework
+==========================
+
+Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number of
+obsolete modules and features along the way.  It's difficult to know when a
+feature is safe to remove, since there's no way of knowing how much code uses it
+--- perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or perhaps many do.  To enable
+removing old features in a more structured way, a warning framework was added.
+When the Python developers want to get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a
+warning in the next version of Python.  The following Python version can then
+drop the feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of
+the old feature.
+
+Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme.  It adds a
+:mod:`warnings` module that provide functions to issue warnings, and to filter
+out warnings that you don't want to be displayed. Third-party modules can also
+use this framework to deprecate old features that they no longer wish to
+support.
+
+For example, in Python 2.1 the :mod:`regex` module is deprecated, so importing
+it causes a warning to be printed::
+
+   >>> import regex
+   __main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module
+            is deprecated; please use the re module
+   >>>
+
+Warnings can be issued by calling the :func:`warnings.warn` function::
+
+   warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported")
+
+The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional parameters
+can be used to specify a particular warning category.
+
+Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression pattern
+can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to suppress a
+warning.  For example, you may have a program that uses the :mod:`regex` module
+and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the :mod:`re` module right
+now.  The warning can be suppressed by calling ::
+
+   import warnings
+   warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore',
+                           message='.*regex module is deprecated',
+                           category=DeprecationWarning,
+                           module = '__main__')
+
+This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class
+:class:`DeprecationWarning` triggered in the :mod:`__main__` module, and applies
+a regular expression to only match the message about the :mod:`regex` module
+being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored.  Warnings can also
+be printed only once, printed every time the offending code is executed, or
+turned into exceptions that will cause the program to stop (unless the
+exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).
+
+Functions were also added to Python's C API for issuing warnings; refer to PEP
+230 or to Python's API documentation for the details.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`5` - Guidelines for Language Evolution
+      Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when removing old
+      features from Python.  The policy described in this PEP hasn't been officially
+      adopted, but the eventual policy probably won't be too different from Prescod's
+      proposal.
+
+   :pep:`230` - Warning Framework
+      Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 229: New Build System
+=========================
+
+When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the :file:`Modules/Setup`
+file in order to enable various additional modules; the default set is
+relatively small and limited to modules that compile on most Unix platforms.
+This means that on Unix platforms with many more features, most notably Linux,
+Python installations often don't contain all useful modules they could.
+
+Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and installing
+extensions.  In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile much of the
+standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which ones are supported on
+the current machine.  It's hoped that this will make Python installations easier
+and more featureful.
+
+Instead of having to edit the :file:`Modules/Setup` file in order to enable
+modules, a :file:`setup.py` script in the top directory of the Python source
+distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which modules can be
+enabled by examining the modules and header files on the system.  If a module is
+configured in :file:`Modules/Setup`, the :file:`setup.py` script won't attempt
+to compile that module and will defer to the :file:`Modules/Setup` file's
+contents.  This provides a way to specific any strange command-line flags or
+libraries that are required for a specific platform.
+
+In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer
+restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn't recursive,
+instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the :file:`Python/`,
+:file:`Parser/`, :file:`Objects/`, and :file:`Modules/` subdirectories.  This
+makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles clearer and
+simpler.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`229` - Using Distutils to Build Python
+      Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 205: Weak References
+========================
+
+Weak references, available through the :mod:`weakref` module, are a minor but
+useful new data type in the Python programmer's toolbox.
+
+Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has the side
+effect of keeping that object alive forever.  There are a few specific cases
+where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being the most common one,
+and another being circular references in data structures such as trees.
+
+For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of another
+function ``f(x)`` by storing the function's argument and its result in a
+dictionary::
+
+   _cache = {}
+   def memoize(x):
+       if _cache.has_key(x):
+           return _cache[x]
+
+       retval = f(x)
+
+       # Cache the returned object
+       _cache[x] = retval
+
+       return retval
+
+This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side effect;
+the ``_cache`` dictionary holds a reference to the return values, so they'll
+never be deallocated until the Python process exits and cleans up. This isn't
+very noticeable for integers, but if :func:`f` returns an object, or a data
+structure that takes up a lot of memory, this can be a problem.
+
+Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won't keep objects alive
+beyond their time.  If an object is only accessible through weak references, the
+object will be deallocated and the weak references will now indicate that the
+object it referred to no longer exists.  A weak reference to an object *obj* is
+created by calling ``wr = weakref.ref(obj)``.  The object being referred to is
+returned by calling the weak reference as if it were a function: ``wr()``.  It
+will return the referenced object, or ``None`` if the object no longer exists.
+
+This makes it possible to write a :func:`memoize` function whose cache doesn't
+keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache. ::
+
+   _cache = {}
+   def memoize(x):
+       if _cache.has_key(x):
+           obj = _cache[x]()
+           # If weak reference object still exists,
+           # return it
+           if obj is not None: return obj
+
+       retval = f(x)
+
+       # Cache a weak reference
+       _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval)
+
+       return retval
+
+The :mod:`weakref` module also allows creating proxy objects which behave like
+weak references --- an object referenced only by proxy objects is deallocated --
+but instead of requiring an explicit call to retrieve the object, the proxy
+transparently forwards all operations to the object as long as the object still
+exists.  If the object is deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a
+:exc:`weakref.ReferenceError` exception to be raised. ::
+
+   proxy = weakref.proxy(obj)
+   proxy.attr   # Equivalent to obj.attr
+   proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth()
+   del obj
+   proxy.attr   # raises weakref.ReferenceError
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`205` - Weak References
+      Written and implemented by Fred L. Drake, Jr.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 232: Function Attributes
+============================
+
+In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to them.
+People were often using docstrings to hold information about functions and
+methods, because the ``__doc__`` attribute was the only way of attaching any
+information to a function.  For example, in the Zope Web application server,
+functions are marked as safe for public access by having a docstring, and in
+John Aycock's SPARK parsing framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar
+to be parsed.  This overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really
+intended to hold a function's documentation; for example, it means you can't
+properly document functions intended for private use in Zope.
+
+Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the regular
+Python syntax::
+
+   def f(): pass
+
+   f.publish = 1
+   f.secure = 1
+   f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"
+
+The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function's
+:attr:`~object.__dict__`. Unlike the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute of class instances, in
+functions you can actually assign a new dictionary to :attr:`~object.__dict__`, though
+the new value is restricted to a regular Python dictionary; you *can't* be
+tricky and set it to a :class:`UserDict` instance, or any other random object
+that behaves like a mapping.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`232` - Function Attributes
+      Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
+========================================================
+
+Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS and
+Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it's impossible to
+distinguish the filenames ``FILE.PY`` and ``file.py``, even though they do store
+the file's name  in its original case (they're case-preserving, too).
+
+In Python 2.1, the :keyword:`import` statement will work to simulate case-sensitivity
+on case-insensitive platforms.  Python will now search for the first
+case-sensitive match by default, raising an :exc:`ImportError` if no such file
+is found, so ``import file`` will not import a module named ``FILE.PY``.
+Case-insensitive matching can be requested by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONCASEOK`
+environment variable before starting the Python interpreter.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
+=================================
+
+When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands is
+displayed using the built-in :func:`repr` function. In Python 2.1, the variable
+:func:`sys.displayhook` can be set to a callable object which will be called
+instead of :func:`repr`. For example, you can set it to a special
+pretty-printing function::
+
+   >>> # Create a recursive data structure
+   ... L = [1,2,3]
+   >>> L.append(L)
+   >>> L # Show Python's default output
+   [1, 2, 3, [...]]
+   >>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function
+   ... import sys, pprint
+   >>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
+   >>> L
+   [1, 2, 3,  <Recursion on list with id=135143996>]
+   >>>
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`217` - Display Hook for Interactive Use
+      Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 208: New Coercion Model
+===========================
+
+How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified.  This
+will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing them more
+flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric operations.
+
+Extension types can now set the type flag ``Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES`` in their
+``PyTypeObject`` structure to indicate that they support the new coercion model.
+In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can no longer assume that
+they'll be passed two arguments of the same type; instead they may be passed two
+arguments of differing types, and can then perform their own internal coercion.
+If the slot function is passed a type it can't handle, it can indicate the
+failure by returning a reference to the ``Py_NotImplemented`` singleton value.
+The numeric functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can
+handle the operation; if the other type also returns ``Py_NotImplemented``, then
+a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised.  Numeric methods written in Python can also
+return ``Py_NotImplemented``, causing the interpreter to act as if the method
+did not exist (perhaps raising a :exc:`TypeError`, perhaps trying another
+object's numeric methods).
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`208` - Reworking the Coercion Model
+      Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon earlier work by
+      Marc-André Lemburg.  Read this to understand the fine points of how numeric
+      operations will now be processed at the C level.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
+====================================
+
+A common complaint from Python users is that there's no single catalog of all
+the Python modules in existence.  T. Middleton's Vaults of Parnassus at
+http://www.vex.net/parnassus/ are the largest catalog of Python modules, but
+registering software at the Vaults is optional, and many people don't bother.
+
+As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software packaged using
+the Distutils :command:`sdist` command will include a file named
+:file:`PKG-INFO` containing information about the package such as its name,
+version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology).  PEP 241 contains
+the full list of fields that can be present in the :file:`PKG-INFO` file.  As
+people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more and more packages
+will include metadata, making it possible to build automated cataloguing systems
+and experiment with them.  With the result experience, perhaps it'll be possible
+to design a really good catalog and then build support for it into Python 2.2.
+For example, the Distutils :command:`sdist` and :command:`bdist_\*` commands
+could support an ``upload`` option that would automatically upload your
+package to a catalog server.
+
+You can start creating packages containing :file:`PKG-INFO` even if you're not
+using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for users of
+earlier Python versions.  Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils includes the changes
+described in PEP 241, as well as various bugfixes and enhancements.  It will be
+available from the Distutils SIG at https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`241` - Metadata for Python Software Packages
+      Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.
+
+   :pep:`243` - Module Repository Upload Mechanism
+      Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed mechanism for
+      uploading  Python packages to a central server.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+New and Improved Modules
+========================
+
+* Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: :mod:`inspect.py`, a module for
+  getting information about live Python code, and :mod:`pydoc.py`, a module for
+  interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text.  As a bonus,
+  :file:`Tools/scripts/pydoc`, which is now automatically installed, uses
+  :mod:`pydoc.py` to display documentation given a Python module, package, or
+  class name.  For example, ``pydoc xml.dom`` displays the following::
+
+     Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml
+
+     NAME
+         xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python.
+
+     FILE
+         /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc
+
+     DESCRIPTION
+         The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the
+         Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package.
+
+         This package contains the following modules:
+           ...
+
+  :file:`pydoc` also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser.   :file:`pydoc`
+  quickly becomes addictive; try it out!
+
+* Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard library.
+  The :mod:`doctest` module, contributed by Tim Peters, provides a testing
+  framework based on running embedded examples in docstrings and comparing the
+  results against the expected output.  PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a
+  unit testing framework inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of
+  Kent Beck's Smalltalk testing framework.  See http://pyunit.sourceforge.net/ for
+  more information about PyUnit.
+
+* The :mod:`difflib` module contains a class, :class:`SequenceMatcher`, which
+  compares two sequences and computes the changes required to transform one
+  sequence into the other.  For example, this module can be used to write a tool
+  similar to the Unix :program:`diff` program, and in fact the sample program
+  :file:`Tools/scripts/ndiff.py` demonstrates how to write such a script.
+
+* :mod:`curses.panel`, a wrapper for the panel library, part of ncurses and of
+  SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum.  The panel library provides
+  windows with the additional feature of depth. Windows can be moved higher or
+  lower in the depth ordering, and the panel library figures out where panels
+  overlap and which sections are visible.
+
+* The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0, and Python
+  2.1 includes an updated version of the :mod:`xml` package.  Some of the
+  noteworthy changes include support for Expat 1.2 and later versions, the ability
+  for Expat parsers to handle files in any encoding supported by Python, and
+  various bugfixes for SAX, DOM, and the :mod:`minidom` module.
+
+* Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught exceptions.
+  :func:`sys.excepthook` can be set to a callable object.  When an exception isn't
+  caught by any :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except` blocks, the exception will be
+  passed to :func:`sys.excepthook`, which can then do whatever it likes.  At the
+  Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application for this hook:
+  printing an extended traceback that not only lists the stack frames, but also
+  lists the function arguments and the local variables for each frame.
+
+* Various functions in the :mod:`time` module, such as :func:`asctime` and
+  :func:`localtime`, require a floating point argument containing the time in
+  seconds since the epoch.  The most common use of these functions is to work with
+  the current time, so the floating point argument has been made optional; when a
+  value isn't provided, the current time will be used.  For example, log file
+  entries usually need a string containing the current time; in Python 2.1,
+  ``time.asctime()`` can be used, instead of the lengthier
+  ``time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))`` that was previously required.
+
+  This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.
+
+* The :mod:`ftplib` module now defaults to retrieving files in passive mode,
+  because passive mode is more likely to work from behind a firewall.  This
+  request came from the Debian bug tracking system, since other Debian packages
+  use :mod:`ftplib` to retrieve files and then don't work from behind a firewall.
+  It's deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because Netscape
+  defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if passive mode is
+  unsuitable for your application or network setup, call ``set_pasv(0)`` on
+  FTP objects to disable passive mode.
+
+* Support for raw socket access has been added to the :mod:`socket` module,
+  contributed by Grant Edwards.
+
+* The :mod:`pstats` module now contains a simple interactive statistics browser
+  for displaying timing profiles for Python programs, invoked when the module is
+  run as a script.  Contributed by  Eric S. Raymond.
+
+* A new implementation-dependent function, ``sys._getframe([depth])``, has
+  been added to return a given frame object from the current call stack.
+  :func:`sys._getframe` returns the frame at the top of the call stack;  if the
+  optional integer argument *depth* is supplied, the function returns the frame
+  that is *depth* calls below the top of the stack.  For example,
+  ``sys._getframe(1)`` returns the caller's frame object.
+
+  This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET
+  implementation.  Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to put it into
+  production code.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Other Changes and Fixes
+=======================
+
+There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the shorter
+release cycle.  A search through the CVS change logs turns up 117 patches
+applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be underestimates.  Some
+of the more notable changes are:
+
+* A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that should be
+  faster than the system :func:`malloc` and have less memory overhead.  The
+  allocator uses C's :func:`malloc` function to get large pools of memory, and
+  then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools.  It can be enabled by
+  providing the :option:`!--with-pymalloc` option to the :program:`configure`
+  script; see :file:`Objects/obmalloc.c` for the implementation details.
+
+  Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the object allocator
+  enabled, because some incorrect code may break, causing core dumps at runtime.
+  There are a bunch of memory allocation functions in Python's C API that have
+  previously been just aliases for the C library's :func:`malloc` and
+  :func:`free`, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the
+  error wouldn't be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled, these
+  functions aren't aliases of :func:`malloc` and :func:`free` any more, and
+  calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core dump.  For
+  example, if memory was allocated using :func:`PyMem_New`, it has to be freed
+  using :func:`PyMem_Del`, not :func:`free`.  A few modules included with Python
+  fell afoul of this and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party
+  modules that will have the same problem.
+
+  The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.
+
+* The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because people often
+  complain about its lack of speed, and because it's often been used as a naïve
+  benchmark.  The :meth:`readline` method of file objects has therefore been
+  rewritten to be much faster.  The exact amount of the speedup will vary from
+  platform to platform depending on how slow the C library's :func:`getc` was, but
+  is around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular operating systems.
+  Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and coding for this change, motivated by
+  a discussion in comp.lang.python.
+
+  A new module and method for file objects was also added, contributed by Jeff
+  Epler. The new method, :meth:`xreadlines`, is similar to the existing
+  :func:`xrange` built-in.  :func:`xreadlines` returns an opaque sequence object
+  that only supports being iterated over, reading a line on every iteration but
+  not reading the entire file into memory as the existing :meth:`readlines` method
+  does. You'd use it like this::
+
+     for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines():
+         # ... do something for each line ...
+         ...
+
+  For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev summary for
+  January 1--15, 2001 at https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/.
+
+* A new method, :meth:`popitem`, was added to dictionaries to enable
+  destructively iterating through the contents of a dictionary; this can be faster
+  for large dictionaries because there's no need to construct a list containing
+  all the keys or values. ``D.popitem()`` removes a random ``(key, value)`` pair
+  from the dictionary ``D`` and returns it as a 2-tuple.  This was implemented
+  mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a suggestion and preliminary
+  patch by Moshe Zadka.
+
+* Modules can now control which names are imported when ``from module import *``
+  is used, by defining an ``__all__`` attribute containing a list of names that
+  will be imported.  One common complaint is that if the module imports other
+  modules such as :mod:`sys` or :mod:`string`, ``from module import *`` will add
+  them to the importing module's namespace.  To fix this, simply list the public
+  names in ``__all__``::
+
+     # List public names
+     __all__ = ['Database', 'open']
+
+  A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and implemented by Ben
+  Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a weaker final version was
+  checked in.
+
+* Applying :func:`repr` to strings previously used octal escapes for
+  non-printable characters; for example, a newline was ``'\012'``.  This was a
+  vestigial trace of Python's C ancestry, but today octal is of very little
+  practical use.  Ka-Ping Yee suggested using hex escapes instead of octal ones,
+  and using the ``\n``, ``\t``, ``\r`` escapes for the appropriate characters,
+  and implemented this new formatting.
+
+* Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions containing the
+  filename and line number of the error, a pleasant side effect of the compiler
+  reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.
+
+* C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use
+  :func:`PyImport_ImportModule`, which means that they will use any import hooks
+  that have been installed.  This is also encouraged for third-party extensions
+  that need to import some other module from C code.
+
+* The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another 340K thanks
+  to Fredrik Lundh.
+
+* Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski), Cygwin (by
+  Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger); Unixware 7  (by Billy G.
+  Allie).
+
+And there's the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks, docstring
+edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing; see the CVS logs for
+the full details if you want them.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on
+various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael
+Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh, Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.2.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.2.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4cd434
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.2.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1269 @@
+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.2
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling
+
+.. |release| replace:: 1.02
+
+.. $Id: whatsnew22.tex 37315 2004-09-10 19:33:00Z akuchling $
+
+
+Introduction
+============
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on October 14,
+2002.  Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2, originally released on
+December 21, 2001.
+
+Python 2.2 can be thought of as the "cleanup release".  There are some features
+such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but most of the
+changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be, are aimed at cleaning
+up irregularities and dark corners of the language design.
+
+This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the new
+features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full details, you
+should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as the `Python Library
+Reference <https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html>`_ and the `Python
+Reference Manual <https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html>`_.  If you want to
+understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer
+to the PEP for a particular new feature.
+
+
+.. see also, now defunct
+
+   http://www.unixreview.com/documents/s=1356/urm0109h/0109h.htm
+      "What's So Special About Python 2.2?" is also about the new 2.2 features, and
+      was written by Cameron Laird and Kathryn Soraiz.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
+========================================
+
+The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python's model of
+objects and classes.  The changes should be backward compatible, so it's likely
+that your code will continue to run unchanged, but the changes provide some
+amazing new capabilities. Before beginning this, the longest and most
+complicated section of this article, I'll provide an overview of the changes and
+offer some comments.
+
+A long time ago I wrote a Web page listing flaws in Python's design.  One of the
+most significant flaws was that it's impossible to subclass Python types
+implemented in C.  In particular, it's not possible to subclass built-in types,
+so you can't just subclass, say, lists in order to add a single useful method to
+them. The :mod:`UserList` module provides a class that supports all of the
+methods of lists and that can be subclassed further, but there's lots of C code
+that expects a regular Python list and won't accept a :class:`UserList`
+instance.
+
+Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new capabilities.
+A brief summary:
+
+* You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers, and your
+  subclasses should work in every place that requires the original type.
+
+* It's now possible to define static and class methods, in addition to the
+  instance methods available in previous versions of Python.
+
+* It's also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or setting an
+  instance attribute by using a new mechanism called :dfn:`properties`.  Many uses
+  of :meth:`__getattr__` can be rewritten to use properties instead, making the
+  resulting code simpler and faster.  As a small side benefit, attributes can now
+  have docstrings, too.
+
+* The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a particular
+  set using :dfn:`slots`, making it possible to safeguard against typos and
+  perhaps make more optimizations possible in future versions of Python.
+
+Some users have voiced concern about all these changes.  Sure, they say, the new
+features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks that weren't
+possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make the language more
+complicated.  Some people have said that they've always recommended Python for
+its simplicity, and feel that its simplicity is being lost.
+
+Personally, I think there's no need to worry.  Many of the new features are
+quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever needed to be
+aware of them.  Writing a simple class is no more difficult than it ever was, so
+you don't need to bother learning or teaching them unless they're actually
+needed.  Some very complicated tasks that were previously only possible from C
+will now be possible in pure Python, and to my mind that's all for the better.
+
+I'm not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small change that
+were required to make the new features work.  Instead this section will paint
+only the broad strokes.  See section :ref:`sect-rellinks`, "Related Links", for
+further sources of information about Python 2.2's new object model.
+
+
+Old and New Classes
+-------------------
+
+First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes: classic
+or old-style classes, and new-style classes.  The old-style class model is
+exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions of Python.  All the new
+features described in this section apply only to new-style classes. This
+divergence isn't intended to last forever; eventually old-style classes will be
+dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.
+
+So how do you define a new-style class?  You do it by subclassing an existing
+new-style class.  Most of Python's built-in types, such as integers, lists,
+dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes now.  A new-style class
+named :class:`object`, the base class for all built-in types, has also been
+added so if no built-in type is suitable, you can just subclass
+:class:`object`::
+
+   class C(object):
+       def __init__ (self):
+           ...
+       ...
+
+This means that :keyword:`class` statements that don't have any base classes are
+always classic classes in Python 2.2.  (Actually you can also change this by
+setting a module-level variable named :attr:`__metaclass__` --- see :pep:`253`
+for the details --- but it's easier to just subclass :class:`object`.)
+
+The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins, named using
+a clever trick.  Python has always had built-in functions named :func:`int`,
+:func:`float`, and :func:`str`.  In 2.2, they aren't functions any more, but
+type objects that behave as factories when called. ::
+
+   >>> int
+   <type 'int'>
+   >>> int('123')
+   123
+
+To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as :func:`dict` and
+:func:`file` have been added.  Here's a more interesting example, adding a
+:meth:`lock` method to file objects::
+
+   class LockableFile(file):
+       def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0):
+           import fcntl
+           return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation,
+                              length, start, whence)
+
+The now-obsolete :mod:`posixfile` module contained a class that emulated all of
+a file object's methods and also added a :meth:`lock` method, but this class
+couldn't be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in file,
+something which is possible with our new :class:`LockableFile`.
+
+
+Descriptors
+-----------
+
+In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover what
+attributes and methods were supported by an object. There were some informal
+conventions, such as defining :attr:`__members__` and :attr:`__methods__`
+attributes that were lists of names, but often the author of an extension type
+or a class wouldn't bother to define them.  You could fall back on inspecting
+the :attr:`~object.__dict__` of an object, but when class inheritance or an arbitrary
+:meth:`__getattr__` hook were in use this could still be inaccurate.
+
+The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for describing
+the attributes of an object using :dfn:`descriptors` has been formalized.
+Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating whether it's a method or
+a field.  With the descriptor API, static methods and class methods become
+possible, as well as more exotic constructs.
+
+Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and have a few
+attributes of their own:
+
+* :attr:`~definition.__name__` is the attribute's name.
+
+* :attr:`__doc__` is the attribute's docstring.
+
+* ``__get__(object)`` is a method that retrieves the attribute value from
+  *object*.
+
+* ``__set__(object, value)`` sets the attribute on *object* to *value*.
+
+* ``__delete__(object, value)`` deletes the *value*  attribute of *object*.
+
+For example, when you write ``obj.x``, the steps that Python actually performs
+are::
+
+   descriptor = obj.__class__.x
+   descriptor.__get__(obj)
+
+For methods, :meth:`descriptor.__get__` returns a temporary object that's
+callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called on it. This is
+also why static methods and class methods are now possible; they have
+descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the method and the class.  As a
+brief explanation of these new kinds of methods, static methods aren't passed
+the instance, and therefore resemble regular functions.  Class methods are
+passed the class of the object, but not the object itself.  Static and class
+methods are defined like this::
+
+   class C(object):
+       def f(arg1, arg2):
+           ...
+       f = staticmethod(f)
+
+       def g(cls, arg1, arg2):
+           ...
+       g = classmethod(g)
+
+The :func:`staticmethod` function takes the function :func:`f`, and returns it
+wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class object.  You might
+expect there to be special syntax for creating such methods (``def static f``,
+``defstatic f()``, or something like that) but no such syntax has been defined
+yet; that's been left for future versions of Python.
+
+More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as new
+kinds of descriptors, and it's not difficult to write a descriptor class that
+does something novel.  For example, it would be possible to write a descriptor
+class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style preconditions and
+postconditions for a method.  A class that used this feature might be defined
+like this::
+
+   from eiffel import eiffelmethod
+
+   class C(object):
+       def f(self, arg1, arg2):
+           # The actual function
+           ...
+       def pre_f(self):
+           # Check preconditions
+           ...
+       def post_f(self):
+           # Check postconditions
+           ...
+
+       f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f)
+
+Note that a person using the new :func:`eiffelmethod` doesn't have to understand
+anything about descriptors.  This is why I think the new features don't increase
+the basic complexity of the language. There will be a few wizards who need to
+know about it in order to write :func:`eiffelmethod` or the ZODB or whatever,
+but most users will just write code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore
+the implementation details.
+
+
+Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
+--------------------------------------
+
+Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the rules
+under which names are resolved.  Consider this set of classes (diagram taken
+from :pep:`253` by Guido van Rossum)::
+
+         class A:
+           ^ ^  def save(self): ...
+          /   \
+         /     \
+        /       \
+       /         \
+   class B     class C:
+       ^         ^  def save(self): ...
+        \       /
+         \     /
+          \   /
+           \ /
+         class D
+
+The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the base
+classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right.  A reference to
+:meth:`D.save` will search the classes :class:`D`, :class:`B`, and then
+:class:`A`, where :meth:`save` would be found and returned.  :meth:`C.save`
+would never be found at all.  This is bad, because if :class:`C`'s :meth:`save`
+method is saving some internal state specific to :class:`C`, not calling it will
+result in that state never getting saved.
+
+New-style classes follow a different algorithm that's a bit more complicated to
+explain, but does the right thing in this situation. (Note that Python 2.3
+changes this algorithm to one that produces the same results in most cases, but
+produces more useful results for really complicated inheritance graphs.)
+
+#. List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and include a
+   class multiple times if it's visited repeatedly.  In the above example, the list
+   of visited classes is [:class:`D`, :class:`B`, :class:`A`, :class:`C`,
+   :class:`A`].
+
+#. Scan the list for duplicated classes.  If any are found, remove all but one
+   occurrence, leaving the *last* one in the list.  In the above example, the list
+   becomes [:class:`D`, :class:`B`, :class:`C`, :class:`A`] after dropping
+   duplicates.
+
+Following this rule, referring to :meth:`D.save` will return :meth:`C.save`,
+which is the behaviour we're after.  This lookup rule is the same as the one
+followed by Common Lisp.  A new built-in function, :func:`super`, provides a way
+to get at a class's superclasses without having to reimplement Python's
+algorithm. The most commonly used form will be  ``super(class, obj)``, which
+returns  a bound superclass object (not the actual class object).  This form
+will be used in methods to call a method in the superclass; for example,
+:class:`D`'s :meth:`save` method would look like this::
+
+   class D (B,C):
+       def save (self):
+           # Call superclass .save()
+           super(D, self).save()
+           # Save D's private information here
+           ...
+
+:func:`super` can also return unbound superclass objects when called as
+``super(class)`` or ``super(class1, class2)``, but this probably won't
+often be useful.
+
+
+Attribute Access
+----------------
+
+A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute access
+using :meth:`__getattr__`; most commonly this is done for convenience, to make
+code more readable by automatically mapping an attribute access such as
+``obj.parent`` into a method call such as ``obj.get_parent``.  Python 2.2 adds
+some new ways of controlling attribute access.
+
+First, ``__getattr__(attr_name)`` is still supported by new-style classes,
+and nothing about it has changed.  As before, it will be called when an attempt
+is made to access ``obj.foo`` and no attribute named ``foo`` is found in the
+instance's dictionary.
+
+New-style classes also support a new method,
+``__getattribute__(attr_name)``.  The difference between the two methods is
+that :meth:`__getattribute__` is *always* called whenever any attribute is
+accessed, while the old :meth:`__getattr__` is only called if ``foo`` isn't
+found in the instance's dictionary.
+
+However, Python 2.2's support for :dfn:`properties` will often be a simpler way
+to trap attribute references.  Writing a :meth:`__getattr__` method is
+complicated because to avoid recursion you can't use regular attribute accesses
+inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents of
+:attr:`~object.__dict__`. :meth:`__getattr__` methods also end up being called by Python
+when it checks for other methods such as :meth:`__repr__` or :meth:`__coerce__`,
+and so have to be written with this in mind. Finally, calling a function on
+every attribute access results in a sizable performance loss.
+
+:class:`property` is a new built-in type that packages up three functions that
+get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring.  For example, if you want to
+define a :attr:`size` attribute that's computed, but also settable, you could
+write::
+
+   class C(object):
+       def get_size (self):
+           result = ... computation ...
+           return result
+       def set_size (self, size):
+           ... compute something based on the size
+           and set internal state appropriately ...
+
+       # Define a property.  The 'delete this attribute'
+       # method is defined as None, so the attribute
+       # can't be deleted.
+       size = property(get_size, set_size,
+                       None,
+                       "Storage size of this instance")
+
+That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of
+:meth:`__getattr__`/:meth:`__setattr__` methods that check for the :attr:`size`
+attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes from the
+instance's :attr:`~object.__dict__`.  Accesses to :attr:`size` are also the only ones
+which have to perform the work of calling a function, so references to other
+attributes run at their usual speed.
+
+Finally, it's possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be
+referenced on an object using the new :attr:`~object.__slots__` class attribute. Python
+objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it's possible to define a new
+attribute on an instance by just doing ``obj.new_attr=1``.   A new-style class
+can define a class attribute named :attr:`~object.__slots__` to limit the legal
+attributes  to a particular set of names.  An example will make this clear::
+
+   >>> class C(object):
+   ...     __slots__ = ('template', 'name')
+   ...
+   >>> obj = C()
+   >>> print obj.template
+   None
+   >>> obj.template = 'Test'
+   >>> print obj.template
+   Test
+   >>> obj.newattr = None
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
+   AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr'
+
+Note how you get an :exc:`AttributeError` on the attempt to assign to an
+attribute not listed in :attr:`~object.__slots__`.
+
+
+.. _sect-rellinks:
+
+Related Links
+-------------
+
+This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving enough
+of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have been
+simplified or ignored.  Where should you go to get a more complete picture?
+
+https://docs.python.org/dev/howto/descriptor.html is a lengthy tutorial introduction to
+the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum. If my description has
+whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes into much
+more detail about the new features while still remaining quite easy to read.
+
+Next, there are two relevant PEPs, :pep:`252` and :pep:`253`.  :pep:`252` is
+titled "Making Types Look More Like Classes", and covers the descriptor API.
+:pep:`253` is titled "Subtyping Built-in Types", and describes the changes to
+type objects that make it possible to subtype built-in objects.  :pep:`253` is
+the more complicated PEP of the two, and at a few points the necessary
+explanations of types and meta-types may cause your head to explode.  Both PEPs
+were written and implemented by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance
+from the rest of the Zope Corp. team.
+
+Finally, there's the ultimate authority: the source code.  Most of the machinery
+for the type handling is in :file:`Objects/typeobject.c`, but you should only
+resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted, including posting a
+question to python-list or python-dev.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 234: Iterators
+==================
+
+Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both the C and
+Python levels.  Objects can define how they can be looped over by callers.
+
+In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make ``for item in obj`` work is
+to define a :meth:`__getitem__` method that looks something like this::
+
+   def __getitem__(self, index):
+       return <next item>
+
+:meth:`__getitem__` is more properly used to define an indexing operation on an
+object so that you can write ``obj[5]`` to retrieve the sixth element.  It's a
+bit misleading when you're using this only to support :keyword:`for` loops.
+Consider some file-like object that wants to be looped over; the *index*
+parameter is essentially meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a
+series of :meth:`__getitem__` calls will be made with *index* incrementing by
+one each time.  In other words, the presence of the :meth:`__getitem__` method
+doesn't mean that using ``file[5]``  to randomly access the sixth element will
+work, though it really should.
+
+In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and :meth:`__getitem__`
+methods can be limited to classes that really do support random access.  The
+basic idea of iterators is  simple.  A new built-in function, ``iter(obj)``
+or ``iter(C, sentinel)``, is used to get an iterator. ``iter(obj)`` returns
+an iterator for the object *obj*, while ``iter(C, sentinel)`` returns an
+iterator that will invoke the callable object *C* until it returns *sentinel* to
+signal that the iterator is done.
+
+Python classes can define an :meth:`__iter__` method, which should create and
+return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own iterator, this
+method can just return ``self``.  In particular, iterators will usually be their
+own iterators.  Extension types implemented in C can implement a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter`
+function in order to return an iterator, and extension types that want to behave
+as iterators can define a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iternext` function.
+
+So, after all this, what do iterators actually do?  They have one required
+method, :meth:`next`, which takes no arguments and returns the next value.  When
+there are no more values to be returned, calling :meth:`next` should raise the
+:exc:`StopIteration` exception. ::
+
+   >>> L = [1,2,3]
+   >>> i = iter(L)
+   >>> print i
+   <iterator object at 0x8116870>
+   >>> i.next()
+   1
+   >>> i.next()
+   2
+   >>> i.next()
+   3
+   >>> i.next()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
+   StopIteration
+   >>>
+
+In 2.2, Python's :keyword:`for` statement no longer expects a sequence; it
+expects something for which :func:`iter` will return an iterator. For backward
+compatibility and convenience, an iterator is automatically constructed for
+sequences that don't implement :meth:`__iter__` or a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_iter` slot, so
+``for i in [1,2,3]`` will still work.  Wherever the Python interpreter loops
+over a sequence, it's been changed to use the iterator protocol.  This means you
+can do things like this::
+
+   >>> L = [1,2,3]
+   >>> i = iter(L)
+   >>> a,b,c = i
+   >>> a,b,c
+   (1, 2, 3)
+
+Iterator support has been added to some of Python's basic types.   Calling
+:func:`iter` on a dictionary will return an iterator which loops over its keys::
+
+   >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
+   ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
+   >>> for key in m: print key, m[key]
+   ...
+   Mar 3
+   Feb 2
+   Aug 8
+   Sep 9
+   May 5
+   Jun 6
+   Jul 7
+   Jan 1
+   Apr 4
+   Nov 11
+   Dec 12
+   Oct 10
+
+That's just the default behaviour.  If you want to iterate over keys, values, or
+key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the :meth:`iterkeys`,
+:meth:`itervalues`, or :meth:`iteritems` methods to get an appropriate iterator.
+In a minor related change, the :keyword:`in` operator now works on dictionaries,
+so ``key in dict`` is now equivalent to ``dict.has_key(key)``.
+
+Files also provide an iterator, which calls the :meth:`readline` method until
+there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can now read each line of a
+file using code like this::
+
+   for line in file:
+       # do something for each line
+       ...
+
+Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there's no way to get the
+previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it. An iterator object
+could provide such additional capabilities, but the iterator protocol only
+requires a :meth:`next` method.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`234` - Iterators
+      Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented  by the Python Labs crew, mostly by
+      GvR and Tim Peters.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 255: Simple Generators
+==========================
+
+Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the introduction of
+iterators.
+
+You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.  When you
+call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are
+created.  When the function reaches a :keyword:`return` statement, the local
+variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller.  A
+later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables.
+But, what if the local variables weren't thrown away on exiting a function?
+What if you could later resume the function where it left off?  This is what
+generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.
+
+Here's the simplest example of a generator function::
+
+   def generate_ints(N):
+       for i in range(N):
+           yield i
+
+A new keyword, :keyword:`yield`, was introduced for generators.  Any function
+containing a :keyword:`!yield` statement is a generator function; this is
+detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as
+a result.  Because a new keyword was introduced, generators must be explicitly
+enabled in a module by including a ``from __future__ import generators``
+statement near the top of the module's source code.  In Python 2.3 this
+statement will become unnecessary.
+
+When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value; instead it
+returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol.  On executing
+the :keyword:`yield` statement, the generator outputs the value of ``i``,
+similar to a :keyword:`return` statement.  The big difference between
+:keyword:`!yield` and a :keyword:`!return` statement is that on reaching a
+:keyword:`!yield` the generator's state of execution is suspended and local
+variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator's ``next()`` method,
+the function will resume executing immediately after the :keyword:`!yield`
+statement.  (For complicated reasons, the :keyword:`!yield` statement isn't
+allowed inside the :keyword:`!try` block of a
+:keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`finally` statement; read :pep:`255` for a full
+explanation of the interaction between :keyword:`!yield` and exceptions.)
+
+Here's a sample usage of the :func:`generate_ints` generator::
+
+   >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
+   >>> gen
+   <generator object at 0x8117f90>
+   >>> gen.next()
+   0
+   >>> gen.next()
+   1
+   >>> gen.next()
+   2
+   >>> gen.next()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
+     File "<stdin>", line 2, in generate_ints
+   StopIteration
+
+You could equally write ``for i in generate_ints(5)``, or ``a,b,c =
+generate_ints(3)``.
+
+Inside a generator function, the :keyword:`return` statement can only be used
+without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the
+generator cannot return any further values. :keyword:`!return` with a value, such
+as ``return 5``, is a syntax error inside a generator function.  The end of the
+generator's results can also be indicated by raising :exc:`StopIteration`
+manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the
+function.
+
+You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class
+and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables.  For
+example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting ``self.count`` to
+0, and having the :meth:`next` method increment ``self.count`` and return it.
+However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class
+would be much messier. :file:`Lib/test/test_generators.py` contains a number of
+more interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of
+a tree using generators recursively. ::
+
+   # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
+   def inorder(t):
+       if t:
+           for x in inorder(t.left):
+               yield x
+           yield t.label
+           for x in inorder(t.right):
+               yield x
+
+Two other examples in :file:`Lib/test/test_generators.py` produce solutions for
+the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no
+queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that takes a knight to
+every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice).
+
+The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon
+(https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/), where the idea of generators is central.  In
+Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator.  One example
+from "An Overview of the Icon Programming Language" at
+https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm gives an idea of what this looks
+like::
+
+   sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
+   if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)
+
+In Icon the :func:`find` function returns the indexes at which the substring
+"or" is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the :keyword:`if` statement, ``i`` is first
+assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon
+retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5, so the comparison
+now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen.
+
+Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central
+concept.  Generators are considered a new part of the core Python language, but
+learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they don't solve any problems that
+you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python's interface as
+compared to Icon's is that a generator's state is represented as a concrete
+object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in
+a data structure.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`255` - Simple Generators
+      Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.  Implemented mostly
+      by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
+============================================
+
+In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are 32-bit
+values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of arbitrary size, was
+becoming an annoyance.  For example, on platforms that support files larger than
+``2**32`` bytes, the :meth:`tell` method of file objects has to return a long
+integer. However, there were various bits of Python that expected plain integers
+and would raise an error if a long integer was provided instead.  For example,
+in Python 1.5, only regular integers could be used as a slice index, and
+``'abc'[1L:]`` would raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception with the message 'slice
+index must be int'.
+
+Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required. The 'L'
+suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal, as now the
+compiler will choose the appropriate type.  (Using the 'L' suffix will be
+discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering a warning in Python
+2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.)  Many operations that used to raise an
+:exc:`OverflowError` will now return a long integer as their result.  For
+example::
+
+   >>> 1234567890123
+   1234567890123L
+   >>> 2 ** 64
+   18446744073709551616L
+
+In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated identically.  You
+can still distinguish them with the :func:`type` built-in function, but that's
+rarely needed.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`237` - Unifying Long Integers and Integers
+      Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented mostly by Guido van
+      Rossum.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
+=======================================
+
+The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an effort to
+fix an old design flaw that's been in Python from the beginning. Currently
+Python's division operator, ``/``, behaves like C's division operator when
+presented with two integer arguments: it returns an integer result that's
+truncated down when there would be a fractional part.  For example, ``3/2`` is
+1, not 1.5, and ``(-1)/2`` is -1, not -0.5.  This means that the results of
+division can vary unexpectedly depending on the type of the two operands and
+because Python is dynamically typed, it can be difficult to determine the
+possible types of the operands.
+
+(The controversy is over whether this is *really* a design flaw, and whether
+it's worth breaking existing code to fix this.  It's caused endless discussions
+on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm of acidly sarcastic
+postings on :newsgroup:`comp.lang.python`. I won't argue for either side here
+and will stick to describing what's  implemented in 2.2.  Read :pep:`238` for a
+summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)
+
+Because this change might break code, it's being introduced very gradually.
+Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won't be complete until Python
+3.0.
+
+First, I'll borrow some terminology from :pep:`238`.  "True division" is the
+division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5, 1/4 is 0.25,
+and so forth.  "Floor division" is what Python's ``/`` operator currently does
+when given integer operands; the result is the floor of the value returned by
+true division.  "Classic division" is the current mixed behaviour of ``/``; it
+returns the result of floor division when the operands are integers, and returns
+the result of true division when one of the operands is a floating-point number.
+
+Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:
+
+* A new operator, ``//``, is the floor division operator. (Yes, we know it looks
+  like C++'s comment symbol.)  ``//`` *always* performs floor division no matter
+  what the types of its operands are, so ``1 // 2`` is 0 and ``1.0 // 2.0`` is
+  also 0.0.
+
+  ``//`` is always available in Python 2.2; you don't need to enable it using a
+  ``__future__`` statement.
+
+* By including a ``from __future__ import division`` in a module, the ``/``
+  operator will be changed to return the result of true division, so ``1/2`` is
+  0.5.  Without the ``__future__`` statement, ``/`` still means classic division.
+  The default meaning of ``/`` will not change until Python 3.0.
+
+* Classes can define methods called :meth:`__truediv__` and :meth:`__floordiv__`
+  to overload the two division operators.  At the C level, there are also slots in
+  the :c:type:`PyNumberMethods` structure so extension types can define the two
+  operators.
+
+* Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether code will
+  work with the changed division semantics.  Running python with :option:`!-Q
+  warn` will cause a warning to be issued whenever division is applied to two
+  integers.  You can use this to find code that's affected by the change and fix
+  it.  By default, Python 2.2 will simply perform classic division without a
+  warning; the warning will be turned on by default in Python 2.3.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`238` - Changing the Division Operator
+      Written by Moshe Zadka and  Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Guido van Rossum..
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Unicode Changes
+===============
+
+Python's Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2.  Unicode strings are
+usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers. Python 2.2 can also be
+compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers, as its internal encoding by
+supplying :option:`!--enable-unicode=ucs4` to the configure script.   (It's also
+possible to specify :option:`!--disable-unicode` to completely disable Unicode
+support.)
+
+When built to use UCS-4 (a "wide Python"), the interpreter can natively handle
+Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of legal values for
+the :func:`unichr` function is expanded accordingly.  Using an interpreter
+compiled to use UCS-2 (a "narrow Python"), values greater than 65535 will still
+cause :func:`unichr` to raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception. This is all
+described in :pep:`261`, "Support for 'wide' Unicode characters"; consult it for
+further details.
+
+Another change is simpler to explain. Since their introduction, Unicode strings
+have supported an :meth:`encode` method to convert the string to a selected
+encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1.  A symmetric ``decode([*encoding*])``
+method has been added to 8-bit strings (though not to Unicode strings) in 2.2.
+:meth:`decode` assumes that the string is in the specified encoding and decodes
+it, returning whatever is returned by the codec.
+
+Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly related to
+Unicode.  For example, codecs have been added for uu-encoding, MIME's base64
+encoding, and compression with the :mod:`zlib` module::
+
+   >>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,
+   ... and repetitive text.
+   ... """
+   >>> data = s.encode('zlib')
+   >>> data
+   'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...'
+   >>> data.decode('zlib')
+   'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n'
+   >>> print s.encode('uu')
+   begin 666 <data>
+   M2&5R92!I<R!A(&QE;F=T:'D@<&EE8V4@;V8@<F5D=6YD86YT+"!O=F5R;'D@
+   >=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X*
+
+   end
+   >>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13')
+   'furrfu'
+
+To convert a class instance to Unicode, a :meth:`__unicode__` method can be
+defined by a class, analogous to :meth:`__str__`.
+
+:meth:`encode`, :meth:`decode`, and :meth:`__unicode__` were implemented by
+Marc-André Lemburg.  The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were
+implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`261` - Support for 'wide' Unicode characters
+      Written by Paul Prescod.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 227: Nested Scopes
+======================
+
+In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional feature, to be
+enabled by a ``from __future__ import nested_scopes`` directive.  In 2.2 nested
+scopes no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always present.  The
+rest of this section is a copy of the description of nested scopes from my
+"What's New in Python 2.1" document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can
+skip the rest of this section.
+
+The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2, is to
+Python's scoping rules.  In Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most
+three namespaces used to look up variable names: local, module-level, and the
+built-in namespace.  This often surprised people because it didn't match their
+intuitive expectations.  For example, a nested recursive function definition
+doesn't work::
+
+   def f():
+       ...
+       def g(value):
+           ...
+           return g(value-1) + 1
+       ...
+
+The function :func:`g` will always raise a :exc:`NameError` exception, because
+the binding of the name ``g`` isn't in either its local namespace or in the
+module-level namespace.  This isn't much of a problem in practice (how often do
+you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using
+the :keyword:`lambda` expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.
+In code which uses :keyword:`!lambda` you can often find local variables being
+copied by passing them as the default values of arguments. ::
+
+   def find(self, name):
+       "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
+       L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
+                  self.list_attribute)
+       return L
+
+The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers
+greatly as a result.
+
+The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has been added
+to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the ``name=name``
+default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.  Put simply, when a
+given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment,
+or the :keyword:`def`, :keyword:`class`, or :keyword:`import` statements),
+references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the
+enclosing scope.  A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of
+the implementation, can be found in the PEP.
+
+This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same
+variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a
+function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely
+though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first
+place.
+
+One side effect of the change is that the ``from module import *`` and
+``exec`` statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
+certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that ``from
+module import *`` is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython
+interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the implementation of
+nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to
+generate different code to access variables in a containing scope.  ``from
+module import *`` and ``exec`` make it impossible for the compiler to
+figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are
+unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function
+definitions or :keyword:`lambda` expressions with free variables, the compiler
+will flag this by raising a :exc:`SyntaxError` exception.
+
+To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example::
+
+   x = 1
+   def f():
+       # The next line is a syntax error
+       exec 'x=2'
+       def g():
+           return x
+
+Line 4 containing the ``exec`` statement is a syntax error, since
+``exec`` would define a new local variable named ``x`` whose value should
+be accessed by :func:`g`.
+
+This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since ``exec`` is rarely used in
+most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor design
+anyway).
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`227` - Statically Nested Scopes
+      Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+New and Improved Modules
+========================
+
+* The :mod:`xmlrpclib` module was contributed to the standard library by Fredrik
+  Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC clients.  XML-RPC is a simple
+  remote procedure call protocol built on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the
+  following snippet retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O'Reilly Network,
+  and then  lists the recent headlines for one channel::
+
+     import xmlrpclib
+     s = xmlrpclib.Server(
+           'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php')
+     channels = s.meerkat.getChannels()
+     # channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:
+     # [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'}
+     #  {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'},
+     #  {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ]
+
+     # Get the items for one channel
+     items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} )
+
+     # 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this:
+     # [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/',
+     #   'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.',
+     #   'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ]
+
+  The :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` module makes it easy to create straightforward
+  XML-RPC servers.  See http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/ for more information about XML-RPC.
+
+* The new :mod:`hmac` module implements the HMAC algorithm described by
+  :rfc:`2104`. (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)
+
+* Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now return
+  pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have mnemonic attributes such
+  as memberst_mtime or :attr:`tm_year`. The enhanced functions include
+  :func:`stat`, :func:`fstat`, :func:`statvfs`, and :func:`fstatvfs` in the
+  :mod:`os` module, and :func:`localtime`, :func:`gmtime`, and :func:`strptime` in
+  the :mod:`time` module.
+
+  For example, to obtain a file's size using the old tuples, you'd end up writing
+  something like ``file_size = os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]``, but now this can
+  be written more clearly as ``file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size``.
+
+  The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick Mathewson.
+
+* The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various errors in its
+  output have been corrected.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr. and Tim Peters.)
+
+* The :mod:`socket` module can be compiled to support IPv6; specify the
+  :option:`!--enable-ipv6` option to Python's configure script.  (Contributed by
+  Jun-ichiro "itojun" Hagino.)
+
+* Two new format characters were added to the :mod:`struct` module for 64-bit
+  integers on platforms that support the C :c:type:`long long` type.  ``q`` is for
+  a signed 64-bit integer, and ``Q`` is for an unsigned one.  The value is
+  returned in Python's long integer type.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)
+
+* In the interpreter's interactive mode, there's a new built-in function
+  :func:`help` that uses the :mod:`pydoc` module introduced in Python 2.1 to
+  provide interactive help. ``help(object)`` displays any available help text
+  about *object*.  :func:`help` with no argument puts you in an online help
+  utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or modules to read
+  their help text. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, using Ka-Ping Yee's
+  :mod:`pydoc` module.)
+
+* Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the SRE engine
+  underlying the :mod:`re` module.  For example, the :func:`re.sub` and
+  :func:`re.split` functions have been rewritten in C.  Another contributed patch
+  speeds up certain Unicode character ranges by a factor of two, and a new
+  :meth:`finditer`  method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping
+  matches in  a given string.  (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh.  The
+  BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)
+
+* The :mod:`smtplib` module now supports :rfc:`2487`, "Secure SMTP over TLS", so
+  it's now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic between a Python program and the
+  mail transport agent being handed a message.  :mod:`smtplib` also supports SMTP
+  authentication.  (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)
+
+* The :mod:`imaplib` module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has support for several
+  new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined in :rfc:`2342`, SORT, GETACL and
+  SETACL.  (Contributed by Anthony Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)
+
+* The :mod:`rfc822` module's parsing of email addresses is now compliant with
+  :rfc:`2822`, an update to :rfc:`822`.  (The module's name is *not* going to be
+  changed to ``rfc2822``.)  A new package, :mod:`email`, has also been added for
+  parsing and generating e-mail messages.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and
+  arising out of his work on Mailman.)
+
+* The :mod:`difflib` module now contains a new :class:`Differ` class for
+  producing human-readable lists of changes (a "delta") between two sequences of
+  lines of text.  There are also two generator functions, :func:`ndiff` and
+  :func:`restore`, which respectively return a delta from two sequences, or one of
+  the original sequences from a delta. (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger,
+  from ndiff.py code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)
+
+* New constants :const:`ascii_letters`, :const:`ascii_lowercase`, and
+  :const:`ascii_uppercase` were added to the :mod:`string` module.  There were
+  several modules in the standard library that used :const:`string.letters` to
+  mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is incorrect when locales are in
+  use, because :const:`string.letters` varies depending on the set of legal
+  characters defined by the current locale.  The buggy modules have all been fixed
+  to use :const:`ascii_letters` instead. (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by
+  Fred L. Drake, Jr.)
+
+* The :mod:`mimetypes` module now makes it easier to use alternative MIME-type
+  databases by the addition of a :class:`MimeTypes` class, which takes a list of
+  filenames to be parsed.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)
+
+* A :class:`Timer` class was added to the :mod:`threading` module that allows
+  scheduling an activity to happen at some future time.  (Contributed by Itamar
+  Shtull-Trauring.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Interpreter Changes and Fixes
+=============================
+
+Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python interpreter at
+the C level because they're writing Python extension modules, embedding the
+interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter itself. If you only write Python
+code, none of the changes described here will affect you very much.
+
+* Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which can operate
+  at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and should reduce the overhead
+  of profiling and tracing.  This  will be of interest to authors of development
+  environments for Python.  Two new C functions were added to Python's API,
+  :c:func:`PyEval_SetProfile` and :c:func:`PyEval_SetTrace`. The existing
+  :func:`sys.setprofile` and :func:`sys.settrace` functions still exist, and have
+  simply been changed to use the new C-level interface.  (Contributed by Fred L.
+  Drake, Jr.)
+
+* Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementors of Python
+  debuggers and development tools, was added. :c:func:`PyInterpreterState_Head` and
+  :c:func:`PyInterpreterState_Next` let a caller walk through all the existing
+  interpreter objects; :c:func:`PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead` and
+  :c:func:`PyThreadState_Next` allow looping over all the thread states for a given
+  interpreter.  (Contributed by David Beazley.)
+
+* The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to make it
+  easier to write extension types that support garbage collection and to debug
+  misuses of the functions. Various functions have slightly different semantics,
+  so a bunch of functions had to be renamed.  Extensions that use the old API will
+  still compile but will *not* participate in garbage collection, so updating them
+  for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.
+
+  To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the following steps:
+
+* Rename :c:func:`Py_TPFLAGS_GC` to :c:func:`PyTPFLAGS_HAVE_GC`.
+
+* Use :c:func:`PyObject_GC_New` or :c:func:`PyObject_GC_NewVar` to allocate
+    objects, and :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Del` to deallocate them.
+
+* Rename :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Init` to :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Track` and
+    :c:func:`PyObject_GC_Fini` to :c:func:`PyObject_GC_UnTrack`.
+
+* Remove :c:func:`PyGC_HEAD_SIZE` from object size calculations.
+
+* Remove calls to :c:func:`PyObject_AS_GC` and :c:func:`PyObject_FROM_GC`.
+
+* A new ``et`` format sequence was added to :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`; ``et``
+  takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and converts the parameter to the
+  given encoding if the parameter turns out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it
+  alone if it's an 8-bit string, assuming it to already be in the desired
+  encoding.  This differs from the ``es`` format character, which assumes that
+  8-bit strings are in Python's default ASCII encoding and converts them to the
+  specified new encoding. (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and used for the MBCS
+  support on Windows described in the following section.)
+
+* A different argument parsing function, :c:func:`PyArg_UnpackTuple`, has been
+  added that's simpler and presumably faster.  Instead of specifying a format
+  string, the caller simply gives the minimum and maximum number of arguments
+  expected, and a set of pointers to :c:type:`PyObject\*` variables that will be
+  filled in with argument values.
+
+* Two new flags :const:`METH_NOARGS` and :const:`METH_O` are available in method
+  definition tables to simplify implementation of methods with no arguments or a
+  single untyped argument. Calling such methods is more efficient than calling a
+  corresponding method that uses :const:`METH_VARARGS`.  Also, the old
+  :const:`METH_OLDARGS` style of writing C methods is  now officially deprecated.
+
+* Two new wrapper functions, :c:func:`PyOS_snprintf` and :c:func:`PyOS_vsnprintf`
+  were added to provide  cross-platform implementations for the relatively new
+  :c:func:`snprintf` and :c:func:`vsnprintf` C lib APIs. In contrast to the standard
+  :c:func:`sprintf` and :c:func:`vsprintf` functions, the Python versions check the
+  bounds of the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns. (Contributed by
+  M.-A. Lemburg.)
+
+* The :c:func:`_PyTuple_Resize` function has lost an unused parameter, so now it
+  takes 2 parameters instead of 3.  The third argument was never used, and can
+  simply be discarded when porting code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Other Changes and Fixes
+=======================
+
+As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
+throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds there
+were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and 2.2; 2.2.1
+applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106 patches and fixed 82
+bugs.  These figures are likely to be underestimates.
+
+Some of the more notable changes are:
+
+* The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen, is now kept
+  in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been made to support MacOS X.
+
+  The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a framework,
+  enabled by supplying the :option:`!--enable-framework` option to the configure
+  script when compiling Python.  According to Jack Jansen, "This installs a
+  self-contained Python installation plus the OS X framework "glue" into
+  :file:`/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework` (or another location of choice).
+  For now there is little immediate added benefit to this (actually, there is the
+  disadvantage that you have to change your PATH to be able to find Python), but
+  it is the basis for creating a full-blown Python application, porting the
+  MacPython IDE, possibly using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and
+  much more."
+
+  Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS APIs such as
+  windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc. have been ported to OS X, but they've been
+  left commented out in :file:`setup.py`.  People who want to experiment with
+  these modules can uncomment them manually.
+
+  .. Jack's original comments:
+     The main change is the possibility to build Python as a
+     framework. This installs a self-contained Python installation plus the
+     OSX framework "glue" into /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework (or
+     another location of choice). For now there is little immediate added
+     benefit to this (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to
+     change your PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for
+     creating a fullblown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE,
+     possibly using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much
+     more. You enable this with "configure --enable-framework".
+     The other change is that most MacPython toolbox modules, which
+     interface to all the MacOS APIs such as windowing, quicktime,
+     scripting, etc. have been ported. Again, most of these are not of
+     immediate use, as they need a full application to be really useful, so
+     they have been commented out in setup.py. People wanting to experiment
+     can uncomment them. Gestalt and Internet Config modules are enabled by
+     default.
+
+* Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don't take them now cause a
+  :exc:`TypeError` exception to be raised, with the message "*function* takes no
+  keyword arguments".
+
+* Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are now part of
+  the core because they're used in the implementation of new-style classes.  The
+  :exc:`ReferenceError` exception has therefore moved from the :mod:`weakref`
+  module to become a built-in exception.
+
+* A new script, :file:`Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py` by Tim Peters,
+  automatically removes obsolete ``__future__`` statements from Python source
+  code.
+
+* An additional *flags* argument has been added to the built-in function
+  :func:`compile`, so the behaviour of ``__future__`` statements can now be
+  correctly observed in simulated shells, such as those presented by IDLE and
+  other development environments.  This is described in :pep:`264`. (Contributed
+  by Michael Hudson.)
+
+* The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn't GPL-compatible.  This is
+  fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so it's now legal to
+  embed Python inside a GPLed program again.  Note that Python itself is not
+  GPLed, but instead is under a license that's essentially equivalent to the BSD
+  license, same as it always was.  The license changes were also applied to the
+  Python 2.0.1 and 2.1.1 releases.
+
+* When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now convert it
+  to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file APIs.  As MBCS is
+  explicitly used by the file APIs, Python's choice of ASCII as the default
+  encoding turns out to be an annoyance.  On Unix, the locale's character set is
+  used if ``locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)`` is available.  (Windows support was
+  contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André Lemburg. Unix
+  support was added by Martin von Löwis.)
+
+* Large file support is now enabled on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)
+
+* The :file:`Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py` script now parses a :file:`.netrc`
+  file, if you have one. (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)
+
+* Some features of the object returned by the :func:`xrange` function are now
+  deprecated, and trigger warnings when they're accessed; they'll disappear in
+  Python 2.3. :class:`xrange` objects tried to pretend they were full sequence
+  types by supporting slicing, sequence multiplication, and the :keyword:`in`
+  operator, but these features were rarely used and therefore buggy.  The
+  :meth:`tolist` method and the :attr:`start`, :attr:`stop`, and :attr:`step`
+  attributes are also being deprecated.  At the C level, the fourth argument to
+  the :c:func:`PyRange_New` function, ``repeat``, has also been deprecated.
+
+* There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation, mostly to fix
+  potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects that sneakily changed
+  their hash value, or mutated the dictionary they were contained in. For a while
+  python-dev fell into a gentle rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that
+  dumped core, Tim Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round
+  and round it went.
+
+* On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a number of
+  patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result isn't fully functional
+  yet.  (But this *is* progress...)
+
+* Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered PythonLabs use
+  of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system.  Earlier PythonLabs Windows installers used
+  Wise 5.0a, which was beginning to show its age.  (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)
+
+* Files ending in ``.pyw`` can now be imported on Windows. ``.pyw`` is a
+  Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run using
+  PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS console from popping
+  up to display the output.  This patch makes it possible to import such scripts,
+  in case they're also usable as modules.  (Implemented by David Bolen.)
+
+* On platforms where Python uses the C :c:func:`dlopen` function  to load
+  extension modules, it's now possible to set the flags used  by :c:func:`dlopen`
+  using the :func:`sys.getdlopenflags` and :func:`sys.setdlopenflags` functions.
+  (Contributed by Bram Stolk.)
+
+* The :func:`pow` built-in function no longer supports 3 arguments when
+  floating-point numbers are supplied. ``pow(x, y, z)`` returns ``(x**y) % z``,
+  but this is never useful for floating point numbers, and the final result varies
+  unpredictably depending on the platform.  A call such as ``pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)``
+  will now raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Fred Bremmer,
+Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr., Carel Fellinger, David Goodger,
+Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg,
+Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore,
+Gustavo Niemeyer, Don O'Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom
+Reinhardt, Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.3.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.3.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dac0e63
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.3.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2086 @@
+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.3
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling
+
+.. |release| replace:: 1.01
+
+.. $Id: whatsnew23.tex 54631 2007-03-31 11:58:36Z georg.brandl $
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 2.3.  Python 2.3 was released
+on July 29, 2003.
+
+The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added in 2.2,
+adding various small but useful enhancements to the core language, and expanding
+the standard library.  The new object model introduced in the previous version
+has benefited from 18 months of bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have
+improved the performance of new-style classes.  A few new built-in functions
+have been added such as :func:`sum` and :func:`enumerate`.  The :keyword:`in`
+operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g. ``"ab" in "abc"`` returns
+:const:`True`).
+
+Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and date/time
+data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format archives, metadata
+support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an updated version of IDLE, and
+modules for logging messages, wrapping text, parsing CSV files, processing
+command-line options, using BerkeleyDB databases...  the list of new and
+enhanced modules is lengthy.
+
+This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the new
+features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full details, you
+should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as the Python Library
+Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  If you want to understand the
+complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular
+new feature.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
+================================
+
+The new :mod:`sets` module contains an implementation of a set datatype.  The
+:class:`Set` class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and
+removed.  The :class:`ImmutableSet` class is for sets that can't be modified,
+and instances of :class:`ImmutableSet` can therefore be used as dictionary keys.
+Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a set must be
+hashable.
+
+Here's a simple example::
+
+   >>> import sets
+   >>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3])
+   >>> S
+   Set([1, 2, 3])
+   >>> 1 in S
+   True
+   >>> 0 in S
+   False
+   >>> S.add(5)
+   >>> S.remove(3)
+   >>> S
+   Set([1, 2, 5])
+   >>>
+
+The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the :meth:`union` and
+:meth:`intersection` methods; an alternative notation uses the bitwise operators
+``&`` and ``|``. Mutable sets also have in-place versions of these methods,
+:meth:`union_update` and :meth:`intersection_update`. ::
+
+   >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
+   >>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
+   >>> S1.union(S2)
+   Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
+   >>> S1 | S2                  # Alternative notation
+   Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
+   >>> S1.intersection(S2)
+   Set([])
+   >>> S1 & S2                  # Alternative notation
+   Set([])
+   >>> S1.union_update(S2)
+   >>> S1
+   Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
+   >>>
+
+It's also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets.  This is the
+set of all elements in the union that aren't in the intersection.  Another way
+of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all elements that are in
+exactly one set.  Again, there's an alternative notation (``^``), and an
+in-place version with the ungainly name :meth:`symmetric_difference_update`. ::
+
+   >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
+   >>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
+   >>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2)
+   Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
+   >>> S1 ^ S2
+   Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
+   >>>
+
+There are also :meth:`issubset` and :meth:`issuperset` methods for checking
+whether one set is a subset or superset of another::
+
+   >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
+   >>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3])
+   >>> S2.issubset(S1)
+   True
+   >>> S1.issubset(S2)
+   False
+   >>> S1.issuperset(S2)
+   True
+   >>>
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`218` - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type
+      PEP written by Greg V. Wilson. Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex Martelli, and
+      GvR.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-generators:
+
+PEP 255: Simple Generators
+==========================
+
+In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be enabled by a
+``from __future__ import generators`` directive.  In 2.3 generators no longer
+need to be specially enabled, and are now always present; this means that
+:keyword:`yield` is now always a keyword.  The rest of this section is a copy of
+the description of generators from the "What's New in Python 2.2" document; if
+you read it back when Python 2.2 came out, you can skip the rest of this
+section.
+
+You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C. When you
+call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are
+created.  When the function reaches a :keyword:`return` statement, the local
+variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller.  A
+later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables.
+But, what if the local variables weren't thrown away on exiting a function?
+What if you could later resume the function where it left off?  This is what
+generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.
+
+Here's the simplest example of a generator function::
+
+   def generate_ints(N):
+       for i in range(N):
+           yield i
+
+A new keyword, :keyword:`yield`, was introduced for generators.  Any function
+containing a :keyword:`!yield` statement is a generator function; this is
+detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as
+a result.
+
+When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value; instead it
+returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol.  On executing
+the :keyword:`yield` statement, the generator outputs the value of ``i``,
+similar to a :keyword:`return` statement.  The big difference between
+:keyword:`!yield` and a :keyword:`!return` statement is that on reaching a
+:keyword:`!yield` the generator's state of execution is suspended and local
+variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator's ``.next()``
+method, the function will resume executing immediately after the
+:keyword:`!yield` statement.  (For complicated reasons, the :keyword:`!yield`
+statement isn't allowed inside the :keyword:`try` block of a
+:keyword:`!try`...\ :keyword:`!finally` statement; read :pep:`255` for a full
+explanation of the interaction between :keyword:`!yield` and exceptions.)
+
+Here's a sample usage of the :func:`generate_ints` generator::
+
+   >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
+   >>> gen
+   <generator object at 0x8117f90>
+   >>> gen.next()
+   0
+   >>> gen.next()
+   1
+   >>> gen.next()
+   2
+   >>> gen.next()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "stdin", line 1, in ?
+     File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
+   StopIteration
+
+You could equally write ``for i in generate_ints(5)``, or ``a,b,c =
+generate_ints(3)``.
+
+Inside a generator function, the :keyword:`return` statement can only be used
+without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the
+generator cannot return any further values. :keyword:`!return` with a value, such
+as ``return 5``, is a syntax error inside a generator function.  The end of the
+generator's results can also be indicated by raising :exc:`StopIteration`
+manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the
+function.
+
+You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class
+and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables.  For
+example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting ``self.count`` to
+0, and having the :meth:`next` method increment ``self.count`` and return it.
+However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class
+would be much messier. :file:`Lib/test/test_generators.py` contains a number of
+more interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of
+a tree using generators recursively. ::
+
+   # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
+   def inorder(t):
+       if t:
+           for x in inorder(t.left):
+               yield x
+           yield t.label
+           for x in inorder(t.right):
+               yield x
+
+Two other examples in :file:`Lib/test/test_generators.py` produce solutions for
+the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no
+queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that takes a knight to
+every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice).
+
+The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon
+(https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/), where the idea of generators is central.  In
+Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator.  One example
+from "An Overview of the Icon Programming Language" at
+https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm gives an idea of what this looks
+like::
+
+   sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
+   if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)
+
+In Icon the :func:`find` function returns the indexes at which the substring
+"or" is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the :keyword:`if` statement, ``i`` is first
+assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon
+retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5, so the comparison
+now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen.
+
+Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central
+concept.  Generators are considered part of the core Python language, but
+learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they don't solve any problems that
+you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python's interface as
+compared to Icon's is that a generator's state is represented as a concrete
+object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in
+a data structure.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`255` - Simple Generators
+      Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.  Implemented mostly
+      by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-encodings:
+
+PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
+==============================
+
+Python source files can now be declared as being in different character set
+encodings.  Encodings are declared by including a specially formatted comment in
+the first or second line of the source file.  For example, a UTF-8 file can be
+declared with::
+
+   #!/usr/bin/env python
+   # -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-
+
+Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit ASCII.
+Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with 8-bit
+characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a
+:exc:`DeprecationWarning` being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will be a
+syntax error.
+
+The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which will be
+converted to Unicode using the specified encoding.  Note that Python identifiers
+are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you can't have variable names that
+use characters outside of the usual alphanumerics.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`263` - Defining Python Source Code Encodings
+      Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by Suzuki Hisao
+      and Martin von Löwis.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
+============================================
+
+The new :mod:`zipimport` module adds support for importing modules from a
+ZIP-format archive.  You don't need to import the module explicitly; it will be
+automatically imported if a ZIP archive's filename is added to ``sys.path``.
+For example:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
+   Archive:  /tmp/example.zip
+     Length     Date   Time    Name
+    --------    ----   ----    ----
+        8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
+    --------                   -------
+        8467                   1 file
+   amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python
+   Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
+   >>> import sys
+   >>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
+   >>> import jwzthreading
+   >>> jwzthreading.__file__
+   '/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
+   >>>
+
+An entry in ``sys.path`` can now be the filename of a ZIP archive. The ZIP
+archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named :file:`\*.py`,
+:file:`\*.pyc`, or :file:`\*.pyo` can be imported.  If an archive only contains
+:file:`\*.py` files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
+corresponding :file:`\*.pyc` file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn't contain
+:file:`\*.pyc` files, importing may be rather slow.
+
+A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a
+subdirectory; for example, the path :file:`/tmp/example.zip/lib/` would only
+import from the :file:`lib/` subdirectory within the archive.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`273` - Import Modules from Zip Archives
+      Written by James C. Ahlstrom,  who also provided an implementation. Python 2.3
+      follows the specification in :pep:`273`,  but uses an implementation written by
+      Just van Rossum  that uses the import hooks described in :pep:`302`. See section
+      :ref:`section-pep302` for a description of the new import hooks.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
+=================================================
+
+On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode strings.
+Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte strings, which is
+inadequate because it renders some file names inaccessible.
+
+Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the limitations of the
+file system) for all functions that expect file names, most notably the
+:func:`open` built-in function. If a Unicode string is passed to
+:func:`os.listdir`, Python now returns a list of Unicode strings.  A new
+function, :func:`os.getcwdu`, returns the current directory as a Unicode string.
+
+Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will transparently
+convert them to Unicode using the ``mbcs`` encoding.
+
+Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them to byte
+strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a :exc:`UnicodeError`
+to be raised. Applications can test whether arbitrary Unicode strings are
+supported as file names by checking :attr:`os.path.supports_unicode_filenames`,
+a Boolean value.
+
+Under MacOS, :func:`os.listdir` may now return Unicode filenames.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`277` - Unicode file name support for Windows NT
+      Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von Löwis, and Mark
+      Hammond.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: universal newlines; What's new
+
+PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
+==================================
+
+The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows, Apple's
+Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives.  A minor irritation of
+cross-platform work  is that these three platforms all use different characters to
+mark the ends of lines in text files.  Unix uses the linefeed (ASCII character
+10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII character 13), and Windows uses a
+two-character sequence of a carriage return plus a newline.
+
+Python's file objects can now support end of line conventions other than the
+one followed by the platform on which Python is running. Opening a file with
+the mode ``'U'`` or ``'rU'`` will open a file for reading in :term:`universal
+newlines` mode.  All three line ending conventions will be translated to a
+``'\n'`` in the strings returned by the various file methods such as
+:meth:`read` and :meth:`readline`.
+
+Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when executing
+a file with the :func:`execfile` function.  This means that Python modules can
+be shared between all three operating systems without needing to convert the
+line-endings.
+
+This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the
+:option:`!--without-universal-newlines` switch when running Python's
+:program:`configure` script.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`278` - Universal Newline Support
+      Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-enumerate:
+
+PEP 279: enumerate()
+====================
+
+A new built-in function, :func:`enumerate`, will make certain loops a bit
+clearer.  ``enumerate(thing)``, where *thing* is either an iterator or a
+sequence, returns an iterator that will return ``(0, thing[0])``, ``(1,
+thing[1])``, ``(2, thing[2])``, and so forth.
+
+A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this::
+
+   for i in range(len(L)):
+       item = L[i]
+       # ... compute some result based on item ...
+       L[i] = result
+
+This can be rewritten using :func:`enumerate` as::
+
+   for i, item in enumerate(L):
+       # ... compute some result based on item ...
+       L[i] = result
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`279` - The enumerate() built-in function
+      Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 282: The logging Package
+============================
+
+A standard package for writing logs, :mod:`logging`, has been added to Python
+2.3.  It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for generating logging
+output which can then be filtered and processed in various ways.  A
+configuration file written in a standard format can be used to control the
+logging behavior of a program.  Python includes handlers that will write log
+records to standard error or to a file or socket, send them to the system log,
+or even e-mail them to a particular address; of course, it's also possible to
+write your own handler classes.
+
+The :class:`Logger` class is the primary class. Most application code will deal
+with one or more :class:`Logger` objects, each one used by a particular
+subsystem of the application. Each :class:`Logger` is identified by a name, and
+names are organized into a hierarchy using ``.``  as the component separator.
+For example, you might have :class:`Logger` instances named ``server``,
+``server.auth`` and ``server.network``.  The latter two instances are below
+``server`` in the hierarchy.  This means that if you turn up the verbosity for
+``server`` or direct ``server`` messages to a different handler, the changes
+will also apply to records logged to ``server.auth`` and ``server.network``.
+There's also a root :class:`Logger` that's the parent of all other loggers.
+
+For simple uses, the :mod:`logging` package contains some convenience functions
+that always use the root log::
+
+   import logging
+
+   logging.debug('Debugging information')
+   logging.info('Informational message')
+   logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
+   logging.error('Error occurred')
+   logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')
+
+This produces the following output::
+
+   WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
+   ERROR:root:Error occurred
+   CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down
+
+In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are
+suppressed and the output is sent to standard error.  You can enable the display
+of informational and debugging messages by calling the :meth:`setLevel` method
+on the root logger.
+
+Notice the :func:`warning` call's use of string formatting operators; all of the
+functions for logging messages take the arguments ``(msg, arg1, arg2, ...)`` and
+log the string resulting from ``msg % (arg1, arg2, ...)``.
+
+There's also an :func:`exception` function that records the most recent
+traceback.  Any of the other functions will also record the traceback if you
+specify a true value for the keyword argument *exc_info*. ::
+
+   def f():
+       try:    1/0
+       except: logging.exception('Problem recorded')
+
+   f()
+
+This produces the following output::
+
+   ERROR:root:Problem recorded
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "t.py", line 6, in f
+       1/0
+   ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero
+
+Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root logger.
+The ``getLogger(name)`` function is used to get a particular log, creating
+it if it doesn't exist yet. ``getLogger(None)`` returns the root logger. ::
+
+   log = logging.getLogger('server')
+    ...
+   log.info('Listening on port %i', port)
+    ...
+   log.critical('Disk full')
+    ...
+
+Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged to
+``server.auth`` is also seen by ``server`` and ``root``, but a :class:`Logger`
+can prevent this by setting its :attr:`propagate` attribute to :const:`False`.
+
+There are more classes provided by the :mod:`logging` package that can be
+customized.  When a :class:`Logger` instance is told to log a message, it
+creates a :class:`LogRecord` instance that is sent to any number of different
+:class:`Handler` instances.  Loggers and handlers can also have an attached list
+of filters, and each filter can cause the :class:`LogRecord` to be ignored or
+can modify the record before passing it along.  When they're finally output,
+:class:`LogRecord` instances are converted to text by a :class:`Formatter`
+class.  All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially-written
+classes.
+
+With all of these features the :mod:`logging` package should provide enough
+flexibility for even the most complicated applications.  This is only an
+incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package's reference
+documentation for all of the details.  Reading :pep:`282` will also be helpful.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`282` - A Logging System
+      Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-bool:
+
+PEP 285: A Boolean Type
+=======================
+
+A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3.  Two new constants were added to the
+:mod:`__builtin__` module, :const:`True` and :const:`False`.  (:const:`True` and
+:const:`False` constants were added to the built-ins in Python 2.2.1, but the
+2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values of 1 and 0 and aren't a
+different type.)
+
+The type object for this new type is named :class:`bool`; the constructor for it
+takes any Python value and converts it to :const:`True` or :const:`False`. ::
+
+   >>> bool(1)
+   True
+   >>> bool(0)
+   False
+   >>> bool([])
+   False
+   >>> bool( (1,) )
+   True
+
+Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been changed to
+return Booleans. ::
+
+   >>> obj = []
+   >>> hasattr(obj, 'append')
+   True
+   >>> isinstance(obj, list)
+   True
+   >>> isinstance(obj, tuple)
+   False
+
+Python's Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code clearer.  For
+example, if you're reading a function and encounter the statement ``return 1``,
+you might wonder whether the ``1`` represents a Boolean truth value, an index,
+or a coefficient that multiplies some other quantity.  If the statement is
+``return True``, however, the meaning of the return value is quite clear.
+
+Python's Booleans were *not* added for the sake of strict type-checking.  A very
+strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing arithmetic with
+Booleans, and would require that the expression in an :keyword:`if` statement
+always evaluate to a Boolean result.  Python is not this strict and never will
+be, as :pep:`285` explicitly says.  This means you can still use any expression
+in an :keyword:`!if` statement, even ones that evaluate to a list or tuple or
+some random object.  The Boolean type is a subclass of the :class:`int` class so
+that arithmetic using a Boolean still works. ::
+
+   >>> True + 1
+   2
+   >>> False + 1
+   1
+   >>> False * 75
+   0
+   >>> True * 75
+   75
+
+To sum up :const:`True` and :const:`False` in a sentence: they're alternative
+ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single difference that
+:func:`str` and :func:`repr` return the strings ``'True'`` and ``'False'``
+instead of ``'1'`` and ``'0'``.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`285` - Adding a bool type
+      Written and implemented by GvR.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
+=======================================
+
+When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable characters may be
+encountered.  So far, Python has allowed specifying the error processing as
+either "strict" (raising :exc:`UnicodeError`), "ignore" (skipping the
+character), or "replace" (using a question mark in the output string), with
+"strict" being the default behavior. It may be desirable to specify alternative
+processing of such errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML
+entity reference into the converted string.
+
+Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing strategies.  New
+error handlers can be added with :func:`codecs.register_error`, and codecs then
+can access the error handler with :func:`codecs.lookup_error`. An equivalent C
+API has been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary
+state information such as the string being converted, the position in the string
+where the error was detected, and the target encoding.  The handler can then
+either raise an exception or return a replacement string.
+
+Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this framework:
+"backslashreplace" uses Python backslash quoting to represent unencodable
+characters and "xmlcharrefreplace" emits XML character references.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`293` - Codec Error Handling Callbacks
+      Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-pep301:
+
+PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
+=================================================
+
+Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance in 2.3.
+
+The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils :command:`register` command.
+Running ``python setup.py register`` will collect the metadata describing a
+package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and send it to
+a central catalog server.  The resulting catalog is available from
+https://pypi.org.
+
+To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional *classifiers* keyword
+argument has been added to the Distutils :func:`setup` function.  A list of
+`Trove <http://catb.org/~esr/trove/>`_-style strings can be supplied to help
+classify the software.
+
+Here's an example :file:`setup.py` with classifiers, written to be compatible
+with older versions of the Distutils::
+
+   from distutils import core
+   kw = {'name': "Quixote",
+         'version': "0.5.1",
+         'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework",
+         # ...
+         }
+
+   if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and
+       'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords):
+       kw['classifiers'] = \
+           ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content',
+            'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)',
+            'Intended Audience :: Developers'],
+
+   core.setup(**kw)
+
+The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running  ``python setup.py
+register --list-classifiers``.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`301` - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
+      Written and implemented by Richard Jones.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-pep302:
+
+PEP 302: New Import Hooks
+=========================
+
+While it's been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the
+:mod:`ihooks` module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been really
+happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and messy.  There
+have been various proposed alternatives such as the :mod:`imputil` and :mod:`iu`
+modules, but none of them has ever gained much acceptance, and none of them were
+easily usable from C code.
+
+:pep:`302` borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon
+McMillan's :mod:`iu` module.  Three new items  are added to the :mod:`sys`
+module:
+
+* ``sys.path_hooks`` is a list of callable objects; most  often they'll be
+  classes.  Each callable takes a string containing a path and either returns an
+  importer object that will handle imports from this path or raises an
+  :exc:`ImportError` exception if it can't handle this path.
+
+* ``sys.path_importer_cache`` caches importer objects for each path, so
+  ``sys.path_hooks`` will only need to be traversed once for each path.
+
+* ``sys.meta_path`` is a list of importer objects that will be traversed before
+  ``sys.path`` is checked.  This list is initially empty, but user code can add
+  objects to it.  Additional built-in and frozen modules can be imported by an
+  object added to this list.
+
+Importer objects must have a single method, ``find_module(fullname,
+path=None)``.  *fullname* will be a module or package name, e.g. ``string`` or
+``distutils.core``.  :meth:`find_module` must return a loader object that has a
+single method, ``load_module(fullname)``, that creates and returns the
+corresponding module object.
+
+Pseudo-code for Python's new import logic, therefore, looks something like this
+(simplified a bit; see :pep:`302` for the full details)::
+
+   for mp in sys.meta_path:
+       loader = mp(fullname)
+       if loader is not None:
+           <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)
+
+   for path in sys.path:
+       for hook in sys.path_hooks:
+           try:
+               importer = hook(path)
+           except ImportError:
+               # ImportError, so try the other path hooks
+               pass
+           else:
+               loader = importer.find_module(fullname)
+               <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)
+
+   # Not found!
+   raise ImportError
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`302` - New Import Hooks
+      Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore. Implemented by Just van Rossum.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-pep305:
+
+PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
+==============================
+
+Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data from
+databases and spreadsheets.  Python 2.3 adds a parser for comma-separated files.
+
+Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance::
+
+   Costs,150,200,3.95
+
+Read a line and call ``line.split(',')``: what could be simpler? But toss in
+string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated::
+
+   "Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items"
+
+A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new  :mod:`csv`
+package is much simpler::
+
+   import csv
+
+   input = open('datafile', 'rb')
+   reader = csv.reader(input)
+   for line in reader:
+       print line
+
+The :func:`reader` function takes a number of different options. The field
+separator isn't limited to the comma and can be changed to any character, and so
+can the quoting and line-ending characters.
+
+Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and registered;
+currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft Excel. A separate
+:class:`csv.writer` class will generate comma-separated files from a succession
+of tuples or lists, quoting strings that contain the delimiter.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`305` - CSV File API
+      Written and implemented  by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip
+      Montanaro, Cliff Wells.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-pep307:
+
+PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
+============================
+
+The :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`cPickle` modules received some attention during the
+2.3 development cycle.  In 2.2, new-style classes could be pickled without
+difficulty, but they weren't pickled very compactly; :pep:`307` quotes a trivial
+example where a new-style class results in a pickled string three times longer
+than that for a classic class.
+
+The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol.  The :func:`pickle.dumps`
+function has supported a text-or-binary flag  for a long time.  In 2.3, this
+flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer: 0 is the old text-mode pickle
+format, 1 is the old binary format, and now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format.  A
+new constant, :const:`pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL`, can be used to select the
+fanciest protocol available.
+
+Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation.  2.2's :mod:`pickle`
+provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from being unpickled
+(specifically, a :attr:`__safe_for_unpickling__` attribute), but none of this
+code was ever audited and therefore it's all been ripped out in 2.3.  You should
+not unpickle untrusted data in any version of Python.
+
+To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface for
+customizing pickling was added using three special methods:
+:meth:`__getstate__`, :meth:`__setstate__`, and :meth:`__getnewargs__`.  Consult
+:pep:`307` for the full semantics  of these methods.
+
+As a way to compress pickles yet further, it's now possible to use integer codes
+instead of long strings to identify pickled classes. The Python Software
+Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes; there's also a range of
+codes for private use.  Currently no codes have been specified.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`307` - Extensions to the pickle protocol
+      Written and implemented  by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-slices:
+
+Extended Slices
+===============
+
+Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional third "step"
+or "stride" argument.  For example, these are all legal Python syntax:
+``L[1:10:2]``, ``L[:-1:1]``, ``L[::-1]``.  This was added to Python at the
+request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses the third argument
+extensively.  However, Python's built-in list, tuple, and string sequence types
+have never supported this feature, raising a :exc:`TypeError` if you tried it.
+Michael Hudson contributed a patch to fix this shortcoming.
+
+For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have even
+indexes::
+
+   >>> L = range(10)
+   >>> L[::2]
+   [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
+
+Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse order::
+
+   >>> L[::-1]
+   [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]
+
+This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings::
+
+   >>> s='abcd'
+   >>> s[::2]
+   'ac'
+   >>> s[::-1]
+   'dcba'
+
+If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign to or
+delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between assignment to
+extended and regular slices.  Assignment to a regular slice can be used to
+change the length of the sequence::
+
+   >>> a = range(3)
+   >>> a
+   [0, 1, 2]
+   >>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6]
+   >>> a
+   [0, 4, 5, 6]
+
+Extended slices aren't this flexible.  When assigning to an extended slice, the
+list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the same number of
+items as the slice it is replacing::
+
+   >>> a = range(4)
+   >>> a
+   [0, 1, 2, 3]
+   >>> a[::2]
+   [0, 2]
+   >>> a[::2] = [0, -1]
+   >>> a
+   [0, 1, -1, 3]
+   >>> a[::2] = [0,1,2]
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
+   ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2
+
+Deletion is more straightforward::
+
+   >>> a = range(4)
+   >>> a
+   [0, 1, 2, 3]
+   >>> a[::2]
+   [0, 2]
+   >>> del a[::2]
+   >>> a
+   [1, 3]
+
+One can also now pass slice objects to the :meth:`__getitem__` methods of the
+built-in sequences::
+
+   >>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2))
+   [0, 2, 4]
+
+Or use slice objects directly in subscripts::
+
+   >>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)]
+   [0, 2, 4]
+
+To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice objects
+now have a method ``indices(length)`` which, given the length of a sequence,
+returns a ``(start, stop, step)`` tuple that can be passed directly to
+:func:`range`. :meth:`indices` handles omitted and out-of-bounds indices in a
+manner consistent with regular slices (and this innocuous phrase hides a welter
+of confusing details!).  The method is intended to be used like this::
+
+   class FakeSeq:
+       ...
+       def calc_item(self, i):
+           ...
+       def __getitem__(self, item):
+           if isinstance(item, slice):
+               indices = item.indices(len(self))
+               return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)])
+           else:
+               return self.calc_item(i)
+
+From this example you can also see that the built-in :class:`slice` object is
+now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a function.  This is
+consistent with Python 2.2, where :class:`int`, :class:`str`, etc., underwent
+the same change.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language.
+
+* The :keyword:`yield` statement is now always a keyword, as described in
+  section :ref:`section-generators` of this document.
+
+* A new built-in function :func:`enumerate` was added, as described in section
+  :ref:`section-enumerate` of this document.
+
+* Two new constants, :const:`True` and :const:`False` were added along with the
+  built-in :class:`bool` type, as described in section :ref:`section-bool` of this
+  document.
+
+* The :func:`int` type constructor will now return a long integer instead of
+  raising an :exc:`OverflowError` when a string or floating-point number is too
+  large to fit into an integer.  This can lead to the paradoxical result that
+  ``isinstance(int(expression), int)`` is false, but that seems unlikely to cause
+  problems in practice.
+
+* Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as described in
+  section :ref:`section-slices` of this document.
+
+* A new built-in function, ``sum(iterable, start=0)``,  adds up the numeric
+  items in the iterable object and returns their sum.  :func:`sum` only accepts
+  numbers, meaning that you can't use it to concatenate a bunch of strings.
+  (Contributed by Alex Martelli.)
+
+* ``list.insert(pos, value)`` used to  insert *value* at the front of the list
+  when *pos* was negative.  The behaviour has now been changed to be consistent
+  with slice indexing, so when *pos* is -1 the value will be inserted before the
+  last element, and so forth.
+
+* ``list.index(value)``, which searches for *value*  within the list and returns
+  its index, now takes optional  *start* and *stop* arguments to limit the search
+  to  only part of the list.
+
+* Dictionaries have a new method, ``pop(key[, *default*])``, that returns
+  the value corresponding to *key* and removes that key/value pair from the
+  dictionary.  If the requested key isn't present in the dictionary, *default* is
+  returned if it's specified and :exc:`KeyError` raised if it isn't. ::
+
+     >>> d = {1:2}
+     >>> d
+     {1: 2}
+     >>> d.pop(4)
+     Traceback (most recent call last):
+       File "stdin", line 1, in ?
+     KeyError: 4
+     >>> d.pop(1)
+     2
+     >>> d.pop(1)
+     Traceback (most recent call last):
+       File "stdin", line 1, in ?
+     KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty'
+     >>> d
+     {}
+     >>>
+
+  There's also a new class method,  ``dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)``, that
+  creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied iterator *iterable* and
+  all values set to *value*, defaulting to ``None``.
+
+  (Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+  Also, the :func:`dict` constructor now accepts keyword arguments to simplify
+  creating small dictionaries::
+
+     >>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4)
+     {'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1}
+
+  (Contributed by Just van Rossum.)
+
+* The :keyword:`assert` statement no longer checks the ``__debug__`` flag, so
+  you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ``__debug__``. Running
+  Python with the :option:`-O` switch will still generate code that doesn't
+  execute any assertions.
+
+* Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create new objects
+  such as functions, classes, and modules.  (This means that the :mod:`new` module
+  can be deprecated in a future Python version, because you can now use the type
+  objects available in the :mod:`types` module.) For example, you can create a new
+  module object with the following code:
+
+  ::
+
+     >>> import types
+     >>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring')
+     >>> m
+     <module 'abc' (built-in)>
+     >>> m.__doc__
+     'docstring'
+
+* A new warning, :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` was added to indicate features
+  which are in the process of being deprecated.  The warning will *not* be printed
+  by default.  To check for use of features that will be deprecated in the future,
+  supply :option:`-Walways::PendingDeprecationWarning:: <-W>` on the command line or
+  use :func:`warnings.filterwarnings`.
+
+* The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in ``raise "Error
+  occurred"``, has begun.  Raising a string will now trigger
+  :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`.
+
+* Using ``None`` as a variable name will now result in a :exc:`SyntaxWarning`
+  warning.  In a future version of Python, ``None`` may finally become a keyword.
+
+* The :meth:`xreadlines` method of file objects, introduced in Python 2.1, is no
+  longer necessary because files now behave as their own iterator.
+  :meth:`xreadlines` was originally introduced as a faster way to loop over all
+  the lines in a file, but now you can simply write ``for line in file_obj``.
+  File objects also have a new read-only :attr:`encoding` attribute that gives the
+  encoding used by the file; Unicode strings written to the file will be
+  automatically  converted to bytes using the given encoding.
+
+* The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed, though
+  you'll only notice the difference if you have a really complicated inheritance
+  hierarchy.  Classic classes are unaffected by this change.  Python 2.2
+  originally used a topological sort of a class's ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the
+  C3 algorithm as described in the paper `"A Monotonic Superclass Linearization
+  for Dylan" <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910>`_. To
+  understand the motivation for this change,  read Michele Simionato's article
+  `"Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order" <http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/mro.html>`_, or
+  read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
+  https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html. Samuele
+  Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented the fix by coding the
+  C3 algorithm.
+
+* Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads after
+  executing N bytecodes.  The default value for N has been increased from 10 to
+  100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded applications by reducing the
+  switching overhead.  Some multithreaded applications may suffer slower response
+  time, but that's easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number using
+  ``sys.setcheckinterval(N)``. The limit can be retrieved with the new
+  :func:`sys.getcheckinterval` function.
+
+* One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension types defined
+  by the modules included with Python now contain the module and a ``'.'`` in
+  front of the type name.  For example, in Python 2.2, if you created a socket and
+  printed its :attr:`__class__`, you'd get this output::
+
+     >>> s = socket.socket()
+     >>> s.__class__
+     <type 'socket'>
+
+  In 2.3, you get this::
+
+     >>> s.__class__
+     <type '_socket.socket'>
+
+* One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style classes has been
+  removed: you can now assign to the :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`~class.__bases__`
+  attributes of new-style classes.  There are some restrictions on what can be
+  assigned to :attr:`~class.__bases__` along the lines of those relating to assigning to
+  an instance's :attr:`~instance.__class__` attribute.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+String Changes
+--------------
+
+* The :keyword:`in` operator now works differently for strings. Previously, when
+  evaluating ``X in Y`` where *X* and *Y* are strings, *X* could only be a single
+  character. That's now changed; *X* can be a string of any length, and ``X in Y``
+  will return :const:`True` if *X* is a substring of *Y*.  If *X* is the empty
+  string, the result is always :const:`True`. ::
+
+     >>> 'ab' in 'abcd'
+     True
+     >>> 'ad' in 'abcd'
+     False
+     >>> '' in 'abcd'
+     True
+
+  Note that this doesn't tell you where the substring starts; if you need that
+  information, use the :meth:`find` string method.
+
+* The :meth:`strip`, :meth:`lstrip`, and :meth:`rstrip` string methods now have
+  an optional argument for specifying the characters to strip.  The default is
+  still to remove all whitespace characters::
+
+     >>> '   abc '.strip()
+     'abc'
+     >>> '><><abc<><><>'.strip('<>')
+     'abc'
+     >>> '><><abc<><><>\n'.strip('<>')
+     'abc<><><>\n'
+     >>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000')
+     u'\u4001abc'
+     >>>
+
+  (Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)
+
+* The :meth:`startswith` and :meth:`endswith` string methods now accept negative
+  numbers for the *start* and *end* parameters.
+
+* Another new string method is :meth:`zfill`, originally a function in the
+  :mod:`string` module.  :meth:`zfill` pads a numeric string with zeros on the
+  left until it's the specified width. Note that the ``%`` operator is still more
+  flexible and powerful than :meth:`zfill`. ::
+
+     >>> '45'.zfill(4)
+     '0045'
+     >>> '12345'.zfill(4)
+     '12345'
+     >>> 'goofy'.zfill(6)
+     '0goofy'
+
+  (Contributed by Walter Dörwald.)
+
+* A new type object, :class:`basestring`, has been added. Both 8-bit strings and
+  Unicode strings inherit from this type, so ``isinstance(obj, basestring)`` will
+  return :const:`True` for either kind of string.  It's a completely abstract
+  type, so you can't create :class:`basestring` instances.
+
+* Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be garbage-collected in
+  the usual way when the only reference to them is from the internal dictionary of
+  interned strings.  (Implemented by Oren Tirosh.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Optimizations
+-------------
+
+* The creation of new-style class instances has been made much faster; they're
+  now faster than classic classes!
+
+* The :meth:`sort` method of list objects has been extensively rewritten by Tim
+  Peters, and the implementation is significantly faster.
+
+* Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to an
+  implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that scales better than
+  the O(n\*n) required for the grade-school multiplication algorithm.  (Original
+  patch by Christopher A. Craig, and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)
+
+* The ``SET_LINENO`` opcode is now gone.  This may provide a small speed
+  increase, depending on your compiler's idiosyncrasies. See section
+  :ref:`23section-other` for a longer explanation. (Removed by Michael Hudson.)
+
+* :func:`xrange` objects now have their own iterator, making ``for i in
+  xrange(n)`` slightly faster than ``for i in range(n)``.  (Patch by Raymond
+  Hettinger.)
+
+* A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots to improve
+  performance, such as inlining a function or removing some code.  (Implemented
+  mostly by GvR, but lots of people have contributed single changes.)
+
+The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the  pystone
+benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
+=====================================
+
+As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements and bug
+fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically
+by module name. Consult the :file:`Misc/NEWS` file in the source tree for a more
+complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
+
+* The :mod:`array` module now supports arrays of Unicode characters using the
+  ``'u'`` format character.  Arrays also now support using the ``+=`` assignment
+  operator to add another array's contents, and the ``*=`` assignment operator to
+  repeat an array. (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)
+
+* The :mod:`bsddb` module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the `PyBSDDB
+  <http://pybsddb.sourceforge.net>`_ package, providing a more complete interface
+  to the transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.
+
+  The old version of the module has been renamed to  :mod:`bsddb185` and is no
+  longer built automatically; you'll  have to edit :file:`Modules/Setup` to enable
+  it.  Note that the new :mod:`bsddb` package is intended to be compatible with
+  the  old module, so be sure to file bugs if you discover any incompatibilities.
+  When upgrading to Python 2.3, if the new interpreter is compiled with a new
+  version of  the underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to
+  convert your database files to the new version.  You can do this fairly easily
+  with the new scripts :file:`db2pickle.py` and :file:`pickle2db.py` which you
+  will find in the distribution's :file:`Tools/scripts` directory.  If you've
+  already been using the PyBSDDB package and importing it as :mod:`bsddb3`, you
+  will have to change your ``import`` statements to import it as :mod:`bsddb`.
+
+* The new :mod:`bz2` module is an interface to the bz2 data compression library.
+  bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than  corresponding
+  :mod:`zlib`\ -compressed data. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)
+
+* A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new :mod:`datetime`
+  module.  See the following section for more details.
+
+* The Distutils :class:`Extension` class now supports an extra constructor
+  argument named *depends* for listing additional source files that an extension
+  depends on.  This lets Distutils recompile the module if any of the dependency
+  files are modified.  For example, if :file:`sampmodule.c` includes the header
+  file :file:`sample.h`, you would create the :class:`Extension` object like
+  this::
+
+     ext = Extension("samp",
+                     sources=["sampmodule.c"],
+                     depends=["sample.h"])
+
+  Modifying :file:`sample.h` would then cause the module to be recompiled.
+  (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)
+
+* Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the :envvar:`CC`,
+  :envvar:`CFLAGS`, :envvar:`CPP`, :envvar:`LDFLAGS`, and :envvar:`CPPFLAGS`
+  environment variables, using them to override the settings in Python's
+  configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).
+
+* Previously the :mod:`doctest` module would only search the docstrings of
+  public methods and functions for test cases, but it now also examines private
+  ones as well.  The :func:`DocTestSuite` function creates a
+  :class:`unittest.TestSuite` object from a set of :mod:`doctest` tests.
+
+* The new ``gc.get_referents(object)`` function returns a list of all the
+  objects referenced by *object*.
+
+* The :mod:`getopt` module gained a new function, :func:`gnu_getopt`, that
+  supports the same arguments as the existing :func:`getopt` function but uses
+  GNU-style scanning mode. The existing :func:`getopt` stops processing options as
+  soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style mode processing
+  continues, meaning that options and arguments can be mixed.  For example::
+
+     >>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
+     ([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v'])
+     >>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
+     ([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output'])
+
+  (Contributed by Peter Åstrand.)
+
+* The :mod:`grp`, :mod:`pwd`, and :mod:`resource` modules now return enhanced
+  tuples::
+
+     >>> import grp
+     >>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk')
+     >>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid
+     ('amk', 500)
+
+* The :mod:`gzip` module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.
+
+* The new :mod:`heapq` module contains an implementation of a heap queue
+  algorithm.  A heap is an array-like data structure that keeps items in a
+  partially sorted order such that, for every index *k*, ``heap[k] <=
+  heap[2*k+1]`` and ``heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]``.  This makes it quick to remove the
+  smallest item, and inserting a new item while maintaining the heap property is
+  O(lg n).  (See https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html for more
+  information about the priority queue data structure.)
+
+  The :mod:`heapq` module provides :func:`heappush` and :func:`heappop` functions
+  for adding and removing items while maintaining the heap property on top of some
+  other mutable Python sequence type.  Here's an example that uses a Python list::
+
+     >>> import heapq
+     >>> heap = []
+     >>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]:
+     ...    heapq.heappush(heap, item)
+     ...
+     >>> heap
+     [1, 3, 5, 11, 7]
+     >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
+     1
+     >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
+     3
+     >>> heap
+     [5, 7, 11]
+
+  (Contributed by Kevin O'Connor.)
+
+* The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using the code
+  from the IDLEfork project (http://idlefork.sourceforge.net).  The most notable feature is
+  that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess, meaning that
+  there's no longer any need for manual ``reload()`` operations. IDLE's core code
+  has been incorporated into the standard library as the :mod:`idlelib` package.
+
+* The :mod:`imaplib` module now supports IMAP over SSL. (Contributed by Piers
+  Lauder and Tino Lange.)
+
+* The :mod:`itertools` contains a number of useful functions for use with
+  iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the ML and Haskell
+  languages.  For example, ``itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator)`` returns all
+  elements in the iterator for which the function :func:`predicate` returns
+  :const:`True`, and ``itertools.repeat(obj, N)`` returns ``obj`` *N* times.
+  There are a number of other functions in the module; see the package's reference
+  documentation for details.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Two new functions in the :mod:`math` module, ``degrees(rads)`` and
+  ``radians(degs)``, convert between radians and degrees.  Other functions in
+  the :mod:`math` module such as :func:`math.sin` and :func:`math.cos` have always
+  required input values measured in radians.  Also, an optional *base* argument
+  was added to :func:`math.log` to make it easier to compute logarithms for bases
+  other than ``e`` and ``10``.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Several new POSIX functions (:func:`getpgid`, :func:`killpg`, :func:`lchown`,
+  :func:`loadavg`, :func:`major`, :func:`makedev`, :func:`minor`, and
+  :func:`mknod`) were added to the :mod:`posix` module that underlies the
+  :mod:`os` module. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and Denis S.
+  Otkidach.)
+
+* In the :mod:`os` module, the :func:`\*stat` family of functions can now report
+  fractions of a second in a timestamp.  Such time stamps are represented as
+  floats, similar to the value returned by :func:`time.time`.
+
+  During testing, it was found that some applications will break if time stamps
+  are floats.  For compatibility, when using the tuple interface of the
+  :class:`stat_result` time stamps will be represented as integers. When using
+  named fields (a feature first introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still
+  represented as integers, unless :func:`os.stat_float_times` is invoked to enable
+  float return values::
+
+     >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
+     1034791200
+     >>> os.stat_float_times(True)
+     >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
+     1034791200.6335014
+
+  In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.
+
+  Application developers should enable this feature only if all their libraries
+  work properly when confronted with floating point time stamps, or if they use
+  the tuple API. If used, the feature should be activated on an application level
+  instead of trying to enable it on a per-use basis.
+
+* The :mod:`optparse` module contains a new parser for command-line arguments
+  that can convert option values to a particular Python type  and will
+  automatically generate a usage message.  See the following section for  more
+  details.
+
+* The old and never-documented :mod:`linuxaudiodev` module has been deprecated,
+  and a new version named :mod:`ossaudiodev` has been added.  The module was
+  renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be used on platforms other than Linux,
+  and the interface has also been tidied and brought up to date in various ways.
+  (Contributed by Greg Ward and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)
+
+* The new :mod:`platform` module contains a number of functions that try to
+  determine various properties of the platform you're running on.  There are
+  functions for getting the architecture, CPU type, the Windows OS version, and
+  even the Linux distribution version. (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)
+
+* The parser objects provided by the :mod:`pyexpat` module can now optionally
+  buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to your character data handler
+  and therefore faster performance.  Setting the parser object's
+  :attr:`buffer_text` attribute to :const:`True` will enable buffering.
+
+* The ``sample(population, k)`` function was added to the :mod:`random`
+  module.  *population* is a sequence or :class:`xrange` object containing the
+  elements of a population, and :func:`sample` chooses *k* elements from the
+  population without replacing chosen elements.  *k* can be any value up to
+  ``len(population)``. For example::
+
+     >>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn']
+     >>> random.sample(days, 3)      # Choose 3 elements
+     ['St', 'Sn', 'Th']
+     >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 elements
+     ['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn']
+     >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 again
+     ['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th']
+     >>> random.sample(days, 8)      # Can't choose eight
+     Traceback (most recent call last):
+       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
+       File "random.py", line 414, in sample
+           raise ValueError, "sample larger than population"
+     ValueError: sample larger than population
+     >>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10)   # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000
+     [3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]
+
+  The :mod:`random` module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne Twister,
+  implemented in C.  It's faster and more extensively studied than the previous
+  algorithm.
+
+  (All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`readline` module also gained a number of new functions:
+  :func:`get_history_item`, :func:`get_current_history_length`, and
+  :func:`redisplay`.
+
+* The :mod:`rexec` and :mod:`Bastion` modules have been declared dead, and
+  attempts to import them will fail with a :exc:`RuntimeError`.  New-style classes
+  provide new ways to break out of the restricted execution environment provided
+  by :mod:`rexec`, and no one has interest in fixing them or time to do so.  If
+  you have applications using :mod:`rexec`, rewrite them to use something else.
+
+  (Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications any safer
+  because there are known bugs in the :mod:`rexec` module in those versions.  To
+  repeat: if you're using :mod:`rexec`, stop using it immediately.)
+
+* The :mod:`rotor` module has been deprecated because the  algorithm it uses for
+  encryption is not believed to be secure.  If you need encryption, use one of the
+  several AES Python modules that are available separately.
+
+* The :mod:`shutil` module gained a ``move(src, dest)`` function that
+  recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.
+
+* Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the :mod:`signal`
+  but then removed again as it proved impossible to make it work reliably across
+  platforms.
+
+* The :mod:`socket` module now supports timeouts.  You can call the
+  ``settimeout(t)`` method on a socket object to set a timeout of *t* seconds.
+  Subsequent socket operations that take longer than *t* seconds to complete will
+  abort and raise a :exc:`socket.timeout` exception.
+
+  The original timeout implementation was by Tim O'Malley.  Michael Gilfix
+  integrated it into the Python :mod:`socket` module and shepherded it through a
+  lengthy review.  After the code was checked in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts
+  of it.  (This is a good example of a collaborative development process in
+  action.)
+
+* On Windows, the :mod:`socket` module now ships with Secure  Sockets Layer
+  (SSL) support.
+
+* The value of the C :const:`PYTHON_API_VERSION` macro is now exposed at the
+  Python level as ``sys.api_version``.  The current exception can be cleared by
+  calling the new :func:`sys.exc_clear` function.
+
+* The new :mod:`tarfile` module  allows reading from and writing to
+  :program:`tar`\ -format archive files. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)
+
+* The new :mod:`textwrap` module contains functions for wrapping strings
+  containing paragraphs of text.  The ``wrap(text, width)`` function takes a
+  string and returns a list containing the text split into lines of no more than
+  the chosen width.  The ``fill(text, width)`` function returns a single
+  string, reformatted to fit into lines no longer than the chosen width. (As you
+  can guess, :func:`fill` is built on top of :func:`wrap`.  For example::
+
+     >>> import textwrap
+     >>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..."
+     >>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60)
+     ["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in",
+      "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it",
+      ...]
+     >>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35)
+     Not a whit, we defy augury: there's
+     a special providence in the fall of
+     a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not
+     to come; if it be not to come, it
+     will be now; if it be not now, yet
+     it will come: the readiness is all.
+     >>>
+
+  The module also contains a :class:`TextWrapper` class that actually implements
+  the text wrapping strategy.   Both the :class:`TextWrapper` class and the
+  :func:`wrap` and :func:`fill` functions support a number of additional keyword
+  arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module's documentation
+  for details. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)
+
+* The :mod:`thread` and :mod:`threading` modules now have companion modules,
+  :mod:`dummy_thread` and :mod:`dummy_threading`, that provide a do-nothing
+  implementation of the :mod:`thread` module's interface for platforms where
+  threads are not supported.  The intention is to simplify thread-aware modules
+  (ones that *don't* rely on threads to run) by putting the following code at the
+  top::
+
+     try:
+         import threading as _threading
+     except ImportError:
+         import dummy_threading as _threading
+
+  In this example, :mod:`_threading` is used as the module name to make it clear
+  that the module being used is not necessarily the actual :mod:`threading`
+  module. Code can call functions and use classes in :mod:`_threading` whether or
+  not threads are supported, avoiding an :keyword:`if` statement and making the
+  code slightly clearer.  This module will not magically make multithreaded code
+  run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return or to do
+  something will simply hang forever.
+
+* The :mod:`time` module's :func:`strptime` function has long been an annoyance
+  because it uses the platform C library's :func:`strptime` implementation, and
+  different platforms sometimes have odd bugs.  Brett Cannon contributed a
+  portable implementation that's written in pure Python and should behave
+  identically on all platforms.
+
+* The new :mod:`timeit` module helps measure how long snippets of Python code
+  take to execute.  The :file:`timeit.py` file can be run directly from the
+  command line, or the module's :class:`Timer` class can be imported and used
+  directly.  Here's a short example that figures out whether it's faster to
+  convert an 8-bit string to Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or
+  by using the :func:`unicode` function::
+
+     import timeit
+
+     timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")')
+     timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""')
+
+     # Run three trials
+     print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
+     print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
+
+     # On my laptop this outputs:
+     # [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]
+     # [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]
+
+* The :mod:`Tix` module has received various bug fixes and updates for the
+  current version of the Tix package.
+
+* The :mod:`Tkinter` module now works with a thread-enabled  version of Tcl.
+  Tcl's threading model requires that widgets only be accessed from the thread in
+  which they're created; accesses from another thread can cause Tcl to panic.  For
+  certain Tcl interfaces, :mod:`Tkinter` will now automatically avoid this  when a
+  widget is accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing it
+  to the correct thread, and waiting for the results.  Other interfaces can't be
+  handled automatically but :mod:`Tkinter` will now raise an exception on such an
+  access so that you can at least find out about the problem.  See
+  https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html for a more
+  detailed explanation of this change.  (Implemented by Martin von Löwis.)
+
+* Calling Tcl methods through :mod:`_tkinter` no longer  returns only strings.
+  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their
+  Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a :class:`_tkinter.Tcl_Obj`
+  object if no Python equivalent exists. This behavior can be controlled through
+  the :meth:`wantobjects` method of :class:`tkapp` objects.
+
+  When using :mod:`_tkinter` through the :mod:`Tkinter` module (as most Tkinter
+  applications will), this feature is always activated. It should not cause
+  compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always convert string results to
+  Python types where possible.
+
+  If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be restored by setting
+  the :attr:`wantobjects` variable in the :mod:`Tkinter` module to false before
+  creating the first :class:`tkapp` object. ::
+
+     import Tkinter
+     Tkinter.wantobjects = 0
+
+  Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.
+
+* The :mod:`UserDict` module has a new :class:`DictMixin` class which defines
+  all dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping
+  interface.  This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be
+  substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in  the :mod:`shelve`
+  module.
+
+  Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary interface
+  whenever the class defines :meth:`__getitem__`, :meth:`__setitem__`,
+  :meth:`__delitem__`, and :meth:`keys`. For example::
+
+     >>> import UserDict
+     >>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin):
+     ...     """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists."""
+     ...     def __init__(self):
+     ...         self.keylist = []
+     ...         self.valuelist = []
+     ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
+     ...         try:
+     ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
+     ...         except ValueError:
+     ...             raise KeyError
+     ...         return self.valuelist[i]
+     ...     def __setitem__(self, key, value):
+     ...         try:
+     ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
+     ...             self.valuelist[i] = value
+     ...         except ValueError:
+     ...             self.keylist.append(key)
+     ...             self.valuelist.append(value)
+     ...     def __delitem__(self, key):
+     ...         try:
+     ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
+     ...         except ValueError:
+     ...             raise KeyError
+     ...         self.keylist.pop(i)
+     ...         self.valuelist.pop(i)
+     ...     def keys(self):
+     ...         return list(self.keylist)
+     ...
+     >>> s = SeqDict()
+     >>> dir(s)      # See that other dictionary methods are implemented
+     ['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__',
+      '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__',
+      '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems',
+      'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem',
+      'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values']
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The DOM implementation in :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` can now generate XML output
+  in a particular encoding by providing an optional encoding argument to the
+  :meth:`toxml` and :meth:`toprettyxml` methods of DOM nodes.
+
+* The :mod:`xmlrpclib` module now supports an XML-RPC extension for handling nil
+  data values such as Python's ``None``.  Nil values are always supported on
+  unmarshalling an XML-RPC response.  To generate requests containing ``None``,
+  you must supply a true value for the *allow_none* parameter when creating a
+  :class:`Marshaller` instance.
+
+* The new :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer` module allows writing self-documenting XML-RPC
+  servers. Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in action.   Pointing the
+  Web browser to the RPC server produces pydoc-style documentation; pointing
+  xmlrpclib to the server allows invoking the actual methods. (Contributed by
+  Brian Quinlan.)
+
+* Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491, and 3492)
+  has been added. The "idna" encoding can be used to convert between a Unicode
+  domain name and the ASCII-compatible encoding (ACE) of that name. ::
+
+     >{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna")
+     'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu'
+
+  The :mod:`socket` module has also been extended to transparently convert
+  Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before passing them to the C library.
+  Modules that deal with hostnames such as :mod:`httplib` and :mod:`ftplib`)
+  also support Unicode host names; :mod:`httplib` also sends HTTP ``Host``
+  headers using the ACE version of the domain name.  :mod:`urllib` supports
+  Unicode URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the ``path`` part of the URL
+  is ASCII only.
+
+  To implement this change, the :mod:`stringprep` module, the  ``mkstringprep``
+  tool and the ``punycode`` encoding have been added.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Date/Time Type
+--------------
+
+Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the
+:mod:`datetime` module.  The types don't support different calendars or many
+fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing time.
+
+The three primary types are: :class:`date`, representing a day, month, and year;
+:class:`~datetime.time`, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and :class:`~datetime.datetime`,
+which contains all the attributes of both :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.time`.
+There's also a :class:`timedelta` class representing differences between two
+points in time, and time zone logic is implemented by classes inheriting from
+the abstract :class:`tzinfo` class.
+
+You can create instances of :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.time` by either supplying
+keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g.
+``datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15)``, or by using one of a number of
+class methods.  For example, the :meth:`date.today` class method returns the
+current local date.
+
+Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable. There are a
+number of methods for producing formatted strings from objects::
+
+   >>> import datetime
+   >>> now = datetime.datetime.now()
+   >>> now.isoformat()
+   '2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
+   >>> now.ctime()  # Only available on date, datetime
+   'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002'
+   >>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b')
+   '2002 30 Dec'
+
+The :meth:`replace` method allows modifying one or more fields  of a
+:class:`date` or :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance, returning a new instance::
+
+   >>> d = datetime.datetime.now()
+   >>> d
+   datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
+   >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour = 12)
+   datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
+   >>>
+
+Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result is the
+same as that of :meth:`isoformat`).  :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.datetime`
+instances can be subtracted from each other, and added to :class:`timedelta`
+instances.  The largest missing feature is that there's no standard library
+support for parsing strings and getting back a :class:`date` or
+:class:`~datetime.datetime`.
+
+For more information, refer to the module's reference documentation.
+(Contributed by Tim Peters.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+The optparse Module
+-------------------
+
+The :mod:`getopt` module provides simple parsing of command-line arguments.  The
+new :mod:`optparse` module (originally named Optik) provides more elaborate
+command-line parsing that follows the Unix conventions, automatically creates
+the output for :option:`!--help`, and can perform different actions for different
+options.
+
+You start by creating an instance of :class:`OptionParser` and telling it what
+your program's options are. ::
+
+   import sys
+   from optparse import OptionParser
+
+   op = OptionParser()
+   op.add_option('-i', '--input',
+                 action='store', type='string', dest='input',
+                 help='set input filename')
+   op.add_option('-l', '--length',
+                 action='store', type='int', dest='length',
+                 help='set maximum length of output')
+
+Parsing a command line is then done by calling the :meth:`parse_args` method. ::
+
+   options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:])
+   print options
+   print args
+
+This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list of
+strings containing the remaining arguments.
+
+Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you'd expect it to.
+Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an integer.
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ ./python opt.py -i data arg1
+   <Values at 0x400cad4c: {'input': 'data', 'length': None}>
+   ['arg1']
+   $ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4
+   <Values at 0x400cad2c: {'input': 'data', 'length': 4}>
+   []
+   $
+
+The help message is automatically generated for you:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+   $ ./python opt.py --help
+   usage: opt.py [options]
+
+   options:
+     -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+     -iINPUT, --input=INPUT
+                           set input filename
+     -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH
+                           set maximum length of output
+   $
+
+See the module's documentation for more details.
+
+
+Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the Getopt
+SIG.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _section-pymalloc:
+
+Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
+========================================
+
+Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov, was a
+feature added to Python 2.1.  Pymalloc is intended to be faster than the system
+:c:func:`malloc` and to have less memory overhead for allocation patterns typical
+of Python programs. The allocator uses C's :c:func:`malloc` function to get large
+pools of memory and then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools.
+
+In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn't enabled by
+default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by providing the
+:option:`!--with-pymalloc` option to the :program:`configure` script.  In 2.3,
+pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by default; you'll have
+to supply :option:`!--without-pymalloc` to disable it.
+
+This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc may
+expose bugs in C extensions.  Authors of C extension modules should test their
+code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may cause core dumps at
+runtime.
+
+There's one particularly common error that causes problems.  There are a number
+of memory allocation functions in Python's C API that have previously just been
+aliases for the C library's :c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free`, meaning that if
+you accidentally called mismatched functions the error wouldn't be noticeable.
+When the object allocator is enabled, these functions aren't aliases of
+:c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free` any more, and calling the wrong function to
+free memory may get you a core dump.  For example, if memory was allocated using
+:c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`, it has to be freed using :c:func:`PyObject_Free`, not
+:c:func:`free`.  A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to
+be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same
+problem.
+
+As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating memory
+have been consolidated down into two API families. Memory allocated with one
+family must not be manipulated with functions from the other family.  There is
+one family for allocating chunks of memory and another family of functions
+specifically for allocating Python objects.
+
+* To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the "raw memory"
+  family: :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`, :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc`, and :c:func:`PyMem_Free`.
+
+* The "object memory" family is the interface to the pymalloc facility described
+  above and is biased towards a large number of "small" allocations:
+  :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`, :c:func:`PyObject_Realloc`, and :c:func:`PyObject_Free`.
+
+* To allocate and free Python objects, use the "object" family
+  :c:func:`PyObject_New`, :c:func:`PyObject_NewVar`, and :c:func:`PyObject_Del`.
+
+Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides debugging
+features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both extension modules
+and in the interpreter itself.  To enable this support, compile a debugging
+version of the Python interpreter by running :program:`configure` with
+:option:`!--with-pydebug`.
+
+To aid extension writers, a header file :file:`Misc/pymemcompat.h` is
+distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions to use
+the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against any version of
+Python since 1.5.2.  You would copy the file from Python's source distribution
+and bundle it with the source of your extension.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c
+      For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the comments at
+      the top of the file :file:`Objects/obmalloc.c` in the Python source code.
+      The above link points to the file within the python.org SVN browser.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
+
+* The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection has proven
+  to be stable, so it's now been made mandatory.  You can no longer compile Python
+  without it, and the :option:`!--with-cycle-gc` switch to :program:`configure` has
+  been removed.
+
+* Python can now optionally be built as a shared library
+  (:file:`libpython2.3.so`) by supplying :option:`!--enable-shared` when running
+  Python's :program:`configure` script.  (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)
+
+* The :c:macro:`DL_EXPORT` and :c:macro:`DL_IMPORT` macros are now deprecated.
+  Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be declared
+  using the new macro :c:macro:`PyMODINIT_FUNC`, while the Python core will
+  generally use the :c:macro:`PyAPI_FUNC` and :c:macro:`PyAPI_DATA` macros.
+
+* The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the built-in
+  functions and modules by supplying :option:`!--without-doc-strings` to the
+  :program:`configure` script. This makes the Python executable about 10% smaller,
+  but will also mean that you can't get help for Python's built-ins.  (Contributed
+  by Gustavo Niemeyer.)
+
+* The :c:func:`PyArg_NoArgs` macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it
+  should be changed.  For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition table can
+  specify the :const:`METH_NOARGS` flag, signalling that there are no arguments,
+  and the argument checking can then be removed.  If compatibility with pre-2.2
+  versions of Python is important, the code could use ``PyArg_ParseTuple(args,
+  "")`` instead, but this will be slower than using :const:`METH_NOARGS`.
+
+* :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` accepts new format characters for various sizes of
+  unsigned integers: ``B`` for :c:type:`unsigned char`, ``H`` for :c:type:`unsigned
+  short int`,  ``I`` for :c:type:`unsigned int`,  and ``K`` for :c:type:`unsigned
+  long long`.
+
+* A new function, ``PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)`` was added
+  as shorthand for ``PyObject_DelItem(mapping, PyString_New(key))``.
+
+* File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently, increasing
+  it exponentially when needed.  This results in the benchmark tests in
+  :file:`Lib/test/test_bufio.py` speeding up considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7
+  seconds, according to one measurement).
+
+* It's now possible to define class and static methods for a C extension type by
+  setting either the :const:`METH_CLASS` or :const:`METH_STATIC` flags in a
+  method's :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure.
+
+* Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser's source code, removing any
+  dependence on a system version or local installation of Expat.
+
+* If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you should be
+  aware of a change in the rules relating to the :attr:`__module__` and
+  :attr:`~definition.__name__` attributes.  In summary, you will want to ensure the type's
+  dictionary contains a ``'__module__'`` key; making the module name the part of
+  the type name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
+  effect.  For more detail, read the API reference documentation or the  source.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Port-Specific Changes
+---------------------
+
+Support for a port to IBM's OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was merged
+into the main Python source tree.  EMX is a POSIX emulation layer over the OS/2
+system APIs.  The Python port for EMX tries to support all the POSIX-like
+capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly succeeds; :func:`fork` and
+:func:`fcntl` are restricted by the limitations of the underlying emulation
+layer.  The standard OS/2 port, which uses IBM's Visual Age compiler, also
+gained support for case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of
+the EMX port into CVS.  (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)
+
+On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward
+compatibility.  This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a single
+routine is missing on the current OS version. Instead calling the missing
+routine will raise an exception. (Contributed by Jack Jansen.)
+
+The RPM spec files, found in the :file:`Misc/RPM/` directory in the Python
+source distribution, were updated for 2.3.  (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)
+
+Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
+(http://www.atheos.cx/), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _23section-other:
+
+Other Changes and Fixes
+=======================
+
+As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
+throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds there
+were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between Python 2.2 and 2.3.  Both
+figures are likely to be underestimates.
+
+Some of the more notable changes are:
+
+* If the :envvar:`PYTHONINSPECT` environment variable is set, the Python
+  interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running a Python program, as
+  if Python had been invoked with the :option:`-i` option. The environment
+  variable can be set before running the Python interpreter, or it can be set by
+  the Python program as part of its execution.
+
+* The :file:`regrtest.py` script now provides a way to allow "all resources
+  except *foo*."  A resource name passed to the :option:`!-u` option can now be
+  prefixed with a hyphen (``'-'``) to mean "remove this resource."  For example,
+  the option '``-uall,-bsddb``' could be used to enable the use of all resources
+  except ``bsddb``.
+
+* The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as well as
+  Unix.
+
+* The ``SET_LINENO`` opcode has been removed.  Back in the mists of time, this
+  opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks and support trace
+  functions (for, e.g., :mod:`pdb`). Since Python 1.5, the line numbers in
+  tracebacks have been computed using a different mechanism that works with
+  "python -O".  For Python 2.3 Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to
+  determine when to call the trace function, removing the need for ``SET_LINENO``
+  entirely.
+
+  It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from Python code, apart
+  from a slight speed up when Python is run without :option:`-O`.
+
+  C extensions that access the :attr:`f_lineno` field of frame objects should
+  instead call ``PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code, f->f_lasti)``. This will have the
+  added effect of making the code work as desired under "python -O" in earlier
+  versions of Python.
+
+  A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the
+  :attr:`f_lineno` attribute of frame objects, changing the line that will be
+  executed next.  A ``jump`` command has been added to the :mod:`pdb` debugger
+  taking advantage of this new feature. (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Porting to Python 2.3
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your
+code:
+
+* :keyword:`yield` is now always a keyword; if it's used as a variable name in
+  your code, a different name must be chosen.
+
+* For strings *X* and *Y*, ``X in Y`` now works if *X* is more than one
+  character long.
+
+* The :func:`int` type constructor will now return a long integer instead of
+  raising an :exc:`OverflowError` when a string or floating-point number is too
+  large to fit into an integer.
+
+* If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must declare
+  the file's encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding a comment to the top
+  of the file.  See section :ref:`section-encodings` for more information.
+
+* Calling Tcl methods through :mod:`_tkinter` no longer  returns only strings.
+  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their
+  Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a :class:`_tkinter.Tcl_Obj`
+  object if no Python equivalent exists.
+
+* Large octal and hex literals such as ``0xffffffff`` now trigger a
+  :exc:`FutureWarning`. Currently they're stored as 32-bit numbers and result in a
+  negative value, but in Python 2.4 they'll become positive long integers.
+
+  There are a few ways to fix this warning.  If you really need a positive number,
+  just add an ``L`` to the end of the literal.  If you're trying to get a 32-bit
+  integer with low bits set and have previously used an expression such as ``~(1
+  << 31)``, it's probably clearest to start with all bits set and clear the
+  desired upper bits. For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could
+  write ``0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31)``.
+
+* You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ``__debug__``.
+
+* The Distutils :func:`setup` function has gained various new keyword arguments
+  such as *depends*.  Old versions of the Distutils will abort if passed unknown
+  keywords.  A solution is to check for the presence of the new
+  :func:`get_distutil_options` function in your :file:`setup.py` and only uses the
+  new keywords with a version of the Distutils that supports them::
+
+     from distutils import core
+
+     kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...}
+     if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'):
+         kw['depends'] = ['foo.h']
+     ext = Extension(**kw)
+
+* Using ``None`` as a variable name will now result in a :exc:`SyntaxWarning`
+  warning.
+
+* Names of extension types defined by the modules included with Python now
+  contain the module and a ``'.'`` in front of the type name.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _23acks:
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Jeff Bauer,
+Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside, Andrew Dalke, Scott David
+Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser,  Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger,
+Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew
+MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer, Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans
+Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman
+Suzi, Jason Tishler, Just van Rossum.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.4.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.4.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e11c98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.4.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1565 @@
+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.4
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling
+
+.. |release| replace:: 1.02
+
+.. $Id: whatsnew24.tex 54632 2007-03-31 11:59:54Z georg.brandl $
+.. Don't write extensive text for new sections; I'll do that.
+.. Feel free to add commented-out reminders of things that need
+.. to be covered.  --amk
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on March 30,
+2005.
+
+Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release.  It doesn't introduce as many changes as
+the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the conservative 2.3
+release.  The most significant new language features are function decorators and
+generator expressions; most other changes are to the standard library.
+
+According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502 bugs
+fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4.  Both figures are likely to be underestimates.
+
+This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of every single
+new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to each feature.  For
+full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.4, such as the
+Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  Often you will be
+referred to the PEP for a particular new feature for explanations of the
+implementation and design rationale.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
+=============================
+
+Python 2.3 introduced the :mod:`sets` module.  C implementations of set data
+types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
+``set(iterable)`` and ``frozenset(iterable)``.  They provide high speed
+operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from sequences,
+and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections, differences, and
+symmetric differences. ::
+
+   >>> a = set('abracadabra')              # form a set from a string
+   >>> 'z' in a                            # fast membership testing
+   False
+   >>> a                                   # unique letters in a
+   set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
+   >>> ''.join(a)                          # convert back into a string
+   'arbcd'
+
+   >>> b = set('alacazam')                 # form a second set
+   >>> a - b                               # letters in a but not in b
+   set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
+   >>> a | b                               # letters in either a or b
+   set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
+   >>> a & b                               # letters in both a and b
+   set(['a', 'c'])
+   >>> a ^ b                               # letters in a or b but not both
+   set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
+
+   >>> a.add('z')                          # add a new element
+   >>> a.update('wxy')                     # add multiple new elements
+   >>> a
+   set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])
+   >>> a.remove('x')                       # take one element out
+   >>> a
+   set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z'])
+
+The :func:`frozenset` type is an immutable version of :func:`set`. Since it is
+immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary key or as a member of
+another set.
+
+The :mod:`sets` module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if you
+wish to subclass the :class:`Set` or :class:`ImmutableSet` classes.  There are
+currently no plans to deprecate the module.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`218` - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type
+      Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by Raymond
+      Hettinger.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
+============================================
+
+The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes another
+step forward in Python 2.4.  In 2.3, certain integer operations that would
+behave differently after int/long unification triggered :exc:`FutureWarning`
+warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64 bits (depending on your
+platform).  In 2.4, these expressions no longer produce a warning and instead
+produce a different result that's usually a long integer.
+
+The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy hexadecimal
+and octal constants.  For example, ``2 << 32`` results in a warning in 2.3,
+evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms.  In Python 2.4, this expression now returns
+the correct answer, 8589934592.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`237` - Unifying Long Integers and Integers
+      Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR.  The changes for 2.4 were
+      implemented by  Kalle Svensson.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 289: Generator Expressions
+==============================
+
+The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the :mod:`itertools` module
+make it easier to write programs that loop through large data sets without
+having the entire data set in memory at one time.  List comprehensions don't fit
+into this picture very well because they produce a Python list object containing
+all of the items.  This unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which
+can be a problem if your data set is very large.  When trying to write a
+functionally-styled program, it would be natural to write something like::
+
+   links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed]
+   for link in links:
+       ...
+
+instead of  ::
+
+   for link in get_all_links():
+       if link.followed:
+           continue
+       ...
+
+The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you're dealing
+with a large number of link objects you'd have to write the second form to avoid
+having all link objects in memory at the same time.
+
+Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don't
+materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will return
+elements one by one.  The above example could be written as::
+
+   links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
+   for link in links:
+       ...
+
+Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as in the
+above example.  The parentheses signalling a function call also count, so if you
+want to create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you
+could write::
+
+   print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())
+
+Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small ways.
+Most notably, the loop variable (*obj* in the above example) is not accessible
+outside of the generator expression.  List comprehensions leave the variable
+assigned to its last value; future versions of Python will change this, making
+list comprehensions match generator expressions in this respect.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`289` - Generator Expressions
+      Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with early efforts
+      steered by Hye-Shik Chang.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
+=====================================
+
+Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative mechanism for
+substituting variables into strings; this style of substitution may be better
+for applications where untrained users need to edit templates.
+
+The usual way of substituting variables by name is the ``%`` operator::
+
+   >>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}
+   '2: The Best of Times'
+
+When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the ``i`` or ``s``
+after the closing parenthesis.  This isn't a big problem if the template is in a
+Python module, because you run the code, get an "Unsupported format character"
+:exc:`ValueError`, and fix the problem.  However, consider an application such
+as Mailman where template strings or translations are being edited by users who
+aren't aware of the Python language.  The format string's syntax is complicated
+to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it's difficult to provide
+helpful feedback to them.
+
+PEP 292 adds a :class:`Template` class to the :mod:`string` module that uses
+``$`` to indicate a substitution::
+
+   >>> import string
+   >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
+   >>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
+   '2: The Best of Times'
+
+If a key is missing from the dictionary, the :meth:`substitute` method will
+raise a :exc:`KeyError`.  There's also a :meth:`safe_substitute` method that
+ignores missing keys::
+
+   >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
+   >>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
+   '3: $title'
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`292` - Simpler String Substitutions
+      Written and implemented  by Barry Warsaw.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
+=============================================
+
+Python 2.2 extended Python's object model by adding static methods and class
+methods, but it didn't extend Python's syntax to provide any new way of defining
+static or class methods.  Instead, you had to write a :keyword:`def` statement
+in the usual way, and pass the resulting method to a :func:`staticmethod` or
+:func:`classmethod` function that would wrap up the function as a method of the
+new type. Your code would look like this::
+
+   class C:
+      def meth (cls):
+          ...
+
+      meth = classmethod(meth)   # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method
+
+If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the
+:func:`classmethod` invocation after the function body.
+
+The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions more
+readable, but at the time of 2.2's release a good syntax was not obvious.  Today
+a good syntax *still* isn't obvious but users are asking for easier access to
+the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added to meet this need.
+
+The new feature is called "function decorators".  The name comes from the idea
+that :func:`classmethod`, :func:`staticmethod`, and friends are storing
+additional information on a function object; they're *decorating* functions with
+more details.
+
+The notation borrows from Java and uses the ``'@'`` character as an indicator.
+Using the new syntax, the example above would be written::
+
+   class C:
+
+      @classmethod
+      def meth (cls):
+          ...
+
+
+The ``@classmethod`` is shorthand for the ``meth=classmethod(meth)`` assignment.
+More generally, if you have the following::
+
+   @A
+   @B
+   @C
+   def f ():
+       ...
+
+It's equivalent to the following pre-decorator code::
+
+   def f(): ...
+   f = A(B(C(f)))
+
+Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one decorator per
+line, and can't be on the same line as the def statement, meaning that ``@A def
+f(): ...`` is illegal.  You can only decorate function definitions, either at
+the module level or inside a class; you can't decorate class definitions.
+
+A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated as an
+argument and returns either the same function or some new object.  The return
+value of the decorator need not be callable (though it typically is), unless
+further decorators will be applied to the result.  It's easy to write your own
+decorators.  The following simple example just sets an attribute on the function
+object::
+
+   >>> def deco(func):
+   ...    func.attr = 'decorated'
+   ...    return func
+   ...
+   >>> @deco
+   ... def f(): pass
+   ...
+   >>> f
+   <function f at 0x402ef0d4>
+   >>> f.attr
+   'decorated'
+   >>>
+
+As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks that the
+supplied argument is an integer::
+
+   def require_int (func):
+       def wrapper (arg):
+           assert isinstance(arg, int)
+           return func(arg)
+
+       return wrapper
+
+   @require_int
+   def p1 (arg):
+       print arg
+
+   @require_int
+   def p2(arg):
+       print arg*2
+
+An example in :pep:`318` contains a fancier version of this idea that lets you
+both specify the required type and check the returned type.
+
+Decorator functions can take arguments.  If arguments are supplied, your
+decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a new
+decorator function; this function must take a single function and return a
+function, as previously described.  In other words, ``@A @B @C(args)`` becomes::
+
+   def f(): ...
+   _deco = C(args)
+   f = A(B(_deco(f)))
+
+Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it's not too difficult.
+
+A small related change makes the :attr:`func_name` attribute of functions
+writable.  This attribute is used to display function names in tracebacks, so
+decorators should change the name of any new function that's constructed and
+returned.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`318` - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes
+      Written  by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro.  Several people
+      wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one that was actually
+      checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark Russell.
+
+   https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary
+      This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
+==========================
+
+A new built-in function, ``reversed(seq)``, takes a sequence and returns an
+iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence  in reverse order.   ::
+
+   >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)):
+   ...    print i
+   ...
+   3
+   2
+   1
+
+Compared to extended slicing, such as ``range(1,4)[::-1]``, :func:`reversed` is
+easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially less memory.
+
+Note that :func:`reversed` only accepts sequences, not arbitrary iterators.  If
+you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to  a list with :func:`list`.
+::
+
+   >>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
+   >>> for line in reversed(list(input)):
+   ...   print line
+   ...
+   root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh
+     ...
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`322` - Reverse Iteration
+      Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 324: New subprocess Module
+==============================
+
+The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess, offering
+different features and different levels of complexity.
+``os.system(command)`` is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process
+which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about escaping
+the shell's metacharacters).  The :mod:`popen2` module offers classes that can
+capture standard output and standard error from the subprocess, but the naming
+is confusing.  The :mod:`subprocess` module cleans  this up, providing a unified
+interface that offers all the features you might need.
+
+Instead of :mod:`popen2`'s collection of classes, :mod:`subprocess` contains a
+single class called :class:`Popen`  whose constructor supports a number of
+different keyword arguments. ::
+
+   class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None,
+               stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,
+               preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False,
+               cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False,
+               startupinfo=None, creationflags=0):
+
+*args* is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to the
+program executed as the subprocess.  (If the *shell* argument is true, *args*
+can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell for interpretation,
+just as :func:`os.system` does.)
+
+*stdin*, *stdout*, and *stderr* specify what the subprocess's input, output, and
+error streams will be.  You can provide a file object or a file descriptor, or
+you can use the constant ``subprocess.PIPE`` to create a pipe between the
+subprocess and the parent.
+
+.. index::
+   single: universal newlines; What's new
+
+The constructor has a number of handy options:
+
+* *close_fds* requests that all file descriptors be closed before running the
+  subprocess.
+
+* *cwd* specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will be executed
+  (defaulting to whatever the parent's working directory is).
+
+* *env* is a dictionary specifying environment variables.
+
+* *preexec_fn* is a function that gets called before the child is started.
+
+* *universal_newlines* opens the child's input and output using Python's
+  :term:`universal newlines` feature.
+
+Once you've created the :class:`Popen` instance,  you can call its :meth:`wait`
+method to pause until the subprocess has exited, :meth:`poll` to check if it's
+exited without pausing,  or ``communicate(data)`` to send the string *data*
+to the subprocess's standard input.   ``communicate(data)``  then reads any
+data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output  or standard error,
+returning a tuple ``(stdout_data, stderr_data)``.
+
+:func:`call` is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the :class:`Popen`
+constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status code of
+the subprocess.  It can serve as a safer analog to :func:`os.system`::
+
+   sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb'])
+   if sts == 0:
+       # Success
+       ...
+   else:
+       # dpkg returned an error
+       ...
+
+The command is invoked without use of the shell.  If you really do want to  use
+the shell, you can add ``shell=True`` as a keyword argument and provide a string
+instead of a sequence::
+
+   sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True)
+
+The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how they'd be
+translated into Python code that uses :mod:`subprocess`.  Reading this section
+of the PEP is highly recommended.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`324` - subprocess - New process module
+      Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from Fredrik Lundh and
+      others.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
+==========================
+
+Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the underlying
+C :c:type:`double` type, as a data type.  However, while most programming
+languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even programmers) are
+unaware that floating-point numbers don't represent certain decimal fractions
+accurately.  The new :class:`Decimal` type can represent these fractions
+accurately, up to a user-specified precision limit.
+
+
+Why is Decimal needed?
+----------------------
+
+The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point numbers.
+FP numbers are made up of three components:
+
+* The sign, which is positive or negative.
+
+* The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number   followed by a fractional
+  part.  For example, ``1.01`` in base-2 notation is ``1 + 0/2 + 1/4``, or 1.25 in
+  decimal notation.
+
+* The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the number
+  represented.
+
+For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01 (in
+binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn't need to be shifted).
+The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent is 2 because the
+mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the exponent 2); 1.25 \* 4 equals
+5.
+
+Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a
+standard called IEEE 754.  C's :c:type:`double` type is usually implemented as a
+64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa.  This
+means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision.  If you're
+trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly, the expansion is
+cut off after 52 bits. Unfortunately, most software needs to produce output in
+base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are often repeating decimals in binary.
+For example, 1.1 decimal is binary ``1.0001100110011 ...``; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 +
+1/256 plus an infinite number of additional terms.  IEEE 754 has to chop off
+that infinitely repeated decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is
+slightly inaccurate.
+
+Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed::
+
+   >>> 1.1
+   1.1000000000000001
+
+The inaccuracy isn't always visible when you print the number because the
+FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and most C libraries try
+to produce sensible output.  Even if it's not displayed, however, the inaccuracy
+is still there and subsequent operations can magnify the error.
+
+For many applications this doesn't matter.  If I'm plotting points and
+displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and 1.1000000000000001
+is too small to be visible.  Reports often limit output to a certain number of
+decimal places, and if you round the number to two or three or even eight
+decimal places, the error is never apparent.  However, for applications where it
+does matter,  it's a lot of work to implement your own custom arithmetic
+routines.
+
+Hence, the :class:`Decimal` type was created.
+
+
+The :class:`Decimal` type
+-------------------------
+
+A new module, :mod:`decimal`, was added to Python's standard library.  It
+contains two classes, :class:`Decimal` and :class:`Context`.  :class:`Decimal`
+instances represent numbers, and :class:`Context` instances are used to wrap up
+various settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.
+
+:class:`Decimal` instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
+numbers; once it's been created, you can't change the value an instance
+represents.  :class:`Decimal` instances can be created from integers or
+strings::
+
+   >>> import decimal
+   >>> decimal.Decimal(1972)
+   Decimal("1972")
+   >>> decimal.Decimal("1.1")
+   Decimal("1.1")
+
+You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa represented  as a
+tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent::
+
+   >>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2))
+   Decimal("-14.75")
+
+Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1 is
+negative.
+
+Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should the FP
+number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly 1.1, or for 1.1
+plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced? The decision was to dodge the issue
+and leave such a conversion out of the API.  Instead, you should convert the
+floating-point number into a string using the desired precision and pass the
+string to the :class:`Decimal` constructor::
+
+   >>> f = 1.1
+   >>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
+   Decimal("1.1")
+   >>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
+   Decimal("1.100000000000")
+
+Once you have :class:`Decimal` instances, you can perform the usual mathematical
+operations on them.  One limitation: exponentiation requires an integer
+exponent::
+
+   >>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72')
+   >>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73')
+   >>> a+b
+   Decimal("37.45")
+   >>> a-b
+   Decimal("33.99")
+   >>> a*b
+   Decimal("61.7956")
+   >>> a/b
+   Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902")
+   >>> a ** 2
+   Decimal("1275.9184")
+   >>> a**b
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)
+
+You can combine :class:`Decimal` instances with integers, but not with
+floating-point numbers::
+
+   >>> a + 4
+   Decimal("39.72")
+   >>> a + 4.5
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
+   >>>
+
+:class:`Decimal` numbers can be used with the :mod:`math` and :mod:`cmath`
+modules, but note that they'll be immediately converted to  floating-point
+numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a possible loss of
+precision and accuracy.  You'll also get back a regular floating-point number
+and not a :class:`Decimal`.   ::
+
+   >>> import math, cmath
+   >>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
+   >>> math.sqrt(d)
+   351364.18288201344
+   >>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
+   351364.18288201344j
+
+:class:`Decimal` instances have a :meth:`sqrt` method that returns a
+:class:`Decimal`, but if you need other things such as trigonometric functions
+you'll have to implement them. ::
+
+   >>> d.sqrt()
+   Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")
+
+
+The :class:`Context` type
+-------------------------
+
+Instances of the :class:`Context` class encapsulate several settings for
+decimal operations:
+
+* :attr:`prec` is the precision, the number of decimal places.
+
+* :attr:`rounding` specifies the rounding mode.  The :mod:`decimal` module has
+  constants for the various possibilities: :const:`ROUND_DOWN`,
+  :const:`ROUND_CEILING`,  :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN`, and various others.
+
+* :attr:`traps` is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering certain
+  error conditions: either  an exception is raised or  a value is returned.  Some
+  examples of error conditions are division by zero, loss of precision, and
+  overflow.
+
+There's a thread-local default context available by calling :func:`getcontext`;
+you can change the properties of this context to alter the default precision,
+rounding, or trap handling.  The following example shows the effect of changing
+the precision of the default context::
+
+   >>> decimal.getcontext().prec
+   28
+   >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
+   Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429")
+   >>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9
+   >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
+   Decimal("0.142857143")
+
+The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can either
+return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or exceptions can be
+raised::
+
+   >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     ...
+   decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0
+   >>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False
+   >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
+   Decimal("Infinity")
+   >>>
+
+The :class:`Context` instance also has various methods for formatting  numbers
+such as :meth:`to_eng_string` and :meth:`to_sci_string`.
+
+For more information, see the documentation for the :mod:`decimal` module, which
+includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`327` - Decimal Data Type
+      Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric Price,
+      Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.
+
+   http://www.lahey.com/float.htm
+      The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems that
+      floating-point inaccuracy can cause.
+
+   http://speleotrove.com/decimal/
+      A description of a decimal-based representation.  This representation is being
+      proposed as a standard, and underlies the new Python decimal type.  Much of this
+      material was written by Mike Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
+===========================
+
+One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier to
+import many names from a module.  In a ``from module import names`` statement,
+*names* is a sequence of names separated by commas.  If the sequence is  very
+long, you can either write multiple imports from the same module, or you can use
+backslashes to escape the line endings like this::
+
+   from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\
+               SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
+               CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
+               resolve_dotted_attribute
+
+The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names within
+parentheses.  Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized expression, so the
+backslashes are no longer needed::
+
+   from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer,
+                                   SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,
+                                   CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,
+                                   resolve_dotted_attribute)
+
+The PEP also proposes that all :keyword:`import` statements be absolute imports,
+with a leading ``.`` character to indicate a relative import.  This part of the
+PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was completed for Python 2.5.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`328` - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative
+      Written by Aahz.  Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima Dorfman.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
+====================================================
+
+The :mod:`locale` modules lets Python software select various conversions and
+display conventions that are localized to a particular country or language.
+However, the module was careful to not change the numeric locale because various
+functions in Python's implementation required that the numeric locale remain set
+to the ``'C'`` locale.  Often this was because the code was using the C
+library's :c:func:`atof` function.
+
+Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used third-party
+C libraries, however, because they wouldn't have the correct locale set.
+The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface widgets weren't displaying
+numbers in the current locale.
+
+The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the Python
+API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale setting:
+
+* ``PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)``  and ``PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)``
+  both convert a string to a C :c:type:`double`.
+
+* ``PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)`` converts a
+  :c:type:`double` to an ASCII string.
+
+The code for these functions came from the GLib library
+(https://developer.gnome.org/glib/stable/), whose developers kindly
+relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python Software
+Foundation.  The :mod:`locale` module  can now change the numeric locale,
+letting extensions such as GTK+  produce the correct results.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`331` - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
+      Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python language.
+
+* Decorators for functions and methods were added (:pep:`318`).
+
+* Built-in :func:`set` and :func:`frozenset` types were  added (:pep:`218`).
+  Other new built-ins include the ``reversed(seq)`` function (:pep:`322`).
+
+* Generator expressions were added (:pep:`289`).
+
+* Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to 32 or 64
+  bits (:pep:`237`).
+
+* You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a ``from module import
+  names`` statement (:pep:`328`).
+
+* The :meth:`dict.update` method now accepts the same argument forms as the
+  :class:`dict` constructor.  This includes any mapping, any iterable of key/value
+  pairs, and keyword arguments. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The string methods :meth:`ljust`, :meth:`rjust`, and :meth:`center` now take
+  an optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a space.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Strings also gained an :meth:`rsplit` method that works like the :meth:`split`
+  method but splits from the end of the string.   (Contributed by Sean
+  Reifschneider.) ::
+
+     >>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1)
+     ['www', 'python.org']
+     'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1)
+     ['www.python', 'org']
+
+* Three keyword parameters, *cmp*, *key*, and *reverse*, were added to the
+  :meth:`sort` method of lists. These parameters make some common usages of
+  :meth:`sort` simpler. All of these parameters are optional.
+
+  For the *cmp* parameter, the value should be a comparison function that takes
+  two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how the parameters compare.
+  This function will then be used to sort the list.  Previously this was the only
+  parameter that could be provided to :meth:`sort`.
+
+  *key* should be a single-parameter function that takes a list element and
+  returns a comparison key for the element.  The list is then sorted using the
+  comparison keys.  The following example sorts a list case-insensitively::
+
+     >>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
+     >>> L.sort()                 # Case-sensitive sort
+     >>> L
+     ['A', 'D', 'b', 'c']
+     >>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list
+     >>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower())
+     >>> L
+     ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
+     >>> # Old-fashioned way
+     >>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower()))
+     >>> L
+     ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
+
+  The last example, which uses the *cmp* parameter, is the old way to perform a
+  case-insensitive sort.  It works but is slower than using a *key* parameter.
+  Using *key* calls :meth:`lower` method once for each element in the list while
+  using *cmp* will call it twice for each comparison, so using *key* saves on
+  invocations of the :meth:`lower` method.
+
+  For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often possible to avoid
+  a :keyword:`lambda` expression by using an unbound method instead.  For example,
+  the above case-insensitive sort is best written as::
+
+     >>> L.sort(key=str.lower)
+     >>> L
+     ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
+
+  Finally, the *reverse* parameter takes a Boolean value.  If the value is true,
+  the list will be sorted into reverse order. Instead of ``L.sort();
+  L.reverse()``, you can now write ``L.sort(reverse=True)``.
+
+  The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable.  This means that two
+  entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order as they were input.
+  For example, you can sort a list of people by name, and then sort the list by
+  age, resulting in a list sorted by age where people with the same age are in
+  name-sorted order.
+
+  (All changes to :meth:`sort` contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* There is a new built-in function ``sorted(iterable)`` that works like the
+  in-place :meth:`list.sort` method but can be used in expressions.  The
+  differences are:
+
+* the input may be any iterable;
+
+* a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and
+
+* the expression returns the new sorted copy
+
+  ::
+
+     >>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
+     >>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)]       # usable in a list comprehension
+     [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
+     >>> L                               # original is left unchanged
+     [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
+     >>> sorted('Monty Python')          # any iterable may be an input
+     [' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y']
+
+     >>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values
+     >>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5)
+     >>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()):
+     ...     print k, v
+     ...
+     black 4
+     blue 2
+     green 3
+     red 1
+     yellow 5
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Integer operations will no longer trigger an :exc:`OverflowWarning`. The
+  :exc:`OverflowWarning` warning will disappear in Python 2.5.
+
+* The interpreter gained a new switch, :option:`-m`, that takes a name, searches
+  for the corresponding  module on ``sys.path``, and runs the module as a script.
+  For example,  you can now run the Python profiler with ``python -m profile``.
+  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)
+
+* The ``eval(expr, globals, locals)`` and ``execfile(filename, globals,
+  locals)`` functions and the ``exec`` statement now accept any mapping type
+  for the *locals* parameter.  Previously this had to be a regular Python
+  dictionary.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :func:`zip` built-in function and :func:`itertools.izip` now return an
+  empty list if called with no arguments. Previously they raised a
+  :exc:`TypeError` exception.  This makes them more suitable for use with variable
+  length argument lists::
+
+     >>> def transpose(array):
+     ...    return zip(*array)
+     ...
+     >>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
+     [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
+     >>> transpose([])
+     []
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a partially-initialized
+  module object in ``sys.modules``.  The incomplete module object left
+  behind would fool further imports of the same module into succeeding, leading to
+  confusing errors.   (Fixed by Tim Peters.)
+
+* :const:`None` is now a constant; code that binds a new value to  the name
+  ``None`` is now a syntax error. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Optimizations
+-------------
+
+* The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now run about
+  one-third faster.  The inner loops for dictionaries were also optimized,
+  resulting in performance boosts for :meth:`keys`, :meth:`values`, :meth:`items`,
+  :meth:`iterkeys`, :meth:`itervalues`, and :meth:`iteritems`. (Contributed by
+  Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for speed and for
+  space efficiency.  Appending and popping from lists now runs faster due to more
+  efficient code paths and less frequent use of the underlying system
+  :c:func:`realloc`.  List comprehensions also benefit.   :meth:`list.extend` was
+  also optimized and no longer converts its argument into a temporary list before
+  extending the base list.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* :func:`list`, :func:`tuple`, :func:`map`, :func:`filter`, and :func:`zip` now
+  run several times faster with non-sequence arguments that supply a
+  :meth:`__len__` method.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The methods :meth:`list.__getitem__`, :meth:`dict.__getitem__`, and
+  :meth:`dict.__contains__` are now implemented as :class:`method_descriptor`
+  objects rather than :class:`wrapper_descriptor` objects.  This form of  access
+  doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for use as arguments to
+  functionals: ``map(mydict.__getitem__, keylist)``. (Contributed by Raymond
+  Hettinger.)
+
+* Added a new opcode, ``LIST_APPEND``, that simplifies the generated bytecode
+  for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a third.  (Contributed by
+  Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to  produce shorter, faster
+  bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is  more readable.  (Enhanced by
+  Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* String concatenations in statements of the form ``s = s + "abc"`` and ``s +=
+  "abc"`` are now performed more efficiently in certain circumstances.  This
+  optimization won't be present in other Python implementations such as Jython, so
+  you shouldn't rely on it; using the :meth:`join` method of strings is still
+  recommended when you want to efficiently glue a large number of strings
+  together. (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)
+
+The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the pystone
+benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than Python 2.2.
+(pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it's the most commonly used
+measurement of Python's performance.  Your own applications may show greater or
+smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)
+
+.. pystone is almost useless for comparing different versions of Python;
+   instead, it excels at predicting relative Python performance on different
+   machines.  So, this section would be more informative if it used other tools
+   such as pybench and parrotbench.  For a more application oriented benchmark,
+   try comparing the timings of test_decimal.py under 2.3 and 2.4.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
+=====================================
+
+As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements and bug
+fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically
+by module name. Consult the :file:`Misc/NEWS` file in the source tree for a more
+complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
+
+* The :mod:`asyncore` module's :func:`loop` function now has a *count* parameter
+  that lets you perform a limited number of passes through the polling loop.  The
+  default is still to loop forever.
+
+* The :mod:`base64` module now has more complete :rfc:`3548` support for Base64,
+  Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding, including optional case folding and
+  optional alternative alphabets. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)
+
+* The :mod:`bisect` module now has an underlying C implementation for improved
+  performance. (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)
+
+* The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by Hye-Shik Chang,
+  was integrated into 2.4.   The new encodings are:
+
+* Chinese (PRC): gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz
+
+* Chinese (ROC): big5, cp950
+
+* Japanese: cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp,
+    iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-2004,
+    shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004
+
+* Korean: cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr
+
+* Some other new encodings were added: HP Roman8,  ISO_8859-11, ISO_8859-16,
+  PCTP-154, and TIS-620.
+
+* The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial input.
+  Previously the :class:`StreamReader` class would try to read more data, making
+  it impossible to resume decoding from the stream.  The :meth:`read` method will
+  now return as much data as it can and future calls will resume decoding where
+  previous ones left off.  (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)
+
+* There is a new :mod:`collections` module for  various specialized collection
+  datatypes.  Currently it contains just one type, :class:`deque`, a double-ended
+  queue that supports efficiently adding and removing elements from either
+  end::
+
+     >>> from collections import deque
+     >>> d = deque('ghi')        # make a new deque with three items
+     >>> d.append('j')           # add a new entry to the right side
+     >>> d.appendleft('f')       # add a new entry to the left side
+     >>> d                       # show the representation of the deque
+     deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
+     >>> d.pop()                 # return and remove the rightmost item
+     'j'
+     >>> d.popleft()             # return and remove the leftmost item
+     'f'
+     >>> list(d)                 # list the contents of the deque
+     ['g', 'h', 'i']
+     >>> 'h' in d                # search the deque
+     True
+
+  Several modules, such as the :mod:`Queue` and :mod:`threading` modules, now take
+  advantage of :class:`collections.deque` for improved performance.  (Contributed
+  by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`ConfigParser` classes have been enhanced slightly. The :meth:`read`
+  method now returns a list of the files that were successfully parsed, and the
+  :meth:`set` method raises :exc:`TypeError` if passed a *value* argument that
+  isn't a string.   (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)
+
+* The :mod:`curses` module now supports the ncurses extension
+  :func:`use_default_colors`.  On platforms where the terminal supports
+  transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent background.
+  (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)
+
+* The :mod:`difflib` module now includes an :class:`HtmlDiff` class that creates
+  an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two versions of a text.
+  (Contributed by Dan Gass.)
+
+* The :mod:`email` package was updated to version 3.0,  which dropped various
+  deprecated APIs and removes support for Python versions earlier than 2.3.  The
+  3.0 version of the package uses a new incremental parser for MIME messages,
+  available in the :mod:`email.FeedParser` module.  The new parser doesn't require
+  reading the entire message into memory, and doesn't raise exceptions if a
+  message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the  :attr:`defect`
+  attribute of the message.  (Developed by Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Thomas
+  Wouters, and others.)
+
+* The :mod:`heapq` module has been converted to C.  The resulting tenfold
+  improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling high volumes of
+  data.  In addition, the module has two new functions :func:`nlargest` and
+  :func:`nsmallest` that use heaps to find the N largest or smallest values in a
+  dataset without the expense of a full sort.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`httplib` module now contains constants for HTTP status codes defined
+  in various HTTP-related RFC documents.  Constants have names such as
+  :const:`OK`, :const:`CREATED`, :const:`CONTINUE`, and
+  :const:`MOVED_PERMANENTLY`; use pydoc to get a full list.  (Contributed by
+  Andrew Eland.)
+
+* The :mod:`imaplib` module now supports IMAP's THREAD command (contributed by
+  Yves Dionne) and new :meth:`deleteacl` and :meth:`myrights` methods (contributed
+  by Arnaud Mazin).
+
+* The :mod:`itertools` module gained a ``groupby(iterable[, *func*])``
+  function. *iterable* is something that can be iterated over to return a stream
+  of elements, and the optional *func* parameter is a function that takes an
+  element and returns a key value; if omitted, the key is simply the element
+  itself.  :func:`groupby` then groups the elements into subsequences which have
+  matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples containing the key
+  value and an iterator over the subsequence.
+
+  Here's an example to make this clearer.  The *key* function simply returns
+  whether a number is even or odd, so the result of :func:`groupby` is to return
+  consecutive runs of odd or even numbers. ::
+
+     >>> import itertools
+     >>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14]
+     >>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2):
+     ...    print key_val, list(it)
+     ...
+     0 [2, 4, 6]
+     1 [7]
+     0 [8]
+     1 [9, 11]
+     0 [12, 14]
+     >>>
+
+  :func:`groupby` is typically used with sorted input.  The logic for
+  :func:`groupby` is similar to the Unix ``uniq`` filter which makes it handy for
+  eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements::
+
+     >>> word = 'abracadabra'
+     >>> letters = sorted(word)   # Turn string into a sorted list of letters
+     >>> letters
+     ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r']
+     >>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters):
+     ...    print k, list(g)
+     ...
+     a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a']
+     b ['b', 'b']
+     c ['c']
+     d ['d']
+     r ['r', 'r']
+     >>> # List unique letters
+     >>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)]
+     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']
+     >>> # Count letter occurrences
+     >>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)]
+     [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)]
+
+  (Contributed by Hye-Shik Chang.)
+
+* :mod:`itertools` also gained a function named ``tee(iterator, N)`` that
+  returns *N* independent iterators that replicate *iterator*.  If *N* is omitted,
+  the default is 2. ::
+
+     >>> L = [1,2,3]
+     >>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L)
+     >>> i1,i2
+     (<itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080>, <itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090>)
+     >>> list(i1)               # Run the first iterator to exhaustion
+     [1, 2, 3]
+     >>> list(i2)               # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
+     [1, 2, 3]
+
+  Note that :func:`tee` has to keep copies of the values returned  by the
+  iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them.   This should
+  therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run far ahead of the
+  trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs. If the separation is large, then
+  you might as well use  :func:`list` instead.  When the iterators track closely
+  with one another, :func:`tee` is ideal.  Possible applications include
+  bookmarking, windowing, or lookahead iterators. (Contributed by Raymond
+  Hettinger.)
+
+* A number of functions were added to the :mod:`locale`  module, such as
+  :func:`bind_textdomain_codeset` to specify a particular encoding and a family of
+  :func:`l\*gettext` functions that return messages in the chosen encoding.
+  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)
+
+* Some keyword arguments were added to the :mod:`logging` package's
+  :func:`basicConfig` function to simplify log configuration.  The default
+  behavior is to log messages to standard error, but various keyword arguments can
+  be specified to log to a particular file, change the logging format, or set the
+  logging level. For example::
+
+     import logging
+     logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log',
+         level=0,  # Log all messages
+         format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')
+
+  Other additions to the :mod:`logging` package include a ``log(level, msg)``
+  convenience method, as well as a :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` class that
+  rotates its log files at a timed interval.  The module already had
+  :class:`RotatingFileHandler`, which rotated logs once the file exceeded a
+  certain size.  Both classes derive from a new :class:`BaseRotatingHandler` class
+  that can be used to implement other rotating handlers.
+
+  (Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.)
+
+* The :mod:`marshal` module now shares interned strings on unpacking a  data
+  structure.  This may shrink the size of certain pickle strings, but the primary
+  effect is to make :file:`.pyc` files significantly smaller. (Contributed by
+  Martin von Löwis.)
+
+* The :mod:`nntplib` module's :class:`NNTP` class gained :meth:`description` and
+  :meth:`descriptions` methods to retrieve  newsgroup descriptions for a single
+  group or for a range of groups. (Contributed by Jürgen A. Erhard.)
+
+* Two new functions were added to the :mod:`operator` module,
+  ``attrgetter(attr)`` and ``itemgetter(index)``. Both functions return
+  callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding attribute or
+  item; these callables make excellent data extractors when used with :func:`map`
+  or :func:`sorted`.  For example::
+
+     >>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)]
+     >>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L)
+     ['c', 'd', 'a', 'b']
+     >>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L)
+     [2, 1, 4, 3]
+     >>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item
+     [('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)]
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`optparse` module was updated in various ways.  The module now passes
+  its messages through :func:`gettext.gettext`, making it possible to
+  internationalize Optik's help and error messages.  Help messages for options can
+  now include the string ``'%default'``, which will be replaced by the option's
+  default value.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)
+
+* The long-term plan is to deprecate the :mod:`rfc822` module in some future
+  Python release in favor of the :mod:`email` package. To this end, the
+  :func:`email.Utils.formatdate` function has been changed to make it usable as a
+  replacement for :func:`rfc822.formatdate`.  You may want to write new e-mail
+  processing code with this in mind.  (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)
+
+* A new ``urandom(n)`` function was added to the :mod:`os` module, returning
+  a string containing *n* bytes of random data.  This function provides access to
+  platform-specific sources of randomness such as :file:`/dev/urandom` on Linux or
+  the Windows CryptoAPI.  (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)
+
+* Another new function: ``os.path.lexists(path)``  returns true if the file
+  specified by *path* exists, whether or not it's a symbolic link.  This differs
+  from the existing ``os.path.exists(path)`` function, which returns false if
+  *path* is a symlink that points to a destination that doesn't exist.
+  (Contributed by Beni Cherniavsky.)
+
+* A new :func:`getsid` function was added to the :mod:`posix` module that
+  underlies the :mod:`os` module. (Contributed by J. Raynor.)
+
+* The :mod:`poplib` module now supports POP over SSL.  (Contributed by Hector
+  Urtubia.)
+
+* The :mod:`profile` module can now profile C extension functions. (Contributed
+  by Nick Bastin.)
+
+* The :mod:`random` module has a new method called ``getrandbits(N)`` that
+  returns a long integer *N* bits in length.  The existing :meth:`randrange`
+  method now uses :meth:`getrandbits` where appropriate, making generation of
+  arbitrarily large random numbers more efficient.  (Contributed by Raymond
+  Hettinger.)
+
+* The regular expression language accepted by the :mod:`re` module was extended
+  with simple conditional expressions, written as ``(?(group)A|B)``.  *group* is
+  either a numeric group ID or a group name defined with ``(?P<group>...)``
+  earlier in the expression.  If the specified group matched, the regular
+  expression pattern *A* will be tested against the string; if the group didn't
+  match, the pattern *B* will be used instead. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)
+
+* The :mod:`re` module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a massive amount
+  of work by Gustavo Niemeyer.  In a recursive regular expression engine, certain
+  patterns result in a large amount of C stack space being consumed, and it was
+  possible to overflow the stack. For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string
+  of ``a`` characters against the expression ``(a|b)+``, one stack frame was
+  consumed per character.  Python 2.3 tried to check for stack overflow and raise
+  a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception, but certain patterns could sidestep the
+  checking and if you were unlucky Python could segfault. Python 2.4's regular
+  expression engine can match this pattern without problems.
+
+* The :mod:`signal` module now performs tighter error-checking on the parameters
+  to the :func:`signal.signal` function.  For example, you can't set a handler on
+  the :const:`SIGKILL` signal; previous versions of Python would quietly accept
+  this, but 2.4 will raise a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception.
+
+* Two new functions were added to the :mod:`socket` module. :func:`socketpair`
+  returns a pair of connected sockets and ``getservbyport(port)`` looks up the
+  service name for a given port number. (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry
+  Warsaw.)
+
+* The :func:`sys.exitfunc` function has been deprecated.  Code should be using
+  the existing :mod:`atexit` module, which correctly handles calling multiple exit
+  functions.  Eventually :func:`sys.exitfunc` will become a purely internal
+  interface, accessed only by :mod:`atexit`.
+
+* The :mod:`tarfile` module now generates GNU-format tar files by default.
+  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)
+
+* The :mod:`threading` module now has an elegantly simple way to support
+  thread-local data.  The module contains a :class:`local` class whose attribute
+  values are local to different threads. ::
+
+     import threading
+
+     data = threading.local()
+     data.number = 42
+     data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)
+
+  Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the :attr:`number`
+  and :attr:`url` attributes.  You can subclass :class:`local` to initialize
+  attributes or to add methods. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.)
+
+* The :mod:`timeit` module now automatically disables periodic garbage
+  collection during the timing loop.  This change makes consecutive timings more
+  comparable.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`weakref` module now supports a wider variety of objects including
+  Python functions, class instances, sets, frozensets, deques, arrays, files,
+  sockets, and regular expression pattern objects. (Contributed by Raymond
+  Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`xmlrpclib` module now supports a multi-call extension for
+  transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP operation. (Contributed by
+  Brian Quinlan.)
+
+* The :mod:`mpz`, :mod:`rotor`, and :mod:`xreadlines` modules have  been
+  removed.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+.. whole new modules get described in subsections here
+.. =====================
+
+
+cookielib
+---------
+
+The :mod:`cookielib` library supports client-side handling for HTTP cookies,
+mirroring the :mod:`Cookie` module's server-side cookie support. Cookies are
+stored in cookie jars; the library transparently stores cookies offered by the
+web server in the cookie jar, and fetches the cookie from the jar when
+connecting to the server. As in web browsers, policy objects control whether
+cookies are accepted or not.
+
+In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie jars
+are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so applications can
+use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that stores cookies in the same
+format as the Perl libwww library.
+
+:mod:`urllib2` has been changed to interact with :mod:`cookielib`:
+:class:`HTTPCookieProcessor` manages a cookie jar that is used when accessing
+URLs.
+
+This module was contributed by John J. Lee.
+
+.. ==================
+
+
+doctest
+-------
+
+The :mod:`doctest` module underwent considerable refactoring thanks to Edward
+Loper and Tim Peters.  Testing can still be as simple as running
+:func:`doctest.testmod`, but the refactorings allow customizing the module's
+operation in various ways
+
+The new :class:`DocTestFinder` class extracts the tests from a given  object's
+docstrings::
+
+   def f (x, y):
+       """>>> f(2,2)
+   4
+   >>> f(3,2)
+   6
+       """
+       return x*y
+
+   finder = doctest.DocTestFinder()
+
+   # Get list of DocTest instances
+   tests = finder.find(f)
+
+The new :class:`DocTestRunner` class then runs individual tests and can produce
+a summary of the results::
+
+   runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
+   for t in tests:
+       tried, failed = runner.run(t)
+
+   runner.summarize(verbose=1)
+
+The above example produces the following output::
+
+   1 items passed all tests:
+      2 tests in f
+   2 tests in 1 items.
+   2 passed and 0 failed.
+   Test passed.
+
+:class:`DocTestRunner` uses an instance of the :class:`OutputChecker` class to
+compare the expected output with the actual output.  This class takes a number
+of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can also write
+a completely new subclass of :class:`OutputChecker`.
+
+The default output checker provides a number of handy features. For example,
+with the :const:`doctest.ELLIPSIS` option flag, an ellipsis (``...``) in the
+expected output matches any substring,  making it easier to accommodate outputs
+that vary in minor ways::
+
+   def o (n):
+       """>>> o(1)
+   <__main__.C instance at 0x...>
+   >>>
+   """
+
+Another special string, ``<BLANKLINE>``, matches a blank line::
+
+   def p (n):
+       """>>> p(1)
+   <BLANKLINE>
+   >>>
+   """
+
+Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output by
+specifying the :const:`doctest.REPORT_UDIFF` (unified diffs),
+:const:`doctest.REPORT_CDIFF` (context diffs), or :const:`doctest.REPORT_NDIFF`
+(delta-style) option flags.  For example::
+
+   def g (n):
+       """>>> g(4)
+   here
+   is
+   a
+   lengthy
+   >>>"""
+       L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split()
+       for word in L[:n]:
+           print word
+
+Running the above function's tests with :const:`doctest.REPORT_UDIFF` specified,
+you get the following output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   **********************************************************************
+   File "t.py", line 15, in g
+   Failed example:
+       g(4)
+   Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
+       @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
+        is
+        a
+       -lengthy
+       +rather
+   **********************************************************************
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are:
+
+* Three new convenience macros were added for common return values from
+  extension functions: :c:macro:`Py_RETURN_NONE`, :c:macro:`Py_RETURN_TRUE`, and
+  :c:macro:`Py_RETURN_FALSE`. (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)
+
+* Another new macro, :c:macro:`Py_CLEAR(obj)`,  decreases the reference count of
+  *obj* and sets *obj* to the null pointer.  (Contributed by Jim Fulton.)
+
+* A new function, ``PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)``, constructs
+  tuples from a variable length argument list of Python objects.  (Contributed by
+  Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* A new function, ``PyDict_Contains(d, k)``, implements fast dictionary
+  lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up process.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :c:macro:`Py_IS_NAN(X)` macro returns 1 if  its float or double argument
+  *X* is a NaN.   (Contributed by Tim Peters.)
+
+* C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
+  :c:func:`PyEval_ThreadsInitialized` function to tell  if any thread operations
+  have been performed.  If this function  returns false, no lock operations are
+  needed. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)
+
+* A new function, :c:func:`PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords`, is the same as
+  :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` but takes a  :c:type:`va_list` instead of a
+  number of arguments. (Contributed by Greg Chapman.)
+
+* A new method flag, :const:`METH_COEXISTS`, allows a function defined in slots
+  to co-exist with a :c:type:`PyCFunction` having the same name.  This can halve
+  the access time for a method such as :meth:`set.__contains__`.  (Contributed by
+  Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Python can now be built with additional profiling for the interpreter itself,
+  intended as an aid to people developing the Python core.  Providing
+  :option:`!--enable-profiling` to the :program:`configure` script will let you
+  profile the interpreter with :program:`gprof`, and providing the
+  :option:`!--with-tsc` switch enables profiling using the Pentium's
+  Time-Stamp-Counter register.  Note that the :option:`!--with-tsc` switch is slightly
+  misnamed, because the profiling feature also works on the PowerPC platform,
+  though that processor architecture doesn't call that register "the TSC
+  register".  (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)
+
+* The :c:type:`tracebackobject` type has been renamed to
+  :c:type:`PyTracebackObject`.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Port-Specific Changes
+---------------------
+
+* The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6.
+  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Porting to Python 2.4
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your
+code:
+
+* Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too  large no longer
+  trigger a :exc:`FutureWarning` and return  a value limited to 32 or 64 bits;
+  instead they return a long integer.
+
+* Integer operations will no longer trigger an :exc:`OverflowWarning`. The
+  :exc:`OverflowWarning` warning will disappear in Python 2.5.
+
+* The :func:`zip` built-in function and :func:`itertools.izip` now return  an
+  empty list instead of raising a :exc:`TypeError` exception if called with no
+  arguments.
+
+* You can no longer compare the :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.datetime` instances
+  provided by the :mod:`datetime` module.  Two  instances of different classes
+  will now always be unequal, and  relative comparisons (``<``, ``>``) will raise
+  a :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+* :func:`dircache.listdir` now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
+  returning empty lists.
+
+* :func:`LexicalHandler.startDTD` used to receive the public and system IDs in
+  the wrong order.  This has been corrected; applications relying on the wrong
+  order need to be fixed.
+
+* :func:`fcntl.ioctl` now warns if the *mutate*  argument is omitted and
+  relevant.
+
+* The :mod:`tarfile` module now generates GNU-format tar files by default.
+
+* Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
+  partially-initialized module object in ``sys.modules``.
+
+* :const:`None` is now a constant; code that binds a new value to  the name
+  ``None`` is now a syntax error.
+
+* The :func:`signals.signal` function now raises a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception
+  for certain illegal values; previously these errors would pass silently.  For
+  example, you can no longer set a handler on the :const:`SIGKILL` signal.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _24acks:
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Koray Can,
+Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger, Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson,
+Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin Rejeb.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.5.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.5.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
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+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.5
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling
+
+.. |release| replace:: 1.01
+
+.. $Id: whatsnew25.tex 56611 2007-07-29 08:26:10Z georg.brandl $
+.. Fix XXX comments
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 2.5.  The final release of
+Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; :pep:`356` describes the planned
+release schedule.
+
+The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
+improvements. The library enhancements will be more important to Python's user
+community, I think, because several widely-useful packages were added.  New
+modules include ElementTree for XML processing (:mod:`xml.etree`),
+the SQLite database module (:mod:`sqlite`), and the :mod:`ctypes`
+module for calling C functions.
+
+The language changes are of middling significance.  Some pleasant new features
+were added, but most of them aren't features that you'll use every day.
+Conditional expressions were finally added to the language using a novel syntax;
+see section :ref:`pep-308`.  The new ':keyword:`with`' statement will make
+writing cleanup code easier (section :ref:`pep-343`).  Values can now be passed
+into generators (section :ref:`pep-342`).  Imports are now visible as either
+absolute or relative (section :ref:`pep-328`).  Some corner cases of exception
+handling are handled better (section :ref:`pep-341`).  All these improvements
+are worthwhile, but they're improvements to one specific language feature or
+another; none of them are broad modifications to Python's semantics.
+
+As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and bugfixes
+were made throughout the source tree.  A search through the SVN change logs
+finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed between Python 2.4 and
+2.5.  (Both figures are likely to be underestimates.)
+
+This article doesn't try to be a complete specification of the new features;
+instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples.  For full
+details, you should always refer to the documentation for Python 2.5 at
+https://docs.python.org. If you want to understand the complete implementation
+and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.
+
+Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome; please
+e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug tracker.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-308:
+
+PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
+================================
+
+For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional
+expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B depending on
+whether a Boolean value is true or false.  A conditional expression lets you
+write a single assignment statement that has the same effect as the following::
+
+   if condition:
+       x = true_value
+   else:
+       x = false_value
+
+There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev and
+comp.lang.python.  A vote was even held that found the majority of voters wanted
+conditional expressions in some form, but there was no syntax that was preferred
+by a clear majority. Candidates included C's ``cond ? true_v : false_v``, ``if
+cond then true_v else false_v``, and 16 other variations.
+
+Guido van Rossum eventually chose a surprising syntax::
+
+   x = true_value if condition else false_value
+
+Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the order of
+evaluation jumps around a bit.  The *condition* expression in the middle is
+evaluated first, and the *true_value* expression is evaluated only if the
+condition was true.  Similarly, the *false_value* expression is only evaluated
+when the condition is false.
+
+This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in the
+*middle* of the expression, and not in the front as in C's ``c ? x : y``?  The
+decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules in the standard
+library and seeing how the resulting code read.  In many cases where a
+conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the 'common case' and one
+value is an 'exceptional case', used only on rarer occasions when the condition
+isn't met.  The conditional syntax makes this pattern a bit more obvious::
+
+   contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '')
+
+I read the above statement as meaning "here *contents* is  usually assigned a
+value of ``doc+'\n'``; sometimes  *doc* is empty, in which special case an empty
+string is returned."   I doubt I will use conditional expressions very often
+where there  isn't a clear common and uncommon case.
+
+There was some discussion of whether the language should require surrounding
+conditional expressions with parentheses.  The decision was made to *not*
+require parentheses in the Python language's grammar, but as a matter of style I
+think you should always use them. Consider these two statements::
+
+   # First version -- no parens
+   level = 1 if logging else 0
+
+   # Second version -- with parens
+   level = (1 if logging else 0)
+
+In the first version, I think a reader's eye might group the statement into
+'level = 1', 'if logging', 'else 0', and think that the condition decides
+whether the assignment to *level* is performed.  The second version reads
+better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the assignment is always
+performed and the choice is being made between two values.
+
+Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of list
+comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional expressions.
+See :pep:`308` for some examples.  If you put parentheses around your
+conditional expressions, you won't run into this case.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`308` - Conditional Expressions
+      PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Raymond D. Hettinger; implemented by Thomas
+      Wouters.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-309:
+
+PEP 309: Partial Function Application
+=====================================
+
+The :mod:`functools` module is intended to contain tools for functional-style
+programming.
+
+One useful tool in this module is the :func:`partial` function. For programs
+written in a functional style, you'll sometimes want to construct variants of
+existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in.  Consider a
+Python function ``f(a, b, c)``; you could create a new function ``g(b, c)`` that
+was equivalent to ``f(1, b, c)``.  This is called "partial function
+application".
+
+:func:`partial` takes the arguments ``(function, arg1, arg2, ... kwarg1=value1,
+kwarg2=value2)``.  The resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to
+invoke *function* with the filled-in arguments.
+
+Here's a small but realistic example::
+
+   import functools
+
+   def log (message, subsystem):
+       "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."
+       print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)
+       ...
+
+   server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
+   server_log('Unable to open socket')
+
+Here's another example, from a program that uses PyGTK.  Here a context-sensitive
+pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically.  The callback provided
+for the menu option is a partially applied version of the :meth:`open_item`
+method, where the first argument has been provided. ::
+
+   ...
+   class Application:
+       def open_item(self, path):
+          ...
+       def init (self):
+           open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path)
+           popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) )
+
+Another function in the :mod:`functools` module is the
+``update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)`` function that helps you write
+well-behaved decorators.  :func:`update_wrapper` copies the name, module, and
+docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside the wrapped
+function are easier to understand.  For example, you might write::
+
+   def my_decorator(f):
+       def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
+           print 'Calling decorated function'
+           return f(*args, **kwds)
+       functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
+       return wrapper
+
+:func:`wraps` is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to copy
+the wrapped function's information.  An alternate  version of the previous
+example would be::
+
+   def my_decorator(f):
+       @functools.wraps(f)
+       def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
+           print 'Calling decorated function'
+           return f(*args, **kwds)
+       return wrapper
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`309` - Partial Function Application
+      PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik Chang and Nick
+      Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-314:
+
+PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
+===================================================
+
+Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils.  The :func:`setup`
+function now has ``requires``, ``provides``, and ``obsoletes`` keyword
+parameters.  When you build a source distribution using the ``sdist`` command,
+the dependency information will be recorded in the :file:`PKG-INFO` file.
+
+Another new keyword parameter is ``download_url``, which should be set to a URL
+for the package's source code.  This means it's now possible to look up an entry
+in the package index, determine the dependencies for a package, and download the
+required packages. ::
+
+   VERSION = '1.0'
+   setup(name='PyPackage',
+         version=VERSION,
+         requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'],
+         obsoletes=['OldPackage']
+         download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz'
+                       % VERSION),
+        )
+
+Another new enhancement to the Python package index at
+https://pypi.org is storing source and binary archives for a
+package.  The new :command:`upload` Distutils command will upload a package to
+the repository.
+
+Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a distribution using
+the :command:`sdist` Distutils command.  Once that works, you can run ``python
+setup.py upload`` to add your package to the PyPI archive.  Optionally you can
+GPG-sign the package by supplying the :option:`!--sign` and :option:`!--identity`
+options.
+
+Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`314` - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
+      PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred Drake;
+      implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-328:
+
+PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
+======================================
+
+The simpler part of PEP 328 was implemented in Python 2.4: parentheses could now
+be used to enclose the names imported from a module using the ``from ... import
+...`` statement, making it easier to import many different names.
+
+The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing a module
+can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports.  The plan is to
+move toward making absolute imports the default in future versions of Python.
+
+Let's say you have a package directory like this::
+
+   pkg/
+   pkg/__init__.py
+   pkg/main.py
+   pkg/string.py
+
+This defines a package named :mod:`pkg` containing the :mod:`pkg.main` and
+:mod:`pkg.string` submodules.
+
+Consider the code in the :file:`main.py` module.  What happens if it executes
+the statement ``import string``?  In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first look
+in the package's directory to perform a relative import, finds
+:file:`pkg/string.py`, imports the contents of that file as the
+:mod:`pkg.string` module, and that module is bound to the name ``string`` in the
+:mod:`pkg.main` module's namespace.
+
+That's fine if :mod:`pkg.string` was what you wanted.  But what if you wanted
+Python's standard :mod:`string` module?  There's no clean way to ignore
+:mod:`pkg.string` and look for the standard module; generally you had to look at
+the contents of ``sys.modules``, which is slightly unclean.    Holger Krekel's
+:mod:`py.std` package provides a tidier way to perform imports from the standard
+library, ``import py; py.std.string.join()``, but that package isn't available
+on all Python installations.
+
+Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear, because a
+reader may be confused about which module, :mod:`string` or :mod:`pkg.string`,
+is intended to be used.  Python users soon learned not to duplicate the names of
+standard library modules in the names of their packages' submodules, but you
+can't protect against having your submodule's name being used for a new module
+added in a future version of Python.
+
+In Python 2.5, you can switch :keyword:`import`'s behaviour to  absolute imports
+using a ``from __future__ import absolute_import`` directive.  This absolute-import
+behaviour will become the default in a future version (probably Python
+2.7).  Once absolute imports  are the default, ``import string`` will always
+find the standard library's version. It's suggested that users should begin
+using absolute imports as much as possible, so it's preferable to begin writing
+``from pkg import string`` in your code.
+
+Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period  to the module
+name when using the ``from ... import`` form::
+
+   # Import names from pkg.string
+   from .string import name1, name2
+   # Import pkg.string
+   from . import string
+
+This imports the :mod:`string` module relative to the current package, so in
+:mod:`pkg.main` this will import *name1* and *name2* from :mod:`pkg.string`.
+Additional leading periods perform the relative import starting from the parent
+of the current package.  For example, code in the :mod:`A.B.C` module can do::
+
+   from . import D                 # Imports A.B.D
+   from .. import E                # Imports A.E
+   from ..F import G               # Imports A.F.G
+
+Leading periods cannot be used with the ``import modname``  form of the import
+statement, only the ``from ... import`` form.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`328` - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative
+      PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters.
+
+   https://pylib.readthedocs.io/
+      The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the :mod:`py.std` package.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-338:
+
+PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
+=====================================
+
+The :option:`-m` switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a script
+gained a few more abilities.  Instead of being implemented in C code inside the
+Python interpreter, the switch now uses an implementation in a new module,
+:mod:`runpy`.
+
+The :mod:`runpy` module implements a more sophisticated import mechanism so that
+it's now possible to run modules in a package such as :mod:`pychecker.checker`.
+The module also supports alternative import mechanisms such as the
+:mod:`zipimport` module.  This means you can add a .zip archive's path to
+``sys.path`` and then use the :option:`-m` switch to execute code from the
+archive.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`338` - Executing modules as scripts
+      PEP written and  implemented by Nick Coghlan.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-341:
+
+PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
+===================================
+
+Until Python 2.5, the :keyword:`try` statement came in two flavours. You could
+use a :keyword:`finally` block to ensure that code is always executed, or one or
+more :keyword:`except` blocks to catch  specific exceptions.  You couldn't
+combine both :keyword:`!except` blocks and a :keyword:`!finally` block, because
+generating the right bytecode for the combined version was complicated and it
+wasn't clear what the semantics of the combined statement should be.
+
+Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support the
+equivalent of combining :keyword:`except` blocks and a :keyword:`finally` block,
+and this clarified what the statement should mean.  In Python 2.5, you can now
+write::
+
+   try:
+       block-1 ...
+   except Exception1:
+       handler-1 ...
+   except Exception2:
+       handler-2 ...
+   else:
+       else-block
+   finally:
+       final-block
+
+The code in *block-1* is executed.  If the code raises an exception, the various
+:keyword:`except` blocks are tested: if the exception is of class
+:class:`Exception1`, *handler-1* is executed; otherwise if it's of class
+:class:`Exception2`, *handler-2* is executed, and so forth.  If no exception is
+raised, the *else-block* is executed.
+
+No matter what happened previously, the *final-block* is executed once the code
+block is complete and any raised exceptions handled. Even if there's an error in
+an exception handler or the *else-block* and a new exception is raised, the code
+in the *final-block* is still run.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`341` - Unifying try-except and try-finally
+      PEP written by Georg Brandl;  implementation by Thomas Lee.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-342:
+
+PEP 342: New Generator Features
+===============================
+
+Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values *into* a generator. As introduced in
+Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a generator's code was invoked
+to create an iterator, there was no way to pass any new information into the
+function when its execution is resumed.  Sometimes the ability to pass in some
+information would be useful.  Hackish solutions to this include making the
+generator's code look at a global variable and then changing the global
+variable's value, or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.
+
+To refresh your memory of basic generators, here's a simple example::
+
+   def counter (maximum):
+       i = 0
+       while i < maximum:
+           yield i
+           i += 1
+
+When you call ``counter(10)``, the result is an iterator that returns the values
+from 0 up to 9.  On encountering the :keyword:`yield` statement, the iterator
+returns the provided value and suspends the function's execution, preserving the
+local variables. Execution resumes on the following call to the iterator's
+:meth:`next` method, picking up after the :keyword:`!yield` statement.
+
+In Python 2.3, :keyword:`yield` was a statement; it didn't return any value.  In
+2.5, :keyword:`!yield` is now an expression, returning a value that can be
+assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on::
+
+   val = (yield i)
+
+I recommend that you always put parentheses around a :keyword:`yield` expression
+when you're doing something with the returned value, as in the above example.
+The parentheses aren't always necessary, but it's easier to always add them
+instead of having to remember when they're needed.
+
+(:pep:`342` explains the exact rules, which are that a
+:keyword:`yield`\ -expression must always be parenthesized except when it
+occurs at the top-level
+expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This means you can write
+``val = yield i`` but have to use parentheses when there's an operation, as in
+``val = (yield i) + 12``.)
+
+Values are sent into a generator by calling its ``send(value)`` method.  The
+generator's code is then resumed and the :keyword:`yield` expression returns the
+specified *value*.  If the regular :meth:`next` method is called, the
+:keyword:`!yield` returns :const:`None`.
+
+Here's the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the
+internal counter. ::
+
+   def counter (maximum):
+       i = 0
+       while i < maximum:
+           val = (yield i)
+           # If value provided, change counter
+           if val is not None:
+               i = val
+           else:
+               i += 1
+
+And here's an example of changing the counter::
+
+   >>> it = counter(10)
+   >>> print it.next()
+   0
+   >>> print it.next()
+   1
+   >>> print it.send(8)
+   8
+   >>> print it.next()
+   9
+   >>> print it.next()
+   Traceback (most recent call last):
+     File "t.py", line 15, in ?
+       print it.next()
+   StopIteration
+
+:keyword:`yield` will usually return :const:`None`, so you should always check
+for this case.  Don't just use its value in expressions unless you're sure that
+the :meth:`send` method will be the only method used to resume your generator
+function.
+
+In addition to :meth:`send`, there are two other new methods on generators:
+
+* ``throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)`` is used to raise an exception
+  inside the generator; the exception is raised by the :keyword:`yield` expression
+  where the generator's execution is paused.
+
+* :meth:`close` raises a new :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception inside the generator
+  to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this exception, the generator's code
+  must either raise :exc:`GeneratorExit` or :exc:`StopIteration`.  Catching the
+  :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception and returning a value is illegal and will trigger
+  a :exc:`RuntimeError`; if the function raises some other exception, that
+  exception is propagated to the caller.  :meth:`close` will also be called by
+  Python's garbage collector when the generator is garbage-collected.
+
+  If you need to run cleanup code when a :exc:`GeneratorExit` occurs, I suggest
+  using a ``try: ... finally:`` suite instead of  catching :exc:`GeneratorExit`.
+
+The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from one-way
+producers of information into both producers and consumers.
+
+Generators also become *coroutines*, a more generalized form of subroutines.
+Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point (the top of the
+function, and a :keyword:`return` statement), but coroutines can be entered,
+exited, and resumed at many different points (the :keyword:`yield` statements).
+We'll have to figure out patterns for using coroutines effectively in Python.
+
+The addition of the :meth:`close` method has one side effect that isn't obvious.
+:meth:`close` is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so this means the
+generator's code gets one last chance to run before the generator is destroyed.
+This last chance means that ``try...finally`` statements in generators can now
+be guaranteed to work; the :keyword:`finally` clause will now always get a
+chance to run.  The syntactic restriction that you couldn't mix :keyword:`yield`
+statements with a ``try...finally`` suite has therefore been removed.  This
+seems like a minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and
+``try...finally`` is actually necessary in order to implement the
+:keyword:`with` statement described by PEP 343.  I'll look at this new statement
+in the following  section.
+
+Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
+:attr:`gi_frame` attribute of a generator was always a frame object. It's now
+possible for :attr:`gi_frame` to be ``None`` once the generator has been
+exhausted.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`342` - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators
+      PEP written by  Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by Phillip J.
+      Eby.  Includes examples of  some fancier uses of generators as coroutines.
+
+      Earlier versions of these features were proposed in  :pep:`288` by Raymond
+      Hettinger and :pep:`325` by Samuele Pedroni.
+
+   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine
+      The Wikipedia entry for  coroutines.
+
+   http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html
+      An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by Dan Sugalski.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-343:
+
+PEP 343: The 'with' statement
+=============================
+
+The ':keyword:`with`' statement clarifies code that previously would use
+``try...finally`` blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In this
+section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.  In the next
+section, I'll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects
+for use with this statement.
+
+The ':keyword:`with`' statement is a new control-flow structure whose basic
+structure is::
+
+   with expression [as variable]:
+       with-block
+
+The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the
+context management protocol (that is, has :meth:`__enter__` and :meth:`__exit__`
+methods.
+
+The object's :meth:`__enter__` is called before *with-block* is executed and
+therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the
+name *variable*, if given.  (Note carefully that *variable* is *not* assigned
+the result of *expression*.)
+
+After execution of the *with-block* is finished, the object's :meth:`__exit__`
+method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run
+clean-up code.
+
+To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following directive
+to your module::
+
+   from __future__ import with_statement
+
+The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.
+
+Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can
+be used with the ':keyword:`with`' statement. File objects are one example::
+
+   with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
+       for line in f:
+           print line
+           ... more processing code ...
+
+After this statement has executed, the file object in *f* will have been
+automatically closed, even if the :keyword:`for` loop raised an exception
+part-way through the block.
+
+.. note::
+
+   In this case, *f* is the same object created by :func:`open`, because
+   :meth:`file.__enter__` returns *self*.
+
+The :mod:`threading` module's locks and condition variables  also support the
+':keyword:`with`' statement::
+
+   lock = threading.Lock()
+   with lock:
+       # Critical section of code
+       ...
+
+The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once  the
+block is complete.
+
+The new :func:`localcontext` function in the :mod:`decimal` module makes it easy
+to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired
+precision and rounding characteristics for computations::
+
+   from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext
+
+   # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
+   v = Decimal('578')
+   print v.sqrt()
+
+   with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
+       # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
+       # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
+       print v.sqrt()
+
+
+.. _new-25-context-managers:
+
+Writing Context Managers
+------------------------
+
+Under the hood, the ':keyword:`with`' statement is fairly complicated. Most
+people will only use ':keyword:`!with`' in company with existing objects and
+don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if
+you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the
+underlying implementation and should keep reading.
+
+A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:
+
+* The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a "context
+  manager".  The context manager must have :meth:`__enter__` and :meth:`__exit__`
+  methods.
+
+* The context manager's :meth:`__enter__` method is called.  The value returned
+  is assigned to *VAR*.  If no ``'as VAR'`` clause is present, the value is simply
+  discarded.
+
+* The code in *BLOCK* is executed.
+
+* If *BLOCK* raises an exception, the ``__exit__(type, value, traceback)``
+  is called with the exception details, the same values returned by
+  :func:`sys.exc_info`.  The method's return value controls whether the exception
+  is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and ``True`` will result
+  in suppressing it.  You'll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because
+  if you do the author of the code containing the ':keyword:`with`' statement will
+  never realize anything went wrong.
+
+* If *BLOCK* didn't raise an exception,  the :meth:`__exit__` method is still
+  called, but *type*, *value*, and *traceback* are all ``None``.
+
+Let's think through an example.  I won't present detailed code but will only
+sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions.
+
+(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the
+database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either committed,
+meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back,
+meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged.  See
+any database textbook for more information.)
+
+Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection. Our goal will
+be to let the user write code like this::
+
+   db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
+   with db_connection as cursor:
+       cursor.execute('insert into ...')
+       cursor.execute('delete from ...')
+       # ... more operations ...
+
+The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or
+rolled back if there's an exception. Here's the basic interface for
+:class:`DatabaseConnection` that I'll assume::
+
+   class DatabaseConnection:
+       # Database interface
+       def cursor (self):
+           "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
+       def commit (self):
+           "Commits current transaction"
+       def rollback (self):
+           "Rolls back current transaction"
+
+The :meth:`__enter__` method is pretty easy, having only to start a new
+transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful
+result, so the method will return it.  The user can then add ``as cursor`` to
+their ':keyword:`with`' statement to bind the cursor to a variable name. ::
+
+   class DatabaseConnection:
+       ...
+       def __enter__ (self):
+           # Code to start a new transaction
+           cursor = self.cursor()
+           return cursor
+
+The :meth:`__exit__` method is the most complicated because it's where most of
+the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an exception occurred.  If
+there was no exception, the transaction is committed.  The transaction is rolled
+back if there was an exception.
+
+In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
+returning the default value of ``None``.  ``None`` is false, so the exception
+will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be more explicit and
+add a :keyword:`return` statement at the marked location. ::
+
+   class DatabaseConnection:
+       ...
+       def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb):
+           if tb is None:
+               # No exception, so commit
+               self.commit()
+           else:
+               # Exception occurred, so rollback.
+               self.rollback()
+               # return False
+
+
+.. _contextlibmod:
+
+The contextlib module
+---------------------
+
+The new :mod:`contextlib` module provides some functions and a decorator that
+are useful for writing objects for use with the ':keyword:`with`' statement.
+
+The decorator is called :func:`contextmanager`, and lets you write a single
+generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator should yield
+exactly one value.  The code up to the :keyword:`yield` will be executed as the
+:meth:`__enter__` method, and the value yielded will be the method's return
+value that will get bound to the variable in the ':keyword:`with`' statement's
+:keyword:`!as` clause, if any.  The code after the :keyword:`yield` will be
+executed in the :meth:`__exit__` method.  Any exception raised in the block will
+be raised by the :keyword:`!yield` statement.
+
+Our database example from the previous section could be written  using this
+decorator as::
+
+   from contextlib import contextmanager
+
+   @contextmanager
+   def db_transaction (connection):
+       cursor = connection.cursor()
+       try:
+           yield cursor
+       except:
+           connection.rollback()
+           raise
+       else:
+           connection.commit()
+
+   db = DatabaseConnection()
+   with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
+       ...
+
+The :mod:`contextlib` module also has a ``nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)`` function
+that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to write nested
+':keyword:`with`' statements.  In this example, the single ':keyword:`!with`'
+statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock::
+
+   lock = threading.Lock()
+   with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
+       ...
+
+Finally, the ``closing(object)`` function returns *object* so that it can be
+bound to a variable, and calls ``object.close`` at the end of the block. ::
+
+   import urllib, sys
+   from contextlib import closing
+
+   with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
+       for line in f:
+           sys.stdout.write(line)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`343` - The "with" statement
+      PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland,
+      Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the code generated for a
+      ':keyword:`with`' statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement
+      works.
+
+   The documentation  for the :mod:`contextlib` module.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-352:
+
+PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
+========================================
+
+Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic classes, and
+the built-in :exc:`Exception` class and all the standard built-in exceptions
+(:exc:`NameError`, :exc:`ValueError`, etc.) are now new-style classes.
+
+The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit. In 2.5, the
+inheritance relationships are::
+
+   BaseException       # New in Python 2.5
+   |- KeyboardInterrupt
+   |- SystemExit
+   |- Exception
+      |- (all other current built-in exceptions)
+
+This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all exceptions
+that indicate program errors.  :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` and :exc:`SystemExit`
+aren't errors, though, and usually represent an explicit action such as the user
+hitting :kbd:`Control-C` or code calling :func:`sys.exit`.  A bare ``except:`` will
+catch all exceptions, so you commonly need to list :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` and
+:exc:`SystemExit` in order to re-raise them.  The usual pattern is::
+
+   try:
+       ...
+   except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit):
+       raise
+   except:
+       # Log error...
+       # Continue running program...
+
+In Python 2.5, you can now write ``except Exception`` to achieve the same
+result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors  but leaving
+:exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` and :exc:`SystemExit` alone.  As in previous versions,
+a bare ``except:`` still catches all exceptions.
+
+The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception to derive
+from :exc:`BaseException` or some descendant of :exc:`BaseException`, and future
+releases in the Python 2.x series may begin to enforce this constraint.
+Therefore, I suggest you begin making all your exception classes derive from
+:exc:`Exception` now.  It's been suggested that the bare ``except:`` form should
+be removed in Python 3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn't decided whether to do this
+or not.
+
+Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement ``raise "Error
+occurred"``, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning.  The aim is
+to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few releases.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`352` - Required Superclass for Exceptions
+      PEP written by  Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by Brett Cannon.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-353:
+
+PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
+========================================
+
+A wide-ranging change to Python's C API, using a new  :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` type
+definition instead of :c:type:`int`,  will permit the interpreter to handle more
+data on 64-bit platforms. This change doesn't affect Python's capacity on 32-bit
+platforms.
+
+Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C's :c:type:`int` type to store
+sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple were stored
+in an :c:type:`int`.  The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still define
+:c:type:`int` as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up to
+``2**31 - 1`` = 2147483647 items. (There are actually a few different
+programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use -- see
+http://www.unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html for a discussion -- but the
+most commonly available model leaves :c:type:`int` as 32 bits.)
+
+A limit of 2147483647 items doesn't really matter on a 32-bit platform because
+you'll run out of memory before hitting the length limit. Each list item
+requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for a
+:c:type:`PyObject` representing the item.  2147483647\*4 is already more bytes
+than a 32-bit address space can contain.
+
+It's possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however.  The
+pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so it's not
+unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that large.
+Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some type other than
+:c:type:`int`, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms.  The change
+will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was deemed worth making
+the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users is still relatively small.
+(In 5 or 10 years, we may *all* be on 64-bit machines, and the transition would
+be more painful then.)
+
+This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules.   Python
+strings and container types such as lists and tuples  now use
+:c:type:`Py_ssize_t` to store their size.   Functions such as
+:c:func:`PyList_Size`  now return :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.  Code in extension modules
+may therefore need to have some variables changed to :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.
+
+The :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` and :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` functions have a new
+conversion code, ``n``, for :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.   :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`'s
+``s#`` and ``t#`` still output :c:type:`int` by default, but you can define the
+macro  :c:macro:`PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN` before including :file:`Python.h`  to make
+them return :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.
+
+:pep:`353` has a section on conversion guidelines that  extension authors should
+read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`353` - Using ssize_t as the index type
+      PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _pep-357:
+
+PEP 357: The '__index__' method
+===============================
+
+The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a new
+special method, :meth:`__index__`.  When using slice notation, as in
+``[start:stop:step]``, the values of the *start*, *stop*, and *step* indexes
+must all be either integers or long integers.  NumPy defines a variety of
+specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and signed integers of 8,
+16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to signal that these types could be
+used as slice indexes.
+
+Slicing can't just use the existing :meth:`__int__` method because that method
+is also used to implement coercion to integers.  If slicing used
+:meth:`__int__`, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice indexes
+and that's clearly an undesirable behaviour.
+
+Instead, a new special method called :meth:`__index__` was added.  It takes no
+arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use.  For example::
+
+   class C:
+       def __index__ (self):
+           return self.value
+
+The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer. The
+interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
+:exc:`TypeError` if this requirement isn't met.
+
+A corresponding :attr:`nb_index` slot was added to the C-level
+:c:type:`PyNumberMethods` structure to let C extensions implement this protocol.
+``PyNumber_Index(obj)`` can be used in extension code to call the
+:meth:`__index__` function and retrieve its result.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`357` - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing
+      PEP written  and implemented by Travis Oliphant.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _other-lang:
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language.
+
+* The :class:`dict` type has a new hook for letting subclasses provide a default
+  value when a key isn't contained in the dictionary. When a key isn't found, the
+  dictionary's ``__missing__(key)`` method will be called.  This hook is used
+  to implement the new :class:`defaultdict` class in the :mod:`collections`
+  module.  The following example defines a dictionary  that returns zero for any
+  missing key::
+
+     class zerodict (dict):
+         def __missing__ (self, key):
+             return 0
+
+     d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2})
+     print d[1], d[2]   # Prints 1, 2
+     print d[3], d[4]   # Prints 0, 0
+
+* Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ``partition(sep)``  and
+  ``rpartition(sep)`` methods that simplify a common use case.
+
+  The ``find(S)`` method is often used to get an index which is then used to
+  slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and after the separator.
+  ``partition(sep)`` condenses this pattern into a single method call that
+  returns a 3-tuple containing the substring before the separator, the separator
+  itself, and the substring after the separator.  If the separator isn't found,
+  the first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two elements
+  are empty.  ``rpartition(sep)`` also returns a 3-tuple but starts searching
+  from the end of the string; the ``r`` stands for 'reverse'.
+
+  Some examples::
+
+     >>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://')
+     ('http', '://', 'www.python.org')
+     >>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://')
+     ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '')
+     >>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':')
+     (u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question')
+     >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.')
+     ('www.python', '.', 'org')
+     >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':')
+     ('', '', 'www.python.org')
+
+  (Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :meth:`startswith` and :meth:`endswith` methods of string types now accept
+  tuples of strings to check for. ::
+
+     def is_image_file (filename):
+         return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff'))
+
+  (Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.)
+
+  .. RFE #1491485
+
+* The :func:`min` and :func:`max` built-in functions gained a ``key`` keyword
+  parameter analogous to the ``key`` argument for :meth:`sort`.  This parameter
+  supplies a function that takes a single argument and is called for every value
+  in the list; :func:`min`/:func:`max` will return the element with the
+  smallest/largest return value from this function. For example, to find the
+  longest string in a list, you can do::
+
+     L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short']
+     # Prints 'longest'
+     print max(L, key=len)
+     # Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value
+     print max(L)
+
+  (Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Two new built-in functions, :func:`any` and :func:`all`, evaluate whether an
+  iterator contains any true or false values.  :func:`any` returns :const:`True`
+  if any value returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return
+  :const:`False`.  :func:`all` returns :const:`True` only if all of the values
+  returned by the iterator evaluate as true. (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and
+  implemented by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The result of a class's :meth:`__hash__` method can now be either a long
+  integer or a regular integer.  If a long integer is returned, the hash of that
+  value is taken.  In earlier versions the hash value was required to be a
+  regular integer, but in 2.5 the :func:`id` built-in was changed to always
+  return non-negative numbers, and users often seem to use ``id(self)`` in
+  :meth:`__hash__` methods (though this is discouraged).
+
+  .. Bug #1536021
+
+* ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It's now  a syntax error if a
+  module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn't have an
+  encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax
+  error.  See :pep:`263`  for how to declare a module's encoding; for example, you
+  might add  a line like this near the top of the source file::
+
+     # -*- coding: latin1 -*-
+
+* A new warning, :class:`UnicodeWarning`, is triggered when  you attempt to
+  compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string  that can't be converted to Unicode
+  using the default ASCII encoding.   The result of the comparison is false::
+
+     >>> chr(128) == unichr(128)   # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode
+     __main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed
+       to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them
+       as being unequal
+     False
+     >>> chr(127) == unichr(127)   # chr(127) can be converted
+     True
+
+  Previously this would raise a :class:`UnicodeDecodeError` exception, but in 2.5
+  this could result in puzzling problems when accessing a dictionary.  If you
+  looked up ``unichr(128)`` and ``chr(128)`` was being used as a key, you'd get a
+  :class:`UnicodeDecodeError` exception.  Other changes in 2.5 resulted in this
+  exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in :file:`dictobject.c`
+  that implements dictionaries.
+
+  Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but the change
+  might have broken code, so instead  :class:`UnicodeWarning` was introduced.
+
+  (Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.)
+
+* One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to include an
+  :file:`__init__.py` module in a package directory. Debugging this mistake can be
+  confusing, and usually requires running Python with the :option:`-v` switch to
+  log all the paths searched. In Python 2.5, a new :exc:`ImportWarning` warning is
+  triggered when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no
+  :file:`__init__.py` was found.  This warning is silently ignored by default;
+  provide the :option:`-Wd <-W>` option when running the Python executable to display
+  the warning message. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)
+
+* The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty.   As an
+  example, this is now legal::
+
+     class C():
+         pass
+
+  (Implemented by Brett Cannon.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _25interactive:
+
+Interactive Interpreter Changes
+-------------------------------
+
+In the interactive interpreter, ``quit`` and ``exit``  have long been strings so
+that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit::
+
+   >>> quit
+   'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.'
+
+In Python 2.5, ``quit`` and ``exit`` are now objects that still produce string
+representations of themselves, but are also callable. Newbies who try ``quit()``
+or ``exit()`` will now exit the interpreter as they expect.  (Implemented by
+Georg Brandl.)
+
+The Python executable now accepts the standard long options  :option:`--help`
+and :option:`--version`; on Windows,  it also accepts the :option:`/? <-?>` option
+for displaying a help message. (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _opts:
+
+Optimizations
+-------------
+
+Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint, an event
+held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21--28 2006. The sprint focused on speed
+enhancements to the CPython implementation and was funded by EWT LLC with local
+support from CCP Games.  Those optimizations added at this sprint are specially
+marked in the following list.
+
+* When they were introduced  in Python 2.4, the built-in :class:`set` and
+  :class:`frozenset` types were built on top of Python's dictionary type.   In 2.5
+  the internal data structure has been customized for implementing sets, and as a
+  result sets will use a third less memory and are somewhat faster. (Implemented
+  by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings, string
+  splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been improved.
+  (Substring search and splitting improvements were added by Fredrik Lundh and
+  Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint. Character maps were improved by Walter
+  Dörwald and Martin von Löwis.)
+
+  .. Patch 1313939, 1359618
+
+* The ``long(str, base)`` function is now faster on long digit strings
+  because fewer intermediate results are calculated.  The peak is for strings of
+  around 800--1000 digits where  the function is 6 times faster. (Contributed by
+  Alan McIntyre and committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
+
+  .. Patch 1442927
+
+* It's now illegal to mix iterating over a file  with ``for line in file`` and
+  calling  the file object's :meth:`read`/:meth:`readline`/:meth:`readlines`
+  methods.  Iteration uses an internal buffer and the  :meth:`read\*` methods
+  don't use that buffer.   Instead they would return the data following the
+  buffer, causing the data to appear out of order.  Mixing iteration and these
+  methods will now trigger a :exc:`ValueError` from the :meth:`read\*` method.
+  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)
+
+  .. Patch 1397960
+
+* The :mod:`struct` module now compiles structure format  strings into an
+  internal representation and caches this representation, yielding a 20% speedup.
+  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
+
+* The :mod:`re` module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to  Python's allocator
+  functions instead of the system's  :c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free`.
+  (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
+
+* The code generator's peephole optimizer now performs simple constant folding
+  in expressions.  If you write something like ``a = 2+3``, the code generator
+  will do the arithmetic and produce code corresponding to ``a = 5``.  (Proposed
+  and implemented  by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep  the most recently
+  finished frame (a "zombie frame") in an internal field of the code object,
+  reusing it the next time the code object is invoked.  (Original patch by Michael
+  Hudson, modified by Armin Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed
+  sprint.)  Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache
+  locality and reduce memory usage a bit.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)
+
+  .. Patch 876206
+  .. Patch 1337051
+
+* Python's built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change that speeds
+  up instantiation considerably.  Exception handling in Python 2.5 is therefore
+  about 30% faster than in 2.4. (Contributed by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and
+  Sean Reifschneider at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
+
+* Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether  they exist or not so
+  that the interpreter makes fewer  :c:func:`open` and :c:func:`stat` calls on
+  startup. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg Brandl.)
+
+  .. Patch 921466
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _25modules:
+
+New, Improved, and Removed Modules
+==================================
+
+The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python 2.5.
+Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by
+module name. Consult the :file:`Misc/NEWS` file in the source tree for a more
+complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
+
+* The :mod:`audioop` module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and the code for
+  u-LAW encoding has been improved.  (Contributed by Lars Immisch.)
+
+* The :mod:`codecs` module gained support for incremental codecs.  The
+  :func:`codec.lookup` function now returns a :class:`CodecInfo` instance instead
+  of a tuple. :class:`CodecInfo` instances behave like a 4-tuple to preserve
+  backward compatibility but also have the attributes :attr:`encode`,
+  :attr:`decode`, :attr:`incrementalencoder`, :attr:`incrementaldecoder`,
+  :attr:`streamwriter`, and :attr:`streamreader`.  Incremental codecs  can receive
+  input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same as if the
+  entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec. See the :mod:`codecs` module
+  documentation for details. (Designed and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)
+
+  .. Patch  1436130
+
+* The :mod:`collections` module gained a new type, :class:`defaultdict`, that
+  subclasses the standard :class:`dict` type.  The new type mostly behaves like a
+  dictionary but constructs a default value when a key isn't present,
+  automatically adding it to the dictionary for the requested key value.
+
+  The first argument to :class:`defaultdict`'s constructor is a factory function
+  that gets called whenever a key is requested but not found. This factory
+  function receives no arguments, so you can use built-in type constructors such
+  as :func:`list` or :func:`int`.  For example,  you can make an index of words
+  based on their initial letter like this::
+
+     words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
+     mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
+     che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split()
+
+     index = defaultdict(list)
+
+     for w in words:
+         init_letter = w[0]
+         index[init_letter].append(w)
+
+  Printing ``index`` results in the following output::
+
+     defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'],
+             'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'],
+             'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'],
+             'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'],
+             'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']}
+
+  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum.)
+
+* The :class:`deque` double-ended queue type supplied by the :mod:`collections`
+  module now has a ``remove(value)`` method that removes the first occurrence
+  of *value* in the queue, raising :exc:`ValueError` if the value isn't found.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* New module: The :mod:`contextlib` module contains helper functions for use
+  with the new ':keyword:`with`' statement.  See section :ref:`contextlibmod`
+  for more about this module.
+
+* New module: The :mod:`cProfile` module is a C implementation of  the existing
+  :mod:`profile` module that has much lower overhead. The module's interface is
+  the same as :mod:`profile`: you run ``cProfile.run('main()')`` to profile a
+  function, can save profile data to a file, etc.  It's not yet known if the
+  Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn't match the
+  :mod:`profile` module's interface, will continue to be maintained in future
+  versions of Python.  (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)
+
+  Also, the :mod:`pstats` module for analyzing the data measured by the profiler
+  now supports directing the output to any file object by supplying a *stream*
+  argument to the :class:`Stats` constructor. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)
+
+* The :mod:`csv` module, which parses files in comma-separated value format,
+  received several enhancements and a number of bugfixes.  You can now set the
+  maximum size in bytes of a field by calling the
+  ``csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)`` function; omitting the *new_limit*
+  argument will return the currently-set limit.  The :class:`reader` class now has
+  a :attr:`line_num` attribute that counts the number of physical lines read from
+  the source; records can span multiple physical lines, so :attr:`line_num` is not
+  the same as the number of records read.
+
+  The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields. Previously, if a
+  line ended within a quoted field without a terminating newline character, a
+  newline would be inserted into the returned field. This behavior caused problems
+  when reading files that contained carriage return characters within fields, so
+  the code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines. As a
+  consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important, the input should
+  be split into lines in a manner that preserves the newline characters.
+
+  (Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.)
+
+* The :class:`~datetime.datetime` class in the :mod:`datetime`  module now has a
+  ``strptime(string, format)``  method for parsing date strings, contributed
+  by Josh Spoerri. It uses the same format characters as :func:`time.strptime` and
+  :func:`time.strftime`::
+
+     from datetime import datetime
+
+     ts = datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
+                            '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')
+
+* The :meth:`SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks` method in the :mod:`difflib`
+  module now guarantees to return a minimal list of blocks describing matching
+  subsequences.  Previously, the algorithm would occasionally break a block of
+  matching elements into two list entries. (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)
+
+* The :mod:`doctest` module gained a ``SKIP`` option that keeps an example from
+  being executed at all.  This is intended for code snippets that are usage
+  examples intended for the reader and aren't actually test cases.
+
+  An *encoding* parameter was added to the :func:`testfile` function and the
+  :class:`DocFileSuite` class to specify the file's encoding.  This makes it
+  easier to use non-ASCII characters in  tests contained within a docstring.
+  (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)
+
+  .. Patch 1080727
+
+* The :mod:`email` package has been updated to version 4.0. (Contributed by
+  Barry Warsaw.)
+
+  .. XXX need to provide some more detail here
+
+  .. index::
+     single: universal newlines; What's new
+
+* The :mod:`fileinput` module was made more flexible. Unicode filenames are now
+  supported, and a *mode* parameter that defaults to ``"r"`` was added to the
+  :func:`input` function to allow opening files in binary or :term:`universal
+  newlines` mode.  Another new parameter, *openhook*, lets you use a function
+  other than :func:`open`  to open the input files.  Once you're iterating over
+  the set of files, the :class:`FileInput` object's new :meth:`fileno` returns
+  the file descriptor for the currently opened file. (Contributed by Georg
+  Brandl.)
+
+* In the :mod:`gc` module, the new :func:`get_count` function returns a 3-tuple
+  containing the current collection counts for the three GC generations.  This is
+  accounting information for the garbage collector; when these counts reach a
+  specified threshold, a garbage collection sweep will be made.  The existing
+  :func:`gc.collect` function now takes an optional *generation* argument of 0, 1,
+  or 2 to specify which generation to collect. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)
+
+* The :func:`nsmallest` and  :func:`nlargest` functions in the :mod:`heapq`
+  module  now support a ``key`` keyword parameter similar to the one provided by
+  the :func:`min`/:func:`max` functions and the :meth:`sort` methods.  For
+  example::
+
+     >>> import heapq
+     >>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still']
+     >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L)  # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically
+     ['longer still', 'longest']
+     >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len)   # Return two shortest elements
+     ['short', 'medium']
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :func:`itertools.islice` function now accepts ``None`` for the start and
+  step arguments.  This makes it more compatible with the attributes of slice
+  objects, so that you can now write the following::
+
+     s = slice(5)     # Create slice object
+     itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step)
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :func:`format` function in the :mod:`locale` module has been modified and
+  two new functions were added, :func:`format_string` and :func:`currency`.
+
+  The :func:`format` function's *val* parameter could previously be a string as
+  long as no more than one %char specifier appeared; now the parameter must be
+  exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.  An optional *monetary*
+  parameter was also added which, if ``True``, will use the locale's rules for
+  formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three digits.
+
+  To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
+  :func:`format_string` function that works like :func:`format` but also supports
+  mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.
+
+  A new :func:`currency` function was also added that formats a number according
+  to the current locale's settings.
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)
+
+  .. Patch 1180296
+
+* The :mod:`mailbox` module underwent a massive rewrite to add the capability to
+  modify mailboxes in addition to reading them.  A new set of classes that include
+  :class:`mbox`, :class:`MH`, and :class:`Maildir` are used to read mailboxes, and
+  have an ``add(message)`` method to add messages, ``remove(key)`` to
+  remove messages, and :meth:`lock`/:meth:`unlock` to lock/unlock the mailbox.
+  The following example converts a maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format
+  one::
+
+     import mailbox
+
+     # 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing
+     # individual messages.
+     src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)
+     dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')
+
+     for msg in src:
+         dest.add(msg)
+
+  (Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson.  Funding was provided by Google's 2005
+  Summer of Code.)
+
+* New module: the :mod:`msilib` module allows creating Microsoft Installer
+  :file:`.msi` files and CAB files.  Some support for reading the :file:`.msi`
+  database is also included. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)
+
+* The :mod:`nis` module now supports accessing domains other than the system
+  default domain by supplying a *domain* argument to the :func:`nis.match` and
+  :func:`nis.maps` functions. (Contributed by Ben Bell.)
+
+* The :mod:`operator` module's :func:`itemgetter`  and :func:`attrgetter`
+  functions now support multiple fields.   A call such as
+  ``operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')`` will return a function  that retrieves the
+  :attr:`a` and :attr:`b` attributes.  Combining  this new feature with the
+  :meth:`sort` method's ``key`` parameter  lets you easily sort lists using
+  multiple fields. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`optparse` module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the Optik library.
+  The :class:`OptionParser` class gained an :attr:`epilog` attribute, a string
+  that will be printed after the help message, and a :meth:`destroy` method to
+  break reference cycles created by the object. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)
+
+* The :mod:`os` module underwent several changes.  The :attr:`stat_float_times`
+  variable now defaults to true, meaning that :func:`os.stat` will now return time
+  values as floats.  (This doesn't necessarily mean that :func:`os.stat` will
+  return times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems support
+  such precision.)
+
+  Constants named :attr:`os.SEEK_SET`, :attr:`os.SEEK_CUR`, and
+  :attr:`os.SEEK_END` have been added; these are the parameters to the
+  :func:`os.lseek` function.  Two new constants for locking are
+  :attr:`os.O_SHLOCK` and :attr:`os.O_EXLOCK`.
+
+  Two new functions, :func:`wait3` and :func:`wait4`, were added.  They're similar
+  the :func:`waitpid` function which waits for a child process to exit and returns
+  a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but :func:`wait3` and
+  :func:`wait4` return additional information.  :func:`wait3` doesn't take a
+  process ID as input, so it waits for any child process to exit and returns a
+  3-tuple of *process-id*, *exit-status*, *resource-usage* as returned from the
+  :func:`resource.getrusage` function. ``wait4(pid)`` does take a process ID.
+  (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)
+
+  On FreeBSD, the :func:`os.stat` function now returns  times with nanosecond
+  resolution, and the returned object now has :attr:`st_gen` and
+  :attr:`st_birthtime`. The :attr:`st_flags` attribute is also available, if the
+  platform supports it. (Contributed by Antti Louko and  Diego Pettenò.)
+
+  .. (Patch 1180695, 1212117)
+
+* The Python debugger provided by the :mod:`pdb` module can now store lists of
+  commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and execution stops.  Once
+  breakpoint #1 has been created, enter ``commands 1`` and enter a series of
+  commands to be executed, finishing the list with ``end``.  The command list can
+  include commands that resume execution, such as ``continue`` or ``next``.
+  (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)
+
+  .. Patch 790710
+
+* The :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`cPickle` modules no longer accept a return value
+  of ``None`` from the :meth:`__reduce__` method; the method must return a tuple
+  of arguments instead.  The ability to return ``None`` was deprecated in Python
+  2.4, so this completes the removal of the feature.
+
+* The :mod:`pkgutil` module, containing various utility functions for finding
+  packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302's import hooks and now also works for
+  packages stored in ZIP-format archives. (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)
+
+* The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included in the
+  :file:`Tools/pybench` directory.  The pybench suite is an improvement on the
+  commonly used :file:`pystone.py` program because pybench provides a more
+  detailed measurement of the interpreter's speed.  It times particular operations
+  such as function calls, tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations,
+  instead of performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
+  single number as :file:`pystone.py` does.
+
+* The :mod:`pyexpat` module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
+  (Contributed by Trent Mick.)
+
+* The :class:`~queue.Queue` class provided by the :mod:`Queue` module gained two new
+  methods.  :meth:`join` blocks until all items in the queue have been retrieved
+  and all processing work on the items  have been completed.  Worker threads call
+  the other new method,  :meth:`task_done`, to signal that processing for an item
+  has been completed.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The old :mod:`regex` and :mod:`regsub` modules, which have been  deprecated
+  ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted.   Other deleted modules:
+  :mod:`statcache`, :mod:`tzparse`, :mod:`whrandom`.
+
+* Also deleted: the :file:`lib-old` directory, which includes ancient modules
+  such as :mod:`dircmp` and :mod:`ni`, was removed.  :file:`lib-old` wasn't on the
+  default ``sys.path``, so unless your programs explicitly added the directory to
+  ``sys.path``, this removal shouldn't affect your code.
+
+* The :mod:`rlcompleter` module is no longer  dependent on importing the
+  :mod:`readline` module and therefore now works on non-Unix platforms. (Patch
+  from Robert Kiendl.)
+
+  .. Patch #1472854
+
+* The :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` and :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer`  classes now have a
+  :attr:`rpc_paths` attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set
+  of URL paths; the default is to allow only ``'/'`` and ``'/RPC2'``.  Setting
+  :attr:`rpc_paths` to ``None`` or an empty tuple disables  this path checking.
+
+  .. Bug #1473048
+
+* The :mod:`socket` module now supports :const:`AF_NETLINK` sockets on Linux,
+  thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi.   Netlink sockets are a Linux-specific
+  mechanism for communications between a user-space process and kernel code; an
+  introductory  article about them is at https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356.
+  In Python code, netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers,
+  ``(pid, group_mask)``.
+
+  Two new methods on socket objects, ``recv_into(buffer)`` and
+  ``recvfrom_into(buffer)``, store the received data in an object  that
+  supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a string.  This
+  means you can put the data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.
+
+  Socket objects also gained :meth:`getfamily`, :meth:`gettype`, and
+  :meth:`getproto` accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and protocol
+  values for the socket.
+
+* New module: the :mod:`spwd` module provides functions for accessing the shadow
+  password database on systems that support  shadow passwords.
+
+* The :mod:`struct` is now faster because it  compiles format strings into
+  :class:`Struct` objects with :meth:`pack` and :meth:`unpack` methods.  This is
+  similar to how the :mod:`re` module lets you create compiled regular expression
+  objects.  You can still use the module-level  :func:`pack` and :func:`unpack`
+  functions; they'll create  :class:`Struct` objects and cache them.  Or you can
+  use  :class:`Struct` instances directly::
+
+     s = struct.Struct('ih3s')
+
+     data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')
+     year, number, name = s.unpack(data)
+
+  You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects directly using the
+  ``pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)`` and ``unpack_from(buffer,
+  offset)`` methods.  This lets you store data directly into an array or a
+  memory-mapped file.
+
+  (:class:`Struct` objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed
+  sprint.  Support for buffer objects was added by Martin Blais, also at the
+  NeedForSpeed sprint.)
+
+* The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the 2.5
+  development process.  Information about the exact build version is available as
+  the ``sys.subversion`` variable, a 3-tuple of ``(interpreter-name, branch-name,
+  revision-range)``.  For example, at the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was
+  reporting ``('CPython', 'trunk', '45313:45315')``.
+
+  This information is also available to C extensions via the
+  :c:func:`Py_GetBuildInfo` function that returns a  string of build information
+  like this: ``"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"``.   (Contributed by
+  Barry Warsaw.)
+
+* Another new function, :func:`sys._current_frames`, returns the current stack
+  frames for all running threads as a dictionary mapping thread identifiers to the
+  topmost stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the function is
+  called.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)
+
+* The :class:`TarFile` class in the :mod:`tarfile` module now has an
+  :meth:`extractall` method that extracts all members from the archive into the
+  current working directory.  It's also possible to set a different directory as
+  the extraction target, and to unpack only a subset of the archive's members.
+
+  The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be autodetected
+  using the mode ``'r|*'``. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)
+
+  .. patch 918101
+
+* The :mod:`threading` module now lets you set the stack size used when new
+  threads are created. The ``stack_size([*size*])`` function returns the
+  currently configured stack size, and supplying the optional *size* parameter
+  sets a new value.  Not all platforms support changing the stack size, but
+  Windows, POSIX threading, and OS/2 all do. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)
+
+  .. Patch 1454481
+
+* The :mod:`unicodedata` module has been updated to use version 4.1.0 of the
+  Unicode character database.  Version 3.2.0 is required  by some specifications,
+  so it's still available as  :attr:`unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0`.
+
+* New module: the  :mod:`uuid` module generates  universally unique identifiers
+  (UUIDs) according to :rfc:`4122`.  The RFC defines several different UUID
+  versions that are generated from a starting string, from system properties, or
+  purely randomly.  This module contains a :class:`UUID` class and  functions
+  named :func:`uuid1`, :func:`uuid3`, :func:`uuid4`,  and  :func:`uuid5` to
+  generate different versions of UUID.  (Version 2 UUIDs  are not specified in
+  :rfc:`4122` and are not supported by this module.) ::
+
+     >>> import uuid
+     >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
+     >>> uuid.uuid1()
+     UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')
+
+     >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
+     >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
+     UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')
+
+     >>> # make a random UUID
+     >>> uuid.uuid4()
+     UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')
+
+     >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
+     >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
+     UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')
+
+  (Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)
+
+* The :mod:`weakref` module's :class:`WeakKeyDictionary` and
+  :class:`WeakValueDictionary` types gained new methods for iterating over the
+  weak references contained in the dictionary.  :meth:`iterkeyrefs` and
+  :meth:`keyrefs` methods were added to :class:`WeakKeyDictionary`, and
+  :meth:`itervaluerefs` and :meth:`valuerefs` were added to
+  :class:`WeakValueDictionary`.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)
+
+* The :mod:`webbrowser` module received a number of enhancements. It's now
+  usable as a script with ``python -m webbrowser``, taking a URL as the argument;
+  there are a number of switches  to control the behaviour (:option:`!-n` for a new
+  browser window,  :option:`!-t` for a new tab).  New module-level functions,
+  :func:`open_new` and :func:`open_new_tab`, were added  to support this.  The
+  module's :func:`open` function supports an additional feature, an *autoraise*
+  parameter that signals whether to raise the open window when possible. A number
+  of additional browsers were added to the supported list such as Firefox, Opera,
+  Konqueror, and elinks.  (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)
+
+  .. Patch #754022
+
+* The :mod:`xmlrpclib` module now supports returning  :class:`~datetime.datetime` objects
+  for the XML-RPC date type.  Supply  ``use_datetime=True`` to the :func:`loads`
+  function or the :class:`Unmarshaller` class to enable this feature. (Contributed
+  by Skip Montanaro.)
+
+  .. Patch 1120353
+
+* The :mod:`zipfile` module now supports the ZIP64 version of the  format,
+  meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4 GiB and can contain
+  individual files larger than 4 GiB.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)
+
+  .. Patch 1446489
+
+* The :mod:`zlib` module's :class:`Compress` and :class:`Decompress` objects now
+  support a :meth:`copy` method that makes a copy of the  object's internal state
+  and returns a new  :class:`Compress` or :class:`Decompress` object.
+  (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)
+
+  .. Patch 1435422
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _module-ctypes:
+
+The ctypes package
+------------------
+
+The :mod:`ctypes` package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added  to the
+standard library.  :mod:`ctypes` lets you call arbitrary functions  in shared
+libraries or DLLs.  Long-time users may remember the :mod:`dl` module, which
+provides functions for loading shared libraries and calling functions in them.
+The :mod:`ctypes` package is much fancier.
+
+To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
+:class:`CDLL` class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
+Once that's done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
+attributes of the :class:`CDLL` object.   ::
+
+   import ctypes
+
+   libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
+   result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")
+
+Type constructors for the various C types are provided: :func:`c_int`,
+:func:`c_float`, :func:`c_double`, :func:`c_char_p` (equivalent to :c:type:`char
+\*`), and so forth.  Unlike Python's types, the C versions are all mutable; you
+can assign to their :attr:`value` attribute to change the wrapped value.  Python
+integers and strings will be automatically converted to the corresponding C
+types, but for other types you  must call the correct type constructor.  (And I
+mean *must*;  getting it wrong will often result in the interpreter crashing
+with a segmentation fault.)
+
+You shouldn't use :func:`c_char_p` with a Python string when the C function will
+be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are  supposed to be
+immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs.  When you need a
+modifiable memory area, use :func:`create_string_buffer`::
+
+   s = "this is a string"
+   buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
+   libc.strfry(buf)
+
+C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the :attr:`restype`
+attribute of the function object to  change this::
+
+   >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
+   -1783957616
+   >>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double
+   >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
+   2.71828
+
+:mod:`ctypes` also provides a wrapper for Python's C API  as the
+``ctypes.pythonapi`` object.  This object does *not*  release the global
+interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be held when
+calling into the interpreter's code.   There's a :class:`py_object()` type
+constructor that will create a  :c:type:`PyObject \*` pointer.  A simple usage::
+
+   import ctypes
+
+   d = {}
+   ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),
+             ctypes.py_object("abc"),  ctypes.py_object(1))
+   # d is now {'abc', 1}.
+
+Don't forget to use :class:`py_object()`; if it's omitted you end  up with a
+segmentation fault.
+
+:mod:`ctypes` has been around for a while, but people still write  and
+distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can't rely on
+:mod:`ctypes` being present. Perhaps developers will begin to write  Python
+wrappers atop a library accessed through :mod:`ctypes` instead of extension
+modules, now that :mod:`ctypes` is included with core Python.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/
+      The ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and FAQ.
+
+   The documentation  for the :mod:`ctypes` module.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _module-etree:
+
+The ElementTree package
+-----------------------
+
+A subset of Fredrik Lundh's ElementTree library for processing XML has been
+added to the standard library as :mod:`xml.etree`.  The available modules are
+:mod:`ElementTree`, :mod:`ElementPath`, and :mod:`ElementInclude` from
+ElementTree 1.2.6.    The :mod:`cElementTree` accelerator module is also
+included.
+
+The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using ElementTree.
+Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
+http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm.
+
+ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes. The text
+content of the document is stored as the :attr:`text` and :attr:`tail`
+attributes of  (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree and
+the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types of node,
+including :class:`TextNode`.)
+
+The most commonly used parsing function is :func:`parse`, that takes either a
+string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and returns an
+:class:`ElementTree` instance::
+
+   from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET
+
+   tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml')
+
+   feed = urllib.urlopen(
+             'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
+   tree = ET.parse(feed)
+
+Once you have an :class:`ElementTree` instance, you can call its :meth:`getroot`
+method to get the root :class:`Element` node.
+
+There's also an :func:`XML` function that takes a string literal and returns an
+:class:`Element` node (not an :class:`ElementTree`).   This function provides a
+tidy way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
+literal::
+
+   svg = ET.XML("""<svg width="10px" version="1.0">
+                </svg>""")
+   svg.set('height', '320px')
+   svg.append(elem1)
+
+Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access
+methods.  Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute values, and
+list-like operations are used to access child nodes.
+
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| Operation                     | Result                                     |
++===============================+============================================+
+| ``elem[n]``                   | Returns n'th child element.                |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``elem[m:n]``                 | Returns list of m'th through n'th child    |
+|                               | elements.                                  |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``len(elem)``                 | Returns number of child elements.          |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``list(elem)``                | Returns list of child elements.            |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``elem.append(elem2)``        | Adds *elem2* as a child.                   |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``elem.insert(index, elem2)`` | Inserts *elem2* at the specified location. |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``del elem[n]``               | Deletes n'th child element.                |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``elem.keys()``               | Returns list of attribute names.           |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``elem.get(name)``            | Returns value of attribute *name*.         |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``elem.set(name, value)``     | Sets new value for attribute *name*.       |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``elem.attrib``               | Retrieves the dictionary containing        |
+|                               | attributes.                                |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+| ``del elem.attrib[name]``     | Deletes attribute *name*.                  |
++-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+Comments and processing instructions are also represented as :class:`Element`
+nodes.  To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions::
+
+   if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
+       ...
+   elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
+       ...
+
+To generate XML output, you should call the :meth:`ElementTree.write` method.
+Like :func:`parse`, it can take either a string or a file-like object::
+
+   # Encoding is US-ASCII
+   tree.write('output.xml')
+
+   # Encoding is UTF-8
+   f = open('output.xml', 'w')
+   tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8')
+
+(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII.  For general XML work,
+where an element's name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters, ASCII isn't a
+very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if an element's name
+contains any characters with values greater than 127.  Therefore, it's best to
+specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that can handle any Unicode
+character.)
+
+This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree interfaces. Please
+read the package's official documentation for more details.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm
+      Official documentation for ElementTree.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _module-hashlib:
+
+The hashlib package
+-------------------
+
+A new :mod:`hashlib` module, written by Gregory P. Smith,  has been added to
+replace the :mod:`md5` and :mod:`sha` modules.  :mod:`hashlib` adds support for
+additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512). When
+available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform optimized implementations
+of algorithms.
+
+The old :mod:`md5` and :mod:`sha` modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib
+to preserve backwards compatibility.  The new module's interface is very close
+to that of the old modules, but not identical. The most significant difference
+is that the constructor functions for creating new hashing objects are named
+differently. ::
+
+   # Old versions
+   h = md5.md5()
+   h = md5.new()
+
+   # New version
+   h = hashlib.md5()
+
+   # Old versions
+   h = sha.sha()
+   h = sha.new()
+
+   # New version
+   h = hashlib.sha1()
+
+   # Hash that weren't previously available
+   h = hashlib.sha224()
+   h = hashlib.sha256()
+   h = hashlib.sha384()
+   h = hashlib.sha512()
+
+   # Alternative form
+   h = hashlib.new('md5')          # Provide algorithm as a string
+
+Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
+``update(string)`` hashes the specified string into the  current digest
+state, :meth:`digest` and :meth:`hexdigest` return the digest value as a binary
+string or a string of hex digits, and :meth:`copy` returns a new hashing object
+with the same digest state.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The documentation  for the :mod:`hashlib` module.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _module-sqlite:
+
+The sqlite3 package
+-------------------
+
+The pysqlite module (http://www.pysqlite.org), a wrapper for the SQLite embedded
+database, has been added to the standard library under the package name
+:mod:`sqlite3`.
+
+SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database that
+doesn't require a separate server process and allows accessing the database
+using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language. Some applications can use
+SQLite for internal data storage.  It's also possible to prototype an
+application using SQLite and then port the code to a larger database such as
+PostgreSQL or Oracle.
+
+pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface compliant
+with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by :pep:`249`.
+
+If you're compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source tree
+doesn't include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module. You'll need to have
+the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling Python, and the
+build process will compile the module when the necessary headers are available.
+
+To use the module, you must first create a :class:`Connection` object that
+represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
+:file:`/tmp/example` file::
+
+   conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example')
+
+You can also supply the special name ``:memory:`` to create a database in RAM.
+
+Once you have a :class:`Connection`, you can create a :class:`Cursor`  object
+and call its :meth:`execute` method to perform SQL commands::
+
+   c = conn.cursor()
+
+   # Create table
+   c.execute('''create table stocks
+   (date text, trans text, symbol text,
+    qty real, price real)''')
+
+   # Insert a row of data
+   c.execute("""insert into stocks
+             values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")
+
+Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python variables.  You
+shouldn't assemble your query using Python's string operations because doing so
+is insecure; it makes your program vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.
+
+Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution.  Put ``?`` as a placeholder
+wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple of values as the
+second argument to the cursor's :meth:`execute` method.  (Other database modules
+may use a different placeholder, such as ``%s`` or ``:1``.) For example::
+
+   # Never do this -- insecure!
+   symbol = 'IBM'
+   c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol)
+
+   # Do this instead
+   t = (symbol,)
+   c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t)
+
+   # Larger example
+   for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
+             ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00),
+             ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
+            ):
+       c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)
+
+To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either  treat the
+cursor as an iterator, call the cursor's :meth:`fetchone` method to retrieve a
+single matching row,  or call :meth:`fetchall` to get a list of the matching
+rows.
+
+This example uses the iterator form::
+
+   >>> c = conn.cursor()
+   >>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price')
+   >>> for row in c:
+   ...    print row
+   ...
+   (u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001)
+   (u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
+   (u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0)
+   (u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0)
+   >>>
+
+For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see
+https://www.sqlite.org.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   http://www.pysqlite.org
+      The pysqlite web page.
+
+   https://www.sqlite.org
+      The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the available
+      data types for the supported SQL dialect.
+
+   The documentation  for the :mod:`sqlite3` module.
+
+   :pep:`249` - Database API Specification 2.0
+      PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _module-wsgiref:
+
+The wsgiref package
+-------------------
+
+The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard interface
+between web servers and Python web applications and is described in :pep:`333`.
+The :mod:`wsgiref` package is a reference implementation of the WSGI
+specification.
+
+.. XXX should this be in a PEP 333 section instead?
+
+The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI application; this
+server is useful for debugging but isn't intended for  production use.  Setting
+up a server takes only a few lines of code::
+
+   from wsgiref import simple_server
+
+   wsgi_app = ...
+
+   host = ''
+   port = 8000
+   httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app)
+   httpd.serve_forever()
+
+.. XXX discuss structure of WSGI applications?
+.. XXX provide an example using Django or some other framework?
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   http://www.wsgi.org
+      A central web site for WSGI-related resources.
+
+   :pep:`333` - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0
+      PEP written by Phillip J. Eby.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _build-api:
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
+
+* The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion,  in a complex
+  migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly carried out by Martin von
+  Löwis.  The procedure was developed as :pep:`347`.
+
+* Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called Prevent,
+  provided the results of their examination of the Python source code.  The
+  analysis found about 60 bugs that  were quickly fixed.  Many of the bugs were
+  refcounting problems, often occurring in error-handling code.  See
+  https://scan.coverity.com for the statistics.
+
+* The largest change to the C API came from :pep:`353`, which modifies the
+  interpreter to use a :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` type definition instead of
+  :c:type:`int`.  See the earlier section :ref:`pep-353` for a discussion of this
+  change.
+
+* The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal,  no longer
+  generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree.  Instead the parse tree is
+  converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST), and it is  the abstract syntax
+  tree that's traversed to produce the bytecode.
+
+  It's possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the
+  :func:`compile` built-in and specifying ``_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST`` as the value of
+  the  *flags* parameter::
+
+     from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST
+     ast = compile("""a=0
+     for i in range(10):
+         a += i
+     """, "<string>", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST)
+
+     assignment = ast.body[0]
+     for_loop = ast.body[1]
+
+  No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet, but :pep:`339`
+  discusses the design.  To start learning about the code, read the definition of
+  the various AST nodes in :file:`Parser/Python.asdl`.  A Python script reads this
+  file and generates a set of C structure definitions in
+  :file:`Include/Python-ast.h`.  The :c:func:`PyParser_ASTFromString` and
+  :c:func:`PyParser_ASTFromFile`, defined in :file:`Include/pythonrun.h`, take
+  Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing the contents.
+  This AST can then be turned into a code object by :c:func:`PyAST_Compile`.  For
+  more information, read the source code, and then ask questions on python-dev.
+
+  The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton's management, and implemented by
+  (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan, Grant Edwards, John
+  Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil
+  Schemenauer, plus the participants in a number of AST sprints at conferences
+  such as PyCon.
+
+  .. List of names taken from Jeremy's python-dev post at
+  .. https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2005-October/057500.html
+
+* Evan Jones's patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon DC 2005,
+  was applied.  Python 2.4 allocated small objects in 256K-sized arenas, but never
+  freed arenas.  With this patch, Python will free arenas when they're empty.  The
+  net effect is that on some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python's
+  memory usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be
+  returned to the operating system.  (Implemented by Evan Jones, and reworked by
+  Tim Peters.)
+
+  Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful when
+  allocating memory.  Python's API has many different functions for allocating
+  memory that are grouped into families.  For example, :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`,
+  :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc`, and :c:func:`PyMem_Free` are one family that allocates
+  raw memory, while :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`, :c:func:`PyObject_Realloc`, and
+  :c:func:`PyObject_Free` are another family that's supposed to be used for
+  creating Python objects.
+
+  Previously these different families all reduced to the platform's
+  :c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free` functions.  This meant  it didn't matter if
+  you got things wrong and allocated memory with the :c:func:`PyMem` function but
+  freed it with the :c:func:`PyObject` function.  With 2.5's changes to obmalloc,
+  these families now do different things and mismatches will probably result in a
+  segfault.  You should carefully test your C extension modules with Python 2.5.
+
+* The built-in set types now have an official C API.  Call :c:func:`PySet_New`
+  and :c:func:`PyFrozenSet_New` to create a new set, :c:func:`PySet_Add` and
+  :c:func:`PySet_Discard` to add and remove elements, and :c:func:`PySet_Contains`
+  and :c:func:`PySet_Size` to examine the set's state. (Contributed by Raymond
+  Hettinger.)
+
+* C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the Python
+  interpreter by calling the  :c:func:`Py_GetBuildInfo` function that returns a
+  string of build information like this: ``"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006,
+  07:42:19"``.   (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)
+
+* Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local to the
+  current file so that a faster calling convention can be used.
+  ``Py_LOCAL(type)`` declares the function as returning a value of the
+  specified *type* and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
+  ``Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)`` does the same thing and also requests the
+  function be inlined.  If :c:func:`PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE` is defined before
+  :file:`python.h` is included, a set of more aggressive optimizations are enabled
+  for the module; you should benchmark the results to find out if these
+  optimizations actually make the code faster.  (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at
+  the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
+
+* ``PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)`` can now accept a tuple of base
+  classes as its *base* argument.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)
+
+* The :c:func:`PyErr_Warn` function for issuing warnings is now deprecated in
+  favour of ``PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)`` which lets you
+  specify the number of stack frames separating this function and the caller.  A
+  *stacklevel* of 1 is the function calling :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx`, 2 is the
+  function above that, and so forth.  (Added by Neal Norwitz.)
+
+* The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but  the code can now be
+  compiled with a C++ compiler without errors.   (Implemented by Anthony Baxter,
+  Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)
+
+* The :c:func:`PyRange_New` function was removed.  It was never documented, never
+  used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error checking.  In the unlikely
+  case that your extensions were using it, you can replace it by something like
+  the following::
+
+     range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll",
+                                   start, stop, step);
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _ports:
+
+Port-Specific Changes
+---------------------
+
+* MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the
+  :c:func:`dlopen` function instead of MacOS-specific functions.
+
+* MacOS X: an :option:`!--enable-universalsdk` switch was added to the
+  :program:`configure` script that compiles the interpreter as a universal binary
+  able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors. (Contributed by Ronald
+  Oussoren; :issue:`2573`.)
+
+* Windows: :file:`.dll` is no longer supported as a filename extension for
+  extension modules.  :file:`.pyd` is now the only filename extension that will be
+  searched for.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _porting:
+
+Porting to Python 2.5
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your
+code:
+
+* ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It's now  a syntax error if a
+  module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn't have an
+  encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax
+  error.
+
+* Previously, the :attr:`gi_frame` attribute of a generator was always a frame
+  object.  Because of the :pep:`342` changes described in section :ref:`pep-342`,
+  it's now possible for :attr:`gi_frame` to be ``None``.
+
+* A new warning, :class:`UnicodeWarning`, is triggered when  you attempt to
+  compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't be converted to Unicode
+  using the default ASCII encoding.  Previously such comparisons would raise a
+  :class:`UnicodeDecodeError` exception.
+
+* Library: the :mod:`csv` module is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields.
+  If your files contain newlines embedded within fields, the input should be split
+  into lines in a manner which preserves the newline characters.
+
+* Library: the :mod:`locale` module's  :func:`format` function's would
+  previously  accept any string as long as no more than one %char specifier
+  appeared.  In Python 2.5, the argument must be exactly one %char specifier with
+  no surrounding text.
+
+* Library: The :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`cPickle` modules no longer accept a
+  return value of ``None`` from the :meth:`__reduce__` method; the method must
+  return a tuple of arguments instead.  The modules also no longer accept the
+  deprecated *bin* keyword parameter.
+
+* Library: The :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` and :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer`  classes now
+  have a :attr:`rpc_paths` attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a
+  limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only ``'/'`` and ``'/RPC2'``.
+  Setting  :attr:`rpc_paths` to ``None`` or an empty tuple disables  this path
+  checking.
+
+* C API: Many functions now use :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`  instead of :c:type:`int` to
+  allow processing more data on 64-bit machines.  Extension code may need to make
+  the same change to avoid warnings and to support 64-bit machines.  See the
+  earlier section :ref:`pep-353` for a discussion of this change.
+
+* C API:  The obmalloc changes mean that  you must be careful to not mix usage
+  of the :c:func:`PyMem_\*` and :c:func:`PyObject_\*` families of functions. Memory
+  allocated with  one family's :c:func:`\*_Malloc` must be  freed with the
+  corresponding family's :c:func:`\*_Free` function.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Georg Brandl,
+Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel, Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W.
+Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew
+McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike
+Rovner, Scott Weikart, Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.6.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.6.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6174a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.6.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3315 @@
+.. _whats-new-in-2.6:
+
+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.6
+****************************
+
+.. XXX add trademark info for Apple, Microsoft, SourceForge.
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)
+
+.. $Id$
+   Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number in a parenthetical comment.
+
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer; :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer some effort going through the SVN logs
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on October 1
+2008.  The release schedule is described in :pep:`361`.
+
+The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to
+Python 3.0, a major redesign of the language.  Whenever possible,
+Python 2.6 incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while
+remaining compatible with existing code by not removing older features
+or syntax.  When it's not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do
+what it can, adding compatibility functions in a
+:mod:`future_builtins` module and a :option:`!-3` switch to warn about
+usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.
+
+Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
+such as the :mod:`multiprocessing` and :mod:`json` modules, but
+there aren't many new features that aren't related to Python 3.0 in
+some way.
+
+Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout
+the source.  A search through the change logs finds there were 259
+patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6.  Both
+figures are likely to be underestimates.
+
+This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of
+the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For
+full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6. If
+you want to understand the rationale for the design and
+implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.
+Whenever possible, "What's New in Python" links to the bug/patch item
+for each change.
+
+.. Compare with previous release in 2 - 3 sentences here.
+   add hyperlink when the documentation becomes available online.
+
+.. ========================================================================
+.. Large, PEP-level features and changes should be described here.
+.. ========================================================================
+
+Python 3.0
+================
+
+The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was
+synchronized, with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being
+made on the same days.  The development of 3.0 has influenced many
+features in 2.6.
+
+Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks
+compatibility with the 2.x series.  This means that existing Python
+code will need some conversion in order to run on
+Python 3.0.  However, not all the changes in 3.0 necessarily break
+compatibility.  In cases where new features won't cause existing code
+to break, they've been backported to 2.6 and are described in this
+document in the appropriate place.  Some of the 3.0-derived features
+are:
+
+* A :meth:`__complex__` method for converting objects to a complex number.
+* Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ``except TypeError as exc``.
+* The addition of :func:`functools.reduce` as a synonym for the built-in
+  :func:`reduce` function.
+
+Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the
+semantics of some existing builtins.  Functions that are new in 3.0
+such as :func:`bin` have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing
+builtins haven't been changed; instead, the :mod:`future_builtins`
+module has versions with the new 3.0 semantics.  Code written to be
+compatible with 3.0 can do ``from future_builtins import hex, map`` as
+necessary.
+
+A new command-line switch, :option:`!-3`, enables warnings
+about features that will be removed in Python 3.0.  You can run code
+with this switch to see how much work will be necessary to port
+code to 3.0.  The value of this switch is available
+to Python code as the boolean variable :data:`sys.py3kwarning`,
+and to C extension code as :c:data:`Py_Py3kWarningFlag`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The 3xxx series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0.
+   :pep:`3000` describes the development process for Python 3.0.
+   Start with :pep:`3100` that describes the general goals for Python
+   3.0, and then explore the higher-numbered PEPS that propose
+   specific features.
+
+
+Changes to the Development Process
+==================================================
+
+While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process
+underwent two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge's
+issue tracker to a customized Roundup installation, and the
+documentation was converted from LaTeX to reStructuredText.
+
+
+New Issue Tracker: Roundup
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly
+annoyed by SourceForge's bug tracker.  SourceForge's hosted solution
+doesn't permit much customization; for example, it wasn't possible to
+customize the life cycle of issues.
+
+The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation
+therefore posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set
+up different products and import some of the bugs and patches from
+SourceForge.  Four different trackers were examined: `Jira
+<https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/>`__,
+`Launchpad <https://launchpad.net/>`__,
+`Roundup <http://roundup.sourceforge.net/>`__, and
+`Trac <https://trac.edgewall.org/>`__.
+The committee eventually settled on Jira
+and Roundup as the two candidates.  Jira is a commercial product that
+offers no-cost hosted instances to free-software projects; Roundup
+is an open-source project that requires volunteers
+to administer it and a server to host it.
+
+After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was
+set up at https://bugs.python.org.  One installation of Roundup can
+host multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers
+for Jython and for the Python web site.  It will surely find
+other uses in the future.  Where possible,
+this edition of "What's New in Python" links to the bug/patch
+item for each change.
+
+Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by
+`Upfront Systems <http://www.upfrontsoftware.co.za>`__
+of Stellenbosch, South Africa.  Martin von Löwis put a
+lot of effort into importing existing bugs and patches from
+SourceForge; his scripts for this import operation are at
+http://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/ and may be useful to
+other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+  https://bugs.python.org
+    The Python bug tracker.
+
+  http://bugs.jython.org:
+    The Jython bug tracker.
+
+  http://roundup.sourceforge.net/
+    Roundup downloads and documentation.
+
+  http://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/
+    Martin von Löwis's conversion scripts.
+
+New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project
+started around 1989.  In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation
+was printed out for later study, not viewed online. LaTeX was widely
+used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining
+straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were
+learned.
+
+Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for
+printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted.  We no
+longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it
+online and HTML has become the most important format to support.
+Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred
+L. Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot
+of time maintaining the conversion process.  Occasionally people would
+suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but
+performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed
+the time required to finish the job.
+
+During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort
+into building a new toolchain for processing the documentation.  The
+resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
+http://sphinx-doc.org/.
+
+Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
+modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
+LaTeX.  The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax
+supporting custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in
+the Python community.
+
+Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and
+almost two dozen other projects
+(`listed on the Sphinx web site <https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html>`__)
+have adopted Sphinx as their documentation tool.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   `Documenting Python <https://devguide.python.org/documenting/>`__
+       Describes how to write for Python's documentation.
+
+   `Sphinx <http://sphinx-doc.org/>`__
+     Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.
+
+   `Docutils <http://docutils.sourceforge.net>`__
+     The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.
+
+
+.. _pep-0343:
+
+PEP 343: The 'with' statement
+=============================
+
+The previous version, Python 2.5, added the ':keyword:`with`'
+statement as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ``from __future__
+import with_statement`` directive.  In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to
+be specially enabled; this means that :keyword:`!with` is now always a
+keyword.  The rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding
+section from the "What's New in Python 2.5" document; if you're
+familiar with the ':keyword:`!with`' statement
+from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.
+
+The ':keyword:`with`' statement clarifies code that previously would use
+``try...finally`` blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In this
+section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.  In the next
+section, I'll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects
+for use with this statement.
+
+The ':keyword:`with`' statement is a control-flow structure whose basic
+structure is::
+
+   with expression [as variable]:
+       with-block
+
+The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the
+context management protocol (that is, has :meth:`__enter__` and :meth:`__exit__`
+methods).
+
+The object's :meth:`__enter__` is called before *with-block* is executed and
+therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the
+name *variable*, if given.  (Note carefully that *variable* is *not* assigned
+the result of *expression*.)
+
+After execution of the *with-block* is finished, the object's :meth:`__exit__`
+method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run
+clean-up code.
+
+Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can
+be used with the ':keyword:`with`' statement. File objects are one example::
+
+   with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
+       for line in f:
+           print line
+           ... more processing code ...
+
+After this statement has executed, the file object in *f* will have been
+automatically closed, even if the :keyword:`for` loop raised an exception
+part-way through the block.
+
+.. note::
+
+   In this case, *f* is the same object created by :func:`open`, because
+   :meth:`file.__enter__` returns *self*.
+
+The :mod:`threading` module's locks and condition variables  also support the
+':keyword:`with`' statement::
+
+   lock = threading.Lock()
+   with lock:
+       # Critical section of code
+       ...
+
+The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once  the
+block is complete.
+
+The :func:`localcontext` function in the :mod:`decimal` module makes it easy
+to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired
+precision and rounding characteristics for computations::
+
+   from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext
+
+   # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
+   v = Decimal('578')
+   print v.sqrt()
+
+   with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
+       # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
+       # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
+       print v.sqrt()
+
+
+.. _new-26-context-managers:
+
+Writing Context Managers
+------------------------
+
+Under the hood, the ':keyword:`with`' statement is fairly complicated. Most
+people will only use ':keyword:`!with`' in company with existing objects and
+don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if
+you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the
+underlying implementation and should keep reading.
+
+A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:
+
+* The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a "context
+  manager".  The context manager must have :meth:`__enter__` and :meth:`__exit__`
+  methods.
+
+* The context manager's :meth:`__enter__` method is called.  The value returned
+  is assigned to *VAR*.  If no ``as VAR`` clause is present, the value is simply
+  discarded.
+
+* The code in *BLOCK* is executed.
+
+* If *BLOCK* raises an exception, the context manager's :meth:`__exit__` method
+  is called with three arguments, the exception details (``type, value, traceback``,
+  the same values returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`, which can also be ``None``
+  if no exception occurred).  The method's return value controls whether an exception
+  is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and ``True`` will result
+  in suppressing it.  You'll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because
+  if you do the author of the code containing the ':keyword:`with`' statement will
+  never realize anything went wrong.
+
+* If *BLOCK* didn't raise an exception,  the :meth:`__exit__` method is still
+  called, but *type*, *value*, and *traceback* are all ``None``.
+
+Let's think through an example.  I won't present detailed code but will only
+sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions.
+
+(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the
+database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either committed,
+meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back,
+meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged.  See
+any database textbook for more information.)
+
+Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection. Our goal will
+be to let the user write code like this::
+
+   db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
+   with db_connection as cursor:
+       cursor.execute('insert into ...')
+       cursor.execute('delete from ...')
+       # ... more operations ...
+
+The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or
+rolled back if there's an exception. Here's the basic interface for
+:class:`DatabaseConnection` that I'll assume::
+
+   class DatabaseConnection:
+       # Database interface
+       def cursor(self):
+           "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
+       def commit(self):
+           "Commits current transaction"
+       def rollback(self):
+           "Rolls back current transaction"
+
+The :meth:`__enter__` method is pretty easy, having only to start a new
+transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful
+result, so the method will return it.  The user can then add ``as cursor`` to
+their ':keyword:`with`' statement to bind the cursor to a variable name. ::
+
+   class DatabaseConnection:
+       ...
+       def __enter__(self):
+           # Code to start a new transaction
+           cursor = self.cursor()
+           return cursor
+
+The :meth:`__exit__` method is the most complicated because it's where most of
+the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an exception occurred.  If
+there was no exception, the transaction is committed.  The transaction is rolled
+back if there was an exception.
+
+In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
+returning the default value of ``None``.  ``None`` is false, so the exception
+will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be more explicit and
+add a :keyword:`return` statement at the marked location. ::
+
+   class DatabaseConnection:
+       ...
+       def __exit__(self, type, value, tb):
+           if tb is None:
+               # No exception, so commit
+               self.commit()
+           else:
+               # Exception occurred, so rollback.
+               self.rollback()
+               # return False
+
+
+.. _new-module-contextlib:
+
+The contextlib module
+---------------------
+
+The :mod:`contextlib` module provides some functions and a decorator that
+are useful when writing objects for use with the ':keyword:`with`' statement.
+
+The decorator is called :func:`contextmanager`, and lets you write a single
+generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator should yield
+exactly one value.  The code up to the :keyword:`yield` will be executed as the
+:meth:`__enter__` method, and the value yielded will be the method's return
+value that will get bound to the variable in the ':keyword:`with`' statement's
+:keyword:`!as` clause, if any.  The code after the :keyword:`!yield` will be
+executed in the :meth:`__exit__` method.  Any exception raised in the block will
+be raised by the :keyword:`!yield` statement.
+
+Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
+could be written as::
+
+   from contextlib import contextmanager
+
+   @contextmanager
+   def db_transaction(connection):
+       cursor = connection.cursor()
+       try:
+           yield cursor
+       except:
+           connection.rollback()
+           raise
+       else:
+           connection.commit()
+
+   db = DatabaseConnection()
+   with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
+       ...
+
+The :mod:`contextlib` module also has a ``nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)`` function
+that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to write nested
+':keyword:`with`' statements.  In this example, the single ':keyword:`!with`'
+statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock::
+
+   lock = threading.Lock()
+   with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
+       ...
+
+Finally, the :func:`closing` function returns its argument so that it can be
+bound to a variable, and calls the argument's ``.close()`` method at the end
+of the block. ::
+
+   import urllib, sys
+   from contextlib import closing
+
+   with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
+       for line in f:
+           sys.stdout.write(line)
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`343` - The "with" statement
+      PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland,
+      Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the code generated for a
+      ':keyword:`with`' statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement
+      works.
+
+   The documentation  for the :mod:`contextlib` module.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-0366:
+
+PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
+============================================================
+
+Python's :option:`-m` switch allows running a module as a script.
+When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
+imports didn't work correctly.
+
+The fix for Python 2.6 adds a :attr:`__package__` attribute to
+modules.  When this attribute is present, relative imports will be
+relative to the value of this attribute instead of the
+:attr:`__name__` attribute.
+
+PEP 302-style importers can then set :attr:`__package__` as necessary.
+The :mod:`runpy` module that implements the :option:`-m` switch now
+does this, so relative imports will now work correctly in scripts
+running from inside a package.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-0370:
+
+PEP 370: Per-user ``site-packages`` Directory
+=====================================================
+
+When you run Python, the module search path ``sys.path`` usually
+includes a directory whose path ends in ``"site-packages"``.  This
+directory is intended to hold locally-installed packages available to
+all users using a machine or a particular site installation.
+
+Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories.
+The directory varies depending on the platform:
+
+* Unix and Mac OS X: :file:`~/.local/`
+* Windows: :file:`%APPDATA%/Python`
+
+Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories,
+such as :file:`lib/python2.6/site-packages` on Unix/Mac OS and
+:file:`Python26/site-packages` on Windows.
+
+If you don't like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
+environment variable.  :envvar:`PYTHONUSERBASE` sets the root
+directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature.  On
+Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
+setting the :envvar:`APPDATA` environment variable.  You can also
+modify the :file:`site.py` file for your Python installation.
+
+The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the
+:option:`-s` option or setting the :envvar:`PYTHONNOUSERSITE`
+environment variable.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`370` - Per-user ``site-packages`` Directory
+     PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes.
+
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-0371:
+
+PEP 371: The ``multiprocessing`` Package
+=====================================================
+
+The new :mod:`multiprocessing` package lets Python programs create new
+processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the
+parent.  The parent and child processes can communicate using queues
+and pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores,
+and can share simple arrays of data.
+
+The :mod:`multiprocessing` module started out as an exact emulation of
+the :mod:`threading` module using processes instead of threads.  That
+goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
+approach of the module is still similar.  The fundamental class
+is the :class:`Process`, which is passed a callable object and
+a collection of arguments.  The :meth:`start` method
+sets the callable running in a subprocess, after which you can call
+the :meth:`is_alive` method to check whether the subprocess is still running
+and the :meth:`join` method to wait for the process to exit.
+
+Here's a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a
+factorial.  The function doing the calculation is written strangely so
+that it takes significantly longer when the input argument is a
+multiple of 4.
+
+::
+
+    import time
+    from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
+
+
+    def factorial(queue, N):
+        "Compute a factorial."
+        # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.
+        if (N % 4) == 0:
+            time.sleep(.05 * N/4)
+
+        # Calculate the result
+        fact = 1L
+        for i in range(1, N+1):
+            fact = fact * i
+
+        # Put the result on the queue
+        queue.put(fact)
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        queue = Queue()
+
+        N = 5
+
+        p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N))
+        p.start()
+        p.join()
+
+        result = queue.get()
+        print 'Factorial', N, '=', result
+
+A :class:`~queue.Queue` is used to communicate the result of the factorial.
+The :class:`~queue.Queue` object is stored in a global variable.
+The child process will use the value of the variable when the child
+was created; because it's a :class:`~queue.Queue`, parent and child can use
+the object to communicate.  (If the parent were to change the value of
+the global variable, the child's value would be unaffected, and vice
+versa.)
+
+Two other classes, :class:`Pool` and :class:`Manager`, provide
+higher-level interfaces.  :class:`Pool` will create a fixed number of
+worker processes, and requests can then be distributed to the workers
+by calling :meth:`apply` or :meth:`apply_async` to add a single request,
+and :meth:`map` or :meth:`map_async` to add a number of
+requests.  The following code uses a :class:`Pool` to spread requests
+across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list of results::
+
+    from multiprocessing import Pool
+
+    def factorial(N, dictionary):
+        "Compute a factorial."
+        ...
+    p = Pool(5)
+    result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10))
+    for v in result:
+        print v
+
+This produces the following output::
+
+    1
+    39916800
+    51090942171709440000
+    8222838654177922817725562880000000
+    33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
+    ...
+
+The other high-level interface, the :class:`Manager` class, creates a
+separate server process that can hold master copies of Python data
+structures.  Other processes can then access and modify these data
+structures using proxy objects.  The following example creates a
+shared dictionary by calling the :meth:`dict` method; the worker
+processes then insert values into the dictionary.  (Locking is not
+done for you automatically, which doesn't matter in this example.
+:class:`Manager`'s methods also include :meth:`Lock`, :meth:`RLock`,
+and :meth:`Semaphore` to create shared locks.)
+
+::
+
+    import time
+    from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager
+
+    def factorial(N, dictionary):
+        "Compute a factorial."
+        # Calculate the result
+        fact = 1L
+        for i in range(1, N+1):
+            fact = fact * i
+
+        # Store result in dictionary
+        dictionary[N] = fact
+
+    if __name__ == '__main__':
+        p = Pool(5)
+        mgr = Manager()
+        d = mgr.dict()         # Create shared dictionary
+
+        # Run tasks using the pool
+        for N in range(1, 1000, 10):
+            p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d))
+
+        # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.
+        p.close()
+
+        # Wait for tasks to exit
+        p.join()
+
+        # Output results
+        for k, v in sorted(d.items()):
+            print k, v
+
+This will produce the output::
+
+    1 1
+    11 39916800
+    21 51090942171709440000
+    31 8222838654177922817725562880000000
+    41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
+    51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000...
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The documentation for the :mod:`multiprocessing` module.
+
+   :pep:`371` - Addition of the multiprocessing package
+     PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk;
+     implemented by Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.
+
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3101:
+
+PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
+=====================================================
+
+In Python 3.0, the `%` operator is supplemented by a more powerful string
+formatting method, :meth:`format`.  Support for the :meth:`str.format` method
+has been backported to Python 2.6.
+
+In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a `.format()` method that
+treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted.
+The formatting template uses curly brackets (`{`, `}`) as special characters::
+
+     >>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.
+     >>> "User ID: {0}".format("root")
+     'User ID: root'
+     >>> # Use the named keyword arguments
+     >>> "User ID: {uid}   Last seen: {last_login}".format(
+     ...    uid="root",
+     ...    last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20")
+     'User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20'
+
+Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them::
+
+     >>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format()
+     "Empty dict: {}"
+
+Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as
+``{0}``, ``{1}``, etc. or names of keyword arguments.  You can also
+supply compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys::
+
+    >>> import sys
+    >>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys)
+    Platform: darwin
+    Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)
+    [GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]'
+
+    >>> import mimetypes
+    >>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map)
+    'Content-type: video/mp4'
+
+Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as ``[.mp4]``, you
+don't need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look
+up the value using ``.mp4`` as the key.  Strings beginning with a
+number will be converted to an integer.  You can't write more
+complicated expressions inside a format string.
+
+So far we've shown how to specify which field to substitute into the
+resulting string.  The precise formatting used is also controllable by
+adding a colon followed by a format specifier.  For example::
+
+     >>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters
+     >>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters
+     >>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}'
+     >>> fmt.format('Registration', 35)
+     'Registration    $    35'
+     >>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50)
+     'Tutorial        $    50'
+     >>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125)
+     'Banquet         $   125'
+
+Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting::
+
+    >>> fmt = '{0:{1}}'
+    >>> width = 15
+    >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
+    'Invoice #1234  '
+    >>> width = 35
+    >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
+    'Invoice #1234                      '
+
+The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:
+
+================ ============================================
+Character        Effect
+================ ============================================
+< (default)      Left-align
+>                Right-align
+^                Center
+=                (For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.
+================ ============================================
+
+Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which
+controls how the value is formatted.  For example, floating-point numbers
+can be formatted as a general number or in exponential notation::
+
+    >>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75)
+    '3.75'
+    >>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75)
+    '3.750000e+00'
+
+A variety of presentation types are available.  Consult the 2.6
+documentation for a :ref:`complete list <formatstrings>`; here's a sample:
+
+===== ========================================================================
+``b`` Binary. Outputs the number in base 2.
+``c`` Character. Converts the integer to the corresponding Unicode character
+      before printing.
+``d`` Decimal Integer. Outputs the number in base 10.
+``o`` Octal format. Outputs the number in base 8.
+``x`` Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case letters for
+      the digits above 9.
+``e`` Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific notation using the
+      letter 'e' to indicate the exponent.
+``g`` General format. This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless
+      the number is too large, in which case it switches to 'e' exponent
+      notation.
+``n`` Number. This is the same as 'g' (for floats) or 'd' (for integers),
+      except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
+      number separator characters.
+``%`` Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed ('f')
+      format, followed by a percent sign.
+===== ========================================================================
+
+Classes and types can define a :meth:`__format__` method to control how they're
+formatted.  It receives a single argument, the format specifier::
+
+   def __format__(self, format_spec):
+       if isinstance(format_spec, unicode):
+           return unicode(str(self))
+       else:
+           return str(self)
+
+There's also a :func:`format` builtin that will format a single
+value.  It calls the type's :meth:`__format__` method with the
+provided specifier::
+
+    >>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
+    '75.66'
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :ref:`formatstrings`
+      The reference documentation for format fields.
+
+   :pep:`3101` - Advanced String Formatting
+      PEP written by Talin. Implemented by Eric Smith.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3105:
+
+PEP 3105: ``print`` As a Function
+=====================================================
+
+The ``print`` statement becomes the :func:`print` function in Python 3.0.
+Making :func:`print` a function makes it possible to replace the function
+by doing ``def print(...)`` or importing a new function from somewhere else.
+
+Python 2.6 has a ``__future__`` import that removes ``print`` as language
+syntax, letting you use the functional form instead.  For example::
+
+    >>> from __future__ import print_function
+    >>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr)
+
+The signature of the new function is::
+
+    def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None)
+
+
+The parameters are:
+
+ * *args*: positional arguments whose values will be printed out.
+ * *sep*: the separator, which will be printed between arguments.
+ * *end*: the ending text, which will be printed after all of the
+   arguments have been output.
+ * *file*: the file object to which the output will be sent.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3105` - Make print a function
+      PEP written by Georg Brandl.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3110:
+
+PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
+=====================================================
+
+One error that Python programmers occasionally make
+is writing the following code::
+
+    try:
+        ...
+    except TypeError, ValueError:  # Wrong!
+        ...
+
+The author is probably trying to catch both :exc:`TypeError` and
+:exc:`ValueError` exceptions, but this code actually does something
+different: it will catch :exc:`TypeError` and bind the resulting
+exception object to the local name ``"ValueError"``.  The
+:exc:`ValueError` exception will not be caught at all.  The correct
+code specifies a tuple of exceptions::
+
+    try:
+        ...
+    except (TypeError, ValueError):
+        ...
+
+This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous:
+does it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single
+node that's a tuple?
+
+Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word
+"as".  To catch an exception and store the exception object in the
+variable ``exc``, you must write::
+
+    try:
+        ...
+    except TypeError as exc:
+        ...
+
+Python 3.0 will only support the use of "as", and therefore interprets
+the first example as catching two different exceptions.  Python 2.6
+supports both the comma and "as", so existing code will continue to
+work.  We therefore suggest using "as" when writing new Python code
+that will only be executed with 2.6.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3110` - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000
+      PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3112:
+
+PEP 3112: Byte Literals
+=====================================================
+
+Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language's fundamental string type and
+denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as ``b'string'``
+or using a :class:`bytes` constructor.  For future compatibility,
+Python 2.6 adds :class:`bytes` as a synonym for the :class:`str` type,
+and it also supports the ``b''`` notation.
+
+
+The 2.6 :class:`str` differs from 3.0's :class:`bytes` type in various
+ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different.  In 3.0,
+``bytes([65, 66, 67])`` is 3 elements long, containing the bytes
+representing ``ABC``; in 2.6, ``bytes([65, 66, 67])`` returns the
+12-byte string representing the :func:`str` of the list.
+
+The primary use of :class:`bytes` in 2.6 will be to write tests of
+object type such as ``isinstance(x, bytes)``.  This will help the 2to3
+converter, which can't tell whether 2.x code intends strings to
+contain either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now
+use either :class:`bytes` or :class:`str` to represent your intention
+exactly, and the resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0.
+
+There's also a ``__future__`` import that causes all string literals
+to become Unicode strings.  This means that ``\u`` escape sequences
+can be used to include Unicode characters::
+
+
+    from __future__ import unicode_literals
+
+    s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054'
+         '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054')
+
+    print len(s)               # 12 Unicode characters
+
+At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit
+string type, called :c:type:`PyStringObject` in Python 2.x,
+to :c:type:`PyBytesObject`.  Python 2.6 uses ``#define``
+to support using the names :c:func:`PyBytesObject`,
+:c:func:`PyBytes_Check`, :c:func:`PyBytes_FromStringAndSize`,
+and all the other functions and macros used with strings.
+
+Instances of the :class:`bytes` type are immutable just
+as strings are.  A new :class:`bytearray` type stores a mutable
+sequence of bytes::
+
+    >>> bytearray([65, 66, 67])
+    bytearray(b'ABC')
+    >>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8')
+    >>> b
+    bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
+    >>> b[0] = '\xe3'
+    >>> b
+    bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
+    >>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8')
+    u'\u31ef \u3244'
+
+Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as
+:meth:`startswith`/:meth:`endswith`, :meth:`find`/:meth:`rfind`,
+and some of the methods of lists, such as :meth:`append`,
+:meth:`pop`,  and :meth:`reverse`.
+
+::
+
+    >>> b = bytearray('ABC')
+    >>> b.append('d')
+    >>> b.append(ord('e'))
+    >>> b
+    bytearray(b'ABCde')
+
+There's also a corresponding C API, with
+:c:func:`PyByteArray_FromObject`,
+:c:func:`PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize`,
+and various other functions.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3112` - Bytes literals in Python 3000
+      PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian Heimes.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3116:
+
+PEP 3116: New I/O Library
+=====================================================
+
+Python's built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
+file-like objects don't necessarily support all of them.  Objects that
+imitate files usually support :meth:`read` and :meth:`write`, but they
+may not support :meth:`readline`, for example.  Python 3.0 introduces
+a layered I/O library in the :mod:`io` module that separates buffering
+and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write
+operations.
+
+There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by
+the :mod:`io` module:
+
+* :class:`RawIOBase` defines raw I/O operations: :meth:`read`,
+  :meth:`readinto`,
+  :meth:`write`, :meth:`seek`, :meth:`tell`, :meth:`truncate`,
+  and :meth:`close`.
+  Most of the methods of this class will often map to a single system call.
+  There are also :meth:`readable`, :meth:`writable`, and :meth:`seekable`
+  methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.
+
+  Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
+  sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn't restructured its file and socket objects
+  in this way.
+
+  .. XXX should 2.6 register them in io.py?
+
+* :class:`BufferedIOBase` is an abstract base class that
+  buffers data in memory to reduce the number of
+  system calls used, making I/O processing more efficient.
+  It supports all of the methods of :class:`RawIOBase`,
+  and adds a :attr:`raw` attribute holding the underlying raw object.
+
+  There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC.
+  :class:`BufferedWriter` and :class:`BufferedReader` are for objects
+  that support write-only or read-only usage that have a :meth:`seek`
+  method for random access.  :class:`BufferedRandom` objects support
+  read and write access upon the same underlying stream, and
+  :class:`BufferedRWPair` is for objects such as TTYs that have both
+  read and write operations acting upon unconnected streams of data.
+  The :class:`BytesIO` class supports reading, writing, and seeking
+  over an in-memory buffer.
+
+  .. index::
+     single: universal newlines; What's new
+
+* :class:`TextIOBase`: Provides functions for reading and writing
+  strings (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0),
+  and supporting :term:`universal newlines`.  :class:`TextIOBase` defines
+  the :meth:`readline` method and supports iteration upon
+  objects.
+
+  There are two concrete implementations.  :class:`TextIOWrapper`
+  wraps a buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for
+  text I/O and adding a :attr:`buffer` attribute for access
+  to the underlying object.  :class:`StringIO` simply buffers
+  everything in memory without ever writing anything to disk.
+
+  (In Python 2.6, :class:`io.StringIO` is implemented in
+  pure Python, so it's pretty slow.   You should therefore stick with the
+  existing :mod:`StringIO` module or :mod:`cStringIO` for now.  At some
+  point Python 3.0's :mod:`io` module will be rewritten into C for speed,
+  and perhaps the C implementation will be  backported to the 2.x releases.)
+
+In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven't been
+restructured to build on top of the :mod:`io` module's classes.  The
+module is being provided to make it easier to write code that's
+forward-compatible with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing
+their own implementations of buffering and text I/O.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3116` - New I/O
+      PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van Rossum.
+      Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald,
+      Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3118:
+
+PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
+=====================================================
+
+The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types
+exchange pointers into their internal representations.  A
+memory-mapped file can be viewed as a buffer of characters, for
+example, and this lets another module such as :mod:`re`
+treat memory-mapped files as a string of characters to be searched.
+
+The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing
+packages such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation
+of arrays so that callers can write data directly into an array instead
+of going through a slower API.  This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of experience
+from NumPy development, adding a number of new features
+such as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.
+
+The most important new C API function is
+``PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject *obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)``, which
+takes an object and a set of flags, and fills in the
+``Py_buffer`` structure with information
+about the object's memory representation.  Objects
+can use this operation to lock memory in place
+while an external caller could be modifying the contents,
+so there's a corresponding ``PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)`` to
+indicate that the external caller is done.
+
+.. XXX PyObject_GetBuffer not documented in c-api
+
+The *flags* argument to :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` specifies
+constraints upon the memory returned.  Some examples are:
+
+ * :const:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` indicates that the memory must be writable.
+
+ * :const:`PyBUF_LOCK` requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.
+
+ * :const:`PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS` and :const:`PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS`
+   requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
+   Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array layout.
+
+Two new argument codes for :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`,
+``s*`` and ``z*``, return locked buffer objects for a parameter.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3118` - Revising the buffer protocol
+      PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by
+      Travis Oliphant.
+
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3119:
+
+PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
+=====================================================
+
+Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
+declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
+access protocol.  Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
+feature for Python. The ABC support consists of an :mod:`abc` module
+containing a metaclass called :class:`ABCMeta`, special handling of
+this metaclass by the :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass`
+builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
+think will be widely useful.  Future versions of Python will probably
+add more ABCs.
+
+Let's say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it supports
+dictionary-style access.  The phrase "dictionary-style" is vague, however.
+It probably means that accessing items with ``obj[1]`` works.
+Does it imply that setting items with ``obj[2] = value`` works?
+Or that the object will have :meth:`keys`, :meth:`values`, and :meth:`items`
+methods?  What about the iterative variants  such as :meth:`iterkeys`?  :meth:`copy`
+and :meth:`update`?  Iterating over the object with :func:`iter`?
+
+The Python 2.6 :mod:`collections` module includes a number of
+different ABCs that represent these distinctions.  :class:`Iterable`
+indicates that a class defines :meth:`__iter__`, and
+:class:`Container` means the class defines a :meth:`__contains__`
+method and therefore supports ``x in y`` expressions.  The basic
+dictionary interface of getting items, setting items, and
+:meth:`keys`, :meth:`values`, and :meth:`items`, is defined by the
+:class:`MutableMapping` ABC.
+
+You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC
+to indicate they support that ABC's interface::
+
+    import collections
+
+    class Storage(collections.MutableMapping):
+        ...
+
+
+Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from
+the desired ABC and instead register the class by
+calling the ABC's :meth:`register` method::
+
+    import collections
+
+    class Storage:
+        ...
+
+    collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)
+
+For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
+The :meth:`register`  method is useful when you've written a new
+ABC that can describe an existing type or class, or if you want
+to declare that some third-party class implements an ABC.
+For example, if you defined a :class:`PrintableType` ABC,
+it's legal to do::
+
+  # Register Python's types
+  PrintableType.register(int)
+  PrintableType.register(float)
+  PrintableType.register(str)
+
+Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but
+Python can't check this; it's up to the class author to
+understand the ABC's requirements and to implement the code accordingly.
+
+To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can
+now write::
+
+    def func(d):
+        if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping):
+            raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d)
+
+Don't feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the
+above example.  Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where
+explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on
+an object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an
+exception if they aren't.  Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only
+do it where it's absolutely necessary.
+
+You can write your own ABCs by using ``abc.ABCMeta`` as the
+metaclass in a class definition::
+
+    from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
+
+    class Drawable():
+        __metaclass__ = ABCMeta
+
+        @abstractmethod
+        def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0):
+            pass
+
+        def draw_doubled(self, x, y):
+            self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0)
+
+
+    class Square(Drawable):
+        def draw(self, x, y, scale):
+            ...
+
+
+In the :class:`Drawable` ABC above, the :meth:`draw_doubled` method
+renders the object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms
+of other methods described in :class:`Drawable`.  Classes implementing
+this ABC therefore don't need to provide their own implementation
+of :meth:`draw_doubled`, though they can do so.  An implementation
+of :meth:`draw` is necessary, though; the ABC can't provide
+a useful generic implementation.
+
+You can apply the ``@abstractmethod`` decorator to methods such as
+:meth:`draw` that must be implemented; Python will then raise an
+exception for classes that don't define the method.
+Note that the exception is only raised when you actually
+try to create an instance of a subclass lacking the method::
+
+    >>> class Circle(Drawable):
+    ...     pass
+    ...
+    >>> c = Circle()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw
+    >>>
+
+Abstract data attributes can be declared using the
+``@abstractproperty`` decorator::
+
+    from abc import abstractproperty
+    ...
+
+    @abstractproperty
+    def readonly(self):
+       return self._x
+
+Subclasses must then define a :meth:`readonly` property.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3119` - Introducing Abstract Base Classes
+      PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin.
+      Implemented by Guido van Rossum.
+      Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex Martelli.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3127:
+
+PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
+=====================================================
+
+Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals,
+prefixing them with "0o" or "0O" instead of a leading zero, and adds
+support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a "0b" or
+"0B" prefix.
+
+Python 2.6 doesn't drop support for a leading 0 signalling
+an octal number, but it does add support for "0o" and "0b"::
+
+    >>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1
+    (17, 17)
+    >>> 0b101111
+    47
+
+The :func:`oct` builtin still returns numbers
+prefixed with a leading zero, and a new :func:`bin`
+builtin returns the binary representation for a number::
+
+    >>> oct(42)
+    '052'
+    >>> future_builtins.oct(42)
+    '0o52'
+    >>> bin(173)
+    '0b10101101'
+
+The :func:`int` and :func:`long` builtins will now accept the "0o"
+and "0b" prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the
+*base* argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be
+determined from the string)::
+
+    >>> int ('0o52', 0)
+    42
+    >>> int('1101', 2)
+    13
+    >>> int('0b1101', 2)
+    13
+    >>> int('0b1101', 0)
+    13
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3127` - Integer Literal Support and Syntax
+      PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by
+      Eric Smith.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3129:
+
+PEP 3129: Class Decorators
+=====================================================
+
+Decorators have been extended from functions to classes.  It's now legal to
+write::
+
+  @foo
+  @bar
+  class A:
+    pass
+
+This is equivalent to::
+
+  class A:
+    pass
+
+  A = foo(bar(A))
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3129` - Class Decorators
+      PEP written by Collin Winter.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _pep-3141:
+
+PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
+=====================================================
+
+Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types
+inspired by Scheme's numeric tower.  These classes were backported to
+2.6 as the :mod:`numbers` module.
+
+The most general ABC is :class:`Number`.  It defines no operations at
+all, and only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by
+doing ``isinstance(obj, Number)``.
+
+:class:`Complex` is a subclass of :class:`Number`.  Complex numbers
+can undergo the basic operations of addition, subtraction,
+multiplication, division, and exponentiation, and you can retrieve the
+real and imaginary parts and obtain a number's conjugate.  Python's built-in
+complex type is an implementation of :class:`Complex`.
+
+:class:`Real` further derives from :class:`Complex`, and adds
+operations that only work on real numbers: :func:`floor`, :func:`trunc`,
+rounding, taking the remainder mod N, floor division,
+and comparisons.
+
+:class:`Rational` numbers derive from :class:`Real`, have
+:attr:`numerator` and :attr:`denominator` properties, and can be
+converted to floats.  Python 2.6 adds a simple rational-number class,
+:class:`Fraction`, in the :mod:`fractions` module.  (It's called
+:class:`Fraction` instead of :class:`Rational` to avoid
+a name clash with :class:`numbers.Rational`.)
+
+:class:`Integral` numbers derive from :class:`Rational`, and
+can be shifted left and right with ``<<`` and ``>>``,
+combined using bitwise operations such as ``&`` and ``|``,
+and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.
+
+In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins
+:func:`round`, :func:`math.floor`, :func:`math.ceil`, and adds a new
+one, :func:`math.trunc`, that's been backported to Python 2.6.
+:func:`math.trunc` rounds toward zero, returning the closest
+:class:`Integral` that's between the function's argument and zero.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3141` - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
+      PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin.
+
+   `Scheme's numerical tower <https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower>`__, from the Guile manual.
+
+   `Scheme's number datatypes <http://schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2>`__ from the R5RS Scheme specification.
+
+
+The :mod:`fractions` Module
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the :mod:`fractions`
+module provides a rational-number class.  Rational numbers store their
+values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
+exactly represent numbers such as ``2/3`` that floating-point numbers
+can only approximate.
+
+The :class:`Fraction` constructor takes two :class:`Integral` values
+that will be the numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction. ::
+
+    >>> from fractions import Fraction
+    >>> a = Fraction(2, 3)
+    >>> b = Fraction(2, 5)
+    >>> float(a), float(b)
+    (0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)
+    >>> a+b
+    Fraction(16, 15)
+    >>> a/b
+    Fraction(5, 3)
+
+For converting floating-point numbers to rationals,
+the float type now has an :meth:`as_integer_ratio()` method that returns
+the numerator and denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same
+floating-point value::
+
+    >>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio()
+    (5, 2)
+    >>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio()
+    (7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)
+    >>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio()
+    (6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)
+
+Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point
+numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being
+approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value
+**exactly**.
+
+The :mod:`fractions` module is based upon an implementation by Sjoerd
+Mullender that was in Python's :file:`Demo/classes/` directory for a
+long time.  This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey
+Yasskin.
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* Directories and zip archives containing a :file:`__main__.py` file
+  can now be executed directly by passing their name to the
+  interpreter. The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted
+  as the first entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by
+  Andy Chu, subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan;
+  :issue:`1739468`.)
+
+* The :func:`hasattr` function was catching and ignoring all errors,
+  under the assumption that they meant a :meth:`__getattr__` method
+  was failing somehow and the return value of :func:`hasattr` would
+  therefore be ``False``.  This logic shouldn't be applied to
+  :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` and :exc:`SystemExit`, however; Python 2.6
+  will no longer discard such exceptions when :func:`hasattr`
+  encounters them.  (Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; :issue:`2196`.)
+
+* When calling a function using the ``**`` syntax to provide keyword
+  arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary;
+  any mapping will now work::
+
+    >>> def f(**kw):
+    ...    print sorted(kw)
+    ...
+    >>> ud=UserDict.UserDict()
+    >>> ud['a'] = 1
+    >>> ud['b'] = 'string'
+    >>> f(**ud)
+    ['a', 'b']
+
+  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; :issue:`1686487`.)
+
+  It's also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a ``*args`` argument
+  to a function call. ::
+
+    >>> def f(*args, **kw):
+    ...     print args, kw
+    ...
+    >>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13)
+    (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13}
+
+  Previously this would have been a syntax error.
+  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; :issue:`3473`.)
+
+* A new builtin, ``next(iterator, [default])`` returns the next item
+  from the specified iterator.  If the *default* argument is supplied,
+  it will be returned if *iterator* has been exhausted; otherwise,
+  the :exc:`StopIteration` exception will be raised.  (Backported
+  in :issue:`2719`.)
+
+* Tuples now have :meth:`index` and :meth:`count` methods matching the
+  list type's :meth:`index` and :meth:`count` methods::
+
+    >>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
+    >>> t.index(3)
+    3
+    >>> t.count(0)
+    2
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger)
+
+* The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing syntax,
+  accepting various combinations of ``(start, stop, step)``.
+  Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases wouldn't work.
+  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)
+
+  .. Revision 57619
+
+* Properties now have three attributes, :attr:`getter`, :attr:`setter`
+  and :attr:`deleter`, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts
+  for adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
+  property. You would use them like this::
+
+    class C(object):
+        @property
+        def x(self):
+            return self._x
+
+        @x.setter
+        def x(self, value):
+            self._x = value
+
+        @x.deleter
+        def x(self):
+            del self._x
+
+    class D(C):
+        @C.x.getter
+        def x(self):
+            return self._x * 2
+
+        @x.setter
+        def x(self, value):
+            self._x = value / 2
+
+* Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple iterables:
+  :meth:`intersection`,
+  :meth:`intersection_update`,
+  :meth:`union`, :meth:`update`,
+  :meth:`difference` and :meth:`difference_update`.
+
+  ::
+
+    >>> s=set('1234567890')
+    >>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246')  # Intersection between all inputs
+    set(['2'])
+    >>> s.difference('246', '789')
+    set(['1', '0', '3', '5'])
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Many floating-point features were added.  The :func:`float` function
+  will now turn the string ``nan`` into an
+  IEEE 754 Not A Number value, and ``+inf`` and ``-inf`` into
+  positive or negative infinity.  This works on any platform with
+  IEEE 754 semantics.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; :issue:`1635`.)
+
+  Other functions in the :mod:`math` module, :func:`isinf` and
+  :func:`isnan`, return true if their floating-point argument is
+  infinite or Not A Number.  (:issue:`1640`)
+
+  Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
+  into hexadecimal strings (:issue:`3008`).  These functions
+  convert floats to and from a string representation without
+  introducing rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and
+  binary.  Floats have a :meth:`hex` method that returns a string
+  representation, and the ``float.fromhex()`` method converts a string
+  back into a number::
+
+      >>> a = 3.75
+      >>> a.hex()
+      '0x1.e000000000000p+1'
+      >>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1')
+      3.75
+      >>> b=1./3
+      >>> b.hex()
+      '0x1.5555555555555p-2'
+
+* A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats
+  on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the
+  :func:`complex` constructor will now preserve the sign
+  of the zero.  (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; :issue:`1507`.)
+
+* Classes that inherit a :meth:`__hash__` method from a parent class
+  can set ``__hash__ = None`` to indicate that the class isn't
+  hashable.  This will make ``hash(obj)`` raise a :exc:`TypeError`
+  and the class will not be indicated as implementing the
+  :class:`Hashable` ABC.
+
+  You should do this when you've defined a :meth:`__cmp__` or
+  :meth:`__eq__` method that compares objects by their value rather
+  than by identity.  All objects have a default hash method that uses
+  ``id(obj)`` as the hash value.  There's no tidy way to remove the
+  :meth:`__hash__` method inherited from a parent class, so
+  assigning ``None`` was implemented as an override.  At the
+  C level, extensions can set ``tp_hash`` to
+  :c:func:`PyObject_HashNotImplemented`.
+  (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; :issue:`2235`.)
+
+* The :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception now subclasses
+  :exc:`BaseException` instead of :exc:`Exception`.  This means
+  that an exception handler that does ``except Exception:``
+  will not inadvertently catch :exc:`GeneratorExit`.
+  (Contributed by Chad Austin; :issue:`1537`.)
+
+* Generator objects now have a :attr:`gi_code` attribute that refers to
+  the original code object backing the generator.
+  (Contributed by Collin Winter; :issue:`1473257`.)
+
+* The :func:`compile` built-in function now accepts keyword arguments
+  as well as positional parameters.  (Contributed by Thomas Wouters;
+  :issue:`1444529`.)
+
+* The :func:`complex` constructor now accepts strings containing
+  parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that ``complex(repr(cplx))``
+  will now round-trip values.  For example, ``complex('(3+4j)')``
+  now returns the value (3+4j).  (:issue:`1491866`)
+
+* The string :meth:`translate` method now accepts ``None`` as the
+  translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
+  transformation.   This makes it easier to carry out operations
+  that only delete characters.  (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
+  implemented by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1193128`.)
+
+* The built-in :func:`dir` function now checks for a :meth:`__dir__`
+  method on the objects it receives.  This method must return a list
+  of strings containing the names of valid attributes for the object,
+  and lets the object control the value that :func:`dir` produces.
+  Objects that have :meth:`__getattr__` or :meth:`__getattribute__`
+  methods can use this to advertise pseudo-attributes they will honor.
+  (:issue:`1591665`)
+
+* Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and function
+  comprising the method; the new synonym for :attr:`im_self` is
+  :attr:`__self__`, and :attr:`im_func` is also available as :attr:`__func__`.
+  The old names are still supported in Python 2.6, but are gone in 3.0.
+
+* An obscure change: when you use the :func:`locals` function inside a
+  :keyword:`class` statement, the resulting dictionary no longer returns free
+  variables.  (Free variables, in this case, are variables referenced in the
+  :keyword:`!class` statement  that aren't attributes of the class.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Optimizations
+-------------
+
+* The :mod:`warnings` module has been rewritten in C.  This makes
+  it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also
+  make the interpreter's startup faster.
+  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Brett Cannon; :issue:`1631171`.)
+
+* Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce
+  the work required to find the correct method implementation
+  for a particular class; once cached, the interpreter doesn't need to
+  traverse base classes to figure out the right method to call.
+  The cache is cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified,
+  so the cache should remain correct even in the face of Python's dynamic
+  nature.
+  (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated for
+  Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; :issue:`1700288`.)
+
+  By default, this change is only applied to types that are included with
+  the Python core.  Extension modules may not necessarily be compatible with
+  this cache,
+  so they must explicitly add :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG`
+  to the module's ``tp_flags`` field to enable the method cache.
+  (To be compatible with the method cache, the extension module's code
+  must not directly access and modify the ``tp_dict`` member of
+  any of the types it implements.  Most modules don't do this,
+  but it's impossible for the Python interpreter to determine that.
+  See :issue:`1878` for some discussion.)
+
+* Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster
+  by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a
+  full string comparison.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after an
+  initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`1819`.)
+
+* All of the functions in the :mod:`struct` module have been rewritten in
+  C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type
+  objects.  This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass of
+  one of these types.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)
+
+* Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting
+  whitespace and line breaks; this speeds up the :meth:`split` method
+  by about 25% and :meth:`splitlines` by 35%.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)  Memory usage is reduced
+  by using pymalloc for the Unicode string's data.
+
+* The ``with`` statement now stores the :meth:`__exit__` method on the stack,
+  producing a small speedup.  (Implemented by Jeffrey Yasskin.)
+
+* To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear internal
+  free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation of objects.
+  This may return memory to the operating system sooner.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _new-26-interpreter:
+
+Interpreter Changes
+-------------------------------
+
+Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
+implementations.  The :option:`-J` switch has been reserved for use by
+Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed to
+the underlying JVM.  :option:`-X` has been reserved for options
+specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython,
+Jython, or IronPython.  If either option is used with Python 2.6, the
+interpreter will report that the option isn't currently used.
+
+Python can now be prevented from writing :file:`.pyc` or :file:`.pyo`
+files by supplying the :option:`-B` switch to the Python interpreter,
+or by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE` environment
+variable before running the interpreter.  This setting is available to
+Python programs as the ``sys.dont_write_bytecode`` variable, and
+Python code can change the value to modify the interpreter's
+behaviour.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)
+
+The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can
+be specified by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONIOENCODING` environment
+variable before running the interpreter.  The value should be a string
+in the form ``<encoding>`` or ``<encoding>:<errorhandler>``.
+The *encoding* part specifies the encoding's name, e.g. ``utf-8`` or
+``latin-1``; the optional *errorhandler* part specifies
+what to do with characters that can't be handled by the encoding,
+and  should be one of "error", "ignore", or "replace".   (Contributed
+by Martin von Löwis.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+New and Improved Modules
+========================
+
+As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of
+enhancements and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable
+changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the
+:file:`Misc/NEWS` file in the source tree for a more complete list of
+changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
+
+* The :mod:`asyncore` and :mod:`asynchat` modules are
+  being actively maintained again, and a number of patches and bugfixes
+  were applied.  (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see :issue:`1736190` for
+  one patch.)
+
+* The :mod:`bsddb` module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and the package
+  is now available as a standalone package.  The web page for the package is
+  `www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm
+  <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`__.
+  The plan is to remove the package from the standard library
+  in Python 3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
+  Python's.
+
+  The :mod:`bsddb.dbshelve` module now uses the highest pickling protocol
+  available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
+  (Contributed by W. Barnes.)
+
+* The :mod:`cgi` module will now read variables from the query string
+  of an HTTP POST request.  This makes it possible to use form actions
+  with URLs that include query strings such as
+  "/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1".  (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
+  Nubis; :issue:`1817`.)
+
+  The :func:`parse_qs` and :func:`parse_qsl` functions have been
+  relocated from the :mod:`cgi` module to the :mod:`urlparse` module.
+  The versions still available in the :mod:`cgi` module will
+  trigger :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` messages in 2.6
+  (:issue:`600362`).
+
+* The :mod:`cmath` module underwent extensive revision,
+  contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.
+  Five new functions were added:
+
+  * :func:`polar` converts a complex number to polar form, returning
+    the modulus and argument of the complex number.
+
+  * :func:`rect` does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
+    back into the corresponding complex number.
+
+  * :func:`phase` returns the argument (also called the angle) of a complex
+    number.
+
+  * :func:`isnan` returns True if either
+    the real or imaginary part of its argument is a NaN.
+
+  * :func:`isinf` returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
+    its argument is infinite.
+
+  The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the
+  :mod:`cmath` module.  For all functions, the real and imaginary
+  parts of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
+  precision (ulps) whenever possible.  See :issue:`1381` for the
+  details.  The branch cuts for :func:`asinh`, :func:`atanh`: and
+  :func:`atan` have also been corrected.
+
+  The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000 new
+  test cases exercise the algebraic functions.
+
+  On IEEE 754 platforms, the :mod:`cmath` module now handles IEEE 754
+  special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner consistent
+  with Annex 'G' of the C99 standard.
+
+* A new data type in the :mod:`collections` module: :class:`namedtuple(typename,
+  fieldnames)` is a factory function that creates subclasses of the standard tuple
+  whose fields are accessible by name as well as index.  For example::
+
+     >>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable',
+     ...             'id name type size')
+     >>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas.
+     >>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work.
+     >>> var_type._fields
+     ('id', 'name', 'type', 'size')
+
+     >>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4)
+     >>> print var[0], var.id    # Equivalent
+     1 1
+     >>> print var[2], var.type  # Equivalent
+     int int
+     >>> var._asdict()
+     {'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'}
+     >>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude')
+     >>> v2
+     variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)
+
+  Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
+  been modified to return :class:`namedtuple` instances.  For example,
+  the :meth:`Decimal.as_tuple` method now returns a named tuple with
+  :attr:`sign`, :attr:`digits`, and :attr:`exponent` fields.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* Another change to the :mod:`collections` module is that the
+  :class:`deque` type now supports an optional *maxlen* parameter;
+  if supplied, the deque's size will be restricted to no more
+  than *maxlen* items.  Adding more items to a full deque causes
+  old items to be discarded.
+
+  ::
+
+    >>> from collections import deque
+    >>> dq=deque(maxlen=3)
+    >>> dq
+    deque([], maxlen=3)
+    >>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3)
+    >>> dq
+    deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)
+    >>> dq.append(4)
+    >>> dq
+    deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`Cookie` module's :class:`Morsel` objects now support an
+  :attr:`httponly` attribute.  In some browsers. cookies with this attribute
+  set cannot be accessed or manipulated by JavaScript code.
+  (Contributed by Arvin Schnell; :issue:`1638033`.)
+
+* A new window method in the :mod:`curses` module,
+  :meth:`chgat`, changes the display attributes for a certain number of
+  characters on a single line.  (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)
+
+  ::
+
+     # Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21
+     # and affecting the rest of the line.
+     stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)
+
+  The :class:`Textbox` class in the :mod:`curses.textpad` module
+  now supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.
+  Insert mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the *insert_mode*
+  parameter when creating the :class:`Textbox` instance.
+
+* The :mod:`datetime` module's :meth:`strftime` methods now support a
+  ``%f`` format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
+  object, zero-padded on
+  the left to six places.  (Contributed by Skip Montanaro; :issue:`1158`.)
+
+* The :mod:`decimal` module was updated to version 1.66 of
+  `the General Decimal Specification <http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html>`__.  New features
+  include some methods for some basic mathematical functions such as
+  :meth:`exp` and :meth:`log10`::
+
+    >>> Decimal(1).exp()
+    Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
+    >>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln()
+    Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436")
+    >>> Decimal(1000).log10()
+    Decimal("3")
+
+  The :meth:`as_tuple` method of :class:`Decimal` objects now returns a
+  named tuple with :attr:`sign`, :attr:`digits`, and :attr:`exponent` fields.
+
+  (Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson.  Named tuple
+  support added by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`difflib` module's :class:`SequenceMatcher` class
+  now returns named tuples representing matches,
+  with :attr:`a`, :attr:`b`, and :attr:`size` attributes.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* An optional ``timeout`` parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
+  seconds, was added to the :class:`ftplib.FTP` class constructor as
+  well as the :meth:`connect` method.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
+  Also, the :class:`FTP` class's :meth:`storbinary` and
+  :meth:`storlines` now take an optional *callback* parameter that
+  will be called with each block of data after the data has been sent.
+  (Contributed by Phil Schwartz; :issue:`1221598`.)
+
+* The :func:`reduce` built-in function is also available in the
+  :mod:`functools` module.  In Python 3.0, the builtin has been
+  dropped and :func:`reduce` is only available from :mod:`functools`;
+  currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.
+  (Patched by Christian Heimes; :issue:`1739906`.)
+
+* When possible, the :mod:`getpass` module will now use
+  :file:`/dev/tty` to print a prompt message and read the password,
+  falling back to standard error and standard input.  If the
+  password may be echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before
+  the prompt is displayed.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)
+
+* The :func:`glob.glob` function can now return Unicode filenames if
+  a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are matched within the
+  directory.  (:issue:`1001604`)
+
+* A new function in the :mod:`heapq` module, ``merge(iter1, iter2, ...)``,
+  takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted
+  order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all
+  the iterators, also in sorted order.  For example::
+
+      >>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16]))
+      [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]
+
+  Another new function, ``heappushpop(heap, item)``,
+  pushes *item* onto *heap*, then pops off and returns the smallest item.
+  This is more efficient than making a call to :func:`heappush` and then
+  :func:`heappop`.
+
+  :mod:`heapq` is now implemented to only use less-than comparison,
+  instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it previously used.
+  This makes :mod:`heapq`'s usage of a type match the
+  :meth:`list.sort` method.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* An optional ``timeout`` parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
+  seconds, was added to the :class:`httplib.HTTPConnection` and
+  :class:`HTTPSConnection` class constructors.  (Added by Facundo
+  Batista.)
+
+* Most of the :mod:`inspect` module's functions, such as
+  :func:`getmoduleinfo` and :func:`getargs`, now return named tuples.
+  In addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the  return value
+  can also be accessed as attributes.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+  Some new functions in the module include
+  :func:`isgenerator`, :func:`isgeneratorfunction`,
+  and :func:`isabstract`.
+
+* The :mod:`itertools` module gained several new functions.
+
+  ``izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue])`` makes tuples from
+  each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than
+  others, the missing values are set to *fillvalue*.  For example::
+
+     >>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5]))
+     ((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))
+
+  ``product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N])`` returns the Cartesian product
+  of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing
+  every possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable. ::
+
+     >>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6]))
+     [(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),
+      (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
+      (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]
+
+  The optional *repeat* keyword argument is used for taking the
+  product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves,
+  repeated *N* times.  With a single iterable argument, *N*-tuples
+  are returned::
+
+     >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3))
+     [(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),
+      (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]
+
+  With two iterables, *2N*-tuples are returned. ::
+
+     >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2))
+     [(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),
+      (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),
+      (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),
+      (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]
+
+  ``combinations(iterable, r)`` returns sub-sequences of length *r* from
+  the elements of *iterable*. ::
+
+    >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2))
+    [('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')]
+    >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3))
+    [('1', '2', '3')]
+    >>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3))
+    [('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'),
+     ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')]
+
+  ``permutations(iter[, r])`` returns all the permutations of length *r* of
+  the iterable's elements.  If *r* is not specified, it will default to the
+  number of elements produced by the iterable. ::
+
+    >>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2))
+    [(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
+     (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
+     (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
+     (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]
+
+  ``itertools.chain(*iterables)`` is an existing function in
+  :mod:`itertools` that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
+  ``itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)`` takes a single
+  iterable that should return other iterables.  :func:`chain` will
+  then return all the elements of the first iterable, then
+  all the elements of the second, and so on. ::
+
+    >>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]))
+    [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+
+  (All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`logging` module's :class:`FileHandler` class
+  and its subclasses :class:`WatchedFileHandler`, :class:`RotatingFileHandler`,
+  and :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` now
+  have an optional *delay* parameter to their constructors.  If *delay*
+  is true, opening of the log file is deferred until the first
+  :meth:`emit` call is made.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)
+
+  :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` also has a *utc* constructor
+  parameter.  If the argument is true, UTC time will be used
+  in determining when midnight occurs and in generating filenames;
+  otherwise local time will be used.
+
+* Several new functions were added to the :mod:`math` module:
+
+  * :func:`~math.isinf` and :func:`~math.isnan` determine whether a given float
+    is a (positive or negative) infinity or a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.
+
+  * :func:`~math.copysign` copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754 number,
+    returning the absolute value of *x* combined with the sign bit of
+    *y*.  For example, ``math.copysign(1, -0.0)`` returns -1.0.
+    (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
+
+  * :func:`~math.factorial` computes the factorial of a number.
+    (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`2138`.)
+
+  * :func:`~math.fsum` adds up the stream of numbers from an iterable,
+    and is careful to avoid loss of precision through using partial sums.
+    (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson;
+    :issue:`2819`.)
+
+  * :func:`~math.acosh`, :func:`~math.asinh`
+    and :func:`~math.atanh` compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.
+
+  * :func:`~math.log1p` returns the natural logarithm of *1+x*
+    (base *e*).
+
+  * :func:`trunc` rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
+    :class:`Integral` that's between the function's argument and zero.
+    Added as part of the backport of
+    `PEP 3141's type hierarchy for numbers <#pep-3141>`__.
+
+* The :mod:`math` module has been improved to give more consistent
+  behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to handling of
+  floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.
+
+  Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the C99
+  standard about 754's special values.  For example, ``sqrt(-1.)``
+  should now give a :exc:`ValueError` across almost all platforms,
+  while ``sqrt(float('NaN'))`` should return a NaN on all IEEE 754
+  platforms.  Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends signaling
+  'divide-by-zero' or 'invalid', Python will raise :exc:`ValueError`.
+  Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends signaling 'overflow',
+  Python will raise :exc:`OverflowError`.  (See :issue:`711019` and
+  :issue:`1640`.)
+
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)
+
+* :class:`~mmap.mmap` objects now have a :meth:`rfind` method that searches for a
+  substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
+  backwards.  The :meth:`find` method also gained an *end* parameter
+  giving an index at which to stop searching.
+  (Contributed by John Lenton.)
+
+* The :mod:`operator` module gained a
+  :func:`methodcaller` function that takes a name and an optional
+  set of arguments, returning a callable that will call
+  the named function on any arguments passed to it.  For example::
+
+    >>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new')
+    >>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new')
+    >>> replacer('old wine in old bottles')
+    'new wine in new bottles'
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory Petrosyan.)
+
+  The :func:`attrgetter` function now accepts dotted names and performs
+  the corresponding attribute lookups::
+
+    >>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
+    ...        '__class__.__name__')
+    >>> inst_name('')
+    'str'
+    >>> inst_name(help)
+    '_Helper'
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.)
+
+* The :mod:`os` module now wraps several new system calls.
+  ``fchmod(fd, mode)`` and ``fchown(fd, uid, gid)`` change the mode
+  and ownership of an opened file, and ``lchmod(path, mode)`` changes
+  the mode of a symlink.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
+  Heimes.)
+
+  :func:`chflags` and :func:`lchflags` are wrappers for the
+  corresponding system calls (where they're available), changing the
+  flags set on a file.  Constants for the flag values are defined in
+  the :mod:`stat` module; some possible values include
+  :const:`UF_IMMUTABLE` to signal the file may not be changed and
+  :const:`UF_APPEND` to indicate that data can only be appended to the
+  file.  (Contributed by M. Levinson.)
+
+  ``os.closerange(low, high)`` efficiently closes all file descriptors
+  from *low* to *high*, ignoring any errors and not including *high* itself.
+  This function is now used by the :mod:`subprocess` module to make starting
+  processes faster.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; :issue:`1663329`.)
+
+* The ``os.environ`` object's :meth:`clear` method will now unset the
+  environment variables using :func:`os.unsetenv` in addition to clearing
+  the object's keys.  (Contributed by Martin Horcicka; :issue:`1181`.)
+
+* The :func:`os.walk` function now has a ``followlinks`` parameter. If
+  set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to directories and
+  visit the directory's contents.  For backward compatibility, the
+  parameter's default value is false.  Note that the function can fall
+  into an infinite recursion if there's a symlink that points to a
+  parent directory.  (:issue:`1273829`)
+
+* In the :mod:`os.path` module, the :func:`splitext` function
+  has been changed to not split on leading period characters.
+  This produces better results when operating on Unix's dot-files.
+  For example, ``os.path.splitext('.ipython')``
+  now returns ``('.ipython', '')`` instead of ``('', '.ipython')``.
+  (:issue:`1115886`)
+
+  A new function, ``os.path.relpath(path, start='.')``, returns a relative path
+  from the ``start`` path, if it's supplied, or from the current
+  working directory to the destination ``path``.  (Contributed by
+  Richard Barran; :issue:`1339796`.)
+
+  On Windows, :func:`os.path.expandvars` will now expand environment variables
+  given in the form "%var%", and "~user" will be expanded into the
+  user's home directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson;
+  :issue:`957650`.)
+
+* The Python debugger provided by the :mod:`pdb` module
+  gained a new command: "run" restarts the Python program being debugged
+  and can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program.
+  (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; :issue:`1393667`.)
+
+* The :func:`pdb.post_mortem` function, used to begin debugging a
+  traceback, will now use the traceback returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`
+  if no traceback is supplied.   (Contributed by Facundo Batista;
+  :issue:`1106316`.)
+
+* The :mod:`pickletools` module now has an :func:`optimize` function
+  that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
+  opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data structure.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* A :func:`get_data` function was added to the :mod:`pkgutil`
+  module that returns the contents of resource files included
+  with an installed Python package.  For example::
+
+    >>> import pkgutil
+    >>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt')
+    BaseException
+     +-- SystemExit
+     +-- KeyboardInterrupt
+     +-- GeneratorExit
+     +-- Exception
+          +-- StopIteration
+          +-- StandardError
+     ...
+
+  (Contributed by Paul Moore; :issue:`2439`.)
+
+* The :mod:`pyexpat` module's :class:`Parser` objects now allow setting
+  their :attr:`buffer_size` attribute to change the size of the buffer
+  used to hold character data.
+  (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; :issue:`1137`.)
+
+* The :mod:`Queue` module now provides queue variants that retrieve entries
+  in different orders.  The :class:`PriorityQueue` class stores
+  queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order,
+  and :class:`LifoQueue` retrieves the most recently added entries first,
+  meaning that it behaves like a stack.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :mod:`random` module's :class:`Random` objects can
+  now be pickled on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit
+  system, and vice versa.  Unfortunately, this change also means
+  that Python 2.6's :class:`Random` objects can't be unpickled correctly
+  on earlier versions of Python.
+  (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; :issue:`1727780`.)
+
+  The new ``triangular(low, high, mode)`` function returns random
+  numbers following a triangular distribution.   The returned values
+  are between *low* and *high*, not including *high* itself, and
+  with *mode* as the most frequently occurring value
+  in the distribution.  (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and
+  Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1681432`.)
+
+* Long regular expression searches carried out by the  :mod:`re`
+  module will check for signals being delivered, so
+  time-consuming searches can now be interrupted.
+  (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and Ralf Schmitt; :issue:`846388`.)
+
+  The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes
+  for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine.  Untrusted code
+  could create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes,
+  so Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode.
+  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
+  :issue:`3487`.)
+
+* The :mod:`rlcompleter` module's :meth:`Completer.complete()` method
+  will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
+  (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; :issue:`2250`.)
+
+* The :mod:`sched` module's :class:`scheduler` instances now
+  have a read-only :attr:`queue` attribute that returns the
+  contents of the scheduler's queue, represented as a list of
+  named tuples with the fields ``(time, priority, action, argument)``.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1861`.)
+
+* The :mod:`select` module now has wrapper functions
+  for the Linux :c:func:`epoll` and BSD :c:func:`kqueue` system calls.
+  :meth:`modify` method was added to the existing :class:`poll`
+  objects; ``pollobj.modify(fd, eventmask)`` takes a file descriptor
+  or file object and an event mask, modifying the recorded event mask
+  for that file.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; :issue:`1657`.)
+
+* The :func:`shutil.copytree` function now has an optional *ignore* argument
+  that takes a callable object.  This callable will receive each directory path
+  and a list of the directory's contents, and returns a list of names that
+  will be ignored, not copied.
+
+  The :mod:`shutil` module also provides an :func:`ignore_patterns`
+  function for use with this new parameter.  :func:`ignore_patterns`
+  takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
+  callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
+  of these patterns.  The following example copies a directory tree,
+  but skips both :file:`.svn` directories and Emacs backup files,
+  which have names ending with '~'::
+
+      shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library',
+                      ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn'))
+
+  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; :issue:`2663`.)
+
+* Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops
+  like those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most
+  software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to check
+  if any GUI events have occurred.
+  The :mod:`signal` module can now make this more efficient.
+  Calling ``signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)`` sets a file descriptor
+  to be used; when a signal is received, a byte is written to that
+  file descriptor.  There's also a C-level function,
+  :c:func:`PySignal_SetWakeupFd`, for setting the descriptor.
+
+  Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two descriptors,
+  one for reading and one for writing.  The writable descriptor
+  will be passed to :func:`set_wakeup_fd`, and the readable descriptor
+  will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by the event loop via
+  :c:func:`select` or :c:func:`poll`.
+  On receiving a signal, a byte will be written and the main event loop
+  will be woken up, avoiding the need to poll.
+
+  (Contributed by Adam Olsen; :issue:`1583`.)
+
+  The :func:`siginterrupt` function is now available from Python code,
+  and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or not.
+  (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)
+
+  The :func:`setitimer` and :func:`getitimer` functions have also been
+  added (where they're available).  :func:`setitimer`
+  allows setting interval timers that will cause a signal to be
+  delivered to the process after a specified time, measured in
+  wall-clock time, consumed process time, or combined process+system
+  time.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; :issue:`2240`.)
+
+* The :mod:`smtplib` module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to the
+  addition of the :class:`SMTP_SSL` class. This class supports an
+  interface identical to the existing :class:`SMTP` class.
+  (Contributed by Monty Taylor.)  Both class constructors also have an
+  optional ``timeout`` parameter that specifies a timeout for the
+  initial connection attempt, measured in seconds.  (Contributed by
+  Facundo Batista.)
+
+  An implementation of the LMTP protocol (:rfc:`2033`) was also added
+  to the module.  LMTP is used in place of SMTP when transferring
+  e-mail between agents that don't manage a mail queue.  (LMTP
+  implemented by Leif Hedstrom; :issue:`957003`.)
+
+  :meth:`SMTP.starttls` now complies with :rfc:`3207` and forgets any
+  knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
+  negotiation itself.  (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
+  :issue:`829951`.)
+
+* The :mod:`socket` module now supports TIPC (http://tipc.sourceforge.net/),
+  a high-performance non-IP-based protocol designed for use in clustered
+  environments.  TIPC addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.
+  (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli; :issue:`1646`.)
+
+  A new function, :func:`create_connection`, takes an address and
+  connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
+  connected socket object.  This function also looks up the address's
+  type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate.  Changing
+  your code to use :func:`create_connection` instead of
+  ``socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)`` may be all that's required to make
+  your code work with IPv6.
+
+* The base classes in the :mod:`SocketServer` module now support
+  calling a :meth:`handle_timeout` method after a span of inactivity
+  specified by the server's :attr:`timeout` attribute.  (Contributed
+  by Michael Pomraning.)  The :meth:`serve_forever` method
+  now takes an optional poll interval measured in seconds,
+  controlling how often the server will check for a shutdown request.
+  (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey Yasskin;
+  :issue:`742598`, :issue:`1193577`.)
+
+* The :mod:`sqlite3` module, maintained by Gerhard Häring,
+  has been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to
+  version 2.4.1.
+
+* The :mod:`struct` module now supports the C99 :c:type:`_Bool` type,
+  using the format character ``'?'``.
+  (Contributed by David Remahl.)
+
+* The :class:`Popen` objects provided by the :mod:`subprocess` module
+  now have :meth:`terminate`, :meth:`kill`, and :meth:`send_signal` methods.
+  On Windows, :meth:`send_signal` only supports the :const:`SIGTERM`
+  signal, and all these methods are aliases for the Win32 API function
+  :c:func:`TerminateProcess`.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
+
+* A new variable in the :mod:`sys` module, :attr:`float_info`, is an
+  object containing information derived from the :file:`float.h` file
+  about the platform's floating-point support.  Attributes of this
+  object include :attr:`mant_dig` (number of digits in the mantissa),
+  :attr:`epsilon` (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next
+  largest value representable), and several others.  (Contributed by
+  Christian Heimes; :issue:`1534`.)
+
+  Another new variable, :attr:`dont_write_bytecode`, controls whether Python
+  writes any :file:`.pyc` or :file:`.pyo` files on importing a module.
+  If this variable is true, the compiled files are not written.  The
+  variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the :option:`-B`
+  switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the
+  :envvar:`PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE` environment variable before
+  running the interpreter.  Python code can subsequently
+  change the value of this variable to control whether bytecode files
+  are written or not.
+  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)
+
+  Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
+  interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named
+  tuple available as ``sys.flags``.  For example, the :attr:`verbose`
+  attribute is true if Python
+  was executed in verbose mode, :attr:`debug` is true in debugging mode, etc.
+  These attributes are all read-only.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
+
+  A new function, :func:`getsizeof`, takes a Python object and returns
+  the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes.  Built-in
+  objects return correct results; third-party extensions may not,
+  but can define a :meth:`__sizeof__` method to return the
+  object's size.
+  (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; :issue:`2898`.)
+
+  It's now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer functions
+  by calling :func:`sys.getprofile` and :func:`sys.gettrace`.
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; :issue:`1648`.)
+
+* The :mod:`tarfile` module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax) tarfiles in
+  addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar formats that were
+  already supported.  The default format is GNU tar; specify the
+  ``format`` parameter to open a file using a different format::
+
+    tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w",
+                       format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT)
+
+  The new ``encoding`` and ``errors`` parameters specify an encoding and
+  an error handling scheme for character conversions.  ``'strict'``,
+  ``'ignore'``, and ``'replace'`` are the three standard ways Python can
+  handle errors,;
+  ``'utf-8'`` is a special value that replaces bad characters with
+  their UTF-8 representation.  (Character conversions occur because the
+  PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting to UTF-8 encoding.)
+
+  The :meth:`TarFile.add` method now accepts an ``exclude`` argument that's
+  a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from
+  an archive.
+  The function must take a filename and return true if the file
+  should be excluded or false if it should be archived.
+  The function is applied to both the name initially passed to :meth:`add`
+  and to the names of files in recursively-added directories.
+
+  (All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).
+
+* An optional ``timeout`` parameter was added to the
+  :class:`telnetlib.Telnet` class constructor, specifying a timeout
+  measured in seconds.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
+
+* The :class:`tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile` class usually deletes
+  the temporary file it created when the file is closed.  This
+  behaviour can now be changed by passing ``delete=False`` to the
+  constructor.  (Contributed by Damien Miller; :issue:`1537850`.)
+
+  A new class, :class:`SpooledTemporaryFile`, behaves like
+  a temporary file but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is
+  exceeded.  On reaching that limit, the contents will be written to
+  an on-disk temporary file.  (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)
+
+  The :class:`NamedTemporaryFile` and :class:`SpooledTemporaryFile` classes
+  both work as context managers, so you can write
+  ``with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...``.
+  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; :issue:`2021`.)
+
+* The :mod:`test.test_support` module gained a number
+  of context managers useful for writing tests.
+  :func:`EnvironmentVarGuard` is a
+  context manager that temporarily changes environment variables and
+  automatically restores them to their old values.
+
+  Another context manager, :class:`TransientResource`, can surround calls
+  to resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
+  ignore a specified list of exceptions.  For example,
+  a network test may ignore certain failures when connecting to an
+  external web site::
+
+      with test_support.TransientResource(IOError,
+                                      errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT):
+          f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
+          ...
+
+  Finally, :func:`check_warnings` resets the :mod:`warning` module's
+  warning filters and returns an object that will record all warning
+  messages triggered (:issue:`3781`)::
+
+      with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
+          warnings.simplefilter("always")
+          # ... code that triggers a warning ...
+          assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated"
+          assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised"
+
+  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)
+
+* The :mod:`textwrap` module can now preserve existing whitespace
+  at the beginnings and ends of the newly-created lines
+  by specifying ``drop_whitespace=False``
+  as an argument::
+
+    >>> S = """This  sentence  has a bunch   of
+    ...   extra   whitespace."""
+    >>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15)
+    This  sentence
+    has a bunch
+    of    extra
+    whitespace.
+    >>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15)
+    This  sentence
+      has a bunch
+       of    extra
+       whitespace.
+    >>>
+
+  (Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; :issue:`1581073`.)
+
+* The :mod:`threading` module API is being changed to use properties
+  such as :attr:`daemon` instead of :meth:`setDaemon` and
+  :meth:`isDaemon` methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
+  underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the
+  :meth:`activeCount` method is renamed to :meth:`active_count`.  Both
+  the 2.6 and 3.0 versions of the module support the same properties
+  and renamed methods, but don't remove the old methods.  No date has been set
+  for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs won't
+  be removed in any 2.x version.
+  (Carried out by several people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)
+
+  The :mod:`threading` module's :class:`Thread` objects
+  gained an :attr:`ident` property that returns the thread's
+  identifier, a nonzero integer.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith;
+  :issue:`2871`.)
+
+* The :mod:`timeit` module now accepts callables as well as strings
+  for the statement being timed and for the setup code.
+  Two convenience functions were added for creating
+  :class:`Timer` instances:
+  ``repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)`` and
+  ``timeit(stmt, setup, time, number)`` create an instance and call
+  the corresponding method. (Contributed by Erik Demaine;
+  :issue:`1533909`.)
+
+* The :mod:`Tkinter` module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
+  separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting value to
+  Tcl/Tk.
+  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; :issue:`2906`.)
+
+* The :mod:`turtle` module for turtle graphics was greatly enhanced by
+  Gregor Lingl.  New features in the module include:
+
+  * Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.
+  * Control over turtle movement using the new :meth:`delay`,
+    :meth:`tracer`, and :meth:`speed` methods.
+  * The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to
+    define a new coordinate system.
+  * Turtles now have an :meth:`undo()` method that can roll back actions.
+  * Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and keyboard
+    activity, making it possible to write simple games.
+  * A :file:`turtle.cfg` file can be used to customize the starting appearance
+    of the turtle's screen.
+  * The module's docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that have been
+    translated into another language.
+
+  (:issue:`1513695`)
+
+* An optional ``timeout`` parameter was added to the
+  :func:`urllib.urlopen` function and the
+  :class:`urllib.ftpwrapper` class constructor, as well as the
+  :func:`urllib2.urlopen` function.  The parameter specifies a timeout
+  measured in seconds.   For example::
+
+     >>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com",
+                             timeout=3)
+     Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ...
+     urllib2.URLError: <urlopen error timed out>
+     >>>
+
+  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
+
+* The Unicode database provided by the :mod:`unicodedata` module
+  has been updated to version 5.1.0.  (Updated by
+  Martin von Löwis; :issue:`3811`.)
+
+* The :mod:`warnings` module's :func:`formatwarning` and :func:`showwarning`
+  gained an optional *line* argument that can be used to supply the
+  line of source code.  (Added as part of :issue:`1631171`, which re-implemented
+  part of the :mod:`warnings` module in C code.)
+
+  A new function, :func:`catch_warnings`, is a context manager
+  intended for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the
+  warning filters and then restore their original values (:issue:`3781`).
+
+* The XML-RPC :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` and :class:`DocXMLRPCServer`
+  classes can now be prevented from immediately opening and binding to
+  their socket by passing ``False`` as the *bind_and_activate*
+  constructor parameter.  This can be used to modify the instance's
+  :attr:`allow_reuse_address` attribute before calling the
+  :meth:`server_bind` and :meth:`server_activate` methods to
+  open the socket and begin listening for connections.
+  (Contributed by Peter Parente; :issue:`1599845`.)
+
+  :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` also has a :attr:`_send_traceback_header`
+  attribute; if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned
+  as HTTP headers "X-Exception" and "X-Traceback".  This feature is
+  for debugging purposes only and should not be used on production servers
+  because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other sensitive
+  information.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of his
+  project for Google's Summer of Code 2007.)
+
+* The :mod:`xmlrpclib` module no longer automatically converts
+  :class:`datetime.date` and :class:`datetime.time` to the
+  :class:`xmlrpclib.DateTime` type; the conversion semantics were
+  not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
+  :mod:`xmlrpclib` should convert :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.time`
+  instances. (:issue:`1330538`)  The code can also handle
+  dates before 1900 (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; :issue:`2014`)
+  and 64-bit integers represented by using ``<i8>`` in XML-RPC responses
+  (contributed by Riku Lindblad; :issue:`2985`).
+
+* The :mod:`zipfile` module's :class:`ZipFile` class now has
+  :meth:`extract` and :meth:`extractall` methods that will unpack
+  a single file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
+  to a specified directory::
+
+    z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip')
+
+    # Unpack a single file, writing it relative
+    # to the /tmp directory.
+    z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp')
+
+    # Unpack all the files in the archive.
+    z.extractall()
+
+  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre; :issue:`467924`.)
+
+  The :meth:`open`, :meth:`read` and :meth:`extract` methods can now
+  take either a filename or a :class:`ZipInfo` object.  This is useful when an
+  archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
+  (Contributed by Graham Horler; :issue:`1775025`.)
+
+  Finally, :mod:`zipfile` now supports using Unicode filenames
+  for archived files.  (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov; :issue:`1734346`.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+.. whole new modules get described in subsections here
+
+The :mod:`ast` module
+----------------------
+
+The :mod:`ast` module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree
+representation of Python code, and Armin Ronacher
+contributed a set of helper functions that perform a variety of
+common tasks.  These will be useful for HTML templating
+packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
+Python code.
+
+The :func:`parse` function takes an expression and returns an AST.
+The :func:`dump` function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable
+for debugging::
+
+    import ast
+
+    t = ast.parse("""
+    d = {}
+    for i in 'abcdefghijklm':
+        d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1
+    print d
+    """)
+    print ast.dump(t)
+
+This outputs a deeply nested tree::
+
+    Module(body=[
+      Assign(targets=[
+        Name(id='d', ctx=Store())
+       ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[]))
+      For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
+          iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[
+        Assign(targets=[
+          Subscript(value=
+            Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
+              slice=
+              Index(value=
+                BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(),
+                 right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store())
+         ], value=
+         BinOp(left=
+          BinOp(left=
+           Call(func=
+            Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
+              Name(id='i', ctx=Load())
+             ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None),
+           op=Sub(), right=Call(func=
+            Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
+              Str(s='a')
+             ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)),
+           op=Add(), right=Num(n=1)))
+        ], orelse=[])
+       Print(dest=None, values=[
+         Name(id='d', ctx=Load())
+       ], nl=True)
+     ])
+
+The :func:`literal_eval` method takes a string or an AST
+representing a literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and
+returns the resulting value.  A literal expression is a Python
+expression containing only strings, numbers, dictionaries,
+etc. but no statements or function calls.  If you need to
+evaluate an expression but cannot accept the security risk of using an
+:func:`eval` call, :func:`literal_eval` will handle it safely::
+
+    >>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
+    >>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
+    ('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})
+    >>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    ValueError: malformed string
+
+The module also includes :class:`NodeVisitor` and
+:class:`NodeTransformer` classes for traversing and modifying an AST,
+and functions for common transformations such as changing line
+numbers.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+The :mod:`future_builtins` module
+--------------------------------------
+
+Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in
+functions, and most of the changes can't be introduced in the Python
+2.x series because they would break compatibility.
+The :mod:`future_builtins` module provides versions
+of these built-in functions that can be imported when writing
+3.0-compatible code.
+
+The functions in this module currently include:
+
+* ``ascii(obj)``: equivalent to :func:`repr`.  In Python 3.0,
+  :func:`repr` will return a Unicode string, while :func:`ascii` will
+  return a pure ASCII bytestring.
+
+* ``filter(predicate, iterable)``,
+  ``map(func, iterable1, ...)``: the 3.0 versions
+  return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return lists.
+
+* ``hex(value)``, ``oct(value)``: instead of calling the
+  :meth:`__hex__` or :meth:`__oct__` methods, these versions will
+  call the :meth:`__index__` method and convert the result to hexadecimal
+  or octal.  :func:`oct` will use the new ``0o`` notation for its
+  result.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+The :mod:`json` module: JavaScript Object Notation
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The new :mod:`json` module supports the encoding and decoding of Python types in
+JSON (Javascript Object Notation). JSON is a lightweight interchange format
+often used in web applications. For more information about JSON, see
+http://www.json.org.
+
+:mod:`json` comes with support for decoding and encoding most built-in Python
+types. The following example encodes and decodes a dictionary::
+
+       >>> import json
+       >>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
+       >>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data
+       >>> in_json
+       '{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}'
+       >>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object
+       {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
+
+It's also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support
+more types. Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.
+
+:mod:`json` (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob
+Ippolito.
+
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+The :mod:`plistlib` module: A Property-List Parser
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+The ``.plist`` format is commonly used on Mac OS X to
+store basic data types (numbers, strings, lists,
+and dictionaries) by serializing them into an XML-based format.
+It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of data types.
+
+Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format
+has nothing Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works
+on any platform that Python supports, so the :mod:`plistlib` module
+has been promoted to the standard library.
+
+Using the module is simple::
+
+    import sys
+    import plistlib
+    import datetime
+
+    # Create data structure
+    data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=datetime.datetime.now(),
+                       version=1,
+                       categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))
+
+    # Create string containing XML.
+    plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct)
+    new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str)
+    print data_struct
+    print new_struct
+
+    # Write data structure to a file and read it back.
+    plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist')
+    new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist')
+
+    # read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.
+    plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+ctypes Enhancements
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the
+:mod:`ctypes` module.
+
+:mod:`ctypes` now supports a :class:`c_bool` datatype
+that represents the C99 ``bool`` type.  (Contributed by David Remahl;
+:issue:`1649190`.)
+
+The :mod:`ctypes` string, buffer and array types have improved
+support for extended slicing syntax,
+where various combinations of ``(start, stop, step)`` are supplied.
+(Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)
+
+.. Revision 57769
+
+All :mod:`ctypes` data types now support
+:meth:`from_buffer` and :meth:`from_buffer_copy`
+methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
+provided buffer object.  :meth:`from_buffer_copy` copies
+the contents of the object,
+while :meth:`from_buffer` will share the same memory area.
+
+A new calling convention tells :mod:`ctypes` to clear the ``errno`` or
+Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
+(Implemented by Thomas Heller; :issue:`1798`.)
+
+You can now retrieve the Unix ``errno`` variable after a function
+call.  When creating a wrapped function, you can supply
+``use_errno=True`` as a keyword parameter to the :func:`DLL` function
+and then call the module-level methods :meth:`set_errno` and
+:meth:`get_errno` to set and retrieve the error value.
+
+The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by
+the :func:`DLL`, :func:`OleDLL`, and :func:`WinDLL` functions.
+You supply ``use_last_error=True`` as a keyword parameter
+and then call the module-level methods :meth:`set_last_error`
+and :meth:`get_last_error`.
+
+The :func:`byref` function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes
+instance, now has an optional *offset* parameter that is a byte
+count that will be added to the returned pointer.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Improved SSL Support
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6's support for
+the Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, :mod:`ssl`, that's
+built atop the `OpenSSL <https://www.openssl.org/>`__ library.
+This new module provides more control over the protocol negotiated,
+the X.509 certificates used, and has better support for writing SSL
+servers (as opposed to clients) in Python.  The existing SSL support
+in the :mod:`socket` module hasn't been removed and continues to work,
+though it will be removed in Python 3.0.
+
+To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
+usual way and then pass it to the :func:`ssl.wrap_socket` function.
+It's possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to
+obtain certificate info by calling the :meth:`getpeercert` method.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   The documentation for the :mod:`ssl` module.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Deprecations and Removals
+=========================
+
+* String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises a
+  :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+* Changes to the :class:`Exception` interface
+  as dictated by :pep:`352` continue to be made.  For 2.6,
+  the :attr:`message` attribute is being deprecated in favor of the
+  :attr:`args` attribute.
+
+* (3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard
+  library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others.
+  Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these modules
+  when they are imported.
+
+  The list of deprecated modules is:
+  :mod:`audiodev`,
+  :mod:`bgenlocations`,
+  :mod:`buildtools`,
+  :mod:`bundlebuilder`,
+  :mod:`Canvas`,
+  :mod:`compiler`,
+  :mod:`dircache`,
+  :mod:`dl`,
+  :mod:`fpformat`,
+  :mod:`gensuitemodule`,
+  :mod:`ihooks`,
+  :mod:`imageop`,
+  :mod:`imgfile`,
+  :mod:`linuxaudiodev`,
+  :mod:`mhlib`,
+  :mod:`mimetools`,
+  :mod:`multifile`,
+  :mod:`new`,
+  :mod:`pure`,
+  :mod:`statvfs`,
+  :mod:`sunaudiodev`,
+  :mod:`test.testall`, and
+  :mod:`toaiff`.
+
+* The :mod:`gopherlib` module has been removed.
+
+* The :mod:`MimeWriter` module and :mod:`mimify` module
+  have been deprecated; use the :mod:`email`
+  package instead.
+
+* The :mod:`md5` module has been deprecated; use the :mod:`hashlib` module
+  instead.
+
+* The :mod:`posixfile` module has been deprecated; :func:`fcntl.lockf`
+  provides better locking.
+
+* The :mod:`popen2` module has been deprecated; use the :mod:`subprocess`
+  module.
+
+* The :mod:`rgbimg` module has been removed.
+
+* The :mod:`sets` module has been deprecated; it's better to
+  use the built-in :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` types.
+
+* The :mod:`sha` module has been deprecated; use the :mod:`hashlib` module
+  instead.
+
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
+
+* Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19
+  years!).  This means that the Python source tree has dropped its
+  own implementations of :c:func:`memmove` and :c:func:`strerror`, which
+  are in the C89 standard library.
+
+* Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version
+  9.0), and this is the new default compiler.  See the
+  :file:`PCbuild` directory for the build files.  (Implemented by
+  Christian Heimes.)
+
+* On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build.
+  The :program:`configure` script
+  can take a :option:`!--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]`
+  switch, controlling whether the binaries are built for 32-bit
+  architectures (x86, PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both.
+  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)
+
+* The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
+  ``bsddb.db.api``.   This object can be used by other C extensions
+  that wish to use the :mod:`bsddb` module for their own purposes.
+  (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)
+
+* The new buffer interface, previously described in
+  `the PEP 3118 section <#pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol>`__,
+  adds :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` and :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release`,
+  as well as a few other functions.
+
+* Python's use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least
+  as thread-safe as the underlying library is.  A long-standing potential
+  bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while another thread
+  was reading from or writing to the object.  In 2.6 file objects
+  have a reference count, manipulated by the
+  :c:func:`PyFile_IncUseCount` and :c:func:`PyFile_DecUseCount`
+  functions.  File objects can't be closed unless the reference count
+  is zero.  :c:func:`PyFile_IncUseCount` should be called while the GIL
+  is still held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the
+  ``FILE *`` pointer, and :c:func:`PyFile_DecUseCount` should be called
+  immediately after the GIL is re-acquired.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Gregory P. Smith.)
+
+* Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer
+  deadlocks; it will now raise an :exc:`ImportError`.  A new API
+  function, :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock`, will look for a
+  module in ``sys.modules`` first, then try to import it after
+  acquiring an import lock.  If the import lock is held by another
+  thread, an :exc:`ImportError` is raised.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
+
+* Several functions return information about the platform's
+  floating-point support.  :c:func:`PyFloat_GetMax` returns
+  the maximum representable floating point value,
+  and :c:func:`PyFloat_GetMin` returns the minimum
+  positive value.  :c:func:`PyFloat_GetInfo` returns an object
+  containing more information from the :file:`float.h` file, such as
+  ``"mant_dig"`` (number of digits in the mantissa), ``"epsilon"``
+  (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value
+  representable), and several others.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; :issue:`1534`.)
+
+* C functions and methods that use
+  :c:func:`PyComplex_AsCComplex` will now accept arguments that
+  have a :meth:`__complex__` method.  In particular, the functions in the
+  :mod:`cmath` module will now accept objects with this method.
+  This is a backport of a Python 3.0 change.
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`1675423`.)
+
+* Python's C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive string
+  comparisons, ``PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*)``
+  and ``PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t)``.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; :issue:`1635`.)
+
+* Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding
+  integers and strings to the module's dictionary in the
+  ``init*`` function.  Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros
+  for adding values to a module, :c:macro:`PyModule_AddStringMacro`
+  and :c:macro:`PyModule_AddIntMacro()`.  (Contributed by
+  Christian Heimes.)
+
+* Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer that
+  they are macros,
+  not functions.  :c:macro:`Py_Size()` became :c:macro:`Py_SIZE()`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_Type()` became :c:macro:`Py_TYPE()`, and
+  :c:macro:`Py_Refcnt()` became :c:macro:`Py_REFCNT()`.
+  The mixed-case macros are still available
+  in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility.
+  (:issue:`1629`)
+
+* Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a
+  different directory when running on a debug version of Python.
+  (Contributed by Collin Winter; :issue:`1530959`.)
+
+* Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain
+  internal free lists of objects that can be re-used.  The data
+  structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the
+  variable is always named ``free_list``, the counter is always named
+  ``numfree``, and a macro ``Py<typename>_MAXFREELIST`` is
+  always defined.
+
+* A new Makefile target, "make patchcheck", prepares the Python source tree
+  for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all modified
+  ``.py`` files, checks whether the documentation has been changed,
+  and reports whether the :file:`Misc/ACKS` and :file:`Misc/NEWS` files
+  have been updated.
+  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)
+
+  Another new target, "make profile-opt", compiles a Python binary
+  using GCC's profile-guided optimization.  It compiles Python with
+  profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling
+  results, and then compiles using these results for optimization.
+  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Port-Specific Changes: Windows
+-----------------------------------
+
+* The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
+  Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.
+
+* The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version
+  9.0). The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1) and
+  2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory. The new
+  :file:`PCbuild` directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug
+  builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are roughly
+  10% faster than normal builds.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
+  with help from Amaury Forgeot d'Arc and Martin von Löwis.)
+
+* The :mod:`msvcrt` module now supports
+  both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O
+  API.  The :func:`getwch` function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode
+  value, as does the :func:`getwche` function.  The :func:`putwch` function
+  takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
+
+* :func:`os.path.expandvars` will now expand environment variables in
+  the form "%var%", and "~user" will be expanded into the user's home
+  directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson; :issue:`957650`.)
+
+* The :mod:`socket` module's socket objects now have an
+  :meth:`ioctl` method that provides a limited interface to the
+  :c:func:`WSAIoctl` system interface.
+
+* The :mod:`_winreg` module now has a function,
+  :func:`ExpandEnvironmentStrings`,
+  that expands environment variable references such as ``%NAME%``
+  in an input string.  The handle objects provided by this
+  module now support the context protocol, so they can be used
+  in :keyword:`with` statements. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
+
+  :mod:`_winreg` also has better support for x64 systems,
+  exposing the :func:`DisableReflectionKey`, :func:`EnableReflectionKey`,
+  and :func:`QueryReflectionKey` functions, which enable and disable
+  registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on 64-bit systems.
+  (:issue:`1753245`)
+
+* The :mod:`msilib` module's :class:`Record` object
+  gained :meth:`GetInteger` and :meth:`GetString` methods that
+  return field values as an integer or a string.
+  (Contributed by Floris Bruynooghe; :issue:`2125`.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
+-----------------------------------
+
+* When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
+  framework name to be used by providing the
+  :option:`!--with-framework-name=` option to the
+  :program:`configure` script.
+
+* The :mod:`macfs` module has been removed.  This in turn required the
+  :func:`macostools.touched` function to be removed because it depended on the
+  :mod:`macfs` module.  (:issue:`1490190`)
+
+* Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed in
+  Python 3.0:
+  :mod:`_builtinSuites`,
+  :mod:`aepack`,
+  :mod:`aetools`,
+  :mod:`aetypes`,
+  :mod:`applesingle`,
+  :mod:`appletrawmain`,
+  :mod:`appletrunner`,
+  :mod:`argvemulator`,
+  :mod:`Audio_mac`,
+  :mod:`autoGIL`,
+  :mod:`Carbon`,
+  :mod:`cfmfile`,
+  :mod:`CodeWarrior`,
+  :mod:`ColorPicker`,
+  :mod:`EasyDialogs`,
+  :mod:`Explorer`,
+  :mod:`Finder`,
+  :mod:`FrameWork`,
+  :mod:`findertools`,
+  :mod:`ic`,
+  :mod:`icglue`,
+  :mod:`icopen`,
+  :mod:`macerrors`,
+  :mod:`MacOS`,
+  :mod:`macfs`,
+  :mod:`macostools`,
+  :mod:`macresource`,
+  :mod:`MiniAEFrame`,
+  :mod:`Nav`,
+  :mod:`Netscape`,
+  :mod:`OSATerminology`,
+  :mod:`pimp`,
+  :mod:`PixMapWrapper`,
+  :mod:`StdSuites`,
+  :mod:`SystemEvents`,
+  :mod:`Terminal`, and
+  :mod:`terminalcommand`.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
+-----------------------------------
+
+A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will
+be removed in Python 3.0:
+:mod:`al` and :mod:`AL`,
+:mod:`cd`,
+:mod:`cddb`,
+:mod:`cdplayer`,
+:mod:`CL` and :mod:`cl`,
+:mod:`DEVICE`,
+:mod:`ERRNO`,
+:mod:`FILE`,
+:mod:`FL` and :mod:`fl`,
+:mod:`flp`,
+:mod:`fm`,
+:mod:`GET`,
+:mod:`GLWS`,
+:mod:`GL` and :mod:`gl`,
+:mod:`IN`,
+:mod:`IOCTL`,
+:mod:`jpeg`,
+:mod:`panelparser`,
+:mod:`readcd`,
+:mod:`SV` and :mod:`sv`,
+:mod:`torgb`,
+:mod:`videoreader`, and
+:mod:`WAIT`.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Porting to Python 2.6
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code:
+
+* Classes that aren't supposed to be hashable should
+  set ``__hash__ = None`` in their definitions to indicate
+  the fact.
+
+* String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises a
+  :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+* The :meth:`__init__` method of :class:`collections.deque`
+  now clears any existing contents of the deque
+  before adding elements from the iterable.  This change makes the
+  behavior match ``list.__init__()``.
+
+* :meth:`object.__init__` previously accepted arbitrary arguments and
+  keyword arguments, ignoring them.  In Python 2.6, this is no longer
+  allowed and will result in a :exc:`TypeError`.  This will affect
+  :meth:`__init__` methods that end up calling the corresponding
+  method on :class:`object` (perhaps through using :func:`super`).
+  See :issue:`1683368` for discussion.
+
+* The :class:`Decimal` constructor now accepts leading and trailing
+  whitespace when passed a string.  Previously it would raise an
+  :exc:`InvalidOperation` exception.  On the other hand, the
+  :meth:`create_decimal` method of :class:`Context` objects now
+  explicitly disallows extra whitespace, raising a
+  :exc:`ConversionSyntax` exception.
+
+* Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to
+  the built-in  :func:`__import__` function, it would actually import
+  the specified file.  This was never intended to work, however, and
+  the implementation now explicitly checks for this case and raises
+  an :exc:`ImportError`.
+
+* C API: the :c:func:`PyImport_Import` and :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`
+  functions now default to absolute imports, not relative imports.
+  This will affect C extensions that import other modules.
+
+* C API: extension data types that shouldn't be hashable
+  should define their ``tp_hash`` slot to
+  :c:func:`PyObject_HashNotImplemented`.
+
+* The :mod:`socket` module exception :exc:`socket.error` now inherits
+  from :exc:`IOError`.  Previously it wasn't a subclass of
+  :exc:`StandardError` but now it is, through :exc:`IOError`.
+  (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; :issue:`1706815`.)
+
+* The :mod:`xmlrpclib` module no longer automatically converts
+  :class:`datetime.date` and :class:`datetime.time` to the
+  :class:`xmlrpclib.DateTime` type; the conversion semantics were
+  not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
+  :mod:`xmlrpclib` should convert :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.time`
+  instances. (:issue:`1330538`)
+
+* (3.0-warning mode) The :class:`Exception` class now warns
+  when accessed using slicing or index access; having
+  :class:`Exception` behave like a tuple is being phased out.
+
+* (3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries
+  or two objects that don't implement comparison methods are reported
+  as warnings.  ``dict1 == dict2`` still works, but ``dict1 < dict2``
+  is being phased out.
+
+  Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of Python's
+  scoping rules, also cause warnings because such comparisons are forbidden
+  entirely in 3.0.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _26acks:
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering
+suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
+article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy,
+Jim Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher,  Martin Michlmayr,
+Antoine Pitrou, Brian Warner.
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.7.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.7.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f8d9f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/2.7.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2799 @@
+****************************
+  What's New in Python 2.7
+****************************
+
+:Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)
+
+..  hyperlink all the methods & functions.
+
+.. T_STRING_INPLACE not described in main docs
+
+.. $Id$
+   Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.  Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number in a parenthetical comment.
+
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer; :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer some effort going through the SVN logs
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 2.7.  Python 2.7 was released
+on July 3, 2010.
+
+Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both
+floating-point numbers and for the :class:`~decimal.Decimal` class.
+There are some useful additions to the standard library, such as a
+greatly enhanced :mod:`unittest` module, the :mod:`argparse` module
+for parsing command-line options, convenient :class:`~collections.OrderedDict`
+and :class:`~collections.Counter` classes in the :mod:`collections` module,
+and many other improvements.
+
+Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked
+on making it a good release for the long term.  To help with porting
+to Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been
+included in 2.7.
+
+This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of
+the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For
+full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at
+https://docs.python.org. If you want to understand the rationale for
+the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new
+feature or the issue on https://bugs.python.org in which a change was
+discussed.  Whenever possible, "What's New in Python" links to the
+bug/patch item for each change.
+
+.. _whatsnew27-python31:
+
+The Future for Python 2.x
+=========================
+
+Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python
+maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development efforts
+to the Python 3.x series. This means that while Python 2 continues to
+receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on new hardware and
+versions of supported operated systems, there will be no new full feature
+releases for the language or standard library.
+
+However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and Python
+3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common subset, or
+directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other changes (notably
+those associated with Unicode handling) may require careful consideration,
+and preferably robust automated regression test suites, to migrate
+effectively.
+
+This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time, providing a
+stable and supported base platform for production systems that have not yet
+been ported to Python 3. The full expected lifecycle of the Python 2.7
+series is detailed in :pep:`373`.
+
+Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:
+
+* As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of maintenance
+  when compared to earlier 2.x versions. Python 2.7 is currently expected to
+  remain supported by the core development team (receiving security updates
+  and other bug fixes) until at least 2020 (10 years after its initial
+  release, compared to the more typical support period of 18--24 months).
+
+* As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of the
+  Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor) becomes
+  more important for Python 2 users. In addition to a wide variety of third
+  party packages for various tasks, the available packages include backports
+  of new modules and features from the Python 3 standard library that are
+  compatible with Python 2, as well as various tools and libraries that can
+  make it easier to migrate to Python 3. The `Python Packaging User Guide
+  <https://packaging.python.org>`__ provides guidance on downloading and
+  installing software from the Python Package Index.
+
+* While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the publication
+  of new packages on the Python Package Index, this approach doesn't
+  necessarily work in all cases, especially those related to network
+  security. In exceptional cases that cannot be handled adequately by
+  publishing new or updated packages on PyPI, the Python Enhancement
+  Proposal process may be used to make the case for adding new features
+  directly to the Python 2 standard library. Any such additions, and the
+  maintenance releases where they were added, will be noted in the
+  :ref:`py27-maintenance-enhancements` section below.
+
+For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for library
+and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python 2 and
+Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to help decide
+on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical details involved.
+The recommended starting point is the :ref:`pyporting-howto` HOWTO guide.
+
+
+Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
+===============================================
+
+For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of
+interest to developers by default.  :exc:`DeprecationWarning` and its
+descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing
+users from seeing warnings triggered by an application.  This change
+was also made in the branch that became Python 3.2. (Discussed
+on stdlib-sig and carried out in :issue:`7319`.)
+
+In previous releases, :exc:`DeprecationWarning` messages were
+enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear
+indication of where their code may break in a future major version
+of Python.
+
+However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based
+applications who are not directly involved in the development of
+those applications.  :exc:`DeprecationWarning` messages are
+irrelevant to such users, making them worry about an application
+that's actually working correctly and burdening application developers
+with responding to these concerns.
+
+You can re-enable display of :exc:`DeprecationWarning` messages by
+running Python with the :option:`-Wdefault <-W>` (short form:
+:option:`-Wd <-W>`) switch, or by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS`
+environment variable to ``"default"`` (or ``"d"``) before running
+Python.  Python code can also re-enable them
+by calling ``warnings.simplefilter('default')``.
+
+The ``unittest`` module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings
+when running tests.
+
+
+Python 3.1 Features
+=======================
+
+Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0,
+version 2.7 incorporates some of the new features
+in Python 3.1.  The 2.x series continues to provide tools
+for migrating to the 3.x series.
+
+A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:
+
+* The syntax for set literals (``{1,2,3}`` is a mutable set).
+* Dictionary and set comprehensions (``{i: i*2 for i in range(3)}``).
+* Multiple context managers in a single :keyword:`with` statement.
+* A new version of the :mod:`io` library, rewritten in C for performance.
+* The ordered-dictionary type described in :ref:`pep-0372`.
+* The new ``","`` format specifier described in :ref:`pep-0378`.
+* The :class:`memoryview` object.
+* A small subset of the :mod:`importlib` module,
+  `described below <#importlib-section>`__.
+* The :func:`repr` of a float ``x`` is shorter in many cases: it's now
+  based on the shortest decimal string that's guaranteed to round back
+  to ``x``.  As in previous versions of Python, it's guaranteed that
+  ``float(repr(x))`` recovers ``x``.
+* Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly rounded.
+  The :func:`round` function is also now correctly rounded.
+* The :c:type:`PyCapsule` type, used to provide a C API for extension modules.
+* The :c:func:`PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow` C API function.
+
+Other new Python3-mode warnings include:
+
+* :func:`operator.isCallable` and :func:`operator.sequenceIncludes`,
+  which are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.
+* The :option:`!-3` switch now automatically
+  enables the :option:`!-Qwarn` switch that causes warnings
+  about using classic division with integers and long integers.
+
+
+
+.. ========================================================================
+.. Large, PEP-level features and changes should be described here.
+.. ========================================================================
+
+.. _pep-0372:
+
+PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
+====================================================
+
+Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order.
+Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations
+that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted.  Based on
+the experiences from those implementations, 2.7 introduces a new
+:class:`~collections.OrderedDict` class in the :mod:`collections` module.
+
+The :class:`~collections.OrderedDict` API provides the same interface as regular
+dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order
+depending on when a key was first inserted::
+
+    >>> from collections import OrderedDict
+    >>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
+    ...                  ('second', 2),
+    ...                  ('third', 3)])
+    >>> d.items()
+    [('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)]
+
+If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion
+position is left unchanged::
+
+    >>> d['second'] = 4
+    >>> d.items()
+    [('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)]
+
+Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end::
+
+    >>> del d['second']
+    >>> d['second'] = 5
+    >>> d.items()
+    [('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)]
+
+The :meth:`~collections.OrderedDict.popitem` method has an optional *last*
+argument that defaults to ``True``.  If *last* is true, the most recently
+added key is returned and removed; if it's false, the
+oldest key is selected::
+
+    >>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)])
+    >>> od.popitem()
+    (19, 0)
+    >>> od.popitem()
+    (18, 0)
+    >>> od.popitem(last=False)
+    (0, 0)
+    >>> od.popitem(last=False)
+    (1, 0)
+
+Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values,
+and requires that the insertion order was the same::
+
+    >>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
+    ...                    ('second', 2),
+    ...                    ('third', 3)])
+    >>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3),
+    ...                    ('first', 1),
+    ...                    ('second', 2)])
+    >>> od1 == od2
+    False
+    >>> # Move 'third' key to the end
+    >>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3
+    >>> od1 == od2
+    True
+
+Comparing an :class:`~collections.OrderedDict` with a regular dictionary
+ignores the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.
+
+How does the :class:`~collections.OrderedDict` work?  It maintains a
+doubly-linked list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they're inserted.
+A secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so
+deletion doesn't have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore
+remains O(1).
+
+The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
+modules.
+
+* The :mod:`ConfigParser` module uses them by default, meaning that
+  configuration files can now be read, modified, and then written back
+  in their original order.
+
+* The :meth:`~collections.somenamedtuple._asdict()` method for
+  :func:`collections.namedtuple` now returns an ordered dictionary with the
+  values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.
+
+* The :mod:`json` module's :class:`~json.JSONDecoder` class
+  constructor was extended with an *object_pairs_hook* parameter to
+  allow :class:`OrderedDict` instances to be built by the decoder.
+  Support was also added for third-party tools like
+  `PyYAML <http://pyyaml.org/>`_.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`372` - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections
+     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger;
+     implemented by Raymond Hettinger.
+
+.. _pep-0378:
+
+PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
+=================================================
+
+To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add
+separators to large numbers, rendering them as
+18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead of 18446744073709551616.
+
+The fully general solution for doing this is the :mod:`locale` module,
+which can use different separators ("," in North America, "." in
+Europe) and different grouping sizes, but :mod:`locale` is complicated
+to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where different
+threads are producing output for different locales.
+
+Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the
+mini-language used by the :meth:`str.format` method.  When
+formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the
+width and the precision::
+
+   >>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0)
+   '18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00'
+
+When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:
+
+   >>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616)
+   '18,446,744,073,709,551,616'
+
+This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the
+separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups.  The
+comma-formatting mechanism isn't as general as the :mod:`locale`
+module, but it's easier to use.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`378` - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
+     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith.
+
+PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
+======================================================
+
+The :mod:`argparse` module for parsing command-line arguments was
+added as a more powerful replacement for the
+:mod:`optparse` module.
+
+This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing
+command-line arguments: :mod:`getopt`, :mod:`optparse`, and
+:mod:`argparse`.  The :mod:`getopt` module closely resembles the C
+library's :c:func:`getopt` function, so it remains useful if you're writing a
+Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C.
+:mod:`optparse` becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it
+because there are many scripts still using it, and there's no
+automated way to update these scripts.  (Making the :mod:`argparse`
+API consistent with :mod:`optparse`'s interface was discussed but
+rejected as too messy and difficult.)
+
+In short, if you're writing a new script and don't need to worry
+about compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use
+:mod:`argparse` instead of :mod:`optparse`.
+
+Here's an example::
+
+    import argparse
+
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.')
+
+    # Add optional switches
+    parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose',
+                        help='produce verbose output')
+    parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output',
+                        metavar='FILE',
+                        help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout')
+    parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context',
+                        metavar='NUM', default=0,
+                        help='display NUM lines of added context')
+
+    # Allow any number of additional arguments.
+    parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs',
+                        help='input filenames (default is stdin)')
+
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+    print args.__dict__
+
+Unless you override it, :option:`!-h` and :option:`!--help` switches
+are automatically added, and produce neatly formatted output::
+
+    -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help
+    usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]]
+
+    Command-line example.
+
+    positional arguments:
+      inputs      input filenames (default is stdin)
+
+    optional arguments:
+      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
+      -v          produce verbose output
+      -o FILE     direct output to FILE instead of stdout
+      -C NUM      display NUM lines of added context
+
+As with :mod:`optparse`, the command-line switches and arguments
+are returned as an object with attributes named by the *dest* parameters::
+
+    -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v
+    {'output': None,
+     'is_verbose': True,
+     'context': 0,
+     'inputs': []}
+
+    -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2
+    {'output': '/tmp/output',
+     'is_verbose': True,
+     'context': 4,
+     'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']}
+
+:mod:`argparse` has much fancier validation than :mod:`optparse`; you
+can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more
+arguments by passing ``'*'``, 1 or more by passing ``'+'``, or an
+optional argument with ``'?'``.  A top-level parser can contain
+sub-parsers to define subcommands that have different sets of
+switches, as in ``svn commit``, ``svn checkout``, etc.  You can
+specify an argument's type as :class:`~argparse.FileType`, which will
+automatically open files for you and understands that ``'-'`` means
+standard input or output.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :mod:`argparse` documentation
+     The documentation page of the argparse module.
+
+   :ref:`upgrading-optparse-code`
+     Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert
+     code that uses :mod:`optparse`.
+
+   :pep:`389` - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module
+     PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard.
+
+PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
+====================================================
+
+The :mod:`logging` module is very flexible; applications can define
+a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter
+out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to
+a varying number of handlers.
+
+All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration.  You can
+write Python statements to create objects and set their properties,
+but a complex set-up requires verbose but boring code.
+:mod:`logging` also supports a :func:`~logging.fileConfig`
+function that parses a file, but the file format doesn't support
+configuring filters, and it's messier to generate programmatically.
+
+Python 2.7 adds a :func:`~logging.dictConfig` function that
+uses a dictionary to configure logging.  There are many ways to
+produce a dictionary from different sources: construct one with code;
+parse a file containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is
+installed.  For more information see :ref:`logging-config-api`.
+
+The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a
+logger named "network".  Messages sent to the root logger will be
+sent to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages
+to the "network" logger will be written to a :file:`network.log` file
+that will be rotated once the log reaches 1MB.
+
+::
+
+    import logging
+    import logging.config
+
+    configdict = {
+     'version': 1,    # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now
+     'formatters': {
+         'standard': {
+             'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s '
+                        '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}},
+
+     'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10,
+                         'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler',
+                         'filename': '/logs/network.log',
+                         'formatter': 'standard',
+                         'level': 'INFO',
+                         'maxBytes': 1000000},
+                  'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler',
+                             'formatter': 'standard',
+                             'level': 'ERROR'}},
+
+     # Specify all the subordinate loggers
+     'loggers': {
+                 'network': {
+                             'handlers': ['netlog']
+                 }
+     },
+     # Specify properties of the root logger
+     'root': {
+              'handlers': ['syslog']
+     },
+    }
+
+    # Set up configuration
+    logging.config.dictConfig(configdict)
+
+    # As an example, log two error messages
+    logger = logging.getLogger('/')
+    logger.error('Database not found')
+
+    netlogger = logging.getLogger('network')
+    netlogger.error('Connection failed')
+
+Three smaller enhancements to the :mod:`logging` module, all
+implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:
+
+.. rev79293
+
+* The :class:`~logging.handlers.SysLogHandler` class now supports
+  syslogging over TCP.  The constructor has a *socktype* parameter
+  giving the type of socket to use, either :const:`socket.SOCK_DGRAM`
+  for UDP or :const:`socket.SOCK_STREAM` for TCP.  The default
+  protocol remains UDP.
+
+* :class:`~logging.Logger` instances gained a :meth:`~logging.Logger.getChild`
+  method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path.
+  For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing ``log = getLogger('app')``,
+  calling ``log.getChild('network.listen')`` is equivalent to
+  ``getLogger('app.network.listen')``.
+
+* The :class:`~logging.LoggerAdapter` class gained an
+  :meth:`~logging.LoggerAdapter.isEnabledFor` method that takes a
+  *level* and returns whether the underlying logger would
+  process a message of that level of importance.
+
+.. XXX: Logger objects don't have a class declaration so the link don't work
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`391` - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
+     PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip.
+
+PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
+====================================================
+
+The dictionary methods :meth:`~dict.keys`, :meth:`~dict.values`, and
+:meth:`~dict.items` are different in Python 3.x.  They return an object
+called a :dfn:`view` instead of a fully materialized list.
+
+It's not possible to change the return values of :meth:`~dict.keys`,
+:meth:`~dict.values`, and :meth:`~dict.items` in Python 2.7 because
+too much code would break.  Instead the 3.x versions were added
+under the new names :meth:`~dict.viewkeys`, :meth:`~dict.viewvalues`,
+and :meth:`~dict.viewitems`.
+
+::
+
+    >>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
+    >>> d
+    {0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'}
+    >>> d.viewkeys()
+    dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])
+
+Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave
+like sets.  The ``&`` operator performs intersection, and ``|``
+performs a union::
+
+    >>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
+    >>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000))
+    >>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys()
+    set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])
+    >>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30)
+    set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])
+
+The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the
+dictionary is modified::
+
+    >>> vk = d.viewkeys()
+    >>> vk
+    dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])
+    >>> d[260] = '&'
+    >>> vk
+    dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])
+
+However, note that you can't add or remove keys while you're iterating
+over the view::
+
+    >>> for k in vk:
+    ...     d[k*2] = k
+    ...
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration
+
+You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3
+converter will change them to the standard :meth:`~dict.keys`,
+:meth:`~dict.values`, and :meth:`~dict.items` methods.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3106` - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()
+     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.
+     Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre Vassalotti; :issue:`1967`.
+
+
+PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
+====================================================
+
+The :class:`memoryview` object provides a view of another object's
+memory content that matches the :class:`bytes` type's interface.
+
+.. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> import string
+    >>> m = memoryview(string.letters)
+    >>> m
+    <memory at 0x37f850>
+    >>> len(m)           # Returns length of underlying object
+    52
+    >>> m[0], m[25], m[26]   # Indexing returns one byte
+    ('a', 'z', 'A')
+    >>> m2 = m[0:26]         # Slicing returns another memoryview
+    >>> m2
+    <memory at 0x37f080>
+
+The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or
+a list of integers:
+
+.. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> m2.tobytes()
+    'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
+    >>> m2.tolist()
+    [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]
+    >>>
+
+:class:`memoryview` objects allow modifying the underlying object if
+it's a mutable object.
+
+.. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> m2[0] = 75
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
+    >>> b = bytearray(string.letters)  # Creating a mutable object
+    >>> b
+    bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ')
+    >>> mb = memoryview(b)
+    >>> mb[0] = '*'         # Assign to view, changing the bytearray.
+    >>> b[0:5]              # The bytearray has been changed.
+    bytearray(b'*bcde')
+    >>>
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3137` - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer
+     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.
+     Implemented by Travis Oliphant, Antoine Pitrou and others.
+     Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`2396`.
+
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x.
+  Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting
+  mutable set; set literals are
+  distinguished from dictionaries by not containing colons and values.
+  ``{}`` continues to represent an empty dictionary; use
+  ``set()`` for an empty set.
+
+  .. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
+    set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
+    >>> set() # empty set
+    set([])
+    >>> {}    # empty dict
+    {}
+
+  Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; :issue:`2335`.
+
+* Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported from
+  3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use
+  the literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.
+
+  .. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)}
+    {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
+    >>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)}
+    set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa'])
+
+  Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; :issue:`2333`.
+
+* The :keyword:`with` statement can now use multiple context managers
+  in one statement.  Context managers are processed from left to right
+  and each one is treated as beginning a new :keyword:`!with` statement.
+  This means that::
+
+   with A() as a, B() as b:
+       ... suite of statements ...
+
+  is equivalent to::
+
+   with A() as a:
+       with B() as b:
+           ... suite of statements ...
+
+  The :func:`contextlib.nested` function provides a very similar
+  function, so it's no longer necessary and has been deprecated.
+
+  (Proposed in https://codereview.appspot.com/53094; implemented by
+  Georg Brandl.)
+
+* Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are
+  now correctly rounded on most platforms.  These conversions occur
+  in many different places: :func:`str` on
+  floats and complex numbers; the :class:`float` and :class:`complex`
+  constructors;
+  numeric formatting; serializing and
+  deserializing floats and complex numbers using the
+  :mod:`marshal`, :mod:`pickle`
+  and :mod:`json` modules;
+  parsing of float and imaginary literals in Python code;
+  and :class:`~decimal.Decimal`-to-float conversion.
+
+  Related to this, the :func:`repr` of a floating-point number *x*
+  now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string that's
+  guaranteed to round back to *x* under correct rounding (with
+  round-half-to-even rounding mode).  Previously it gave a string
+  based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.
+
+  .. maybe add an example?
+
+  The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on
+  Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc
+  compilers.  There may be a small number of platforms where correct
+  operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not
+  used on such systems.  You can find out which code is being used
+  by checking :data:`sys.float_repr_style`,  which will be ``short``
+  if the new code is in use and ``legacy`` if it isn't.
+
+  Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay's
+  :file:`dtoa.c` library; :issue:`7117`.
+
+* Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating
+  point now round differently, returning the floating-point number
+  closest to the number.  This doesn't matter for small integers that
+  can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will
+  unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more
+  closely.  For example, Python 2.6 computed the following::
+
+    >>> n = 295147905179352891391
+    >>> float(n)
+    2.9514790517935283e+20
+    >>> n - long(float(n))
+    65535L
+
+  Python 2.7's floating-point result is larger, but much closer to the
+  true value::
+
+    >>> n = 295147905179352891391
+    >>> float(n)
+    2.9514790517935289e+20
+    >>> n - long(float(n))
+    -1L
+
+  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`3166`.)
+
+  Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours.  (Also
+  implemented by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`1811`.)
+
+* Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the interpreter
+  will no longer ever attempt to call a :meth:`__coerce__` method on complex
+  objects.  (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark Dickinson; :issue:`5211`.)
+
+* The :meth:`str.format` method now supports automatic numbering of the replacement
+  fields.  This makes using :meth:`str.format` more closely resemble using
+  ``%s`` formatting::
+
+    >>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday')
+    '2009:4:Sunday'
+    >>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday')
+    '2009:4:Sunday'
+
+  The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the first ``{...}``
+  specifier will use the first argument to :meth:`str.format`, the next
+  specifier will use the next argument, and so on.  You can't mix auto-numbering
+  and explicit numbering -- either number all of your specifier fields or none
+  of them -- but you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second
+  example above.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; :issue:`5237`.)
+
+  Complex numbers now correctly support usage with :func:`format`,
+  and default to being right-aligned.
+  Specifying a precision or comma-separation applies to both the real
+  and imaginary parts of the number, but a specified field width and
+  alignment is applied to the whole of the resulting ``1.5+3j``
+  output.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; :issue:`1588` and :issue:`7988`.)
+
+  The 'F' format code now always formats its output using uppercase characters,
+  so it will now produce 'INF' and 'NAN'.
+  (Contributed by Eric Smith; :issue:`3382`.)
+
+  A low-level change: the :meth:`object.__format__` method now triggers
+  a :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` if it's passed a format string,
+  because the :meth:`__format__` method for :class:`object` converts
+  the object to a string representation and formats that.  Previously
+  the method silently applied the format string to the string
+  representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python code.  If
+  you're supplying formatting information such as an alignment or
+  precision, presumably you're expecting the formatting to be applied
+  in some object-specific way.  (Fixed by Eric Smith; :issue:`7994`.)
+
+* The :func:`int` and :func:`long` types gained a ``bit_length``
+  method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent
+  its argument in binary::
+
+      >>> n = 37
+      >>> bin(n)
+      '0b100101'
+      >>> n.bit_length()
+      6
+      >>> n = 2**123-1
+      >>> n.bit_length()
+      123
+      >>> (n+1).bit_length()
+      124
+
+  (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner; :issue:`3439`.)
+
+* The :keyword:`import` statement will no longer try an absolute import
+  if a relative import (e.g. ``from .os import sep``) fails.  This
+  fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain :keyword:`!import`
+  statements that were only working by accident.  (Fixed by Meador Inge;
+  :issue:`7902`.)
+
+* It's now possible for a subclass of the built-in :class:`unicode` type
+  to override the :meth:`__unicode__` method.  (Implemented by
+  Victor Stinner; :issue:`1583863`.)
+
+* The :class:`bytearray` type's :meth:`~bytearray.translate` method now accepts
+  ``None`` as its first argument.  (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
+  :issue:`4759`.)
+
+  .. XXX bytearray doesn't seem to be documented
+
+* When using ``@classmethod`` and ``@staticmethod`` to wrap
+  methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
+  exposes the wrapped function as their :attr:`__func__` attribute.
+  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, after a suggestion by
+  George Sakkis; :issue:`5982`.)
+
+* When a restricted set of attributes were set using ``__slots__``,
+  deleting an unset attribute would not raise :exc:`AttributeError`
+  as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; :issue:`7604`.)
+
+* Two new encodings are now supported: "cp720", used primarily for
+  Arabic text; and "cp858", a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro
+  symbol.  (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury
+  Forgeot d'Arc in :issue:`1616979`; CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in
+  :issue:`8016`.)
+
+* The :class:`file` object will now set the :attr:`filename` attribute
+  on the :exc:`IOError` exception when trying to open a directory
+  on POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; :issue:`4764`), and
+  now explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects
+  instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error
+  (fixed by Stefan Krah; :issue:`5677`).
+
+* The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the
+  :func:`compile` built-in function now accepts code using any
+  line-ending convention.  Additionally, it no longer requires that the
+  code end in a newline.
+
+* Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python 3.x,
+  meaning that you get a syntax error from ``def f((x)): pass``.  In
+  Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd usage.
+  (Noted by James Lingard; :issue:`7362`.)
+
+* It's now possible to create weak references to old-style class
+  objects.  New-style classes were always weak-referenceable.  (Fixed
+  by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`8268`.)
+
+* When a module object is garbage-collected, the module's dictionary is
+  now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the
+  dictionary (:issue:`7140`).
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _new-27-interpreter:
+
+Interpreter Changes
+-------------------------------
+
+A new environment variable, :envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS`,
+allows controlling warnings.  It should be set to a string
+containing warning settings, equivalent to those
+used with the :option:`-W` switch, separated by commas.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin; :issue:`7301`.)
+
+For example, the following setting will print warnings every time
+they occur, but turn warnings from the :mod:`Cookie` module into an
+error.  (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies
+across operating systems and shells.)
+
+::
+
+  export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Optimizations
+-------------
+
+Several performance enhancements have been added:
+
+* A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for
+  :keyword:`with` statements, looking up the :meth:`__enter__` and
+  :meth:`__exit__` methods.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)
+
+* The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage
+  pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating
+  any of them.  This would previously take quadratic
+  time for garbage collection, but now the number of full garbage collections
+  is reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows.
+  The new logic only performs a full garbage collection pass when
+  the middle generation has been collected 10 times and when the
+  number of survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of
+  the number of objects in the oldest generation.  (Suggested by Martin
+  von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4074`.)
+
+* The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
+  which can't be part of a cycle. In Python 2.7, this is now true for
+  tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints, strings,
+  etc.). Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic types won't
+  be tracked either. This helps reduce the cost of each
+  garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
+  considered and traversed by the collector.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4688`.)
+
+* Long integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base
+  2**30, the base being determined at build time.  Previously, they
+  were always stored in base 2**15.  Using base 2**30 gives
+  significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
+  benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
+  the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15
+  on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option
+  :option:`!--enable-big-digits` that can be used to override this default.
+
+  Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
+  invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
+  debugging purposes there's a new structseq :data:`sys.long_info` that
+  provides information about the internal format, giving the number of
+  bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
+  each digit::
+
+     >>> import sys
+     >>> sys.long_info
+     sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)
+
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4258`.)
+
+  Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2 bytes
+  smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`5260`.)
+
+* The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster
+  by tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
+  and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.
+  Various benchmarks show speedups of between 50% and 150% for long
+  integer divisions and modulo operations.
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`5512`.)
+  Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by
+  Gregory Smith; :issue:`1087418`).
+
+* The implementation of ``%`` checks for the left-side operand being
+  a Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1--3%
+  performance increase for applications that frequently use ``%``
+  with strings, such as templating libraries.
+  (Implemented by Collin Winter; :issue:`5176`.)
+
+* List comprehensions with an ``if`` condition are compiled into
+  faster bytecode.  (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7
+  by Jeffrey Yasskin; :issue:`4715`.)
+
+* Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made
+  faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized
+  conversion function that supports arbitrary bases.
+  (Patch by Gawain Bolton; :issue:`6713`.)
+
+* The :meth:`split`, :meth:`replace`, :meth:`rindex`,
+  :meth:`rpartition`, and :meth:`rsplit` methods of string-like types
+  (strings, Unicode strings, and :class:`bytearray` objects) now use a
+  fast reverse-search algorithm instead of a character-by-character
+  scan.  This is sometimes faster by a factor of 10.  (Added by
+  Florent Xicluna; :issue:`7462` and :issue:`7622`.)
+
+* The :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`cPickle` modules now automatically
+  intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage
+  of the objects resulting from unpickling.  (Contributed by Jake
+  McGuire; :issue:`5084`.)
+
+* The :mod:`cPickle` module now special-cases dictionaries,
+  nearly halving the time required to pickle them.
+  (Contributed by Collin Winter; :issue:`5670`.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+New and Improved Modules
+========================
+
+As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of
+enhancements and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable
+changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the
+:file:`Misc/NEWS` file in the source tree for a more complete list of
+changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
+
+* The :mod:`bdb` module's base debugging class :class:`~bdb.Bdb`
+  gained a feature for skipping modules.  The constructor
+  now takes an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as
+  ``django.*``; the debugger will not step into stack frames
+  from a module that matches one of these patterns.
+  (Contributed by Maru Newby after a suggestion by
+  Senthil Kumaran; :issue:`5142`.)
+
+* The :mod:`binascii` module now supports the buffer API, so it can be
+  used with :class:`memoryview` instances and other similar buffer objects.
+  (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna; :issue:`7703`.)
+
+* Updated module: the :mod:`bsddb` module has been updated from 4.7.2devel9
+  to version 4.8.4 of
+  `the pybsddb package <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`__.
+  The new version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug fixes,
+  and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.
+  (Updated by Jesús Cea Avión; :issue:`8156`.  The pybsddb
+  changelog can be read at http://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog.)
+
+* The :mod:`bz2` module's :class:`~bz2.BZ2File` now supports the context
+  management protocol, so you can write ``with bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:``.
+  (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; :issue:`3860`.)
+
+* New class: the :class:`~collections.Counter` class in the :mod:`collections`
+  module is useful for tallying data.  :class:`~collections.Counter` instances
+  behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for missing keys instead of
+  raising a :exc:`KeyError`:
+
+  .. doctest::
+     :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+
+     >>> from collections import Counter
+     >>> c = Counter()
+     >>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text':
+     ...   c[letter] += 1
+     ...
+     >>> c # doctest: +SKIP
+     Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2,
+     'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1,
+     'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1})
+     >>> c['e']
+     5
+     >>> c['z']
+     0
+
+  There are three additional :class:`~collections.Counter` methods.
+  :meth:`~collections.Counter.most_common` returns the N most common
+  elements and their counts.  :meth:`~collections.Counter.elements`
+  returns an iterator over the contained elements, repeating each
+  element as many times as its count.
+  :meth:`~collections.Counter.subtract` takes an iterable and
+  subtracts one for each element instead of adding; if the argument is
+  a dictionary or another :class:`Counter`, the counts are
+  subtracted. ::
+
+    >>> c.most_common(5)
+    [(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)]
+    >>> c.elements() ->
+       'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
+       'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i',
+       'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's',
+       's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x'
+    >>> c['e']
+    5
+    >>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e')
+    >>> c['e']    # Count is now lower
+    -1
+
+  Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1696199`.
+
+  .. revision 79660
+
+  New class: :class:`~collections.OrderedDict` is described in the earlier
+  section :ref:`pep-0372`.
+
+  New method: The :class:`~collections.deque` data type now has a
+  :meth:`~collections.deque.count` method that returns the number of
+  contained elements equal to the supplied argument *x*, and a
+  :meth:`~collections.deque.reverse` method that reverses the elements
+  of the deque in-place.  :class:`~collections.deque` also exposes its maximum
+  length as the read-only :attr:`~collections.deque.maxlen` attribute.
+  (Both features added by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+  The :class:`~collections.namedtuple` class now has an optional *rename* parameter.
+  If *rename* is true, field names that are invalid because they've
+  been repeated or aren't legal Python identifiers will be
+  renamed to legal names that are derived from the field's
+  position within the list of fields:
+
+     >>> from collections import namedtuple
+     >>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
+     >>> T._fields
+     ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')
+
+  (Added by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1818`.)
+
+  Finally, the :class:`~collections.Mapping` abstract base class now
+  returns :const:`NotImplemented` if a mapping is compared to
+  another type that isn't a :class:`Mapping`.
+  (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; :issue:`8729`.)
+
+* Constructors for the parsing classes in the :mod:`ConfigParser` module now
+  take an *allow_no_value* parameter, defaulting to false; if true,
+  options without values will be allowed.  For example::
+
+    >>> import ConfigParser, StringIO
+    >>> sample_config = """
+    ... [mysqld]
+    ... user = mysql
+    ... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
+    ... skip-bdb
+    ... """
+    >>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
+    >>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config))
+    >>> config.get('mysqld', 'user')
+    'mysql'
+    >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb')
+    None
+    >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld'
+
+  (Contributed by Mats Kindahl; :issue:`7005`.)
+
+* Deprecated function: :func:`contextlib.nested`, which allows
+  handling more than one context manager with a single :keyword:`with`
+  statement, has been deprecated, because the :keyword:`!with` statement
+  now supports multiple context managers.
+
+* The :mod:`cookielib` module now ignores cookies that have an invalid
+  version field, one that doesn't contain an integer value.  (Fixed by
+  John J. Lee; :issue:`3924`.)
+
+* The :mod:`copy` module's :func:`~copy.deepcopy` function will now
+  correctly copy bound instance methods.  (Implemented by
+  Robert Collins; :issue:`1515`.)
+
+* The :mod:`ctypes` module now always converts ``None`` to a C NULL
+  pointer for arguments declared as pointers.  (Changed by Thomas
+  Heller; :issue:`4606`.)  The underlying `libffi library
+  <https://sourceware.org/libffi/>`__ has been updated to version
+  3.0.9, containing various fixes for different platforms.  (Updated
+  by Matthias Klose; :issue:`8142`.)
+
+* New method: the :mod:`datetime` module's :class:`~datetime.timedelta` class
+  gained a :meth:`~datetime.timedelta.total_seconds` method that returns the
+  number of seconds in the duration.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan; :issue:`5788`.)
+
+* New method: the :class:`~decimal.Decimal` class gained a
+  :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.from_float` class method that performs an exact
+  conversion of a floating-point number to a :class:`~decimal.Decimal`.
+  This exact conversion strives for the
+  closest decimal approximation to the floating-point representation's value;
+  the resulting decimal value will therefore still include the inaccuracy,
+  if any.
+  For example, ``Decimal.from_float(0.1)`` returns
+  ``Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')``.
+  (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`4796`.)
+
+  Comparing instances of :class:`~decimal.Decimal` with floating-point
+  numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values
+  of the operands.  Previously such comparisons would fall back to
+  Python's default rules for comparing objects, which produced arbitrary
+  results based on their type.  Note that you still cannot combine
+  :class:`Decimal` and floating-point in other operations such as addition,
+  since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert between float and
+  :class:`~decimal.Decimal`.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`2531`.)
+
+  The constructor for :class:`~decimal.Decimal` now accepts
+  floating-point numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`8257`)
+  and non-European Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits
+  (contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`6595`).
+
+  Most of the methods of the :class:`~decimal.Context` class now accept integers
+  as well as :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances; the only exceptions are the
+  :meth:`~decimal.Context.canonical` and :meth:`~decimal.Context.is_canonical`
+  methods.  (Patch by Juan José Conti; :issue:`7633`.)
+
+  When using :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances with a string's
+  :meth:`~str.format` method, the default alignment was previously
+  left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which is
+  more sensible for numeric types.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`6857`.)
+
+  Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ``sNAN``) now signal
+  :const:`InvalidOperation` instead of silently returning a true or
+  false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN values
+  (or ``NaN``) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
+  :issue:`7279`.)
+
+* The :mod:`difflib` module now produces output that is more
+  compatible with modern :command:`diff`/:command:`patch` tools
+  through one small change, using a tab character instead of spaces as
+  a separator in the header giving the filename.  (Fixed by Anatoly
+  Techtonik; :issue:`7585`.)
+
+* The Distutils ``sdist`` command now always regenerates the
+  :file:`MANIFEST` file, since even if the :file:`MANIFEST.in` or
+  :file:`setup.py` files haven't been modified, the user might have
+  created some new files that should be included.
+  (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; :issue:`8688`.)
+
+* The :mod:`doctest` module's :const:`IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL` flag
+  will now ignore the name of the module containing the exception
+  being tested.  (Patch by Lennart Regebro; :issue:`7490`.)
+
+* The :mod:`email` module's :class:`~email.message.Message` class will
+  now accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the
+  payload to the encoding specified by :attr:`output_charset`.
+  (Added by R. David Murray; :issue:`1368247`.)
+
+* The :class:`~fractions.Fraction` class now accepts a single float or
+  :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instance, or two rational numbers, as
+  arguments to its constructor.  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson;
+  rationals added in :issue:`5812`, and float/decimal in
+  :issue:`8294`.)
+
+  Ordering comparisons (``<``, ``<=``, ``>``, ``>=``) between
+  fractions and complex numbers now raise a :exc:`TypeError`.
+  This fixes an oversight, making the :class:`~fractions.Fraction`
+  match the other numeric types.
+
+  .. revision 79455
+
+* New class: :class:`~ftplib.FTP_TLS` in
+  the :mod:`ftplib` module provides secure FTP
+  connections using TLS encapsulation of authentication as well as
+  subsequent control and data transfers.
+  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; :issue:`2054`.)
+
+  The :meth:`~ftplib.FTP.storbinary` method for binary uploads can now restart
+  uploads thanks to an added *rest* parameter (patch by Pablo Mouzo;
+  :issue:`6845`.)
+
+* New class decorator: :func:`~functools.total_ordering` in the :mod:`functools`
+  module takes a class that defines an :meth:`__eq__` method and one of
+  :meth:`__lt__`, :meth:`__le__`, :meth:`__gt__`, or :meth:`__ge__`,
+  and generates the missing comparison methods.  Since the
+  :meth:`__cmp__` method is being deprecated in Python 3.x,
+  this decorator makes it easier to define ordered classes.
+  (Added by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`5479`.)
+
+  New function: :func:`~functools.cmp_to_key` will take an old-style comparison
+  function that expects two arguments and return a new callable that
+  can be used as the *key* parameter to functions such as
+  :func:`sorted`, :func:`min` and :func:`max`, etc.  The primary
+  intended use is to help with making code compatible with Python 3.x.
+  (Added by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* New function: the :mod:`gc` module's :func:`~gc.is_tracked` returns
+  true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage collector, false
+  otherwise. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4688`.)
+
+* The :mod:`gzip` module's :class:`~gzip.GzipFile` now supports the context
+  management protocol, so you can write ``with gzip.GzipFile(...) as f:``
+  (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; :issue:`3860`), and it now implements
+  the :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` ABC, so you can wrap it with
+  :class:`io.BufferedReader` for faster processing
+  (contributed by Nir Aides; :issue:`7471`).
+  It's also now possible to override the modification time
+  recorded in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to
+  the constructor.  (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; :issue:`4272`.)
+
+  Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the
+  :mod:`gzip` module will now consume these trailing bytes.  (Fixed by
+  Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; :issue:`2846`.)
+
+* New attribute: the :mod:`hashlib` module now has an :attr:`~hashlib.hashlib.algorithms`
+  attribute containing a tuple naming the supported algorithms.
+  In Python 2.7, ``hashlib.algorithms`` contains
+  ``('md5', 'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512')``.
+  (Contributed by Carl Chenet; :issue:`7418`.)
+
+* The default :class:`~httplib.HTTPResponse` class used by the :mod:`httplib` module now
+  supports buffering, resulting in much faster reading of HTTP responses.
+  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; :issue:`4879`.)
+
+  The :class:`~httplib.HTTPConnection` and :class:`~httplib.HTTPSConnection` classes
+  now support a *source_address* parameter, a ``(host, port)`` 2-tuple
+  giving the source address that will be used for the connection.
+  (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; :issue:`3972`.)
+
+* The :mod:`ihooks` module now supports relative imports.  Note that
+  :mod:`ihooks` is an older module for customizing imports,
+  superseded by the :mod:`imputil` module added in Python 2.0.
+  (Relative import support added by Neil Schemenauer.)
+
+  .. revision 75423
+
+* The :mod:`imaplib` module now supports IPv6 addresses.
+  (Contributed by Derek Morr; :issue:`1655`.)
+
+* New function: the :mod:`inspect` module's :func:`~inspect.getcallargs`
+  takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments,
+  and figures out which of the callable's parameters will receive each argument,
+  returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their values.  For example::
+
+    >>> from inspect import getcallargs
+    >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
+    ...     pass
+    >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
+    {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}}
+    >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
+    {'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}}
+    >>> getcallargs(f)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+    ...
+    TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)
+
+  Contributed by George Sakkis; :issue:`3135`.
+
+* Updated module: The :mod:`io` library has been upgraded to the version shipped with
+  Python 3.1.  For 3.1, the I/O library was entirely rewritten in C
+  and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task being performed.  The
+  original Python version was renamed to the :mod:`_pyio` module.
+
+  One minor resulting change: the :class:`io.TextIOBase` class now
+  has an :attr:`errors` attribute giving the error setting
+  used for encoding and decoding errors (one of ``'strict'``, ``'replace'``,
+  ``'ignore'``).
+
+  The :class:`io.FileIO` class now raises an :exc:`OSError` when passed
+  an invalid file descriptor.  (Implemented by Benjamin Peterson;
+  :issue:`4991`.)  The :meth:`~io.IOBase.truncate` method now preserves the
+  file position; previously it would change the file position to the
+  end of the new file.  (Fixed by Pascal Chambon; :issue:`6939`.)
+
+* New function: ``itertools.compress(data, selectors)`` takes two
+  iterators.  Elements of *data* are returned if the corresponding
+  value in *selectors* is true::
+
+    itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
+      A, C, E, F
+
+  .. maybe here is better to use >>> list(itertools.compress(...)) instead
+
+  New function: ``itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r)``
+  returns all the possible *r*-length combinations of elements from the
+  iterable *iter*.  Unlike :func:`~itertools.combinations`, individual elements
+  can be repeated in the generated combinations::
+
+    itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
+      ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
+      ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')
+
+  Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their position
+  in the input, not their actual values.
+
+  The :func:`itertools.count` function now has a *step* argument that
+  allows incrementing by values other than 1.  :func:`~itertools.count` also
+  now allows keyword arguments, and using non-integer values such as
+  floats or :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances.  (Implemented by Raymond
+  Hettinger; :issue:`5032`.)
+
+  :func:`itertools.combinations` and :func:`itertools.product`
+  previously raised :exc:`ValueError` for values of *r* larger than
+  the input iterable.  This was deemed a specification error, so they
+  now return an empty iterator.  (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`4816`.)
+
+* Updated module: The :mod:`json` module was upgraded to version 2.0.9 of the
+  simplejson package, which includes a C extension that makes
+  encoding and decoding faster.
+  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito; :issue:`4136`.)
+
+  To support the new :class:`collections.OrderedDict` type, :func:`json.load`
+  now has an optional *object_pairs_hook* parameter that will be called
+  with any object literal that decodes to a list of pairs.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`5381`.)
+
+* The :mod:`mailbox` module's :class:`~mailbox.Maildir` class now records the
+  timestamp on the directories it reads, and only re-reads them if the
+  modification time has subsequently changed.  This improves
+  performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans.  (Fixed by
+  A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`1607951`, :issue:`6896`.)
+
+* New functions: the :mod:`math` module gained
+  :func:`~math.erf` and :func:`~math.erfc` for the error function and the complementary error function,
+  :func:`~math.expm1` which computes ``e**x - 1`` with more precision than
+  using :func:`~math.exp` and subtracting 1,
+  :func:`~math.gamma` for the Gamma function, and
+  :func:`~math.lgamma` for the natural log of the Gamma function.
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; :issue:`3366`.)
+
+* The :mod:`multiprocessing` module's :class:`Manager*` classes
+  can now be passed a callable that will be called whenever
+  a subprocess is started, along with a set of arguments that will be
+  passed to the callable.
+  (Contributed by lekma; :issue:`5585`.)
+
+  The :class:`~multiprocessing.Pool` class, which controls a pool of worker processes,
+  now has an optional *maxtasksperchild* parameter.  Worker processes
+  will perform the specified number of tasks and then exit, causing the
+  :class:`~multiprocessing.Pool` to start a new worker.  This is useful if tasks may leak
+  memory or other resources, or if some tasks will cause the worker to
+  become very large.
+  (Contributed by Charles Cazabon; :issue:`6963`.)
+
+* The :mod:`nntplib` module now supports IPv6 addresses.
+  (Contributed by Derek Morr; :issue:`1664`.)
+
+* New functions: the :mod:`os` module wraps the following POSIX system
+  calls: :func:`~os.getresgid` and :func:`~os.getresuid`, which return the
+  real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs;
+  :func:`~os.setresgid` and :func:`~os.setresuid`, which set
+  real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values;
+  :func:`~os.initgroups`, which initialize the group access list
+  for the current process.  (GID/UID functions
+  contributed by Travis H.; :issue:`6508`.  Support for initgroups added
+  by Jean-Paul Calderone; :issue:`7333`.)
+
+  The :func:`os.fork` function now re-initializes the import lock in
+  the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when :func:`~os.fork`
+  is called from a thread.  (Fixed by Zsolt Cserna; :issue:`7242`.)
+
+* In the :mod:`os.path` module, the :func:`~os.path.normpath` and
+  :func:`~os.path.abspath` functions now preserve Unicode; if their input path
+  is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode string.
+  (:meth:`~os.path.normpath` fixed by Matt Giuca in :issue:`5827`;
+  :meth:`~os.path.abspath` fixed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`3426`.)
+
+* The :mod:`pydoc` module now has help for the various symbols that Python
+  uses.  You can now do ``help('<<')`` or ``help('@')``, for example.
+  (Contributed by David Laban; :issue:`4739`.)
+
+* The :mod:`re` module's :func:`~re.split`, :func:`~re.sub`, and :func:`~re.subn`
+  now accept an optional *flags* argument, for consistency with the
+  other functions in the module.  (Added by Gregory P. Smith.)
+
+* New function: :func:`~runpy.run_path` in the :mod:`runpy` module
+  will execute the code at a provided *path* argument.  *path* can be
+  the path of a Python source file (:file:`example.py`), a compiled
+  bytecode file (:file:`example.pyc`), a directory
+  (:file:`./package/`), or a zip archive (:file:`example.zip`).  If a
+  directory or zip path is provided, it will be added to the front of
+  ``sys.path`` and the module :mod:`__main__` will be imported.  It's
+  expected that the directory or zip contains a :file:`__main__.py`;
+  if it doesn't, some other :file:`__main__.py` might be imported from
+  a location later in ``sys.path``.  This makes more of the machinery
+  of :mod:`runpy` available to scripts that want to mimic the way
+  Python's command line processes an explicit path name.
+  (Added by Nick Coghlan; :issue:`6816`.)
+
+* New function: in the :mod:`shutil` module, :func:`~shutil.make_archive`
+  takes a filename, archive type (zip or tar-format), and a directory
+  path, and creates an archive containing the directory's contents.
+  (Added by Tarek Ziadé.)
+
+  :mod:`shutil`'s :func:`~shutil.copyfile` and :func:`~shutil.copytree`
+  functions now raise a :exc:`~shutil.SpecialFileError` exception when
+  asked to copy a named pipe.  Previously the code would treat
+  named pipes like a regular file by opening them for reading, and
+  this would block indefinitely.  (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`3002`.)
+
+* The :mod:`signal` module no longer re-installs the signal handler
+  unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that could make it
+  impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly.  (Fixed by
+  Charles-Francois Natali; :issue:`8354`.)
+
+* New functions: in the :mod:`site` module, three new functions
+  return various site- and user-specific paths.
+  :func:`~site.getsitepackages` returns a list containing all
+  global site-packages directories,
+  :func:`~site.getusersitepackages` returns the path of the user's
+  site-packages directory, and
+  :func:`~site.getuserbase` returns the value of the :envvar:`USER_BASE`
+  environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can be used
+  to store data.
+  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; :issue:`6693`.)
+
+  The :mod:`site` module now reports exceptions occurring
+  when the :mod:`sitecustomize` module is imported, and will no longer
+  catch and swallow the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception.  (Fixed by
+  Victor Stinner; :issue:`3137`.)
+
+* The :func:`~socket.create_connection` function
+  gained a *source_address* parameter, a ``(host, port)`` 2-tuple
+  giving the source address that will be used for the connection.
+  (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; :issue:`3972`.)
+
+  The :meth:`~socket.socket.recv_into` and :meth:`~socket.socket.recvfrom_into`
+  methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API, most usefully
+  the :class:`bytearray` and :class:`memoryview` objects.  (Implemented by
+  Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`8104`.)
+
+* The :mod:`SocketServer` module's :class:`~SocketServer.TCPServer` class now
+  supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm.
+  The :attr:`~SocketServer.TCPServer.disable_nagle_algorithm` class attribute
+  defaults to ``False``; if overridden to be true,
+  new request connections will have the TCP_NODELAY option set to
+  prevent buffering many small sends into a single TCP packet.
+  The :attr:`~SocketServer.BaseServer.timeout` class attribute can hold
+  a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request socket; if
+  no request is received within that time, :meth:`~SocketServer.BaseServer.handle_timeout`
+  will be called and :meth:`~SocketServer.BaseServer.handle_request` will return.
+  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; :issue:`6192` and :issue:`6267`.)
+
+* Updated module: the :mod:`sqlite3` module has been updated to
+  version 2.6.0 of the `pysqlite package <https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite>`__. Version 2.6.0 includes a number of bugfixes, and adds
+  the ability to load SQLite extensions from shared libraries.
+  Call the ``enable_load_extension(True)`` method to enable extensions,
+  and then call :meth:`~sqlite3.Connection.load_extension` to load a particular shared library.
+  (Updated by Gerhard Häring.)
+
+* The :mod:`ssl` module's :class:`~ssl.SSLSocket` objects now support the
+  buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by Antoine Pitrou;
+  :issue:`7133`) and automatically set
+  OpenSSL's :c:macro:`SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY`, which will prevent an error
+  code being returned from :meth:`recv` operations that trigger an SSL
+  renegotiation (fix by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`8222`).
+
+  The :func:`ssl.wrap_socket` constructor function now takes a
+  *ciphers* argument that's a string listing the encryption algorithms
+  to be allowed; the format of the string is described
+  `in the OpenSSL documentation
+  <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT>`__.
+  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`8322`.)
+
+  Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL's ciphers and
+  digest algorithms so that they're all available.  Some SSL
+  certificates couldn't be verified, reporting an "unknown algorithm"
+  error.  (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
+  :issue:`8484`.)
+
+  The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module
+  attributes :data:`ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION` (a string),
+  :data:`ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO` (a 5-tuple), and
+  :data:`ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER` (an integer).  (Added by Antoine
+  Pitrou; :issue:`8321`.)
+
+* The :mod:`struct` module will no longer silently ignore overflow
+  errors when a value is too large for a particular integer format
+  code (one of ``bBhHiIlLqQ``); it now always raises a
+  :exc:`struct.error` exception.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
+  :issue:`1523`.)  The :func:`~struct.pack` function will also
+  attempt to use :meth:`__index__` to convert and pack non-integers
+  before trying the :meth:`__int__` method or reporting an error.
+  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`8300`.)
+
+* New function: the :mod:`subprocess` module's
+  :func:`~subprocess.check_output` runs a command with a specified set of arguments
+  and returns the command's output as a string when the command runs without
+  error, or raises a :exc:`~subprocess.CalledProcessError` exception otherwise.
+
+  ::
+
+    >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.'])
+    'Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n
+    /dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n'
+
+    >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus'])
+      ...
+    subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1
+
+  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)
+
+  The :mod:`subprocess` module will now retry its internal system calls
+  on receiving an :const:`EINTR` signal.  (Reported by several people; final
+  patch by Gregory P. Smith in :issue:`1068268`.)
+
+* New function: :func:`~symtable.Symbol.is_declared_global` in the :mod:`symtable` module
+  returns true for variables that are explicitly declared to be global,
+  false for ones that are implicitly global.
+  (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)
+
+* The :mod:`syslog` module will now use the value of ``sys.argv[0]`` as the
+  identifier instead of the previous default value of ``'python'``.
+  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider; :issue:`8451`.)
+
+* The ``sys.version_info`` value is now a named tuple, with attributes
+  named :attr:`major`, :attr:`minor`, :attr:`micro`,
+  :attr:`releaselevel`, and :attr:`serial`.  (Contributed by Ross
+  Light; :issue:`4285`.)
+
+  :func:`sys.getwindowsversion` also returns a named tuple,
+  with attributes named :attr:`major`, :attr:`minor`, :attr:`build`,
+  :attr:`platform`, :attr:`service_pack`, :attr:`service_pack_major`,
+  :attr:`service_pack_minor`, :attr:`suite_mask`, and
+  :attr:`product_type`.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; :issue:`7766`.)
+
+* The :mod:`tarfile` module's default error handling has changed, to
+  no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was previously 0,
+  which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the
+  debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default,
+  these errors go unnoticed.  The default error level is now 1,
+  which raises an exception if there's an error.
+  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; :issue:`7357`.)
+
+  :mod:`tarfile` now supports filtering the :class:`~tarfile.TarInfo`
+  objects being added to a tar file.  When you call :meth:`~tarfile.TarFile.add`,
+  you may supply an optional *filter* argument
+  that's a callable.  The *filter* callable will be passed the
+  :class:`~tarfile.TarInfo` for every file being added, and can modify and return it.
+  If the callable returns ``None``, the file will be excluded from the
+  resulting archive.  This is more powerful than the existing
+  *exclude* argument, which has therefore been deprecated.
+  (Added by Lars Gustäbel; :issue:`6856`.)
+  The :class:`~tarfile.TarFile` class also now supports the context management protocol.
+  (Added by Lars Gustäbel; :issue:`7232`.)
+
+* The :meth:`~threading.Event.wait` method of the :class:`threading.Event` class
+  now returns the internal flag on exit.  This means the method will usually
+  return true because :meth:`~threading.Event.wait` is supposed to block until the
+  internal flag becomes true.  The return value will only be false if
+  a timeout was provided and the operation timed out.
+  (Contributed by Tim Lesher; :issue:`1674032`.)
+
+* The Unicode database provided by the :mod:`unicodedata` module is
+  now used internally to determine which characters are numeric,
+  whitespace, or represent line breaks.  The database also
+  includes information from the :file:`Unihan.txt` data file (patch
+  by Anders Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; :issue:`1571184`)
+  and has been updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by
+  Florent Xicluna; :issue:`8024`).
+
+* The :mod:`urlparse` module's :func:`~urlparse.urlsplit` now handles
+  unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with :rfc:`3986`: if the
+  URL is of the form ``"<something>://..."``, the text before the
+  ``://`` is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up scheme that
+  the module doesn't know about.  This change may break code that
+  worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5
+  will return the following:
+
+  .. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> import urlparse
+    >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
+    ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')
+
+  Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:
+
+  .. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> import urlparse
+    >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
+    ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')
+
+  (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
+  returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)
+
+  The :mod:`urlparse` module also supports IPv6 literal addresses as defined by
+  :rfc:`2732` (contributed by Senthil Kumaran; :issue:`2987`).
+
+  .. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo')
+    ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]',
+                path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='')
+
+* New class: the :class:`~weakref.WeakSet` class in the :mod:`weakref`
+  module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements; elements
+  will be removed once there are no references pointing to them.
+  (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger, and backported
+  to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)
+
+* The ElementTree library, :mod:`xml.etree`, no longer escapes
+  ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
+  instruction (which looks like ``<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>``)
+  or comment (which looks like ``<!-- comment -->``).
+  (Patch by Neil Muller; :issue:`2746`.)
+
+* The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the :mod:`xmlrpclib` and
+  :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` modules, have improved performance by
+  supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally using gzip encoding
+  to compress the XML being exchanged.  The gzip compression is
+  controlled by the :attr:`encode_threshold` attribute of
+  :class:`SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler`, which contains a size in bytes;
+  responses larger than this will be compressed.
+  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; :issue:`6267`.)
+
+* The :mod:`zipfile` module's :class:`~zipfile.ZipFile` now supports the context
+  management protocol, so you can write ``with zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:``.
+  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; :issue:`5511`.)
+
+  :mod:`zipfile` now also supports archiving empty directories and
+  extracts them correctly.  (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek; :issue:`4710`.)
+  Reading files out of an archive is faster, and interleaving
+  :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.read` and :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.readline` now works correctly.
+  (Contributed by Nir Aides; :issue:`7610`.)
+
+  The :func:`~zipfile.is_zipfile` function now
+  accepts a file object, in addition to the path names accepted in earlier
+  versions.  (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; :issue:`4756`.)
+
+  The :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.writestr` method now has an optional *compress_type* parameter
+  that lets you override the default compression method specified in the
+  :class:`~zipfile.ZipFile` constructor.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren;
+  :issue:`6003`.)
+
+
+.. ======================================================================
+.. whole new modules get described in subsections here
+
+
+.. _importlib-section:
+
+New module: importlib
+------------------------------
+
+Python 3.1 includes the :mod:`importlib` package, a re-implementation
+of the logic underlying Python's :keyword:`import` statement.
+:mod:`importlib` is useful for implementors of Python interpreters and
+to users who wish to write new importers that can participate in the
+import process.  Python 2.7 doesn't contain the complete
+:mod:`importlib` package, but instead has a tiny subset that contains
+a single function, :func:`~importlib.import_module`.
+
+``import_module(name, package=None)`` imports a module.  *name* is
+a string containing the module or package's name.  It's possible to do
+relative imports by providing a string that begins with a ``.``
+character, such as ``..utils.errors``.  For relative imports, the
+*package* argument must be provided and is the name of the package that
+will be used as the anchor for
+the relative import.  :func:`~importlib.import_module` both inserts the imported
+module into ``sys.modules`` and returns the module object.
+
+Here are some examples::
+
+    >>> from importlib import import_module
+    >>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm')  # Standard absolute import
+    >>> anydbm
+    <module 'anydbm' from '/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py'>
+    >>> # Relative import
+    >>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command')
+    >>> file_util
+    <module 'distutils.file_util' from '/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc'>
+
+:mod:`importlib` was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in
+Python 3.1.
+
+
+New module: sysconfig
+---------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`sysconfig` module has been pulled out of the Distutils
+package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right.
+:mod:`sysconfig` provides functions for getting information about
+Python's build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the
+platform name, and whether Python is running from its source
+directory.
+
+Some of the functions in the module are:
+
+* :func:`~sysconfig.get_config_var` returns variables from Python's
+  Makefile and the :file:`pyconfig.h` file.
+* :func:`~sysconfig.get_config_vars` returns a dictionary containing
+  all of the configuration variables.
+* :func:`~sysconfig.get_path` returns the configured path for
+  a particular type of module: the standard library,
+  site-specific modules, platform-specific modules, etc.
+* :func:`~sysconfig.is_python_build` returns true if you're running a
+  binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.
+
+Consult the :mod:`sysconfig` documentation for more details and for
+a complete list of functions.
+
+The Distutils package and :mod:`sysconfig` are now maintained by Tarek
+Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source repository at
+https://hg.python.org/distutils2/) for developing a next-generation
+version of Distutils.
+
+
+ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
+--------------------------
+
+Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk
+widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more
+closely resemble the native platform's widgets.  This widget
+set was originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for "themed Tk")
+on being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.
+
+To learn more, read the :mod:`ttk` module documentation.  You may also
+wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the
+Ttk theme engine, available at
+https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.htm. Some
+screenshots of the Python/Ttk code in use are at
+https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki.
+
+The :mod:`ttk` module was written by Guilherme Polo and added in
+:issue:`2983`.  An alternate version called ``Tile.py``, written by
+Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for
+inclusion in :issue:`2618`, but the authors argued that Guilherme
+Polo's work was more comprehensive.
+
+
+.. _unittest-section:
+
+Updated module: unittest
+---------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`unittest` module was greatly enhanced; many
+new features were added.  Most of these features were implemented
+by Michael Foord, unless otherwise noted.  The enhanced version of
+the module is downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6,
+packaged as the :mod:`unittest2` package, from
+https://pypi.org/project/unittest2.
+
+When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover
+tests.  It's not as fancy as `py.test <http://pytest.org>`__ or
+`nose <https://nose.readthedocs.io/>`__, but provides a
+simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories.  For example,
+the following command will search the :file:`test/` subdirectory for
+any importable test files named ``test*.py``::
+
+   python -m unittest discover -s test
+
+Consult the :mod:`unittest` module documentation for more details.
+(Developed in :issue:`6001`.)
+
+The :func:`~unittest.main` function supports some other new options:
+
+* :option:`-b <unittest -b>` or :option:`!--buffer` will buffer the standard output
+  and standard error streams during each test.  If the test passes,
+  any resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered
+  output will be displayed.
+
+* :option:`-c <unittest -c>` or :option:`!--catch` will cause the control-C interrupt
+  to be handled more gracefully.  Instead of interrupting the test
+  process immediately, the currently running test will be completed
+  and then the partial results up to the interruption will be reported.
+  If you're impatient, a second press of control-C will cause an immediate
+  interruption.
+
+  This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the code
+  being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal handler of
+  their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already set and
+  calling it.  If this doesn't work for you, there's a
+  :func:`~unittest.removeHandler` decorator that can be used to mark tests that
+  should have the control-C handling disabled.
+
+* :option:`-f <unittest -f>` or :option:`!--failfast` makes
+  test execution stop immediately when a test fails instead of
+  continuing to execute further tests.  (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and
+  implemented by Michael Foord; :issue:`8074`.)
+
+The progress messages now show 'x' for expected failures
+and 'u' for unexpected successes when run in verbose mode.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)
+
+Test cases can raise the :exc:`~unittest.SkipTest` exception to skip a
+test (:issue:`1034053`).
+
+The error messages for :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertEqual`,
+:meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertTrue`, and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertFalse`
+failures now provide more information.  If you set the
+:attr:`~unittest.TestCase.longMessage` attribute of your :class:`~unittest.TestCase` classes to
+true, both the standard error message and any additional message you
+provide will be printed for failures.  (Added by Michael Foord; :issue:`5663`.)
+
+The :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertRaises` method now
+returns a context handler when called without providing a callable
+object to run.  For example, you can write this::
+
+  with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
+      {}['foo']
+
+(Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4444`.)
+
+.. rev 78774
+
+Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported.
+Modules can contain :func:`~unittest.setUpModule` and :func:`~unittest.tearDownModule`
+functions.  Classes can have :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUpClass` and
+:meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass` methods that must be defined as class methods
+(using ``@classmethod`` or equivalent).  These functions and
+methods are invoked when the test runner switches to a test case in a
+different module or class.
+
+The methods :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.addCleanup` and
+:meth:`~unittest.TestCase.doCleanups` were added.
+:meth:`~unittest.TestCase.addCleanup` lets you add cleanup functions that
+will be called unconditionally (after :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUp` if
+:meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUp` fails, otherwise after :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDown`). This allows
+for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during tests
+(:issue:`5679`).
+
+A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized
+tests.  Many of these methods were written by Google engineers
+for use in their test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and
+GvR worked on merging them into Python's version of :mod:`unittest`.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone` and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone` take one
+  expression and verify that the result is or is not ``None``.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertIs` and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot`
+  take two values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object or not.
+  (Added by Michael Foord; :issue:`2578`.)
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance` and
+  :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance` check whether
+  the resulting object is an instance of a particular class, or of
+  one of a tuple of classes.  (Added by Georg Brandl; :issue:`7031`.)
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertGreater`, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual`,
+  :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertLess`, and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual` compare
+  two quantities.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual` compares two strings, and if they're
+  not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights the
+  differences in the two strings.  This comparison is now used by
+  default when Unicode strings are compared with :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertEqual`.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertRegexpMatches` and
+  :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegexpMatches` checks whether the
+  first argument is a string matching or not matching the regular
+  expression provided as the second argument (:issue:`8038`).
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegexp` checks whether a particular exception
+  is raised, and then also checks that the string representation of
+  the exception matches the provided regular expression.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertIn` and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn`
+  tests whether *first* is or is not in  *second*.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertItemsEqual` tests whether two provided sequences
+  contain the same elements.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual` compares whether two sets are equal, and
+  only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.
+
+* Similarly, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual` and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual`
+  compare the specified types and explain any differences without necessarily
+  printing their full values; these methods are now used by default
+  when comparing lists and tuples using :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertEqual`.
+  More generally, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual` compares two sequences
+  and can optionally check whether both sequences are of a
+  particular type.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual` compares two dictionaries and reports the
+  differences; it's now used by default when you compare two dictionaries
+  using :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertEqual`.  :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertDictContainsSubset` checks whether
+  all of the key/value pairs in *first* are found in *second*.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual` and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual` test
+  whether *first* and *second* are approximately equal.  This method
+  can either round their difference to an optionally-specified number
+  of *places* (the default is 7) and compare it to zero, or require
+  the difference to be smaller than a supplied *delta* value.
+
+* :meth:`~unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName` properly honors the
+  :attr:`~unittest.TestLoader.suiteClass` attribute of
+  the :class:`~unittest.TestLoader`. (Fixed by Mark Roddy; :issue:`6866`.)
+
+* A new hook lets you extend the :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertEqual` method to handle
+  new data types.  The :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc` method takes a type
+  object and a function. The function will be used when both of the
+  objects being compared are of the specified type.  This function
+  should compare the two objects and raise an exception if they don't
+  match; it's a good idea for the function to provide additional
+  information about why the two objects aren't matching, much as the new
+  sequence comparison methods do.
+
+:func:`unittest.main` now takes an optional ``exit`` argument.  If
+false, :func:`~unittest.main` doesn't call :func:`sys.exit`, allowing
+:func:`~unittest.main` to be used from the interactive interpreter.
+(Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; :issue:`3379`.)
+
+:class:`~unittest.TestResult` has new :meth:`~unittest.TestResult.startTestRun` and
+:meth:`~unittest.TestResult.stopTestRun` methods that are called immediately before
+and after a test run.  (Contributed by Robert Collins; :issue:`5728`.)
+
+With all these changes, the :file:`unittest.py` was becoming awkwardly
+large, so the module was turned into a package and the code split into
+several files (by Benjamin Peterson).  This doesn't affect how the
+module is imported or used.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+  http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml
+    Describes the new features, how to use them, and the
+    rationale for various design decisions.  (By Michael Foord.)
+
+.. _elementtree-section:
+
+Updated module: ElementTree 1.3
+---------------------------------
+
+The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated to
+version 1.3.  Some of the new features are:
+
+* The various parsing functions now take a *parser* keyword argument
+  giving an :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser` instance that will
+  be used.  This makes it possible to override the file's internal encoding::
+
+    p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8')
+    t = ET.XML("""<root/>""", parser=p)
+
+  Errors in parsing XML now raise a :exc:`ParseError` exception, whose
+  instances have a :attr:`position` attribute
+  containing a (*line*, *column*) tuple giving the location of the problem.
+
+* ElementTree's code for converting trees to a string has been
+  significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many
+  cases.  The :meth:`ElementTree.write() <xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write>`
+  and :meth:`Element.write` methods now have a *method* parameter that can be
+  "xml" (the default), "html", or "text".  HTML mode will output empty
+  elements as ``<empty></empty>`` instead of ``<empty/>``, and text
+  mode will skip over elements and only output the text chunks.  If
+  you set the :attr:`tag` attribute of an element to ``None`` but
+  leave its children in place, the element will be omitted when the
+  tree is written out, so you don't need to do more extensive rearrangement
+  to remove a single element.
+
+  Namespace handling has also been improved.  All ``xmlns:<whatever>``
+  declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered throughout
+  the resulting XML.  You can set the default namespace for a tree
+  by setting the :attr:`default_namespace` attribute and can
+  register new prefixes with :meth:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace`.  In XML mode,
+  you can use the true/false *xml_declaration* parameter to suppress the
+  XML declaration.
+
+* New :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element` method:
+  :meth:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend` appends the items from a
+  sequence to the element's children.  Elements themselves behave like
+  sequences, so it's easy to move children from one element to
+  another::
+
+    from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET
+
+    t = ET.XML("""<list>
+      <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
+    </list>""")
+    new = ET.XML('<root/>')
+    new.extend(t)
+
+    # Outputs <root><item>1</item>...</root>
+    print ET.tostring(new)
+
+* New :class:`Element` method:
+  :meth:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter` yields the children of the
+  element as a generator.  It's also possible to write ``for child in
+  elem:`` to loop over an element's children.  The existing method
+  :meth:`getiterator` is now deprecated, as is :meth:`getchildren`
+  which constructs and returns a list of children.
+
+* New :class:`Element` method:
+  :meth:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext` yields all chunks of
+  text that are descendants of the element.  For example::
+
+    t = ET.XML("""<list>
+      <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
+    </list>""")
+
+    # Outputs ['\n  ', '1', ' ', '2', '  ', '3', '\n']
+    print list(t.itertext())
+
+* Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., ``if elem:``) would
+  return true if the element had any children, or false if there were
+  no children.  This behaviour is confusing -- ``None`` is false, but
+  so is a childless element? -- so it will now trigger a
+  :exc:`FutureWarning`.  In your code, you should be explicit: write
+  ``len(elem) != 0`` if you're interested in the number of children,
+  or ``elem is not None``.
+
+Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version;
+you can read his article describing 1.3 at
+http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm.
+Florent Xicluna updated the version included with
+Python, after discussions on python-dev and in :issue:`6472`.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
+
+* The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be `scripted
+  using Python
+  <https://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html>`__.
+  When you begin debugging an executable program P, GDB will look for
+  a file named ``P-gdb.py`` and automatically read it.  Dave Malcolm
+  contributed a :file:`python-gdb.py` that adds a number of
+  commands useful when debugging Python itself.  For example,
+  ``py-up`` and ``py-down`` go up or down one Python stack frame,
+  which usually corresponds to several C stack frames.  ``py-print``
+  prints the value of a Python variable, and ``py-bt`` prints the
+  Python stack trace.  (Added as a result of :issue:`8032`.)
+
+* If you use the :file:`.gdbinit` file provided with Python,
+  the "pyo" macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being
+  debugged doesn't hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before printing.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner; :issue:`3632`.)
+
+* :c:func:`Py_AddPendingCall` is now thread-safe, letting any
+  worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread.  This
+  is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
+  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; :issue:`4293`.)
+
+* New function: :c:func:`PyCode_NewEmpty` creates an empty code object;
+  only the filename, function name, and first line number are required.
+  This is useful for extension modules that are attempting to
+  construct a more useful traceback stack.  Previously such
+  extensions needed to call :c:func:`PyCode_New`, which had many
+  more arguments.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)
+
+* New function: :c:func:`PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc` creates a new
+  exception class, just as the existing :c:func:`PyErr_NewException` does,
+  but takes an extra ``char *`` argument containing the docstring for the
+  new exception class.  (Added by 'lekma' on the Python bug tracker;
+  :issue:`7033`.)
+
+* New function: :c:func:`PyFrame_GetLineNumber` takes a frame object
+  and returns the line number that the frame is currently executing.
+  Previously code would need to get the index of the bytecode
+  instruction currently executing, and then look up the line number
+  corresponding to that address.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)
+
+* New functions: :c:func:`PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow` and
+  :c:func:`PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow`  approximates a Python long
+  integer as a C :c:type:`long` or :c:type:`long long`.
+  If the number is too large to fit into
+  the output type, an *overflow* flag is set and returned to the caller.
+  (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; :issue:`7528` and :issue:`7767`.)
+
+* New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float conversion,
+  a new :c:func:`PyOS_string_to_double` function was added.  The old
+  :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_strtod` and :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_atof` functions
+  are now deprecated.
+
+* New function: :c:func:`PySys_SetArgvEx` sets the value of
+  ``sys.argv`` and can optionally update ``sys.path`` to include the
+  directory containing the script named by ``sys.argv[0]`` depending
+  on the value of an *updatepath* parameter.
+
+  This function was added to close a security hole for applications
+  that embed Python.  The old function, :c:func:`PySys_SetArgv`, would
+  always update ``sys.path``, and sometimes it would add the current
+  directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
+  Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
+  put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
+  :file:`os.py`) that your application would then import and run.
+
+  If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
+  whether you're calling :c:func:`PySys_SetArgv` and carefully consider
+  whether the application should be using :c:func:`PySys_SetArgvEx`
+  with *updatepath* set to false.
+
+  Security issue reported as `CVE-2008-5983
+  <https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2008-5983>`_;
+  discussed in :issue:`5753`, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.
+
+* New macros: the Python header files now define the following macros:
+  :c:macro:`Py_ISALNUM`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_ISALPHA`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_ISDIGIT`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_ISLOWER`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_ISSPACE`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_ISUPPER`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_ISXDIGIT`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_TOLOWER`, and :c:macro:`Py_TOUPPER`.
+  All of these functions are analogous to the C
+  standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current
+  locale setting, because in
+  several places Python needs to analyze characters in a
+  locale-independent way.  (Added by Eric Smith;
+  :issue:`5793`.)
+
+  .. XXX these macros don't seem to be described in the c-api docs.
+
+* Removed function: :c:macro:`PyEval_CallObject` is now only available
+  as a macro.  A function version was being kept around to preserve
+  ABI linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
+  deleted by now.  (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`8276`.)
+
+* New format codes: the :c:func:`PyFormat_FromString`,
+  :c:func:`PyFormat_FromStringV`, and :c:func:`PyErr_Format` functions now
+  accept ``%lld`` and ``%llu`` format codes for displaying
+  C's :c:type:`long long` types.
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`7228`.)
+
+* The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has
+  been changed.  Previously, the child process created by
+  :func:`os.fork` might fail because the child is created with only a
+  single thread running, the thread performing the :func:`os.fork`.
+  If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python's import lock,
+  when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked as
+  "held" in the new process.  But in the child process nothing would
+  ever release the lock, since the other threads weren't replicated,
+  and the child process would no longer be able to perform imports.
+
+  Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an
+  :func:`os.fork`, and will also clean up any locks created using the
+  :mod:`threading` module.  C extension modules that have internal
+  locks, or that call :c:func:`fork()` themselves, will not benefit
+  from this clean-up.
+
+  (Fixed by Thomas Wouters; :issue:`1590864`.)
+
+* The :c:func:`Py_Finalize` function now calls the internal
+  :func:`threading._shutdown` function; this prevents some exceptions from
+  being raised when an interpreter shuts down.
+  (Patch by Adam Olsen; :issue:`1722344`.)
+
+* When using the :c:type:`PyMemberDef` structure to define attributes
+  of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete or set a
+  :const:`T_STRING_INPLACE` attribute.
+
+  .. rev 79644
+
+* Global symbols defined by the :mod:`ctypes` module are now prefixed
+  with ``Py``, or with ``_ctypes``.  (Implemented by Thomas
+  Heller; :issue:`3102`.)
+
+* New configure option: the :option:`!--with-system-expat` switch allows
+  building the :mod:`pyexpat` module to use the system Expat library.
+  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; :issue:`7609`.)
+
+* New configure option: the
+  :option:`!--with-valgrind` option will now disable the pymalloc
+  allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind memory-error detector
+  to analyze correctly.
+  Valgrind will therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and
+  overruns. (Contributed by James Henstridge; :issue:`2422`.)
+
+* New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to
+  :option:`!--with-dbmliborder=` in order to disable all of the various
+  DBM modules.  (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
+  :issue:`6491`.)
+
+* The :program:`configure` script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
+  on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a :c:macro:`X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING`
+  preprocessor definition.  No code currently uses this definition,
+  but it's available if anyone wishes to use it.
+  (Added by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`2937`.)
+
+  :program:`configure` also now sets a :envvar:`LDCXXSHARED` Makefile
+  variable for supporting C++ linking.  (Contributed by Arfrever
+  Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; :issue:`1222585`.)
+
+* The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config
+  support.  (Contributed by Clinton Roy; :issue:`3585`.)
+
+* The build process now supports Subversion 1.7.  (Contributed by
+  Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; :issue:`6094`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew27-capsules:
+
+Capsules
+-------------------
+
+Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, :c:type:`PyCapsule`, for providing a
+C API to an extension module.  A capsule is essentially the holder of
+a C ``void *`` pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for
+example, the :mod:`socket` module's API is exposed as ``socket.CAPI``,
+and :mod:`unicodedata` exposes ``ucnhash_CAPI``.  Other extensions
+can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule
+object, and then get the ``void *`` pointer, which will usually point
+to an array of pointers to the module's various API functions.
+
+There is an existing data type already used for this,
+:c:type:`PyCObject`, but it doesn't provide type safety.  Evil code
+written in pure Python could cause a segmentation fault by taking a
+:c:type:`PyCObject` from module A and somehow substituting it for the
+:c:type:`PyCObject` in module B.   Capsules know their own name,
+and getting the pointer requires providing the name:
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+   void *vtable;
+
+   if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") {
+           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid");
+           return NULL;
+   }
+
+   vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI");
+
+You are assured that ``vtable`` points to whatever you're expecting.
+If a different capsule was passed in, :c:func:`PyCapsule_IsValid` would
+detect the mismatched name and return false.  Refer to
+:ref:`using-capsules` for more information on using these objects.
+
+Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various
+extension-module APIs, but the :c:func:`PyCObject_AsVoidPtr` was
+modified to handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility
+with the :c:type:`CObject` interface.  Use of
+:c:func:`PyCObject_AsVoidPtr` will signal a
+:exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`, which is silent by default.
+
+Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings;
+discussed in :issue:`5630`.
+
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Port-Specific Changes: Windows
+-----------------------------------
+
+* The :mod:`msvcrt` module now contains some constants from
+  the :file:`crtassem.h` header file:
+  :data:`CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION`,
+  :data:`VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN`,
+  and :data:`LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX`.
+  (Contributed by David Cournapeau; :issue:`4365`.)
+
+* The :mod:`_winreg` module for accessing the registry now implements
+  the :func:`~_winreg.CreateKeyEx` and :func:`~_winreg.DeleteKeyEx`
+  functions, extended versions of previously-supported functions that
+  take several extra arguments.  The :func:`~_winreg.DisableReflectionKey`,
+  :func:`~_winreg.EnableReflectionKey`, and :func:`~_winreg.QueryReflectionKey`
+  were also tested and documented.
+  (Implemented by Brian Curtin: :issue:`7347`.)
+
+* The new :c:func:`_beginthreadex` API is used to start threads, and
+  the native thread-local storage functions are now used.
+  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; :issue:`3582`.)
+
+* The :func:`os.kill` function now works on Windows.  The signal value
+  can be the constants :const:`CTRL_C_EVENT`,
+  :const:`CTRL_BREAK_EVENT`, or any integer.  The first two constants
+  will send :kbd:`Control-C` and :kbd:`Control-Break` keystroke events to
+  subprocesses; any other value will use the :c:func:`TerminateProcess`
+  API.  (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; :issue:`1220212`.)
+
+* The :func:`os.listdir` function now correctly fails
+  for an empty path.  (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; :issue:`5913`.)
+
+* The :mod:`mimelib` module will now read the MIME database from
+  the Windows registry when initializing.
+  (Patch by Gabriel Genellina; :issue:`4969`.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
+-----------------------------------
+
+* The path ``/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages`` is now appended to
+  ``sys.path``, in order to share added packages between the system
+  installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
+  (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; :issue:`4865`.)
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 2.7.13
+
+     As of 2.7.13, this change was removed.
+     ``/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages``, the site-packages directory
+     used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended to
+     ``sys.path`` for user-installed Pythons such as from the python.org
+     installers.  As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the system
+     site-packages directory is configured, which could cause installation
+     of pip components, like setuptools, to fail.  Packages installed for
+     the system Python will no longer be shared with user-installed
+     Pythons. (:issue:`28440`)
+
+Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
+-----------------------------------
+
+* FreeBSD 7.1's :const:`SO_SETFIB` constant, used with
+  :func:`~socket.getsockopt`/:func:`~socket.setsockopt` to select an
+  alternate routing table, is now available in the :mod:`socket`
+  module.  (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; :issue:`8235`.)
+
+Other Changes and Fixes
+=======================
+
+* Two benchmark scripts, :file:`iobench` and :file:`ccbench`, were
+  added to the :file:`Tools` directory.  :file:`iobench` measures the
+  speed of the built-in file I/O objects returned by :func:`open`
+  while performing various operations, and :file:`ccbench` is a
+  concurrency benchmark that tries to measure computing throughput,
+  thread switching latency, and IO processing bandwidth when
+  performing several tasks using a varying number of threads.
+
+* The :file:`Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py` script now understands plural
+  forms in :file:`.po` files.  (Fixed by Martin von Löwis;
+  :issue:`5464`.)
+
+* When importing a module from a :file:`.pyc` or :file:`.pyo` file
+  with an existing :file:`.py` counterpart, the :attr:`co_filename`
+  attributes of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the
+  original filename is obsolete.  This can happen if the file has been
+  renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths.  (Patch by
+  Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; :issue:`1180193`.)
+
+* The :file:`regrtest.py` script now takes a :option:`!--randseed=`
+  switch that takes an integer that will be used as the random seed
+  for the :option:`!-r` option that executes tests in random order.
+  The :option:`!-r` option also reports the seed that was used
+  (Added by Collin Winter.)
+
+* Another :file:`regrtest.py` switch is :option:`!-j`, which
+  takes an integer specifying how many tests run in parallel. This
+  allows reducing the total runtime on multi-core machines.
+  This option is compatible with several other options, including the
+  :option:`!-R` switch which is known to produce long runtimes.
+  (Added by Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`6152`.)  This can also be used
+  with a new :option:`!-F` switch that runs selected tests in a loop
+  until they fail.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`7312`.)
+
+* When executed as a script, the :file:`py_compile.py` module now
+  accepts ``'-'`` as an argument, which will read standard input for
+  the list of filenames to be compiled.  (Contributed by Piotr
+  Ożarowski; :issue:`8233`.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+Porting to Python 2.7
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code:
+
+* The :func:`range` function processes its arguments more
+  consistently; it will now call :meth:`__int__` on non-float,
+  non-integer arguments that are supplied to it.  (Fixed by Alexander
+  Belopolsky; :issue:`1533`.)
+
+* The string :meth:`format` method changed the default precision used
+  for floating-point and complex numbers from 6 decimal
+  places to 12, which matches the precision used by :func:`str`.
+  (Changed by Eric Smith; :issue:`5920`.)
+
+* Because of an optimization for the :keyword:`with` statement, the special
+  methods :meth:`__enter__` and :meth:`__exit__` must belong to the object's
+  type, and cannot be directly attached to the object's instance.  This
+  affects new-style classes (derived from :class:`object`) and C extension
+  types.  (:issue:`6101`.)
+
+* Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the *exc_value* parameter to
+  :meth:`__exit__` methods was often the string representation of the
+  exception, not an instance.  This was fixed in 2.7, so *exc_value*
+  will be an instance as expected.  (Fixed by Florent Xicluna;
+  :issue:`7853`.)
+
+* When a restricted set of attributes were set using ``__slots__``,
+  deleting an unset attribute would not raise :exc:`AttributeError`
+  as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; :issue:`7604`.)
+
+In the standard library:
+
+* Operations with :class:`~datetime.datetime` instances that resulted in a year
+  falling outside the supported range didn't always raise
+  :exc:`OverflowError`.  Such errors are now checked more carefully
+  and will now raise the exception. (Reported by Mark Leander, patch
+  by Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; :issue:`7150`.)
+
+* When using :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances with a string's
+  :meth:`format` method, the default alignment was previously
+  left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which might
+  change the output of your programs.
+  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`6857`.)
+
+  Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ``sNAN``) now signal
+  :const:`~decimal.InvalidOperation` instead of silently returning a true or
+  false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN values
+  (or ``NaN``) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
+  :issue:`7279`.)
+
+* The ElementTree library, :mod:`xml.etree`, no longer escapes
+  ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
+  instruction (which looks like `<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>`)
+  or comment (which looks like `<!-- comment -->`).
+  (Patch by Neil Muller; :issue:`2746`.)
+
+* The :meth:`~StringIO.StringIO.readline` method of :class:`~StringIO.StringIO` objects now does
+  nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like
+  objects do.  (:issue:`7348`).
+
+* The :mod:`syslog` module will now use the value of ``sys.argv[0]`` as the
+  identifier instead of the previous default value of ``'python'``.
+  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider; :issue:`8451`.)
+
+* The :mod:`tarfile` module's default error handling has changed, to
+  no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was previously 0,
+  which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the
+  debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default,
+  these errors go unnoticed.  The default error level is now 1,
+  which raises an exception if there's an error.
+  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; :issue:`7357`.)
+
+* The :mod:`urlparse` module's :func:`~urlparse.urlsplit` now handles
+  unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with :rfc:`3986`: if the
+  URL is of the form ``"<something>://..."``, the text before the
+  ``://`` is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up scheme that
+  the module doesn't know about.  This change may break code that
+  worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5
+  will return the following:
+
+  .. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> import urlparse
+    >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
+    ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')
+
+  Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:
+
+  .. doctest::
+    :options: +SKIP
+
+    >>> import urlparse
+    >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
+    ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')
+
+  (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
+  returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)
+
+For C extensions:
+
+* C extensions that use integer format codes with the ``PyArg_Parse*``
+  family of functions will now raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception
+  instead of triggering a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` (:issue:`5080`).
+
+* Use the new :c:func:`PyOS_string_to_double` function instead of the old
+  :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_strtod` and :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_atof` functions,
+  which are now deprecated.
+
+For applications that embed Python:
+
+* The :c:func:`PySys_SetArgvEx` function was added, letting
+  applications close a security hole when the existing
+  :c:func:`PySys_SetArgv` function was used.  Check whether you're
+  calling :c:func:`PySys_SetArgv` and carefully consider whether the
+  application should be using :c:func:`PySys_SetArgvEx` with
+  *updatepath* set to false.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+.. _py27-maintenance-enhancements:
+
+New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
+=====================================================
+
+New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the
+situation genuinely calls for it. Any such additions must go through
+the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for why
+they can't be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature solely to
+Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package Index.
+
+In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general
+exemption allowing new ``-3`` warnings to be added in any Python 2.7
+maintenance release.
+
+
+Two new environment variables for debug mode
+--------------------------------------------
+
+In debug mode, the ``[xxx refs]`` statistic is not written by default, the
+:envvar:`PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT` environment variable now must also be set.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner; :issue:`31733`.)
+
+When Python is compiled with ``COUNT_ALLOC`` defined, allocation counts are no
+longer dumped by default anymore: the :envvar:`PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT` environment
+variable must now also be set. Moreover, allocation counts are now dumped into
+stderr, rather than stdout. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; :issue:`31692`.)
+
+.. versionadded:: 2.7.15
+
+
+PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`434` describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE
+development environment shipped along with Python. This exemption makes it
+possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user
+experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.
+
+For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific
+release.
+
+
+PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
+-----------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`466` describes a number of network security enhancement proposals
+that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance releases,
+with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7 release.
+
+:pep:`466` related features added in Python 2.7.7:
+
+* :func:`hmac.compare_digest` was backported from Python 3 to make a timing
+  attack resistant comparison operation available to Python 2 applications.
+  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; :issue:`21306`.)
+
+* OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers published on
+  python.org. (Contributed by Zachary Ware; :issue:`21462`.)
+
+:pep:`466` related features added in Python 2.7.8:
+
+* :func:`hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac` was backported from Python 3 to make a hashing
+  algorithm suitable for secure password storage broadly available to Python
+  2 applications. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; :issue:`21304`.)
+
+* OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers published on
+  python.org. (contributed by Zachary Ware in :issue:`21671` for CVE-2014-0224)
+
+:pep:`466` related features added in Python 2.7.9:
+
+* Most of Python 3.4's :mod:`ssl` module was backported. This means :mod:`ssl`
+  now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x settings, access to the platform
+  certificate store, the :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` class, and other
+  features. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor and David Reid; :issue:`21308`.)
+
+  Refer to the "Version added: 2.7.9" notes in the module documentation for
+  specific details.
+
+* :func:`os.urandom` was changed to cache a file descriptor to ``/dev/urandom``
+  instead of reopening ``/dev/urandom`` on every call. (Contributed by Alex
+  Gaynor; :issue:`21305`.)
+
+* :data:`hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed` and
+  :data:`hashlib.algorithms_available` were backported from Python 3 to make
+  it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest available hash
+  algorithm. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in :issue:`21307`)
+
+
+PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`477` approves the inclusion of the :pep:`453` ensurepip module and the
+improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7 maintenance
+releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.
+
+
+Bootstrapping pip By Default
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The new :mod:`ensurepip` module (defined in :pep:`453`) provides a standard
+cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python
+installations. The version of ``pip`` included with Python 2.7.9 is ``pip``
+1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the bundled version to
+the latest version of ``pip`` that is available at the time of creating the
+release candidate.
+
+By default, the commands ``pip``, ``pipX`` and ``pipX.Y`` will be installed on
+all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
+along with the ``pip`` Python package and its dependencies.
+
+For CPython :ref:`source builds on POSIX systems <building-python-on-unix>`,
+the ``make install`` and ``make altinstall`` commands do not bootstrap ``pip``
+by default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
+overridden through Makefile options.
+
+On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing
+``pip`` along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it
+during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the
+automatic ``PATH`` modifications to have ``pip`` available from the command
+line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python
+launcher for Windows as ``py -m pip``.
+
+As `discussed in the PEP`__, platform packagers may choose not to install
+these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and
+simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using
+the system package manager).
+
+__ https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors
+
+
+Documentation Changes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+As part of this change, the :ref:`installing-index` and
+:ref:`distributing-index` sections of the documentation have been
+completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most
+packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging
+Authority maintained `Python Packaging User Guide
+<http://packaging.python.org>`__ and the documentation of the individual
+projects.
+
+However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
+versions of those guides remaining available as :ref:`install-index`
+and :ref:`distutils-index`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`453` -- Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations
+      PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
+      Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.
+
+PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`476` updated :mod:`httplib` and modules which use it, such as
+:mod:`urllib2` and :mod:`xmlrpclib`, to now verify that the server
+presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority in the
+platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being requested
+by default, significantly improving security for many applications. This
+change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.
+
+For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an
+alternate context::
+
+    import urllib2
+    import ssl
+
+    # This disables all verification
+    context = ssl._create_unverified_context()
+
+    # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
+    # to be in the trust store
+    context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")
+
+    urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)
+
+
+PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
+----------------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`493` provides additional migration tools to support a more incremental
+infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing applications and
+services relying on the historically permissive processing of server
+certificates when establishing client HTTPS connections.  These additions were
+made in the Python 2.7.12 release.
+
+These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications and
+services can't be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL context
+when establishing the connection.
+
+For applications and services which can't be modified at all, the new
+``PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY`` environment variable may be set to ``0`` to revert an
+entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python 2.7.8
+and earlier.
+
+For cases where the connection establishment code can't be modified, but the
+overall application can be, the new :func:`ssl._https_verify_certificates`
+function can be used to adjust the default behaviour at runtime.
+
+
+New ``make regen-all`` build target
+-----------------------------------
+
+To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be
+compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be
+available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly
+recompile generated files based on file modification times.
+
+Instead, a new ``make regen-all`` command has been added to force regeneration
+of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has
+already been built based on the pregenerated versions).
+
+More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
+:source:`Makefile.pre.in` for details.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23404`.)
+
+.. versionadded:: 2.7.14
+
+
+Removal of ``make touch`` build target
+--------------------------------------
+
+The ``make touch`` build target previously used to request implicit regeneration
+of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.
+
+It has been replaced by the new ``make regen-all`` target.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23404`.)
+
+.. versionchanged:: 2.7.14
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+.. _acks27:
+
+Acknowledgements
+================
+
+The author would like to thank the following people for offering
+suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
+article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray,
+Hugh Secker-Walker.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.0.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.0.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..880958d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.0.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,929 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.0
+****************************
+
+.. XXX Add trademark info for Apple, Microsoft.
+
+:Author: Guido van Rossum
+
+.. $Id$
+   Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.  (Note: I didn't get to this for 3.0.
+   GvR.)
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.  (Due to time
+   constraints I haven't managed to do this for 3.0.  GvR.)
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
+
+   % Patch 12345
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the SVN log
+   when researching a change.  (Again, I didn't get to this for 3.0.
+   GvR.)
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6.
+Python 3.0, also known as "Python 3000" or "Py3K", is the first ever
+*intentionally backwards incompatible* Python release.  There are more
+changes than in a typical release, and more that are important for all
+Python users.  Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you'll find
+that Python really hasn't changed all that much -- by and large, we're
+mostly fixing well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of
+old cruft.
+
+This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of
+all new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview.
+For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python
+3.0, and/or the many PEPs referenced in the text. If you want to
+understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a
+particular feature, PEPs usually have more details than the regular
+documentation; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once
+a feature has been fully implemented.
+
+Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should
+have been.  As always for a new release, the ``Misc/NEWS`` file in the
+source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about
+every small thing that was changed.
+
+.. Compare with previous release in 2 - 3 sentences here.
+.. add hyperlink when the documentation becomes available online.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+.. Large, PEP-level features and changes should be described here.
+.. Should there be a new section here for 3k migration?
+.. Or perhaps a more general section describing module changes/deprecation?
+.. sets module deprecated
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Common Stumbling Blocks
+=======================
+
+This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you
+up if you're used to Python 2.5.
+
+Print Is A Function
+-------------------
+
+The ``print`` statement has been replaced with a :func:`print`
+function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax
+of the old ``print`` statement (:pep:`3105`).  Examples::
+
+  Old: print "The answer is", 2*2
+  New: print("The answer is", 2*2)
+
+  Old: print x,           # Trailing comma suppresses newline
+  New: print(x, end=" ")  # Appends a space instead of a newline
+
+  Old: print              # Prints a newline
+  New: print()            # You must call the function!
+
+  Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error"
+  New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr)
+
+  Old: print (x, y)       # prints repr((x, y))
+  New: print((x, y))      # Not the same as print(x, y)!
+
+You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.::
+
+  print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="")
+
+which produces:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+  There are <4294967296> possibilities!
+
+Note:
+
+* The :func:`print` function doesn't support the "softspace" feature of
+  the old ``print`` statement.  For example, in Python 2.x,
+  ``print "A\n", "B"`` would write ``"A\nB\n"``; but in Python 3.0,
+  ``print("A\n", "B")`` writes ``"A\n B\n"``.
+
+* Initially, you'll be finding yourself typing the old ``print x``
+  a lot in interactive mode.  Time to retrain your fingers to type
+  ``print(x)`` instead!
+
+* When using the ``2to3`` source-to-source conversion tool, all
+  ``print`` statements are automatically converted to
+  :func:`print` function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for
+  larger projects.
+
+Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
+-------------------------------------
+
+Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:
+
+* :class:`dict` methods :meth:`dict.keys`, :meth:`dict.items` and
+  :meth:`dict.values` return "views" instead of lists.  For example,
+  this no longer works: ``k = d.keys(); k.sort()``.  Use ``k =
+  sorted(d)`` instead (this works in Python 2.5 too and is just
+  as efficient).
+
+* Also, the :meth:`dict.iterkeys`, :meth:`dict.iteritems` and
+  :meth:`dict.itervalues` methods are no longer supported.
+
+* :func:`map` and :func:`filter` return iterators.  If you really need
+  a list and the input sequences are all of equal length, a quick
+  fix is to wrap :func:`map` in :func:`list`, e.g. ``list(map(...))``,
+  but a better fix is
+  often to use a list comprehension (especially when the original code
+  uses :keyword:`lambda`), or rewriting the code so it doesn't need a
+  list at all.  Particularly tricky is :func:`map` invoked for the
+  side effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a
+  regular :keyword:`for` loop (since creating a list would just be
+  wasteful).
+
+  If the input sequences are not of equal length, :func:`map` will
+  stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences. For full
+  compatibility with :func:`map` from Python 2.x, also wrap the sequences in
+  :func:`itertools.zip_longest`, e.g. ``map(func, *sequences)`` becomes
+  ``list(map(func, itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))``.
+
+* :func:`range` now behaves like :func:`xrange` used to behave, except
+  it works with values of arbitrary size.  The latter no longer
+  exists.
+
+* :func:`zip` now returns an iterator.
+
+Ordering Comparisons
+--------------------
+
+Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:
+
+* The ordering comparison operators (``<``, ``<=``, ``>=``, ``>``)
+  raise a TypeError exception when the operands don't have a
+  meaningful natural ordering.  Thus, expressions like ``1 < ''``, ``0
+  > None`` or ``len <= len`` are no longer valid, and e.g. ``None <
+  None`` raises :exc:`TypeError` instead of returning
+  ``False``.  A corollary is that sorting a heterogeneous list
+  no longer makes sense -- all the elements must be comparable to each
+  other.  Note that this does not apply to the ``==`` and ``!=``
+  operators: objects of different incomparable types always compare
+  unequal to each other.
+
+* :meth:`builtin.sorted` and :meth:`list.sort` no longer accept the
+  *cmp* argument providing a comparison function.  Use the *key*
+  argument instead. N.B. the *key* and *reverse* arguments are now
+  "keyword-only".
+
+* The :func:`cmp` function should be treated as gone, and the :meth:`__cmp__`
+  special method is no longer supported.  Use :meth:`__lt__` for sorting,
+  :meth:`__eq__` with :meth:`__hash__`, and other rich comparisons as needed.
+  (If you really need the :func:`cmp` functionality, you could use the
+  expression ``(a > b) - (a < b)`` as the equivalent for ``cmp(a, b)``.)
+
+Integers
+--------
+
+* :pep:`237`: Essentially, :class:`long` renamed to :class:`int`.
+  That is, there is only one built-in integral type, named
+  :class:`int`; but it behaves mostly like the old :class:`long` type.
+
+* :pep:`238`: An expression like ``1/2`` returns a float.  Use
+  ``1//2`` to get the truncating behavior.  (The latter syntax has
+  existed for years, at least since Python 2.2.)
+
+* The :data:`sys.maxint` constant was removed, since there is no
+  longer a limit to the value of integers.  However, :data:`sys.maxsize`
+  can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
+  index.  It conforms to the implementation's "natural" integer size
+  and is typically the same as :data:`sys.maxint` in previous releases
+  on the same platform (assuming the same build options).
+
+* The :func:`repr` of a long integer doesn't include the trailing ``L``
+  anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that character will
+  chop off the last digit instead.  (Use :func:`str` instead.)
+
+* Octal literals are no longer of the form ``0720``; use ``0o720``
+  instead.
+
+Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
+------------------------------------------
+
+Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has
+changed.
+
+* Python 3.0 uses the concepts of *text* and (binary) *data* instead
+  of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings.  All text is Unicode; however
+  *encoded* Unicode is represented as binary data.  The type used to
+  hold text is :class:`str`, the type used to hold data is
+  :class:`bytes`.  The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is
+  that any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises
+  :exc:`TypeError`, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit
+  strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened to
+  contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get
+  :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError` if it contained non-ASCII values.  This
+  value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the
+  years.
+
+* As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code
+  that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
+  change.  The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
+  were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
+  text.  To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using :class:`unicode`
+  for all unencoded text, and :class:`str` for binary or encoded data
+  only.  Then the ``2to3`` tool will do most of the work for you.
+
+* You can no longer use ``u"..."`` literals for Unicode text.
+  However, you must use ``b"..."`` literals for binary data.
+
+* As the :class:`str` and :class:`bytes` types cannot be mixed, you
+  must always explicitly convert between them.  Use :meth:`str.encode`
+  to go from :class:`str` to :class:`bytes`, and :meth:`bytes.decode`
+  to go from :class:`bytes` to :class:`str`.  You can also use
+  ``bytes(s, encoding=...)`` and ``str(b, encoding=...)``,
+  respectively.
+
+* Like :class:`str`, the :class:`bytes` type is immutable.  There is a
+  separate *mutable* type to hold buffered binary data,
+  :class:`bytearray`.  Nearly all APIs that accept :class:`bytes` also
+  accept :class:`bytearray`.  The mutable API is based on
+  :class:`collections.MutableSequence`.
+
+* All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
+  This means that ``'\U'`` and ``'\u'`` escapes in raw strings are not
+  treated specially.  For example, ``r'\u20ac'`` is a string of 6
+  characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ``ur'\u20ac'`` was the
+  single "euro" character.  (Of course, this change only affects raw
+  string literals; the euro character is ``'\u20ac'`` in Python 3.0.)
+
+* The built-in :class:`basestring` abstract type was removed.  Use
+  :class:`str` instead.  The :class:`str` and :class:`bytes` types
+  don't have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base
+  class.  The ``2to3`` tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
+  :class:`basestring` with :class:`str`.
+
+* Files opened as text files (still the default mode for :func:`open`)
+  always use an encoding to map between strings (in memory) and bytes
+  (on disk).  Binary files (opened with a ``b`` in the mode argument)
+  always use bytes in memory.  This means that if a file is opened
+  using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will likely fail loudly,
+  instead of silently producing incorrect data.  It also means that
+  even Unix users will have to specify the correct mode (text or
+  binary) when opening a file.  There is a platform-dependent default
+  encoding, which on Unixy platforms can be set with the ``LANG``
+  environment variable (and sometimes also with some other
+  platform-specific locale-related environment variables).  In many
+  cases, but not all, the system default is UTF-8; you should never
+  count on this default.  Any application reading or writing more than
+  pure ASCII text should probably have a way to override the encoding.
+  There is no longer any need for using the encoding-aware streams
+  in the :mod:`codecs` module.
+
+* The initial values of :data:`sys.stdin`, :data:`sys.stdout` and
+  :data:`sys.stderr` are now unicode-only text files (i.e., they are
+  instances of :class:`io.TextIOBase`).  To read and write bytes data
+  with these streams, you need to use their :data:`io.TextIOBase.buffer`
+  attribute.
+
+* Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode) strings.
+  This can present platform-specific problems because on some
+  platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings.  (On the other hand,
+  on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.)  As a
+  work-around, most APIs (e.g. :func:`open` and many functions in the
+  :mod:`os` module) that take filenames accept :class:`bytes` objects
+  as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way to ask for a
+  :class:`bytes` return value.  Thus, :func:`os.listdir` returns a
+  list of :class:`bytes` instances if the argument is a :class:`bytes`
+  instance, and :func:`os.getcwdb` returns the current working
+  directory as a :class:`bytes` instance.  Note that when
+  :func:`os.listdir` returns a list of strings, filenames that
+  cannot be decoded properly are omitted rather than raising
+  :exc:`UnicodeError`.
+
+* Some system APIs like :data:`os.environ` and :data:`sys.argv` can
+  also present problems when the bytes made available by the system is
+  not interpretable using the default encoding.  Setting the ``LANG``
+  variable and rerunning the program is probably the best approach.
+
+* :pep:`3138`: The :func:`repr` of a string no longer escapes
+  non-ASCII characters.  It still escapes control characters and code
+  points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.
+
+* :pep:`3120`: The default source encoding is now UTF-8.
+
+* :pep:`3131`: Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers.
+  (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the exception
+  of contributor names in comments.)
+
+* The :mod:`StringIO` and :mod:`cStringIO` modules are gone.  Instead,
+  import the :mod:`io` module and use :class:`io.StringIO` or
+  :class:`io.BytesIO` for text and data respectively.
+
+* See also the :ref:`unicode-howto`, which was updated for Python 3.0.
+
+
+Overview Of Syntax Changes
+==========================
+
+This section gives a brief overview of every *syntactic* change in
+Python 3.0.
+
+New Syntax
+----------
+
+* :pep:`3107`: Function argument and return value annotations.  This
+  provides a standardized way of annotating a function's parameters
+  and return value.  There are no semantics attached to such
+  annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
+  the :attr:`__annotations__` attribute.  The intent is to encourage
+  experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.
+
+* :pep:`3102`: Keyword-only arguments.  Named parameters occurring
+  after ``*args`` in the parameter list *must* be specified using
+  keyword syntax in the call.  You can also use a bare ``*`` in the
+  parameter list to indicate that you don't accept a variable-length
+  argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.
+
+* Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a
+  class definition.  This is used by the new convention for specifying
+  a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for other purposes
+  as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.
+
+* :pep:`3104`: :keyword:`nonlocal` statement.  Using ``nonlocal x``
+  you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but
+  non-global) scope.  :keyword:`!nonlocal` is a new reserved word.
+
+* :pep:`3132`: Extended Iterable Unpacking.  You can now write things
+  like ``a, b, *rest = some_sequence``.  And even ``*rest, a =
+  stuff``.  The ``rest`` object is always a (possibly empty) list; the
+  right-hand side may be any iterable.  Example::
+
+    (a, *rest, b) = range(5)
+
+  This sets *a* to ``0``, *b* to ``4``, and *rest* to ``[1, 2, 3]``.
+
+* Dictionary comprehensions: ``{k: v for k, v in stuff}`` means the
+  same thing as ``dict(stuff)`` but is more flexible.  (This is
+  :pep:`274` vindicated. :-)
+
+* Set literals, e.g. ``{1, 2}``.  Note that ``{}`` is an empty
+  dictionary; use ``set()`` for an empty set.  Set comprehensions are
+  also supported; e.g., ``{x for x in stuff}`` means the same thing as
+  ``set(stuff)`` but is more flexible.
+
+* New octal literals, e.g. ``0o720`` (already in 2.6).  The old octal
+  literals (``0720``) are gone.
+
+* New binary literals, e.g. ``0b1010`` (already in 2.6), and
+  there is a new corresponding built-in function, :func:`bin`.
+
+* Bytes literals are introduced with a leading ``b`` or ``B``, and
+  there is a new corresponding built-in function, :func:`bytes`.
+
+Changed Syntax
+--------------
+
+* :pep:`3109` and :pep:`3134`: new :keyword:`raise` statement syntax:
+  :samp:`raise [{expr} [from {expr}]]`.  See below.
+
+* :keyword:`!as` and :keyword:`with` are now reserved words.  (Since
+  2.6, actually.)
+
+* ``True``, ``False``, and ``None`` are reserved words.  (2.6 partially enforced
+  the restrictions on ``None`` already.)
+
+* Change from :keyword:`except` *exc*, *var* to
+  :keyword:`!except` *exc* :keyword:`!as` *var*.  See :pep:`3110`.
+
+* :pep:`3115`: New Metaclass Syntax.  Instead of::
+
+    class C:
+        __metaclass__ = M
+        ...
+
+  you must now use::
+
+    class C(metaclass=M):
+        ...
+
+  The module-global :data:`__metaclass__` variable is no longer
+  supported.  (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to
+  new-style classes without deriving every class from
+  :class:`object`.)
+
+* List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form
+  :samp:`[... for {var} in {item1}, {item2}, ...]`.  Use
+  :samp:`[... for {var} in ({item1}, {item2}, ...)]` instead.
+  Also note that list comprehensions have different semantics: they
+  are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator expression inside a
+  :func:`list` constructor, and in particular the loop control
+  variables are no longer leaked into the surrounding scope.
+
+* The *ellipsis* (``...``) can be used as an atomic expression
+  anywhere.  (Previously it was only allowed in slices.)  Also, it
+  *must* now be spelled as ``...``.  (Previously it could also be
+  spelled as ``. . .``, by a mere accident of the grammar.)
+
+Removed Syntax
+--------------
+
+* :pep:`3113`: Tuple parameter unpacking removed.  You can no longer
+  write ``def foo(a, (b, c)): ...``.
+  Use ``def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c`` instead.
+
+* Removed backticks (use :func:`repr` instead).
+
+* Removed ``<>`` (use ``!=`` instead).
+
+* Removed keyword: :func:`exec` is no longer a keyword; it remains as
+  a function.  (Fortunately the function syntax was also accepted in
+  2.x.)  Also note that :func:`exec` no longer takes a stream argument;
+  instead of ``exec(f)`` you can use ``exec(f.read())``.
+
+* Integer literals no longer support a trailing ``l`` or ``L``.
+
+* String literals no longer support a leading ``u`` or ``U``.
+
+* The :keyword:`from` *module* :keyword:`import` ``*`` syntax is only
+  allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.
+
+* The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is :samp:`from .[{module}]
+  import {name}`.  All :keyword:`import` forms not starting with ``.`` are
+  interpreted as absolute imports.  (:pep:`328`)
+
+* Classic classes are gone.
+
+
+Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
+=====================================
+
+Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to
+Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were
+originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python
+2.6.  The corresponding sections in :ref:`whats-new-in-2.6` should be
+consulted for longer descriptions.
+
+* :ref:`pep-0343`.  The :keyword:`with` statement is now a standard
+  feature and no longer needs to be imported from the :mod:`__future__`.
+  Also check out :ref:`new-26-context-managers` and
+  :ref:`new-module-contextlib`.
+
+* :ref:`pep-0366`.  This enhances the usefulness of the :option:`-m`
+  option when the referenced module lives in a package.
+
+* :ref:`pep-0370`.
+
+* :ref:`pep-0371`.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3101`.  Note: the 2.6 description mentions the
+  :meth:`format` method for both 8-bit and Unicode strings.  In 3.0,
+  only the :class:`str` type (text strings with Unicode support)
+  supports this method; the :class:`bytes` type does not.  The plan is
+  to eventually make this the only API for string formatting, and to
+  start deprecating the ``%`` operator in Python 3.1.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3105`.  This is now a standard feature and no longer needs
+  to be imported from :mod:`__future__`.  More details were given above.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3110`.  The :keyword:`except` *exc* :keyword:`!as` *var*
+  syntax is now standard and :keyword:`!except` *exc*, *var* is no
+  longer supported.  (Of course, the :keyword:`!as` *var* part is still
+  optional.)
+
+* :ref:`pep-3112`.  The ``b"..."`` string literal notation (and its
+  variants like ``b'...'``, ``b"""..."""``, and ``br"..."``) now
+  produces a literal of type :class:`bytes`.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3116`.  The :mod:`io` module is now the standard way of
+  doing file I/O.  The built-in :func:`open` function is now an
+  alias for :func:`io.open` and has additional keyword arguments
+  *encoding*, *errors*, *newline* and *closefd*.  Also note that an
+  invalid *mode* argument now raises :exc:`ValueError`, not
+  :exc:`IOError`.  The binary file object underlying a text file
+  object can be accessed as :attr:`f.buffer` (but beware that the
+  text object maintains a buffer of itself in order to speed up
+  the encoding and decoding operations).
+
+* :ref:`pep-3118`.  The old builtin :func:`buffer` is now really gone;
+  the new builtin :func:`memoryview` provides (mostly) similar
+  functionality.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3119`.  The :mod:`abc` module and the ABCs defined in the
+  :mod:`collections` module plays a somewhat more prominent role in
+  the language now, and built-in collection types like :class:`dict`
+  and :class:`list` conform to the :class:`collections.MutableMapping`
+  and :class:`collections.MutableSequence` ABCs, respectively.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3127`.  As mentioned above, the new octal literal
+  notation is the only one supported, and binary literals have been
+  added.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3129`.
+
+* :ref:`pep-3141`.  The :mod:`numbers` module is another new use of
+  ABCs, defining Python's "numeric tower".  Also note the new
+  :mod:`fractions` module which implements :class:`numbers.Rational`.
+
+
+Library Changes
+===============
+
+Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the
+very extensive changes to the standard library.  :pep:`3108` is the
+reference for the major changes to the library.  Here's a capsule
+review:
+
+* Many old modules were removed.  Some, like :mod:`gopherlib` (no
+  longer used) and :mod:`md5` (replaced by :mod:`hashlib`), were
+  already deprecated by :pep:`4`.  Others were removed as a result
+  of the removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS
+  and Mac OS 9 (see :pep:`11`).  Some modules were also selected for
+  removal in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better
+  replacement exists.  See :pep:`3108` for an exhaustive list.
+
+* The :mod:`bsddb3` package was removed because its presence in the
+  core standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden
+  for the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB's
+  release schedule.  However, the package is alive and well,
+  externally maintained at https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm.
+
+* Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed
+  :pep:`8`, or for various other reasons.  Here's the list:
+
+  =======================  =======================
+  Old Name                 New Name
+  =======================  =======================
+  _winreg                  winreg
+  ConfigParser             configparser
+  copy_reg                 copyreg
+  Queue                    queue
+  SocketServer             socketserver
+  markupbase               _markupbase
+  repr                     reprlib
+  test.test_support        test.support
+  =======================  =======================
+
+* A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module
+  implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version
+  implemented as a C extension; for example, :mod:`pickle` and
+  :mod:`cPickle`.  This places the burden of importing the accelerated
+  version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of
+  these modules.  In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are
+  considered implementation details of the pure Python versions.
+  Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to
+  import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python
+  version.  The :mod:`pickle` / :mod:`cPickle` pair received this
+  treatment.  The :mod:`profile` module is on the list for 3.1.  The
+  :mod:`StringIO` module has been turned into a class in the :mod:`io`
+  module.
+
+* Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually
+  the submodule names have been simplified.  The resulting new
+  packages are:
+
+  * :mod:`dbm` (:mod:`anydbm`, :mod:`dbhash`, :mod:`dbm`,
+    :mod:`dumbdbm`, :mod:`gdbm`, :mod:`whichdb`).
+
+  * :mod:`html` (:mod:`HTMLParser`, :mod:`htmlentitydefs`).
+
+  * :mod:`http` (:mod:`httplib`, :mod:`BaseHTTPServer`,
+    :mod:`CGIHTTPServer`, :mod:`SimpleHTTPServer`, :mod:`Cookie`,
+    :mod:`cookielib`).
+
+  * :mod:`tkinter` (all :mod:`Tkinter`-related modules except
+    :mod:`turtle`).  The target audience of :mod:`turtle` doesn't
+    really care about :mod:`tkinter`.  Also note that as of Python
+    2.6, the functionality of :mod:`turtle` has been greatly enhanced.
+
+  * :mod:`urllib` (:mod:`urllib`, :mod:`urllib2`, :mod:`urlparse`,
+    :mod:`robotparse`).
+
+  * :mod:`xmlrpc` (:mod:`xmlrpclib`, :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer`,
+    :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer`).
+
+Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by
+:pep:`3108`:
+
+* Killed :mod:`sets`.  Use the built-in :func:`set` class.
+
+* Cleanup of the :mod:`sys` module: removed :func:`sys.exitfunc`,
+  :func:`sys.exc_clear`, :data:`sys.exc_type`, :data:`sys.exc_value`,
+  :data:`sys.exc_traceback`.  (Note that :data:`sys.last_type`
+  etc. remain.)
+
+* Cleanup of the :class:`array.array` type: the :meth:`read` and
+  :meth:`write` methods are gone; use :meth:`fromfile` and
+  :meth:`tofile` instead.  Also, the ``'c'`` typecode for array is
+  gone -- use either ``'b'`` for bytes or ``'u'`` for Unicode
+  characters.
+
+* Cleanup of the :mod:`operator` module: removed
+  :func:`sequenceIncludes` and :func:`isCallable`.
+
+* Cleanup of the :mod:`thread` module: :func:`acquire_lock` and
+  :func:`release_lock` are gone; use :func:`acquire` and
+  :func:`release` instead.
+
+* Cleanup of the :mod:`random` module: removed the :func:`jumpahead` API.
+
+* The :mod:`new` module is gone.
+
+* The functions :func:`os.tmpnam`, :func:`os.tempnam` and
+  :func:`os.tmpfile` have been removed in favor of the :mod:`tempfile`
+  module.
+
+* The :mod:`tokenize` module has been changed to work with bytes.  The
+  main entry point is now :func:`tokenize.tokenize`, instead of
+  generate_tokens.
+
+* :data:`string.letters` and its friends (:data:`string.lowercase` and
+  :data:`string.uppercase`) are gone.  Use
+  :data:`string.ascii_letters` etc. instead.  (The reason for the
+  removal is that :data:`string.letters` and friends had
+  locale-specific behavior, which is a bad idea for such
+  attractively-named global "constants".)
+
+* Renamed module :mod:`__builtin__` to :mod:`builtins` (removing the
+  underscores, adding an 's').  The :data:`__builtins__` variable
+  found in most global namespaces is unchanged.  To modify a builtin,
+  you should use :mod:`builtins`, not :data:`__builtins__`!
+
+
+:pep:`3101`: A New Approach To String Formatting
+================================================
+
+* A new system for  built-in string formatting operations replaces the
+  ``%`` string  formatting operator.   (However, the ``%``  operator is
+  still supported;  it will  be deprecated in  Python 3.1  and removed
+  from the language at some later time.)  Read :pep:`3101` for the full
+  scoop.
+
+
+Changes To Exceptions
+=====================
+
+The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and
+new powerful features added:
+
+* :pep:`352`: All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly)
+  from :exc:`BaseException`.  This is the root of the exception
+  hierarchy.  This is not new as a recommendation, but the
+  *requirement* to inherit from :exc:`BaseException` is new.  (Python
+  2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed no
+  restriction on what you can catch.)  As a consequence, string
+  exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.
+
+* Almost all exceptions should actually derive from :exc:`Exception`;
+  :exc:`BaseException` should only be used as a base class for
+  exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such as
+  :exc:`SystemExit` or :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`.  The recommended
+  idiom for handling all exceptions except for this latter category is
+  to use :keyword:`except` :exc:`Exception`.
+
+* :exc:`StandardError` was removed.
+
+* Exceptions no longer behave as sequences.  Use the :attr:`args`
+  attribute instead.
+
+* :pep:`3109`: Raising exceptions.  You must now use :samp:`raise
+  {Exception}({args})` instead of :samp:`raise {Exception}, {args}`.
+  Additionally, you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback;
+  instead, if you *have* to do this, you can assign directly to the
+  :attr:`__traceback__` attribute (see below).
+
+* :pep:`3110`: Catching exceptions.  You must now use
+  :samp:`except {SomeException} as {variable}` instead
+  of :samp:`except {SomeException}, {variable}`.  Moreover, the
+  *variable* is explicitly deleted when the :keyword:`except` block
+  is left.
+
+* :pep:`3134`: Exception chaining.  There are two cases: implicit
+  chaining and explicit chaining.  Implicit chaining happens when an
+  exception is raised in an :keyword:`except` or :keyword:`finally`
+  handler block.  This usually happens due to a bug in the handler
+  block; we call this a *secondary* exception.  In this case, the
+  original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the
+  :attr:`__context__` attribute of the secondary exception.
+  Explicit chaining is invoked with this syntax::
+
+    raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception
+
+  (where *primary_exception* is any expression that produces an
+  exception object, probably an exception that was previously caught).
+  In this case, the primary exception is stored on the
+  :attr:`__cause__` attribute of the secondary exception.  The
+  traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the chain
+  of :attr:`__cause__` and :attr:`__context__` attributes and prints a
+  separate traceback for each component of the chain, with the primary
+  exception at the top.  (Java users may recognize this behavior.)
+
+* :pep:`3134`: Exception objects now store their traceback as the
+  :attr:`__traceback__` attribute.  This means that an exception
+  object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception,
+  and there are fewer reasons to use :func:`sys.exc_info` (though the
+  latter is not removed).
+
+* A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an
+  extension module.  For example, ``error code 193`` is now ``%1 is
+  not a valid Win32 application``.  Strings now deal with non-English
+  locales.
+
+
+Miscellaneous Other Changes
+===========================
+
+Operators And Special Methods
+-----------------------------
+
+* ``!=`` now returns the opposite of ``==``, unless ``==`` returns
+  :data:`NotImplemented`.
+
+* The concept of "unbound methods" has been removed from the language.
+  When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now get a plain
+  function object.
+
+* :meth:`__getslice__`, :meth:`__setslice__` and :meth:`__delslice__`
+  were killed.  The syntax ``a[i:j]`` now translates to
+  ``a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))`` (or :meth:`__setitem__` or
+  :meth:`__delitem__`, when used as an assignment or deletion target,
+  respectively).
+
+* :pep:`3114`: the standard :meth:`next` method has been renamed to
+  :meth:`~iterator.__next__`.
+
+* The :meth:`__oct__` and :meth:`__hex__` special methods are removed
+  -- :func:`oct` and :func:`hex` use :meth:`__index__` now to convert
+  the argument to an integer.
+
+* Removed support for :attr:`__members__` and :attr:`__methods__`.
+
+* The function attributes named :attr:`func_X` have been renamed to
+  use the :data:`__X__` form, freeing up these names in the function
+  attribute namespace for user-defined attributes.  To wit,
+  :attr:`func_closure`, :attr:`func_code`, :attr:`func_defaults`,
+  :attr:`func_dict`, :attr:`func_doc`, :attr:`func_globals`,
+  :attr:`func_name` were renamed to :attr:`__closure__`,
+  :attr:`__code__`, :attr:`__defaults__`, :attr:`~object.__dict__`,
+  :attr:`__doc__`, :attr:`__globals__`, :attr:`~definition.__name__`,
+  respectively.
+
+* :meth:`__nonzero__` is now :meth:`__bool__`.
+
+Builtins
+--------
+
+* :pep:`3135`: New :func:`super`.  You can now invoke :func:`super`
+  without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular instance method
+  defined inside a :keyword:`class` statement) the right class and
+  instance will automatically be chosen.  With arguments, the behavior
+  of :func:`super` is unchanged.
+
+* :pep:`3111`: :func:`raw_input` was renamed to :func:`input`.  That
+  is, the new :func:`input` function reads a line from
+  :data:`sys.stdin` and returns it with the trailing newline stripped.
+  It raises :exc:`EOFError` if the input is terminated prematurely.
+  To get the old behavior of :func:`input`, use ``eval(input())``.
+
+* A new built-in function :func:`next` was added to call the
+  :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method on an object.
+
+* The :func:`round` function rounding strategy and return type have
+  changed.  Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest even
+  result instead of away from zero.  (For example, ``round(2.5)`` now
+  returns ``2`` rather than ``3``.)  ``round(x[, n])`` now
+  delegates to ``x.__round__([n])`` instead of always returning a
+  float.  It generally returns an integer when called with a single
+  argument and a value of the same type as ``x`` when called with two
+  arguments.
+
+* Moved :func:`intern` to :func:`sys.intern`.
+
+* Removed: :func:`apply`.  Instead of ``apply(f, args)`` use
+  ``f(*args)``.
+
+* Removed :func:`callable`.  Instead of ``callable(f)`` you can use
+  ``isinstance(f, collections.Callable)``.  The :func:`operator.isCallable`
+  function is also gone.
+
+* Removed :func:`coerce`.  This function no longer serves a purpose
+  now that classic classes are gone.
+
+* Removed :func:`execfile`.  Instead of ``execfile(fn)`` use
+  ``exec(open(fn).read())``.
+
+* Removed the :class:`file` type.  Use :func:`open`.  There are now several
+  different kinds of streams that open can return in the :mod:`io` module.
+
+* Removed :func:`reduce`.  Use :func:`functools.reduce` if you really
+  need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit :keyword:`for`
+  loop is more readable.
+
+* Removed :func:`reload`.  Use :func:`imp.reload`.
+
+* Removed. :meth:`dict.has_key` -- use the :keyword:`in` operator
+  instead.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Due to time constraints, here is a *very* incomplete list of changes
+to the C API.
+
+* Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not limited
+  to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.
+
+* :pep:`3118`: New Buffer API.
+
+* :pep:`3121`: Extension Module Initialization & Finalization.
+
+* :pep:`3123`: Making :c:macro:`PyObject_HEAD` conform to standard C.
+
+* No more C API support for restricted execution.
+
+* :c:func:`PyNumber_Coerce`, :c:func:`PyNumber_CoerceEx`,
+  :c:func:`PyMember_Get`, and :c:func:`PyMember_Set` C APIs are removed.
+
+* New C API :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock`, works like
+  :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule` but won't block on the import lock
+  (returning an error instead).
+
+* Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method:
+  ``nb_nonzero`` is now ``nb_bool``.
+
+* Removed :c:macro:`METH_OLDARGS` and :c:macro:`WITH_CYCLE_GC` from the C API.
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Performance
+===========
+
+The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the
+pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5.  Most likely the
+biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers.
+There's room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is
+released!
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Porting To Python 3.0
+=====================
+
+For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the
+best strategy is the following:
+
+0. (Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.
+
+1. Port to Python 2.6.  This should be no more work than the average
+   port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1).  Make sure all your tests
+   pass.
+
+2. (Still using 2.6:) Turn on the :option:`!-3` command line switch.
+   This enables warnings about features that will be removed (or
+   change) in 3.0.  Run your test suite again, and fix code that you
+   get warnings about until there are no warnings left, and all your
+   tests still pass.
+
+3. Run the ``2to3`` source-to-source translator over your source code
+   tree.  (See :ref:`2to3-reference` for more on this tool.)  Run the
+   result of the translation under Python 3.0.  Manually fix up any
+   remaining issues, fixing problems until all tests pass again.
+
+It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged
+under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you'd have to use a very contorted
+coding style, e.g. avoiding ``print`` statements, metaclasses,
+and much more.  If you are maintaining a library that needs to support
+both Python 2.6 and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3
+above by editing the 2.6 version of the source code and running the
+``2to3`` translator again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the
+source code.
+
+For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see :ref:`cporting-howto`.
+
+.. ======================================================================
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.1.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.1.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..919fbee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.1.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,552 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.1
+****************************
+
+:Author: Raymond Hettinger
+
+.. $Id$
+   Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
+
+   % Patch 12345
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the SVN log
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.
+
+
+PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
+=============================
+
+Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order.
+Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations
+that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted.  Based on
+the experiences from those implementations, a new
+:class:`collections.OrderedDict` class has been introduced.
+
+The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
+but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
+when a key was first inserted.  If a new entry overwrites an existing entry,
+the original insertion position is left unchanged.  Deleting an entry and
+reinserting it will move it to the end.
+
+The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
+modules.  The :mod:`configparser` module uses them by default.  This lets
+configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in their original
+order.  The *_asdict()* method for :func:`collections.namedtuple` now
+returns an ordered dictionary with the values appearing in the same order as
+the underlying tuple indices.  The :mod:`json` module is being built-out with
+an *object_pairs_hook* to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
+Support was also added for third-party tools like `PyYAML <http://pyyaml.org/>`_.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`372` - Ordered Dictionaries
+      PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger.  Implementation
+      written by Raymond Hettinger.
+
+
+PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
+=================================================
+
+The built-in :func:`format` function and the :meth:`str.format` method use
+a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale aware way to format
+a number with a thousands separator.  That provides a way to humanize a
+program's output, improving its professional appearance and readability::
+
+    >>> format(1234567, ',d')
+    '1,234,567'
+    >>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
+    '1,234,567.89'
+    >>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
+    '12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
+    >>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
+    '1,234,567.89'
+
+The supported types are :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`complex`
+and :class:`decimal.Decimal`.
+
+Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
+like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores.  Locale-aware applications
+should use the existing *n* format specifier which already has some support
+for thousands separators.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`378` - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
+      PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
+      Mark Dickinson.
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* Directories and zip archives containing a :file:`__main__.py`
+  file can now be executed directly by passing their name to the
+  interpreter. The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the
+  first entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu;
+  revised patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; :issue:`1739468`.)
+
+* The :func:`int` type gained a ``bit_length`` method that returns the
+  number of bits necessary to represent its argument in binary::
+
+      >>> n = 37
+      >>> bin(37)
+      '0b100101'
+      >>> n.bit_length()
+      6
+      >>> n = 2**123-1
+      >>> n.bit_length()
+      123
+      >>> (n+1).bit_length()
+      124
+
+  (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond Hettinger,
+  and Mark Dickinson; :issue:`3439`.)
+
+* The fields in :func:`format` strings can now be automatically
+  numbered::
+
+    >>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
+    'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'
+
+  Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
+  ``'Sir {0} of {1}'``.
+
+  (Contributed by Eric Smith; :issue:`5237`.)
+
+* The :func:`string.maketrans` function is deprecated and is replaced by new
+  static methods, :meth:`bytes.maketrans` and :meth:`bytearray.maketrans`.
+  This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the
+  :mod:`string` module. Now, :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, and
+  :class:`bytearray` each have their own **maketrans** and **translate**
+  methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; :issue:`5675`.)
+
+* The syntax of the :keyword:`with` statement now allows multiple context
+  managers in a single statement::
+
+    >>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
+    ...     for line in infile:
+    ...         if '<critical>' in line:
+    ...             outfile.write(line)
+
+  With the new syntax, the :func:`contextlib.nested` function is no longer
+  needed and is now deprecated.
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström;
+  `appspot issue 53094 <https://codereview.appspot.com/53094>`_.)
+
+* ``round(x, n)`` now returns an integer if *x* is an integer.
+  Previously it returned a float::
+
+    >>> round(1123, -2)
+    1100
+
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4707`.)
+
+* Python now uses David Gay's algorithm for finding the shortest floating
+  point representation that doesn't change its value.  This should help
+  mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary floating point
+  numbers.
+
+  The significance is easily seen with a number like ``1.1`` which does not
+  have an exact equivalent in binary floating point.  Since there is no exact
+  equivalent, an expression like ``float('1.1')`` evaluates to the nearest
+  representable value which is ``0x1.199999999999ap+0`` in hex or
+  ``1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625`` in decimal. That
+  nearest value was and still is used in subsequent floating point
+  calculations.
+
+  What is new is how the number gets displayed.  Formerly, Python used a
+  simple approach.  The value of ``repr(1.1)`` was computed as ``format(1.1,
+  '.17g')`` which evaluated to ``'1.1000000000000001'``. The advantage of
+  using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754 guarantees to assure that
+  ``eval(repr(1.1))`` would round-trip exactly to its original value.  The
+  disadvantage is that many people found the output to be confusing (mistaking
+  intrinsic limitations of binary floating point representation as being a
+  problem with Python itself).
+
+  The new algorithm for ``repr(1.1)`` is smarter and returns ``'1.1'``.
+  Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations (ones that
+  get stored with the same underlying float value) and returns the shortest
+  representation.
+
+  The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when possible, but
+  it does not change the underlying values.  So, it is still the case that
+  ``1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3`` even though the representations may suggest otherwise.
+
+  The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying floating
+  point implementation.  If the required features are not found, the old
+  algorithm will continue to be used.  Also, the text pickle protocols
+  assure cross-platform portability by using the old algorithm.
+
+  (Contributed by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson; :issue:`1580`)
+
+New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
+=====================================
+
+* Added a :class:`collections.Counter` class to support convenient
+  counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable::
+
+      >>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
+      Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1696199`.)
+
+* Added a new module, :mod:`tkinter.ttk` for access to the Tk themed widget set.
+  The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the extent possible, the code
+  implementing a widget's behavior from the code implementing its appearance.
+
+  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; :issue:`2983`.)
+
+* The :class:`gzip.GzipFile` and :class:`bz2.BZ2File` classes now support
+  the context management protocol::
+
+        >>> # Automatically close file after writing
+        >>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
+        ...     f.write(b"xxx")
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)
+
+* The :mod:`decimal` module now supports methods for creating a
+  decimal object from a binary :class:`float`.  The conversion is
+  exact but can sometimes be surprising::
+
+      >>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
+      Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
+
+  The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
+  stored for *1.1*.  The fraction has many digits because *1.1* cannot
+  be exactly represented in binary.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)
+
+* The :mod:`itertools` module grew two new functions.  The
+  :func:`itertools.combinations_with_replacement` function is one of
+  four for generating combinatorics including permutations and Cartesian
+  products.  The :func:`itertools.compress` function mimics its namesake
+  from APL.  Also, the existing :func:`itertools.count` function now has
+  an optional *step* argument and can accept any type of counting
+  sequence including :class:`fractions.Fraction` and
+  :class:`decimal.Decimal`::
+
+    >>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
+    ['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']
+
+    >>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
+    [2, 3, 5, 7]
+
+    >>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
+    >>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
+    [Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* :func:`collections.namedtuple` now supports a keyword argument
+  *rename* which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically converted to
+  positional names in the form _0, _1, etc.  This is useful when
+  the field names are being created by an external source such as a
+  CSV header, SQL field list, or user input::
+
+    >>> query = input()
+    SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept
+
+    >>> cursor.execute(query)
+    >>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
+    >>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
+    >>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
+    [UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
+     UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
+     UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1818`.)
+
+* The :func:`re.sub`, :func:`re.subn` and :func:`re.split` functions now
+  accept a flags parameter.
+
+  (Contributed by Gregory Smith.)
+
+* The :mod:`logging` module now implements a simple :class:`logging.NullHandler`
+  class for applications that are not using logging but are calling
+  library code that does.  Setting-up a null handler will suppress
+  spurious warnings such as "No handlers could be found for logger foo"::
+
+    >>> h = logging.NullHandler()
+    >>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)
+
+  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip; :issue:`4384`).
+
+* The :mod:`runpy` module which supports the ``-m`` command line switch
+  now supports the execution of packages by looking for and executing
+  a ``__main__`` submodule when a package name is supplied.
+
+  (Contributed by Andi Vajda; :issue:`4195`.)
+
+* The :mod:`pdb` module can now access and display source code loaded via
+  :mod:`zipimport` (or any other conformant :pep:`302` loader).
+
+  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; :issue:`4201`.)
+
+*  :class:`functools.partial` objects can now be pickled.
+
+  (Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller.  Implemented by
+  Jack Diederich; :issue:`5228`.)
+
+* Add :mod:`pydoc` help topics for symbols so that ``help('@')``
+  works as expected in the interactive environment.
+
+  (Contributed by David Laban; :issue:`4739`.)
+
+* The :mod:`unittest` module now supports skipping individual tests or classes
+  of tests. And it supports marking a test as an expected failure, a test that
+  is known to be broken, but shouldn't be counted as a failure on a
+  TestResult::
+
+    class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):
+
+        @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
+        def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
+            ...
+
+        @unittest.expectedFailure
+        def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
+            ...
+
+  Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context managers
+  using the :keyword:`with` statement::
+
+      def test_division_by_zero(self):
+          with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
+              x / 0
+
+  In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
+  :func:`assertSetEqual`, :func:`assertDictEqual`,
+  :func:`assertDictContainsSubset`, :func:`assertListEqual`,
+  :func:`assertTupleEqual`, :func:`assertSequenceEqual`,
+  :func:`assertRaisesRegexp`, :func:`assertIsNone`,
+  and :func:`assertIsNotNone`.
+
+  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson and Antoine Pitrou.)
+
+* The :mod:`io` module has three new constants for the :meth:`seek`
+  method :data:`SEEK_SET`, :data:`SEEK_CUR`, and :data:`SEEK_END`.
+
+* The :attr:`sys.version_info` tuple is now a named tuple::
+
+    >>> sys.version_info
+    sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)
+
+  (Contributed by Ross Light; :issue:`4285`.)
+
+* The :mod:`nntplib` and :mod:`imaplib` modules now support IPv6.
+
+  (Contributed by Derek Morr; :issue:`1655` and :issue:`1664`.)
+
+* The :mod:`pickle` module has been adapted for better interoperability with
+  Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or lower.  The reorganization of the
+  standard library changed the formal reference for many objects.  For
+  example, ``__builtin__.set`` in Python 2 is called ``builtins.set`` in Python
+  3. This change confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
+  Python.  But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler will
+  automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and dumping. This
+  remapping is turned-on by default but can be disabled with the *fix_imports*
+  option::
+
+    >>> s = {1, 2, 3}
+    >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
+    b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
+    >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
+    b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
+
+  An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that protocol 2
+  pickles produced by Python 3.1 won't be readable with Python 3.0. The latest
+  pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used when migrating data between
+  Python 3.x implementations, as it doesn't attempt to remain compatible with
+  Python 2.x.
+
+  (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti and Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`6137`.)
+
+* A new module, :mod:`importlib` was added.  It provides a complete, portable,
+  pure Python reference implementation of the :keyword:`import` statement and its
+  counterpart, the :func:`__import__` function.  It represents a substantial
+  step forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place during
+  imports.
+
+  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)
+
+Optimizations
+=============
+
+Major performance enhancements have been added:
+
+* The new I/O library (as defined in :pep:`3116`) was mostly written in
+  Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in Python 3.0.
+  In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely rewritten in C and is
+  2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at hand. The pure Python
+  version is still available for experimentation purposes through
+  the ``_pyio`` module.
+
+  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc and Antoine Pitrou.)
+
+* Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only untrackable objects
+  are not tracked by the garbage collector. This can reduce the size of
+  collections and therefore the garbage collection overhead on long-running
+  programs, depending on their particular use of datatypes.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`4688`.)
+
+* Enabling a configure option named ``--with-computed-gotos``
+  on compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
+  evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which gives
+  speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler, and
+  the benchmark.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou along with a number of other participants,
+  :issue:`4753`).
+
+* The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
+  faster.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, :issue:`4868`.)
+
+* The :mod:`json` module now has a C extension to substantially improve
+  its performance.  In addition, the API was modified so that json works
+  only with :class:`str`, not with :class:`bytes`.  That change makes the
+  module closely match the `JSON specification <http://json.org/>`_
+  which is defined in terms of Unicode.
+
+  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine Pitrou
+  and Benjamin Peterson; :issue:`4136`.)
+
+* Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects.  This saves
+  memory and allows pickles to be smaller.
+
+  (Contributed by Jake McGuire and Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`5084`.)
+
+IDLE
+====
+
+* IDLE's format menu now provides an option to strip trailing whitespace
+  from a source file.
+
+  (Contributed by Roger D. Serwy; :issue:`5150`.)
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
+
+* Integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base
+  2**30, the base being determined at build time.  Previously, they
+  were always stored in base 2**15.  Using base 2**30 gives
+  significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
+  benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
+  the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15
+  on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option
+  ``--enable-big-digits`` that can be used to override this default.
+
+  Apart from the performance improvements this change should be invisible to
+  end users, with one exception: for testing and debugging purposes there's a
+  new :attr:`sys.int_info` that provides information about the
+  internal format, giving the number of bits per digit and the size in bytes
+  of the C type used to store each digit::
+
+     >>> import sys
+     >>> sys.int_info
+     sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)
+
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4258`.)
+
+* The :c:func:`PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong()` function now handles a negative
+  *pylong* by raising :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Lisandro Dalcrin; :issue:`5175`.)
+
+* Deprecated :c:func:`PyNumber_Int`.  Use :c:func:`PyNumber_Long` instead.
+
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4910`.)
+
+* Added a new :c:func:`PyOS_string_to_double` function to replace the
+  deprecated functions :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_strtod` and :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_atof`.
+
+  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`5914`.)
+
+* Added :c:type:`PyCapsule` as a replacement for the :c:type:`PyCObject` API.
+  The principal difference is that the new type has a well defined interface
+  for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature
+  for calling a destructor.  The old type had a problematic API and is now
+  deprecated.
+
+  (Contributed by Larry Hastings; :issue:`5630`.)
+
+Porting to Python 3.1
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code:
+
+* The new floating point string representations can break existing doctests.
+  For example::
+
+    def e():
+        '''Compute the base of natural logarithms.
+
+        >>> e()
+        2.7182818284590451
+
+        '''
+        return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))
+
+    doctest.testmod()
+
+    **********************************************************************
+    Failed example:
+        e()
+    Expected:
+        2.7182818284590451
+    Got:
+        2.718281828459045
+    **********************************************************************
+
+* The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or lower can
+  make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0.  One solution is to use
+  protocol 3.  Another solution is to set the *fix_imports* option to ``False``.
+  See the discussion above for more details.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.2.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.2.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca3eda0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.2.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2739 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.2
+****************************
+
+:Author: Raymond Hettinger
+
+.. $Id$
+   Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten.  (Note, during release candidate phase or just before
+   a beta release, please use the tracker instead -- this helps avoid
+   merge conflicts.   If you must add a suggested entry directly,
+   please put it in an XXX comment and the maintainer will take notice).
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.  It's helpful to
+   add the issue number:
+
+     XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+     module.
+
+     (Contributed by P.Y. Developer; :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the SVN log
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1.  It
+focuses on a few highlights and gives a few examples.  For full details, see the
+`Misc/NEWS
+<https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS>`_
+file.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`392` - Python 3.2 Release Schedule
+
+
+PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
+==============================
+
+In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often
+not usable with other Python versions. Particularly on Windows, every
+feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that
+one wanted to use. This requirement was the result of the free access to
+Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.
+
+With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension
+modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining
+Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained
+to a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several
+releases. As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that
+mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on. Extension modules that
+make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will
+need to be recompiled for every feature release.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`384` - Defining a Stable ABI
+      PEP written by Martin von Löwis.
+
+
+PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
+=============================================
+
+A new module for command line parsing, :mod:`argparse`, was introduced to
+overcome the limitations of :mod:`optparse` which did not provide support for
+positional arguments (not just options), subcommands, required options and other
+common patterns of specifying and validating options.
+
+This module has already had widespread success in the community as a
+third-party module.  Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the
+:mod:`argparse` module is now the preferred module for command-line processing.
+The older module is still being kept available because of the substantial amount
+of legacy code that depends on it.
+
+Here's an annotated example parser showing features like limiting results to a
+set of choices, specifying a *metavar* in the help screen, validating that one
+or more positional arguments is present, and making a required option::
+
+    import argparse
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+                description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
+                epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
+    parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
+                choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
+                help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
+    parser.add_argument('targets',
+                metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
+                nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
+                help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
+    parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
+                required = True,                        # make it a required argument
+                help = 'login as user')
+
+Example of calling the parser on a command string::
+
+    >>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
+    >>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
+    >>> result.action
+    'deploy'
+    >>> result.targets
+    ['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
+    >>> result.user
+    'skycaptain'
+
+Example of the parser's automatically generated help::
+
+    >>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())
+
+    usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
+                           {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]
+
+    Manage servers
+
+    positional arguments:
+      {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
+      HOSTNAME              url for target machines
+
+    optional arguments:
+      -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+      -u USER, --user USER  login as user
+
+    Tested on Solaris and Linux
+
+An especially nice :mod:`argparse` feature is the ability to define subparsers,
+each with their own argument patterns and help displays::
+
+    import argparse
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
+    subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
+
+    parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
+    parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
+    parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')
+
+    parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
+                                     aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
+    parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
+    parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
+    $ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
+    $ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
+    $ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`389` - New Command Line Parsing Module
+      PEP written by Steven Bethard.
+
+   :ref:`upgrading-optparse-code` for details on the differences from :mod:`optparse`.
+
+
+PEP 391:  Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
+====================================================
+
+The :mod:`logging` module provided two kinds of configuration, one style with
+function calls for each option or another style driven by an external file saved
+in a :mod:`ConfigParser` format.  Those options did not provide the flexibility
+to create configurations from JSON or YAML files, nor did they support
+incremental configuration, which is needed for specifying logger options from a
+command line.
+
+To support a more flexible style, the module now offers
+:func:`logging.config.dictConfig` for specifying logging configuration with
+plain Python dictionaries.  The configuration options include formatters,
+handlers, filters, and loggers.  Here's a working example of a configuration
+dictionary::
+
+   {"version": 1,
+    "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
+                   "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
+                   },
+    "handlers": {"console": {
+                      "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
+                      "formatter": "brief",
+                      "level": "INFO",
+                      "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
+                 "console_priority": {
+                      "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
+                      "formatter": "full",
+                      "level": "ERROR",
+                      "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
+                 },
+    "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}
+
+
+If that dictionary is stored in a file called :file:`conf.json`, it can be
+loaded and called with code like this::
+
+   >>> import json, logging.config
+   >>> with open('conf.json') as f:
+   ...     conf = json.load(f)
+   ...
+   >>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
+   >>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
+   INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
+   >>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
+   2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`391` - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
+      PEP written by Vinay Sajip.
+
+
+PEP 3148:  The ``concurrent.futures`` module
+============================================
+
+Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new top-level
+namespace, *concurrent*.  Its first member is a *futures* package which provides
+a uniform high-level interface for managing threads and processes.
+
+The design for :mod:`concurrent.futures` was inspired by the
+*java.util.concurrent* package.  In that model, a running call and its result
+are represented by a :class:`~concurrent.futures.Future` object that abstracts
+features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls.  That object
+supports status checks (running or done), timeouts, cancellations, adding
+callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.
+
+The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for
+launching and managing calls.  The goal of the executors is to make it easier to
+use existing tools for making parallel calls. They save the effort needed to
+setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a results queue, add
+time-out handling, and limit the total number of threads, processes, or remote
+procedure calls.
+
+Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple
+components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed.  This
+solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its own
+competing strategy for resource management.
+
+Both classes share a common interface with three methods:
+:meth:`~concurrent.futures.Executor.submit` for scheduling a callable and
+returning a :class:`~concurrent.futures.Future` object;
+:meth:`~concurrent.futures.Executor.map` for scheduling many asynchronous calls
+at a time, and :meth:`~concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown` for freeing
+resources.  The class is a :term:`context manager` and can be used in a
+:keyword:`with` statement to assure that resources are automatically released
+when currently pending futures are done executing.
+
+A simple of example of :class:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor` is a
+launch of four parallel threads for copying files::
+
+  import concurrent.futures, shutil
+  with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
+      e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
+      e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
+      e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
+      e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3148` - Futures -- Execute Computations Asynchronously
+      PEP written by Brian Quinlan.
+
+   :ref:`Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads<threadpoolexecutor-example>`, an
+   example using threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.
+
+   :ref:`Code for computing prime numbers in
+   parallel<processpoolexecutor-example>`, an example demonstrating
+   :class:`~concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor`.
+
+
+PEP 3147:  PYC Repository Directories
+=====================================
+
+Python's scheme for caching bytecode in *.pyc* files did not work well in
+environments with multiple Python interpreters.  If one interpreter encountered
+a cached file created by another interpreter, it would recompile the source and
+overwrite the cached file, thus losing the benefits of caching.
+
+The issue of "pyc fights" has become more pronounced as it has become
+commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of Python.
+These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as Unladen Swallow.
+
+To solve this problem, Python's import machinery has been extended to use
+distinct filenames for each interpreter.  Instead of Python 3.2 and Python 3.3 and
+Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called "mymodule.pyc", they will now
+look for "mymodule.cpython-32.pyc", "mymodule.cpython-33.pyc", and
+"mymodule.unladen10.pyc".  And to prevent all of these new files from
+cluttering source directories, the *pyc* files are now collected in a
+"__pycache__" directory stored under the package directory.
+
+Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a few
+aspects that are visible to the programmer:
+
+* Imported modules now have a :attr:`__cached__` attribute which stores the name
+  of the actual file that was imported:
+
+   >>> import collections
+   >>> collections.__cached__ # doctest: +SKIP
+   'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'
+
+* The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the :mod:`imp`
+  module:
+
+   >>> import imp
+   >>> imp.get_tag() # doctest: +SKIP
+   'cpython-32'
+
+* Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file now need to
+  be smarter.  It is no longer sufficient to simply strip the "c" from a ".pyc"
+  filename.  Instead, use the new functions in the :mod:`imp` module:
+
+  >>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc')
+  'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
+  >>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py') # doctest: +SKIP
+  'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'
+
+* The :mod:`py_compile` and :mod:`compileall` modules have been updated to
+  reflect the new naming convention and target directory.  The command-line
+  invocation of *compileall* has new options: ``-i`` for
+  specifying a list of files and directories to compile and ``-b`` which causes
+  bytecode files to be written to their legacy location rather than
+  *__pycache__*.
+
+* The :mod:`importlib.abc` module has been updated with new :term:`abstract base
+  classes <abstract base class>` for loading bytecode files.  The obsolete
+  ABCs, :class:`~importlib.abc.PyLoader` and
+  :class:`~importlib.abc.PyPycLoader`, have been deprecated (instructions on how
+  to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included with the documentation).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3147` - PYC Repository Directories
+      PEP written by Barry Warsaw.
+
+
+PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
+======================================
+
+The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be
+co-located.  This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object files by
+giving them a common directory and distinct names for each version.
+
+The common directory is "pyshared" and the file names are made distinct by
+identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython, etc.), the
+major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags (such as "d" for
+debug, "m" for pymalloc, "u" for wide-unicode).  For an arbitrary package "foo",
+you may see these files when the distribution package is installed::
+
+   /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so
+   /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so
+
+In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the :mod:`sysconfig`
+module::
+
+   >>> import sysconfig
+   >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # find the version tag
+   'cpython-32mu'
+   >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # find the full filename extension
+   '.cpython-32mu.so'
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3149` - ABI Version Tagged .so Files
+      PEP written by Barry Warsaw.
+
+
+PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
+=====================================================
+
+This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled by the
+WSGI protocol.  The challenge is that string handling in Python 3 is most
+conveniently handled with the :class:`str` type even though the HTTP protocol
+is itself bytes oriented.
+
+The PEP differentiates so-called *native strings* that are used for
+request/response headers and metadata versus *byte strings* which are used for
+the bodies of requests and responses.
+
+The *native strings* are always of type :class:`str` but are restricted to code
+points between *U+0000* through *U+00FF* which are translatable to bytes using
+*Latin-1* encoding.  These strings are used for the keys and values in the
+environment dictionary and for response headers and statuses in the
+:func:`start_response` function.  They must follow :rfc:`2616` with respect to
+encoding. That is, they must either be *ISO-8859-1* characters or use
+:rfc:`2047` MIME encoding.
+
+For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the salient
+points:
+
+* If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change is needed.
+
+* If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input headers, then the
+  headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1.  For example, an output header
+  encoded in utf-8 was using ``h.encode('utf-8')`` now needs to convert from
+  bytes to native strings using ``h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')``.
+
+* Values yielded by an application or sent using the :meth:`write` method
+  must be byte strings.  The :func:`start_response` function and environ
+  must use native strings.  The two cannot be mixed.
+
+For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style
+protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native strings
+even though the underlying platform may have a different convention.  To bridge
+this gap, the :mod:`wsgiref` module has a new function,
+:func:`wsgiref.handlers.read_environ` for transcoding CGI variables from
+:attr:`os.environ` into native strings and returning a new dictionary.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3333` - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
+      PEP written by Phillip Eby.
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* String formatting for :func:`format` and :meth:`str.format` gained new
+  capabilities for the format character **#**.  Previously, for integers in
+  binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it caused the output to be prefixed with '0b',
+  '0o', or '0x' respectively.  Now it can also handle floats, complex, and
+  Decimal, causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no digits
+  follow it.
+
+  >>> format(20, '#o')
+  '0o24'
+  >>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
+  '  12.'
+
+  (Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in :issue:`7094`.)
+
+* There is also a new :meth:`str.format_map` method that extends the
+  capabilities of the existing :meth:`str.format` method by accepting arbitrary
+  :term:`mapping` objects.  This new method makes it possible to use string
+  formatting with any of Python's many dictionary-like objects such as
+  :class:`~collections.defaultdict`, :class:`~shelve.Shelf`,
+  :class:`~configparser.ConfigParser`, or :mod:`dbm`.  It is also useful with
+  custom :class:`dict` subclasses that normalize keys before look-up or that
+  supply a :meth:`__missing__` method for unknown keys::
+
+    >>> import shelve
+    >>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
+    >>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
+    'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'
+
+    >>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
+    ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
+    ...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
+    >>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
+    >>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
+    'There are 10 widgets in stock'
+
+    >>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
+    ...     def __missing__(self, key):
+    ...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
+    >>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
+    'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'
+
+ (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in
+ :issue:`6081`.)
+
+* The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, ``-q``, to prevent
+  the copyright and version information from being displayed in the interactive
+  mode.  The option can be introspected using the :attr:`sys.flags` attribute:
+
+  .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -q
+    >>> sys.flags
+    sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
+    optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
+    ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)
+
+  (Contributed by Marcin Wojdyr in :issue:`1772833`).
+
+* The :func:`hasattr` function works by calling :func:`getattr` and detecting
+  whether an exception is raised.  This technique allows it to detect methods
+  created dynamically by :meth:`__getattr__` or :meth:`__getattribute__` which
+  would otherwise be absent from the class dictionary.  Formerly, *hasattr*
+  would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors.  Now, *hasattr*
+  has been tightened to only catch :exc:`AttributeError` and let other
+  exceptions pass through::
+
+    >>> class A:
+    ...     @property
+    ...     def f(self):
+    ...         return 1 // 0
+    ...
+    >>> a = A()
+    >>> hasattr(a, 'f')
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero
+
+  (Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson; :issue:`9666`.)
+
+* The :func:`str` of a float or complex number is now the same as its
+  :func:`repr`. Previously, the :func:`str` form was shorter but that just
+  caused confusion and is no longer needed now that the shortest possible
+  :func:`repr` is displayed by default:
+
+   >>> import math
+   >>> repr(math.pi)
+   '3.141592653589793'
+   >>> str(math.pi)
+   '3.141592653589793'
+
+  (Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`9337`.)
+
+* :class:`memoryview` objects now have a :meth:`~memoryview.release()` method
+  and they also now support the context management protocol.  This allows timely
+  release of any resources that were acquired when requesting a buffer from the
+  original object.
+
+  >>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
+  ...     print(v.tolist())
+  [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]
+
+  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`9757`.)
+
+* Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it
+  occurs as a free variable in a nested block::
+
+       def outer(x):
+           def inner():
+               return x
+           inner()
+           del x
+
+  This is now allowed.  Remember that the target of an :keyword:`except` clause
+  is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python 2.6, raised a
+  :exc:`SyntaxError` with Python 3.1 and now works again::
+
+       def f():
+           def print_error():
+               print(e)
+           try:
+               something
+           except Exception as e:
+               print_error()
+               # implicit "del e" here
+
+  (See :issue:`4617`.)
+
+* The internal :c:type:`structsequence` tool now creates subclasses of tuple.
+  This means that C structures like those returned by :func:`os.stat`,
+  :func:`time.gmtime`, and :attr:`sys.version_info` now work like a
+  :term:`named tuple` and now work with functions and methods that
+  expect a tuple as an argument.  This is a big step forward in making the C
+  structures as flexible as their pure Python counterparts:
+
+  >>> import sys
+  >>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
+  True
+  >>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info # doctest: +SKIP
+  'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'
+
+  (Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented
+  by Benjamin Peterson in :issue:`8413`.)
+
+* Warnings are now easier to control using the :envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS`
+  environment variable as an alternative to using ``-W`` at the command line:
+
+  .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'
+
+  (Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in :issue:`7301`.)
+
+* A new warning category, :exc:`ResourceWarning`, has been added.  It is
+  emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or cleanup
+  are detected.  It is silenced by default in normal release builds but
+  can be enabled through the means provided by the :mod:`warnings`
+  module, or on the command line.
+
+  A :exc:`ResourceWarning` is issued at interpreter shutdown if the
+  :data:`gc.garbage` list isn't empty, and if :attr:`gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE` is
+  set, all uncollectable objects are printed.  This is meant to make the
+  programmer aware that their code contains object finalization issues.
+
+  A :exc:`ResourceWarning` is also issued when a :term:`file object` is destroyed
+  without having been explicitly closed.  While the deallocator for such
+  object ensures it closes the underlying operating system resource
+  (usually, a file descriptor), the delay in deallocating the object could
+  produce various issues, especially under Windows.  Here is an example
+  of enabling the warning from the command line:
+
+  .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+      $ python -q -Wdefault
+      >>> f = open("foo", "wb")
+      >>> del f
+      __main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>
+
+  (Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in :issue:`10093` and :issue:`477863`.)
+
+* :class:`range` objects now support *index* and *count* methods. This is part
+  of an effort to make more objects fully implement the
+  :class:`collections.Sequence` :term:`abstract base class`.  As a result, the
+  language will have a more uniform API.  In addition, :class:`range` objects
+  now support slicing and negative indices, even with values larger than
+  :attr:`sys.maxsize`.  This makes *range* more interoperable with lists::
+
+      >>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
+      1
+      >>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
+      5
+      >>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
+      10
+      >>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
+      range(0, 10, 2)
+
+  (Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in :issue:`9213`, by Alexander Belopolsky
+  in :issue:`2690`, and by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`10889`.)
+
+* The :func:`callable` builtin function from Py2.x was resurrected.  It provides
+  a concise, readable alternative to using an :term:`abstract base class` in an
+  expression like ``isinstance(x, collections.Callable)``:
+
+  >>> callable(max)
+  True
+  >>> callable(20)
+  False
+
+  (See :issue:`10518`.)
+
+* Python's import mechanism can now load modules installed in directories with
+  non-ASCII characters in the path name.  This solved an aggravating problem
+  with home directories for users with non-ASCII characters in their usernames.
+
+ (Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in :issue:`9425`.)
+
+
+New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
+=====================================
+
+Python's standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts and
+quality improvements.
+
+The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the :mod:`email` package, :mod:`mailbox`
+module, and :mod:`nntplib` modules now work correctly with the bytes/text model
+in Python 3.  For the first time, there is correct handling of messages with
+mixed encodings.
+
+Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention to
+encodings and text versus bytes issues.  In particular, interactions with the
+operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data using the
+Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.
+
+Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support for
+*SSL* connections and security certificates.
+
+In addition, more classes now implement a :term:`context manager` to support
+convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a :keyword:`with` statement.
+
+email
+-----
+
+The usability of the :mod:`email` package in Python 3 has been mostly fixed by
+the extensive efforts of R. David Murray.  The problem was that emails are
+typically read and stored in the form of :class:`bytes` rather than :class:`str`
+text, and they may contain multiple encodings within a single email.  So, the
+email package had to be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes
+format.
+
+* New functions :func:`~email.message_from_bytes` and
+  :func:`~email.message_from_binary_file`, and new classes
+  :class:`~email.parser.BytesFeedParser` and :class:`~email.parser.BytesParser`
+  allow binary message data to be parsed into model objects.
+
+* Given bytes input to the model, :meth:`~email.message.Message.get_payload`
+  will by default decode a message body that has a
+  :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of *8bit* using the charset
+  specified in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.
+
+* Given bytes input to the model, :class:`~email.generator.Generator` will
+  convert message bodies that have a :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of
+  *8bit* to instead have a *7bit* :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`.
+
+  Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be :rfc:`2047`\ -encoded
+  using the *unknown-8bit* character set.
+
+* A new class :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator` produces bytes as output,
+  preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the input used to
+  build the model, including message bodies with a
+  :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of *8bit*.
+
+* The :mod:`smtplib` :class:`~smtplib.SMTP` class now accepts a byte string
+  for the *msg* argument to the :meth:`~smtplib.SMTP.sendmail` method,
+  and a new method, :meth:`~smtplib.SMTP.send_message` accepts a
+  :class:`~email.message.Message` object and can optionally obtain the
+  *from_addr* and *to_addrs* addresses directly from the object.
+
+(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, :issue:`4661` and :issue:`10321`.)
+
+elementtree
+-----------
+
+The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` package and its :mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree`
+counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.
+
+Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:
+
+* :func:`xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist` which builds an XML document
+  from a sequence of fragments
+* :func:`xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace` for registering a global
+  namespace prefix
+* :func:`xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist` for string representation
+  including all sublists
+* :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend` for appending a sequence of zero
+  or more elements
+* :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind` searches an element and
+  subelements
+* :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext` creates a text iterator over
+  an element and its subelements
+* :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end` closes the current element
+* :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype` handles a doctype
+  declaration
+
+Two methods have been deprecated:
+
+* :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren` use ``list(elem)`` instead.
+* :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator` use ``Element.iter`` instead.
+
+For details of the update, see `Introducing ElementTree
+<http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm>`_ on Fredrik Lundh's website.
+
+(Contributed by Florent Xicluna and Fredrik Lundh, :issue:`6472`.)
+
+functools
+---------
+
+* The :mod:`functools` module includes a new decorator for caching function
+  calls.  :func:`functools.lru_cache` can save repeated queries to an external
+  resource whenever the results are expected to be the same.
+
+  For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query function can save
+  database accesses for popular searches:
+
+  >>> import functools
+  >>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
+  ... def get_phone_number(name):
+  ...     c = conn.cursor()
+  ...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
+  ...     return c.fetchone()[0]
+
+  >>> for name in user_requests:        # doctest: +SKIP
+  ...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup
+
+  To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function is
+  instrumented for tracking cache statistics:
+
+  >>> get_phone_number.cache_info()     # doctest: +SKIP
+  CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)
+
+  If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the cache can be
+  cleared with:
+
+  >>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas from Jim
+  Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see `recipe 498245
+  <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245>`_\, `recipe 577479
+  <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479>`_\, :issue:`10586`, and
+  :issue:`10593`.)
+
+* The :func:`functools.wraps` decorator now adds a :attr:`__wrapped__` attribute
+  pointing to the original callable function.  This allows wrapped functions to
+  be introspected.  It also copies :attr:`__annotations__` if defined.  And now
+  it also gracefully skips over missing attributes such as :attr:`__doc__` which
+  might not be defined for the wrapped callable.
+
+  In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the original
+  function:
+
+  >>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function
+
+  (By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; :issue:`9567`, :issue:`3445`, and
+  :issue:`8814`.)
+
+* To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator
+  :func:`functools.total_ordering` will use existing equality and inequality
+  methods to fill in the remaining methods.
+
+  For example, supplying *__eq__* and *__lt__* will enable
+  :func:`~functools.total_ordering` to fill-in *__le__*, *__gt__* and *__ge__*::
+
+    @total_ordering
+    class Student:
+        def __eq__(self, other):
+            return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
+                    (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
+
+        def __lt__(self, other):
+            return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
+                    (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
+
+  With the *total_ordering* decorator, the remaining comparison methods
+  are filled in automatically.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the :func:`functools.cmp_to_key`
+  function converts an old-style comparison function to
+  modern :term:`key function`:
+
+  >>> # locale-aware sort order
+  >>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll)) # doctest: +SKIP
+
+  For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the `Sorting HowTo
+  <https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/>`_ tutorial.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+itertools
+---------
+
+* The :mod:`itertools` module has a new :func:`~itertools.accumulate` function
+  modeled on APL's *scan* operator and Numpy's *accumulate* function:
+
+  >>> from itertools import accumulate
+  >>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
+  [8, 10, 60]
+
+  >>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
+  >>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
+  [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]
+
+  For an example using :func:`~itertools.accumulate`, see the :ref:`examples for
+  the random module <random-examples>`.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design suggestions
+  from Mark Dickinson.)
+
+collections
+-----------
+
+* The :class:`collections.Counter` class now has two forms of in-place
+  subtraction, the existing *-=* operator for `saturating subtraction
+  <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic>`_ and the new
+  :meth:`~collections.Counter.subtract` method for regular subtraction.  The
+  former is suitable for `multisets <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset>`_
+  which only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use cases
+  that allow negative counts:
+
+  >>> from collections import Counter
+  >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
+  >>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
+  >>> tally
+  Counter({'dogs': 3})
+
+  >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
+  >>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
+  >>> tally
+  Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :class:`collections.OrderedDict` class has a new method
+  :meth:`~collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end` which takes an existing key and
+  moves it to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.
+
+  The default is to move an item to the last position.  This is equivalent of
+  renewing an entry with ``od[k] = od.pop(k)``.
+
+  A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries.  For example,
+  an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of access by aging entries
+  from the oldest to the most recently accessed.
+
+  >>> from collections import OrderedDict
+  >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
+  >>> list(d)
+  ['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
+  >>> d.move_to_end('X')
+  >>> list(d)
+  ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* The :class:`collections.deque` class grew two new methods
+  :meth:`~collections.deque.count` and :meth:`~collections.deque.reverse` that
+  make them more substitutable for :class:`list` objects:
+
+  >>> from collections import deque
+  >>> d = deque('simsalabim')
+  >>> d.count('s')
+  2
+  >>> d.reverse()
+  >>> d
+  deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+threading
+---------
+
+The :mod:`threading` module has a new :class:`~threading.Barrier`
+synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them have
+reached a common barrier point.  Barriers are useful for making sure that a task
+with multiple preconditions does not run until all of the predecessor tasks are
+complete.
+
+Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads.  This is a generalization
+of a `Rendezvous <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous>`_ which
+is defined for only two threads.
+
+Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, :class:`~threading.Barrier` objects
+are suitable for use in loops.  The separate *filling* and *draining* phases
+assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of them can loop
+back and re-enter the barrier.  The barrier fully resets after each cycle.
+
+Example of using barriers::
+
+    from threading import Barrier, Thread
+
+    def get_votes(site):
+        ballots = conduct_election(site)
+        all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
+        totals = summarize(ballots)
+        publish(site, totals)
+
+    all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
+    for site in sites:
+        Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()
+
+In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be counted at any
+polling site until all polls are closed.  Notice how a solution with a barrier
+is similar to one with :meth:`threading.Thread.join`, but the threads stay alive
+and continue to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is
+crossed.
+
+If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be created
+with an optional *timeout* parameter.  Then if the timeout period elapses before
+all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point, all waiting threads are
+released and a :exc:`~threading.BrokenBarrierError` exception is raised::
+
+    def get_votes(site):
+        ballots = conduct_election(site)
+        try:
+            all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
+        except BrokenBarrierError:
+            lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
+            queue.put(lockbox)
+        else:
+            totals = summarize(ballots)
+            publish(site, totals)
+
+In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule.  If some election
+sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and the ballots are
+sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.
+
+See `Barrier Synchronization Patterns
+<http://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf>`_
+for more examples of how barriers can be used in parallel computing.  Also, there is
+a simple but thorough explanation of barriers in `The Little Book of Semaphores
+<https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf>`_, *section 3.6*.
+
+(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey Yasskin in
+:issue:`8777`.)
+
+datetime and time
+-----------------
+
+* The :mod:`datetime` module has a new type :class:`~datetime.timezone` that
+  implements the :class:`~datetime.tzinfo` interface by returning a fixed UTC
+  offset and timezone name. This makes it easier to create timezone-aware
+  datetime objects::
+
+    >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
+
+    >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
+    datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+
+    >>> datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
+    datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+
+* Also, :class:`~datetime.timedelta` objects can now be multiplied by
+  :class:`float` and divided by :class:`float` and :class:`int` objects.
+  And :class:`~datetime.timedelta` objects can now divide one another.
+
+* The :meth:`datetime.date.strftime` method is no longer restricted to years
+  after 1900.  The new supported year range is from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.
+
+* Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the interpretation has been
+  governed by :attr:`time.accept2dyear`.  The default is ``True`` which means that
+  for a two-digit year, the century is guessed according to the POSIX rules
+  governing the ``%y`` strptime format.
+
+  Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will emit a
+  :exc:`DeprecationWarning`.  Instead, it is recommended that
+  :attr:`time.accept2dyear` be set to ``False`` so that large date ranges
+  can be used without guesswork::
+
+    >>> import time, warnings
+    >>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters
+
+    >>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
+    >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
+    Warning (from warnings module):
+      ...
+    DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
+    'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'
+
+    >>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
+    >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
+    'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'
+
+  Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges.  When
+  :attr:`time.accept2dyear` is false, the :func:`time.asctime` function will
+  accept any year that fits in a C int, while the :func:`time.mktime` and
+  :func:`time.strftime` functions will accept the full range supported by the
+  corresponding operating system functions.
+
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in :issue:`1289118`,
+:issue:`5094`, :issue:`6641`, :issue:`2706`, :issue:`1777412`, :issue:`8013`,
+and :issue:`10827`.)
+
+.. XXX https://bugs.python.org/issue?%40search_text=datetime&%40sort=-activity
+
+math
+----
+
+The :mod:`math` module has been updated with six new functions inspired by the
+C99 standard.
+
+The :func:`~math.isfinite` function provides a reliable and fast way to detect
+special values.  It returns ``True`` for regular numbers and ``False`` for *Nan* or
+*Infinity*:
+
+>>> from math import isfinite
+>>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
+[True, True, False, False]
+
+The :func:`~math.expm1` function computes ``e**x-1`` for small values of *x*
+without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the subtraction
+of nearly equal quantities:
+
+>>> from math import expm1
+>>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
+0.013765762467652909
+
+The :func:`~math.erf` function computes a probability integral or `Gaussian
+error function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_.  The
+complementary error function, :func:`~math.erfc`, is ``1 - erf(x)``:
+
+.. doctest::
+   :options: +SKIP
+
+   >>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
+   >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
+   0.682689492137086
+   >>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
+   0.31731050786291404
+   >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
+   1.0
+
+The :func:`~math.gamma` function is a continuous extension of the factorial
+function.  See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function for details.  Because
+the function is related to factorials, it grows large even for small values of
+*x*, so there is also a :func:`~math.lgamma` function for computing the natural
+logarithm of the gamma function:
+
+>>> from math import gamma, lgamma
+>>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
+720.0
+>>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
+4551.950730698041
+
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)
+
+abc
+---
+
+The :mod:`abc` module now supports :func:`~abc.abstractclassmethod` and
+:func:`~abc.abstractstaticmethod`.
+
+These tools make it possible to define an :term:`abstract base class` that
+requires a particular :func:`classmethod` or :func:`staticmethod` to be
+implemented::
+
+    class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
+        @abc.abstractclassmethod
+        def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
+            ...
+        @abc.abstractclassmethod
+        def from_celsius(cls, t):
+            ...
+
+(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; :issue:`5867`.)
+
+io
+--
+
+The :class:`io.BytesIO` has a new method, :meth:`~io.BytesIO.getbuffer`, which
+provides functionality similar to :func:`memoryview`.  It creates an editable
+view of the data without making a copy.  The buffer's random access and support
+for slice notation are well-suited to in-place editing::
+
+    >>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11
+
+    >>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
+    ...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
+    ...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location
+
+    >>> import io
+
+    >>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
+    ...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
+    ...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
+    ...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
+    ... )
+    >>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
+    >>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
+    >>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
+    >>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
+    b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
+    b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
+    b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
+
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`5506`.)
+
+reprlib
+-------
+
+When writing a :meth:`__repr__` method for a custom container, it is easy to
+forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the container itself.
+Python's builtin objects such as :class:`list` and :class:`set` handle
+self-reference by displaying "..." in the recursive part of the representation
+string.
+
+To help write such :meth:`__repr__` methods, the :mod:`reprlib` module has a new
+decorator, :func:`~reprlib.recursive_repr`, for detecting recursive calls to
+:meth:`__repr__` and substituting a placeholder string instead::
+
+        >>> class MyList(list):
+        ...     @recursive_repr()
+        ...     def __repr__(self):
+        ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
+        ...
+        >>> m = MyList('abc')
+        >>> m.append(m)
+        >>> m.append('x')
+        >>> print(m)
+        <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>
+
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`9826` and :issue:`9840`.)
+
+logging
+-------
+
+In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the
+:mod:`logging` package has many other improvements.
+
+The logging documentation has been augmented by a :ref:`basic tutorial
+<logging-basic-tutorial>`\, an :ref:`advanced tutorial
+<logging-advanced-tutorial>`\, and a :ref:`cookbook <logging-cookbook>` of
+logging recipes.  These documents are the fastest way to learn about logging.
+
+The :func:`logging.basicConfig` set-up function gained a *style* argument to
+support three different types of string formatting.  It defaults to "%" for
+traditional %-formatting, can be set to "{" for the new :meth:`str.format` style, or
+can be set to "$" for the shell-style formatting provided by
+:class:`string.Template`.  The following three configurations are equivalent::
+
+    >>> from logging import basicConfig
+    >>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
+    >>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
+    >>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")
+
+If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is now a
+default configuration using a :class:`~logging.StreamHandler` directed to
+:attr:`sys.stderr` for events of ``WARNING`` level or higher.  Formerly, an
+event occurring before a configuration was set-up would either raise an
+exception or silently drop the event depending on the value of
+:attr:`logging.raiseExceptions`.  The new default handler is stored in
+:attr:`logging.lastResort`.
+
+The use of filters has been simplified.  Instead of creating a
+:class:`~logging.Filter` object, the predicate can be any Python callable that
+returns ``True`` or ``False``.
+
+There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and simplify
+configuration.  See the module documentation for a full listing of changes in
+Python 3.2.
+
+csv
+---
+
+The :mod:`csv` module now supports a new dialect, :class:`~csv.unix_dialect`,
+which applies quoting for all fields and a traditional Unix style with ``'\n'`` as
+the line terminator.  The registered dialect name is ``unix``.
+
+The :class:`csv.DictWriter` has a new method,
+:meth:`~csv.DictWriter.writeheader` for writing-out an initial row to document
+the field names::
+
+    >>> import csv, sys
+    >>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
+    >>> w.writeheader()
+    "name","dept"
+    >>> w.writerows([
+    ...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
+    ...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
+    "tom","accounting"
+    "susan","sales"
+
+(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in :issue:`5975`, and the new method
+suggested by Ed Abraham in :issue:`1537721`.)
+
+contextlib
+----------
+
+There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool
+:class:`~contextlib.ContextDecorator` that is helpful for creating a
+:term:`context manager` that does double duty as a function decorator.
+
+As a convenience, this new functionality is used by
+:func:`~contextlib.contextmanager` so that no extra effort is needed to support
+both roles.
+
+The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can be used
+for pre-action and post-action wrappers.  Context managers wrap a group of
+statements using a :keyword:`with` statement, and function decorators wrap a
+group of statements enclosed in a function.  So, occasionally there is a need to
+write a pre-action or post-action wrapper that can be used in either role.
+
+For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements
+with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit.  Rather than
+writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, the
+:func:`~contextlib.contextmanager` provides both capabilities in a single
+definition::
+
+    from contextlib import contextmanager
+    import logging
+
+    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)
+
+    @contextmanager
+    def track_entry_and_exit(name):
+        logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
+        yield
+        logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)
+
+Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager::
+
+    with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
+        print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
+        load_widget()
+
+Now, it can be used as a decorator as well::
+
+    @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
+    def activity():
+        print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
+        load_widget()
+
+Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the technique.
+Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an argument usable by
+a :keyword:`with` statement, but there is no parallel for function decorators.
+
+In the above example, there is not a clean way for the *track_entry_and_exit*
+context manager to return a logging instance for use in the body of enclosed
+statements.
+
+(Contributed by Michael Foord in :issue:`9110`.)
+
+decimal and fractions
+---------------------
+
+Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that
+different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their actual
+values are equal (:issue:`8188`)::
+
+   assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
+          hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))
+
+Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute,
+:attr:`sys.hash_info`, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the
+prime modulus, the hash values for *infinity* and *nan*, and the multiplier
+used for the imaginary part of a number:
+
+>>> sys.hash_info # doctest: +SKIP
+sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)
+
+An early decision to limit the inter-operability of various numeric types has
+been relaxed.  It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have implicit
+mixing in arithmetic expressions such as ``Decimal('1.1') + float('1.1')``
+because the latter loses information in the process of constructing the binary
+float.  However, since existing floating point value can be converted losslessly
+to either a decimal or rational representation, it makes sense to add them to
+the constructor and to support mixed-type comparisons.
+
+* The :class:`decimal.Decimal` constructor now accepts :class:`float` objects
+  directly so there in no longer a need to use the :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.from_float`
+  method (:issue:`8257`).
+
+* Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that
+  :class:`~decimal.Decimal` objects can be directly compared with :class:`float`
+  and :class:`fractions.Fraction` (:issue:`2531` and :issue:`8188`).
+
+Similar changes were made to :class:`fractions.Fraction` so that the
+:meth:`~fractions.Fraction.from_float()` and :meth:`~fractions.Fraction.from_decimal`
+methods are no longer needed (:issue:`8294`):
+
+>>> from decimal import Decimal
+>>> from fractions import Fraction
+>>> Decimal(1.1)
+Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
+>>> Fraction(1.1)
+Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
+
+Another useful change for the :mod:`decimal` module is that the
+:attr:`Context.clamp` attribute is now public.  This is useful in creating
+contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE
+754 (see :issue:`8540`).
+
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+ftp
+---
+
+The :class:`ftplib.FTP` class now supports the context management protocol to
+unconditionally consume :exc:`socket.error` exceptions and to close the FTP
+connection when done::
+
+ >>> from ftplib import FTP
+ >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
+         ftp.login()
+         ftp.dir()
+
+ '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
+ dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
+ dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
+ dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
+ dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
+
+Other file-like objects such as :class:`mmap.mmap` and :func:`fileinput.input`
+also grew auto-closing context managers::
+
+    with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
+        for line in f:
+            process(line)
+
+(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`4972`, and
+by Georg Brandl in :issue:`8046` and :issue:`1286`.)
+
+The :class:`~ftplib.FTP_TLS` class now accepts a *context* parameter, which is a
+:class:`ssl.SSLContext` object allowing bundling SSL configuration options,
+certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.
+
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; :issue:`8806`.)
+
+popen
+-----
+
+The :func:`os.popen` and :func:`subprocess.Popen` functions now support
+:keyword:`with` statements for auto-closing of the file descriptors.
+
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Brian Curtin in :issue:`7461` and
+:issue:`10554`.)
+
+select
+------
+
+The :mod:`select` module now exposes a new, constant attribute,
+:attr:`~select.PIPE_BUF`, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are
+guaranteed not to block when :func:`select.select` says a pipe is ready
+for writing.
+
+>>> import select
+>>> select.PIPE_BUF  # doctest: +SKIP
+512
+
+(Available on Unix systems. Patch by Sébastien Sablé in :issue:`9862`)
+
+gzip and zipfile
+----------------
+
+:class:`gzip.GzipFile` now implements the :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`
+:term:`abstract base class` (except for ``truncate()``).  It also has a
+:meth:`~gzip.GzipFile.peek` method and supports unseekable as well as
+zero-padded file objects.
+
+The :mod:`gzip` module also gains the :func:`~gzip.compress` and
+:func:`~gzip.decompress` functions for easier in-memory compression and
+decompression.  Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as :class:`bytes`
+before compressing and decompressing:
+
+>>> import gzip
+>>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
+>>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
+>>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
+>>> len(b)
+89
+>>> c = gzip.compress(b)
+>>> len(c)
+77
+>>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
+'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'
+
+(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in :issue:`3488`; and by Antoine Pitrou, Nir
+Aides and Brian Curtin in :issue:`9962`, :issue:`1675951`, :issue:`7471` and
+:issue:`2846`.)
+
+Also, the :class:`zipfile.ZipExtFile` class was reworked internally to represent
+files stored inside an archive.  The new implementation is significantly faster
+and can be wrapped in an :class:`io.BufferedReader` object for more speedups.  It
+also solves an issue where interleaved calls to *read* and *readline* gave the
+wrong results.
+
+(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in :issue:`7610`.)
+
+tarfile
+-------
+
+The :class:`~tarfile.TarFile` class can now be used as a context manager.  In
+addition, its :meth:`~tarfile.TarFile.add` method has a new option, *filter*,
+that controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file metadata
+to be edited.
+
+The new *filter* option replaces the older, less flexible *exclude* parameter
+which is now deprecated.  If specified, the optional *filter* parameter needs to
+be a :term:`keyword argument`.  The user-supplied filter function accepts a
+:class:`~tarfile.TarInfo` object and returns an updated
+:class:`~tarfile.TarInfo` object, or if it wants the file to be excluded, the
+function can return ``None``::
+
+    >>> import tarfile, glob
+
+    >>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
+    ...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
+    ...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
+    ...         return tarinfo
+
+    >>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
+    ...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
+    ...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
+    ...     tf.list()
+    -rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
+    -rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
+    -rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
+    -rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
+    -rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt
+
+(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in :issue:`6856`.)
+
+hashlib
+-------
+
+The :mod:`hashlib` module has two new constant attributes listing the hashing
+algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations and those available
+on the current implementation::
+
+    >>> import hashlib
+
+    >>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
+    {'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}
+
+    >>> hashlib.algorithms_available
+    {'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
+    'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
+    'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
+    'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}
+
+(Suggested by Carl Chenet in :issue:`7418`.)
+
+ast
+---
+
+The :mod:`ast` module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for safely
+evaluating expression strings using the Python literal
+syntax.  The :func:`ast.literal_eval` function serves as a secure alternative to
+the builtin :func:`eval` function which is easily abused.  Python 3.2 adds
+:class:`bytes` and :class:`set` literals to the list of supported types:
+strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, and ``None``.
+
+::
+
+    >>> from ast import literal_eval
+
+    >>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
+    >>> literal_eval(request)
+    {'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}
+
+    >>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
+    >>> literal_eval(request)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>
+
+(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)
+
+os
+--
+
+Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and environment
+variables.  The :mod:`os` module provides two new functions,
+:func:`~os.fsencode` and :func:`~os.fsdecode`, for encoding and decoding
+filenames:
+
+>>> import os
+>>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
+>>> os.fsencode(filename)
+b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'
+
+Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the
+environment.  If so, the :attr:`os.supports_bytes_environ` constant will be
+true.
+
+For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available),
+use the new :func:`os.getenvb` function or use :data:`os.environb`
+which is a bytes version of :data:`os.environ`.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)
+
+shutil
+------
+
+The :func:`shutil.copytree` function has two new options:
+
+* *ignore_dangling_symlinks*: when ``symlinks=False`` so that the function
+  copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink itself. This option
+  will silence the error raised if the file doesn't exist.
+
+* *copy_function*: is a callable that will be used to copy files.
+  :func:`shutil.copy2` is used by default.
+
+(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)
+
+In addition, the :mod:`shutil` module now supports :ref:`archiving operations
+<archiving-operations>` for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles,
+and bzipped tarfiles.  And there are functions for registering additional
+archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or custom formats).
+
+The principal functions are :func:`~shutil.make_archive` and
+:func:`~shutil.unpack_archive`.  By default, both operate on the current
+directory (which can be set by :func:`os.chdir`) and on any sub-directories.
+The archive filename needs to be specified with a full pathname.  The archiving
+step is non-destructive (the original files are left unchanged).
+
+::
+
+    >>> import shutil, pprint
+
+    >>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
+    >>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
+    ...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
+    >>> f                                   # show the name of archive
+    '/var/backup/mydata.zip'
+    >>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
+    >>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data
+
+    >>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
+    [('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
+     ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
+     ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
+     ('zip', 'ZIP file')]
+
+    >>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
+    ...     name='xz',
+    ...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
+    ...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
+    ...     description='xz compression'
+    ... )
+
+(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)
+
+sqlite3
+-------
+
+The :mod:`sqlite3` module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0.  It has two new capabilities.
+
+* The :attr:`sqlite3.Connection.in_transit` attribute is true if there is an
+  active transaction for uncommitted changes.
+
+* The :meth:`sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension` and
+  :meth:`sqlite3.Connection.load_extension` methods allows you to load SQLite
+  extensions from ".so" files.  One well-known extension is the fulltext-search
+  extension distributed with SQLite.
+
+(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; :issue:`8845`.)
+
+html
+----
+
+A new :mod:`html` module was introduced with only a single function,
+:func:`~html.escape`, which is used for escaping reserved characters from HTML
+markup:
+
+>>> import html
+>>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
+'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'
+
+socket
+------
+
+The :mod:`socket` module has two new improvements.
+
+* Socket objects now have a :meth:`~socket.socket.detach()` method which puts
+  the socket into closed state without actually closing the underlying file
+  descriptor.  The latter can then be reused for other purposes.
+  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`8524`.)
+
+* :func:`socket.create_connection` now supports the context management protocol
+  to unconditionally consume :exc:`socket.error` exceptions and to close the
+  socket when done.
+  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; :issue:`9794`.)
+
+ssl
+---
+
+The :mod:`ssl` module added a number of features to satisfy common requirements
+for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:
+
+* A new class, :class:`~ssl.SSLContext`, serves as a container for persistent
+  SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates, private keys, and various
+  other options. It includes a :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket` for creating
+  an SSL socket from an SSL context.
+
+* A new function, :func:`ssl.match_hostname`, supports server identity
+  verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules of HTTPS
+  (from :rfc:`2818`) which are also suitable for other protocols.
+
+* The :func:`ssl.wrap_socket` constructor function now takes a *ciphers*
+  argument.  The *ciphers* string lists the allowed encryption algorithms using
+  the format described in the `OpenSSL documentation
+  <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT>`__.
+
+* When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the :mod:`ssl` module now
+  supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS protocol, allowing
+  multiple "virtual hosts" using different certificates on a single IP port.
+  This extension is only supported in client mode, and is activated by passing
+  the *server_hostname* argument to :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket`.
+
+* Various options have been added to the :mod:`ssl` module, such as
+  :data:`~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2` which disables the insecure and obsolete SSLv2
+  protocol.
+
+* The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest algorithms.  If
+  some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are reported as an "unknown
+  algorithm" error.
+
+* The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the module
+  attributes :data:`ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION` (a string),
+  :data:`ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO` (a 5-tuple), and
+  :data:`ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER` (an integer).
+
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`8850`, :issue:`1589`, :issue:`8322`,
+:issue:`5639`, :issue:`4870`, :issue:`8484`, and :issue:`8321`.)
+
+nntp
+----
+
+The :mod:`nntplib` module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and
+text semantics as well as more practical APIs.  These improvements break
+compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly
+dysfunctional in itself.
+
+Support for secure connections through both implicit (using
+:class:`nntplib.NNTP_SSL`) and explicit (using :meth:`nntplib.NNTP.starttls`)
+TLS has also been added.
+
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`9360` and Andrew Vant in :issue:`1926`.)
+
+certificates
+------------
+
+:class:`http.client.HTTPSConnection`, :class:`urllib.request.HTTPSHandler`
+and :func:`urllib.request.urlopen` now take optional arguments to allow for
+server certificate checking against a set of Certificate Authorities,
+as recommended in public uses of HTTPS.
+
+(Added by Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`9003`.)
+
+imaplib
+-------
+
+Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added through
+the new :mod:`imaplib.IMAP4.starttls` method.
+
+(Contributed by Lorenzo M. Catucci and Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`4471`.)
+
+http.client
+-----------
+
+There were a number of small API improvements in the :mod:`http.client` module.
+The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer supported and the *strict*
+parameter is deprecated in all classes.
+
+The :class:`~http.client.HTTPConnection` and
+:class:`~http.client.HTTPSConnection` classes now have a *source_address*
+parameter for a (host, port) tuple indicating where the HTTP connection is made
+from.
+
+Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to
+:class:`~http.client.HTTPSConnection`.
+
+The :meth:`~http.client.HTTPConnection.request` method on connection objects
+allowed an optional *body* argument so that a :term:`file object` could be used
+to supply the content of the request.  Conveniently, the *body* argument now
+also accepts an :term:`iterable` object so long as it includes an explicit
+``Content-Length`` header.  This extended interface is much more flexible than
+before.
+
+To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new
+:meth:`~http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel` method that sets the host and
+port for HTTP Connect tunneling.
+
+To match the behavior of :mod:`http.server`, the HTTP client library now also
+encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding.  It was already doing that
+for incoming headers, so now the behavior is consistent for both incoming and
+outgoing traffic. (See work by Armin Ronacher in :issue:`10980`.)
+
+unittest
+--------
+
+The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test discovery for
+packages, easier experimentation at the interactive prompt, new testcase
+methods, improved diagnostic messages for test failures, and better method
+names.
+
+* The command-line call ``python -m unittest`` can now accept file paths
+  instead of module names for running specific tests (:issue:`10620`).  The new
+  test discovery can find tests within packages, locating any test importable
+  from the top-level directory.  The top-level directory can be specified with
+  the `-t` option, a pattern for matching files with ``-p``, and a directory to
+  start discovery with ``-s``:
+
+  .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py
+
+  (Contributed by Michael Foord.)
+
+* Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the
+  :class:`unittest.case.TestCase` class can now be instantiated without
+  arguments:
+
+  >>> from unittest import TestCase
+  >>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)
+
+  (Contributed by Michael Foord.)
+
+* The :mod:`unittest` module has two new methods,
+  :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertWarns` and
+  :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex` to verify that a given warning type
+  is triggered by the code under test::
+
+      with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
+          legacy_function('XYZ')
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`9754`.)
+
+  Another new method, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual` is used to
+  compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are equal (whether
+  the same elements are present with the same number of occurrences regardless
+  of order)::
+
+     def test_anagram(self):
+         self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+* A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce meaningful
+  diagnostics when a test fails.  When possible, the failure is recorded along
+  with a diff of the output.  This is especially helpful for analyzing log files
+  of failed test runs. However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is
+  a new :attr:`~unittest.TestCase.maxDiff` attribute that sets maximum length of
+  diffs displayed.
+
+* In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number of clean-ups.
+
+  For example, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertRegex` is the new name for
+  :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertRegexpMatches` which was misnamed because the
+  test uses :func:`re.search`, not :func:`re.match`.  Other methods using
+  regular expressions are now named using short form "Regex" in preference to
+  "Regexp" -- this matches the names used in other unittest implementations,
+  matches Python's old name for the :mod:`re` module, and it has unambiguous
+  camel-casing.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)
+
+* To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being
+  deprecated in favor of the preferred names:
+
+   ===============================   ==============================
+   Old Name                          Preferred Name
+   ===============================   ==============================
+   :meth:`assert_`                   :meth:`.assertTrue`
+   :meth:`assertEquals`              :meth:`.assertEqual`
+   :meth:`assertNotEquals`           :meth:`.assertNotEqual`
+   :meth:`assertAlmostEquals`        :meth:`.assertAlmostEqual`
+   :meth:`assertNotAlmostEquals`     :meth:`.assertNotAlmostEqual`
+   ===============================   ==============================
+
+  Likewise, the ``TestCase.fail*`` methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are expected
+  to be removed in Python 3.3.  Also see the :ref:`deprecated-aliases` section in
+  the :mod:`unittest` documentation.
+
+  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti; :issue:`9424`.)
+
+* The :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertDictContainsSubset` method was deprecated
+  because it was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order.  This
+  created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like
+  ``TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1})`` would fail.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
+
+random
+------
+
+The integer methods in the :mod:`random` module now do a better job of producing
+uniform distributions.  Previously, they computed selections with
+``int(n*random())`` which had a slight bias whenever *n* was not a power of two.
+Now, multiple selections are made from a range up to the next power of two and a
+selection is kept only when it falls within the range ``0 <= x < n``.  The
+functions and methods affected are :func:`~random.randrange`,
+:func:`~random.randint`, :func:`~random.choice`, :func:`~random.shuffle` and
+:func:`~random.sample`.
+
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`9025`.)
+
+poplib
+------
+
+:class:`~poplib.POP3_SSL` class now accepts a *context* parameter, which is a
+:class:`ssl.SSLContext` object allowing bundling SSL configuration options,
+certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived)
+structure.
+
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; :issue:`8807`.)
+
+asyncore
+--------
+
+:class:`asyncore.dispatcher` now provides a
+:meth:`~asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted()` method
+returning a `(sock, addr)` pair which is called when a connection has actually
+been established with a new remote endpoint. This is supposed to be used as a
+replacement for old :meth:`~asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept()` and avoids
+the user  to call :meth:`~asyncore.dispatcher.accept()` directly.
+
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; :issue:`6706`.)
+
+tempfile
+--------
+
+The :mod:`tempfile` module has a new context manager,
+:class:`~tempfile.TemporaryDirectory` which provides easy deterministic
+cleanup of temporary directories::
+
+    with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
+        print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)
+
+(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Nick Coghlan; :issue:`5178`.)
+
+inspect
+-------
+
+* The :mod:`inspect` module has a new function
+  :func:`~inspect.getgeneratorstate` to easily identify the current state of a
+  generator-iterator::
+
+    >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
+    >>> def gen():
+    ...     yield 'demo'
+    >>> g = gen()
+    >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
+    'GEN_CREATED'
+    >>> next(g)
+    'demo'
+    >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
+    'GEN_SUSPENDED'
+    >>> next(g, None)
+    >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
+    'GEN_CLOSED'
+
+  (Contributed by Rodolpho Eckhardt and Nick Coghlan, :issue:`10220`.)
+
+* To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic attribute,
+  the :mod:`inspect` module has a new function, :func:`~inspect.getattr_static`.
+  Unlike :func:`hasattr`, this is a true read-only search, guaranteed not to
+  change state while it is searching::
+
+    >>> class A:
+    ...     @property
+    ...     def f(self):
+    ...         print('Running')
+    ...         return 10
+    ...
+    >>> a = A()
+    >>> getattr(a, 'f')
+    Running
+    10
+    >>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
+    <property object at 0x1022bd788>
+
+ (Contributed by Michael Foord.)
+
+pydoc
+-----
+
+The :mod:`pydoc` module now provides a much-improved Web server interface, as
+well as a new command-line option ``-b`` to automatically open a browser window
+to display that server:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ pydoc3.2 -b
+
+(Contributed by Ron Adam; :issue:`2001`.)
+
+dis
+---
+
+The :mod:`dis` module gained two new functions for inspecting code,
+:func:`~dis.code_info` and :func:`~dis.show_code`.  Both provide detailed code
+object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code
+object.  The former returns a string and the latter prints it::
+
+    >>> import dis, random
+    >>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
+    Name:              choice
+    Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py
+    Argument count:    2
+    Kw-only arguments: 0
+    Number of locals:  3
+    Stack size:        11
+    Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
+    Constants:
+       0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
+       1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
+    Names:
+       0: _randbelow
+       1: len
+       2: ValueError
+       3: IndexError
+    Variable names:
+       0: self
+       1: seq
+       2: i
+
+In addition, the :func:`~dis.dis` function now accepts string arguments
+so that the common idiom ``dis(compile(s, '', 'eval'))`` can be shortened
+to ``dis(s)``::
+
+    >>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
+      1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
+                  3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
+                  6 BINARY_MODULO
+                  7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
+                 10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
+                 13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
+                 16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
+                 19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
+                 22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
+                 23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
+                 26 BINARY_ADD
+                 27 RETURN_VALUE
+            >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
+                 31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
+                 34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
+                 35 RETURN_VALUE
+
+Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython is
+implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does
+under-the-hood.
+
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`9147`.)
+
+dbm
+---
+
+All database modules now support the :meth:`get` and :meth:`setdefault` methods.
+
+(Suggested by Ray Allen in :issue:`9523`.)
+
+ctypes
+------
+
+A new type, :class:`ctypes.c_ssize_t` represents the C :c:type:`ssize_t` datatype.
+
+site
+----
+
+The :mod:`site` module has three new functions useful for reporting on the
+details of a given Python installation.
+
+* :func:`~site.getsitepackages` lists all global site-packages directories.
+
+* :func:`~site.getuserbase` reports on the user's base directory where data can
+  be stored.
+
+* :func:`~site.getusersitepackages` reveals the user-specific site-packages
+  directory path.
+
+::
+
+    >>> import site
+    >>> site.getsitepackages()
+    ['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',
+     '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',
+     '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']
+    >>> site.getuserbase()
+    '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'
+    >>> site.getusersitepackages()
+    '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'
+
+Conveniently, some of site's functionality is accessible directly from the
+command-line:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m site --user-base
+    /Users/raymondhettinger/.local
+    $ python -m site --user-site
+    /Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages
+
+(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé in :issue:`6693`.)
+
+sysconfig
+---------
+
+The new :mod:`sysconfig` module makes it straightforward to discover
+installation paths and configuration variables that vary across platforms and
+installations.
+
+The module offers access simple access functions for platform and version
+information:
+
+* :func:`~sysconfig.get_platform` returning values like *linux-i586* or
+  *macosx-10.6-ppc*.
+* :func:`~sysconfig.get_python_version` returns a Python version string
+  such as "3.2".
+
+It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one of
+seven named schemes used by :mod:`distutils`.  Those include *posix_prefix*,
+*posix_home*, *posix_user*, *nt*, *nt_user*, *os2*, *os2_home*:
+
+* :func:`~sysconfig.get_paths` makes a dictionary containing installation paths
+  for the current installation scheme.
+* :func:`~sysconfig.get_config_vars` returns a dictionary of platform specific
+  variables.
+
+There is also a convenient command-line interface:
+
+.. code-block:: doscon
+
+  C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig
+  Platform: "win32"
+  Python version: "3.2"
+  Current installation scheme: "nt"
+
+  Paths:
+          data = "C:\Python32"
+          include = "C:\Python32\Include"
+          platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"
+          platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
+          platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
+          purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
+          scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"
+          stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
+
+  Variables:
+          BINDIR = "C:\Python32"
+          BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
+          EXE = ".exe"
+          INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"
+          LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
+          SO = ".pyd"
+          VERSION = "32"
+          abiflags = ""
+          base = "C:\Python32"
+          exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"
+          platbase = "C:\Python32"
+          prefix = "C:\Python32"
+          projectbase = "C:\Python32"
+          py_version = "3.2"
+          py_version_nodot = "32"
+          py_version_short = "3.2"
+          srcdir = "C:\Python32"
+          userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"
+
+(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)
+
+pdb
+---
+
+The :mod:`pdb` debugger module gained a number of usability improvements:
+
+* :file:`pdb.py` now has a ``-c`` option that executes commands as given in a
+  :file:`.pdbrc` script file.
+* A :file:`.pdbrc` script file can contain ``continue`` and ``next`` commands
+  that continue debugging.
+* The :class:`Pdb` class constructor now accepts a *nosigint* argument.
+* New commands: ``l(list)``, ``ll(long list)`` and ``source`` for
+  listing source code.
+* New commands: ``display`` and ``undisplay`` for showing or hiding
+  the value of an expression if it has changed.
+* New command: ``interact`` for starting an interactive interpreter containing
+  the global and local  names found in the current scope.
+* Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.
+
+(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)
+
+configparser
+------------
+
+The :mod:`configparser` module was modified to improve usability and
+predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax.  The old
+:class:`ConfigParser` class was removed in favor of :class:`SafeConfigParser`
+which has in turn been renamed to :class:`~configparser.ConfigParser`. Support
+for inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option
+duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.
+
+Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol::
+
+    >>> parser = ConfigParser()
+    >>> parser.read_string("""
+    ... [DEFAULT]
+    ... location = upper left
+    ... visible = yes
+    ... editable = no
+    ... color = blue
+    ...
+    ... [main]
+    ... title = Main Menu
+    ... color = green
+    ...
+    ... [options]
+    ... title = Options
+    ... """)
+    >>> parser['main']['color']
+    'green'
+    >>> parser['main']['editable']
+    'no'
+    >>> section = parser['options']
+    >>> section['title']
+    'Options'
+    >>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)'
+    >>> section['title']
+    'Options (editable: no)'
+
+The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser
+subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.
+
+The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized. Users
+can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment prefixes, change the
+name of the *DEFAULT* section or switch the interpolation syntax.
+
+There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional interpolation
+handler :class:`~configparser.ExtendedInterpolation`::
+
+  >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
+  >>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'},
+  ...                   'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}})
+  >>> parser.read_string("""
+  ... [buildout]
+  ... parts =
+  ...   zope9
+  ...   instance
+  ... find-links =
+  ...   ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist
+  ...
+  ... [zope9]
+  ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install
+  ... location = /opt/zope
+  ...
+  ... [instance]
+  ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance
+  ... zope9-location = ${zope9:location}
+  ... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf
+  ... """)
+  >>> parser['buildout']['find-links']
+  '\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'
+  >>> parser['instance']['zope-conf']
+  '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
+  >>> instance = parser['instance']
+  >>> instance['zope-conf']
+  '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
+  >>> instance['zope9-location']
+  '/opt/zope'
+
+A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for specifying
+encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for get-functions, or
+reading directly from dictionaries and strings.
+
+(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)
+
+.. XXX consider showing a difflib example
+
+urllib.parse
+------------
+
+A number of usability improvements were made for the :mod:`urllib.parse` module.
+
+The :func:`~urllib.parse.urlparse` function now supports `IPv6
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6>`_ addresses as described in :rfc:`2732`:
+
+    >>> import urllib.parse
+    >>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    ParseResult(scheme='http',
+                netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',
+                path='/foo/',
+                params='',
+                query='',
+                fragment='')
+
+The :func:`~urllib.parse.urldefrag` function now returns a :term:`named tuple`::
+
+    >>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target')
+    >>> r
+    DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')
+    >>> r[0]
+    'http://python.org/about/'
+    >>> r.fragment
+    'target'
+
+And, the :func:`~urllib.parse.urlencode` function is now much more flexible,
+accepting either a string or bytes type for the *query* argument.  If it is a
+string, then the *safe*, *encoding*, and *error* parameters are sent to
+:func:`~urllib.parse.quote_plus` for encoding::
+
+    >>> urllib.parse.urlencode([
+    ...      ('type', 'telenovela'),
+    ...      ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')],
+    ...      encoding='latin-1')
+    'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'
+
+As detailed in :ref:`parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes`, all the :mod:`urllib.parse`
+functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as input, so long as they are
+not mixed with regular strings.  If ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as
+parameters, the return types will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:
+
+    >>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/') # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',
+                     path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')
+
+(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in :issue:`2987`,
+:issue:`5468`, and :issue:`9873`.)
+
+mailbox
+-------
+
+Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the :mod:`mailbox` module has
+been fixed for Python 3.2.  The challenge was that mailbox had been originally
+designed with a text interface, but email messages are best represented with
+:class:`bytes` because various parts of a message may have different encodings.
+
+The solution harnessed the :mod:`email` package's binary support for parsing
+arbitrary email messages.  In addition, the solution required a number of API
+changes.
+
+As expected, the :meth:`~mailbox.Mailbox.add` method for
+:class:`mailbox.Mailbox` objects now accepts binary input.
+
+:class:`~io.StringIO` and text file input are deprecated.  Also, string input
+will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used.  Previously it would fail when
+the email was processed in a later step.
+
+There is also support for binary output.  The :meth:`~mailbox.Mailbox.get_file`
+method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to incorrectly set
+the file to text-mode).  There is also a new :meth:`~mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes`
+method that returns a :class:`bytes` representation of a message corresponding
+to a given *key*.
+
+It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API's
+:meth:`~mailbox.Mailbox.get_string` method, but that approach
+is not very useful.  Instead, it is best to extract messages from
+a :class:`~mailbox.Message` object or to load them from binary input.
+
+(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode Nurpmeso and an
+initial patch by Victor Stinner in :issue:`9124`.)
+
+turtledemo
+----------
+
+The demonstration code for the :mod:`turtle` module was moved from the *Demo*
+directory to main library.  It includes over a dozen sample scripts with
+lively displays.  Being on :attr:`sys.path`, it can now be run directly
+from the command-line:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m turtledemo
+
+(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`10199`.)
+
+Multi-threading
+===============
+
+* The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running Python threads
+  (generally known as the :term:`GIL` or :term:`Global Interpreter Lock`) has
+  been rewritten.  Among the objectives were more predictable switching
+  intervals and reduced overhead due to lock contention and the number of
+  ensuing system calls.  The notion of a "check interval" to allow thread
+  switches has been abandoned and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in
+  seconds.  This parameter is tunable through :func:`sys.setswitchinterval()`.
+  It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.
+
+  Additional details about the implementation can be read from a `python-dev
+  mailing-list message
+  <https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html>`_
+  (however, "priority requests" as exposed in this message have not been kept
+  for inclusion).
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)
+
+* Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional *timeout* argument to their
+  :meth:`~threading.Lock.acquire` method.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou;
+  :issue:`7316`.)
+
+* Similarly, :meth:`threading.Semaphore.acquire` also gained a *timeout*
+  argument.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff; :issue:`850728`.)
+
+* Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by signals on
+  platforms using Pthreads.  This means that Python programs that deadlock while
+  acquiring locks can be successfully killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the
+  process (by pressing :kbd:`Ctrl+C` in most shells).
+  (Contributed by Reid Kleckner; :issue:`8844`.)
+
+
+Optimizations
+=============
+
+A number of small performance enhancements have been added:
+
+* Python's peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such ``x in {1, 2, 3}`` as
+  being a test for membership in a set of constants.  The optimizer recasts the
+  :class:`set` as a :class:`frozenset` and stores the pre-built constant.
+
+  Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start writing
+  membership tests using set-notation.  This style is both semantically clear
+  and operationally fast::
+
+      extension = name.rpartition('.')[2]
+      if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}:
+          handle(name)
+
+  (Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm; :issue:`6690`).
+
+* Serializing and unserializing data using the :mod:`pickle` module is now
+  several times faster.
+
+  (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou
+  and the Unladen Swallow team in :issue:`9410` and :issue:`3873`.)
+
+* The `Timsort algorithm <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort>`_ used in
+  :meth:`list.sort` and :func:`sorted` now runs faster and uses less memory
+  when called with a :term:`key function`.  Previously, every element of
+  a list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key value
+  associated with each element.  Now, two arrays of keys and values are
+  sorted in parallel.  This saves the memory consumed by the sort wrappers,
+  and it saves time lost to delegating comparisons.
+
+  (Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in :issue:`9915`.)
+
+* JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is reduced
+  whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys.  Also, JSON encoding
+  now uses the C speedups when the ``sort_keys`` argument is true.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`7451` and by Raymond Hettinger and
+  Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`10314`.)
+
+* Recursive locks (created with the :func:`threading.RLock` API) now benefit
+  from a C implementation which makes them as fast as regular locks, and between
+  10x and 15x faster than their previous pure Python implementation.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`3001`.)
+
+* The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the :meth:`split`,
+  :meth:`rsplit`, :meth:`splitlines` and :meth:`replace` methods on
+  :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray` and :class:`str` objects. Likewise, the
+  algorithm is also used by :meth:`rfind`, :meth:`rindex`, :meth:`rsplit` and
+  :meth:`rpartition`.
+
+  (Patch by Florent Xicluna in :issue:`7622` and :issue:`7462`.)
+
+
+* Integer to string conversions now work two "digits" at a time, reducing the
+  number of division and modulo operations.
+
+  (:issue:`6713` by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor Stinner.)
+
+There were several other minor optimizations. Set differencing now runs faster
+when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress Bennetts in
+:issue:`8685`).  The :meth:`array.repeat` method has a faster implementation
+(:issue:`1569291` by Alexander Belopolsky). The :class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler`
+has more efficient buffering (:issue:`3709` by Andrew Schaaf).  The
+:func:`operator.attrgetter` function has been sped-up (:issue:`10160` by
+Christos Georgiou).  And :class:`ConfigParser` loads multi-line arguments a bit
+faster (:issue:`7113` by Łukasz Langa).
+
+
+Unicode
+=======
+
+Python has been updated to `Unicode 6.0.0
+<http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/>`_.  The update to the standard adds
+over 2,000 new characters including `emoji <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji>`_
+symbols which are important for mobile phones.
+
+In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties for two
+Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric character
+(U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers while disqualifying
+the latter.  For more information, see `Unicode Character Database Changes
+<http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes>`_.
+
+
+Codecs
+======
+
+Support was added for *cp720* Arabic DOS encoding (:issue:`1616979`).
+
+MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument. In the default
+strict mode, it raises an :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError` when it encounters an
+undecodable byte sequence and an :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError` for an unencodable
+character.
+
+The MBCS codec supports ``'strict'`` and ``'ignore'`` error handlers for
+decoding, and ``'strict'`` and ``'replace'`` for encoding.
+
+To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the ``'ignore'`` handler for decoding
+and the ``'replace'`` handler for encoding.
+
+On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with ``'utf-8'`` rather than
+the locale encoding.
+
+By default, :mod:`tarfile` uses ``'utf-8'`` encoding on Windows (instead of
+``'mbcs'``) and the ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler on all operating
+systems.
+
+
+Documentation
+=============
+
+The documentation continues to be improved.
+
+* A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy sections such as
+  :ref:`built-in-funcs`.  In the case of :mod:`itertools`, the links are
+  accompanied by tables of cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and
+  memory jog without having to read all of the docs.
+
+* In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct to the
+  documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links to the latest
+  version of the source code.  For example, the :mod:`functools` module
+  documentation has a quick link at the top labeled:
+
+    **Source code** :source:`Lib/functools.py`.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see
+  `rationale <https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/>`_.)
+
+* The docs now contain more examples and recipes.  In particular, :mod:`re`
+  module has an extensive section, :ref:`re-examples`.  Likewise, the
+  :mod:`itertools` module continues to be updated with new
+  :ref:`itertools-recipes`.
+
+* The :mod:`datetime` module now has an auxiliary implementation in pure Python.
+  No functionality was changed.  This just provides an easier-to-read alternate
+  implementation.
+
+  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`9528`.)
+
+* The unmaintained :file:`Demo` directory has been removed.  Some demos were
+  integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the :file:`Tools/demo`
+  directory, and others were removed altogether.
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl in :issue:`7962`.)
+
+
+IDLE
+====
+
+* The format menu now has an option to clean source files by stripping
+  trailing whitespace.
+
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`5150`.)
+
+* IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa AquaTk.
+
+  (Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren; :issue:`6075`.)
+
+Code Repository
+===============
+
+In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at http://svn.python.org
+there is now a `Mercurial <https://www.mercurial-scm.org/>`_ repository at
+https://hg.python.org/\ .
+
+After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the primary
+repository.  This distributed version control system should make it easier for
+members of the community to create and share external changesets.  See
+:pep:`385` for details.
+
+To learn to use the new version control system, see the `Quick Start
+<https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart>`_ or the `Guide to
+Mercurial Workflows <https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide>`_.
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
+
+* The *idle*, *pydoc* and *2to3* scripts are now installed with a
+  version-specific suffix on ``make altinstall`` (:issue:`10679`).
+
+* The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and return
+  characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow unicode builds
+  (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and others).  A visible difference
+  in Python is that :func:`unicodedata.numeric` now returns the correct value
+  for large code points, and :func:`repr` may consider more characters as
+  printable.
+
+  (Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D'Arc; :issue:`5127`.)
+
+* Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers (which are
+  detected by the configure script).  They can still be disabled selectively by
+  specifying ``--without-computed-gotos``.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`9203`.)
+
+* The option ``--with-wctype-functions`` was removed.  The built-in unicode
+  database is now used for all functions.
+
+  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot D'Arc; :issue:`9210`.)
+
+* Hash values are now values of a new type, :c:type:`Py_hash_t`, which is
+  defined to be the same size as a pointer.  Previously they were of type long,
+  which on some 64-bit operating systems is still only 32 bits long.  As a
+  result of this fix, :class:`set` and :class:`dict` can now hold more than
+  ``2**32`` entries on builds with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow
+  to that size but their performance degraded catastrophically).
+
+  (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin Peterson;
+  :issue:`9778`.)
+
+* A new macro :c:macro:`Py_VA_COPY` copies the state of the variable argument
+  list.  It is equivalent to C99 *va_copy* but available on all Python platforms
+  (:issue:`2443`).
+
+* A new C API function :c:func:`PySys_SetArgvEx` allows an embedded interpreter
+  to set :attr:`sys.argv` without also modifying :attr:`sys.path`
+  (:issue:`5753`).
+
+* :c:macro:`PyEval_CallObject` is now only available in macro form.  The
+  function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility reasons, is
+  now removed -- the macro was introduced in 1997 (:issue:`8276`).
+
+* There is a new function :c:func:`PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow` which
+  is analogous to :c:func:`PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow`.  They both serve to
+  convert Python :class:`int` into a native fixed-width type while providing
+  detection of cases where the conversion won't fit (:issue:`7767`).
+
+* The :c:func:`PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString` function now returns *not
+  equal* if the Python string is *NUL* terminated.
+
+* There is a new function :c:func:`PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc` that is
+  like :c:func:`PyErr_NewException` but allows a docstring to be specified.
+  This lets C exceptions have the same self-documenting capabilities as
+  their pure Python counterparts (:issue:`7033`).
+
+* When compiled with the ``--with-valgrind`` option, the pymalloc
+  allocator will be automatically disabled when running under Valgrind.  This
+  gives improved memory leak detection when running under Valgrind, while taking
+  advantage of pymalloc at other times (:issue:`2422`).
+
+* Removed the ``O?`` format from the *PyArg_Parse* functions.  The format is no
+  longer used and it had never been documented (:issue:`8837`).
+
+There were a number of other small changes to the C-API.  See the
+:source:`Misc/NEWS` file for a complete list.
+
+Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see
+:source:`Mac/BuildScript/README.txt` for details.  For users running a 32/64-bit
+build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac OS X 10.6.
+Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative such as
+`ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9 <https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads>`_\.
+See https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/ for additional details.
+
+Porting to Python 3.2
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may
+require changes to your code:
+
+* The :mod:`configparser` module has a number of clean-ups.  The major change is
+  to replace the old :class:`ConfigParser` class with long-standing preferred
+  alternative :class:`SafeConfigParser`.  In addition there are a number of
+  smaller incompatibilities:
+
+  * The interpolation syntax is now validated on
+    :meth:`~configparser.ConfigParser.get` and
+    :meth:`~configparser.ConfigParser.set` operations. In the default
+    interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are valid: ``%(name)s``
+    and ``%%``, the latter being an escaped percent sign.
+
+  * The :meth:`~configparser.ConfigParser.set` and
+    :meth:`~configparser.ConfigParser.add_section` methods now verify that
+    values are actual strings.  Formerly, unsupported types could be introduced
+    unintentionally.
+
+  * Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise either
+    :exc:`~configparser.DuplicateSectionError` or
+    :exc:`~configparser.DuplicateOptionError`.  Formerly, duplicates would
+    silently overwrite a previous entry.
+
+  * Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the **;** character
+    can be safely used in values.
+
+  * Comments now can be indented.  Consequently, for **;** or **#** to appear at
+    the start of a line in multiline values, it has to be interpolated.  This
+    keeps comment prefix characters in values from being mistaken as comments.
+
+  * ``""`` is now a valid value and is no longer automatically converted to an
+    empty string. For empty strings, use ``"option ="`` in a line.
+
+* The :mod:`nntplib` module was reworked extensively, meaning that its APIs
+  are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.
+
+* :class:`bytearray` objects can no longer be used as filenames; instead,
+  they should be converted to :class:`bytes`.
+
+* The :meth:`array.tostring` and :meth:`array.fromstring` have been renamed to
+  :meth:`array.tobytes` and :meth:`array.frombytes` for clarity.  The old names
+  have been deprecated. (See :issue:`8990`.)
+
+* ``PyArg_Parse*()`` functions:
+
+  * "t#" format has been removed: use "s#" or "s*" instead
+  * "w" and "w#" formats has been removed: use "w*" instead
+
+* The :c:type:`PyCObject` type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed.  To wrap
+  opaque C pointers in Python objects, the :c:type:`PyCapsule` API should be used
+  instead; the new type has a well-defined interface for passing typing safety
+  information and a less complicated signature for calling a destructor.
+
+* The :func:`sys.setfilesystemencoding` function was removed because
+  it had a flawed design.
+
+* The :func:`random.seed` function and method now salt string seeds with an
+  sha512 hash function.  To access the previous version of *seed* in order to
+  reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the *version* argument to *1*,
+  ``random.seed(s, version=1)``.
+
+* The previously deprecated :func:`string.maketrans` function has been removed
+  in favor of the static methods :meth:`bytes.maketrans` and
+  :meth:`bytearray.maketrans`.  This change solves the confusion around which
+  types were supported by the :mod:`string` module.  Now, :class:`str`,
+  :class:`bytes`, and :class:`bytearray` each have their own **maketrans** and
+  **translate** methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate
+  type.
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; :issue:`5675`.)
+
+* The previously deprecated :func:`contextlib.nested` function has been removed
+  in favor of a plain :keyword:`with` statement which can accept multiple
+  context managers.  The latter technique is faster (because it is built-in),
+  and it does a better job finalizing multiple context managers when one of them
+  raises an exception::
+
+    with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
+        for line in infile:
+            if '<critical>' in line:
+                outfile.write(line)
+
+  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström;
+  `appspot issue 53094 <https://codereview.appspot.com/53094>`_.)
+
+* :func:`struct.pack` now only allows bytes for the ``s`` string pack code.
+  Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly encode them to bytes
+  using UTF-8.  This was problematic because it made assumptions about the
+  correct encoding and because a variable-length encoding can fail when writing
+  to fixed length segment of a structure.
+
+  Code such as ``struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y)`` should be rewritten
+  with to use bytes instead of text, ``struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y)``.
+
+  (Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner; :issue:`10783`.)
+
+* The :class:`xml.etree.ElementTree` class now raises an
+  :exc:`xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError` when a parse fails. Previously it
+  raised an :exc:`xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError`.
+
+* The new, longer :func:`str` value on floats may break doctests which rely on
+  the old output format.
+
+* In :class:`subprocess.Popen`, the default value for *close_fds* is now
+  ``True`` under Unix; under Windows, it is ``True`` if the three standard
+  streams are set to ``None``, ``False`` otherwise.  Previously, *close_fds*
+  was always ``False`` by default, which produced difficult to solve bugs
+  or race conditions when open file descriptors would leak into the child
+  process.
+
+* Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from :mod:`urllib.request`
+  and :mod:`http.client`.  Such support is still present on the server side
+  (in :mod:`http.server`).
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`10711`.)
+
+* SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise :exc:`socket.timeout` when a timeout
+  occurs, rather than a generic :exc:`~ssl.SSLError`.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`10272`.)
+
+* The misleading functions :c:func:`PyEval_AcquireLock()` and
+  :c:func:`PyEval_ReleaseLock()` have been officially deprecated.  The
+  thread-state aware APIs (such as :c:func:`PyEval_SaveThread()`
+  and :c:func:`PyEval_RestoreThread()`) should be used instead.
+
+* Due to security risks, :func:`asyncore.handle_accept` has been deprecated, and
+  a new function, :func:`asyncore.handle_accepted`, was added to replace it.
+
+  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in :issue:`6706`.)
+
+* Due to the new :term:`GIL` implementation, :c:func:`PyEval_InitThreads()`
+  cannot be called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize()` anymore.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.3.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.3.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8862b37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.3.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2517 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.3
+****************************
+
+.. Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
+
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer in :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the Mercurial log
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2.
+Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012.  For full details,
+see the `changelog <https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html>`_.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`398` - Python 3.3 Release Schedule
+
+
+Summary -- Release highlights
+=============================
+
+.. This section singles out the most important changes in Python 3.3.
+   Brevity is key.
+
+New syntax features:
+
+* New ``yield from`` expression for :ref:`generator delegation <pep-380>`.
+* The ``u'unicode'`` syntax is accepted again for :class:`str` objects.
+
+New library modules:
+
+* :mod:`faulthandler` (helps debugging low-level crashes)
+* :mod:`ipaddress` (high-level objects representing IP addresses and masks)
+* :mod:`lzma` (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)
+* :mod:`unittest.mock` (replace parts of your system under test with mock objects)
+* :mod:`venv` (Python :ref:`virtual environments <pep-405>`, as in the
+  popular ``virtualenv`` package)
+
+New built-in features:
+
+* Reworked :ref:`I/O exception hierarchy <pep-3151>`.
+
+Implementation improvements:
+
+* Rewritten :ref:`import machinery <importlib>` based on :mod:`importlib`.
+* More compact :ref:`unicode strings <pep-393>`.
+* More compact :ref:`attribute dictionaries <pep-412>`.
+
+Significantly Improved Library Modules:
+
+* C Accelerator for the :ref:`decimal <new-decimal>` module.
+* Better unicode handling in the :ref:`email <new-email>` module
+  (:term:`provisional <provisional package>`).
+
+Security improvements:
+
+* Hash randomization is switched on by default.
+
+Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.
+
+
+.. _pep-405:
+
+PEP 405: Virtual Environments
+=============================
+
+Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
+system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance.  Virtual environments
+have their own set of private site packages (i.e. locally-installed
+libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
+packages.  Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
+``virtualenv`` third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
+with the interpreter core.
+
+This PEP adds the :mod:`venv` module for programmatic access, and the
+``pyvenv`` script for command-line access and
+administration.  The Python interpreter checks for a ``pyvenv.cfg``,
+file whose existence signals the base of a virtual environment's directory
+tree.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`405` - Python Virtual Environments
+       PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay Sajip
+
+
+PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
+====================================
+
+Native support for package directories that don't require ``__init__.py``
+marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired by
+various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
+:pep:`420`)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`420` - Implicit Namespace Packages
+      PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith
+      and Barry Warsaw
+
+
+.. _pep-3118-update:
+
+PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
+=========================================================================
+
+The implementation of :pep:`3118` has been significantly improved.
+
+The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership and
+lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer struct
+that led to multiple crash reports. Additionally, several functions that
+crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous or multi-dimensional
+input have been fixed.
+
+The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc()
+that checks the consumer's request type. Many new features have been
+added, most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays
+and arrays with suboffsets.
+
+The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out responsibilities
+for both exporters and consumers. Buffer request flags are grouped into
+basic and compound flags. The memory layout of non-contiguous and
+multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.
+
+Features
+--------
+
+* All native single character format specifiers in struct module syntax
+  (optionally prefixed with '@') are now supported.
+
+* With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format and
+  shape of C-contiguous arrays.
+
+* Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array type.
+
+* Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.
+
+* One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats B,
+  b or c are now hashable.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13411`.)
+
+* Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported. For example, it
+  is now possible to reverse a memoryview in O(1) by using a negative step.
+
+API changes
+-----------
+
+* The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.
+
+* The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now
+  an empty tuple instead of ``None``.
+
+* Accessing a memoryview element with format 'B' (unsigned bytes)
+  now returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax).
+  For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to 'c' first.
+
+* memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the operands
+  and compare all array elements by value. All format strings in struct
+  module syntax are supported. Views with unrecognised format strings
+  are still permitted, but will always compare as unequal, regardless
+  of view contents.
+
+* For further changes see `Build and C API Changes`_ and `Porting C code`_.
+
+(Contributed by Stefan Krah in :issue:`10181`.)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3118` - Revising the Buffer Protocol
+
+
+.. _pep-393:
+
+PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
+=======================================
+
+The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal
+representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode ordinal
+(1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string.  This allows a space-efficient
+representation in common cases, but gives access to full UCS-4 on all
+systems.  For compatibility with existing APIs, several representations may
+exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility should be phased out.
+
+On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.
+
+On the C API side, PEP 393 is fully backward compatible.  The legacy API
+should remain available at least five years.  Applications using the legacy
+API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse - may use
+a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two versions of each
+string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient storage).
+
+Functionality
+-------------
+
+Changes introduced by :pep:`393` are the following:
+
+* Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points, including
+  non-BMP ones (i.e. from ``U+0000`` to ``U+10FFFF``).  The distinction between
+  narrow and wide builds no longer exists and Python now behaves like a wide
+  build, even under Windows.
+
+* With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow builds have
+  also been fixed, for example:
+
+  * :func:`len` now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
+    so ``len('\U0010FFFF') == 1``;
+
+  * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals,
+    so ``'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'``;
+
+  * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected value,
+    so ``'\U0010FFFF'[0]`` now returns ``'\U0010FFFF'`` and not ``'\uDBFF'``;
+
+  * all other functions in the standard library now correctly handle
+    non-BMP code points.
+
+* The value of :data:`sys.maxunicode` is now always ``1114111`` (``0x10FFFF``
+  in hexadecimal).  The :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetMax` function still returns
+  either ``0xFFFF`` or ``0x10FFFF`` for backward compatibility, and it should
+  not be used with the new Unicode API (see :issue:`13054`).
+
+* The :file:`./configure` flag ``--with-wide-unicode`` has been removed.
+
+Performance and resource usage
+------------------------------
+
+The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in the string:
+
+* pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (``U+0000-U+00FF``) use 1 byte per code point;
+
+* BMP strings (``U+0000-U+FFFF``) use 2 bytes per code point;
+
+* non-BMP strings (``U+10000-U+10FFFF``) use 4 bytes per code point.
+
+The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string
+storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former
+wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII
+even in international contexts (because many strings store non-human
+language data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data,
+etc.).  We also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU
+cache efficiency on non-trivial applications. The memory usage of
+Python 3.3 is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little
+bit better than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for
+details).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`393` - Flexible String Representation
+      PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker
+      and Martin von Löwis.
+
+
+.. _pep-397:
+
+PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
+====================================
+
+The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a ``py`` launcher application
+that can be used to launch Python applications in a version independent
+fashion.
+
+This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking ``*.py`` files.
+If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
+will be used to run the file. If multiple versions are installed, the most
+recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by including
+a Unix-style "shebang line" in the Python script.
+
+The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the ``py``
+application. Running ``py`` follows the same version selection rules as
+implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be selected
+by passing appropriate arguments (such as ``-3`` to request Python 3 when
+Python 2 is also installed, or ``-2.6`` to specifically request an earlier
+Python version when a more recent version is installed).
+
+In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an
+option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH.  (Contributed
+by Brian Curtin in :issue:`3561`.)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`397` - Python Launcher for Windows
+      PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v. Löwis; implementation by
+      Vinay Sajip.
+
+   Launcher documentation: :ref:`launcher`
+
+   Installer PATH modification: :ref:`windows-path-mod`
+
+
+.. _pep-3151:
+
+PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
+=====================================================
+
+The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now both
+simplified and finer-grained.
+
+You don't have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
+type between :exc:`OSError`, :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`EnvironmentError`,
+:exc:`WindowsError`, :exc:`mmap.error`, :exc:`socket.error` or
+:exc:`select.error`.  All these exception types are now only one:
+:exc:`OSError`.  The other names are kept as aliases for compatibility
+reasons.
+
+Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition.  Instead of
+inspecting the ``errno`` attribute (or ``args[0]``) for a particular
+constant from the :mod:`errno` module, you can catch the adequate
+:exc:`OSError` subclass.  The available subclasses are the following:
+
+* :exc:`BlockingIOError`
+* :exc:`ChildProcessError`
+* :exc:`ConnectionError`
+* :exc:`FileExistsError`
+* :exc:`FileNotFoundError`
+* :exc:`InterruptedError`
+* :exc:`IsADirectoryError`
+* :exc:`NotADirectoryError`
+* :exc:`PermissionError`
+* :exc:`ProcessLookupError`
+* :exc:`TimeoutError`
+
+And the :exc:`ConnectionError` itself has finer-grained subclasses:
+
+* :exc:`BrokenPipeError`
+* :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError`
+* :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError`
+* :exc:`ConnectionResetError`
+
+Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the :mod:`errno` can now be
+avoided.  For example, the following code written for Python 3.2::
+
+    from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM
+
+    try:
+        with open("document.txt") as f:
+            content = f.read()
+    except IOError as err:
+        if err.errno == ENOENT:
+            print("document.txt file is missing")
+        elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
+            print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
+        else:
+            raise
+
+can now be written without the :mod:`errno` import and without manual
+inspection of exception attributes::
+
+    try:
+        with open("document.txt") as f:
+            content = f.read()
+    except FileNotFoundError:
+        print("document.txt file is missing")
+    except PermissionError:
+        print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3151` - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy
+      PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou
+
+
+.. index::
+   single: yield; yield from (in What's New)
+
+.. _pep-380:
+
+PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
+================================================
+
+PEP 380 adds the ``yield from`` expression, allowing a :term:`generator` to
+delegate
+part of its operations to another generator. This allows a section of code
+containing :keyword:`yield` to be factored out and placed in another generator.
+Additionally, the subgenerator is allowed to return with a value, and the
+value is made available to the delegating generator.
+
+While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the ``yield
+from`` expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary subiterators.
+
+For simple iterators, ``yield from iterable`` is essentially just a shortened
+form of ``for item in iterable: yield item``::
+
+    >>> def g(x):
+    ...     yield from range(x, 0, -1)
+    ...     yield from range(x)
+    ...
+    >>> list(g(5))
+    [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+However, unlike an ordinary loop, ``yield from`` allows subgenerators to
+receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
+return a final value to the outer generator::
+
+    >>> def accumulate():
+    ...     tally = 0
+    ...     while 1:
+    ...         next = yield
+    ...         if next is None:
+    ...             return tally
+    ...         tally += next
+    ...
+    >>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
+    ...     while 1:
+    ...         tally = yield from accumulate()
+    ...         tallies.append(tally)
+    ...
+    >>> tallies = []
+    >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
+    >>> next(acc)  # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
+    >>> for i in range(4):
+    ...     acc.send(i)
+    ...
+    >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the first tally
+    >>> for i in range(5):
+    ...     acc.send(i)
+    ...
+    >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the second tally
+    >>> tallies
+    [6, 10]
+
+The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that are
+designed to be used with the ``send`` and ``throw`` methods to be split into
+multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be split into
+multiple subfunctions.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`380` - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
+      PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated into
+      3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan; documentation by
+      Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan
+
+
+PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
+======================================
+
+PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained
+exception context to be disabled. This allows cleaner error messages in
+applications that convert between exception types::
+
+    >>> class D:
+    ...     def __init__(self, extra):
+    ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
+    ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
+    ...         try:
+    ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
+    ...         except KeyError:
+    ...             raise AttributeError(attr) from None
+    ...
+    >>> D({}).x
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+      File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
+    AttributeError: x
+
+Without the ``from None`` suffix to suppress the cause, the original
+exception would be displayed by default::
+
+    >>> class C:
+    ...     def __init__(self, extra):
+    ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
+    ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
+    ...         try:
+    ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
+    ...         except KeyError:
+    ...             raise AttributeError(attr)
+    ...
+    >>> C({}).x
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
+    KeyError: 'x'
+
+    During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
+
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+      File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
+    AttributeError: x
+
+No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context remains
+available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has incorrectly
+suppressed valuable underlying details)::
+
+    >>> try:
+    ...     D({}).x
+    ... except AttributeError as exc:
+    ...     print(repr(exc.__context__))
+    ...
+    KeyError('x',)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`409` - Suppressing exception context
+      PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick
+      Coghlan.
+
+
+PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
+======================================
+
+To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python applications
+that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once again supports the
+"``u``" prefix for string literals. This prefix has no semantic significance
+in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the number of purely mechanical
+changes in migrating to Python 3, making it easier for developers to focus on
+the more significant semantic changes (such as the stricter default
+separation of binary and text data).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`414` - Explicit Unicode literals
+      PEP written by Armin Ronacher.
+
+
+PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
+==================================================
+
+Functions and class objects have a new ``__qualname__`` attribute representing
+the "path" from the module top-level to their definition.  For global functions
+and classes, this is the same as ``__name__``.  For other functions and classes,
+it provides better information about where they were actually defined, and
+how they might be accessible from the global scope.
+
+Example with (non-bound) methods::
+
+   >>> class C:
+   ...     def meth(self):
+   ...         pass
+   >>> C.meth.__name__
+   'meth'
+   >>> C.meth.__qualname__
+   'C.meth'
+
+Example with nested classes::
+
+   >>> class C:
+   ...     class D:
+   ...         def meth(self):
+   ...             pass
+   ...
+   >>> C.D.__name__
+   'D'
+   >>> C.D.__qualname__
+   'C.D'
+   >>> C.D.meth.__name__
+   'meth'
+   >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
+   'C.D.meth'
+
+Example with nested functions::
+
+   >>> def outer():
+   ...     def inner():
+   ...         pass
+   ...     return inner
+   ...
+   >>> outer().__name__
+   'inner'
+   >>> outer().__qualname__
+   'outer.<locals>.inner'
+
+The string representation of those objects is also changed to include the
+new, more precise information::
+
+   >>> str(C.D)
+   "<class '__main__.C.D'>"
+   >>> str(C.D.meth)
+   '<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3155` - Qualified name for classes and functions
+      PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.
+
+
+.. _pep-412:
+
+PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
+===============================
+
+Dictionaries used for the storage of objects' attributes are now able to
+share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the part
+which stores the keys and their respective hashes).  This reduces the memory
+consumption of programs creating many instances of non-builtin types.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`412` - Key-Sharing Dictionary
+      PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon.
+
+
+PEP 362: Function Signature Object
+==================================
+
+A new function :func:`inspect.signature` makes introspection of python
+callables easy and straightforward.  A broad range of callables is supported:
+python functions, decorated or not, classes, and :func:`functools.partial`
+objects.  New classes :class:`inspect.Signature`, :class:`inspect.Parameter`
+and :class:`inspect.BoundArguments` hold information about the call signatures,
+such as, annotations, default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments,
+which considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
+or amends calling signatures or arguments.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`362`: -  Function Signature Object
+      PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon Seo;
+      implemented by Yury Selivanov.
+
+
+PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
+==================================
+
+A new attribute on the :mod:`sys` module exposes details specific to the
+implementation of the currently running interpreter.  The initial set of
+attributes on :attr:`sys.implementation` are ``name``, ``version``,
+``hexversion``, and ``cache_tag``.
+
+The intention of ``sys.implementation`` is to consolidate into one namespace
+the implementation-specific data used by the standard library.  This allows
+different Python implementations to share a single standard library code base
+much more easily.  In its initial state, ``sys.implementation`` holds only a
+small portion of the implementation-specific data.  Over time that ratio will
+shift in order to make the standard library more portable.
+
+One example of improved standard library portability is ``cache_tag``.  As of
+Python 3.3, ``sys.implementation.cache_tag`` is used by :mod:`importlib` to
+support :pep:`3147` compliance.  Any Python implementation that uses
+``importlib`` for its built-in import system may use ``cache_tag`` to control
+the caching behavior for modules.
+
+SimpleNamespace
+---------------
+
+The implementation of ``sys.implementation`` also introduces a new type to
+Python: :class:`types.SimpleNamespace`.  In contrast to a mapping-based
+namespace, like :class:`dict`, ``SimpleNamespace`` is attribute-based, like
+:class:`object`.  However, unlike ``object``, ``SimpleNamespace`` instances
+are writable.  This means that you can add, remove, and modify the namespace
+through normal attribute access.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`421` - Adding sys.implementation
+      PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.
+
+
+.. _importlib:
+
+Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
+===============================================
+:issue:`2377` - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__
+:issue:`13959` - Re-implement parts of :mod:`imp` in pure Python
+:issue:`14605` - Make import machinery explicit
+:issue:`14646` - Require loaders set __loader__ and __package__
+
+The :func:`__import__` function is now powered by :func:`importlib.__import__`.
+This work leads to the completion of "phase 2" of :pep:`302`. There are
+multiple benefits to this change. First, it has allowed for more of the
+machinery powering import to be exposed instead of being implicit and hidden
+within the C code. It also provides a single implementation for all Python VMs
+supporting Python 3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in
+import semantics. And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
+future growth to occur.
+
+For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics.  For
+those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import
+programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are covered
+in the `Porting Python code`_ section of this document.
+
+New APIs
+--------
+One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
+making the import statement work. That means the various importers that were
+once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the :mod:`importlib` package.
+
+The abstract base classes defined in :mod:`importlib.abc` have been expanded
+to properly delineate between :term:`meta path finders <meta path finder>`
+and :term:`path entry finders <path entry finder>` by introducing
+:class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` and
+:class:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder`, respectively. The old ABC of
+:class:`importlib.abc.Finder` is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
+and does not enforce any method requirements.
+
+In terms of finders, :class:`importlib.machinery.FileFinder` exposes the
+mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module. Previously
+this class was an implicit member of :attr:`sys.path_hooks`.
+
+For loaders, the new abstract base class :class:`importlib.abc.FileLoader` helps
+write a loader that uses the file system as the storage mechanism for a module's
+code. The loader for source files
+(:class:`importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader`), sourceless bytecode files
+(:class:`importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader`), and extension modules
+(:class:`importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader`) are now available for
+direct use.
+
+:exc:`ImportError` now has ``name`` and ``path`` attributes which are set when
+there is relevant data to provide. The message for failed imports will also
+provide the full name of the module now instead of just the tail end of the
+module's name.
+
+The :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches` function will now call the method with
+the same name on all finders cached in :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache` to help
+clean up any stored state as necessary.
+
+Visible Changes
+---------------
+
+For potential required changes to code, see the `Porting Python code`_
+section.
+
+Beyond the expanse of what :mod:`importlib` now exposes, there are other
+visible changes to import. The biggest is that :attr:`sys.meta_path` and
+:attr:`sys.path_hooks` now store all of the meta path finders and path entry
+hooks used by import.  Previously the finders were implicit and hidden within
+the C code of import instead of being directly exposed. This means that one can
+now easily remove or change the order of the various finders to fit one's needs.
+
+Another change is that all modules have a ``__loader__`` attribute, storing the
+loader used to create the module. :pep:`302` has been updated to make this
+attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in the future once 3rd-party
+loaders have been updated people will be able to rely on the existence of the
+attribute. Until such time, though, import is setting the module post-load.
+
+Loaders are also now expected to set the ``__package__`` attribute from
+:pep:`366`. Once again, import itself is already setting this on all loaders
+from :mod:`importlib` and import itself is setting the attribute post-load.
+
+``None`` is now inserted into :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache` when no finder
+can be found on :attr:`sys.path_hooks`. Since :class:`imp.NullImporter` is not
+directly exposed on :attr:`sys.path_hooks` it could no longer be relied upon to
+always be available to use as a value representing no finder found.
+
+All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into
+consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read about
+in the `Porting Python code`_ section of this document.
+
+(Implementation by Brett Cannon)
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.
+  Both :func:`unicodedata.lookup()` and ``'\N{...}'`` now resolve name aliases,
+  and :func:`unicodedata.lookup()` resolves named sequences too.
+
+  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`12753`.)
+
+* Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0
+
+* Equality comparisons on :func:`range` objects now return a result reflecting
+  the equality of the underlying sequences generated by those range objects.
+  (:issue:`13201`)
+
+* The ``count()``, ``find()``, ``rfind()``, ``index()`` and ``rindex()``
+  methods of :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray` objects now accept an
+  integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.
+
+  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in :issue:`12170`.)
+
+* The ``rjust()``, ``ljust()``, and ``center()`` methods of :class:`bytes`
+  and :class:`bytearray` now accept a :class:`bytearray` for the ``fill``
+  argument.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in :issue:`12380`.)
+
+* New methods have been added to :class:`list` and :class:`bytearray`:
+  ``copy()`` and ``clear()`` (:issue:`10516`).  Consequently,
+  :class:`~collections.abc.MutableSequence` now also defines a
+  :meth:`~collections.abc.MutableSequence.clear` method (:issue:`11388`).
+
+* Raw bytes literals can now be written ``rb"..."`` as well as ``br"..."``.
+
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13748`.)
+
+* :meth:`dict.setdefault` now does only one lookup for the given key, making
+  it atomic when used with built-in types.
+
+  (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in :issue:`13521`.)
+
+* The error messages produced when a function call does not match the function
+  signature have been significantly improved.
+
+  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)
+
+
+A Finer-Grained Import Lock
+===========================
+
+Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
+This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a module
+would trigger code execution in a different thread as a side-effect.
+Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
+:c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock` C API function.
+
+In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock.  This correctly
+serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads (preventing
+the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while eliminating the
+aforementioned annoyances.
+
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`9260`.)
+
+
+Builtin functions and types
+===========================
+
+* :func:`open` gets a new *opener* parameter: the underlying file descriptor
+  for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with (*file*,
+  *flags*). It can be used to use custom flags like :data:`os.O_CLOEXEC` for
+  example. The ``'x'`` mode was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if
+  the file already exists.
+* :func:`print`: added the *flush* keyword argument. If the *flush* keyword
+  argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.
+* :func:`hash`: hash randomization is enabled by default, see
+  :meth:`object.__hash__` and :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED`.
+* The :class:`str` type gets a new :meth:`~str.casefold` method: return a
+  casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be used for caseless
+  matching. For example, ``'ß'.casefold()`` returns ``'ss'``.
+* The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to better
+  explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide specific
+  documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence types
+  (:issue:`4966`).
+
+
+New Modules
+===========
+
+faulthandler
+------------
+
+This new debug module :mod:`faulthandler` contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly,
+on a fault (a crash like a segmentation fault), after a timeout, or on a user
+signal. Call :func:`faulthandler.enable` to install fault handlers for the
+:const:`SIGSEGV`, :const:`SIGFPE`, :const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS`, and
+:const:`SIGILL` signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the
+:envvar:`PYTHONFAULTHANDLER` environment variable or by using :option:`-X`
+``faulthandler`` command line option.
+
+Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -q -X faulthandler
+    >>> import ctypes
+    >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
+    Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault
+
+    Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
+      File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
+      File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
+    Segmentation fault
+
+
+ipaddress
+---------
+
+The new :mod:`ipaddress` module provides tools for creating and manipulating
+objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and interfaces (i.e.
+an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).
+
+(Contributed by Google and Peter Moody in :pep:`3144`.)
+
+lzma
+----
+
+The newly-added :mod:`lzma` module provides data compression and decompression
+using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ``.xz`` and ``.lzma``
+file formats.
+
+(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in :issue:`6715`.)
+
+
+Improved Modules
+================
+
+abc
+---
+
+Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors composed with
+abstract methods. The recommended approach to declaring abstract descriptors is
+now to provide :attr:`__isabstractmethod__` as a dynamically updated
+property. The built-in descriptors have been updated accordingly.
+
+  * :class:`abc.abstractproperty` has been deprecated, use :class:`property`
+    with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead.
+  * :class:`abc.abstractclassmethod` has been deprecated, use
+    :class:`classmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead.
+  * :class:`abc.abstractstaticmethod` has been deprecated, use
+    :class:`staticmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead.
+
+(Contributed by Darren Dale in :issue:`11610`.)
+
+:meth:`abc.ABCMeta.register` now returns the registered subclass, which means
+it can now be used as a class decorator (:issue:`10868`).
+
+
+array
+-----
+
+The :mod:`array` module supports the :c:type:`long long` type using ``q`` and
+``Q`` type codes.
+
+(Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in :issue:`1172711`.)
+
+
+base64
+------
+
+ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of the
+:mod:`base64` modern interface. For example, ``base64.b64decode('YWJj')``
+returns ``b'abc'``.  (Contributed by Catalin Iacob in :issue:`13641`.)
+
+
+binascii
+--------
+
+In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the ``a2b_`` functions
+now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input.  (Contributed by Antoine
+Pitrou in :issue:`13637`.)
+
+
+bz2
+---
+
+The :mod:`bz2` module has been rewritten from scratch. In the process, several
+new features have been added:
+
+* New :func:`bz2.open` function: open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or
+  text mode.
+
+* :class:`bz2.BZ2File` can now read from and write to arbitrary file-like
+  objects, by means of its constructor's *fileobj* argument.
+
+  (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in :issue:`5863`.)
+
+* :class:`bz2.BZ2File` and :func:`bz2.decompress` can now decompress
+  multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the :program:`pbzip2` tool).
+  :class:`bz2.BZ2File` can now also be used to create this type of file, using
+  the ``'a'`` (append) mode.
+
+  (Contributed by Nir Aides in :issue:`1625`.)
+
+* :class:`bz2.BZ2File` now implements all of the :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` API,
+  except for the :meth:`detach` and :meth:`truncate` methods.
+
+
+codecs
+------
+
+The :mod:`~encodings.mbcs` codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
+``replace`` and ``ignore`` error handlers on all Windows versions.  The
+:mod:`~encodings.mbcs` codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only
+``replace`` to encode and ``ignore`` to decode.
+
+A new Windows-only codec has been added: ``cp65001`` (:issue:`13216`). It is the
+Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ``CP_UTF8``).  For example, it is used
+by ``sys.stdout`` if the console output code page is set to cp65001 (e.g., using
+``chcp 65001`` command).
+
+Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster.  They only ignore the first
+byte of an invalid byte sequence. For example, ``b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312',
+'replace')`` now returns a ``\n`` after the replacement character.
+
+(:issue:`12016`)
+
+Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their
+encode() methods. For example::
+
+    >>> import codecs
+    >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
+    >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
+    b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'
+
+This example gives ``b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'`` with older Python
+versions.
+
+(:issue:`12100`)
+
+The ``unicode_internal`` codec has been deprecated.
+
+
+collections
+-----------
+
+Addition of a new :class:`~collections.ChainMap` class to allow treating a
+number of mappings as a single unit.  (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
+:issue:`11089`, made public in :issue:`11297`.)
+
+The abstract base classes have been moved in a new :mod:`collections.abc`
+module, to better differentiate between the abstract and the concrete
+collections classes.  Aliases for ABCs are still present in the
+:mod:`collections` module to preserve existing imports.  (:issue:`11085`)
+
+.. XXX addition of __slots__ to ABCs not recorded here: internal detail
+
+The :class:`~collections.Counter` class now supports the unary ``+`` and ``-``
+operators, as well as the in-place operators ``+=``, ``-=``, ``|=``, and
+``&=``.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`13121`.)
+
+
+contextlib
+----------
+
+:class:`~contextlib.ExitStack` now provides a solid foundation for
+programmatic manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup
+functionality. Unlike the previous ``contextlib.nested`` API (which was
+deprecated and removed), the new API is designed to work correctly
+regardless of whether context managers acquire their resources in
+their ``__init__`` method (for example, file objects) or in their
+``__enter__`` method (for example, synchronisation objects from the
+:mod:`threading` module).
+
+(:issue:`13585`)
+
+
+crypt
+-----
+
+Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the :func:`~crypt.mksalt`
+function to the :mod:`crypt` module.
+
+(:issue:`10924`)
+
+curses
+------
+
+ * If the :mod:`curses` module is linked to the ncursesw library, use Unicode
+   functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed (e.g.
+   :c:func:`waddwstr`), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g. :c:func:`waddstr`).
+ * Use the locale encoding instead of ``utf-8`` to encode Unicode strings.
+ * :class:`curses.window` has a new :attr:`curses.window.encoding` attribute.
+ * The :class:`curses.window` class has a new :meth:`~curses.window.get_wch`
+   method to get a wide character
+ * The :mod:`curses` module has a new :meth:`~curses.unget_wch` function to
+   push a wide character so the next :meth:`~curses.window.get_wch` will return
+   it
+
+(Contributed by Iñigo Serna in :issue:`6755`.)
+
+datetime
+--------
+
+ * Equality comparisons between naive and aware :class:`~datetime.datetime`
+   instances now return :const:`False` instead of raising :exc:`TypeError`
+   (:issue:`15006`).
+ * New :meth:`datetime.datetime.timestamp` method: Return POSIX timestamp
+   corresponding to the :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance.
+ * The :meth:`datetime.datetime.strftime` method supports formatting years
+   older than 1000.
+ * The :meth:`datetime.datetime.astimezone` method can now be
+   called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system
+   timezone.
+
+
+.. _new-decimal:
+
+decimal
+-------
+
+:issue:`7652` - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.
+   C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah.
+
+The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed libmpdec
+library for arbitrary precision correctly-rounded decimal floating point
+arithmetic. libmpdec conforms to IBM's General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.
+
+Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for
+numerically intensive applications. These numbers are expected gains
+for standard precisions used in decimal floating point arithmetic. Since
+the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary. For example,
+in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be significantly higher.
+
+The following table is meant as an illustration. Benchmarks are available
+at http://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html.
+
+   +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
+   |         |  decimal.py |   _decimal   |   speedup   |
+   +=========+=============+==============+=============+
+   |   pi    |    42.02s   |    0.345s    |    120x     |
+   +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
+   | telco   |   172.19s   |    5.68s     |     30x     |
+   +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
+   | psycopg |     3.57s   |    0.29s     |     12x     |
+   +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
+
+Features
+~~~~~~~~
+
+* The :exc:`~decimal.FloatOperation` signal optionally enables stricter
+  semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.
+
+* If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically
+  disables the expensive thread local context machinery. In this case,
+  the variable :data:`~decimal.HAVE_THREADS` is set to ``False``.
+
+API changes
+~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+* The C module has the following context limits, depending on the machine
+  architecture:
+
+   +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+
+   |                   |       32-bit        |            64-bit            |
+   +===================+=====================+==============================+
+   | :const:`MAX_PREC` | :const:`425000000`  | :const:`999999999999999999`  |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+
+   | :const:`MAX_EMAX` | :const:`425000000`  | :const:`999999999999999999`  |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+
+   | :const:`MIN_EMIN` | :const:`-425000000` | :const:`-999999999999999999` |
+   +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+
+
+* In the context templates (:class:`~decimal.DefaultContext`,
+  :class:`~decimal.BasicContext` and :class:`~decimal.ExtendedContext`)
+  the magnitude of :attr:`~decimal.Context.Emax` and
+  :attr:`~decimal.Context.Emin` has changed to :const:`999999`.
+
+* The :class:`~decimal.Decimal` constructor in decimal.py does not observe
+  the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or precision
+  exactly. Since the C version has internal limits, the following scheme is
+  used: If possible, values are converted exactly, otherwise
+  :exc:`~decimal.InvalidOperation` is raised and the result is NaN. In the
+  latter case it is always possible to use :meth:`~decimal.Context.create_decimal`
+  in order to obtain a rounded or inexact value.
+
+
+* The power function in decimal.py is always correctly-rounded. In the
+  C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly-rounded
+  :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.exp` and :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.ln` functions,
+  but the final result is only "almost always correctly rounded".
+
+
+* In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is a
+  :class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping`.  For speed reasons,
+  :attr:`~decimal.Context.flags` and :attr:`~decimal.Context.traps` always
+  refer to the same :class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping` that the context
+  was initialized with. If a new signal dictionary is assigned,
+  :attr:`~decimal.Context.flags` and :attr:`~decimal.Context.traps`
+  are updated with the new values, but they do not reference the RHS
+  dictionary.
+
+
+* Pickling a :class:`~decimal.Context` produces a different output in order
+  to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions.
+
+
+* The order of arguments in the :class:`~decimal.Context` constructor has been
+  changed to match the order displayed by :func:`repr`.
+
+
+* The ``watchexp`` parameter in the :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.quantize` method
+  is deprecated.
+
+
+.. _new-email:
+
+email
+-----
+
+Policy Framework
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The email package now has a :mod:`~email.policy` framework.  A
+:class:`~email.policy.Policy` is an object with several methods and properties
+that control how the email package behaves.  The primary policy for Python 3.3
+is the :class:`~email.policy.Compat32` policy, which provides backward
+compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2.  A ``policy`` can be
+specified when an email message is parsed by a :mod:`~email.parser`, or when a
+:class:`~email.message.Message` object is created, or when an email is
+serialized using a :mod:`~email.generator`.  Unless overridden, a policy passed
+to a ``parser`` is inherited by all the ``Message`` object and sub-objects
+created by the ``parser``.  By default a ``generator`` will use the policy of
+the ``Message`` object it is serializing.  The default policy is
+:data:`~email.policy.compat32`.
+
+The minimum set of controls implemented by all ``policy`` objects are:
+
+    .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+    ===============     =======================================================
+    max_line_length     The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s),
+                        individual lines may have when a ``Message`` is
+                        serialized.  Defaults to 78.
+
+    linesep             The character used to separate individual lines when a
+                        ``Message`` is serialized.  Defaults to ``\n``.
+
+    cte_type            ``7bit`` or ``8bit``.  ``8bit`` applies only to a
+                        ``Bytes`` ``generator``, and means that non-ASCII may
+                        be used where allowed by the protocol (or where it
+                        exists in the original input).
+
+    raise_on_defect     Causes a ``parser`` to raise error when defects are
+                        encountered instead of adding them to the ``Message``
+                        object's ``defects`` list.
+    ===============     =======================================================
+
+A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the
+:meth:`~email.policy.Policy.clone` method of policy objects.  ``clone`` takes
+any of the above controls as keyword arguments.  Any control not specified in
+the call retains its default value.  Thus you can create a policy that uses
+``\r\n`` linesep characters like this::
+
+    mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
+
+Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format needed by
+your application simpler.  Instead of having to remember to specify
+``linesep='\r\n'`` in all the places you call a ``generator``, you can specify
+it once, when you set the policy used by the ``parser`` or the ``Message``,
+whichever your program uses to create ``Message`` objects.  On the other hand,
+if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you can still specify the
+parameters in the appropriate ``generator`` call.  Or you can have custom
+policy instances for your different cases, and pass those in when you create
+the ``generator``.
+
+
+Provisional Policy with New Header API
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main motivation for
+introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies that implement new
+features for the email package in a way that maintains backward compatibility
+for those who do not use the new policies.  Because the new policies introduce a
+new API, we are releasing them in Python 3.3 as a :term:`provisional policy
+<provisional package>`.  Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including
+removal of the code) may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.
+
+The new policies are instances of :class:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy`,
+and add the following additional controls:
+
+    .. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
+
+    ===============     =======================================================
+    refold_source       Controls whether or not headers parsed by a
+                        :mod:`~email.parser` are refolded by the
+                        :mod:`~email.generator`.  It can be ``none``, ``long``,
+                        or ``all``.  The default is ``long``, which means that
+                        source headers with a line longer than
+                        ``max_line_length`` get refolded.  ``none`` means no
+                        line get refolded, and ``all`` means that all lines
+                        get refolded.
+
+    header_factory      A callable that take a ``name`` and ``value`` and
+                        produces a custom header object.
+    ===============     =======================================================
+
+The ``header_factory`` is the key to the new features provided by the new
+policies.  When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved from
+a ``Message`` object is an object produced by the ``header_factory``, and any
+time you set a header on a ``Message`` it becomes an object produced by
+``header_factory``.  All such header objects have a ``name`` attribute equal
+to the header name.  Address and Date headers have additional attributes
+that give you access to the parsed data of the header.  This means you can now
+do things like this::
+
+    >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
+    >>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
+    >>> m['to']
+    'Éric <foo@example.com>'
+    >>> m['to'].addresses
+    (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
+    >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
+    'foo'
+    >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
+    'Éric'
+    >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
+    >>> m['Date'].datetime
+    datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
+    >>> m['Date']
+    'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
+    >>> print(m)
+    To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
+    Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
+
+You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
+``utf-8`` when the message is serialized, but that when the header is accessed
+directly, you get the unicode version.  This eliminates any need to deal with
+the :mod:`email.header` :meth:`~email.header.decode_header` or
+:meth:`~email.header.make_header` functions.
+
+You can also create addresses from parts::
+
+    >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
+    ...                           Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
+    ...            Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
+    >>> print(m)
+    To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
+    Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
+    cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>
+
+Decoding to unicode is done automatically::
+
+    >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
+    >>> m2['to']
+    'Éric <foo@example.com>'
+
+When you parse a message, you can use the ``addresses`` and ``groups``
+attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
+addresses::
+
+    >>> m2['cc'].addresses
+    (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
+    >>> m2['cc'].groups
+    (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))
+
+In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation works the
+way it ought to:  your application works with unicode strings, and the email
+package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to and from the RFC
+standard Content Transfer Encodings.
+
+Other API Changes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+New :class:`~email.parser.BytesHeaderParser`, added to the :mod:`~email.parser`
+module to complement :class:`~email.parser.HeaderParser` and complete the Bytes
+API.
+
+New utility functions:
+
+   * :func:`~email.utils.format_datetime`: given a :class:`~datetime.datetime`,
+     produce a string formatted for use in an email header.
+
+   * :func:`~email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime`: given a date string from
+     an email header, convert it into an aware :class:`~datetime.datetime`,
+     or a naive :class:`~datetime.datetime` if the offset is ``-0000``.
+
+   * :func:`~email.utils.localtime`: With no argument, returns the
+     current local time as an aware :class:`~datetime.datetime` using the local
+     :class:`~datetime.timezone`.  Given an aware :class:`~datetime.datetime`,
+     converts it into an aware :class:`~datetime.datetime` using the
+     local :class:`~datetime.timezone`.
+
+
+ftplib
+------
+
+* :class:`ftplib.FTP` now accepts a ``source_address`` keyword argument to
+  specify the ``(host, port)`` to use as the source address in the bind call
+  when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà
+  in :issue:`8594`.)
+
+* The :class:`~ftplib.FTP_TLS` class now provides a new
+  :func:`~ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc` function to revert control channel back to
+  plaintext.  This can be useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how
+  to handle NAT with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.  (Contributed
+  by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`12139`.)
+
+* Added :meth:`ftplib.FTP.mlsd` method which provides a parsable directory
+  listing format and deprecates :meth:`ftplib.FTP.nlst` and
+  :meth:`ftplib.FTP.dir`.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`11072`.)
+
+
+functools
+---------
+
+The :func:`functools.lru_cache` decorator now accepts a ``typed`` keyword
+argument (that defaults to ``False`` to ensure that it caches values of
+different types that compare equal in separate cache slots.  (Contributed
+by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`13227`.)
+
+
+gc
+--
+
+It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage collector
+before and after collection using the new :data:`~gc.callbacks` list.
+
+
+hmac
+----
+
+A new :func:`~hmac.compare_digest` function has been added to prevent side
+channel attacks on digests through timing analysis.  (Contributed by Nick
+Coghlan and Christian Heimes in :issue:`15061`.)
+
+
+http
+----
+
+:class:`http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler` now buffers the headers and writes
+them all at once when :meth:`~http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers` is
+called.  A new method :meth:`~http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers`
+can be used to directly manage when the accumulated headers are sent.
+(Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in :issue:`3709`.)
+
+:class:`http.server` now produces valid ``HTML 4.01 strict`` output.
+(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`13295`.)
+
+:class:`http.client.HTTPResponse` now has a
+:meth:`~http.client.HTTPResponse.readinto` method, which means it can be used
+as an :class:`io.RawIOBase` class.  (Contributed by John Kuhn in
+:issue:`13464`.)
+
+
+html
+----
+
+:class:`html.parser.HTMLParser` is now able to parse broken markup without
+raising errors, therefore the *strict* argument of the constructor and the
+:exc:`~html.parser.HTMLParseError` exception are now deprecated.
+The ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes that
+are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python 2.7/3.2.
+(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`15114`, and :issue:`14538`,
+:issue:`13993`, :issue:`13960`, :issue:`13358`, :issue:`1745761`,
+:issue:`755670`, :issue:`13357`, :issue:`12629`, :issue:`1200313`,
+:issue:`670664`, :issue:`13273`, :issue:`12888`, :issue:`7311`.)
+
+A new :data:`~html.entities.html5` dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
+references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g. ``html5['gt;'] ==
+'>'``) has been added to the :mod:`html.entities` module.  The dictionary is
+now also used by :class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser`.  (Contributed by Ezio
+Melotti in :issue:`11113` and :issue:`15156`.)
+
+
+imaplib
+-------
+
+The :class:`~imaplib.IMAP4_SSL` constructor now accepts an SSLContext
+parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.
+
+(Contributed by Sijin Joseph in :issue:`8808`.)
+
+
+inspect
+-------
+
+A new :func:`~inspect.getclosurevars` function has been added. This function
+reports the current binding of all names referenced from the function body and
+where those names were resolved, making it easier to verify correct internal
+state when testing code that relies on stateful closures.
+
+(Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in :issue:`13062`.)
+
+A new :func:`~inspect.getgeneratorlocals` function has been added. This
+function reports the current binding of local variables in the generator's
+stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing
+generators.
+
+(Contributed by Meador Inge in :issue:`15153`.)
+
+io
+--
+
+The :func:`~io.open` function has a new ``'x'`` mode that can be used to
+exclusively create a new file, and raise a :exc:`FileExistsError` if the file
+already exists. It is based on the C11 'x' mode to fopen().
+
+(Contributed by David Townshend in :issue:`12760`.)
+
+The constructor of the :class:`~io.TextIOWrapper` class has a new
+*write_through* optional argument. If *write_through* is ``True``, calls to
+:meth:`~io.TextIOWrapper.write` are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data
+written on the :class:`~io.TextIOWrapper` object is immediately handled to its
+underlying binary buffer.
+
+
+itertools
+---------
+
+:func:`~itertools.accumulate` now takes an optional ``func`` argument for
+providing a user-supplied binary function.
+
+
+logging
+-------
+
+The :func:`~logging.basicConfig` function now supports an optional ``handlers``
+argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the root logger.
+
+A class level attribute :attr:`~logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.append_nul` has
+been added to :class:`~logging.handlers.SysLogHandler` to allow control of the
+appending of the ``NUL`` (``\000``) byte to syslog records, since for some
+daemons it is required while for others it is passed through to the log.
+
+
+
+math
+----
+
+The :mod:`math` module has a new function, :func:`~math.log2`,  which returns
+the base-2 logarithm of *x*.
+
+(Written by Mark Dickinson in :issue:`11888`.)
+
+
+mmap
+----
+
+The :meth:`~mmap.mmap.read` method is now more compatible with other file-like
+objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as ``None``, it returns the
+bytes from the current file position to the end of the mapping.  (Contributed
+by Petri Lehtinen in :issue:`12021`.)
+
+
+multiprocessing
+---------------
+
+The new :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait` function allows polling
+multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a timeout.
+(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`12328`.)
+
+:class:`multiprocessing.Connection` objects can now be transferred over
+multiprocessing connections.
+(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`4892`.)
+
+:class:`multiprocessing.Process` now accepts a ``daemon`` keyword argument
+to override the default behavior of inheriting the ``daemon`` flag from
+the parent process (:issue:`6064`).
+
+New attribute :data:`multiprocessing.Process.sentinel` allows a
+program to wait on multiple :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` objects at one
+time using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, :mod:`select` on
+posix systems).
+
+New methods :meth:`multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap` and
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap_async` provide
+:func:`itertools.starmap` equivalents to the existing
+:meth:`multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map` and
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async` functions.  (Contributed by Hynek
+Schlawack in :issue:`12708`.)
+
+
+nntplib
+-------
+
+The :class:`nntplib.NNTP` class now supports the context management protocol to
+unconditionally consume :exc:`socket.error` exceptions and to close the NNTP
+connection when done::
+
+  >>> from nntplib import NNTP
+  >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
+  ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
+  ...
+  ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
+  >>>
+
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`9795`.)
+
+
+os
+--
+
+* The :mod:`os` module has a new :func:`~os.pipe2` function that makes it
+  possible to create a pipe with :data:`~os.O_CLOEXEC` or
+  :data:`~os.O_NONBLOCK` flags set atomically. This is especially useful to
+  avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.
+
+* The :mod:`os` module has a new :func:`~os.sendfile` function which provides
+  an efficient "zero-copy" way for copying data from one file (or socket)
+  descriptor to another. The phrase "zero-copy" refers to the fact that all of
+  the copying of data between the two descriptors is done entirely by the
+  kernel, with no copying of data into userspace buffers. :func:`~os.sendfile`
+  can be used to efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket,
+  e.g. for downloading a file.
+
+  (Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`10882`.)
+
+* To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with temporary
+  files and directories, it is more reliable (and also faster) to manipulate
+  file descriptors instead of file names. Python 3.3 enhances existing functions
+  and introduces new functions to work on file descriptors (:issue:`4761`,
+  :issue:`10755` and :issue:`14626`).
+
+  - The :mod:`os` module has a new :func:`~os.fwalk` function similar to
+    :func:`~os.walk` except that it also yields file descriptors referring to the
+    directories visited. This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.
+
+  - The following functions get new optional *dir_fd* (:ref:`paths relative to
+    directory descriptors <dir_fd>`) and/or *follow_symlinks* (:ref:`not
+    following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`):
+    :func:`~os.access`, :func:`~os.chflags`, :func:`~os.chmod`, :func:`~os.chown`,
+    :func:`~os.link`, :func:`~os.lstat`, :func:`~os.mkdir`, :func:`~os.mkfifo`,
+    :func:`~os.mknod`, :func:`~os.open`, :func:`~os.readlink`, :func:`~os.remove`,
+    :func:`~os.rename`, :func:`~os.replace`, :func:`~os.rmdir`, :func:`~os.stat`,
+    :func:`~os.symlink`, :func:`~os.unlink`, :func:`~os.utime`.  Platform
+    support for using these parameters can be checked via the sets
+    :data:`os.supports_dir_fd` and :data:`os.supports_follows_symlinks`.
+
+  - The following functions now support a file descriptor for their path argument:
+    :func:`~os.chdir`, :func:`~os.chmod`, :func:`~os.chown`,
+    :func:`~os.execve`, :func:`~os.listdir`, :func:`~os.pathconf`, :func:`~os.path.exists`,
+    :func:`~os.stat`, :func:`~os.statvfs`, :func:`~os.utime`.  Platform support
+    for this can be checked via the :data:`os.supports_fd` set.
+
+* :func:`~os.access` accepts an ``effective_ids`` keyword argument to turn on
+  using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid in the access check.
+  Platform support for this can be checked via the
+  :data:`~os.supports_effective_ids` set.
+
+* The :mod:`os` module has two new functions: :func:`~os.getpriority` and
+  :func:`~os.setpriority`. They can be used to get or set process
+  niceness/priority in a fashion similar to :func:`os.nice` but extended to all
+  processes instead of just the current one.
+
+  (Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`10784`.)
+
+* The new :func:`os.replace` function allows cross-platform renaming of a
+  file with overwriting the destination.  With :func:`os.rename`, an existing
+  destination file is overwritten under POSIX, but raises an error under
+  Windows.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`8828`.)
+
+* The stat family of functions (:func:`~os.stat`, :func:`~os.fstat`,
+  and :func:`~os.lstat`) now support reading a file's timestamps
+  with nanosecond precision.  Symmetrically, :func:`~os.utime`
+  can now write file timestamps with nanosecond precision.  (Contributed by
+  Larry Hastings in :issue:`14127`.)
+
+* The new :func:`os.get_terminal_size` function queries the size of the
+  terminal attached to a file descriptor. See also
+  :func:`shutil.get_terminal_size`.
+  (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in :issue:`13609`.)
+
+.. XXX sort out this mess after beta1
+
+* New functions to support Linux extended attributes (:issue:`12720`):
+  :func:`~os.getxattr`, :func:`~os.listxattr`, :func:`~os.removexattr`,
+  :func:`~os.setxattr`.
+
+* New interface to the scheduler. These functions
+  control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating system. New
+  functions:
+  :func:`~os.sched_get_priority_max`, :func:`~os.sched_get_priority_min`,
+  :func:`~os.sched_getaffinity`, :func:`~os.sched_getparam`,
+  :func:`~os.sched_getscheduler`, :func:`~os.sched_rr_get_interval`,
+  :func:`~os.sched_setaffinity`, :func:`~os.sched_setparam`,
+  :func:`~os.sched_setscheduler`, :func:`~os.sched_yield`,
+
+* New functions to control the file system:
+
+  * :func:`~os.posix_fadvise`: Announces an intention to access data in a
+    specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make optimizations.
+  * :func:`~os.posix_fallocate`: Ensures that enough disk space is allocated
+    for a file.
+  * :func:`~os.sync`: Force write of everything to disk.
+
+* Additional new  posix functions:
+
+  * :func:`~os.lockf`: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.
+  * :func:`~os.pread`: Read from a file descriptor at an offset, the file
+    offset remains unchanged.
+  * :func:`~os.pwrite`: Write to a file descriptor from an offset, leaving
+    the file offset unchanged.
+  * :func:`~os.readv`: Read from a file descriptor into a number of writable buffers.
+  * :func:`~os.truncate`: Truncate the file corresponding to *path*, so that
+    it is at most *length* bytes in size.
+  * :func:`~os.waitid`: Wait for the completion of one or more child processes.
+  * :func:`~os.writev`: Write the contents of *buffers* to a file descriptor,
+    where *buffers* is an arbitrary sequence of buffers.
+  * :func:`~os.getgrouplist` (:issue:`9344`): Return list of group ids that
+    specified user belongs to.
+
+* :func:`~os.times` and :func:`~os.uname`: Return type changed from a tuple to
+  a tuple-like object with named attributes.
+
+* Some platforms now support additional constants for the :func:`~os.lseek`
+  function, such as ``os.SEEK_HOLE`` and ``os.SEEK_DATA``.
+
+* New constants :data:`~os.RTLD_LAZY`, :data:`~os.RTLD_NOW`,
+  :data:`~os.RTLD_GLOBAL`, :data:`~os.RTLD_LOCAL`, :data:`~os.RTLD_NODELETE`,
+  :data:`~os.RTLD_NOLOAD`, and :data:`~os.RTLD_DEEPBIND` are available on
+  platforms that support them.   These are for use with the
+  :func:`sys.setdlopenflags` function, and supersede the similar constants
+  defined in :mod:`ctypes` and :mod:`DLFCN`.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
+  in :issue:`13226`.)
+
+* :func:`os.symlink` now accepts (and ignores) the ``target_is_directory``
+  keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to ease cross-platform support.
+
+
+pdb
+---
+
+Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also their
+arguments.  For example, for the ``break`` command, function and file names
+are completed.
+
+(Contributed by Georg Brandl in :issue:`14210`)
+
+
+pickle
+------
+
+:class:`pickle.Pickler` objects now have an optional
+:attr:`~pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table` attribute allowing per-pickler
+reduction functions to be set.
+
+(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`14166`.)
+
+
+pydoc
+-----
+
+The Tk GUI and the :func:`~pydoc.serve` function have been removed from the
+:mod:`pydoc` module: ``pydoc -g`` and :func:`~pydoc.serve` have been deprecated
+in Python 3.2.
+
+
+re
+--
+
+:class:`str` regular expressions now support ``\u`` and ``\U`` escapes.
+
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`3665`.)
+
+
+sched
+-----
+
+* :meth:`~sched.scheduler.run` now accepts a *blocking* parameter which when
+  set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to expire
+  soonest (if any) and then return immediately.
+  This is useful in case you want to use the :class:`~sched.scheduler` in
+  non-blocking applications.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`13449`.)
+
+* :class:`~sched.scheduler` class can now be safely used in multi-threaded
+  environments.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and Giampaolo Rodolà in
+  :issue:`8684`.)
+
+* *timefunc* and *delayfunct* parameters of :class:`~sched.scheduler` class
+  constructor are now optional and defaults to :func:`time.time` and
+  :func:`time.sleep` respectively.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
+  :issue:`13245`.)
+
+* :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enter` and :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enterabs`
+  *argument* parameter is now optional.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
+  :issue:`13245`.)
+
+* :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enter` and :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enterabs`
+  now accept a *kwargs* parameter.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
+  :issue:`13245`.)
+
+
+select
+------
+
+Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class :class:`select.devpoll`
+for high performance asynchronous sockets via :file:`/dev/poll`.
+(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in :issue:`6397`.)
+
+
+shlex
+-----
+
+The previously undocumented helper function ``quote`` from the
+:mod:`pipes` modules has been moved to the :mod:`shlex` module and
+documented.  :func:`~shlex.quote` properly escapes all characters in a string
+that might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.
+
+
+shutil
+------
+
+* New functions:
+
+  * :func:`~shutil.disk_usage`: provides total, used and free disk space
+    statistics.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`12442`.)
+  * :func:`~shutil.chown`: allows one to change user and/or group of the given
+    path also specifying the user/group names and not only their numeric
+    ids.  (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in :issue:`12191`.)
+  * :func:`shutil.get_terminal_size`: returns the size of the terminal window
+    to which the interpreter is attached.  (Contributed by Zbigniew
+    Jędrzejewski-Szmek in :issue:`13609`.)
+
+* :func:`~shutil.copy2` and :func:`~shutil.copystat` now preserve file
+  timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
+  They also preserve file "extended attributes" on Linux.  (Contributed
+  by Larry Hastings in :issue:`14127` and  :issue:`15238`.)
+
+* Several functions now take an optional ``symlinks`` argument: when that
+  parameter is true, symlinks aren't dereferenced and the operation instead
+  acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if relevant).
+  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in :issue:`12715`.)
+
+* When copying files to a different file system, :func:`~shutil.move` now
+  handles symlinks the way the posix ``mv`` command does, recreating the
+  symlink rather than copying the target file contents.  (Contributed by
+  Jonathan Niehof in :issue:`9993`.)  :func:`~shutil.move` now also returns
+  the ``dst`` argument as its result.
+
+* :func:`~shutil.rmtree` is now resistant to symlink attacks on platforms
+  which support the new ``dir_fd`` parameter in :func:`os.open` and
+  :func:`os.unlink`.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack
+  in :issue:`4489`.)
+
+
+signal
+------
+
+* The :mod:`signal` module has new functions:
+
+  * :func:`~signal.pthread_sigmask`: fetch and/or change the signal mask of the
+    calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone in :issue:`8407`);
+  * :func:`~signal.pthread_kill`: send a signal to a thread;
+  * :func:`~signal.sigpending`: examine pending functions;
+  * :func:`~signal.sigwait`: wait a signal;
+  * :func:`~signal.sigwaitinfo`: wait for a signal, returning detailed
+    information about it;
+  * :func:`~signal.sigtimedwait`: like :func:`~signal.sigwaitinfo` but with a
+    timeout.
+
+* The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte instead of
+  a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor. So it is possible to wait more
+  than one signal and know which signals were raised.
+
+* :func:`signal.signal` and :func:`signal.siginterrupt` raise an OSError,
+  instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno attribute.
+
+
+smtpd
+-----
+
+The :mod:`smtpd` module now supports :rfc:`5321` (extended SMTP) and :rfc:`1870`
+(size extension).  Per the standard, these extensions are enabled if and only
+if the client initiates the session with an ``EHLO`` command.
+
+(Initial ``ELHO`` support by Alberto Trevino.  Size extension by Juhana
+Jauhiainen.  Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by Michele
+Orrù and Dan Boswell.  :issue:`8739`)
+
+
+smtplib
+-------
+
+The :class:`~smtplib.SMTP`, :class:`~smtplib.SMTP_SSL`, and
+:class:`~smtplib.LMTP` classes now accept a ``source_address`` keyword argument
+to specify the ``(host, port)`` to use as the source address in the bind call
+when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in
+:issue:`11281`.)
+
+:class:`~smtplib.SMTP` now supports the context management protocol, allowing an
+``SMTP`` instance to be used in a ``with`` statement.  (Contributed
+by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`11289`.)
+
+The :class:`~smtplib.SMTP_SSL` constructor and the :meth:`~smtplib.SMTP.starttls`
+method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure
+channel.  (Contributed by Kasun Herath in :issue:`8809`.)
+
+
+socket
+------
+
+* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now exposes additional methods to process
+  ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:
+
+  * :func:`~socket.socket.sendmsg`
+  * :func:`~socket.socket.recvmsg`
+  * :func:`~socket.socket.recvmsg_into`
+
+  (Contributed by David Watson in :issue:`6560`, based on an earlier patch by
+  Heiko Wundram)
+
+* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the PF_CAN protocol family
+  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan), on Linux
+  (https://lwn.net/Articles/253425).
+
+  (Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in :issue:`10141`.)
+
+* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the PF_RDS protocol family
+  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets and
+  https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/).
+
+* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the ``PF_SYSTEM`` protocol
+  family on OS X.  (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in :issue:`13777`.)
+
+* New function :func:`~socket.sethostname` allows the hostname to be set
+  on unix systems if the calling process has sufficient privileges.
+  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in :issue:`10866`.)
+
+
+socketserver
+------------
+
+:class:`~socketserver.BaseServer` now has an overridable method
+:meth:`~socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions` that is called by the
+:meth:`~socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever` method in the service loop.
+:class:`~socketserver.ForkingMixIn` now uses this to clean up zombie
+child processes.  (Contributed by Justin Warkentin in :issue:`11109`.)
+
+
+sqlite3
+-------
+
+New :class:`sqlite3.Connection` method
+:meth:`~sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback` can be used to capture a trace of
+all sql commands processed by sqlite.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff
+in :issue:`11688`.)
+
+
+ssl
+---
+
+* The :mod:`ssl` module has two new random generation functions:
+
+  * :func:`~ssl.RAND_bytes`: generate cryptographically strong
+    pseudo-random bytes.
+  * :func:`~ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes`: generate pseudo-random bytes.
+
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`12049`.)
+
+* The :mod:`ssl` module now exposes a finer-grained exception hierarchy
+  in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds of errors.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`11183`.)
+
+* :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` now accepts a *password* argument
+  to be used if the private key is encrypted.
+  (Contributed by Adam Simpkins in :issue:`12803`.)
+
+* Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based, is
+  now supported through the :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params` and
+  :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve` methods.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13626` and :issue:`13627`.)
+
+* SSL sockets have a new :meth:`~ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding` method
+  allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms such as
+  SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS.  (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in :issue:`12551`.)
+
+* You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket, thanks
+  to its new :meth:`~ssl.SSLSocket.compression` method.  The new attribute
+  :attr:`~ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION` can be used to disable compression.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13634`.)
+
+* Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension using
+  the :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` method.
+  (Contributed by Colin Marc in :issue:`14204`.)
+
+* SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to
+  :attr:`~ssl.SSLError.library` and :attr:`~ssl.SSLError.reason` attributes.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`14837`.)
+
+* The :func:`~ssl.get_server_certificate` function now supports IPv6.
+  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in :issue:`11811`.)
+
+* New attribute :attr:`~ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE` allows setting
+  SSLv3 server sockets to use the server's cipher ordering preference rather
+  than the client's (:issue:`13635`).
+
+
+stat
+----
+
+The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to
+:func:`stat.filemode`. It can be used to convert a file's mode to a string of
+the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.
+
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`14807`.)
+
+
+struct
+------
+
+The :mod:`struct` module now supports ``ssize_t`` and ``size_t`` via the
+new codes ``n`` and ``N``, respectively.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+in :issue:`3163`.)
+
+
+subprocess
+----------
+
+Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms.  (Contributed by
+Victor Stinner in :issue:`8513`.)
+
+A new constant :data:`~subprocess.DEVNULL` allows suppressing output in a
+platform-independent fashion.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
+:issue:`5870`.)
+
+
+sys
+---
+
+The :mod:`sys` module has a new :data:`~sys.thread_info` :term:`struct
+sequence` holding information about the thread implementation
+(:issue:`11223`).
+
+
+tarfile
+-------
+
+:mod:`tarfile` now supports ``lzma`` encoding via the :mod:`lzma` module.
+(Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in :issue:`5689`.)
+
+
+tempfile
+--------
+
+:class:`tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile`\'s
+:meth:`~tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.truncate` method now accepts
+a ``size`` parameter.  (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in :issue:`9957`.)
+
+
+textwrap
+--------
+
+The :mod:`textwrap` module has a new :func:`~textwrap.indent` that makes
+it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
+of text  (:issue:`13857`).
+
+
+threading
+---------
+
+:class:`threading.Condition`, :class:`threading.Semaphore`,
+:class:`threading.BoundedSemaphore`, :class:`threading.Event`, and
+:class:`threading.Timer`, all of which used to be factory functions returning a
+class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed.  (Contributed by Éric
+Araujo in :issue:`10968`.)
+
+The :class:`threading.Thread` constructor now accepts a ``daemon`` keyword
+argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ``daemon`` flag
+value from the parent thread (:issue:`6064`).
+
+The formerly private function ``_thread.get_ident`` is now available as the
+public function :func:`threading.get_ident`.  This eliminates several cases of
+direct access to the ``_thread`` module in the stdlib.  Third party code that
+used ``_thread.get_ident`` should likewise be changed to use the new public
+interface.
+
+
+time
+----
+
+The :pep:`418` added new functions to the :mod:`time` module:
+
+* :func:`~time.get_clock_info`: Get information on a clock.
+* :func:`~time.monotonic`: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not affected
+  by system clock updates.
+* :func:`~time.perf_counter`: Performance counter with the highest available
+  resolution to measure a short duration.
+* :func:`~time.process_time`: Sum of the system and user CPU time of the
+  current process.
+
+Other new functions:
+
+* :func:`~time.clock_getres`, :func:`~time.clock_gettime` and
+  :func:`~time.clock_settime` functions with ``CLOCK_xxx`` constants.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`10278`.)
+
+To improve cross platform consistency, :func:`~time.sleep` now raises a
+:exc:`ValueError` when passed a negative sleep value.  Previously this was an
+error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.
+
+
+types
+-----
+
+Add a new :class:`types.MappingProxyType` class: Read-only proxy of a mapping.
+(:issue:`14386`)
+
+
+The new functions :func:`types.new_class` and :func:`types.prepare_class` provide support
+for PEP 3115 compliant dynamic type creation. (:issue:`14588`)
+
+
+unittest
+--------
+
+:meth:`.assertRaises`, :meth:`.assertRaisesRegex`, :meth:`.assertWarns`, and
+:meth:`.assertWarnsRegex` now accept a keyword argument *msg* when used as
+context managers.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in
+:issue:`10775`.)
+
+:meth:`unittest.TestCase.run` now returns the :class:`~unittest.TestResult`
+object.
+
+
+urllib
+------
+
+The :class:`~urllib.request.Request` class, now accepts a *method* argument
+used by :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.get_method` to determine what HTTP method
+should be used.  For example, this will send a ``'HEAD'`` request::
+
+   >>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))
+
+(:issue:`1673007`)
+
+
+webbrowser
+----------
+
+The :mod:`webbrowser` module supports more "browsers": Google Chrome (named
+:program:`chrome`, :program:`chromium`, :program:`chrome-browser` or
+:program:`chromium-browser` depending on the version and operating system),
+and the generic launchers :program:`xdg-open`, from the FreeDesktop.org
+project, and :program:`gvfs-open`, which is the default URI handler for GNOME
+3.  (The former contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in :issue:`13620`, the latter
+by Matthias Klose in :issue:`14493`.)
+
+
+xml.etree.ElementTree
+---------------------
+
+The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module now imports its C accelerator by
+default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
+:mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree` (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
+but is now deprecated).  In addition,  the ``iter`` family of methods of
+:class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element` has been optimized (rewritten in C).
+The module's documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples
+and a more detailed reference.
+
+
+zlib
+----
+
+New attribute :attr:`zlib.Decompress.eof` makes it possible to distinguish
+between a properly-formed compressed stream and an incomplete or truncated one.
+(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in :issue:`12646`.)
+
+New attribute :attr:`zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION` reports the version string of
+the underlying ``zlib`` library that is loaded at runtime.  (Contributed by
+Torsten Landschoff in :issue:`12306`.)
+
+
+Optimizations
+=============
+
+Major performance enhancements have been added:
+
+* Thanks to :pep:`393`, some operations on Unicode strings have been optimized:
+
+  * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the text
+  * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn't need to encode characters anymore,
+    the UTF-8 representation is shared with the ASCII representation
+  * the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized
+  * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an ASCII string
+    is 4 times faster
+
+* UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster.  UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x faster.
+
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, :issue:`14624`, :issue:`14738` and
+  :issue:`15026`.)
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
+
+* New :pep:`3118` related function:
+
+  * :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromMemory`
+
+* :pep:`393` added new Unicode types, macros and functions:
+
+  * High-level API:
+
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_CopyCharacters`
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_FindChar`
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH`
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_New`
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_Substring`
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_ReadChar`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_WriteChar`
+
+  * Low-level API:
+
+    * :c:type:`Py_UCS1`, :c:type:`Py_UCS2`, :c:type:`Py_UCS4` types
+    * :c:type:`PyASCIIObject` and :c:type:`PyCompactUnicodeObject` structures
+    * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READY`
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromKindAndData`
+    * :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy`
+    * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_DATA`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA`,
+      :c:macro:`PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA`
+    * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_KIND` with :c:type:`PyUnicode_Kind` enum:
+      :c:data:`PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND`, :c:data:`PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND`,
+      :c:data:`PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND`, :c:data:`PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND`
+    * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READ`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READ_CHAR`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_WRITE`
+    * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE`
+
+* :c:macro:`PyArg_ParseTuple` now accepts a :class:`bytearray` for the ``c``
+  format (:issue:`12380`).
+
+
+
+Deprecated
+==========
+
+Unsupported Operating Systems
+-----------------------------
+
+OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.
+
+Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ``COMSPEC`` to ``command.com``
+are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.
+
+OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.
+
+
+Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
+------------------------------------------------
+
+* Passing a non-empty string to ``object.__format__()`` is deprecated, and
+  will produce a :exc:`TypeError` in Python 3.4 (:issue:`9856`).
+* The ``unicode_internal`` codec has been deprecated because of the
+  :pep:`393`, use UTF-8, UTF-16 (``utf-16-le`` or ``utf-16-be``), or UTF-32
+  (``utf-32-le`` or ``utf-32-be``)
+* :meth:`ftplib.FTP.nlst` and :meth:`ftplib.FTP.dir`: use
+  :meth:`ftplib.FTP.mlsd`
+* :func:`platform.popen`: use the :mod:`subprocess` module. Check especially
+  the :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section (:issue:`11377`).
+* :issue:`13374`: The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the :mod:`os`
+  module. Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes filenames, to not depend on
+  the ANSI code page anymore and to support any filename.
+* :issue:`13988`: The :mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree` module is deprecated.  The
+  accelerator is used automatically whenever available.
+* The behaviour of :func:`time.clock` depends on the platform: use the new
+  :func:`time.perf_counter` or :func:`time.process_time` function instead,
+  depending on your requirements, to have a well defined behaviour.
+* The :func:`os.stat_float_times` function is deprecated.
+* :mod:`abc` module:
+
+  * :class:`abc.abstractproperty` has been deprecated, use :class:`property`
+    with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead.
+  * :class:`abc.abstractclassmethod` has been deprecated, use
+    :class:`classmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead.
+  * :class:`abc.abstractstaticmethod` has been deprecated, use
+    :class:`staticmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead.
+
+* :mod:`importlib` package:
+
+  * :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime` is now deprecated in favour of
+    :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats` as bytecode files now store
+    both the modification time and size of the source file the bytecode file was
+    compiled from.
+
+
+
+
+
+Deprecated functions and types of the C API
+-------------------------------------------
+
+The :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` has been deprecated by :pep:`393` and will be
+removed in Python 4. All functions using this type are deprecated:
+
+Unicode functions and methods using :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` and
+:c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` types:
+
+* :c:macro:`PyUnicode_FromUnicode`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromWideChar` or
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromKindAndData`
+* :c:macro:`PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicode`,
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString`
+* :c:macro:`PyUnicode_AS_DATA`: use :c:macro:`PyUnicode_DATA` with
+  :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READ` and :c:macro:`PyUnicode_WRITE`
+* :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_SIZE`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetSize`: use
+  :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength`
+* :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE`: use
+  ``PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) * PyUnicode_KIND(str)`` (only work on ready
+  strings)
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy` or
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetMax`
+
+
+Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:
+
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strlen`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength` or
+  :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH`
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strcat`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_CopyCharacters` or
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat`
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strcpy`, :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strncpy`,
+  :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_COPY`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_CopyCharacters` or
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_Substring`
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strcmp`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_Compare`
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strncmp`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_Tailmatch`
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strchr`, :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strrchr`: use
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_FindChar`
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_FILL`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_Fill`
+* :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_MATCH`
+
+Encoders:
+
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_Encode`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8` or
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8String`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape:` use
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape:` use
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsLatin1String`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeASCII`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsASCIIString`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap`
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsMBCSString` or
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage` (with ``CP_ACP`` code_page)
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal`,
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII`
+
+
+Deprecated features
+-------------------
+
+The :mod:`array` module's ``'u'`` format code is now deprecated and will be
+removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (:c:type:`Py_UNICODE`) API.
+
+
+Porting to Python 3.3
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.
+
+.. _portingpythoncode:
+
+Porting Python code
+-------------------
+
+* Hash randomization is enabled by default. Set the :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED`
+  environment variable to ``0`` to disable hash randomization. See also the
+  :meth:`object.__hash__` method.
+
+* :issue:`12326`: On Linux, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version
+  anymore. It is now always 'linux', instead of 'linux2' or 'linux3' depending
+  on the Linux version used to build Python. Replace sys.platform == 'linux2'
+  with sys.platform.startswith('linux'), or directly sys.platform == 'linux' if
+  you don't need to support older Python versions.
+
+* :issue:`13847`, :issue:`14180`: :mod:`time` and :mod:`datetime`:
+  :exc:`OverflowError` is now raised instead of :exc:`ValueError` if a
+  timestamp is out of range. :exc:`OSError` is now raised if C functions
+  :c:func:`gmtime` or :c:func:`localtime` failed.
+
+* The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is contained
+  within a specific directory. If you create a Python source file or sourceless
+  bytecode file, make sure to call :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches` to clear
+  out the cache for the finders to notice the new file.
+
+* :exc:`ImportError` now uses the full name of the module that was attempted to
+  be imported. Doctests that check ImportErrors' message will need to be
+  updated to use the full name of the module instead of just the tail of the
+  name.
+
+* The *index* argument to :func:`__import__` now defaults to 0 instead of -1
+  and no longer support negative values. It was an oversight when :pep:`328` was
+  implemented that the default value remained -1. If you need to continue to
+  perform a relative import followed by an absolute import, then perform the
+  relative import using an index of 1, followed by another import using an
+  index of 0. It is preferred, though, that you use
+  :func:`importlib.import_module` rather than call :func:`__import__` directly.
+
+* :func:`__import__` no longer allows one to use an index value other than 0
+  for top-level modules. E.g. ``__import__('sys', level=1)`` is now an error.
+
+* Because :attr:`sys.meta_path` and :attr:`sys.path_hooks` now have finders on
+  them by default, you will most likely want to use :meth:`list.insert` instead
+  of :meth:`list.append` to add to those lists.
+
+* Because ``None`` is now inserted into :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache`, if you
+  are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths that do not have a
+  finder, you will need to remove keys paired with values of ``None`` **and**
+  :class:`imp.NullImporter` to be backwards-compatible. This will lead to extra
+  overhead on older versions of Python that re-insert ``None`` into
+  :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache` where it represents the use of implicit
+  finders, but semantically it should not change anything.
+
+* :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` no longer specifies a `find_module()` abstract
+  method that must be implemented. If you were relying on subclasses to
+  implement that method, make sure to check for the method's existence first.
+  You will probably want to check for `find_loader()` first, though, in the
+  case of working with :term:`path entry finders <path entry finder>`.
+
+* :mod:`pkgutil` has been converted to use :mod:`importlib` internally. This
+  eliminates many edge cases where the old behaviour of the PEP 302 import
+  emulation failed to match the behaviour of the real import system. The
+  import emulation itself is still present, but is now deprecated. The
+  :func:`pkgutil.iter_importers` and :func:`pkgutil.walk_packages` functions
+  special case the standard import hooks so they are still supported even
+  though they do not provide the non-standard ``iter_modules()`` method.
+
+* A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (:issue:`1079`) in the parsing done by
+  :func:`email.header.decode_header` has been fixed.  Code that uses the
+  standard idiom to convert encoded headers into unicode
+  (``str(make_header(decode_header(h))``) will see no change, but code that
+  looks at the individual tuples returned by decode_header will see that
+  whitespace that precedes or follows ``ASCII`` sections is now included in the
+  ``ASCII`` section.  Code that builds headers using ``make_header`` should
+  also continue to work without change, since ``make_header`` continues to add
+  whitespace between ``ASCII`` and non-``ASCII`` sections if it is not already
+  present in the input strings.
+
+* :func:`email.utils.formataddr` now does the correct content transfer
+  encoding when passed non-``ASCII`` display names.  Any code that depended on
+  the previous buggy behavior that preserved the non-``ASCII`` unicode in the
+  formatted output string will need to be changed (:issue:`1690608`).
+
+* :meth:`poplib.POP3.quit` may now raise protocol errors like all other
+  ``poplib`` methods.  Code that assumes ``quit`` does not raise
+  :exc:`poplib.error_proto` errors may need to be changed if errors on ``quit``
+  are encountered by a particular application (:issue:`11291`).
+
+* The ``strict`` argument to :class:`email.parser.Parser`, deprecated since
+  Python 2.4, has finally been removed.
+
+* The deprecated method ``unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements`` has been
+  removed.
+
+* The deprecated variable ``time.accept2dyear`` has been removed.
+
+* The deprecated ``Context._clamp`` attribute has been removed from the
+  :mod:`decimal` module.  It was previously replaced by the public attribute
+  :attr:`~decimal.Context.clamp`.  (See :issue:`8540`.)
+
+* The undocumented internal helper class ``SSLFakeFile`` has been removed
+  from :mod:`smtplib`, since its functionality has long been provided directly
+  by :meth:`socket.socket.makefile`.
+
+* Passing a negative value to :func:`time.sleep` on Windows now raises an
+  error instead of sleeping forever.  It has always raised an error on posix.
+
+* The ``ast.__version__`` constant has been removed.  If you need to
+  make decisions affected by the AST version, use :attr:`sys.version_info`
+  to make the decision.
+
+* Code that used to work around the fact that the :mod:`threading` module used
+  factory functions by subclassing the private classes will need to change to
+  subclass the now-public classes.
+
+* The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has been
+  removed, simplifying the code.  This should have no effect on production
+  code, but is mentioned here in case any application debug frameworks were
+  interacting with it (:issue:`13550`).
+
+
+Porting C code
+--------------
+
+* In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
+  :c:member:`~Py_buffer.smalltable` member of the
+  :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure has been removed and the
+  layout of the :c:type:`PyMemoryViewObject` has changed.
+
+  All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ``memoryobject.h``
+  or ``object.h`` must be rebuilt.
+
+* Due to :ref:`PEP 393 <pep-393>`, the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` type and all
+  functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available for
+  at least five years).  If you were using low-level Unicode APIs to
+  construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of the
+  memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393, you have to convert
+  your code to the new :doc:`Unicode API <../c-api/unicode>`.
+
+  However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_Concat()`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_Join` or
+  :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat()`, your code will automatically take
+  advantage of the new unicode representations.
+
+* :c:func:`PyImport_GetMagicNumber` now returns ``-1`` upon failure.
+
+* As a negative value for the *level* argument to :func:`__import__` is no
+  longer valid, the same now holds for :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleLevel`.
+  This also means that the value of *level* used by
+  :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleEx` is now ``0`` instead of ``-1``.
+
+
+Building C extensions
+---------------------
+
+* The range of possible file names for C extensions has been narrowed.
+  Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under POSIX, files
+  named ``xxxmodule.so``, ``xxxmodule.abi3.so`` and
+  ``xxxmodule.cpython-*.so`` are no longer recognized as implementing
+  the ``xxx`` module.  If you had been generating such files, you have
+  to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ``module`` string
+  from the file names).
+
+  (implemented in :issue:`14040`.)
+
+
+Command Line Switch Changes
+---------------------------
+
+* The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed.  Code
+  checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.
+
+  (:issue:`10998`, contributed by Éric Araujo.)
+
+* When :program:`python` is started with :option:`-S`, ``import site``
+  will no longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths.  In
+  previous versions, it did.
+
+  (:issue:`11591`, contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric Araujo.)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.4.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.4.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..845e327
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.4.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2545 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.4
+****************************
+
+:Author: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com> (Editor)
+
+.. Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document, but the maintainer reserves the
+   right to rewrite any additions. In particular, for obscure or esoteric
+   features, the maintainer may reduce any addition to a simple reference to
+   the new documentation rather than explaining the feature inline.
+
+   * While the maintainer will periodically go through Misc/NEWS
+   and add changes, it's best not to rely on this. We know from experience
+   that any changes that aren't in the What's New documentation around the
+   time of the original release will remain largely unknown to the community
+   for years, even if they're added later. We also know from experience that
+   other priorities can arise, and the maintainer will run out of time to do
+   updates -- in such cases, end users will be much better served by partial
+   notifications that at least give a hint about new features to
+   investigate.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS. The What's New should focus on changes that
+   are visible to Python *users* and that *require* a feature release (i.e.
+   most bug fixes should only be recorded in Misc/NEWS)
+
+   * PEPs should not be marked Final until they have an entry in What's New.
+   A placeholder entry that is just a section header and a link to the PEP
+   (e.g ":pep:`397` has been implemented") is acceptable. If a PEP has been
+   implemented and noted in What's New, don't forget to mark it as Final!
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to add just a very brief note about a change.  For
+   example: "The :ref:`~socket.transmogrify()` function was added to the
+   :mod:`socket` module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text (if appropriate). The advantage of doing this
+   is that even if no more descriptive text is ever added, readers will at
+   least have a notification that the new feature exists and a link to the
+   relevant documentation.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
+
+   The :ref:`~socket.transmogrify()` function was added to the
+   :mod:`socket` module.  (Contributed by P.Y. Developer in :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the Mercurial log
+   when researching a change.
+
+   * Cross referencing tip: :ref:`mod.attr` will display as ``mod.attr``,
+   while :ref:`~mod.attr` will display as ``attr``.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3.
+Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014.  For full details, see the
+`changelog <https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html>`_.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`429` -- Python 3.4 Release Schedule
+
+
+
+Summary -- Release Highlights
+=============================
+
+.. This section singles out the most important changes in Python 3.4.
+   Brevity is key.
+
+New syntax features:
+
+* No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.
+
+Other new features:
+
+* :ref:`pip should always be available <whatsnew-pep-453>` (:pep:`453`).
+* :ref:`Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable <whatsnew-pep-446>`
+  (:pep:`446`).
+* command line option for :ref:`isolated mode <whatsnew-isolated-mode>`
+  (:issue:`16499`).
+* :ref:`improvements in the handling of codecs <codec-handling-improvements>`
+  that are not text encodings (multiple issues).
+* :ref:`A ModuleSpec Type <whatsnew-pep-451>` for the Import System
+  (:pep:`451`).  (Affects importer authors.)
+* The :mod:`marshal` format has been made :ref:`more compact and efficient
+  <whatsnew-marshal-3>` (:issue:`16475`).
+
+New library modules:
+
+* :mod:`asyncio`: :ref:`New provisional API for asynchronous IO
+  <whatsnew-asyncio>` (:pep:`3156`).
+* :mod:`ensurepip`: :ref:`Bootstrapping the pip installer <whatsnew-ensurepip>`
+  (:pep:`453`).
+* :mod:`enum`: :ref:`Support for enumeration types <whatsnew-enum>`
+  (:pep:`435`).
+* :mod:`pathlib`: :ref:`Object-oriented filesystem paths <whatsnew-pathlib>`
+  (:pep:`428`).
+* :mod:`selectors`: :ref:`High-level and efficient I/O multiplexing
+  <whatsnew-selectors>`, built upon the :mod:`select` module primitives (part
+  of :pep:`3156`).
+* :mod:`statistics`: A basic :ref:`numerically stable statistics library
+  <whatsnew-statistics>` (:pep:`450`).
+* :mod:`tracemalloc`: :ref:`Trace Python memory allocations
+  <whatsnew-tracemalloc>` (:pep:`454`).
+
+Significantly improved library modules:
+
+* :ref:`Single-dispatch generic functions <whatsnew-singledispatch>` in
+  :mod:`functools` (:pep:`443`).
+* New :mod:`pickle` :ref:`protocol 4 <whatsnew-protocol-4>` (:pep:`3154`).
+* :mod:`multiprocessing` now has :ref:`an option to avoid using os.fork
+  on Unix <whatsnew-multiprocessing-no-fork>` (:issue:`8713`).
+* :mod:`email` has a new submodule, :mod:`~email.contentmanager`, and
+  a new :mod:`~email.message.Message` subclass
+  (:class:`~email.contentmanager.EmailMessage`) that :ref:`simplify MIME
+  handling <whatsnew_email_contentmanager>` (:issue:`18891`).
+* The :mod:`inspect` and :mod:`pydoc` modules are now capable of
+  correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable objects,
+  which improves the output of the Python :func:`help` system.
+* The :mod:`ipaddress` module API has been declared stable
+
+Security improvements:
+
+* :ref:`Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm <whatsnew-pep-456>`
+  (:pep:`456`).
+* :ref:`Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable <whatsnew-pep-446>`
+  (:pep:`446`) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.
+* New command line option for :ref:`isolated mode <whatsnew-isolated-mode>`,
+  (:issue:`16499`).
+* :mod:`multiprocessing` now has :ref:`an option to avoid using os.fork
+  on Unix <whatsnew-multiprocessing-no-fork>`.  *spawn* and *forkserver* are
+  more secure because they avoid sharing data with child processes.
+* :mod:`multiprocessing` child processes on Windows no longer inherit
+  all of the parent's inheritable handles, only the necessary ones.
+* A new :func:`hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac` function provides
+  the `PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2
+  <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2>`_.
+* :ref:`TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support <whatsnew-tls-11-12>` for :mod:`ssl`.
+* :ref:`Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store support
+  <whatsnew34-win-cert-store>` for :mod:`ssl`.
+* :ref:`Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support
+  <whatsnew34-sni>` for :mod:`ssl`.
+* The :class:`ssl.SSLContext` class has a :ref:`lot of improvements
+  <whatsnew34-sslcontext>`.
+* All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support server
+  certificate verification, including hostname matching
+  (:func:`ssl.match_hostname`) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists, see
+  :func:`ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations`).
+
+CPython implementation improvements:
+
+* :ref:`Safe object finalization <whatsnew-pep-442>` (:pep:`442`).
+* Leveraging :pep:`442`, in most cases :ref:`module globals are no longer set
+  to None during finalization <whatsnew-pep-442>` (:issue:`18214`).
+* :ref:`Configurable memory allocators <whatsnew-pep-445>` (:pep:`445`).
+* :ref:`Argument Clinic <whatsnew-pep-436>` (:pep:`436`).
+
+Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many
+other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential
+porting issues.
+
+
+
+New Features
+============
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-453:
+
+PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Bootstrapping pip By Default
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The new :mod:`ensurepip` module (defined in :pep:`453`) provides a standard
+cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python
+installations and virtual environments. The version of ``pip`` included
+with Python 3.4.0 is ``pip`` 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance releases
+will update the bundled version to the latest version of ``pip`` that is
+available at the time of creating the release candidate.
+
+By default, the commands ``pipX`` and ``pipX.Y`` will be installed on all
+platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
+along with the ``pip`` Python package and its dependencies. On Windows and
+in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned ``pip`` command
+will also be installed. On other platforms, the system wide unversioned
+``pip`` command typically refers to the separately installed Python 2
+version.
+
+The ``pyvenv`` command line utility and the :mod:`venv`
+module make use of the :mod:`ensurepip` module to make ``pip`` readily
+available in virtual environments. When using the command line utility,
+``pip`` is installed by default, while when using the :mod:`venv` module
+:ref:`venv-api` installation of ``pip`` must be requested explicitly.
+
+For CPython :ref:`source builds on POSIX systems <building-python-on-unix>`,
+the ``make install`` and ``make altinstall`` commands bootstrap ``pip`` by
+default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
+overridden through Makefile options.
+
+On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing
+``pip`` along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it
+during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the
+automatic ``PATH`` modifications to have ``pip`` available from the command
+line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python
+launcher for Windows as ``py -m pip``.
+
+As `discussed in the PEP`__, platform packagers may choose not to install
+these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and
+simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using
+the system package manager).
+
+__ https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors
+
+.. note::
+
+   To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3 installations,
+   only the versioned ``pip3`` and ``pip3.4`` commands are bootstrapped by
+   default when ``ensurepip`` is invoked directly - the ``--default-pip``
+   option is needed to also request the unversioned ``pip`` command.
+   ``pyvenv`` and the Windows installer ensure that the unqualified ``pip``
+   command is made available in those environments, and ``pip`` can always be
+   invoked via the ``-m`` switch rather than directly to avoid ambiguity on
+   systems with multiple Python installations.
+
+
+Documentation Changes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+As part of this change, the :ref:`installing-index` and
+:ref:`distributing-index` sections of the documentation have been
+completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most
+packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging
+Authority maintained `Python Packaging User Guide
+<https://packaging.python.org>`__ and the documentation of the individual
+projects.
+
+However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
+versions of those guides remaining available as :ref:`install-index`
+and :ref:`distutils-index`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`453` -- Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations
+      PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
+      Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-446:
+
+PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`446` makes newly created file descriptors :ref:`non-inheritable
+<fd_inheritance>`.  In general, this is the behavior an application will
+want: when launching a new process, having currently open files also
+open in the new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs,
+and potentially to security issues.
+
+However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired.  To support
+these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:
+
+* :func:`os.get_inheritable`, :func:`os.set_inheritable`
+* :func:`os.get_handle_inheritable`, :func:`os.set_handle_inheritable`
+* :meth:`socket.socket.get_inheritable`, :meth:`socket.socket.set_inheritable`
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`446` -- Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable
+      PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.
+
+
+.. _codec-handling-improvements:
+
+Improvements to Codec Handling
+------------------------------
+
+Since it was first introduced, the :mod:`codecs` module has always been
+intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding
+system. However, its close coupling with the Python text model, especially
+the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin :class:`str`,
+:class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray` types, has historically obscured that
+fact.
+
+As a key step in clarifying the situation, the :meth:`codecs.encode` and
+:meth:`codecs.decode` convenience functions are now properly documented in
+Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4. These functions have existed in the :mod:`codecs`
+module (and have been covered by the regression test suite) since Python 2.4,
+but were previously only discoverable through runtime introspection.
+
+Unlike the convenience methods on :class:`str`, :class:`bytes` and
+:class:`bytearray`, the :mod:`codecs` convenience functions support arbitrary
+codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than being limited to Unicode text
+encodings (in Python 3) or ``basestring`` <-> ``basestring`` conversions (in
+Python 2).
+
+In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text
+encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards these
+general purpose convenience functions when appropriate::
+
+    >>> b"abcdef".decode("hex")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs
+
+    >>> "hello".encode("rot13")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs
+
+    >>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs
+
+In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards
+compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations
+are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the
+name of the codec responsible for producing the error::
+
+    >>> import codecs
+
+    >>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode
+        return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input))
+    binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found
+
+    The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
+
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)
+
+    >>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2")
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode
+        return (bz2.compress(input), len(input))
+      File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress
+        return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush()
+    TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface
+
+    The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
+
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface)
+
+Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted
+the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs that
+were themselves restored in Python 3.2. This means that encoding binary data
+to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can now be written
+as::
+
+    >>> from codecs import encode, decode
+    >>> encode(b"hello", "hex")
+    b'68656c6c6f'
+    >>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex")
+    b'hello'
+
+The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are detailed
+in :ref:`binary-transforms` and :ref:`text-transforms`.
+
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`7475`, :issue:`17827`,
+:issue:`17828` and :issue:`19619`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-451:
+
+PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
+------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`451` provides an encapsulation of the information about a module that the
+import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module specification).  This
+helps simplify both the import implementation and several import-related APIs.
+The change is also a stepping stone for `several future import-related
+improvements`__.
+
+__ https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html
+
+The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible.
+Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer authors.  Key
+finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they will continue working.
+New importers should use the new methods described in the PEP.  Existing
+importers should be updated to implement the new methods.  See the
+:ref:`deprecated-3.4` section for a list of methods that should be replaced and
+their replacements.
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+----------------------
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.
+
+* :func:`min` and :func:`max` now accept a *default* keyword-only argument that
+  can be used to specify the value they return if the iterable they are
+  evaluating has no elements.  (Contributed by Julian Berman in
+  :issue:`18111`.)
+
+* Module objects are now :mod:`weakref`'able.
+
+* Module ``__file__`` attributes (and related values) should now always
+  contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of
+  ``__main__.__file__`` when a script has been executed directly using
+  a relative path.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`18416`.)
+
+* All the UTF-\* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during both
+  encoding and decoding unless the ``surrogatepass`` error handler is used,
+  with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts valid surrogate pairs)
+  and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them while encoding non-BMP characters).
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in
+  :issue:`12892`.)
+
+* New German EBCDIC :ref:`codec <standard-encodings>` ``cp273``.  (Contributed
+  by Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in :issue:`1097797`.)
+
+* New Ukrainian :ref:`codec <standard-encodings>` ``cp1125``.  (Contributed by
+  Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19668`.)
+
+* :class:`bytes`.join() and :class:`bytearray`.join() now accept arbitrary
+  buffer objects as arguments.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+  :issue:`15958`.)
+
+* The :class:`int` constructor now accepts any object that has an ``__index__``
+  method for its *base* argument.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
+  :issue:`16772`.)
+
+* Frame objects now have a :func:`~frame.clear` method that clears all
+  references to local variables from the frame.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+  in :issue:`17934`.)
+
+* :class:`memoryview` is now registered as a :class:`Sequence <collections.abc>`,
+  and supports the :func:`reversed` builtin.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan
+  and Claudiu Popa in :issue:`18690` and :issue:`19078`.)
+
+* Signatures reported by :func:`help` have been modified and improved in
+  several cases as a result of the introduction of Argument Clinic and other
+  changes to the :mod:`inspect` and :mod:`pydoc` modules.
+
+* :meth:`~object.__length_hint__` is now part of the formal language
+  specification (see :pep:`424`).  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
+  :issue:`16148`.)
+
+
+New Modules
+===========
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-asyncio:
+
+asyncio
+-------
+
+The new :mod:`asyncio` module (defined in :pep:`3156`) provides a standard
+pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid asynchronous IO
+support in the standard library, and making it easier for other event loop
+implementations to interoperate with the standard library and each other.
+
+For Python 3.4, this module is considered a :term:`provisional API`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3156` -- Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the "asyncio" Module
+      PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-ensurepip:
+
+ensurepip
+---------
+
+The new :mod:`ensurepip` module is the primary infrastructure for the
+:pep:`453` implementation.  In the normal course of events end users will not
+need to interact with this module, but it can be used to manually bootstrap
+``pip`` if the automated bootstrapping into an installation or virtual
+environment was declined.
+
+:mod:`ensurepip` includes a bundled copy of ``pip``, up-to-date as of the first
+release candidate of the release of CPython with which it ships (this applies
+to both maintenance releases and feature releases).  ``ensurepip`` does not
+access the internet.  If the installation has Internet access, after
+``ensurepip`` is run the bundled ``pip`` can be used to upgrade ``pip`` to a
+more recent release than the bundled one.  (Note that such an upgraded version
+of ``pip`` is considered to be a separately installed package and will not be
+removed if Python is uninstalled.)
+
+The module is named *ensure*\ pip because if called when ``pip`` is already
+installed, it does nothing.  It also has an ``--upgrade`` option that will
+cause it to install the bundled copy of ``pip`` if the existing installed
+version of ``pip`` is older than the bundled copy.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-enum:
+
+enum
+----
+
+The new :mod:`enum` module (defined in :pep:`435`) provides a standard
+implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules (such as
+:mod:`socket`) to provide more informative error messages and better
+debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with backwards
+compatible enumeration values.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`435` -- Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library
+      PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman,
+      implemented by Ethan Furman.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pathlib:
+
+pathlib
+-------
+
+The new :mod:`pathlib` module offers classes representing filesystem paths
+with semantics appropriate for different operating systems.  Path classes are
+divided between *pure paths*, which provide purely computational operations
+without I/O, and *concrete paths*, which inherit from pure paths but also
+provide I/O operations.
+
+For Python 3.4, this module is considered a :term:`provisional API`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`428` -- The pathlib module -- object-oriented filesystem paths
+      PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-selectors:
+
+selectors
+---------
+
+The new :mod:`selectors` module (created as part of implementing :pep:`3156`)
+allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the
+:mod:`select` module primitives.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-statistics:
+
+statistics
+----------
+
+The new :mod:`statistics` module (defined in :pep:`450`) offers some core
+statistics functionality directly in the standard library. This module
+supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and standard
+deviation of a data series.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`450` -- Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library
+      PEP written and implemented by Steven D'Aprano
+
+.. _whatsnew-tracemalloc:
+
+
+tracemalloc
+-----------
+
+The new :mod:`tracemalloc` module (defined in :pep:`454`) is a debug tool to
+trace memory blocks allocated by Python. It provides the following information:
+
+* Trace where an object was allocated
+* Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number:
+  total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks
+* Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`454` -- Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations
+      PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner
+
+
+
+Improved Modules
+================
+
+
+abc
+---
+
+New function :func:`abc.get_cache_token` can be used to know when to invalidate
+caches that are affected by changes in the object graph.  (Contributed
+by Łukasz Langa in :issue:`16832`.)
+
+New class :class:`~abc.ABC` has :class:`~abc.ABCMeta` as its meta class.
+Using ``ABC`` as a base class has essentially the same effect as specifying
+``metaclass=abc.ABCMeta``, but is simpler to type and easier to read.
+(Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in :issue:`16049`.)
+
+
+aifc
+----
+
+The :meth:`~aifc.aifc.getparams` method now returns a namedtuple rather than a
+plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`17818`.)
+
+:func:`aifc.open` now supports the context management protocol: when used in a
+:keyword:`with` block, the :meth:`~aifc.aifc.close` method of the returned
+object will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchacha in :issue:`16486`.)
+
+The :meth:`~aifc.aifc.writeframesraw` and :meth:`~aifc.aifc.writeframes`
+methods now accept any :term:`bytes-like object`.  (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in :issue:`8311`.)
+
+
+argparse
+--------
+
+The :class:`~argparse.FileType` class now accepts *encoding* and
+*errors* arguments, which are passed through to :func:`open`.  (Contributed
+by Lucas Maystre in :issue:`11175`.)
+
+
+audioop
+-------
+
+:mod:`audioop` now supports 24-bit samples.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+in :issue:`12866`.)
+
+New :func:`~audioop.byteswap` function converts big-endian samples to
+little-endian and vice versa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
+:issue:`19641`.)
+
+All :mod:`audioop` functions now accept any :term:`bytes-like object`.  Strings
+are not accepted: they didn't work before, now they raise an error right away.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`16685`.)
+
+
+base64
+------
+
+The encoding and decoding functions in :mod:`base64` now accept any
+:term:`bytes-like object` in cases where it previously required a
+:class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` instance.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
+:issue:`17839`.)
+
+New functions :func:`~base64.a85encode`, :func:`~base64.a85decode`,
+:func:`~base64.b85encode`, and :func:`~base64.b85decode` provide the ability to
+encode and decode binary data from and to ``Ascii85`` and the git/mercurial
+``Base85`` formats, respectively.  The ``a85`` functions have options that can
+be used to make them compatible with the variants of the ``Ascii85`` encoding,
+including the Adobe variant.  (Contributed by Martin Morrison, the Mercurial
+project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`17618`.)
+
+
+collections
+-----------
+
+The :meth:`.ChainMap.new_child` method now accepts an *m* argument specifying
+the child map to add to the chain.  This allows an existing mapping and/or a
+custom mapping type to be used for the child.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
+:issue:`16613`.)
+
+
+colorsys
+--------
+
+The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB --- YIQ conversions have
+been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions.  The change in
+results should be less than 1% and may better match results found elsewhere.
+(Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`14323`.)
+
+
+contextlib
+----------
+
+The new :class:`contextlib.suppress` context manager helps to clarify the
+intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single
+statement.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`15806` and
+Zero Piraeus in :issue:`19266`.)
+
+The new :func:`contextlib.redirect_stdout` context manager makes it easier
+for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to
+:data:`sys.stdout` and don't provide any options to redirect it.  Using the
+context manager, the :data:`sys.stdout` output can be redirected to any
+other stream or, in conjunction with :class:`io.StringIO`, to a string.
+The latter can be especially useful, for example, to capture output
+from a function that was written to implement a command line interface.
+It is recommended only for utility scripts because it affects the
+global state of :data:`sys.stdout`.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
+in :issue:`15805`.)
+
+The :mod:`contextlib` documentation has also been updated to include a
+:ref:`discussion <single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms>` of the
+differences between single use, reusable and reentrant context managers.
+
+
+dbm
+---
+
+:func:`dbm.open` objects now support the context management protocol.  When
+used in a :keyword:`with` statement, the ``close`` method of the database
+object will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
+Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in :issue:`19282`.)
+
+
+dis
+---
+
+Functions :func:`~dis.show_code`, :func:`~dis.dis`, :func:`~dis.distb`, and
+:func:`~dis.disassemble` now accept a keyword-only *file* argument that
+controls where they write their output.
+
+The :mod:`dis` module is now built around an :class:`~dis.Instruction` class
+that provides object oriented access to the details of each individual bytecode
+operation.
+
+A new method, :func:`~dis.get_instructions`, provides an iterator that emits
+the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code.  Thus it is now
+possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a bytecode
+object in ways different from those provided by the :mod:`~dis` module
+itself.  For example::
+
+    >>> import dis
+    >>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1):
+    ...     print(instr.opname)
+    LOAD_FAST
+    LOAD_CONST
+    BINARY_ADD
+    RETURN_VALUE
+
+The various display tools in the :mod:`dis` module have been rewritten to use
+these new components.
+
+In addition, a new application-friendly class :class:`~dis.Bytecode` provides
+an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in human-readable form
+and for iterating over instructions.  The :class:`~dis.Bytecode` constructor
+takes the same arguments that :func:`~dis.get_instruction` does (plus an
+optional *current_offset*), and the resulting object can be iterated to produce
+:class:`~dis.Instruction` objects.  But it also has a :mod:`~dis.Bytecode.dis`
+method, equivalent to calling :mod:`~dis.dis` on the constructor argument, but
+returned as a multi-line string::
+
+    >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3)
+    >>> for instr in bytecode:
+    ...     print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode))
+    LOAD_FAST (124)
+    LOAD_CONST (100)
+    BINARY_ADD (23)
+    RETURN_VALUE (83)
+    >>> bytecode.dis().splitlines()       # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+    ['  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)',
+     '      -->     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)',
+     '              6 BINARY_ADD',
+     '              7 RETURN_VALUE']
+
+:class:`~dis.Bytecode` also has a class method,
+:meth:`~dis.Bytecode.from_traceback`, that provides the ability to manipulate a
+traceback (that is, ``print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())`` is equivalent
+to ``distb(tb)``).
+
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in :issue:`11816`
+and Claudiu Popa in :issue:`17916`.)
+
+New function :func:`~dis.stack_effect` computes the effect on the Python stack
+of a given opcode and argument, information that is not otherwise available.
+(Contributed by Larry Hastings in :issue:`19722`.)
+
+
+doctest
+-------
+
+A new :ref:`option flag <doctest-options>`, :data:`~doctest.FAIL_FAST`, halts
+test running as soon as the first failure is detected.  (Contributed by R.
+David Murray and Daniel Urban in :issue:`16522`.)
+
+The :mod:`doctest` command line interface now uses :mod:`argparse`, and has two
+new options, ``-o`` and ``-f``.  ``-o`` allows :ref:`doctest options
+<doctest-options>` to be specified on the command line, and ``-f`` is a
+shorthand for ``-o FAIL_FAST`` (to parallel the similar option supported by the
+:mod:`unittest` CLI).  (Contributed by R. David Murray in :issue:`11390`.)
+
+:mod:`doctest` will now find doctests in extension module ``__doc__`` strings.
+(Contributed by Zachary Ware in :issue:`3158`.)
+
+
+email
+-----
+
+:meth:`~email.message.Message.as_string` now accepts a *policy* argument to
+override the default policy of the message when generating a string
+representation of it.  This means that ``as_string`` can now be used in more
+circumstances, instead of having to create and use a :mod:`~email.generator` in
+order to pass formatting parameters to its ``flatten`` method.  (Contributed by
+R. David Murray in :issue:`18600`.)
+
+New method :meth:`~email.message.Message.as_bytes` added to produce a bytes
+representation of the message in a fashion similar to how ``as_string``
+produces a string representation.  It does not accept the *maxheaderlen*
+argument, but does accept the *unixfrom* and *policy* arguments. The
+:class:`~email.message.Message` :meth:`~email.message.Message.__bytes__` method
+calls it, meaning that ``bytes(mymsg)`` will now produce the intuitive
+result:  a bytes object containing the fully formatted message.  (Contributed
+by R. David Murray in :issue:`18600`.)
+
+The :meth:`.Message.set_param` message now accepts a *replace* keyword argument.
+When specified, the associated header will be updated without changing
+its location in the list of headers.  For backward compatibility, the default
+is ``False``.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in :issue:`18891`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew_email_contentmanager:
+
+A pair of new subclasses of :class:`~email.message.Message` have been added
+(:class:`.EmailMessage` and :class:`.MIMEPart`), along with a new sub-module,
+:mod:`~email.contentmanager` and a new :mod:`~email.policy` attribute
+:attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager`.  All documentation is
+currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email's new
+:term:`provisional API`.  These classes provide a number of new methods that
+make extracting content from and inserting content into email messages much
+easier.  For details, see the :mod:`~email.contentmanager` documentation and
+the :ref:`email-examples`.  These API additions complete the
+bulk of the work that was planned as part of the email6 project.  The currently
+provisional API is scheduled to become final in Python 3.5 (possibly with a few
+minor additions in the area of error handling).  (Contributed by R. David
+Murray in :issue:`18891`.)
+
+
+filecmp
+-------
+
+A new :func:`~filecmp.clear_cache` function provides the ability to clear the
+:mod:`filecmp` comparison cache, which uses :func:`os.stat` information to
+determine if the file has changed since the last compare.  This can be used,
+for example, if the file might have been changed and re-checked in less time
+than the resolution of a particular filesystem's file modification time field.
+(Contributed by Mark Levitt in :issue:`18149`.)
+
+New module attribute :data:`~filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES` provides the list of
+directories that are used as the default value for the *ignore* parameter of
+the :func:`~filecmp.dircmp` function.  (Contributed by Eli Bendersky in
+:issue:`15442`.)
+
+
+functools
+---------
+
+The new :func:`~functools.partialmethod` descriptor brings partial argument
+application to descriptors, just as :func:`~functools.partial` provides
+for normal callables. The new descriptor also makes it easier to get
+arbitrary callables (including :func:`~functools.partial` instances)
+to behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition.
+(Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in :issue:`4331`.)
+
+.. _whatsnew-singledispatch:
+
+The new :func:`~functools.singledispatch` decorator brings support for
+single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library. Where
+object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a
+common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping
+multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with
+*different* kinds of data.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`443` -- Single-dispatch generic functions
+      PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.
+
+:func:`~functools.total_ordering` now supports a return value of
+:const:`NotImplemented` from the underlying comparison function.  (Contributed
+by Katie Miller in :issue:`10042`.)
+
+A pure-python version of the :func:`~functools.partial` function is now in the
+stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version, but it is
+available for other implementations to use.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in
+:issue:`12428`.)
+
+
+gc
+--
+
+New function :func:`~gc.get_stats` returns a list of three per-generation
+dictionaries containing the collections statistics since interpreter startup.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`16351`.)
+
+
+glob
+----
+
+A new function :func:`~glob.escape` provides a way to escape special characters
+in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing expansion but are
+instead matched literally.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`8402`.)
+
+
+hashlib
+-------
+
+A new :func:`hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac` function provides
+the `PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2>`_.  (Contributed by Christian
+Heimes in :issue:`18582`.)
+
+The :attr:`~hashlib.hash.name` attribute of :mod:`hashlib` hash objects is now
+a formally supported interface.  It has always existed in CPython's
+:mod:`hashlib` (although it did not return lower case names for all supported
+hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other Python
+implementations have not previously supported it.  (Contributed by Jason R.
+Coombs in :issue:`18532`.)
+
+
+hmac
+----
+
+:mod:`hmac` now accepts ``bytearray`` as well as ``bytes`` for the *key*
+argument to the :func:`~hmac.new` function, and the *msg* parameter to both the
+:func:`~hmac.new` function and the :meth:`~hmac.HMAC.update` method now
+accepts any type supported by the :mod:`hashlib` module.  (Contributed
+by Jonas Borgström in :issue:`18240`.)
+
+The *digestmod* argument to the :func:`hmac.new` function may now be any hash
+digest name recognized by :mod:`hashlib`.  In addition, the current behavior in
+which the value of *digestmod* defaults to ``MD5`` is deprecated: in a
+future version of Python there will be no default value.  (Contributed by
+Christian Heimes in :issue:`17276`.)
+
+With the addition of :attr:`~hmac.HMAC.block_size` and :attr:`~hmac.HMAC.name`
+attributes (and the formal documentation of the :attr:`~hmac.HMAC.digest_size`
+attribute), the :mod:`hmac` module now conforms fully to the :pep:`247` API.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`18775`.)
+
+
+html
+----
+
+New function :func:`~html.unescape` function converts HTML5 character references to
+the corresponding Unicode characters.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in
+:issue:`2927`.)
+
+:class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser` accepts a new keyword argument
+*convert_charrefs* that, when ``True``, automatically converts all character
+references.  For backward-compatibility, its value defaults to ``False``, but
+it will change to ``True`` in a future version of Python, so you are invited to
+set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature.  (Contributed
+by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`13633`.)
+
+The *strict* argument of :class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser` is now deprecated.
+(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`15114`.)
+
+
+http
+----
+
+:meth:`~http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error` now accepts an
+optional additional *explain* parameter which can be used to provide an
+extended error description, overriding the hardcoded default if there is one.
+This extended error description will be formatted using the
+:attr:`~http.server.HTTP.error_message_format` attribute and sent as the body
+of the error response.  (Contributed by Karl Cow in :issue:`12921`.)
+
+The :mod:`http.server` :ref:`command line interface <http-server-cli>` now has
+a ``-b/--bind`` option that causes the server to listen on a specific address.
+(Contributed by Malte Swart in :issue:`17764`.)
+
+
+idlelib and IDLE
+----------------
+
+Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for
+import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release. See
+:file:`Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt` for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0,
+as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases. This file is also available
+from the IDLE :menuselection:`Help --> About IDLE` dialog.
+
+
+importlib
+---------
+
+The :class:`~importlib.abc.InspectLoader` ABC defines a new method,
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code` that accepts source
+data and a path and returns a code object.  The default implementation
+is equivalent to ``compile(data, path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True)``.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett Cannon in :issue:`15627`.)
+
+:class:`~importlib.abc.InspectLoader` also now has a default implementation
+for the :meth:`~importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code` method.  However,
+it will normally be desirable to override the default implementation
+for performance reasons.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`18072`.)
+
+The :func:`~importlib.reload` function has been moved from :mod:`imp` to
+:mod:`importlib` as part of the :mod:`imp` module deprecation.  (Contributed by
+Berker Peksag in :issue:`18193`.)
+
+:mod:`importlib.util` now has a :data:`~importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER` attribute
+providing access to the bytecode version number.  This replaces the
+:func:`~imp.get_magic` function in the deprecated :mod:`imp` module.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`18192`.)
+
+New :mod:`importlib.util` functions :func:`~importlib.util.cache_from_source`
+and :func:`~importlib.util.source_from_cache` replace the same-named functions
+in the deprecated :mod:`imp` module.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
+:issue:`18194`.)
+
+The :mod:`importlib` bootstrap :class:`.NamespaceLoader` now conforms to
+the :class:`.InspectLoader` ABC, which means that ``runpy`` and
+``python -m`` can now be used with namespace packages.  (Contributed
+by Brett Cannon in :issue:`18058`.)
+
+:mod:`importlib.util` has a new function :func:`~importlib.util.decode_source`
+that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing.  This is
+useful for implementing :meth:`.InspectLoader.get_source` methods.
+
+:class:`importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader` now has a
+:meth:`~importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_filename` method.  This was
+inadvertently omitted in the original implementation.  (Contributed by Eric
+Snow in :issue:`19152`.)
+
+
+inspect
+-------
+
+The :mod:`inspect` module now offers a basic :ref:`command line interface
+<inspect-module-cli>` to quickly display source code and other
+information for modules, classes and functions.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa
+and Nick Coghlan in :issue:`18626`.)
+
+:func:`~inspect.unwrap` makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains
+created by :func:`functools.wraps` (and any other API that sets the
+``__wrapped__`` attribute on a wrapper function).  (Contributed by
+Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in :issue:`13266`.)
+
+As part of the implementation of the new :mod:`enum` module, the
+:mod:`inspect` module now has substantially better support for custom
+``__dir__`` methods and dynamic class attributes provided through
+metaclasses.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in :issue:`18929` and
+:issue:`19030`.)
+
+:func:`~inspect.getfullargspec` and :func:`~inspect.getargspec`
+now use the :func:`~inspect.signature` API. This allows them to
+support a much broader range of callables, including those with
+``__signature__`` attributes, those with metadata provided by argument
+clinic, :func:`functools.partial` objects and more. Note that, unlike
+:func:`~inspect.signature`, these functions still ignore ``__wrapped__``
+attributes, and report the already bound first argument for bound methods,
+so it is still necessary to update your code to use
+:func:`~inspect.signature` directly if those features are desired.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`17481`.)
+
+:func:`~inspect.signature` now supports duck types of CPython functions,
+which adds support for functions compiled with Cython.  (Contributed
+by Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in :issue:`17159`.)
+
+
+ipaddress
+---------
+
+:mod:`ipaddress` was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as a
+:term:`provisional API`. With the release of Python 3.4, this qualification
+has been removed: :mod:`ipaddress` is now considered a stable API, covered
+by the normal standard library requirements to maintain backwards
+compatibility.
+
+A new :attr:`~ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global` property is ``True`` if
+an address is globally routeable.  (Contributed by Peter Moody in
+:issue:`17400`.)
+
+
+logging
+-------
+
+The :class:`~logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler` has a new *atTime*
+parameter that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should
+happen.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in :issue:`9556`.)
+
+:class:`~logging.handlers.SocketHandler` and
+:class:`~logging.handlers.DatagramHandler` now support Unix domain sockets (by
+setting *port* to ``None``).  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in commit
+ce46195b56a9.)
+
+:func:`~logging.config.fileConfig` now accepts a
+:class:`configparser.RawConfigParser` subclass instance for the *fname*
+parameter.  This facilitates using a configuration file when logging
+configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration, or where
+the application modifies the configuration before passing it to
+:func:`~logging.config.fileConfig`.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
+:issue:`16110`.)
+
+Logging configuration data received from a socket via the
+:func:`logging.config.listen` function can now be validated before being
+processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the new
+*verify* keyword argument.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in :issue:`15452`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-marshal-3:
+
+marshal
+-------
+
+The default :mod:`marshal` version has been bumped to 3.  The code implementing
+the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording only one copy of
+interned strings and preserving the interning on deserialization, and extends
+this "one copy" ability to any object type (including handling recursive
+references).  This reduces both the size of ``.pyc`` files and the amount of
+memory a module occupies in memory when it is loaded from a ``.pyc`` (or
+``.pyo``) file.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson in :issue:`16475`,
+with additional speedups by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`19219`.)
+
+
+mmap
+----
+
+mmap objects can now be :mod:`weakref`\ ed.  (Contributed by Valerie Lambert in
+:issue:`4885`.)
+
+
+multiprocessing
+---------------
+
+.. _whatsnew-multiprocessing-no-fork:
+
+On Unix two new :ref:`start methods <multiprocessing-start-methods>`,
+``spawn`` and ``forkserver``, have been added for starting processes using
+:mod:`multiprocessing`.  These make the mixing of processes with threads more
+robust, and the ``spawn`` method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has
+always used on Windows.  New function
+:func:`~multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods` reports all start methods
+available on the platform, :func:`~multiprocessing.get_start_method` reports
+the current start method, and :func:`~multiprocessing.set_start_method` sets
+the start method.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`8713`.)
+
+:mod:`multiprocessing` also now has the concept of a ``context``, which
+determines how child processes are created.  New function
+:func:`~multiprocessing.get_context` returns a context that uses a specified
+start method.  It has the same API as the :mod:`multiprocessing` module itself,
+so you can use it to create :class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool`\ s and other
+objects that will operate within that context.  This allows a framework and an
+application or different parts of the same application to use multiprocessing
+without interfering with each other.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in
+:issue:`18999`.)
+
+Except when using the old *fork* start method, child processes no longer
+inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of
+:issue:`8713`).
+
+:mod:`multiprocessing` now relies on :mod:`runpy` (which implements the
+``-m`` switch) to initialise ``__main__`` appropriately in child processes
+when using the ``spawn`` or ``forkserver`` start methods. This resolves some
+edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the ``-m`` command line switch,
+and explicit relative imports could cause obscure failures in child
+processes.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`19946`.)
+
+
+operator
+--------
+
+New function :func:`~operator.length_hint` provides an implementation of the
+specification for how the :meth:`~object.__length_hint__` special method should
+be used, as part of the :pep:`424` formal specification of this language
+feature.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in :issue:`16148`.)
+
+There is now a pure-python version of the :mod:`operator` module available for
+reference and for use by alternate implementations of Python.  (Contributed by
+Zachary Ware in :issue:`16694`.)
+
+
+os
+--
+
+There are new functions to get and set the :ref:`inheritable flag
+<fd_inheritance>` of a file descriptor (:func:`os.get_inheritable`,
+:func:`os.set_inheritable`) or a Windows handle
+(:func:`os.get_handle_inheritable`, :func:`os.set_handle_inheritable`).
+
+New function :func:`~os.cpu_count` reports the number of CPUs available on the
+platform on which Python is running (or ``None`` if the count can't be
+determined).  The :func:`multiprocessing.cpu_count` function is now implemented
+in terms of this function).  (Contributed by Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari,
+Victor Stinner, and Charles-François Natali in :issue:`17914`.)
+
+:func:`os.path.samestat` is now available on the Windows platform (and the
+:func:`os.path.samefile` implementation is now shared between Unix and
+Windows).  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in :issue:`11939`.)
+
+:func:`os.path.ismount` now recognizes volumes mounted below a drive
+root on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Golden in :issue:`9035`.)
+
+:func:`os.open` supports two new flags on platforms that provide them,
+:data:`~os.O_PATH` (un-opened file descriptor), and :data:`~os.O_TMPFILE`
+(unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available only on Linux systems
+with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have uapi headers).  (Contributed
+by Christian Heimes in :issue:`18673` and Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)
+
+
+pdb
+---
+
+:mod:`pdb` has been enhanced to handle generators, :keyword:`yield`, and
+``yield from`` in a more useful fashion.  This is especially helpful when
+debugging :mod:`asyncio` based programs.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov and
+Xavier de Gaye in :issue:`16596`.)
+
+The ``print`` command has been removed from :mod:`pdb`, restoring access to the
+Python :func:`print` function from the pdb command line.  Python2's ``pdb`` did
+not have a ``print`` command; instead, entering ``print`` executed the
+``print`` statement.  In Python3 ``print`` was mistakenly made an alias for the
+pdb :pdbcmd:`p` command.  ``p``, however, prints the ``repr`` of its argument,
+not the ``str`` like the Python2 ``print`` command did.  Worse, the Python3
+``pdb print`` command shadowed the Python3 ``print`` function, making it
+inaccessible at the ``pdb`` prompt.  (Contributed by Connor Osborn in
+:issue:`18764`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-protocol-4:
+
+pickle
+------
+
+:mod:`pickle` now supports (but does not use by default) a new pickle protocol,
+protocol 4.  This new protocol addresses a number of issues that were present
+in previous protocols, such as the serialization of nested classes, very large
+strings and containers, and classes whose :meth:`__new__` method takes
+keyword-only arguments.  It also provides some efficiency improvements.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`3154` -- Pickle protocol 4
+      PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre Vassalotti.
+
+
+plistlib
+--------
+
+:mod:`plistlib` now has an API that is similar to the standard pattern for
+stdlib serialization protocols, with new :func:`~plistlib.load`,
+:func:`~plistlib.dump`, :func:`~plistlib.loads`, and :func:`~plistlib.dumps`
+functions.  (The older API is now deprecated.)  In addition to the already
+supported XML plist format (:data:`~plistlib.FMT_XML`), it also now supports
+the binary plist format (:data:`~plistlib.FMT_BINARY`).  (Contributed by Ronald
+Oussoren and others in :issue:`14455`.)
+
+
+poplib
+------
+
+Two new methods have been added to :mod:`poplib`: :meth:`~poplib.POP3.capa`,
+which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and
+:meth:`~poplib.POP3.stls`, which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an
+encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it.  (Contributed by Lorenzo
+Catucci in :issue:`4473`.)
+
+
+pprint
+------
+
+The :mod:`pprint` module's :class:`~pprint.PrettyPrinter` class and its
+:func:`~pprint.pformat`, and :func:`~pprint.pprint` functions have a new
+option, *compact*, that controls how the output is formatted.  Currently
+setting *compact* to ``True`` means that sequences will be printed with as many
+sequence elements as will fit within *width* on each (indented) line.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19132`.)
+
+Long strings are now wrapped using Python's normal line continuation
+syntax.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`17150`.)
+
+
+pty
+---
+
+:func:`pty.spawn` now returns the status value from :func:`os.waitpid` on
+the child process, instead of ``None``.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)
+
+
+pydoc
+-----
+
+The :mod:`pydoc` module is now based directly on the :func:`inspect.signature`
+introspection API, allowing it to provide signature information for a wider
+variety of callable objects. This change also means that ``__wrapped__``
+attributes are now taken into account when displaying help information.
+(Contributed by Larry Hastings in :issue:`19674`.)
+
+The :mod:`pydoc` module no longer displays the ``self`` parameter for
+already bound methods. Instead, it aims to always display the exact current
+signature of the supplied callable.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in
+:issue:`20710`.)
+
+In addition to the changes that have been made to :mod:`pydoc` directly,
+its handling of custom ``__dir__`` methods and various descriptor
+behaviours has also been improved substantially by the underlying changes in
+the :mod:`inspect` module.
+
+As the :func:`help` builtin is based on :mod:`pydoc`, the above changes also
+affect the behaviour of :func:`help`.
+
+
+re
+--
+
+New :func:`~re.fullmatch` function and :meth:`.regex.fullmatch` method anchor
+the pattern at both ends of the string to match.  This provides a way to be
+explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of subtle bugs where
+``$`` characters get lost during code changes or the addition of alternatives
+to an existing regular expression.  (Contributed by Matthew Barnett in
+:issue:`16203`.)
+
+The repr of :ref:`regex objects <re-objects>` now includes the pattern
+and the flags; the repr of :ref:`match objects <match-objects>` now
+includes the start, end, and the part of the string that matched.  (Contributed
+by Hugo Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`13592` and
+:issue:`17087`.)
+
+
+resource
+--------
+
+New :func:`~resource.prlimit` function, available on Linux platforms with a
+kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides the
+ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than the one
+making the call.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`16595`.)
+
+On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new
+Linux specific constants: :attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE`,
+:attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_NICE`, :attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO`,
+:attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME`, and :attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING`.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`19324`.)
+
+On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific constants:
+:attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE`, :attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_SWAP`, and
+:attr:`~resource.RLIMIT_NPTS`.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
+:issue:`19343`.)
+
+
+select
+------
+
+:class:`~select.epoll` objects now support the context management protocol.
+When used in a :keyword:`with` statement, the :meth:`~select.epoll.close`
+method will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed
+by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`16488`.)
+
+:class:`~select.devpoll` objects now have :meth:`~select.devpoll.fileno` and
+:meth:`~select.devpoll.close` methods, as well as a new attribute
+:attr:`~select.devpoll.closed`.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+:issue:`18794`.)
+
+
+shelve
+------
+
+:class:`~shelve.Shelf` instances may now be used in :keyword:`with` statements,
+and will be automatically closed at the end of the :keyword:`!with` block.
+(Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in :issue:`13896`.)
+
+
+shutil
+------
+
+:func:`~shutil.copyfile` now raises a specific :exc:`~shutil.Error` subclass,
+:exc:`~shutil.SameFileError`, when the source and destination are the same
+file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this specific
+error.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in
+:issue:`1492704`.)
+
+
+smtpd
+-----
+
+The :class:`~smtpd.SMTPServer` and :class:`~smtpd.SMTPChannel` classes now
+accept a *map* keyword argument which, if specified, is passed in to
+:class:`asynchat.async_chat` as its *map* argument.  This allows an application
+to avoid affecting the global socket map.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
+:issue:`11959`.)
+
+
+smtplib
+-------
+
+:exc:`~smtplib.SMTPException` is now a subclass of :exc:`OSError`, which allows
+both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be caught in one
+try/except statement by code that only cares whether or not an error occurred.
+(Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in :issue:`2118`.)
+
+
+socket
+------
+
+The socket module now supports the :data:`~socket.CAN_BCM` protocol on
+platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in :issue:`15359`.)
+
+Socket objects have new methods to get or set their :ref:`inheritable flag
+<fd_inheritance>`, :meth:`~socket.socket.get_inheritable` and
+:meth:`~socket.socket.set_inheritable`.
+
+The ``socket.AF_*`` and ``socket.SOCK_*`` constants are now enumeration values
+using the new :mod:`enum` module.  This allows meaningful names to be printed
+during debugging, instead of integer "magic numbers".
+
+The :data:`~socket.AF_LINK` constant is now available on BSD and OSX.
+
+:func:`~socket.inet_pton` and :func:`~socket.inet_ntop` are now supported
+on Windows.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in :issue:`7171`.)
+
+
+sqlite3
+-------
+
+A new boolean parameter to the :func:`~sqlite3.connect` function, *uri*, can be
+used to indicate that the *database* parameter is a ``uri`` (see the `SQLite
+URI documentation <https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html>`_).  (Contributed by poq in
+:issue:`13773`.)
+
+
+ssl
+---
+
+.. _whatsnew-tls-11-12:
+
+:data:`~ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1` and :data:`~ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2` (TLSv1.1 and
+TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is only available if
+Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later.  (Contributed by Michele Orrù and
+Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`16692`.)
+
+.. _whatsnew34-sslcontext:
+
+New function :func:`~ssl.create_default_context` provides a standard way to
+obtain an :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` whose settings are intended to be a
+reasonable balance between compatibility and security.  These settings are
+more stringent than the defaults provided by the :class:`~ssl.SSLContext`
+constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior deprecation, if
+best-practice security requirements change.  The new recommended best
+practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is to use
+:func:`~ssl.create_default_context` to obtain an :class:`~ssl.SSLContext`
+object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the *context* argument
+of the appropriate stdlib API.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
+in :issue:`19689`.)
+
+:class:`~ssl.SSLContext` method :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations`
+accepts a new optional argument *cadata*, which can be used to provide PEM or
+DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes, respectively.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`18138`.)
+
+New function :func:`~ssl.get_default_verify_paths` returns
+a named tuple of the paths and environment variables that the
+:meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths` method uses to set
+OpenSSL's default ``cafile`` and ``capath``.  This can be an aid in
+debugging default verification issues.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
+in :issue:`18143`.)
+
+:class:`~ssl.SSLContext` has a new method,
+:meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats`, that reports the number of loaded
+``X.509`` certs, ``X.509 CA`` certs, and certificate revocation lists
+(``crl``\ s), as well as a :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs` method that
+returns a list of the loaded ``CA`` certificates.  (Contributed by Christian
+Heimes in :issue:`18147`.)
+
+If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` has a new
+attribute :attr:`~ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags` that can be used to control the
+certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of the new
+constants :data:`~ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT`, :data:`~ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF`,
+:data:`~ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN`, or :data:`~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT`.
+OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by default.  (Contributed by
+Christien Heimes in :issue:`8813`.)
+
+New :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` method :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs`
+loads a set of default "certificate authority" (CA) certificates from default
+locations, which vary according to the platform.  It can be used to load both
+TLS web server authentication certificates
+(``purpose=``:data:`~ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH`) for a client to use to verify a
+server, and certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates
+(``purpose=``:data:`~ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH`).  (Contributed by Christian
+Heimes in :issue:`19292`.)
+
+.. _whatsnew34-win-cert-store:
+
+Two new windows-only functions, :func:`~ssl.enum_certificates` and
+:func:`~ssl.enum_crls` provide the ability to retrieve certificates,
+certificate information, and CRLs from the Windows cert store.  (Contributed
+by Christian Heimes in :issue:`17134`.)
+
+.. _whatsnew34-sni:
+
+Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) using the new
+:meth:`ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback` method.
+(Contributed by Daniel Black in :issue:`8109`.)
+
+The dictionary returned by :meth:`.SSLSocket.getpeercert` contains additional
+``X509v3`` extension items: ``crlDistributionPoints``, ``calIssuers``, and
+``OCSP`` URIs.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`18379`.)
+
+
+stat
+----
+
+The :mod:`stat` module is now backed by a C implementation in :mod:`_stat`. A C
+implementation is required as most of the values aren't standardized and
+are platform-dependent.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`11016`.)
+
+The module supports new :mod:`~stat.ST_MODE` flags, :mod:`~stat.S_IFDOOR`,
+:attr:`~stat.S_IFPORT`, and :attr:`~stat.S_IFWHT`.  (Contributed by
+Christian Hiemes in :issue:`11016`.)
+
+
+struct
+------
+
+New function :mod:`~struct.iter_unpack` and a new
+:meth:`struct.Struct.iter_unpack` method on compiled formats provide streamed
+unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given format of data.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`17804`.)
+
+
+subprocess
+----------
+
+:func:`~subprocess.check_output` now accepts an *input* argument that can
+be used to provide the contents of ``stdin`` for the command that is run.
+(Contributed by Zack Weinberg in :issue:`16624`.)
+
+:func:`~subprocess.getstatus` and :func:`~subprocess.getstatusoutput` now
+work on Windows.  This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4.
+(Contributed by Tim Golden in :issue:`10197`.)
+
+
+sunau
+-----
+
+The :meth:`~sunau.getparams` method now returns a namedtuple rather than a
+plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`18901`.)
+
+:meth:`sunau.open` now supports the context management protocol: when used in a
+:keyword:`with` block, the ``close`` method of the returned object will be
+called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+in :issue:`18878`.)
+
+:meth:`.AU_write.setsampwidth` now supports 24 bit samples, thus adding
+support for writing 24 sample using the module.  (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19261`.)
+
+The :meth:`~sunau.AU_write.writeframesraw` and
+:meth:`~sunau.AU_write.writeframes` methods now accept any :term:`bytes-like
+object`.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`8311`.)
+
+
+sys
+---
+
+New function :func:`sys.getallocatedblocks` returns the current number of
+blocks allocated by the interpreter.  (In CPython with the default
+``--with-pymalloc`` setting, this is allocations made through the
+:c:func:`PyObject_Malloc` API.)  This can be useful for tracking memory leaks,
+especially if automated via a test suite.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+in :issue:`13390`.)
+
+When the Python interpreter starts in :ref:`interactive mode
+<tut-interactive>`, it checks for an :data:`~sys.__interactivehook__` attribute
+on the :mod:`sys` module.  If the attribute exists, its value is called with no
+arguments just before interactive mode is started.  The check is made after the
+:envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` file is read, so it can be set there.  The :mod:`site`
+module :ref:`sets it <rlcompleter-config>` to a function that enables tab
+completion and history saving (in :file:`~/.python-history`) if the platform
+supports :mod:`readline`.  If you do not want this (new) behavior, you can
+override it in :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP`, :mod:`sitecustomize`, or
+:mod:`usercustomize` by deleting this attribute from :mod:`sys` (or setting it
+to some other callable).  (Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in
+:issue:`5845`.)
+
+
+tarfile
+-------
+
+The :mod:`tarfile` module now supports a simple :ref:`tarfile-commandline` when
+called as a script directly or via ``-m``.  This can be used to create and
+extract tarfile archives.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`13477`.)
+
+
+textwrap
+--------
+
+The :class:`~textwrap.TextWrapper` class has two new attributes/constructor
+arguments: :attr:`~textwrap.TextWrapper.max_lines`, which limits the number of
+lines in the output, and :attr:`~textwrap.TextWrapper.placeholder`, which is a
+string that will appear at the end of the output if it has been truncated
+because of *max_lines*.  Building on these capabilities, a new convenience
+function :func:`~textwrap.shorten` collapses all of the whitespace in the input
+to single spaces and produces a single line of a given *width* that ends with
+the *placeholder* (by default, ``[...]``).  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and
+Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`18585` and :issue:`18725`.)
+
+
+threading
+---------
+
+The :class:`~threading.Thread` object representing the main thread can be
+obtained from the new :func:`~threading.main_thread` function.  In normal
+conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was
+started.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`18882`.)
+
+
+traceback
+---------
+
+A new :func:`traceback.clear_frames` function takes a traceback object
+and clears the local variables in all of the frames it references,
+reducing the amount of memory consumed.  (Contributed by Andrew Kuchling in
+:issue:`1565525`.)
+
+
+types
+-----
+
+A new :func:`~types.DynamicClassAttribute` descriptor provides a way to define
+an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an instance object, but
+which is routed to the *class* ``__getattr__`` when looked up through the
+class.  This allows one to have properties active on a class, and have virtual
+attributes on the class with the same name (see :mod:`Enum` for an example).
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in :issue:`19030`.)
+
+
+urllib
+------
+
+:mod:`urllib.request` now supports ``data:`` URLs via the
+:class:`~urllib.request.DataHandler` class.  (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck
+in :issue:`16423`.)
+
+The http method that will be used by a :class:`~urllib.request.Request` class
+can now be specified by setting a :class:`~urllib.request.Request.method`
+class attribute on the subclass.  (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in
+:issue:`18978`.)
+
+:class:`~urllib.request.Request` objects are now reusable: if the
+:attr:`~urllib.request.Request.full_url` or :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.data`
+attributes are modified, all relevant internal properties are updated.  This
+means, for example, that it is now possible to use the same
+:class:`~urllib.request.Request` object in more than one
+:meth:`.OpenerDirector.open` call with different *data* arguments, or to
+modify a :class:`~urllib.request.Request`\ 's ``url`` rather than recomputing it
+from scratch.  There is also a new
+:meth:`~urllib.request.Request.remove_header` method that can be used to remove
+headers from a :class:`~urllib.request.Request`.  (Contributed by Alexey
+Kachayev in :issue:`16464`, Daniel Wozniak in :issue:`17485`, and Damien Brecht
+and Senthil Kumaran in :issue:`17272`.)
+
+:class:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` objects now have a
+:attr:`~urllib.error.HTTPError.headers` attribute that provides access to the
+HTTP response headers associated with the error.  (Contributed by
+Berker Peksag in :issue:`15701`.)
+
+
+unittest
+--------
+
+The :class:`~unittest.TestCase` class has a new method,
+:meth:`~unittest.TestCase.subTest`, that produces a context manager whose
+:keyword:`with` block becomes a "sub-test".  This context manager allows a test
+method to dynamically generate subtests  by, say, calling the ``subTest``
+context manager inside a loop.  A single test method can thereby produce an
+indefinite number of separately-identified and separately-counted tests, all of
+which will run even if one or more of them fail.  For example::
+
+    class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
+        def test_even(self):
+            for i in range(6):
+                with self.subTest(i=i):
+                    self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
+
+will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose output
+with a label consisting of the variable name ``i`` and a particular value for
+that variable (``i=0``, ``i=1``, etc).  See :ref:`subtests` for the full
+version of this example.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`16997`.)
+
+:func:`unittest.main` now accepts an iterable of test names for
+*defaultTest*, where previously it only accepted a single test name as a
+string.  (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in :issue:`15132`.)
+
+If :class:`~unittest.SkipTest` is raised during test discovery (that is, at the
+module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of an
+error.  (Contributed by Zach Ware in :issue:`16935`.)
+
+:meth:`~unittest.TestLoader.discover` now sorts the discovered files to provide
+consistent test ordering.  (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani in
+:issue:`16709`.)
+
+:class:`~unittest.TestSuite` now drops references to tests as soon as the test
+has been run, if the test is successful.  On Python interpreters that do
+garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if nothing
+else is holding a reference to the test.  It is possible to override this
+behavior by creating a :class:`~unittest.TestSuite` subclass that defines a
+custom ``_removeTestAtIndex`` method.  (Contributed by Tom Wardill, Matt
+McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`11798`.)
+
+A new test assertion context-manager, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.assertLogs`,
+will ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the
+:mod:`logging` module.  By default the message can come from any logger and
+have a priority of ``INFO`` or higher, but both the logger name and an
+alternative minimum logging level may be specified.  The object returned by the
+context manager can be queried for the :class:`~logging.LogRecord`\ s and/or
+formatted messages that were logged.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+:issue:`18937`.)
+
+Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu Popa
+in :issue:`17457`.)
+
+:mod:`unittest.mock` objects now inspect their specification signatures when
+matching calls, which means an argument can now be matched by either position
+or name, instead of only by position.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+:issue:`17015`.)
+
+:func:`~mock.mock_open` objects now have ``readline`` and ``readlines``
+methods.  (Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in :issue:`17467`.)
+
+
+venv
+----
+
+:mod:`venv` now includes activation scripts for the ``csh`` and ``fish``
+shells.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`15417`.)
+
+:class:`~venv.EnvBuilder` and the :func:`~venv.create` convenience function
+take a new keyword argument *with_pip*, which defaults to ``False``, that
+controls whether or not :class:`~venv.EnvBuilder` ensures that ``pip`` is
+installed in the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
+:issue:`19552` as part of the :pep:`453` implementation.)
+
+
+wave
+----
+
+The :meth:`~wave.getparams` method now returns a namedtuple rather than a
+plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`17487`.)
+
+:meth:`wave.open` now supports the context management protocol.  (Contributed
+by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`17616`.)
+
+:mod:`wave` can now :ref:`write output to unseekable files
+<wave-write-objects>`.  (Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy
+Storchaka in :issue:`5202`.)
+
+The :meth:`~wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw` and
+:meth:`~wave.Wave_write.writeframes` methods now accept any :term:`bytes-like
+object`.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`8311`.)
+
+
+weakref
+-------
+
+New :class:`~weakref.WeakMethod` class simulates weak references to bound
+methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`14631`.)
+
+New :class:`~weakref.finalize` class makes it possible to register a callback
+to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to
+carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself.  (Contributed by
+Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`15528`.)
+
+The callback, if any, associated with a :class:`~weakref.ref` is now
+exposed via the :attr:`~weakref.ref.__callback__` attribute.  (Contributed
+by Mark Dickinson in :issue:`17643`.)
+
+
+xml.etree
+---------
+
+A new parser, :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser`, allows a
+non-blocking applications to parse XML documents.  An example can be
+seen at :ref:`elementtree-pull-parsing`.  (Contributed by Antoine
+Pitrou in :issue:`17741`.)
+
+The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` :func:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring` and
+:func:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist` functions, and the
+:class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree`
+:meth:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write` method, now have a
+*short_empty_elements* :ref:`keyword-only parameter <keyword-only_parameter>`
+providing control over whether elements with no content are written in
+abbreviated (``<tag />``) or expanded (``<tag></tag>``) form.  (Contributed by
+Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`14377`.)
+
+
+zipfile
+-------
+
+The :meth:`~zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy` method of the
+:class:`~zipfile.PyZipFile` class has a new *filterfunc* option that can be
+used to control which directories and files are added to the archive.  For
+example, this could be used to exclude test files from the archive.
+(Contributed by Christian Tismer in :issue:`19274`.)
+
+The *allowZip64* parameter to :class:`~zipfile.ZipFile` and
+:class:`~zipfile.PyZipfile` is now ``True`` by default.  (Contributed by
+William Mallard in :issue:`17201`.)
+
+
+
+CPython Implementation Changes
+==============================
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-445:
+
+PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
+---------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`445` adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in
+the CPython interpreter.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`445` -- Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators
+      PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-442:
+
+PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
+---------------------------------
+
+:pep:`442` removes the current limitations and quirks of object finalization
+in CPython. With it, objects with :meth:`__del__` methods, as well as
+generators with :keyword:`finally` clauses, can be finalized when they are
+part of a reference cycle.
+
+As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to
+:const:`None` during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead relying
+on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector.  This avoids a
+whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually involving
+``__del__`` methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic GC
+was first introduced.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`442` -- Safe object finalization
+      PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-456:
+
+PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`456` follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python's hash
+algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs backed by
+dictionary lookups may be subject.  (See :issue:`14621` for the start of the
+current round of improvements.)  The PEP unifies CPython's hash code to make it
+easier for a packager to substitute a different hash algorithm, and switches
+Python's default implementation to a SipHash implementation on platforms that
+have a 64 bit data type.  Any performance differences in comparison with the
+older FNV algorithm are trivial.
+
+The PEP adds additional fields to the :attr:`sys.hash_info` struct sequence to
+describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing binary.  Otherwise,
+the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-436:
+
+PEP 436: Argument Clinic
+------------------------
+
+"Argument Clinic" (:pep:`436`) is now part of the CPython build process
+and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining
+accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules
+implemented in C.
+
+Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use Argument
+Clinic in Python 3.4, and :mod:`pydoc` and :mod:`inspect` have been updated
+accordingly.
+
+It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection will
+be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python 3.4
+maintenance releases.
+
+.. note::
+   The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the state of the
+   implementation. This has been deemed acceptable by the release manager
+   and core development team in this case, as Argument Clinic will not
+   be made available as a public API for third party use in Python 3.4.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`436` -- The Argument Clinic DSL
+       PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings.
+
+
+Other Build and C API Changes
+-----------------------------
+
+* The new :c:func:`PyType_GetSlot` function has been added to the stable ABI,
+  allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type slots when using
+  the limited API.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis in :issue:`17162`.)
+
+* The new :c:func:`Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding` pre-initialization API
+  allows applications embedding the CPython interpreter to reliably force
+  a particular encoding and error handler for the standard streams.
+  (Contributed by Bastien Montagne and Nick Coghlan in :issue:`16129`.)
+
+* Most Python C APIs that don't mutate string arguments are now correctly
+  marked as accepting ``const char *`` rather than ``char *``.  (Contributed
+  by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`1772673`.)
+
+* A new shell version of ``python-config`` can be used even when a python
+  interpreter is not available (for example, in cross compilation scenarios).
+
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` now supports width and precision
+  specifications for ``%s``, ``%A``, ``%U``, ``%V``, ``%S``, and ``%R``.
+  (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in :issue:`7330`.)
+
+* New function :c:func:`PyStructSequence_InitType2` supplements the
+  existing :c:func:`PyStructSequence_InitType` function.  The difference
+  is that it returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on failure.
+
+* The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity checking
+  features of recent versions of GCC and clang:  the false alarms in the small
+  object allocator have been silenced.  (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in
+  :issue:`18596`.)
+
+* The Windows build now uses `Address Space Layout Randomization
+  <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization>`_ and `Data Execution Prevention
+  <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention>`_.  (Contributed by
+  Christian Heimes in :issue:`16632`.)
+
+* New function :c:func:`PyObject_LengthHint` is the C API equivalent
+  of :func:`operator.length_hint`.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
+  :issue:`16148`.)
+
+
+.. _other-improvements-3.4:
+
+Other Improvements
+------------------
+
+.. _whatsnew-isolated-mode:
+
+* The :ref:`python <using-on-cmdline>` command has a new :ref:`option
+  <using-on-misc-options>`, ``-I``, which causes it to run in "isolated mode",
+  which means that :data:`sys.path` contains neither the script's directory nor
+  the user's ``site-packages`` directory, and all :envvar:`PYTHON*` environment
+  variables are ignored (it implies both ``-s`` and ``-E``).  Other
+  restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being to
+  isolate the execution of a script from the user's environment.  This is
+  appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a system script.  On
+  most POSIX systems it can and should be used in the ``#!`` line of system
+  scripts.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`16499`.)
+
+* Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive interpreter
+  on systems that support :mod:`readline`.  History is also enabled by default,
+  and is written to (and read from) the file :file:`~/.python-history`.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric Araujo in :issue:`5845`.)
+
+* Invoking the Python interpreter with ``--version`` now outputs the version to
+  standard output instead of standard error (:issue:`18338`). Similar changes
+  were made to :mod:`argparse` (:issue:`18920`) and other modules that have
+  script-like invocation capabilities (:issue:`18922`).
+
+* The CPython Windows installer now adds ``.py`` to the :envvar:`PATHEXT`
+  variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a python
+  script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name without the
+  ``.py`` extension.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in :issue:`18569`.)
+
+* A new ``make`` target `coverage-report
+  <https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov>`_
+  will build python, run the test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report
+  for the C codebase using ``gcov`` and `lcov
+  <http://ltp.sourceforge.net/coverage/lcov.php>`_.
+
+* The ``-R`` option to the :ref:`python regression test suite <regrtest>` now
+  also checks for memory allocation leaks, using
+  :func:`sys.getallocatedblocks()`.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+  :issue:`13390`.)
+
+* ``python -m`` now works with namespace packages.
+
+* The :mod:`stat` module is now implemented in C, which means it gets the
+  values for its constants from the C header files, instead of having the
+  values hard-coded in the python module as was previously the case.
+
+* Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (``.so``, ``.dll``)
+  now works correctly (previously it silently returned the first python
+  module in the file).  (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer in :issue:`16421`.)
+
+* A new opcode, :opcode:`LOAD_CLASSDEREF`, has been added to fix a bug in the
+  loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered by certain
+  uses of :ref:`__prepare__ <prepare>`.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
+  :issue:`17853`.)
+
+* A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed by Victor
+  Stinner using his :pep:`445`-based ``pyfailmalloc`` tool (:issue:`18408`,
+  :issue:`18520`).
+
+* The ``pyvenv`` command now accepts a ``--copies`` option
+  to use copies rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the
+  default.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in :issue:`18807`.)
+
+* The ``pyvenv`` command also accepts a ``--without-pip``
+  option to suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into
+  the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`19552`
+  as part of the :pep:`453` implementation.)
+
+* The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the
+  :envvar:`PYTHONIOENCODING` environment variable.  This makes it possible to
+  set just the error handler, without changing the default encoding.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`18818`.)
+
+* The :mod:`bz2`, :mod:`lzma`, and :mod:`gzip` module ``open`` functions now
+  support ``x`` (exclusive creation) mode.  (Contributed by Tim Heaney and
+  Vajrasky Kok in :issue:`19201`, :issue:`19222`, and :issue:`19223`.)
+
+
+Significant Optimizations
+-------------------------
+
+* The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+  in :issue:`14625`.)
+
+* The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced.  Each hash table
+  probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash pairs before
+  continuing to make random probes through the hash table.  This exploits
+  cache locality to make collision resolution less expensive.
+  The collision resolution scheme can be described as a hybrid of linear
+  probing and open addressing.  The number of additional linear probes
+  defaults to nine.  This can be changed at compile-time by defining
+  LINEAR_PROBES to be any value.  Set LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off
+  linear probing entirely.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
+  :issue:`18771`.)
+
+* The interpreter starts about 30% faster. A couple of measures lead to the
+  speedup. The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup, e.g. the :mod:`re`,
+  :mod:`collections` and :mod:`locale` modules and their dependencies are no
+  longer imported by default. The marshal module has been improved to load
+  compiled Python code faster.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian
+  Heimes and Victor Stinner in :issue:`19219`, :issue:`19218`, :issue:`19209`,
+  :issue:`19205` and :issue:`9548`.)
+
+* :class:`bz2.BZ2File` is now as fast or faster than the Python2 version for
+  most cases.  :class:`lzma.LZMAFile` has also been optimized.  (Contributed by
+  Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in :issue:`16034`.)
+
+* :func:`random.getrandbits` is 20%-40% faster for small integers (the most
+  common use case).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`16674`.)
+
+* By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling of
+  strings is now significantly faster.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and
+  Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`15596`.)
+
+* A performance issue in :meth:`io.FileIO.readall` has been solved.  This
+  particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case of piping
+  significant amounts of data through :mod:`subprocess`.  (Contributed
+  by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`15758`.)
+
+* :func:`html.escape` is now 10x faster.  (Contributed by Matt Bryant in
+  :issue:`18020`.)
+
+* On Windows, the native ``VirtualAlloc`` is now used instead of the CRT
+  ``malloc`` in ``obmalloc``.  Artificial benchmarks show about a 3% memory
+  savings.
+
+* :func:`os.urandom` now uses a lazily-opened persistent file descriptor
+  so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in parallel from
+  multiple threads.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`18756`.)
+
+
+.. _deprecated-3.4:
+
+Deprecated
+==========
+
+This section covers various APIs and other features that have been deprecated
+in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later.  In most (but not
+all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+when the interpreter is run with deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by
+using ``-Wd``).
+
+
+Deprecations in the Python API
+------------------------------
+
+* As mentioned in :ref:`whatsnew-pep-451`, a number of :mod:`importlib`
+  methods and functions are deprecated: :meth:`importlib.find_loader` is
+  replaced by :func:`importlib.util.find_spec`;
+  :meth:`importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module` is replaced by
+  :meth:`importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec`;
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module` is replaced by
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec`;
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader` and
+  :meth:`~importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module` are replaced by
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec`; all of the ``xxxLoader`` ABC
+  ``load_module`` methods (:meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module`,
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module`,
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module`,
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module`) should no longer be
+  implemented, instead loaders should implement an
+  ``exec_module`` method
+  (:meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module`,
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module`
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module`) and let the import system
+  take care of the rest; and
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr`,
+  :meth:`importlib.util.module_for_loader`, :meth:`importlib.util.set_loader`,
+  and :meth:`importlib.util.set_package` are no longer needed because their
+  functions are now handled automatically by the import system.
+
+* The :mod:`imp` module is pending deprecation. To keep compatibility with
+  Python 2/3 code bases, the module's removal is currently not scheduled.
+
+* The :mod:`formatter` module is pending deprecation and is slated for removal
+  in Python 3.6.
+
+* ``MD5`` as the default *digestmod* for the :func:`hmac.new` function is
+  deprecated.  Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest name or constructor as
+  *digestmod* argument.
+
+* The internal ``Netrc`` class in the :mod:`ftplib` module has been documented
+  as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time.  It now emits a
+  :exc:`DeprecationWarning` and will be removed completely in Python 3.5.
+
+* The undocumented *endtime* argument to :meth:`subprocess.Popen.wait` should
+  not have been exposed and is hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and
+  will mostly likely be removed in Python 3.5.
+
+* The *strict* argument of :class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser` is deprecated.
+
+* The :mod:`plistlib` :func:`~plistlib.readPlist`,
+  :func:`~plistlib.writePlist`, :func:`~plistlib.readPlistFromBytes`, and
+  :func:`~plistlib.writePlistToBytes` functions are deprecated in favor of the
+  corresponding new functions :func:`~plistlib.load`, :func:`~plistlib.dump`,
+  :func:`~plistlib.loads`, and :func:`~plistlib.dumps`.  :func:`~plistlib.Data`
+  is deprecated in favor of just using the :class:`bytes` constructor.
+
+* The :mod:`sysconfig` key ``SO`` is deprecated, it has been replaced by
+  ``EXT_SUFFIX``.
+
+* The ``U`` mode accepted by various ``open`` functions is deprecated.
+  In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced by
+  appropriate uses of :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` (if needed) and its *newline*
+  argument.
+
+* The *parser* argument of :func:`xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse` has
+  been deprecated, as has the *html* argument of
+  :func:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser`.  To prepare for the removal of the
+  latter, all arguments to ``XMLParser`` should be passed by keyword.
+
+
+Deprecated Features
+-------------------
+
+* Running :ref:`idle` with the ``-n`` flag (no subprocess) is deprecated.
+  However, the feature will not be removed until :issue:`18823` is resolved.
+
+* The site module adding a "site-python" directory to sys.path, if it
+  exists, is deprecated (:issue:`19375`).
+
+
+
+Removed
+=======
+
+
+Operating Systems No Longer Supported
+-------------------------------------
+
+Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the source
+and build tools:
+
+* OS/2 (:issue:`16135`).
+* Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).
+* Windows systems where ``COMSPEC`` points to ``command.com`` (:issue:`14470`).
+* VMS (:issue:`16136`).
+
+
+API and Feature Removals
+------------------------
+
+The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been
+removed:
+
+* The unmaintained ``Misc/TextMate`` and ``Misc/vim`` directories have been
+  removed (see the `devguide <https://devguide.python.org>`_
+  for suggestions on what to use instead).
+
+* The ``SO`` makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the
+  ``SHLIB_SUFFIX`` and ``EXT_SUFFIX`` macros) (:issue:`16754`).
+
+* The ``PyThreadState.tick_counter`` field has been removed; its value has
+  been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the "new GIL" was introduced
+  (:issue:`19199`).
+
+* ``PyLoader`` and ``PyPycLoader`` have been removed from :mod:`importlib`.
+  (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in :issue:`15641`.)
+
+* The *strict* argument to :class:`~http.client.HTTPConnection` and
+  :class:`~http.client.HTTPSConnection` has been removed.  HTTP 0.9-style
+  "Simple Responses" are no longer supported.
+
+* The deprecated :mod:`urllib.request.Request` getter and setter methods
+  ``add_data``, ``has_data``, ``get_data``, ``get_type``, ``get_host``,
+  ``get_selector``, ``set_proxy``, ``get_origin_req_host``, and
+  ``is_unverifiable`` have been removed (use direct attribute access instead).
+
+* Support for loading the deprecated ``TYPE_INT64`` has been removed from
+  :mod:`marshal`.  (Contributed by Dan Riti in :issue:`15480`.)
+
+* :class:`inspect.Signature`: positional-only parameters are now required
+  to have a valid name.
+
+* :meth:`object.__format__` no longer accepts non-empty format strings, it now
+  raises a :exc:`TypeError` instead.  Using a non-empty string has been
+  deprecated since Python 3.2.  This change has been made to prevent a
+  situation where previously working (but incorrect) code would start failing
+  if an object gained a __format__ method, which means that your code may now
+  raise a :exc:`TypeError` if you are using an ``'s'`` format code with objects
+  that do not have a __format__ method that handles it.  See :issue:`7994` for
+  background.
+
+* :meth:`difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk` and
+  :meth:`difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular` were deprecated in 3.2, and have
+  now been removed: use ``x in sm.bjunk`` and
+  ``x in sm.bpopular``, where *sm* is a :class:`~difflib.SequenceMatcher` object
+  (:issue:`13248`).
+
+
+Code Cleanups
+-------------
+
+* The unused and undocumented internal ``Scanner`` class has been removed from
+  the :mod:`pydoc` module.
+
+* The private and effectively unused ``_gestalt`` module has been removed,
+  along with the private :mod:`platform` functions ``_mac_ver_lookup``,
+  ``_mac_ver_gstalt``, and ``_bcd2str``, which would only have ever been called
+  on badly broken OSX systems (see :issue:`18393`).
+
+* The hardcoded copies of certain :mod:`stat` constants that were included in
+  the :mod:`tarfile` module namespace have been removed.
+
+
+
+Porting to Python 3.4
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.
+
+
+Changes in 'python' Command Behavior
+------------------------------------
+
+* In a posix shell, setting the :envvar:`PATH` environment variable to
+  an empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all.  However, setting
+  :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` to an empty value was *not* equivalent to not setting it
+  at all: setting :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` to an empty value was equivalent to
+  setting it to ``.``, which leads to confusion when reasoning by analogy to
+  how :envvar:`PATH` works.  The behavior now conforms to the posix convention
+  for :envvar:`PATH`.
+
+* The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (``--with-pydebug``) build of the
+  CPython interpreter is now off by default.  It can be re-enabled using the
+  ``-X showrefcount`` option.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`17323`.)
+
+* The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as :mod:`argparse`) now
+  output ``--version`` information to ``stdout`` instead of ``stderr`` (for
+  issue list see :ref:`other-improvements-3.4` above).
+
+
+Changes in the Python API
+-------------------------
+
+* The ABCs defined in :mod:`importlib.abc` now either raise the appropriate
+  exception or return a default value instead of raising
+  :exc:`NotImplementedError` blindly. This will only affect code calling
+  :func:`super` and falling through all the way to the ABCs. For compatibility,
+  catch both :exc:`NotImplementedError` or the appropriate exception as needed.
+
+* The module type now initializes the :attr:`__package__` and :attr:`__loader__`
+  attributes to ``None`` by default. To determine if these attributes were set
+  in a backwards-compatible fashion, use e.g.
+  ``getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not None``.  (:issue:`17115`.)
+
+* :meth:`importlib.util.module_for_loader` now sets ``__loader__`` and
+  ``__package__`` unconditionally to properly support reloading. If this is not
+  desired then you will need to set these attributes manually. You can use
+  :func:`importlib.util.module_to_load` for module management.
+
+* Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g. ``__name__``, ``__loader__``,
+  ``__package__``, ``__file__``, ``__cached__``) unconditionally when reloading.
+  Note that this restores a pre-3.3 behavior in that it means a module is
+  re-found when re-loaded (:issue:`19413`).
+
+* Frozen packages no longer set ``__path__`` to a list containing the package
+  name, they now set it to an empty list.  The previous behavior could cause
+  the import system to do the wrong thing on submodule imports if there was
+  also a directory with the same name as the frozen package.  The correct way
+  to determine if a module is a package or not is to use ``hasattr(module,
+  '__path__')`` (:issue:`18065`).
+
+* Frozen modules no longer define a ``__file__`` attribute. It's semantically
+  incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as they are not loaded from
+  any explicit location. If you must know that a module comes from frozen code
+  then you can see if the module's ``__spec__.location`` is set to ``'frozen'``,
+  check if the loader is a subclass of
+  :class:`importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter`,
+  or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use :func:`imp.is_frozen`.
+
+* :func:`py_compile.compile` now raises :exc:`FileExistsError` if the file path
+  it would write to is a symlink or a non-regular file. This is to act as a
+  warning that import will overwrite those files with a regular file regardless
+  of what type of file path they were originally.
+
+* :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source` no longer raises
+  :exc:`ImportError` when the source code being loaded triggers a
+  :exc:`SyntaxError` or :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError`. As :exc:`ImportError` is
+  meant to be raised only when source code cannot be found but it should, it was
+  felt to be over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is
+  found but improperly structured. If you were catching ImportError before and
+  wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues, catch all three
+  exceptions now.
+
+* :func:`functools.update_wrapper` and :func:`functools.wraps` now correctly
+  set the ``__wrapped__`` attribute to the function being wrapped, even if
+  that function also had its ``__wrapped__`` attribute set. This means
+  ``__wrapped__`` attributes now correctly link a stack of decorated
+  functions rather than every ``__wrapped__`` attribute in the chain
+  referring to the innermost function. Introspection libraries that
+  assumed the previous behaviour was intentional can use
+  :func:`inspect.unwrap` to access the first function in the chain that has
+  no ``__wrapped__`` attribute.
+
+* :func:`inspect.getfullargspec` has been reimplemented on top of
+  :func:`inspect.signature` and hence handles a much wider variety of callable
+  objects than it did in the past. It is expected that additional builtin and
+  extension module callables will gain signature metadata over the course of
+  the Python 3.4 series. Code that assumes that
+  :func:`inspect.getfullargspec` will fail on non-Python callables may need
+  to be adjusted accordingly.
+
+* :class:`importlib.machinery.PathFinder` now passes on the current working
+  directory to objects in :data:`sys.path_hooks` for the empty string. This
+  results in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` never containing ``''``, thus
+  iterating through :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` based on :data:`sys.path`
+  will not find all keys. A module's ``__file__`` when imported in the current
+  working directory will also now have an absolute path, including when using
+  ``-m`` with the interpreter (except for ``__main__.__file__`` when a script
+  has been executed directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett
+  Cannon in :issue:`18416`).  is specified on the command-line)
+  (:issue:`18416`).
+
+* The removal of the *strict* argument to :class:`~http.client.HTTPConnection`
+  and :class:`~http.client.HTTPSConnection` changes the meaning of the
+  remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather than by
+  keyword.  If you've been paying attention to deprecation warnings your code
+  should already be specifying any additional arguments via keywords.
+
+* Strings between ``from __future__ import ...`` statements now *always* raise
+  a :exc:`SyntaxError`.  Previously if there was no leading docstring, an
+  interstitial string would sometimes be ignored.  This brings CPython into
+  compliance with the language spec; Jython and PyPy already were.
+  (:issue:`17434`).
+
+* :meth:`ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert` and :meth:`ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake`
+  now raise an :exc:`OSError` with ``ENOTCONN`` when the ``SSLSocket`` is not
+  connected, instead of the previous behavior of raising an
+  :exc:`AttributeError`.  In addition, :meth:`~ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert`
+  will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if the handshake has not yet been done.
+
+* :func:`base64.b32decode` now raises a :exc:`binascii.Error` when the
+  input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters, instead of a
+  :exc:`TypeError`.  This particular :exc:`TypeError` was missed when the other
+  :exc:`TypeError`\ s were converted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
+  :issue:`18011`.)  Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python
+  3.3.3.
+
+* The :attr:`~cgi.FieldStorage.file` attribute is now automatically closed when
+  the creating :class:`cgi.FieldStorage` instance is garbage collected. If you
+  were pulling the file object out separately from the :class:`cgi.FieldStorage`
+  instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either store the
+  entire :class:`cgi.FieldStorage` instance or read the contents of the file
+  before the :class:`cgi.FieldStorage` instance is garbage collected.
+
+* Calling ``read`` or ``write`` on a closed SSL socket now raises an
+  informative :exc:`ValueError` rather than the previous more mysterious
+  :exc:`AttributeError` (:issue:`9177`).
+
+* :meth:`slice.indices` no longer produces an :exc:`OverflowError` for huge
+  values.  As a consequence of this fix, :meth:`slice.indices` now raises a
+  :exc:`ValueError` if given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense
+  values (:issue:`14794`).
+
+* The :class:`complex` constructor, unlike the :mod:`cmath` functions, was
+  incorrectly accepting :class:`float` values if an object's ``__complex__``
+  special method returned one.  This now raises a :exc:`TypeError`.
+  (:issue:`16290`.)
+
+* The :class:`int` constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts :class:`float`
+  values for the *base* parameter.  It is unlikely anyone was doing this, but
+  if so, it will now raise a :exc:`TypeError` (:issue:`16772`).
+
+* Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated *after* defaults for
+  regular keyword arguments, instead of before.  Hopefully no one wrote any
+  code that depends on the previous buggy behavior (:issue:`16967`).
+
+* Stale thread states are now cleared after :func:`~os.fork`.  This may cause
+  some system resources to be released that previously were incorrectly kept
+  perpetually alive (for example, database connections kept in thread-local
+  storage).  (:issue:`17094`.)
+
+* Parameter names in ``__annotations__`` dicts are now mangled properly,
+  similarly to ``__kwdefaults__``.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
+  :issue:`20625`.)
+
+* :attr:`hashlib.hash.name` now always returns the identifier in lower case.
+  Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names, but now that it is a
+  formal public interface the naming has been made consistent (:issue:`18532`).
+
+* Because :mod:`unittest.TestSuite` now drops references to tests after they
+  are run, test harnesses that re-use a :class:`~unittest.TestSuite` to re-run
+  a set of tests may fail.   Test suites should not be re-used in this fashion
+  since it means state is retained between test runs, breaking the test
+  isolation that :mod:`unittest` is designed to provide.  However, if the lack
+  of isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be restored by
+  creating a :mod:`~unittest.TestSuite` subclass that defines a
+  ``_removeTestAtIndex`` method that does nothing (see
+  :meth:`.TestSuite.__iter__`) (:issue:`11798`).
+
+* :mod:`unittest` now uses :mod:`argparse` for command line parsing.  There are
+  certain invalid command forms that used to work that are no longer allowed;
+  in theory this should not cause backward compatibility issues since the
+  disallowed command forms didn't make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.
+
+* The :func:`re.split`, :func:`re.findall`, and :func:`re.sub` functions, and
+  the :meth:`~re.match.group` and :meth:`~re.match.groups` methods of
+  ``match`` objects now always return a *bytes* object when the string
+  to be matched is a :term:`bytes-like object`.  Previously the return type
+  matched the input type, so if your code was depending on the return value
+  being, say, a ``bytearray``, you will need to change your code.
+
+* :mod:`audioop` functions now raise an error immediately if passed string
+  input, instead of failing randomly later on (:issue:`16685`).
+
+* The new *convert_charrefs* argument to :class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser`
+  currently defaults to ``False`` for backward compatibility, but will
+  eventually be changed to default to ``True``.  It is recommended that you add
+  this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any
+  :class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser` calls in your code (:issue:`13633`).
+
+* Since the *digestmod* argument to the :func:`hmac.new` function will in the
+  future have no default, all calls to :func:`hmac.new` should be changed to
+  explicitly specify a *digestmod* (:issue:`17276`).
+
+* Calling :func:`sysconfig.get_config_var` with the ``SO`` key, or looking
+  ``SO`` up in the results of a call to :func:`sysconfig.get_config_vars`
+  is deprecated.  This key should be replaced by ``EXT_SUFFIX`` or
+  ``SHLIB_SUFFIX``, depending on the context (:issue:`19555`).
+
+* Any calls to ``open`` functions that specify ``U`` should be modified.
+  ``U`` is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if used.
+  Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2 behavior can be
+  achieved using either a *newline* argument, or if necessary by wrapping the
+  stream in :mod:`~io.TextIOWrapper` to use its *newline* argument
+  (:issue:`15204`).
+
+* If you use ``pyvenv`` in a script and desire that pip
+  *not* be installed, you must add ``--without-pip`` to your command
+  invocation.
+
+* The default behavior of :func:`json.dump` and :func:`json.dumps` when
+  an indent is specified has changed: it no longer produces trailing
+  spaces after the item separating commas at the ends of lines.  This
+  will matter only if you have tests that are doing white-space-sensitive
+  comparisons of such output (:issue:`16333`).
+
+* :mod:`doctest` now looks for doctests in extension module ``__doc__``
+  strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes extension modules that
+  have things that look like doctests in them you may see test failures you've
+  never seen before when running your tests (:issue:`3158`).
+
+* The :mod:`collections.abc` module has been slightly refactored as
+  part of the Python startup improvements.  As a consequence of this, it is no
+  longer the case that importing :mod:`collections` automatically imports
+  :mod:`collections.abc`.  If your program depended on the (undocumented)
+  implicit import, you will need to add an explicit ``import collections.abc``
+  (:issue:`20784`).
+
+
+Changes in the C API
+--------------------
+
+* :c:func:`PyEval_EvalFrameEx`, :c:func:`PyObject_Repr`, and
+  :c:func:`PyObject_Str`, along with some other internal C APIs, now include
+  a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in situations where
+  they may silently discard a currently active exception. In cases where
+  discarding the active exception is expected and desired (for example,
+  because it has already been saved locally with :c:func:`PyErr_Fetch` or
+  is being deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit
+  :c:func:`PyErr_Clear` call will be needed to avoid triggering the
+  assertion when invoking these operations (directly or indirectly) and
+  running against a version of Python that is compiled with assertions
+  enabled.
+
+* :c:func:`PyErr_SetImportError` now sets :exc:`TypeError` when its **msg**
+  argument is not set. Previously only ``NULL`` was returned with no exception
+  set.
+
+* The result of the :c:data:`PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer` callback must
+  now be a string allocated by :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc` or
+  :c:func:`PyMem_RawRealloc`, or *NULL* if an error occurred, instead of a
+  string allocated by :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc` or :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc`
+  (:issue:`16742`)
+
+* :c:func:`PyThread_set_key_value` now always set the value. In Python
+  3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if the current
+  value is a non-NULL pointer).
+
+* The ``f_tstate`` (thread state) field of the :c:type:`PyFrameObject`
+  structure has been removed to fix a bug: see :issue:`14432` for the
+  rationale.
+
+Changed in 3.4.3
+================
+
+.. _pep-476:
+
+PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:mod:`http.client` and modules which use it, such as :mod:`urllib.request` and
+:mod:`xmlrpc.client`, will now verify that the server presents a certificate
+which is signed by a CA in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches
+the hostname being requested by default, significantly improving security for
+many applications.
+
+For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an
+alternate context::
+
+    import urllib.request
+    import ssl
+
+    # This disables all verification
+    context = ssl._create_unverified_context()
+
+    # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
+    # to be in the trust store
+    context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")
+
+    urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.5.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.5.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4540ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.5.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2574 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.5
+****************************
+
+:Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <elvis@magic.io>, Yury Selivanov <yury@magic.io>
+
+.. Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
+
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer in :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the Mercurial log
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4.
+Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015.  See the
+`changelog <https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html>`_ for a full
+list of changes.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`478` - Python 3.5 Release Schedule
+
+
+Summary -- Release highlights
+=============================
+
+New syntax features:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 492 <whatsnew-pep-492>`, coroutines with async and await syntax.
+* :ref:`PEP 465 <whatsnew-pep-465>`, a new matrix multiplication operator: ``a @ b``.
+* :ref:`PEP 448 <whatsnew-pep-448>`, additional unpacking generalizations.
+
+
+New library modules:
+
+* :mod:`typing`: :ref:`PEP 484 -- Type Hints <whatsnew-pep-484>`.
+* :mod:`zipapp`: :ref:`PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support
+  <whatsnew-zipapp>`.
+
+
+New built-in features:
+
+* ``bytes % args``, ``bytearray % args``: :ref:`PEP 461 <whatsnew-pep-461>` --
+  Adding ``%`` formatting to bytes and bytearray.
+
+* New :meth:`bytes.hex`, :meth:`bytearray.hex` and :meth:`memoryview.hex`
+  methods. (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in :issue:`9951`.)
+
+* :class:`memoryview` now supports tuple indexing (including multi-dimensional).
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`23632`.)
+
+* Generators have a new ``gi_yieldfrom`` attribute, which returns the
+  object being iterated by ``yield from`` expressions. (Contributed
+  by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in :issue:`24450`.)
+
+* A new :exc:`RecursionError` exception is now raised when maximum
+  recursion depth is reached.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl
+  in :issue:`19235`.)
+
+
+CPython implementation improvements:
+
+* When the ``LC_TYPE`` locale is the POSIX locale (``C`` locale),
+  :py:data:`sys.stdin` and :py:data:`sys.stdout` now use the
+  ``surrogateescape`` error handler, instead of the ``strict`` error handler.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`19977`.)
+
+* ``.pyo`` files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more flexible
+  scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in ``.pyc`` name.
+  (See :ref:`PEP 488 overview <whatsnew-pep-488>`.)
+
+* Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase process,
+  which is similar to how Python modules are loaded.
+  (See :ref:`PEP 489 overview <whatsnew-pep-489>`.)
+
+
+Significant improvements in the standard library:
+
+* :class:`collections.OrderedDict` is now
+  :ref:`implemented in C <whatsnew-ordereddict>`, which makes it
+  4 to 100 times faster.
+
+* The :mod:`ssl` module gained
+  :ref:`support for Memory BIO <whatsnew-sslmemorybio>`, which decouples SSL
+  protocol handling from network IO.
+
+* The new :func:`os.scandir` function provides a
+  :ref:`better and significantly faster way <whatsnew-pep-471>`
+  of directory traversal.
+
+* :func:`functools.lru_cache` has been mostly
+  :ref:`reimplemented in C <whatsnew-lrucache>`, yielding much better
+  performance.
+
+* The new :func:`subprocess.run` function provides a
+  :ref:`streamlined way to run subprocesses <whatsnew-subprocess>`.
+
+* The :mod:`traceback` module has been significantly
+  :ref:`enhanced <whatsnew-traceback>` for improved
+  performance and developer convenience.
+
+
+Security improvements:
+
+* SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library.
+  It can still be enabled by instantiating a :class:`ssl.SSLContext`
+  manually.  (See :issue:`22638` for more details; this change was
+  backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.)
+
+* HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect
+  against potential injection attacks. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+  in :issue:`22796`.)
+
+
+Windows improvements:
+
+* A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI.
+  See :ref:`using-on-windows` for more information.
+
+* Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension modules
+  should use the same.
+
+
+Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many
+other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential
+porting issues.
+
+
+New Features
+============
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-492:
+
+PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
+------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`492` greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in Python
+by adding :term:`awaitable objects <awaitable>`,
+:term:`coroutine functions <coroutine function>`,
+:term:`asynchronous iteration <asynchronous iterable>`,
+and :term:`asynchronous context managers <asynchronous context manager>`.
+
+Coroutine functions are declared using the new :keyword:`async def` syntax::
+
+    >>> async def coro():
+    ...     return 'spam'
+
+Inside a coroutine function, the new :keyword:`await` expression can be used
+to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available.  Any object
+can be *awaited*, as long as it implements the :term:`awaitable` protocol by
+defining the :meth:`__await__` method.
+
+PEP 492 also adds :keyword:`async for` statement for convenient iteration
+over asynchronous iterables.
+
+An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def http_get(domain):
+        reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80)
+
+        writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([
+            b'GET / HTTP/1.1',
+            b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'),
+            b'Connection: close',
+            b'', b''
+        ]))
+
+        async for line in reader:
+            print('>>>', line)
+
+        writer.close()
+
+    loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
+    try:
+        loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com'))
+    finally:
+        loop.close()
+
+
+Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for asynchronous
+context managers.  The following script::
+
+    import asyncio
+
+    async def coro(name, lock):
+        print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name))
+        async with lock:
+            print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name))
+            await asyncio.sleep(1)
+            print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name))
+
+    loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
+    lock = asyncio.Lock()
+    coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock))
+    try:
+        loop.run_until_complete(coros)
+    finally:
+        loop.close()
+
+will output::
+
+    coro 2: waiting for lock
+    coro 2: holding the lock
+    coro 1: waiting for lock
+    coro 2: releasing the lock
+    coro 1: holding the lock
+    coro 1: releasing the lock
+
+Note that both :keyword:`async for` and :keyword:`async with` can only
+be used inside a coroutine function declared with :keyword:`async def`.
+
+Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event loop,
+such as the :ref:`asyncio loop <asyncio-event-loop>`.
+
+
+.. note::
+
+   .. versionchanged:: 3.5.2
+      Starting with CPython 3.5.2, ``__aiter__`` can directly return
+      :term:`asynchronous iterators <asynchronous iterator>`.  Returning
+      an :term:`awaitable` object will result in a
+      :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`.
+
+      See more details in the :ref:`async-iterators` documentation
+      section.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`492` -- Coroutines with async and await syntax
+      PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-465:
+
+PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
+--------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`465` adds the ``@`` infix operator for matrix multiplication.
+Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however, it
+can be implemented by defining :meth:`__matmul__`, :meth:`__rmatmul__`,
+and :meth:`__imatmul__` for regular, reflected, and in-place matrix
+multiplication.  The semantics of these methods is similar to that of
+methods defining other infix arithmetic operators.
+
+Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of
+mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of ``@`` allows writing
+cleaner code::
+
+    S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r)
+
+instead of::
+
+    S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T,
+            dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r))
+
+NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator::
+
+    >>> import numpy
+
+    >>> x = numpy.ones(3)
+    >>> x
+    array([ 1., 1., 1.])
+
+    >>> m = numpy.eye(3)
+    >>> m
+    array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
+           [ 0., 1., 0.],
+           [ 0., 0., 1.]])
+
+    >>> x @ m
+    array([ 1., 1., 1.])
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`465` -- A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
+      PEP written by Nathaniel J. Smith; implemented by Benjamin Peterson.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-448:
+
+PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
+----------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`448` extends the allowed uses of the ``*`` iterable unpacking
+operator and ``**`` dictionary unpacking operator.  It is now possible
+to use an arbitrary number of unpackings in :ref:`function calls <calls>`::
+
+    >>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5])
+    1 2 3 4 5
+
+    >>> def fn(a, b, c, d):
+    ...     print(a, b, c, d)
+    ...
+
+    >>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4})
+    1 2 3 4
+
+Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple
+unpackings (see :ref:`exprlists` and :ref:`dict`)::
+
+    >>> *range(4), 4
+    (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
+
+    >>> [*range(4), 4]
+    [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+    >>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)}
+    {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
+
+    >>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}}
+    {'x': 1, 'y': 2}
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`448` -- Additional Unpacking Generalizations
+      PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar,
+      Thomas Wouters, and Joshua Landau.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-461:
+
+PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`461` adds support for the ``%``
+:ref:`interpolation operator <bytes-formatting>` to :class:`bytes`
+and :class:`bytearray`.
+
+While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there are
+cases where interpolation on ``bytes`` or ``bytearrays`` makes sense, and the
+work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts from the
+overall readability of the code.  This issue is particularly important when
+dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a mixture of binary
+and ASCII compatible text.
+
+Examples::
+
+    >>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World'
+    b'Hello World!'
+
+    >>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5)
+    b'x=1 y=2.500000'
+
+Unicode is not allowed for ``%b``, but it is accepted by ``%a`` (equivalent of
+``repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')``)::
+
+    >>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World'
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str'
+
+    >>> b'price: %a' % '10€'
+    b"price: '10\\u20ac'"
+
+Note that ``%s`` and ``%r`` conversion types, although supported, should
+only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`461` -- Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray
+      PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and
+      Ethan Furman.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-484:
+
+PEP 484 - Type Hints
+--------------------
+
+Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0
+(:pep:`3107`), however the semantics of annotations has been left undefined.
+
+Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation
+uses were to provide type hints to function parameters and return values.  It
+became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the
+standard library included the base definitions and tools for type annotations.
+
+:pep:`484` introduces a :term:`provisional module <provisional api>` to
+provide these standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions
+for situations where annotations are not available.
+
+For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type
+are declared in the annotations::
+
+    def greeting(name: str) -> str:
+        return 'Hello ' + name
+
+While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual
+:attr:`__annotations__` attribute, *no automatic type checking happens at
+runtime*.  Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker
+(e.g. `mypy <http://mypy-lang.org>`_) will be used for on-demand
+source code analysis.
+
+The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type
+named :class:`~typing.Any` which is consistent with (i.e. assignable to
+and from) all types.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   * :mod:`typing` module documentation
+   * :pep:`484` -- Type Hints
+        PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz Langa;
+        implemented by Guido van Rossum.
+   * :pep:`483` -- The Theory of Type Hints
+        PEP written by Guido van Rossum
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-471:
+
+PEP 471 - os.scandir() function -- a better and faster directory iterator
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`471` adds a new directory iteration function, :func:`os.scandir`,
+to the standard library.  Additionally, :func:`os.walk` is now
+implemented using ``scandir``, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster
+on POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems.  This is
+largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to :func:`os.stat`
+required to walk a directory tree.
+
+Additionally, ``scandir`` returns an iterator, as opposed to returning
+a list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating
+over very large directories.
+
+The following example shows a simple use of :func:`os.scandir` to display all
+the files (excluding directories) in the given *path* that don't start with
+``'.'``. The :meth:`entry.is_file() <os.DirEntry.is_file>` call will generally
+not make an additional system call::
+
+    for entry in os.scandir(path):
+        if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
+            print(entry.name)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`471` -- os.scandir() function -- a better and faster directory iterator
+      PEP written and implemented by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-475:
+
+PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
+----------------------------------------------
+
+An :py:data:`errno.EINTR` error code is returned whenever a system call, that
+is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal.  Previously, Python would
+raise :exc:`InterruptedError` in such cases.  This meant that, when writing a
+Python application, the developer had two choices:
+
+#. Ignore the ``InterruptedError``.
+#. Handle the ``InterruptedError`` and attempt to restart the interrupted
+   system call at every call site.
+
+The first option makes an application fail intermittently.
+The second option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the
+code nearly unreadable.  Compare::
+
+    print("Hello World")
+
+and::
+
+    while True:
+        try:
+            print("Hello World")
+            break
+        except InterruptedError:
+            continue
+
+:pep:`475` implements automatic retry of system calls on
+``EINTR``.  This removes the burden of dealing with ``EINTR``
+or :exc:`InterruptedError` in user code in most situations and makes
+Python programs, including the standard library, more robust.  Note that
+the system call is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an
+exception.
+
+Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted
+by a signal:
+
+* :func:`open` and :func:`io.open`;
+
+* functions of the :mod:`faulthandler` module;
+
+* :mod:`os` functions: :func:`~os.fchdir`, :func:`~os.fchmod`,
+  :func:`~os.fchown`, :func:`~os.fdatasync`, :func:`~os.fstat`,
+  :func:`~os.fstatvfs`, :func:`~os.fsync`, :func:`~os.ftruncate`,
+  :func:`~os.mkfifo`, :func:`~os.mknod`, :func:`~os.open`,
+  :func:`~os.posix_fadvise`, :func:`~os.posix_fallocate`, :func:`~os.pread`,
+  :func:`~os.pwrite`, :func:`~os.read`, :func:`~os.readv`, :func:`~os.sendfile`,
+  :func:`~os.wait3`, :func:`~os.wait4`, :func:`~os.wait`,
+  :func:`~os.waitid`, :func:`~os.waitpid`, :func:`~os.write`,
+  :func:`~os.writev`;
+
+* special cases: :func:`os.close` and :func:`os.dup2` now ignore
+  :py:data:`~errno.EINTR` errors; the syscall is not retried (see the PEP
+  for the rationale);
+
+* :mod:`select` functions: :func:`devpoll.poll() <select.devpoll.poll>`,
+  :func:`epoll.poll() <select.epoll.poll>`,
+  :func:`kqueue.control() <select.kqueue.control>`,
+  :func:`poll.poll() <select.poll.poll>`, :func:`~select.select`;
+
+* methods of the :class:`~socket.socket` class: :meth:`~socket.socket.accept`,
+  :meth:`~socket.socket.connect` (except for non-blocking sockets),
+  :meth:`~socket.socket.recv`, :meth:`~socket.socket.recvfrom`,
+  :meth:`~socket.socket.recvmsg`, :meth:`~socket.socket.send`,
+  :meth:`~socket.socket.sendall`, :meth:`~socket.socket.sendmsg`,
+  :meth:`~socket.socket.sendto`;
+
+* :func:`signal.sigtimedwait` and :func:`signal.sigwaitinfo`;
+
+* :func:`time.sleep`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`475` -- Retry system calls failing with EINTR
+      PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and
+      Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French connection).
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-479:
+
+PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
+--------------------------------------------------------
+
+The interaction of generators and :exc:`StopIteration` in Python 3.4 and
+earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure bugs.  Previously,
+``StopIteration`` raised accidentally inside a generator function was
+interpreted as the end of the iteration by the loop construct driving the
+generator.
+
+:pep:`479` changes the behavior of generators: when a ``StopIteration``
+exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a
+:exc:`RuntimeError` before it exits the generator frame.  The main goal of
+this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded
+:func:`next` call raises ``StopIteration`` and causes the iteration controlled
+by the generator to terminate silently. This is particularly pernicious in
+combination with the ``yield from`` construct.
+
+This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior,
+a :term:`__future__` import is necessary::
+
+    >>> from __future__ import generator_stop
+
+    >>> def gen():
+    ...     next(iter([]))
+    ...     yield
+    ...
+    >>> next(gen())
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 2, in gen
+    StopIteration
+
+    The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
+
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+    RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration
+
+Without a ``__future__`` import, a :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` will be
+raised whenever a :exc:`StopIteration` exception is raised inside a generator.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`479` -- Change StopIteration handling inside generators
+      PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by
+      Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-485:
+
+PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`485` adds the :func:`math.isclose` and :func:`cmath.isclose`
+functions which tell whether two values are approximately equal or
+"close" to each other.  Whether or not two values are considered
+close is determined according to given absolute and relative tolerances.
+Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed difference between ``isclose``
+arguments, relative to the larger absolute value::
+
+    >>> import math
+    >>> a = 5.0
+    >>> b = 4.99998
+    >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5)
+    True
+    >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6)
+    False
+
+It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance, which
+must be a non-negative value::
+
+    >>> import math
+    >>> a = 5.0
+    >>> b = 4.99998
+    >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003)
+    True
+    >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001)
+    False
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`485` -- A function for testing approximate equality
+      PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and
+      Tal Einat.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-486:
+
+PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
+---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`486` makes the Windows launcher (see :pep:`397`) aware of an active
+virtual environment. When the default interpreter would be used and the
+``VIRTUAL_ENV`` environment variable is set, the interpreter in the virtual
+environment will be used.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`486` -- Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
+        PEP written and implemented by Paul Moore.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-488:
+
+PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
+---------------------------------
+
+:pep:`488` does away with the concept of ``.pyo`` files. This means that
+``.pyc`` files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode. To prevent the
+need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, ``.pyc`` files now have an
+optional ``opt-`` tag in their name when the bytecode is optimized. This has the
+side-effect of no more bytecode file name clashes when running under either
+:option:`-O` or :option:`-OO`. Consequently, bytecode files generated from
+:option:`-O`, and :option:`-OO` may now exist simultaneously.
+:func:`importlib.util.cache_from_source` has an updated API to help with
+this change.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`488` -- Elimination of PYO files
+      PEP written and implemented by Brett Cannon.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-pep-489:
+
+PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`489` updates extension module initialization to take advantage of the
+two step module loading mechanism introduced by :pep:`451` in Python 3.4.
+
+This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in to
+using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and bytecode
+modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a module name,
+rather than being restricted to ASCII.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`489` -- Multi-phase extension module initialization
+      PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan;
+      implemented by Petr Viktorin.
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* Added the ``"namereplace"`` error handlers.  The ``"backslashreplace"``
+  error handlers now work with decoding and translating.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19676` and :issue:`22286`.)
+
+* The :option:`-b` option now affects comparisons of :class:`bytes` with
+  :class:`int`.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23681`.)
+
+* New Kazakh ``kz1048`` and Tajik ``koi8_t`` :ref:`codecs <standard-encodings>`.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22682` and :issue:`22681`.)
+
+* Property docstrings are now writable. This is especially useful for
+  :func:`collections.namedtuple` docstrings.
+  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`24064`.)
+
+* Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.
+  (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`17636`.)
+
+
+New Modules
+===========
+
+typing
+------
+
+The new :mod:`typing` :term:`provisional <provisional api>` module
+provides standard definitions and tools for function type annotations.
+See :ref:`Type Hints <whatsnew-pep-484>` for more information.
+
+.. _whatsnew-zipapp:
+
+zipapp
+------
+
+The new :mod:`zipapp` module (specified in :pep:`441`) provides an API and
+command line tool for creating executable Python Zip Applications, which
+were introduced in Python 2.6 in :issue:`1739468`, but which were not well
+publicized, either at the time or since.
+
+With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting all
+the files, including a ``__main__.py`` file, into a directory ``myapp``
+and running:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ python -m zipapp myapp
+    $ python myapp.pyz
+
+The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in
+:issue:`23491`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`441` -- Improving Python ZIP Application Support
+
+
+Improved Modules
+================
+
+argparse
+--------
+
+The :class:`~argparse.ArgumentParser` class now allows disabling
+:ref:`abbreviated usage <prefix-matching>` of long options by setting
+:ref:`allow_abbrev` to ``False``.  (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh,
+Steven Bethard, paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson in :issue:`14910`.)
+
+
+asyncio
+-------
+
+Since the :mod:`asyncio` module is :term:`provisional <provisional api>`,
+all changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python 3.4.x.
+
+Notable changes in the :mod:`asyncio` module since Python 3.4.0:
+
+* New debugging APIs: :meth:`loop.set_debug() <asyncio.loop.set_debug>`
+  and :meth:`loop.get_debug() <asyncio.loop.get_debug>` methods.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)
+
+* The proactor event loop now supports SSL.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Victor Stinner in :issue:`22560`.)
+
+* A new :meth:`loop.is_closed() <asyncio.loop.is_closed>` method to
+  check if the event loop is closed.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`21326`.)
+
+* A new :meth:`loop.create_task() <asyncio.loop.create_task>`
+  to conveniently create and schedule a new :class:`~asyncio.Task`
+  for a coroutine.  The ``create_task`` method is also used by all
+  asyncio functions that wrap coroutines into tasks, such as
+  :func:`asyncio.wait`, :func:`asyncio.gather`, etc.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)
+
+* A new :meth:`transport.get_write_buffer_limits() <asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits>`
+  method to inquire for *high-* and *low-* water limits of the flow
+  control.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)
+
+* The :func:`~asyncio.async` function is deprecated in favor of
+  :func:`~asyncio.ensure_future`.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)
+
+* New :meth:`loop.set_task_factory()
+  <asyncio.loop.set_task_factory>` and
+  :meth:`loop.get_task_factory() <asyncio.loop.get_task_factory>`
+  methods to customize the task factory that :meth:`loop.create_task()
+  <asyncio.loop.create_task>` method uses.  (Contributed by Yury
+  Selivanov.)
+
+* New :meth:`Queue.join() <asyncio.Queue.join>` and
+  :meth:`Queue.task_done() <asyncio.Queue.task_done>` queue methods.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)
+
+* The ``JoinableQueue`` class was removed, in favor of the
+  :class:`asyncio.Queue` class.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)
+
+Updates in 3.5.1:
+
+* The :func:`~asyncio.ensure_future` function and all functions that
+  use it, such as :meth:`loop.run_until_complete() <asyncio.loop.run_until_complete>`,
+  now accept all kinds of :term:`awaitable objects <awaitable>`.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)
+
+* New :func:`~asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe` function to submit
+  coroutines to event loops from other threads.
+  (Contributed by Vincent Michel.)
+
+* New :meth:`Transport.is_closing() <asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing>`
+  method to check if the transport is closing or closed.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)
+
+* The :meth:`loop.create_server() <asyncio.loop.create_server>`
+  method can now accept a list of hosts.
+  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)
+
+Updates in 3.5.2:
+
+* New :meth:`loop.create_future() <asyncio.loop.create_future>`
+  method to create Future objects.  This allows alternative event
+  loop implementations, such as
+  `uvloop <https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop>`_, to provide a faster
+  :class:`asyncio.Future` implementation.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)
+
+* New :meth:`loop.get_exception_handler() <asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler>`
+  method to get the current exception handler.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)
+
+* New :meth:`StreamReader.readuntil() <asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil>`
+  method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes
+  sequence appears.
+  (Contributed by Mark Korenberg.)
+
+* The :meth:`loop.create_connection() <asyncio.loop.create_connection>`
+  and :meth:`loop.create_server() <asyncio.loop.create_server>`
+  methods are optimized to avoid calling the system ``getaddrinfo``
+  function if the address is already resolved.
+  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)
+
+* The :meth:`loop.sock_connect(sock, address) <asyncio.loop.sock_connect>`
+  no longer requires the *address* to be resolved prior to the call.
+  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)
+
+
+bz2
+---
+
+The :meth:`BZ2Decompressor.decompress <bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress>`
+method now accepts an optional *max_length* argument to limit the maximum
+size of decompressed data. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in :issue:`15955`.)
+
+
+cgi
+---
+
+The :class:`~cgi.FieldStorage` class now supports the :term:`context manager`
+protocol.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`20289`.)
+
+
+cmath
+-----
+
+A new function :func:`~cmath.isclose` provides a way to test for approximate
+equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in :issue:`24270`.)
+
+
+code
+----
+
+The :func:`InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback() <code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback>`
+method now prints the full chained traceback, just like the interactive
+interpreter.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`17442`.)
+
+
+collections
+-----------
+
+.. _whatsnew-ordereddict:
+
+The :class:`~collections.OrderedDict` class is now implemented in C, which
+makes it 4 to 100 times faster.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in :issue:`16991`.)
+
+:meth:`OrderedDict.items() <collections.OrderedDict.items>`,
+:meth:`OrderedDict.keys() <collections.OrderedDict.keys>`,
+:meth:`OrderedDict.values() <collections.OrderedDict.values>` views now support
+:func:`reversed` iteration.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19505`.)
+
+The :class:`~collections.deque` class now defines
+:meth:`~collections.deque.index`, :meth:`~collections.deque.insert`, and
+:meth:`~collections.deque.copy`, and supports the ``+`` and ``*`` operators.
+This allows deques to be recognized as a :class:`~collections.abc.MutableSequence`
+and improves their substitutability for lists.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`23704`.)
+
+Docstrings produced by :func:`~collections.namedtuple` can now be updated::
+
+    Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
+    Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coodinate'
+    Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa'
+    Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate'
+
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`24064`.)
+
+The :class:`~collections.UserString` class now implements the
+:meth:`__getnewargs__`, :meth:`__rmod__`, :meth:`~str.casefold`,
+:meth:`~str.format_map`, :meth:`~str.isprintable`, and :meth:`~str.maketrans`
+methods to match the corresponding methods of :class:`str`.
+(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in :issue:`22189`.)
+
+
+collections.abc
+---------------
+
+The :meth:`Sequence.index() <collections.abc.Sequence.index>` method now
+accepts *start* and *stop* arguments to match the corresponding methods
+of :class:`tuple`, :class:`list`, etc.
+(Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in :issue:`23086`.)
+
+A new :class:`~collections.abc.Generator` abstract base class. (Contributed
+by Stefan Behnel in :issue:`24018`.)
+
+New :class:`~collections.abc.Awaitable`, :class:`~collections.abc.Coroutine`,
+:class:`~collections.abc.AsyncIterator`, and
+:class:`~collections.abc.AsyncIterable` abstract base classes.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`24184`.)
+
+For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in an
+external `PyPI package <https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc>`_.
+
+
+compileall
+----------
+
+A new :mod:`compileall` option, :samp:`-j {N}`, allows running *N* workers
+simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation.
+The :func:`~compileall.compile_dir` function has a corresponding ``workers``
+parameter.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`16104`.)
+
+Another new option, ``-r``, allows controlling the maximum recursion
+level for subdirectories.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`19628`.)
+
+The ``-q`` command line option can now be specified more than once, in
+which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed.  The corresponding
+``quiet`` parameter in :func:`~compileall.compile_dir`,
+:func:`~compileall.compile_file`, and :func:`~compileall.compile_path` can now
+accept an integer value indicating the level of output suppression.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in :issue:`21338`.)
+
+
+concurrent.futures
+------------------
+
+The :meth:`Executor.map() <concurrent.futures.Executor.map>` method now accepts a
+*chunksize* argument to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when
+:meth:`~concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor` is used.
+(Contributed by Dan O'Reilly in :issue:`11271`.)
+
+The number of workers in the :class:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor`
+constructor is optional now.  The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`21527`.)
+
+
+configparser
+------------
+
+:mod:`configparser` now provides a way to customize the conversion
+of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the
+:class:`~configparser.ConfigParser` constructor, or by defining them
+as methods in ``ConfigParser`` subclasses.  Converters defined in
+a parser instance are inherited by its section proxies.
+
+Example::
+
+    >>> import configparser
+    >>> conv = {}
+    >>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()]
+    >>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv)
+    >>> cfg.read_string("""
+    ... [s]
+    ... list = a b c d e f g
+    ... """)
+    >>> cfg.get('s', 'list')
+    'a b c d e f g'
+    >>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list')
+    ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
+    >>> section = cfg['s']
+    >>> section.getlist('list')
+    ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
+
+(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in :issue:`18159`.)
+
+
+contextlib
+----------
+
+The new :func:`~contextlib.redirect_stderr` :term:`context manager` (similar to
+:func:`~contextlib.redirect_stdout`) makes it easier for utility scripts to
+handle inflexible APIs that write their output to :data:`sys.stderr` and
+don't provide any options to redirect it::
+
+    >>> import contextlib, io, logging
+    >>> f = io.StringIO()
+    >>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f):
+    ...     logging.warning('warning')
+    ...
+    >>> f.getvalue()
+    'WARNING:root:warning\n'
+
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`22389`.)
+
+
+csv
+---
+
+The :meth:`~csv.csvwriter.writerow` method now supports arbitrary iterables,
+not just sequences.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23171`.)
+
+
+curses
+------
+
+The new :func:`~curses.update_lines_cols` function updates the :envvar:`LINES`
+and :envvar:`COLS` environment variables.  This is useful for detecting
+manual screen resizing.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in :issue:`4254`.)
+
+
+dbm
+---
+
+:func:`dumb.open <dbm.dumb.open>` always creates a new database when the flag
+has the value ``"n"``.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`18039`.)
+
+
+difflib
+-------
+
+The charset of HTML documents generated by
+:meth:`HtmlDiff.make_file() <difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file>`
+can now be customized by using a new *charset* keyword-only argument.
+The default charset of HTML document changed from ``"ISO-8859-1"``
+to ``"utf-8"``.
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`2052`.)
+
+The :func:`~difflib.diff_bytes` function can now compare lists of byte
+strings.  This fixes a regression from Python 2.
+(Contributed by Terry J. Reedy and Greg Ward in :issue:`17445`.)
+
+
+distutils
+---------
+
+Both the ``build`` and ``build_ext`` commands now accept a ``-j`` option to
+enable parallel building of extension modules.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`5309`.)
+
+The :mod:`distutils` module now supports ``xz`` compression, and can be
+enabled by passing ``xztar`` as an argument to ``bdist --format``.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`16314`.)
+
+
+doctest
+-------
+
+The :func:`~doctest.DocTestSuite` function returns an empty
+:class:`unittest.TestSuite` if *module* contains no docstrings, instead of
+raising :exc:`ValueError`.  (Contributed by Glenn Jones in :issue:`15916`.)
+
+
+email
+-----
+
+A new policy option :attr:`Policy.mangle_from_ <email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_>`
+controls whether or not lines that start with ``"From "`` in email bodies are
+prefixed with a ``">"`` character by generators.  The default is ``True`` for
+:attr:`~email.policy.compat32` and ``False`` for all other policies.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in :issue:`20098`.)
+
+A new
+:meth:`Message.get_content_disposition() <email.message.Message.get_content_disposition>`
+method provides easy access to a canonical value for the
+:mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header.
+(Contributed by Abhilash Raj in :issue:`21083`.)
+
+A new policy option :attr:`EmailPolicy.utf8 <email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8>`
+can be set to ``True`` to encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead
+of using encoded words.  This allows ``Messages`` to be formatted according to
+:rfc:`6532` and used with an SMTP server that supports the :rfc:`6531`
+``SMTPUTF8`` extension.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in
+:issue:`24211`.)
+
+The :class:`mime.text.MIMEText <email.mime.text.MIMEText>` constructor now
+accepts a :class:`charset.Charset <email.charset.Charset>` instance.
+(Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker Peksag in :issue:`16324`.)
+
+
+enum
+----
+
+The :class:`~enum.Enum` callable has a new parameter *start* to
+specify the initial number of enum values if only *names* are provided::
+
+    >>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10)
+    >>> Animal.cat
+    <Animal.cat: 10>
+    >>> Animal.dog
+    <Animal.dog: 11>
+
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in :issue:`21706`.)
+
+
+faulthandler
+------------
+
+The :func:`~faulthandler.enable`, :func:`~faulthandler.register`,
+:func:`~faulthandler.dump_traceback` and
+:func:`~faulthandler.dump_traceback_later` functions now accept file
+descriptors in addition to file-like objects.
+(Contributed by Wei Wu in :issue:`23566`.)
+
+
+functools
+---------
+
+.. _whatsnew-lrucache:
+
+Most of the :func:`~functools.lru_cache` machinery is now implemented in C, making
+it significantly faster.  (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey Kachayev, and
+Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`14373`.)
+
+
+glob
+----
+
+The :func:`~glob.iglob` and :func:`~glob.glob` functions now support recursive
+search in subdirectories, using the ``"**"`` pattern.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`13968`.)
+
+
+gzip
+----
+
+The *mode* argument of the :class:`~gzip.GzipFile` constructor now
+accepts ``"x"`` to request exclusive creation.
+(Contributed by Tim Heaney in :issue:`19222`.)
+
+
+heapq
+-----
+
+Element comparison in :func:`~heapq.merge` can now be customized by
+passing a :term:`key function` in a new optional *key* keyword argument,
+and a new optional *reverse* keyword argument can be used to reverse element
+comparison::
+
+    >>> import heapq
+    >>> a = ['9', '777', '55555']
+    >>> b = ['88', '6666']
+    >>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len))
+    ['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555']
+    >>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True))
+    ['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9']
+
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`13742`.)
+
+
+http
+----
+
+A new :class:`HTTPStatus <http.HTTPStatus>` enum that defines a set of
+HTTP status codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht in :issue:`21793`.)
+
+
+http.client
+-----------
+
+:meth:`HTTPConnection.getresponse() <http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse>`
+now raises a :exc:`~http.client.RemoteDisconnected` exception when a
+remote server connection is closed unexpectedly.  Additionally, if a
+:exc:`ConnectionError` (of which ``RemoteDisconnected``
+is a subclass) is raised, the client socket is now closed automatically,
+and will reconnect on the next request::
+
+    import http.client
+    conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
+    for retries in range(3):
+        try:
+            conn.request('GET', '/')
+            resp = conn.getresponse()
+        except http.client.RemoteDisconnected:
+            pass
+
+(Contributed by Martin Panter in :issue:`3566`.)
+
+
+idlelib and IDLE
+----------------
+
+Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for
+import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.  See
+:file:`Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt` for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0,
+as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases. This file is also available
+from the IDLE :menuselection:`Help --> About IDLE` dialog.
+
+
+imaplib
+-------
+
+The :class:`~imaplib.IMAP4` class now supports the :term:`context manager` protocol.
+When used in a :keyword:`with` statement, the IMAP4 ``LOGOUT``
+command will be called automatically at the end of the block.
+(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`4972`.)
+
+The :mod:`imaplib` module now supports :rfc:`5161` (ENABLE Extension)
+and :rfc:`6855` (UTF-8 Support) via the :meth:`IMAP4.enable() <imaplib.IMAP4.enable>`
+method.  A new :attr:`IMAP4.utf8_enabled <imaplib.IMAP4.utf8_enabled>`
+attribute tracks whether or not :rfc:`6855` support is enabled.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in
+:issue:`21800`.)
+
+The :mod:`imaplib` module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string usernames
+and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs.  (Contributed by Milan
+Oberkirch in :issue:`21800`.)
+
+
+imghdr
+------
+
+The :func:`~imghdr.what` function now recognizes the
+`OpenEXR <http://www.openexr.com>`_ format
+(contributed by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in :issue:`20295`),
+and the `WebP <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP>`_ format
+(contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in :issue:`20197`.)
+
+
+importlib
+---------
+
+The :class:`util.LazyLoader <importlib.util.LazyLoader>` class allows for
+lazy loading of modules in applications where startup time is important.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`17621`.)
+
+The :func:`abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() <importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code>`
+method is now a static method.  This makes it easier to initialize a module
+object with code compiled from a string by running
+``exec(code, module.__dict__)``.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`21156`.)
+
+The new :func:`util.module_from_spec() <importlib.util.module_from_spec>`
+function is now the preferred way to create a new module.  As opposed to
+creating a :class:`types.ModuleType` instance directly, this new function
+will set the various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in
+spec object.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`20383`.)
+
+
+inspect
+-------
+
+Both the :class:`~inspect.Signature` and :class:`~inspect.Parameter` classes are
+now picklable and hashable.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`20726`
+and :issue:`20334`.)
+
+A new
+:meth:`BoundArguments.apply_defaults() <inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults>`
+method provides a way to set default values for missing arguments::
+
+    >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
+    >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
+    >>> ba.apply_defaults()
+    >>> ba.arguments
+    OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])
+
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`24190`.)
+
+A new class method
+:meth:`Signature.from_callable() <inspect.Signature.from_callable>` makes
+subclassing of :class:`~inspect.Signature` easier.  (Contributed
+by Yury Selivanov and Eric Snow in :issue:`17373`.)
+
+The :func:`~inspect.signature` function now accepts a *follow_wrapped*
+optional keyword argument, which, when set to ``False``, disables automatic
+following of ``__wrapped__`` links.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`20691`.)
+
+A set of new functions to inspect
+:term:`coroutine functions <coroutine function>` and
+:term:`coroutine objects <coroutine>` has been added:
+:func:`~inspect.iscoroutine`, :func:`~inspect.iscoroutinefunction`,
+:func:`~inspect.isawaitable`, :func:`~inspect.getcoroutinelocals`,
+and :func:`~inspect.getcoroutinestate`.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`24017` and :issue:`24400`.)
+
+The :func:`~inspect.stack`, :func:`~inspect.trace`,
+:func:`~inspect.getouterframes`, and :func:`~inspect.getinnerframes`
+functions now return a list of named tuples.
+(Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in :issue:`16808`.)
+
+
+io
+--
+
+A new :meth:`BufferedIOBase.readinto1() <io.BufferedIOBase.readinto1>`
+method, that uses at most one call to the underlying raw stream's
+:meth:`RawIOBase.read() <io.RawIOBase.read>` or
+:meth:`RawIOBase.readinto() <io.RawIOBase.readinto>` methods.
+(Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in :issue:`20578`.)
+
+
+ipaddress
+---------
+
+Both the :class:`~ipaddress.IPv4Network` and :class:`~ipaddress.IPv6Network` classes
+now accept an ``(address, netmask)`` tuple argument, so as to easily construct
+network objects from existing addresses::
+
+    >>> import ipaddress
+    >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8))
+    IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
+    >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0'))
+    IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
+
+(Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`16531`.)
+
+A new :attr:`~ipaddress.IPv4Network.reverse_pointer` attribute for the
+:class:`~ipaddress.IPv4Network` and :class:`~ipaddress.IPv6Network` classes
+returns the name of the reverse DNS PTR record::
+
+    >>> import ipaddress
+    >>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
+    >>> addr.reverse_pointer
+    '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
+    >>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')
+    >>> addr6.reverse_pointer
+    '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa'
+
+(Contributed by Leon Weber in :issue:`20480`.)
+
+
+json
+----
+
+The :mod:`json.tool` command line interface now preserves the order of keys in
+JSON objects passed in input.  The new ``--sort-keys`` option can be used
+to sort the keys alphabetically. (Contributed by Berker Peksag
+in :issue:`21650`.)
+
+JSON decoder now raises :exc:`~json.JSONDecodeError` instead of
+:exc:`ValueError` to provide better context information about the error.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19361`.)
+
+
+linecache
+---------
+
+A new :func:`~linecache.lazycache` function can be used to capture information
+about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines later via
+:func:`~linecache.getline`. This avoids doing I/O until a line is actually
+needed, without having to carry the module globals around indefinitely.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in :issue:`17911`.)
+
+
+locale
+------
+
+A new :func:`~locale.delocalize` function can be used to convert a string into
+a normalized number string, taking the ``LC_NUMERIC`` settings into account::
+
+    >>> import locale
+    >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
+    'de_DE.UTF-8'
+    >>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56')
+    '1234.56'
+    >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8')
+    'en_US.UTF-8'
+    >>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56')
+    '1234.56'
+
+(Contributed by Cédric Krier in :issue:`13918`.)
+
+
+logging
+-------
+
+All logging methods (:class:`~logging.Logger` :meth:`~logging.Logger.log`,
+:meth:`~logging.Logger.exception`, :meth:`~logging.Logger.critical`,
+:meth:`~logging.Logger.debug`, etc.), now accept exception instances
+as an *exc_info* argument, in addition to boolean values and exception
+tuples::
+
+    >>> import logging
+    >>> try:
+    ...     1/0
+    ... except ZeroDivisionError as ex:
+    ...     logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex)
+    ERROR:root:exception
+
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`20537`.)
+
+The :class:`handlers.HTTPHandler <logging.handlers.HTTPHandler>` class now
+accepts an optional :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance to configure SSL
+settings used in an HTTP connection.
+(Contributed by Alex Gaynor in :issue:`22788`.)
+
+The :class:`handlers.QueueListener <logging.handlers.QueueListener>` class now
+takes a *respect_handler_level* keyword argument which, if set to ``True``,
+will pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)
+
+
+lzma
+----
+
+The :meth:`LZMADecompressor.decompress() <lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress>`
+method now accepts an optional *max_length* argument to limit the maximum
+size of decompressed data.
+(Contributed by Martin Panter in :issue:`15955`.)
+
+
+math
+----
+
+Two new constants have been added to the :mod:`math` module: :data:`~math.inf`
+and :data:`~math.nan`.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in :issue:`23185`.)
+
+A new function :func:`~math.isclose` provides a way to test for approximate
+equality. (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in :issue:`24270`.)
+
+A new :func:`~math.gcd` function has been added.  The :func:`fractions.gcd`
+function is now deprecated. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy
+Storchaka in :issue:`22486`.)
+
+
+multiprocessing
+---------------
+
+:func:`sharedctypes.synchronized() <multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized>`
+objects now support the :term:`context manager` protocol.
+(Contributed by Charles-François Natali in :issue:`21565`.)
+
+
+operator
+--------
+
+:func:`~operator.attrgetter`, :func:`~operator.itemgetter`,
+and :func:`~operator.methodcaller` objects now support pickling.
+(Contributed by Josh Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22955`.)
+
+New :func:`~operator.matmul` and :func:`~operator.imatmul` functions
+to perform matrix multiplication.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in :issue:`21176`.)
+
+
+os
+--
+
+The new :func:`~os.scandir` function returning an iterator of
+:class:`~os.DirEntry` objects has been added.  If possible, :func:`~os.scandir`
+extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the need to
+perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or attributes, which may
+significantly improve performance.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with the help
+of Victor Stinner in :issue:`22524`.)
+
+On Windows, a new
+:attr:`stat_result.st_file_attributes <os.stat_result.st_file_attributes>`
+attribute is now available.  It corresponds to the ``dwFileAttributes`` member
+of the ``BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION`` structure returned by
+``GetFileInformationByHandle()``.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in :issue:`21719`.)
+
+The :func:`~os.urandom` function now uses the ``getrandom()`` syscall on Linux 3.17
+or newer, and ``getentropy()`` on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, removing the need to
+use ``/dev/urandom`` and avoiding failures due to potential file descriptor
+exhaustion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`22181`.)
+
+New :func:`~os.get_blocking` and :func:`~os.set_blocking` functions allow
+getting and setting a file descriptor's blocking mode (:data:`~os.O_NONBLOCK`.)
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`22054`.)
+
+The :func:`~os.truncate` and :func:`~os.ftruncate` functions are now supported
+on Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in :issue:`23668`.)
+
+There is a new :func:`os.path.commonpath` function returning the longest
+common sub-path of each passed pathname.  Unlike the
+:func:`os.path.commonprefix` function, it always returns a valid
+path::
+
+    >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
+    '/usr/l'
+
+    >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
+    '/usr'
+
+(Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`10395`.)
+
+
+pathlib
+-------
+
+The new :meth:`Path.samefile() <pathlib.Path.samefile>` method can be used
+to check whether the path points to the same file as another path, which can
+be either another :class:`~pathlib.Path` object, or a string::
+
+    >>> import pathlib
+    >>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts')
+    >>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts')
+    >>> p1.samefile(p2)
+    True
+
+(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`19775`.)
+
+The :meth:`Path.mkdir() <pathlib.Path.mkdir>` method now accepts a new optional
+*exist_ok* argument to match ``mkdir -p`` and :func:`os.makedirs`
+functionality.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`21539`.)
+
+There is a new :meth:`Path.expanduser() <pathlib.Path.expanduser>` method to
+expand ``~`` and ``~user`` prefixes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and
+Claudiu Popa in :issue:`19776`.)
+
+A new :meth:`Path.home() <pathlib.Path.home>` class method can be used to get
+a :class:`~pathlib.Path` instance representing the user’s home
+directory.
+(Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in :issue:`19777`.)
+
+New :meth:`Path.write_text() <pathlib.Path.write_text>`,
+:meth:`Path.read_text() <pathlib.Path.read_text>`,
+:meth:`Path.write_bytes() <pathlib.Path.write_bytes>`,
+:meth:`Path.read_bytes() <pathlib.Path.read_bytes>` methods to simplify
+read/write operations on files.
+
+The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file
+``~/spam42``::
+
+    >>> import pathlib
+    >>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42')
+    >>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham')
+    3
+
+(Contributed by Christopher Welborn in :issue:`20218`.)
+
+
+pickle
+------
+
+Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be pickled
+using :ref:`pickle protocols <pickle-protocols>` older than protocol version 4.
+Protocol version 4 already supports these cases.  (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in :issue:`23611`.)
+
+
+poplib
+------
+
+A new :meth:`POP3.utf8() <poplib.POP3.utf8>` command enables :rfc:`6856`
+(Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it.
+(Contributed by Milan OberKirch in :issue:`21804`.)
+
+
+re
+--
+
+References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are now
+allowed in lookbehind assertions::
+
+    >>> import re
+    >>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c')
+    >>> pat.match('aac')
+    <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'>
+    >>> pat.match('bbc')
+    <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'>
+
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`9179`.)
+
+The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer limited to
+100.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22437`.)
+
+The :func:`~re.sub` and :func:`~re.subn` functions now replace unmatched
+groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`1519638`.)
+
+The :class:`re.error` exceptions have new attributes,
+:attr:`~re.error.msg`, :attr:`~re.error.pattern`,
+:attr:`~re.error.pos`, :attr:`~re.error.lineno`,
+and :attr:`~re.error.colno`, that provide better context
+information about the error::
+
+    >>> re.compile("""
+    ...     (?x)
+    ...     .++
+    ... """)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+       ...
+    sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)
+
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22578`.)
+
+
+readline
+--------
+
+A new :func:`~readline.append_history_file` function can be used to append
+the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file.
+(Contributed by Bruno Cauet in :issue:`22940`.)
+
+
+selectors
+---------
+
+The new :class:`~selectors.DevpollSelector` supports efficient
+``/dev/poll`` polling on Solaris.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in :issue:`18931`.)
+
+
+shutil
+------
+
+The :func:`~shutil.move` function now accepts a *copy_function* argument,
+allowing, for example, the :func:`~shutil.copy` function to be used instead of
+the default :func:`~shutil.copy2` if there is a need to ignore file metadata
+when moving.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`19840`.)
+
+The :func:`~shutil.make_archive` function now supports the *xztar* format.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`5411`.)
+
+
+signal
+------
+
+On Windows, the :func:`~signal.set_wakeup_fd` function now also supports
+socket handles.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`22018`.)
+
+Various ``SIG*`` constants in the :mod:`signal` module have been converted into
+:mod:`Enums <enum>`.  This allows meaningful names to be printed
+during debugging, instead of integer "magic numbers".
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in :issue:`21076`.)
+
+
+smtpd
+-----
+
+Both the :class:`~smtpd.SMTPServer` and :class:`~smtpd.SMTPChannel` classes now
+accept a *decode_data* keyword argument to determine if the ``DATA`` portion of
+the SMTP transaction is decoded using the ``"utf-8"`` codec or is instead
+provided to the
+:meth:`SMTPServer.process_message() <smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message>`
+method as a byte string.  The default is ``True`` for backward compatibility
+reasons, but will change to ``False`` in Python 3.6.  If *decode_data* is set
+to ``False``, the ``process_message`` method must be prepared to accept keyword
+arguments.
+(Contributed by Maciej Szulik in :issue:`19662`.)
+
+The :class:`~smtpd.SMTPServer` class now advertises the ``8BITMIME`` extension
+(:rfc:`6152`) if *decode_data* has been set ``True``.  If the client
+specifies ``BODY=8BITMIME`` on the ``MAIL`` command, it is passed to
+:meth:`SMTPServer.process_message() <smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message>`
+via the *mail_options* keyword.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R.  David Murray in :issue:`21795`.)
+
+The :class:`~smtpd.SMTPServer` class now also supports the ``SMTPUTF8``
+extension (:rfc:`6531`: Internationalized Email).  If the client specified
+``SMTPUTF8 BODY=8BITMIME`` on the ``MAIL`` command, they are passed to
+:meth:`SMTPServer.process_message() <smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message>`
+via the *mail_options* keyword.  It is the responsibility of the
+``process_message`` method to correctly handle the ``SMTPUTF8`` data.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in :issue:`21725`.)
+
+It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6
+addresses in the :class:`~smtpd.SMTPServer` constructor, and have it
+successfully connect.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in :issue:`14758`.)
+
+
+smtplib
+-------
+
+A new :meth:`SMTP.auth() <smtplib.SMTP.auth>` method provides a convenient way to
+implement custom authentication mechanisms. (Contributed by Milan
+Oberkirch in :issue:`15014`.)
+
+The :meth:`SMTP.set_debuglevel() <smtplib.SMTP.set_debuglevel>` method now
+accepts an additional debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug
+messages. (Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in :issue:`16914`.)
+
+Both the :meth:`SMTP.sendmail() <smtplib.SMTP.sendmail>` and
+:meth:`SMTP.send_message() <smtplib.SMTP.send_message>` methods now
+support :rfc:`6531` (SMTPUTF8).
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in :issue:`22027`.)
+
+
+sndhdr
+------
+
+The :func:`~sndhdr.what` and :func:`~sndhdr.whathdr` functions  now return
+a :func:`~collections.namedtuple`.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
+:issue:`18615`.)
+
+
+socket
+------
+
+Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system clock.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`22043`.)
+
+A new :meth:`socket.sendfile() <socket.socket.sendfile>` method allows
+sending a file over a socket by using the high-performance :func:`os.sendfile`
+function on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when
+using plain :meth:`socket.send() <socket.socket.send>`.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in :issue:`17552`.)
+
+The :meth:`socket.sendall() <socket.socket.sendall>` method no longer resets the
+socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is
+now the maximum total duration to send all data.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23853`.)
+
+The *backlog* argument of the :meth:`socket.listen() <socket.socket.listen>`
+method is now optional.  By default it is set to
+:data:`SOMAXCONN <socket.SOMAXCONN>` or to ``128``, whichever is less.
+(Contributed by Charles-François Natali in :issue:`21455`.)
+
+
+ssl
+---
+
+.. _whatsnew-sslmemorybio:
+
+Memory BIO Support
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+(Contributed by Geert Jansen in :issue:`21965`.)
+
+The new :class:`~ssl.SSLObject` class has been added to provide SSL protocol
+support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of :class:`~ssl.SSLSocket`
+are not necessary or are suboptimal.  ``SSLObject`` represents
+an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network I/O methods, and
+instead provides a memory buffer interface.  The new :class:`~ssl.MemoryBIO`
+class can be used to pass data between Python and an SSL protocol instance.
+
+The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in frameworks
+implementing asynchronous I/O for which :class:`~ssl.SSLSocket`'s readiness
+model ("select/poll") is inefficient.
+
+A new :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_bio() <ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio>` method can be used
+to create a new ``SSLObject`` instance.
+
+
+Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in :issue:`20188`.)
+
+Where OpenSSL support is present, the :mod:`ssl` module now implements
+the *Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation* TLS extension as described
+in :rfc:`7301`.
+
+The new :meth:`SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols() <ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols>`
+can be used to specify which protocols a socket should advertise during
+the TLS handshake.
+
+The new
+:meth:`SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol() <ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol>`
+returns the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.
+The :data:`~ssl.HAS_ALPN` flag indicates whether ALPN support is present.
+
+
+Other Changes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There is a new :meth:`SSLSocket.version() <ssl.SSLSocket.version>` method to
+query the actual protocol version in use.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`20421`.)
+
+The :class:`~ssl.SSLSocket` class now implements
+a :meth:`SSLSocket.sendfile() <ssl.SSLSocket.sendfile>` method.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in :issue:`17552`.)
+
+The :meth:`SSLSocket.send() <ssl.SSLSocket.send>` method now raises either
+the :exc:`ssl.SSLWantReadError` or :exc:`ssl.SSLWantWriteError` exception on a
+non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return
+``0``.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in :issue:`20951`.)
+
+The :func:`~ssl.cert_time_to_seconds` function now interprets the input time
+as UTC and not as local time, per :rfc:`5280`.  Additionally, the return
+value is always an :class:`int`. (Contributed by Akira Li in :issue:`19940`.)
+
+New :meth:`SSLObject.shared_ciphers() <ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers>` and
+:meth:`SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() <ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers>` methods return
+the list of ciphers sent by the client during the handshake.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in :issue:`23186`.)
+
+The :meth:`SSLSocket.do_handshake() <ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake>`,
+:meth:`SSLSocket.read() <ssl.SSLSocket.read>`,
+:meth:`SSLSocket.shutdown() <ssl.SSLSocket.shutdown>`, and
+:meth:`SSLSocket.write() <ssl.SSLSocket.write>` methods of the :class:`~ssl.SSLSocket`
+class no longer reset the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent.
+The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the method.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23853`.)
+
+The :func:`~ssl.match_hostname` function now supports matching of IP addresses.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`23239`.)
+
+
+sqlite3
+-------
+
+The :class:`~sqlite3.Row` class now fully supports the sequence protocol,
+in particular :func:`reversed` iteration and slice indexing.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`10203`; by Lucas Sinclair,
+Jessica McKellar, and  Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`13583`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-subprocess:
+
+subprocess
+----------
+
+The new :func:`~subprocess.run` function has been added.
+It runs the specified command and returns a
+:class:`~subprocess.CompletedProcess` object, which describes a finished
+process.  The new API is more consistent and is the recommended approach
+to invoking subprocesses in Python code that does not need to maintain
+compatibility with earlier Python versions.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in :issue:`23342`.)
+
+Examples::
+
+    >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
+    CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)
+
+    >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      ...
+    subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1
+
+    >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
+    CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
+    stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n')
+
+
+sys
+---
+
+A new :func:`~sys.set_coroutine_wrapper` function allows setting a global
+hook that will be called whenever a :term:`coroutine object <coroutine>`
+is created by an :keyword:`async def` function.  A corresponding
+:func:`~sys.get_coroutine_wrapper` can be used to obtain a currently set
+wrapper.  Both functions are :term:`provisional <provisional api>`,
+and are intended for debugging purposes only.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
+in :issue:`24017`.)
+
+A new :func:`~sys.is_finalizing` function can be used to check if the Python
+interpreter is :term:`shutting down <interpreter shutdown>`.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`22696`.)
+
+
+sysconfig
+---------
+
+The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first
+two components of the Python version. (Contributed by Paul Moore
+in :issue:`23437`.)
+
+
+tarfile
+-------
+
+The *mode* argument of the :func:`~tarfile.open` function now accepts ``"x"``
+to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`21717`.)
+
+The :meth:`TarFile.extractall() <tarfile.TarFile.extractall>` and
+:meth:`TarFile.extract() <tarfile.TarFile.extract>` methods now take a keyword
+argument *numeric_owner*.  If set to ``True``, the extracted files and
+directories will be owned by the numeric ``uid`` and ``gid`` from the tarfile.
+If set to ``False`` (the default, and the behavior in versions prior to 3.5),
+they will be owned by the named user and group in the tarfile.
+(Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith in :issue:`23193`.)
+
+The :meth:`TarFile.list() <tarfile.TarFile.list>` now accepts an optional
+*members* keyword argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned
+by :meth:`TarFile.getmembers() <tarfile.TarFile.getmembers>`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`21549`.)
+
+
+threading
+---------
+
+Both the :meth:`Lock.acquire() <threading.Lock.acquire>` and
+:meth:`RLock.acquire() <threading.RLock.acquire>` methods
+now use a monotonic clock for timeout management.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`22043`.)
+
+
+time
+----
+
+The :func:`~time.monotonic` function is now always available.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`22043`.)
+
+
+timeit
+------
+
+A new command line option ``-u`` or :samp:`--unit={U}` can be used to specify the time
+unit for the timer output.  Supported options are ``usec``, ``msec``,
+or ``sec``.  (Contributed by Julian Gindi in :issue:`18983`.)
+
+The :func:`~timeit.timeit` function has a new *globals* parameter for
+specifying the namespace in which the code will be running.
+(Contributed by Ben Roberts in :issue:`2527`.)
+
+
+tkinter
+-------
+
+The :mod:`tkinter._fix` module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment
+on Windows has been replaced by a private function in the :mod:`_tkinter`
+module which makes no permanent changes to environment variables.
+(Contributed by Zachary Ware in :issue:`20035`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew-traceback:
+
+traceback
+---------
+
+New :func:`~traceback.walk_stack` and :func:`~traceback.walk_tb`
+functions to conveniently traverse frame and traceback objects.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in :issue:`17911`.)
+
+New lightweight classes: :class:`~traceback.TracebackException`,
+:class:`~traceback.StackSummary`, and :class:`~traceback.FrameSummary`.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in :issue:`17911`.)
+
+Both the :func:`~traceback.print_tb` and :func:`~traceback.print_stack` functions
+now support negative values for the *limit* argument.
+(Contributed by Dmitry Kazakov in :issue:`22619`.)
+
+
+types
+-----
+
+A new :func:`~types.coroutine` function to transform
+:term:`generator <generator iterator>` and
+:class:`generator-like <collections.abc.Generator>` objects into
+:term:`awaitables <awaitable>`.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`24017`.)
+
+A new type called :class:`~types.CoroutineType`, which is used for
+:term:`coroutine` objects created by :keyword:`async def` functions.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`24400`.)
+
+
+unicodedata
+-----------
+
+The :mod:`unicodedata` module now uses data from `Unicode 8.0.0
+<http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/>`_.
+
+
+unittest
+--------
+
+The :meth:`TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule() <unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule>`
+method now accepts a keyword-only argument *pattern* which is passed to
+``load_tests`` as the third argument.  Found packages are now checked for
+``load_tests`` regardless of whether their path matches *pattern*, because it
+is impossible for a package name to match the default pattern.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in :issue:`16662`.)
+
+Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the
+:data:`TestLoader.errors <unittest.TestLoader.errors>` attribute of the
+:class:`~unittest.TestLoader` instance.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in :issue:`19746`.)
+
+A new command line option ``--locals`` to show local variables in
+tracebacks.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in :issue:`22936`.)
+
+
+unittest.mock
+-------------
+
+The :class:`~unittest.mock.Mock` class has the following improvements:
+
+* The class constructor has a new *unsafe* parameter, which causes mock
+  objects to raise :exc:`AttributeError` on attribute names starting
+  with ``"assert"``.
+  (Contributed by Kushal Das in :issue:`21238`.)
+
+* A new :meth:`Mock.assert_not_called() <unittest.mock.Mock.assert_not_called>`
+  method to check if the mock object was called.
+  (Contributed by Kushal Das in :issue:`21262`.)
+
+The :class:`~unittest.mock.MagicMock` class now supports :meth:`__truediv__`,
+:meth:`__divmod__` and :meth:`__matmul__` operators.
+(Contributed by Johannes Baiter in :issue:`20968`, and Håkan Lövdahl
+in :issue:`23581` and :issue:`23568`.)
+
+It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass ``create=True`` to the
+:func:`~unittest.mock.patch` function when patching builtin names.
+(Contributed by Kushal Das in :issue:`17660`.)
+
+
+urllib
+------
+
+A new
+:class:`request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth <urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth>`
+class allows HTTP Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to
+eliminate unnecessary ``401`` response handling, or to unconditionally send
+credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers that
+return a ``404`` response instead of a ``401`` if the ``Authorization`` header
+is not sent. (Contributed by Matej Cepl in :issue:`19494` and Akshit Khurana in
+:issue:`7159`.)
+
+A new *quote_via* argument for the
+:func:`parse.urlencode() <urllib.parse.urlencode>`
+function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if needed.
+(Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in :issue:`13866`.)
+
+The :func:`request.urlopen() <urllib.request.urlopen>` function accepts an
+:class:`ssl.SSLContext` object as a *context* argument, which will be used for
+the HTTPS connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in :issue:`22366`.)
+
+The :func:`parse.urljoin() <urllib.parse.urljoin>` was updated to use the
+:rfc:`3986` semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than
+:rfc:`1808` and :rfc:`2396`.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in :issue:`22118`.)
+
+
+wsgiref
+-------
+
+The *headers* argument of the :class:`headers.Headers <wsgiref.headers.Headers>`
+class constructor is now optional.
+(Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost in :issue:`5800`.)
+
+
+xmlrpc
+------
+
+The :class:`client.ServerProxy <xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy>` class now supports
+the :term:`context manager` protocol.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in :issue:`20627`.)
+
+The :class:`client.ServerProxy <xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy>` constructor now accepts
+an optional :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance.
+(Contributed by Alex Gaynor in :issue:`22960`.)
+
+
+xml.sax
+-------
+
+SAX parsers now support a character stream of the
+:class:`xmlreader.InputSource <xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource>` object.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`2175`.)
+
+:func:`~xml.sax.parseString` now accepts a :class:`str` instance.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`10590`.)
+
+
+zipfile
+-------
+
+ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23252`.)
+
+The *mode* argument of :meth:`ZipFile.open() <zipfile.ZipFile.open>` method now
+accepts ``"x"`` to request exclusive creation.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`21717`.)
+
+
+Other module-level changes
+==========================
+
+Many functions in the :mod:`mmap`, :mod:`ossaudiodev`, :mod:`socket`,
+:mod:`ssl`, and :mod:`codecs` modules now accept writable
+:term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23001`.)
+
+
+Optimizations
+=============
+
+The :func:`os.walk` function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on POSIX systems,
+and by 7 to 20 times on Windows.  This was done using the new :func:`os.scandir`
+function, which exposes file information from the underlying ``readdir`` or
+``FindFirstFile``/``FindNextFile`` system calls.  (Contributed by
+Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in :issue:`23605`.)
+
+Construction of ``bytes(int)`` (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses less
+memory for large objects. ``calloc()`` is used instead of ``malloc()`` to
+allocate memory for these objects.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`21233`.)
+
+Some operations on :mod:`ipaddress` :class:`~ipaddress.IPv4Network` and
+:class:`~ipaddress.IPv6Network` have been massively sped up, such as
+:meth:`~ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnets`, :meth:`~ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet`,
+:func:`~ipaddress.summarize_address_range`, :func:`~ipaddress.collapse_addresses`.
+The speed up can range from 3 to 15 times.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in
+:issue:`21486`, :issue:`21487`, :issue:`20826`, :issue:`23266`.)
+
+Pickling of :mod:`ipaddress` objects was optimized to produce significantly
+smaller output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23133`.)
+
+Many operations on :class:`io.BytesIO` are now 50% to 100% faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`15381` and David Wilson in
+:issue:`22003`.)
+
+The :func:`marshal.dumps` function is now faster: 65--85% with versions 3
+and 4, 20--25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to 5 times in
+best cases.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`20416` and :issue:`23344`.)
+
+The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`15027`.)
+
+Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19380`.)
+
+The :func:`json.dumps` function was optimized to run with
+``ensure_ascii=False`` as fast as with ``ensure_ascii=True``.
+(Contributed by Naoki Inada in :issue:`23206`.)
+
+The :c:func:`PyObject_IsInstance` and :c:func:`PyObject_IsSubclass`
+functions have been sped up in the common case that the second argument
+has :class:`type` as its metaclass.
+(Contributed Georg Brandl by in :issue:`22540`.)
+
+Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance
+improvement in some benchmarks.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`22847`.)
+
+Objects from the :mod:`random` module now use 50% less memory on 64-bit
+builds.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23488`.)
+
+The :func:`property` getter calls are up to 25% faster.
+(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in :issue:`23910`.)
+
+Instantiation of :class:`fractions.Fraction` is now up to 30% faster.
+(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in :issue:`22464`.)
+
+String methods :meth:`~str.find`, :meth:`~str.rfind`, :meth:`~str.split`,
+:meth:`~str.partition` and the :keyword:`in` string operator are now significantly
+faster for searching 1-character substrings.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23573`.)
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+New ``calloc`` functions were added:
+
+* :c:func:`PyMem_RawCalloc`,
+* :c:func:`PyMem_Calloc`,
+* :c:func:`PyObject_Calloc`.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`21233`.)
+
+New encoding/decoding helper functions:
+
+* :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` (replaced ``_Py_char2wchar()``),
+* :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale` (replaced ``_Py_wchar2char()``).
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`18395`.)
+
+A new :c:func:`PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors` function to replace the unicode
+encode error with ``\N{...}`` escapes.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19676`.)
+
+A new :c:func:`PyErr_FormatV` function similar to :c:func:`PyErr_Format`,
+but accepts a ``va_list`` argument.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`18711`.)
+
+A new :c:data:`PyExc_RecursionError` exception.
+(Contributed by Georg Brandl in :issue:`19235`.)
+
+New :c:func:`PyModule_FromDefAndSpec`, :c:func:`PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2`,
+and :c:func:`PyModule_ExecDef` functions introduced by :pep:`489` --
+multi-phase extension module initialization.
+(Contributed by Petr Viktorin in :issue:`24268`.)
+
+New :c:func:`PyNumber_MatrixMultiply` and
+:c:func:`PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply` functions to perform matrix
+multiplication.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in :issue:`21176`.  See also :pep:`465`
+for details.)
+
+The :c:member:`PyTypeObject.tp_finalize` slot is now part of the stable ABI.
+
+Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which
+is available as part of `Visual Studio 2015 <https://www.visualstudio.com/>`_.
+
+Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their filename on
+some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import extensions without
+it, although if the tag is present and mismatched, the extension won't be
+loaded):
+
+* On Linux, extension module filenames end with
+  ``.cpython-<major><minor>m-<architecture>-<os>.pyd``:
+
+  * ``<major>`` is the major number of the Python version;
+    for Python 3.5 this is ``3``.
+
+  * ``<minor>`` is the minor number of the Python version;
+    for Python 3.5 this is ``5``.
+
+  * ``<architecture>`` is the hardware architecture the extension module
+    was built to run on. It's most commonly either ``i386`` for 32-bit Intel
+    platforms or ``x86_64`` for 64-bit Intel (and AMD) platforms.
+
+  * ``<os>`` is always ``linux-gnu``, except for extensions built to
+    talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it is
+    ``linux-gnu32`` (and ``<architecture>`` will be ``x86_64``).
+
+* On Windows, extension module filenames end with
+  ``<debug>.cp<major><minor>-<platform>.pyd``:
+
+  * ``<major>`` is the major number of the Python version;
+    for Python 3.5 this is ``3``.
+
+  * ``<minor>`` is the minor number of the Python version;
+    for Python 3.5 this is ``5``.
+
+  * ``<platform>`` is the platform the extension module was built for,
+    either ``win32`` for Win32, ``win_amd64`` for Win64, ``win_ia64`` for
+    Windows Itanium 64, and ``win_arm`` for Windows on ARM.
+
+  * If built in debug mode, ``<debug>`` will be ``_d``,
+    otherwise it will be blank.
+
+* On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with ``-darwin.so``.
+
+* On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as they were
+  with Python 3.4.
+
+
+Deprecated
+==========
+
+New Keywords
+------------
+
+``async`` and ``await`` are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
+function or module names.  Introduced by :pep:`492` in Python 3.5, they will
+become proper keywords in Python 3.7.
+
+
+Deprecated Python Behavior
+--------------------------
+
+Raising the :exc:`StopIteration` exception inside a generator will now generate a silent
+:exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`, which will become a non-silent deprecation
+warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a :exc:`RuntimeError` in Python 3.7.
+See :ref:`PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators <whatsnew-pep-479>`
+for details.
+
+
+Unsupported Operating Systems
+-----------------------------
+
+Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per :PEP:`11`, CPython
+3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS.
+
+
+Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
+------------------------------------------------
+
+The :mod:`formatter` module has now graduated to full deprecation and is still
+slated for removal in Python 3.6.
+
+The :func:`asyncio.async` function is deprecated in favor of
+:func:`~asyncio.ensure_future`.
+
+The :mod:`smtpd` module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of
+email messages using the ``utf-8`` codec.  This can now be controlled by the
+new *decode_data* keyword to :class:`~smtpd.SMTPServer`.  The default value is
+``True``, but this default is deprecated.  Specify the *decode_data* keyword
+with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning.
+
+Directly assigning values to the :attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.key`,
+:attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.value` and
+:attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value` of :class:`http.cookies.Morsel`
+objects is deprecated.  Use the :meth:`~http.cookies.Morsel.set` method
+instead.  In addition, the undocumented *LegalChars* parameter of
+:meth:`~http.cookies.Morsel.set` is deprecated, and is now ignored.
+
+Passing a format string as keyword argument *format_string* to the
+:meth:`~string.Formatter.format` method of the :class:`string.Formatter`
+class has been deprecated.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23671`.)
+
+The :func:`platform.dist` and :func:`platform.linux_distribution` functions
+are now deprecated.  Linux distributions use too many different ways of
+describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package.
+(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in :issue:`1322`.)
+
+The previously undocumented ``from_function`` and ``from_builtin`` methods of
+:class:`inspect.Signature` are deprecated.  Use the new
+:meth:`Signature.from_callable() <inspect.Signature.from_callable>`
+method instead. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`24248`.)
+
+The :func:`inspect.getargspec` function is deprecated and scheduled to be
+removed in Python 3.6.  (See :issue:`20438` for details.)
+
+The :mod:`inspect` :func:`~inspect.getfullargspec`,
+:func:`~inspect.getcallargs`, and :func:`~inspect.formatargspec` functions are
+deprecated in favor of the :func:`inspect.signature` API. (Contributed by Yury
+Selivanov in :issue:`20438`.)
+
+:func:`~inspect.getargvalues` and :func:`~inspect.formatargvalues` functions
+were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python 3.5.0.
+
+Use of :const:`re.LOCALE` flag with str patterns or :const:`re.ASCII` is now
+deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22407`.)
+
+Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter
+in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now raises a
+deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23622`.)
+
+The undocumented and unofficial *use_load_tests* default argument of the
+:meth:`unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule` method now is
+deprecated and ignored.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in :issue:`16662`.)
+
+
+Removed
+=======
+
+API and Feature Removals
+------------------------
+
+The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been
+removed:
+
+* The ``__version__`` attribute has been dropped from the email package.  The
+  email code hasn't been shipped separately from the stdlib for a long time,
+  and the ``__version__`` string was not updated in the last few releases.
+
+* The internal ``Netrc`` class in the :mod:`ftplib` module was deprecated in
+  3.4, and has now been removed.
+  (Contributed by Matt Chaput in :issue:`6623`.)
+
+* The concept of ``.pyo`` files has been removed.
+
+* The JoinableQueue class in the provisional :mod:`asyncio` module was
+  deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed.
+  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis in :issue:`23464`.)
+
+
+Porting to Python 3.5
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.
+
+
+Changes in Python behavior
+--------------------------
+
+* Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the
+  following syntax::
+
+      f(1 for x in [1], *args)
+      f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs)
+
+  Python 3.5 now correctly raises a :exc:`SyntaxError`, as generator
+  expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole argument to a function.
+
+
+Changes in the Python API
+-------------------------
+
+* :pep:`475`: System calls are now retried when interrupted by a signal instead
+  of raising :exc:`InterruptedError` if the Python signal handler does not
+  raise an exception.
+
+* Before Python 3.5, a :class:`datetime.time` object was considered to be false
+  if it represented midnight in UTC.  This behavior was considered obscure and
+  error-prone and has been removed in Python 3.5.  See :issue:`13936` for full
+  details.
+
+* The :meth:`ssl.SSLSocket.send()` method now raises either
+  :exc:`ssl.SSLWantReadError` or :exc:`ssl.SSLWantWriteError`
+  on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.  Previously,
+  it would return ``0``.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in :issue:`20951`.)
+
+* The ``__name__`` attribute of generators is now set from the function name,
+  instead of being set from the code name. Use ``gen.gi_code.co_name`` to
+  retrieve the code name. Generators also have a new ``__qualname__``
+  attribute, the qualified name, which is now used for the representation
+  of a generator (``repr(gen)``).
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`21205`.)
+
+* The deprecated "strict" mode and argument of :class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser`,
+  :meth:`HTMLParser.error`, and the :exc:`HTMLParserError` exception have been
+  removed.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`15114`.)
+  The *convert_charrefs* argument of :class:`~html.parser.HTMLParser` is
+  now ``True`` by default.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`21047`.)
+
+* Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for porting
+  purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were previously of the
+  form "'sometype' does not support the buffer protocol" are now of the form "a
+  :term:`bytes-like object` is required, not 'sometype'".
+  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`16518`.)
+
+* If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer exists then
+  :exc:`FileNotFoundError` will no longer be raised and instead
+  :meth:`~importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_spec` will return ``None``
+  **without** caching ``None`` in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`, which is
+  different than the typical case (:issue:`22834`).
+
+* HTTP status code and messages from :mod:`http.client` and :mod:`http.server`
+  were refactored into a common :class:`~http.HTTPStatus` enum.  The values in
+  :mod:`http.client` and :mod:`http.server` remain available for backwards
+  compatibility.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in :issue:`21793`.)
+
+* When an import loader defines :meth:`importlib.machinery.Loader.exec_module`
+  it is now expected to also define
+  :meth:`~importlib.machinery.Loader.create_module` (raises a
+  :exc:`DeprecationWarning` now, will be an error in Python 3.6). If the loader
+  inherits from :class:`importlib.abc.Loader` then there is nothing to do, else
+  simply define :meth:`~importlib.machinery.Loader.create_module` to return
+  ``None``.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`23014`.)
+
+* The :func:`re.split` function always ignored empty pattern matches, so the
+  ``"x*"`` pattern worked the same as ``"x+"``, and the ``"\b"`` pattern never
+  worked.  Now :func:`re.split` raises a warning if the pattern could match
+  an empty string.  For compatibility, use patterns that never match an empty
+  string (e.g. ``"x+"`` instead of ``"x*"``).  Patterns that could only match
+  an empty string (such as ``"\b"``) now raise an error.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22818`.)
+
+* The :class:`http.cookies.Morsel` dict-like interface has been made self
+  consistent:  morsel comparison now takes the :attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.key`
+  and :attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.value` into account,
+  :meth:`~http.cookies.Morsel.copy` now results in a
+  :class:`~http.cookies.Morsel` instance rather than a :class:`dict`, and
+  :meth:`~http.cookies.Morsel.update` will now raise an exception if any of the
+  keys in the update dictionary are invalid.  In addition, the undocumented
+  *LegalChars* parameter of :func:`~http.cookies.Morsel.set` is deprecated and
+  is now ignored.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in :issue:`2211`.)
+
+* :pep:`488` has removed ``.pyo`` files from Python and introduced the optional
+  ``opt-`` tag in ``.pyc`` file names. The
+  :func:`importlib.util.cache_from_source` has gained an *optimization*
+  parameter to help control the ``opt-`` tag. Because of this, the
+  *debug_override* parameter of the function is now deprecated. `.pyo` files
+  are also no longer supported as a file argument to the Python interpreter and
+  thus serve no purpose when distributed on their own (i.e. sourceless code
+  distribution). Due to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed
+  in Python 3.5, all old `.pyo` files from previous versions of Python are
+  invalid regardless of this PEP.
+
+* The :mod:`socket` module now exports the :data:`~socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES`
+  constant on linux 3.6 and greater.
+
+* The :func:`ssl.cert_time_to_seconds` function now interprets the input time
+  as UTC and not as local time, per :rfc:`5280`.  Additionally, the return
+  value is always an :class:`int`. (Contributed by Akira Li in :issue:`19940`.)
+
+* The ``pygettext.py`` Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for timezones in
+  the POT-Creation-Date header.
+
+* The :mod:`smtplib` module now uses :data:`sys.stderr` instead of the previous
+  module-level :data:`stderr` variable for debug output.  If your (test)
+  program depends on patching the module-level variable to capture the debug
+  output, you will need to update it to capture sys.stderr instead.
+
+* The :meth:`str.startswith` and :meth:`str.endswith` methods no longer return
+  ``True`` when finding the empty string and the indexes are completely out of
+  range.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`24284`.)
+
+* The :func:`inspect.getdoc` function now returns documentation strings
+  inherited from base classes.  Documentation strings no longer need to be
+  duplicated if the inherited documentation is appropriate.  To suppress an
+  inherited string, an empty string must be specified (or the documentation
+  may be filled in).  This change affects the output of the :mod:`pydoc`
+  module and the :func:`help` function.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`15582`.)
+
+* Nested :func:`functools.partial` calls are now flattened.  If you were
+  relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add an attribute to a
+  :func:`functools.partial` object or you can create a subclass of
+  :func:`functools.partial`.
+  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`7830`.)
+
+Changes in the C API
+--------------------
+
+* The undocumented :c:member:`~PyMemoryViewObject.format` member of the
+  (non-public) :c:type:`PyMemoryViewObject` structure has been removed.
+  All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ``memoryobject.h``
+  must be rebuilt.
+
+* The :c:type:`PyMemAllocator` structure was renamed to
+  :c:type:`PyMemAllocatorEx` and a new ``calloc`` field was added.
+
+* Removed non-documented macro :c:macro:`PyObject_REPR` which leaked references.
+  Use format character ``%R`` in :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat`-like functions
+  to format the :func:`repr` of the object.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22453`.)
+
+* Because the lack of the :attr:`__module__` attribute breaks pickling and
+  introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types without
+  the :attr:`__module__` attribute.  This would be an AttributeError in
+  the future.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`20204`.)
+
+* As part of the :pep:`492` implementation, the ``tp_reserved`` slot of
+  :c:type:`PyTypeObject` was replaced with a
+  :c:member:`tp_as_async` slot.  Refer to :ref:`coro-objects` for
+  new types, structures and functions.
+
+
+Notable changes in Python 3.5.4
+===============================
+
+New ``make regen-all`` build target
+-----------------------------------
+
+To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be
+compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be
+available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly
+recompile generated files based on file modification times.
+
+Instead, a new ``make regen-all`` command has been added to force regeneration
+of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has
+already been built based on the pregenerated versions).
+
+More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
+:source:`Makefile.pre.in` for details.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23404`.)
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.5.4
+
+
+Removal of ``make touch`` build target
+--------------------------------------
+
+The ``make touch`` build target previously used to request implicit regeneration
+of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.
+
+It has been replaced by the new ``make regen-all`` target.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23404`.)
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5.4
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.6.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.6.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f5f520
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.6.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2435 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.6
+****************************
+
+:Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <elvis@magic.io>, Yury Selivanov <yury@magic.io>
+
+.. Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
+
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer in :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the Mercurial log
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5.
+Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016.  See the
+`changelog <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html>`_ for a full
+list of changes.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`494` - Python 3.6 Release Schedule
+
+
+Summary -- Release highlights
+=============================
+
+New syntax features:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 498 <whatsnew36-pep498>`, formatted string literals.
+
+* :ref:`PEP 515 <whatsnew36-pep515>`, underscores in numeric literals.
+
+* :ref:`PEP 526 <whatsnew36-pep526>`, syntax for variable annotations.
+
+* :ref:`PEP 525 <whatsnew36-pep525>`, asynchronous generators.
+
+* :ref:`PEP 530 <whatsnew36-pep530>`: asynchronous comprehensions.
+
+
+New library modules:
+
+* :mod:`secrets`: :ref:`PEP 506 -- Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library <whatsnew36-pep506>`.
+
+
+CPython implementation improvements:
+
+* The :ref:`dict <typesmapping>` type has been reimplemented to use
+  a :ref:`more compact representation <whatsnew36-compactdict>`
+  based on `a proposal by Raymond Hettinger
+  <https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html>`_
+  and similar to the `PyPy dict implementation`_.  This resulted in dictionaries
+  using 20% to 25% less memory when compared to Python 3.5.
+
+* Customization of class creation has been simplified with the
+  :ref:`new protocol <whatsnew36-pep487>`.
+
+* The class attribute definition order is
+  :ref:`now preserved  <whatsnew36-pep520>`.
+
+* The order of elements in ``**kwargs`` now
+  :ref:`corresponds to the order <whatsnew36-pep468>` in which keyword
+  arguments were passed to the function.
+
+* DTrace and SystemTap :ref:`probing support <whatsnew36-tracing>` has
+  been added.
+
+* The new :ref:`PYTHONMALLOC <whatsnew36-pythonmalloc>` environment variable
+  can now be used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access
+  errors.
+
+
+Significant improvements in the standard library:
+
+* The :mod:`asyncio` module has received new features, significant
+  usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug fixes.
+  Starting with Python 3.6 the ``asyncio`` module is no longer provisional
+  and its API is considered stable.
+
+* A new :ref:`file system path protocol <whatsnew36-pep519>` has been
+  implemented to support :term:`path-like objects <path-like object>`.
+  All standard library functions operating on paths have been updated to
+  work with the new protocol.
+
+* The :mod:`datetime` module has gained support for
+  :ref:`Local Time Disambiguation <whatsnew36-pep495>`.
+
+* The :mod:`typing` module received a number of
+  :ref:`improvements <whatsnew36-typing>`.
+
+* The :mod:`tracemalloc` module has been significantly reworked
+  and is now used to provide better output for :exc:`ResourceWarning`
+  as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation errors.
+  See the :ref:`PYTHONMALLOC section <whatsnew36-pythonmalloc>` for more
+  information.
+
+
+Security improvements:
+
+* The new :mod:`secrets` module has been added to simplify the generation of
+  cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers suitable for
+  managing secrets such as account authentication, tokens, and similar.
+
+* On Linux, :func:`os.urandom` now blocks until the system urandom entropy
+  pool is initialized to increase the security. See the :pep:`524` for the
+  rationale.
+
+* The :mod:`hashlib` and :mod:`ssl` modules now support OpenSSL 1.1.0.
+
+* The default settings and feature set of the :mod:`ssl` module have been
+  improved.
+
+* The :mod:`hashlib` module received support for the BLAKE2, SHA-3 and SHAKE
+  hash algorithms and the :func:`~hashlib.scrypt` key derivation function.
+
+
+Windows improvements:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 528 <whatsnew36-pep528>` and :ref:`PEP 529 <whatsnew36-pep529>`,
+  Windows filesystem and console encoding changed to UTF-8.
+
+* The ``py.exe`` launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers
+  Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn't specify a version (via
+  command line arguments or a config file).  Handling of shebang lines
+  remains unchanged - "python" refers to Python 2 in that case.
+
+* ``python.exe`` and ``pythonw.exe`` have been marked as long-path aware,
+  which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply.
+  See :ref:`removing the MAX_PATH limitation <max-path>` for details.
+
+* A ``._pth`` file can be added to force isolated mode and fully specify
+  all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup. See
+  :ref:`the documentation <finding_modules>` for more information.
+
+* A ``python36.zip`` file now works as a landmark to infer
+  :envvar:`PYTHONHOME`. See :ref:`the documentation <finding_modules>` for
+  more information.
+
+
+.. _PyPy dict implementation: https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html
+
+
+New Features
+============
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep498:
+
+PEP 498: Formatted string literals
+----------------------------------
+
+:pep:`498` introduces a new kind of string literals: *f-strings*, or
+:ref:`formatted string literals <f-strings>`.
+
+Formatted string literals are prefixed with ``'f'`` and are similar to
+the format strings accepted by :meth:`str.format`.  They contain replacement
+fields surrounded by curly braces.  The replacement fields are expressions,
+which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted using the
+:func:`format` protocol::
+
+    >>> name = "Fred"
+    >>> f"He said his name is {name}."
+    'He said his name is Fred.'
+    >>> width = 10
+    >>> precision = 4
+    >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
+    >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
+    'result:      12.35'
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`498` -- Literal String Interpolation.
+       PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith.
+
+    :ref:`Feature documentation <f-strings>`.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep526:
+
+PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations
+----------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`484` introduced the standard for type annotations of function
+parameters, a.k.a. type hints. This PEP adds syntax to Python for annotating
+the types of variables including class variables and instance variables::
+
+    primes: List[int] = []
+
+    captain: str  # Note: no initial value!
+
+    class Starship:
+        stats: Dict[str, int] = {}
+
+Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach any
+particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in the
+``__annotations__`` attribute of a class or module.
+
+In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages,
+the goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify structured
+type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the abstract syntax tree
+and the ``__annotations__`` attribute.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`526` -- Syntax for variable annotations.
+      PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach,
+      and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.
+
+   Tools that use or will use the new syntax:
+   `mypy <http://www.mypy-lang.org/>`_,
+   `pytype <https://github.com/google/pytype>`_, PyCharm, etc.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep515:
+
+PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals
+----------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`515` adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for
+improved readability.  For example::
+
+    >>> 1_000_000_000_000_000
+    1000000000000000
+    >>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF
+    4294967295
+
+Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base
+specifier.  Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not
+allowed.
+
+The :ref:`string formatting <formatspec>` language also now has support
+for the ``'_'`` option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands
+separator for floating point presentation types and for integer
+presentation type ``'d'``.  For integer presentation types ``'b'``,
+``'o'``, ``'x'``, and ``'X'``, underscores will be inserted every 4
+digits::
+
+    >>> '{:_}'.format(1000000)
+    '1_000_000'
+    >>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF)
+    'ffff_ffff'
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`515` -- Underscores in Numeric Literals
+      PEP written by Georg Brandl and Serhiy Storchaka.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep525:
+
+PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators
+--------------------------------
+
+:pep:`492` introduced support for native coroutines and ``async`` / ``await``
+syntax to Python 3.5.  A notable limitation of the Python 3.5 implementation
+is that it was not possible to use ``await`` and ``yield`` in the same
+function body.  In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted, making it
+possible to define *asynchronous generators*::
+
+    async def ticker(delay, to):
+        """Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds."""
+        for i in range(to):
+            yield i
+            await asyncio.sleep(delay)
+
+The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`525` -- Asynchronous Generators
+      PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep530:
+
+PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions
+------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`530` adds support for using ``async for`` in list, set, dict
+comprehensions and generator expressions::
+
+    result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2]
+
+Additionally, ``await`` expressions are supported in all kinds
+of comprehensions::
+
+    result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()]
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ :pep:`530` -- Asynchronous Comprehensions
+    PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep487:
+
+PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation
+------------------------------------------------
+
+It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a metaclass.
+The new ``__init_subclass__`` classmethod will be called on the base class
+whenever a new subclass is created::
+
+    class PluginBase:
+        subclasses = []
+
+        def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
+            super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
+            cls.subclasses.append(cls)
+
+    class Plugin1(PluginBase):
+        pass
+
+    class Plugin2(PluginBase):
+        pass
+
+In order to allow zero-argument :func:`super` calls to work correctly from
+:meth:`~object.__init_subclass__` implementations, custom metaclasses must
+ensure that the new ``__classcell__`` namespace entry is propagated to
+``type.__new__`` (as described in :ref:`class-object-creation`).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ :pep:`487` -- Simpler customization of class creation
+    PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.
+
+ :ref:`Feature documentation <class-customization>`
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep487-descriptors:
+
+PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements
+-----------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`487` extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional
+:meth:`~object.__set_name__` method.  Whenever a new class is defined, the new
+method will be called on all descriptors included in the definition, providing
+them with a reference to the class being defined and the name given to the
+descriptor within the class namespace.  In other words, instances of
+descriptors can now know the attribute name of the descriptor in the
+owner class::
+
+    class IntField:
+        def __get__(self, instance, owner):
+            return instance.__dict__[self.name]
+
+        def __set__(self, instance, value):
+            if not isinstance(value, int):
+                raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}')
+            instance.__dict__[self.name] = value
+
+        # this is the new initializer:
+        def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
+            self.name = name
+
+    class Model:
+        int_field = IntField()
+
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`487` -- Simpler customization of class creation
+        PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.
+
+    :ref:`Feature documentation <descriptors>`
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep519:
+
+PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol
+-------------------------------------------
+
+File system paths have historically been represented as :class:`str`
+or :class:`bytes` objects. This has led to people who write code which
+operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only one
+of those two types (an :class:`int` representing a file descriptor
+does not count as that is not a file path). Unfortunately that
+assumption prevents alternative object representations of file system
+paths like :mod:`pathlib` from working with pre-existing code,
+including Python's standard library.
+
+To fix this situation, a new interface represented by
+:class:`os.PathLike` has been defined. By implementing the
+:meth:`~os.PathLike.__fspath__` method, an object signals that it
+represents a path. An object can then provide a low-level
+representation of a file system path as a :class:`str` or
+:class:`bytes` object. This means an object is considered
+:term:`path-like <path-like object>` if it implements
+:class:`os.PathLike` or is a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object
+which represents a file system path. Code can use :func:`os.fspath`,
+:func:`os.fsdecode`, or :func:`os.fsencode` to explicitly get a
+:class:`str` and/or :class:`bytes` representation of a path-like
+object.
+
+The built-in :func:`open` function has been updated to accept
+:class:`os.PathLike` objects, as have all relevant functions in the
+:mod:`os` and :mod:`os.path` modules, and most other functions and
+classes in the standard library.  The :class:`os.DirEntry` class
+and relevant classes in :mod:`pathlib` have also been updated to
+implement :class:`os.PathLike`.
+
+The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating
+on file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly
+support all :term:`path-like objects <path-like object>` without any
+code changes, or at least very minimal ones (e.g. calling
+:func:`os.fspath` at the beginning of code before operating on a
+path-like object).
+
+Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for
+:class:`pathlib.Path` to be used more easily and transparently with
+pre-existing code::
+
+  >>> import pathlib
+  >>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f:
+  ...     contents = f.read()
+  ...
+  >>> import os.path
+  >>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
+  ('some_file', '.txt')
+  >>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c"))
+  '/a/b/c'
+  >>> import os
+  >>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
+  'some_file.txt'
+
+(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle Zijlstra.)
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`519` -- Adding a file system path protocol
+       PEP written by Brett Cannon and Koos Zevenhoven.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep495:
+
+PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation
+----------------------------------
+
+In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local clocks
+are moved back.  In those times, intervals are introduced in which local
+clocks show the same time twice in the same day. In these situations, the
+information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a Python datetime
+instance) is insufficient to identify a particular moment in time.
+
+:pep:`495` adds the new *fold* attribute to instances of
+:class:`datetime.datetime` and :class:`datetime.time` classes to differentiate
+between two moments in time for which local times are the same::
+
+    >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+    >>> for i in range(4):
+    ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
+    ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
+    ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
+    ...
+    04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
+    05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
+    06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
+    07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0
+
+The values of the :attr:`fold <datetime.datetime.fold>` attribute have the
+value ``0`` for all instances except those that represent the second
+(chronologically) moment in time in an ambiguous case.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+  :pep:`495` -- Local Time Disambiguation
+     PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation
+     by Alexander Belopolsky.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep529:
+
+PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode) rather than
+bytes. However, there are some situations where using bytes is sufficient and
+correct.
+
+Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on Windows.
+With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now supported on Windows,
+provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding returned by
+:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding()`, which now defaults to ``'utf-8'``.
+
+Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use
+:func:`os.fsencode()` and :func:`os.fsdecode()` to ensure their bytes are
+correctly encoded. To revert to the previous behaviour, set
+:envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING` or call
+:func:`sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding`.
+
+See :pep:`529` for more information and discussion of code modifications that
+may be required.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep528:
+
+PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters and
+provide correctly read str objects to Python code. ``sys.stdin``,
+``sys.stdout`` and ``sys.stderr`` now default to utf-8 encoding.
+
+This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when
+redirecting files or pipes. To revert to the previous behaviour for interactive
+console use, set :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`528` -- Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
+      PEP written and implemented by Steve Dower.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep520:
+
+PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same
+order in which the names appear in the source.  This order is now
+preserved in the new class's :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.
+
+Also, the effective default class *execution* namespace (returned from
+:ref:`type.__prepare__() <prepare>`) is now an insertion-order-preserving
+mapping.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`520` -- Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
+      PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep468:
+
+PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order
+------------------------------------------
+
+``**kwargs`` in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an
+insertion-order-preserving mapping.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`468` -- Preserving Keyword Argument Order
+      PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-compactdict:
+
+New :ref:`dict <typesmapping>` implementation
+---------------------------------------------
+
+The :ref:`dict <typesmapping>` type now uses a "compact" representation
+based on `a proposal by Raymond Hettinger
+<https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html>`_
+which was `first implemented by PyPy
+<https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html>`_.
+The memory usage of the new :func:`dict` is between 20% and 25% smaller
+compared to Python 3.5.
+
+The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an
+implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in
+the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in
+the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to mandate
+order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python
+implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility
+with older versions of the language where random iteration order is
+still in effect, e.g. Python 3.5).
+
+(Contributed by INADA Naoki in :issue:`27350`. Idea
+`originally suggested by Raymond Hettinger
+<https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html>`_.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep523:
+
+PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+While Python provides extensive support to customize how code
+executes, one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame
+objects.  If you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in
+Python there really wasn't any way without directly manipulating
+function pointers for defined functions.
+
+:pep:`523` changes this by providing an API to make frame
+evaluation pluggable at the C level. This will allow for tools such
+as debuggers and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the
+execution of Python code begins. This enables the use of alternative
+evaluation implementations for Python code, tracking frame
+evaluation, etc.
+
+This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to
+signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only
+applicable to very select, low-level use-cases. Semantics of the
+API will change with Python as necessary.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+  :pep:`523` -- Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
+     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Dino Viehland.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pythonmalloc:
+
+PYTHONMALLOC environment variable
+---------------------------------
+
+The new :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable allows setting the Python
+memory allocators and installing debug hooks.
+
+It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on Python
+compiled in release mode using ``PYTHONMALLOC=debug``. Effects of debug hooks:
+
+* Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ``0xCB``
+* Freed memory is filled with the byte ``0xDB``
+* Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example,
+  :c:func:`PyObject_Free` called on a memory block allocated by
+  :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`.
+* Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows)
+* Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows)
+* Check that the :term:`GIL <global interpreter lock>` is held when allocator
+  functions of :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ` (ex: :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`) and
+  :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM` (ex: :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`) domains are called.
+
+Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6.
+
+See the :c:func:`PyMem_SetupDebugHooks` function for debug hooks on Python
+memory allocators.
+
+It is now also possible to force the usage of the :c:func:`malloc` allocator of
+the C library for all Python memory allocations using ``PYTHONMALLOC=malloc``.
+This is helpful when using external memory debuggers like Valgrind on
+a Python compiled in release mode.
+
+On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the
+:mod:`tracemalloc` module to get the traceback where a memory block was
+allocated.
+
+Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using
+``python3.6 -X tracemalloc=5`` (store 5 frames in traces)::
+
+    Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o'
+        4 bytes originally requested
+        The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected.
+        The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb):
+            at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH
+            at tail+1: 0xfb
+            at tail+2: 0xfb
+            at tail+3: 0xfb
+            at tail+4: 0xfb
+            at tail+5: 0xfb
+            at tail+6: 0xfb
+            at tail+7: 0xfb
+        The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.
+        Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00
+
+    Memory block allocated at (most recent call first):
+      File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323
+      File "unittest/case.py", line 600
+      File "unittest/case.py", line 648
+      File "unittest/suite.py", line 122
+      File "unittest/suite.py", line 84
+
+    Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte
+
+    Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first):
+      File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex
+      File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run
+      File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__
+      File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
+      File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
+      File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
+      File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
+      ...
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`26516` and :issue:`26564`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-tracing:
+
+DTrace and SystemTap probing support
+------------------------------------
+
+Python can now be built ``--with-dtrace`` which enables static markers
+for the following events in the interpreter:
+
+* function call/return
+
+* garbage collection started/finished
+
+* line of code executed.
+
+This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production,
+without the need to recompile specific debug builds or providing
+application-specific profiling/debugging code.
+
+More details in :ref:`instrumentation`.
+
+The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS.  Additional
+markers may be added in the future.
+
+(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in :issue:`21590`, based on patches by
+Jesús Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
+
+* A ``global`` or ``nonlocal`` statement must now textually appear
+  before the first use of the affected name in the same scope.
+  Previously this was a :exc:`SyntaxWarning`.
+
+* It is now possible to set a :ref:`special method <specialnames>` to
+  ``None`` to indicate that the corresponding operation is not available.
+  For example, if a class sets :meth:`__iter__` to ``None``, the class
+  is not iterable.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in :issue:`25958`.)
+
+* Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as
+  ``"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"`` (see
+  :ref:`whatsnew36-traceback` for an example).
+  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in :issue:`26823`.)
+
+* Import now raises the new exception :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError`
+  (subclass of :exc:`ImportError`) when it cannot find a module.  Code
+  that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will still work.
+  (Contributed by Eric Snow in :issue:`15767`.)
+
+* Class methods relying on zero-argument ``super()`` will now work correctly
+  when called from metaclass methods during class creation.
+  (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in :issue:`23722`.)
+
+
+New Modules
+===========
+
+.. _whatsnew36-pep506:
+
+secrets
+-------
+
+The main purpose of the new :mod:`secrets` module is to provide an obvious way
+to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random values suitable
+for managing secrets, such as account authentication, tokens, and similar.
+
+.. warning::
+
+  Note that the pseudo-random generators in the :mod:`random` module
+  should *NOT* be used for security purposes.  Use :mod:`secrets`
+  on Python 3.6+ and :func:`os.urandom()` on Python 3.5 and earlier.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`506` -- Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library
+      PEP written and implemented by Steven D'Aprano.
+
+
+Improved Modules
+================
+
+array
+-----
+
+Exhausted iterators of :class:`array.array` will now stay exhausted even
+if the iterated array is extended.  This is consistent with the behavior
+of other mutable sequences.
+
+Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`26492`.
+
+ast
+---
+
+The new :class:`ast.Constant` AST node has been added.  It can be used
+by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding.
+
+Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`26146`.
+
+
+asyncio
+-------
+
+Starting with Python 3.6 the ``asyncio`` module is no longer provisional and its
+API is considered stable.
+
+Notable changes in the :mod:`asyncio` module since Python 3.5.0
+(all backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status):
+
+* The :func:`~asyncio.get_event_loop` function has been changed to
+  always return the currently running loop when called from coroutines
+  and callbacks.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`28613`.)
+
+* The :func:`~asyncio.ensure_future` function and all functions that
+  use it, such as :meth:`loop.run_until_complete() <asyncio.loop.run_until_complete>`,
+  now accept all kinds of :term:`awaitable objects <awaitable>`.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)
+
+* New :func:`~asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe` function to submit
+  coroutines to event loops from other threads.
+  (Contributed by Vincent Michel.)
+
+* New :meth:`Transport.is_closing() <asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing>`
+  method to check if the transport is closing or closed.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)
+
+* The :meth:`loop.create_server() <asyncio.loop.create_server>`
+  method can now accept a list of hosts.
+  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)
+
+* New :meth:`loop.create_future() <asyncio.loop.create_future>`
+  method to create Future objects.  This allows alternative event
+  loop implementations, such as
+  `uvloop <https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop>`_, to provide a faster
+  :class:`asyncio.Future` implementation.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`27041`.)
+
+* New :meth:`loop.get_exception_handler() <asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler>`
+  method to get the current exception handler.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`27040`.)
+
+* New :meth:`StreamReader.readuntil() <asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil>`
+  method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes
+  sequence appears.
+  (Contributed by Mark Korenberg.)
+
+* The performance of :meth:`StreamReader.readexactly() <asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly>`
+  has been improved.
+  (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in :issue:`28370`.)
+
+* The :meth:`loop.getaddrinfo() <asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo>`
+  method is optimized to avoid calling the system ``getaddrinfo``
+  function if the address is already resolved.
+  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)
+
+* The :meth:`loop.stop() <asyncio.loop.stop>`
+  method has been changed to stop the loop immediately after
+  the current iteration.  Any new callbacks scheduled as a result
+  of the last iteration will be discarded.
+  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in :issue:`25593`.)
+
+* :meth:`Future.set_exception <asyncio.futures.Future.set_exception>`
+  will now raise :exc:`TypeError` when passed an instance of
+  the :exc:`StopIteration` exception.
+  (Contributed by Chris Angelico in :issue:`26221`.)
+
+* New :meth:`loop.connect_accepted_socket() <asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket>`
+  method to be used by servers that accept connections outside of asyncio,
+  but that use asyncio to handle them.
+  (Contributed by Jim Fulton in :issue:`27392`.)
+
+* ``TCP_NODELAY`` flag is now set for all TCP transports by default.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`27456`.)
+
+* New :meth:`loop.shutdown_asyncgens() <asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens>`
+  to properly close pending asynchronous generators before closing the
+  loop.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`28003`.)
+
+* :class:`Future <asyncio.Future>` and :class:`Task <asyncio.Task>`
+  classes now have an optimized C implementation which makes asyncio
+  code up to 30% faster.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in :issue:`26081`
+  and :issue:`28544`.)
+
+
+binascii
+--------
+
+The :func:`~binascii.b2a_base64` function now accepts an optional *newline*
+keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to the
+return value.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`25357`.)
+
+
+cmath
+-----
+
+The new :const:`cmath.tau` (*τ*) constant has been added.
+(Contributed by Lisa Roach in :issue:`12345`, see :pep:`628` for details.)
+
+New constants: :const:`cmath.inf` and :const:`cmath.nan` to
+match :const:`math.inf` and :const:`math.nan`, and also :const:`cmath.infj`
+and :const:`cmath.nanj` to match the format used by complex repr.
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in :issue:`23229`.)
+
+
+collections
+-----------
+
+The new :class:`~collections.abc.Collection` abstract base class has been
+added to represent sized iterable container classes.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in :issue:`27598`.)
+
+The new :class:`~collections.abc.Reversible` abstract base class represents
+iterable classes that also provide the :meth:`__reversed__` method.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in :issue:`25987`.)
+
+The new :class:`~collections.abc.AsyncGenerator` abstract base class represents
+asynchronous generators.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`28720`.)
+
+The :func:`~collections.namedtuple` function now accepts an optional
+keyword argument *module*, which, when specified, is used for
+the ``__module__`` attribute of the returned named tuple class.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`17941`.)
+
+The *verbose* and *rename* arguments for
+:func:`~collections.namedtuple` are now keyword-only.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`25628`.)
+
+Recursive :class:`collections.deque` instances can now be pickled.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`26482`.)
+
+
+concurrent.futures
+------------------
+
+The :class:`ThreadPoolExecutor <concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor>`
+class constructor now accepts an optional *thread_name_prefix* argument
+to make it possible to customize the names of the threads created by the
+pool.
+(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in :issue:`27664`.)
+
+
+contextlib
+----------
+
+The :class:`contextlib.AbstractContextManager` class has been added to
+provide an abstract base class for context managers.  It provides a
+sensible default implementation for `__enter__()` which returns
+``self`` and leaves `__exit__()` an abstract method.  A matching
+class has been added to the :mod:`typing` module as
+:class:`typing.ContextManager`.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`25609`.)
+
+
+datetime
+--------
+
+The :class:`~datetime.datetime` and :class:`~datetime.time` classes have
+the new :attr:`~time.fold` attribute used to disambiguate local time
+when necessary.  Many functions in the :mod:`datetime` have been
+updated to support local time disambiguation.
+See :ref:`Local Time Disambiguation <whatsnew36-pep495>` section for more
+information.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`24773`.)
+
+The :meth:`datetime.strftime() <datetime.datetime.strftime>` and
+:meth:`date.strftime() <datetime.date.strftime>` methods now support
+ISO 8601 date directives ``%G``, ``%u`` and ``%V``.
+(Contributed by Ashley Anderson in :issue:`12006`.)
+
+The :func:`datetime.isoformat() <datetime.datetime.isoformat>` function
+now accepts an optional *timespec* argument that specifies the number
+of additional components of the time value to include.
+(Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`19475`.)
+
+The :meth:`datetime.combine() <datetime.datetime.combine>` now
+accepts an optional *tzinfo* argument.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`27661`.)
+
+
+decimal
+-------
+
+New :meth:`Decimal.as_integer_ratio() <decimal.Decimal.as_integer_ratio>`
+method that returns a pair ``(n, d)`` of integers that represent the given
+:class:`~decimal.Decimal` instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and
+with a positive denominator::
+
+    >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
+    (-157, 50)
+
+(Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in :issue:`25928`.)
+
+
+
+distutils
+---------
+
+The ``default_format`` attribute has been removed from
+:class:`distutils.command.sdist.sdist` and the ``formats``
+attribute defaults to ``['gztar']``. Although not anticipated,
+any code relying on the presence of ``default_format`` may
+need to be adapted. See :issue:`27819` for more details.
+
+
+email
+-----
+
+The new email API, enabled via the *policy* keyword to various constructors, is
+no longer provisional.  The :mod:`email` documentation has been reorganized and
+rewritten to focus on the new API, while retaining the old documentation for
+the legacy API.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in :issue:`24277`.)
+
+The :mod:`email.mime` classes now all accept an optional *policy* keyword.
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`27331`.)
+
+The :class:`~email.generator.DecodedGenerator` now supports the *policy*
+keyword.
+
+There is a new :mod:`~email.policy` attribute,
+:attr:`~email.policy.Policy.message_factory`, that controls what class is used
+by default when the parser creates new message objects.  For the
+:attr:`email.policy.compat32` policy this is :class:`~email.message.Message`,
+for the new policies it is :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`.
+(Contributed by R. David Murray in :issue:`20476`.)
+
+
+encodings
+---------
+
+On Windows, added the ``'oem'`` encoding to use ``CP_OEMCP``, and the ``'ansi'``
+alias for the existing ``'mbcs'`` encoding, which uses the ``CP_ACP`` code page.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in :issue:`27959`.)
+
+
+enum
+----
+
+Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the :mod:`enum` module:
+:class:`~enum.Flag` and :class:`~enum.IntFlags`.  Both are used to define
+constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in :issue:`23591`.)
+
+Many standard library modules have been updated to use the
+:class:`~enum.IntFlags` class for their constants.
+
+The new :class:`enum.auto` value can be used to assign values to enum
+members automatically::
+
+    >>> from enum import Enum, auto
+    >>> class Color(Enum):
+    ...     red = auto()
+    ...     blue = auto()
+    ...     green = auto()
+    ...
+    >>> list(Color)
+    [<Color.red: 1>, <Color.blue: 2>, <Color.green: 3>]
+
+
+faulthandler
+------------
+
+On Windows, the :mod:`faulthandler` module now installs a handler for Windows
+exceptions: see :func:`faulthandler.enable`. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+:issue:`23848`.)
+
+
+fileinput
+---------
+
+:func:`~fileinput.hook_encoded` now supports the *errors* argument.
+(Contributed by Joseph Hackman in :issue:`25788`.)
+
+
+hashlib
+-------
+
+:mod:`hashlib` supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`26470`.)
+
+BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module. :func:`~hashlib.blake2b`
+and :func:`~hashlib.blake2s` are always available and support the full
+feature set of BLAKE2.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`26798` based on code by
+Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves. Documentation written by Dmitry Chestnykh.)
+
+The SHA-3 hash functions :func:`~hashlib.sha3_224`, :func:`~hashlib.sha3_256`,
+:func:`~hashlib.sha3_384`, :func:`~hashlib.sha3_512`, and SHAKE hash functions
+:func:`~hashlib.shake_128` and :func:`~hashlib.shake_256` were added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`16113`. Keccak Code Package
+by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and
+Ronny Van Keer.)
+
+The password-based key derivation function :func:`~hashlib.scrypt` is now
+available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`27928`.)
+
+http.client
+-----------
+
+:meth:`HTTPConnection.request() <http.client.HTTPConnection.request>` and
+:meth:`~http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders` both now support
+chunked encoding request bodies.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in :issue:`12319`.)
+
+
+idlelib and IDLE
+----------------
+
+The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look and
+work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and improve. Part
+of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac, is using ttk widgets,
+mostly in the dialogs.  As a result, IDLE no longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4.  It
+now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6.  We recommend running the latest release of
+either.
+
+'Modernizing' includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules. The
+renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the renaming of,
+for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and tkinter.font in 3.0.  As a
+result, imports of idlelib files that worked in 3.5 will usually not work in
+3.6.  At least a module name change will be needed (see idlelib/README.txt),
+sometimes more.  (Name changes contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in
+:issue:`24225`.  Most idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the
+process.)
+
+In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes will be
+easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them.  Additional
+useful information will be added to idlelib when available.
+
+New in 3.6.2:
+
+Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in :issue:`15786`.)
+
+New in 3.6.3:
+
+Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser),
+now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level
+functions and classes.
+(Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy
+in :issue:`1612262`.)
+
+The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented
+as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab
+to other dialog tabs.
+(Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`27099`.)
+
+The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
+to improve both appearance and function.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)
+
+New in 3.6.4:
+
+The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
+users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`13802`.)
+The sample can be edited to include other characters.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`31860`.)
+
+New in 3.6.6:
+
+Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up to
+maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.  Context
+colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`33642`,
+:issue:`33768`, and :issue:`33679`.)
+
+On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows
+8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary
+unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should
+make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`33656`.)
+
+New in 3.6.7:
+
+Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.
+N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the
+Settings dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by
+right clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place
+by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window
+by right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in :issue:`1529353`.)
+
+
+importlib
+---------
+
+Import now raises the new exception :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError`
+(subclass of :exc:`ImportError`) when it cannot find a module.  Code
+that current checks for ``ImportError`` (in try-except) will still work.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in :issue:`15767`.)
+
+:class:`importlib.util.LazyLoader` now calls
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.create_module` on the wrapped loader, removing the
+restriction that :class:`importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter` and
+:class:`importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader` couldn't be used with
+:class:`importlib.util.LazyLoader`.
+
+:func:`importlib.util.cache_from_source`,
+:func:`importlib.util.source_from_cache`, and
+:func:`importlib.util.spec_from_file_location` now accept a
+:term:`path-like object`.
+
+
+inspect
+-------
+
+The :func:`inspect.signature() <inspect.signature>` function now reports the
+implicit ``.0`` parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
+generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters called
+``implicit0``. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in :issue:`19611`.)
+
+To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy
+:func:`inspect.getargspec` API, the previously documented deprecation of
+:func:`inspect.getfullargspec` has been reversed. While this function is
+convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the richer
+:func:`inspect.signature` interface remains the recommended approach for new
+code. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`27172`)
+
+
+json
+----
+
+:func:`json.load` and :func:`json.loads` now support binary input.  Encoded
+JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-32.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`17909`.)
+
+
+logging
+-------
+
+The new :meth:`WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded() <logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded>`
+method has been added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to
+be reopened.
+(Contributed by Marian Horban in :issue:`24884`.)
+
+
+math
+----
+
+The tau (*τ*) constant has been added to the :mod:`math` and :mod:`cmath`
+modules.
+(Contributed by Lisa Roach in :issue:`12345`, see :pep:`628` for details.)
+
+
+multiprocessing
+---------------
+
+:ref:`Proxy Objects <multiprocessing-proxy_objects>` returned by
+:func:`multiprocessing.Manager` can now be nested.
+(Contributed by Davin Potts in :issue:`6766`.)
+
+
+os
+--
+
+See the summary of :ref:`PEP 519 <whatsnew36-pep519>` for details on how the
+:mod:`os` and :mod:`os.path` modules now support
+:term:`path-like objects <path-like object>`.
+
+:func:`~os.scandir` now supports :class:`bytes` paths on Windows.
+
+A new :meth:`~os.scandir.close` method allows explicitly closing a
+:func:`~os.scandir` iterator.  The :func:`~os.scandir` iterator now
+supports the :term:`context manager` protocol.  If a :func:`scandir`
+iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a :exc:`ResourceWarning`
+will be emitted in its destructor.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25994`.)
+
+On Linux, :func:`os.urandom` now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool
+is initialized to increase the security. See the :pep:`524` for the rationale.
+
+The Linux ``getrandom()`` syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the new
+:func:`os.getrandom` function.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner, part of the :pep:`524`)
+
+
+pathlib
+-------
+
+:mod:`pathlib` now supports :term:`path-like objects <path-like object>`.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`27186`.)
+
+See the summary of :ref:`PEP 519 <whatsnew36-pep519>` for details.
+
+
+pdb
+---
+
+The :class:`~pdb.Pdb` class constructor has a new optional *readrc* argument
+to control whether ``.pdbrc`` files should be read.
+
+
+pickle
+------
+
+Objects that need ``__new__`` called with keyword arguments can now be pickled
+using :ref:`pickle protocols <pickle-protocols>` older than protocol version 4.
+Protocol version 4 already supports this case.  (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in :issue:`24164`.)
+
+
+pickletools
+-----------
+
+:func:`pickletools.dis()` now outputs the implicit memo index for the
+``MEMOIZE`` opcode.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25382`.)
+
+
+pydoc
+-----
+
+The :mod:`pydoc` module has learned to respect the ``MANPAGER``
+environment variable.
+(Contributed by Matthias Klose in :issue:`8637`.)
+
+:func:`help` and :mod:`pydoc` can now list named tuple fields in the
+order they were defined rather than alphabetically.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`24879`.)
+
+
+random
+-------
+
+The new :func:`~random.choices` function returns a list of elements of
+specified size from the given population with optional weights.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`18844`.)
+
+
+re
+--
+
+Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.  Examples:
+``'(?i:p)ython'`` matches ``'python'`` and ``'Python'``, but not ``'PYTHON'``;
+``'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'`` matches ``'GvR'`` and ``'gvr'``, but not ``'GVR'``.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`433028`.)
+
+Match object groups can be accessed by ``__getitem__``, which is
+equivalent to ``group()``.  So ``mo['name']`` is now equivalent to
+``mo.group('name')``.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in :issue:`24454`.)
+
+:class:`~re.Match` objects now support
+:meth:`index-like objects <object.__index__>` as group
+indices.
+(Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in :issue:`27177`.)
+
+
+readline
+--------
+
+Added :func:`~readline.set_auto_history` to enable or disable
+automatic addition of input to the history list.  (Contributed by
+Tyler Crompton in :issue:`26870`.)
+
+
+rlcompleter
+-----------
+
+Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix starts
+with underscores.  A space or a colon is added after some completed keywords.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25011` and :issue:`25209`.)
+
+
+shlex
+-----
+
+The :class:`~shlex.shlex` has much
+:ref:`improved shell compatibility <improved-shell-compatibility>`
+through the new *punctuation_chars* argument to control which characters
+are treated as punctuation.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in :issue:`1521950`.)
+
+
+site
+----
+
+When specifying paths to add to :attr:`sys.path` in a `.pth` file,
+you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g. zip files).
+(Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in :issue:`26587`).
+
+
+sqlite3
+-------
+
+:attr:`sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid` now supports the ``REPLACE`` statement.
+(Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in :issue:`16864`.)
+
+
+socket
+------
+
+The :func:`~socket.socket.ioctl` function now supports the
+:data:`~socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH` control code.
+(Contributed by Daniel Stokes in :issue:`26536`.)
+
+The :meth:`~socket.socket.getsockopt` constants ``SO_DOMAIN``,
+``SO_PROTOCOL``, ``SO_PEERSEC``, and ``SO_PASSSEC`` are now supported.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`26907`.)
+
+The :meth:`~socket.socket.setsockopt` now supports the
+``setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int)`` form.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`27744`.)
+
+The socket module now supports the address family
+:data:`~socket.AF_ALG` to interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. ``ALG_*``,
+``SOL_ALG`` and :meth:`~socket.socket.sendmsg_afalg` were added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`27744` with support from
+Victor Stinner.)
+
+New Linux constants ``TCP_USER_TIMEOUT`` and ``TCP_CONGESTION`` were added.
+(Contributed by Omar Sandoval, issue:`26273`).
+
+
+socketserver
+------------
+
+Servers based on the :mod:`socketserver` module, including those
+defined in :mod:`http.server`, :mod:`xmlrpc.server` and
+:mod:`wsgiref.simple_server`, now support the :term:`context manager`
+protocol.
+(Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in :issue:`26404`.)
+
+The :attr:`~socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile` attribute of
+:class:`~socketserver.StreamRequestHandler` classes now implements
+the :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` writable interface.  In particular,
+calling :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.write` is now guaranteed to send the
+data in full.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in :issue:`26721`.)
+
+
+ssl
+---
+
+:mod:`ssl` supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`26470`.)
+
+3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20 Poly1305
+cipher suites have been added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`27850` and :issue:`27766`.)
+
+:class:`~ssl.SSLContext` has better default configuration for options
+and ciphers.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28043`.)
+
+SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another
+with the new :class:`~ssl.SSLSession` class.  TLS session resumption can
+speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`19500` based on a draft by
+Alex Warhawk.)
+
+The new :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers` method can be used to
+get a list of enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority.
+
+All constants and flags have been converted to :class:`~enum.IntEnum` and
+:class:`~enum.IntFlags`.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28025`.)
+
+Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for :class:`~ssl.SSLContext`
+were added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28085`.)
+
+
+statistics
+----------
+
+A new :func:`~statistics.harmonic_mean` function has been added.
+(Contributed by Steven D'Aprano in :issue:`27181`.)
+
+
+struct
+------
+
+:mod:`struct` now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the ``'e'``
+format specifier.
+(Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in :issue:`11734`.)
+
+
+subprocess
+----------
+
+:class:`subprocess.Popen` destructor now emits a :exc:`ResourceWarning` warning
+if the child process is still running. Use the context manager protocol (``with
+proc: ...``) or explicitly call the :meth:`~subprocess.Popen.wait` method to
+read the exit status of the child process. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+:issue:`26741`.)
+
+The :class:`subprocess.Popen` constructor and all functions that pass arguments
+through to it now accept *encoding* and *errors* arguments. Specifying either
+of these will enable text mode for the *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* streams.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in :issue:`6135`.)
+
+
+sys
+---
+
+The new :func:`~sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors` function returns the name of
+the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in :issue:`27781`.)
+
+On Windows the return value of the :func:`~sys.getwindowsversion` function
+now includes the *platform_version* field which contains the accurate major
+version, minor version and build number of the current operating system,
+rather than the version that is being emulated for the process
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in :issue:`27932`.)
+
+
+telnetlib
+---------
+
+:class:`~telnetlib.Telnet` is now a context manager (contributed by
+Stéphane Wirtel in :issue:`25485`).
+
+
+time
+----
+
+The :class:`~time.struct_time` attributes :attr:`tm_gmtoff` and
+:attr:`tm_zone` are now available on all platforms.
+
+
+timeit
+------
+
+The new :meth:`Timer.autorange() <timeit.Timer.autorange>` convenience
+method has been added to call :meth:`Timer.timeit() <timeit.Timer.timeit>`
+repeatedly so that the total run time is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds.
+(Contributed by Steven D'Aprano in :issue:`6422`.)
+
+:mod:`timeit` now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance
+between best and worst times.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23552`.)
+
+
+tkinter
+-------
+
+Added methods :meth:`~tkinter.Variable.trace_add`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Variable.trace_remove` and :meth:`~tkinter.Variable.trace_info`
+in the :class:`tkinter.Variable` class.  They replace old methods
+:meth:`~tkinter.Variable.trace_variable`, :meth:`~tkinter.Variable.trace`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Variable.trace_vdelete` and
+:meth:`~tkinter.Variable.trace_vinfo` that use obsolete Tcl commands and might
+not work in future versions of Tcl.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22115`).
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-traceback:
+
+traceback
+---------
+
+Both the traceback module and the interpreter's builtin exception display now
+abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as shown in the
+following example::
+
+    >>> def f(): f()
+    ...
+    >>> f()
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
+      File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
+      [Previous line repeated 995 more times]
+    RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded
+
+(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in :issue:`26823`.)
+
+
+tracemalloc
+-----------
+
+The :mod:`tracemalloc` module now supports tracing memory allocations in
+multiple different address spaces.
+
+The new :class:`~tracemalloc.DomainFilter` filter class has been added
+to filter block traces by their address space (domain).
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`26588`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew36-typing:
+
+typing
+------
+
+Since the :mod:`typing` module is :term:`provisional <provisional api>`,
+all changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been
+backported to Python 3.5.x.
+
+The :mod:`typing` module has a much improved support for generic type
+aliases.  For example ``Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]]`` is now a valid
+type annotation.
+(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in `Github #195
+<https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195>`_.)
+
+The :class:`typing.ContextManager` class has been added for
+representing :class:`contextlib.AbstractContextManager`.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`25609`.)
+
+The :class:`typing.Collection` class has been added for
+representing :class:`collections.abc.Collection`.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in :issue:`27598`.)
+
+The :const:`typing.ClassVar` type construct has been added to
+mark class variables.  As introduced in :pep:`526`, a variable annotation
+wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as
+a class variable and should not be set on instances of that class.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in `Github #280
+<https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280>`_.)
+
+A new :const:`~typing.TYPE_CHECKING` constant that is assumed to be
+``True`` by the static type checkers, but is ``False`` at runtime.
+(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in `Github #230
+<https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230>`_.)
+
+A new :func:`~typing.NewType` helper function has been added to create
+lightweight distinct types for annotations::
+
+    from typing import NewType
+
+    UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
+    some_id = UserId(524313)
+
+The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
+of the original type.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in `Github #189
+<https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189>`_.)
+
+
+unicodedata
+-----------
+
+The :mod:`unicodedata` module now uses data from `Unicode 9.0.0
+<http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/>`_.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)
+
+
+unittest.mock
+-------------
+
+The :class:`~unittest.mock.Mock` class has the following improvements:
+
+* Two new methods, :meth:`Mock.assert_called()
+  <unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called>` and :meth:`Mock.assert_called_once()
+  <unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once>` to check if the mock object
+  was called.
+  (Contributed by Amit Saha in :issue:`26323`.)
+
+* The :meth:`Mock.reset_mock() <unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock>` method
+  now has two optional keyword only arguments: *return_value* and
+  *side_effect*.
+  (Contributed by Kushal Das in :issue:`21271`.)
+
+
+urllib.request
+--------------
+
+If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a
+bytes object) but no ``Content-Length`` header, rather than
+throwing an error, :class:`~urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler` now
+falls back to use chunked transfer encoding.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in :issue:`12319`.)
+
+
+urllib.robotparser
+------------------
+
+:class:`~urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser` now supports the ``Crawl-delay`` and
+``Request-rate`` extensions.
+(Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in :issue:`16099`.)
+
+
+venv
+----
+
+:mod:`venv` accepts a new parameter ``--prompt``. This parameter provides an
+alternative prefix for the virtual environment. (Proposed by Łukasz Balcerzak
+and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in :issue:`22829`.)
+
+
+warnings
+--------
+
+A new optional *source* parameter has been added to the
+:func:`warnings.warn_explicit` function: the destroyed object which emitted a
+:exc:`ResourceWarning`. A *source* attribute has also been added to
+:class:`warnings.WarningMessage` (contributed by Victor Stinner in
+:issue:`26568` and :issue:`26567`).
+
+When a :exc:`ResourceWarning` warning is logged, the :mod:`tracemalloc` module is now
+used to try to retrieve the traceback where the destroyed object was allocated.
+
+Example with the script ``example.py``::
+
+    import warnings
+
+    def func():
+        return open(__file__)
+
+    f = func()
+    f = None
+
+Output of the command ``python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py``::
+
+    example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
+      f = None
+    Object allocated at (most recent call first):
+      File "example.py", lineno 4
+        return open(__file__)
+      File "example.py", lineno 6
+        f = func()
+
+The "Object allocated at" traceback is new and is only displayed if
+:mod:`tracemalloc` is tracing Python memory allocations and if the
+:mod:`warnings` module was already imported.
+
+
+winreg
+------
+
+Added the 64-bit integer type :data:`REG_QWORD <winreg.REG_QWORD>`.
+(Contributed by Clement Rouault in :issue:`23026`.)
+
+
+winsound
+--------
+
+Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to :func:`Beep <winsound.Beep>`,
+:func:`MessageBeep <winsound.MessageBeep>`, and :func:`PlaySound
+<winsound.PlaySound>` (:issue:`27982`).
+
+
+xmlrpc.client
+-------------
+
+The :mod:`xmlrpc.client` module now supports unmarshalling
+additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation
+for numerics and ``None``.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`26885`.)
+
+
+zipfile
+-------
+
+A new :meth:`ZipInfo.from_file() <zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file>` class method
+allows making a :class:`~zipfile.ZipInfo` instance from a filesystem file.
+A new :meth:`ZipInfo.is_dir() <zipfile.ZipInfo.is_dir>` method can be used
+to check if the :class:`~zipfile.ZipInfo` instance represents a directory.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in :issue:`26039`.)
+
+The :meth:`ZipFile.open() <zipfile.ZipFile.open>` method can now be used to
+write data into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in :issue:`26039`.)
+
+
+zlib
+----
+
+The :func:`~zlib.compress` and :func:`~zlib.decompress` functions now accept
+keyword arguments.
+(Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in :issue:`26243` and
+Xiang Zhang in :issue:`16764` respectively.)
+
+
+Optimizations
+=============
+
+* The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode which
+  made a number of opcode optimizations possible.
+  (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
+  Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in :issue:`26647` and :issue:`28050`.)
+
+* The :class:`asyncio.Future` class now has an optimized C implementation.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in :issue:`26081`.)
+
+* The :class:`asyncio.Task` class now has an optimized
+  C implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`28544`.)
+
+* Various implementation improvements in the :mod:`typing` module
+  (such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times performance
+  improvements and reduced memory footprint.
+
+* The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers
+  ``surrogateescape``, ``ignore`` and ``replace`` (Contributed
+  by Victor Stinner in :issue:`24870`).
+
+* The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for the
+  error handler ``surrogateescape``
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`25227`).
+
+* The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers
+  ``ignore``, ``replace``, ``surrogateescape``, ``surrogatepass`` (Contributed
+  by Victor Stinner in :issue:`25267`).
+
+* The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers
+  ``ignore``, ``replace`` and ``surrogateescape`` (Contributed
+  by Victor Stinner in :issue:`25301`).
+
+* ``bytes % args`` is now up to 2 times faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner
+  in :issue:`25349`).
+
+* ``bytearray % args`` is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster. (Contributed by
+  Victor Stinner in :issue:`25399`).
+
+* Optimize :meth:`bytes.fromhex` and :meth:`bytearray.fromhex`: they are now
+  between 2x and 3.5x faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`25401`).
+
+* Optimize ``bytes.replace(b'', b'.')`` and ``bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')``:
+  up to 80% faster. (Contributed by Josh Snider in :issue:`26574`).
+
+* Allocator functions of the :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc` domain
+  (:c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM`) now use the :ref:`pymalloc memory allocator
+  <pymalloc>` instead of :c:func:`malloc` function of the C library. The
+  pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to 512 bytes
+  with a short lifetime, and use :c:func:`malloc` for larger memory blocks.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`26249`).
+
+* :func:`pickle.load` and :func:`pickle.loads` are now up to 10% faster when
+  deserializing many small objects (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+  :issue:`27056`).
+
+* Passing :term:`keyword arguments <keyword argument>` to a function has an
+  overhead in comparison with passing :term:`positional arguments
+  <positional argument>`.  Now in extension functions implemented with using
+  Argument Clinic this overhead is significantly decreased.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`27574`).
+
+* Optimized :func:`~glob.glob` and :func:`~glob.iglob` functions in the
+  :mod:`glob` module; they are now about 3--6 times faster.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25596`).
+
+* Optimized globbing in :mod:`pathlib` by using :func:`os.scandir`;
+  it is now about 1.5--4 times faster.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`26032`).
+
+* :class:`xml.etree.ElementTree` parsing, iteration and deepcopy performance
+  has been significantly improved.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25638`, :issue:`25873`,
+  and :issue:`25869`.)
+
+* Creation of :class:`fractions.Fraction` instances from floats and
+  decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25971`.)
+
+
+Build and C API Changes
+=======================
+
+* Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build.
+  Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in
+  place of custom macros like ``PY_LONG_LONG``.
+  For more information, see :pep:`7` and :issue:`17884`.
+
+* Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API level set to
+  21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs successfully. While Android is not
+  yet a supported platform, the Python test suite runs on the Android emulator
+  with only about 16 tests failures. See the Android meta-issue :issue:`26865`.
+
+* The ``--enable-optimizations`` configure flag has been added. Turning it on
+  will activate expensive optimizations like PGO.
+  (Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in :issue:`26359`.)
+
+* The :term:`GIL <global interpreter lock>` must now be held when allocator
+  functions of :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ` (ex: :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`) and
+  :c:data:`PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM` (ex: :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`) domains are called.
+
+* New :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` API which indicates if flushing buffered data
+  failed.
+  (Contributed by Martin Panter in :issue:`5319`.)
+
+* :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` now supports :ref:`positional-only
+  parameters <positional-only_parameter>`.  Positional-only parameters are
+  defined by empty names.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`26282`).
+
+* ``PyTraceback_Print`` method now abbreviates long sequences of repeated lines
+  as ``"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"``.
+  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in :issue:`26823`.)
+
+* The new :c:func:`PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass` function allows for
+  specifying a subclass of :exc:`ImportError` to raise.
+  (Contributed by Eric Snow in :issue:`15767`.)
+
+* The new :c:func:`PyErr_ResourceWarning` function can be used to generate
+  a :exc:`ResourceWarning` providing the source of the resource allocation.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`26567`.)
+
+* The new :c:func:`PyOS_FSPath` function returns the file system
+  representation of a :term:`path-like object`.
+  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`27186`.)
+
+* The :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSConverter` and :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSDecoder`
+  functions will now accept :term:`path-like objects <path-like object>`.
+
+
+Other Improvements
+==================
+
+* When :option:`--version` (short form: :option:`-V`) is supplied twice,
+  Python prints :data:`sys.version` for detailed information.
+
+  .. code-block:: shell-session
+
+    $ ./python -VV
+    Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)
+    [GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]
+
+
+Deprecated
+==========
+
+New Keywords
+------------
+
+``async`` and ``await`` are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
+function or module names.  Introduced by :pep:`492` in Python 3.5, they will
+become proper keywords in Python 3.7.  Starting in Python 3.6, the use of
+``async`` or ``await`` as names will generate a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`.
+
+
+Deprecated Python behavior
+--------------------------
+
+Raising the :exc:`StopIteration` exception inside a generator will now
+generate a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`, and will trigger a :exc:`RuntimeError`
+in Python 3.7.  See :ref:`whatsnew-pep-479` for details.
+
+The :meth:`__aiter__` method is now expected to return an asynchronous
+iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as previously.
+Doing the former will trigger a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`.  Backward
+compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`27243`.)
+
+A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates
+a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`.  Although this will eventually become a
+:exc:`SyntaxError`, that will not be for several Python releases.
+(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in :issue:`27364`.)
+
+When performing a relative import, falling back on ``__name__`` and
+``__path__`` from the calling module when ``__spec__`` or
+``__package__`` are not defined now raises an :exc:`ImportWarning`.
+(Contributed by Rose Ames in :issue:`25791`.)
+
+
+Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
+------------------------------------------------
+
+asynchat
+~~~~~~~~
+
+The :mod:`asynchat` has been deprecated in favor of :mod:`asyncio`.
+(Contributed by Mariatta in :issue:`25002`.)
+
+
+asyncore
+~~~~~~~~
+
+The :mod:`asyncore` has been deprecated in favor of :mod:`asyncio`.
+(Contributed by Mariatta in :issue:`25002`.)
+
+
+dbm
+~~~
+
+Unlike other :mod:`dbm` implementations, the :mod:`dbm.dumb` module
+creates databases with the ``'rw'`` mode and allows modifying the database
+opened with the ``'r'`` mode.  This behavior is now deprecated and will
+be removed in 3.8.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`21708`.)
+
+
+distutils
+~~~~~~~~~
+
+The undocumented ``extra_path`` argument to the
+:class:`~distutils.Distribution` constructor is now considered deprecated
+and will raise a warning if set.   Support for this parameter will be
+removed in a future Python release.  See :issue:`27919` for details.
+
+
+grp
+~~~
+
+The support of non-integer arguments in :func:`~grp.getgrgid` has been
+deprecated.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`26129`.)
+
+
+importlib
+~~~~~~~~~
+
+The :meth:`importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module` and
+:meth:`importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module` methods
+are now deprecated. They were the only remaining implementations of
+:meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` in :mod:`importlib` that had not
+been deprecated in previous versions of Python in favour of
+:meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module`.
+
+The :class:`importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder` class is now
+deprecated. As of 3.6.0, it is still added to :attr:`sys.meta_path` by
+default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.
+
+os
+~~
+
+Undocumented support of general :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`
+as paths in :mod:`os` functions, :func:`compile` and similar functions is
+now deprecated.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25791` and :issue:`26754`.)
+
+re
+~~
+
+Support for inline flags ``(?letters)`` in the middle of the regular
+expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python
+version.  Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`22493`.)
+
+ssl
+~~~
+
+OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
+In the future the :mod:`ssl` module will require at least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or
+1.1.0.
+
+SSL-related arguments like ``certfile``, ``keyfile`` and ``check_hostname``
+in :mod:`ftplib`, :mod:`http.client`, :mod:`imaplib`, :mod:`poplib`,
+and :mod:`smtplib` have been deprecated in favor of ``context``.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28022`.)
+
+A couple of protocols and functions of the :mod:`ssl` module are now
+deprecated. Some features will no longer be available in future versions
+of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a different API.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28022` and :issue:`26470`.)
+
+tkinter
+~~~~~~~
+
+The :mod:`tkinter.tix` module is now deprecated.  :mod:`tkinter` users
+should use :mod:`tkinter.ttk` instead.
+
+venv
+~~~~
+
+The ``pyvenv`` script has been deprecated in favour of ``python3 -m venv``.
+This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter ``pyvenv`` is
+connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the virtual
+environment.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`25154`.)
+
+
+Deprecated functions and types of the C API
+-------------------------------------------
+
+Undocumented functions :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject`,
+:c:func:`PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode`
+and :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode` are deprecated now.
+Use the :ref:`generic codec based API <codec-registry>` instead.
+
+
+Deprecated Build Options
+------------------------
+
+The ``--with-system-ffi`` configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS
+UNIX platforms.  It may be disabled by using ``--without-system-ffi``, but
+using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7.
+macOS is unaffected by this change.  Note that many OS distributors already
+use the ``--with-system-ffi`` flag when building their system Python.
+
+
+Removed
+=======
+
+API and Feature Removals
+------------------------
+
+* Unknown escapes consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter in
+  regular expressions will now cause an error.  In replacement templates for
+  :func:`re.sub` they are still allowed, but deprecated.
+  The :const:`re.LOCALE` flag can now only be used with binary patterns.
+
+* ``inspect.getmoduleinfo()`` was removed (was deprecated since CPython 3.3).
+  :func:`inspect.getmodulename` should be used for obtaining the module
+  name for a given path.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`13248`.)
+
+* ``traceback.Ignore`` class and ``traceback.usage``, ``traceback.modname``,
+  ``traceback.fullmodname``, ``traceback.find_lines_from_code``,
+  ``traceback.find_lines``, ``traceback.find_strings``,
+  ``traceback.find_executable_lines`` methods were removed from the
+  :mod:`traceback` module. They were undocumented methods deprecated since
+  Python 3.2 and equivalent functionality is available from private methods.
+
+* The ``tk_menuBar()`` and ``tk_bindForTraversal()`` dummy methods in
+  :mod:`tkinter` widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk commands
+  were obsolete since Tk 4.0).
+
+* The :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.open` method of the :class:`zipfile.ZipFile`
+  class no longer supports the ``'U'`` mode (was deprecated since Python 3.4).
+  Use :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` for reading compressed text files in
+  :term:`universal newlines` mode.
+
+* The undocumented ``IN``, ``CDROM``, ``DLFCN``, ``TYPES``, ``CDIO``, and
+  ``STROPTS`` modules have been removed.  They had been available in the
+  platform specific ``Lib/plat-*/`` directories, but were chronically out of
+  date, inconsistently available across platforms, and unmaintained.  The
+  script that created these modules is still available in the source
+  distribution at :source:`Tools/scripts/h2py.py`.
+
+* The deprecated ``asynchat.fifo`` class has been removed.
+
+
+Porting to Python 3.6
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.
+
+Changes in 'python' Command Behavior
+------------------------------------
+
+* The output of a special Python build with defined ``COUNT_ALLOCS``,
+  ``SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT`` or ``SHOW_TRACK_COUNT`` macros is now off by
+  default.  It can be re-enabled using the ``-X showalloccount`` option.
+  It now outputs to ``stderr`` instead of ``stdout``.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`23034`.)
+
+
+Changes in the Python API
+-------------------------
+
+* :func:`open() <open>` will no longer allow combining the ``'U'`` mode flag
+  with ``'+'``.
+  (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O'Connor in :issue:`2091`.)
+
+* :mod:`sqlite3` no longer implicitly commits an open transaction before DDL
+  statements.
+
+* On Linux, :func:`os.urandom` now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool
+  is initialized to increase the security.
+
+* When :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` is defined,
+  :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.create_module` must also be defined.
+
+* :c:func:`PyErr_SetImportError` now sets :exc:`TypeError` when its **msg**
+  argument is not set. Previously only ``NULL`` was returned.
+
+* The format of the ``co_lnotab`` attribute of code objects changed to support
+  a negative line number delta. By default, Python does not emit bytecode with
+  a negative line number delta. Functions using ``frame.f_lineno``,
+  ``PyFrame_GetLineNumber()`` or ``PyCode_Addr2Line()`` are not affected.
+  Functions directly decoding ``co_lnotab`` should be updated to use a signed
+  8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is only required to
+  support applications using a negative line number delta. See
+  ``Objects/lnotab_notes.txt`` for the ``co_lnotab`` format and how to decode
+  it, and see the :pep:`511` for the rationale.
+
+* The functions in the :mod:`compileall` module now return booleans instead
+  of ``1`` or ``0`` to represent success or failure, respectively. Thanks to
+  booleans being a subclass of integers, this should only be an issue if you
+  were doing identity checks for ``1`` or ``0``. See :issue:`25768`.
+
+* Reading the :attr:`~urllib.parse.SplitResult.port` attribute of
+  :func:`urllib.parse.urlsplit` and :func:`~urllib.parse.urlparse` results
+  now raises :exc:`ValueError` for out-of-range values, rather than
+  returning :const:`None`.  See :issue:`20059`.
+
+* The :mod:`imp` module now raises a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` instead of
+  :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`.
+
+* The following modules have had missing APIs added to their :attr:`__all__`
+  attributes to match the documented APIs:
+  :mod:`calendar`, :mod:`cgi`, :mod:`csv`,
+  :mod:`~xml.etree.ElementTree`, :mod:`enum`,
+  :mod:`fileinput`, :mod:`ftplib`, :mod:`logging`, :mod:`mailbox`,
+  :mod:`mimetypes`, :mod:`optparse`, :mod:`plistlib`, :mod:`smtpd`,
+  :mod:`subprocess`, :mod:`tarfile`, :mod:`threading` and
+  :mod:`wave`.  This means they will export new symbols when ``import *``
+  is used.
+  (Contributed by Joel Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in :issue:`23883`.)
+
+* When performing a relative import, if ``__package__`` does not compare equal
+  to ``__spec__.parent`` then :exc:`ImportWarning` is raised.
+  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`25791`.)
+
+* When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known, then
+  :exc:`ImportError` will be raised. Previously, :exc:`SystemError` could be
+  raised. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`18018`.)
+
+* Servers based on the :mod:`socketserver` module, including those
+  defined in :mod:`http.server`, :mod:`xmlrpc.server` and
+  :mod:`wsgiref.simple_server`, now only catch exceptions derived
+  from :exc:`Exception`. Therefore if a request handler raises
+  an exception like :exc:`SystemExit` or :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`,
+  :meth:`~socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error` is no longer called, and
+  the exception will stop a single-threaded server. (Contributed by
+  Martin Panter in :issue:`23430`.)
+
+* :func:`spwd.getspnam` now raises a :exc:`PermissionError` instead of
+  :exc:`KeyError` if the user doesn't have privileges.
+
+* The :meth:`socket.socket.close` method now raises an exception if
+  an error (e.g. ``EBADF``) was reported by the underlying system call.
+  (Contributed by Martin Panter in :issue:`26685`.)
+
+* The *decode_data* argument for the :class:`smtpd.SMTPChannel` and
+  :class:`smtpd.SMTPServer` constructors is now ``False`` by default.
+  This means that the argument passed to
+  :meth:`~smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message` is now a bytes object by
+  default, and ``process_message()`` will be passed keyword arguments.
+  Code that has already been updated in accordance with the deprecation
+  warning generated by 3.5 will not be affected.
+
+* All optional arguments of the :func:`~json.dump`, :func:`~json.dumps`,
+  :func:`~json.load` and :func:`~json.loads` functions and
+  :class:`~json.JSONEncoder` and :class:`~json.JSONDecoder` class
+  constructors in the :mod:`json` module are now :ref:`keyword-only
+  <keyword-only_parameter>`.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`18726`.)
+
+* Subclasses of :class:`type` which don't override ``type.__new__`` may no
+  longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object.
+
+* As part of :pep:`487`, the handling of keyword arguments passed to
+  :class:`type` (other than the metaclass hint, ``metaclass``) is now
+  consistently delegated to :meth:`object.__init_subclass__`. This means that
+  :meth:`type.__new__` and :meth:`type.__init__` both now accept arbitrary
+  keyword arguments, but :meth:`object.__init_subclass__` (which is called from
+  :meth:`type.__new__`) will reject them by default. Custom metaclasses
+  accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their calls to
+  :meth:`type.__new__` (whether direct or via :class:`super`) accordingly.
+
+* In :class:`distutils.command.sdist.sdist`, the ``default_format``
+  attribute has been removed and is no longer honored. Instead, the
+  gzipped tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no
+  platform-specific selection is made.
+  In environments where distributions are
+  built on Windows and zip distributions are required, configure
+  the project with a ``setup.cfg`` file containing the following:
+
+  .. code-block:: ini
+
+    [sdist]
+    formats=zip
+
+  This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions
+  by Setuptools 26.0.0.
+
+* In the :mod:`urllib.request` module and the
+  :meth:`http.client.HTTPConnection.request` method, if no Content-Length
+  header field has been specified and the request body is a file object,
+  it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding. If a file object has to
+  be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the Content-Length value now has to be
+  specified by the caller.
+  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from
+  Martin Panter in :issue:`12319`.)
+
+* The :class:`~csv.DictReader` now returns rows of type
+  :class:`~collections.OrderedDict`.
+  (Contributed by Steve Holden in :issue:`27842`.)
+
+* The :const:`crypt.METHOD_CRYPT` will no longer be added to ``crypt.methods``
+  if unsupported by the platform.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`25287`.)
+
+* The *verbose* and *rename* arguments for
+  :func:`~collections.namedtuple` are now keyword-only.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`25628`.)
+
+* On Linux, :func:`ctypes.util.find_library` now looks in
+  ``LD_LIBRARY_PATH`` for shared libraries.
+  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in :issue:`9998`.)
+
+* The :class:`imaplib.IMAP4` class now handles flags containing the
+  ``']'`` character in messages sent from the server to improve
+  real-world compatibility.
+  (Contributed by Lita Cho in :issue:`21815`.)
+
+* The :func:`mmap.write() <mmap.write>` function now returns the number
+  of bytes written like other write methods.
+  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in :issue:`26335`.)
+
+* The :func:`pkgutil.iter_modules` and :func:`pkgutil.walk_packages`
+  functions now return :class:`~pkgutil.ModuleInfo` named tuples.
+  (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in :issue:`17211`.)
+
+* :func:`re.sub` now raises an error for invalid numerical group
+  references in replacement templates even if the pattern is not
+  found in the string.  The error message for invalid group references
+  now includes the group index and the position of the reference.
+  (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25953`.)
+
+* :class:`zipfile.ZipFile` will now raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` for
+  unrecognized compression values.  Previously a plain :exc:`RuntimeError`
+  was raised.  Additionally, calling :class:`~zipfile.ZipFile` methods
+  on a closed ZipFile or calling the :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.write` method
+  on a ZipFile created with mode ``'r'`` will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
+  Previously, a :exc:`RuntimeError` was raised in those scenarios.
+
+* when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument :func:`super` or
+  direct references from methods to the implicit ``__class__`` closure
+  variable, the implicit ``__classcell__`` namespace entry must now be passed
+  up to ``type.__new__`` for initialisation. Failing to do so will result in
+  a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` in Python 3.6 and a :exc:`RuntimeError` in
+  Python 3.8.
+
+* With the introduction of :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError`, import system consumers
+  may start expecting import system replacements to raise that more specific
+  exception when appropriate, rather than the less-specific :exc:`ImportError`.
+  To provide future compatibility with such consumers, implementors of
+  alternative import systems that completely replace :func:`__import__` will
+  need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass when a module
+  can't be found at all. Implementors of compliant plugins to the default
+  import system shouldn't need to make any changes, as the default import
+  system will raise the new subclass when appropriate.
+
+
+Changes in the C API
+--------------------
+
+* The :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc` allocator family now uses the :ref:`pymalloc allocator
+  <pymalloc>` rather than the system :c:func:`malloc`. Applications calling
+  :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc` without holding the GIL can now crash. Set the
+  :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable to ``debug`` to validate the
+  usage of memory allocators in your application. See :issue:`26249`.
+
+* :c:func:`Py_Exit` (and the main interpreter) now override the exit status
+  with 120 if flushing buffered data failed.  See :issue:`5319`.
+
+
+CPython bytecode changes
+------------------------
+
+There have been several major changes to the :term:`bytecode` in Python 3.6.
+
+* The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode.
+  (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
+  Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in :issue:`26647` and :issue:`28050`.)
+
+* The new :opcode:`FORMAT_VALUE` and :opcode:`BUILD_STRING` opcodes as part
+  of the  :ref:`formatted string literal <whatsnew36-pep498>` implementation.
+  (Contributed by Eric Smith in :issue:`25483` and
+  Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`27078`.)
+
+* The new :opcode:`BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP` opcode to optimize the creation
+  of dictionaries with constant keys.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`27140`.)
+
+* The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better performance
+  and simpler implementation.
+  The :opcode:`MAKE_FUNCTION`, :opcode:`CALL_FUNCTION`,
+  :opcode:`CALL_FUNCTION_KW` and :opcode:`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL` opcodes
+  have been modified, the new :opcode:`CALL_FUNCTION_EX` and
+  :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL` have been added, and
+  ``CALL_FUNCTION_VAR``, ``CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW`` and ``MAKE_CLOSURE`` opcodes
+  have been removed.
+  (Contributed by Demur Rumed in :issue:`27095`, and Serhiy Storchaka in
+  :issue:`27213`, :issue:`28257`.)
+
+* The new :opcode:`SETUP_ANNOTATIONS` and :opcode:`STORE_ANNOTATION` opcodes
+  have been added to support the new :term:`variable annotation` syntax.
+  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in :issue:`27985`.)
+
+
+Notable changes in Python 3.6.2
+===============================
+
+New ``make regen-all`` build target
+-----------------------------------
+
+To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be
+compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be
+available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly
+recompile generated files based on file modification times.
+
+Instead, a new ``make regen-all`` command has been added to force regeneration
+of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has
+already been built based on the pregenerated versions).
+
+More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
+:source:`Makefile.pre.in` for details.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23404`.)
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6.2
+
+
+Removal of ``make touch`` build target
+--------------------------------------
+
+The ``make touch`` build target previously used to request implicit regeneration
+of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.
+
+It has been replaced by the new ``make regen-all`` target.
+
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`23404`.)
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6.2
+
+
+Notable changes in Python 3.6.4
+===============================
+
+The ``PyExc_RecursionErrorInst`` singleton that was part of the public API
+has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
+during finalization of the interpreter.
+(Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in :issue:`22898` and :issue:`30697`.)
+
+
+Notable changes in Python 3.6.5
+===============================
+
+The :func:`locale.localeconv` function now sets temporarily the ``LC_CTYPE``
+locale to the ``LC_NUMERIC`` locale in some cases.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`31900`.)
+
+Notable changes in Python 3.6.7
+===============================
+
+In 3.6.7 the :mod:`tokenize` module now implicitly emits a ``NEWLINE`` token
+when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This behavior
+now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
+(Contributed by Ammar Askar in :issue:`33899`.)
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.7.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.7.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e78af22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.7.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2539 @@
+****************************
+  What's New In Python 3.7
+****************************
+
+:Editor: Elvis Pranskevichus <elvis@magic.io>
+
+.. Rules for maintenance:
+
+   * Anyone can add text to this document.  Do not spend very much time
+   on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
+   get rewritten to some degree.
+
+   * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
+   changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
+   Misc/NEWS than to this file.
+
+   * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
+   is the purpose of Misc/NEWS.  Some changes I consider too small
+   or esoteric to include.  If such a change is added to the text,
+   I'll just remove it.  (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
+   too much time on writing your addition.)
+
+   * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
+   maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
+   section.
+
+   * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change.  For
+   example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
+   socket module."  The maintainer will research the change and
+   write the necessary text.
+
+   * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
+   necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
+
+   * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix.   Just the name is
+   sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
+
+   * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
+
+   XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
+   module.
+   (Contributed by P.Y. Developer in :issue:`12345`.)
+
+   This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the Git log
+   when researching a change.
+
+This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6.
+Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018.
+For full details, see the :ref:`changelog <changelog>`.
+
+
+Summary -- Release Highlights
+=============================
+
+.. This section singles out the most important changes in Python 3.7.
+   Brevity is key.
+
+New syntax features:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 563 <whatsnew37-pep563>`, postponed evaluation of type annotations.
+
+Backwards incompatible syntax changes:
+
+* :keyword:`async` and :keyword:`await` are now reserved keywords.
+
+New library modules:
+
+* :mod:`contextvars`: :ref:`PEP 567 -- Context Variables <whatsnew37-pep567>`
+* :mod:`dataclasses`: :ref:`PEP 557 -- Data Classes <whatsnew37-pep557>`
+* :ref:`whatsnew37_importlib_resources`
+
+New built-in features:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 553 <whatsnew37-pep553>`, the new :func:`breakpoint` function.
+
+Python data model improvements:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 562 <whatsnew37-pep562>`, customization of access to
+  module attributes.
+
+* :ref:`PEP 560 <whatsnew37-pep560>`, core support for typing module and
+  generic types.
+
+* the insertion-order preservation nature of :ref:`dict <typesmapping>`
+  objects `has been declared`_ to be an official
+  part of the Python language spec.
+
+.. _has been declared: https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html
+
+Significant improvements in the standard library:
+
+* The :mod:`asyncio` module has received new features, significant
+  :ref:`usability and performance improvements <whatsnew37_asyncio>`.
+
+* The :mod:`time` module gained support for
+  :ref:`functions with nanosecond resolution <whatsnew37-pep564>`.
+
+CPython implementation improvements:
+
+* Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding:
+
+  * :ref:`PEP 538 <whatsnew37-pep538>`, legacy C locale coercion
+  * :ref:`PEP 540 <whatsnew37-pep540>`, forced UTF-8 runtime mode
+* :ref:`PEP 552 <whatsnew37-pep552>`, deterministic .pycs
+* :ref:`the new development runtime mode <whatsnew37-devmode>`
+* :ref:`PEP 565 <whatsnew37-pep565>`, improved :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+  handling
+
+C API improvements:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 539 <whatsnew37-pep539>`, new C API for thread-local storage
+
+Documentation improvements:
+
+* :ref:`PEP 545 <whatsnew37-pep545>`, Python documentation translations
+* New documentation translations: `Japanese <https://docs.python.org/ja/>`_,
+  `French <https://docs.python.org/fr/>`_, and
+  `Korean <https://docs.python.org/ko/>`_.
+
+This release features notable performance improvements in many areas.
+The :ref:`whatsnew37-perf` section lists them in detail.
+
+For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python
+releases please refer to the :ref:`porting-to-python-37` section.
+
+
+New Features
+============
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep563:
+
+PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations
+--------------------------------------------
+
+The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability issues
+with the functionality of annotations added in :pep:`3107` and refined
+further in :pep:`526`:
+
+* annotations could only use names which were already available in the
+  current scope, in other words they didn't support forward references
+  of any kind; and
+
+* annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of Python
+  programs.
+
+Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of
+annotations.  Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in
+annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation
+in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question.
+If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using
+:func:`typing.get_type_hints`.  In the common case where this is not
+required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings
+are interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster.
+
+Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the
+following syntax valid::
+
+    class C:
+        @classmethod
+        def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C:
+            ...
+
+        def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool:
+            ...
+
+    class B:
+        ...
+
+Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be enabled
+on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a :mod:`__future__` import::
+
+    from __future__ import annotations
+
+It will become the default in Python 4.0.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`563` -- Postponed evaluation of annotations
+       PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep538:
+
+PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion
+---------------------------------
+
+An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a sensible
+default strategy for handling the "7-bit ASCII" text encoding assumption
+currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale on non-Windows
+platforms.
+
+:pep:`538` updates the default interpreter command line interface to
+automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as
+described in the documentation of the new :envvar:`PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE`
+environment variable. Automatically setting ``LC_CTYPE`` this way means that
+both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such as
+:mod:`readline`) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding,
+rather than ASCII.
+
+The platform support definition in :pep:`11` has also been updated to limit
+full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based locales.
+
+As part of this change, the default error handler for :data:`~sys.stdin` and
+:data:`~sys.stdout` is now ``surrogateescape`` (rather than ``strict``) when
+using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently ``C.UTF-8``,
+``C.utf8``, and ``UTF-8``).  The default error handler for :data:`~sys.stderr`
+continues to be ``backslashreplace``, regardless of locale.
+
+Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging potentially
+locale related integration problems, explicit warnings (emitted directly on
+:data:`~sys.stderr`) can be requested by setting ``PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn``.
+This setting will also cause the Python runtime to emit a warning if the
+legacy C locale remains active when the core interpreter is initialized.
+
+While :pep:`538`'s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting extension
+modules (such as GNU ``readline``), as well as child processes (including those
+running non-Python applications and older versions of Python), it has the
+downside of requiring that a suitable target locale be present on the running
+system. To better handle the case where no suitable target locale is available
+(as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for example), Python 3.7 also implements
+:ref:`whatsnew37-pep540`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`538` -- Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale
+       PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep540:
+
+PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode
+-----------------------------------
+
+The new :option:`-X` ``utf8`` command line option and :envvar:`PYTHONUTF8`
+environment variable can be used to enable the CPython *UTF-8 mode*.
+
+When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the
+UTF-8 encoding by default.  The error handlers for :data:`sys.stdin` and
+:data:`sys.stdout` streams are set to ``surrogateescape``.
+
+The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior in
+an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings of
+an embedding application.
+
+While :pep:`540`'s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of which
+locales are available on the running system, it has the downside of having no
+effect on extension modules (such as GNU ``readline``), child processes running
+non-Python applications, and child processes running older versions of Python.
+To reduce the risk of corrupting text data when communicating with such
+components, Python 3.7 also implements :ref:`whatsnew37-pep540`).
+
+The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is ``C`` or ``POSIX``, and
+the :pep:`538` locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8 based
+alternative (whether that failure is due to ``PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0`` being set,
+``LC_ALL`` being set, or the lack of a suitable target locale).
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`540` -- Add a new UTF-8 mode
+       PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep553:
+
+PEP 553: Built-in ``breakpoint()``
+----------------------------------
+
+Python 3.7 includes the new built-in :func:`breakpoint` function as
+an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger.
+
+Built-in ``breakpoint()`` calls :func:`sys.breakpointhook`.  By default, the
+latter imports :mod:`pdb` and then calls ``pdb.set_trace()``, but by binding
+``sys.breakpointhook()`` to the function of your choosing, ``breakpoint()`` can
+enter any debugger. Additionally, the environment variable
+:envvar:`PYTHONBREAKPOINT` can be set to the callable of your debugger of
+choice.  Set ``PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0`` to completely disable built-in
+``breakpoint()``.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`553` -- Built-in breakpoint()
+      PEP written and implemented by Barry Warsaw
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep539:
+
+PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage
+-------------------------------------------
+
+While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the existing
+:ref:`Thread Local Storage (TLS) API <thread-local-storage-api>` has used
+:c:type:`int` to represent TLS keys across all platforms.  This has not
+generally been a problem for officially-support platforms, but that is neither
+POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense.
+
+:pep:`539` changes this by providing a new :ref:`Thread Specific Storage (TSS)
+API <thread-specific-storage-api>` to CPython which supersedes use of the
+existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing
+API.  The TSS API uses a new type :c:type:`Py_tss_t` instead of :c:type:`int`
+to represent TSS keys--an opaque type the definition of which may depend on
+the underlying TLS implementation.  Therefore, this will allow to build CPython
+on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely
+cast to :c:type:`int`.
+
+Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot
+be safely cast to :c:type:`int`, all functions of the existing TLS API will be
+no-op and immediately return failure. This indicates clearly that the old API
+is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used reliably, and that no
+effort will be made to add such support.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`539` -- A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython
+       PEP written by Erik M. Bray; implementation by Masayuki Yamamoto.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep562:
+
+PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes
+-----------------------------------------------------
+
+Python 3.7 allows defining :meth:`__getattr__` on modules and will call
+it whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found.  Defining
+:meth:`__dir__` on modules is now also allowed.
+
+A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute deprecation
+and lazy loading.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`562` -- Module ``__getattr__`` and ``__dir__``
+       PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep564:
+
+PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited precision
+of a floating point number returned by the :func:`time.time` function
+and its variants.  To avoid loss of precision, :pep:`564` adds six new
+"nanosecond" variants of the existing timer functions to the :mod:`time`
+module:
+
+* :func:`time.clock_gettime_ns`
+* :func:`time.clock_settime_ns`
+* :func:`time.monotonic_ns`
+* :func:`time.perf_counter_ns`
+* :func:`time.process_time_ns`
+* :func:`time.time_ns`
+
+The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value.
+
+`Measurements <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python>`_
+show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of :func:`time.time_ns` is
+approximately 3 times better than that of :func:`time.time`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`564` -- Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution
+       PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep565:
+
+PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in ``__main__``
+------------------------------------------------
+
+The default handling of :exc:`DeprecationWarning` has been changed such that
+these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when the code
+triggering them is running directly in the :mod:`__main__` module.  As a result,
+developers of single file scripts and those using Python interactively should
+once again start seeing deprecation warnings for the APIs they use, but
+deprecation warnings triggered by imported application, library and framework
+modules will continue to be hidden by default.
+
+As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers to choose
+between three different deprecation warning behaviours:
+
+* :exc:`FutureWarning`: always displayed by default, recommended for warnings
+  intended to be seen by application end users (e.g. for deprecated application
+  configuration settings).
+* :exc:`DeprecationWarning`: displayed by default only in :mod:`__main__` and when
+  running tests, recommended for warnings intended to be seen by other Python
+  developers where a version upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an
+  error.
+* :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`: displayed by default only when running
+  tests, intended for cases where a future version upgrade will change the
+  warning category to :exc:`DeprecationWarning` or :exc:`FutureWarning`.
+
+Previously both :exc:`DeprecationWarning` and :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`
+were only visible when running tests, which meant that developers primarily
+writing single file scripts or using Python interactively could be surprised
+by breaking changes in the APIs they used.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`565` -- Show DeprecationWarning in ``__main__``
+      PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep560:
+
+PEP 560: Core Support for ``typing`` module and Generic Types
+-------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Initially :pep:`484` was designed in such way that it would not introduce *any*
+changes to the core CPython interpreter. Now type hints and the :mod:`typing`
+module are extensively used by the community, so this restriction is removed.
+The PEP introduces two special methods :meth:`__class_getitem__` and
+``__mro_entries__``, these methods are now used by most classes and special
+constructs in :mod:`typing`. As a result, the speed of various operations
+with types increased up to 7 times, the generic types can be used without
+metaclass conflicts, and several long standing bugs in :mod:`typing` module are
+fixed.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`560` -- Core support for typing module and generic types
+      PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep552:
+
+PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files
+------------------------------
+
+Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache files
+(i.e., ``.pyc`` files) by comparing the source metadata (last-modified timestamp
+and size) with source metadata saved in the cache file header when it was
+generated. While effective, this invalidation method has its drawbacks.  When
+filesystem timestamps are too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to
+user confusion. Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is
+problematic for `build reproducibility <https://reproducible-builds.org/>`_ and
+content-based build systems.
+
+:pep:`552` extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file to be
+used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp. Such ``.pyc`` files are
+called "hash-based". By default, Python still uses timestamp-based invalidation
+and does not generate hash-based ``.pyc`` files at runtime. Hash-based ``.pyc``
+files may be generated with :mod:`py_compile` or :mod:`compileall`.
+
+Hash-based ``.pyc`` files come in two variants: checked and unchecked. Python
+validates checked hash-based ``.pyc`` files against the corresponding source
+files at runtime but doesn't do so for unchecked hash-based pycs. Unchecked
+hash-based ``.pyc`` files are a useful performance optimization for environments
+where a system external to Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for
+keeping ``.pyc`` files up-to-date.
+
+See :ref:`pyc-invalidation` for more information.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`552` -- Deterministic pycs
+      PEP written and implemented by Benjamin Peterson
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep545:
+
+PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations
+------------------------------------------
+
+:pep:`545` describes the process of creating and maintaining Python
+documentation translations.
+
+Three new translations have been added:
+
+- Japanese: https://docs.python.org/ja/
+- French: https://docs.python.org/fr/
+- Korean: https://docs.python.org/ko/
+
+.. seealso::
+
+   :pep:`545` -- Python Documentation Translations
+      PEP written and implemented by Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, and
+      Victor Stinner.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-devmode:
+
+Development Runtime Mode: -X dev
+--------------------------------
+
+The new :option:`-X` ``dev`` command line option or the new
+:envvar:`PYTHONDEVMODE` environment variable can be used to enable
+CPython's *development mode*.  When in development mode, CPython performs
+additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default.
+See :option:`-X` ``dev`` documentation for the full description of the effects
+of this mode.
+
+
+Other Language Changes
+======================
+
+* More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a function can
+  now have more than 255 parameters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
+  :issue:`12844` and :issue:`18896`.)
+
+* :meth:`bytes.fromhex` and :meth:`bytearray.fromhex` now ignore all ASCII
+  whitespace, not only spaces. (Contributed by Robert Xiao in :issue:`28927`.)
+
+* :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, and :class:`bytearray` gained support for
+  the new :meth:`isascii() <str.isascii>` method, which can be used to
+  test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters.
+  (Contributed by INADA Naoki in :issue:`32677`.)
+
+* :exc:`ImportError` now displays module name and module ``__file__`` path when
+  ``from ... import ...`` fails. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in
+  :issue:`29546`.)
+
+* Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a submodule to
+  a name are now supported.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`30024`.)
+
+* ``object.__format__(x, '')`` is now equivalent to ``str(x)`` rather than
+  ``format(str(self), '')``.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`28974`.)
+
+* In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces,
+  :class:`types.TracebackType` can now be instantiated from Python code, and
+  the ``tb_next`` attribute on :ref:`tracebacks <traceback-objects>` is now
+  writable.
+  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in :issue:`30579`.)
+
+* When using the :option:`-m` switch, ``sys.path[0]`` is now eagerly expanded
+  to the full starting directory path, rather than being left as the empty
+  directory (which allows imports from the *current* working directory at the
+  time when an import occurs)
+  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`33053`.)
+
+* The new :option:`-X` ``importtime`` option or the
+  :envvar:`PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME` environment variable can be used to show
+  the timing of each module import.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`31415`.)
+
+
+New Modules
+===========
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep567:
+
+contextvars
+-----------
+
+The new :mod:`contextvars` module and a set of
+:ref:`new C APIs <contextvarsobjects>` introduce
+support for *context variables*.  Context variables are conceptually
+similar to thread-local variables.  Unlike TLS, context variables
+support asynchronous code correctly.
+
+The :mod:`asyncio` and :mod:`decimal` modules have been updated to use
+and support context variables out of the box.  Particularly the active
+decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows
+decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous code.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`567` -- Context Variables
+       PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-pep557:
+
+dataclasses
+-----------
+
+The new :func:`~dataclasses.dataclass` decorator provides a way to declare
+*data classes*.  A data class describes its attributes using class variable
+annotations.  Its constructor and other magic methods, such as
+:meth:`~object.__repr__`, :meth:`~object.__eq__`, and
+:meth:`~object.__hash__` are generated automatically.
+
+Example::
+
+    @dataclass
+    class Point:
+        x: float
+        y: float
+        z: float = 0.0
+
+    p = Point(1.5, 2.5)
+    print(p)   # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)"
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    :pep:`557` -- Data Classes
+       PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37_importlib_resources:
+
+importlib.resources
+-------------------
+
+The new :mod:`importlib.resources` module provides several new APIs and one
+new ABC for access to, opening, and reading *resources* inside packages.
+Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but they needn't
+be actual files on the physical file system.  Module loaders can provide a
+:meth:`get_resource_reader()` function which returns
+a :class:`importlib.abc.ResourceReader` instance to support this
+new API.  Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this.
+
+Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in :issue:`32248`.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+    `importlib_resources <http://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/>`_
+    -- a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions.
+
+
+Improved Modules
+================
+
+
+argparse
+--------
+
+The new :meth:`ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args()
+<argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args>`
+method allows intermixing options and positional arguments.
+(Contributed by paul.j3 in :issue:`14191`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37_asyncio:
+
+asyncio
+-------
+
+The :mod:`asyncio` module has received many new features, usability and
+:ref:`performance improvements <whatsnew37-asyncio-perf>`.  Notable changes
+include:
+
+* The new :term:`provisional <provisional api>` :func:`asyncio.run` function can
+  be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by automatically creating and
+  destroying the event loop.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32314`.)
+
+* asyncio gained support for :mod:`contextvars`.
+  :meth:`loop.call_soon() <asyncio.loop.call_soon>`,
+  :meth:`loop.call_soon_threadsafe() <asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe>`,
+  :meth:`loop.call_later() <asyncio.loop.call_later>`,
+  :meth:`loop.call_at() <asyncio.loop.call_at>`, and
+  :meth:`Future.add_done_callback() <asyncio.Future.add_done_callback>`
+  have a new optional keyword-only *context* parameter.
+  :class:`Tasks <asyncio.Task>` now track their context automatically.
+  See :pep:`567` for more details.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32436`.)
+
+* The new :func:`asyncio.create_task` function has been added as a shortcut
+  to ``asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()``.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32311`.)
+
+* The new :meth:`loop.start_tls() <asyncio.loop.start_tls>`
+  method can be used to upgrade an existing connection to TLS.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`23749`.)
+
+* The new :meth:`loop.sock_recv_into() <asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into>`
+  method allows reading data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making
+  it possible to reduce data copies.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`31819`.)
+
+* The new :func:`asyncio.current_task` function returns the currently running
+  :class:`~asyncio.Task` instance, and the new :func:`asyncio.all_tasks`
+  function returns a set of all existing ``Task`` instances in a given loop.
+  The :meth:`Task.current_task() <asyncio.Task.current_task>` and
+  :meth:`Task.all_tasks() <asyncio.Task.all_tasks>` methods have been deprecated.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32250`.)
+
+* The new *provisional* :class:`~asyncio.BufferedProtocol` class allows
+  implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the receive buffer.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32251`.)
+
+* The new :func:`asyncio.get_running_loop` function returns the currently
+  running loop, and raises a :exc:`RuntimeError` if no loop is running.
+  This is in contrast with :func:`asyncio.get_event_loop`, which will *create*
+  a new event loop if none is running.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32269`.)
+
+* The new :meth:`StreamWriter.wait_closed() <asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed>`
+  coroutine method allows waiting until the stream writer is closed.  The new
+  :meth:`StreamWriter.is_closing() <asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing>` method
+  can be used to determine if the writer is closing.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32391`.)
+
+* The new :meth:`loop.sock_sendfile() <asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile>`
+  coroutine method allows sending files using :mod:`os.sendfile` when possible.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32410`.)
+
+* The new :meth:`Future.get_loop() <asyncio.Future.get_loop>` and
+  ``Task.get_loop()`` methods return the instance of the loop on which a task or
+  a future were created.
+  :meth:`Server.get_loop() <asyncio.Server.get_loop>` allows doing the same for
+  :class:`asyncio.Server` objects.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32415` and
+  Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in :issue:`32418`.)
+
+* It is now possible to control how instances of :class:`asyncio.Server` begin
+  serving.  Previously, the server would start serving immediately when created.
+  The new *start_serving* keyword argument to
+  :meth:`loop.create_server() <asyncio.loop.create_server>` and
+  :meth:`loop.create_unix_server() <asyncio.loop.create_unix_server>`,
+  as well as :meth:`Server.start_serving() <asyncio.Server.start_serving>`, and
+  :meth:`Server.serve_forever() <asyncio.Server.serve_forever>`
+  can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving.  The new
+  :meth:`Server.is_serving() <asyncio.Server.is_serving>` method returns ``True``
+  if the server is serving.  :class:`~asyncio.Server` objects are now
+  asynchronous context managers::
+
+      srv = await loop.create_server(...)
+
+      async with srv:
+          # some code
+
+      # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.
+
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32662`.)
+
+* Callback objects returned by
+  :func:`loop.call_later() <asyncio.loop.call_later>`
+  gained the new :meth:`when() <asyncio.TimerHandle.when>` method which
+  returns an absolute scheduled callback timestamp.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32741`.)
+
+* The :meth:`loop.create_datagram_endpoint() \
+  <asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint>` method
+  gained support for Unix sockets.
+  (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in :issue:`31245`.)
+
+* The :func:`asyncio.open_connection`, :func:`asyncio.start_server` functions,
+  :meth:`loop.create_connection() <asyncio.loop.create_connection>`,
+  :meth:`loop.create_server() <asyncio.loop.create_server>`,
+  :meth:`loop.create_accepted_socket() <asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket>`
+  methods and their corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the
+  *ssl_handshake_timeout* keyword argument.
+  (Contributed by Neil Aspinall in :issue:`29970`.)
+
+* The new :meth:`Handle.cancelled() <asyncio.Handle.cancelled>` method returns
+  ``True`` if the callback was cancelled.
+  (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in :issue:`31943`.)
+
+* The asyncio source has been converted to use the
+  :keyword:`async`/:keyword:`await` syntax.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32193`.)
+
+* The new :meth:`ReadTransport.is_reading() <asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading>`
+  method can be used to determine the reading state of the transport.
+  Additionally, calls to
+  :meth:`ReadTransport.resume_reading() <asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading>`
+  and :meth:`ReadTransport.pause_reading() <asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading>`
+  are now idempotent.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32356`.)
+
+* Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing
+  :term:`path-like objects <path-like object>`.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32066`.)
+
+* In :mod:`asyncio` TCP sockets on Linux are now created with ``TCP_NODELAY``
+  flag set by default.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Victor Stinner in :issue:`27456`.)
+
+* Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`30508`.)
+
+* New ``WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy`` and
+  ``WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy`` classes.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`33792`.)
+
+Several ``asyncio`` APIs have been
+:ref:`deprecated <whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated>`.
+
+
+binascii
+--------
+
+The :func:`~binascii.b2a_uu` function now accepts an optional *backtick*
+keyword argument.  When it's true, zeros are represented by ``'`'``
+instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in :issue:`30103`.)
+
+
+calendar
+--------
+
+The :class:`~calendar.HTMLCalendar` class has new class attributes which ease
+the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar.
+(Contributed by Oz Tiram in :issue:`30095`.)
+
+
+collections
+-----------
+
+``collections.namedtuple()`` now supports default values.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`32320`.)
+
+
+compileall
+----------
+
+:func:`compileall.compile_dir` learned the new *invalidation_mode* parameter,
+which can be used to enable
+:ref:`hash-based .pyc invalidation <whatsnew37-pep552>`.  The invalidation
+mode can also be specified on the command line using the new
+``--invalidation-mode`` argument.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in :issue:`31650`.)
+
+
+concurrent.futures
+------------------
+
+:class:`ProcessPoolExecutor <concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor>` and
+:class:`ThreadPoolExecutor <concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor>` now
+support the new *initializer* and *initargs* constructor arguments.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`21423`.)
+
+The :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor <concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor>`
+can now take the multiprocessing context via the new *mp_context* argument.
+(Contributed by Thomas Moreau in :issue:`31540`.)
+
+
+contextlib
+----------
+
+The new :func:`~contextlib.nullcontext` is a simpler and faster no-op
+context manager than :class:`~contextlib.ExitStack`.
+(Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in :issue:`10049`.)
+
+The new :func:`~contextlib.asynccontextmanager`,
+:class:`~contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager`, and
+:class:`~contextlib.AsyncExitStack` have been added to
+complement their synchronous counterparts.  (Contributed
+by Jelle Zijlstra in :issue:`29679` and :issue:`30241`,
+and by Alexander Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in :issue:`29302`.)
+
+
+cProfile
+--------
+
+The :mod:`cProfile` command line now accepts ``-m module_name`` as an
+alternative to script path.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in :issue:`21862`.)
+
+
+crypt
+-----
+
+The :mod:`crypt` module now supports the Blowfish hashing method.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`31664`.)
+
+The :func:`~crypt.mksalt` function now allows specifying the number of rounds
+for hashing.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`31702`.)
+
+
+datetime
+--------
+
+The new :meth:`datetime.fromisoformat() <datetime.datetime.fromisoformat>`
+method constructs a :class:`~datetime.datetime` object from a string
+in one of the formats output by
+:meth:`datetime.isoformat() <datetime.datetime.isoformat>`.
+(Contributed by Paul Ganssle in :issue:`15873`.)
+
+The :class:`tzinfo <datetime.tzinfo>` class now supports sub-minute offsets.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`5288`.)
+
+
+dbm
+---
+
+:mod:`dbm.dumb` now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the
+index file when it is not changed.
+
+
+decimal
+-------
+
+The :mod:`decimal` module now uses :ref:`context variables <whatsnew37-pep567>`
+to store the decimal context.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32630`.)
+
+
+dis
+---
+
+The :func:`~dis.dis` function is now able to
+disassemble nested code objects (the code of comprehensions, generator
+expressions and nested functions, and the code used for building nested
+classes).  The maximum depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by
+the new *depth* parameter.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`11822`.)
+
+
+distutils
+---------
+
+``README.rst`` is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs and
+therefore included in source distributions.
+(Contributed by Ryan Gonzalez in :issue:`11913`.)
+
+
+enum
+----
+
+The :class:`Enum <enum.Enum>` learned the new ``_ignore_`` class property,
+which allows listing the names of properties which should not become
+enum members.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in :issue:`31801`.)
+
+In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in :class:`Enum`
+classes will raise a :exc:`TypeError` (e.g. ``1 in Color``); similarly,
+attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a :class:`Flag` member will
+raise :exc:`TypeError` (e.g. ``1 in Perm.RW``); currently, both operations
+return :const:`False` instead and are deprecated.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in :issue:`33217`.)
+
+
+functools
+---------
+
+:func:`functools.singledispatch` now supports registering implementations
+using type annotations.
+(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in :issue:`32227`.)
+
+
+gc
+--
+
+The new :func:`gc.freeze` function allows freezing all objects tracked
+by the garbage collector and excluding them from future collections.
+This can be used before a POSIX ``fork()`` call to make the GC copy-on-write
+friendly or to speed up collection.  The new :func:`gc.unfreeze` functions
+reverses this operation.  Additionally, :func:`gc.get_freeze_count` can
+be used to obtain the number of frozen objects.
+(Contributed by Li Zekun in :issue:`31558`.)
+
+
+hmac
+----
+
+The :mod:`hmac` module now has an optimized one-shot :func:`~hmac.digest`
+function, which is up to three times faster than :func:`~hmac.HMAC`.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`32433`.)
+
+
+http.client
+-----------
+
+:class:`~http.client.HTTPConnection` and :class:`~http.client.HTTPSConnection`
+now support the new *blocksize* argument for improved upload throughput.
+(Contributed by Nir Soffer in :issue:`31945`.)
+
+
+http.server
+-----------
+
+:class:`~http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` now supports the HTTP
+``If-Modified-Since`` header.  The server returns the 304 response status if
+the target file was not modified after the time specified in the header.
+(Contributed by Pierre Quentel in :issue:`29654`.)
+
+:class:`~http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` accepts the new *directory*
+argument, in addition to the new ``--directory`` command line argument.
+With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by default it
+uses the current working directory.
+(Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel and Julien Palard in :issue:`28707`.)
+
+The new :class:`ThreadingHTTPServer <http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer>` class
+uses threads to handle requests using :class:`~socketserver.ThreadingMixin`.
+It is used when ``http.server`` is run with ``-m``.
+(Contributed by Julien Palard in :issue:`31639`.)
+
+
+idlelib and IDLE
+----------------
+
+Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in :issue:`15786`.)
+
+Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser),
+now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level
+functions and classes.
+(Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy
+in :issue:`1612262`.)
+
+The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
+to improve both appearance and function.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)
+
+The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
+users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`13802`.)
+The sample can be edited to include other characters.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`31860`.)
+
+The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented
+as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab
+to other dialog tabs.
+(Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`27099`.)
+
+Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up to
+maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.  Context
+colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`33642`,
+:issue:`33768`, and :issue:`33679`.)
+
+On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows
+8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary
+unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should
+make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in :issue:`33656`.)
+
+New in 3.7.1:
+
+Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.
+N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the
+Settings dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by
+right clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place
+by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window
+by right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in :issue:`1529353`.)
+
+The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases.
+
+
+importlib
+---------
+
+The :class:`importlib.abc.ResourceReader` ABC was introduced to
+support the loading of resources from packages.  See also
+:ref:`whatsnew37_importlib_resources`.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in :issue:`32248`.)
+
+:func:`importlib.reload` now raises :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` if the module
+lacks a spec.
+(Contributed by Garvit Khatri in :issue:`29851`.)
+
+:func:`importlib.find_spec` now raises :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` instead of
+:exc:`AttributeError` if the specified parent module is not a package (i.e.
+lacks a ``__path__`` attribute).
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in :issue:`30436`.)
+
+The new :func:`importlib.source_hash` can be used to compute the hash of
+the passed source.  A :ref:`hash-based .pyc file <whatsnew37-pep552>`
+embeds the value returned by this function.
+
+
+io
+--
+
+The new :meth:`TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() <io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure>`
+method can be used to reconfigure the text stream with the new settings.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`30526` and
+INADA Naoki in :issue:`15216`.)
+
+
+ipaddress
+---------
+
+The new ``subnet_of()`` and ``supernet_of()`` methods of
+:class:`ipaddress.IPv6Network` and :class:`ipaddress.IPv4Network` can
+be used for network containment tests.
+(Contributed by Michel Albert and Cheryl Sabella in :issue:`20825`.)
+
+
+itertools
+---------
+
+:func:`itertools.islice` now accepts
+:meth:`integer-like objects <object.__index__>` as start, stop,
+and slice arguments.
+(Contributed by Will Roberts in :issue:`30537`.)
+
+
+locale
+------
+
+The new *monetary* argument to :func:`locale.format_string` can be used
+to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and
+grouping strings.  (Contributed by Garvit in :issue:`10379`.)
+
+The :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding` function now always returns ``'UTF-8'``
+on Android or when in the :ref:`forced UTF-8 mode <whatsnew37-pep540>`.
+
+
+logging
+-------
+
+:class:`~logging.Logger` instances can now be pickled.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in :issue:`30520`.)
+
+The new :meth:`StreamHandler.setStream() <logging.StreamHandler.setStream>`
+method can be used to replace the logger stream after handler creation.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in :issue:`30522`.)
+
+It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors in
+configuration passed to :func:`logging.config.fileConfig`.
+(Contributed by Preston Landers in :issue:`31080`.)
+
+
+math
+----
+
+The new :func:`math.remainder` function implements the IEEE 754-style remainder
+operation.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in :issue:`29962`.)
+
+
+mimetypes
+---------
+
+The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from ``'image/x-ms-bmp'`` to
+``'image/bmp'``.
+(Contributed by Nitish Chandra in :issue:`22589`.)
+
+
+msilib
+------
+
+The new :meth:`Database.Close() <msilib.Database.Close>` method can be used
+to close the :abbr:`MSI` database.
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in :issue:`20486`.)
+
+
+multiprocessing
+---------------
+
+The new :meth:`Process.close() <multiprocessing.Process.close>` method
+explicitly closes the process object and releases all resources associated
+with it.  :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the underlying process is still
+running.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`30596`.)
+
+The new :meth:`Process.kill() <multiprocessing.Process.kill>` method can
+be used to terminate the process using the :data:`SIGKILL` signal on Unix.
+(Contributed by Vitor Pereira in :issue:`30794`.)
+
+Non-daemonic threads created by :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` are now
+joined on process exit.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`18966`.)
+
+
+os
+--
+
+:func:`os.fwalk` now accepts the *path* argument as :class:`bytes`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`28682`.)
+
+:func:`os.scandir` gained support for :ref:`file descriptors <path_fd>`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25996`.)
+
+The new :func:`~os.register_at_fork` function allows registering Python
+callbacks to be executed at process fork.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`16500`.)
+
+Added :func:`os.preadv` (combine the functionality of :func:`os.readv` and
+:func:`os.pread`) and :func:`os.pwritev` functions (combine the functionality
+of :func:`os.writev` and :func:`os.pwrite`). (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
+:issue:`31368`.)
+
+The mode argument of :func:`os.makedirs` no longer affects the file
+permission bits of newly-created intermediate-level directories.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19930`.)
+
+:func:`os.dup2` now returns the new file descriptor.  Previously, ``None``
+was always returned.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in :issue:`32441`.)
+
+The structure returned by :func:`os.stat` now contains the
+:attr:`~os.stat_result.st_fstype` attribute on Solaris and its derivatives.
+(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in :issue:`32659`.)
+
+
+pathlib
+-------
+
+The new :meth:`Path.is_mount() <pathlib.Path.is_mount>` method is now available
+on POSIX systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point.
+(Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in :issue:`30897`.)
+
+
+pdb
+---
+
+:func:`pdb.set_trace` now takes an optional *header* keyword-only
+argument.  If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging
+begins.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :issue:`31389`.)
+
+:mod:`pdb` command line now accepts ``-m module_name`` as an alternative to
+script file.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in :issue:`32206`.)
+
+
+py_compile
+----------
+
+:func:`py_compile.compile` -- and by extension, :mod:`compileall` -- now
+respects the :envvar:`SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH` environment variable by
+unconditionally creating ``.pyc`` files for hash-based validation.
+This allows for guaranteeing
+`reproducible builds <https://reproducible-builds.org/>`_ of ``.pyc``
+files when they are created eagerly. (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann
+in :issue:`29708`.)
+
+
+pydoc
+-----
+
+The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the
+new ``-n`` command-line argument.
+(Contributed by Feanil Patel in :issue:`31128`.)
+
+
+queue
+-----
+
+The new :class:`~queue.SimpleQueue` class is an unbounded :abbr:`FIFO` queue.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`14976`.)
+
+
+re
+--
+
+The flags :const:`re.ASCII`, :const:`re.LOCALE` and :const:`re.UNICODE`
+can be set within the scope of a group.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`31690`.)
+
+:func:`re.split` now supports splitting on a pattern like ``r'\b'``,
+``'^$'`` or ``(?=-)`` that matches an empty string.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25054`.)
+
+Regular expressions compiled with the :const:`re.LOCALE` flag no longer
+depend on the locale at compile time.  Locale settings are applied only
+when the compiled regular expression is used.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`30215`.)
+
+:exc:`FutureWarning` is now emitted if a regular expression contains
+character set constructs that will change semantically in the future,
+such as nested sets and set operations.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`30349`.)
+
+Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied
+using :func:`copy.copy` and :func:`copy.deepcopy`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`10076`.)
+
+
+signal
+------
+
+The new *warn_on_full_buffer* argument to the :func:`signal.set_wakeup_fd`
+function makes it possible to specify whether Python prints a warning on
+stderr when the wakeup buffer overflows.
+(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in :issue:`30050`.)
+
+
+socket
+------
+
+The new :func:`socket.getblocking() <socket.socket.getblocking>` method
+returns ``True`` if the socket is in blocking mode and ``False`` otherwise.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32373`.)
+
+The new :func:`socket.close` function closes the passed socket file descriptor.
+This function should be used instead of :func:`os.close` for better
+compatibility across platforms.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`32454`.)
+
+The :mod:`socket` module now exposes the :data:`socket.TCP_CONGESTION`
+(Linux 2.6.13), :data:`socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT` (Linux 2.6.37), and
+:data:`socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT` (Linux 3.12) constants.
+(Contributed by Omar Sandoval in :issue:`26273` and
+Nathaniel J. Smith in :issue:`29728`.)
+
+Support for :data:`socket.AF_VSOCK` sockets has been added to allow
+communication between virtual machines and their hosts.
+(Contributed by Cathy Avery in :issue:`27584`.)
+
+Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor
+by default.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28134`.)
+
+
+socketserver
+------------
+
+:meth:`socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close` now waits until all non-daemon
+threads complete. :meth:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close` now waits
+until all child processes complete.
+
+Add a new :attr:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close` class attribute to
+:class:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn` and :class:`socketserver.ThreadingMixIn`
+classes. Set the class attribute to ``False`` to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.
+
+
+sqlite3
+-------
+
+:class:`sqlite3.Connection` now exposes the :meth:`~sqlite3.Connection.backup`
+method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or higher.
+(Contributed by Lele Gaifax in :issue:`27645`.)
+
+The *database* argument of :func:`sqlite3.connect` now accepts any
+:term:`path-like object`, instead of just a string.
+(Contributed by Anders Lorentsen in :issue:`31843`.)
+
+
+ssl
+---
+
+The :mod:`ssl` module now uses OpenSSL's builtin API instead of
+:func:`~ssl.match_hostname` to check a host name or an IP address.  Values
+are validated during TLS handshake.  Any certificate validation error
+including failing the host name check now raises
+:exc:`~ssl.SSLCertVerificationError` and aborts the handshake with a proper
+TLS Alert message.  The new exception contains additional information.
+Host name validation can be customized with
+:attr:`SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name <ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name>`.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`31399`.)
+
+.. note::
+   The improved host name check requires a *libssl* implementation compatible
+   with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.  Consequently, OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no
+   longer supported (see :ref:`37-platform-support-removals` for more details).
+   The ssl module is mostly compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer.
+
+The ``ssl`` module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`32185`.)
+
+:func:`~ssl.match_hostname` no longer supports partial wildcards like
+``www*.example.org``.
+(Contributed by Mandeep Singh in :issue:`23033` and Christian Heimes in
+:issue:`31399`.)
+
+The default cipher suite selection of the ``ssl`` module now uses a blacklist
+approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.  Python no longer re-enables
+ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates.  Default cipher
+suite selection can be configured at compile time.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`31429`.)
+
+Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain names
+(IDNs) is now supported.  As part of this change, the
+:attr:`SSLSocket.server_hostname <ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname>` attribute
+now stores the expected hostname in A-label form (``"xn--pythn-mua.org"``),
+rather than the U-label form (``"pythön.org"``).  (Contributed by
+Nathaniel J. Smith and Christian Heimes in :issue:`28414`.)
+
+The ``ssl`` module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3 and
+OpenSSL 1.1.1.  At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1 is still
+under development and TLS 1.3 hasn't been finalized yet.  The TLS 1.3
+handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2 and earlier,
+see :ref:`ssl-tlsv1_3`.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`32947`, :issue:`20995`,
+:issue:`29136`, :issue:`30622` and :issue:`33618`)
+
+:class:`~ssl.SSLSocket` and :class:`~ssl.SSLObject` no longer have a public
+constructor.  Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported
+feature.  Instances must be created with :class:`~ssl.SSLContext` methods
+:meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket` and :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio`.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`32951`)
+
+OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol version are
+available as :attr:`SSLContext.minimum_version <ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version>`
+and :attr:`SSLContext.maximum_version <ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version>`.
+Supported protocols are indicated by several new flags, such as
+:data:`~ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1`.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`32609`.)
+
+Added :attr:`SSLContext.post_handshake_auth` to enable and
+:meth:`ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake` to initiate TLS 1.3
+post-handshake authentication.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`34670`.)
+
+string
+------
+
+:class:`string.Template` now lets you to optionally modify the regular
+expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced placeholders
+separately.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :issue:`1198569`.)
+
+
+subprocess
+----------
+
+The :func:`subprocess.run` function accepts the new *capture_output*
+keyword argument.  When true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
+This is equivalent to passing :data:`subprocess.PIPE` as *stdout* and
+*stderr* arguments.
+(Contributed by Bo Bayles in :issue:`32102`.)
+
+The ``subprocess.run`` function and the :class:`subprocess.Popen` constructor
+now accept the *text* keyword argument as an alias
+to *universal_newlines*.
+(Contributed by Andrew Clegg in :issue:`31756`.)
+
+On Windows the default for *close_fds* was changed from ``False`` to
+``True`` when redirecting the standard handles.  It's now possible to set
+*close_fds* to true when redirecting the standard handles.  See
+:class:`subprocess.Popen`.  This means that *close_fds* now defaults to
+``True`` on all supported platforms.
+(Contributed by Segev Finer in :issue:`19764`.)
+
+The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling
+:exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` during :func:`subprocess.call`,
+:func:`subprocess.run`, or in a :class:`~subprocess.Popen`
+context manager.  It now waits a short amount of time for the child
+to exit, before continuing the handling of the ``KeyboardInterrupt``
+exception.
+(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in :issue:`25942`.)
+
+
+sys
+---
+
+The new :func:`sys.breakpointhook` hook function is called by the
+built-in :func:`breakpoint`.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :issue:`31353`.)
+
+On Android, the new :func:`sys.getandroidapilevel` returns the build-time
+Android API version.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`28740`.)
+
+The new :func:`sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth` function returns
+the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by
+the new :func:`sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth`.  :mod:`asyncio`
+has been converted to use this new API instead of
+the deprecated :func:`sys.set_coroutine_wrapper`.
+(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in :issue:`32591`.)
+
+
+time
+----
+
+:pep:`564` adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the
+:mod:`time` module:
+
+* :func:`time.clock_gettime_ns`
+* :func:`time.clock_settime_ns`
+* :func:`time.monotonic_ns`
+* :func:`time.perf_counter_ns`
+* :func:`time.process_time_ns`
+* :func:`time.time_ns`
+
+New clock identifiers have been added:
+
+* :data:`time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME` (Linux): Identical to
+  :data:`time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC`, except it also includes any time that the
+  system is suspended.
+* :data:`time.CLOCK_PROF` (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD): High-resolution
+  per-process CPU timer.
+* :data:`time.CLOCK_UPTIME` (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose absolute value is
+  the time the system has been running and not suspended, providing accurate
+  uptime measurement.
+
+The new :func:`time.thread_time` and :func:`time.thread_time_ns` functions
+can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`32025`.)
+
+The new :func:`time.pthread_getcpuclockid` function returns the clock ID
+of the thread-specific CPU-time clock.
+
+
+tkinter
+-------
+
+The new :class:`tkinter.ttk.Spinbox` class is now available.
+(Contributed by Alan Moore in :issue:`32585`.)
+
+
+tracemalloc
+-----------
+
+:class:`tracemalloc.Traceback` behaves more like regular tracebacks,
+sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
+:meth:`Traceback.format() <tracemalloc.Traceback.format>`
+now accepts negative *limit*, truncating the result to the
+``abs(limit)`` oldest frames.  To get the old behaviour, use
+the new *most_recent_first* argument to ``Traceback.format()``.
+(Contributed by Jesse Bakker in :issue:`32121`.)
+
+
+types
+-----
+
+The new :class:`~types.WrapperDescriptorType`,
+:class:`~types.MethodWrapperType`, :class:`~types.MethodDescriptorType`,
+and :class:`~types.ClassMethodDescriptorType` classes are now available.
+(Contributed by Manuel Krebber and Guido van Rossum in :issue:`29377`,
+and Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`32265`.)
+
+The new :func:`types.resolve_bases` function resolves MRO entries
+dynamically as specified by :pep:`560`.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in :issue:`32717`.)
+
+
+unicodedata
+-----------
+
+The internal :mod:`unicodedata` database has been upgraded to use `Unicode 11
+<http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/>`_. (Contributed by Benjamin
+Peterson.)
+
+
+unittest
+--------
+
+The new ``-k`` command-line option allows filtering tests by a name
+substring or a Unix shell-like pattern.
+For example, ``python -m unittest -k foo`` runs
+``foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something``, ``bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo``,
+but not ``bar_tests.FooTest.test_something``.
+(Contributed by Jonas Haag in :issue:`32071`.)
+
+
+unittest.mock
+-------------
+
+The :const:`~unittest.mock.sentinel` attributes now preserve their identity
+when they are :mod:`copied <copy>` or :mod:`pickled <pickle>`. (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`20804`.)
+
+The new :func:`~unittest.mock.seal` function allows sealing
+:class:`~unittest.mock.Mock` instances, which will disallow further creation
+of attribute mocks.  The seal is applied recursively to all attributes that
+are themselves mocks.
+(Contributed by Mario Corchero in :issue:`30541`.)
+
+
+urllib.parse
+------------
+
+:func:`urllib.parse.quote` has been updated from :rfc:`2396` to :rfc:`3986`,
+adding ``~`` to the set of characters that are never quoted by default.
+(Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in :issue:`16285`.)
+
+
+uu
+--
+
+The :func:`uu.encode` function now accepts an optional *backtick*
+keyword argument.  When it's true, zeros are represented by ``'`'``
+instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in :issue:`30103`.)
+
+
+uuid
+----
+
+The new :attr:`UUID.is_safe <uuid.UUID.is_safe>` attribute relays information
+from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a
+multiprocessing-safe method.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :issue:`22807`.)
+
+:func:`uuid.getnode` now prefers universally administered
+MAC addresses over locally administered MAC addresses.
+This makes a better guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned
+from :func:`uuid.uuid1`.  If only locally administered MAC addresses are
+available, the first such one found is returned.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :issue:`32107`.)
+
+
+warnings
+--------
+
+The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as follows:
+
+* warnings enabled via command line options (including those for :option:`-b`
+  and the new CPython-specific :option:`-X` ``dev`` option) are always passed
+  to the warnings machinery via the :data:`sys.warnoptions` attribute.
+
+* warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment now have the
+  following order of precedence:
+
+     * the ``BytesWarning`` filter for :option:`-b` (or ``-bb``)
+     * any filters specified with the :option:`-W` option
+     * any filters specified with the :envvar:`PYTHONWARNINGS` environment
+       variable
+     * any other CPython specific filters (e.g. the ``default`` filter added
+       for the new ``-X dev`` mode)
+     * any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings machinery
+
+* in CPython debug builds, all warnings are now displayed by default (the
+  implicit filter list is empty)
+
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in :issue:`20361`,
+:issue:`32043`, and :issue:`32230`.)
+
+Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and
+at the interactive prompt.  See :ref:`whatsnew37-pep565` for details.
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`31975`.)
+
+
+xml
+---
+
+As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the
+:mod:`xml.dom.minidom` and :mod:`xml.sax` modules no longer process
+external entities by default.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`17239`.)
+
+
+xml.etree
+---------
+
+:ref:`ElementPath <elementtree-xpath>` predicates in the :meth:`find`
+methods can now compare text of the current node with ``[. = "text"]``,
+not only text in children.  Predicates also allow adding spaces for
+better readability.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in :issue:`31648`.)
+
+
+xmlrpc.server
+-------------
+
+:meth:`SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function <xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher>`
+can now be used as a decorator.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in
+:issue:`7769`.)
+
+
+zipapp
+------
+
+Function :func:`~zipapp.create_archive` now accepts an optional *filter*
+argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in the
+archive.  (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in :issue:`31072`.)
+
+Function :func:`~zipapp.create_archive` now accepts an optional *compressed*
+argument to generate a compressed archive.  A command line option
+``--compress`` has also been added to support compression.
+(Contributed by Zhiming Wang in :issue:`31638`.)
+
+
+zipfile
+-------
+
+:class:`~zipfile.ZipFile` now accepts the new *compresslevel* parameter to
+control the compression level.
+(Contributed by Bo Bayles in :issue:`21417`.)
+
+Subdirectories in archives created by ``ZipFile`` are now stored in
+alphabetical order.
+(Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in :issue:`30693`.)
+
+
+C API Changes
+=============
+
+A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented.  See
+:ref:`whatsnew37-pep539` for an overview and
+:ref:`thread-specific-storage-api` for a complete reference.
+(Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in :issue:`25658`.)
+
+The new :ref:`context variables <whatsnew37-pep567>` functionality
+exposes a number of :ref:`new C APIs <contextvarsobjects>`.
+
+The new :c:func:`PyImport_GetModule` function returns the previously
+imported module with the given name.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in :issue:`28411`.)
+
+The new :c:macro:`Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE` macro eases writing rich
+comparison functions.
+(Contributed by Petr Victorin in :issue:`23699`.)
+
+The new :c:macro:`Py_UNREACHABLE` macro can be used to mark unreachable
+code paths.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :issue:`31338`.)
+
+The :mod:`tracemalloc` now exposes a C API through the new
+:c:func:`PyTraceMalloc_Track` and :c:func:`PyTraceMalloc_Untrack`
+functions.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`30054`.)
+
+The new :c:func:`import__find__load__start` and
+:c:func:`import__find__load__done` static markers can be used to trace
+module imports.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`31574`.)
+
+The fields :c:member:`name` and :c:member:`doc` of structures
+:c:type:`PyMemberDef`, :c:type:`PyGetSetDef`,
+:c:type:`PyStructSequence_Field`, :c:type:`PyStructSequence_Desc`,
+and :c:type:`wrapperbase` are now of type ``const char *`` rather of
+``char *``.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`28761`.)
+
+The result of :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize` and :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8`
+is now of type ``const char *`` rather of ``char *``. (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in :issue:`28769`.)
+
+The result of :c:func:`PyMapping_Keys`, :c:func:`PyMapping_Values` and
+:c:func:`PyMapping_Items` is now always a list, rather than a list or a
+tuple. (Contributed by Oren Milman in :issue:`28280`.)
+
+Added functions :c:func:`PySlice_Unpack` and :c:func:`PySlice_AdjustIndices`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`27867`.)
+
+:c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork` is deprecated in favour of the new functions
+:c:func:`PyOS_BeforeFork`, :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Parent` and
+:c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child`.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+:issue:`16500`.)
+
+The ``PyExc_RecursionErrorInst`` singleton that was part of the public API
+has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
+during finalization of the interpreter. Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in
+:issue:`22898` and :issue:`30697`.
+
+Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors
+:c:func:`PyTimeZone_FromOffset` and :c:func:`PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName`,
+and access to the UTC singleton with :c:data:`PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC`.
+Contributed by Paul Ganssle in :issue:`10381`.
+
+The type of results of :c:func:`PyThread_start_new_thread` and
+:c:func:`PyThread_get_thread_ident`, and the *id* parameter of
+:c:func:`PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc` changed from :c:type:`long` to
+:c:type:`unsigned long`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`6532`.)
+
+:c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString` now raises a :exc:`ValueError` if the
+second argument is *NULL* and the :c:type:`wchar_t*` string contains null
+characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`30708`.)
+
+Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory
+allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call
+:c:func:`Py_Initialize` before calling most C API functions is now
+relied on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in
+embedding applications. See the :ref:`porting-to-python-37` section in this
+document and the :ref:`pre-init-safe` section in the C API documentation
+for more details.
+
+The new :c:func:`PyInterpreterState_GetID` returns the unique ID for a
+given interpreter.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in :issue:`29102`.)
+
+:c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale`, :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale` now use the UTF-8
+encoding when the :ref:`UTF-8 mode <whatsnew37-pep540>` is enabled.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`29240`.)
+
+:c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize` and :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeLocale`
+now use the current locale encoding for ``surrogateescape`` error handler.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`29240`.)
+
+The *start* and *end* parameters of :c:func:`PyUnicode_FindChar` are
+now adjusted to behave like string slices.
+(Contributed by Xiang Zhang in :issue:`28822`.)
+
+
+Build Changes
+=============
+
+Support for building ``--without-threads`` has been removed.  The
+:mod:`threading` module is now always available.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`31370`.).
+
+A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the
+:mod:`_ctypes <ctypes>` module on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
+of libffi is now required when building ``_ctypes`` on such platforms.
+(Contributed by Zachary Ware in :issue:`27979`.)
+
+The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in external
+sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from GitHub instead.
+If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ``py -3.6``), NuGet is used to
+download a copy of 32-bit Python for this purpose.  (Contributed by Zachary
+Ware in :issue:`30450`.)
+
+The :mod:`ssl` module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible libssl.
+OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is no longer
+supported. LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well. LibreSSL releases
+up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2 APIs.
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-perf:
+
+Optimizations
+=============
+
+The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes
+implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code
+to use the ``METH_FASTCALL`` convention.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`29300`, :issue:`29507`,
+:issue:`29452`, and :issue:`29286`.)
+
+Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux and
+up to 30% on macOS.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in :issue:`29585`, and
+Ivan Levkivskyi in :issue:`31333`.)
+
+Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which
+avoid creating bound method instances.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in :issue:`26110`.)
+
+.. _whatsnew37-asyncio-perf:
+
+The :mod:`asyncio` module received a number of notable optimizations for
+commonly used functions:
+
+* The :func:`asyncio.get_event_loop` function has been reimplemented in C to
+  make it up to 15 times faster.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32296`.)
+
+* :class:`asyncio.Future` callback management has been optimized.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32348`.)
+
+* :func:`asyncio.gather` is now up to 15% faster.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32355`.)
+
+* :func:`asyncio.sleep` is now up to 2 times faster when the *delay*
+  argument is zero or negative.
+  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32351`.)
+
+* The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced.
+  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`31970`.)
+
+As a result of :ref:`PEP 560 work <whatsnew37-pep560>`, the import time
+of :mod:`typing` has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations
+are now faster.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in :issue:`32226`.)
+
+:func:`sorted` and :meth:`list.sort` have been optimized for common cases
+to be up to 40-75% faster.
+(Contributed by Elliot Gorokhovsky in :issue:`28685`.)
+
+:meth:`dict.copy` is now up to 5.5 times faster.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`31179`.)
+
+:func:`hasattr` and :func:`getattr` are now about 4 times faster when
+*name* is not found and *obj* does not override :meth:`object.__getattr__`
+or :meth:`object.__getattribute__`.
+(Contributed by INADA Naoki in :issue:`32544`.)
+
+Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital "Є")
+in a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters.
+It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`24821`.)
+
+The :func:`collections.namedtuple` factory has been reimplemented to
+make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster.
+(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki,
+Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`28638`.)
+
+:meth:`date.fromordinal` and :meth:`date.fromtimestamp` are now up to
+30% faster in the common case.
+(Contributed by Paul Ganssle in :issue:`32403`.)
+
+The :func:`os.fwalk` function is now up to 2 times faster thanks to
+the use of :func:`os.scandir`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25996`.)
+
+The speed of the :func:`shutil.rmtree` function has been improved by
+20--40% thanks to the use of the :func:`os.scandir` function.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`28564`.)
+
+Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of :mod:`regular
+expressions <re>`.  Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`30285`.)
+
+:func:`re.compile` now converts ``flags`` parameter to int object if
+it is ``RegexFlag``.  It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than
+Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern.
+(Contributed by INADA Naoki in :issue:`31671`.)
+
+The :meth:`~selectors.BaseSelector.modify` methods of classes
+:class:`selectors.EpollSelector`, :class:`selectors.PollSelector`
+and :class:`selectors.DevpollSelector` may be around 10% faster under
+heavy loads.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in :issue:`30014`)
+
+Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new AST
+optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently.
+(Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in :issue:`29469` and
+:issue:`11549`.)
+
+Most functions and methods in :mod:`abc` have been rewritten in C.
+This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling :func:`isinstance`
+and :func:`issubclass` on them 1.5x faster.  This also reduces Python
+start-up time by up to 10%. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki
+in :issue:`31333`)
+
+Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for
+:class:`datetime.date` and :class:`datetime.datetime` by using fast-path
+constructors when not constructing subclasses. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle
+in :issue:`32403`)
+
+The speed of comparison of :class:`array.array` instances has been
+improved considerably in certain cases.  It is now from 10x to 70x faster
+when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.
+(Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in :issue:`24700`.)
+
+The :func:`math.erf` and :func:`math.erfc` functions now use the (faster)
+C library implementation on most platforms.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`26121`.)
+
+
+Other CPython Implementation Changes
+====================================
+
+* Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the ``line`` and opt into receiving
+  the ``opcode`` events from the interpreter by setting the corresponding new
+  ``f_trace_lines`` and ``f_trace_opcodes`` attributes on the
+  frame being traced. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in :issue:`31344`.)
+
+* Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module attributes.
+  Namespace module objects now have an ``__file__`` that is set to ``None``
+  (previously unset), and their ``__spec__.origin`` is also set to ``None``
+  (previously the string ``"namespace"``).  See :issue:`32305`.  Also, the
+  namespace module object's ``__spec__.loader`` is set to the same value as
+  ``__loader__`` (previously, the former was set to ``None``).  See
+  :issue:`32303`.
+
+* The :func:`locals` dictionary now displays in the lexical order that
+  variables were defined.  Previously, the order was undefined.
+  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`32690`.)
+
+* The :mod:`distutils` ``upload`` command no longer tries to change CR
+  end-of-line characters to CRLF.  This fixes a corruption issue with sdists
+  that ended with a byte equivalent to CR.
+  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in :issue:`32304`.)
+
+
+Deprecated Python Behavior
+==========================
+
+Yield expressions (both ``yield`` and ``yield from`` clauses) are now deprecated
+in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the iterable expression
+in the leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause). This ensures that comprehensions
+always immediately return a container of the appropriate type (rather than
+potentially returning a :term:`generator iterator` object), while generator
+expressions won't attempt to interleave their implicit output with the output
+from any explicit yield expressions.  In Python 3.7, such expressions emit
+:exc:`DeprecationWarning` when compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a
+:exc:`SyntaxError`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`10544`.)
+
+Returning a subclass of :class:`complex` from :meth:`object.__complex__` is
+deprecated and will be an error in future Python versions.  This makes
+``__complex__()`` consistent with :meth:`object.__int__` and
+:meth:`object.__float__`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`28894`.)
+
+
+
+Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
+================================================
+
+aifc
+----
+
+:func:`aifc.openfp` has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
+Use :func:`aifc.open` instead.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin in :issue:`31985`.)
+
+
+.. _whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated:
+
+asyncio
+-------
+
+Support for directly ``await``-ing instances of :class:`asyncio.Lock` and
+other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated.  An
+asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and release
+the synchronization resource.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32253`.)
+
+The :meth:`asyncio.Task.current_task` and :meth:`asyncio.Task.all_tasks`
+methods have been deprecated.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in :issue:`32250`.)
+
+
+collections
+-----------
+
+In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in :mod:`collections.abc` will no
+longer be exposed in the regular :mod:`collections` module.  This will help
+create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes and the abstract
+base classes.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25988`.)
+
+
+dbm
+---
+
+:mod:`dbm.dumb` now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the
+index file when it is not changed.  A deprecation warning is now emitted
+if the index file is missing and recreated in the ``'r'`` and ``'w'``
+modes (this will be an error in future Python releases).
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`28847`.)
+
+
+enum
+----
+
+In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in :class:`Enum`
+classes will raise a :exc:`TypeError` (e.g. ``1 in Color``); similarly,
+attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a :class:`Flag` member will
+raise :exc:`TypeError` (e.g. ``1 in Perm.RW``); currently, both operations
+return :const:`False` instead.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in :issue:`33217`.)
+
+
+gettext
+-------
+
+Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in :mod:`gettext` is
+now deprecated.  It never correctly worked. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+in :issue:`28692`.)
+
+
+importlib
+---------
+
+Methods
+:meth:`MetaPathFinder.find_module() <importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module>`
+(replaced by
+:meth:`MetaPathFinder.find_spec() <importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec>`)
+and
+:meth:`PathEntryFinder.find_loader() <importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader>`
+(replaced by
+:meth:`PathEntryFinder.find_spec() <importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec>`)
+both deprecated in Python 3.4 now emit :exc:`DeprecationWarning`.
+(Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in :issue:`29576`)
+
+The :class:`importlib.abc.ResourceLoader` ABC has been deprecated in
+favour of :class:`importlib.abc.ResourceReader`.
+
+
+locale
+------
+
+:func:`locale.format` has been deprecated, use :meth:`locale.format_string`
+instead.  (Contributed by Garvit in :issue:`10379`.)
+
+
+macpath
+-------
+
+The :mod:`macpath` is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8.
+(Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in :issue:`9850`.)
+
+
+threading
+---------
+
+:mod:`dummy_threading` and :mod:`_dummy_thread` have been deprecated.  It is
+no longer possible to build Python with threading disabled.
+Use :mod:`threading` instead.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`31370`.)
+
+
+socket
+------
+
+The silent argument value truncation in :func:`socket.htons` and
+:func:`socket.ntohs` has been deprecated.  In future versions of Python,
+if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will be raised.
+(Contributed by Oren Milman in :issue:`28332`.)
+
+
+ssl
+---
+
+:func:`ssl.wrap_socket` is deprecated.  Use
+:meth:`ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket` instead.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28124`.)
+
+
+sunau
+-----
+
+:func:`sunau.openfp` has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
+Use :func:`sunau.open` instead.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin in :issue:`31985`.)
+
+
+sys
+---
+
+Deprecated :func:`sys.set_coroutine_wrapper` and
+:func:`sys.get_coroutine_wrapper`.
+
+The undocumented ``sys.callstats()`` function has been deprecated and
+will be removed in a future Python version.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`28799`.)
+
+
+wave
+----
+
+:func:`wave.openfp` has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
+Use :func:`wave.open` instead.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin in :issue:`31985`.)
+
+
+Deprecated functions and types of the C API
+===========================================
+
+Function :c:func:`PySlice_GetIndicesEx` is deprecated and replaced with
+a macro if ``Py_LIMITED_API`` is not set or set to a value in the range
+between ``0x03050400`` and ``0x03060000`` (not inclusive), or is ``0x03060100``
+or higher.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`27867`.)
+
+:c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork` has been deprecated.  Use :c:func:`PyOS_BeforeFork`,
+:c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Parent` or :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child()` instead.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`16500`.)
+
+
+.. _37-platform-support-removals:
+
+Platform Support Removals
+=========================
+
+* FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported.
+* For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, \*nix platforms
+  are now expected to provide at least one of ``C.UTF-8`` (full locale),
+  ``C.utf8`` (full locale) or ``UTF-8`` (``LC_CTYPE``-only locale) as an
+  alternative to the legacy ``ASCII``-based ``C`` locale.
+* OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means building CPython
+  3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still using these versions
+  requires custom build options that link to a more recent version of OpenSSL.
+
+  Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka "jessie") and Ubuntu 14.04
+  (aka "Trusty") LTS Linux distributions, as they still use OpenSSL 1.0.1 by
+  default.
+
+  Debian 9 ("stretch") and Ubuntu 16.04 ("xenial"), as well as recent releases
+  of other LTS Linux releases (e.g. RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES 12-SP3), use OpenSSL
+  1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the default build configuration.
+
+  CPython's own :source:`CI configuration file <.travis.yml>` provides an
+  example of using the SSL
+  :source:`compatibility testing infrastructure <Tools/ssl/multissltests.py>` in
+  CPython's test suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an
+  outdated system provided OpenSSL.
+
+
+API and Feature Removals
+========================
+
+The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7:
+
+* The ``os.stat_float_times()`` function has been removed. It was introduced in
+  Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python 2.2, and was deprecated
+  since Python 3.1.
+
+* Unknown escapes consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter in replacement
+  templates for :func:`re.sub` were deprecated in Python 3.5, and will now
+  cause an error.
+
+* Removed support of the *exclude* argument in :meth:`tarfile.TarFile.add`.
+  It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and 3.2.  Use the *filter* argument instead.
+
+* The ``splitunc()`` function in the :mod:`ntpath` module was deprecated in
+  Python 3.1, and has now been removed.  Use the :func:`~os.path.splitdrive`
+  function instead.
+
+* :func:`collections.namedtuple` no longer supports the *verbose* parameter
+  or ``_source`` attribute which showed the generated source code for the
+  named tuple class.  This was part of an optimization designed to speed-up
+  class creation.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements
+  by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`28638`.)
+
+* Functions :func:`bool`, :func:`float`, :func:`list` and :func:`tuple` no
+  longer take keyword arguments.  The first argument of :func:`int` can now
+  be passed only as positional argument.
+
+* Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes ``Plist``, ``Dict`` and
+  ``_InternalDict`` in the :mod:`plistlib` module.  Dict values in the result
+  of functions :func:`~plistlib.readPlist` and
+  :func:`~plistlib.readPlistFromBytes` are now normal dicts.  You no longer
+  can use attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.
+
+* The ``asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()`` function has been
+  removed.  Use the :func:`socket.socketpair` function instead,
+  it is available on all platforms since Python 3.5.
+  ``asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair`` was just an alias to
+  ``socket.socketpair`` on Python 3.5 and newer.
+
+* :mod:`asyncio` no longer exports the :mod:`selectors` and
+  :mod:`_overlapped` modules as ``asyncio.selectors`` and
+  ``asyncio._overlapped``. Replace ``from asyncio import selectors`` with
+  ``import selectors``.
+
+* Direct instantiation of :class:`ssl.SSLSocket` and :class:`ssl.SSLObject`
+  objects is now prohibited. The constructors were never documented, tested,
+  or designed as public constructors.  Users were supposed to use
+  :func:`ssl.wrap_socket` or :class:`ssl.SSLContext`.
+  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`32951`.)
+
+* The unused :mod:`distutils` ``install_misc`` command has been removed.
+  (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in :issue:`29218`.)
+
+
+Module Removals
+===============
+
+The ``fpectl`` module has been removed.  It was never enabled by
+default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python
+ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.
+(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in :issue:`29137`.)
+
+
+Windows-only Changes
+====================
+
+The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 & 64 bit specifiers **without**
+having to specify a minor version as well. So ``py -3-32`` and ``py -3-64``
+become valid as well as ``py -3.7-32``, also the -*m*-64 and -*m.n*-64 forms
+are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit would have otherwise
+been used. If the specified version is not available py.exe will error exit.
+(Contributed by Steve Barnes in :issue:`30291`.)
+
+The launcher can be run as ``py -0`` to produce a list of the installed pythons,
+*with default marked with an asterisk*. Running ``py -0p`` will include the paths.
+If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be matched it will also print
+the *short form* list of available specifiers.
+(Contributed by Steve Barnes in :issue:`30362`.)
+
+
+.. _porting-to-python-37:
+
+Porting to Python 3.7
+=====================
+
+This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.
+
+
+Changes in Python Behavior
+--------------------------
+
+* :keyword:`async` and :keyword:`await` names are now reserved keywords.
+  Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in :issue:`30406`.)
+
+* :pep:`479` is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that
+  :exc:`StopIteration` exceptions raised directly or indirectly in
+  coroutines and generators are transformed into :exc:`RuntimeError`
+  exceptions.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32670`.)
+
+* :meth:`object.__aiter__` methods can no longer be declared as
+  asynchronous.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`31709`.)
+
+* Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the
+  following syntax::
+
+      f(1 for x in [1],)
+
+      class C(1 for x in [1]):
+          pass
+
+  Python 3.7 now correctly raises a :exc:`SyntaxError`, as a generator
+  expression always needs to be directly inside a set of parentheses
+  and cannot have a comma on either side, and the duplication of the
+  parentheses can be omitted only on calls.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`32012` and :issue:`32023`.)
+
+* When using the :option:`-m` switch, the initial working directory is now added
+  to :data:`sys.path`, rather than an empty string (which dynamically denoted
+  the current working directory at the time of each import). Any programs that
+  are checking for the empty string, or otherwise relying on the previous
+  behaviour, will need to be updated accordingly (e.g. by also checking for
+  ``os.getcwd()`` or ``os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)``, depending on why
+  the code was checking for the empty string in the first place).
+
+
+Changes in the Python API
+-------------------------
+
+* :meth:`socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close` now waits until all
+  non-daemon threads complete.  Set the new
+  :attr:`socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close` class attribute to
+  ``False`` to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`31233` and :issue:`33540`.)
+
+* :meth:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close` now waits until all
+  child processes complete. Set the new
+  :attr:`socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close` class attribute to ``False``
+  to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`31151` and :issue:`33540`.)
+
+* The :func:`locale.localeconv` function now temporarily sets the ``LC_CTYPE``
+  locale to the value of ``LC_NUMERIC`` in some cases.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`31900`.)
+
+* :meth:`pkgutil.walk_packages` now raises a :exc:`ValueError` if *path* is
+  a string.  Previously an empty list was returned.
+  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in :issue:`24744`.)
+
+* A format string argument for :meth:`string.Formatter.format`
+  is now :ref:`positional-only <positional-only_parameter>`.
+  Passing it as a keyword argument was deprecated in Python 3.5. (Contributed
+  by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`29193`.)
+
+* Attributes :attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.key`,
+  :attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.value` and
+  :attr:`~http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value` of class
+  :class:`http.cookies.Morsel` are now read-only.
+  Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5.
+  Use the :meth:`~http.cookies.Morsel.set` method for setting them.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`29192`.)
+
+* The *mode* argument of :func:`os.makedirs` no longer affects the file
+  permission bits of newly-created intermediate-level directories.
+  To set their file permission bits you can set the umask before invoking
+  ``makedirs()``.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`19930`.)
+
+* The :attr:`struct.Struct.format` type is now :class:`str` instead of
+  :class:`bytes`. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`21071`.)
+
+* :func:`~cgi.parse_multipart` now accepts the *encoding* and *errors*
+  arguments and returns the same results as
+  :class:`~FieldStorage`: for non-file fields, the value associated to a key
+  is a list of strings, not bytes.
+  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in :issue:`29979`.)
+
+* Due to internal changes in :mod:`socket`, calling :func:`socket.fromshare`
+  on a socket created by :func:`socket.share <socket.socket.share>` in older
+  Python versions is not supported.
+
+* ``repr`` for :exc:`BaseException` has changed to not include the trailing
+  comma.  Most exceptions are affected by this change.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`30399`.)
+
+* ``repr`` for :class:`datetime.timedelta` has changed to include the keyword
+  arguments in the output. (Contributed by Utkarsh Upadhyay in :issue:`30302`.)
+
+* Because :func:`shutil.rmtree` is now implemented using the :func:`os.scandir`
+  function, the user specified handler *onerror* is now called with the first
+  argument ``os.scandir`` instead of ``os.listdir`` when listing the directory
+  is failed.
+
+* Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions as in
+  `Unicode Technical Standard #18`_ might be added in the future.  This would
+  change the syntax.  To facilitate this future change a :exc:`FutureWarning`
+  will be raised in ambiguous cases for the time being.
+  That include sets starting with a literal ``'['`` or containing literal
+  character sequences ``'--'``, ``'&&'``, ``'~~'``, and ``'||'``.  To
+  avoid a warning, escape them with a backslash.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`30349`.)
+
+  .. _Unicode Technical Standard #18: https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/
+
+* The result of splitting a string on a :mod:`regular expression <re>`
+  that could match an empty string has been changed.  For example
+  splitting on ``r'\s*'`` will now split not only on whitespaces as it
+  did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace
+  characters and just before the end of the string.
+  The previous behavior can be restored by changing the pattern
+  to ``r'\s+'``.  A :exc:`FutureWarning` was emitted for such patterns since
+  Python 3.5.
+
+  For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the result of
+  searching for all matches may also be changed in other cases.  For example
+  in the string ``'a\n\n'``, the pattern ``r'(?m)^\s*?$'`` will not only
+  match empty strings at positions 2 and 3, but also the string ``'\n'`` at
+  positions 2--3.  To match only blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten
+  as ``r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'``.
+
+  :func:`re.sub()` now replaces empty matches adjacent to a previous
+  non-empty match.  For example ``re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')`` returns now
+  ``'-a-b--d-'`` instead of ``'-a-b-d-'`` (the first minus between 'b' and
+  'd' replaces 'x', and the second minus replaces an empty string between
+  'x' and 'd').
+
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`25054` and :issue:`32308`.)
+
+* Change :func:`re.escape` to only escape regex special characters instead
+  of escaping all characters other than ASCII letters, numbers, and ``'_'``.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`29995`.)
+
+* :class:`tracemalloc.Traceback` frames are now sorted from oldest to most
+  recent to be more consistent with :mod:`traceback`.
+  (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in :issue:`32121`.)
+
+* On OSes that support :const:`socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK` or
+  :const:`socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC` bit flags, the
+  :attr:`socket.type <socket.socket.type>` no longer has them applied.
+  Therefore, checks like ``if sock.type == socket.SOCK_STREAM``
+  work as expected on all platforms.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32331`.)
+
+* On Windows the default for the *close_fds* argument of
+  :class:`subprocess.Popen` was changed from :const:`False` to :const:`True`
+  when redirecting the standard handles. If you previously depended on handles
+  being inherited when using :class:`subprocess.Popen` with standard io
+  redirection, you will have to pass ``close_fds=False`` to preserve the
+  previous behaviour, or use
+  :attr:`STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList <subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList>`.
+
+* :meth:`importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches` -- which implicitly
+  affects :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches` -- now deletes entries
+  in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` which are set to ``None``.
+  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :issue:`33169`.)
+
+* In :mod:`asyncio`,
+  :meth:`loop.sock_recv() <asyncio.loop.sock_recv>`,
+  :meth:`loop.sock_sendall() <asyncio.loop.sock_sendall>`,
+  :meth:`loop.sock_accept() <asyncio.loop.sock_accept>`,
+  :meth:`loop.getaddrinfo() <asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo>`,
+  :meth:`loop.getnameinfo() <asyncio.loop.getnameinfo>`
+  have been changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their
+  documentation.  Previously, these methods returned :class:`asyncio.Future`
+  instances.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32327`.)
+
+* :attr:`asyncio.Server.sockets` now returns a copy of the internal list
+  of server sockets, instead of returning it directly.
+  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in :issue:`32662`.)
+
+* :attr:`Struct.format <struct.Struct.format>` is now a :class:`str` instance
+  instead of a :class:`bytes` instance.
+  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`21071`.)
+
+* :meth:`ast.literal_eval()` is now stricter.  Addition and subtraction of
+  arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed.
+  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`31778`.)
+
+* :meth:`Calendar.itermonthdates <calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates>`
+  will now consistently raise an exception when a date falls outside of the
+  ``0001-01-01`` through ``9999-12-31`` range.  To support applications that
+  cannot tolerate such exceptions, the new
+  :meth:`Calendar.itermonthdays3 <calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays3>` and
+  :meth:`Calendar.itermonthdays4 <calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays4>` can be used.
+  The new methods return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by
+  :class:`datetime.date`.
+  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in :issue:`28292`.)
+
+* :class:`collections.ChainMap` now preserves the order of the underlying
+  mappings.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`32792`.)
+
+* The ``submit()`` method of :class:`concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor`
+  and :class:`concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor` now raises
+  a :exc:`RuntimeError` if called during interpreter shutdown.
+  (Contributed by Mark Nemec in :issue:`33097`.)
+
+* The :class:`configparser.ConfigParser` constructor now uses ``read_dict()``
+  to process the default values, making its behavior consistent with the
+  rest of the parser.  Non-string keys and values in the defaults
+  dictionary are now being implicitly converted to strings.
+  (Contributed by James Tocknell in :issue:`23835`.)
+
+* Several undocumented internal imports were removed.
+  One example is that ``os.errno`` is no longer available; use ``import errno``
+  directly instead.
+  Note that such undocumented internal imports may be removed any time without
+  notice, even in micro version releases.
+
+
+Changes in the C API
+--------------------
+
+The function :c:func:`PySlice_GetIndicesEx` is considered unsafe for
+resizable sequences.  If the slice indices are not instances of :class:`int`,
+but objects that implement the :meth:`!__index__` method, the sequence can be
+resized after passing its length to :c:func:`!PySlice_GetIndicesEx`.  This
+can lead to returning indices out of the length of the sequence.  For
+avoiding possible problems use new functions :c:func:`PySlice_Unpack` and
+:c:func:`PySlice_AdjustIndices`.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`27867`.)
+
+
+CPython bytecode changes
+------------------------
+
+There are two new opcodes: :opcode:`LOAD_METHOD` and :opcode:`CALL_METHOD`.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in :issue:`26110`.)
+
+The :opcode:`STORE_ANNOTATION` opcode has been removed.
+(Contributed by Mark Shannon in :issue:`32550`.)
+
+
+Windows-only Changes
+--------------------
+
+The file used to override :data:`sys.path` is now called
+``<python-executable>._pth`` instead of ``'sys.path'``.
+See :ref:`finding_modules` for more information.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in :issue:`28137`.)
+
+
+Other CPython implementation changes
+------------------------------------
+
+In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython runtime
+initialization API (see :pep:`432` for an initial, but somewhat outdated,
+draft), CPython's internal startup
+and configuration management logic has been significantly refactored. While
+these updates are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding
+applications and users of the regular CPython CLI, they're being mentioned
+here as the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations
+during interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects,
+either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself.
+(Initially contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of
+:issue:`22257`, and further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a
+number of other issues). Some known details affected:
+
+* :c:func:`PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode` is not currently usable by embedding
+  applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode object prior to
+  calling `Py_Initialize`. Use :c:func:`PySys_AddWarnOption` instead.
+
+* warnings filters added by an embedding application with
+  :c:func:`PySys_AddWarnOption` should now more consistently take precedence
+  over the default filters set by the interpreter
+
+Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured,
+setting :c:data:`Py_BytesWarningFlag` to a value greater than one is no longer
+sufficient to both emit :exc:`BytesWarning` messages and have them converted
+to exceptions.  Instead, the flag must be set (to cause the warnings to be
+emitted in the first place), and an explicit ``error::BytesWarning``
+warnings filter added to convert them to exceptions.
+
+Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the
+implicit ``return None`` in a function body consisting solely of a docstring
+is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring, not on the
+function's header line.
+
+The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the co-routine.
+This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of obscure bugs caused by
+having swap exception state when entering or exiting a generator.
+(Contributed by Mark Shannon in :issue:`25612`.)
+
+Notable changes in Python 3.7.1
+===============================
+
+Starting in 3.7.1, :c:func:`Py_Initialize` now consistently reads and respects
+all of the same environment settings as :c:func:`Py_Main` (in earlier Python
+versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of those environment variables,
+while in Python 3.7.0 it didn't read any of them due to :issue:`34247`). If
+this behavior is unwanted, set :c:data:`Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag` to 1 before
+calling :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
+
+In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables
+:ref:`was updated <contextvarsobjects_pointertype_change>` to use
+:c:type:`PyObject` pointers.  See also :issue:`34762`.
+
+:mod:`xml.dom.minidom` and :mod:`xml.sax` modules no longer process
+external entities by default. See also :issue:`17239`.
+
+In 3.7.1 the :mod:`tokenize` module now implicitly emits a ``NEWLINE`` token
+when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This behavior
+now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
+(Contributed by Ammar Askar in :issue:`33899`.)
+
+Notable changes in Python 3.7.2
+===============================
+
+In 3.7.2, :mod:`venv` on Windows no longer copies the original binaries, but
+creates redirector scripts named ``python.exe`` and ``pythonw.exe`` instead.
+This resolves a long standing issue where all virtual environments would have
+to be upgraded or recreated with each Python update. However, note that this
+release will still require recreation of virtual environments in order to get
+the new scripts.
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/changelog.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/changelog.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b435614
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/changelog.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+.. _changelog:
+
++++++++++
+Changelog
++++++++++
+
+.. miscnews:: ../build/NEWS
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/index.rst.txt b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/index.rst.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..721dc03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/index.rst.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+.. _whatsnew-index:
+
+######################
+ What's New in Python
+######################
+
+The "What's New in Python" series of essays takes tours through the most
+important changes between major Python versions.  They are a "must read" for
+anyone wishing to stay up-to-date after a new release.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+
+   3.7.rst
+   3.6.rst
+   3.5.rst
+   3.4.rst
+   3.3.rst
+   3.2.rst
+   3.1.rst
+   3.0.rst
+   2.7.rst
+   2.6.rst
+   2.5.rst
+   2.4.rst
+   2.3.rst
+   2.2.rst
+   2.1.rst
+   2.0.rst
+
+The "Changelog" is an HTML version of the `file built
+<https://pypi.org/project/blurb>`_ from the contents of the
+:source:`Misc/NEWS.d` directory tree, which contains *all* nontrivial changes
+to Python for the current version.
+
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+
+   changelog.rst
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/basic.css b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/basic.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53acd09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/basic.css
@@ -0,0 +1,748 @@
+/*
+ * basic.css
+ * ~~~~~~~~~
+ *
+ * Sphinx stylesheet -- basic theme.
+ *
+ * :copyright: Copyright 2007-2019 by the Sphinx team, see AUTHORS.
+ * :license: BSD, see LICENSE for details.
+ *
+ */
+
+/* -- main layout ----------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.clearer {
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+/* -- relbar ---------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.related {
+    width: 100%;
+    font-size: 90%;
+}
+
+div.related h3 {
+    display: none;
+}
+
+div.related ul {
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0 0 0 10px;
+    list-style: none;
+}
+
+div.related li {
+    display: inline;
+}
+
+div.related li.right {
+    float: right;
+    margin-right: 5px;
+}
+
+/* -- sidebar --------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.sphinxsidebarwrapper {
+    padding: 10px 5px 0 10px;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar {
+    float: left;
+    width: 230px;
+    margin-left: -100%;
+    font-size: 90%;
+    word-wrap: break-word;
+    overflow-wrap : break-word;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar ul {
+    list-style: none;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar ul ul,
+div.sphinxsidebar ul.want-points {
+    margin-left: 20px;
+    list-style: square;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar ul ul {
+    margin-top: 0;
+    margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar form {
+    margin-top: 10px;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar input {
+    border: 1px solid #98dbcc;
+    font-family: sans-serif;
+    font-size: 1em;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar #searchbox form.search {
+    overflow: hidden;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar #searchbox input[type="text"] {
+    float: left;
+    width: 80%;
+    padding: 0.25em;
+    box-sizing: border-box;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar #searchbox input[type="submit"] {
+    float: left;
+    width: 20%;
+    border-left: none;
+    padding: 0.25em;
+    box-sizing: border-box;
+}
+
+
+img {
+    border: 0;
+    max-width: 100%;
+}
+
+/* -- search page ----------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+ul.search {
+    margin: 10px 0 0 20px;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+ul.search li {
+    padding: 5px 0 5px 20px;
+    background-image: url(file.png);
+    background-repeat: no-repeat;
+    background-position: 0 7px;
+}
+
+ul.search li a {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+ul.search li div.context {
+    color: #888;
+    margin: 2px 0 0 30px;
+    text-align: left;
+}
+
+ul.keywordmatches li.goodmatch a {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+/* -- index page ------------------------------------------------------------ */
+
+table.contentstable {
+    width: 90%;
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
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+}
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+}
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+    font-size: 90%;
+}
+
+/* -- general index --------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+table.indextable {
+    width: 100%;
+}
+
+table.indextable td {
+    text-align: left;
+    vertical-align: top;
+}
+
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+}
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+}
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+}
+
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+    margin-top: 10px;
+    background-color: #f2f2f2;
+}
+
+img.toggler {
+    margin-right: 3px;
+    margin-top: 3px;
+    cursor: pointer;
+}
+
+div.modindex-jumpbox {
+    border-top: 1px solid #ddd;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #ddd;
+    margin: 1em 0 1em 0;
+    padding: 0.4em;
+}
+
+div.genindex-jumpbox {
+    border-top: 1px solid #ddd;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #ddd;
+    margin: 1em 0 1em 0;
+    padding: 0.4em;
+}
+
+/* -- domain module index --------------------------------------------------- */
+
+table.modindextable td {
+    padding: 2px;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+}
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+/* -- general body styles --------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.body {
+    min-width: 450px;
+    max-width: 800px;
+}
+
+div.body p, div.body dd, div.body li, div.body blockquote {
+    -moz-hyphens: auto;
+    -ms-hyphens: auto;
+    -webkit-hyphens: auto;
+    hyphens: auto;
+}
+
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+    visibility: hidden;
+}
+
+a.brackets:before,
+span.brackets > a:before{
+    content: "[";
+}
+
+a.brackets:after,
+span.brackets > a:after {
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+}
+
+h1:hover > a.headerlink,
+h2:hover > a.headerlink,
+h3:hover > a.headerlink,
+h4:hover > a.headerlink,
+h5:hover > a.headerlink,
+h6:hover > a.headerlink,
+dt:hover > a.headerlink,
+caption:hover > a.headerlink,
+p.caption:hover > a.headerlink,
+div.code-block-caption:hover > a.headerlink {
+    visibility: visible;
+}
+
+div.body p.caption {
+    text-align: inherit;
+}
+
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+}
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+    margin-top: 0 !important;
+}
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+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+img.align-left, .figure.align-left, object.align-left {
+    clear: left;
+    float: left;
+    margin-right: 1em;
+}
+
+img.align-right, .figure.align-right, object.align-right {
+    clear: right;
+    float: right;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+}
+
+img.align-center, .figure.align-center, object.align-center {
+  display: block;
+  margin-left: auto;
+  margin-right: auto;
+}
+
+.align-left {
+    text-align: left;
+}
+
+.align-center {
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.align-right {
+    text-align: right;
+}
+
+/* -- sidebars -------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.sidebar {
+    margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;
+    border: 1px solid #ddb;
+    padding: 7px 7px 0 7px;
+    background-color: #ffe;
+    width: 40%;
+    float: right;
+}
+
+p.sidebar-title {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+/* -- topics ---------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.topic {
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+    padding: 7px 7px 0 7px;
+    margin: 10px 0 10px 0;
+}
+
+p.topic-title {
+    font-size: 1.1em;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    margin-top: 10px;
+}
+
+/* -- admonitions ----------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.admonition {
+    margin-top: 10px;
+    margin-bottom: 10px;
+    padding: 7px;
+}
+
+div.admonition dt {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+div.admonition dl {
+    margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+
+p.admonition-title {
+    margin: 0px 10px 5px 0px;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+div.body p.centered {
+    text-align: center;
+    margin-top: 25px;
+}
+
+/* -- tables ---------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+table.docutils {
+    border: 0;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+
+table.align-center {
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
+
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+    font-style: italic;
+}
+
+table caption span.caption-text {
+}
+
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+    padding: 1px 8px 1px 5px;
+    border-top: 0;
+    border-left: 0;
+    border-right: 0;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;
+}
+
+table.footnote td, table.footnote th {
+    border: 0 !important;
+}
+
+th {
+    text-align: left;
+    padding-right: 5px;
+}
+
+table.citation {
+    border-left: solid 1px gray;
+    margin-left: 1px;
+}
+
+table.citation td {
+    border-bottom: none;
+}
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+th > p:first-child,
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+    margin-top: 0px;
+}
+
+th > p:last-child,
+td > p:last-child {
+    margin-bottom: 0px;
+}
+
+/* -- figures --------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.figure {
+    margin: 0.5em;
+    padding: 0.5em;
+}
+
+div.figure p.caption {
+    padding: 0.3em;
+}
+
+div.figure p.caption span.caption-number {
+    font-style: italic;
+}
+
+div.figure p.caption span.caption-text {
+}
+
+/* -- field list styles ----------------------------------------------------- */
+
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+    border: 0 !important;
+}
+
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+    margin: 0;
+    padding-left: 1em;
+}
+
+.field-list p {
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+.field-name {
+    -moz-hyphens: manual;
+    -ms-hyphens: manual;
+    -webkit-hyphens: manual;
+    hyphens: manual;
+}
+
+/* -- hlist styles ---------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+table.hlist td {
+    vertical-align: top;
+}
+
+
+/* -- other body styles ----------------------------------------------------- */
+
+ol.arabic {
+    list-style: decimal;
+}
+
+ol.loweralpha {
+    list-style: lower-alpha;
+}
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+ol.upperalpha {
+    list-style: upper-alpha;
+}
+
+ol.lowerroman {
+    list-style: lower-roman;
+}
+
+ol.upperroman {
+    list-style: upper-roman;
+}
+
+li > p:first-child {
+    margin-top: 0px;
+}
+
+li > p:last-child {
+    margin-bottom: 0px;
+}
+
+dl.footnote > dt,
+dl.citation > dt {
+    float: left;
+}
+
+dl.footnote > dd,
+dl.citation > dd {
+    margin-bottom: 0em;
+}
+
+dl.footnote > dd:after,
+dl.citation > dd:after {
+    content: "";
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+dl.field-list {
+    display: flex;
+    flex-wrap: wrap;
+}
+
+dl.field-list > dt {
+    flex-basis: 20%;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    word-break: break-word;
+}
+
+dl.field-list > dt:after {
+    content: ":";
+}
+
+dl.field-list > dd {
+    flex-basis: 70%;
+    padding-left: 1em;
+    margin-left: 0em;
+    margin-bottom: 0em;
+}
+
+dl {
+    margin-bottom: 15px;
+}
+
+dd > p:first-child {
+    margin-top: 0px;
+}
+
+dd ul, dd table {
+    margin-bottom: 10px;
+}
+
+dd {
+    margin-top: 3px;
+    margin-bottom: 10px;
+    margin-left: 30px;
+}
+
+dt:target, span.highlighted {
+    background-color: #fbe54e;
+}
+
+rect.highlighted {
+    fill: #fbe54e;
+}
+
+dl.glossary dt {
+    font-weight: bold;
+    font-size: 1.1em;
+}
+
+.optional {
+    font-size: 1.3em;
+}
+
+.sig-paren {
+    font-size: larger;
+}
+
+.versionmodified {
+    font-style: italic;
+}
+
+.system-message {
+    background-color: #fda;
+    padding: 5px;
+    border: 3px solid red;
+}
+
+.footnote:target  {
+    background-color: #ffa;
+}
+
+.line-block {
+    display: block;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+}
+
+.line-block .line-block {
+    margin-top: 0;
+    margin-bottom: 0;
+    margin-left: 1.5em;
+}
+
+.guilabel, .menuselection {
+    font-family: sans-serif;
+}
+
+.accelerator {
+    text-decoration: underline;
+}
+
+.classifier {
+    font-style: oblique;
+}
+
+.classifier:before {
+    font-style: normal;
+    margin: 0.5em;
+    content: ":";
+}
+
+abbr, acronym {
+    border-bottom: dotted 1px;
+    cursor: help;
+}
+
+/* -- code displays --------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+pre {
+    overflow: auto;
+    overflow-y: hidden;  /* fixes display issues on Chrome browsers */
+}
+
+span.pre {
+    -moz-hyphens: none;
+    -ms-hyphens: none;
+    -webkit-hyphens: none;
+    hyphens: none;
+}
+
+td.linenos pre {
+    padding: 5px 0px;
+    border: 0;
+    background-color: transparent;
+    color: #aaa;
+}
+
+table.highlighttable {
+    margin-left: 0.5em;
+}
+
+table.highlighttable td {
+    padding: 0 0.5em 0 0.5em;
+}
+
+div.code-block-caption {
+    padding: 2px 5px;
+    font-size: small;
+}
+
+div.code-block-caption code {
+    background-color: transparent;
+}
+
+div.code-block-caption + div > div.highlight > pre {
+    margin-top: 0;
+}
+
+div.code-block-caption span.caption-number {
+    padding: 0.1em 0.3em;
+    font-style: italic;
+}
+
+div.code-block-caption span.caption-text {
+}
+
+div.literal-block-wrapper {
+    padding: 1em 1em 0;
+}
+
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+}
+
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+    background-color: transparent;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    font-size: 1.2em;
+}
+
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+}
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+    background-color: transparent;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+h1 code, h2 code, h3 code, h4 code, h5 code, h6 code {
+    background-color: transparent;
+}
+
+.viewcode-link {
+    float: right;
+}
+
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+    float: right;
+    font-family: sans-serif;
+}
+
+div.viewcode-block:target {
+    margin: -1px -10px;
+    padding: 0 10px;
+}
+
+/* -- math display ---------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+img.math {
+    vertical-align: middle;
+}
+
+div.body div.math p {
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+span.eqno {
+    float: right;
+}
+
+span.eqno a.headerlink {
+    position: relative;
+    left: 0px;
+    z-index: 1;
+}
+
+div.math:hover a.headerlink {
+    visibility: visible;
+}
+
+/* -- printout stylesheet --------------------------------------------------- */
+
+@media print {
+    div.document,
+    div.documentwrapper,
+    div.bodywrapper {
+        margin: 0 !important;
+        width: 100%;
+    }
+
+    div.sphinxsidebar,
+    div.related,
+    div.footer,
+    #top-link {
+        display: none;
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/classic.css b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/classic.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a32702
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/classic.css
@@ -0,0 +1,266 @@
+/*
+ * classic.css_t
+ * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+ *
+ * Sphinx stylesheet -- classic theme.
+ *
+ * :copyright: Copyright 2007-2019 by the Sphinx team, see AUTHORS.
+ * :license: BSD, see LICENSE for details.
+ *
+ */
+
+@import url("basic.css");
+
+/* -- page layout ----------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+body {
+    font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif;
+    font-size: 100%;
+    background-color: white;
+    color: #000;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+div.document {
+    background-color: white;
+}
+
+div.documentwrapper {
+    float: left;
+    width: 100%;
+}
+
+div.bodywrapper {
+    margin: 0 0 0 230px;
+}
+
+div.body {
+    background-color: white;
+    color: #222222;
+    padding: 0 20px 30px 20px;
+}
+
+div.footer {
+    color: #555555;
+    width: 100%;
+    padding: 9px 0 9px 0;
+    text-align: center;
+    font-size: 75%;
+}
+
+div.footer a {
+    color: #555555;
+    text-decoration: underline;
+}
+
+div.related {
+    background-color: white;
+    line-height: 30px;
+    color: #666666;
+}
+
+div.related a {
+    color: #444444;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar {
+}
+
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+    font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif;
+    color: #444444;
+    font-size: 1.4em;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
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+    color: #444444;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar h4 {
+    font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif;
+    color: #444444;
+    font-size: 1.3em;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    margin: 5px 0 0 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar p {
+    color: #444444;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar p.topless {
+    margin: 5px 10px 10px 10px;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar ul {
+    margin: 10px;
+    padding: 0;
+    color: #444444;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar a {
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+}
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+    font-size: 1em;
+}
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+
+/* for collapsible sidebar */
+div#sidebarbutton {
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+}
+
+
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+
+a {
+    color: #0090c0;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+a:visited {
+    color: #00608f;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+a:hover {
+    text-decoration: underline;
+}
+
+
+
+/* -- body styles ----------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+div.body h1,
+div.body h2,
+div.body h3,
+div.body h4,
+div.body h5,
+div.body h6 {
+    font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif;
+    background-color: white;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    color: #1a1a1a;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;
+    margin: 20px -20px 10px -20px;
+    padding: 3px 0 3px 10px;
+}
+
+div.body h1 { margin-top: 0; font-size: 200%; }
+div.body h2 { font-size: 160%; }
+div.body h3 { font-size: 140%; }
+div.body h4 { font-size: 120%; }
+div.body h5 { font-size: 110%; }
+div.body h6 { font-size: 100%; }
+
+a.headerlink {
+    color: #aaaaaa;
+    font-size: 0.8em;
+    padding: 0 4px 0 4px;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+a.headerlink:hover {
+    background-color: #aaaaaa;
+    color: white;
+}
+
+div.body p, div.body dd, div.body li, div.body blockquote {
+    text-align: justify;
+    line-height: 130%;
+}
+
+div.admonition p.admonition-title + p {
+    display: inline;
+}
+
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+}
+
+div.admonition pre {
+    margin-bottom: 5px;
+}
+
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+}
+
+div.note {
+    background-color: #eee;
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+}
+
+div.seealso {
+    background-color: #ffc;
+    border: 1px solid #ff6;
+}
+
+div.topic {
+    background-color: #eee;
+}
+
+div.warning {
+    background-color: #ffe4e4;
+    border: 1px solid #f66;
+}
+
+p.admonition-title {
+    display: inline;
+}
+
+p.admonition-title:after {
+    content: ":";
+}
+
+pre {
+    padding: 5px;
+    background-color: #eeffcc;
+    color: #333333;
+    line-height: 120%;
+    border: 1px solid #ac9;
+    border-left: none;
+    border-right: none;
+}
+
+code {
+    background-color: #ecf0f3;
+    padding: 0 1px 0 1px;
+    font-size: 0.95em;
+}
+
+th {
+    background-color: #ede;
+}
+
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+    background: #efc2c2;
+}
+
+.note code {
+    background: #d6d6d6;
+}
+
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+    font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif;
+}
+
+div.viewcode-block:target {
+    background-color: #f4debf;
+    border-top: 1px solid #ac9;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #ac9;
+}
+
+div.code-block-caption {
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+    background-color: #1c4e63;
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/copybutton.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/copybutton.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..716c9e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/copybutton.js
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+$(document).ready(function() {
+    /* Add a [>>>] button on the top-right corner of code samples to hide
+     * the >>> and ... prompts and the output and thus make the code
+     * copyable. */
+    var div = $('.highlight-python .highlight,' +
+                '.highlight-python3 .highlight')
+    var pre = div.find('pre');
+
+    // get the styles from the current theme
+    pre.parent().parent().css('position', 'relative');
+    var hide_text = 'Hide the prompts and output';
+    var show_text = 'Show the prompts and output';
+    var border_width = pre.css('border-top-width');
+    var border_style = pre.css('border-top-style');
+    var border_color = pre.css('border-top-color');
+    var button_styles = {
+        'cursor':'pointer', 'position': 'absolute', 'top': '0', 'right': '0',
+        'border-color': border_color, 'border-style': border_style,
+        'border-width': border_width, 'color': border_color, 'text-size': '75%',
+        'font-family': 'monospace', 'padding-left': '0.2em', 'padding-right': '0.2em',
+        'border-radius': '0 3px 0 0'
+    }
+
+    // create and add the button to all the code blocks that contain >>>
+    div.each(function(index) {
+        var jthis = $(this);
+        if (jthis.find('.gp').length > 0) {
+            var button = $('<span class="copybutton">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>');
+            button.css(button_styles)
+            button.attr('title', hide_text);
+            button.data('hidden', 'false');
+            jthis.prepend(button);
+        }
+        // tracebacks (.gt) contain bare text elements that need to be
+        // wrapped in a span to work with .nextUntil() (see later)
+        jthis.find('pre:has(.gt)').contents().filter(function() {
+            return ((this.nodeType == 3) && (this.data.trim().length > 0));
+        }).wrap('<span>');
+    });
+
+    // define the behavior of the button when it's clicked
+    $('.copybutton').click(function(e){
+        e.preventDefault();
+        var button = $(this);
+        if (button.data('hidden') === 'false') {
+            // hide the code output
+            button.parent().find('.go, .gp, .gt').hide();
+            button.next('pre').find('.gt').nextUntil('.gp, .go').css('visibility', 'hidden');
+            button.css('text-decoration', 'line-through');
+            button.attr('title', show_text);
+            button.data('hidden', 'true');
+        } else {
+            // show the code output
+            button.parent().find('.go, .gp, .gt').show();
+            button.next('pre').find('.gt').nextUntil('.gp, .go').css('visibility', 'visible');
+            button.css('text-decoration', 'none');
+            button.attr('title', hide_text);
+            button.data('hidden', 'false');
+        }
+    });
+});
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/default.css b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/default.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81b9363
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/default.css
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+@import url("classic.css");
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/doctools.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/doctools.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b33f87f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/doctools.js
@@ -0,0 +1,314 @@
+/*
+ * doctools.js
+ * ~~~~~~~~~~~
+ *
+ * Sphinx JavaScript utilities for all documentation.
+ *
+ * :copyright: Copyright 2007-2019 by the Sphinx team, see AUTHORS.
+ * :license: BSD, see LICENSE for details.
+ *
+ */
+
+/**
+ * select a different prefix for underscore
+ */
+$u = _.noConflict();
+
+/**
+ * make the code below compatible with browsers without
+ * an installed firebug like debugger
+if (!window.console || !console.firebug) {
+  var names = ["log", "debug", "info", "warn", "error", "assert", "dir",
+    "dirxml", "group", "groupEnd", "time", "timeEnd", "count", "trace",
+    "profile", "profileEnd"];
+  window.console = {};
+  for (var i = 0; i < names.length; ++i)
+    window.console[names[i]] = function() {};
+}
+ */
+
+/**
+ * small helper function to urldecode strings
+ */
+jQuery.urldecode = function(x) {
+  return decodeURIComponent(x).replace(/\+/g, ' ');
+};
+
+/**
+ * small helper function to urlencode strings
+ */
+jQuery.urlencode = encodeURIComponent;
+
+/**
+ * This function returns the parsed url parameters of the
+ * current request. Multiple values per key are supported,
+ * it will always return arrays of strings for the value parts.
+ */
+jQuery.getQueryParameters = function(s) {
+  if (typeof s === 'undefined')
+    s = document.location.search;
+  var parts = s.substr(s.indexOf('?') + 1).split('&');
+  var result = {};
+  for (var i = 0; i < parts.length; i++) {
+    var tmp = parts[i].split('=', 2);
+    var key = jQuery.urldecode(tmp[0]);
+    var value = jQuery.urldecode(tmp[1]);
+    if (key in result)
+      result[key].push(value);
+    else
+      result[key] = [value];
+  }
+  return result;
+};
+
+/**
+ * highlight a given string on a jquery object by wrapping it in
+ * span elements with the given class name.
+ */
+jQuery.fn.highlightText = function(text, className) {
+  function highlight(node, addItems) {
+    if (node.nodeType === 3) {
+      var val = node.nodeValue;
+      var pos = val.toLowerCase().indexOf(text);
+      if (pos >= 0 &&
+          !jQuery(node.parentNode).hasClass(className) &&
+          !jQuery(node.parentNode).hasClass("nohighlight")) {
+        var span;
+        var isInSVG = jQuery(node).closest("body, svg, foreignObject").is("svg");
+        if (isInSVG) {
+          span = document.createElementNS("http://www.w3.org/2000/svg", "tspan");
+        } else {
+          span = document.createElement("span");
+          span.className = className;
+        }
+        span.appendChild(document.createTextNode(val.substr(pos, text.length)));
+        node.parentNode.insertBefore(span, node.parentNode.insertBefore(
+          document.createTextNode(val.substr(pos + text.length)),
+          node.nextSibling));
+        node.nodeValue = val.substr(0, pos);
+        if (isInSVG) {
+          var rect = document.createElementNS("http://www.w3.org/2000/svg", "rect");
+          var bbox = node.parentElement.getBBox();
+          rect.x.baseVal.value = bbox.x;
+          rect.y.baseVal.value = bbox.y;
+          rect.width.baseVal.value = bbox.width;
+          rect.height.baseVal.value = bbox.height;
+          rect.setAttribute('class', className);
+          addItems.push({
+              "parent": node.parentNode,
+              "target": rect});
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    else if (!jQuery(node).is("button, select, textarea")) {
+      jQuery.each(node.childNodes, function() {
+        highlight(this, addItems);
+      });
+    }
+  }
+  var addItems = [];
+  var result = this.each(function() {
+    highlight(this, addItems);
+  });
+  for (var i = 0; i < addItems.length; ++i) {
+    jQuery(addItems[i].parent).before(addItems[i].target);
+  }
+  return result;
+};
+
+/*
+ * backward compatibility for jQuery.browser
+ * This will be supported until firefox bug is fixed.
+ */
+if (!jQuery.browser) {
+  jQuery.uaMatch = function(ua) {
+    ua = ua.toLowerCase();
+
+    var match = /(chrome)[ \/]([\w.]+)/.exec(ua) ||
+      /(webkit)[ \/]([\w.]+)/.exec(ua) ||
+      /(opera)(?:.*version|)[ \/]([\w.]+)/.exec(ua) ||
+      /(msie) ([\w.]+)/.exec(ua) ||
+      ua.indexOf("compatible") < 0 && /(mozilla)(?:.*? rv:([\w.]+)|)/.exec(ua) ||
+      [];
+
+    return {
+      browser: match[ 1 ] || "",
+      version: match[ 2 ] || "0"
+    };
+  };
+  jQuery.browser = {};
+  jQuery.browser[jQuery.uaMatch(navigator.userAgent).browser] = true;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Small JavaScript module for the documentation.
+ */
+var Documentation = {
+
+  init : function() {
+    this.fixFirefoxAnchorBug();
+    this.highlightSearchWords();
+    this.initIndexTable();
+    if (DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.NAVIGATION_WITH_KEYS) {
+      this.initOnKeyListeners();
+    }
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * i18n support
+   */
+  TRANSLATIONS : {},
+  PLURAL_EXPR : function(n) { return n === 1 ? 0 : 1; },
+  LOCALE : 'unknown',
+
+  // gettext and ngettext don't access this so that the functions
+  // can safely bound to a different name (_ = Documentation.gettext)
+  gettext : function(string) {
+    var translated = Documentation.TRANSLATIONS[string];
+    if (typeof translated === 'undefined')
+      return string;
+    return (typeof translated === 'string') ? translated : translated[0];
+  },
+
+  ngettext : function(singular, plural, n) {
+    var translated = Documentation.TRANSLATIONS[singular];
+    if (typeof translated === 'undefined')
+      return (n == 1) ? singular : plural;
+    return translated[Documentation.PLURALEXPR(n)];
+  },
+
+  addTranslations : function(catalog) {
+    for (var key in catalog.messages)
+      this.TRANSLATIONS[key] = catalog.messages[key];
+    this.PLURAL_EXPR = new Function('n', 'return +(' + catalog.plural_expr + ')');
+    this.LOCALE = catalog.locale;
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * add context elements like header anchor links
+   */
+  addContextElements : function() {
+    $('div[id] > :header:first').each(function() {
+      $('<a class="headerlink">\u00B6</a>').
+      attr('href', '#' + this.id).
+      attr('title', _('Permalink to this headline')).
+      appendTo(this);
+    });
+    $('dt[id]').each(function() {
+      $('<a class="headerlink">\u00B6</a>').
+      attr('href', '#' + this.id).
+      attr('title', _('Permalink to this definition')).
+      appendTo(this);
+    });
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * workaround a firefox stupidity
+   * see: https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=645075
+   */
+  fixFirefoxAnchorBug : function() {
+    if (document.location.hash && $.browser.mozilla)
+      window.setTimeout(function() {
+        document.location.href += '';
+      }, 10);
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * highlight the search words provided in the url in the text
+   */
+  highlightSearchWords : function() {
+    var params = $.getQueryParameters();
+    var terms = (params.highlight) ? params.highlight[0].split(/\s+/) : [];
+    if (terms.length) {
+      var body = $('div.body');
+      if (!body.length) {
+        body = $('body');
+      }
+      window.setTimeout(function() {
+        $.each(terms, function() {
+          body.highlightText(this.toLowerCase(), 'highlighted');
+        });
+      }, 10);
+      $('<p class="highlight-link"><a href="javascript:Documentation.' +
+        'hideSearchWords()">' + _('Hide Search Matches') + '</a></p>')
+          .appendTo($('#searchbox'));
+    }
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * init the domain index toggle buttons
+   */
+  initIndexTable : function() {
+    var togglers = $('img.toggler').click(function() {
+      var src = $(this).attr('src');
+      var idnum = $(this).attr('id').substr(7);
+      $('tr.cg-' + idnum).toggle();
+      if (src.substr(-9) === 'minus.png')
+        $(this).attr('src', src.substr(0, src.length-9) + 'plus.png');
+      else
+        $(this).attr('src', src.substr(0, src.length-8) + 'minus.png');
+    }).css('display', '');
+    if (DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.COLLAPSE_INDEX) {
+        togglers.click();
+    }
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * helper function to hide the search marks again
+   */
+  hideSearchWords : function() {
+    $('#searchbox .highlight-link').fadeOut(300);
+    $('span.highlighted').removeClass('highlighted');
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * make the url absolute
+   */
+  makeURL : function(relativeURL) {
+    return DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.URL_ROOT + '/' + relativeURL;
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * get the current relative url
+   */
+  getCurrentURL : function() {
+    var path = document.location.pathname;
+    var parts = path.split(/\//);
+    $.each(DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.URL_ROOT.split(/\//), function() {
+      if (this === '..')
+        parts.pop();
+    });
+    var url = parts.join('/');
+    return path.substring(url.lastIndexOf('/') + 1, path.length - 1);
+  },
+
+  initOnKeyListeners: function() {
+    $(document).keyup(function(event) {
+      var activeElementType = document.activeElement.tagName;
+      // don't navigate when in search box or textarea
+      if (activeElementType !== 'TEXTAREA' && activeElementType !== 'INPUT' && activeElementType !== 'SELECT') {
+        switch (event.keyCode) {
+          case 37: // left
+            var prevHref = $('link[rel="prev"]').prop('href');
+            if (prevHref) {
+              window.location.href = prevHref;
+              return false;
+            }
+          case 39: // right
+            var nextHref = $('link[rel="next"]').prop('href');
+            if (nextHref) {
+              window.location.href = nextHref;
+              return false;
+            }
+        }
+      }
+    });
+  }
+};
+
+// quick alias for translations
+_ = Documentation.gettext;
+
+$(document).ready(function() {
+  Documentation.init();
+});
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/documentation_options.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/documentation_options.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f74a920
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/documentation_options.js
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+var DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS = {
+    URL_ROOT: document.getElementById("documentation_options").getAttribute('data-url_root'),
+    VERSION: '3.7.4',
+    LANGUAGE: 'None',
+    COLLAPSE_INDEX: false,
+    FILE_SUFFIX: '.html',
+    HAS_SOURCE: true,
+    SOURCELINK_SUFFIX: '.txt',
+    NAVIGATION_WITH_KEYS: false
+};
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/down-pressed.png b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/down-pressed.png
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/down.png b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/down.png
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GIT binary patch
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/jquery-3.2.1.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/jquery-3.2.1.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2d8ca4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/jquery-3.2.1.js
@@ -0,0 +1,10253 @@
+/*!
+ * jQuery JavaScript Library v3.2.1
+ * https://jquery.com/
+ *
+ * Includes Sizzle.js
+ * https://sizzlejs.com/
+ *
+ * Copyright JS Foundation and other contributors
+ * Released under the MIT license
+ * https://jquery.org/license
+ *
+ * Date: 2017-03-20T18:59Z
+ */
+( function( global, factory ) {
+
+	"use strict";
+
+	if ( typeof module === "object" && typeof module.exports === "object" ) {
+
+		// For CommonJS and CommonJS-like environments where a proper `window`
+		// is present, execute the factory and get jQuery.
+		// For environments that do not have a `window` with a `document`
+		// (such as Node.js), expose a factory as module.exports.
+		// This accentuates the need for the creation of a real `window`.
+		// e.g. var jQuery = require("jquery")(window);
+		// See ticket #14549 for more info.
+		module.exports = global.document ?
+			factory( global, true ) :
+			function( w ) {
+				if ( !w.document ) {
+					throw new Error( "jQuery requires a window with a document" );
+				}
+				return factory( w );
+			};
+	} else {
+		factory( global );
+	}
+
+// Pass this if window is not defined yet
+} )( typeof window !== "undefined" ? window : this, function( window, noGlobal ) {
+
+// Edge <= 12 - 13+, Firefox <=18 - 45+, IE 10 - 11, Safari 5.1 - 9+, iOS 6 - 9.1
+// throw exceptions when non-strict code (e.g., ASP.NET 4.5) accesses strict mode
+// arguments.callee.caller (trac-13335). But as of jQuery 3.0 (2016), strict mode should be common
+// enough that all such attempts are guarded in a try block.
+"use strict";
+
+var arr = [];
+
+var document = window.document;
+
+var getProto = Object.getPrototypeOf;
+
+var slice = arr.slice;
+
+var concat = arr.concat;
+
+var push = arr.push;
+
+var indexOf = arr.indexOf;
+
+var class2type = {};
+
+var toString = class2type.toString;
+
+var hasOwn = class2type.hasOwnProperty;
+
+var fnToString = hasOwn.toString;
+
+var ObjectFunctionString = fnToString.call( Object );
+
+var support = {};
+
+
+
+	function DOMEval( code, doc ) {
+		doc = doc || document;
+
+		var script = doc.createElement( "script" );
+
+		script.text = code;
+		doc.head.appendChild( script ).parentNode.removeChild( script );
+	}
+/* global Symbol */
+// Defining this global in .eslintrc.json would create a danger of using the global
+// unguarded in another place, it seems safer to define global only for this module
+
+
+
+var
+	version = "3.2.1",
+
+	// Define a local copy of jQuery
+	jQuery = function( selector, context ) {
+
+		// The jQuery object is actually just the init constructor 'enhanced'
+		// Need init if jQuery is called (just allow error to be thrown if not included)
+		return new jQuery.fn.init( selector, context );
+	},
+
+	// Support: Android <=4.0 only
+	// Make sure we trim BOM and NBSP
+	rtrim = /^[\s\uFEFF\xA0]+|[\s\uFEFF\xA0]+$/g,
+
+	// Matches dashed string for camelizing
+	rmsPrefix = /^-ms-/,
+	rdashAlpha = /-([a-z])/g,
+
+	// Used by jQuery.camelCase as callback to replace()
+	fcamelCase = function( all, letter ) {
+		return letter.toUpperCase();
+	};
+
+jQuery.fn = jQuery.prototype = {
+
+	// The current version of jQuery being used
+	jquery: version,
+
+	constructor: jQuery,
+
+	// The default length of a jQuery object is 0
+	length: 0,
+
+	toArray: function() {
+		return slice.call( this );
+	},
+
+	// Get the Nth element in the matched element set OR
+	// Get the whole matched element set as a clean array
+	get: function( num ) {
+
+		// Return all the elements in a clean array
+		if ( num == null ) {
+			return slice.call( this );
+		}
+
+		// Return just the one element from the set
+		return num < 0 ? this[ num + this.length ] : this[ num ];
+	},
+
+	// Take an array of elements and push it onto the stack
+	// (returning the new matched element set)
+	pushStack: function( elems ) {
+
+		// Build a new jQuery matched element set
+		var ret = jQuery.merge( this.constructor(), elems );
+
+		// Add the old object onto the stack (as a reference)
+		ret.prevObject = this;
+
+		// Return the newly-formed element set
+		return ret;
+	},
+
+	// Execute a callback for every element in the matched set.
+	each: function( callback ) {
+		return jQuery.each( this, callback );
+	},
+
+	map: function( callback ) {
+		return this.pushStack( jQuery.map( this, function( elem, i ) {
+			return callback.call( elem, i, elem );
+		} ) );
+	},
+
+	slice: function() {
+		return this.pushStack( slice.apply( this, arguments ) );
+	},
+
+	first: function() {
+		return this.eq( 0 );
+	},
+
+	last: function() {
+		return this.eq( -1 );
+	},
+
+	eq: function( i ) {
+		var len = this.length,
+			j = +i + ( i < 0 ? len : 0 );
+		return this.pushStack( j >= 0 && j < len ? [ this[ j ] ] : [] );
+	},
+
+	end: function() {
+		return this.prevObject || this.constructor();
+	},
+
+	// For internal use only.
+	// Behaves like an Array's method, not like a jQuery method.
+	push: push,
+	sort: arr.sort,
+	splice: arr.splice
+};
+
+jQuery.extend = jQuery.fn.extend = function() {
+	var options, name, src, copy, copyIsArray, clone,
+		target = arguments[ 0 ] || {},
+		i = 1,
+		length = arguments.length,
+		deep = false;
+
+	// Handle a deep copy situation
+	if ( typeof target === "boolean" ) {
+		deep = target;
+
+		// Skip the boolean and the target
+		target = arguments[ i ] || {};
+		i++;
+	}
+
+	// Handle case when target is a string or something (possible in deep copy)
+	if ( typeof target !== "object" && !jQuery.isFunction( target ) ) {
+		target = {};
+	}
+
+	// Extend jQuery itself if only one argument is passed
+	if ( i === length ) {
+		target = this;
+		i--;
+	}
+
+	for ( ; i < length; i++ ) {
+
+		// Only deal with non-null/undefined values
+		if ( ( options = arguments[ i ] ) != null ) {
+
+			// Extend the base object
+			for ( name in options ) {
+				src = target[ name ];
+				copy = options[ name ];
+
+				// Prevent never-ending loop
+				if ( target === copy ) {
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				// Recurse if we're merging plain objects or arrays
+				if ( deep && copy && ( jQuery.isPlainObject( copy ) ||
+					( copyIsArray = Array.isArray( copy ) ) ) ) {
+
+					if ( copyIsArray ) {
+						copyIsArray = false;
+						clone = src && Array.isArray( src ) ? src : [];
+
+					} else {
+						clone = src && jQuery.isPlainObject( src ) ? src : {};
+					}
+
+					// Never move original objects, clone them
+					target[ name ] = jQuery.extend( deep, clone, copy );
+
+				// Don't bring in undefined values
+				} else if ( copy !== undefined ) {
+					target[ name ] = copy;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Return the modified object
+	return target;
+};
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+
+	// Unique for each copy of jQuery on the page
+	expando: "jQuery" + ( version + Math.random() ).replace( /\D/g, "" ),
+
+	// Assume jQuery is ready without the ready module
+	isReady: true,
+
+	error: function( msg ) {
+		throw new Error( msg );
+	},
+
+	noop: function() {},
+
+	isFunction: function( obj ) {
+		return jQuery.type( obj ) === "function";
+	},
+
+	isWindow: function( obj ) {
+		return obj != null && obj === obj.window;
+	},
+
+	isNumeric: function( obj ) {
+
+		// As of jQuery 3.0, isNumeric is limited to
+		// strings and numbers (primitives or objects)
+		// that can be coerced to finite numbers (gh-2662)
+		var type = jQuery.type( obj );
+		return ( type === "number" || type === "string" ) &&
+
+			// parseFloat NaNs numeric-cast false positives ("")
+			// ...but misinterprets leading-number strings, particularly hex literals ("0x...")
+			// subtraction forces infinities to NaN
+			!isNaN( obj - parseFloat( obj ) );
+	},
+
+	isPlainObject: function( obj ) {
+		var proto, Ctor;
+
+		// Detect obvious negatives
+		// Use toString instead of jQuery.type to catch host objects
+		if ( !obj || toString.call( obj ) !== "[object Object]" ) {
+			return false;
+		}
+
+		proto = getProto( obj );
+
+		// Objects with no prototype (e.g., `Object.create( null )`) are plain
+		if ( !proto ) {
+			return true;
+		}
+
+		// Objects with prototype are plain iff they were constructed by a global Object function
+		Ctor = hasOwn.call( proto, "constructor" ) && proto.constructor;
+		return typeof Ctor === "function" && fnToString.call( Ctor ) === ObjectFunctionString;
+	},
+
+	isEmptyObject: function( obj ) {
+
+		/* eslint-disable no-unused-vars */
+		// See https://github.com/eslint/eslint/issues/6125
+		var name;
+
+		for ( name in obj ) {
+			return false;
+		}
+		return true;
+	},
+
+	type: function( obj ) {
+		if ( obj == null ) {
+			return obj + "";
+		}
+
+		// Support: Android <=2.3 only (functionish RegExp)
+		return typeof obj === "object" || typeof obj === "function" ?
+			class2type[ toString.call( obj ) ] || "object" :
+			typeof obj;
+	},
+
+	// Evaluates a script in a global context
+	globalEval: function( code ) {
+		DOMEval( code );
+	},
+
+	// Convert dashed to camelCase; used by the css and data modules
+	// Support: IE <=9 - 11, Edge 12 - 13
+	// Microsoft forgot to hump their vendor prefix (#9572)
+	camelCase: function( string ) {
+		return string.replace( rmsPrefix, "ms-" ).replace( rdashAlpha, fcamelCase );
+	},
+
+	each: function( obj, callback ) {
+		var length, i = 0;
+
+		if ( isArrayLike( obj ) ) {
+			length = obj.length;
+			for ( ; i < length; i++ ) {
+				if ( callback.call( obj[ i ], i, obj[ i ] ) === false ) {
+					break;
+				}
+			}
+		} else {
+			for ( i in obj ) {
+				if ( callback.call( obj[ i ], i, obj[ i ] ) === false ) {
+					break;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return obj;
+	},
+
+	// Support: Android <=4.0 only
+	trim: function( text ) {
+		return text == null ?
+			"" :
+			( text + "" ).replace( rtrim, "" );
+	},
+
+	// results is for internal usage only
+	makeArray: function( arr, results ) {
+		var ret = results || [];
+
+		if ( arr != null ) {
+			if ( isArrayLike( Object( arr ) ) ) {
+				jQuery.merge( ret,
+					typeof arr === "string" ?
+					[ arr ] : arr
+				);
+			} else {
+				push.call( ret, arr );
+			}
+		}
+
+		return ret;
+	},
+
+	inArray: function( elem, arr, i ) {
+		return arr == null ? -1 : indexOf.call( arr, elem, i );
+	},
+
+	// Support: Android <=4.0 only, PhantomJS 1 only
+	// push.apply(_, arraylike) throws on ancient WebKit
+	merge: function( first, second ) {
+		var len = +second.length,
+			j = 0,
+			i = first.length;
+
+		for ( ; j < len; j++ ) {
+			first[ i++ ] = second[ j ];
+		}
+
+		first.length = i;
+
+		return first;
+	},
+
+	grep: function( elems, callback, invert ) {
+		var callbackInverse,
+			matches = [],
+			i = 0,
+			length = elems.length,
+			callbackExpect = !invert;
+
+		// Go through the array, only saving the items
+		// that pass the validator function
+		for ( ; i < length; i++ ) {
+			callbackInverse = !callback( elems[ i ], i );
+			if ( callbackInverse !== callbackExpect ) {
+				matches.push( elems[ i ] );
+			}
+		}
+
+		return matches;
+	},
+
+	// arg is for internal usage only
+	map: function( elems, callback, arg ) {
+		var length, value,
+			i = 0,
+			ret = [];
+
+		// Go through the array, translating each of the items to their new values
+		if ( isArrayLike( elems ) ) {
+			length = elems.length;
+			for ( ; i < length; i++ ) {
+				value = callback( elems[ i ], i, arg );
+
+				if ( value != null ) {
+					ret.push( value );
+				}
+			}
+
+		// Go through every key on the object,
+		} else {
+			for ( i in elems ) {
+				value = callback( elems[ i ], i, arg );
+
+				if ( value != null ) {
+					ret.push( value );
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Flatten any nested arrays
+		return concat.apply( [], ret );
+	},
+
+	// A global GUID counter for objects
+	guid: 1,
+
+	// Bind a function to a context, optionally partially applying any
+	// arguments.
+	proxy: function( fn, context ) {
+		var tmp, args, proxy;
+
+		if ( typeof context === "string" ) {
+			tmp = fn[ context ];
+			context = fn;
+			fn = tmp;
+		}
+
+		// Quick check to determine if target is callable, in the spec
+		// this throws a TypeError, but we will just return undefined.
+		if ( !jQuery.isFunction( fn ) ) {
+			return undefined;
+		}
+
+		// Simulated bind
+		args = slice.call( arguments, 2 );
+		proxy = function() {
+			return fn.apply( context || this, args.concat( slice.call( arguments ) ) );
+		};
+
+		// Set the guid of unique handler to the same of original handler, so it can be removed
+		proxy.guid = fn.guid = fn.guid || jQuery.guid++;
+
+		return proxy;
+	},
+
+	now: Date.now,
+
+	// jQuery.support is not used in Core but other projects attach their
+	// properties to it so it needs to exist.
+	support: support
+} );
+
+if ( typeof Symbol === "function" ) {
+	jQuery.fn[ Symbol.iterator ] = arr[ Symbol.iterator ];
+}
+
+// Populate the class2type map
+jQuery.each( "Boolean Number String Function Array Date RegExp Object Error Symbol".split( " " ),
+function( i, name ) {
+	class2type[ "[object " + name + "]" ] = name.toLowerCase();
+} );
+
+function isArrayLike( obj ) {
+
+	// Support: real iOS 8.2 only (not reproducible in simulator)
+	// `in` check used to prevent JIT error (gh-2145)
+	// hasOwn isn't used here due to false negatives
+	// regarding Nodelist length in IE
+	var length = !!obj && "length" in obj && obj.length,
+		type = jQuery.type( obj );
+
+	if ( type === "function" || jQuery.isWindow( obj ) ) {
+		return false;
+	}
+
+	return type === "array" || length === 0 ||
+		typeof length === "number" && length > 0 && ( length - 1 ) in obj;
+}
+var Sizzle =
+/*!
+ * Sizzle CSS Selector Engine v2.3.3
+ * https://sizzlejs.com/
+ *
+ * Copyright jQuery Foundation and other contributors
+ * Released under the MIT license
+ * http://jquery.org/license
+ *
+ * Date: 2016-08-08
+ */
+(function( window ) {
+
+var i,
+	support,
+	Expr,
+	getText,
+	isXML,
+	tokenize,
+	compile,
+	select,
+	outermostContext,
+	sortInput,
+	hasDuplicate,
+
+	// Local document vars
+	setDocument,
+	document,
+	docElem,
+	documentIsHTML,
+	rbuggyQSA,
+	rbuggyMatches,
+	matches,
+	contains,
+
+	// Instance-specific data
+	expando = "sizzle" + 1 * new Date(),
+	preferredDoc = window.document,
+	dirruns = 0,
+	done = 0,
+	classCache = createCache(),
+	tokenCache = createCache(),
+	compilerCache = createCache(),
+	sortOrder = function( a, b ) {
+		if ( a === b ) {
+			hasDuplicate = true;
+		}
+		return 0;
+	},
+
+	// Instance methods
+	hasOwn = ({}).hasOwnProperty,
+	arr = [],
+	pop = arr.pop,
+	push_native = arr.push,
+	push = arr.push,
+	slice = arr.slice,
+	// Use a stripped-down indexOf as it's faster than native
+	// https://jsperf.com/thor-indexof-vs-for/5
+	indexOf = function( list, elem ) {
+		var i = 0,
+			len = list.length;
+		for ( ; i < len; i++ ) {
+			if ( list[i] === elem ) {
+				return i;
+			}
+		}
+		return -1;
+	},
+
+	booleans = "checked|selected|async|autofocus|autoplay|controls|defer|disabled|hidden|ismap|loop|multiple|open|readonly|required|scoped",
+
+	// Regular expressions
+
+	// http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-selectors/#whitespace
+	whitespace = "[\\x20\\t\\r\\n\\f]",
+
+	// http://www.w3.org/TR/CSS21/syndata.html#value-def-identifier
+	identifier = "(?:\\\\.|[\\w-]|[^\0-\\xa0])+",
+
+	// Attribute selectors: http://www.w3.org/TR/selectors/#attribute-selectors
+	attributes = "\\[" + whitespace + "*(" + identifier + ")(?:" + whitespace +
+		// Operator (capture 2)
+		"*([*^$|!~]?=)" + whitespace +
+		// "Attribute values must be CSS identifiers [capture 5] or strings [capture 3 or capture 4]"
+		"*(?:'((?:\\\\.|[^\\\\'])*)'|\"((?:\\\\.|[^\\\\\"])*)\"|(" + identifier + "))|)" + whitespace +
+		"*\\]",
+
+	pseudos = ":(" + identifier + ")(?:\\((" +
+		// To reduce the number of selectors needing tokenize in the preFilter, prefer arguments:
+		// 1. quoted (capture 3; capture 4 or capture 5)
+		"('((?:\\\\.|[^\\\\'])*)'|\"((?:\\\\.|[^\\\\\"])*)\")|" +
+		// 2. simple (capture 6)
+		"((?:\\\\.|[^\\\\()[\\]]|" + attributes + ")*)|" +
+		// 3. anything else (capture 2)
+		".*" +
+		")\\)|)",
+
+	// Leading and non-escaped trailing whitespace, capturing some non-whitespace characters preceding the latter
+	rwhitespace = new RegExp( whitespace + "+", "g" ),
+	rtrim = new RegExp( "^" + whitespace + "+|((?:^|[^\\\\])(?:\\\\.)*)" + whitespace + "+$", "g" ),
+
+	rcomma = new RegExp( "^" + whitespace + "*," + whitespace + "*" ),
+	rcombinators = new RegExp( "^" + whitespace + "*([>+~]|" + whitespace + ")" + whitespace + "*" ),
+
+	rattributeQuotes = new RegExp( "=" + whitespace + "*([^\\]'\"]*?)" + whitespace + "*\\]", "g" ),
+
+	rpseudo = new RegExp( pseudos ),
+	ridentifier = new RegExp( "^" + identifier + "$" ),
+
+	matchExpr = {
+		"ID": new RegExp( "^#(" + identifier + ")" ),
+		"CLASS": new RegExp( "^\\.(" + identifier + ")" ),
+		"TAG": new RegExp( "^(" + identifier + "|[*])" ),
+		"ATTR": new RegExp( "^" + attributes ),
+		"PSEUDO": new RegExp( "^" + pseudos ),
+		"CHILD": new RegExp( "^:(only|first|last|nth|nth-last)-(child|of-type)(?:\\(" + whitespace +
+			"*(even|odd|(([+-]|)(\\d*)n|)" + whitespace + "*(?:([+-]|)" + whitespace +
+			"*(\\d+)|))" + whitespace + "*\\)|)", "i" ),
+		"bool": new RegExp( "^(?:" + booleans + ")$", "i" ),
+		// For use in libraries implementing .is()
+		// We use this for POS matching in `select`
+		"needsContext": new RegExp( "^" + whitespace + "*[>+~]|:(even|odd|eq|gt|lt|nth|first|last)(?:\\(" +
+			whitespace + "*((?:-\\d)?\\d*)" + whitespace + "*\\)|)(?=[^-]|$)", "i" )
+	},
+
+	rinputs = /^(?:input|select|textarea|button)$/i,
+	rheader = /^h\d$/i,
+
+	rnative = /^[^{]+\{\s*\[native \w/,
+
+	// Easily-parseable/retrievable ID or TAG or CLASS selectors
+	rquickExpr = /^(?:#([\w-]+)|(\w+)|\.([\w-]+))$/,
+
+	rsibling = /[+~]/,
+
+	// CSS escapes
+	// http://www.w3.org/TR/CSS21/syndata.html#escaped-characters
+	runescape = new RegExp( "\\\\([\\da-f]{1,6}" + whitespace + "?|(" + whitespace + ")|.)", "ig" ),
+	funescape = function( _, escaped, escapedWhitespace ) {
+		var high = "0x" + escaped - 0x10000;
+		// NaN means non-codepoint
+		// Support: Firefox<24
+		// Workaround erroneous numeric interpretation of +"0x"
+		return high !== high || escapedWhitespace ?
+			escaped :
+			high < 0 ?
+				// BMP codepoint
+				String.fromCharCode( high + 0x10000 ) :
+				// Supplemental Plane codepoint (surrogate pair)
+				String.fromCharCode( high >> 10 | 0xD800, high & 0x3FF | 0xDC00 );
+	},
+
+	// CSS string/identifier serialization
+	// https://drafts.csswg.org/cssom/#common-serializing-idioms
+	rcssescape = /([\0-\x1f\x7f]|^-?\d)|^-$|[^\0-\x1f\x7f-\uFFFF\w-]/g,
+	fcssescape = function( ch, asCodePoint ) {
+		if ( asCodePoint ) {
+
+			// U+0000 NULL becomes U+FFFD REPLACEMENT CHARACTER
+			if ( ch === "\0" ) {
+				return "\uFFFD";
+			}
+
+			// Control characters and (dependent upon position) numbers get escaped as code points
+			return ch.slice( 0, -1 ) + "\\" + ch.charCodeAt( ch.length - 1 ).toString( 16 ) + " ";
+		}
+
+		// Other potentially-special ASCII characters get backslash-escaped
+		return "\\" + ch;
+	},
+
+	// Used for iframes
+	// See setDocument()
+	// Removing the function wrapper causes a "Permission Denied"
+	// error in IE
+	unloadHandler = function() {
+		setDocument();
+	},
+
+	disabledAncestor = addCombinator(
+		function( elem ) {
+			return elem.disabled === true && ("form" in elem || "label" in elem);
+		},
+		{ dir: "parentNode", next: "legend" }
+	);
+
+// Optimize for push.apply( _, NodeList )
+try {
+	push.apply(
+		(arr = slice.call( preferredDoc.childNodes )),
+		preferredDoc.childNodes
+	);
+	// Support: Android<4.0
+	// Detect silently failing push.apply
+	arr[ preferredDoc.childNodes.length ].nodeType;
+} catch ( e ) {
+	push = { apply: arr.length ?
+
+		// Leverage slice if possible
+		function( target, els ) {
+			push_native.apply( target, slice.call(els) );
+		} :
+
+		// Support: IE<9
+		// Otherwise append directly
+		function( target, els ) {
+			var j = target.length,
+				i = 0;
+			// Can't trust NodeList.length
+			while ( (target[j++] = els[i++]) ) {}
+			target.length = j - 1;
+		}
+	};
+}
+
+function Sizzle( selector, context, results, seed ) {
+	var m, i, elem, nid, match, groups, newSelector,
+		newContext = context && context.ownerDocument,
+
+		// nodeType defaults to 9, since context defaults to document
+		nodeType = context ? context.nodeType : 9;
+
+	results = results || [];
+
+	// Return early from calls with invalid selector or context
+	if ( typeof selector !== "string" || !selector ||
+		nodeType !== 1 && nodeType !== 9 && nodeType !== 11 ) {
+
+		return results;
+	}
+
+	// Try to shortcut find operations (as opposed to filters) in HTML documents
+	if ( !seed ) {
+
+		if ( ( context ? context.ownerDocument || context : preferredDoc ) !== document ) {
+			setDocument( context );
+		}
+		context = context || document;
+
+		if ( documentIsHTML ) {
+
+			// If the selector is sufficiently simple, try using a "get*By*" DOM method
+			// (excepting DocumentFragment context, where the methods don't exist)
+			if ( nodeType !== 11 && (match = rquickExpr.exec( selector )) ) {
+
+				// ID selector
+				if ( (m = match[1]) ) {
+
+					// Document context
+					if ( nodeType === 9 ) {
+						if ( (elem = context.getElementById( m )) ) {
+
+							// Support: IE, Opera, Webkit
+							// TODO: identify versions
+							// getElementById can match elements by name instead of ID
+							if ( elem.id === m ) {
+								results.push( elem );
+								return results;
+							}
+						} else {
+							return results;
+						}
+
+					// Element context
+					} else {
+
+						// Support: IE, Opera, Webkit
+						// TODO: identify versions
+						// getElementById can match elements by name instead of ID
+						if ( newContext && (elem = newContext.getElementById( m )) &&
+							contains( context, elem ) &&
+							elem.id === m ) {
+
+							results.push( elem );
+							return results;
+						}
+					}
+
+				// Type selector
+				} else if ( match[2] ) {
+					push.apply( results, context.getElementsByTagName( selector ) );
+					return results;
+
+				// Class selector
+				} else if ( (m = match[3]) && support.getElementsByClassName &&
+					context.getElementsByClassName ) {
+
+					push.apply( results, context.getElementsByClassName( m ) );
+					return results;
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Take advantage of querySelectorAll
+			if ( support.qsa &&
+				!compilerCache[ selector + " " ] &&
+				(!rbuggyQSA || !rbuggyQSA.test( selector )) ) {
+
+				if ( nodeType !== 1 ) {
+					newContext = context;
+					newSelector = selector;
+
+				// qSA looks outside Element context, which is not what we want
+				// Thanks to Andrew Dupont for this workaround technique
+				// Support: IE <=8
+				// Exclude object elements
+				} else if ( context.nodeName.toLowerCase() !== "object" ) {
+
+					// Capture the context ID, setting it first if necessary
+					if ( (nid = context.getAttribute( "id" )) ) {
+						nid = nid.replace( rcssescape, fcssescape );
+					} else {
+						context.setAttribute( "id", (nid = expando) );
+					}
+
+					// Prefix every selector in the list
+					groups = tokenize( selector );
+					i = groups.length;
+					while ( i-- ) {
+						groups[i] = "#" + nid + " " + toSelector( groups[i] );
+					}
+					newSelector = groups.join( "," );
+
+					// Expand context for sibling selectors
+					newContext = rsibling.test( selector ) && testContext( context.parentNode ) ||
+						context;
+				}
+
+				if ( newSelector ) {
+					try {
+						push.apply( results,
+							newContext.querySelectorAll( newSelector )
+						);
+						return results;
+					} catch ( qsaError ) {
+					} finally {
+						if ( nid === expando ) {
+							context.removeAttribute( "id" );
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// All others
+	return select( selector.replace( rtrim, "$1" ), context, results, seed );
+}
+
+/**
+ * Create key-value caches of limited size
+ * @returns {function(string, object)} Returns the Object data after storing it on itself with
+ *	property name the (space-suffixed) string and (if the cache is larger than Expr.cacheLength)
+ *	deleting the oldest entry
+ */
+function createCache() {
+	var keys = [];
+
+	function cache( key, value ) {
+		// Use (key + " ") to avoid collision with native prototype properties (see Issue #157)
+		if ( keys.push( key + " " ) > Expr.cacheLength ) {
+			// Only keep the most recent entries
+			delete cache[ keys.shift() ];
+		}
+		return (cache[ key + " " ] = value);
+	}
+	return cache;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Mark a function for special use by Sizzle
+ * @param {Function} fn The function to mark
+ */
+function markFunction( fn ) {
+	fn[ expando ] = true;
+	return fn;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Support testing using an element
+ * @param {Function} fn Passed the created element and returns a boolean result
+ */
+function assert( fn ) {
+	var el = document.createElement("fieldset");
+
+	try {
+		return !!fn( el );
+	} catch (e) {
+		return false;
+	} finally {
+		// Remove from its parent by default
+		if ( el.parentNode ) {
+			el.parentNode.removeChild( el );
+		}
+		// release memory in IE
+		el = null;
+	}
+}
+
+/**
+ * Adds the same handler for all of the specified attrs
+ * @param {String} attrs Pipe-separated list of attributes
+ * @param {Function} handler The method that will be applied
+ */
+function addHandle( attrs, handler ) {
+	var arr = attrs.split("|"),
+		i = arr.length;
+
+	while ( i-- ) {
+		Expr.attrHandle[ arr[i] ] = handler;
+	}
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks document order of two siblings
+ * @param {Element} a
+ * @param {Element} b
+ * @returns {Number} Returns less than 0 if a precedes b, greater than 0 if a follows b
+ */
+function siblingCheck( a, b ) {
+	var cur = b && a,
+		diff = cur && a.nodeType === 1 && b.nodeType === 1 &&
+			a.sourceIndex - b.sourceIndex;
+
+	// Use IE sourceIndex if available on both nodes
+	if ( diff ) {
+		return diff;
+	}
+
+	// Check if b follows a
+	if ( cur ) {
+		while ( (cur = cur.nextSibling) ) {
+			if ( cur === b ) {
+				return -1;
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return a ? 1 : -1;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a function to use in pseudos for input types
+ * @param {String} type
+ */
+function createInputPseudo( type ) {
+	return function( elem ) {
+		var name = elem.nodeName.toLowerCase();
+		return name === "input" && elem.type === type;
+	};
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a function to use in pseudos for buttons
+ * @param {String} type
+ */
+function createButtonPseudo( type ) {
+	return function( elem ) {
+		var name = elem.nodeName.toLowerCase();
+		return (name === "input" || name === "button") && elem.type === type;
+	};
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a function to use in pseudos for :enabled/:disabled
+ * @param {Boolean} disabled true for :disabled; false for :enabled
+ */
+function createDisabledPseudo( disabled ) {
+
+	// Known :disabled false positives: fieldset[disabled] > legend:nth-of-type(n+2) :can-disable
+	return function( elem ) {
+
+		// Only certain elements can match :enabled or :disabled
+		// https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/scripting.html#selector-enabled
+		// https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/scripting.html#selector-disabled
+		if ( "form" in elem ) {
+
+			// Check for inherited disabledness on relevant non-disabled elements:
+			// * listed form-associated elements in a disabled fieldset
+			//   https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/forms.html#category-listed
+			//   https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/forms.html#concept-fe-disabled
+			// * option elements in a disabled optgroup
+			//   https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/forms.html#concept-option-disabled
+			// All such elements have a "form" property.
+			if ( elem.parentNode && elem.disabled === false ) {
+
+				// Option elements defer to a parent optgroup if present
+				if ( "label" in elem ) {
+					if ( "label" in elem.parentNode ) {
+						return elem.parentNode.disabled === disabled;
+					} else {
+						return elem.disabled === disabled;
+					}
+				}
+
+				// Support: IE 6 - 11
+				// Use the isDisabled shortcut property to check for disabled fieldset ancestors
+				return elem.isDisabled === disabled ||
+
+					// Where there is no isDisabled, check manually
+					/* jshint -W018 */
+					elem.isDisabled !== !disabled &&
+						disabledAncestor( elem ) === disabled;
+			}
+
+			return elem.disabled === disabled;
+
+		// Try to winnow out elements that can't be disabled before trusting the disabled property.
+		// Some victims get caught in our net (label, legend, menu, track), but it shouldn't
+		// even exist on them, let alone have a boolean value.
+		} else if ( "label" in elem ) {
+			return elem.disabled === disabled;
+		}
+
+		// Remaining elements are neither :enabled nor :disabled
+		return false;
+	};
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a function to use in pseudos for positionals
+ * @param {Function} fn
+ */
+function createPositionalPseudo( fn ) {
+	return markFunction(function( argument ) {
+		argument = +argument;
+		return markFunction(function( seed, matches ) {
+			var j,
+				matchIndexes = fn( [], seed.length, argument ),
+				i = matchIndexes.length;
+
+			// Match elements found at the specified indexes
+			while ( i-- ) {
+				if ( seed[ (j = matchIndexes[i]) ] ) {
+					seed[j] = !(matches[j] = seed[j]);
+				}
+			}
+		});
+	});
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks a node for validity as a Sizzle context
+ * @param {Element|Object=} context
+ * @returns {Element|Object|Boolean} The input node if acceptable, otherwise a falsy value
+ */
+function testContext( context ) {
+	return context && typeof context.getElementsByTagName !== "undefined" && context;
+}
+
+// Expose support vars for convenience
+support = Sizzle.support = {};
+
+/**
+ * Detects XML nodes
+ * @param {Element|Object} elem An element or a document
+ * @returns {Boolean} True iff elem is a non-HTML XML node
+ */
+isXML = Sizzle.isXML = function( elem ) {
+	// documentElement is verified for cases where it doesn't yet exist
+	// (such as loading iframes in IE - #4833)
+	var documentElement = elem && (elem.ownerDocument || elem).documentElement;
+	return documentElement ? documentElement.nodeName !== "HTML" : false;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Sets document-related variables once based on the current document
+ * @param {Element|Object} [doc] An element or document object to use to set the document
+ * @returns {Object} Returns the current document
+ */
+setDocument = Sizzle.setDocument = function( node ) {
+	var hasCompare, subWindow,
+		doc = node ? node.ownerDocument || node : preferredDoc;
+
+	// Return early if doc is invalid or already selected
+	if ( doc === document || doc.nodeType !== 9 || !doc.documentElement ) {
+		return document;
+	}
+
+	// Update global variables
+	document = doc;
+	docElem = document.documentElement;
+	documentIsHTML = !isXML( document );
+
+	// Support: IE 9-11, Edge
+	// Accessing iframe documents after unload throws "permission denied" errors (jQuery #13936)
+	if ( preferredDoc !== document &&
+		(subWindow = document.defaultView) && subWindow.top !== subWindow ) {
+
+		// Support: IE 11, Edge
+		if ( subWindow.addEventListener ) {
+			subWindow.addEventListener( "unload", unloadHandler, false );
+
+		// Support: IE 9 - 10 only
+		} else if ( subWindow.attachEvent ) {
+			subWindow.attachEvent( "onunload", unloadHandler );
+		}
+	}
+
+	/* Attributes
+	---------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+	// Support: IE<8
+	// Verify that getAttribute really returns attributes and not properties
+	// (excepting IE8 booleans)
+	support.attributes = assert(function( el ) {
+		el.className = "i";
+		return !el.getAttribute("className");
+	});
+
+	/* getElement(s)By*
+	---------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+	// Check if getElementsByTagName("*") returns only elements
+	support.getElementsByTagName = assert(function( el ) {
+		el.appendChild( document.createComment("") );
+		return !el.getElementsByTagName("*").length;
+	});
+
+	// Support: IE<9
+	support.getElementsByClassName = rnative.test( document.getElementsByClassName );
+
+	// Support: IE<10
+	// Check if getElementById returns elements by name
+	// The broken getElementById methods don't pick up programmatically-set names,
+	// so use a roundabout getElementsByName test
+	support.getById = assert(function( el ) {
+		docElem.appendChild( el ).id = expando;
+		return !document.getElementsByName || !document.getElementsByName( expando ).length;
+	});
+
+	// ID filter and find
+	if ( support.getById ) {
+		Expr.filter["ID"] = function( id ) {
+			var attrId = id.replace( runescape, funescape );
+			return function( elem ) {
+				return elem.getAttribute("id") === attrId;
+			};
+		};
+		Expr.find["ID"] = function( id, context ) {
+			if ( typeof context.getElementById !== "undefined" && documentIsHTML ) {
+				var elem = context.getElementById( id );
+				return elem ? [ elem ] : [];
+			}
+		};
+	} else {
+		Expr.filter["ID"] =  function( id ) {
+			var attrId = id.replace( runescape, funescape );
+			return function( elem ) {
+				var node = typeof elem.getAttributeNode !== "undefined" &&
+					elem.getAttributeNode("id");
+				return node && node.value === attrId;
+			};
+		};
+
+		// Support: IE 6 - 7 only
+		// getElementById is not reliable as a find shortcut
+		Expr.find["ID"] = function( id, context ) {
+			if ( typeof context.getElementById !== "undefined" && documentIsHTML ) {
+				var node, i, elems,
+					elem = context.getElementById( id );
+
+				if ( elem ) {
+
+					// Verify the id attribute
+					node = elem.getAttributeNode("id");
+					if ( node && node.value === id ) {
+						return [ elem ];
+					}
+
+					// Fall back on getElementsByName
+					elems = context.getElementsByName( id );
+					i = 0;
+					while ( (elem = elems[i++]) ) {
+						node = elem.getAttributeNode("id");
+						if ( node && node.value === id ) {
+							return [ elem ];
+						}
+					}
+				}
+
+				return [];
+			}
+		};
+	}
+
+	// Tag
+	Expr.find["TAG"] = support.getElementsByTagName ?
+		function( tag, context ) {
+			if ( typeof context.getElementsByTagName !== "undefined" ) {
+				return context.getElementsByTagName( tag );
+
+			// DocumentFragment nodes don't have gEBTN
+			} else if ( support.qsa ) {
+				return context.querySelectorAll( tag );
+			}
+		} :
+
+		function( tag, context ) {
+			var elem,
+				tmp = [],
+				i = 0,
+				// By happy coincidence, a (broken) gEBTN appears on DocumentFragment nodes too
+				results = context.getElementsByTagName( tag );
+
+			// Filter out possible comments
+			if ( tag === "*" ) {
+				while ( (elem = results[i++]) ) {
+					if ( elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+						tmp.push( elem );
+					}
+				}
+
+				return tmp;
+			}
+			return results;
+		};
+
+	// Class
+	Expr.find["CLASS"] = support.getElementsByClassName && function( className, context ) {
+		if ( typeof context.getElementsByClassName !== "undefined" && documentIsHTML ) {
+			return context.getElementsByClassName( className );
+		}
+	};
+
+	/* QSA/matchesSelector
+	---------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+	// QSA and matchesSelector support
+
+	// matchesSelector(:active) reports false when true (IE9/Opera 11.5)
+	rbuggyMatches = [];
+
+	// qSa(:focus) reports false when true (Chrome 21)
+	// We allow this because of a bug in IE8/9 that throws an error
+	// whenever `document.activeElement` is accessed on an iframe
+	// So, we allow :focus to pass through QSA all the time to avoid the IE error
+	// See https://bugs.jquery.com/ticket/13378
+	rbuggyQSA = [];
+
+	if ( (support.qsa = rnative.test( document.querySelectorAll )) ) {
+		// Build QSA regex
+		// Regex strategy adopted from Diego Perini
+		assert(function( el ) {
+			// Select is set to empty string on purpose
+			// This is to test IE's treatment of not explicitly
+			// setting a boolean content attribute,
+			// since its presence should be enough
+			// https://bugs.jquery.com/ticket/12359
+			docElem.appendChild( el ).innerHTML = "<a id='" + expando + "'></a>" +
+				"<select id='" + expando + "-\r\\' msallowcapture=''>" +
+				"<option selected=''></option></select>";
+
+			// Support: IE8, Opera 11-12.16
+			// Nothing should be selected when empty strings follow ^= or $= or *=
+			// The test attribute must be unknown in Opera but "safe" for WinRT
+			// https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ie/hh465388.aspx#attribute_section
+			if ( el.querySelectorAll("[msallowcapture^='']").length ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push( "[*^$]=" + whitespace + "*(?:''|\"\")" );
+			}
+
+			// Support: IE8
+			// Boolean attributes and "value" are not treated correctly
+			if ( !el.querySelectorAll("[selected]").length ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push( "\\[" + whitespace + "*(?:value|" + booleans + ")" );
+			}
+
+			// Support: Chrome<29, Android<4.4, Safari<7.0+, iOS<7.0+, PhantomJS<1.9.8+
+			if ( !el.querySelectorAll( "[id~=" + expando + "-]" ).length ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push("~=");
+			}
+
+			// Webkit/Opera - :checked should return selected option elements
+			// http://www.w3.org/TR/2011/REC-css3-selectors-20110929/#checked
+			// IE8 throws error here and will not see later tests
+			if ( !el.querySelectorAll(":checked").length ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push(":checked");
+			}
+
+			// Support: Safari 8+, iOS 8+
+			// https://bugs.webkit.org/show_bug.cgi?id=136851
+			// In-page `selector#id sibling-combinator selector` fails
+			if ( !el.querySelectorAll( "a#" + expando + "+*" ).length ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push(".#.+[+~]");
+			}
+		});
+
+		assert(function( el ) {
+			el.innerHTML = "<a href='' disabled='disabled'></a>" +
+				"<select disabled='disabled'><option/></select>";
+
+			// Support: Windows 8 Native Apps
+			// The type and name attributes are restricted during .innerHTML assignment
+			var input = document.createElement("input");
+			input.setAttribute( "type", "hidden" );
+			el.appendChild( input ).setAttribute( "name", "D" );
+
+			// Support: IE8
+			// Enforce case-sensitivity of name attribute
+			if ( el.querySelectorAll("[name=d]").length ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push( "name" + whitespace + "*[*^$|!~]?=" );
+			}
+
+			// FF 3.5 - :enabled/:disabled and hidden elements (hidden elements are still enabled)
+			// IE8 throws error here and will not see later tests
+			if ( el.querySelectorAll(":enabled").length !== 2 ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push( ":enabled", ":disabled" );
+			}
+
+			// Support: IE9-11+
+			// IE's :disabled selector does not pick up the children of disabled fieldsets
+			docElem.appendChild( el ).disabled = true;
+			if ( el.querySelectorAll(":disabled").length !== 2 ) {
+				rbuggyQSA.push( ":enabled", ":disabled" );
+			}
+
+			// Opera 10-11 does not throw on post-comma invalid pseudos
+			el.querySelectorAll("*,:x");
+			rbuggyQSA.push(",.*:");
+		});
+	}
+
+	if ( (support.matchesSelector = rnative.test( (matches = docElem.matches ||
+		docElem.webkitMatchesSelector ||
+		docElem.mozMatchesSelector ||
+		docElem.oMatchesSelector ||
+		docElem.msMatchesSelector) )) ) {
+
+		assert(function( el ) {
+			// Check to see if it's possible to do matchesSelector
+			// on a disconnected node (IE 9)
+			support.disconnectedMatch = matches.call( el, "*" );
+
+			// This should fail with an exception
+			// Gecko does not error, returns false instead
+			matches.call( el, "[s!='']:x" );
+			rbuggyMatches.push( "!=", pseudos );
+		});
+	}
+
+	rbuggyQSA = rbuggyQSA.length && new RegExp( rbuggyQSA.join("|") );
+	rbuggyMatches = rbuggyMatches.length && new RegExp( rbuggyMatches.join("|") );
+
+	/* Contains
+	---------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+	hasCompare = rnative.test( docElem.compareDocumentPosition );
+
+	// Element contains another
+	// Purposefully self-exclusive
+	// As in, an element does not contain itself
+	contains = hasCompare || rnative.test( docElem.contains ) ?
+		function( a, b ) {
+			var adown = a.nodeType === 9 ? a.documentElement : a,
+				bup = b && b.parentNode;
+			return a === bup || !!( bup && bup.nodeType === 1 && (
+				adown.contains ?
+					adown.contains( bup ) :
+					a.compareDocumentPosition && a.compareDocumentPosition( bup ) & 16
+			));
+		} :
+		function( a, b ) {
+			if ( b ) {
+				while ( (b = b.parentNode) ) {
+					if ( b === a ) {
+						return true;
+					}
+				}
+			}
+			return false;
+		};
+
+	/* Sorting
+	---------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+
+	// Document order sorting
+	sortOrder = hasCompare ?
+	function( a, b ) {
+
+		// Flag for duplicate removal
+		if ( a === b ) {
+			hasDuplicate = true;
+			return 0;
+		}
+
+		// Sort on method existence if only one input has compareDocumentPosition
+		var compare = !a.compareDocumentPosition - !b.compareDocumentPosition;
+		if ( compare ) {
+			return compare;
+		}
+
+		// Calculate position if both inputs belong to the same document
+		compare = ( a.ownerDocument || a ) === ( b.ownerDocument || b ) ?
+			a.compareDocumentPosition( b ) :
+
+			// Otherwise we know they are disconnected
+			1;
+
+		// Disconnected nodes
+		if ( compare & 1 ||
+			(!support.sortDetached && b.compareDocumentPosition( a ) === compare) ) {
+
+			// Choose the first element that is related to our preferred document
+			if ( a === document || a.ownerDocument === preferredDoc && contains(preferredDoc, a) ) {
+				return -1;
+			}
+			if ( b === document || b.ownerDocument === preferredDoc && contains(preferredDoc, b) ) {
+				return 1;
+			}
+
+			// Maintain original order
+			return sortInput ?
+				( indexOf( sortInput, a ) - indexOf( sortInput, b ) ) :
+				0;
+		}
+
+		return compare & 4 ? -1 : 1;
+	} :
+	function( a, b ) {
+		// Exit early if the nodes are identical
+		if ( a === b ) {
+			hasDuplicate = true;
+			return 0;
+		}
+
+		var cur,
+			i = 0,
+			aup = a.parentNode,
+			bup = b.parentNode,
+			ap = [ a ],
+			bp = [ b ];
+
+		// Parentless nodes are either documents or disconnected
+		if ( !aup || !bup ) {
+			return a === document ? -1 :
+				b === document ? 1 :
+				aup ? -1 :
+				bup ? 1 :
+				sortInput ?
+				( indexOf( sortInput, a ) - indexOf( sortInput, b ) ) :
+				0;
+
+		// If the nodes are siblings, we can do a quick check
+		} else if ( aup === bup ) {
+			return siblingCheck( a, b );
+		}
+
+		// Otherwise we need full lists of their ancestors for comparison
+		cur = a;
+		while ( (cur = cur.parentNode) ) {
+			ap.unshift( cur );
+		}
+		cur = b;
+		while ( (cur = cur.parentNode) ) {
+			bp.unshift( cur );
+		}
+
+		// Walk down the tree looking for a discrepancy
+		while ( ap[i] === bp[i] ) {
+			i++;
+		}
+
+		return i ?
+			// Do a sibling check if the nodes have a common ancestor
+			siblingCheck( ap[i], bp[i] ) :
+
+			// Otherwise nodes in our document sort first
+			ap[i] === preferredDoc ? -1 :
+			bp[i] === preferredDoc ? 1 :
+			0;
+	};
+
+	return document;
+};
+
+Sizzle.matches = function( expr, elements ) {
+	return Sizzle( expr, null, null, elements );
+};
+
+Sizzle.matchesSelector = function( elem, expr ) {
+	// Set document vars if needed
+	if ( ( elem.ownerDocument || elem ) !== document ) {
+		setDocument( elem );
+	}
+
+	// Make sure that attribute selectors are quoted
+	expr = expr.replace( rattributeQuotes, "='$1']" );
+
+	if ( support.matchesSelector && documentIsHTML &&
+		!compilerCache[ expr + " " ] &&
+		( !rbuggyMatches || !rbuggyMatches.test( expr ) ) &&
+		( !rbuggyQSA     || !rbuggyQSA.test( expr ) ) ) {
+
+		try {
+			var ret = matches.call( elem, expr );
+
+			// IE 9's matchesSelector returns false on disconnected nodes
+			if ( ret || support.disconnectedMatch ||
+					// As well, disconnected nodes are said to be in a document
+					// fragment in IE 9
+					elem.document && elem.document.nodeType !== 11 ) {
+				return ret;
+			}
+		} catch (e) {}
+	}
+
+	return Sizzle( expr, document, null, [ elem ] ).length > 0;
+};
+
+Sizzle.contains = function( context, elem ) {
+	// Set document vars if needed
+	if ( ( context.ownerDocument || context ) !== document ) {
+		setDocument( context );
+	}
+	return contains( context, elem );
+};
+
+Sizzle.attr = function( elem, name ) {
+	// Set document vars if needed
+	if ( ( elem.ownerDocument || elem ) !== document ) {
+		setDocument( elem );
+	}
+
+	var fn = Expr.attrHandle[ name.toLowerCase() ],
+		// Don't get fooled by Object.prototype properties (jQuery #13807)
+		val = fn && hasOwn.call( Expr.attrHandle, name.toLowerCase() ) ?
+			fn( elem, name, !documentIsHTML ) :
+			undefined;
+
+	return val !== undefined ?
+		val :
+		support.attributes || !documentIsHTML ?
+			elem.getAttribute( name ) :
+			(val = elem.getAttributeNode(name)) && val.specified ?
+				val.value :
+				null;
+};
+
+Sizzle.escape = function( sel ) {
+	return (sel + "").replace( rcssescape, fcssescape );
+};
+
+Sizzle.error = function( msg ) {
+	throw new Error( "Syntax error, unrecognized expression: " + msg );
+};
+
+/**
+ * Document sorting and removing duplicates
+ * @param {ArrayLike} results
+ */
+Sizzle.uniqueSort = function( results ) {
+	var elem,
+		duplicates = [],
+		j = 0,
+		i = 0;
+
+	// Unless we *know* we can detect duplicates, assume their presence
+	hasDuplicate = !support.detectDuplicates;
+	sortInput = !support.sortStable && results.slice( 0 );
+	results.sort( sortOrder );
+
+	if ( hasDuplicate ) {
+		while ( (elem = results[i++]) ) {
+			if ( elem === results[ i ] ) {
+				j = duplicates.push( i );
+			}
+		}
+		while ( j-- ) {
+			results.splice( duplicates[ j ], 1 );
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Clear input after sorting to release objects
+	// See https://github.com/jquery/sizzle/pull/225
+	sortInput = null;
+
+	return results;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Utility function for retrieving the text value of an array of DOM nodes
+ * @param {Array|Element} elem
+ */
+getText = Sizzle.getText = function( elem ) {
+	var node,
+		ret = "",
+		i = 0,
+		nodeType = elem.nodeType;
+
+	if ( !nodeType ) {
+		// If no nodeType, this is expected to be an array
+		while ( (node = elem[i++]) ) {
+			// Do not traverse comment nodes
+			ret += getText( node );
+		}
+	} else if ( nodeType === 1 || nodeType === 9 || nodeType === 11 ) {
+		// Use textContent for elements
+		// innerText usage removed for consistency of new lines (jQuery #11153)
+		if ( typeof elem.textContent === "string" ) {
+			return elem.textContent;
+		} else {
+			// Traverse its children
+			for ( elem = elem.firstChild; elem; elem = elem.nextSibling ) {
+				ret += getText( elem );
+			}
+		}
+	} else if ( nodeType === 3 || nodeType === 4 ) {
+		return elem.nodeValue;
+	}
+	// Do not include comment or processing instruction nodes
+
+	return ret;
+};
+
+Expr = Sizzle.selectors = {
+
+	// Can be adjusted by the user
+	cacheLength: 50,
+
+	createPseudo: markFunction,
+
+	match: matchExpr,
+
+	attrHandle: {},
+
+	find: {},
+
+	relative: {
+		">": { dir: "parentNode", first: true },
+		" ": { dir: "parentNode" },
+		"+": { dir: "previousSibling", first: true },
+		"~": { dir: "previousSibling" }
+	},
+
+	preFilter: {
+		"ATTR": function( match ) {
+			match[1] = match[1].replace( runescape, funescape );
+
+			// Move the given value to match[3] whether quoted or unquoted
+			match[3] = ( match[3] || match[4] || match[5] || "" ).replace( runescape, funescape );
+
+			if ( match[2] === "~=" ) {
+				match[3] = " " + match[3] + " ";
+			}
+
+			return match.slice( 0, 4 );
+		},
+
+		"CHILD": function( match ) {
+			/* matches from matchExpr["CHILD"]
+				1 type (only|nth|...)
+				2 what (child|of-type)
+				3 argument (even|odd|\d*|\d*n([+-]\d+)?|...)
+				4 xn-component of xn+y argument ([+-]?\d*n|)
+				5 sign of xn-component
+				6 x of xn-component
+				7 sign of y-component
+				8 y of y-component
+			*/
+			match[1] = match[1].toLowerCase();
+
+			if ( match[1].slice( 0, 3 ) === "nth" ) {
+				// nth-* requires argument
+				if ( !match[3] ) {
+					Sizzle.error( match[0] );
+				}
+
+				// numeric x and y parameters for Expr.filter.CHILD
+				// remember that false/true cast respectively to 0/1
+				match[4] = +( match[4] ? match[5] + (match[6] || 1) : 2 * ( match[3] === "even" || match[3] === "odd" ) );
+				match[5] = +( ( match[7] + match[8] ) || match[3] === "odd" );
+
+			// other types prohibit arguments
+			} else if ( match[3] ) {
+				Sizzle.error( match[0] );
+			}
+
+			return match;
+		},
+
+		"PSEUDO": function( match ) {
+			var excess,
+				unquoted = !match[6] && match[2];
+
+			if ( matchExpr["CHILD"].test( match[0] ) ) {
+				return null;
+			}
+
+			// Accept quoted arguments as-is
+			if ( match[3] ) {
+				match[2] = match[4] || match[5] || "";
+
+			// Strip excess characters from unquoted arguments
+			} else if ( unquoted && rpseudo.test( unquoted ) &&
+				// Get excess from tokenize (recursively)
+				(excess = tokenize( unquoted, true )) &&
+				// advance to the next closing parenthesis
+				(excess = unquoted.indexOf( ")", unquoted.length - excess ) - unquoted.length) ) {
+
+				// excess is a negative index
+				match[0] = match[0].slice( 0, excess );
+				match[2] = unquoted.slice( 0, excess );
+			}
+
+			// Return only captures needed by the pseudo filter method (type and argument)
+			return match.slice( 0, 3 );
+		}
+	},
+
+	filter: {
+
+		"TAG": function( nodeNameSelector ) {
+			var nodeName = nodeNameSelector.replace( runescape, funescape ).toLowerCase();
+			return nodeNameSelector === "*" ?
+				function() { return true; } :
+				function( elem ) {
+					return elem.nodeName && elem.nodeName.toLowerCase() === nodeName;
+				};
+		},
+
+		"CLASS": function( className ) {
+			var pattern = classCache[ className + " " ];
+
+			return pattern ||
+				(pattern = new RegExp( "(^|" + whitespace + ")" + className + "(" + whitespace + "|$)" )) &&
+				classCache( className, function( elem ) {
+					return pattern.test( typeof elem.className === "string" && elem.className || typeof elem.getAttribute !== "undefined" && elem.getAttribute("class") || "" );
+				});
+		},
+
+		"ATTR": function( name, operator, check ) {
+			return function( elem ) {
+				var result = Sizzle.attr( elem, name );
+
+				if ( result == null ) {
+					return operator === "!=";
+				}
+				if ( !operator ) {
+					return true;
+				}
+
+				result += "";
+
+				return operator === "=" ? result === check :
+					operator === "!=" ? result !== check :
+					operator === "^=" ? check && result.indexOf( check ) === 0 :
+					operator === "*=" ? check && result.indexOf( check ) > -1 :
+					operator === "$=" ? check && result.slice( -check.length ) === check :
+					operator === "~=" ? ( " " + result.replace( rwhitespace, " " ) + " " ).indexOf( check ) > -1 :
+					operator === "|=" ? result === check || result.slice( 0, check.length + 1 ) === check + "-" :
+					false;
+			};
+		},
+
+		"CHILD": function( type, what, argument, first, last ) {
+			var simple = type.slice( 0, 3 ) !== "nth",
+				forward = type.slice( -4 ) !== "last",
+				ofType = what === "of-type";
+
+			return first === 1 && last === 0 ?
+
+				// Shortcut for :nth-*(n)
+				function( elem ) {
+					return !!elem.parentNode;
+				} :
+
+				function( elem, context, xml ) {
+					var cache, uniqueCache, outerCache, node, nodeIndex, start,
+						dir = simple !== forward ? "nextSibling" : "previousSibling",
+						parent = elem.parentNode,
+						name = ofType && elem.nodeName.toLowerCase(),
+						useCache = !xml && !ofType,
+						diff = false;
+
+					if ( parent ) {
+
+						// :(first|last|only)-(child|of-type)
+						if ( simple ) {
+							while ( dir ) {
+								node = elem;
+								while ( (node = node[ dir ]) ) {
+									if ( ofType ?
+										node.nodeName.toLowerCase() === name :
+										node.nodeType === 1 ) {
+
+										return false;
+									}
+								}
+								// Reverse direction for :only-* (if we haven't yet done so)
+								start = dir = type === "only" && !start && "nextSibling";
+							}
+							return true;
+						}
+
+						start = [ forward ? parent.firstChild : parent.lastChild ];
+
+						// non-xml :nth-child(...) stores cache data on `parent`
+						if ( forward && useCache ) {
+
+							// Seek `elem` from a previously-cached index
+
+							// ...in a gzip-friendly way
+							node = parent;
+							outerCache = node[ expando ] || (node[ expando ] = {});
+
+							// Support: IE <9 only
+							// Defend against cloned attroperties (jQuery gh-1709)
+							uniqueCache = outerCache[ node.uniqueID ] ||
+								(outerCache[ node.uniqueID ] = {});
+
+							cache = uniqueCache[ type ] || [];
+							nodeIndex = cache[ 0 ] === dirruns && cache[ 1 ];
+							diff = nodeIndex && cache[ 2 ];
+							node = nodeIndex && parent.childNodes[ nodeIndex ];
+
+							while ( (node = ++nodeIndex && node && node[ dir ] ||
+
+								// Fallback to seeking `elem` from the start
+								(diff = nodeIndex = 0) || start.pop()) ) {
+
+								// When found, cache indexes on `parent` and break
+								if ( node.nodeType === 1 && ++diff && node === elem ) {
+									uniqueCache[ type ] = [ dirruns, nodeIndex, diff ];
+									break;
+								}
+							}
+
+						} else {
+							// Use previously-cached element index if available
+							if ( useCache ) {
+								// ...in a gzip-friendly way
+								node = elem;
+								outerCache = node[ expando ] || (node[ expando ] = {});
+
+								// Support: IE <9 only
+								// Defend against cloned attroperties (jQuery gh-1709)
+								uniqueCache = outerCache[ node.uniqueID ] ||
+									(outerCache[ node.uniqueID ] = {});
+
+								cache = uniqueCache[ type ] || [];
+								nodeIndex = cache[ 0 ] === dirruns && cache[ 1 ];
+								diff = nodeIndex;
+							}
+
+							// xml :nth-child(...)
+							// or :nth-last-child(...) or :nth(-last)?-of-type(...)
+							if ( diff === false ) {
+								// Use the same loop as above to seek `elem` from the start
+								while ( (node = ++nodeIndex && node && node[ dir ] ||
+									(diff = nodeIndex = 0) || start.pop()) ) {
+
+									if ( ( ofType ?
+										node.nodeName.toLowerCase() === name :
+										node.nodeType === 1 ) &&
+										++diff ) {
+
+										// Cache the index of each encountered element
+										if ( useCache ) {
+											outerCache = node[ expando ] || (node[ expando ] = {});
+
+											// Support: IE <9 only
+											// Defend against cloned attroperties (jQuery gh-1709)
+											uniqueCache = outerCache[ node.uniqueID ] ||
+												(outerCache[ node.uniqueID ] = {});
+
+											uniqueCache[ type ] = [ dirruns, diff ];
+										}
+
+										if ( node === elem ) {
+											break;
+										}
+									}
+								}
+							}
+						}
+
+						// Incorporate the offset, then check against cycle size
+						diff -= last;
+						return diff === first || ( diff % first === 0 && diff / first >= 0 );
+					}
+				};
+		},
+
+		"PSEUDO": function( pseudo, argument ) {
+			// pseudo-class names are case-insensitive
+			// http://www.w3.org/TR/selectors/#pseudo-classes
+			// Prioritize by case sensitivity in case custom pseudos are added with uppercase letters
+			// Remember that setFilters inherits from pseudos
+			var args,
+				fn = Expr.pseudos[ pseudo ] || Expr.setFilters[ pseudo.toLowerCase() ] ||
+					Sizzle.error( "unsupported pseudo: " + pseudo );
+
+			// The user may use createPseudo to indicate that
+			// arguments are needed to create the filter function
+			// just as Sizzle does
+			if ( fn[ expando ] ) {
+				return fn( argument );
+			}
+
+			// But maintain support for old signatures
+			if ( fn.length > 1 ) {
+				args = [ pseudo, pseudo, "", argument ];
+				return Expr.setFilters.hasOwnProperty( pseudo.toLowerCase() ) ?
+					markFunction(function( seed, matches ) {
+						var idx,
+							matched = fn( seed, argument ),
+							i = matched.length;
+						while ( i-- ) {
+							idx = indexOf( seed, matched[i] );
+							seed[ idx ] = !( matches[ idx ] = matched[i] );
+						}
+					}) :
+					function( elem ) {
+						return fn( elem, 0, args );
+					};
+			}
+
+			return fn;
+		}
+	},
+
+	pseudos: {
+		// Potentially complex pseudos
+		"not": markFunction(function( selector ) {
+			// Trim the selector passed to compile
+			// to avoid treating leading and trailing
+			// spaces as combinators
+			var input = [],
+				results = [],
+				matcher = compile( selector.replace( rtrim, "$1" ) );
+
+			return matcher[ expando ] ?
+				markFunction(function( seed, matches, context, xml ) {
+					var elem,
+						unmatched = matcher( seed, null, xml, [] ),
+						i = seed.length;
+
+					// Match elements unmatched by `matcher`
+					while ( i-- ) {
+						if ( (elem = unmatched[i]) ) {
+							seed[i] = !(matches[i] = elem);
+						}
+					}
+				}) :
+				function( elem, context, xml ) {
+					input[0] = elem;
+					matcher( input, null, xml, results );
+					// Don't keep the element (issue #299)
+					input[0] = null;
+					return !results.pop();
+				};
+		}),
+
+		"has": markFunction(function( selector ) {
+			return function( elem ) {
+				return Sizzle( selector, elem ).length > 0;
+			};
+		}),
+
+		"contains": markFunction(function( text ) {
+			text = text.replace( runescape, funescape );
+			return function( elem ) {
+				return ( elem.textContent || elem.innerText || getText( elem ) ).indexOf( text ) > -1;
+			};
+		}),
+
+		// "Whether an element is represented by a :lang() selector
+		// is based solely on the element's language value
+		// being equal to the identifier C,
+		// or beginning with the identifier C immediately followed by "-".
+		// The matching of C against the element's language value is performed case-insensitively.
+		// The identifier C does not have to be a valid language name."
+		// http://www.w3.org/TR/selectors/#lang-pseudo
+		"lang": markFunction( function( lang ) {
+			// lang value must be a valid identifier
+			if ( !ridentifier.test(lang || "") ) {
+				Sizzle.error( "unsupported lang: " + lang );
+			}
+			lang = lang.replace( runescape, funescape ).toLowerCase();
+			return function( elem ) {
+				var elemLang;
+				do {
+					if ( (elemLang = documentIsHTML ?
+						elem.lang :
+						elem.getAttribute("xml:lang") || elem.getAttribute("lang")) ) {
+
+						elemLang = elemLang.toLowerCase();
+						return elemLang === lang || elemLang.indexOf( lang + "-" ) === 0;
+					}
+				} while ( (elem = elem.parentNode) && elem.nodeType === 1 );
+				return false;
+			};
+		}),
+
+		// Miscellaneous
+		"target": function( elem ) {
+			var hash = window.location && window.location.hash;
+			return hash && hash.slice( 1 ) === elem.id;
+		},
+
+		"root": function( elem ) {
+			return elem === docElem;
+		},
+
+		"focus": function( elem ) {
+			return elem === document.activeElement && (!document.hasFocus || document.hasFocus()) && !!(elem.type || elem.href || ~elem.tabIndex);
+		},
+
+		// Boolean properties
+		"enabled": createDisabledPseudo( false ),
+		"disabled": createDisabledPseudo( true ),
+
+		"checked": function( elem ) {
+			// In CSS3, :checked should return both checked and selected elements
+			// http://www.w3.org/TR/2011/REC-css3-selectors-20110929/#checked
+			var nodeName = elem.nodeName.toLowerCase();
+			return (nodeName === "input" && !!elem.checked) || (nodeName === "option" && !!elem.selected);
+		},
+
+		"selected": function( elem ) {
+			// Accessing this property makes selected-by-default
+			// options in Safari work properly
+			if ( elem.parentNode ) {
+				elem.parentNode.selectedIndex;
+			}
+
+			return elem.selected === true;
+		},
+
+		// Contents
+		"empty": function( elem ) {
+			// http://www.w3.org/TR/selectors/#empty-pseudo
+			// :empty is negated by element (1) or content nodes (text: 3; cdata: 4; entity ref: 5),
+			//   but not by others (comment: 8; processing instruction: 7; etc.)
+			// nodeType < 6 works because attributes (2) do not appear as children
+			for ( elem = elem.firstChild; elem; elem = elem.nextSibling ) {
+				if ( elem.nodeType < 6 ) {
+					return false;
+				}
+			}
+			return true;
+		},
+
+		"parent": function( elem ) {
+			return !Expr.pseudos["empty"]( elem );
+		},
+
+		// Element/input types
+		"header": function( elem ) {
+			return rheader.test( elem.nodeName );
+		},
+
+		"input": function( elem ) {
+			return rinputs.test( elem.nodeName );
+		},
+
+		"button": function( elem ) {
+			var name = elem.nodeName.toLowerCase();
+			return name === "input" && elem.type === "button" || name === "button";
+		},
+
+		"text": function( elem ) {
+			var attr;
+			return elem.nodeName.toLowerCase() === "input" &&
+				elem.type === "text" &&
+
+				// Support: IE<8
+				// New HTML5 attribute values (e.g., "search") appear with elem.type === "text"
+				( (attr = elem.getAttribute("type")) == null || attr.toLowerCase() === "text" );
+		},
+
+		// Position-in-collection
+		"first": createPositionalPseudo(function() {
+			return [ 0 ];
+		}),
+
+		"last": createPositionalPseudo(function( matchIndexes, length ) {
+			return [ length - 1 ];
+		}),
+
+		"eq": createPositionalPseudo(function( matchIndexes, length, argument ) {
+			return [ argument < 0 ? argument + length : argument ];
+		}),
+
+		"even": createPositionalPseudo(function( matchIndexes, length ) {
+			var i = 0;
+			for ( ; i < length; i += 2 ) {
+				matchIndexes.push( i );
+			}
+			return matchIndexes;
+		}),
+
+		"odd": createPositionalPseudo(function( matchIndexes, length ) {
+			var i = 1;
+			for ( ; i < length; i += 2 ) {
+				matchIndexes.push( i );
+			}
+			return matchIndexes;
+		}),
+
+		"lt": createPositionalPseudo(function( matchIndexes, length, argument ) {
+			var i = argument < 0 ? argument + length : argument;
+			for ( ; --i >= 0; ) {
+				matchIndexes.push( i );
+			}
+			return matchIndexes;
+		}),
+
+		"gt": createPositionalPseudo(function( matchIndexes, length, argument ) {
+			var i = argument < 0 ? argument + length : argument;
+			for ( ; ++i < length; ) {
+				matchIndexes.push( i );
+			}
+			return matchIndexes;
+		})
+	}
+};
+
+Expr.pseudos["nth"] = Expr.pseudos["eq"];
+
+// Add button/input type pseudos
+for ( i in { radio: true, checkbox: true, file: true, password: true, image: true } ) {
+	Expr.pseudos[ i ] = createInputPseudo( i );
+}
+for ( i in { submit: true, reset: true } ) {
+	Expr.pseudos[ i ] = createButtonPseudo( i );
+}
+
+// Easy API for creating new setFilters
+function setFilters() {}
+setFilters.prototype = Expr.filters = Expr.pseudos;
+Expr.setFilters = new setFilters();
+
+tokenize = Sizzle.tokenize = function( selector, parseOnly ) {
+	var matched, match, tokens, type,
+		soFar, groups, preFilters,
+		cached = tokenCache[ selector + " " ];
+
+	if ( cached ) {
+		return parseOnly ? 0 : cached.slice( 0 );
+	}
+
+	soFar = selector;
+	groups = [];
+	preFilters = Expr.preFilter;
+
+	while ( soFar ) {
+
+		// Comma and first run
+		if ( !matched || (match = rcomma.exec( soFar )) ) {
+			if ( match ) {
+				// Don't consume trailing commas as valid
+				soFar = soFar.slice( match[0].length ) || soFar;
+			}
+			groups.push( (tokens = []) );
+		}
+
+		matched = false;
+
+		// Combinators
+		if ( (match = rcombinators.exec( soFar )) ) {
+			matched = match.shift();
+			tokens.push({
+				value: matched,
+				// Cast descendant combinators to space
+				type: match[0].replace( rtrim, " " )
+			});
+			soFar = soFar.slice( matched.length );
+		}
+
+		// Filters
+		for ( type in Expr.filter ) {
+			if ( (match = matchExpr[ type ].exec( soFar )) && (!preFilters[ type ] ||
+				(match = preFilters[ type ]( match ))) ) {
+				matched = match.shift();
+				tokens.push({
+					value: matched,
+					type: type,
+					matches: match
+				});
+				soFar = soFar.slice( matched.length );
+			}
+		}
+
+		if ( !matched ) {
+			break;
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Return the length of the invalid excess
+	// if we're just parsing
+	// Otherwise, throw an error or return tokens
+	return parseOnly ?
+		soFar.length :
+		soFar ?
+			Sizzle.error( selector ) :
+			// Cache the tokens
+			tokenCache( selector, groups ).slice( 0 );
+};
+
+function toSelector( tokens ) {
+	var i = 0,
+		len = tokens.length,
+		selector = "";
+	for ( ; i < len; i++ ) {
+		selector += tokens[i].value;
+	}
+	return selector;
+}
+
+function addCombinator( matcher, combinator, base ) {
+	var dir = combinator.dir,
+		skip = combinator.next,
+		key = skip || dir,
+		checkNonElements = base && key === "parentNode",
+		doneName = done++;
+
+	return combinator.first ?
+		// Check against closest ancestor/preceding element
+		function( elem, context, xml ) {
+			while ( (elem = elem[ dir ]) ) {
+				if ( elem.nodeType === 1 || checkNonElements ) {
+					return matcher( elem, context, xml );
+				}
+			}
+			return false;
+		} :
+
+		// Check against all ancestor/preceding elements
+		function( elem, context, xml ) {
+			var oldCache, uniqueCache, outerCache,
+				newCache = [ dirruns, doneName ];
+
+			// We can't set arbitrary data on XML nodes, so they don't benefit from combinator caching
+			if ( xml ) {
+				while ( (elem = elem[ dir ]) ) {
+					if ( elem.nodeType === 1 || checkNonElements ) {
+						if ( matcher( elem, context, xml ) ) {
+							return true;
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			} else {
+				while ( (elem = elem[ dir ]) ) {
+					if ( elem.nodeType === 1 || checkNonElements ) {
+						outerCache = elem[ expando ] || (elem[ expando ] = {});
+
+						// Support: IE <9 only
+						// Defend against cloned attroperties (jQuery gh-1709)
+						uniqueCache = outerCache[ elem.uniqueID ] || (outerCache[ elem.uniqueID ] = {});
+
+						if ( skip && skip === elem.nodeName.toLowerCase() ) {
+							elem = elem[ dir ] || elem;
+						} else if ( (oldCache = uniqueCache[ key ]) &&
+							oldCache[ 0 ] === dirruns && oldCache[ 1 ] === doneName ) {
+
+							// Assign to newCache so results back-propagate to previous elements
+							return (newCache[ 2 ] = oldCache[ 2 ]);
+						} else {
+							// Reuse newcache so results back-propagate to previous elements
+							uniqueCache[ key ] = newCache;
+
+							// A match means we're done; a fail means we have to keep checking
+							if ( (newCache[ 2 ] = matcher( elem, context, xml )) ) {
+								return true;
+							}
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			}
+			return false;
+		};
+}
+
+function elementMatcher( matchers ) {
+	return matchers.length > 1 ?
+		function( elem, context, xml ) {
+			var i = matchers.length;
+			while ( i-- ) {
+				if ( !matchers[i]( elem, context, xml ) ) {
+					return false;
+				}
+			}
+			return true;
+		} :
+		matchers[0];
+}
+
+function multipleContexts( selector, contexts, results ) {
+	var i = 0,
+		len = contexts.length;
+	for ( ; i < len; i++ ) {
+		Sizzle( selector, contexts[i], results );
+	}
+	return results;
+}
+
+function condense( unmatched, map, filter, context, xml ) {
+	var elem,
+		newUnmatched = [],
+		i = 0,
+		len = unmatched.length,
+		mapped = map != null;
+
+	for ( ; i < len; i++ ) {
+		if ( (elem = unmatched[i]) ) {
+			if ( !filter || filter( elem, context, xml ) ) {
+				newUnmatched.push( elem );
+				if ( mapped ) {
+					map.push( i );
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return newUnmatched;
+}
+
+function setMatcher( preFilter, selector, matcher, postFilter, postFinder, postSelector ) {
+	if ( postFilter && !postFilter[ expando ] ) {
+		postFilter = setMatcher( postFilter );
+	}
+	if ( postFinder && !postFinder[ expando ] ) {
+		postFinder = setMatcher( postFinder, postSelector );
+	}
+	return markFunction(function( seed, results, context, xml ) {
+		var temp, i, elem,
+			preMap = [],
+			postMap = [],
+			preexisting = results.length,
+
+			// Get initial elements from seed or context
+			elems = seed || multipleContexts( selector || "*", context.nodeType ? [ context ] : context, [] ),
+
+			// Prefilter to get matcher input, preserving a map for seed-results synchronization
+			matcherIn = preFilter && ( seed || !selector ) ?
+				condense( elems, preMap, preFilter, context, xml ) :
+				elems,
+
+			matcherOut = matcher ?
+				// If we have a postFinder, or filtered seed, or non-seed postFilter or preexisting results,
+				postFinder || ( seed ? preFilter : preexisting || postFilter ) ?
+
+					// ...intermediate processing is necessary
+					[] :
+
+					// ...otherwise use results directly
+					results :
+				matcherIn;
+
+		// Find primary matches
+		if ( matcher ) {
+			matcher( matcherIn, matcherOut, context, xml );
+		}
+
+		// Apply postFilter
+		if ( postFilter ) {
+			temp = condense( matcherOut, postMap );
+			postFilter( temp, [], context, xml );
+
+			// Un-match failing elements by moving them back to matcherIn
+			i = temp.length;
+			while ( i-- ) {
+				if ( (elem = temp[i]) ) {
+					matcherOut[ postMap[i] ] = !(matcherIn[ postMap[i] ] = elem);
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		if ( seed ) {
+			if ( postFinder || preFilter ) {
+				if ( postFinder ) {
+					// Get the final matcherOut by condensing this intermediate into postFinder contexts
+					temp = [];
+					i = matcherOut.length;
+					while ( i-- ) {
+						if ( (elem = matcherOut[i]) ) {
+							// Restore matcherIn since elem is not yet a final match
+							temp.push( (matcherIn[i] = elem) );
+						}
+					}
+					postFinder( null, (matcherOut = []), temp, xml );
+				}
+
+				// Move matched elements from seed to results to keep them synchronized
+				i = matcherOut.length;
+				while ( i-- ) {
+					if ( (elem = matcherOut[i]) &&
+						(temp = postFinder ? indexOf( seed, elem ) : preMap[i]) > -1 ) {
+
+						seed[temp] = !(results[temp] = elem);
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+		// Add elements to results, through postFinder if defined
+		} else {
+			matcherOut = condense(
+				matcherOut === results ?
+					matcherOut.splice( preexisting, matcherOut.length ) :
+					matcherOut
+			);
+			if ( postFinder ) {
+				postFinder( null, results, matcherOut, xml );
+			} else {
+				push.apply( results, matcherOut );
+			}
+		}
+	});
+}
+
+function matcherFromTokens( tokens ) {
+	var checkContext, matcher, j,
+		len = tokens.length,
+		leadingRelative = Expr.relative[ tokens[0].type ],
+		implicitRelative = leadingRelative || Expr.relative[" "],
+		i = leadingRelative ? 1 : 0,
+
+		// The foundational matcher ensures that elements are reachable from top-level context(s)
+		matchContext = addCombinator( function( elem ) {
+			return elem === checkContext;
+		}, implicitRelative, true ),
+		matchAnyContext = addCombinator( function( elem ) {
+			return indexOf( checkContext, elem ) > -1;
+		}, implicitRelative, true ),
+		matchers = [ function( elem, context, xml ) {
+			var ret = ( !leadingRelative && ( xml || context !== outermostContext ) ) || (
+				(checkContext = context).nodeType ?
+					matchContext( elem, context, xml ) :
+					matchAnyContext( elem, context, xml ) );
+			// Avoid hanging onto element (issue #299)
+			checkContext = null;
+			return ret;
+		} ];
+
+	for ( ; i < len; i++ ) {
+		if ( (matcher = Expr.relative[ tokens[i].type ]) ) {
+			matchers = [ addCombinator(elementMatcher( matchers ), matcher) ];
+		} else {
+			matcher = Expr.filter[ tokens[i].type ].apply( null, tokens[i].matches );
+
+			// Return special upon seeing a positional matcher
+			if ( matcher[ expando ] ) {
+				// Find the next relative operator (if any) for proper handling
+				j = ++i;
+				for ( ; j < len; j++ ) {
+					if ( Expr.relative[ tokens[j].type ] ) {
+						break;
+					}
+				}
+				return setMatcher(
+					i > 1 && elementMatcher( matchers ),
+					i > 1 && toSelector(
+						// If the preceding token was a descendant combinator, insert an implicit any-element `*`
+						tokens.slice( 0, i - 1 ).concat({ value: tokens[ i - 2 ].type === " " ? "*" : "" })
+					).replace( rtrim, "$1" ),
+					matcher,
+					i < j && matcherFromTokens( tokens.slice( i, j ) ),
+					j < len && matcherFromTokens( (tokens = tokens.slice( j )) ),
+					j < len && toSelector( tokens )
+				);
+			}
+			matchers.push( matcher );
+		}
+	}
+
+	return elementMatcher( matchers );
+}
+
+function matcherFromGroupMatchers( elementMatchers, setMatchers ) {
+	var bySet = setMatchers.length > 0,
+		byElement = elementMatchers.length > 0,
+		superMatcher = function( seed, context, xml, results, outermost ) {
+			var elem, j, matcher,
+				matchedCount = 0,
+				i = "0",
+				unmatched = seed && [],
+				setMatched = [],
+				contextBackup = outermostContext,
+				// We must always have either seed elements or outermost context
+				elems = seed || byElement && Expr.find["TAG"]( "*", outermost ),
+				// Use integer dirruns iff this is the outermost matcher
+				dirrunsUnique = (dirruns += contextBackup == null ? 1 : Math.random() || 0.1),
+				len = elems.length;
+
+			if ( outermost ) {
+				outermostContext = context === document || context || outermost;
+			}
+
+			// Add elements passing elementMatchers directly to results
+			// Support: IE<9, Safari
+			// Tolerate NodeList properties (IE: "length"; Safari: <number>) matching elements by id
+			for ( ; i !== len && (elem = elems[i]) != null; i++ ) {
+				if ( byElement && elem ) {
+					j = 0;
+					if ( !context && elem.ownerDocument !== document ) {
+						setDocument( elem );
+						xml = !documentIsHTML;
+					}
+					while ( (matcher = elementMatchers[j++]) ) {
+						if ( matcher( elem, context || document, xml) ) {
+							results.push( elem );
+							break;
+						}
+					}
+					if ( outermost ) {
+						dirruns = dirrunsUnique;
+					}
+				}
+
+				// Track unmatched elements for set filters
+				if ( bySet ) {
+					// They will have gone through all possible matchers
+					if ( (elem = !matcher && elem) ) {
+						matchedCount--;
+					}
+
+					// Lengthen the array for every element, matched or not
+					if ( seed ) {
+						unmatched.push( elem );
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			// `i` is now the count of elements visited above, and adding it to `matchedCount`
+			// makes the latter nonnegative.
+			matchedCount += i;
+
+			// Apply set filters to unmatched elements
+			// NOTE: This can be skipped if there are no unmatched elements (i.e., `matchedCount`
+			// equals `i`), unless we didn't visit _any_ elements in the above loop because we have
+			// no element matchers and no seed.
+			// Incrementing an initially-string "0" `i` allows `i` to remain a string only in that
+			// case, which will result in a "00" `matchedCount` that differs from `i` but is also
+			// numerically zero.
+			if ( bySet && i !== matchedCount ) {
+				j = 0;
+				while ( (matcher = setMatchers[j++]) ) {
+					matcher( unmatched, setMatched, context, xml );
+				}
+
+				if ( seed ) {
+					// Reintegrate element matches to eliminate the need for sorting
+					if ( matchedCount > 0 ) {
+						while ( i-- ) {
+							if ( !(unmatched[i] || setMatched[i]) ) {
+								setMatched[i] = pop.call( results );
+							}
+						}
+					}
+
+					// Discard index placeholder values to get only actual matches
+					setMatched = condense( setMatched );
+				}
+
+				// Add matches to results
+				push.apply( results, setMatched );
+
+				// Seedless set matches succeeding multiple successful matchers stipulate sorting
+				if ( outermost && !seed && setMatched.length > 0 &&
+					( matchedCount + setMatchers.length ) > 1 ) {
+
+					Sizzle.uniqueSort( results );
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Override manipulation of globals by nested matchers
+			if ( outermost ) {
+				dirruns = dirrunsUnique;
+				outermostContext = contextBackup;
+			}
+
+			return unmatched;
+		};
+
+	return bySet ?
+		markFunction( superMatcher ) :
+		superMatcher;
+}
+
+compile = Sizzle.compile = function( selector, match /* Internal Use Only */ ) {
+	var i,
+		setMatchers = [],
+		elementMatchers = [],
+		cached = compilerCache[ selector + " " ];
+
+	if ( !cached ) {
+		// Generate a function of recursive functions that can be used to check each element
+		if ( !match ) {
+			match = tokenize( selector );
+		}
+		i = match.length;
+		while ( i-- ) {
+			cached = matcherFromTokens( match[i] );
+			if ( cached[ expando ] ) {
+				setMatchers.push( cached );
+			} else {
+				elementMatchers.push( cached );
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Cache the compiled function
+		cached = compilerCache( selector, matcherFromGroupMatchers( elementMatchers, setMatchers ) );
+
+		// Save selector and tokenization
+		cached.selector = selector;
+	}
+	return cached;
+};
+
+/**
+ * A low-level selection function that works with Sizzle's compiled
+ *  selector functions
+ * @param {String|Function} selector A selector or a pre-compiled
+ *  selector function built with Sizzle.compile
+ * @param {Element} context
+ * @param {Array} [results]
+ * @param {Array} [seed] A set of elements to match against
+ */
+select = Sizzle.select = function( selector, context, results, seed ) {
+	var i, tokens, token, type, find,
+		compiled = typeof selector === "function" && selector,
+		match = !seed && tokenize( (selector = compiled.selector || selector) );
+
+	results = results || [];
+
+	// Try to minimize operations if there is only one selector in the list and no seed
+	// (the latter of which guarantees us context)
+	if ( match.length === 1 ) {
+
+		// Reduce context if the leading compound selector is an ID
+		tokens = match[0] = match[0].slice( 0 );
+		if ( tokens.length > 2 && (token = tokens[0]).type === "ID" &&
+				context.nodeType === 9 && documentIsHTML && Expr.relative[ tokens[1].type ] ) {
+
+			context = ( Expr.find["ID"]( token.matches[0].replace(runescape, funescape), context ) || [] )[0];
+			if ( !context ) {
+				return results;
+
+			// Precompiled matchers will still verify ancestry, so step up a level
+			} else if ( compiled ) {
+				context = context.parentNode;
+			}
+
+			selector = selector.slice( tokens.shift().value.length );
+		}
+
+		// Fetch a seed set for right-to-left matching
+		i = matchExpr["needsContext"].test( selector ) ? 0 : tokens.length;
+		while ( i-- ) {
+			token = tokens[i];
+
+			// Abort if we hit a combinator
+			if ( Expr.relative[ (type = token.type) ] ) {
+				break;
+			}
+			if ( (find = Expr.find[ type ]) ) {
+				// Search, expanding context for leading sibling combinators
+				if ( (seed = find(
+					token.matches[0].replace( runescape, funescape ),
+					rsibling.test( tokens[0].type ) && testContext( context.parentNode ) || context
+				)) ) {
+
+					// If seed is empty or no tokens remain, we can return early
+					tokens.splice( i, 1 );
+					selector = seed.length && toSelector( tokens );
+					if ( !selector ) {
+						push.apply( results, seed );
+						return results;
+					}
+
+					break;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Compile and execute a filtering function if one is not provided
+	// Provide `match` to avoid retokenization if we modified the selector above
+	( compiled || compile( selector, match ) )(
+		seed,
+		context,
+		!documentIsHTML,
+		results,
+		!context || rsibling.test( selector ) && testContext( context.parentNode ) || context
+	);
+	return results;
+};
+
+// One-time assignments
+
+// Sort stability
+support.sortStable = expando.split("").sort( sortOrder ).join("") === expando;
+
+// Support: Chrome 14-35+
+// Always assume duplicates if they aren't passed to the comparison function
+support.detectDuplicates = !!hasDuplicate;
+
+// Initialize against the default document
+setDocument();
+
+// Support: Webkit<537.32 - Safari 6.0.3/Chrome 25 (fixed in Chrome 27)
+// Detached nodes confoundingly follow *each other*
+support.sortDetached = assert(function( el ) {
+	// Should return 1, but returns 4 (following)
+	return el.compareDocumentPosition( document.createElement("fieldset") ) & 1;
+});
+
+// Support: IE<8
+// Prevent attribute/property "interpolation"
+// https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms536429%28VS.85%29.aspx
+if ( !assert(function( el ) {
+	el.innerHTML = "<a href='#'></a>";
+	return el.firstChild.getAttribute("href") === "#" ;
+}) ) {
+	addHandle( "type|href|height|width", function( elem, name, isXML ) {
+		if ( !isXML ) {
+			return elem.getAttribute( name, name.toLowerCase() === "type" ? 1 : 2 );
+		}
+	});
+}
+
+// Support: IE<9
+// Use defaultValue in place of getAttribute("value")
+if ( !support.attributes || !assert(function( el ) {
+	el.innerHTML = "<input/>";
+	el.firstChild.setAttribute( "value", "" );
+	return el.firstChild.getAttribute( "value" ) === "";
+}) ) {
+	addHandle( "value", function( elem, name, isXML ) {
+		if ( !isXML && elem.nodeName.toLowerCase() === "input" ) {
+			return elem.defaultValue;
+		}
+	});
+}
+
+// Support: IE<9
+// Use getAttributeNode to fetch booleans when getAttribute lies
+if ( !assert(function( el ) {
+	return el.getAttribute("disabled") == null;
+}) ) {
+	addHandle( booleans, function( elem, name, isXML ) {
+		var val;
+		if ( !isXML ) {
+			return elem[ name ] === true ? name.toLowerCase() :
+					(val = elem.getAttributeNode( name )) && val.specified ?
+					val.value :
+				null;
+		}
+	});
+}
+
+return Sizzle;
+
+})( window );
+
+
+
+jQuery.find = Sizzle;
+jQuery.expr = Sizzle.selectors;
+
+// Deprecated
+jQuery.expr[ ":" ] = jQuery.expr.pseudos;
+jQuery.uniqueSort = jQuery.unique = Sizzle.uniqueSort;
+jQuery.text = Sizzle.getText;
+jQuery.isXMLDoc = Sizzle.isXML;
+jQuery.contains = Sizzle.contains;
+jQuery.escapeSelector = Sizzle.escape;
+
+
+
+
+var dir = function( elem, dir, until ) {
+	var matched = [],
+		truncate = until !== undefined;
+
+	while ( ( elem = elem[ dir ] ) && elem.nodeType !== 9 ) {
+		if ( elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+			if ( truncate && jQuery( elem ).is( until ) ) {
+				break;
+			}
+			matched.push( elem );
+		}
+	}
+	return matched;
+};
+
+
+var siblings = function( n, elem ) {
+	var matched = [];
+
+	for ( ; n; n = n.nextSibling ) {
+		if ( n.nodeType === 1 && n !== elem ) {
+			matched.push( n );
+		}
+	}
+
+	return matched;
+};
+
+
+var rneedsContext = jQuery.expr.match.needsContext;
+
+
+
+function nodeName( elem, name ) {
+
+  return elem.nodeName && elem.nodeName.toLowerCase() === name.toLowerCase();
+
+};
+var rsingleTag = ( /^<([a-z][^\/\0>:\x20\t\r\n\f]*)[\x20\t\r\n\f]*\/?>(?:<\/\1>|)$/i );
+
+
+
+var risSimple = /^.[^:#\[\.,]*$/;
+
+// Implement the identical functionality for filter and not
+function winnow( elements, qualifier, not ) {
+	if ( jQuery.isFunction( qualifier ) ) {
+		return jQuery.grep( elements, function( elem, i ) {
+			return !!qualifier.call( elem, i, elem ) !== not;
+		} );
+	}
+
+	// Single element
+	if ( qualifier.nodeType ) {
+		return jQuery.grep( elements, function( elem ) {
+			return ( elem === qualifier ) !== not;
+		} );
+	}
+
+	// Arraylike of elements (jQuery, arguments, Array)
+	if ( typeof qualifier !== "string" ) {
+		return jQuery.grep( elements, function( elem ) {
+			return ( indexOf.call( qualifier, elem ) > -1 ) !== not;
+		} );
+	}
+
+	// Simple selector that can be filtered directly, removing non-Elements
+	if ( risSimple.test( qualifier ) ) {
+		return jQuery.filter( qualifier, elements, not );
+	}
+
+	// Complex selector, compare the two sets, removing non-Elements
+	qualifier = jQuery.filter( qualifier, elements );
+	return jQuery.grep( elements, function( elem ) {
+		return ( indexOf.call( qualifier, elem ) > -1 ) !== not && elem.nodeType === 1;
+	} );
+}
+
+jQuery.filter = function( expr, elems, not ) {
+	var elem = elems[ 0 ];
+
+	if ( not ) {
+		expr = ":not(" + expr + ")";
+	}
+
+	if ( elems.length === 1 && elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+		return jQuery.find.matchesSelector( elem, expr ) ? [ elem ] : [];
+	}
+
+	return jQuery.find.matches( expr, jQuery.grep( elems, function( elem ) {
+		return elem.nodeType === 1;
+	} ) );
+};
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	find: function( selector ) {
+		var i, ret,
+			len = this.length,
+			self = this;
+
+		if ( typeof selector !== "string" ) {
+			return this.pushStack( jQuery( selector ).filter( function() {
+				for ( i = 0; i < len; i++ ) {
+					if ( jQuery.contains( self[ i ], this ) ) {
+						return true;
+					}
+				}
+			} ) );
+		}
+
+		ret = this.pushStack( [] );
+
+		for ( i = 0; i < len; i++ ) {
+			jQuery.find( selector, self[ i ], ret );
+		}
+
+		return len > 1 ? jQuery.uniqueSort( ret ) : ret;
+	},
+	filter: function( selector ) {
+		return this.pushStack( winnow( this, selector || [], false ) );
+	},
+	not: function( selector ) {
+		return this.pushStack( winnow( this, selector || [], true ) );
+	},
+	is: function( selector ) {
+		return !!winnow(
+			this,
+
+			// If this is a positional/relative selector, check membership in the returned set
+			// so $("p:first").is("p:last") won't return true for a doc with two "p".
+			typeof selector === "string" && rneedsContext.test( selector ) ?
+				jQuery( selector ) :
+				selector || [],
+			false
+		).length;
+	}
+} );
+
+
+// Initialize a jQuery object
+
+
+// A central reference to the root jQuery(document)
+var rootjQuery,
+
+	// A simple way to check for HTML strings
+	// Prioritize #id over <tag> to avoid XSS via location.hash (#9521)
+	// Strict HTML recognition (#11290: must start with <)
+	// Shortcut simple #id case for speed
+	rquickExpr = /^(?:\s*(<[\w\W]+>)[^>]*|#([\w-]+))$/,
+
+	init = jQuery.fn.init = function( selector, context, root ) {
+		var match, elem;
+
+		// HANDLE: $(""), $(null), $(undefined), $(false)
+		if ( !selector ) {
+			return this;
+		}
+
+		// Method init() accepts an alternate rootjQuery
+		// so migrate can support jQuery.sub (gh-2101)
+		root = root || rootjQuery;
+
+		// Handle HTML strings
+		if ( typeof selector === "string" ) {
+			if ( selector[ 0 ] === "<" &&
+				selector[ selector.length - 1 ] === ">" &&
+				selector.length >= 3 ) {
+
+				// Assume that strings that start and end with <> are HTML and skip the regex check
+				match = [ null, selector, null ];
+
+			} else {
+				match = rquickExpr.exec( selector );
+			}
+
+			// Match html or make sure no context is specified for #id
+			if ( match && ( match[ 1 ] || !context ) ) {
+
+				// HANDLE: $(html) -> $(array)
+				if ( match[ 1 ] ) {
+					context = context instanceof jQuery ? context[ 0 ] : context;
+
+					// Option to run scripts is true for back-compat
+					// Intentionally let the error be thrown if parseHTML is not present
+					jQuery.merge( this, jQuery.parseHTML(
+						match[ 1 ],
+						context && context.nodeType ? context.ownerDocument || context : document,
+						true
+					) );
+
+					// HANDLE: $(html, props)
+					if ( rsingleTag.test( match[ 1 ] ) && jQuery.isPlainObject( context ) ) {
+						for ( match in context ) {
+
+							// Properties of context are called as methods if possible
+							if ( jQuery.isFunction( this[ match ] ) ) {
+								this[ match ]( context[ match ] );
+
+							// ...and otherwise set as attributes
+							} else {
+								this.attr( match, context[ match ] );
+							}
+						}
+					}
+
+					return this;
+
+				// HANDLE: $(#id)
+				} else {
+					elem = document.getElementById( match[ 2 ] );
+
+					if ( elem ) {
+
+						// Inject the element directly into the jQuery object
+						this[ 0 ] = elem;
+						this.length = 1;
+					}
+					return this;
+				}
+
+			// HANDLE: $(expr, $(...))
+			} else if ( !context || context.jquery ) {
+				return ( context || root ).find( selector );
+
+			// HANDLE: $(expr, context)
+			// (which is just equivalent to: $(context).find(expr)
+			} else {
+				return this.constructor( context ).find( selector );
+			}
+
+		// HANDLE: $(DOMElement)
+		} else if ( selector.nodeType ) {
+			this[ 0 ] = selector;
+			this.length = 1;
+			return this;
+
+		// HANDLE: $(function)
+		// Shortcut for document ready
+		} else if ( jQuery.isFunction( selector ) ) {
+			return root.ready !== undefined ?
+				root.ready( selector ) :
+
+				// Execute immediately if ready is not present
+				selector( jQuery );
+		}
+
+		return jQuery.makeArray( selector, this );
+	};
+
+// Give the init function the jQuery prototype for later instantiation
+init.prototype = jQuery.fn;
+
+// Initialize central reference
+rootjQuery = jQuery( document );
+
+
+var rparentsprev = /^(?:parents|prev(?:Until|All))/,
+
+	// Methods guaranteed to produce a unique set when starting from a unique set
+	guaranteedUnique = {
+		children: true,
+		contents: true,
+		next: true,
+		prev: true
+	};
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	has: function( target ) {
+		var targets = jQuery( target, this ),
+			l = targets.length;
+
+		return this.filter( function() {
+			var i = 0;
+			for ( ; i < l; i++ ) {
+				if ( jQuery.contains( this, targets[ i ] ) ) {
+					return true;
+				}
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	closest: function( selectors, context ) {
+		var cur,
+			i = 0,
+			l = this.length,
+			matched = [],
+			targets = typeof selectors !== "string" && jQuery( selectors );
+
+		// Positional selectors never match, since there's no _selection_ context
+		if ( !rneedsContext.test( selectors ) ) {
+			for ( ; i < l; i++ ) {
+				for ( cur = this[ i ]; cur && cur !== context; cur = cur.parentNode ) {
+
+					// Always skip document fragments
+					if ( cur.nodeType < 11 && ( targets ?
+						targets.index( cur ) > -1 :
+
+						// Don't pass non-elements to Sizzle
+						cur.nodeType === 1 &&
+							jQuery.find.matchesSelector( cur, selectors ) ) ) {
+
+						matched.push( cur );
+						break;
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return this.pushStack( matched.length > 1 ? jQuery.uniqueSort( matched ) : matched );
+	},
+
+	// Determine the position of an element within the set
+	index: function( elem ) {
+
+		// No argument, return index in parent
+		if ( !elem ) {
+			return ( this[ 0 ] && this[ 0 ].parentNode ) ? this.first().prevAll().length : -1;
+		}
+
+		// Index in selector
+		if ( typeof elem === "string" ) {
+			return indexOf.call( jQuery( elem ), this[ 0 ] );
+		}
+
+		// Locate the position of the desired element
+		return indexOf.call( this,
+
+			// If it receives a jQuery object, the first element is used
+			elem.jquery ? elem[ 0 ] : elem
+		);
+	},
+
+	add: function( selector, context ) {
+		return this.pushStack(
+			jQuery.uniqueSort(
+				jQuery.merge( this.get(), jQuery( selector, context ) )
+			)
+		);
+	},
+
+	addBack: function( selector ) {
+		return this.add( selector == null ?
+			this.prevObject : this.prevObject.filter( selector )
+		);
+	}
+} );
+
+function sibling( cur, dir ) {
+	while ( ( cur = cur[ dir ] ) && cur.nodeType !== 1 ) {}
+	return cur;
+}
+
+jQuery.each( {
+	parent: function( elem ) {
+		var parent = elem.parentNode;
+		return parent && parent.nodeType !== 11 ? parent : null;
+	},
+	parents: function( elem ) {
+		return dir( elem, "parentNode" );
+	},
+	parentsUntil: function( elem, i, until ) {
+		return dir( elem, "parentNode", until );
+	},
+	next: function( elem ) {
+		return sibling( elem, "nextSibling" );
+	},
+	prev: function( elem ) {
+		return sibling( elem, "previousSibling" );
+	},
+	nextAll: function( elem ) {
+		return dir( elem, "nextSibling" );
+	},
+	prevAll: function( elem ) {
+		return dir( elem, "previousSibling" );
+	},
+	nextUntil: function( elem, i, until ) {
+		return dir( elem, "nextSibling", until );
+	},
+	prevUntil: function( elem, i, until ) {
+		return dir( elem, "previousSibling", until );
+	},
+	siblings: function( elem ) {
+		return siblings( ( elem.parentNode || {} ).firstChild, elem );
+	},
+	children: function( elem ) {
+		return siblings( elem.firstChild );
+	},
+	contents: function( elem ) {
+        if ( nodeName( elem, "iframe" ) ) {
+            return elem.contentDocument;
+        }
+
+        // Support: IE 9 - 11 only, iOS 7 only, Android Browser <=4.3 only
+        // Treat the template element as a regular one in browsers that
+        // don't support it.
+        if ( nodeName( elem, "template" ) ) {
+            elem = elem.content || elem;
+        }
+
+        return jQuery.merge( [], elem.childNodes );
+	}
+}, function( name, fn ) {
+	jQuery.fn[ name ] = function( until, selector ) {
+		var matched = jQuery.map( this, fn, until );
+
+		if ( name.slice( -5 ) !== "Until" ) {
+			selector = until;
+		}
+
+		if ( selector && typeof selector === "string" ) {
+			matched = jQuery.filter( selector, matched );
+		}
+
+		if ( this.length > 1 ) {
+
+			// Remove duplicates
+			if ( !guaranteedUnique[ name ] ) {
+				jQuery.uniqueSort( matched );
+			}
+
+			// Reverse order for parents* and prev-derivatives
+			if ( rparentsprev.test( name ) ) {
+				matched.reverse();
+			}
+		}
+
+		return this.pushStack( matched );
+	};
+} );
+var rnothtmlwhite = ( /[^\x20\t\r\n\f]+/g );
+
+
+
+// Convert String-formatted options into Object-formatted ones
+function createOptions( options ) {
+	var object = {};
+	jQuery.each( options.match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [], function( _, flag ) {
+		object[ flag ] = true;
+	} );
+	return object;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Create a callback list using the following parameters:
+ *
+ *	options: an optional list of space-separated options that will change how
+ *			the callback list behaves or a more traditional option object
+ *
+ * By default a callback list will act like an event callback list and can be
+ * "fired" multiple times.
+ *
+ * Possible options:
+ *
+ *	once:			will ensure the callback list can only be fired once (like a Deferred)
+ *
+ *	memory:			will keep track of previous values and will call any callback added
+ *					after the list has been fired right away with the latest "memorized"
+ *					values (like a Deferred)
+ *
+ *	unique:			will ensure a callback can only be added once (no duplicate in the list)
+ *
+ *	stopOnFalse:	interrupt callings when a callback returns false
+ *
+ */
+jQuery.Callbacks = function( options ) {
+
+	// Convert options from String-formatted to Object-formatted if needed
+	// (we check in cache first)
+	options = typeof options === "string" ?
+		createOptions( options ) :
+		jQuery.extend( {}, options );
+
+	var // Flag to know if list is currently firing
+		firing,
+
+		// Last fire value for non-forgettable lists
+		memory,
+
+		// Flag to know if list was already fired
+		fired,
+
+		// Flag to prevent firing
+		locked,
+
+		// Actual callback list
+		list = [],
+
+		// Queue of execution data for repeatable lists
+		queue = [],
+
+		// Index of currently firing callback (modified by add/remove as needed)
+		firingIndex = -1,
+
+		// Fire callbacks
+		fire = function() {
+
+			// Enforce single-firing
+			locked = locked || options.once;
+
+			// Execute callbacks for all pending executions,
+			// respecting firingIndex overrides and runtime changes
+			fired = firing = true;
+			for ( ; queue.length; firingIndex = -1 ) {
+				memory = queue.shift();
+				while ( ++firingIndex < list.length ) {
+
+					// Run callback and check for early termination
+					if ( list[ firingIndex ].apply( memory[ 0 ], memory[ 1 ] ) === false &&
+						options.stopOnFalse ) {
+
+						// Jump to end and forget the data so .add doesn't re-fire
+						firingIndex = list.length;
+						memory = false;
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Forget the data if we're done with it
+			if ( !options.memory ) {
+				memory = false;
+			}
+
+			firing = false;
+
+			// Clean up if we're done firing for good
+			if ( locked ) {
+
+				// Keep an empty list if we have data for future add calls
+				if ( memory ) {
+					list = [];
+
+				// Otherwise, this object is spent
+				} else {
+					list = "";
+				}
+			}
+		},
+
+		// Actual Callbacks object
+		self = {
+
+			// Add a callback or a collection of callbacks to the list
+			add: function() {
+				if ( list ) {
+
+					// If we have memory from a past run, we should fire after adding
+					if ( memory && !firing ) {
+						firingIndex = list.length - 1;
+						queue.push( memory );
+					}
+
+					( function add( args ) {
+						jQuery.each( args, function( _, arg ) {
+							if ( jQuery.isFunction( arg ) ) {
+								if ( !options.unique || !self.has( arg ) ) {
+									list.push( arg );
+								}
+							} else if ( arg && arg.length && jQuery.type( arg ) !== "string" ) {
+
+								// Inspect recursively
+								add( arg );
+							}
+						} );
+					} )( arguments );
+
+					if ( memory && !firing ) {
+						fire();
+					}
+				}
+				return this;
+			},
+
+			// Remove a callback from the list
+			remove: function() {
+				jQuery.each( arguments, function( _, arg ) {
+					var index;
+					while ( ( index = jQuery.inArray( arg, list, index ) ) > -1 ) {
+						list.splice( index, 1 );
+
+						// Handle firing indexes
+						if ( index <= firingIndex ) {
+							firingIndex--;
+						}
+					}
+				} );
+				return this;
+			},
+
+			// Check if a given callback is in the list.
+			// If no argument is given, return whether or not list has callbacks attached.
+			has: function( fn ) {
+				return fn ?
+					jQuery.inArray( fn, list ) > -1 :
+					list.length > 0;
+			},
+
+			// Remove all callbacks from the list
+			empty: function() {
+				if ( list ) {
+					list = [];
+				}
+				return this;
+			},
+
+			// Disable .fire and .add
+			// Abort any current/pending executions
+			// Clear all callbacks and values
+			disable: function() {
+				locked = queue = [];
+				list = memory = "";
+				return this;
+			},
+			disabled: function() {
+				return !list;
+			},
+
+			// Disable .fire
+			// Also disable .add unless we have memory (since it would have no effect)
+			// Abort any pending executions
+			lock: function() {
+				locked = queue = [];
+				if ( !memory && !firing ) {
+					list = memory = "";
+				}
+				return this;
+			},
+			locked: function() {
+				return !!locked;
+			},
+
+			// Call all callbacks with the given context and arguments
+			fireWith: function( context, args ) {
+				if ( !locked ) {
+					args = args || [];
+					args = [ context, args.slice ? args.slice() : args ];
+					queue.push( args );
+					if ( !firing ) {
+						fire();
+					}
+				}
+				return this;
+			},
+
+			// Call all the callbacks with the given arguments
+			fire: function() {
+				self.fireWith( this, arguments );
+				return this;
+			},
+
+			// To know if the callbacks have already been called at least once
+			fired: function() {
+				return !!fired;
+			}
+		};
+
+	return self;
+};
+
+
+function Identity( v ) {
+	return v;
+}
+function Thrower( ex ) {
+	throw ex;
+}
+
+function adoptValue( value, resolve, reject, noValue ) {
+	var method;
+
+	try {
+
+		// Check for promise aspect first to privilege synchronous behavior
+		if ( value && jQuery.isFunction( ( method = value.promise ) ) ) {
+			method.call( value ).done( resolve ).fail( reject );
+
+		// Other thenables
+		} else if ( value && jQuery.isFunction( ( method = value.then ) ) ) {
+			method.call( value, resolve, reject );
+
+		// Other non-thenables
+		} else {
+
+			// Control `resolve` arguments by letting Array#slice cast boolean `noValue` to integer:
+			// * false: [ value ].slice( 0 ) => resolve( value )
+			// * true: [ value ].slice( 1 ) => resolve()
+			resolve.apply( undefined, [ value ].slice( noValue ) );
+		}
+
+	// For Promises/A+, convert exceptions into rejections
+	// Since jQuery.when doesn't unwrap thenables, we can skip the extra checks appearing in
+	// Deferred#then to conditionally suppress rejection.
+	} catch ( value ) {
+
+		// Support: Android 4.0 only
+		// Strict mode functions invoked without .call/.apply get global-object context
+		reject.apply( undefined, [ value ] );
+	}
+}
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+
+	Deferred: function( func ) {
+		var tuples = [
+
+				// action, add listener, callbacks,
+				// ... .then handlers, argument index, [final state]
+				[ "notify", "progress", jQuery.Callbacks( "memory" ),
+					jQuery.Callbacks( "memory" ), 2 ],
+				[ "resolve", "done", jQuery.Callbacks( "once memory" ),
+					jQuery.Callbacks( "once memory" ), 0, "resolved" ],
+				[ "reject", "fail", jQuery.Callbacks( "once memory" ),
+					jQuery.Callbacks( "once memory" ), 1, "rejected" ]
+			],
+			state = "pending",
+			promise = {
+				state: function() {
+					return state;
+				},
+				always: function() {
+					deferred.done( arguments ).fail( arguments );
+					return this;
+				},
+				"catch": function( fn ) {
+					return promise.then( null, fn );
+				},
+
+				// Keep pipe for back-compat
+				pipe: function( /* fnDone, fnFail, fnProgress */ ) {
+					var fns = arguments;
+
+					return jQuery.Deferred( function( newDefer ) {
+						jQuery.each( tuples, function( i, tuple ) {
+
+							// Map tuples (progress, done, fail) to arguments (done, fail, progress)
+							var fn = jQuery.isFunction( fns[ tuple[ 4 ] ] ) && fns[ tuple[ 4 ] ];
+
+							// deferred.progress(function() { bind to newDefer or newDefer.notify })
+							// deferred.done(function() { bind to newDefer or newDefer.resolve })
+							// deferred.fail(function() { bind to newDefer or newDefer.reject })
+							deferred[ tuple[ 1 ] ]( function() {
+								var returned = fn && fn.apply( this, arguments );
+								if ( returned && jQuery.isFunction( returned.promise ) ) {
+									returned.promise()
+										.progress( newDefer.notify )
+										.done( newDefer.resolve )
+										.fail( newDefer.reject );
+								} else {
+									newDefer[ tuple[ 0 ] + "With" ](
+										this,
+										fn ? [ returned ] : arguments
+									);
+								}
+							} );
+						} );
+						fns = null;
+					} ).promise();
+				},
+				then: function( onFulfilled, onRejected, onProgress ) {
+					var maxDepth = 0;
+					function resolve( depth, deferred, handler, special ) {
+						return function() {
+							var that = this,
+								args = arguments,
+								mightThrow = function() {
+									var returned, then;
+
+									// Support: Promises/A+ section 2.3.3.3.3
+									// https://promisesaplus.com/#point-59
+									// Ignore double-resolution attempts
+									if ( depth < maxDepth ) {
+										return;
+									}
+
+									returned = handler.apply( that, args );
+
+									// Support: Promises/A+ section 2.3.1
+									// https://promisesaplus.com/#point-48
+									if ( returned === deferred.promise() ) {
+										throw new TypeError( "Thenable self-resolution" );
+									}
+
+									// Support: Promises/A+ sections 2.3.3.1, 3.5
+									// https://promisesaplus.com/#point-54
+									// https://promisesaplus.com/#point-75
+									// Retrieve `then` only once
+									then = returned &&
+
+										// Support: Promises/A+ section 2.3.4
+										// https://promisesaplus.com/#point-64
+										// Only check objects and functions for thenability
+										( typeof returned === "object" ||
+											typeof returned === "function" ) &&
+										returned.then;
+
+									// Handle a returned thenable
+									if ( jQuery.isFunction( then ) ) {
+
+										// Special processors (notify) just wait for resolution
+										if ( special ) {
+											then.call(
+												returned,
+												resolve( maxDepth, deferred, Identity, special ),
+												resolve( maxDepth, deferred, Thrower, special )
+											);
+
+										// Normal processors (resolve) also hook into progress
+										} else {
+
+											// ...and disregard older resolution values
+											maxDepth++;
+
+											then.call(
+												returned,
+												resolve( maxDepth, deferred, Identity, special ),
+												resolve( maxDepth, deferred, Thrower, special ),
+												resolve( maxDepth, deferred, Identity,
+													deferred.notifyWith )
+											);
+										}
+
+									// Handle all other returned values
+									} else {
+
+										// Only substitute handlers pass on context
+										// and multiple values (non-spec behavior)
+										if ( handler !== Identity ) {
+											that = undefined;
+											args = [ returned ];
+										}
+
+										// Process the value(s)
+										// Default process is resolve
+										( special || deferred.resolveWith )( that, args );
+									}
+								},
+
+								// Only normal processors (resolve) catch and reject exceptions
+								process = special ?
+									mightThrow :
+									function() {
+										try {
+											mightThrow();
+										} catch ( e ) {
+
+											if ( jQuery.Deferred.exceptionHook ) {
+												jQuery.Deferred.exceptionHook( e,
+													process.stackTrace );
+											}
+
+											// Support: Promises/A+ section 2.3.3.3.4.1
+											// https://promisesaplus.com/#point-61
+											// Ignore post-resolution exceptions
+											if ( depth + 1 >= maxDepth ) {
+
+												// Only substitute handlers pass on context
+												// and multiple values (non-spec behavior)
+												if ( handler !== Thrower ) {
+													that = undefined;
+													args = [ e ];
+												}
+
+												deferred.rejectWith( that, args );
+											}
+										}
+									};
+
+							// Support: Promises/A+ section 2.3.3.3.1
+							// https://promisesaplus.com/#point-57
+							// Re-resolve promises immediately to dodge false rejection from
+							// subsequent errors
+							if ( depth ) {
+								process();
+							} else {
+
+								// Call an optional hook to record the stack, in case of exception
+								// since it's otherwise lost when execution goes async
+								if ( jQuery.Deferred.getStackHook ) {
+									process.stackTrace = jQuery.Deferred.getStackHook();
+								}
+								window.setTimeout( process );
+							}
+						};
+					}
+
+					return jQuery.Deferred( function( newDefer ) {
+
+						// progress_handlers.add( ... )
+						tuples[ 0 ][ 3 ].add(
+							resolve(
+								0,
+								newDefer,
+								jQuery.isFunction( onProgress ) ?
+									onProgress :
+									Identity,
+								newDefer.notifyWith
+							)
+						);
+
+						// fulfilled_handlers.add( ... )
+						tuples[ 1 ][ 3 ].add(
+							resolve(
+								0,
+								newDefer,
+								jQuery.isFunction( onFulfilled ) ?
+									onFulfilled :
+									Identity
+							)
+						);
+
+						// rejected_handlers.add( ... )
+						tuples[ 2 ][ 3 ].add(
+							resolve(
+								0,
+								newDefer,
+								jQuery.isFunction( onRejected ) ?
+									onRejected :
+									Thrower
+							)
+						);
+					} ).promise();
+				},
+
+				// Get a promise for this deferred
+				// If obj is provided, the promise aspect is added to the object
+				promise: function( obj ) {
+					return obj != null ? jQuery.extend( obj, promise ) : promise;
+				}
+			},
+			deferred = {};
+
+		// Add list-specific methods
+		jQuery.each( tuples, function( i, tuple ) {
+			var list = tuple[ 2 ],
+				stateString = tuple[ 5 ];
+
+			// promise.progress = list.add
+			// promise.done = list.add
+			// promise.fail = list.add
+			promise[ tuple[ 1 ] ] = list.add;
+
+			// Handle state
+			if ( stateString ) {
+				list.add(
+					function() {
+
+						// state = "resolved" (i.e., fulfilled)
+						// state = "rejected"
+						state = stateString;
+					},
+
+					// rejected_callbacks.disable
+					// fulfilled_callbacks.disable
+					tuples[ 3 - i ][ 2 ].disable,
+
+					// progress_callbacks.lock
+					tuples[ 0 ][ 2 ].lock
+				);
+			}
+
+			// progress_handlers.fire
+			// fulfilled_handlers.fire
+			// rejected_handlers.fire
+			list.add( tuple[ 3 ].fire );
+
+			// deferred.notify = function() { deferred.notifyWith(...) }
+			// deferred.resolve = function() { deferred.resolveWith(...) }
+			// deferred.reject = function() { deferred.rejectWith(...) }
+			deferred[ tuple[ 0 ] ] = function() {
+				deferred[ tuple[ 0 ] + "With" ]( this === deferred ? undefined : this, arguments );
+				return this;
+			};
+
+			// deferred.notifyWith = list.fireWith
+			// deferred.resolveWith = list.fireWith
+			// deferred.rejectWith = list.fireWith
+			deferred[ tuple[ 0 ] + "With" ] = list.fireWith;
+		} );
+
+		// Make the deferred a promise
+		promise.promise( deferred );
+
+		// Call given func if any
+		if ( func ) {
+			func.call( deferred, deferred );
+		}
+
+		// All done!
+		return deferred;
+	},
+
+	// Deferred helper
+	when: function( singleValue ) {
+		var
+
+			// count of uncompleted subordinates
+			remaining = arguments.length,
+
+			// count of unprocessed arguments
+			i = remaining,
+
+			// subordinate fulfillment data
+			resolveContexts = Array( i ),
+			resolveValues = slice.call( arguments ),
+
+			// the master Deferred
+			master = jQuery.Deferred(),
+
+			// subordinate callback factory
+			updateFunc = function( i ) {
+				return function( value ) {
+					resolveContexts[ i ] = this;
+					resolveValues[ i ] = arguments.length > 1 ? slice.call( arguments ) : value;
+					if ( !( --remaining ) ) {
+						master.resolveWith( resolveContexts, resolveValues );
+					}
+				};
+			};
+
+		// Single- and empty arguments are adopted like Promise.resolve
+		if ( remaining <= 1 ) {
+			adoptValue( singleValue, master.done( updateFunc( i ) ).resolve, master.reject,
+				!remaining );
+
+			// Use .then() to unwrap secondary thenables (cf. gh-3000)
+			if ( master.state() === "pending" ||
+				jQuery.isFunction( resolveValues[ i ] && resolveValues[ i ].then ) ) {
+
+				return master.then();
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Multiple arguments are aggregated like Promise.all array elements
+		while ( i-- ) {
+			adoptValue( resolveValues[ i ], updateFunc( i ), master.reject );
+		}
+
+		return master.promise();
+	}
+} );
+
+
+// These usually indicate a programmer mistake during development,
+// warn about them ASAP rather than swallowing them by default.
+var rerrorNames = /^(Eval|Internal|Range|Reference|Syntax|Type|URI)Error$/;
+
+jQuery.Deferred.exceptionHook = function( error, stack ) {
+
+	// Support: IE 8 - 9 only
+	// Console exists when dev tools are open, which can happen at any time
+	if ( window.console && window.console.warn && error && rerrorNames.test( error.name ) ) {
+		window.console.warn( "jQuery.Deferred exception: " + error.message, error.stack, stack );
+	}
+};
+
+
+
+
+jQuery.readyException = function( error ) {
+	window.setTimeout( function() {
+		throw error;
+	} );
+};
+
+
+
+
+// The deferred used on DOM ready
+var readyList = jQuery.Deferred();
+
+jQuery.fn.ready = function( fn ) {
+
+	readyList
+		.then( fn )
+
+		// Wrap jQuery.readyException in a function so that the lookup
+		// happens at the time of error handling instead of callback
+		// registration.
+		.catch( function( error ) {
+			jQuery.readyException( error );
+		} );
+
+	return this;
+};
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+
+	// Is the DOM ready to be used? Set to true once it occurs.
+	isReady: false,
+
+	// A counter to track how many items to wait for before
+	// the ready event fires. See #6781
+	readyWait: 1,
+
+	// Handle when the DOM is ready
+	ready: function( wait ) {
+
+		// Abort if there are pending holds or we're already ready
+		if ( wait === true ? --jQuery.readyWait : jQuery.isReady ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Remember that the DOM is ready
+		jQuery.isReady = true;
+
+		// If a normal DOM Ready event fired, decrement, and wait if need be
+		if ( wait !== true && --jQuery.readyWait > 0 ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// If there are functions bound, to execute
+		readyList.resolveWith( document, [ jQuery ] );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.ready.then = readyList.then;
+
+// The ready event handler and self cleanup method
+function completed() {
+	document.removeEventListener( "DOMContentLoaded", completed );
+	window.removeEventListener( "load", completed );
+	jQuery.ready();
+}
+
+// Catch cases where $(document).ready() is called
+// after the browser event has already occurred.
+// Support: IE <=9 - 10 only
+// Older IE sometimes signals "interactive" too soon
+if ( document.readyState === "complete" ||
+	( document.readyState !== "loading" && !document.documentElement.doScroll ) ) {
+
+	// Handle it asynchronously to allow scripts the opportunity to delay ready
+	window.setTimeout( jQuery.ready );
+
+} else {
+
+	// Use the handy event callback
+	document.addEventListener( "DOMContentLoaded", completed );
+
+	// A fallback to window.onload, that will always work
+	window.addEventListener( "load", completed );
+}
+
+
+
+
+// Multifunctional method to get and set values of a collection
+// The value/s can optionally be executed if it's a function
+var access = function( elems, fn, key, value, chainable, emptyGet, raw ) {
+	var i = 0,
+		len = elems.length,
+		bulk = key == null;
+
+	// Sets many values
+	if ( jQuery.type( key ) === "object" ) {
+		chainable = true;
+		for ( i in key ) {
+			access( elems, fn, i, key[ i ], true, emptyGet, raw );
+		}
+
+	// Sets one value
+	} else if ( value !== undefined ) {
+		chainable = true;
+
+		if ( !jQuery.isFunction( value ) ) {
+			raw = true;
+		}
+
+		if ( bulk ) {
+
+			// Bulk operations run against the entire set
+			if ( raw ) {
+				fn.call( elems, value );
+				fn = null;
+
+			// ...except when executing function values
+			} else {
+				bulk = fn;
+				fn = function( elem, key, value ) {
+					return bulk.call( jQuery( elem ), value );
+				};
+			}
+		}
+
+		if ( fn ) {
+			for ( ; i < len; i++ ) {
+				fn(
+					elems[ i ], key, raw ?
+					value :
+					value.call( elems[ i ], i, fn( elems[ i ], key ) )
+				);
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	if ( chainable ) {
+		return elems;
+	}
+
+	// Gets
+	if ( bulk ) {
+		return fn.call( elems );
+	}
+
+	return len ? fn( elems[ 0 ], key ) : emptyGet;
+};
+var acceptData = function( owner ) {
+
+	// Accepts only:
+	//  - Node
+	//    - Node.ELEMENT_NODE
+	//    - Node.DOCUMENT_NODE
+	//  - Object
+	//    - Any
+	return owner.nodeType === 1 || owner.nodeType === 9 || !( +owner.nodeType );
+};
+
+
+
+
+function Data() {
+	this.expando = jQuery.expando + Data.uid++;
+}
+
+Data.uid = 1;
+
+Data.prototype = {
+
+	cache: function( owner ) {
+
+		// Check if the owner object already has a cache
+		var value = owner[ this.expando ];
+
+		// If not, create one
+		if ( !value ) {
+			value = {};
+
+			// We can accept data for non-element nodes in modern browsers,
+			// but we should not, see #8335.
+			// Always return an empty object.
+			if ( acceptData( owner ) ) {
+
+				// If it is a node unlikely to be stringify-ed or looped over
+				// use plain assignment
+				if ( owner.nodeType ) {
+					owner[ this.expando ] = value;
+
+				// Otherwise secure it in a non-enumerable property
+				// configurable must be true to allow the property to be
+				// deleted when data is removed
+				} else {
+					Object.defineProperty( owner, this.expando, {
+						value: value,
+						configurable: true
+					} );
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return value;
+	},
+	set: function( owner, data, value ) {
+		var prop,
+			cache = this.cache( owner );
+
+		// Handle: [ owner, key, value ] args
+		// Always use camelCase key (gh-2257)
+		if ( typeof data === "string" ) {
+			cache[ jQuery.camelCase( data ) ] = value;
+
+		// Handle: [ owner, { properties } ] args
+		} else {
+
+			// Copy the properties one-by-one to the cache object
+			for ( prop in data ) {
+				cache[ jQuery.camelCase( prop ) ] = data[ prop ];
+			}
+		}
+		return cache;
+	},
+	get: function( owner, key ) {
+		return key === undefined ?
+			this.cache( owner ) :
+
+			// Always use camelCase key (gh-2257)
+			owner[ this.expando ] && owner[ this.expando ][ jQuery.camelCase( key ) ];
+	},
+	access: function( owner, key, value ) {
+
+		// In cases where either:
+		//
+		//   1. No key was specified
+		//   2. A string key was specified, but no value provided
+		//
+		// Take the "read" path and allow the get method to determine
+		// which value to return, respectively either:
+		//
+		//   1. The entire cache object
+		//   2. The data stored at the key
+		//
+		if ( key === undefined ||
+				( ( key && typeof key === "string" ) && value === undefined ) ) {
+
+			return this.get( owner, key );
+		}
+
+		// When the key is not a string, or both a key and value
+		// are specified, set or extend (existing objects) with either:
+		//
+		//   1. An object of properties
+		//   2. A key and value
+		//
+		this.set( owner, key, value );
+
+		// Since the "set" path can have two possible entry points
+		// return the expected data based on which path was taken[*]
+		return value !== undefined ? value : key;
+	},
+	remove: function( owner, key ) {
+		var i,
+			cache = owner[ this.expando ];
+
+		if ( cache === undefined ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		if ( key !== undefined ) {
+
+			// Support array or space separated string of keys
+			if ( Array.isArray( key ) ) {
+
+				// If key is an array of keys...
+				// We always set camelCase keys, so remove that.
+				key = key.map( jQuery.camelCase );
+			} else {
+				key = jQuery.camelCase( key );
+
+				// If a key with the spaces exists, use it.
+				// Otherwise, create an array by matching non-whitespace
+				key = key in cache ?
+					[ key ] :
+					( key.match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [] );
+			}
+
+			i = key.length;
+
+			while ( i-- ) {
+				delete cache[ key[ i ] ];
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Remove the expando if there's no more data
+		if ( key === undefined || jQuery.isEmptyObject( cache ) ) {
+
+			// Support: Chrome <=35 - 45
+			// Webkit & Blink performance suffers when deleting properties
+			// from DOM nodes, so set to undefined instead
+			// https://bugs.chromium.org/p/chromium/issues/detail?id=378607 (bug restricted)
+			if ( owner.nodeType ) {
+				owner[ this.expando ] = undefined;
+			} else {
+				delete owner[ this.expando ];
+			}
+		}
+	},
+	hasData: function( owner ) {
+		var cache = owner[ this.expando ];
+		return cache !== undefined && !jQuery.isEmptyObject( cache );
+	}
+};
+var dataPriv = new Data();
+
+var dataUser = new Data();
+
+
+
+//	Implementation Summary
+//
+//	1. Enforce API surface and semantic compatibility with 1.9.x branch
+//	2. Improve the module's maintainability by reducing the storage
+//		paths to a single mechanism.
+//	3. Use the same single mechanism to support "private" and "user" data.
+//	4. _Never_ expose "private" data to user code (TODO: Drop _data, _removeData)
+//	5. Avoid exposing implementation details on user objects (eg. expando properties)
+//	6. Provide a clear path for implementation upgrade to WeakMap in 2014
+
+var rbrace = /^(?:\{[\w\W]*\}|\[[\w\W]*\])$/,
+	rmultiDash = /[A-Z]/g;
+
+function getData( data ) {
+	if ( data === "true" ) {
+		return true;
+	}
+
+	if ( data === "false" ) {
+		return false;
+	}
+
+	if ( data === "null" ) {
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	// Only convert to a number if it doesn't change the string
+	if ( data === +data + "" ) {
+		return +data;
+	}
+
+	if ( rbrace.test( data ) ) {
+		return JSON.parse( data );
+	}
+
+	return data;
+}
+
+function dataAttr( elem, key, data ) {
+	var name;
+
+	// If nothing was found internally, try to fetch any
+	// data from the HTML5 data-* attribute
+	if ( data === undefined && elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+		name = "data-" + key.replace( rmultiDash, "-$&" ).toLowerCase();
+		data = elem.getAttribute( name );
+
+		if ( typeof data === "string" ) {
+			try {
+				data = getData( data );
+			} catch ( e ) {}
+
+			// Make sure we set the data so it isn't changed later
+			dataUser.set( elem, key, data );
+		} else {
+			data = undefined;
+		}
+	}
+	return data;
+}
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+	hasData: function( elem ) {
+		return dataUser.hasData( elem ) || dataPriv.hasData( elem );
+	},
+
+	data: function( elem, name, data ) {
+		return dataUser.access( elem, name, data );
+	},
+
+	removeData: function( elem, name ) {
+		dataUser.remove( elem, name );
+	},
+
+	// TODO: Now that all calls to _data and _removeData have been replaced
+	// with direct calls to dataPriv methods, these can be deprecated.
+	_data: function( elem, name, data ) {
+		return dataPriv.access( elem, name, data );
+	},
+
+	_removeData: function( elem, name ) {
+		dataPriv.remove( elem, name );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	data: function( key, value ) {
+		var i, name, data,
+			elem = this[ 0 ],
+			attrs = elem && elem.attributes;
+
+		// Gets all values
+		if ( key === undefined ) {
+			if ( this.length ) {
+				data = dataUser.get( elem );
+
+				if ( elem.nodeType === 1 && !dataPriv.get( elem, "hasDataAttrs" ) ) {
+					i = attrs.length;
+					while ( i-- ) {
+
+						// Support: IE 11 only
+						// The attrs elements can be null (#14894)
+						if ( attrs[ i ] ) {
+							name = attrs[ i ].name;
+							if ( name.indexOf( "data-" ) === 0 ) {
+								name = jQuery.camelCase( name.slice( 5 ) );
+								dataAttr( elem, name, data[ name ] );
+							}
+						}
+					}
+					dataPriv.set( elem, "hasDataAttrs", true );
+				}
+			}
+
+			return data;
+		}
+
+		// Sets multiple values
+		if ( typeof key === "object" ) {
+			return this.each( function() {
+				dataUser.set( this, key );
+			} );
+		}
+
+		return access( this, function( value ) {
+			var data;
+
+			// The calling jQuery object (element matches) is not empty
+			// (and therefore has an element appears at this[ 0 ]) and the
+			// `value` parameter was not undefined. An empty jQuery object
+			// will result in `undefined` for elem = this[ 0 ] which will
+			// throw an exception if an attempt to read a data cache is made.
+			if ( elem && value === undefined ) {
+
+				// Attempt to get data from the cache
+				// The key will always be camelCased in Data
+				data = dataUser.get( elem, key );
+				if ( data !== undefined ) {
+					return data;
+				}
+
+				// Attempt to "discover" the data in
+				// HTML5 custom data-* attrs
+				data = dataAttr( elem, key );
+				if ( data !== undefined ) {
+					return data;
+				}
+
+				// We tried really hard, but the data doesn't exist.
+				return;
+			}
+
+			// Set the data...
+			this.each( function() {
+
+				// We always store the camelCased key
+				dataUser.set( this, key, value );
+			} );
+		}, null, value, arguments.length > 1, null, true );
+	},
+
+	removeData: function( key ) {
+		return this.each( function() {
+			dataUser.remove( this, key );
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+	queue: function( elem, type, data ) {
+		var queue;
+
+		if ( elem ) {
+			type = ( type || "fx" ) + "queue";
+			queue = dataPriv.get( elem, type );
+
+			// Speed up dequeue by getting out quickly if this is just a lookup
+			if ( data ) {
+				if ( !queue || Array.isArray( data ) ) {
+					queue = dataPriv.access( elem, type, jQuery.makeArray( data ) );
+				} else {
+					queue.push( data );
+				}
+			}
+			return queue || [];
+		}
+	},
+
+	dequeue: function( elem, type ) {
+		type = type || "fx";
+
+		var queue = jQuery.queue( elem, type ),
+			startLength = queue.length,
+			fn = queue.shift(),
+			hooks = jQuery._queueHooks( elem, type ),
+			next = function() {
+				jQuery.dequeue( elem, type );
+			};
+
+		// If the fx queue is dequeued, always remove the progress sentinel
+		if ( fn === "inprogress" ) {
+			fn = queue.shift();
+			startLength--;
+		}
+
+		if ( fn ) {
+
+			// Add a progress sentinel to prevent the fx queue from being
+			// automatically dequeued
+			if ( type === "fx" ) {
+				queue.unshift( "inprogress" );
+			}
+
+			// Clear up the last queue stop function
+			delete hooks.stop;
+			fn.call( elem, next, hooks );
+		}
+
+		if ( !startLength && hooks ) {
+			hooks.empty.fire();
+		}
+	},
+
+	// Not public - generate a queueHooks object, or return the current one
+	_queueHooks: function( elem, type ) {
+		var key = type + "queueHooks";
+		return dataPriv.get( elem, key ) || dataPriv.access( elem, key, {
+			empty: jQuery.Callbacks( "once memory" ).add( function() {
+				dataPriv.remove( elem, [ type + "queue", key ] );
+			} )
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	queue: function( type, data ) {
+		var setter = 2;
+
+		if ( typeof type !== "string" ) {
+			data = type;
+			type = "fx";
+			setter--;
+		}
+
+		if ( arguments.length < setter ) {
+			return jQuery.queue( this[ 0 ], type );
+		}
+
+		return data === undefined ?
+			this :
+			this.each( function() {
+				var queue = jQuery.queue( this, type, data );
+
+				// Ensure a hooks for this queue
+				jQuery._queueHooks( this, type );
+
+				if ( type === "fx" && queue[ 0 ] !== "inprogress" ) {
+					jQuery.dequeue( this, type );
+				}
+			} );
+	},
+	dequeue: function( type ) {
+		return this.each( function() {
+			jQuery.dequeue( this, type );
+		} );
+	},
+	clearQueue: function( type ) {
+		return this.queue( type || "fx", [] );
+	},
+
+	// Get a promise resolved when queues of a certain type
+	// are emptied (fx is the type by default)
+	promise: function( type, obj ) {
+		var tmp,
+			count = 1,
+			defer = jQuery.Deferred(),
+			elements = this,
+			i = this.length,
+			resolve = function() {
+				if ( !( --count ) ) {
+					defer.resolveWith( elements, [ elements ] );
+				}
+			};
+
+		if ( typeof type !== "string" ) {
+			obj = type;
+			type = undefined;
+		}
+		type = type || "fx";
+
+		while ( i-- ) {
+			tmp = dataPriv.get( elements[ i ], type + "queueHooks" );
+			if ( tmp && tmp.empty ) {
+				count++;
+				tmp.empty.add( resolve );
+			}
+		}
+		resolve();
+		return defer.promise( obj );
+	}
+} );
+var pnum = ( /[+-]?(?:\d*\.|)\d+(?:[eE][+-]?\d+|)/ ).source;
+
+var rcssNum = new RegExp( "^(?:([+-])=|)(" + pnum + ")([a-z%]*)$", "i" );
+
+
+var cssExpand = [ "Top", "Right", "Bottom", "Left" ];
+
+var isHiddenWithinTree = function( elem, el ) {
+
+		// isHiddenWithinTree might be called from jQuery#filter function;
+		// in that case, element will be second argument
+		elem = el || elem;
+
+		// Inline style trumps all
+		return elem.style.display === "none" ||
+			elem.style.display === "" &&
+
+			// Otherwise, check computed style
+			// Support: Firefox <=43 - 45
+			// Disconnected elements can have computed display: none, so first confirm that elem is
+			// in the document.
+			jQuery.contains( elem.ownerDocument, elem ) &&
+
+			jQuery.css( elem, "display" ) === "none";
+	};
+
+var swap = function( elem, options, callback, args ) {
+	var ret, name,
+		old = {};
+
+	// Remember the old values, and insert the new ones
+	for ( name in options ) {
+		old[ name ] = elem.style[ name ];
+		elem.style[ name ] = options[ name ];
+	}
+
+	ret = callback.apply( elem, args || [] );
+
+	// Revert the old values
+	for ( name in options ) {
+		elem.style[ name ] = old[ name ];
+	}
+
+	return ret;
+};
+
+
+
+
+function adjustCSS( elem, prop, valueParts, tween ) {
+	var adjusted,
+		scale = 1,
+		maxIterations = 20,
+		currentValue = tween ?
+			function() {
+				return tween.cur();
+			} :
+			function() {
+				return jQuery.css( elem, prop, "" );
+			},
+		initial = currentValue(),
+		unit = valueParts && valueParts[ 3 ] || ( jQuery.cssNumber[ prop ] ? "" : "px" ),
+
+		// Starting value computation is required for potential unit mismatches
+		initialInUnit = ( jQuery.cssNumber[ prop ] || unit !== "px" && +initial ) &&
+			rcssNum.exec( jQuery.css( elem, prop ) );
+
+	if ( initialInUnit && initialInUnit[ 3 ] !== unit ) {
+
+		// Trust units reported by jQuery.css
+		unit = unit || initialInUnit[ 3 ];
+
+		// Make sure we update the tween properties later on
+		valueParts = valueParts || [];
+
+		// Iteratively approximate from a nonzero starting point
+		initialInUnit = +initial || 1;
+
+		do {
+
+			// If previous iteration zeroed out, double until we get *something*.
+			// Use string for doubling so we don't accidentally see scale as unchanged below
+			scale = scale || ".5";
+
+			// Adjust and apply
+			initialInUnit = initialInUnit / scale;
+			jQuery.style( elem, prop, initialInUnit + unit );
+
+		// Update scale, tolerating zero or NaN from tween.cur()
+		// Break the loop if scale is unchanged or perfect, or if we've just had enough.
+		} while (
+			scale !== ( scale = currentValue() / initial ) && scale !== 1 && --maxIterations
+		);
+	}
+
+	if ( valueParts ) {
+		initialInUnit = +initialInUnit || +initial || 0;
+
+		// Apply relative offset (+=/-=) if specified
+		adjusted = valueParts[ 1 ] ?
+			initialInUnit + ( valueParts[ 1 ] + 1 ) * valueParts[ 2 ] :
+			+valueParts[ 2 ];
+		if ( tween ) {
+			tween.unit = unit;
+			tween.start = initialInUnit;
+			tween.end = adjusted;
+		}
+	}
+	return adjusted;
+}
+
+
+var defaultDisplayMap = {};
+
+function getDefaultDisplay( elem ) {
+	var temp,
+		doc = elem.ownerDocument,
+		nodeName = elem.nodeName,
+		display = defaultDisplayMap[ nodeName ];
+
+	if ( display ) {
+		return display;
+	}
+
+	temp = doc.body.appendChild( doc.createElement( nodeName ) );
+	display = jQuery.css( temp, "display" );
+
+	temp.parentNode.removeChild( temp );
+
+	if ( display === "none" ) {
+		display = "block";
+	}
+	defaultDisplayMap[ nodeName ] = display;
+
+	return display;
+}
+
+function showHide( elements, show ) {
+	var display, elem,
+		values = [],
+		index = 0,
+		length = elements.length;
+
+	// Determine new display value for elements that need to change
+	for ( ; index < length; index++ ) {
+		elem = elements[ index ];
+		if ( !elem.style ) {
+			continue;
+		}
+
+		display = elem.style.display;
+		if ( show ) {
+
+			// Since we force visibility upon cascade-hidden elements, an immediate (and slow)
+			// check is required in this first loop unless we have a nonempty display value (either
+			// inline or about-to-be-restored)
+			if ( display === "none" ) {
+				values[ index ] = dataPriv.get( elem, "display" ) || null;
+				if ( !values[ index ] ) {
+					elem.style.display = "";
+				}
+			}
+			if ( elem.style.display === "" && isHiddenWithinTree( elem ) ) {
+				values[ index ] = getDefaultDisplay( elem );
+			}
+		} else {
+			if ( display !== "none" ) {
+				values[ index ] = "none";
+
+				// Remember what we're overwriting
+				dataPriv.set( elem, "display", display );
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Set the display of the elements in a second loop to avoid constant reflow
+	for ( index = 0; index < length; index++ ) {
+		if ( values[ index ] != null ) {
+			elements[ index ].style.display = values[ index ];
+		}
+	}
+
+	return elements;
+}
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	show: function() {
+		return showHide( this, true );
+	},
+	hide: function() {
+		return showHide( this );
+	},
+	toggle: function( state ) {
+		if ( typeof state === "boolean" ) {
+			return state ? this.show() : this.hide();
+		}
+
+		return this.each( function() {
+			if ( isHiddenWithinTree( this ) ) {
+				jQuery( this ).show();
+			} else {
+				jQuery( this ).hide();
+			}
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+var rcheckableType = ( /^(?:checkbox|radio)$/i );
+
+var rtagName = ( /<([a-z][^\/\0>\x20\t\r\n\f]+)/i );
+
+var rscriptType = ( /^$|\/(?:java|ecma)script/i );
+
+
+
+// We have to close these tags to support XHTML (#13200)
+var wrapMap = {
+
+	// Support: IE <=9 only
+	option: [ 1, "<select multiple='multiple'>", "</select>" ],
+
+	// XHTML parsers do not magically insert elements in the
+	// same way that tag soup parsers do. So we cannot shorten
+	// this by omitting <tbody> or other required elements.
+	thead: [ 1, "<table>", "</table>" ],
+	col: [ 2, "<table><colgroup>", "</colgroup></table>" ],
+	tr: [ 2, "<table><tbody>", "</tbody></table>" ],
+	td: [ 3, "<table><tbody><tr>", "</tr></tbody></table>" ],
+
+	_default: [ 0, "", "" ]
+};
+
+// Support: IE <=9 only
+wrapMap.optgroup = wrapMap.option;
+
+wrapMap.tbody = wrapMap.tfoot = wrapMap.colgroup = wrapMap.caption = wrapMap.thead;
+wrapMap.th = wrapMap.td;
+
+
+function getAll( context, tag ) {
+
+	// Support: IE <=9 - 11 only
+	// Use typeof to avoid zero-argument method invocation on host objects (#15151)
+	var ret;
+
+	if ( typeof context.getElementsByTagName !== "undefined" ) {
+		ret = context.getElementsByTagName( tag || "*" );
+
+	} else if ( typeof context.querySelectorAll !== "undefined" ) {
+		ret = context.querySelectorAll( tag || "*" );
+
+	} else {
+		ret = [];
+	}
+
+	if ( tag === undefined || tag && nodeName( context, tag ) ) {
+		return jQuery.merge( [ context ], ret );
+	}
+
+	return ret;
+}
+
+
+// Mark scripts as having already been evaluated
+function setGlobalEval( elems, refElements ) {
+	var i = 0,
+		l = elems.length;
+
+	for ( ; i < l; i++ ) {
+		dataPriv.set(
+			elems[ i ],
+			"globalEval",
+			!refElements || dataPriv.get( refElements[ i ], "globalEval" )
+		);
+	}
+}
+
+
+var rhtml = /<|&#?\w+;/;
+
+function buildFragment( elems, context, scripts, selection, ignored ) {
+	var elem, tmp, tag, wrap, contains, j,
+		fragment = context.createDocumentFragment(),
+		nodes = [],
+		i = 0,
+		l = elems.length;
+
+	for ( ; i < l; i++ ) {
+		elem = elems[ i ];
+
+		if ( elem || elem === 0 ) {
+
+			// Add nodes directly
+			if ( jQuery.type( elem ) === "object" ) {
+
+				// Support: Android <=4.0 only, PhantomJS 1 only
+				// push.apply(_, arraylike) throws on ancient WebKit
+				jQuery.merge( nodes, elem.nodeType ? [ elem ] : elem );
+
+			// Convert non-html into a text node
+			} else if ( !rhtml.test( elem ) ) {
+				nodes.push( context.createTextNode( elem ) );
+
+			// Convert html into DOM nodes
+			} else {
+				tmp = tmp || fragment.appendChild( context.createElement( "div" ) );
+
+				// Deserialize a standard representation
+				tag = ( rtagName.exec( elem ) || [ "", "" ] )[ 1 ].toLowerCase();
+				wrap = wrapMap[ tag ] || wrapMap._default;
+				tmp.innerHTML = wrap[ 1 ] + jQuery.htmlPrefilter( elem ) + wrap[ 2 ];
+
+				// Descend through wrappers to the right content
+				j = wrap[ 0 ];
+				while ( j-- ) {
+					tmp = tmp.lastChild;
+				}
+
+				// Support: Android <=4.0 only, PhantomJS 1 only
+				// push.apply(_, arraylike) throws on ancient WebKit
+				jQuery.merge( nodes, tmp.childNodes );
+
+				// Remember the top-level container
+				tmp = fragment.firstChild;
+
+				// Ensure the created nodes are orphaned (#12392)
+				tmp.textContent = "";
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Remove wrapper from fragment
+	fragment.textContent = "";
+
+	i = 0;
+	while ( ( elem = nodes[ i++ ] ) ) {
+
+		// Skip elements already in the context collection (trac-4087)
+		if ( selection && jQuery.inArray( elem, selection ) > -1 ) {
+			if ( ignored ) {
+				ignored.push( elem );
+			}
+			continue;
+		}
+
+		contains = jQuery.contains( elem.ownerDocument, elem );
+
+		// Append to fragment
+		tmp = getAll( fragment.appendChild( elem ), "script" );
+
+		// Preserve script evaluation history
+		if ( contains ) {
+			setGlobalEval( tmp );
+		}
+
+		// Capture executables
+		if ( scripts ) {
+			j = 0;
+			while ( ( elem = tmp[ j++ ] ) ) {
+				if ( rscriptType.test( elem.type || "" ) ) {
+					scripts.push( elem );
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return fragment;
+}
+
+
+( function() {
+	var fragment = document.createDocumentFragment(),
+		div = fragment.appendChild( document.createElement( "div" ) ),
+		input = document.createElement( "input" );
+
+	// Support: Android 4.0 - 4.3 only
+	// Check state lost if the name is set (#11217)
+	// Support: Windows Web Apps (WWA)
+	// `name` and `type` must use .setAttribute for WWA (#14901)
+	input.setAttribute( "type", "radio" );
+	input.setAttribute( "checked", "checked" );
+	input.setAttribute( "name", "t" );
+
+	div.appendChild( input );
+
+	// Support: Android <=4.1 only
+	// Older WebKit doesn't clone checked state correctly in fragments
+	support.checkClone = div.cloneNode( true ).cloneNode( true ).lastChild.checked;
+
+	// Support: IE <=11 only
+	// Make sure textarea (and checkbox) defaultValue is properly cloned
+	div.innerHTML = "<textarea>x</textarea>";
+	support.noCloneChecked = !!div.cloneNode( true ).lastChild.defaultValue;
+} )();
+var documentElement = document.documentElement;
+
+
+
+var
+	rkeyEvent = /^key/,
+	rmouseEvent = /^(?:mouse|pointer|contextmenu|drag|drop)|click/,
+	rtypenamespace = /^([^.]*)(?:\.(.+)|)/;
+
+function returnTrue() {
+	return true;
+}
+
+function returnFalse() {
+	return false;
+}
+
+// Support: IE <=9 only
+// See #13393 for more info
+function safeActiveElement() {
+	try {
+		return document.activeElement;
+	} catch ( err ) { }
+}
+
+function on( elem, types, selector, data, fn, one ) {
+	var origFn, type;
+
+	// Types can be a map of types/handlers
+	if ( typeof types === "object" ) {
+
+		// ( types-Object, selector, data )
+		if ( typeof selector !== "string" ) {
+
+			// ( types-Object, data )
+			data = data || selector;
+			selector = undefined;
+		}
+		for ( type in types ) {
+			on( elem, type, selector, data, types[ type ], one );
+		}
+		return elem;
+	}
+
+	if ( data == null && fn == null ) {
+
+		// ( types, fn )
+		fn = selector;
+		data = selector = undefined;
+	} else if ( fn == null ) {
+		if ( typeof selector === "string" ) {
+
+			// ( types, selector, fn )
+			fn = data;
+			data = undefined;
+		} else {
+
+			// ( types, data, fn )
+			fn = data;
+			data = selector;
+			selector = undefined;
+		}
+	}
+	if ( fn === false ) {
+		fn = returnFalse;
+	} else if ( !fn ) {
+		return elem;
+	}
+
+	if ( one === 1 ) {
+		origFn = fn;
+		fn = function( event ) {
+
+			// Can use an empty set, since event contains the info
+			jQuery().off( event );
+			return origFn.apply( this, arguments );
+		};
+
+		// Use same guid so caller can remove using origFn
+		fn.guid = origFn.guid || ( origFn.guid = jQuery.guid++ );
+	}
+	return elem.each( function() {
+		jQuery.event.add( this, types, fn, data, selector );
+	} );
+}
+
+/*
+ * Helper functions for managing events -- not part of the public interface.
+ * Props to Dean Edwards' addEvent library for many of the ideas.
+ */
+jQuery.event = {
+
+	global: {},
+
+	add: function( elem, types, handler, data, selector ) {
+
+		var handleObjIn, eventHandle, tmp,
+			events, t, handleObj,
+			special, handlers, type, namespaces, origType,
+			elemData = dataPriv.get( elem );
+
+		// Don't attach events to noData or text/comment nodes (but allow plain objects)
+		if ( !elemData ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Caller can pass in an object of custom data in lieu of the handler
+		if ( handler.handler ) {
+			handleObjIn = handler;
+			handler = handleObjIn.handler;
+			selector = handleObjIn.selector;
+		}
+
+		// Ensure that invalid selectors throw exceptions at attach time
+		// Evaluate against documentElement in case elem is a non-element node (e.g., document)
+		if ( selector ) {
+			jQuery.find.matchesSelector( documentElement, selector );
+		}
+
+		// Make sure that the handler has a unique ID, used to find/remove it later
+		if ( !handler.guid ) {
+			handler.guid = jQuery.guid++;
+		}
+
+		// Init the element's event structure and main handler, if this is the first
+		if ( !( events = elemData.events ) ) {
+			events = elemData.events = {};
+		}
+		if ( !( eventHandle = elemData.handle ) ) {
+			eventHandle = elemData.handle = function( e ) {
+
+				// Discard the second event of a jQuery.event.trigger() and
+				// when an event is called after a page has unloaded
+				return typeof jQuery !== "undefined" && jQuery.event.triggered !== e.type ?
+					jQuery.event.dispatch.apply( elem, arguments ) : undefined;
+			};
+		}
+
+		// Handle multiple events separated by a space
+		types = ( types || "" ).match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [ "" ];
+		t = types.length;
+		while ( t-- ) {
+			tmp = rtypenamespace.exec( types[ t ] ) || [];
+			type = origType = tmp[ 1 ];
+			namespaces = ( tmp[ 2 ] || "" ).split( "." ).sort();
+
+			// There *must* be a type, no attaching namespace-only handlers
+			if ( !type ) {
+				continue;
+			}
+
+			// If event changes its type, use the special event handlers for the changed type
+			special = jQuery.event.special[ type ] || {};
+
+			// If selector defined, determine special event api type, otherwise given type
+			type = ( selector ? special.delegateType : special.bindType ) || type;
+
+			// Update special based on newly reset type
+			special = jQuery.event.special[ type ] || {};
+
+			// handleObj is passed to all event handlers
+			handleObj = jQuery.extend( {
+				type: type,
+				origType: origType,
+				data: data,
+				handler: handler,
+				guid: handler.guid,
+				selector: selector,
+				needsContext: selector && jQuery.expr.match.needsContext.test( selector ),
+				namespace: namespaces.join( "." )
+			}, handleObjIn );
+
+			// Init the event handler queue if we're the first
+			if ( !( handlers = events[ type ] ) ) {
+				handlers = events[ type ] = [];
+				handlers.delegateCount = 0;
+
+				// Only use addEventListener if the special events handler returns false
+				if ( !special.setup ||
+					special.setup.call( elem, data, namespaces, eventHandle ) === false ) {
+
+					if ( elem.addEventListener ) {
+						elem.addEventListener( type, eventHandle );
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			if ( special.add ) {
+				special.add.call( elem, handleObj );
+
+				if ( !handleObj.handler.guid ) {
+					handleObj.handler.guid = handler.guid;
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Add to the element's handler list, delegates in front
+			if ( selector ) {
+				handlers.splice( handlers.delegateCount++, 0, handleObj );
+			} else {
+				handlers.push( handleObj );
+			}
+
+			// Keep track of which events have ever been used, for event optimization
+			jQuery.event.global[ type ] = true;
+		}
+
+	},
+
+	// Detach an event or set of events from an element
+	remove: function( elem, types, handler, selector, mappedTypes ) {
+
+		var j, origCount, tmp,
+			events, t, handleObj,
+			special, handlers, type, namespaces, origType,
+			elemData = dataPriv.hasData( elem ) && dataPriv.get( elem );
+
+		if ( !elemData || !( events = elemData.events ) ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Once for each type.namespace in types; type may be omitted
+		types = ( types || "" ).match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [ "" ];
+		t = types.length;
+		while ( t-- ) {
+			tmp = rtypenamespace.exec( types[ t ] ) || [];
+			type = origType = tmp[ 1 ];
+			namespaces = ( tmp[ 2 ] || "" ).split( "." ).sort();
+
+			// Unbind all events (on this namespace, if provided) for the element
+			if ( !type ) {
+				for ( type in events ) {
+					jQuery.event.remove( elem, type + types[ t ], handler, selector, true );
+				}
+				continue;
+			}
+
+			special = jQuery.event.special[ type ] || {};
+			type = ( selector ? special.delegateType : special.bindType ) || type;
+			handlers = events[ type ] || [];
+			tmp = tmp[ 2 ] &&
+				new RegExp( "(^|\\.)" + namespaces.join( "\\.(?:.*\\.|)" ) + "(\\.|$)" );
+
+			// Remove matching events
+			origCount = j = handlers.length;
+			while ( j-- ) {
+				handleObj = handlers[ j ];
+
+				if ( ( mappedTypes || origType === handleObj.origType ) &&
+					( !handler || handler.guid === handleObj.guid ) &&
+					( !tmp || tmp.test( handleObj.namespace ) ) &&
+					( !selector || selector === handleObj.selector ||
+						selector === "**" && handleObj.selector ) ) {
+					handlers.splice( j, 1 );
+
+					if ( handleObj.selector ) {
+						handlers.delegateCount--;
+					}
+					if ( special.remove ) {
+						special.remove.call( elem, handleObj );
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Remove generic event handler if we removed something and no more handlers exist
+			// (avoids potential for endless recursion during removal of special event handlers)
+			if ( origCount && !handlers.length ) {
+				if ( !special.teardown ||
+					special.teardown.call( elem, namespaces, elemData.handle ) === false ) {
+
+					jQuery.removeEvent( elem, type, elemData.handle );
+				}
+
+				delete events[ type ];
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Remove data and the expando if it's no longer used
+		if ( jQuery.isEmptyObject( events ) ) {
+			dataPriv.remove( elem, "handle events" );
+		}
+	},
+
+	dispatch: function( nativeEvent ) {
+
+		// Make a writable jQuery.Event from the native event object
+		var event = jQuery.event.fix( nativeEvent );
+
+		var i, j, ret, matched, handleObj, handlerQueue,
+			args = new Array( arguments.length ),
+			handlers = ( dataPriv.get( this, "events" ) || {} )[ event.type ] || [],
+			special = jQuery.event.special[ event.type ] || {};
+
+		// Use the fix-ed jQuery.Event rather than the (read-only) native event
+		args[ 0 ] = event;
+
+		for ( i = 1; i < arguments.length; i++ ) {
+			args[ i ] = arguments[ i ];
+		}
+
+		event.delegateTarget = this;
+
+		// Call the preDispatch hook for the mapped type, and let it bail if desired
+		if ( special.preDispatch && special.preDispatch.call( this, event ) === false ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Determine handlers
+		handlerQueue = jQuery.event.handlers.call( this, event, handlers );
+
+		// Run delegates first; they may want to stop propagation beneath us
+		i = 0;
+		while ( ( matched = handlerQueue[ i++ ] ) && !event.isPropagationStopped() ) {
+			event.currentTarget = matched.elem;
+
+			j = 0;
+			while ( ( handleObj = matched.handlers[ j++ ] ) &&
+				!event.isImmediatePropagationStopped() ) {
+
+				// Triggered event must either 1) have no namespace, or 2) have namespace(s)
+				// a subset or equal to those in the bound event (both can have no namespace).
+				if ( !event.rnamespace || event.rnamespace.test( handleObj.namespace ) ) {
+
+					event.handleObj = handleObj;
+					event.data = handleObj.data;
+
+					ret = ( ( jQuery.event.special[ handleObj.origType ] || {} ).handle ||
+						handleObj.handler ).apply( matched.elem, args );
+
+					if ( ret !== undefined ) {
+						if ( ( event.result = ret ) === false ) {
+							event.preventDefault();
+							event.stopPropagation();
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Call the postDispatch hook for the mapped type
+		if ( special.postDispatch ) {
+			special.postDispatch.call( this, event );
+		}
+
+		return event.result;
+	},
+
+	handlers: function( event, handlers ) {
+		var i, handleObj, sel, matchedHandlers, matchedSelectors,
+			handlerQueue = [],
+			delegateCount = handlers.delegateCount,
+			cur = event.target;
+
+		// Find delegate handlers
+		if ( delegateCount &&
+
+			// Support: IE <=9
+			// Black-hole SVG <use> instance trees (trac-13180)
+			cur.nodeType &&
+
+			// Support: Firefox <=42
+			// Suppress spec-violating clicks indicating a non-primary pointer button (trac-3861)
+			// https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Events/#event-type-click
+			// Support: IE 11 only
+			// ...but not arrow key "clicks" of radio inputs, which can have `button` -1 (gh-2343)
+			!( event.type === "click" && event.button >= 1 ) ) {
+
+			for ( ; cur !== this; cur = cur.parentNode || this ) {
+
+				// Don't check non-elements (#13208)
+				// Don't process clicks on disabled elements (#6911, #8165, #11382, #11764)
+				if ( cur.nodeType === 1 && !( event.type === "click" && cur.disabled === true ) ) {
+					matchedHandlers = [];
+					matchedSelectors = {};
+					for ( i = 0; i < delegateCount; i++ ) {
+						handleObj = handlers[ i ];
+
+						// Don't conflict with Object.prototype properties (#13203)
+						sel = handleObj.selector + " ";
+
+						if ( matchedSelectors[ sel ] === undefined ) {
+							matchedSelectors[ sel ] = handleObj.needsContext ?
+								jQuery( sel, this ).index( cur ) > -1 :
+								jQuery.find( sel, this, null, [ cur ] ).length;
+						}
+						if ( matchedSelectors[ sel ] ) {
+							matchedHandlers.push( handleObj );
+						}
+					}
+					if ( matchedHandlers.length ) {
+						handlerQueue.push( { elem: cur, handlers: matchedHandlers } );
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Add the remaining (directly-bound) handlers
+		cur = this;
+		if ( delegateCount < handlers.length ) {
+			handlerQueue.push( { elem: cur, handlers: handlers.slice( delegateCount ) } );
+		}
+
+		return handlerQueue;
+	},
+
+	addProp: function( name, hook ) {
+		Object.defineProperty( jQuery.Event.prototype, name, {
+			enumerable: true,
+			configurable: true,
+
+			get: jQuery.isFunction( hook ) ?
+				function() {
+					if ( this.originalEvent ) {
+							return hook( this.originalEvent );
+					}
+				} :
+				function() {
+					if ( this.originalEvent ) {
+							return this.originalEvent[ name ];
+					}
+				},
+
+			set: function( value ) {
+				Object.defineProperty( this, name, {
+					enumerable: true,
+					configurable: true,
+					writable: true,
+					value: value
+				} );
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	fix: function( originalEvent ) {
+		return originalEvent[ jQuery.expando ] ?
+			originalEvent :
+			new jQuery.Event( originalEvent );
+	},
+
+	special: {
+		load: {
+
+			// Prevent triggered image.load events from bubbling to window.load
+			noBubble: true
+		},
+		focus: {
+
+			// Fire native event if possible so blur/focus sequence is correct
+			trigger: function() {
+				if ( this !== safeActiveElement() && this.focus ) {
+					this.focus();
+					return false;
+				}
+			},
+			delegateType: "focusin"
+		},
+		blur: {
+			trigger: function() {
+				if ( this === safeActiveElement() && this.blur ) {
+					this.blur();
+					return false;
+				}
+			},
+			delegateType: "focusout"
+		},
+		click: {
+
+			// For checkbox, fire native event so checked state will be right
+			trigger: function() {
+				if ( this.type === "checkbox" && this.click && nodeName( this, "input" ) ) {
+					this.click();
+					return false;
+				}
+			},
+
+			// For cross-browser consistency, don't fire native .click() on links
+			_default: function( event ) {
+				return nodeName( event.target, "a" );
+			}
+		},
+
+		beforeunload: {
+			postDispatch: function( event ) {
+
+				// Support: Firefox 20+
+				// Firefox doesn't alert if the returnValue field is not set.
+				if ( event.result !== undefined && event.originalEvent ) {
+					event.originalEvent.returnValue = event.result;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+};
+
+jQuery.removeEvent = function( elem, type, handle ) {
+
+	// This "if" is needed for plain objects
+	if ( elem.removeEventListener ) {
+		elem.removeEventListener( type, handle );
+	}
+};
+
+jQuery.Event = function( src, props ) {
+
+	// Allow instantiation without the 'new' keyword
+	if ( !( this instanceof jQuery.Event ) ) {
+		return new jQuery.Event( src, props );
+	}
+
+	// Event object
+	if ( src && src.type ) {
+		this.originalEvent = src;
+		this.type = src.type;
+
+		// Events bubbling up the document may have been marked as prevented
+		// by a handler lower down the tree; reflect the correct value.
+		this.isDefaultPrevented = src.defaultPrevented ||
+				src.defaultPrevented === undefined &&
+
+				// Support: Android <=2.3 only
+				src.returnValue === false ?
+			returnTrue :
+			returnFalse;
+
+		// Create target properties
+		// Support: Safari <=6 - 7 only
+		// Target should not be a text node (#504, #13143)
+		this.target = ( src.target && src.target.nodeType === 3 ) ?
+			src.target.parentNode :
+			src.target;
+
+		this.currentTarget = src.currentTarget;
+		this.relatedTarget = src.relatedTarget;
+
+	// Event type
+	} else {
+		this.type = src;
+	}
+
+	// Put explicitly provided properties onto the event object
+	if ( props ) {
+		jQuery.extend( this, props );
+	}
+
+	// Create a timestamp if incoming event doesn't have one
+	this.timeStamp = src && src.timeStamp || jQuery.now();
+
+	// Mark it as fixed
+	this[ jQuery.expando ] = true;
+};
+
+// jQuery.Event is based on DOM3 Events as specified by the ECMAScript Language Binding
+// https://www.w3.org/TR/2003/WD-DOM-Level-3-Events-20030331/ecma-script-binding.html
+jQuery.Event.prototype = {
+	constructor: jQuery.Event,
+	isDefaultPrevented: returnFalse,
+	isPropagationStopped: returnFalse,
+	isImmediatePropagationStopped: returnFalse,
+	isSimulated: false,
+
+	preventDefault: function() {
+		var e = this.originalEvent;
+
+		this.isDefaultPrevented = returnTrue;
+
+		if ( e && !this.isSimulated ) {
+			e.preventDefault();
+		}
+	},
+	stopPropagation: function() {
+		var e = this.originalEvent;
+
+		this.isPropagationStopped = returnTrue;
+
+		if ( e && !this.isSimulated ) {
+			e.stopPropagation();
+		}
+	},
+	stopImmediatePropagation: function() {
+		var e = this.originalEvent;
+
+		this.isImmediatePropagationStopped = returnTrue;
+
+		if ( e && !this.isSimulated ) {
+			e.stopImmediatePropagation();
+		}
+
+		this.stopPropagation();
+	}
+};
+
+// Includes all common event props including KeyEvent and MouseEvent specific props
+jQuery.each( {
+	altKey: true,
+	bubbles: true,
+	cancelable: true,
+	changedTouches: true,
+	ctrlKey: true,
+	detail: true,
+	eventPhase: true,
+	metaKey: true,
+	pageX: true,
+	pageY: true,
+	shiftKey: true,
+	view: true,
+	"char": true,
+	charCode: true,
+	key: true,
+	keyCode: true,
+	button: true,
+	buttons: true,
+	clientX: true,
+	clientY: true,
+	offsetX: true,
+	offsetY: true,
+	pointerId: true,
+	pointerType: true,
+	screenX: true,
+	screenY: true,
+	targetTouches: true,
+	toElement: true,
+	touches: true,
+
+	which: function( event ) {
+		var button = event.button;
+
+		// Add which for key events
+		if ( event.which == null && rkeyEvent.test( event.type ) ) {
+			return event.charCode != null ? event.charCode : event.keyCode;
+		}
+
+		// Add which for click: 1 === left; 2 === middle; 3 === right
+		if ( !event.which && button !== undefined && rmouseEvent.test( event.type ) ) {
+			if ( button & 1 ) {
+				return 1;
+			}
+
+			if ( button & 2 ) {
+				return 3;
+			}
+
+			if ( button & 4 ) {
+				return 2;
+			}
+
+			return 0;
+		}
+
+		return event.which;
+	}
+}, jQuery.event.addProp );
+
+// Create mouseenter/leave events using mouseover/out and event-time checks
+// so that event delegation works in jQuery.
+// Do the same for pointerenter/pointerleave and pointerover/pointerout
+//
+// Support: Safari 7 only
+// Safari sends mouseenter too often; see:
+// https://bugs.chromium.org/p/chromium/issues/detail?id=470258
+// for the description of the bug (it existed in older Chrome versions as well).
+jQuery.each( {
+	mouseenter: "mouseover",
+	mouseleave: "mouseout",
+	pointerenter: "pointerover",
+	pointerleave: "pointerout"
+}, function( orig, fix ) {
+	jQuery.event.special[ orig ] = {
+		delegateType: fix,
+		bindType: fix,
+
+		handle: function( event ) {
+			var ret,
+				target = this,
+				related = event.relatedTarget,
+				handleObj = event.handleObj;
+
+			// For mouseenter/leave call the handler if related is outside the target.
+			// NB: No relatedTarget if the mouse left/entered the browser window
+			if ( !related || ( related !== target && !jQuery.contains( target, related ) ) ) {
+				event.type = handleObj.origType;
+				ret = handleObj.handler.apply( this, arguments );
+				event.type = fix;
+			}
+			return ret;
+		}
+	};
+} );
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+
+	on: function( types, selector, data, fn ) {
+		return on( this, types, selector, data, fn );
+	},
+	one: function( types, selector, data, fn ) {
+		return on( this, types, selector, data, fn, 1 );
+	},
+	off: function( types, selector, fn ) {
+		var handleObj, type;
+		if ( types && types.preventDefault && types.handleObj ) {
+
+			// ( event )  dispatched jQuery.Event
+			handleObj = types.handleObj;
+			jQuery( types.delegateTarget ).off(
+				handleObj.namespace ?
+					handleObj.origType + "." + handleObj.namespace :
+					handleObj.origType,
+				handleObj.selector,
+				handleObj.handler
+			);
+			return this;
+		}
+		if ( typeof types === "object" ) {
+
+			// ( types-object [, selector] )
+			for ( type in types ) {
+				this.off( type, selector, types[ type ] );
+			}
+			return this;
+		}
+		if ( selector === false || typeof selector === "function" ) {
+
+			// ( types [, fn] )
+			fn = selector;
+			selector = undefined;
+		}
+		if ( fn === false ) {
+			fn = returnFalse;
+		}
+		return this.each( function() {
+			jQuery.event.remove( this, types, fn, selector );
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+
+var
+
+	/* eslint-disable max-len */
+
+	// See https://github.com/eslint/eslint/issues/3229
+	rxhtmlTag = /<(?!area|br|col|embed|hr|img|input|link|meta|param)(([a-z][^\/\0>\x20\t\r\n\f]*)[^>]*)\/>/gi,
+
+	/* eslint-enable */
+
+	// Support: IE <=10 - 11, Edge 12 - 13
+	// In IE/Edge using regex groups here causes severe slowdowns.
+	// See https://connect.microsoft.com/IE/feedback/details/1736512/
+	rnoInnerhtml = /<script|<style|<link/i,
+
+	// checked="checked" or checked
+	rchecked = /checked\s*(?:[^=]|=\s*.checked.)/i,
+	rscriptTypeMasked = /^true\/(.*)/,
+	rcleanScript = /^\s*<!(?:\[CDATA\[|--)|(?:\]\]|--)>\s*$/g;
+
+// Prefer a tbody over its parent table for containing new rows
+function manipulationTarget( elem, content ) {
+	if ( nodeName( elem, "table" ) &&
+		nodeName( content.nodeType !== 11 ? content : content.firstChild, "tr" ) ) {
+
+		return jQuery( ">tbody", elem )[ 0 ] || elem;
+	}
+
+	return elem;
+}
+
+// Replace/restore the type attribute of script elements for safe DOM manipulation
+function disableScript( elem ) {
+	elem.type = ( elem.getAttribute( "type" ) !== null ) + "/" + elem.type;
+	return elem;
+}
+function restoreScript( elem ) {
+	var match = rscriptTypeMasked.exec( elem.type );
+
+	if ( match ) {
+		elem.type = match[ 1 ];
+	} else {
+		elem.removeAttribute( "type" );
+	}
+
+	return elem;
+}
+
+function cloneCopyEvent( src, dest ) {
+	var i, l, type, pdataOld, pdataCur, udataOld, udataCur, events;
+
+	if ( dest.nodeType !== 1 ) {
+		return;
+	}
+
+	// 1. Copy private data: events, handlers, etc.
+	if ( dataPriv.hasData( src ) ) {
+		pdataOld = dataPriv.access( src );
+		pdataCur = dataPriv.set( dest, pdataOld );
+		events = pdataOld.events;
+
+		if ( events ) {
+			delete pdataCur.handle;
+			pdataCur.events = {};
+
+			for ( type in events ) {
+				for ( i = 0, l = events[ type ].length; i < l; i++ ) {
+					jQuery.event.add( dest, type, events[ type ][ i ] );
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// 2. Copy user data
+	if ( dataUser.hasData( src ) ) {
+		udataOld = dataUser.access( src );
+		udataCur = jQuery.extend( {}, udataOld );
+
+		dataUser.set( dest, udataCur );
+	}
+}
+
+// Fix IE bugs, see support tests
+function fixInput( src, dest ) {
+	var nodeName = dest.nodeName.toLowerCase();
+
+	// Fails to persist the checked state of a cloned checkbox or radio button.
+	if ( nodeName === "input" && rcheckableType.test( src.type ) ) {
+		dest.checked = src.checked;
+
+	// Fails to return the selected option to the default selected state when cloning options
+	} else if ( nodeName === "input" || nodeName === "textarea" ) {
+		dest.defaultValue = src.defaultValue;
+	}
+}
+
+function domManip( collection, args, callback, ignored ) {
+
+	// Flatten any nested arrays
+	args = concat.apply( [], args );
+
+	var fragment, first, scripts, hasScripts, node, doc,
+		i = 0,
+		l = collection.length,
+		iNoClone = l - 1,
+		value = args[ 0 ],
+		isFunction = jQuery.isFunction( value );
+
+	// We can't cloneNode fragments that contain checked, in WebKit
+	if ( isFunction ||
+			( l > 1 && typeof value === "string" &&
+				!support.checkClone && rchecked.test( value ) ) ) {
+		return collection.each( function( index ) {
+			var self = collection.eq( index );
+			if ( isFunction ) {
+				args[ 0 ] = value.call( this, index, self.html() );
+			}
+			domManip( self, args, callback, ignored );
+		} );
+	}
+
+	if ( l ) {
+		fragment = buildFragment( args, collection[ 0 ].ownerDocument, false, collection, ignored );
+		first = fragment.firstChild;
+
+		if ( fragment.childNodes.length === 1 ) {
+			fragment = first;
+		}
+
+		// Require either new content or an interest in ignored elements to invoke the callback
+		if ( first || ignored ) {
+			scripts = jQuery.map( getAll( fragment, "script" ), disableScript );
+			hasScripts = scripts.length;
+
+			// Use the original fragment for the last item
+			// instead of the first because it can end up
+			// being emptied incorrectly in certain situations (#8070).
+			for ( ; i < l; i++ ) {
+				node = fragment;
+
+				if ( i !== iNoClone ) {
+					node = jQuery.clone( node, true, true );
+
+					// Keep references to cloned scripts for later restoration
+					if ( hasScripts ) {
+
+						// Support: Android <=4.0 only, PhantomJS 1 only
+						// push.apply(_, arraylike) throws on ancient WebKit
+						jQuery.merge( scripts, getAll( node, "script" ) );
+					}
+				}
+
+				callback.call( collection[ i ], node, i );
+			}
+
+			if ( hasScripts ) {
+				doc = scripts[ scripts.length - 1 ].ownerDocument;
+
+				// Reenable scripts
+				jQuery.map( scripts, restoreScript );
+
+				// Evaluate executable scripts on first document insertion
+				for ( i = 0; i < hasScripts; i++ ) {
+					node = scripts[ i ];
+					if ( rscriptType.test( node.type || "" ) &&
+						!dataPriv.access( node, "globalEval" ) &&
+						jQuery.contains( doc, node ) ) {
+
+						if ( node.src ) {
+
+							// Optional AJAX dependency, but won't run scripts if not present
+							if ( jQuery._evalUrl ) {
+								jQuery._evalUrl( node.src );
+							}
+						} else {
+							DOMEval( node.textContent.replace( rcleanScript, "" ), doc );
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return collection;
+}
+
+function remove( elem, selector, keepData ) {
+	var node,
+		nodes = selector ? jQuery.filter( selector, elem ) : elem,
+		i = 0;
+
+	for ( ; ( node = nodes[ i ] ) != null; i++ ) {
+		if ( !keepData && node.nodeType === 1 ) {
+			jQuery.cleanData( getAll( node ) );
+		}
+
+		if ( node.parentNode ) {
+			if ( keepData && jQuery.contains( node.ownerDocument, node ) ) {
+				setGlobalEval( getAll( node, "script" ) );
+			}
+			node.parentNode.removeChild( node );
+		}
+	}
+
+	return elem;
+}
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+	htmlPrefilter: function( html ) {
+		return html.replace( rxhtmlTag, "<$1></$2>" );
+	},
+
+	clone: function( elem, dataAndEvents, deepDataAndEvents ) {
+		var i, l, srcElements, destElements,
+			clone = elem.cloneNode( true ),
+			inPage = jQuery.contains( elem.ownerDocument, elem );
+
+		// Fix IE cloning issues
+		if ( !support.noCloneChecked && ( elem.nodeType === 1 || elem.nodeType === 11 ) &&
+				!jQuery.isXMLDoc( elem ) ) {
+
+			// We eschew Sizzle here for performance reasons: https://jsperf.com/getall-vs-sizzle/2
+			destElements = getAll( clone );
+			srcElements = getAll( elem );
+
+			for ( i = 0, l = srcElements.length; i < l; i++ ) {
+				fixInput( srcElements[ i ], destElements[ i ] );
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Copy the events from the original to the clone
+		if ( dataAndEvents ) {
+			if ( deepDataAndEvents ) {
+				srcElements = srcElements || getAll( elem );
+				destElements = destElements || getAll( clone );
+
+				for ( i = 0, l = srcElements.length; i < l; i++ ) {
+					cloneCopyEvent( srcElements[ i ], destElements[ i ] );
+				}
+			} else {
+				cloneCopyEvent( elem, clone );
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Preserve script evaluation history
+		destElements = getAll( clone, "script" );
+		if ( destElements.length > 0 ) {
+			setGlobalEval( destElements, !inPage && getAll( elem, "script" ) );
+		}
+
+		// Return the cloned set
+		return clone;
+	},
+
+	cleanData: function( elems ) {
+		var data, elem, type,
+			special = jQuery.event.special,
+			i = 0;
+
+		for ( ; ( elem = elems[ i ] ) !== undefined; i++ ) {
+			if ( acceptData( elem ) ) {
+				if ( ( data = elem[ dataPriv.expando ] ) ) {
+					if ( data.events ) {
+						for ( type in data.events ) {
+							if ( special[ type ] ) {
+								jQuery.event.remove( elem, type );
+
+							// This is a shortcut to avoid jQuery.event.remove's overhead
+							} else {
+								jQuery.removeEvent( elem, type, data.handle );
+							}
+						}
+					}
+
+					// Support: Chrome <=35 - 45+
+					// Assign undefined instead of using delete, see Data#remove
+					elem[ dataPriv.expando ] = undefined;
+				}
+				if ( elem[ dataUser.expando ] ) {
+
+					// Support: Chrome <=35 - 45+
+					// Assign undefined instead of using delete, see Data#remove
+					elem[ dataUser.expando ] = undefined;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	detach: function( selector ) {
+		return remove( this, selector, true );
+	},
+
+	remove: function( selector ) {
+		return remove( this, selector );
+	},
+
+	text: function( value ) {
+		return access( this, function( value ) {
+			return value === undefined ?
+				jQuery.text( this ) :
+				this.empty().each( function() {
+					if ( this.nodeType === 1 || this.nodeType === 11 || this.nodeType === 9 ) {
+						this.textContent = value;
+					}
+				} );
+		}, null, value, arguments.length );
+	},
+
+	append: function() {
+		return domManip( this, arguments, function( elem ) {
+			if ( this.nodeType === 1 || this.nodeType === 11 || this.nodeType === 9 ) {
+				var target = manipulationTarget( this, elem );
+				target.appendChild( elem );
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	prepend: function() {
+		return domManip( this, arguments, function( elem ) {
+			if ( this.nodeType === 1 || this.nodeType === 11 || this.nodeType === 9 ) {
+				var target = manipulationTarget( this, elem );
+				target.insertBefore( elem, target.firstChild );
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	before: function() {
+		return domManip( this, arguments, function( elem ) {
+			if ( this.parentNode ) {
+				this.parentNode.insertBefore( elem, this );
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	after: function() {
+		return domManip( this, arguments, function( elem ) {
+			if ( this.parentNode ) {
+				this.parentNode.insertBefore( elem, this.nextSibling );
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	empty: function() {
+		var elem,
+			i = 0;
+
+		for ( ; ( elem = this[ i ] ) != null; i++ ) {
+			if ( elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+
+				// Prevent memory leaks
+				jQuery.cleanData( getAll( elem, false ) );
+
+				// Remove any remaining nodes
+				elem.textContent = "";
+			}
+		}
+
+		return this;
+	},
+
+	clone: function( dataAndEvents, deepDataAndEvents ) {
+		dataAndEvents = dataAndEvents == null ? false : dataAndEvents;
+		deepDataAndEvents = deepDataAndEvents == null ? dataAndEvents : deepDataAndEvents;
+
+		return this.map( function() {
+			return jQuery.clone( this, dataAndEvents, deepDataAndEvents );
+		} );
+	},
+
+	html: function( value ) {
+		return access( this, function( value ) {
+			var elem = this[ 0 ] || {},
+				i = 0,
+				l = this.length;
+
+			if ( value === undefined && elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+				return elem.innerHTML;
+			}
+
+			// See if we can take a shortcut and just use innerHTML
+			if ( typeof value === "string" && !rnoInnerhtml.test( value ) &&
+				!wrapMap[ ( rtagName.exec( value ) || [ "", "" ] )[ 1 ].toLowerCase() ] ) {
+
+				value = jQuery.htmlPrefilter( value );
+
+				try {
+					for ( ; i < l; i++ ) {
+						elem = this[ i ] || {};
+
+						// Remove element nodes and prevent memory leaks
+						if ( elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+							jQuery.cleanData( getAll( elem, false ) );
+							elem.innerHTML = value;
+						}
+					}
+
+					elem = 0;
+
+				// If using innerHTML throws an exception, use the fallback method
+				} catch ( e ) {}
+			}
+
+			if ( elem ) {
+				this.empty().append( value );
+			}
+		}, null, value, arguments.length );
+	},
+
+	replaceWith: function() {
+		var ignored = [];
+
+		// Make the changes, replacing each non-ignored context element with the new content
+		return domManip( this, arguments, function( elem ) {
+			var parent = this.parentNode;
+
+			if ( jQuery.inArray( this, ignored ) < 0 ) {
+				jQuery.cleanData( getAll( this ) );
+				if ( parent ) {
+					parent.replaceChild( elem, this );
+				}
+			}
+
+		// Force callback invocation
+		}, ignored );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.each( {
+	appendTo: "append",
+	prependTo: "prepend",
+	insertBefore: "before",
+	insertAfter: "after",
+	replaceAll: "replaceWith"
+}, function( name, original ) {
+	jQuery.fn[ name ] = function( selector ) {
+		var elems,
+			ret = [],
+			insert = jQuery( selector ),
+			last = insert.length - 1,
+			i = 0;
+
+		for ( ; i <= last; i++ ) {
+			elems = i === last ? this : this.clone( true );
+			jQuery( insert[ i ] )[ original ]( elems );
+
+			// Support: Android <=4.0 only, PhantomJS 1 only
+			// .get() because push.apply(_, arraylike) throws on ancient WebKit
+			push.apply( ret, elems.get() );
+		}
+
+		return this.pushStack( ret );
+	};
+} );
+var rmargin = ( /^margin/ );
+
+var rnumnonpx = new RegExp( "^(" + pnum + ")(?!px)[a-z%]+$", "i" );
+
+var getStyles = function( elem ) {
+
+		// Support: IE <=11 only, Firefox <=30 (#15098, #14150)
+		// IE throws on elements created in popups
+		// FF meanwhile throws on frame elements through "defaultView.getComputedStyle"
+		var view = elem.ownerDocument.defaultView;
+
+		if ( !view || !view.opener ) {
+			view = window;
+		}
+
+		return view.getComputedStyle( elem );
+	};
+
+
+
+( function() {
+
+	// Executing both pixelPosition & boxSizingReliable tests require only one layout
+	// so they're executed at the same time to save the second computation.
+	function computeStyleTests() {
+
+		// This is a singleton, we need to execute it only once
+		if ( !div ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		div.style.cssText =
+			"box-sizing:border-box;" +
+			"position:relative;display:block;" +
+			"margin:auto;border:1px;padding:1px;" +
+			"top:1%;width:50%";
+		div.innerHTML = "";
+		documentElement.appendChild( container );
+
+		var divStyle = window.getComputedStyle( div );
+		pixelPositionVal = divStyle.top !== "1%";
+
+		// Support: Android 4.0 - 4.3 only, Firefox <=3 - 44
+		reliableMarginLeftVal = divStyle.marginLeft === "2px";
+		boxSizingReliableVal = divStyle.width === "4px";
+
+		// Support: Android 4.0 - 4.3 only
+		// Some styles come back with percentage values, even though they shouldn't
+		div.style.marginRight = "50%";
+		pixelMarginRightVal = divStyle.marginRight === "4px";
+
+		documentElement.removeChild( container );
+
+		// Nullify the div so it wouldn't be stored in the memory and
+		// it will also be a sign that checks already performed
+		div = null;
+	}
+
+	var pixelPositionVal, boxSizingReliableVal, pixelMarginRightVal, reliableMarginLeftVal,
+		container = document.createElement( "div" ),
+		div = document.createElement( "div" );
+
+	// Finish early in limited (non-browser) environments
+	if ( !div.style ) {
+		return;
+	}
+
+	// Support: IE <=9 - 11 only
+	// Style of cloned element affects source element cloned (#8908)
+	div.style.backgroundClip = "content-box";
+	div.cloneNode( true ).style.backgroundClip = "";
+	support.clearCloneStyle = div.style.backgroundClip === "content-box";
+
+	container.style.cssText = "border:0;width:8px;height:0;top:0;left:-9999px;" +
+		"padding:0;margin-top:1px;position:absolute";
+	container.appendChild( div );
+
+	jQuery.extend( support, {
+		pixelPosition: function() {
+			computeStyleTests();
+			return pixelPositionVal;
+		},
+		boxSizingReliable: function() {
+			computeStyleTests();
+			return boxSizingReliableVal;
+		},
+		pixelMarginRight: function() {
+			computeStyleTests();
+			return pixelMarginRightVal;
+		},
+		reliableMarginLeft: function() {
+			computeStyleTests();
+			return reliableMarginLeftVal;
+		}
+	} );
+} )();
+
+
+function curCSS( elem, name, computed ) {
+	var width, minWidth, maxWidth, ret,
+
+		// Support: Firefox 51+
+		// Retrieving style before computed somehow
+		// fixes an issue with getting wrong values
+		// on detached elements
+		style = elem.style;
+
+	computed = computed || getStyles( elem );
+
+	// getPropertyValue is needed for:
+	//   .css('filter') (IE 9 only, #12537)
+	//   .css('--customProperty) (#3144)
+	if ( computed ) {
+		ret = computed.getPropertyValue( name ) || computed[ name ];
+
+		if ( ret === "" && !jQuery.contains( elem.ownerDocument, elem ) ) {
+			ret = jQuery.style( elem, name );
+		}
+
+		// A tribute to the "awesome hack by Dean Edwards"
+		// Android Browser returns percentage for some values,
+		// but width seems to be reliably pixels.
+		// This is against the CSSOM draft spec:
+		// https://drafts.csswg.org/cssom/#resolved-values
+		if ( !support.pixelMarginRight() && rnumnonpx.test( ret ) && rmargin.test( name ) ) {
+
+			// Remember the original values
+			width = style.width;
+			minWidth = style.minWidth;
+			maxWidth = style.maxWidth;
+
+			// Put in the new values to get a computed value out
+			style.minWidth = style.maxWidth = style.width = ret;
+			ret = computed.width;
+
+			// Revert the changed values
+			style.width = width;
+			style.minWidth = minWidth;
+			style.maxWidth = maxWidth;
+		}
+	}
+
+	return ret !== undefined ?
+
+		// Support: IE <=9 - 11 only
+		// IE returns zIndex value as an integer.
+		ret + "" :
+		ret;
+}
+
+
+function addGetHookIf( conditionFn, hookFn ) {
+
+	// Define the hook, we'll check on the first run if it's really needed.
+	return {
+		get: function() {
+			if ( conditionFn() ) {
+
+				// Hook not needed (or it's not possible to use it due
+				// to missing dependency), remove it.
+				delete this.get;
+				return;
+			}
+
+			// Hook needed; redefine it so that the support test is not executed again.
+			return ( this.get = hookFn ).apply( this, arguments );
+		}
+	};
+}
+
+
+var
+
+	// Swappable if display is none or starts with table
+	// except "table", "table-cell", or "table-caption"
+	// See here for display values: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/CSS/display
+	rdisplayswap = /^(none|table(?!-c[ea]).+)/,
+	rcustomProp = /^--/,
+	cssShow = { position: "absolute", visibility: "hidden", display: "block" },
+	cssNormalTransform = {
+		letterSpacing: "0",
+		fontWeight: "400"
+	},
+
+	cssPrefixes = [ "Webkit", "Moz", "ms" ],
+	emptyStyle = document.createElement( "div" ).style;
+
+// Return a css property mapped to a potentially vendor prefixed property
+function vendorPropName( name ) {
+
+	// Shortcut for names that are not vendor prefixed
+	if ( name in emptyStyle ) {
+		return name;
+	}
+
+	// Check for vendor prefixed names
+	var capName = name[ 0 ].toUpperCase() + name.slice( 1 ),
+		i = cssPrefixes.length;
+
+	while ( i-- ) {
+		name = cssPrefixes[ i ] + capName;
+		if ( name in emptyStyle ) {
+			return name;
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// Return a property mapped along what jQuery.cssProps suggests or to
+// a vendor prefixed property.
+function finalPropName( name ) {
+	var ret = jQuery.cssProps[ name ];
+	if ( !ret ) {
+		ret = jQuery.cssProps[ name ] = vendorPropName( name ) || name;
+	}
+	return ret;
+}
+
+function setPositiveNumber( elem, value, subtract ) {
+
+	// Any relative (+/-) values have already been
+	// normalized at this point
+	var matches = rcssNum.exec( value );
+	return matches ?
+
+		// Guard against undefined "subtract", e.g., when used as in cssHooks
+		Math.max( 0, matches[ 2 ] - ( subtract || 0 ) ) + ( matches[ 3 ] || "px" ) :
+		value;
+}
+
+function augmentWidthOrHeight( elem, name, extra, isBorderBox, styles ) {
+	var i,
+		val = 0;
+
+	// If we already have the right measurement, avoid augmentation
+	if ( extra === ( isBorderBox ? "border" : "content" ) ) {
+		i = 4;
+
+	// Otherwise initialize for horizontal or vertical properties
+	} else {
+		i = name === "width" ? 1 : 0;
+	}
+
+	for ( ; i < 4; i += 2 ) {
+
+		// Both box models exclude margin, so add it if we want it
+		if ( extra === "margin" ) {
+			val += jQuery.css( elem, extra + cssExpand[ i ], true, styles );
+		}
+
+		if ( isBorderBox ) {
+
+			// border-box includes padding, so remove it if we want content
+			if ( extra === "content" ) {
+				val -= jQuery.css( elem, "padding" + cssExpand[ i ], true, styles );
+			}
+
+			// At this point, extra isn't border nor margin, so remove border
+			if ( extra !== "margin" ) {
+				val -= jQuery.css( elem, "border" + cssExpand[ i ] + "Width", true, styles );
+			}
+		} else {
+
+			// At this point, extra isn't content, so add padding
+			val += jQuery.css( elem, "padding" + cssExpand[ i ], true, styles );
+
+			// At this point, extra isn't content nor padding, so add border
+			if ( extra !== "padding" ) {
+				val += jQuery.css( elem, "border" + cssExpand[ i ] + "Width", true, styles );
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return val;
+}
+
+function getWidthOrHeight( elem, name, extra ) {
+
+	// Start with computed style
+	var valueIsBorderBox,
+		styles = getStyles( elem ),
+		val = curCSS( elem, name, styles ),
+		isBorderBox = jQuery.css( elem, "boxSizing", false, styles ) === "border-box";
+
+	// Computed unit is not pixels. Stop here and return.
+	if ( rnumnonpx.test( val ) ) {
+		return val;
+	}
+
+	// Check for style in case a browser which returns unreliable values
+	// for getComputedStyle silently falls back to the reliable elem.style
+	valueIsBorderBox = isBorderBox &&
+		( support.boxSizingReliable() || val === elem.style[ name ] );
+
+	// Fall back to offsetWidth/Height when value is "auto"
+	// This happens for inline elements with no explicit setting (gh-3571)
+	if ( val === "auto" ) {
+		val = elem[ "offset" + name[ 0 ].toUpperCase() + name.slice( 1 ) ];
+	}
+
+	// Normalize "", auto, and prepare for extra
+	val = parseFloat( val ) || 0;
+
+	// Use the active box-sizing model to add/subtract irrelevant styles
+	return ( val +
+		augmentWidthOrHeight(
+			elem,
+			name,
+			extra || ( isBorderBox ? "border" : "content" ),
+			valueIsBorderBox,
+			styles
+		)
+	) + "px";
+}
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+
+	// Add in style property hooks for overriding the default
+	// behavior of getting and setting a style property
+	cssHooks: {
+		opacity: {
+			get: function( elem, computed ) {
+				if ( computed ) {
+
+					// We should always get a number back from opacity
+					var ret = curCSS( elem, "opacity" );
+					return ret === "" ? "1" : ret;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	},
+
+	// Don't automatically add "px" to these possibly-unitless properties
+	cssNumber: {
+		"animationIterationCount": true,
+		"columnCount": true,
+		"fillOpacity": true,
+		"flexGrow": true,
+		"flexShrink": true,
+		"fontWeight": true,
+		"lineHeight": true,
+		"opacity": true,
+		"order": true,
+		"orphans": true,
+		"widows": true,
+		"zIndex": true,
+		"zoom": true
+	},
+
+	// Add in properties whose names you wish to fix before
+	// setting or getting the value
+	cssProps: {
+		"float": "cssFloat"
+	},
+
+	// Get and set the style property on a DOM Node
+	style: function( elem, name, value, extra ) {
+
+		// Don't set styles on text and comment nodes
+		if ( !elem || elem.nodeType === 3 || elem.nodeType === 8 || !elem.style ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Make sure that we're working with the right name
+		var ret, type, hooks,
+			origName = jQuery.camelCase( name ),
+			isCustomProp = rcustomProp.test( name ),
+			style = elem.style;
+
+		// Make sure that we're working with the right name. We don't
+		// want to query the value if it is a CSS custom property
+		// since they are user-defined.
+		if ( !isCustomProp ) {
+			name = finalPropName( origName );
+		}
+
+		// Gets hook for the prefixed version, then unprefixed version
+		hooks = jQuery.cssHooks[ name ] || jQuery.cssHooks[ origName ];
+
+		// Check if we're setting a value
+		if ( value !== undefined ) {
+			type = typeof value;
+
+			// Convert "+=" or "-=" to relative numbers (#7345)
+			if ( type === "string" && ( ret = rcssNum.exec( value ) ) && ret[ 1 ] ) {
+				value = adjustCSS( elem, name, ret );
+
+				// Fixes bug #9237
+				type = "number";
+			}
+
+			// Make sure that null and NaN values aren't set (#7116)
+			if ( value == null || value !== value ) {
+				return;
+			}
+
+			// If a number was passed in, add the unit (except for certain CSS properties)
+			if ( type === "number" ) {
+				value += ret && ret[ 3 ] || ( jQuery.cssNumber[ origName ] ? "" : "px" );
+			}
+
+			// background-* props affect original clone's values
+			if ( !support.clearCloneStyle && value === "" && name.indexOf( "background" ) === 0 ) {
+				style[ name ] = "inherit";
+			}
+
+			// If a hook was provided, use that value, otherwise just set the specified value
+			if ( !hooks || !( "set" in hooks ) ||
+				( value = hooks.set( elem, value, extra ) ) !== undefined ) {
+
+				if ( isCustomProp ) {
+					style.setProperty( name, value );
+				} else {
+					style[ name ] = value;
+				}
+			}
+
+		} else {
+
+			// If a hook was provided get the non-computed value from there
+			if ( hooks && "get" in hooks &&
+				( ret = hooks.get( elem, false, extra ) ) !== undefined ) {
+
+				return ret;
+			}
+
+			// Otherwise just get the value from the style object
+			return style[ name ];
+		}
+	},
+
+	css: function( elem, name, extra, styles ) {
+		var val, num, hooks,
+			origName = jQuery.camelCase( name ),
+			isCustomProp = rcustomProp.test( name );
+
+		// Make sure that we're working with the right name. We don't
+		// want to modify the value if it is a CSS custom property
+		// since they are user-defined.
+		if ( !isCustomProp ) {
+			name = finalPropName( origName );
+		}
+
+		// Try prefixed name followed by the unprefixed name
+		hooks = jQuery.cssHooks[ name ] || jQuery.cssHooks[ origName ];
+
+		// If a hook was provided get the computed value from there
+		if ( hooks && "get" in hooks ) {
+			val = hooks.get( elem, true, extra );
+		}
+
+		// Otherwise, if a way to get the computed value exists, use that
+		if ( val === undefined ) {
+			val = curCSS( elem, name, styles );
+		}
+
+		// Convert "normal" to computed value
+		if ( val === "normal" && name in cssNormalTransform ) {
+			val = cssNormalTransform[ name ];
+		}
+
+		// Make numeric if forced or a qualifier was provided and val looks numeric
+		if ( extra === "" || extra ) {
+			num = parseFloat( val );
+			return extra === true || isFinite( num ) ? num || 0 : val;
+		}
+
+		return val;
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.each( [ "height", "width" ], function( i, name ) {
+	jQuery.cssHooks[ name ] = {
+		get: function( elem, computed, extra ) {
+			if ( computed ) {
+
+				// Certain elements can have dimension info if we invisibly show them
+				// but it must have a current display style that would benefit
+				return rdisplayswap.test( jQuery.css( elem, "display" ) ) &&
+
+					// Support: Safari 8+
+					// Table columns in Safari have non-zero offsetWidth & zero
+					// getBoundingClientRect().width unless display is changed.
+					// Support: IE <=11 only
+					// Running getBoundingClientRect on a disconnected node
+					// in IE throws an error.
+					( !elem.getClientRects().length || !elem.getBoundingClientRect().width ) ?
+						swap( elem, cssShow, function() {
+							return getWidthOrHeight( elem, name, extra );
+						} ) :
+						getWidthOrHeight( elem, name, extra );
+			}
+		},
+
+		set: function( elem, value, extra ) {
+			var matches,
+				styles = extra && getStyles( elem ),
+				subtract = extra && augmentWidthOrHeight(
+					elem,
+					name,
+					extra,
+					jQuery.css( elem, "boxSizing", false, styles ) === "border-box",
+					styles
+				);
+
+			// Convert to pixels if value adjustment is needed
+			if ( subtract && ( matches = rcssNum.exec( value ) ) &&
+				( matches[ 3 ] || "px" ) !== "px" ) {
+
+				elem.style[ name ] = value;
+				value = jQuery.css( elem, name );
+			}
+
+			return setPositiveNumber( elem, value, subtract );
+		}
+	};
+} );
+
+jQuery.cssHooks.marginLeft = addGetHookIf( support.reliableMarginLeft,
+	function( elem, computed ) {
+		if ( computed ) {
+			return ( parseFloat( curCSS( elem, "marginLeft" ) ) ||
+				elem.getBoundingClientRect().left -
+					swap( elem, { marginLeft: 0 }, function() {
+						return elem.getBoundingClientRect().left;
+					} )
+				) + "px";
+		}
+	}
+);
+
+// These hooks are used by animate to expand properties
+jQuery.each( {
+	margin: "",
+	padding: "",
+	border: "Width"
+}, function( prefix, suffix ) {
+	jQuery.cssHooks[ prefix + suffix ] = {
+		expand: function( value ) {
+			var i = 0,
+				expanded = {},
+
+				// Assumes a single number if not a string
+				parts = typeof value === "string" ? value.split( " " ) : [ value ];
+
+			for ( ; i < 4; i++ ) {
+				expanded[ prefix + cssExpand[ i ] + suffix ] =
+					parts[ i ] || parts[ i - 2 ] || parts[ 0 ];
+			}
+
+			return expanded;
+		}
+	};
+
+	if ( !rmargin.test( prefix ) ) {
+		jQuery.cssHooks[ prefix + suffix ].set = setPositiveNumber;
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	css: function( name, value ) {
+		return access( this, function( elem, name, value ) {
+			var styles, len,
+				map = {},
+				i = 0;
+
+			if ( Array.isArray( name ) ) {
+				styles = getStyles( elem );
+				len = name.length;
+
+				for ( ; i < len; i++ ) {
+					map[ name[ i ] ] = jQuery.css( elem, name[ i ], false, styles );
+				}
+
+				return map;
+			}
+
+			return value !== undefined ?
+				jQuery.style( elem, name, value ) :
+				jQuery.css( elem, name );
+		}, name, value, arguments.length > 1 );
+	}
+} );
+
+
+function Tween( elem, options, prop, end, easing ) {
+	return new Tween.prototype.init( elem, options, prop, end, easing );
+}
+jQuery.Tween = Tween;
+
+Tween.prototype = {
+	constructor: Tween,
+	init: function( elem, options, prop, end, easing, unit ) {
+		this.elem = elem;
+		this.prop = prop;
+		this.easing = easing || jQuery.easing._default;
+		this.options = options;
+		this.start = this.now = this.cur();
+		this.end = end;
+		this.unit = unit || ( jQuery.cssNumber[ prop ] ? "" : "px" );
+	},
+	cur: function() {
+		var hooks = Tween.propHooks[ this.prop ];
+
+		return hooks && hooks.get ?
+			hooks.get( this ) :
+			Tween.propHooks._default.get( this );
+	},
+	run: function( percent ) {
+		var eased,
+			hooks = Tween.propHooks[ this.prop ];
+
+		if ( this.options.duration ) {
+			this.pos = eased = jQuery.easing[ this.easing ](
+				percent, this.options.duration * percent, 0, 1, this.options.duration
+			);
+		} else {
+			this.pos = eased = percent;
+		}
+		this.now = ( this.end - this.start ) * eased + this.start;
+
+		if ( this.options.step ) {
+			this.options.step.call( this.elem, this.now, this );
+		}
+
+		if ( hooks && hooks.set ) {
+			hooks.set( this );
+		} else {
+			Tween.propHooks._default.set( this );
+		}
+		return this;
+	}
+};
+
+Tween.prototype.init.prototype = Tween.prototype;
+
+Tween.propHooks = {
+	_default: {
+		get: function( tween ) {
+			var result;
+
+			// Use a property on the element directly when it is not a DOM element,
+			// or when there is no matching style property that exists.
+			if ( tween.elem.nodeType !== 1 ||
+				tween.elem[ tween.prop ] != null && tween.elem.style[ tween.prop ] == null ) {
+				return tween.elem[ tween.prop ];
+			}
+
+			// Passing an empty string as a 3rd parameter to .css will automatically
+			// attempt a parseFloat and fallback to a string if the parse fails.
+			// Simple values such as "10px" are parsed to Float;
+			// complex values such as "rotate(1rad)" are returned as-is.
+			result = jQuery.css( tween.elem, tween.prop, "" );
+
+			// Empty strings, null, undefined and "auto" are converted to 0.
+			return !result || result === "auto" ? 0 : result;
+		},
+		set: function( tween ) {
+
+			// Use step hook for back compat.
+			// Use cssHook if its there.
+			// Use .style if available and use plain properties where available.
+			if ( jQuery.fx.step[ tween.prop ] ) {
+				jQuery.fx.step[ tween.prop ]( tween );
+			} else if ( tween.elem.nodeType === 1 &&
+				( tween.elem.style[ jQuery.cssProps[ tween.prop ] ] != null ||
+					jQuery.cssHooks[ tween.prop ] ) ) {
+				jQuery.style( tween.elem, tween.prop, tween.now + tween.unit );
+			} else {
+				tween.elem[ tween.prop ] = tween.now;
+			}
+		}
+	}
+};
+
+// Support: IE <=9 only
+// Panic based approach to setting things on disconnected nodes
+Tween.propHooks.scrollTop = Tween.propHooks.scrollLeft = {
+	set: function( tween ) {
+		if ( tween.elem.nodeType && tween.elem.parentNode ) {
+			tween.elem[ tween.prop ] = tween.now;
+		}
+	}
+};
+
+jQuery.easing = {
+	linear: function( p ) {
+		return p;
+	},
+	swing: function( p ) {
+		return 0.5 - Math.cos( p * Math.PI ) / 2;
+	},
+	_default: "swing"
+};
+
+jQuery.fx = Tween.prototype.init;
+
+// Back compat <1.8 extension point
+jQuery.fx.step = {};
+
+
+
+
+var
+	fxNow, inProgress,
+	rfxtypes = /^(?:toggle|show|hide)$/,
+	rrun = /queueHooks$/;
+
+function schedule() {
+	if ( inProgress ) {
+		if ( document.hidden === false && window.requestAnimationFrame ) {
+			window.requestAnimationFrame( schedule );
+		} else {
+			window.setTimeout( schedule, jQuery.fx.interval );
+		}
+
+		jQuery.fx.tick();
+	}
+}
+
+// Animations created synchronously will run synchronously
+function createFxNow() {
+	window.setTimeout( function() {
+		fxNow = undefined;
+	} );
+	return ( fxNow = jQuery.now() );
+}
+
+// Generate parameters to create a standard animation
+function genFx( type, includeWidth ) {
+	var which,
+		i = 0,
+		attrs = { height: type };
+
+	// If we include width, step value is 1 to do all cssExpand values,
+	// otherwise step value is 2 to skip over Left and Right
+	includeWidth = includeWidth ? 1 : 0;
+	for ( ; i < 4; i += 2 - includeWidth ) {
+		which = cssExpand[ i ];
+		attrs[ "margin" + which ] = attrs[ "padding" + which ] = type;
+	}
+
+	if ( includeWidth ) {
+		attrs.opacity = attrs.width = type;
+	}
+
+	return attrs;
+}
+
+function createTween( value, prop, animation ) {
+	var tween,
+		collection = ( Animation.tweeners[ prop ] || [] ).concat( Animation.tweeners[ "*" ] ),
+		index = 0,
+		length = collection.length;
+	for ( ; index < length; index++ ) {
+		if ( ( tween = collection[ index ].call( animation, prop, value ) ) ) {
+
+			// We're done with this property
+			return tween;
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+function defaultPrefilter( elem, props, opts ) {
+	var prop, value, toggle, hooks, oldfire, propTween, restoreDisplay, display,
+		isBox = "width" in props || "height" in props,
+		anim = this,
+		orig = {},
+		style = elem.style,
+		hidden = elem.nodeType && isHiddenWithinTree( elem ),
+		dataShow = dataPriv.get( elem, "fxshow" );
+
+	// Queue-skipping animations hijack the fx hooks
+	if ( !opts.queue ) {
+		hooks = jQuery._queueHooks( elem, "fx" );
+		if ( hooks.unqueued == null ) {
+			hooks.unqueued = 0;
+			oldfire = hooks.empty.fire;
+			hooks.empty.fire = function() {
+				if ( !hooks.unqueued ) {
+					oldfire();
+				}
+			};
+		}
+		hooks.unqueued++;
+
+		anim.always( function() {
+
+			// Ensure the complete handler is called before this completes
+			anim.always( function() {
+				hooks.unqueued--;
+				if ( !jQuery.queue( elem, "fx" ).length ) {
+					hooks.empty.fire();
+				}
+			} );
+		} );
+	}
+
+	// Detect show/hide animations
+	for ( prop in props ) {
+		value = props[ prop ];
+		if ( rfxtypes.test( value ) ) {
+			delete props[ prop ];
+			toggle = toggle || value === "toggle";
+			if ( value === ( hidden ? "hide" : "show" ) ) {
+
+				// Pretend to be hidden if this is a "show" and
+				// there is still data from a stopped show/hide
+				if ( value === "show" && dataShow && dataShow[ prop ] !== undefined ) {
+					hidden = true;
+
+				// Ignore all other no-op show/hide data
+				} else {
+					continue;
+				}
+			}
+			orig[ prop ] = dataShow && dataShow[ prop ] || jQuery.style( elem, prop );
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Bail out if this is a no-op like .hide().hide()
+	propTween = !jQuery.isEmptyObject( props );
+	if ( !propTween && jQuery.isEmptyObject( orig ) ) {
+		return;
+	}
+
+	// Restrict "overflow" and "display" styles during box animations
+	if ( isBox && elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+
+		// Support: IE <=9 - 11, Edge 12 - 13
+		// Record all 3 overflow attributes because IE does not infer the shorthand
+		// from identically-valued overflowX and overflowY
+		opts.overflow = [ style.overflow, style.overflowX, style.overflowY ];
+
+		// Identify a display type, preferring old show/hide data over the CSS cascade
+		restoreDisplay = dataShow && dataShow.display;
+		if ( restoreDisplay == null ) {
+			restoreDisplay = dataPriv.get( elem, "display" );
+		}
+		display = jQuery.css( elem, "display" );
+		if ( display === "none" ) {
+			if ( restoreDisplay ) {
+				display = restoreDisplay;
+			} else {
+
+				// Get nonempty value(s) by temporarily forcing visibility
+				showHide( [ elem ], true );
+				restoreDisplay = elem.style.display || restoreDisplay;
+				display = jQuery.css( elem, "display" );
+				showHide( [ elem ] );
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Animate inline elements as inline-block
+		if ( display === "inline" || display === "inline-block" && restoreDisplay != null ) {
+			if ( jQuery.css( elem, "float" ) === "none" ) {
+
+				// Restore the original display value at the end of pure show/hide animations
+				if ( !propTween ) {
+					anim.done( function() {
+						style.display = restoreDisplay;
+					} );
+					if ( restoreDisplay == null ) {
+						display = style.display;
+						restoreDisplay = display === "none" ? "" : display;
+					}
+				}
+				style.display = "inline-block";
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	if ( opts.overflow ) {
+		style.overflow = "hidden";
+		anim.always( function() {
+			style.overflow = opts.overflow[ 0 ];
+			style.overflowX = opts.overflow[ 1 ];
+			style.overflowY = opts.overflow[ 2 ];
+		} );
+	}
+
+	// Implement show/hide animations
+	propTween = false;
+	for ( prop in orig ) {
+
+		// General show/hide setup for this element animation
+		if ( !propTween ) {
+			if ( dataShow ) {
+				if ( "hidden" in dataShow ) {
+					hidden = dataShow.hidden;
+				}
+			} else {
+				dataShow = dataPriv.access( elem, "fxshow", { display: restoreDisplay } );
+			}
+
+			// Store hidden/visible for toggle so `.stop().toggle()` "reverses"
+			if ( toggle ) {
+				dataShow.hidden = !hidden;
+			}
+
+			// Show elements before animating them
+			if ( hidden ) {
+				showHide( [ elem ], true );
+			}
+
+			/* eslint-disable no-loop-func */
+
+			anim.done( function() {
+
+			/* eslint-enable no-loop-func */
+
+				// The final step of a "hide" animation is actually hiding the element
+				if ( !hidden ) {
+					showHide( [ elem ] );
+				}
+				dataPriv.remove( elem, "fxshow" );
+				for ( prop in orig ) {
+					jQuery.style( elem, prop, orig[ prop ] );
+				}
+			} );
+		}
+
+		// Per-property setup
+		propTween = createTween( hidden ? dataShow[ prop ] : 0, prop, anim );
+		if ( !( prop in dataShow ) ) {
+			dataShow[ prop ] = propTween.start;
+			if ( hidden ) {
+				propTween.end = propTween.start;
+				propTween.start = 0;
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+function propFilter( props, specialEasing ) {
+	var index, name, easing, value, hooks;
+
+	// camelCase, specialEasing and expand cssHook pass
+	for ( index in props ) {
+		name = jQuery.camelCase( index );
+		easing = specialEasing[ name ];
+		value = props[ index ];
+		if ( Array.isArray( value ) ) {
+			easing = value[ 1 ];
+			value = props[ index ] = value[ 0 ];
+		}
+
+		if ( index !== name ) {
+			props[ name ] = value;
+			delete props[ index ];
+		}
+
+		hooks = jQuery.cssHooks[ name ];
+		if ( hooks && "expand" in hooks ) {
+			value = hooks.expand( value );
+			delete props[ name ];
+
+			// Not quite $.extend, this won't overwrite existing keys.
+			// Reusing 'index' because we have the correct "name"
+			for ( index in value ) {
+				if ( !( index in props ) ) {
+					props[ index ] = value[ index ];
+					specialEasing[ index ] = easing;
+				}
+			}
+		} else {
+			specialEasing[ name ] = easing;
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+function Animation( elem, properties, options ) {
+	var result,
+		stopped,
+		index = 0,
+		length = Animation.prefilters.length,
+		deferred = jQuery.Deferred().always( function() {
+
+			// Don't match elem in the :animated selector
+			delete tick.elem;
+		} ),
+		tick = function() {
+			if ( stopped ) {
+				return false;
+			}
+			var currentTime = fxNow || createFxNow(),
+				remaining = Math.max( 0, animation.startTime + animation.duration - currentTime ),
+
+				// Support: Android 2.3 only
+				// Archaic crash bug won't allow us to use `1 - ( 0.5 || 0 )` (#12497)
+				temp = remaining / animation.duration || 0,
+				percent = 1 - temp,
+				index = 0,
+				length = animation.tweens.length;
+
+			for ( ; index < length; index++ ) {
+				animation.tweens[ index ].run( percent );
+			}
+
+			deferred.notifyWith( elem, [ animation, percent, remaining ] );
+
+			// If there's more to do, yield
+			if ( percent < 1 && length ) {
+				return remaining;
+			}
+
+			// If this was an empty animation, synthesize a final progress notification
+			if ( !length ) {
+				deferred.notifyWith( elem, [ animation, 1, 0 ] );
+			}
+
+			// Resolve the animation and report its conclusion
+			deferred.resolveWith( elem, [ animation ] );
+			return false;
+		},
+		animation = deferred.promise( {
+			elem: elem,
+			props: jQuery.extend( {}, properties ),
+			opts: jQuery.extend( true, {
+				specialEasing: {},
+				easing: jQuery.easing._default
+			}, options ),
+			originalProperties: properties,
+			originalOptions: options,
+			startTime: fxNow || createFxNow(),
+			duration: options.duration,
+			tweens: [],
+			createTween: function( prop, end ) {
+				var tween = jQuery.Tween( elem, animation.opts, prop, end,
+						animation.opts.specialEasing[ prop ] || animation.opts.easing );
+				animation.tweens.push( tween );
+				return tween;
+			},
+			stop: function( gotoEnd ) {
+				var index = 0,
+
+					// If we are going to the end, we want to run all the tweens
+					// otherwise we skip this part
+					length = gotoEnd ? animation.tweens.length : 0;
+				if ( stopped ) {
+					return this;
+				}
+				stopped = true;
+				for ( ; index < length; index++ ) {
+					animation.tweens[ index ].run( 1 );
+				}
+
+				// Resolve when we played the last frame; otherwise, reject
+				if ( gotoEnd ) {
+					deferred.notifyWith( elem, [ animation, 1, 0 ] );
+					deferred.resolveWith( elem, [ animation, gotoEnd ] );
+				} else {
+					deferred.rejectWith( elem, [ animation, gotoEnd ] );
+				}
+				return this;
+			}
+		} ),
+		props = animation.props;
+
+	propFilter( props, animation.opts.specialEasing );
+
+	for ( ; index < length; index++ ) {
+		result = Animation.prefilters[ index ].call( animation, elem, props, animation.opts );
+		if ( result ) {
+			if ( jQuery.isFunction( result.stop ) ) {
+				jQuery._queueHooks( animation.elem, animation.opts.queue ).stop =
+					jQuery.proxy( result.stop, result );
+			}
+			return result;
+		}
+	}
+
+	jQuery.map( props, createTween, animation );
+
+	if ( jQuery.isFunction( animation.opts.start ) ) {
+		animation.opts.start.call( elem, animation );
+	}
+
+	// Attach callbacks from options
+	animation
+		.progress( animation.opts.progress )
+		.done( animation.opts.done, animation.opts.complete )
+		.fail( animation.opts.fail )
+		.always( animation.opts.always );
+
+	jQuery.fx.timer(
+		jQuery.extend( tick, {
+			elem: elem,
+			anim: animation,
+			queue: animation.opts.queue
+		} )
+	);
+
+	return animation;
+}
+
+jQuery.Animation = jQuery.extend( Animation, {
+
+	tweeners: {
+		"*": [ function( prop, value ) {
+			var tween = this.createTween( prop, value );
+			adjustCSS( tween.elem, prop, rcssNum.exec( value ), tween );
+			return tween;
+		} ]
+	},
+
+	tweener: function( props, callback ) {
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( props ) ) {
+			callback = props;
+			props = [ "*" ];
+		} else {
+			props = props.match( rnothtmlwhite );
+		}
+
+		var prop,
+			index = 0,
+			length = props.length;
+
+		for ( ; index < length; index++ ) {
+			prop = props[ index ];
+			Animation.tweeners[ prop ] = Animation.tweeners[ prop ] || [];
+			Animation.tweeners[ prop ].unshift( callback );
+		}
+	},
+
+	prefilters: [ defaultPrefilter ],
+
+	prefilter: function( callback, prepend ) {
+		if ( prepend ) {
+			Animation.prefilters.unshift( callback );
+		} else {
+			Animation.prefilters.push( callback );
+		}
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.speed = function( speed, easing, fn ) {
+	var opt = speed && typeof speed === "object" ? jQuery.extend( {}, speed ) : {
+		complete: fn || !fn && easing ||
+			jQuery.isFunction( speed ) && speed,
+		duration: speed,
+		easing: fn && easing || easing && !jQuery.isFunction( easing ) && easing
+	};
+
+	// Go to the end state if fx are off
+	if ( jQuery.fx.off ) {
+		opt.duration = 0;
+
+	} else {
+		if ( typeof opt.duration !== "number" ) {
+			if ( opt.duration in jQuery.fx.speeds ) {
+				opt.duration = jQuery.fx.speeds[ opt.duration ];
+
+			} else {
+				opt.duration = jQuery.fx.speeds._default;
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Normalize opt.queue - true/undefined/null -> "fx"
+	if ( opt.queue == null || opt.queue === true ) {
+		opt.queue = "fx";
+	}
+
+	// Queueing
+	opt.old = opt.complete;
+
+	opt.complete = function() {
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( opt.old ) ) {
+			opt.old.call( this );
+		}
+
+		if ( opt.queue ) {
+			jQuery.dequeue( this, opt.queue );
+		}
+	};
+
+	return opt;
+};
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	fadeTo: function( speed, to, easing, callback ) {
+
+		// Show any hidden elements after setting opacity to 0
+		return this.filter( isHiddenWithinTree ).css( "opacity", 0 ).show()
+
+			// Animate to the value specified
+			.end().animate( { opacity: to }, speed, easing, callback );
+	},
+	animate: function( prop, speed, easing, callback ) {
+		var empty = jQuery.isEmptyObject( prop ),
+			optall = jQuery.speed( speed, easing, callback ),
+			doAnimation = function() {
+
+				// Operate on a copy of prop so per-property easing won't be lost
+				var anim = Animation( this, jQuery.extend( {}, prop ), optall );
+
+				// Empty animations, or finishing resolves immediately
+				if ( empty || dataPriv.get( this, "finish" ) ) {
+					anim.stop( true );
+				}
+			};
+			doAnimation.finish = doAnimation;
+
+		return empty || optall.queue === false ?
+			this.each( doAnimation ) :
+			this.queue( optall.queue, doAnimation );
+	},
+	stop: function( type, clearQueue, gotoEnd ) {
+		var stopQueue = function( hooks ) {
+			var stop = hooks.stop;
+			delete hooks.stop;
+			stop( gotoEnd );
+		};
+
+		if ( typeof type !== "string" ) {
+			gotoEnd = clearQueue;
+			clearQueue = type;
+			type = undefined;
+		}
+		if ( clearQueue && type !== false ) {
+			this.queue( type || "fx", [] );
+		}
+
+		return this.each( function() {
+			var dequeue = true,
+				index = type != null && type + "queueHooks",
+				timers = jQuery.timers,
+				data = dataPriv.get( this );
+
+			if ( index ) {
+				if ( data[ index ] && data[ index ].stop ) {
+					stopQueue( data[ index ] );
+				}
+			} else {
+				for ( index in data ) {
+					if ( data[ index ] && data[ index ].stop && rrun.test( index ) ) {
+						stopQueue( data[ index ] );
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			for ( index = timers.length; index--; ) {
+				if ( timers[ index ].elem === this &&
+					( type == null || timers[ index ].queue === type ) ) {
+
+					timers[ index ].anim.stop( gotoEnd );
+					dequeue = false;
+					timers.splice( index, 1 );
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Start the next in the queue if the last step wasn't forced.
+			// Timers currently will call their complete callbacks, which
+			// will dequeue but only if they were gotoEnd.
+			if ( dequeue || !gotoEnd ) {
+				jQuery.dequeue( this, type );
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+	finish: function( type ) {
+		if ( type !== false ) {
+			type = type || "fx";
+		}
+		return this.each( function() {
+			var index,
+				data = dataPriv.get( this ),
+				queue = data[ type + "queue" ],
+				hooks = data[ type + "queueHooks" ],
+				timers = jQuery.timers,
+				length = queue ? queue.length : 0;
+
+			// Enable finishing flag on private data
+			data.finish = true;
+
+			// Empty the queue first
+			jQuery.queue( this, type, [] );
+
+			if ( hooks && hooks.stop ) {
+				hooks.stop.call( this, true );
+			}
+
+			// Look for any active animations, and finish them
+			for ( index = timers.length; index--; ) {
+				if ( timers[ index ].elem === this && timers[ index ].queue === type ) {
+					timers[ index ].anim.stop( true );
+					timers.splice( index, 1 );
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Look for any animations in the old queue and finish them
+			for ( index = 0; index < length; index++ ) {
+				if ( queue[ index ] && queue[ index ].finish ) {
+					queue[ index ].finish.call( this );
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Turn off finishing flag
+			delete data.finish;
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.each( [ "toggle", "show", "hide" ], function( i, name ) {
+	var cssFn = jQuery.fn[ name ];
+	jQuery.fn[ name ] = function( speed, easing, callback ) {
+		return speed == null || typeof speed === "boolean" ?
+			cssFn.apply( this, arguments ) :
+			this.animate( genFx( name, true ), speed, easing, callback );
+	};
+} );
+
+// Generate shortcuts for custom animations
+jQuery.each( {
+	slideDown: genFx( "show" ),
+	slideUp: genFx( "hide" ),
+	slideToggle: genFx( "toggle" ),
+	fadeIn: { opacity: "show" },
+	fadeOut: { opacity: "hide" },
+	fadeToggle: { opacity: "toggle" }
+}, function( name, props ) {
+	jQuery.fn[ name ] = function( speed, easing, callback ) {
+		return this.animate( props, speed, easing, callback );
+	};
+} );
+
+jQuery.timers = [];
+jQuery.fx.tick = function() {
+	var timer,
+		i = 0,
+		timers = jQuery.timers;
+
+	fxNow = jQuery.now();
+
+	for ( ; i < timers.length; i++ ) {
+		timer = timers[ i ];
+
+		// Run the timer and safely remove it when done (allowing for external removal)
+		if ( !timer() && timers[ i ] === timer ) {
+			timers.splice( i--, 1 );
+		}
+	}
+
+	if ( !timers.length ) {
+		jQuery.fx.stop();
+	}
+	fxNow = undefined;
+};
+
+jQuery.fx.timer = function( timer ) {
+	jQuery.timers.push( timer );
+	jQuery.fx.start();
+};
+
+jQuery.fx.interval = 13;
+jQuery.fx.start = function() {
+	if ( inProgress ) {
+		return;
+	}
+
+	inProgress = true;
+	schedule();
+};
+
+jQuery.fx.stop = function() {
+	inProgress = null;
+};
+
+jQuery.fx.speeds = {
+	slow: 600,
+	fast: 200,
+
+	// Default speed
+	_default: 400
+};
+
+
+// Based off of the plugin by Clint Helfers, with permission.
+// https://web.archive.org/web/20100324014747/http://blindsignals.com/index.php/2009/07/jquery-delay/
+jQuery.fn.delay = function( time, type ) {
+	time = jQuery.fx ? jQuery.fx.speeds[ time ] || time : time;
+	type = type || "fx";
+
+	return this.queue( type, function( next, hooks ) {
+		var timeout = window.setTimeout( next, time );
+		hooks.stop = function() {
+			window.clearTimeout( timeout );
+		};
+	} );
+};
+
+
+( function() {
+	var input = document.createElement( "input" ),
+		select = document.createElement( "select" ),
+		opt = select.appendChild( document.createElement( "option" ) );
+
+	input.type = "checkbox";
+
+	// Support: Android <=4.3 only
+	// Default value for a checkbox should be "on"
+	support.checkOn = input.value !== "";
+
+	// Support: IE <=11 only
+	// Must access selectedIndex to make default options select
+	support.optSelected = opt.selected;
+
+	// Support: IE <=11 only
+	// An input loses its value after becoming a radio
+	input = document.createElement( "input" );
+	input.value = "t";
+	input.type = "radio";
+	support.radioValue = input.value === "t";
+} )();
+
+
+var boolHook,
+	attrHandle = jQuery.expr.attrHandle;
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	attr: function( name, value ) {
+		return access( this, jQuery.attr, name, value, arguments.length > 1 );
+	},
+
+	removeAttr: function( name ) {
+		return this.each( function() {
+			jQuery.removeAttr( this, name );
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+	attr: function( elem, name, value ) {
+		var ret, hooks,
+			nType = elem.nodeType;
+
+		// Don't get/set attributes on text, comment and attribute nodes
+		if ( nType === 3 || nType === 8 || nType === 2 ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Fallback to prop when attributes are not supported
+		if ( typeof elem.getAttribute === "undefined" ) {
+			return jQuery.prop( elem, name, value );
+		}
+
+		// Attribute hooks are determined by the lowercase version
+		// Grab necessary hook if one is defined
+		if ( nType !== 1 || !jQuery.isXMLDoc( elem ) ) {
+			hooks = jQuery.attrHooks[ name.toLowerCase() ] ||
+				( jQuery.expr.match.bool.test( name ) ? boolHook : undefined );
+		}
+
+		if ( value !== undefined ) {
+			if ( value === null ) {
+				jQuery.removeAttr( elem, name );
+				return;
+			}
+
+			if ( hooks && "set" in hooks &&
+				( ret = hooks.set( elem, value, name ) ) !== undefined ) {
+				return ret;
+			}
+
+			elem.setAttribute( name, value + "" );
+			return value;
+		}
+
+		if ( hooks && "get" in hooks && ( ret = hooks.get( elem, name ) ) !== null ) {
+			return ret;
+		}
+
+		ret = jQuery.find.attr( elem, name );
+
+		// Non-existent attributes return null, we normalize to undefined
+		return ret == null ? undefined : ret;
+	},
+
+	attrHooks: {
+		type: {
+			set: function( elem, value ) {
+				if ( !support.radioValue && value === "radio" &&
+					nodeName( elem, "input" ) ) {
+					var val = elem.value;
+					elem.setAttribute( "type", value );
+					if ( val ) {
+						elem.value = val;
+					}
+					return value;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	},
+
+	removeAttr: function( elem, value ) {
+		var name,
+			i = 0,
+
+			// Attribute names can contain non-HTML whitespace characters
+			// https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/syntax.html#attributes-2
+			attrNames = value && value.match( rnothtmlwhite );
+
+		if ( attrNames && elem.nodeType === 1 ) {
+			while ( ( name = attrNames[ i++ ] ) ) {
+				elem.removeAttribute( name );
+			}
+		}
+	}
+} );
+
+// Hooks for boolean attributes
+boolHook = {
+	set: function( elem, value, name ) {
+		if ( value === false ) {
+
+			// Remove boolean attributes when set to false
+			jQuery.removeAttr( elem, name );
+		} else {
+			elem.setAttribute( name, name );
+		}
+		return name;
+	}
+};
+
+jQuery.each( jQuery.expr.match.bool.source.match( /\w+/g ), function( i, name ) {
+	var getter = attrHandle[ name ] || jQuery.find.attr;
+
+	attrHandle[ name ] = function( elem, name, isXML ) {
+		var ret, handle,
+			lowercaseName = name.toLowerCase();
+
+		if ( !isXML ) {
+
+			// Avoid an infinite loop by temporarily removing this function from the getter
+			handle = attrHandle[ lowercaseName ];
+			attrHandle[ lowercaseName ] = ret;
+			ret = getter( elem, name, isXML ) != null ?
+				lowercaseName :
+				null;
+			attrHandle[ lowercaseName ] = handle;
+		}
+		return ret;
+	};
+} );
+
+
+
+
+var rfocusable = /^(?:input|select|textarea|button)$/i,
+	rclickable = /^(?:a|area)$/i;
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	prop: function( name, value ) {
+		return access( this, jQuery.prop, name, value, arguments.length > 1 );
+	},
+
+	removeProp: function( name ) {
+		return this.each( function() {
+			delete this[ jQuery.propFix[ name ] || name ];
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+	prop: function( elem, name, value ) {
+		var ret, hooks,
+			nType = elem.nodeType;
+
+		// Don't get/set properties on text, comment and attribute nodes
+		if ( nType === 3 || nType === 8 || nType === 2 ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		if ( nType !== 1 || !jQuery.isXMLDoc( elem ) ) {
+
+			// Fix name and attach hooks
+			name = jQuery.propFix[ name ] || name;
+			hooks = jQuery.propHooks[ name ];
+		}
+
+		if ( value !== undefined ) {
+			if ( hooks && "set" in hooks &&
+				( ret = hooks.set( elem, value, name ) ) !== undefined ) {
+				return ret;
+			}
+
+			return ( elem[ name ] = value );
+		}
+
+		if ( hooks && "get" in hooks && ( ret = hooks.get( elem, name ) ) !== null ) {
+			return ret;
+		}
+
+		return elem[ name ];
+	},
+
+	propHooks: {
+		tabIndex: {
+			get: function( elem ) {
+
+				// Support: IE <=9 - 11 only
+				// elem.tabIndex doesn't always return the
+				// correct value when it hasn't been explicitly set
+				// https://web.archive.org/web/20141116233347/http://fluidproject.org/blog/2008/01/09/getting-setting-and-removing-tabindex-values-with-javascript/
+				// Use proper attribute retrieval(#12072)
+				var tabindex = jQuery.find.attr( elem, "tabindex" );
+
+				if ( tabindex ) {
+					return parseInt( tabindex, 10 );
+				}
+
+				if (
+					rfocusable.test( elem.nodeName ) ||
+					rclickable.test( elem.nodeName ) &&
+					elem.href
+				) {
+					return 0;
+				}
+
+				return -1;
+			}
+		}
+	},
+
+	propFix: {
+		"for": "htmlFor",
+		"class": "className"
+	}
+} );
+
+// Support: IE <=11 only
+// Accessing the selectedIndex property
+// forces the browser to respect setting selected
+// on the option
+// The getter ensures a default option is selected
+// when in an optgroup
+// eslint rule "no-unused-expressions" is disabled for this code
+// since it considers such accessions noop
+if ( !support.optSelected ) {
+	jQuery.propHooks.selected = {
+		get: function( elem ) {
+
+			/* eslint no-unused-expressions: "off" */
+
+			var parent = elem.parentNode;
+			if ( parent && parent.parentNode ) {
+				parent.parentNode.selectedIndex;
+			}
+			return null;
+		},
+		set: function( elem ) {
+
+			/* eslint no-unused-expressions: "off" */
+
+			var parent = elem.parentNode;
+			if ( parent ) {
+				parent.selectedIndex;
+
+				if ( parent.parentNode ) {
+					parent.parentNode.selectedIndex;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	};
+}
+
+jQuery.each( [
+	"tabIndex",
+	"readOnly",
+	"maxLength",
+	"cellSpacing",
+	"cellPadding",
+	"rowSpan",
+	"colSpan",
+	"useMap",
+	"frameBorder",
+	"contentEditable"
+], function() {
+	jQuery.propFix[ this.toLowerCase() ] = this;
+} );
+
+
+
+
+	// Strip and collapse whitespace according to HTML spec
+	// https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/infrastructure.html#strip-and-collapse-whitespace
+	function stripAndCollapse( value ) {
+		var tokens = value.match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [];
+		return tokens.join( " " );
+	}
+
+
+function getClass( elem ) {
+	return elem.getAttribute && elem.getAttribute( "class" ) || "";
+}
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	addClass: function( value ) {
+		var classes, elem, cur, curValue, clazz, j, finalValue,
+			i = 0;
+
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( value ) ) {
+			return this.each( function( j ) {
+				jQuery( this ).addClass( value.call( this, j, getClass( this ) ) );
+			} );
+		}
+
+		if ( typeof value === "string" && value ) {
+			classes = value.match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [];
+
+			while ( ( elem = this[ i++ ] ) ) {
+				curValue = getClass( elem );
+				cur = elem.nodeType === 1 && ( " " + stripAndCollapse( curValue ) + " " );
+
+				if ( cur ) {
+					j = 0;
+					while ( ( clazz = classes[ j++ ] ) ) {
+						if ( cur.indexOf( " " + clazz + " " ) < 0 ) {
+							cur += clazz + " ";
+						}
+					}
+
+					// Only assign if different to avoid unneeded rendering.
+					finalValue = stripAndCollapse( cur );
+					if ( curValue !== finalValue ) {
+						elem.setAttribute( "class", finalValue );
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return this;
+	},
+
+	removeClass: function( value ) {
+		var classes, elem, cur, curValue, clazz, j, finalValue,
+			i = 0;
+
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( value ) ) {
+			return this.each( function( j ) {
+				jQuery( this ).removeClass( value.call( this, j, getClass( this ) ) );
+			} );
+		}
+
+		if ( !arguments.length ) {
+			return this.attr( "class", "" );
+		}
+
+		if ( typeof value === "string" && value ) {
+			classes = value.match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [];
+
+			while ( ( elem = this[ i++ ] ) ) {
+				curValue = getClass( elem );
+
+				// This expression is here for better compressibility (see addClass)
+				cur = elem.nodeType === 1 && ( " " + stripAndCollapse( curValue ) + " " );
+
+				if ( cur ) {
+					j = 0;
+					while ( ( clazz = classes[ j++ ] ) ) {
+
+						// Remove *all* instances
+						while ( cur.indexOf( " " + clazz + " " ) > -1 ) {
+							cur = cur.replace( " " + clazz + " ", " " );
+						}
+					}
+
+					// Only assign if different to avoid unneeded rendering.
+					finalValue = stripAndCollapse( cur );
+					if ( curValue !== finalValue ) {
+						elem.setAttribute( "class", finalValue );
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return this;
+	},
+
+	toggleClass: function( value, stateVal ) {
+		var type = typeof value;
+
+		if ( typeof stateVal === "boolean" && type === "string" ) {
+			return stateVal ? this.addClass( value ) : this.removeClass( value );
+		}
+
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( value ) ) {
+			return this.each( function( i ) {
+				jQuery( this ).toggleClass(
+					value.call( this, i, getClass( this ), stateVal ),
+					stateVal
+				);
+			} );
+		}
+
+		return this.each( function() {
+			var className, i, self, classNames;
+
+			if ( type === "string" ) {
+
+				// Toggle individual class names
+				i = 0;
+				self = jQuery( this );
+				classNames = value.match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [];
+
+				while ( ( className = classNames[ i++ ] ) ) {
+
+					// Check each className given, space separated list
+					if ( self.hasClass( className ) ) {
+						self.removeClass( className );
+					} else {
+						self.addClass( className );
+					}
+				}
+
+			// Toggle whole class name
+			} else if ( value === undefined || type === "boolean" ) {
+				className = getClass( this );
+				if ( className ) {
+
+					// Store className if set
+					dataPriv.set( this, "__className__", className );
+				}
+
+				// If the element has a class name or if we're passed `false`,
+				// then remove the whole classname (if there was one, the above saved it).
+				// Otherwise bring back whatever was previously saved (if anything),
+				// falling back to the empty string if nothing was stored.
+				if ( this.setAttribute ) {
+					this.setAttribute( "class",
+						className || value === false ?
+						"" :
+						dataPriv.get( this, "__className__" ) || ""
+					);
+				}
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	hasClass: function( selector ) {
+		var className, elem,
+			i = 0;
+
+		className = " " + selector + " ";
+		while ( ( elem = this[ i++ ] ) ) {
+			if ( elem.nodeType === 1 &&
+				( " " + stripAndCollapse( getClass( elem ) ) + " " ).indexOf( className ) > -1 ) {
+					return true;
+			}
+		}
+
+		return false;
+	}
+} );
+
+
+
+
+var rreturn = /\r/g;
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	val: function( value ) {
+		var hooks, ret, isFunction,
+			elem = this[ 0 ];
+
+		if ( !arguments.length ) {
+			if ( elem ) {
+				hooks = jQuery.valHooks[ elem.type ] ||
+					jQuery.valHooks[ elem.nodeName.toLowerCase() ];
+
+				if ( hooks &&
+					"get" in hooks &&
+					( ret = hooks.get( elem, "value" ) ) !== undefined
+				) {
+					return ret;
+				}
+
+				ret = elem.value;
+
+				// Handle most common string cases
+				if ( typeof ret === "string" ) {
+					return ret.replace( rreturn, "" );
+				}
+
+				// Handle cases where value is null/undef or number
+				return ret == null ? "" : ret;
+			}
+
+			return;
+		}
+
+		isFunction = jQuery.isFunction( value );
+
+		return this.each( function( i ) {
+			var val;
+
+			if ( this.nodeType !== 1 ) {
+				return;
+			}
+
+			if ( isFunction ) {
+				val = value.call( this, i, jQuery( this ).val() );
+			} else {
+				val = value;
+			}
+
+			// Treat null/undefined as ""; convert numbers to string
+			if ( val == null ) {
+				val = "";
+
+			} else if ( typeof val === "number" ) {
+				val += "";
+
+			} else if ( Array.isArray( val ) ) {
+				val = jQuery.map( val, function( value ) {
+					return value == null ? "" : value + "";
+				} );
+			}
+
+			hooks = jQuery.valHooks[ this.type ] || jQuery.valHooks[ this.nodeName.toLowerCase() ];
+
+			// If set returns undefined, fall back to normal setting
+			if ( !hooks || !( "set" in hooks ) || hooks.set( this, val, "value" ) === undefined ) {
+				this.value = val;
+			}
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+	valHooks: {
+		option: {
+			get: function( elem ) {
+
+				var val = jQuery.find.attr( elem, "value" );
+				return val != null ?
+					val :
+
+					// Support: IE <=10 - 11 only
+					// option.text throws exceptions (#14686, #14858)
+					// Strip and collapse whitespace
+					// https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#strip-and-collapse-whitespace
+					stripAndCollapse( jQuery.text( elem ) );
+			}
+		},
+		select: {
+			get: function( elem ) {
+				var value, option, i,
+					options = elem.options,
+					index = elem.selectedIndex,
+					one = elem.type === "select-one",
+					values = one ? null : [],
+					max = one ? index + 1 : options.length;
+
+				if ( index < 0 ) {
+					i = max;
+
+				} else {
+					i = one ? index : 0;
+				}
+
+				// Loop through all the selected options
+				for ( ; i < max; i++ ) {
+					option = options[ i ];
+
+					// Support: IE <=9 only
+					// IE8-9 doesn't update selected after form reset (#2551)
+					if ( ( option.selected || i === index ) &&
+
+							// Don't return options that are disabled or in a disabled optgroup
+							!option.disabled &&
+							( !option.parentNode.disabled ||
+								!nodeName( option.parentNode, "optgroup" ) ) ) {
+
+						// Get the specific value for the option
+						value = jQuery( option ).val();
+
+						// We don't need an array for one selects
+						if ( one ) {
+							return value;
+						}
+
+						// Multi-Selects return an array
+						values.push( value );
+					}
+				}
+
+				return values;
+			},
+
+			set: function( elem, value ) {
+				var optionSet, option,
+					options = elem.options,
+					values = jQuery.makeArray( value ),
+					i = options.length;
+
+				while ( i-- ) {
+					option = options[ i ];
+
+					/* eslint-disable no-cond-assign */
+
+					if ( option.selected =
+						jQuery.inArray( jQuery.valHooks.option.get( option ), values ) > -1
+					) {
+						optionSet = true;
+					}
+
+					/* eslint-enable no-cond-assign */
+				}
+
+				// Force browsers to behave consistently when non-matching value is set
+				if ( !optionSet ) {
+					elem.selectedIndex = -1;
+				}
+				return values;
+			}
+		}
+	}
+} );
+
+// Radios and checkboxes getter/setter
+jQuery.each( [ "radio", "checkbox" ], function() {
+	jQuery.valHooks[ this ] = {
+		set: function( elem, value ) {
+			if ( Array.isArray( value ) ) {
+				return ( elem.checked = jQuery.inArray( jQuery( elem ).val(), value ) > -1 );
+			}
+		}
+	};
+	if ( !support.checkOn ) {
+		jQuery.valHooks[ this ].get = function( elem ) {
+			return elem.getAttribute( "value" ) === null ? "on" : elem.value;
+		};
+	}
+} );
+
+
+
+
+// Return jQuery for attributes-only inclusion
+
+
+var rfocusMorph = /^(?:focusinfocus|focusoutblur)$/;
+
+jQuery.extend( jQuery.event, {
+
+	trigger: function( event, data, elem, onlyHandlers ) {
+
+		var i, cur, tmp, bubbleType, ontype, handle, special,
+			eventPath = [ elem || document ],
+			type = hasOwn.call( event, "type" ) ? event.type : event,
+			namespaces = hasOwn.call( event, "namespace" ) ? event.namespace.split( "." ) : [];
+
+		cur = tmp = elem = elem || document;
+
+		// Don't do events on text and comment nodes
+		if ( elem.nodeType === 3 || elem.nodeType === 8 ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// focus/blur morphs to focusin/out; ensure we're not firing them right now
+		if ( rfocusMorph.test( type + jQuery.event.triggered ) ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		if ( type.indexOf( "." ) > -1 ) {
+
+			// Namespaced trigger; create a regexp to match event type in handle()
+			namespaces = type.split( "." );
+			type = namespaces.shift();
+			namespaces.sort();
+		}
+		ontype = type.indexOf( ":" ) < 0 && "on" + type;
+
+		// Caller can pass in a jQuery.Event object, Object, or just an event type string
+		event = event[ jQuery.expando ] ?
+			event :
+			new jQuery.Event( type, typeof event === "object" && event );
+
+		// Trigger bitmask: & 1 for native handlers; & 2 for jQuery (always true)
+		event.isTrigger = onlyHandlers ? 2 : 3;
+		event.namespace = namespaces.join( "." );
+		event.rnamespace = event.namespace ?
+			new RegExp( "(^|\\.)" + namespaces.join( "\\.(?:.*\\.|)" ) + "(\\.|$)" ) :
+			null;
+
+		// Clean up the event in case it is being reused
+		event.result = undefined;
+		if ( !event.target ) {
+			event.target = elem;
+		}
+
+		// Clone any incoming data and prepend the event, creating the handler arg list
+		data = data == null ?
+			[ event ] :
+			jQuery.makeArray( data, [ event ] );
+
+		// Allow special events to draw outside the lines
+		special = jQuery.event.special[ type ] || {};
+		if ( !onlyHandlers && special.trigger && special.trigger.apply( elem, data ) === false ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Determine event propagation path in advance, per W3C events spec (#9951)
+		// Bubble up to document, then to window; watch for a global ownerDocument var (#9724)
+		if ( !onlyHandlers && !special.noBubble && !jQuery.isWindow( elem ) ) {
+
+			bubbleType = special.delegateType || type;
+			if ( !rfocusMorph.test( bubbleType + type ) ) {
+				cur = cur.parentNode;
+			}
+			for ( ; cur; cur = cur.parentNode ) {
+				eventPath.push( cur );
+				tmp = cur;
+			}
+
+			// Only add window if we got to document (e.g., not plain obj or detached DOM)
+			if ( tmp === ( elem.ownerDocument || document ) ) {
+				eventPath.push( tmp.defaultView || tmp.parentWindow || window );
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Fire handlers on the event path
+		i = 0;
+		while ( ( cur = eventPath[ i++ ] ) && !event.isPropagationStopped() ) {
+
+			event.type = i > 1 ?
+				bubbleType :
+				special.bindType || type;
+
+			// jQuery handler
+			handle = ( dataPriv.get( cur, "events" ) || {} )[ event.type ] &&
+				dataPriv.get( cur, "handle" );
+			if ( handle ) {
+				handle.apply( cur, data );
+			}
+
+			// Native handler
+			handle = ontype && cur[ ontype ];
+			if ( handle && handle.apply && acceptData( cur ) ) {
+				event.result = handle.apply( cur, data );
+				if ( event.result === false ) {
+					event.preventDefault();
+				}
+			}
+		}
+		event.type = type;
+
+		// If nobody prevented the default action, do it now
+		if ( !onlyHandlers && !event.isDefaultPrevented() ) {
+
+			if ( ( !special._default ||
+				special._default.apply( eventPath.pop(), data ) === false ) &&
+				acceptData( elem ) ) {
+
+				// Call a native DOM method on the target with the same name as the event.
+				// Don't do default actions on window, that's where global variables be (#6170)
+				if ( ontype && jQuery.isFunction( elem[ type ] ) && !jQuery.isWindow( elem ) ) {
+
+					// Don't re-trigger an onFOO event when we call its FOO() method
+					tmp = elem[ ontype ];
+
+					if ( tmp ) {
+						elem[ ontype ] = null;
+					}
+
+					// Prevent re-triggering of the same event, since we already bubbled it above
+					jQuery.event.triggered = type;
+					elem[ type ]();
+					jQuery.event.triggered = undefined;
+
+					if ( tmp ) {
+						elem[ ontype ] = tmp;
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return event.result;
+	},
+
+	// Piggyback on a donor event to simulate a different one
+	// Used only for `focus(in | out)` events
+	simulate: function( type, elem, event ) {
+		var e = jQuery.extend(
+			new jQuery.Event(),
+			event,
+			{
+				type: type,
+				isSimulated: true
+			}
+		);
+
+		jQuery.event.trigger( e, null, elem );
+	}
+
+} );
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+
+	trigger: function( type, data ) {
+		return this.each( function() {
+			jQuery.event.trigger( type, data, this );
+		} );
+	},
+	triggerHandler: function( type, data ) {
+		var elem = this[ 0 ];
+		if ( elem ) {
+			return jQuery.event.trigger( type, data, elem, true );
+		}
+	}
+} );
+
+
+jQuery.each( ( "blur focus focusin focusout resize scroll click dblclick " +
+	"mousedown mouseup mousemove mouseover mouseout mouseenter mouseleave " +
+	"change select submit keydown keypress keyup contextmenu" ).split( " " ),
+	function( i, name ) {
+
+	// Handle event binding
+	jQuery.fn[ name ] = function( data, fn ) {
+		return arguments.length > 0 ?
+			this.on( name, null, data, fn ) :
+			this.trigger( name );
+	};
+} );
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	hover: function( fnOver, fnOut ) {
+		return this.mouseenter( fnOver ).mouseleave( fnOut || fnOver );
+	}
+} );
+
+
+
+
+support.focusin = "onfocusin" in window;
+
+
+// Support: Firefox <=44
+// Firefox doesn't have focus(in | out) events
+// Related ticket - https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=687787
+//
+// Support: Chrome <=48 - 49, Safari <=9.0 - 9.1
+// focus(in | out) events fire after focus & blur events,
+// which is spec violation - http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Events/#events-focusevent-event-order
+// Related ticket - https://bugs.chromium.org/p/chromium/issues/detail?id=449857
+if ( !support.focusin ) {
+	jQuery.each( { focus: "focusin", blur: "focusout" }, function( orig, fix ) {
+
+		// Attach a single capturing handler on the document while someone wants focusin/focusout
+		var handler = function( event ) {
+			jQuery.event.simulate( fix, event.target, jQuery.event.fix( event ) );
+		};
+
+		jQuery.event.special[ fix ] = {
+			setup: function() {
+				var doc = this.ownerDocument || this,
+					attaches = dataPriv.access( doc, fix );
+
+				if ( !attaches ) {
+					doc.addEventListener( orig, handler, true );
+				}
+				dataPriv.access( doc, fix, ( attaches || 0 ) + 1 );
+			},
+			teardown: function() {
+				var doc = this.ownerDocument || this,
+					attaches = dataPriv.access( doc, fix ) - 1;
+
+				if ( !attaches ) {
+					doc.removeEventListener( orig, handler, true );
+					dataPriv.remove( doc, fix );
+
+				} else {
+					dataPriv.access( doc, fix, attaches );
+				}
+			}
+		};
+	} );
+}
+var location = window.location;
+
+var nonce = jQuery.now();
+
+var rquery = ( /\?/ );
+
+
+
+// Cross-browser xml parsing
+jQuery.parseXML = function( data ) {
+	var xml;
+	if ( !data || typeof data !== "string" ) {
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	// Support: IE 9 - 11 only
+	// IE throws on parseFromString with invalid input.
+	try {
+		xml = ( new window.DOMParser() ).parseFromString( data, "text/xml" );
+	} catch ( e ) {
+		xml = undefined;
+	}
+
+	if ( !xml || xml.getElementsByTagName( "parsererror" ).length ) {
+		jQuery.error( "Invalid XML: " + data );
+	}
+	return xml;
+};
+
+
+var
+	rbracket = /\[\]$/,
+	rCRLF = /\r?\n/g,
+	rsubmitterTypes = /^(?:submit|button|image|reset|file)$/i,
+	rsubmittable = /^(?:input|select|textarea|keygen)/i;
+
+function buildParams( prefix, obj, traditional, add ) {
+	var name;
+
+	if ( Array.isArray( obj ) ) {
+
+		// Serialize array item.
+		jQuery.each( obj, function( i, v ) {
+			if ( traditional || rbracket.test( prefix ) ) {
+
+				// Treat each array item as a scalar.
+				add( prefix, v );
+
+			} else {
+
+				// Item is non-scalar (array or object), encode its numeric index.
+				buildParams(
+					prefix + "[" + ( typeof v === "object" && v != null ? i : "" ) + "]",
+					v,
+					traditional,
+					add
+				);
+			}
+		} );
+
+	} else if ( !traditional && jQuery.type( obj ) === "object" ) {
+
+		// Serialize object item.
+		for ( name in obj ) {
+			buildParams( prefix + "[" + name + "]", obj[ name ], traditional, add );
+		}
+
+	} else {
+
+		// Serialize scalar item.
+		add( prefix, obj );
+	}
+}
+
+// Serialize an array of form elements or a set of
+// key/values into a query string
+jQuery.param = function( a, traditional ) {
+	var prefix,
+		s = [],
+		add = function( key, valueOrFunction ) {
+
+			// If value is a function, invoke it and use its return value
+			var value = jQuery.isFunction( valueOrFunction ) ?
+				valueOrFunction() :
+				valueOrFunction;
+
+			s[ s.length ] = encodeURIComponent( key ) + "=" +
+				encodeURIComponent( value == null ? "" : value );
+		};
+
+	// If an array was passed in, assume that it is an array of form elements.
+	if ( Array.isArray( a ) || ( a.jquery && !jQuery.isPlainObject( a ) ) ) {
+
+		// Serialize the form elements
+		jQuery.each( a, function() {
+			add( this.name, this.value );
+		} );
+
+	} else {
+
+		// If traditional, encode the "old" way (the way 1.3.2 or older
+		// did it), otherwise encode params recursively.
+		for ( prefix in a ) {
+			buildParams( prefix, a[ prefix ], traditional, add );
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Return the resulting serialization
+	return s.join( "&" );
+};
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	serialize: function() {
+		return jQuery.param( this.serializeArray() );
+	},
+	serializeArray: function() {
+		return this.map( function() {
+
+			// Can add propHook for "elements" to filter or add form elements
+			var elements = jQuery.prop( this, "elements" );
+			return elements ? jQuery.makeArray( elements ) : this;
+		} )
+		.filter( function() {
+			var type = this.type;
+
+			// Use .is( ":disabled" ) so that fieldset[disabled] works
+			return this.name && !jQuery( this ).is( ":disabled" ) &&
+				rsubmittable.test( this.nodeName ) && !rsubmitterTypes.test( type ) &&
+				( this.checked || !rcheckableType.test( type ) );
+		} )
+		.map( function( i, elem ) {
+			var val = jQuery( this ).val();
+
+			if ( val == null ) {
+				return null;
+			}
+
+			if ( Array.isArray( val ) ) {
+				return jQuery.map( val, function( val ) {
+					return { name: elem.name, value: val.replace( rCRLF, "\r\n" ) };
+				} );
+			}
+
+			return { name: elem.name, value: val.replace( rCRLF, "\r\n" ) };
+		} ).get();
+	}
+} );
+
+
+var
+	r20 = /%20/g,
+	rhash = /#.*$/,
+	rantiCache = /([?&])_=[^&]*/,
+	rheaders = /^(.*?):[ \t]*([^\r\n]*)$/mg,
+
+	// #7653, #8125, #8152: local protocol detection
+	rlocalProtocol = /^(?:about|app|app-storage|.+-extension|file|res|widget):$/,
+	rnoContent = /^(?:GET|HEAD)$/,
+	rprotocol = /^\/\//,
+
+	/* Prefilters
+	 * 1) They are useful to introduce custom dataTypes (see ajax/jsonp.js for an example)
+	 * 2) These are called:
+	 *    - BEFORE asking for a transport
+	 *    - AFTER param serialization (s.data is a string if s.processData is true)
+	 * 3) key is the dataType
+	 * 4) the catchall symbol "*" can be used
+	 * 5) execution will start with transport dataType and THEN continue down to "*" if needed
+	 */
+	prefilters = {},
+
+	/* Transports bindings
+	 * 1) key is the dataType
+	 * 2) the catchall symbol "*" can be used
+	 * 3) selection will start with transport dataType and THEN go to "*" if needed
+	 */
+	transports = {},
+
+	// Avoid comment-prolog char sequence (#10098); must appease lint and evade compression
+	allTypes = "*/".concat( "*" ),
+
+	// Anchor tag for parsing the document origin
+	originAnchor = document.createElement( "a" );
+	originAnchor.href = location.href;
+
+// Base "constructor" for jQuery.ajaxPrefilter and jQuery.ajaxTransport
+function addToPrefiltersOrTransports( structure ) {
+
+	// dataTypeExpression is optional and defaults to "*"
+	return function( dataTypeExpression, func ) {
+
+		if ( typeof dataTypeExpression !== "string" ) {
+			func = dataTypeExpression;
+			dataTypeExpression = "*";
+		}
+
+		var dataType,
+			i = 0,
+			dataTypes = dataTypeExpression.toLowerCase().match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [];
+
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( func ) ) {
+
+			// For each dataType in the dataTypeExpression
+			while ( ( dataType = dataTypes[ i++ ] ) ) {
+
+				// Prepend if requested
+				if ( dataType[ 0 ] === "+" ) {
+					dataType = dataType.slice( 1 ) || "*";
+					( structure[ dataType ] = structure[ dataType ] || [] ).unshift( func );
+
+				// Otherwise append
+				} else {
+					( structure[ dataType ] = structure[ dataType ] || [] ).push( func );
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	};
+}
+
+// Base inspection function for prefilters and transports
+function inspectPrefiltersOrTransports( structure, options, originalOptions, jqXHR ) {
+
+	var inspected = {},
+		seekingTransport = ( structure === transports );
+
+	function inspect( dataType ) {
+		var selected;
+		inspected[ dataType ] = true;
+		jQuery.each( structure[ dataType ] || [], function( _, prefilterOrFactory ) {
+			var dataTypeOrTransport = prefilterOrFactory( options, originalOptions, jqXHR );
+			if ( typeof dataTypeOrTransport === "string" &&
+				!seekingTransport && !inspected[ dataTypeOrTransport ] ) {
+
+				options.dataTypes.unshift( dataTypeOrTransport );
+				inspect( dataTypeOrTransport );
+				return false;
+			} else if ( seekingTransport ) {
+				return !( selected = dataTypeOrTransport );
+			}
+		} );
+		return selected;
+	}
+
+	return inspect( options.dataTypes[ 0 ] ) || !inspected[ "*" ] && inspect( "*" );
+}
+
+// A special extend for ajax options
+// that takes "flat" options (not to be deep extended)
+// Fixes #9887
+function ajaxExtend( target, src ) {
+	var key, deep,
+		flatOptions = jQuery.ajaxSettings.flatOptions || {};
+
+	for ( key in src ) {
+		if ( src[ key ] !== undefined ) {
+			( flatOptions[ key ] ? target : ( deep || ( deep = {} ) ) )[ key ] = src[ key ];
+		}
+	}
+	if ( deep ) {
+		jQuery.extend( true, target, deep );
+	}
+
+	return target;
+}
+
+/* Handles responses to an ajax request:
+ * - finds the right dataType (mediates between content-type and expected dataType)
+ * - returns the corresponding response
+ */
+function ajaxHandleResponses( s, jqXHR, responses ) {
+
+	var ct, type, finalDataType, firstDataType,
+		contents = s.contents,
+		dataTypes = s.dataTypes;
+
+	// Remove auto dataType and get content-type in the process
+	while ( dataTypes[ 0 ] === "*" ) {
+		dataTypes.shift();
+		if ( ct === undefined ) {
+			ct = s.mimeType || jqXHR.getResponseHeader( "Content-Type" );
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Check if we're dealing with a known content-type
+	if ( ct ) {
+		for ( type in contents ) {
+			if ( contents[ type ] && contents[ type ].test( ct ) ) {
+				dataTypes.unshift( type );
+				break;
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Check to see if we have a response for the expected dataType
+	if ( dataTypes[ 0 ] in responses ) {
+		finalDataType = dataTypes[ 0 ];
+	} else {
+
+		// Try convertible dataTypes
+		for ( type in responses ) {
+			if ( !dataTypes[ 0 ] || s.converters[ type + " " + dataTypes[ 0 ] ] ) {
+				finalDataType = type;
+				break;
+			}
+			if ( !firstDataType ) {
+				firstDataType = type;
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Or just use first one
+		finalDataType = finalDataType || firstDataType;
+	}
+
+	// If we found a dataType
+	// We add the dataType to the list if needed
+	// and return the corresponding response
+	if ( finalDataType ) {
+		if ( finalDataType !== dataTypes[ 0 ] ) {
+			dataTypes.unshift( finalDataType );
+		}
+		return responses[ finalDataType ];
+	}
+}
+
+/* Chain conversions given the request and the original response
+ * Also sets the responseXXX fields on the jqXHR instance
+ */
+function ajaxConvert( s, response, jqXHR, isSuccess ) {
+	var conv2, current, conv, tmp, prev,
+		converters = {},
+
+		// Work with a copy of dataTypes in case we need to modify it for conversion
+		dataTypes = s.dataTypes.slice();
+
+	// Create converters map with lowercased keys
+	if ( dataTypes[ 1 ] ) {
+		for ( conv in s.converters ) {
+			converters[ conv.toLowerCase() ] = s.converters[ conv ];
+		}
+	}
+
+	current = dataTypes.shift();
+
+	// Convert to each sequential dataType
+	while ( current ) {
+
+		if ( s.responseFields[ current ] ) {
+			jqXHR[ s.responseFields[ current ] ] = response;
+		}
+
+		// Apply the dataFilter if provided
+		if ( !prev && isSuccess && s.dataFilter ) {
+			response = s.dataFilter( response, s.dataType );
+		}
+
+		prev = current;
+		current = dataTypes.shift();
+
+		if ( current ) {
+
+			// There's only work to do if current dataType is non-auto
+			if ( current === "*" ) {
+
+				current = prev;
+
+			// Convert response if prev dataType is non-auto and differs from current
+			} else if ( prev !== "*" && prev !== current ) {
+
+				// Seek a direct converter
+				conv = converters[ prev + " " + current ] || converters[ "* " + current ];
+
+				// If none found, seek a pair
+				if ( !conv ) {
+					for ( conv2 in converters ) {
+
+						// If conv2 outputs current
+						tmp = conv2.split( " " );
+						if ( tmp[ 1 ] === current ) {
+
+							// If prev can be converted to accepted input
+							conv = converters[ prev + " " + tmp[ 0 ] ] ||
+								converters[ "* " + tmp[ 0 ] ];
+							if ( conv ) {
+
+								// Condense equivalence converters
+								if ( conv === true ) {
+									conv = converters[ conv2 ];
+
+								// Otherwise, insert the intermediate dataType
+								} else if ( converters[ conv2 ] !== true ) {
+									current = tmp[ 0 ];
+									dataTypes.unshift( tmp[ 1 ] );
+								}
+								break;
+							}
+						}
+					}
+				}
+
+				// Apply converter (if not an equivalence)
+				if ( conv !== true ) {
+
+					// Unless errors are allowed to bubble, catch and return them
+					if ( conv && s.throws ) {
+						response = conv( response );
+					} else {
+						try {
+							response = conv( response );
+						} catch ( e ) {
+							return {
+								state: "parsererror",
+								error: conv ? e : "No conversion from " + prev + " to " + current
+							};
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return { state: "success", data: response };
+}
+
+jQuery.extend( {
+
+	// Counter for holding the number of active queries
+	active: 0,
+
+	// Last-Modified header cache for next request
+	lastModified: {},
+	etag: {},
+
+	ajaxSettings: {
+		url: location.href,
+		type: "GET",
+		isLocal: rlocalProtocol.test( location.protocol ),
+		global: true,
+		processData: true,
+		async: true,
+		contentType: "application/x-www-form-urlencoded; charset=UTF-8",
+
+		/*
+		timeout: 0,
+		data: null,
+		dataType: null,
+		username: null,
+		password: null,
+		cache: null,
+		throws: false,
+		traditional: false,
+		headers: {},
+		*/
+
+		accepts: {
+			"*": allTypes,
+			text: "text/plain",
+			html: "text/html",
+			xml: "application/xml, text/xml",
+			json: "application/json, text/javascript"
+		},
+
+		contents: {
+			xml: /\bxml\b/,
+			html: /\bhtml/,
+			json: /\bjson\b/
+		},
+
+		responseFields: {
+			xml: "responseXML",
+			text: "responseText",
+			json: "responseJSON"
+		},
+
+		// Data converters
+		// Keys separate source (or catchall "*") and destination types with a single space
+		converters: {
+
+			// Convert anything to text
+			"* text": String,
+
+			// Text to html (true = no transformation)
+			"text html": true,
+
+			// Evaluate text as a json expression
+			"text json": JSON.parse,
+
+			// Parse text as xml
+			"text xml": jQuery.parseXML
+		},
+
+		// For options that shouldn't be deep extended:
+		// you can add your own custom options here if
+		// and when you create one that shouldn't be
+		// deep extended (see ajaxExtend)
+		flatOptions: {
+			url: true,
+			context: true
+		}
+	},
+
+	// Creates a full fledged settings object into target
+	// with both ajaxSettings and settings fields.
+	// If target is omitted, writes into ajaxSettings.
+	ajaxSetup: function( target, settings ) {
+		return settings ?
+
+			// Building a settings object
+			ajaxExtend( ajaxExtend( target, jQuery.ajaxSettings ), settings ) :
+
+			// Extending ajaxSettings
+			ajaxExtend( jQuery.ajaxSettings, target );
+	},
+
+	ajaxPrefilter: addToPrefiltersOrTransports( prefilters ),
+	ajaxTransport: addToPrefiltersOrTransports( transports ),
+
+	// Main method
+	ajax: function( url, options ) {
+
+		// If url is an object, simulate pre-1.5 signature
+		if ( typeof url === "object" ) {
+			options = url;
+			url = undefined;
+		}
+
+		// Force options to be an object
+		options = options || {};
+
+		var transport,
+
+			// URL without anti-cache param
+			cacheURL,
+
+			// Response headers
+			responseHeadersString,
+			responseHeaders,
+
+			// timeout handle
+			timeoutTimer,
+
+			// Url cleanup var
+			urlAnchor,
+
+			// Request state (becomes false upon send and true upon completion)
+			completed,
+
+			// To know if global events are to be dispatched
+			fireGlobals,
+
+			// Loop variable
+			i,
+
+			// uncached part of the url
+			uncached,
+
+			// Create the final options object
+			s = jQuery.ajaxSetup( {}, options ),
+
+			// Callbacks context
+			callbackContext = s.context || s,
+
+			// Context for global events is callbackContext if it is a DOM node or jQuery collection
+			globalEventContext = s.context &&
+				( callbackContext.nodeType || callbackContext.jquery ) ?
+					jQuery( callbackContext ) :
+					jQuery.event,
+
+			// Deferreds
+			deferred = jQuery.Deferred(),
+			completeDeferred = jQuery.Callbacks( "once memory" ),
+
+			// Status-dependent callbacks
+			statusCode = s.statusCode || {},
+
+			// Headers (they are sent all at once)
+			requestHeaders = {},
+			requestHeadersNames = {},
+
+			// Default abort message
+			strAbort = "canceled",
+
+			// Fake xhr
+			jqXHR = {
+				readyState: 0,
+
+				// Builds headers hashtable if needed
+				getResponseHeader: function( key ) {
+					var match;
+					if ( completed ) {
+						if ( !responseHeaders ) {
+							responseHeaders = {};
+							while ( ( match = rheaders.exec( responseHeadersString ) ) ) {
+								responseHeaders[ match[ 1 ].toLowerCase() ] = match[ 2 ];
+							}
+						}
+						match = responseHeaders[ key.toLowerCase() ];
+					}
+					return match == null ? null : match;
+				},
+
+				// Raw string
+				getAllResponseHeaders: function() {
+					return completed ? responseHeadersString : null;
+				},
+
+				// Caches the header
+				setRequestHeader: function( name, value ) {
+					if ( completed == null ) {
+						name = requestHeadersNames[ name.toLowerCase() ] =
+							requestHeadersNames[ name.toLowerCase() ] || name;
+						requestHeaders[ name ] = value;
+					}
+					return this;
+				},
+
+				// Overrides response content-type header
+				overrideMimeType: function( type ) {
+					if ( completed == null ) {
+						s.mimeType = type;
+					}
+					return this;
+				},
+
+				// Status-dependent callbacks
+				statusCode: function( map ) {
+					var code;
+					if ( map ) {
+						if ( completed ) {
+
+							// Execute the appropriate callbacks
+							jqXHR.always( map[ jqXHR.status ] );
+						} else {
+
+							// Lazy-add the new callbacks in a way that preserves old ones
+							for ( code in map ) {
+								statusCode[ code ] = [ statusCode[ code ], map[ code ] ];
+							}
+						}
+					}
+					return this;
+				},
+
+				// Cancel the request
+				abort: function( statusText ) {
+					var finalText = statusText || strAbort;
+					if ( transport ) {
+						transport.abort( finalText );
+					}
+					done( 0, finalText );
+					return this;
+				}
+			};
+
+		// Attach deferreds
+		deferred.promise( jqXHR );
+
+		// Add protocol if not provided (prefilters might expect it)
+		// Handle falsy url in the settings object (#10093: consistency with old signature)
+		// We also use the url parameter if available
+		s.url = ( ( url || s.url || location.href ) + "" )
+			.replace( rprotocol, location.protocol + "//" );
+
+		// Alias method option to type as per ticket #12004
+		s.type = options.method || options.type || s.method || s.type;
+
+		// Extract dataTypes list
+		s.dataTypes = ( s.dataType || "*" ).toLowerCase().match( rnothtmlwhite ) || [ "" ];
+
+		// A cross-domain request is in order when the origin doesn't match the current origin.
+		if ( s.crossDomain == null ) {
+			urlAnchor = document.createElement( "a" );
+
+			// Support: IE <=8 - 11, Edge 12 - 13
+			// IE throws exception on accessing the href property if url is malformed,
+			// e.g. http://example.com:80x/
+			try {
+				urlAnchor.href = s.url;
+
+				// Support: IE <=8 - 11 only
+				// Anchor's host property isn't correctly set when s.url is relative
+				urlAnchor.href = urlAnchor.href;
+				s.crossDomain = originAnchor.protocol + "//" + originAnchor.host !==
+					urlAnchor.protocol + "//" + urlAnchor.host;
+			} catch ( e ) {
+
+				// If there is an error parsing the URL, assume it is crossDomain,
+				// it can be rejected by the transport if it is invalid
+				s.crossDomain = true;
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Convert data if not already a string
+		if ( s.data && s.processData && typeof s.data !== "string" ) {
+			s.data = jQuery.param( s.data, s.traditional );
+		}
+
+		// Apply prefilters
+		inspectPrefiltersOrTransports( prefilters, s, options, jqXHR );
+
+		// If request was aborted inside a prefilter, stop there
+		if ( completed ) {
+			return jqXHR;
+		}
+
+		// We can fire global events as of now if asked to
+		// Don't fire events if jQuery.event is undefined in an AMD-usage scenario (#15118)
+		fireGlobals = jQuery.event && s.global;
+
+		// Watch for a new set of requests
+		if ( fireGlobals && jQuery.active++ === 0 ) {
+			jQuery.event.trigger( "ajaxStart" );
+		}
+
+		// Uppercase the type
+		s.type = s.type.toUpperCase();
+
+		// Determine if request has content
+		s.hasContent = !rnoContent.test( s.type );
+
+		// Save the URL in case we're toying with the If-Modified-Since
+		// and/or If-None-Match header later on
+		// Remove hash to simplify url manipulation
+		cacheURL = s.url.replace( rhash, "" );
+
+		// More options handling for requests with no content
+		if ( !s.hasContent ) {
+
+			// Remember the hash so we can put it back
+			uncached = s.url.slice( cacheURL.length );
+
+			// If data is available, append data to url
+			if ( s.data ) {
+				cacheURL += ( rquery.test( cacheURL ) ? "&" : "?" ) + s.data;
+
+				// #9682: remove data so that it's not used in an eventual retry
+				delete s.data;
+			}
+
+			// Add or update anti-cache param if needed
+			if ( s.cache === false ) {
+				cacheURL = cacheURL.replace( rantiCache, "$1" );
+				uncached = ( rquery.test( cacheURL ) ? "&" : "?" ) + "_=" + ( nonce++ ) + uncached;
+			}
+
+			// Put hash and anti-cache on the URL that will be requested (gh-1732)
+			s.url = cacheURL + uncached;
+
+		// Change '%20' to '+' if this is encoded form body content (gh-2658)
+		} else if ( s.data && s.processData &&
+			( s.contentType || "" ).indexOf( "application/x-www-form-urlencoded" ) === 0 ) {
+			s.data = s.data.replace( r20, "+" );
+		}
+
+		// Set the If-Modified-Since and/or If-None-Match header, if in ifModified mode.
+		if ( s.ifModified ) {
+			if ( jQuery.lastModified[ cacheURL ] ) {
+				jqXHR.setRequestHeader( "If-Modified-Since", jQuery.lastModified[ cacheURL ] );
+			}
+			if ( jQuery.etag[ cacheURL ] ) {
+				jqXHR.setRequestHeader( "If-None-Match", jQuery.etag[ cacheURL ] );
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Set the correct header, if data is being sent
+		if ( s.data && s.hasContent && s.contentType !== false || options.contentType ) {
+			jqXHR.setRequestHeader( "Content-Type", s.contentType );
+		}
+
+		// Set the Accepts header for the server, depending on the dataType
+		jqXHR.setRequestHeader(
+			"Accept",
+			s.dataTypes[ 0 ] && s.accepts[ s.dataTypes[ 0 ] ] ?
+				s.accepts[ s.dataTypes[ 0 ] ] +
+					( s.dataTypes[ 0 ] !== "*" ? ", " + allTypes + "; q=0.01" : "" ) :
+				s.accepts[ "*" ]
+		);
+
+		// Check for headers option
+		for ( i in s.headers ) {
+			jqXHR.setRequestHeader( i, s.headers[ i ] );
+		}
+
+		// Allow custom headers/mimetypes and early abort
+		if ( s.beforeSend &&
+			( s.beforeSend.call( callbackContext, jqXHR, s ) === false || completed ) ) {
+
+			// Abort if not done already and return
+			return jqXHR.abort();
+		}
+
+		// Aborting is no longer a cancellation
+		strAbort = "abort";
+
+		// Install callbacks on deferreds
+		completeDeferred.add( s.complete );
+		jqXHR.done( s.success );
+		jqXHR.fail( s.error );
+
+		// Get transport
+		transport = inspectPrefiltersOrTransports( transports, s, options, jqXHR );
+
+		// If no transport, we auto-abort
+		if ( !transport ) {
+			done( -1, "No Transport" );
+		} else {
+			jqXHR.readyState = 1;
+
+			// Send global event
+			if ( fireGlobals ) {
+				globalEventContext.trigger( "ajaxSend", [ jqXHR, s ] );
+			}
+
+			// If request was aborted inside ajaxSend, stop there
+			if ( completed ) {
+				return jqXHR;
+			}
+
+			// Timeout
+			if ( s.async && s.timeout > 0 ) {
+				timeoutTimer = window.setTimeout( function() {
+					jqXHR.abort( "timeout" );
+				}, s.timeout );
+			}
+
+			try {
+				completed = false;
+				transport.send( requestHeaders, done );
+			} catch ( e ) {
+
+				// Rethrow post-completion exceptions
+				if ( completed ) {
+					throw e;
+				}
+
+				// Propagate others as results
+				done( -1, e );
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Callback for when everything is done
+		function done( status, nativeStatusText, responses, headers ) {
+			var isSuccess, success, error, response, modified,
+				statusText = nativeStatusText;
+
+			// Ignore repeat invocations
+			if ( completed ) {
+				return;
+			}
+
+			completed = true;
+
+			// Clear timeout if it exists
+			if ( timeoutTimer ) {
+				window.clearTimeout( timeoutTimer );
+			}
+
+			// Dereference transport for early garbage collection
+			// (no matter how long the jqXHR object will be used)
+			transport = undefined;
+
+			// Cache response headers
+			responseHeadersString = headers || "";
+
+			// Set readyState
+			jqXHR.readyState = status > 0 ? 4 : 0;
+
+			// Determine if successful
+			isSuccess = status >= 200 && status < 300 || status === 304;
+
+			// Get response data
+			if ( responses ) {
+				response = ajaxHandleResponses( s, jqXHR, responses );
+			}
+
+			// Convert no matter what (that way responseXXX fields are always set)
+			response = ajaxConvert( s, response, jqXHR, isSuccess );
+
+			// If successful, handle type chaining
+			if ( isSuccess ) {
+
+				// Set the If-Modified-Since and/or If-None-Match header, if in ifModified mode.
+				if ( s.ifModified ) {
+					modified = jqXHR.getResponseHeader( "Last-Modified" );
+					if ( modified ) {
+						jQuery.lastModified[ cacheURL ] = modified;
+					}
+					modified = jqXHR.getResponseHeader( "etag" );
+					if ( modified ) {
+						jQuery.etag[ cacheURL ] = modified;
+					}
+				}
+
+				// if no content
+				if ( status === 204 || s.type === "HEAD" ) {
+					statusText = "nocontent";
+
+				// if not modified
+				} else if ( status === 304 ) {
+					statusText = "notmodified";
+
+				// If we have data, let's convert it
+				} else {
+					statusText = response.state;
+					success = response.data;
+					error = response.error;
+					isSuccess = !error;
+				}
+			} else {
+
+				// Extract error from statusText and normalize for non-aborts
+				error = statusText;
+				if ( status || !statusText ) {
+					statusText = "error";
+					if ( status < 0 ) {
+						status = 0;
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			// Set data for the fake xhr object
+			jqXHR.status = status;
+			jqXHR.statusText = ( nativeStatusText || statusText ) + "";
+
+			// Success/Error
+			if ( isSuccess ) {
+				deferred.resolveWith( callbackContext, [ success, statusText, jqXHR ] );
+			} else {
+				deferred.rejectWith( callbackContext, [ jqXHR, statusText, error ] );
+			}
+
+			// Status-dependent callbacks
+			jqXHR.statusCode( statusCode );
+			statusCode = undefined;
+
+			if ( fireGlobals ) {
+				globalEventContext.trigger( isSuccess ? "ajaxSuccess" : "ajaxError",
+					[ jqXHR, s, isSuccess ? success : error ] );
+			}
+
+			// Complete
+			completeDeferred.fireWith( callbackContext, [ jqXHR, statusText ] );
+
+			if ( fireGlobals ) {
+				globalEventContext.trigger( "ajaxComplete", [ jqXHR, s ] );
+
+				// Handle the global AJAX counter
+				if ( !( --jQuery.active ) ) {
+					jQuery.event.trigger( "ajaxStop" );
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return jqXHR;
+	},
+
+	getJSON: function( url, data, callback ) {
+		return jQuery.get( url, data, callback, "json" );
+	},
+
+	getScript: function( url, callback ) {
+		return jQuery.get( url, undefined, callback, "script" );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.each( [ "get", "post" ], function( i, method ) {
+	jQuery[ method ] = function( url, data, callback, type ) {
+
+		// Shift arguments if data argument was omitted
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( data ) ) {
+			type = type || callback;
+			callback = data;
+			data = undefined;
+		}
+
+		// The url can be an options object (which then must have .url)
+		return jQuery.ajax( jQuery.extend( {
+			url: url,
+			type: method,
+			dataType: type,
+			data: data,
+			success: callback
+		}, jQuery.isPlainObject( url ) && url ) );
+	};
+} );
+
+
+jQuery._evalUrl = function( url ) {
+	return jQuery.ajax( {
+		url: url,
+
+		// Make this explicit, since user can override this through ajaxSetup (#11264)
+		type: "GET",
+		dataType: "script",
+		cache: true,
+		async: false,
+		global: false,
+		"throws": true
+	} );
+};
+
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	wrapAll: function( html ) {
+		var wrap;
+
+		if ( this[ 0 ] ) {
+			if ( jQuery.isFunction( html ) ) {
+				html = html.call( this[ 0 ] );
+			}
+
+			// The elements to wrap the target around
+			wrap = jQuery( html, this[ 0 ].ownerDocument ).eq( 0 ).clone( true );
+
+			if ( this[ 0 ].parentNode ) {
+				wrap.insertBefore( this[ 0 ] );
+			}
+
+			wrap.map( function() {
+				var elem = this;
+
+				while ( elem.firstElementChild ) {
+					elem = elem.firstElementChild;
+				}
+
+				return elem;
+			} ).append( this );
+		}
+
+		return this;
+	},
+
+	wrapInner: function( html ) {
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( html ) ) {
+			return this.each( function( i ) {
+				jQuery( this ).wrapInner( html.call( this, i ) );
+			} );
+		}
+
+		return this.each( function() {
+			var self = jQuery( this ),
+				contents = self.contents();
+
+			if ( contents.length ) {
+				contents.wrapAll( html );
+
+			} else {
+				self.append( html );
+			}
+		} );
+	},
+
+	wrap: function( html ) {
+		var isFunction = jQuery.isFunction( html );
+
+		return this.each( function( i ) {
+			jQuery( this ).wrapAll( isFunction ? html.call( this, i ) : html );
+		} );
+	},
+
+	unwrap: function( selector ) {
+		this.parent( selector ).not( "body" ).each( function() {
+			jQuery( this ).replaceWith( this.childNodes );
+		} );
+		return this;
+	}
+} );
+
+
+jQuery.expr.pseudos.hidden = function( elem ) {
+	return !jQuery.expr.pseudos.visible( elem );
+};
+jQuery.expr.pseudos.visible = function( elem ) {
+	return !!( elem.offsetWidth || elem.offsetHeight || elem.getClientRects().length );
+};
+
+
+
+
+jQuery.ajaxSettings.xhr = function() {
+	try {
+		return new window.XMLHttpRequest();
+	} catch ( e ) {}
+};
+
+var xhrSuccessStatus = {
+
+		// File protocol always yields status code 0, assume 200
+		0: 200,
+
+		// Support: IE <=9 only
+		// #1450: sometimes IE returns 1223 when it should be 204
+		1223: 204
+	},
+	xhrSupported = jQuery.ajaxSettings.xhr();
+
+support.cors = !!xhrSupported && ( "withCredentials" in xhrSupported );
+support.ajax = xhrSupported = !!xhrSupported;
+
+jQuery.ajaxTransport( function( options ) {
+	var callback, errorCallback;
+
+	// Cross domain only allowed if supported through XMLHttpRequest
+	if ( support.cors || xhrSupported && !options.crossDomain ) {
+		return {
+			send: function( headers, complete ) {
+				var i,
+					xhr = options.xhr();
+
+				xhr.open(
+					options.type,
+					options.url,
+					options.async,
+					options.username,
+					options.password
+				);
+
+				// Apply custom fields if provided
+				if ( options.xhrFields ) {
+					for ( i in options.xhrFields ) {
+						xhr[ i ] = options.xhrFields[ i ];
+					}
+				}
+
+				// Override mime type if needed
+				if ( options.mimeType && xhr.overrideMimeType ) {
+					xhr.overrideMimeType( options.mimeType );
+				}
+
+				// X-Requested-With header
+				// For cross-domain requests, seeing as conditions for a preflight are
+				// akin to a jigsaw puzzle, we simply never set it to be sure.
+				// (it can always be set on a per-request basis or even using ajaxSetup)
+				// For same-domain requests, won't change header if already provided.
+				if ( !options.crossDomain && !headers[ "X-Requested-With" ] ) {
+					headers[ "X-Requested-With" ] = "XMLHttpRequest";
+				}
+
+				// Set headers
+				for ( i in headers ) {
+					xhr.setRequestHeader( i, headers[ i ] );
+				}
+
+				// Callback
+				callback = function( type ) {
+					return function() {
+						if ( callback ) {
+							callback = errorCallback = xhr.onload =
+								xhr.onerror = xhr.onabort = xhr.onreadystatechange = null;
+
+							if ( type === "abort" ) {
+								xhr.abort();
+							} else if ( type === "error" ) {
+
+								// Support: IE <=9 only
+								// On a manual native abort, IE9 throws
+								// errors on any property access that is not readyState
+								if ( typeof xhr.status !== "number" ) {
+									complete( 0, "error" );
+								} else {
+									complete(
+
+										// File: protocol always yields status 0; see #8605, #14207
+										xhr.status,
+										xhr.statusText
+									);
+								}
+							} else {
+								complete(
+									xhrSuccessStatus[ xhr.status ] || xhr.status,
+									xhr.statusText,
+
+									// Support: IE <=9 only
+									// IE9 has no XHR2 but throws on binary (trac-11426)
+									// For XHR2 non-text, let the caller handle it (gh-2498)
+									( xhr.responseType || "text" ) !== "text"  ||
+									typeof xhr.responseText !== "string" ?
+										{ binary: xhr.response } :
+										{ text: xhr.responseText },
+									xhr.getAllResponseHeaders()
+								);
+							}
+						}
+					};
+				};
+
+				// Listen to events
+				xhr.onload = callback();
+				errorCallback = xhr.onerror = callback( "error" );
+
+				// Support: IE 9 only
+				// Use onreadystatechange to replace onabort
+				// to handle uncaught aborts
+				if ( xhr.onabort !== undefined ) {
+					xhr.onabort = errorCallback;
+				} else {
+					xhr.onreadystatechange = function() {
+
+						// Check readyState before timeout as it changes
+						if ( xhr.readyState === 4 ) {
+
+							// Allow onerror to be called first,
+							// but that will not handle a native abort
+							// Also, save errorCallback to a variable
+							// as xhr.onerror cannot be accessed
+							window.setTimeout( function() {
+								if ( callback ) {
+									errorCallback();
+								}
+							} );
+						}
+					};
+				}
+
+				// Create the abort callback
+				callback = callback( "abort" );
+
+				try {
+
+					// Do send the request (this may raise an exception)
+					xhr.send( options.hasContent && options.data || null );
+				} catch ( e ) {
+
+					// #14683: Only rethrow if this hasn't been notified as an error yet
+					if ( callback ) {
+						throw e;
+					}
+				}
+			},
+
+			abort: function() {
+				if ( callback ) {
+					callback();
+				}
+			}
+		};
+	}
+} );
+
+
+
+
+// Prevent auto-execution of scripts when no explicit dataType was provided (See gh-2432)
+jQuery.ajaxPrefilter( function( s ) {
+	if ( s.crossDomain ) {
+		s.contents.script = false;
+	}
+} );
+
+// Install script dataType
+jQuery.ajaxSetup( {
+	accepts: {
+		script: "text/javascript, application/javascript, " +
+			"application/ecmascript, application/x-ecmascript"
+	},
+	contents: {
+		script: /\b(?:java|ecma)script\b/
+	},
+	converters: {
+		"text script": function( text ) {
+			jQuery.globalEval( text );
+			return text;
+		}
+	}
+} );
+
+// Handle cache's special case and crossDomain
+jQuery.ajaxPrefilter( "script", function( s ) {
+	if ( s.cache === undefined ) {
+		s.cache = false;
+	}
+	if ( s.crossDomain ) {
+		s.type = "GET";
+	}
+} );
+
+// Bind script tag hack transport
+jQuery.ajaxTransport( "script", function( s ) {
+
+	// This transport only deals with cross domain requests
+	if ( s.crossDomain ) {
+		var script, callback;
+		return {
+			send: function( _, complete ) {
+				script = jQuery( "<script>" ).prop( {
+					charset: s.scriptCharset,
+					src: s.url
+				} ).on(
+					"load error",
+					callback = function( evt ) {
+						script.remove();
+						callback = null;
+						if ( evt ) {
+							complete( evt.type === "error" ? 404 : 200, evt.type );
+						}
+					}
+				);
+
+				// Use native DOM manipulation to avoid our domManip AJAX trickery
+				document.head.appendChild( script[ 0 ] );
+			},
+			abort: function() {
+				if ( callback ) {
+					callback();
+				}
+			}
+		};
+	}
+} );
+
+
+
+
+var oldCallbacks = [],
+	rjsonp = /(=)\?(?=&|$)|\?\?/;
+
+// Default jsonp settings
+jQuery.ajaxSetup( {
+	jsonp: "callback",
+	jsonpCallback: function() {
+		var callback = oldCallbacks.pop() || ( jQuery.expando + "_" + ( nonce++ ) );
+		this[ callback ] = true;
+		return callback;
+	}
+} );
+
+// Detect, normalize options and install callbacks for jsonp requests
+jQuery.ajaxPrefilter( "json jsonp", function( s, originalSettings, jqXHR ) {
+
+	var callbackName, overwritten, responseContainer,
+		jsonProp = s.jsonp !== false && ( rjsonp.test( s.url ) ?
+			"url" :
+			typeof s.data === "string" &&
+				( s.contentType || "" )
+					.indexOf( "application/x-www-form-urlencoded" ) === 0 &&
+				rjsonp.test( s.data ) && "data"
+		);
+
+	// Handle iff the expected data type is "jsonp" or we have a parameter to set
+	if ( jsonProp || s.dataTypes[ 0 ] === "jsonp" ) {
+
+		// Get callback name, remembering preexisting value associated with it
+		callbackName = s.jsonpCallback = jQuery.isFunction( s.jsonpCallback ) ?
+			s.jsonpCallback() :
+			s.jsonpCallback;
+
+		// Insert callback into url or form data
+		if ( jsonProp ) {
+			s[ jsonProp ] = s[ jsonProp ].replace( rjsonp, "$1" + callbackName );
+		} else if ( s.jsonp !== false ) {
+			s.url += ( rquery.test( s.url ) ? "&" : "?" ) + s.jsonp + "=" + callbackName;
+		}
+
+		// Use data converter to retrieve json after script execution
+		s.converters[ "script json" ] = function() {
+			if ( !responseContainer ) {
+				jQuery.error( callbackName + " was not called" );
+			}
+			return responseContainer[ 0 ];
+		};
+
+		// Force json dataType
+		s.dataTypes[ 0 ] = "json";
+
+		// Install callback
+		overwritten = window[ callbackName ];
+		window[ callbackName ] = function() {
+			responseContainer = arguments;
+		};
+
+		// Clean-up function (fires after converters)
+		jqXHR.always( function() {
+
+			// If previous value didn't exist - remove it
+			if ( overwritten === undefined ) {
+				jQuery( window ).removeProp( callbackName );
+
+			// Otherwise restore preexisting value
+			} else {
+				window[ callbackName ] = overwritten;
+			}
+
+			// Save back as free
+			if ( s[ callbackName ] ) {
+
+				// Make sure that re-using the options doesn't screw things around
+				s.jsonpCallback = originalSettings.jsonpCallback;
+
+				// Save the callback name for future use
+				oldCallbacks.push( callbackName );
+			}
+
+			// Call if it was a function and we have a response
+			if ( responseContainer && jQuery.isFunction( overwritten ) ) {
+				overwritten( responseContainer[ 0 ] );
+			}
+
+			responseContainer = overwritten = undefined;
+		} );
+
+		// Delegate to script
+		return "script";
+	}
+} );
+
+
+
+
+// Support: Safari 8 only
+// In Safari 8 documents created via document.implementation.createHTMLDocument
+// collapse sibling forms: the second one becomes a child of the first one.
+// Because of that, this security measure has to be disabled in Safari 8.
+// https://bugs.webkit.org/show_bug.cgi?id=137337
+support.createHTMLDocument = ( function() {
+	var body = document.implementation.createHTMLDocument( "" ).body;
+	body.innerHTML = "<form></form><form></form>";
+	return body.childNodes.length === 2;
+} )();
+
+
+// Argument "data" should be string of html
+// context (optional): If specified, the fragment will be created in this context,
+// defaults to document
+// keepScripts (optional): If true, will include scripts passed in the html string
+jQuery.parseHTML = function( data, context, keepScripts ) {
+	if ( typeof data !== "string" ) {
+		return [];
+	}
+	if ( typeof context === "boolean" ) {
+		keepScripts = context;
+		context = false;
+	}
+
+	var base, parsed, scripts;
+
+	if ( !context ) {
+
+		// Stop scripts or inline event handlers from being executed immediately
+		// by using document.implementation
+		if ( support.createHTMLDocument ) {
+			context = document.implementation.createHTMLDocument( "" );
+
+			// Set the base href for the created document
+			// so any parsed elements with URLs
+			// are based on the document's URL (gh-2965)
+			base = context.createElement( "base" );
+			base.href = document.location.href;
+			context.head.appendChild( base );
+		} else {
+			context = document;
+		}
+	}
+
+	parsed = rsingleTag.exec( data );
+	scripts = !keepScripts && [];
+
+	// Single tag
+	if ( parsed ) {
+		return [ context.createElement( parsed[ 1 ] ) ];
+	}
+
+	parsed = buildFragment( [ data ], context, scripts );
+
+	if ( scripts && scripts.length ) {
+		jQuery( scripts ).remove();
+	}
+
+	return jQuery.merge( [], parsed.childNodes );
+};
+
+
+/**
+ * Load a url into a page
+ */
+jQuery.fn.load = function( url, params, callback ) {
+	var selector, type, response,
+		self = this,
+		off = url.indexOf( " " );
+
+	if ( off > -1 ) {
+		selector = stripAndCollapse( url.slice( off ) );
+		url = url.slice( 0, off );
+	}
+
+	// If it's a function
+	if ( jQuery.isFunction( params ) ) {
+
+		// We assume that it's the callback
+		callback = params;
+		params = undefined;
+
+	// Otherwise, build a param string
+	} else if ( params && typeof params === "object" ) {
+		type = "POST";
+	}
+
+	// If we have elements to modify, make the request
+	if ( self.length > 0 ) {
+		jQuery.ajax( {
+			url: url,
+
+			// If "type" variable is undefined, then "GET" method will be used.
+			// Make value of this field explicit since
+			// user can override it through ajaxSetup method
+			type: type || "GET",
+			dataType: "html",
+			data: params
+		} ).done( function( responseText ) {
+
+			// Save response for use in complete callback
+			response = arguments;
+
+			self.html( selector ?
+
+				// If a selector was specified, locate the right elements in a dummy div
+				// Exclude scripts to avoid IE 'Permission Denied' errors
+				jQuery( "<div>" ).append( jQuery.parseHTML( responseText ) ).find( selector ) :
+
+				// Otherwise use the full result
+				responseText );
+
+		// If the request succeeds, this function gets "data", "status", "jqXHR"
+		// but they are ignored because response was set above.
+		// If it fails, this function gets "jqXHR", "status", "error"
+		} ).always( callback && function( jqXHR, status ) {
+			self.each( function() {
+				callback.apply( this, response || [ jqXHR.responseText, status, jqXHR ] );
+			} );
+		} );
+	}
+
+	return this;
+};
+
+
+
+
+// Attach a bunch of functions for handling common AJAX events
+jQuery.each( [
+	"ajaxStart",
+	"ajaxStop",
+	"ajaxComplete",
+	"ajaxError",
+	"ajaxSuccess",
+	"ajaxSend"
+], function( i, type ) {
+	jQuery.fn[ type ] = function( fn ) {
+		return this.on( type, fn );
+	};
+} );
+
+
+
+
+jQuery.expr.pseudos.animated = function( elem ) {
+	return jQuery.grep( jQuery.timers, function( fn ) {
+		return elem === fn.elem;
+	} ).length;
+};
+
+
+
+
+jQuery.offset = {
+	setOffset: function( elem, options, i ) {
+		var curPosition, curLeft, curCSSTop, curTop, curOffset, curCSSLeft, calculatePosition,
+			position = jQuery.css( elem, "position" ),
+			curElem = jQuery( elem ),
+			props = {};
+
+		// Set position first, in-case top/left are set even on static elem
+		if ( position === "static" ) {
+			elem.style.position = "relative";
+		}
+
+		curOffset = curElem.offset();
+		curCSSTop = jQuery.css( elem, "top" );
+		curCSSLeft = jQuery.css( elem, "left" );
+		calculatePosition = ( position === "absolute" || position === "fixed" ) &&
+			( curCSSTop + curCSSLeft ).indexOf( "auto" ) > -1;
+
+		// Need to be able to calculate position if either
+		// top or left is auto and position is either absolute or fixed
+		if ( calculatePosition ) {
+			curPosition = curElem.position();
+			curTop = curPosition.top;
+			curLeft = curPosition.left;
+
+		} else {
+			curTop = parseFloat( curCSSTop ) || 0;
+			curLeft = parseFloat( curCSSLeft ) || 0;
+		}
+
+		if ( jQuery.isFunction( options ) ) {
+
+			// Use jQuery.extend here to allow modification of coordinates argument (gh-1848)
+			options = options.call( elem, i, jQuery.extend( {}, curOffset ) );
+		}
+
+		if ( options.top != null ) {
+			props.top = ( options.top - curOffset.top ) + curTop;
+		}
+		if ( options.left != null ) {
+			props.left = ( options.left - curOffset.left ) + curLeft;
+		}
+
+		if ( "using" in options ) {
+			options.using.call( elem, props );
+
+		} else {
+			curElem.css( props );
+		}
+	}
+};
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+	offset: function( options ) {
+
+		// Preserve chaining for setter
+		if ( arguments.length ) {
+			return options === undefined ?
+				this :
+				this.each( function( i ) {
+					jQuery.offset.setOffset( this, options, i );
+				} );
+		}
+
+		var doc, docElem, rect, win,
+			elem = this[ 0 ];
+
+		if ( !elem ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		// Return zeros for disconnected and hidden (display: none) elements (gh-2310)
+		// Support: IE <=11 only
+		// Running getBoundingClientRect on a
+		// disconnected node in IE throws an error
+		if ( !elem.getClientRects().length ) {
+			return { top: 0, left: 0 };
+		}
+
+		rect = elem.getBoundingClientRect();
+
+		doc = elem.ownerDocument;
+		docElem = doc.documentElement;
+		win = doc.defaultView;
+
+		return {
+			top: rect.top + win.pageYOffset - docElem.clientTop,
+			left: rect.left + win.pageXOffset - docElem.clientLeft
+		};
+	},
+
+	position: function() {
+		if ( !this[ 0 ] ) {
+			return;
+		}
+
+		var offsetParent, offset,
+			elem = this[ 0 ],
+			parentOffset = { top: 0, left: 0 };
+
+		// Fixed elements are offset from window (parentOffset = {top:0, left: 0},
+		// because it is its only offset parent
+		if ( jQuery.css( elem, "position" ) === "fixed" ) {
+
+			// Assume getBoundingClientRect is there when computed position is fixed
+			offset = elem.getBoundingClientRect();
+
+		} else {
+
+			// Get *real* offsetParent
+			offsetParent = this.offsetParent();
+
+			// Get correct offsets
+			offset = this.offset();
+			if ( !nodeName( offsetParent[ 0 ], "html" ) ) {
+				parentOffset = offsetParent.offset();
+			}
+
+			// Add offsetParent borders
+			parentOffset = {
+				top: parentOffset.top + jQuery.css( offsetParent[ 0 ], "borderTopWidth", true ),
+				left: parentOffset.left + jQuery.css( offsetParent[ 0 ], "borderLeftWidth", true )
+			};
+		}
+
+		// Subtract parent offsets and element margins
+		return {
+			top: offset.top - parentOffset.top - jQuery.css( elem, "marginTop", true ),
+			left: offset.left - parentOffset.left - jQuery.css( elem, "marginLeft", true )
+		};
+	},
+
+	// This method will return documentElement in the following cases:
+	// 1) For the element inside the iframe without offsetParent, this method will return
+	//    documentElement of the parent window
+	// 2) For the hidden or detached element
+	// 3) For body or html element, i.e. in case of the html node - it will return itself
+	//
+	// but those exceptions were never presented as a real life use-cases
+	// and might be considered as more preferable results.
+	//
+	// This logic, however, is not guaranteed and can change at any point in the future
+	offsetParent: function() {
+		return this.map( function() {
+			var offsetParent = this.offsetParent;
+
+			while ( offsetParent && jQuery.css( offsetParent, "position" ) === "static" ) {
+				offsetParent = offsetParent.offsetParent;
+			}
+
+			return offsetParent || documentElement;
+		} );
+	}
+} );
+
+// Create scrollLeft and scrollTop methods
+jQuery.each( { scrollLeft: "pageXOffset", scrollTop: "pageYOffset" }, function( method, prop ) {
+	var top = "pageYOffset" === prop;
+
+	jQuery.fn[ method ] = function( val ) {
+		return access( this, function( elem, method, val ) {
+
+			// Coalesce documents and windows
+			var win;
+			if ( jQuery.isWindow( elem ) ) {
+				win = elem;
+			} else if ( elem.nodeType === 9 ) {
+				win = elem.defaultView;
+			}
+
+			if ( val === undefined ) {
+				return win ? win[ prop ] : elem[ method ];
+			}
+
+			if ( win ) {
+				win.scrollTo(
+					!top ? val : win.pageXOffset,
+					top ? val : win.pageYOffset
+				);
+
+			} else {
+				elem[ method ] = val;
+			}
+		}, method, val, arguments.length );
+	};
+} );
+
+// Support: Safari <=7 - 9.1, Chrome <=37 - 49
+// Add the top/left cssHooks using jQuery.fn.position
+// Webkit bug: https://bugs.webkit.org/show_bug.cgi?id=29084
+// Blink bug: https://bugs.chromium.org/p/chromium/issues/detail?id=589347
+// getComputedStyle returns percent when specified for top/left/bottom/right;
+// rather than make the css module depend on the offset module, just check for it here
+jQuery.each( [ "top", "left" ], function( i, prop ) {
+	jQuery.cssHooks[ prop ] = addGetHookIf( support.pixelPosition,
+		function( elem, computed ) {
+			if ( computed ) {
+				computed = curCSS( elem, prop );
+
+				// If curCSS returns percentage, fallback to offset
+				return rnumnonpx.test( computed ) ?
+					jQuery( elem ).position()[ prop ] + "px" :
+					computed;
+			}
+		}
+	);
+} );
+
+
+// Create innerHeight, innerWidth, height, width, outerHeight and outerWidth methods
+jQuery.each( { Height: "height", Width: "width" }, function( name, type ) {
+	jQuery.each( { padding: "inner" + name, content: type, "": "outer" + name },
+		function( defaultExtra, funcName ) {
+
+		// Margin is only for outerHeight, outerWidth
+		jQuery.fn[ funcName ] = function( margin, value ) {
+			var chainable = arguments.length && ( defaultExtra || typeof margin !== "boolean" ),
+				extra = defaultExtra || ( margin === true || value === true ? "margin" : "border" );
+
+			return access( this, function( elem, type, value ) {
+				var doc;
+
+				if ( jQuery.isWindow( elem ) ) {
+
+					// $( window ).outerWidth/Height return w/h including scrollbars (gh-1729)
+					return funcName.indexOf( "outer" ) === 0 ?
+						elem[ "inner" + name ] :
+						elem.document.documentElement[ "client" + name ];
+				}
+
+				// Get document width or height
+				if ( elem.nodeType === 9 ) {
+					doc = elem.documentElement;
+
+					// Either scroll[Width/Height] or offset[Width/Height] or client[Width/Height],
+					// whichever is greatest
+					return Math.max(
+						elem.body[ "scroll" + name ], doc[ "scroll" + name ],
+						elem.body[ "offset" + name ], doc[ "offset" + name ],
+						doc[ "client" + name ]
+					);
+				}
+
+				return value === undefined ?
+
+					// Get width or height on the element, requesting but not forcing parseFloat
+					jQuery.css( elem, type, extra ) :
+
+					// Set width or height on the element
+					jQuery.style( elem, type, value, extra );
+			}, type, chainable ? margin : undefined, chainable );
+		};
+	} );
+} );
+
+
+jQuery.fn.extend( {
+
+	bind: function( types, data, fn ) {
+		return this.on( types, null, data, fn );
+	},
+	unbind: function( types, fn ) {
+		return this.off( types, null, fn );
+	},
+
+	delegate: function( selector, types, data, fn ) {
+		return this.on( types, selector, data, fn );
+	},
+	undelegate: function( selector, types, fn ) {
+
+		// ( namespace ) or ( selector, types [, fn] )
+		return arguments.length === 1 ?
+			this.off( selector, "**" ) :
+			this.off( types, selector || "**", fn );
+	}
+} );
+
+jQuery.holdReady = function( hold ) {
+	if ( hold ) {
+		jQuery.readyWait++;
+	} else {
+		jQuery.ready( true );
+	}
+};
+jQuery.isArray = Array.isArray;
+jQuery.parseJSON = JSON.parse;
+jQuery.nodeName = nodeName;
+
+
+
+
+// Register as a named AMD module, since jQuery can be concatenated with other
+// files that may use define, but not via a proper concatenation script that
+// understands anonymous AMD modules. A named AMD is safest and most robust
+// way to register. Lowercase jquery is used because AMD module names are
+// derived from file names, and jQuery is normally delivered in a lowercase
+// file name. Do this after creating the global so that if an AMD module wants
+// to call noConflict to hide this version of jQuery, it will work.
+
+// Note that for maximum portability, libraries that are not jQuery should
+// declare themselves as anonymous modules, and avoid setting a global if an
+// AMD loader is present. jQuery is a special case. For more information, see
+// https://github.com/jrburke/requirejs/wiki/Updating-existing-libraries#wiki-anon
+
+if ( typeof define === "function" && define.amd ) {
+	define( "jquery", [], function() {
+		return jQuery;
+	} );
+}
+
+
+
+
+var
+
+	// Map over jQuery in case of overwrite
+	_jQuery = window.jQuery,
+
+	// Map over the $ in case of overwrite
+	_$ = window.$;
+
+jQuery.noConflict = function( deep ) {
+	if ( window.$ === jQuery ) {
+		window.$ = _$;
+	}
+
+	if ( deep && window.jQuery === jQuery ) {
+		window.jQuery = _jQuery;
+	}
+
+	return jQuery;
+};
+
+// Expose jQuery and $ identifiers, even in AMD
+// (#7102#comment:10, https://github.com/jquery/jquery/pull/557)
+// and CommonJS for browser emulators (#13566)
+if ( !noGlobal ) {
+	window.jQuery = window.$ = jQuery;
+}
+
+
+
+
+return jQuery;
+} );
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/jquery.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/jquery.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..644d35e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/jquery.js
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+/*! jQuery v3.2.1 | (c) JS Foundation and other contributors | jquery.org/license */
+!function(a,b){"use strict";"object"==typeof module&&"object"==typeof module.exports?module.exports=a.document?b(a,!0):function(a){if(!a.document)throw new Error("jQuery requires a window with a document");return b(a)}:b(a)}("undefined"!=typeof window?window:this,function(a,b){"use strict";var c=[],d=a.document,e=Object.getPrototypeOf,f=c.slice,g=c.concat,h=c.push,i=c.indexOf,j={},k=j.toString,l=j.hasOwnProperty,m=l.toString,n=m.call(Object),o={};function p(a,b){b=b||d;var c=b.createElement("script");c.text=a,b.head.appendChild(c).parentNode.removeChild(c)}var q="3.2.1",r=function(a,b){return new r.fn.init(a,b)},s=/^[\s\uFEFF\xA0]+|[\s\uFEFF\xA0]+$/g,t=/^-ms-/,u=/-([a-z])/g,v=function(a,b){return b.toUpperCase()};r.fn=r.prototype={jquery:q,constructor:r,length:0,toArray:function(){return f.call(this)},get:function(a){return null==a?f.call(this):a<0?this[a+this.length]:this[a]},pushStack:function(a){var b=r.merge(this.constructor(),a);return b.prevObject=this,b},each:function(a){return r.each(this,a)},map:function(a){return this.pushStack(r.map(this,function(b,c){return a.call(b,c,b)}))},slice:function(){return this.pushStack(f.apply(this,arguments))},first:function(){return this.eq(0)},last:function(){return this.eq(-1)},eq:function(a){var b=this.length,c=+a+(a<0?b:0);return this.pushStack(c>=0&&c<b?[this[c]]:[])},end:function(){return this.prevObject||this.constructor()},push:h,sort:c.sort,splice:c.splice},r.extend=r.fn.extend=function(){var a,b,c,d,e,f,g=arguments[0]||{},h=1,i=arguments.length,j=!1;for("boolean"==typeof g&&(j=g,g=arguments[h]||{},h++),"object"==typeof g||r.isFunction(g)||(g={}),h===i&&(g=this,h--);h<i;h++)if(null!=(a=arguments[h]))for(b in a)c=g[b],d=a[b],g!==d&&(j&&d&&(r.isPlainObject(d)||(e=Array.isArray(d)))?(e?(e=!1,f=c&&Array.isArray(c)?c:[]):f=c&&r.isPlainObject(c)?c:{},g[b]=r.extend(j,f,d)):void 0!==d&&(g[b]=d));return g},r.extend({expando:"jQuery"+(q+Math.random()).replace(/\D/g,""),isReady:!0,error:function(a){throw new 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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/language_data.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/language_data.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5266fb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/language_data.js
@@ -0,0 +1,297 @@
+/*
+ * language_data.js
+ * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+ *
+ * This script contains the language-specific data used by searchtools.js,
+ * namely the list of stopwords, stemmer, scorer and splitter.
+ *
+ * :copyright: Copyright 2007-2019 by the Sphinx team, see AUTHORS.
+ * :license: BSD, see LICENSE for details.
+ *
+ */
+
+var stopwords = ["a","and","are","as","at","be","but","by","for","if","in","into","is","it","near","no","not","of","on","or","such","that","the","their","then","there","these","they","this","to","was","will","with"];
+
+
+/* Non-minified version JS is _stemmer.js if file is provided */ 
+/**
+ * Porter Stemmer
+ */
+var Stemmer = function() {
+
+  var step2list = {
+    ational: 'ate',
+    tional: 'tion',
+    enci: 'ence',
+    anci: 'ance',
+    izer: 'ize',
+    bli: 'ble',
+    alli: 'al',
+    entli: 'ent',
+    eli: 'e',
+    ousli: 'ous',
+    ization: 'ize',
+    ation: 'ate',
+    ator: 'ate',
+    alism: 'al',
+    iveness: 'ive',
+    fulness: 'ful',
+    ousness: 'ous',
+    aliti: 'al',
+    iviti: 'ive',
+    biliti: 'ble',
+    logi: 'log'
+  };
+
+  var step3list = {
+    icate: 'ic',
+    ative: '',
+    alize: 'al',
+    iciti: 'ic',
+    ical: 'ic',
+    ful: '',
+    ness: ''
+  };
+
+  var c = "[^aeiou]";          // consonant
+  var v = "[aeiouy]";          // vowel
+  var C = c + "[^aeiouy]*";    // consonant sequence
+  var V = v + "[aeiou]*";      // vowel sequence
+
+  var mgr0 = "^(" + C + ")?" + V + C;                      // [C]VC... is m>0
+  var meq1 = "^(" + C + ")?" + V + C + "(" + V + ")?$";    // [C]VC[V] is m=1
+  var mgr1 = "^(" + C + ")?" + V + C + V + C;              // [C]VCVC... is m>1
+  var s_v   = "^(" + C + ")?" + v;                         // vowel in stem
+
+  this.stemWord = function (w) {
+    var stem;
+    var suffix;
+    var firstch;
+    var origword = w;
+
+    if (w.length < 3)
+      return w;
+
+    var re;
+    var re2;
+    var re3;
+    var re4;
+
+    firstch = w.substr(0,1);
+    if (firstch == "y")
+      w = firstch.toUpperCase() + w.substr(1);
+
+    // Step 1a
+    re = /^(.+?)(ss|i)es$/;
+    re2 = /^(.+?)([^s])s$/;
+
+    if (re.test(w))
+      w = w.replace(re,"$1$2");
+    else if (re2.test(w))
+      w = w.replace(re2,"$1$2");
+
+    // Step 1b
+    re = /^(.+?)eed$/;
+    re2 = /^(.+?)(ed|ing)$/;
+    if (re.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re.exec(w);
+      re = new RegExp(mgr0);
+      if (re.test(fp[1])) {
+        re = /.$/;
+        w = w.replace(re,"");
+      }
+    }
+    else if (re2.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re2.exec(w);
+      stem = fp[1];
+      re2 = new RegExp(s_v);
+      if (re2.test(stem)) {
+        w = stem;
+        re2 = /(at|bl|iz)$/;
+        re3 = new RegExp("([^aeiouylsz])\\1$");
+        re4 = new RegExp("^" + C + v + "[^aeiouwxy]$");
+        if (re2.test(w))
+          w = w + "e";
+        else if (re3.test(w)) {
+          re = /.$/;
+          w = w.replace(re,"");
+        }
+        else if (re4.test(w))
+          w = w + "e";
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Step 1c
+    re = /^(.+?)y$/;
+    if (re.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re.exec(w);
+      stem = fp[1];
+      re = new RegExp(s_v);
+      if (re.test(stem))
+        w = stem + "i";
+    }
+
+    // Step 2
+    re = /^(.+?)(ational|tional|enci|anci|izer|bli|alli|entli|eli|ousli|ization|ation|ator|alism|iveness|fulness|ousness|aliti|iviti|biliti|logi)$/;
+    if (re.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re.exec(w);
+      stem = fp[1];
+      suffix = fp[2];
+      re = new RegExp(mgr0);
+      if (re.test(stem))
+        w = stem + step2list[suffix];
+    }
+
+    // Step 3
+    re = /^(.+?)(icate|ative|alize|iciti|ical|ful|ness)$/;
+    if (re.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re.exec(w);
+      stem = fp[1];
+      suffix = fp[2];
+      re = new RegExp(mgr0);
+      if (re.test(stem))
+        w = stem + step3list[suffix];
+    }
+
+    // Step 4
+    re = /^(.+?)(al|ance|ence|er|ic|able|ible|ant|ement|ment|ent|ou|ism|ate|iti|ous|ive|ize)$/;
+    re2 = /^(.+?)(s|t)(ion)$/;
+    if (re.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re.exec(w);
+      stem = fp[1];
+      re = new RegExp(mgr1);
+      if (re.test(stem))
+        w = stem;
+    }
+    else if (re2.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re2.exec(w);
+      stem = fp[1] + fp[2];
+      re2 = new RegExp(mgr1);
+      if (re2.test(stem))
+        w = stem;
+    }
+
+    // Step 5
+    re = /^(.+?)e$/;
+    if (re.test(w)) {
+      var fp = re.exec(w);
+      stem = fp[1];
+      re = new RegExp(mgr1);
+      re2 = new RegExp(meq1);
+      re3 = new RegExp("^" + C + v + "[^aeiouwxy]$");
+      if (re.test(stem) || (re2.test(stem) && !(re3.test(stem))))
+        w = stem;
+    }
+    re = /ll$/;
+    re2 = new RegExp(mgr1);
+    if (re.test(w) && re2.test(w)) {
+      re = /.$/;
+      w = w.replace(re,"");
+    }
+
+    // and turn initial Y back to y
+    if (firstch == "y")
+      w = firstch.toLowerCase() + w.substr(1);
+    return w;
+  }
+}
+
+
+
+
+
+var splitChars = (function() {
+    var result = {};
+    var singles = [96, 180, 187, 191, 215, 247, 749, 885, 903, 907, 909, 930, 1014, 1648,
+         1748, 1809, 2416, 2473, 2481, 2526, 2601, 2609, 2612, 2615, 2653, 2702,
+         2706, 2729, 2737, 2740, 2857, 2865, 2868, 2910, 2928, 2948, 2961, 2971,
+         2973, 3085, 3089, 3113, 3124, 3213, 3217, 3241, 3252, 3295, 3341, 3345,
+         3369, 3506, 3516, 3633, 3715, 3721, 3736, 3744, 3748, 3750, 3756, 3761,
+         3781, 3912, 4239, 4347, 4681, 4695, 4697, 4745, 4785, 4799, 4801, 4823,
+         4881, 5760, 5901, 5997, 6313, 7405, 8024, 8026, 8028, 8030, 8117, 8125,
+         8133, 8181, 8468, 8485, 8487, 8489, 8494, 8527, 11311, 11359, 11687, 11695,
+         11703, 11711, 11719, 11727, 11735, 12448, 12539, 43010, 43014, 43019, 43587,
+         43696, 43713, 64286, 64297, 64311, 64317, 64319, 64322, 64325, 65141];
+    var i, j, start, end;
+    for (i = 0; i < singles.length; i++) {
+        result[singles[i]] = true;
+    }
+    var ranges = [[0, 47], [58, 64], [91, 94], [123, 169], [171, 177], [182, 184], [706, 709],
+         [722, 735], [741, 747], [751, 879], [888, 889], [894, 901], [1154, 1161],
+         [1318, 1328], [1367, 1368], [1370, 1376], [1416, 1487], [1515, 1519], [1523, 1568],
+         [1611, 1631], [1642, 1645], [1750, 1764], [1767, 1773], [1789, 1790], [1792, 1807],
+         [1840, 1868], [1958, 1968], [1970, 1983], [2027, 2035], [2038, 2041], [2043, 2047],
+         [2070, 2073], [2075, 2083], [2085, 2087], [2089, 2307], [2362, 2364], [2366, 2383],
+         [2385, 2391], [2402, 2405], [2419, 2424], [2432, 2436], [2445, 2446], [2449, 2450],
+         [2483, 2485], [2490, 2492], [2494, 2509], [2511, 2523], [2530, 2533], [2546, 2547],
+         [2554, 2564], [2571, 2574], [2577, 2578], [2618, 2648], [2655, 2661], [2672, 2673],
+         [2677, 2692], [2746, 2748], [2750, 2767], [2769, 2783], [2786, 2789], [2800, 2820],
+         [2829, 2830], [2833, 2834], [2874, 2876], [2878, 2907], [2914, 2917], [2930, 2946],
+         [2955, 2957], [2966, 2968], [2976, 2978], [2981, 2983], [2987, 2989], [3002, 3023],
+         [3025, 3045], [3059, 3076], [3130, 3132], [3134, 3159], [3162, 3167], [3170, 3173],
+         [3184, 3191], [3199, 3204], [3258, 3260], [3262, 3293], [3298, 3301], [3312, 3332],
+         [3386, 3388], [3390, 3423], [3426, 3429], [3446, 3449], [3456, 3460], [3479, 3481],
+         [3518, 3519], [3527, 3584], [3636, 3647], [3655, 3663], [3674, 3712], [3717, 3718],
+         [3723, 3724], [3726, 3731], [3752, 3753], [3764, 3772], [3774, 3775], [3783, 3791],
+         [3802, 3803], [3806, 3839], [3841, 3871], [3892, 3903], [3949, 3975], [3980, 4095],
+         [4139, 4158], [4170, 4175], [4182, 4185], [4190, 4192], [4194, 4196], [4199, 4205],
+         [4209, 4212], [4226, 4237], [4250, 4255], [4294, 4303], [4349, 4351], [4686, 4687],
+         [4702, 4703], [4750, 4751], [4790, 4791], [4806, 4807], [4886, 4887], [4955, 4968],
+         [4989, 4991], [5008, 5023], [5109, 5120], [5741, 5742], [5787, 5791], [5867, 5869],
+         [5873, 5887], [5906, 5919], [5938, 5951], [5970, 5983], [6001, 6015], [6068, 6102],
+         [6104, 6107], [6109, 6111], [6122, 6127], [6138, 6159], [6170, 6175], [6264, 6271],
+         [6315, 6319], [6390, 6399], [6429, 6469], [6510, 6511], [6517, 6527], [6572, 6592],
+         [6600, 6607], [6619, 6655], [6679, 6687], [6741, 6783], [6794, 6799], [6810, 6822],
+         [6824, 6916], [6964, 6980], [6988, 6991], [7002, 7042], [7073, 7085], [7098, 7167],
+         [7204, 7231], [7242, 7244], [7294, 7400], [7410, 7423], [7616, 7679], [7958, 7959],
+         [7966, 7967], [8006, 8007], [8014, 8015], [8062, 8063], [8127, 8129], [8141, 8143],
+         [8148, 8149], [8156, 8159], [8173, 8177], [8189, 8303], [8306, 8307], [8314, 8318],
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+         [11622, 11630], [11632, 11647], [11671, 11679], [11743, 11822], [11824, 12292],
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+         [19894, 19967], [40908, 40959], [42125, 42191], [42238, 42239], [42509, 42511],
+         [42540, 42559], [42592, 42593], [42607, 42622], [42648, 42655], [42736, 42774],
+         [42784, 42785], [42889, 42890], [42893, 43002], [43043, 43055], [43062, 43071],
+         [43124, 43137], [43188, 43215], [43226, 43249], [43256, 43258], [43260, 43263],
+         [43302, 43311], [43335, 43359], [43389, 43395], [43443, 43470], [43482, 43519],
+         [43561, 43583], [43596, 43599], [43610, 43615], [43639, 43641], [43643, 43647],
+         [43698, 43700], [43703, 43704], [43710, 43711], [43715, 43738], [43742, 43967],
+         [44003, 44015], [44026, 44031], [55204, 55215], [55239, 55242], [55292, 55295],
+         [57344, 63743], [64046, 64047], [64110, 64111], [64218, 64255], [64263, 64274],
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+         [65020, 65135], [65277, 65295], [65306, 65312], [65339, 65344], [65371, 65381],
+         [65471, 65473], [65480, 65481], [65488, 65489], [65496, 65497]];
+    for (i = 0; i < ranges.length; i++) {
+        start = ranges[i][0];
+        end = ranges[i][1];
+        for (j = start; j <= end; j++) {
+            result[j] = true;
+        }
+    }
+    return result;
+})();
+
+function splitQuery(query) {
+    var result = [];
+    var start = -1;
+    for (var i = 0; i < query.length; i++) {
+        if (splitChars[query.charCodeAt(i)]) {
+            if (start !== -1) {
+                result.push(query.slice(start, i));
+                start = -1;
+            }
+        } else if (start === -1) {
+            start = i;
+        }
+    }
+    if (start !== -1) {
+        result.push(query.slice(start));
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/minus.png b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/minus.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d96755fdaf8bb2214971e0db9c1fd3077d7c419d
GIT binary patch
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literal 0
HcmV?d00001

diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/opensearch.xml b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/opensearch.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f04507
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/opensearch.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<OpenSearchDescription xmlns="http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearch/1.1/">
+  <ShortName>Python</ShortName>
+  <Description>Search Python 3.7.4 documentation</Description>
+  <InputEncoding>utf-8</InputEncoding>
+  <Url type="text/html" method="get"
+       template="https://docs.python.org/3.7/search.html?q={searchTerms}"/>
+  <LongName>Python 3.7.4 documentation</LongName>
+<Image height="16" width="16" type="image/x-icon">https://www.python.org/images/favicon16x16.ico</Image>
+</OpenSearchDescription>
\ No newline at end of file
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new file mode 100644
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GIT binary patch
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literal 0
HcmV?d00001

diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/pydoctheme.css b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/pydoctheme.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d5c18e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/pydoctheme.css
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+@import url("default.css");
+
+body {
+    background-color: white;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    margin-right: 1em;
+}
+
+div.related {
+    margin-bottom: 1.2em;
+    padding: 0.5em 0;
+    border-top: 1px solid #ccc;
+    margin-top: 0.5em;
+}
+
+div.related a:hover {
+    color: #0095C4;
+}
+
+div.related:first-child {
+    border-top: 0;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;
+}
+
+.inline-search {
+    display: inline;
+}
+form.inline-search input {
+    display: inline;
+}
+form.inline-search input[type="submit"] {
+    width: 30px;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar {
+    background-color: #eeeeee;
+    border-radius: 5px;
+    line-height: 130%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar h3, div.sphinxsidebar h4 {
+    margin-top: 1.5em;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebarwrapper > h3:first-child {
+    margin-top: 0.2em;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebarwrapper > ul > li > ul > li {
+    margin-bottom: 0.4em;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar a:hover {
+    color: #0095C4;
+}
+
+form.inline-search input,
+div.sphinxsidebar input {
+    font-family: 'Lucida Grande',Arial,sans-serif;
+    border: 1px solid #999999;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    border-radius: 3px;
+}
+
+div.sphinxsidebar input[type=text] {
+    max-width: 150px;
+}
+
+div.body {
+    padding: 0 0 0 1.2em;
+}
+
+div.body p {
+    line-height: 140%;
+}
+
+div.body h1, div.body h2, div.body h3, div.body h4, div.body h5, div.body h6 {
+    margin: 0;
+    border: 0;
+    padding: 0.3em 0;
+}
+
+div.body hr {
+    border: 0;
+    background-color: #ccc;
+    height: 1px;
+}
+
+div.body pre {
+    border-radius: 3px;
+    border: 1px solid #ac9;
+}
+
+div.body div.admonition, div.body div.impl-detail {
+    border-radius: 3px;
+}
+
+div.body div.impl-detail > p {
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+div.body div.seealso {
+    border: 1px solid #dddd66;
+}
+
+div.body a {
+    color: #0072aa;
+}
+
+div.body a:visited {
+    color: #6363bb;
+}
+
+div.body a:hover {
+    color: #00B0E4;
+}
+
+tt, code, pre {
+    font-family: monospace, sans-serif;
+    font-size: 96.5%;
+}
+
+div.body tt, div.body code {
+    border-radius: 3px;
+}
+
+div.body tt.descname, div.body code.descname {
+    font-size: 120%;
+}
+
+div.body tt.xref, div.body a tt, div.body code.xref, div.body a code {
+    font-weight: normal;
+}
+
+.deprecated {
+    border-radius: 3px;
+}
+
+table.docutils {
+    border: 1px solid #ddd;
+    min-width: 20%;
+    border-radius: 3px;
+    margin-top: 10px;
+    margin-bottom: 10px;
+}
+
+table.docutils td, table.docutils th {
+    border: 1px solid #ddd !important;
+    border-radius: 3px;
+}
+
+table p, table li {
+    text-align: left !important;
+}
+
+table.docutils th {
+    background-color: #eee;
+    padding: 0.3em 0.5em;
+}
+
+table.docutils td {
+    background-color: white;
+    padding: 0.3em 0.5em;
+}
+
+table.footnote, table.footnote td {
+    border: 0 !important;
+}
+
+div.footer {
+    line-height: 150%;
+    margin-top: -2em;
+    text-align: right;
+    width: auto;
+    margin-right: 10px;
+}
+
+div.footer a:hover {
+    color: #0095C4;
+}
+
+.refcount {
+    color: #060;
+}
+
+.stableabi {
+    color: #229;
+}
+
+.highlight {
+    background: none !important;
+}
+
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/pygments.css b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/pygments.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20c4814
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/pygments.css
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+.highlight .hll { background-color: #ffffcc }
+.highlight  { background: #eeffcc; }
+.highlight .c { color: #408090; font-style: italic } /* Comment */
+.highlight .err { border: 1px solid #FF0000 } /* Error */
+.highlight .k { color: #007020; font-weight: bold } /* Keyword */
+.highlight .o { color: #666666 } /* Operator */
+.highlight .ch { color: #408090; font-style: italic } /* Comment.Hashbang */
+.highlight .cm { color: #408090; font-style: italic } /* Comment.Multiline */
+.highlight .cp { color: #007020 } /* Comment.Preproc */
+.highlight .cpf { color: #408090; font-style: italic } /* Comment.PreprocFile */
+.highlight .c1 { color: #408090; font-style: italic } /* Comment.Single */
+.highlight .cs { color: #408090; background-color: #fff0f0 } /* Comment.Special */
+.highlight .gd { color: #A00000 } /* Generic.Deleted */
+.highlight .ge { font-style: italic } /* Generic.Emph */
+.highlight .gr { color: #FF0000 } /* Generic.Error */
+.highlight .gh { color: #000080; font-weight: bold } /* Generic.Heading */
+.highlight .gi { color: #00A000 } /* Generic.Inserted */
+.highlight .go { color: #333333 } /* Generic.Output */
+.highlight .gp { color: #c65d09; font-weight: bold } /* Generic.Prompt */
+.highlight .gs { font-weight: bold } /* Generic.Strong */
+.highlight .gu { color: #800080; font-weight: bold } /* Generic.Subheading */
+.highlight .gt { color: #0044DD } /* Generic.Traceback */
+.highlight .kc { color: #007020; font-weight: bold } /* Keyword.Constant */
+.highlight .kd { color: #007020; font-weight: bold } /* Keyword.Declaration */
+.highlight .kn { color: #007020; font-weight: bold } /* Keyword.Namespace */
+.highlight .kp { color: #007020 } /* Keyword.Pseudo */
+.highlight .kr { color: #007020; font-weight: bold } /* Keyword.Reserved */
+.highlight .kt { color: #902000 } /* Keyword.Type */
+.highlight .m { color: #208050 } /* Literal.Number */
+.highlight .s { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String */
+.highlight .na { color: #4070a0 } /* Name.Attribute */
+.highlight .nb { color: #007020 } /* Name.Builtin */
+.highlight .nc { color: #0e84b5; font-weight: bold } /* Name.Class */
+.highlight .no { color: #60add5 } /* Name.Constant */
+.highlight .nd { color: #555555; font-weight: bold } /* Name.Decorator */
+.highlight .ni { color: #d55537; font-weight: bold } /* Name.Entity */
+.highlight .ne { color: #007020 } /* Name.Exception */
+.highlight .nf { color: #06287e } /* Name.Function */
+.highlight .nl { color: #002070; font-weight: bold } /* Name.Label */
+.highlight .nn { color: #0e84b5; font-weight: bold } /* Name.Namespace */
+.highlight .nt { color: #062873; font-weight: bold } /* Name.Tag */
+.highlight .nv { color: #bb60d5 } /* Name.Variable */
+.highlight .ow { color: #007020; font-weight: bold } /* Operator.Word */
+.highlight .w { color: #bbbbbb } /* Text.Whitespace */
+.highlight .mb { color: #208050 } /* Literal.Number.Bin */
+.highlight .mf { color: #208050 } /* Literal.Number.Float */
+.highlight .mh { color: #208050 } /* Literal.Number.Hex */
+.highlight .mi { color: #208050 } /* Literal.Number.Integer */
+.highlight .mo { color: #208050 } /* Literal.Number.Oct */
+.highlight .sa { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String.Affix */
+.highlight .sb { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String.Backtick */
+.highlight .sc { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String.Char */
+.highlight .dl { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String.Delimiter */
+.highlight .sd { color: #4070a0; font-style: italic } /* Literal.String.Doc */
+.highlight .s2 { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String.Double */
+.highlight .se { color: #4070a0; font-weight: bold } /* Literal.String.Escape */
+.highlight .sh { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String.Heredoc */
+.highlight .si { color: #70a0d0; font-style: italic } /* Literal.String.Interpol */
+.highlight .sx { color: #c65d09 } /* Literal.String.Other */
+.highlight .sr { color: #235388 } /* Literal.String.Regex */
+.highlight .s1 { color: #4070a0 } /* Literal.String.Single */
+.highlight .ss { color: #517918 } /* Literal.String.Symbol */
+.highlight .bp { color: #007020 } /* Name.Builtin.Pseudo */
+.highlight .fm { color: #06287e } /* Name.Function.Magic */
+.highlight .vc { color: #bb60d5 } /* Name.Variable.Class */
+.highlight .vg { color: #bb60d5 } /* Name.Variable.Global */
+.highlight .vi { color: #bb60d5 } /* Name.Variable.Instance */
+.highlight .vm { color: #bb60d5 } /* Name.Variable.Magic */
+.highlight .il { color: #208050 } /* Literal.Number.Integer.Long */
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/searchtools.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/searchtools.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bdc2706
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/searchtools.js
@@ -0,0 +1,505 @@
+/*
+ * searchtools.js
+ * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+ *
+ * Sphinx JavaScript utilities for the full-text search.
+ *
+ * :copyright: Copyright 2007-2019 by the Sphinx team, see AUTHORS.
+ * :license: BSD, see LICENSE for details.
+ *
+ */
+
+if (!Scorer) {
+  /**
+   * Simple result scoring code.
+   */
+  var Scorer = {
+    // Implement the following function to further tweak the score for each result
+    // The function takes a result array [filename, title, anchor, descr, score]
+    // and returns the new score.
+    /*
+    score: function(result) {
+      return result[4];
+    },
+    */
+
+    // query matches the full name of an object
+    objNameMatch: 11,
+    // or matches in the last dotted part of the object name
+    objPartialMatch: 6,
+    // Additive scores depending on the priority of the object
+    objPrio: {0:  15,   // used to be importantResults
+              1:  5,   // used to be objectResults
+              2: -5},  // used to be unimportantResults
+    //  Used when the priority is not in the mapping.
+    objPrioDefault: 0,
+
+    // query found in title
+    title: 15,
+    partialTitle: 7,
+    // query found in terms
+    term: 5,
+    partialTerm: 2
+  };
+}
+
+if (!splitQuery) {
+  function splitQuery(query) {
+    return query.split(/\s+/);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Search Module
+ */
+var Search = {
+
+  _index : null,
+  _queued_query : null,
+  _pulse_status : -1,
+
+  htmlToText : function(htmlString) {
+      var htmlElement = document.createElement('span');
+      htmlElement.innerHTML = htmlString;
+      $(htmlElement).find('.headerlink').remove();
+      docContent = $(htmlElement).find('[role=main]')[0];
+      return docContent.textContent || docContent.innerText;
+  },
+
+  init : function() {
+      var params = $.getQueryParameters();
+      if (params.q) {
+          var query = params.q[0];
+          $('input[name="q"]')[0].value = query;
+          this.performSearch(query);
+      }
+  },
+
+  loadIndex : function(url) {
+    $.ajax({type: "GET", url: url, data: null,
+            dataType: "script", cache: true,
+            complete: function(jqxhr, textstatus) {
+              if (textstatus != "success") {
+                document.getElementById("searchindexloader").src = url;
+              }
+            }});
+  },
+
+  setIndex : function(index) {
+    var q;
+    this._index = index;
+    if ((q = this._queued_query) !== null) {
+      this._queued_query = null;
+      Search.query(q);
+    }
+  },
+
+  hasIndex : function() {
+      return this._index !== null;
+  },
+
+  deferQuery : function(query) {
+      this._queued_query = query;
+  },
+
+  stopPulse : function() {
+      this._pulse_status = 0;
+  },
+
+  startPulse : function() {
+    if (this._pulse_status >= 0)
+        return;
+    function pulse() {
+      var i;
+      Search._pulse_status = (Search._pulse_status + 1) % 4;
+      var dotString = '';
+      for (i = 0; i < Search._pulse_status; i++)
+        dotString += '.';
+      Search.dots.text(dotString);
+      if (Search._pulse_status > -1)
+        window.setTimeout(pulse, 500);
+    }
+    pulse();
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * perform a search for something (or wait until index is loaded)
+   */
+  performSearch : function(query) {
+    // create the required interface elements
+    this.out = $('#search-results');
+    this.title = $('<h2>' + _('Searching') + '</h2>').appendTo(this.out);
+    this.dots = $('<span></span>').appendTo(this.title);
+    this.status = $('<p class="search-summary">&nbsp;</p>').appendTo(this.out);
+    this.output = $('<ul class="search"/>').appendTo(this.out);
+
+    $('#search-progress').text(_('Preparing search...'));
+    this.startPulse();
+
+    // index already loaded, the browser was quick!
+    if (this.hasIndex())
+      this.query(query);
+    else
+      this.deferQuery(query);
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * execute search (requires search index to be loaded)
+   */
+  query : function(query) {
+    var i;
+
+    // stem the searchterms and add them to the correct list
+    var stemmer = new Stemmer();
+    var searchterms = [];
+    var excluded = [];
+    var hlterms = [];
+    var tmp = splitQuery(query);
+    var objectterms = [];
+    for (i = 0; i < tmp.length; i++) {
+      if (tmp[i] !== "") {
+          objectterms.push(tmp[i].toLowerCase());
+      }
+
+      if ($u.indexOf(stopwords, tmp[i].toLowerCase()) != -1 || tmp[i].match(/^\d+$/) ||
+          tmp[i] === "") {
+        // skip this "word"
+        continue;
+      }
+      // stem the word
+      var word = stemmer.stemWord(tmp[i].toLowerCase());
+      // prevent stemmer from cutting word smaller than two chars
+      if(word.length < 3 && tmp[i].length >= 3) {
+        word = tmp[i];
+      }
+      var toAppend;
+      // select the correct list
+      if (word[0] == '-') {
+        toAppend = excluded;
+        word = word.substr(1);
+      }
+      else {
+        toAppend = searchterms;
+        hlterms.push(tmp[i].toLowerCase());
+      }
+      // only add if not already in the list
+      if (!$u.contains(toAppend, word))
+        toAppend.push(word);
+    }
+    var highlightstring = '?highlight=' + $.urlencode(hlterms.join(" "));
+
+    // console.debug('SEARCH: searching for:');
+    // console.info('required: ', searchterms);
+    // console.info('excluded: ', excluded);
+
+    // prepare search
+    var terms = this._index.terms;
+    var titleterms = this._index.titleterms;
+
+    // array of [filename, title, anchor, descr, score]
+    var results = [];
+    $('#search-progress').empty();
+
+    // lookup as object
+    for (i = 0; i < objectterms.length; i++) {
+      var others = [].concat(objectterms.slice(0, i),
+                             objectterms.slice(i+1, objectterms.length));
+      results = results.concat(this.performObjectSearch(objectterms[i], others));
+    }
+
+    // lookup as search terms in fulltext
+    results = results.concat(this.performTermsSearch(searchterms, excluded, terms, titleterms));
+
+    // let the scorer override scores with a custom scoring function
+    if (Scorer.score) {
+      for (i = 0; i < results.length; i++)
+        results[i][4] = Scorer.score(results[i]);
+    }
+
+    // now sort the results by score (in opposite order of appearance, since the
+    // display function below uses pop() to retrieve items) and then
+    // alphabetically
+    results.sort(function(a, b) {
+      var left = a[4];
+      var right = b[4];
+      if (left > right) {
+        return 1;
+      } else if (left < right) {
+        return -1;
+      } else {
+        // same score: sort alphabetically
+        left = a[1].toLowerCase();
+        right = b[1].toLowerCase();
+        return (left > right) ? -1 : ((left < right) ? 1 : 0);
+      }
+    });
+
+    // for debugging
+    //Search.lastresults = results.slice();  // a copy
+    //console.info('search results:', Search.lastresults);
+
+    // print the results
+    var resultCount = results.length;
+    function displayNextItem() {
+      // results left, load the summary and display it
+      if (results.length) {
+        var item = results.pop();
+        var listItem = $('<li style="display:none"></li>');
+        if (DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.FILE_SUFFIX === '') {
+          // dirhtml builder
+          var dirname = item[0] + '/';
+          if (dirname.match(/\/index\/$/)) {
+            dirname = dirname.substring(0, dirname.length-6);
+          } else if (dirname == 'index/') {
+            dirname = '';
+          }
+          listItem.append($('<a/>').attr('href',
+            DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.URL_ROOT + dirname +
+            highlightstring + item[2]).html(item[1]));
+        } else {
+          // normal html builders
+          listItem.append($('<a/>').attr('href',
+            item[0] + DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.FILE_SUFFIX +
+            highlightstring + item[2]).html(item[1]));
+        }
+        if (item[3]) {
+          listItem.append($('<span> (' + item[3] + ')</span>'));
+          Search.output.append(listItem);
+          listItem.slideDown(5, function() {
+            displayNextItem();
+          });
+        } else if (DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.HAS_SOURCE) {
+          $.ajax({url: DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.URL_ROOT + item[0] + DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.FILE_SUFFIX,
+                  dataType: "text",
+                  complete: function(jqxhr, textstatus) {
+                    var data = jqxhr.responseText;
+                    if (data !== '' && data !== undefined) {
+                      listItem.append(Search.makeSearchSummary(data, searchterms, hlterms));
+                    }
+                    Search.output.append(listItem);
+                    listItem.slideDown(5, function() {
+                      displayNextItem();
+                    });
+                  }});
+        } else {
+          // no source available, just display title
+          Search.output.append(listItem);
+          listItem.slideDown(5, function() {
+            displayNextItem();
+          });
+        }
+      }
+      // search finished, update title and status message
+      else {
+        Search.stopPulse();
+        Search.title.text(_('Search Results'));
+        if (!resultCount)
+          Search.status.text(_('Your search did not match any documents. Please make sure that all words are spelled correctly and that you\'ve selected enough categories.'));
+        else
+            Search.status.text(_('Search finished, found %s page(s) matching the search query.').replace('%s', resultCount));
+        Search.status.fadeIn(500);
+      }
+    }
+    displayNextItem();
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * search for object names
+   */
+  performObjectSearch : function(object, otherterms) {
+    var filenames = this._index.filenames;
+    var docnames = this._index.docnames;
+    var objects = this._index.objects;
+    var objnames = this._index.objnames;
+    var titles = this._index.titles;
+
+    var i;
+    var results = [];
+
+    for (var prefix in objects) {
+      for (var name in objects[prefix]) {
+        var fullname = (prefix ? prefix + '.' : '') + name;
+        if (fullname.toLowerCase().indexOf(object) > -1) {
+          var score = 0;
+          var parts = fullname.split('.');
+          // check for different match types: exact matches of full name or
+          // "last name" (i.e. last dotted part)
+          if (fullname == object || parts[parts.length - 1] == object) {
+            score += Scorer.objNameMatch;
+          // matches in last name
+          } else if (parts[parts.length - 1].indexOf(object) > -1) {
+            score += Scorer.objPartialMatch;
+          }
+          var match = objects[prefix][name];
+          var objname = objnames[match[1]][2];
+          var title = titles[match[0]];
+          // If more than one term searched for, we require other words to be
+          // found in the name/title/description
+          if (otherterms.length > 0) {
+            var haystack = (prefix + ' ' + name + ' ' +
+                            objname + ' ' + title).toLowerCase();
+            var allfound = true;
+            for (i = 0; i < otherterms.length; i++) {
+              if (haystack.indexOf(otherterms[i]) == -1) {
+                allfound = false;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (!allfound) {
+              continue;
+            }
+          }
+          var descr = objname + _(', in ') + title;
+
+          var anchor = match[3];
+          if (anchor === '')
+            anchor = fullname;
+          else if (anchor == '-')
+            anchor = objnames[match[1]][1] + '-' + fullname;
+          // add custom score for some objects according to scorer
+          if (Scorer.objPrio.hasOwnProperty(match[2])) {
+            score += Scorer.objPrio[match[2]];
+          } else {
+            score += Scorer.objPrioDefault;
+          }
+          results.push([docnames[match[0]], fullname, '#'+anchor, descr, score, filenames[match[0]]]);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    return results;
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * search for full-text terms in the index
+   */
+  performTermsSearch : function(searchterms, excluded, terms, titleterms) {
+    var docnames = this._index.docnames;
+    var filenames = this._index.filenames;
+    var titles = this._index.titles;
+
+    var i, j, file;
+    var fileMap = {};
+    var scoreMap = {};
+    var results = [];
+
+    // perform the search on the required terms
+    for (i = 0; i < searchterms.length; i++) {
+      var word = searchterms[i];
+      var files = [];
+      var _o = [
+        {files: terms[word], score: Scorer.term},
+        {files: titleterms[word], score: Scorer.title}
+      ];
+      // add support for partial matches
+      if (word.length > 2) {
+        for (var w in terms) {
+          if (w.match(word) && !terms[word]) {
+            _o.push({files: terms[w], score: Scorer.partialTerm})
+          }
+        }
+        for (var w in titleterms) {
+          if (w.match(word) && !titleterms[word]) {
+              _o.push({files: titleterms[w], score: Scorer.partialTitle})
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      // no match but word was a required one
+      if ($u.every(_o, function(o){return o.files === undefined;})) {
+        break;
+      }
+      // found search word in contents
+      $u.each(_o, function(o) {
+        var _files = o.files;
+        if (_files === undefined)
+          return
+
+        if (_files.length === undefined)
+          _files = [_files];
+        files = files.concat(_files);
+
+        // set score for the word in each file to Scorer.term
+        for (j = 0; j < _files.length; j++) {
+          file = _files[j];
+          if (!(file in scoreMap))
+            scoreMap[file] = {}
+          scoreMap[file][word] = o.score;
+        }
+      });
+
+      // create the mapping
+      for (j = 0; j < files.length; j++) {
+        file = files[j];
+        if (file in fileMap)
+          fileMap[file].push(word);
+        else
+          fileMap[file] = [word];
+      }
+    }
+
+    // now check if the files don't contain excluded terms
+    for (file in fileMap) {
+      var valid = true;
+
+      // check if all requirements are matched
+      var filteredTermCount = // as search terms with length < 3 are discarded: ignore
+        searchterms.filter(function(term){return term.length > 2}).length
+      if (
+        fileMap[file].length != searchterms.length &&
+        fileMap[file].length != filteredTermCount
+      ) continue;
+
+      // ensure that none of the excluded terms is in the search result
+      for (i = 0; i < excluded.length; i++) {
+        if (terms[excluded[i]] == file ||
+            titleterms[excluded[i]] == file ||
+            $u.contains(terms[excluded[i]] || [], file) ||
+            $u.contains(titleterms[excluded[i]] || [], file)) {
+          valid = false;
+          break;
+        }
+      }
+
+      // if we have still a valid result we can add it to the result list
+      if (valid) {
+        // select one (max) score for the file.
+        // for better ranking, we should calculate ranking by using words statistics like basic tf-idf...
+        var score = $u.max($u.map(fileMap[file], function(w){return scoreMap[file][w]}));
+        results.push([docnames[file], titles[file], '', null, score, filenames[file]]);
+      }
+    }
+    return results;
+  },
+
+  /**
+   * helper function to return a node containing the
+   * search summary for a given text. keywords is a list
+   * of stemmed words, hlwords is the list of normal, unstemmed
+   * words. the first one is used to find the occurrence, the
+   * latter for highlighting it.
+   */
+  makeSearchSummary : function(htmlText, keywords, hlwords) {
+    var text = Search.htmlToText(htmlText);
+    var textLower = text.toLowerCase();
+    var start = 0;
+    $.each(keywords, function() {
+      var i = textLower.indexOf(this.toLowerCase());
+      if (i > -1)
+        start = i;
+    });
+    start = Math.max(start - 120, 0);
+    var excerpt = ((start > 0) ? '...' : '') +
+      $.trim(text.substr(start, 240)) +
+      ((start + 240 - text.length) ? '...' : '');
+    var rv = $('<div class="context"></div>').text(excerpt);
+    $.each(hlwords, function() {
+      rv = rv.highlightText(this, 'highlighted');
+    });
+    return rv;
+  }
+};
+
+$(document).ready(function() {
+  Search.init();
+});
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/sidebar.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/sidebar.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e8d58f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/sidebar.js
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+/*
+ * sidebar.js
+ * ~~~~~~~~~~
+ *
+ * This script makes the Sphinx sidebar collapsible and implements intelligent
+ * scrolling.
+ *
+ * .sphinxsidebar contains .sphinxsidebarwrapper.  This script adds in
+ * .sphixsidebar, after .sphinxsidebarwrapper, the #sidebarbutton used to
+ * collapse and expand the sidebar.
+ *
+ * When the sidebar is collapsed the .sphinxsidebarwrapper is hidden and the
+ * width of the sidebar and the margin-left of the document are decreased.
+ * When the sidebar is expanded the opposite happens.  This script saves a
+ * per-browser/per-session cookie used to remember the position of the sidebar
+ * among the pages.  Once the browser is closed the cookie is deleted and the
+ * position reset to the default (expanded).
+ *
+ * :copyright: Copyright 2007-2011 by the Sphinx team, see AUTHORS.
+ * :license: BSD, see LICENSE for details.
+ *
+ */
+
+$(function() {
+  // global elements used by the functions.
+  // the 'sidebarbutton' element is defined as global after its
+  // creation, in the add_sidebar_button function
+  var jwindow = $(window);
+  var jdocument = $(document);
+  var bodywrapper = $('.bodywrapper');
+  var sidebar = $('.sphinxsidebar');
+  var sidebarwrapper = $('.sphinxsidebarwrapper');
+
+  // original margin-left of the bodywrapper and width of the sidebar
+  // with the sidebar expanded
+  var bw_margin_expanded = bodywrapper.css('margin-left');
+  var ssb_width_expanded = sidebar.width();
+
+  // margin-left of the bodywrapper and width of the sidebar
+  // with the sidebar collapsed
+  var bw_margin_collapsed = '.8em';
+  var ssb_width_collapsed = '.8em';
+
+  // colors used by the current theme
+  var dark_color = '#AAAAAA';
+  var light_color = '#CCCCCC';
+
+  function get_viewport_height() {
+    if (window.innerHeight)
+      return window.innerHeight;
+    else
+      return jwindow.height();
+  }
+
+  function sidebar_is_collapsed() {
+    return sidebarwrapper.is(':not(:visible)');
+  }
+
+  function toggle_sidebar() {
+    if (sidebar_is_collapsed())
+      expand_sidebar();
+    else
+      collapse_sidebar();
+    // adjust the scrolling of the sidebar
+    scroll_sidebar();
+  }
+
+  function collapse_sidebar() {
+    sidebarwrapper.hide();
+    sidebar.css('width', ssb_width_collapsed);
+    bodywrapper.css('margin-left', bw_margin_collapsed);
+    sidebarbutton.css({
+        'margin-left': '0',
+        'height': bodywrapper.height(),
+        'border-radius': '5px'
+    });
+    sidebarbutton.find('span').text('»');
+    sidebarbutton.attr('title', _('Expand sidebar'));
+    document.cookie = 'sidebar=collapsed';
+  }
+
+  function expand_sidebar() {
+    bodywrapper.css('margin-left', bw_margin_expanded);
+    sidebar.css('width', ssb_width_expanded);
+    sidebarwrapper.show();
+    sidebarbutton.css({
+        'margin-left': ssb_width_expanded-12,
+        'height': bodywrapper.height(),
+        'border-radius': '0 5px 5px 0'
+    });
+    sidebarbutton.find('span').text('«');
+    sidebarbutton.attr('title', _('Collapse sidebar'));
+    //sidebarwrapper.css({'padding-top':
+    //  Math.max(window.pageYOffset - sidebarwrapper.offset().top, 10)});
+    document.cookie = 'sidebar=expanded';
+  }
+
+  function add_sidebar_button() {
+    sidebarwrapper.css({
+        'float': 'left',
+        'margin-right': '0',
+        'width': ssb_width_expanded - 28
+    });
+    // create the button
+    sidebar.append(
+      '<div id="sidebarbutton"><span>&laquo;</span></div>'
+    );
+    var sidebarbutton = $('#sidebarbutton');
+    // find the height of the viewport to center the '<<' in the page
+    var viewport_height = get_viewport_height();
+    var sidebar_offset = sidebar.offset().top;
+    var sidebar_height = Math.max(bodywrapper.height(), sidebar.height());
+    sidebarbutton.find('span').css({
+        'display': 'block',
+        'position': 'fixed',
+        'top': Math.min(viewport_height/2, sidebar_height/2 + sidebar_offset) - 10
+    });
+
+    sidebarbutton.click(toggle_sidebar);
+    sidebarbutton.attr('title', _('Collapse sidebar'));
+    sidebarbutton.css({
+        'border-radius': '0 5px 5px 0',
+        'color': '#444444',
+        'background-color': '#CCCCCC',
+        'font-size': '1.2em',
+        'cursor': 'pointer',
+        'height': sidebar_height,
+        'padding-top': '1px',
+        'padding-left': '1px',
+        'margin-left': ssb_width_expanded - 12
+    });
+
+    sidebarbutton.hover(
+      function () {
+          $(this).css('background-color', dark_color);
+      },
+      function () {
+          $(this).css('background-color', light_color);
+      }
+    );
+  }
+
+  function set_position_from_cookie() {
+    if (!document.cookie)
+      return;
+    var items = document.cookie.split(';');
+    for(var k=0; k<items.length; k++) {
+      var key_val = items[k].split('=');
+      var key = key_val[0];
+      if (key == 'sidebar') {
+        var value = key_val[1];
+        if ((value == 'collapsed') && (!sidebar_is_collapsed()))
+          collapse_sidebar();
+        else if ((value == 'expanded') && (sidebar_is_collapsed()))
+          expand_sidebar();
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  add_sidebar_button();
+  var sidebarbutton = $('#sidebarbutton');
+  set_position_from_cookie();
+
+
+  /* intelligent scrolling */
+  function scroll_sidebar() {
+    var sidebar_height = sidebarwrapper.height();
+    var viewport_height = get_viewport_height();
+    var offset = sidebar.position()['top'];
+    var wintop = jwindow.scrollTop();
+    var winbot = wintop + viewport_height;
+    var curtop = sidebarwrapper.position()['top'];
+    var curbot = curtop + sidebar_height;
+    // does sidebar fit in window?
+    if (sidebar_height < viewport_height) {
+      // yes: easy case -- always keep at the top
+      sidebarwrapper.css('top', $u.min([$u.max([0, wintop - offset - 10]),
+                            jdocument.height() - sidebar_height - 200]));
+    }
+    else {
+      // no: only scroll if top/bottom edge of sidebar is at
+      // top/bottom edge of window
+      if (curtop > wintop && curbot > winbot) {
+        sidebarwrapper.css('top', $u.max([wintop - offset - 10, 0]));
+      }
+      else if (curtop < wintop && curbot < winbot) {
+        sidebarwrapper.css('top', $u.min([winbot - sidebar_height - offset - 20,
+                              jdocument.height() - sidebar_height - 200]));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  jwindow.scroll(scroll_sidebar);
+});
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/switchers.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/switchers.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa298a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/switchers.js
@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+(function() {
+  'use strict';
+
+  // Parses versions in URL segments like:
+  // "3", "dev", "release/2.7" or "3.6rc2"
+  var version_regexs = [
+    '(?:\\d)',
+    '(?:\\d\\.\\d[\\w\\d\\.]*)',
+    '(?:dev)',
+    '(?:release/\\d.\\d[\\x\\d\\.]*)'];
+
+  var all_versions = {
+    '3.9': 'dev (3.9)',
+    '3.8': 'pre (3.8)',
+    '3.7': '3.7',
+    '3.6': '3.6',
+    '3.5': '3.5',
+    '2.7': '2.7',
+  };
+
+  var all_languages = {
+      'en': 'English',
+      'fr': 'French',
+      'ja': 'Japanese',
+      'ko': 'Korean',
+      'zh-cn': 'Simplified Chinese',
+  };
+
+  function build_version_select(current_version, current_release) {
+    var buf = ['<select>'];
+
+    $.each(all_versions, function(version, title) {
+      buf.push('<option value="' + version + '"');
+      if (version == current_version)
+        buf.push(' selected="selected">' + current_release + '</option>');
+      else
+        buf.push('>' + title + '</option>');
+    });
+
+    buf.push('</select>');
+    return buf.join('');
+  }
+
+  function build_language_select(current_language) {
+    var buf = ['<select>'];
+
+    $.each(all_languages, function(language, title) {
+      if (language == current_language)
+        buf.push('<option value="' + language + '" selected="selected">' +
+                 all_languages[current_language] + '</option>');
+      else
+        buf.push('<option value="' + language + '">' + title + '</option>');
+    });
+    if (!(current_language in all_languages)) {
+        // In case we're browsing a language that is not yet in all_languages.
+        buf.push('<option value="' + current_language + '" selected="selected">' +
+                 current_language + '</option>');
+        all_languages[current_language] = current_language;
+    }
+    buf.push('</select>');
+    return buf.join('');
+  }
+
+  function navigate_to_first_existing(urls) {
+    // Navigate to the first existing URL in urls.
+    var url = urls.shift();
+    if (urls.length == 0) {
+      window.location.href = url;
+      return;
+    }
+    $.ajax({
+      url: url,
+      success: function() {
+        window.location.href = url;
+      },
+      error: function() {
+        navigate_to_first_existing(urls);
+      }
+    });
+  }
+
+  function on_version_switch() {
+    var selected_version = $(this).children('option:selected').attr('value') + '/';
+    var url = window.location.href;
+    var current_language = language_segment_from_url(url);
+    var current_version = version_segment_in_url(url);
+    var new_url = url.replace('.org/' + current_language + current_version,
+                              '.org/' + current_language + selected_version);
+    if (new_url != url) {
+      navigate_to_first_existing([
+        new_url,
+        url.replace('.org/' + current_language + current_version,
+                    '.org/' + selected_version),
+        'https://docs.python.org/' + current_language + selected_version,
+        'https://docs.python.org/' + selected_version,
+        'https://docs.python.org/'
+      ]);
+    }
+  }
+
+  function on_language_switch() {
+    var selected_language = $(this).children('option:selected').attr('value') + '/';
+    var url = window.location.href;
+    var current_language = language_segment_from_url(url);
+    var current_version = version_segment_in_url(url);
+    if (selected_language == 'en/') // Special 'default' case for english.
+      selected_language = '';
+    var new_url = url.replace('.org/' + current_language + current_version,
+                              '.org/' + selected_language + current_version);
+    if (new_url != url) {
+      navigate_to_first_existing([
+        new_url,
+        'https://docs.python.org/'
+      ]);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Returns the path segment of the language as a string, like 'fr/'
+  // or '' if not found.
+  function language_segment_from_url(url) {
+    var language_regexp = '\.org/([a-z]{2}(?:-[a-z]{2})?/)';
+    var match = url.match(language_regexp);
+    if (match !== null)
+        return match[1];
+    return '';
+  }
+
+  // Returns the path segment of the version as a string, like '3.6/'
+  // or '' if not found.
+  function version_segment_in_url(url) {
+    var language_segment = '(?:[a-z]{2}(?:-[a-z]{2})?/)';
+    var version_segment = '(?:(?:' + version_regexs.join('|') + ')/)';
+    var version_regexp = '\\.org/' + language_segment + '?(' + version_segment + ')';
+    var match = url.match(version_regexp);
+    if (match !== null)
+      return match[1];
+    return ''
+  }
+
+  $(document).ready(function() {
+    var release = DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS.VERSION;
+    var language_segment = language_segment_from_url(window.location.href);
+    var current_language = language_segment.replace(/\/+$/g, '') || 'en';
+    var version = release.substr(0, 3);
+    var version_select = build_version_select(version, release);
+
+    $('.version_switcher_placeholder').html(version_select);
+    $('.version_switcher_placeholder select').bind('change', on_version_switch);
+
+    var language_select = build_language_select(current_language);
+
+    $('.language_switcher_placeholder').html(language_select);
+    $('.language_switcher_placeholder select').bind('change', on_language_switch);
+  });
+})();
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/underscore-1.3.1.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/underscore-1.3.1.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..208d4cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/underscore-1.3.1.js
@@ -0,0 +1,999 @@
+//     Underscore.js 1.3.1
+//     (c) 2009-2012 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud Inc.
+//     Underscore is freely distributable under the MIT license.
+//     Portions of Underscore are inspired or borrowed from Prototype,
+//     Oliver Steele's Functional, and John Resig's Micro-Templating.
+//     For all details and documentation:
+//     http://documentcloud.github.com/underscore
+
+(function() {
+
+  // Baseline setup
+  // --------------
+
+  // Establish the root object, `window` in the browser, or `global` on the server.
+  var root = this;
+
+  // Save the previous value of the `_` variable.
+  var previousUnderscore = root._;
+
+  // Establish the object that gets returned to break out of a loop iteration.
+  var breaker = {};
+
+  // Save bytes in the minified (but not gzipped) version:
+  var ArrayProto = Array.prototype, ObjProto = Object.prototype, FuncProto = Function.prototype;
+
+  // Create quick reference variables for speed access to core prototypes.
+  var slice            = ArrayProto.slice,
+      unshift          = ArrayProto.unshift,
+      toString         = ObjProto.toString,
+      hasOwnProperty   = ObjProto.hasOwnProperty;
+
+  // All **ECMAScript 5** native function implementations that we hope to use
+  // are declared here.
+  var
+    nativeForEach      = ArrayProto.forEach,
+    nativeMap          = ArrayProto.map,
+    nativeReduce       = ArrayProto.reduce,
+    nativeReduceRight  = ArrayProto.reduceRight,
+    nativeFilter       = ArrayProto.filter,
+    nativeEvery        = ArrayProto.every,
+    nativeSome         = ArrayProto.some,
+    nativeIndexOf      = ArrayProto.indexOf,
+    nativeLastIndexOf  = ArrayProto.lastIndexOf,
+    nativeIsArray      = Array.isArray,
+    nativeKeys         = Object.keys,
+    nativeBind         = FuncProto.bind;
+
+  // Create a safe reference to the Underscore object for use below.
+  var _ = function(obj) { return new wrapper(obj); };
+
+  // Export the Underscore object for **Node.js**, with
+  // backwards-compatibility for the old `require()` API. If we're in
+  // the browser, add `_` as a global object via a string identifier,
+  // for Closure Compiler "advanced" mode.
+  if (typeof exports !== 'undefined') {
+    if (typeof module !== 'undefined' && module.exports) {
+      exports = module.exports = _;
+    }
+    exports._ = _;
+  } else {
+    root['_'] = _;
+  }
+
+  // Current version.
+  _.VERSION = '1.3.1';
+
+  // Collection Functions
+  // --------------------
+
+  // The cornerstone, an `each` implementation, aka `forEach`.
+  // Handles objects with the built-in `forEach`, arrays, and raw objects.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `forEach` if available.
+  var each = _.each = _.forEach = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    if (obj == null) return;
+    if (nativeForEach && obj.forEach === nativeForEach) {
+      obj.forEach(iterator, context);
+    } else if (obj.length === +obj.length) {
+      for (var i = 0, l = obj.length; i < l; i++) {
+        if (i in obj && iterator.call(context, obj[i], i, obj) === breaker) return;
+      }
+    } else {
+      for (var key in obj) {
+        if (_.has(obj, key)) {
+          if (iterator.call(context, obj[key], key, obj) === breaker) return;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  };
+
+  // Return the results of applying the iterator to each element.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `map` if available.
+  _.map = _.collect = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    var results = [];
+    if (obj == null) return results;
+    if (nativeMap && obj.map === nativeMap) return obj.map(iterator, context);
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      results[results.length] = iterator.call(context, value, index, list);
+    });
+    if (obj.length === +obj.length) results.length = obj.length;
+    return results;
+  };
+
+  // **Reduce** builds up a single result from a list of values, aka `inject`,
+  // or `foldl`. Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `reduce` if available.
+  _.reduce = _.foldl = _.inject = function(obj, iterator, memo, context) {
+    var initial = arguments.length > 2;
+    if (obj == null) obj = [];
+    if (nativeReduce && obj.reduce === nativeReduce) {
+      if (context) iterator = _.bind(iterator, context);
+      return initial ? obj.reduce(iterator, memo) : obj.reduce(iterator);
+    }
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      if (!initial) {
+        memo = value;
+        initial = true;
+      } else {
+        memo = iterator.call(context, memo, value, index, list);
+      }
+    });
+    if (!initial) throw new TypeError('Reduce of empty array with no initial value');
+    return memo;
+  };
+
+  // The right-associative version of reduce, also known as `foldr`.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `reduceRight` if available.
+  _.reduceRight = _.foldr = function(obj, iterator, memo, context) {
+    var initial = arguments.length > 2;
+    if (obj == null) obj = [];
+    if (nativeReduceRight && obj.reduceRight === nativeReduceRight) {
+      if (context) iterator = _.bind(iterator, context);
+      return initial ? obj.reduceRight(iterator, memo) : obj.reduceRight(iterator);
+    }
+    var reversed = _.toArray(obj).reverse();
+    if (context && !initial) iterator = _.bind(iterator, context);
+    return initial ? _.reduce(reversed, iterator, memo, context) : _.reduce(reversed, iterator);
+  };
+
+  // Return the first value which passes a truth test. Aliased as `detect`.
+  _.find = _.detect = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    var result;
+    any(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      if (iterator.call(context, value, index, list)) {
+        result = value;
+        return true;
+      }
+    });
+    return result;
+  };
+
+  // Return all the elements that pass a truth test.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `filter` if available.
+  // Aliased as `select`.
+  _.filter = _.select = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    var results = [];
+    if (obj == null) return results;
+    if (nativeFilter && obj.filter === nativeFilter) return obj.filter(iterator, context);
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      if (iterator.call(context, value, index, list)) results[results.length] = value;
+    });
+    return results;
+  };
+
+  // Return all the elements for which a truth test fails.
+  _.reject = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    var results = [];
+    if (obj == null) return results;
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      if (!iterator.call(context, value, index, list)) results[results.length] = value;
+    });
+    return results;
+  };
+
+  // Determine whether all of the elements match a truth test.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `every` if available.
+  // Aliased as `all`.
+  _.every = _.all = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    var result = true;
+    if (obj == null) return result;
+    if (nativeEvery && obj.every === nativeEvery) return obj.every(iterator, context);
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      if (!(result = result && iterator.call(context, value, index, list))) return breaker;
+    });
+    return result;
+  };
+
+  // Determine if at least one element in the object matches a truth test.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `some` if available.
+  // Aliased as `any`.
+  var any = _.some = _.any = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    iterator || (iterator = _.identity);
+    var result = false;
+    if (obj == null) return result;
+    if (nativeSome && obj.some === nativeSome) return obj.some(iterator, context);
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      if (result || (result = iterator.call(context, value, index, list))) return breaker;
+    });
+    return !!result;
+  };
+
+  // Determine if a given value is included in the array or object using `===`.
+  // Aliased as `contains`.
+  _.include = _.contains = function(obj, target) {
+    var found = false;
+    if (obj == null) return found;
+    if (nativeIndexOf && obj.indexOf === nativeIndexOf) return obj.indexOf(target) != -1;
+    found = any(obj, function(value) {
+      return value === target;
+    });
+    return found;
+  };
+
+  // Invoke a method (with arguments) on every item in a collection.
+  _.invoke = function(obj, method) {
+    var args = slice.call(arguments, 2);
+    return _.map(obj, function(value) {
+      return (_.isFunction(method) ? method || value : value[method]).apply(value, args);
+    });
+  };
+
+  // Convenience version of a common use case of `map`: fetching a property.
+  _.pluck = function(obj, key) {
+    return _.map(obj, function(value){ return value[key]; });
+  };
+
+  // Return the maximum element or (element-based computation).
+  _.max = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    if (!iterator && _.isArray(obj)) return Math.max.apply(Math, obj);
+    if (!iterator && _.isEmpty(obj)) return -Infinity;
+    var result = {computed : -Infinity};
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      var computed = iterator ? iterator.call(context, value, index, list) : value;
+      computed >= result.computed && (result = {value : value, computed : computed});
+    });
+    return result.value;
+  };
+
+  // Return the minimum element (or element-based computation).
+  _.min = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    if (!iterator && _.isArray(obj)) return Math.min.apply(Math, obj);
+    if (!iterator && _.isEmpty(obj)) return Infinity;
+    var result = {computed : Infinity};
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      var computed = iterator ? iterator.call(context, value, index, list) : value;
+      computed < result.computed && (result = {value : value, computed : computed});
+    });
+    return result.value;
+  };
+
+  // Shuffle an array.
+  _.shuffle = function(obj) {
+    var shuffled = [], rand;
+    each(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      if (index == 0) {
+        shuffled[0] = value;
+      } else {
+        rand = Math.floor(Math.random() * (index + 1));
+        shuffled[index] = shuffled[rand];
+        shuffled[rand] = value;
+      }
+    });
+    return shuffled;
+  };
+
+  // Sort the object's values by a criterion produced by an iterator.
+  _.sortBy = function(obj, iterator, context) {
+    return _.pluck(_.map(obj, function(value, index, list) {
+      return {
+        value : value,
+        criteria : iterator.call(context, value, index, list)
+      };
+    }).sort(function(left, right) {
+      var a = left.criteria, b = right.criteria;
+      return a < b ? -1 : a > b ? 1 : 0;
+    }), 'value');
+  };
+
+  // Groups the object's values by a criterion. Pass either a string attribute
+  // to group by, or a function that returns the criterion.
+  _.groupBy = function(obj, val) {
+    var result = {};
+    var iterator = _.isFunction(val) ? val : function(obj) { return obj[val]; };
+    each(obj, function(value, index) {
+      var key = iterator(value, index);
+      (result[key] || (result[key] = [])).push(value);
+    });
+    return result;
+  };
+
+  // Use a comparator function to figure out at what index an object should
+  // be inserted so as to maintain order. Uses binary search.
+  _.sortedIndex = function(array, obj, iterator) {
+    iterator || (iterator = _.identity);
+    var low = 0, high = array.length;
+    while (low < high) {
+      var mid = (low + high) >> 1;
+      iterator(array[mid]) < iterator(obj) ? low = mid + 1 : high = mid;
+    }
+    return low;
+  };
+
+  // Safely convert anything iterable into a real, live array.
+  _.toArray = function(iterable) {
+    if (!iterable)                return [];
+    if (iterable.toArray)         return iterable.toArray();
+    if (_.isArray(iterable))      return slice.call(iterable);
+    if (_.isArguments(iterable))  return slice.call(iterable);
+    return _.values(iterable);
+  };
+
+  // Return the number of elements in an object.
+  _.size = function(obj) {
+    return _.toArray(obj).length;
+  };
+
+  // Array Functions
+  // ---------------
+
+  // Get the first element of an array. Passing **n** will return the first N
+  // values in the array. Aliased as `head`. The **guard** check allows it to work
+  // with `_.map`.
+  _.first = _.head = function(array, n, guard) {
+    return (n != null) && !guard ? slice.call(array, 0, n) : array[0];
+  };
+
+  // Returns everything but the last entry of the array. Especcialy useful on
+  // the arguments object. Passing **n** will return all the values in
+  // the array, excluding the last N. The **guard** check allows it to work with
+  // `_.map`.
+  _.initial = function(array, n, guard) {
+    return slice.call(array, 0, array.length - ((n == null) || guard ? 1 : n));
+  };
+
+  // Get the last element of an array. Passing **n** will return the last N
+  // values in the array. The **guard** check allows it to work with `_.map`.
+  _.last = function(array, n, guard) {
+    if ((n != null) && !guard) {
+      return slice.call(array, Math.max(array.length - n, 0));
+    } else {
+      return array[array.length - 1];
+    }
+  };
+
+  // Returns everything but the first entry of the array. Aliased as `tail`.
+  // Especially useful on the arguments object. Passing an **index** will return
+  // the rest of the values in the array from that index onward. The **guard**
+  // check allows it to work with `_.map`.
+  _.rest = _.tail = function(array, index, guard) {
+    return slice.call(array, (index == null) || guard ? 1 : index);
+  };
+
+  // Trim out all falsy values from an array.
+  _.compact = function(array) {
+    return _.filter(array, function(value){ return !!value; });
+  };
+
+  // Return a completely flattened version of an array.
+  _.flatten = function(array, shallow) {
+    return _.reduce(array, function(memo, value) {
+      if (_.isArray(value)) return memo.concat(shallow ? value : _.flatten(value));
+      memo[memo.length] = value;
+      return memo;
+    }, []);
+  };
+
+  // Return a version of the array that does not contain the specified value(s).
+  _.without = function(array) {
+    return _.difference(array, slice.call(arguments, 1));
+  };
+
+  // Produce a duplicate-free version of the array. If the array has already
+  // been sorted, you have the option of using a faster algorithm.
+  // Aliased as `unique`.
+  _.uniq = _.unique = function(array, isSorted, iterator) {
+    var initial = iterator ? _.map(array, iterator) : array;
+    var result = [];
+    _.reduce(initial, function(memo, el, i) {
+      if (0 == i || (isSorted === true ? _.last(memo) != el : !_.include(memo, el))) {
+        memo[memo.length] = el;
+        result[result.length] = array[i];
+      }
+      return memo;
+    }, []);
+    return result;
+  };
+
+  // Produce an array that contains the union: each distinct element from all of
+  // the passed-in arrays.
+  _.union = function() {
+    return _.uniq(_.flatten(arguments, true));
+  };
+
+  // Produce an array that contains every item shared between all the
+  // passed-in arrays. (Aliased as "intersect" for back-compat.)
+  _.intersection = _.intersect = function(array) {
+    var rest = slice.call(arguments, 1);
+    return _.filter(_.uniq(array), function(item) {
+      return _.every(rest, function(other) {
+        return _.indexOf(other, item) >= 0;
+      });
+    });
+  };
+
+  // Take the difference between one array and a number of other arrays.
+  // Only the elements present in just the first array will remain.
+  _.difference = function(array) {
+    var rest = _.flatten(slice.call(arguments, 1));
+    return _.filter(array, function(value){ return !_.include(rest, value); });
+  };
+
+  // Zip together multiple lists into a single array -- elements that share
+  // an index go together.
+  _.zip = function() {
+    var args = slice.call(arguments);
+    var length = _.max(_.pluck(args, 'length'));
+    var results = new Array(length);
+    for (var i = 0; i < length; i++) results[i] = _.pluck(args, "" + i);
+    return results;
+  };
+
+  // If the browser doesn't supply us with indexOf (I'm looking at you, **MSIE**),
+  // we need this function. Return the position of the first occurrence of an
+  // item in an array, or -1 if the item is not included in the array.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `indexOf` if available.
+  // If the array is large and already in sort order, pass `true`
+  // for **isSorted** to use binary search.
+  _.indexOf = function(array, item, isSorted) {
+    if (array == null) return -1;
+    var i, l;
+    if (isSorted) {
+      i = _.sortedIndex(array, item);
+      return array[i] === item ? i : -1;
+    }
+    if (nativeIndexOf && array.indexOf === nativeIndexOf) return array.indexOf(item);
+    for (i = 0, l = array.length; i < l; i++) if (i in array && array[i] === item) return i;
+    return -1;
+  };
+
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `lastIndexOf` if available.
+  _.lastIndexOf = function(array, item) {
+    if (array == null) return -1;
+    if (nativeLastIndexOf && array.lastIndexOf === nativeLastIndexOf) return array.lastIndexOf(item);
+    var i = array.length;
+    while (i--) if (i in array && array[i] === item) return i;
+    return -1;
+  };
+
+  // Generate an integer Array containing an arithmetic progression. A port of
+  // the native Python `range()` function. See
+  // [the Python documentation](http://docs.python.org/library/functions.html#range).
+  _.range = function(start, stop, step) {
+    if (arguments.length <= 1) {
+      stop = start || 0;
+      start = 0;
+    }
+    step = arguments[2] || 1;
+
+    var len = Math.max(Math.ceil((stop - start) / step), 0);
+    var idx = 0;
+    var range = new Array(len);
+
+    while(idx < len) {
+      range[idx++] = start;
+      start += step;
+    }
+
+    return range;
+  };
+
+  // Function (ahem) Functions
+  // ------------------
+
+  // Reusable constructor function for prototype setting.
+  var ctor = function(){};
+
+  // Create a function bound to a given object (assigning `this`, and arguments,
+  // optionally). Binding with arguments is also known as `curry`.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `Function.bind` if available.
+  // We check for `func.bind` first, to fail fast when `func` is undefined.
+  _.bind = function bind(func, context) {
+    var bound, args;
+    if (func.bind === nativeBind && nativeBind) return nativeBind.apply(func, slice.call(arguments, 1));
+    if (!_.isFunction(func)) throw new TypeError;
+    args = slice.call(arguments, 2);
+    return bound = function() {
+      if (!(this instanceof bound)) return func.apply(context, args.concat(slice.call(arguments)));
+      ctor.prototype = func.prototype;
+      var self = new ctor;
+      var result = func.apply(self, args.concat(slice.call(arguments)));
+      if (Object(result) === result) return result;
+      return self;
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Bind all of an object's methods to that object. Useful for ensuring that
+  // all callbacks defined on an object belong to it.
+  _.bindAll = function(obj) {
+    var funcs = slice.call(arguments, 1);
+    if (funcs.length == 0) funcs = _.functions(obj);
+    each(funcs, function(f) { obj[f] = _.bind(obj[f], obj); });
+    return obj;
+  };
+
+  // Memoize an expensive function by storing its results.
+  _.memoize = function(func, hasher) {
+    var memo = {};
+    hasher || (hasher = _.identity);
+    return function() {
+      var key = hasher.apply(this, arguments);
+      return _.has(memo, key) ? memo[key] : (memo[key] = func.apply(this, arguments));
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Delays a function for the given number of milliseconds, and then calls
+  // it with the arguments supplied.
+  _.delay = function(func, wait) {
+    var args = slice.call(arguments, 2);
+    return setTimeout(function(){ return func.apply(func, args); }, wait);
+  };
+
+  // Defers a function, scheduling it to run after the current call stack has
+  // cleared.
+  _.defer = function(func) {
+    return _.delay.apply(_, [func, 1].concat(slice.call(arguments, 1)));
+  };
+
+  // Returns a function, that, when invoked, will only be triggered at most once
+  // during a given window of time.
+  _.throttle = function(func, wait) {
+    var context, args, timeout, throttling, more;
+    var whenDone = _.debounce(function(){ more = throttling = false; }, wait);
+    return function() {
+      context = this; args = arguments;
+      var later = function() {
+        timeout = null;
+        if (more) func.apply(context, args);
+        whenDone();
+      };
+      if (!timeout) timeout = setTimeout(later, wait);
+      if (throttling) {
+        more = true;
+      } else {
+        func.apply(context, args);
+      }
+      whenDone();
+      throttling = true;
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Returns a function, that, as long as it continues to be invoked, will not
+  // be triggered. The function will be called after it stops being called for
+  // N milliseconds.
+  _.debounce = function(func, wait) {
+    var timeout;
+    return function() {
+      var context = this, args = arguments;
+      var later = function() {
+        timeout = null;
+        func.apply(context, args);
+      };
+      clearTimeout(timeout);
+      timeout = setTimeout(later, wait);
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Returns a function that will be executed at most one time, no matter how
+  // often you call it. Useful for lazy initialization.
+  _.once = function(func) {
+    var ran = false, memo;
+    return function() {
+      if (ran) return memo;
+      ran = true;
+      return memo = func.apply(this, arguments);
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Returns the first function passed as an argument to the second,
+  // allowing you to adjust arguments, run code before and after, and
+  // conditionally execute the original function.
+  _.wrap = function(func, wrapper) {
+    return function() {
+      var args = [func].concat(slice.call(arguments, 0));
+      return wrapper.apply(this, args);
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Returns a function that is the composition of a list of functions, each
+  // consuming the return value of the function that follows.
+  _.compose = function() {
+    var funcs = arguments;
+    return function() {
+      var args = arguments;
+      for (var i = funcs.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+        args = [funcs[i].apply(this, args)];
+      }
+      return args[0];
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Returns a function that will only be executed after being called N times.
+  _.after = function(times, func) {
+    if (times <= 0) return func();
+    return function() {
+      if (--times < 1) { return func.apply(this, arguments); }
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Object Functions
+  // ----------------
+
+  // Retrieve the names of an object's properties.
+  // Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `Object.keys`
+  _.keys = nativeKeys || function(obj) {
+    if (obj !== Object(obj)) throw new TypeError('Invalid object');
+    var keys = [];
+    for (var key in obj) if (_.has(obj, key)) keys[keys.length] = key;
+    return keys;
+  };
+
+  // Retrieve the values of an object's properties.
+  _.values = function(obj) {
+    return _.map(obj, _.identity);
+  };
+
+  // Return a sorted list of the function names available on the object.
+  // Aliased as `methods`
+  _.functions = _.methods = function(obj) {
+    var names = [];
+    for (var key in obj) {
+      if (_.isFunction(obj[key])) names.push(key);
+    }
+    return names.sort();
+  };
+
+  // Extend a given object with all the properties in passed-in object(s).
+  _.extend = function(obj) {
+    each(slice.call(arguments, 1), function(source) {
+      for (var prop in source) {
+        obj[prop] = source[prop];
+      }
+    });
+    return obj;
+  };
+
+  // Fill in a given object with default properties.
+  _.defaults = function(obj) {
+    each(slice.call(arguments, 1), function(source) {
+      for (var prop in source) {
+        if (obj[prop] == null) obj[prop] = source[prop];
+      }
+    });
+    return obj;
+  };
+
+  // Create a (shallow-cloned) duplicate of an object.
+  _.clone = function(obj) {
+    if (!_.isObject(obj)) return obj;
+    return _.isArray(obj) ? obj.slice() : _.extend({}, obj);
+  };
+
+  // Invokes interceptor with the obj, and then returns obj.
+  // The primary purpose of this method is to "tap into" a method chain, in
+  // order to perform operations on intermediate results within the chain.
+  _.tap = function(obj, interceptor) {
+    interceptor(obj);
+    return obj;
+  };
+
+  // Internal recursive comparison function.
+  function eq(a, b, stack) {
+    // Identical objects are equal. `0 === -0`, but they aren't identical.
+    // See the Harmony `egal` proposal: http://wiki.ecmascript.org/doku.php?id=harmony:egal.
+    if (a === b) return a !== 0 || 1 / a == 1 / b;
+    // A strict comparison is necessary because `null == undefined`.
+    if (a == null || b == null) return a === b;
+    // Unwrap any wrapped objects.
+    if (a._chain) a = a._wrapped;
+    if (b._chain) b = b._wrapped;
+    // Invoke a custom `isEqual` method if one is provided.
+    if (a.isEqual && _.isFunction(a.isEqual)) return a.isEqual(b);
+    if (b.isEqual && _.isFunction(b.isEqual)) return b.isEqual(a);
+    // Compare `[[Class]]` names.
+    var className = toString.call(a);
+    if (className != toString.call(b)) return false;
+    switch (className) {
+      // Strings, numbers, dates, and booleans are compared by value.
+      case '[object String]':
+        // Primitives and their corresponding object wrappers are equivalent; thus, `"5"` is
+        // equivalent to `new String("5")`.
+        return a == String(b);
+      case '[object Number]':
+        // `NaN`s are equivalent, but non-reflexive. An `egal` comparison is performed for
+        // other numeric values.
+        return a != +a ? b != +b : (a == 0 ? 1 / a == 1 / b : a == +b);
+      case '[object Date]':
+      case '[object Boolean]':
+        // Coerce dates and booleans to numeric primitive values. Dates are compared by their
+        // millisecond representations. Note that invalid dates with millisecond representations
+        // of `NaN` are not equivalent.
+        return +a == +b;
+      // RegExps are compared by their source patterns and flags.
+      case '[object RegExp]':
+        return a.source == b.source &&
+               a.global == b.global &&
+               a.multiline == b.multiline &&
+               a.ignoreCase == b.ignoreCase;
+    }
+    if (typeof a != 'object' || typeof b != 'object') return false;
+    // Assume equality for cyclic structures. The algorithm for detecting cyclic
+    // structures is adapted from ES 5.1 section 15.12.3, abstract operation `JO`.
+    var length = stack.length;
+    while (length--) {
+      // Linear search. Performance is inversely proportional to the number of
+      // unique nested structures.
+      if (stack[length] == a) return true;
+    }
+    // Add the first object to the stack of traversed objects.
+    stack.push(a);
+    var size = 0, result = true;
+    // Recursively compare objects and arrays.
+    if (className == '[object Array]') {
+      // Compare array lengths to determine if a deep comparison is necessary.
+      size = a.length;
+      result = size == b.length;
+      if (result) {
+        // Deep compare the contents, ignoring non-numeric properties.
+        while (size--) {
+          // Ensure commutative equality for sparse arrays.
+          if (!(result = size in a == size in b && eq(a[size], b[size], stack))) break;
+        }
+      }
+    } else {
+      // Objects with different constructors are not equivalent.
+      if ('constructor' in a != 'constructor' in b || a.constructor != b.constructor) return false;
+      // Deep compare objects.
+      for (var key in a) {
+        if (_.has(a, key)) {
+          // Count the expected number of properties.
+          size++;
+          // Deep compare each member.
+          if (!(result = _.has(b, key) && eq(a[key], b[key], stack))) break;
+        }
+      }
+      // Ensure that both objects contain the same number of properties.
+      if (result) {
+        for (key in b) {
+          if (_.has(b, key) && !(size--)) break;
+        }
+        result = !size;
+      }
+    }
+    // Remove the first object from the stack of traversed objects.
+    stack.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  // Perform a deep comparison to check if two objects are equal.
+  _.isEqual = function(a, b) {
+    return eq(a, b, []);
+  };
+
+  // Is a given array, string, or object empty?
+  // An "empty" object has no enumerable own-properties.
+  _.isEmpty = function(obj) {
+    if (_.isArray(obj) || _.isString(obj)) return obj.length === 0;
+    for (var key in obj) if (_.has(obj, key)) return false;
+    return true;
+  };
+
+  // Is a given value a DOM element?
+  _.isElement = function(obj) {
+    return !!(obj && obj.nodeType == 1);
+  };
+
+  // Is a given value an array?
+  // Delegates to ECMA5's native Array.isArray
+  _.isArray = nativeIsArray || function(obj) {
+    return toString.call(obj) == '[object Array]';
+  };
+
+  // Is a given variable an object?
+  _.isObject = function(obj) {
+    return obj === Object(obj);
+  };
+
+  // Is a given variable an arguments object?
+  _.isArguments = function(obj) {
+    return toString.call(obj) == '[object Arguments]';
+  };
+  if (!_.isArguments(arguments)) {
+    _.isArguments = function(obj) {
+      return !!(obj && _.has(obj, 'callee'));
+    };
+  }
+
+  // Is a given value a function?
+  _.isFunction = function(obj) {
+    return toString.call(obj) == '[object Function]';
+  };
+
+  // Is a given value a string?
+  _.isString = function(obj) {
+    return toString.call(obj) == '[object String]';
+  };
+
+  // Is a given value a number?
+  _.isNumber = function(obj) {
+    return toString.call(obj) == '[object Number]';
+  };
+
+  // Is the given value `NaN`?
+  _.isNaN = function(obj) {
+    // `NaN` is the only value for which `===` is not reflexive.
+    return obj !== obj;
+  };
+
+  // Is a given value a boolean?
+  _.isBoolean = function(obj) {
+    return obj === true || obj === false || toString.call(obj) == '[object Boolean]';
+  };
+
+  // Is a given value a date?
+  _.isDate = function(obj) {
+    return toString.call(obj) == '[object Date]';
+  };
+
+  // Is the given value a regular expression?
+  _.isRegExp = function(obj) {
+    return toString.call(obj) == '[object RegExp]';
+  };
+
+  // Is a given value equal to null?
+  _.isNull = function(obj) {
+    return obj === null;
+  };
+
+  // Is a given variable undefined?
+  _.isUndefined = function(obj) {
+    return obj === void 0;
+  };
+
+  // Has own property?
+  _.has = function(obj, key) {
+    return hasOwnProperty.call(obj, key);
+  };
+
+  // Utility Functions
+  // -----------------
+
+  // Run Underscore.js in *noConflict* mode, returning the `_` variable to its
+  // previous owner. Returns a reference to the Underscore object.
+  _.noConflict = function() {
+    root._ = previousUnderscore;
+    return this;
+  };
+
+  // Keep the identity function around for default iterators.
+  _.identity = function(value) {
+    return value;
+  };
+
+  // Run a function **n** times.
+  _.times = function (n, iterator, context) {
+    for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) iterator.call(context, i);
+  };
+
+  // Escape a string for HTML interpolation.
+  _.escape = function(string) {
+    return (''+string).replace(/&/g, '&amp;').replace(/</g, '&lt;').replace(/>/g, '&gt;').replace(/"/g, '&quot;').replace(/'/g, '&#x27;').replace(/\//g,'&#x2F;');
+  };
+
+  // Add your own custom functions to the Underscore object, ensuring that
+  // they're correctly added to the OOP wrapper as well.
+  _.mixin = function(obj) {
+    each(_.functions(obj), function(name){
+      addToWrapper(name, _[name] = obj[name]);
+    });
+  };
+
+  // Generate a unique integer id (unique within the entire client session).
+  // Useful for temporary DOM ids.
+  var idCounter = 0;
+  _.uniqueId = function(prefix) {
+    var id = idCounter++;
+    return prefix ? prefix + id : id;
+  };
+
+  // By default, Underscore uses ERB-style template delimiters, change the
+  // following template settings to use alternative delimiters.
+  _.templateSettings = {
+    evaluate    : /<%([\s\S]+?)%>/g,
+    interpolate : /<%=([\s\S]+?)%>/g,
+    escape      : /<%-([\s\S]+?)%>/g
+  };
+
+  // When customizing `templateSettings`, if you don't want to define an
+  // interpolation, evaluation or escaping regex, we need one that is
+  // guaranteed not to match.
+  var noMatch = /.^/;
+
+  // Within an interpolation, evaluation, or escaping, remove HTML escaping
+  // that had been previously added.
+  var unescape = function(code) {
+    return code.replace(/\\\\/g, '\\').replace(/\\'/g, "'");
+  };
+
+  // JavaScript micro-templating, similar to John Resig's implementation.
+  // Underscore templating handles arbitrary delimiters, preserves whitespace,
+  // and correctly escapes quotes within interpolated code.
+  _.template = function(str, data) {
+    var c  = _.templateSettings;
+    var tmpl = 'var __p=[],print=function(){__p.push.apply(__p,arguments);};' +
+      'with(obj||{}){__p.push(\'' +
+      str.replace(/\\/g, '\\\\')
+         .replace(/'/g, "\\'")
+         .replace(c.escape || noMatch, function(match, code) {
+           return "',_.escape(" + unescape(code) + "),'";
+         })
+         .replace(c.interpolate || noMatch, function(match, code) {
+           return "'," + unescape(code) + ",'";
+         })
+         .replace(c.evaluate || noMatch, function(match, code) {
+           return "');" + unescape(code).replace(/[\r\n\t]/g, ' ') + ";__p.push('";
+         })
+         .replace(/\r/g, '\\r')
+         .replace(/\n/g, '\\n')
+         .replace(/\t/g, '\\t')
+         + "');}return __p.join('');";
+    var func = new Function('obj', '_', tmpl);
+    if (data) return func(data, _);
+    return function(data) {
+      return func.call(this, data, _);
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Add a "chain" function, which will delegate to the wrapper.
+  _.chain = function(obj) {
+    return _(obj).chain();
+  };
+
+  // The OOP Wrapper
+  // ---------------
+
+  // If Underscore is called as a function, it returns a wrapped object that
+  // can be used OO-style. This wrapper holds altered versions of all the
+  // underscore functions. Wrapped objects may be chained.
+  var wrapper = function(obj) { this._wrapped = obj; };
+
+  // Expose `wrapper.prototype` as `_.prototype`
+  _.prototype = wrapper.prototype;
+
+  // Helper function to continue chaining intermediate results.
+  var result = function(obj, chain) {
+    return chain ? _(obj).chain() : obj;
+  };
+
+  // A method to easily add functions to the OOP wrapper.
+  var addToWrapper = function(name, func) {
+    wrapper.prototype[name] = function() {
+      var args = slice.call(arguments);
+      unshift.call(args, this._wrapped);
+      return result(func.apply(_, args), this._chain);
+    };
+  };
+
+  // Add all of the Underscore functions to the wrapper object.
+  _.mixin(_);
+
+  // Add all mutator Array functions to the wrapper.
+  each(['pop', 'push', 'reverse', 'shift', 'sort', 'splice', 'unshift'], function(name) {
+    var method = ArrayProto[name];
+    wrapper.prototype[name] = function() {
+      var wrapped = this._wrapped;
+      method.apply(wrapped, arguments);
+      var length = wrapped.length;
+      if ((name == 'shift' || name == 'splice') && length === 0) delete wrapped[0];
+      return result(wrapped, this._chain);
+    };
+  });
+
+  // Add all accessor Array functions to the wrapper.
+  each(['concat', 'join', 'slice'], function(name) {
+    var method = ArrayProto[name];
+    wrapper.prototype[name] = function() {
+      return result(method.apply(this._wrapped, arguments), this._chain);
+    };
+  });
+
+  // Start chaining a wrapped Underscore object.
+  wrapper.prototype.chain = function() {
+    this._chain = true;
+    return this;
+  };
+
+  // Extracts the result from a wrapped and chained object.
+  wrapper.prototype.value = function() {
+    return this._wrapped;
+  };
+
+}).call(this);
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/underscore.js b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/underscore.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b55f32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/underscore.js
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+// Underscore.js 1.3.1
+// (c) 2009-2012 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud Inc.
+// Underscore is freely distributable under the MIT license.
+// Portions of Underscore are inspired or borrowed from Prototype,
+// Oliver Steele's Functional, and John Resig's Micro-Templating.
+// For all details and documentation:
+// http://documentcloud.github.com/underscore
+(function(){function q(a,c,d){if(a===c)return a!==0||1/a==1/c;if(a==null||c==null)return a===c;if(a._chain)a=a._wrapped;if(c._chain)c=c._wrapped;if(a.isEqual&&b.isFunction(a.isEqual))return a.isEqual(c);if(c.isEqual&&b.isFunction(c.isEqual))return c.isEqual(a);var e=l.call(a);if(e!=l.call(c))return false;switch(e){case "[object String]":return a==String(c);case "[object Number]":return a!=+a?c!=+c:a==0?1/a==1/c:a==+c;case "[object Date]":case "[object Boolean]":return+a==+c;case "[object RegExp]":return a.source==
+c.source&&a.global==c.global&&a.multiline==c.multiline&&a.ignoreCase==c.ignoreCase}if(typeof a!="object"||typeof c!="object")return false;for(var f=d.length;f--;)if(d[f]==a)return true;d.push(a);var f=0,g=true;if(e=="[object Array]"){if(f=a.length,g=f==c.length)for(;f--;)if(!(g=f in a==f in c&&q(a[f],c[f],d)))break}else{if("constructor"in a!="constructor"in c||a.constructor!=c.constructor)return false;for(var h in a)if(b.has(a,h)&&(f++,!(g=b.has(c,h)&&q(a[h],c[h],d))))break;if(g){for(h in c)if(b.has(c,
+h)&&!f--)break;g=!f}}d.pop();return g}var r=this,G=r._,n={},k=Array.prototype,o=Object.prototype,i=k.slice,H=k.unshift,l=o.toString,I=o.hasOwnProperty,w=k.forEach,x=k.map,y=k.reduce,z=k.reduceRight,A=k.filter,B=k.every,C=k.some,p=k.indexOf,D=k.lastIndexOf,o=Array.isArray,J=Object.keys,s=Function.prototype.bind,b=function(a){return new m(a)};if(typeof exports!=="undefined"){if(typeof module!=="undefined"&&module.exports)exports=module.exports=b;exports._=b}else r._=b;b.VERSION="1.3.1";var j=b.each=
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+return e.value};b.shuffle=function(a){var b=[],d;j(a,function(a,f){f==0?b[0]=a:(d=Math.floor(Math.random()*(f+1)),b[f]=b[d],b[d]=a)});return b};b.sortBy=function(a,c,d){return b.pluck(b.map(a,function(a,b,g){return{value:a,criteria:c.call(d,a,b,g)}}).sort(function(a,b){var c=a.criteria,d=b.criteria;return c<d?-1:c>d?1:0}),"value")};b.groupBy=function(a,c){var d={},e=b.isFunction(c)?c:function(a){return a[c]};j(a,function(a,b){var c=e(a,b);(d[c]||(d[c]=[])).push(a)});return d};b.sortedIndex=function(a,
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+return e};b.union=function(){return b.uniq(b.flatten(arguments,true))};b.intersection=b.intersect=function(a){var c=i.call(arguments,1);return b.filter(b.uniq(a),function(a){return b.every(c,function(c){return b.indexOf(c,a)>=0})})};b.difference=function(a){var c=b.flatten(i.call(arguments,1));return b.filter(a,function(a){return!b.include(c,a)})};b.zip=function(){for(var a=i.call(arguments),c=b.max(b.pluck(a,"length")),d=Array(c),e=0;e<c;e++)d[e]=b.pluck(a,""+e);return d};b.indexOf=function(a,c,
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new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/_static/websupport.js
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+/*
+ * websupport.js
+ * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+ *
+ * sphinx.websupport utilities for all documentation.
+ *
+ * :copyright: Copyright 2007-2019 by the Sphinx team, see AUTHORS.
+ * :license: BSD, see LICENSE for details.
+ *
+ */
+
+(function($) {
+  $.fn.autogrow = function() {
+    return this.each(function() {
+    var textarea = this;
+
+    $.fn.autogrow.resize(textarea);
+
+    $(textarea)
+      .focus(function() {
+        textarea.interval = setInterval(function() {
+          $.fn.autogrow.resize(textarea);
+        }, 500);
+      })
+      .blur(function() {
+        clearInterval(textarea.interval);
+      });
+    });
+  };
+
+  $.fn.autogrow.resize = function(textarea) {
+    var lineHeight = parseInt($(textarea).css('line-height'), 10);
+    var lines = textarea.value.split('\n');
+    var columns = textarea.cols;
+    var lineCount = 0;
+    $.each(lines, function() {
+      lineCount += Math.ceil(this.length / columns) || 1;
+    });
+    var height = lineHeight * (lineCount + 1);
+    $(textarea).css('height', height);
+  };
+})(jQuery);
+
+(function($) {
+  var comp, by;
+
+  function init() {
+    initEvents();
+    initComparator();
+  }
+
+  function initEvents() {
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.comment-close', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      hide($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.vote', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      handleVote($(this));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.reply', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      openReply($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.close-reply', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      closeReply($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.sort-option', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      handleReSort($(this));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.show-proposal', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      showProposal($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.hide-proposal', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      hideProposal($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.show-propose-change', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      showProposeChange($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.hide-propose-change', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      hideProposeChange($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.accept-comment', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      acceptComment($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.delete-comment', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      deleteComment($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+    $(document).on("click", 'a.comment-markup', function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      toggleCommentMarkupBox($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Set comp, which is a comparator function used for sorting and
+   * inserting comments into the list.
+   */
+  function setComparator() {
+    // If the first three letters are "asc", sort in ascending order
+    // and remove the prefix.
+    if (by.substring(0,3) == 'asc') {
+      var i = by.substring(3);
+      comp = function(a, b) { return a[i] - b[i]; };
+    } else {
+      // Otherwise sort in descending order.
+      comp = function(a, b) { return b[by] - a[by]; };
+    }
+
+    // Reset link styles and format the selected sort option.
+    $('a.sel').attr('href', '#').removeClass('sel');
+    $('a.by' + by).removeAttr('href').addClass('sel');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Create a comp function. If the user has preferences stored in
+   * the sortBy cookie, use those, otherwise use the default.
+   */
+  function initComparator() {
+    by = 'rating'; // Default to sort by rating.
+    // If the sortBy cookie is set, use that instead.
+    if (document.cookie.length > 0) {
+      var start = document.cookie.indexOf('sortBy=');
+      if (start != -1) {
+        start = start + 7;
+        var end = document.cookie.indexOf(";", start);
+        if (end == -1) {
+          end = document.cookie.length;
+          by = unescape(document.cookie.substring(start, end));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    setComparator();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Show a comment div.
+   */
+  function show(id) {
+    $('#ao' + id).hide();
+    $('#ah' + id).show();
+    var context = $.extend({id: id}, opts);
+    var popup = $(renderTemplate(popupTemplate, context)).hide();
+    popup.find('textarea[name="proposal"]').hide();
+    popup.find('a.by' + by).addClass('sel');
+    var form = popup.find('#cf' + id);
+    form.submit(function(event) {
+      event.preventDefault();
+      addComment(form);
+    });
+    $('#s' + id).after(popup);
+    popup.slideDown('fast', function() {
+      getComments(id);
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Hide a comment div.
+   */
+  function hide(id) {
+    $('#ah' + id).hide();
+    $('#ao' + id).show();
+    var div = $('#sc' + id);
+    div.slideUp('fast', function() {
+      div.remove();
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Perform an ajax request to get comments for a node
+   * and insert the comments into the comments tree.
+   */
+  function getComments(id) {
+    $.ajax({
+     type: 'GET',
+     url: opts.getCommentsURL,
+     data: {node: id},
+     success: function(data, textStatus, request) {
+       var ul = $('#cl' + id);
+       var speed = 100;
+       $('#cf' + id)
+         .find('textarea[name="proposal"]')
+         .data('source', data.source);
+
+       if (data.comments.length === 0) {
+         ul.html('<li>No comments yet.</li>');
+         ul.data('empty', true);
+       } else {
+         // If there are comments, sort them and put them in the list.
+         var comments = sortComments(data.comments);
+         speed = data.comments.length * 100;
+         appendComments(comments, ul);
+         ul.data('empty', false);
+       }
+       $('#cn' + id).slideUp(speed + 200);
+       ul.slideDown(speed);
+     },
+     error: function(request, textStatus, error) {
+       showError('Oops, there was a problem retrieving the comments.');
+     },
+     dataType: 'json'
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Add a comment via ajax and insert the comment into the comment tree.
+   */
+  function addComment(form) {
+    var node_id = form.find('input[name="node"]').val();
+    var parent_id = form.find('input[name="parent"]').val();
+    var text = form.find('textarea[name="comment"]').val();
+    var proposal = form.find('textarea[name="proposal"]').val();
+
+    if (text == '') {
+      showError('Please enter a comment.');
+      return;
+    }
+
+    // Disable the form that is being submitted.
+    form.find('textarea,input').attr('disabled', 'disabled');
+
+    // Send the comment to the server.
+    $.ajax({
+      type: "POST",
+      url: opts.addCommentURL,
+      dataType: 'json',
+      data: {
+        node: node_id,
+        parent: parent_id,
+        text: text,
+        proposal: proposal
+      },
+      success: function(data, textStatus, error) {
+        // Reset the form.
+        if (node_id) {
+          hideProposeChange(node_id);
+        }
+        form.find('textarea')
+          .val('')
+          .add(form.find('input'))
+          .removeAttr('disabled');
+	var ul = $('#cl' + (node_id || parent_id));
+        if (ul.data('empty')) {
+          $(ul).empty();
+          ul.data('empty', false);
+        }
+        insertComment(data.comment);
+        var ao = $('#ao' + node_id);
+        ao.find('img').attr({'src': opts.commentBrightImage});
+        if (node_id) {
+          // if this was a "root" comment, remove the commenting box
+          // (the user can get it back by reopening the comment popup)
+          $('#ca' + node_id).slideUp();
+        }
+      },
+      error: function(request, textStatus, error) {
+        form.find('textarea,input').removeAttr('disabled');
+        showError('Oops, there was a problem adding the comment.');
+      }
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Recursively append comments to the main comment list and children
+   * lists, creating the comment tree.
+   */
+  function appendComments(comments, ul) {
+    $.each(comments, function() {
+      var div = createCommentDiv(this);
+      ul.append($(document.createElement('li')).html(div));
+      appendComments(this.children, div.find('ul.comment-children'));
+      // To avoid stagnating data, don't store the comments children in data.
+      this.children = null;
+      div.data('comment', this);
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * After adding a new comment, it must be inserted in the correct
+   * location in the comment tree.
+   */
+  function insertComment(comment) {
+    var div = createCommentDiv(comment);
+
+    // To avoid stagnating data, don't store the comments children in data.
+    comment.children = null;
+    div.data('comment', comment);
+
+    var ul = $('#cl' + (comment.node || comment.parent));
+    var siblings = getChildren(ul);
+
+    var li = $(document.createElement('li'));
+    li.hide();
+
+    // Determine where in the parents children list to insert this comment.
+    for(var i=0; i < siblings.length; i++) {
+      if (comp(comment, siblings[i]) <= 0) {
+        $('#cd' + siblings[i].id)
+          .parent()
+          .before(li.html(div));
+        li.slideDown('fast');
+        return;
+      }
+    }
+
+    // If we get here, this comment rates lower than all the others,
+    // or it is the only comment in the list.
+    ul.append(li.html(div));
+    li.slideDown('fast');
+  }
+
+  function acceptComment(id) {
+    $.ajax({
+      type: 'POST',
+      url: opts.acceptCommentURL,
+      data: {id: id},
+      success: function(data, textStatus, request) {
+        $('#cm' + id).fadeOut('fast');
+        $('#cd' + id).removeClass('moderate');
+      },
+      error: function(request, textStatus, error) {
+        showError('Oops, there was a problem accepting the comment.');
+      }
+    });
+  }
+
+  function deleteComment(id) {
+    $.ajax({
+      type: 'POST',
+      url: opts.deleteCommentURL,
+      data: {id: id},
+      success: function(data, textStatus, request) {
+        var div = $('#cd' + id);
+        if (data == 'delete') {
+          // Moderator mode: remove the comment and all children immediately
+          div.slideUp('fast', function() {
+            div.remove();
+          });
+          return;
+        }
+        // User mode: only mark the comment as deleted
+        div
+          .find('span.user-id:first')
+          .text('[deleted]').end()
+          .find('div.comment-text:first')
+          .text('[deleted]').end()
+          .find('#cm' + id + ', #dc' + id + ', #ac' + id + ', #rc' + id +
+                ', #sp' + id + ', #hp' + id + ', #cr' + id + ', #rl' + id)
+          .remove();
+        var comment = div.data('comment');
+        comment.username = '[deleted]';
+        comment.text = '[deleted]';
+        div.data('comment', comment);
+      },
+      error: function(request, textStatus, error) {
+        showError('Oops, there was a problem deleting the comment.');
+      }
+    });
+  }
+
+  function showProposal(id) {
+    $('#sp' + id).hide();
+    $('#hp' + id).show();
+    $('#pr' + id).slideDown('fast');
+  }
+
+  function hideProposal(id) {
+    $('#hp' + id).hide();
+    $('#sp' + id).show();
+    $('#pr' + id).slideUp('fast');
+  }
+
+  function showProposeChange(id) {
+    $('#pc' + id).hide();
+    $('#hc' + id).show();
+    var textarea = $('#pt' + id);
+    textarea.val(textarea.data('source'));
+    $.fn.autogrow.resize(textarea[0]);
+    textarea.slideDown('fast');
+  }
+
+  function hideProposeChange(id) {
+    $('#hc' + id).hide();
+    $('#pc' + id).show();
+    var textarea = $('#pt' + id);
+    textarea.val('').removeAttr('disabled');
+    textarea.slideUp('fast');
+  }
+
+  function toggleCommentMarkupBox(id) {
+    $('#mb' + id).toggle();
+  }
+
+  /** Handle when the user clicks on a sort by link. */
+  function handleReSort(link) {
+    var classes = link.attr('class').split(/\s+/);
+    for (var i=0; i<classes.length; i++) {
+      if (classes[i] != 'sort-option') {
+	by = classes[i].substring(2);
+      }
+    }
+    setComparator();
+    // Save/update the sortBy cookie.
+    var expiration = new Date();
+    expiration.setDate(expiration.getDate() + 365);
+    document.cookie= 'sortBy=' + escape(by) +
+                     ';expires=' + expiration.toUTCString();
+    $('ul.comment-ul').each(function(index, ul) {
+      var comments = getChildren($(ul), true);
+      comments = sortComments(comments);
+      appendComments(comments, $(ul).empty());
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Function to process a vote when a user clicks an arrow.
+   */
+  function handleVote(link) {
+    if (!opts.voting) {
+      showError("You'll need to login to vote.");
+      return;
+    }
+
+    var id = link.attr('id');
+    if (!id) {
+      // Didn't click on one of the voting arrows.
+      return;
+    }
+    // If it is an unvote, the new vote value is 0,
+    // Otherwise it's 1 for an upvote, or -1 for a downvote.
+    var value = 0;
+    if (id.charAt(1) != 'u') {
+      value = id.charAt(0) == 'u' ? 1 : -1;
+    }
+    // The data to be sent to the server.
+    var d = {
+      comment_id: id.substring(2),
+      value: value
+    };
+
+    // Swap the vote and unvote links.
+    link.hide();
+    $('#' + id.charAt(0) + (id.charAt(1) == 'u' ? 'v' : 'u') + d.comment_id)
+      .show();
+
+    // The div the comment is displayed in.
+    var div = $('div#cd' + d.comment_id);
+    var data = div.data('comment');
+
+    // If this is not an unvote, and the other vote arrow has
+    // already been pressed, unpress it.
+    if ((d.value !== 0) && (data.vote === d.value * -1)) {
+      $('#' + (d.value == 1 ? 'd' : 'u') + 'u' + d.comment_id).hide();
+      $('#' + (d.value == 1 ? 'd' : 'u') + 'v' + d.comment_id).show();
+    }
+
+    // Update the comments rating in the local data.
+    data.rating += (data.vote === 0) ? d.value : (d.value - data.vote);
+    data.vote = d.value;
+    div.data('comment', data);
+
+    // Change the rating text.
+    div.find('.rating:first')
+      .text(data.rating + ' point' + (data.rating == 1 ? '' : 's'));
+
+    // Send the vote information to the server.
+    $.ajax({
+      type: "POST",
+      url: opts.processVoteURL,
+      data: d,
+      error: function(request, textStatus, error) {
+        showError('Oops, there was a problem casting that vote.');
+      }
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Open a reply form used to reply to an existing comment.
+   */
+  function openReply(id) {
+    // Swap out the reply link for the hide link
+    $('#rl' + id).hide();
+    $('#cr' + id).show();
+
+    // Add the reply li to the children ul.
+    var div = $(renderTemplate(replyTemplate, {id: id})).hide();
+    $('#cl' + id)
+      .prepend(div)
+      // Setup the submit handler for the reply form.
+      .find('#rf' + id)
+      .submit(function(event) {
+        event.preventDefault();
+        addComment($('#rf' + id));
+        closeReply(id);
+      })
+      .find('input[type=button]')
+      .click(function() {
+        closeReply(id);
+      });
+    div.slideDown('fast', function() {
+      $('#rf' + id).find('textarea').focus();
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Close the reply form opened with openReply.
+   */
+  function closeReply(id) {
+    // Remove the reply div from the DOM.
+    $('#rd' + id).slideUp('fast', function() {
+      $(this).remove();
+    });
+
+    // Swap out the hide link for the reply link
+    $('#cr' + id).hide();
+    $('#rl' + id).show();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Recursively sort a tree of comments using the comp comparator.
+   */
+  function sortComments(comments) {
+    comments.sort(comp);
+    $.each(comments, function() {
+      this.children = sortComments(this.children);
+    });
+    return comments;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the children comments from a ul. If recursive is true,
+   * recursively include childrens' children.
+   */
+  function getChildren(ul, recursive) {
+    var children = [];
+    ul.children().children("[id^='cd']")
+      .each(function() {
+        var comment = $(this).data('comment');
+        if (recursive)
+          comment.children = getChildren($(this).find('#cl' + comment.id), true);
+        children.push(comment);
+      });
+    return children;
+  }
+
+  /** Create a div to display a comment in. */
+  function createCommentDiv(comment) {
+    if (!comment.displayed && !opts.moderator) {
+      return $('<div class="moderate">Thank you!  Your comment will show up '
+               + 'once it is has been approved by a moderator.</div>');
+    }
+    // Prettify the comment rating.
+    comment.pretty_rating = comment.rating + ' point' +
+      (comment.rating == 1 ? '' : 's');
+    // Make a class (for displaying not yet moderated comments differently)
+    comment.css_class = comment.displayed ? '' : ' moderate';
+    // Create a div for this comment.
+    var context = $.extend({}, opts, comment);
+    var div = $(renderTemplate(commentTemplate, context));
+
+    // If the user has voted on this comment, highlight the correct arrow.
+    if (comment.vote) {
+      var direction = (comment.vote == 1) ? 'u' : 'd';
+      div.find('#' + direction + 'v' + comment.id).hide();
+      div.find('#' + direction + 'u' + comment.id).show();
+    }
+
+    if (opts.moderator || comment.text != '[deleted]') {
+      div.find('a.reply').show();
+      if (comment.proposal_diff)
+        div.find('#sp' + comment.id).show();
+      if (opts.moderator && !comment.displayed)
+        div.find('#cm' + comment.id).show();
+      if (opts.moderator || (opts.username == comment.username))
+        div.find('#dc' + comment.id).show();
+    }
+    return div;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A simple template renderer. Placeholders such as <%id%> are replaced
+   * by context['id'] with items being escaped. Placeholders such as <#id#>
+   * are not escaped.
+   */
+  function renderTemplate(template, context) {
+    var esc = $(document.createElement('div'));
+
+    function handle(ph, escape) {
+      var cur = context;
+      $.each(ph.split('.'), function() {
+        cur = cur[this];
+      });
+      return escape ? esc.text(cur || "").html() : cur;
+    }
+
+    return template.replace(/<([%#])([\w\.]*)\1>/g, function() {
+      return handle(arguments[2], arguments[1] == '%' ? true : false);
+    });
+  }
+
+  /** Flash an error message briefly. */
+  function showError(message) {
+    $(document.createElement('div')).attr({'class': 'popup-error'})
+      .append($(document.createElement('div'))
+               .attr({'class': 'error-message'}).text(message))
+      .appendTo('body')
+      .fadeIn("slow")
+      .delay(2000)
+      .fadeOut("slow");
+  }
+
+  /** Add a link the user uses to open the comments popup. */
+  $.fn.comment = function() {
+    return this.each(function() {
+      var id = $(this).attr('id').substring(1);
+      var count = COMMENT_METADATA[id];
+      var title = count + ' comment' + (count == 1 ? '' : 's');
+      var image = count > 0 ? opts.commentBrightImage : opts.commentImage;
+      var addcls = count == 0 ? ' nocomment' : '';
+      $(this)
+        .append(
+          $(document.createElement('a')).attr({
+            href: '#',
+            'class': 'sphinx-comment-open' + addcls,
+            id: 'ao' + id
+          })
+            .append($(document.createElement('img')).attr({
+              src: image,
+              alt: 'comment',
+              title: title
+            }))
+            .click(function(event) {
+              event.preventDefault();
+              show($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+            })
+        )
+        .append(
+          $(document.createElement('a')).attr({
+            href: '#',
+            'class': 'sphinx-comment-close hidden',
+            id: 'ah' + id
+          })
+            .append($(document.createElement('img')).attr({
+              src: opts.closeCommentImage,
+              alt: 'close',
+              title: 'close'
+            }))
+            .click(function(event) {
+              event.preventDefault();
+              hide($(this).attr('id').substring(2));
+            })
+        );
+    });
+  };
+
+  var opts = {
+    processVoteURL: '/_process_vote',
+    addCommentURL: '/_add_comment',
+    getCommentsURL: '/_get_comments',
+    acceptCommentURL: '/_accept_comment',
+    deleteCommentURL: '/_delete_comment',
+    commentImage: '/static/_static/comment.png',
+    closeCommentImage: '/static/_static/comment-close.png',
+    loadingImage: '/static/_static/ajax-loader.gif',
+    commentBrightImage: '/static/_static/comment-bright.png',
+    upArrow: '/static/_static/up.png',
+    downArrow: '/static/_static/down.png',
+    upArrowPressed: '/static/_static/up-pressed.png',
+    downArrowPressed: '/static/_static/down-pressed.png',
+    voting: false,
+    moderator: false
+  };
+
+  if (typeof COMMENT_OPTIONS != "undefined") {
+    opts = jQuery.extend(opts, COMMENT_OPTIONS);
+  }
+
+  var popupTemplate = '\
+    <div class="sphinx-comments" id="sc<%id%>">\
+      <p class="sort-options">\
+        Sort by:\
+        <a href="#" class="sort-option byrating">best rated</a>\
+        <a href="#" class="sort-option byascage">newest</a>\
+        <a href="#" class="sort-option byage">oldest</a>\
+      </p>\
+      <div class="comment-header">Comments</div>\
+      <div class="comment-loading" id="cn<%id%>">\
+        loading comments... <img src="<%loadingImage%>" alt="" /></div>\
+      <ul id="cl<%id%>" class="comment-ul"></ul>\
+      <div id="ca<%id%>">\
+      <p class="add-a-comment">Add a comment\
+        (<a href="#" class="comment-markup" id="ab<%id%>">markup</a>):</p>\
+      <div class="comment-markup-box" id="mb<%id%>">\
+        reStructured text markup: <i>*emph*</i>, <b>**strong**</b>, \
+        <code>``code``</code>, \
+        code blocks: <code>::</code> and an indented block after blank line</div>\
+      <form method="post" id="cf<%id%>" class="comment-form" action="">\
+        <textarea name="comment" cols="80"></textarea>\
+        <p class="propose-button">\
+          <a href="#" id="pc<%id%>" class="show-propose-change">\
+            Propose a change &#9657;\
+          </a>\
+          <a href="#" id="hc<%id%>" class="hide-propose-change">\
+            Propose a change &#9663;\
+          </a>\
+        </p>\
+        <textarea name="proposal" id="pt<%id%>" cols="80"\
+                  spellcheck="false"></textarea>\
+        <input type="submit" value="Add comment" />\
+        <input type="hidden" name="node" value="<%id%>" />\
+        <input type="hidden" name="parent" value="" />\
+      </form>\
+      </div>\
+    </div>';
+
+  var commentTemplate = '\
+    <div id="cd<%id%>" class="sphinx-comment<%css_class%>">\
+      <div class="vote">\
+        <div class="arrow">\
+          <a href="#" id="uv<%id%>" class="vote" title="vote up">\
+            <img src="<%upArrow%>" />\
+          </a>\
+          <a href="#" id="uu<%id%>" class="un vote" title="vote up">\
+            <img src="<%upArrowPressed%>" />\
+          </a>\
+        </div>\
+        <div class="arrow">\
+          <a href="#" id="dv<%id%>" class="vote" title="vote down">\
+            <img src="<%downArrow%>" id="da<%id%>" />\
+          </a>\
+          <a href="#" id="du<%id%>" class="un vote" title="vote down">\
+            <img src="<%downArrowPressed%>" />\
+          </a>\
+        </div>\
+      </div>\
+      <div class="comment-content">\
+        <p class="tagline comment">\
+          <span class="user-id"><%username%></span>\
+          <span class="rating"><%pretty_rating%></span>\
+          <span class="delta"><%time.delta%></span>\
+        </p>\
+        <div class="comment-text comment"><#text#></div>\
+        <p class="comment-opts comment">\
+          <a href="#" class="reply hidden" id="rl<%id%>">reply &#9657;</a>\
+          <a href="#" class="close-reply" id="cr<%id%>">reply &#9663;</a>\
+          <a href="#" id="sp<%id%>" class="show-proposal">proposal &#9657;</a>\
+          <a href="#" id="hp<%id%>" class="hide-proposal">proposal &#9663;</a>\
+          <a href="#" id="dc<%id%>" class="delete-comment hidden">delete</a>\
+          <span id="cm<%id%>" class="moderation hidden">\
+            <a href="#" id="ac<%id%>" class="accept-comment">accept</a>\
+          </span>\
+        </p>\
+        <pre class="proposal" id="pr<%id%>">\
+<#proposal_diff#>\
+        </pre>\
+          <ul class="comment-children" id="cl<%id%>"></ul>\
+        </div>\
+        <div class="clearleft"></div>\
+      </div>\
+    </div>';
+
+  var replyTemplate = '\
+    <li>\
+      <div class="reply-div" id="rd<%id%>">\
+        <form id="rf<%id%>">\
+          <textarea name="comment" cols="80"></textarea>\
+          <input type="submit" value="Add reply" />\
+          <input type="button" value="Cancel" />\
+          <input type="hidden" name="parent" value="<%id%>" />\
+          <input type="hidden" name="node" value="" />\
+        </form>\
+      </div>\
+    </li>';
+
+  $(document).ready(function() {
+    init();
+  });
+})(jQuery);
+
+$(document).ready(function() {
+  // add comment anchors for all paragraphs that are commentable
+  $('.sphinx-has-comment').comment();
+
+  // highlight search words in search results
+  $("div.context").each(function() {
+    var params = $.getQueryParameters();
+    var terms = (params.q) ? params.q[0].split(/\s+/) : [];
+    var result = $(this);
+    $.each(terms, function() {
+      result.highlightText(this.toLowerCase(), 'highlighted');
+    });
+  });
+
+  // directly open comment window if requested
+  var anchor = document.location.hash;
+  if (anchor.substring(0, 9) == '#comment-') {
+    $('#ao' + anchor.substring(9)).click();
+    document.location.hash = '#s' + anchor.substring(9);
+  }
+});
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/about.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/about.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eeac900
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/about.html
@@ -0,0 +1,210 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>About these documents &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="#" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Dealing with Bugs" href="bugs.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Glossary" href="glossary.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/about.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="bugs.html" title="Dealing with Bugs"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="glossary.html" title="Glossary"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="about-these-documents">
+<h1>About these documents<a class="headerlink" href="#about-these-documents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>These documents are generated from <a class="reference external" href="http://docutils.sourceforge.net/rst.html">reStructuredText</a> sources by <a class="reference external" href="http://sphinx-doc.org/">Sphinx</a>, a
+document processor specifically written for the Python documentation.</p>
+<p>Development of the documentation and its toolchain is an entirely volunteer
+effort, just like Python itself.  If you want to contribute, please take a
+look at the <a class="reference internal" href="bugs.html#reporting-bugs"><span class="std std-ref">Dealing with Bugs</span></a> page for information on how to do so.  New
+volunteers are always welcome!</p>
+<p>Many thanks go to:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Fred L. Drake, Jr., the creator of the original Python documentation toolset
+and writer of much of the content;</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference external" href="http://docutils.sourceforge.net/">Docutils</a> project for creating
+reStructuredText and the Docutils suite;</p></li>
+<li><p>Fredrik Lundh for his <a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/pyref.htm">Alternative Python Reference</a> project from which Sphinx got many good
+ideas.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="contributors-to-the-python-documentation">
+<h2>Contributors to the Python Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#contributors-to-the-python-documentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Many people have contributed to the Python language, the Python standard
+library, and the Python documentation.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Misc/ACKS">Misc/ACKS</a> in the Python
+source distribution for a partial list of contributors.</p>
+<p>It is only with the input and contributions of the Python community
+that Python has such wonderful documentation – Thank You!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">About these documents</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contributors-to-the-python-documentation">Contributors to the Python Documentation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="glossary.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Glossary</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bugs.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Dealing with Bugs</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/about.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="bugs.html" title="Dealing with Bugs"
+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="glossary.html" title="Glossary"
+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/bugs.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/bugs.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ac419e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/bugs.html
@@ -0,0 +1,257 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Dealing with Bugs &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
+ 
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="dealing-with-bugs">
+<span id="reporting-bugs"></span><h1>Dealing with Bugs<a class="headerlink" href="#dealing-with-bugs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python is a mature programming language which has established a reputation for
+stability.  In order to maintain this reputation, the developers would like to
+know of any deficiencies you find in Python.</p>
+<p>It can be sometimes faster to fix bugs yourself and contribute patches to
+Python as it streamlines the process and involves less people. Learn how to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contributing-to-python"><span class="std std-ref">contribute</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="documentation-bugs">
+<h2>Documentation bugs<a class="headerlink" href="#documentation-bugs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you find a bug in this documentation or would like to propose an improvement,
+please submit a bug report on the <a class="reference internal" href="#using-the-tracker"><span class="std std-ref">tracker</span></a>.  If you
+have a suggestion on how to fix it, include that as well.</p>
+<p>If you’re short on time, you can also email documentation bug reports to
+<a class="reference external" href="mailto:docs&#37;&#52;&#48;python&#46;org">docs<span>&#64;</span>python<span>&#46;</span>org</a> (behavioral bugs can be sent to <a class="reference external" href="mailto:python-list&#37;&#52;&#48;python&#46;org">python-list<span>&#64;</span>python<span>&#46;</span>org</a>).
+‘docs&#64;’ is a mailing list run by volunteers; your request will be noticed,
+though it may take a while to be processed.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue?&#64;filter=status&amp;&#64;filter=components&amp;components=4&amp;status=1&amp;&#64;columns=id,activity,title,status&amp;&#64;sort=-activity">Documentation bugs</a> on the Python issue tracker</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-the-python-issue-tracker">
+<span id="using-the-tracker"></span><h2>Using the Python issue tracker<a class="headerlink" href="#using-the-python-issue-tracker" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Bug reports for Python itself should be submitted via the Python Bug Tracker
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/">https://bugs.python.org/</a>).  The bug tracker offers a Web form which allows
+pertinent information to be entered and submitted to the developers.</p>
+<p>The first step in filing a report is to determine whether the problem has
+already been reported.  The advantage in doing so, aside from saving the
+developers time, is that you learn what has been done to fix it; it may be that
+the problem has already been fixed for the next release, or additional
+information is needed (in which case you are welcome to provide it if you can!).
+To do this, search the bug database using the search box on the top of the page.</p>
+<p>If the problem you’re reporting is not already in the bug tracker, go back to
+the Python Bug Tracker and log in.  If you don’t already have a tracker account,
+select the “Register” link or, if you use OpenID, one of the OpenID provider
+logos in the sidebar.  It is not possible to submit a bug report anonymously.</p>
+<p>Being now logged in, you can submit a bug.  Select the “Create New” link in the
+sidebar to open the bug reporting form.</p>
+<p>The submission form has a number of fields.  For the “Title” field, enter a
+<em>very</em> short description of the problem; less than ten words is good.  In the
+“Type” field, select the type of your problem; also select the “Component” and
+“Versions” to which the bug relates.</p>
+<p>In the “Comment” field, describe the problem in detail, including what you
+expected to happen and what did happen.  Be sure to include whether any
+extension modules were involved, and what hardware and software platform you
+were using (including version information as appropriate).</p>
+<p>Each bug report will be assigned to a developer who will determine what needs to
+be done to correct the problem.  You will receive an update each time action is
+taken on the bug.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html">How to Report Bugs Effectively</a></dt><dd><p>Article which goes into some detail about how to create a useful bug report.
+This describes what kind of information is useful and why it is useful.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Mozilla/QA/Bug_writing_guidelines">Bug Writing Guidelines</a></dt><dd><p>Information about writing a good bug report.  Some of this is specific to the
+Mozilla project, but describes general good practices.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="getting-started-contributing-to-python-yourself">
+<span id="contributing-to-python"></span><h2>Getting started contributing to Python yourself<a class="headerlink" href="#getting-started-contributing-to-python-yourself" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Beyond just reporting bugs that you find, you are also welcome to submit
+patches to fix them.  You can find more information on how to get started
+patching Python in the <a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/">Python Developer’s Guide</a>.  If you have questions,
+the <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/">core-mentorship mailing list</a> is a friendly place to get answers to
+any and all questions pertaining to the process of fixing issues in Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Dealing with Bugs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documentation-bugs">Documentation bugs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-the-python-issue-tracker">Using the Python issue tracker</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-started-contributing-to-python-yourself">Getting started contributing to Python yourself</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="about.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">About these documents</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">Copyright</a></p>
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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+        <li>
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+    </div>
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+         |
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+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/abstract.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/abstract.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab606db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/abstract.html
@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Abstract Objects Layer &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Object Protocol" href="object.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Codec registry and support functions" href="codec.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/abstract.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="object.html" title="Object Protocol"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="codec.html" title="Codec registry and support functions"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="abstract-objects-layer">
+<span id="abstract"></span><h1>Abstract Objects Layer<a class="headerlink" href="#abstract-objects-layer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The functions in this chapter interact with Python objects regardless of their
+type, or with wide classes of object types (e.g. all numerical types, or all
+sequence types).  When used on object types for which they do not apply, they
+will raise a Python exception.</p>
+<p>It is not possible to use these functions on objects that are not properly
+initialized, such as a list object that has been created by <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_New" title="PyList_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_New()</span></code></a>,
+but whose items have not been set to some non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> value yet.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="object.html">Object Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="number.html">Number Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html">Sequence Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="mapping.html">Mapping Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="iter.html">Iterator Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html">Buffer Protocol</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#buffer-structure">Buffer structure</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#buffer-request-types">Buffer request types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#request-independent-fields">request-independent fields</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#readonly-format">readonly, format</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#shape-strides-suboffsets">shape, strides, suboffsets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#contiguity-requests">contiguity requests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#compound-requests">compound requests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#complex-arrays">Complex arrays</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#numpy-style-shape-and-strides">NumPy-style: shape and strides</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets">PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#buffer-related-functions">Buffer-related functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="objbuffer.html">Old Buffer Protocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="codec.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Codec registry and support functions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="object.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Object Protocol</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/abstract.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="codec.html" title="Codec registry and support functions"
+             >previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
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+        </form>
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+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/allocation.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/allocation.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b7586c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/allocation.html
@@ -0,0 +1,258 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Allocating Objects on the Heap &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="allocating-objects-on-the-heap">
+<span id="allocating-objects"></span><h1>Allocating Objects on the Heap<a class="headerlink" href="#allocating-objects-on-the-heap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyObject_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">_PyObject_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyObject_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyObject_NewVar">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject">PyVarObject</a>* <code class="descname">_PyObject_NewVar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyObject_NewVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Init">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_Init</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Init" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Initialize a newly-allocated object <em>op</em> with its type and initial
+reference.  Returns the initialized object.  If <em>type</em> indicates that the
+object participates in the cyclic garbage detector, it is added to the
+detector’s set of observed objects. Other fields of the object are not
+affected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_InitVar">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject">PyVarObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_InitVar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject">PyVarObject</a><em> *op</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_InitVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>This does everything <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Init" title="PyObject_Init"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Init()</span></code></a> does, and also initializes the
+length information for a variable-size object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_New">
+TYPE* <code class="descname">PyObject_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>TYPE, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type <em>TYPE</em> and the
+Python type object <em>type</em>.  Fields not defined by the Python object header
+are not initialized; the object’s reference count will be one.  The size of
+the memory allocation is determined from the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> field of
+the type object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_NewVar">
+TYPE* <code class="descname">PyObject_NewVar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>TYPE, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_NewVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type <em>TYPE</em> and the
+Python type object <em>type</em>.  Fields not defined by the Python object header
+are not initialized.  The allocated memory allows for the <em>TYPE</em> structure
+plus <em>size</em> fields of the size given by the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> field of
+<em>type</em>.  This is useful for implementing objects like tuples, which are
+able to determine their size at construction time.  Embedding the array of
+fields into the same allocation decreases the number of allocations,
+improving the memory management efficiency.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Del">
+void <code class="descname">PyObject_Del</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Del" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Releases memory allocated to an object using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_New" title="PyObject_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_New()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_NewVar" title="PyObject_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_NewVar()</span></code></a>.  This is normally called from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> handler specified in the object’s type.  The fields of
+the object should not be accessed after this call as the memory is no
+longer a valid Python object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c._Py_NoneStruct">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> <code class="descname">_Py_NoneStruct</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c._Py_NoneStruct" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Object which is visible in Python as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  This should only be accessed
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a> macro, which evaluates to a pointer to this
+object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="module.html#c.PyModule_Create" title="PyModule_Create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create()</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>To allocate and create extension modules.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="objimpl.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Object Implementation Support</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="structures.html"
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/apiabiversion.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/apiabiversion.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8dadae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/apiabiversion.html
@@ -0,0 +1,231 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>API and ABI Versioning &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="api-and-abi-versioning">
+<span id="apiabiversion"></span><h1>API and ABI Versioning<a class="headerlink" href="#api-and-abi-versioning" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_VERSION_HEX</span></code> is the Python version number encoded in a single integer.</p>
+<p>For example if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_VERSION_HEX</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x030401a2</span></code>, the underlying
+version information can be found by treating it as a 32 bit number in
+the following manner:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 9%" />
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+<col style="width: 60%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Bytes</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Bits (big endian order)</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1-8</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_MAJOR_VERSION</span></code> (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.4.1a2</span></code>)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9-16</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_MINOR_VERSION</span></code> (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.4.1a2</span></code>)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">17-24</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_MICRO_VERSION</span></code> (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.4.1a2</span></code>)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">25-28</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_RELEASE_LEVEL</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xA</span></code> for alpha,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xB</span></code> for beta, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xC</span></code> for release
+candidate and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xF</span></code> for final), in this
+case it is alpha.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">29-32</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_RELEASE_SERIAL</span></code> (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.4.1a2</span></code>, zero for final releases)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Thus <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.4.1a2</span></code> is hexversion <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x030401a2</span></code>.</p>
+<p>All the given macros are defined in <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Include/patchlevel.h">Include/patchlevel.h</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+  <div class="section" id="parsing-arguments-and-building-values">
+<span id="arg-parsing"></span><h1>Parsing arguments and building values<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-arguments-and-building-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>These functions are useful when creating your own extensions functions and
+methods.  Additional information and examples are available in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The first three of these functions described, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_Parse" title="PyArg_Parse"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse()</span></code></a>, all use <em>format
+strings</em> which are used to tell the function about the expected arguments.  The
+format strings use the same syntax for each of these functions.</p>
+<div class="section" id="parsing-arguments">
+<h2>Parsing arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A format string consists of zero or more “format units.”  A format unit
+describes one Python object; it is usually a single character or a parenthesized
+sequence of format units.  With a few exceptions, a format unit that is not a
+parenthesized sequence normally corresponds to a single address argument to
+these functions.  In the following description, the quoted form is the format
+unit; the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that matches
+the format unit; and the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C
+variable(s) whose address should be passed.</p>
+<div class="section" id="strings-and-buffers">
+<h3>Strings and buffers<a class="headerlink" href="#strings-and-buffers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These formats allow accessing an object as a contiguous chunk of memory.
+You don’t have to provide raw storage for the returned unicode or bytes
+area.</p>
+<p>In general, when a format sets a pointer to a buffer, the buffer is
+managed by the corresponding Python object, and the buffer shares
+the lifetime of this object.  You won’t have to release any memory yourself.
+The only exceptions are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es#</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">et</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">et#</span></code>.</p>
+<p>However, when a <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></a> structure gets filled, the underlying
+buffer is locked so that the caller can subsequently use the buffer even
+inside a <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> block without the risk of mutable data
+being resized or destroyed.  As a result, <strong>you have to call</strong>
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a> after you have finished processing the data (or
+in any early abort case).</p>
+<p>Unless otherwise stated, buffers are not NUL-terminated.</p>
+<p>Some formats require a read-only <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>, and set a
+pointer instead of a buffer structure.  They work by checking that
+the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer" title="PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer</span></code></a> field is <em>NULL</em>,
+which disallows mutable objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code> variants of formats (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y#</span></code>, etc.), the type of
+the length argument (int or <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>) is controlled by
+defining the macro <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span></code> before including
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code>.  If the macro was defined, length is a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> rather than an <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>. This behavior will change
+in a future Python version to only support <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> and
+drop <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> support. It is best to always define <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [const char *]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Unicode object to a C pointer to a character string.
+A pointer to an existing string is stored in the character pointer
+variable whose address you pass.  The C string is NUL-terminated.
+The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it does,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception is raised. Unicode objects are converted
+to C strings using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> encoding. If this conversion fails, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This format does not accept <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>.  If you want to accept
+filesystem paths and convert them to C character strings, it is
+preferable to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O&amp;</span></code> format with <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FSConverter" title="PyUnicode_FSConverter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FSConverter()</span></code></a>
+as <em>converter</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> was raised when embedded null code points
+were encountered in the Python string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s*</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>) [Py_buffer]</dt><dd><p>This format accepts Unicode objects as well as bytes-like objects.
+It fills a <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></a> structure provided by the caller.
+In this case the resulting C string may contain embedded NUL bytes.
+Unicode objects are converted to C strings using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> encoding.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, read-only <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>) [const char *, int or <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>]</dt><dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s*</span></code>, except that it doesn’t accept mutable objects.
+The result is stored into two C variables,
+the first one a pointer to a C string, the second one its length.
+The string may contain embedded null bytes. Unicode objects are converted
+to C strings using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> encoding.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *]</dt><dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code>, but the Python object may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case the C
+pointer is set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z*</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [Py_buffer]</dt><dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s*</span></code>, but the Python object may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buf</span></code> member of the <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></a> structure is set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, read-only <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *, int]</dt><dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code>, but the Python object may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case the C
+pointer is set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> (read-only <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>) [const char *]</dt><dd><p>This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a character
+string; it does not accept Unicode objects.  The bytes buffer must not
+contain embedded null bytes; if it does, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> was raised when embedded null bytes were
+encountered in the bytes buffer.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y*</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>) [Py_buffer]</dt><dd><p>This variant on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s*</span></code> doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only
+bytes-like objects.  <strong>This is the recommended way to accept
+binary data.</strong></p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y#</span></code> (read-only <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>) [const char *, int]</dt><dd><p>This variant on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code> doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only bytes-like
+objects.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>) [PyBytesObject *]</dt><dd><p>Requires that the Python object is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object, without
+attempting any conversion.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the object is not
+a bytes object.  The C variable may also be declared as <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Y</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>) [PyByteArrayObject *]</dt><dd><p>Requires that the Python object is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> object, without
+attempting any conversion.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the object is not
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> object. The C variable may also be declared as <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [const Py_UNICODE *]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python Unicode object to a C pointer to a NUL-terminated buffer of
+Unicode characters.  You must pass the address of a <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a>
+pointer variable, which will be filled with the pointer to an existing
+Unicode buffer.  Please note that the width of a <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a>
+character depends on compilation options (it is either 16 or 32 bits).
+The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it does,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> was raised when embedded null code points
+were encountered in the Python string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="PyUnicode_AsWideCharString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [const Py_UNICODE *, int]</dt><dd><p>This variant on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> stores into two C variables, the first one a pointer to a
+Unicode data buffer, the second one its length.  This variant allows
+null code points.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="PyUnicode_AsWideCharString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const Py_UNICODE *]</dt><dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code>, but the Python object may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case the
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> pointer is set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="PyUnicode_AsWideCharString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const Py_UNICODE *, int]</dt><dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u#</span></code>, but the Python object may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case the
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> pointer is set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="PyUnicode_AsWideCharString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [PyObject *]</dt><dd><p>Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without attempting
+any conversion.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the object is not a Unicode
+object.  The C variable may also be declared as <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">w*</span></code> (read-write <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>) [Py_buffer]</dt><dd><p>This format accepts any object which implements the read-write buffer
+interface. It fills a <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></a> structure provided by the caller.
+The buffer may contain embedded null bytes. The caller have to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a> when it is done with the buffer.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]</dt><dd><p>This variant on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer.
+It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes.</p>
+<p>This format requires two arguments.  The first is only used as input, and
+must be a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char*</span></code> which points to the name of an encoding as a
+NUL-terminated string, or <em>NULL</em>, in which case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> encoding is used.
+An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python.  The
+second argument must be a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char**</span></code>; the value of the pointer it
+references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text.
+The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> will allocate a buffer of the needed size, copy the
+encoded data into this buffer and adjust <em>*buffer</em> to reference the newly
+allocated storage.  The caller is responsible for calling <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a> to
+free the allocated buffer after use.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">et</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es</span></code> except that byte string objects are passed through without
+recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses
+the encoding passed in as parameter.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, int *buffer_length]</dt><dd><p>This variant on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code> is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer.
+Unlike the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es</span></code> format, this variant allows input data which contains NUL
+characters.</p>
+<p>It requires three arguments.  The first is only used as input, and must be a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char*</span></code> which points to the name of an encoding as a
+NUL-terminated string, or <em>NULL</em>, in which case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> encoding is used.
+An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python.  The
+second argument must be a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char**</span></code>; the value of the pointer it
+references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text.
+The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.
+The third argument must be a pointer to an integer; the referenced integer
+will be set to the number of bytes in the output buffer.</p>
+<p>There are two modes of operation:</p>
+<p>If <em>*buffer</em> points a <em>NULL</em> pointer, the function will allocate a buffer of
+the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and set <em>*buffer</em> to
+reference the newly allocated storage.  The caller is responsible for calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a> to free the allocated buffer after usage.</p>
+<p>If <em>*buffer</em> points to a non-<em>NULL</em> pointer (an already allocated buffer),
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> will use this location as the buffer and interpret the
+initial value of <em>*buffer_length</em> as the buffer size.  It will then copy the
+encoded data into the buffer and NUL-terminate it.  If the buffer is not large
+enough, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be set.</p>
+<p>In both cases, <em>*buffer_length</em> is set to the length of the encoded data
+without the trailing NUL byte.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">et#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, int *buffer_length]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es#</span></code> except that byte string objects are passed through without recoding
+them. Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses the
+encoding passed in as parameter.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="numbers">
+<h3>Numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#numbers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned char]</dt><dd><p>Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny int, stored in a C
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned char]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a tiny int without overflow checking, stored in a C
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [short int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">H</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned short int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">short</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>, without overflow
+checking.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a plain C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>, without overflow
+checking.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [long int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned long]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> without
+overflow checking.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [long long]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">K</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned long long]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>
+without overflow checking.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [Py_ssize_t]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python integer to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> of length 1) [char]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python byte, represented as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> object of length 1, to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Allow <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> of length 1) [int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python character, represented as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> object of
+length 1, to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>) [float]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python floating point number to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>) [double]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python floating point number to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>) [Py_complex]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python complex number to a C <a class="reference internal" href="complex.html#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a> structure.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-objects">
+<h3>Other objects<a class="headerlink" href="#other-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O</span></code> (object) [PyObject *]</dt><dd><p>Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object pointer.  The C
+program thus receives the actual object that was passed.  The object’s reference
+count is not increased.  The pointer stored is not <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O!</span></code> (object) [<em>typeobject</em>, PyObject *]</dt><dd><p>Store a Python object in a C object pointer.  This is similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O</span></code>, but
+takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a Python type object, the
+second is the address of the C variable (of type <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>) into which
+the object pointer is stored.  If the Python object does not have the required
+type, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="o-ampersand">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O&amp;</span></code> (object) [<em>converter</em>, <em>anything</em>]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Python object to a C variable through a <em>converter</em> function.  This
+takes two arguments: the first is a function, the second is the address of a C
+variable (of arbitrary type), converted to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.  The <em>converter</em>
+function in turn is called as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">converter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">address</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <em>object</em> is the Python object to be converted and <em>address</em> is the
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> argument that was passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_Parse" title="PyArg_Parse"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse*()</span></code></a> function.
+The returned <em>status</em> should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for a successful conversion and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if
+the conversion has failed.  When the conversion fails, the <em>converter</em> function
+should raise an exception and leave the content of <em>address</em> unmodified.</p>
+<p>If the <em>converter</em> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED</span></code>, it may get called a
+second time if the argument parsing eventually fails, giving the converter a
+chance to release any memory that it had already allocated. In this second
+call, the <em>object</em> parameter will be NULL; <em>address</em> will have the same value
+as in the original call.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED</span></code> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a>) [int]</dt><dd><p>Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean <strong>p</strong>redicate) and converts
+the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value.
+Sets the int to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the expression was true and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if it was false.
+This accepts any valid Python value.  See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#truth"><span class="std std-ref">Truth Value Testing</span></a> for more
+information about how Python tests values for truth.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(items)</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>) [<em>matching-items</em>]</dt><dd><p>The object must be a Python sequence whose length is the number of format units
+in <em>items</em>.  The C arguments must correspond to the individual format units in
+<em>items</em>.  Format units for sequences may be nested.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>It is possible to pass “long” integers (integers whose value exceeds the
+platform’s <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LONG_MAX</span></code>) however no proper range checking is done — the
+most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is too
+small to receive the value (actually, the semantics are inherited from downcasts
+in C — your mileage may vary).</p>
+<p>A few other characters have a meaning in a format string.  These may not occur
+inside nested parentheses.  They are:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code></dt><dd><p>Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are optional.
+The C variables corresponding to optional arguments should be initialized to
+their default value — when an optional argument is not specified,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> does not touch the contents of the corresponding C
+variable(s).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code></dt><dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> only:
+Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are
+keyword-only.  Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional
+arguments, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code> must always be specified before <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> in the format
+string.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code></dt><dd><p>The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is used as the
+function name in error messages (the “associated value” of the exception that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> raises).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;</span></code></dt><dd><p>The list of format units ends here; the string after the semicolon is used as
+the error message <em>instead</em> of the default error message.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;</span></code>
+mutually exclude each other.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are
+<em>borrowed</em> references; do not decrement their reference count!</p>
+<p>Additional arguments passed to these functions must be addresses of variables
+whose type is determined by the format string; these are used to store values
+from the input tuple.  There are a few cases, as described in the list of format
+units above, where these parameters are used as input values; they should match
+what is specified for the corresponding format unit in that case.</p>
+<p>For the conversion to succeed, the <em>arg</em> object must match the format
+and the format must be exhausted.  On success, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_Parse" title="PyArg_Parse"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse*()</span></code></a> functions return true, otherwise they return
+false and raise an appropriate exception. When the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_Parse" title="PyArg_Parse"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse*()</span></code></a> functions fail due to conversion failure in one
+of the format units, the variables at the addresses corresponding to that
+and the following format units are left untouched.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="api-functions">
+<h3>API Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#api-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyArg_ParseTuple">
+int <code class="descname">PyArg_ParseTuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse the parameters of a function that takes only positional parameters into
+local variables.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and
+raises the appropriate exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyArg_VaParse">
+int <code class="descname">PyArg_VaParse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, va_list<em> vargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyArg_VaParse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>, except that it accepts a va_list rather
+than a variable number of arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords">
+int <code class="descname">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *kw</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, char<em> *keywords[]</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse the parameters of a function that takes both positional and keyword
+parameters into local variables.  The <em>keywords</em> argument is a
+<em>NULL</em>-terminated array of keyword parameter names.  Empty names denote
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#positional-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">positional-only parameters</span></a>.
+Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the
+appropriate exception.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added support for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#positional-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">positional-only parameters</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords">
+int <code class="descname">PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *kw</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, char<em> *keywords[]</em>, va_list<em> vargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>, except that it accepts a
+va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments">
+int <code class="descname">PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ensure that the keys in the keywords argument dictionary are strings.  This
+is only needed if <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> is not used, since the
+latter already does this check.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyArg_Parse">
+int <code class="descname">PyArg_Parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyArg_Parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function used to deconstruct the argument lists of “old-style” functions —
+these are functions which use the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_OLDARGS</span></code> parameter parsing
+method, which has been removed in Python 3.  This is not recommended for use
+in parameter parsing in new code, and most code in the standard interpreter
+has been modified to no longer use this for that purpose.  It does remain a
+convenient way to decompose other tuples, however, and may continue to be
+used for that purpose.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyArg_UnpackTuple">
+int <code class="descname">PyArg_UnpackTuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, const char<em> *name</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> min</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> max</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyArg_UnpackTuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A simpler form of parameter retrieval which does not use a format string to
+specify the types of the arguments.  Functions which use this method to retrieve
+their parameters should be declared as <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#METH_VARARGS" title="METH_VARARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span></code></a> in function or
+method tables.  The tuple containing the actual parameters should be passed as
+<em>args</em>; it must actually be a tuple.  The length of the tuple must be at least
+<em>min</em> and no more than <em>max</em>; <em>min</em> and <em>max</em> may be equal.  Additional
+arguments must be passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> variable; these will be filled in with the values from
+<em>args</em>; they will contain borrowed references.  The variables which correspond
+to optional parameters not given by <em>args</em> will not be filled in; these should
+be initialized by the caller. This function returns true on success and false if
+<em>args</em> is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an exception
+will be set if there was a failure.</p>
+<p>This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the sources for the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_weakref</span></code> helper module for weak references:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">weakref_ref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">callback</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyArg_UnpackTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;ref&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyWeakref_NewRef</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_UnpackTuple" title="PyArg_UnpackTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_UnpackTuple()</span></code></a> in this example is entirely equivalent to
+this call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;O|O:ref&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="building-values">
+<h2>Building values<a class="headerlink" href="#building-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_BuildValue">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_BuildValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new value based on a format string similar to those accepted by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyArg_Parse" title="PyArg_Parse"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse*()</span></code></a> family of functions and a sequence of values.  Returns
+the value or <em>NULL</em> in the case of an error; an exception will be raised if
+<em>NULL</em> is returned.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> does not always build a tuple.  It builds a tuple only if
+its format string contains two or more format units.  If the format string is
+empty, it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; if it contains exactly one format unit, it returns
+whatever object is described by that format unit.  To force it to return a tuple
+of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.</p>
+<p>When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to build objects, as
+for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code> formats, the required data is copied.  Buffers provided
+by the caller are never referenced by the objects created by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a>.  In other words, if your code invokes <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>
+and passes the allocated memory to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a>, your code is
+responsible for calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> for that memory once
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> returns.</p>
+<p>In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in
+(round) parentheses is the Python object type that the format unit will return;
+and the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C value(s) to be passed.</p>
+<p>The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format strings (but
+not within format units such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code>).  This can be used to make long format
+strings a tad more readable.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *]</dt><dd><p>Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> object using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>
+encoding. If the C string pointer is <em>NULL</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is used.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *, int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C string and its length to a Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> object using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>
+encoding. If the C string pointer is <em>NULL</em>, the length is ignored and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>) [const char *]</dt><dd><p>This converts a C string to a Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.  If the C
+string pointer is <em>NULL</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>) [const char *, int]</dt><dd><p>This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object.  If the C
+string pointer is <em>NULL</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *, int]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [const wchar_t *]</dt><dd><p>Convert a null-terminated <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> buffer of Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4)
+data to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode buffer pointer is <em>NULL</em>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) [const wchar_t *, int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length to a Python
+Unicode object.   If the Unicode buffer pointer is <em>NULL</em>, the length is ignored
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U#</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) [const char *, int]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a plain C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [char]</dt><dd><p>Convert a plain C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [short int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a plain C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [long int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned char]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">H</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned short int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">short</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned long]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [long long]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">K</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [unsigned long long]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> to a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) [Py_ssize_t]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> to a Python integer.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> of length 1) [char]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> representing a byte to a Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object of
+length 1.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> of length 1) [int]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> representing a character to Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+object of length 1.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>) [double]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> to a Python floating point number.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>) [float]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code> to a Python floating point number.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>) [Py_complex *]</dt><dd><p>Convert a C <a class="reference internal" href="complex.html#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a> structure to a Python complex number.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O</span></code> (object) [PyObject *]</dt><dd><p>Pass a Python object untouched (except for its reference count, which is
+incremented by one).  If the object passed in is a <em>NULL</em> pointer, it is assumed
+that this was caused because the call producing the argument found an error and
+set an exception. Therefore, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> will return <em>NULL</em> but won’t
+raise an exception.  If no exception has been raised yet, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> is
+set.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S</span></code> (object) [PyObject *]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> (object) [PyObject *]</dt><dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O</span></code>, except it doesn’t increment the reference count on the object.
+Useful when the object is created by a call to an object constructor in the
+argument list.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O&amp;</span></code> (object) [<em>converter</em>, <em>anything</em>]</dt><dd><p>Convert <em>anything</em> to a Python object through a <em>converter</em> function.  The
+function is called with <em>anything</em> (which should be compatible with <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span>
+<span class="pre">*</span></code>) as its argument and should return a “new” Python object, or <em>NULL</em> if an
+error occurred.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(items)</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>) [<em>matching-items</em>]</dt><dd><p>Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same number of items.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[items]</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>) [<em>matching-items</em>]</dt><dd><p>Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same number of items.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{items}</span></code> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>) [<em>matching-items</em>]</dt><dd><p>Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary.  Each pair of consecutive
+C values adds one item to the dictionary, serving as key and value,
+respectively.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>If there is an error in the format string, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> exception is
+set and <em>NULL</em> returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_VaBuildValue">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_VaBuildValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, va_list<em> vargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_VaBuildValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a>, except that it accepts a va_list
+rather than a variable number of arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Parsing arguments and building values</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#strings-and-buffers">Strings and buffers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numbers">Numbers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-objects">Other objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api-functions">API Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#building-values">Building values</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="marshal.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Data marshalling support</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="conversion.html"
+                        title="next chapter">String conversion and formatting</a></p>
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/arg.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bool.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bool.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05acfdd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bool.html
@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Boolean Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="boolean-objects">
+<span id="boolobjects"></span><h1>Boolean Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#boolean-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers.  There are only
+two booleans, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_False</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_True</span></code>.  As such, the normal
+creation and deletion functions don’t apply to booleans.  The following macros
+are available, however.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBool_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyBool_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBool_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>o</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBool_Type</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_False">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_False</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_False" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> object.  This object has no methods.  It needs to be
+treated just like any other object with respect to reference counts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_True">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_True</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_True" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> object.  This object has no methods.  It needs to be treated
+just like any other object with respect to reference counts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_RETURN_FALSE">
+<code class="descname">Py_RETURN_FALSE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_RETURN_FALSE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_False</span></code> from a function, properly incrementing its reference
+count.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_RETURN_TRUE">
+<code class="descname">Py_RETURN_TRUE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_RETURN_TRUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_True</span></code> from a function, properly incrementing its reference
+count.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBool_FromLong">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyBool_FromLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>long<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBool_FromLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new reference to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_True</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_False</span></code> depending on the
+truth value of <em>v</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="long.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Integer Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="float.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Floating Point Objects</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="buffer-protocol">
+<span id="bufferobjects"></span><span id="index-0"></span><h1>Buffer Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#buffer-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Certain objects available in Python wrap access to an underlying memory
+array or <em>buffer</em>.  Such objects include the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>, and some extension types like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a>.
+Third-party libraries may define their own types for special purposes, such
+as image processing or numeric analysis.</p>
+<p>While each of these types have their own semantics, they share the common
+characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer.  It is
+then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly and
+without intermediate copying.</p>
+<p>Python provides such a facility at the C level in the form of the <a class="reference internal" href="#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer
+protocol</span></a>.  This protocol has two sides:</p>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-1">
+<li><p>on the producer side, a type can export a “buffer interface” which allows
+objects of that type to expose information about their underlying buffer.
+This interface is described in the section <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#buffer-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Object Structures</span></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a pointer to
+the raw underlying data of an object (for example a method parameter).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Simple objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> expose their
+underlying buffer in byte-oriented form.  Other forms are possible; for example,
+the elements exposed by an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a> can be multi-byte values.</p>
+<p>An example consumer of the buffer interface is the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.write" title="io.BufferedIOBase.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>
+method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes through
+the buffer interface can be written to a file.  While <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> only
+needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object passed to it,
+other methods such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto" title="io.BufferedIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a> need write access
+to the contents of their argument.  The buffer interface allows objects to
+selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and read-only buffers.</p>
+<p>There are two ways for a consumer of the buffer interface to acquire a buffer
+over a target object:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>call <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a> with the right parameters;</p></li>
+<li><p>call <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> (or one of its siblings) with one of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">w*</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s*</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#arg-parsing"><span class="std std-ref">format codes</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In both cases, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a> must be called when the buffer
+isn’t needed anymore.  Failure to do so could lead to various issues such as
+resource leaks.</p>
+<div class="section" id="buffer-structure">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Buffer structure<a class="headerlink" href="#buffer-structure" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Buffer structures (or simply “buffers”) are useful as a way to expose the
+binary data from another object to the Python programmer.  They can also be
+used as a zero-copy slicing mechanism.  Using their ability to reference a
+block of memory, it is possible to expose any data to the Python programmer
+quite easily.  The memory could be a large, constant array in a C extension,
+it could be a raw block of memory for manipulation before passing to an
+operating system library, or it could be used to pass around structured data
+in its native, in-memory format.</p>
+<p>Contrary to most data types exposed by the Python interpreter, buffers
+are not <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> pointers but rather simple C structures.  This
+allows them to be created and copied very simply.  When a generic wrapper
+around a buffer is needed, a <a class="reference internal" href="memoryview.html#memoryview-objects"><span class="std std-ref">memoryview</span></a> object
+can be created.</p>
+<p>For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#buffer-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Object Structures</span></a>. For obtaining
+a buffer, see <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer">
+<code class="descname">Py_buffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.buf">
+void *<code class="descname">buf</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.buf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by the buffer
+fields. This can be any location within the underlying physical memory
+block of the exporter. For example, with negative <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.strides" title="Py_buffer.strides"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strides</span></code></a>
+the value may point to the end of the memory block.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a> arrays, the value points to the beginning of
+the memory block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.obj">
+void *<code class="descname">obj</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.obj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A new reference to the exporting object. The reference is owned by
+the consumer and automatically decremented and set to <em>NULL</em> by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a>. The field is the equivalent of the return
+value of any standard C-API function.</p>
+<p>As a special case, for <em>temporary</em> buffers that are wrapped by
+<a class="reference internal" href="memoryview.html#c.PyMemoryView_FromBuffer" title="PyMemoryView_FromBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemoryView_FromBuffer()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBuffer_FillInfo" title="PyBuffer_FillInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_FillInfo()</span></code></a>
+this field is <em>NULL</em>. In general, exporting objects MUST NOT
+use this scheme.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.len">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">len</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.len" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product(shape)</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">itemsize</span></code>. For contiguous arrays, this is the length
+of the underlying memory block. For non-contiguous arrays, it is the length
+that the logical structure would have if it were copied to a contiguous
+representation.</p>
+<p>Accessing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">((char</span> <span class="pre">*)buf)[0]</span> <span class="pre">up</span> <span class="pre">to</span> <span class="pre">((char</span> <span class="pre">*)buf)[len-1]</span></code> is only valid
+if the buffer has been obtained by a request that guarantees contiguity. In
+most cases such a request will be <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_SIMPLE" title="PyBUF_SIMPLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_SIMPLE</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE" title="PyBUF_WRITABLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITABLE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.readonly">
+int <code class="descname">readonly</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.readonly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only. This field is controlled
+by the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE" title="PyBUF_WRITABLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITABLE</span></code></a> flag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.itemsize">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">itemsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Item size in bytes of a single element. Same as the value of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.calcsize" title="struct.calcsize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.calcsize()</span></code></a>
+called on non-NULL <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.format" title="Py_buffer.format"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code></a> values.</p>
+<p>Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_FORMAT" title="PyBUF_FORMAT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_FORMAT</span></code></a> flag, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.format" title="Py_buffer.format"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code></a> will
+be set to  <em>NULL</em>,  but <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Py_buffer.itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a> still has
+the value for the original format.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.shape" title="Py_buffer.shape"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape</span></code></a> is present, the equality
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product(shape)</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">itemsize</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">len</span></code> still holds and the consumer
+can use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Py_buffer.itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a> to navigate the buffer.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.shape" title="Py_buffer.shape"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape</span></code></a> is <em>NULL</em> as a result of a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_SIMPLE" title="PyBUF_SIMPLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_SIMPLE</span></code></a>
+or a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE" title="PyBUF_WRITABLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITABLE</span></code></a> request, the consumer must disregard
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Py_buffer.itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a> and assume <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.format">
+const char *<code class="descname">format</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <em>NUL</em> terminated string in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module style syntax describing
+the contents of a single item. If this is <em>NULL</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;B&quot;</span></code> (unsigned bytes)
+is assumed.</p>
+<p>This field is controlled by the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_FORMAT" title="PyBUF_FORMAT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_FORMAT</span></code></a> flag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.ndim">
+int <code class="descname">ndim</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.ndim" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of dimensions the memory represents as an n-dimensional array.
+If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.buf" title="Py_buffer.buf"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buf</span></code></a> points to a single item representing
+a scalar. In this case, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.shape" title="Py_buffer.shape"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.strides" title="Py_buffer.strides"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strides</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.suboffsets" title="Py_buffer.suboffsets"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suboffsets</span></code></a> MUST be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>The macro <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_MAX_NDIM</span></code> limits the maximum number of dimensions
+to 64. Exporters MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional
+buffers SHOULD be able to handle up to <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_MAX_NDIM</span></code> dimensions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.shape">
+Py_ssize_t *<code class="descname">shape</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.shape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> of length <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.ndim" title="Py_buffer.ndim"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span></code></a>
+indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array. Note that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape[0]</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">shape[ndim-1]</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">itemsize</span></code> MUST be equal to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.len" title="Py_buffer.len"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Shape values are restricted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape[n]</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>. The case
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape[n]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> requires special attention. See <a class="reference internal" href="#complex-arrays">complex arrays</a>
+for further information.</p>
+<p>The shape array is read-only for the consumer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.strides">
+Py_ssize_t *<code class="descname">strides</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.strides" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> of length <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.ndim" title="Py_buffer.ndim"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span></code></a>
+giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in each
+dimension.</p>
+<p>Stride values can be any integer. For regular arrays, strides are
+usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle the case
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strides[n]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>. See <a class="reference internal" href="#complex-arrays">complex arrays</a> for further information.</p>
+<p>The strides array is read-only for the consumer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.suboffsets">
+Py_ssize_t *<code class="descname">suboffsets</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.suboffsets" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> of length <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.ndim" title="Py_buffer.ndim"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span></code></a>.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suboffsets[n]</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, the values stored along the nth dimension are
+pointers and the suboffset value dictates how many bytes to add to each
+pointer after de-referencing. A suboffset value that is negative
+indicates that no de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous
+memory block).</p>
+<p>If all suboffsets are negative (i.e. no de-referencing is needed), then
+this field must be NULL (the default value).</p>
+<p>This type of array representation is used by the Python Imaging Library
+(PIL). See <a class="reference internal" href="#complex-arrays">complex arrays</a> for further information how to access elements
+of such an array.</p>
+<p>The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.Py_buffer.internal">
+void *<code class="descname">internal</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_buffer.internal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is for use internally by the exporting object. For example, this
+might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter and used to store flags
+about whether or not the shape, strides, and suboffsets arrays must be
+freed when the buffer is released. The consumer MUST NOT alter this
+value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="buffer-request-types">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Buffer request types<a class="headerlink" href="#buffer-request-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting
+object via <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a>. Since the complexity of the logical
+structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses the <em>flags</em>
+argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle.</p>
+<p>All <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></a> fields are unambiguously defined by the request
+type.</p>
+<div class="section" id="request-independent-fields">
+<h3>request-independent fields<a class="headerlink" href="#request-independent-fields" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following fields are not influenced by <em>flags</em> and must always be filled in
+with the correct values: <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.obj" title="Py_buffer.obj"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.buf" title="Py_buffer.buf"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buf</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.len" title="Py_buffer.len"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Py_buffer.itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.ndim" title="Py_buffer.ndim"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="readonly-format">
+<h3>readonly, format<a class="headerlink" href="#readonly-format" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_WRITABLE">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_WRITABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Controls the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.readonly" title="Py_buffer.readonly"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readonly</span></code></a> field. If set, the exporter
+MUST provide a writable buffer or else report failure. Otherwise, the
+exporter MAY provide either a read-only or writable buffer, but the choice
+MUST be consistent for all consumers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_FORMAT">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_FORMAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_FORMAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Controls the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.format" title="Py_buffer.format"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code></a> field. If set, this field MUST
+be filled in correctly. Otherwise, this field MUST be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div></blockquote>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE" title="PyBUF_WRITABLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITABLE</span></code></a> can be |’d to any of the flags in the next section.
+Since <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_SIMPLE" title="PyBUF_SIMPLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_SIMPLE</span></code></a> is defined as 0, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE" title="PyBUF_WRITABLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITABLE</span></code></a>
+can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a simple writable buffer.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_FORMAT" title="PyBUF_FORMAT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_FORMAT</span></code></a> can be |’d to any of the flags except <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_SIMPLE" title="PyBUF_SIMPLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_SIMPLE</span></code></a>.
+The latter already implies format <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> (unsigned bytes).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shape-strides-suboffsets">
+<h3>shape, strides, suboffsets<a class="headerlink" href="#shape-strides-suboffsets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed
+in decreasing order of complexity. Note that each flag contains all bits
+of the flags below it.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 51%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Request</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>shape</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>strides</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>suboffsets</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_INDIRECT">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_INDIRECT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_INDIRECT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>if needed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_STRIDES">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_STRIDES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_STRIDES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_ND">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_ND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_ND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_SIMPLE">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_SIMPLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_SIMPLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contiguity-requests">
+<span id="index-2"></span><h3>contiguity requests<a class="headerlink" href="#contiguity-requests" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>C or Fortran <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguity</span></a> can be explicitly requested,
+with and without stride information. Without stride information, the buffer
+must be C-contiguous.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Request</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>shape</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>strides</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>suboffsets</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>contig</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>C</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>F</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>C or F</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_ND</code></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>C</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compound-requests">
+<h3>compound requests<a class="headerlink" href="#compound-requests" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags in
+the previous section. For convenience, the buffer protocol provides frequently
+used combinations as single flags.</p>
+<p>In the following table <em>U</em> stands for undefined contiguity. The consumer would
+have to call <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBuffer_IsContiguous" title="PyBuffer_IsContiguous"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_IsContiguous()</span></code></a> to determine contiguity.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 8%" />
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 9%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 9%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Request</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>shape</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>strides</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>suboffsets</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>contig</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>readonly</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>format</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_FULL">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_FULL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_FULL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>if needed</p></td>
+<td><p>U</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_FULL_RO">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_FULL_RO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_FULL_RO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>if needed</p></td>
+<td><p>U</p></td>
+<td><p>1 or 0</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_RECORDS">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_RECORDS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_RECORDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>U</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_RECORDS_RO">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_RECORDS_RO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_RECORDS_RO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>U</p></td>
+<td><p>1 or 0</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_STRIDED">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_STRIDED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_STRIDED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>U</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_STRIDED_RO">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_STRIDED_RO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_STRIDED_RO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>U</p></td>
+<td><p>1 or 0</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_CONTIG">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_CONTIG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_CONTIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>C</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyBUF_CONTIG_RO">
+<code class="descname">PyBUF_CONTIG_RO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBUF_CONTIG_RO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+<td><p>C</p></td>
+<td><p>1 or 0</p></td>
+<td><p>NULL</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="complex-arrays">
+<h2>Complex arrays<a class="headerlink" href="#complex-arrays" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="numpy-style-shape-and-strides">
+<h3>NumPy-style: shape and strides<a class="headerlink" href="#numpy-style-shape-and-strides" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Py_buffer.itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.ndim" title="Py_buffer.ndim"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.shape" title="Py_buffer.shape"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.strides" title="Py_buffer.strides"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strides</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, the memory location pointed to by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.buf" title="Py_buffer.buf"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buf</span></code></a> is
+interpreted as a scalar of size <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Py_buffer.itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a>. In that case,
+both <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.shape" title="Py_buffer.shape"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.strides" title="Py_buffer.strides"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strides</span></code></a> are <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.strides" title="Py_buffer.strides"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strides</span></code></a> is <em>NULL</em>, the array is interpreted as
+a standard n-dimensional C-array. Otherwise, the consumer must access an
+n-dimensional array as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ptr</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">(char</span> <span class="pre">*)buf</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">indices[0]</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">strides[0]</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">indices[n-1]</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">strides[n-1]</span></code>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">item</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">*((typeof(item)</span> <span class="pre">*)ptr);</span></code></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>As noted above, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.buf" title="Py_buffer.buf"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buf</span></code></a> can point to any location within
+the actual memory block. An exporter can check the validity of a buffer with
+this function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">verify_structure</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">memlen</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">itemsize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ndim</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offset</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within</span>
+<span class="sd">       the bounds of the allocated memory:</span>
+<span class="sd">           char *mem: start of the physical memory block</span>
+<span class="sd">           memlen: length of the physical memory block</span>
+<span class="sd">           offset: (char *)buf - mem</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">offset</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">itemsize</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">False</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">offset</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">offset</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">itemsize</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">memlen</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">False</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">itemsize</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">False</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">ndim</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ndim</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">shape</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">strides</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">True</span>
+
+    <span class="n">imin</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ndim</span><span class="p">)</span>
+               <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">imax</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ndim</span><span class="p">)</span>
+               <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">offset</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">imin</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">offset</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">imax</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">itemsize</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">memlen</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets">
+<h3>PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets<a class="headerlink" href="#pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers
+that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a dimension.
+For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">v[2][2][3]</span></code> can
+also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2 two-dimensional arrays:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">(*v[2])[2][3]</span></code>. In suboffsets representation, those two pointers
+can be embedded at the start of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.buf" title="Py_buffer.buf"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buf</span></code></a>, pointing
+to two <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">x[2][3]</span></code> arrays that can be located anywhere in memory.</p>
+<p>Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array
+pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-NULL strides
+and suboffsets:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="nf">get_item_pointer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">ndim</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                       <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">suboffsets</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pointer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">ndim</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">pointer</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">strides</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">];</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">suboffsets</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span><span class="mi">0</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">pointer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="kt">char</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">suboffsets</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">];</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="buffer-related-functions">
+<h2>Buffer-related functions<a class="headerlink" href="#buffer-related-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_CheckBuffer">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_CheckBuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_CheckBuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if <em>obj</em> supports the buffer interface otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> is
+returned, it doesn’t guarantee that <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a> will
+succeed.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GetBuffer">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_GetBuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exporter</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a><em> *view</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a request to <em>exporter</em> to fill in <em>view</em> as specified by  <em>flags</em>.
+If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST raise
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BufferError</span></code>, set <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> to <em>NULL</em> and
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>On success, fill in <em>view</em>, set <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> to a new reference
+to <em>exporter</em> and return 0. In the case of chained buffer providers
+that redirect requests to a single object, <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> MAY
+refer to this object instead of <em>exporter</em> (See <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#buffer-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Object Structures</span></a>).</p>
+<p>Successful calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a> must be paired with calls
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a>, similar to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.
+Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a>
+must be called exactly once.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBuffer_Release">
+void <code class="descname">PyBuffer_Release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a><em> *view</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the buffer <em>view</em> and decrement the reference count for
+<code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code>. This function MUST be called when the buffer
+is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur.</p>
+<p>It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not obtained via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the implied <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.itemsize" title="Py_buffer.itemsize"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a> from <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer.format" title="Py_buffer.format"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code></a>.
+This function is not yet implemented.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBuffer_IsContiguous">
+int <code class="descname">PyBuffer_IsContiguous</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a><em> *view</em>, char<em> order</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBuffer_IsContiguous" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the memory defined by the <em>view</em> is C-style (<em>order</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code>) or Fortran-style (<em>order</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>) <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a> or either one
+(<em>order</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code>).  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBuffer_ToContiguous">
+int <code class="descname">PyBuffer_ToContiguous</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *buf</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a><em> *src</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> len</em>, char<em> order</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBuffer_ToContiguous" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy <em>len</em> bytes from <em>src</em> to its contiguous representation in <em>buf</em>.
+<em>order</em> can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code> (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering).
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is returned on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
+<p>This function fails if <em>len</em> != <em>src-&gt;len</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides">
+void <code class="descname">PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> ndims</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *shape</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *strides</em>, int<em> itemsize</em>, char<em> order</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fill the <em>strides</em> array with byte-strides of a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a> (C-style if
+<em>order</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code> or Fortran-style if <em>order</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>) array of the
+given shape with the given number of bytes per element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBuffer_FillInfo">
+int <code class="descname">PyBuffer_FillInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a><em> *view</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exporter</em>, void<em> *buf</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> len</em>, int<em> readonly</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBuffer_FillInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose <em>buf</em> of size <em>len</em>
+with writability set according to <em>readonly</em>. <em>buf</em> is interpreted as a sequence
+of unsigned bytes.</p>
+<p>The <em>flags</em> argument indicates the request type. This function always fills in
+<em>view</em> as specified by flags, unless <em>buf</em> has been designated as read-only
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE" title="PyBUF_WRITABLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITABLE</span></code></a> is set in <em>flags</em>.</p>
+<p>On success, set <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> to a new reference to <em>exporter</em> and
+return 0. Otherwise, raise <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BufferError</span></code>, set
+<code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> to <em>NULL</em> and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>;</p>
+<p>If this function is used as part of a <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#buffer-structs"><span class="std std-ref">getbufferproc</span></a>,
+<em>exporter</em> MUST be set to the exporting object and <em>flags</em> must be passed
+unmodified. Otherwise, <em>exporter</em> MUST be NULL.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Buffer Protocol</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#buffer-structure">Buffer structure</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#buffer-request-types">Buffer request types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#request-independent-fields">request-independent fields</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#readonly-format">readonly, format</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shape-strides-suboffsets">shape, strides, suboffsets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contiguity-requests">contiguity requests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compound-requests">compound requests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#complex-arrays">Complex arrays</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numpy-style-shape-and-strides">NumPy-style: shape and strides</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets">PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#buffer-related-functions">Buffer-related functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="iter.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Iterator Protocol</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="objbuffer.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Old Buffer Protocol</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bytearray.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bytearray.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84b87c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bytearray.html
@@ -0,0 +1,282 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Byte Array Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="byte-array-objects">
+<span id="bytearrayobjects"></span><h1>Byte Array Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#byte-array-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArrayObject">
+<code class="descname">PyByteArrayObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArrayObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python bytearray object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyByteArray_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python bytearray type;
+it is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="type-check-macros">
+<h2>Type check macros<a class="headerlink" href="#type-check-macros" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyByteArray_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a bytearray object or an instance of a
+subtype of the bytearray type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyByteArray_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a bytearray object, but not an instance of a
+subtype of the bytearray type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="direct-api-functions">
+<h2>Direct API functions<a class="headerlink" href="#direct-api-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_FromObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyByteArray_FromObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_FromObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new bytearray object from any object, <em>o</em>, that implements the
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer protocol</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *string</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new bytearray object from <em>string</em> and its length, <em>len</em>.  On
+failure, <em>NULL</em> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_Concat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyByteArray_Concat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *a</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_Concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Concat bytearrays <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> and return a new bytearray with the result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyByteArray_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *bytearray</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of <em>bytearray</em> after checking for a <em>NULL</em> pointer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_AsString">
+char* <code class="descname">PyByteArray_AsString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *bytearray</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_AsString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the contents of <em>bytearray</em> as a char array after checking for a
+<em>NULL</em> pointer.  The returned array always has an extra
+null byte appended.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_Resize">
+int <code class="descname">PyByteArray_Resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *bytearray</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_Resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resize the internal buffer of <em>bytearray</em> to <em>len</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="macros">
+<h2>Macros<a class="headerlink" href="#macros" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These macros trade safety for speed and they don’t check pointers.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_AS_STRING">
+char* <code class="descname">PyByteArray_AS_STRING</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *bytearray</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_AS_STRING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyByteArray_AsString" title="PyByteArray_AsString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyByteArray_AsString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyByteArray_GET_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyByteArray_GET_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *bytearray</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyByteArray_GET_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyByteArray_Size" title="PyByteArray_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyByteArray_Size()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Byte Array Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-check-macros">Type check macros</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#direct-api-functions">Direct API functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#macros">Macros</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bytes.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Bytes Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unicode.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Unicode Objects and Codecs</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bytes.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bytes.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d96365
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/bytes.html
@@ -0,0 +1,423 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Bytes Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="bytes-objects">
+<span id="bytesobjects"></span><h1>Bytes Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>These functions raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> when expecting a bytes parameter and are
+called with a non-bytes parameter.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyBytesObject">
+<code class="descname">PyBytesObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytesObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python bytes object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyBytes_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python bytes type; it
+is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyBytes_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a bytes object or an instance of a subtype
+of the bytes type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyBytes_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a bytes object, but not an instance of a
+subtype of the bytes type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_FromString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyBytes_FromString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_FromString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string <em>v</em> as value on success,
+and <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The parameter <em>v</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>; it will not be
+checked.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_FromStringAndSize">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyBytes_FromStringAndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *v</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_FromStringAndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string <em>v</em> as value and length
+<em>len</em> on success, and <em>NULL</em> on failure.  If <em>v</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the contents of
+the bytes object are uninitialized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_FromFormat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyBytes_FromFormat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_FromFormat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Take a C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf()</span></code>-style <em>format</em> string and a variable number of
+arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python bytes object and return
+a bytes object with the values formatted into it.  The variable arguments
+must be C types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the
+<em>format</em> string.  The following format characters are allowed:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Format Characters</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Comment</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%%</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>n/a</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The literal % character.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>A single byte,
+represented as a C int.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%d&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id1">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%u</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%u&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id2">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%ld</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%ld&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id3">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%lu</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%lu&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id4">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%zd</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Py_ssize_t</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%zd&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id5">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%zu</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>size_t</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%zu&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id6">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%i</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%i&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id7">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%x&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id8">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const char*</p></td>
+<td><p>A null-terminated C character
+array.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%p</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const void*</p></td>
+<td><p>The hex representation of a C
+pointer. Mostly equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%p&quot;)</span></code> except that
+it is guaranteed to start with
+the literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x</span></code> regardless
+of what the platform’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code> yields.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be
+copied as-is to the result object, and any extra arguments discarded.</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id9"><span class="brackets">1</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id1">1</a>,<a href="#id2">2</a>,<a href="#id3">3</a>,<a href="#id4">4</a>,<a href="#id5">5</a>,<a href="#id6">6</a>,<a href="#id7">7</a>,<a href="#id8">8</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion
+flag has effect even when a precision is given.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_FromFormatV">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyBytes_FromFormatV</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, va_list<em> vargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_FromFormatV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBytes_FromFormat" title="PyBytes_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_FromFormat()</span></code></a> except that it takes exactly two
+arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_FromObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyBytes_FromObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_FromObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the bytes representation of object <em>o</em> that implements the buffer
+protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyBytes_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the length of the bytes in bytes object <em>o</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_GET_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyBytes_GET_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_GET_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro form of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBytes_Size" title="PyBytes_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_Size()</span></code></a> but without error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_AsString">
+char* <code class="descname">PyBytes_AsString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_AsString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pointer to the contents of <em>o</em>.  The pointer
+refers to the internal buffer of <em>o</em>, which consists of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(o)</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>
+bytes.  The last byte in the buffer is always null, regardless of
+whether there are any other null bytes.  The data must not be
+modified in any way, unless the object was just created using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL,</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code>. It must not be deallocated.  If
+<em>o</em> is not a bytes object at all, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBytes_AsString" title="PyBytes_AsString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_AsString()</span></code></a> returns <em>NULL</em>
+and raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_AS_STRING">
+char* <code class="descname">PyBytes_AS_STRING</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_AS_STRING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro form of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBytes_AsString" title="PyBytes_AsString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_AsString()</span></code></a> but without error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_AsStringAndSize">
+int <code class="descname">PyBytes_AsStringAndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, char<em> **buffer</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_AsStringAndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the null-terminated contents of the object <em>obj</em>
+through the output variables <em>buffer</em> and <em>length</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>length</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the bytes object
+may not contain embedded null bytes;
+if it does, the function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>The buffer refers to an internal buffer of <em>obj</em>, which includes an
+additional null byte at the end (not counted in <em>length</em>).  The data
+must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just created using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL,</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code>.  It must not be deallocated.  If
+<em>obj</em> is not a bytes object at all, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBytes_AsStringAndSize" title="PyBytes_AsStringAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_AsStringAndSize()</span></code></a>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> was raised when embedded null bytes were
+encountered in the bytes object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_Concat">
+void <code class="descname">PyBytes_Concat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **bytes</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *newpart</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_Concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new bytes object in <em>*bytes</em> containing the contents of <em>newpart</em>
+appended to <em>bytes</em>; the caller will own the new reference.  The reference to
+the old value of <em>bytes</em> will be stolen.  If the new object cannot be
+created, the old reference to <em>bytes</em> will still be discarded and the value
+of <em>*bytes</em> will be set to <em>NULL</em>; the appropriate exception will be set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyBytes_ConcatAndDel">
+void <code class="descname">PyBytes_ConcatAndDel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **bytes</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *newpart</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBytes_ConcatAndDel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new bytes object in <em>*bytes</em> containing the contents of <em>newpart</em>
+appended to <em>bytes</em>.  This version decrements the reference count of
+<em>newpart</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyBytes_Resize">
+int <code class="descname">_PyBytes_Resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **bytes</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> newsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyBytes_Resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A way to resize a bytes object even though it is “immutable”. Only use this
+to build up a brand new bytes object; don’t use this if the bytes may already
+be known in other parts of the code.  It is an error to call this function if
+the refcount on the input bytes object is not one. Pass the address of an
+existing bytes object as an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size
+desired.  On success, <em>*bytes</em> holds the resized bytes object and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is
+returned; the address in <em>*bytes</em> may differ from its input value.  If the
+reallocation fails, the original bytes object at <em>*bytes</em> is deallocated,
+<em>*bytes</em> is set to <em>NULL</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> is set, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is
+returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="complex.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Complex Number Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bytearray.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Byte Array Objects</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+      </li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/capsule.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/capsule.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b788996
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/capsule.html
@@ -0,0 +1,331 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Capsules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="capsules">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Capsules<a class="headerlink" href="#capsules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/extending.html#using-capsules"><span class="std std-ref">Providing a C API for an Extension Module</span></a> for more information on using these objects.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule">
+<code class="descname">PyCapsule</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents an opaque value, useful for C
+extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code>
+pointer) through Python code to other C code.  It is often used to make a C
+function pointer defined in one module available to other modules, so the
+regular import mechanism can be used to access C APIs defined in dynamically
+loaded modules.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_Destructor">
+<code class="descname">PyCapsule_Destructor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_Destructor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of a destructor callback for a capsule.  Defined as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="nf">void</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">PyCapsule_Destructor</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_New" title="PyCapsule_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_New()</span></code></a> for the semantics of PyCapsule_Destructor
+callbacks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyCapsule_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if its argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule" title="PyCapsule"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCapsule_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *pointer</em>, const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_Destructor" title="PyCapsule_Destructor">PyCapsule_Destructor</a><em> destructor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule" title="PyCapsule"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule</span></code></a> encapsulating the <em>pointer</em>.  The <em>pointer</em>
+argument may not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>On failure, set an exception and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> string may either be <em>NULL</em> or a pointer to a valid C string.  If
+non-<em>NULL</em>, this string must outlive the capsule.  (Though it is permitted to
+free it inside the <em>destructor</em>.)</p>
+<p>If the <em>destructor</em> argument is not <em>NULL</em>, it will be called with the
+capsule as its argument when it is destroyed.</p>
+<p>If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the <em>name</em> should
+be specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulename.attributename</span></code>.  This will enable other modules
+to import the capsule using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_Import" title="PyCapsule_Import"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_Import()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_GetPointer">
+void* <code class="descname">PyCapsule_GetPointer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em>, const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_GetPointer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve the <em>pointer</em> stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception
+and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the capsule.
+If the name stored in the capsule is <em>NULL</em>, the <em>name</em> passed in must also
+be <em>NULL</em>.  Python uses the C function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strcmp()</span></code> to compare capsule
+names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_GetDestructor">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_Destructor" title="PyCapsule_Destructor">PyCapsule_Destructor</a> <code class="descname">PyCapsule_GetDestructor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_GetDestructor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current destructor stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an
+exception and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>It is legal for a capsule to have a <em>NULL</em> destructor.  This makes a <em>NULL</em>
+return code somewhat ambiguous; use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_IsValid" title="PyCapsule_IsValid"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_IsValid()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_GetContext">
+void* <code class="descname">PyCapsule_GetContext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_GetContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current context stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an
+exception and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>It is legal for a capsule to have a <em>NULL</em> context.  This makes a <em>NULL</em>
+return code somewhat ambiguous; use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_IsValid" title="PyCapsule_IsValid"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_IsValid()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_GetName">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyCapsule_GetName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_GetName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current name stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception
+and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>It is legal for a capsule to have a <em>NULL</em> name.  This makes a <em>NULL</em> return
+code somewhat ambiguous; use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_IsValid" title="PyCapsule_IsValid"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_IsValid()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_Import">
+void* <code class="descname">PyCapsule_Import</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, int<em> no_block</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_Import" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Import a pointer to a C object from a capsule attribute in a module.  The
+<em>name</em> parameter should specify the full name to the attribute, as in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.attribute</span></code>.  The <em>name</em> stored in the capsule must match this
+string exactly.  If <em>no_block</em> is true, import the module without blocking
+(using <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock" title="PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()</span></code></a>).  If <em>no_block</em> is false,
+import the module conventionally (using <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="PyImport_ImportModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Return the capsule’s internal <em>pointer</em> on success.  On failure, set an
+exception and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_IsValid">
+int <code class="descname">PyCapsule_IsValid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em>, const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_IsValid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determines whether or not <em>capsule</em> is a valid capsule.  A valid capsule is
+non-<em>NULL</em>, passes <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_CheckExact" title="PyCapsule_CheckExact"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_CheckExact()</span></code></a>, has a non-<em>NULL</em> pointer
+stored in it, and its internal name matches the <em>name</em> parameter.  (See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_GetPointer" title="PyCapsule_GetPointer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_GetPointer()</span></code></a> for information on how capsule names are
+compared.)</p>
+<p>In other words, if <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_IsValid" title="PyCapsule_IsValid"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_IsValid()</span></code></a> returns a true value, calls to
+any of the accessors (any function starting with <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_Get()</span></code>) are
+guaranteed to succeed.</p>
+<p>Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name passed in.
+Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.  This function will not fail.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_SetContext">
+int <code class="descname">PyCapsule_SetContext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em>, void<em> *context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_SetContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the context pointer inside <em>capsule</em> to <em>context</em>.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_SetDestructor">
+int <code class="descname">PyCapsule_SetDestructor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCapsule_Destructor" title="PyCapsule_Destructor">PyCapsule_Destructor</a><em> destructor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_SetDestructor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the destructor inside <em>capsule</em> to <em>destructor</em>.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_SetName">
+int <code class="descname">PyCapsule_SetName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em>, const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_SetName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the name inside <em>capsule</em> to <em>name</em>.  If non-<em>NULL</em>, the name must
+outlive the capsule.  If the previous <em>name</em> stored in the capsule was not
+<em>NULL</em>, no attempt is made to free it.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCapsule_SetPointer">
+int <code class="descname">PyCapsule_SetPointer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *capsule</em>, void<em> *pointer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCapsule_SetPointer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the void pointer inside <em>capsule</em> to <em>pointer</em>.  The pointer may not be
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/cell.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/cell.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02c3339
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/cell.html
@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>Cell Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    </div>    
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="cell-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Cell Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cell-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>“Cell” objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple scopes.
+For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the value; the local
+variables of each stack frame that references the value contains a reference to
+the cells from outer scopes which also use that variable.  When the value is
+accessed, the value contained in the cell is used instead of the cell object
+itself.  This de-referencing of the cell object requires support from the
+generated byte-code; these are not automatically de-referenced when accessed.
+Cell objects are not likely to be useful elsewhere.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCellObject">
+<code class="descname">PyCellObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCellObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure used for cell objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyCell_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyCell_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCell_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object corresponding to cell objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCell_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyCell_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>ob<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCell_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is a cell object; <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCell_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCell_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCell_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create and return a new cell object containing the value <em>ob</em>. The parameter may
+be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCell_Get">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCell_Get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cell</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCell_Get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the contents of the cell <em>cell</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCell_GET">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCell_GET</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cell</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCell_GET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the contents of the cell <em>cell</em>, but without checking that <em>cell</em> is
+non-<em>NULL</em> and a cell object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCell_Set">
+int <code class="descname">PyCell_Set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cell</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCell_Set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the contents of the cell object <em>cell</em> to <em>value</em>.  This releases the
+reference to any current content of the cell. <em>value</em> may be <em>NULL</em>.  <em>cell</em>
+must be non-<em>NULL</em>; if it is not a cell object, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> will be returned.  On
+success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> will be returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCell_SET">
+void <code class="descname">PyCell_SET</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cell</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCell_SET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the value of the cell object <em>cell</em> to <em>value</em>.  No reference counts are
+adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; <em>cell</em> must be non-<em>NULL</em> and must
+be a cell object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="method.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Instance Method Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="code.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Code Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/cell.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+      </ul>
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+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
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+    <br />
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+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
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+</html>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/code.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/code.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6579458
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/code.html
@@ -0,0 +1,229 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Code Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
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+    <link rel="prev" title="Cell Objects" href="cell.html" />
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+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/code.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="file.html" title="File Objects"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="cell.html" title="Cell Objects"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+        </li>
+
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <span class="target" id="codeobjects"></span><div class="section" id="code-objects">
+<span id="index-0"></span><h1>Code Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#code-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Code objects are a low-level detail of the CPython implementation.
+Each one represents a chunk of executable code that hasn’t yet been
+bound into a function.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCodeObject">
+<code class="descname">PyCodeObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodeObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure of the objects used to describe code objects.  The
+fields of this type are subject to change at any time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyCode_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyCode_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCode_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> representing the Python
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCode_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyCode_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *co</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCode_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>co</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCode_GetNumFree">
+int <code class="descname">PyCode_GetNumFree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCodeObject" title="PyCodeObject">PyCodeObject</a><em> *co</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCode_GetNumFree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of free variables in <em>co</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCode_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCodeObject" title="PyCodeObject">PyCodeObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCode_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> argcount</em>, int<em> kwonlyargcount</em>, int<em> nlocals</em>, int<em> stacksize</em>, int<em> flags</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *code</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *consts</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *names</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *varnames</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *freevars</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cellvars</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filename</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, int<em> firstlineno</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *lnotab</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCode_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new code object.  If you need a dummy code object to
+create a frame, use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCode_NewEmpty" title="PyCode_NewEmpty"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCode_NewEmpty()</span></code></a> instead.  Calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCode_New" title="PyCode_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCode_New()</span></code></a> directly can bind you to a precise Python
+version since the definition of the bytecode changes often.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCode_NewEmpty">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCodeObject" title="PyCodeObject">PyCodeObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCode_NewEmpty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *filename</em>, const char<em> *funcname</em>, int<em> firstlineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCode_NewEmpty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new empty code object with the specified filename,
+function name, and first line number.  It is illegal to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> the resulting code object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cell.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Cell Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="file.html"
+                        title="next chapter">File Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/code.rst"
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+        </a>
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+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" >Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
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+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="codec-registry-and-support-functions">
+<span id="codec-registry"></span><h1>Codec registry and support functions<a class="headerlink" href="#codec-registry-and-support-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_Register">
+int <code class="descname">PyCodec_Register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *search_function</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_Register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a new codec search function.</p>
+<p>As side effect, this tries to load the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings</span></code> package, if not yet
+done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of search functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_KnownEncoding">
+int <code class="descname">PyCodec_KnownEncoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_KnownEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether there is a registered codec for
+the given <em>encoding</em>.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_Encode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_Encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *object</em>, const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_Encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Generic codec based encoding API.</p>
+<p><em>object</em> is passed through the encoder function found for the given
+<em>encoding</em> using the error handling method defined by <em>errors</em>.  <em>errors</em> may
+be <em>NULL</em> to use the default method defined for the codec.  Raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> if no encoder can be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_Decode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_Decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *object</em>, const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_Decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Generic codec based decoding API.</p>
+<p><em>object</em> is passed through the decoder function found for the given
+<em>encoding</em> using the error handling method defined by <em>errors</em>.  <em>errors</em> may
+be <em>NULL</em> to use the default method defined for the codec.  Raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> if no encoder can be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="codec-lookup-api">
+<h2>Codec lookup API<a class="headerlink" href="#codec-lookup-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In the following functions, the <em>encoding</em> string is looked up converted to all
+lower-case characters, which makes encodings looked up through this mechanism
+effectively case-insensitive.  If no codec is found, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is set
+and <em>NULL</em> returned.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_Encoder">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_Encoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_Encoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Get an encoder function for the given <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_Decoder">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_Decoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_Decoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Get a decoder function for the given <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Get an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalEncoder</span></code></a> object for the given <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Get an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a> object for the given <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_StreamReader">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_StreamReader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *stream</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_StreamReader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Get a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> factory function for the given <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_StreamWriter">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_StreamWriter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *stream</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_StreamWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Get a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> factory function for the given <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers">
+<h2>Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_RegisterError">
+int <code class="descname">PyCodec_RegisterError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *error</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_RegisterError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the error handling callback function <em>error</em> under the given <em>name</em>.
+This callback function will be called by a codec when it encounters
+unencodable characters/undecodable bytes and <em>name</em> is specified as the error
+parameter in the call to the encode/decode function.</p>
+<p>The callback gets a single argument, an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeTranslateError" title="UnicodeTranslateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeTranslateError</span></code></a> that holds information about the problematic
+sequence of characters or bytes and their offset in the original string (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#unicodeexceptions"><span class="std std-ref">Unicode Exception Objects</span></a> for functions to extract this information).  The
+callback must either raise the given exception, or return a two-item tuple
+containing the replacement for the problematic sequence, and an integer
+giving the offset in the original string at which encoding/decoding should be
+resumed.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_LookupError">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_LookupError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_LookupError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Lookup the error handling callback function registered under <em>name</em>.  As a
+special case <em>NULL</em> can be passed, in which case the error handling callback
+for “strict” will be returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_StrictErrors">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_StrictErrors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_StrictErrors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Raise <em>exc</em> as an exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_IgnoreErrors">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_IgnoreErrors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_IgnoreErrors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Ignore the unicode error, skipping the faulty input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_ReplaceErrors">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_ReplaceErrors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_ReplaceErrors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Replace the unicode encode error with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FFFD</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Replace the unicode encode error with XML character references.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Replace the unicode encode error with backslash escapes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\U</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Replace the unicode encode error with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{...}</span></code> escapes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Codec registry and support functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#codec-lookup-api">Codec lookup API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers">Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+                        title="previous chapter">Reflection</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="complex-number-objects">
+<span id="complexobjects"></span><h1>Complex Number Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#complex-number-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">Python’s complex number objects are implemented as two distinct types when
+viewed from the C API:  one is the Python object exposed to Python programs, and
+the other is a C structure which represents the actual complex number value.
+The API provides functions for working with both.</p>
+<div class="section" id="complex-numbers-as-c-structures">
+<h2>Complex Numbers as C Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#complex-numbers-as-c-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Note that the functions which accept these structures as parameters and return
+them as results do so <em>by value</em> rather than dereferencing them through
+pointers.  This is consistent throughout the API.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.Py_complex">
+<code class="descname">Py_complex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python complex
+number object.  Most of the functions for dealing with complex number objects
+use structures of this type as input or output values, as appropriate.  It is
+defined as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+   <span class="kt">double</span> <span class="n">real</span><span class="p">;</span>
+   <span class="kt">double</span> <span class="n">imag</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">Py_complex</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._Py_c_sum">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a> <code class="descname">_Py_c_sum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> left</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> right</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._Py_c_sum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sum of two complex numbers, using the C <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a>
+representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._Py_c_diff">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a> <code class="descname">_Py_c_diff</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> left</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> right</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._Py_c_diff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the difference between two complex numbers, using the C
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a> representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._Py_c_neg">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a> <code class="descname">_Py_c_neg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> complex</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._Py_c_neg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the negation of the complex number <em>complex</em>, using the C
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a> representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._Py_c_prod">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a> <code class="descname">_Py_c_prod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> left</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> right</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._Py_c_prod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the product of two complex numbers, using the C <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a>
+representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._Py_c_quot">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a> <code class="descname">_Py_c_quot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> dividend</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> divisor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._Py_c_quot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the quotient of two complex numbers, using the C <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a>
+representation.</p>
+<p>If <em>divisor</em> is null, this method returns zero and sets
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EDOM</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._Py_c_pow">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a> <code class="descname">_Py_c_pow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> num</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> exp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._Py_c_pow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the exponentiation of <em>num</em> by <em>exp</em>, using the C <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a>
+representation.</p>
+<p>If <em>num</em> is null and <em>exp</em> is not a positive real number,
+this method returns zero and sets <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EDOM</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="complex-numbers-as-python-objects">
+<h2>Complex Numbers as Python Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#complex-numbers-as-python-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyComplexObject">
+<code class="descname">PyComplexObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplexObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python complex number object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyComplex_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python complex number
+type. It is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyComplex_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if its argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyComplexObject" title="PyComplexObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyComplexObject</span></code></a> or a subtype of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyComplexObject" title="PyComplexObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyComplexObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyComplex_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if its argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyComplexObject" title="PyComplexObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyComplexObject</span></code></a>, but not a subtype of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyComplexObject" title="PyComplexObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyComplexObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_FromCComplex">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyComplex_FromCComplex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a><em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_FromCComplex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new Python complex number object from a C <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a> value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_FromDoubles">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyComplex_FromDoubles</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>double<em> real</em>, double<em> imag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_FromDoubles" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyComplexObject" title="PyComplexObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyComplexObject</span></code></a> object from <em>real</em> and <em>imag</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_RealAsDouble">
+double <code class="descname">PyComplex_RealAsDouble</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_RealAsDouble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the real part of <em>op</em> as a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_ImagAsDouble">
+double <code class="descname">PyComplex_ImagAsDouble</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_ImagAsDouble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the imaginary part of <em>op</em> as a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyComplex_AsCComplex">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex">Py_complex</a> <code class="descname">PyComplex_AsCComplex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyComplex_AsCComplex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_complex" title="Py_complex"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></a> value of the complex number <em>op</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>op</em> is not a Python complex number object but has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__complex__" title="object.__complex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__()</span></code></a>
+method, this method will first be called to convert <em>op</em> to a Python complex
+number object. Upon failure, this method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code> as a real value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Complex Number Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#complex-numbers-as-c-structures">Complex Numbers as C Structures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#complex-numbers-as-python-objects">Complex Numbers as Python Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="concrete-objects-layer">
+<span id="concrete"></span><h1>Concrete Objects Layer<a class="headerlink" href="#concrete-objects-layer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The functions in this chapter are specific to certain Python object types.
+Passing them an object of the wrong type is not a good idea; if you receive an
+object from a Python program and you are not sure that it has the right type,
+you must perform a type check first; for example, to check that an object is a
+dictionary, use <a class="reference internal" href="dict.html#c.PyDict_Check" title="PyDict_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_Check()</span></code></a>.  The chapter is structured like the
+“family tree” of Python object types.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>While the functions described in this chapter carefully check the type of the
+objects which are passed in, many of them do not check for <em>NULL</em> being passed
+instead of a valid object.  Allowing <em>NULL</em> to be passed in can cause memory
+access violations and immediate termination of the interpreter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fundamental-objects">
+<span id="fundamental"></span><h2>Fundamental Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#fundamental-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section describes Python type objects and the singleton object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="type.html">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="none.html">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> Object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="numeric-objects">
+<span id="numericobjects"></span><h2>Numeric Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#numeric-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound" id="index-0">
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="long.html">Integer Objects</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="float.html">Floating Point Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="complex.html">Complex Number Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="complex.html#complex-numbers-as-c-structures">Complex Numbers as C Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="complex.html#complex-numbers-as-python-objects">Complex Numbers as Python Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sequence-objects">
+<span id="sequenceobjects"></span><h2>Sequence Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#sequence-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-1">Generic operations on sequence objects were discussed in the previous chapter;
+this section deals with the specific kinds of sequence objects that are
+intrinsic to the Python language.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="bytes.html">Bytes Objects</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bytearray.html#direct-api-functions">Direct API functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bytearray.html#macros">Macros</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html">Unicode Objects and Codecs</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#unicode-type">Unicode Type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#unicode-character-properties">Unicode Character Properties</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#creating-and-accessing-unicode-strings">Creating and accessing Unicode strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#deprecated-py-unicode-apis">Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#wchar-t-support">wchar_t Support</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#built-in-codecs">Built-in Codecs</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#mbcs-codecs-for-windows">MBCS codecs for Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#methods-slots">Methods &amp; Slots</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#methods-and-slot-functions">Methods and Slot Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html">Tuple Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#struct-sequence-objects">Struct Sequence Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="list.html">List Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="container-objects">
+<span id="mapobjects"></span><h2>Container Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#container-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound" id="index-2">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="dict.html">Dictionary Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="set.html">Set Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="function-objects">
+<span id="otherobjects"></span><h2>Function Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#function-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="function.html">Function Objects</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="code.html">Code Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-objects">
+<h2>Other Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#other-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="file.html">File Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="module.html">Module Objects</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="module.html#single-phase-initialization">Single-phase initialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="module.html#multi-phase-initialization">Multi-phase initialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="module.html#low-level-module-creation-functions">Low-level module creation functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="module.html#support-functions">Support functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="module.html#module-lookup">Module lookup</a></li>
+</ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="iterator.html">Iterator Objects</a></li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequence-objects">Sequence Objects</a></li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#function-objects">Function Objects</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/contextvars.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/contextvars.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7597b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/contextvars.html
@@ -0,0 +1,350 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>Context Variables Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="context-variables-objects">
+<span id="contextvarsobjects"></span><h1>Context Variables Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#context-variables-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionchanged" id="contextvarsobjects-pointertype-change">
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.1: </span><p>In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables
+C APIs were <strong>changed</strong> to use <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> pointers instead
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyContext" title="PyContext"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyContext</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyContextVar" title="PyContextVar"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyContextVar</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyContextToken" title="PyContextToken"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyContextToken</span></code></a>, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// in 3.7.0:</span>
+<span class="n">PyContext</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="nf">PyContext_New</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+<span class="c1">// in 3.7.1+:</span>
+<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="nf">PyContext_New</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34762">bpo-34762</a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>This section details the public C API for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyContext">
+<code class="descname">PyContext</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure used to represent a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context" title="contextvars.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars.Context</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyContextVar">
+<code class="descname">PyContextVar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure used to represent a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar" title="contextvars.ContextVar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars.ContextVar</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyContextToken">
+<code class="descname">PyContextToken</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextToken" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure used to represent a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars.Token</span></code> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyContext_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object representing the <em>context</em> type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyContextVar_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyContextVar_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextVar_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object representing the <em>context variable</em> type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyContextToken_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyContextToken_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextToken_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object representing the <em>context variable token</em> type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Type-check macros:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyContext_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>o</em> is of type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyContext_Type" title="PyContext_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyContext_Type</span></code></a>. <em>o</em> must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContextVar_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyContextVar_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextVar_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>o</em> is of type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyContextVar_Type" title="PyContextVar_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyContextVar_Type</span></code></a>. <em>o</em> must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContextToken_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyContextToken_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextToken_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>o</em> is of type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyContextToken_Type" title="PyContextToken_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyContextToken_Type</span></code></a>.
+<em>o</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Context object management functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyContext_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new empty context object.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> if an error
+has occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_Copy">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyContext_Copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ctx</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_Copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a shallow copy of the passed <em>ctx</em> context object.
+Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> if an error has occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_CopyCurrent">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyContext_CopyCurrent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_CopyCurrent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a shallow copy of the current thread context.
+Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> if an error has occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_Enter">
+int <code class="descname">PyContext_Enter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ctx</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_Enter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>ctx</em> as the current context for the current thread.
+Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_Exit">
+int <code class="descname">PyContext_Exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ctx</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_Exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deactivate the <em>ctx</em> context and restore the previous context as the
+current context for the current thread.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContext_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PyContext_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContext_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the context variable free list. Return the total number of
+freed items.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Context variable functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContextVar_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyContextVar_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextVar_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar</span></code> object.  The <em>name</em> parameter is used
+for introspection and debug purposes.  The <em>def</em> parameter may optionally
+specify the default value for the context variable.  If an error has
+occurred, this function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContextVar_Get">
+int <code class="descname">PyContextVar_Get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *var</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *default_value</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextVar_Get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the value of a context variable.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an error has
+occurred during lookup, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if no error occurred, whether or not
+a value was found.</p>
+<p>If the context variable was found, <em>value</em> will be a pointer to it.
+If the context variable was <em>not</em> found, <em>value</em> will point to:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>default_value</em>, if not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>;</p></li>
+<li><p>the default value of <em>var</em>, if not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If the value was found, the function will create a new reference to it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContextVar_Set">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyContextVar_Set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *var</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextVar_Set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Set the value of <em>var</em> to <em>value</em> in the current context.  Returns a
+pointer to a <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> object, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> if an error
+has occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyContextVar_Reset">
+int <code class="descname">PyContextVar_Reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *var</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *token</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyContextVar_Reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the state of the <em>var</em> context variable to that it was in before
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyContextVar_Set" title="PyContextVar_Set"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyContextVar_Set()</span></code></a> that returned the <em>token</em> was called.
+This function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="coro.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Coroutine Objects</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="datetime.html"
+                        title="next chapter">DateTime Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/conversion.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/conversion.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43ee002
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/conversion.html
@@ -0,0 +1,300 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>String conversion and formatting &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="string-conversion-and-formatting">
+<span id="string-conversion"></span><h1>String conversion and formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#string-conversion-and-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Functions for number conversion and formatted string output.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_snprintf">
+int <code class="descname">PyOS_snprintf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>char<em> *str</em>, size_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_snprintf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Output not more than <em>size</em> bytes to <em>str</em> according to the format string
+<em>format</em> and the extra arguments. See the Unix man page <em class="manpage">snprintf(2)</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_vsnprintf">
+int <code class="descname">PyOS_vsnprintf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>char<em> *str</em>, size_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, va_list<em> va</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_vsnprintf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Output not more than <em>size</em> bytes to <em>str</em> according to the format string
+<em>format</em> and the variable argument list <em>va</em>. Unix man page
+<em class="manpage">vsnprintf(2)</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyOS_snprintf" title="PyOS_snprintf"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_snprintf()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyOS_vsnprintf" title="PyOS_vsnprintf"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_vsnprintf()</span></code></a> wrap the Standard C library
+functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">snprintf()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vsnprintf()</span></code>. Their purpose is to
+guarantee consistent behavior in corner cases, which the Standard C functions do
+not.</p>
+<p>The wrappers ensure that <em>str*[*size</em>-1] is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\0'</span></code> upon return. They
+never write more than <em>size</em> bytes (including the trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\0'</span></code>) into str.
+Both functions require that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span> <span class="pre">!=</span>
+<span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the platform doesn’t have <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vsnprintf()</span></code> and the buffer size needed to
+avoid truncation exceeds <em>size</em> by more than 512 bytes, Python aborts with a
+<em>Py_FatalError</em>.</p>
+<p>The return value (<em>rv</em>) for these functions should be interpreted as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">rv</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">size</span></code>, the output conversion was successful and <em>rv</em>
+characters were written to <em>str</em> (excluding the trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\0'</span></code> byte at
+<em>str*[*rv</em>]).</p></li>
+<li><p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rv</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">size</span></code>, the output conversion was truncated and a buffer with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rv</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> bytes would have been needed to succeed. <em>str*[*size</em>-1] is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\0'</span></code>
+in this case.</p></li>
+<li><p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rv</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, “something bad happened.” <em>str*[*size</em>-1] is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\0'</span></code> in
+this case too, but the rest of <em>str</em> is undefined. The exact cause of the error
+depends on the underlying platform.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The following functions provide locale-independent string to number conversions.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_string_to_double">
+double <code class="descname">PyOS_string_to_double</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, char<em> **endptr</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *overflow_exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_string_to_double" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> to a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>, raising a Python
+exception on failure.  The set of accepted strings corresponds to
+the set of strings accepted by Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a> constructor,
+except that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> must not have leading or trailing whitespace.
+The conversion is independent of the current locale.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endptr</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, convert the whole string.  Raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code> if the string is not a valid
+representation of a floating-point number.</p>
+<p>If endptr is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, convert as much of the string as
+possible and set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*endptr</span></code> to point to the first unconverted
+character.  If no initial segment of the string is the valid
+representation of a floating-point number, set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*endptr</span></code> to point
+to the beginning of the string, raise ValueError, and return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> represents a value that is too large to store in a float
+(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;1e500&quot;</span></code> is such a string on many platforms) then
+if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">overflow_exception</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_HUGE_VAL</span></code> (with
+an appropriate sign) and don’t set any exception.  Otherwise,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">overflow_exception</span></code> must point to a Python exception object;
+raise that exception and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code>.  In both cases, set
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*endptr</span></code> to point to the first character after the converted value.</p>
+<p>If any other error occurs during the conversion (for example an
+out-of-memory error), set the appropriate Python exception and
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_double_to_string">
+char* <code class="descname">PyOS_double_to_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>double<em> val</em>, char<em> format_code</em>, int<em> precision</em>, int<em> flags</em>, int<em> *ptype</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_double_to_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> <em>val</em> to a string using supplied
+<em>format_code</em>, <em>precision</em>, and <em>flags</em>.</p>
+<p><em>format_code</em> must be one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'E'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'G'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>.  For <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, the supplied <em>precision</em>
+must be 0 and is ignored.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> format code specifies the
+standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> format.</p>
+<p><em>flags</em> can be zero or more of the values <em>Py_DTSF_SIGN</em>,
+<em>Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0</em>, or <em>Py_DTSF_ALT</em>, or-ed together:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>Py_DTSF_SIGN</em> means to always precede the returned string with a sign
+character, even if <em>val</em> is non-negative.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0</em> means to ensure that the returned string will not look
+like an integer.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Py_DTSF_ALT</em> means to apply “alternate” formatting rules.  See the
+documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyOS_snprintf" title="PyOS_snprintf"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_snprintf()</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code> specifier for
+details.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>ptype</em> is non-NULL, then the value it points to will be set to one of
+<em>Py_DTST_FINITE</em>, <em>Py_DTST_INFINITE</em>, or <em>Py_DTST_NAN</em>, signifying that
+<em>val</em> is a finite number, an infinite number, or not a number, respectively.</p>
+<p>The return value is a pointer to <em>buffer</em> with the converted string or
+<em>NULL</em> if the conversion failed. The caller is responsible for freeing the
+returned string by calling <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_stricmp">
+int <code class="descname">PyOS_stricmp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s1</em>, const char<em> *s2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_stricmp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost
+identically to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strcmp()</span></code> except that it ignores the case.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_strnicmp">
+int <code class="descname">PyOS_strnicmp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s1</em>, const char<em> *s2</em>, Py_ssize_t <em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_strnicmp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost
+identically to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strncmp()</span></code> except that it ignores the case.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="arg.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Parsing arguments and building values</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="reflection.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Reflection</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
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+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/coro.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/coro.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4614040
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/coro.html
@@ -0,0 +1,215 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Coroutine Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+         |
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="coroutine-objects">
+<span id="coro-objects"></span><h1>Coroutine Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#coroutine-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Coroutine objects are what functions declared with an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> keyword
+return.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCoroObject">
+<code class="descname">PyCoroObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCoroObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure used for coroutine objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyCoro_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyCoro_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCoro_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object corresponding to coroutine objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCoro_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyCoro_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCoro_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em>’s type is <em>PyCoro_Type</em>; <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCoro_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCoro_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a><em> *frame</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *qualname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCoro_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create and return a new coroutine object based on the <em>frame</em> object,
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code> set to <em>name</em> and <em>qualname</em>.
+A reference to <em>frame</em> is stolen by this function.  The <em>frame</em> argument
+must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="gen.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Generator Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="contextvars.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Context Variables Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
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+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+  <div class="section" id="datetime-objects">
+<span id="datetimeobjects"></span><h1>DateTime Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Various date and time objects are supplied by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module.
+Before using any of these functions, the header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.h</span></code> must be
+included in your source (note that this is not included by <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code>),
+and the macro <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_IMPORT</span></code> must be invoked, usually as part of
+the module initialisation function.  The macro puts a pointer to a C structure
+into a static variable, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTimeAPI</span></code>, that is used by the following
+macros.</p>
+<p>Macro for access to the UTC singleton:</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the time zone singleton representing UTC, the same object as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.utc" title="datetime.timezone.utc"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timezone.utc</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Type-check macros:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDate_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyDate_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDate_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateType</span></code> or a subtype of
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateType</span></code>.  <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDate_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyDate_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDate_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateType</span></code>. <em>ob</em> must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateTimeType</span></code> or a subtype of
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateTimeType</span></code>.  <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateTimeType</span></code>. <em>ob</em> must not
+be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTime_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyTime_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTime_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_TimeType</span></code> or a subtype of
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_TimeType</span></code>.  <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTime_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyTime_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTime_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_TimeType</span></code>. <em>ob</em> must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDelta_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyDelta_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDelta_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DeltaType</span></code> or a subtype of
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DeltaType</span></code>.  <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDelta_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyDelta_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDelta_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DeltaType</span></code>. <em>ob</em> must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTZInfo_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyTZInfo_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTZInfo_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_TZInfoType</span></code> or a subtype of
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_TZInfoType</span></code>.  <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTZInfo_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyTZInfo_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTZInfo_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is of type <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_TZInfoType</span></code>. <em>ob</em> must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Macros to create objects:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDate_FromDate">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDate_FromDate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> year</em>, int<em> month</em>, int<em> day</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDate_FromDate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> object with the specified year, month and day.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> year</em>, int<em> month</em>, int<em> day</em>, int<em> hour</em>, int<em> minute</em>, int<em> second</em>, int<em> usecond</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> object with the specified year, month, day, hour,
+minute, second and microsecond.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> year</em>, int<em> month</em>, int<em> day</em>, int<em> hour</em>, int<em> minute</em>, int<em> second</em>, int<em> usecond</em>, int<em> fold</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> object with the specified year, month, day, hour,
+minute, second, microsecond and fold.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTime_FromTime">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTime_FromTime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> hour</em>, int<em> minute</em>, int<em> second</em>, int<em> usecond</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTime_FromTime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time</span></code></a> object with the specified hour, minute, second and
+microsecond.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTime_FromTimeAndFold">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTime_FromTimeAndFold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> hour</em>, int<em> minute</em>, int<em> second</em>, int<em> usecond</em>, int<em> fold</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTime_FromTimeAndFold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time</span></code></a> object with the specified hour, minute, second,
+microsecond and fold.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDelta_FromDSU">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDelta_FromDSU</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> days</em>, int<em> seconds</em>, int<em> useconds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDelta_FromDSU" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timedelta</span></code></a> object representing the given number
+of days, seconds and microseconds.  Normalization is performed so that the
+resulting number of microseconds and seconds lie in the ranges documented for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timedelta</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTimeZone_FromOffset">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTimeZone_FromOffset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_DeltaType*<em> offset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timezone</span></code></a> object with an unnamed fixed offset
+represented by the <em>offset</em> argument.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_DeltaType*<em> offset</em>, PyUnicode*<em> name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timezone</span></code></a> object with a fixed offset represented
+by the <em>offset</em> argument and with tzname <em>name</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Macros to extract fields from date objects.  The argument must be an instance of
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_Date</span></code>, including subclasses (such as
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateTime</span></code>).  The argument must not be <em>NULL</em>, and the type is
+not checked:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_GET_YEAR">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_GET_YEAR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Date<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_GET_YEAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the year, as a positive int.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_GET_MONTH">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_GET_MONTH</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Date<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_GET_MONTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the month, as an int from 1 through 12.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_GET_DAY">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_GET_DAY</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Date<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_GET_DAY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the day, as an int from 1 through 31.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Macros to extract fields from datetime objects.  The argument must be an
+instance of <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_DateTime</span></code>, including subclasses. The argument
+must not be <em>NULL</em>, and the type is not checked:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_DateTime<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_DateTime<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_DateTime<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_DateTime<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Macros to extract fields from time objects.  The argument must be an instance of
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_Time</span></code>, including subclasses. The argument must not be <em>NULL</em>,
+and the type is not checked:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Time<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Time<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Time<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Time<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Macros to extract fields from time delta objects.  The argument must be an
+instance of <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_Delta</span></code>, including subclasses. The argument must
+not be <em>NULL</em>, and the type is not checked:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Delta<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of days, as an int from -999999999 to 999999999.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Delta<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of seconds, as an int from 0 through 86399.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS">
+int <code class="descname">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyDateTime_Delta<em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of microseconds, as an int from 0 through 999999.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDateTime_FromTimestamp">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDateTime_FromTimestamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDateTime_FromTimestamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create and return a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> object given an argument
+tuple suitable for passing to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDate_FromTimestamp">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDate_FromTimestamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDate_FromTimestamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create and return a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> object given an argument
+tuple suitable for passing to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.date.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date.fromtimestamp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/descriptor.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/descriptor.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c507f6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/descriptor.html
@@ -0,0 +1,229 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Descriptor Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="descriptor-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Descriptor Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#descriptor-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>“Descriptors” are objects that describe some attribute of an object. They are
+found in the dictionary of type objects.</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyProperty_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyProperty_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyProperty_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object for the built-in descriptor types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDescr_NewGetSet">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDescr_NewGetSet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, struct <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef">PyGetSetDef</a><em> *getset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDescr_NewGetSet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDescr_NewMember">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDescr_NewMember</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, struct <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef">PyMemberDef</a><em> *meth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDescr_NewMember" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDescr_NewMethod">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDescr_NewMethod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, struct <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef">PyMethodDef</a><em> *meth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDescr_NewMethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDescr_NewWrapper">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDescr_NewWrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, struct wrapperbase<em> *wrapper</em>, void<em> *wrapped</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDescr_NewWrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDescr_NewClassMethod">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDescr_NewClassMethod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef">PyMethodDef</a><em> *method</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDescr_NewClassMethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDescr_IsData">
+int <code class="descname">PyDescr_IsData</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *descr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDescr_IsData" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the descriptor objects <em>descr</em> describes a data attribute, or
+false if it describes a method.  <em>descr</em> must be a descriptor object; there is
+no error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWrapper_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyWrapper_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWrapper_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em></dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/dict.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/dict.html
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+
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+    <title>Dictionary Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="dictionary-objects">
+<span id="dictobjects"></span><h1>Dictionary Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#dictionary-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyDictObject">
+<code class="descname">PyDictObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDictObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python dictionary object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyDict_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python dictionary
+type.  This is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a dict object or an instance of a subtype of the dict
+type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a dict object, but not an instance of a subtype of
+the dict type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new empty dictionary, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDictProxy_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDictProxy_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mapping</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDictProxy_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.MappingProxyType</span></code></a> object for a mapping which
+enforces read-only behavior.  This is normally used to create a view to
+prevent modification of the dictionary for non-dynamic class types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Clear">
+void <code class="descname">PyDict_Clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Empty an existing dictionary of all key-value pairs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Contains">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_Contains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Contains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine if dictionary <em>p</em> contains <em>key</em>.  If an item in <em>p</em> is matches
+<em>key</em>, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  On error, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.
+This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">p</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Copy">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_Copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new dictionary that contains the same key-value pairs as <em>p</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_SetItem">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_SetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_SetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert <em>value</em> into the dictionary <em>p</em> with a key of <em>key</em>.  <em>key</em> must be
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>; if it isn’t, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised. Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_SetItemString">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_SetItemString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, const char<em> *key</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_SetItemString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Insert <em>value</em> into the dictionary <em>p</em> using <em>key</em> as a key. <em>key</em> should
+be a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char*</span></code>.  The key object is created using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromString(key)</span></code>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_DelItem">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_DelItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_DelItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the entry in dictionary <em>p</em> with key <em>key</em>. <em>key</em> must be hashable;
+if it isn’t, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_DelItemString">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_DelItemString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, const char<em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_DelItemString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the entry in dictionary <em>p</em> which has a key specified by the string
+<em>key</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_GetItem">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_GetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_GetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the object from dictionary <em>p</em> which has a key <em>key</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em>
+if the key <em>key</em> is not present, but <em>without</em> setting an exception.</p>
+<p>Note that exceptions which occur while calling <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> methods will get suppressed.
+To get error reporting use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyDict_GetItemWithError" title="PyDict_GetItemWithError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_GetItemWithError()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_GetItemWithError">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_GetItemWithError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_GetItemWithError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyDict_GetItem" title="PyDict_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_GetItem()</span></code></a> that does not suppress
+exceptions. Return <em>NULL</em> <strong>with</strong> an exception set if an exception
+occurred.  Return <em>NULL</em> <strong>without</strong> an exception set if the key
+wasn’t present.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_GetItemString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_GetItemString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, const char<em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_GetItemString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>This is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyDict_GetItem" title="PyDict_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_GetItem()</span></code></a>, but <em>key</em> is specified as a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char*</span></code>, rather than a <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that exceptions which occur while calling <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> methods and creating a temporary string object
+will get suppressed.
+To get error reporting use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyDict_GetItemWithError" title="PyDict_GetItemWithError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_GetItemWithError()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_SetDefault">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_SetDefault</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *defaultobj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_SetDefault" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>This is the same as the Python-level <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.setdefault" title="dict.setdefault"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.setdefault()</span></code></a>.  If present, it
+returns the value corresponding to <em>key</em> from the dictionary <em>p</em>.  If the key
+is not in the dict, it is inserted with value <em>defaultobj</em> and <em>defaultobj</em>
+is returned.  This function evaluates the hash function of <em>key</em> only once,
+instead of evaluating it independently for the lookup and the insertion.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Items">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_Items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyListObject" title="PyListObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyListObject</span></code></a> containing all the items from the dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Keys">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_Keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyListObject" title="PyListObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyListObject</span></code></a> containing all the keys from the dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Values">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyDict_Values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyListObject" title="PyListObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyListObject</span></code></a> containing all the values from the dictionary
+<em>p</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyDict_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Return the number of items in the dictionary.  This is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(p)</span></code> on a dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Next">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_Next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *ppos</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **pkey</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **pvalue</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Iterate over all key-value pairs in the dictionary <em>p</em>.  The
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> referred to by <em>ppos</em> must be initialized to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>
+prior to the first call to this function to start the iteration; the
+function returns true for each pair in the dictionary, and false once all
+pairs have been reported.  The parameters <em>pkey</em> and <em>pvalue</em> should either
+point to <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> variables that will be filled in with each key
+and value, respectively, or may be <em>NULL</em>.  Any references returned through
+them are borrowed.  <em>ppos</em> should not be altered during iteration. Its
+value represents offsets within the internal dictionary structure, and
+since the structure is sparse, the offsets are not consecutive.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">pos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyDict_Next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* do something interesting with the values... */</span>
+    <span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The dictionary <em>p</em> should not be mutated during iteration.  It is safe to
+modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the dictionary, but only
+so long as the set of keys does not change.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">pos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyDict_Next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">long</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_AsLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">&amp;&amp;</span> <span class="n">PyErr_Occurred</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyDict_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Merge">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_Merge</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *a</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *b</em>, int<em> override</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Merge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Iterate over mapping object <em>b</em> adding key-value pairs to dictionary <em>a</em>.
+<em>b</em> may be a dictionary, or any object supporting <a class="reference internal" href="mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Keys" title="PyMapping_Keys"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Keys()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code></a>. If <em>override</em> is true, existing pairs in <em>a</em>
+will be replaced if a matching key is found in <em>b</em>, otherwise pairs will
+only be added if there is not a matching key in <em>a</em>. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on
+success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an exception was raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_Update">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_Update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *a</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_Update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_Merge(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code> in C, and is similar to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.update(b)</span></code> in Python except that <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyDict_Update" title="PyDict_Update"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_Update()</span></code></a> doesn’t fall
+back to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second
+argument has no “keys” attribute.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an
+exception was raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_MergeFromSeq2">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_MergeFromSeq2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *a</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *seq2</em>, int<em> override</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_MergeFromSeq2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update or merge into dictionary <em>a</em>, from the key-value pairs in <em>seq2</em>.
+<em>seq2</em> must be an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2,
+viewed as key-value pairs.  In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if
+<em>override</em> is true, else the first wins. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+if an exception was raised. Equivalent Python (except for the return
+value):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">def</span> <span class="n">PyDict_MergeFromSeq2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">seq2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">override</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="n">in</span> <span class="nl">seq2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">override</span> <span class="n">or</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="n">not</span> <span class="n">in</span> <span class="nl">a</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyDict_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PyDict_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDict_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="list.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">List Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="set.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Set Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/dict.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/exceptions.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/exceptions.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d87fa5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/exceptions.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1364 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Exception Handling &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
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+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="exception-handling">
+<span id="exceptionhandling"></span><h1>Exception Handling<a class="headerlink" href="#exception-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise Python
+exceptions.  It is important to understand some of the basics of Python
+exception handling.  It works somewhat like the POSIX <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> variable:
+there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error that occurred.  Most
+C API functions don’t clear this on success, but will set it to indicate the
+cause of the error on failure.  Most C API functions also return an error
+indicator, usually <em>NULL</em> if they are supposed to return a pointer, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+if they return an integer (exception: the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_*()</span></code> functions
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for failure).</p>
+<p>Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the
+exception’s type, the exception’s value, and the traceback object.  Any
+of those pointers can be NULL if non-set (although some combinations are
+forbidden, for example you can’t have a non-NULL traceback if the exception
+type is NULL).</p>
+<p>When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it generally
+doesn’t set the error indicator; the function it called already set it.  It is
+responsible for either handling the error and clearing the exception or
+returning after cleaning up any resources it holds (such as object references or
+memory allocations); it should <em>not</em> continue normally if it is not prepared to
+handle the error.  If returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to
+the caller that an error has been set.  If the error is not handled or carefully
+propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as intended
+and may fail in mysterious ways.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The error indicator is <strong>not</strong> the result of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.
+The former corresponds to an exception that is not yet caught (and is
+therefore still propagating), while the latter returns an exception after
+it is caught (and has therefore stopped propagating).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="printing-and-clearing">
+<h2>Printing and clearing<a class="headerlink" href="#printing-and-clearing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_Clear">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_Clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_Clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the error indicator.  If the error indicator is not set, there is no
+effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_PrintEx">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_PrintEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> set_sys_last_vars</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_PrintEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a standard traceback to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> and clear the error indicator.
+<strong>Unless</strong> the error is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code>.  In that case the no traceback
+is printed and Python process will exit with the error code specified by
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code> instance.</p>
+<p>Call this function <strong>only</strong> when the error indicator is set.  Otherwise it
+will cause a fatal error!</p>
+<p>If <em>set_sys_last_vars</em> is nonzero, the variables <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.last_type" title="sys.last_type"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_type</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.last_value" title="sys.last_value"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_value</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.last_traceback" title="sys.last_traceback"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_traceback</span></code></a> will be set to the
+type, value and traceback of the printed exception, respectively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_Print">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_Print</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_Print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_PrintEx(1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_WriteUnraisable">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_WriteUnraisable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_WriteUnraisable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This utility function prints a warning message to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> when an
+exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter to actually
+raise the exception.  It is used, for example, when an exception occurs in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>The function is called with a single argument <em>obj</em> that identifies the context
+in which the unraisable exception occurred. If possible,
+the repr of <em>obj</em> will be printed in the warning message.</p>
+<p>An exception must be set when calling this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raising-exceptions">
+<h2>Raising exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#raising-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions help you set the current thread’s error indicator.
+For convenience, some of these functions will always return a
+NULL pointer for use in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetString">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SetString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, const char<em> *message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the most common way to set the error indicator.  The first argument
+specifies the exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions,
+e.g. <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RuntimeError</span></code>.  You need not increment its reference count.
+The second argument is an error message; it is decoded from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8</span></code>’.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetObject">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SetObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetString" title="PyErr_SetString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetString()</span></code></a> but lets you specify an
+arbitrary Python object for the “value” of the exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_Format">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_Format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exception</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_Format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>This function sets the error indicator and returns <em>NULL</em>.  <em>exception</em>
+should be a Python exception class.  The <em>format</em> and subsequent
+parameters help format the error message; they have the same meaning and
+values as in <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a>. <em>format</em> is an ASCII-encoded
+string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_FormatV">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_FormatV</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exception</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, va_list<em> vargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_FormatV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_Format" title="PyErr_Format"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Format()</span></code></a>, but taking a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">va_list</span></code> argument rather
+than a variable number of arguments.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetNone">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SetNone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetNone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetObject(type,</span> <span class="pre">Py_None)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_BadArgument">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_BadArgument</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_BadArgument" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,</span> <span class="pre">message)</span></code>, where
+<em>message</em> indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal
+argument.  It is mostly for internal use.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_NoMemory">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_NoMemory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_NoMemory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>This is a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)</span></code>; it returns <em>NULL</em>
+so an object allocation function can write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">PyErr_NoMemory();</span></code> when it
+runs out of memory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetFromErrno">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetFromErrno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromErrno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p id="index-0">This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C library function
+has returned an error and set the C variable <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code>.  It constructs a
+tuple object whose first item is the integer <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> value and whose
+second item is the corresponding error message (gotten from <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strerror()</span></code>),
+and then calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetObject(type,</span> <span class="pre">object)</span></code>.  On Unix, when the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> value is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINTR</span></code>, indicating an interrupted system call,
+this calls <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_CheckSignals" title="PyErr_CheckSignals"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_CheckSignals()</span></code></a>, and if that set the error indicator,
+leaves it set to that.  The function always returns <em>NULL</em>, so a wrapper
+function around a system call can write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);</span></code>
+when the system call returns an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filenameObject</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromErrno" title="PyErr_SetFromErrno"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromErrno()</span></code></a>, with the additional behavior that if
+<em>filenameObject</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, it is passed to the constructor of <em>type</em> as
+a third parameter.  In the case of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception,
+this is used to define the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> attribute of the
+exception instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filenameObject</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filenameObject2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject" title="PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject()</span></code></a>, but takes a second
+filename object, for raising errors when a function that takes two filenames
+fails.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject" title="PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject()</span></code></a>, but the filename
+is given as a C string.  <em>filename</em> is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> ierr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>This is a convenience function to raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#WindowsError" title="WindowsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsError</span></code></a>. If called with
+<em>ierr</em> of <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the error code returned by a call to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetLastError()</span></code>
+is used instead.  It calls the Win32 function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FormatMessage()</span></code> to retrieve
+the Windows description of error code given by <em>ierr</em> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetLastError()</span></code>,
+then it constructs a tuple object whose first item is the <em>ierr</em> value and whose
+second item is the corresponding error message (gotten from
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FormatMessage()</span></code>), and then calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_WindowsError,</span>
+<span class="pre">object)</span></code>. This function always returns <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, int<em> ierr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr" title="PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr()</span></code></a>, with an additional parameter
+specifying the exception type to be raised.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> ierr</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject()</span></code>, but the
+filename is given as a C string.  <em>filename</em> is decoded from the filesystem
+encoding (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, int<em> ierr</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject()</span></code>, with an
+additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, int<em> ierr</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filename</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filename2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject" title="PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject()</span></code></a>,
+but accepts a second filename object.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, int<em> ierr</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename" title="PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename()</span></code></a>, with an additional
+parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetImportError">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetImportError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *msg</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetImportError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>This is a convenience function to raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>. <em>msg</em> will be
+set as the exception’s message string. <em>name</em> and <em>path</em>, both of which can
+be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, will be set as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>’s respective <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> attributes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filename</em>, int<em> lineno</em>, int<em> col_offset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception.  If the
+current exception is not a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>, then it sets additional
+attributes, which make the exception printing subsystem think the exception
+is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> lineno</em>, int<em> col_offset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject" title="PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject()</span></code></a>, but <em>filename</em> is a byte string
+decoded from the filesystem encoding (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SyntaxLocation">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SyntaxLocation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx" title="PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx()</span></code></a>, but the col_offset parameter is
+omitted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_BadInternalCall">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_BadInternalCall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_BadInternalCall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError,</span> <span class="pre">message)</span></code>,
+where <em>message</em> indicates that an internal operation (e.g. a Python/C API
+function) was invoked with an illegal argument.  It is mostly for internal
+use.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="issuing-warnings">
+<h2>Issuing warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#issuing-warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Use these functions to issue warnings from C code.  They mirror similar
+functions exported by the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module.  They normally
+print a warning message to <em>sys.stderr</em>; however, it is
+also possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into
+errors, and in that case they will raise an exception.  It is also possible that
+the functions raise an exception because of a problem with the warning machinery.
+The return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if no exception is raised, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an exception
+is raised.  (It is not possible to determine whether a warning message is
+actually printed, nor what the reason is for the exception; this is
+intentional.)  If an exception is raised, the caller should do its normal
+exception handling (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> owned references and return
+an error value).</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_WarnEx">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_WarnEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *category</em>, const char<em> *message</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> stack_level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_WarnEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Issue a warning message.  The <em>category</em> argument is a warning category (see
+below) or <em>NULL</em>; the <em>message</em> argument is a UTF-8 encoded string.  <em>stack_level</em> is a
+positive number giving a number of stack frames; the warning will be issued from
+the  currently executing line of code in that stack frame.  A <em>stack_level</em> of 1
+is the function calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_WarnEx" title="PyErr_WarnEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WarnEx()</span></code></a>, 2 is  the function above that,
+and so forth.</p>
+<p>Warning categories must be subclasses of <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_Warning</span></code>;
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_Warning</span></code> is a subclass of <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_Exception</span></code>;
+the default warning category is <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RuntimeWarning</span></code>. The standard
+Python warning categories are available as global variables whose names are
+enumerated at <a class="reference internal" href="#standardwarningcategories"><span class="std std-ref">Standard Warning Categories</span></a>.</p>
+<p>For information about warning control, see the documentation for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module and the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> option in the command line
+documentation.  There is no C API for warning control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exception</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *msg</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Always NULL.</em><p>Much like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetImportError" title="PyErr_SetImportError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetImportError()</span></code></a> but this function allows for
+specifying a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> to raise.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_WarnExplicitObject">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_WarnExplicitObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *category</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *message</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filename</em>, int<em> lineno</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *registry</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_WarnExplicitObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning attributes.  This
+is a straightforward wrapper around the Python function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.warn_explicit" title="warnings.warn_explicit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.warn_explicit()</span></code></a>, see there for more information.  The <em>module</em>
+and <em>registry</em> arguments may be set to <em>NULL</em> to get the default effect
+described there.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_WarnExplicit">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_WarnExplicit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *category</em>, const char<em> *message</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> lineno</em>, const char<em> *module</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *registry</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_WarnExplicit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_WarnExplicitObject" title="PyErr_WarnExplicitObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WarnExplicitObject()</span></code></a> except that <em>message</em> and
+<em>module</em> are UTF-8 encoded strings, and <em>filename</em> is decoded from the
+filesystem encoding (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_WarnFormat">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_WarnFormat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *category</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> stack_level</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_WarnFormat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_WarnEx" title="PyErr_WarnEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WarnEx()</span></code></a>, but use
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a> to format the warning message.  <em>format</em> is
+an ASCII-encoded string.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_ResourceWarning">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_ResourceWarning</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *source</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> stack_level</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_ResourceWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_WarnFormat" title="PyErr_WarnFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WarnFormat()</span></code></a>, but <em>category</em> is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> and pass <em>source</em> to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.WarningMessage()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="querying-the-error-indicator">
+<h2>Querying the error indicator<a class="headerlink" href="#querying-the-error-indicator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_Occurred">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_Occurred</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Test whether the error indicator is set.  If set, return the exception <em>type</em>
+(the first argument to the last call to one of the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Set*()</span></code>
+functions or to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_Restore" title="PyErr_Restore"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Restore()</span></code></a>).  If not set, return <em>NULL</em>.  You do not
+own a reference to the return value, so you do not need to <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>
+it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Do not compare the return value to a specific exception; use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_ExceptionMatches" title="PyErr_ExceptionMatches"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_ExceptionMatches()</span></code></a> instead, shown below.  (The comparison could
+easily fail since the exception may be an instance instead of a class, in the
+case of a class exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected exception.)</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_ExceptionMatches">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_ExceptionMatches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_ExceptionMatches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(),</span> <span class="pre">exc)</span></code>.  This
+should only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access
+violation will occur if no exception has been raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *given</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the <em>given</em> exception matches the exception type in <em>exc</em>.  If
+<em>exc</em> is a class object, this also returns true when <em>given</em> is an instance
+of a subclass.  If <em>exc</em> is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple (and
+recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_Fetch">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_Fetch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **ptype</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **pvalue</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **ptraceback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_Fetch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses are passed.
+If the error indicator is not set, set all three variables to <em>NULL</em>.  If it is
+set, it will be cleared and you own a reference to each object retrieved.  The
+value and traceback object may be <em>NULL</em> even when the type object is not.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is normally only used by code that needs to catch exceptions or
+by code that needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span>
+   <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="p">;</span>
+   <span class="n">PyErr_Fetch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+   <span class="cm">/* ... code that might produce other errors ... */</span>
+
+   <span class="n">PyErr_Restore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_Restore">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_Restore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *traceback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_Restore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set  the error indicator from the three objects.  If the error indicator is
+already set, it is cleared first.  If the objects are <em>NULL</em>, the error
+indicator is cleared.  Do not pass a <em>NULL</em> type and non-<em>NULL</em> value or
+traceback.  The exception type should be a class.  Do not pass an invalid
+exception type or value. (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems
+later.)  This call takes away a reference to each object: you must own a
+reference to each object before the call and after the call you no longer own
+these references.  (If you don’t understand this, don’t use this function.  I
+warned you.)</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is normally only used by code that needs to save and restore the
+error indicator temporarily.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_Fetch" title="PyErr_Fetch"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Fetch()</span></code></a> to save the current
+error indicator.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_NormalizeException">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_NormalizeException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>**exc, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>**val, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>**tb<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_NormalizeException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Under certain circumstances, the values returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_Fetch" title="PyErr_Fetch"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Fetch()</span></code></a> below
+can be “unnormalized”, meaning that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*exc</span></code> is a class object but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*val</span></code> is
+not an instance of the  same class.  This function can be used to instantiate
+the class in that case.  If the values are already normalized, nothing happens.
+The delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function <em>does not</em> implicitly set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__traceback__</span></code>
+attribute on the exception value. If setting the traceback
+appropriately is desired, the following additional snippet is needed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tb</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+  <span class="n">PyException_SetTraceback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tb</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_GetExcInfo">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_GetExcInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **ptype</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **pvalue</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **ptraceback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_GetExcInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve the exception info, as known from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code>.  This refers
+to an exception that was <em>already caught</em>, not to an exception that was
+freshly raised.  Returns new references for the three objects, any of which
+may be <em>NULL</em>.  Does not modify the exception info state.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions.
+Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception
+state temporarily.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_SetExcInfo" title="PyErr_SetExcInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetExcInfo()</span></code></a> to restore or clear the
+exception state.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetExcInfo">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SetExcInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *traceback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetExcInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the exception info, as known from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code>.  This refers
+to an exception that was <em>already caught</em>, not to an exception that was
+freshly raised.  This function steals the references of the arguments.
+To clear the exception state, pass <em>NULL</em> for all three arguments.
+For general rules about the three arguments, see <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_Restore" title="PyErr_Restore"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Restore()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions.
+Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception
+state temporarily.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_GetExcInfo" title="PyErr_GetExcInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_GetExcInfo()</span></code></a> to read the exception
+state.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="signal-handling">
+<h2>Signal Handling<a class="headerlink" href="#signal-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_CheckSignals">
+int <code class="descname">PyErr_CheckSignals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_CheckSignals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">This function interacts with Python’s signal handling.  It checks whether a
+signal has been sent to the processes and if so, invokes the corresponding
+signal handler.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module is supported, this can invoke a
+signal handler written in Python.  In all cases, the default effect for
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code> is to raise the  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exception.  If an
+exception is raised the error indicator is set and the function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>;
+otherwise the function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  The error indicator may or may not be
+cleared if it was previously set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_SetInterrupt">
+void <code class="descname">PyErr_SetInterrupt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_SetInterrupt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Simulate the effect of a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code> signal arriving. The next time
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_CheckSignals" title="PyErr_CheckSignals"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_CheckSignals()</span></code></a> is called,  the Python signal handler for
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code> will be called.</p>
+<p>If <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code> isn’t handled by Python (it was set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.SIG_DFL" title="signal.SIG_DFL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_DFL</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.SIG_IGN" title="signal.SIG_IGN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_IGN</span></code></a>), this function does
+nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySignal_SetWakeupFd">
+int <code class="descname">PySignal_SetWakeupFd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySignal_SetWakeupFd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the signal number
+is written as a single byte whenever a signal is received. <em>fd</em> must be
+non-blocking. It returns the previous such file descriptor.</p>
+<p>The value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> disables the feature; this is the initial state.
+This is equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.set_wakeup_fd" title="signal.set_wakeup_fd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.set_wakeup_fd()</span></code></a> in Python, but without any
+error checking.  <em>fd</em> should be a valid file descriptor.  The function should
+only be called from the main thread.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>On Windows, the function now also supports socket handles.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exception-classes">
+<h2>Exception Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#exception-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_NewException">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_NewException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *base</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *dict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_NewException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This utility function creates and returns a new exception class. The <em>name</em>
+argument must be the name of the new exception, a C string of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.classname</span></code>.  The <em>base</em> and <em>dict</em> arguments are normally <em>NULL</em>.
+This creates a class object derived from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> (accessible in C as
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_Exception</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute of the new class is set to the first part (up
+to the last dot) of the <em>name</em> argument, and the class name is set to the last
+part (after the last dot).  The <em>base</em> argument can be used to specify alternate
+base classes; it can either be only one class or a tuple of classes. The <em>dict</em>
+argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, const char<em> *doc</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *base</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *dict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyErr_NewException" title="PyErr_NewException"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewException()</span></code></a>, except that the new exception class can
+easily be given a docstring: If <em>doc</em> is non-<em>NULL</em>, it will be used as the
+docstring for the exception class.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exception-objects">
+<h2>Exception Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#exception-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyException_GetTraceback">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyException_GetTraceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ex</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyException_GetTraceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the traceback associated with the exception as a new reference, as
+accessible from Python through <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__traceback__</span></code>.  If there is no
+traceback associated, this returns <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyException_SetTraceback">
+int <code class="descname">PyException_SetTraceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ex</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *tb</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyException_SetTraceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the traceback associated with the exception to <em>tb</em>.  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code> to
+clear it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyException_GetContext">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyException_GetContext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ex</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyException_GetContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the context (another exception instance during whose handling <em>ex</em> was
+raised) associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from
+Python through <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code>.  If there is no context associated, this
+returns <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyException_SetContext">
+void <code class="descname">PyException_SetContext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ex</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ctx</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyException_SetContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the context associated with the exception to <em>ctx</em>.  Use <em>NULL</em> to clear
+it.  There is no type check to make sure that <em>ctx</em> is an exception instance.
+This steals a reference to <em>ctx</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyException_GetCause">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyException_GetCause</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ex</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyException_GetCause" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the cause (either an exception instance, or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>,
+set by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>) associated with the exception as a new
+reference, as accessible from Python through <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyException_SetCause">
+void <code class="descname">PyException_SetCause</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ex</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cause</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyException_SetCause" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the cause associated with the exception to <em>cause</em>.  Use <em>NULL</em> to clear
+it.  There is no type check to make sure that <em>cause</em> is either an exception
+instance or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.  This steals a reference to <em>cause</em>.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__suppress_context__</span></code> is implicitly set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> by this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-exception-objects">
+<span id="unicodeexceptions"></span><h2>Unicode Exception Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-exception-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions from C.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *object</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em>, const char<em> *reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> object with the attributes <em>encoding</em>,
+<em>object</em>, <em>length</em>, <em>start</em>, <em>end</em> and <em>reason</em>. <em>encoding</em> and <em>reason</em> are
+UTF-8 encoded strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em>, const <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *object</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em>, const char<em> *reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a> object with the attributes <em>encoding</em>,
+<em>object</em>, <em>length</em>, <em>start</em>, <em>end</em> and <em>reason</em>. <em>encoding</em> and <em>reason</em> are
+UTF-8 encoded strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *object</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em>, const char<em> *reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeTranslateError" title="UnicodeTranslateError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeTranslateError</span></code></a> object with the attributes <em>object</em>,
+<em>length</em>, <em>start</em>, <em>end</em> and <em>reason</em>. <em>reason</em> is a UTF-8 encoded string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the <em>encoding</em> attribute of the given exception object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the <em>object</em> attribute of the given exception object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the <em>start</em> attribute of the given exception object and place it into
+<em>*start</em>.  <em>start</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <em>start</em> attribute of the given exception object to <em>start</em>.  Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the <em>end</em> attribute of the given exception object and place it into
+<em>*end</em>.  <em>end</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <em>end</em> attribute of the given exception object to <em>end</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>
+on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the <em>reason</em> attribute of the given exception object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, const char<em> *reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, const char<em> *reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em>, const char<em> *reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <em>reason</em> attribute of the given exception object to <em>reason</em>.  Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="recursion-control">
+<h2>Recursion Control<a class="headerlink" href="#recursion-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the C
+level, both in the core and in extension modules.  They are needed if the
+recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks its
+recursion depth automatically).</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_EnterRecursiveCall">
+int <code class="descname">Py_EnterRecursiveCall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *where</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_EnterRecursiveCall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Marks a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed.</p>
+<p>If <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USE_STACKCHECK</span></code> is defined, this function checks if the OS
+stack overflowed using <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.PyOS_CheckStack" title="PyOS_CheckStack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_CheckStack()</span></code></a>.  In this is the case, it
+sets a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> and returns a nonzero value.</p>
+<p>The function then checks if the recursion limit is reached.  If this is the
+case, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RecursionError" title="RecursionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code></a> is set and a nonzero value is returned.
+Otherwise, zero is returned.</p>
+<p><em>where</em> should be a string such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">instance</span> <span class="pre">check&quot;</span></code> to be
+concatenated to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RecursionError" title="RecursionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code></a> message caused by the recursion
+depth limit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_LeaveRecursiveCall">
+void <code class="descname">Py_LeaveRecursiveCall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_LeaveRecursiveCall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ends a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_EnterRecursiveCall" title="Py_EnterRecursiveCall"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EnterRecursiveCall()</span></code></a>.  Must be called once for each
+<em>successful</em> invocation of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_EnterRecursiveCall" title="Py_EnterRecursiveCall"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EnterRecursiveCall()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Properly implementing <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> for container types requires
+special recursion handling.  In addition to protecting the stack,
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> also needs to track objects to prevent cycles.  The
+following two functions facilitate this functionality.  Effectively,
+these are the C equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/reprlib.html#reprlib.recursive_repr" title="reprlib.recursive_repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib.recursive_repr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_ReprEnter">
+int <code class="descname">Py_ReprEnter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ReprEnter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called at the beginning of the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> implementation to
+detect cycles.</p>
+<p>If the object has already been processed, the function returns a
+positive integer.  In that case the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> implementation
+should return a string object indicating a cycle.  As examples,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> objects return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{...}</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> objects
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[...]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit
+is reached.  In that case the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> implementation should
+typically return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Otherwise, the function returns zero and the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a>
+implementation can continue normally.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_ReprLeave">
+void <code class="descname">Py_ReprLeave</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ReprLeave" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ends a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_ReprEnter" title="Py_ReprEnter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ReprEnter()</span></code></a>.  Must be called once for each
+invocation of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_ReprEnter" title="Py_ReprEnter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ReprEnter()</span></code></a> that returns zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-exceptions">
+<span id="standardexceptions"></span><h2>Standard Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose names are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_</span></code> followed by the Python exception name.  These have the type
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>; they are all class objects.  For completeness, here are all
+the variables:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-3">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>C Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BaseException</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_Exception</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ArithmeticError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ArithmeticError" title="ArithmeticError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArithmeticError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_AssertionError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_AttributeError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BlockingIOError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BrokenPipeError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BrokenPipeError" title="BrokenPipeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenPipeError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BufferError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BufferError" title="BufferError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ChildProcessError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ChildProcessError" title="ChildProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChildProcessError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionAbortedError" title="ConnectionAbortedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionAbortedError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionRefusedError" title="ConnectionRefusedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionRefusedError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionResetError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionResetError" title="ConnectionResetError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionResetError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_EOFError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_FileExistsError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_FileNotFoundError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_FloatingPointError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FloatingPointError" title="FloatingPointError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatingPointError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_GeneratorExit</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ImportError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_IndentationError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndentationError" title="IndentationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndentationError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_IndexError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_InterruptedError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_IsADirectoryError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IsADirectoryError" title="IsADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IsADirectoryError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_KeyError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_LookupError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_MemoryError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_NameError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_NotADirectoryError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NotADirectoryError" title="NotADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotADirectoryError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_NotImplementedError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_OSError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_OverflowError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_PermissionError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ProcessLookupError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ProcessLookupError" title="ProcessLookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessLookupError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RecursionError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RecursionError" title="RecursionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ReferenceError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ReferenceError" title="ReferenceError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReferenceError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RuntimeError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_StopAsyncIteration</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_StopIteration</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_SyntaxError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_SystemError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_SystemExit</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_TabError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TabError" title="TabError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TabError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_TimeoutError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TimeoutError" title="TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_TypeError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_UnboundLocalError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError" title="UnboundLocalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnboundLocalError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_UnicodeError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeTranslateError" title="UnicodeTranslateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeTranslateError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ValueError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ZeroDivisionError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BlockingIOError</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BrokenPipeError</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ChildProcessError</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionError</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ConnectionResetError</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_FileExistsError</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_FileNotFoundError</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_InterruptedError</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_IsADirectoryError</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_NotADirectoryError</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_PermissionError</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ProcessLookupError</span></code>
+and <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_TimeoutError</span></code> were introduced following <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3151"><strong>PEP 3151</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_StopAsyncIteration</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RecursionError</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>These are compatibility aliases to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_OSError</span></code>:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-5">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 79%" />
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>C Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_EnvironmentError</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_IOError</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_WindowsError</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>These aliases used to be separate exception types.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>This is a base class for other standard exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p>This is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#weakref.ReferenceError" title="weakref.ReferenceError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref.ReferenceError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing that the
+preprocessor macro <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MS_WINDOWS</span></code> is defined.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-warning-categories">
+<span id="standardwarningcategories"></span><h2>Standard Warning Categories<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-warning-categories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All standard Python warning categories are available as global variables whose
+names are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_</span></code> followed by the Python exception name. These have the type
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>; they are all class objects. For completeness, here are all
+the variables:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-6">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>C Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_Warning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BytesWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BytesWarning" title="BytesWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_DeprecationWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_FutureWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ImportWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportWarning" title="ImportWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ResourceWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RuntimeWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning" title="RuntimeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_SyntaxWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxWarning" title="SyntaxWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_UnicodeWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeWarning" title="UnicodeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_UserWarning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UserWarning" title="UserWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ResourceWarning</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>This is a base class for other standard warning categories.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Exception Handling</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printing-and-clearing">Printing and clearing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raising-exceptions">Raising exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#issuing-warnings">Issuing warnings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#querying-the-error-indicator">Querying the error indicator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#signal-handling">Signal Handling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exception-classes">Exception Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exception-objects">Exception Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-exception-objects">Unicode Exception Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#recursion-control">Recursion Control</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-exceptions">Standard Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-warning-categories">Standard Warning Categories</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="refcounting.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Reference Counting</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="utilities.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Utilities</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/file.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/file.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..110581e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/file.html
@@ -0,0 +1,251 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>File Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
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+    <div class="document">
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="file-objects">
+<span id="fileobjects"></span><h1>File Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#file-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">These APIs are a minimal emulation of the Python 2 C API for built-in file
+objects, which used to rely on the buffered I/O (<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE*</span></code>) support
+from the C standard library.  In Python 3, files and streams use the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module, which defines several layers over the low-level unbuffered
+I/O of the operating system.  The functions described below are
+convenience C wrappers over these new APIs, and meant mostly for internal
+error reporting in the interpreter; third-party code is advised to access
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> APIs instead.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFile_FromFd">
+<code class="descname">PyFile_FromFd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> fd</em>, const char<em> *name</em>, const char<em> *mode</em>, int<em> buffering</em>, const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, const char<em> *newline</em>, int<em> closefd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFile_FromFd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Python file object from the file descriptor of an already
+opened file <em>fd</em>.  The arguments <em>name</em>, <em>encoding</em>, <em>errors</em> and <em>newline</em>
+can be <em>NULL</em> to use the defaults; <em>buffering</em> can be <em>-1</em> to use the
+default. <em>name</em> is ignored and kept for backward compatibility. Return
+<em>NULL</em> on failure. For a more comprehensive description of the arguments,
+please refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a> function documentation.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Since Python streams have their own buffering layer, mixing them with
+OS-level file descriptors can produce various issues (such as unexpected
+ordering of data).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Ignore <em>name</em> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_AsFileDescriptor">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_AsFileDescriptor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_AsFileDescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file descriptor associated with <em>p</em> as an <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.  If the
+object is an integer, its value is returned.  If not, the
+object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method is called if it exists; the
+method must return an integer, which is returned as the file descriptor
+value.  Sets an exception and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFile_GetLine">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFile_GetLine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, int<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFile_GetLine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-1">Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p.readline([n])</span></code>, this function reads one line from the
+object <em>p</em>.  <em>p</em> may be a file object or any object with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>
+method.  If <em>n</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, exactly one line is read, regardless of the length of
+the line.  If <em>n</em> is greater than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, no more than <em>n</em> bytes will be read
+from the file; a partial line can be returned.  In both cases, an empty string
+is returned if the end of the file is reached immediately.  If <em>n</em> is less than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, however, one line is read regardless of length, but <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> is
+raised if the end of the file is reached immediately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFile_WriteObject">
+int <code class="descname">PyFile_WriteObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFile_WriteObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Write object <em>obj</em> to file object <em>p</em>.  The only supported flag for <em>flags</em> is
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_PRINT_RAW</span></code>; if given, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of the object is written
+instead of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure; the
+appropriate exception will be set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFile_WriteString">
+int <code class="descname">PyFile_WriteString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFile_WriteString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write string <em>s</em> to file object <em>p</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure; the appropriate exception will be set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+                        title="next chapter">Module Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/float.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/float.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7087c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/float.html
@@ -0,0 +1,267 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Floating Point Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Complex Number Objects" href="complex.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Boolean Objects" href="bool.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/float.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="complex.html" title="Complex Number Objects"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="bool.html" title="Boolean Objects"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="floating-point-objects">
+<span id="floatobjects"></span><h1>Floating Point Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#floating-point-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyFloatObject">
+<code class="descname">PyFloatObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloatObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python floating point object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyFloat_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python floating point
+type.  This is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyFloat_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if its argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFloatObject" title="PyFloatObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloatObject</span></code></a> or a subtype of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFloatObject" title="PyFloatObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloatObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyFloat_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if its argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFloatObject" title="PyFloatObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloatObject</span></code></a>, but not a subtype of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFloatObject" title="PyFloatObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloatObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_FromString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFloat_FromString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_FromString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFloatObject" title="PyFloatObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloatObject</span></code></a> object based on the string value in <em>str</em>, or
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_FromDouble">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFloat_FromDouble</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>double<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_FromDouble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFloatObject" title="PyFloatObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloatObject</span></code></a> object from <em>v</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_AsDouble">
+double <code class="descname">PyFloat_AsDouble</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pyfloat</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_AsDouble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> representation of the contents of <em>pyfloat</em>.  If
+<em>pyfloat</em> is not a Python floating point object but has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__float__" title="object.__float__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__float__()</span></code></a>
+method, this method will first be called to convert <em>pyfloat</em> into a float.
+This method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code> upon failure, so one should call
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to check for errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE">
+double <code class="descname">PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pyfloat</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> representation of the contents of <em>pyfloat</em>, but
+without error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_GetInfo">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFloat_GetInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_GetInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a structseq instance which contains information about the
+precision, minimum and maximum values of a float. It’s a thin wrapper
+around the header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.h</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_GetMax">
+double <code class="descname">PyFloat_GetMax</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_GetMax" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the maximum representable finite float <em>DBL_MAX</em> as C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_GetMin">
+double <code class="descname">PyFloat_GetMin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_GetMin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the minimum normalized positive float <em>DBL_MIN</em> as C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFloat_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PyFloat_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFloat_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the float free list. Return the number of items that could not
+be freed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/function.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/function.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea7d3b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/function.html
@@ -0,0 +1,291 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Function Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="function-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Function Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#function-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">There are a few functions specific to Python functions.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyFunctionObject">
+<code class="descname">PyFunctionObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunctionObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure used for functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyFunction_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">This is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> and represents the Python function
+type.  It is exposed to Python programmers as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.FunctionType</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyFunction_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>o</em> is a function object (has type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFunction_Type" title="PyFunction_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFunction_Type</span></code></a>).
+The parameter must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFunction_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *code</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new function object associated with the code object <em>code</em>. <em>globals</em>
+must be a dictionary with the global variables accessible to the function.</p>
+<p>The function’s docstring and name are retrieved from the code object. <em>__module__</em>
+is retrieved from <em>globals</em>. The argument defaults, annotations and closure are
+set to <em>NULL</em>. <em>__qualname__</em> is set to the same value as the function’s name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_NewWithQualName">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFunction_NewWithQualName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *code</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *qualname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_NewWithQualName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>As <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFunction_New" title="PyFunction_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFunction_New()</span></code></a>, but also allows setting the function object’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code> attribute.  <em>qualname</em> should be a unicode object or NULL;
+if NULL, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code> attribute is set to the same value as its
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_GetCode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFunction_GetCode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_GetCode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the code object associated with the function object <em>op</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_GetGlobals">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFunction_GetGlobals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_GetGlobals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the globals dictionary associated with the function object <em>op</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_GetModule">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFunction_GetModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_GetModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the <em>__module__</em> attribute of the function object <em>op</em>. This is normally
+a string containing the module name, but can be set to any other object by
+Python code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_GetDefaults">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFunction_GetDefaults</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_GetDefaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the argument default values of the function object <em>op</em>. This can be a
+tuple of arguments or <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_SetDefaults">
+int <code class="descname">PyFunction_SetDefaults</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *defaults</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_SetDefaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the argument default values for the function object <em>op</em>. <em>defaults</em> must be
+<em>Py_None</em> or a tuple.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_GetClosure">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFunction_GetClosure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_GetClosure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the closure associated with the function object <em>op</em>. This can be <em>NULL</em>
+or a tuple of cell objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_SetClosure">
+int <code class="descname">PyFunction_SetClosure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *closure</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_SetClosure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the closure associated with the function object <em>op</em>. <em>closure</em> must be
+<em>Py_None</em> or a tuple of cell objects.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_GetAnnotations">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyFunction_GetAnnotations</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_GetAnnotations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the annotations of the function object <em>op</em>. This can be a
+mutable dictionary or <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFunction_SetAnnotations">
+int <code class="descname">PyFunction_SetAnnotations</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *annotations</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFunction_SetAnnotations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the annotations for the function object <em>op</em>. <em>annotations</em>
+must be a dictionary or <em>Py_None</em>.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/gcsupport.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/gcsupport.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,341 @@
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+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection">
+<span id="supporting-cycle-detection"></span><h1>Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection<a class="headerlink" href="#supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python’s support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves circular
+references requires support from object types which are “containers” for other
+objects which may also be containers.  Types which do not store references to
+other objects, or which only store references to atomic types (such as numbers
+or strings), do not need to provide any explicit support for garbage
+collection.</p>
+<p>To create a container type, the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags" title="PyTypeObject.tp_flags"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_flags</span></code></a> field of the type object must
+include the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> and provide an implementation of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handler.  If instances of the type are mutable, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> implementation must also be provided.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules
+documented here.  For convenience these objects will be referred to as
+container objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Constructors for container types must conform to two rules:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>The memory for the object must be allocated using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_New" title="PyObject_GC_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_New()</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_NewVar" title="PyObject_GC_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_NewVar()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Once all the fields which may contain references to other containers are
+initialized, it must call <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_Track" title="PyObject_GC_Track"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Track()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GC_New">
+TYPE* <code class="descname">PyObject_GC_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>TYPE, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GC_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Analogous to <a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_New" title="PyObject_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_New()</span></code></a> but for container objects with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GC_NewVar">
+TYPE* <code class="descname">PyObject_GC_NewVar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>TYPE, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GC_NewVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Analogous to <a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_NewVar" title="PyObject_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_NewVar()</span></code></a> but for container objects with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GC_Resize">
+TYPE* <code class="descname">PyObject_GC_Resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>TYPE, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject">PyVarObject</a><em> *op</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> newsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GC_Resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resize an object allocated by <a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_NewVar" title="PyObject_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_NewVar()</span></code></a>.  Returns the
+resized object or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  <em>op</em> must not be tracked by the collector yet.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GC_Track">
+void <code class="descname">PyObject_GC_Track</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GC_Track" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds the object <em>op</em> to the set of container objects tracked by the
+collector.  The collector can run at unexpected times so objects must be
+valid while being tracked.  This should be called once all the fields
+followed by the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handler become valid, usually near the
+end of the constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyObject_GC_TRACK">
+void <code class="descname">_PyObject_GC_TRACK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyObject_GC_TRACK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A macro version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_Track" title="PyObject_GC_Track"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Track()</span></code></a>.  It should not be used for
+extension modules.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>This macro is removed from Python 3.8.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair of
+rules:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="PyObject_GC_UnTrack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code></a> must be called.</p></li>
+<li><p>The object’s memory must be deallocated using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_Del" title="PyObject_GC_Del"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Del()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GC_Del">
+void <code class="descname">PyObject_GC_Del</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GC_Del" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Releases memory allocated to an object using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_New" title="PyObject_GC_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_New()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_NewVar" title="PyObject_GC_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_NewVar()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack">
+void <code class="descname">PyObject_GC_UnTrack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the object <em>op</em> from the set of container objects tracked by the
+collector.  Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_Track" title="PyObject_GC_Track"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Track()</span></code></a> can be called again on
+this object to add it back to the set of tracked objects.  The deallocator
+(<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> handler) should call this for the object before any of
+the fields used by the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handler become invalid.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyObject_GC_UNTRACK">
+void <code class="descname">_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyObject_GC_UNTRACK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A macro version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="PyObject_GC_UnTrack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code></a>.  It should not be used for
+extension modules.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>This macro is removed from Python 3.8.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handler accepts a function parameter of this type:</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.visitproc">
+int <code class="descname">(*visitproc)</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *object</em>, void<em> *arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.visitproc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type of the visitor function passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handler.
+The function should be called with an object to traverse as <em>object</em> and
+the third parameter to the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handler as <em>arg</em>.  The
+Python core uses several visitor functions to implement cyclic garbage
+detection; it’s not expected that users will need to write their own
+visitor functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handler must have the following type:</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.traverseproc">
+int <code class="descname">(*traverseproc)</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *self</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.visitproc" title="visitproc">visitproc</a><em> visit</em>, void<em> *arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.traverseproc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Traversal function for a container object.  Implementations must call the
+<em>visit</em> function for each object directly contained by <em>self</em>, with the
+parameters to <em>visit</em> being the contained object and the <em>arg</em> value passed
+to the handler.  The <em>visit</em> function must not be called with a <em>NULL</em>
+object argument.  If <em>visit</em> returns a non-zero value that value should be
+returned immediately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To simplify writing <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handlers, a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a> macro is
+provided.  In order to use this macro, the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> implementation
+must name its arguments exactly <em>visit</em> and <em>arg</em>:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_VISIT">
+void <code class="descname">Py_VISIT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_VISIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>o</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, call the <em>visit</em> callback, with arguments <em>o</em>
+and <em>arg</em>.  If <em>visit</em> returns a non-zero value, then return it.
+Using this macro, <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> handlers
+look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">my_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Noddy</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> handler must be of the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.inquiry" title="inquiry"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inquiry</span></code></a> type, or <em>NULL</em>
+if the object is immutable.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.inquiry">
+int <code class="descname">(*inquiry)</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.inquiry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Drop references that may have created reference cycles.  Immutable objects
+do not have to define this method since they can never directly create
+reference cycles.  Note that the object must still be valid after calling
+this method (don’t just call <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> on a reference).  The
+collector will call this method if it detects that this object is involved
+in a reference cycle.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="typeobj.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Type Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="apiabiversion.html"
+                        title="next chapter">API and ABI Versioning</a></p>
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+      </li>
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/gen.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/gen.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2873c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/gen.html
@@ -0,0 +1,227 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Generator Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Coroutine Objects" href="coro.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="generator-objects">
+<span id="gen-objects"></span><h1>Generator Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#generator-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Generator objects are what Python uses to implement generator iterators. They
+are normally created by iterating over a function that yields values, rather
+than explicitly calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGen_New" title="PyGen_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGen_New()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGen_NewWithQualName" title="PyGen_NewWithQualName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGen_NewWithQualName()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyGenObject">
+<code class="descname">PyGenObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGenObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure used for generator objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyGen_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyGen_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGen_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object corresponding to generator objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGen_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyGen_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGen_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is a generator object; <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGen_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyGen_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGen_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em>’s type is <em>PyGen_Type</em>; <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGen_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyGen_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a><em> *frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGen_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create and return a new generator object based on the <em>frame</em> object.
+A reference to <em>frame</em> is stolen by this function. The argument must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGen_NewWithQualName">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyGen_NewWithQualName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a><em> *frame</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *qualname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGen_NewWithQualName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create and return a new generator object based on the <em>frame</em> object,
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code> set to <em>name</em> and <em>qualname</em>.
+A reference to <em>frame</em> is stolen by this function.  The <em>frame</em> argument
+must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="capsule.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Capsules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="coro.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Coroutine Objects</a></p>
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/import.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/import.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36f4a75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/import.html
@@ -0,0 +1,514 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Importing Modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="importing-modules">
+<span id="importing"></span><h1>Importing Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#importing-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ImportModule">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ImportModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-0">This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModuleEx" title="PyImport_ImportModuleEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleEx()</span></code></a> below,
+leaving the <em>globals</em> and <em>locals</em> arguments set to <em>NULL</em> and <em>level</em> set
+to 0.  When the <em>name</em>
+argument contains a dot (when it specifies a submodule of a package), the
+<em>fromlist</em> argument is set to the list <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['*']</span></code> so that the return value is the
+named module rather than the top-level package containing it as would otherwise
+be the case.  (Unfortunately, this has an additional side effect when <em>name</em> in
+fact specifies a subpackage instead of a submodule: the submodules specified in
+the package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> variable are  loaded.)  Return a new reference to the
+imported module, or <em>NULL</em> with an exception set on failure.  A failing
+import of a module doesn’t leave the module in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This function always uses absolute imports.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This function is a deprecated alias of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="PyImport_ImportModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This function used to fail immediately when the import lock was held
+by another thread.  In Python 3.3 though, the locking scheme switched
+to per-module locks for most purposes, so this function’s special
+behaviour isn’t needed anymore.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ImportModuleEx">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ImportModuleEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *fromlist</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModuleEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-1">Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the built-in Python
+function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level
+package, or <em>NULL</em> with an exception set on failure.  Like for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>, the return value when a submodule of a package was
+requested is normally the top-level package, unless a non-empty <em>fromlist</em>
+was given.</p>
+<p>Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="PyImport_ImportModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *fromlist</em>, int<em> level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the built-in Python
+function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>, as the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function calls
+this function directly.</p>
+<p>The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level package,
+or <em>NULL</em> with an exception set on failure.  Like for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>,
+the return value when a submodule of a package was requested is normally the
+top-level package, unless a non-empty <em>fromlist</em> was given.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevel">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ImportModuleLevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *fromlist</em>, int<em> level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject" title="PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject()</span></code></a>, but the name is a
+UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Negative values for <em>level</em> are no longer accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_Import">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_Import</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_Import" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a higher-level interface that calls the current “import hook
+function” (with an explicit <em>level</em> of 0, meaning absolute import).  It
+invokes the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> of the
+current globals.  This means that the import is done using whatever import
+hooks are installed in the current environment.</p>
+<p>This function always uses absolute imports.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ReloadModule">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ReloadModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *m</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ReloadModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Reload a module.  Return a new reference to the reloaded module, or <em>NULL</em> with
+an exception set on failure (the module still exists in this case).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_AddModuleObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_AddModuleObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_AddModuleObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the module object corresponding to a module name.  The <em>name</em> argument
+may be of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.module</span></code>. First check the modules dictionary if
+there’s one there, and if not, create a new one and insert it in the modules
+dictionary. Return <em>NULL</em> with an exception set on failure.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function does not load or import the module; if the module wasn’t already
+loaded, you will get an empty module object. Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="PyImport_ImportModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code></a>
+or one of its variants to import a module.  Package structures implied by a
+dotted name for <em>name</em> are not created if not already present.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_AddModule">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_AddModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_AddModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_AddModuleObject" title="PyImport_AddModuleObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_AddModuleObject()</span></code></a>, but the name is a UTF-8
+encoded string instead of a Unicode object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ExecCodeModule">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ExecCodeModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *co</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-2">Given a module name (possibly of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.module</span></code>) and a code object
+read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, load the module.  Return a new reference to the module object,
+or <em>NULL</em> with an exception set if an error occurred.  <em>name</em>
+is removed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> in error cases, even if <em>name</em> was already
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> on entry to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModule" title="PyImport_ExecCodeModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExecCodeModule()</span></code></a>.  Leaving
+incompletely initialized modules in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> is dangerous, as imports of
+such modules have no way to know that the module object is an unknown (and
+probably damaged with respect to the module author’s intents) state.</p>
+<p>The module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__spec__" title="__spec__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a> will be set, if
+not set already, with the appropriate values.  The spec’s loader will
+be set to the module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> (if set) and to an instance of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SourceFileLoader</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>The module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a> attribute will be set to the code object’s
+<code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_filename</span></code>.  If applicable, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__cached__" title="__cached__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code></a> will also
+be set.</p>
+<p>This function will reload the module if it was already imported.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ReloadModule" title="PyImport_ReloadModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ReloadModule()</span></code></a> for the intended way to reload a module.</p>
+<p>If <em>name</em> points to a dotted name of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.module</span></code>, any package
+structures not already created will still not be created.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx" title="PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames" title="PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *co</em>, const char<em> *pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModule" title="PyImport_ExecCodeModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExecCodeModule()</span></code></a>, but the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a> attribute of
+the module object is set to <em>pathname</em> if it is non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames" title="PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *co</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pathname</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cpathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx" title="PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx()</span></code></a>, but the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__cached__" title="__cached__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code></a>
+attribute of the module object is set to <em>cpathname</em> if it is
+non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.  Of the three functions, this is the preferred one to use.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *co</em>, const char<em> *pathname</em>, const char<em> *cpathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject" title="PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject()</span></code></a>, but <em>name</em>, <em>pathname</em> and
+<em>cpathname</em> are UTF-8 encoded strings. Attempts are also made to figure out
+what the value for <em>pathname</em> should be from <em>cpathname</em> if the former is
+set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.source_from_cache" title="imp.source_from_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.source_from_cache()</span></code></a> in calculating the source path if
+only the bytecode path is provided.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_GetMagicNumber">
+long <code class="descname">PyImport_GetMagicNumber</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_GetMagicNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the magic number for Python bytecode files (a.k.a. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file).
+The magic number should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode
+file, in little-endian byte order. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> upon failure.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_GetMagicTag">
+const char * <code class="descname">PyImport_GetMagicTag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_GetMagicTag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the magic tag string for <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> format Python bytecode file
+names.  Keep in mind that the value at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is
+authoritative and should be used instead of this function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_GetModuleDict">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_GetModuleDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_GetModuleDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the dictionary used for the module administration (a.k.a.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>).  Note that this is a per-interpreter variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_GetModule">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_GetModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_GetModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the already imported module with the given name.  If the
+module has not been imported yet then returns NULL but does not set
+an error.  Returns NULL and sets an error if the lookup failed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_GetImporter">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_GetImporter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_GetImporter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a finder object for a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>/<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.__path__</span></code> item
+<em>path</em>, possibly by fetching it from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>
+dict.  If it wasn’t yet cached, traverse <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> until a hook
+is found that can handle the path item.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no hook could;
+this tells our caller that the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a> could not find a
+finder for this path item. Cache the result in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>.
+Return a new reference to the finder object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyImport_Init">
+void <code class="descname">_PyImport_Init</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyImport_Init" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initialize the import mechanism.  For internal use only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_Cleanup">
+void <code class="descname">PyImport_Cleanup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_Cleanup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Empty the module table.  For internal use only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyImport_Fini">
+void <code class="descname">_PyImport_Fini</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyImport_Fini" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finalize the import mechanism.  For internal use only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject">
+int <code class="descname">PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Load a frozen module named <em>name</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the
+module is not found, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> with an exception set if the initialization
+failed.  To access the imported module on a successful load, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="PyImport_ImportModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code></a>.  (Note the misnomer — this function would
+reload the module if it was already imported.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> attribute is no longer set on the module.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModule">
+int <code class="descname">PyImport_ImportFrozenModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject" title="PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject()</span></code></a>, but the name is a
+UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c._frozen">
+struct <code class="descname">_frozen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c._frozen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-4">This is the structure type definition for frozen module descriptors, as
+generated by the <strong class="program">freeze</strong> utility (see <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/freeze/</span></code> in the
+Python source distribution).  Its definition, found in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/import.h</span></code>,
+is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">_frozen</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">unsigned</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_FrozenModules">
+const struct <a class="reference internal" href="#c._frozen" title="_frozen">_frozen</a>* <code class="descname">PyImport_FrozenModules</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_FrozenModules" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This pointer is initialized to point to an array of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">_frozen</span></code>
+records, terminated by one whose members are all <em>NULL</em> or zero.  When a frozen
+module is imported, it is searched in this table.  Third-party code could play
+tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_AppendInittab">
+int <code class="descname">PyImport_AppendInittab</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* (<em>*initfunc</em>)(void)<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_AppendInittab" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a single module to the existing table of built-in modules.  This is a
+convenience wrapper around <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExtendInittab" title="PyImport_ExtendInittab"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExtendInittab()</span></code></a>, returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if
+the table could not be extended.  The new module can be imported by the name
+<em>name</em>, and uses the function <em>initfunc</em> as the initialization function called
+on the first attempted import.  This should be called before
+<a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c._inittab">
+struct <code class="descname">_inittab</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c._inittab" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in modules.  Each of
+these structures gives the name and initialization function for a module built
+into the interpreter.  The name is an ASCII encoded string.  Programs which
+embed Python may use an array of these structures in conjunction with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyImport_ExtendInittab" title="PyImport_ExtendInittab"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExtendInittab()</span></code></a> to provide additional built-in modules.
+The structure is defined in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/import.h</span></code> as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">_inittab</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">;</span>           <span class="cm">/* ASCII encoded string */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">initfunc</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyImport_ExtendInittab">
+int <code class="descname">PyImport_ExtendInittab</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>struct <a class="reference internal" href="#c._inittab" title="_inittab">_inittab</a><em> *newtab</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyImport_ExtendInittab" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules.  The <em>newtab</em>
+array must end with a sentinel entry which contains <em>NULL</em> for the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>
+field; failure to provide the sentinel value can result in a memory fault.
+Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if insufficient memory could be allocated to
+extend the internal table.  In the event of failure, no modules are added to the
+internal table.  This should be called before <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sys.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Operating System Utilities</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="marshal.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Data marshalling support</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/import.rst"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/index.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c4096e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,283 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Python/C API Reference Manual &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    <link rel="prev" title="1. Embedding Python in Another Application" href="../extending/embedding.html" />
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="python-c-api-reference-manual">
+<span id="c-api-index"></span><h1>Python/C API Reference Manual<a class="headerlink" href="#python-c-api-reference-manual" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This manual documents the API used by C and C++ programmers who want to write
+extension modules or embed Python.  It is a companion to <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</span></a>,
+which describes the general principles of extension writing but does not
+document the API functions in detail.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#coding-standards">Coding standards</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#include-files">Include Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#useful-macros">Useful macros</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#objects-types-and-reference-counts">Objects, Types and Reference Counts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#embedding-python">Embedding Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#debugging-builds">Debugging Builds</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stable.html">Stable Application Binary Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="veryhigh.html">The Very High Level Layer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html">Reference Counting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html">Exception Handling</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#printing-and-clearing">Printing and clearing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#raising-exceptions">Raising exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#issuing-warnings">Issuing warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#querying-the-error-indicator">Querying the error indicator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#signal-handling">Signal Handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exception-classes">Exception Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exception-objects">Exception Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#unicode-exception-objects">Unicode Exception Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#recursion-control">Recursion Control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#standard-exceptions">Standard Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#standard-warning-categories">Standard Warning Categories</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="utilities.html">Utilities</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html">Operating System Utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#system-functions">System Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#process-control">Process Control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html">Importing Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html">Data marshalling support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html">Parsing arguments and building values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="conversion.html">String conversion and formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reflection.html">Reflection</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="codec.html">Codec registry and support functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="abstract.html">Abstract Objects Layer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="object.html">Object Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="number.html">Number Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html">Sequence Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mapping.html">Mapping Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="iter.html">Iterator Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html">Buffer Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="objbuffer.html">Old Buffer Protocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="concrete.html">Concrete Objects Layer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concrete.html#fundamental-objects">Fundamental Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concrete.html#numeric-objects">Numeric Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concrete.html#sequence-objects">Sequence Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concrete.html#container-objects">Container Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concrete.html#function-objects">Function Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concrete.html#other-objects">Other Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html">Initialization, Finalization, and Threads</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#before-python-initialization">Before Python Initialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#global-configuration-variables">Global configuration variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#initializing-and-finalizing-the-interpreter">Initializing and finalizing the interpreter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#process-wide-parameters">Process-wide parameters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#thread-state-and-the-global-interpreter-lock">Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#sub-interpreter-support">Sub-interpreter support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#asynchronous-notifications">Asynchronous Notifications</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#profiling-and-tracing">Profiling and Tracing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#advanced-debugger-support">Advanced Debugger Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#thread-local-storage-support">Thread Local Storage Support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html">Memory Management</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#overview">Overview</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#raw-memory-interface">Raw Memory Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#memory-interface">Memory Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#object-allocators">Object allocators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#default-memory-allocators">Default Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#customize-memory-allocators">Customize Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#the-pymalloc-allocator">The pymalloc allocator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#tracemalloc-c-api">tracemalloc C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="objimpl.html">Object Implementation Support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html">Allocating Objects on the Heap</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html">Common Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#number-object-structures">Number Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#mapping-object-structures">Mapping Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#sequence-object-structures">Sequence Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#buffer-object-structures">Buffer Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#async-object-structures">Async Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html">Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="apiabiversion.html">API and ABI Versioning</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
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+
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/init.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/init.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efa06d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/init.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1737 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
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+    <title>Initialization, Finalization, and Threads &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="initialization-finalization-and-threads">
+<span id="initialization"></span><h1>Initialization, Finalization, and Threads<a class="headerlink" href="#initialization-finalization-and-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="before-python-initialization">
+<span id="pre-init-safe"></span><h2>Before Python Initialization<a class="headerlink" href="#before-python-initialization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In an application embedding  Python, the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> function must
+be called before using any other Python/C API functions; with the exception of
+a few functions and the <a class="reference internal" href="#global-conf-vars"><span class="std std-ref">global configuration variables</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Configuration functions:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#c.PyImport_AppendInittab" title="PyImport_AppendInittab"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_AppendInittab()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#c.PyImport_ExtendInittab" title="PyImport_ExtendInittab"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ExtendInittab()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInitFrozenExtensions()</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_SetAllocator" title="PyMem_SetAllocator"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetAllocator()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyObject_SetArenaAllocator" title="PyObject_SetArenaAllocator"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetArenaAllocator()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetPath" title="Py_SetPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetPath()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetPythonHome" title="Py_SetPythonHome"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetPythonHome()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding" title="Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOption" title="PySys_AddWarnOption"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_AddWarnOption()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.PySys_AddXOption" title="PySys_AddXOption"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_AddXOption()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.PySys_ResetWarnOptions" title="PySys_ResetWarnOptions"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_ResetWarnOptions()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>Informative functions:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_IsInitialized" title="Py_IsInitialized"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_IsInitialized()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_GetAllocator" title="PyMem_GetAllocator"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_GetAllocator()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyObject_GetArenaAllocator" title="PyObject_GetArenaAllocator"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetArenaAllocator()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetBuildInfo" title="Py_GetBuildInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetBuildInfo()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetCompiler" title="Py_GetCompiler"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetCompiler()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetCopyright" title="Py_GetCopyright"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetCopyright()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetPlatform" title="Py_GetPlatform"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPlatform()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetVersion" title="Py_GetVersion"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetVersion()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>Utilities:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>Memory allocators:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawCalloc" title="PyMem_RawCalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawCalloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawFree" title="PyMem_RawFree"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawFree()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The following functions <strong>should not be called</strong> before
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetPath" title="Py_GetPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPath()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetPrefix" title="Py_GetPrefix"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPrefix()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetExecPrefix" title="Py_GetExecPrefix"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetExecPrefix()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetProgramFullPath" title="Py_GetProgramFullPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetProgramFullPath()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetPythonHome" title="Py_GetPythonHome"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPythonHome()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetProgramName" title="Py_GetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetProgramName()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_InitThreads" title="PyEval_InitThreads"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_InitThreads()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="global-configuration-variables">
+<span id="global-conf-vars"></span><h2>Global configuration variables<a class="headerlink" href="#global-configuration-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has variables for the global configuration to control different features
+and options. By default, these flags are controlled by <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-interface-options"><span class="std std-ref">command line
+options</span></a>.</p>
+<p>When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of times
+that the option was set. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> sets <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BytesWarningFlag" title="Py_BytesWarningFlag"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BytesWarningFlag</span></code></a>
+to 1 and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-bb</span></code> sets <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BytesWarningFlag" title="Py_BytesWarningFlag"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BytesWarningFlag</span></code></a> to 2.</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_BytesWarningFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_BytesWarningFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_BytesWarningFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Issue a warning when comparing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  Issue an error if greater
+or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a> option.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_DebugFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_DebugFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_DebugFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
+options).</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-d"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-d</span></code></a> option and the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDEBUG"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDEBUG</span></code></a> environment
+variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to non-zero, Python won’t try to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files on the
+import of source modules.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id1"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-B</span></code></a> option and the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</span></code></a>
+environment variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_FrozenFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_FrozenFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_FrozenFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Suppress error messages when calculating the module search path in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetPath" title="Py_GetPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPath()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Private flag used by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_freeze_importlib</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenmain</span></code> programs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_HashRandomizationFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_HashRandomizationFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_HashRandomizationFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a> environment variable is set to
+a non-empty string.</p>
+<p>If the flag is non-zero, read the <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a> environment
+variable to initialize the secret hash seed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ignore all <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON*</span></code> environment variables, e.g.
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> and <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a>, that might be set.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-E</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a> options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_InspectFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_InspectFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_InspectFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When a script is passed as first argument or the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> option is used,
+enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> does not appear to be a terminal.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a> option and the <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONINSPECT"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONINSPECT</span></code></a> environment
+variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_InteractiveFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_InteractiveFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_InteractiveFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a> option.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_IsolatedFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_IsolatedFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_IsolatedFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run Python in isolated mode. In isolated mode <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> contains
+neither the script’s directory nor the user’s site-packages directory.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a> option.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the flag is non-zero, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbcs</span></code> encoding instead of the UTF-8
+encoding for the filesystem encoding.</p>
+<p>Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING</span></code></a> environment
+variable is set to a non-empty string.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0529"><strong>PEP 529</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the flag is non-zero, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.FileIO</span></code></a> instead of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsConsoleIO</span></code> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> standard streams.</p>
+<p>Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</span></code></a> environment
+variable is set to a non-empty string.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0528"><strong>PEP 528</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_NoSiteFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_NoSiteFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_NoSiteFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disable the import of the module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> and the site-dependent
+manipulations of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> that it entails.  Also disable these
+manipulations if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> is explicitly imported later (call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.main" title="site.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.main()</span></code></a> if you want them to be triggered).</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> option.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_NoUserSiteDirectory">
+<code class="descname">Py_NoUserSiteDirectory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_NoUserSiteDirectory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t add the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.USER_SITE" title="site.USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span> <span class="pre">site-packages</span> <span class="pre">directory</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a> options, and the
+<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONNOUSERSITE</span></code></a> environment variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_OptimizeFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_OptimizeFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_OptimizeFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> option and the <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONOPTIMIZE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONOPTIMIZE</span></code></a> environment
+variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_QuietFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_QuietFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_QuietFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t display the copyright and version messages even in interactive mode.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-q"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code></a> option.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-u"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-u</span></code></a> option and the <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUNBUFFERED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUNBUFFERED</span></code></a>
+environment variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_VerboseFlag">
+<code class="descname">Py_VerboseFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_VerboseFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the place
+(filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  If greater or equal
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, print a message for each file that is checked for when
+searching for a module. Also provides information on module cleanup at exit.</p>
+<p>Set by the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id4"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code></a> option and the <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONVERBOSE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONVERBOSE</span></code></a> environment
+variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="initializing-and-finalizing-the-interpreter">
+<h2>Initializing and finalizing the interpreter<a class="headerlink" href="#initializing-and-finalizing-the-interpreter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_Initialize">
+void <code class="descname">Py_Initialize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-16">Initialize the Python interpreter.  In an application embedding  Python,
+this should be called before using any other Python/C API functions; see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pre-init-safe"><span class="std std-ref">Before Python Initialization</span></a> for the few exceptions.</p>
+<p>This initializes
+the table of loaded modules (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>), and creates the fundamental
+modules <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>.  It also initializes
+the module search path (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>). It does not set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code>; use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a> for that.  This is a no-op when called for a second time
+(without calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> first).  There is no return value; it is a
+fatal error if the initialization fails.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Windows, changes the console mode from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_TEXT</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_BINARY</span></code>, which will
+also affect non-Python uses of the console using the C Runtime.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_InitializeEx">
+void <code class="descname">Py_InitializeEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> initsigs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_InitializeEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function works like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> if <em>initsigs</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>. If
+<em>initsigs</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which
+might be useful when Python is embedded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_IsInitialized">
+int <code class="descname">Py_IsInitialized</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_IsInitialized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true (nonzero) when the Python interpreter has been initialized, false
+(zero) if not.  After <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> is called, this returns false until
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> is called again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_FinalizeEx">
+int <code class="descname">Py_FinalizeEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Undo all initializations made by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> and subsequent use of
+Python/C API functions, and destroy all sub-interpreters (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_NewInterpreter" title="Py_NewInterpreter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NewInterpreter()</span></code></a> below) that were created and not yet destroyed since
+the last call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.  Ideally, this frees all memory
+allocated by the Python interpreter.  This is a no-op when called for a second
+time (without calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> again first).  Normally the
+return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  If there were errors during finalization
+(flushing buffered data), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>This function is provided for a number of reasons.  An embedding application
+might want to restart Python without having to restart the application itself.
+An application that has loaded the Python interpreter from a dynamically
+loadable library (or DLL) might want to free all memory allocated by Python
+before unloading the DLL. During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a
+developer might want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from
+the application.</p>
+<p><strong>Bugs and caveats:</strong> The destruction of modules and objects in modules is done
+in random order; this may cause destructors (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods) to fail
+when they depend on other objects (even functions) or modules.  Dynamically
+loaded extension modules loaded by Python are not unloaded.  Small amounts of
+memory allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a leak,
+please report it).  Memory tied up in circular references between objects is not
+freed.  Some memory allocated by extension modules may not be freed.  Some
+extensions may not work properly if their initialization routine is called more
+than once; this can happen if an application calls <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> more than once.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_Finalize">
+void <code class="descname">Py_Finalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_Finalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a backwards-compatible version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> that
+disregards the return value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="process-wide-parameters">
+<h2>Process-wide parameters<a class="headerlink" href="#process-wide-parameters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding">
+int <code class="descname">Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-17">This function should be called before <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>, if it is
+called at all. It specifies which encoding and error handling to use
+with standard IO, with the same meanings as in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>It overrides <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONIOENCODING</span></code></a> values, and allows embedding code
+to control IO encoding when the environment variable does not work.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> and/or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code> may be NULL to use
+<span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONIOENCODING</span></code></a> and/or default values (depending on other
+settings).</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> always uses the “backslashreplace” error
+handler, regardless of this (or any other) setting.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> is called, this function will need to be called
+again in order to affect subsequent calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if successful, a nonzero value on error (e.g. calling after the
+interpreter has already been initialized).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_SetProgramName">
+void <code class="descname">Py_SetProgramName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-20">This function should be called before <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> is called for
+the first time, if it is called at all.  It tells the interpreter the value
+of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[0]</span></code> argument to the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code> function of the program
+(converted to wide characters).
+This is used by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetPath" title="Py_GetPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPath()</span></code></a> and some other functions below to find
+the Python run-time libraries relative to the interpreter executable.  The
+default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'python'</span></code>.  The argument should point to a
+zero-terminated wide character string in static storage whose contents will not
+change for the duration of the program’s execution.  No code in the Python
+interpreter will change the contents of this storage.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> to decode a bytes string to get a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_*</span></code> string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetProgramName">
+wchar* <code class="descname">Py_GetProgramName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetProgramName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-21">Return the program name set with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a>, or the default.
+The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetPrefix">
+wchar_t* <code class="descname">Py_GetPrefix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetPrefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <em>prefix</em> for installed platform-independent files. This is derived
+through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a> and some environment variables; for example, if the
+program name is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/usr/local/bin/python'</span></code>, the prefix is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/usr/local'</span></code>. The
+returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+value.  This corresponds to the <strong class="makevar">prefix</strong> variable in the top-level
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code> and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code> argument to the <strong class="program">configure</strong>
+script at build time.  The value is available to Python code as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code>.
+It is only useful on Unix.  See also the next function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetExecPrefix">
+wchar_t* <code class="descname">Py_GetExecPrefix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetExecPrefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <em>exec-prefix</em> for installed platform-<em>dependent</em> files.  This is
+derived through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a> and some environment variables; for example, if the
+program name is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/usr/local/bin/python'</span></code>, the exec-prefix is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/usr/local'</span></code>.  The returned string points into static storage; the caller
+should not modify its value.  This corresponds to the <strong class="makevar">exec_prefix</strong>
+variable in the top-level <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code> and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code>
+argument to the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script at build  time.  The value is
+available to Python code as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code>.  It is only useful on Unix.</p>
+<p>Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform dependent
+files (such as executables and shared libraries) are installed in a different
+directory tree.  In a typical installation, platform dependent files may be
+installed in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/plat</span></code> subtree while platform independent may
+be installed in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Generally speaking, a platform is a combination of hardware and software
+families, e.g.  Sparc machines running the Solaris 2.x operating system are
+considered the same platform, but Intel machines running Solaris 2.x are another
+platform, and Intel machines running Linux are yet another platform.  Different
+major revisions of the same operating system generally also form different
+platforms.  Non-Unix operating systems are a different story; the installation
+strategies on those systems are so different that the prefix and exec-prefix are
+meaningless, and set to the empty string. Note that compiled Python bytecode
+files are platform independent (but not independent from the Python version by
+which they were compiled!).</p>
+<p>System administrators will know how to configure the <strong class="program">mount</strong> or
+<strong class="program">automount</strong> programs to share <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local</span></code> between platforms
+while having <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/plat</span></code> be a different filesystem for each
+platform.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetProgramFullPath">
+wchar_t* <code class="descname">Py_GetProgramFullPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetProgramFullPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-22">Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is  computed as a
+side-effect of deriving the default module search path  from the program name
+(set by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a> above). The returned string points into
+static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value is available
+to Python code as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetPath">
+wchar_t* <code class="descname">Py_GetPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-23">Return the default module search path; this is computed from the program name
+(set by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a> above) and some environment variables.
+The returned string consists of a series of directory names separated by a
+platform dependent delimiter character.  The delimiter character is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>
+on Unix and Mac OS X, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">';'</span></code> on Windows.  The returned string points into
+static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The list
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is initialized with this value on interpreter startup; it
+can be (and usually is) modified later to change the search path for loading
+modules.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_SetPath">
+void <code class="descname">Py_SetPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_SetPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-24">Set the default module search path.  If this function is called before
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>, then <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_GetPath" title="Py_GetPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPath()</span></code></a> won’t attempt to compute a
+default search path but uses the one provided instead.  This is useful if
+Python is embedded by an application that has full knowledge of the location
+of all modules.  The path components should be separated by the platform
+dependent delimiter character, which is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code> on Unix and Mac OS X, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">';'</span></code>
+on Windows.</p>
+<p>This also causes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.executable" title="sys.executable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code></a> to be set only to the raw program
+name (see <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a>) and for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.prefix" title="sys.prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exec_prefix" title="sys.exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code></a> to be empty.  It is up to the caller to modify these
+if required after calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> to decode a bytes string to get a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_*</span></code> string.</p>
+<p>The path argument is copied internally, so the caller may free it after the
+call completes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetVersion">
+const char* <code class="descname">Py_GetVersion</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetVersion" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the version of this Python interpreter.  This is a string that looks
+something like</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s">&quot;3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) </span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">[GCC 4.2.3]&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-25">The first word (up to the first space character) is the current Python version;
+the first three characters are the major and minor version separated by a
+period.  The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not
+modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version" title="sys.version"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetPlatform">
+const char* <code class="descname">Py_GetPlatform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetPlatform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-26">Return the platform identifier for the current platform.  On Unix, this is
+formed from the “official” name of the operating system, converted to lower
+case, followed by the major revision number; e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is
+also known as SunOS 5.x, the value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sunos5'</span></code>.  On Mac OS X, it is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'darwin'</span></code>.  On Windows, it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'win'</span></code>.  The returned string points into
+static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value is available
+to Python code as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetCopyright">
+const char* <code class="descname">Py_GetCopyright</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetCopyright" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the official copyright string for the current Python version, for example</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Copyright</span> <span class="pre">1991-1995</span> <span class="pre">Stichting</span> <span class="pre">Mathematisch</span> <span class="pre">Centrum,</span> <span class="pre">Amsterdam'</span></code></p>
+<p id="index-27">The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+value.  The value is available to Python code as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.copyright</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetCompiler">
+const char* <code class="descname">Py_GetCompiler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetCompiler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an indication of the compiler used to build the current Python version,
+in square brackets, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s">&quot;[GCC 2.7.2.2]&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-28">The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+value.  The value is available to Python code as part of the variable
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetBuildInfo">
+const char* <code class="descname">Py_GetBuildInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetBuildInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return information about the sequence number and build date and time  of the
+current Python interpreter instance, for example</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s">&quot;#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-29">The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
+value.  The value is available to Python code as part of the variable
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_SetArgvEx">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_SetArgvEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> argc</em>, wchar_t<em> **argv</em>, int<em> updatepath</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-30">Set <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> based on <em>argc</em> and <em>argv</em>.  These parameters are
+similar to those passed to the program’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code> function with the
+difference that the first entry should refer to the script file to be
+executed rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter.  If there
+isn’t a script that will be run, the first entry in <em>argv</em> can be an empty
+string.  If this function fails to initialize <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a>, a fatal
+condition is signalled using <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_FatalError" title="Py_FatalError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FatalError()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>updatepath</em> is zero, this is all the function does.  If <em>updatepath</em>
+is non-zero, the function also modifies <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> according to the
+following algorithm:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the name of an existing script is passed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[0]</span></code>, the absolute
+path of the directory where the script is located is prepended to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Otherwise (that is, if <em>argc</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[0]</span></code> doesn’t point
+to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, which is the same as prepending the current working
+directory (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;.&quot;</span></code>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> to decode a bytes string to get a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_*</span></code> string.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>It is recommended that applications embedding the Python interpreter
+for purposes other than executing a single script pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> as <em>updatepath</em>,
+and update <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> themselves if desired.
+See <a class="reference external" href="https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2008-5983">CVE-2008-5983</a>.</p>
+<p>On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by manually
+popping the first <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> element after having called
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySys_SetArgv" title="PySys_SetArgv"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgv()</span></code></a>, for example using:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyRun_SimpleString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;import sys; sys.path.pop(0)</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_SetArgv">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_SetArgv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> argc</em>, wchar_t<em> **argv</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_SetArgv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function works like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a> with <em>updatepath</em> set
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> unless the <strong class="program">python</strong> interpreter was started with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> to decode a bytes string to get a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_*</span></code> string.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <em>updatepath</em> value depends on <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_SetPythonHome">
+void <code class="descname">Py_SetPythonHome</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *home</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_SetPythonHome" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the default “home” directory, that is, the location of the standard
+Python libraries.  See <span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> for the meaning of the
+argument string.</p>
+<p>The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in static
+storage whose contents will not change for the duration of the program’s
+execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will change the contents of
+this storage.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> to decode a bytes string to get a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_*</span></code> string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_GetPythonHome">
+w_char* <code class="descname">Py_GetPythonHome</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GetPythonHome" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the default “home”, that is, the value set by a previous call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SetPythonHome" title="Py_SetPythonHome"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetPythonHome()</span></code></a>, or the value of the <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a>
+environment variable if it is set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="thread-state-and-the-global-interpreter-lock">
+<span id="threads"></span><h2>Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock<a class="headerlink" href="#thread-state-and-the-global-interpreter-lock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-33">The Python interpreter is not fully thread-safe.  In order to support
+multi-threaded Python programs, there’s a global lock, called the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">global
+interpreter lock</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a>, that must be held by the current thread before
+it can safely access Python objects. Without the lock, even the simplest
+operations could cause problems in a multi-threaded program: for example, when
+two threads simultaneously increment the reference count of the same object, the
+reference count could end up being incremented only once instead of twice.</p>
+<p id="index-34">Therefore, the rule exists that only the thread that has acquired the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> may operate on Python objects or call Python/C API functions.
+In order to emulate concurrency of execution, the interpreter regularly
+tries to switch threads (see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setswitchinterval" title="sys.setswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setswitchinterval()</span></code></a>).  The lock is also
+released around potentially blocking I/O operations like reading or writing
+a file, so that other Python threads can run in the meantime.</p>
+<p id="index-35">The Python interpreter keeps some thread-specific bookkeeping information
+inside a data structure called <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState</span></code></a>.  There’s also one
+global variable pointing to the current <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState</span></code></a>: it can
+be retrieved using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState_Get" title="PyThreadState_Get"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState_Get()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="releasing-the-gil-from-extension-code">
+<h3>Releasing the GIL from extension code<a class="headerlink" href="#releasing-the-gil-from-extension-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most extension code manipulating the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> has the following simple
+structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Save</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="kr">thread</span> <span class="n">state</span> <span class="n">in</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">local</span> <span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">.</span>
+<span class="n">Release</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">global</span> <span class="n">interpreter</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">.</span>
+<span class="p">...</span> <span class="n">Do</span> <span class="n">some</span> <span class="n">blocking</span> <span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">O</span> <span class="n">operation</span> <span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">Reacquire</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">global</span> <span class="n">interpreter</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">.</span>
+<span class="n">Restore</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="kr">thread</span> <span class="n">state</span> <span class="n">from</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">local</span> <span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span>
+<span class="p">...</span> <span class="n">Do</span> <span class="n">some</span> <span class="n">blocking</span> <span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">O</span> <span class="n">operation</span> <span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-36">The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> macro opens a new block and declares a
+hidden local variable; the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> macro closes the
+block.</p>
+<p>The block above expands to the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyThreadState</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">_save</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="n">_save</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyEval_SaveThread</span><span class="p">();</span>
+<span class="p">...</span> <span class="n">Do</span> <span class="n">some</span> <span class="n">blocking</span> <span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">O</span> <span class="n">operation</span> <span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">PyEval_RestoreThread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_save</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-37">Here is how these functions work: the global interpreter lock is used to protect the pointer to the
+current thread state.  When releasing the lock and saving the thread state,
+the current thread state pointer must be retrieved before the lock is released
+(since another thread could immediately acquire the lock and store its own thread
+state in the global variable). Conversely, when acquiring the lock and restoring
+the thread state, the lock must be acquired before storing the thread state
+pointer.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Calling system I/O functions is the most common use case for releasing
+the GIL, but it can also be useful before calling long-running computations
+which don’t need access to Python objects, such as compression or
+cryptographic functions operating over memory buffers.  For example, the
+standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> modules release the GIL when
+compressing or hashing data.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="non-python-created-threads">
+<span id="gilstate"></span><h3>Non-Python created threads<a class="headerlink" href="#non-python-created-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module), a thread state is automatically associated to them
+and the code showed above is therefore correct.  However, when threads are
+created from C (for example by a third-party library with its own thread
+management), they don’t hold the GIL, nor is there a thread state structure
+for them.</p>
+<p>If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be part
+of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party library),
+you must first register these threads with the interpreter by
+creating a thread state data structure, then acquiring the GIL, and finally
+storing their thread state pointer, before you can start using the Python/C
+API.  When you are done, you should reset the thread state pointer, release
+the GIL, and finally free the thread state data structure.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="PyGILState_Ensure"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Ensure()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="PyGILState_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Release()</span></code></a> functions do
+all of the above automatically.  The typical idiom for calling into Python
+from a C thread is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyGILState_STATE</span> <span class="n">gstate</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">gstate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyGILState_Ensure</span><span class="p">();</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* Perform Python actions here. */</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CallSomeFunction</span><span class="p">();</span>
+<span class="cm">/* evaluate result or handle exception */</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */</span>
+<span class="n">PyGILState_Release</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gstate</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_*()</span></code> functions assume there is only one global
+interpreter (created automatically by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>).  Python
+supports the creation of additional interpreters (using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_NewInterpreter" title="Py_NewInterpreter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NewInterpreter()</span></code></a>), but mixing multiple interpreters and the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_*()</span></code> API is unsupported.</p>
+<p>Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the face
+of the C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> call. On most systems with <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code>, after a
+process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist. That also
+means any locks held by other threads will never be released. Python solves
+this for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a> by acquiring the locks it uses internally before
+the fork, and releasing them afterwards. In addition, it resets any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#lock-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Lock Objects</span></a> in the child. When extending or embedding Python, there
+is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that need to be
+acquired before or reset after a fork. OS facilities such as
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_atfork()</span></code> would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
+Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code>
+directly rather than through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a> (and returning to or calling
+into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python’s internal locks
+being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Child"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Child()</span></code></a> tries to reset the necessary locks, but is not
+always able to.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="high-level-api">
+<h3>High-level API<a class="headerlink" href="#high-level-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing C extension
+code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState">
+<code class="descname">PyInterpreterState</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This data structure represents the state shared by a number of cooperating
+threads.  Threads belonging to the same interpreter share their module
+administration and a few other internal items. There are no public members in
+this structure.</p>
+<p>Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share nothing, except
+process state like available memory, open file descriptors and such.  The global
+interpreter lock is also shared by all threads, regardless of to which
+interpreter they belong.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState">
+<code class="descname">PyThreadState</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This data structure represents the state of a single thread.  The only public
+data member is <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></a><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interp</span></code>, which points to
+this thread’s interpreter state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_InitThreads">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_InitThreads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_InitThreads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-38">Initialize and acquire the global interpreter lock.  It should be called in the
+main thread before creating a second thread or engaging in any other thread
+operations such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_ReleaseThread(tstate)</span></code>. It is not needed before
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_SaveThread" title="PyEval_SaveThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SaveThread()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_RestoreThread" title="PyEval_RestoreThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_RestoreThread()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This is a no-op when called for a second time.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>This function is now called by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>, so you don’t
+have to call it yourself anymore.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>This function cannot be called before <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> anymore.</p>
+</div>
+<span class="target" id="index-39"></span></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_ThreadsInitialized">
+int <code class="descname">PyEval_ThreadsInitialized</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_ThreadsInitialized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a non-zero value if <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_InitThreads" title="PyEval_InitThreads"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_InitThreads()</span></code></a> has been called.  This
+function can be called without holding the GIL, and therefore can be used to
+avoid calls to the locking API when running single-threaded.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> is now initialized by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_SaveThread">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_SaveThread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_SaveThread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the global interpreter lock (if it has been created and thread
+support is enabled) and reset the thread state to <em>NULL</em>, returning the
+previous thread state (which is not <em>NULL</em>).  If the lock has been created,
+the current thread must have acquired it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_RestoreThread">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_RestoreThread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_RestoreThread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire the global interpreter lock (if it has been created and thread
+support is enabled) and set the thread state to <em>tstate</em>, which must not be
+<em>NULL</em>.  If the lock has been created, the current thread must not have
+acquired it, otherwise deadlock ensues.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing
+will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python.
+You can use <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_IsFinalizing()</span></code> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.is_finalizing" title="sys.is_finalizing"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.is_finalizing()</span></code></a> to
+check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
+this function to avoid unwanted termination.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_Get">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a>* <code class="descname">PyThreadState_Get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_Get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current thread state.  The global interpreter lock must be held.
+When the current thread state is <em>NULL</em>, this issues a fatal error (so that
+the caller needn’t check for <em>NULL</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_Swap">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a>* <code class="descname">PyThreadState_Swap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_Swap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Swap the current thread state with the thread state given by the argument
+<em>tstate</em>, which may be <em>NULL</em>.  The global interpreter lock must be held
+and is not released.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_ReInitThreads">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_ReInitThreads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_ReInitThreads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is called from <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Child"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Child()</span></code></a> to ensure
+that newly created child processes don’t hold locks referring to threads
+which are not running in the child process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible
+with sub-interpreters:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGILState_Ensure">
+PyGILState_STATE <code class="descname">PyGILState_Ensure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ensure that the current thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless
+of the current state of Python, or of the global interpreter lock. This may
+be called as many times as desired by a thread as long as each call is
+matched with a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="PyGILState_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Release()</span></code></a>. In general, other
+thread-related APIs may be used between <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="PyGILState_Ensure"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Ensure()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="PyGILState_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Release()</span></code></a> calls as long as the thread state is restored to
+its previous state before the Release().  For example, normal usage of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> macros is
+acceptable.</p>
+<p>The return value is an opaque “handle” to the thread state when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="PyGILState_Ensure"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Ensure()</span></code></a> was called, and must be passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="PyGILState_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Release()</span></code></a> to ensure Python is left in the same state. Even
+though recursive calls are allowed, these handles <em>cannot</em> be shared - each
+unique call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="PyGILState_Ensure"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Ensure()</span></code></a> must save the handle for its call
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="PyGILState_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Release()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When the function returns, the current thread will hold the GIL and be able
+to call arbitrary Python code.  Failure is a fatal error.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing
+will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python.
+You can use <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_IsFinalizing()</span></code> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.is_finalizing" title="sys.is_finalizing"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.is_finalizing()</span></code></a> to
+check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
+this function to avoid unwanted termination.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGILState_Release">
+void <code class="descname">PyGILState_Release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyGILState_STATE<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release any resources previously acquired.  After this call, Python’s state will
+be the same as it was prior to the corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="PyGILState_Ensure"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Ensure()</span></code></a> call
+(but generally this state will be unknown to the caller, hence the use of the
+GILState API).</p>
+<p>Every call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="PyGILState_Ensure"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Ensure()</span></code></a> must be matched by a call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="PyGILState_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Release()</span></code></a> on the same thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGILState_GetThisThreadState">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a>* <code class="descname">PyGILState_GetThisThreadState</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGILState_GetThisThreadState" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the current thread state for this thread.  May return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> if no
+GILState API has been used on the current thread.  Note that the main thread
+always has such a thread-state, even if no auto-thread-state call has been
+made on the main thread.  This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyGILState_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyGILState_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGILState_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the current thread is holding the GIL and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.
+This function can be called from any thread at any time.
+Only if it has had its Python thread state initialized and currently is
+holding the GIL will it return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.
+This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function.  It can be useful
+for example in callback contexts or memory allocation functions when
+knowing that the GIL is locked can allow the caller to perform sensitive
+actions or otherwise behave differently.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon; look for
+example usage in the Python source distribution.</p>
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS">
+<code class="descname">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{</span> <span class="pre">PyThreadState</span> <span class="pre">*_save;</span> <span class="pre">_save</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">PyEval_SaveThread();</span></code>.
+Note that it contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> macro.  See above for further discussion of this
+macro.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS">
+<code class="descname">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);</span> <span class="pre">}</span></code>. Note that it contains
+a closing brace; it must be matched with an earlier
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> macro.  See above for further discussion of
+this macro.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_BLOCK_THREADS">
+<code class="descname">Py_BLOCK_THREADS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_BLOCK_THREADS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);</span></code>: it is equivalent to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> without the closing brace.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_save</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">PyEval_SaveThread();</span></code>: it is equivalent to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a> without the opening brace and variable
+declaration.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="low-level-api">
+<h3>Low-level API<a class="headerlink" href="#low-level-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All of the following functions must be called after <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> now initializes the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a>* <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new interpreter state object.  The global interpreter lock need not
+be held, but may be held if it is necessary to serialize calls to this
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_Clear">
+void <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_Clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a><em> *interp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_Clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset all information in an interpreter state object.  The global interpreter
+lock must be held.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_Delete">
+void <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_Delete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a><em> *interp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_Delete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Destroy an interpreter state object.  The global interpreter lock need not be
+held.  The interpreter state must have been reset with a previous call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_Clear" title="PyInterpreterState_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState_Clear()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a>* <code class="descname">PyThreadState_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a><em> *interp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new thread state object belonging to the given interpreter object.
+The global interpreter lock need not be held, but may be held if it is
+necessary to serialize calls to this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_Clear">
+void <code class="descname">PyThreadState_Clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_Clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset all information in a thread state object.  The global interpreter lock
+must be held.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_Delete">
+void <code class="descname">PyThreadState_Delete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_Delete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Destroy a thread state object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held.
+The thread state must have been reset with a previous call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState_Clear" title="PyThreadState_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState_Clear()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_GetID">
+PY_INT64_T <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_GetID</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a><em> *interp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_GetID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the interpreter’s unique ID.  If there was any error in doing
+so then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned and an error is set.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_GetDict">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyThreadState_GetDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_GetDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return a dictionary in which extensions can store thread-specific state
+information.  Each extension should use a unique key to use to store state in
+the dictionary.  It is okay to call this function when no current thread state
+is available. If this function returns <em>NULL</em>, no exception has been raised and
+the caller should assume no current thread state is available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc">
+int <code class="descname">PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>unsigned long<em> id</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Asynchronously raise an exception in a thread. The <em>id</em> argument is the thread
+id of the target thread; <em>exc</em> is the exception object to be raised. This
+function does not steal any references to <em>exc</em>. To prevent naive misuse, you
+must write your own C extension to call this.  Must be called with the GIL held.
+Returns the number of thread states modified; this is normally one, but will be
+zero if the thread id isn’t found.  If <em>exc</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, the pending
+exception (if any) for the thread is cleared. This raises no exceptions.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The type of the <em>id</em> parameter changed from <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> to
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_AcquireThread">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_AcquireThread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_AcquireThread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire the global interpreter lock and set the current thread state to
+<em>tstate</em>, which should not be <em>NULL</em>.  The lock must have been created earlier.
+If this thread already has the lock, deadlock ensues.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_RestoreThread" title="PyEval_RestoreThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_RestoreThread()</span></code></a> is a higher-level function which is always
+available (even when threads have not been initialized).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_ReleaseThread">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_ReleaseThread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_ReleaseThread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the current thread state to <em>NULL</em> and release the global interpreter
+lock.  The lock must have been created earlier and must be held by the current
+thread.  The <em>tstate</em> argument, which must not be <em>NULL</em>, is only used to check
+that it represents the current thread state — if it isn’t, a fatal error is
+reported.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_SaveThread" title="PyEval_SaveThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SaveThread()</span></code></a> is a higher-level function which is always
+available (even when threads have not been initialized).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_AcquireLock">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_AcquireLock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_AcquireLock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire the global interpreter lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.
+If this thread already has the lock, a deadlock ensues.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>This function does not update the current thread state.  Please use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_RestoreThread" title="PyEval_RestoreThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_RestoreThread()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_AcquireThread" title="PyEval_AcquireThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_AcquireThread()</span></code></a>
+instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_ReleaseLock">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_ReleaseLock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_ReleaseLock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the global interpreter lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>This function does not update the current thread state.  Please use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_SaveThread" title="PyEval_SaveThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SaveThread()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_ReleaseThread" title="PyEval_ReleaseThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_ReleaseThread()</span></code></a>
+instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sub-interpreter-support">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Sub-interpreter support<a class="headerlink" href="#sub-interpreter-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter, there
+are cases where you need to create several independent interpreters in the
+same process and perhaps even in the same thread.  Sub-interpreters allow
+you to do that.  You can switch between sub-interpreters using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState_Swap" title="PyThreadState_Swap"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState_Swap()</span></code></a> function.  You can create and destroy them
+using the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_NewInterpreter">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a>* <code class="descname">Py_NewInterpreter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_NewInterpreter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-40">Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is an (almost) totally separate environment
+for the execution of Python code.  In particular, the new interpreter has
+separate, independent versions of all imported modules, including the
+fundamental modules <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>.  The
+table of loaded modules (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>) and the module search path
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>) are also separate.  The new environment has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code>
+variable.  It has new standard I/O stream file objects <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> (however these refer to the same underlying
+file descriptors).</p>
+<p>The return value points to the first thread state created in the new
+sub-interpreter.  This thread state is made in the current thread state.
+Note that no actual thread is created; see the discussion of thread states
+below.  If creation of the new interpreter is unsuccessful, <em>NULL</em> is
+returned; no exception is set since the exception state is stored in the
+current thread state and there may not be a current thread state.  (Like all
+other Python/C API functions, the global interpreter lock must be held before
+calling this function and is still held when it returns; however, unlike most
+other Python/C API functions, there needn’t be a current thread state on
+entry.)</p>
+<p id="index-41">Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows: the first
+time a particular extension is imported, it is initialized normally, and a
+(shallow) copy of its module’s dictionary is squirreled away.  When the same
+extension is imported by another (sub-)interpreter, a new module is initialized
+and filled with the contents of this copy; the extension’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> function is
+not called.  Note that this is different from what happens when an extension is
+imported after the interpreter has been completely re-initialized by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>; in that case, the extension’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initmodule</span></code> function <em>is</em> called again.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-42"></span></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_EndInterpreter">
+void <code class="descname">Py_EndInterpreter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_EndInterpreter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-43">Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread state. The given
+thread state must be the current thread state.  See the discussion of thread
+states below.  When the call returns, the current thread state is <em>NULL</em>.  All
+thread states associated with this interpreter are destroyed.  (The global
+interpreter lock must be held before calling this function and is still held
+when it returns.)  <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> will destroy all sub-interpreters that
+haven’t been explicitly destroyed at that point.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="bugs-and-caveats">
+<h3>Bugs and caveats<a class="headerlink" href="#bugs-and-caveats" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same
+process, the insulation between them isn’t perfect — for example, using
+low-level file operations like  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.close" title="os.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.close()</span></code></a> they can
+(accidentally or maliciously) affect each other’s open files.  Because of the
+way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some extensions may not
+work properly; this is especially likely when the extension makes use of
+(static) global variables, or when the extension manipulates its module’s
+dictionary after its initialization.  It is possible to insert objects created
+in one sub-interpreter into a namespace of another sub-interpreter; this should
+be done with great care to avoid sharing user-defined functions, methods,
+instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import operations executed
+by such objects may affect the wrong (sub-)interpreter’s dictionary of loaded
+modules.</p>
+<p>Also note that combining this functionality with <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_*()</span></code> APIs
+is delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread states
+and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of sub-interpreters.
+It is highly recommended that you don’t switch sub-interpreters between a pair
+of matching <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Ensure" title="PyGILState_Ensure"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Ensure()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyGILState_Release" title="PyGILState_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGILState_Release()</span></code></a> calls.
+Furthermore, extensions (such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>) using these APIs to allow calling
+of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken when using
+sub-interpreters.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asynchronous-notifications">
+<h2>Asynchronous Notifications<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchronous-notifications" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
+interpreter thread.  These notifications take the form of a function
+pointer and a void pointer argument.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_AddPendingCall">
+int <code class="descname">Py_AddPendingCall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int (<em>*func</em>)(void *), void<em> *arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_AddPendingCall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-44">Schedule a function to be called from the main interpreter thread.  On
+success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is returned and <em>func</em> is queued for being called in the
+main thread.  On failure, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned without setting any exception.</p>
+<p>When successfully queued, <em>func</em> will be <em>eventually</em> called from the
+main interpreter thread with the argument <em>arg</em>.  It will be called
+asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code, but with
+both these conditions met:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>on a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> boundary;</p></li>
+<li><p>with the main thread holding the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">global interpreter lock</span></a>
+(<em>func</em> can therefore use the full C API).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><em>func</em> must return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure with an exception
+set.  <em>func</em> won’t be interrupted to perform another asynchronous
+notification recursively, but it can still be interrupted to switch
+threads if the global interpreter lock is released.</p>
+<p>This function doesn’t need a current thread state to run, and it doesn’t
+need the global interpreter lock.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>This is a low-level function, only useful for very special cases.
+There is no guarantee that <em>func</em> will be called as quick as
+possible.  If the main thread is busy executing a system call,
+<em>func</em> won’t be called before the system call returns.  This
+function is generally <strong>not</strong> suitable for calling Python code from
+arbitrary C threads.  Instead, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#gilstate"><span class="std std-ref">PyGILState API</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="profiling-and-tracing">
+<span id="profiling"></span><h2>Profiling and Tracing<a class="headerlink" href="#profiling-and-tracing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching profiling
+and execution tracing facilities.  These are used for profiling, debugging, and
+coverage analysis tools.</p>
+<p>This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the overhead of
+calling through Python-level callable objects, making a direct C function call
+instead.  The essential attributes of the facility have not changed; the
+interface allows trace functions to be installed per-thread, and the basic
+events reported to the trace function are the same as had been reported to the
+Python-level trace functions in previous versions.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.Py_tracefunc">
+int <code class="descname">(*Py_tracefunc)</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a><em> *frame</em>, int<em> what</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of the trace function registered using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_SetProfile" title="PyEval_SetProfile"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SetProfile()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_SetTrace" title="PyEval_SetTrace"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SetTrace()</span></code></a>. The first parameter is the object passed to the
+registration function as <em>obj</em>, <em>frame</em> is the frame object to which the event
+pertains, <em>what</em> is one of the constants <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_CALL</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_EXCEPTION</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_LINE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_RETURN</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_CALL</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_RETURN</span></code>,
+or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_OPCODE</span></code>, and <em>arg</em> depends on the value of <em>what</em>:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 44%" />
+<col style="width: 56%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value of <em>what</em></p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning of <em>arg</em></p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_CALL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Always <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_EXCEPTION</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exception information as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_LINE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Always <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_RETURN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Value being returned to the caller,
+or <em>NULL</em> if caused by an exception.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_CALL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Function object being called.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Function object being called.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_RETURN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Function object being called.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_OPCODE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Always <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_CALL">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_CALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_CALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of the <em>what</em> parameter to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> function when a new
+call to a function or method is being reported, or a new entry into a generator.
+Note that the creation of the iterator for a generator function is not reported
+as there is no control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding
+frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_EXCEPTION">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_EXCEPTION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_EXCEPTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of the <em>what</em> parameter to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> function when an
+exception has been raised.  The callback function is called with this value for
+<em>what</em> when after any bytecode is processed after which the exception becomes
+set within the frame being executed.  The effect of this is that as exception
+propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is called upon
+return to each frame as the exception propagates.  Only trace functions receives
+these events; they are not needed by the profiler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_LINE">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_LINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_LINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value passed as the <em>what</em> parameter to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> function
+(but not a profiling function) when a line-number event is being reported.
+It may be disabled for a frame by setting <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_lines</span></code> to <em>0</em> on that frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_RETURN">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_RETURN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_RETURN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value for the <em>what</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> functions when a
+call is about to return.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_C_CALL">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_C_CALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_C_CALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value for the <em>what</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> functions when a C
+function is about to be called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value for the <em>what</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> functions when a C
+function has raised an exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_C_RETURN">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_C_RETURN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_C_RETURN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value for the <em>what</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> functions when a C
+function has returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTrace_OPCODE">
+int <code class="descname">PyTrace_OPCODE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTrace_OPCODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value for the <em>what</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tracefunc</span></code></a> functions (but not
+profiling functions) when a new opcode is about to be executed.  This event is
+not emitted by default: it must be explicitly requested by setting
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_opcodes</span></code> to <em>1</em> on the frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_SetProfile">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_SetProfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc">Py_tracefunc</a><em> func</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_SetProfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the profiler function to <em>func</em>.  The <em>obj</em> parameter is passed to the
+function as its first parameter, and may be any Python object, or <em>NULL</em>.  If
+the profile function needs to maintain state, using a different value for <em>obj</em>
+for each thread provides a convenient and thread-safe place to store it.  The
+profile function is called for all monitored events except <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_LINE</span></code>
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_OPCODE</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_EXCEPTION</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_SetTrace">
+void <code class="descname">PyEval_SetTrace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tracefunc" title="Py_tracefunc">Py_tracefunc</a><em> func</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_SetTrace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the tracing function to <em>func</em>.  This is similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_SetProfile" title="PyEval_SetProfile"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SetProfile()</span></code></a>, except the tracing function does receive line-number
+events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any event related to C function
+objects being called.  Any trace function registered using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_SetTrace" title="PyEval_SetTrace"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SetTrace()</span></code></a>
+will not receive <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_CALL</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTrace_C_RETURN</span></code> as a value for the <em>what</em> parameter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="advanced-debugger-support">
+<span id="advanced-debugging"></span><h2>Advanced Debugger Support<a class="headerlink" href="#advanced-debugger-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging tools.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_Head">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a>* <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_Head</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_Head" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all such objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_Main">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a>* <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_Main</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_Main" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the main interpreter state object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_Next">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a>* <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_Next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a><em> *interp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_Next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the next interpreter state object after <em>interp</em> from the list of all
+such objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a> * <code class="descname">PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState</a><em> *interp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the pointer to the first <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState</span></code></a> object in the list of
+threads associated with the interpreter <em>interp</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThreadState_Next">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a>* <code class="descname">PyThreadState_Next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThreadState" title="PyThreadState">PyThreadState</a><em> *tstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThreadState_Next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the next thread state object after <em>tstate</em> from the list of all such
+objects belonging to the same <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInterpreterState" title="PyInterpreterState"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="thread-local-storage-support">
+<span id="thread-local-storage"></span><h2>Thread Local Storage Support<a class="headerlink" href="#thread-local-storage-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local storage
+(TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to support the
+Python-level thread local storage API (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.local" title="threading.local"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.local</span></code></a>).  The
+CPython C level APIs are similar to those offered by pthreads and Windows:
+use a thread key and functions to associate a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> value per
+thread.</p>
+<p>The GIL does <em>not</em> need to be held when calling these functions; they supply
+their own locking.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code> does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs,
+you need to include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythread.h</span></code> to use thread-local storage.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>None of these API functions handle memory management on behalf of the
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> values.  You need to allocate and deallocate them yourself.
+If the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> values happen to be <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>, these
+functions don’t do refcount operations on them either.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="thread-specific-storage-tss-api">
+<span id="thread-specific-storage-api"></span><h3>Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API<a class="headerlink" href="#thread-specific-storage-tss-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>TSS API is introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API within the
+CPython interpreter.  This API uses a new type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_t</span></code></a> instead of
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> to represent thread keys.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>“A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython” (<span class="target" id="index-45"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0539"><strong>PEP 539</strong></a>)</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.Py_tss_t">
+<code class="descname">Py_tss_t</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the definition of
+which may depend on the underlying TLS implementation, and it has an
+internal field representing the key’s initialization state.  There are no
+public members in this structure.</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="stable.html#stable"><span class="std std-ref">Py_LIMITED_API</span></a> is not defined, static allocation of
+this type by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT" title="Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT</span></code></a> is allowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT">
+<code class="descname">Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro expands to the initializer for <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_t</span></code></a> variables.
+Note that this macro won’t be defined with <a class="reference internal" href="stable.html#stable"><span class="std std-ref">Py_LIMITED_API</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="dynamic-allocation">
+<h4>Dynamic Allocation<a class="headerlink" href="#dynamic-allocation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Dynamic allocation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_t</span></code></a>, required in extension modules
+built with <a class="reference internal" href="stable.html#stable"><span class="std std-ref">Py_LIMITED_API</span></a>, where static allocation of this type
+is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at build time.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_tss_alloc">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t</a>* <code class="descname">PyThread_tss_alloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_tss_alloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a value which is the same state as a value initialized with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT" title="Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT</span></code></a>, or <em>NULL</em> in the case of dynamic allocation
+failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_tss_free">
+void <code class="descname">PyThread_tss_free</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_tss_free" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Free the given <em>key</em> allocated by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_tss_alloc" title="PyThread_tss_alloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_tss_alloc()</span></code></a>, after
+first calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_tss_delete" title="PyThread_tss_delete"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_tss_delete()</span></code></a> to ensure any associated
+thread locals have been unassigned. This is a no-op if the <em>key</em>
+argument is <cite>NULL</cite>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>A freed key becomes a dangling pointer, you should reset the key to
+<cite>NULL</cite>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods">
+<h4>Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The parameter <em>key</em> of these functions must not be <em>NULL</em>.  Moreover, the
+behaviors of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_tss_set" title="PyThread_tss_set"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_tss_set()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_tss_get" title="PyThread_tss_get"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_tss_get()</span></code></a> are
+undefined if the given <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_t</span></code></a> has not been initialized by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_tss_create" title="PyThread_tss_create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_tss_create()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_tss_is_created">
+int <code class="descname">PyThread_tss_is_created</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_tss_is_created" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a non-zero value if the given <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_t</span></code></a> has been initialized
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_tss_create" title="PyThread_tss_create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_tss_create()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_tss_create">
+int <code class="descname">PyThread_tss_create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_tss_create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a zero value on successful initialization of a TSS key.  The behavior
+is undefined if the value pointed to by the <em>key</em> argument is not
+initialized by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT" title="Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT</span></code></a>.  This function can be called
+repeatedly on the same key – calling it on an already initialized key is a
+no-op and immediately returns success.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_tss_delete">
+void <code class="descname">PyThread_tss_delete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_tss_delete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Destroy a TSS key to forget the values associated with the key across all
+threads, and change the key’s initialization state to uninitialized.  A
+destroyed key is able to be initialized again by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_tss_create" title="PyThread_tss_create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_tss_create()</span></code></a>. This function can be called repeatedly on
+the same key – calling it on an already destroyed key is a no-op.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_tss_set">
+int <code class="descname">PyThread_tss_set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t</a><em> *key</em>, void<em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_tss_set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a zero value to indicate successfully associating a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code>
+value with a TSS key in the current thread.  Each thread has a distinct
+mapping of the key to a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_tss_get">
+void* <code class="descname">PyThread_tss_get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_tss_get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> value associated with a TSS key in the current
+thread.  This returns <em>NULL</em> if no value is associated with the key in the
+current thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="thread-local-storage-tls-api">
+<span id="thread-local-storage-api"></span><h3>Thread Local Storage (TLS) API<a class="headerlink" href="#thread-local-storage-tls-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>This API is superseded by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#thread-specific-storage-api"><span class="std std-ref">Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This version of the API does not support platforms where the native TLS key
+is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.  On such platforms,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyThread_create_key" title="PyThread_create_key"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_create_key()</span></code></a> will return immediately with a failure status,
+and the other TLS functions will all be no-ops on such platforms.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API should not
+be used in new code.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_create_key">
+int <code class="descname">PyThread_create_key</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_create_key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_delete_key">
+void <code class="descname">PyThread_delete_key</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_delete_key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_set_key_value">
+int <code class="descname">PyThread_set_key_value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> key</em>, void<em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_set_key_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_get_key_value">
+void* <code class="descname">PyThread_get_key_value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_get_key_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_delete_key_value">
+void <code class="descname">PyThread_delete_key_value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_delete_key_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyThread_ReInitTLS">
+void <code class="descname">PyThread_ReInitTLS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyThread_ReInitTLS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Initialization, Finalization, and Threads</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#before-python-initialization">Before Python Initialization</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#global-configuration-variables">Global configuration variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#initializing-and-finalizing-the-interpreter">Initializing and finalizing the interpreter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#process-wide-parameters">Process-wide parameters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thread-state-and-the-global-interpreter-lock">Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#releasing-the-gil-from-extension-code">Releasing the GIL from extension code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#non-python-created-threads">Non-Python created threads</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#high-level-api">High-level API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#low-level-api">Low-level API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sub-interpreter-support">Sub-interpreter support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bugs-and-caveats">Bugs and caveats</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-notifications">Asynchronous Notifications</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#profiling-and-tracing">Profiling and Tracing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#advanced-debugger-support">Advanced Debugger Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thread-local-storage-support">Thread Local Storage Support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thread-specific-storage-tss-api">Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dynamic-allocation">Dynamic Allocation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thread-local-storage-tls-api">Thread Local Storage (TLS) API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="datetime.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">DateTime Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/intro.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/intro.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..166c73b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/intro.html
@@ -0,0 +1,803 @@
+
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+
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="introduction">
+<span id="api-intro"></span><h1>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The Application Programmer’s Interface to Python gives C and C++ programmers
+access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels.  The API is equally
+usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally referred to as the Python/C
+API.  There are two fundamentally different reasons for using the Python/C API.
+The first reason is to write <em>extension modules</em> for specific purposes; these
+are C modules that extend the Python interpreter.  This is probably the most
+common use.  The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger
+application; this technique is generally referred to as <em class="dfn">embedding</em> Python
+in an application.</p>
+<p>Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process, where a
+“cookbook” approach works well.  There are several tools that automate the
+process to some extent.  While people have embedded Python in other
+applications since its early existence, the process of embedding Python is
+less straightforward than writing an extension.</p>
+<p>Many API functions are useful independent of whether you’re embedding  or
+extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python  will need to
+provide a custom extension as well, so it’s probably a  good idea to become
+familiar with writing an extension before  attempting to embed Python in a real
+application.</p>
+<div class="section" id="coding-standards">
+<h2>Coding standards<a class="headerlink" href="#coding-standards" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you’re writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you <strong>must</strong> follow the
+guidelines and standards defined in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0007"><strong>PEP 7</strong></a>.  These guidelines apply
+regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to.  Following these
+conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension modules,
+unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="include-files">
+<span id="api-includes"></span><h2>Include Files<a class="headerlink" href="#include-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API are
+included in your code by the following line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;stdio.h&gt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;string.h&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;errno.h&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;limits.h&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;assert.h&gt;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;stdlib.h&gt;</span></code>
+(if available).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard
+headers on some systems, you <em>must</em> include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code> before any standard
+headers are included.</p>
+<p>It is recommended to always define <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span></code> before including
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code>.  See <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#arg-parsing"><span class="std std-ref">Parsing arguments and building values</span></a> for a description of this macro.</p>
+</div>
+<p>All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the included
+standard headers) have one of the prefixes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py</span></code>.  Names beginning
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py</span></code> are for internal use by the Python implementation and should not be
+used by extension writers. Structure member names do not have a reserved prefix.</p>
+<p><strong>Important:</strong> user code should never define names that begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py</span></code>.  This confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the portability of the user
+code to future Python versions, which may define additional names beginning with
+one of these prefixes.</p>
+<p>The header files are typically installed with Python.  On Unix, these  are
+located in the directories <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/include/pythonversion/</span></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/include/pythonversion/</span></code>, where <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code> and
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></code> are defined by the corresponding parameters to Python’s
+<strong class="program">configure</strong> script and <em>version</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%d.%d'</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">sys.version_info[:2]</span></code>.  On Windows, the headers are installed
+in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/include</span></code>, where <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code> is the installation
+directory specified to the installer.</p>
+<p>To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your compiler’s
+search path for includes.  Do <em>not</em> place the parent directories on the search
+path and then use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#include</span> <span class="pre">&lt;pythonX.Y/Python.h&gt;</span></code>; this will break on
+multi-platform builds since the platform independent headers under
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code> include the platform specific headers from
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></code>.</p>
+<p>C++ users should note that though the API is defined entirely using C, the
+header files do properly declare the entry points to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extern</span> <span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span></code>, so there
+is no need to do anything special to use the API from C++.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="useful-macros">
+<h2>Useful macros<a class="headerlink" href="#useful-macros" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files.  Many are
+defined closer to where they are useful (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_RETURN_NONE" title="Py_RETURN_NONE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_RETURN_NONE</span></code></a>).
+Others of a more general utility are defined here.  This is not necessarily a
+complete listing.</p>
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNREACHABLE">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNREACHABLE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNREACHABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use this when you have a code path that you do not expect to be reached.
+For example, in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default:</span></code> clause in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">switch</span></code> statement for which
+all possible values are covered in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">case</span></code> statements.  Use this in places
+where you might be tempted to put an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert(0)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abort()</span></code> call.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_ABS">
+<code class="descname">Py_ABS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>x<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ABS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the absolute value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_MIN">
+<code class="descname">Py_MIN</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>x, y<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_MIN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the minimum value between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_MAX">
+<code class="descname">Py_MAX</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>x, y<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_MAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the maximum value between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_STRINGIFY">
+<code class="descname">Py_STRINGIFY</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>x<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_STRINGIFY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> to a C string.  E.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_STRINGIFY(123)</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;123&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_MEMBER_SIZE">
+<code class="descname">Py_MEMBER_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>type, member<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_MEMBER_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of a structure (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code>) <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">member</span></code> in bytes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_CHARMASK">
+<code class="descname">Py_CHARMASK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>c<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CHARMASK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127] or [0,
+255].  This macro returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> cast to an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_GETENV">
+<code class="descname">Py_GETENV</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>s<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GETENV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getenv(s)</span></code>, but returns <em>NULL</em> if <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-E</span></code></a> was passed on the
+command line (i.e. if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag</span></code> is set).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNUSED">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNUSED</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>arg<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNUSED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence compiler
+warnings, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span> <span class="pre">func(PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*Py_UNUSED(ignored))</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="objects-types-and-reference-counts">
+<span id="api-objects"></span><h2>Objects, Types and Reference Counts<a class="headerlink" href="#objects-types-and-reference-counts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-6">Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a return value
+of type <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.  This type is a pointer to an opaque data type
+representing an arbitrary Python object.  Since all Python object types are
+treated the same way by the Python language in most situations (e.g.,
+assignments, scope rules, and argument passing), it is only fitting that they
+should be represented by a single C type.  Almost all Python objects live on the
+heap: you never declare an automatic or static variable of type
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a>, only pointer variables of type <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> can  be
+declared.  The sole exception are the type objects; since these must never be
+deallocated, they are typically static <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<p>All Python objects (even Python integers) have a <em class="dfn">type</em> and a
+<em class="dfn">reference count</em>.  An object’s type determines what kind of object it is
+(e.g., an integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as
+explained in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>).  For each of the well-known types there is a macro
+to check whether an object is of that type; for instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_Check(a)</span></code> is
+true if (and only if) the object pointed to by <em>a</em> is a Python list.</p>
+<div class="section" id="reference-counts">
+<span id="api-refcounts"></span><h3>Reference Counts<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-counts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The reference count is important because today’s computers have a  finite (and
+often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many  different places there
+are that have a reference to an object.  Such a  place could be another object,
+or a global (or static) C variable, or  a local variable in some C function.
+When an object’s reference count  becomes zero, the object is deallocated.  If
+it contains references to  other objects, their reference count is decremented.
+Those other  objects may be deallocated in turn, if this decrement makes their
+reference count become zero, and so on.  (There’s an obvious problem  with
+objects that reference each other here; for now, the solution is  “don’t do
+that.”)</p>
+<p id="index-7">Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly.  The normal way is  to use
+the macro <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a> to increment an object’s reference count by one,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> to decrement it by   one.  The <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> macro
+is considerably more complex than the incref one, since it must check whether
+the reference count becomes zero and then cause the object’s deallocator to be
+called. The deallocator is a function pointer contained in the object’s type
+structure.  The type-specific deallocator takes care of decrementing the
+reference counts for other objects contained in the object if this is a compound
+object type, such as a list, as well as performing any additional finalization
+that’s needed.  There’s no chance that the reference count can overflow; at
+least as many bits are used to hold the reference count as there are distinct
+memory locations in virtual memory (assuming <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(Py_ssize_t)</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">sizeof(void*)</span></code>).
+Thus, the reference count increment is a simple operation.</p>
+<p>It is not necessary to increment an object’s reference count for every  local
+variable that contains a pointer to an object.  In theory, the  object’s
+reference count goes up by one when the variable is made to  point to it and it
+goes down by one when the variable goes out of  scope.  However, these two
+cancel each other out, so at the end the  reference count hasn’t changed.  The
+only real reason to use the  reference count is to prevent the object from being
+deallocated as  long as our variable is pointing to it.  If we know that there
+is at  least one other reference to the object that lives at least as long as
+our variable, there is no need to increment the reference count  temporarily.
+An important situation where this arises is in objects  that are passed as
+arguments to C functions in an extension module  that are called from Python;
+the call mechanism guarantees to hold a  reference to every argument for the
+duration of the call.</p>
+<p>However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold on to it
+for a while without incrementing its reference count. Some other operation might
+conceivably remove the object from the list, decrementing its reference count
+and possible deallocating it. The real danger is that innocent-looking
+operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could do this; there is a code
+path which allows control to flow back to the user from a <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>, so
+almost any operation is potentially dangerous.</p>
+<p>A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions  whose name
+begins with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_</span></code>).
+These operations always increment the reference count of the object they return.
+This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> when
+they are done with the result; this soon becomes second nature.</p>
+<div class="section" id="reference-count-details">
+<span id="api-refcountdetails"></span><h4>Reference Count Details<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-count-details" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best  explained
+in terms of <em>ownership of references</em>.  Ownership pertains to references, never
+to objects (objects are not owned: they are always shared).  “Owning a
+reference” means being responsible for calling Py_DECREF on it when the
+reference is no longer needed.  Ownership can also be transferred, meaning that
+the code that receives ownership of the reference then becomes responsible for
+eventually decref’ing it by calling <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a>
+when it’s no longer needed—or passing on this responsibility (usually to its
+caller). When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its caller, the
+caller is said to receive a <em>new</em> reference.  When no ownership is transferred,
+the caller is said to <em>borrow</em> the reference. Nothing needs to be done for a
+borrowed reference.</p>
+<p>Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an  object, there
+are two possibilities: the function <em>steals</em> a  reference to the object, or it
+does not.  <em>Stealing a reference</em> means that when you pass a reference to a
+function, that function assumes that it now owns that reference, and you are not
+responsible for it any longer.</p>
+<p id="index-8">Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are
+<a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_SetItem()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SetItem()</span></code></a>, which  steal a reference
+to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item is put!).  These
+functions were designed to steal a reference because of a common idiom for
+populating a tuple or list with newly created objects; for example, the code to
+create the tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;three&quot;)</span></code> could look like this (forgetting about
+error handling for the moment; a better way to code this is shown below):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyTuple_New</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">PyTuple_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1L</span><span class="p">));</span>
+<span class="n">PyTuple_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2L</span><span class="p">));</span>
+<span class="n">PyTuple_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;three&quot;</span><span class="p">));</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here, <a class="reference internal" href="long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong" title="PyLong_FromLong"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromLong()</span></code></a> returns a new reference which is immediately
+stolen by <a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SetItem()</span></code></a>.  When you want to keep using an object
+although the reference to it will be stolen, use <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a> to grab
+another reference before calling the reference-stealing function.</p>
+<p>Incidentally, <a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SetItem()</span></code></a> is the <em>only</em> way to set tuple items;
+<a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetItem" title="PySequence_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_SetItem()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetItem()</span></code></a> refuse to do this
+since tuples are an immutable data type.  You should only use
+<a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SetItem()</span></code></a> for tuples that you are creating yourself.</p>
+<p>Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_New" title="PyList_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_New()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_SetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and populating
+a tuple or list.  There’s a generic function, <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a>, that can
+create most common objects from C values, directed by a <em class="dfn">format string</em>.
+For example, the above two blocks of code could be replaced by the following
+(which also takes care of the error checking):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tuple</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="n">tuple</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_BuildValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;(iis)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;three&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_BuildValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;[iis]&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;three&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is much more common to use <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetItem()</span></code></a> and friends with items
+whose references you are only borrowing, like arguments that were passed in to
+the function you are writing.  In that case, their behaviour regarding reference
+counts is much saner, since you don’t have to increment a reference count so you
+can give a reference away (“have it be stolen”).  For example, this function
+sets all items of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">set_all</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_Length</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromSsize_t</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">index</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-9">The situation is slightly different for function return values.   While passing
+a reference to most functions does not change your  ownership responsibilities
+for that reference, many functions that  return a reference to an object give
+you ownership of the reference. The reason is simple: in many cases, the
+returned object is created  on the fly, and the reference you get is the only
+reference to the  object.  Therefore, the generic functions that return object
+references, like <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code></a> and  <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_GetItem()</span></code></a>,
+always return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference).</p>
+<p>It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned  by a
+function depends on which function you call only — <em>the plumage</em> (the type of
+the object passed as an argument to the function) <em>doesn’t enter into it!</em>
+Thus, if you  extract an item from a list using <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_GetItem" title="PyList_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_GetItem()</span></code></a>, you
+don’t own the reference — but if you obtain the same item from the same list
+using <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_GetItem()</span></code></a> (which happens to take exactly the same
+arguments), you do own a reference to the returned object.</p>
+<p id="index-10">Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the sum of
+the items in a list of integers; once using  <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_GetItem" title="PyList_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_GetItem()</span></code></a>, and once
+using <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_GetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">long</span>
+<span class="nf">sum_list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">long</span> <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyList_Size</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Not a list */</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyList_GetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* Can&#39;t fail */</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyLong_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">continue</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Skip non-integers */</span>
+        <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_AsLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">&amp;&amp;</span> <span class="n">PyErr_Occurred</span><span class="p">())</span>
+            <span class="cm">/* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">total</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate" id="index-11"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">long</span>
+<span class="nf">sum_sequence</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">long</span> <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PySequence_Length</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Has no length */</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PySequence_GetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Not a sequence, or other failure */</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyLong_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_AsLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">&amp;&amp;</span> <span class="n">PyErr_Occurred</span><span class="p">())</span>
+                <span class="cm">/* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+            <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* Discard reference ownership */</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">total</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="types">
+<span id="api-types"></span><span id="index-12"></span><h3>Types<a class="headerlink" href="#types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are few other data types that play a significant role in  the Python/C
+API; most are simple C types such as <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>,  <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char*</span></code>.  A few structure types  are used to
+describe static tables used to list the functions exported  by a module or the
+data attributes of a new object type, and another is used to describe the value
+of a complex number.  These will  be discussed together with the functions that
+use them.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<span id="api-exceptions"></span><h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Python programmer only needs to deal with exceptions if specific  error
+handling is required; unhandled exceptions are automatically  propagated to the
+caller, then to the caller’s caller, and so on, until they reach the top-level
+interpreter, where they are reported to the  user accompanied by a stack
+traceback.</p>
+<p id="index-13">For C programmers, however, error checking always has to be explicit.  All
+functions in the Python/C API can raise exceptions, unless an explicit claim is
+made otherwise in a function’s documentation.  In general, when a function
+encounters an error, it sets an exception, discards any object references that
+it owns, and returns an error indicator.  If not documented otherwise, this
+indicator is either <em>NULL</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, depending on the function’s return type.
+A few functions return a Boolean true/false result, with false indicating an
+error.  Very few functions return no explicit error indicator or have an
+ambiguous return value, and require explicit testing for errors with
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a>.  These exceptions are always explicitly documented.</p>
+<p id="index-14">Exception state is maintained in per-thread storage (this is  equivalent to
+using global storage in an unthreaded application).  A  thread can be in one of
+two states: an exception has occurred, or not. The function
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> can be used to check for this: it returns a borrowed
+reference to the exception type object when an exception has occurred, and
+<em>NULL</em> otherwise.  There are a number of functions to set the exception state:
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetString" title="PyErr_SetString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetString()</span></code></a> is the most common (though not the most general)
+function to set the exception state, and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear" title="PyErr_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Clear()</span></code></a> clears the
+exception state.</p>
+<p>The full exception state consists of three objects (all of which can  be
+<em>NULL</em>): the exception type, the corresponding exception  value, and the
+traceback.  These have the same meanings as the Python result of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code>; however, they are not the same: the Python objects represent
+the last exception being handled by a Python  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> …
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> statement, while the C level exception state only exists while
+an exception is being passed on between C functions until it reaches the Python
+bytecode interpreter’s  main loop, which takes care of transferring it to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code> and friends.</p>
+<p id="index-15">Note that starting with Python 1.5, the preferred, thread-safe way to access the
+exception state from Python code is to call the function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>,
+which returns the per-thread exception state for Python code.  Also, the
+semantics of both ways to access the exception state have changed so that a
+function which catches an exception will save and restore its thread’s exception
+state so as to preserve the exception state of its caller.  This prevents common
+bugs in exception handling code caused by an innocent-looking function
+overwriting the exception being handled; it also reduces the often unwanted
+lifetime extension for objects that are referenced by the stack frames in the
+traceback.</p>
+<p>As a general principle, a function that calls another function to  perform some
+task should check whether the called function raised an  exception, and if so,
+pass the exception state on to its caller.  It  should discard any object
+references that it owns, and return an  error indicator, but it should <em>not</em> set
+another exception — that would overwrite the exception that was just raised,
+and lose important information about the exact cause of the error.</p>
+<p id="index-16">A simple example of detecting exceptions and passing them on is shown in the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum_sequence()</span></code> example above.  It so happens that this example doesn’t
+need to clean up any owned references when it detects an error.  The following
+example function shows some error cleanup.  First, to remind you why you like
+Python, we show the equivalent Python code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">def</span> <span class="n">incr_item</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">:</span>
+    <span class="nl">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">except</span> <span class="nl">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-17">Here is the corresponding C code, in all its glory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">incr_item</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">const_one</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">incremented_item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">rv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_GetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="cm">/* Handle KeyError only: */</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyErr_ExceptionMatches</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_KeyError</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="k">goto</span> <span class="n">error</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+        <span class="cm">/* Clear the error and use zero: */</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Clear</span><span class="p">();</span>
+        <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0L</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">goto</span> <span class="n">error</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">const_one</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1L</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">const_one</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">goto</span> <span class="n">error</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">incremented_item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyNumber_Add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const_one</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">incremented_item</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">goto</span> <span class="n">error</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">incremented_item</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">goto</span> <span class="n">error</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">rv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Success */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Continue with cleanup code */</span>
+
+ <span class="nl">error</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">const_one</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">incremented_item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">rv</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* -1 for error, 0 for success */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<span class="target" id="index-18"></span><p id="index-19">This example represents an endorsed use of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">goto</span></code> statement  in C!
+It illustrates the use of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_ExceptionMatches" title="PyErr_ExceptionMatches"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_ExceptionMatches()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear" title="PyErr_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Clear()</span></code></a> to handle specific exceptions, and the use of
+<a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> to dispose of owned references that may be <em>NULL</em> (note the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code> in the name; <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> would crash when confronted with a
+<em>NULL</em> reference).  It is important that the variables used to hold owned
+references are initialized to <em>NULL</em> for this to work; likewise, the proposed
+return value is initialized to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> (failure) and only set to success after
+the final call made is successful.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="embedding-python">
+<span id="api-embedding"></span><h2>Embedding Python<a class="headerlink" href="#embedding-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The one important task that only embedders (as opposed to extension writers) of
+the Python interpreter have to worry about is the initialization, and possibly
+the finalization, of the Python interpreter.  Most functionality of the
+interpreter can only be used after the interpreter has been initialized.</p>
+<p id="index-20">The basic initialization function is <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>. This initializes
+the table of loaded modules, and creates the fundamental modules
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>.  It also
+initializes the module search path (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>).</p>
+<p id="index-21"><a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> does not set the “script argument list”  (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code>).
+If this variable is needed by Python code that will be executed later, it must
+be set explicitly with a call to  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx(argc,</span> <span class="pre">argv,</span> <span class="pre">updatepath)</span></code>
+after the call to <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>On most systems (in particular, on Unix and Windows, although the details are
+slightly different), <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> calculates the module search path
+based upon its best guess for the location of the standard Python interpreter
+executable, assuming that the Python library is found in a fixed location
+relative to the Python interpreter executable.  In particular, it looks for a
+directory named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em></code> relative to the parent directory
+where the executable named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> is found on the shell command search
+path (the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>).</p>
+<p>For instance, if the Python executable is found in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/bin/python</span></code>, it will assume that the libraries are in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em></code>.  (In fact, this particular path is also
+the “fallback” location, used when no executable file named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> is
+found along <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>.)  The user can override this behavior by setting the
+environment variable <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a>, or insert additional directories in
+front of the standard path by setting <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-26">The embedding application can steer the search by calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName(file)</span></code> <em>before</em> calling  <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.  Note that
+<span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> still overrides this and <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> is still
+inserted in front of the standard path.  An application that requires total
+control has to provide its own implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_GetPath" title="Py_GetPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPath()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_GetPrefix" title="Py_GetPrefix"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetPrefix()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_GetExecPrefix" title="Py_GetExecPrefix"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetExecPrefix()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_GetProgramFullPath" title="Py_GetProgramFullPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetProgramFullPath()</span></code></a> (all defined in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/getpath.c</span></code>).</p>
+<p id="index-29">Sometimes, it is desirable to “uninitialize” Python.  For instance,  the
+application may want to start over (make another call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>) or the application is simply done with its  use of
+Python and wants to free memory allocated by Python.  This can be accomplished
+by calling <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a>.  The function <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_IsInitialized" title="Py_IsInitialized"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_IsInitialized()</span></code></a> returns
+true if Python is currently in the initialized state.  More information about
+these functions is given in a later chapter. Notice that <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a>
+does <em>not</em> free all memory allocated by the Python interpreter, e.g. memory
+allocated by extension modules currently cannot be released.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="debugging-builds">
+<span id="api-debugging"></span><h2>Debugging Builds<a class="headerlink" href="#debugging-builds" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python can be built with several macros to enable extra checks of the
+interpreter and extension modules.  These checks tend to add a large amount of
+overhead to the runtime so they are not enabled by default.</p>
+<p>A full list of the various types of debugging builds is in the file
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt</span></code> in the Python source distribution. Builds are
+available that support tracing of reference counts, debugging the memory
+allocator, or low-level profiling of the main interpreter loop.  Only the most
+frequently-used builds will be described in the remainder of this section.</p>
+<p>Compiling the interpreter with the <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DEBUG</span></code> macro defined produces
+what is generally meant by “a debug build” of Python. <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DEBUG</span></code> is
+enabled in the Unix build by adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pydebug</span></code> to the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">./configure</span></code> command.  It is also implied by the presence of the
+not-Python-specific <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_DEBUG</span></code> macro.  When <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DEBUG</span></code> is enabled
+in the Unix build, compiler optimization is disabled.</p>
+<p>In addition to the reference count debugging described below, the following
+extra checks are performed:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Extra checks are added to the object allocator.</p></li>
+<li><p>Extra checks are added to the parser and compiler.</p></li>
+<li><p>Downcasts from wide types to narrow types are checked for loss of information.</p></li>
+<li><p>A number of assertions are added to the dictionary and set implementations.
+In addition, the set object acquires a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_c_api()</span></code> method.</p></li>
+<li><p>Sanity checks of the input arguments are added to frame creation.</p></li>
+<li><p>The storage for ints is initialized with a known invalid pattern to catch
+reference to uninitialized digits.</p></li>
+<li><p>Low-level tracing and extra exception checking are added to the runtime
+virtual machine.</p></li>
+<li><p>Extra checks are added to the memory arena implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p>Extra debugging is added to the thread module.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There may be additional checks not mentioned here.</p>
+<p>Defining <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TRACE_REFS</span></code> enables reference tracing.  When defined, a
+circular doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra
+fields to every <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a>.  Total allocations are tracked as well.  Upon
+exit, all existing references are printed.  (In interactive mode this happens
+after every statement run by the interpreter.)  Implied by <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DEBUG</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Please refer to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt</span></code> in the Python source distribution
+for more detailed information.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coding-standards">Coding standards</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#include-files">Include Files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#useful-macros">Useful macros</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#objects-types-and-reference-counts">Objects, Types and Reference Counts</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference-counts">Reference Counts</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference-count-details">Reference Count Details</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types">Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#embedding-python">Embedding Python</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debugging-builds">Debugging Builds</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Python/C API Reference Manual</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stable.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Stable Application Binary Interface</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/intro.rst"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/iter.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/iter.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18df841
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/iter.html
@@ -0,0 +1,225 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Iterator Protocol &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <link rel="prev" title="Mapping Protocol" href="mapping.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/iter.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="abstract.html" accesskey="U">Abstract Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="iterator-protocol">
+<span id="iterator"></span><h1>Iterator Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#iterator-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>There are two functions specifically for working with iterators.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyIter_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyIter_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyIter_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> supports the iterator protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyIter_Next">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyIter_Next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyIter_Next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the next value from the iteration <em>o</em>.  The object must be an iterator
+(it is up to the caller to check this).  If there are no remaining values,
+returns <em>NULL</em> with no exception set.  If an error occurs while retrieving
+the item, returns <em>NULL</em> and passes along the exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To write a loop which iterates over an iterator, the C code should look
+something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">iterator</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_GetIter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterator</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* propagate error */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyIter_Next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* do something with item */</span>
+    <span class="p">...</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* release reference when done */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyErr_Occurred</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* propagate error */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* continue doing useful work */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mapping.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Mapping Protocol</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="buffer.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Buffer Protocol</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/iter.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+
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+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/iterator.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/iterator.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e31916e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/iterator.html
@@ -0,0 +1,232 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Iterator Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    <link rel="prev" title="Module Objects" href="module.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/iterator.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="iterator-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Iterator Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#iterator-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects.  The first, a sequence
+iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+method.  The second works with a callable object and a sentinel value, calling
+the callable for each item in the sequence, and ending the iteration when the
+sentinel value is returned.</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PySeqIter_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PySeqIter_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySeqIter_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type object for iterator objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySeqIter_New" title="PySeqIter_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySeqIter_New()</span></code></a> and the
+one-argument form of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> built-in function for built-in sequence
+types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySeqIter_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PySeqIter_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>op<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySeqIter_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the type of <em>op</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySeqIter_Type" title="PySeqIter_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySeqIter_Type</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySeqIter_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySeqIter_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *seq</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySeqIter_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return an iterator that works with a general sequence object, <em>seq</em>.  The
+iteration ends when the sequence raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> for the subscripting
+operation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyCallIter_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyCallIter_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCallIter_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type object for iterator objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCallIter_New" title="PyCallIter_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCallIter_New()</span></code></a> and the
+two-argument form of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> built-in function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCallIter_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyCallIter_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>op<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCallIter_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the type of <em>op</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCallIter_Type" title="PyCallIter_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCallIter_Type</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCallIter_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyCallIter_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *callable</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *sentinel</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCallIter_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new iterator.  The first parameter, <em>callable</em>, can be any Python
+callable object that can be called with no parameters; each call to it should
+return the next item in the iteration.  When <em>callable</em> returns a value equal to
+<em>sentinel</em>, the iteration will be terminated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="module.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Module Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="descriptor.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Descriptor Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/iterator.rst"
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+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
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+    </div>  
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+        </li>
+
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" >Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
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+        </form>
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+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
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+    </div>
+
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/list.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/list.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3205618
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/list.html
@@ -0,0 +1,342 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>List Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="list-objects">
+<span id="listobjects"></span><h1>List Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#list-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyListObject">
+<code class="descname">PyListObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyListObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python list object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyList_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyList_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python list type.
+This is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a list object or an instance of a subtype of the list
+type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a list object, but not an instance of a subtype of
+the list type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyList_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>Py_ssize_t<em> len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new list of length <em>len</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <em>len</em> is greater than zero, the returned list object’s items are
+set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.  Thus you cannot use abstract API functions such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetItem" title="PySequence_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_SetItem()</span></code></a>  or expose the object to Python code before
+setting all items to a real object with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_SetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyList_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Return the length of the list object in <em>list</em>; this is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(list)</span></code> on a list object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_GET_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyList_GET_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_GET_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro form of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyList_Size" title="PyList_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_Size()</span></code></a> without error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_GetItem">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyList_GetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_GetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the object at position <em>index</em> in the list pointed to by <em>list</em>.  The
+position must be non-negative; indexing from the end of the list is not
+supported.  If <em>index</em> is out of bounds (&lt;0 or &gt;=len(list)),
+return <em>NULL</em> and set an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_GET_ITEM">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyList_GET_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_GET_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Macro form of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyList_GetItem" title="PyList_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_GetItem()</span></code></a> without error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_SetItem">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_SetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_SetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the item at index <em>index</em> in list to <em>item</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function “steals” a reference to <em>item</em> and discards a reference to
+an item already in the list at the affected position.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_SET_ITEM">
+void <code class="descname">PyList_SET_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_SET_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro form of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_SetItem()</span></code></a> without error checking. This is
+normally only used to fill in new lists where there is no previous content.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This macro “steals” a reference to <em>item</em>, and, unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_SetItem()</span></code></a>, does <em>not</em> discard a reference to any item that
+is being replaced; any reference in <em>list</em> at position <em>i</em> will be
+leaked.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_Insert">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_Insert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_Insert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert the item <em>item</em> into list <em>list</em> in front of index <em>index</em>.  Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if successful; return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and set an exception if unsuccessful.
+Analogous to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.insert(index,</span> <span class="pre">item)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_Append">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_Append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_Append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append the object <em>item</em> at the end of list <em>list</em>. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if
+successful; return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.append(item)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_GetSlice">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyList_GetSlice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> low</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> high</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_GetSlice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a list of the objects in <em>list</em> containing the objects <em>between</em> <em>low</em>
+and <em>high</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em> and set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list[low:high]</span></code>.  Negative indices, as when slicing from Python, are not
+supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_SetSlice">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_SetSlice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> low</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> high</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *itemlist</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_SetSlice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the slice of <em>list</em> between <em>low</em> and <em>high</em> to the contents of
+<em>itemlist</em>.  Analogous to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list[low:high]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">itemlist</span></code>. The <em>itemlist</em> may
+be <em>NULL</em>, indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice deletion).
+Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.  Negative indices, as when
+slicing from Python, are not supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_Sort">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_Sort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_Sort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sort the items of <em>list</em> in place.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.  This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_Reverse">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_Reverse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_Reverse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reverse the items of <em>list</em> in place.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.reverse()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_AsTuple">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyList_AsTuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_AsTuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-2">Return a new tuple object containing the contents of <em>list</em>; equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple(list)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyList_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PyList_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyList_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+                        title="previous chapter">Tuple Objects</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter">Dictionary Objects</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/long.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/long.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8695d9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/long.html
@@ -0,0 +1,452 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Integer Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="integer-objects">
+<span id="longobjects"></span><h1>Integer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#integer-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">All integers are implemented as “long” integer objects of arbitrary size.</p>
+<p>On error, most <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_As*</span></code> APIs return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(return</span> <span class="pre">type)-1</span></code> which cannot be
+distinguished from a number.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyLongObject">
+<code class="descname">PyLongObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python integer object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyLong_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python integer type.
+This is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyLong_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if its argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> or a subtype of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyLong_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if its argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>, but not a subtype of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromLong">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>long<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> object from <em>v</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+<p>The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers
+between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-5</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">256</span></code>, when you create an int in that range you actually
+just get back a reference to the existing object. So it should be possible to
+change the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.  I suspect the behaviour of Python in this case is
+undefined. :-)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLong">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromUnsignedLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>unsigned long<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> object from a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>, or
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromSsize_t">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromSsize_t</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>Py_ssize_t<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromSsize_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> object from a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>, or
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromSize_t">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromSize_t</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>size_t<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromSize_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> object from a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size_t</span></code>, or
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromLongLong">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromLongLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>long long<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromLongLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> object from a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>, or <em>NULL</em>
+on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>unsigned long long<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> object from a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>,
+or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromDouble">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromDouble</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>double<em> v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromDouble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> object from the integer part of <em>v</em>, or
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, char<em> **pend</em>, int<em> base</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a> based on the string value in <em>str</em>, which
+is interpreted according to the radix in <em>base</em>.  If <em>pend</em> is non-<em>NULL</em>,
+<em>*pend</em> will point to the first character in <em>str</em> which follows the
+representation of the number.  If <em>base</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <em>str</em> is interpreted using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#integers"><span class="std std-ref">Integer literals</span></a> definition; in this case, leading zeros in a
+non-zero decimal number raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>. If <em>base</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>,
+it must be between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">36</span></code>, inclusive.  Leading spaces and single
+underscores after a base specifier and between digits are ignored.  If there
+are no digits, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromUnicode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromUnicode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *u</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, int<em> base</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromUnicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Convert a sequence of Unicode digits to a Python integer value.  The Unicode
+string is first encoded to a byte string using <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()</span></code>
+and then converted using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLong_FromString" title="PyLong_FromString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLong_FromUnicodeObject" title="PyLong_FromUnicodeObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromUnicodeObject()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromUnicodeObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromUnicodeObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *u</em>, int<em> base</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromUnicodeObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Convert a sequence of Unicode digits in the string <em>u</em> to a Python integer
+value.  The Unicode string is first encoded to a byte string using
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()</span></code> and then converted using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLong_FromString" title="PyLong_FromString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_FromVoidPtr">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyLong_FromVoidPtr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_FromVoidPtr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Python integer from the pointer <em>p</em>. The pointer value can be
+retrieved from the resulting value using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLong_AsVoidPtr" title="PyLong_AsVoidPtr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsVoidPtr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsLong">
+long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>obj</em>.  If <em>obj</em> is not an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>, first call its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> method
+(if present) to convert it to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if the value of <em>obj</em> is out of range for a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow">
+long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, int<em> *overflow</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>obj</em>.  If <em>obj</em> is not an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>, first call its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> method
+(if present) to convert it to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the value of <em>obj</em> is greater than <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LONG_MAX</span></code> or less than
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LONG_MIN</span></code>, set <em>*overflow</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, respectively, and
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>; otherwise, set <em>*overflow</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  If any other exception
+occurs set <em>*overflow</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> as usual.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsLongLong">
+long long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsLongLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsLongLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>obj</em>.  If <em>obj</em> is not an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>, first call its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> method
+(if present) to convert it to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if the value of <em>obj</em> is out of range for a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow">
+long long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, int<em> *overflow</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>obj</em>.  If <em>obj</em> is not an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>, first call its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> method
+(if present) to convert it to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the value of <em>obj</em> is greater than <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_LLONG_MAX</span></code> or less than
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_LLONG_MIN</span></code>, set <em>*overflow</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, respectively,
+and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>; otherwise, set <em>*overflow</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  If any other
+exception occurs set <em>*overflow</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> as usual.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsSsize_t">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyLong_AsSsize_t</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pylong</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsSsize_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-3">Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> representation of <em>pylong</em>.  <em>pylong</em> must
+be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if the value of <em>pylong</em> is out of range for a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLong">
+unsigned long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsUnsignedLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pylong</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-4">Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>pylong</em>.  <em>pylong</em>
+must be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if the value of <em>pylong</em> is out of range for a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long)-1</span></code> on error.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsSize_t">
+size_t <code class="descname">PyLong_AsSize_t</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pylong</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsSize_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-5">Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size_t</span></code> representation of <em>pylong</em>.  <em>pylong</em> must be
+an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if the value of <em>pylong</em> is out of range for a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size_t</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(size_t)-1</span></code> on error.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong">
+unsigned long long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pylong</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-6">Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>pylong</em>.  <em>pylong</em>
+must be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if the value of <em>pylong</em> is out of range for an
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long)-1</span></code> on error.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>A negative <em>pylong</em> now raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>, not <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask">
+unsigned long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>obj</em>.  If <em>obj</em>
+is not an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>, first call its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a>
+method (if present) to convert it to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the value of <em>obj</em> is out of range for an <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>,
+return the reduction of that value modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ULONG_MAX</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long)-1</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to
+disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask">
+unsigned long long <code class="descname">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> representation of <em>obj</em>.  If <em>obj</em>
+is not an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>, first call its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a>
+method (if present) to convert it to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the value of <em>obj</em> is out of range for an <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>,
+return the reduction of that value modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_ULLONG_MAX</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long)-1</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a>
+to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsDouble">
+double <code class="descname">PyLong_AsDouble</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pylong</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsDouble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> representation of <em>pylong</em>.  <em>pylong</em> must be
+an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLongObject" title="PyLongObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLongObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if the value of <em>pylong</em> is out of range for a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyLong_AsVoidPtr">
+void* <code class="descname">PyLong_AsVoidPtr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *pylong</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyLong_AsVoidPtr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a Python integer <em>pylong</em> to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span></code> pointer.
+If <em>pylong</em> cannot be converted, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> will be raised.  This
+is only assured to produce a usable <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span></code> pointer for values created
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyLong_FromVoidPtr" title="PyLong_FromVoidPtr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromVoidPtr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Returns <em>NULL</em> on error.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to disambiguate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="none.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> Object</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bool.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Boolean Objects</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/mapping.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/mapping.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3db0564
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/mapping.html
@@ -0,0 +1,287 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Mapping Protocol &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Iterator Protocol" href="iter.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Sequence Protocol" href="sequence.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
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+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="abstract.html" accesskey="U">Abstract Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
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+
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="mapping-protocol">
+<span id="mapping"></span><h1>Mapping Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetItem()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_DelItem" title="PyObject_DelItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyMapping_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the object provides mapping protocol or supports slicing,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.  Note that it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for Python classes with
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method since in general case it is impossible to
+determine what the type of keys it supports.  This function always
+succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyMapping_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_Length">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyMapping_Length</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_Length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Returns the number of keys in object <em>o</em> on success, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.
+This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_GetItemString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMapping_GetItemString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_GetItemString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return element of <em>o</em> corresponding to the string <em>key</em> or <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[key]</span></code>.
+See also <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_SetItemString">
+int <code class="descname">PyMapping_SetItemString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *key</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_SetItemString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Map the string <em>key</em> to the value <em>v</em> in object <em>o</em>.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[key]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></code>.
+See also <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_DelItem">
+int <code class="descname">PyMapping_DelItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_DelItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the mapping for the object <em>key</em> from the object <em>o</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o[key]</span></code>.
+This is an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_DelItem" title="PyObject_DelItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_DelItemString">
+int <code class="descname">PyMapping_DelItemString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_DelItemString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the mapping for the string <em>key</em> from the object <em>o</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o[key]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_HasKey">
+int <code class="descname">PyMapping_HasKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_HasKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the mapping object has the key <em>key</em> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.
+This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">o</span></code>.
+This function always succeeds.</p>
+<p>Note that exceptions which occur while calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+method will get suppressed.
+To get error reporting use <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_HasKeyString">
+int <code class="descname">PyMapping_HasKeyString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_HasKeyString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the mapping object has the key <em>key</em> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.
+This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">o</span></code>.
+This function always succeeds.</p>
+<p>Note that exceptions which occur while calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+method and creating a temporary string object will get suppressed.
+To get error reporting use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMapping_GetItemString" title="PyMapping_GetItemString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_GetItemString()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_Keys">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMapping_Keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_Keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>On success, return a list of the keys in object <em>o</em>.  On failure, return
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_Values">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMapping_Values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_Values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>On success, return a list of the values in object <em>o</em>.  On failure, return
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMapping_Items">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMapping_Items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMapping_Items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>On success, return a list of the items in object <em>o</em>, where each item is a
+tuple containing a key-value pair.  On failure, return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/marshal.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/marshal.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..697550c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/marshal.html
@@ -0,0 +1,268 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Data marshalling support &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="data-marshalling-support">
+<span id="marshalling-utils"></span><h1>Data marshalling support<a class="headerlink" href="#data-marshalling-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the same
+data format as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> module.  There are functions to write data
+into the serialization format, and additional functions that can be used to
+read the data back.  Files used to store marshalled data must be opened in
+binary mode.</p>
+<p>Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.</p>
+<p>The module supports two versions of the data format: version 0 is the
+historical version, version 1 shares interned strings in the file, and upon
+unmarshalling.  Version 2 uses a binary format for floating point numbers.
+<em>Py_MARSHAL_VERSION</em> indicates the current file format (currently 2).</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile">
+void <code class="descname">PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>long<em> value</em>, FILE<em> *file</em>, int<em> version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Marshal a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> integer, <em>value</em>, to <em>file</em>.  This will only write
+the least-significant 32 bits of <em>value</em>; regardless of the size of the
+native <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> type.  <em>version</em> indicates the file format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile">
+void <code class="descname">PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em>, FILE<em> *file</em>, int<em> version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Marshal a Python object, <em>value</em>, to <em>file</em>.
+<em>version</em> indicates the file format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em>, int<em> version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a bytes object containing the marshalled representation of <em>value</em>.
+<em>version</em> indicates the file format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile">
+long <code class="descname">PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> from the data stream in a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE*</span></code> opened
+for reading.  Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function,
+regardless of the native size of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+<p>On error, sets the appropriate exception (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>) and returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile">
+int <code class="descname">PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span></code> from the data stream in a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE*</span></code> opened
+for reading.  Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function,
+regardless of the native size of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span></code>.</p>
+<p>On error, sets the appropriate exception (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>) and returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a Python object from the data stream in a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE*</span></code> opened for
+reading.</p>
+<p>On error, sets the appropriate exception (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>) and returns <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a Python object from the data stream in a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE*</span></code> opened for
+reading.  Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile" title="PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile()</span></code></a>, this function
+assumes that no further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to
+aggressively load file data into memory so that the de-serialization can
+operate from data in memory rather than reading a byte at a time from the
+file.  Only use these variant if you are certain that you won’t be reading
+anything else from the file.</p>
+<p>On error, sets the appropriate exception (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>) and returns <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *data</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a Python object from the data stream in a byte buffer
+containing <em>len</em> bytes pointed to by <em>data</em>.</p>
+<p>On error, sets the appropriate exception (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>) and returns <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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new file mode 100644
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+
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+    <title>Memory Management &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="memory-management">
+<span id="memory"></span><h1>Memory Management<a class="headerlink" href="#memory-management" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="overview">
+<span id="memoryoverview"></span><h2>Overview<a class="headerlink" href="#overview" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all Python
+objects and data structures. The management of this private heap is ensured
+internally by the <em>Python memory manager</em>.  The Python memory manager has
+different components which deal with various dynamic storage management aspects,
+like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or caching.</p>
+<p>At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough room in
+the private heap for storing all Python-related data by interacting with the
+memory manager of the operating system. On top of the raw memory allocator,
+several object-specific allocators operate on the same heap and implement
+distinct memory management policies adapted to the peculiarities of every object
+type. For example, integer objects are managed differently within the heap than
+strings, tuples or dictionaries because integers imply different storage
+requirements and speed/space tradeoffs. The Python memory manager thus delegates
+some of the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter
+operate within the bounds of the private heap.</p>
+<p>It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is
+performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control over it,
+even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory blocks inside that
+heap.  The allocation of heap space for Python objects and other internal
+buffers is performed on demand by the Python memory manager through the Python/C
+API functions listed in this document.</p>
+<p id="index-0">To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to operate on
+Python objects with the functions exported by the C library: <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.  This will result in  mixed
+calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with fatal
+consequences, because they implement different algorithms and operate on
+different heaps.  However, one may safely allocate and release memory blocks
+with the C library allocator for individual purposes, as shown in the following
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">malloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BUFSIZ</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* for I/O */</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyErr_NoMemory</span><span class="p">();</span>
+<span class="p">...</span><span class="n">Do</span> <span class="n">some</span> <span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">O</span> <span class="n">operation</span> <span class="n">involving</span> <span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyBytes_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* malloc&#39;ed */</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">res</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the C
+library allocator. The Python memory manager is involved only in the allocation
+of the bytes object returned as a result.</p>
+<p>In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from the
+Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the Python
+memory manager. For example, this is required when the interpreter is extended
+with new object types written in C. Another reason for using the Python heap is
+the desire to <em>inform</em> the Python memory manager about the memory needs of the
+extension module. Even when the requested memory is used exclusively for
+internal, highly-specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python
+memory manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
+memory footprint as a whole. Consequently, under certain circumstances, the
+Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions, like garbage
+collection, memory compaction or other preventive procedures. Note that by using
+the C library allocator as shown in the previous example, the allocated memory
+for the I/O buffer escapes completely the Python memory manager.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable can be used to configure
+the memory allocators used by Python.</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOCSTATS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOCSTATS</span></code></a> environment variable can be used to print
+statistics of the <a class="reference internal" href="#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc memory allocator</span></a> every time a
+new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raw-memory-interface">
+<h2>Raw Memory Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#raw-memory-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator. These
+functions are thread-safe, the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> does not
+need to be held.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">default raw memory allocator</span></a> uses
+the following functions: <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realloc()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>; call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc(1)</span></code> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc(1,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code>) when requesting
+zero bytes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_RawMalloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyMem_RawMalloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allocates <em>n</em> bytes and returns a pointer of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> to the
+allocated memory, or <em>NULL</em> if the request fails.</p>
+<p>Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-<em>NULL</em> pointer if possible, as
+if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc(1)</span></code> had been called instead. The memory will not have
+been initialized in any way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_RawCalloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyMem_RawCalloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>size_t<em> nelem</em>, size_t<em> elsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_RawCalloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allocates <em>nelem</em> elements each whose size in bytes is <em>elsize</em> and returns
+a pointer of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> to the allocated memory, or <em>NULL</em> if the
+request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.</p>
+<p>Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
+non-<em>NULL</em> pointer if possible, as if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawCalloc(1,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code> had been
+called instead.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_RawRealloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyMem_RawRealloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em>, size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resizes the memory block pointed to by <em>p</em> to <em>n</em> bytes. The contents will
+be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.</p>
+<p>If <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the call is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc(n)</span></code>; else if
+<em>n</em> is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
+returned pointer is non-<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Unless <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, it must have been returned by a previous call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawCalloc" title="PyMem_RawCalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawCalloc()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the request fails, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a> returns <em>NULL</em> and <em>p</em>
+remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_RawFree">
+void <code class="descname">PyMem_RawFree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_RawFree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Frees the memory block pointed to by <em>p</em>, which must have been returned by a
+previous call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawCalloc" title="PyMem_RawCalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawCalloc()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawFree(p)</span></code> has been
+called before, undefined behavior occurs.</p>
+<p>If <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, no operation is performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="memory-interface">
+<span id="memoryinterface"></span><h2>Memory Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#memory-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying
+behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing
+memory from the Python heap.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">default memory allocator</span></a> uses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc memory allocator</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> must be held when using these
+functions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of system <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_Malloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyMem_Malloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allocates <em>n</em> bytes and returns a pointer of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> to the
+allocated memory, or <em>NULL</em> if the request fails.</p>
+<p>Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-<em>NULL</em> pointer if possible, as
+if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc(1)</span></code> had been called instead. The memory will not have
+been initialized in any way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_Calloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyMem_Calloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>size_t<em> nelem</em>, size_t<em> elsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_Calloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allocates <em>nelem</em> elements each whose size in bytes is <em>elsize</em> and returns
+a pointer of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> to the allocated memory, or <em>NULL</em> if the
+request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.</p>
+<p>Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
+non-<em>NULL</em> pointer if possible, as if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Calloc(1,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code> had been called
+instead.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_Realloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyMem_Realloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em>, size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resizes the memory block pointed to by <em>p</em> to <em>n</em> bytes. The contents will be
+unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.</p>
+<p>If <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the call is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc(n)</span></code>; else if <em>n</em>
+is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
+returned pointer is non-<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Unless <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, it must have been returned by a previous call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Calloc" title="PyMem_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Calloc()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the request fails, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a> returns <em>NULL</em> and <em>p</em> remains
+a valid pointer to the previous memory area.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_Free">
+void <code class="descname">PyMem_Free</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_Free" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Frees the memory block pointed to by <em>p</em>, which must have been returned by a
+previous call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Calloc" title="PyMem_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Calloc()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free(p)</span></code> has been called
+before, undefined behavior occurs.</p>
+<p>If <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, no operation is performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience.  Note  that
+<em>TYPE</em> refers to any C type.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_New">
+TYPE* <code class="descname">PyMem_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>TYPE, size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>, but allocates <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(n</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">sizeof(TYPE))</span></code> bytes of
+memory.  Returns a pointer cast to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPE*</span></code>.  The memory will not have
+been initialized in any way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_Resize">
+TYPE* <code class="descname">PyMem_Resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em>, TYPE, size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_Resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a>, but the memory block is resized to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(n</span> <span class="pre">*</span>
+<span class="pre">sizeof(TYPE))</span></code> bytes.  Returns a pointer cast to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPE*</span></code>. On return,
+<em>p</em> will be a pointer to the new memory area, or <em>NULL</em> in the event of
+failure.</p>
+<p>This is a C preprocessor macro; <em>p</em> is always reassigned.  Save the original
+value of <em>p</em> to avoid losing memory when handling errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_Del">
+void <code class="descname">PyMem_Del</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_Del" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the Python memory
+allocator directly, without involving the C API functions listed above. However,
+note that their use does not preserve binary compatibility across Python
+versions and is therefore deprecated in extension modules.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_MALLOC(size)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_NEW(type,</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_REALLOC(ptr,</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RESIZE(ptr,</span> <span class="pre">type,</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_FREE(ptr)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_DEL(ptr)</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="object-allocators">
+<h2>Object allocators<a class="headerlink" href="#object-allocators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying
+behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing
+memory from the Python heap.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">default object allocator</span></a> uses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc memory allocator</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> must be held when using these
+functions.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Malloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyObject_Malloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allocates <em>n</em> bytes and returns a pointer of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> to the
+allocated memory, or <em>NULL</em> if the request fails.</p>
+<p>Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-<em>NULL</em> pointer if possible, as
+if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc(1)</span></code> had been called instead. The memory will not have
+been initialized in any way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Calloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyObject_Calloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>size_t<em> nelem</em>, size_t<em> elsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Calloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allocates <em>nelem</em> elements each whose size in bytes is <em>elsize</em> and returns
+a pointer of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span></code> to the allocated memory, or <em>NULL</em> if the
+request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.</p>
+<p>Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
+non-<em>NULL</em> pointer if possible, as if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Calloc(1,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code> had been called
+instead.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Realloc">
+void* <code class="descname">PyObject_Realloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em>, size_t<em> n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Realloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resizes the memory block pointed to by <em>p</em> to <em>n</em> bytes. The contents will be
+unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.</p>
+<p>If <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the call is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc(n)</span></code>; else if <em>n</em>
+is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
+returned pointer is non-<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Unless <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, it must have been returned by a previous call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Realloc" title="PyObject_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Realloc()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Calloc" title="PyObject_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Calloc()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the request fails, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Realloc" title="PyObject_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Realloc()</span></code></a> returns <em>NULL</em> and <em>p</em> remains
+a valid pointer to the previous memory area.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Free">
+void <code class="descname">PyObject_Free</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Free" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Frees the memory block pointed to by <em>p</em>, which must have been returned by a
+previous call to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Realloc" title="PyObject_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Realloc()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Calloc" title="PyObject_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Calloc()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free(p)</span></code> has been called
+before, undefined behavior occurs.</p>
+<p>If <em>p</em> is <em>NULL</em>, no operation is performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="default-memory-allocators">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Default Memory Allocators<a class="headerlink" href="#default-memory-allocators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Default memory allocators:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Configuration</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>PyMem_RawMalloc</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>PyMem_Malloc</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>PyObject_Malloc</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Release build</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;pymalloc&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Debug build</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;pymalloc_debug&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code> + debug</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code> + debug</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code> + debug</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Release build, without pymalloc</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;malloc&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Debug build, without pymalloc</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;malloc_debug&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code> + debug</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code> + debug</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code> + debug</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Legend:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Name: value for <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code>: system allocators from the standard C library, C functions:
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc memory allocator</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p>“+ debug”: with debug hooks installed by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customize-memory-allocators">
+<h2>Customize Memory Allocators<a class="headerlink" href="#customize-memory-allocators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyMemAllocatorEx">
+<code class="descname">PyMemAllocatorEx</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemAllocatorEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Structure used to describe a memory block allocator. The structure has
+four fields:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 60%" />
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>user context passed as first argument</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span> <span class="pre">malloc(void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx,</span> <span class="pre">size_t</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>allocate a memory block</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span> <span class="pre">calloc(void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx,</span> <span class="pre">size_t</span> <span class="pre">nelem,</span> <span class="pre">size_t</span> <span class="pre">elsize)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>allocate a memory block initialized
+with zeros</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span> <span class="pre">realloc(void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx,</span> <span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*ptr,</span> <span class="pre">size_t</span> <span class="pre">new_size)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>allocate or resize a memory block</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">free(void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx,</span> <span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*ptr)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>free a memory block</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemAllocator</span></code> structure was renamed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemAllocatorEx" title="PyMemAllocatorEx"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemAllocatorEx</span></code></a> and a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc</span></code> field was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyMemAllocatorDomain">
+<code class="descname">PyMemAllocatorDomain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemAllocatorDomain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enum used to identify an allocator domain. Domains:</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW">
+<code class="descname">PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawCalloc" title="PyMem_RawCalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawCalloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawFree" title="PyMem_RawFree"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawFree()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM">
+<code class="descname">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>,</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Calloc" title="PyMem_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Calloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ">
+<code class="descname">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Realloc" title="PyObject_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Realloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Calloc" title="PyObject_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Calloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Free" title="PyObject_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_GetAllocator">
+void <code class="descname">PyMem_GetAllocator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemAllocatorDomain" title="PyMemAllocatorDomain">PyMemAllocatorDomain</a><em> domain</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemAllocatorEx" title="PyMemAllocatorEx">PyMemAllocatorEx</a><em> *allocator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_GetAllocator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_SetAllocator">
+void <code class="descname">PyMem_SetAllocator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemAllocatorDomain" title="PyMemAllocatorDomain">PyMemAllocatorDomain</a><em> domain</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemAllocatorEx" title="PyMemAllocatorEx">PyMemAllocatorEx</a><em> *allocator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_SetAllocator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.</p>
+<p>The new allocator must return a distinct non-NULL pointer when requesting
+zero bytes.</p>
+<p>For the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW</span></code></a> domain, the allocator must be
+thread-safe: the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> is not held when the
+allocator is called.</p>
+<p>If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous allocator),
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a> function must be called to reinstall the
+debug hooks on top on the new allocator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks">
+void <code class="descname">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Setup hooks to detect bugs in the Python memory allocator functions.</p>
+<p>Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xCD</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLEANBYTE</span></code>),
+freed memory is filled with the byte <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xDD</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEADBYTE</span></code>). Memory blocks
+are surrounded by “forbidden bytes” (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORBIDDENBYTE</span></code>: byte <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFD</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Runtime checks:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Detect API violations, ex: <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Free" title="PyObject_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free()</span></code></a> called on a buffer
+allocated by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p>Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow)</p></li>
+<li><p>Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow)</p></li>
+<li><p>Check that the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> is held when
+allocator functions of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</span></code></a> (ex:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>) and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a> (ex:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>) domains are called</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>On error, the debug hooks use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module to get the
+traceback where a memory block was allocated. The traceback is only
+displayed if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> is tracing Python memory allocations and the
+memory block was traced.</p>
+<p>These hooks are <a class="reference internal" href="#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">installed by default</span></a> if
+Python is compiled in debug
+mode. The <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable can be used to install
+debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>This function now also works on Python compiled in release mode.
+On error, the debug hooks now use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> to get the traceback
+where a memory block was allocated. The debug hooks now also check
+if the GIL is held when functions of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a> domains are called.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.3: </span>Byte patterns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xCB</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLEANBYTE</span></code>), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xDB</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEADBYTE</span></code>) and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFB</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORBIDDENBYTE</span></code>) have been replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xCD</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xDD</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFD</span></code> to use the same values than Windows CRT debug <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-pymalloc-allocator">
+<span id="pymalloc"></span><h2>The pymalloc allocator<a class="headerlink" href="#the-pymalloc-allocator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has a <em>pymalloc</em> allocator optimized for small objects (smaller or equal
+to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime. It uses memory mappings called “arenas”
+with a fixed size of 256 KiB. It falls back to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a> for allocations larger than 512 bytes.</p>
+<p><em>pymalloc</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">default allocator</span></a> of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a> (ex: <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>) and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</span></code></a> (ex: <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>) domains.</p>
+<p>The arena allocator uses the following functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VirtualAlloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VirtualFree()</span></code> on Windows,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">munmap()</span></code> if available,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> otherwise.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="customize-pymalloc-arena-allocator">
+<h3>Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator<a class="headerlink" href="#customize-pymalloc-arena-allocator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyObjectArenaAllocator">
+<code class="descname">PyObjectArenaAllocator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObjectArenaAllocator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Structure used to describe an arena allocator. The structure has
+three fields:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 56%" />
+<col style="width: 44%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>user context passed as first argument</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void*</span> <span class="pre">alloc(void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx,</span> <span class="pre">size_t</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>allocate an arena of size bytes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">free(void</span> <span class="pre">*ctx,</span> <span class="pre">size_t</span> <span class="pre">size,</span> <span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*ptr)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>free an arena</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GetArenaAllocator">
+<code class="descname">PyObject_GetArenaAllocator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObjectArenaAllocator" title="PyObjectArenaAllocator">PyObjectArenaAllocator</a><em> *allocator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GetArenaAllocator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the arena allocator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_SetArenaAllocator">
+<code class="descname">PyObject_SetArenaAllocator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObjectArenaAllocator" title="PyObjectArenaAllocator">PyObjectArenaAllocator</a><em> *allocator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_SetArenaAllocator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the arena allocator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tracemalloc-c-api">
+<h2>tracemalloc C API<a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="memoryexamples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is the example from section <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryoverview"><span class="std std-ref">Overview</span></a>, rewritten so that the
+I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first function set:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">PyMem_Malloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BUFSIZ</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* for I/O */</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyErr_NoMemory</span><span class="p">();</span>
+<span class="cm">/* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */</span>
+<span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyBytes_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">PyMem_Free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">res</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same code using the type-oriented function set:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyMem_New</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">BUFSIZ</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* for I/O */</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyErr_NoMemory</span><span class="p">();</span>
+<span class="cm">/* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */</span>
+<span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyBytes_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">PyMem_Del</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* allocated with PyMem_New */</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">res</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated via
+functions belonging to the same set. Indeed, it is required to use the same
+memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of mixing different
+allocators is reduced to a minimum. The following code sequence contains two
+errors, one of which is labeled as <em>fatal</em> because it mixes two different
+allocators operating on different heaps.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">buf1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyMem_New</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">BUFSIZ</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">buf2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">malloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BUFSIZ</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">buf3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">PyMem_Malloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BUFSIZ</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">PyMem_Del</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf3</span><span class="p">);</span>  <span class="cm">/* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */</span>
+<span class="n">free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf2</span><span class="p">);</span>       <span class="cm">/* Right -- allocated via malloc() */</span>
+<span class="n">free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf1</span><span class="p">);</span>       <span class="cm">/* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del()  */</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from the Python
+heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with <a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_New" title="PyObject_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_New()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_NewVar" title="PyObject_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_NewVar()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_Del" title="PyObject_Del"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Del()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing new
+object types in C.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Memory Management</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#overview">Overview</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raw-memory-interface">Raw Memory Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#memory-interface">Memory Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#object-allocators">Object allocators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default-memory-allocators">Default Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customize-memory-allocators">Customize Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-pymalloc-allocator">The pymalloc allocator</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customize-pymalloc-arena-allocator">Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc-c-api">tracemalloc C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+                        title="previous chapter">Initialization, Finalization, and Threads</a></p>
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+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>MemoryView objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <span class="target" id="memoryview-objects"></span><div class="section" id="index-0">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>MemoryView objects<a class="headerlink" href="#index-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> object exposes the C level <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer interface</span></a> as a Python object which can then be passed around like
+any other object.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMemoryView_FromObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyMemoryView_FromObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemoryView_FromObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a memoryview object from an object that provides the buffer interface.
+If <em>obj</em> supports writable buffer exports, the memoryview object will be
+read/write, otherwise it may be either read-only or read/write at the
+discretion of the exporter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMemoryView_FromMemory">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyMemoryView_FromMemory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>char<em> *mem</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemoryView_FromMemory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a memoryview object using <em>mem</em> as the underlying buffer.
+<em>flags</em> can be one of <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_READ</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITE</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMemoryView_FromBuffer">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyMemoryView_FromBuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a><em> *view</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemoryView_FromBuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a memoryview object wrapping the given buffer structure <em>view</em>.
+For simple byte buffers, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemoryView_FromMemory" title="PyMemoryView_FromMemory"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemoryView_FromMemory()</span></code></a> is the preferred
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMemoryView_GetContiguous">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyMemoryView_GetContiguous</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, int<em> buffertype</em>, char<em> order</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemoryView_GetContiguous" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a memoryview object to a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a> chunk of memory (in either
+‘C’ or ‘F’ortran <em>order</em>) from an object that defines the buffer
+interface. If memory is contiguous, the memoryview object points to the
+original memory. Otherwise, a copy is made and the memoryview points to a
+new bytes object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMemoryView_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyMemoryView_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemoryView_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>obj</em> is a memoryview object.  It is not
+currently allowed to create subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER">
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a> *<code class="descname">PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mview</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pointer to the memoryview’s private copy of the exporter’s buffer.
+<em>mview</em> <strong>must</strong> be a memoryview instance; this macro doesn’t check its type,
+you must do it yourself or you will risk crashes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMemoryView_GET_BASE">
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer">Py_buffer</a> *<code class="descname">PyMemoryView_GET_BASE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mview</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemoryView_GET_BASE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return either a pointer to the exporting object that the memoryview is based
+on or <em>NULL</em> if the memoryview has been created by one of the functions
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemoryView_FromMemory" title="PyMemoryView_FromMemory"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemoryView_FromMemory()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMemoryView_FromBuffer" title="PyMemoryView_FromBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemoryView_FromBuffer()</span></code></a>.
+<em>mview</em> <strong>must</strong> be a memoryview instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="instance-method-objects">
+<span id="instancemethod-objects"></span><h1>Instance Method Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#instance-method-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">An instance method is a wrapper for a <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a> and the new way
+to bind a <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a> to a class object. It replaces the former call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethod_New(func,</span> <span class="pre">NULL,</span> <span class="pre">class)</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyInstanceMethod_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyInstanceMethod_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInstanceMethod_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python instance
+method type. It is not exposed to Python programs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInstanceMethod_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyInstanceMethod_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInstanceMethod_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>o</em> is an instance method object (has type
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInstanceMethod_Type" title="PyInstanceMethod_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInstanceMethod_Type</span></code></a>).  The parameter must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInstanceMethod_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyInstanceMethod_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInstanceMethod_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new instance method object, with <em>func</em> being any callable object
+<em>func</em> is the function that will be called when the instance method is
+called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInstanceMethod_Function">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyInstanceMethod_Function</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *im</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInstanceMethod_Function" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the function object associated with the instance method <em>im</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *im</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Macro version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyInstanceMethod_Function" title="PyInstanceMethod_Function"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInstanceMethod_Function()</span></code></a> which avoids error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="method-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Method Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#method-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-1">Methods are bound function objects. Methods are always bound to an instance of
+a user-defined class. Unbound methods (methods bound to a class object) are
+no longer available.</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyMethod_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python method type.  This
+is exposed to Python programs as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.MethodType</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyMethod_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>o</em> is a method object (has type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMethod_Type" title="PyMethod_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethod_Type</span></code></a>).  The
+parameter must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMethod_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *func</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new method object, with <em>func</em> being any callable object and <em>self</em>
+the instance the method should be bound. <em>func</em> is the function that will
+be called when the method is called. <em>self</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_Function">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMethod_Function</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *meth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_Function" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the function object associated with the method <em>meth</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *meth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Macro version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMethod_Function" title="PyMethod_Function"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethod_Function()</span></code></a> which avoids error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_Self">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMethod_Self</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *meth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_Self" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the instance associated with the method <em>meth</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_GET_SELF">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyMethod_GET_SELF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *meth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_GET_SELF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Macro version of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMethod_Self" title="PyMethod_Self"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethod_Self()</span></code></a> which avoids error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyMethod_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PyMethod_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethod_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Instance Method Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#method-objects">Method Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="function.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Function Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cell.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Cell Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/method.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/module.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/module.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a102100
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/module.html
@@ -0,0 +1,709 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Module Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Iterator Objects" href="iterator.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="File Objects" href="file.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/module.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="iterator.html" title="Iterator Objects"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="file.html" title="File Objects"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-objects">
+<span id="moduleobjects"></span><h1>Module Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyModule_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python module type.  This
+is exposed to Python programs as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.ModuleType</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a module object, or a subtype of a module object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a module object, but not a subtype of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_Type" title="PyModule_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Type</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_NewObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_NewObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_NewObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-2">Return a new module object with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> attribute set to <em>name</em>.
+The module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a> attributes are filled in (all but <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> are set
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>); the caller is responsible for providing a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a>
+attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a> are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_NewObject" title="PyModule_NewObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_NewObject()</span></code></a>, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded
+string instead of a Unicode object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_GetDict">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_GetDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_GetDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p id="index-3">Return the dictionary object that implements <em>module</em>’s namespace; this object
+is the same as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute of the module object.
+If <em>module</em> is not a module object (or a subtype of a module object),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> is raised and <em>NULL</em> is returned.</p>
+<p>It is recommended extensions use other <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_*()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_*()</span></code> functions rather than directly manipulate a module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_GetNameObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_GetNameObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_GetNameObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-4">Return <em>module</em>’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> value.  If the module does not provide one,
+or if it is not a string, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> is raised and <em>NULL</em> is returned.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_GetName">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyModule_GetName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_GetName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetNameObject" title="PyModule_GetNameObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetNameObject()</span></code></a> but return the name encoded to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_GetState">
+void* <code class="descname">PyModule_GetState</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_GetState" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the “state” of the module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory
+allocated at module creation time, or <em>NULL</em>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_size" title="PyModuleDef.m_size"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef.m_size</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_GetDef">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_GetDef</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_GetDef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pointer to the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code></a> struct from which the module was
+created, or <em>NULL</em> if the module wasn’t created from a definition.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_GetFilenameObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_GetFilenameObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_GetFilenameObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-5">Return the name of the file from which <em>module</em> was loaded using <em>module</em>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a> attribute.  If this is not defined, or if it is not a
+unicode string, raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> and return <em>NULL</em>; otherwise return
+a reference to a Unicode object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_GetFilename">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyModule_GetFilename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_GetFilename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetFilenameObject" title="PyModule_GetFilenameObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetFilenameObject()</span></code></a> but return the filename
+encoded to ‘utf-8’.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetFilename" title="PyModule_GetFilename"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetFilename()</span></code></a> raises <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code> on
+unencodable filenames, use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetFilenameObject" title="PyModule_GetFilenameObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetFilenameObject()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="initializing-c-modules">
+<span id="initializing-modules"></span><h2>Initializing C modules<a class="headerlink" href="#initializing-c-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Modules objects are usually created from extension modules (shared libraries
+which export an initialization function), or compiled-in modules
+(where the initialization function is added using <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#c.PyImport_AppendInittab" title="PyImport_AppendInittab"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_AppendInittab()</span></code></a>).
+See <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/building.html#building"><span class="std std-ref">Building C and C++ Extensions</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/embedding.html#extending-with-embedding"><span class="std std-ref">Extending Embedded Python</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>The initialization function can either pass a module definition instance
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_Create" title="PyModule_Create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create()</span></code></a>, and return the resulting module object,
+or request “multi-phase initialization” by returning the definition struct itself.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef">
+<code class="descname">PyModuleDef</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module definition struct, which holds all information needed to create
+a module object. There is usually only one statically initialized variable
+of this type for each module.</p>
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_base">
+PyModuleDef_Base <code class="descname">m_base</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_base" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Always initialize this member to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_name">
+const char *<code class="descname">m_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name for the new module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_doc">
+const char *<code class="descname">m_doc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_doc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Docstring for the module; usually a docstring variable created with
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDoc_STRVAR()</span></code> is used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">m_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module state may be kept in a per-module memory area that can be
+retrieved with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetState" title="PyModule_GetState"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetState()</span></code></a>, rather than in static globals.
+This makes modules safe for use in multiple sub-interpreters.</p>
+<p>This memory area is allocated based on <em>m_size</em> on module creation,
+and freed when the module object is deallocated, after the
+<code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_free</span></code> function has been called, if present.</p>
+<p>Setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_size</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> means that the module does not support
+sub-interpreters, because it has global state.</p>
+<p>Setting it to a non-negative value means that the module can be
+re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of memory it requires
+for its state. Non-negative <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_size</span></code> is required for multi-phase
+initialization.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3121"><strong>PEP 3121</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_methods">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef">PyMethodDef</a>* <code class="descname">m_methods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_methods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A pointer to a table of module-level functions, described by
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> values.  Can be <em>NULL</em> if no functions are present.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_slots">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef_Slot" title="PyModuleDef_Slot">PyModuleDef_Slot</a>* <code class="descname">m_slots</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_slots" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array of slot definitions for multi-phase initialization, terminated by
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{0,</span> <span class="pre">NULL}</span></code> entry.
+When using single-phase initialization, <em>m_slots</em> must be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Prior to version 3.5, this member was always set to <em>NULL</em>,
+and was defined as:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_reload">
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.inquiry" title="inquiry">inquiry</a> <code class="descname">m_reload</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_reload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_traverse">
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.traverseproc" title="traverseproc">traverseproc</a> <code class="descname">m_traverse</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_traverse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A traversal function to call during GC traversal of the module object, or
+<em>NULL</em> if not needed. This function may be called before module state
+is allocated (<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetState" title="PyModule_GetState"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetState()</span></code></a> may return <cite>NULL</cite>),
+and before the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_mod_exec" title="Py_mod_exec"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_exec</span></code></a> function is executed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_clear">
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.inquiry" title="inquiry">inquiry</a> <code class="descname">m_clear</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A clear function to call during GC clearing of the module object, or
+<em>NULL</em> if not needed. This function may be called before module state
+is allocated (<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetState" title="PyModule_GetState"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetState()</span></code></a> may return <cite>NULL</cite>),
+and before the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_mod_exec" title="Py_mod_exec"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_exec</span></code></a> function is executed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef.m_free">
+freefunc <code class="descname">m_free</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_free" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A function to call during deallocation of the module object, or <em>NULL</em> if
+not needed. This function may be called before module state
+is allocated (<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetState" title="PyModule_GetState"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetState()</span></code></a> may return <cite>NULL</cite>),
+and before the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_mod_exec" title="Py_mod_exec"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_exec</span></code></a> function is executed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="single-phase-initialization">
+<h3>Single-phase initialization<a class="headerlink" href="#single-phase-initialization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The module initialization function may create and return the module object
+directly. This is referred to as “single-phase initialization”, and uses one
+of the following two module creation functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_Create">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_Create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_Create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new module object, given the definition in <em>def</em>.  This behaves
+like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_Create2" title="PyModule_Create2"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create2()</span></code></a> with <em>module_api_version</em> set to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON_API_VERSION</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_Create2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModule_Create2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em>, int<em> module_api_version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_Create2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new module object, given the definition in <em>def</em>, assuming the
+API version <em>module_api_version</em>.  If that version does not match the version
+of the running interpreter, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning" title="RuntimeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeWarning</span></code></a> is emitted.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Most uses of this function should be using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_Create" title="PyModule_Create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create()</span></code></a>
+instead; only use this if you are sure you need it.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Before it is returned from in the initialization function, the resulting module
+object is typically populated using functions like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_AddObject" title="PyModule_AddObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_AddObject()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multi-phase-initialization">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>Multi-phase initialization<a class="headerlink" href="#multi-phase-initialization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An alternate way to specify extensions is to request “multi-phase initialization”.
+Extension modules created this way behave more like Python modules: the
+initialization is split between the <em>creation phase</em>, when the module object
+is created, and the <em>execution phase</em>, when it is populated.
+The distinction is similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> methods
+of classes.</p>
+<p>Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules are not
+singletons: if the <em>sys.modules</em> entry is removed and the module is re-imported,
+a new module object is created, and the old module is subject to normal garbage
+collection – as with Python modules.
+By default, multiple modules created from the same definition should be
+independent: changes to one should not affect the others.
+This means that all state should be specific to the module object (using e.g.
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_GetState" title="PyModule_GetState"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_GetState()</span></code></a>), or its contents (such as the module’s
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code> or individual classes created with <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_FromSpec" title="PyType_FromSpec"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_FromSpec()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to support
+<a class="reference internal" href="init.html#sub-interpreter-support"><span class="std std-ref">sub-interpreters</span></a>. Making sure multiple modules
+are independent is typically enough to achieve this.</p>
+<p>To request multi-phase initialization, the initialization function
+(PyInit_modulename) returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code></a> instance with non-empty
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef.m_slots" title="PyModuleDef.m_slots"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_slots</span></code></a>. Before it is returned, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code>
+instance must be initialized with the following function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef_Init">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyModuleDef_Init</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef_Init" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Ensures a module definition is a properly initialized Python object that
+correctly reports its type and reference count.</p>
+<p>Returns <em>def</em> cast to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code>, or <em>NULL</em> if an error occurred.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <em>m_slots</em> member of the module definition must point to an array of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef_Slot</span></code> structures:</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef_Slot">
+<code class="descname">PyModuleDef_Slot</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef_Slot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef_Slot.slot">
+int <code class="descname">slot</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef_Slot.slot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A slot ID, chosen from the available values explained below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyModuleDef_Slot.value">
+void* <code class="descname">value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModuleDef_Slot.value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Value of the slot, whose meaning depends on the slot ID.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <em>m_slots</em> array must be terminated by a slot with id 0.</p>
+<p>The available slot types are:</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_mod_create">
+<code class="descname">Py_mod_create</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_mod_create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies a function that is called to create the module object itself.
+The <em>value</em> pointer of this slot must point to a function of the signature:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.create_module">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">create_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *spec</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.create_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>The function receives a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec" title="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleSpec</span></code></a>
+instance, as defined in <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a>, and the module definition.
+It should return a new module object, or set an error
+and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>This function should be kept minimal. In particular, it should not
+call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module again may
+result in an infinite loop.</p>
+<p>Multiple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_create</span></code> slots may not be specified in one module
+definition.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_create</span></code> is not specified, the import machinery will create
+a normal module object using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_New" title="PyModule_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_New()</span></code></a>. The name is taken from
+<em>spec</em>, not the definition, to allow extension modules to dynamically adjust
+to their place in the module hierarchy and be imported under different
+names through symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition.</p>
+<p>There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_Type" title="PyModule_Type"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Type</span></code></a>. Any type can be used, as long as it supports
+setting and getting import-related attributes.
+However, only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Type</span></code> instances may be returned if the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code> has non-<em>NULL</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_traverse</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_clear</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_free</span></code>; non-zero <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_size</span></code>; or slots other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_create</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_mod_exec">
+<code class="descname">Py_mod_exec</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_mod_exec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies a function that is called to <em>execute</em> the module.
+This is equivalent to executing the code of a Python module: typically,
+this function adds classes and constants to the module.
+The signature of the function is:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.exec_module">
+int <code class="descname">exec_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>*<em> module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.exec_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>If multiple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_exec</span></code> slots are specified, they are processed in the
+order they appear in the <em>m_slots</em> array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a> for more details on multi-phase initialization.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="low-level-module-creation-functions">
+<h3>Low-level module creation functions<a class="headerlink" href="#low-level-module-creation-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following functions are called under the hood when using multi-phase
+initialization. They can be used directly, for example when creating module
+objects dynamically. Note that both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_ExecDef</span></code> must be called to fully initialize a module.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> * <code class="descname">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *spec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new module object, given the definition in <em>module</em> and the
+ModuleSpec <em>spec</em>.  This behaves like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2" title="PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2()</span></code></a>
+with <em>module_api_version</em> set to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON_API_VERSION</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> * <code class="descname">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *spec</em>, int<em> module_api_version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new module object, given the definition in <em>module</em> and the
+ModuleSpec <em>spec</em>, assuming the API version <em>module_api_version</em>.
+If that version does not match the version of the running interpreter,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning" title="RuntimeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeWarning</span></code></a> is emitted.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Most uses of this function should be using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec" title="PyModule_FromDefAndSpec"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec()</span></code></a>
+instead; only use this if you are sure you need it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_ExecDef">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_ExecDef</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_ExecDef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process any execution slots (<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_mod_exec" title="Py_mod_exec"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_mod_exec</span></code></a>) given in <em>def</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_SetDocString">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_SetDocString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, const char<em> *docstring</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_SetDocString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the docstring for <em>module</em> to <em>docstring</em>.
+This function is called automatically when creating a module from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code>, using either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_AddFunctions">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_AddFunctions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef">PyMethodDef</a><em> *functions</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_AddFunctions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add the functions from the <em>NULL</em> terminated <em>functions</em> array to <em>module</em>.
+Refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> documentation for details on individual
+entries (due to the lack of a shared module namespace, module level
+“functions” implemented in C typically receive the module as their first
+parameter, making them similar to instance methods on Python classes).
+This function is called automatically when creating a module from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code>, using either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="support-functions">
+<h3>Support functions<a class="headerlink" href="#support-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The module initialization function (if using single phase initialization) or
+a function called from a module execution slot (if using multi-phase
+initialization), can use the following functions to help initialize the module
+state:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_AddObject">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_AddObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_AddObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add an object to <em>module</em> as <em>name</em>.  This is a convenience function which can
+be used from the module’s initialization function.  This steals a reference to
+<em>value</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_AddIntConstant">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_AddIntConstant</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, const char<em> *name</em>, long<em> value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_AddIntConstant" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add an integer constant to <em>module</em> as <em>name</em>.  This convenience function can be
+used from the module’s initialization function. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on
+success.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_AddStringConstant">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_AddStringConstant</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, const char<em> *name</em>, const char<em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_AddStringConstant" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a string constant to <em>module</em> as <em>name</em>.  This convenience function can be
+used from the module’s initialization function.  The string <em>value</em> must be
+<em>NULL</em>-terminated.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_AddIntMacro">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_AddIntMacro</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, macro<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_AddIntMacro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add an int constant to <em>module</em>. The name and the value are taken from
+<em>macro</em>. For example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_AddIntMacro(module,</span> <span class="pre">AF_INET)</span></code> adds the int
+constant <em>AF_INET</em> with the value of <em>AF_INET</em> to <em>module</em>.
+Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyModule_AddStringMacro">
+int <code class="descname">PyModule_AddStringMacro</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, macro<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyModule_AddStringMacro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a string constant to <em>module</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-lookup">
+<h2>Module lookup<a class="headerlink" href="#module-lookup" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Single-phase initialization creates singleton modules that can be looked up
+in the context of the current interpreter. This allows the module object to be
+retrieved later with only a reference to the module definition.</p>
+<p>These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase initialization,
+since multiple such modules can be created from a single definition.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyState_FindModule">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyState_FindModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyState_FindModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Returns the module object that was created from <em>def</em> for the current interpreter.
+This method requires that the module object has been attached to the interpreter state with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyState_AddModule" title="PyState_AddModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyState_AddModule()</span></code></a> beforehand. In case the corresponding module object is not
+found or has not been attached to the interpreter state yet, it returns <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyState_AddModule">
+int <code class="descname">PyState_AddModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *module</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyState_AddModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attaches the module object passed to the function to the interpreter state. This allows
+the module object to be accessible via <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyState_FindModule" title="PyState_FindModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyState_FindModule()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Only effective on modules created using single-phase initialization.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyState_RemoveModule">
+int <code class="descname">PyState_RemoveModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef</a><em> *def</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyState_RemoveModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the module object created from <em>def</em> from the interpreter state.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Module Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#initializing-c-modules">Initializing C modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#single-phase-initialization">Single-phase initialization</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multi-phase-initialization">Multi-phase initialization</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#low-level-module-creation-functions">Low-level module creation functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#support-functions">Support functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-lookup">Module lookup</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="file.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">File Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="iterator.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Iterator Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/module.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/none.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/none.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0226fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/none.html
@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>The None Object &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="the-none-object">
+<span id="noneobject"></span><h1>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> Object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-none-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is not directly exposed in the
+Python/C API.  Since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is a singleton, testing for object identity (using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> in C) is sufficient. There is no <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNone_Check()</span></code> function for the
+same reason.</p>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_None">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_None</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_None" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> object, denoting lack of value.  This object has no methods.
+It needs to be treated just like any other object with respect to reference
+counts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_RETURN_NONE">
+<code class="descname">Py_RETURN_NONE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_RETURN_NONE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Properly handle returning <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a> from within a C function (that is,
+increment the reference count of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and return it.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/number.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/number.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3871ad2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/number.html
@@ -0,0 +1,487 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Number Protocol &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
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+    </style>
+ 
+
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+         |
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="number-protocol">
+<span id="number"></span><h1>Number Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#number-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyNumber_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the object <em>o</em> provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise.
+This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Add">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of adding <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Subtract">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Subtract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Subtract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of subtracting <em>o2</em> from <em>o1</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is
+the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Multiply">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Multiply</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Multiply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of multiplying <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is
+the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_MatrixMultiply">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_MatrixMultiply</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_MatrixMultiply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of matrix multiplication on <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&#64;</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_FloorDivide">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_FloorDivide</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_FloorDivide" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the floor of <em>o1</em> divided by <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is
+equivalent to the “classic” division of integers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_TrueDivide">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_TrueDivide</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_TrueDivide" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of <em>o1</em> divided by
+<em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The return value is “approximate” because binary
+floating point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
+numbers in base two.  This function can return a floating point value when
+passed two integers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Remainder">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Remainder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Remainder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the remainder of dividing <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is
+the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Divmod">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Divmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Divmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-0">See the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a>. Returns <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is
+the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod(o1,</span> <span class="pre">o2)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Power">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Power</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Power" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-1">See the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a>. Returns <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(o1,</span> <span class="pre">o2,</span> <span class="pre">o3)</span></code>, where <em>o3</em> is optional.
+If <em>o3</em> is to be ignored, pass <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a> in its place (passing <em>NULL</em> for
+<em>o3</em> would cause an illegal memory access).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Negative">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Negative</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Negative" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the negation of <em>o</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure. This is the
+equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Positive">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Positive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Positive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns <em>o</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
+Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+o</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Absolute">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Absolute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Absolute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-2">Returns the absolute value of <em>o</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent
+of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Invert">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Invert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Invert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the bitwise negation of <em>o</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is
+the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~o</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Lshift">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Lshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Lshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of left shifting <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Rshift">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Rshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Rshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of right shifting <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_And">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_And</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_And" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the “bitwise and” of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> on success and <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Xor">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Xor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Xor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the “bitwise exclusive or” of <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">^</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Or">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Or</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Or" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the “bitwise or” of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceAdd">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceAdd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceAdd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of adding <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The operation
+is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
+statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of subtracting <em>o2</em> from <em>o1</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The
+operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">-=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of multiplying <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The
+operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">*=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of matrix multiplication on <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is
+the equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&#64;=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the mathematical floor of dividing <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent
+of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">//=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of <em>o1</em> divided by
+<em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The return value is “approximate” because binary
+floating point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
+numbers in base two.  This function can return a floating point value when
+passed two integers.  The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the remainder of dividing <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The
+operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">%=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlacePower">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlacePower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlacePower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-3">See the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a>. Returns <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The operation
+is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
+statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">**=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code> when o3 is <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a>, or an in-place variant of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(o1,</span> <span class="pre">o2,</span> <span class="pre">o3)</span></code> otherwise. If <em>o3</em> is to be ignored, pass <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a>
+in its place (passing <em>NULL</em> for <em>o3</em> would cause an illegal memory access).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceLshift">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceLshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceLshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of left shifting <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceRshift">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceRshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceRshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the result of right shifting <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&gt;&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceAnd">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceAnd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceAnd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the “bitwise and” of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> on success and <em>NULL</em> on failure. The
+operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">&amp;=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceXor">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceXor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceXor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the “bitwise exclusive or” of <em>o1</em> by <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">^=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_InPlaceOr">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_InPlaceOr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_InPlaceOr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the “bitwise or” of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The
+operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent of
+the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">|=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Long">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Long</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Long" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-4">Returns the <em>o</em> converted to an integer object on success, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Float">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Float</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-5">Returns the <em>o</em> converted to a float object on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_Index">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_Index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_Index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the <em>o</em> converted to a Python int on success or <em>NULL</em> with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception raised on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_ToBase">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyNumber_ToBase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *n</em>, int<em> base</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_ToBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Returns the integer <em>n</em> converted to base <em>base</em> as a string.  The <em>base</em>
+argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16.  For base 2, 8, or 16, the
+returned string is prefixed with a base marker of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0b'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0o'</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0x'</span></code>, respectively.  If <em>n</em> is not a Python int, it is converted with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyNumber_Index" title="PyNumber_Index"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Index()</span></code></a> first.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyNumber_AsSsize_t">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyNumber_AsSsize_t</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumber_AsSsize_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <em>o</em> converted to a Py_ssize_t value if <em>o</em> can be interpreted as an
+integer.  If the call fails, an exception is raised and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>If <em>o</em> can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to
+convert to a Py_ssize_t value would raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>, then the
+<em>exc</em> argument is the type of exception that will be raised (usually
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>).  If <em>exc</em> is <em>NULL</em>, then the
+exception is cleared and the value is clipped to <em>PY_SSIZE_T_MIN</em> for a negative
+integer or <em>PY_SSIZE_T_MAX</em> for a positive integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyIndex_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyIndex_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyIndex_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if <em>o</em> is an index integer (has the nb_index slot of  the
+tp_as_number structure filled in), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.
+This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="object.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Object Protocol</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sequence.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Sequence Protocol</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/number.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+    <li class="right">
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+        </form>
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+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objbuffer.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objbuffer.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73b2eae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objbuffer.html
@@ -0,0 +1,235 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Old Buffer Protocol &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Concrete Objects Layer" href="concrete.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Buffer Protocol" href="buffer.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/objbuffer.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="concrete.html" title="Concrete Objects Layer"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="buffer.html" title="Buffer Protocol"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="abstract.html" accesskey="U">Abstract Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="old-buffer-protocol">
+<h1>Old Buffer Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#old-buffer-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.0.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>These functions were part of the “old buffer protocol” API in Python 2.
+In Python 3, this protocol doesn’t exist anymore but the functions are still
+exposed to ease porting 2.x code.  They act as a compatibility wrapper
+around the <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">new buffer protocol</span></a>, but they don’t give
+you control over the lifetime of the resources acquired when a buffer is
+exported.</p>
+<p>Therefore, it is recommended that you call <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a>
+(or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y*</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">w*</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#arg-parsing"><span class="std std-ref">format codes</span></a> with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> family of functions) to get a buffer view over
+an object, and <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a> when the buffer view can be released.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_AsCharBuffer">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_AsCharBuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, const char<em> **buffer</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *buffer_len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_AsCharBuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a pointer to a read-only memory location usable as character-based
+input.  The <em>obj</em> argument must support the single-segment character buffer
+interface.  On success, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, sets <em>buffer</em> to the memory location
+and <em>buffer_len</em> to the buffer length.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and sets a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_AsReadBuffer">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_AsReadBuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, const void<em> **buffer</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *buffer_len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_AsReadBuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a pointer to a read-only memory location containing arbitrary data.
+The <em>obj</em> argument must support the single-segment readable buffer
+interface.  On success, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, sets <em>buffer</em> to the memory location
+and <em>buffer_len</em> to the buffer length.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and sets a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_CheckReadBuffer">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_CheckReadBuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_CheckReadBuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if <em>o</em> supports the single-segment readable buffer interface.
+Otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+<p>Note that this function tries to get and release a buffer, and exceptions
+which occur while calling corresponding functions will get suppressed.
+To get error reporting use <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_AsWriteBuffer">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_AsWriteBuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, void<em> **buffer</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *buffer_len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_AsWriteBuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a pointer to a writable memory location.  The <em>obj</em> argument must
+support the single-segment, character buffer interface.  On success,
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, sets <em>buffer</em> to the memory location and <em>buffer_len</em> to the
+buffer length.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and sets a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="buffer.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Buffer Protocol</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="concrete.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Concrete Objects Layer</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/objbuffer.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="abstract.html" >Abstract Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/object.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/object.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..408336c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/object.html
@@ -0,0 +1,639 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Object Protocol &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="object-protocol">
+<span id="object"></span><h1>Object Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#object-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_NotImplemented">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_NotImplemented</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_NotImplemented" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> singleton, used to signal that an operation is
+not implemented for the given type combination.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED">
+<code class="descname">Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Properly handle returning <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_NotImplemented" title="Py_NotImplemented"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code></a> from within a C
+function (that is, increment the reference count of NotImplemented and
+return it).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Print">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_Print</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, FILE<em> *fp</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print an object <em>o</em>, on file <em>fp</em>.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.  The flags argument
+is used to enable certain printing options.  The only option currently supported
+is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_PRINT_RAW</span></code>; if given, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of the object is written
+instead of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_HasAttr">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_HasAttr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *attr_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_HasAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if <em>o</em> has the attribute <em>attr_name</em>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.  This
+is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr(o,</span> <span class="pre">attr_name)</span></code>.  This function
+always succeeds.</p>
+<p>Note that exceptions which occur while calling <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> methods will get suppressed.
+To get error reporting use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetAttr" title="PyObject_GetAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetAttr()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_HasAttrString">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_HasAttrString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *attr_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_HasAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if <em>o</em> has the attribute <em>attr_name</em>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.  This
+is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr(o,</span> <span class="pre">attr_name)</span></code>.  This function
+always succeeds.</p>
+<p>Note that exceptions which occur while calling <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> methods and creating a temporary string object
+will get suppressed.
+To get error reporting use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_GetAttrString" title="PyObject_GetAttrString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetAttrString()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GetAttr">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_GetAttr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *attr_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Retrieve an attribute named <em>attr_name</em> from object <em>o</em>. Returns the attribute
+value on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GetAttrString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_GetAttrString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *attr_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GetAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Retrieve an attribute named <em>attr_name</em> from object <em>o</em>. Returns the attribute
+value on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GenericGetAttr">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_GenericGetAttr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GenericGetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Generic attribute getter function that is meant to be put into a type
+object’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code> slot.  It looks for a descriptor in the dictionary
+of classes in the object’s MRO as well as an attribute in the object’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> (if present).  As outlined in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#descriptors"><span class="std std-ref">Implementing Descriptors</span></a>,
+data descriptors take preference over instance attributes, while non-data
+descriptors don’t.  Otherwise, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_SetAttr">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_SetAttr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *attr_name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_SetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the value of the attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>, to the value
+<em>v</em>. Raise an exception and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure;
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>v</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the attribute is deleted, however this feature is
+deprecated in favour of using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_DelAttr" title="PyObject_DelAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelAttr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_SetAttrString">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_SetAttrString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *attr_name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_SetAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the value of the attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>, to the value
+<em>v</em>. Raise an exception and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure;
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.attr_name</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>v</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the attribute is deleted, however this feature is
+deprecated in favour of using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_DelAttrString" title="PyObject_DelAttrString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelAttrString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GenericSetAttr">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_GenericSetAttr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GenericSetAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generic attribute setter and deleter function that is meant
+to be put into a type object’s <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a>
+slot.  It looks for a data descriptor in the
+dictionary of classes in the object’s MRO, and if found it takes preference
+over setting or deleting the attribute in the instance dictionary. Otherwise, the
+attribute is set or deleted in the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> (if present).
+On success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is returned, otherwise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>
+is raised and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_DelAttr">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_DelAttr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *attr_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_DelAttr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_DelAttrString">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_DelAttrString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *attr_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_DelAttrString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete attribute named <em>attr_name</em>, for object <em>o</em>. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o.attr_name</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GenericGetDict">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_GenericGetDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, void<em> *context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GenericGetDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>A generic implementation for the getter of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code> descriptor. It
+creates the dictionary if necessary.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GenericSetDict">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_GenericSetDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, void<em> *context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GenericSetDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic implementation for the setter of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code> descriptor. This
+implementation does not allow the dictionary to be deleted.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_RichCompare">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_RichCompare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em>, int<em> opid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_RichCompare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Compare the values of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> using the operation specified by <em>opid</em>,
+which must be one of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GE</span></code>, corresponding to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> respectively. This is the equivalent of
+the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">op</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">op</span></code> is the operator corresponding
+to <em>opid</em>. Returns the value of the comparison on success, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_RichCompareBool">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_RichCompareBool</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em>, int<em> opid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_RichCompareBool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare the values of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> using the operation specified by <em>opid</em>,
+which must be one of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GE</span></code>, corresponding to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> respectively. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the result is false, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> otherwise. This is the equivalent of the
+Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">op</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">op</span></code> is the operator corresponding to
+<em>opid</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> are the same object, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_RichCompareBool" title="PyObject_RichCompareBool"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_RichCompareBool()</span></code></a>
+will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Repr">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_Repr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-0">Compute a string representation of object <em>o</em>.  Returns the string
+representation on success, <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
+Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(o)</span></code>.  Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> built-in function.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
+does not silently discard an active exception.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_ASCII">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_ASCII</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_ASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-1">As <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a>, compute a string representation of object <em>o</em>, but
+escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\U</span></code> escapes.  This generates
+a string similar to that returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a> in Python 2.
+Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a> built-in function.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Str">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_Str</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Str" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Compute a string representation of object <em>o</em>.  Returns the string
+representation on success, <em>NULL</em> on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
+Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(o)</span></code>.  Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> built-in function
+and, therefore, by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
+does not silently discard an active exception.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Bytes">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_Bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-3">Compute a bytes representation of object <em>o</em>.  <em>NULL</em> is returned on
+failure and a bytes object on success.  This is equivalent to the Python
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(o)</span></code>, when <em>o</em> is not an integer.  Unlike <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(o)</span></code>,
+a TypeError is raised when <em>o</em> is an integer instead of a zero-initialized
+bytes object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_IsSubclass">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_IsSubclass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *derived</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cls</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_IsSubclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the class <em>derived</em> is identical to or derived from the class
+<em>cls</em>, otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  In case of an error, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>cls</em> is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in <em>cls</em>.
+The result will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> when at least one of the checks returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>,
+otherwise it will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>cls</em> has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#class.__subclasscheck__" title="class.__subclasscheck__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasscheck__()</span></code></a> method, it will be called to
+determine the subclass status as described in <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3119"><strong>PEP 3119</strong></a>.  Otherwise,
+<em>derived</em> is a subclass of <em>cls</em> if it is a direct or indirect subclass,
+i.e. contained in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cls.__mro__</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Normally only class objects, i.e. instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> or a derived
+class, are considered classes.  However, objects can override this by having
+a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code> attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_IsInstance">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_IsInstance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *inst</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *cls</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_IsInstance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if <em>inst</em> is an instance of the class <em>cls</em> or a subclass of
+<em>cls</em>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if not.  On error, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and sets an exception.</p>
+<p>If <em>cls</em> is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in <em>cls</em>.
+The result will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> when at least one of the checks returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>,
+otherwise it will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>cls</em> has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#class.__instancecheck__" title="class.__instancecheck__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__instancecheck__()</span></code></a> method, it will be called to
+determine the subclass status as described in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3119"><strong>PEP 3119</strong></a>.  Otherwise, <em>inst</em>
+is an instance of <em>cls</em> if its class is a subclass of <em>cls</em>.</p>
+<p>An instance <em>inst</em> can override what is considered its class by having a
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p>An object <em>cls</em> can override if it is considered a class, and what its base
+classes are, by having a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code> attribute (which must be a tuple
+of base classes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyCallable_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyCallable_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCallable_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine if the object <em>o</em> is callable.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the object is callable
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.  This function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Call">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_Call</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *callable</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Call a callable Python object <em>callable</em>, with arguments given by the
+tuple <em>args</em>, and named arguments given by the dictionary <em>kwargs</em>.</p>
+<p><em>args</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>, use an empty tuple if no arguments are needed.
+If no named arguments are needed, <em>kwargs</em> can be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+<p>This is the equivalent of the Python expression:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_CallObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_CallObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *callable</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Call a callable Python object <em>callable</em>, with arguments given by the
+tuple <em>args</em>.  If no arguments are needed, then <em>args</em> can be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+<p>This is the equivalent of the Python expression: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable(*args)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_CallFunction">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_CallFunction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *callable</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_CallFunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Call a callable Python object <em>callable</em>, with a variable number of C arguments.
+The C arguments are described using a <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> style format
+string.  The format can be <em>NULL</em>, indicating that no arguments are provided.</p>
+<p>Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+<p>This is the equivalent of the Python expression: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable(*args)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that if you only pass <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></a> args,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs" title="PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs()</span></code></a> is a faster alternative.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The type of <em>format</em> was changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_CallMethod">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_CallMethod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, const char<em> *name</em>, const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_CallMethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Call the method named <em>name</em> of object <em>obj</em> with a variable number of C
+arguments.  The C arguments are described by a <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> format
+string that should  produce a tuple.</p>
+<p>The format can be <em>NULL</em>, indicating that no arguments are provided.</p>
+<p>Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+<p>This is the equivalent of the Python expression:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.name(arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that if you only pass <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></a> args,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs" title="PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs()</span></code></a> is a faster alternative.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The types of <em>name</em> and <em>format</em> were changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *callable</em>, ..., NULL<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Call a callable Python object <em>callable</em>, with a variable number of
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> arguments.  The arguments are provided as a variable number
+of parameters followed by <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+<p>This is the equivalent of the Python expression:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable(arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *name</em>, ..., NULL<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Calls a method of the Python object <em>obj</em>, where the name of the method is given as a
+Python string object in <em>name</em>.  It is called with a variable number of
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> arguments.  The arguments are provided as a variable number
+of parameters followed by <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
+<em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Hash">
+Py_hash_t <code class="descname">PyObject_Hash</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Hash" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-6">Compute and return the hash value of an object <em>o</em>.  On failure, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.
+This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(o)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The return type is now Py_hash_t.  This is a signed integer the same size
+as Py_ssize_t.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented">
+Py_hash_t <code class="descname">PyObject_HashNotImplemented</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> indicating that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(o)</span></code> is not hashable and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.
+This function receives special treatment when stored in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code> slot,
+allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the interpreter that it is not
+hashable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_IsTrue">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_IsTrue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_IsTrue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the object <em>o</em> is considered to be true, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.
+This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">o</span></code>.  On failure, return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Not">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_Not</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Not" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the object <em>o</em> is considered to be true, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> otherwise.
+This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">o</span></code>.  On failure, return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_Type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-7">When <em>o</em> is non-<em>NULL</em>, returns a type object corresponding to the object type
+of object <em>o</em>. On failure, raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> and returns <em>NULL</em>.  This
+is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(o)</span></code>. This function increments the
+reference count of the return value. There’s really no reason to use this
+function instead of the common expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o-&gt;ob_type</span></code>, which returns a
+pointer of type <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject*</span></code></a>, except when the incremented reference
+count is needed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_TypeCheck">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_TypeCheck</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_TypeCheck" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is of type <em>type</em> or a subtype of <em>type</em>.  Both
+parameters must be non-<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyObject_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Length">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyObject_Length</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-8">Return the length of object <em>o</em>.  If the object <em>o</em> provides either the sequence
+and mapping protocols, the sequence length is returned.  On error, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is
+returned.  This is the equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_LengthHint">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyObject_LengthHint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> default</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_LengthHint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an estimated length for the object <em>o</em>. First try to return its
+actual length, then an estimate using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__length_hint__" title="object.__length_hint__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__length_hint__()</span></code></a>, and
+finally return the default value. On error return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>. This is the
+equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.length_hint(o,</span> <span class="pre">default)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GetItem">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_GetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return element of <em>o</em> corresponding to the object <em>key</em> or <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[key]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_SetItem">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_SetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Map the object <em>key</em> to the value <em>v</em>.  Raise an exception and
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure; return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[key]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_DelItem">
+int <code class="descname">PyObject_DelItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_DelItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the mapping for the object <em>key</em> from the object <em>o</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o[key]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_Dir">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_Dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_Dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir(o)</span></code>, returning a (possibly
+empty) list of strings appropriate for the object argument, or <em>NULL</em> if there
+was an error.  If the argument is <em>NULL</em>, this is like the Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code>,
+returning the names of the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame
+is active then <em>NULL</em> is returned but <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> will return false.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_GetIter">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject_GetIter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_GetIter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(o)</span></code>. It returns a new
+iterator for the object argument, or the object  itself if the object is already
+an iterator.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> and returns <em>NULL</em> if the object cannot be
+iterated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="abstract.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Abstract Objects Layer</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="number.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Number Protocol</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/object.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
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+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objimpl.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objimpl.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c869872
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/objimpl.html
@@ -0,0 +1,196 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Object Implementation Support &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="Allocating Objects on the Heap" href="allocation.html" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
+ 
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+  </head><body>
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="allocation.html" title="Allocating Objects on the Heap"
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
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+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="object-implementation-support">
+<span id="newtypes"></span><h1>Object Implementation Support<a class="headerlink" href="#object-implementation-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This chapter describes the functions, types, and macros used when defining new
+object types.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html">Allocating Objects on the Heap</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html">Common Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#number-object-structures">Number Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#mapping-object-structures">Mapping Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#sequence-object-structures">Sequence Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#buffer-object-structures">Buffer Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#async-object-structures">Async Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html">Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="memory.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Memory Management</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter">Allocating Objects on the Heap</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+        <li>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
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+      </ul>
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+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/refcounting.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/refcounting.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df2ef7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/refcounting.html
@@ -0,0 +1,245 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Reference Counting &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="reference-counting">
+<span id="countingrefs"></span><h1>Reference Counting<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-counting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The macros in this section are used for managing reference counts of Python
+objects.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_INCREF">
+void <code class="descname">Py_INCREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_INCREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Increment the reference count for object <em>o</em>.  The object must not be <em>NULL</em>; if
+you aren’t sure that it isn’t <em>NULL</em>, use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_XINCREF" title="Py_XINCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XINCREF()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_XINCREF">
+void <code class="descname">Py_XINCREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_XINCREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Increment the reference count for object <em>o</em>.  The object may be <em>NULL</em>, in
+which case the macro has no effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_DECREF">
+void <code class="descname">Py_DECREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_DECREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decrement the reference count for object <em>o</em>.  The object must not be <em>NULL</em>; if
+you aren’t sure that it isn’t <em>NULL</em>, use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a>.  If the reference
+count reaches zero, the object’s type’s deallocation function (which must not be
+<em>NULL</em>) is invoked.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The deallocation function can cause arbitrary Python code to be invoked (e.g.
+when a class instance with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method is deallocated).  While
+exceptions in such code are not propagated, the executed code has free access to
+all Python global variables.  This means that any object that is reachable from
+a global variable should be in a consistent state before <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> is
+invoked.  For example, code to delete an object from a list should copy a
+reference to the deleted object in a temporary variable, update the list data
+structure, and then call <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> for the temporary variable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_XDECREF">
+void <code class="descname">Py_XDECREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decrement the reference count for object <em>o</em>.  The object may be <em>NULL</em>, in
+which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the effect is the same as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>, and the same warning applies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_CLEAR">
+void <code class="descname">Py_CLEAR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decrement the reference count for object <em>o</em>.  The object may be <em>NULL</em>, in
+which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the effect is the same as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>, except that the argument is also set to <em>NULL</em>.  The warning
+for <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> does not apply with respect to the object passed because
+the macro carefully uses a temporary variable and sets the argument to <em>NULL</em>
+before decrementing its reference count.</p>
+<p>It is a good idea to use this macro whenever decrementing the value of a
+variable that might be traversed during garbage collection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions are for runtime dynamic embedding of Python:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_IncRef(PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*o)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecRef(PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*o)</span></code>. They are
+simply exported function versions of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_XINCREF" title="Py_XINCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XINCREF()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a>, respectively.</p>
+<p>The following functions or macros are only for use within the interpreter core:
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_Dealloc()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_ForgetReference()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_NewReference()</span></code>,
+as well as the global variable <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_RefTotal</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+                        title="previous chapter">The Very High Level Layer</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter">Exception Handling</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/reflection.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/reflection.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb1636a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/reflection.html
@@ -0,0 +1,234 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Reflection &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Codec registry and support functions" href="codec.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="String conversion and formatting" href="conversion.html" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
+
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="codec.html" title="Codec registry and support functions"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="conversion.html" title="String conversion and formatting"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="utilities.html" accesskey="U">Utilities</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
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+         |
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="reflection">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Reflection<a class="headerlink" href="#reflection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_GetBuiltins">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_GetBuiltins</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_GetBuiltins" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return a dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame,
+or the interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently executing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_GetLocals">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_GetLocals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_GetLocals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return a dictionary of the local variables in the current execution frame,
+or <em>NULL</em> if no frame is currently executing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_GetGlobals">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_GetGlobals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_GetGlobals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame,
+or <em>NULL</em> if no frame is currently executing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_GetFrame">
+<a class="reference internal" href="veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_GetFrame</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_GetFrame" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the current thread state’s frame, which is <em>NULL</em> if no frame is
+currently executing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFrame_GetLineNumber">
+int <code class="descname">PyFrame_GetLineNumber</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a><em> *frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFrame_GetLineNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the line number that <em>frame</em> is currently executing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_GetFuncName">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyEval_GetFuncName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_GetFuncName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of <em>func</em> if it is a function, class or instance object, else the
+name of <em>func</em>s type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_GetFuncDesc">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyEval_GetFuncDesc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_GetFuncDesc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a description string, depending on the type of <em>func</em>.
+Return values include “()” for functions and methods, ” constructor”,
+” instance”, and ” object”.  Concatenated with the result of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_GetFuncName" title="PyEval_GetFuncName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_GetFuncName()</span></code></a>, the result will be a description of
+<em>func</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="conversion.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">String conversion and formatting</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="codec.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Codec registry and support functions</a></p>
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+  </div>
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+  <div class="section" id="sequence-protocol">
+<span id="sequence"></span><h1>Sequence Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#sequence-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PySequence_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the object provides sequence protocol, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.
+Note that it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for Python classes with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+method unless they are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> subclasses since in general case it
+is impossible to determine what the type of keys it supports.  This
+function always succeeds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySequence_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Length">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySequence_Length</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Returns the number of objects in sequence <em>o</em> on success, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Concat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_Concat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the concatenation of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> on success, and <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Repeat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_Repeat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Repeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the result of repeating sequence object <em>o</em> <em>count</em> times, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">count</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_InPlaceConcat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_InPlaceConcat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o1</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_InPlaceConcat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the concatenation of <em>o1</em> and <em>o2</em> on success, and <em>NULL</em> on failure.
+The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o1</em> supports it.  This is the equivalent
+of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_InPlaceRepeat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_InPlaceRepeat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_InPlaceRepeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the result of repeating sequence object <em>o</em> <em>count</em> times, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure.  The operation is done <em>in-place</em> when <em>o</em> supports it.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o</span> <span class="pre">*=</span> <span class="pre">count</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_GetItem">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_GetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the <em>i</em>th element of <em>o</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure. This is the equivalent of
+the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[i]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_GetSlice">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_GetSlice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i1</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_GetSlice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the slice of sequence object <em>o</em> between <em>i1</em> and <em>i2</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on
+failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[i1:i2]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_SetItem">
+int <code class="descname">PySequence_SetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_SetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assign object <em>v</em> to the <em>i</em>th element of <em>o</em>.  Raise an exception
+and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure; return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.  This
+is the equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[i]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></code>.  This function <em>does
+not</em> steal a reference to <em>v</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>v</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the element is deleted, however this feature is
+deprecated in favour of using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_DelItem" title="PySequence_DelItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_DelItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_DelItem">
+int <code class="descname">PySequence_DelItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_DelItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the <em>i</em>th element of object <em>o</em>.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.  This is the
+equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o[i]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_SetSlice">
+int <code class="descname">PySequence_SetSlice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i1</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i2</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_SetSlice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assign the sequence object <em>v</em> to the slice in sequence object <em>o</em> from <em>i1</em> to
+<em>i2</em>.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[i1:i2]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_DelSlice">
+int <code class="descname">PySequence_DelSlice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i1</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_DelSlice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the slice in sequence object <em>o</em> from <em>i1</em> to <em>i2</em>.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">o[i1:i2]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Count">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySequence_Count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of occurrences of <em>value</em> in <em>o</em>, that is, return the number
+of keys for which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[key]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code>.  On failure, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.  This is
+equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.count(value)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Contains">
+int <code class="descname">PySequence_Contains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Contains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine if <em>o</em> contains <em>value</em>.  If an item in <em>o</em> is equal to <em>value</em>,
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>. On error, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.  This is
+equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">o</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Index">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySequence_Index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the first index <em>i</em> for which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o[i]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code>.  On error, return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.    This is equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.index(value)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_List">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_List</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_List" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a list object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable <em>o</em>,
+or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  The returned list is guaranteed to be new.  This is
+equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Tuple">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_Tuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p id="index-1">Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable <em>o</em>,
+or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  If <em>o</em> is a tuple, a new reference will be returned,
+otherwise a tuple will be constructed with the appropriate contents.  This is
+equivalent to the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple(o)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Fast">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_Fast</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, const char<em> *m</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Fast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the sequence or iterable <em>o</em> as a list, unless it is already a tuple or list, in
+which case <em>o</em> is returned.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM" title="PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM()</span></code></a> to access
+the members of the result.  Returns <em>NULL</em> on failure.  If the object is not
+a sequence or iterable, raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> with <em>m</em> as the message text.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the length of <em>o</em>, assuming that <em>o</em> was returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_Fast" title="PySequence_Fast"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Fast()</span></code></a> and that <em>o</em> is not <em>NULL</em>.  The size can also be
+gotten by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_Size" title="PySequence_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Size()</span></code></a> on <em>o</em>, but
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE" title="PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE()</span></code></a> is faster because it can assume <em>o</em> is a list
+or tuple.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the <em>i</em>th element of <em>o</em>, assuming that <em>o</em> was returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_Fast" title="PySequence_Fast"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Fast()</span></code></a>, <em>o</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, and that <em>i</em> is within bounds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_Fast_ITEMS">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>** <code class="descname">PySequence_Fast_ITEMS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_Fast_ITEMS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers.  Assumes that <em>o</em> was returned
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_Fast" title="PySequence_Fast"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Fast()</span></code></a> and <em>o</em> is not <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the items array.
+So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts where the sequence
+cannot change.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySequence_ITEM">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySequence_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequence_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the <em>i</em>th element of <em>o</em> or <em>NULL</em> on failure. Macro form of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_GetItem()</span></code></a> but without checking that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequence_Check" title="PySequence_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Check()</span></code></a> on <em>o</em> is true and without adjustment for negative
+indices.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/set.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/set.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0de991
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/set.html
@@ -0,0 +1,349 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Set Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="set-objects">
+<span id="setobjects"></span><h1>Set Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#set-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">This section details the public API for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>
+objects.  Any functionality not listed below is best accessed using the either
+the abstract object protocol (including <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_CallMethod" title="PyObject_CallMethod"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallMethod()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompareBool" title="PyObject_RichCompareBool"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_RichCompareBool()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Hash" title="PyObject_Hash"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Hash()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_IsTrue" title="PyObject_IsTrue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsTrue()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Print" title="PyObject_Print"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Print()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetIter" title="PyObject_GetIter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetIter()</span></code></a>) or the abstract number protocol (including
+<a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_And" title="PyNumber_And"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_And()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_Subtract" title="PyNumber_Subtract"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Subtract()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_Or" title="PyNumber_Or"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Or()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_Xor" title="PyNumber_Xor"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Xor()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceAnd" title="PyNumber_InPlaceAnd"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_InPlaceAnd()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract" title="PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceOr" title="PyNumber_InPlaceOr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_InPlaceOr()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceXor" title="PyNumber_InPlaceXor"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_InPlaceXor()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PySetObject">
+<code class="descname">PySetObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> is used to hold the internal data for both
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> objects.  It is like a <a class="reference internal" href="dict.html#c.PyDictObject" title="PyDictObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDictObject</span></code></a>
+in that it is a fixed size for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will
+point to a separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized
+sets (much like list storage). None of the fields of this structure should be
+considered public and are subject to change.  All access should be done through
+the documented API rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PySet_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> representing the Python
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyFrozenSet_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyFrozenSet_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFrozenSet_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> representing the Python
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object. Likewise,
+the constructor functions work with any iterable Python object.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PySet_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> object or an instance of a subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFrozenSet_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyFrozenSet_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFrozenSet_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> object or an instance of a
+subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyAnySet_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyAnySet_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAnySet_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> object, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> object, or an
+instance of a subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyAnySet_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyAnySet_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAnySet_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> object or a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> object but
+not an instance of a subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFrozenSet_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyFrozenSet_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFrozenSet_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> object but not an instance of a
+subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySet_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> containing objects returned by the <em>iterable</em>.  The
+<em>iterable</em> may be <em>NULL</em> to create a new empty set.  Return the new set on
+success or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if <em>iterable</em> is not
+actually iterable.  The constructor is also useful for copying a set
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c=set(s)</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyFrozenSet_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyFrozenSet_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFrozenSet_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> containing objects returned by the <em>iterable</em>.
+The <em>iterable</em> may be <em>NULL</em> to create a new empty frozenset.  Return the new
+set on success or <em>NULL</em> on failure.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if <em>iterable</em> is
+not actually iterable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions and macros are available for instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> or instances of their subtypes.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySet_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *anyset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Return the length of a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> object. Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(anyset)</span></code>.  Raises a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_SystemError</span></code> if <em>anyset</em> is not a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>, or an instance of a subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_GET_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySet_GET_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *anyset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_GET_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro form of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySet_Size" title="PySet_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySet_Size()</span></code></a> without error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Contains">
+int <code class="descname">PySet_Contains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *anyset</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Contains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if found, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if not found, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an error is encountered.  Unlike
+the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> method, this function does not automatically
+convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets.  Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if
+the <em>key</em> is unhashable. Raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_SystemError</span></code> if <em>anyset</em> is not a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>, or an instance of a subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Add">
+int <code class="descname">PySet_Add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *set</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>key</em> to a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> instance.  Also works with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>
+instances (like <a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SetItem()</span></code></a> it can be used to fill-in the values
+of brand new frozensets before they are exposed to other code).  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on
+success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure. Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the <em>key</em> is
+unhashable. Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> if there is no room to grow.  Raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> if <em>set</em> is not an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> or its
+subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions are available for instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> or its
+subtypes but not for instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> or its subtypes.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Discard">
+int <code class="descname">PySet_Discard</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *set</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Discard" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if found and removed, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if not found (no action taken), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an
+error is encountered.  Does not raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> for missing keys.  Raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the <em>key</em> is unhashable.  Unlike the Python <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard()</span></code>
+method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into
+temporary frozensets. Raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_SystemError</span></code> if <em>set</em> is not an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> or its subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Pop">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySet_Pop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *set</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Pop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new reference to an arbitrary object in the <em>set</em>, and removes the
+object from the <em>set</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em> on failure.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the
+set is empty. Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> if <em>set</em> is not an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> or its subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_Clear">
+int <code class="descname">PySet_Clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *set</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_Clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Empty an existing set of all elements.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySet_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PySet_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySet_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/slice.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/slice.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e8ccf56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/slice.html
@@ -0,0 +1,311 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Slice Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="slice-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Slice Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#slice-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PySlice_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PySlice_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySlice_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object for slice objects.  This is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#slice" title="slice"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice</span></code></a> in the
+Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySlice_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PySlice_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySlice_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is a slice object; <em>ob</em> must not be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySlice_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PySlice_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *stop</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *step</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySlice_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new slice object with the given values.  The <em>start</em>, <em>stop</em>, and
+<em>step</em> parameters are used as the values of the slice object attributes of
+the same names.  Any of the values may be <em>NULL</em>, in which case the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> will be used for the corresponding attribute.  Return <em>NULL</em> if
+the new object could not be allocated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySlice_GetIndices">
+int <code class="descname">PySlice_GetIndices</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *slice</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *stop</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *step</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySlice_GetIndices" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve the start, stop and step indices from the slice object <em>slice</em>,
+assuming a sequence of length <em>length</em>. Treats indices greater than
+<em>length</em> as errors.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error with no exception set (unless one of
+the indices was not <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> and failed to be converted to an integer,
+in which case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned with an exception set).</p>
+<p>You probably do not want to use this function.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The parameter type for the <em>slice</em> parameter was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySliceObject*</span></code>
+before.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySlice_GetIndicesEx">
+int <code class="descname">PySlice_GetIndicesEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *slice</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *stop</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *step</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *slicelength</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySlice_GetIndicesEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Usable replacement for <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySlice_GetIndices" title="PySlice_GetIndices"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_GetIndices()</span></code></a>.  Retrieve the start,
+stop, and step indices from the slice object <em>slice</em> assuming a sequence of
+length <em>length</em>, and store the length of the slice in <em>slicelength</em>.  Out
+of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of
+normal slices.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error with exception set.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is considered not safe for resizable sequences.
+Its invocation should be replaced by a combination of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySlice_Unpack" title="PySlice_Unpack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_Unpack()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySlice_AdjustIndices" title="PySlice_AdjustIndices"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_AdjustIndices()</span></code></a> where</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PySlice_GetIndicesEx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slice</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">length</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">step</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">slicelength</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="c1">// return error</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is replaced by</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PySlice_Unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slice</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">step</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="c1">// return error</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">slicelength</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PySlice_AdjustIndices</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">length</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">step</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The parameter type for the <em>slice</em> parameter was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySliceObject*</span></code>
+before.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.1: </span>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LIMITED_API</span></code> is not set or set to the value between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03050400</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03060000</span></code> (not including) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03060100</span></code> or higher
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_GetIndicesEx()</span></code> is implemented as a macro using
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_Unpack()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_AdjustIndices()</span></code>.
+Arguments <em>start</em>, <em>stop</em> and <em>step</em> are evaluated more than once.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6.1: </span>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LIMITED_API</span></code> is set to the value less than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03050400</span></code> or
+between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03060000</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03060100</span></code> (not including)
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_GetIndicesEx()</span></code> is a deprecated function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySlice_Unpack">
+int <code class="descname">PySlice_Unpack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *slice</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *stop</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *step</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySlice_Unpack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract the start, stop and step data members from a slice object as
+C integers.  Silently reduce values larger than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_MAX</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_MAX</span></code>, silently boost the start and stop values less than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_MIN</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_MIN</span></code>, and silently boost the step
+values less than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySlice_AdjustIndices">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PySlice_AdjustIndices</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *stop</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> step</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySlice_AdjustIndices" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adjust start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified length.
+Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling
+of normal slices.</p>
+<p>Return the length of the slice.  Always successful.  Doesn’t call Python
+code.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ellipsis-object">
+<h1>Ellipsis Object<a class="headerlink" href="#ellipsis-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_Ellipsis">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">Py_Ellipsis</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_Ellipsis" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code> object.  This object has no methods.  It needs to be
+treated just like any other object with respect to reference counts.  Like
+<a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a> it is a singleton object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Slice Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ellipsis-object">Ellipsis Object</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="descriptor.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Descriptor Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">MemoryView objects</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/slice.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/stable.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/stable.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/stable.html
@@ -0,0 +1,207 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Stable Application Binary Interface &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="stable-application-binary-interface">
+<span id="stable"></span><h1>Stable Application Binary Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#stable-application-binary-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Traditionally, the C API of Python will change with every release.  Most changes
+will be source-compatible, typically by only adding API, rather than changing
+existing API or removing API (although some interfaces do get removed after
+being deprecated first).</p>
+<p>Unfortunately, the API compatibility does not extend to binary compatibility
+(the ABI). The reason is primarily the evolution of struct definitions, where
+addition of a new field, or changing the type of a field, might not break the
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+link with a newer one.</p>
+<p>Since Python 3.2, a subset of the API has been declared to guarantee a stable
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+define <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LIMITED_API</span></code>. A number of interpreter details then become hidden
+from the extension module; in return, a module is built that works on any 3.x
+version (x&gt;=2) without recompilation.</p>
+<p>In some cases, the stable ABI needs to be extended with new functions.
+Extension modules wishing to use these new APIs need to set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LIMITED_API</span></code>
+to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_VERSION_HEX</span></code> value (see <a class="reference internal" href="apiabiversion.html#apiabiversion"><span class="std std-ref">API and ABI Versioning</span></a>) of the minimum Python
+version they want to support (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03030000</span></code> for Python 3.3). Such modules
+will work on all subsequent Python releases, but fail to load (because of
+missing symbols) on the older releases.</p>
+<p>As of Python 3.2, the set of functions available to the limited API is
+documented in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0384"><strong>PEP 384</strong></a>.  In the C API documentation, API elements that are not
+part of the limited API are marked as “Not part of the limited API.”</p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/structures.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/structures.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80a8d43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/structures.html
@@ -0,0 +1,672 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Common Object Structures &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="common-object-structures">
+<span id="common-structs"></span><h1>Common Object Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#common-object-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition of
+object types for Python.  This section describes these structures and how they
+are used.</p>
+<p>All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the beginning
+of the object’s representation in memory.  These are represented by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyVarObject</span></code></a> types, which are defined, in turn,
+by the expansions of some macros also used, whether directly or indirectly, in
+the definition of all other Python objects.</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyObject">
+<code class="descname">PyObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All object types are extensions of this type.  This is a type which
+contains the information Python needs to treat a pointer to an object as an
+object.  In a normal “release” build, it contains only the object’s
+reference count and a pointer to the corresponding type object.
+Nothing is actually declared to be a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a>, but every pointer
+to a Python object can be cast to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.  Access to the
+members must be done by using the macros <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_REFCNT" title="Py_REFCNT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_REFCNT</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_TYPE" title="Py_TYPE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TYPE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyVarObject">
+<code class="descname">PyVarObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyVarObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an extension of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> that adds the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code>
+field.  This is only used for objects that have some notion of <em>length</em>.
+This type does not often appear in the Python/C API.
+Access to the members must be done by using the macros
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_REFCNT" title="Py_REFCNT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_REFCNT</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_TYPE" title="Py_TYPE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TYPE</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_SIZE" title="Py_SIZE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SIZE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_HEAD">
+<code class="descname">PyObject_HEAD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_HEAD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects
+without a varying length.  The PyObject_HEAD macro expands to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="n">ob_base</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_VAR_HEAD">
+<code class="descname">PyObject_VAR_HEAD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_VAR_HEAD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects
+with a length that varies from instance to instance.
+The PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyVarObject</span> <span class="n">ob_base</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyVarObject</span></code></a> above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_TYPE">
+<code class="descname">Py_TYPE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>o<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_TYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro is used to access the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> member of a Python object.
+It expands to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">ob_type</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_REFCNT">
+<code class="descname">Py_REFCNT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>o<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_REFCNT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro is used to access the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_refcnt</span></code> member of a Python
+object.
+It expands to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">ob_refcnt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_SIZE">
+<code class="descname">Py_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>o<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This macro is used to access the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> member of a Python object.
+It expands to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(((</span><span class="n">PyVarObject</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">ob_size</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyObject_HEAD_INIT">
+<code class="descname">PyObject_HEAD_INIT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>type<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject_HEAD_INIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> type.  This macro expands to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">_PyObject_EXTRA_INIT</span>
+<span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT">
+<code class="descname">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>type, size<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyVarObject</span></code></a> type, including the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> field.
+This macro expands to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">_PyObject_EXTRA_INIT</span>
+<span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCFunction">
+<code class="descname">PyCFunction</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCFunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type of the functions used to implement most Python callables in C.
+Functions of this type take two <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> parameters and return
+one such value.  If the return value is <em>NULL</em>, an exception shall have
+been set.  If not <em>NULL</em>, the return value is interpreted as the return
+value of the function as exposed in Python.  The function must return a new
+reference.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCFunctionWithKeywords">
+<code class="descname">PyCFunctionWithKeywords</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCFunctionWithKeywords" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C
+with signature <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">METH_KEYWORDS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c._PyCFunctionFast">
+<code class="descname">_PyCFunctionFast</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyCFunctionFast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C
+with signature <a class="reference internal" href="#METH_FASTCALL" title="METH_FASTCALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_FASTCALL</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c._PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords">
+<code class="descname">_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C
+with signature <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_FASTCALL</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">METH_KEYWORDS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyMethodDef">
+<code class="descname">PyMethodDef</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMethodDef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Structure used to describe a method of an extension type.  This structure has
+four fields:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ml_name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const char *</p></td>
+<td><p>name of the method</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ml_meth</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>PyCFunction</p></td>
+<td><p>pointer to the C
+implementation</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ml_flags</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>flag bits indicating how the
+call should be constructed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ml_doc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const char *</p></td>
+<td><p>points to the contents of the
+docstring</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ml_meth</span></code> is a C function pointer.  The functions may be of different
+types, but they always return <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.  If the function is not of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a>, the compiler will require a cast in the method table.
+Even though <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a> defines the first parameter as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>, it is common that the method implementation uses the
+specific C type of the <em>self</em> object.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ml_flags</span></code> field is a bitfield which can include the following flags.
+The individual flags indicate either a calling convention or a binding
+convention.</p>
+<p>There are four basic calling conventions for positional arguments
+and two of them can be combined with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_KEYWORDS</span></code> to support
+also keyword arguments.  So there are a total of 6 calling conventions:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="METH_VARARGS">
+<code class="descname">METH_VARARGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#METH_VARARGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the type
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a>. The function expects two <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> values.
+The first one is the <em>self</em> object for methods; for module functions, it is
+the module object.  The second parameter (often called <em>args</em>) is a tuple
+object representing all arguments. This parameter is typically processed
+using <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.PyArg_UnpackTuple" title="PyArg_UnpackTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_UnpackTuple()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Methods with these flags must be of type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCFunctionWithKeywords" title="PyCFunctionWithKeywords"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunctionWithKeywords</span></code></a>.
+The function expects three parameters: <em>self</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>kwargs</em> where
+<em>kwargs</em> is a dictionary of all the keyword arguments or possibly <em>NULL</em>
+if there are no keyword arguments.  The parameters are typically processed
+using <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="METH_FASTCALL">
+<code class="descname">METH_FASTCALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#METH_FASTCALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments.
+The methods have the type <a class="reference internal" href="#c._PyCFunctionFast" title="_PyCFunctionFast"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyCFunctionFast</span></code></a>.
+The first parameter is <em>self</em>, the second parameter is a C array
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> values indicating the arguments and the third
+parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).</p>
+<p>This is not part of the <a class="reference internal" href="stable.html#stable"><span class="std std-ref">limited API</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Extension of <a class="reference internal" href="#METH_FASTCALL" title="METH_FASTCALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_FASTCALL</span></code></a> supporting also keyword arguments,
+with methods of type <a class="reference internal" href="#c._PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords" title="_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords</span></code></a>.
+Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the vectorcall protocol:
+there is an additional fourth <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> parameter
+which is a tuple representing the names of the keyword arguments
+or possibly <em>NULL</em> if there are no keywords.  The values of the keyword
+arguments are stored in the <em>args</em> array, after the positional arguments.</p>
+<p>This is not part of the <a class="reference internal" href="stable.html#stable"><span class="std std-ref">limited API</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="METH_NOARGS">
+<code class="descname">METH_NOARGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#METH_NOARGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Methods without parameters don’t need to check whether arguments are given if
+they are listed with the <a class="reference internal" href="#METH_NOARGS" title="METH_NOARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_NOARGS</span></code></a> flag.  They need to be of type
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a>.  The first parameter is typically named <em>self</em> and will
+hold a reference to the module or object instance.  In all cases the second
+parameter will be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="METH_O">
+<code class="descname">METH_O</code><a class="headerlink" href="#METH_O" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the <a class="reference internal" href="#METH_O" title="METH_O"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_O</span></code></a>
+flag, instead of invoking <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;O&quot;</span></code> argument.
+They have the type <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a>, with the <em>self</em> parameter, and a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> parameter representing the single argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but the
+binding when use with methods of classes.  These may not be used for functions
+defined for modules.  At most one of these flags may be set for any given
+method.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="METH_CLASS">
+<code class="descname">METH_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#METH_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter rather
+than an instance of the type.  This is used to create <em>class methods</em>,
+similar to what is created when using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> built-in
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="METH_STATIC">
+<code class="descname">METH_STATIC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#METH_STATIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">The method will be passed <em>NULL</em> as the first parameter rather than an
+instance of the type.  This is used to create <em>static methods</em>, similar to
+what is created when using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> built-in function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of another
+definition with the same method name.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="METH_COEXIST">
+<code class="descname">METH_COEXIST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#METH_COEXIST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions.  Without
+<em>METH_COEXIST</em>, the default is to skip repeated definitions.  Since slot
+wrappers are loaded before the method table, the existence of a
+<em>sq_contains</em> slot, for example, would generate a wrapped method named
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> and preclude the loading of a corresponding
+PyCFunction with the same name.  With the flag defined, the PyCFunction
+will be loaded in place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the
+slot.  This is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more
+than wrapper object calls.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyMemberDef">
+<code class="descname">PyMemberDef</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMemberDef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Structure which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds to a C
+struct member.  Its fields are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const char *</p></td>
+<td><p>name of the member</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>the type of the member in the
+C struct</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Py_ssize_t</p></td>
+<td><p>the offset in bytes that the
+member is located on the
+type’s object struct</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flags</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>flag bits indicating if the
+field should be read-only or
+writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const char *</p></td>
+<td><p>points to the contents of the
+docstring</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> can be one of many <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_</span></code> macros corresponding to various C
+types.  When the member is accessed in Python, it will be converted to the
+equivalent Python type.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 45%" />
+<col style="width: 55%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Macro name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_SHORT</p></td>
+<td><p>short</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_INT</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_LONG</p></td>
+<td><p>long</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_FLOAT</p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_DOUBLE</p></td>
+<td><p>double</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_STRING</p></td>
+<td><p>const char *</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_OBJECT</p></td>
+<td><p>PyObject *</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_OBJECT_EX</p></td>
+<td><p>PyObject *</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_CHAR</p></td>
+<td><p>char</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_BYTE</p></td>
+<td><p>char</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_UBYTE</p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned char</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_UINT</p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_USHORT</p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned short</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_ULONG</p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned long</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_BOOL</p></td>
+<td><p>char</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_LONGLONG</p></td>
+<td><p>long long</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T_ULONGLONG</p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned long long</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T_PYSSIZET</p></td>
+<td><p>Py_ssize_t</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT_EX</span></code> differ in that
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the member is <em>NULL</em> and
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT_EX</span></code> raises an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.  Try to use
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT_EX</span></code> over <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT</span></code> because <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT_EX</span></code>
+handles use of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statement on that attribute more correctly
+than <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT</span></code>.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flags</span></code> can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for write and read access or <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">READONLY</span></code> for
+read-only access.  Using <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_STRING</span></code> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> implies
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">READONLY</span></code>.  <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_STRING</span></code> data is interpreted as UTF-8.
+Only <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_OBJECT_EX</span></code>
+members can be deleted.  (They are set to <em>NULL</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyGetSetDef">
+<code class="descname">PyGetSetDef</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyGetSetDef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Structure to define property-like access for a type. See also description of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject.tp_getset</span></code></a> slot.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+<col style="width: 53%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>name</p></td>
+<td><p>const char *</p></td>
+<td><p>attribute name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>get</p></td>
+<td><p>getter</p></td>
+<td><p>C Function to get the attribute</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>set</p></td>
+<td><p>setter</p></td>
+<td><p>optional C function to set or
+delete the attribute, if omitted
+the attribute is readonly</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>doc</p></td>
+<td><p>const char *</p></td>
+<td><p>optional docstring</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>closure</p></td>
+<td><p>void *</p></td>
+<td><p>optional function pointer,
+providing additional data for
+getter and setter</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get</span></code> function takes one <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> parameter (the
+instance) and a function pointer (the associated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closure</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It should return a new reference on success or <em>NULL</em> with a set exception
+on failure.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code> functions take two <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> parameters (the instance and
+the value to be set) and a function pointer (the associated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closure</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="nf">int</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is <em>NULL</em>.
+Should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> with a set exception on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="allocation.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Allocating Objects on the Heap</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="typeobj.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Type Objects</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/sys.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/sys.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bab429e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/sys.html
@@ -0,0 +1,536 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Operating System Utilities &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="operating-system-utilities">
+<span id="os"></span><h1>Operating System Utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#operating-system-utilities" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_FSPath">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyOS_FSPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_FSPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return the file system representation for <em>path</em>. If the object is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object, then its reference count is
+incremented. If the object implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> interface,
+then <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike.__fspath__" title="os.PathLike.__fspath__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__fspath__()</span></code></a> is returned as long as it is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object. Otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_FdIsInteractive">
+int <code class="descname">Py_FdIsInteractive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_FdIsInteractive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file <em>fp</em> with name <em>filename</em> is
+deemed interactive.  This is the case for files for which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isatty(fileno(fp))</span></code>
+is true.  If the global flag <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_InteractiveFlag" title="Py_InteractiveFlag"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_InteractiveFlag</span></code></a> is true, this function
+also returns true if the <em>filename</em> pointer is <em>NULL</em> or if the name is equal to
+one of the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;stdin&gt;'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'???'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_BeforeFork">
+void <code class="descname">PyOS_BeforeFork</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_BeforeFork" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function to prepare some internal state before a process fork.  This
+should be called before calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> or any similar function
+that clones the current process.
+Only available on systems where <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> is defined.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent">
+void <code class="descname">PyOS_AfterFork_Parent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function to update some internal state after a process fork.  This
+should be called from the parent process after calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code>
+or any similar function that clones the current process, regardless
+of whether process cloning was successful.
+Only available on systems where <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> is defined.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child">
+void <code class="descname">PyOS_AfterFork_Child</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function to update internal interpreter state after a process fork.
+This must be called from the child process after calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code>,
+or any similar function that clones the current process, if there is
+any chance the process will call back into the Python interpreter.
+Only available on systems where <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> is defined.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.register_at_fork" title="os.register_at_fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.register_at_fork()</span></code></a> allows registering custom Python functions
+to be called by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyOS_BeforeFork" title="PyOS_BeforeFork"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_BeforeFork()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Parent"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()</span></code></a> and  <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Child"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Child()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_AfterFork">
+void <code class="descname">PyOS_AfterFork</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_AfterFork" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this should be
+called in the new process if the Python interpreter will continue to be used.
+If a new executable is loaded into the new process, this function does not need
+to be called.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>This function is superseded by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Child"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Child()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_CheckStack">
+int <code class="descname">PyOS_CheckStack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_CheckStack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space.  This is a reliable
+check, but is only available when <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USE_STACKCHECK</span></code> is defined (currently
+on Windows using the Microsoft Visual C++ compiler).  <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USE_STACKCHECK</span></code>
+will be defined automatically; you should never change the definition in your
+own code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_getsig">
+PyOS_sighandler_t <code class="descname">PyOS_getsig</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_getsig" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current signal handler for signal <em>i</em>.  This is a thin wrapper around
+either <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigaction()</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal()</span></code>.  Do not call those functions
+directly! <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_sighandler_t</span></code> is a typedef alias for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span>
+<span class="pre">(*)(int)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_setsig">
+PyOS_sighandler_t <code class="descname">PyOS_setsig</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> i</em>, PyOS_sighandler_t<em> h</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_setsig" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the signal handler for signal <em>i</em> to be <em>h</em>; return the old signal handler.
+This is a thin wrapper around either <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigaction()</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal()</span></code>.  Do
+not call those functions directly!  <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_sighandler_t</span></code> is a typedef
+alias for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">(*)(int)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_DecodeLocale">
+wchar_t* <code class="descname">Py_DecodeLocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char*<em> arg</em>, size_t<em> *size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode a byte string from the locale encoding with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#surrogateescape"><span class="std std-ref">surrogateescape
+error handler</span></a>: undecodable bytes are decoded as
+characters in range U+DC80..U+DCFF. If a byte sequence can be decoded as a
+surrogate character, escape the bytes using the surrogateescape error
+handler instead of decoding them.</p>
+<p>Encoding, highest priority to lowest priority:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> on macOS and Android;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> if the Python UTF-8 mode is enabled;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nl_langinfo(CODESET)</span></code> returns the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> encoding (or an alias),
+and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbstowcs()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wcstombs()</span></code> functions uses the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ISO-8859-1</span></code> encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p>the current locale encoding.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawFree" title="PyMem_RawFree"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawFree()</span></code></a> to free the memory. If size is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, write
+the number of wide characters excluding the null character into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*size</span></code></p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> on decoding error or memory allocation error. If <em>size</em> is
+not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*size</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(size_t)-1</span></code> on memory error or set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(size_t)-2</span></code> on decoding error.</p>
+<p>Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C
+library.</p>
+<p>Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a> function to encode the character string
+back to a byte string.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the UTF-8 mode.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_EncodeLocale">
+char* <code class="descname">Py_EncodeLocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *text</em>, size_t<em> *error_pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode a wide character string to the locale encoding with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#surrogateescape"><span class="std std-ref">surrogateescape error handler</span></a>: surrogate characters
+in the range U+DC80..U+DCFF are converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF.</p>
+<p>Encoding, highest priority to lowest priority:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> on macOS and Android;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> if the Python UTF-8 mode is enabled;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nl_langinfo(CODESET)</span></code> returns the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> encoding (or an alias),
+and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbstowcs()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wcstombs()</span></code> functions uses the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ISO-8859-1</span></code> encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p>the current locale encoding.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The function uses the UTF-8 encoding in the Python UTF-8 mode.</p>
+<p>Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a>
+to free the memory. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> on encoding error or memory allocation
+error</p>
+<p>If error_pos is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*error_pos</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(size_t)-1</span></code> on
+success,  or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding error.</p>
+<p>Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> function to decode the bytes string back
+to a wide character string.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the UTF-8 mode.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault" title="PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale" title="PyUnicode_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function now supports the UTF-8 mode.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="system-functions">
+<span id="systemfunctions"></span><h1>System Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#system-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>These are utility functions that make functionality from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module
+accessible to C code.  They all work with the current interpreter thread’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module’s dict, which is contained in the internal thread state structure.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_GetObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PySys_GetObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_GetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the object <em>name</em> from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module or <em>NULL</em> if it does
+not exist, without setting an exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_SetObject">
+int <code class="descname">PySys_SetObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *name</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_SetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>name</em> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module to <em>v</em> unless <em>v</em> is <em>NULL</em>, in which
+case <em>name</em> is deleted from the sys module. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_ResetWarnOptions">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_ResetWarnOptions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_ResetWarnOptions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.warnoptions" title="sys.warnoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code></a> to an empty list. This function may be
+called prior to <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_AddWarnOption">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_AddWarnOption</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_AddWarnOption" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append <em>s</em> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.warnoptions" title="sys.warnoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code></a>. This function must be called prior
+to <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> in order to affect the warnings filter list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append <em>unicode</em> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.warnoptions" title="sys.warnoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note: this function is not currently usable from outside the CPython
+implementation, as it must be called prior to the implicit import of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> in <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> to be effective, but can’t be
+called until enough of the runtime has been initialized to permit the
+creation of Unicode objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_SetPath">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_SetPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_SetPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> to a list object of paths found in <em>path</em> which should
+be a list of paths separated with the platform’s search path delimiter
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code> on Unix, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;</span></code> on Windows).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_WriteStdout">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_WriteStdout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_WriteStdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the output string described by <em>format</em> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>.  No
+exceptions are raised, even if truncation occurs (see below).</p>
+<p><em>format</em> should limit the total size of the formatted output string to
+1000 bytes or less – after 1000 bytes, the output string is truncated.
+In particular, this means that no unrestricted “%s” formats should occur;
+these should be limited using “%.&lt;N&gt;s” where &lt;N&gt; is a decimal number
+calculated so that &lt;N&gt; plus the maximum size of other formatted text does not
+exceed 1000 bytes.  Also watch out for “%f”, which can print hundreds of
+digits for very large numbers.</p>
+<p>If a problem occurs, or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> is unset, the formatted message
+is written to the real (C level) <em>stdout</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_WriteStderr">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_WriteStderr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_WriteStderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>As <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySys_WriteStdout" title="PySys_WriteStdout"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_WriteStdout()</span></code></a>, but write to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> or <em>stderr</em>
+instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_FormatStdout">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_FormatStdout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_FormatStdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function similar to PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using
+<a class="reference internal" href="unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormatV" title="PyUnicode_FromFormatV"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormatV()</span></code></a> and don’t truncate the message to an
+arbitrary length.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_FormatStderr">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_FormatStderr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_FormatStderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>As <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySys_FormatStdout" title="PySys_FormatStdout"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_FormatStdout()</span></code></a>, but write to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> or <em>stderr</em>
+instead.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_AddXOption">
+void <code class="descname">PySys_AddXOption</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_AddXOption" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse <em>s</em> as a set of <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> options and add them to the current
+options mapping as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySys_GetXOptions" title="PySys_GetXOptions"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_GetXOptions()</span></code></a>. This function
+may be called prior to <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PySys_GetXOptions">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PySys_GetXOptions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySys_GetXOptions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the current dictionary of <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> options, similarly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._xoptions" title="sys._xoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._xoptions</span></code></a>.  On error, <em>NULL</em> is returned and an exception is
+set.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="process-control">
+<span id="processcontrol"></span><h1>Process Control<a class="headerlink" href="#process-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_FatalError">
+void <code class="descname">Py_FatalError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_FatalError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Print a fatal error message and kill the process.  No cleanup is performed.
+This function should only be invoked when a condition is detected that would
+make it dangerous to continue using the Python interpreter; e.g., when the
+object administration appears to be corrupted.  On Unix, the standard C library
+function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abort()</span></code> is called which will attempt to produce a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">core</span></code>
+file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_Exit">
+void <code class="descname">Py_Exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_Exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Exit the current process.  This calls <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> and then calls the
+standard C library function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit(status)</span></code>.  If <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a>
+indicates an error, the exit status is set to 120.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Errors from finalization no longer ignored.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_AtExit">
+int <code class="descname">Py_AtExit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void (<em>*func</em>)()<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_AtExit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Register a cleanup function to be called by <a class="reference internal" href="init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a>.  The cleanup
+function will be called with no arguments and should return no value.  At most
+32 cleanup functions can be registered.  When the registration is successful,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_AtExit" title="Py_AtExit"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_AtExit()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>; on failure, it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.  The cleanup
+function registered last is called first. Each cleanup function will be called
+at most once.  Since Python’s internal finalization will have completed before
+the cleanup function, no Python APIs should be called by <em>func</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Operating System Utilities</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#system-functions">System Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#process-control">Process Control</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="utilities.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Utilities</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="import.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Importing Modules</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/sys.rst"
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/tuple.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/tuple.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c56014f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/tuple.html
@@ -0,0 +1,459 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Tuple Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="List Objects" href="list.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Unicode Objects and Codecs" href="unicode.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
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+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="list.html" title="List Objects"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python/C API Reference Manual</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+         |
+    </li>
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+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="tuple-objects">
+<span id="tupleobjects"></span><h1>Tuple Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#tuple-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyTupleObject">
+<code class="descname">PyTupleObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTupleObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represents a Python tuple object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyTuple_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python tuple type; it
+is the same object as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyTuple_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of the tuple
+type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyTuple_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>p</em> is a tuple object, but not an instance of a subtype of the
+tuple type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTuple_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>Py_ssize_t<em> len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new tuple object of size <em>len</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_Pack">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTuple_Pack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>Py_ssize_t<em> n</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_Pack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new tuple object of size <em>n</em>, or <em>NULL</em> on failure. The tuple values
+are initialized to the subsequent <em>n</em> C arguments pointing to Python objects.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_Pack(2,</span> <span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue(&quot;(OO)&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_Size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTuple_Size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_Size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Take a pointer to a tuple object, and return the size of that tuple.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_GET_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTuple_GET_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_GET_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of the tuple <em>p</em>, which must be non-<em>NULL</em> and point to a tuple;
+no error checking is performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_GetItem">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTuple_GetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_GetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the object at position <em>pos</em> in the tuple pointed to by <em>p</em>.  If <em>pos</em> is
+out of bounds, return <em>NULL</em> and sets an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_GET_ITEM">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTuple_GET_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_GET_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTuple_GetItem" title="PyTuple_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_GetItem()</span></code></a>, but does no checking of its arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_GetSlice">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTuple_GetSlice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> low</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> high</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_GetSlice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Take a slice of the tuple pointed to by <em>p</em> from <em>low</em> to <em>high</em> and return it
+as a new tuple.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_SetItem">
+int <code class="descname">PyTuple_SetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> pos</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a reference to object <em>o</em> at position <em>pos</em> of the tuple pointed to by
+<em>p</em>. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function “steals” a reference to <em>o</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_SET_ITEM">
+void <code class="descname">PyTuple_SET_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> pos</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_SET_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SetItem()</span></code></a>, but does no error checking, and should <em>only</em> be
+used to fill in brand new tuples.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function “steals” a reference to <em>o</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c._PyTuple_Resize">
+int <code class="descname">_PyTuple_Resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> newsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c._PyTuple_Resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Can be used to resize a tuple.  <em>newsize</em> will be the new length of the tuple.
+Because tuples are <em>supposed</em> to be immutable, this should only be used if there
+is only one reference to the object.  Do <em>not</em> use this if the tuple may already
+be known to some other part of the code.  The tuple will always grow or shrink
+at the end.  Think of this as destroying the old tuple and creating a new one,
+only more efficiently.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success. Client code should never
+assume that the resulting value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*p</span></code> will be the same as before calling
+this function. If the object referenced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*p</span></code> is replaced, the original
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*p</span></code> is destroyed.  On failure, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*p</span></code> to <em>NULL</em>, and
+raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyTuple_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PyTuple_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTuple_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="struct-sequence-objects">
+<h1>Struct Sequence Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#struct-sequence-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Struct sequence objects are the C equivalent of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a>
+objects, i.e. a sequence whose items can also be accessed through attributes.
+To create a struct sequence, you first have to create a specific struct sequence
+type.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_NewType">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_NewType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_Desc" title="PyStructSequence_Desc">PyStructSequence_Desc</a><em> *desc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_NewType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new struct sequence type from the data in <em>desc</em>, described below. Instances
+of the resulting type can be created with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_New" title="PyStructSequence_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_New()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_InitType">
+void <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_InitType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_Desc" title="PyStructSequence_Desc">PyStructSequence_Desc</a><em> *desc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_InitType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initializes a struct sequence type <em>type</em> from <em>desc</em> in place.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_InitType2">
+int <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_InitType2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_Desc" title="PyStructSequence_Desc">PyStructSequence_Desc</a><em> *desc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_InitType2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_InitType</span></code>, but returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+failure.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_Desc">
+<code class="descname">PyStructSequence_Desc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_Desc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the meta information of a struct sequence type to create.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>name of the struct sequence type</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>pointer to docstring for the type
+or NULL to omit</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_Field</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>pointer to <em>NULL</em>-terminated array
+with field names of the new type</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n_in_sequence</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>number of fields visible to the
+Python side (if used as tuple)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_Field">
+<code class="descname">PyStructSequence_Field</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_Field" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Describes a field of a struct sequence. As a struct sequence is modeled as a
+tuple, all fields are typed as <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.  The index in the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields</span></code> array of the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_Desc" title="PyStructSequence_Desc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_Desc</span></code></a> determines which
+field of the struct sequence is described.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>name for the field or <em>NULL</em> to end
+the list of named fields, set to
+PyStructSequence_UnnamedField to
+leave unnamed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>field docstring or <em>NULL</em> to omit</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_UnnamedField">
+char* <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_UnnamedField</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_UnnamedField" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special value for a field name to leave it unnamed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Creates an instance of <em>type</em>, which must have been created with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_NewType" title="PyStructSequence_NewType"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_NewType()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_GetItem">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_GetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_GetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the object at position <em>pos</em> in the struct sequence pointed to by <em>p</em>.
+No bounds checking is performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Macro equivalent of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_GetItem" title="PyStructSequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_GetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_SetItem">
+void <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_SetItem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> pos</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_SetItem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the field at index <em>pos</em> of the struct sequence <em>p</em> to value <em>o</em>.  Like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTuple_SET_ITEM" title="PyTuple_SET_ITEM"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SET_ITEM()</span></code></a>, this should only be used to fill in brand new
+instances.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function “steals” a reference to <em>o</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM">
+void <code class="descname">PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *p</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *pos</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Macro equivalent of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyStructSequence_SetItem" title="PyStructSequence_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_SetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function “steals” a reference to <em>o</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Tuple Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#struct-sequence-objects">Struct Sequence Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unicode.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Unicode Objects and Codecs</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="list.html"
+                        title="next chapter">List Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/tuple.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/type.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/type.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbea2c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/type.html
@@ -0,0 +1,317 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Type Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concrete.html" accesskey="U">Concrete Objects Layer</a> &#187;</li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="type-objects">
+<span id="typeobjects"></span><h1>Type Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#type-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject">
+<code class="descname">PyTypeObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyType_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyType_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the type object for type objects; it is the same object as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> in the Python layer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyType_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a type object, including instances of types
+derived from the standard type object.  Return false in all other cases.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyType_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a type object, but not a subtype of the
+standard type object.  Return false in all other cases.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_ClearCache">
+unsigned int <code class="descname">PyType_ClearCache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_ClearCache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the internal lookup cache. Return the current version tag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_GetFlags">
+unsigned long <code class="descname">PyType_GetFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a>*<em> type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_GetFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags" title="PyTypeObject.tp_flags"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_flags</span></code></a> member of <em>type</em>. This function is primarily
+meant for use with <cite>Py_LIMITED_API</cite>; the individual flag bits are
+guaranteed to be stable across Python releases, but access to
+<a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags" title="PyTypeObject.tp_flags"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_flags</span></code></a> itself is not part of the limited API.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The return type is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_Modified">
+void <code class="descname">PyType_Modified</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_Modified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalidate the internal lookup cache for the type and all of its
+subtypes.  This function must be called after any manual
+modification of the attributes or base classes of the type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_HasFeature">
+int <code class="descname">PyType_HasFeature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *o</em>, int<em> feature</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_HasFeature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the type object <em>o</em> sets the feature <em>feature</em>.  Type features
+are denoted by single bit flags.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_IS_GC">
+int <code class="descname">PyType_IS_GC</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_IS_GC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle detector; this
+tests the type flag <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_IsSubtype">
+int <code class="descname">PyType_IsSubtype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *a</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_IsSubtype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>a</em> is a subtype of <em>b</em>.</p>
+<p>This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#class.__subclasscheck__" title="class.__subclasscheck__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasscheck__()</span></code></a> is not called on <em>b</em>.  Call
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_IsSubclass" title="PyObject_IsSubclass"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsSubclass()</span></code></a> to do the same check that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a>
+would do.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_GenericAlloc">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyType_GenericAlloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> nitems</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_GenericAlloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Generic handler for the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a> slot of a type object.  Use
+Python’s default memory allocation mechanism to allocate a new instance and
+initialize all its contents to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_GenericNew">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyType_GenericNew</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_GenericNew" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Generic handler for the <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> slot of a type object.  Create a
+new instance using the type’s <a class="reference internal" href="typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a> slot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_Ready">
+int <code class="descname">PyType_Ready</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_Ready" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finalize a type object.  This should be called on all type objects to finish
+their initialization.  This function is responsible for adding inherited slots
+from a type’s base class.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success, or return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and sets an
+exception on error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_FromSpec">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyType_FromSpec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyType_Spec<em> *spec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_FromSpec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Creates and returns a heap type object from the <em>spec</em> passed to the function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_FromSpecWithBases">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyType_FromSpecWithBases</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>PyType_Spec<em> *spec</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *bases</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_FromSpecWithBases" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Creates and returns a heap type object from the <em>spec</em>. In addition to that,
+the created heap type contains all types contained by the <em>bases</em> tuple as base
+types. This allows the caller to reference other heap types as base types.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyType_GetSlot">
+void* <code class="descname">PyType_GetSlot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a><em> *type</em>, int<em> slot</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyType_GetSlot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the function pointer stored in the given slot. If the
+result is <em>NULL</em>, this indicates that either the slot is <em>NULL</em>,
+or that the function was called with invalid parameters.
+Callers will typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate
+function type.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="concrete.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Concrete Objects Layer</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="none.html"
+                        title="next chapter">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> Object</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/c-api/type.rst"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/typeobj.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/typeobj.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c511ef0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/typeobj.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1678 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Type Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="type-objects">
+<span id="type-structs"></span><h1>Type Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#type-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system is the
+structure that defines a new type: the <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> structure.  Type
+objects can be handled using any of the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_*()</span></code> or
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_*()</span></code> functions, but do not offer much that’s interesting to most
+Python applications. These objects are fundamental to how objects behave, so
+they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any extension module
+that implements new types.</p>
+<p>Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types. The reason
+for the size is that each type object stores a large number of values, mostly C
+function pointers, each of which implements a small part of the type’s
+functionality.  The fields of the type object are examined in detail in this
+section.  The fields will be described in the order in which they occur in the
+structure.</p>
+<p>Typedefs: unaryfunc, binaryfunc, ternaryfunc, inquiry, intargfunc,
+intintargfunc, intobjargproc, intintobjargproc, objobjargproc, destructor,
+freefunc, printfunc, getattrfunc, getattrofunc, setattrfunc, setattrofunc,
+reprfunc, hashfunc</p>
+<p>The structure definition for <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> can be found in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/object.h</span></code>.  For convenience of reference, this repeats the
+definition found there:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">_typeobject</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_VAR_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_name</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For printing, in format &quot;&lt;module&gt;.&lt;name&gt;&quot; */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">tp_basicsize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tp_itemsize</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For allocation */</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Methods to implement standard operations */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">destructor</span> <span class="n">tp_dealloc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">printfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_print</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">getattrfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_getattr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">setattrfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_setattr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyAsyncMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_async</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)</span>
+<span class="cm">                                    or tp_reserved (Python 3) */</span>
+    <span class="n">reprfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_repr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Method suites for standard classes */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">PyNumberMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PySequenceMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_sequence</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyMappingMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_mapping</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">hashfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_hash</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">ternaryfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_call</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">reprfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_str</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">getattrofunc</span> <span class="n">tp_getattro</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">setattrofunc</span> <span class="n">tp_setattro</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyBufferProcs</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_buffer</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */</span>
+    <span class="kt">unsigned</span> <span class="kt">long</span> <span class="n">tp_flags</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Documentation string */</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* call function for all accessible objects */</span>
+    <span class="n">traverseproc</span> <span class="n">tp_traverse</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* delete references to contained objects */</span>
+    <span class="n">inquiry</span> <span class="n">tp_clear</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* rich comparisons */</span>
+    <span class="n">richcmpfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_richcompare</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* weak reference enabler */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">tp_weaklistoffset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Iterators */</span>
+    <span class="n">getiterfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_iter</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">iternextfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_iternext</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_members</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">_typeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_base</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_dict</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">descrgetfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_descr_get</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">descrsetfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_descr_set</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">tp_dictoffset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">initproc</span> <span class="n">tp_init</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">allocfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">newfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_new</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">freefunc</span> <span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Low-level free-memory routine */</span>
+    <span class="n">inquiry</span> <span class="n">tp_is_gc</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For PyObject_IS_GC */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_bases</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_mro</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* method resolution order */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_cache</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_subclasses</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_weaklist</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">destructor</span> <span class="n">tp_del</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */</span>
+    <span class="kt">unsigned</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">tp_version_tag</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">destructor</span> <span class="n">tp_finalize</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The type object structure extends the <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyVarObject" title="PyVarObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyVarObject</span></code></a> structure. The
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> field is used for dynamic types (created by  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type_new()</span></code>,
+usually called from a class statement). Note that <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Type" title="PyType_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Type</span></code></a> (the
+metatype) initializes <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a>, which means that its instances (i.e.
+type objects) <em>must</em> have the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> field.</p>
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyObject._ob_next">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject._ob_next</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject._ob_next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyObject._ob_prev">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject._ob_prev</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject._ob_prev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These fields are only present when the macro <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TRACE_REFS</span></code> is defined.
+Their initialization to <em>NULL</em> is taken care of by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD_INIT</span></code>
+macro.  For statically allocated objects, these fields always remain <em>NULL</em>.
+For dynamically allocated objects, these two fields are used to link the object
+into a doubly-linked list of <em>all</em> live objects on the heap.  This could be used
+for various debugging purposes; currently the only use is to print the objects
+that are still alive at the end of a run when the environment variable
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDUMPREFS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDUMPREFS</span></code></a> is set.</p>
+<p>These fields are not inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyObject.ob_refcnt">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyObject.ob_refcnt</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject.ob_refcnt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the type object’s reference count, initialized to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> by the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD_INIT</span></code> macro.  Note that for statically allocated type objects,
+the type’s instances (objects whose <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> points back to the type) do
+<em>not</em> count as references.  But for dynamically allocated type objects, the
+instances <em>do</em> count as references.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyObject.ob_type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyObject.ob_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyObject.ob_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the type’s type, in other words its metatype.  It is initialized by the
+argument to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD_INIT</span></code> macro, and its value should normally be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;PyType_Type</span></code>.  However, for dynamically loadable extension modules that must
+be usable on Windows (at least), the compiler complains that this is not a valid
+initializer.  Therefore, the convention is to pass <em>NULL</em> to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD_INIT</span></code> macro and to initialize this field explicitly at the
+start of the module’s initialization function, before doing anything else.  This
+is typically done like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Foo_Type</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">ob_type</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">PyType_Type</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This should be done before any instances of the type are created.
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> checks if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> is <em>NULL</em>, and if so,
+initializes it to the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> field of the base class.
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> will not change this field if it is non-zero.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyVarObject.ob_size">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyVarObject.ob_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyVarObject.ob_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For statically allocated type objects, this should be initialized to zero.  For
+dynamically allocated type objects, this field has a special internal meaning.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_name">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type. For types
+that are accessible as module globals, the string should be the full module
+name, followed by a dot, followed by the type name; for built-in types, it
+should be just the type name.  If the module is a submodule of a package, the
+full package name is part of the full module name.  For example, a type named
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T</span></code> defined in module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code> in subpackage <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Q</span></code> in package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code>
+should have the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_name" title="PyTypeObject.tp_name"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_name</span></code></a> initializer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;P.Q.M.T&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For dynamically allocated type objects, this should just be the type name, and
+the module name explicitly stored in the type dict as the value for key
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__module__'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For statically allocated type objects, the tp_name field should contain a dot.
+Everything before the last dot is made accessible as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code>
+attribute, and everything after the last dot is made accessible as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>If no dot is present, the entire <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_name" title="PyTypeObject.tp_name"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_name</span></code></a> field is made accessible as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> attribute, and the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute is undefined
+(unless explicitly set in the dictionary, as explained above).  This means your
+type will be impossible to pickle.  Additionally, it will not be listed in
+module documentations created with pydoc.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of the type.</p>
+<p>There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances have a zero
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> field, types with variable-length instances have a non-zero
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> field.  For a type with fixed-length instances, all
+instances have the same size, given in <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have an
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> field, and the instance size is <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> plus N
+times <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a>, where N is the “length” of the object.  The value of
+N is typically stored in the instance’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> field.  There are
+exceptions:  for example, ints use a negative <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> to indicate a
+negative number, and N is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(ob_size)</span></code> there.  Also, the presence of an
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> field in the instance layout doesn’t mean that the instance
+structure is variable-length (for example, the structure for the list type has
+fixed-length instances, yet those instances have a meaningful <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code>
+field).</p>
+<p>The basic size includes the fields in the instance declared by the macro
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD" title="PyObject_HEAD"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject_VAR_HEAD" title="PyObject_VAR_HEAD"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_VAR_HEAD</span></code></a> (whichever is used to
+declare the instance struct) and this in turn includes the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ob_prev</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ob_next</span></code> fields if they are present.  This means that the only correct
+way to get an initializer for the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> is to use the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof</span></code> operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.
+The basic size does not include the GC header size.</p>
+<p>These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.  If the base type has a
+non-zero <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a>, it is generally not safe to set
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> to a different non-zero value in a subtype (though this
+depends on the implementation of the base type).</p>
+<p>A note about alignment: if the variable items require a particular alignment,
+this should be taken care of by the value of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a>.  Example:
+suppose a type implements an array of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>. <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(double)</span></code>. It is the programmer’s responsibility that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> is a multiple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(double)</span></code> (assuming this is the
+alignment requirement for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc">
+destructor <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A pointer to the instance destructor function.  This function must be defined
+unless the type guarantees that its instances will never be deallocated (as is
+the case for the singletons <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The destructor function is called by the <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> macros when the new reference count is zero.  At this point,
+the instance is still in existence, but there are no references to it.  The
+destructor function should free all references which the instance owns, free all
+memory buffers owned by the instance (using the freeing function corresponding
+to the allocation function used to allocate the buffer), and finally (as its
+last action) call the type’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free" title="PyTypeObject.tp_free"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_free</span></code></a> function.  If the type is not
+subtypable (doesn’t have the <a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE" title="Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span></code></a> flag bit set), it is
+permissible to call the object deallocator directly instead of via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free" title="PyTypeObject.tp_free"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_free</span></code></a>.  The object deallocator should be the one used to allocate the
+instance; this is normally <a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_Del" title="PyObject_Del"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Del()</span></code></a> if the instance was allocated
+using <a class="reference internal" href="allocation.html#c.PyObject_New" title="PyObject_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_New()</span></code></a> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_VarNew()</span></code>, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Del" title="PyObject_GC_Del"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Del()</span></code></a> if the instance was allocated using
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_New" title="PyObject_GC_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_New()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_NewVar" title="PyObject_GC_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_NewVar()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_print">
+printfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_print</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reserved slot, formerly used for print formatting in Python 2.x.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr">
+getattrfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_getattr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.</p>
+<p>This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a function
+that acts the same as the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code></a> function, but taking a C string
+instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name.  The signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="nf">tp_getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">attr_name</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes together with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code></a>: a subtype
+inherits both <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code></a> from its base type when
+the subtype’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code></a> are both <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr">
+setattrfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_setattr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.</p>
+<p>This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a function
+that acts the same as the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a> function, but taking a C string
+instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name.  The signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="nf">tp_setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">attr_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>v</em> argument is set to <em>NULL</em> to delete the attribute.
+This field is inherited by subtypes together with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a>: a subtype
+inherits both <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a> from its base type when
+the subtype’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a> are both <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.tp_as_async">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyAsyncMethods" title="PyAsyncMethods">PyAsyncMethods</a>* <code class="descname">tp_as_async</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.tp_as_async" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+objects which implement <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a>
+protocols at the C-level.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#async-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Async Object Structures</span></a> for details.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Formerly known as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_compare</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_reserved</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr">
+reprfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_repr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The signature is the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a>; it must return a string
+or a Unicode object.  Ideally, this function should return a string that, when
+passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>, given a suitable environment, returns an object with the
+same value.  If this is not feasible, it should return a string starting with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> and ending with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code> from which both the type and the value of the
+object can be deduced.</p>
+<p>When this field is not set, a string of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;%s</span> <span class="pre">object</span> <span class="pre">at</span> <span class="pre">%p&gt;</span></code> is
+returned, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> is replaced by the type name, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%p</span></code> by the object’s
+memory address.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.tp_as_number">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyNumberMethods" title="PyNumberMethods">PyNumberMethods</a>* <code class="descname">tp_as_number</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.tp_as_number" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+objects which implement the number protocol.  These fields are documented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#number-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Number Object Structures</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_number</span></code> field is not inherited, but the contained fields are
+inherited individually.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.tp_as_sequence">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequenceMethods" title="PySequenceMethods">PySequenceMethods</a>* <code class="descname">tp_as_sequence</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.tp_as_sequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+objects which implement the sequence protocol.  These fields are documented
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#sequence-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Sequence Object Structures</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_sequence</span></code> field is not inherited, but the contained fields
+are inherited individually.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.tp_as_mapping">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMappingMethods" title="PyMappingMethods">PyMappingMethods</a>* <code class="descname">tp_as_mapping</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.tp_as_mapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to
+objects which implement the mapping protocol.  These fields are documented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Mapping Object Structures</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_mapping</span></code> field is not inherited, but the contained fields
+are inherited individually.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash">
+hashfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_hash</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The signature is the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Hash" title="PyObject_Hash"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Hash()</span></code></a>; it must return a
+value of the type Py_hash_t.  The value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> should not be returned as a
+normal return value; when an error occurs during the computation of the hash
+value, the function should set an exception and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This field can be set explicitly to <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented" title="PyObject_HashNotImplemented"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HashNotImplemented()</span></code></a> to
+block inheritance of the hash method from a parent type. This is interpreted
+as the equivalent of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> at the Python level, causing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(o,</span> <span class="pre">collections.Hashable)</span></code> to correctly return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. Note
+that the converse is also true - setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> on a class at
+the Python level will result in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code> slot being set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented" title="PyObject_HashNotImplemented"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HashNotImplemented()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When this field is not set, an attempt to take the hash of the
+object raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes together with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code></a>: a subtype inherits both of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash" title="PyTypeObject.tp_hash"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code></a>, when the subtype’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash" title="PyTypeObject.tp_hash"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code></a> are both <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_call">
+ternaryfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_call</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the object.  This
+should be <em>NULL</em> if the object is not callable.  The signature is the same as
+for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Call" title="PyObject_Call"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Call()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_str">
+reprfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_str</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_str" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in operation
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>.  (Note that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> is a type now, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> calls the
+constructor for that type.  This constructor calls <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Str" title="PyObject_Str"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Str()</span></code></a> to do
+the actual work, and <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Str" title="PyObject_Str"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Str()</span></code></a> will call this handler.)</p>
+<p>The signature is the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Str" title="PyObject_Str"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Str()</span></code></a>; it must return a string
+or a Unicode object.  This function should return a “friendly” string
+representation of the object, as this is the representation that will be used,
+among other things, by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>When this field is not set, <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a> is called to return a string
+representation.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro">
+getattrofunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_getattro</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.</p>
+<p>The signature is the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetAttr" title="PyObject_GetAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetAttr()</span></code></a>.  It is usually
+convenient to set this field to <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GenericGetAttr" title="PyObject_GenericGetAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GenericGetAttr()</span></code></a>, which
+implements the normal way of looking for object attributes.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes together with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattr</span></code></a>: a subtype
+inherits both <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code></a> from its base type when
+the subtype’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code></a> are both <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro">
+setattrofunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_setattro</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.</p>
+<p>The signature is the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetAttr" title="PyObject_SetAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetAttr()</span></code></a>, but setting
+<em>v</em> to <em>NULL</em> to delete an attribute must be supported.  It is usually
+convenient to set this field to <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GenericSetAttr" title="PyObject_GenericSetAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GenericSetAttr()</span></code></a>, which
+implements the normal way of setting object attributes.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes together with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattr</span></code></a>: a subtype
+inherits both <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a> from its base type when
+the subtype’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattr</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a> are both <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBufferProcs" title="PyBufferProcs">PyBufferProcs</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects
+which implement the buffer interface.  These fields are documented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#buffer-structs"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Object Structures</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer" title="PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_buffer</span></code></a> field is not inherited, but the contained fields are
+inherited individually.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags">
+unsigned long <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_flags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This field is a bit mask of various flags.  Some flags indicate variant
+semantics for certain situations; others are used to indicate that certain
+fields in the type object (or in the extension structures referenced via
+<code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_number</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_sequence</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_mapping</span></code>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer" title="PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_buffer</span></code></a>) that were historically not always present are valid; if
+such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must not be accessed and
+must be considered to have a zero or <em>NULL</em> value instead.</p>
+<p>Inheritance of this field is complicated.  Most flag bits are inherited
+individually, i.e. if the base type has a flag bit set, the subtype inherits
+this flag bit.  The flag bits that pertain to extension structures are strictly
+inherited if the extension structure is inherited, i.e. the base type’s value of
+the flag bit is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension
+structure.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit is inherited together with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> fields, i.e. if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit is clear in the subtype and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> fields in the subtype exist and have
+<em>NULL</em> values.</p>
+<p>The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed together using
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code> operator to form the value of the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags" title="PyTypeObject.tp_flags"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_flags</span></code></a> field.  The macro
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_HasFeature" title="PyType_HasFeature"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_HasFeature()</span></code></a> takes a type and a flags value, <em>tp</em> and <em>f</em>, and
+checks whether <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp-&gt;tp_flags</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">f</span></code> is non-zero.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on the heap.  In this
+case, the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> field of its instances is considered a reference to
+the type, and the type object is INCREF’ed when a new instance is created, and
+DECREF’ed when an instance is destroyed (this does not apply to instances of
+subtypes; only the type referenced by the instance’s ob_type gets INCREF’ed or
+DECREF’ed).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This bit is set when the type can be used as the base type of another type.  If
+this bit is clear, the type cannot be subtyped (similar to a “final” class in
+Java).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_READY">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_READY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_READY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This bit is set when the type object has been fully initialized by
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_READYING">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_READYING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_READYING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This bit is set while <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> is in the process of initializing
+the type object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection.  If this bit
+is set, instances must be created using <a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_New" title="PyObject_GC_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_New()</span></code></a> and
+destroyed using <a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Del" title="PyObject_GC_Del"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Del()</span></code></a>.  More information in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#supporting-cycle-detection"><span class="std std-ref">Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection</span></a>.  This bit also implies that the
+GC-related fields <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> are present in
+the type object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the existence of certain
+fields in the type object and its extension structures. Currently, it includes
+the following bits: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These flags are used by functions such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="long.html#c.PyLong_Check" title="PyLong_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_Check()</span></code></a> to quickly determine if a type is a subclass
+of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster than a generic
+check, like <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_IsInstance" title="PyObject_IsInstance"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsInstance()</span></code></a>. Custom types that inherit
+from built-ins should have their <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags" title="PyTypeObject.tp_flags"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_flags</span></code></a>
+set appropriately, or the code that interacts with such types
+will behave differently depending on what kind of check is used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE">
+<code class="descname">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This bit is set when the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_finalize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_finalize</span></code></a> slot is present in the
+type structure.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_doc">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_doc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_doc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the docstring for this
+type object.  This is exposed as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attribute on the type and
+instances of the type.</p>
+<p>This field is <em>not</em> inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse">
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.traverseproc" title="traverseproc">traverseproc</a> <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_traverse</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage collector.  This is
+only used if the <a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit is set.  More information
+about Python’s garbage collection scheme can be found in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#supporting-cycle-detection"><span class="std std-ref">Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> pointer is used by the garbage collector to detect
+reference cycles. A typical implementation of a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> function
+simply calls <a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a> on each of the instance’s members that are Python
+objects.  For example, this is function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local_traverse()</span></code> from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> extension module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">local_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">localobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a> is called only on those members that can participate
+in reference cycles.  Although there is also a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self-&gt;key</span></code> member, it can only
+be <em>NULL</em> or a Python string and therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part of a cycle, as a
+debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway just so the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.get_referents" title="gc.get_referents"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_referents()</span></code></a> function will include it.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a> requires the <em>visit</em> and <em>arg</em> parameters to
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local_traverse()</span></code> to have these specific names; don’t name them just
+anything.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes together with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit: the flag bit, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in
+the subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear">
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.inquiry" title="inquiry">inquiry</a> <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_clear</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector. This is only
+used if the <a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit is set.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> member function is used to break reference cycles in cyclic
+garbage detected by the garbage collector.  Taken together, all <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a>
+functions in the system must combine to break all reference cycles.  This is
+subtle, and if in any doubt supply a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> function.  For example,
+the tuple type does not implement a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> function, because it’s
+possible to prove that no reference cycle can be composed entirely of tuples.
+Therefore the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> functions of other types must be sufficient to
+break any cycle containing a tuple.  This isn’t immediately obvious, and there’s
+rarely a good reason to avoid implementing <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Implementations of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> should drop the instance’s references to
+those of its members that may be Python objects, and set its pointers to those
+members to <em>NULL</em>, as in the following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">local_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">localobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> macro should be used, because clearing references is
+delicate:  the reference to the contained object must not be decremented until
+after the pointer to the contained object is set to <em>NULL</em>.  This is because
+decrementing the reference count may cause the contained object to become trash,
+triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include invoking arbitrary
+Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref callbacks, associated with the
+contained object). If it’s possible for such code to reference <em>self</em> again,
+it’s important that the pointer to the contained object be <em>NULL</em> at that time,
+so that <em>self</em> knows the contained object can no longer be used.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> macro performs the operations in a safe order.</p>
+<p>Because the goal of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> functions is to break reference cycles,
+it’s not necessary to clear contained objects like Python strings or Python
+integers, which can’t participate in reference cycles. On the other hand, it may
+be convenient to clear all contained Python objects, and write the type’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> function to invoke <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>More information about Python’s garbage collection scheme can be found in
+section <a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#supporting-cycle-detection"><span class="std std-ref">Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes together with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit: the flag bit, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a> are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in
+the subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare">
+richcmpfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose signature is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*tp_richcompare(PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*a,</span> <span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*b,</span> <span class="pre">int</span> <span class="pre">op)</span></code>. The first
+parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type that is defined
+by <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The function should return the result of the comparison (usually <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_True</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_False</span></code>).  If the comparison is undefined, it must return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code>, if another error occurred it must return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> and
+set an exception condition.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you want to implement a type for which only a limited set of
+comparisons makes sense (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>, but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> and
+friends), directly raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> in the rich comparison function.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes together with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash" title="PyTypeObject.tp_hash"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code></a>:
+a subtype inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash" title="PyTypeObject.tp_hash"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code></a> when
+the subtype’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash" title="PyTypeObject.tp_hash"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code></a> are both
+<em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>The following constants are defined to be used as the third argument for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code></a> and for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompare" title="PyObject_RichCompare"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_RichCompare()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Comparison</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>VAL_A, VAL_B, int<em> op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_False</span></code> from the function, depending on the
+result of a comparison.
+VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable by C comparison operators (for example,
+they may be C ints or floats). The third argument specifies the requested
+operation, as for <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompare" title="PyObject_RichCompare"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_RichCompare()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The return value’s reference count is properly incremented.</p>
+<p>On error, sets an exception and returns NULL from the function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field is greater
+than zero and contains the offset in the instance structure of the weak
+reference list head (ignoring the GC header, if present); this offset is used by
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_ClearWeakRefs()</span></code> and the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyWeakref_*()</span></code> functions.  The
+instance structure needs to include a field of type <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> which is
+initialized to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Do not confuse this field with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist" title="PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_weaklist</span></code></a>; that is the list head for
+weak references to the type object itself.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed below. A subtype
+may override this offset; this means that the subtype uses a different weak
+reference list head than the base type.  Since the list head is always found via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_weaklistoffset</span></code></a>, this should not be a problem.</p>
+<p>When a type defined by a class statement has no <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__" title="object.__slots__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code></a> declaration,
+and none of its base types are weakly referenceable, the type is made weakly
+referenceable by adding a weak reference list head slot to the instance layout
+and setting the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_weaklistoffset</span></code></a> of that slot’s offset.</p>
+<p>When a type’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code> declaration contains a slot named
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__weakref__</span></code>, that slot becomes the weak reference list head for
+instances of the type, and the slot’s offset is stored in the type’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_weaklistoffset</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When a type’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code> declaration does not contain a slot named
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__weakref__</span></code>, the type inherits its <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_weaklistoffset</span></code></a> from its
+base type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter">
+getiterfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_iter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a function that returns an iterator for the object.  Its
+presence normally signals that the instances of this type are iterable (although
+sequences may be iterable without this function).</p>
+<p>This function has the same signature as <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetIter" title="PyObject_GetIter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetIter()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext">
+iternextfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_iternext</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an iterator.
+When the iterator is exhausted, it must return <em>NULL</em>; a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>
+exception may or may not be set.  When another error occurs, it must return
+<em>NULL</em> too.  Its presence signals that the instances of this type are
+iterators.</p>
+<p>Iterator types should also define the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a> function, and that
+function should return the iterator instance itself (not a new iterator
+instance).</p>
+<p>This function has the same signature as <a class="reference internal" href="iter.html#c.PyIter_Next" title="PyIter_Next"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyIter_Next()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods">
+struct <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef">PyMethodDef</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_methods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a static <em>NULL</em>-terminated array of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a>
+structures, declaring regular methods of this type.</p>
+<p>For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s dictionary (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dict"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dict</span></code></a> below) containing a method descriptor.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited through a
+different mechanism).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_members">
+struct <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef">PyMemberDef</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_members</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_members" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a static <em>NULL</em>-terminated array of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemberDef</span></code></a>
+structures, declaring regular data members (fields or slots) of instances of
+this type.</p>
+<p>For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s dictionary (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dict"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dict</span></code></a> below) containing a member descriptor.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited through a
+different mechanism).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_getset">
+struct <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef">PyGetSetDef</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_getset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a static <em>NULL</em>-terminated array of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code></a>
+structures, declaring computed attributes of instances of this type.</p>
+<p>For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s dictionary (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dict"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dict</span></code></a> below) containing a getset descriptor.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are inherited
+through a different mechanism).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_base">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_base</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are inherited.  At
+this level, only single inheritance is supported; multiple inheritance require
+dynamically creating a type object by calling the metatype.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously), but it defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;PyBaseObject_Type</span></code> (which to Python programmers is known as the type
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_dict</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type’s dictionary is stored here by <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field should normally be initialized to <em>NULL</em> before PyType_Ready is
+called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary containing initial attributes
+for the type.  Once <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> has initialized the type, extra
+attributes for the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don’t
+correspond to overloaded operations (like <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes defined in here
+are inherited through a different mechanism).</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>It is not safe to use <a class="reference internal" href="dict.html#c.PyDict_SetItem" title="PyDict_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_SetItem()</span></code></a> on or otherwise modify
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dict"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dict</span></code></a> with the dictionary C-API.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get">
+descrgetfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a “descriptor get” function.</p>
+<p>The function signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="nf">tp_descr_get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set">
+descrsetfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting
+a descriptor’s value.</p>
+<p>The function signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="nf">tp_descr_set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>value</em> argument is set to <em>NULL</em> to delete the value.
+This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance variables,
+this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the instances of the type of
+the instance variable dictionary; this offset is used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GenericGetAttr" title="PyObject_GenericGetAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GenericGetAttr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Do not confuse this field with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dict"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dict</span></code></a>; that is the dictionary for
+attributes of the type object itself.</p>
+<p>If the value of this field is greater than zero, it specifies the offset from
+the start of the instance structure.  If the value is less than zero, it
+specifies the offset from the <em>end</em> of the instance structure.  A negative
+offset is more expensive to use, and should only be used when the instance
+structure contains a variable-length part.  This is used for example to add an
+instance variable dictionary to subtypes of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>. Note
+that the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> field should account for the dictionary added to
+the end in that case, even though the dictionary is not included in the basic
+object layout.  On a system with a pointer size of 4 bytes,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dictoffset</span></code></a> should be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-4</span></code> to indicate that the dictionary is
+at the very end of the structure.</p>
+<p>The real dictionary offset in an instance can be computed from a negative
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dictoffset</span></code></a> as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">dictoffset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">abs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ob_size</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">tp_dictoffset</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dictoffset</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">not</span> <span class="n">aligned</span> <span class="n">on</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">:</span>
+    <span class="n">round</span> <span class="n">up</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dictoffset</span></code></a> are
+taken from the type object, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> is taken from the instance.  The
+absolute value is taken because ints use the sign of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> to
+store the sign of the number.  (There’s never a need to do this calculation
+yourself; it is done for you by <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyObject_GetDictPtr()</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed below. A subtype
+may override this offset; this means that the subtype instances store the
+dictionary at a difference offset than the base type.  Since the dictionary is
+always found via <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dictoffset</span></code></a>, this should not be a problem.</p>
+<p>When a type defined by a class statement has no <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__" title="object.__slots__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code></a> declaration,
+and none of its base types has an instance variable dictionary, a dictionary
+slot is added to the instance layout and the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dictoffset</span></code></a> is set to
+that slot’s offset.</p>
+<p>When a type defined by a class statement has a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code> declaration,
+the type inherits its <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dictoffset</span></code></a> from its base type.</p>
+<p>(Adding a slot named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> to the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code> declaration does
+not have the expected effect, it just causes confusion.  Maybe this should be
+added as a feature just like <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__weakref__</span></code> though.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_init">
+initproc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_init</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.</p>
+<p>This function corresponds to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method of classes.  Like
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>, it is possible to create an instance without calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>, and it is possible to reinitialize an instance by calling its
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method again.</p>
+<p>The function signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">tp_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the <em>args</em> and <em>kwds</em>
+arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> function, if not <em>NULL</em>, is called when an instance is
+created normally by calling its type, after the type’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> function
+has returned an instance of the type.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> function returns an
+instance of some other type that is not a subtype of the original type, no
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> function is called; if <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> returns an instance of a
+subtype of the original type, the subtype’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc">
+allocfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_alloc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.</p>
+<p>The function signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">nitems</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The purpose of this function is to separate memory allocation from memory
+initialization.  It should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate
+length for the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_refcnt</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> set to the type argument.  If
+the type’s <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> is non-zero, the object’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_size</span></code> field
+should be initialized to <em>nitems</em> and the length of the allocated memory block
+should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">nitems*tp_itemsize</span></code>, rounded up to a multiple of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(void*)</span></code>; otherwise, <em>nitems</em> is not used and the length of the block
+should be <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Do not use this function to do any other instance initialization, not even to
+allocate additional memory; that should be done by <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic subtypes
+(subtypes created by a class statement); in the latter, this field is always set
+to <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_GenericAlloc" title="PyType_GenericAlloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericAlloc()</span></code></a>, to force a standard heap allocation strategy.
+That is also the recommended value for statically defined types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_new">
+newfunc <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_new</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to an instance creation function.</p>
+<p>If this function is <em>NULL</em> for a particular type, that type cannot be called to
+create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create instances,
+like a factory function.</p>
+<p>The function signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">subtype</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The subtype argument is the type of the object being created; the <em>args</em> and
+<em>kwds</em> arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to the
+type.  Note that subtype doesn’t have to equal the type whose <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a>
+function is called; it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated
+type).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> function should call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subtype-&gt;tp_alloc(subtype,</span> <span class="pre">nitems)</span></code>
+to allocate space for the object, and then do only as much further
+initialization as is absolutely necessary.  Initialization that can safely be
+ignored or repeated should be placed in the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> handler.  A good
+rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization should take place
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a>, while for mutable types, most initialization should be
+deferred to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by static types
+whose <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base" title="PyTypeObject.tp_base"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_base</span></code></a> is <em>NULL</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;PyBaseObject_Type</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_free">
+destructor <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_free</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function.  Its signature is
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">freefunc</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An initializer that is compatible with this signature is <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyObject_Free" title="PyObject_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic subtypes
+(subtypes created by a class statement); in the latter, this field is set to a
+deallocator suitable to match <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_GenericAlloc" title="PyType_GenericAlloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericAlloc()</span></code></a> and the value of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc">
+<a class="reference internal" href="gcsupport.html#c.inquiry" title="inquiry">inquiry</a> <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.</p>
+<p>The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is collectible
+or not.  Normally, it is sufficient to look at the object’s type’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags" title="PyTypeObject.tp_flags"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_flags</span></code></a> field, and check the <a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag bit.  But
+some types have a mixture of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and
+the statically allocated instances are not collectible.  Such types should
+define this function; it should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for a collectible instance, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for a non-collectible instance. The signature is</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">tp_is_gc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The only example of this are types themselves.  The metatype,
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Type" title="PyType_Type"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Type</span></code></a>, defines this function to distinguish between statically
+and dynamically allocated types.)</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_bases">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_bases</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_bases" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tuple of base types.</p>
+<p>This is set for types created by a class statement.  It should be <em>NULL</em> for
+statically defined types.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_mro">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_mro</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_mro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the type itself
+and ending with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, in Method Resolution Order.</p>
+<p>This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize">
+destructor <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_finalize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional pointer to an instance finalization function.  Its signature is
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">destructor</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">tp_finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_finalize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_finalize</span></code></a> is set, the interpreter calls it once when
+finalizing an instance.  It is called either from the garbage
+collector (if the instance is part of an isolated reference cycle) or
+just before the object is deallocated.  Either way, it is guaranteed
+to be called before attempting to break reference cycles, ensuring
+that it finds the object in a sane state.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_finalize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_finalize</span></code></a> should not mutate the current exception status;
+therefore, a recommended way to write a non-trivial finalizer is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">local_finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">error_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">error_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">error_traceback</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Save the current exception, if any. */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyErr_Fetch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">error_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">error_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">error_traceback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* ... */</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Restore the saved exception. */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyErr_Restore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">error_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">error_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">error_traceback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For this field to be taken into account (even through inheritance),
+you must also set the <a class="reference internal" href="#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE</span></code></a> flags bit.</p>
+<p>This field is inherited by subtypes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>“Safe object finalization” (<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0442"><strong>PEP 442</strong></a>)</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_cache">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_cache</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_cache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unused.  Not inherited.  Internal use only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List of weak references to subclasses.  Not inherited.  Internal use only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object.  Not
+inherited.  Internal use only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The remaining fields are only defined if the feature test macro
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COUNT_ALLOCS</span></code> is defined, and are for internal use only. They are
+documented here for completeness.  None of these fields are inherited by
+subtypes.</p>
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_allocs">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_allocs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_allocs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of allocations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_frees">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_frees</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_frees" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of frees.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Maximum simultaneously allocated objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyTypeObject.tp_next">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyTypeObject.tp_next</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pointer to the next type object with a non-zero <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyTypeObject.tp_allocs" title="PyTypeObject.tp_allocs"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_allocs</span></code></a> field.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Also, note that, in a garbage collected Python, tp_dealloc may be called from
+any Python thread, not just the thread which created the object (if the object
+becomes part of a refcount cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage
+collection on any thread).  This is not a problem for Python API calls, since
+the thread on which tp_dealloc is called will own the Global Interpreter Lock
+(GIL). However, if the object being destroyed in turn destroys objects from some
+other C or C++ library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those
+objects on the thread which called tp_dealloc will not violate any assumptions
+of the library.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="number-object-structures">
+<span id="number-structs"></span><h1>Number Object Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#number-object-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyNumberMethods">
+<code class="descname">PyNumberMethods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyNumberMethods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to
+implement the number protocol.  Each function is used by the function of
+similar name documented in the <a class="reference internal" href="number.html#number"><span class="std std-ref">Number Protocol</span></a> section.</p>
+<p>Here is the structure definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_add</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_subtract</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_multiply</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_remainder</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_divmod</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">ternaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_power</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_negative</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_positive</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_absolute</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">inquiry</span> <span class="n">nb_bool</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_invert</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_lshift</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_rshift</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_and</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_xor</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_or</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_int</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">nb_reserved</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_float</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_add</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_subtract</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_multiply</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_remainder</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">ternaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_power</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_lshift</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_rshift</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_and</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_xor</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_or</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_floor_divide</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_true_divide</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_floor_divide</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_true_divide</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+     <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_index</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_matrix_multiply</span><span class="p">;</span>
+     <span class="n">binaryfunc</span> <span class="n">nb_inplace_matrix_multiply</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyNumberMethods</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Binary and ternary functions must check the type of all their operands,
+and implement the necessary conversions (at least one of the operands is
+an instance of the defined type).  If the operation is not defined for the
+given operands, binary and ternary functions must return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code>, if another error occurred they must return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>
+and set an exception.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_reserved</span></code> field should always be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.  It
+was previously called <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_long</span></code>, and was renamed in
+Python 3.0.1.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mapping-object-structures">
+<span id="mapping-structs"></span><h1>Mapping Object Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-object-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyMappingMethods">
+<code class="descname">PyMappingMethods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMappingMethods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to
+implement the mapping protocol.  It has three members:</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyMappingMethods.mp_length">
+lenfunc <code class="descname">PyMappingMethods.mp_length</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMappingMethods.mp_length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Size" title="PyMapping_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Size()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Size" title="PyObject_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Size()</span></code></a>, and has the same signature.  This slot may be set to
+<em>NULL</em> if the object has no defined length.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript">
+binaryfunc <code class="descname">PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetSlice" title="PySequence_GetSlice"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_GetSlice()</span></code></a>, and has the same signature as
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code>.  This slot must be filled for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Check" title="PyMapping_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Check()</span></code></a> function to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, it can be <em>NULL</em>
+otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript">
+objobjargproc <code class="descname">PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetItem()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_DelItem" title="PyObject_DelItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelItem()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetSlice()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelSlice()</span></code>.  It has the same signature as
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetItem()</span></code>, but <em>v</em> can also be set to <em>NULL</em> to delete
+an item.  If this slot is <em>NULL</em>, the object does not support item
+assignment and deletion.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sequence-object-structures">
+<span id="sequence-structs"></span><h1>Sequence Object Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#sequence-object-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods">
+<code class="descname">PySequenceMethods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to
+implement the sequence protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_length">
+lenfunc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_length</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_Size" title="PySequence_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Size()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Size" title="PyObject_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Size()</span></code></a>, and has the same signature.  It is also used for
+handling negative indices via the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_item" title="PySequenceMethods.sq_item"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sq_item</span></code></a>
+and the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item" title="PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sq_ass_item</span></code></a> slots.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_concat">
+binaryfunc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_concat</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_Concat" title="PySequence_Concat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Concat()</span></code></a> and has the same
+signature.  It is also used by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> operator, after trying the numeric
+addition via the <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_add</span></code> slot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat">
+ssizeargfunc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_Repeat" title="PySequence_Repeat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Repeat()</span></code></a> and has the same
+signature.  It is also used by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> operator, after trying numeric
+multiplication via the <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_multiply</span></code> slot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_item">
+ssizeargfunc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_item</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_GetItem()</span></code></a> and has the same
+signature.  It is also used by <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetItem()</span></code></a>, after trying
+the subscription via the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript" title="PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mp_subscript</span></code></a> slot.
+This slot must be filled for the <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_Check" title="PySequence_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Check()</span></code></a>
+function to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, it can be <em>NULL</em> otherwise.</p>
+<p>Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sq_length</span></code> slot is
+filled, it is called and the sequence length is used to compute a positive
+index which is passed to <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sq_item</span></code>.  If <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sq_length</span></code> is <em>NULL</em>,
+the index is passed as is to the function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item">
+ssizeobjargproc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetItem" title="PySequence_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_SetItem()</span></code></a> and has the same
+signature.  It is also used by <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetItem()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_DelItem" title="PyObject_DelItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelItem()</span></code></a>, after trying the item assignment and deletion
+via the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript" title="PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mp_ass_subscript</span></code></a> slot.
+This slot may be left to <em>NULL</em> if the object does not support
+item assignment and deletion.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_contains">
+objobjproc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_contains</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_contains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function may be used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_Contains" title="PySequence_Contains"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Contains()</span></code></a> and has the same
+signature.  This slot may be left to <em>NULL</em>, in this case
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Contains()</span></code> simply traverses the sequence until it
+finds a match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat">
+binaryfunc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_InPlaceConcat" title="PySequence_InPlaceConcat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_InPlaceConcat()</span></code></a> and has the same
+signature.  It should modify its first operand, and return it.  This slot
+may be left to <em>NULL</em>, in this case <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_InPlaceConcat()</span></code>
+will fall back to <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_Concat" title="PySequence_Concat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Concat()</span></code></a>.  It is also used by the
+augmented assignment <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code>, after trying numeric in-place addition
+via the <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_inplace_add</span></code> slot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat">
+ssizeargfunc <code class="descname">PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_InPlaceRepeat" title="PySequence_InPlaceRepeat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()</span></code></a> and has the same
+signature.  It should modify its first operand, and return it.  This slot
+may be left to <em>NULL</em>, in this case <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()</span></code>
+will fall back to <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_Repeat" title="PySequence_Repeat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Repeat()</span></code></a>.  It is also used by the
+augmented assignment <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*=</span></code>, after trying numeric in-place multiplication
+via the <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_inplace_multiply</span></code> slot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="buffer-object-structures">
+<span id="buffer-structs"></span><h1>Buffer Object Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#buffer-object-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyBufferProcs">
+<code class="descname">PyBufferProcs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBufferProcs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer protocol</span></a>. The protocol defines how
+an exporter object can expose its internal data to consumer objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer">
+getbufferproc <code class="descname">PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The signature of this function is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">exporter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Py_buffer</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">view</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">flags</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Handle a request to <em>exporter</em> to fill in <em>view</em> as specified by <em>flags</em>.
+Except for point (3), an implementation of this function MUST take these
+steps:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Check if the request can be met. If not, raise <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_BufferError</span></code>,
+set <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> to <em>NULL</em> and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fill in the requested fields.</p></li>
+<li><p>Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.</p></li>
+<li><p>Set <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> to <em>exporter</em> and increment <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>If <em>exporter</em> is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two main
+schemes can be used:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting object and
+sets <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> to a new reference to itself.</p></li>
+<li><p>Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object of the
+tree. Here, <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code> will be a new reference to the root
+object.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The individual fields of <em>view</em> are described in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#buffer-structure"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer structure</span></a>, the rules how an exporter
+must react to specific requests are in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#buffer-request-types"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer request types</span></a>.</p>
+<p>All memory pointed to in the <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></a> structure belongs to
+the exporter and must remain valid until there are no consumers left.
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.format" title="Py_buffer.format"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.shape" title="Py_buffer.shape"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.strides" title="Py_buffer.strides"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strides</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.suboffsets" title="Py_buffer.suboffsets"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suboffsets</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.internal" title="Py_buffer.internal"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">internal</span></code></a>
+are read-only for the consumer.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_FillInfo" title="PyBuffer_FillInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_FillInfo()</span></code></a> provides an easy way of exposing a simple
+bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a> is the interface for the consumer that
+wraps this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer">
+releasebufferproc <code class="descname">PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The signature of this function is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">exporter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Py_buffer</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">view</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer. If no resources
+need to be released, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer" title="PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer</span></code></a> may be
+<em>NULL</em>. Otherwise, a standard implementation of this function will take
+these optional steps:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the counter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, free all memory associated with <em>view</em>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The exporter MUST use the <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.internal" title="Py_buffer.internal"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">internal</span></code></a> field to keep
+track of buffer-specific resources. This field is guaranteed to remain
+constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer as the
+<em>view</em> argument.</p>
+<p>This function MUST NOT decrement <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view-&gt;obj</span></code>, since that is
+done automatically in <a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a> (this scheme is
+useful for breaking reference cycles).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a> is the interface for the consumer that
+wraps this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="async-object-structures">
+<span id="async-structs"></span><h1>Async Object Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#async-object-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyAsyncMethods">
+<code class="descname">PyAsyncMethods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAsyncMethods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This structure holds pointers to the functions required to implement
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a> objects.</p>
+<p>Here is the structure definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">am_await</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">am_aiter</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">unaryfunc</span> <span class="n">am_anext</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyAsyncMethods</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyAsyncMethods.am_await">
+unaryfunc <code class="descname">PyAsyncMethods.am_await</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_await" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The signature of this function is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">am_await</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The returned object must be an iterator, i.e. <a class="reference internal" href="iter.html#c.PyIter_Check" title="PyIter_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyIter_Check()</span></code></a> must
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for it.</p>
+<p>This slot may be set to <em>NULL</em> if an object is not an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter">
+unaryfunc <code class="descname">PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The signature of this function is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">am_aiter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Must return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object.  See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<p>This slot may be set to <em>NULL</em> if an object does not implement
+asynchronous iteration protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="member">
+<dt id="c.PyAsyncMethods.am_anext">
+unaryfunc <code class="descname">PyAsyncMethods.am_anext</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_anext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The signature of this function is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">am_anext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Must return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object.  See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a> for details.
+This slot may be set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#number-object-structures">Number Object Structures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-object-structures">Mapping Object Structures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequence-object-structures">Sequence Object Structures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#buffer-object-structures">Buffer Object Structures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#async-object-structures">Async Object Structures</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+                        title="previous chapter">Common Object Structures</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/unicode.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2020 @@
+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="unicode-objects-and-codecs">
+<span id="unicodeobjects"></span><h1>Unicode Objects and Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-objects-and-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-objects">
+<h2>Unicode Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Since the implementation of <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a> in Python 3.3, Unicode objects internally
+use a variety of representations, in order to allow handling the complete range
+of Unicode characters while staying memory efficient.  There are special cases
+for strings where all code points are below 128, 256, or 65536; otherwise, code
+points must be below 1114112 (which is the full Unicode range).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE*</span></code></a> and UTF-8 representations are created on demand and cached
+in the Unicode object.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE*</span></code></a> representation is deprecated
+and inefficient; it should be avoided in performance- or memory-sensitive
+situations.</p>
+<p>Due to the transition between the old APIs and the new APIs, Unicode objects
+can internally be in two states depending on how they were created:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>“canonical” Unicode objects are all objects created by a non-deprecated
+Unicode API.  They use the most efficient representation allowed by the
+implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p>“legacy” Unicode objects have been created through one of the deprecated
+APIs (typically <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromUnicode" title="PyUnicode_FromUnicode"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromUnicode()</span></code></a>) and only bear the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE*</span></code></a> representation; you will have to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_READY" title="PyUnicode_READY"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READY()</span></code></a> on them before calling any other API.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-type">
+<h3>Unicode Type<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode implementation in
+Python:</p>
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.Py_UCS4">
+<code class="descname">Py_UCS4</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.Py_UCS2">
+<code class="descname">Py_UCS2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UCS2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.Py_UCS1">
+<code class="descname">Py_UCS1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UCS1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These types are typedefs for unsigned integer types wide enough to contain
+characters of 32 bits, 16 bits and 8 bits, respectively.  When dealing with
+single Unicode characters, use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UCS4</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNICODE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a typedef of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code>, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit type
+depending on the platform.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>In previous versions, this was a 16-bit type or a 32-bit type depending on
+whether you selected a “narrow” or “wide” Unicode version of Python at
+build time.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyASCIIObject">
+<code class="descname">PyASCIIObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyASCIIObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyCompactUnicodeObject">
+<code class="descname">PyCompactUnicodeObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCompactUnicodeObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicodeObject">
+<code class="descname">PyUnicodeObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicodeObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These subtypes of <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> represent a Python Unicode object.  In
+almost all cases, they shouldn’t be used directly, since all API functions
+that deal with Unicode objects take and return <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> pointers.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Type">
+<a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject</a> <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This instance of <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> represents the Python Unicode type.  It
+is exposed to Python code as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following APIs are really C macros and can be used to do fast checks and to
+access internal read-only data of Unicode objects:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a Unicode object or an instance of a Unicode
+subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_CheckExact">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_CheckExact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_CheckExact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object <em>o</em> is a Unicode object, but not an instance of a
+subtype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_READY">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_READY</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_READY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ensure the string object <em>o</em> is in the “canonical” representation.  This is
+required before using any of the access macros described below.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> with an exception set on failure, which in
+particular happens if memory allocation fails.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points.  <em>o</em> has to be a
+Unicode object in the “canonical” representation (not checked).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS1" title="Py_UCS1">Py_UCS1</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS2" title="Py_UCS2">Py_UCS2</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2 or UCS4
+integer types for direct character access.  No checks are performed if the
+canonical representation has the correct character size; use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_KIND" title="PyUnicode_KIND"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_KIND()</span></code></a> to select the right macro.  Make sure
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_READY" title="PyUnicode_READY"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READY()</span></code></a> has been called before accessing this.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND">
+<code class="descname">PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND">
+<code class="descname">PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND">
+<code class="descname">PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND">
+<code class="descname">PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return values of the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_KIND" title="PyUnicode_KIND"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_KIND()</span></code></a> macro.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_KIND">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_KIND</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_KIND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that indicate how many
+bytes per character this Unicode object uses to store its data.  <em>o</em> has to
+be a Unicode object in the “canonical” representation (not checked).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DATA">
+void* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DATA</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer.  <em>o</em> has to be a Unicode
+object in the “canonical” representation (not checked).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_WRITE">
+void <code class="descname">PyUnicode_WRITE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> kind</em>, void<em> *data</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a><em> value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_WRITE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write into a canonical representation <em>data</em> (as obtained with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DATA" title="PyUnicode_DATA"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DATA()</span></code></a>).  This macro does not do any sanity checks and is
+intended for usage in loops.  The caller should cache the <em>kind</em> value and
+<em>data</em> pointer as obtained from other macro calls.  <em>index</em> is the index in
+the string (starts at 0) and <em>value</em> is the new code point value which should
+be written to that location.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_READ">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a> <code class="descname">PyUnicode_READ</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> kind</em>, void<em> *data</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_READ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a code point from a canonical representation <em>data</em> (as obtained with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DATA" title="PyUnicode_DATA"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DATA()</span></code></a>).  No checks or ready calls are performed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_READ_CHAR">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a> <code class="descname">PyUnicode_READ_CHAR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_READ_CHAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a character from a Unicode object <em>o</em>, which must be in the “canonical”
+representation.  This is less efficient than <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_READ" title="PyUnicode_READ"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READ()</span></code></a> if you
+do multiple consecutive reads.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE">
+<code class="descname">PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another string
+based on <em>o</em>, which must be in the “canonical” representation.  This is
+always an approximation but more efficient than iterating over the string.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_ClearFreeList">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_ClearFreeList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_ClearFreeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_GET_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_GET_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_GET_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> representation, in
+code units (this includes surrogate pairs as 2 units).  <em>o</em> has to be a
+Unicode object (not checked).</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH" title="PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> representation in
+bytes.  <em>o</em> has to be a Unicode object (not checked).</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH" title="PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AS_DATA">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AS_DATA</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AS_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pointer to a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> representation of the object.  The
+returned buffer is always terminated with an extra null code point.  It
+may also contain embedded null code points, which would cause the string
+to be truncated when used in most C functions.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_DATA</span></code> form
+casts the pointer to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.  The <em>o</em> argument has to be
+a Unicode object (not checked).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This macro is now inefficient – because in many cases the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> representation does not exist and needs to be created
+– and can fail (return <em>NULL</em> with an exception set).  Try to port the
+code to use the new <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_nBYTE_DATA()</span></code> macros or use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_WRITE" title="PyUnicode_WRITE"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_WRITE()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_READ" title="PyUnicode_READ"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READ()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_nBYTE_DATA()</span></code> family of macros.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-character-properties">
+<h3>Unicode Character Properties<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-character-properties" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Unicode provides many different character properties. The most often needed ones
+are available through these macros which are mapped to C functions depending on
+the Python configuration.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a whitespace character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a lowercase character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is an uppercase character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a titlecase character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a linebreak character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a decimal character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a digit character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a numeric character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is an alphabetic character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is an alphanumeric character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> depending on whether <em>ch</em> is a printable character.
+Nonprintable characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
+database as “Other” or “Separator”, excepting the ASCII space (0x20) which is
+considered printable.  (Note that printable characters in this context are
+those which should not be escaped when <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> is invoked on a string.
+It has no bearing on the handling of strings written to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a> <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the character <em>ch</em> converted to lower case.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This function uses simple case mappings.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a> <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the character <em>ch</em> converted to upper case.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This function uses simple case mappings.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a> <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the character <em>ch</em> converted to title case.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This function uses simple case mappings.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the character <em>ch</em> converted to a decimal positive integer.  Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if this is not possible.  This macro does not raise exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT">
+int <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the character <em>ch</em> converted to a single digit integer. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if
+this is not possible.  This macro does not raise exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC">
+double <code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the character <em>ch</em> converted to a double. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1.0</span></code> if this is not
+possible.  This macro does not raise exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:</p>
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>ch<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check if <em>ch</em> is a surrogate (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xD800</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">ch</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">0xDFFF</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>ch<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check if <em>ch</em> is a high surrogate (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xD800</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">ch</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">0xDBFF</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>ch<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check if <em>ch</em> is a low surrogate (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xDC00</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">ch</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">0xDFFF</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="macro">
+<dt id="c.Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES">
+<code class="descname">Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>high, low<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Join two surrogate characters and return a single Py_UCS4 value.
+<em>high</em> and <em>low</em> are respectively the leading and trailing surrogates in a
+surrogate pair.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-and-accessing-unicode-strings">
+<h3>Creating and accessing Unicode strings<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-and-accessing-unicode-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties, use these
+APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_New">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_New</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a><em> maxchar</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_New" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new Unicode object.  <em>maxchar</em> should be the true maximum code point
+to be placed in the string.  As an approximation, it can be rounded up to the
+nearest value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111.</p>
+<p>This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object.  Objects
+created using this function are not resizable.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromKindAndData">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromKindAndData</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> kind</em>, const void<em> *buffer</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromKindAndData" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a new Unicode object with the given <em>kind</em> (possible values are
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND" title="PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND</span></code></a> etc., as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_KIND" title="PyUnicode_KIND"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_KIND()</span></code></a>).  The <em>buffer</em> must point to an array of <em>size</em>
+units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the kind.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *u</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object from the char buffer <em>u</em>.  The bytes will be
+interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded.  The buffer is copied into the new
+object. If the buffer is not <em>NULL</em>, the return value might be a shared
+object, i.e. modification of the data is not allowed.</p>
+<p>If <em>u</em> is <em>NULL</em>, this function behaves like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromUnicode" title="PyUnicode_FromUnicode"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromUnicode()</span></code></a>
+with the buffer set to <em>NULL</em>.  This usage is deprecated in favor of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_New" title="PyUnicode_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_New()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *<code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *u</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded null-terminated char buffer
+<em>u</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromFormat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromFormat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, ...<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Take a C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf()</span></code>-style <em>format</em> string and a variable number of
+arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python Unicode string and return
+a string with the values formatted into it.  The variable arguments must be C
+types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the <em>format</em>
+ASCII-encoded string. The following format characters are allowed:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 26%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 44%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Format Characters</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Comment</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%%</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>n/a</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The literal % character.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>A single character,
+represented as a C int.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%d&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id1">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%u</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%u&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id2">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%ld</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%ld&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id3">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%li</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%li&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id4">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%lu</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%lu&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id5">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%lld</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>long long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%lld&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id6">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%lli</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>long long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%lli&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id7">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%llu</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned long long</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%llu&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id8">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%zd</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Py_ssize_t</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%zd&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id9">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%zi</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Py_ssize_t</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%zi&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id10">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%zu</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>size_t</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%zu&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id11">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%i</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%i&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id12">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%x&quot;)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id13">1</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const char*</p></td>
+<td><p>A null-terminated C character
+array.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%p</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>const void*</p></td>
+<td><p>The hex representation of a C
+pointer. Mostly equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf(&quot;%p&quot;)</span></code> except that
+it is guaranteed to start with
+the literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x</span></code> regardless
+of what the platform’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code> yields.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%A</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>PyObject*</p></td>
+<td><p>The result of calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>PyObject*</p></td>
+<td><p>A Unicode object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>PyObject*,
+const char*</p></td>
+<td><p>A Unicode object (which may be
+<em>NULL</em>) and a null-terminated
+C character array as a second
+parameter (which will be used,
+if the first parameter is
+<em>NULL</em>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%S</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>PyObject*</p></td>
+<td><p>The result of calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Str" title="PyObject_Str"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Str()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%R</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>PyObject*</p></td>
+<td><p>The result of calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be
+copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The width formatter unit is number of characters rather than bytes.
+The precision formatter unit is number of bytes for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%s&quot;</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%V&quot;</span></code> (if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code> argument is NULL), and a number of
+characters for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%A&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%U&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%S&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%R&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%V&quot;</span></code>
+(if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code> argument is not NULL).</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id14"><span class="brackets">1</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id1">1</a>,<a href="#id2">2</a>,<a href="#id3">3</a>,<a href="#id4">4</a>,<a href="#id5">5</a>,<a href="#id6">6</a>,<a href="#id7">7</a>,<a href="#id8">8</a>,<a href="#id9">9</a>,<a href="#id10">10</a>,<a href="#id11">11</a>,<a href="#id12">12</a>,<a href="#id13">13</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, li, lu, lld, lli, llu, zd, zi,
+zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%lld&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%llu&quot;</span></code> added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%li&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%lli&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%zi&quot;</span></code> added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Support width and precision formatter for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%s&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%A&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%U&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%V&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%S&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%R&quot;</span></code> added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromFormatV">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromFormatV</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *format</em>, va_list<em> vargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromFormatV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a> except that it takes exactly two
+arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em>, const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Decode an encoded object <em>obj</em> to a Unicode object.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> and other
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>
+are decoded according to the given <em>encoding</em> and using the error handling
+defined by <em>errors</em>. Both can be <em>NULL</em> to have the interface use the default
+values (see <a class="reference internal" href="#builtincodecs"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Codecs</span></a> for details).</p>
+<p>All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> to be
+set.</p>
+<p>The API returns <em>NULL</em> if there was an error.  The caller is responsible for
+decref’ing the returned objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_GetLength">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_GetLength</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_GetLength" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the length of the Unicode object, in code points.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_CopyCharacters">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_CopyCharacters</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *to</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> to_start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *from</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> from_start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> how_many</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_CopyCharacters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy characters from one Unicode object into another.  This function performs
+character conversion when necessary and falls back to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memcpy()</span></code> if
+possible.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and sets an exception on error, otherwise returns
+the number of copied characters.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Fill">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Fill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> length</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a><em> fill_char</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Fill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fill a string with a character: write <em>fill_char</em> into
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode[start:start+length]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Fail if <em>fill_char</em> is bigger than the string maximum character, or if the
+string has more than 1 reference.</p>
+<p>Return the number of written character, or return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and raise an
+exception on error.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_WriteChar">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_WriteChar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a><em> character</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_WriteChar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a character to a string.  The string must have been created through
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_New" title="PyUnicode_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_New()</span></code></a>.  Since Unicode strings are supposed to be immutable,
+the string must not be shared, or have been hashed yet.</p>
+<p>This function checks that <em>unicode</em> is a Unicode object, that the index is
+not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified safely (i.e. that it
+its reference count is one).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_ReadChar">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a> <code class="descname">PyUnicode_ReadChar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_ReadChar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a character from a string.  This function checks that <em>unicode</em> is a
+Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to the macro
+version <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_READ_CHAR" title="PyUnicode_READ_CHAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READ_CHAR()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Substring">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Substring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Substring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a substring of <em>str</em>, from character index <em>start</em> (included) to
+character index <em>end</em> (excluded).  Negative indices are not supported.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUCS4</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *u</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a><em> *buffer</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> buflen</em>, int<em> copy_null</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the string <em>u</em> into a UCS4 buffer, including a null character, if
+<em>copy_null</em> is set.  Returns <em>NULL</em> and sets an exception on error (in
+particular, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> if <em>buflen</em> is smaller than the length of
+<em>u</em>).  <em>buffer</em> is returned on success.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *u</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the string <em>u</em> into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using
+<a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>.  If this fails, <em>NULL</em> is returned with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> set.  The returned buffer always has an extra
+null code point appended.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-py-unicode-apis">
+<h3>Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-py-unicode-apis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>These API functions are deprecated with the implementation of <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a>.
+Extension modules can continue using them, as they will not be removed in Python
+3.x, but need to be aware that their use can now cause performance and memory hits.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromUnicode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromUnicode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *u</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromUnicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object from the Py_UNICODE buffer <em>u</em> of the given size. <em>u</em>
+may be <em>NULL</em> which causes the contents to be undefined. It is the user’s
+responsibility to fill in the needed data.  The buffer is copied into the new
+object.</p>
+<p>If the buffer is not <em>NULL</em>, the return value might be a shared object.
+Therefore, modification of the resulting Unicode object is only allowed when
+<em>u</em> is <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>If the buffer is <em>NULL</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_READY" title="PyUnicode_READY"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READY()</span></code></a> must be called once the
+string content has been filled before using any of the access macros such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_KIND" title="PyUnicode_KIND"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_KIND()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Please migrate to using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromKindAndData" title="PyUnicode_FromKindAndData"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromKindAndData()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromWideChar" title="PyUnicode_FromWideChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromWideChar()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_New" title="PyUnicode_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_New()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUnicode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUnicode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a read-only pointer to the Unicode object’s internal
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer, or <em>NULL</em> on error. This will create the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE*</span></code></a> representation of the object if it is not yet
+available. The buffer is always terminated with an extra null code point.
+Note that the resulting <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> string may also contain
+embedded null code points, which would cause the string to be truncated when
+used in most C functions.</p>
+<p>Please migrate to using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4" title="PyUnicode_AsUCS4"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUCS4()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsWideChar" title="PyUnicode_AsWideChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideChar()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_ReadChar" title="PyUnicode_ReadChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_ReadChar()</span></code></a> or similar new
+APIs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by replacing all decimal digits in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> by ASCII digits 0–9
+according to their decimal value.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception occurs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicode" title="PyUnicode_AsUnicode"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUnicode()</span></code></a>, but also saves the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE()</span></code></a>
+array length (excluding the extra null terminator) in <em>size</em>.
+Note that the resulting <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE*</span></code></a> string
+may contain embedded null code points, which would cause the string to be
+truncated when used in most C functions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy">
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a copy of a Unicode string ending with a null code point. Return <em>NULL</em>
+and raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> exception on memory allocation failure,
+otherwise return a new allocated buffer (use <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a> to free
+the buffer). Note that the resulting <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE*</span></code></a> string may
+contain embedded null code points, which would cause the string to be
+truncated when used in most C functions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Please migrate to using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy" title="PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy()</span></code></a> or similar new APIs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_GetSize">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_GetSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_GetSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> representation, in
+code units (this includes surrogate pairs as 2 units).</p>
+<p>Please migrate to using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_GetLength" title="PyUnicode_GetLength"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GetLength()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Copy an instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true Unicode object if
+necessary. If <em>obj</em> is already a true Unicode object (not a subtype),
+return the reference with incremented refcount.</p>
+<p>Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="locale-encoding">
+<h3>Locale Encoding<a class="headerlink" href="#locale-encoding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the operating
+system.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> len</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Decode a string from UTF-8 on Android, or from the current locale encoding
+on other platforms. The supported
+error handlers are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;strict&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;surrogateescape&quot;</span></code>
+(<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0383"><strong>PEP 383</strong></a>). The decoder uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;strict&quot;</span></code> error handler if
+<em>errors</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.  <em>str</em> must end with a null character but
+cannot contain embedded null characters.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize()</span></code></a> to decode a string from
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> (the locale encoding read at
+Python startup).</p>
+<p>This function ignores the Python UTF-8 mode.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler, except on Android. Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a>
+was used for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>, and the current locale encoding was
+used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocale">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeLocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize()</span></code></a>, but compute the string
+length using <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strlen()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeLocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8 on Android, or to the current locale
+encoding on other platforms. The
+supported error handlers are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;strict&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;surrogateescape&quot;</span></code>
+(<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0383"><strong>PEP 383</strong></a>). The encoder uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;strict&quot;</span></code> error handler if
+<em>errors</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>. Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object. <em>unicode</em> cannot
+contain embedded null characters.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault" title="PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault()</span></code></a> to encode a string to
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> (the locale encoding read at
+Python startup).</p>
+<p>This function ignores the Python UTF-8 mode.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler, except on Android. Previously,
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a>
+was used for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>, and the current locale encoding was
+used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-system-encoding">
+<h3>File System Encoding<a class="headerlink" href="#file-system-encoding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To encode and decode file names and other environment strings,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> should be used as the encoding, and
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors</span></code> should be used as the error handler
+(<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0383"><strong>PEP 383</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0529"><strong>PEP 529</strong></a>). To encode file names to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> during
+argument parsing, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;O&amp;&quot;</span></code> converter should be used, passing
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FSConverter" title="PyUnicode_FSConverter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FSConverter()</span></code></a> as the conversion function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FSConverter">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FSConverter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>*<em> obj</em>, void*<em> result</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FSConverter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ParseTuple converter: encode <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects – obtained directly or
+through the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> interface – to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault" title="PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault()</span></code></a>; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects are output as-is.
+<em>result</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="bytes.html#c.PyBytesObject" title="PyBytesObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytesObject*</span></code></a> which must be released when it is
+no longer used.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To decode file names to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> during argument parsing, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;O&amp;&quot;</span></code>
+converter should be used, passing <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FSDecoder" title="PyUnicode_FSDecoder"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FSDecoder()</span></code></a> as the
+conversion function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FSDecoder">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FSDecoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>*<em> obj</em>, void*<em> result</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FSDecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ParseTuple converter: decode <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects – obtained either
+directly or indirectly through the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> interface – to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> using <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize()</span></code></a>; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+objects are output as-is. <em>result</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicodeObject" title="PyUnicodeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicodeObject*</span></code></a> which
+must be released when it is no longer used.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Decode a string using <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> and the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors</span></code> error handler.</p>
+<p>If <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> is not set, fall back to the
+locale encoding.</p>
+<p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> is initialized at startup from the
+locale encoding and cannot be modified later. If you need to decode a string
+from the current locale encoding, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Use <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors</span></code> error handler.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Decode a null-terminated string using <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code>
+and the <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors</span></code> error handler.</p>
+<p>If <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> is not set, fall back to the
+locale encoding.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize()</span></code></a> if you know the string length.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Use <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors</span></code> error handler.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> with the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors</span></code> error handler, and return
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>. Note that the resulting <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object may contain
+null bytes.</p>
+<p>If <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> is not set, fall back to the
+locale encoding.</p>
+<p><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> is initialized at startup from the
+locale encoding and cannot be modified later. If you need to encode a string
+to the current locale encoding, use <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale" title="PyUnicode_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Use <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors</span></code> error handler.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wchar-t-support">
+<h3>wchar_t Support<a class="headerlink" href="#wchar-t-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> support for platforms which support it:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FromWideChar">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FromWideChar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const wchar_t<em> *w</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromWideChar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object from the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> buffer <em>w</em> of the given <em>size</em>.
+Passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> as the <em>size</em> indicates that the function must itself compute the length,
+using wcslen.
+Return <em>NULL</em> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsWideChar">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsWideChar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, wchar_t<em> *w</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsWideChar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the Unicode object contents into the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> buffer <em>w</em>.  At most
+<em>size</em> <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing
+null termination character).  Return the number of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> characters
+copied or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> in case of an error.  Note that the resulting <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t*</span></code>
+string may or may not be null-terminated.  It is the responsibility of the caller
+to make sure that the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t*</span></code> string is null-terminated in case this is
+required by the application. Also, note that the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t*</span></code> string
+might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated
+when used with most C functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString">
+wchar_t* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the Unicode object to a wide character string. The output string
+always ends with a null character. If <em>size</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, write the number
+of wide characters (excluding the trailing null termination character) into
+<em>*size</em>. Note that the resulting <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> string might contain
+null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with
+most C functions. If <em>size</em> is <em>NULL</em> and the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t*</span></code> string
+contains null characters a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Returns a buffer allocated by <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Alloc()</span></code> (use
+<a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a> to free it) on success. On error, returns <em>NULL</em>
+and <em>*size</em> is undefined. Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> if memory allocation
+is failed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>size</em> is <em>NULL</em> and the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t*</span></code>
+string contains null characters.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="built-in-codecs">
+<span id="builtincodecs"></span><h2>Built-in Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for speed. All of
+these codecs are directly usable via the following functions.</p>
+<p>Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and they
+have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> string object
+constructor.</p>
+<p>Setting encoding to <em>NULL</em> causes the default encoding to be used
+which is ASCII.  The file system calls should use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FSConverter" title="PyUnicode_FSConverter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FSConverter()</span></code></a> for encoding file names. This uses the
+variable <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding</span></code> internally. This
+variable should be treated as read-only: on some systems, it will be a
+pointer to a static string, on others, it will change at run-time
+(such as when the application invokes setlocale).</p>
+<p>Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to <em>NULL</em> meaning to use
+the default handling defined for the codec.  Default error handling for all
+built-in codecs is “strict” (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised).</p>
+<p>The codecs all use a similar interface.  Only deviation from the following
+generic ones are documented for simplicity.</p>
+<div class="section" id="generic-codecs">
+<h3>Generic Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the generic codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Decode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the encoded string <em>s</em>.
+<em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> built-in function.  The codec to be used is looked up
+using the Python codec registry.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by
+the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python bytes object.
+<em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> have the same meaning as the parameters of the same
+name in the Unicode <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> method. The codec to be used is looked up
+using the Python codec registry. Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by
+the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Encode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *encoding</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer <em>s</em> of the given <em>size</em> and return a Python
+bytes object.  <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> have the same meaning as the
+parameters of the same name in the Unicode <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> method.  The codec
+to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an
+exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="utf-8-codecs">
+<h3>UTF-8 Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#utf-8-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the UTF-8 encoded string
+<em>s</em>. Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *consumed</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>If <em>consumed</em> is <em>NULL</em>, behave like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8" title="PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8()</span></code></a>. If
+<em>consumed</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be
+treated as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
+that have been decoded will be stored in <em>consumed</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8String">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUTF8String</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8String" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as Python bytes
+object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was
+raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and
+store the size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in <em>size</em>.  The
+<em>size</em> argument can be <em>NULL</em>; in this case no size will be stored.  The
+returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended (not included in
+<em>size</em>), regardless of whether there are any other null code points.</p>
+<p>In the case of an error, <em>NULL</em> is returned with an exception set and no
+<em>size</em> is stored.</p>
+<p>This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode object, and
+subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same buffer.  The caller is not
+responsible for deallocating the buffer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The return type is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> rather of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8">
+const char* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUTF8</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>As <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize()</span></code></a>, but does not store the size.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The return type is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> rather of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer <em>s</em> of the given <em>size</em> using UTF-8 and
+return a Python bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by
+the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8String" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF8String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF8String()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="utf-32-codecs">
+<h3>UTF-32 Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#utf-32-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the UTF-32 codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, int<em> *byteorder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Decode <em>size</em> bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and return the
+corresponding Unicode object.  <em>errors</em> (if non-<em>NULL</em>) defines the error
+handling. It defaults to “strict”.</p>
+<p>If <em>byteorder</em> is non-<em>NULL</em>, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte
+order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">little</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+<span class="o">*</span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">native</span> <span class="n">order</span>
+<span class="o">*</span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">big</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*byteorder</span></code> is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data are a
+byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is
+not copied into the resulting Unicode string.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*byteorder</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, any byte order mark is copied to the output.</p>
+<p>After completion, <em>*byteorder</em> is set to the current byte order at the end
+of input data.</p>
+<p>If <em>byteorder</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the codec starts in native order mode.</p>
+<p>Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, int<em> *byteorder</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *consumed</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>If <em>consumed</em> is <em>NULL</em>, behave like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32" title="PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32()</span></code></a>. If
+<em>consumed</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful" title="PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful()</span></code></a> will not treat
+trailing incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not divisible
+by four) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
+that have been decoded will be stored in <em>consumed</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUTF32String">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUTF32String</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF32String" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in native byte
+order. The string always starts with a BOM mark.  Error handling is “strict”.
+Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, int<em> byteorder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a Python bytes object holding the UTF-32 encoded value of the Unicode
+data in <em>s</em>.  Output is written according to the following byte order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">little</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+<span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">native</span> <span class="n">byte</span> <span class="n">order</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">writes</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">BOM</span> <span class="n">mark</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">big</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If byteorder is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the output string will always start with the Unicode BOM
+mark (U+FEFF). In the other two modes, no BOM mark is prepended.</p>
+<p>If <em>Py_UNICODE_WIDE</em> is not defined, surrogate pairs will be output
+as a single code point.</p>
+<p>Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF32String" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF32String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF32String()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="utf-16-codecs">
+<h3>UTF-16 Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#utf-16-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, int<em> *byteorder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Decode <em>size</em> bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and return the
+corresponding Unicode object.  <em>errors</em> (if non-<em>NULL</em>) defines the error
+handling. It defaults to “strict”.</p>
+<p>If <em>byteorder</em> is non-<em>NULL</em>, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte
+order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">little</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+<span class="o">*</span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">native</span> <span class="n">order</span>
+<span class="o">*</span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">big</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*byteorder</span></code> is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data are a
+byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is
+not copied into the resulting Unicode string.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*byteorder</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, any byte order mark is copied to the output (where it will result in
+either a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\ufeff</span></code> or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\ufffe</span></code> character).</p>
+<p>After completion, <em>*byteorder</em> is set to the current byte order at the end
+of input data.</p>
+<p>If <em>byteorder</em> is <em>NULL</em>, the codec starts in native order mode.</p>
+<p>Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, int<em> *byteorder</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *consumed</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>If <em>consumed</em> is <em>NULL</em>, behave like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16" title="PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16()</span></code></a>. If
+<em>consumed</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful" title="PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful()</span></code></a> will not treat
+trailing incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or a
+split surrogate pair) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the
+number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in <em>consumed</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUTF16String">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUTF16String</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF16String" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte
+order. The string always starts with a BOM mark.  Error handling is “strict”.
+Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, int<em> byteorder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a Python bytes object holding the UTF-16 encoded value of the Unicode
+data in <em>s</em>.  Output is written according to the following byte order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">little</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+<span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">native</span> <span class="n">byte</span> <span class="n">order</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">writes</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">BOM</span> <span class="n">mark</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">byteorder</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span>  <span class="n">big</span> <span class="n">endian</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If byteorder is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the output string will always start with the Unicode BOM
+mark (U+FEFF). In the other two modes, no BOM mark is prepended.</p>
+<p>If <em>Py_UNICODE_WIDE</em> is defined, a single <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> value may get
+represented as a surrogate pair. If it is not defined, each <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a>
+values is interpreted as a UCS-2 character.</p>
+<p>Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF16String" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF16String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF16String()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="utf-7-codecs">
+<h3>UTF-7 Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#utf-7-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the UTF-7 codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the UTF-7 encoded string
+<em>s</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *consumed</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>If <em>consumed</em> is <em>NULL</em>, behave like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7" title="PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7()</span></code></a>.  If
+<em>consumed</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not
+be treated as an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of
+bytes that have been decoded will be stored in <em>consumed</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, int<em> base64SetO</em>, int<em> base64WhiteSpace</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given size using UTF-7 and
+return a Python bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by
+the codec.</p>
+<p>If <em>base64SetO</em> is nonzero, “Set O” (punctuation that has no otherwise
+special meaning) will be encoded in base-64.  If <em>base64WhiteSpace</em> is
+nonzero, whitespace will be encoded in base-64.  Both are set to zero for the
+Python “utf-7” codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-escape-codecs">
+<h3>Unicode-Escape Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-escape-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the “Unicode Escape” codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the Unicode-Escape encoded
+string <em>s</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the result as a
+bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was
+raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> using Unicode-Escape and
+return a bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString" title="PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raw-unicode-escape-codecs">
+<h3>Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#raw-unicode-escape-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the “Raw Unicode Escape” codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the Raw-Unicode-Escape
+encoded string <em>s</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return the result as
+a bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception
+was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> using Raw-Unicode-Escape
+and return a bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString" title="PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="latin-1-codecs">
+<h3>Latin-1 Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#latin-1-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256 Unicode
+ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during encoding.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the Latin-1 encoded string
+<em>s</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsLatin1String">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsLatin1String</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsLatin1String" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result as Python bytes
+object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was
+raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> using Latin-1 and
+return a Python bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by
+the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsLatin1String" title="PyUnicode_AsLatin1String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsLatin1String()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ascii-codecs">
+<h3>ASCII Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#ascii-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the ASCII codec APIs.  Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted. All other
+codes generate errors.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeASCII">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeASCII</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the ASCII encoded string
+<em>s</em>.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsASCIIString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsASCIIString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsASCIIString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as Python bytes
+object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was
+raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeASCII">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeASCII</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> using ASCII and
+return a Python bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by
+the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsASCIIString" title="PyUnicode_AsASCIIString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsASCIIString()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="character-map-codecs">
+<h3>Character Map Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#character-map-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different codecs
+(and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard codecs
+included in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings</span></code> package). The codec uses mapping to encode and
+decode characters.  The mapping objects provided must support the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> mapping interface; dictionaries and sequences work well.</p>
+<p>These are the mapping codec APIs:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *data</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mapping</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the encoded string <em>s</em>
+using the given <em>mapping</em> object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised
+by the codec.</p>
+<p>If <em>mapping</em> is <em>NULL</em>, Latin-1 decoding will be applied.  Else
+<em>mapping</em> must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to 255)
+to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as Unicode
+ordinals) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Unmapped data bytes – ones which cause a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a>, as well as ones which get mapped to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFFFE</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\ufffe'</span></code>, are treated as undefined mappings and cause
+an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsCharmapString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsCharmapString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mapping</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsCharmapString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object using the given <em>mapping</em> object and return the
+result as a bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an
+exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<p>The <em>mapping</em> object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes objects,
+integers in the range from 0 to 255 or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Unmapped character
+ordinals (ones which cause a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a>) as well as mapped to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> are treated as “undefined mapping” and cause an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mapping</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> using the given
+<em>mapping</em> object and return the result as a bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if
+an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsCharmapString" title="PyUnicode_AsCharmapString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsCharmapString()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Translate">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Translate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mapping</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Translate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Translate a Unicode object using the given <em>mapping</em> object and return the
+resulting Unicode object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the
+codec.</p>
+<p>The <em>mapping</em> object must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode strings,
+integers (which are then interpreted as Unicode ordinals) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+(causing deletion of the character).  Unmapped character ordinals (ones
+which cause a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a>) are left untouched and are copied as-is.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *mapping</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Translate a <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> by applying a
+character <em>mapping</em> table to it and return the resulting Unicode object.
+Return <em>NULL</em> when an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_Translate" title="PyUnicode_Translate"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Translate()</span></code></a>. or <a class="reference internal" href="codec.html#codec-registry"><span class="std std-ref">generic codec based API</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mbcs-codecs-for-windows">
+<h3>MBCS codecs for Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#mbcs-codecs-for-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These are the MBCS codec APIs. They are currently only available on Windows and
+use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions.  Note that MBCS (or
+DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one.  The target encoding is defined by
+the user settings on the machine running the codec.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Create a Unicode object by decoding <em>size</em> bytes of the MBCS encoded string <em>s</em>.
+Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> *consumed</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>If <em>consumed</em> is <em>NULL</em>, behave like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS" title="PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS()</span></code></a>. If
+<em>consumed</em> is not <em>NULL</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful" title="PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful()</span></code></a> will not decode
+trailing lead byte and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored
+in <em>consumed</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_AsMBCSString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_AsMBCSString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsMBCSString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes
+object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was
+raised by the codec.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> code_page</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *unicode</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the Unicode object using the specified code page and return a Python
+bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the codec. Use
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CP_ACP</span></code> code page to get the MBCS encoder.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE</a><em> *s</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> size</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> buffer of the given <em>size</em> using MBCS and return
+a Python bytes object.  Return <em>NULL</em> if an exception was raised by the
+codec.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>Part of the old-style <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> API; please migrate to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsMBCSString" title="PyUnicode_AsMBCSString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsMBCSString()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage" title="PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString" title="PyUnicode_AsEncodedString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-slots">
+<h3>Methods &amp; Slots<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-slots" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-and-slot-functions">
+<span id="unicodemethodsandslots"></span><h2>Methods and Slot Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-and-slot-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings on input
+(we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return Unicode objects or
+integers as appropriate.</p>
+<p>They all return <em>NULL</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an exception occurs.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Concat">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Concat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *left</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *right</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Split">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *s</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *sep</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> maxsplit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings.  If <em>sep</em> is <em>NULL</em>, splitting
+will be done at all whitespace substrings.  Otherwise, splits occur at the given
+separator.  At most <em>maxsplit</em> splits will be done.  If negative, no limit is
+set.  Separators are not included in the resulting list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Splitlines">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Splitlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *s</em>, int<em> keepend</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Splitlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of Unicode strings.
+CRLF is considered to be one line break.  If <em>keepend</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the Line break
+characters are not included in the resulting strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Translate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *table</em>, const char<em> *errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to it and return the
+resulting Unicode object.</p>
+<p>The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode ordinal integers
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (causing deletion of the character).</p>
+<p>Mapping tables need only provide the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> interface; dictionaries
+and sequences work well.  Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a>) are left untouched and are copied as-is.</p>
+<p><em>errors</em> has the usual meaning for codecs. It may be <em>NULL</em> which indicates to
+use the default error handling.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Join">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *separator</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *seq</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Join a sequence of strings using the given <em>separator</em> and return the resulting
+Unicode string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Tailmatch">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Tailmatch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *substr</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em>, int<em> direction</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Tailmatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if <em>substr</em> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str[start:end]</span></code> at the given tail end
+(<em>direction</em> == <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> means to do a prefix match, <em>direction</em> == <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> a suffix match),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Find">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *substr</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em>, int<em> direction</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the first position of <em>substr</em> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str[start:end]</span></code> using the given
+<em>direction</em> (<em>direction</em> == <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> means to do a forward search, <em>direction</em> == <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> a
+backward search).  The return value is the index of the first match; a value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> indicates that no match was found, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-2</span></code> indicates that an error
+occurred and an exception has been set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_FindChar">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_FindChar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4</a><em> ch</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em>, int<em> direction</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_FindChar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the first position of the character <em>ch</em> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str[start:end]</span></code> using
+the given <em>direction</em> (<em>direction</em> == <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> means to do a forward search,
+<em>direction</em> == <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> a backward search).  The return value is the index of the
+first match; a value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> indicates that no match was found, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-2</span></code>
+indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been set.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are now adjusted to behave like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str[start:end]</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Count">
+Py_ssize_t <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *substr</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> start</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> end</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of <em>substr</em> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str[start:end]</span></code>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Replace">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *str</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *substr</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *replstr</em>, Py_ssize_t<em> maxcount</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Replace at most <em>maxcount</em> occurrences of <em>substr</em> in <em>str</em> with <em>replstr</em> and
+return the resulting Unicode object. <em>maxcount</em> == <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> means replace all
+occurrences.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Compare">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Compare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *left</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *right</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Compare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare two strings and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for less than, equal, and greater than,
+respectively.</p>
+<p>This function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> upon failure, so one should call
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to check for errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *uni</em>, const char<em> *string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare a Unicode object, <em>uni</em>, with <em>string</em> and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for less
+than, equal, and greater than, respectively. It is best to pass only
+ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string as
+ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters.</p>
+<p>This function does not raise exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_RichCompare">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_RichCompare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *left</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *right</em>, int<em> op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_RichCompare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Rich compare two Unicode strings and return one of the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> in case an exception was raised</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_True</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_False</span></code> for successful comparisons</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code> in case the type combination is unknown</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Possible values for <em>op</em> are <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LT</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LE</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Format">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *format</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a new string object from <em>format</em> and <em>args</em>; this is analogous to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">args</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_Contains">
+int <code class="descname">PyUnicode_Contains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *container</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *element</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_Contains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check whether <em>element</em> is contained in <em>container</em> and return true or false
+accordingly.</p>
+<p><em>element</em> has to coerce to a one element Unicode string. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned
+if there was an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_InternInPlace">
+void <code class="descname">PyUnicode_InternInPlace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> **string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_InternInPlace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Intern the argument <em>*string</em> in place.  The argument must be the address of a
+pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object.  If there is an
+existing interned string that is the same as <em>*string</em>, it sets <em>*string</em> to
+it (decrementing the reference count of the old string object and incrementing
+the reference count of the interned string object), otherwise it leaves
+<em>*string</em> alone and interns it (incrementing its reference count).
+(Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about reference counts, think
+of this function as reference-count-neutral; you own the object after the call
+if and only if you owned it before the call.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyUnicode_InternFromString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyUnicode_InternFromString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyUnicode_InternFromString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>A combination of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_FromString" title="PyUnicode_FromString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromString()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyUnicode_InternInPlace" title="PyUnicode_InternInPlace"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_InternInPlace()</span></code></a>, returning either a new Unicode string
+object that has been interned, or a new (“owned”) reference to an earlier
+interned string object with the same value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Unicode Objects and Codecs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-objects">Unicode Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-type">Unicode Type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-character-properties">Unicode Character Properties</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-and-accessing-unicode-strings">Creating and accessing Unicode strings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-py-unicode-apis">Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#locale-encoding">Locale Encoding</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-system-encoding">File System Encoding</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wchar-t-support">wchar_t Support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#built-in-codecs">Built-in Codecs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generic-codecs">Generic Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#utf-8-codecs">UTF-8 Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#utf-32-codecs">UTF-32 Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#utf-16-codecs">UTF-16 Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#utf-7-codecs">UTF-7 Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-escape-codecs">Unicode-Escape Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raw-unicode-escape-codecs">Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#latin-1-codecs">Latin-1 Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ascii-codecs">ASCII Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#character-map-codecs">Character Map Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mbcs-codecs-for-windows">MBCS codecs for Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-slots">Methods &amp; Slots</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-and-slot-functions">Methods and Slot Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bytearray.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Byte Array Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tuple.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Tuple Objects</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/utilities.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/utilities.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..081e1ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/utilities.html
@@ -0,0 +1,211 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>Utilities &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="utilities">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#utilities" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The functions in this chapter perform various utility tasks, ranging from
+helping C code be more portable across platforms, using Python modules from C,
+and parsing function arguments and constructing Python values from C values.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html">Operating System Utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#system-functions">System Functions</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html">Data marshalling support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html">Parsing arguments and building values</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#strings-and-buffers">Strings and buffers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#numbers">Numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#other-objects">Other objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#api-functions">API Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#building-values">Building values</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="conversion.html">String conversion and formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="reflection.html">Reflection</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="codec.html">Codec registry and support functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="codec.html#codec-lookup-api">Codec lookup API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="codec.html#registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers">Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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+                        title="previous chapter">Exception Handling</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">Operating System Utilities</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="the-very-high-level-layer">
+<span id="veryhigh"></span><h1>The Very High Level Layer<a class="headerlink" href="#the-very-high-level-layer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code given in a
+file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a more detailed way with
+the interpreter.</p>
+<p>Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a
+parameter.  The available start symbols are <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_eval_input</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_file_input</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_single_input</span></code>.  These are described
+following the functions which accept them as parameters.</p>
+<p>Note also that several of these functions take <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE*</span></code> parameters.  One
+particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE</span></code>
+structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible.  Under
+Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked extensions to actually
+use different libraries, so care should be taken that <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE*</span></code> parameters
+are only passed to these functions if it is certain that they were created by
+the same library that the Python runtime is using.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_Main">
+int <code class="descname">Py_Main</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> argc</em>, wchar_t<em> **argv</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_Main" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The main program for the standard interpreter.  This is made available for
+programs which embed Python.  The <em>argc</em> and <em>argv</em> parameters should be
+prepared exactly as those which are passed to a C program’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code>
+function (converted to wchar_t according to the user’s locale).  It is
+important to note that the argument list may be modified (but the contents of
+the strings pointed to by the argument list are not). The return value will
+be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the interpreter exits normally (i.e., without an exception),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the interpreter exits due to an exception, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> if the parameter
+list does not represent a valid Python command line.</p>
+<p>Note that if an otherwise unhandled <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> is raised, this
+function will not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, but exit the process, as long as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_InspectFlag</span></code> is not set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_AnyFile">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_AnyFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_AnyFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_AnyFileExFlags" title="PyRun_AnyFileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_AnyFileExFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+<em>closeit</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and <em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_AnyFileFlags">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_AnyFileFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_AnyFileFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_AnyFileExFlags" title="PyRun_AnyFileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_AnyFileExFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+the <em>closeit</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_AnyFileEx">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_AnyFileEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> closeit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_AnyFileEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_AnyFileExFlags" title="PyRun_AnyFileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_AnyFileExFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+the <em>flags</em> argument set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_AnyFileExFlags">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_AnyFileExFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> closeit</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_AnyFileExFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>fp</em> refers to a file associated with an interactive device (console or
+terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoop" title="PyRun_InteractiveLoop"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_InteractiveLoop()</span></code></a>, otherwise return the result of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleFile" title="PyRun_SimpleFile"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleFile()</span></code></a>.  <em>filename</em> is decoded from the filesystem
+encoding (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>).  If <em>filename</em> is <em>NULL</em>, this
+function uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;???&quot;</span></code> as the filename.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_SimpleString">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_SimpleString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *command</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleStringFlags" title="PyRun_SimpleStringFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleStringFlags()</span></code></a> below,
+leaving the <em>PyCompilerFlags*</em> argument set to NULL.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_SimpleStringFlags">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_SimpleStringFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *command</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleStringFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Executes the Python source code from <em>command</em> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module
+according to the <em>flags</em> argument. If <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> does not already exist, it
+is created.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if an exception was raised.  If
+there was an error, there is no way to get the exception information. For the
+meaning of <em>flags</em>, see below.</p>
+<p>Note that if an otherwise unhandled <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> is raised, this
+function will not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, but exit the process, as long as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_InspectFlag</span></code> is not set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_SimpleFile">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_SimpleFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags" title="PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()</span></code></a> below,
+leaving <em>closeit</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and <em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_SimpleFileEx">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_SimpleFileEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> closeit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleFileEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags" title="PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()</span></code></a> below,
+leaving <em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> closeit</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_SimpleStringFlags" title="PyRun_SimpleStringFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleStringFlags()</span></code></a>, but the Python source code is read
+from <em>fp</em> instead of an in-memory string. <em>filename</em> should be the name of
+the file, it is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>).  If <em>closeit</em> is true, the file is
+closed before PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags returns.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Windows, <em>fp</em> should be opened as binary mode (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fopen(filename,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;rb&quot;)</span></code>.
+Otherwise, Python may not handle script file with LF line ending correctly.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_InteractiveOne">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_InteractiveOne</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_InteractiveOne" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags" title="PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags()</span></code></a> below,
+leaving <em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an
+interactive device according to the <em>flags</em> argument.  The user will be
+prompted using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code>.  <em>filename</em> is decoded from the
+filesystem encoding (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> when the input was
+executed successfully, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if there was an exception, or an error code
+from the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errcode.h</span></code> include file distributed as part of Python if
+there was a parse error.  (Note that <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errcode.h</span></code> is not included by
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code>, so must be included specifically if needed.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_InteractiveLoop">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_InteractiveLoop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags" title="PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags()</span></code></a> below,
+leaving <em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags">
+int <code class="descname">PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and execute statements from a file associated with an interactive device
+until EOF is reached.  The user will be prompted using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code>.  <em>filename</em> is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>).  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> at EOF or a negative
+number upon failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_InputHook">
+int <code class="descname">(*PyOS_InputHook)</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_InputHook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Can be set to point to a function with the prototype
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span> <span class="pre">func(void)</span></code>.  The function will be called when Python’s
+interpreter prompt is about to become idle and wait for user input
+from the terminal.  The return value is ignored.  Overriding this
+hook can be used to integrate the interpreter’s prompt with other
+event loops, as done in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/_tkinter.c</span></code> in the
+Python source code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer">
+char* <code class="descname">(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *</em>, FILE<em> *</em>, const char<em> *</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Can be set to point to a function with the prototype
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*func(FILE</span> <span class="pre">*stdin,</span> <span class="pre">FILE</span> <span class="pre">*stdout,</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*prompt)</span></code>,
+overriding the default function used to read a single line of input
+at the interpreter’s prompt.  The function is expected to output
+the string <em>prompt</em> if it’s not <em>NULL</em>, and then read a line of
+input from the provided standard input file, returning the
+resulting string.  For example, The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module sets
+this hook to provide line-editing and tab-completion features.</p>
+<p>The result must be a string allocated by <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a>, or <em>NULL</em> if an error occurred.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The result must be allocated by <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a>, instead of being allocated by
+<a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="memory.html#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyParser_SimpleParseString">
+struct _node* <code class="descname">PyParser_SimpleParseString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, int<em> start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename" title="PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()</span></code></a> below, leaving  <em>filename</em> set
+to <em>NULL</em> and <em>flags</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags">
+struct _node* <code class="descname">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, int<em> start</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename" title="PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()</span></code></a> below, leaving  <em>filename</em> set
+to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename">
+struct _node* <code class="descname">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse Python source code from <em>str</em> using the start token <em>start</em> according to
+the <em>flags</em> argument.  The result can be used to create a code object which can
+be evaluated efficiently. This is useful if a code fragment must be evaluated
+many times. <em>filename</em> is decoded from the filesystem encoding
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyParser_SimpleParseFile">
+struct _node* <code class="descname">PyParser_SimpleParseFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags" title="PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags()</span></code></a> below,
+leaving <em>flags</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags">
+struct _node* <code class="descname">PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, int<em> flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename" title="PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()</span></code></a>, but the Python
+source code is read from <em>fp</em> instead of an in-memory string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_String">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyRun_String</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_String" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_StringFlags" title="PyRun_StringFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_StringFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+<em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_StringFlags">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyRun_StringFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_StringFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Execute Python source code from <em>str</em> in the context specified by the
+objects <em>globals</em> and <em>locals</em> with the compiler flags specified by
+<em>flags</em>.  <em>globals</em> must be a dictionary; <em>locals</em> can be any object
+that implements the mapping protocol.  The parameter <em>start</em> specifies
+the start token that should be used to parse the source code.</p>
+<p>Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or <em>NULL</em> if an
+exception was raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_File">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyRun_File</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_File" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_FileExFlags" title="PyRun_FileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_FileExFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+<em>closeit</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and <em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_FileEx">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyRun_FileEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, int<em> closeit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_FileEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_FileExFlags" title="PyRun_FileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_FileExFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+<em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_FileFlags">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyRun_FileFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_FileFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_FileExFlags" title="PyRun_FileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_FileExFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+<em>closeit</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyRun_FileExFlags">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyRun_FileExFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>FILE<em> *fp</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, int<em> closeit</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyRun_FileExFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_StringFlags" title="PyRun_StringFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_StringFlags()</span></code></a>, but the Python source code is read from
+<em>fp</em> instead of an in-memory string. <em>filename</em> should be the name of the file,
+it is decoded from the filesystem encoding (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>).
+If <em>closeit</em> is true, the file is closed before <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyRun_FileExFlags" title="PyRun_FileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_FileExFlags()</span></code></a>
+returns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_CompileString">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_CompileString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CompileString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_CompileStringFlags" title="Py_CompileStringFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CompileStringFlags()</span></code></a> below, leaving
+<em>flags</em> set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_CompileStringFlags">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_CompileStringFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CompileStringFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_CompileStringExFlags" title="Py_CompileStringExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CompileStringExFlags()</span></code></a> below, with
+<em>optimize</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_CompileStringObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_CompileStringObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em>, int<em> optimize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CompileStringObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Parse and compile the Python source code in <em>str</em>, returning the resulting code
+object.  The start token is given by <em>start</em>; this can be used to constrain the
+code which can be compiled and should be <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_eval_input</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_file_input</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_single_input</span></code>.  The filename specified by
+<em>filename</em> is used to construct the code object and may appear in tracebacks or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> exception messages.  This returns <em>NULL</em> if the code
+cannot be parsed or compiled.</p>
+<p>The integer <em>optimize</em> specifies the optimization level of the compiler; a
+value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> selects the optimization level of the interpreter as given by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> options.  Explicit levels are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (no optimization;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code> is true), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (asserts are removed, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code> is false)
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> (docstrings are removed too).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.Py_CompileStringExFlags">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">Py_CompileStringExFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>const char<em> *str</em>, const char<em> *filename</em>, int<em> start</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *flags</em>, int<em> optimize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CompileStringExFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_CompileStringObject" title="Py_CompileStringObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CompileStringObject()</span></code></a>, but <em>filename</em> is a byte string
+decoded from the filesystem encoding (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_EvalCode">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_EvalCode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *co</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_EvalCode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is a simplified interface to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_EvalCodeEx" title="PyEval_EvalCodeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_EvalCodeEx()</span></code></a>, with just
+the code object, and global and local variables.  The other arguments are
+set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_EvalCodeEx">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_EvalCodeEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *co</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *globals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *locals</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *const<em> *args</em>, int<em> argcount</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *const<em> *kws</em>, int<em> kwcount</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a> *const<em> *defs</em>, int<em> defcount</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *kwdefs</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *closure</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_EvalCodeEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Evaluate a precompiled code object, given a particular environment for its
+evaluation.  This environment consists of a dictionary of global variables,
+a mapping object of local variables, arrays of arguments, keywords and
+defaults, a dictionary of default values for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only</span></a> arguments and a closure tuple of cells.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyFrameObject">
+<code class="descname">PyFrameObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyFrameObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C structure of the objects used to describe frame objects. The
+fields of this type are subject to change at any time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_EvalFrame">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_EvalFrame</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a><em> *f</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_EvalFrame" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Evaluate an execution frame.  This is a simplified interface to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyEval_EvalFrameEx" title="PyEval_EvalFrameEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_EvalFrameEx()</span></code></a>, for backward compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_EvalFrameEx">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyEval_EvalFrameEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject</a><em> *f</em>, int<em> throwflag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_EvalFrameEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>This is the main, unvarnished function of Python interpretation.  It is
+literally 2000 lines long.  The code object associated with the execution
+frame <em>f</em> is executed, interpreting bytecode and executing calls as needed.
+The additional <em>throwflag</em> parameter can mostly be ignored - if true, then
+it causes an exception to immediately be thrown; this is used for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.throw" title="generator.throw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw()</span></code></a> methods of generator objects.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
+does not silently discard an active exception.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags">
+int <code class="descname">PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags</a><em> *cf</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame, and returns
+true on success, false on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_eval_input">
+int <code class="descname">Py_eval_input</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_eval_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions; for use with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_CompileString" title="Py_CompileString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CompileString()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_file_input">
+int <code class="descname">Py_file_input</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_file_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of statements as read
+from a file or other source; for use with <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_CompileString" title="Py_CompileString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CompileString()</span></code></a>.  This is
+the symbol to use when compiling arbitrarily long Python source code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.Py_single_input">
+int <code class="descname">Py_single_input</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_single_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement; for use with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_CompileString" title="Py_CompileString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CompileString()</span></code></a>. This is the symbol used for the interactive
+interpreter loop.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="type">
+<dt id="c.PyCompilerFlags">
+struct <code class="descname">PyCompilerFlags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyCompilerFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the structure used to hold compiler flags.  In cases where code is only
+being compiled, it is passed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span> <span class="pre">flags</span></code>, and in cases where code is being
+executed, it is passed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCompilerFlags</span> <span class="pre">*flags</span></code>.  In this case, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span></code> can modify <em>flags</em>.</p>
+<p>Whenever <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCompilerFlags</span> <span class="pre">*flags</span></code> is <em>NULL</em>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cf_flags</span></code> is treated as
+equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, and any modification due to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span></code> is
+discarded.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyCompilerFlags</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">cf_flags</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="var">
+<dt id="c.CO_FUTURE_DIVISION">
+int <code class="descname">CO_FUTURE_DIVISION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#c.CO_FUTURE_DIVISION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This bit can be set in <em>flags</em> to cause division operator <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> to be
+interpreted as “true division” according to <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238"><strong>PEP 238</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/weakref.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/weakref.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1eaec58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/c-api/weakref.html
@@ -0,0 +1,252 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Weak Reference Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+         |
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="weak-reference-objects">
+<span id="weakrefobjects"></span><h1>Weak Reference Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#weak-reference-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python supports <em>weak references</em> as first-class objects.  There are two
+specific object types which directly implement weak references.  The first is a
+simple reference object, and the second acts as a proxy for the original object
+as much as it can.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWeakref_Check">
+int <code class="descname">PyWeakref_Check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>ob<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWeakref_Check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is either a reference or proxy object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWeakref_CheckRef">
+int <code class="descname">PyWeakref_CheckRef</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>ob<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWeakref_CheckRef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is a reference object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWeakref_CheckProxy">
+int <code class="descname">PyWeakref_CheckProxy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>ob<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWeakref_CheckProxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>ob</em> is a proxy object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWeakref_NewRef">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyWeakref_NewRef</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWeakref_NewRef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a weak reference object for the object <em>ob</em>.  This will always return
+a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an existing
+reference object may be returned.  The second parameter, <em>callback</em>, can be a
+callable object that receives notification when <em>ob</em> is garbage collected; it
+should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
+itself. <em>callback</em> may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <em>NULL</em>.  If <em>ob</em> is not a
+weakly-referencable object, or if <em>callback</em> is not callable, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or
+<em>NULL</em>, this will return <em>NULL</em> and raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWeakref_NewProxy">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyWeakref_NewProxy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ob</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWeakref_NewProxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: New reference.</em><p>Return a weak reference proxy object for the object <em>ob</em>.  This will always
+return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an
+existing proxy object may be returned.  The second parameter, <em>callback</em>, can
+be a callable object that receives notification when <em>ob</em> is garbage
+collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak
+reference object itself. <em>callback</em> may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <em>NULL</em>.  If <em>ob</em>
+is not a weakly-referencable object, or if <em>callback</em> is not callable,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or <em>NULL</em>, this will return <em>NULL</em> and raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWeakref_GetObject">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyWeakref_GetObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ref</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWeakref_GetObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Return the referenced object from a weak reference, <em>ref</em>.  If the referent is
+no longer live, returns <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function returns a <strong>borrowed reference</strong> to the referenced object.
+This means that you should always call <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a> on the object
+except if you know that it cannot be destroyed while you are still
+using it.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT">
+<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a><em> *ref</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><em class="refcount">Return value: Borrowed reference.</em><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.PyWeakref_GetObject" title="PyWeakref_GetObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyWeakref_GetObject()</span></code></a>, but implemented as a macro that does no
+error checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release Highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-563-postponed-evaluation-of-annotations">PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-538-legacy-c-locale-coercion">PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-540-forced-utf-8-runtime-mode">PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-553-built-in-breakpoint">PEP 553: Built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-539-new-c-api-for-thread-local-storage">PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-562-customization-of-access-to-module-attributes">PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-564-new-time-functions-with-nanosecond-resolution">PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-565-show-deprecationwarning-in-main">PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-560-core-support-for-typing-module-and-generic-types">PEP 560: Core Support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module and Generic Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-552-hash-based-pyc-files">PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#pep-545-python-documentation-translations">PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#development-runtime-mode-x-dev">Development Runtime Mode: -X dev</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#distutils">distutils</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#unittest-mock">unittest.mock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#urllib-parse">urllib.parse</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#uu">uu</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#uuid">uuid</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#warnings">warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#xml">xml</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#xml-etree">xml.etree</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#xmlrpc-server">xmlrpc.server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#zipapp">zipapp</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#c-api-changes">C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#build-changes">Build Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#other-cpython-implementation-changes">Other CPython Implementation Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#deprecated-python-behavior">Deprecated Python Behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#aifc">aifc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated">asyncio</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id3">collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id4">dbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id5">enum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#gettext">gettext</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id6">importlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id7">locale</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#macpath">macpath</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id8">socket</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id9">ssl</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#sunau">sunau</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id10">sys</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#wave">wave</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">Deprecated functions and types of the C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#platform-support-removals">Platform Support Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#module-removals">Module Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#windows-only-changes">Windows-only Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#porting-to-python-3-7">Porting to Python 3.7</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#changes-in-python-behavior">Changes in Python Behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#cpython-bytecode-changes">CPython bytecode changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id12">Windows-only Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#id13">Other CPython implementation changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-1">Notable changes in Python 3.7.1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.7.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-2">Notable changes in Python 3.7.2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html">What’s New In Python 3.6</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-498-formatted-string-literals">PEP 498: Formatted string literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-526-syntax-for-variable-annotations">PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-515-underscores-in-numeric-literals">PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-525-asynchronous-generators">PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-530-asynchronous-comprehensions">PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-487-simpler-customization-of-class-creation">PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-487-descriptor-protocol-enhancements">PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-519-adding-a-file-system-path-protocol">PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-495-local-time-disambiguation">PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-529-change-windows-filesystem-encoding-to-utf-8">PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-528-change-windows-console-encoding-to-utf-8">PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-520-preserving-class-attribute-definition-order">PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-468-preserving-keyword-argument-order">PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#new-dict-implementation">New <span class="xref std std-ref">dict</span> implementation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pep-523-adding-a-frame-evaluation-api-to-cpython">PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pythonmalloc-environment-variable">PYTHONMALLOC environment variable</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#dtrace-and-systemtap-probing-support">DTrace and SystemTap probing support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#secrets">secrets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#array">array</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#ast">ast</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#asyncio">asyncio</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#binascii">binascii</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#cmath">cmath</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#concurrent-futures">concurrent.futures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#datetime">datetime</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#decimal">decimal</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#distutils">distutils</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#email">email</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#encodings">encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#enum">enum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#faulthandler">faulthandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#fileinput">fileinput</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#hashlib">hashlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#http-client">http.client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#idlelib-and-idle">idlelib and IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#importlib">importlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#json">json</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#math">math</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#os">os</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pathlib">pathlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pickletools">pickletools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#random">random</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#re">re</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#readline">readline</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#rlcompleter">rlcompleter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#shlex">shlex</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#site">site</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#socketserver">socketserver</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#statistics">statistics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#struct">struct</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#telnetlib">telnetlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#time">time</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#timeit">timeit</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#tkinter">tkinter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#traceback">traceback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#tracemalloc">tracemalloc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#typing">typing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#unicodedata">unicodedata</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#unittest-mock">unittest.mock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#urllib-request">urllib.request</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#urllib-robotparser">urllib.robotparser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#venv">venv</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#warnings">warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#winreg">winreg</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#winsound">winsound</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#xmlrpc-client">xmlrpc.client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#zlib">zlib</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#other-improvements">Other Improvements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#new-keywords">New Keywords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated-python-behavior">Deprecated Python behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#asynchat">asynchat</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#asyncore">asyncore</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#id2">distutils</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#grp">grp</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#id3">importlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#id4">os</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#id5">re</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#id6">ssl</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#id7">tkinter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#id8">venv</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">Deprecated functions and types of the C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated-build-options">Deprecated Build Options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#removed">Removed</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#porting-to-python-3-6">Porting to Python 3.6</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#changes-in-python-command-behavior">Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#cpython-bytecode-changes">CPython bytecode changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-2">Notable changes in Python 3.6.2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#new-make-regen-all-build-target">New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#removal-of-make-touch-build-target">Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-4">Notable changes in Python 3.6.4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-5">Notable changes in Python 3.6.5</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-7">Notable changes in Python 3.6.7</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html">What’s New In Python 3.5</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-492-coroutines-with-async-and-await-syntax">PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-465-a-dedicated-infix-operator-for-matrix-multiplication">PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-448-additional-unpacking-generalizations">PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-461-percent-formatting-support-for-bytes-and-bytearray">PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-484-type-hints">PEP 484 - Type Hints</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-471-os-scandir-function-a-better-and-faster-directory-iterator">PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr">PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators">PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-485-a-function-for-testing-approximate-equality">PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-486-make-the-python-launcher-aware-of-virtual-environments">PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-488-elimination-of-pyo-files">PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization">PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#typing">typing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#zipapp">zipapp</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#argparse">argparse</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#asyncio">asyncio</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#bz2">bz2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#cgi">cgi</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#cmath">cmath</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#code">code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#collections-abc">collections.abc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#compileall">compileall</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#concurrent-futures">concurrent.futures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#configparser">configparser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#csv">csv</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#curses">curses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#difflib">difflib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#distutils">distutils</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#doctest">doctest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#email">email</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#enum">enum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#faulthandler">faulthandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#glob">glob</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#gzip">gzip</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#heapq">heapq</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#http">http</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#http-client">http.client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#idlelib-and-idle">idlelib and IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#imaplib">imaplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#imghdr">imghdr</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#importlib">importlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#io">io</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#ipaddress">ipaddress</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#json">json</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#linecache">linecache</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#locale">locale</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#lzma">lzma</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#math">math</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#operator">operator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#os">os</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pathlib">pathlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#poplib">poplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#re">re</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#readline">readline</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#selectors">selectors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#signal">signal</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#smtpd">smtpd</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#smtplib">smtplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#sndhdr">sndhdr</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#ssl">ssl</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#memory-bio-support">Memory BIO Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#application-layer-protocol-negotiation-support">Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#other-changes">Other Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#sysconfig">sysconfig</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#time">time</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#timeit">timeit</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#tkinter">tkinter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#traceback">traceback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#types">types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#unicodedata">unicodedata</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#unittest-mock">unittest.mock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#urllib">urllib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#wsgiref">wsgiref</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#xmlrpc">xmlrpc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#xml-sax">xml.sax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#other-module-level-changes">Other module-level changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#new-keywords">New Keywords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#deprecated-python-behavior">Deprecated Python Behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#unsupported-operating-systems">Unsupported Operating Systems</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#removed">Removed</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#porting-to-python-3-5">Porting to Python 3.5</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#changes-in-python-behavior">Changes in Python behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-5-4">Notable changes in Python 3.5.4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#new-make-regen-all-build-target">New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.5.html#removal-of-make-touch-build-target">Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html">What’s New In Python 3.4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release Highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-453-explicit-bootstrapping-of-pip-in-python-installations">PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#bootstrapping-pip-by-default">Bootstrapping pip By Default</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#documentation-changes">Documentation Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-446-newly-created-file-descriptors-are-non-inheritable">PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#improvements-to-codec-handling">Improvements to Codec Handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-451-a-modulespec-type-for-the-import-system">PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#asyncio">asyncio</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#ensurepip">ensurepip</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#enum">enum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pathlib">pathlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#selectors">selectors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#statistics">statistics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#tracemalloc">tracemalloc</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#abc">abc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#aifc">aifc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#argparse">argparse</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#audioop">audioop</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#base64">base64</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#colorsys">colorsys</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#dis">dis</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#doctest">doctest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#email">email</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#filecmp">filecmp</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#gc">gc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#glob">glob</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#hashlib">hashlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#hmac">hmac</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#html">html</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#http">http</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#idlelib-and-idle">idlelib and IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#importlib">importlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#ipaddress">ipaddress</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#marshal">marshal</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#mmap">mmap</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#operator">operator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#os">os</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#plistlib">plistlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#poplib">poplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pprint">pprint</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pty">pty</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#re">re</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#resource">resource</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#select">select</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#shelve">shelve</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#smtpd">smtpd</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#smtplib">smtplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#stat">stat</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#struct">struct</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#sunau">sunau</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#textwrap">textwrap</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#traceback">traceback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#types">types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#urllib">urllib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#venv">venv</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#wave">wave</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#weakref">weakref</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#xml-etree">xml.etree</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#cpython-implementation-changes">CPython Implementation Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-445-customization-of-cpython-memory-allocators">PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-442-safe-object-finalization">PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-456-secure-and-interchangeable-hash-algorithm">PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-436-argument-clinic">PEP 436: Argument Clinic</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#other-build-and-c-api-changes">Other Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#other-improvements">Other Improvements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#significant-optimizations">Significant Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#deprecations-in-the-python-api">Deprecations in the Python API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#deprecated-features">Deprecated Features</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#removed">Removed</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#operating-systems-no-longer-supported">Operating Systems No Longer Supported</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#code-cleanups">Code Cleanups</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#porting-to-python-3-4">Porting to Python 3.4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#changes-in-python-command-behavior">Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#changed-in-3-4-3">Changed in 3.4.3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.4.html#pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients">PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html">What’s New In Python 3.3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-405-virtual-environments">PEP 405: Virtual Environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-420-implicit-namespace-packages">PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation">PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#features">Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#api-changes">API changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-393-flexible-string-representation">PEP 393: Flexible String Representation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#functionality">Functionality</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#performance-and-resource-usage">Performance and resource usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-397-python-launcher-for-windows">PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-3151-reworking-the-os-and-io-exception-hierarchy">PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-380-syntax-for-delegating-to-a-subgenerator">PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-409-suppressing-exception-context">PEP 409: Suppressing exception context</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-414-explicit-unicode-literals">PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-3155-qualified-name-for-classes-and-functions">PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-412-key-sharing-dictionary">PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-362-function-signature-object">PEP 362: Function Signature Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-421-adding-sys-implementation">PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#simplenamespace">SimpleNamespace</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#using-importlib-as-the-implementation-of-import">Using importlib as the Implementation of Import</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#new-apis">New APIs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#visible-changes">Visible Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#a-finer-grained-import-lock">A Finer-Grained Import Lock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#builtin-functions-and-types">Builtin functions and types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#faulthandler">faulthandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#ipaddress">ipaddress</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#lzma">lzma</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#abc">abc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#array">array</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#base64">base64</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#binascii">binascii</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#bz2">bz2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#codecs">codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#crypt">crypt</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#curses">curses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#datetime">datetime</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#decimal">decimal</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#id1">Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#id2">API changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#email">email</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#policy-framework">Policy Framework</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#provisional-policy-with-new-header-api">Provisional Policy with New Header API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#other-api-changes">Other API Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#ftplib">ftplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#gc">gc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#hmac">hmac</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#http">http</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#html">html</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#imaplib">imaplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#io">io</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#itertools">itertools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#math">math</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#mmap">mmap</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#nntplib">nntplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#os">os</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#re">re</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#sched">sched</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#select">select</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#shlex">shlex</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#signal">signal</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#smtpd">smtpd</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#smtplib">smtplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#socketserver">socketserver</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#stat">stat</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#struct">struct</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#tempfile">tempfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#textwrap">textwrap</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#time">time</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#types">types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#urllib">urllib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#webbrowser">webbrowser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#xml-etree-elementtree">xml.etree.ElementTree</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#zlib">zlib</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#unsupported-operating-systems">Unsupported Operating Systems</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">Deprecated functions and types of the C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#deprecated-features">Deprecated features</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#porting-to-python-3-3">Porting to Python 3.3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#porting-python-code">Porting Python code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#porting-c-code">Porting C code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#building-c-extensions">Building C extensions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.3.html#command-line-switch-changes">Command Line Switch Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html">What’s New In Python 3.2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi">PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module">PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">PEP 391:  Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module">PEP 3148:  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories">PEP 3147:  PYC Repository Directories</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files">PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1">PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#email">email</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#elementtree">elementtree</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#itertools">itertools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#datetime-and-time">datetime and time</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#math">math</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#abc">abc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#io">io</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#reprlib">reprlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#csv">csv</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#decimal-and-fractions">decimal and fractions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#ftp">ftp</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#popen">popen</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#select">select</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#gzip-and-zipfile">gzip and zipfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#hashlib">hashlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#ast">ast</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#os">os</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#html">html</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#nntp">nntp</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#certificates">certificates</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#imaplib">imaplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#http-client">http.client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#random">random</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#poplib">poplib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#asyncore">asyncore</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#tempfile">tempfile</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#dis">dis</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#ctypes">ctypes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#site">site</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#sysconfig">sysconfig</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#configparser">configparser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#urllib-parse">urllib.parse</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#mailbox">mailbox</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#turtledemo">turtledemo</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#unicode">Unicode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#codecs">Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#documentation">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#code-repository">Code Repository</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.2.html#porting-to-python-3-2">Porting to Python 3.2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html">What’s New In Python 3.1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#pep-372-ordered-dictionaries">PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.1.html#porting-to-python-3-1">Porting to Python 3.1</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html">What’s New In Python 3.0</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#common-stumbling-blocks">Common Stumbling Blocks</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#print-is-a-function">Print Is A Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#views-and-iterators-instead-of-lists">Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#ordering-comparisons">Ordering Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#integers">Integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#text-vs-data-instead-of-unicode-vs-8-bit">Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#overview-of-syntax-changes">Overview Of Syntax Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#new-syntax">New Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#changed-syntax">Changed Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#removed-syntax">Removed Syntax</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#changes-already-present-in-python-2-6">Changes Already Present In Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#library-changes">Library Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#pep-3101-a-new-approach-to-string-formatting"><strong>PEP 3101</strong>: A New Approach To String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#changes-to-exceptions">Changes To Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#miscellaneous-other-changes">Miscellaneous Other Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#operators-and-special-methods">Operators And Special Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#builtins">Builtins</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/3.0.html#porting-to-python-3-0">Porting To Python 3.0</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html">What’s New in Python 2.7</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#the-future-for-python-2-x">The Future for Python 2.x</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#changes-to-the-handling-of-deprecation-warnings">Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#python-3-1-features">Python 3.1 Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-372-adding-an-ordered-dictionary-to-collections">PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-389-the-argparse-module-for-parsing-command-lines">PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-3106-dictionary-views">PEP 3106: Dictionary Views</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-3137-the-memoryview-object">PEP 3137: The memoryview Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#interpreter-changes">Interpreter Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#new-module-importlib">New module: importlib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#new-module-sysconfig">New module: sysconfig</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#ttk-themed-widgets-for-tk">ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#updated-module-unittest">Updated module: unittest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#updated-module-elementtree-1-3">Updated module: ElementTree 1.3</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#capsules">Capsules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#port-specific-changes-windows">Port-Specific Changes: Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#port-specific-changes-mac-os-x">Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#port-specific-changes-freebsd">Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#porting-to-python-2-7">Porting to Python 2.7</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#new-features-added-to-python-2-7-maintenance-releases">New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#two-new-environment-variables-for-debug-mode">Two new environment variables for debug mode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-434-idle-enhancement-exception-for-all-branches">PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-466-network-security-enhancements-for-python-2-7">PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-477-backport-ensurepip-pep-453-to-python-2-7">PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#bootstrapping-pip-by-default">Bootstrapping pip By Default</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#documentation-changes">Documentation Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients">PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#pep-493-https-verification-migration-tools-for-python-2-7">PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#new-make-regen-all-build-target">New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#removal-of-make-touch-build-target">Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.7.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html">What’s New in Python 2.6</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#python-3-0">Python 3.0</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#changes-to-the-development-process">Changes to the Development Process</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#new-issue-tracker-roundup">New Issue Tracker: Roundup</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#new-documentation-format-restructuredtext-using-sphinx">New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-343-the-with-statement">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#writing-context-managers">Writing Context Managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#the-contextlib-module">The contextlib module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-366-explicit-relative-imports-from-a-main-module">PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-370-per-user-site-packages-directory">PEP 370: Per-user <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site-packages</span></code> Directory</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-371-the-multiprocessing-package">PEP 371: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> Package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3101-advanced-string-formatting">PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3105-print-as-a-function">PEP 3105: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> As a Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3110-exception-handling-changes">PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3112-byte-literals">PEP 3112: Byte Literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3116-new-i-o-library">PEP 3116: New I/O Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol">PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3119-abstract-base-classes">PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3127-integer-literal-support-and-syntax">PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3129-class-decorators">PEP 3129: Class Decorators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#pep-3141-a-type-hierarchy-for-numbers">PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#the-fractions-module">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code> Module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#interpreter-changes">Interpreter Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#the-ast-module">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#the-future-builtins-module">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">future_builtins</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#the-json-module-javascript-object-notation">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code> module: JavaScript Object Notation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#the-plistlib-module-a-property-list-parser">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code> module: A Property-List Parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#ctypes-enhancements">ctypes Enhancements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#improved-ssl-support">Improved SSL Support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#deprecations-and-removals">Deprecations and Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#port-specific-changes-windows">Port-Specific Changes: Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#port-specific-changes-mac-os-x">Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#port-specific-changes-irix">Port-Specific Changes: IRIX</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#porting-to-python-2-6">Porting to Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.6.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html">What’s New in Python 2.5</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-308-conditional-expressions">PEP 308: Conditional Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-309-partial-function-application">PEP 309: Partial Function Application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-314-metadata-for-python-software-packages-v1-1">PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-328-absolute-and-relative-imports">PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts">PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-341-unified-try-except-finally">PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-342-new-generator-features">PEP 342: New Generator Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-343-the-with-statement">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#writing-context-managers">Writing Context Managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#the-contextlib-module">The contextlib module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-352-exceptions-as-new-style-classes">PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-353-using-ssize-t-as-the-index-type">PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#pep-357-the-index-method">PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#interactive-interpreter-changes">Interactive Interpreter Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#new-improved-and-removed-modules">New, Improved, and Removed Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#the-ctypes-package">The ctypes package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#the-elementtree-package">The ElementTree package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#the-hashlib-package">The hashlib package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#the-sqlite3-package">The sqlite3 package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#the-wsgiref-package">The wsgiref package</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#port-specific-changes">Port-Specific Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#porting-to-python-2-5">Porting to Python 2.5</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.5.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html">What’s New in Python 2.4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-218-built-in-set-objects">PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-289-generator-expressions">PEP 289: Generator Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-292-simpler-string-substitutions">PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-318-decorators-for-functions-and-methods">PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-322-reverse-iteration">PEP 322: Reverse Iteration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-324-new-subprocess-module">PEP 324: New subprocess Module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-327-decimal-data-type">PEP 327: Decimal Data Type</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#why-is-decimal-needed">Why is Decimal needed?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#the-decimal-type">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#the-context-type">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code> type</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-328-multi-line-imports">PEP 328: Multi-line Imports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#pep-331-locale-independent-float-string-conversions">PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#cookielib">cookielib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#doctest">doctest</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#port-specific-changes">Port-Specific Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#porting-to-python-2-4">Porting to Python 2.4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.4.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html">What’s New in Python 2.3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-218-a-standard-set-datatype">PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-255-simple-generators">PEP 255: Simple Generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-263-source-code-encodings">PEP 263: Source Code Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives">PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt">PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-278-universal-newline-support">PEP 278: Universal Newline Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-279-enumerate">PEP 279: enumerate()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-282-the-logging-package">PEP 282: The logging Package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-285-a-boolean-type">PEP 285: A Boolean Type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks">PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-301-package-index-and-metadata-for-distutils">PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-302-new-import-hooks">PEP 302: New Import Hooks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-305-comma-separated-files">PEP 305: Comma-separated Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pep-307-pickle-enhancements">PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#extended-slices">Extended Slices</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#string-changes">String Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#date-time-type">Date/Time Type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#the-optparse-module">The optparse Module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#pymalloc-a-specialized-object-allocator">Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#port-specific-changes">Port-Specific Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#porting-to-python-2-3">Porting to Python 2.3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.3.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html">What’s New in Python 2.2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#peps-252-and-253-type-and-class-changes">PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#old-and-new-classes">Old and New Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#descriptors">Descriptors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#multiple-inheritance-the-diamond-rule">Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#attribute-access">Attribute Access</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#related-links">Related Links</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#pep-234-iterators">PEP 234: Iterators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#pep-255-simple-generators">PEP 255: Simple Generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#pep-238-changing-the-division-operator">PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#unicode-changes">Unicode Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#pep-227-nested-scopes">PEP 227: Nested Scopes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#interpreter-changes-and-fixes">Interpreter Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.2.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html">What’s New in Python 2.1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-227-nested-scopes">PEP 227: Nested Scopes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-236-future-directives">PEP 236: __future__ Directives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-207-rich-comparisons">PEP 207: Rich Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-230-warning-framework">PEP 230: Warning Framework</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-229-new-build-system">PEP 229: New Build System</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-205-weak-references">PEP 205: Weak References</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-232-function-attributes">PEP 232: Function Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-235-importing-modules-on-case-insensitive-platforms">PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-217-interactive-display-hook">PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-208-new-coercion-model">PEP 208: New Coercion Model</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#pep-241-metadata-in-python-packages">PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.1.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html">What’s New in Python 2.0</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#what-about-python-1-6">What About Python 1.6?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#new-development-process">New Development Process</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#unicode">Unicode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#list-comprehensions">List Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#augmented-assignment">Augmented Assignment</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#string-methods">String Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#garbage-collection-of-cycles">Garbage Collection of Cycles</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#other-core-changes">Other Core Changes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#minor-language-changes">Minor Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#changes-to-built-in-functions">Changes to Built-in Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#porting-to-2-0">Porting to 2.0</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#extending-embedding-changes">Extending/Embedding Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#distutils-making-modules-easy-to-install">Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#xml-modules">XML Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#sax2-support">SAX2 Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#dom-support">DOM Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#relationship-to-pyxml">Relationship to PyXML</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#module-changes">Module changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#new-modules">New modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#idle-improvements">IDLE Improvements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#deleted-and-deprecated-modules">Deleted and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/2.0.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html">Changelog</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-next">Python next</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#core-and-builtins">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#library">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#documentation">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#tests">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#windows">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-4-final">Python 3.7.4 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id2">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id3">Documentation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-4-release-candidate-2">Python 3.7.4 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#security">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id4">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id5">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id6">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#macos">macOS</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.4 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id7">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id8">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id9">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id10">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id11">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#build">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id12">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id13">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id14">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#tools-demos">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#c-api">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-3-final">Python 3.7.3 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.3 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id15">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id16">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id17">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id18">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id19">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id20">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id21">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id22">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id23">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id24">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-2-final">Python 3.7.2 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id25">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id26">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id27">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.2 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id28">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id29">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id30">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id31">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id32">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id33">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id34">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id35">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id36">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id37">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id38">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-1-final">Python 3.7.1 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id39">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-1-release-candidate-2">Python 3.7.1 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id40">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id41">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id42">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id43">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id44">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id45">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.1 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id46">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id47">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id48">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id49">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id50">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id51">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id52">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id53">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id54">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id55">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id56">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-final">Python 3.7.0 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id57">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id58">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id59">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id60">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id61">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id62">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id63">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id64">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-5">Python 3.7.0 beta 5</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id65">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id66">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id67">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id68">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id69">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id70">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id71">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-4">Python 3.7.0 beta 4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id72">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id73">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id74">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id75">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id76">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id77">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id78">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id79">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id80">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-3">Python 3.7.0 beta 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id81">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id82">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id83">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id84">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id85">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id86">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id87">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id88">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id89">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id90">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id91">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-2">Python 3.7.0 beta 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id92">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id93">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id94">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id95">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id96">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id97">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id98">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id99">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id100">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id101">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-1">Python 3.7.0 beta 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id102">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id103">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id104">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id105">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id106">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id107">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id108">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id109">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-4">Python 3.7.0 alpha 4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id110">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id111">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id112">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id113">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id114">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id115">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id116">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-3">Python 3.7.0 alpha 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id117">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id118">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id119">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id120">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id121">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id122">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id123">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id124">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id125">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id126">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-2">Python 3.7.0 alpha 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id127">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id128">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id129">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id130">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id131">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id132">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-1">Python 3.7.0 alpha 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id133">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id134">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id135">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id136">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id137">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id138">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id139">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id140">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id141">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id142">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-6-final">Python 3.6.6 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-6-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id143">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id144">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id145">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id146">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id147">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id148">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id149">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id150">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id151">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id152">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-5-final">Python 3.6.5 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id153">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id154">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-5-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id155">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id156">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id157">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id158">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id159">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id160">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id161">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id162">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id163">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id164">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id165">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-4-final">Python 3.6.4 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id166">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id167">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id168">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id169">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id170">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id171">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id172">macOS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id173">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id174">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id175">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-3-final">Python 3.6.3 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id176">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id177">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id178">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id179">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id180">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id181">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id182">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id183">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id184">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id185">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id186">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-2-final">Python 3.6.2 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-2">Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id187">Security</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id188">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id189">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id190">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id191">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id192">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id193">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id194">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id195">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id196">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id197">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id198">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-1-final">Python 3.6.1 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id199">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id200">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id201">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id202">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id203">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id204">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id205">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id206">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id207">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id208">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-final">Python 3.6.0 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-2">Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id209">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id210">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id211">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id212">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id213">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id214">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id215">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id216">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id217">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-4">Python 3.6.0 beta 4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id218">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id219">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id220">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id221">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id222">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-3">Python 3.6.0 beta 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id223">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id224">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id225">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id226">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id227">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-2">Python 3.6.0 beta 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id228">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id229">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id230">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id231">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id232">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id233">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-1">Python 3.6.0 beta 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id234">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id235">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id236">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id237">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id238">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id239">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id240">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id241">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-4">Python 3.6.0 alpha 4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id242">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id243">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id244">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id245">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id246">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id247">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-3">Python 3.6.0 alpha 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id248">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id249">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id250">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id251">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id252">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id253">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id254">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id255">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id256">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id257">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id258">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id259">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-2">Python 3.6.0 alpha 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id260">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id261">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id262">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id263">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id264">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id265">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id266">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id267">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id268">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id269">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id270">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id271">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id272">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id273">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-1">Python 3.6.0 alpha 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id274">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id275">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id276">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id277">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id278">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id279">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id280">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id281">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id282">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id283">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id284">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id285">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id286">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id287">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id288">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-5-final">Python 3.5.5 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-5-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id289">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id290">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id291">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-4-final">Python 3.5.4 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id292">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id293">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id294">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id295">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id296">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id297">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id298">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id299">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id300">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-3-final">Python 3.5.3 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id301">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id302">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id303">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id304">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id305">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id306">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id307">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id308">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id309">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id310">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id311">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id312">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id313">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-2-final">Python 3.5.2 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id314">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id315">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id316">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id317">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id318">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id319">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id320">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id321">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id322">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id323">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id324">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id325">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id326">Security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id327">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id328">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id329">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id330">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id331">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id332">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id333">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id334">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-1-final">Python 3.5.1 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id335">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id336">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id337">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id338">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id339">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id340">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id341">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id342">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id343">Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id344">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-final">Python 3.5.0 final</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id345">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-4">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id346">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id347">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-3">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id348">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id349">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-2">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id350">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id351">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id352">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id353">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id354">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id355">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id356">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-4">Python 3.5.0 beta 4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id357">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id358">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id359">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-3">Python 3.5.0 beta 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id360">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id361">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id362">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id363">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id364">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-2">Python 3.5.0 beta 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id365">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id366">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-1">Python 3.5.0 beta 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id367">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id368">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id369">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id370">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id371">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id372">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-4">Python 3.5.0 alpha 4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id373">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id374">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id375">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id376">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id377">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id378">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-3">Python 3.5.0 alpha 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id379">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id380">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id381">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id382">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id383">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-2">Python 3.5.0 alpha 2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id384">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id385">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id386">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id387">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id388">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-1">Python 3.5.0 alpha 1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id389">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id390">Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id391">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id392">Build</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id393">C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id394">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id395">Tests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id396">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="whatsnew/changelog.html#id397">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/index.html">The Python Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/appetite.html">1. Whetting Your Appetite</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interpreter.html">2. Using the Python Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interpreter.html#invoking-the-interpreter">2.1. Invoking the Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interpreter.html#argument-passing">2.1.1. Argument Passing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interpreter.html#interactive-mode">2.1.2. Interactive Mode</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interpreter.html#the-interpreter-and-its-environment">2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interpreter.html#source-code-encoding">2.2.1. Source Code Encoding</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/introduction.html">3. An Informal Introduction to Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/introduction.html#using-python-as-a-calculator">3.1. Using Python as a Calculator</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/introduction.html#numbers">3.1.1. Numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/introduction.html#strings">3.1.2. Strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/introduction.html#lists">3.1.3. Lists</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/introduction.html#first-steps-towards-programming">3.2. First Steps Towards Programming</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html">4. More Control Flow Tools</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#if-statements">4.1. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#for-statements">4.2. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#the-range-function">4.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code> Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops">4.4. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> Statements, and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> Clauses on Loops</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#pass-statements">4.5. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#defining-functions">4.6. Defining Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#more-on-defining-functions">4.7. More on Defining Functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#default-argument-values">4.7.1. Default Argument Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#keyword-arguments">4.7.2. Keyword Arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#arbitrary-argument-lists">4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#unpacking-argument-lists">4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#lambda-expressions">4.7.5. Lambda Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#documentation-strings">4.7.6. Documentation Strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#function-annotations">4.7.7. Function Annotations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/controlflow.html#intermezzo-coding-style">4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html">5. Data Structures</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-lists">5.1. More on Lists</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#using-lists-as-stacks">5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#using-lists-as-queues">5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#list-comprehensions">5.1.3. List Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#nested-list-comprehensions">5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#the-del-statement">5.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#tuples-and-sequences">5.3. Tuples and Sequences</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#sets">5.4. Sets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#dictionaries">5.5. Dictionaries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#looping-techniques">5.6. Looping Techniques</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-conditions">5.7. More on Conditions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/datastructures.html#comparing-sequences-and-other-types">5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html">6. Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#more-on-modules">6.1. More on Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#executing-modules-as-scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#the-module-search-path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#compiled-python-files">6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#standard-modules">6.2. Standard Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#the-dir-function">6.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code> Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#packages">6.4. Packages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#importing-from-a-package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#intra-package-references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/modules.html#packages-in-multiple-directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html">7. Input and Output</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#fancier-output-formatting">7.1. Fancier Output Formatting</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#formatted-string-literals">7.1.1. Formatted String Literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#the-string-format-method">7.1.2. The String format() Method</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#manual-string-formatting">7.1.3. Manual String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#old-string-formatting">7.1.4. Old string formatting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#reading-and-writing-files">7.2. Reading and Writing Files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#methods-of-file-objects">7.2.1. Methods of File Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#saving-structured-data-with-json">7.2.2. Saving structured data with <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html">8. Errors and Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html#syntax-errors">8.1. Syntax Errors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html#exceptions">8.2. Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html#handling-exceptions">8.3. Handling Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html#raising-exceptions">8.4. Raising Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html#user-defined-exceptions">8.5. User-defined Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html#defining-clean-up-actions">8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/errors.html#predefined-clean-up-actions">8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html">9. Classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#a-word-about-names-and-objects">9.1. A Word About Names and Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#python-scopes-and-namespaces">9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#scopes-and-namespaces-example">9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#a-first-look-at-classes">9.3. A First Look at Classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#class-definition-syntax">9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#class-objects">9.3.2. Class Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#instance-objects">9.3.3. Instance Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#method-objects">9.3.4. Method Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#class-and-instance-variables">9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#random-remarks">9.4. Random Remarks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#inheritance">9.5. Inheritance</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#multiple-inheritance">9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#private-variables">9.6. Private Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#odds-and-ends">9.7. Odds and Ends</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#iterators">9.8. Iterators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#generators">9.9. Generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/classes.html#generator-expressions">9.10. Generator Expressions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html">10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#operating-system-interface">10.1. Operating System Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#file-wildcards">10.2. File Wildcards</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#command-line-arguments">10.3. Command Line Arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#error-output-redirection-and-program-termination">10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#string-pattern-matching">10.5. String Pattern Matching</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#mathematics">10.6. Mathematics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#internet-access">10.7. Internet Access</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#dates-and-times">10.8. Dates and Times</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#data-compression">10.9. Data Compression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#performance-measurement">10.10. Performance Measurement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#quality-control">10.11. Quality Control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib.html#batteries-included">10.12. Batteries Included</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html">11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#output-formatting">11.1. Output Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#templating">11.2. Templating</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#working-with-binary-data-record-layouts">11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#multi-threading">11.4. Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#logging">11.5. Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#weak-references">11.6. Weak References</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#tools-for-working-with-lists">11.7. Tools for Working with Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/stdlib2.html#decimal-floating-point-arithmetic">11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/venv.html">12. Virtual Environments and Packages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/venv.html#introduction">12.1. Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/venv.html#creating-virtual-environments">12.2. Creating Virtual Environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/venv.html#managing-packages-with-pip">12.3. Managing Packages with pip</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/whatnow.html">13. What Now?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interactive.html">14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interactive.html#tab-completion-and-history-editing">14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/interactive.html#alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreter">14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/floatingpoint.html">15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/floatingpoint.html#representation-error">15.1. Representation Error</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/appendix.html">16. Appendix</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/appendix.html#interactive-mode">16.1. Interactive Mode</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/appendix.html#error-handling">16.1.1. Error Handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/appendix.html#executable-python-scripts">16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/appendix.html#the-interactive-startup-file">16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="tutorial/appendix.html#the-customization-modules">16.1.4. The Customization Modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="using/index.html">Python Setup and Usage</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html">1. Command line and environment</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html#command-line">1.1. Command line</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html#interface-options">1.1.1. Interface options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html#generic-options">1.1.2. Generic options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html#miscellaneous-options">1.1.3. Miscellaneous options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html#options-you-shouldn-t-use">1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html#environment-variables">1.2. Environment variables</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/cmdline.html#debug-mode-variables">1.2.1. Debug-mode variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html">2. Using Python on Unix platforms</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#getting-and-installing-the-latest-version-of-python">2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#on-linux">2.1.1. On Linux</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#on-freebsd-and-openbsd">2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#on-opensolaris">2.1.3. On OpenSolaris</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#building-python">2.2. Building Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#python-related-paths-and-files">2.3. Python-related paths and files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#miscellaneous">2.4. Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/unix.html#editors-and-ides">2.5. Editors and IDEs</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html">3. Using Python on Windows</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#the-full-installer">3.1. The full installer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#installation-steps">3.1.1. Installation steps</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#removing-the-max-path-limitation">3.1.2. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#installing-without-ui">3.1.3. Installing Without UI</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#installing-without-downloading">3.1.4. Installing Without Downloading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#modifying-an-install">3.1.5. Modifying an install</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#the-microsoft-store-package">3.2. The Microsoft Store package</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#known-issues">3.2.1. Known Issues</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#the-nuget-org-packages">3.3. The nuget.org packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#the-embeddable-package">3.4. The embeddable package</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#python-application">3.4.1. Python Application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#embedding-python">3.4.2. Embedding Python</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#alternative-bundles">3.5. Alternative bundles</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#configuring-python">3.6. Configuring Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#excursus-setting-environment-variables">3.6.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#finding-the-python-executable">3.6.2. Finding the Python executable</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#python-launcher-for-windows">3.7. Python Launcher for Windows</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#getting-started">3.7.1. Getting started</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#from-the-command-line">3.7.1.1. From the command-line</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#virtual-environments">3.7.1.2. Virtual environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#from-a-script">3.7.1.3. From a script</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#from-file-associations">3.7.1.4. From file associations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#shebang-lines">3.7.2. Shebang Lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#arguments-in-shebang-lines">3.7.3. Arguments in shebang lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#customization">3.7.4. Customization</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#customization-via-ini-files">3.7.4.1. Customization via INI files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#customizing-default-python-versions">3.7.4.2. Customizing default Python versions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#diagnostics">3.7.5. Diagnostics</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#finding-modules">3.8. Finding modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#additional-modules">3.9. Additional modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#pywin32">3.9.1. PyWin32</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#cx-freeze">3.9.2. cx_Freeze</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#wconio">3.9.3. WConio</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#compiling-python-on-windows">3.10. Compiling Python on Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/windows.html#other-platforms">3.11. Other Platforms</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html">4. Using Python on a Macintosh</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#getting-and-installing-macpython">4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#how-to-run-a-python-script">4.1.1. How to run a Python script</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#running-scripts-with-a-gui">4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#configuration">4.1.3. Configuration</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#the-ide">4.2. The IDE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#installing-additional-python-packages">4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#gui-programming-on-the-mac">4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#distributing-python-applications-on-the-mac">4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="using/mac.html#other-resources">4.6. Other Resources</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/index.html">The Python Language Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/introduction.html">1. Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/introduction.html#alternate-implementations">1.1. Alternate Implementations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/introduction.html#notation">1.2. Notation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html">2. Lexical analysis</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#line-structure">2.1. Line structure</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#logical-lines">2.1.1. Logical lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#physical-lines">2.1.2. Physical lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#comments">2.1.3. Comments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#encoding-declarations">2.1.4. Encoding declarations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#explicit-line-joining">2.1.5. Explicit line joining</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#implicit-line-joining">2.1.6. Implicit line joining</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#blank-lines">2.1.7. Blank lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#indentation">2.1.8. Indentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#whitespace-between-tokens">2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#other-tokens">2.2. Other tokens</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#identifiers">2.3. Identifiers and keywords</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#keywords">2.3.1. Keywords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#reserved-classes-of-identifiers">2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#literals">2.4. Literals</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#string-and-bytes-literals">2.4.1. String and Bytes literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#string-literal-concatenation">2.4.2. String literal concatenation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#formatted-string-literals">2.4.3. Formatted string literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#numeric-literals">2.4.4. Numeric literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#integer-literals">2.4.5. Integer literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#floating-point-literals">2.4.6. Floating point literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#imaginary-literals">2.4.7. Imaginary literals</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#operators">2.5. Operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#delimiters">2.6. Delimiters</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html">3. Data model</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#objects-values-and-types">3.1. Objects, values and types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#the-standard-type-hierarchy">3.2. The standard type hierarchy</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#special-method-names">3.3. Special method names</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#basic-customization">3.3.1. Basic customization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#customizing-attribute-access">3.3.2. Customizing attribute access</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#customizing-module-attribute-access">3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#implementing-descriptors">3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#invoking-descriptors">3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#slots">3.3.2.4. __slots__</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#notes-on-using-slots">3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using <em>__slots__</em></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#customizing-class-creation">3.3.3. Customizing class creation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#metaclasses">3.3.3.1. Metaclasses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#resolving-mro-entries">3.3.3.2. Resolving MRO entries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#determining-the-appropriate-metaclass">3.3.3.3. Determining the appropriate metaclass</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#preparing-the-class-namespace">3.3.3.4. Preparing the class namespace</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#executing-the-class-body">3.3.3.5. Executing the class body</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#creating-the-class-object">3.3.3.6. Creating the class object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#uses-for-metaclasses">3.3.3.7. Uses for metaclasses</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#customizing-instance-and-subclass-checks">3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#emulating-generic-types">3.3.5. Emulating generic types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#emulating-callable-objects">3.3.6. Emulating callable objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#emulating-container-types">3.3.7. Emulating container types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#emulating-numeric-types">3.3.8. Emulating numeric types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#with-statement-context-managers">3.3.9. With Statement Context Managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#special-method-lookup">3.3.10. Special method lookup</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutines">3.4. Coroutines</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#awaitable-objects">3.4.1. Awaitable Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutine-objects">3.4.2. Coroutine Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#asynchronous-iterators">3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#asynchronous-context-managers">3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html">4. Execution model</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html#structure-of-a-program">4.1. Structure of a program</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html#naming-and-binding">4.2. Naming and binding</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html#binding-of-names">4.2.1. Binding of names</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html#resolution-of-names">4.2.2. Resolution of names</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html#builtins-and-restricted-execution">4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html#interaction-with-dynamic-features">4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/executionmodel.html#exceptions">4.3. Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html">5. The import system</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#importlib">5.1. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#packages">5.2. Packages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#regular-packages">5.2.1. Regular packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#namespace-packages">5.2.2. Namespace packages</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#searching">5.3. Searching</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#the-module-cache">5.3.1. The module cache</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#finders-and-loaders">5.3.2. Finders and loaders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#import-hooks">5.3.3. Import hooks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#the-meta-path">5.3.4. The meta path</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#loading">5.4. Loading</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#loaders">5.4.1. Loaders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#submodules">5.4.2. Submodules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#module-spec">5.4.3. Module spec</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#import-related-module-attributes">5.4.4. Import-related module attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#module-path">5.4.5. module.__path__</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#module-reprs">5.4.6. Module reprs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#cached-bytecode-invalidation">5.4.7. Cached bytecode invalidation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#the-path-based-finder">5.5. The Path Based Finder</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#path-entry-finders">5.5.1. Path entry finders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#path-entry-finder-protocol">5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#replacing-the-standard-import-system">5.6. Replacing the standard import system</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#package-relative-imports">5.7. Package Relative Imports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#special-considerations-for-main">5.8. Special considerations for __main__</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#main-spec">5.8.1. __main__.__spec__</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#open-issues">5.9. Open issues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#references">5.10. References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html">6. Expressions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#arithmetic-conversions">6.1. Arithmetic conversions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#atoms">6.2. Atoms</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#atom-identifiers">6.2.1. Identifiers (Names)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#literals">6.2.2. Literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#parenthesized-forms">6.2.3. Parenthesized forms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#displays-for-lists-sets-and-dictionaries">6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#list-displays">6.2.5. List displays</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#set-displays">6.2.6. Set displays</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#dictionary-displays">6.2.7. Dictionary displays</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#generator-expressions">6.2.8. Generator expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#yield-expressions">6.2.9. Yield expressions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#generator-iterator-methods">6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#examples">6.2.9.2. Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#asynchronous-generator-functions">6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#asynchronous-generator-iterator-methods">6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#primaries">6.3. Primaries</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#attribute-references">6.3.1. Attribute references</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#subscriptions">6.3.2. Subscriptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#slicings">6.3.3. Slicings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#calls">6.3.4. Calls</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#await-expression">6.4. Await expression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#the-power-operator">6.5. The power operator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations">6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#binary-arithmetic-operations">6.7. Binary arithmetic operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#shifting-operations">6.8. Shifting operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#binary-bitwise-operations">6.9. Binary bitwise operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#comparisons">6.10. Comparisons</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#value-comparisons">6.10.1. Value comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#membership-test-operations">6.10.2. Membership test operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#is-not">6.10.3. Identity comparisons</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#boolean-operations">6.11. Boolean operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#conditional-expressions">6.12. Conditional expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#lambda">6.13. Lambdas</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#expression-lists">6.14. Expression lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#evaluation-order">6.15. Evaluation order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#operator-precedence">6.16. Operator precedence</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html">7. Simple statements</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#expression-statements">7.1. Expression statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#assignment-statements">7.2. Assignment statements</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#augmented-assignment-statements">7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#annotated-assignment-statements">7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-assert-statement">7.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-pass-statement">7.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-del-statement">7.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-return-statement">7.6. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-yield-statement">7.7. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-raise-statement">7.8. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-break-statement">7.9. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-continue-statement">7.10. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-import-statement">7.11. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#future-statements">7.11.1. Future statements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-global-statement">7.12. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#the-nonlocal-statement">7.13. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html">8. Compound statements</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#the-if-statement">8.1. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#the-while-statement">8.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#the-for-statement">8.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#the-try-statement">8.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#the-with-statement">8.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#function-definitions">8.6. Function definitions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#class-definitions">8.7. Class definitions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#coroutines">8.8. Coroutines</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#coroutine-function-definition">8.8.1. Coroutine function definition</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#the-async-for-statement">8.8.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#the-async-with-statement">8.8.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/toplevel_components.html">9. Top-level components</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/toplevel_components.html#complete-python-programs">9.1. Complete Python programs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/toplevel_components.html#file-input">9.2. File input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/toplevel_components.html#interactive-input">9.3. Interactive input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/toplevel_components.html#expression-input">9.4. Expression input</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reference/grammar.html">10. Full Grammar specification</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="library/index.html">The Python Standard Library</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/intro.html">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/intro.html#notes-on-availability">Notes on availability</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html">Built-in Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/constants.html">Built-in Constants</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/constants.html#constants-added-by-the-site-module">Constants added by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html">Built-in Types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#truth-value-testing">Truth Value Testing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#boolean-operations-and-or-not">Boolean Operations — <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#numeric-types-int-float-complex">Numeric Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types">Bitwise Operations on Integer Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#additional-methods-on-integer-types">Additional Methods on Integer Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#additional-methods-on-float">Additional Methods on Float</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#hashing-of-numeric-types">Hashing of numeric types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#iterator-types">Iterator Types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#generator-types">Generator Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#sequence-types-list-tuple-range">Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#common-sequence-operations">Common Sequence Operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#immutable-sequence-types">Immutable Sequence Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#mutable-sequence-types">Mutable Sequence Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#lists">Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#tuples">Tuples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#ranges">Ranges</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#text-sequence-type-str">Text Sequence Type — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#string-methods">String Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#printf-style-string-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code>-style String Formatting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview">Binary Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes-objects">Bytes Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray-objects">Bytearray Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes-and-bytearray-operations">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#printf-style-bytes-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code>-style Bytes Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#memory-views">Memory Views</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#set-types-set-frozenset">Set Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#mapping-types-dict">Mapping Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dictionary-view-objects">Dictionary view objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#context-manager-types">Context Manager Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#other-built-in-types">Other Built-in Types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#modules">Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#classes-and-class-instances">Classes and Class Instances</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#methods">Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#code-objects">Code Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#type-objects">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#the-null-object">The Null Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#the-ellipsis-object">The Ellipsis Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#the-notimplemented-object">The NotImplemented Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#boolean-values">Boolean Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#internal-objects">Internal Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#special-attributes">Special Attributes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html">Built-in Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#base-classes">Base classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#concrete-exceptions">Concrete exceptions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#os-exceptions">OS exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#warnings">Warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#exception-hierarchy">Exception hierarchy</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/text.html">Text Processing Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code> — Common string operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html#string-constants">String constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html#custom-string-formatting">Custom String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html#format-string-syntax">Format String Syntax</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html#format-specification-mini-language">Format Specification Mini-Language</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html#format-examples">Format examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html#template-strings">Template strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/string.html#helper-functions">Helper functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code> — Regular expression operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#regular-expression-syntax">Regular Expression Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#regular-expression-objects">Regular Expression Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#match-objects">Match Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#regular-expression-examples">Regular Expression Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#checking-for-a-pair">Checking for a Pair</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#simulating-scanf">Simulating scanf()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#search-vs-match">search() vs. match()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#making-a-phonebook">Making a Phonebook</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#text-munging">Text Munging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#finding-all-adverbs">Finding all Adverbs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#finding-all-adverbs-and-their-positions">Finding all Adverbs and their Positions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#raw-string-notation">Raw String Notation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/re.html#writing-a-tokenizer">Writing a Tokenizer</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/difflib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code> — Helpers for computing deltas</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/difflib.html#sequencematcher-objects">SequenceMatcher Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/difflib.html#sequencematcher-examples">SequenceMatcher Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/difflib.html#differ-objects">Differ Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/difflib.html#differ-example">Differ Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/difflib.html#a-command-line-interface-to-difflib">A command-line interface to difflib</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/textwrap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code> — Text wrapping and filling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unicodedata.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code> — Unicode Database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stringprep.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code> — Internet String Preparation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code> — GNU readline interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html#init-file">Init file</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html#line-buffer">Line buffer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html#history-file">History file</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html#history-list">History list</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html#startup-hooks">Startup hooks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html#completion">Completion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/readline.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/rlcompleter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code> — Completion function for GNU readline</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/rlcompleter.html#completer-objects">Completer Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/binary.html">Binary Data Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/struct.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code> — Interpret bytes as packed binary data</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/struct.html#functions-and-exceptions">Functions and Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/struct.html#format-strings">Format Strings</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/struct.html#byte-order-size-and-alignment">Byte Order, Size, and Alignment</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/struct.html#format-characters">Format Characters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/struct.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/struct.html#classes">Classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code> — Codec registry and base classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#codec-base-classes">Codec Base Classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#error-handlers">Error Handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#stateless-encoding-and-decoding">Stateless Encoding and Decoding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#incremental-encoding-and-decoding">Incremental Encoding and Decoding</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#incrementalencoder-objects">IncrementalEncoder Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#incrementaldecoder-objects">IncrementalDecoder Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#stream-encoding-and-decoding">Stream Encoding and Decoding</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#streamwriter-objects">StreamWriter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#streamreader-objects">StreamReader Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#streamreaderwriter-objects">StreamReaderWriter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#streamrecoder-objects">StreamRecoder Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#encodings-and-unicode">Encodings and Unicode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#standard-encodings">Standard Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#python-specific-encodings">Python Specific Encodings</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#text-encodings">Text Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#binary-transforms">Binary Transforms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#text-transforms">Text Transforms</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.idna"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.idna</span></code> — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.mbcs"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.mbcs</span></code> — Windows ANSI codepage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.utf_8_sig"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.utf_8_sig</span></code> — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datatypes.html">Data Types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> — Basic date and time types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#available-types">Available Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#timedelta-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#date-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#datetime-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#time-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#tzinfo-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#timezone-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/datetime.html#strftime-and-strptime-behavior"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> Behavior</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/calendar.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code> — General calendar-related functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code> — Container datatypes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#chainmap-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#chainmap-examples-and-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code> Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#counter-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#deque-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#deque-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#defaultdict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#defaultdict-examples"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code> Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code> Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#ordereddict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#ordereddict-examples-and-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#userdict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#userlist-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#userstring-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code> objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.abc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes for Containers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.abc.html#collections-abstract-base-classes">Collections Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/heapq.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code> — Heap queue algorithm</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/heapq.html#basic-examples">Basic Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/heapq.html#priority-queue-implementation-notes">Priority Queue Implementation Notes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/heapq.html#theory">Theory</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bisect.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code> — Array bisection algorithm</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bisect.html#searching-sorted-lists">Searching Sorted Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bisect.html#other-examples">Other Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/array.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code> — Efficient arrays of numeric values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/weakref.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code> — Weak references</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/weakref.html#weak-reference-objects">Weak Reference Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/weakref.html#example">Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/weakref.html#finalizer-objects">Finalizer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/weakref.html#comparing-finalizers-with-del-methods">Comparing finalizers with <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code> methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/types.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code> — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/types.html#dynamic-type-creation">Dynamic Type Creation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/types.html#standard-interpreter-types">Standard Interpreter Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/types.html#additional-utility-classes-and-functions">Additional Utility Classes and Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/types.html#coroutine-utility-functions">Coroutine Utility Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/copy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code> — Shallow and deep copy operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pprint.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code> — Data pretty printer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pprint.html#prettyprinter-objects">PrettyPrinter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pprint.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/reprlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code> — Alternate <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> implementation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/reprlib.html#repr-objects">Repr Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/reprlib.html#subclassing-repr-objects">Subclassing Repr Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code> — Support for enumerations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#creating-an-enum">Creating an Enum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#programmatic-access-to-enumeration-members-and-their-attributes">Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#duplicating-enum-members-and-values">Duplicating enum members and values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#ensuring-unique-enumeration-values">Ensuring unique enumeration values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#using-automatic-values">Using automatic values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#iteration">Iteration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations">Allowed members and attributes of enumerations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#restricted-enum-subclassing">Restricted Enum subclassing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#pickling">Pickling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#functional-api">Functional API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#derived-enumerations">Derived Enumerations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#intenum">IntEnum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#intflag">IntFlag</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#flag">Flag</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#others">Others</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#interesting-examples">Interesting examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#omitting-values">Omitting values</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#using-auto">Using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#using-object">Using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#using-a-descriptive-string">Using a descriptive string</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#using-a-custom-new">Using a custom <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#orderedenum">OrderedEnum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#duplicatefreeenum">DuplicateFreeEnum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#planet">Planet</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#timeperiod">TimePeriod</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#how-are-enums-different">How are Enums different?</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#enum-classes">Enum Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#enum-members-aka-instances">Enum Members (aka instances)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#finer-points">Finer Points</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#supported-dunder-names">Supported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dunder__</span></code> names</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#supported-sunder-names">Supported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_sunder_</span></code> names</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#enum-member-type"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> member type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#boolean-value-of-enum-classes-and-members">Boolean value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> classes and members</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#enum-classes-with-methods"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> classes with methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/enum.html#combining-members-of-flag">Combining members of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/numeric.html">Numeric and Mathematical Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/numbers.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code> — Numeric abstract base classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/numbers.html#the-numeric-tower">The numeric tower</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/numbers.html#notes-for-type-implementors">Notes for type implementors</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/numbers.html#adding-more-numeric-abcs">Adding More Numeric ABCs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/numbers.html#implementing-the-arithmetic-operations">Implementing the arithmetic operations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code> — Mathematical functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#number-theoretic-and-representation-functions">Number-theoretic and representation functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#power-and-logarithmic-functions">Power and logarithmic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#trigonometric-functions">Trigonometric functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#angular-conversion">Angular conversion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#hyperbolic-functions">Hyperbolic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#special-functions">Special functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code> — Mathematical functions for complex numbers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html#conversions-to-and-from-polar-coordinates">Conversions to and from polar coordinates</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html#power-and-logarithmic-functions">Power and logarithmic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html#trigonometric-functions">Trigonometric functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html#hyperbolic-functions">Hyperbolic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html#classification-functions">Classification functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code> — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#quick-start-tutorial">Quick-start Tutorial</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#decimal-objects">Decimal objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#logical-operands">Logical operands</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#context-objects">Context objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#rounding-modes">Rounding modes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#signals">Signals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#floating-point-notes">Floating Point Notes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision">Mitigating round-off error with increased precision</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#special-values">Special values</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#working-with-threads">Working with threads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#recipes">Recipes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/decimal.html#decimal-faq">Decimal FAQ</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/fractions.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code> — Rational numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code> — Generate pseudo-random numbers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#bookkeeping-functions">Bookkeeping functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#functions-for-integers">Functions for integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#functions-for-sequences">Functions for sequences</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#real-valued-distributions">Real-valued distributions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#alternative-generator">Alternative Generator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#notes-on-reproducibility">Notes on Reproducibility</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#examples-and-recipes">Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/statistics.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code> — Mathematical statistics functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/statistics.html#averages-and-measures-of-central-location">Averages and measures of central location</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/statistics.html#measures-of-spread">Measures of spread</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/statistics.html#function-details">Function details</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/statistics.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/functional.html">Functional Programming Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/itertools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code> — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/itertools.html#itertool-functions">Itertool functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/itertools.html#itertools-recipes">Itertools Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/functools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code> — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/functools.html#partial-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/operator.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code> — Standard operators as functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/operator.html#mapping-operators-to-functions">Mapping Operators to Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/operator.html#in-place-operators">In-place Operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/filesys.html">File and Directory Access</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code> — Object-oriented filesystem paths</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#basic-use">Basic use</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#pure-paths">Pure paths</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#general-properties">General properties</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#operators">Operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#accessing-individual-parts">Accessing individual parts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#methods-and-properties">Methods and properties</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#concrete-paths">Concrete paths</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pathlib.html#correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module">Correspondence to tools in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.path.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code> — Common pathname manipulations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/fileinput.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code> — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/stat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code> — Interpreting <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> results</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/filecmp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code> — File and Directory Comparisons</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/filecmp.html#the-dircmp-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code> class</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tempfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code> — Generate temporary files and directories</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tempfile.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tempfile.html#deprecated-functions-and-variables">Deprecated functions and variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/glob.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code> — Unix style pathname pattern expansion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/fnmatch.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch</span></code> — Unix filename pattern matching</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/linecache.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code> — Random access to text lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shutil.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code> — High-level file operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shutil.html#directory-and-files-operations">Directory and files operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shutil.html#copytree-example">copytree example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shutil.html#rmtree-example">rmtree example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shutil.html#archiving-operations">Archiving operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shutil.html#archiving-example">Archiving example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shutil.html#querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal">Querying the size of the output terminal</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/macpath.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macpath</span></code> — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/persistence.html">Data Persistence</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> — Python object serialization</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#relationship-to-other-python-modules">Relationship to other Python modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#comparison-with-marshal">Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#comparison-with-json">Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#data-stream-format">Data stream format</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#module-interface">Module Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled">What can be pickled and unpickled?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#pickling-class-instances">Pickling Class Instances</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#persistence-of-external-objects">Persistence of External Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#dispatch-tables">Dispatch Tables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#handling-stateful-objects">Handling Stateful Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#restricting-globals">Restricting Globals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickle.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/copyreg.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code> — Register <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> support functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/copyreg.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shelve.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code> — Python object persistence</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shelve.html#restrictions">Restrictions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shelve.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/marshal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code> — Internal Python object serialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dbm.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code> — Interfaces to Unix “databases”</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code> — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code> — Interface based on ndbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code> — Portable DBM implementation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#module-functions-and-constants">Module functions and constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#connection-objects">Connection Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#cursor-objects">Cursor Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#row-objects">Row Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite-and-python-types">SQLite and Python types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#using-adapters-to-store-additional-python-types-in-sqlite-databases">Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#letting-your-object-adapt-itself">Letting your object adapt itself</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#registering-an-adapter-callable">Registering an adapter callable</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#converting-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types">Converting SQLite values to custom Python types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#default-adapters-and-converters">Default adapters and converters</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#controlling-transactions">Controlling Transactions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#using-sqlite3-efficiently">Using <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> efficiently</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#using-shortcut-methods">Using shortcut methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#accessing-columns-by-name-instead-of-by-index">Accessing columns by name instead of by index</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#using-the-connection-as-a-context-manager">Using the connection as a context manager</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#common-issues">Common issues</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sqlite3.html#multithreading">Multithreading</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/archiving.html">Data Compression and Archiving</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code> — Compression compatible with <strong class="program">gzip</strong></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gzip.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">gzip</strong> files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gzip.html#examples-of-usage">Examples of usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bz2.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">bzip2</strong> compression</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bz2.html#de-compression-of-files">(De)compression of files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bz2.html#incremental-de-compression">Incremental (de)compression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bz2.html#one-shot-de-compression">One-shot (de)compression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bz2.html#examples-of-usage">Examples of usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/lzma.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code> — Compression using the LZMA algorithm</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/lzma.html#reading-and-writing-compressed-files">Reading and writing compressed files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/lzma.html#compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory">Compressing and decompressing data in memory</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/lzma.html#miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/lzma.html#specifying-custom-filter-chains">Specifying custom filter chains</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/lzma.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code> — Work with ZIP archives</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile-objects">ZipFile Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipfile.html#pyzipfile-objects">PyZipFile Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipfile.html#zipinfo-objects">ZipInfo Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipfile.html#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipfile.html#command-line-options">Command-line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code> — Read and write tar archive files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile-objects">TarFile Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html#tarinfo-objects">TarInfo Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html#command-line-options">Command-line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html#supported-tar-formats">Supported tar formats</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tarfile.html#unicode-issues">Unicode issues</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/fileformats.html">File Formats</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/csv.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code> — CSV File Reading and Writing</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/csv.html#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/csv.html#dialects-and-formatting-parameters">Dialects and Formatting Parameters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/csv.html#reader-objects">Reader Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/csv.html#writer-objects">Writer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/csv.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code> — Configuration file parser</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#quick-start">Quick Start</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#supported-datatypes">Supported Datatypes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#fallback-values">Fallback Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#supported-ini-file-structure">Supported INI File Structure</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#interpolation-of-values">Interpolation of values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#mapping-protocol-access">Mapping Protocol Access</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#customizing-parser-behaviour">Customizing Parser Behaviour</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#legacy-api-examples">Legacy API Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#configparser-objects">ConfigParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#rawconfigparser-objects">RawConfigParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/configparser.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/netrc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code> — netrc file processing</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/netrc.html#netrc-objects">netrc Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xdrlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code> — Encode and decode XDR data</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xdrlib.html#packer-objects">Packer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xdrlib.html#unpacker-objects">Unpacker Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xdrlib.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/plistlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code> — Generate and parse Mac OS X <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.plist</span></code> files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/plistlib.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/crypto.html">Cryptographic Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code> — Secure hashes and message digests</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#hash-algorithms">Hash algorithms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#shake-variable-length-digests">SHAKE variable length digests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#key-derivation">Key derivation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#blake2">BLAKE2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#creating-hash-objects">Creating hash objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#simple-hashing">Simple hashing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#using-different-digest-sizes">Using different digest sizes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#keyed-hashing">Keyed hashing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#randomized-hashing">Randomized hashing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#personalization">Personalization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#tree-mode">Tree mode</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#credits">Credits</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/hmac.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code> — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/secrets.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code> — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/secrets.html#random-numbers">Random numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/secrets.html#generating-tokens">Generating tokens</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/secrets.html#how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use">How many bytes should tokens use?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/secrets.html#other-functions">Other functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/secrets.html#recipes-and-best-practices">Recipes and best practices</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/allos.html">Generic Operating System Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables">File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#process-parameters">Process Parameters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#file-object-creation">File Object Creation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#file-descriptor-operations">File Descriptor Operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#querying-the-size-of-a-terminal">Querying the size of a terminal</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#inheritance-of-file-descriptors">Inheritance of File Descriptors</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#files-and-directories">Files and Directories</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#linux-extended-attributes">Linux extended attributes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#process-management">Process Management</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#interface-to-the-scheduler">Interface to the scheduler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#miscellaneous-system-information">Miscellaneous System Information</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#random-numbers">Random numbers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code> — Core tools for working with streams</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#overview">Overview</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#text-i-o">Text I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#binary-i-o">Binary I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#raw-i-o">Raw I/O</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#high-level-module-interface">High-level Module Interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#in-memory-streams">In-memory streams</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#class-hierarchy">Class hierarchy</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#i-o-base-classes">I/O Base Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#raw-file-i-o">Raw File I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#buffered-streams">Buffered Streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#id1">Text I/O</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#performance">Performance</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#id2">Binary I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#id3">Text I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#reentrancy">Reentrancy</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/time.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> — Time access and conversions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/time.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/time.html#clock-id-constants">Clock ID Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/time.html#timezone-constants">Timezone Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#example">Example</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#creating-a-parser">Creating a parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#adding-arguments">Adding arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#argumentparser-objects">ArgumentParser objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#prog">prog</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#usage">usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#description">description</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#epilog">epilog</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#parents">parents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#formatter-class">formatter_class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#prefix-chars">prefix_chars</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#fromfile-prefix-chars">fromfile_prefix_chars</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#argument-default">argument_default</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#allow-abbrev">allow_abbrev</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#conflict-handler">conflict_handler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#add-help">add_help</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#the-add-argument-method">The add_argument() method</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#name-or-flags">name or flags</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#action">action</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#nargs">nargs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#const">const</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#default">default</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#type">type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#choices">choices</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#required">required</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#help">help</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#metavar">metavar</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#dest">dest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#action-classes">Action classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#the-parse-args-method">The parse_args() method</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#option-value-syntax">Option value syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#invalid-arguments">Invalid arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#arguments-containing">Arguments containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching">Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#beyond-sys-argv">Beyond <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#the-namespace-object">The Namespace object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#other-utilities">Other utilities</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#sub-commands">Sub-commands</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#filetype-objects">FileType objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#argument-groups">Argument groups</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#mutual-exclusion">Mutual exclusion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#parser-defaults">Parser defaults</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#printing-help">Printing help</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#partial-parsing">Partial parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#customizing-file-parsing">Customizing file parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#exiting-methods">Exiting methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#intermixed-parsing">Intermixed parsing</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code">Upgrading optparse code</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/getopt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code> — C-style parser for command line options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> — Logging facility for Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#logger-objects">Logger Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#logging-levels">Logging Levels</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#handler-objects">Handler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#formatter-objects">Formatter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#filter-objects">Filter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#logrecord-objects">LogRecord Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#logrecord-attributes">LogRecord attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#loggeradapter-objects">LoggerAdapter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#thread-safety">Thread Safety</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#module-level-functions">Module-Level Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#module-level-attributes">Module-Level Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.html#integration-with-the-warnings-module">Integration with the warnings module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code> — Logging configuration</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#configuration-functions">Configuration functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#configuration-dictionary-schema">Configuration dictionary schema</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#dictionary-schema-details">Dictionary Schema Details</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#incremental-configuration">Incremental Configuration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#object-connections">Object connections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#user-defined-objects">User-defined objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#access-to-external-objects">Access to external objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#access-to-internal-objects">Access to internal objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#import-resolution-and-custom-importers">Import resolution and custom importers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.config.html#configuration-file-format">Configuration file format</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code> — Logging handlers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#streamhandler">StreamHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#filehandler">FileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#nullhandler">NullHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#watchedfilehandler">WatchedFileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#baserotatinghandler">BaseRotatingHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#rotatingfilehandler">RotatingFileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#timedrotatingfilehandler">TimedRotatingFileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#sockethandler">SocketHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#datagramhandler">DatagramHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#sysloghandler">SysLogHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#nteventloghandler">NTEventLogHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#smtphandler">SMTPHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#memoryhandler">MemoryHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#httphandler">HTTPHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#queuehandler">QueueHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/logging.handlers.html#queuelistener">QueueListener</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/getpass.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code> — Portable password input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.html#window-objects">Window Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.html#module-curses.textpad"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code> — Text input widget for curses programs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.html#textbox-objects">Textbox objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.ascii.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.panel.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code> — A panel stack extension for curses</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.panel.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/curses.panel.html#panel-objects">Panel Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/platform.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code> —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/platform.html#cross-platform">Cross Platform</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/platform.html#java-platform">Java Platform</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/platform.html#windows-platform">Windows Platform</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/platform.html#win95-98-specific">Win95/98 specific</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/platform.html#mac-os-platform">Mac OS Platform</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/platform.html#unix-platforms">Unix Platforms</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/errno.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> — Standard errno system symbols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> — A foreign function library for Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes-tutorial">ctypes tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#loading-dynamic-link-libraries">Loading dynamic link libraries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls">Accessing functions from loaded dlls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#calling-functions">Calling functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#fundamental-data-types">Fundamental data types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#calling-functions-continued">Calling functions, continued</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types">Calling functions with your own custom data types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes">Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#return-types">Return types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference">Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#structures-and-unions">Structures and unions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order">Structure/union alignment and byte order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions">Bit fields in structures and unions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#arrays">Arrays</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#pointers">Pointers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#type-conversions">Type conversions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#incomplete-types">Incomplete Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#callback-functions">Callback functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#accessing-values-exported-from-dlls">Accessing values exported from dlls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#surprises">Surprises</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#variable-sized-data-types">Variable-sized data types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes-reference">ctypes reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#finding-shared-libraries">Finding shared libraries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#loading-shared-libraries">Loading shared libraries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#foreign-functions">Foreign functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#function-prototypes">Function prototypes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#utility-functions">Utility functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#data-types">Data types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes-fundamental-data-types-2">Fundamental data types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#structured-data-types">Structured data types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ctypes.html#arrays-and-pointers">Arrays and pointers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrency.html">Concurrent Execution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> — Thread-based parallelism</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#thread-local-data">Thread-Local Data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#thread-objects">Thread Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#lock-objects">Lock Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#rlock-objects">RLock Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#condition-objects">Condition Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#semaphore-objects">Semaphore Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#semaphore-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code> Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#event-objects">Event Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#timer-objects">Timer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#barrier-objects">Barrier Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/threading.html#using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement">Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> — Process-based parallelism</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#introduction">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#the-process-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code> class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#contexts-and-start-methods">Contexts and start methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#exchanging-objects-between-processes">Exchanging objects between processes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#synchronization-between-processes">Synchronization between processes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#sharing-state-between-processes">Sharing state between processes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#using-a-pool-of-workers">Using a pool of workers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#reference">Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#process-and-exceptions"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code> and exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#pipes-and-queues">Pipes and Queues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#connection-objects">Connection Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#synchronization-primitives">Synchronization primitives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#shared-ctypes-objects">Shared <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#managers">Managers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#customized-managers">Customized managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#using-a-remote-manager">Using a remote manager</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#proxy-objects">Proxy Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#cleanup">Cleanup</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.pool">Process Pools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.connection">Listeners and Clients</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#address-formats">Address Formats</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#authentication-keys">Authentication keys</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#logging">Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.dummy">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.dummy</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#programming-guidelines">Programming guidelines</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#all-start-methods">All start methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#the-spawn-and-forkserver-start-methods">The <em>spawn</em> and <em>forkserver</em> start methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/multiprocessing.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.html">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent</span></code> package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> — Launching parallel tasks</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#executor-objects">Executor Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#threadpoolexecutor">ThreadPoolExecutor</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#threadpoolexecutor-example">ThreadPoolExecutor Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#processpoolexecutor">ProcessPoolExecutor</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#processpoolexecutor-example">ProcessPoolExecutor Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#future-objects">Future Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#module-functions">Module Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/concurrent.futures.html#exception-classes">Exception classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> — Subprocess management</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#using-the-subprocess-module">Using the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> Module</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#frequently-used-arguments">Frequently Used Arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#popen-constructor">Popen Constructor</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#security-considerations">Security Considerations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#popen-objects">Popen Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#windows-popen-helpers">Windows Popen Helpers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#windows-constants">Windows Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#older-high-level-api">Older high-level API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module">Replacing Older Functions with the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> Module</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#replacing-bin-sh-shell-backquote">Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#replacing-shell-pipeline">Replacing shell pipeline</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#replacing-os-system">Replacing <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#replacing-the-os-spawn-family">Replacing the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.spawn</span></code> family</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen3">Replacing <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen2()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen3()</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module">Replacing functions from the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#legacy-shell-invocation-functions">Legacy Shell Invocation Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#notes">Notes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/subprocess.html#converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows">Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sched.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code> — Event scheduler</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sched.html#scheduler-objects">Scheduler Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/queue.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code> — A synchronized queue class</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/queue.html#queue-objects">Queue Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/queue.html#simplequeue-objects">SimpleQueue Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/_thread.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code> — Low-level threading API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/_dummy_thread.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dummy_thread</span></code> — Drop-in replacement for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dummy_threading.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code> — Drop-in replacement for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextvars.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code> — Context Variables</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextvars.html#context-variables">Context Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextvars.html#manual-context-management">Manual Context Management</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextvars.html#asyncio-support">asyncio support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipc.html">Networking and Interprocess Communication</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> — Asynchronous I/O</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html">Coroutines and Tasks</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#coroutines">Coroutines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#awaitables">Awaitables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#running-an-asyncio-program">Running an asyncio Program</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#creating-tasks">Creating Tasks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#sleeping">Sleeping</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#running-tasks-concurrently">Running Tasks Concurrently</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#shielding-from-cancellation">Shielding From Cancellation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#timeouts">Timeouts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#waiting-primitives">Waiting Primitives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#scheduling-from-other-threads">Scheduling From Other Threads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#introspection">Introspection</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#task-object">Task Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-task.html#generator-based-coroutines">Generator-based Coroutines</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html">Streams</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html#streamreader">StreamReader</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html#streamwriter">StreamWriter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html#tcp-echo-client-using-streams">TCP echo client using streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html#tcp-echo-server-using-streams">TCP echo server using streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html#get-http-headers">Get HTTP headers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-stream.html#register-an-open-socket-to-wait-for-data-using-streams">Register an open socket to wait for data using streams</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-sync.html">Synchronization Primitives</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-sync.html#lock">Lock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-sync.html#event">Event</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-sync.html#condition">Condition</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-sync.html#semaphore">Semaphore</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-sync.html#boundedsemaphore">BoundedSemaphore</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html">Subprocesses</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#creating-subprocesses">Creating Subprocesses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#interacting-with-subprocesses">Interacting with Subprocesses</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#subprocess-and-threads">Subprocess and Threads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-queue.html">Queues</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-queue.html#queue">Queue</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-queue.html#priority-queue">Priority Queue</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-queue.html#lifo-queue">LIFO Queue</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-queue.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-queue.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html">Event Loop</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#event-loop-methods">Event Loop Methods</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#running-and-stopping-the-loop">Running and stopping the loop</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#scheduling-callbacks">Scheduling callbacks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#scheduling-delayed-callbacks">Scheduling delayed callbacks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#creating-futures-and-tasks">Creating Futures and Tasks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#opening-network-connections">Opening network connections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#creating-network-servers">Creating network servers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#transferring-files">Transferring files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#tls-upgrade">TLS Upgrade</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#watching-file-descriptors">Watching file descriptors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#working-with-socket-objects-directly">Working with socket objects directly</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#dns">DNS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#working-with-pipes">Working with pipes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#unix-signals">Unix signals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#executing-code-in-thread-or-process-pools">Executing code in thread or process pools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#error-handling-api">Error Handling API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#enabling-debug-mode">Enabling debug mode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#running-subprocesses">Running Subprocesses</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#callback-handles">Callback Handles</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#server-objects">Server Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#event-loop-implementations">Event Loop Implementations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#hello-world-with-call-soon">Hello World with call_soon()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#display-the-current-date-with-call-later">Display the current date with call_later()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#watch-a-file-descriptor-for-read-events">Watch a file descriptor for read events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#set-signal-handlers-for-sigint-and-sigterm">Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-future.html">Futures</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-future.html#future-functions">Future Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-future.html#future-object">Future Object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html">Transports and Protocols</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#transports">Transports</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#transports-hierarchy">Transports Hierarchy</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#base-transport">Base Transport</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#read-only-transports">Read-only Transports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#write-only-transports">Write-only Transports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#datagram-transports">Datagram Transports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#subprocess-transports">Subprocess Transports</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#protocols">Protocols</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#base-protocols">Base Protocols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#base-protocol">Base Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#streaming-protocols">Streaming Protocols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#buffered-streaming-protocols">Buffered Streaming Protocols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#datagram-protocols">Datagram Protocols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#subprocess-protocols">Subprocess Protocols</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#tcp-echo-server">TCP Echo Server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#tcp-echo-client">TCP Echo Client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#udp-echo-server">UDP Echo Server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#udp-echo-client">UDP Echo Client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#connecting-existing-sockets">Connecting Existing Sockets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#loop-subprocess-exec-and-subprocessprotocol">loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-policy.html">Policies</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-policy.html#getting-and-setting-the-policy">Getting and Setting the Policy</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-policy.html#policy-objects">Policy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-policy.html#process-watchers">Process Watchers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-policy.html#custom-policies">Custom Policies</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-platforms.html">Platform Support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-platforms.html#all-platforms">All Platforms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-platforms.html#windows">Windows</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-platforms.html#subprocess-support-on-windows">Subprocess Support on Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-platforms.html#macos">macOS</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-api-index.html">High-level API Index</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-api-index.html#tasks">Tasks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-api-index.html#queues">Queues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-api-index.html#subprocesses">Subprocesses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-api-index.html#streams">Streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-api-index.html#synchronization">Synchronization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-api-index.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-llapi-index.html">Low-level API Index</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-llapi-index.html#obtaining-the-event-loop">Obtaining the Event Loop</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-llapi-index.html#event-loop-methods">Event Loop Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-llapi-index.html#transports">Transports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-llapi-index.html#protocols">Protocols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-llapi-index.html#event-loop-policies">Event Loop Policies</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-dev.html">Developing with asyncio</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-dev.html#debug-mode">Debug Mode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-dev.html#concurrency-and-multithreading">Concurrency and Multithreading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-dev.html#running-blocking-code">Running Blocking Code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-dev.html#logging">Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-dev.html#detect-never-awaited-coroutines">Detect never-awaited coroutines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncio-dev.html#detect-never-retrieved-exceptions">Detect never-retrieved exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code> — Low-level networking interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#socket-families">Socket families</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#module-contents">Module contents</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#functions">Functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#creating-sockets">Creating sockets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#other-functions">Other functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#socket-objects">Socket Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#notes-on-socket-timeouts">Notes on socket timeouts</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#timeouts-and-the-connect-method">Timeouts and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect</span></code> method</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#timeouts-and-the-accept-method">Timeouts and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept</span></code> method</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#functions-constants-and-exceptions">Functions, Constants, and Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#socket-creation">Socket creation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#context-creation">Context creation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#random-generation">Random generation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#certificate-handling">Certificate handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#ssl-sockets">SSL Sockets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#ssl-contexts">SSL Contexts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#certificates">Certificates</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#certificate-chains">Certificate chains</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#ca-certificates">CA certificates</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#combined-key-and-certificate">Combined key and certificate</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#self-signed-certificates">Self-signed certificates</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#testing-for-ssl-support">Testing for SSL support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#client-side-operation">Client-side operation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#server-side-operation">Server-side operation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#notes-on-non-blocking-sockets">Notes on non-blocking sockets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#memory-bio-support">Memory BIO Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#ssl-session">SSL session</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#security-considerations">Security considerations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#best-defaults">Best defaults</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#manual-settings">Manual settings</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#verifying-certificates">Verifying certificates</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#protocol-versions">Protocol versions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#cipher-selection">Cipher selection</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#multi-processing">Multi-processing</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#tls-1-3">TLS 1.3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#libressl-support">LibreSSL support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/select.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> — Waiting for I/O completion</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/select.html#dev-poll-polling-objects"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code> Polling Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/select.html#edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects">Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/select.html#polling-objects">Polling Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/select.html#kqueue-objects">Kqueue Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/select.html#kevent-objects">Kevent Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/selectors.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code> — High-level I/O multiplexing</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/selectors.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/selectors.html#classes">Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/selectors.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncore.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code> — Asynchronous socket handler</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore-example-basic-http-client">asyncore Example basic HTTP client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore-example-basic-echo-server">asyncore Example basic echo server</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asynchat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code> — Asynchronous socket command/response handler</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat-example">asynchat Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/signal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code> — Set handlers for asynchronous events</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/signal.html#general-rules">General rules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/signal.html#execution-of-python-signal-handlers">Execution of Python signal handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/signal.html#signals-and-threads">Signals and threads</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/signal.html#module-contents">Module contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/signal.html#example">Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/signal.html#note-on-sigpipe">Note on SIGPIPE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mmap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code> — Memory-mapped file support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/netdata.html">Internet Data Handling</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.message.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code>: Representing an email message</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code>: Parsing email messages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.parser.html#feedparser-api">FeedParser API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.parser.html#parser-api">Parser API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.parser.html#additional-notes">Additional notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.generator.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code>: Generating MIME documents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.policy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code>: Policy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.errors.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code>: Exception and Defect classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.headerregistry.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.headerregistry</span></code>: Custom Header Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.contentmanager.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.contentmanager</span></code>: Managing MIME Content</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.contentmanager.html#content-manager-instances">Content Manager Instances</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.examples.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code>: Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.compat32-message.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code>: Representing an email message using the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code> API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.mime.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.header.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code>: Internationalized headers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.charset.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code>: Representing character sets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.encoders.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code>: Encoders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.utils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils</span></code>: Miscellaneous utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/email.iterators.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.iterators</span></code>: Iterators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code> — JSON encoder and decoder</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#basic-usage">Basic Usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#encoders-and-decoders">Encoders and Decoders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#standard-compliance-and-interoperability">Standard Compliance and Interoperability</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#character-encodings">Character Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#infinite-and-nan-number-values">Infinite and NaN Number Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#repeated-names-within-an-object">Repeated Names Within an Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#top-level-non-object-non-array-values">Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#implementation-limitations">Implementation Limitations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#module-json.tool">Command Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/json.html#command-line-options">Command line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailcap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailcap</span></code> — Mailcap file handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code> — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#mh"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#babyl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Babyl</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#mmdf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDF</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#message-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#maildirmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#mboxmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#mhmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#babylmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#mmdfmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mailbox.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mimetypes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code> — Map filenames to MIME types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes-objects">MimeTypes Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/base64.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code> — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/binhex.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code> — Encode and decode binhex4 files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/binhex.html#notes">Notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/binascii.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code> — Convert between binary and ASCII</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/quopri.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri</span></code> — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/uu.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code> — Encode and decode uuencode files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/markup.html">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/html.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code> — HyperText Markup Language support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/html.parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code> — Simple HTML and XHTML parser</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/html.parser.html#example-html-parser-application">Example HTML Parser Application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/html.parser.html#htmlparser-methods"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code> Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/html.parser.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/html.entities.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code> — Definitions of HTML general entities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.html">XML Processing Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities">XML vulnerabilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.html#the-defusedxml-and-defusedexpat-packages">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedxml</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedexpat</span></code> Packages</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code> — The ElementTree XML API</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#tutorial">Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml-tree-and-elements">XML tree and elements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#parsing-xml">Parsing XML</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing">Pull API for non-blocking parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#finding-interesting-elements">Finding interesting elements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#modifying-an-xml-file">Modifying an XML File</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#building-xml-documents">Building XML documents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#parsing-xml-with-namespaces">Parsing XML with Namespaces</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#additional-resources">Additional resources</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xpath-support">XPath support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#example">Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#supported-xpath-syntax">Supported XPath syntax</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#reference">Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#element-objects">Element Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#elementtree-objects">ElementTree Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#qname-objects">QName Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#treebuilder-objects">TreeBuilder Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xmlparser-objects">XMLParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xmlpullparser-objects">XMLPullParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code> — The Document Object Model API</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#objects-in-the-dom">Objects in the DOM</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#domimplementation-objects">DOMImplementation Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#node-objects">Node Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#nodelist-objects">NodeList Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#documenttype-objects">DocumentType Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#document-objects">Document Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#element-objects">Element Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#attr-objects">Attr Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#namednodemap-objects">NamedNodeMap Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#comment-objects">Comment Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#text-and-cdatasection-objects">Text and CDATASection Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#processinginstruction-objects">ProcessingInstruction Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#conformance">Conformance</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#type-mapping">Type Mapping</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.html#accessor-methods">Accessor Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code> — Minimal DOM implementation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#dom-objects">DOM Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#dom-example">DOM Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#minidom-and-the-dom-standard">minidom and the DOM standard</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code> — Support for building partial DOM trees</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#domeventstream-objects">DOMEventStream Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code> — Support for SAX2 parsers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.html#saxexception-objects">SAXException Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.handler.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code> — Base classes for SAX handlers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#contenthandler-objects">ContentHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#dtdhandler-objects">DTDHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#entityresolver-objects">EntityResolver Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#errorhandler-objects">ErrorHandler Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.utils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.saxutils</span></code> — SAX Utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.reader.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code> — Interface for XML parsers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xmlreader-objects">XMLReader Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#incrementalparser-objects">IncrementalParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#locator-objects">Locator Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#inputsource-objects">InputSource Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#the-attributes-interface">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code> Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#the-attributesns-interface">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code> Interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyexpat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code> — Fast XML parsing using Expat</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyexpat.html#xmlparser-objects">XMLParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyexpat.html#expaterror-exceptions">ExpatError Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyexpat.html#example">Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.model">Content Model Descriptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors">Expat error constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/internet.html">Internet Protocols and Support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/webbrowser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code> — Convenient Web-browser controller</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/webbrowser.html#browser-controller-objects">Browser Controller Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code> — Common Gateway Interface support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#using-the-cgi-module">Using the cgi module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#higher-level-interface">Higher Level Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#caring-about-security">Caring about security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#installing-your-cgi-script-on-a-unix-system">Installing your CGI script on a Unix system</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#testing-your-cgi-script">Testing your CGI script</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#debugging-cgi-scripts">Debugging CGI scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgi.html#common-problems-and-solutions">Common problems and solutions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cgitb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code> — Traceback manager for CGI scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wsgiref.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code> — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.util"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util</span></code> – WSGI environment utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.headers</span></code> – WSGI response header tools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.simple_server"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code> – a simple WSGI HTTP server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.validate"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.validate</span></code> — WSGI conformance checker</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.handlers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers</span></code> – server/gateway base classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wsgiref.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code> — URL handling modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> — Extensible library for opening URLs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#request-objects">Request Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#openerdirector-objects">OpenerDirector Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#basehandler-objects">BaseHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httpredirecthandler-objects">HTTPRedirectHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httpcookieprocessor-objects">HTTPCookieProcessor Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#proxyhandler-objects">ProxyHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httppasswordmgr-objects">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#abstractbasicauthhandler-objects">AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httpbasicauthhandler-objects">HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#proxybasicauthhandler-objects">ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#abstractdigestauthhandler-objects">AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httpdigestauthhandler-objects">HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#proxydigestauthhandler-objects">ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httphandler-objects">HTTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httpshandler-objects">HTTPSHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#filehandler-objects">FileHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#datahandler-objects">DataHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#ftphandler-objects">FTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#cacheftphandler-objects">CacheFTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#unknownhandler-objects">UnknownHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#httperrorprocessor-objects">HTTPErrorProcessor Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#legacy-interface">Legacy interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib-request-restrictions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> Restrictions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.response"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code> — Response classes used by urllib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.parse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code> — Parse URLs into components</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.parse.html#url-parsing">URL Parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.parse.html#parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes">Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.parse.html#structured-parse-results">Structured Parse Results</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.parse.html#url-quoting">URL Quoting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.error.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code> — Exception classes raised by urllib.request</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/urllib.robotparser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.robotparser</span></code> —  Parser for robots.txt</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code> — HTTP modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.html#http-status-codes">HTTP status codes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.client.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code> — HTTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.client.html#httpconnection-objects">HTTPConnection Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.client.html#httpresponse-objects">HTTPResponse Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.client.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.client.html#httpmessage-objects">HTTPMessage Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ftplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code> — FTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ftplib.html#ftp-objects">FTP Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ftplib.html#ftp-tls-objects">FTP_TLS Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/poplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code> — POP3 protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/poplib.html#pop3-objects">POP3 Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/poplib.html#pop3-example">POP3 Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/imaplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code> — IMAP4 protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/imaplib.html#imap4-objects">IMAP4 Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/imaplib.html#imap4-example">IMAP4 Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/nntplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code> — NNTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/nntplib.html#nntp-objects">NNTP Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/nntplib.html#attributes">Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/nntplib.html#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/nntplib.html#utility-functions">Utility functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code> — SMTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtplib.html#smtp-objects">SMTP Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtplib.html#smtp-example">SMTP Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtpd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code> — SMTP Server</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtpd.html#smtpserver-objects">SMTPServer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtpd.html#debuggingserver-objects">DebuggingServer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtpd.html#pureproxy-objects">PureProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtpd.html#mailmanproxy-objects">MailmanProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/smtpd.html#smtpchannel-objects">SMTPChannel Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/telnetlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnetlib</span></code> — Telnet client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/telnetlib.html#telnet-objects">Telnet Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/telnetlib.html#telnet-example">Telnet Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/uuid.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code> — UUID objects according to <strong>RFC 4122</strong></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/uuid.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code> — A framework for network servers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html#server-creation-notes">Server Creation Notes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html#server-objects">Server Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html#request-handler-objects">Request Handler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver-tcpserver-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.TCPServer</span></code> Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver-udpserver-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.UDPServer</span></code> Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/socketserver.html#asynchronous-mixins">Asynchronous Mixins</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.server.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code> — HTTP servers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookies.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code> — HTTP state management</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookies.html#cookie-objects">Cookie Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookies.html#morsel-objects">Morsel Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookies.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookiejar.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code> — Cookie handling for HTTP clients</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookiejar.html#cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects">CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookiejar.html#filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers">FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookiejar.html#cookiepolicy-objects">CookiePolicy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookiejar.html#defaultcookiepolicy-objects">DefaultCookiePolicy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookiejar.html#cookie-objects">Cookie Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookiejar.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc</span></code> — XMLRPC server and client modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code> — XML-RPC client access</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#serverproxy-objects">ServerProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#datetime-objects">DateTime Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#binary-objects">Binary Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#fault-objects">Fault Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#protocolerror-objects">ProtocolError Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#multicall-objects">MultiCall Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#convenience-functions">Convenience Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#example-of-client-usage">Example of Client Usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#example-of-client-and-server-usage">Example of Client and Server Usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.server.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code> — Basic XML-RPC servers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#simplexmlrpcserver-objects">SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#simplexmlrpcserver-example">SimpleXMLRPCServer Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#cgixmlrpcrequesthandler">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#documenting-xmlrpc-server">Documenting XMLRPC server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#docxmlrpcserver-objects">DocXMLRPCServer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#doccgixmlrpcrequesthandler">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code> — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#convenience-factory-functions">Convenience factory functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#ip-addresses">IP Addresses</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#address-objects">Address objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#conversion-to-strings-and-integers">Conversion to Strings and Integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#operators">Operators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#comparison-operators">Comparison operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#arithmetic-operators">Arithmetic operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#ip-network-definitions">IP Network definitions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#prefix-net-mask-and-host-mask">Prefix, net mask and host mask</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#network-objects">Network objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#id1">Operators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#logical-operators">Logical operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#iteration">Iteration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#networks-as-containers-of-addresses">Networks as containers of addresses</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#interface-objects">Interface objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#id2">Operators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#id3">Logical operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#other-module-level-functions">Other Module Level Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ipaddress.html#custom-exceptions">Custom Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/mm.html">Multimedia Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/audioop.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code> — Manipulate raw audio data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/aifc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code> — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sunau.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code> — Read and write Sun AU files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sunau.html#au-read-objects">AU_read Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sunau.html#au-write-objects">AU_write Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wave.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code> — Read and write WAV files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wave.html#wave-read-objects">Wave_read Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/wave.html#wave-write-objects">Wave_write Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/chunk.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chunk</span></code> — Read IFF chunked data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/colorsys.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colorsys</span></code> — Conversions between color systems</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/imghdr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code> — Determine the type of an image</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/sndhdr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code> — Determine type of sound file</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ossaudiodev.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code> — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ossaudiodev.html#audio-device-objects">Audio Device Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ossaudiodev.html#mixer-device-objects">Mixer Device Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/i18n.html">Internationalization</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code> — Multilingual internationalization services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#gnu-gettext-api">GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#class-based-api">Class-based API</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#the-nulltranslations-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullTranslations</span></code> class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#the-gnutranslations-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code> class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#solaris-message-catalog-support">Solaris message catalog support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#the-catalog-constructor">The Catalog constructor</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#internationalizing-your-programs-and-modules">Internationalizing your programs and modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#localizing-your-module">Localizing your module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#localizing-your-application">Localizing your application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#changing-languages-on-the-fly">Changing languages on the fly</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#deferred-translations">Deferred translations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gettext.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/locale.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code> — Internationalization services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/locale.html#background-details-hints-tips-and-caveats">Background, details, hints, tips and caveats</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/locale.html#for-extension-writers-and-programs-that-embed-python">For extension writers and programs that embed Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/locale.html#access-to-message-catalogs">Access to message catalogs</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/frameworks.html">Program Frameworks</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code> — Turtle graphics</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#overview-of-available-turtle-and-screen-methods">Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#turtle-methods">Turtle methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#methods-of-turtlescreen-screen">Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#methods-of-rawturtle-turtle-and-corresponding-functions">Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#turtle-motion">Turtle motion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#tell-turtle-s-state">Tell Turtle’s state</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#settings-for-measurement">Settings for measurement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#pen-control">Pen control</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#drawing-state">Drawing state</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#color-control">Color control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#filling">Filling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#more-drawing-control">More drawing control</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#turtle-state">Turtle state</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#visibility">Visibility</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#appearance">Appearance</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#using-events">Using events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#special-turtle-methods">Special Turtle methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#compound-shapes">Compound shapes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#methods-of-turtlescreen-screen-and-corresponding-functions">Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#window-control">Window control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#animation-control">Animation control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#using-screen-events">Using screen events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#input-methods">Input methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#settings-and-special-methods">Settings and special methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#methods-specific-to-screen-not-inherited-from-turtlescreen">Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#public-classes">Public classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#help-and-configuration">Help and configuration</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#how-to-use-help">How to use help</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#translation-of-docstrings-into-different-languages">Translation of docstrings into different languages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#how-to-configure-screen-and-turtles">How to configure Screen and Turtles</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#module-turtledemo"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtledemo</span></code> — Demo scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#changes-since-python-2-6">Changes since Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/turtle.html#changes-since-python-3-0">Changes since Python 3.0</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code> — Support for line-oriented command interpreters</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmd.html#cmd-objects">Cmd Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/cmd.html#cmd-example">Cmd Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shlex.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code> — Simple lexical analysis</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shlex.html#shlex-objects">shlex Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shlex.html#parsing-rules">Parsing Rules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/shlex.html#improved-compatibility-with-shells">Improved Compatibility with Shells</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tk.html">Graphical User Interfaces with Tk</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code> — Python interface to Tcl/Tk</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter-modules">Tkinter Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter-life-preserver">Tkinter Life Preserver</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#how-to-use-this-section">How To Use This Section</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#a-simple-hello-world-program">A Simple Hello World Program</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#a-very-quick-look-at-tcl-tk">A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#mapping-basic-tk-into-tkinter">Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#how-tk-and-tkinter-are-related">How Tk and Tkinter are Related</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#handy-reference">Handy Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#setting-options">Setting Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#the-packer">The Packer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#packer-options">Packer Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#coupling-widget-variables">Coupling Widget Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#the-window-manager">The Window Manager</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#tk-option-data-types">Tk Option Data Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#bindings-and-events">Bindings and Events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#the-index-parameter">The index Parameter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#images">Images</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.html#file-handlers">File Handlers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code> — Tk themed widgets</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#using-ttk">Using Ttk</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#ttk-widgets">Ttk Widgets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#widget">Widget</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#standard-options">Standard Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#scrollable-widget-options">Scrollable Widget Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#label-options">Label Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#compatibility-options">Compatibility Options</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#naming-your-mocks">Naming your mocks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#tracking-all-calls">Tracking all Calls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#setting-return-values-and-attributes">Setting Return Values and Attributes</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-a-generator-method">Mocking a Generator Method</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock">Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes">Mock subclasses and their attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-imports-with-patch-dict">Mocking imports with patch.dict</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions">Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unittest.mock-examples.html#more-complex-argument-matching">More complex argument matching</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/2to3.html">2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/2to3.html#using-2to3">Using 2to3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/2to3.html#fixers">Fixers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/2to3.html#module-lib2to3"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></code> - 2to3’s library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/test.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> — Regression tests package for Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/test.html#writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package">Writing Unit Tests for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/test.html#running-tests-using-the-command-line-interface">Running tests using the command-line interface</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/test.html#module-test.support"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code> — Utilities for the Python test suite</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/test.html#module-test.support.script_helper"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support.script_helper</span></code> — Utilities for the Python execution tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/debug.html">Debugging and Profiling</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/bdb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code> — Debugger framework</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/faulthandler.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> — Dump the Python traceback</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/faulthandler.html#dumping-the-traceback">Dumping the traceback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/faulthandler.html#fault-handler-state">Fault handler state</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/faulthandler.html#dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout">Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/faulthandler.html#dumping-the-traceback-on-a-user-signal">Dumping the traceback on a user signal</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/faulthandler.html#issue-with-file-descriptors">Issue with file descriptors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/faulthandler.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pdb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code> — The Python Debugger</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pdb.html#debugger-commands">Debugger Commands</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html">The Python Profilers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html#introduction-to-the-profilers">Introduction to the profilers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html#instant-user-s-manual">Instant User’s Manual</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html#module-cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code> Module Reference</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html#the-stats-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code> Class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html#what-is-deterministic-profiling">What Is Deterministic Profiling?</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html#calibration">Calibration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/profile.html#using-a-custom-timer">Using a custom timer</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/timeit.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code> — Measure execution time of small code snippets</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/timeit.html#basic-examples">Basic Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/timeit.html#python-interface">Python Interface</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/trace.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code> — Trace or track Python statement execution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/trace.html#command-line-usage">Command-Line Usage</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tracemalloc.html#trace">Trace</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tracemalloc.html#traceback">Traceback</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/distribution.html">Software Packaging and Distribution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/distutils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code> — Building and installing Python modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ensurepip.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code> — Bootstrapping the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> installer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ensurepip.html#command-line-interface">Command line interface</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/venv.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> — Creation of virtual environments</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/venv.html#creating-virtual-environments">Creating virtual environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/venv.html#api">API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/venv.html#an-example-of-extending-envbuilder">An example of extending <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipapp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code> — Manage executable Python zip archives</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipapp.html#making-a-windows-executable">Making a Windows executable</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipapp.html#caveats">Caveats</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipapp.html#the-python-zip-application-archive-format">The Python Zip Application Archive Format</a></li>
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+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/builtins.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code> — Built-in objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/__main__.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> — Top-level script environment</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/warnings.html#updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies">Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/warnings.html#available-context-managers">Available Context Managers</a></li>
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+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dataclasses.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses</span></code> — Data Classes</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dataclasses.html#mutable-default-values">Mutable default values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dataclasses.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code> — Utilities for <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>-statement contexts</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#utilities">Utilities</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods">Catching exceptions from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation">Cleaning up in an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> implementation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables">Replacing any use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try-finally</span></code> and flag variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator">Using a context manager as a function decorator</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers">Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#reentrant-context-managers">Reentrant context managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/contextlib.html#reusable-context-managers">Reusable context managers</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/atexit.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> — Exit handlers</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/traceback.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code> — Print or retrieve a stack traceback</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/traceback.html#tracebackexception-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code> Objects</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/traceback.html#framesummary-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/traceback.html#traceback-examples">Traceback Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/__future__.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> — Future statement definitions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/gc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code> — Garbage Collector interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code> — Inspect live objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#types-and-members">Types and members</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#retrieving-source-code">Retrieving source code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object">Introspecting callables with the Signature object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#classes-and-functions">Classes and functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#the-interpreter-stack">The interpreter stack</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#fetching-attributes-statically">Fetching attributes statically</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#current-state-of-generators-and-coroutines">Current State of Generators and Coroutines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#code-objects-bit-flags">Code Objects Bit Flags</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#command-line-interface">Command Line Interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/site.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> — Site-specific configuration hook</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/site.html#readline-configuration">Readline configuration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/site.html#module-contents">Module contents</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/custominterp.html">Custom Python Interpreters</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/code.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code> — Interpreter base classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/code.html#interactive-interpreter-objects">Interactive Interpreter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/code.html#interactive-console-objects">Interactive Console Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/codeop.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code> — Compile Python code</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/modules.html">Importing Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipimport.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code> — Import modules from Zip archives</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipimport.html#zipimporter-objects">zipimporter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/zipimport.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pkgutil.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code> — Package extension utility</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/modulefinder.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulefinder</span></code> — Find modules used by a script</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/modulefinder.html#example-usage-of-modulefinder">Example usage of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleFinder</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/runpy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code> — Locating and executing Python modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> — The implementation of <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code> – Abstract base classes related to import</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.resources"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.resources</span></code> – Resources</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.machinery"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery</span></code> – Importers and path hooks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.util"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util</span></code> – Utility code for importers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#importing-programmatically">Importing programmatically</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported">Checking if a module can be imported</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#importing-a-source-file-directly">Importing a source file directly</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#setting-up-an-importer">Setting up an importer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#approximating-importlib-import-module">Approximating <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/language.html">Python Language Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> — Access Python parse trees</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/parser.html#creating-st-objects">Creating ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/parser.html#converting-st-objects">Converting ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/parser.html#queries-on-st-objects">Queries on ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/parser.html#exceptions-and-error-handling">Exceptions and Error Handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/parser.html#st-objects">ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/parser.html#example-emulation-of-compile">Example: Emulation of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ast.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> — Abstract Syntax Trees</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ast.html#node-classes">Node classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ast.html#abstract-grammar">Abstract Grammar</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/ast.html#ast-helpers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> Helpers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/symtable.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symtable</span></code> — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/symtable.html#generating-symbol-tables">Generating Symbol Tables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/symtable.html#examining-symbol-tables">Examining Symbol Tables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/symbol.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symbol</span></code> — Constants used with Python parse trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/token.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code> — Constants used with Python parse trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/keyword.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword</span></code> — Testing for Python keywords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tokenize.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code> — Tokenizer for Python source</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tokenize.html#tokenizing-input">Tokenizing Input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tokenize.html#command-line-usage">Command-Line Usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tokenize.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tabnanny.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabnanny</span></code> — Detection of ambiguous indentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyclbr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code> — Python class browser support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyclbr.html#function-objects">Function Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pyclbr.html#class-objects">Class Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/py_compile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code> — Compile Python source files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/compileall.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code> — Byte-compile Python libraries</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/compileall.html#command-line-use">Command-line use</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/compileall.html#public-functions">Public functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dis.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code> — Disassembler for Python bytecode</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dis.html#bytecode-analysis">Bytecode analysis</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dis.html#analysis-functions">Analysis functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dis.html#python-bytecode-instructions">Python Bytecode Instructions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/dis.html#opcode-collections">Opcode collections</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickletools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code> — Tools for pickle developers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickletools.html#command-line-usage">Command line usage</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickletools.html#command-line-options">Command line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pickletools.html#programmatic-interface">Programmatic Interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/misc.html">Miscellaneous Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/formatter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> — Generic output formatting</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/formatter.html#the-formatter-interface">The Formatter Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/formatter.html#formatter-implementations">Formatter Implementations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/formatter.html#the-writer-interface">The Writer Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/formatter.html#writer-implementations">Writer Implementations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/windows.html">MS Windows Specific Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code> — Read and write Microsoft Installer files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#database-objects">Database Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#view-objects">View Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#summary-information-objects">Summary Information Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#record-objects">Record Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#errors">Errors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#cab-objects">CAB Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#directory-objects">Directory Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#features">Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#gui-classes">GUI classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msilib.html#precomputed-tables">Precomputed tables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msvcrt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msvcrt.html#file-operations">File Operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msvcrt.html#console-i-o">Console I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/msvcrt.html#other-functions">Other Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code> — Windows registry access</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html#constants">Constants</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html#hkey-constants">HKEY_* Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html#access-rights">Access Rights</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html#bit-specific">64-bit Specific</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html#value-types">Value Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winreg.html#registry-handle-objects">Registry Handle Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/winsound.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winsound</span></code> — Sound-playing interface for Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/unix.html">Unix Specific Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/posix.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code> — The most common POSIX system calls</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/posix.html#large-file-support">Large File Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/posix.html#notable-module-contents">Notable Module Contents</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pwd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code> — The password database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/spwd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code> — The shadow password database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/grp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code> — The group database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/crypt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code> — Function to check Unix passwords</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/crypt.html#hashing-methods">Hashing Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/crypt.html#module-attributes">Module Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/crypt.html#module-functions">Module Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/crypt.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/termios.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code> — POSIX style tty control</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/termios.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/tty.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code> — Terminal control functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pty.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code> — Pseudo-terminal utilities</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pty.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/fcntl.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> — The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl</span></code> system calls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pipes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code> — Interface to shell pipelines</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/pipes.html#template-objects">Template Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/resource.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code> — Resource usage information</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/resource.html#resource-limits">Resource Limits</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/resource.html#resource-usage">Resource Usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/nis.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code> — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/syslog.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code> — Unix syslog library routines</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/syslog.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/syslog.html#simple-example">Simple example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/superseded.html">Superseded Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> — Parser for command line options</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#background">Background</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#terminology">Terminology</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#what-are-options-for">What are options for?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#what-are-positional-arguments-for">What are positional arguments for?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#tutorial">Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#understanding-option-actions">Understanding option actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#the-store-action">The store action</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#handling-boolean-flag-options">Handling boolean (flag) options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#other-actions">Other actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#default-values">Default values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#generating-help">Generating help</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#grouping-options">Grouping Options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#printing-a-version-string">Printing a version string</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#how-optparse-handles-errors">How <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> handles errors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#putting-it-all-together">Putting it all together</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#reference-guide">Reference Guide</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#creating-the-parser">Creating the parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#populating-the-parser">Populating the parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#defining-options">Defining options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#option-attributes">Option attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#standard-option-actions">Standard option actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#standard-option-types">Standard option types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser">Querying and manipulating your option parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#conflicts-between-options">Conflicts between options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#cleanup">Cleanup</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#other-methods">Other methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#option-callbacks">Option Callbacks</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#defining-a-callback-option">Defining a callback option</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#how-callbacks-are-called">How callbacks are called</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#raising-errors-in-a-callback">Raising errors in a callback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#callback-example-1-trivial-callback">Callback example 1: trivial callback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#callback-example-2-check-option-order">Callback example 2: check option order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized">Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition">Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#callback-example-5-fixed-arguments">Callback example 5: fixed arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#callback-example-6-variable-arguments">Callback example 6: variable arguments</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#extending-optparse">Extending <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#adding-new-types">Adding new types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="library/optparse.html#adding-new-actions">Adding new actions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/imp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code> — Access the <span class="xref std std-ref">import</span> internals</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="library/imp.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="library/undoc.html">Undocumented Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="library/undoc.html#platform-specific-modules">Platform specific modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/index.html">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/index.html#recommended-third-party-tools">Recommended third party tools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/index.html#creating-extensions-without-third-party-tools">Creating extensions without third party tools</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html">1. Extending Python with C or C++</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#a-simple-example">1.1. A Simple Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#intermezzo-errors-and-exceptions">1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#back-to-the-example">1.3. Back to the Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function">1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#compilation-and-linkage">1.5. Compilation and Linkage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#calling-python-functions-from-c">1.6. Calling Python Functions from C</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#extracting-parameters-in-extension-functions">1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#keyword-parameters-for-extension-functions">1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#building-arbitrary-values">1.9. Building Arbitrary Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#reference-counts">1.10. Reference Counts</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#reference-counting-in-python">1.10.1. Reference Counting in Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#ownership-rules">1.10.2. Ownership Rules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#thin-ice">1.10.3. Thin Ice</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#null-pointers">1.10.4. NULL Pointers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#writing-extensions-in-c">1.11. Writing Extensions in C++</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/extending.html#providing-a-c-api-for-an-extension-module">1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes_tutorial.html">2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes_tutorial.html#the-basics">2.1. The Basics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes_tutorial.html#adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example">2.2. Adding data and methods to the Basic example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes_tutorial.html#providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes">2.3. Providing finer control over data attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes_tutorial.html#supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection">2.4. Supporting cyclic garbage collection</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes_tutorial.html#subclassing-other-types">2.5. Subclassing other types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html">3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#finalization-and-de-allocation">3.1. Finalization and De-allocation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#object-presentation">3.2. Object Presentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#attribute-management">3.3. Attribute Management</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#generic-attribute-management">3.3.1. Generic Attribute Management</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#type-specific-attribute-management">3.3.2. Type-specific Attribute Management</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#object-comparison">3.4. Object Comparison</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#abstract-protocol-support">3.5. Abstract Protocol Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#weak-reference-support">3.6. Weak Reference Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/newtypes.html#more-suggestions">3.7. More Suggestions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/building.html">4. Building C and C++ Extensions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/building.html#building-c-and-c-extensions-with-distutils">4.1. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/building.html#distributing-your-extension-modules">4.2. Distributing your extension modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/windows.html">5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/windows.html#a-cookbook-approach">5.1. A Cookbook Approach</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/windows.html#differences-between-unix-and-windows">5.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/windows.html#using-dlls-in-practice">5.3. Using DLLs in Practice</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/index.html#embedding-the-cpython-runtime-in-a-larger-application">Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/embedding.html">1. Embedding Python in Another Application</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/embedding.html#very-high-level-embedding">1.1. Very High Level Embedding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/embedding.html#beyond-very-high-level-embedding-an-overview">1.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/embedding.html#pure-embedding">1.3. Pure Embedding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/embedding.html#extending-embedded-python">1.4. Extending Embedded Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/embedding.html#embedding-python-in-c">1.5. Embedding Python in C++</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="extending/embedding.html#compiling-and-linking-under-unix-like-systems">1.6. Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/index.html">Python/C API Reference Manual</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#coding-standards">Coding standards</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#include-files">Include Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#useful-macros">Useful macros</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#objects-types-and-reference-counts">Objects, Types and Reference Counts</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#reference-counts">Reference Counts</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#reference-count-details">Reference Count Details</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#types">Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#embedding-python">Embedding Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/intro.html#debugging-builds">Debugging Builds</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/stable.html">Stable Application Binary Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/veryhigh.html">The Very High Level Layer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/refcounting.html">Reference Counting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html">Exception Handling</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#printing-and-clearing">Printing and clearing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#raising-exceptions">Raising exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#issuing-warnings">Issuing warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#querying-the-error-indicator">Querying the error indicator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#signal-handling">Signal Handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#exception-classes">Exception Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#exception-objects">Exception Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#unicode-exception-objects">Unicode Exception Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#recursion-control">Recursion Control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#standard-exceptions">Standard Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/exceptions.html#standard-warning-categories">Standard Warning Categories</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/utilities.html">Utilities</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/sys.html">Operating System Utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/sys.html#system-functions">System Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/sys.html#process-control">Process Control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/import.html">Importing Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/marshal.html">Data marshalling support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/arg.html">Parsing arguments and building values</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/arg.html#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/arg.html#strings-and-buffers">Strings and buffers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/arg.html#numbers">Numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/arg.html#other-objects">Other objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/arg.html#api-functions">API Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/arg.html#building-values">Building values</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/conversion.html">String conversion and formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/reflection.html">Reflection</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/codec.html">Codec registry and support functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/codec.html#codec-lookup-api">Codec lookup API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/codec.html#registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers">Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/abstract.html">Abstract Objects Layer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/object.html">Object Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/number.html">Number Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/sequence.html">Sequence Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/mapping.html">Mapping Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/iter.html">Iterator Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html">Buffer Protocol</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#buffer-structure">Buffer structure</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#buffer-request-types">Buffer request types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#request-independent-fields">request-independent fields</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#readonly-format">readonly, format</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#shape-strides-suboffsets">shape, strides, suboffsets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#contiguity-requests">contiguity requests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#compound-requests">compound requests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#complex-arrays">Complex arrays</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#numpy-style-shape-and-strides">NumPy-style: shape and strides</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets">PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#buffer-related-functions">Buffer-related functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/objbuffer.html">Old Buffer Protocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/concrete.html">Concrete Objects Layer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/concrete.html#fundamental-objects">Fundamental Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/type.html">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/none.html">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> Object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/concrete.html#numeric-objects">Numeric Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/long.html">Integer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/bool.html">Boolean Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/float.html">Floating Point Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/complex.html">Complex Number Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/complex.html#complex-numbers-as-c-structures">Complex Numbers as C Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/complex.html#complex-numbers-as-python-objects">Complex Numbers as Python Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/concrete.html#sequence-objects">Sequence Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/bytes.html">Bytes Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/bytearray.html">Byte Array Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/bytearray.html#type-check-macros">Type check macros</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/bytearray.html#direct-api-functions">Direct API functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/bytearray.html#macros">Macros</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html">Unicode Objects and Codecs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#unicode-objects">Unicode Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#unicode-type">Unicode Type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#unicode-character-properties">Unicode Character Properties</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#creating-and-accessing-unicode-strings">Creating and accessing Unicode strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#deprecated-py-unicode-apis">Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#locale-encoding">Locale Encoding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#file-system-encoding">File System Encoding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#wchar-t-support">wchar_t Support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#built-in-codecs">Built-in Codecs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#generic-codecs">Generic Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#utf-8-codecs">UTF-8 Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#utf-32-codecs">UTF-32 Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#utf-16-codecs">UTF-16 Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#utf-7-codecs">UTF-7 Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#unicode-escape-codecs">Unicode-Escape Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#raw-unicode-escape-codecs">Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#latin-1-codecs">Latin-1 Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#ascii-codecs">ASCII Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#character-map-codecs">Character Map Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#mbcs-codecs-for-windows">MBCS codecs for Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#methods-slots">Methods &amp; Slots</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/unicode.html#methods-and-slot-functions">Methods and Slot Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/tuple.html">Tuple Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/tuple.html#struct-sequence-objects">Struct Sequence Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/list.html">List Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/concrete.html#container-objects">Container Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/dict.html">Dictionary Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/set.html">Set Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/concrete.html#function-objects">Function Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/function.html">Function Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/method.html">Instance Method Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/method.html#method-objects">Method Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/cell.html">Cell Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/code.html">Code Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/concrete.html#other-objects">Other Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/file.html">File Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/module.html">Module Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/module.html#initializing-c-modules">Initializing C modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/module.html#single-phase-initialization">Single-phase initialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/module.html#multi-phase-initialization">Multi-phase initialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/module.html#low-level-module-creation-functions">Low-level module creation functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l6"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/module.html#support-functions">Support functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/module.html#module-lookup">Module lookup</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/iterator.html">Iterator Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/descriptor.html">Descriptor Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/slice.html">Slice Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/slice.html#ellipsis-object">Ellipsis Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memoryview.html">MemoryView objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/weakref.html">Weak Reference Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/capsule.html">Capsules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/gen.html">Generator Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/coro.html">Coroutine Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/contextvars.html">Context Variables Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/datetime.html">DateTime Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html">Initialization, Finalization, and Threads</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#before-python-initialization">Before Python Initialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#global-configuration-variables">Global configuration variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#initializing-and-finalizing-the-interpreter">Initializing and finalizing the interpreter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#process-wide-parameters">Process-wide parameters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#thread-state-and-the-global-interpreter-lock">Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#releasing-the-gil-from-extension-code">Releasing the GIL from extension code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#non-python-created-threads">Non-Python created threads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#high-level-api">High-level API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#low-level-api">Low-level API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#sub-interpreter-support">Sub-interpreter support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#bugs-and-caveats">Bugs and caveats</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#asynchronous-notifications">Asynchronous Notifications</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#profiling-and-tracing">Profiling and Tracing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#advanced-debugger-support">Advanced Debugger Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#thread-local-storage-support">Thread Local Storage Support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#thread-specific-storage-tss-api">Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#dynamic-allocation">Dynamic Allocation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/init.html#thread-local-storage-tls-api">Thread Local Storage (TLS) API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html">Memory Management</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#overview">Overview</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#raw-memory-interface">Raw Memory Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#memory-interface">Memory Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#object-allocators">Object allocators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#default-memory-allocators">Default Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#customize-memory-allocators">Customize Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#the-pymalloc-allocator">The pymalloc allocator</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#customize-pymalloc-arena-allocator">Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#tracemalloc-c-api">tracemalloc C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/memory.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/objimpl.html">Object Implementation Support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/allocation.html">Allocating Objects on the Heap</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/structures.html">Common Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/typeobj.html">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/typeobj.html#number-object-structures">Number Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/typeobj.html#mapping-object-structures">Mapping Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/typeobj.html#sequence-object-structures">Sequence Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/typeobj.html#buffer-object-structures">Buffer Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/typeobj.html#async-object-structures">Async Object Structures</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/gcsupport.html">Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="c-api/apiabiversion.html">API and ABI Versioning</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html">Distributing Python Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html#key-terms">Key terms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html#open-source-licensing-and-collaboration">Open source licensing and collaboration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html#installing-the-tools">Installing the tools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html#reading-the-python-packaging-user-guide">Reading the Python Packaging User Guide</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html#how-do-i">How do I…?</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html#choose-a-name-for-my-project">… choose a name for my project?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="distributing/index.html#create-and-distribute-binary-extensions">… create and distribute binary extensions?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html">Installing Python Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#key-terms">Key terms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#basic-usage">Basic usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#how-do-i">How do I …?</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-4">… install <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#install-packages-just-for-the-current-user">… install packages just for the current user?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#install-scientific-python-packages">… install scientific Python packages?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel">… work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#common-installation-issues">Common installation issues</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux">Installing into the system Python on Linux</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#pip-not-installed">Pip not installed</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="installing/index.html#installing-binary-extensions">Installing binary extensions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/index.html">Python HOWTOs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html">Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#the-short-explanation">The Short Explanation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#details">Details</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#drop-support-for-python-2-6-and-older">Drop support for Python 2.6 and older</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#make-sure-you-specify-the-proper-version-support-in-your-setup-py-file">Make sure you specify the proper version support in your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#have-good-test-coverage">Have good test coverage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#learn-the-differences-between-python-2-3">Learn the differences between Python 2 &amp; 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#update-your-code">Update your code</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#division">Division</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#text-versus-binary-data">Text versus binary data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#use-feature-detection-instead-of-version-detection">Use feature detection instead of version detection</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#prevent-compatibility-regressions">Prevent compatibility regressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#check-which-dependencies-block-your-transition">Check which dependencies block your transition</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#update-your-setup-py-file-to-denote-python-3-compatibility">Update your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file to denote Python 3 compatibility</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#use-continuous-integration-to-stay-compatible">Use continuous integration to stay compatible</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/pyporting.html#consider-using-optional-static-type-checking">Consider using optional static type checking</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html">Porting Extension Modules to Python 3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html#conditional-compilation">Conditional compilation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html#changes-to-object-apis">Changes to Object APIs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html#str-unicode-unification">str/unicode Unification</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html#long-int-unification">long/int Unification</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html#module-initialization-and-state">Module initialization and state</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html#cobject-replaced-with-capsule">CObject replaced with Capsule</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/cporting.html#other-options">Other options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html">Curses Programming with Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#what-is-curses">What is curses?</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#the-python-curses-module">The Python curses module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#starting-and-ending-a-curses-application">Starting and ending a curses application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#windows-and-pads">Windows and Pads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#displaying-text">Displaying Text</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#attributes-and-color">Attributes and Color</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#user-input">User Input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/curses.html#for-more-information">For More Information</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html">Descriptor HowTo Guide</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#abstract">Abstract</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#definition-and-introduction">Definition and Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#descriptor-protocol">Descriptor Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#invoking-descriptors">Invoking Descriptors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#descriptor-example">Descriptor Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#properties">Properties</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#functions-and-methods">Functions and Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/descriptor.html#static-methods-and-class-methods">Static Methods and Class Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html">Functional Programming HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#introduction">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#formal-provability">Formal provability</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#modularity">Modularity</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#ease-of-debugging-and-testing">Ease of debugging and testing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#composability">Composability</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#iterators">Iterators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#data-types-that-support-iterators">Data Types That Support Iterators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#generator-expressions-and-list-comprehensions">Generator expressions and list comprehensions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#generators">Generators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#passing-values-into-a-generator">Passing values into a generator</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#built-in-functions">Built-in functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#the-itertools-module">The itertools module</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#creating-new-iterators">Creating new iterators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#calling-functions-on-elements">Calling functions on elements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#selecting-elements">Selecting elements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#combinatoric-functions">Combinatoric functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#grouping-elements">Grouping elements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#the-functools-module">The functools module</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#the-operator-module">The operator module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#small-functions-and-the-lambda-expression">Small functions and the lambda expression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#revision-history-and-acknowledgements">Revision History and Acknowledgements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#references">References</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#general">General</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#python-specific">Python-specific</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/functional.html#python-documentation">Python documentation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html">Logging HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#basic-logging-tutorial">Basic Logging Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#when-to-use-logging">When to use logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#a-simple-example">A simple example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#logging-to-a-file">Logging to a file</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#logging-from-multiple-modules">Logging from multiple modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#logging-variable-data">Logging variable data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#changing-the-format-of-displayed-messages">Changing the format of displayed messages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#displaying-the-date-time-in-messages">Displaying the date/time in messages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#next-steps">Next Steps</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#advanced-logging-tutorial">Advanced Logging Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#logging-flow">Logging Flow</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#loggers">Loggers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#handlers">Handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#formatters">Formatters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#configuring-logging">Configuring Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#what-happens-if-no-configuration-is-provided">What happens if no configuration is provided</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#configuring-logging-for-a-library">Configuring Logging for a Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#logging-levels">Logging Levels</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#custom-levels">Custom Levels</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#useful-handlers">Useful Handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#exceptions-raised-during-logging">Exceptions raised during logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#using-arbitrary-objects-as-messages">Using arbitrary objects as messages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging.html#optimization">Optimization</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html">Logging Cookbook</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-logging-in-multiple-modules">Using logging in multiple modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-from-multiple-threads">Logging from multiple threads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#multiple-handlers-and-formatters">Multiple handlers and formatters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-to-multiple-destinations">Logging to multiple destinations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#configuration-server-example">Configuration server example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#dealing-with-handlers-that-block">Dealing with handlers that block</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#sending-and-receiving-logging-events-across-a-network">Sending and receiving logging events across a network</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output">Adding contextual information to your logging output</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information">Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information">Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-filters-to-impart-contextual-information">Using Filters to impart contextual information</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes">Logging to a single file from multiple processes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-file-rotation">Using file rotation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#use-of-alternative-formatting-styles">Use of alternative formatting styles</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#customizing-logrecord">Customizing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#subclassing-queuehandler-a-zeromq-example">Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#subclassing-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example">Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#an-example-dictionary-based-configuration">An example dictionary-based configuration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing">Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example">A more elaborate multiprocessing example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler">Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#implementing-structured-logging">Implementing structured logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig">Customizing handlers with <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application">Using particular formatting styles throughout your application</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-logrecord-factories">Using LogRecord factories</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-custom-message-objects">Using custom message objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#configuring-filters-with-dictconfig">Configuring filters with <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#customized-exception-formatting">Customized exception formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#speaking-logging-messages">Speaking logging messages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#buffering-logging-messages-and-outputting-them-conditionally">Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#formatting-times-using-utc-gmt-via-configuration">Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#using-a-context-manager-for-selective-logging">Using a context manager for selective logging</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html">Regular Expression HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#simple-patterns">Simple Patterns</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#matching-characters">Matching Characters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#repeating-things">Repeating Things</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#using-regular-expressions">Using Regular Expressions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#compiling-regular-expressions">Compiling Regular Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#the-backslash-plague">The Backslash Plague</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#performing-matches">Performing Matches</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#module-level-functions">Module-Level Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#compilation-flags">Compilation Flags</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#more-pattern-power">More Pattern Power</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#more-metacharacters">More Metacharacters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#grouping">Grouping</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#non-capturing-and-named-groups">Non-capturing and Named Groups</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#lookahead-assertions">Lookahead Assertions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#modifying-strings">Modifying Strings</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#splitting-strings">Splitting Strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#search-and-replace">Search and Replace</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#common-problems">Common Problems</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#use-string-methods">Use String Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#match-versus-search">match() versus search()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#greedy-versus-non-greedy">Greedy versus Non-Greedy</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#using-re-verbose">Using re.VERBOSE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/regex.html#feedback">Feedback</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html">Socket Programming HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#sockets">Sockets</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#history">History</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#creating-a-socket">Creating a Socket</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#ipc">IPC</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#using-a-socket">Using a Socket</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#binary-data">Binary Data</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#disconnecting">Disconnecting</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#when-sockets-die">When Sockets Die</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sockets.html#non-blocking-sockets">Non-blocking Sockets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html">Sorting HOW TO</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#sorting-basics">Sorting Basics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#key-functions">Key Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#operator-module-functions">Operator Module Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#ascending-and-descending">Ascending and Descending</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#sort-stability-and-complex-sorts">Sort Stability and Complex Sorts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#the-old-way-using-decorate-sort-undecorate">The Old Way Using Decorate-Sort-Undecorate</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#the-old-way-using-the-cmp-parameter">The Old Way Using the <em>cmp</em> Parameter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#odd-and-ends">Odd and Ends</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html">Unicode HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#introduction-to-unicode">Introduction to Unicode</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#definitions">Definitions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#encodings">Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#references">References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#python-s-unicode-support">Python’s Unicode Support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#the-string-type">The String Type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#converting-to-bytes">Converting to Bytes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#unicode-literals-in-python-source-code">Unicode Literals in Python Source Code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#unicode-properties">Unicode Properties</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#comparing-strings">Comparing Strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#unicode-regular-expressions">Unicode Regular Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#id2">References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#reading-and-writing-unicode-data">Reading and Writing Unicode Data</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#unicode-filenames">Unicode filenames</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#tips-for-writing-unicode-aware-programs">Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#converting-between-file-encodings">Converting Between File Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#files-in-an-unknown-encoding">Files in an Unknown Encoding</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#id3">References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/unicode.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html">HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#fetching-urls">Fetching URLs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#data">Data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#headers">Headers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#handling-exceptions">Handling Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#urlerror">URLError</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#httperror">HTTPError</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#error-codes">Error Codes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#wrapping-it-up">Wrapping it Up</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#number-1">Number 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l5"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#number-2">Number 2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#info-and-geturl">info and geturl</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#openers-and-handlers">Openers and Handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#id5">Basic Authentication</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#proxies">Proxies</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#sockets-and-layers">Sockets and Layers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/urllib2.html#footnotes">Footnotes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html">Argparse Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#concepts">Concepts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#the-basics">The basics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#introducing-positional-arguments">Introducing Positional arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#introducing-optional-arguments">Introducing Optional arguments</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#short-options">Short options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#combining-positional-and-optional-arguments">Combining Positional and Optional arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#getting-a-little-more-advanced">Getting a little more advanced</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#conflicting-options">Conflicting options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/argparse.html#conclusion">Conclusion</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html">An introduction to the ipaddress module</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#creating-address-network-interface-objects">Creating Address/Network/Interface objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#a-note-on-ip-versions">A Note on IP Versions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#ip-host-addresses">IP Host Addresses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#defining-networks">Defining Networks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#host-interfaces">Host Interfaces</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#inspecting-address-network-interface-objects">Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#networks-as-lists-of-addresses">Networks as lists of Addresses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#using-ip-addresses-with-other-modules">Using IP Addresses with other modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/ipaddress.html#getting-more-detail-when-instance-creation-fails">Getting more detail when instance creation fails</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html">Argument Clinic How-To</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#the-goals-of-argument-clinic">The Goals Of Argument Clinic</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#basic-concepts-and-usage">Basic Concepts And Usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#converting-your-first-function">Converting Your First Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#advanced-topics">Advanced Topics</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#symbolic-default-values">Symbolic default values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#renaming-the-c-functions-and-variables-generated-by-argument-clinic">Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument Clinic</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#converting-functions-using-pyarg-unpacktuple">Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#optional-groups">Optional Groups</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#using-real-argument-clinic-converters-instead-of-legacy-converters">Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of “legacy converters”</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#py-buffer">Py_buffer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#advanced-converters">Advanced converters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#parameter-default-values">Parameter default values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#the-null-default-value">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> default value</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#expressions-specified-as-default-values">Expressions specified as default values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#using-a-return-converter">Using a return converter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#cloning-existing-functions">Cloning existing functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#calling-python-code">Calling Python code</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#using-a-self-converter">Using a “self converter”</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#writing-a-custom-converter">Writing a custom converter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#writing-a-custom-return-converter">Writing a custom return converter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#meth-o-and-meth-noargs">METH_O and METH_NOARGS</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#tp-new-and-tp-init-functions">tp_new and tp_init functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#changing-and-redirecting-clinic-s-output">Changing and redirecting Clinic’s output</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#the-ifdef-trick">The #ifdef trick</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/clinic.html#using-argument-clinic-in-python-files">Using Argument Clinic in Python files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/instrumentation.html">Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/instrumentation.html#enabling-the-static-markers">Enabling the static markers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/instrumentation.html#static-dtrace-probes">Static DTrace probes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/instrumentation.html#static-systemtap-markers">Static SystemTap markers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/instrumentation.html#available-static-markers">Available static markers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/instrumentation.html#systemtap-tapsets">SystemTap Tapsets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="howto/instrumentation.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/index.html">Python Frequently Asked Questions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/general.html">General Python FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/general.html#general-information">General Information</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/general.html#python-in-the-real-world">Python in the real world</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html">Programming FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#general-questions">General Questions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#core-language">Core Language</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#numbers-and-strings">Numbers and strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#sequences-tuples-lists">Sequences (Tuples/Lists)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#objects">Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#modules">Modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html">Design and History FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements">Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations">Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate">Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-are-python-strings-immutable">Why are Python strings immutable?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls">Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression">Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list">Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method">Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#how-fast-are-exceptions">How fast are exceptions?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python">Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation">Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements">Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language">Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#how-does-python-manage-memory">How does Python manage memory?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme">Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits">Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types">Why are there separate tuple and list data types?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython">How are lists implemented in CPython?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython">How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable">Why must dictionary keys be immutable?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list">Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python">How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-is-there-no-goto">Why is there no goto?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash">Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments">Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements">Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/design.html#why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples">Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html">Library and Extension FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html#general-library-questions">General Library Questions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html#common-tasks">Common tasks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html#threads">Threads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html#input-and-output">Input and Output</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html#network-internet-programming">Network/Internet Programming</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html#databases">Databases</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/library.html#mathematics-and-numerics">Mathematics and Numerics</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html">Extending/Embedding FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c">Can I create my own functions in C?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#id1">Can I create my own functions in C++?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives">Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c">How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c">How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object">How do I extract C values from a Python object?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length">How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c">How do I call an object’s method from C?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr">How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c">How do I access a module written in Python from C?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python">How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why">I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-debug-an-extension">How do I debug an extension?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why">I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input">How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual">How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/extending.html#can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance">Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html">Python on Windows FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows">How do I run a Python program under Windows?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable">How do I make Python scripts executable?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start">Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script">How do I make an executable from a Python script?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll">Is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyd</span></code> file the same as a DLL?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application">How can I embed Python into a Windows application?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source">How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/windows.html#how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking">How do I check for a keypress without blocking?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/gui.html">Graphic User Interface FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/gui.html#general-gui-questions">General GUI Questions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/gui.html#what-platform-independent-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python">What platform-independent GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/gui.html#what-platform-specific-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python">What platform-specific GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/gui.html#tkinter-questions">Tkinter questions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/installed.html">“Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/installed.html#what-is-python">What is Python?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/installed.html#why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine">Why is Python installed on my machine?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="faq/installed.html#can-i-delete-python">Can I delete Python?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="glossary.html">Glossary</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="about.html">About these documents</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="about.html#contributors-to-the-python-documentation">Contributors to the Python Documentation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="bugs.html">Dealing with Bugs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bugs.html#documentation-bugs">Documentation bugs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bugs.html#using-the-python-issue-tracker">Using the Python issue tracker</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="license.html#psf-license-agreement-for-python-release">PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 3.7.4</a></li>
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+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="whatsnew/index.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/copyright.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/copyright.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc1a0a6
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/copyright.html
@@ -0,0 +1,187 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Copyright &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
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+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/copyright.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="copyright">
+<h1>Copyright<a class="headerlink" href="#copyright" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python and this documentation is:</p>
+<p>Copyright © 2001-2019 Python Software Foundation. All rights reserved.</p>
+<p>Copyright © 2000 BeOpen.com. All rights reserved.</p>
+<p>Copyright © 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives. All rights
+reserved.</p>
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+<hr class="docutils" />
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+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="#">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distributing/index.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distributing/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4aedad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distributing/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Distributing Python Modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Installing Python Modules" href="../installing/index.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="API and ABI Versioning" href="../c-api/apiabiversion.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../installing/index.html" title="Installing Python Modules"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../c-api/apiabiversion.html" title="API and ABI Versioning"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="distributing-python-modules">
+<span id="distributing-index"></span><h1>Distributing Python Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#distributing-python-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Email</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><a class="reference external" href="mailto:distutils-sig&#37;&#52;&#48;python&#46;org">distutils-sig<span>&#64;</span>python<span>&#46;</span>org</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>As a popular open source development project, Python has an active
+supporting community of contributors and users that also make their software
+available for other Python developers to use under open source license terms.</p>
+<p>This allows Python users to share and collaborate effectively, benefiting
+from the solutions others have already created to common (and sometimes
+even rare!) problems, as well as potentially contributing their own
+solutions to the common pool.</p>
+<p>This guide covers the distribution part of the process. For a guide to
+installing other Python projects, refer to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">installation guide</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For corporate and other institutional users, be aware that many
+organisations have their own policies around using and contributing to
+open source software. Please take such policies into account when making
+use of the distribution and installation tools provided with Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="key-terms">
+<h2>Key terms<a class="headerlink" href="#key-terms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">Python Packaging Index</a> is a public
+repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by
+other Python users</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.pypa.io/">Python Packaging Authority</a> are the group of
+developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and
+evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
+file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation
+and issue trackers on both <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/pypa">GitHub</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bitbucket.org/pypa/">BitBucket</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> is the original build and distribution system first added
+to the Python standard library in 1998. While direct use of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>
+is being phased out, it still laid the foundation for the current packaging
+and distribution infrastructure, and it not only remains part of the
+standard library, but its name lives on in other ways (such as the name
+of the mailing list used to coordinate Python packaging standards
+development).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/">setuptools</a> is a (largely) drop-in replacement for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> first
+published in 2004. Its most notable addition over the unmodified
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> tools was the ability to declare dependencies on other
+packages. It is currently recommended as a more regularly updated
+alternative to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> that offers consistent support for more
+recent packaging standards across a wide range of Python versions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://wheel.readthedocs.io/">wheel</a> (in this context) is a project that adds the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdist_wheel</span></code>
+command to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>/<a class="reference external" href="https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/">setuptools</a>. This produces a cross platform
+binary packaging format (called “wheels” or “wheel files” and defined in
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0427"><strong>PEP 427</strong></a>) that allows Python libraries, even those including binary
+extensions, to be installed on a system without needing to be built
+locally.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="open-source-licensing-and-collaboration">
+<h2>Open source licensing and collaboration<a class="headerlink" href="#open-source-licensing-and-collaboration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In most parts of the world, software is automatically covered by copyright.
+This means that other developers require explicit permission to copy, use,
+modify and redistribute the software.</p>
+<p>Open source licensing is a way of explicitly granting such permission in a
+relatively consistent way, allowing developers to share and collaborate
+efficiently by making common solutions to various problems freely available.
+This leaves many developers free to spend more time focusing on the problems
+that are relatively unique to their specific situation.</p>
+<p>The distribution tools provided with Python are designed to make it
+reasonably straightforward for developers to make their own contributions
+back to that common pool of software if they choose to do so.</p>
+<p>The same distribution tools can also be used to distribute software within
+an organisation, regardless of whether that software is published as open
+source software or not.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-the-tools">
+<h2>Installing the tools<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-the-tools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The standard library does not include build tools that support modern
+Python packaging standards, as the core development team has found that it
+is important to have standard tools that work consistently, even on older
+versions of Python.</p>
+<p>The currently recommended build and distribution tools can be installed
+by invoking the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> module at the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">pip</span> <span class="n">install</span> <span class="n">setuptools</span> <span class="n">wheel</span> <span class="n">twine</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For POSIX users (including Mac OS X and Linux users), these instructions
+assume the use of a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-virtual-environment"><span class="xref std std-term">virtual environment</span></a>.</p>
+<p>For Windows users, these instructions assume that the option to
+adjust the system PATH environment variable was selected when installing
+Python.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The Python Packaging User Guide includes more details on the <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/guides/tool-recommendations/#packaging-tool-recommendations">currently
+recommended tools</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reading-the-python-packaging-user-guide">
+<span id="publishing-python-packages"></span><span id="index-1"></span><h2>Reading the Python Packaging User Guide<a class="headerlink" href="#reading-the-python-packaging-user-guide" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Python Packaging User Guide covers the various key steps and elements
+involved in creating and publishing a project:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href=" https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/">Project structure</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href=" https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/#packaging-your-project">Building and packaging the project</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href=" https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/#uploading-your-project-to-pypi">Uploading the project to the Python Packaging Index</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i">
+<h2>How do I…?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These are quick answers or links for some common tasks.</p>
+<div class="section" id="choose-a-name-for-my-project">
+<h3>… choose a name for my project?<a class="headerlink" href="#choose-a-name-for-my-project" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This isn’t an easy topic, but here are a few tips:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>check the Python Packaging Index to see if the name is already in use</p></li>
+<li><p>check popular hosting sites like GitHub, BitBucket, etc to see if there
+is already a project with that name</p></li>
+<li><p>check what comes up in a web search for the name you’re considering</p></li>
+<li><p>avoid particularly common words, especially ones with multiple meanings,
+as they can make it difficult for users to find your software when
+searching for it</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="create-and-distribute-binary-extensions">
+<h3>… create and distribute binary extensions?<a class="headerlink" href="#create-and-distribute-binary-extensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This is actually quite a complex topic, with a variety of alternatives
+available depending on exactly what you’re aiming to achieve. See the
+Python Packaging User Guide for more information and recommendations.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/">Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Distributing Python Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#key-terms">Key terms</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#open-source-licensing-and-collaboration">Open source licensing and collaboration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-the-tools">Installing the tools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reading-the-python-packaging-user-guide">Reading the Python Packaging User Guide</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i">How do I…?</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#choose-a-name-for-my-project">… choose a name for my project?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#create-and-distribute-binary-extensions">… create and distribute binary extensions?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../c-api/apiabiversion.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">API and ABI Versioning</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../installing/index.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Installing Python Modules</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/distributing/index.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/apiref.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/apiref.html
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/apiref.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2095 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>9. API Reference &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="api-reference">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>9. API Reference<a class="headerlink" href="#api-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.core">
+<span id="distutils-core-core-distutils-functionality"></span><h2>9.1. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.core" title="distutils.core: The core Distutils functionality"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core</span></code></a> — Core Distutils functionality<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.core" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.core" title="distutils.core: The core Distutils functionality"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core</span></code></a> module is the only module that needs to be installed
+to use the Distutils. It provides the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> (which is called from the
+setup script). Indirectly provides the  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist.Distribution</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command" title="distutils.cmd.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cmd.Command</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.core.setup">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.core.</code><code class="descname">setup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arguments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The basic do-everything function that does most everything you could ever ask
+for from a Distutils method.</p>
+<p>The setup function takes a large number of arguments. These are laid out in the
+following table.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 54%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>argument name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>name</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The name of the package</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>version</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The version number of the
+package; see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.version" title="distutils.version: implements classes that represent module version numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.version</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>description</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A single line describing the
+package</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>long_description</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Longer description of the
+package</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>author</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The name of the package author</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>author_email</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The email address of the
+package author</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>maintainer</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The name of the current
+maintainer, if different from
+the author. Note that if
+the maintainer is provided,
+distutils will use it as the
+author in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>maintainer_email</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The email address of the
+current maintainer, if
+different from the author</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>url</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A URL for the package
+(homepage)</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>download_url</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A URL to download the package</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>packages</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A list of Python packages that
+distutils will manipulate</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>py_modules</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A list of Python modules that
+distutils will manipulate</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>scripts</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A list of standalone script
+files to be built and
+installed</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>ext_modules</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A list of Python extensions to
+be built</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Extension" title="distutils.core.Extension"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core.Extension</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>classifiers</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A list of categories for the
+package</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings; valid classifiers are listed on <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/classifiers">PyPI</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>distclass</em></p></td>
+<td><p>the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a>
+class to use</p></td>
+<td><p>a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core.Distribution</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>script_name</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The name of the setup.py
+script - defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>script_args</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Arguments to supply to the
+setup script</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>options</em></p></td>
+<td><p>default options for the setup
+script</p></td>
+<td><p>a dictionary</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>license</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The license for the package</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>keywords</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Descriptive meta-data, see
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0314"><strong>PEP 314</strong></a></p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings or a comma-separated string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>platforms</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings or a comma-separated string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>cmdclass</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A mapping of command names to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Command" title="distutils.core.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code></a> subclasses</p></td>
+<td><p>a dictionary</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>data_files</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A list of data files to
+install</p></td>
+<td><p>a list</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>package_dir</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A mapping of package to
+directory names</p></td>
+<td><p>a dictionary</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.core.run_setup">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.core.</code><code class="descname">run_setup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>script_name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>script_args=None</em>, <em>stop_after='run'</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.core.run_setup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run a setup script in a somewhat controlled environment, and return  the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist.Distribution</span></code> instance that drives things.   This is
+useful if you need to find out the distribution meta-data  (passed as keyword
+args from <em>script</em> to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a>), or  the contents of the config files or
+command-line.</p>
+<p><em>script_name</em> is a file that will be read and run with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code>
+will be replaced with <em>script</em> for the duration of the call.  <em>script_args</em> is a
+list of strings; if supplied, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code> will be replaced by <em>script_args</em>
+for the duration  of the call.</p>
+<p><em>stop_after</em> tells <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> when to stop processing; possible  values:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 75%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>init</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop after the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a>
+instance has been created  and populated
+with the keyword arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>config</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop after config files have been parsed
+(and their data stored in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a> instance)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>commandline</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop after the command-line
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code> or  <em>script_args</em>) have
+been parsed (and the data stored in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a> instance.)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>run</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop after all commands have been run (the
+same as  if <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> had been called
+in the usual way). This is the default
+value.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.core" title="distutils.core: The core Distutils functionality"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core</span></code></a> module exposed a number of  classes that
+live elsewhere.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code> from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.extension" title="distutils.extension: Provides the Extension class, used to describe C/C++ extension modules in setup scripts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.extension</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command" title="distutils.cmd.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code></a> from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.cmd" title="distutils.cmd: This module provides the abstract base class Command. This class is subclassed by the modules in the distutils.command subpackage."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cmd</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code> from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.dist" title="distutils.dist: Provides the Distribution class, which represents the module distribution being built/installed/distributed"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A short description of each of these follows, but see the relevant module for
+the full reference.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.core.Extension">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.core.</code><code class="descname">Extension</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.core.Extension" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The Extension class describes a single C or C++ extension module in a setup
+script. It accepts the following keyword arguments in its constructor:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>argument name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>name</em></p></td>
+<td><p>the full name of the
+extension, including any
+packages — ie. <em>not</em> a
+filename or pathname, but
+Python dotted name</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>sources</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of source filenames,
+relative to the distribution
+root (where the setup script
+lives), in Unix form
+(slash-separated) for
+portability.
+Source files may be C, C++,
+SWIG (.i), platform-specific
+resource files, or whatever
+else is recognized by the
+<strong class="command">build_ext</strong> command
+as source for a Python
+extension.</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>include_dirs</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of directories to search
+for C/C++ header files (in
+Unix form for portability)</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>define_macros</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of macros to define; each
+macro is defined using a
+2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code>,
+where <em>value</em> is
+either the string to define it
+to or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to define it
+without a particular value
+(equivalent of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#define</span> <span class="pre">FOO</span></code>
+in source or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-DFOO</span></code>
+on Unix C compiler command
+line)</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of tuples</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>undef_macros</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of macros to undefine
+explicitly</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>library_dirs</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of directories to search
+for C/C++ libraries at link
+time</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>libraries</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of library names (not
+filenames or paths) to link
+against</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>runtime_library_dirs</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of directories to search
+for C/C++ libraries at run
+time (for shared extensions,
+this is when the extension is
+loaded)</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>extra_objects</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of extra files to link
+with (eg. object files not
+implied by ‘sources’, static
+library that must be
+explicitly specified, binary
+resource files, etc.)</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>extra_compile_args</em></p></td>
+<td><p>any extra platform- and
+compiler-specific information
+to use when compiling the
+source files in ‘sources’. For
+platforms and compilers where
+a command line makes sense,
+this is typically a list of
+command-line arguments, but
+for other platforms it could
+be anything.</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>extra_link_args</em></p></td>
+<td><p>any extra platform- and
+compiler-specific information
+to use when linking object
+files together to create the
+extension (or to create a new
+static Python interpreter).
+Similar interpretation as for
+‘extra_compile_args’.</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>export_symbols</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of symbols to be exported
+from a shared extension. Not
+used on all platforms, and not
+generally necessary for Python
+extensions, which typically
+export exactly one symbol:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> + extension_name.</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>depends</em></p></td>
+<td><p>list of files that the
+extension depends on</p></td>
+<td><p>a list of strings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>language</em></p></td>
+<td><p>extension language (i.e.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c++'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'objc'</span></code>). Will be detected
+from the source extensions if
+not provided.</p></td>
+<td><p>a string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>optional</em></p></td>
+<td><p>specifies that a build failure
+in the extension should not
+abort the build process, but
+simply skip the extension.</p></td>
+<td><p>a boolean</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.core.Distribution">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.core.</code><code class="descname">Distribution</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a> describes how to build, install and package up a Python
+software package.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> function for a list of keyword arguments accepted  by the
+Distribution constructor. <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> creates a Distribution instance.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a> now warns if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classifiers</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platforms</span></code> fields are not specified as a list or
+a string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.core.Command">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.core.</code><code class="descname">Command</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.core.Command" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Command" title="distutils.core.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code></a> class (or rather, an instance of one of its subclasses)
+implement a single distutils command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.ccompiler">
+<span id="distutils-ccompiler-ccompiler-base-class"></span><h2>9.2. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.ccompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler: Abstract CCompiler class"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.ccompiler</span></code></a> — CCompiler base class<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.ccompiler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the abstract base class for the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code></a>
+classes.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code></a> instance can be used for all the compile  and
+link steps needed to build a single project. Methods are provided to  set
+options for the compiler — macro definitions, include directories,  link path,
+libraries and the like.</p>
+<p>This module provides the following functions.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.gen_lib_options">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.ccompiler.</code><code class="descname">gen_lib_options</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>compiler</em>, <em>library_dirs</em>, <em>runtime_library_dirs</em>, <em>libraries</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.gen_lib_options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate linker options for searching library directories and linking with
+specific libraries.  <em>libraries</em> and <em>library_dirs</em> are, respectively, lists of
+library names (not filenames!) and search directories.  Returns a list of
+command-line options suitable for use with some compiler (depending on the two
+format strings passed in).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.gen_preprocess_options">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.ccompiler.</code><code class="descname">gen_preprocess_options</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>macros</em>, <em>include_dirs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.gen_preprocess_options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate C pre-processor options (<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-D</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-U</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code>) as
+used by at least two types of compilers: the typical Unix compiler and Visual
+C++. <em>macros</em> is the usual thing, a list of 1- or 2-tuples, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,)</span></code>
+means undefine (<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-U</span></code>) macro <em>name</em>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> means define
+(<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-D</span></code>) macro <em>name</em> to <em>value</em>.  <em>include_dirs</em> is just a list of
+directory names to be added to the header file search path (<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code>).
+Returns a list of command-line options suitable for either Unix compilers or
+Visual C++.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.get_default_compiler">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.ccompiler.</code><code class="descname">get_default_compiler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>osname</em>, <em>platform</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.get_default_compiler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine the default compiler to use for the given platform.</p>
+<p><em>osname</em> should be one of the standard Python OS names (i.e. the ones returned
+by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.name</span></code>) and <em>platform</em> the common value returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code> for
+the platform in question.</p>
+<p>The default values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.name</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code> in case the parameters
+are not given.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.new_compiler">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.ccompiler.</code><code class="descname">new_compiler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>plat=None</em>, <em>compiler=None</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em>, <em>force=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.new_compiler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Factory function to generate an instance of some CCompiler subclass for the
+supplied platform/compiler combination. <em>plat</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.name</span></code> (eg.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'posix'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'nt'</span></code>), and <em>compiler</em>  defaults to the default compiler for
+that platform. Currently only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'posix'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'nt'</span></code> are supported, and the
+default compilers are “traditional Unix interface” (<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnixCCompiler</span></code>
+class) and Visual C++ (<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSVCCompiler</span></code> class).  Note that it’s perfectly
+possible to ask for a Unix compiler object under Windows, and a Microsoft
+compiler object under Unix—if you supply a value for <em>compiler</em>, <em>plat</em> is
+ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.show_compilers">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.ccompiler.</code><code class="descname">show_compilers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.show_compilers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print list of available compilers (used by the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help-compiler</span></code> options
+to <strong class="command">build</strong>, <strong class="command">build_ext</strong>, <strong class="command">build_clib</strong>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.ccompiler.</code><code class="descname">CCompiler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em>, <em>force=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The abstract base class <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code></a> defines the interface that  must be
+implemented by real compiler classes.  The class also has  some utility methods
+used by several compiler classes.</p>
+<p>The basic idea behind a compiler abstraction class is that each instance can be
+used for all the compile/link steps in building a single project.  Thus,
+attributes common to all of those compile and link steps — include
+directories, macros to define, libraries to link against, etc. — are
+attributes of the compiler instance.  To allow for variability in how individual
+files are treated, most of those attributes may be varied on a per-compilation
+or per-link basis.</p>
+<p>The constructor for each subclass creates an instance of the Compiler object.
+Flags are <em>verbose</em> (show verbose output), <em>dry_run</em> (don’t actually execute the
+steps) and <em>force</em> (rebuild everything, regardless of dependencies). All of
+these flags default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (off). Note that you probably don’t want to
+instantiate <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code></a> or one of its subclasses directly - use the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.CCompiler.new_compiler()</span></code> factory function instead.</p>
+<p>The following methods allow you to manually alter compiler options for  the
+instance of the Compiler class.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir">
+<code class="descname">add_include_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>dir</em> to the list of directories that will be searched for header files.
+The compiler is instructed to search directories in the order in which they are
+supplied by successive calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_include_dir()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_include_dirs">
+<code class="descname">set_include_dirs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dirs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_include_dirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of directories that will be searched to <em>dirs</em> (a list of strings).
+Overrides any preceding calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_include_dir()</span></code></a>; subsequent calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_include_dir()</span></code></a> add to the list passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_include_dirs" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_include_dirs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_include_dirs()</span></code></a>.
+This does not affect any list of standard include directories that the compiler
+may search by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library">
+<code class="descname">add_library</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>libname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>libname</em> to the list of libraries that will be included in all links driven
+by this compiler object.  Note that <em>libname</em> should *not* be the name of a
+file containing a library, but the name of the library itself: the actual
+filename will be inferred by the linker, the compiler, or the compiler class
+(depending on the platform).</p>
+<p>The linker will be instructed to link against libraries in the order they were
+supplied to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_library()</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_libraries()</span></code></a>.  It is perfectly
+valid to duplicate library names; the linker will be instructed to link against
+libraries as many times as they are mentioned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries">
+<code class="descname">set_libraries</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>libnames</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of libraries to be included in all links driven by this compiler
+object to <em>libnames</em> (a list of strings).  This does not affect any standard
+system libraries that the linker may include by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir">
+<code class="descname">add_library_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>dir</em> to the list of directories that will be searched for libraries
+specified to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_library()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_libraries()</span></code></a>.  The linker will be
+instructed to search for libraries in the order they are supplied to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_library_dir()</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_library_dirs()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs">
+<code class="descname">set_library_dirs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dirs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of library search directories to <em>dirs</em> (a list of strings).  This
+does not affect any standard library search path that the linker may search by
+default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_runtime_library_dir">
+<code class="descname">add_runtime_library_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_runtime_library_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>dir</em> to the list of directories that will be searched for shared libraries
+at runtime.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_runtime_library_dirs">
+<code class="descname">set_runtime_library_dirs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dirs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_runtime_library_dirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of directories to search for shared libraries at runtime to <em>dirs</em>
+(a list of strings).  This does not affect any standard search path that the
+runtime linker may search by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro">
+<code class="descname">define_macro</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Define a preprocessor macro for all compilations driven by this compiler object.
+The optional parameter <em>value</em> should be a string; if it is not supplied, then
+the macro will be defined without an explicit value and the exact outcome
+depends on the compiler used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro">
+<code class="descname">undefine_macro</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Undefine a preprocessor macro for all compilations driven by this compiler
+object.  If the same macro is defined by <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">define_macro()</span></code></a> and
+undefined by <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undefine_macro()</span></code></a> the last call takes precedence
+(including multiple redefinitions or undefinitions).  If the macro is
+redefined/undefined on a per-compilation basis (ie. in the call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>), then that takes precedence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_link_object">
+<code class="descname">add_link_object</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_link_object" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>object</em> to the list of object files (or analogues, such as explicitly named
+library files or the output of “resource compilers”) to be included in every
+link driven by this compiler object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_link_objects">
+<code class="descname">set_link_objects</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>objects</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_link_objects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of object files (or analogues) to be included in every link to
+<em>objects</em>.  This does not affect any standard object files that the linker may
+include by default (such as system libraries).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods implement methods for autodetection of compiler  options,
+providing some functionality similar to GNU <strong class="program">autoconf</strong>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.detect_language">
+<code class="descname">detect_language</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sources</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.detect_language" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Detect the language of a given file, or list of files. Uses the  instance
+attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">language_map</span></code> (a dictionary), and  <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">language_order</span></code> (a
+list) to do the job.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.find_library_file">
+<code class="descname">find_library_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dirs</em>, <em>lib</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>debug=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.find_library_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search the specified list of directories for a static or shared library file
+<em>lib</em> and return the full path to that file.  If <em>debug</em> is true, look for a
+debugging version (if that makes sense on the current platform).  Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if <em>lib</em> wasn’t found in any of the specified directories.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function">
+<code class="descname">has_function</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>funcname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>includes=None</em>, <em>include_dirs=None</em>, <em>libraries=None</em>, <em>library_dirs=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a boolean indicating whether <em>funcname</em> is supported on the current
+platform.  The optional arguments can be used to augment the compilation
+environment by providing additional include files and paths and libraries and
+paths.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_dir_option">
+<code class="descname">library_dir_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_dir_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the compiler option to add <em>dir</em> to the list of directories searched for
+libraries.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_option">
+<code class="descname">library_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lib</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the compiler option to add <em>lib</em> to the list of libraries linked into the
+shared library or executable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.runtime_library_dir_option">
+<code class="descname">runtime_library_dir_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.runtime_library_dir_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the compiler option to add <em>dir</em> to the list of directories searched for
+runtime libraries.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_executables">
+<code class="descname">set_executables</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_executables" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Define the executables (and options for them) that will be run to perform the
+various stages of compilation.  The exact set of executables that may be
+specified here depends on the compiler class (via the ‘executables’ class
+attribute), but most will have:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 75%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>compiler</em></p></td>
+<td><p>the C/C++ compiler</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>linker_so</em></p></td>
+<td><p>linker used to create shared objects and
+libraries</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>linker_exe</em></p></td>
+<td><p>linker used to create binary executables</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>archiver</em></p></td>
+<td><p>static library creator</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>On platforms with a command-line (Unix, DOS/Windows), each of these is a string
+that will be split into executable name and (optional) list of arguments.
+(Splitting the string is done similarly to how Unix shells operate: words are
+delimited by spaces, but quotes and backslashes can override this.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.util.split_quoted" title="distutils.util.split_quoted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.util.split_quoted()</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods invoke stages in the build process.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.compile">
+<code class="descname">compile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sources</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>output_dir=None</em>, <em>macros=None</em>, <em>include_dirs=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>extra_preargs=None</em>, <em>extra_postargs=None</em>, <em>depends=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compile one or more source files. Generates object files (e.g.  transforms a
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.c</span></code> file to a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.o</span></code> file.)</p>
+<p><em>sources</em> must be a list of filenames, most likely C/C++ files, but in reality
+anything that can be handled by a particular compiler and compiler class (eg.
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSVCCompiler</span></code> can handle resource files in <em>sources</em>).  Return a list of
+object filenames, one per source filename in <em>sources</em>.  Depending on the
+implementation, not all source files will necessarily be compiled, but all
+corresponding object filenames will be returned.</p>
+<p>If <em>output_dir</em> is given, object files will be put under it, while retaining
+their original path component.  That is, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo/bar.c</span></code> normally compiles to
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo/bar.o</span></code> (for a Unix implementation); if <em>output_dir</em> is <em>build</em>, then
+it would compile to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build/foo/bar.o</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>macros</em>, if given, must be a list of macro definitions.  A macro definition is
+either a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> 2-tuple or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,)</span></code> 1-tuple. The former defines
+a macro; if the value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the macro is defined without an explicit
+value.  The 1-tuple case undefines a macro.  Later
+definitions/redefinitions/undefinitions take precedence.</p>
+<p><em>include_dirs</em>, if given, must be a list of strings, the directories to add to
+the default include file search path for this compilation only.</p>
+<p><em>debug</em> is a boolean; if true, the compiler will be instructed to output debug
+symbols in (or alongside) the object file(s).</p>
+<p><em>extra_preargs</em> and <em>extra_postargs</em> are implementation-dependent. On platforms
+that have the notion of a command-line (e.g. Unix, DOS/Windows), they are most
+likely lists of strings: extra command-line arguments to prepend/append to the
+compiler command line.  On other platforms, consult the implementation class
+documentation.  In any event, they are intended as an escape hatch for those
+occasions when the abstract compiler framework doesn’t cut the mustard.</p>
+<p><em>depends</em>, if given, is a list of filenames that all targets depend on.  If a
+source file is older than any file in depends, then the source file will be
+recompiled.  This supports dependency tracking, but only at a coarse
+granularity.</p>
+<p>Raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CompileError</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib">
+<code class="descname">create_static_lib</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>objects</em>, <em>output_libname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>output_dir=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>target_lang=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Link a bunch of stuff together to create a static library file. The “bunch of
+stuff” consists of the list of object files supplied as <em>objects</em>, the extra
+object files supplied to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_link_object" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_link_object"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_link_object()</span></code></a> and/or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_link_objects" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_link_objects"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_link_objects()</span></code></a>, the libraries supplied to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_library()</span></code></a> and/or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_libraries()</span></code></a>, and the libraries supplied as <em>libraries</em> (if any).</p>
+<p><em>output_libname</em> should be a library name, not a filename; the filename will be
+inferred from the library name.  <em>output_dir</em> is the directory where the library
+file will be put.</p>
+<p><em>debug</em> is a boolean; if true, debugging information will be included in the
+library (note that on most platforms, it is the compile step where this matters:
+the <em>debug</em> flag is included here just for consistency).</p>
+<p><em>target_lang</em> is the target language for which the given objects are being
+compiled. This allows specific linkage time treatment of certain languages.</p>
+<p>Raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LibError</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link">
+<code class="descname">link</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target_desc</em>, <em>objects</em>, <em>output_filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>output_dir=None</em>, <em>libraries=None</em>, <em>library_dirs=None</em>, <em>runtime_library_dirs=None</em>, <em>export_symbols=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>extra_preargs=None</em>, <em>extra_postargs=None</em>, <em>build_temp=None</em>, <em>target_lang=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Link a bunch of stuff together to create an executable or shared library file.</p>
+<p>The “bunch of stuff” consists of the list of object files supplied as <em>objects</em>.
+<em>output_filename</em> should be a filename.  If <em>output_dir</em> is supplied,
+<em>output_filename</em> is relative to it (i.e. <em>output_filename</em> can provide
+directory components if needed).</p>
+<p><em>libraries</em> is a list of libraries to link against.  These are library names,
+not filenames, since they’re translated into filenames in a platform-specific
+way (eg. <em>foo</em> becomes <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libfoo.a</span></code> on Unix and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.lib</span></code> on
+DOS/Windows).  However, they can include a directory component, which means the
+linker will look in that specific directory rather than searching all the normal
+locations.</p>
+<p><em>library_dirs</em>, if supplied, should be a list of directories to search for
+libraries that were specified as bare library names (ie. no directory
+component).  These are on top of the system default and those supplied to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_library_dir()</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_library_dirs()</span></code></a>.  <em>runtime_library_dirs</em>
+is a list of directories that will be embedded into the shared library and used
+to search for other shared libraries that *it* depends on at run-time.  (This
+may only be relevant on Unix.)</p>
+<p><em>export_symbols</em> is a list of symbols that the shared library will export.
+(This appears to be relevant only on Windows.)</p>
+<p><em>debug</em> is as for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_static_lib()</span></code></a>,  with the
+slight distinction that it actually matters on most platforms (as opposed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_static_lib()</span></code></a>, which includes a <em>debug</em> flag mostly for form’s
+sake).</p>
+<p><em>extra_preargs</em> and <em>extra_postargs</em> are as for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>  (except of
+course that they supply command-line arguments for the particular linker being
+used).</p>
+<p><em>target_lang</em> is the target language for which the given objects are being
+compiled. This allows specific linkage time treatment of certain languages.</p>
+<p>Raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LinkError</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_executable">
+<code class="descname">link_executable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>objects</em>, <em>output_progname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>output_dir=None</em>, <em>libraries=None</em>, <em>library_dirs=None</em>, <em>runtime_library_dirs=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>extra_preargs=None</em>, <em>extra_postargs=None</em>, <em>target_lang=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_executable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Link an executable.  <em>output_progname</em> is the name of the file executable, while
+<em>objects</em> are a list of object filenames to link in. Other arguments  are as for
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">link()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_lib">
+<code class="descname">link_shared_lib</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>objects</em>, <em>output_libname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>output_dir=None</em>, <em>libraries=None</em>, <em>library_dirs=None</em>, <em>runtime_library_dirs=None</em>, <em>export_symbols=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>extra_preargs=None</em>, <em>extra_postargs=None</em>, <em>build_temp=None</em>, <em>target_lang=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_lib" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Link a shared library. <em>output_libname</em> is the name of the output  library,
+while <em>objects</em> is a list of object filenames to link in.  Other arguments are
+as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">link()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_object">
+<code class="descname">link_shared_object</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>objects</em>, <em>output_filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>output_dir=None</em>, <em>libraries=None</em>, <em>library_dirs=None</em>, <em>runtime_library_dirs=None</em>, <em>export_symbols=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>extra_preargs=None</em>, <em>extra_postargs=None</em>, <em>build_temp=None</em>, <em>target_lang=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_object" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Link a shared object. <em>output_filename</em> is the name of the shared object that
+will be created, while <em>objects</em> is a list of object filenames  to link in.
+Other arguments are as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">link()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.preprocess">
+<code class="descname">preprocess</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>output_file=None</em>, <em>macros=None</em>, <em>include_dirs=None</em>, <em>extra_preargs=None</em>, <em>extra_postargs=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.preprocess" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Preprocess a single C/C++ source file, named in <em>source</em>. Output will be written
+to file named <em>output_file</em>, or <em>stdout</em> if <em>output_file</em> not supplied.
+<em>macros</em> is a list of macro definitions as for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, which will
+augment the macros set with <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">define_macro()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undefine_macro()</span></code></a>.
+<em>include_dirs</em> is a list of directory names that will be added to the  default
+list, in the same way as <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_include_dir()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PreprocessError</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following utility methods are defined by the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code></a> class, for
+use by the various concrete subclasses.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.executable_filename">
+<code class="descname">executable_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>basename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>strip_dir=0</em>, <em>output_dir=''</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.executable_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the filename of the executable for the given <em>basename</em>.  Typically for
+non-Windows platforms this is the same as the basename,  while Windows will get
+a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.exe</span></code> added.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_filename">
+<code class="descname">library_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>libname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>lib_type='static'</em>, <em>strip_dir=0</em>, <em>output_dir=''</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the filename for the given library name on the current platform. On Unix
+a library with <em>lib_type</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'static'</span></code> will typically  be of the form
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">liblibname.a</span></code>, while a <em>lib_type</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'dynamic'</span></code>  will be of the form
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">liblibname.so</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.object_filenames">
+<code class="descname">object_filenames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source_filenames</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>strip_dir=0</em>, <em>output_dir=''</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.object_filenames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the name of the object files for the given source files.
+<em>source_filenames</em> should be a list of filenames.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.shared_object_filename">
+<code class="descname">shared_object_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>basename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>strip_dir=0</em>, <em>output_dir=''</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.shared_object_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the name of a shared object file for the given file name <em>basename</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.execute">
+<code class="descname">execute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>msg=None</em>, <em>level=1</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.execute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invokes <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.util.execute" title="distutils.util.execute"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.util.execute()</span></code></a>. This method invokes a  Python function
+<em>func</em> with the given arguments <em>args</em>, after  logging and taking into account
+the <em>dry_run</em> flag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.spawn">
+<code class="descname">spawn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.spawn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invokes <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.util.spawn()</span></code>. This invokes an external  process to run
+the given command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.mkpath">
+<code class="descname">mkpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>mode=511</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.mkpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invokes <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.dir_util.mkpath" title="distutils.dir_util.mkpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dir_util.mkpath()</span></code></a>. This creates a directory  and any
+missing ancestor directories.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.move_file">
+<code class="descname">move_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.move_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invokes <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.file_util.move_file" title="distutils.file_util.move_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.file_util.move_file()</span></code></a>. Renames <em>src</em> to  <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.announce">
+<code class="descname">announce</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>level=1</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.announce" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a message using <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.log.debug()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.warn">
+<code class="descname">warn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.warn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a warning message <em>msg</em> to standard error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.debug_print">
+<code class="descname">debug_print</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.debug_print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <em>debug</em> flag is set on this <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code></a> instance, print  <em>msg</em> to
+standard output, otherwise do nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.unixccompiler">
+<span id="distutils-unixccompiler-unix-c-compiler"></span><h2>9.3. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.unixccompiler" title="distutils.unixccompiler: UNIX C Compiler"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.unixccompiler</span></code></a> — Unix C Compiler<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.unixccompiler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnixCCompiler</span></code> class, a subclass of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code> that handles the typical Unix-style command-line  C compiler:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>macros defined with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Dname[=value]</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>macros undefined with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Uname</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>include search directories specified with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Idir</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>libraries specified with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-llib</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>library search directories specified with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Ldir</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>compile handled by <strong class="program">cc</strong> (or similar) executable with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code>
+option: compiles <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.c</span></code> to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.o</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>link static library handled by <strong class="program">ar</strong> command (possibly with
+<strong class="program">ranlib</strong>)</p></li>
+<li><p>link shared library handled by <strong class="program">cc</strong> <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-shared</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.msvccompiler">
+<span id="distutils-msvccompiler-microsoft-compiler"></span><h2>9.4. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.msvccompiler" title="distutils.msvccompiler: Microsoft Compiler"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.msvccompiler</span></code></a> — Microsoft Compiler<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.msvccompiler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSVCCompiler</span></code>, an implementation of the abstract
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code> class for Microsoft Visual Studio. Typically, extension
+modules need to be compiled with the same compiler that was used to compile
+Python. For Python 2.3 and earlier, the compiler was Visual Studio 6. For Python
+2.4 and 2.5, the compiler is Visual Studio .NET 2003.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSVCCompiler</span></code> will normally choose the right compiler, linker etc. on
+its own. To override this choice, the environment variables <em>DISTUTILS_USE_SDK</em>
+and <em>MSSdk</em> must be both set. <em>MSSdk</em> indicates that the current environment has
+been setup by the SDK’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetEnv.Cmd</span></code> script, or that the environment variables
+had been registered when the SDK was installed; <em>DISTUTILS_USE_SDK</em> indicates
+that the distutils user has made an explicit choice to override the compiler
+selection by <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSVCCompiler</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.bcppcompiler">
+<span id="distutils-bcppcompiler-borland-compiler"></span><h2>9.5. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.bcppcompiler" title="distutils.bcppcompiler"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.bcppcompiler</span></code></a> — Borland Compiler<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.bcppcompiler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BorlandCCompiler</span></code>, a subclass of the abstract
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CCompiler</span></code> class for the Borland C++ compiler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.cygwinccompiler">
+<span id="distutils-cygwincompiler-cygwin-compiler"></span><h2>9.6. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cygwincompiler</span></code> — Cygwin Compiler<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.cygwinccompiler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CygwinCCompiler</span></code> class, a subclass of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnixCCompiler</span></code> that handles the Cygwin port of the GNU C compiler to
+Windows.  It also contains the Mingw32CCompiler class which handles the mingw32
+port of GCC (same as cygwin in no-cygwin mode).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.archive_util">
+<span id="distutils-archive-util-archiving-utilities"></span><h2>9.7. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.archive_util" title="distutils.archive_util: Utility functions for creating archive files (tarballs, zip files, ...)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.archive_util</span></code></a> —  Archiving utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.archive_util" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides a few functions for creating archive files, such as
+tarballs or zipfiles.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.archive_util.make_archive">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.archive_util.</code><code class="descname">make_archive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base_name</em>, <em>format</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>root_dir=None</em>, <em>base_dir=None</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.archive_util.make_archive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an archive file (eg. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code>).  <em>base_name</em>  is the name of
+the file to create, minus any format-specific extension;  <em>format</em> is the
+archive format: one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gztar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bztar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ztar</span></code>. <em>root_dir</em> is a directory that will be the root directory of the
+archive; ie. we typically <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chdir</span></code> into <em>root_dir</em> before  creating the
+archive.  <em>base_dir</em> is the directory where we start  archiving from; ie.
+<em>base_dir</em> will be the common prefix of all files and directories in the
+archive.  <em>root_dir</em> and <em>base_dir</em> both default to the current directory.
+Returns the name of the archive file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code> format.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.archive_util.make_tarball">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.archive_util.</code><code class="descname">make_tarball</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base_name</em>, <em>base_dir</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>compress='gzip'</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.archive_util.make_tarball" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>‘Create an (optional compressed) archive as a tar file from all files in and
+under <em>base_dir</em>. <em>compress</em> must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gzip'</span></code> (the default),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'bzip2'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xz'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'compress'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  For the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'compress'</span></code>
+method the compression utility named by <strong class="program">compress</strong> must be on the
+default program search path, so this is probably Unix-specific.  The output
+tar file will be named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_dir.tar</span></code>, possibly plus the appropriate
+compression extension (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.gz</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.bz2</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.xz</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.Z</span></code>).  Return the
+output filename.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xz</span></code> compression.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.archive_util.make_zipfile">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.archive_util.</code><code class="descname">make_zipfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base_name</em>, <em>base_dir</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.archive_util.make_zipfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a zip file from all files in and under <em>base_dir</em>.  The output zip file
+will be named <em>base_name</em> + <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.zip</span></code>.  Uses either the  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> Python
+module (if available) or the InfoZIP <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip</span></code>  utility (if installed and
+found on the default search path).  If neither  tool is available, raises
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DistutilsExecError</span></code>.   Returns the name of the output zip file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.dep_util">
+<span id="distutils-dep-util-dependency-checking"></span><h2>9.8. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.dep_util" title="distutils.dep_util: Utility functions for simple dependency checking"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dep_util</span></code></a> — Dependency checking<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.dep_util" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides functions for performing simple, timestamp-based
+dependency of files and groups of files; also, functions based entirely  on such
+timestamp dependency analysis.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.dep_util.newer">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.dep_util.</code><code class="descname">newer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.dep_util.newer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>source</em> exists and is more recently modified than <em>target</em>, or
+if <em>source</em> exists and <em>target</em> doesn’t. Return false if both exist and <em>target</em>
+is the same age or newer  than <em>source</em>. Raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DistutilsFileError</span></code> if
+<em>source</em> does not exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.dep_util.newer_pairwise">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.dep_util.</code><code class="descname">newer_pairwise</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sources</em>, <em>targets</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.dep_util.newer_pairwise" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Walk two filename lists in parallel, testing if each source is newer than its
+corresponding target.  Return a pair of lists (<em>sources</em>, <em>targets</em>) where
+source is newer than target, according to the semantics of <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.dep_util.newer" title="distutils.dep_util.newer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newer()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.dep_util.newer_group">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.dep_util.</code><code class="descname">newer_group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sources</em>, <em>target</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>missing='error'</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.dep_util.newer_group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>target</em> is out-of-date with respect to any file listed in
+<em>sources</em>.  In other words, if <em>target</em> exists and is newer than every file in
+<em>sources</em>, return false; otherwise return true. <em>missing</em> controls what we do
+when a source file is missing; the default (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'error'</span></code>) is to blow up with an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> from  inside <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>; if it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code>, we silently
+drop any missing source files; if it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'newer'</span></code>, any missing source files
+make us assume that <em>target</em> is out-of-date (this is handy in “dry-run” mode:
+it’ll make you pretend to carry out commands that wouldn’t work because inputs
+are missing, but that doesn’t matter because you’re not actually going to run
+the commands).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.dir_util">
+<span id="distutils-dir-util-directory-tree-operations"></span><h2>9.9. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.dir_util" title="distutils.dir_util: Utility functions for operating on directories and directory trees"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dir_util</span></code></a> — Directory tree operations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.dir_util" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides functions for operating on directories and trees of
+directories.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.dir_util.mkpath">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.dir_util.</code><code class="descname">mkpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>mode=0o777</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.dir_util.mkpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a directory and any missing ancestor directories.  If the directory
+already exists (or if <em>name</em> is the empty string, which means the current
+directory, which of course exists), then do nothing.  Raise
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DistutilsFileError</span></code> if unable to create some directory along the way (eg.
+some sub-path exists, but is a file rather than a directory).  If <em>verbose</em> is
+true, print a one-line summary of each mkdir to stdout.  Return the list of
+directories actually created.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.dir_util.create_tree">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.dir_util.</code><code class="descname">create_tree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base_dir</em>, <em>files</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>mode=0o777</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.dir_util.create_tree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create all the empty directories under <em>base_dir</em> needed to put <em>files</em> there.
+<em>base_dir</em> is just the name of a directory which doesn’t necessarily exist
+yet; <em>files</em> is a list of filenames to be interpreted relative to <em>base_dir</em>.
+<em>base_dir</em> + the directory portion of every file in <em>files</em> will be created if
+it doesn’t already exist.  <em>mode</em>, <em>verbose</em> and <em>dry_run</em> flags  are as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.dir_util.mkpath" title="distutils.dir_util.mkpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkpath()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.dir_util.copy_tree">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.dir_util.</code><code class="descname">copy_tree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>preserve_mode=1</em>, <em>preserve_times=1</em>, <em>preserve_symlinks=0</em>, <em>update=0</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.dir_util.copy_tree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy an entire directory tree <em>src</em> to a new location <em>dst</em>.  Both <em>src</em> and
+<em>dst</em> must be directory names.  If <em>src</em> is not a directory, raise
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DistutilsFileError</span></code>.  If <em>dst</em> does  not exist, it is created with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.dir_util.mkpath" title="distutils.dir_util.mkpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkpath()</span></code></a>.  The end result of the  copy is that every file in <em>src</em> is
+copied to <em>dst</em>, and  directories under <em>src</em> are recursively copied to <em>dst</em>.
+Return the list of files that were copied or might have been copied, using their
+output name. The return value is unaffected by <em>update</em> or <em>dry_run</em>: it is
+simply the list of all files under <em>src</em>, with the names changed to be under
+<em>dst</em>.</p>
+<p><em>preserve_mode</em> and <em>preserve_times</em> are the same as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.file_util.copy_file" title="distutils.file_util.copy_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.file_util.copy_file()</span></code></a>; note that they only apply to
+regular files, not to
+directories.  If <em>preserve_symlinks</em> is true, symlinks will be copied as
+symlinks (on platforms that support them!); otherwise (the default), the
+destination of the symlink will be copied.  <em>update</em> and <em>verbose</em> are the same
+as for <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy_file()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Files in <em>src</em> that begin with <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.nfs</span></code> are skipped (more information on
+these files is available in answer D2 of the <a class="reference external" href="http://nfs.sourceforge.net/#section_d">NFS FAQ page</a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3.1: </span>NFS files are ignored.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.dir_util.remove_tree">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.dir_util.</code><code class="descname">remove_tree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>directory</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.dir_util.remove_tree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Recursively remove <em>directory</em> and all files and directories underneath it. Any
+errors are ignored (apart from being reported to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> if <em>verbose</em> is
+true).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.file_util">
+<span id="distutils-file-util-single-file-operations"></span><h2>9.10. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.file_util" title="distutils.file_util: Utility functions for operating on single files"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.file_util</span></code></a> — Single file operations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.file_util" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module contains some utility functions for operating on individual files.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.file_util.copy_file">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.file_util.</code><code class="descname">copy_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>preserve_mode=1</em>, <em>preserve_times=1</em>, <em>update=0</em>, <em>link=None</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.file_util.copy_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy file <em>src</em> to <em>dst</em>. If <em>dst</em> is a directory, then <em>src</em> is copied there
+with the same name; otherwise, it must be a filename. (If the file exists, it
+will be ruthlessly clobbered.) If <em>preserve_mode</em> is true (the default), the
+file’s mode (type and permission bits, or whatever is analogous on the
+current platform) is copied. If <em>preserve_times</em> is true (the default), the
+last-modified and last-access times are copied as well. If <em>update</em> is true,
+<em>src</em> will only be copied if <em>dst</em> does not exist, or if <em>dst</em> does exist but
+is older than <em>src</em>.</p>
+<p><em>link</em> allows you to make hard links (using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.link" title="os.link"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.link()</span></code></a>) or symbolic links
+(using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.symlink" title="os.symlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.symlink()</span></code></a>) instead of copying: set it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hard'</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sym'</span></code>; if it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), files are copied. Don’t set <em>link</em>
+on systems that don’t support it: <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.file_util.copy_file" title="distutils.file_util.copy_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy_file()</span></code></a> doesn’t check if hard or
+symbolic linking is available.  It uses <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_copy_file_contents()</span></code> to copy file
+contents.</p>
+<p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(dest_name,</span> <span class="pre">copied)</span></code>: <em>dest_name</em> is the actual  name of the
+output file, and <em>copied</em> is true if the file was copied  (or would have been
+copied, if <em>dry_run</em> true).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.file_util.move_file">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.file_util.</code><code class="descname">move_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>verbose</em>, <em>dry_run</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.file_util.move_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move file <em>src</em> to <em>dst</em>. If <em>dst</em> is a directory, the file will be moved into
+it with the same name; otherwise, <em>src</em> is just renamed to <em>dst</em>.  Returns the
+new full name of the file.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Handles cross-device moves on Unix using <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.file_util.copy_file" title="distutils.file_util.copy_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy_file()</span></code></a>.  What about
+other systems?</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.file_util.write_file">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.file_util.</code><code class="descname">write_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>contents</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.file_util.write_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a file called <em>filename</em> and write <em>contents</em> (a sequence of strings
+without line terminators) to it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.util">
+<span id="distutils-util-miscellaneous-other-utility-functions"></span><h2>9.11. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.util" title="distutils.util: Miscellaneous other utility functions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.util</span></code></a> — Miscellaneous other utility functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.util" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module contains other assorted bits and pieces that don’t fit into  any
+other utility module.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.get_platform">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">get_platform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.get_platform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string that identifies the current platform.  This is used mainly to
+distinguish platform-specific build directories and platform-specific built
+distributions.  Typically includes the OS name and version and the
+architecture (as supplied by ‘os.uname()’), although the exact information
+included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version isn’t
+particularly important.</p>
+<p>Examples of returned values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linux-i586</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linux-alpha</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">solaris-2.6-sun4u</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For Mac OS X systems the OS version reflects the minimal version on which
+binaries will run (that is, the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET</span></code>
+during the build of Python), not the OS version of the current system.</p>
+<p>For universal binary builds on Mac OS X the architecture value reflects
+the universal binary status instead of the architecture of the current
+processor. For 32-bit universal binaries the architecture is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fat</span></code>,
+for 64-bit universal binaries the architecture is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fat64</span></code>, and
+for 4-way universal binaries the architecture is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">universal</span></code>. Starting
+from Python 2.7 and Python 3.2 the architecture <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fat3</span></code> is used for
+a 3-way universal build (ppc, i386, x86_64) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intel</span></code> is used for
+a universal build with the i386 and x86_64 architectures</p>
+<p>Examples of returned values on Mac OS X:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macosx-10.3-ppc</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macosx-10.3-fat</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macosx-10.5-universal</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macosx-10.6-intel</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.convert_path">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">convert_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.convert_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return ‘pathname’ as a name that will work on the native filesystem, i.e. split
+it on ‘/’ and put it back together again using the current directory separator.
+Needed because filenames in the setup script are always supplied in Unix style,
+and have to be converted to the local convention before we can actually use them
+in the filesystem.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> on non-Unix-ish systems if
+<em>pathname</em> either  starts or ends with a slash.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.change_root">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">change_root</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>new_root</em>, <em>pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.change_root" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>pathname</em> with <em>new_root</em> prepended.  If <em>pathname</em> is relative, this is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join(new_root,pathname)</span></code> Otherwise, it requires making
+<em>pathname</em> relative and then joining the two, which is tricky on DOS/Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.check_environ">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">check_environ</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.check_environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ensure that ‘os.environ’ has all the environment variables we guarantee that
+users can use in config files, command-line options, etc.  Currently this
+includes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOME</span></code> - user’s home directory (Unix only)</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PLAT</span></code> - description of the current platform, including hardware and
+OS (see <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.util.get_platform" title="distutils.util.get_platform"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_platform()</span></code></a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.subst_vars">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">subst_vars</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>local_vars</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.subst_vars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform shell/Perl-style variable substitution on <em>s</em>.  Every occurrence of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> followed by a name is considered a variable, and variable is substituted
+by the value found in the <em>local_vars</em> dictionary, or in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> if it’s
+not in <em>local_vars</em>. <em>os.environ</em> is first checked/augmented to guarantee that
+it contains certain values: see <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.util.check_environ" title="distutils.util.check_environ"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_environ()</span></code></a>.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+for any variables not found in either <em>local_vars</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that this is not a fully-fledged string interpolation function. A valid
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$variable</span></code> can consist only of upper and lower case letters, numbers and an
+underscore. No { } or ( ) style quoting is available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.split_quoted">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">split_quoted</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.split_quoted" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split a string up according to Unix shell-like rules for quotes and backslashes.
+In short: words are delimited by spaces, as long as those spaces are not escaped
+by a backslash, or inside a quoted string. Single and double quotes are
+equivalent, and the quote characters can be backslash-escaped.  The backslash is
+stripped from any two-character escape sequence, leaving only the escaped
+character.  The quote characters are stripped from any quoted string.  Returns a
+list of words.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.execute">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">execute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>msg=None</em>, <em>verbose=0</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.execute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform some action that affects the outside world (for instance, writing to the
+filesystem).  Such actions are special because they are disabled by the
+<em>dry_run</em> flag.  This method takes  care of all that bureaucracy for you; all
+you have to do is supply the function to call and an argument tuple for it (to
+embody the “external action” being performed), and an optional message to print.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.strtobool">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">strtobool</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.strtobool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a string representation of truth to true (1) or false (0).</p>
+<p>True values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yes</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">true</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">on</span></code>  and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>; false values
+are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">false</span></code>,  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">off</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>val</em>  is anything else.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.byte_compile">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">byte_compile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>py_files</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>optimize=0</em>, <em>force=0</em>, <em>prefix=None</em>, <em>base_dir=None</em>, <em>verbose=1</em>, <em>dry_run=0</em>, <em>direct=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.byte_compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Byte-compile a collection of Python source files to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files in a
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code> subdirectory (see <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a>).
+<em>py_files</em> is a list of files to compile; any files that don’t end in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> are silently skipped.  <em>optimize</em> must be one of the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> - don’t optimize</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> - normal optimization (like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-O</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> - extra optimization (like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-OO</span></code>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>force</em> is true, all files are recompiled regardless of timestamps.</p>
+<p>The source filename encoded in each <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> file defaults to the filenames
+listed in <em>py_files</em>; you can modify these with <em>prefix</em> and <em>basedir</em>.
+<em>prefix</em> is a string that will be stripped off of each source filename, and
+<em>base_dir</em> is a directory name that will be prepended (after <em>prefix</em> is
+stripped).  You can supply either or both (or neither) of <em>prefix</em> and
+<em>base_dir</em>, as you wish.</p>
+<p>If <em>dry_run</em> is true, doesn’t actually do anything that would affect the
+filesystem.</p>
+<p>Byte-compilation is either done directly in this interpreter process with the
+standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> module, or indirectly by writing a temporary script
+and executing it.  Normally, you should let <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.util.byte_compile" title="distutils.util.byte_compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byte_compile()</span></code></a> figure out to
+use direct compilation or not (see the source for details).  The <em>direct</em> flag
+is used by the script generated in indirect mode; unless you know what you’re
+doing, leave it set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2.3: </span>Create <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files with an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.get_tag" title="imp.get_tag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">magic</span> <span class="pre">tag</span></code></a> in their name, in a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code> subdirectory
+instead of files without tag in the current directory.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Create <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files according to <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.util.rfc822_escape">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.util.</code><code class="descname">rfc822_escape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.util.rfc822_escape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a version of <em>header</em> escaped for inclusion in an <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> header, by
+ensuring there are 8 spaces space after each newline. Note that it does no other
+modification of the string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.dist">
+<span id="distutils-dist-the-distribution-class"></span><h2>9.12. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.dist" title="distutils.dist: Provides the Distribution class, which represents the module distribution being built/installed/distributed"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist</span></code></a> — The Distribution class<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.dist" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a> class, which
+represents the module distribution being built/installed/distributed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.extension">
+<span id="distutils-extension-the-extension-class"></span><h2>9.13. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.extension" title="distutils.extension: Provides the Extension class, used to describe C/C++ extension modules in setup scripts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.extension</span></code></a> — The Extension class<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.extension" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code> class, used to describe C/C++
+extension modules in setup scripts.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.debug">
+<span id="distutils-debug-distutils-debug-mode"></span><h2>9.14. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.debug" title="distutils.debug: Provides the debug flag for distutils"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.debug</span></code></a> — Distutils debug mode<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.debug" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the DEBUG flag.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.errors">
+<span id="distutils-errors-distutils-exceptions"></span><h2>9.15. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.errors" title="distutils.errors: Provides standard distutils exceptions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.errors</span></code></a> — Distutils exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.errors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Provides exceptions used by the Distutils modules.  Note that Distutils modules
+may raise standard exceptions; in particular, SystemExit is usually raised for
+errors that are obviously the end-user’s fault (eg. bad command-line arguments).</p>
+<p>This module is safe to use in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> mode; it only exports
+symbols whose names start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distutils</span></code> and end with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.fancy_getopt">
+<span id="distutils-fancy-getopt-wrapper-around-the-standard-getopt-module"></span><h2>9.16. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.fancy_getopt" title="distutils.fancy_getopt: Additional getopt functionality"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.fancy_getopt</span></code></a> — Wrapper around the standard getopt module<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.fancy_getopt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides a wrapper around the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a>  module that
+provides the following additional features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>short and long options are tied together</p></li>
+<li><p>options have help strings, so <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.fancy_getopt" title="distutils.fancy_getopt.fancy_getopt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fancy_getopt()</span></code></a> could potentially  create a
+complete usage summary</p></li>
+<li><p>options set attributes of a passed-in object</p></li>
+<li><p>boolean options can have “negative aliases” — eg. if <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--quiet</span></code> is
+the “negative alias” of <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--verbose</span></code>, then <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--quiet</span></code> on the
+command line sets <em>verbose</em> to false.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.fancy_getopt.fancy_getopt">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.fancy_getopt.</code><code class="descname">fancy_getopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>options</em>, <em>negative_opt</em>, <em>object</em>, <em>args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.fancy_getopt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wrapper function. <em>options</em> is a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(long_option,</span> <span class="pre">short_option,</span>
+<span class="pre">help_string)</span></code> 3-tuples as described in the constructor for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt" title="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyGetopt</span></code></a>. <em>negative_opt</em> should be a dictionary mapping option names
+to option names, both the key and value should be in the <em>options</em> list.
+<em>object</em> is an object which will be used to store values (see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a>
+method of the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt" title="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyGetopt</span></code></a> class). <em>args</em> is the argument list. Will use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code> if you  pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as <em>args</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.fancy_getopt.wrap_text">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.fancy_getopt.</code><code class="descname">wrap_text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.wrap_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps <em>text</em> to less than <em>width</em> wide.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.fancy_getopt.</code><code class="descname">FancyGetopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>option_table=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The option_table is a list of 3-tuples: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(long_option,</span> <span class="pre">short_option,</span>
+<span class="pre">help_string)</span></code></p>
+<p>If an option takes an argument, its <em>long_option</em> should have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code> appended;
+<em>short_option</em> should just be a single character, no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code> in any case.
+<em>short_option</em> should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if a <em>long_option</em>  doesn’t have a
+corresponding <em>short_option</em>. All option tuples must have long options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt" title="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyGetopt</span></code></a> class provides the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.getopt">
+<code class="descclassname">FancyGetopt.</code><code class="descname">getopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>args=None</em>, <em>object=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.getopt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse command-line options in args. Store as attributes on <em>object</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>args</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not supplied, uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>.  If <em>object</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not supplied, creates a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionDummy</span></code> instance, stores
+option values there, and returns a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(args,</span> <span class="pre">object)</span></code>.  If <em>object</em> is
+supplied, it is modified in place and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a> just returns <em>args</em>; in
+both cases, the returned <em>args</em> is a modified copy of the passed-in <em>args</em> list,
+which is left untouched.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.get_option_order">
+<code class="descclassname">FancyGetopt.</code><code class="descname">get_option_order</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.get_option_order" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(option,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> tuples processed by the previous run of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a>  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a> hasn’t been called
+yet.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.generate_help">
+<code class="descclassname">FancyGetopt.</code><code class="descname">generate_help</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>header=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.generate_help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate help text (a list of strings, one per suggested line of output) from
+the option table for this <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt" title="distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyGetopt</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>If supplied, prints the supplied <em>header</em> at the top of the help.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.filelist">
+<span id="distutils-filelist-the-filelist-class"></span><h2>9.17. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.filelist" title="distutils.filelist: The FileList class, used for poking about the file system and building lists of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.filelist</span></code></a> — The FileList class<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.filelist" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileList</span></code> class, used for poking about the
+filesystem and building lists of files.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.log">
+<span id="distutils-log-simple-pep-282-style-logging"></span><h2>9.18. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.log" title="distutils.log: A simple logging mechanism, 282-style"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.log</span></code></a> — Simple PEP 282-style logging<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.log" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.spawn">
+<span id="distutils-spawn-spawn-a-sub-process"></span><h2>9.19. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.spawn" title="distutils.spawn: Provides the spawn() function"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.spawn</span></code></a> — Spawn a sub-process<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.spawn" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn()</span></code> function, a front-end to  various
+platform-specific functions for launching another program in a  sub-process.
+Also provides <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_executable()</span></code> to search the path for a given executable
+name.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.sysconfig">
+<span id="distutils-sysconfig-system-configuration-information"></span><h2>9.20. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.sysconfig" title="distutils.sysconfig: Low-level access to configuration information of the Python interpreter."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code></a> — System configuration information<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.sysconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.sysconfig" title="distutils.sysconfig: Low-level access to configuration information of the Python interpreter."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code></a> module provides access to Python’s low-level
+configuration information.  The specific configuration variables available
+depend heavily on the platform and configuration. The specific variables depend
+on the build process for the specific version of Python being run; the variables
+are those found in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code> and configuration header that are
+installed with Python on Unix systems.  The configuration header is called
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyconfig.h</span></code> for Python versions starting with 2.2, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config.h</span></code>
+for earlier versions of Python.</p>
+<p>Some additional functions are provided which perform some useful manipulations
+for other parts of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> package.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">PREFIX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.normpath(sys.prefix)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">EXEC_PREFIX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.normpath(sys.exec_prefix)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.get_config_var">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_config_var</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_var" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of a single variable.  This is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars().get(name)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.get_config_vars">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_config_vars</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a set of variable definitions.  If there are no arguments, this returns a
+dictionary mapping names of configuration variables to values.  If arguments are
+provided, they should be strings, and the return value will be a sequence giving
+the associated values. If a given name does not have a corresponding value,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> will be included for that variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.get_config_h_filename">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_config_h_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_h_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the full path name of the configuration header.  For Unix, this will be
+the header generated by the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script; for other platforms the
+header will have been supplied directly by the Python source distribution.  The
+file is a platform-specific text file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.get_makefile_filename">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_makefile_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.get_makefile_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the full path name of the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code> used to build Python.  For
+Unix, this will be a file generated by the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script; the
+meaning for other platforms will vary.  The file is a platform-specific text
+file, if it exists. This function is only useful on POSIX platforms.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.get_python_inc">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_python_inc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>plat_specific</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>prefix</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.get_python_inc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the directory for either the general or platform-dependent C include
+files.  If <em>plat_specific</em> is true, the platform-dependent include directory is
+returned; if false or omitted, the platform-independent directory is returned.
+If <em>prefix</em> is given, it is used as either the prefix instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX" title="distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PREFIX</span></code></a>, or as the exec-prefix instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX" title="distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXEC_PREFIX</span></code></a> if
+<em>plat_specific</em> is true.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.get_python_lib">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_python_lib</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>plat_specific</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>standard_lib</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>prefix</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.get_python_lib" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the directory for either the general or platform-dependent library
+installation.  If <em>plat_specific</em> is true, the platform-dependent include
+directory is returned; if false or omitted, the platform-independent directory
+is returned.  If <em>prefix</em> is given, it is used as either the prefix instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX" title="distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PREFIX</span></code></a>, or as the exec-prefix instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX" title="distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXEC_PREFIX</span></code></a> if
+<em>plat_specific</em> is true.  If <em>standard_lib</em> is true, the directory for the
+standard library is returned rather than the directory for the installation of
+third-party extensions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following function is only intended for use within the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>
+package.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">customize_compiler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>compiler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do any platform-specific customization of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler" title="distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>This function is only needed on Unix at this time, but should be called
+consistently to support forward-compatibility.  It inserts the information that
+varies across Unix flavors and is stored in Python’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code>.  This
+information includes the selected compiler, compiler and linker options, and the
+extension used by the linker for shared objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This function is even more special-purpose, and should only be used from
+Python’s own build procedures.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="distutils.sysconfig.set_python_build">
+<code class="descclassname">distutils.sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">set_python_build</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.sysconfig.set_python_build" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Inform the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.sysconfig" title="distutils.sysconfig: Low-level access to configuration information of the Python interpreter."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code></a> module that it is being used as part of
+the build process for Python.  This changes a lot of relative locations for
+files, allowing them to be located in the build area rather than in an installed
+Python.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.text_file">
+<span id="distutils-text-file-the-textfile-class"></span><h2>9.21. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.text_file" title="distutils.text_file: provides the TextFile class, a simple interface to text files"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.text_file</span></code></a> — The TextFile class<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.text_file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextFile</span></code></a> class, which gives an interface  to
+text files that (optionally) takes care of stripping comments, ignoring  blank
+lines, and joining lines with backslashes.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.text_file.TextFile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.text_file.</code><code class="descname">TextFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>filename=None</em>, <em>file=None</em>, <em>**options</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class provides a file-like object that takes care of all  the things you
+commonly want to do when processing a text file  that has some line-by-line
+syntax: strip comments (as long as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code>  is your comment character), skip blank
+lines, join adjacent lines by escaping the newline (ie. backslash at end of
+line), strip leading and/or trailing whitespace.  All of these are optional and
+independently controllable.</p>
+<p>The class provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn()</span></code></a> method so you can generate  warning messages
+that report physical line number, even if the  logical line in question spans
+multiple physical lines.  Also  provides <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unreadline()</span></code></a> for implementing
+line-at-a-time lookahead.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextFile</span></code></a> instances are create with either <em>filename</em>, <em>file</em>, or both.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised if both are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. <em>filename</em> should be a
+string, and <em>file</em> a file object (or something that provides <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.close" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>  methods).  It is recommended that you supply at least
+<em>filename</em>,  so that <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextFile</span></code></a> can include it in warning messages.  If
+<em>file</em> is not supplied, <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextFile</span></code></a> creates its own using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> built-in function.</p>
+<p>The options are all boolean, and affect the values returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+<col style="width: 54%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>option name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>description</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>default</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>strip_comments</em></p></td>
+<td><p>strip from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code> to
+end-of-line, as well as any
+whitespace leading up to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code>—unless it is
+escaped by a backslash</p></td>
+<td><p>true</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>lstrip_ws</em></p></td>
+<td><p>strip leading whitespace from
+each line before returning it</p></td>
+<td><p>false</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>rstrip_ws</em></p></td>
+<td><p>strip trailing whitespace
+(including line terminator!)
+from each line before
+returning it.</p></td>
+<td><p>true</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>skip_blanks</em></p></td>
+<td><p>skip lines that are empty
+*after* stripping comments
+and whitespace.  (If both
+lstrip_ws and rstrip_ws are
+false, then some lines may
+consist of solely whitespace:
+these will *not* be skipped,
+even if <em>skip_blanks</em> is
+true.)</p></td>
+<td><p>true</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>join_lines</em></p></td>
+<td><p>if a backslash is the last
+non-newline character on a
+line after stripping comments
+and whitespace, join the
+following line to it to form
+one logical line; if N
+consecutive lines end with a
+backslash, then N+1 physical
+lines will be joined to form
+one logical line.</p></td>
+<td><p>false</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>collapse_join</em></p></td>
+<td><p>strip leading whitespace from
+lines that are joined to their
+predecessor; only matters if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(join_lines</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">not</span>
+<span class="pre">lstrip_ws)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>false</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Note that since <em>rstrip_ws</em> can strip the trailing newline, the semantics of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> must differ from those of the built-in file object’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> method!  In particular, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>  returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for
+end-of-file: an empty string might just be a  blank line (or an all-whitespace
+line), if <em>rstrip_ws</em> is true  but <em>skip_blanks</em> is not.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.text_file.TextFile.open">
+<code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a new file <em>filename</em>.  This overrides any <em>file</em> or <em>filename</em>
+constructor arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.text_file.TextFile.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the current file and forget everything we know about it (including the
+filename and the current line number).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn">
+<code class="descname">warn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>line=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print (to stderr) a warning message tied to the current logical line in the
+current file.  If the current logical line in the file spans multiple physical
+lines, the warning refers to the whole range, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;lines</span> <span class="pre">3-5&quot;</span></code>.  If
+<em>line</em> is supplied,  it overrides the current line number; it may be a list or
+tuple  to indicate a range of physical lines, or an integer for a  single
+physical line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.text_file.TextFile.readline">
+<code class="descname">readline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.readline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return a single logical line from the current file (or from an internal
+buffer if lines have previously been “unread” with <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unreadline()</span></code></a>).  If the
+<em>join_lines</em> option  is true, this may involve reading multiple physical lines
+concatenated into a single string.  Updates the current line number,  so calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn()</span></code></a> after <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> emits a warning  about the physical line(s)
+just read.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> on end-of-file,  since the empty string can occur
+if <em>rstrip_ws</em> is true but  <em>strip_blanks</em> is not.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.text_file.TextFile.readlines">
+<code class="descname">readlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.readlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return the list of all logical lines remaining in the current file.
+This updates the current line number to the last line of the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline">
+<code class="descname">unreadline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push <em>line</em> (a string) onto an internal buffer that will be checked by future
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> calls.  Handy for implementing a parser with line-at-a-time
+lookahead. Note that lines that are “unread” with <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unreadline()</span></code></a> are not
+subsequently re-cleansed (whitespace  stripped, or whatever) when read with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>. If multiple calls are made to <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline" title="distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unreadline()</span></code></a> before a call
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>, the lines will be returned most in most recent first order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.version">
+<span id="distutils-version-version-number-classes"></span><h2>9.22. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.version" title="distutils.version: implements classes that represent module version numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.version</span></code></a> — Version number classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.version" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.cmd">
+<span id="distutils-cmd-abstract-base-class-for-distutils-commands"></span><h2>9.23. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.cmd" title="distutils.cmd: This module provides the abstract base class Command. This class is subclassed by the modules in the distutils.command subpackage."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cmd</span></code></a> — Abstract base class for Distutils commands<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.cmd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module supplies the abstract base class <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command" title="distutils.cmd.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.cmd.Command">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.cmd.</code><code class="descname">Command</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dist</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.cmd.Command" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for defining command classes, the “worker bees” of the
+Distutils.  A useful analogy for command classes is to think of them as
+subroutines with local variables called <em>options</em>.  The options are declared
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options" title="distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initialize_options()</span></code></a> and defined (given their final values) in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options" title="distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize_options()</span></code></a>, both of which must be defined by every command
+class.  The distinction between the two is necessary because option values
+might come from the outside world (command line, config file, …), and any
+options dependent on other options must be computed after these outside
+influences have been processed — hence <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options" title="distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize_options()</span></code></a>.  The body
+of the subroutine, where it does all its work based on the values of its
+options, is the <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.run" title="distutils.cmd.Command.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method, which must also be implemented by every
+command class.</p>
+<p>The class constructor takes a single argument <em>dist</em>, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.core.Distribution" title="distutils.core.Distribution"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-a-new-distutils-command">
+<h2>9.24. Creating a new Distutils command<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-a-new-distutils-command" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section outlines the steps to create a new Distutils command.</p>
+<p>A new command lives in a module in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command" title="distutils.command: This subpackage contains one module for each standard Distutils command."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command</span></code></a> package. There
+is a sample template in that directory called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command_template</span></code>.  Copy
+this file to a new module with the same name as the new command you’re
+implementing.  This module should implement a class with the same name as the
+module (and the command).  So, for instance, to create the command
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">peel_banana</span></code> (so that users can run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">peel_banana</span></code>), you’d copy
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command_template</span></code> to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils/command/peel_banana.py</span></code>, then edit
+it so that it’s implementing the class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">peel_banana</span></code>, a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command" title="distutils.cmd.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cmd.Command</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command" title="distutils.cmd.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code></a> must define the following methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options">
+<code class="descclassname">Command.</code><code class="descname">initialize_options</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set default values for all the options that this command supports.  Note that
+these defaults may be overridden by other commands, by the setup script, by
+config files, or by the command-line.  Thus, this is not the place to code
+dependencies between options; generally, <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options" title="distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initialize_options()</span></code></a>
+implementations are just a bunch of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.foo</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> assignments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options">
+<code class="descclassname">Command.</code><code class="descname">finalize_options</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set final values for all the options that this command supports. This is
+always called as late as possible, ie.  after any option assignments from the
+command-line or from other commands have been done.  Thus, this is the place
+to code option dependencies: if <em>foo</em> depends on <em>bar</em>, then it is safe to
+set <em>foo</em> from <em>bar</em> as long as <em>foo</em> still has the same value it was
+assigned in <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options" title="distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initialize_options()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="distutils.cmd.Command.run">
+<code class="descclassname">Command.</code><code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A command’s raison d’etre: carry out the action it exists to perform, controlled
+by the options initialized in <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options" title="distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initialize_options()</span></code></a>, customized by other
+commands, the setup script, the command-line, and config files, and finalized in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options" title="distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize_options()</span></code></a>.  All terminal output and filesystem interaction should
+be done by <a class="reference internal" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.run" title="distutils.cmd.Command.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="distutils.cmd.Command.sub_commands">
+<code class="descclassname">Command.</code><code class="descname">sub_commands</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.cmd.Command.sub_commands" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>sub_commands</em> formalizes the notion of a “family” of commands,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install</span></code> as the parent with sub-commands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install_lib</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install_headers</span></code>, etc.  The parent of a family of commands defines
+<em>sub_commands</em> as a class attribute; it’s a list of 2-tuples <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(command_name,</span>
+<span class="pre">predicate)</span></code>, with <em>command_name</em> a string and <em>predicate</em> a function, a
+string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <em>predicate</em> is a method of the parent command that
+determines whether the corresponding command is applicable in the current
+situation.  (E.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install_headers</span></code> is only applicable if we have any C
+header files to install.)  If <em>predicate</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, that command is always
+applicable.</p>
+<p><em>sub_commands</em> is usually defined at the <em>end</em> of a class, because
+predicates can be methods of the class, so they must already have been
+defined.  The canonical example is the <strong class="command">install</strong> command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command">
+<span id="distutils-command-individual-distutils-commands"></span><h2>9.25. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command" title="distutils.command: This subpackage contains one module for each standard Distutils command."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command</span></code></a> — Individual Distutils commands<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.bdist">
+<span id="distutils-command-bdist-build-a-binary-installer"></span><h2>9.26. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist" title="distutils.command.bdist: Build a binary installer for a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist</span></code></a> — Build a binary installer<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.bdist_packager">
+<span id="distutils-command-bdist-packager-abstract-base-class-for-packagers"></span><h2>9.27. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_packager" title="distutils.command.bdist_packager: Abstract base class for packagers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_packager</span></code></a> — Abstract base class for packagers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_packager" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb">
+<span id="distutils-command-bdist-dumb-build-a-dumb-installer"></span><h2>9.28. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb" title="distutils.command.bdist_dumb: Build a &quot;dumb&quot; installer - a simple archive of files"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_dumb</span></code></a> — Build a “dumb” installer<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.bdist_msi">
+<span id="distutils-command-bdist-msi-build-a-microsoft-installer-binary-package"></span><h2>9.29. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi" title="distutils.command.bdist_msi: Build a binary distribution as a Windows MSI file"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_msi</span></code></a> — Build a Microsoft Installer binary package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.command.bdist_msi.bdist_msi">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.command.bdist_msi.</code><code class="descname">bdist_msi</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.command.bdist_msi.bdist_msi" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Builds a <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc185688(VS.85).aspx">Windows Installer</a> (.msi) binary package.</p>
+<p>In most cases, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdist_msi</span></code> installer is a better choice than the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdist_wininst</span></code> installer, because it provides better support for
+Win64 platforms, allows administrators to perform non-interactive
+installations, and allows installation through group policies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm">
+<span id="distutils-command-bdist-rpm-build-a-binary-distribution-as-a-redhat-rpm-and-srpm"></span><h2>9.30. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm" title="distutils.command.bdist_rpm: Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_rpm</span></code></a> — Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst">
+<span id="distutils-command-bdist-wininst-build-a-windows-installer"></span><h2>9.31. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst" title="distutils.command.bdist_wininst: Build a Windows installer"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_wininst</span></code></a> — Build a Windows installer<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.sdist">
+<span id="distutils-command-sdist-build-a-source-distribution"></span><h2>9.32. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.sdist" title="distutils.command.sdist: Build a source distribution"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.sdist</span></code></a> — Build a source distribution<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.sdist" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.build">
+<span id="distutils-command-build-build-all-files-of-a-package"></span><h2>9.33. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build" title="distutils.command.build: Build all files of a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build</span></code></a> — Build all files of a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.build" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.build_clib">
+<span id="distutils-command-build-clib-build-any-c-libraries-in-a-package"></span><h2>9.34. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_clib" title="distutils.command.build_clib: Build any C libraries in a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_clib</span></code></a> — Build any C libraries in a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.build_clib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.build_ext">
+<span id="distutils-command-build-ext-build-any-extensions-in-a-package"></span><h2>9.35. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_ext" title="distutils.command.build_ext: Build any extensions in a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_ext</span></code></a> — Build any extensions in a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.build_ext" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.build_py">
+<span id="distutils-command-build-py-build-the-py-pyc-files-of-a-package"></span><h2>9.36. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_py" title="distutils.command.build_py: Build the .py/.pyc files of a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_py</span></code></a> — Build the .py/.pyc files of a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.build_py" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.command.build_py.build_py">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.command.build_py.</code><code class="descname">build_py</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.command.build_py.build_py" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="distutils.command.build_py.build_py_2to3">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">distutils.command.build_py.</code><code class="descname">build_py_2to3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#distutils.command.build_py.build_py_2to3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alternative implementation of build_py which also runs the
+2to3 conversion library on each .py file that is going to be
+installed. To use this in a setup.py file for a distribution
+that is designed to run with both Python 2.x and 3.x, add:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.command.build_py</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">build_py_2to3</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">build_py</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.command.build_py</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">build_py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to your setup.py, and later:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cmdclass</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;build_py&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">build_py</span><span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to the invocation of setup().</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.build_scripts">
+<span id="distutils-command-build-scripts-build-the-scripts-of-a-package"></span><h2>9.37. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_scripts" title="distutils.command.build_scripts: Build the scripts of a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_scripts</span></code></a> — Build the scripts of a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.build_scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.clean">
+<span id="distutils-command-clean-clean-a-package-build-area"></span><h2>9.38. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.clean" title="distutils.command.clean: Clean a package build area"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.clean</span></code></a> — Clean a package build area<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.clean" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This command removes the temporary files created by <strong class="command">build</strong>
+and its subcommands, like intermediary compiled object files.  With
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--all</span></code> option, the complete build directory will be removed.</p>
+<p>Extension modules built <a class="reference internal" href="configfile.html#distutils-build-ext-inplace"><span class="std std-ref">in place</span></a>
+will not be cleaned, as they are not in the build directory.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.config">
+<span id="distutils-command-config-perform-package-configuration"></span><h2>9.39. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.config" title="distutils.command.config: Perform package configuration"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.config</span></code></a> — Perform package configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.config" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.install">
+<span id="distutils-command-install-install-a-package"></span><h2>9.40. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install" title="distutils.command.install: Install a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install</span></code></a> — Install a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.install" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.install_data">
+<span id="distutils-command-install-data-install-data-files-from-a-package"></span><h2>9.41. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_data" title="distutils.command.install_data: Install data files from a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_data</span></code></a> — Install data files from a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.install_data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.install_headers">
+<span id="distutils-command-install-headers-install-c-c-header-files-from-a-package"></span><h2>9.42. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_headers" title="distutils.command.install_headers: Install C/C++ header files from a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_headers</span></code></a> — Install C/C++ header files from a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.install_headers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.install_lib">
+<span id="distutils-command-install-lib-install-library-files-from-a-package"></span><h2>9.43. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_lib" title="distutils.command.install_lib: Install library files from a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_lib</span></code></a> — Install library files from a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.install_lib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.install_scripts">
+<span id="distutils-command-install-scripts-install-script-files-from-a-package"></span><h2>9.44. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_scripts" title="distutils.command.install_scripts: Install script files from a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_scripts</span></code></a> — Install script files from a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.install_scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.register">
+<span id="distutils-command-register-register-a-module-with-the-python-package-index"></span><h2>9.45. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.register" title="distutils.command.register: Register a module with the Python Package Index"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.register</span></code></a> — Register a module with the Python Package Index<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.register" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register</span></code> command registers the package with the Python Package  Index.
+This is described in more detail in <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0301"><strong>PEP 301</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-distutils.command.check">
+<span id="distutils-command-check-check-the-meta-data-of-a-package"></span><h2>9.46. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.check" title="distutils.command.check: Check the metadata of a package"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.check</span></code></a> — Check the meta-data of a package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils.command.check" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check</span></code> command performs some tests on the meta-data of a package.
+For example, it verifies that all required meta-data are provided as
+the arguments passed to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code> function.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">9. API Reference</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.core">9.1. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core</span></code> — Core Distutils functionality</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.ccompiler">9.2. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.ccompiler</span></code> — CCompiler base class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.unixccompiler">9.3. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.unixccompiler</span></code> — Unix C Compiler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.msvccompiler">9.4. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.msvccompiler</span></code> — Microsoft Compiler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.bcppcompiler">9.5. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.bcppcompiler</span></code> — Borland Compiler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.cygwinccompiler">9.6. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cygwincompiler</span></code> — Cygwin Compiler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.archive_util">9.7. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.archive_util</span></code> —  Archiving utilities</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.dep_util">9.8. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dep_util</span></code> — Dependency checking</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.dir_util">9.9. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dir_util</span></code> — Directory tree operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.file_util">9.10. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.file_util</span></code> — Single file operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.util">9.11. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.util</span></code> — Miscellaneous other utility functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.dist">9.12. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist</span></code> — The Distribution class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.extension">9.13. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.extension</span></code> — The Extension class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.debug">9.14. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.debug</span></code> — Distutils debug mode</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.errors">9.15. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.errors</span></code> — Distutils exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.fancy_getopt">9.16. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.fancy_getopt</span></code> — Wrapper around the standard getopt module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.filelist">9.17. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.filelist</span></code> — The FileList class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.log">9.18. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.log</span></code> — Simple PEP 282-style logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.spawn">9.19. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.spawn</span></code> — Spawn a sub-process</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.sysconfig">9.20. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code> — System configuration information</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.text_file">9.21. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.text_file</span></code> — The TextFile class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.version">9.22. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.version</span></code> — Version number classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.cmd">9.23. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cmd</span></code> — Abstract base class for Distutils commands</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-a-new-distutils-command">9.24. Creating a new Distutils command</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command">9.25. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command</span></code> — Individual Distutils commands</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist">9.26. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist</span></code> — Build a binary installer</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_packager">9.27. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_packager</span></code> — Abstract base class for packagers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb">9.28. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_dumb</span></code> — Build a “dumb” installer</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi">9.29. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_msi</span></code> — Build a Microsoft Installer binary package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm">9.30. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_rpm</span></code> — Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst">9.31. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_wininst</span></code> — Build a Windows installer</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.sdist">9.32. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.sdist</span></code> — Build a source distribution</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build">9.33. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build</span></code> — Build all files of a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_clib">9.34. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_clib</span></code> — Build any C libraries in a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_ext">9.35. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_ext</span></code> — Build any extensions in a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_py">9.36. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_py</span></code> — Build the .py/.pyc files of a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.build_scripts">9.37. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_scripts</span></code> — Build the scripts of a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.clean">9.38. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.clean</span></code> — Clean a package build area</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.config">9.39. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.config</span></code> — Perform package configuration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install">9.40. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install</span></code> — Install a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_data">9.41. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_data</span></code> — Install data files from a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_headers">9.42. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_headers</span></code> — Install C/C++ header files from a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_lib">9.43. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_lib</span></code> — Install library files from a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.install_scripts">9.44. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_scripts</span></code> — Install script files from a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.register">9.45. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.register</span></code> — Register a module with the Python Package Index</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils.command.check">9.46. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.check</span></code> — Check the meta-data of a package</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="commandref.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">8. Command Reference</a></p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,667 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="creating-built-distributions">
+<span id="built-dist"></span><h1>5. Creating Built Distributions<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-built-distributions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>A “built distribution” is what you’re probably used to thinking of either as a
+“binary package” or an “installer” (depending on your background).  It’s not
+necessarily binary, though, because it might contain only Python source code
+and/or byte-code; and we don’t call it a package, because that word is already
+spoken for in Python.  (And “installer” is a term specific to the world of
+mainstream desktop systems.)</p>
+<p>A built distribution is how you make life as easy as possible for installers of
+your module distribution: for users of RPM-based Linux systems, it’s a binary
+RPM; for Windows users, it’s an executable installer; for Debian-based Linux
+users, it’s a Debian package; and so forth.  Obviously, no one person will be
+able to create built distributions for every platform under the sun, so the
+Distutils are designed to enable module developers to concentrate on their
+specialty—writing code and creating source distributions—while an
+intermediary species called <em>packagers</em> springs up to turn source distributions
+into built distributions for as many platforms as there are packagers.</p>
+<p>Of course, the module developer could be their own packager; or the packager could
+be a volunteer “out there” somewhere who has access to a platform which the
+original developer does not; or it could be software periodically grabbing new
+source distributions and turning them into built distributions for as many
+platforms as the software has access to.  Regardless of who they are, a packager
+uses the setup script and the <strong class="command">bdist</strong> command family to generate built
+distributions.</p>
+<p>As a simple example, if I run the following command in the Distutils source
+tree:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then the Distutils builds my module distribution (the Distutils itself in this
+case), does a “fake” installation (also in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build</span></code> directory), and
+creates the default type of built distribution for my platform.  The default
+format for built distributions is a “dumb” tar file on Unix, and a simple
+executable installer on Windows.  (That tar file is considered “dumb” because it
+has to be unpacked in a specific location to work.)</p>
+<p>Thus, the above command on a Unix system creates
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distutils-1.0.</span><em><span class="pre">plat</span></em><span class="pre">.tar.gz</span></code>; unpacking this tarball from the right place
+installs the Distutils just as though you had downloaded the source distribution
+and run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code>.  (The “right place” is either the root of
+the filesystem or  Python’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> directory, depending on the options
+given to the <strong class="command">bdist_dumb</strong> command; the default is to make dumb
+distributions relative to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code>.)</p>
+<p>Obviously, for pure Python distributions, this isn’t any simpler than just
+running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code>—but for non-pure distributions, which
+include extensions that would need to be compiled, it can mean the difference
+between someone being able to use your extensions or not.  And creating “smart”
+built distributions, such as an RPM package or an executable installer for
+Windows, is far more convenient for users even if your distribution doesn’t
+include any extensions.</p>
+<p>The <strong class="command">bdist</strong> command has a <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--formats</span></code> option, similar to the
+<strong class="command">sdist</strong> command, which you can use to select the types of built
+distribution to generate: for example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">zip</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would, when run on a Unix system, create
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distutils-1.0.</span><em><span class="pre">plat</span></em><span class="pre">.zip</span></code>—again, this archive would be unpacked
+from the root directory to install the Distutils.</p>
+<p>The available formats for built distributions are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Format</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>gzipped tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.gz</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bzipped tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.bz2</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>xzipped tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.xz</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>compressed tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.Z</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>tar file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>zip file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.zip</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(2),(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpm</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>RPM</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgtool</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Solaris <strong class="program">pkgtool</strong></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sdux</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HP-UX <strong class="program">swinstall</strong></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wininst</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>self-extracting ZIP file for
+Windows</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msi</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Microsoft Installer.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code> format.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>default on Unix</p></li>
+<li><p>default on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p>requires external <strong class="program">compress</strong> utility.</p></li>
+<li><p>requires either external <strong class="program">zip</strong> utility or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module (part
+of the standard Python library since Python 1.6)</p></li>
+<li><p>requires external <strong class="program">rpm</strong> utility, version 3.0.4 or better (use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpm</span>
+<span class="pre">--version</span></code> to find out which version you have)</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>You don’t have to use the <strong class="command">bdist</strong> command with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--formats</span></code>
+option; you can also use the command that directly implements the format you’re
+interested in.  Some of these <strong class="command">bdist</strong> “sub-commands” actually generate
+several similar formats; for instance, the <strong class="command">bdist_dumb</strong> command
+generates all the “dumb” archive formats (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gztar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bztar</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ztar</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip</span></code>), and <strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> generates both
+binary and source RPMs.  The <strong class="command">bdist</strong> sub-commands, and the formats
+generated by each, are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Command</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Formats</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><strong class="command">bdist_dumb</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>tar, gztar, bztar, xztar, ztar, zip</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>rpm, srpm</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><strong class="command">bdist_wininst</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>wininst</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><strong class="command">bdist_msi</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>msi</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The following sections give details on the individual <strong class="command">bdist_*</strong>
+commands.</p>
+<div class="section" id="creating-rpm-packages">
+<span id="creating-rpms"></span><h2>5.1. Creating RPM packages<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-rpm-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The RPM format is used by many popular Linux distributions, including Red Hat,
+SuSE, and Mandrake.  If one of these (or any of the other RPM-based Linux
+distributions) is your usual environment, creating RPM packages for other users
+of that same distribution is trivial. Depending on the complexity of your module
+distribution and differences between Linux distributions, you may also be able
+to create RPMs that work on different RPM-based distributions.</p>
+<p>The usual way to create an RPM of your module distribution is to run the
+<strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_rpm</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or the <strong class="command">bdist</strong> command with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--format</span></code> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">formats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">rpm</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The former allows you to specify RPM-specific options; the latter allows  you to
+easily specify multiple formats in one run.  If you need to do both, you can
+explicitly specify multiple <strong class="command">bdist_*</strong> commands and their options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_rpm</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">packager</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;John Doe &lt;jdoe@example.org&gt;&quot;</span> \
+                <span class="n">bdist_wininst</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;2.0&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Creating RPM packages is driven by a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file, much as using the
+Distutils is driven by the setup script.  To make your life easier, the
+<strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> command normally creates a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file based on the
+information you supply in the setup script, on the command line, and in any
+Distutils configuration files.  Various options and sections in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file are derived from options in the setup script as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+<col style="width: 52%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>RPM <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file option or section</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Distutils setup script option</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Name</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Summary (in preamble)</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">description</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Version</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Vendor</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">author</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">author_email</span></code>,
+or  — &amp; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintainer</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintainer_email</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Copyright</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">license</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Url</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">url</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>%description (section)</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long_description</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Additionally, there are many options in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> files that don’t have
+corresponding options in the setup script.  Most of these are handled through
+options to the <strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> command as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 34%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>RPM <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file option
+or section</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>default value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Release</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>“1”</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Group</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>“Development/Libraries”</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Vendor</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vendor</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(see above)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Packager</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packager</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Provides</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">provides</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Requires</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">requires</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Conflicts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conflicts</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Obsoletes</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obsoletes</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Distribution</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distribution_name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>BuildRequires</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build_requires</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Icon</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">icon</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(none)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Obviously, supplying even a few of these options on the command-line would be
+tedious and error-prone, so it’s usually best to put them in the setup
+configuration file, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code>—see section <a class="reference internal" href="configfile.html#setup-config"><span class="std std-ref">Writing the Setup Configuration File</span></a>.  If
+you distribute or package many Python module distributions, you might want to
+put options that apply to all of them in your personal Distutils configuration
+file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.pydistutils.cfg</span></code>).  If you want to temporarily disable
+this file, you can pass the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-user-cfg</span></code> option to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There are three steps to building a binary RPM package, all of which are
+handled automatically by the Distutils:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>create a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file, which describes the package (analogous  to the
+Distutils setup script; in fact, much of the information in the  setup script
+winds up in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file)</p></li>
+<li><p>create the source RPM</p></li>
+<li><p>create the “binary” RPM (which may or may not contain binary code, depending
+on whether your module distribution contains Python extensions)</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Normally, RPM bundles the last two steps together; when you use the Distutils,
+all three steps are typically bundled together.</p>
+<p>If you wish, you can separate these three steps.  You can use the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--spec-only</span></code> option to make <strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> just create the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file and exit; in this case, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code> file will be
+written to the “distribution directory”—normally <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dist/</span></code>, but
+customizable with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--dist-dir</span></code> option.  (Normally, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.spec</span></code>
+file winds up deep in the “build tree,” in a temporary directory created by
+<strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-windows-installers">
+<span id="creating-wininst"></span><h2>5.2. Creating Windows Installers<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-windows-installers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Executable installers are the natural format for binary distributions on
+Windows.  They display a nice graphical user interface, display some information
+about the module distribution to be installed taken from the metadata in the
+setup script, let the user select a few options, and start or cancel the
+installation.</p>
+<p>Since the metadata is taken from the setup script, creating Windows installers
+is usually as easy as running:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_wininst</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or the <strong class="command">bdist</strong> command with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--formats</span></code> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">formats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">wininst</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have a pure module distribution (only containing pure Python modules and
+packages), the resulting installer will be version independent and have a name
+like <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.win32.exe</span></code>. Note that creating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wininst</span></code> binary
+distributions in only supported on Windows systems.</p>
+<p>If you have a non-pure distribution, the extensions can only be created on a
+Windows platform, and will be Python version dependent. The installer filename
+will reflect this and now has the form <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.win32-py2.0.exe</span></code>.  You
+have to create a separate installer for every Python version you want to
+support.</p>
+<p>The installer will try to compile pure modules into <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> after installation
+on the target system in normal and optimizing mode.  If you don’t want this to
+happen for some reason, you can run the <strong class="command">bdist_wininst</strong> command with
+the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-target-compile</span></code> and/or the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-target-optimize</span></code>
+option.</p>
+<p>By default the installer will display the cool “Python Powered” logo when it is
+run, but you can also supply your own 152x261 bitmap which must be a Windows
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.bmp</span></code> file with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--bitmap</span></code> option.</p>
+<p>The installer will also display a large title on the desktop background window
+when it is run, which is constructed from the name of your distribution and the
+version number.  This can be changed to another text by using the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--title</span></code> option.</p>
+<p>The installer file will be written to the “distribution directory” — normally
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dist/</span></code>, but customizable with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--dist-dir</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cross-compiling-on-windows">
+<span id="cross-compile-windows"></span><h2>5.3. Cross-compiling on Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#cross-compiling-on-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Starting with Python 2.6, distutils is capable of cross-compiling between
+Windows platforms.  In practice, this means that with the correct tools
+installed, you can use a 32bit version of Windows to create 64bit extensions
+and vice-versa.</p>
+<p>To build for an alternate platform, specify the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--plat-name</span></code> option
+to the build command.  Valid values are currently ‘win32’, and  ‘win-amd64’.
+For example, on a 32bit version of Windows, you could execute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">build</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">plat</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">win</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">amd64</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to build a 64bit version of your extension.  The Windows Installers also
+support this option, so the command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">build</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">plat</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">win</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">amd64</span> <span class="n">bdist_wininst</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would create a 64bit installation executable on your 32bit version of Windows.</p>
+<p>To cross-compile, you must download the Python source code and cross-compile
+Python itself for the platform you are targeting - it is not possible from a
+binary installation of Python (as the .lib etc file for other platforms are
+not included.)  In practice, this means the user of a 32 bit operating
+system will need to use Visual Studio 2008 to open the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild/PCbuild.sln</span></code> solution in the Python source tree and build the
+“x64” configuration of the ‘pythoncore’ project before cross-compiling
+extensions is possible.</p>
+<p>Note that by default, Visual Studio 2008 does not install 64bit compilers or
+tools.  You may need to reexecute the Visual Studio setup process and select
+these tools (using Control Panel-&gt;[Add/Remove] Programs is a convenient way to
+check or modify your existing install.)</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-postinstallation-script">
+<span id="postinstallation-script"></span><h3>5.3.1. The Postinstallation script<a class="headerlink" href="#the-postinstallation-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Starting with Python 2.3, a postinstallation script can be specified with the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-script</span></code> option.  The basename of the script must be
+specified, and the script filename must also be listed in the scripts argument
+to the setup function.</p>
+<p>This script will be run at installation time on the target system after all the
+files have been copied, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[1]</span></code> set to <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-install</span></code>, and again at
+uninstallation time before the files are removed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[1]</span></code> set to
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-remove</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The installation script runs embedded in the windows installer, every output
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>) is redirected into a buffer and will be
+displayed in the GUI after the script has finished.</p>
+<p>Some functions especially useful in this context are available as additional
+built-in functions in the installation script.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="directory_created">
+<code class="descname">directory_created</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#directory_created" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="file_created">
+<code class="descname">file_created</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#file_created" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These functions should be called when a directory or file is created by the
+postinstall script at installation time.  It will register <em>path</em> with the
+uninstaller, so that it will be removed when the distribution is uninstalled.
+To be safe, directories are only removed if they are empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="get_special_folder_path">
+<code class="descname">get_special_folder_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>csidl_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#get_special_folder_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function can be used to retrieve special folder locations on Windows like
+the Start Menu or the Desktop.  It returns the full path to the folder.
+<em>csidl_string</em> must be one of the following strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_APPDATA&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_COMMON_STARTMENU&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_STARTMENU&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_COMMON_DESKTOPDIRECTORY&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_DESKTOPDIRECTORY&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_COMMON_STARTUP&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_STARTUP&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_COMMON_PROGRAMS&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_PROGRAMS&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="s2">&quot;CSIDL_FONTS&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the folder cannot be retrieved, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Which folders are available depends on the exact Windows version, and probably
+also the configuration.  For details refer to Microsoft’s documentation of the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHGetSpecialFolderPath()</span></code> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="create_shortcut">
+<code class="descname">create_shortcut</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>description</em>, <em>filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>arguments</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>workdir</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>iconpath</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>iconindex</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#create_shortcut" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function creates a shortcut. <em>target</em> is the path to the program to be
+started by the shortcut. <em>description</em> is the description of the shortcut.
+<em>filename</em> is the title of the shortcut that the user will see. <em>arguments</em>
+specifies the command line arguments, if any. <em>workdir</em> is the working directory
+for the program. <em>iconpath</em> is the file containing the icon for the shortcut,
+and <em>iconindex</em> is the index of the icon in the file <em>iconpath</em>.  Again, for
+details consult the Microsoft documentation for the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IShellLink</span></code>
+interface.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="vista-user-access-control-uac">
+<h2>5.4. Vista User Access Control (UAC)<a class="headerlink" href="#vista-user-access-control-uac" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Starting with Python 2.6, bdist_wininst supports a <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--user-access-control</span></code>
+option.  The default is ‘none’ (meaning no UAC handling is done), and other
+valid values are ‘auto’ (meaning prompt for UAC elevation if Python was
+installed for all users) and ‘force’ (meaning always prompt for elevation).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">5. Creating Built Distributions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-rpm-packages">5.1. Creating RPM packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-windows-installers">5.2. Creating Windows Installers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cross-compiling-on-windows">5.3. Cross-compiling on Windows</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-postinstallation-script">5.3.1. The Postinstallation script</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#vista-user-access-control-uac">5.4. Vista User Access Control (UAC)</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sourcedist.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">4. Creating a Source Distribution</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="examples.html"
+                        title="next chapter">6. Examples</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/distutils/builtdist.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/commandref.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/commandref.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fbc5ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/commandref.html
@@ -0,0 +1,263 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>8. Command Reference &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
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+            width: 100%;
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="command-reference">
+<span id="reference"></span><h1>8. Command Reference<a class="headerlink" href="#command-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="installing-modules-the-install-command-family">
+<span id="install-cmd"></span><h2>8.1. Installing modules: the <strong class="command">install</strong> command family<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-modules-the-install-command-family" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The install command ensures that the build commands have been run and then runs
+the subcommands <strong class="command">install_lib</strong>, <strong class="command">install_data</strong> and
+<strong class="command">install_scripts</strong>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="install-data">
+<span id="install-data-cmd"></span><h3>8.1.1. <strong class="command">install_data</strong><a class="headerlink" href="#install-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This command installs all data files provided with the distribution.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="install-scripts">
+<span id="install-scripts-cmd"></span><h3>8.1.2. <strong class="command">install_scripts</strong><a class="headerlink" href="#install-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This command installs all (Python) scripts in the distribution.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-a-source-distribution-the-sdist-command">
+<span id="sdist-cmd"></span><h2>8.2. Creating a source distribution: the <strong class="command">sdist</strong> command<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-a-source-distribution-the-sdist-command" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The manifest template commands are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+<col style="width: 52%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Command</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><strong class="command">include pat1 pat2 ...</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>include all files matching any of the listed
+patterns</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><strong class="command">exclude pat1 pat2 ...</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>exclude all files matching any of the listed
+patterns</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><strong class="command">recursive-include dir pat1 pat2
+...</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>include all files under <em>dir</em> matching any of
+the listed patterns</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><strong class="command">recursive-exclude dir pat1 pat2
+...</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>exclude all files under <em>dir</em> matching any of
+the listed patterns</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><strong class="command">global-include pat1 pat2 ...</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>include all files anywhere in the source tree
+matching — &amp; any of the listed patterns</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><strong class="command">global-exclude pat1 pat2 ...</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>exclude all files anywhere in the source tree
+matching — &amp; any of the listed patterns</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><strong class="command">prune dir</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>exclude all files under <em>dir</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><strong class="command">graft dir</strong></p></td>
+<td><p>include all files under <em>dir</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The patterns here are Unix-style “glob” patterns: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> matches any sequence of
+regular filename characters, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> matches any single regular filename
+character, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[range]</span></code> matches any of the characters in <em>range</em> (e.g.,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a-z</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a-zA-Z</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a-f0-9_.</span></code>).  The definition of “regular filename
+character” is platform-specific: on Unix it is anything except slash; on Windows
+anything except backslash or colon.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">8. Command Reference</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-modules-the-install-command-family">8.1. Installing modules: the <strong class="command">install</strong> command family</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#install-data">8.1.1. <strong class="command">install_data</strong></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#install-scripts">8.1.2. <strong class="command">install_scripts</strong></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-a-source-distribution-the-sdist-command">8.2. Creating a source distribution: the <strong class="command">sdist</strong> command</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="extending.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">7. Extending Distutils</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="apiref.html"
+                        title="next chapter">9. API Reference</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/configfile.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/configfile.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28f0bf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/configfile.html
@@ -0,0 +1,294 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>3. Writing the Setup Configuration File &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+        </form>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="writing-the-setup-configuration-file">
+<span id="setup-config"></span><h1>3. Writing the Setup Configuration File<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-the-setup-configuration-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Often, it’s not possible to write down everything needed to build a distribution
+<em>a priori</em>: you may need to get some information from the user, or from the
+user’s system, in order to proceed.  As long as that information is fairly
+simple—a list of directories to search for C header files or libraries, for
+example—then providing a configuration file, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code>, for users to
+edit is a cheap and easy way to solicit it.  Configuration files also let you
+provide default values for any command option, which the installer can then
+override either on the command-line or by editing the config file.</p>
+<p>The setup configuration file is a useful middle-ground between the setup
+script—which, ideally, would be opaque to installers <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>—and the command-line to
+the setup script, which is outside of your control and entirely up to the
+installer.  In fact, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code> (and any other Distutils configuration
+files present on the target system) are processed after the contents of the
+setup script, but before the command-line.  This has  several useful
+consequences:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>installers can override some of what you put in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> by editing
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>you can provide non-standard defaults for options that are not easily set in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>installers can override anything in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code> using the command-line
+options to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The basic syntax of the configuration file is simple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[command]</span>
+<span class="na">option</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">value</span>
+<span class="na">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <em>command</em> is one of the Distutils commands (e.g. <strong class="command">build_py</strong>,
+<strong class="command">install</strong>), and <em>option</em> is one of the options that command supports.
+Any number of options can be supplied for each command, and any number of
+command sections can be included in the file.  Blank lines are ignored, as are
+comments, which run from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code> character until the end of the line.  Long
+option values can be split across multiple lines simply by indenting the
+continuation lines.</p>
+<p>You can find out the list of options supported by a particular command with the
+universal <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> option, e.g.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python setup.py --help build_ext
+<span class="go">[...]</span>
+<span class="go">Options for &#39;build_ext&#39; command:</span>
+<span class="go">  --build-lib (-b)     directory for compiled extension modules</span>
+<span class="go">  --build-temp (-t)    directory for temporary files (build by-products)</span>
+<span class="go">  --inplace (-i)       ignore build-lib and put compiled extensions into the</span>
+<span class="go">                       source directory alongside your pure Python modules</span>
+<span class="go">  --include-dirs (-I)  list of directories to search for header files</span>
+<span class="go">  --define (-D)        C preprocessor macros to define</span>
+<span class="go">  --undef (-U)         C preprocessor macros to undefine</span>
+<span class="go">  --swig-opts          list of SWIG command line options</span>
+<span class="go">[...]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that an option spelled <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo-bar</span></code> on the command-line  is spelled
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo_bar</span></code> in configuration files.</p>
+<p id="distutils-build-ext-inplace">For example, say you want your extensions to be built “in-place”—that is, you
+have an extension <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.ext</span></code>, and you want the compiled extension file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext.so</span></code> on Unix, say) to be put in the same source directory as your
+pure Python modules <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.mod1</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.mod2</span></code>.  You can always use the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--inplace</span></code> option on the command-line to ensure this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build_ext --inplace
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>But this requires that you always specify the <strong class="command">build_ext</strong> command
+explicitly, and remember to provide <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--inplace</span></code>. An easier way is to
+“set and forget” this option, by encoding it in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code>, the
+configuration file for this distribution:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[build_ext]</span>
+<span class="na">inplace</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will affect all builds of this module distribution, whether or not you
+explicitly specify <strong class="command">build_ext</strong>.  If you include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code> in
+your source distribution, it will also affect end-user builds—which is
+probably a bad idea for this option, since always building extensions in-place
+would break installation of the module distribution.  In certain peculiar cases,
+though, modules are built right in their installation directory, so this is
+conceivably a useful ability.  (Distributing extensions that expect to be built
+in their installation directory is almost always a bad idea, though.)</p>
+<p>Another example: certain commands take a lot of options that don’t change from
+run to run; for example, <strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> needs to know everything required
+to generate a “spec” file for creating an RPM distribution.  Some of this
+information comes from the setup script, and some is automatically generated by
+the Distutils (such as the list of files installed).  But some of it has to be
+supplied as options to <strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong>, which would be very tedious to do
+on the command-line for every run.  Hence, here is a snippet from the Distutils’
+own <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[bdist_rpm]</span>
+<span class="na">release</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">1</span>
+<span class="na">packager</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">Greg Ward &lt;gward@python.net&gt;</span>
+<span class="na">doc_files</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">CHANGES.txt</span>
+<span class="s">            README.txt</span>
+<span class="s">            USAGE.txt</span>
+<span class="s">            doc/</span>
+<span class="s">            examples/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc_files</span></code> option is simply a whitespace-separated string
+split across multiple lines for readability.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../install/index.html#inst-config-syntax"><span class="std std-ref">Syntax of config files</span></a> in “Installing Python Modules”</dt><dd><p>More information on the configuration files is available in the manual for
+system administrators.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This ideal probably won’t be achieved until auto-configuration is fully
+supported by the Distutils.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="setupscript.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">2. Writing the Setup Script</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sourcedist.html"
+                        title="next chapter">4. Creating a Source Distribution</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/examples.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/examples.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9193b5f
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,489 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>6. Examples &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>6. Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This chapter provides a number of basic examples to help get started with
+distutils.  Additional information about using distutils can be found in the
+Distutils Cookbook.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/Distutils/Cookbook">Distutils Cookbook</a></dt><dd><p>Collection of recipes showing how to achieve more control over distutils.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pure-python-distribution-by-module">
+<span id="pure-mod"></span><h2>6.1. Pure Python distribution (by module)<a class="headerlink" href="#pure-python-distribution-by-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you’re just distributing a couple of modules, especially if they don’t live
+in a particular package, you can specify them individually using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_modules</span></code> option in the setup script.</p>
+<p>In the simplest case, you’ll have two files to worry about: a setup script and
+the single module you’re distributing, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.py</span></code> in this example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(In all diagrams in this section, <em>&lt;root&gt;</em> will refer to the distribution root
+directory.)  A minimal setup script to describe this situation would be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">py_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the name of the distribution is specified independently with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> option, and there’s no rule that says it has to be the same as
+the name of the sole module in the distribution (although that’s probably a good
+convention to follow).  However, the distribution name is used to generate
+filenames, so you should stick to letters, digits, underscores, and hyphens.</p>
+<p>Since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_modules</span></code> is a list, you can of course specify multiple
+modules, eg. if you’re distributing modules <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code>, your
+setup might look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and the setup script might be</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">py_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can put module source files into another directory, but if you have enough
+modules to do that, it’s probably easier to specify modules by package rather
+than listing them individually.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pure-python-distribution-by-package">
+<span id="pure-pkg"></span><h2>6.2. Pure Python distribution (by package)<a class="headerlink" href="#pure-python-distribution-by-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you have more than a couple of modules to distribute, especially if they are
+in multiple packages, it’s probably easier to specify whole packages rather than
+individual modules.  This works even if your modules are not in a package; you
+can just tell the Distutils to process modules from the root package, and that
+works the same as any other package (except that you don’t have to have an
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file).</p>
+<p>The setup script from the last example could also be written as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The empty string stands for the root package.)</p>
+<p>If those two files are moved into a subdirectory, but remain in the root
+package, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">src</span><span class="o">/</span>      <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                  <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then you would still specify the root package, but you have to tell the
+Distutils where source files in the root package live:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">package_dir</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>More typically, though, you will want to distribute multiple modules in the same
+package (or in sub-packages).  For example, if the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>  and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code>
+modules belong in package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foobar</span></code>, one way to layout your source tree is</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">foobar</span><span class="o">/</span>
+                 <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                 <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                 <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is in fact the default layout expected by the Distutils, and the one that
+requires the least work to describe in your setup script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to put modules in directories not named for their package, then you
+need to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code> option again.  For example, if the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">src</span></code> directory holds modules in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foobar</span></code> package:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">src</span><span class="o">/</span>
+                 <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                 <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                 <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>an appropriate setup script would be</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">package_dir</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or, you might put modules from your main package right in the distribution
+root:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>in which case your setup script would be</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">package_dir</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The empty string also stands for the current directory.)</p>
+<p>If you have sub-packages, they must be explicitly listed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span></code>,
+but any entries in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code> automatically extend to sub-packages.
+(In other words, the Distutils does <em>not</em> scan your source tree, trying to
+figure out which directories correspond to Python packages by looking for
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> files.)  Thus, if the default layout grows a sub-package:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">foobar</span><span class="o">/</span>
+                 <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                 <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                 <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                 <span class="n">subfoo</span><span class="o">/</span>
+                           <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+                           <span class="n">blah</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then the corresponding setup script would be</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foobar.subfoo&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="single-extension-module">
+<span id="single-ext"></span><h2>6.3. Single extension module<a class="headerlink" href="#single-extension-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Extension modules are specified using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext_modules</span></code> option.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code> has no effect on where extension source files are found;
+it only affects the source for pure Python modules.  The simplest  case, a
+single extension module in a single C source file, is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">&gt;/</span>
+        <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">c</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> extension belongs in the root package, the setup script for
+this could be</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.extension</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the extension actually belongs in a package, say <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foopkg</span></code>, then</p>
+<p>With exactly the same source tree layout, this extension can be put in the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foopkg</span></code> package simply by changing the name of the extension:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.extension</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foopkg.foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="checking-a-package">
+<h2>6.4. Checking a package<a class="headerlink" href="#checking-a-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check</span></code> command allows you to verify if your package meta-data
+meet the minimum requirements to build a distribution.</p>
+<p>To run it, just call it using your <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script. If something is
+missing, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check</span></code> will display a warning.</p>
+<p>Let’s take an example with a simple script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Running the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check</span></code> command will display some warnings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python setup.py check
+<span class="go">running check</span>
+<span class="go">warning: check: missing required meta-data: version, url</span>
+<span class="go">warning: check: missing meta-data: either (author and author_email) or</span>
+<span class="go">         (maintainer and maintainer_email) must be supplied</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you use the reStructuredText syntax in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long_description</span></code> field and
+<a class="reference external" href="http://docutils.sourceforge.net">docutils</a>  is installed you can check if the syntax is fine with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check</span></code> command, using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restructuredtext</span></code> option.</p>
+<p>For example, if the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script is changed like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+
+<span class="n">desc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s2">My description</span>
+<span class="s2">==============</span>
+
+<span class="s2">This is the description of the ``foobar`` package.</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">author</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;tarek&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">author_email</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;tarek@ziade.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">url</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://example.com&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">long_description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">desc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Where the long description is broken, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check</span></code> will be able to detect it
+by using the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docutils</span></code> parser:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python setup.py check --restructuredtext
+<span class="go">running check</span>
+<span class="go">warning: check: Title underline too short. (line 2)</span>
+<span class="go">warning: check: Could not finish the parsing.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reading-the-metadata">
+<h2>6.5. Reading the metadata<a class="headerlink" href="#reading-the-metadata" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core.setup()</span></code></a> function provides a command-line interface
+that allows you to query the metadata fields of a project through the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script of a given project:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python setup.py --name
+<span class="go">distribute</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This call reads the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> metadata by running the
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core.setup()</span></code></a>  function. Although, when a source or binary
+distribution is created with Distutils, the metadata fields are written
+in a static file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code>. When a Distutils-based project is
+installed in Python, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code> file is copied alongside the modules
+and packages of the distribution under <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NAME-VERSION-pyX.X.egg-info</span></code>,
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NAME</span></code> is the name of the project, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VERSION</span></code> its version as defined
+in the Metadata, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyX.X</span></code> the major and minor version of Python like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.7</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.2</span></code>.</p>
+<p>You can read back this static file, by using the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist.DistributionMetadata</span></code> class and its
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_pkg_file()</span></code> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.dist</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">DistributionMetadata</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">metadata</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DistributionMetadata</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">metadata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_pkg_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;distribute-0.6.8-py2.7.egg-info&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">metadata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;distribute&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">metadata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0.6.8&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">metadata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">description</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Easily download, build, install, upgrade, and uninstall Python packages&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice that the class can also be instantiated with a metadata file path to
+loads its values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pkg_info_path</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;distribute-0.6.8-py2.7.egg-info&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">DistributionMetadata</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pkg_info_path</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;distribute&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">6. Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pure-python-distribution-by-module">6.1. Pure Python distribution (by module)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pure-python-distribution-by-package">6.2. Pure Python distribution (by package)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#single-extension-module">6.3. Single extension module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#checking-a-package">6.4. Checking a package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reading-the-metadata">6.5. Reading the metadata</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="builtdist.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">5. Creating Built Distributions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="extending.html"
+                        title="next chapter">7. Extending Distutils</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/distutils/examples.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/extending.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/extending.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72dd18f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/extending.html
@@ -0,0 +1,262 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>7. Extending Distutils &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    <link rel="next" title="8. Command Reference" href="commandref.html" />
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="extending-distutils">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>7. Extending Distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#extending-distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Distutils can be extended in various ways.  Most extensions take the form of new
+commands or replacements for existing commands.  New commands may be written to
+support new types of platform-specific packaging, for example, while
+replacements for existing commands may be made to modify details of how the
+command operates on a package.</p>
+<p>Most extensions of the distutils are made within <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> scripts that
+want to modify existing commands; many simply add a few file extensions that
+should be copied into packages in addition to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files as a
+convenience.</p>
+<p>Most distutils command implementations are subclasses of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command" title="distutils.cmd.Command"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cmd.Command</span></code></a> class.  New commands may directly inherit from
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code>, while replacements often derive from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code>
+indirectly, directly subclassing the command they are replacing.  Commands are
+required to derive from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Command</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="integrating-new-commands">
+<h2>7.1. Integrating new commands<a class="headerlink" href="#integrating-new-commands" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are different ways to integrate new command implementations into
+distutils.  The most difficult is to lobby for the inclusion of the new features
+in distutils itself, and wait for (and require) a version of Python that
+provides that support.  This is really hard for many reasons.</p>
+<p>The most common, and possibly the most reasonable for most needs, is to include
+the new implementations with your <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script, and cause the
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core.setup()</span></code></a> function use them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.command.build_py</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">build_py</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">_build_py</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">build_py</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_build_py</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Specialized Python source builder.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># implement whatever needs to be different...</span>
+
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmdclass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;build_py&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">build_py</span><span class="p">},</span>
+      <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This approach is most valuable if the new implementations must be used to use a
+particular package, as everyone interested in the package will need to have the
+new command implementation.</p>
+<p>Beginning with Python 2.4, a third option is available, intended to allow new
+commands to be added which can support existing <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> scripts without
+requiring modifications to the Python installation.  This is expected to allow
+third-party extensions to provide support for additional packaging systems, but
+the commands can be used for anything distutils commands can be used for.  A new
+configuration option, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command_packages</span></code> (command-line option
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--command-packages</span></code>), can be used to specify additional packages to be
+searched for modules implementing commands.  Like all distutils options, this
+can be specified on the command line or in a configuration file.  This option
+can only be set in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[global]</span></code> section of a configuration file, or before
+any commands on the command line.  If set in a configuration file, it can be
+overridden from the command line; setting it to an empty string on the command
+line causes the default to be used.  This should never be set in a configuration
+file provided with a package.</p>
+<p>This new option can be used to add any number of packages to the list of
+packages searched for command implementations; multiple package names should be
+separated by commas.  When not specified, the search is only performed in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command" title="distutils.command: This subpackage contains one module for each standard Distutils command."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command</span></code></a> package.  When <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> is run with the option
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--command-packages</span> <span class="pre">distcmds,buildcmds</span></code>, however, the packages
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command" title="distutils.command: This subpackage contains one module for each standard Distutils command."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distcmds</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buildcmds</span></code> will be searched
+in that order.  New commands are expected to be implemented in modules of the
+same name as the command by classes sharing the same name.  Given the example
+command line option above, the command <strong class="command">bdist_openpkg</strong> could be
+implemented by the class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distcmds.bdist_openpkg.bdist_openpkg</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buildcmds.bdist_openpkg.bdist_openpkg</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="adding-new-distribution-types">
+<h2>7.2. Adding new distribution types<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-new-distribution-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Commands that create distributions (files in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dist/</span></code> directory) need
+to add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(command,</span> <span class="pre">filename)</span></code> pairs to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.distribution.dist_files</span></code> so that
+<strong class="command">upload</strong> can upload it to PyPI.  The <em>filename</em> in the pair contains no
+path information, only the name of the file itself.  In dry-run mode, pairs
+should still be added to represent what would have been created.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">7. Extending Distutils</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#integrating-new-commands">7.1. Integrating new commands</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-new-distribution-types">7.2. Adding new distribution types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="examples.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">6. Examples</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="commandref.html"
+                        title="next chapter">8. Command Reference</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/index.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..796158a
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,309 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version) &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="1. An Introduction to Distutils" href="introduction.html" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="introduction.html" title="1. An Introduction to Distutils"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+        
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+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="distributing-python-modules-legacy-version">
+<span id="distutils-index"></span><h1>Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)<a class="headerlink" href="#distributing-python-modules-legacy-version" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Authors</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Greg Ward, Anthony Baxter</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">Email</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p><a class="reference external" href="mailto:distutils-sig&#37;&#52;&#48;python&#46;org">distutils-sig<span>&#64;</span>python<span>&#46;</span>org</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../distributing/index.html#distributing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules</span></a></dt><dd><p>The up to date module distribution documentations</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p>This document describes the Python Distribution Utilities (“Distutils”) from
+the module developer’s point of view, describing how to use the Distutils to
+make Python modules and extensions easily available to a wider audience with
+very little overhead for build/release/install mechanics.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This guide only covers the basic tools for building and distributing
+extensions that are provided as part of this version of Python. Third party
+tools offer easier to use and more secure alternatives. Refer to the <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/guides/tool-recommendations/">quick
+recommendations section</a>
+in the Python Packaging User Guide for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html">1. An Introduction to Distutils</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#concepts-terminology">1.1. Concepts &amp; Terminology</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#a-simple-example">1.2. A Simple Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#general-python-terminology">1.3. General Python terminology</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#distutils-specific-terminology">1.4. Distutils-specific terminology</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html">2. Writing the Setup Script</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#listing-whole-packages">2.1. Listing whole packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#listing-individual-modules">2.2. Listing individual modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#describing-extension-modules">2.3. Describing extension modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#relationships-between-distributions-and-packages">2.4. Relationships between Distributions and Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#installing-scripts">2.5. Installing Scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#installing-package-data">2.6. Installing Package Data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#installing-additional-files">2.7. Installing Additional Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#additional-meta-data">2.8. Additional meta-data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#debugging-the-setup-script">2.9. Debugging the setup script</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="configfile.html">3. Writing the Setup Configuration File</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sourcedist.html">4. Creating a Source Distribution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sourcedist.html#specifying-the-files-to-distribute">4.1. Specifying the files to distribute</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sourcedist.html#manifest-related-options">4.2. Manifest-related options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="builtdist.html">5. Creating Built Distributions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="builtdist.html#creating-rpm-packages">5.1. Creating RPM packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="builtdist.html#creating-windows-installers">5.2. Creating Windows Installers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="builtdist.html#cross-compiling-on-windows">5.3. Cross-compiling on Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="builtdist.html#vista-user-access-control-uac">5.4. Vista User Access Control (UAC)</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="examples.html">6. Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="examples.html#pure-python-distribution-by-module">6.1. Pure Python distribution (by module)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="examples.html#pure-python-distribution-by-package">6.2. Pure Python distribution (by package)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="examples.html#single-extension-module">6.3. Single extension module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="examples.html#checking-a-package">6.4. Checking a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="examples.html#reading-the-metadata">6.5. Reading the metadata</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html">7. Extending Distutils</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#integrating-new-commands">7.1. Integrating new commands</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#adding-new-distribution-types">7.2. Adding new distribution types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="commandref.html">8. Command Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="commandref.html#installing-modules-the-install-command-family">8.1. Installing modules: the <strong class="command">install</strong> command family</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="commandref.html#creating-a-source-distribution-the-sdist-command">8.2. Creating a source distribution: the <strong class="command">sdist</strong> command</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html">9. API Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.core">9.1. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core</span></code> — Core Distutils functionality</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.ccompiler">9.2. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.ccompiler</span></code> — CCompiler base class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.unixccompiler">9.3. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.unixccompiler</span></code> — Unix C Compiler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.msvccompiler">9.4. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.msvccompiler</span></code> — Microsoft Compiler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.bcppcompiler">9.5. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.bcppcompiler</span></code> — Borland Compiler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.cygwinccompiler">9.6. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cygwincompiler</span></code> — Cygwin Compiler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.archive_util">9.7. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.archive_util</span></code> —  Archiving utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.dep_util">9.8. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dep_util</span></code> — Dependency checking</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.dir_util">9.9. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dir_util</span></code> — Directory tree operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.file_util">9.10. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.file_util</span></code> — Single file operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.util">9.11. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.util</span></code> — Miscellaneous other utility functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.dist">9.12. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist</span></code> — The Distribution class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.extension">9.13. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.extension</span></code> — The Extension class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.debug">9.14. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.debug</span></code> — Distutils debug mode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.errors">9.15. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.errors</span></code> — Distutils exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.fancy_getopt">9.16. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.fancy_getopt</span></code> — Wrapper around the standard getopt module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.filelist">9.17. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.filelist</span></code> — The FileList class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.log">9.18. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.log</span></code> — Simple PEP 282-style logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.spawn">9.19. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.spawn</span></code> — Spawn a sub-process</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.sysconfig">9.20. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code> — System configuration information</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.text_file">9.21. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.text_file</span></code> — The TextFile class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.version">9.22. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.version</span></code> — Version number classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.cmd">9.23. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.cmd</span></code> — Abstract base class for Distutils commands</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#creating-a-new-distutils-command">9.24. Creating a new Distutils command</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command">9.25. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command</span></code> — Individual Distutils commands</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist">9.26. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist</span></code> — Build a binary installer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_packager">9.27. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_packager</span></code> — Abstract base class for packagers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb">9.28. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_dumb</span></code> — Build a “dumb” installer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi">9.29. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_msi</span></code> — Build a Microsoft Installer binary package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm">9.30. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_rpm</span></code> — Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst">9.31. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.bdist_wininst</span></code> — Build a Windows installer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.sdist">9.32. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.sdist</span></code> — Build a source distribution</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build">9.33. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build</span></code> — Build all files of a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_clib">9.34. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_clib</span></code> — Build any C libraries in a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_ext">9.35. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_ext</span></code> — Build any extensions in a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_py">9.36. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_py</span></code> — Build the .py/.pyc files of a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_scripts">9.37. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.build_scripts</span></code> — Build the scripts of a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.clean">9.38. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.clean</span></code> — Clean a package build area</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.config">9.39. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.config</span></code> — Perform package configuration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install">9.40. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install</span></code> — Install a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_data">9.41. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_data</span></code> — Install data files from a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_headers">9.42. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_headers</span></code> — Install C/C++ header files from a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_lib">9.43. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_lib</span></code> — Install library files from a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_scripts">9.44. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.install_scripts</span></code> — Install script files from a package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.register">9.45. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.register</span></code> — Register a module with the Python Package Index</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.command.check">9.46. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.check</span></code> — Check the meta-data of a package</a></li>
+</ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="an-introduction-to-distutils">
+<span id="distutils-intro"></span><h1>1. An Introduction to Distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#an-introduction-to-distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This document covers using the Distutils to distribute your Python modules,
+concentrating on the role of developer/distributor: if you’re looking for
+information on installing Python modules, you should refer to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../install/index.html#install-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a> chapter.</p>
+<div class="section" id="concepts-terminology">
+<span id="distutils-concepts"></span><h2>1.1. Concepts &amp; Terminology<a class="headerlink" href="#concepts-terminology" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Using the Distutils is quite simple, both for module developers and for
+users/administrators installing third-party modules.  As a developer, your
+responsibilities (apart from writing solid, well-documented and well-tested
+code, of course!) are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>write a setup script (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> by convention)</p></li>
+<li><p>(optional) write a setup configuration file</p></li>
+<li><p>create a source distribution</p></li>
+<li><p>(optional) create one or more built (binary) distributions</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Each of these tasks is covered in this document.</p>
+<p>Not all module developers have access to a multitude of platforms, so it’s not
+always feasible to expect them to create a multitude of built distributions.  It
+is hoped that a class of intermediaries, called <em>packagers</em>, will arise to
+address this need.  Packagers will take source distributions released by module
+developers, build them on one or more platforms, and release the resulting built
+distributions.  Thus, users on the most popular platforms will be able to
+install most popular Python module distributions in the most natural way for
+their platform, without having to run a single setup script or compile a line of
+code.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-simple-example">
+<span id="distutils-simple-example"></span><h2>1.2. A Simple Example<a class="headerlink" href="#a-simple-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The setup script is usually quite simple, although since it’s written in Python,
+there are no arbitrary limits to what you can do with it, though you should be
+careful about putting arbitrarily expensive operations in your setup script.
+Unlike, say, Autoconf-style configure scripts, the setup script may be run
+multiple times in the course of building and installing your module
+distribution.</p>
+<p>If all you want to do is distribute a module called <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, contained in a
+file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.py</span></code>, then your setup script can be as simple as this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">py_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Some observations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>most information that you supply to the Distutils is supplied as keyword
+arguments to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code> function</p></li>
+<li><p>those keyword arguments fall into two categories: package metadata (name,
+version number) and information about what’s in the package (a list of pure
+Python modules, in this case)</p></li>
+<li><p>modules are specified by module name, not filename (the same will hold true
+for packages and extensions)</p></li>
+<li><p>it’s recommended that you supply a little more metadata, in particular your
+name, email address and a URL for the project (see section <a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#setup-script"><span class="std std-ref">Writing the Setup Script</span></a>
+for an example)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>To create a source distribution for this module, you would create a setup
+script, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>, containing the above code, and run this command from a
+terminal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">sdist</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For Windows, open a command prompt window (<span class="menuselection">Start ‣
+Accessories</span>) and change the command to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">sdist</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><strong class="command">sdist</strong> will create an archive file (e.g., tarball on Unix, ZIP file on Windows)
+containing your setup script <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>, and your module <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.py</span></code>.
+The archive file will be named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.tar.gz</span></code> (or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.zip</span></code>), and
+will unpack into a directory <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If an end-user wishes to install your <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> module, all they have to do is
+download <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.tar.gz</span></code> (or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.zip</span></code>), unpack it, and—from the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0</span></code> directory—run</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">install</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which will ultimately copy <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.py</span></code> to the appropriate directory for
+third-party modules in their Python installation.</p>
+<p>This simple example demonstrates some fundamental concepts of the Distutils.
+First, both developers and installers have the same basic user interface, i.e.
+the setup script.  The difference is which Distutils <em>commands</em> they use: the
+<strong class="command">sdist</strong> command is almost exclusively for module developers, while
+<strong class="command">install</strong> is more often for installers (although most developers will
+want to install their own code occasionally).</p>
+<p>If you want to make things really easy for your users, you can create one or
+more built distributions for them.  For instance, if you are running on a
+Windows machine, and want to make things easy for other Windows users, you can
+create an executable installer (the most appropriate type of built distribution
+for this platform) with the <strong class="command">bdist_wininst</strong> command.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_wininst</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will create an executable installer, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.win32.exe</span></code>, in the current
+directory.</p>
+<p>Other useful built distribution formats are RPM, implemented by the
+<strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> command, Solaris <strong class="program">pkgtool</strong>
+(<strong class="command">bdist_pkgtool</strong>), and HP-UX <strong class="program">swinstall</strong>
+(<strong class="command">bdist_sdux</strong>).  For example, the following command will create an RPM
+file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.noarch.rpm</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_rpm</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The <strong class="command">bdist_rpm</strong> command uses the <strong class="command">rpm</strong> executable, therefore
+this has to be run on an RPM-based system such as Red Hat Linux, SuSE Linux, or
+Mandrake Linux.)</p>
+<p>You can find out what distribution formats are available at any time by running</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">help</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">formats</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="general-python-terminology">
+<span id="python-terms"></span><h2>1.3. General Python terminology<a class="headerlink" href="#general-python-terminology" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you’re reading this document, you probably have a good idea of what modules,
+extensions, and so forth are.  Nevertheless, just to be sure that everyone is
+operating from a common starting point, we offer the following glossary of
+common Python terms:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>module</dt><dd><p>the basic unit of code reusability in Python: a block of code imported by some
+other code.  Three types of modules concern us here: pure Python modules,
+extension modules, and packages.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>pure Python module</dt><dd><p>a module written in Python and contained in a single <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> file (and
+possibly associated <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files).  Sometimes referred to as a
+“pure module.”</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>extension module</dt><dd><p>a module written in the low-level language of the Python implementation: C/C++
+for Python, Java for Jython. Typically contained in a single dynamically
+loadable pre-compiled file, e.g. a shared object (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code>) file for Python
+extensions on Unix, a DLL (given the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyd</span></code> extension) for Python
+extensions on Windows, or a Java class file for Jython extensions.  (Note that
+currently, the Distutils only handles C/C++ extensions for Python.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>package</dt><dd><p>a module that contains other modules; typically contained in a directory in the
+filesystem and distinguished from other directories by the presence of a file
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>root package</dt><dd><p>the root of the hierarchy of packages.  (This isn’t really a package, since it
+doesn’t have an <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file.  But we have to call it something.)
+The vast majority of the standard library is in the root package, as are many
+small, standalone third-party modules that don’t belong to a larger module
+collection. Unlike regular packages, modules in the root package can be found in
+many directories: in fact, every directory listed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> contributes
+modules to the root package.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distutils-specific-terminology">
+<span id="distutils-term"></span><h2>1.4. Distutils-specific terminology<a class="headerlink" href="#distutils-specific-terminology" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following terms apply more specifically to the domain of distributing Python
+modules using the Distutils:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>module distribution</dt><dd><p>a collection of Python modules distributed together as a single downloadable
+resource and meant to be installed <em>en masse</em>.  Examples of some well-known
+module distributions are NumPy, SciPy, Pillow,
+or mxBase.  (This would be called a <em>package</em>, except that term is
+already taken in the Python context: a single module distribution may contain
+zero, one, or many Python packages.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>pure module distribution</dt><dd><p>a module distribution that contains only pure Python modules and packages.
+Sometimes referred to as a “pure distribution.”</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>non-pure module distribution</dt><dd><p>a module distribution that contains at least one extension module.  Sometimes
+referred to as a “non-pure distribution.”</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>distribution root</dt><dd><p>the top-level directory of your source tree (or  source distribution); the
+directory where <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> exists.  Generally  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> will be
+run from this directory.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">1. An Introduction to Distutils</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#concepts-terminology">1.1. Concepts &amp; Terminology</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-simple-example">1.2. A Simple Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-python-terminology">1.3. General Python terminology</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils-specific-terminology">1.4. Distutils-specific terminology</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">2. Writing the Setup Script</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/packageindex.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/packageindex.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
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+    <li class="right">
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="the-python-package-index-pypi">
+<span id="package-index"></span><h1>The Python Package Index (PyPI)<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-package-index-pypi" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">Python Package Index (PyPI)</a> stores metadata describing distributions
+packaged with distutils and other publishing tools, as well the distribution
+archives themselves.</p>
+<p>References to up to date PyPI documentation can be found at
+<a class="reference internal" href="../distributing/index.html#publishing-python-packages"><span class="std std-ref">Reading the Python Packaging User Guide</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
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+    <br />
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/setupscript.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/setupscript.html
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
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+  <div class="section" id="writing-the-setup-script">
+<span id="setup-script"></span><h1>2. Writing the Setup Script<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-the-setup-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The setup script is the centre of all activity in building, distributing, and
+installing modules using the Distutils.  The main purpose of the setup script is
+to describe your module distribution to the Distutils, so that the various
+commands that operate on your modules do the right thing.  As we saw in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#distutils-simple-example"><span class="std std-ref">A Simple Example</span></a> above, the setup script consists mainly of a call to
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>, and most information supplied to the Distutils by the module
+developer is supplied as keyword arguments to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Here’s a slightly more involved example, which we’ll follow for the next couple
+of sections: the Distutils’ own setup script.  (Keep in mind that although the
+Distutils are included with Python 1.6 and later, they also have an independent
+existence so that Python 1.5.2 users can use them to install other module
+distributions.  The Distutils’ own setup script, shown here, is used to install
+the package into Python 1.5.2.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Distutils&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Python Distribution Utilities&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">author</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Greg Ward&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">author_email</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;gward@python.net&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">url</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;https://www.python.org/sigs/distutils-sig/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;distutils&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;distutils.command&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+     <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are only two differences between this and the trivial one-file
+distribution presented in section <a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#distutils-simple-example"><span class="std std-ref">A Simple Example</span></a>: more metadata, and the
+specification of pure Python modules by package, rather than by module.  This is
+important since the Distutils consist of a couple of dozen modules split into
+(so far) two packages; an explicit list of every module would be tedious to
+generate and difficult to maintain.  For more information on the additional
+meta-data, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#meta-data"><span class="std std-ref">Additional meta-data</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that any pathnames (files or directories) supplied in the setup script
+should be written using the Unix convention, i.e. slash-separated.  The
+Distutils will take care of converting this platform-neutral representation into
+whatever is appropriate on your current platform before actually using the
+pathname.  This makes your setup script portable across operating systems, which
+of course is one of the major goals of the Distutils.  In this spirit, all
+pathnames in this document are slash-separated.</p>
+<p>This, of course, only applies to pathnames given to Distutils functions.  If
+you, for example, use standard Python functions such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#glob.glob" title="glob.glob"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob.glob()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> to specify files, you should be careful to write portable
+code instead of hardcoding path separators:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mydir&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;subdir&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*.html&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mydir&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;subdir&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="listing-whole-packages">
+<span id="listing-packages"></span><h2>2.1. Listing whole packages<a class="headerlink" href="#listing-whole-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span></code> option tells the Distutils to process (build, distribute,
+install, etc.) all pure Python modules found in each package mentioned in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span></code> list.  In order to do this, of course, there has to be a
+correspondence between package names and directories in the filesystem.  The
+default correspondence is the most obvious one, i.e. package <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> is
+found in the directory <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code> relative to the distribution root.
+Thus, when you say <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">['foo']</span></code> in your setup script, you are
+promising that the Distutils will find a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo/__init__.py</span></code> (which
+might be spelled differently on your system, but you get the idea) relative to
+the directory where your setup script lives.  If you break this promise, the
+Distutils will issue a warning but still process the broken package anyway.</p>
+<p>If you use a different convention to lay out your source directory, that’s no
+problem: you just have to supply the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code> option to tell the
+Distutils about your convention.  For example, say you keep all Python source
+under <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib</span></code>, so that modules in the “root package” (i.e., not in any
+package at all) are in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib</span></code>, modules in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> package are in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/foo</span></code>, and so forth.  Then you would put</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">package_dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lib&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>in your setup script.  The keys to this dictionary are package names, and an
+empty package name stands for the root package.  The values are directory names
+relative to your distribution root.  In this case, when you say <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">['foo']</span></code>, you are promising that the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/foo/__init__.py</span></code> exists.</p>
+<p>Another possible convention is to put the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> package right in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib</span></code>, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code> package in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/bar</span></code>, etc.  This would be
+written in the setup script as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">package_dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lib&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package:</span> <span class="pre">dir</span></code> entry in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code> dictionary implicitly
+applies to all packages below <em>package</em>, so the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code> case is
+automatically handled here.  In this example, having <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">['foo',</span>
+<span class="pre">'foo.bar']</span></code> tells the Distutils to look for <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/__init__.py</span></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/bar/__init__.py</span></code>.  (Keep in mind that although <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code>
+applies recursively, you must explicitly list all packages in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span></code>: the Distutils will <em>not</em> recursively scan your source tree
+looking for any directory with an <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="listing-individual-modules">
+<span id="listing-modules"></span><h2>2.2. Listing individual modules<a class="headerlink" href="#listing-individual-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For a small module distribution, you might prefer to list all modules rather
+than listing packages—especially the case of a single module that goes in the
+“root package” (i.e., no package at all).  This simplest case was shown in
+section <a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#distutils-simple-example"><span class="std std-ref">A Simple Example</span></a>; here is a slightly more involved example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">py_modules</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;mod1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pkg.mod2&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This describes two modules, one of them in the “root” package, the other in the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg</span></code> package.  Again, the default package/directory layout implies that
+these two modules can be found in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mod1.py</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg/mod2.py</span></code>, and
+that <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg/__init__.py</span></code> exists as well. And again, you can override the
+package/directory correspondence using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="describing-extension-modules">
+<span id="describing-extensions"></span><h2>2.3. Describing extension modules<a class="headerlink" href="#describing-extension-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Just as writing Python extension modules is a bit more complicated than writing
+pure Python modules, describing them to the Distutils is a bit more complicated.
+Unlike pure modules, it’s not enough just to list modules or packages and expect
+the Distutils to go out and find the right files; you have to specify the
+extension name, source file(s), and any compile/link requirements (include
+directories, libraries to link with, etc.).</p>
+<p>All of this is done through another keyword argument to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>, the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext_modules</span></code> option.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext_modules</span></code> is just a list of
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.Extension" title="distutils.core.Extension"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code></a> instances, each of which describes a
+single extension module.
+Suppose your distribution includes a single extension, called <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> and
+implemented by <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.c</span></code>.  If no additional instructions to the
+compiler/linker are needed, describing this extension is quite simple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code> class can be imported from <a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.core" title="distutils.core: The core Distutils functionality"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core</span></code></a> along
+with <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>.  Thus, the setup script for a module distribution that
+contains only this one extension and nothing else might be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code> class (actually, the underlying extension-building
+machinery implemented by the <strong class="command">build_ext</strong> command) supports a great deal
+of flexibility in describing Python extensions, which is explained in the
+following sections.</p>
+<div class="section" id="extension-names-and-packages">
+<h3>2.3.1. Extension names and packages<a class="headerlink" href="#extension-names-and-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The first argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.Extension" title="distutils.core.Extension"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code></a> constructor is
+always the name of the extension, including any package names.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;src/foo1.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src/foo2.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>describes an extension that lives in the root package, while</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pkg.foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;src/foo1.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src/foo2.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>describes the same extension in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg</span></code> package.  The source files and
+resulting object code are identical in both cases; the only difference is where
+in the filesystem (and therefore where in Python’s namespace hierarchy) the
+resulting extension lives.</p>
+<p>If you have a number of extensions all in the same package (or all under the
+same base package), use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext_package</span></code> keyword argument to
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_package</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;pkg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">]),</span>
+                   <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;subpkg.bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])],</span>
+     <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will compile <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.c</span></code> to the extension <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.foo</span></code>, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar.c</span></code> to
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.subpkg.bar</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="extension-source-files">
+<h3>2.3.2. Extension source files<a class="headerlink" href="#extension-source-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The second argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.Extension" title="distutils.core.Extension"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code></a> constructor is
+a list of source
+files.  Since the Distutils currently only support C, C++, and Objective-C
+extensions, these are normally C/C++/Objective-C source files.  (Be sure to use
+appropriate extensions to distinguish C++ source files: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.cc</span></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.cpp</span></code> seem to be recognized by both Unix and Windows compilers.)</p>
+<p>However, you can also include SWIG interface (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.i</span></code>) files in the list; the
+<strong class="command">build_ext</strong> command knows how to deal with SWIG extensions: it will run
+SWIG on the interface file and compile the resulting C/C++ file into your
+extension.</p>
+<p>This warning notwithstanding, options to SWIG can be currently passed like
+this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;_foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.i&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                             <span class="n">swig_opts</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;-modern&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-I../include&#39;</span><span class="p">])],</span>
+      <span class="n">py_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+     <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or on the commandline like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">build_ext</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">swig</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">opts</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;-modern -I../include&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On some platforms, you can include non-source files that are processed by the
+compiler and included in your extension.  Currently, this just means Windows
+message text (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mc</span></code>) files and resource definition (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.rc</span></code>) files for
+Visual C++. These will be compiled to binary resource (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.res</span></code>) files and
+linked into the executable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="preprocessor-options">
+<h3>2.3.3. Preprocessor options<a class="headerlink" href="#preprocessor-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Three optional arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.Extension" title="distutils.core.Extension"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code></a> will help if
+you need to specify include directories to search or preprocessor macros to
+define/undefine: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">include_dirs</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">define_macros</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undef_macros</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example, if your extension requires header files in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">include</span></code>
+directory under your distribution root, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">include_dirs</span></code> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">include_dirs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;include&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can specify absolute directories there; if you know that your extension will
+only be built on Unix systems with X11R6 installed to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr</span></code>, you can get
+away with</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">include_dirs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/include/X11&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You should avoid this sort of non-portable usage if you plan to distribute your
+code: it’s probably better to write C code like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">#include &lt;X11/Xlib.h&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you need to include header files from some other Python extension, you can
+take advantage of the fact that header files are installed in a consistent way
+by the Distutils <strong class="command">install_headers</strong> command.  For example, the Numerical
+Python header files are installed (on a standard Unix installation) to
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/include/python1.5/Numerical</span></code>. (The exact location will differ
+according to your platform and Python installation.)  Since the Python include
+directory—<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/include/python1.5</span></code> in this case—is always
+included in the search path when building Python extensions, the best approach
+is to write C code like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">#include &lt;Numerical/arrayobject.h&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you must put the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Numerical</span></code> include directory right into your header
+search path, though, you can find that directory using the Distutils
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#module-distutils.sysconfig" title="distutils.sysconfig: Low-level access to configuration information of the Python interpreter."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.sysconfig</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">get_python_inc</span>
+<span class="n">incdir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">get_python_inc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">plat_specific</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Numerical&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">include_dirs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">incdir</span><span class="p">]),</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Even though this is quite portable—it will work on any Python installation,
+regardless of platform—it’s probably easier to just write your C code in the
+sensible way.</p>
+<p>You can define and undefine pre-processor macros with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">define_macros</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undef_macros</span></code> options. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">define_macros</span></code> takes a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code>
+tuples, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is the name of the macro to define (a string) and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> is its value: either a string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  (Defining a macro <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FOO</span></code>
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is the equivalent of a bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#define</span> <span class="pre">FOO</span></code> in your C source: with
+most compilers, this sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FOO</span></code> to the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.)  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undef_macros</span></code> is
+just a list of macros to undefine.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">define_macros</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NDEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                         <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;HAVE_STRFTIME&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+          <span class="n">undef_macros</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;HAVE_FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;HAVE_BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is the equivalent of having this at the top of every C source file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">#define NDEBUG 1</span>
+<span class="c1">#define HAVE_STRFTIME</span>
+<span class="c1">#undef HAVE_FOO</span>
+<span class="c1">#undef HAVE_BAR</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="library-options">
+<h3>2.3.4. Library options<a class="headerlink" href="#library-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can also specify the libraries to link against when building your extension,
+and the directories to search for those libraries.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libraries</span></code> option is
+a list of libraries to link against, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">library_dirs</span></code> is a list of directories
+to search for libraries at  link-time, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runtime_library_dirs</span></code> is a list of
+directories to  search for shared (dynamically loaded) libraries at run-time.</p>
+<p>For example, if you need to link against libraries known to be in the standard
+library search path on target systems</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">libraries</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;gdbm&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;readline&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you need to link with libraries in a non-standard location, you’ll have to
+include the location in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">library_dirs</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">library_dirs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/X11R6/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+          <span class="n">libraries</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;X11&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Xt&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Again, this sort of non-portable construct should be avoided if you intend to
+distribute your code.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-options">
+<h3>2.3.5. Other options<a class="headerlink" href="#other-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are still some other options which can be used to handle special cases.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optional</span></code> option is a boolean; if it is true,
+a build failure in the extension will not abort the build process, but
+instead simply not install the failing extension.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extra_objects</span></code> option is a list of object files to be passed to the
+linker. These files must not have extensions, as the default extension for the
+compiler is used.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extra_compile_args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extra_link_args</span></code> can be used to
+specify additional command line options for the respective compiler and linker
+command lines.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">export_symbols</span></code> is only useful on Windows.  It can contain a list of
+symbols (functions or variables) to be exported. This option is not needed when
+building compiled extensions: Distutils  will automatically add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initmodule</span></code>
+to the list of exported symbols.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">depends</span></code> option is a list of files that the extension depends on
+(for example header files). The build command will call the compiler on the
+sources to rebuild extension if any on this files has been modified since the
+previous build.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="relationships-between-distributions-and-packages">
+<h2>2.4. Relationships between Distributions and Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#relationships-between-distributions-and-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A distribution may relate to packages in three specific ways:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>It can require packages or modules.</p></li>
+<li><p>It can provide packages or modules.</p></li>
+<li><p>It can obsolete packages or modules.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>These relationships can be specified using keyword arguments to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core.setup()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>Dependencies on other Python modules and packages can be specified by supplying
+the <em>requires</em> keyword argument to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>. The value must be a list of
+strings.  Each string specifies a package that is required, and optionally what
+versions are sufficient.</p>
+<p>To specify that any version of a module or package is required, the string
+should consist entirely of the module or package name. Examples include
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mymodule'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xml.parsers.expat'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If specific versions are required, a sequence of qualifiers can be supplied in
+parentheses.  Each qualifier may consist of a comparison operator and a version
+number.  The accepted comparison operators are:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span>    <span class="o">&gt;</span>    <span class="o">==</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;=</span>   <span class="o">&gt;=</span>   <span class="o">!=</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These can be combined by using multiple qualifiers separated by commas (and
+optional whitespace).  In this case, all of the qualifiers must be matched; a
+logical AND is used to combine the evaluations.</p>
+<p>Let’s look at a bunch of examples:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Requires Expression</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==1.0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Only version <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> is compatible</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;1.0,</span> <span class="pre">!=1.5.1,</span> <span class="pre">&lt;2.0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Any version after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> and before <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.0</span></code>
+is compatible, except <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.5.1</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Now that we can specify dependencies, we also need to be able to specify what we
+provide that other distributions can require.  This is done using the <em>provides</em>
+keyword argument to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>. The value for this keyword is a list of
+strings, each of which names a Python module or package, and optionally
+identifies the version.  If the version is not specified, it is assumed to match
+that of the distribution.</p>
+<p>Some examples:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+<col style="width: 69%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Provides Expression</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mypkg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Provide <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mypkg</span></code>, using the distribution
+version</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mypkg</span> <span class="pre">(1.1)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Provide <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mypkg</span></code> version 1.1, regardless of
+the distribution version</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>A package can declare that it obsoletes other packages using the <em>obsoletes</em>
+keyword argument.  The value for this is similar to that of the <em>requires</em>
+keyword: a list of strings giving module or package specifiers.  Each specifier
+consists of a module or package name optionally followed by one or more version
+qualifiers.  Version qualifiers are given in parentheses after the module or
+package name.</p>
+<p>The versions identified by the qualifiers are those that are obsoleted by the
+distribution being described.  If no qualifiers are given, all versions of the
+named module or package are understood to be obsoleted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-scripts">
+<span id="distutils-installing-scripts"></span><h2>2.5. Installing Scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>So far we have been dealing with pure and non-pure Python modules, which are
+usually not run by themselves but imported by scripts.</p>
+<p>Scripts are files containing Python source code, intended to be started from the
+command line.  Scripts don’t require Distutils to do anything very complicated.
+The only clever feature is that if the first line of the script starts with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> and contains the word “python”, the Distutils will adjust the first line
+to refer to the current interpreter location. By default, it is replaced with
+the current interpreter location.  The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--executable</span></code> (or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-e</span></code>)
+option will allow the interpreter path to be explicitly overridden.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scripts</span></code> option simply is a list of files to be handled in this
+way.  From the PyXML setup script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">scripts</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;scripts/xmlproc_parse&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;scripts/xmlproc_val&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>All the scripts will also be added to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> file if no template is
+provided.  See <a class="reference internal" href="sourcedist.html#manifest"><span class="std std-ref">Specifying the files to distribute</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-package-data">
+<span id="distutils-installing-package-data"></span><h2>2.6. Installing Package Data<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-package-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Often, additional files need to be installed into a package.  These files are
+often data that’s closely related to the package’s implementation, or text files
+containing documentation that might be of interest to programmers using the
+package.  These files are called <em class="dfn">package data</em>.</p>
+<p>Package data can be added to packages using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_data</span></code> keyword
+argument to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code> function.  The value must be a mapping from
+package name to a list of relative path names that should be copied into the
+package.  The paths are interpreted as relative to the directory containing the
+package (information from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_dir</span></code> mapping is used if appropriate);
+that is, the files are expected to be part of the package in the source
+directories. They may contain glob patterns as well.</p>
+<p>The path names may contain directory portions; any necessary directories will be
+created in the installation.</p>
+<p>For example, if a package should contain a subdirectory with several data files,
+the files can be arranged like this in the source tree:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+<span class="n">src</span><span class="o">/</span>
+    <span class="n">mypkg</span><span class="o">/</span>
+        <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">/</span>
+            <span class="n">tables</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dat</span>
+            <span class="n">spoons</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dat</span>
+            <span class="n">forks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dat</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The corresponding call to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code> might be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;mypkg&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="n">package_dir</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;mypkg&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src/mypkg&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+      <span class="n">package_data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;mypkg&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;data/*.dat&#39;</span><span class="p">]},</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>All the files that match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_data</span></code> will be added to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code>
+file if no template is provided.  See <a class="reference internal" href="sourcedist.html#manifest"><span class="std std-ref">Specifying the files to distribute</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-additional-files">
+<span id="distutils-additional-files"></span><h2>2.7. Installing Additional Files<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-additional-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data_files</span></code> option can be used to specify additional files needed
+by the module distribution: configuration files, message catalogs, data files,
+anything which doesn’t fit in the previous categories.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data_files</span></code> specifies a sequence of (<em>directory</em>, <em>files</em>) pairs in the
+following way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">data_files</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitmaps&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bm/b1.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bm/b2.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">]),</span>
+                  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;config&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;cfg/data.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">])],</span>
+     <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each (<em>directory</em>, <em>files</em>) pair in the sequence specifies the installation
+directory and the files to install there.</p>
+<p>Each file name in <em>files</em> is interpreted relative to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>
+script at the top of the package source distribution. Note that you can
+specify the directory where the data files will be installed, but you cannot
+rename the data files themselves.</p>
+<p>The <em>directory</em> should be a relative path. It is interpreted relative to the
+installation prefix (Python’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code> for system installations;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.USER_BASE</span></code> for user installations). Distutils allows <em>directory</em> to be
+an absolute installation path, but this is discouraged since it is
+incompatible with the wheel packaging format. No directory information from
+<em>files</em> is used to determine the final location of the installed file; only
+the name of the file is used.</p>
+<p>You can specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data_files</span></code> options as a simple sequence of files
+without specifying a target directory, but this is not recommended, and the
+<strong class="command">install</strong> command will print a warning in this case. To install data
+files directly in the target directory, an empty string should be given as the
+directory.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>All the files that match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data_files</span></code> will be added to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code>
+file if no template is provided.  See <a class="reference internal" href="sourcedist.html#manifest"><span class="std std-ref">Specifying the files to distribute</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="additional-meta-data">
+<span id="meta-data"></span><h2>2.8. Additional meta-data<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-meta-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The setup script may include additional meta-data beyond the name and version.
+This information includes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Meta-Data</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>name of the package</p></td>
+<td><p>short string</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>version of this release</p></td>
+<td><p>short string</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">author</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>package author’s name</p></td>
+<td><p>short string</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">author_email</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>email address of the
+package author</p></td>
+<td><p>email address</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintainer</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>package maintainer’s name</p></td>
+<td><p>short string</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintainer_email</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>email address of the
+package maintainer</p></td>
+<td><p>email address</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">url</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>home page for the package</p></td>
+<td><p>URL</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">description</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>short, summary
+description of the
+package</p></td>
+<td><p>short string</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long_description</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>longer description of the
+package</p></td>
+<td><p>long string</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">download_url</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>location where the
+package may be downloaded</p></td>
+<td><p>URL</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classifiers</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a list of classifiers</p></td>
+<td><p>list of strings</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)(7)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platforms</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a list of platforms</p></td>
+<td><p>list of strings</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)(8)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a list of keywords</p></td>
+<td><p>list of strings</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)(8)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">license</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>license for the package</p></td>
+<td><p>short string</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>These fields are required.</p></li>
+<li><p>It is recommended that versions take the form <em>major.minor[.patch[.sub]]</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Either the author or the maintainer must be identified. If maintainer is
+provided, distutils lists it as the author in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long_description</span></code> field is used by PyPI when you publish a package,
+to build its project page.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">license</span></code> field is a text indicating the license covering the
+package where the license is not a selection from the “License” Trove
+classifiers. See the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Classifier</span></code> field. Notice that
+there’s a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">licence</span></code> distribution option which is deprecated but still
+acts as an alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">license</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>This field must be a list.</p></li>
+<li><p>The valid classifiers are listed on
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/classifiers">PyPI</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>To preserve backward compatibility, this field also accepts a string. If
+you pass a comma-separated string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo,</span> <span class="pre">bar'</span></code>, it will be converted to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['foo',</span> <span class="pre">'bar']</span></code>, Otherwise, it will be converted to a list of one
+string.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>‘short string’</dt><dd><p>A single line of text, not more than 200 characters.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>‘long string’</dt><dd><p>Multiple lines of plain text in reStructuredText format (see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://docutils.sourceforge.net/">http://docutils.sourceforge.net/</a>).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>‘list of strings’</dt><dd><p>See below.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Encoding the version information is an art in itself. Python packages generally
+adhere to the version format <em>major.minor[.patch][sub]</em>. The major number is 0
+for initial, experimental releases of software. It is incremented for releases
+that represent major milestones in a package. The minor number is incremented
+when important new features are added to the package. The patch number
+increments when bug-fix releases are made. Additional trailing version
+information is sometimes used to indicate sub-releases.  These are
+“a1,a2,…,aN” (for alpha releases, where functionality and API may change),
+“b1,b2,…,bN” (for beta releases, which only fix bugs) and “pr1,pr2,…,prN”
+(for final pre-release release testing). Some examples:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>0.1.0</dt><dd><p>the first, experimental release of a package</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>1.0.1a2</dt><dd><p>the second alpha release of the first patch version of 1.0</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classifiers</span></code> must be specified in a list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">classifiers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Development Status :: 4 - Beta&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Environment :: Console&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Environment :: Web Environment&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Intended Audience :: End Users/Desktop&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Intended Audience :: Developers&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Intended Audience :: System Administrators&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;License :: OSI Approved :: Python Software Foundation License&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Operating System :: MacOS :: MacOS X&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Operating System :: Microsoft :: Windows&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Operating System :: POSIX&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Programming Language :: Python&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Topic :: Communications :: Email&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Topic :: Office/Business&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Topic :: Software Development :: Bug Tracking&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="apiref.html#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup</span></code></a> now warns when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classifiers</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platforms</span></code> fields are not specified as a list or a string.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="debugging-the-setup-script">
+<span id="debug-setup-script"></span><h2>2.9. Debugging the setup script<a class="headerlink" href="#debugging-the-setup-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes things go wrong, and the setup script doesn’t do what the developer
+wants.</p>
+<p>Distutils catches any exceptions when running the setup script, and print a
+simple error message before the script is terminated.  The motivation for this
+behaviour is to not confuse administrators who don’t know much about Python and
+are trying to install a package.  If they get a big long traceback from deep
+inside the guts of Distutils, they may think the package or the Python
+installation is broken because they don’t read all the way down to the bottom
+and see that it’s a permission problem.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, this doesn’t help the developer to find the cause of the
+failure. For this purpose, the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DISTUTILS_DEBUG</span></code> environment variable can be set
+to anything except an empty string, and distutils will now print detailed
+information about what it is doing, dump the full traceback when an exception
+occurs, and print the whole command line when an external program (like a C
+compiler) fails.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">2. Writing the Setup Script</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#listing-whole-packages">2.1. Listing whole packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#listing-individual-modules">2.2. Listing individual modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#describing-extension-modules">2.3. Describing extension modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extension-names-and-packages">2.3.1. Extension names and packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extension-source-files">2.3.2. Extension source files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#preprocessor-options">2.3.3. Preprocessor options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#library-options">2.3.4. Library options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-options">2.3.5. Other options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#relationships-between-distributions-and-packages">2.4. Relationships between Distributions and Packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-scripts">2.5. Installing Scripts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-package-data">2.6. Installing Package Data</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-additional-files">2.7. Installing Additional Files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-meta-data">2.8. Additional meta-data</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debugging-the-setup-script">2.9. Debugging the setup script</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="introduction.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">1. An Introduction to Distutils</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="configfile.html"
+                        title="next chapter">3. Writing the Setup Configuration File</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/distutils/setupscript.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/sourcedist.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/sourcedist.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39dde14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/sourcedist.html
@@ -0,0 +1,403 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>4. Creating a Source Distribution &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="creating-a-source-distribution">
+<span id="source-dist"></span><h1>4. Creating a Source Distribution<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-a-source-distribution" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>As shown in section <a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#distutils-simple-example"><span class="std std-ref">A Simple Example</span></a>, you use the <strong class="command">sdist</strong> command
+to create a source distribution.  In the simplest case,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">sdist</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(assuming you haven’t specified any <strong class="command">sdist</strong> options in the setup script
+or config file), <strong class="command">sdist</strong> creates the archive of the default format for
+the current platform.  The default format is a gzip’ed tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.gz</span></code>) on Unix, and ZIP file on Windows.</p>
+<p>You can specify as many formats as you like using the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--formats</span></code>
+option, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">sdist</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">formats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">gztar</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="nb">zip</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to create a gzipped tarball and a zip file.  The available formats are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 56%" />
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Format</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>zip file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.zip</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(1),(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>gzip’ed tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.gz</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bzip2’ed tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.bz2</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>xz’ed tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.xz</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ztar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>compressed tar file
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.Z</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>tar file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code> format.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>default on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p>default on Unix</p></li>
+<li><p>requires either external <strong class="program">zip</strong> utility or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module (part
+of the standard Python library since Python 1.6)</p></li>
+<li><p>requires the <strong class="program">compress</strong> program. Notice that this format is now
+pending for deprecation and will be removed in the future versions of Python.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>When using any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code> format (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gztar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bztar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ztar</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code>), under Unix you can specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">owner</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group</span></code> names
+that will be set for each member of the archive.</p>
+<p>For example, if you want all files of the archive to be owned by root:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">sdist</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">owner</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">root</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="specifying-the-files-to-distribute">
+<span id="manifest"></span><h2>4.1. Specifying the files to distribute<a class="headerlink" href="#specifying-the-files-to-distribute" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you don’t supply an explicit list of files (or instructions on how to
+generate one), the <strong class="command">sdist</strong> command puts a minimal default set into the
+source distribution:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>all Python source files implied by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_modules</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span></code> options</p></li>
+<li><p>all C source files mentioned in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext_modules</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libraries</span></code> options</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>scripts identified by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scripts</span></code> option
+See <a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#distutils-installing-scripts"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Scripts</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>anything that looks like a test script: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test/test*.py</span></code> (currently, the
+Distutils don’t do anything with test scripts except include them in source
+distributions, but in the future there will be a standard for testing Python
+module distributions)</p></li>
+<li><p>Any of the standard README files (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README.txt</span></code>,
+or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README.rst</span></code>), <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> (or whatever you called your setup
+script), and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>all files that matches the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package_data</span></code> metadata.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#distutils-installing-package-data"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Package Data</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>all files that matches the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data_files</span></code> metadata.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#distutils-additional-files"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Additional Files</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Sometimes this is enough, but usually you will want to specify additional files
+to distribute.  The typical way to do this is to write a <em>manifest template</em>,
+called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code> by default.  The manifest template is just a list of
+instructions for how to generate your manifest file, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code>, which is
+the exact list of files to include in your source distribution.  The
+<strong class="command">sdist</strong> command processes this template and generates a manifest based
+on its instructions and what it finds in the filesystem.</p>
+<p>If you prefer to roll your own manifest file, the format is simple: one filename
+per line, regular files (or symlinks to them) only.  If you do supply your own
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code>, you must specify everything: the default set of files
+described above does not apply in this case.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>An existing generated <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> will be regenerated without
+<strong class="command">sdist</strong> comparing its modification time to the one of
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1.3: </span><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> files start with a comment indicating they are generated.
+Files without this comment are not overwritten or removed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2.2: </span><strong class="command">sdist</strong> will read a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> file if no <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code>
+exists, like it used to do.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README.rst</span></code> is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The manifest template has one command per line, where each command specifies a
+set of files to include or exclude from the source distribution.  For an
+example, again we turn to the Distutils’ own manifest template:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>include *.txt
+recursive-include examples *.txt *.py
+prune examples/sample?/build
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The meanings should be fairly clear: include all files in the distribution root
+matching <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.txt</span></code>, all files anywhere under the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">examples</span></code> directory
+matching <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.txt</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.py</span></code>, and exclude all directories matching
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">examples/sample?/build</span></code>.  All of this is done <em>after</em> the standard
+include set, so you can exclude files from the standard set with explicit
+instructions in the manifest template.  (Or, you can use the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-defaults</span></code> option to disable the standard set entirely.)  There are
+several other commands available in the manifest template mini-language; see
+section <a class="reference internal" href="commandref.html#sdist-cmd"><span class="std std-ref">Creating a source distribution: the sdist command</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The order of commands in the manifest template matters: initially, we have the
+list of default files as described above, and each command in the template adds
+to or removes from that list of files.  Once we have fully processed the
+manifest template, we remove files that should not be included in the source
+distribution:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>all files in the Distutils “build” tree (default <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build/</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>all files in directories named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RCS</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CVS</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.svn</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.hg</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.git</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.bzr</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_darcs</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Now we have our complete list of files, which is written to the manifest for
+future reference, and then used to build the source distribution archive(s).</p>
+<p>You can disable the default set of included files with the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-defaults</span></code> option, and you can disable the standard exclude set
+with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-prune</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Following the Distutils’ own manifest template, let’s trace how the
+<strong class="command">sdist</strong> command builds the list of files to include in the Distutils
+source distribution:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>include all Python source files in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils/command</span></code> subdirectories (because packages corresponding to
+those two directories were mentioned in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packages</span></code> option in the
+setup script—see section <a class="reference internal" href="setupscript.html#setup-script"><span class="std std-ref">Writing the Setup Script</span></a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README.txt</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code> (standard
+files)</p></li>
+<li><p>include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test/test*.py</span></code> (standard files)</p></li>
+<li><p>include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.txt</span></code> in the distribution root (this will find
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README.txt</span></code> a second time, but such redundancies are weeded out later)</p></li>
+<li><p>include anything matching <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.txt</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.py</span></code> in the sub-tree
+under <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">examples</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p>exclude all files in the sub-trees starting at directories matching
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">examples/sample?/build</span></code>—this may exclude files included by the
+previous two steps, so it’s important that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prune</span></code> command in the manifest
+template comes after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recursive-include</span></code> command</p></li>
+<li><p>exclude the entire <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build</span></code> tree, and any <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RCS</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CVS</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.svn</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.hg</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.git</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.bzr</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_darcs</span></code>
+directories</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Just like in the setup script, file and directory names in the manifest template
+should always be slash-separated; the Distutils will take care of converting
+them to the standard representation on your platform. That way, the manifest
+template is portable across operating systems.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="manifest-related-options">
+<span id="manifest-options"></span><h2>4.2. Manifest-related options<a class="headerlink" href="#manifest-related-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The normal course of operations for the <strong class="command">sdist</strong> command is as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>if the manifest file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> by default) exists and the first line
+does not have a comment indicating it is generated from <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code>,
+then it is used as is, unaltered</p></li>
+<li><p>if the manifest file doesn’t exist or has been previously automatically
+generated, read <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code> and create the manifest</p></li>
+<li><p>if neither <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> nor <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code> exist, create a manifest
+with just the default file set</p></li>
+<li><p>use the list of files now in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> (either just generated or read
+in) to create the source distribution archive(s)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There are a couple of options that modify this behaviour.  First, use the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-defaults</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-prune</span></code> to disable the standard
+“include” and “exclude” sets.</p>
+<p>Second, you might just want to (re)generate the manifest, but not create a source
+distribution:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">sdist</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">manifest</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">only</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> is a shortcut for <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--manifest-only</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">4. Creating a Source Distribution</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#specifying-the-files-to-distribute">4.1. Specifying the files to distribute</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#manifest-related-options">4.2. Manifest-related options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="configfile.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">3. Writing the Setup Configuration File</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="builtdist.html"
+                        title="next chapter">5. Creating Built Distributions</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/distutils/sourcedist.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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+        </form>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/uploading.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/uploading.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97b574c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/distutils/uploading.html
@@ -0,0 +1,161 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Uploading Packages to the Package Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/distutils/uploading.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
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+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="uploading-packages-to-the-package-index">
+<h1>Uploading Packages to the Package Index<a class="headerlink" href="#uploading-packages-to-the-package-index" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>References to up to date PyPI documentation can be found at
+<a class="reference internal" href="../distributing/index.html#publishing-python-packages"><span class="std std-ref">Reading the Python Packaging User Guide</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/distutils/uploading.rst"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+    <br />
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+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/download.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/download.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd4be5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/download.html
@@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Download &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+    <li class="right">
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+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+<h1>Download Python 3.7.4 Documentation</h1>
+
+<p><b>Last updated on: Jul 13, 2019.</b></p>
+
+<p>To download an archive containing all the documents for this version of
+Python in one of various formats, follow one of links in this table.</p>
+
+<table class="docutils">
+  <tr><th>Format</th><th>Packed as .zip</th><th>Packed as .tar.bz2</th></tr>
+  <tr><td>PDF (US-Letter paper size)</td>
+    <td><a href="archives/python-3.7.4-docs-pdf-letter.zip">Download</a> (ca. 13 MiB)</td>
+    <td><a href="archives/python-3.7.4-docs-pdf-letter.tar.bz2">Download</a> (ca. 13 MiB)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>PDF (A4 paper size)</td>
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+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>HTML</td>
+    <td><a href="archives/python-3.7.4-docs-html.zip">Download</a> (ca. 9 MiB)</td>
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+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>Plain Text</td>
+    <td><a href="archives/python-3.7.4-docs-text.zip">Download</a> (ca. 3 MiB)</td>
+    <td><a href="archives/python-3.7.4-docs-text.tar.bz2">Download</a> (ca. 2 MiB)</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr><td>EPUB</td>
+    <td><a href="archives/python-3.7.4-docs.epub">Download</a> (ca. 5 MiB)</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These archives contain all the content in the documentation.</p>
+
+<p>HTML Help (<tt>.chm</tt>) files are made available in the "Windows" section
+on the <a href="https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-374/">Python
+download page</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h2>Unpacking</h2>
+
+<p>Unix users should download the .tar.bz2 archives; these are bzipped tar
+archives and can be handled in the usual way using tar and the bzip2
+program. The <a href="http://www.info-zip.org">InfoZIP</a> unzip program can be
+used to handle the ZIP archives if desired. The .tar.bz2 archives provide the
+best compression and fastest download times.</p>
+
+<p>Windows users can use the ZIP archives since those are customary on that
+platform. These are created on Unix using the InfoZIP zip program.</p>
+
+
+<h2>Problems</h2>
+
+<p>If you have comments or suggestions for the Python documentation, please send
+email to <a href="mailto:docs@python.org">docs@python.org</a>.</p>
+
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+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        </form>
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+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
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+    </div>
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+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/building.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/building.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a5e380
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/building.html
@@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>4. Building C and C++ Extensions &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows" href="windows.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics" href="newtypes.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/extending/building.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="windows.html" title="5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="newtypes.html" title="3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="building-c-and-c-extensions">
+<span id="building"></span><h1>4. Building C and C++ Extensions<a class="headerlink" href="#building-c-and-c-extensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>A C extension for CPython is a shared library (e.g. a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code> file on Linux,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyd</span></code> on Windows), which exports an <em>initialization function</em>.</p>
+<p>To be importable, the shared library must be available on <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>,
+and must be named after the module name, with an appropriate extension.
+When using distutils, the correct filename is generated automatically.</p>
+<p>The initialization function has the signature:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.PyInit_modulename">
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>* <code class="descname">PyInit_modulename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>void<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyInit_modulename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>It returns either a fully-initialized module, or a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code></a>
+instance. See <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#initializing-modules"><span class="std std-ref">Initializing C modules</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must be named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_&lt;modulename&gt;</span></code>, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;modulename&gt;</span></code> replaced by the name of the
+module. When using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#multi-phase-initialization"><span class="std std-ref">Multi-phase initialization</span></a>, non-ASCII module names
+are allowed. In this case, the initialization function name is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInitU_&lt;modulename&gt;</span></code>, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;modulename&gt;</span></code> encoded using Python’s
+<em>punycode</em> encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores. In Python:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">initfunc_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">suffix</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;_&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">UnicodeEncodeError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">suffix</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;U_&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;punycode&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;_&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;PyInit&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">suffix</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is possible to export multiple modules from a single shared library by
+defining multiple initialization functions. However, importing them requires
+using symbolic links or a custom importer, because by default only the
+function corresponding to the filename is found.
+See the <em>“Multiple modules in one library”</em> section in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a> for details.</p>
+<div class="section" id="building-c-and-c-extensions-with-distutils">
+<h2>4.1. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#building-c-and-c-extensions-with-distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Extension modules can be built using distutils,  which is included in Python.
+Since distutils also supports creation of binary packages, users don’t
+necessarily need a compiler and distutils to install the extension.</p>
+<p>A distutils package contains a driver script, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>. This is a plain
+Python file, which, in the most simple case, could look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+
+<span class="n">module1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;demo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">sources</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;demo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">setup</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;PackageName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">version</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">description</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;This is a demo package&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">ext_modules</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">module1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With this <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>, and a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">demo.c</span></code>, running</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">build</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will compile <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">demo.c</span></code>, and produce an extension module named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">demo</span></code> in
+the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build</span></code> directory. Depending on the system, the module file will end
+up in a subdirectory <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build/lib.system</span></code>, and may have a name like
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">demo.so</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">demo.pyd</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>, all execution is performed by calling the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup</span></code>
+function. This takes a variable number of keyword arguments, of which the
+example above uses only a subset. Specifically, the example specifies
+meta-information to build packages, and it specifies the contents of the
+package.  Normally, a package will contain additional modules, like Python
+source modules, documentation, subpackages, etc. Please refer to the distutils
+documentation in <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/index.html#distutils-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a> to learn more about the features of
+distutils; this section explains building extension modules only.</p>
+<p>It is common to pre-compute arguments to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>, to better structure the
+driver script. In the example above, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext_modules</span></code> argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> is a list of extension modules, each of which is
+an instance of
+the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code>. In the example, the instance
+defines an extension named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">demo</span></code> which is build by compiling a single source
+file, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">demo.c</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In many cases, building an extension is more complex, since additional
+preprocessor defines and libraries may be needed. This is demonstrated in the
+example below.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+
+<span class="n">module1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;demo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">define_macros</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;MAJOR_VERSION&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                                     <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;MINOR_VERSION&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;0&#39;</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+                    <span class="n">include_dirs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local/include&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                    <span class="n">libraries</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;tcl83&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                    <span class="n">library_dirs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                    <span class="n">sources</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;demo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">setup</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;PackageName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">version</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">description</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;This is a demo package&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">author</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Martin v. Loewis&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">author_email</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;martin@v.loewis.de&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;https://docs.python.org/extending/building&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">long_description</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="s1">This is really just a demo package.</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">ext_modules</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">module1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.setup" title="distutils.core.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> is called with additional
+meta-information, which
+is recommended when distribution packages have to be built. For the extension
+itself, it specifies preprocessor defines, include directories, library
+directories, and libraries. Depending on the compiler, distutils passes this
+information in different ways to the compiler. For example, on Unix, this may
+result in the compilation commands</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">gcc</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">DNDEBUG</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">O3</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Wall</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Wstrict</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">prototypes</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">fPIC</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">DMAJOR_VERSION</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">DMINOR_VERSION</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">local</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">include</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">local</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">include</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python2</span><span class="mf">.2</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="n">demo</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="n">build</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">linux</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">i686</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">2.2</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">demo</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">o</span>
+
+<span class="n">gcc</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">shared</span> <span class="n">build</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">linux</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">i686</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">2.2</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">demo</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">local</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">ltcl83</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="n">build</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">linux</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">i686</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">2.2</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">demo</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">so</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These lines are for demonstration purposes only; distutils users should trust
+that distutils gets the invocations right.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distributing-your-extension-modules">
+<span id="distributing"></span><h2>4.2. Distributing your extension modules<a class="headerlink" href="#distributing-your-extension-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When an extension has been successfully build, there are three ways to use it.</p>
+<p>End-users will typically want to install the module, they do so by running</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">install</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Module maintainers should produce source packages; to do so, they run</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">sdist</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In some cases, additional files need to be included in a source distribution;
+this is done through a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code> file; see <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/sourcedist.html#manifest"><span class="std std-ref">Specifying the files to distribute</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>If the source distribution has been build successfully, maintainers can also
+create binary distributions. Depending on the platform, one of the following
+commands can be used to do so.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_wininst</span>
+<span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_rpm</span>
+<span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">bdist_dumb</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">4. Building C and C++ Extensions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#building-c-and-c-extensions-with-distutils">4.1. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distributing-your-extension-modules">4.2. Distributing your extension modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="newtypes.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="windows.html"
+                        title="next chapter">5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="embedding-python-in-another-application">
+<span id="embedding"></span><h1>1. Embedding Python in Another Application<a class="headerlink" href="#embedding-python-in-another-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The previous chapters discussed how to extend Python, that is, how to extend the
+functionality of Python by attaching a library of C functions to it.  It is also
+possible to do it the other way around: enrich your C/C++ application by
+embedding Python in it.  Embedding provides your application with the ability to
+implement some of the functionality of your application in Python rather than C
+or C++. This can be used for many purposes; one example would be to allow users
+to tailor the application to their needs by writing some scripts in Python.  You
+can also use it yourself if some of the functionality can be written in Python
+more easily.</p>
+<p>Embedding Python is similar to extending it, but not quite.  The difference is
+that when you extend Python, the main program of the application is still the
+Python interpreter, while if you embed Python, the main program may have nothing
+to do with Python — instead, some parts of the application occasionally call
+the Python interpreter to run some Python code.</p>
+<p>So if you are embedding Python, you are providing your own main program.  One of
+the things this main program has to do is initialize the Python interpreter.  At
+the very least, you have to call the function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.  There are
+optional calls to pass command line arguments to Python.  Then later you can
+call the interpreter from any part of the application.</p>
+<p>There are several different ways to call the interpreter: you can pass a string
+containing Python statements to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleString" title="PyRun_SimpleString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleString()</span></code></a>, or you can pass a
+stdio file pointer and a file name (for identification in error messages only)
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFile" title="PyRun_SimpleFile"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleFile()</span></code></a>.  You can also call the lower-level operations
+described in the previous chapters to construct and use Python objects.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/index.html#c-api-index"><span class="std std-ref">Python/C API Reference Manual</span></a></dt><dd><p>The details of Python’s C interface are given in this manual. A great deal of
+necessary information can be found here.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="very-high-level-embedding">
+<span id="high-level-embedding"></span><h2>1.1. Very High Level Embedding<a class="headerlink" href="#very-high-level-embedding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The simplest form of embedding Python is the use of the very high level
+interface. This interface is intended to execute a Python script without needing
+to interact with the application directly. This can for example be used to
+perform some operation on a file.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">wchar_t</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">program</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_DecodeLocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">program</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">fprintf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_SetProgramName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">program</span><span class="p">);</span>  <span class="cm">/* optional but recommended */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_Initialize</span><span class="p">();</span>
+    <span class="n">PyRun_SimpleString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;from time import time,ctime</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span>
+                       <span class="s">&quot;print(&#39;Today is&#39;, ctime(time()))</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Py_FinalizeEx</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">120</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">PyMem_RawFree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">program</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a> function should be called before
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> to inform the interpreter about paths to Python run-time
+libraries.  Next, the Python interpreter is initialized with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>, followed by the execution of a hard-coded Python script
+that prints the date and time.  Afterwards, the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> call shuts
+the interpreter down, followed by the end of the program.  In a real program,
+you may want to get the Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor
+routine, a file, or a database.  Getting the Python code from a file can better
+be done by using the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFile" title="PyRun_SimpleFile"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleFile()</span></code></a> function, which saves you the
+trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file contents.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="beyond-very-high-level-embedding-an-overview">
+<span id="lower-level-embedding"></span><h2>1.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview<a class="headerlink" href="#beyond-very-high-level-embedding-an-overview" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The high level interface gives you the ability to execute arbitrary pieces of
+Python code from your application, but exchanging data values is quite
+cumbersome to say the least. If you want that, you should use lower level calls.
+At the cost of having to write more C code, you can achieve almost anything.</p>
+<p>It should be noted that extending Python and embedding Python is quite the same
+activity, despite the different intent. Most topics discussed in the previous
+chapters are still valid. To show this, consider what the extension code from
+Python to C really does:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Convert data values from Python to C,</p></li>
+<li><p>Perform a function call to a C routine using the converted values, and</p></li>
+<li><p>Convert the data values from the call from C to Python.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>When embedding Python, the interface code does:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Convert data values from C to Python,</p></li>
+<li><p>Perform a function call to a Python interface routine using the converted
+values, and</p></li>
+<li><p>Convert the data values from the call from Python to C.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>As you can see, the data conversion steps are simply swapped to accommodate the
+different direction of the cross-language transfer. The only difference is the
+routine that you call between both data conversions. When extending, you call a
+C routine, when embedding, you call a Python routine.</p>
+<p>This chapter will not discuss how to convert data from Python to C and vice
+versa.  Also, proper use of references and dealing with errors is assumed to be
+understood.  Since these aspects do not differ from extending the interpreter,
+you can refer to earlier chapters for the required information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pure-embedding">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>1.3. Pure Embedding<a class="headerlink" href="#pure-embedding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The first program aims to execute a function in a Python script. Like in the
+section about the very high level interface, the Python interpreter does not
+directly interact with the application (but that will change in the next
+section).</p>
+<p>The code to run a function defined in a Python script is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pName</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pModule</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pArgs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pValue</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argc</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">fprintf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s">&quot;Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_Initialize</span><span class="p">();</span>
+    <span class="n">pName</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]);</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Error checking of pName left out */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">pModule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyImport_Import</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pName</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pName</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pModule</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">pFunc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_GetAttrString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pModule</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]);</span>
+        <span class="cm">/* pFunc is a new reference */</span>
+
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span> <span class="o">&amp;&amp;</span> <span class="n">PyCallable_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">pArgs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyTuple_New</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argc</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">for</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">argc</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="o">++</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="n">pValue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">atoi</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]));</span>
+                <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">pValue</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pArgs</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pModule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                    <span class="n">fprintf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Cannot convert argument</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+                <span class="p">}</span>
+                <span class="cm">/* pValue reference stolen here: */</span>
+                <span class="n">PyTuple_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pArgs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pValue</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+            <span class="n">pValue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_CallObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pArgs</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pArgs</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pValue</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;Result of call: %ld</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyLong_AsLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pValue</span><span class="p">));</span>
+                <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pValue</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+            <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pModule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                <span class="n">PyErr_Print</span><span class="p">();</span>
+                <span class="n">fprintf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s">&quot;Call failed</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyErr_Occurred</span><span class="p">())</span>
+                <span class="n">PyErr_Print</span><span class="p">();</span>
+            <span class="n">fprintf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Cannot find function </span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s">%s</span><span class="se">\&quot;\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]);</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pModule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Print</span><span class="p">();</span>
+        <span class="n">fprintf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Failed to load </span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s">%s</span><span class="se">\&quot;\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Py_FinalizeEx</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">120</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This code loads a Python script using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[1]</span></code>, and calls the function named
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[2]</span></code>.  Its integer arguments are the other values of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv</span></code>
+array.  If you <a class="reference internal" href="#compiling"><span class="std std-ref">compile and link</span></a> this program (let’s call
+the finished executable <strong class="program">call</strong>), and use it to execute a Python
+script, such as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">multiply</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Will compute&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;times&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">c</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then the result should be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> call multiply multiply <span class="m">3</span> <span class="m">2</span>
+<span class="go">Will compute 3 times 2</span>
+<span class="go">Result of call: 6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Although the program is quite large for its functionality, most of the code is
+for data conversion between Python and C, and for error reporting.  The
+interesting part with respect to embedding Python starts with</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Py_Initialize</span><span class="p">();</span>
+<span class="n">pName</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]);</span>
+<span class="cm">/* Error checking of pName left out */</span>
+<span class="n">pModule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyImport_Import</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pName</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_Import" title="PyImport_Import"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_Import()</span></code></a>.  This routine needs a Python string as its argument,
+which is constructed using the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromString" title="PyUnicode_FromString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromString()</span></code></a> data conversion
+routine.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pFunc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_GetAttrString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pModule</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]);</span>
+<span class="cm">/* pFunc is a new reference */</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span> <span class="o">&amp;&amp;</span> <span class="n">PyCallable_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once the script is loaded, the name we’re looking for is retrieved using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetAttrString" title="PyObject_GetAttrString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetAttrString()</span></code></a>.  If the name exists, and the object returned is
+callable, you can safely assume that it is a function.  The program then
+proceeds by constructing a tuple of arguments as normal.  The call to the Python
+function is then made with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pValue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_CallObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pFunc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pArgs</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Upon return of the function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pValue</span></code> is either <em>NULL</em> or it contains a
+reference to the return value of the function.  Be sure to release the reference
+after examining the value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="extending-embedded-python">
+<span id="extending-with-embedding"></span><h2>1.4. Extending Embedded Python<a class="headerlink" href="#extending-embedded-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Until now, the embedded Python interpreter had no access to functionality from
+the application itself.  The Python API allows this by extending the embedded
+interpreter.  That is, the embedded interpreter gets extended with routines
+provided by the application. While it sounds complex, it is not so bad.  Simply
+forget for a while that the application starts the Python interpreter.  Instead,
+consider the application to be a set of subroutines, and write some glue code
+that gives Python access to those routines, just like you would write a normal
+Python extension.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">numargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">emb_numargs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;:numargs&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">numargs</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">EmbMethods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;numargs&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">emb_numargs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_VARARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;Return the number of arguments received by the process.&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">EmbModule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;emb&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">EmbMethods</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_emb</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">EmbModule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Insert the above code just above the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code> function. Also, insert the
+following two statements before the call to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">numargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">PyImport_AppendInittab</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;emb&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">PyInit_emb</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These two lines initialize the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numargs</span></code> variable, and make the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emb.numargs()</span></code> function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter.
+With these extensions, the Python script can do things like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">emb</span>
+<span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Number of arguments&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">emb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">numargs</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In a real application, the methods will expose an API of the application to
+Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="embedding-python-in-c">
+<span id="embeddingincplusplus"></span><h2>1.5. Embedding Python in C++<a class="headerlink" href="#embedding-python-in-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is also possible to embed Python in a C++ program; precisely how this is done
+will depend on the details of the C++ system used; in general you will need to
+write the main program in C++, and use the C++ compiler to compile and link your
+program.  There is no need to recompile Python itself using C++.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compiling-and-linking-under-unix-like-systems">
+<span id="compiling"></span><h2>1.6. Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems<a class="headerlink" href="#compiling-and-linking-under-unix-like-systems" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is not necessarily trivial to find the right flags to pass to your
+compiler (and linker) in order to embed the Python interpreter into your
+application, particularly because Python needs to load library modules
+implemented as C dynamic extensions (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code> files) linked against
+it.</p>
+<p>To find out the required compiler and linker flags, you can execute the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">-config</span></code> script which is generated as part of the
+installation process (a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3-config</span></code> script may also be
+available).  This script has several options, of which the following will
+be directly useful to you:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonX.Y-config</span> <span class="pre">--cflags</span></code> will give you the recommended flags when
+compiling:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> /opt/bin/python3.4-config --cflags
+<span class="go">-I/opt/include/python3.4m -I/opt/include/python3.4m -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall -Wstrict-prototypes</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonX.Y-config</span> <span class="pre">--ldflags</span></code> will give you the recommended flags when
+linking:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> /opt/bin/python3.4-config --ldflags
+<span class="go">-L/opt/lib/python3.4/config-3.4m -lpthread -ldl -lutil -lm -lpython3.4m -Xlinker -export-dynamic</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>To avoid confusion between several Python installations (and especially
+between the system Python and your own compiled Python), it is recommended
+that you use the absolute path to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">-config</span></code>, as in the above
+example.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If this procedure doesn’t work for you (it is not guaranteed to work for
+all Unix-like platforms; however, we welcome <a class="reference internal" href="../bugs.html#reporting-bugs"><span class="std std-ref">bug reports</span></a>)
+you will have to read your system’s documentation about dynamic linking and/or
+examine Python’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code> (use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_makefile_filename" title="sysconfig.get_makefile_filename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig.get_makefile_filename()</span></code></a>
+to find its location) and compilation
+options.  In this case, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> module is a useful tool to
+programmatically extract the configuration values that you will want to
+combine together.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sysconfig</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;LIBS&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-lpthread -ldl  -lutil&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;LINKFORSHARED&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-Xlinker -export-dynamic&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">1. Embedding Python in Another Application</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#very-high-level-embedding">1.1. Very High Level Embedding</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#beyond-very-high-level-embedding-an-overview">1.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pure-embedding">1.3. Pure Embedding</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extending-embedded-python">1.4. Extending Embedded Python</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#embedding-python-in-c">1.5. Embedding Python in C++</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compiling-and-linking-under-unix-like-systems">1.6. Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="windows.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../c-api/index.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Python/C API Reference Manual</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/extending/embedding.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/extending.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/extending.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b132a02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/extending.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1395 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>1. Extending Python with C or C++ &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+         |
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="extending-python-with-c-or-c">
+<span id="extending-intro"></span><h1>1. Extending Python with C or C++<a class="headerlink" href="#extending-python-with-c-or-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know how to
+program in C.  Such <em class="dfn">extension modules</em> can do two things that can’t be
+done directly in Python: they can implement new built-in object types, and they
+can call C library functions and system calls.</p>
+<p>To support extensions, the Python API (Application Programmers Interface)
+defines a set of functions, macros and variables that provide access to most
+aspects of the Python run-time system.  The Python API is incorporated in a C
+source file by including the header <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Python.h&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The compilation of an extension module depends on its intended use as well as on
+your system setup; details are given in later chapters.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The C extension interface is specific to CPython, and extension modules do
+not work on other Python implementations.  In many cases, it is possible to
+avoid writing C extensions and preserve portability to other implementations.
+For example, if your use case is calling C library functions or system calls,
+you should consider using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> module or the <a class="reference external" href="https://cffi.readthedocs.io/">cffi</a> library rather than writing
+custom C code.
+These modules let you write Python code to interface with C code and are more
+portable between implementations of Python than writing and compiling a C
+extension module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-simple-example">
+<span id="extending-simpleexample"></span><h2>1.1. A Simple Example<a class="headerlink" href="#a-simple-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s create an extension module called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> (the favorite food of Monty
+Python fans…) and let’s say we want to create a Python interface to the C
+library function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id1">1</a>. This function takes a null-terminated
+character string as argument and returns an integer.  We want this function to
+be callable from Python as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">spam</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ls -l&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Begin by creating a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spammodule.c</span></code>.  (Historically, if a module is
+called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code>, the C file containing its implementation is called
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spammodule.c</span></code>; if the module name is very long, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spammify</span></code>, the
+module name can be just <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spammify.c</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>The first two lines of our file can be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which pulls in the Python API (you can add a comment describing the purpose of
+the module and a copyright notice if you like).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard
+headers on some systems, you <em>must</em> include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code> before any standard
+headers are included.</p>
+<p>It is recommended to always define <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span></code> before including
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code>.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#parsetuple"><span class="std std-ref">Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions</span></a> for a description of this macro.</p>
+</div>
+<p>All user-visible symbols defined by <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code> have a prefix of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY</span></code>, except those defined in standard header files. For convenience, and
+since they are used extensively by the Python interpreter, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Python.h&quot;</span></code>
+includes a few standard header files: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;stdio.h&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;string.h&gt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;errno.h&gt;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;stdlib.h&gt;</span></code>.  If the latter header file does not exist on
+your system, it declares the functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realloc()</span></code> directly.</p>
+<p>The next thing we add to our module file is the C function that will be called
+when the Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.system(string)</span></code> is evaluated (we’ll see
+shortly how it ends up being called):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">spam_system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There is a straightforward translation from the argument list in Python (for
+example, the single expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ls</span> <span class="pre">-l&quot;</span></code>) to the arguments passed to the C
+function.  The C function always has two arguments, conventionally named <em>self</em>
+and <em>args</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>self</em> argument points to the module object for module-level functions;
+for a method it would point to the object instance.</p>
+<p>The <em>args</em> argument will be a pointer to a Python tuple object containing the
+arguments.  Each item of the tuple corresponds to an argument in the call’s
+argument list.  The arguments are Python objects — in order to do anything
+with them in our C function we have to convert them to C values.  The function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> in the Python API checks the argument types and
+converts them to C values.  It uses a template string to determine the required
+types of the arguments as well as the types of the C variables into which to
+store the converted values.  More about this later.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> returns true (nonzero) if all arguments have the right
+type and its components have been stored in the variables whose addresses are
+passed.  It returns false (zero) if an invalid argument list was passed.  In the
+latter case it also raises an appropriate exception so the calling function can
+return <em>NULL</em> immediately (as we saw in the example).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="intermezzo-errors-and-exceptions">
+<span id="extending-errors"></span><h2>1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#intermezzo-errors-and-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the following: when
+a function fails, it should set an exception condition and return an error value
+(usually a <em>NULL</em> pointer).  Exceptions are stored in a static global variable
+inside the interpreter; if this variable is <em>NULL</em> no exception has occurred.  A
+second global variable stores the “associated value” of the exception (the
+second argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a>).  A third variable contains the stack
+traceback in case the error originated in Python code.  These three variables
+are the C equivalents of the result in Python of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a> (see the
+section on module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> in the Python Library Reference).  It is important
+to know about them to understand how errors are passed around.</p>
+<p>The Python API defines a number of functions to set various types of exceptions.</p>
+<p>The most common one is <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetString" title="PyErr_SetString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetString()</span></code></a>.  Its arguments are an exception
+object and a C string.  The exception object is usually a predefined object like
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ZeroDivisionError</span></code>.  The C string indicates the cause of the error
+and is converted to a Python string object and stored as the “associated value”
+of the exception.</p>
+<p>Another useful function is <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrno" title="PyErr_SetFromErrno"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetFromErrno()</span></code></a>, which only takes an
+exception argument and constructs the associated value by inspection of the
+global variable <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code>.  The most general function is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetObject" title="PyErr_SetObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetObject()</span></code></a>, which takes two object arguments, the exception and
+its associated value.  You don’t need to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a> the objects passed
+to any of these functions.</p>
+<p>You can test non-destructively whether an exception has been set with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a>.  This returns the current exception object, or <em>NULL</em>
+if no exception has occurred.  You normally don’t need to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred" title="PyErr_Occurred"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code></a> to see whether an error occurred in a function call,
+since you should be able to tell from the return value.</p>
+<p>When a function <em>f</em> that calls another function <em>g</em> detects that the latter
+fails, <em>f</em> should itself return an error value (usually <em>NULL</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>).  It
+should <em>not</em> call one of the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_*()</span></code> functions — one has already
+been called by <em>g</em>. <em>f</em>’s caller is then supposed to also return an error
+indication to <em>its</em> caller, again <em>without</em> calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_*()</span></code>, and so on
+— the most detailed cause of the error was already reported by the function
+that first detected it.  Once the error reaches the Python interpreter’s main
+loop, this aborts the currently executing Python code and tries to find an
+exception handler specified by the Python programmer.</p>
+<p>(There are situations where a module can actually give a more detailed error
+message by calling another <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_*()</span></code> function, and in such cases it is
+fine to do so.  As a general rule, however, this is not necessary, and can cause
+information about the cause of the error to be lost: most operations can fail
+for a variety of reasons.)</p>
+<p>To ignore an exception set by a function call that failed, the exception
+condition must be cleared explicitly by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear" title="PyErr_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Clear()</span></code></a>.  The only
+time C code should call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear" title="PyErr_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Clear()</span></code></a> is if it doesn’t want to pass the
+error on to the interpreter but wants to handle it completely by itself
+(possibly by trying something else, or pretending nothing went wrong).</p>
+<p>Every failing <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> call must be turned into an exception — the
+direct caller of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> (or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realloc()</span></code>) must call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NoMemory" title="PyErr_NoMemory"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NoMemory()</span></code></a> and return a failure indicator itself.  All the
+object-creating functions (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong" title="PyLong_FromLong"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromLong()</span></code></a>) already do
+this, so this note is only relevant to those who call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> directly.</p>
+<p>Also note that, with the important exception of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> and
+friends, functions that return an integer status usually return a positive value
+or zero for success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> for failure, like Unix system calls.</p>
+<p>Finally, be careful to clean up garbage (by making <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> calls for objects you have already created) when you return
+an error indicator!</p>
+<p>The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours.  There are predeclared
+C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions, such as
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ZeroDivisionError</span></code>, which you can use directly. Of course, you
+should choose exceptions wisely — don’t use <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_TypeError</span></code> to mean
+that a file couldn’t be opened (that should probably be <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_IOError</span></code>).
+If something’s wrong with the argument list, the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>
+function usually raises <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_TypeError</span></code>.  If you have an argument whose
+value must be in a particular range or must satisfy other conditions,
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_ValueError</span></code> is appropriate.</p>
+<p>You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module. For this, you
+usually declare a static object variable at the beginning of your file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">SpamError</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and initialize it in your module’s initialization function (<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_spam()</span></code>)
+with an exception object (leaving out the error checking for now):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_spam</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">spammodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">SpamError</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyErr_NewException</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;spam.error&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SpamError</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;error&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">SpamError</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the Python name for the exception object is <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.error</span></code>.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewException" title="PyErr_NewException"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewException()</span></code></a> function may create a class with the base class
+being <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> (unless another class is passed in instead of <em>NULL</em>),
+described in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#bltin-exceptions"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Exceptions</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Note also that the <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SpamError</span></code> variable retains a reference to the newly
+created exception class; this is intentional!  Since the exception could be
+removed from the module by external code, an owned reference to the class is
+needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SpamError</span></code> to
+become a dangling pointer. Should it become a dangling pointer, C code which
+raises the exception could cause a core dump or other unintended side effects.</p>
+<p>We discuss the use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span></code> as a function return type later in this
+sample.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.error</span></code> exception can be raised in your extension module using a
+call to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetString" title="PyErr_SetString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetString()</span></code></a> as shown below:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">spam_system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SpamError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;System command failed&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="back-to-the-example">
+<span id="backtoexample"></span><h2>1.3. Back to the Example<a class="headerlink" href="#back-to-the-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Going back to our example function, you should now be able to understand this
+statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It returns <em>NULL</em> (the error indicator for functions returning object pointers)
+if an error is detected in the argument list, relying on the exception set by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise the string value of the argument has been
+copied to the local variable <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command</span></code>.  This is a pointer assignment and
+you are not supposed to modify the string to which it points (so in Standard C,
+the variable <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command</span></code> should properly be declared as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span>
+<span class="pre">*command</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The next statement is a call to the Unix function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code>, passing it
+the string we just got from <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Our <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.system()</span></code> function must return the value of <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sts</span></code> as a
+Python object.  This is done using the function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong" title="PyLong_FromLong"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromLong()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">return</span> <span class="nf">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case, it will return an integer object.  (Yes, even integers are objects
+on the heap in Python!)</p>
+<p>If you have a C function that returns no useful argument (a function returning
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span></code>), the corresponding Python function must return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.   You
+need this idiom to do so (which is implemented by the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/none.html#c.Py_RETURN_NONE" title="Py_RETURN_NONE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_RETURN_NONE</span></code></a>
+macro):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Py_None</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Py_None</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/none.html#c.Py_None" title="Py_None"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code></a> is the C name for the special Python object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  It is a
+genuine Python object rather than a <em>NULL</em> pointer, which means “error” in most
+contexts, as we have seen.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function">
+<span id="methodtable"></span><h2>1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function<a class="headerlink" href="#the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>I promised to show how <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam_system()</span></code> is called from Python programs.
+First, we need to list its name and address in a “method table”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">SpamMethods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">...</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;system&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="n">spam_system</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_VARARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;Execute a shell command.&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">...</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>        <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note the third entry (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span></code>).  This is a flag telling the interpreter
+the calling convention to be used for the C function.  It should normally always
+be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">METH_KEYWORDS</span></code>; a value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> means
+that an obsolete variant of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<p>When using only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span></code>, the function should expect the Python-level
+parameters to be passed in as a tuple acceptable for parsing via
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>; more information on this function is provided below.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_KEYWORDS</span></code> bit may be set in the third field if keyword
+arguments should be passed to the function.  In this case, the C function should
+accept a third <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> parameter which will be a dictionary of keywords.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> to parse the arguments to such a
+function.</p>
+<p>The method table must be referenced in the module definition structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">spammodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s">&quot;spam&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>   <span class="cm">/* name of module */</span>
+    <span class="n">spam_doc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="cm">/* module documentation, may be NULL */</span>
+    <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>       <span class="cm">/* size of per-interpreter state of the module,</span>
+<span class="cm">                 or -1 if the module keeps state in global variables. */</span>
+    <span class="n">SpamMethods</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the module’s
+initialization function.  The initialization function must be named
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_name()</span></code>, where <em>name</em> is the name of the module, and should be the
+only non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">static</span></code> item defined in the module file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_spam</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">spammodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that PyMODINIT_FUNC declares the function as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> return type,
+declares any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for C++
+declares the function as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extern</span> <span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When the Python program imports module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> for the first time,
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_spam()</span></code> is called. (See below for comments about embedding Python.)
+It calls <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Create" title="PyModule_Create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create()</span></code></a>, which returns a module object, and
+inserts built-in function objects into the newly created module based upon the
+table (an array of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structures) found in the module definition.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Create" title="PyModule_Create"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_Create()</span></code></a> returns a pointer to the module object
+that it creates.  It may abort with a fatal error for
+certain errors, or return <em>NULL</em> if the module could not be initialized
+satisfactorily. The init function must return the module object to its caller,
+so that it then gets inserted into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When embedding Python, the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_spam()</span></code> function is not called
+automatically unless there’s an entry in the <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_Inittab</span></code> table.
+To add the module to the initialization table, use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_AppendInittab" title="PyImport_AppendInittab"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_AppendInittab()</span></code></a>,
+optionally followed by an import of the module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">wchar_t</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">program</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_DecodeLocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">program</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">fprintf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Add a built-in module, before Py_Initialize */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyImport_AppendInittab</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;spam&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyInit_spam</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_SetProgramName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">program</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Initialize the Python interpreter.  Required. */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_Initialize</span><span class="p">();</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Optionally import the module; alternatively,</span>
+<span class="cm">       import can be deferred until the embedded script</span>
+<span class="cm">       imports it. */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyImport_ImportModule</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;spam&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="p">...</span>
+
+    <span class="n">PyMem_RawFree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">program</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Removing entries from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> or importing compiled modules into
+multiple interpreters within a process (or following a <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> without an
+intervening <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code>) can create problems for some extension modules.
+Extension module authors should exercise caution when initializing internal data
+structures.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A more substantial example module is included in the Python source distribution
+as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/xxmodule.c</span></code>.  This file may be used as a  template or simply
+read as an example.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unlike our <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xxmodule</span></code> uses <em>multi-phase initialization</em>
+(new in Python 3.5), where a PyModuleDef structure is returned from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_spam</span></code>, and creation of the module is left to the import machinery.
+For details on multi-phase initialization, see <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compilation-and-linkage">
+<span id="compilation"></span><h2>1.5. Compilation and Linkage<a class="headerlink" href="#compilation-and-linkage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are two more things to do before you can use your new extension: compiling
+and linking it with the Python system.  If you use dynamic loading, the details
+may depend on the style of dynamic loading your system uses; see the chapters
+about building extension modules (chapter <a class="reference internal" href="building.html#building"><span class="std std-ref">Building C and C++ Extensions</span></a>) and additional
+information that pertains only to building on Windows (chapter
+<a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#building-on-windows"><span class="std std-ref">Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows</span></a>) for more information about this.</p>
+<p>If you can’t use dynamic loading, or if you want to make your module a permanent
+part of the Python interpreter, you will have to change the configuration setup
+and rebuild the interpreter.  Luckily, this is very simple on Unix: just place
+your file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spammodule.c</span></code> for example) in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/</span></code> directory
+of an unpacked source distribution, add a line to the file
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup.local</span></code> describing your file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>spam spammodule.o
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and rebuild the interpreter by running <strong class="program">make</strong> in the toplevel
+directory.  You can also run <strong class="program">make</strong> in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/</span></code>
+subdirectory, but then you must first rebuild <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code> there by running
+‘<strong class="program">make</strong> Makefile’.  (This is necessary each time you change the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setup</span></code> file.)</p>
+<p>If your module requires additional libraries to link with, these can be listed
+on the line in the configuration file as well, for instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>spam spammodule.o -lX11
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calling-python-functions-from-c">
+<span id="callingpython"></span><h2>1.6. Calling Python Functions from C<a class="headerlink" href="#calling-python-functions-from-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>So far we have concentrated on making C functions callable from Python.  The
+reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is especially the
+case for libraries that support so-called “callback” functions.  If a C
+interface makes use of callbacks, the equivalent Python often needs to provide a
+callback mechanism to the Python programmer; the implementation will require
+calling the Python callback functions from a C callback.  Other uses are also
+imaginable.</p>
+<p>Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and there is a
+standard interface to call a Python function.  (I won’t dwell on how to call the
+Python parser with a particular string as input — if you’re interested, have a
+look at the implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> command line option in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/main.c</span></code> from the Python source code.)</p>
+<p>Calling a Python function is easy.  First, the Python program must somehow pass
+you the Python function object.  You should provide a function (or some other
+interface) to do this.  When this function is called, save a pointer to the
+Python function object (be careful to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a> it!) in a global
+variable — or wherever you see fit. For example, the following function might
+be part of a module definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">my_callback</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">my_set_callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">dummy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;O:set_callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyCallable_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;parameter must be callable&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_XINCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">);</span>         <span class="cm">/* Add a reference to new callback */</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">);</span>  <span class="cm">/* Dispose of previous callback */</span>
+        <span class="n">my_callback</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">;</span>       <span class="cm">/* Remember new callback */</span>
+        <span class="cm">/* Boilerplate to return &quot;None&quot; */</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Py_None</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_None</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function must be registered with the interpreter using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_VARARGS" title="METH_VARARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span></code></a> flag; this is described in section <a class="reference internal" href="#methodtable"><span class="std std-ref">The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function</span></a>.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> function and its arguments are documented in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#parsetuple"><span class="std std-ref">Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The macros <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XINCREF" title="Py_XINCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XINCREF()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> increment/decrement the
+reference count of an object and are safe in the presence of <em>NULL</em> pointers
+(but note that <em>temp</em> will not be  <em>NULL</em> in this context).  More info on them
+in section <a class="reference internal" href="#refcounts"><span class="std std-ref">Reference Counts</span></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-1">Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a>.  This function has two arguments, both pointers to
+arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the argument list.  The
+argument list must always be a tuple object, whose length is the number of
+arguments.  To call the Python function with no arguments, pass in NULL, or
+an empty tuple; to call it with one argument, pass a singleton tuple.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> returns a tuple when its format string consists of zero
+or more format codes between parentheses.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">123</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="cm">/* Time to call the callback */</span>
+<span class="n">arglist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_BuildValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;(i)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_CallObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a> returns a Python object pointer: this is the return
+value of the Python function.  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a> is
+“reference-count-neutral” with respect to its arguments.  In the example a new
+tuple was created to serve as the argument list, which is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>-ed immediately after the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a>
+call.</p>
+<p>The return value of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a> is “new”: either it is a brand
+new object, or it is an existing object whose reference count has been
+incremented.  So, unless you want to save it in a global variable, you should
+somehow <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> the result, even (especially!) if you are not
+interested in its value.</p>
+<p>Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return value
+isn’t <em>NULL</em>.  If it is, the Python function terminated by raising an exception.
+If the C code that called <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a> is called from Python, it
+should now return an error indication to its Python caller, so the interpreter
+can print a stack trace, or the calling Python code can handle the exception.
+If this is not possible or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear" title="PyErr_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Clear()</span></code></a>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Pass error back */</span>
+<span class="p">...</span><span class="n">use</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you may also
+have to provide an argument list to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a>.  In some cases
+the argument list is also provided by the Python program, through the same
+interface that specified the callback function.  It can then be saved and used
+in the same manner as the function object.  In other cases, you may have to
+construct a new tuple to pass as the argument list.  The simplest way to do this
+is to call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a>.  For example, if you want to pass an integral
+event code, you might use the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">arglist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_BuildValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;(l)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">eventcode</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_CallObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Pass error back */</span>
+<span class="cm">/* Here maybe use the result */</span>
+<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note the placement of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF(arglist)</span></code> immediately after the call, before
+the error check!  Also note that strictly speaking this code is not complete:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> may run out of memory, and this should be checked.</p>
+<p>You may also call a function with keyword arguments by using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Call" title="PyObject_Call"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Call()</span></code></a>, which supports arguments and keyword arguments.  As in
+the above example, we use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> to construct the dictionary.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">dict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_BuildValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;{s:i}&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_Call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Pass error back */</span>
+<span class="cm">/* Here maybe use the result */</span>
+<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="extracting-parameters-in-extension-functions">
+<span id="parsetuple"></span><h2>1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#extracting-parameters-in-extension-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-2">The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> function is declared as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="nf">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">...);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>arg</em> argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list passed
+from Python to a C function.  The <em>format</em> argument must be a format string,
+whose syntax is explained in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#arg-parsing"><span class="std std-ref">Parsing arguments and building values</span></a> in the Python/C API Reference
+Manual.  The remaining arguments must be addresses of variables whose type is
+determined by the format string.</p>
+<p>Note that while <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> checks that the Python arguments have
+the required types, it cannot check the validity of the addresses of C variables
+passed to the call: if you make mistakes there, your code will probably crash or
+at least overwrite random bits in memory.  So be careful!</p>
+<p>Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are
+<em>borrowed</em> references; do not decrement their reference count!</p>
+<p>Some example calls:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  </span><span class="cm">/* Make &quot;s#&quot; use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">ok</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">j</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="kt">long</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* No arguments */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Python call: f() */</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* A string */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Possible Python call: f(&#39;whoops!&#39;) */</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;lls&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* Two longs and a string */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, &#39;three&#39;) */</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;(ii)s#&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), &#39;three&#39;) */</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">mode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;r&quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;s|si&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Possible Python calls:</span>
+<span class="cm">       f(&#39;spam&#39;)</span>
+<span class="cm">       f(&#39;spam&#39;, &#39;w&#39;)</span>
+<span class="cm">       f(&#39;spam&#39;, &#39;wb&#39;, 100000) */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">left</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">top</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">right</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bottom</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;((ii)(ii))(ii)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+             <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">right</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">bottom</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* A rectangle and a point */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Possible Python call:</span>
+<span class="cm">       f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_complex</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;D:myfunction&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="keyword-parameters-for-extension-functions">
+<span id="parsetupleandkeywords"></span><h2>1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#keyword-parameters-for-extension-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-3">The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> function is declared as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="nf">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwdict</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[],</span> <span class="p">...);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>arg</em> and <em>format</em> parameters are identical to those of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> function.  The <em>kwdict</em> parameter is the dictionary of
+keywords received as the third parameter from the Python runtime.  The <em>kwlist</em>
+parameter is a <em>NULL</em>-terminated list of strings which identify the parameters;
+the names are matched with the type information from <em>format</em> from left to
+right.  On success, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> returns true, otherwise
+it returns false and raises an appropriate exception.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Nested tuples cannot be parsed when using keyword arguments!  Keyword parameters
+passed in which are not present in the <em>kwlist</em> will cause <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> to
+be raised.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-4">Here is an example module which uses keywords, based on an example by Geoff
+Philbrick (<a class="reference external" href="mailto:philbrick&#37;&#52;&#48;hks&#46;com">philbrick<span>&#64;</span>hks<span>&#46;</span>com</a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  </span><span class="cm">/* Make &quot;s#&quot; use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">keywdarg_parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">keywds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">voltage</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">state</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;a stiff&quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">action</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;voom&quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Norwegian Blue&quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;voltage&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;state&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;action&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;type&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keywds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;i|sss&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">voltage</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">state</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">action</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;-- This parrot wouldn&#39;t %s if you put %i Volts through it.</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="n">action</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">voltage</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It&#39;s %s!</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_RETURN_NONE</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">keywdarg_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values</span>
+<span class="cm">     * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes</span>
+<span class="cm">     * three.</span>
+<span class="cm">     */</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;parrot&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">keywdarg_parrot</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_VARARGS</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">METH_KEYWORDS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;Print a lovely skit to standard output.&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>   <span class="cm">/* sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">keywdargmodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s">&quot;keywdarg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">keywdarg_methods</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_keywdarg</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">keywdargmodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="building-arbitrary-values">
+<span id="buildvalue"></span><h2>1.9. Building Arbitrary Values<a class="headerlink" href="#building-arbitrary-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This function is the counterpart to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>.  It is declared
+as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="nf">Py_BuildValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">...);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>, but the arguments (which are input to the function,
+not output) must not be pointers, just values.  It returns a new Python object,
+suitable for returning from a C function called from Python.</p>
+<p>One difference with <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>: while the latter requires its
+first argument to be a tuple (since Python argument lists are always represented
+as tuples internally), <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> does not always build a tuple.  It
+builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more format units. If
+the format string is empty, it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; if it contains exactly one
+format unit, it returns whatever object is described by that format unit.  To
+force it to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.</p>
+<p>Examples (to the left the call, to the right the resulting Python value):</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Py_BuildValue(&quot;&quot;)                        None
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;i&quot;, 123)                  123
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;iii&quot;, 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;s&quot;, &quot;hello&quot;)              &#39;hello&#39;
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;y&quot;, &quot;hello&quot;)              b&#39;hello&#39;
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;ss&quot;, &quot;hello&quot;, &quot;world&quot;)    (&#39;hello&#39;, &#39;world&#39;)
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;s#&quot;, &quot;hello&quot;, 4)          &#39;hell&#39;
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;y#&quot;, &quot;hello&quot;, 4)          b&#39;hell&#39;
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;()&quot;)                      ()
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;(i)&quot;, 123)                (123,)
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;(ii)&quot;, 123, 456)          (123, 456)
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;(i,i)&quot;, 123, 456)         (123, 456)
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;[i,i]&quot;, 123, 456)         [123, 456]
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;{s:i,s:i}&quot;,
+              &quot;abc&quot;, 123, &quot;def&quot;, 456)    {&#39;abc&#39;: 123, &#39;def&#39;: 456}
+Py_BuildValue(&quot;((ii)(ii)) (ii)&quot;,
+              1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reference-counts">
+<span id="refcounts"></span><h2>1.10. Reference Counts<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-counts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic allocation
+and deallocation of memory on the heap.  In C, this is done using the functions
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.  In C++, the operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delete</span></code> are used with essentially the same meaning and we’ll restrict
+the following discussion to the C case.</p>
+<p>Every block of memory allocated with <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> should eventually be
+returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.
+It is important to call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> at the right time.  If a block’s address
+is forgotten but <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> is not called for it, the memory it occupies
+cannot be reused until the program terminates.  This is called a <em class="dfn">memory
+leak</em>.  On the other hand, if a program calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> for a block and then
+continues to use the block, it creates a conflict with re-use of the block
+through another <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> call.  This is called <em class="dfn">using freed memory</em>.
+It has the same bad consequences as referencing uninitialized data — core
+dumps, wrong results, mysterious crashes.</p>
+<p>Common causes of memory leaks are unusual paths through the code.  For instance,
+a function may allocate a block of memory, do some calculation, and then free
+the block again.  Now a change in the requirements for the function may add a
+test to the calculation that detects an error condition and can return
+prematurely from the function.  It’s easy to forget to free the allocated memory
+block when taking this premature exit, especially when it is added later to the
+code.  Such leaks, once introduced, often go undetected for a long time: the
+error exit is taken only in a small fraction of all calls, and most modern
+machines have plenty of virtual memory, so the leak only becomes apparent in a
+long-running process that uses the leaking function frequently.  Therefore, it’s
+important to prevent leaks from happening by having a coding convention or
+strategy that minimizes this kind of errors.</p>
+<p>Since Python makes heavy use of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>, it needs a
+strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory.  The chosen
+method is called <em class="dfn">reference counting</em>.  The principle is simple: every
+object contains a counter, which is incremented when a reference to the object
+is stored somewhere, and which is decremented when a reference to it is deleted.
+When the counter reaches zero, the last reference to the object has been deleted
+and the object is freed.</p>
+<p>An alternative strategy is called <em class="dfn">automatic garbage collection</em>.
+(Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage collection
+strategy, hence my use of “automatic” to distinguish the two.)  The big
+advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the user doesn’t need to call
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> explicitly.  (Another claimed advantage is an improvement in speed
+or memory usage — this is no hard fact however.)  The disadvantage is that for
+C, there is no truly portable automatic garbage collector, while reference
+counting can be implemented portably (as long as the functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> are available — which the C Standard guarantees). Maybe some
+day a sufficiently portable automatic garbage collector will be available for C.
+Until then, we’ll have to live with reference counts.</p>
+<p>While Python uses the traditional reference counting implementation, it also
+offers a cycle detector that works to detect reference cycles.  This allows
+applications to not worry about creating direct or indirect circular references;
+these are the weakness of garbage collection implemented using only reference
+counting.  Reference cycles consist of objects which contain (possibly indirect)
+references to themselves, so that each object in the cycle has a reference count
+which is non-zero.  Typical reference counting implementations are not able to
+reclaim the memory belonging to any objects in a reference cycle, or referenced
+from the objects in the cycle, even though there are no further references to
+the cycle itself.</p>
+<p>The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim them.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module exposes a way to run the detector (the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.collect" title="gc.collect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collect()</span></code></a> function), as well as configuration
+interfaces and the ability to disable the detector at runtime.  The cycle
+detector is considered an optional component; though it is included by default,
+it can be disabled at build time using the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-cycle-gc</span></code> option
+to the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script on Unix platforms (including Mac OS X).  If
+the cycle detector is disabled in this way, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module will not be
+available.</p>
+<div class="section" id="reference-counting-in-python">
+<span id="refcountsinpython"></span><h3>1.10.1. Reference Counting in Python<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-counting-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are two macros, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF(x)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF(x)</span></code>, which handle the
+incrementing and decrementing of the reference count. <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> also
+frees the object when the count reaches zero. For flexibility, it doesn’t call
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> directly — rather, it makes a call through a function pointer in
+the object’s <em class="dfn">type object</em>.  For this purpose (and others), every object
+also contains a pointer to its type object.</p>
+<p>The big question now remains: when to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF(x)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF(x)</span></code>?
+Let’s first introduce some terms.  Nobody “owns” an object; however, you can
+<em class="dfn">own a reference</em> to an object.  An object’s reference count is now defined
+as the number of owned references to it.  The owner of a reference is
+responsible for calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> when the reference is no longer
+needed.  Ownership of a reference can be transferred.  There are three ways to
+dispose of an owned reference: pass it on, store it, or call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>.
+Forgetting to dispose of an owned reference creates a memory leak.</p>
+<p>It is also possible to <em class="dfn">borrow</em> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id6" id="id2">2</a> a reference to an object.  The
+borrower of a reference should not call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>.  The borrower must
+not hold on to the object longer than the owner from which it was borrowed.
+Using a borrowed reference after the owner has disposed of it risks using freed
+memory and should be avoided completely <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id7" id="id3">3</a>.</p>
+<p>The advantage of borrowing over owning a reference is that you don’t need to
+take care of disposing of the reference on all possible paths through the code
+— in other words, with a borrowed reference you don’t run the risk of leaking
+when a premature exit is taken.  The disadvantage of borrowing over owning is
+that there are some subtle situations where in seemingly correct code a borrowed
+reference can be used after the owner from which it was borrowed has in fact
+disposed of it.</p>
+<p>A borrowed reference can be changed into an owned reference by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a>.  This does not affect the status of the owner from which the
+reference was borrowed — it creates a new owned reference, and gives full
+owner responsibilities (the new owner must dispose of the reference properly, as
+well as the previous owner).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ownership-rules">
+<span id="ownershiprules"></span><h3>1.10.2. Ownership Rules<a class="headerlink" href="#ownership-rules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is part of
+the function’s interface specification whether ownership is transferred with the
+reference or not.</p>
+<p>Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownership with the
+reference.  In particular, all functions whose function it is to create a new
+object, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong" title="PyLong_FromLong"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromLong()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a>, pass
+ownership to the receiver.  Even if the object is not actually new, you still
+receive ownership of a new reference to that object.  For instance,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong" title="PyLong_FromLong"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_FromLong()</span></code></a> maintains a cache of popular values and can return a
+reference to a cached item.</p>
+<p>Many functions that extract objects from other objects also transfer ownership
+with the reference, for instance <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetAttrString" title="PyObject_GetAttrString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetAttrString()</span></code></a>.  The picture
+is less clear, here, however, since a few common routines are exceptions:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GetItem" title="PyTuple_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_GetItem()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GetItem" title="PyList_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_GetItem()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItem" title="PyDict_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_GetItem()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItemString" title="PyDict_GetItemString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_GetItemString()</span></code></a> all return references that you borrow from the
+tuple, list or dictionary.</p>
+<p>The function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_AddModule" title="PyImport_AddModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_AddModule()</span></code></a> also returns a borrowed reference, even
+though it may actually create the object it returns: this is possible because an
+owned reference to the object is stored in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When you pass an object reference into another function, in general, the
+function borrows the reference from you — if it needs to store it, it will use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a> to become an independent owner.  There are exactly two
+important exceptions to this rule: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_SetItem()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_SetItem()</span></code></a>.  These functions take over ownership of the item passed
+to them — even if they fail!  (Note that <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_SetItem" title="PyDict_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_SetItem()</span></code></a> and friends
+don’t take over ownership — they are “normal.”)</p>
+<p>When a C function is called from Python, it borrows references to its arguments
+from the caller.  The caller owns a reference to the object, so the borrowed
+reference’s lifetime is guaranteed until the function returns.  Only when such a
+borrowed reference must be stored or passed on, it must be turned into an owned
+reference by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The object reference returned from a C function that is called from Python must
+be an owned reference — ownership is transferred from the function to its
+caller.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="thin-ice">
+<span id="thinice"></span><h3>1.10.3. Thin Ice<a class="headerlink" href="#thin-ice" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed reference
+can lead to problems.  These all have to do with implicit invocations of the
+interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference to dispose of it.</p>
+<p>The first and most important case to know about is using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> on
+an unrelated object while borrowing a reference to a list item.  For instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">bug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyList_GetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="n">PyList_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0L</span><span class="p">));</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_Print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* BUG! */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function first borrows a reference to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list[0]</span></code>, then replaces
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list[1]</span></code> with the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, and finally prints the borrowed reference.
+Looks harmless, right?  But it’s not!</p>
+<p>Let’s follow the control flow into <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_SetItem()</span></code></a>.  The list owns
+references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it has to dispose of
+the original item 1.  Now let’s suppose the original item 1 was an instance of a
+user-defined class, and let’s further suppose that the class defined a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method.  If this class instance has a reference count of 1,
+disposing of it will call its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Since it is written in Python, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method can execute arbitrary
+Python code.  Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the reference to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">item</span></code> in <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bug()</span></code>?  You bet!  Assuming that the list passed into
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bug()</span></code> is accessible to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method, it could execute a
+statement to the effect of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">list[0]</span></code>, and assuming this was the last
+reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it, thereby
+invalidating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">item</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The solution, once you know the source of the problem, is easy: temporarily
+increment the reference count.  The correct version of the function reads:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">no_bug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyList_GetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyList_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0L</span><span class="p">));</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_Print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is a true story.  An older version of Python contained variants of this bug
+and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger to figure out
+why his <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods would fail…</p>
+<p>The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant involving
+threads.  Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter can’t get in each
+other’s way, because there is a global lock protecting Python’s entire object
+space.  However, it is possible to temporarily release this lock using the macro
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a>, and to re-acquire it using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" title="Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</span></code></a>.  This is common around blocking I/O calls, to
+let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to complete.
+Obviously, the following function has the same problem as the previous one:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">bug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyList_GetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</span>
+    <span class="p">...</span><span class="n">some</span> <span class="n">blocking</span> <span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">O</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">...</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_Print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="cm">/* BUG! */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="null-pointers">
+<span id="nullpointers"></span><h3>1.10.4. NULL Pointers<a class="headerlink" href="#null-pointers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In general, functions that take object references as arguments do not expect you
+to pass them <em>NULL</em> pointers, and will dump core (or cause later core dumps) if
+you do so.  Functions that return object references generally return <em>NULL</em> only
+to indicate that an exception occurred.  The reason for not testing for <em>NULL</em>
+arguments is that functions often pass the objects they receive on to other
+function — if each function were to test for <em>NULL</em>, there would be a lot of
+redundant tests and the code would run more slowly.</p>
+<p>It is better to test for <em>NULL</em> only at the “source:” when a pointer that may be
+<em>NULL</em> is received, for example, from <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> or from a function that
+may raise an exception.</p>
+<p>The macros <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_INCREF()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> do not check for <em>NULL</em>
+pointers — however, their variants <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XINCREF" title="Py_XINCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XINCREF()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a>
+do.</p>
+<p>The macros for checking for a particular object type (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pytype_Check()</span></code>) don’t
+check for <em>NULL</em> pointers — again, there is much code that calls several of
+these in a row to test an object against various different expected types, and
+this would generate redundant tests.  There are no variants with <em>NULL</em>
+checking.</p>
+<p>The C function calling mechanism guarantees that the argument list passed to C
+functions (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> in the examples) is never <em>NULL</em> — in fact it guarantees
+that it is always a tuple <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id4">4</a>.</p>
+<p>It is a severe error to ever let a <em>NULL</em> pointer “escape” to the Python user.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-extensions-in-c">
+<span id="cplusplus"></span><h2>1.11. Writing Extensions in C++<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-extensions-in-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is possible to write extension modules in C++.  Some restrictions apply.  If
+the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and linked by the C
+compiler, global or static objects with constructors cannot be used.  This is
+not a problem if the main program is linked by the C++ compiler.  Functions that
+will be called by the Python interpreter (in particular, module initialization
+functions) have to be declared using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extern</span> <span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span></code>. It is unnecessary to
+enclose the Python header files in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extern</span> <span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span> <span class="pre">{...}</span></code> — they use this form
+already if the symbol <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cplusplus</span></code> is defined (all recent C++ compilers
+define this symbol).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="providing-a-c-api-for-an-extension-module">
+<span id="using-capsules"></span><h2>1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module<a class="headerlink" href="#providing-a-c-api-for-an-extension-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Many extension modules just provide new functions and types to be used from
+Python, but sometimes the code in an extension module can be useful for other
+extension modules. For example, an extension module could implement a type
+“collection” which works like lists without order. Just like the standard Python
+list type has a C API which permits extension modules to create and manipulate
+lists, this new collection type should have a set of C functions for direct
+manipulation from other extension modules.</p>
+<p>At first sight this seems easy: just write the functions (without declaring them
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">static</span></code>, of course), provide an appropriate header file, and document
+the C API. And in fact this would work if all extension modules were always
+linked statically with the Python interpreter. When modules are used as shared
+libraries, however, the symbols defined in one module may not be visible to
+another module. The details of visibility depend on the operating system; some
+systems use one global namespace for the Python interpreter and all extension
+modules (Windows, for example), whereas others require an explicit list of
+imported symbols at module link time (AIX is one example), or offer a choice of
+different strategies (most Unices). And even if symbols are globally visible,
+the module whose functions one wishes to call might not have been loaded yet!</p>
+<p>Portability therefore requires not to make any assumptions about symbol
+visibility. This means that all symbols in extension modules should be declared
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">static</span></code>, except for the module’s initialization function, in order to
+avoid name clashes with other extension modules (as discussed in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#methodtable"><span class="std std-ref">The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function</span></a>). And it means that symbols that <em>should</em> be accessible from
+other extension modules must be exported in a different way.</p>
+<p>Python provides a special mechanism to pass C-level information (pointers) from
+one extension module to another one: Capsules. A Capsule is a Python data type
+which stores a pointer (<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>).  Capsules can only be created and
+accessed via their C API, but they can be passed around like any other Python
+object. In particular,  they can be assigned to a name in an extension module’s
+namespace. Other extension modules can then import this module, retrieve the
+value of this name, and then retrieve the pointer from the Capsule.</p>
+<p>There are many ways in which Capsules can be used to export the C API of an
+extension module. Each function could get its own Capsule, or all C API pointers
+could be stored in an array whose address is published in a Capsule. And the
+various tasks of storing and retrieving the pointers can be distributed in
+different ways between the module providing the code and the client modules.</p>
+<p>Whichever method you choose, it’s important to name your Capsules properly.
+The function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_New" title="PyCapsule_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_New()</span></code></a> takes a name parameter
+(<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>); you’re permitted to pass in a <em>NULL</em> name, but
+we strongly encourage you to specify a name.  Properly named Capsules provide
+a degree of runtime type-safety; there is no feasible way to tell one unnamed
+Capsule from another.</p>
+<p>In particular, Capsules used to expose C APIs should be given a name following
+this convention:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">modulename</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">attributename</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The convenience function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_Import" title="PyCapsule_Import"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_Import()</span></code></a> makes it easy to
+load a C API provided via a Capsule, but only if the Capsule’s name
+matches this convention.  This behavior gives C API users a high degree
+of certainty that the Capsule they load contains the correct C API.</p>
+<p>The following example demonstrates an approach that puts most of the burden on
+the writer of the exporting module, which is appropriate for commonly used
+library modules. It stores all C API pointers (just one in the example!) in an
+array of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span></code> pointers which becomes the value of a Capsule. The header
+file corresponding to the module provides a macro that takes care of importing
+the module and retrieving its C API pointers; client modules only have to call
+this macro before accessing the C API.</p>
+<p>The exporting module is a modification of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> module from section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#extending-simpleexample"><span class="std std-ref">A Simple Example</span></a>. The function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.system()</span></code> does not call
+the C library function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code> directly, but a function
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySpam_System()</span></code>, which would of course do something more complicated in
+reality (such as adding “spam” to every command). This function
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySpam_System()</span></code> is also exported to other extension modules.</p>
+<p>The function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySpam_System()</span></code> is a plain C function, declared
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">static</span></code> like everything else:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">PySpam_System</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam_system()</span></code> is modified in a trivial way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">spam_system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PySpam_System</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the beginning of the module, right after the line</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>two more lines must be added:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define SPAM_MODULE</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;spammodule.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#define</span></code> is used to tell the header file that it is being included in the
+exporting module, not a client module. Finally, the module’s initialization
+function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_spam</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">PySpam_API</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">PySpam_API_pointers</span><span class="p">];</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">c_api_object</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">spammodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Initialize the C API pointer array */</span>
+    <span class="n">PySpam_API</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">PySpam_System_NUM</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">PySpam_System</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array&#39;s address */</span>
+    <span class="n">c_api_object</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyCapsule_New</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">PySpam_API</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;spam._C_API&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_api_object</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;_C_API&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_api_object</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySpam_API</span></code> is declared <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">static</span></code>; otherwise the pointer
+array would disappear when <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_spam()</span></code> terminates!</p>
+<p>The bulk of the work is in the header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spammodule.h</span></code>, which looks
+like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H</span>
+<span class="cp">#define Py_SPAMMODULE_H</span>
+<span class="cp">#ifdef __cplusplus</span>
+<span class="k">extern</span> <span class="s">&quot;C&quot;</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* Header file for spammodule */</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* C API functions */</span>
+<span class="cp">#define PySpam_System_NUM 0</span>
+<span class="cp">#define PySpam_System_RETURN int</span>
+<span class="cp">#define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* Total number of C API pointers */</span>
+<span class="cp">#define PySpam_API_pointers 1</span>
+
+
+<span class="cp">#ifdef SPAM_MODULE</span>
+<span class="cm">/* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PySpam_System_RETURN</span> <span class="n">PySpam_System</span> <span class="n">PySpam_System_PROTO</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#else</span>
+<span class="cm">/* This section is used in modules that use spammodule&#39;s API */</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">PySpam_API</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define PySpam_System \</span>
+<span class="cp"> (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* Return -1 on error, 0 on success.</span>
+<span class="cm"> * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there&#39;s an error.</span>
+<span class="cm"> */</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">import_spam</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PySpam_API</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">PyCapsule_Import</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;spam._C_API&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PySpam_API</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">?</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#ifdef __cplusplus</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#endif </span><span class="cm">/* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySpam_System()</span></code> is to call the function (or rather macro)
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_spam()</span></code> in its initialization function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">clientmodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">import_spam</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* additional initialization can happen here */</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spammodule.h</span></code> is
+rather complicated. However, the basic structure is the same for each function
+that is exported, so it has to be learned only once.</p>
+<p>Finally it should be mentioned that Capsules offer additional functionality,
+which is especially useful for memory allocation and deallocation of the pointer
+stored in a Capsule. The details are described in the Python/C API Reference
+Manual in the section <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#capsules"><span class="std std-ref">Capsules</span></a> and in the implementation of Capsules (files
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/pycapsule.h</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/pycapsule.c</span></code> in the Python source
+code distribution).</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id5"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>An interface for this function already exists in the standard module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a>
+— it was chosen as a simple and straightforward example.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id6"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The metaphor of “borrowing” a reference is not completely correct: the owner
+still has a copy of the reference.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id7"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Checking that the reference count is at least 1 <strong>does not work</strong> — the
+reference count itself could be in freed memory and may thus be reused for
+another object!</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">4</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>These guarantees don’t hold when you use the “old” style calling convention —
+this is still found in much existing code.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">1. Extending Python with C or C++</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-simple-example">1.1. A Simple Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#intermezzo-errors-and-exceptions">1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#back-to-the-example">1.3. Back to the Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function">1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compilation-and-linkage">1.5. Compilation and Linkage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calling-python-functions-from-c">1.6. Calling Python Functions from C</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extracting-parameters-in-extension-functions">1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#keyword-parameters-for-extension-functions">1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#building-arbitrary-values">1.9. Building Arbitrary Values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference-counts">1.10. Reference Counts</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference-counting-in-python">1.10.1. Reference Counting in Python</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ownership-rules">1.10.2. Ownership Rules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thin-ice">1.10.3. Thin Ice</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#null-pointers">1.10.4. NULL Pointers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-extensions-in-c">1.11. Writing Extensions in C++</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#providing-a-c-api-for-an-extension-module">1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="extending-and-embedding-the-python-interpreter">
+<span id="extending-index"></span><h1>Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter<a class="headerlink" href="#extending-and-embedding-the-python-interpreter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This document describes how to write modules in C or C++ to extend the Python
+interpreter with new modules.  Those modules can not only define new functions
+but also new object types and their methods.  The document also describes how
+to embed the Python interpreter in another application, for use as an extension
+language.  Finally, it shows how to compile and link extension modules so that
+they can be loaded dynamically (at run time) into the interpreter, if the
+underlying operating system supports this feature.</p>
+<p>This document assumes basic knowledge about Python.  For an informal
+introduction to the language, see <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/index.html#tutorial-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Tutorial</span></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/index.html#reference-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Language Reference</span></a>
+gives a more formal definition of the language.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a> documents
+the existing object types, functions and modules (both built-in and written in
+Python) that give the language its wide application range.</p>
+<p>For a detailed description of the whole Python/C API, see the separate
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/index.html#c-api-index"><span class="std std-ref">Python/C API Reference Manual</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="recommended-third-party-tools">
+<h2>Recommended third party tools<a class="headerlink" href="#recommended-third-party-tools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This guide only covers the basic tools for creating extensions provided
+as part of this version of CPython. Third party tools like
+<a class="reference external" href="http://cython.org/">Cython</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://cffi.readthedocs.io">cffi</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.swig.org">SWIG</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://numba.pydata.org/">Numba</a>
+offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++
+extensions for Python.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/">Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions</a></dt><dd><p>The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available
+tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also
+discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may be
+desirable in the first place.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-extensions-without-third-party-tools">
+<h2>Creating extensions without third party tools<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-extensions-without-third-party-tools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section of the guide covers creating C and C++ extensions without
+assistance from third party tools. It is intended primarily for creators
+of those tools, rather than being a recommended way to create your own
+C extensions.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html">1. Extending Python with C or C++</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#a-simple-example">1.1. A Simple Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#intermezzo-errors-and-exceptions">1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#back-to-the-example">1.3. Back to the Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function">1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#compilation-and-linkage">1.5. Compilation and Linkage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#calling-python-functions-from-c">1.6. Calling Python Functions from C</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#extracting-parameters-in-extension-functions">1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#keyword-parameters-for-extension-functions">1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#building-arbitrary-values">1.9. Building Arbitrary Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#reference-counts">1.10. Reference Counts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#writing-extensions-in-c">1.11. Writing Extensions in C++</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="extending.html#providing-a-c-api-for-an-extension-module">1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes_tutorial.html">2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes_tutorial.html#the-basics">2.1. The Basics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes_tutorial.html#adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example">2.2. Adding data and methods to the Basic example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes_tutorial.html#providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes">2.3. Providing finer control over data attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes_tutorial.html#supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection">2.4. Supporting cyclic garbage collection</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes_tutorial.html#subclassing-other-types">2.5. Subclassing other types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html">3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#finalization-and-de-allocation">3.1. Finalization and De-allocation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#object-presentation">3.2. Object Presentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#attribute-management">3.3. Attribute Management</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#object-comparison">3.4. Object Comparison</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#abstract-protocol-support">3.5. Abstract Protocol Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#weak-reference-support">3.6. Weak Reference Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#more-suggestions">3.7. More Suggestions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="building.html">4. Building C and C++ Extensions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="building.html#building-c-and-c-extensions-with-distutils">4.1. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="building.html#distributing-your-extension-modules">4.2. Distributing your extension modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html">5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#a-cookbook-approach">5.1. A Cookbook Approach</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#differences-between-unix-and-windows">5.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#using-dlls-in-practice">5.3. Using DLLs in Practice</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="embedding-the-cpython-runtime-in-a-larger-application">
+<h2>Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application<a class="headerlink" href="#embedding-the-cpython-runtime-in-a-larger-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes, rather than creating an extension that runs inside the Python
+interpreter as the main application, it is desirable to instead embed
+the CPython runtime inside a larger application. This section covers
+some of the details involved in doing that successfully.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="embedding.html">1. Embedding Python in Another Application</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="embedding.html#very-high-level-embedding">1.1. Very High Level Embedding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="embedding.html#beyond-very-high-level-embedding-an-overview">1.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="embedding.html#pure-embedding">1.3. Pure Embedding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="embedding.html#extending-embedded-python">1.4. Extending Embedded Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="embedding.html#embedding-python-in-c">1.5. Embedding Python in C++</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="embedding.html#compiling-and-linking-under-unix-like-systems">1.6. Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#recommended-third-party-tools">Recommended third party tools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-extensions-without-third-party-tools">Creating extensions without third party tools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#embedding-the-cpython-runtime-in-a-larger-application">Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../library/undoc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Undocumented Modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">1. Extending Python with C or C++</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,828 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="defining-extension-types-assorted-topics">
+<h1>3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-extension-types-assorted-topics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="dnt-type-methods">This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods you can
+implement and what they do.</p>
+<p>Here is the definition of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a>, with some fields only used in
+debug builds omitted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">_typeobject</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_VAR_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_name</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For printing, in format &quot;&lt;module&gt;.&lt;name&gt;&quot; */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">tp_basicsize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tp_itemsize</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For allocation */</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Methods to implement standard operations */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">destructor</span> <span class="n">tp_dealloc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">printfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_print</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">getattrfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_getattr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">setattrfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_setattr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyAsyncMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_async</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)</span>
+<span class="cm">                                    or tp_reserved (Python 3) */</span>
+    <span class="n">reprfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_repr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Method suites for standard classes */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">PyNumberMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PySequenceMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_sequence</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyMappingMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_mapping</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">hashfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_hash</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">ternaryfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_call</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">reprfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_str</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">getattrofunc</span> <span class="n">tp_getattro</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">setattrofunc</span> <span class="n">tp_setattro</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyBufferProcs</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_buffer</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */</span>
+    <span class="kt">unsigned</span> <span class="kt">long</span> <span class="n">tp_flags</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Documentation string */</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* call function for all accessible objects */</span>
+    <span class="n">traverseproc</span> <span class="n">tp_traverse</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* delete references to contained objects */</span>
+    <span class="n">inquiry</span> <span class="n">tp_clear</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* rich comparisons */</span>
+    <span class="n">richcmpfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_richcompare</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* weak reference enabler */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">tp_weaklistoffset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Iterators */</span>
+    <span class="n">getiterfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_iter</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">iternextfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_iternext</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_members</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">_typeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_base</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_dict</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">descrgetfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_descr_get</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">descrsetfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_descr_set</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">tp_dictoffset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">initproc</span> <span class="n">tp_init</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">allocfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">newfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_new</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">freefunc</span> <span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* Low-level free-memory routine */</span>
+    <span class="n">inquiry</span> <span class="n">tp_is_gc</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For PyObject_IS_GC */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_bases</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_mro</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* method resolution order */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_cache</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_subclasses</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_weaklist</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">destructor</span> <span class="n">tp_del</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */</span>
+    <span class="kt">unsigned</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">tp_version_tag</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">destructor</span> <span class="n">tp_finalize</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now that’s a <em>lot</em> of methods.  Don’t worry too much though – if you have
+a type you want to define, the chances are very good that you will only
+implement a handful of these.</p>
+<p>As you probably expect by now, we’re going to go over this and give more
+information about the various handlers.  We won’t go in the order they are
+defined in the structure, because there is a lot of historical baggage that
+impacts the ordering of the fields.  It’s often easiest to find an example
+that includes the fields you need and then change the values to suit your new
+type.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_name</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For printing */</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The name of the type – as mentioned in the previous chapter, this will appear in
+various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes. Try to choose something
+that will be helpful in such a situation!</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Py_ssize_t</span> <span class="n">tp_basicsize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tp_itemsize</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* For allocation */</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new objects of
+this type are created.  Python has some built-in support for variable length
+structures (think: strings, tuples) which is where the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> field
+comes in.  This will be dealt with later.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when the
+Python script references <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.__doc__</span></code> to retrieve the doc string.</p>
+<p>Now we come to the basic type methods – the ones most extension types will
+implement.</p>
+<div class="section" id="finalization-and-de-allocation">
+<h2>3.1. Finalization and De-allocation<a class="headerlink" href="#finalization-and-de-allocation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate" id="index-0"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">destructor</span> <span class="n">tp_dealloc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function is called when the reference count of the instance of your type is
+reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to reclaim it.  If your type
+has memory to free or other clean-up to perform, you can put it here.  The
+object itself needs to be freed here as well.  Here is an example of this
+function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newdatatypeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-1">One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it leaves any
+pending exceptions alone.  This is important since deallocators are frequently
+called as the interpreter unwinds the Python stack; when the stack is unwound
+due to an exception (rather than normal returns), nothing is done to protect the
+deallocators from seeing that an exception has already been set.  Any actions
+which a deallocator performs which may cause additional Python code to be
+executed may detect that an exception has been set.  This can lead to misleading
+errors from the interpreter.  The proper way to protect against this is to save
+a pending exception before performing the unsafe action, and restoring it when
+done.  This can be done using the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Fetch" title="PyErr_Fetch"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Fetch()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Restore" title="PyErr_Restore"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Restore()</span></code></a> functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">my_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">MyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">cbresult</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">my_callback</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">err_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">err_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">err_traceback</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+        <span class="cm">/* This saves the current exception state */</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Fetch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">err_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">err_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">err_traceback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+        <span class="n">cbresult</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_CallObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cbresult</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">PyErr_WriteUnraisable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cbresult</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+        <span class="cm">/* This restores the saved exception state */</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Restore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">err_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">err_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">err_traceback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There are limitations to what you can safely do in a deallocator function.
+First, if your type supports garbage collection (using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a>
+and/or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear" title="PyTypeObject.tp_clear"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_clear</span></code></a>), some of the object’s members can have been
+cleared or finalized by the time <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> is called.  Second, in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a>, your object is in an unstable state: its reference
+count is equal to zero.  Any call to a non-trivial object or API (as in the
+example above) might end up calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> again, causing a
+double free and a crash.</p>
+<p>Starting with Python 3.4, it is recommended not to put any complex
+finalization code in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a>, and instead use the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_finalize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_finalize</span></code></a> type method.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0442"><strong>PEP 442</strong></a> explains the new finalization scheme.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="object-presentation">
+<span id="index-3"></span><h2>3.2. Object Presentation<a class="headerlink" href="#object-presentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python, there are two ways to generate a textual representation of an object:
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> function.  (The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a>
+function just calls <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>.)  These handlers are both optional.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">reprfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_repr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">reprfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_str</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> handler should return a string object containing a
+representation of the instance for which it is called.  Here is a simple
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newdatatypeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If no <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> handler is specified, the interpreter will supply a
+representation that uses the type’s <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_name" title="PyTypeObject.tp_name"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_name</span></code></a> and a uniquely-identifying
+value for the object.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_str" title="PyTypeObject.tp_str"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_str</span></code></a> handler is to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> what the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> handler
+described above is to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>; that is, it is called when Python code calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> on an instance of your object.  Its implementation is very similar
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> function, but the resulting string is intended for human
+consumption.  If <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_str" title="PyTypeObject.tp_str"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_str</span></code></a> is not specified, the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_repr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_repr</span></code></a> handler is
+used instead.</p>
+<p>Here is a simple example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newdatatypeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="attribute-management">
+<h2>3.3. Attribute Management<a class="headerlink" href="#attribute-management" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type must
+provide the functions that control how the attributes are resolved.  There needs
+to be a function which can retrieve attributes (if any are defined), and another
+to set attributes (if setting attributes is allowed).  Removing an attribute is
+a special case, for which the new value passed to the handler is <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports attributes
+only needs to implement the functions for one pair.  The difference is that one
+pair takes the name of the attribute as a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char*</span></code>, while the other
+accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>.  Each type can use whichever pair makes more
+sense for the implementation’s convenience.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">getattrfunc</span>  <span class="n">tp_getattr</span><span class="p">;</span>        <span class="cm">/* char * version */</span>
+<span class="n">setattrfunc</span>  <span class="n">tp_setattr</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="cm">/* ... */</span>
+<span class="n">getattrofunc</span> <span class="n">tp_getattro</span><span class="p">;</span>       <span class="cm">/* PyObject * version */</span>
+<span class="n">setattrofunc</span> <span class="n">tp_setattro</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation (this will be
+explained shortly), there are generic implementations which can be used to
+provide the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> version of the attribute management functions.
+The actual need for type-specific attribute handlers almost completely
+disappeared starting with Python 2.2, though there are many examples which have
+not been updated to use some of the new generic mechanism that is available.</p>
+<div class="section" id="generic-attribute-management">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>3.3.1. Generic Attribute Management<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-attribute-management" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most extension types only use <em>simple</em> attributes.  So, what makes the
+attributes simple?  There are only a couple of conditions that must be met:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>The name of the attributes must be known when <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> is
+called.</p></li>
+<li><p>No special processing is needed to record that an attribute was looked up or
+set, nor do actions need to be taken based on the value.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of the
+attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is stored.</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> is called, it uses three tables referenced by the
+type object to create <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-descriptor"><span class="xref std std-term">descriptor</span></a>s which are placed in the dictionary of the
+type object.  Each descriptor controls access to one attribute of the instance
+object.  Each of the tables is optional; if all three are <em>NULL</em>, instances of
+the type will only have attributes that are inherited from their base type, and
+should leave the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattro</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattro"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattro</span></code></a> fields <em>NULL</em> as
+well, allowing the base type to handle attributes.</p>
+<p>The tables are declared as three fields of the type object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_members</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods" title="PyTypeObject.tp_methods"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_methods</span></code></a> is not <em>NULL</em>, it must refer to an array of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structures.  Each entry in the table is an instance of this
+structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span>  <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">ml_name</span><span class="p">;</span>       <span class="cm">/* method name */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyCFunction</span>  <span class="n">ml_meth</span><span class="p">;</span>       <span class="cm">/* implementation function */</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span>          <span class="n">ml_flags</span><span class="p">;</span>      <span class="cm">/* flags */</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span>  <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">ml_doc</span><span class="p">;</span>        <span class="cm">/* docstring */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no entries are
+needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One additional entry is needed
+at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the end of the array.  The
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ml_name</span></code> field of the sentinel must be <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data stored
+in the instance.  A variety of primitive C types are supported, and access may
+be read-only or read-write.  The structures in the table are defined as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span>         <span class="n">type</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span>         <span class="n">offset</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span>         <span class="n">flags</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">doc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For each entry in the table, a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-descriptor"><span class="xref std std-term">descriptor</span></a> will be constructed and added to the
+type which will be able to extract a value from the instance structure.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> field should contain one of the type codes defined in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">structmember.h</span></code> header; the value will be used to determine how to
+convert Python values to and from C values.  The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flags</span></code> field is used to
+store flags which control how the attribute can be accessed.</p>
+<p>The following flag constants are defined in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">structmember.h</span></code>; they may be
+combined using bitwise-OR.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">READONLY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Never writable.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">READ_RESTRICTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Not readable in restricted mode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WRITE_RESTRICTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Not writable in restricted mode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RESTRICTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Not readable or writable in restricted mode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p id="index-4">An interesting advantage of using the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_members" title="PyTypeObject.tp_members"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_members</span></code></a> table to build
+descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined this way can
+have an associated doc string simply by providing the text in the table.  An
+application can use the introspection API to retrieve the descriptor from the
+class object, and get the doc string using its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p>As with the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods" title="PyTypeObject.tp_methods"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_methods</span></code></a> table, a sentinel entry with a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> value
+of <em>NULL</em> is required.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="type-specific-attribute-management">
+<h3>3.3.2. Type-specific Attribute Management<a class="headerlink" href="#type-specific-attribute-management" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For simplicity, only the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char*</span></code> version will be demonstrated here; the
+type of the name parameter is the only difference between the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char*</span></code>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> flavors of the interface. This example effectively does
+the same thing as the generic example above, but does not use the generic
+support added in Python 2.2.  It explains how the handler functions are
+called, so that if you do need to extend their functionality, you’ll understand
+what needs to be done.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getattr</span></code></a> handler is called when the object requires an attribute
+look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a>
+method of a class would be called.</p>
+<p>Here is an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newdatatypeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">strcmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;data&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+    <span class="n">PyErr_Format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="s">&quot;&#39;%.50s&#39; object has no attribute &#39;%.400s&#39;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="n">tp</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattr</span></code></a> handler is called when the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delattr__" title="object.__delattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delattr__()</span></code></a> method of a class instance would be called.  When an
+attribute should be deleted, the third parameter will be <em>NULL</em>.  Here is an
+example that simply raises an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr" title="PyTypeObject.tp_setattr"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_setattr</span></code></a> handler should be set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newdatatypeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyErr_Format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_RuntimeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Read-only attribute: %s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="object-comparison">
+<h2>3.4. Object Comparison<a class="headerlink" href="#object-comparison" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">richcmpfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_richcompare</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare" title="PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code></a> handler is called when comparisons are needed.  It is
+analogous to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#richcmpfuncs"><span class="std std-ref">rich comparison methods</span></a>, like
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>, and also called by <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompare" title="PyObject_RichCompare"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_RichCompare()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompareBool" title="PyObject_RichCompareBool"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_RichCompareBool()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This function is called with two Python objects and the operator as arguments,
+where the operator is one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EQ</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LT</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GT</span></code>.  It should compare the two objects with respect to the
+specified operator and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_False</span></code> if the comparison is
+successful, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code> to indicate that comparison is not
+implemented and the other object’s comparison method should be tried, or <em>NULL</em>
+if an exception was set.</p>
+<p>Here is a sample implementation, for a datatype that is considered equal if the
+size of an internal pointer is equal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_richcmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">op</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">size1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">size2</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="cm">/* code to make sure that both arguments are of type</span>
+<span class="cm">       newdatatype omitted */</span>
+
+    <span class="n">size1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">obj1</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">size2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">obj2</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">switch</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">op</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">case</span> <span class="nl">Py_LT</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">size1</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span>  <span class="n">size2</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">case</span> <span class="nl">Py_LE</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">size1</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">size2</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">case</span> <span class="nl">Py_EQ</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">size1</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">size2</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">case</span> <span class="nl">Py_NE</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">size1</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">size2</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">case</span> <span class="nl">Py_GT</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">size1</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span>  <span class="n">size2</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">case</span> <span class="nl">Py_GE</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">size1</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="n">size2</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">?</span> <span class="nl">Py_True</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Py_False</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+ <span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="abstract-protocol-support">
+<h2>3.5. Abstract Protocol Support<a class="headerlink" href="#abstract-protocol-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python supports a variety of <em>abstract</em> ‘protocols;’ the specific interfaces
+provided to use these interfaces are documented in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/abstract.html#abstract"><span class="std std-ref">Abstract Objects Layer</span></a>.</p>
+<p>A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the development of
+the Python implementation.  In particular, the number, mapping, and sequence
+protocols have been part of Python since the beginning.  Other protocols have
+been added over time.  For protocols which depend on several handler routines
+from the type implementation, the older protocols have been defined as optional
+blocks of handlers referenced by the type object.  For newer protocols there are
+additional slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being set to indicate
+that the slots are present and should be checked by the interpreter.  (The flag
+bit does not indicate that the slot values are non-<em>NULL</em>. The flag may be set
+to indicate the presence of a slot, but a slot may still be unfilled.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyNumberMethods</span>   <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">PySequenceMethods</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_sequence</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">PyMappingMethods</span>  <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tp_as_mapping</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence, or a
+mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that implements the C
+type <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyNumberMethods" title="PyNumberMethods"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumberMethods</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods" title="PySequenceMethods"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequenceMethods</span></code></a>, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyMappingMethods" title="PyMappingMethods"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMappingMethods</span></code></a>, respectively. It is up to you to fill in this
+structure with appropriate values. You can find examples of the use of each of
+these in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects</span></code> directory of the Python source distribution.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">hashfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_hash</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash number for an
+instance of your data type. Here is a simple example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">Py_hash_t</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newdatatypeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_hash_t</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">some_size</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">32767</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">some_number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+       <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_hash_t</span></code> is a signed integer type with a platform-varying width.
+Returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> from <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash" title="PyTypeObject.tp_hash"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code></a> indicates an error,
+which is why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash computation
+is successful, as seen above.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ternaryfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_call</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function is called when an instance of your data type is “called”, for
+example, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj1</span></code> is an instance of your data type and the Python script
+contains <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj1('hello')</span></code>, the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_call" title="PyTypeObject.tp_call"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_call</span></code></a> handler is invoked.</p>
+<p>This function takes three arguments:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p><em>self</em> is the instance of the data type which is the subject of the call.
+If the call is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj1('hello')</span></code>, then <em>self</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj1</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>args</em> is a tuple containing the arguments to the call.  You can use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> to extract the arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>kwds</em> is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed. If this is
+non-<em>NULL</em> and you support keyword arguments, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> to extract the arguments.  If you
+do not want to support keyword arguments and this is non-<em>NULL</em>, raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> with a message saying that keyword arguments are not supported.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Here is a toy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_call</span></code> implementation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">newdatatype_call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newdatatypeobject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg3</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;sss:call&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">arg3</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="s">&quot;Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg3</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/* Iterators */</span>
+<span class="n">getiterfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_iter</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">iternextfunc</span> <span class="n">tp_iternext</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Both handlers
+take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are being called,
+and return a new reference.  In the case of an error, they should set an
+exception and return <em>NULL</em>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a> corresponds
+to the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method, while <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a>
+corresponds to the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> object must implement the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a>
+handler, which must return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> object.  Here the same guidelines
+apply as for Python classes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>For collections (such as lists and tuples) which can support multiple
+independent iterators, a new iterator should be created and returned by
+each call to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Objects which can only be iterated over once (usually due to side effects of
+iteration, such as file objects) can implement <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a>
+by returning a new reference to themselves – and should also therefore
+implement the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a>  handler.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> object should implement both <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a>.  An iterator’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a> handler should return a new reference
+to the iterator.  Its <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a> handler should
+return a new reference to the next object in the iteration, if there is one.
+If the iteration has reached the end, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a>
+may return <em>NULL</em> without setting an exception, or it may set
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> <em>in addition</em> to returning <em>NULL</em>; avoiding
+the exception can yield slightly better performance.  If an actual error
+occurs, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a> should always set an exception
+and return <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="weak-reference-support">
+<span id="weakref-support"></span><h2>3.6. Weak Reference Support<a class="headerlink" href="#weak-reference-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>One of the goals of Python’s weak reference implementation is to allow any type
+to participate in the weak reference mechanism without incurring the overhead on
+performance-critical objects (such as numbers).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>Documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<p>For an object to be weakly referencable, the extension type must do two things:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Include a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> field in the C object structure dedicated to
+the weak reference mechanism.  The object’s constructor should leave it
+<em>NULL</em> (which is automatic when using the default
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Set the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_weaklistoffset</span></code></a> type member
+to the offset of the aforementioned field in the C object structure,
+so that the interpreter knows how to access and modify that field.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Concretely, here is how a trivial object structure would be augmented
+with the required field:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">weakreflist</span><span class="p">;</span>  <span class="cm">/* List of weak references */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">TrivialObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And the corresponding member in the statically-declared type object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">TrivialType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_weaklistoffset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TrivialObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">weakreflist</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The only further addition is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code> needs to clear any weak
+references (by calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_ClearWeakRefs()</span></code>) if the field is
+non-<em>NULL</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">Trivial_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TrivialObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">weakreflist</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">PyObject_ClearWeakRefs</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="more-suggestions">
+<h2>3.7. More Suggestions<a class="headerlink" href="#more-suggestions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new data type,
+get the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a> source code.  Go to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects</span></code> directory,
+then search the C source files for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_</span></code> plus the function you want
+(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcompare</span></code>).  You will find examples of the function
+you want to implement.</p>
+<p>When you need to verify that an object is a concrete instance of the type you
+are implementing, use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_TypeCheck" title="PyObject_TypeCheck"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_TypeCheck()</span></code></a> function.  A sample of
+its use might be something like the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyObject_TypeCheck</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">MyType</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;arg #1 not a mything&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Download CPython source releases.</dt><dd><p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/source/">https://www.python.org/downloads/source/</a></p>
+</dd>
+<dt>The CPython project on GitHub, where the CPython source code is developed.</dt><dd><p><a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython">https://github.com/python/cpython</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finalization-and-de-allocation">3.1. Finalization and De-allocation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#object-presentation">3.2. Object Presentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#attribute-management">3.3. Attribute Management</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generic-attribute-management">3.3.1. Generic Attribute Management</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-specific-attribute-management">3.3.2. Type-specific Attribute Management</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#object-comparison">3.4. Object Comparison</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abstract-protocol-support">3.5. Abstract Protocol Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#weak-reference-support">3.6. Weak Reference Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-suggestions">3.7. More Suggestions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="newtypes_tutorial.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="building.html"
+                        title="next chapter">4. Building C and C++ Extensions</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst"
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new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4051bd
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@@ -0,0 +1,1637 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="defining-extension-types-tutorial">
+<span id="defining-new-types"></span><h1>2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-extension-types-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python allows the writer of a C extension module to define new types that
+can be manipulated from Python code, much like the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> types.  The code for all extension types follows a
+pattern, but there are some details that you need to understand before you
+can get started.  This document is a gentle introduction to the topic.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-basics">
+<span id="dnt-basics"></span><h2>2.1. The Basics<a class="headerlink" href="#the-basics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a> runtime sees all Python objects as variables of type
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>, which serves as a “base type” for all Python objects.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> structure itself only contains the object’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-reference-count"><span class="xref std std-term">reference count</span></a> and a pointer to the object’s “type object”.
+This is where the action is; the type object determines which (C) functions
+get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an attribute gets looked up
+on an object, a method called, or it is multiplied by another object.  These
+C functions are called “type methods”.</p>
+<p>So, if you want to define a new extension type, you need to create a new type
+object.</p>
+<p>This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here’s a minimal, but
+complete, module that defines a new type named <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> inside a C
+extension module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>What we’re showing here is the traditional way of defining <em>static</em>
+extension types.  It should be adequate for most uses.  The C API also
+allows defining heap-allocated extension types using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_FromSpec" title="PyType_FromSpec"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_FromSpec()</span></code></a> function, which isn’t covered in this tutorial.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Type-specific fields go here. */</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom.Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom objects&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyType_GenericNew</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Example module that creates an extension type.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_custom</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now that’s quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem familiar
+from the previous chapter.  This file defines three things:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>What a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> <strong>object</strong> contains: this is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomObject</span></code>
+struct, which is allocated once for each <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instance.</p></li>
+<li><p>How the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> <strong>type</strong> behaves: this is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomType</span></code> struct,
+which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the interpreter
+inspects when specific operations are requested.</p></li>
+<li><p>How to initialize the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code> module: this is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom</span></code>
+function and the associated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custommodule</span></code> struct.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The first bit is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is what a Custom object will contain.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code> is mandatory
+at the start of each object struct and defines a field called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_base</span></code>
+of type <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a>, containing a pointer to a type object and a
+reference count (these can be accessed using the macros <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.Py_REFCNT" title="Py_REFCNT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_REFCNT</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.Py_TYPE" title="Py_TYPE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TYPE</span></code></a> respectively).  The reason for the macro is to
+abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in debug builds.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There is no semicolon above after the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD" title="PyObject_HEAD"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code></a> macro.
+Be wary of adding one by accident: some compilers will complain.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Of course, objects generally store additional data besides the standard
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code> boilerplate; for example, here is the definition for
+standard Python floats:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="kt">double</span> <span class="n">ob_fval</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyFloatObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The second bit is the definition of the type object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom.Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom objects&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyType_GenericNew</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>We recommend using C99-style designated initializers as above, to
+avoid listing all the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> fields that you don’t care
+about and also to avoid caring about the fields’ declaration order.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The actual definition of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.h</span></code> has
+many more <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#type-structs"><span class="std std-ref">fields</span></a> than the definition above.  The
+remaining fields will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and it’s
+common practice to not specify them explicitly unless you need them.</p>
+<p>We’re going to pick it apart, one field at a time:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This line is mandatory boilerplate to initialize the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_base</span></code>
+field mentioned above.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom.Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The name of our type.  This will appear in the default textual representation of
+our objects and in some error messages, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Custom</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">can only concatenate str (not &quot;custom.Custom&quot;) to str</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name and the
+name of the type within the module. The module in this case is <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code> and
+the type is <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code>, so we set the type name to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom.Custom</span></code>.
+Using the real dotted import path is important to make your type compatible
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
+new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instances.  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> is
+only used for variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type has the same
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> as its base type, you may have problems with multiple
+inheritance.  A Python subclass of your type will have to list your type first
+in its <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code></a>, or else it will not be able to call your type’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method without getting an error.  You can avoid this problem by
+ensuring that your type has a larger value for <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> than its
+base type does.  Most of the time, this will be true anyway, because either your
+base type will be <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, or else you will be adding data members to
+your base type, and therefore increasing its size.</p>
+</div>
+<p>We set the class flags to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT" title="Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>All types should include this constant in their flags.  It enables all of the
+members defined until at least Python 3.3.  If you need further members,
+you will need to OR the corresponding flags.</p>
+<p>We provide a doc string for the type in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_doc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_doc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_doc</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom objects&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To enable object creation, we have to provide a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a>
+handler.  This is the equivalent of the Python method <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>, but
+has to be specified explicitly.  In this case, we can just use the default
+implementation provided by the API function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew" title="PyType_GenericNew"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericNew()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyType_GenericNew</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This initializes the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type, filling in a number of members
+to the appropriate default values, including <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> that we initially
+set to <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instances by calling the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">custom</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mycustom</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Custom</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That’s it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a file called
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom.c</span></code> and:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;1.0&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom.c&quot;</span><span class="p">])])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>in a file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>; then typing</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python setup.py build
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>at a shell should produce a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom.so</span></code> in a subdirectory; move to
+that directory and fire up Python — you should be able to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">custom</span></code> and
+play around with Custom objects.</p>
+<p>That wasn’t so hard, was it?</p>
+<p>Of course, the current Custom type is pretty uninteresting. It has no data and
+doesn’t do anything. It can’t even be subclassed.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While this documentation showcases the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> module
+for building C extensions, it is recommended in real-world use cases to
+use the newer and better-maintained <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setuptools</span></code> library.  Documentation
+on how to do this is out of scope for this document and can be found in
+the <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/">Python Packaging User’s Guide</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example">
+<h2>2.2. Adding data and methods to the Basic example<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s extend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let’s also make
+the type usable as a base class. We’ll create a new module, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom2</span></code> that
+adds these capabilities:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;structmember.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>  <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;|OOi&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;first name&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;last name&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;custom number&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">Py_UNUSED</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ignored</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;%S %S&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;Return the name, combining the first and last name&quot;</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom2.Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom objects&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom2&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Example module that creates an extension type.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_custom2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This version of the module has a number of changes.</p>
+<p>We’ve added an extra include:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;structmember.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This include provides declarations that we use to handle attributes, as
+described a bit later.</p>
+<p>The  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
+<em>first</em>, <em>last</em>, and <em>number</em>.  The <em>first</em> and <em>last</em> variables are Python
+strings containing first and last names.  The <em>number</em> attribute is a C integer.</p>
+<p>The object structure is updated accordingly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>  <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about object
+allocation and deallocation.  At a minimum, we need a deallocation method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is assigned to the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> member:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python attributes.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> correctly handles the case where its argument is
+<em>NULL</em> (which might happen here if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> failed midway).  It then
+calls the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free" title="PyTypeObject.tp_free"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_free</span></code></a> member of the object’s type
+(computed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TYPE(self)</span></code>) to free the object’s memory.  Note that
+the object’s type might not be <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomType</span></code>, because the object may
+be an instance of a subclass.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The explicit cast to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">destructor</span></code> above is needed because we defined
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_dealloc</span></code> to take a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> argument, but the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code>
+function pointer expects to receive a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> argument.  Otherwise,
+the compiler will emit a warning.  This is object-oriented polymorphism,
+in C!</p>
+</div>
+<p>We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to empty
+strings, so we provide a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> implementation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and install it in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> member:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to initializing)
+objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method.
+It is not required to define a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> member, and indeed many extension
+types will simply reuse <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew" title="PyType_GenericNew"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericNew()</span></code></a> as done in the first
+version of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type above.  In this case, we use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code>
+handler to initialize the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes to non-<em>NULL</em>
+default values.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomType</span></code>,
+if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed when the type was
+called, and is expected to return the instance created.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> handlers
+always accept positional and keyword arguments, but they often ignore the
+arguments, leaving the argument handling to initializer (a.k.a. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code>
+in C or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> in Python) methods.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> shouldn’t call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code> explicitly, as the interpreter
+will do it itself.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> implementation calls the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>
+slot to allocate memory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since memory allocation may fail, we must check the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>
+result against <em>NULL</em> before proceeding.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>We didn’t fill the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a> slot ourselves. Rather
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> fills it for us by inheriting it from our base class,
+which is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> by default.  Most types use the default allocation
+strategy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you are creating a co-operative <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> (one
+that calls a base type’s <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>),
+you must <em>not</em> try to determine what method to call using method resolution
+order at runtime.  Always statically determine what type you are going to
+call, and call its <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> directly, or via
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type-&gt;tp_base-&gt;tp_new</span></code>.  If you do not do this, Python subclasses of your
+type that also inherit from other Python-defined classes may not work correctly.
+(Specifically, you may not be able to create instances of such subclasses
+without getting a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<p>We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to provide
+initial values for our instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;|OOi&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>by filling the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> slot.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> slot is exposed in Python as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method.  It is used to initialize an object after it’s
+created.  Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
+and they should return either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
+<p>Unlike the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> handler, there is no guarantee that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code>
+is called at all (for example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module by default
+doesn’t call <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> on unpickled instances).  It can also be
+called multiple times.  Anyone can call the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method on
+our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when assigning
+the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to assign the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> member like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>But this would be risky.  Our type doesn’t restrict the type of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> member, so it could be any kind of object.  It could have a
+destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> member; or that destructor could release the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">Global interpreter Lock</span></a> and let arbitrary code run in other
+threads that accesses and modifies our object.</p>
+<p>To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we almost
+always reassign members before decrementing their reference counts.  When
+don’t we have to do this?</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1;</p></li>
+<li><p>when we know that deallocation of the object <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id1">1</a> will neither release
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> nor cause any calls back into our type’s code;</p></li>
+<li><p>when decrementing a reference count in a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a>
+handler on a type which doesn’t support cyclic garbage collection <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id6" id="id2">2</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>We want to expose our instance variables as attributes. There are a
+number of ways to do that. The simplest way is to define member definitions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;first name&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;last name&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;custom number&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and put the definitions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_members" title="PyTypeObject.tp_members"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_members</span></code></a> slot:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and
+documentation string.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#generic-attribute-management"><span class="std std-ref">Generic Attribute Management</span></a> section
+below for details.</p>
+<p>A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn’t provide a way to restrict the
+types of objects that can be assigned to the Python attributes.  We expect the
+first and last names to be strings, but any Python objects can be assigned.
+Further, the attributes can be deleted, setting the C pointers to <em>NULL</em>.  Even
+though we can make sure the members are initialized to non-<em>NULL</em> values, the
+members can be set to <em>NULL</em> if the attributes are deleted.</p>
+<p>We define a single method, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom.name()</span></code>, that outputs the objects name as the
+concatenation of the first and last names.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;%S %S&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The method is implemented as a C function that takes a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> (or
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take an
+instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional and keyword
+arguments as well, but in this case we don’t take any and don’t need to accept
+a positional argument tuple or keyword argument dictionary. This method is
+equivalent to the Python method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that we have to check for the possibility that our <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> members are <em>NULL</em>.  This is because they can be deleted, in which
+case they are set to <em>NULL</em>.  It would be better to prevent deletion of these
+attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be strings.  We’ll see how to
+do that in the next section.</p>
+<p>Now that we’ve defined the method, we need to create an array of method
+definitions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;Return the name, combining the first and last name&quot;</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(note that we used the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_NOARGS" title="METH_NOARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_NOARGS</span></code></a> flag to indicate that the method
+is expecting no arguments other than <em>self</em>)</p>
+<p>and assign it to the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods" title="PyTypeObject.tp_methods"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_methods</span></code></a> slot:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, we’ll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing.  We’ve
+written our methods carefully so far so that they don’t make any assumptions
+about the type of the object being created or used, so all we need to do is
+to add the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE" title="Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span></code></a> to our class flag definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We rename <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom()</span></code> to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom2()</span></code>, update the
+module name in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code></a> struct, and update the full class
+name in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> struct.</p>
+<p>Finally, we update our <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file to build the new module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;1.0&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+         <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom.c&quot;</span><span class="p">]),</span>
+         <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom2&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;custom2.c&quot;</span><span class="p">]),</span>
+         <span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes">
+<h2>2.3. Providing finer control over data attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In this section, we’ll provide finer control over how the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes are set in the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> example. In the previous
+version of our module, the instance variables <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code>
+could be set to non-string values or even deleted. We want to make sure that
+these attributes always contain strings.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;structmember.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>  <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;|UUi&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;custom number&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Cannot delete the first attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="s">&quot;The first attribute value must be a string&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Cannot delete the last attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="s">&quot;The last attribute value must be a string&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;first name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;last name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">Py_UNUSED</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ignored</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;%S %S&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;Return the name, combining the first and last name&quot;</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom3.Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom objects&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom3&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Example module that creates an extension type.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_custom3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To provide greater control, over the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes,
+we’ll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions for
+getting and setting the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Cannot delete the first attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="s">&quot;The first attribute value must be a string&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The getter function is passed a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> object and a “closure”, which is
+a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The closure supports an
+advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the getter and setter. This
+could, for example, be used to allow a single set of getter and setter functions
+that decide the attribute to get or set based on data in the closure.)</p>
+<p>The setter function is passed the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> object, the new value, and the
+closure.  The new value may be <em>NULL</em>, in which case the attribute is being
+deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is deleted or if its
+new value is not a string.</p>
+<p>We create an array of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code></a> structures:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;first name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;last name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and register it in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getset</span></code></a> slot:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The last item in a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code></a> structure is the “closure” mentioned
+above.  In this case, we aren’t using a closure, so we just pass <em>NULL</em>.</p>
+<p>We also remove the member definitions for these attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;custom number&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We also need to update the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> handler to only
+allow strings <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id7" id="id3">3</a> to be passed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;|UUi&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With these changes, we can assure that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> members are
+never <em>NULL</em> so we can remove checks for <em>NULL</em> values in almost all cases.
+This means that most of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> calls can be converted to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> calls.  The only place we can’t change these calls is in
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code> implementation, where there is the possibility that the
+initialization of these members failed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code>.</p>
+<p>We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the
+initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra definition to the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection">
+<h2>2.4. Supporting cyclic garbage collection<a class="headerlink" href="#supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><span class="xref std std-term">cyclic garbage collector (GC)</span></a> that
+can identify unneeded objects even when their reference counts are not zero.
+This can happen when objects are involved in cycles.  For example, consider:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">l</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, we create a list that contains itself. When we delete it, it
+still has a reference from itself. Its reference count doesn’t drop to zero.
+Fortunately, Python’s cyclic garbage collector will eventually figure out that
+the list is garbage and free it.</p>
+<p>In the second version of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> example, we allowed any kind of
+object to be stored in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id4">4</a>.
+Besides, in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code>, and subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of
+those two reasons, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> objects can participate in cycles:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">custom3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Derived</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">custom3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Custom</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Derived</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">n</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To allow a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instance participating in a reference cycle to
+be properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type
+needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables these slots:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;structmember.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>  <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_GC_UnTrack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;|UUi&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;custom number&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Cannot delete the first attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="s">&quot;The first attribute value must be a string&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Cannot delete the last attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="s">&quot;The last attribute value must be a string&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;first&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;first name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;last&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;last name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">Py_UNUSED</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ignored</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;%S %S&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="s">&quot;Return the name, combining the first and last name&quot;</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom4.Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom objects&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_traverse</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traverseproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_clear</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inquiry</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;custom4&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Example module that creates an extension type.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_custom4</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;Custom&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects that could
+participate in cycles:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">vret</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">vret</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">vret</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">visit()</span></code> function, which is passed to the traversal method. The
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">visit()</span></code> function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra argument
+<em>arg</em> passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer value that must be
+returned if it is non-zero.</p>
+<p>Python provides a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a> macro that automates calling visit
+functions.  With <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a>, we can minimize the amount of boilerplate
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_traverse</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> implementation must name its
+arguments exactly <em>visit</em> and <em>arg</em> in order to use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can
+participate in cycles:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice the use of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> macro.  It is the recommended and safe
+way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types while decrementing
+their reference counts.  If you were to call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> instead
+on the attribute before setting it to <em>NULL</em>, there is a possibility
+that the attribute’s destructor would call back into code that reads the
+attribute again (<em>especially</em> if there is a reference cycle).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>You could emulate <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> by writing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always
+use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> when deleting an attribute.  Don’t
+try to micro-optimize at the expense of robustness!</p>
+</div>
+<p>The deallocator <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_dealloc</span></code> may call arbitrary code when clearing
+attributes.  It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the function.
+Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to untrack the object
+from the GC by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="PyObject_GC_UnTrack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code></a> before clearing members.
+Here is our reimplemented deallocator using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="PyObject_GC_UnTrack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code></a>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_clear</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject_GC_UnTrack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, we add the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag to the class flags:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That’s pretty much it.  If we had written custom <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free" title="PyTypeObject.tp_free"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_free</span></code></a> handlers, we’d need to modify them for cyclic
+garbage collection.  Most extensions will use the versions automatically provided.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subclassing-other-types">
+<h2>2.5. Subclassing other types<a class="headerlink" href="#subclassing-other-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from existing
+types. It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since an extension can
+easily use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> it needs. It can be difficult to share
+these <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> structures between extension modules.</p>
+<p>In this example we will create a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubList</span></code> type that inherits from the
+built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> type. The new type will be completely compatible with
+regular lists, but will have an additional <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">increment()</span></code> method that
+increases an internal counter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sublist</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sublist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SubList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyListObject</span> <span class="n">list</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">SubListObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">SubList_increment</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">unused</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">state</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">state</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">SubList_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;increment&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">SubList_increment</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="n">PyDoc_STR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;increment state counter&quot;</span><span class="p">)},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">SubList_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">state</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">SubListType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;sublist.SubList&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;SubList objects&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">SubList_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SubList_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">sublistmodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;sublist&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Example module that creates an extension type.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_sublist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_base</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">sublistmodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;SubList&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you can see, the source code closely resembles the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> examples in
+previous sections. We will break down the main differences between them.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyListObject</span> <span class="n">list</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">SubListObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type’s
+object structure must be the first value.  The base type will already include
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD" title="PyObject_HEAD"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD()</span></code></a> at the beginning of its structure.</p>
+<p>When a Python object is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubList</span></code> instance, its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> pointer
+can be safely cast to both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyListObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubListObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">SubList_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">state</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We see above how to call through to the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> method of the base
+type.</p>
+<p>This pattern is important when writing a type with custom
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a>
+members.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> handler should not actually
+create the memory for the object with its <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>,
+but let the base class handle it by calling its own <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> struct supports a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base" title="PyTypeObject.tp_base"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_base</span></code></a>
+specifying the type’s concrete base class.  Due to cross-platform compiler
+issues, you can’t fill that field directly with a reference to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Type" title="PyList_Type"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_Type</span></code></a>; it should be done later in the module initialization
+function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_sublist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_base</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">sublistmodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;SubList&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Before calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a>, the type structure must have the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base" title="PyTypeObject.tp_base"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_base</span></code></a> slot filled in.  When we are deriving an
+existing type, it is not necessary to fill out the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>
+slot with <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew" title="PyType_GenericNew"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericNew()</span></code></a> – the allocation function from the base
+type will be inherited.</p>
+<p>After that, calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> and adding the type object to the
+module is the same as with the basic <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> examples.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id5"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a string or a
+float.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id6"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>We relied on this in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> handler
+in this example, because our type doesn’t support garbage collection.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id7"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>We now know that the first and last members are strings, so perhaps we
+could be less careful about decrementing their reference counts, however,
+we accept instances of string subclasses.  Even though deallocating normal
+strings won’t call back into our objects, we can’t guarantee that deallocating
+an instance of a string subclass won’t call back into our objects.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">4</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances, the user
+could pass arbitrary <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> subclasses and therefore still create
+reference cycles.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-basics">2.1. The Basics</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example">2.2. Adding data and methods to the Basic example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes">2.3. Providing finer control over data attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection">2.4. Supporting cyclic garbage collection</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subclassing-other-types">2.5. Subclassing other types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="extending.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">1. Extending Python with C or C++</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="newtypes.html"
+                        title="next chapter">3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/windows.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/windows.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1002820
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/extending/windows.html
@@ -0,0 +1,289 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="embedding.html" title="1. Embedding Python in Another Application"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+          <a href="building.html" title="4. Building C and C++ Extensions"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</a> &#187;</li>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
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+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="building-c-and-c-extensions-on-windows">
+<span id="building-on-windows"></span><h1>5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#building-c-and-c-extensions-on-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This chapter briefly explains how to create a Windows extension module for
+Python using Microsoft Visual C++, and follows with more detailed background
+information on how it works.  The explanatory material is useful for both the
+Windows programmer learning to build Python extensions and the Unix programmer
+interested in producing software which can be successfully built on both Unix
+and Windows.</p>
+<p>Module authors are encouraged to use the distutils approach for building
+extension modules, instead of the one described in this section. You will still
+need the C compiler that was used to build Python; typically Microsoft Visual
+C++.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This chapter mentions a number of filenames that include an encoded Python
+version number.  These filenames are represented with the version number shown
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XY</span></code>; in practice, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code> will be the major version number and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Y'</span></code>
+will be the minor version number of the Python release you’re working with.  For
+example, if you are using Python 2.2.1, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XY</span></code> will actually be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">22</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-cookbook-approach">
+<span id="win-cookbook"></span><h2>5.1. A Cookbook Approach<a class="headerlink" href="#a-cookbook-approach" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just as there
+are on Unix: use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> package to control the build process, or
+do things manually.  The distutils approach works well for most extensions;
+documentation on using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> to build and package extension modules
+is available in <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/index.html#distutils-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a>.  If you find you really need to do
+things manually, it may be instructive to study the project file for the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj">winsound</a> standard library module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="differences-between-unix-and-windows">
+<span id="dynamic-linking"></span><h2>5.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#differences-between-unix-and-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Unix and Windows use completely different paradigms for run-time loading of
+code.  Before you try to build a module that can be dynamically loaded, be aware
+of how your system works.</p>
+<p>In Unix, a shared object (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code>) file contains code to be used by the
+program, and also the names of functions and data that it expects to find in the
+program.  When the file is joined to the program, all references to those
+functions and data in the file’s code are changed to point to the actual
+locations in the program where the functions and data are placed in memory.
+This is basically a link operation.</p>
+<p>In Windows, a dynamic-link library (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dll</span></code>) file has no dangling
+references.  Instead, an access to functions or data goes through a lookup
+table.  So the DLL code does not have to be fixed up at runtime to refer to the
+program’s memory; instead, the code already uses the DLL’s lookup table, and the
+lookup table is modified at runtime to point to the functions and data.</p>
+<p>In Unix, there is only one type of library file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.a</span></code>) which contains code
+from several object files (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.o</span></code>).  During the link step to create a shared
+object file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code>), the linker may find that it doesn’t know where an
+identifier is defined.  The linker will look for it in the object files in the
+libraries; if it finds it, it will include all the code from that object file.</p>
+<p>In Windows, there are two types of library, a static library and an import
+library (both called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.lib</span></code>).  A static library is like a Unix <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.a</span></code>
+file; it contains code to be included as necessary. An import library is
+basically used only to reassure the linker that a certain identifier is legal,
+and will be present in the program when the DLL is loaded.  So the linker uses
+the information from the import library to build the lookup table for using
+identifiers that are not included in the DLL.  When an application or a DLL is
+linked, an import library may be generated, which will need to be used for all
+future DLLs that depend on the symbols in the application or DLL.</p>
+<p>Suppose you are building two dynamic-load modules, B and C, which should share
+another block of code A.  On Unix, you would <em>not</em> pass <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.a</span></code> to the
+linker for <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B.so</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.so</span></code>; that would cause it to be included
+twice, so that B and C would each have their own copy.  In Windows, building
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.dll</span></code> will also build <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.lib</span></code>.  You <em>do</em> pass <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.lib</span></code> to the
+linker for B and C.  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.lib</span></code> does not contain code; it just contains
+information which will be used at runtime to access A’s code.</p>
+<p>In Windows, using an import library is sort of like using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">spam</span></code>; it
+gives you access to spam’s names, but does not create a separate copy.  On Unix,
+linking with a library is more like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">spam</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>; it does create a
+separate copy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-dlls-in-practice">
+<span id="win-dlls"></span><h2>5.3. Using DLLs in Practice<a class="headerlink" href="#using-dlls-in-practice" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual C++; using other compilers may or
+may not work (though Borland seems to).  The rest of this section is MSVC++
+specific.</p>
+<p>When creating DLLs in Windows, you must pass <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonXY.lib</span></code> to the linker.
+To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in spam), you could
+use these commands:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cl</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">LD</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">include</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="p">..</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">libs</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">pythonXY</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">lib</span>
+<span class="n">cl</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">LD</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">I</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">include</span> <span class="n">ni</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">lib</span> <span class="p">..</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">libs</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">pythonXY</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">lib</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first command created three files: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.obj</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.dll</span></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.lib</span></code>.  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Spam.dll</span></code> does not contain any Python functions (such
+as <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>), but it does know how to find the Python code
+thanks to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonXY.lib</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The second command created <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ni.dll</span></code> (and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.obj</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.lib</span></code>),
+which knows how to find the necessary functions from spam, and also from the
+Python executable.</p>
+<p>Not every identifier is exported to the lookup table.  If you want any other
+modules (including Python) to be able to see your identifiers, you have to say
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_declspec(dllexport)</span></code>, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">_declspec(dllexport)</span> <span class="pre">initspam(void)</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">_declspec(dllexport)</span> <span class="pre">*NiGetSpamData(void)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not really
+need, adding about 100K to your executable.  To get rid of them, use the Project
+Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify <em>ignore default libraries</em>.  Add the
+correct <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrtxx.lib</span></code> to the list of libraries.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-cookbook-approach">5.1. A Cookbook Approach</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#differences-between-unix-and-windows">5.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-dlls-in-practice">5.3. Using DLLs in Practice</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="building.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">4. Building C and C++ Extensions</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="design-and-history-faq">
+<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id1">Design and History FAQ</a><a class="headerlink" href="#design-and-history-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#design-and-history-faq" id="id1">Design and History FAQ</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements" id="id2">Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations" id="id3">Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate" id="id4">Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-python-strings-immutable" id="id5">Why are Python strings immutable?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls" id="id6">Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression" id="id7">Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list" id="id8">Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method" id="id9">Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-fast-are-exceptions" id="id10">How fast are exceptions?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python" id="id11">Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation" id="id12">Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements" id="id13">Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language" id="id14">Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-does-python-manage-memory" id="id15">How does Python manage memory?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme" id="id16">Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits" id="id17">Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types" id="id18">Why are there separate tuple and list data types?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython" id="id19">How are lists implemented in CPython?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython" id="id20">How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable" id="id21">Why must dictionary keys be immutable?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list" id="id22">Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python" id="id23">How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-is-there-no-goto" id="id24">Why is there no goto?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash" id="id25">Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments" id="id26">Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements" id="id27">Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples" id="id28">Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Guido van Rossum believes that using indentation for grouping is extremely
+elegant and contributes a lot to the clarity of the average Python program.
+Most people learn to love this feature after a while.</p>
+<p>Since there are no begin/end brackets there cannot be a disagreement between
+grouping perceived by the parser and the human reader.  Occasionally C
+programmers will encounter a fragment of code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">--</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="n">z</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x++</span></code> statement is executed if the condition is true, but the
+indentation leads you to believe otherwise.  Even experienced C programmers will
+sometimes stare at it a long time wondering why <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> is being decremented even
+for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Because there are no begin/end brackets, Python is much less prone to
+coding-style conflicts.  In C there are many different ways to place the braces.
+If you’re used to reading and writing code that uses one style, you will feel at
+least slightly uneasy when reading (or being required to write) another style.</p>
+<p>Many coding styles place begin/end brackets on a line by themselves.  This makes
+programs considerably longer and wastes valuable screen space, making it harder
+to get a good overview of a program.  Ideally, a function should fit on one
+screen (say, 20–30 lines).  20 lines of Python can do a lot more work than 20
+lines of C.  This is not solely due to the lack of begin/end brackets – the
+lack of declarations and the high-level data types are also responsible – but
+the indentation-based syntax certainly helps.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>See the next question.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Users are often surprised by results like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mf">1.2</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span>
+<span class="go">0.19999999999999996</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and think it is a bug in Python.  It’s not.  This has little to do with Python,
+and much more to do with how the underlying platform handles floating-point
+numbers.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> type in CPython uses a C <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> for storage.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> object’s value is stored in binary floating-point with a fixed
+precision (typically 53 bits) and Python uses C operations, which in turn rely
+on the hardware implementation in the processor, to perform floating-point
+operations. This means that as far as floating-point operations are concerned,
+Python behaves like many popular languages including C and Java.</p>
+<p>Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be expressed
+exactly in binary floating-point.  For example, after:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">1.2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>the value stored for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is a (very good) approximation to the decimal value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.2</span></code>, but is not exactly equal to it.  On a typical machine, the actual
+stored value is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">binary</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is exactly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The typical precision of 53 bits provides Python floats with 15–16
+decimal digits of accuracy.</p>
+<p>For a fuller explanation, please see the <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/floatingpoint.html#tut-fp-issues"><span class="std std-ref">floating point arithmetic</span></a> chapter in the Python tutorial.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-are-python-strings-immutable">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Why are Python strings immutable?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-are-python-strings-immutable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are several advantages.</p>
+<p>One is performance: knowing that a string is immutable means we can allocate
+space for it at creation time, and the storage requirements are fixed and
+unchanging.  This is also one of the reasons for the distinction between tuples
+and lists.</p>
+<p>Another advantage is that strings in Python are considered as “elemental” as
+numbers.  No amount of activity will change the value 8 to anything else, and in
+Python, no amount of activity will change the string “eight” to anything else.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls">
+<span id="why-self"></span><h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The idea was borrowed from Modula-3.  It turns out to be very useful, for a
+variety of reasons.</p>
+<p>First, it’s more obvious that you are using a method or instance attribute
+instead of a local variable.  Reading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.x</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.meth()</span></code> makes it
+absolutely clear that an instance variable or method is used even if you don’t
+know the class definition by heart.  In C++, you can sort of tell by the lack of
+a local variable declaration (assuming globals are rare or easily recognizable)
+– but in Python, there are no local variable declarations, so you’d have to
+look up the class definition to be sure.  Some C++ and Java coding standards
+call for instance attributes to have an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_</span></code> prefix, so this explicitness is
+still useful in those languages, too.</p>
+<p>Second, it means that no special syntax is necessary if you want to explicitly
+reference or call the method from a particular class.  In C++, if you want to
+use a method from a base class which is overridden in a derived class, you have
+to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">::</span></code> operator – in Python you can write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">baseclass.methodname(self,</span> <span class="pre">&lt;argument</span> <span class="pre">list&gt;)</span></code>.  This is particularly useful
+for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> methods, and in general in cases where a derived class
+method wants to extend the base class method of the same name and thus has to
+call the base class method somehow.</p>
+<p>Finally, for instance variables it solves a syntactic problem with assignment:
+since local variables in Python are (by definition!) those variables to which a
+value is assigned in a function body (and that aren’t explicitly declared
+global), there has to be some way to tell the interpreter that an assignment was
+meant to assign to an instance variable instead of to a local variable, and it
+should preferably be syntactic (for efficiency reasons).  C++ does this through
+declarations, but Python doesn’t have declarations and it would be a pity having
+to introduce them just for this purpose.  Using the explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.var</span></code> solves
+this nicely.  Similarly, for using instance variables, having to write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.var</span></code> means that references to unqualified names inside a method don’t
+have to search the instance’s directories.  To put it another way, local
+variables and instance variables live in two different namespaces, and you need
+to tell Python which namespace to use.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Many people used to C or Perl complain that they want to use this C idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="c1">// do something with line</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where in Python you’re forced to write this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># do something with line</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The reason for not allowing assignment in Python expressions is a common,
+hard-to-find bug in those other languages, caused by this construct:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="c1">// error handling</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="c1">// code that only works for nonzero x</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The error is a simple typo: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, which assigns 0 to the variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>,
+was written while the comparison <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> is certainly what was intended.</p>
+<p>Many alternatives have been proposed.  Most are hacks that save some typing but
+use arbitrary or cryptic syntax or keywords, and fail the simple criterion for
+language change proposals: it should intuitively suggest the proper meaning to a
+human reader who has not yet been introduced to the construct.</p>
+<p>An interesting phenomenon is that most experienced Python programmers recognize
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span> <span class="pre">True</span></code> idiom and don’t seem to be missing the assignment in
+expression construct much; it’s only newcomers who express a strong desire to
+add this to the language.</p>
+<p>There’s an alternative way of spelling this that seems attractive but is
+generally less robust than the “while True” solution:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># do something with line...</span>
+    <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The problem with this is that if you change your mind about exactly how you get
+the next line (e.g. you want to change it into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin.readline()</span></code>) you
+have to remember to change two places in your program – the second occurrence
+is hidden at the bottom of the loop.</p>
+<p>The best approach is to use iterators, making it possible to loop through
+objects using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> statement.  For example, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a> support the iterator protocol, so you can write simply:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># do something with line...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As Guido said:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>(a) For some operations, prefix notation just reads better than
+postfix – prefix (and infix!) operations have a long tradition in
+mathematics which likes notations where the visuals help the
+mathematician thinking about a problem. Compare the easy with which we
+rewrite a formula like x*(a+b) into x*a + x*b to the clumsiness of
+doing the same thing using a raw OO notation.</p>
+<p>(b) When I read code that says len(x) I <em>know</em> that it is asking for
+the length of something. This tells me two things: the result is an
+integer, and the argument is some kind of container. To the contrary,
+when I read x.len(), I have to already know that x is some kind of
+container implementing an interface or inheriting from a class that
+has a standard len(). Witness the confusion we occasionally have when
+a class that is not implementing a mapping has a get() or keys()
+method, or something that isn’t a file has a write() method.</p>
+<p class="attribution">—<a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html">https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html</a></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Strings became much more like other standard types starting in Python 1.6, when
+methods were added which give the same functionality that has always been
+available using the functions of the string module.  Most of these new methods
+have been widely accepted, but the one which appears to make some programmers
+feel uncomfortable is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;, &quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;4&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;8&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;16&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which gives the result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;1, 2, 4, 8, 16&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are two common arguments against this usage.</p>
+<p>The first runs along the lines of: “It looks really ugly using a method of a
+string literal (string constant)”, to which the answer is that it might, but a
+string literal is just a fixed value. If the methods are to be allowed on names
+bound to strings there is no logical reason to make them unavailable on
+literals.</p>
+<p>The second objection is typically cast as: “I am really telling a sequence to
+join its members together with a string constant”.  Sadly, you aren’t.  For some
+reason there seems to be much less difficulty with having <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> as
+a string method, since in that case it is easy to see that</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;1, 2, 4, 8, 16&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;, &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is an instruction to a string literal to return the substrings delimited by the
+given separator (or, by default, arbitrary runs of white space).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> is a string method because in using it you are telling the
+separator string to iterate over a sequence of strings and insert itself between
+adjacent elements.  This method can be used with any argument which obeys the
+rules for sequence objects, including any new classes you might define yourself.
+Similar methods exist for bytes and bytearray objects.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-fast-are-exceptions">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">How fast are exceptions?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-fast-are-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A try/except block is extremely efficient if no exceptions are raised.  Actually
+catching an exception is expensive.  In versions of Python prior to 2.0 it was
+common to use this idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This only made sense when you expected the dict to have the key almost all the
+time.  If that wasn’t the case, you coded it like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For this specific case, you could also use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">dict.setdefault(key,</span>
+<span class="pre">getvalue(key))</span></code>, but only if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getvalue()</span></code> call is cheap enough because it
+is evaluated in all cases.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can do this easily enough with a sequence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if...</span> <span class="pre">elif...</span> <span class="pre">elif...</span> <span class="pre">else</span></code>.
+There have been some proposals for switch statement syntax, but there is no
+consensus (yet) on whether and how to do range tests.  See <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0275"><strong>PEP 275</strong></a> for
+complete details and the current status.</p>
+<p>For cases where you need to choose from a very large number of possibilities,
+you can create a dictionary mapping case values to functions to call.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">function_1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">functions</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">function_1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+             <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">function_2</span><span class="p">,</span>
+             <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method_1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">functions</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">func</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For calling methods on objects, you can simplify yet further by using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> built-in to retrieve methods with a particular name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">visit_a</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dispatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">method_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;visit_&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">method</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">method_name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s suggested that you use a prefix for the method names, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">visit_</span></code> in
+this example.  Without such a prefix, if values are coming from an untrusted
+source, an attacker would be able to call any method on your object.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Answer 1: Unfortunately, the interpreter pushes at least one C stack frame for
+each Python stack frame.  Also, extensions can call back into Python at almost
+random moments.  Therefore, a complete threads implementation requires thread
+support for C.</p>
+<p>Answer 2: Fortunately, there is <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki">Stackless Python</a>,
+which has a completely redesigned interpreter loop that avoids the C stack.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python lambda expressions cannot contain statements because Python’s syntactic
+framework can’t handle statements nested inside expressions.  However, in
+Python, this is not a serious problem.  Unlike lambda forms in other languages,
+where they add functionality, Python lambdas are only a shorthand notation if
+you’re too lazy to define a function.</p>
+<p>Functions are already first class objects in Python, and can be declared in a
+local scope.  Therefore the only advantage of using a lambda instead of a
+locally-defined function is that you don’t need to invent a name for the
+function – but that’s just a local variable to which the function object (which
+is exactly the same type of object that a lambda expression yields) is assigned!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://cython.org/">Cython</a> compiles a modified version of Python with
+optional annotations into C extensions.  <a class="reference external" href="http://www.nuitka.net/">Nuitka</a> is
+an up-and-coming compiler of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full
+Python language. For compiling to Java you can consider
+<a class="reference external" href="https://voc.readthedocs.io">VOC</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-does-python-manage-memory">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">How does Python manage memory?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-does-python-manage-memory" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The details of Python memory management depend on the implementation.  The
+standard implementation of Python, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a>, uses reference counting to
+detect inaccessible objects, and another mechanism to collect reference cycles,
+periodically executing a cycle detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible
+cycles and deletes the objects involved. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module provides functions
+to perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tune the
+collector’s parameters.</p>
+<p>Other implementations (such as <a class="reference external" href="http://www.jython.org">Jython</a> or
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.pypy.org">PyPy</a>), however, can rely on a different mechanism
+such as a full-blown garbage collector.  This difference can cause some
+subtle porting problems if your Python code depends on the behavior of the
+reference counting implementation.</p>
+<p>In some Python implementations, the following code (which is fine in CPython)
+will probably run out of file descriptors:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">file</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">very_long_list_of_files</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Indeed, using CPython’s reference counting and destructor scheme, each new
+assignment to <em>f</em> closes the previous file.  With a traditional GC, however,
+those file objects will only get collected (and closed) at varying and possibly
+long intervals.</p>
+<p>If you want to write code that will work with any Python implementation,
+you should explicitly close the file or use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement;
+this will work regardless of memory management scheme:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">file</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">very_long_list_of_files</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For one thing, this is not a C standard feature and hence it’s not portable.
+(Yes, we know about the Boehm GC library.  It has bits of assembler code for
+<em>most</em> common platforms, not for all of them, and although it is mostly
+transparent, it isn’t completely transparent; patches are required to get
+Python to work with it.)</p>
+<p>Traditional GC also becomes a problem when Python is embedded into other
+applications.  While in a standalone Python it’s fine to replace the standard
+malloc() and free() with versions provided by the GC library, an application
+embedding Python may want to have its <em>own</em> substitute for malloc() and free(),
+and may not want Python’s.  Right now, CPython works with anything that
+implements malloc() and free() properly.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Objects referenced from the global namespaces of Python modules are not always
+deallocated when Python exits.  This may happen if there are circular
+references.  There are also certain bits of memory that are allocated by the C
+library that are impossible to free (e.g. a tool like Purify will complain about
+these).  Python is, however, aggressive about cleaning up memory on exit and
+does try to destroy every single object.</p>
+<p>If you want to force Python to delete certain things on deallocation use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> module to run a function that will force those deletions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id18">Why are there separate tuple and list data types?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Lists and tuples, while similar in many respects, are generally used in
+fundamentally different ways.  Tuples can be thought of as being similar to
+Pascal records or C structs; they’re small collections of related data which may
+be of different types which are operated on as a group.  For example, a
+Cartesian coordinate is appropriately represented as a tuple of two or three
+numbers.</p>
+<p>Lists, on the other hand, are more like arrays in other languages.  They tend to
+hold a varying number of objects all of which have the same type and which are
+operated on one-by-one.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir('.')</span></code> returns a list of
+strings representing the files in the current directory.  Functions which
+operate on this output would generally not break if you added another file or
+two to the directory.</p>
+<p>Tuples are immutable, meaning that once a tuple has been created, you can’t
+replace any of its elements with a new value.  Lists are mutable, meaning that
+you can always change a list’s elements.  Only immutable elements can be used as
+dictionary keys, and hence only tuples and not lists can be used as keys.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id19">How are lists implemented in CPython?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>CPython’s lists are really variable-length arrays, not Lisp-style linked lists.
+The implementation uses a contiguous array of references to other objects, and
+keeps a pointer to this array and the array’s length in a list head structure.</p>
+<p>This makes indexing a list <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i]</span></code> an operation whose cost is independent of
+the size of the list or the value of the index.</p>
+<p>When items are appended or inserted, the array of references is resized.  Some
+cleverness is applied to improve the performance of appending items repeatedly;
+when the array must be grown, some extra space is allocated so the next few
+times don’t require an actual resize.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id20">How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>CPython’s dictionaries are implemented as resizable hash tables.  Compared to
+B-trees, this gives better performance for lookup (the most common operation by
+far) under most circumstances, and the implementation is simpler.</p>
+<p>Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the dictionary
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a> built-in function.  The hash code varies widely depending
+on the key and a per-process seed; for example, “Python” could hash to
+-539294296 while “python”, a string that differs by a single bit, could hash
+to 1142331976.  The hash code is then used to calculate a location in an
+internal array where the value will be stored.  Assuming that you’re storing
+keys that all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take
+constant time – O(1), in Big-O notation – to retrieve a key.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id21">Why must dictionary keys be immutable?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The hash table implementation of dictionaries uses a hash value calculated from
+the key value to find the key.  If the key were a mutable object, its value
+could change, and thus its hash could also change.  But since whoever changes
+the key object can’t tell that it was being used as a dictionary key, it can’t
+move the entry around in the dictionary.  Then, when you try to look up the same
+object in the dictionary it won’t be found because its hash value is different.
+If you tried to look up the old value it wouldn’t be found either, because the
+value of the object found in that hash bin would be different.</p>
+<p>If you want a dictionary indexed with a list, simply convert the list to a tuple
+first; the function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple(L)</span></code> creates a tuple with the same entries as the
+list <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code>.  Tuples are immutable and can therefore be used as dictionary keys.</p>
+<p>Some unacceptable solutions that have been proposed:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Hash lists by their address (object ID).  This doesn’t work because if you
+construct a new list with the same value it won’t be found; e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mydict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;12&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception because the id of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2]</span></code> used in the
+second line differs from that in the first line.  In other words, dictionary
+keys should be compared using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, not using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Make a copy when using a list as a key.  This doesn’t work because the list,
+being a mutable object, could contain a reference to itself, and then the
+copying code would run into an infinite loop.</p></li>
+<li><p>Allow lists as keys but tell the user not to modify them.  This would allow a
+class of hard-to-track bugs in programs when you forgot or modified a list by
+accident. It also invalidates an important invariant of dictionaries: every
+value in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.keys()</span></code> is usable as a key of the dictionary.</p></li>
+<li><p>Mark lists as read-only once they are used as a dictionary key.  The problem
+is that it’s not just the top-level object that could change its value; you
+could use a tuple containing a list as a key.  Entering anything as a key into
+a dictionary would require marking all objects reachable from there as
+read-only – and again, self-referential objects could cause an infinite loop.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There is a trick to get around this if you need to, but use it at your own risk:
+You can wrap a mutable structure inside a class instance which has both a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> and a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method.  You must then make sure that the
+hash value for all such wrapper objects that reside in a dictionary (or other
+hash based structure), remain fixed while the object is in the dictionary (or
+other structure).</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ListWrapper</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">the_list</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">the_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">the_list</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__eq__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">the_list</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">the_list</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__hash__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">the_list</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">98767</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">555</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">el</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">el</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">9999999</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">1001</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">7777777</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">333</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the hash computation is complicated by the possibility that some
+members of the list may be unhashable and also by the possibility of arithmetic
+overflow.</p>
+<p>Furthermore it must always be the case that if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">o2</span></code> (ie <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1.__eq__(o2)</span>
+<span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">True</span></code>) then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(o1)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">hash(o2)</span></code> (ie, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o1.__hash__()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">o2.__hash__()</span></code>),
+regardless of whether the object is in a dictionary or not.  If you fail to meet
+these restrictions dictionaries and other hash based structures will misbehave.</p>
+<p>In the case of ListWrapper, whenever the wrapper object is in a dictionary the
+wrapped list must not change to avoid anomalies.  Don’t do this unless you are
+prepared to think hard about the requirements and the consequences of not
+meeting them correctly.  Consider yourself warned.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id22">Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In situations where performance matters, making a copy of the list just to sort
+it would be wasteful. Therefore, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> sorts the list in place. In
+order to remind you of that fact, it does not return the sorted list.  This way,
+you won’t be fooled into accidentally overwriting a list when you need a sorted
+copy but also need to keep the unsorted version around.</p>
+<p>If you want to return a new list, use the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> function
+instead.  This function creates a new list from a provided iterable, sorts
+it and returns it.  For example, here’s how to iterate over the keys of a
+dictionary in sorted order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># do whatever with mydict[key]...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id23">How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An interface specification for a module as provided by languages such as C++ and
+Java describes the prototypes for the methods and functions of the module.  Many
+feel that compile-time enforcement of interface specifications helps in the
+construction of large programs.</p>
+<p>Python 2.6 adds an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module that lets you define Abstract Base Classes
+(ABCs).  You can then use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> to check
+whether an instance or a class implements a particular ABC.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> module defines a set of useful ABCs such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Container" title="collections.abc.Container"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Container</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For Python, many of the advantages of interface specifications can be obtained
+by an appropriate test discipline for components.  There is also a tool,
+PyChecker, which can be used to find problems due to subclassing.</p>
+<p>A good test suite for a module can both provide a regression test and serve as a
+module interface specification and a set of examples.  Many Python modules can
+be run as a script to provide a simple “self test.”  Even modules which use
+complex external interfaces can often be tested in isolation using trivial
+“stub” emulations of the external interface.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> modules or third-party test frameworks can be used to construct
+exhaustive test suites that exercise every line of code in a module.</p>
+<p>An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex applications in
+Python as well as having interface specifications would.  In fact, it can be
+better because an interface specification cannot test certain properties of a
+program.  For example, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> method is expected to add new elements
+to the end of some internal list; an interface specification cannot test that
+your <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> implementation will actually do this correctly, but it’s
+trivial to check this property in a test suite.</p>
+<p>Writing test suites is very helpful, and you might want to design your code with
+an eye to making it easily tested.  One increasingly popular technique,
+test-directed development, calls for writing parts of the test suite first,
+before you write any of the actual code.  Of course Python allows you to be
+sloppy and not write test cases at all.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-is-there-no-goto">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id24">Why is there no goto?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-is-there-no-goto" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can use exceptions to provide a “structured goto” that even works across
+function calls.  Many feel that exceptions can conveniently emulate all
+reasonable uses of the “go” or “goto” constructs of C, Fortran, and other
+languages.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">label</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>  <span class="c1"># declare a label</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">label</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># goto label</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">label</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># where to goto</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This doesn’t allow you to jump into the middle of a loop, but that’s usually
+considered an abuse of goto anyway.  Use sparingly.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id25">Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>More precisely, they can’t end with an odd number of backslashes: the unpaired
+backslash at the end escapes the closing quote character, leaving an
+unterminated string.</p>
+<p>Raw strings were designed to ease creating input for processors (chiefly regular
+expression engines) that want to do their own backslash escape processing. Such
+processors consider an unmatched trailing backslash to be an error anyway, so
+raw strings disallow that.  In return, they allow you to pass on the string
+quote character by escaping it with a backslash.  These rules work well when
+r-strings are used for their intended purpose.</p>
+<p>If you’re trying to build Windows pathnames, note that all Windows system calls
+accept forward slashes too:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;/mydir/file.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># works fine!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you’re trying to build a pathname for a DOS command, try e.g. one of</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\this\is\my\dos\dir&quot;</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+<span class="nb">dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\this\is\my\dos\dir\ &quot;</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="nb">dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">this</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">is</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">my</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">dos</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">dir</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id26">Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has a ‘with’ statement that wraps the execution of a block, calling code
+on the entrance and exit from the block.  Some language have a construct that
+looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>               <span class="c1"># equivalent to obj.a = 1</span>
+    <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>   <span class="c1"># obj.total = obj.total + 1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Python, such a construct would be ambiguous.</p>
+<p>Other languages, such as Object Pascal, Delphi, and C++, use static types, so
+it’s possible to know, in an unambiguous way, what member is being assigned
+to. This is the main point of static typing – the compiler <em>always</em> knows the
+scope of every variable at compile time.</p>
+<p>Python uses dynamic types. It is impossible to know in advance which attribute
+will be referenced at runtime. Member attributes may be added or removed from
+objects on the fly. This makes it impossible to know, from a simple reading,
+what attribute is being referenced: a local one, a global one, or a member
+attribute?</p>
+<p>For instance, take the following incomplete snippet:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The snippet assumes that “a” must have a member attribute called “x”.  However,
+there is nothing in Python that tells the interpreter this. What should happen
+if “a” is, let us say, an integer?  If there is a global variable named “x”,
+will it be used inside the with block?  As you see, the dynamic nature of Python
+makes such choices much harder.</p>
+<p>The primary benefit of “with” and similar language features (reduction of code
+volume) can, however, easily be achieved in Python by assignment.  Instead of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">21</span>
+<span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">63</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>write this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ref</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">ref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">21</span>
+<span class="n">ref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="n">ref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">63</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This also has the side-effect of increasing execution speed because name
+bindings are resolved at run-time in Python, and the second version only needs
+to perform the resolution once.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id27">Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The colon is required primarily to enhance readability (one of the results of
+the experimental ABC language).  Consider this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>versus</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice how the second one is slightly easier to read.  Notice further how a
+colon sets off the example in this FAQ answer; it’s a standard usage in English.</p>
+<p>Another minor reason is that the colon makes it easier for editors with syntax
+highlighting; they can look for colons to decide when indentation needs to be
+increased instead of having to do a more elaborate parsing of the program text.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id28">Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python lets you add a trailing comma at the end of lists, tuples, and
+dictionaries:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,]</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;A&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;B&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">],</span>  <span class="c1"># last trailing comma is optional but good style</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are several reasons to allow this.</p>
+<p>When you have a literal value for a list, tuple, or dictionary spread across
+multiple lines, it’s easier to add more elements because you don’t have to
+remember to add a comma to the previous line.  The lines can also be reordered
+without creating a syntax error.</p>
+<p>Accidentally omitting the comma can lead to errors that are hard to diagnose.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+  <span class="s2">&quot;fee&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+  <span class="s2">&quot;fie&quot;</span>
+  <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+  <span class="s2">&quot;fum&quot;</span>
+<span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This list looks like it has four elements, but it actually contains three:
+“fee”, “fiefoo” and “fum”.  Always adding the comma avoids this source of error.</p>
+<p>Allowing the trailing comma may also make programmatic code generation easier.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Design and History FAQ</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements">Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations">Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate">Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-python-strings-immutable">Why are Python strings immutable?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls">Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression">Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list">Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method">Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-fast-are-exceptions">How fast are exceptions?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python">Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation">Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements">Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language">Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-does-python-manage-memory">How does Python manage memory?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme">Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits">Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types">Why are there separate tuple and list data types?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython">How are lists implemented in CPython?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython">How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable">Why must dictionary keys be immutable?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list">Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python">How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-is-there-no-goto">Why is there no goto?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash">Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments">Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements">Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples">Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+
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+  <div class="section" id="extending-embedding-faq">
+<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">Extending/Embedding FAQ</a><a class="headerlink" href="#extending-embedding-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#extending-embedding-faq" id="id2">Extending/Embedding FAQ</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c" id="id3">Can I create my own functions in C?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#id1" id="id4">Can I create my own functions in C++?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives" id="id5">Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c" id="id6">How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c" id="id7">How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object" id="id8">How do I extract C values from a Python object?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length" id="id9">How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c" id="id10">How do I call an object’s method from C?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr" id="id11">How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c" id="id12">How do I access a module written in Python from C?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python" id="id13">How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why" id="id14">I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-debug-an-extension" id="id15">How do I debug an extension?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why" id="id16">I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input" id="id17">How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual" id="id18">How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance" id="id19">Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">Can I create my own functions in C?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Yes, you can create built-in modules containing functions, variables, exceptions
+and even new types in C.  This is explained in the document
+<a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Most intermediate or advanced Python books will also cover this topic.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id1">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Can I create my own functions in C++?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Yes, using the C compatibility features found in C++.  Place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extern</span> <span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span> <span class="pre">{</span>
+<span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">}</span></code> around the Python include files and put <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extern</span> <span class="pre">&quot;C&quot;</span></code> before each
+function that is going to be called by the Python interpreter.  Global or static
+C++ objects with constructors are probably not a good idea.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives">
+<span id="c-wrapper-software"></span><h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are a number of alternatives to writing your own C extensions, depending
+on what you’re trying to do.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://cython.org">Cython</a> and its relative <a class="reference external" href="https://www.cosc.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/python/Pyrex/">Pyrex</a> are compilers
+that accept a slightly modified form of Python and generate the corresponding
+C code.  Cython and Pyrex make it possible to write an extension without having
+to learn Python’s C API.</p>
+<p>If you need to interface to some C or C++ library for which no Python extension
+currently exists, you can try wrapping the library’s data types and functions
+with a tool such as <a class="reference external" href="http://www.swig.org">SWIG</a>.  <a class="reference external" href="https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/sip/intro">SIP</a>, <a class="reference external" href="http://cxx.sourceforge.net/">CXX</a> <a class="reference external" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html">Boost</a>, or <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/scipy/weave">Weave</a> are also
+alternatives for wrapping C++ libraries.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The highest-level function to do this is <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleString" title="PyRun_SimpleString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleString()</span></code></a> which takes
+a single string argument to be executed in the context of the module
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> when an exception occurred
+(including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>).  If you want more control, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_String" title="PyRun_String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_String()</span></code></a>; see the source for <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleString" title="PyRun_SimpleString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleString()</span></code></a> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python/pythonrun.c</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Call the function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_String" title="PyRun_String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_String()</span></code></a> from the previous question with the
+start symbol <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_eval_input" title="Py_eval_input"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_eval_input</span></code></a>; it parses an expression, evaluates it and
+returns its value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">How do I extract C values from a Python object?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>That depends on the object’s type.  If it’s a tuple, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Size" title="PyTuple_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_Size()</span></code></a>
+returns its length and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GetItem" title="PyTuple_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_GetItem()</span></code></a> returns the item at a specified
+index.  Lists have similar functions, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyListSize()</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GetItem" title="PyList_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_GetItem()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For bytes, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Size" title="PyBytes_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_Size()</span></code></a> returns its length and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_AsStringAndSize" title="PyBytes_AsStringAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_AsStringAndSize()</span></code></a> provides a pointer to its value and its
+length.  Note that Python bytes objects may contain null bytes so C’s
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strlen()</span></code> should not be used.</p>
+<p>To test the type of an object, first make sure it isn’t <em>NULL</em>, and then use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Check" title="PyBytes_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_Check()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Check" title="PyTuple_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_Check()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Check" title="PyList_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_Check()</span></code></a>, etc.</p>
+<p>There is also a high-level API to Python objects which is provided by the
+so-called ‘abstract’ interface – read <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/abstract.h</span></code> for further
+details.  It allows interfacing with any kind of Python sequence using calls
+like <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Length" title="PySequence_Length"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_Length()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySequence_GetItem()</span></code></a>, etc. as well
+as many other useful protocols such as numbers (<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Index" title="PyNumber_Index"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Index()</span></code></a> et
+al.) and mappings in the PyMapping APIs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can’t.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Pack" title="PyTuple_Pack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_Pack()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">How do I call an object’s method from C?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallMethod" title="PyObject_CallMethod"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallMethod()</span></code></a> function can be used to call an arbitrary
+method of an object.  The parameters are the object, the name of the method to
+call, a format string like that used with <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a>, and the
+argument values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">PyObject_CallMethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">method_name</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg_format</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">...);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This works for any object that has methods – whether built-in or user-defined.
+You are responsible for eventually <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a>’ing the return value.</p>
+<p>To call, e.g., a file object’s “seek” method with arguments 10, 0 (assuming the
+file object pointer is “f”):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_CallMethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;seek&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;(ii)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="p">...</span> <span class="n">an</span> <span class="n">exception</span> <span class="n">occurred</span> <span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that since <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject" title="PyObject_CallObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_CallObject()</span></code></a> <em>always</em> wants a tuple for the
+argument list, to call a function without arguments, pass “()” for the format,
+and to call a function with one argument, surround the argument in parentheses,
+e.g. “(i)”.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python code, define an object that supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method.  Assign
+this object to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.  Call print_error, or
+just allow the standard traceback mechanism to work. Then, the output will go
+wherever your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method sends it.</p>
+<p>The easiest way to do this is to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">foo</span>
+<span class="go">hello world!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A custom object to do the same would look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">StdoutCatcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TextIOBase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StdoutCatcher</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">foo</span>
+<span class="go">hello world!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">How do I access a module written in Python from C?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can get a pointer to the module object as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyImport_ImportModule</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&lt;modulename&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the module hasn’t been imported yet (i.e. it is not yet present in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>), this initializes the module; otherwise it simply returns
+the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules[&quot;&lt;modulename&gt;&quot;]</span></code>.  Note that it doesn’t enter the
+module into any namespace – it only ensures it has been initialized and is
+stored in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>You can then access the module’s attributes (i.e. any name defined in the
+module) as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">attr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_GetAttrString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;&lt;attrname&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_SetAttrString" title="PyObject_SetAttrString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_SetAttrString()</span></code></a> to assign to variables in the module
+also works.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Depending on your requirements, there are many approaches.  To do this manually,
+begin by reading <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">the “Extending and Embedding” document</span></a>.  Realize that for the Python run-time system, there isn’t a
+whole lot of difference between C and C++ – so the strategy of building a new
+Python type around a C structure (pointer) type will also work for C++ objects.</p>
+<p>For C++ libraries, see <a class="reference internal" href="#c-wrapper-software"><span class="std std-ref">Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Setup must end in a newline, if there is no newline there, the build process
+fails.  (Fixing this requires some ugly shell script hackery, and this bug is so
+minor that it doesn’t seem worth the effort.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-debug-an-extension">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">How do I debug an extension?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-debug-an-extension" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When using GDB with dynamically loaded extensions, you can’t set a breakpoint in
+your extension until your extension is loaded.</p>
+<p>In your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.gdbinit</span></code> file (or interactively), add the command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then, when you run GDB:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> gdb /local/bin/python
+<span class="go">gdb) run myscript.py</span>
+<span class="go">gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded</span>
+<span class="go">gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded</span>
+<span class="go">gdb) br myfunction.c:50</span>
+<span class="go">gdb) continue</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Most packaged versions of Python don’t include the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/lib/python2.</span><em><span class="pre">x</span></em><span class="pre">/config/</span></code> directory, which contains various files
+required for compiling Python extensions.</p>
+<p>For Red Hat, install the python-devel RPM to get the necessary files.</p>
+<p>For Debian, run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apt-get</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">python-dev</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes you want to emulate the Python interactive interpreter’s behavior,
+where it gives you a continuation prompt when the input is incomplete (e.g. you
+typed the start of an “if” statement or you didn’t close your parentheses or
+triple string quotes), but it gives you a syntax error message immediately when
+the input is invalid.</p>
+<p>In Python you can use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codeop.html#module-codeop" title="codeop: Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code></a> module, which approximates the parser’s
+behavior sufficiently.  IDLE uses this, for example.</p>
+<p>The easiest way to do it in C is to call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoop" title="PyRun_InteractiveLoop"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_InteractiveLoop()</span></code></a> (perhaps
+in a separate thread) and let the Python interpreter handle the input for
+you. You can also set the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer" title="PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer()</span></code></a> to point at your
+custom input function. See <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/readline.c</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser/myreadline.c</span></code>
+for more hints.</p>
+<p>However sometimes you have to run the embedded Python interpreter in the same
+thread as your rest application and you can’t allow the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoop" title="PyRun_InteractiveLoop"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_InteractiveLoop()</span></code></a> to stop while waiting for user input.  The one
+solution then is to call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyParser_ParseString()</span></code> and test for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e.error</span></code>
+equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">E_EOF</span></code>, which means the input is incomplete.  Here’s a sample code
+fragment, untested, inspired by code from Alex Farber:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;node.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;errcode.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;grammar.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;parsetok.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;compile.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="nf">testcomplete</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="cm">/* code should end in \n */</span>
+  <span class="cm">/* return -1 for error, 0 for incomplete, 1 for complete */</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+  <span class="n">node</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">;</span>
+  <span class="n">perrdetail</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+  <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyParser_ParseString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">_PyParser_Grammar</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                           <span class="n">Py_file_input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="p">);</span>
+  <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">error</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">E_EOF</span><span class="p">)</span>
+      <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+  <span class="p">}</span>
+
+  <span class="n">PyNode_Free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">);</span>
+  <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another solution is trying to compile the received string with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileString" title="Py_CompileString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CompileString()</span></code></a>. If it compiles without errors, try to execute the
+returned code object by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalCode" title="PyEval_EvalCode"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_EvalCode()</span></code></a>. Otherwise save the
+input for later. If the compilation fails, find out if it’s an error or just
+more input is required - by extracting the message string from the exception
+tuple and comparing it to the string “unexpected EOF while parsing”.  Here is a
+complete example using the GNU readline library (you may want to ignore
+<strong>SIGINT</strong> while calling readline()):</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;stdio.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;readline.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;Python.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;object.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;compile.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&lt;eval.h&gt;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="nf">main</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+  <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">j</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">done</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>                          <span class="cm">/* lengths of line, code */</span>
+  <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="n">ps1</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+  <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="n">ps2</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;... &quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+  <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">prompt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ps1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+  <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+  <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">glb</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">loc</span><span class="p">;</span>
+  <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">trb</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">dum</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+  <span class="n">Py_Initialize</span> <span class="p">();</span>
+  <span class="n">loc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyDict_New</span> <span class="p">();</span>
+  <span class="n">glb</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyDict_New</span> <span class="p">();</span>
+  <span class="n">PyDict_SetItemString</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">glb</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;__builtins__&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyEval_GetBuiltins</span> <span class="p">());</span>
+
+  <span class="k">while</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">done</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">readline</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>                          <span class="cm">/* Ctrl-D pressed */</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span>
+      <span class="n">done</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span>
+      <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">strlen</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+      <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">add_history</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">);</span>                    <span class="cm">/* save non-empty lines */</span>
+
+      <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>                        <span class="cm">/* nothing in code yet */</span>
+        <span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+      <span class="k">else</span>
+        <span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">strlen</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+      <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">realloc</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">);</span>
+      <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>                        <span class="cm">/* out of memory */</span>
+        <span class="n">exit</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+      <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">j</span><span class="p">)</span>                              <span class="cm">/* code was empty, so */</span>
+        <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sc">&#39;\0&#39;</span><span class="p">;</span>                        <span class="cm">/* keep strncat happy */</span>
+
+      <span class="n">strncat</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">);</span>                 <span class="cm">/* append line to code */</span>
+      <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sc">&#39;\n&#39;</span><span class="p">;</span>                      <span class="cm">/* append &#39;\n&#39; to code */</span>
+      <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sc">&#39;\0&#39;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+      <span class="n">src</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_CompileString</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Py_single_input</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+      <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">src</span><span class="p">)</span>                         <span class="cm">/* compiled just fine - */</span>
+      <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ps1</span>  <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">prompt</span> <span class="o">||</span>                  <span class="cm">/* &quot;&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot; or */</span>
+            <span class="sc">&#39;\n&#39;</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>           <span class="cm">/* &quot;... &quot; and double &#39;\n&#39; */</span>
+        <span class="p">{</span>                                               <span class="cm">/* so execute it */</span>
+          <span class="n">dum</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyEval_EvalCode</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">glb</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loc</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dum</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">free</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+          <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyErr_Occurred</span> <span class="p">())</span>
+            <span class="n">PyErr_Print</span> <span class="p">();</span>
+          <span class="n">prompt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ps1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+      <span class="p">}</span>                                        <span class="cm">/* syntax error or E_EOF? */</span>
+      <span class="k">else</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyErr_ExceptionMatches</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_SyntaxError</span><span class="p">))</span>
+      <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Fetch</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">trb</span><span class="p">);</span>        <span class="cm">/* clears exception! */</span>
+
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;sO&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;&amp;</span>
+            <span class="o">!</span><span class="n">strcmp</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;unexpected EOF while parsing&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="cm">/* E_EOF */</span>
+        <span class="p">{</span>
+          <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trb</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">prompt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ps2</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span>                                   <span class="cm">/* some other syntax error */</span>
+        <span class="p">{</span>
+          <span class="n">PyErr_Restore</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">trb</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">PyErr_Print</span> <span class="p">();</span>
+          <span class="n">free</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">);</span>
+          <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+          <span class="n">prompt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ps1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+      <span class="p">}</span>
+      <span class="k">else</span>                                     <span class="cm">/* some non-syntax error */</span>
+      <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Print</span> <span class="p">();</span>
+        <span class="n">free</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">prompt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ps1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+      <span class="p">}</span>
+
+      <span class="n">free</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+  <span class="p">}</span>
+
+  <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">glb</span><span class="p">);</span>
+  <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loc</span><span class="p">);</span>
+  <span class="n">Py_Finalize</span><span class="p">();</span>
+  <span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id18">How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To dynamically load g++ extension modules, you must recompile Python, relink it
+using g++ (change LINKCC in the Python Modules Makefile), and link your
+extension module using g++ (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g++</span> <span class="pre">-shared</span> <span class="pre">-o</span> <span class="pre">mymodule.so</span> <span class="pre">mymodule.o</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id19">Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Yes, you can inherit from built-in classes such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, etc.</p>
+<p>The Boost Python Library (BPL, <a class="reference external" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html">http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html</a>)
+provides a way of doing this from C++ (i.e. you can inherit from an extension
+class written in C++ using the BPL).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Extending/Embedding FAQ</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c">Can I create my own functions in C?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id1">Can I create my own functions in C++?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives">Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c">How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c">How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object">How do I extract C values from a Python object?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length">How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c">How do I call an object’s method from C?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr">How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c">How do I access a module written in Python from C?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python">How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why">I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-debug-an-extension">How do I debug an extension?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why">I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input">How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual">How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance">Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="library.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Library and Extension FAQ</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="general-python-faq">
+<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">General Python FAQ</a><a class="headerlink" href="#general-python-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#general-python-faq" id="id2">General Python FAQ</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#general-information" id="id3">General Information</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-python" id="id4">What is Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-the-python-software-foundation" id="id5">What is the Python Software Foundation?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#are-there-copyright-restrictions-on-the-use-of-python" id="id6">Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place" id="id7">Why was Python created in the first place?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-python-good-for" id="id8">What is Python good for?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work" id="id9">How does the Python version numbering scheme work?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-obtain-a-copy-of-the-python-source" id="id10">How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-get-documentation-on-python" id="id11">How do I get documentation on Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial" id="id12">I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python" id="id13">Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python" id="id14">How do I get a beta test version of Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python" id="id15">How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference" id="id16">Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#are-there-any-books-on-python" id="id17">Are there any books on Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located" id="id18">Where in the world is www.python.org located?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-is-it-called-python" id="id19">Why is it called Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#do-i-have-to-like-monty-python-s-flying-circus" id="id20">Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#python-in-the-real-world" id="id21">Python in the real world</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-stable-is-python" id="id22">How stable is Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-many-people-are-using-python" id="id23">How many people are using Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#have-any-significant-projects-been-done-in-python" id="id24">Have any significant projects been done in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-new-developments-are-expected-for-python-in-the-future" id="id25">What new developments are expected for Python in the future?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-it-reasonable-to-propose-incompatible-changes-to-python" id="id26">Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-python-a-good-language-for-beginning-programmers" id="id27">Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="general-information">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">General Information</a><a class="headerlink" href="#general-information" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">What is Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python is an interpreted, interactive, object-oriented programming language.  It
+incorporates modules, exceptions, dynamic typing, very high level dynamic data
+types, and classes.  Python combines remarkable power with very clear syntax.
+It has interfaces to many system calls and libraries, as well as to various
+window systems, and is extensible in C or C++.  It is also usable as an
+extension language for applications that need a programmable interface.
+Finally, Python is portable: it runs on many Unix variants, on the Mac, and on
+Windows 2000 and later.</p>
+<p>To find out more, start with <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/index.html#tutorial-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Tutorial</span></a>.  The <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide">Beginner’s Guide to
+Python</a> links to other
+introductory tutorials and resources for learning Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-the-python-software-foundation">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">What is the Python Software Foundation?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-the-python-software-foundation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Python Software Foundation is an independent non-profit organization that
+holds the copyright on Python versions 2.1 and newer.  The PSF’s mission is to
+advance open source technology related to the Python programming language and to
+publicize the use of Python.  The PSF’s home page is at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/psf/">https://www.python.org/psf/</a>.</p>
+<p>Donations to the PSF are tax-exempt in the US.  If you use Python and find it
+helpful, please contribute via <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">the PSF donation page</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="are-there-copyright-restrictions-on-the-use-of-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#are-there-copyright-restrictions-on-the-use-of-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can do anything you want with the source, as long as you leave the
+copyrights in and display those copyrights in any documentation about Python
+that you produce.  If you honor the copyright rules, it’s OK to use Python for
+commercial use, to sell copies of Python in source or binary form (modified or
+unmodified), or to sell products that incorporate Python in some form.  We would
+still like to know about all commercial use of Python, of course.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/psf/license/">the PSF license page</a> to find further
+explanations and a link to the full text of the license.</p>
+<p>The Python logo is trademarked, and in certain cases permission is required to
+use it.  Consult <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/">the Trademark Usage Policy</a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Why was Python created in the first place?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Here’s a <em>very</em> brief summary of what started it all, written by Guido van
+Rossum:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>I had extensive experience with implementing an interpreted language in the
+ABC group at CWI, and from working with this group I had learned a lot about
+language design.  This is the origin of many Python features, including the
+use of indentation for statement grouping and the inclusion of
+very-high-level data types (although the details are all different in
+Python).</p>
+<p>I had a number of gripes about the ABC language, but also liked many of its
+features.  It was impossible to extend the ABC language (or its
+implementation) to remedy my complaints – in fact its lack of extensibility
+was one of its biggest problems.  I had some experience with using Modula-2+
+and talked with the designers of Modula-3 and read the Modula-3 report.
+Modula-3 is the origin of the syntax and semantics used for exceptions, and
+some other Python features.</p>
+<p>I was working in the Amoeba distributed operating system group at CWI.  We
+needed a better way to do system administration than by writing either C
+programs or Bourne shell scripts, since Amoeba had its own system call
+interface which wasn’t easily accessible from the Bourne shell.  My
+experience with error handling in Amoeba made me acutely aware of the
+importance of exceptions as a programming language feature.</p>
+<p>It occurred to me that a scripting language with a syntax like ABC but with
+access to the Amoeba system calls would fill the need.  I realized that it
+would be foolish to write an Amoeba-specific language, so I decided that I
+needed a language that was generally extensible.</p>
+<p>During the 1989 Christmas holidays, I had a lot of time on my hand, so I
+decided to give it a try.  During the next year, while still mostly working
+on it in my own time, Python was used in the Amoeba project with increasing
+success, and the feedback from colleagues made me add many early
+improvements.</p>
+<p>In February 1991, after just over a year of development, I decided to post to
+USENET.  The rest is in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/HISTORY</span></code> file.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-python-good-for">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">What is Python good for?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-python-good-for" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python is a high-level general-purpose programming language that can be applied
+to many different classes of problems.</p>
+<p>The language comes with a large standard library that covers areas such as
+string processing (regular expressions, Unicode, calculating differences between
+files), Internet protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, XML-RPC, POP, IMAP, CGI
+programming), software engineering (unit testing, logging, profiling, parsing
+Python code), and operating system interfaces (system calls, filesystems, TCP/IP
+sockets).  Look at the table of contents for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a> to get an idea
+of what’s available.  A wide variety of third-party extensions are also
+available.  Consult <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">the Python Package Index</a> to
+find packages of interest to you.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">How does the Python version numbering scheme work?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python versions are numbered A.B.C or A.B.  A is the major version number – it
+is only incremented for really major changes in the language.  B is the minor
+version number, incremented for less earth-shattering changes.  C is the
+micro-level – it is incremented for each bugfix release.  See <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0006"><strong>PEP 6</strong></a> for more
+information about bugfix releases.</p>
+<p>Not all releases are bugfix releases.  In the run-up to a new major release, a
+series of development releases are made, denoted as alpha, beta, or release
+candidate.  Alphas are early releases in which interfaces aren’t yet finalized;
+it’s not unexpected to see an interface change between two alpha releases.
+Betas are more stable, preserving existing interfaces but possibly adding new
+modules, and release candidates are frozen, making no changes except as needed
+to fix critical bugs.</p>
+<p>Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix.  The
+suffix for an alpha version is “aN” for some small number N, the suffix for a
+beta version is “bN” for some small number N, and the suffix for a release
+candidate version is “cN” for some small number N.  In other words, all versions
+labeled 2.0aN precede the versions labeled 2.0bN, which precede versions labeled
+2.0cN, and <em>those</em> precede 2.0.</p>
+<p>You may also find version numbers with a “+” suffix, e.g. “2.2+”.  These are
+unreleased versions, built directly from the CPython development repository.  In
+practice, after a final minor release is made, the version is incremented to the
+next minor version, which becomes the “a0” version, e.g. “2.4a0”.</p>
+<p>See also the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version" title="sys.version"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.hexversion" title="sys.hexversion"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hexversion</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-obtain-a-copy-of-the-python-source">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-obtain-a-copy-of-the-python-source" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The latest Python source distribution is always available from python.org, at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/">https://www.python.org/downloads/</a>.  The latest development sources can be obtained
+at <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/">https://github.com/python/cpython/</a>.</p>
+<p>The source distribution is a gzipped tar file containing the complete C source,
+Sphinx-formatted documentation, Python library modules, example programs, and
+several useful pieces of freely distributable software.  The source will compile
+and run out of the box on most UNIX platforms.</p>
+<p>Consult the <a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/setup/">Getting Started section of the Python Developer’s Guide</a> for more
+information on getting the source code and compiling it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-get-documentation-on-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">How do I get documentation on Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-get-documentation-on-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The standard documentation for the current stable version of Python is available
+at <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3/">https://docs.python.org/3/</a>.  PDF, plain text, and downloadable HTML versions are
+also available at <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3/download.html">https://docs.python.org/3/download.html</a>.</p>
+<p>The documentation is written in reStructuredText and processed by <a class="reference external" href="http://sphinx-doc.org/">the Sphinx
+documentation tool</a>.  The reStructuredText source for
+the documentation is part of the Python source distribution.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are numerous tutorials and books available.  The standard documentation
+includes <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/index.html#tutorial-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Tutorial</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Consult <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide">the Beginner’s Guide</a> to
+find information for beginning Python programmers, including lists of tutorials.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There is a newsgroup, <em class="newsgroup">comp.lang.python</em>, and a mailing list,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list">python-list</a>.  The
+newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed into each other – if you can read news
+it’s unnecessary to subscribe to the mailing list.
+<em class="newsgroup">comp.lang.python</em> is high-traffic, receiving hundreds of postings
+every day, and Usenet readers are often more able to cope with this volume.</p>
+<p>Announcements of new software releases and events can be found in
+comp.lang.python.announce, a low-traffic moderated list that receives about five
+postings per day.  It’s available as <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-announce-list">the python-announce mailing list</a>.</p>
+<p>More info about other mailing lists and newsgroups
+can be found at <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/community/lists/">https://www.python.org/community/lists/</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">How do I get a beta test version of Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Alpha and beta releases are available from <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/">https://www.python.org/downloads/</a>.  All
+releases are announced on the comp.lang.python and comp.lang.python.announce
+newsgroups and on the Python home page at <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/">https://www.python.org/</a>; an RSS feed of
+news is available.</p>
+<p>You can also access the development version of Python through Git.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/">The Python Developer’s Guide</a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To report a bug or submit a patch, please use the Roundup installation at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/">https://bugs.python.org/</a>.</p>
+<p>You must have a Roundup account to report bugs; this makes it possible for us to
+contact you if we have follow-up questions.  It will also enable Roundup to send
+you updates as we act on your bug. If you had previously used SourceForge to
+report bugs to Python, you can obtain your Roundup password through Roundup’s
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/user?&#64;template=forgotten">password reset procedure</a>.</p>
+<p>For more information on how Python is developed, consult <a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/">the Python Developer’s
+Guide</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It’s probably best to cite your favorite book about Python.</p>
+<p>The very first article about Python was written in 1991 and is now quite
+outdated.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Guido van Rossum and Jelke de Boer, “Interactively Testing Remote Servers
+Using the Python Programming Language”, CWI Quarterly, Volume 4, Issue 4
+(December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283–303.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="are-there-any-books-on-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">Are there any books on Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#are-there-any-books-on-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes, there are many, and more are being published.  See the python.org wiki at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks">https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks</a> for a list.</p>
+<p>You can also search online bookstores for “Python” and filter out the Monty
+Python references; or perhaps search for “Python” and “language”.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id18">Where in the world is www.python.org located?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Python project’s infrastructure is located all over the world and is managed
+by the Python Infrastructure Team. Details <a class="reference external" href="http://infra.psf.io">here</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-is-it-called-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id19">Why is it called Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-is-it-called-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When he began implementing Python, Guido van Rossum was also reading the
+published scripts from <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python">“Monty Python’s Flying Circus”</a>, a BBC comedy series from the 1970s.  Van Rossum
+thought he needed a name that was short, unique, and slightly mysterious, so he
+decided to call the language Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="do-i-have-to-like-monty-python-s-flying-circus">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id20">Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#do-i-have-to-like-monty-python-s-flying-circus" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>No, but it helps.  :)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-in-the-real-world">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id21">Python in the real world</a><a class="headerlink" href="#python-in-the-real-world" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-stable-is-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id22">How stable is Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-stable-is-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Very stable.  New, stable releases have been coming out roughly every 6 to 18
+months since 1991, and this seems likely to continue.  Currently there are
+usually around 18 months between major releases.</p>
+<p>The developers issue “bugfix” releases of older versions, so the stability of
+existing releases gradually improves.  Bugfix releases, indicated by a third
+component of the version number (e.g. 3.5.3, 3.6.2), are managed for stability;
+only fixes for known problems are included in a bugfix release, and it’s
+guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same throughout a series of bugfix
+releases.</p>
+<p>The latest stable releases can always be found on the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/">Python download page</a>.  There are two production-ready versions
+of Python: 2.x and 3.x. The recommended version is 3.x, which is supported by
+most widely used libraries.  Although 2.x is still widely used, <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/">it will not
+be maintained after January 1, 2020</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-many-people-are-using-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id23">How many people are using Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-many-people-are-using-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are probably tens of thousands of users, though it’s difficult to obtain
+an exact count.</p>
+<p>Python is available for free download, so there are no sales figures, and it’s
+available from many different sites and packaged with many Linux distributions,
+so download statistics don’t tell the whole story either.</p>
+<p>The comp.lang.python newsgroup is very active, but not all Python users post to
+the group or even read it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="have-any-significant-projects-been-done-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id24">Have any significant projects been done in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#have-any-significant-projects-been-done-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/about/success">https://www.python.org/about/success</a> for a list of projects that use Python.
+Consulting the proceedings for <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/community/workshops/">past Python conferences</a> will reveal contributions from many
+different companies and organizations.</p>
+<p>High-profile Python projects include <a class="reference external" href="http://www.list.org">the Mailman mailing list manager</a> and <a class="reference external" href="http://www.zope.org">the Zope application server</a>.  Several Linux distributions, most notably <a class="reference external" href="https://www.redhat.com">Red Hat</a>, have written part or all of their installer and
+system administration software in Python.  Companies that use Python internally
+include Google, Yahoo, and Lucasfilm Ltd.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-new-developments-are-expected-for-python-in-the-future">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id25">What new developments are expected for Python in the future?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-new-developments-are-expected-for-python-in-the-future" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/">https://www.python.org/dev/peps/</a> for the Python Enhancement Proposals
+(PEPs). PEPs are design documents describing a suggested new feature for Python,
+providing a concise technical specification and a rationale.  Look for a PEP
+titled “Python X.Y Release Schedule”, where X.Y is a version that hasn’t been
+publicly released yet.</p>
+<p>New development is discussed on <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-dev/">the python-dev mailing list</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-it-reasonable-to-propose-incompatible-changes-to-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id26">Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-it-reasonable-to-propose-incompatible-changes-to-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In general, no.  There are already millions of lines of Python code around the
+world, so any change in the language that invalidates more than a very small
+fraction of existing programs has to be frowned upon.  Even if you can provide a
+conversion program, there’s still the problem of updating all documentation;
+many books have been written about Python, and we don’t want to invalidate them
+all at a single stroke.</p>
+<p>Providing a gradual upgrade path is necessary if a feature has to be changed.
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0005"><strong>PEP 5</strong></a> describes the procedure followed for introducing backward-incompatible
+changes while minimizing disruption for users.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-python-a-good-language-for-beginning-programmers">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id27">Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-python-a-good-language-for-beginning-programmers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes.</p>
+<p>It is still common to start students with a procedural and statically typed
+language such as Pascal, C, or a subset of C++ or Java.  Students may be better
+served by learning Python as their first language.  Python has a very simple and
+consistent syntax and a large standard library and, most importantly, using
+Python in a beginning programming course lets students concentrate on important
+programming skills such as problem decomposition and data type design.  With
+Python, students can be quickly introduced to basic concepts such as loops and
+procedures.  They can probably even work with user-defined objects in their very
+first course.</p>
+<p>For a student who has never programmed before, using a statically typed language
+seems unnatural.  It presents additional complexity that the student must master
+and slows the pace of the course.  The students are trying to learn to think
+like a computer, decompose problems, design consistent interfaces, and
+encapsulate data.  While learning to use a statically typed language is
+important in the long term, it is not necessarily the best topic to address in
+the students’ first programming course.</p>
+<p>Many other aspects of Python make it a good first language.  Like Java, Python
+has a large standard library so that students can be assigned programming
+projects very early in the course that <em>do</em> something.  Assignments aren’t
+restricted to the standard four-function calculator and check balancing
+programs.  By using the standard library, students can gain the satisfaction of
+working on realistic applications as they learn the fundamentals of programming.
+Using the standard library also teaches students about code reuse.  Third-party
+modules such as PyGame are also helpful in extending the students’ reach.</p>
+<p>Python’s interactive interpreter enables students to test language features
+while they’re programming.  They can keep a window with the interpreter running
+while they enter their program’s source in another window.  If they can’t
+remember the methods for a list, they can do something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span> 
+<span class="go">[&#39;__add__&#39;, &#39;__class__&#39;, &#39;__contains__&#39;, &#39;__delattr__&#39;, &#39;__delitem__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;__dir__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__eq__&#39;, &#39;__format__&#39;, &#39;__ge__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;__getattribute__&#39;, &#39;__getitem__&#39;, &#39;__gt__&#39;, &#39;__hash__&#39;, &#39;__iadd__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;__imul__&#39;, &#39;__init__&#39;, &#39;__iter__&#39;, &#39;__le__&#39;, &#39;__len__&#39;, &#39;__lt__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;__mul__&#39;, &#39;__ne__&#39;, &#39;__new__&#39;, &#39;__reduce__&#39;, &#39;__reduce_ex__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;__repr__&#39;, &#39;__reversed__&#39;, &#39;__rmul__&#39;, &#39;__setattr__&#39;, &#39;__setitem__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;__sizeof__&#39;, &#39;__str__&#39;, &#39;__subclasshook__&#39;, &#39;append&#39;, &#39;clear&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;copy&#39;, &#39;count&#39;, &#39;extend&#39;, &#39;index&#39;, &#39;insert&#39;, &#39;pop&#39;, &#39;remove&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;reverse&#39;, &#39;sort&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__&#39;</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;append&#39;, &#39;clear&#39;, &#39;copy&#39;, &#39;count&#39;, &#39;extend&#39;, &#39;index&#39;, &#39;insert&#39;, &#39;pop&#39;, &#39;remove&#39;, &#39;reverse&#39;, &#39;sort&#39;]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Help on built-in function append:</span>
+
+<span class="go">append(...)</span>
+<span class="go">    L.append(object) -&gt; None -- append object to end</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span>
+<span class="go">[1]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With the interpreter, documentation is never far from the student as they are
+programming.</p>
+<p>There are also good IDEs for Python.  IDLE is a cross-platform IDE for Python
+that is written in Python using Tkinter.  PythonWin is a Windows-specific IDE.
+Emacs users will be happy to know that there is a very good Python mode for
+Emacs.  All of these programming environments provide syntax highlighting,
+auto-indenting, and access to the interactive interpreter while coding.  Consult
+<a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors">the Python wiki</a> for a full list
+of Python editing environments.</p>
+<p>If you want to discuss Python’s use in education, you may be interested in
+joining <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig">the edu-sig mailing list</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">General Python FAQ</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-information">General Information</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-in-the-real-world">Python in the real world</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Python Frequently Asked Questions</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="graphic-user-interface-faq">
+<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">Graphic User Interface FAQ</a><a class="headerlink" href="#graphic-user-interface-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#graphic-user-interface-faq" id="id2">Graphic User Interface FAQ</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#general-gui-questions" id="id3">General GUI Questions</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-platform-independent-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python" id="id4">What platform-independent GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter" id="id5">Tkinter</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#wxwidgets" id="id6">wxWidgets</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#qt" id="id7">Qt</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#gtk" id="id8">Gtk+</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#kivy" id="id9">Kivy</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#fltk" id="id10">FLTK</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#opengl" id="id11">OpenGL</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-platform-specific-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python" id="id12">What platform-specific GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter-questions" id="id13">Tkinter questions</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications" id="id14">How do I freeze Tkinter applications?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o" id="id15">Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why" id="id16">I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter: why?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="general-gui-questions">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">General GUI Questions</a><a class="headerlink" href="#general-gui-questions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-platform-independent-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">What platform-independent GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-platform-independent-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Depending on what platform(s) you are aiming at, there are several.  Some
+of them haven’t been ported to Python 3 yet.  At least <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter">Tkinter</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#qt">Qt</a>
+are known to be Python 3-compatible.</p>
+<div class="section" id="tkinter">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Tkinter</a><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Standard builds of Python include an object-oriented interface to the Tcl/Tk
+widget set, called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tk.html#tkinter"><span class="std std-ref">tkinter</span></a>.  This is probably the easiest to
+install (since it comes included with most
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/">binary distributions</a> of Python) and use.
+For more info about Tk, including pointers to the source, see the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.tcl.tk">Tcl/Tk home page</a>.  Tcl/Tk is fully portable to the
+Mac OS X, Windows, and Unix platforms.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wxwidgets">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">wxWidgets</a><a class="headerlink" href="#wxwidgets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>wxWidgets (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.wxwidgets.org">https://www.wxwidgets.org</a>) is a free, portable GUI class
+library written in C++ that provides a native look and feel on a
+number of platforms, with Windows, Mac OS X, GTK, X11, all listed as
+current stable targets.  Language bindings are available for a number
+of languages including Python, Perl, Ruby, etc.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.wxpython.org">wxPython</a> is the Python binding for
+wxwidgets.  While it often lags slightly behind the official wxWidgets
+releases, it also offers a number of features via pure Python
+extensions that are not available in other language bindings.  There
+is an active wxPython user and developer community.</p>
+<p>Both wxWidgets and wxPython are free, open source, software with
+permissive licences that allow their use in commercial products as
+well as in freeware or shareware.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="qt">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Qt</a><a class="headerlink" href="#qt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are bindings available for the Qt toolkit (using either <a class="reference external" href="https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro">PyQt</a> or <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.qt.io/PySide">PySide</a>) and for KDE (<a class="reference external" href="https://techbase.kde.org/Languages/Python/Using_PyKDE_4">PyKDE4</a>).
+PyQt is currently more mature than PySide, but you must buy a PyQt license from
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.riverbankcomputing.com/commercial/license-faq">Riverbank Computing</a>
+if you want to write proprietary applications.  PySide is free for all applications.</p>
+<p>Qt 4.5 upwards is licensed under the LGPL license; also, commercial licenses
+are available from <a class="reference external" href="https://www.qt.io/licensing/">The Qt Company</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gtk">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">Gtk+</a><a class="headerlink" href="#gtk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.gnome.org/Projects/PyGObject">GObject introspection bindings</a>
+for Python allow you to write GTK+ 3 applications.  There is also a
+<a class="reference external" href="https://python-gtk-3-tutorial.readthedocs.io">Python GTK+ 3 Tutorial</a>.</p>
+<p>The older PyGtk bindings for the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.gtk.org">Gtk+ 2 toolkit</a> have
+been implemented by James Henstridge; see &lt;<a class="reference external" href="http://www.pygtk.org">http://www.pygtk.org</a>&gt;.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="kivy">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Kivy</a><a class="headerlink" href="#kivy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://kivy.org/">Kivy</a> is a cross-platform GUI library supporting both
+desktop operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux) and mobile devices (Android,
+iOS).  It is written in Python and Cython, and can use a range of windowing
+backends.</p>
+<p>Kivy is free and open source software distributed under the MIT license.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fltk">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">FLTK</a><a class="headerlink" href="#fltk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python bindings for <a class="reference external" href="http://www.fltk.org">the FLTK toolkit</a>, a simple yet
+powerful and mature cross-platform windowing system, are available from <a class="reference external" href="http://pyfltk.sourceforge.net">the
+PyFLTK project</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="opengl">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">OpenGL</a><a class="headerlink" href="#opengl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For OpenGL bindings, see <a class="reference external" href="http://pyopengl.sourceforge.net">PyOpenGL</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-platform-specific-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">What platform-specific GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-platform-specific-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>By installing the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/">PyObjc Objective-C bridge</a>, Python programs can use Mac OS X’s
+Cocoa libraries.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#windows-faq"><span class="std std-ref">Pythonwin</span></a> by Mark Hammond includes an interface to the
+Microsoft Foundation Classes and a Python programming environment
+that’s written mostly in Python using the MFC classes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tkinter-questions">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Tkinter questions</a><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter-questions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">How do I freeze Tkinter applications?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Freeze is a tool to create stand-alone applications.  When freezing Tkinter
+applications, the applications will not be truly stand-alone, as the application
+will still need the Tcl and Tk libraries.</p>
+<p>One solution is to ship the application with the Tcl and Tk libraries, and point
+to them at run-time using the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCL_LIBRARY</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TK_LIBRARY</span></code>
+environment variables.</p>
+<p>To get truly stand-alone applications, the Tcl scripts that form the library
+have to be integrated into the application as well. One tool supporting that is
+SAM (stand-alone modules), which is part of the Tix distribution
+(<a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/">http://tix.sourceforge.net/</a>).</p>
+<p>Build Tix with SAM enabled, perform the appropriate call to
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tclsam_init()</span></code>, etc. inside Python’s
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/tkappinit.c</span></code>, and link with libtclsam and libtksam (you
+might include the Tix libraries as well).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On platforms other than Windows, yes, and you don’t even
+need threads!  But you’ll have to restructure your I/O
+code a bit.  Tk has the equivalent of Xt’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XtAddInput()</span></code> call, which allows you
+to register a callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when
+I/O is possible on a file descriptor.  See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#tkinter-file-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">File Handlers</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter: why?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An often-heard complaint is that event handlers bound to events with the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind()</span></code> method don’t get handled even when the appropriate key is pressed.</p>
+<p>The most common cause is that the widget to which the binding applies doesn’t
+have “keyboard focus”.  Check out the Tk documentation for the focus command.
+Usually a widget is given the keyboard focus by clicking in it (but not for
+labels; see the takefocus option).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-gui-questions">General GUI Questions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-platform-independent-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python">What platform-independent GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-platform-specific-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python">What platform-specific GUI toolkits exist for Python?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter-questions">Tkinter questions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+<span id="faq-index"></span><h1>Python Frequently Asked Questions<a class="headerlink" href="#python-frequently-asked-questions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="general.html">General Python FAQ</a></li>
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+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+
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+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/installed.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/installed.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e156fdd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/installed.html
@@ -0,0 +1,232 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>“Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+        </form>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="why-is-python-installed-on-my-computer-faq">
+<h1>“Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ<a class="headerlink" href="#why-is-python-installed-on-my-computer-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-python">
+<h2>What is Python?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python is a programming language.  It’s used for many different applications.
+It’s used in some high schools and colleges as an introductory programming
+language because Python is easy to learn, but it’s also used by professional
+software developers at places such as Google, NASA, and Lucasfilm Ltd.</p>
+<p>If you wish to learn more about Python, start with the <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide">Beginner’s Guide to
+Python</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine">
+<h2>Why is Python installed on my machine?<a class="headerlink" href="#why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you find Python installed on your system but don’t remember installing it,
+there are several possible ways it could have gotten there.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Perhaps another user on the computer wanted to learn programming and installed
+it; you’ll have to figure out who’s been using the machine and might have
+installed it.</p></li>
+<li><p>A third-party application installed on the machine might have been written in
+Python and included a Python installation.  There are many such applications,
+from GUI programs to network servers and administrative scripts.</p></li>
+<li><p>Some Windows machines also have Python installed.  At this writing we’re aware
+of computers from Hewlett-Packard and Compaq that include Python.  Apparently
+some of HP/Compaq’s administrative tools are written in Python.</p></li>
+<li><p>Many Unix-compatible operating systems, such as Mac OS X and some Linux
+distributions, have Python installed by default; it’s included in the base
+installation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="can-i-delete-python">
+<h2>Can I delete Python?<a class="headerlink" href="#can-i-delete-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>That depends on where Python came from.</p>
+<p>If someone installed it deliberately, you can remove it without hurting
+anything.  On Windows, use the Add/Remove Programs icon in the Control Panel.</p>
+<p>If Python was installed by a third-party application, you can also remove it,
+but that application will no longer work.  You should use that application’s
+uninstaller rather than removing Python directly.</p>
+<p>If Python came with your operating system, removing it is not recommended.  If
+you remove it, whatever tools were written in Python will no longer run, and
+some of them might be important to you.  Reinstalling the whole system would
+then be required to fix things again.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">“Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-python">What is Python?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine">Why is Python installed on my machine?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#can-i-delete-python">Can I delete Python?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="gui.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Graphic User Interface FAQ</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../glossary.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Glossary</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+      </li>
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+  </div>
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+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
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+
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+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/library.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/library.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ea5227
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/faq/library.html
@@ -0,0 +1,865 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Library and Extension FAQ &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Extending/Embedding FAQ" href="extending.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Design and History FAQ" href="design.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/faq/library.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+      }
+    </style>
+ 
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+  
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="extending.html" title="Extending/Embedding FAQ"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="design.html" title="Design and History FAQ"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">Python Frequently Asked Questions</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="library-and-extension-faq">
+<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id1">Library and Extension FAQ</a><a class="headerlink" href="#library-and-extension-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#library-and-extension-faq" id="id1">Library and Extension FAQ</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#general-library-questions" id="id2">General Library Questions</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x" id="id3">How do I find a module or application to perform task X?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file" id="id4">Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix" id="id5">How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python" id="id6">Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python" id="id7">Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work" id="id8">Why don’t my signal handlers work?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#common-tasks" id="id9">Common tasks</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component" id="id10">How do I test a Python program or component?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings" id="id11">How do I create documentation from doc strings?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time" id="id12">How do I get a single keypress at a time?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#threads" id="id13">Threads</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-program-using-threads" id="id14">How do I program using threads?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why" id="id15">None of my threads seem to run: why?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads" id="id16">How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe" id="id17">What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock" id="id18">Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#input-and-output" id="id19">Input and Output</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions" id="id20">How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…)</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-copy-a-file" id="id21">How do I copy a file?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data" id="id22">How do I read (or write) binary data?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why" id="id23">I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port" id="id24">How do I access the serial (RS232) port?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it" id="id25">Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#network-internet-programming" id="id26">Network/Internet Programming</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-www-tools-are-there-for-python" id="id27">What WWW tools are there for Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-mimic-cgi-form-submission-method-post" id="id28">How can I mimic CGI form submission (METHOD=POST)?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html" id="id29">What module should I use to help with generating HTML?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script" id="id30">How do I send mail from a Python script?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket" id="id31">How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#databases" id="id32">Databases</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python" id="id33">Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python" id="id34">How do you implement persistent objects in Python?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mathematics-and-numerics" id="id35">Mathematics and Numerics</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python" id="id36">How do I generate random numbers in Python?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="general-library-questions">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">General Library Questions</a><a class="headerlink" href="#general-library-questions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">How do I find a module or application to perform task X?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Check <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">the Library Reference</span></a> to see if there’s a relevant
+standard library module.  (Eventually you’ll learn what’s in the standard
+library and will be able to skip this step.)</p>
+<p>For third-party packages, search the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">Python Package Index</a> or try <a class="reference external" href="https://www.google.com">Google</a> or
+another Web search engine.  Searching for “Python” plus a keyword or two for
+your topic of interest will usually find something helpful.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you can’t find a source file for a module it may be a built-in or
+dynamically loaded module implemented in C, C++ or other compiled language.
+In this case you may not have the source file or it may be something like
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mathmodule.c</span></code>, somewhere in a C source directory (not on the Python Path).</p>
+<p>There are (at least) three kinds of modules in Python:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>modules written in Python (.py);</p></li>
+<li><p>modules written in C and dynamically loaded (.dll, .pyd, .so, .sl, etc);</p></li>
+<li><p>modules written in C and linked with the interpreter; to get a list of these,
+type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">builtin_module_names</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You need to do two things: the script file’s mode must be executable and the
+first line must begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> followed by the path of the Python
+interpreter.</p>
+<p>The first is done by executing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod</span> <span class="pre">+x</span> <span class="pre">scriptfile</span></code> or perhaps <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod</span> <span class="pre">755</span>
+<span class="pre">scriptfile</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The second can be done in a number of ways.  The most straightforward way is to
+write</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/local/bin/python</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>as the very first line of your file, using the pathname for where the Python
+interpreter is installed on your platform.</p>
+<p>If you would like the script to be independent of where the Python interpreter
+lives, you can use the <strong class="program">env</strong> program.  Almost all Unix variants support
+the following, assuming the Python interpreter is in a directory on the user’s
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>Don’t</em> do this for CGI scripts.  The <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> variable for CGI scripts is
+often very minimal, so you need to use the actual absolute pathname of the
+interpreter.</p>
+<p>Occasionally, a user’s environment is so full that the <strong class="program">/usr/bin/env</strong>
+program fails; or there’s no env program at all.  In that case, you can try the
+following hack (due to Alex Rezinsky):</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#! /bin/sh</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;:&quot;</span>
+<span class="nb">exec</span> python <span class="nv">$0</span> <span class="si">${</span><span class="nv">1</span><span class="p">+</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="nv">$@</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">}</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The minor disadvantage is that this defines the script’s __doc__ string.
+However, you can fix that by adding</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;...Whatever...&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For Unix variants: The standard Python source distribution comes with a curses
+module in the <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Modules">Modules</a> subdirectory, though it’s not compiled by default.
+(Note that this is not available in the Windows distribution – there is no
+curses module for Windows.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module supports basic curses features as well as many additional
+functions from ncurses and SYSV curses such as colour, alternative character set
+support, pads, and mouse support. This means the module isn’t compatible with
+operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there don’t seem to be any
+currently maintained OSes that fall into this category.</p>
+<p>For Windows: use <a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/console-index.htm">the consolelib module</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> module provides a register function that is similar to C’s
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onexit()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">Why don’t my signal handlers work?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The most common problem is that the signal handler is declared with the wrong
+argument list.  It is called as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">signum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frame</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>so it should be declared with two arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">signum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frame</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="common-tasks">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Common tasks</a><a class="headerlink" href="#common-tasks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">How do I test a Python program or component?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python comes with two testing frameworks.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module finds
+examples in the docstrings for a module and runs them, comparing the output with
+the expected output given in the docstring.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module is a fancier testing framework modelled on Java and
+Smalltalk testing frameworks.</p>
+<p>To make testing easier, you should use good modular design in your program.
+Your program should have almost all functionality
+encapsulated in either functions or class methods – and this sometimes has the
+surprising and delightful effect of making the program run faster (because local
+variable accesses are faster than global accesses).  Furthermore the program
+should avoid depending on mutating global variables, since this makes testing
+much more difficult to do.</p>
+<p>The “global main logic” of your program may be as simple as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main_logic</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>at the bottom of the main module of your program.</p>
+<p>Once your program is organized as a tractable collection of functions and class
+behaviours you should write test functions that exercise the behaviours.  A test
+suite that automates a sequence of tests can be associated with each module.
+This sounds like a lot of work, but since Python is so terse and flexible it’s
+surprisingly easy.  You can make coding much more pleasant and fun by writing
+your test functions in parallel with the “production code”, since this makes it
+easy to find bugs and even design flaws earlier.</p>
+<p>“Support modules” that are not intended to be the main module of a program may
+include a self-test of the module.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">self_test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Even programs that interact with complex external interfaces may be tested when
+the external interfaces are unavailable by using “fake” interfaces implemented
+in Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">How do I create documentation from doc strings?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module can create HTML from the doc strings in your Python
+source code.  An alternative for creating API documentation purely from
+docstrings is <a class="reference external" href="http://epydoc.sourceforge.net/">epydoc</a>.  <a class="reference external" href="http://sphinx-doc.org">Sphinx</a> can also include docstring content.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">How do I get a single keypress at a time?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For Unix variants there are several solutions.  It’s straightforward to do this
+using curses, but curses is a fairly large module to learn.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="threads">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Threads</a><a class="headerlink" href="#threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-program-using-threads">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">How do I program using threads?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-program-using-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Be sure to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module and not the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> module.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module builds convenient abstractions on top of the
+low-level primitives provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Aahz has a set of slides from his threading tutorial that are helpful; see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.pythoncraft.com/OSCON2001/">http://www.pythoncraft.com/OSCON2001/</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">None of my threads seem to run: why?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As soon as the main thread exits, all threads are killed.  Your main thread is
+running too quickly, giving the threads no time to do any work.</p>
+<p>A simple fix is to add a sleep to the end of the program that’s long enough for
+all the threads to finish:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">thread_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">thread_task</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">T</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># &lt;---------------------------!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>But now (on many platforms) the threads don’t run in parallel, but appear to run
+sequentially, one at a time!  The reason is that the OS thread scheduler doesn’t
+start a new thread until the previous thread is blocked.</p>
+<p>A simple fix is to add a tiny sleep to the start of the run function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">thread_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.001</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># &lt;--------------------!</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">thread_task</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">T</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Instead of trying to guess a good delay value for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.sleep()</span></code></a>,
+it’s better to use some kind of semaphore mechanism.  One idea is to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module to create a queue object, let each thread append a token to
+the queue when it finishes, and let the main thread read as many tokens from the
+queue as there are threads.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The easiest way is to use the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> module,
+especially the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>Or, if you want fine control over the dispatching algorithm, you can write
+your own logic manually.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module to create a queue
+containing a list of jobs.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> class maintains a
+list of objects and has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.put(obj)</span></code> method that adds items to the queue and
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.get()</span></code> method to return them.  The class will take care of the locking
+necessary to ensure that each job is handed out exactly once.</p>
+<p>Here’s a trivial example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">queue</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The worker thread gets jobs off the queue.  When the queue is empty, it</span>
+<span class="c1"># assumes there will be no more work and exits.</span>
+<span class="c1"># (Realistically workers will run until terminated.)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Running worker&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">block</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Empty</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Worker&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currentThread</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;queue empty&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Worker&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currentThread</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;running with argument&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create queue</span>
+<span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Start a pool of 5 workers</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">worker</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;worker </span><span class="si">%i</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Begin adding work to the queue</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Give threads time to run</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Main thread sleeping&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When run, this will produce the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Running worker
+Running worker
+Running worker
+Running worker
+Running worker
+Main thread sleeping
+Worker &lt;Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)&gt; running with argument 0
+Worker &lt;Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)&gt; running with argument 1
+Worker &lt;Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)&gt; running with argument 2
+Worker &lt;Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)&gt; running with argument 3
+Worker &lt;Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)&gt; running with argument 4
+Worker &lt;Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)&gt; running with argument 5
+...
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Consult the module’s documentation for more details; the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a>
+class provides a featureful interface.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">global interpreter lock</span></a> (GIL) is used internally to ensure that only one
+thread runs in the Python VM at a time.  In general, Python offers to switch
+among threads only between bytecode instructions; how frequently it switches can
+be set via <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setswitchinterval" title="sys.setswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setswitchinterval()</span></code></a>.  Each bytecode instruction and
+therefore all the C implementation code reached from each instruction is
+therefore atomic from the point of view of a Python program.</p>
+<p>In theory, this means an exact accounting requires an exact understanding of the
+PVM bytecode implementation.  In practice, it means that operations on shared
+variables of built-in data types (ints, lists, dicts, etc) that “look atomic”
+really are.</p>
+<p>For example, the following operations are all atomic (L, L1, L2 are lists, D,
+D1, D2 are dicts, x, y are objects, i, j are ints):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">L1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">L1</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">L2</span>
+<span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">field</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="n">D</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="n">D1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These aren’t:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">D</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Operations that replace other objects may invoke those other objects’
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method when their reference count reaches zero, and that can
+affect things.  This is especially true for the mass updates to dictionaries and
+lists.  When in doubt, use a mutex!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id18">Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">global interpreter lock</span></a> (GIL) is often seen as a hindrance to Python’s
+deployment on high-end multiprocessor server machines, because a multi-threaded
+Python program effectively only uses one CPU, due to the insistence that
+(almost) all Python code can only run while the GIL is held.</p>
+<p>Back in the days of Python 1.5, Greg Stein actually implemented a comprehensive
+patch set (the “free threading” patches) that removed the GIL and replaced it
+with fine-grained locking.  Adam Olsen recently did a similar experiment
+in his <a class="reference external" href="https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread">python-safethread</a>
+project.  Unfortunately, both experiments exhibited a sharp drop in single-thread
+performance (at least 30% slower), due to the amount of fine-grained locking
+necessary to compensate for the removal of the GIL.</p>
+<p>This doesn’t mean that you can’t make good use of Python on multi-CPU machines!
+You just have to be creative with dividing the work up between multiple
+<em>processes</em> rather than multiple <em>threads</em>.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> class in the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> module provides an easy way of doing so; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module provides a lower-level API in case you want
+more control over dispatching of tasks.</p>
+<p>Judicious use of C extensions will also help; if you use a C extension to
+perform a time-consuming task, the extension can release the GIL while the
+thread of execution is in the C code and allow other threads to get some work
+done.  Some standard library modules such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a>
+already do this.</p>
+<p>It has been suggested that the GIL should be a per-interpreter-state lock rather
+than truly global; interpreters then wouldn’t be able to share objects.
+Unfortunately, this isn’t likely to happen either.  It would be a tremendous
+amount of work, because many object implementations currently have global state.
+For example, small integers and short strings are cached; these caches would
+have to be moved to the interpreter state.  Other object types have their own
+free list; these free lists would have to be moved to the interpreter state.
+And so on.</p>
+<p>And I doubt that it can even be done in finite time, because the same problem
+exists for 3rd party extensions.  It is likely that 3rd party extensions are
+being written at a faster rate than you can convert them to store all their
+global state in the interpreter state.</p>
+<p>And finally, once you have multiple interpreters not sharing any state, what
+have you gained over running each interpreter in a separate process?</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="input-and-output">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id19">Input and Output</a><a class="headerlink" href="#input-and-output" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id20">How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…)</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.remove(filename)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.unlink(filename)</span></code>; for documentation, see
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module.  The two functions are identical; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlink()</span></code></a> is simply
+the name of the Unix system call for this function.</p>
+<p>To remove a directory, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rmdir()</span></code></a>; use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.mkdir" title="os.mkdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.mkdir()</span></code></a> to create one.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.makedirs(path)</span></code> will create any intermediate directories in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> that
+don’t exist. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.removedirs(path)</span></code> will remove intermediate directories as
+long as they’re empty; if you want to delete an entire directory tree and its
+contents, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.rmtree()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>To rename a file, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rename(old_path,</span> <span class="pre">new_path)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To truncate a file, open it using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">open(filename,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;rb+&quot;)</span></code>, and use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.truncate(offset)</span></code>; offset defaults to the current seek position.  There’s
+also <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.ftruncate(fd,</span> <span class="pre">offset)</span></code> for files opened with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a>, where
+<em>fd</em> is the file descriptor (a small integer).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module also contains a number of functions to work on files
+including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfile" title="shutil.copyfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyfile()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmtree()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-copy-a-file">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id21">How do I copy a file?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-copy-a-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module contains a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfile" title="shutil.copyfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyfile()</span></code></a> function.  Note
+that on MacOS 9 it doesn’t copy the resource fork and Finder info.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id22">How do I read (or write) binary data?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To read or write complex binary data formats, it’s best to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a>
+module.  It allows you to take a string containing binary data (usually numbers)
+and convert it to Python objects; and vice versa.</p>
+<p>For example, the following code reads two 2-byte integers and one 4-byte integer
+in big-endian format from a file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&gt;hhl&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The ‘&gt;’ in the format string forces big-endian data; the letter ‘h’ reads one
+“short integer” (2 bytes), and ‘l’ reads one “long integer” (4 bytes) from the
+string.</p>
+<p>For data that is more regular (e.g. a homogeneous list of ints or floats),
+you can also use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>To read and write binary data, it is mandatory to open the file in
+binary mode (here, passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;rb&quot;</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>).  If you use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;r&quot;</span></code> instead (the default), the file will be open in text mode
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.read()</span></code> will return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects rather than
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id23">I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.read" title="os.read"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.read()</span></code></a> is a low-level function which takes a file descriptor, a small
+integer representing the opened file.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a> creates a high-level
+file object, the same type returned by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function.
+Thus, to read <em>n</em> bytes from a pipe <em>p</em> created with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a>, you need to
+use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p.read(n)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id24">How do I access the serial (RS232) port?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For Win32, POSIX (Linux, BSD, etc.), Jython:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><a class="reference external" href="http://pyserial.sourceforge.net">http://pyserial.sourceforge.net</a></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>For Unix, see a Usenet post by Mitch Chapman:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><a class="reference external" href="https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9&#64;ohioee.com">https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9&#64;ohioee.com</a></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id25">Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a> are a high-level layer of
+abstraction on low-level C file descriptors.</p>
+<p>For most file objects you create in Python via the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>
+function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.close()</span></code> marks the Python file object as being closed from
+Python’s point of view, and also arranges to close the underlying C file
+descriptor.  This also happens automatically in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>’s destructor, when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> becomes garbage.</p>
+<p>But stdin, stdout and stderr are treated specially by Python, because of the
+special status also given to them by C.  Running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.close()</span></code> marks
+the Python-level file object as being closed, but does <em>not</em> close the
+associated C file descriptor.</p>
+<p>To close the underlying C file descriptor for one of these three, you should
+first be sure that’s what you really want to do (e.g., you may confuse
+extension modules trying to do I/O).  If it is, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.close" title="os.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.close()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or you can use the numeric constants 0, 1 and 2, respectively.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="network-internet-programming">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id26">Network/Internet Programming</a><a class="headerlink" href="#network-internet-programming" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="what-www-tools-are-there-for-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id27">What WWW tools are there for Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-www-tools-are-there-for-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See the chapters titled <a class="reference internal" href="../library/internet.html#internet"><span class="std std-ref">Internet Protocols and Support</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/netdata.html#netdata"><span class="std std-ref">Internet Data Handling</span></a> in the Library
+Reference Manual.  Python has many modules that will help you build server-side
+and client-side web systems.</p>
+<p>A summary of available frameworks is maintained by Paul Boddie at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming">https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming</a>.</p>
+<p>Cameron Laird maintains a useful set of pages about Python web technologies at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://phaseit.net/claird/comp.lang.python/web_python">http://phaseit.net/claird/comp.lang.python/web_python</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-mimic-cgi-form-submission-method-post">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id28">How can I mimic CGI form submission (METHOD=POST)?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-mimic-cgi-form-submission-method-post" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>I would like to retrieve web pages that are the result of POSTing a form. Is
+there existing code that would let me do this easily?</p>
+<p>Yes. Here’s a simple example that uses urllib.request:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/local/bin/python</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># build the query string</span>
+<span class="n">qs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;First=Josephine&amp;MI=Q&amp;Last=Public&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># connect and send the server a path</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.some-server.out-there&#39;</span>
+                             <span class="s1">&#39;/cgi-bin/some-cgi-script&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">qs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">req</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">hdrs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">req</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">req</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that in general for percent-encoded POST operations, query strings must be
+quoted using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlencode()</span></code></a>.  For example, to send
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name=Guy</span> <span class="pre">Steele,</span> <span class="pre">Jr.</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Guy Steele, Jr.&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;name=Guy+Steele%2C+Jr.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/urllib2.html#urllib-howto"><span class="std std-ref">HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package</span></a> for extensive examples.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id29">What module should I use to help with generating HTML?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can find a collection of useful links on the <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming">Web Programming wiki page</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id30">How do I send mail from a Python script?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Use the standard library module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Here’s a very simple interactive mail sender that uses it.  This method will
+work on any host that supports an SMTP listener.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+
+<span class="n">fromaddr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;From: &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">toaddrs</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;To: &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Enter message, end with ^D:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The actual mail send</span>
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendmail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromaddr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">toaddrs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A Unix-only alternative uses sendmail.  The location of the sendmail program
+varies between systems; sometimes it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/lib/sendmail</span></code>, sometimes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/sbin/sendmail</span></code>.  The sendmail manual page will help you out.  Here’s
+some sample code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="n">SENDMAIL</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/sbin/sendmail&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># sendmail location</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> -t -i&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">SENDMAIL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;To: receiver@example.com</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Subject: test</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># blank line separating headers from body</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Some text</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;some more text</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Sendmail exit status&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sts</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id31">How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module is commonly used to help with asynchronous I/O on
+sockets.</p>
+<p>To prevent the TCP connect from blocking, you can set the socket to non-blocking
+mode.  Then when you do the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code>, you will either connect immediately
+(unlikely) or get an exception that contains the error number as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.errno</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EINPROGRESS</span></code> indicates that the connection is in progress, but hasn’t
+finished yet.  Different OSes will return different values, so you’re going to
+have to check what’s returned on your system.</p>
+<p>You can use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect_ex()</span></code> method to avoid creating an exception.  It will
+just return the errno value.  To poll, you can call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect_ex()</span></code> again later
+– <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EISCONN</span></code> indicate that you’re connected – or you can pass this
+socket to select to check if it’s writable.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> module presents a framework-like approach to the problem
+of writing non-blocking networking code.
+The third-party <a class="reference external" href="https://twistedmatrix.com/trac/">Twisted</a> library is
+a popular and feature-rich alternative.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="databases">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id32">Databases</a><a class="headerlink" href="#databases" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id33">Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes.</p>
+<p>Interfaces to disk-based hashes such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DBM</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GDBM</span></code></a> are also included with standard Python.  There is also the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module, which provides a lightweight disk-based relational
+database.</p>
+<p>Support for most relational databases is available.  See the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming">DatabaseProgramming wiki page</a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id34">How do you implement persistent objects in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> library module solves this in a very general way (though you
+still can’t store things like open files, sockets or windows), and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a> library module uses pickle and (g)dbm to create persistent
+mappings containing arbitrary Python objects.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mathematics-and-numerics">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id35">Mathematics and Numerics</a><a class="headerlink" href="#mathematics-and-numerics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id36">How do I generate random numbers in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The standard module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> implements a random number generator.  Usage
+is simple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This returns a random floating point number in the range [0, 1).</p>
+<p>There are also many other specialized generators in this module, such as:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> chooses an integer in the range [a, b).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uniform(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> chooses a floating point number in the range [a, b).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalvariate(mean,</span> <span class="pre">sdev)</span></code> samples the normal (Gaussian) distribution.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Some higher-level functions operate on sequences directly, such as:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choice(S)</span></code> chooses random element from a given sequence</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shuffle(L)</span></code> shuffles a list in-place, i.e. permutes it randomly</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There’s also a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Random</span></code> class you can instantiate to create independent
+multiple random number generators.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Library and Extension FAQ</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-library-questions">General Library Questions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-tasks">Common tasks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threads">Threads</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#input-and-output">Input and Output</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#network-internet-programming">Network/Internet Programming</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="programming-faq">
+<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id1">Programming FAQ</a><a class="headerlink" href="#programming-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#programming-faq" id="id1">Programming FAQ</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#general-questions" id="id2">General Questions</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc" id="id3">Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-a-tool-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis" id="id4">Is there a tool to help find bugs or perform static analysis?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script" id="id5">How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs" id="id6">Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#core-language" id="id7">Core Language</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value" id="id8">Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python" id="id9">What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result" id="id10">Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules" id="id11">How do I share global variables across modules?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module" id="id12">What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects" id="id13">Why are default values shared between objects?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another" id="id14">How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters" id="id15">What is the difference between arguments and parameters?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x" id="id16">Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference" id="id17">How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python" id="id18">How do you make a higher order function in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python" id="id19">How do I copy an object in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object" id="id20">How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object" id="id21">How can my code discover the name of an object?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence" id="id22">What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator" id="id23">Is there an equivalent of C’s “?:” ternary operator?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python" id="id24">Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean" id="id25">What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#numbers-and-strings" id="id26">Numbers and strings</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers" id="id27">How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-22-10-return-3" id="id28">Why does -22 // 10 return -3?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number" id="id29">How do I convert a string to a number?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string" id="id30">How do I convert a number to a string?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place" id="id31">How do I modify a string in place?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods" id="id32">How do I use strings to call functions/methods?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings" id="id33">Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent" id="id34">Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean" id="id35">What does ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or ‘UnicodeEncodeError’ error  mean?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#performance" id="id36">Performance</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up" id="id37">My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together" id="id38">What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#sequences-tuples-lists" id="id39">Sequences (Tuples/Lists)</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists" id="id40">How do I convert between tuples and lists?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-s-a-negative-index" id="id41">What’s a negative index?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order" id="id42">How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list" id="id43">How do you remove duplicates from a list?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python" id="id44">How do you make an array in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list" id="id45">How do I create a multidimensional list?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-apply-a-method-to-a-sequence-of-objects" id="id46">How do I apply a method to a sequence of objects?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works" id="id47">Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python" id="id48">I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list" id="id49">How can I sort one list by values from another list?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#objects" id="id50">Objects</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-a-class" id="id51">What is a class?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-a-method" id="id52">What is a method?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-self" id="id53">What is self?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it" id="id54">How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-delegation" id="id55">What is delegation?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-overrides-it" id="id56">How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that overrides it?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class" id="id57">How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods" id="id58">How do I create static class data and static class methods?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python" id="id59">How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam" id="id60">I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object" id="id61">My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class" id="id62">How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique" id="id63">Why does the result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code> appear to be not unique?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#modules" id="id64">Modules</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file" id="id65">How do I create a .pyc file?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name" id="id66">How do I find the current module name?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other" id="id67">How can I have modules that mutually import each other?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z" id="id68">__import__(‘x.y.z’) returns &lt;module ‘x’&gt;; how do I get z?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen" id="id69">When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up.  Why does this happen?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="general-questions">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">General Questions</a><a class="headerlink" href="#general-questions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes.</p>
+<p>Several debuggers for Python are described below, and the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a> allows you to drop into any of them.</p>
+<p>The pdb module is a simple but adequate console-mode debugger for Python. It is
+part of the standard Python library, and is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">documented</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">the</span> <span class="pre">Library</span>
+<span class="pre">Reference</span> <span class="pre">Manual</span></code></a>. You can also write your own debugger by using the code
+for pdb as an example.</p>
+<p>The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the standard
+Python distribution (normally available as Tools/scripts/idle), includes a
+graphical debugger.</p>
+<p>PythonWin is a Python IDE that includes a GUI debugger based on pdb.  The
+Pythonwin debugger colors breakpoints and has quite a few cool features such as
+debugging non-Pythonwin programs.  Pythonwin is available as part of the <a class="reference external" href="https://sourceforge.net/projects/pywin32/">Python
+for Windows Extensions</a> project and
+as a part of the ActivePython distribution (see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.activestate.com/activepython">https://www.activestate.com/activepython</a>).</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://boa-constructor.sourceforge.net/">Boa Constructor</a> is an IDE and GUI
+builder that uses wxWidgets.  It offers visual frame creation and manipulation,
+an object inspector, many views on the source like object browsers, inheritance
+hierarchies, doc string generated html documentation, an advanced debugger,
+integrated help, and Zope support.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://eric-ide.python-projects.org/">Eric</a> is an IDE built on PyQt
+and the Scintilla editing component.</p>
+<p>Pydb is a version of the standard Python debugger pdb, modified for use with DDD
+(Data Display Debugger), a popular graphical debugger front end.  Pydb can be
+found at <a class="reference external" href="http://bashdb.sourceforge.net/pydb/">http://bashdb.sourceforge.net/pydb/</a> and DDD can be found at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/ddd">https://www.gnu.org/software/ddd</a>.</p>
+<p>There are a number of commercial Python IDEs that include graphical debuggers.
+They include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Wing IDE (<a class="reference external" href="https://wingware.com/">https://wingware.com/</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Komodo IDE (<a class="reference external" href="https://komodoide.com/">https://komodoide.com/</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>PyCharm (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/">https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/</a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-a-tool-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Is there a tool to help find bugs or perform static analysis?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-a-tool-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes.</p>
+<p>PyChecker is a static analysis tool that finds bugs in Python source code and
+warns about code complexity and style.  You can get PyChecker from
+<a class="reference external" href="http://pychecker.sourceforge.net/">http://pychecker.sourceforge.net/</a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.pylint.org/">Pylint</a> is another tool that checks
+if a module satisfies a coding standard, and also makes it possible to write
+plug-ins to add a custom feature.  In addition to the bug checking that
+PyChecker performs, Pylint offers some additional features such as checking line
+length, whether variable names are well-formed according to your coding
+standard, whether declared interfaces are fully implemented, and more.
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.pylint.org/">https://docs.pylint.org/</a> provides a full list of Pylint’s features.</p>
+<p>Static type checkers such as <a class="reference external" href="http://mypy-lang.org/">Mypy</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pyre-check.org/">Pyre</a>, and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/google/pytype">Pytype</a> can check type hints in Python
+source code.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You don’t need the ability to compile Python to C code if all you want is a
+stand-alone program that users can download and run without having to install
+the Python distribution first.  There are a number of tools that determine the
+set of modules required by a program and bind these modules together with a
+Python binary to produce a single executable.</p>
+<p>One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source tree as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/freeze</span></code>. It converts Python byte code to C arrays; a C compiler you can
+embed all your modules into a new program, which is then linked with the
+standard Python modules.</p>
+<p>It works by scanning your source recursively for import statements (in both
+forms) and looking for the modules in the standard Python path as well as in the
+source directory (for built-in modules).  It then turns the bytecode for modules
+written in Python into C code (array initializers that can be turned into code
+objects using the marshal module) and creates a custom-made config file that
+only contains those built-in modules which are actually used in the program.  It
+then compiles the generated C code and links it with the rest of the Python
+interpreter to form a self-contained binary which acts exactly like your script.</p>
+<p>Obviously, freeze requires a C compiler.  There are several other utilities
+which don’t. One is Thomas Heller’s py2exe (Windows only) at</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.py2exe.org/">http://www.py2exe.org/</a></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Another tool is Anthony Tuininga’s <a class="reference external" href="https://anthony-tuininga.github.io/cx_Freeze/">cx_Freeze</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes.  The coding style required for standard library modules is documented as
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008"><strong>PEP 8</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="core-language">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Core Language</a><a class="headerlink" href="#core-language" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It can be a surprise to get the UnboundLocalError in previously working
+code when it is modified by adding an assignment statement somewhere in
+the body of a function.</p>
+<p>This code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bar</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>works, but this code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>results in an UnboundLocalError:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">UnboundLocalError</span>: <span class="n">local variable &#39;x&#39; referenced before assignment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is because when you make an assignment to a variable in a scope, that
+variable becomes local to that scope and shadows any similarly named variable
+in the outer scope.  Since the last statement in foo assigns a new value to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, the compiler recognizes it as a local variable.  Consequently when the
+earlier <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print(x)</span></code> attempts to print the uninitialized local variable and
+an error results.</p>
+<p>In the example above you can access the outer scope variable by declaring it
+global:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foobar</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">global</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foobar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This explicit declaration is required in order to remind you that (unlike the
+superficially analogous situation with class and instance variables) you are
+actually modifying the value of the variable in the outer scope:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">11</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can do a similar thing in a nested scope using the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a>
+keyword:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bar</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>       <span class="k">nonlocal</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>       <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>       <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="go">11</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In Python, variables that are only referenced inside a function are implicitly
+global.  If a variable is assigned a value anywhere within the function’s body,
+it’s assumed to be a local unless explicitly declared as global.</p>
+<p>Though a bit surprising at first, a moment’s consideration explains this.  On
+one hand, requiring <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> for assigned variables provides a bar
+against unintended side-effects.  On the other hand, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> was required
+for all global references, you’d be using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> all the time.  You’d have
+to declare as global every reference to a built-in function or to a component of
+an imported module.  This clutter would defeat the usefulness of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code>
+declaration for identifying side-effects.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Assume you use a for loop to define a few different lambdas (or even plain
+functions), e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">squares</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This gives you a list that contains 5 lambdas that calculate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x**2</span></code>.  You
+might expect that, when called, they would return, respectively, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">16</span></code>.  However, when you actually try you will see that
+they all return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">16</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]()</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]()</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This happens because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in
+the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called — not when it
+is defined.  At the end of the loop, the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code>, so all the
+functions now return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4**2</span></code>, i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">16</span></code>.  You can also verify this by
+changing the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and see how the results of the lambdas change:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]()</span>
+<span class="go">64</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In order to avoid this, you need to save the values in variables local to the
+lambdas, so that they don’t rely on the value of the global <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">squares</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n=x</span></code> creates a new variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> local to the lambda and computed
+when the lambda is defined so that it has the same value that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> had at
+that point in the loop.  This means that the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>
+in the first lambda, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> in the second, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> in the third, and so on.
+Therefore each lambda will now return the correct result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]()</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]()</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that this behaviour is not peculiar to lambdas, but applies to regular
+functions too.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">How do I share global variables across modules?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The canonical way to share information across modules within a single program is
+to create a special module (often called config or cfg).  Just import the config
+module in all modules of your application; the module then becomes available as
+a global name.  Because there is only one instance of each module, any changes
+made to the module object get reflected everywhere.  For example:</p>
+<p>config.py:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>   <span class="c1"># Default value of the &#39;x&#39; configuration setting</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>mod.py:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">config</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>main.py:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">config</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mod</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that using a module is also the basis for implementing the Singleton design
+pattern, for the same reason.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In general, don’t use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">modulename</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.  Doing so clutters the
+importer’s namespace, and makes it much harder for linters to detect undefined
+names.</p>
+<p>Import modules at the top of a file.  Doing so makes it clear what other modules
+your code requires and avoids questions of whether the module name is in scope.
+Using one import per line makes it easy to add and delete module imports, but
+using multiple imports per line uses less screen space.</p>
+<p>It’s good practice if you import modules in the following order:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>standard library modules – e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>third-party library modules (anything installed in Python’s site-packages
+directory) – e.g. mx.DateTime, ZODB, PIL.Image, etc.</p></li>
+<li><p>locally-developed modules</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>It is sometimes necessary to move imports to a function or class to avoid
+problems with circular imports.  Gordon McMillan says:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Circular imports are fine where both modules use the “import &lt;module&gt;” form
+of import.  They fail when the 2nd module wants to grab a name out of the
+first (“from module import name”) and the import is at the top level.  That’s
+because names in the 1st are not yet available, because the first module is
+busy importing the 2nd.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>In this case, if the second module is only used in one function, then the import
+can easily be moved into that function.  By the time the import is called, the
+first module will have finished initializing, and the second module can do its
+import.</p>
+<p>It may also be necessary to move imports out of the top level of code if some of
+the modules are platform-specific.  In that case, it may not even be possible to
+import all of the modules at the top of the file.  In this case, importing the
+correct modules in the corresponding platform-specific code is a good option.</p>
+<p>Only move imports into a local scope, such as inside a function definition, if
+it’s necessary to solve a problem such as avoiding a circular import or are
+trying to reduce the initialization time of a module.  This technique is
+especially helpful if many of the imports are unnecessary depending on how the
+program executes.  You may also want to move imports into a function if the
+modules are only ever used in that function.  Note that loading a module the
+first time may be expensive because of the one time initialization of the
+module, but loading a module multiple times is virtually free, costing only a
+couple of dictionary lookups.  Even if the module name has gone out of scope,
+the module is probably available in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Why are default values shared between objects?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This type of bug commonly bites neophyte programmers.  Consider this function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{}):</span>  <span class="c1"># Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">compute</span> <span class="n">something</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">mydict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mydict</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first time you call this function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mydict</span></code> contains a single item.  The
+second time, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mydict</span></code> contains two items because when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo()</span></code> begins
+executing, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mydict</span></code> starts out with an item already in it.</p>
+<p>It is often expected that a function call creates new objects for default
+values. This is not what happens. Default values are created exactly once, when
+the function is defined.  If that object is changed, like the dictionary in this
+example, subsequent calls to the function will refer to this changed object.</p>
+<p>By definition, immutable objects such as numbers, strings, tuples, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+are safe from change. Changes to mutable objects such as dictionaries, lists,
+and class instances can lead to confusion.</p>
+<p>Because of this feature, it is good programming practice to not use mutable
+objects as default values.  Instead, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as the default value and
+inside the function, check if the parameter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and create a new
+list/dictionary/whatever if it is.  For example, don’t write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{}):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>but:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mydict</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">mydict</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">mydict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>  <span class="c1"># create a new dict for local namespace</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This feature can be useful.  When you have a function that’s time-consuming to
+compute, a common technique is to cache the parameters and the resulting value
+of each call to the function, and return the cached value if the same value is
+requested again.  This is called “memoizing”, and can be implemented like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">expensive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{}):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Calculate the value</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">expensive</span> <span class="n">computation</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">)]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span>           <span class="c1"># Store result in the cache</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You could use a global variable containing a dictionary instead of the default
+value; it’s a matter of taste.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Collect the arguments using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> specifiers in the function’s
+parameter list; this gives you the positional arguments as a tuple and the
+keyword arguments as a dictionary.  You can then pass these arguments when
+calling another function by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;width&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;14.3c&#39;</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters">
+<span id="faq-argument-vs-parameter"></span><span id="index-1"></span><h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">What is the difference between arguments and parameters?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-parameter"><span class="xref std std-term">Parameters</span></a> are defined by the names that appear in a
+function definition, whereas <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">arguments</span></a> are the values
+actually passed to a function when calling it.  Parameters define what types of
+arguments a function can accept.  For example, given the function definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>foo</em>, <em>bar</em> and <em>kwargs</em> are parameters of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func</span></code>.  However, when calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func</span></code>, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">314</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">somevar</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>the values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">42</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">314</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">somevar</span></code> are arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you wrote code like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="go">[10]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="go">[10]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>you might be wondering why appending an element to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> changed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> too.</p>
+<p>There are two factors that produce this result:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Variables are simply names that refer to objects.  Doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code> doesn’t
+create a copy of the list – it creates a new variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> that refers to
+the same object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> refers to.  This means that there is only one object
+(the list), and both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> refer to it.</p></li>
+<li><p>Lists are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mutable"><span class="xref std std-term">mutable</span></a>, which means that you can change their content.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>After the call to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code>, the content of the mutable object has
+changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[10]</span></code>.  Since both the variables refer to the same
+object, using either name accesses the modified value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[10]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If we instead assign an immutable object to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>  <span class="c1"># ints are immutable</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>  <span class="c1"># 5 can&#39;t be mutated, we are creating a new object here</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>we can see that in this case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> are not equal anymore.  This is
+because integers are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-immutable"><span class="xref std std-term">immutable</span></a>, and when we do <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> we are not
+mutating the int <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code> by incrementing its value; instead, we are creating a
+new object (the int <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code>) and assigning it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> (that is, changing which
+object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> refers to).  After this assignment we have two objects (the ints
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>) and two variables that refer to them (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> now refers to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code> but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> still refers to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Some operations (for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y.append(10)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y.sort()</span></code>) mutate the
+object, whereas superficially similar operations (for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">[10]</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(y)</span></code>) create a new object.  In general in Python (and in all cases
+in the standard library) a method that mutates an object will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+to help avoid getting the two types of operations confused.  So if you
+mistakenly write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y.sort()</span></code> thinking it will give you a sorted copy of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>,
+you’ll instead end up with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, which will likely cause your program to
+generate an easily diagnosed error.</p>
+<p>However, there is one class of operations where the same operation sometimes
+has different behaviors with different types:  the augmented assignment
+operators.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> mutates lists but not tuples or ints (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_list</span>
+<span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3]</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_list.extend([1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3])</span></code> and mutates
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_list</span></code>, whereas <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_tuple</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_int</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> create
+new objects).</p>
+<p>In other words:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If we have a mutable object (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>,
+etc.), we can use some specific operations to mutate it and all the variables
+that refer to it will see the change.</p></li>
+<li><p>If we have an immutable object (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>,
+etc.), all the variables that refer to it will always see the same value,
+but operations that transform that value into a new value always return a new
+object.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If you want to know if two variables refer to the same object or not, you can
+use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></a> operator, or the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python.  Since assignment
+just creates references to objects, there’s no alias between an argument name in
+the caller and callee, and so no call-by-reference per se.  You can achieve the
+desired effect in a number of ways.</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>By returning a tuple of the results:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;new-value&#39;</span>        <span class="c1"># a and b are local names</span>
+    <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>              <span class="c1"># assigned to new objects</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span>            <span class="c1"># return new values</span>
+
+<span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;old-value&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">99</span>
+<span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>                <span class="c1"># output: new-value 100</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is almost always the clearest solution.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>By using global variables.  This isn’t thread-safe, and is not recommended.</p></li>
+<li><p>By passing a mutable (changeable in-place) object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;new-value&#39;</span>     <span class="c1"># &#39;a&#39; references a mutable list</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>        <span class="c1"># changes a shared object</span>
+
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;old-value&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">func1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>    <span class="c1"># output: new-value 100</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>By passing in a dictionary that gets mutated:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;new-value&#39;</span>     <span class="c1"># args is a mutable dictionary</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>   <span class="c1"># change it in-place</span>
+
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;old-value&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">func3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Or bundle up values in a class instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">callByRef</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func4</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;new-value&#39;</span>        <span class="c1"># args is a mutable callByRef</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>         <span class="c1"># change object in-place</span>
+
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">callByRef</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;old-value&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">func4</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s almost never a good reason to get this complicated.</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p>Your best choice is to return a tuple containing the multiple results.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id18">How do you make a higher order function in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You have two choices: you can use nested scopes or you can use callable objects.
+For example, suppose you wanted to define <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linear(a,b)</span></code> which returns a
+function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(x)</span></code> that computes the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a*x+b</span></code>.  Using nested scopes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">linear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or using a callable object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">linear</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__call__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In both cases,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">taxes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">linear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>gives a callable object where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">taxes(10e6)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0.3</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">10e6</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The callable object approach has the disadvantage that it is a bit slower and
+results in slightly longer code.  However, note that a collection of callables
+can share their signature via inheritance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">exponential</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">linear</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># __init__ inherited</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__call__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Object can encapsulate state for several methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">counter</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">up</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">down</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+
+<span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">inc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dec</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">up</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">down</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inc()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dec()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset()</span></code> act like functions which share the
+same counting variable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id19">How do I copy an object in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In general, try <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#copy.copy" title="copy.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.copy()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.deepcopy()</span></code></a> for the general case.
+Not all objects can be copied, but most can.</p>
+<p>Some objects can be copied more easily.  Dictionaries have a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.copy" title="dict.copy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a>
+method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">newdict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">olddict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sequences can be copied by slicing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">new_l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[:]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id20">How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For an instance x of a user-defined class, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir(x)</span></code> returns an alphabetized
+list of the names containing the instance attributes and methods and attributes
+defined by its class.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id21">How can my code discover the name of an object?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Generally speaking, it can’t, because objects don’t really have names.
+Essentially, assignment always binds a name to a value; The same is true of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> statements, but in that case the value is a
+callable. Consider the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">B</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Arguably the class has a name: even though it is bound to two names and invoked
+through the name B the created instance is still reported as an instance of
+class A.  However, it is impossible to say whether the instance’s name is a or
+b, since both names are bound to the same value.</p>
+<p>Generally speaking it should not be necessary for your code to “know the names”
+of particular values. Unless you are deliberately writing introspective
+programs, this is usually an indication that a change of approach might be
+beneficial.</p>
+<p>In comp.lang.python, Fredrik Lundh once gave an excellent analogy in answer to
+this question:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>The same way as you get the name of that cat you found on your porch: the cat
+(object) itself cannot tell you its name, and it doesn’t really care – so
+the only way to find out what it’s called is to ask all your neighbours
+(namespaces) if it’s their cat (object)…</p>
+<p>….and don’t be surprised if you’ll find that it’s known by many names, or
+no name at all!</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id22">What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Comma is not an operator in Python.  Consider this session:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">(False, &#39;a&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since the comma is not an operator, but a separator between expressions the
+above is evaluated as if you had entered:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>not:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same is true of the various assignment operators (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> etc).  They
+are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment statements.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id23">Is there an equivalent of C’s “?:” ternary operator?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes, there is. The syntax is as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">on_true</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">expression</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">on_false</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">25</span>
+<span class="n">small</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Before this syntax was introduced in Python 2.5, a common idiom was to use
+logical operators:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">expression</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">on_true</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">on_false</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, this idiom is unsafe, as it can give wrong results when <em>on_true</em>
+has a false boolean value.  Therefore, it is always better to use
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">else</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> form.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id24">Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Yes.  Usually this is done by nesting <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> within
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code>.  See the following three examples, due to Ulf Bartelt:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">functools</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">reduce</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Primes &lt; 1000</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">!=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">%</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))),</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)))))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># First 10 Fibonacci numbers</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Mandelbrot set</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">Ru</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Iu</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Io</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">IM</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Sx</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Sy</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="n">Iu</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Iu</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Io</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Io</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Sy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Sy</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Iu</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Iu</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Io</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Io</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">IM</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="n">Sx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Sx</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Sy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Sy</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">xc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">Sx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Sx</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">F</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">xc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">xc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="o">&lt;=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="ow">or</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;=</span><span class="mf">4.0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">xc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span><span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="mi">64</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Ro</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Ru</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">Sx</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">yc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)),</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Sx</span><span class="p">))):</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Iu</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Io</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Iu</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">Sy</span><span class="p">),</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Sy</span>
+<span class="p">))))(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">2.1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">24</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="c1">#    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen</span>
+<span class="c1">#        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen</span>
+<span class="c1">#        |          |      |__________ maximum of &quot;iterations&quot;</span>
+<span class="c1">#        |          |_________________ range on y axis</span>
+<span class="c1">#        |____________________________ range on x axis</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Don’t try this at home, kids!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean">
+<span id="faq-positional-only-arguments"></span><h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id25">What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A slash in the argument list of a function denotes that the parameters prior to
+it are positional-only.  Positional-only parameters are the ones without an
+externally-usable name.  Upon calling a function that accepts positional-only
+parameters, arguments are mapped to parameters based solely on their position.
+For example, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a> is a function that accepts positional-only parameters.
+Its documentation looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Help on built-in function pow in module builtins:</span>
+
+<span class="go">pow(x, y, z=None, /)</span>
+<span class="go">   Equivalent to x**y (with two arguments) or x**y % z (with three arguments)</span>
+
+<span class="go">   Some types, such as ints, are able to use a more efficient algorithm when</span>
+<span class="go">   invoked using the three argument form.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The slash at the end of the parameter list means that all three parameters are
+positional-only. Thus, calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a> with keyword aguments would lead to
+an error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">pow() takes no keyword arguments</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that as of this writing this is only documentational and no valid syntax
+in Python, although there is <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0570"><strong>PEP 570</strong></a>, which proposes a syntax for
+position-only parameters in Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="numbers-and-strings">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id26">Numbers and strings</a><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers-and-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id27">How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To specify an octal digit, precede the octal value with a zero, and then a lower
+or uppercase “o”.  For example, to set the variable “a” to the octal value “10”
+(8 in decimal), type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mo">0o10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Hexadecimal is just as easy.  Simply precede the hexadecimal number with a zero,
+and then a lower or uppercase “x”.  Hexadecimal digits can be specified in lower
+or uppercase.  For example, in the Python interpreter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mh">0xa5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">165</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mh">0XB2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">178</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-does-22-10-return-3">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id28">Why does -22 // 10 return -3?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-does-22-10-return-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It’s primarily driven by the desire that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">j</span></code> have the same sign as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code>.
+If you want that, and also want:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">j</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">j</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then integer division has to return the floor.  C also requires that identity to
+hold, and then compilers that truncate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">j</span></code> need to make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">j</span></code> have
+the same sign as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There are few real use cases for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">j</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code> is negative.  When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code>
+is positive, there are many, and in virtually all of them it’s more useful for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">j</span></code> to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.  If the clock says 10 now, what did it say 200 hours
+ago?  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-190</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">12</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code> is useful; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-190</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">12</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">-10</span></code> is a bug waiting to
+bite.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id29">How do I convert a string to a number?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For integers, use the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> type constructor, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('144')</span>
+<span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">144</span></code>.  Similarly, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a> converts to floating-point,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float('144')</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">144.0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>By default, these interpret the number as decimal, so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('0144')</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">144</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('0x144')</span></code> raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(string,</span> <span class="pre">base)</span></code> takes
+the base to convert from as a second optional argument, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('0x144',</span> <span class="pre">16)</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">324</span></code>.  If the base is specified as 0, the number is interpreted using Python’s
+rules: a leading ‘0o’ indicates octal, and ‘0x’ indicates a hex number.</p>
+<p>Do not use the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> if all you need is to convert
+strings to numbers.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> will be significantly slower and it presents a
+security risk: someone could pass you a Python expression that might have
+unwanted side effects.  For example, someone could pass
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__('os').system(&quot;rm</span> <span class="pre">-rf</span> <span class="pre">$HOME&quot;)</span></code> which would erase your home
+directory.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python expressions,
+so that e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval('09')</span></code> gives a syntax error because Python does not allow
+leading ‘0’ in a decimal number (except ‘0’).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id30">How do I convert a number to a string?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To convert, e.g., the number 144 to the string ‘144’, use the built-in type
+constructor <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>.  If you want a hexadecimal or octal representation, use
+the built-in functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hex()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">oct()</span></code></a>.  For fancy formatting, see
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Formatted string literals</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a> sections,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;{:04d}&quot;.format(144)</span></code> yields
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0144'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;{:.3f}&quot;.format(1.0/3.0)</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0.333'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id31">How do I modify a string in place?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can’t, because strings are immutable.  In most situations, you should
+simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to assemble
+it from.  However, if you need an object with the ability to modify in-place
+unicode data, try using an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> object or the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a>
+module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello, world&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sio</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello, world&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">7</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;there!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello, there!&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;u&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">array(&#39;u&#39;, &#39;Hello, world&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">array(&#39;u&#39;, &#39;yello, world&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tounicode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;yello, world&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id32">How do I use strings to call functions/methods?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are various techniques.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The best is to use a dictionary that maps strings to functions.  The primary
+advantage of this technique is that the strings do not need to match the names
+of the functions.  This is also the primary technique used to emulate a case
+construct:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">a</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">b</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">dispatch</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;go&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;stop&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="c1"># Note lack of parens for funcs</span>
+
+<span class="n">dispatch</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">get_input</span><span class="p">()]()</span>  <span class="c1"># Note trailing parens to call function</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Use the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">foo</span>
+<span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> works on any object, including classes, class
+instances, modules, and so on.</p>
+<p>This is used in several places in the standard library, like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_bar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo_instance</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;do_&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">opname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> to resolve the function name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">myFunc</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">fname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myFunc&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="n">fname</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note: Using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> is slow and dangerous.  If you don’t have absolute
+control over the contents of the string, someone could pass a string that
+resulted in an arbitrary function being executed.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id33">Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S.rstrip(&quot;\r\n&quot;)</span></code> to remove all occurrences of any line
+terminator from the end of the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S</span></code> without removing other trailing
+whitespace.  If the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S</span></code> represents more than one line, with several
+empty lines at the end, the line terminators for all the blank lines will
+be removed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lines</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;line 1 </span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>         <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>         <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lines</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n\r</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;line 1 &#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since this is typically only desired when reading text one line at a time, using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S.rstrip()</span></code> this way works well.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id34">Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Not as such.</p>
+<p>For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the line into
+whitespace-delimited words using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> method of string objects
+and then convert decimal strings to numeric values using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code> supports an optional “sep” parameter which is useful
+if the line uses something other than whitespace as a separator.</p>
+<p>For more complicated input parsing, regular expressions are more powerful
+than C’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sscanf()</span></code> and better suited for the task.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id35">What does ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or ‘UnicodeEncodeError’ error  mean?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/unicode.html#unicode-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Unicode HOWTO</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="performance">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id36">Performance</a><a class="headerlink" href="#performance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id37">My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>That’s a tough one, in general.  First, here are a list of things to
+remember before diving further:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Performance characteristics vary across Python implementations.  This FAQ
+focusses on <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Behaviour can vary across operating systems, especially when talking about
+I/O or multi-threading.</p></li>
+<li><p>You should always find the hot spots in your program <em>before</em> attempting to
+optimize any code (see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> module).</p></li>
+<li><p>Writing benchmark scripts will allow you to iterate quickly when searching
+for improvements (see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> module).</p></li>
+<li><p>It is highly recommended to have good code coverage (through unit testing
+or any other technique) before potentially introducing regressions hidden
+in sophisticated optimizations.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>That being said, there are many tricks to speed up Python code.  Here are
+some general principles which go a long way towards reaching acceptable
+performance levels:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Making your algorithms faster (or changing to faster ones) can yield
+much larger benefits than trying to sprinkle micro-optimization tricks
+all over your code.</p></li>
+<li><p>Use the right data structures.  Study documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bltin-types"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Types</span></a>
+and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.</p></li>
+<li><p>When the standard library provides a primitive for doing something, it is
+likely (although not guaranteed) to be faster than any alternative you
+may come up with.  This is doubly true for primitives written in C, such
+as builtins and some extension types.  For example, be sure to use
+either the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> built-in method or the related <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>
+function to do sorting (and see the <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/sorting.html#sortinghowto"><span class="std std-ref">Sorting HOW TO</span></a> for examples
+of moderately advanced usage).</p></li>
+<li><p>Abstractions tend to create indirections and force the interpreter to work
+more.  If the levels of indirection outweigh the amount of useful work
+done, your program will be slower.  You should avoid excessive abstraction,
+especially under the form of tiny functions or methods (which are also often
+detrimental to readability).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If you have reached the limit of what pure Python can allow, there are tools
+to take you further away.  For example, <a class="reference external" href="http://cython.org">Cython</a> can
+compile a slightly modified version of Python code into a C extension, and
+can be used on many different platforms.  Cython can take advantage of
+compilation (and optional type annotations) to make your code significantly
+faster than when interpreted.  If you are confident in your C programming
+skills, you can also <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">write a C extension module</span></a>
+yourself.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The wiki page devoted to <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips">performance tips</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together">
+<span id="efficient-string-concatenation"></span><h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id38">What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects are immutable, therefore concatenating
+many strings together is inefficient as each concatenation creates a new
+object.  In the general case, the total runtime cost is quadratic in the
+total string length.</p>
+<p>To accumulate many <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects, the recommended idiom is to place
+them into a list and call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.join()</span></code></a> at the end:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">chunks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">my_strings</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">chunks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunks</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(another reasonably efficient idiom is to use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a>)</p>
+<p>To accumulate many <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects, the recommended idiom is to extend
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> object using in-place concatenation (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> operator):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">my_bytes_objects</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sequences-tuples-lists">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id39">Sequences (Tuples/Lists)</a><a class="headerlink" href="#sequences-tuples-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id40">How do I convert between tuples and lists?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The type constructor <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple(seq)</span></code> converts any sequence (actually, any
+iterable) into a tuple with the same items in the same order.</p>
+<p>For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple([1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3])</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple('abc')</span></code>
+yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('a',</span> <span class="pre">'b',</span> <span class="pre">'c')</span></code>.  If the argument is a tuple, it does not make a copy
+but returns the same object, so it is cheap to call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple()</span></code></a> when you
+aren’t sure that an object is already a tuple.</p>
+<p>The type constructor <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(seq)</span></code> converts any sequence or iterable into a list
+with the same items in the same order.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list((1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3))</span></code> yields
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list('abc')</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['a',</span> <span class="pre">'b',</span> <span class="pre">'c']</span></code>.  If the argument
+is a list, it makes a copy just like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seq[:]</span></code> would.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-s-a-negative-index">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id41">What’s a negative index?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-a-negative-index" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python sequences are indexed with positive numbers and negative numbers.  For
+positive numbers 0 is the first index 1 is the second index and so forth.  For
+negative indices -1 is the last index and -2 is the penultimate (next to last)
+index and so forth.  Think of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seq[-n]</span></code> as the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seq[len(seq)-n]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Using negative indices can be very convenient.  For example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S[:-1]</span></code> is all of
+the string except for its last character, which is useful for removing the
+trailing newline from a string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id42">How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> built-in function, which is new in Python 2.4:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># do something with x ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This won’t touch your original sequence, but build a new copy with reversed
+order to iterate over.</p>
+<p>With Python 2.3, you can use an extended slice syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># do something with x ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id43">How do you remove duplicates from a list?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See the Python Cookbook for a long discussion of many ways to do this:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/">https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/</a></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If you don’t mind reordering the list, sort it and then scan from the end of the
+list, deleting duplicates as you go:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+            <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (i.e. they are all
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>) this is often faster</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mylist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This converts the list into a set, thereby removing duplicates, and then back
+into a list.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id44">How do you make an array in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Use a list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;this&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;an&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;array&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lists are equivalent to C or Pascal arrays in their time complexity; the primary
+difference is that a Python list can contain objects of many different types.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code> module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed types
+with compact representations, but they are slower to index than lists.  Also
+note that the Numeric extensions and others define array-like structures with
+various characteristics as well.</p>
+<p>To get Lisp-style linked lists, you can emulate cons cells using tuples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">lisp_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;like&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;this&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;example&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If mutability is desired, you could use lists instead of tuples.  Here the
+analogue of lisp car is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lisp_list[0]</span></code> and the analogue of cdr is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lisp_list[1]</span></code>.  Only do this if you’re sure you really need to, because it’s
+usually a lot slower than using Python lists.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list">
+<span id="faq-multidimensional-list"></span><h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id45">How do I create a multidimensional list?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You probably tried to make a multidimensional array like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">A</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[[</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This looks correct if you print it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">A</span>
+<span class="go">[[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>But when you assign a value, it shows up in multiple places:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">A</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">A</span>
+<span class="go">[[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The reason is that replicating a list with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> doesn’t create copies, it only
+creates references to the existing objects.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*3</span></code> creates a list
+containing 3 references to the same list of length two.  Changes to one row will
+show in all rows, which is almost certainly not what you want.</p>
+<p>The suggested approach is to create a list of the desired length first and then
+fill in each element with a newly created list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">A</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This generates a list containing 3 different lists of length two.  You can also
+use a list comprehension:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="n">A</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[[</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or, you can use an extension that provides a matrix datatype; <a class="reference external" href="http://www.numpy.org/">NumPy</a> is the best known.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-apply-a-method-to-a-sequence-of-objects">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id46">How do I apply a method to a sequence of objects?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-apply-a-method-to-a-sequence-of-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Use a list comprehension:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works">
+<span id="faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error"></span><h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id47">Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This is because of a combination of the fact that augmented assignment
+operators are <em>assignment</em> operators, and the difference between mutable and
+immutable objects in Python.</p>
+<p>This discussion applies in general when augmented assignment operators are
+applied to elements of a tuple that point to mutable objects, but we’ll use
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> as our exemplar.</p>
+<p>If you wrote:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_tuple</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+   <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;tuple&#39; object does not support item assignment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The reason for the exception should be immediately clear: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> is added to the
+object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_tuple[0]</span></code> points to (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>), producing the result object, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>,
+but when we attempt to assign the result of the computation, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, to element
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> of the tuple, we get an error because we can’t change what an element of
+a tuple points to.</p>
+<p>Under the covers, what this augmented assignment statement is doing is
+approximately this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a_tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;tuple&#39; object does not support item assignment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is the assignment part of the operation that produces the error, since a
+tuple is immutable.</p>
+<p>When you write something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_tuple</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;item&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;tuple&#39; object does not support item assignment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The exception is a bit more surprising, and even more surprising is the fact
+that even though there was an error, the append worked:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;foo&#39;, &#39;item&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object implements an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__</span></code> magic method, it gets called when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> augmented assignment
+is executed, and its return value is what gets used in the assignment statement;
+and (b) for lists, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__</span></code> is equivalent to calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend</span></code> on the list
+and returning the list.  That’s why we say that for lists, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> is a
+“shorthand” for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.extend</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_list</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_list</span>
+<span class="go">[1]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a_list</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__iadd__</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The object pointed to by a_list has been mutated, and the pointer to the
+mutated object is assigned back to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_list</span></code>.  The end result of the
+assignment is a no-op, since it is a pointer to the same object that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_list</span></code>
+was previously pointing to, but the assignment still happens.</p>
+<p>Thus, in our tuple example what is happening is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a_tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__iadd__</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;item&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a_tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;tuple&#39; object does not support item assignment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__</span></code> succeeds, and thus the list is extended, but even though
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">result</span></code> points to the same object that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_tuple[0]</span></code> already points to,
+that final assignment still results in an error, because tuples are immutable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id48">I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The technique, attributed to Randal Schwartz of the Perl community, sorts the
+elements of a list by a metric which maps each element to its “sort value”. In
+Python, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code> argument for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Isorted</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[:]</span>
+<span class="n">Isorted</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id49">How can I sort one list by values from another list?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then pick
+out the element you want.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">list1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;what&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;I&#39;m&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sorting&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;by&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">list2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;something&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;else&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;to&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sort&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pairs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">list2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pairs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pairs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pairs</span>
+<span class="go">[(&quot;I&#39;m&quot;, &#39;else&#39;), (&#39;by&#39;, &#39;sort&#39;), (&#39;sorting&#39;, &#39;to&#39;), (&#39;what&#39;, &#39;something&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pairs</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;else&#39;, &#39;sort&#39;, &#39;to&#39;, &#39;something&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An alternative for the last step is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">p</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pairs</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you find this more legible, you might prefer to use this instead of the final
+list comprehension.  However, it is almost twice as slow for long lists.  Why?
+First, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> operation has to reallocate memory, and while it uses
+some tricks to avoid doing that each time, it still has to do it occasionally,
+and that costs quite a bit.  Second, the expression “result.append” requires an
+extra attribute lookup, and third, there’s a speed reduction from having to make
+all those function calls.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="objects">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id50">Objects</a><a class="headerlink" href="#objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-a-class">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id51">What is a class?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-a-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A class is the particular object type created by executing a class statement.
+Class objects are used as templates to create instance objects, which embody
+both the data (attributes) and code (methods) specific to a datatype.</p>
+<p>A class can be based on one or more other classes, called its base class(es). It
+then inherits the attributes and methods of its base classes. This allows an
+object model to be successively refined by inheritance.  You might have a
+generic <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code> class that provides basic accessor methods for a mailbox,
+and subclasses such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MboxMailbox</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMailbox</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutlookMailbox</span></code>
+that handle various specific mailbox formats.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-a-method">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id52">What is a method?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-a-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A method is a function on some object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> that you normally call as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.name(arguments...)</span></code>.  Methods are defined as functions inside the class
+definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-self">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id53">What is self?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-self" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Self is merely a conventional name for the first argument of a method.  A method
+defined as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meth(self,</span> <span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code> should be called as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.meth(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code> for
+some instance <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> of the class in which the definition occurs; the called
+method will think it is called as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meth(x,</span> <span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="design.html#why-self"><span class="std std-ref">Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id54">How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Use the built-in function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">cls)</span></code>.  You can check if an object
+is an instance of any of a number of classes by providing a tuple instead of a
+single class, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">(class1,</span> <span class="pre">class2,</span> <span class="pre">...))</span></code>, and can also
+check whether an object is one of Python’s built-in types, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">str)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">(int,</span> <span class="pre">float,</span> <span class="pre">complex))</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that most programs do not use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> on user-defined classes
+very often.  If you are developing the classes yourself, a more proper
+object-oriented style is to define methods on the classes that encapsulate a
+particular behaviour, instead of checking the object’s class and doing a
+different thing based on what class it is.  For example, if you have a function
+that does something:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Mailbox</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># code to search a mailbox</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Document</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># code to search a document</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A better approach is to define a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code> method on all the classes and just
+call it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Mailbox</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># code to search a mailbox</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Document</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># code to search a document</span>
+
+<span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-delegation">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id55">What is delegation?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-delegation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Delegation is an object oriented technique (also called a design pattern).
+Let’s say you have an object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and want to change the behaviour of just one
+of its methods.  You can create a new class that provides a new implementation
+of the method you’re interested in changing and delegates all other methods to
+the corresponding method of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Python programmers can easily implement delegation.  For example, the following
+class implements a class that behaves like a file but converts all written data
+to uppercase:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">UpperOut</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_outfile</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">outfile</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_outfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getattr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_outfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UpperOut</span></code> class redefines the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method to convert the
+argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.__outfile.write()</span></code> method.  All other methods are delegated to the
+underlying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.__outfile</span></code> object.  The delegation is accomplished via the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> method; consult <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#attribute-access"><span class="std std-ref">the language reference</span></a>
+for more information about controlling attribute access.</p>
+<p>Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier. When attributes
+must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a>
+method too, and it must do so carefully.  The basic implementation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> is roughly equivalent to the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">X</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setattr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Most <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> implementations must modify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.__dict__</span></code> to store
+local state for self without causing an infinite recursion.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-overrides-it">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id56">How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that overrides it?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-overrides-it" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Use the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Derived</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Base</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Derived</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For version prior to 3.0, you may be using classic classes: For a class
+definition such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span> <span class="pre">Derived(Base):</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> you can call method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meth()</span></code>
+defined in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base</span></code> (or one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base</span></code>’s base classes) as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base.meth(self,</span>
+<span class="pre">arguments...)</span></code>.  Here, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base.meth</span></code> is an unbound method, so you need to
+provide the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id57">How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You could define an alias for the base class, assign the real base class to it
+before your class definition, and use the alias throughout your class.  Then all
+you have to change is the value assigned to the alias.  Incidentally, this trick
+is also handy if you want to decide dynamically (e.g. depending on availability
+of resources) which base class to use.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">BaseAlias</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">real</span> <span class="n">base</span> <span class="n">class</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Derived</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseAlias</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">BaseAlias</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id58">How do I create static class data and static class methods?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both static data and static methods (in the sense of C++ or Java) are supported
+in Python.</p>
+<p>For static data, simply define a class attribute.  To assign a new value to the
+attribute, you have to explicitly use the class name in the assignment:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>   <span class="c1"># number of times C.__init__ called</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getcount</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span>  <span class="c1"># or return self.count</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.count</span></code> also refers to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.count</span></code> for any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(c,</span>
+<span class="pre">C)</span></code> holds, unless overridden by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> itself or by some class on the base-class
+search path from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.__class__</span></code> back to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Caution: within a method of C, an assignment like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.count</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">42</span></code> creates a
+new and unrelated instance named “count” in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>’s own dict.  Rebinding of a
+class-static data name must always specify the class whether inside a method or
+not:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">314</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Static methods are possible:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nd">@staticmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">static</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># No &#39;self&#39; parameter!</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, a far more straightforward way to get the effect of a static method is
+via a simple module-level function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getcount</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If your code is structured so as to define one class (or tightly related class
+hierarchy) per module, this supplies the desired encapsulation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id59">How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This answer actually applies to all methods, but the question usually comes up
+first in the context of constructors.</p>
+<p>In C++ you’d write</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">class</span> <span class="n">C</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;No arguments</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Argument is &quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Python you have to write a single constructor that catches all cases using
+default arguments.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;No arguments&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Argument is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is not entirely equivalent, but close enough in practice.</p>
+<p>You could also try a variable-length argument list, e.g.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same approach works for all method definitions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id60">I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.</a><a class="headerlink" href="#i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Variable names with double leading underscores are “mangled” to provide a simple
+but effective way to define class private variables.  Any identifier of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spam</span></code> (at least two leading underscores, at most one trailing underscore)
+is textually replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_classname__spam</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classname</span></code> is the
+current class name with any leading underscores stripped.</p>
+<p>This doesn’t guarantee privacy: an outside user can still deliberately access
+the “_classname__spam” attribute, and private values are visible in the object’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code>.  Many Python programmers never bother to use private variable
+names at all.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id61">My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.</a><a class="headerlink" href="#my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are several possible reasons for this.</p>
+<p>The del statement does not necessarily call <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> – it simply
+decrements the object’s reference count, and if this reaches zero
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+<p>If your data structures contain circular links (e.g. a tree where each child has
+a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the reference counts
+will never go back to zero.  Once in a while Python runs an algorithm to detect
+such cycles, but the garbage collector might run some time after the last
+reference to your data structure vanishes, so your <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method may be
+called at an inconvenient and random time. This is inconvenient if you’re trying
+to reproduce a problem. Worse, the order in which object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a>
+methods are executed is arbitrary.  You can run <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.collect" title="gc.collect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.collect()</span></code></a> to force a
+collection, but there <em>are</em> pathological cases where objects will never be
+collected.</p>
+<p>Despite the cycle collector, it’s still a good idea to define an explicit
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method on objects to be called whenever you’re done with them.  The
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method can then remove attributes that refer to subobjects.  Don’t
+call <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> directly – <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> should call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> should make sure that it can be called more than once for the same
+object.</p>
+<p>Another way to avoid cyclical references is to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module,
+which allows you to point to objects without incrementing their reference count.
+Tree data structures, for instance, should use weak references for their parent
+and sibling references (if they need them!).</p>
+<p>Finally, if your <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method raises an exception, a warning message
+is printed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id62">How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python does not keep track of all instances of a class (or of a built-in type).
+You can program the class’s constructor to keep track of all instances by
+keeping a list of weak references to each instance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id63">Why does the result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code> appear to be not unique?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a> builtin returns an integer that is guaranteed to be unique during
+the lifetime of the object.  Since in CPython, this is the object’s memory
+address, it happens frequently that after an object is deleted from memory, the
+next freshly created object is allocated at the same position in memory.  This
+is illustrated by this example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">13901272</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2000</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">13901272</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The two ids belong to different integer objects that are created before, and
+deleted immediately after execution of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code> call.  To be sure that
+objects whose id you want to examine are still alive, create another reference
+to the object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2000</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">13901272</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">13891296</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="modules">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id64">Modules</a><a class="headerlink" href="#modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id65">How do I create a .pyc file?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When a module is imported for the first time (or when the source file has
+changed since the current compiled file was created) a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file containing
+the compiled code should be created in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code> subdirectory of the
+directory containing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> file.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file will have a
+filename that starts with the same name as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> file, and ends with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>, with a middle component that depends on the particular <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code>
+binary that created it.  (See <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> for details.)</p>
+<p>One reason that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file may not be created is a permissions problem
+with the directory containing the source file, meaning that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code>
+subdirectory cannot be created. This can happen, for example, if you develop as
+one user but run as another, such as if you are testing with a web server.</p>
+<p>Unless the <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</span></code></a> environment variable is set,
+creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you’re importing a module and Python
+has the ability (permissions, free space, etc…) to create a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code>
+subdirectory and write the compiled module to that subdirectory.</p>
+<p>Running Python on a top level script is not considered an import and no
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> will be created.  For example, if you have a top-level module
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.py</span></code> that imports another module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xyz.py</span></code>, when you run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> (by
+typing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">foo.py</span></code> as a shell command), a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> will be created for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xyz</span></code> because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xyz</span></code> is imported, but no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file will be created for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.py</span></code> isn’t being imported.</p>
+<p>If you need to create a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> – that is, to create a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file for a module that is not imported – you can, using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> module can manually compile any module.  One way is to use
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code> function in that module interactively:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">py_compile</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">py_compile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                 
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will write the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code> subdirectory in the same
+location as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.py</span></code> (or you can override that with the optional parameter
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cfile</span></code>).</p>
+<p>You can also automatically compile all files in a directory or directories using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> module.  You can do it from the shell prompt by running
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall.py</span></code> and providing the path of a directory containing Python files
+to compile:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">compileall</span> <span class="o">.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id66">How do I find the current module name?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A module can find out its own module name by looking at the predefined global
+variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>.  If this has the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code>, the program is
+running as a script.  Many modules that are usually used by importing them also
+provide a command-line interface or a self-test, and only execute this code
+after checking <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Running test...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id67">How can I have modules that mutually import each other?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Suppose you have the following modules:</p>
+<p>foo.py:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">bar</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">bar_var</span>
+<span class="n">foo_var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>bar.py:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">foo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">foo_var</span>
+<span class="n">bar_var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The problem is that the interpreter will perform the following steps:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>main imports foo</p></li>
+<li><p>Empty globals for foo are created</p></li>
+<li><p>foo is compiled and starts executing</p></li>
+<li><p>foo imports bar</p></li>
+<li><p>Empty globals for bar are created</p></li>
+<li><p>bar is compiled and starts executing</p></li>
+<li><p>bar imports foo (which is a no-op since there already is a module named foo)</p></li>
+<li><p>bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The last step fails, because Python isn’t done with interpreting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> yet and
+the global symbol dictionary for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> is still empty.</p>
+<p>The same thing happens when you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">foo</span></code>, and then try to access
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.foo_var</span></code> in global code.</p>
+<p>There are (at least) three possible workarounds for this problem.</p>
+<p>Guido van Rossum recommends avoiding all uses of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">&lt;module&gt;</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>,
+and placing all code inside functions.  Initializations of global variables and
+class variables should use constants or built-in functions only.  This means
+everything from an imported module is referenced as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;module&gt;.&lt;name&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Jim Roskind suggests performing steps in the following order in each module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>exports (globals, functions, and classes that don’t need imported base
+classes)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statements</p></li>
+<li><p>active code (including globals that are initialized from imported values).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>van Rossum doesn’t like this approach much because the imports appear in a
+strange place, but it does work.</p>
+<p>Matthias Urlichs recommends restructuring your code so that the recursive import
+is not necessary in the first place.</p>
+<p>These solutions are not mutually exclusive.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id68">__import__(‘x.y.z’) returns &lt;module ‘x’&gt;; how do I get z?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Consider using the convenience function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module()</span></code></a> from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">import_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x.y.z&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id69">When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up.  Why does this happen?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For reasons of efficiency as well as consistency, Python only reads the module
+file on the first time a module is imported.  If it didn’t, in a program
+consisting of many modules where each one imports the same basic module, the
+basic module would be parsed and re-parsed many times.  To force re-reading of a
+changed module, do this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">modname</span>
+<span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reload</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">modname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof.  In particular, modules
+containing statements like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">modname</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">some_objects</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will continue to work with the old version of the imported objects.  If the
+module contains class definitions, existing class instances will <em>not</em> be
+updated to use the new class definition.  This can result in the following
+paradoxical behaviour:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cls</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>                <span class="c1"># Create an instance of C</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reload</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;module &#39;cls&#39; from &#39;cls.py&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># isinstance is false?!?</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The nature of the problem is made clear if you print out the “identity” of the
+class objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x7352a0&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x4198d0&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Programming FAQ</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-questions">General Questions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#core-language">Core Language</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numbers-and-strings">Numbers and strings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequences-tuples-lists">Sequences (Tuples/Lists)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#objects">Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modules">Modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="general.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">General Python FAQ</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">Design and History FAQ</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+  <div class="section" id="python-on-windows-faq">
+<span id="windows-faq"></span><h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id1">Python on Windows FAQ</a><a class="headerlink" href="#python-on-windows-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#python-on-windows-faq" id="id1">Python on Windows FAQ</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows" id="id2">How do I run a Python program under Windows?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable" id="id3">How do I make Python scripts executable?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start" id="id4">Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script" id="id5">How do I make an executable from a Python script?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll" id="id6">Is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyd</span></code> file the same as a DLL?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application" id="id7">How can I embed Python into a Windows application?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source" id="id8">How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking" id="id9">How do I check for a keypress without blocking?</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows">
+<span id="faq-run-program-under-windows"></span><h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">How do I run a Python program under Windows?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This is not necessarily a straightforward question. If you are already familiar
+with running programs from the Windows command line then everything will seem
+obvious; otherwise, you might need a little more guidance.</p>
+<p>Unless you use some sort of integrated development environment, you will end up
+<em>typing</em> Windows commands into what is variously referred to as a “DOS window”
+or “Command prompt window”.  Usually you can create such a window from your
+search bar by searching for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code>.  You should be able to recognize
+when you have started such a window because you will see a Windows “command
+prompt”, which usually looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-doscon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">C:\&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The letter may be different, and there might be other things after it, so you
+might just as easily see something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-doscon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">D:\YourName\Projects\Python&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>depending on how your computer has been set up and what else you have recently
+done with it.  Once you have started such a window, you are well on the way to
+running Python programs.</p>
+<p>You need to realize that your Python scripts have to be processed by another
+program called the Python <em>interpreter</em>.  The interpreter reads your script,
+compiles it into bytecodes, and then executes the bytecodes to run your
+program. So, how do you arrange for the interpreter to handle your Python?</p>
+<p>First, you need to make sure that your command window recognises the word
+“py” as an instruction to start the interpreter.  If you have opened a
+command window, you should try entering the command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> and hitting
+return:</p>
+<div class="highlight-doscon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">C:\Users\YourName&gt;</span> py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You should then see something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="go">Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32</span>
+<span class="go">Type &quot;help&quot;, &quot;copyright&quot;, &quot;credits&quot; or &quot;license&quot; for more information.</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You have started the interpreter in “interactive mode”. That means you can enter
+Python statements or expressions interactively and have them executed or
+evaluated while you wait.  This is one of Python’s strongest features.  Check it
+by entering a few expressions of your choice and seeing the results:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Hello</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello&quot;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;HelloHelloHello&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Many people use the interactive mode as a convenient yet highly programmable
+calculator.  When you want to end your interactive Python session,
+call the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#exit" title="exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit()</span></code></a> function or hold the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl</kbd> key down
+while you enter a <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Z</kbd>, then hit the “<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Enter</kbd>” key to get
+back to your Windows command prompt.</p>
+<p>You may also find that you have a Start-menu entry such as <span class="menuselection">Start
+‣ Programs ‣ Python 3.x ‣ Python (command line)</span> that results in you
+seeing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code> prompt in a new window.  If so, the window will disappear
+after you call the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#exit" title="exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit()</span></code></a> function or enter the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl-Z</kbd>
+character; Windows is running a single “python”
+command in the window, and closes it when you terminate the interpreter.</p>
+<p>Now that we know the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> command is recognized, you can give your
+Python script to it. You’ll have to give either an absolute or a
+relative path to the Python script. Let’s say your Python script is
+located in your desktop and is named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hello.py</span></code>, and your command
+prompt is nicely opened in your home directory so you’re seeing something
+similar to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>C:\Users\YourName&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>So now you’ll ask the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> command to give your script to Python by
+typing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> followed by your script path:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>C:\Users\YourName&gt; py Desktop\hello.py
+hello
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">How do I make Python scripts executable?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>On Windows, the standard Python installer already associates the .py
+extension with a file type (Python.File) and gives that file type an open
+command that runs the interpreter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D:\Program</span> <span class="pre">Files\Python\python.exe</span> <span class="pre">&quot;%1&quot;</span>
+<span class="pre">%*</span></code>).  This is enough to make scripts executable from the command prompt as
+‘foo.py’.  If you’d rather be able to execute the script by simple typing ‘foo’
+with no extension you need to add .py to the PATHEXT environment variable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Usually Python starts very quickly on Windows, but occasionally there are bug
+reports that Python suddenly begins to take a long time to start up.  This is
+made even more puzzling because Python will work fine on other Windows systems
+which appear to be configured identically.</p>
+<p>The problem may be caused by a misconfiguration of virus checking software on
+the problem machine.  Some virus scanners have been known to introduce startup
+overhead of two orders of magnitude when the scanner is configured to monitor
+all reads from the filesystem.  Try checking the configuration of virus scanning
+software on your systems to ensure that they are indeed configured identically.
+McAfee, when configured to scan all file system read activity, is a particular
+offender.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">How do I make an executable from a Python script?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://anthony-tuininga.github.io/cx_Freeze/">cx_Freeze</a> for a distutils extension
+that allows you to create console and GUI executables from Python code.
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.py2exe.org/">py2exe</a>, the most popular extension for building
+Python 2.x-based executables, does not yet support Python 3 but a version that
+does is in development.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyd</span></code> file the same as a DLL?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Yes, .pyd files are dll’s, but there are a few differences.  If you have a DLL
+named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.pyd</span></code>, then it must have a function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_foo()</span></code>.  You can then
+write Python “import foo”, and Python will search for foo.pyd (as well as
+foo.py, foo.pyc) and if it finds it, will attempt to call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_foo()</span></code> to
+initialize it.  You do not link your .exe with foo.lib, as that would cause
+Windows to require the DLL to be present.</p>
+<p>Note that the search path for foo.pyd is PYTHONPATH, not the same as the path
+that Windows uses to search for foo.dll.  Also, foo.pyd need not be present to
+run your program, whereas if you linked your program with a dll, the dll is
+required.  Of course, foo.pyd is required if you want to say <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">foo</span></code>.  In
+a DLL, linkage is declared in the source code with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__declspec(dllexport)</span></code>.
+In a .pyd, linkage is defined in a list of available functions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">How can I embed Python into a Windows application?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Embedding the Python interpreter in a Windows app can be summarized as follows:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>Do _not_ build Python into your .exe file directly.  On Windows, Python must
+be a DLL to handle importing modules that are themselves DLL’s.  (This is the
+first key undocumented fact.)  Instead, link to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.dll</span></code>; it is
+typically installed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Windows\System</span></code>.  <em>NN</em> is the Python version, a
+number such as “33” for Python 3.3.</p>
+<p>You can link to Python in two different ways.  Load-time linking means
+linking against <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.lib</span></code>, while run-time linking means linking
+against <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.dll</span></code>.  (General note: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.lib</span></code> is the
+so-called “import lib” corresponding to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.dll</span></code>.  It merely
+defines symbols for the linker.)</p>
+<p>Run-time linking greatly simplifies link options; everything happens at run
+time.  Your code must load <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.dll</span></code> using the Windows
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadLibraryEx()</span></code> routine.  The code must also use access routines and data
+in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.dll</span></code> (that is, Python’s C API’s) using pointers obtained
+by the Windows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetProcAddress()</span></code> routine.  Macros can make using these
+pointers transparent to any C code that calls routines in Python’s C API.</p>
+<p>Borland note: convert <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span><em><span class="pre">NN</span></em><span class="pre">.lib</span></code> to OMF format using Coff2Omf.exe
+first.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>If you use SWIG, it is easy to create a Python “extension module” that will
+make the app’s data and methods available to Python.  SWIG will handle just
+about all the grungy details for you.  The result is C code that you link
+<em>into</em> your .exe file (!)  You do _not_ have to create a DLL file, and this
+also simplifies linking.</p></li>
+<li><p>SWIG will create an init function (a C function) whose name depends on the
+name of the extension module.  For example, if the name of the module is leo,
+the init function will be called initleo().  If you use SWIG shadow classes,
+as you should, the init function will be called initleoc().  This initializes
+a mostly hidden helper class used by the shadow class.</p>
+<p>The reason you can link the C code in step 2 into your .exe file is that
+calling the initialization function is equivalent to importing the module
+into Python! (This is the second key undocumented fact.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>In short, you can use the following code to initialize the Python interpreter
+with your extension module.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;python.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="n">Py_Initialize</span><span class="p">();</span>  <span class="c1">// Initialize Python.</span>
+<span class="n">initmyAppc</span><span class="p">();</span>  <span class="c1">// Initialize (import) the helper class.</span>
+<span class="n">PyRun_SimpleString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;import myApp&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>  <span class="c1">// Import the shadow class.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>There are two problems with Python’s C API which will become apparent if you
+use a compiler other than MSVC, the compiler used to build pythonNN.dll.</p>
+<p>Problem 1: The so-called “Very High Level” functions that take FILE *
+arguments will not work in a multi-compiler environment because each
+compiler’s notion of a struct FILE will be different.  From an implementation
+standpoint these are very _low_ level functions.</p>
+<p>Problem 2: SWIG generates the following code when generating wrappers to void
+functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Py_None</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="n">_resultobj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_None</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">_resultobj</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alas, Py_None is a macro that expands to a reference to a complex data
+structure called _Py_NoneStruct inside pythonNN.dll.  Again, this code will
+fail in a mult-compiler environment.  Replace such code by:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">return</span> <span class="nf">Py_BuildValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It may be possible to use SWIG’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%typemap</span></code> command to make the change
+automatically, though I have not been able to get this to work (I’m a
+complete SWIG newbie).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Using a Python shell script to put up a Python interpreter window from inside
+your Windows app is not a good idea; the resulting window will be independent
+of your app’s windowing system.  Rather, you (or the wxPythonWindow class)
+should create a “native” interpreter window.  It is easy to connect that
+window to the Python interpreter.  You can redirect Python’s i/o to _any_
+object that supports read and write, so all you need is a Python object
+(defined in your extension module) that contains read() and write() methods.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The FAQ does not recommend using tabs, and the Python style guide, <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008"><strong>PEP 8</strong></a>,
+recommends 4 spaces for distributed Python code; this is also the Emacs
+python-mode default.</p>
+<p>Under any editor, mixing tabs and spaces is a bad idea.  MSVC is no different in
+this respect, and is easily configured to use spaces: Take <span class="menuselection">Tools
+‣ Options ‣ Tabs</span>, and for file type “Default” set “Tab size” and “Indent
+size” to 4, and select the “Insert spaces” radio button.</p>
+<p>Python raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndentationError" title="IndentationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndentationError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TabError" title="TabError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TabError</span></code></a> if mixed tabs
+and spaces are causing problems in leading whitespace.
+You may also run the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tabnanny.html#module-tabnanny" title="tabnanny: Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabnanny</span></code></a> module to check a directory tree
+in batch mode.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">How do I check for a keypress without blocking?</a><a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Use the msvcrt module.  This is a standard Windows-specific extension module.
+It defines a function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kbhit()</span></code> which checks whether a keyboard hit is
+present, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code> which gets one character without echoing it.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Python on Windows FAQ</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows">How do I run a Python program under Windows?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable">How do I make Python scripts executable?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start">Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script">How do I make an executable from a Python script?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll">Is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyd</span></code> file the same as a DLL?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application">How can I embed Python into a Windows application?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source">How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking">How do I check for a keypress without blocking?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="extending.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Extending/Embedding FAQ</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="gui.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Graphic User Interface FAQ</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/faq/windows.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="gui.html" title="Graphic User Interface FAQ"
+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="extending.html" title="Extending/Embedding FAQ"
+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >Python Frequently Asked Questions</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-A.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-A.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ee9aef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-A.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1315 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-A.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; A</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.A">A (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-1">A-LAW</a>, <a href="library/sndhdr.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">a-LAW</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_base64">a2b_base64() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_hex">a2b_hex() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_hqx">a2b_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_qp">a2b_qp() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_uu">a2b_uu() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.a85decode">a85decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.a85encode">a85encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABC">ABC (class in abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#module-abc">abc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta">ABCMeta (class in abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.abiflags">abiflags (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#index-0">abort()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport.abort">(asyncio.DatagramTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.abort">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.abort">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.abort">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.abort">(threading.Barrier method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.above">above() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    abs
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-98">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#abs">abs() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.abs">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.abs">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.abspath">abspath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><strong>abstract base class</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager">AbstractAsyncContextManager (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler">AbstractBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher">AbstractChildWatcher (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractclassmethod">abstractclassmethod() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractContextManager">AbstractContextManager (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler">AbstractDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoop">AbstractEventLoop (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy">AbstractEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.AbstractFormatter">AbstractFormatter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod">abstractmethod() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractproperty">abstractproperty() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AbstractSet">AbstractSet (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractstaticmethod">abstractstaticmethod() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.AbstractWriter">AbstractWriter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.accept">accept() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept">(multiprocessing.connection.Listener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.accept">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.access">access() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate">accumulate() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.aclose">aclose() (agen method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.aclose">(contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.acos">acos() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.acos">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.acosh">acosh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.acosh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.lock.acquire">acquire() (_thread.lock method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.acquire">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock.acquire">(asyncio.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore.acquire">(asyncio.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.acquire">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Lock.acquire">(multiprocessing.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.RLock.acquire">(multiprocessing.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.acquire">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Lock.acquire">(threading.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.RLock.acquire">(threading.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore.acquire">(threading.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.acquire_lock">acquire_lock() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.Action">Action (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.action">action (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.ACTIONS">ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.active_children">active_children() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.active_count">active_count() (in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.add">add() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.add">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.add">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.add">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.add">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.add">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.RadioButtonGroup.add">(msilib.RadioButtonGroup method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.add">(pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.add">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.add">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.add_alias">add_alias() (in module email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_alternative">add_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument">add_argument() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group">add_argument_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_attachment">add_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars">add_cgi_vars() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.add_charset">add_charset() (in module email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.add_child_handler">add_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.add_codec">add_codec() (in module email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.add_cookie_header">add_cookie_header() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.add_data">add_data() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.add_done_callback">add_done_callback() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.add_done_callback">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.add_done_callback">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.add_fallback">add_fallback() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.add_file">add_file() (msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.add_flag">add_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.add_flag">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.add_flag">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data">add_flowing_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.add_folder">add_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.add_folder">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_get_handler">add_get_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.add_handler">add_handler() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_header">add_header() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.add_header">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.add_header">(urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.headers.Headers.add_header">(wsgiref.headers.Headers method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.add_history">add_history() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_hor_rule">add_hor_rule() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir">add_include_dir() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.add_label">add_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_label_data">add_label_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library">add_library() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir">add_library_dir() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_line_break">add_line_break() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_link_object">add_link_object() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_literal_data">add_literal_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group">add_mutually_exclusive_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.add_option">add_option() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.add_parent">add_parent() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password">add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password">(urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader">add_reader() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_related">add_related() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_runtime_library_dir">add_runtime_library_dir() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.add_section">add_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser.add_section">(configparser.RawConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.add_sequence">add_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_set_handler">add_set_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler">add_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.add_stream">add_stream() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers">add_subparsers() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.add_tables">add_tables() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.add_type">add_type() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.add_unredirected_header">add_unredirected_header() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_writer">add_writer() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.addch">addch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup">addCleanup() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Shape.addcomponent">addcomponent() (turtle.Shape method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addError">addError() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addExpectedFailure">addExpectedFailure() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addFailure">addFailure() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.addfile">addfile() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.addFilter">addFilter() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addFilter">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addHandler">addHandler() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-67">addition</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.addLevelName">addLevelName() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.addnstr">addnstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.AddPackagePath">AddPackagePath() (in module modulefinder)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.addr">addr (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.addr_spec">addr_spec (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address">Address (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader.address">address (email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.address">(multiprocessing.connection.Listener attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.address">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.address_exclude">address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.address_exclude">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.address_family">address_family (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.address_string">address_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.addresses">addresses (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group.addresses">(email.headerregistry.Group attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader">AddressHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.addressof">addressof() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.AddressValueError">AddressValueError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.addshape">addshape() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.addsitedir">addsitedir() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addSkip">addSkip() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.addstr">addstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addSubTest">addSubTest() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addSuccess">addSuccess() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.addTest">addTest() (unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.addTests">addTests() (unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc">addTypeEqualityFunc() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addUnexpectedSuccess">addUnexpectedSuccess() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.adjusted">adjusted() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.adler32">adler32() (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">ADPCM, Intel/DVI</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.adpcm2lin">adpcm2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_ALG">AF_ALG (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_CAN">AF_CAN (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_INET">AF_INET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_INET6">AF_INET6 (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_LINK">AF_LINK (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_PACKET">AF_PACKET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_RDS">AF_RDS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_UNIX">AF_UNIX (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_VSOCK">AF_VSOCK (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#module-aifc">aifc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.aifc">aifc() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-0">AIFF</a>, <a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.aiff">aiff() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-0">AIFF-C</a>, <a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.alarm">alarm() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.alaw2lin">alaw2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.AlertDescription">AlertDescription (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.algorithms_available">algorithms_available (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed">algorithms_guaranteed (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-alias">alias (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.alignment">alignment() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.alive">alive (weakref.finalize attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#all">all() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.all_errors">all_errors (in module ftplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.all_features">all_features (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.all_frames">all_frames (tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.all_properties">all_properties (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.all_suffixes">all_suffixes() (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.all_tasks">all_tasks() (asyncio.Task class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.all_tasks">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.allocate_lock">allocate_lock() (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.allow_reuse_address">allow_reuse_address (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains">allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.alt">alt() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ALT_DIGITS">ALT_DIGITS (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.altsep">altsep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.altzone">altzone (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS">ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.AMPER">AMPER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.AMPEREQUAL">AMPEREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    and
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-81">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.and_">and_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    annotated
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-annotation"><strong>annotation</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.annotation">(inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    annotations
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">function</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.announce">announce() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    anonymous
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge">answer_challenge() (in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.anticipate_failure">anticipate_failure() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Any">Any (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.ANY">ANY (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#any">any() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AnyStr">AnyStr (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.api_version">api_version (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.apop">apop() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-5">APPDATA</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.append">append() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.append">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.append">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.append">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CAB.append">(msilib.CAB method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.append">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.append">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.append_history_file">append_history_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.appendChild">appendChild() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.appendleft">appendleft() (collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.application_uri">application_uri() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-apply">apply (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply">apply() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async">apply_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults">apply_defaults() (inspect.BoundArguments method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.architecture">architecture() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.archive">archive (zipimport.zipimporter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.aRepr">aRepr (in module reprlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#module-argparse">argparse (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BaseException.args">args (BaseException attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial.args">(functools.partial attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.args">(inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-args">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.args">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.args">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags">args_from_interpreter_flags() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes">argtypes (ctypes._FuncPtr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-argument"><strong>argument</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">call semantics</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-1">difference from parameter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">function definition</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter">ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.ArgumentError">ArgumentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser">ArgumentParser (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments">arguments (inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-30">argv (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.argv">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">arithmetic</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-1">conversion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-62">operation, binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">operation, unary</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ArithmeticError">ArithmeticError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    array
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-25">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array">array (class in array)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Array">Array (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#module-array">array (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Array">Array() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array">(in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Array">(multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#index-0">arrays</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.arraysize">arraysize (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.article">article() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    as
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-11">except clause</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-35">import statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">with statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes">as_bytes() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.as_bytes">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.as_completed">as_completed() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.as_completed">(in module concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.as_integer_ratio">as_integer_ratio() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.as_integer_ratio">(float method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.AS_IS">AS_IS (in module formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.as_posix">as_posix() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.as_string">as_string() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.as_string">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.as_tuple">as_tuple() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.as_uri">as_uri() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-1">ASCII</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    ascii
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.ASCII">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#ascii">ascii() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ascii">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.ascii_letters">ascii_letters (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.ascii_lowercase">ascii_lowercase (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.ascii_uppercase">ascii_uppercase (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.asctime">asctime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.asdict">asdict() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.asend">asend() (agen method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.asin">asin() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.asin">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.asinh">asinh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.asinh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    assert
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-2">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_any_call">assert_any_call() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called">assert_called() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once">assert_called_once() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with">assert_called_once_with() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with">assert_called_with() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls">assert_has_calls() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.assert_line_data">assert_line_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_not_called">assert_not_called() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure">assert_python_failure() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok">assert_python_ok() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual">assertAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual">assertCountEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual">assertDictEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual">assertEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse">assertFalse() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertGreater">assertGreater() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual">assertGreaterEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIn">assertIn() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#AssertionError">AssertionError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-19">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    assertions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18">debugging</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIs">assertIs() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance">assertIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone">assertIsNone() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot">assertIsNot() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone">assertIsNotNone() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLess">assertLess() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual">assertLessEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual">assertListEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLogs">assertLogs() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual">assertMultiLineEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual">assertNotAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual">assertNotEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn">assertNotIn() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance">assertNotIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex">assertNotRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises">assertRaises() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex">assertRaisesRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex">assertRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-asserts">asserts (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual">assertSequenceEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual">assertSetEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue">assertTrue() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual">assertTupleEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns">assertWarns() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex">assertWarnsRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    assignment
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">annotated</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">attribute</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-46">class attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-50">class instance attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">slice</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-12">slicing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">subscript</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">subscription</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">target list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST">AST (class in ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#module-ast">ast (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.astimezone">astimezone() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.astuple">astuple() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    async
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">keyword</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    async def
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-34">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    async for
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-11">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-36">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    async with
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-37">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat">async_chat (class in asynchat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.ac_in_buffer_size">async_chat.ac_in_buffer_size (in module asynchat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.ac_out_buffer_size">async_chat.ac_out_buffer_size (in module asynchat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncContextManager">AsyncContextManager (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.asynccontextmanager">asynccontextmanager() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack">AsyncExitStack (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncGenerator">AsyncGenerator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncGenerator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.AsyncGeneratorType">AsyncGeneratorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#module-asynchat">asynchat (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-context-manager"><strong>asynchronous context manager</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><strong>asynchronous generator</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-39">asynchronous iterator</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-39">function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator-iterator"><strong>asynchronous generator iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterable"><strong>asynchronous iterable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><strong>asynchronous iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    asynchronous-generator
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-33">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio">asyncio (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL">asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.PIPE">asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process">asyncio.subprocess.Process (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT">asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterable">AsyncIterable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncIterable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterator">AsyncIterator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncIterator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore">asyncore (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult">AsyncResult (class in multiprocessing.pool)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.AT">AT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.at_eof">at_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.atan">atan() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.atan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.atan2">atan2() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.atanh">atanh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.atanh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ATEQUAL">ATEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/atexit.html#module-atexit">atexit (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.atexit">(weakref.finalize attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.athrow">athrow() (agen method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.atof">atof() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.atoi">atoi() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-2">atom</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach">attach() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.attach_loop">attach_loop() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock">attach_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler">AttlistDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter">attrgetter() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.attrib">attrib (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">attribute</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-attribute"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">assignment</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-46">assignment, class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-50">assignment, class instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">class instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-23">deletion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">generic special</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-37">reference</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">special</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#AttributeError">AttributeError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.attributes">attributes (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl">AttributesImpl (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl">AttributesNSImpl (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.attroff">attroff() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.attron">attron() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.attrset">attrset() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-0">Audio Interchange File Format</a>, <a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC">AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-0">AUDIODEV</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#module-audioop">audioop (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    augmented
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.auth">auth() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.auth">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.authenticate">authenticate() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError">AuthenticationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.authenticators">authenticators() (netrc.netrc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.authkey">authkey (multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.auto">auto (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.autorange">autorange() (timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.avg">avg() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.avgpp">avgpp() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks">avoids_symlink_attacks (shutil.rmtree attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    await
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-12">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-55">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-awaitable"><strong>awaitable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Awaitable">Awaitable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Awaitable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-B.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-B.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e8b8aee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-B.html
@@ -0,0 +1,948 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-B.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; B</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    b&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-18">bytes literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    b&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-18">bytes literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b16decode">b16decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b16encode">b16encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_base64">b2a_base64() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_hex">b2a_hex() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_hqx">b2a_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_qp">b2a_qp() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_uu">b2a_uu() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b32decode">b32decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b32encode">b32encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b64decode">b64decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b64encode">b64encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b85decode">b85decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b85encode">b85encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl">Babyl (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage">BabylMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.back">back() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">backslash character</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.backslashreplace_errors">backslashreplace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.backup">backup() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.backward">backward() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.BadStatusLine">BadStatusLine</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.BadZipFile">BadZipFile</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.BadZipfile">BadZipfile</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Balloon">Balloon (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Barrier">Barrier (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Barrier">Barrier() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    base64
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-0">encoding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#module-base64">base64 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.base_exec_prefix">base_exec_prefix (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.base_prefix">base_prefix (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler">BaseCGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie">BaseCookie (class in http.cookies)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BaseException">BaseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler">BaseHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler">(class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader">BaseHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler">BaseHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager">BaseManager (class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.basename">basename() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol">BaseProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy">BaseProxy (class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler">BaseRequestHandler (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler">BaseRotatingHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector">BaseSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer">BaseServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-basestring">basestring (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport">BaseTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig">basicConfig() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.BasicContext">BasicContext (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.BasicInterpolation">BasicInterpolation (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.BasicTestRunner">BasicTestRunner (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.baudrate">baudrate() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.bbox">bbox() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.BDADDR_ANY">BDADDR_ANY (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.BDADDR_LOCAL">BDADDR_LOCAL (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    bdb
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb">Bdb (class in bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#module-bdb">bdb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.BdbQuit">BdbQuit</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-bdfl"><strong>BDFL</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.command.bdist_msi.bdist_msi">bdist_msi (class in distutils.command.bdist_msi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.beep">beep() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.Beep">Beep() (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH">BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.begin_fill">begin_fill() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.begin_poly">begin_poly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.below">below() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#index-0">Benchmarking</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-13">benchmarking</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-8">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.betavariate">betavariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bgcolor">bgcolor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bgpic">bgpic() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.bias">bias() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.bidirectional">bidirectional() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bigaddrspacetest">bigaddrspacetest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.BigEndianStructure">BigEndianStructure (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bigmemtest">bigmemtest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#bin">bin() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    binary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-62">arithmetic operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-71">bitwise operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">data, packing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Binary">Binary (class in msilib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary">(class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-binary-file"><strong>binary file</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">binary literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">binary mode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">binary semaphores</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_ADD">BINARY_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_AND">BINARY_AND (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE">BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_LSHIFT">BINARY_LSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY">BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_MODULO">BINARY_MODULO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_MULTIPLY">BINARY_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_OR">BINARY_OR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_POWER">BINARY_POWER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_RSHIFT">BINARY_RSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_SUBSCR">BINARY_SUBSCR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_SUBTRACT">BINARY_SUBTRACT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE">BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_XOR">BINARY_XOR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.BinaryIO">BinaryIO (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#module-binascii">binascii (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-4">bind (widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.bind">bind() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.bind">(inspect.Signature method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.bind">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.bind_partial">bind_partial() (inspect.Signature method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bind_port">bind_port() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.bind_textdomain_codeset">bind_textdomain_codeset() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bind_unix_socket">bind_unix_socket() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    binding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">global name</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">name</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-36">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.bindtextdomain">bindtextdomain() (in module gettext)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.bindtextdomain">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    binhex
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binhex.html#module-binhex">binhex (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binhex.html#binhex.binhex">binhex() (in module binhex)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#module-bisect">bisect (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.bisect">bisect() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.bisect_left">bisect_left() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.bisect_right">bisect_right() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#int.bit_length">bit_length() (int method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.bitmap">bitmap() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    bitwise
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">and</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-71">operation, binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">operation, unary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">or</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">xor</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bk">bk() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.bkgd">bkgd() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.bkgdset">bkgdset() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b">blake2b() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-4">blake2b, blake2s</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE">blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE">blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.PERSON_SIZE">blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.SALT_SIZE">blake2b.SALT_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s">blake2s() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE">blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE">blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.PERSON_SIZE">blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.SALT_SIZE">blake2s.SALT_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-7">blank line</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-1">block</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-0">code</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.block_size">block_size (hmac.HMAC attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains">blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BlockingIOError">BlockingIOError</a>, <a href="library/io.html#io.BlockingIOError">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.blocksize">blocksize (http.client.HTTPConnection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-0">BNF</a>, <a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.body">body() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.body_encode">body_encode() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.body_encoding">body_encoding (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#email.iterators.body_line_iterator">body_line_iterator() (in module email.iterators)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM">BOM (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_BE">BOM_BE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_LE">BOM_LE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF16">BOM_UTF16 (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE">BOM_UTF16_BE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE">BOM_UTF16_LE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF32">BOM_UTF32 (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE">BOM_UTF32_BE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE">BOM_UTF32_LE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF8">BOM_UTF8 (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#bool">bool (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Boolean
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">operations</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-0">type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">values</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES">BOOLEAN_STATES (configparser.ConfigParser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#ensurepip.bootstrap">bootstrap() (in module ensurepip)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.border">border() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.bottom">bottom() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.bottom_panel">bottom_panel() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments">BoundArguments (class in inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.BoundaryError">BoundaryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.BoundedSemaphore">BoundedSemaphore (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.BoundedSemaphore">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.BoundedSemaphore">BoundedSemaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.box">box() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.bpformat">bpformat() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.bpprint">bpprint() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    break
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-break">break (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.break_anywhere">break_anywhere() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.break_here">break_here() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words">break_long_words (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BREAK_LOOP">BREAK_LOOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_on_hyphens">break_on_hyphens (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint">Breakpoint (class in bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#breakpoint">breakpoint() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.breakpointhook">breakpointhook() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">breakpoints</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.broadcast_address">broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.broadcast_address">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.broken">broken (threading.Barrier attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.BrokenBarrierError">BrokenBarrierError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor">BrokenExecutor</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BrokenPipeError">BrokenPipeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool">BrokenProcessPool</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool">BrokenThreadPool</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-0">BROWSER</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.BsdDbShelf">BsdDbShelf (class in shelve)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-buffer">buffer (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.buffer">(io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.buffer">(unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    buffer interface
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-0">(see buffer protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    buffer object
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-0">(see buffer protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-0">buffer protocol</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-37">binary sequence types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-29">str (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">buffer size, I/O</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.buffer_info">buffer_info() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_size">buffer_size (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text">buffer_text (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated">buffer_updated() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_used">buffer_used (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase">BufferedIOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol">BufferedProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedRandom">BufferedRandom (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader">BufferedReader (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedRWPair">BufferedRWPair (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedWriter">BufferedWriter (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BufferError">BufferError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler">BufferingHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.BufferTooShort">BufferTooShort</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.bufsize">bufsize() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP">BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_LIST">BUILD_LIST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_LIST_UNPACK">BUILD_LIST_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_MAP">BUILD_MAP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.build_opener">build_opener() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.command.build_py.build_py">build_py (class in distutils.command.build_py)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.command.build_py.build_py_2to3">build_py_2to3 (class in distutils.command.build_py)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_SET">BUILD_SET (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_SET_UNPACK">BUILD_SET_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_SLICE">BUILD_SLICE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_STRING">BUILD_STRING (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE">BUILD_TUPLE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    built-in
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-0">types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    built-in function
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-1">__import__</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-2">abs</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-98">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-1">ascii</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-3">bytes</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">chr</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-0">classmethod</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-2">compile</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-55">[2]</a>, <a href="library/types.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">complex</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-0">divmod</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#index-1">eval</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-6">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-1">exec</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-5">float</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-6">hash</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/stdlib.html#index-0">help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-4">int</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-2">len</a>, <a href="c-api/list.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/mapping.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/object.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="c-api/set.html#index-1">[5]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[6]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">[9]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[10]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-93">[11]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">max</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">min</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">open</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">ord</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-1">pow</a>, <a href="c-api/number.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-97">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">print</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-8">range</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-0">repr</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-100">round</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dis.html#index-0">slice</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-1">staticmethod</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-2">tuple</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-7">type</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    built-in method
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.builtin_module_names">builtin_module_names (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.BuiltinFunctionType">BuiltinFunctionType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter">BuiltinImporter (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.BuiltinMethodType">BuiltinMethodType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    builtins
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/builtins.html#module-builtins">builtins (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ButtonBox">ButtonBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bye">bye() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.byref">byref() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-21">byte</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    byte-code
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#index-1">file</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.byte_compile">byte_compile() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-24">bytearray</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">interpolation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">methods</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-40">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray">bytearray (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-55">bytecode</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-bytecode"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode">Bytecode (class in dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.codeobj">Bytecode.codeobj (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.first_line">Bytecode.first_line (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.byteorder">byteorder (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-21">bytes</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-3">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">interpolation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">methods</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-39">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-29">str (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes">bytes (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.bytes">(uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">bytes literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><strong>bytes-like object</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.bytes_le">bytes_le (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser">BytesFeedParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator">BytesGenerator (class in email.generator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesHeaderParser">BytesHeaderParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO">BytesIO (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser">BytesParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ByteString">ByteString (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ByteString">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.byteswap">byteswap() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.byteswap">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BytesWarning">BytesWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#module-bz2">bz2 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Compressor">BZ2Compressor (class in bz2)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor">BZ2Decompressor (class in bz2)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File">BZ2File (class in bz2)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+    </div>  
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-C.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-C.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-C.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2327 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
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+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+      }
+    </style>
+ 
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+  
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; C</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">C</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">language</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">structures</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-2">C-contiguous</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-10">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_bool">c_bool (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.C_BUILTIN">C_BUILTIN (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_byte">c_byte (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_char">c_char (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_char_p">c_char_p (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.c_contiguous">c_contiguous (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_double">c_double (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.C_EXTENSION">C_EXTENSION (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_float">c_float (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int">c_int (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int16">c_int16 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int32">c_int32 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int64">c_int64 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int8">c_int8 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_long">c_long (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_longdouble">c_longdouble (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_longlong">c_longlong (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_short">c_short (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_size_t">c_size_t (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ssize_t">c_ssize_t (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ubyte">c_ubyte (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint">c_uint (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint16">c_uint16 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint32">c_uint32 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint64">c_uint64 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint8">c_uint8 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ulong">c_ulong (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ulonglong">c_ulonglong (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ushort">c_ushort (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_void_p">c_void_p (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_wchar">c_wchar (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_wchar_p">c_wchar_p (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CAB">CAB (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.cache_from_source">cache_from_source() (in module imp)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.cache_from_source">(in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.cached">cached (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler">CacheFTPHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.calcobjsize">calcobjsize() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.calcsize">calcsize() (in module struct)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.calcvobjsize">calcvobjsize() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar">Calendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#module-calendar">calendar (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.calendar">calendar() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">call</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">built-in method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">class instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">class object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-47">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">function</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-92">instance</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-54">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">procedure</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">user-defined function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.call">call() (in module subprocess)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call">(in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args">call_args (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list">call_args_list (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_at">call_at() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_count">call_count (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler">call_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION">CALL_FUNCTION (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_EX">CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_KW">CALL_FUNCTION_KW (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_later">call_later() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call.call_list">call_list() (unittest.mock.call method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_METHOD">CALL_METHOD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon">call_soon() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe">call_soon_threadsafe() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.call_tracing">call_tracing() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    callable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Callable">Callable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Callable">(in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#callable">callable() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.CallableProxyType">CallableProxyType (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.callback">callback (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.callback">callback() (contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.callback_args">callback_args (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.callback_kwargs">callback_kwargs (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.callbacks">callbacks (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.called">called (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError">CalledProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">calloc()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CAN_BCM">CAN_BCM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.can_change_color">can_change_color() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.can_fetch">can_fetch() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CAN_ISOTP">CAN_ISOTP (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES">CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.can_symlink">can_symlink() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.can_write_eof">can_write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.can_write_eof">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.can_xattr">can_xattr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.cancel">cancel() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle.cancel">(asyncio.Handle method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.cancel">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.cancel">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.cancel">(sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Timer.cancel">(threading.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later">cancel_dump_traceback_later() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread">cancel_join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.cancelled">cancelled() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle.cancelled">(asyncio.Handle method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.cancelled">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.cancelled">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError">CancelledError</a>, <a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.CancelledError">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.CannotSendHeader">CannotSendHeader</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.CannotSendRequest">CannotSendRequest</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.canonic">canonic() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.canonical">canonical() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.canonical">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.capa">capa() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.capitalize">capitalize() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.capitalize">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.capitalize">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    Capsule
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.captured_stderr">captured_stderr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.captured_stdin">captured_stdin() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.captured_stdout">captured_stdout() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.captureWarnings">captureWarnings() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.capwords">capwords() (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.casefold">casefold() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.cast">cast() (in module ctypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.cast">(in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.cast">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.cat">cat() (in module nis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.catch_warnings">catch_warnings (class in warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.category">category() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.cbreak">cbreak() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-24">CC</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc">ccc() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler">CCompiler (class in distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.CDLL">CDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.ceil">ceil() (in module math)</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.center">center() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.center">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.center">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CERT_NONE">CERT_NONE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL">CERT_OPTIONAL (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED">CERT_REQUIRED (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats">cert_store_stats() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.cert_time_to_seconds">cert_time_to_seconds() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CertificateError">CertificateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-15">certificates</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-10">CFLAGS</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.CFUNCTYPE">CFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    CGI
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-4">debugging</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">exceptions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-1">security</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">tracebacks</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#module-cgi">cgi (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.cgi_directories">cgi_directories (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler">CGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler">CGIHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#module-cgitb">cgitb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.chain">chain() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    chaining
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">comparisons</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-76">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap">ChainMap (class in collections)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ChainMap">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.change_cwd">change_cwd() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.change_root">change_root() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES">CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.channel_class">channel_class (smtpd.SMTPServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels">channels() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.CHAR_MAX">CHAR_MAX (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">character</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-41">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler">CharacterDataHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.characters">characters() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BlockingIOError.characters_written">characters_written (BlockingIOError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset">Charset (class in email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.charset">charset() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chdir">chdir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.check">check (lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.check">check() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.check">(in module tabnanny)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check__all__">check__all__() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.check_call">check_call() (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.check_environ">check_environ() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_free_after_iterating">check_free_after_iterating() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname">check_hostname (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_impl_detail">check_impl_detail() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_no_resource_warning">check_no_resource_warning() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.OutputChecker.check_output">check_output() (doctest.OutputChecker method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.check_output">(in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.check_returncode">check_returncode() (subprocess.CompletedProcess method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_syntax_error">check_syntax_error() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.check_unused_args">check_unused_args() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_warnings">check_warnings() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.checkbox">checkbox() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.checkcache">checkcache() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH">CHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.checkfuncname">checkfuncname() (in module bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.CheckList">CheckList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.checksizeof">checksizeof() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    checksum
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#index-0">Cyclic Redundancy Check</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chflags">chflags() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.chgat">chgat() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.childNodes">childNodes (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ChildProcessError">ChildProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.children">children (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.children">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chmod">chmod() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.chmod">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.choice">choice() (in module random)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.choice">(in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.choices">choices (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.choices">choices() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chown">chown() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.chown">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    chr
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#chr">chr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chroot">chroot() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk">Chunk (class in chunk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#module-chunk">chunk (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    cipher
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/crypt.html#index-0">DES</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher">cipher() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.circle">circle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.CIRCUMFLEX">CIRCUMFLEX (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL">CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Clamped">Clamped (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-class"><strong>class</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-46">attribute assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-86">body</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-69">constructor</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">definition</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">name</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Class">Class (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-1">Class browser</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    class instance
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-50">attribute assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    class object
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">call</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-47">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-class-variable"><strong>class variable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    classmethod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-0">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#classmethod">classmethod() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ClassMethodDescriptorType">ClassMethodDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ClassVar">ClassVar (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-1">clause</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_CONTINUED">CLD_CONTINUED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_DUMPED">CLD_DUMPED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_EXITED">CLD_EXITED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_TRAPPED">CLD_TRAPPED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.clean">clean() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.cleandoc">cleandoc() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.CleanImport">CleanImport (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#index-2">cleanup functions</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-clear">clear (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Clear Breakpoint</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.clear">clear() (asyncio.Event method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.clear">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clear">(curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.clear">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.clear">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#frame.clear">(frame method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.clear">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear">(http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clear">(in module turtle)</a>, <a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clear">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.clear">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.clear">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.clear">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_all_breaks">clear_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_all_file_breaks">clear_all_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_bpbynumber">clear_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_break">clear_break() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.clear_cache">clear_cache() (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.clear_content">clear_content() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.clear_flags">clear_flags() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.clear_frames">clear_frames() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.clear_history">clear_history() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear_session_cookies">clear_session_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.clear_traces">clear_traces() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.clear_traps">clear_traps() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.clearcache">clearcache() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.ClearData">ClearData() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clearok">clearok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clearscreen">clearscreen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clearstamp">clearstamp() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clearstamps">clearstamps() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Client">Client() (in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.client_address">client_address (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock">clock() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME">CLOCK_BOOTTIME (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_getres">clock_getres() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_gettime">clock_gettime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_gettime_ns">clock_gettime_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_HIGHRES">CLOCK_HIGHRES (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC">CLOCK_MONOTONIC (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW">CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID">CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_PROF">CLOCK_PROF (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_REALTIME">CLOCK_REALTIME (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_settime">clock_settime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_settime_ns">clock_settime_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID">CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_UPTIME">CLOCK_UPTIME (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator.clone">clone() (email.generator.BytesGenerator method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator.clone">(email.generator.Generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.clone">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clone">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.clone">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.cloneNode">cloneNode() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.close">close() (aifc.aifc method)</a>, <a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.close">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.close">(asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.close">(asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.close">(asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.close">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.close">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.close">(asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.close">(asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.close">(chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.close">(contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.close">(coroutine method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.close">(dbm.dumb.dumbdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.close">(dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.ndbm.close">(dbm.ndbm.ndbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.close">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.close">(email.parser.BytesFeedParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.close">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.close">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.close">(html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.close">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.close">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.close">(in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-42">(in module os)</a>, <a href="library/os.html#os.close">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.close">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.close">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler.close">(logging.FileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.close">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.close">(logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.close">(logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.close">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.close">(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.close">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.close">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.close">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.close">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.Close">Close() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Close">(msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.close">close() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.close">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.close">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.close">(multiprocessing.connection.Listener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.close">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.scandir.close">(os.scandir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.close">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.close">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.close">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.close">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.close">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.close">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf.close">(shelve.Shelf method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.close">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.close">(sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.close">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.close">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.close">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.close">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.close">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.close">(urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.close">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.close">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.Close">Close() (winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.close">close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.close">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.close">(xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.close">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.close_connection">close_connection (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.close_when_done">close_when_done() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.closed">closed (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.closed">(io.IOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.closed">(mmap.mmap attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.closed">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.closed">(select.devpoll attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.closed">(select.epoll attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.closed">(select.kqueue attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.CloseKey">CloseKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.closelog">closelog() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.closerange">closerange() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.closing">closing() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clrtobot">clrtobot() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clrtoeol">clrtoeol() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#module-cmath">cmath (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    cmd
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd">Cmd (class in cmd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#module-cmd">cmd (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.cmd">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.cmd">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop">cmdloop() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.cmdqueue">cmdqueue (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.cmp">cmp() (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.cmp_op">cmp_op (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key">cmp_to_key() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.cmpfiles">cmpfiles() (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CMSG_LEN">CMSG_LEN() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CMSG_SPACE">CMSG_SPACE() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_argcount (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR">CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_cellvars (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_code (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_consts (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_COROUTINE">CO_COROUTINE (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_filename (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_firstlineno (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_flags (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_freevars (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.CO_FUTURE_DIVISION">CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_GENERATOR">CO_GENERATOR (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE">CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_lnotab (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_name (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_names (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_NESTED">CO_NESTED (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS">CO_NEWLOCALS (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_nlocals (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_NOFREE">CO_NOFREE (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED">CO_OPTIMIZED (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_stacksize (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_VARARGS">CO_VARARGS (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS">CO_VARKEYWORDS (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_varnames (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    code
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-0">block</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#module-code">code (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SystemExit.code">(SystemExit attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError.code">(urllib.error.HTTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.code">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.code">(xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#index-0">code object</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-54">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-55">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.code_info">code_info() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo">CodecInfo (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Codecs</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">decode</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">encode</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-codecs">codecs (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value">coded_value (http.cookies.Morsel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codeop.html#module-codeop">codeop (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.codepoint2name">codepoint2name (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes">codes (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.CODESET">CODESET (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.CodeType">CodeType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    coding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-8">style</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-coercion"><strong>coercion</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST.col_offset">col_offset (ast.AST attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.collapse_addresses">collapse_addresses() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value">collapse_rfc2231_value() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.collect">collect() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data">collect_incoming_data() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Collection">Collection (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Collection">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#module-collections">collections (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc">collections.abc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.colno">colno (json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.colno">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.COLON">COLON (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.color">color() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.color_content">color_content() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.color_pair">color_pair() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.colormode">colormode() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#module-colorsys">colorsys (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-4">COLS</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-32">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.column">column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-6">COLUMNS</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.terminal_size.columns">columns (os.terminal_size attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations">combinations() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations_with_replacement">combinations_with_replacement() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.combine">combine() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.combining">combining() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ComboBox">ComboBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox">Combobox (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    comma
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-90">trailing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">tuple display</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.COMMA">COMMA (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command">Command (class in distutils.cmd)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.Command">(class in distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.command">command (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">command line</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs">--check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-help">--help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-version">--version</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption">-?</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id1">-B</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e">-E</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id2">-I</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-j">-J</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o">-O</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo">-OO</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-r">-R</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id3">-S</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-v">-V</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w">-W arg</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id5">-X</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b">-b</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c">-c &lt;command&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-d">-d</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-h">-h</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i">-i</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m">-m &lt;module-name&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-q">-q</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s">-s</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-u">-u</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id4">-v</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-x">-x</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codeop.html#codeop.CommandCompiler">CommandCompiler (class in codeop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-commands">commands (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-4">comment</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.COMMENT">COMMENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.comment">comment (zipfile.ZipFile attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.comment">(zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment">Comment() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment_url">comment_url (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.commenters">commenters (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CommentHandler">CommentHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CAB.commit">commit() (msilib.CAB method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.Commit">Commit() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.commit">commit() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common">common (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">Common Gateway Interface</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common_dirs">common_dirs (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common_files">common_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common_funny">common_funny (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.common_types">common_types (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.commonpath">commonpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.commonprefix">commonprefix() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate">communicate() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.communicate">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare">compare() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.Differ.compare">(difflib.Differ method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.compare_digest">compare_digest() (in module hmac)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.compare_digest">(in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.compare_networks">compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.compare_networks">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-COMPARE_OP">COMPARE_OP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare_signal">compare_signal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare_signal">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to">compare_to() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare_total">compare_total() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare_total">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare_total_mag">compare_total_mag() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare_total_mag">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    comparing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">comparison</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS">COMPARISON_FLAGS (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-75">comparisons</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">chaining</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-76">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32">Compat32 (class in email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32">compat32 (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    compile
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-55">[2]</a>, <a href="library/types.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codeop.html#codeop.Compile">Compile (class in codeop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#compile">compile() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.compile">(distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.compile">(in module py_compile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.compile">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.compile">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.compile_command">compile_command() (in module code)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codeop.html#codeop.compile_command">(in module codeop)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_dir">compile_dir() (in module compileall)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_file">compile_file() (in module compileall)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_path">compile_path() (in module compileall)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#module-compileall">compileall (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    compileall command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode">--invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-b">-b</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-d">-d destdir</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-f">-f</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-i">-i list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-j">-j N</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-l">-l</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-q">-q</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-r">-r</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-x">-x regex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory">directory ...</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-file">file ...</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.compilest">compilest() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/rlcompleter.html#rlcompleter.Completer.complete">complete() (rlcompleter.Completer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.complete_statement">complete_statement() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.completedefault">completedefault() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess">CompletedProcess (class in subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    complex
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">number</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#complex">complex (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex">Complex (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">complex literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-complex-number"><strong>complex number</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    compound
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-0">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    comprehensions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Compressor.compress">compress() (bz2.BZ2Compressor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.compress">(in module bz2)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.compress">(in module gzip)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.compress">(in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.compress">(in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.compress">(in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMACompressor.compress">(lzma.LZMACompressor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Compress.compress">(zlib.Compress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_size">compress_size (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_type">compress_type (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.compressed">compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.compressed">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.compressed">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.compressed">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.compression">compression() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.CompressionError">CompressionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.compressobj">compressobj() (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-32">COMSPEC</a>, <a href="library/subprocess.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.concat">concat() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    concatenation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures">concurrent.futures (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition">Condition (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Condition">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-condition">condition (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control.condition">condition() (msilib.Control method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Condition">Condition() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Conditional
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    conditional
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser">ConfigParser (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#module-configparser">configparser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    configuration
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">file, debugger</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">file, path</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#index-0">configuration information</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.configure">configure() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock">configure_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.confstr">confstr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.confstr_names">confstr_names (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">conjugate() (complex number method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.conjugate">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex.conjugate">(numbers.Complex method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.conn">conn (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.connect">connect() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.connect">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.connect">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.connect">(in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.connect">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.connect">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.connect">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket">connect_accepted_socket() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.connect_ex">connect_ex() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe">connect_read_pipe() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe">connect_write_pipe() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection">Connection (class in multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection">(class in sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.connection">connection (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost">connection_lost() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made">connection_made() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionAbortedError">ConnectionAbortedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionError">ConnectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionRefusedError">ConnectionRefusedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionResetError">ConnectionResetError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.ConnectRegistry">ConnectRegistry() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.const">const (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-15">constant</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    constructor
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-69">class</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#copyreg.constructor">constructor() (in module copyreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.LimitOverrunError.consumed">consumed (asyncio.LimitOverrunError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-3">container</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iteration over</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Container">Container (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Container">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.contains">contains() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    content type
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-0">MIME</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager">content_manager (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.content_type">content_type (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader">ContentDispositionHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler">ContentHandler (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager">ContentManager (class in email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._Pointer.contents">contents (ctypes._Pointer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents">contents() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.contents">(in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.ContentTooShortError">ContentTooShortError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding">ContentTransferEncoding (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader">ContentTypeHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context">Context (class in contextvars)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context">(class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.context">context (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-52">context management protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-52">context manager</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-101">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-context-manager"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-context-variable"><strong>context variable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.context_diff">context_diff() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ContextDecorator">ContextDecorator (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib">contextlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ContextManager">ContextManager (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager">contextmanager() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar">ContextVar (class in contextvars)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars">contextvars (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token">contextvars.Token (class in contextvars)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-2">contiguous</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-contiguous"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.contiguous">(memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    continue
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-continue">continue (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CONTINUE_LOOP">CONTINUE_LOOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control">Control (class in msilib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Control">(class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.control">control() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.control">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.controlnames">controlnames (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls">controls() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    conversion
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-1">arithmetic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">string</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.ConversionError">ConversionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    conversions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">numeric</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args">convert_arg_line_to_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.convert_field">convert_field() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.convert_path">convert_path() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie">Cookie (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.CookieError">CookieError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar">CookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar">cookiejar (urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy">CookiePolicy (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-4">Coordinated Universal Time</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Copy</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    copy
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-4">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#module-copy">copy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.copy">copy() (collections.deque method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.copy">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.copy">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.copy">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.copy">(hashlib.hash method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.copy">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.copy">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.copy">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/copy.html#copy.copy">(in module copy)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy">(in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copy">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.copy">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.copy">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Compress.copy">(zlib.Compress method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.copy">(zlib.Decompress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copy2">copy2() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_abs">copy_abs() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.copy_abs">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.copy_context">copy_context() (in module contextvars)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_decimal">copy_decimal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.file_util.copy_file">copy_file() (in module distutils.file_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.copy_location">copy_location() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_negate">copy_negate() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.copy_negate">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_sign">copy_sign() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.copy_sign">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.copy_tree">copy_tree() (in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfile">copyfile() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfileobj">copyfileobj() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#index-0">copying files</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copymode">copymode() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#module-copyreg">copyreg (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#copyright">copyright (built-in variable)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-27">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.copyright">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.copysign">copysign() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copystat">copystat() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copytree">copytree() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-103">coroutine</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-coroutine"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-38">function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Coroutine">Coroutine (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Coroutine">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-coroutine-function"><strong>coroutine function</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.coroutine">coroutine() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.coroutine">(in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.CoroutineType">CoroutineType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.cos">cos() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.cos">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.cosh">cosh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.cosh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic.count">count (tracemalloc.Statistic attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count">(tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.count">count() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.count">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.count">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.count">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.count">(in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.count">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count_diff">count_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter">Counter (class in collections)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Counter">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.countOf">countOf() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.countTestCases">countTestCases() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.countTestCases">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.CoverageResults">CoverageResults (class in trace)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-26">CPP</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-28">CPPFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#module-cProfile">cProfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-13">CPU time</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.cpu_count">cpu_count() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.cpu_count">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-cpython"><strong>CPython</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.cpython_only">cpython_only() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.crawl_delay">crawl_delay() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.CRC">CRC (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.crc32">crc32() (in module binascii)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.crc32">(in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.crc_hqx">crc_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.create">create() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.create">(in module venv)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.create">(venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate">create_aggregate() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#zipapp.create_archive">create_archive() (in module zipapp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.create_autospec">create_autospec() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB">CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_collation">create_collation() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.create_configuration">create_configuration() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection">create_connection() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.create_connection">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint">create_datagram_endpoint() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.create_decimal">create_decimal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float">create_decimal_from_float() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context">create_default_context() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE">CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.create_empty_file">create_empty_file() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_function">create_function() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_future">create_future() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.create_module">create_module (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module">create_module() (importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.create_module">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE">CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP">CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW">CREATE_NO_WINDOW (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server">create_server() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#create_shortcut">create_shortcut() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.create_socket">create_socket() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib">create_static_lib() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.create_stats">create_stats() (profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.create_string_buffer">create_string_buffer() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec">create_subprocess_exec() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell">create_subprocess_shell() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.create_system">create_system (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task">create_task() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.create_task">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.create_tree">create_tree() (in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.create_unicode_buffer">create_unicode_buffer() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection">create_unix_connection() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server">create_unix_server() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.create_version">create_version (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createAttribute">createAttribute() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createAttributeNS">createAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createComment">createComment() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocument">createDocument() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocumentType">createDocumentType() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createElement">createElement() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createElementNS">createElementNS() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Widget.tk.createfilehandler">createfilehandler() (tkinter.Widget.tk method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.CreateKey">CreateKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.CreateKeyEx">CreateKeyEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.createLock">createLock() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler.createLock">(logging.NullHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createProcessingInstruction">createProcessingInstruction() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CreateRecord">CreateRecord() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.createSocket">createSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createTextNode">createTextNode() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#credits">credits (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.critical">critical() (in module logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.critical">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.CRNCYSTR">CRNCYSTR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.cross">cross() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    crypt
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pwd.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#module-crypt">crypt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.crypt">crypt() (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#index-0">crypt(3)</a>, <a href="library/crypt.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/crypt.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypto.html#index-0">cryptography</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month">cssclass_month (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month_head">cssclass_month_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_noday">cssclass_noday (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year">cssclass_year (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year_head">cssclass_year_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses">cssclasses (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses_weekday_head">cssclasses_weekday_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-0">csv</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#module-csv">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding.cte">cte (email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.cte_type">cte_type (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.ctermid">ctermid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.ctime">ctime() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.ctime">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.ctime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ctrl">ctrl() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT">CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.CTRL_C_EVENT">CTRL_C_EVENT (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes">ctypes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.curdir">curdir (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.currency">currency() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.current">current() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.current_process">current_process() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.current_task">current_task() (asyncio.Task class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.current_task">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.current_thread">current_thread() (in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex">CurrentByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber">CurrentColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.currentframe">currentframe() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber">CurrentLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.curs_set">curs_set() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#module-curses">curses (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#module-curses.ascii">curses.ascii (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#module-curses.panel">curses.panel (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#module-curses.textpad">curses.textpad (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor">Cursor (class in sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.cursor">cursor() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.cursyncup">cursyncup() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler">customize_compiler() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Cut</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.cwd">cwd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.cwd">(pathlib.Path class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.cycle">cycle() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#index-0">Cyclic Redundancy Check</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
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+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
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+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-D.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-D.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ce6308
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-D.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1301 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+    <div class="document">
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; D</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.D_FMT">D_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.D_T_FMT">D_T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.daemon">daemon (multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.daemon">(threading.Thread attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    dangling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">else</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-0">data</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">packing binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-0">tabular</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">type, immutable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.Data">Data (class in plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserDict.data">data (collections.UserDict attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserList.data">(collections.UserList attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserString.data">(collections.UserString attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.data">(select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.data">(selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.data">(urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Comment.data">(xml.dom.Comment attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.data">(xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Text.data">(xml.dom.Text attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary.data">(xmlrpc.client.Binary attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.data">data() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.DataHandler.data_open">data_open() (urllib.request.DataHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol.data_received">data_received() (asyncio.Protocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    database
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">Unicode</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.DatabaseError">DatabaseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#index-0">databases</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.dataclass">dataclass() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#module-dataclasses">dataclasses (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.datagram_received">datagram_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler">DatagramHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol">DatagramProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler">DatagramRequestHandler (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport">DatagramTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.DataHandler">DataHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date">date (class in datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.date">date() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.date">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.date_time">date_time (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.date_time_string">date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.DateHeader">DateHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime">datetime (class in datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.DateTime">DateTime (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime">datetime (email.headerregistry.DateHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#module-datetime">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">datum</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.day">day (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.day">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.day_abbr">day_abbr (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.day_name">day_name (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.daylight">daylight (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-5">Daylight Saving Time</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.DbfilenameShelf">DbfilenameShelf (class in shelve)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm">dbm (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb">dbm.dumb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    dbm.gnu
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu">dbm.gnu (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    dbm.ndbm
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm">dbm.ndbm (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.dcgettext">dcgettext() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">deallocation, object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.debug">debug (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.DEBUG">DEBUG (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.debug">debug (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.debug">(zipfile.ZipFile attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.debug">debug() (in module doctest)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.debug">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.debug">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.debug">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.debug">(unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.debug">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE">DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_LEAK">DEBUG_LEAK (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.debug_print">debug_print() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL">DEBUG_SAVEALL (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.debug_src">debug_src() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_STATS">DEBUG_STATS (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE">DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-3">debugger</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">configuration file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-0">debugging</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-4">CGI</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18">assertions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.DebuggingServer">DebuggingServer (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.debuglevel">debuglevel (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DebugRunner">DebugRunner (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal">Decimal (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#module-decimal">decimal (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">decimal literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.decimal">decimal() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.DecimalException">DecimalException (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    decode
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Codecs</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.decode">decode (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.decode">decode() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.Codec.decode">(codecs.Codec method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode">(codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.decode">(in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.decode">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.decode">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uu.html#uu.decode">(in module uu)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder.decode">(json.JSONDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary.decode">(xmlrpc.client.Binary method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.DateTime.decode">(xmlrpc.client.DateTime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.decode_header">decode_header() (in module email.header)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.decode_header">(in module nntplib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.decode_params">decode_params() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.decode_rfc2231">decode_rfc2231() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.decode_source">decode_source() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.decodebytes">decodebytes() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.DecodedGenerator">DecodedGenerator (class in email.generator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.decodestring">decodestring() (in module base64)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.decodestring">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.decomposition">decomposition() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress">decompress() (bz2.BZ2Decompressor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.decompress">(in module bz2)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.decompress">(in module gzip)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.decompress">(in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.decompress">(in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress">(lzma.LZMADecompressor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.decompress">(zlib.Decompress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.decompressobj">decompressobj() (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-decorator"><strong>decorator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DEDENT">DEDENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">DEDENT token</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.dedent">dedent() (in module textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#copy.deepcopy">deepcopy() (in module copy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    def
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.def_prog_mode">def_prog_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.def_shell_mode">def_shell_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    default
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">parameter value</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.default">default (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.DEFAULT">DEFAULT (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.default">default (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.default">(optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.default">default() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder.default">(json.JSONEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE">DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (in module io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize">default_bufsize (in module xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.default_exception_handler">default_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict.default_factory">default_factory (collections.defaultdict attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT">DEFAULT_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES">DEFAULT_IGNORES (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open">default_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL">DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.default_timer">default_timer() (in module timeit)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.DefaultContext">DefaultContext (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy">DefaultCookiePolicy (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict">defaultdict (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.DefaultDict">DefaultDict (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy">DefaultEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler">DefaultHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand">DefaultHandlerExpand() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.defaults">defaults() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.DefaultSelector">DefaultSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.defaultTestLoader">defaultTestLoader (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.defaultTestResult">defaultTestResult() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.defects">defects (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.defects">(email.message.EmailMessage attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.defects">(email.message.Message attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro">define_macro() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    definition
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">function</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.defpath">defpath (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.DefragResult">DefragResult (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes">DefragResultBytes (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.degrees">degrees() (in module math)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.degrees">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    del
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">statement</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.del_param">del_param() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.del_param">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#delattr">delattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.delay">delay() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.delay_output">delay_output() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.delayload">delayload (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.delch">delch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.dele">dele() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.delete">delete() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.delete">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.delete">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_ATTR">DELETE_ATTR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_DEREF">DELETE_DEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_FAST">DELETE_FAST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_GLOBAL">DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_NAME">DELETE_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_SUBSCR">DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.deleteacl">deleteacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Widget.tk.deletefilehandler">deletefilehandler() (tkinter.Widget.tk method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DeleteKey">DeleteKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DeleteKeyEx">DeleteKeyEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.deleteln">deleteln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.deleteMe">deleteMe() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DeleteValue">DeleteValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    deletion
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-23">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">target</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">target list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.delimiter">delimiter (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-31">delimiters</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.delitem">delitem() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge">deliver_challenge() (in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.delocalize">delocalize() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app">demo_app() (in module wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.denominator">denominator (fractions.Fraction attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational.denominator">(numbers.Rational attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning">DeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque">deque (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Deque">Deque (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.dequeue">dequeue() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert">DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.derwin">derwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    DES
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/crypt.html#index-0">cipher</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.description">description (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.description">description() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.descriptions">descriptions() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-descriptor"><strong>descriptor</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.dest">dest (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">destructor</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.detach">detach() (io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.detach">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.detach">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.detach">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.detach">(weakref.finalize method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.Detach">Detach() (winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS">DETACHED_PROCESS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.detect_api_mismatch">detect_api_mismatch() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.detect_encoding">detect_encoding() (in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.detect_language">detect_language() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#index-0">deterministic profiling</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.device_encoding">device_encoding() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.devnull">devnull (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.DEVNULL">DEVNULL (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll">devpoll() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.DevpollSelector">DevpollSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.dgettext">dgettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.dgettext">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect">Dialect (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.dialect">dialect (csv.csvreader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvwriter.dialect">(csv.csvwriter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog">Dialog (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-dict">dict (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict">(built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Dict">Dict (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict">dict() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig">dictConfig() (in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-dictionary"><strong>dictionary</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">type, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-dictionary-view"><strong>dictionary view</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.DictReader">DictReader (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter">DictWriter (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.diff_bytes">diff_bytes() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.diff_files">diff_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.Differ">Differ (class in difflib)</a>, <a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.Differ">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.difference">difference() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.difference_update">difference_update() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#module-difflib">difflib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.digest">digest() (hashlib.hash method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.shake.digest">(hashlib.shake method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.digest">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.digest">(in module hmac)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.digest_size">digest_size (hmac.HMAC attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.digit">digit() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.digits">digits (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#dir">dir() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.dir">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp">dircmp (class in filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    directory
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-18">changing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-19">creating</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-20">deleting</a>, <a href="library/shutil.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-1">site-packages</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-22">traversal</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-22">walking</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory">Directory (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.directory">directory (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    directory ...
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#directory_created">directory_created() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry">DirEntry (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirList">DirList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.dirname">dirname() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox">DirSelectBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirSelectDialog">DirSelectDialog (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.DirsOnSysPath">DirsOnSysPath (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirTree">DirTree (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#module-dis">dis (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.dis">dis() (dis.Bytecode method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.dis">(in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#pickletools.dis">(in module pickletools)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-disable">disable (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.disable">disable() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.disable">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.disable">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.disable">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.disable">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.disable_faulthandler">disable_faulthandler() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.disable_gc">disable_gc() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args">disable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DisableReflectionKey">DisableReflectionKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.disassemble">disassemble() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.discard">discard (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.discard">discard() (frozenset method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.discard">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.discard">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.discard_buffers">discard_buffers() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.disco">disco() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.discover">discover() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.disk_usage">disk_usage() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_call">dispatch_call() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_exception">dispatch_exception() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_line">dispatch_line() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_return">dispatch_return() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table">dispatch_table (pickle.Pickler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher">dispatcher (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher_with_send">dispatcher_with_send (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    display
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">dictionary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">set</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">tuple</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-display">display (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.display_name">display_name (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group.display_name">(email.headerregistry.Group attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.displayhook">displayhook() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.dist">dist() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.distance">distance() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.distb">distb() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.Distribution">Distribution (class in distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/distutils.html#module-distutils">distutils (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.archive_util">distutils.archive_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.bcppcompiler">distutils.bcppcompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.ccompiler">distutils.ccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.cmd">distutils.cmd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command">distutils.command (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist">distutils.command.bdist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb">distutils.command.bdist_dumb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi">distutils.command.bdist_msi (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_packager">distutils.command.bdist_packager (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm">distutils.command.bdist_rpm (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst">distutils.command.bdist_wininst (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build">distutils.command.build (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_clib">distutils.command.build_clib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_ext">distutils.command.build_ext (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_py">distutils.command.build_py (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_scripts">distutils.command.build_scripts (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.check">distutils.command.check (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.clean">distutils.command.clean (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.config">distutils.command.config (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install">distutils.command.install (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_data">distutils.command.install_data (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_headers">distutils.command.install_headers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_lib">distutils.command.install_lib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_scripts">distutils.command.install_scripts (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.register">distutils.command.register (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.sdist">distutils.command.sdist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.core">distutils.core (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.cygwinccompiler">distutils.cygwinccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.debug">distutils.debug (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dep_util">distutils.dep_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dir_util">distutils.dir_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dist">distutils.dist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.errors">distutils.errors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.extension">distutils.extension (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.fancy_getopt">distutils.fancy_getopt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.file_util">distutils.file_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.filelist">distutils.filelist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.log">distutils.log (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.msvccompiler">distutils.msvccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.spawn">distutils.spawn (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.sysconfig">distutils.sysconfig (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.text_file">distutils.text_file (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.unixccompiler">distutils.unixccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.util">distutils.util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.version">distutils.version (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/setupscript.html#index-0">DISTUTILS_DEBUG</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.divide">divide() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.divide_int">divide_int() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">division</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.DivisionByZero">DivisionByZero (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    divmod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-0">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#divmod">divmod() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.divmod">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow">DllCanUnloadNow() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.DllGetClassObject">DllGetClassObject() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.dllhandle">dllhandle (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.dngettext">dngettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.do_clear">do_clear() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.do_command">do_command() (curses.textpad.Textbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET">do_GET() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake">do_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_HEAD">do_HEAD() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.do_POST">do_POST() (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.doc">doc (json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.doc_header">doc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocFileSuite">DocFileSuite() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.doCleanups">doCleanups() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.docmd">docmd() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">docstring</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-docstring"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.docstring">(doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-1">docstrings</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest">DocTest (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#module-doctest">doctest (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure">DocTestFailure</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFinder">DocTestFinder (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser">DocTestParser (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner">DocTestRunner (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestSuite">DocTestSuite() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype">doctype() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.doctype">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    documentation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-0">generation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-0">online</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-58">documentation string</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-1">documentation strings</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.documentElement">documentElement (xml.dom.Document attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler">DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer">DocXMLRPCServer (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.domain">domain (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain">(tracemalloc.DomainFilter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.domain">(tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace.domain">(tracemalloc.Trace attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_initial_dot">domain_initial_dot (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok">domain_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_specified">domain_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.DomainFilter">DomainFilter (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal">DomainLiberal (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match">DomainRFC2965Match (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict">DomainStrict (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots">DomainStrictNoDots (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain">DomainStrictNonDomain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream">DOMEventStream (class in xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMException">DOMException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr">DomstringSizeErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.done">done() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.done">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.done">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.done">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.done">(xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE">DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1">DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.dont_write_bytecode">dont_write_bytecode (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.doRollover">doRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.doRollover">(logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOT">DOT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.dot">dot() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.DOTALL">DOTALL (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.doublequote">doublequote (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESLASH">DOUBLESLASH (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL">DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESTAR">DOUBLESTAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL">DOUBLESTAREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.doupdate">doupdate() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-down">down (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.down">down() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.drain">drain() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.drop_whitespace">drop_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.dropwhile">dropwhile() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.dst">dst() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.dst">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.dst">(datetime.timezone method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.dst">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler">DTDHandler (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-duck-typing"><strong>duck-typing</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.DumbWriter">DumbWriter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dummy_threading.html#module-dummy_threading">dummy_threading (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.dump">dump() (in module ast)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.dump">(in module json)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.dump">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.dump">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dump">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.dump">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dump">(pickle.Pickler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump">(tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.dump_stats">dump_stats() (profile.Profile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.dump_stats">(pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.dump_traceback">dump_traceback() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.dump_traceback_later">dump_traceback_later() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.dumps">dumps() (in module json)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.dumps">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.dumps">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dumps">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.dumps">(in module xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.dup">dup() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.dup">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.dup2">dup2() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DUP_TOP">DUP_TOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DUP_TOP_TWO">DUP_TOP_TWO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateOptionError">DuplicateOptionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateSectionError">DuplicateSectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags">dwFlags (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.DynamicClassAttribute">DynamicClassAttribute() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-E.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-E.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a4cdc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-E.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1639 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-E.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; E</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    e
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-28">in numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.e">e (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.e">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.E2BIG">E2BIG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EACCES">EACCES (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EADDRINUSE">EADDRINUSE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL">EADDRNOTAVAIL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EADV">EADV (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EAFNOSUPPORT">EAFNOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-eafp"><strong>EAFP</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EAGAIN">EAGAIN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EALREADY">EALREADY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.east_asian_width">east_asian_width() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADE">EBADE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADF">EBADF (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADFD">EBADFD (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADMSG">EBADMSG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADR">EBADR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADRQC">EBADRQC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADSLT">EBADSLT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBFONT">EBFONT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBUSY">EBUSY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECHILD">ECHILD (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.echo">echo() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.echochar">echochar() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECHRNG">ECHRNG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECOMM">ECOMM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECONNABORTED">ECONNABORTED (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECONNREFUSED">ECONNREFUSED (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECONNRESET">ECONNRESET (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDEADLK">EDEADLK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDEADLOCK">EDEADLOCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDESTADDRREQ">EDESTADDRREQ (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.edit">edit() (curses.textpad.Textbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDOM">EDOM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDOTDOT">EDOTDOT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDQUOT">EDQUOT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EEXIST">EEXIST (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EFAULT">EFAULT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EFBIG">EFBIG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.effective">effective() (in module bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo">ehlo() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed">ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EHOSTDOWN">EHOSTDOWN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EHOSTUNREACH">EHOSTUNREACH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EIDRM">EIDRM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EILSEQ">EILSEQ (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EINPROGRESS">EINPROGRESS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EINTR">EINTR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EINVAL">EINVAL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EIO">EIO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EISCONN">EISCONN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EISDIR">EISDIR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EISNAM">EISNAM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL2HLT">EL2HLT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL2NSYNC">EL2NSYNC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL3HLT">EL3HLT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL3RST">EL3RST (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element">Element (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create">element_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_names">element_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_options">element_options() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler">ElementDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.elements">elements() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree">ElementTree (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBACC">ELIBACC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBBAD">ELIBBAD (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBEXEC">ELIBEXEC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBMAX">ELIBMAX (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBSCN">ELIBSCN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    elif
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">keyword</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uu.html#index-0">Ellinghouse, Lance</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Ellipsis
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-8">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#Ellipsis">Ellipsis (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.ELLIPSIS">ELLIPSIS (in module doctest)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ELLIPSIS">(in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELNRNG">ELNRNG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELOOP">ELOOP (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    else
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">conditional expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">dangling</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.html#module-email">email (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#module-email.charset">email.charset (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager">email.contentmanager (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#module-email.encoders">email.encoders (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#module-email.errors">email.errors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#module-email.generator">email.generator (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#module-email.header">email.header (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#module-email.headerregistry">email.headerregistry (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#module-email.iterators">email.iterators (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#module-email.message">email.message (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#module-email.mime">email.mime (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#module-email.parser">email.parser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#module-email.policy">email.policy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#module-email.utils">email.utils (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage">EmailMessage (class in email.message)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy">EmailPolicy (class in email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMFILE">EMFILE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler.emit">emit() (logging.FileHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.emit">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler.emit">(logging.NullHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler.emit">(logging.StreamHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.HTTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.QueueHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.SMTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMLINK">EMLINK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Empty">Empty</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    empty
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">tuple</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.empty">empty (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.empty">(inspect.Signature attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.empty">empty() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.empty">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty">(multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.empty">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.empty">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.empty">(sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE">EMPTY_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.emptyline">emptyline() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMSGSIZE">EMSGSIZE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMULTIHOP">EMULTIHOP (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-enable">enable (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.enable">enable() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.enable">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.enable">(in module cgitb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.enable">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.enable">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.enable">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks">enable_callback_tracebacks() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args">enable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension">enable_load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.enable_traversal">enable_traversal() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.ENABLE_USER_SITE">ENABLE_USER_SITE (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.EnableReflectionKey">EnableReflectionKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENAMETOOLONG">ENAMETOOLONG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENAVAIL">ENAVAIL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.enclose">enclose() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    encode
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Codecs</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.encode">encode (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.Codec.encode">encode() (codecs.Codec method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.encode">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.encode">(in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.encode">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.encode">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uu.html#uu.encode">(in module uu)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder.encode">(json.JSONEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.encode">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary.encode">(xmlrpc.client.Binary method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.DateTime.encode">(xmlrpc.client.DateTime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_7or8bit">encode_7or8bit() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_base64">encode_base64() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_noop">encode_noop() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_quopri">encode_quopri() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.encode_rfc2231">encode_rfc2231() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.encodebytes">encodebytes() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.EncodedFile">EncodedFile() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.encodePriority">encodePriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.encodestring">encodestring() (in module base64)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.encodestring">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    encoding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-0">base64</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#index-0">quoted-printable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.encoding">encoding (curses.window attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.ENCODING">ENCODING (in module tarfile)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ENCODING">(in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.encoding">encoding (io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.encoding">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-5">encoding declarations (source file)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.idna">encodings.idna (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.mbcs">encodings.mbcs (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.utf_8_sig">encodings.utf_8_sig (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.encodings_map">encodings_map (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.encodings_map">(mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.end">end (UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.end">end() (re.Match method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end">(xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.end_fill">end_fill() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-END_FINALLY">END_FINALLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers">end_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.end_paragraph">end_paragraph() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.end_poly">end_poly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler">EndCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler">EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endDocument">endDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement">endElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndElementHandler">EndElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElementNS">endElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders">endheaders() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ENDMARKER">ENDMARKER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler">EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.endpos">endpos (re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping">endPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.endswith">endswith() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.endswith">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.endswith">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.endwin">endwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENETDOWN">ENETDOWN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENETRESET">ENETRESET (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENETUNREACH">ENETUNREACH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENFILE">ENFILE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOANO">ENOANO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOBUFS">ENOBUFS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOCSI">ENOCSI (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENODATA">ENODATA (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENODEV">ENODEV (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOENT">ENOENT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOEXEC">ENOEXEC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOLCK">ENOLCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOLINK">ENOLINK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOMEM">ENOMEM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOMSG">ENOMSG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENONET">ENONET (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOPKG">ENOPKG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOPROTOOPT">ENOPROTOOPT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSPC">ENOSPC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSR">ENOSR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSTR">ENOSTR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSYS">ENOSYS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTBLK">ENOTBLK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTCONN">ENOTCONN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTDIR">ENOTDIR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTEMPTY">ENOTEMPTY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTNAM">ENOTNAM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTSOCK">ENOTSOCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTTY">ENOTTY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTUNIQ">ENOTUNIQ (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.enqueue">enqueue() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.enqueue_sentinel">enqueue_sentinel() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.ensure_directories">ensure_directories() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future">ensure_future() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip">ensurepip (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enter">enter() (sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context">enter_async_context() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context">enter_context() (contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enterabs">enterabs() (sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.entities">entities (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler">EntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.entitydefs">entitydefs (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver">EntityResolver (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.Enum">Enum (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#module-enum">enum (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.enum_certificates">enum_certificates() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.enum_crls">enum_crls() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#enumerate">enumerate() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.enumerate">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.EnumKey">EnumKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.EnumValue">EnumValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder">EnvBuilder (class in venv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.environ">environ (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#posix.environ">(in module posix)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.environb">environb (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-8">environment</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    environment variable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-5">APPDATA</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-0">AUDIODEV</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-0">BROWSER</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-24">CC</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-10">CFLAGS</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-4">COLS</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-32">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-6">COLUMNS</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-32">COMSPEC</a>, <a href="library/subprocess.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-26">CPP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-28">CPPFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/setupscript.html#index-0">DISTUTILS_DEBUG</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-1">HOME</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-4">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-7">HOMEDRIVE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-8">HOMEPATH</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-5">IDLESTARTUP</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-2">KDEDIR</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-3">LANG</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-3">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-0">LANGUAGE</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-1">LC_ALL</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-2">LC_MESSAGES</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-12">LDCXXSHARED</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-27">LDFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-0">LINES</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-31">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-2">LNAME</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-0">LOGNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-1">MIXERDEV</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-1">PAGER</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-22">PATH</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-5">[5]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-24">[6]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-25">[7]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-26">[8]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-29">[9]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-30">[10]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-31">[11]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-41">[12]</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-3">[13]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-0">[14]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-2">[15]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-24">[16]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-1">[18]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-10">[19]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-11">[20]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-13">[21]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-14">[22]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-15">[23]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-16">[24]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-2">[25]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-3">[26]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-5">[27]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-6">[28]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-8">[29]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-9">[30]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-55">[31]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-58">[32]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-59">[33]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-0">[34]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-1">[35]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-4">PATHEXT</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-2">PLAT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getopt.html#index-0">POSIXLY_CORRECT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-4">PYTHON*</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-50">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-dev.html#index-0">PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-1">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-12">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONCASEOK">PYTHONCASEOK</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-39">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-0">PYTHONDEBUG</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDEBUG">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/development.html#index-0">PYTHONDEVMODE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDEVMODE">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-2">PYTHONDOCS</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-1">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</a>, <a href="faq/programming.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-20">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-24">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-0">PYTHONDUMPREFS</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDUMPREFS">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONEXECUTABLE">PYTHONEXECUTABLE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#index-0">PYTHONFAULTHANDLER</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONFAULTHANDLER">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-23">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-2">PYTHONHASHSEED</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-77">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-15">[5]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-29">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-22">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-33">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-11">[9]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-31">PYTHONHOME</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-32">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-24">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-27">[4]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-1">[6]</a>, <a href="library/test.html#index-0">[7]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME">[8]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-22">[9]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-23">[10]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-26">[11]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-5">[12]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-19">[13]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-21">[14]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-23">[15]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-2">[16]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-7">PYTHONINSPECT</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONINSPECT">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-29">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-18">PYTHONIOENCODING</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-35">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-38">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-21">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-54">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-8">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-31">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-19">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-10">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-35">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-30">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-21">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-1">PYTHONMALLOC</a>, <a href="c-api/memory.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/memory.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-33">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-27">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-38">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-24">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-2">PYTHONMALLOCSTATS</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOCSTATS">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-12">PYTHONNOUSERSITE</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-6">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-13">PYTHONOPTIMIZE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONOPTIMIZE">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-5">PYTHONPATH</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-28">[2]</a>, <a href="extending/building.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-3">[6]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-19">[7]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-20">[8]</a>, <a href="library/test.html#index-1">[9]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-1">[10]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-5">[11]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-6">[12]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH">[13]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-25">[14]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-27">[15]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-28">[16]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-4">[17]</a>, <a href="using/mac.html#index-0">[18]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-18">[19]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-20">[20]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-22">[21]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-7">[22]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-56">[23]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-57">[24]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-27">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-18">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-15">PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-14">PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-6">PYTHONSTARTUP</a>, <a href="library/readline.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP">[5]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-6">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-40">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-41">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-21">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-6">[10]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONTHREADDEBUG">PYTHONTHREADDEBUG</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#index-0">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC</a>, <a href="library/tracemalloc.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/tracemalloc.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-14">PYTHONUNBUFFERED</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUNBUFFERED">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-17">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-8">PYTHONUSERBASE</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-4">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#index-2">PYTHONUSERSITE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-34">PYTHONUTF8</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUTF8">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-36">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-8">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-15">PYTHONVERBOSE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONVERBOSE">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-18">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/warnings.html#index-1">PYTHONWARNINGS</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-19">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-1">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-10">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-36">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#index-0">PYTHON_DOM</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-17">PY_PYTHON</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#index-1">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-31">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-2">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-18">SSL_CERT_FILE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-19">SSL_CERT_PATH</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-3">SystemRoot</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-0">TCL_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-2">TEMP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-1">TERM</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-1">TK_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-3">TMP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-1">TMPDIR</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#index-14">TZ</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-16">[2]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-18">[4]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-19">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-1">USER</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-3">USERNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-6">USERPROFILE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-9">USER_BASE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-2">exec_prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-3">http_proxy</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-4">no_proxy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-1">prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    environment variables
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-13">deleting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-9">setting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#EnvironmentError">EnvironmentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Environments
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-0">virtual</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard">EnvironmentVarGuard (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENXIO">ENXIO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.eof">eof (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.eof">(lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.eof">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.eof">(ssl.MemoryBIO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.eof">(zlib.Decompress attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.eof_received">eof_received() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol.eof_received">(asyncio.Protocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#EOFError">EOFError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-1">(built-in exception)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EOPNOTSUPP">EOPNOTSUPP (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EOVERFLOW">EOVERFLOW (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPERM">EPERM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPFNOSUPPORT">EPFNOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.epilogue">epilogue (email.message.EmailMessage attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.epilogue">(email.message.Message attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPIPE">EPIPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-0">epoch</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll">epoll() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.EpollSelector">EpollSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPROTO">EPROTO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT">EPROTONOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPROTOTYPE">EPROTOTYPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.eq">eq() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.EQEQUAL">EQEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.EQUAL">EQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA">ERA (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA_D_FMT">ERA_D_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA_D_T_FMT">ERA_D_T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA_T_FMT">ERA_T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ERANGE">ERANGE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.erase">erase() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.erasechar">erasechar() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EREMCHG">EREMCHG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EREMOTE">EREMOTE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EREMOTEIO">EREMOTEIO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ERESTART">ERESTART (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.erf">erf() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.erfc">erfc() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EROFS">EROFS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.ERR">ERR (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr.errcheck">errcheck (ctypes._FuncPtr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errcode">errcode (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errmsg">errmsg (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    errno
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-3">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#module-errno">errno (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.errno">(OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.Error">Error</a>, <a href="library/binhex.html#binhex.Error">[1]</a>, <a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.Error">[2]</a>, <a href="library/csv.html#csv.Error">[3]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#locale.Error">[4]</a>, <a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Error">[5]</a>, <a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.Error">[6]</a>, <a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Error">[7]</a>, <a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.Error">[8]</a>, <a href="library/uu.html#uu.Error">[9]</a>, <a href="library/wave.html#wave.Error">[10]</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.Error">[11]</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Error">[12]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.error">error</a>, <a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.error">[1]</a>, <a href="library/copy.html#copy.error">[2]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#curses.error">[3]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.error">[4]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.error">[5]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.error">[6]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.error">[7]</a>, <a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.error">[8]</a>, <a href="library/nis.html#nis.error">[9]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#os.error">[10]</a>, <a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.error">[11]</a>, <a href="library/re.html#re.error">[12]</a>, <a href="library/resource.html#resource.error">[13]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#select.error">[14]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.error">[15]</a>, <a href="library/struct.html#struct.error">[16]</a>, <a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.error">[17]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">error handling</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.error">error() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.error">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.error">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error">(urllib.request.OpenerDirector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.error">(xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body">error_body (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_content_type">error_content_type (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers">error_headers (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.error_leader">error_leader() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_message_format">error_message_format (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_output">error_output() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_perm">error_perm</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_proto">error_proto</a>, <a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.error_proto">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received">error_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_reply">error_reply</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status">error_status (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_temp">error_temp</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex">ErrorByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.errorcode">errorcode (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorCode">ErrorCode (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber">ErrorColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler">ErrorHandler (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber">ErrorLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Errors
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#index-0">logging</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">errors</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.errors">(io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.errors">(unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.errors">(unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString">ErrorString() (in module xml.parsers.expat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ERRORTOKEN">ERRORTOKEN (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.escape">escape (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.escape">escape() (in module cgi)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#glob.escape">(in module glob)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/html.html#html.escape">(in module html)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.escape">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.escape">(in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.escapechar">escapechar (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.escapedquotes">escapedquotes (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESHUTDOWN">ESHUTDOWN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT">ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESPIPE">ESPIPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESRCH">ESRCH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESRMNT">ESRMNT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESTALE">ESTALE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESTRPIPE">ESTRPIPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETIME">ETIME (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETIMEDOUT">ETIMEDOUT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.Etiny">Etiny() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETOOMANYREFS">ETOOMANYREFS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.Etop">Etop() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETXTBSY">ETXTBSY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EUCLEAN">EUCLEAN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EUNATCH">EUNATCH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EUSERS">EUSERS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    eval
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#index-1">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-6">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#eval">eval() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    evaluation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-91">order</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event">Event (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Event">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#index-0">event scheduling</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control.event">event() (msilib.Control method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Event">Event() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.events">events (selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-4">(widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EWOULDBLOCK">EWOULDBLOCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_CANTCREAT">EX_CANTCREAT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_CONFIG">EX_CONFIG (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_DATAERR">EX_DATAERR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_IOERR">EX_IOERR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOHOST">EX_NOHOST (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOINPUT">EX_NOINPUT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOPERM">EX_NOPERM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOTFOUND">EX_NOTFOUND (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOUSER">EX_NOUSER (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_OK">EX_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_OSERR">EX_OSERR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_OSFILE">EX_OSFILE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_PROTOCOL">EX_PROTOCOL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_SOFTWARE">EX_SOFTWARE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_TEMPFAIL">EX_TEMPFAIL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_UNAVAILABLE">EX_UNAVAILABLE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_USAGE">EX_USAGE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example">Example (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure.example">example (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException.example">(doctest.UnexpectedException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.examples">examples (doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException.exc_info">exc_info (doctest.UnexpectedException attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-15">exc_info() (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.exc_info">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.exc_msg">exc_msg (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.exc_type">exc_type (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.excel">excel (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.excel_tab">excel_tab (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    except
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-except">except (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-1">excepthook() (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.excepthook">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#Exception">Exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-12">exception</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-19">AssertionError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">AttributeError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-31">GeneratorExit</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">ImportError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-4">NameError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-34">StopAsyncIteration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-30">StopIteration</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-61">TypeError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-70">ValueError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">ZeroDivisionError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">chaining</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">handler</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">raising</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.EXCEPTION">EXCEPTION (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">exception handler</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.exception">exception() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.exception">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.exception">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.exception">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.exception">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    exceptions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">in CGI scripts</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    exclusive
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">or</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EXDEV">EXDEV (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    exec
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-1">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-exec">exec (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#exec">exec() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.exec_module">exec_module (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module">exec_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module">(importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.exec_module">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-2">exec_prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX">EXEC_PREFIX (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.exec_prefix">exec_prefix (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-execfile">execfile (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execl">execl() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execle">execle() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execlp">execlp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execlpe">execlpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-22">executable (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.executable">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#index-0">Executable Zip Files</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.executable_filename">executable_filename() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.execute">execute() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.execute">(in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Execute">Execute() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.execute">execute() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.execute">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.executemany">executemany() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.executemany">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.executescript">executescript() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.executescript">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    execution
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">frame</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-11">restricted</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">stack</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-0">execution model</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader">ExecutionLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor">Executor (class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execv">execv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execve">execve() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execvp">execvp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execvpe">execvpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox">ExFileSelectBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EXFULL">EXFULL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.exists">exists() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.exists">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.exists">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#exit">exit (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#index-1">exit()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.exit">(argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.exit">(in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.exit">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.exitcode">exitcode (multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-exitfunc">exitfunc (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.exitonclick">exitonclick() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack">ExitStack (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.exp">exp() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.exp">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.exp">(in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.exp">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.expand">expand() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs">expand_tabs (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings">ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode">expandNode() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.expandtabs">expandtabs() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.expandtabs">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.expandtabs">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.expanduser">expanduser() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.expanduser">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.expandvars">expandvars() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#index-0">Expat</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError">ExpatError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.expect">expect() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.expected">expected (asyncio.IncompleteReadError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.expectedFailure">expectedFailure() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.expectedFailures">expectedFailures (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.expires">expires (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.exploded">exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.exploded">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.exploded">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.exploded">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.expm1">expm1() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.expovariate">expovariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.expr">expr() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-0">expression</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-expression"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">Conditional</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">conditional</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">generator</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-24">lambda</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-86">list</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">yield</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.expunge">expunge() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.extend">extend() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.extend">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.extend_path">extend_path() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-EXTENDED_ARG">EXTENDED_ARG (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ExtendedContext">ExtendedContext (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ExtendedInterpolation">ExtendedInterpolation (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.extendleft">extendleft() (collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    extension
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.Extension">Extension (class in distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-extension-module"><strong>extension module</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES">EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader">ExtensionFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.extensions_map">extensions_map (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-1">External Data Representation</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.external_attr">external_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.ExternalClashError">ExternalClashError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate">ExternalEntityParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler">ExternalEntityRefHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.extra">extra (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extract">extract() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary.extract">(traceback.StackSummary class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.extract">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies">extract_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.extract_stack">extract_stack() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.extract_tb">extract_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.extract_version">extract_version (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extractall">extractall() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.extractall">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.ExtractError">ExtractError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extractfile">extractfile() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.extsep">extsep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-F.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-F.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b22481
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-F.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1345 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-F.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; F</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    f&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-21">formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    f&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-21">formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">f-string</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-f-string"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_back (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_builtins (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_code (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.f_contiguous">f_contiguous (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_globals (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_lasti (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_lineno (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_locals (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_LOCK">F_LOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_OK">F_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_TEST">F_TEST (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_TLOCK">F_TLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_trace (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_trace_lines (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_ULOCK">F_ULOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.fabs">fabs() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.factorial">factorial() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory">factory() (importlib.util.LazyLoader class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.fail">fail() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.FAIL_FAST">FAIL_FAST (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.failfast">failfast (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.failureException">failureException (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.failures">failures (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.FakePath">FakePath (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">False</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">false</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-3">False (Built-in object)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#False">(built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.family">family (socket.socket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.fancy_getopt">fancy_getopt() (in module distutils.fancy_getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt">FancyGetopt (class in distutils.fancy_getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FancyURLopener">FancyURLopener (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.fast">fast (pickle.Pickler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.FastChildWatcher">FastChildWatcher (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.fatalError">fatalError() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Fault">Fault (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultCode">faultCode (xmlrpc.client.Fault attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler">faulthandler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultString">faultString (xmlrpc.client.Fault attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fchdir">fchdir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fchmod">fchmod() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fchown">fchown() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.FCICreate">FCICreate() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#module-fcntl">fcntl (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.fcntl">fcntl() (in module fcntl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.fd">fd (selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.fd">fd() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.fd_count">fd_count() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fdatasync">fdatasync() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fdopen">fdopen() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Feature">Feature (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges">feature_external_ges (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes">feature_external_pes (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes">feature_namespace_prefixes (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces">feature_namespaces (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning">feature_string_interning (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_validation">feature_validation (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed">feed() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.feed">(html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.feed">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.feed">(xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.FeedParser">FeedParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.fetch">fetch() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Fetch">Fetch() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchall">fetchall() (sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany">fetchmany() (sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchone">fetchone() (sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.fflags">fflags (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.Field">Field (class in dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.field">field() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.field_size_limit">field_size_limit() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.fieldnames">fieldnames (csv.csvreader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.fields">fields (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.fields">fields() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    file
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">.ini</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">.pdbrc</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#index-1">byte-code</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">configuration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#index-0">copying</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">debugger configuration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-1">large files</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-2">mime.types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-5">modes</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">path configuration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#index-0">plist</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">temporary</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.file">file (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.file">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    file ...
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-file">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    file control
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">UNIX</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    file name
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">temporary</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-file-object"><strong>file object</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#index-0">io module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-4">open() built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-file-like-object"><strong>file-like object</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#file_created">file_created() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.file_dispatcher">file_dispatcher (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FileHandler.file_open">file_open() (urllib.request.FileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.file_size">file_size (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.file_wrapper">file_wrapper (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#module-filecmp">filecmp (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig">fileConfig() (in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar">FileCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.FileEntry">FileEntry (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FileExistsError">FileExistsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder">FileFinder (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler">FileHandler (class in logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FileHandler">(class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.FileInput">FileInput (class in fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#module-fileinput">fileinput (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.FileIO">FileIO (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.filelineno">filelineno() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader">FileLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.filemode">filemode() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.filename">filename (doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.filename">(OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.filename">(http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.filename">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Frame.filename">(tracemalloc.Frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.filename">(zipfile.ZipFile attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.filename">(zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.filename">filename() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.filename2">filename2 (OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.filename_only">filename_only (in module tabnanny)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern">filename_pattern (tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    filenames
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#index-0">pathname expansion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-0">wildcard expansion</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.fileno">fileno() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.fileno">(in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.fileno">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.fileno">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.fileno">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.fileno">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.fileno">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.fileno">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.fileno">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.DevpollSelector.fileno">(selectors.DevpollSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.EpollSelector.fileno">(selectors.EpollSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.KqueueSelector.fileno">(selectors.KqueueSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.fileno">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.fileno">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.fileno">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError">FileNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.fileobj">fileobj (selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.FileSelectBox">FileSelectBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.FileType">FileType (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.FileWrapper">FileWrapper (class in wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.fill">fill() (in module textwrap)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.fill">(textwrap.TextWrapper method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.fillcolor">fillcolor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.filling">filling() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-filter">filter (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Filter">Filter (class in logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter">(class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.filter">filter (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#filter">filter() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.filter">(in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.filter">(in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Filter.filter">(logging.Filter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.filter">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.filter">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR">FILTER_DIR (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.filter_traces">filter_traces() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.filterfalse">filterfalse() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.filterwarnings">filterwarnings() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">finalization, of objects</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize">finalize (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options">finalize_options() (distutils.cmd.Command method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">finalizer</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    finally
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-25">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.find">find() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.find">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFinder.find">(doctest.DocTestFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.find">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.find">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.find">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.find">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-7">find_class() (pickle protocol)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler.find_class">(pickle.Unpickler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.util.find_library">find_library() (in module ctypes.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.find_library_file">find_library_file() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader">find_loader() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.find_loader">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.find_loader">(in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match">find_longest_match() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.NullImporter.find_module">find_module() (imp.NullImporter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Finder.find_module">(importlib.abc.Finder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module">(importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module">(importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module">(importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.find_module">(in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.find_module">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.util.find_msvcrt">find_msvcrt() (in module ctypes.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    find_spec
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-10">finder</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec">find_spec() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec">(importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_spec">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec">(importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.find_spec">(in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.find_unused_port">find_unused_port() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password">find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr method)</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.findall">findall() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.findall">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findall">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.findCaller">findCaller() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-8">finder</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-finder"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-10">find_spec</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Finder">Finder (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.findfactor">findfactor() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.findfile">findfile() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.findfit">findfit() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.finditer">finditer() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.finditer">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.findlabels">findlabels() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.findlinestarts">findlinestarts() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#mailcap.findmatch">findmatch() (in module mailcap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.findmax">findmax() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findtext">findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findtext">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.finish">finish() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.finish_request">finish_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.firstChild">firstChild (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.firstkey">firstkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.firstweekday">firstweekday() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.fix_missing_locations">fix_missing_locations() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.fix_sentence_endings">fix_sentence_endings (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.Flag">Flag (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.flag_bits">flag_bits (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.flags">flags (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.flags">(re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.flags">(select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.flash">flash() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten">flatten() (email.generator.BytesGenerator method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator.flatten">(email.generator.Generator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    flattening
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    float
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-5">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#float">float (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.float_info">float_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.float_repr_style">float_repr_style (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    floating point
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">number</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/float.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">floating point literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FloatingPointError">FloatingPointError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.FloatOperation">FloatOperation (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.flock">flock() (in module fcntl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-floor-division"><strong>floor division</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.floor">floor() (in module math)</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.floordiv">floordiv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Compressor.flush">flush() (bz2.BZ2Compressor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.flush">(formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedWriter.flush">(io.BufferedWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.flush">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.flush">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler.flush">(logging.StreamHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.flush">(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.flush">(logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMACompressor.flush">(lzma.LZMACompressor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.flush">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.flush">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.flush">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.flush">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Compress.flush">(zlib.Compress method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.flush">(zlib.Decompress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers">flush_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.flush_softspace">flush_softspace() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.flushinp">flushinp() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.FlushKey">FlushKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.fma">fma() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.fma">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.fmod">fmod() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.FMT_BINARY">FMT_BINARY (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.FMT_XML">FMT_XML (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#module-fnmatch">fnmatch (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatch">fnmatch() (in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatchcase">fnmatchcase() (in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.focus">focus() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fold">fold (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.fold">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.fold">fold() (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.fold">(email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.fold">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.fold_binary">fold_binary() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold_binary">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.fold_binary">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    for
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-11">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-FOR_ITER">FOR_ITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.forget">forget() (in module test.support)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.forget">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fork">fork() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pty.html#pty.fork">(in module pty)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingMixIn">ForkingMixIn (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingTCPServer">ForkingTCPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingUDPServer">ForkingUDPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.forkpty">forkpty() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    form
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">lambda</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Form">Form (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.format">format (memoryview attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.format">(struct.Struct attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#format">format() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-72">__str__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.format">format() (in module locale)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.format">(logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.format">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.format">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.format">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.format">(string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary.format">(traceback.StackSummary method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.format">(traceback.TracebackException method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Traceback.format">(tracemalloc.Traceback method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.format_datetime">format_datetime() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_exc">format_exc() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_exception">format_exception() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_exception_only">format_exception_only() (in module traceback)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.format_exception_only">(traceback.TracebackException method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.format_field">format_field() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.format_help">format_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_list">format_list() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.format_map">format_map() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_stack">format_stack() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry">format_stack_entry() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.format_string">format_string() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_tb">format_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage">format_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-FORMAT_VALUE">FORMAT_VALUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.formataddr">formataddr() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.formatargspec">formatargspec() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.formatargvalues">formatargvalues() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.formatdate">formatdate() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.FormatError">FormatError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.FormatError">FormatError() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.formatException">formatException() (logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatmonth">formatmonth() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.formatmonth">(calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.formatStack">formatStack() (logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter">Formatter (class in logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter">(class in string)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#module-formatter">formatter (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.formatTime">formatTime() (logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    formatting
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytearray (%)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytes (%)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">formatting, string (%)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.formatwarning">formatwarning() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear">formatyear() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.formatyear">(calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyearpage">formatyearpage() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-2">Fortran contiguous</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-10">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.forward">forward() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ForwardRef">ForwardRef (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator">found_terminator() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fpathconf">fpathconf() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.fqdn">fqdn (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction">Fraction (class in fractions)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#module-fractions">fractions (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    frame
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">execution</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-59">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Frame">Frame (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html#tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.frame">frame (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.FrameSummary">FrameSummary (class in traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.FrameType">FrameType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    free
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-6">variable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">free()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-4">freeze utility</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.freeze">freeze() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.freeze_support">freeze_support() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.frexp">frexp() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    from
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-5">import statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-36">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-23">yield from expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_address">from_address() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_buffer">from_buffer() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_buffer_copy">from_buffer_copy() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#int.from_bytes">from_bytes() (int class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.from_callable">from_callable() (inspect.Signature class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_decimal">from_decimal() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.from_exception">from_exception() (traceback.TracebackException class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file">from_file() (zipfile.ZipInfo class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.from_float">from_float() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_float">(fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.chain.from_iterable">from_iterable() (itertools.chain class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary.from_list">from_list() (traceback.StackSummary class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_param">from_param() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.from_traceback">from_traceback() (dis.Bytecode class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.frombuf">frombuf() (tarfile.TarInfo class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.frombytes">frombytes() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.fromfd">fromfd() (in module socket)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.fromfd">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.fromfd">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromfile">fromfile() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.fromhex">fromhex() (bytearray class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.fromhex">(bytes class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.fromhex">(float class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromisoformat">fromisoformat() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromisoformat">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.fromisoformat">(datetime.time class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.fromkeys">fromkeys() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.fromkeys">(dict class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromlist">fromlist() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromordinal">fromordinal() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromordinal">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.fromshare">fromshare() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromstring">fromstring() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist">fromstringlist() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.fromtarfile">fromtarfile() (tarfile.TarInfo class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromtimestamp">fromtimestamp() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromunicode">fromunicode() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.fromutc">fromutc() (datetime.timezone method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter">FrozenImporter (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError">FrozenInstanceError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    frozenset
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset">frozenset (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.FrozenSet">FrozenSet (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.fs_is_case_insensitive">fs_is_case_insensitive() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.FS_NONASCII">FS_NONASCII (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fsdecode">fsdecode() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fsencode">fsencode() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fspath">fspath() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fstat">fstat() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fstatvfs">fstatvfs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.fsum">fsum() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fsync">fsync() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-13">FTP</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-0">ftplib (standard module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP">FTP (class in ftplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FTPHandler.ftp_open">ftp_open() (urllib.request.FTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS">FTP_TLS (class in ftplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FTPHandler">FTPHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib">ftplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.ftruncate">ftruncate() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Full">Full</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.full">full() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.full">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.full">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.full_url">full_url (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.fullmatch">fullmatch() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.fullmatch">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial.func">func (functools.partial attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-funcattrs">funcattrs (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-function"><strong>function</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">annotations</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">anonymous</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">argument</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">call</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">call, user-defined</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">definition</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">generator</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">name</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/function.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">user-defined</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function">Function (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-function-annotation"><strong>function annotation</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.function__entry">function__entry (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.function__return">function__return (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.FunctionTestCase">FunctionTestCase (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.FunctionType">FunctionType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#module-functools">functools (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.funny_files">funny_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    future
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-40">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-future">future (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future">Future (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future">(class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning">FutureWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fwalk">fwalk() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-G.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-G.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..284672e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-G.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1598 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-G.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; G</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-1">G.722</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.gaierror">gaierror</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.gamma">gamma() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.gammavariate">gammavariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.garbage">garbage (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-2">garbage collection</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.gather">gather() (curses.textpad.Textbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.gauss">gauss() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#module-gc">gc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.gc__done">gc__done (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.gc__start">gc__start (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.gc_collect">gc_collect() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.gcd">gcd() (in module fractions)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.gcd">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ge">ge() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.gen_lib_options">gen_lib_options() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.gen_preprocess_options">gen_preprocess_options() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.gen_uuid">gen_uuid() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.generate_help">generate_help() (distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#index-19">generator</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-generator"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-37">function</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-37">iterator</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-57">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Generator">Generator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator">(class in email.generator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Generator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#index-20">generator expression</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-generator-expression"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-generator-iterator"><strong>generator iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit">GeneratorExit</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-31">exception</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.GeneratorType">GeneratorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    generic
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">special attribute</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Generic">Generic (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-generic-function"><strong>generic function</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit">generic_visit() (ast.NodeVisitor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#pickletools.genops">genops() (in module pickletools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.get">get() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.get">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.get">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.get">(contextvars.ContextVar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.get">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.get">(in module webbrowser)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.get">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.get">(multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.get">(multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.get">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.get">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.get">(tkinter.ttk.Combobox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.get">(tkinter.ttk.Spinbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.get">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.get">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_AITER">GET_AITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_all">get_all() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_all">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.headers.Headers.get_all">(wsgiref.headers.Headers method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_all_breaks">get_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods">get_all_start_methods() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_ANEXT">GET_ANEXT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app">get_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.get_archive_formats">get_archive_formats() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.get_asyncgen_hooks">get_asyncgen_hooks() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.get_attribute">get_attribute() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_AWAITABLE">GET_AWAITABLE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_begidx">get_begidx() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_blocking">get_blocking() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_body">get_body() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.get_body_encoding">get_body_encoding() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_boundary">get_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_boundary">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_bpbynumber">get_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_break">get_break() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_breaks">get_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer">get_buffer() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.get_buffer">(xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.get_buffer">(xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes">get_bytes() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs">get_ca_certs() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.get_cache_token">get_cache_token() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding">get_channel_binding() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_charset">get_charset() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_charsets">get_charsets() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_charsets">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher">get_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.get_child_watcher">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_children">get_children() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.get_children">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers">get_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.get_clock_info">get_clock_info() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.get_close_matches">get_close_matches() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code">get_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_code">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_code">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_code">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_code">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_completer">get_completer() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_completer_delims">get_completer_delims() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_completion_type">get_completion_type() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_h_filename">get_config_h_filename() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_h_filename">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_var">get_config_var() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_var">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_vars">get_config_vars() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_vars">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.get_content">get_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.get_content">(in module email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_charset">get_content_charset() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_charset">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_disposition">get_content_disposition() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_disposition">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_maintype">get_content_maintype() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_maintype">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_subtype">get_content_subtype() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_subtype">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type">get_content_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_type">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_context">get_context() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth">get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.get_coroutine_wrapper">get_coroutine_wrapper() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_count">get_count() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_current_history_length">get_current_history_length() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_data">get_data() (importlib.abc.FileLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data">(importlib.abc.ResourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.get_data">(in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_data">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_date">get_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_debug">get_debug() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_debug">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.get_default">get_default() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.get_default_compiler">get_default_compiler() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.get_default_domain">get_default_domain() (in module nis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_default_type">get_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_default_type">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.get_default_verify_paths">get_default_verify_paths() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.get_dialect">get_dialect() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.get_docstring">get_docstring() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser.get_doctest">get_doctest() (doctest.DocTestParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_endidx">get_endidx() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_environ">get_environ() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.get_errno">get_errno() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop">get_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.get_event_loop_policy">get_event_loop_policy() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser.get_examples">get_examples() (doctest.DocTestParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler">get_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_exec_path">get_exec_path() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info">get_extra_info() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.get_extra_info">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.get_field">get_field() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.get_file">get_file() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.get_file">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF.get_file">(mailbox.MMDF method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_file">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.get_file">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox.get_file">(mailbox.mbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_file_breaks">get_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_filename">get_filename() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_filename">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename">(importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_filename">(importlib.abc.FileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_filename">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_filename">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_flags">get_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_flags">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.get_flags">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.get_folder">get_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.get_folder">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_frees">get_frees() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_freeze_count">get_freeze_count() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.get_from">get_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_from">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.get_full_url">get_full_url() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_globals">get_globals() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_grouped_opcodes">get_grouped_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_handle_inheritable">get_handle_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.get_header">get_header() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_history_item">get_history_item() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_history_length">get_history_length() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_id">get_id() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.get_ident">get_ident() (in module _thread)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.get_ident">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_identifiers">get_identifiers() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.get_importer">get_importer() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_info">get_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_inheritable">get_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.get_inheritable">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.get_instructions">get_instructions() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#zipapp.get_interpreter">get_interpreter() (in module zipapp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_ITER">GET_ITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.get_key">get_key() (selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.get_labels">get_labels() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.get_labels">(mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.get_last_error">get_last_error() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_line_buffer">get_line_buffer() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_lineno">get_lineno() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.get_loader">get_loader() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_locals">get_locals() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_logger">get_logger() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.get_loop">get_loop() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.get_loop">(asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.get_magic">get_magic() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_makefile_filename">get_makefile_filename() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_makefile_filename">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.get_map">get_map() (selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks">get_matching_blocks() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_message">get_message() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.get_method">get_method() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Class.get_methods">get_methods() (symtable.Class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key">get_mixed_type_key() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.get_name">get_name() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_name">(symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.get_namespace">get_namespace() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.get_namespaces">get_namespaces() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr">get_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.get_nowait">get_nowait() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.get_nowait">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.get_nowait">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.get_nowait">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_object_traceback">get_object_traceback() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_objects">get_objects() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes">get_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_option">get_option() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_option_group">get_option_group() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.get_option_order">get_option_order() (distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.get_original_stdout">get_original_stdout() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.get_osfhandle">get_osfhandle() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.get_output_charset">get_output_charset() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_param">get_param() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_parameters">get_parameters() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_params">get_params() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_path">get_path() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_path_names">get_path_names() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_paths">get_paths() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload">get_payload() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pid">get_pid() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport">get_pipe_transport() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.get_platform">get_platform() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_platform">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.get_poly">get_poly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.get_position">get_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_protocol">get_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_python_inc">get_python_inc() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_python_lib">get_python_lib() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_python_version">get_python_version() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get_recsrc">get_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_referents">get_referents() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_referrers">get_referrers() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.get_request">get_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_returncode">get_returncode() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_running_loop">get_running_loop() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_scheme">get_scheme() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_scheme_names">get_scheme_names() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.get_sequences">get_sequences() (mailbox.MH method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.get_sequences">(mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.get_server">get_server() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.get_server_certificate">get_server_certificate() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.get_shapepoly">get_shapepoly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.get_socket">get_socket() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source">get_source() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_source">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_source">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_source">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#get_special_folder_path">get_special_folder_path() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.get_stack">get_stack() (asyncio.Task method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_stack">(bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_start_method">get_start_method() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.get_starttag_text">get_starttag_text() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_stats">get_stats() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr">get_stderr() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_stderr">(wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin">get_stdin() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_string">get_string() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_subdir">get_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.get_suffixes">get_suffixes() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_symbols">get_symbols() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.get_tag">get_tag() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_task_factory">get_task_factory() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_terminal_size">get_terminal_size() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.get_terminal_size">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.get_terminator">get_terminator() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_threshold">get_threshold() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.get_token">get_token() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit">get_traceback_limit() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_traced_memory">get_traced_memory() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory">get_tracemalloc_memory() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_type">get_type() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.get_type_hints">get_type_hints() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_unixfrom">get_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_unixfrom">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.get_unpack_formats">get_unpack_formats() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_usage">get_usage() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.get_value">get_value() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_version">get_version() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.get_visible">get_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.get_wch">get_wch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits">get_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size">get_write_buffer_size() (asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER">GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getacl">getacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.getaddresses">getaddresses() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo">getaddrinfo() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getaddrinfo">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getallocatedblocks">getallocatedblocks() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getandroidapilevel">getandroidapilevel() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getannotation">getannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getargspec">getargspec() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getargvalues">getargvalues() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getatime">getatime() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#getattr">getattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getattr_static">getattr_static() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttribute">getAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNode">getAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNodeNS">getAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNS">getAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetBase">GetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getbegyx">getbegyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getbkgd">getbkgd() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getblocking">getblocking() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean">getboolean() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.getbuffer">getbuffer() (io.BytesIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getByteStream">getByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcallargs">getcallargs() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getcanvas">getcanvas() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.getcapabilities">getcapabilities() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#mailcap.getcaps">getcaps() (in module mailcap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getch">getch() (curses.window method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getch">(in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getCharacterStream">getCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getche">getche() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getcheckinterval">getcheckinterval() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.getChild">getChild() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getchildren">getchildren() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getclasstree">getclasstree() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getclosurevars">getclosurevars() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.GetColumnInfo">GetColumnInfo() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getColumnNumber">getColumnNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcomments">getcomments() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getcompname">getcompname() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getcompname">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getcompname">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getcomptype">getcomptype() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getcomptype">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getcomptype">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getContentHandler">getContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.getcontext">getcontext() (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcoroutinelocals">getcoroutinelocals() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcoroutinestate">getcoroutinestate() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getctime">getctime() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getcwd">getcwd() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getcwdb">getcwdb() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-getcwdu">getcwdu (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getdecoder">getdecoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getdefaultencoding">getdefaultencoding() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.getdefaultlocale">getdefaultlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getdefaulttimeout">getdefaulttimeout() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getdlopenflags">getdlopenflags() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getdoc">getdoc() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.getDOMImplementation">getDOMImplementation() (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getDTDHandler">getDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel">getEffectiveLevel() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getegid">getegid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagName">getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagName">(xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagNameNS">getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagNameNS">(xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getencoder">getencoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getEncoding">getEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getEntityResolver">getEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getenv">getenv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getenvb">getenvb() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getErrorHandler">getErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.geteuid">geteuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.getEvent">getEvent() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventCategory">getEventCategory() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventType">getEventType() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXException.getException">getException() (xml.sax.SAXException method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getFeature">getFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.GetFieldCount">GetFieldCount() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getfile">getfile() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors">getfilesystemencodeerrors() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding">getfilesystemencoding() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.FieldStorage.getfirst">getfirst() (cgi.FieldStorage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat">getfloat() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.getfmts">getfmts() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getfqdn">getfqdn() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getframeinfo">getframeinfo() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getframerate">getframerate() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getframerate">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getframerate">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec">getfullargspec() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getgeneratorlocals">getgeneratorlocals() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getgeneratorstate">getgeneratorstate() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getgid">getgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#grp.getgrall">getgrall() (in module grp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#grp.getgrgid">getgrgid() (in module grp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#grp.getgrnam">getgrnam() (in module grp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getgrouplist">getgrouplist() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getgroups">getgroups() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.getheader">getheader() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.getheaders">getheaders() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-12">gethostbyaddr() (in module socket)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostbyaddr">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostbyname">gethostbyname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostbyname_ex">gethostbyname_ex() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-12">gethostname() (in module socket)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostname">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getincrementaldecoder">getincrementaldecoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getincrementalencoder">getincrementalencoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo">getinfo() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getinnerframes">getinnerframes() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetInputContext">GetInputContext() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.getint">getint() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.GetInteger">GetInteger() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.getitem">getitem() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getiterator">getiterator() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getiterator">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.getitimer">getitimer() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getkey">getkey() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.GetLastError">GetLastError() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getLength">getLength() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLevelName">getLevelName() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.getline">getline() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getLineNumber">getLineNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.FieldStorage.getlist">getlist() (cgi.FieldStorage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getloadavg">getloadavg() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.getlocale">getlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLogger">getLogger() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLoggerClass">getLoggerClass() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getlogin">getlogin() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLogRecordFactory">getLogRecordFactory() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getmark">getmark() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getmark">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getmark">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getmarkers">getmarkers() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getmarkers">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getmarkers">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getmaxyx">getmaxyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.getmember">getmember() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmembers">getmembers() (in module inspect)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.getmembers">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord.getMessage">getMessage() (logging.LogRecord method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXException.getMessage">(xml.sax.SAXException method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getMessageID">getMessageID() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmodule">getmodule() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmodulename">getmodulename() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.getmouse">getmouse() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmro">getmro() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getmtime">getmtime() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.getname">getname() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.getName">getName() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getNameByQName">getNameByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getnameinfo">getnameinfo() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getnameinfo">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.getnames">getnames() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getNames">getNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getnchannels">getnchannels() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getnchannels">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getnchannels">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getnframes">getnframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getnframes">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getnframes">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-5">getnode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.getnode">getnode() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#module-getopt">getopt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.getopt">getopt() (distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.getopt">(in module getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.GetoptError">GetoptError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getouterframes">getouterframes() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.getoutput">getoutput() (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.getpagesize">getpagesize() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getparams">getparams() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getparams">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getparams">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getparyx">getparyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#module-getpass">getpass (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#getpass.getpass">getpass() (in module getpass)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#getpass.GetPassWarning">GetPassWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert">getpeercert() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getpeername">getpeername() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getpen">getpen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpgid">getpgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpgrp">getpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpid">getpid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.getpos">getpos() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getppid">getppid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding">getpreferredencoding() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpriority">getpriority() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getprofile">getprofile() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty">GetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getProperty">getProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetPropertyCount">GetPropertyCount() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getprotobyname">getprotobyname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.getproxies">getproxies() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getPublicId">getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getPublicId">(xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwall">getpwall() (in module pwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwnam">getpwnam() (in module pwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwuid">getpwuid() (in module pwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNameByName">getQNameByName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNames">getQNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getquota">getquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getquotaroot">getquotaroot() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.getrandbits">getrandbits() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getrandom">getrandom() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getreader">getreader() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getrecursionlimit">getrecursionlimit() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getrefcount">getrefcount() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getresgid">getresgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse">getresponse() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getresuid">getresuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.getrlimit">getrlimit() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getroot">getroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.getrusage">getrusage() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.getsample">getsample() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getsampwidth">getsampwidth() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getsampwidth">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getsampwidth">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getscreen">getscreen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getservbyname">getservbyname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getservbyport">getservbyport() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.GetSetDescriptorType">GetSetDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getshapes">getshapes() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getsid">getsid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.getsignal">getsignal() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.getsitepackages">getsitepackages() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.getsize">getsize() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getsize">(in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getsizeof">getsizeof() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getsockname">getsockname() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getsockopt">getsockopt() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getsource">getsource() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getsourcefile">getsourcefile() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getsourcelines">getsourcelines() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/spwd.html#spwd.getspall">getspall() (in module spwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/spwd.html#spwd.getspnam">getspnam() (in module spwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.getstate">getstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.getstate">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/random.html#random.getstate">(in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.getstatusoutput">getstatusoutput() (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getstr">getstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.GetString">GetString() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.getSubject">getSubject() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.GetSummaryInformation">GetSummaryInformation() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getswitchinterval">getswitchinterval() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getSystemId">getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getSystemId">(xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.getsyx">getsyx() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.gettarinfo">gettarinfo() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempdir">gettempdir() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempdirb">gettempdirb() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempprefix">gettempprefix() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempprefixb">gettempprefixb() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames">getTestCaseNames() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#module-gettext">gettext (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.gettext">gettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.gettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.gettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.gettext">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.gettimeout">gettimeout() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.gettrace">gettrace() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getturtle">getturtle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getType">getType() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getuid">getuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl">geturl() (urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#getpass.getuser">getuser() (in module getpass)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.getuserbase">getuserbase() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.getusersitepackages">getusersitepackages() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.getvalue">getvalue() (io.BytesIO method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.StringIO.getvalue">(io.StringIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getValue">getValue() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getValueByQName">getValueByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getwch">getwch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getwche">getwche() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.getweakrefcount">getweakrefcount() (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.getweakrefs">getweakrefs() (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.getwelcome">getwelcome() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.getwelcome">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.getwelcome">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.getwin">getwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getwindowsversion">getwindowsversion() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getwriter">getwriter() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getxattr">getxattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getyx">getyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.gid">gid (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-gil"><strong>GIL</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    glob
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-3">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/glob.html#module-glob">glob (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/glob.html#glob.glob">glob() (in module glob)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.glob">(msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.glob">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    global
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">name binding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">namespace</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-33">global interpreter lock</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#globals">globals() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.globs">globs (doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.gmtime">gmtime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.gname">gname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-10">GNOME</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.GNU_FORMAT">GNU_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.gnu_getopt">gnu_getopt() (in module getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations">GNUTranslations (class in gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure.got">got (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.goto">goto() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">grammar</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">Graphical User Interface</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.GREATER">GREATER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.GREATEREQUAL">GREATEREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-4">Greenwich Mean Time</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.GRND_NONBLOCK">GRND_NONBLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.GRND_RANDOM">GRND_RANDOM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group">Group (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.group">group() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.group">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.group">(re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.groupby">groupby() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.groupdict">groupdict() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.groupindex">groupindex (re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">grouping</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.groups">groups (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.groups">(re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.groups">groups() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#module-grp">grp (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.gt">gt() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.guess_all_extensions">guess_all_extensions() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_all_extensions">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.guess_extension">guess_extension() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_extension">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.guess_scheme">guess_scheme() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.guess_type">guess_type() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">GUI</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gzip.html#module-gzip">gzip (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile">GzipFile (class in gzip)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-H.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-H.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5173f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-H.html
@@ -0,0 +1,777 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-H.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; H</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.halfdelay">halfdelay() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle">Handle (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">handle an exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle">handle() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.handle">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.handle">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler.handle">(logging.NullHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.handle">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle">(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.handle">(wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept">handle_accept() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted">handle_accepted() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_charref">handle_charref() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_close">handle_close() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_comment">handle_comment() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_connect">handle_connect() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_data">handle_data() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_decl">handle_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.handle_defect">handle_defect() (email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_endtag">handle_endtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_entityref">handle_entityref() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_error">handle_error() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_expect_100">handle_expect_100() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_expt">handle_expt() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request">handle_one_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_pi">handle_pi() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_read">handle_read() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request">handle_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request">(xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_startendtag">handle_startendtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag">handle_starttag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout">handle_timeout() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_write">handle_write() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.handleError">handleError() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.handleError">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    handler
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler">Handler (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.handler">handler() (in module cgitb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.harmonic_mean">harmonic_mean() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_ALPN">HAS_ALPN (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.has_children">has_children() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_colors">has_colors() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_ECDH">HAS_ECDH (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec">has_exec() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.has_extn">has_extn() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function">has_function() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Sniffer.has_header">has_header() (csv.Sniffer method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.has_header">(urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_ic">has_ic() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_il">has_il() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.has_ipv6">has_ipv6 (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-has_key">has_key (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_key">has_key() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.has_location">has_location (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME">HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr">has_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_NPN">HAS_NPN (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.has_option">has_option() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.has_option">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.has_section">has_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI">HAS_SNI (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SSLv2">HAS_SSLv2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SSLv3">HAS_SSLv3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.has_ticket">has_ticket (ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1">HAS_TLSv1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1">HAS_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2">HAS_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3">HAS_TLSv1_3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#hasattr">hasattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.hasAttribute">hasAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.hasAttributeNS">hasAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.hasAttributes">hasAttributes() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.hasChildNodes">hasChildNodes() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hascompare">hascompare (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasconst">hasconst (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.hasFeature">hasFeature() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasfree">hasfree (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    hash
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-6">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-4">hash character</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#hash">hash() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-hash-based-pyc"><strong>hash-based pyc</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.block_size">hash.block_size (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.digest_size">hash.digest_size (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.hash_info">hash_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-19">hashable</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-hashable"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Hashable">Hashable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Hashable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.hasHandlers">hasHandlers() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib">hashlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasjabs">hasjabs (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasjrel">hasjrel (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.haslocal">haslocal (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasname">hasname (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-HAVE_ARGUMENT">HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS">HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.HAVE_THREADS">HAVE_THREADS (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.HCI_DATA_DIR">HCI_DATA_DIR (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.HCI_FILTER">HCI_FILTER (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP">HCI_TIME_STAMP (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.head">head() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header">Header (class in email.header)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.header_encode">header_encode() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.header_encode_lines">header_encode_lines() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.header_encoding">header_encoding (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory">header_factory (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.header_fetch_parse">header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_fetch_parse">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_fetch_parse">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.header_items">header_items() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_max_count">header_max_count() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_max_count">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.header_offset">header_offset (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse">header_source_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_source_parse">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.header_store_parse">header_store_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_store_parse">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_store_parse">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.HeaderError">HeaderError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.HeaderParseError">HeaderParseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.HeaderParser">HeaderParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry">HeaderRegistry (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    headers
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">MIME</a>, <a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.headers.Headers">Headers (class in wsgiref.headers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers">headers (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError.headers">(urllib.error.HTTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.headers">(xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.heading">heading() (in module turtle)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.heading">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heapify">heapify() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.heapmin">heapmin() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heappop">heappop() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heappush">heappush() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heappushpop">heappushpop() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#module-heapq">heapq (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heapreplace">heapreplace() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.helo">helo() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    help
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/stdlib.html#index-0">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-0">online</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.help">help (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-help">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#help">help() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.help">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.herror">herror</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.hex">hex (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#hex">hex() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.hex">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.hex">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.hex">(float method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.hex">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    hexadecimal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">hexadecimal literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binhex.html#binhex.hexbin">hexbin() (in module binhex)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.hexdigest">hexdigest() (hashlib.hash method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.shake.hexdigest">(hashlib.shake method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.hexdigest">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.hexdigits">hexdigits (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.hexlify">hexlify() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.hexversion">hexversion (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.hidden">hidden() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.hide">hide() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.hide">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2">hide_cookie2 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.hideturtle">hideturtle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    hierarchy
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">type</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr">HierarchyRequestErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS">HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT">HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG">HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER">HKEY_CURRENT_USER (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA">HKEY_DYN_DATA (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE">HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA">HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_USERS">HKEY_USERS (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.hline">hline() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.HList">HList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.hls_to_rgb">hls_to_rgb() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#module-hmac">hmac (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-1">HOME</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-4">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.home">home() (in module turtle)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.home">(pathlib.Path class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-7">HOMEDRIVE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-8">HOMEPATH</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.hook_compressed">hook_compressed() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.hook_encoded">hook_encoded() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    hooks
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">import</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">meta</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">path</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.host">host (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.hostmask">hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name">hostname_checks_common_name (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.hosts">hosts (netrc.netrc attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.hosts">hosts() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.hosts">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.hour">hour (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.hour">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.HRESULT">HRESULT (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdError">hStdError (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdInput">hStdInput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput">hStdOutput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.hsv_to_rgb">hsv_to_rgb() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ht">ht() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#index-0">HTML</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.html#module-html">html (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.html">html() (in module cgitb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#module-html.entities">html.entities (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#module-html.parser">html.parser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.html5">html5 (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar">HTMLCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff">HtmlDiff (class in difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser">HTMLParser (class in html.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.htonl">htonl() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.htons">htons() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    HTTP
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-0">http (standard module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-0">http.client (standard module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">protocol</a>, <a href="library/http.client.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[4]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-12">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.HTTP">HTTP (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.html#module-http">http (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#module-http.client">http.client (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#module-http.cookiejar">http.cookiejar (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies">http.cookies (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#module-http.server">http.server (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301">http_error_301() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302">http_error_302() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303">http_error_303() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307">http_error_307() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401">http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401">(urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407">http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407">(urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed">http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed">(urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.http_error_default">http_error_default() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPHandler.http_open">http_open() (urllib.request.HTTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTP_PORT">HTTP_PORT (in module http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-3">http_proxy</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response">http_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.http_version">http_version (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler">HTTPBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection">HTTPConnection (class in http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor">HTTPCookieProcessor (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">httpd</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler">HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler">HTTPDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError">HTTPError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor">HTTPErrorProcessor (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPException">HTTPException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler">HTTPHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPHandler">(class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr">HTTPPasswordMgr (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler">HTTPRedirectHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse">HTTPResponse (class in http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler.https_open">https_open() (urllib.request.HTTPSHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPS_PORT">HTTPS_PORT (in module http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response">https_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection">HTTPSConnection (class in http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.HTTPServer">HTTPServer (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler">HTTPSHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.html#http.HTTPStatus">HTTPStatus (class in http)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.hypot">hypot() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-I.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-I.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27005ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-I.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1777 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-I.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; I</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.I">I (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    I/O control
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">POSIX</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">UNIX</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">buffering</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">tty</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.iadd">iadd() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.iand">iand() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.iconcat">iconcat() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    id
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.id">id (ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#id">id() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.id">(unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.idcok">idcok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.ident">ident (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.ident">(threading.Thread attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.identchars">identchars (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-3">identifier</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-10">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.identify">identify() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify">(tkinter.ttk.Widget method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_column">identify_column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_element">identify_element() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_region">identify_region() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_row">identify_row() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    identity
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">test</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">identity of an object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-idioms">idioms (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-0">IDLE</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-idle"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS">IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-5">IDLESTARTUP</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.idlok">idlok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    if
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">conditional expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-11">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.if_indextoname">if_indextoname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.if_nameindex">if_nameindex() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.if_nametoindex">if_nametoindex() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ifloordiv">ifloordiv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/glob.html#glob.iglob">iglob() (in module glob)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace">ignorableWhitespace() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-ignore">ignore (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.ignore_errors">ignore_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL">IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.ignore_patterns">ignore_patterns() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.IGNORECASE">IGNORECASE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.ihave">ihave() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler">IISCGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ilshift">ilshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex.imag">imag (numbers.Complex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">imaginary literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap">imap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    IMAP4
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4">IMAP4 (class in imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.abort">IMAP4.abort</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.error">IMAP4.error</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.readonly">IMAP4.readonly</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    IMAP4_SSL
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4_SSL">IMAP4_SSL (class in imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    IMAP4_stream
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4_stream">IMAP4_stream (class in imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap_unordered">imap_unordered() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib">imaplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.imatmul">imatmul() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imghdr.html#module-imghdr">imghdr (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.immedok">immedok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-immutable"><strong>immutable</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">data type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">sequence types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">immutable object</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    immutable sequence
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    immutable types
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-68">subclassing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.imod">imod() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    imp
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#module-imp">imp (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.ImpImporter">ImpImporter (class in pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.impl_detail">impl_detail() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.implementation">implementation (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.ImpLoader">ImpLoader (class in pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    import
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">hooks</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">statement</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-import">import (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">import hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-0">import machinery</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-import-path"><strong>import path</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.import__find__load__done">import__find__load__done (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.import__find__load__start">import__find__load__start (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.import_fresh_module">import_fresh_module() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-IMPORT_FROM">IMPORT_FROM (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module">import_module() (in module importlib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.import_module">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-IMPORT_NAME">IMPORT_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-IMPORT_STAR">IMPORT_STAR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-importer"><strong>importer</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ImportError">ImportError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-importing"><strong>importing</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib">importlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc">importlib.abc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.machinery">importlib.machinery (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.resources">importlib.resources (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.util">importlib.util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-imports">imports (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-imports2">imports2 (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ImportWarning">ImportWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.ImproperConnectionState">ImproperConnectionState</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.imul">imul() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    in
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">keyword</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.in_dll">in_dll() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_a1">in_table_a1() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_b1">in_table_b1() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c11">in_table_c11() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c11_c12">in_table_c11_c12() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c12">in_table_c12() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c21">in_table_c21() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c21_c22">in_table_c21_c22() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c22">in_table_c22() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c3">in_table_c3() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c4">in_table_c4() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c5">in_table_c5() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c6">in_table_c6() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c7">in_table_c7() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c8">in_table_c8() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c9">in_table_c9() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_d1">in_table_d1() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_d2">in_table_d2() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.in_transaction">in_transaction (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.inch">inch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    inclusive
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">or</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.inclusive">inclusive (tracemalloc.DomainFilter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.inclusive">(tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.Incomplete">Incomplete</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.IncompleteRead">IncompleteRead</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError">IncompleteReadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-17">incr_item()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.increment_lineno">increment_lineno() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder">IncrementalDecoder (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.incrementaldecoder">incrementaldecoder (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder">IncrementalEncoder (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.incrementalencoder">incrementalencoder (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder">IncrementalNewlineDecoder (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser">IncrementalParser (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.indent">indent (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.INDENT">INDENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-9">INDENT token</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.indent">indent() (in module textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">indentation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IndentationError">IndentationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">index operation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.index">index() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.index">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.index">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.index">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.index">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.index">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.index">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.index">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IndexError">IndexError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.indexOf">indexOf() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.IndexSizeErr">IndexSizeErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#slice.indices">indices() (slice method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_aton">inet_aton() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_ntoa">inet_ntoa() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_ntop">inet_ntop() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_pton">inet_pton() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Inexact">Inexact (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.inf">inf (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.inf">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    infile
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-infile">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.infile">infile (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-2">Infinity</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.infj">infj (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.info">info() (dis.Bytecode method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.info">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.info">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.info">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.infolist">infolist() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">inheritance</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">ini file</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.init">init() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.init_color">init_color() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.init_database">init_database() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.init_pair">init_pair() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.inited">inited (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.initgroups">initgroups() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.initial_indent">initial_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options">initialize_options() (distutils.cmd.Command method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.initscr">initscr() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.inode">inode() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_ADD">INPLACE_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_AND">INPLACE_AND (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE">INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_LSHIFT">INPLACE_LSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY">INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_MODULO">INPLACE_MODULO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_MULTIPLY">INPLACE_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_OR">INPLACE_OR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_POWER">INPLACE_POWER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_RSHIFT">INPLACE_RSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_SUBTRACT">INPLACE_SUBTRACT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE">INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_XOR">INPLACE_XOR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-5">input</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-input">(2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#input">input() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.input">(in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.input_charset">input_charset (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.input_codec">input_codec (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.InputOnly">InputOnly (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource">InputSource (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.inquiry">inquiry (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insch">insch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insdelln">insdelln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.insert">insert() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.insert">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.insert">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.insert">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.insert">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.insert_text">insert_text() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.insertBefore">insertBefore() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insertln">insertln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insnstr">insnstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.insort">insort() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.insort_left">insort_left() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.insort_right">insort_right() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#module-inspect">inspect (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    inspect command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#cmdoption-inspect-details">--details</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader">InspectLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insstr">insstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.install">install() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.install">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.install_opener">install_opener() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.install_scripts">install_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.installHandler">installHandler() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    instance
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-92">call</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-54">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    instancemethod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate">instate() (tkinter.ttk.Widget method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.instr">instr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.instream">instream (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction">Instruction (class in dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.arg">Instruction.arg (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.argrepr">Instruction.argrepr (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.argval">Instruction.argval (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.is_jump_target">Instruction.is_jump_target (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.offset">Instruction.offset (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.opcode">Instruction.opcode (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.opname">Instruction.opname (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.starts_line">Instruction.starts_line (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    int
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-4">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#int">int (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.int">(uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.Int2AP">Int2AP() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.int_info">int_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">integer</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-12">representation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">types, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Integral">Integral (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-0">Integrated Development Environment</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.IntegrityError">IntegrityError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">Intel/DVI ADPCM</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.IntEnum">IntEnum (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-interact">interact (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.interact">interact() (code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/code.html#code.interact">(in module code)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.interact">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-interactive"><strong>interactive</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-3">interactive mode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole">InteractiveConsole (class in code)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter">InteractiveInterpreter (class in code)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-intern">intern (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.intern">intern() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-54">internal type</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.internal_attr">internal_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.Internaldate2tuple">Internaldate2tuple() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.internalSubset">internalSubset (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-0">Internet</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">interpolated string literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    interpolation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytearray (%)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytes (%)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">interpolation, string (%)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationDepthError">InterpolationDepthError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationError">InterpolationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError">InterpolationMissingOptionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError">InterpolationSyntaxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-interpreted"><strong>interpreted</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-0">interpreter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-33">interpreter lock</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-23">interpreter prompts</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><strong>interpreter shutdown</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment">interpreter_requires_environment() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.interrupt">interrupt() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.interrupt_main">interrupt_main() (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError">InterruptedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.intersection">intersection() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.intersection_update">intersection_update() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.IntFlag">IntFlag (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.intro">intro (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr">InuseAttributeErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.inv">inv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr">InvalidAccessErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.invalidate_caches">invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches">(importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.invalidate_caches">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches">(importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.invalidate_caches">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr">InvalidCharacterErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr">InvalidModificationErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.InvalidOperation">InvalidOperation (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidStateErr">InvalidStateErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError">InvalidStateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.InvalidURL">InvalidURL</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-60">inversion</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.invert">invert() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">invocation</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    io
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.IO">IO (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#module-io">io (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    io.StringIO
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-27">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase">IOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.ioctl">ioctl() (in module fcntl)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.ioctl">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID">IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IOError">IOError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ior">ior() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.ip">ip (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.ip">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.ip_address">ip_address() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.ip_interface">ip_interface() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.ip_network">ip_network() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress">ipaddress (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ipow">ipow() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped">ipv4_mapped (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address">IPv4Address (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface">IPv4Interface (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network">IPv4Network (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.IPV6_ENABLED">IPV6_ENABLED (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address">IPv6Address (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface">IPv6Interface (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network">IPv6Network (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.irshift">irshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    is
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    is not
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.is_">is_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute">is_absolute() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.is_alive">is_alive() (multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.is_alive">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.is_android">is_android (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_assigned">is_assigned() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment">is_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated">is_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_block_device">is_block_device() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked">is_blocked() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_canonical">is_canonical() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_canonical">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_char_device">is_char_device() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK">IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.is_check_supported">is_check_supported() (in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.is_closed">is_closed() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing">is_closing() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.is_dataclass">is_dataclass() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_declared_global">is_declared_global() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.is_dir">is_dir() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_dir">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.is_dir">(zipfile.ZipInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.is_enabled">is_enabled() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.is_expired">is_expired() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_fifo">is_fifo() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.is_file">is_file() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_file">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.is_finalizing">is_finalizing() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_finite">is_finite() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_finite">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_free">is_free() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global">is_global (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_global">is_global() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop">is_hop_by_hop() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_imported">is_imported() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_infinite">is_infinite() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_infinite">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.is_integer">is_integer() (float method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.is_jython">is_jython (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK">IS_LINE_JUNK() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.is_linetouched">is_linetouched() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_link_local">is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_link_local">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_link_local">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_link_local">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_local">is_local() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_loopback">is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_loopback">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_loopback">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_mount">is_mount() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_multicast">is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_multicast">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_multicast">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_multicast">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart">is_multipart() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.is_multipart">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_namespace">is_namespace() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_nan">is_nan() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_nan">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.is_nested">is_nested() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_normal">is_normal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_normal">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.is_not">is_not() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed">is_not_allowed() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.is_optimized">is_optimized() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package">is_package() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.is_package">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.is_package">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.is_package">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.is_package">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.is_package">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_parameter">is_parameter() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private">is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_private">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_private">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.is_python_build">is_python_build() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_qnan">is_qnan() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_qnan">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading">is_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_referenced">is_referenced() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_reserved">is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_reserved">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_reserved">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_reserved">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved">is_reserved() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.is_resource">is_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.is_resource">(in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.is_resource_enabled">is_resource_enabled() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.is_running">is_running() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.is_safe">is_safe (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.is_serving">is_serving() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.is_set">is_set() (asyncio.Event method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.is_set">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_signed">is_signed() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_signed">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_site_local">is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_site_local">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_snan">is_snan() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_snan">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_socket">is_socket() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_subnormal">is_subnormal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_subnormal">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.is_symlink">is_symlink() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_symlink">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.is_tarfile">is_tarfile() (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.is_term_resized">is_term_resized() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.is_tracing">is_tracing() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.is_tracked">is_tracked() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_unspecified">is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_unspecified">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_unspecified">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_unspecified">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.is_wintouched">is_wintouched() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_zero">is_zero() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_zero">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.is_zipfile">is_zipfile() (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.isabs">isabs() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isabstract">isabstract() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IsADirectoryError">IsADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isalnum">isalnum() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isalnum">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isalnum">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isalnum">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isalpha">isalpha() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isalpha">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isalpha">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isalpha">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isascii">isascii() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isascii">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isascii">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isascii">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isasyncgen">isasyncgen() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isasyncgenfunction">isasyncgenfunction() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.isatty">isatty() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.isatty">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.isatty">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isawaitable">isawaitable() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isblank">isblank() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isblk">isblk() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isbuiltin">isbuiltin() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.ischr">ischr() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isclass">isclass() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isclose">isclose() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isclose">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.iscntrl">iscntrl() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.iscode">iscode() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.iscoroutine">iscoroutine() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutine">(in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.iscoroutinefunction">iscoroutinefunction() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutinefunction">(in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isctrl">isctrl() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.isDaemon">isDaemon() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isdatadescriptor">isdatadescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isdecimal">isdecimal() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isdev">isdev() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isdigit">isdigit() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isdigit">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isdigit">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isdigit">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.isdir">isdir() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isdir">(tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.isdisjoint">isdisjoint() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.isdown">isdown() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement">iselement() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.isenabled">isenabled() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor">isEnabledFor() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.isendwin">isendwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ISEOF">ISEOF() (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.isexpr">isexpr() (in module parser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.isexpr">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isfifo">isfifo() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.isfile">isfile() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isfile">(tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isfinite">isfinite() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isfinite">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.isfirstline">isfirstline() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isframe">isframe() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isfunction">isfunction() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.isfuture">isfuture() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isgenerator">isgenerator() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isgeneratorfunction">isgeneratorfunction() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isgetsetdescriptor">isgetsetdescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isgraph">isgraph() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isidentifier">isidentifier() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isinf">isinf() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isinf">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-isinstance">isinstance (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#isinstance">isinstance() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/keyword.html#keyword.iskeyword">iskeyword() (in module keyword)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.isleap">isleap() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.islice">islice() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.islink">islink() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.islnk">islnk() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.islower">islower() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.islower">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.islower">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.islower">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismemberdescriptor">ismemberdescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ismeta">ismeta() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismethod">ismethod() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismethoddescriptor">ismethoddescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismodule">ismodule() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.ismount">ismount() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isnan">isnan() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isnan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ISNONTERMINAL">ISNONTERMINAL() (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isnumeric">isnumeric() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.isocalendar">isocalendar() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isocalendar">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.isoformat">isoformat() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isoformat">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.isoformat">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level">isolation_level (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.isoweekday">isoweekday() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isoweekday">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isprint">isprint() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isprintable">isprintable() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ispunct">ispunct() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.isreadable">isreadable() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.isreadable">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.isrecursive">isrecursive() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.isrecursive">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isreg">isreg() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.isReservedKey">isReservedKey() (http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isroutine">isroutine() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.isSameNode">isSameNode() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isspace">isspace() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isspace">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isspace">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isspace">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.isstdin">isstdin() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#issubclass">issubclass() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.issubset">issubset() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.issuite">issuite() (in module parser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.issuite">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.issuperset">issuperset() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.issym">issym() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ISTERMINAL">ISTERMINAL() (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.istitle">istitle() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.istitle">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.istitle">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.istraceback">istraceback() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.isub">isub() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isupper">isupper() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isupper">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isupper">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isupper">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.isvisible">isvisible() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isxdigit">isxdigit() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    item
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-41">string</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">item selection</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.item">item() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.item">(xml.dom.NamedNodeMap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NodeList.item">(xml.dom.NodeList method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.itemgetter">itemgetter() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.items">items() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.items">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.items">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.items">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.items">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.items">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.items">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.items">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.itemsize">itemsize (array.array attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.itemsize">(memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ItemsView">ItemsView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ItemsView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#iter">iter() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iter">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_attachments">iter_attachments() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.iter_child_nodes">iter_child_nodes() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.iter_fields">iter_fields() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.iter_importers">iter_importers() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.iter_modules">iter_modules() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts">iter_parts() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.iter_unpack">iter_unpack() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.iter_unpack">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-iterable"><strong>iterable</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-88">unpacking</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterable">Iterable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Iterable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-iterator"><strong>iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterator">Iterator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Iterator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iterator protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.iterdecode">iterdecode() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.iterdir">iterdir() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.iterdump">iterdump() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.iterencode">iterencode() (in module codecs)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder.iterencode">(json.JSONEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind">iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iterfind">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.iteritems">iteritems() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.iterkeys">iterkeys() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates">itermonthdates() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays">itermonthdays() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays2">itermonthdays2() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays3">itermonthdays3() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays4">itermonthdays4() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse">iterparse() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext">itertext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-itertools">itertools (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/itertools.html#module-itertools">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-itertools_imports">itertools_imports (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.itervalues">itervalues() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.iterweekdays">iterweekdays() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ITIMER_PROF">ITIMER_PROF (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ITIMER_REAL">ITIMER_REAL (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL">ITIMER_VIRTUAL (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ItimerError">ItimerError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.itruediv">itruediv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ixor">ixor() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-J.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-J.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01f717a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-J.html
@@ -0,0 +1,251 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-J.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; J</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    j
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-29">in numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uu.html#index-0">Jansen, Jack</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Java
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">language</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.java_ver">java_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.join">join() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.join">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.join">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.join">(in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.join">(multiprocessing.JoinableQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.join">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.join">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.join">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.join">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.join">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.join_thread">join_thread() (in module test.support)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue">JoinableQueue (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.joinpath">joinpath() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output">js_output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.js_output">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    json
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#module-json">json (module)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#module-json.tool">json.tool (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    json.tool command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-sort-keys">--sort-keys</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-infile">infile</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-outfile">outfile</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError">JSONDecodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder">JSONDecoder (class in json)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder">JSONEncoder (class in json)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-jump">jump (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_ABSOLUTE">JUMP_ABSOLUTE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_FORWARD">JUMP_FORWARD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP">JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP">JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-K.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-K.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..522f42b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-K.html
@@ -0,0 +1,293 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-K.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; K</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.kbhit">kbhit() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-2">KDEDIR</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent">kevent() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">key</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.key">(http.cookies.Morsel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-key-function"><strong>key function</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">key/datum pair</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS">KEY_ALL_ACCESS (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK">KEY_CREATE_LINK (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY">KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS">KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_EXECUTE">KEY_EXECUTE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_NOTIFY">KEY_NOTIFY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE">KEY_QUERY_VALUE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_READ">KEY_READ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE">KEY_SET_VALUE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY">KEY_WOW64_32KEY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY">KEY_WOW64_64KEY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_WRITE">KEY_WRITE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt">KeyboardInterrupt</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">(built-in exception)</a>, <a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#KeyError">KeyError</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.keyname">keyname() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.keypad">keypad() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs">keyrefs() (weakref.WeakKeyDictionary method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.keys">keys() (contextvars.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.keys">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.keys">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.keys">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Row.keys">(sqlite3.Row method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.keys">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.keys">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.KeysView">KeysView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.KeysView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-13">keyword</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">as</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">async</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">await</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-55">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">elif</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">else</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">except</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">finally</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-25">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">from</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">in</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">yield</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/keyword.html#module-keyword">keyword (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-keyword-argument"><strong>keyword argument</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial.keywords">keywords (functools.partial attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.kill">kill() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.kill">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.kill">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.kill">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.kill_python">kill_python() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.killchar">killchar() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.killpg">killpg() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.kind">kind (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.knownfiles">knownfiles (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue">kqueue() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.KqueueSelector">KqueueSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs">kwargs (inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/keyword.html#keyword.kwlist">kwlist (in module keyword)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-L.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-L.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ffba4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-L.html
@@ -0,0 +1,956 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-L.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; L</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.L">L (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.LabelEntry">LabelEntry (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.LabelFrame">LabelFrame (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-lambda"><strong>lambda</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-24">expression</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">form</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.LambdaType">LambdaType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-3">LANG</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-3">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-0">LANGUAGE</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    language
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">C</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">Java</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-1">large files</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.LargeZipFile">LargeZipFile</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.last">last() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.last_accepted">last_accepted (multiprocessing.connection.Listener attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.last_traceback">last_traceback (in module sys)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.last_type">last_type (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.last_value">last_value (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.lastChild">lastChild (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.lastcmd">lastcmd (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.lastgroup">lastgroup (re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.lastindex">lastindex (re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.lastResort">lastResort (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid">lastrowid (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.layout">layout() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.lazycache">lazycache() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.LazyLoader">LazyLoader (class in importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LBRACE">LBRACE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-lbyl"><strong>LBYL</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-1">LC_ALL</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_ALL">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_COLLATE">LC_COLLATE (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_CTYPE">LC_CTYPE (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-2">LC_MESSAGES</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_MESSAGES">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_MONETARY">LC_MONETARY (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_NUMERIC">LC_NUMERIC (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_TIME">LC_TIME (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lchflags">lchflags() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lchmod">lchmod() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.lchmod">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lchown">lchown() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-12">LDCXXSHARED</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.ldexp">ldexp() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-27">LDFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.ldgettext">ldgettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.ldngettext">ldngettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.le">le() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">leading whitespace</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.leapdays">leapdays() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.leaveok">leaveok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.left">left (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.left">left() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.left_list">left_list (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.left_only">left_only (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LEFTSHIFT">LEFTSHIFT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL">LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    len
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/list.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/mapping.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/object.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="c-api/set.html#index-1">[5]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[6]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">[9]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[10]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-93">[11]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#len">len() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.length">length (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NodeList.length">(xml.dom.NodeList attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.length_hint">length_hint() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LESS">LESS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LESSEQUAL">LESSEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-0">lexical analysis</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-1">lexical definitions</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.lexists">lexists() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.lgamma">lgamma() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.lgettext">lgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.lgettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#module-lib2to3">lib2to3 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.libc_ver">libc_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.library">library (in module dbm.ndbm)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError.library">(ssl.SSLError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_dir_option">library_dir_option() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_filename">library_filename() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_option">library_option() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.LibraryLoader">LibraryLoader (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#license">license (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.LifoQueue">LifoQueue (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.LifoQueue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">light-weight processes</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.limit_denominator">limit_denominator() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.LimitOverrunError">LimitOverrunError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2adpcm">lin2adpcm() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2alaw">lin2alaw() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2lin">lin2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2ulaw">lin2ulaw() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.line">line (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">line continuation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">line joining</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-2">line structure</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.line">line() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">line-buffered I/O</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper.line_buffering">line_buffering (io.TextIOWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.line_num">line_num (csv.csvreader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#module-linecache">linecache (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST.lineno">lineno (ast.AST attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.lineno">(doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.lineno">(doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.lineno">(json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.lineno">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.lineno">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.lineno">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.lineno">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.lineno">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.lineno">(tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Frame.lineno">(tracemalloc.Frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.lineno">(xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.lineno">lineno() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-0">LINES</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-31">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.terminal_size.lines">lines (os.terminal_size attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.linesep">linesep (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.linesep">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.lineterminator">lineterminator (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.LineTooLong">LineTooLong</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link">link() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.link">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_executable">link_executable() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_lib">link_shared_lib() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_object">link_shared_object() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.linkname">linkname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.linux_distribution">linux_distribution() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-list"><strong>list</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">assignment, target</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">deletion target</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">empty</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-86">expression</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-23">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">target</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">type, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#list">list (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.List">List (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-list">list (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-list-comprehension"><strong>list comprehension</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.list">list() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.list">(multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.list">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.list">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.list">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LIST_APPEND">LIST_APPEND (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.list_dialects">list_dialects() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.list_folders">list_folders() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.list_folders">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.listdir">listdir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.listen">listen() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.listen">(in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.listen">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.listen">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener">Listener (class in multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.listMethods">listMethods() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ListNoteBook">ListNoteBook (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.listxattr">listxattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-6">literal</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.literal_eval">literal_eval() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    literals
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">complex number</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">floating point</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">hexadecimal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">integer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">numeric</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">octal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.LittleEndianStructure">LittleEndianStructure (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.ljust">ljust() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.ljust">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.ljust">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_LOCK">LK_LOCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_NBLCK">LK_NBLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK">LK_NBRLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_RLCK">LK_RLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_UNLCK">LK_UNLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-ll">ll (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.LMTP">LMTP (class in smtplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.ln">ln() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.ln">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-2">LNAME</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.lngettext">lngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.lngettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load">load() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.load">(http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.load">(in module json)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.load">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.load">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.load">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler.load">(pickle.Unpickler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.load">(tracemalloc.Snapshot class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_ATTR">LOAD_ATTR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_BUILD_CLASS">LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain">load_cert_chain() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_CLASSDEREF">LOAD_CLASSDEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_CLOSURE">LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_CONST">LOAD_CONST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs">load_default_certs() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_DEREF">LOAD_DEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params">load_dh_params() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.load_extension">load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_FAST">LOAD_FAST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_GLOBAL">LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_METHOD">LOAD_METHOD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module">load_module() (importlib.abc.FileLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module">(importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module">(importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.load_module">(in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.load_module">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_NAME">LOAD_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.load_package_tests">load_package_tests() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations">load_verify_locations() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-8">loader</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-loader"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader">Loader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader">loader (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader_state">loader_state (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.LoadError">LoadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.LoadKey">LoadKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.LibraryLoader.LoadLibrary">LoadLibrary() (ctypes.LibraryLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.loads">loads() (in module json)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.loads">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.loads">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.loads">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.loads">(in module xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule">loadTestsFromModule() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName">loadTestsFromName() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromNames">loadTestsFromNames() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase">loadTestsFromTestCase() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.local">local (class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.localcontext">localcontext() (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.LOCALE">LOCALE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#module-locale">locale (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.localeconv">localeconv() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar">LocaleHTMLCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.LocaleTextCalendar">LocaleTextCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.localName">localName (xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.localName">(xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#locals">locals() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.localtime">localtime() (in module email.utils)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.localtime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator">Locator (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock">Lock (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Lock">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Lock">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.lock">lock() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.lock">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF.lock">(mailbox.MMDF method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.lock">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.lock">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox.lock">(mailbox.mbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Lock">Lock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-33">lock, interpreter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.lock_held">lock_held() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.lock.locked">locked() (_thread.lock method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.locked">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock.locked">(asyncio.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore.locked">(asyncio.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.lockf">lockf() (in module fcntl)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lockf">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.locking">locking() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.LockType">LockType (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.log">log() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.log">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.log">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.log10">log10() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.log10">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.log10">(in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log10">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log1p">log1p() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log2">log2() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_date_time_string">log_date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_error">log_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception">log_exception() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message">log_message() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_request">log_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.log_to_stderr">log_to_stderr() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logb">logb() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logb">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger">Logger (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LoggerAdapter">LoggerAdapter (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    logging
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#index-0">Errors</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#module-logging">logging (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#module-logging.config">logging.config (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers">logging.handlers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">logical line</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_and">logical_and() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_and">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_invert">logical_invert() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_invert">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_or">logical_or() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_or">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_xor">logical_xor() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_xor">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.login">login() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.login">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.login">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.login">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.login_cram_md5">login_cram_md5() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-0">LOGNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.lognormvariate">lognormvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.logout">logout() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord">LogRecord (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-long">long (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    long integer
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-1">LONG_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.longMessage">longMessage (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.longname">longname() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.lookup">lookup() (in module codecs)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.lookup">(in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.lookup">(symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.lookup">(tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.lookup_error">lookup_error() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#LookupError">LookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    loop
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-9">over mutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    loop control
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">target</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.loop">loop() (in module asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.lower">lower() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.lower">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.lower">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LPAR">LPAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList">lpAttributeList (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache">lru_cache() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lseek">lseek() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.lshift">lshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LSQB">LSQB (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lstat">lstat() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.lstat">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.lstrip">lstrip() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.lstrip">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.lstrip">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.lsub">lsub() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.lt">lt() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.lt">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar">LWPCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#module-lzma">lzma (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMACompressor">LZMACompressor (class in lzma)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor">LZMADecompressor (class in lzma)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMAError">LZMAError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMAFile">LZMAFile (class in lzma)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-M.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-M.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e7e0084
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-M.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1203 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-M.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; M</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.M">M (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.mac_ver">mac_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.machine">machine() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/macpath.html#module-macpath">macpath (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.macros">macros (netrc.netrc attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    magic
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-23">method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-magic-method"><strong>magic method</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER">MAGIC_NUMBER (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.MagicMock">MagicMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox">Mailbox (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox">mailbox (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#module-mailcap">mailcap (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir">Maildir (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage">MaildirMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom">mailfrom (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.MailmanProxy">MailmanProxy (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">main()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-30">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.main">(in module py_compile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#site.main">(in module site)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.main">(in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.main_thread">main_thread() (in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.mainloop">mainloop() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.maintype">maintype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.major">major (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.major">major() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.make_alternative">make_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.archive_util.make_archive">make_archive() (in module distutils.archive_util)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.make_archive">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.make_bad_fd">make_bad_fd() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.make_cookies">make_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.make_dataclass">make_dataclass() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file">make_file() (difflib.HtmlDiff method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-MAKE_FUNCTION">MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.make_header">make_header() (in module email.header)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.make_legacy_pyc">make_legacy_pyc() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.make_mixed">make_mixed() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.make_msgid">make_msgid() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.make_parser">make_parser() (in module xml.sax)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_pkg">make_pkg() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.make_related">make_related() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_script">make_script() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server">make_server() (in module wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_table">make_table() (difflib.HtmlDiff method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.archive_util.make_tarball">make_tarball() (in module distutils.archive_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg">make_zip_pkg() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script">make_zip_script() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.archive_util.make_zipfile">make_zipfile() (in module distutils.archive_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.makedev">makedev() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.makedirs">makedirs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.makeelement">makeelement() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">makefile() (socket method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.makefile">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.makeLogRecord">makeLogRecord() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle">makePickle() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.makeRecord">makeRecord() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.makeSocket">makeSocket() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makeSocket">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.maketrans">maketrans() (bytearray static method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.maketrans">(bytes static method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.maketrans">(str static method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">malloc()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.mangle_from_">mangle_from_ (email.policy.Compat32 attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_">(email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    mangling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">name</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-map">map (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#map">map() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.map">(concurrent.futures.Executor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.map">(tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-MAP_ADD">MAP_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async">map_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.map_table_b2">map_table_b2() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.map_table_b3">map_table_b3() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.map_to_type">map_to_type() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord">mapLogRecord() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-mapping"><strong>mapping</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-2">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">types, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping">Mapping (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Mapping">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control.mapping">mapping() (msilib.Control method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType">MappingProxyType (class in types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MappingView">MappingView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MappingView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.mapPriority">mapPriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap.maps">maps (collections.ChainMap attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.maps">maps() (in module nis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/marshal.html#module-marshal">marshal (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    marshalling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    masking
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Match">Match (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.match">match() (in module nis)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.match">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.match">(pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.match">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname">match_hostname() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.match_test">match_test() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.Matcher.match_value">match_value() (test.support.Matcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.Matcher">Matcher (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.Matcher.matches">matches() (test.support.Matcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    math
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#module-math">math (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.matmul">matmul() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-64">matrix multiplication</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    max
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.max">max (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.max">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.max">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.max">(datetime.timedelta attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#max">max() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.max">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.max">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.max">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count">max_count (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MAX_EMAX">MAX_EMAX (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH">MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (in module configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.max_line_length">max_line_length (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.max_lines">max_lines (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.max_mag">max_mag() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.max_mag">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.max_memuse">max_memuse (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MAX_PREC">MAX_PREC (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.max_prefixlen">max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.max_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.max_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.max_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t">MAX_Py_ssize_t (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxarray">maxarray (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxdeque">maxdeque (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxdict">maxdict (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.maxDiff">maxDiff (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxfrozenset">maxfrozenset (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED">MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version">maximum_version (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.maxlen">maxlen (collections.deque attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxlevel">maxlevel (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxlist">maxlist (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxlong">maxlong (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxother">maxother (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.maxpp">maxpp() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxset">maxset (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.maxsize">maxsize (asyncio.Queue attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.maxsize">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxstring">maxstring (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxtuple">maxtuple (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.maxunicode">maxunicode (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.MAXYEAR">MAXYEAR (in module datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK">MB_ICONASTERISK (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION">MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONHAND">MB_ICONHAND (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION">MB_ICONQUESTION (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_OK">MB_OK (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox">mbox (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage">mboxMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.mean">mean() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median">median() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median_grouped">median_grouped() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median_high">median_high() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median_low">median_low() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MemberDescriptorType">MemberDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    membership
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">test</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.memmove">memmove() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO">MemoryBIO (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#MemoryError">MemoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler">MemoryHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    memoryview
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memoryview.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview">memoryview (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.memset">memset() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.merge">merge() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message">Message (class in email.message)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Message">(class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-0">message digest, MD5</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.message_factory">message_factory (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_binary_file">message_from_binary_file() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_bytes">message_from_bytes() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_file">message_from_file() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_string">message_from_string() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MessageBeep">MessageBeep() (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.MessageClass">MessageClass (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.MessageError">MessageError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.MessageParseError">MessageParseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages">messages (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    meta
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">hooks</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">meta hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><strong>meta path finder</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.meta">meta() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.meta_path">meta_path (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">metaclass</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-metaclass"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-metaclass">(2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-83">metaclass hint</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder">MetaPathFinder (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.metavar">metavar (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter">MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Meter">Meter (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_CLASS">METH_CLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_COEXIST">METH_COEXIST (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_FASTCALL">METH_FASTCALL (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_NOARGS">METH_NOARGS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_O">METH_O (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_STATIC">METH_STATIC (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_VARARGS">METH_VARARGS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-method"><strong>method</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">built-in</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-23">magic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-1">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-53">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-0">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-31">special</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">user-defined</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.method">method (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-method-resolution-order"><strong>method resolution order</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_BLOWFISH">METHOD_BLOWFISH (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls">method_calls (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_CRYPT">METHOD_CRYPT (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_MD5">METHOD_MD5 (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_SHA256">METHOD_SHA256 (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_SHA512">METHOD_SHA512 (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-methodattrs">methodattrs (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.methodcaller">methodcaller() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MethodDescriptorType">MethodDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodHelp">methodHelp() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    methods
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">bytearray</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">bytes</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-30">string</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.methods">methods (in module crypt)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.methods">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodSignature">methodSignature() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#index-1">MethodType (in module types)</a>, <a href="c-api/method.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/types.html#types.MethodType">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MethodWrapperType">MethodWrapperType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH">MH (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage">MHMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.microsecond">microsecond (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.microsecond">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    MIME
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-0">base64 encoding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-0">content type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">headers</a>, <a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#index-0">quoted-printable encoding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.application.MIMEApplication">MIMEApplication (class in email.mime.application)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio">MIMEAudio (class in email.mime.audio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.base.MIMEBase">MIMEBase (class in email.mime.base)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.image.MIMEImage">MIMEImage (class in email.mime.image)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.message.MIMEMessage">MIMEMessage (class in email.mime.message)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart">MIMEMultipart (class in email.mime.multipart)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart">MIMENonMultipart (class in email.mime.nonmultipart)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.MIMEPart">MIMEPart (class in email.message)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.text.MIMEText">MIMEText (class in email.mime.text)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes">MimeTypes (class in mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#module-mimetypes">mimetypes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader">MIMEVersionHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    min
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.min">min (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.min">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.min">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.min">(datetime.timedelta attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#min">min() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.min">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.min">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MIN_EMIN">MIN_EMIN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MIN_ETINY">MIN_ETINY (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.min_mag">min_mag() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.min_mag">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.MINEQUAL">MINEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED">MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version">minimum_version (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.minmax">minmax() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.minor">minor (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.minor">minor() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">minus</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.MINUS">MINUS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.minus">minus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.minute">minute (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.minute">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.MINYEAR">MINYEAR (in module datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.mirrored">mirrored() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.misc_header">misc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.MISSING">MISSING (contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS">MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.missing_compiler_executable">missing_compiler_executable() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError">MissingSectionHeaderError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-1">MIXERDEV</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.mkd">mkd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.mkdir">mkdir() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.mkdir">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.mkdtemp">mkdtemp() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.mkfifo">mkfifo() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.mknod">mknod() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.mkpath">mkpath() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.mkpath">(in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.mksalt">mksalt() (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.mkstemp">mkstemp() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.mktemp">mktemp() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.mktime">mktime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.mktime_tz">mktime_tz() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.mlsd">mlsd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap">mmap (class in mmap)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#module-mmap">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF">MMDF (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage">MMDFMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock">Mock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_add_spec">mock_add_spec() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls">mock_calls (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.mock_open">mock_open() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.mod">mod() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.FileIO.mode">mode (io.FileIO attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.mode">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.mode">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.mode">mode() (in module statistics)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.mode">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    modes
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-5">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.modf">modf() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.modified">modified() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Modify">Modify() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.modify">modify() (select.devpoll method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.modify">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.modify">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.modify">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-module"><strong>module</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">__main__</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-3">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-0">_locale</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-39">_thread</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">array</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-25">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">base64</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">bdb</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">binhex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">builtins</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">cmd</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">copy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pwd.html#index-0">crypt</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">dbm.gnu</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">dbm.ndbm</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-3">errno</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">extension</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-3">glob</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">imp</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">importing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">io</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-1">json</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#index-1">math</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">namespace</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-0">os</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-0">pickle</a>, <a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/shelve.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-15">pty</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-2">pwd</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#index-1">pyexpat</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-1">re</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">search path</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-18">[6]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-0">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">shelve</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">signal</a>, <a href="library/_thread.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-4">sitecustomize</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-1">socket</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-21">stat</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-6">string</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-14">struct</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">sys</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[5]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-1">urllib.request</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-5">usercustomize</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">uu</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.module">module (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.module">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-8">module spec</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-module-spec"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.module_for_loader">module_for_loader() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.module_from_spec">module_from_spec() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr">module_repr() (importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder">ModuleFinder (class in modulefinder)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#module-modulefinder">modulefinder (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.ModuleInfo">ModuleInfo (class in pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError">ModuleNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-0">modules (in module sys)</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.modules">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.modules">(modulefinder.ModuleFinder attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.modules_cleanup">modules_cleanup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.modules_setup">modules_setup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec">ModuleSpec (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType">ModuleType (class in types)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-1">(in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-66">modulo</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.monotonic">monotonic() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.monotonic_ns">monotonic_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.month">month (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.month">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.month">month() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.month_abbr">month_abbr (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.month_name">month_name (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.monthcalendar">monthcalendar() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.monthdatescalendar">monthdatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.monthdays2calendar">monthdays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.monthdayscalendar">monthdayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.monthrange">monthrange() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel">Morsel (class in http.cookies)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.most_common">most_common() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.mouseinterval">mouseinterval() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.mousemask">mousemask() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.move">move() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.move">(curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.move">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.move">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.move">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.move_file">move_file() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.file_util.move_file">(in module distutils.file_util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end">move_to_end() (collections.OrderedDict method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar">MozillaCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-mro"><strong>MRO</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.mro">mro() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.msg">msg (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.msg">(json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.msg">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.msg">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.msg">msg() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#index-0">msi</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#module-msilib">msilib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#module-msvcrt">msvcrt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.mt_interact">mt_interact() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile.mtime">mtime (gzip.GzipFile attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.mtime">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.mtime">mtime() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.mul">mul() (in module audioop)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.mul">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.MultiCall">MultiCall (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.MULTILINE">MULTILINE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.MultipartConversionError">MultipartConversionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-63">multiplication</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.multiply">multiply() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing">multiprocessing (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.connection">multiprocessing.connection (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.dummy">multiprocessing.dummy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.multiprocessing.Manager">multiprocessing.Manager() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.managers">multiprocessing.managers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.pool">multiprocessing.pool (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes">multiprocessing.sharedctypes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-mutable"><strong>mutable</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">object</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">sequence types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">mutable object</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    mutable sequence
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-9">loop over</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping">MutableMapping (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MutableMapping">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence">MutableSequence (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MutableSequence">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSet">MutableSet (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MutableSet">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.mvderwin">mvderwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.mvwin">mvwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.myrights">myrights() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-N.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-N.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5565da5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-N.html
@@ -0,0 +1,782 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-N.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; N</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.N_TOKENS">N_TOKENS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.n_waiting">n_waiting (threading.Barrier attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-4">name</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">binding</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-36">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">binding, global</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">function</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">mangling</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">rebinding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">unbinding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.name">name (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.name">(contextvars.ContextVar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.name">(doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.name">(email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.name">(hashlib.hash attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.name">(hmac.HMAC attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.name">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.name">(importlib.abc.FileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.name">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.name">(importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.name">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.name">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.name">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NAME">NAME (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.name">name (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.FileIO.name">(io.FileIO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.name">(multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.name">(os.DirEntry attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.name">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.name">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.name">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.name">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.name">(threading.Thread attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.name">(xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.name">(xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.name">name() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.name2codepoint">name2codepoint (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><strong>named tuple</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile">NamedTemporaryFile() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.NamedTuple">NamedTuple (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple">namedtuple() (in module collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#NameError">NameError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-4">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-9">NameError (built-in exception)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.namelist">namelist() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#encodings.idna.nameprep">nameprep() (in module encodings.idna)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.namer">namer (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.namereplace_errors">namereplace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    names
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">private</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-3">namespace</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-namespace"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">global</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">package</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.Namespace">Namespace (class in argparse)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.Namespace">(class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><strong>namespace package</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.namespace">namespace() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Namespace">Namespace() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS">NAMESPACE_DNS (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_OID">NAMESPACE_OID (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_URL">NAMESPACE_URL (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_X500">NAMESPACE_X500 (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NamespaceErr">NamespaceErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.namespaceURI">namespaceURI (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-2">NaN</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.nan">nan (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.nan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.nanj">nanj (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.NannyNag">NannyNag</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.napms">napms() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.nargs">nargs (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.nbytes">nbytes (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.ndiff">ndiff() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.ndim">ndim (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-ne">ne (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ne">ne() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input">needs_input (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input">(lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.neg">neg() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">negation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-nested-scope"><strong>nested scope</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.netmask">netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.netmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.NetmaskValueError">NetmaskValueError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc">netrc (class in netrc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/netrc.html#module-netrc">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.NetrcParseError">NetrcParseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.netscape">netscape (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.network">network (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.network">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-0">Network News Transfer Protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.network_address">network_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.network_address">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.new">new() (in module hashlib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.new">(in module hmac)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-new-style-class"><strong>new-style class</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_alignment">new_alignment() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap.new_child">new_child() (collections.ChainMap method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.new_class">new_class() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.new_compiler">new_compiler() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.new_event_loop">new_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.new_event_loop">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_font">new_font() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_margin">new_margin() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.new_module">new_module() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.new_panel">new_panel() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_spacing">new_spacing() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_styles">new_styles() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dep_util.newer">newer() (in module distutils.dep_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dep_util.newer_group">newer_group() (in module distutils.dep_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dep_util.newer_pairwise">newer_pairwise() (in module distutils.dep_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.newgroups">newgroups() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NEWLINE">NEWLINE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">NEWLINE token</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.newlines">newlines (io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.newnews">newnews() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.newpad">newpad() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.NewType">NewType() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.newwin">newwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-next">next (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-next">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#next">next() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.next">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.next">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.next">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.next_minus">next_minus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.next_minus">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.next_plus">next_plus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.next_plus">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.next_toward">next_toward() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.next_toward">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.nextfile">nextfile() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.nextkey">nextkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nextSibling">nextSibling (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.ngettext">ngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.ngettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.nice">nice() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#module-nis">nis (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NL">NL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.nl">nl() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.nl_langinfo">nl_langinfo() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.nlargest">nlargest() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.nlst">nlst() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    NNTP
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP">NNTP (class in nntplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.nntp_implementation">nntp_implementation (nntplib.NNTP attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP_SSL">NNTP_SSL (class in nntplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.nntp_version">nntp_version (nntplib.NNTP attribute)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPDataError">NNTPDataError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPError">NNTPError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib">nntplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPPermanentError">NNTPPermanentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPProtocolError">NNTPProtocolError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPReplyError">NNTPReplyError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPTemporaryError">NNTPTemporaryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-4">no_proxy</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.no_tracing">no_tracing() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.no_type_check">no_type_check() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.no_type_check_decorator">no_type_check_decorator() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.nocbreak">nocbreak() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr">NoDataAllowedErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.node">node() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.nodelay">nodelay() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nodeName">nodeName (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeTransformer">NodeTransformer (class in ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nodeType">nodeType (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nodeValue">nodeValue (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeVisitor">NodeVisitor (class in ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.noecho">noecho() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.NOEXPR">NOEXPR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr">NoModificationAllowedErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.nonblock">nonblock() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock">NonCallableMagicMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.NonCallableMock">NonCallableMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    None
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/none.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-3">None (Built-in object)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#None">(built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.nonl">nonl() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    nonlocal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-44">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-nonzero">nonzero (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.noop">noop() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.noop">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.NoOptionError">NoOptionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-NOP">NOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.noqiflush">noqiflush() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.noraw">noraw() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.NoReturn">NoReturn (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.normalize">normalize() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.normalize">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.normalize">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.normalize">(in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.normalize">(xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE">NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.normalvariate">normalvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.normcase">normcase() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.normpath">normpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.NoSectionError">NoSectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError">NoSuchMailboxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    not
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-80">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    not in
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.not_">not_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#NotADirectoryError">NotADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">notation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.notationDecl">notationDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler">NotationDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.notations">notations (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.NotConnected">NotConnected</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.NoteBook">NoteBook (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook">Notebook (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.NotEmptyError">NotEmptyError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NOTEQUAL">NOTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NotFoundErr">NotFoundErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.notify">notify() (asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.notify">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.notify_all">notify_all() (asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.notify_all">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.notimeout">notimeout() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    NotImplemented
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-7">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#NotImplemented">NotImplemented (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#NotImplementedError">NotImplementedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler">NotStandaloneHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NotSupportedErr">NotSupportedErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.NotSupportedError">NotSupportedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.noutrefresh">noutrefresh() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.now">now() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.NSIG">NSIG (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.nsmallest">nsmallest() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NT_OFFSET">NT_OFFSET (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler">NTEventLogHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.ntohl">ntohl() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.ntohs">ntohs() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.ntransfercmd">ntransfercmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    null
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">operation</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.nullcontext">nullcontext() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.NullFormatter">NullFormatter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler">NullHandler (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.NullImporter">NullImporter (class in imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations">NullTranslations (class in gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.NullWriter">NullWriter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.num_addresses">num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.num_addresses">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">number</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">complex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">floating point</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Number">Number (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NUMBER">NUMBER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.number_class">number_class() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.number_class">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#module-numbers">numbers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.numerator">numerator (fractions.Fraction attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational.numerator">(numbers.Rational attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    numeric
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">conversions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-9">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">types, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.numeric">numeric() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-9">Numerical Python</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.numinput">numinput() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-numliterals">numliterals (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-O.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-O.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-O.html
@@ -0,0 +1,867 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-O.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; O</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_APPEND">O_APPEND (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_ASYNC">O_ASYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_BINARY">O_BINARY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_CLOEXEC">O_CLOEXEC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_CREAT">O_CREAT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_DIRECT">O_DIRECT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_DIRECTORY">O_DIRECTORY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_DSYNC">O_DSYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_EXCL">O_EXCL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_EXLOCK">O_EXLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NDELAY">O_NDELAY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOATIME">O_NOATIME (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOCTTY">O_NOCTTY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOFOLLOW">O_NOFOLLOW (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOINHERIT">O_NOINHERIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NONBLOCK">O_NONBLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_PATH">O_PATH (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RANDOM">O_RANDOM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RDONLY">O_RDONLY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RDWR">O_RDWR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RSYNC">O_RSYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SEQUENTIAL">O_SEQUENTIAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SHLOCK">O_SHLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SHORT_LIVED">O_SHORT_LIVED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SYNC">O_SYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TEMPORARY">O_TEMPORARY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TEXT">O_TEXT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TMPFILE">O_TMPFILE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TRUNC">O_TRUNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_WRONLY">O_WRONLY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.obj">obj (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-object"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">Boolean</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#index-0">Capsule</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-8">Ellipsis</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/none.html#index-0">None</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-7">NotImplemented</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-33">asynchronous-generator</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">built-in method</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#index-0">bytearray</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-40">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#index-0">bytes</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-39">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">callable</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">class instance</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/code.html#index-0">code</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-54">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-55">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">complex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#index-0">complex number</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">deallocation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-0">dictionary</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-0">file</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">finalization</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/float.html#index-0">floating point</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-59">frame</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">frozenset</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/function.html#index-0">function</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-57">generator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">immutable</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">immutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">instance</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-0">instancemethod</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">integer</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-27">io.StringIO</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-0">list</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-23">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">long integer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-2">mapping</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memoryview.html#index-0">memoryview</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-1">method</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-53">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-0">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-0">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">mutable</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">mutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-0">numeric</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-9">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-25">range</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-1">sequence</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">set</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-27">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">set type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-94">slice</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-0">socket</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">string</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-5">traceback</a>, <a href="library/traceback.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-28">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#index-0">tuple</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-87">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-6">type</a>, <a href="c-api/type.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">user-defined function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">user-defined method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#object">object (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.object">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__">object.__slots__ (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.object_filenames">object_filenames() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    objects
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">comparing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">flattening</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">marshalling</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">persistent</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">pickling</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">serializing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obufcount">obufcount() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obuffree">obuffree() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#oct">oct() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    octal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">octal literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.octdigits">octdigits (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.offset">offset (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.offset">(xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.OK">OK (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.old_value">old_value (contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.OleDLL">OleDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onclick">onclick() (in module turtle)</a>, <a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onclick">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ondrag">ondrag() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.onecmd">onecmd() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onkey">onkey() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onkeypress">onkeypress() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onkeyrelease">onkeyrelease() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onrelease">onrelease() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onscreenclick">onscreenclick() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ontimer">ontimer() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.OP">OP (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_ALL">OP_ALL (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE">OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT">OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION">OP_NO_COMPRESSION (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION">OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2">OP_NO_SSLv2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3">OP_NO_SSLv3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TICKET">OP_NO_TICKET (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1">OP_NO_TLSv1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1">OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2">OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3">OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE">OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE">OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    open
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">built-in function</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#open">open() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.open">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.open">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.open">(in module aifc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.open">(in module bz2)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.open">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.open">(in module dbm)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.open">(in module dbm.dumb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.open">(in module dbm.gnu)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.open">(in module dbm.ndbm)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.open">(in module gzip)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.open">(in module io)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.open">(in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.open">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.open">(in module ossaudiodev)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.open">(in module shelve)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.open">(in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.open">(in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.open">(in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.open">(in module wave)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.open">(in module webbrowser)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.open">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.open">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.open">(tarfile.TarFile class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.open">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open">(urllib.request.OpenerDirector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.open">(urllib.request.URLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.controller.open">(webbrowser.controller method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.open">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.open_binary">open_binary() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection">open_connection() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.open_new">open_new() (in module webbrowser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.controller.open_new">(webbrowser.controller method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.open_new_tab">open_new_tab() (in module webbrowser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.controller.open_new_tab">(webbrowser.controller method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.open_osfhandle">open_osfhandle() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.open_resource">open_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.open_text">open_text() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_unix_connection">open_unix_connection() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown">open_unknown() (urllib.request.URLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.open_urlresource">open_urlresource() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.OpenDatabase">OpenDatabase() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector">OpenerDirector (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.openfp">openfp() (in module sunau)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.openfp">(in module wave)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.OpenKey">OpenKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.OpenKeyEx">OpenKeyEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.openlog">openlog() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.openmixer">openmixer() (in module ossaudiodev)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.openpty">openpty() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pty.html#pty.openpty">(in module pty)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    OpenSSL
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-2">(use in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-0">(use in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION">OPENSSL_VERSION (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO">OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER">OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.OpenView">OpenView() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    operation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">Boolean</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-62">binary arithmetic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-71">binary bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">concatenation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">null</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">power</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">repetition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">shifting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">slice</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">subscript</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">unary arithmetic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">unary bitwise</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.OperationalError">OperationalError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    operations
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">Boolean</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">masking</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">shifting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    operations on
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">dictionary type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">integer types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">list type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">mapping types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">numeric types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">sequence types</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    operator
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">!=</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">% (percent)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-66">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">&amp; (ampersand)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">* (asterisk)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-63">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">**</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">+ (plus)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-59">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-67">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">- (minus)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-68">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">/ (slash)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">//</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&lt; (less)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">&lt;&lt;</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&lt;=</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">==</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&gt; (greater)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&gt;=</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">&gt;&gt;</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-64">@ (at)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">^ (caret)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">and</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-81">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">comparison</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">in</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">is</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">is not</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">not</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-80">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">not in</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">or</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-82">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-67">overloading</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-92">precedence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">ternary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">| (vertical bar)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">~ (tilde)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-60">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-operator">operator (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#module-operator">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-30">operators</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.opmap">opmap (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.opname">opname (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags">optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#pickletools.optimize">optimize() (in module pickletools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Optional">Optional (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionGroup">OptionGroup (class in optparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.OptionMenu">OptionMenu (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser">OptionParser (class in optparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.Options">Options (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.options">options (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.options">(ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.options">options() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform">optionxform() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>, <a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#module-optparse">optparse (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    or
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">exclusive</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">inclusive</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-82">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.or_">or_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    ord
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#ord">ord() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    order
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-91">evaluation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes">ordered_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict">OrderedDict (class in collections)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.OrderedDict">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.origin">origin (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host">origin_req_host (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server">origin_server (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    os
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#module-os">os (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#module-os.path">os.path (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.os_environ">os_environ (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError">OSError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#module-ossaudiodev">ossaudiodev (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError">OSSAudioError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    outfile
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-outfile">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">output</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">standard</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.output">output (subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.output">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.output">(unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.output">output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.output">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.output_charset">output_charset (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.output_charset">output_charset() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.output_codec">output_codec (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.OutputChecker.output_difference">output_difference() (doctest.OutputChecker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.OutputChecker">OutputChecker (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.OutputString">OutputString() (http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.over">over() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Overflow">Overflow (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OverflowError">OverflowError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-1">(built-in exception)</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-5">[4]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-6">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.overlaps">overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.overlaps">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.overlay">overlay() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.overload">overload() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    overloading
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-67">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.overwrite">overwrite() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.owner">owner() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-P.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-P.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a43ad15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-P.html
@@ -0,0 +1,4592 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-P.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; P</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-p">p (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_ALL">P_ALL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_DETACH">P_DETACH (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_NOWAIT">P_NOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_NOWAITO">P_NOWAITO (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_OVERLAY">P_OVERLAY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_PGID">P_PGID (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_PID">P_PID (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_WAIT">P_WAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.pack">pack() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.pack">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.pack">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_array">pack_array() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_bytes">pack_bytes() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_double">pack_double() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_farray">pack_farray() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_float">pack_float() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fopaque">pack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring">pack_fstring() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.pack_into">pack_into() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.pack_into">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_list">pack_list() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_opaque">pack_opaque() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_string">pack_string() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">package</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-package"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">namespace</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">portion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-4">regular</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.Package">Package (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    package variable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-0">__all__</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.packed">packed (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.packed">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer">Packer (class in xdrlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    packing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">binary data</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-1">packing (widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-1">PAGER</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.pair_content">pair_content() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.pair_number">pair_number() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.PanedWindow">PanedWindow (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-parameter"><strong>parameter</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-46">call semantics</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-1">difference from argument</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-18">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">value, default</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter">Parameter (class in inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader">ParameterizedMIMEHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.parameters">parameters (inspect.Signature attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader.params">params (email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pardir">pardir (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-paren">paren (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent">parent (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.parent">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.parent">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent">(urllib.request.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.parent">parent() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-8">parenthesized form</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.parentNode">parentNode (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap.parents">parents (collections.ChainMap attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.paretovariate">paretovariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser.parse">parse() (doctest.DocTestParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser.parse">(email.parser.BytesParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser.parse">(email.parser.Parser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.parse">(in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse">(in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.parse">(in module xml.dom.minidom)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.parse">(in module xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.parse">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.parse">(in module xml.sax)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.parse">(string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse">(urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.parse">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.Parse">Parse() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse">parse() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.parse_and_bind">parse_and_bind() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args">parse_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES">PARSE_COLNAMES (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.parse_config_h">parse_config_h() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES">PARSE_DECLTYPES (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_header">parse_header() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args">parse_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args">parse_known_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args">parse_known_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_multipart">parse_multipart() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_qs">parse_qs() (in module cgi)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qs">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_qsl">parse_qsl() (in module cgi)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qsl">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parseaddr">parseaddr() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser.parsebytes">parsebytes() (email.parser.BytesParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parsedate">parsedate() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime">parsedate_to_datetime() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parsedate_tz">parsedate_tz() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError">ParseError (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ParseFile">ParseFile() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.ParseFlags">ParseFlags() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-0">parser</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser">Parser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#module-parser">parser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate">ParserCreate() (in module xml.parsers.expat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ParserError">ParserError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.ParseResult">ParseResult (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes">ParseResultBytes (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser.parsestr">parsestr() (email.parser.Parser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.parseString">parseString() (in module xml.dom.minidom)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.parseString">(in module xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.parseString">(in module xml.sax)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    parsing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#index-0">Python source code</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">URL</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ParsingError">ParsingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial">partial (asyncio.IncompleteReadError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.partial">partial() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial">(in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partialmethod">partialmethod (class in functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.parties">parties (threading.Barrier attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.partition">partition() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.partition">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.partition">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    pass
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.pass_">pass_() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Paste</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.patch">patch() (in module test.support)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch">(in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.dict">patch.dict() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.multiple">patch.multiple() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.object">patch.object() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.stopall">patch.stopall() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-22">PATH</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-5">[5]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-24">[6]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-25">[7]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-26">[8]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-29">[9]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-30">[10]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-31">[11]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-41">[12]</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-3">[13]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-0">[14]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-2">[15]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-24">[16]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-1">[18]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-10">[19]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-11">[20]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-13">[21]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-14">[22]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-15">[23]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-16">[24]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-2">[25]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-3">[26]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-5">[27]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-6">[28]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-8">[29]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-9">[30]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-55">[31]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-58">[32]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-59">[33]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-0">[34]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-1">[35]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    path
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">configuration file</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">hooks</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module search</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-18">[6]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-0">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-0">operations</a>, <a href="library/pathlib.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path">Path (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.path">path (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.path">(http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.path">(importlib.abc.FileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.path">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.path">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.path">(os.DirEntry attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-16">path based finder</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-1">Path browser</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-entry"><strong>path entry</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><strong>path entry finder</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-entry-hook"><strong>path entry hook</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">path hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.path">path() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><strong>path-like object</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path_hook">path_hook() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks">path_hooks (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache">path_importer_cache (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime">path_mtime() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok">path_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats">path_stats() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path_stats">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pathconf">pathconf() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pathconf_names">pathconf_names (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder">PathEntryFinder (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-4">PATHEXT</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder">PathFinder (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib">pathlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PathLike">PathLike (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.pathname2url">pathname2url() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pathsep">pathsep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Pattern">Pattern (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.pattern">pattern (re.error attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.pattern">(re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.pause">pause() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading">pause_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing">pause_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.PAX_FORMAT">PAX_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.pax_headers">pax_headers (tarfile.TarFile attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.pax_headers">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac">pbkdf2_hmac() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pd">pd() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">Pdb (class in pdb)</a>, <a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#module-pdb">pdb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File.peek">peek() (bz2.BZ2File method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile.peek">(gzip.GzipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader.peek">(io.BufferedReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMAFile.peek">(lzma.LZMAFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.peek">(weakref.finalize method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.peer">peer (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert">PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pen">pen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pencolor">pencolor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.pending">pending (ssl.MemoryBIO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.pending">pending() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning">PendingDeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pendown">pendown() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pensize">pensize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.penup">penup() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-pep"><strong>PEP</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PERCENT">PERCENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PERCENTEQUAL">PERCENTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.perf_counter">perf_counter() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.perf_counter_ns">perf_counter_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#index-0">Performance</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#PermissionError">PermissionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.permutations">permutations() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.Persist">Persist() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">persistence</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    persistent
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-5">persistent_id (pickle protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.persistent_id">persistent_id() (pickle.Pickler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-5">persistent_load (pickle protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load">persistent_load() (pickle.Unpickler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.PF_CAN">PF_CAN (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.PF_PACKET">PF_PACKET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.PF_RDS">PF_RDS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.pformat">pformat() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.pformat">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.PGO">PGO (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.phase">phase() (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-4">Philbrick, Geoff</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">physical line</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.pi">pi (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.pi">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    pickle
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-0">module</a>, <a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/shelve.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#module-pickle">pickle (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#copyreg.pickle">pickle() (in module copyreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.PickleError">PickleError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler">Pickler (class in pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#module-pickletools">pickletools (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pickletools command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-a">-a, --annotate</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-l">-l, --indentlevel=&lt;num&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-m">-m, --memo</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-o">-o, --output=&lt;file&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-p">-p, --preamble=&lt;preamble&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    pickling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.PicklingError">PicklingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.pid">pid (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.pid">(multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.pid">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE">PIPE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Pipe">Pipe() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pipe">pipe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pipe2">pipe2() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.PIPE_BUF">PIPE_BUF (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost">pipe_connection_lost() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received">pipe_data_received() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE">PIPE_MAX_SIZE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pipes.html#module-pipes">pipes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PKG_DIRECTORY">PKG_DIRECTORY (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#module-pkgutil">pkgutil (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.placeholder">placeholder (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-2">PLAT</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-26">platform (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.platform">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#module-platform">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.platform">platform() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.PlaySound">PlaySound() (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    plist
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib">plistlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.plock">plock() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-59">plus</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PLUS">PLUS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.plus">plus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PLUSEQUAL">PLUSEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.pm">pm() (in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.POINTER">POINTER() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.pointer">pointer() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.polar">polar() (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy">Policy (class in email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll">poll() (in module select)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.poll">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.poll">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.poll">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.poll">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.poll">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.PollSelector">PollSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool">Pool (class in multiprocessing.pool)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.pop">pop() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.pop">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.pop">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.pop">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.pop">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    POP3
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3">POP3 (class in poplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3_SSL">POP3_SSL (class in poplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_alignment">pop_alignment() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.pop_all">pop_all() (contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_BLOCK">POP_BLOCK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_EXCEPT">POP_EXCEPT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_font">pop_font() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE">POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE">POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_margin">pop_margin() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.pop_source">pop_source() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_style">pop_style() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_TOP">POP_TOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen">Popen (class in subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.popen">popen() (in module os)</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.popen">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict.popitem">popitem() (collections.OrderedDict method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.popitem">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.popitem">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.popleft">popleft() (collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#module-poplib">poplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.PopupMenu">PopupMenu (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.port">port (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.port_specified">port_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-portion"><strong>portion</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">package</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.pos">pos (json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.pos">(re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.pos">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.pos">pos() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pos">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.position">position (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.position">position() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-positional-argument"><strong>positional argument</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    POSIX
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">I/O control</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-1">threads</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/posix.html#module-posix">posix (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED">POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE">POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL">POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM">POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL">POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED">POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.posix_fadvise">posix_fadvise() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.posix_fallocate">posix_fallocate() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#index-0">POSIXLY_CORRECT</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PosixPath">PosixPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.post">post() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.post">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth">post_handshake_auth (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.post_mortem">post_mortem() (in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup">post_setup() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.postcmd">postcmd() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.postloop">postloop() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pow
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-1">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/number.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-97">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#pow">pow() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.pow">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.pow">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    power
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.power">power() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-pp">pp (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#module-pprint">pprint (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.pprint">pprint() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.pprint">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.prcal">prcal() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pread">pread() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.preadv">preadv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.preamble">preamble (email.message.EmailMessage attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.preamble">(email.message.Message attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    precedence
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-92">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.precmd">precmd() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-1">prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX">PREFIX (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.prefix">prefix (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.prefix">(xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.prefix">(xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.prefix">(zipimport.zipimporter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.PREFIXES">PREFIXES (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.prefixlen">prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.preloop">preloop() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.prepare">prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.prepare">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.prepare_class">prepare_class() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source">prepare_input_source() (in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.prepend">prepend() (pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.preprocess">preprocess() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter">PrettyPrinter (class in pprint)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.prev">prev() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.previousSibling">previousSibling (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-36">primary</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    print
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-print">print (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#print">print() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-72">__str__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.print_callees">print_callees() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.print_callers">print_callers() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_directory">print_directory() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_environ">print_environ() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_environ_usage">print_environ_usage() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_exc">print_exc() (in module traceback)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.print_exc">(timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_exception">print_exception() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-PRINT_EXPR">PRINT_EXPR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_form">print_form() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.print_help">print_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_last">print_last() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.print_stack">print_stack() (asyncio.Task method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_stack">(in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.print_stats">print_stats() (profile.Profile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.print_stats">(pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_tb">print_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.print_usage">print_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.print_usage">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.print_version">print_version() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.printable">printable (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.printdir">printdir() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PRIO_PGRP">PRIO_PGRP (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PRIO_PROCESS">PRIO_PROCESS (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PRIO_USER">PRIO_USER (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.PriorityQueue">PriorityQueue (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.PriorityQueue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    private
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">names</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.prlimit">prlimit() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth">prmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.prmonth">(in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop">ProactorEventLoop (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    procedure
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">call</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    process
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-1">group</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-5">id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-6">id of parent</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-27">killing</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-10">scheduling priority</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-27">signalling</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process">Process (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LoggerAdapter.process">process() (logging.LoggerAdapter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.process_exited">process_exited() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message">process_message() (smtpd.SMTPServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.process_request">process_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.process_time">process_time() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.process_time_ns">process_time_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.process_tokens">process_tokens() (in module tabnanny)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.ProcessError">ProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">processes, light-weight</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction">ProcessingInstruction() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.processingInstruction">processingInstruction() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler">ProcessingInstructionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ProcessLookupError">ProcessLookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-13">processor time</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.processor">processor() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor">ProcessPoolExecutor (class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.product">product() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile">Profile (class in profile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#module-profile">profile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-24">profile function</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="library/threading.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-24">profiler</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#index-0">profiling, deterministic</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-1">program</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.ProgrammingError">ProgrammingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar">Progressbar (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.prompt">prompt (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd">prompt_user_passwd() (urllib.request.FancyURLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-23">prompts, interpreter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.propagate">propagate (logging.Logger attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#property">property (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#index-0">property list</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler">property_declaration_handler (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node">property_dom_node (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler">property_lexical_handler (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string">property_xml_string (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.PropertyMock">PropertyMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_c">prot_c() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_p">prot_p() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.proto">proto (socket.socket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    protocol
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">CGI</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-0">FTP</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">HTTP</a>, <a href="library/http.client.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[4]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-12">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">IMAP4</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">IMAP4_SSL</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">IMAP4_stream</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-0">NNTP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-0">POP3</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-0">SMTP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#index-0">Telnet</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-52">context management</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-4">copy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iterator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol">Protocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.protocol">protocol (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2">PROTOCOL_SSLv2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23">PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3">PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS">PROTOCOL_TLS (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER">PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1">PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.protocol_version">protocol_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION">PROTOCOL_VERSION (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError">ProtocolError (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><strong>provisional API</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><strong>provisional package</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.proxy">proxy() (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.proxyauth">proxyauth() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler">ProxyBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler">ProxyDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyHandler">ProxyHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ProxyType">ProxyType (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ProxyTypes">ProxyTypes (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.pryear">pryear() (calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.ps1">ps1 (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.ps2">ps2 (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#module-pstats">pstats (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.pstdev">pstdev() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.pthread_getcpuclockid">pthread_getcpuclockid() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.pthread_kill">pthread_kill() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.pthread_sigmask">pthread_sigmask() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-1">pthreads</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pty
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-15">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pty.html#module-pty">pty (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pu">pu() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.publicId">publicId (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom">PullDom (class in xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.punctuation">punctuation (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars">punctuation_chars (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath">PurePath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.anchor">PurePath.anchor (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.drive">PurePath.drive (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.name">PurePath.name (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.parent">PurePath.parent (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.parents">PurePath.parents (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.parts">PurePath.parts (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.root">PurePath.root (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.stem">PurePath.stem (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.suffix">PurePath.suffix (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.suffixes">PurePath.suffixes (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePosixPath">PurePosixPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.PureProxy">PureProxy (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PureWindowsPath">PureWindowsPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.purge">purge() (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH">Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH">Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.push">push() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.push">(code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.push">(contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_alignment">push_alignment() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback">push_async_callback() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_exit">push_async_exit() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_font">push_font() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_margin">push_margin() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.push_source">push_source() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_style">push_style() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.push_token">push_token() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.push_with_producer">push_with_producer() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.pushbutton">pushbutton() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.put">put() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.put">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.put">(multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.put">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.put">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.put_nowait">put_nowait() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.put_nowait">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.put_nowait">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.put_nowait">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.putch">putch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.putenv">putenv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.putheader">putheader() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.putp">putp() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.putrequest">putrequest() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.putwch">putwch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.putwin">putwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.pvariance">pvariance() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pwd
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-2">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#module-pwd">pwd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.pwd">pwd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pwrite">pwrite() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pwritev">pwritev() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_ABS">Py_ABS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_AddPendingCall">Py_AddPendingCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-44">Py_AddPendingCall()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_AtExit">Py_AtExit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-36">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS">(C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_BLOCK_THREADS">Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer">Py_buffer (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.buf">Py_buffer.buf (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.format">Py_buffer.format (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.internal">Py_buffer.internal (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.itemsize">Py_buffer.itemsize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.len">Py_buffer.len (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.ndim">Py_buffer.ndim (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.obj">Py_buffer.obj (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.readonly">Py_buffer.readonly (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.shape">Py_buffer.shape (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.strides">Py_buffer.strides (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.suboffsets">Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue">Py_BuildValue (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_BytesWarningFlag">Py_BytesWarningFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_CHARMASK">Py_CHARMASK (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR">Py_CLEAR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile">py_compile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PY_COMPILED">PY_COMPILED (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileString">Py_CompileString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-0">Py_CompileString()</a>, <a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileStringExFlags">Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileStringFlags">Py_CompileStringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileStringObject">Py_CompileStringObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.Py_complex">Py_complex (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_DebugFlag">Py_DebugFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale">Py_DecodeLocale (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF">Py_DECREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-7">Py_DECREF()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag">Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.Py_Ellipsis">Py_Ellipsis (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale">Py_EncodeLocale (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-36">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS">(C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_EndInterpreter">Py_EndInterpreter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_EnterRecursiveCall">Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_eval_input">Py_eval_input (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_Exit">Py_Exit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_False">Py_False (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_FatalError">Py_FatalError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-30">Py_FatalError()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_FdIsInteractive">Py_FdIsInteractive (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_file_input">Py_file_input (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_Finalize">Py_Finalize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx">Py_FinalizeEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">Py_FinalizeEx()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-41">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-43">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/sys.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/sys.html#index-2">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PY_FROZEN">PY_FROZEN (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_FrozenFlag">Py_FrozenFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetBuildInfo">Py_GetBuildInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetCompiler">Py_GetCompiler (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetCopyright">Py_GetCopyright (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_GETENV">Py_GETENV (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetExecPrefix">Py_GetExecPrefix (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">Py_GetExecPrefix()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPath">Py_GetPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-20">Py_GetPath()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPlatform">Py_GetPlatform (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPrefix">Py_GetPrefix (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">Py_GetPrefix()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetProgramFullPath">Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">Py_GetProgramFullPath()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetProgramName">Py_GetProgramName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPythonHome">Py_GetPythonHome (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetVersion">Py_GetVersion (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_HashRandomizationFlag">Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag">Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF">Py_INCREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-7">Py_INCREF()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize">Py_Initialize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">Py_Initialize()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-41">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_InitializeEx">Py_InitializeEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_InspectFlag">Py_InspectFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_InteractiveFlag">Py_InteractiveFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_IsInitialized">Py_IsInitialized (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-29">Py_IsInitialized()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_IsolatedFlag">Py_IsolatedFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_LeaveRecursiveCall">Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag">Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag">Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_Main">Py_Main (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_MAX">Py_MAX (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_MEMBER_SIZE">Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_MIN">Py_MIN (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.Py_mod_create">Py_mod_create (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.Py_mod_exec">Py_mod_exec (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_NewInterpreter">Py_NewInterpreter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/none.html#c.Py_None">Py_None (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_NoSiteFlag">Py_NoSiteFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.Py_NotImplemented">Py_NotImplemented (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_NoUserSiteDirectory">Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.py_object">py_object (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_OptimizeFlag">Py_OptimizeFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-2">Py_PRINT_RAW</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-17">PY_PYTHON</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_QuietFlag">Py_QuietFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.Py_REFCNT">Py_REFCNT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_ReprEnter">Py_ReprEnter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_ReprLeave">Py_ReprLeave (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_RETURN_FALSE">Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/none.html#c.Py_RETURN_NONE">Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED">Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE">Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_RETURN_TRUE">Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetPath">Py_SetPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">Py_SetPath()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetProgramName">Py_SetProgramName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">Py_SetProgramName()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetPythonHome">Py_SetPythonHome (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding">Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_single_input">Py_single_input (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.Py_SIZE">Py_SIZE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PY_SOURCE">PY_SOURCE (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-3">PY_SSIZE_T_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_STRINGIFY">Py_STRINGIFY (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE">Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_READY">Py_TPFLAGS_READY (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_READYING">Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_tracefunc">Py_tracefunc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_True">Py_True (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT">Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.Py_TYPE">Py_TYPE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS1">Py_UCS1 (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS2">Py_UCS2 (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4 (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS">Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag">Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE">Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE">Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE">Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM">Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA">Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL">Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT">Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK">Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER">Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC">Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE">Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE">Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE">Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER">Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES">Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL">Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT">Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER">Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC">Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE">Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER">Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_UNREACHABLE">Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_UNUSED">Py_UNUSED (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.Py_VaBuildValue">Py_VaBuildValue (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_VerboseFlag">Py_VerboseFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT">Py_VISIT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF">Py_XDECREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-19">Py_XDECREF()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XINCREF">Py_XINCREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyAnySet_Check">PyAnySet_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyAnySet_CheckExact">PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_Parse">PyArg_Parse (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple">PyArg_ParseTuple (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-2">PyArg_ParseTuple()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-3">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_UnpackTuple">PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments">PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_VaParse">PyArg_VaParse (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords">PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyASCIIObject">PyASCIIObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods">PyAsyncMethods (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter">PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_anext">PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_await">PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.PyBool_Check">PyBool_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.PyBool_FromLong">PyBool_FromLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS">PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS">PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_CONTIG">PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_CONTIG_RO">PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS">PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_FORMAT">PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_FULL">PyBUF_FULL (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_FULL_RO">PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_INDIRECT">PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_ND">PyBUF_ND (C macro)</a>, <a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_ND">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_RECORDS">PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_RECORDS_RO">PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_SIMPLE">PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_STRIDED">PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_STRIDED_RO">PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_STRIDES">PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE">PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides">PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_FillInfo">PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_IsContiguous">PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release">PyBuffer_Release (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat">PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_ToContiguous">PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-1">PyBufferProcs</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyBufferProcs">(C type)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer">PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer">PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_AS_STRING">PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_AsString">PyByteArray_AsString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Check">PyByteArray_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_CheckExact">PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Concat">PyByteArray_Concat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_FromObject">PyByteArray_FromObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize">PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_GET_SIZE">PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Resize">PyByteArray_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Size">PyByteArray_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Type">PyByteArray_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArrayObject">PyByteArrayObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_AS_STRING">PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_AsString">PyBytes_AsString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_AsStringAndSize">PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Check">PyBytes_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_CheckExact">PyBytes_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Concat">PyBytes_Concat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_ConcatAndDel">PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromFormat">PyBytes_FromFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromFormatV">PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromObject">PyBytes_FromObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromString">PyBytes_FromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromStringAndSize">PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_GET_SIZE">PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Size">PyBytes_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Type">PyBytes_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytesObject">PyBytesObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyCallable_Check">PyCallable_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PyCallIter_Check">PyCallIter_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PyCallIter_New">PyCallIter_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PyCallIter_Type">PyCallIter_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule">PyCapsule (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_CheckExact">PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_Destructor">PyCapsule_Destructor (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetContext">PyCapsule_GetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetDestructor">PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetName">PyCapsule_GetName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetPointer">PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_Import">PyCapsule_Import (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_IsValid">PyCapsule_IsValid (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_New">PyCapsule_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetContext">PyCapsule_SetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetDestructor">PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetName">PyCapsule_SetName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetPointer">PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Check">PyCell_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_GET">PyCell_GET (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Get">PyCell_Get (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_New">PyCell_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_SET">PyCell_SET (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Set">PyCell_Set (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Type">PyCell_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCellObject">PyCellObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyCFunction">PyCFunction (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyCFunctionWithKeywords">PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode">PycInvalidationMode (class in py_compile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#module-pyclbr">pyclbr (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_Check">PyCode_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_GetNumFree">PyCode_GetNumFree (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_New">PyCode_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_NewEmpty">PyCode_NewEmpty (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_Type">PyCode_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors">PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Decode">PyCodec_Decode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Decoder">PyCodec_Decoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Encode">PyCodec_Encode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Encoder">PyCodec_Encoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_IgnoreErrors">PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder">PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder">PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_KnownEncoding">PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_LookupError">PyCodec_LookupError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors">PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Register">PyCodec_Register (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_RegisterError">PyCodec_RegisterError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_ReplaceErrors">PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_StreamReader">PyCodec_StreamReader (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_StreamWriter">PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_StrictErrors">PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors">PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCodeObject">PyCodeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyCompactUnicodeObject">PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PyCompileError">PyCompileError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_AsCComplex">PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_Check">PyComplex_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_CheckExact">PyComplex_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_FromCComplex">PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_FromDoubles">PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_ImagAsDouble">PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_RealAsDouble">PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_Type">PyComplex_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplexObject">PyComplexObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext">PyContext (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_CheckExact">PyContext_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_ClearFreeList">PyContext_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Copy">PyContext_Copy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_CopyCurrent">PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Enter">PyContext_Enter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Exit">PyContext_Exit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_New">PyContext_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Type">PyContext_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextToken">PyContextToken (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextToken_CheckExact">PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextToken_Type">PyContextToken_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar">PyContextVar (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_CheckExact">PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Get">PyContextVar_Get (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_New">PyContextVar_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Reset">PyContextVar_Reset (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Set">PyContextVar_Set (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Type">PyContextVar_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoro_CheckExact">PyCoro_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoro_New">PyCoro_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoro_Type">PyCoro_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoroObject">PyCoroObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_Check">PyDate_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_CheckExact">PyDate_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_FromDate">PyDate_FromDate (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_FromTimestamp">PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_Check">PyDateTime_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_CheckExact">PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime">PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold">PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_FromTimestamp">PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_GET_DAY">PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_GET_MONTH">PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_GET_YEAR">PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC">PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDelta_Check">PyDelta_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDelta_CheckExact">PyDelta_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDelta_FromDSU">PyDelta_FromDSU (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_IsData">PyDescr_IsData (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewClassMethod">PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewGetSet">PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewMember">PyDescr_NewMember (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewMethod">PyDescr_NewMethod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewWrapper">PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Check">PyDict_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_CheckExact">PyDict_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Clear">PyDict_Clear (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_ClearFreeList">PyDict_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Contains">PyDict_Contains (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Copy">PyDict_Copy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_DelItem">PyDict_DelItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_DelItemString">PyDict_DelItemString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItem">PyDict_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItemString">PyDict_GetItemString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItemWithError">PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Items">PyDict_Items (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Keys">PyDict_Keys (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Merge">PyDict_Merge (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_MergeFromSeq2">PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_New">PyDict_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Next">PyDict_Next (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_SetDefault">PyDict_SetDefault (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_SetItem">PyDict_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_SetItemString">PyDict_SetItemString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Size">PyDict_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Type">PyDict_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Update">PyDict_Update (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Values">PyDict_Values (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDictObject">PyDictObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDictProxy_New">PyDictProxy_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PyDLL">PyDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc">pydoc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_BadArgument">PyErr_BadArgument (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_BadInternalCall">PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_CheckSignals">PyErr_CheckSignals (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear">PyErr_Clear (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-14">PyErr_Clear()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_ExceptionMatches">PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-19">PyErr_ExceptionMatches()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Fetch">PyErr_Fetch (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-1">PyErr_Fetch()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Format">PyErr_Format (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_FormatV">PyErr_FormatV (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_GetExcInfo">PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches">PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewException">PyErr_NewException (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc">PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NoMemory">PyErr_NoMemory (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NormalizeException">PyErr_NormalizeException (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred">PyErr_Occurred (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-13">PyErr_Occurred()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Print">PyErr_Print (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_PrintEx">PyErr_PrintEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_ResourceWarning">PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Restore">PyErr_Restore (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-1">PyErr_Restore()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcInfo">PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrno">PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetImportError">PyErr_SetImportError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass">PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetInterrupt">PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetNone">PyErr_SetNone (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetObject">PyErr_SetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetString">PyErr_SetString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-14">PyErr_SetString()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocation">PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx">PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject">PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnEx">PyErr_WarnEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnExplicit">PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnExplicitObject">PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnFormat">PyErr_WarnFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WriteUnraisable">PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_AcquireLock">PyEval_AcquireLock (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_AcquireThread">PyEval_AcquireThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">PyEval_AcquireThread()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalCode">PyEval_EvalCode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalCodeEx">PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalFrame">PyEval_EvalFrame (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalFrameEx">PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetBuiltins">PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetFrame">PyEval_GetFrame (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetFuncDesc">PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetFuncName">PyEval_GetFuncName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetGlobals">PyEval_GetGlobals (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetLocals">PyEval_GetLocals (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_InitThreads">PyEval_InitThreads (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">PyEval_InitThreads()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags">PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReInitThreads">PyEval_ReInitThreads (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReleaseLock">PyEval_ReleaseLock (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReleaseThread">PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">PyEval_ReleaseThread()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_RestoreThread">PyEval_RestoreThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-37">PyEval_RestoreThread()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SaveThread">PyEval_SaveThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-37">PyEval_SaveThread()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SetProfile">PyEval_SetProfile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SetTrace">PyEval_SetTrace (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ThreadsInitialized">PyEval_ThreadsInitialized (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ArithmeticError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_AssertionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_AttributeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BaseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BlockingIOError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BrokenPipeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BufferError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_BytesWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ChildProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionResetError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_DeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-5">PyExc_EnvironmentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_EOFError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_Exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_FileExistsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_FileNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_FloatingPointError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_FutureWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_GeneratorExit</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ImportError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_ImportWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_IndentationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_IndexError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_InterruptedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-5">PyExc_IOError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_IsADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_KeyError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_LookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_MemoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_NameError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_NotADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_NotImplementedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_OSError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_OverflowError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_PermissionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ProcessLookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_RecursionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ReferenceError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_ResourceWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_RuntimeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_RuntimeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_StopAsyncIteration</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_StopIteration</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_SyntaxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_SyntaxWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_SystemError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_SystemExit</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_TabError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_TimeoutError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_TypeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnboundLocalError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_UnicodeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_UserWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ValueError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_Warning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-5">PyExc_WindowsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ZeroDivisionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_GetCause">PyException_GetCause (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_GetContext">PyException_GetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_GetTraceback">PyException_GetTraceback (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_SetCause">PyException_SetCause (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_SetContext">PyException_SetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_SetTraceback">PyException_SetTraceback (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pyexpat
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_FromFd">PyFile_FromFd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_GetLine">PyFile_GetLine (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_WriteObject">PyFile_WriteObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_WriteString">PyFile_WriteString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE">PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_AsDouble">PyFloat_AsDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_Check">PyFloat_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_CheckExact">PyFloat_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_ClearFreeList">PyFloat_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_FromDouble">PyFloat_FromDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_FromString">PyFloat_FromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetInfo">PyFloat_GetInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetMax">PyFloat_GetMax (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetMin">PyFloat_GetMin (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_Type">PyFloat_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloatObject">PyFloatObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyFrame_GetLineNumber">PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_Check">PyFrozenSet_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_CheckExact">PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_New">PyFrozenSet_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_Type">PyFrozenSet_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_Check">PyFunction_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetAnnotations">PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetClosure">PyFunction_GetClosure (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetCode">PyFunction_GetCode (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetDefaults">PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetGlobals">PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetModule">PyFunction_GetModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_New">PyFunction_New (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_NewWithQualName">PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_SetAnnotations">PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_SetClosure">PyFunction_SetClosure (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_SetDefaults">PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_Type">PyFunction_Type (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunctionObject">PyFunctionObject (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE">PYFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_Check">PyGen_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_CheckExact">PyGen_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_New">PyGen_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_NewWithQualName">PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_Type">PyGen_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGenObject">PyGenObject (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef">PyGetSetDef (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyGILState_Check">PyGILState_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyGILState_Ensure">PyGILState_Ensure (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyGILState_GetThisThreadState">PyGILState_GetThisThreadState (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_AddModule">PyImport_AddModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_AddModuleObject">PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_AppendInittab">PyImport_AppendInittab (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_Cleanup">PyImport_Cleanup (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModule">PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExtendInittab">PyImport_ExtendInittab (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_FrozenModules">PyImport_FrozenModules (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetImporter">PyImport_GetImporter (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetMagicNumber">PyImport_GetMagicNumber (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetMagicTag">PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetModule">PyImport_GetModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetModuleDict">PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_Import">PyImport_Import (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModule">PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject">PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModule">PyImport_ImportModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleEx">PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevel">PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject">PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ReloadModule">PyImport_ReloadModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyIndex_Check">PyIndex_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="extending/building.html#c.PyInit_modulename">PyInit_modulename (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_Check">PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_Function">PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION">PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_New">PyInstanceMethod_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_Type">PyInstanceMethod_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Clear">PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Delete">PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_GetID">PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Head">PyInterpreterState_Head (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Main">PyInterpreterState_Main (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_New">PyInterpreterState_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Next">PyInterpreterState_Next (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead">PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iter.html#c.PyIter_Check">PyIter_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iter.html#c.PyIter_Next">PyIter_Next (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Append">PyList_Append (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_AsTuple">PyList_AsTuple (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Check">PyList_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_CheckExact">PyList_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_ClearFreeList">PyList_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GET_ITEM">PyList_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GET_SIZE">PyList_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GetItem">PyList_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-10">PyList_GetItem()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GetSlice">PyList_GetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Insert">PyList_Insert (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_New">PyList_New (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Reverse">PyList_Reverse (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SET_ITEM">PyList_SET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SetItem">PyList_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-8">PyList_SetItem()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SetSlice">PyList_SetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Size">PyList_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Sort">PyList_Sort (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Type">PyList_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyListObject">PyListObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsDouble">PyLong_AsDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLong">PyLong_AsLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow">PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongLong">PyLong_AsLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow">PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsSize_t">PyLong_AsSize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsSsize_t">PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLong">PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsVoidPtr">PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_Check">PyLong_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_CheckExact">PyLong_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromDouble">PyLong_FromDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong">PyLong_FromLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLongLong">PyLong_FromLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromSize_t">PyLong_FromSize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromSsize_t">PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromString">PyLong_FromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnicode">PyLong_FromUnicode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnicodeObject">PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLong">PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong">PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromVoidPtr">PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_Type">PyLong_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLongObject">PyLongObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Check">PyMapping_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_DelItem">PyMapping_DelItem (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_DelItemString">PyMapping_DelItemString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_GetItemString">PyMapping_GetItemString (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_HasKey">PyMapping_HasKey (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_HasKeyString">PyMapping_HasKeyString (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Items">PyMapping_Items (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Keys">PyMapping_Keys (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Length">PyMapping_Length (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Size">PyMapping_Size (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyMappingMethods">PyMappingMethods (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript">PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript (C member)</a>
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+</li>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/marshal.html#c.PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile">PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/marshal.html#c.PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString">PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW">PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Free">PyMem_Free (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyMethod_GET_SELF">PyMethod_GET_SELF (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyMethod_New">PyMethod_New (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef">PyMethodDef (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_AddFunctions">PyModule_AddFunctions (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_AddIntMacro">PyModule_AddIntMacro (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_AddObject">PyModule_AddObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_AddStringConstant">PyModule_AddStringConstant (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_AddStringMacro">PyModule_AddStringMacro (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Check">PyModule_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_CheckExact">PyModule_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Create">PyModule_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Create2">PyModule_Create2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_ExecDef">PyModule_ExecDef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetDef">PyModule_GetDef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetDict">PyModule_GetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetFilename">PyModule_GetFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetFilenameObject">PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetName">PyModule_GetName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetNameObject">PyModule_GetNameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetState">PyModule_GetState (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_New">PyModule_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_NewObject">PyModule_NewObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_SetDocString">PyModule_SetDocString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Type">PyModule_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_base">PyModuleDef.m_base (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_clear">PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_doc">PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_free">PyModuleDef.m_free (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_methods">PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_name">PyModuleDef.m_name (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_reload">PyModuleDef.m_reload (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_size">PyModuleDef.m_size (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_slots">PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_traverse">PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Init">PyModuleDef_Init (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Slot">PyModuleDef_Slot (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Slot.slot">PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Slot.value">PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Absolute">PyNumber_Absolute (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Add">PyNumber_Add (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_And">PyNumber_And (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_AsSsize_t">PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Check">PyNumber_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Divmod">PyNumber_Divmod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Float">PyNumber_Float (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_FloorDivide">PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Index">PyNumber_Index (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceAdd">PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceAnd">PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide">PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceLshift">PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply">PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply">PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceOr">PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlacePower">PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder">PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceRshift">PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract">PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide">PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceXor">PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Invert">PyNumber_Invert (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Long">PyNumber_Long (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Lshift">PyNumber_Lshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_MatrixMultiply">PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Multiply">PyNumber_Multiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Negative">PyNumber_Negative (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Or">PyNumber_Or (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Positive">PyNumber_Positive (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Power">PyNumber_Power (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Remainder">PyNumber_Remainder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Rshift">PyNumber_Rshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Subtract">PyNumber_Subtract (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_ToBase">PyNumber_ToBase (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_TrueDivide">PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Xor">PyNumber_Xor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyNumberMethods">PyNumberMethods (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject">PyObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject._ob_next">PyObject._ob_next (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject._ob_prev">PyObject._ob_prev (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject.ob_refcnt">PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject.ob_type">PyObject.ob_type (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_AsCharBuffer">PyObject_AsCharBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_ASCII">PyObject_ASCII (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyObject_AsFileDescriptor">PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_AsReadBuffer">PyObject_AsReadBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_AsWriteBuffer">PyObject_AsWriteBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Bytes">PyObject_Bytes (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Call">PyObject_Call (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallFunction">PyObject_CallFunction (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs">PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallMethod">PyObject_CallMethod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs">PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject">PyObject_CallObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-1">PyObject_CallObject()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Calloc">PyObject_Calloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyObject_CheckBuffer">PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_CheckReadBuffer">PyObject_CheckReadBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_Del">PyObject_Del (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_DelAttr">PyObject_DelAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_DelAttrString">PyObject_DelAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_DelItem">PyObject_DelItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Dir">PyObject_Dir (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Free">PyObject_Free (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Del">PyObject_GC_Del (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_New">PyObject_GC_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_NewVar">PyObject_GC_NewVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Resize">PyObject_GC_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Track">PyObject_GC_Track (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack">PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericGetAttr">PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericGetDict">PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericSetAttr">PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericSetDict">PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_GetArenaAllocator">PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetAttr">PyObject_GetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetAttrString">PyObject_GetAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyObject_GetBuffer">PyObject_GetBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem">PyObject_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetIter">PyObject_GetIter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HasAttr">PyObject_HasAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HasAttrString">PyObject_HasAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Hash">PyObject_Hash (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented">PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD">PyObject_HEAD (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD_INIT">PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_Init">PyObject_Init (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_InitVar">PyObject_InitVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsInstance">PyObject_IsInstance (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsSubclass">PyObject_IsSubclass (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsTrue">PyObject_IsTrue (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Length">PyObject_Length (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_LengthHint">PyObject_LengthHint (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc">PyObject_Malloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_New">PyObject_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_NewVar">PyObject_NewVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Not">PyObject_Not (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Print">PyObject_Print (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Realloc">PyObject_Realloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Repr">PyObject_Repr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompare">PyObject_RichCompare (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompareBool">PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_SetArenaAllocator">PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_SetAttr">PyObject_SetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_SetAttrString">PyObject_SetAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem">PyObject_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Size">PyObject_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Str">PyObject_Str (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Type">PyObject_Type (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_TypeCheck">PyObject_TypeCheck (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_VAR_HEAD">PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObjectArenaAllocator">PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork">PyOS_AfterFork (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child">PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent">PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_BeforeFork">PyOS_BeforeFork (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_CheckStack">PyOS_CheckStack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_double_to_string">PyOS_double_to_string (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_FSPath">PyOS_FSPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_getsig">PyOS_getsig (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyOS_InputHook">PyOS_InputHook (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer">PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_setsig">PyOS_setsig (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_snprintf">PyOS_snprintf (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_stricmp">PyOS_stricmp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_string_to_double">PyOS_string_to_double (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_strnicmp">PyOS_strnicmp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_vsnprintf">PyOS_vsnprintf (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseFile">PyParser_SimpleParseFile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags">PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseString">PyParser_SimpleParseString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    PyPI
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distributing/index.html#index-1">(see Python Package Index (PyPI))</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyProperty_Type">PyProperty_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFile">PyRun_AnyFile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFileEx">PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFileExFlags">PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFileFlags">PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_File">PyRun_File (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_FileEx">PyRun_FileEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_FileExFlags">PyRun_FileExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_FileFlags">PyRun_FileFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoop">PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags">PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveOne">PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags">PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFile">PyRun_SimpleFile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFileEx">PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags">PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleString">PyRun_SimpleString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleStringFlags">PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_String">PyRun_String (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_StringFlags">PyRun_StringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PySeqIter_Check">PySeqIter_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PySeqIter_New">PySeqIter_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PySeqIter_Type">PySeqIter_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Check">PySequence_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Concat">PySequence_Concat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Contains">PySequence_Contains (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Count">PySequence_Count (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_DelItem">PySequence_DelItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_DelSlice">PySequence_DelSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast">PySequence_Fast (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM">PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE">PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast_ITEMS">PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem">PySequence_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-10">PySequence_GetItem()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetSlice">PySequence_GetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Index">PySequence_Index (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_InPlaceConcat">PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_InPlaceRepeat">PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_ITEM">PySequence_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Length">PySequence_Length (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_List">PySequence_List (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Repeat">PySequence_Repeat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetItem">PySequence_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetSlice">PySequence_SetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Size">PySequence_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Tuple">PySequence_Tuple (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods">PySequenceMethods (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item">PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_concat">PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_contains">PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat">PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat">PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_item">PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_length">PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat">PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Add">PySet_Add (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Check">PySet_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Clear">PySet_Clear (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_ClearFreeList">PySet_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Contains">PySet_Contains (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Discard">PySet_Discard (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_GET_SIZE">PySet_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_New">PySet_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Pop">PySet_Pop (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Size">PySet_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Type">PySet_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySetObject">PySetObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PySignal_SetWakeupFd">PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_AdjustIndices">PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Check">PySlice_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_GetIndices">PySlice_GetIndices (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_GetIndicesEx">PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_New">PySlice_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Type">PySlice_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Unpack">PySlice_Unpack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyState_AddModule">PyState_AddModule (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyState_FindModule">PyState_FindModule (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyState_RemoveModule">PyState_RemoveModule (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_Desc">PyStructSequence_Desc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_Field">PyStructSequence_Field (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM">PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_GetItem">PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_InitType">PyStructSequence_InitType (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_InitType2">PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_New">PyStructSequence_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_NewType">PyStructSequence_NewType (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM">PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_SetItem">PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_UnnamedField">PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOption">PySys_AddWarnOption (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode">PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddXOption">PySys_AddXOption (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_FormatStderr">PySys_FormatStderr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_FormatStdout">PySys_FormatStdout (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_GetObject">PySys_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_GetXOptions">PySys_GetXOptions (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_ResetWarnOptions">PySys_ResetWarnOptions (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgv">PySys_SetArgv (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">PySys_SetArgv()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx">PySys_SetArgvEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">PySys_SetArgvEx()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-21">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_SetObject">PySys_SetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_SetPath">PySys_SetPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_WriteStderr">PySys_WriteStderr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_WriteStdout">PySys_WriteStdout (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-python-3000"><strong>Python 3000</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-0">Python Editor</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Python Enhancement Proposals
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-27">PEP 1</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.0.html#index-0">PEP 100</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-0">PEP 11</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-50">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-5">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#index-0">PEP 205</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-2">PEP 207</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-10">PEP 208</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-9">PEP 217</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-0">PEP 218</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-0">PEP 227</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-16">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-5">PEP 229</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-4">PEP 230</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-7">PEP 232</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-7">PEP 234</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-0">PEP 235</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-41">PEP 236</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-36">PEP 237</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-46">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-10">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-16">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-1">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-3">PEP 238</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-17">[1]</a>, <a href="library/__future__.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-11">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-13">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-2">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-11">PEP 241</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-12">PEP 243</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-37">PEP 247</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-0">PEP 249</a>, <a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-22">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-2">PEP 252</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-0">PEP 253</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-5">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-6">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-1">PEP 255</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-9">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-2">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-14">PEP 261</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/unicode.html#index-0">PEP 263</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/tokenize.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/tokenize.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-3">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-17">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-22">PEP 264</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#index-0">PEP 273</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-10">PEP 274</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/design.html#index-0">PEP 275</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-7">PEP 277</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-34">PEP 278</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-10">PEP 279</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#index-1">PEP 282</a>, <a href="library/shutil.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-12">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-13">PEP 285</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-14">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-10">PEP 288</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/functional.html#index-1">PEP 289</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-10">PEP 292</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-15">PEP 293</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-1">PEP 3000</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-7">PEP 301</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-14">PEP 302</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-13">[2]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-13">[5]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-14">[6]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-15">[7]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-17">[8]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-1">[10]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-0">[11]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-1">[12]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-2">[13]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-1">[14]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-21">[15]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-22">[16]</a>, <a href="library/zipimport.html#index-1">[17]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-1">[18]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-19">[19]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-17">[20]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-18">[21]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-19">[22]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-6">[23]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-2">[24]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-19">[25]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-20">[26]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-2">PEP 305</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-2">PEP 307</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-23">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-84">PEP 308</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-3">PEP 309</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-2">PEP 3100</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-0">PEP 3101</a>, <a href="library/string.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-24">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-7">PEP 3102</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-45">PEP 3104</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-5">PEP 3105</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-6">PEP 3106</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-25">PEP 3107</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-9">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-0">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-17">PEP 3108</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-22">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-11">PEP 3109</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-11">PEP 3110</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-27">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-32">PEP 3111</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-6">PEP 3112</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-15">PEP 3113</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-30">PEP 3114</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#index-0">PEP 3115</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-31">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-85">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-14">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-35">PEP 3116</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-48">PEP 3118</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-29">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-5">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-4">PEP 3119</a>, <a href="c-api/object.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/abc.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-89">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-16">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-10">PEP 3120</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-6">PEP 3121</a>, <a href="howto/cporting.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-34">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-35">PEP 3123</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-17">PEP 3127</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-32">PEP 3129</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-11">PEP 3131</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-13">PEP 3132</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-12">PEP 3134</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-28">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-88">PEP 3135</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-7">PEP 3137</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-3">PEP 3138</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-0">PEP 314</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/abc.html#index-1">PEP 3141</a>, <a href="library/numbers.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-19">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-24">PEP 3144</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-3">PEP 3147</a>, <a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="faq/programming.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/compileall.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/compileall.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/compileall.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-3">[7]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-4">[8]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-5">[9]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-11">[11]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-21">[12]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-23">[13]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-24">[14]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-1">[15]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-4">[16]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-13">[18]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-3">[19]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-5">[20]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-17">[21]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#index-0">PEP 3148</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-0">PEP 3149</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-4">PEP 3151</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="library/resource.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-9">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-3">PEP 3154</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-39">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-30">PEP 3155</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-14">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-25">PEP 3156</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-26">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-31">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-8">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-33">PEP 318</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-5">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-14">PEP 322</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-0">PEP 324</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-11">PEP 325</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-9">PEP 327</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-3">PEP 328</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-24">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-10">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-17">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-5">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-16">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-34">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-11">PEP 331</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-23">PEP 333</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-0">PEP 3333</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-12">[3]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-13">[4]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-14">[5]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-15">[6]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-2">[7]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-3">[8]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-4">[9]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-7">[11]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-8">[12]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-9">[13]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-9">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/runpy.html#index-6">PEP 338</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-26">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-6">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-27">PEP 339</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-7">PEP 341</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/functional.html#index-0">PEP 342</a>, <a href="howto/functional.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-25">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-28">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-8">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-9">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-9">PEP 343</a>, <a href="library/__future__.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/contextlib.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-102">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-12">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-3">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-25">PEP 347</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-13">PEP 352</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-14">PEP 353</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-0">PEP 356</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-16">PEP 357</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-0">PEP 361</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-2">PEP 362</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-16">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-4">PEP 366</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-12">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-23">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-25">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-21">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-11">PEP 370</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-31">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-8">PEP 371</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-2">PEP 372</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-0">PEP 373</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-7">PEP 378</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-26">PEP 380</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-2">PEP 383</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-1">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/stable.html#index-0">PEP 384</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-14">PEP 385</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-4">PEP 389</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-5">PEP 391</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-0">PEP 392</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-0">PEP 393</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-16">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-28">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-30">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-31">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-32">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-6">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-7">[10]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-18">PEP 395</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-2">PEP 397</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-22">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-0">PEP 398</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-18">PEP 4</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-1">PEP 405</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-12">PEP 409</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-29">PEP 411</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-13">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-27">[4]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-28">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-30">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-15">PEP 412</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-20">PEP 414</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-13">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-27">PEP 418</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-15">PEP 420</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-28">[2]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-5">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-15">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-20">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-21">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-22">[9]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-2">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-3">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-14">PEP 421</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-24">PEP 424</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distributing/index.html#index-0">PEP 427</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#index-1">PEP 428</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-30">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-7">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-0">PEP 429</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-38">PEP 432</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-16">PEP 434</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-28">PEP 435</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-29">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-6">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-18">PEP 436</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-48">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-49">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-29">PEP 441</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-30">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-3">PEP 442</a>, <a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/gc.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-16">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-45">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-46">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-21">PEP 443</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-36">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-17">PEP 445</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-43">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-44">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-52">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-14">PEP 446</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-22">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-18">PEP 448</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-89">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-5">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-6">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-32">PEP 450</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-7">PEP 451</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-5">[6]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-8">[7]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-17">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-27">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-23">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-3">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-27">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#index-0">PEP 453</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-23">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-24">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-19">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-20">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-27">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-42">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-5">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-53">[10]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-10">PEP 454</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-34">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-35">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-13">PEP 456</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-47">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-47">PEP 461</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-3">PEP 465</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-48">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-17">PEP 466</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-20">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#index-0">PEP 468</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-13">PEP 471</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-14">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-6">PEP 475</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-14">[2]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-16">[3]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-17">[4]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-33">[5]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-3">[6]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-4">[7]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-6">[9]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-7">[10]</a>, <a href="library/selectors.html#index-0">[11]</a>, <a href="library/signal.html#index-0">[12]</a>, <a href="library/signal.html#index-1">[13]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-10">[14]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-11">[15]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-12">[16]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-13">[17]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-4">[18]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-5">[19]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-7">[20]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-8">[21]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-9">[22]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-9">[23]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-15">[24]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-16">[25]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-51">[26]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-16">[27]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-25">PEP 476</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-21">PEP 477</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-0">PEP 478</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-7">PEP 479</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-18">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-37">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-7">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#index-3">PEP 483</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-0">PEP 484</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-32">[2]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-33">[3]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-36">[4]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-4">[7]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-6">[9]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-7">[10]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-9">[11]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-26">[12]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-90">[13]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-17">[14]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-7">[15]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-10">[16]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-11">[17]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-5">[18]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-20">[19]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#index-0">PEP 485</a>, <a href="library/math.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-20">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-21">PEP 486</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-13">PEP 487</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-15">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-37">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-4">PEP 488</a>, <a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-25">[3]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-7">[4]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-2">[5]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-11">[6]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-12">[7]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-13">[8]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-9">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-24">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-25">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-52">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-8">PEP 489</a>, <a href="extending/building.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="extending/extending.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-18">[3]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-19">[4]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-20">[5]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-26">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-28">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-47">[9]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-11">PEP 492</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-6">[4]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-7">[5]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-2">[7]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-1">[8]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-12">[10]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-29">[11]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-38">[12]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-104">[13]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-28">[14]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-1">[15]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-2">[16]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-49">[17]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-54">[18]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-35">[19]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-9">[20]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-26">PEP 493</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-0">PEP 494</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-17">PEP 495</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-13">PEP 498</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-4">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/general.html#index-1">PEP 5</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#index-0">PEP 506</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-36">PEP 511</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-9">PEP 515</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-26">PEP 519</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-23">PEP 520</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-25">PEP 523</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-42">PEP 524</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-31">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-22">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-23">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-5">PEP 525</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-26">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-9">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-27">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-10">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-1">PEP 526</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-37">[1]</a>, <a href="library/dataclasses.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/dataclasses.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-27">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-16">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-33">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-1">[11]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-11">PEP 528</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-9">PEP 529</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-32">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-34">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-20">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-13">PEP 530</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-12">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-37">PEP 538</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-45">PEP 539</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-15">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-40">PEP 540</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-12">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-24">PEP 545</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-25">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-9">PEP 552</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-15">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-4">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-13">PEP 553</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#index-0">PEP 557</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-29">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#index-1">PEP 560</a>, <a href="library/types.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-82">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-91">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-21">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-33">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-13">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-80">PEP 562</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-14">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-9">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-8">PEP 563</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-28">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-17">PEP 564</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-32">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-17">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-19">PEP 565</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-0">PEP 567</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-future.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/contextvars.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-28">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-30">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-8">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-2">PEP 570</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/general.html#index-0">PEP 6</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-29">PEP 628</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-30">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-0">PEP 7</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-0">PEP 8</a>, <a href="faq/windows.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-21">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distributing/index.html#index-1">Python Package Index (PyPI)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-4">PYTHON*</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-50">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.python.function.entry">python.function.entry (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.python.function.return">python.function.return (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_branch">python_branch() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_build">python_build() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_compiler">python_compiler() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#index-0">PYTHON_DOM</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_implementation">python_implementation() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.python_is_optimized">python_is_optimized() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_revision">python_revision() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_version">python_version() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_version_tuple">python_version_tuple() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-dev.html#index-0">PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-1">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-12">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-8">PYTHONCASEOK</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-39">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-0">PYTHONDEBUG</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/development.html#index-0">PYTHONDEVMODE</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-2">PYTHONDOCS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-1">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</a>, <a href="faq/programming.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-20">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-24">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-0">PYTHONDUMPREFS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#index-0">PYTHONFAULTHANDLER</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-2">PYTHONHASHSEED</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-77">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-14">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-15">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-29">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-22">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-33">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-11">[8]</a>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-7">PYTHONINSPECT</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-18">PYTHONIOENCODING</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-35">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-38">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-21">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-54">[6]</a>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-10">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-35">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-21">[3]</a>
+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-20">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-27">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-18">[2]</a>
+</li>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-6">PYTHONSTARTUP</a>, <a href="library/readline.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-6">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-41">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-21">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-6">[9]</a>
+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#index-8">PYTHONUSERBASE</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#index-2">PYTHONUSERSITE</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-34">PYTHONUTF8</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-36">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-8">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-15">PYTHONVERBOSE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#index-1">PYTHONWARNINGS</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-19">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-8">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-10">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-36">[7]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_create_key">PyThread_create_key (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_delete_key">PyThread_delete_key (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_delete_key_value">PyThread_delete_key_value (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_get_key_value">PyThread_get_key_value (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_ReInitTLS">PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_set_key_value">PyThread_set_key_value (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_alloc">PyThread_tss_alloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_create">PyThread_tss_create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_delete">PyThread_tss_delete (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_free">PyThread_tss_free (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_get">PyThread_tss_get (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_is_created">PyThread_tss_is_created (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_set">PyThread_tss_set (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-35">PyThreadState</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_Delete">PyThreadState_Delete (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_GetDict">PyThreadState_GetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_New">PyThreadState_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_Next">PyThreadState_Next (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc">PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_Swap">PyThreadState_Swap (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_Check">PyTime_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_CheckExact">PyTime_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_FromTime">PyTime_FromTime (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_FromTimeAndFold">PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffset">PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName">PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_C_CALL">PyTrace_C_CALL (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION">PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_C_RETURN">PyTrace_C_RETURN (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_CALL">PyTrace_CALL (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_EXCEPTION">PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_LINE">PyTrace_LINE (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_OPCODE">PyTrace_OPCODE (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_RETURN">PyTrace_RETURN (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Check">PyTuple_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_CheckExact">PyTuple_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_ClearFreeList">PyTuple_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GET_ITEM">PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GET_SIZE">PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GetItem">PyTuple_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GetSlice">PyTuple_GetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_New">PyTuple_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Pack">PyTuple_Pack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SET_ITEM">PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem">PyTuple_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-8">PyTuple_SetItem()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Size">PyTuple_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Type">PyTuple_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTupleObject">PyTupleObject (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Check">PyType_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_CheckExact">PyType_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_ClearCache">PyType_ClearCache (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_FromSpec">PyType_FromSpec (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_FromSpecWithBases">PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericAlloc">PyType_GenericAlloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew">PyType_GenericNew (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GetFlags">PyType_GetFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GetSlot">PyType_GetSlot (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_HasFeature">PyType_HasFeature (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_IS_GC">PyType_IS_GC (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_IsSubtype">PyType_IsSubtype (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Modified">PyType_Modified (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready">PyType_Ready (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Type">PyType_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc">PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_allocs">PyTypeObject.tp_allocs (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer">PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base">PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_bases">PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize">PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_cache">PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_call">PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear">PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc">PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get">PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set">PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict">PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset">PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_doc">PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize">PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags">PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free">PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_frees">PyTypeObject.tp_frees (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr">PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro">PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getset">PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash">PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init">PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc">PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize">PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter">PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext">PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc">PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_members">PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods">PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_mro">PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_name">PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new">PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_next">PyTypeObject.tp_next (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_print">PyTypeObject.tp_print (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr">PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare">PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr">PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro">PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_str">PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member)</a>
+</li>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Encode">PyUnicode_Encode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeASCII">PyUnicode_EncodeASCII (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap">PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage">PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault">PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale">PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS">PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape">PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32 (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Fill">PyUnicode_Fill (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Find">PyUnicode_Find (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FindChar">PyUnicode_FindChar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Format">PyUnicode_Format (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject">PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat">PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormatV">PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromKindAndData">PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromObject">PyUnicode_FromObject (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromString">PyUnicode_FromString (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-1">PyUnicode_FromString()</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize">PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromUnicode">PyUnicode_FromUnicode (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromWideChar">PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FSConverter">PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE">PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_SIZE">PyUnicode_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetLength">PyUnicode_GetLength (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetSize">PyUnicode_GetSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_InternFromString">PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_InternInPlace">PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Join">PyUnicode_Join (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_KIND">PyUnicode_KIND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE">PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_New">PyUnicode_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READ">PyUnicode_READ (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READ_CHAR">PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_ReadChar">PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READY">PyUnicode_READY (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_RichCompare">PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Split">PyUnicode_Split (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Splitlines">PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Substring">PyUnicode_Substring (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Tailmatch">PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII">PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Translate">PyUnicode_Translate (C function)</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Translate">[1]</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap">PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Type">PyUnicode_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND">PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND (C macro)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WRITE">PyUnicode_WRITE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WriteChar">PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create">PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create">PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicodeObject">PyUnicodeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create">PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyVarObject">PyVarObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyVarObject.ob_size">PyVarObject.ob_size (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_Check">PyWeakref_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_CheckProxy">PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_CheckRef">PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT">PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_GetObject">PyWeakref_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_NewProxy">PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_NewRef">PyWeakref_NewRef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyWrapper_New">PyWrapper_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.PyZipFile">PyZipFile (class in zipfile)</a>
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Q.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Q.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df4be59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Q.html
@@ -0,0 +1,264 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-Q.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; Q</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.qiflush">qiflush() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.QName">QName (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.qsize">qsize() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.qsize">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.qsize">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.qsize">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-qualified-name"><strong>qualified name</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.quantize">quantize() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.quantize">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryInfoKey">QueryInfoKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryReflectionKey">QueryReflectionKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryValue">QueryValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryValueEx">QueryValueEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue">Queue (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/queue.html#module-queue">queue (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.queue">(sched.scheduler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue">Queue() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.QueueEmpty">QueueEmpty</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.QueueFull">QueueFull</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler">QueueHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener">QueueListener (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.quick_ratio">quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#quit">quit (built-in variable)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-quit">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.quit">quit() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.quit">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.quit">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.quit">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/quopri.html#module-quopri">quopri (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.quote">quote() (in module email.utils)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.quote">(in module shlex)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_ALL">QUOTE_ALL (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes">quote_from_bytes() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL">QUOTE_MINIMAL (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_NONE">QUOTE_NONE (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC">QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote_plus">quote_plus() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr">quoteattr() (in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.quotechar">quotechar (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    quoted-printable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#index-0">encoding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.quotes">quotes (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.quoting">quoting (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-R.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-R.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07d14ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-R.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1882 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-R.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; R</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    r&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-19">raw string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    r&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-19">raw string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.R_OK">R_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.radians">radians() (in module math)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.radians">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.RadioButtonGroup">RadioButtonGroup (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.radiogroup">radiogroup() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.radix">radix() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.radix">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.RADIXCHAR">RADIXCHAR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    raise
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-1">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-raise">raise (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">raise an exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.raise_on_defect">raise_on_defect (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-RAISE_VARARGS">RAISE_VARARGS (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    raising
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_add">RAND_add() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_bytes">RAND_bytes() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_egd">RAND_egd() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes">RAND_pseudo_bytes() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_status">RAND_status() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.randbelow">randbelow() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.randbits">randbits() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.randint">randint() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.Random">Random (class in random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#module-random">random (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.random">random() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.randrange">randrange() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    range
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-8">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-25">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range">range (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RARROW">RARROW (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.ratecv">ratecv() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio">ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational">Rational (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.raw">raw (io.BufferedIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">raw string</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.raw">raw() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager">raw_data_manager (in module email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder.raw_decode">raw_decode() (json.JSONDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-raw_input">raw_input (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.raw_input">raw_input() (code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray">RawArray() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser">RawConfigParser (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter">RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase">RawIOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.RawPen">RawPen (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter">RawTextHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.RawTurtle">RawTurtle (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue">RawValue() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RBRACE">RBRACE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos">rcpttos (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    re
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#module-re">re (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.re">(re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.read">read() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.read">(chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.read">(codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.read">(http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.read">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.read">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read">(io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader.read">(io.BufferedReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.read">(io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.read">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.read">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.read">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.read">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.read">(ssl.MemoryBIO method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.read">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.read">(urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.read">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read1">read1() (io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader.read1">(io.BufferedReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.read1">(io.BytesIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_all">read_all() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.read_binary">read_binary() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.read_byte">read_byte() (mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.read_bytes">read_bytes() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read_dict">read_dict() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_eager">read_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.read_environ">read_environ() (in module wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events">read_events() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read_file">read_file() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.read_history_file">read_history_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.read_init_file">read_init_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_lazy">read_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.read_mime_types">read_mime_types() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">READ_RESTRICTED</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_sb_data">read_sb_data() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_some">read_some() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read_string">read_string() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.read_text">read_text() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.read_text">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.read_token">read_token() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_until">read_until() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_eager">read_very_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_lazy">read_very_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.read_windows_registry">read_windows_registry() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.READABLE">READABLE (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.readable">readable() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.readable">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.readall">readall() (io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.reader">reader() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.ReadError">ReadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly">readexactly() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.readfp">readfp() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.readframes">readframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.readframes">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.readframes">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.readinto">readinto() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto">(io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.readinto">(io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto1">readinto1() (io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.readinto1">(io.BytesIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#module-readline">readline (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readline">readline() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.readline">(codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.readline">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.readline">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.readline">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.readline">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.readlines">readlines() (codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.readlines">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.readlines">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.readlink">readlink() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule">readmodule() (in module pyclbr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule_ex">readmodule_ex() (in module pyclbr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">READONLY</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.readonly">readonly (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlist">readPlist() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlistFromBytes">readPlistFromBytes() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport">ReadTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil">readuntil() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.readv">readv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.ready">ready() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Real">Real (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex.real">real (numbers.Complex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">Real Media File Format</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.real_max_memuse">real_max_memuse (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.real_quick_ratio">real_quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">realloc()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.realpath">realpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS">REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.reap_children">reap_children() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.reap_threads">reap_threads() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.reason">reason (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.reason">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError.reason">(ssl.SSLError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError.reason">(urllib.error.HTTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError.reason">(urllib.error.URLError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.reattach">reattach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    rebinding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">name</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.reccontrols">reccontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data">received_data (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_lines">received_lines (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.recent">recent() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure">reconfigure() (io.TextIOWrapper method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.record_original_stdout">record_original_stdout() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.records">records (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.rect">rect() (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.rectangle">rectangle() (in module curses.textpad)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#RecursionError">RecursionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.recursive_repr">recursive_repr() (in module reprlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.recv">recv() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recv">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes">recv_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes_into">recv_bytes_into() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recv_into">recv_into() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvfrom">recvfrom() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvfrom_into">recvfrom_into() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvmsg">recvmsg() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvmsg_into">recvmsg_into() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request">redirect_request() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.redirect_stderr">redirect_stderr() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.redirect_stdout">redirect_stdout() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.redisplay">redisplay() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.redrawln">redrawln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.redrawwin">redrawwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-reduce">reduce (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.reduce">reduce() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ref">ref (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.refcount_test">refcount_test() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    reference
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-37">attribute</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-reference-count"><strong>reference count</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-2">reference counting</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ReferenceError">ReferenceError</a>, <a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ReferenceError">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ReferenceType">ReferenceType (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.refold_source">refold_source (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.refresh">refresh() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_BINARY">REG_BINARY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_DWORD">REG_DWORD (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN">REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN">REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ">REG_EXPAND_SZ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR">REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_LINK">REG_LINK (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ">REG_MULTI_SZ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_NONE">REG_NONE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_QWORD">REG_QWORD (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN">REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST">REG_RESOURCE_LIST (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST">REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_SZ">REG_SZ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta.register">register() (abc.ABCMeta method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/atexit.html#atexit.register">(in module atexit)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.register">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.register">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.register">(in module webbrowser)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.register">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.register">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.register">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.register">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.register_adapter">register_adapter() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.register_archive_format">register_archive_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.register_at_fork">register_at_fork() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.register_converter">register_converter() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.register_defect">register_defect() (email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.register_dialect">register_dialect() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.register_error">register_error() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function">register_function() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance">register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions">register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions">register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace">register_namespace() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.register_optionflag">register_optionflag() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.register_shape">register_shape() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.register_unpack_format">register_unpack_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation">registerDOMImplementation() (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.registerResult">registerResult() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    regular
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-4">package</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-regular-package"><strong>regular package</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    relative
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">URL</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-39">import</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.relative_to">relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.lock.release">release() (_thread.lock method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.release">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock.release">(asyncio.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore.release">(asyncio.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.release">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.release">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.release">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Lock.release">(multiprocessing.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.RLock.release">(multiprocessing.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.release">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Lock.release">(threading.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.RLock.release">(threading.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore.release">(threading.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.release_lock">release_lock() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-reload">reload (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.reload">reload() (in module imp)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.reload">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.relpath">relpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.remainder">remainder() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.remainder">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.remainder_near">remainder_near() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.remainder_near">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.RemoteDisconnected">RemoteDisconnected</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.remove">remove() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.remove">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.remove">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.remove">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.remove">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.remove">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.remove">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.remove_child_handler">remove_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback">remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.remove_done_callback">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.remove_flag">remove_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.remove_flag">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.remove_flag">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.remove_folder">remove_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.remove_folder">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.remove_header">remove_header() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.remove_history_item">remove_history_item() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.remove_label">remove_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.remove_option">remove_option() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.remove_option">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.remove_pyc">remove_pyc() (msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_reader">remove_reader() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.remove_section">remove_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.remove_sequence">remove_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler">remove_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.remove_tree">remove_tree() (in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_writer">remove_writer() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.removeAttribute">removeAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNode">removeAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNS">removeAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.removeChild">removeChild() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.removedirs">removedirs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.removeFilter">removeFilter() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.removeFilter">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.removeHandler">removeHandler() (in module unittest)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.removeHandler">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.removeResult">removeResult() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.removexattr">removexattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.rename">rename() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.rename">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.rename">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.rename">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-renames">renames (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.renames">renames() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded">reopenIfNeeded() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.reorganize">reorganize() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.repeat">repeat() (in module itertools)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.repeat">(in module timeit)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.repeat">(timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    repetition
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.replace">replace() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.replace">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.replace">(curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.replace">(datetime.date method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.replace">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.replace">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.replace">(in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.replace">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.replace">(inspect.Parameter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.replace">(inspect.Signature method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.replace">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.replace">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.replace_errors">replace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.replace_header">replace_header() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.replace_header">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.replace_history_item">replace_history_item() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace">replace_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.replaceChild">replaceChild() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ReplacePackage">ReplacePackage() (in module modulefinder)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.report">report() (filecmp.dircmp method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.report">(modulefinder.ModuleFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_CDIFF">REPORT_CDIFF (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_failure">report_failure() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.report_full_closure">report_full_closure() (filecmp.dircmp method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_NDIFF">REPORT_NDIFF (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE">REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.report_partial_closure">report_partial_closure() (filecmp.dircmp method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_start">report_start() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_success">report_success() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_UDIFF">REPORT_UDIFF (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_unexpected_exception">report_unexpected_exception() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS">REPORTING_FLAGS (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    repr
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-0">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-repr">repr (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr">Repr (class in reprlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#repr">repr() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-71">__repr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.repr">repr() (in module reprlib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.repr">(reprlib.Repr method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.repr1">repr1() (reprlib.Repr method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    representation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-12">integer</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#module-reprlib">reprlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request">Request (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.request">request() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.request_queue_size">request_queue_size (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.request_rate">request_rate() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.request_uri">request_uri() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.request_version">request_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass">RequestHandlerClass (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.requestline">requestline (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires">requires() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_bz2">requires_bz2() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_docstrings">requires_docstrings() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_freebsd_version">requires_freebsd_version() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_gzip">requires_gzip() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_IEEE_754">requires_IEEE_754() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_linux_version">requires_linux_version() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_lzma">requires_lzma() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_mac_version">requires_mac_version() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_resource">requires_resource() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_zlib">requires_zlib() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.reserved">reserved (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-13">reserved word</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE">RESERVED_FUTURE (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT">RESERVED_MICROSOFT (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RESERVED_NCS">RESERVED_NCS (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.reset">reset() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.reset">(codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.reset">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.reset">(codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter.reset">(codecs.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.reset">(contextvars.ContextVar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.reset">(html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.reset">(in module turtle)</a>, <a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.reset">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.reset">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.reset">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.reset">(threading.Barrier method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.reset">(xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.reset">(xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.reset">(xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.reset">(xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock">reset_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.reset_prog_mode">reset_prog_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.reset_shell_mode">reset_shell_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer">resetbuffer() (code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.resetlocale">resetlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.resetscreen">resetscreen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.resetty">resetty() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.resetwarnings">resetwarnings() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.resize">resize() (curses.window method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.resize">(in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.resize">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.resize_term">resize_term() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.resizemode">resizemode() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.resizeterm">resizeterm() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.resolution">resolution (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.resolution">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.resolution">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.resolution">(datetime.timedelta attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.resolve">resolve() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.resolve_bases">resolve_bases() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.resolve_name">resolve_name() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver.resolveEntity">resolveEntity() (xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.Resource">Resource (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#module-resource">resource (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.resource_path">resource_path() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.ResourceDenied">ResourceDenied</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader">ResourceLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader">ResourceReader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning">ResourceWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPError.response">response (nntplib.NNTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.response">response() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.ResponseNotReady">ResponseNotReady</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses">responses (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.responses">(in module http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-restart">restart (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.restore">restore() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">RESTRICTED</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    restricted
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-11">execution</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr.restype">restype (ctypes._FuncPtr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.result">result() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.result">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.result">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.results">results() (trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading">resume_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing">resume_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.retr">retr() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.retrbinary">retrbinary() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve">retrieve() (urllib.request.URLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.retrlines">retrlines() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    return
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-return">return (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.return_annotation">return_annotation (inspect.Signature attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok">return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-RETURN_VALUE">RETURN_VALUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value">return_value (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.returncode">returncode (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.returncode">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.returncode">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.reverse">reverse() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.reverse">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.reverse">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.reverse_order">reverse_order() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.reverse_pointer">reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#reversed">reversed() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Reversible">Reversible (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Reversible">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert">revert() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.rewind">rewind() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.rewind">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.rewind">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    RFC
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-1">RFC 1014</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#index-22">RFC 1123</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-1">RFC 1321</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-17">RFC 1422</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-9">RFC 1521</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-2">RFC 1522</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#index-0">RFC 1524</a>, <a href="library/mailcap.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-2">RFC 1730</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-12">RFC 1738</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-2">RFC 1750</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-4">RFC 1766</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-1">RFC 1808</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-45">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-3">RFC 1832</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-2">RFC 1869</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#index-1">RFC 1870</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-1">RFC 1939</a>, <a href="library/poplib.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-22">RFC 2033</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-4">RFC 2045</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-5">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-6">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-9">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-4">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-10">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-9">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-3">[11]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-6">[12]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-7">[13]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-8">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#index-0">RFC 2045#section-6.8</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#index-0">RFC 2046</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#index-11">RFC 2047</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-4">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-6">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-5">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-3">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-4">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-1">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-11">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-8">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-1">RFC 2060</a>, <a href="library/imaplib.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-1">RFC 2068</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#index-0">RFC 2104</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-17">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-1">RFC 2109</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-24">[4]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-4">[6]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-6">[7]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-0">[8]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-3">[10]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-4">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-5">[12]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-6">[13]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-7">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-11">RFC 2183</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-10">RFC 2231</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-8">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-7">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-7">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-4">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-9">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-5">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-6">[11]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-7">[12]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-8">[13]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-9">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-54">RFC 2295</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-6">RFC 2342</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-10">RFC 2368</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-1">RFC 2373</a>, <a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-3">RFC 2396</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-46">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-34">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-8">RFC 2397</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-4">RFC 2449</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-18">RFC 2487</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-3">RFC 2518</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-3">RFC 2595</a>, <a href="library/poplib.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-0">RFC 2616</a>, <a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.error.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-10">[4]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-6">[5]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-7">[6]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-10">[7]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-7">[9]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-8">RFC 2732</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-57">RFC 2774</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-3">RFC 2818</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.html#index-0">RFC 2821</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-1">RFC 2822</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-10">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-12">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-9">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-0">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-10">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-3">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-4">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-1">[12]</a>, <a href="library/mailbox.html#index-0">[13]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-11">[14]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-23">[15]</a>, <a href="tutorial/stdlib.html#index-1">[16]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-20">[17]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-10">RFC 2964</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-0">RFC 2965</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-12">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-13">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-16">[5]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-17">[6]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-18">[7]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-19">[8]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-20">[10]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-22">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-25">[12]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-5">[13]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-7">[14]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-8">[15]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-9">[16]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-3">[18]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-5">[19]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-3">RFC 2980</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-10">RFC 3056</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-0">RFC 3171</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-23">RFC 3207</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-13">RFC 3229</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-11">RFC 3280</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-4">RFC 3330</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging.html#index-0">RFC 3339</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#index-0">RFC 3454</a>, <a href="library/stringprep.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-10">RFC 3490</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-7">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-9">RFC 3490#section-3.1</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-5">RFC 3492</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-15">RFC 3493</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-8">RFC 3501</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-3">RFC 3542</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-1">RFC 3548</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="library/binascii.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-18">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-4">RFC 3659</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-8">RFC 3879</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-6">RFC 3927</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-1">RFC 3977</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-9">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-2">RFC 3986</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-10">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-13">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-44">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-35">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-21">RFC 4086</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-0">RFC 4122</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-10">[2]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-11">[3]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-4">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-19">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-20">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-1">RFC 4180</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-9">RFC 4193</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-2">RFC 4217</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-7">RFC 4291</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-11">RFC 4380</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#index-1">RFC 4627</a>, <a href="library/json.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-4">RFC 4642</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-11">RFC 4918</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-41">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-42">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-43">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-55">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-7">RFC 4954</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-3">RFC 5161</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-0">RFC 5233</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-10">RFC 5246</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-22">RFC 5280</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-43">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-53">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-13">RFC 5321</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-25">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#index-0">RFC 5322</a>, <a href="library/email.generator.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.generator.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-11">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-12">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-14">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-2">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-3">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-5">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-7">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-8">[11]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-0">[12]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-2">[13]</a>, <a href="library/email.parser.html#index-0">[14]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-0">[15]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-1">[16]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-5">[18]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-6">[19]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-9">[20]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-11">[21]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-0">RFC 5424</a>, <a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/logging.handlers.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-1">RFC 5424#section-6</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-2">RFC 5735</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-12">RFC 5842</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-56">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-12">RFC 5929</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-14">RFC 6066</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-5">RFC 6125</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#index-4">RFC 6152</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-39">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#index-3">RFC 6531</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-7">[4]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-34">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-40">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-41">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.html#index-2">RFC 6532</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.parser.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-33">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-45">RFC 6585</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-46">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-47">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-58">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-4">RFC 6855</a>, <a href="library/imaplib.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-36">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-37">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-5">RFC 6856</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#index-0">RFC 7159</a>, <a href="library/json.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/json.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-3">RFC 7230</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-1">RFC 7231</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-15">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-16">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-17">[4]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-19">[5]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-20">[7]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-22">[8]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-24">[9]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-25">[10]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-26">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-27">[12]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-28">[13]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-30">[14]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-31">[15]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-32">[16]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-33">[17]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-35">[18]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-36">[19]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-37">[20]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-39">[21]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-4">[22]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-44">[23]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-48">[24]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-49">[25]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-5">[26]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-50">[27]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-51">[28]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-52">[29]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-53">[30]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-6">[31]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-7">[32]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-8">[33]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-9">[34]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-18">RFC 7232</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-10">RFC 7233</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-23">RFC 7235</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-29">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-21">RFC 7238</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-13">RFC 7301</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-42">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-25">RFC 7525</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-40">RFC 7540</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-5">RFC 7693</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-3">RFC 7914</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-1">RFC 821</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-6">RFC 822</a>, <a href="library/email.examples.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-9">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.client.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-12">[6]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-6">[7]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-9">[8]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-20">[9]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-21">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-21">[11]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#index-1">RFC 854</a>, <a href="library/telnetlib.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-1">RFC 959</a>, <a href="library/ftplib.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-2">RFC 977</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.rfc2109">rfc2109 (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape">rfc2109_as_netscape (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.rfc2965">rfc2965 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.rfc822_escape">rfc822_escape() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RFC_4122">RFC_4122 (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.rfile">rfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rfind">rfind() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rfind">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.rfind">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rfind">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.rgb_to_hls">rgb_to_hls() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.rgb_to_hsv">rgb_to_hsv() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.rgb_to_yiq">rgb_to_yiq() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.rglob">rglob() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.right">right (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.right">right() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.right_list">right_list (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.right_only">right_only (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RIGHTSHIFT">RIGHTSHIFT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL">RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rindex">rindex() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rindex">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rindex">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rjust">rjust() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rjust">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rjust">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter">rlcompleter (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.rlecode_hqx">rlecode_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.rledecode_hqx">rledecode_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIM_INFINITY">RLIM_INFINITY (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_AS">RLIMIT_AS (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_CORE">RLIMIT_CORE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_CPU">RLIMIT_CPU (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_DATA">RLIMIT_DATA (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE">RLIMIT_FSIZE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK">RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE">RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NICE">RLIMIT_NICE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE">RLIMIT_NOFILE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NPROC">RLIMIT_NPROC (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NPTS">RLIMIT_NPTS (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_OFILE">RLIMIT_OFILE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RSS">RLIMIT_RSS (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO">RLIMIT_RTPRIO (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME">RLIMIT_RTTIME (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE">RLIMIT_SBSIZE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING">RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_STACK">RLIMIT_STACK (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SWAP">RLIMIT_SWAP (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_VMEM">RLIMIT_VMEM (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.RLock">RLock (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.RLock">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.RLock">RLock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.rmd">rmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.rmdir">rmdir() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.rmdir">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.rmdir">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">RMFF</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.rms">rms() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree">rmtree() (in module shutil)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.rmtree">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser">RobotFileParser (class in urllib.robotparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">robots.txt</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.rollback">rollback() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-ROT_THREE">ROT_THREE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-ROT_TWO">ROT_TWO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.rotate">rotate() (collections.deque method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.rotate">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.rotate">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate">(logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler">RotatingFileHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename">rotation_filename() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotator">rotator (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    round
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-100">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#round">round() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_05UP">ROUND_05UP (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_CEILING">ROUND_CEILING (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_DOWN">ROUND_DOWN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_FLOOR">ROUND_FLOOR (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN">ROUND_HALF_DOWN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN">ROUND_HALF_EVEN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP">ROUND_HALF_UP (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_UP">ROUND_UP (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Rounded">Rounded (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Row">Row (class in sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.row_factory">row_factory (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount">rowcount (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RPAR">RPAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rpartition">rpartition() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rpartition">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rpartition">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths">rpc_paths (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.rpop">rpop() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.rset">rset() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.rshift">rshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rsplit">rsplit() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rsplit">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rsplit">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RSQB">RSQB (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rstrip">rstrip() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rstrip">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rstrip">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.rt">rt() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_DEEPBIND">RTLD_DEEPBIND (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_GLOBAL">RTLD_GLOBAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_LAZY">RTLD_LAZY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_LOCAL">RTLD_LOCAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_NODELETE">RTLD_NODELETE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_NOLOAD">RTLD_NOLOAD (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_NOW">RTLD_NOW (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.ruler">ruler (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-run">run (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-2">Run script</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.run">run() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.run">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.run">(distutils.cmd.Command method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.run">(doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.run">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.run">(in module profile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.run">(in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.run">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.run">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.run">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.run">(sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.BasicTestRunner.run">(test.support.BasicTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.run">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.run">(trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.run">(unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.run">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestRunner.run">(unittest.TextTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.run">(wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe">run_coroutine_threadsafe() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.run_docstring_examples">run_docstring_examples() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_doctest">run_doctest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_forever">run_forever() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor">run_in_executor() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_in_subinterp">run_in_subinterp() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/runpy.html#runpy.run_module">run_module() (in module runpy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/runpy.html#runpy.run_path">run_path() (in module runpy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end">run_python_until_end() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.run_script">run_script() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.run_setup">run_setup() (in module distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_unittest">run_unittest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_until_complete">run_until_complete() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_with_locale">run_with_locale() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_with_tz">run_with_tz() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.runcall">runcall() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.runcall">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.runcall">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.runcall">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runcode">runcode() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.runctx">runctx() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.runctx">(in module profile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.runctx">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.runctx">(trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.runeval">runeval() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.runeval">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.runeval">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.runfunc">runfunc() (trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.running">running() (concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/runpy.html#module-runpy">runpy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource">runsource() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.runtime_library_dir_option">runtime_library_dir_option() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError">RuntimeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning">RuntimeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_BOTH">RUSAGE_BOTH (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN">RUSAGE_CHILDREN (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_SELF">RUSAGE_SELF (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_THREAD">RUSAGE_THREAD (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_DSYNC">RWF_DSYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_HIPRI">RWF_HIPRI (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_NOWAIT">RWF_NOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_SYNC">RWF_SYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-S.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-S.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d62df0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-S.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2999 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-S.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; S</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.S">S (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ENFMT">S_ENFMT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IEXEC">S_IEXEC (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFBLK">S_IFBLK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFCHR">S_IFCHR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFDIR">S_IFDIR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFDOOR">S_IFDOOR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFIFO">S_IFIFO (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFLNK">S_IFLNK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFMT">S_IFMT() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFPORT">S_IFPORT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFREG">S_IFREG (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFSOCK">S_IFSOCK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFWHT">S_IFWHT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IMODE">S_IMODE() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IREAD">S_IREAD (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRGRP">S_IRGRP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IROTH">S_IROTH (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRUSR">S_IRUSR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRWXG">S_IRWXG (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRWXO">S_IRWXO (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRWXU">S_IRWXU (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISBLK">S_ISBLK() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISCHR">S_ISCHR() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISDIR">S_ISDIR() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISDOOR">S_ISDOOR() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISFIFO">S_ISFIFO() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISGID">S_ISGID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISLNK">S_ISLNK() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISPORT">S_ISPORT() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISREG">S_ISREG() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISSOCK">S_ISSOCK() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISUID">S_ISUID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISVTX">S_ISVTX (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISWHT">S_ISWHT() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWGRP">S_IWGRP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWOTH">S_IWOTH (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWRITE">S_IWRITE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWUSR">S_IWUSR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IXGRP">S_IXGRP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IXOTH">S_IXOTH (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IXUSR">S_IXUSR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID.safe">safe (uuid.SafeUUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template.safe_substitute">safe_substitute() (string.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.SafeChildWatcher">SafeChildWatcher (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.saferepr">saferepr() (in module pprint)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID">SafeUUID (class in uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.same_files">same_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.same_quantum">same_quantum() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.same_quantum">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.samefile">samefile() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.samefile">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.SameFileError">SameFileError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.sameopenfile">sameopenfile() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.samestat">samestat() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.sample">sample() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.save">save() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SAVEDCWD">SAVEDCWD (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.SaveKey">SaveKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SaveSignals">SaveSignals (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.savetty">savetty() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM">SAX2DOM (class in xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXException">SAXException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException">SAXNotRecognizedException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException">SAXNotSupportedException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXParseException">SAXParseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.scaleb">scaleb() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.scaleb">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.scandir">scandir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#index-38">scanf()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#module-sched">sched (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_BATCH">SCHED_BATCH (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_FIFO">SCHED_FIFO (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_get_priority_max">sched_get_priority_max() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_get_priority_min">sched_get_priority_min() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_getaffinity">sched_getaffinity() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_getparam">sched_getparam() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_getscheduler">sched_getscheduler() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_IDLE">SCHED_IDLE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_OTHER">SCHED_OTHER (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_param">sched_param (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_param.sched_priority">sched_priority (os.sched_param attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK">SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_RR">SCHED_RR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_rr_get_interval">sched_rr_get_interval() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_setaffinity">sched_setaffinity() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_setparam">sched_setparam() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_setscheduler">sched_setscheduler() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_SPORADIC">SCHED_SPORADIC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_yield">sched_yield() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler">scheduler (class in sched)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.schema">schema (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-3">scope</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Screen">Screen (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.screensize">screensize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.script_from_examples">script_from_examples() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.scroll">scroll() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ScrolledCanvas">ScrolledCanvas (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.scrollok">scrollok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.scrypt">scrypt() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    sdterr
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">stdin stdout</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.seal">seal() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    search
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">path, module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-18">[6]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-0">[7]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.search">search() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.search">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.search">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.second">second (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.second">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-1">seconds since the epoch</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#module-secrets">secrets (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.SECTCRE">SECTCRE (configparser.ConfigParser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.sections">sections() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.secure">secure (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-0">secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">Secure Sockets Layer</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    security
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-1">CGI</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.see">see() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.seed">seed() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.seek">seek() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.seek">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.seek">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.seek">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SEEK_CUR">SEEK_CUR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SEEK_END">SEEK_END (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SEEK_SET">SEEK_SET (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.seekable">seekable() (io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting">seen_greeting (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Select">Select (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#module-select">select (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.select">select() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.select">(in module select)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.select">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.select">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol">selected_alpn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol">selected_npn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection">selection() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_add">selection_add() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_remove">selection_remove() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_set">selection_set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_toggle">selection_toggle() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.selector">selector (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop">SelectorEventLoop (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey">SelectorKey (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#module-selectors">selectors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectSelector">SelectSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore">Semaphore (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Semaphore">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Semaphore">Semaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">semaphores, binary</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.SEMI">SEMI (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.send">send() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.send">(coroutine method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.send">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.send">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.send">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.send">(logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.send">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.send">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send_bytes">send_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error">send_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_flowing_data">send_flowing_data() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header">send_header() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_hor_rule">send_hor_rule() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_label_data">send_label_data() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_line_break">send_line_break() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_literal_data">send_literal_data() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.send_message">send_message() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_paragraph">send_paragraph() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response">send_response() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only">send_response_only() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.send_signal">send_signal() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.send_signal">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.send_signal">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendall">sendall() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.sendcmd">sendcmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sendfile">sendfile() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sendfile">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendfile">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.sendfile">(wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError">SendfileNotAvailableError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail">sendmail() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendmsg">sendmsg() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendmsg_afalg">sendmsg_afalg() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto">sendto() (asyncio.DatagramTransport method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendto">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.sentinel">sentinel (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.sentinel">(multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sep">sep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-sequence"><strong>sequence</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">item</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iteration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-1">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">types, immutable</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">types, mutable</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">types, operations on</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence">Sequence (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Sequence">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.sequence">sequence (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.sequence2st">sequence2st() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher">SequenceMatcher (class in difflib)</a>, <a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    serializing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.serve_forever">serve_forever() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    server
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">WWW</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server">Server (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server">server (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_activate">server_activate() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_address">server_address (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_bind">server_bind() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_close">server_close() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname">server_hostname (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.server_side">server_side (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software">server_software (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version">server_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.server_version">(http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy">ServerProxy (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions">service_actions() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.session">session (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.session_reused">session_reused (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.session_stats">session_stats() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    set
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-27">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#set">set (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set">Set (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Set">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Set Breakpoint</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    set type
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.set">set() (asyncio.Event method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.set">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser.set">(configparser.RawConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.set">(contextvars.ContextVar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.set">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.set">(test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.set">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.set">(tkinter.ttk.Combobox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.set">(tkinter.ttk.Spinbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.set">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SET_ADD">SET_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-9">set_all()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains">set_allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols">set_alpn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app">set_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.set_asyncgen_hooks">set_asyncgen_hooks() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer">set_authorizer() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_auto_history">set_auto_history() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains">set_blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.set_blocking">set_blocking() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary">set_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_boundary">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_break">set_break() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_charset">set_charset() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher">set_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.set_child_watcher">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set_children">set_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers">set_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_completer">set_completer() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_completer_delims">set_completer_delims() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook">set_completion_display_matches_hook() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.set_content">set_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.set_content">(in module email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_continue">set_continue() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie">set_cookie() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok">set_cookie_if_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth">set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_wrapper">set_coroutine_wrapper() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Feature.set_current">set_current() (msilib.Feature method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data">set_data() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.set_data">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_date">set_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_debug">set_debug() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.set_debug">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.set_debuglevel">set_debuglevel() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.set_debuglevel">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.set_debuglevel">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.set_debuglevel">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.set_debuglevel">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_default_executor">set_default_executor() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_default_type">set_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_default_type">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths">set_default_verify_paths() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults">set_defaults() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve">set_ecdh_curve() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.set_errno">set_errno() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_event_loop">set_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.set_event_loop">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.set_event_loop_policy">set_event_loop_policy() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.set_exception">set_exception() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.set_exception">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler">set_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.set_executable">set_executable() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_executables">set_executables() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_flags">set_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_flags">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.set_flags">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.set_from">set_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_from">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.set_handle_inheritable">set_handle_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_history_length">set_history_length() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_include_dirs">set_include_dirs() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_info">set_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.set_inheritable">set_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.set_inheritable">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.set_labels">set_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.set_last_error">set_last_error() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries">set_libraries() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs">set_library_dirs() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_link_objects">set_link_objects() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-set_literal">set_literal (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.set_loader">set_loader() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.set_match_tests">set_match_tests() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.set_memlimit">set_memlimit() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_next">set_next() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr">set_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols">set_npn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.set_ok">set_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback">set_option_negotiation_callback() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset">set_output_charset() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.set_package">set_package() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_param">set_param() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_param">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.set_pasv">set_pasv() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_payload">set_payload() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_policy">set_policy() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.set_position">set_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_pre_input_hook">set_pre_input_hook() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler">set_progress_handler() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.set_protocol">set_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.set_proxy">set_proxy() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.set_python_build">set_python_build() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_quit">set_quit() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc">set_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.set_result">set_result() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.set_result">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_return">set_return() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.set_running_or_notify_cancel">set_running_or_notify_cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_runtime_library_dirs">set_runtime_library_dirs() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq1">set_seq1() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2">set_seq2() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seqs">set_seqs() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.set_sequences">set_sequences() (mailbox.MH method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.set_sequences">(mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation">set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation">(xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name">set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name">(xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title">set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title">(xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback">set_servername_callback (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.set_spacing">set_spacing() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.set_start_method">set_start_method() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_startup_hook">set_startup_hook() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_step">set_step() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_subdir">set_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_task_factory">set_task_factory() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator">set_terminator() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.set_threshold">set_threshold() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_trace">set_trace() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.set_trace">(in module bdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.set_trace">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.set_trace">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback">set_trace_callback() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel">set_tunnel() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_type">set_type() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.set_unittest_reportflags">set_unittest_reportflags() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_unixfrom">set_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_unixfrom">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_until">set_until() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.set_url">set_url() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.set_usage">set_usage() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.set_userptr">set_userptr() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.set_visible">set_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.set_wakeup_fd">set_wakeup_fd() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits">set_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.setacl">setacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.setannotation">setannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#setattr">setattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttribute">setAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNode">setAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNodeNS">setAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNS">setAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase">SetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setblocking">setblocking() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setByteStream">setByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tty.html#tty.setcbreak">setcbreak() (in module tty)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setCharacterStream">setCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setcheckinterval">setcheckinterval() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setcomptype">setcomptype() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setcomptype">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setcomptype">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setContentHandler">setContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.setcontext">setcontext() (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.setDaemon">setDaemon() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.setdefault">setdefault() (dict method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.setdefault">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.setdefaulttimeout">setdefaulttimeout() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setdlopenflags">setdlopenflags() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator">setDocumentLocator() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setDTDHandler">setDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setegid">setegid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setEncoding">setEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setEntityResolver">setEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setErrorHandler">setErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.seteuid">seteuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature">setFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.setfirstweekday">setfirstweekday() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt">setfmt() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.setFormatter">setFormatter() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setframerate">setframerate() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setframerate">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setframerate">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setgid">setgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setgroups">setgroups() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.seth">seth() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setheading">setheading() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.sethostname">sethostname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.SetInteger">SetInteger() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.setitem">setitem() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.setitimer">setitimer() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.setLevel">setLevel() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.setLevel">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.setlocale">setlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setLocale">setLocale() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.setLoggerClass">setLoggerClass() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.setlogmask">setlogmask() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.setLogRecordFactory">setLogRecordFactory() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setmark">setmark() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns">setMaxConns() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.setmode">setmode() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.setName">setName() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setnchannels">setnchannels() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setnchannels">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setnchannels">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setnframes">setnframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setnframes">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setnframes">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing">SetParamEntityParsing() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setparameters">setparameters() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setparams">setparams() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setparams">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setparams">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.setpassword">setpassword() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setpgid">setpgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setpgrp">setpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setpos">setpos() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setpos">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.setpos">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.setpos">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setposition">setposition() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setpriority">setpriority() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setprofile">setprofile() (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.setprofile">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.SetProperty">SetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setProperty">setProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setPublicId">setPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.setquota">setquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tty.html#tty.setraw">setraw() (in module tty)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setrecursionlimit">setrecursionlimit() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setregid">setregid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setresgid">setresgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setresuid">setresuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setreuid">setreuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.setrlimit">setrlimit() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setsampwidth">setsampwidth() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setsampwidth">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setsampwidth">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.setscrreg">setscrreg() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setsid">setsid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt">setsockopt() (socket.socket method)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt">[1]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.setstate">setstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.setstate">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/random.html#random.setstate">(in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler.setStream">setStream() (logging.StreamHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.SetStream">SetStream() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.SetString">SetString() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-34">setswitchinterval() (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.setswitchinterval">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.setswitchinterval">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setSystemId">setSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.setsyx">setsyx() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.setTarget">setTarget() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.settiltangle">settiltangle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.settimeout">settimeout() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout">setTimeout() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.settrace">settrace() (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.settrace">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setuid">setuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setundobuffer">setundobuffer() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.setup">setup() (in module distutils.core)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setup">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup">(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.setUp">setUp() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_ANNOTATIONS">SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_ASYNC_WITH">SETUP_ASYNC_WITH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.setup_environ">setup_environ() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_EXCEPT">SETUP_EXCEPT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_FINALLY">SETUP_FINALLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_LOOP">SETUP_LOOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python">setup_python() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts">setup_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults">setup_testing_defaults() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_WITH">SETUP_WITH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.setUpClass">setUpClass() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.setupterm">setupterm() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.SetValue">SetValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.SetValueEx">SetValueEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setworldcoordinates">setworldcoordinates() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setx">setx() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setxattr">setxattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.sety">sety() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_APPEND">SF_APPEND (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_ARCHIVED">SF_ARCHIVED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_IMMUTABLE">SF_IMMUTABLE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SF_MNOWAIT">SF_MNOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SF_NODISKIO">SF_NODISKIO (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_NOUNLINK">SF_NOUNLINK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_SNAPSHOT">SF_SNAPSHOT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SF_SYNC">SF_SYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Shape">Shape (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.shape">shape (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shape">shape() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shapesize">shapesize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shapetransform">shapetransform() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.share">share() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers">shared_ciphers() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.shared_object_filename">shared_object_filename() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shearfactor">shearfactor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf">Shelf (class in shelve)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    shelve
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#module-shelve">shelve (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.shift">shift() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.shift">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.shift_path_info">shift_path_info() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    shifting
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex">shlex (class in shlex)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#module-shlex">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.shortDescription">shortDescription() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.shorten">shorten() (in module textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.shouldFlush">shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.shouldFlush">(logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.shouldStop">shouldStop (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.show">show() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.show_code">show_code() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.show_compilers">show_compilers() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror">showsyntaxerror() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback">showtraceback() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.showturtle">showturtle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.showwarning">showwarning() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.shuffle">shuffle() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown">shutdown() (concurrent.futures.Executor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.shutdown">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.shutdown">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.shutdown">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens">shutdown_asyncgens() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#module-shutil">shutil (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect">side_effect (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_BLOCK">SIG_BLOCK (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_DFL">SIG_DFL (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_IGN">SIG_IGN (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_SETMASK">SIG_SETMASK (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_UNBLOCK">SIG_UNBLOCK (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">SIGINT</a>, <a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.siginterrupt">siginterrupt() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    signal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="library/_thread.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#module-signal">signal (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.signal">signal() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature">Signature (class in inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.signature">signature (inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.signature">signature() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigpending">sigpending() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigtimedwait">sigtimedwait() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigwait">sigwait() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigwaitinfo">sigwaitinfo() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    simple
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-0">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-0">Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.SimpleCookie">SimpleCookie (class in http.cookies)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.simplefilter">simplefilter() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler">SimpleHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.SimpleNamespace">SimpleNamespace (class in types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue">SimpleQueue (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer">SimpleXMLRPCServer (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.sin">sin() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.sin">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-single-dispatch"><strong>single dispatch</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader">SingleAddressHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.singledispatch">singledispatch() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    singleton
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">tuple</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.sinh">sinh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.sinh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS">SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH">SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SIO_RCVALL">SIO_RCVALL (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#module-site">site (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    site command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-base">--user-base</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-site">--user-site</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    site-packages
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-1">directory</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    sitecustomize
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-4">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.sixtofour">sixtofour (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.size">size (struct.Struct attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.size">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic.size">(tracemalloc.Statistic attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size">(tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace.size">(tracemalloc.Trace attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.size">size() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.size">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size_diff">size_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-5">SIZE_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sized">Sized (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Sized">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.sizeof">sizeof() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.SKIP">SKIP (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.skip">skip() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.skip">(in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket">skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.skip_unless_symlink">skip_unless_symlink() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.skip_unless_xattr">skip_unless_xattr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.skipIf">skipIf() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.skipinitialspace">skipinitialspace (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.skipped">skipped (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.skippedEntity">skippedEntity() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest">SkipTest</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.skipTest">skipTest() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.skipUnless">skipUnless() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.SLASH">SLASH (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.SLASHEQUAL">SLASHEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.slave">slave() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.sleep">sleep() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.sleep">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">slice</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-slice"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dis.html#index-0">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-94">object</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#slice">slice (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-16">slicing</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-12">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    SMTP
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP">SMTP (class in smtplib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.SMTP">(in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_server">smtp_server (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP_SSL">SMTP_SSL (class in smtplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_state">smtp_state (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError">SMTPAuthenticationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel">SMTPChannel (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPConnectError">SMTPConnectError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#module-smtpd">smtpd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPDataError">SMTPDataError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPException">SMTPException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler">SMTPHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPHeloError">SMTPHeloError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib">smtplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError">SMTPNotSupportedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused">SMTPRecipientsRefused</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPResponseException">SMTPResponseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused">SMTPSenderRefused</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer">SMTPServer (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected">SMTPServerDisconnected</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.SMTPUTF8">SMTPUTF8 (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot">Snapshot (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_ALIAS">SND_ALIAS (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_ASYNC">SND_ASYNC (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_FILENAME">SND_FILENAME (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_LOOP">SND_LOOP (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_MEMORY">SND_MEMORY (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_NODEFAULT">SND_NODEFAULT (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_NOSTOP">SND_NOSTOP (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_NOWAIT">SND_NOWAIT (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_PURGE">SND_PURGE (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sndhdr.html#module-sndhdr">sndhdr (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback">sni_callback (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Sniffer.sniff">sniff() (csv.Sniffer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Sniffer">Sniffer (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_accept">sock_accept() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC">SOCK_CLOEXEC (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_connect">sock_connect() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_DGRAM">SOCK_DGRAM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE">SOCK_MAX_SIZE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK">SOCK_NONBLOCK (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_RAW">SOCK_RAW (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_RDM">SOCK_RDM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv">sock_recv() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into">sock_recv_into() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendall">sock_sendall() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile">sock_sendfile() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET">SOCK_SEQPACKET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM">SOCK_STREAM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    socket
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#module-socket">socket (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.socket">(socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.socket">socket() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#index-1">(in module socket)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.socket_type">socket_type (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler">SocketHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socketpair">socketpair() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.sockets">sockets (asyncio.Server attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#module-socketserver">socketserver (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SocketType">SocketType (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOL_ALG">SOL_ALG (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOL_RDS">SOL_RDS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOMAXCONN">SOMAXCONN (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.sort">sort() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#list.sort">(list method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.sort_stats">sort_stats() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.sortdict">sortdict() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#sorted">sorted() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.sortTestMethodsUsing">sortTestMethodsUsing (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.source">source (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-source">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.source">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-5">source character set</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#index-1">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-31">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-2">[6]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.source_from_cache">source_from_cache() (in module imp)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.source_from_cache">(in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.source_hash">source_hash() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES">SOURCE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code">source_to_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader static method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader">SourceFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.sourcehook">sourcehook() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader">SourcelessFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader">SourceLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">space</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-4">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.span">span() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.spawn">spawn() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pty.html#pty.spawn">(in module pty)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.spawn_python">spawn_python() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnl">spawnl() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnle">spawnle() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnlp">spawnlp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnlpe">spawnlpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnv">spawnv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnve">spawnve() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnvp">spawnvp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnvpe">spawnvpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.spec_from_file_location">spec_from_file_location() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.spec_from_loader">spec_from_loader() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    special
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">attribute, generic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-31">method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-special-method"><strong>special method</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.specified_attributes">specified_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.speed">speed() (in module turtle)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox">Spinbox (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.split">split() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.split">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.split">(in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.split">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.split">(in module shlex)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.split">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.split">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.split_quoted">split_quoted() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.splitdrive">splitdrive() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.splitext">splitext() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.splitlines">splitlines() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.splitlines">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.splitlines">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.SplitResult">SplitResult (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes">SplitResultBytes (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile">SpooledTemporaryFile() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">sprintf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/spwd.html#module-spwd">spwd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3">sqlite3 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.sqlite_version">sqlite_version (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.sqlite_version_info">sqlite_version_info (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.sqrt">sqrt() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.sqrt">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.sqrt">(in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.sqrt">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">SSL</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#module-ssl">ssl (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-18">SSL_CERT_FILE</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-19">SSL_CERT_PATH</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ssl_version">ssl_version (ftplib.FTP_TLS attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError">SSLCertVerificationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext">SSLContext (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLEOFError">SSLEOFError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError">SSLError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLErrorNumber">SSLErrorNumber (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLObject">SSLObject (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class">sslobject_class (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession">SSLSession (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket">SSLSocket (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class">sslsocket_class (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSyscallError">SSLSyscallError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3">SSLv3 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantReadError">SSLWantReadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantWriteError">SSLWantWriteError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLZeroReturnError">SSLZeroReturnError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.st">st() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.st2list">st2list() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.st2tuple">st2tuple() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_ATIME">ST_ATIME (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_atime">st_atime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_atime_ns">st_atime_ns (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_birthtime">st_birthtime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_blksize">st_blksize (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_blocks">st_blocks (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_creator">st_creator (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_CTIME">ST_CTIME (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_ctime">st_ctime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns">st_ctime_ns (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_DEV">ST_DEV (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_dev">st_dev (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_file_attributes">st_file_attributes (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_flags">st_flags (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_fstype">st_fstype (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_gen">st_gen (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_GID">ST_GID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_gid">st_gid (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_INO">ST_INO (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_ino">st_ino (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_MODE">ST_MODE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_mode">st_mode (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_MTIME">ST_MTIME (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_mtime">st_mtime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns">st_mtime_ns (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_NLINK">ST_NLINK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_nlink">st_nlink (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_rdev">st_rdev (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_rsize">st_rsize (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_SIZE">ST_SIZE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_size">st_size (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_type">st_type (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_UID">ST_UID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_uid">st_uid (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stack
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">execution</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">trace</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.stack">stack (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-3">stack viewer</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.stack">stack() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.stack_effect">stack_effect() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.stack_size">stack_size() (in module _thread)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.stack_size">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    stackable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">streams</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary">StackSummary (class in traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.stamp">stamp() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    standard
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">output</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">Standard C</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">standard input</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.standard_b64decode">standard_b64decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.standard_b64encode">standard_b64encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-standarderror">standarderror (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.standend">standend() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.standout">standout() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.STAR">STAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.STAREQUAL">STAREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.starmap">starmap() (in module itertools)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap_async">starmap_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range.start">start (range attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.start">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-66">(slice object attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.start">start() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.start">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.start">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.start">(re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.start">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.start">(tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start">(xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.start_color">start_color() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.start_component">start_component() (msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.start_new_thread">start_new_thread() (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server">start_server() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.start_serving">start_serving() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.start_threads">start_threads() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.start_tls">start_tls() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_unix_server">start_unix_server() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler">StartCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler">StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startDocument">startDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement">startElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartElementHandler">StartElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElementNS">startElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW">STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.startfile">startfile() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler">StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping">startPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.startswith">startswith() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.startswith">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.startswith">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.startTest">startTest() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.startTestRun">startTestRun() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.starttls">starttls() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.starttls">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.starttls">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO">STARTUPINFO (class in subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stat
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-21">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#module-stat">stat (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat">stat() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.stat">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.stat">(os.DirEntry method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.stat">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.stat">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result">stat_result (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget.state">state() (tkinter.ttk.Widget method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-statement"><strong>statement</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-2">assert</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">assignment</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">assignment, annotated</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">assignment, augmented</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-34">async def</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-36">async for</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-37">async with</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">break</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-0">compound</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">continue</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">def</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">del</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">except</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">for</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-40">future</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">global</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">if</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">import</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">loop</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-44">nonlocal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">pass</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-1">raise</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">return</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-0">simple</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">try</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">while</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-101">with</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">yield</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">statement grouping</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    staticmethod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#staticmethod">staticmethod() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic">Statistic (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff">StatisticDiff (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#module-statistics">statistics (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics">statistics() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.StatisticsError">StatisticsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats">Stats (class in pstats)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.status">status (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.status">status() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.statvfs">statvfs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE">STD_ERROR_HANDLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE">STD_INPUT_HANDLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE">STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.StdButtonBox">StdButtonBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr">stderr (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.stderr">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.stderr">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.stderr">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.stderr">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stderr">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.stdev">stdev() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stdin
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">stdout sdterr</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin">stdin (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.stdin">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.stdin">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">stdio</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stdout
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">sdterr, stdin</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout">stdout (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STDOUT">STDOUT (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">stdout (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.stdout">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.stdout">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.stdout">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.stdout">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stdout">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-step">step (pdb command)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range.step">(range attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-66">(slice object attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.step">step() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.stereocontrols">stereocontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.stls">stls() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range.stop">stop (range attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-66">(slice object attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.stop">stop() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.stop">(in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.stop">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.stop">(tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.stop">(unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.stop_here">stop_here() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration">StopAsyncIteration</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-34">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#StopIteration">StopIteration</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-30">exception</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.stopListening">stopListening() (in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.stopTest">stopTest() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.stopTestRun">stopTestRun() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.storbinary">storbinary() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.store">store() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.STORE_ACTIONS">STORE_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_ATTR">STORE_ATTR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_DEREF">STORE_DEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_FAST">STORE_FAST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_GLOBAL">STORE_GLOBAL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_NAME">STORE_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_SUBSCR">STORE_SUBSCR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.storlines">storlines() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str">str (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">(see also string)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.str">str() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.strcoll">strcoll() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.StreamError">StreamError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler">StreamHandler (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader">StreamReader (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader">(class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.streamreader">streamreader (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReaderWriter">StreamReaderWriter (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamRecoder">StreamRecoder (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.StreamRequestHandler">StreamRequestHandler (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">streams</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">stackable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter">StreamWriter (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter">(class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.streamwriter">streamwriter (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.strerror">strerror (OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-0">strerror()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.strerror">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.strftime">strftime() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.strftime">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.strftime">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.strftime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.strict">strict (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.strict">(in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain">strict_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.strict_errors">strict_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain">strict_ns_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar">strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path">strict_ns_set_path (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable">strict_ns_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable">strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.strides">strides (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    string
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-2">PyObject_Str (C function)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">__format__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-72">__str__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">conversion</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-3">format() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">formatted literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">formatting, printf</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-18">immutable sequences</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">interpolated literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">interpolation, printf</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-41">item</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-30">methods</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-6">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-3">object representation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-28">str (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-10">str() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">text sequence type</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.STRING">STRING (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#module-string">string (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.string">(re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.string_at">string_at() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.StringIO">StringIO (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#module-stringprep">stringprep (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-1">strings, documentation</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.strip">strip() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.strip">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.strip">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.strip_dirs">strip_dirs() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.strip_python_strerr">strip_python_strerr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces">stripspaces (curses.textpad.Textbox attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.strptime">strptime() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.strptime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.strtobool">strtobool() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    struct
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-14">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct">Struct (class in struct)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#module-struct">struct (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><strong>struct sequence</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.struct_time">struct_time (class in time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure">Structure (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    structures
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">C</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.strxfrm">strxfrm() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.STType">STType (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    style
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-8">coding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style">Style (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.sub">sub() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.sub">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.sub">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.sub_commands">sub_commands (distutils.cmd.Command attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    subclassing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-68">immutable types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.subdirs">subdirs (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement">SubElement() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit">submit() (concurrent.futures.Executor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.submodule_search_locations">submodule_search_locations (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.subn">subn() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.subn">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnet_of">subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnet_of">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnets">subnets() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnets">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Subnormal">Subnormal (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.suboffsets">suboffsets (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.subpad">subpad() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess">subprocess (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec">subprocess_exec() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell">subprocess_shell() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.SubprocessError">SubprocessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol">SubprocessProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport">SubprocessTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.subscribe">subscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    subscript
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">subscription</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-39">[3]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.subsequent_indent">subsequent_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.subst_vars">subst_vars() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template.substitute">substitute() (string.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.subTest">subTest() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.subtract">subtract() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.subtract">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-68">subtraction</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.subtype">subtype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.subwin">subwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.successful">successful() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.suffix_map">suffix_map (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.suffix_map">(mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-1">suite</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.suite">suite() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.suiteClass">suiteClass (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#sum">sum() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-11">sum_list()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-12">sum_sequence()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.summarize">summarize() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.summarize_address_range">summarize_address_range() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#module-sunau">sunau (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.super">super (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#super">super() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet">supernet() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet_of">supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet_of">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_bytes_environ">supports_bytes_environ (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_dir_fd">supports_dir_fd (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_effective_ids">supports_effective_ids (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_fd">supports_fd (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_follow_symlinks">supports_follow_symlinks (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.supports_unicode_filenames">supports_unicode_filenames (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsAbs">SupportsAbs (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsBytes">SupportsBytes (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsComplex">SupportsComplex (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsFloat">SupportsFloat (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsInt">SupportsInt (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsRound">SupportsRound (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.suppress">suppress() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SuppressCrashReport">SuppressCrashReport (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.SW_HIDE">SW_HIDE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.swap_attr">swap_attr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.swap_item">swap_item() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.swapcase">swapcase() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.swapcase">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.swapcase">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symbol.html#symbol.sym_name">sym_name (in module symbol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol">Symbol (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symbol.html#module-symbol">symbol (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable">SymbolTable (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.symlink">symlink() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.symlink_to">symlink_to() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.symmetric_difference">symmetric_difference() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.symmetric_difference_update">symmetric_difference_update() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#module-symtable">symtable (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.symtable">symtable() (in module symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.sync">sync() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.sync">(dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sync">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.sync">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf.sync">(shelve.Shelf method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.syncdown">syncdown() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized">synchronized() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager">SyncManager (class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.syncok">syncok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.syncup">syncup() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">syntax</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.SyntaxErr">SyntaxErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError">SyntaxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SyntaxWarning">SyntaxWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    sys
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[5]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#module-sys">sys (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">sys.exc_info</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">sys.last_traceback</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-10">sys.meta_path</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-7">sys.modules</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-17">sys.path</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-17">sys.path_hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-17">sys.path_importer_cache</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">sys.stderr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">sys.stdin</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">sys.stdout</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-sys_exc">sys_exc (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.sys_version">sys_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sysconf">sysconf() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sysconf_names">sysconf_names (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig">sysconfig (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#module-syslog">syslog (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.syslog">syslog() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler">SysLogHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.system">system() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.system">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.system_alias">system_alias() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.system_must_validate_cert">system_must_validate_cert() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SystemError">SystemError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-4">(built-in exception)</a>, <a href="c-api/module.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SystemExit">SystemExit</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-15">(built-in exception)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.systemId">systemId (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.SystemRandom">SystemRandom (class in random)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.SystemRandom">(class in secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-3">SystemRoot</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Symbols.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Symbols.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b972d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Symbols.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1723 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-Symbols.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; Symbols</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    ! (exclamation)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cmd.html#index-0">in a command interpreter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#index-0">in curses module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">in formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-!">! (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    !=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#34; (double quote)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#34;&#34;&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    # (hash)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-2">comment</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/introduction.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-4">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-36">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-5">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-5">source encoding declaration</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    $ (dollar)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-8">environment variables expansion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-2">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-11">in template strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-2">interpolation in configuration files</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    % (percent)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#index-0">datetime format</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-12">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-8">environment variables expansion (Windows)</a>, <a href="library/winreg.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-1">interpolation in configuration files</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-66">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    %=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &amp; (ampersand)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &amp;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#39; (single quote)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#39;&#39;&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    () (parentheses)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">generator expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in assignment target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-34">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-14">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-8">tuple display</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-15">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?!
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-21">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?#
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-19">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?:
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-16">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?&lt;!
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-23">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?&lt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-22">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-20">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?P&lt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-17">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?P=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-18">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    * (asterisk)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-22">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-37">import statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#index-1">in AST grammar</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#index-1">in argparse module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in assignment target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-88">in expression lists</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-47">in function calls</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-34">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-3">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-63">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    **
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-22">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-17">in dictionary displays</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-48">in function calls</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    **=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    *=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    *?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-6">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    + (plus)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">binary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-67">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#index-2">in argparse module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-4">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-4">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-4">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">unary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-59">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    +=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    +?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-6">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    , (comma)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">argument list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">expression list</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-86">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">identifier list</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">import statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">in dictionary displays</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-6">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">parameter list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">slicing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">tuple display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">with statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    - (minus)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">binary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-68">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-4">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-10">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-4">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">unary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --create &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-create">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --create &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-create">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --details
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#cmdoption-inspect-details">inspect command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --extract &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-extract">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --extract &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-extract">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --help
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-help">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-help">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --ignore-dir=&lt;dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --ignore-module=&lt;mod&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-module">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --info
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-info">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --list &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-list">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --list &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-list">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --locals
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-locals">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --sort-keys
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-sort-keys">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --test &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-test">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --test &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-test">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --user-base
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-base">site command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --user-site
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-site">site command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --version
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-version">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-version">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">function annotations</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -a, --annotate
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-a">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -B
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id1">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -b
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-b">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -b, --buffer
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-b">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c &lt;command&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-c">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-c">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c, --catch
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-c">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c, --compress
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-c">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c, --count
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-c">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -C, --coverdir=&lt;dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-coverdir">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -d
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-d">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -d destdir
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-d">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -E
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -e &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-e">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -e &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-e">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -e, --exact
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-e">tokenize command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -f
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-f">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -f, --failfast
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-f">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -f, --file=&lt;file&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-f">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -g, --timing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-g">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -h
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-h">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -h, --help
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-h">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-h">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-h">tokenize command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-h">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -I
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id2">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -i
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -i list
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-i">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -J
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-j">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -j N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-j">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -k
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-k">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-l">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-l">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-l">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l, --indentlevel=&lt;num&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-l">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l, --listfuncs
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-l">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m &lt;mainfn&gt;, --main=&lt;mainfn&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-m">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m &lt;module-name&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m, --memo
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-m">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m, --missing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-m">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    -n N, --number=N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-n">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -O
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -o &lt;output&gt;, --output=&lt;output&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-o">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -o, --output=&lt;file&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-o">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -OO
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p &lt;interpreter&gt;, --python=&lt;interpreter&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-p">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p, --pattern pattern
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-p">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p, --preamble=&lt;preamble&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-p">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p, --process
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-p">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -q
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-q">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-q">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -R
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-r">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -r
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-r">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -r N, --repeat=N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-r">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -R, --no-report
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-no-report">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -r, --report
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-r">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -S
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id3">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s S, --setup=S
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-s">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s, --start-directory directory
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-s">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s, --summary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-s">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-t">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-t">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t, --top-level-directory directory
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-t">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t, --trace
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-t">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -T, --trackcalls
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-trackcalls">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -u
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-u">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -u, --unit=U
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-u">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -V
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-v">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -v
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id4">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -v, --verbose
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-v">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-v">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-v">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -W arg
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -X
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id5">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -x
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-x">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -x regex
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-x">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    . (dot)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-37">attribute reference</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-0">in Tkinter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#index-1">in glob-style wildcards</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-28">in numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-34">in pathnames</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-39">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-34">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-0">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ..
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-35">in pathnames</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-1"><strong>...</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#index-0">ellipsis literal</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-58">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-3">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-0">interpreter prompt</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#index-0">placeholder</a>, <a href="library/reprlib.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/textwrap.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    .ini
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    .pdbrc
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    / (slash)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-36">in pathnames</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    //
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    //=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    /=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    0b
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    0o
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    0x
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-2to3"><strong>2to3</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    : (colon)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">annotated variable</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">compound statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">function annotations</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-3">in SQL statements</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">in dictionary expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">in formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">lambda expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-40">path separator (POSIX)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">slicing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-40">; (semicolon)</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    &lt; (less)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &lt;&lt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &lt;&lt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &lt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-2">&lt;BLANKLINE&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    = (equals)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">assignment statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">class definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">in function calls</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ==
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt; (greater)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt;&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt;&gt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term"><strong>&gt;&gt;&gt;</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-0">interpreter prompt</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ? (question mark)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#index-0">in AST grammar</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-2">in SQL statements</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmd.html#index-0">in a command interpreter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#index-0">in argparse module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-5">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-2">in struct format strings</a>, <a href="library/struct.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">replacement character</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ??
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-6">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    @ (at)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-30">class definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-20">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-64">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    [] (square brackets)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in assignment target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-9">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-39">subscription</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \ (backslash)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-37">in pathnames (Windows)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-11">in regular expressions</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \\
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \A
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-25">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \a
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \B
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-27">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \b
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-26">in regular expressions</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \D
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-29">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \d
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-28">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \f
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \g
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-37">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \n
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \r
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \S
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-31">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \s
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-30">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \t
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \U
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \u
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \v
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \W
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-33">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \w
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-32">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \x
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \Z
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-34">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ^ (caret)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#index-0">in curses module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-1">in regular expressions</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-1">marker</a>, <a href="library/traceback.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ^=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    {} (curly brackets)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">dictionary expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">in formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-7">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">set expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    | (vertical bar)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-13">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    |=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ~ (tilde)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-1">home directory expansion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-60">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-T.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-T.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..533d8b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-T.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1249 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-T.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; T</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.T_FMT">T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.T_FMT_AMPM">T_FMT_AMPM (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">tab</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tab">tab() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#TabError">TabError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#module-tabnanny">tabnanny (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tabs">tabs() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.tabsize">tabsize (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tabular
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-0">data</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tag">tag (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_bind">tag_bind() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_configure">tag_configure() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_has">tag_has() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.tagName">tagName (xml.dom.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tail">tail (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.take_snapshot">take_snapshot() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.takewhile">takewhile() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.tan">tan() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.tan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.tanh">tanh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.tanh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarError">TarError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile">TarFile (class in tarfile)</a>, <a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile">tarfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tarfile command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-create">--create &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-extract">--extract &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-list">--list &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-test">--test &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-c">-c &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-e">-e &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-l">-l &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-t">-t &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-v">-v, --verbose</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-5">target</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">deletion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">list</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">list assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">list, deletion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">loop control</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.target">target (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo">TarInfo (class in tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task">Task (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.task_done">task_done() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done">(multiprocessing.JoinableQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.task_done">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.tau">tau (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.tau">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">tb_frame (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">tb_lasti (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">tb_lineno (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.tb_locals">tb_locals (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-64">tb_next (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-tbreak">tbreak (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcdrain">tcdrain() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcflow">tcflow() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcflush">tcflush() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcgetattr">tcgetattr() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.tcgetpgrp">tcgetpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Tcl">Tcl() (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-0">TCL_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.TCPServer">TCPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcsendbreak">tcsendbreak() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcsetattr">tcsetattr() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.tcsetpgrp">tcsetpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.tearDown">tearDown() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass">tearDownClass() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.tee">tee() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.tell">tell() (aifc.aifc method)</a>, <a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.tell">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.tell">(chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.tell">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.tell">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.tell">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.tell">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.tell">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.tell">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.tell">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet">Telnet (class in telnetlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#module-telnetlib">telnetlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-2">TEMP</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.temp_cwd">temp_cwd() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.temp_dir">temp_dir() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.temp_umask">temp_umask() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.tempdir">tempdir (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#module-tempfile">tempfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template">Template (class in pipes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template">(class in string)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template.template">template (string.Template attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    temporary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">file name</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.TemporaryDirectory">TemporaryDirectory() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.TemporaryFile">TemporaryFile() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.teredo">teredo (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-1">TERM</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.termattrs">termattrs() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.terminal_size">terminal_size (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate">terminate() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.terminate">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.terminate">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-14">termination model</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#module-termios">termios (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.termname">termname() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    ternary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    test
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">identity</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">membership</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure.test">test (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException.test">(doctest.UnexpectedException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#module-test">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.test">test() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#module-test.support">test.support (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#module-test.support.script_helper">test.support.script_helper (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR">TEST_DATA_DIR (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR">TEST_HOME_DIR (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL">TEST_HTTP_URL (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR">TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase">TestCase (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TestFailed">TestFailed</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.testfile">testfile() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN">TESTFN (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_ENCODING">TESTFN_ENCODING (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_NONASCII">TESTFN_NONASCII (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE">TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE">TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_UNICODE">TESTFN_UNICODE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TestHandler">TestHandler (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader">TestLoader (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.testMethodPrefix">testMethodPrefix (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.testmod">testmod() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.testNamePatterns">testNamePatterns (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult">TestResult (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imghdr.html#imghdr.tests">tests (in module imghdr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.testsource">testsource() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.testsRun">testsRun (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite">TestSuite (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.testzip">testzip() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Text">Text (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.text">text (in module msilib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.text">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><strong>text encoding</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-text-file"><strong>text file</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">text mode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.text">text() (in module cgitb)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.text">(msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.text_factory">text_factory (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox">Textbox (class in curses.textpad)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar">TextCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.textdomain">textdomain() (in module gettext)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.textdomain">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile">TextFile (class in distutils.text_file)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.textinput">textinput() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.TextIO">TextIO (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase">TextIOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper">TextIOWrapper (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestResult">TextTestResult (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestRunner">TextTestRunner (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#module-textwrap">textwrap (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper">TextWrapper (class in textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_create">theme_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_names">theme_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_settings">theme_settings() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_use">theme_use() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.THOUSEP">THOUSEP (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread">Thread (class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.thread">thread() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.thread_info">thread_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.thread_time">thread_time() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.thread_time_ns">thread_time_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#module-threading">threading (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.threading_cleanup">threading_cleanup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.threading_setup">threading_setup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer">ThreadingHTTPServer (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn">ThreadingMixIn (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer">ThreadingTCPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer">ThreadingUDPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor">ThreadPoolExecutor (class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    threads
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-1">POSIX</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-throw">throw (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.throw">throw() (coroutine method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.throw">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.ticket_lifetime_hint">ticket_lifetime_hint (ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tigetflag">tigetflag() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tigetnum">tigetnum() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tigetstr">tigetstr() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.TILDE">TILDE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.tilt">tilt() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.tiltangle">tiltangle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time">time (class in datetime)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#module-time">(module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.time">(ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.time">time() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.time">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.time">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.Time2Internaldate">Time2Internaldate() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.time_ns">time_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta">timedelta (class in datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler">TimedRotatingFileHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.timegm">timegm() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#module-timeit">timeit (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    timeit command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-n">-n N, --number=N</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-p">-p, --process</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-r">-r N, --repeat=N</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-s">-s S, --setup=S</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-u">-u, --unit=U</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-v">-v, --verbose</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.timeit">timeit() (in module timeit)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.timeit">(timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.timeout">timeout</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.timeout">(socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.timeout">(ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.timeout">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.timeout">timeout() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.TIMEOUT_MAX">TIMEOUT_MAX (in module _thread)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.TIMEOUT_MAX">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.TimeoutError">TimeoutError</a>, <a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.TimeoutError">[1]</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#TimeoutError">[2]</a>, <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.TimeoutError">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired">TimeoutExpired</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Timer">Timer (class in threading)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer">(class in timeit)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.TimerHandle">TimerHandle (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.times">times() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP">TIMESTAMP (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.timestamp">timestamp() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.timetuple">timetuple() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.timetuple">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.timetz">timetz() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone">timezone (class in datetime)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.timezone">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.title">title() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.title">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.title">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.title">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#index-0">Tix</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir">tix_addbitmapdir() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_cget">tix_cget() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_configure">tix_configure() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_filedialog">tix_filedialog() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap">tix_getbitmap() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage">tix_getimage() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_option_get">tix_option_get() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_resetoptions">tix_resetoptions() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand">tixCommand (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">Tk</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Tk">(class in tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Tk">(class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-3">Tk Option Data Types</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-1">TK_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">Tkinter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter">tkinter (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html#module-tkinter.scrolledtext">tkinter.scrolledtext (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#module-tkinter.tix">tkinter.tix (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk">tkinter.ttk (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.TList">TList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">TLS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1">TLSv1 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1">TLSv1_1 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2">TLSv1_2 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3">TLSv1_3 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion">TLSVersion (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-3">TMP</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-1">TMPDIR</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#int.to_bytes">to_bytes() (int method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.to_eng_string">to_eng_string() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_eng_string">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_integral">to_integral() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.to_integral_exact">to_integral_exact() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_integral_exact">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_integral_value">to_integral_value() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.to_sci_string">to_sci_string() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#encodings.idna.ToASCII">ToASCII() (in module encodings.idna)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.tobuf">tobuf() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tobytes">tobytes() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.tobytes">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.today">today() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.today">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tofile">tofile() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.tok_name">tok_name (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-0">token</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/token.html#module-token">(module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.token">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.token_bytes">token_bytes() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.token_hex">token_hex() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.token_urlsafe">token_urlsafe() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.TokenError">TokenError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#module-tokenize">tokenize (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tokenize command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-e">-e, --exact</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.tokenize">tokenize() (in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tolist">tolist() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.tolist">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.tolist">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.tomono">tomono() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.toordinal">toordinal() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.toordinal">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.top">top() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.top">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.top_panel">top_panel() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.toprettyxml">toprettyxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.tostereo">tostereo() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tostring">tostring() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist">tostringlist() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.total_changes">total_changes (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering">total_ordering() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.total_seconds">total_seconds() (datetime.timedelta method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.totuple">totuple() (parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.touch">touch() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.touchline">touchline() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.touchwin">touchwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tounicode">tounicode() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#encodings.idna.ToUnicode">ToUnicode() (in module encodings.idna)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.towards">towards() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.toxml">toxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_async">tp_as_async (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_mapping">tp_as_mapping (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_number">tp_as_number (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_sequence">tp_as_sequence (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tparm">tparm() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    trace
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">stack</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace">Trace (class in trace)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace">(class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#module-trace">trace (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    trace command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-help">--help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir">--ignore-dir=&lt;dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-module">--ignore-module=&lt;mod&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-version">--version</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-coverdir">-C, --coverdir=&lt;dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-no-report">-R, --no-report</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-trackcalls">-T, --trackcalls</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-c">-c, --count</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-f">-f, --file=&lt;file&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-g">-g, --timing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-l">-l, --listfuncs</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-m">-m, --missing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-r">-r, --report</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-s">-s, --summary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-t">-t, --trace</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-25">trace function</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/threading.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.trace">trace() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch">trace_dispatch() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    traceback
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-5">object</a>, <a href="library/traceback.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-28">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Traceback">Traceback (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#module-traceback">traceback (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic.traceback">(tracemalloc.Statistic attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.traceback">(tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace.traceback">(tracemalloc.Trace attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traceback_limit">traceback_limit (tracemalloc.Snapshot attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.traceback_limit">(wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException">TracebackException (class in traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.tracebacklimit">tracebacklimit (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tracebacks
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">in CGI scripts</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.TracebackType">TracebackType (class in types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc">tracemalloc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.tracer">tracer() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces">traces (tracemalloc.Snapshot attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    trailing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-90">comma</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd">transfercmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.transient_internet">transient_internet() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TransientResource">TransientResource (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.translate">translate() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.translate">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.translate">(in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.translate">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.translation">translation() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.transport">transport (asyncio.StreamWriter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Transport">Transport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">Transport Layer Security</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.traverseproc">traverseproc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Tree">Tree (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder">TreeBuilder (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview">Treeview (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.triangular">triangular() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">triple-quoted string</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-triple-quoted-string"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">True</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-2">true</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#True">True (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.truediv">truediv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.trunc">trunc() (in module math)</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.truncate">truncate() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.truncate">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    truth
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">value</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.truth">truth() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    try
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">statement</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#index-0">ttk</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tty
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">I/O control</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tty.html#module-tty">tty (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.ttyname">ttyname() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tuple
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">empty</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-87">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">singleton</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#tuple">tuple (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Tuple">Tuple (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.tuple2st">tuple2st() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-tuple_params">tuple_params (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Turtle">Turtle (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#module-turtle">turtle (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#module-turtledemo">turtledemo (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.turtles">turtles() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.TurtleScreen">TurtleScreen (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.turtlesize">turtlesize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">type</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-type"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-0">Boolean</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-7">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">data</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">hierarchy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">immutable data</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-6">object</a>, <a href="c-api/type.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">operations on dictionary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">operations on list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#type">type (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Type">Type (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.type">type (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.type">(socket.socket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.type">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.type">(urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-type-alias"><strong>type alias</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-type-hint"><strong>type hint</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">type of an object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.type_check_only">type_check_only() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER">TYPE_CHECKER (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.TYPE_CHECKING">TYPE_CHECKING (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.typeahead">typeahead() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.typecode">typecode (array.array attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.typecodes">typecodes (in module array)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.TYPED_ACTIONS">TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator">typed_subpart_iterator() (in module email.iterators)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#TypeError">TypeError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-61">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    types
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-0">built-in</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">immutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">mutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations on integer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">operations on mapping</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">operations on numeric</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operations on sequence</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-types">types (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#module-types">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.TYPES">TYPES (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-54">types, internal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.types_map">types_map (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map">(mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map_inv">types_map_inv (mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.TypeVar">TypeVar (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#module-typing">typing (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-14">TZ</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-16">[2]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-18">[4]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-19">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo">tzinfo (class in datetime)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.tzinfo">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.tzinfo">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.tzname">tzname (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.tzname">tzname() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.tzname">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.tzname">(datetime.timezone method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.tzname">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.tzset">tzset() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-U.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-U.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29d7a46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-U.html
@@ -0,0 +1,838 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-U.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; U</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    u&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    u&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-1">u-LAW</a>, <a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sndhdr.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0">ucd_3_2_0 (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.udata">udata (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.UDPServer">UDPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_APPEND">UF_APPEND (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_COMPRESSED">UF_COMPRESSED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_HIDDEN">UF_HIDDEN (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_IMMUTABLE">UF_IMMUTABLE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_NODUMP">UF_NODUMP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_NOUNLINK">UF_NOUNLINK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_OPAQUE">UF_OPAQUE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.uid">uid (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.uid">uid() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.uidl">uidl() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.ulaw2lin">ulaw2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-4">ULONG_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.umask">umask() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-unalias">unalias (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.uname">uname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.uname">uname() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.uname">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    unary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">arithmetic operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">bitwise operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_INVERT">UNARY_INVERT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_NEGATIVE">UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_NOT">UNARY_NOT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_POSITIVE">UNARY_POSITIVE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    unbinding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">name</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError">UnboundLocalError</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">unbuffered I/O</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    UNC paths
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-19">and os.makedirs()</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.UNCHECKED_HASH">UNCHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail">unconsumed_tail (zlib.Decompress attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.unctrl">unctrl() (in module curses)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.unctrl">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro">undefine_macro() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Underflow">Underflow (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-undisplay">undisplay (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.undo">undo() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.undobufferentries">undobufferentries() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.undoc_header">undoc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.html#html.unescape">unescape() (in module html)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.unescape">(in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException">UnexpectedException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses">unexpectedSuccesses (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.unfreeze">unfreeze() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.unget_wch">unget_wch() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.ungetch">ungetch() (in module curses)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.ungetch">(in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.ungetmouse">ungetmouse() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.ungetwch">ungetwch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.unhexlify">unhexlify() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Unicode</a>, <a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">database</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-unicode">unicode (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">Unicode Consortium</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata">unicodedata (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError">UnicodeDecodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError">UnicodeEncodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError">UnicodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeTranslateError">UnicodeTranslateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeWarning">UnicodeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.unidata_version">unidata_version (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.unified_diff">unified_diff() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.uniform">uniform() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.UnimplementedFileMode">UnimplementedFileMode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Union">Union (class in ctypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Union">(in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.union">union() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.unique">unique() (in module enum)</a>, <a href="library/enum.html#enum.unique">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#module-unittest">unittest (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    unittest command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-locals">--locals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-b">-b, --buffer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-c">-c, --catch</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-f">-f, --failfast</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-k">-k</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    unittest-discover command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-p">-p, --pattern pattern</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-s">-s, --start-directory directory</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-t">-t, --top-level-directory directory</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-v">-v, --verbose</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#module-unittest.mock">unittest.mock (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><strong>universal newlines</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-8">What&#39;s new</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-18">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-13">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-42">bytearray.splitlines method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-42">bytes.splitlines method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-3">csv.reader function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-16">importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#index-2">io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#index-1">io.TextIOWrapper class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-6">open() built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-32">str.splitlines method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-1">subprocess module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">UNIX</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">I/O control</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">file control</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.unix_dialect">unix_dialect (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.unix_shell">unix_shell (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.UnixDatagramServer">UnixDatagramServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.UnixStreamServer">UnixStreamServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID.unknown">unknown (uuid.SafeUUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.unknown_decl">unknown_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.unknown_open">unknown_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.UnknownHandler.unknown_open">(urllib.request.UnknownHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.UnknownHandler">UnknownHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.UnknownProtocol">UnknownProtocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding">UnknownTransferEncoding</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.unlink">unlink() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.unlink">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.unlink">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.unlink">(xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.unload">unload() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.unlock">unlock() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.unlock">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF.unlock">(mailbox.MMDF method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.unlock">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.unlock">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox.unlock">(mailbox.mbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.unpack">unpack() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.unpack">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.unpack_archive">unpack_archive() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_array">unpack_array() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_bytes">unpack_bytes() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_double">unpack_double() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNPACK_EX">UNPACK_EX (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_farray">unpack_farray() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_float">unpack_float() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fopaque">unpack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.unpack_from">unpack_from() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.unpack_from">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring">unpack_fstring() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_list">unpack_list() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_opaque">unpack_opaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNPACK_SEQUENCE">UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string">unpack_string() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker">Unpacker (class in xdrlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    unpacking
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-17">dictionary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-47">in function calls</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-88">iterable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl">unparsedEntityDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler">UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler">Unpickler (class in pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.UnpicklingError">UnpicklingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.unquote">unquote() (in module email.utils)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.unquote">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.unquote_plus">unquote_plus() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes">unquote_to_bytes() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-2">unreachable object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline">unreadline() (distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-23">unrecognized escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/atexit.html#atexit.unregister">unregister() (in module atexit)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.unregister">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.unregister">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.unregister">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.unregister">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.unregister">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.unregister_archive_format">unregister_archive_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.unregister_dialect">unregister_dialect() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.unregister_unpack_format">unregister_unpack_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID.unsafe">unsafe (uuid.SafeUUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.unset">unset() (test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.unsetenv">unsetenv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader">UnstructuredHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.unsubscribe">unsubscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.UnsupportedOperation">UnsupportedOperation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-until">until (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.untokenize">untokenize() (in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.untouchwin">untouchwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.unused_data">unused_data (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.unused_data">(lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.unused_data">(zlib.Decompress attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.unverifiable">unverifiable (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.unwrap">unwrap() (in module inspect)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-up">up (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.up">up() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.update">update() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.update">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.update">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.update">(hashlib.hash method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.update">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.update">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.update">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.update">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.update">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.CoverageResults.update">(trace.CoverageResults method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated">update_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.update_lines_cols">update_lines_cols() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.update_panels">update_panels() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.update_visible">update_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.update_wrapper">update_wrapper() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.upper">upper() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.upper">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.upper">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.urandom">urandom() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">URL</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">parsing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">relative</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.url">url (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.url2pathname">url2pathname() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlcleanup">urlcleanup() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urldefrag">urldefrag() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode">urlencode() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError">URLError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urljoin">urljoin() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-urllib">urllib (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.html#module-urllib">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#module-urllib.error">urllib.error (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse">urllib.parse (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    urllib.request
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request">urllib.request (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.response">urllib.response (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#module-urllib.robotparser">urllib.robotparser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen">urlopen() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener">URLopener (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlparse">urlparse() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlretrieve">urlretrieve() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.urlsafe_b64decode">urlsafe_b64decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.urlsafe_b64encode">urlsafe_b64encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlsplit">urlsplit() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlunparse">urlunparse() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlunsplit">urlunsplit() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.urn">urn (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.use_default_colors">use_default_colors() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.use_env">use_env() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.use_rawinput">use_rawinput (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UseForeignDTD">UseForeignDTD() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-1">USER</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    user
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-0">effective id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-8">id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-11">id, setting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.user">user() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    user-defined
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">function call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    user-defined function
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    user-defined method
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-9">USER_BASE</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#site.USER_BASE">(in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_call">user_call() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_exception">user_exception() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_line">user_line() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_return">user_return() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.USER_SITE">USER_SITE (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    usercustomize
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-5">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserDict">UserDict (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserList">UserList (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-3">USERNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.username">username (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-6">USERPROFILE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.userptr">userptr() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserString">UserString (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UserWarning">UserWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT">USTAR_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-4">UTC</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.utc">utc (datetime.timezone attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp">utcfromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utcnow">utcnow() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utcoffset">utcoffset() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.utcoffset">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.utcoffset">(datetime.timezone method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utctimetuple">utctimetuple() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8">utf8 (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.utf8">utf8() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.utf8_enabled">utf8_enabled (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.utime">utime() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    uu
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uu.html#module-uu">uu (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID">UUID (class in uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#module-uuid">uuid (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-6">uuid1</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid1">uuid1() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-7">uuid3</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid3">uuid3() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-8">uuid4</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid4">uuid4() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-9">uuid5</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid5">uuid5() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.UuidCreate">UuidCreate() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-V.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-V.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aee4f91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-V.html
@@ -0,0 +1,363 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-V.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; V</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed">v4_int_to_packed() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed">v6_int_to_packed() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.validate.validator">validator() (in module wsgiref.validate)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    value
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">default parameter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">truth</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._SimpleCData.value">value (ctypes._SimpleCData attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.value">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.value">(http.cookies.Morsel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.value">(xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">value of an object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Value">Value() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value">(in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Value">(multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_decode">value_decode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_encode">value_encode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ValueError">ValueError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-70">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs">valuerefs() (weakref.WeakValueDictionary method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    values
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">Boolean</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">writing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.values">values() (contextvars.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.values">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.values">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.values">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.values">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.values">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ValuesView">ValuesView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ValuesView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.var">var (contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    variable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-6">free</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><strong>variable annotation</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.variance">variance() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.variant">variant (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#vars">vars() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.VBAR">VBAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html#tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.vbar">vbar (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.VBAREQUAL">VBAREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Vec2D">Vec2D (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#module-venv">venv (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.VERBOSE">VERBOSE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.verbose">verbose (in module tabnanny)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.verbose">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.verify">verify() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake">verify_client_post_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_code">verify_code (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT">VERIFY_DEFAULT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags">verify_flags (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_message">verify_message (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode">verify_mode (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.verify_request">verify_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT">VERIFY_X509_STRICT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST">VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VerifyFlags">VerifyFlags (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VerifyMode">VerifyMode (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.version">version (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.version">(http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.version">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.version">(in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.version">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.version">(in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-25">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-28">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.version">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.version">(ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.version">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.version">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.version">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.version">(urllib.request.URLopener attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.version">(uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#ensurepip.version">version() (in module ensurepip)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.version">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.version">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.version_info">version_info (in module sqlite3)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.version_info">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string">version_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.vformat">vformat() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    virtual
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-0">Environments</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-virtual-environment"><strong>virtual environment</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-virtual-machine"><strong>virtual machine</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeVisitor.visit">visit() (ast.NodeVisitor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.visitproc">visitproc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.vline">vline() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.voidcmd">voidcmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.volume">volume (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.vonmisesvariate">vonmisesvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-W.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-W.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9c0ced
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-W.html
@@ -0,0 +1,642 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-W.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; W</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.W_OK">W_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait">wait() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.wait">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.wait">(asyncio.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.wait">(in module concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.wait">(in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.wait">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.wait">(multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.wait">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.wait">(threading.Barrier method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.wait">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.wait">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.wait3">wait3() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.wait4">wait4() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.wait_closed">wait_closed() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.wait_for">wait_for() (asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.wait_for">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.wait_threads_exit">wait_threads_exit() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.waitid">waitid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.waitpid">waitpid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.walk">walk() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.walk">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.walk">(in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.walk">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.walk_packages">walk_packages() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.walk_stack">walk_stack() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.walk_tb">walk_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.want">want (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.warn">warn() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.warn">(in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.warn_explicit">warn_explicit() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#Warning">Warning</a>, <a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Warning">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.warning">warning() (in module logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.warning">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.warning">(xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#index-0">warnings</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/warnings.html#module-warnings">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.WarningsRecorder">WarningsRecorder (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.warnoptions">warnoptions (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.wasSuccessful">wasSuccessful() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler">WatchedFileHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wave.html#module-wave">wave (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WCONTINUED">WCONTINUED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WCOREDUMP">WCOREDUMP() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary">WeakKeyDictionary (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakMethod">WeakMethod (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#module-weakref">weakref (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakSet">WeakSet (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakValueDictionary">WeakValueDictionary (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#module-webbrowser">webbrowser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.weekday">weekday() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.weekday">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.weekday">(in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.weekheader">weekheader() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.weibullvariate">weibullvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WEXITED">WEXITED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WEXITSTATUS">WEXITSTATUS() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.wfile">wfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imghdr.html#imghdr.what">what() (in module imghdr)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sndhdr.html#sndhdr.what">(in module sndhdr)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sndhdr.html#sndhdr.whathdr">whathdr() (in module sndhdr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-whatis">whatis (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.TimerHandle.when">when() (asyncio.TimerHandle method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-where">where (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.which">which() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.whichdb">whichdb() (in module dbm)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    while
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.whitespace">whitespace (in module string)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.whitespace">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.whitespace_split">whitespace_split (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget">Widget (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.width">width (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.width">width() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFCONTINUED">WIFCONTINUED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFEXITED">WIFEXITED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFSIGNALED">WIFSIGNALED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFSTOPPED">WIFSTOPPED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.win32_ver">win32_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.WinDLL">WinDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-2">window manager (widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.window">window() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.window_height">window_height() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.window_width">window_width() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">Windows</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">Windows ini file</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#WindowsError">WindowsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.WindowsPath">WindowsPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy">WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder">WindowsRegistryFinder (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.winerror">winerror (OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.WinError">WinError() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE">WINFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#module-winreg">winreg (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#index-2">WinSock</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#module-winsound">winsound (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.winver">winver (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    with
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-101">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH">WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_START">WITH_CLEANUP_START (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_hostmask">with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.with_name">with_name() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_netmask">with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_netmask">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_netmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_netmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_prefixlen">with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.with_pymalloc">with_pymalloc() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix">with_suffix() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BaseException.with_traceback">with_traceback() (BaseException method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WNOHANG">WNOHANG (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WNOWAIT">WNOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.wordchars">wordchars (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-0">World Wide Web</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.wrap">wrap() (in module textwrap)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.wrap">(textwrap.TextWrapper method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio">wrap_bio() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.wrap_future">wrap_future() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket">wrap_socket() (in module ssl)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket">(ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.wrap_text">wrap_text() (in module distutils.fancy_getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.wrapper">wrapper() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.WrapperDescriptorType">WrapperDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.wraps">wraps() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.WRITABLE">WRITABLE (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.writable">writable() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.writable">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.write">write() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.write">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.write">(code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter.write">(codecs.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.write">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator.write">(email.generator.BytesGenerator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator.write">(email.generator.Generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.write">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.write">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.write">(io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedWriter.write">(io.BufferedWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.write">(io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.write">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.write">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.write">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.write">(ssl.MemoryBIO method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.write">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.write">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.write">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.write_byte">write_byte() (mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.write_bytes">write_bytes() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.write_docstringdict">write_docstringdict() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.write_eof">write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.write_eof">(ssl.MemoryBIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.file_util.write_file">write_file() (in module distutils.file_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.write_history_file">write_history_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">WRITE_RESTRICTED</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.CoverageResults.write_results">write_results() (trace.CoverageResults method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.write_text">write_text() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper.write_through">write_through (io.TextIOWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall">writeall() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.writeframes">writeframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.writeframes">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.writeframes">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.writeframesraw">writeframesraw() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.writeframesraw">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter.writeheader">writeheader() (csv.DictWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.writelines">writelines() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter.writelines">(codecs.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.writelines">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.writePlist">writePlist() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.writePlistToBytes">writePlistToBytes() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy">writepy() (zipfile.PyZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.writer">writer (formatter.formatter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.writer">writer() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvwriter.writerow">writerow() (csv.csvwriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvwriter.writerows">writerows() (csv.csvwriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.writestr">writestr() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport">WriteTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.writev">writev() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.writexml">writexml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    writing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">values</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr">WrongDocumentErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-ws_comma">ws_comma (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper">wsgi_file_wrapper (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multiprocess">wsgi_multiprocess (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multithread">wsgi_multithread (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_run_once">wsgi_run_once (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref">wsgiref (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.handlers">wsgiref.handlers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.headers">wsgiref.headers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.simple_server">wsgiref.simple_server (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.util">wsgiref.util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.validate">wsgiref.validate (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler">WSGIRequestHandler (class in wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer">WSGIServer (class in wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow">wShowWindow (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WSTOPPED">WSTOPPED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WSTOPSIG">WSTOPSIG() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.wstring_at">wstring_at() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WTERMSIG">WTERMSIG() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WUNTRACED">WUNTRACED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-0">WWW</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">server</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-X.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-X.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c712cc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-X.html
@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-X.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; X</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.X">X (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-16">X509 certificate</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.X_OK">X_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.xatom">xatom() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.XATTR_CREATE">XATTR_CREATE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.XATTR_REPLACE">XATTR_REPLACE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX">XATTR_SIZE_MAX (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.xcor">xcor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-0">XDR</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#module-xdrlib">xdrlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.xhdr">xhdr() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#index-0">XHTML</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE">XHTML_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.html#module-xml">xml (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XML">XML() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom">xml.dom (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom">xml.dom.minidom (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#module-xml.dom.pulldom">xml.dom.pulldom (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree">xml.etree.ElementTree (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat">xml.parsers.expat (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors">xml.parsers.expat.errors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.model">xml.parsers.expat.model (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax">xml.sax (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#module-xml.sax.handler">xml.sax.handler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#module-xml.sax.saxutils">xml.sax.saxutils (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#module-xml.sax.xmlreader">xml.sax.xmlreader (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED">XML_ERROR_ABORTED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY">XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF">XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING">XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE">XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE">XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING">XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD">XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED">XML_ERROR_FINISHED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE">XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING">XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN">XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT">XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI">XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS">XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY">XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE">XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED">XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR">XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID">XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE">XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED">XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX">XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH">XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL">XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX">XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION">XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN">XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX">XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY">XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE">XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING">XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL">XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE">XML_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors">xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler">XmlDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase">XMLFilterBase (class in xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator">XMLGenerator (class in xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID">XMLID() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE">XMLNS_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser">XMLParser (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType">XMLParserType (in module xml.parsers.expat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser">XMLPullParser (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader">XMLReader (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client">xmlrpc.client (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#module-xmlrpc.server">xmlrpc.server (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    xor
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.xor">xor() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.xover">xover() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.xpath">xpath() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-xrange">xrange (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-xreadlines">xreadlines (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.xview">xview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Y.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Y.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a94e3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Y.html
@@ -0,0 +1,200 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-Y.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; Y</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-3">Y2K</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ycor">ycor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.year">year (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.year">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-3">Year 2000</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-2">Year 2038</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar">yeardatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.yeardays2calendar">yeardays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.yeardayscalendar">yeardayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.YESEXPR">YESEXPR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    yield
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-32">examples</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">keyword</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-10">yield from (in What&#39;s New)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-YIELD_FROM">YIELD_FROM (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-YIELD_VALUE">YIELD_VALUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.yiq_to_rgb">yiq_to_rgb() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.yview">yview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Z.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Z.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbd740f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-Z.html
@@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-Z.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; Z</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-zen-of-python"><strong>Zen of Python</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError">ZeroDivisionError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.zfill">zfill() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.zfill">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.zfill">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-zip">zip (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#zip">zip() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2">ZIP_BZIP2 (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED">ZIP_DEFLATED (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.zip_longest">zip_longest() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_LZMA">ZIP_LZMA (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_STORED">ZIP_STORED (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#module-zipapp">zipapp (module)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    zipapp command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-info">--info</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-c">-c, --compress</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-m">-m &lt;mainfn&gt;, --main=&lt;mainfn&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-o">-o &lt;output&gt;, --output=&lt;output&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-p">-p &lt;interpreter&gt;, --python=&lt;interpreter&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile">ZipFile (class in zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile">zipfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    zipfile command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-create">--create &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-extract">--extract &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-list">--list &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-test">--test &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-c">-c &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-e">-e &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-l">-l &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-t">-t &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#module-zipimport">zipimport (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter">zipimporter (class in zipimport)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.ZipImportError">ZipImportError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo">ZipInfo (class in zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#module-zlib">zlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION">ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.ZLIB_VERSION">ZLIB_VERSION (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-_.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-_.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..314aabd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-_.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1090 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-_.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index &ndash; _</h1>
+
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    _ (underscore)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-4">gettext</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">in numeric literal</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-8">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-14">_, identifiers</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-14">__, identifiers</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__abs__">__abs__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__abs__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__add__">__add__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aenter__">__aenter__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aexit__">__aexit__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aiter__">__aiter__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-8">__all__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-38">(optional module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-0">(package variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__and__">__and__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__and__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.__anext__">__anext__() (agen method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__annotations__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__">__await__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__">__bases__ (class attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-93">__bool__() (object method)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__breakpointhook__">__breakpointhook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__bytes__">__bytes__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__bytes__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__bytes__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__cached__">__cached__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__call__">__call__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__">(object method)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-54">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.__call__">(weakref.finalize method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ref.__callback__">__callback__ (weakref.ref attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">__cause__ (exception attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.__cause__">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.__ceil__">__ceil__() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ceil__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#instance.__class__">__class__ (instance attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-52">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-87">(method cell)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-79">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.__class__">(unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__class_getitem__">__class_getitem__() (object class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-87">__classcell__ (class namespace entry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__closure__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__code__ (function attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-55">(function object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__complex__">__complex__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__concat__">__concat__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__contains__">__contains__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__contains__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__contains__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__contains__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">__context__ (exception attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.__context__">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-1">__copy__() (copy protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-19">__debug__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#__debug__">(built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-1">__deepcopy__() (copy protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__defaults__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.__del__">__del__() (io.IOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delattr__">__delattr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delete__">__delete__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__delitem__">__delitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__delitem__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__delitem__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.__delitem__">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__delitem__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__dict__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-52">(instance attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-3">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__">(object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-79">__dir__ (module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__">__dir__() (object method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.__dir__">(unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__displayhook__">__displayhook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__divmod__">__divmod__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__doc__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">(method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__doc__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__enter__">__enter__() (contextmanager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.__enter__">(winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.__eq__">__eq__() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.__eq__">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__eq__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.__eq__">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__excepthook__">__excepthook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__exit__">__exit__() (contextmanager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.__exit__">(winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__file__">__file__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="c-api/module.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__float__">__float__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.__floor__">__floor__() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__floor__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__floordiv__">__floordiv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__floordiv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-3">__format__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.__format__">__format__() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.__format__">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.__format__">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PathLike.__fspath__">__fspath__() (os.PathLike method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">__func__ (method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-future"><strong>__future__</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-40">future statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/__future__.html#module-__future__">__future__ (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ge__">__ge__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__">__get__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-79">__getattr__ (module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__">__getattr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__">__getattribute__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__getitem__">__getitem__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__getitem__">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__getitem__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__getitem__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__getitem__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-67">(mapping object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.__getitem__">(re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__getnewargs__">__getnewargs__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__getnewargs_ex__">__getnewargs_ex__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-6">__getstate__() (copy protocol)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__getstate__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__globals__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__gt__">__gt__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__">__hash__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__iadd__">__iadd__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iadd__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__iand__">__iand__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iand__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__iconcat__">__iconcat__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ifloordiv__">__ifloordiv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ifloordiv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ilshift__">__ilshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ilshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__imatmul__">__imatmul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__imatmul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__imod__">__imod__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__imod__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    __import__
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#__import__">__import__() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.__import__">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__imul__">__imul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__imul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__index__">__index__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff.__init__">__init__() (difflib.HtmlDiff method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.__init__">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging.html#logging.logging.Formatter.__init__">(logging.logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__init_subclass__">__init_subclass__() (object class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#class.__instancecheck__">__instancecheck__() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__">__int__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__interactivehook__">__interactivehook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__inv__">__inv__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__invert__">__invert__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__invert__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ior__">__ior__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ior__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ipow__">__ipow__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ipow__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__irshift__">__irshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__irshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__isub__">__isub__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__isub__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#container.__iter__">__iter__() (container method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__iter__">(iterator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.__iter__">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__itruediv__">__itruediv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__itruediv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ixor__">__ixor__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ixor__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__kwdefaults__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__le__">__le__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__len__">__len__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__len__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__len__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-78">(mapping object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__length_hint__">__length_hint__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__loader__">__loader__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__loader__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__lshift__">__lshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__lshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__lt__">__lt__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    __main__
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-3">[7]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/__main__.html#module-__main__">__main__ (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__matmul__">__matmul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__matmul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-51">__missing__()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict.__missing__">(collections.defaultdict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__mod__">__mod__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__mod__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__module__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">(method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.__mro__">__mro__ (class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__mul__">__mul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__mul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__name__">__name__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">(class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__">(definition attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">(method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="c-api/module.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__name__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.__ne__">__ne__() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.__ne__">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ne__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ne__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__neg__">__neg__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__neg__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__">__new__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.__next__">__next__() (csv.csvreader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__">(iterator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__not__">__not__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__or__">__or__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__or__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__package__">__package__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__package__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__path__">__path__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__pos__">__pos__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__pos__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__pow__">__pow__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__pow__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-84">__prepare__ (metaclass method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#definition.__qualname__">__qualname__ (definition attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__radd__">__radd__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rand__">__rand__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rdivmod__">__rdivmod__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__reduce__">__reduce__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__reduce_ex__">__reduce_ex__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__repr__">__repr__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.__repr__">(netrc.netrc method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__">__reversed__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rfloordiv__">__rfloordiv__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rlshift__">__rlshift__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmatmul__">__rmatmul__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmod__">__rmod__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmul__">__rmul__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ror__">__ror__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.__round__">__round__() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__round__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rpow__">__rpow__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rrshift__">__rrshift__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__rshift__">__rshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rsub__">__rsub__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rtruediv__">__rtruediv__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rxor__">__rxor__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">__self__ (method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__">__set__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__set_name__">__set_name__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__">__setattr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__setitem__">__setitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__setitem__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__setitem__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.__setitem__">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-6">__setstate__() (copy protocol)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__setstate__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-slots"><strong>__slots__</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__spec__">__spec__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__stderr__">__stderr__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__stdin__">__stdin__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__stdout__">__stdout__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.__str__">__str__() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.__str__">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.__str__">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.__str__">(email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.__str__">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.__str__">(email.headerregistry.Address method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group.__str__">(email.headerregistry.Group method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__str__">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__str__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__str__">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__sub__">__sub__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__sub__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#class.__subclasscheck__">__subclasscheck__() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.__subclasses__">__subclasses__() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta.__subclasshook__">__subclasshook__() (abc.ABCMeta method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.__suppress_context__">__suppress_context__ (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">__traceback__ (exception attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__truediv__">__truediv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__truediv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__trunc__">__trunc__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__xor__">__xor__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__xor__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure._anonymous_">_anonymous_ (ctypes.Structure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._asdict">_asdict() (collections.somenamedtuple method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData._b_base_">_b_base_ (ctypes._CData attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData._b_needsfree_">_b_needsfree_ (ctypes._CData attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod">_callmethod() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData">_CData (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._clear_type_cache">_clear_type_cache() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._current_frames">_current_frames() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._debugmallocstats">_debugmallocstats() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_dummy_thread.html#module-_dummy_thread">_dummy_thread (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding">_enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os._exit">_exit() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._field_defaults">_field_defaults (collections.somenamedtuple attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST._fields">_fields (ast.AST attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._fields">(collections.somenamedtuple attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure._fields_">_fields_ (ctypes.Structure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush">_flush() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._frozen">_frozen (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr">_FuncPtr (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock._get_child_mock">_get_child_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._getframe">_getframe() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._getvalue">_getvalue() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PyDLL._handle">_handle (ctypes.PyDLL attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._inittab">_inittab (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Array._length_">_length_ (ctypes.Array attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    _locale
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._make">_make() (collections.somenamedtuple class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestRunner._makeResult">_makeResult() (unittest.TextTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PyDLL._name">_name (ctypes.PyDLL attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData._objects">_objects (ctypes._CData attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure._pack_">_pack_ (ctypes.Structure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations._parse">_parse() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._Pointer">_Pointer (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_diff">_Py_c_diff (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_neg">_Py_c_neg (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_pow">_Py_c_pow (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_prod">_Py_c_prod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_quot">_Py_c_quot (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_sum">_Py_c_sum (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c._Py_NoneStruct">_Py_NoneStruct (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c._PyBytes_Resize">_PyBytes_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c._PyCFunctionFast">_PyCFunctionFast (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c._PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords">_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._PyImport_Fini">_PyImport_Fini (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._PyImport_Init">_PyImport_Init (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c._PyObject_GC_TRACK">_PyObject_GC_TRACK (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c._PyObject_GC_UNTRACK">_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c._PyObject_New">_PyObject_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c._PyObject_NewVar">_PyObject_NewVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c._PyTuple_Resize">_PyTuple_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._replace">_replace() (collections.somenamedtuple method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree._setroot">_setroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._SimpleCData">_SimpleCData (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#email.iterators._structure">_structure() (in module email.iterators)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    _thread
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-39">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#module-_thread">_thread (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._Pointer._type_">_type_ (ctypes._Pointer attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Array._type_">(ctypes.Array attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write">_write() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._xoptions">_xoptions (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-all.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-all.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f4fb0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex-all.html
@@ -0,0 +1,29854 @@
+
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="./" src="_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/genindex-all.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+
+<h1 id="index">Index</h1>
+
+<div class="genindex-jumpbox">
+ <a href="#Symbols"><strong>Symbols</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#_"><strong>_</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#A"><strong>A</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#B"><strong>B</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#C"><strong>C</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#D"><strong>D</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#E"><strong>E</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#F"><strong>F</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#G"><strong>G</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#H"><strong>H</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#I"><strong>I</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#J"><strong>J</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#K"><strong>K</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#L"><strong>L</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#M"><strong>M</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#N"><strong>N</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#O"><strong>O</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#P"><strong>P</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#Q"><strong>Q</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#R"><strong>R</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#S"><strong>S</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#T"><strong>T</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#U"><strong>U</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#V"><strong>V</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#W"><strong>W</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#X"><strong>X</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#Y"><strong>Y</strong></a>
+ | <a href="#Z"><strong>Z</strong></a>
+ 
+</div>
+<h2 id="Symbols">Symbols</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    ! (exclamation)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cmd.html#index-0">in a command interpreter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#index-0">in curses module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">in formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-!">! (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    !=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#34; (double quote)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#34;&#34;&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    # (hash)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-2">comment</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/introduction.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-4">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-36">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-5">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-5">source encoding declaration</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    $ (dollar)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-8">environment variables expansion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-2">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-11">in template strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-2">interpolation in configuration files</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    % (percent)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#index-0">datetime format</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-12">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-8">environment variables expansion (Windows)</a>, <a href="library/winreg.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-1">interpolation in configuration files</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-66">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    %=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &amp; (ampersand)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &amp;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#39; (single quote)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &#39;&#39;&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    () (parentheses)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">generator expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in assignment target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-34">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-14">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-8">tuple display</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-15">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?!
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-21">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?#
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-19">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?:
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-16">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?&lt;!
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-23">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?&lt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-22">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-20">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?P&lt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-17">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    (?P=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-18">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    * (asterisk)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-22">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-37">import statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#index-1">in AST grammar</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#index-1">in argparse module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in assignment target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-88">in expression lists</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-47">in function calls</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-34">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-3">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-63">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    **
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-22">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-17">in dictionary displays</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-48">in function calls</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    **=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    *=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    *?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-6">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    + (plus)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">binary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-67">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#index-2">in argparse module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-4">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-4">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-4">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">unary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-59">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    +=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    +?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-6">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    , (comma)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">argument list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">expression list</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-86">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">identifier list</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">import statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">in dictionary displays</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-6">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">parameter list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">slicing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">tuple display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">with statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    - (minus)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">binary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-68">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-4">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-10">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-4">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">unary operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --create &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-create">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --create &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-create">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --details
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#cmdoption-inspect-details">inspect command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --extract &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-extract">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --extract &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-extract">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --help
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-help">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-help">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --ignore-dir=&lt;dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --ignore-module=&lt;mod&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-module">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --info
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-info">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --list &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-list">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --list &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-list">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --locals
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-locals">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --sort-keys
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-sort-keys">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --test &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-test">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --test &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-test">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --user-base
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-base">site command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --user-site
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-site">site command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    --version
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-version">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-version">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">function annotations</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -?
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -a, --annotate
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-a">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -B
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id1">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -b
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-b">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -b, --buffer
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-b">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c &lt;command&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-c">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-c">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c, --catch
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-c">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c, --compress
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-c">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -c, --count
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-c">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -C, --coverdir=&lt;dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-coverdir">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -d
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-d">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -d destdir
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-d">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -E
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -e &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-e">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -e &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-e">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -e, --exact
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-e">tokenize command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -f
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-f">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -f, --failfast
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-f">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -f, --file=&lt;file&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-f">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -g, --timing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-g">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -h
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-h">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -h, --help
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-h">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-h">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-h">tokenize command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-h">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -I
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id2">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -i
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -i list
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-i">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -J
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-j">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -j N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-j">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -k
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-k">unittest command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-l">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-l">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-l">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l, --indentlevel=&lt;num&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-l">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -l, --listfuncs
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-l">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m &lt;mainfn&gt;, --main=&lt;mainfn&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-m">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m &lt;module-name&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m, --memo
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-m">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -m, --missing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-m">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -n N, --number=N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-n">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    -O
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -o &lt;output&gt;, --output=&lt;output&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-o">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -o, --output=&lt;file&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-o">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -OO
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p &lt;interpreter&gt;, --python=&lt;interpreter&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-p">zipapp command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p, --pattern pattern
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-p">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p, --preamble=&lt;preamble&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-p">pickletools command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -p, --process
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-p">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -q
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-q">command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-q">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -R
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-r">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -r
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-r">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -r N, --repeat=N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-r">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -R, --no-report
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-no-report">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -r, --report
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-r">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -S
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id3">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s S, --setup=S
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-s">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s, --start-directory directory
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-s">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -s, --summary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-s">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t &lt;tarfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-t">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t &lt;zipfile&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-t">zipfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t, --top-level-directory directory
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-t">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -t, --trace
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-t">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -T, --trackcalls
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-trackcalls">trace command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -u
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-u">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -u, --unit=U
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-u">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -V
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-v">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -v
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id4">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -v, --verbose
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-v">tarfile command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-v">timeit command line option</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-v">unittest-discover command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -W arg
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -X
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id5">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -x
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-x">command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    -x regex
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-x">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    . (dot)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-37">attribute reference</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-0">in Tkinter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#index-1">in glob-style wildcards</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-28">in numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-34">in pathnames</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-39">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-34">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-0">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ..
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-35">in pathnames</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-1"><strong>...</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#index-0">ellipsis literal</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-58">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-3">in doctests</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-0">interpreter prompt</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#index-0">placeholder</a>, <a href="library/reprlib.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/textwrap.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    .ini
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    .pdbrc
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    / (slash)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-36">in pathnames</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    //
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    //=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    /=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    0b
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    0o
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    0x
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-2to3"><strong>2to3</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    : (colon)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">annotated variable</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">compound statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">function annotations</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-3">in SQL statements</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">in dictionary expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">in formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">lambda expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-40">path separator (POSIX)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">slicing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-40">; (semicolon)</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    &lt; (less)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &lt;&lt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &lt;&lt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &lt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-2">&lt;BLANKLINE&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    = (equals)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">assignment statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">class definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">in function calls</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ==
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt; (greater)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt;&gt;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    &gt;&gt;=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term"><strong>&gt;&gt;&gt;</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-0">interpreter prompt</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ? (question mark)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#index-0">in AST grammar</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-2">in SQL statements</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmd.html#index-0">in a command interpreter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#index-0">in argparse module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-5">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-2">in struct format strings</a>, <a href="library/struct.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">replacement character</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ??
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-6">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    @ (at)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-30">class definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-20">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-1">in struct format strings</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-64">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    [] (square brackets)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">in assignment target list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-2">in glob-style wildcards</a>, <a href="library/glob.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-9">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-39">subscription</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \ (backslash)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-37">in pathnames (Windows)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-11">in regular expressions</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \\
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \A
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-25">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \a
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \B
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-27">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \b
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-26">in regular expressions</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \D
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-29">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \d
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-28">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \f
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \g
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-37">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \N
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \n
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \r
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \S
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-31">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \s
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-30">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \t
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \U
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \u
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \v
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \W
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-33">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \w
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-32">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \x
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-1">escape sequence</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-35">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    \Z
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-34">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ^ (caret)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#index-0">in curses module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-1">in regular expressions</a>, <a href="library/re.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-3">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#index-1">marker</a>, <a href="library/traceback.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ^=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    {} (curly brackets)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">dictionary expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">in formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-7">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-2">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">set expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    | (vertical bar)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#index-13">in regular expressions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    |=
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    ~ (tilde)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-1">home directory expansion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-60">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="_">_</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    _ (underscore)
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-4">gettext</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-27">in numeric literal</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-8">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-14">_, identifiers</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-14">__, identifiers</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__abs__">__abs__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__abs__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__add__">__add__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aenter__">__aenter__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aexit__">__aexit__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aiter__">__aiter__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-8">__all__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-38">(optional module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-0">(package variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__and__">__and__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__and__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.__anext__">__anext__() (agen method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__annotations__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__">__await__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__">__bases__ (class attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-93">__bool__() (object method)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__breakpointhook__">__breakpointhook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__bytes__">__bytes__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__bytes__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__bytes__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__cached__">__cached__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__call__">__call__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__">(object method)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-54">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.__call__">(weakref.finalize method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ref.__callback__">__callback__ (weakref.ref attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">__cause__ (exception attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.__cause__">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.__ceil__">__ceil__() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ceil__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#instance.__class__">__class__ (instance attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-52">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-87">(method cell)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-79">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.__class__">(unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__class_getitem__">__class_getitem__() (object class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-87">__classcell__ (class namespace entry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__closure__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__code__ (function attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-55">(function object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__complex__">__complex__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__concat__">__concat__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__contains__">__contains__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__contains__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__contains__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__contains__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">__context__ (exception attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.__context__">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-1">__copy__() (copy protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-19">__debug__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#__debug__">(built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-1">__deepcopy__() (copy protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__defaults__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.__del__">__del__() (io.IOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delattr__">__delattr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delete__">__delete__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__delitem__">__delitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__delitem__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__delitem__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.__delitem__">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__delitem__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__dict__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-52">(instance attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-3">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__">(object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-79">__dir__ (module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__">__dir__() (object method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.__dir__">(unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__displayhook__">__displayhook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__divmod__">__divmod__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__doc__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">(method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__doc__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__enter__">__enter__() (contextmanager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.__enter__">(winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.__eq__">__eq__() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.__eq__">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__eq__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.__eq__">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__excepthook__">__excepthook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__exit__">__exit__() (contextmanager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.__exit__">(winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__file__">__file__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="c-api/module.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__float__">__float__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.__floor__">__floor__() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__floor__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__floordiv__">__floordiv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__floordiv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-3">__format__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.__format__">__format__() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.__format__">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.__format__">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PathLike.__fspath__">__fspath__() (os.PathLike method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">__func__ (method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-future"><strong>__future__</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-40">future statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/__future__.html#module-__future__">__future__ (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ge__">__ge__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__">__get__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-79">__getattr__ (module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__">__getattr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__">__getattribute__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__getitem__">__getitem__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__getitem__">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__getitem__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__getitem__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__getitem__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-67">(mapping object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.__getitem__">(re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__getnewargs__">__getnewargs__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__getnewargs_ex__">__getnewargs_ex__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-6">__getstate__() (copy protocol)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__getstate__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__globals__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__gt__">__gt__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__">__hash__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__iadd__">__iadd__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iadd__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__iand__">__iand__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iand__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__iconcat__">__iconcat__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ifloordiv__">__ifloordiv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ifloordiv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ilshift__">__ilshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ilshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__imatmul__">__imatmul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__imatmul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__imod__">__imod__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__imod__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    __import__
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#__import__">__import__() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.__import__">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__imul__">__imul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__imul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__index__">__index__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff.__init__">__init__() (difflib.HtmlDiff method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.__init__">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging.html#logging.logging.Formatter.__init__">(logging.logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__init_subclass__">__init_subclass__() (object class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#class.__instancecheck__">__instancecheck__() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__">__int__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__interactivehook__">__interactivehook__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__inv__">__inv__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__invert__">__invert__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__invert__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ior__">__ior__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ior__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ipow__">__ipow__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ipow__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__irshift__">__irshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__irshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__isub__">__isub__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__isub__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#container.__iter__">__iter__() (container method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__iter__">(iterator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.__iter__">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__itruediv__">__itruediv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__itruediv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ixor__">__ixor__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ixor__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">__kwdefaults__ (function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__le__">__le__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__len__">__len__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__len__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__len__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-78">(mapping object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__length_hint__">__length_hint__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__loader__">__loader__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__loader__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__lshift__">__lshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__lshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__lt__">__lt__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    __main__
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-3">[7]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/__main__.html#module-__main__">__main__ (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__matmul__">__matmul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__matmul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-51">__missing__()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict.__missing__">(collections.defaultdict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__mod__">__mod__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__mod__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">__module__ (class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">(method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.__mro__">__mro__ (class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__mul__">__mul__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__mul__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__name__">__name__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-48">(class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__">(definition attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">(function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">(method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>, <a href="c-api/module.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__name__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.__ne__">__ne__() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.__ne__">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__ne__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-9">(instance method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ne__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__neg__">__neg__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__neg__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__">__new__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.__next__">__next__() (csv.csvreader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__">(iterator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__not__">__not__() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__or__">__or__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__or__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__package__">__package__</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-2">(module attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType.__package__">(types.ModuleType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__path__">__path__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__pos__">__pos__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__pos__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__pow__">__pow__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__pow__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-84">__prepare__ (metaclass method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#definition.__qualname__">__qualname__ (definition attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__radd__">__radd__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rand__">__rand__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rdivmod__">__rdivmod__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__reduce__">__reduce__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__reduce_ex__">__reduce_ex__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__repr__">__repr__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.__repr__">(netrc.netrc method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__">__reversed__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rfloordiv__">__rfloordiv__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rlshift__">__rlshift__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmatmul__">__rmatmul__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmod__">__rmod__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmul__">__rmul__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__ror__">__ror__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.__round__">__round__() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__round__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rpow__">__rpow__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rrshift__">__rrshift__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__rshift__">__rshift__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rshift__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rsub__">__rsub__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rtruediv__">__rtruediv__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__rxor__">__rxor__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-36">__self__ (method attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__">__set__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__set_name__">__set_name__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__">__setattr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__setitem__">__setitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__setitem__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__setitem__">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.__setitem__">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-6">__setstate__() (copy protocol)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#object.__setstate__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-slots"><strong>__slots__</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#__spec__">__spec__</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__stderr__">__stderr__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__stdin__">__stdin__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.__stdout__">__stdout__ (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.__str__">__str__() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.__str__">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.__str__">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.__str__">(email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.__str__">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.__str__">(email.headerregistry.Address method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group.__str__">(email.headerregistry.Group method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__str__">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__str__">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__str__">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__sub__">__sub__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__sub__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#class.__subclasscheck__">__subclasscheck__() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.__subclasses__">__subclasses__() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta.__subclasshook__">__subclasshook__() (abc.ABCMeta method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.__suppress_context__">__suppress_context__ (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">__traceback__ (exception attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__truediv__">__truediv__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__truediv__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__trunc__">__trunc__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.__xor__">__xor__() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__xor__">(object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure._anonymous_">_anonymous_ (ctypes.Structure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._asdict">_asdict() (collections.somenamedtuple method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData._b_base_">_b_base_ (ctypes._CData attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData._b_needsfree_">_b_needsfree_ (ctypes._CData attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod">_callmethod() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData">_CData (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._clear_type_cache">_clear_type_cache() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._current_frames">_current_frames() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._debugmallocstats">_debugmallocstats() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_dummy_thread.html#module-_dummy_thread">_dummy_thread (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding">_enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os._exit">_exit() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._field_defaults">_field_defaults (collections.somenamedtuple attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST._fields">_fields (ast.AST attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._fields">(collections.somenamedtuple attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure._fields_">_fields_ (ctypes.Structure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush">_flush() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._frozen">_frozen (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr">_FuncPtr (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock._get_child_mock">_get_child_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._getframe">_getframe() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._getvalue">_getvalue() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PyDLL._handle">_handle (ctypes.PyDLL attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._inittab">_inittab (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Array._length_">_length_ (ctypes.Array attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    _locale
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._make">_make() (collections.somenamedtuple class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestRunner._makeResult">_makeResult() (unittest.TextTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PyDLL._name">_name (ctypes.PyDLL attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData._objects">_objects (ctypes._CData attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure._pack_">_pack_ (ctypes.Structure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations._parse">_parse() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._Pointer">_Pointer (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_diff">_Py_c_diff (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_neg">_Py_c_neg (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_pow">_Py_c_pow (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_prod">_Py_c_prod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_quot">_Py_c_quot (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c._Py_c_sum">_Py_c_sum (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c._Py_NoneStruct">_Py_NoneStruct (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c._PyBytes_Resize">_PyBytes_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c._PyCFunctionFast">_PyCFunctionFast (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c._PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords">_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._PyImport_Fini">_PyImport_Fini (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c._PyImport_Init">_PyImport_Init (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c._PyObject_GC_TRACK">_PyObject_GC_TRACK (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c._PyObject_GC_UNTRACK">_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c._PyObject_New">_PyObject_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c._PyObject_NewVar">_PyObject_NewVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c._PyTuple_Resize">_PyTuple_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._replace">_replace() (collections.somenamedtuple method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree._setroot">_setroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._SimpleCData">_SimpleCData (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#email.iterators._structure">_structure() (in module email.iterators)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    _thread
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-39">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#module-_thread">_thread (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._Pointer._type_">_type_ (ctypes._Pointer attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Array._type_">(ctypes.Array attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write">_write() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys._xoptions">_xoptions (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="A">A</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.A">A (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-1">A-LAW</a>, <a href="library/sndhdr.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">a-LAW</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_base64">a2b_base64() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_hex">a2b_hex() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_hqx">a2b_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_qp">a2b_qp() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.a2b_uu">a2b_uu() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.a85decode">a85decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.a85encode">a85encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABC">ABC (class in abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#module-abc">abc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta">ABCMeta (class in abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.abiflags">abiflags (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#index-0">abort()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport.abort">(asyncio.DatagramTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.abort">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.abort">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.abort">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.abort">(threading.Barrier method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.above">above() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    abs
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-98">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#abs">abs() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.abs">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.abs">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.abspath">abspath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><strong>abstract base class</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager">AbstractAsyncContextManager (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler">AbstractBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher">AbstractChildWatcher (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractclassmethod">abstractclassmethod() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractContextManager">AbstractContextManager (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler">AbstractDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoop">AbstractEventLoop (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy">AbstractEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.AbstractFormatter">AbstractFormatter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod">abstractmethod() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractproperty">abstractproperty() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AbstractSet">AbstractSet (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.abstractstaticmethod">abstractstaticmethod() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.AbstractWriter">AbstractWriter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.accept">accept() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept">(multiprocessing.connection.Listener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.accept">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.access">access() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate">accumulate() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.aclose">aclose() (agen method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.aclose">(contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.acos">acos() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.acos">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.acosh">acosh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.acosh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.lock.acquire">acquire() (_thread.lock method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.acquire">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock.acquire">(asyncio.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore.acquire">(asyncio.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.acquire">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Lock.acquire">(multiprocessing.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.RLock.acquire">(multiprocessing.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.acquire">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Lock.acquire">(threading.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.RLock.acquire">(threading.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore.acquire">(threading.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.acquire_lock">acquire_lock() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.Action">Action (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.action">action (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.ACTIONS">ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.active_children">active_children() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.active_count">active_count() (in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.add">add() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.add">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.add">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.add">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.add">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.add">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.RadioButtonGroup.add">(msilib.RadioButtonGroup method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.add">(pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.add">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.add">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.add_alias">add_alias() (in module email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_alternative">add_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument">add_argument() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group">add_argument_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_attachment">add_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars">add_cgi_vars() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.add_charset">add_charset() (in module email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.add_child_handler">add_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.add_codec">add_codec() (in module email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.add_cookie_header">add_cookie_header() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.add_data">add_data() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.add_done_callback">add_done_callback() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.add_done_callback">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.add_done_callback">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.add_fallback">add_fallback() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.add_file">add_file() (msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.add_flag">add_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.add_flag">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.add_flag">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data">add_flowing_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.add_folder">add_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.add_folder">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_get_handler">add_get_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.add_handler">add_handler() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_header">add_header() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.add_header">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.add_header">(urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.headers.Headers.add_header">(wsgiref.headers.Headers method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.add_history">add_history() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_hor_rule">add_hor_rule() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_include_dir">add_include_dir() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.add_label">add_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_label_data">add_label_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library">add_library() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_library_dir">add_library_dir() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_line_break">add_line_break() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_link_object">add_link_object() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.add_literal_data">add_literal_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group">add_mutually_exclusive_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.add_option">add_option() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.add_parent">add_parent() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password">add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password">(urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader">add_reader() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.add_related">add_related() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.add_runtime_library_dir">add_runtime_library_dir() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.add_section">add_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser.add_section">(configparser.RawConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.add_sequence">add_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_set_handler">add_set_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler">add_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.add_stream">add_stream() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers">add_subparsers() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.add_tables">add_tables() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.add_type">add_type() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.add_unredirected_header">add_unredirected_header() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_writer">add_writer() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.addch">addch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup">addCleanup() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Shape.addcomponent">addcomponent() (turtle.Shape method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addError">addError() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addExpectedFailure">addExpectedFailure() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addFailure">addFailure() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.addfile">addfile() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.addFilter">addFilter() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addFilter">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addHandler">addHandler() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-67">addition</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.addLevelName">addLevelName() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.addnstr">addnstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.AddPackagePath">AddPackagePath() (in module modulefinder)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.addr">addr (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.addr_spec">addr_spec (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address">Address (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader.address">address (email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.address">(multiprocessing.connection.Listener attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.address">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.address_exclude">address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.address_exclude">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.address_family">address_family (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.address_string">address_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.addresses">addresses (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group.addresses">(email.headerregistry.Group attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader">AddressHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.addressof">addressof() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.AddressValueError">AddressValueError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.addshape">addshape() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.addsitedir">addsitedir() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addSkip">addSkip() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.addstr">addstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addSubTest">addSubTest() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addSuccess">addSuccess() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.addTest">addTest() (unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.addTests">addTests() (unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc">addTypeEqualityFunc() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.addUnexpectedSuccess">addUnexpectedSuccess() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.adjusted">adjusted() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.adler32">adler32() (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">ADPCM, Intel/DVI</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.adpcm2lin">adpcm2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_ALG">AF_ALG (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_CAN">AF_CAN (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_INET">AF_INET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_INET6">AF_INET6 (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_LINK">AF_LINK (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_PACKET">AF_PACKET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_RDS">AF_RDS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_UNIX">AF_UNIX (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.AF_VSOCK">AF_VSOCK (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#module-aifc">aifc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.aifc">aifc() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-0">AIFF</a>, <a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.aiff">aiff() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-0">AIFF-C</a>, <a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.alarm">alarm() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.alaw2lin">alaw2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.AlertDescription">AlertDescription (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.algorithms_available">algorithms_available (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed">algorithms_guaranteed (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-alias">alias (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.alignment">alignment() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.alive">alive (weakref.finalize attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#all">all() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.all_errors">all_errors (in module ftplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.all_features">all_features (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.all_frames">all_frames (tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.all_properties">all_properties (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.all_suffixes">all_suffixes() (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.all_tasks">all_tasks() (asyncio.Task class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.all_tasks">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.allocate_lock">allocate_lock() (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.allow_reuse_address">allow_reuse_address (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains">allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.alt">alt() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ALT_DIGITS">ALT_DIGITS (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.altsep">altsep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.altzone">altzone (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS">ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.AMPER">AMPER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.AMPEREQUAL">AMPEREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    and
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-81">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.and_">and_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    annotated
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-annotation"><strong>annotation</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.annotation">(inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    annotations
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">function</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.announce">announce() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    anonymous
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge">answer_challenge() (in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.anticipate_failure">anticipate_failure() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Any">Any (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.ANY">ANY (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#any">any() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AnyStr">AnyStr (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.api_version">api_version (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.apop">apop() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-5">APPDATA</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.append">append() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.append">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.append">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.append">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CAB.append">(msilib.CAB method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.append">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.append">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.append_history_file">append_history_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.appendChild">appendChild() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.appendleft">appendleft() (collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.application_uri">application_uri() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-apply">apply (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply">apply() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async">apply_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults">apply_defaults() (inspect.BoundArguments method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.architecture">architecture() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.archive">archive (zipimport.zipimporter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.aRepr">aRepr (in module reprlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#module-argparse">argparse (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BaseException.args">args (BaseException attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial.args">(functools.partial attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.args">(inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-args">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.args">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.args">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags">args_from_interpreter_flags() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes">argtypes (ctypes._FuncPtr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-argument"><strong>argument</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">call semantics</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-1">difference from parameter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">function definition</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter">ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.ArgumentError">ArgumentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser">ArgumentParser (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments">arguments (inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-30">argv (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.argv">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">arithmetic</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-1">conversion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-62">operation, binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">operation, unary</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ArithmeticError">ArithmeticError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    array
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-25">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array">array (class in array)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Array">Array (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#module-array">array (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Array">Array() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array">(in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Array">(multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#index-0">arrays</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.arraysize">arraysize (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.article">article() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    as
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-11">except clause</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-35">import statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">with statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes">as_bytes() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.as_bytes">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.as_completed">as_completed() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.as_completed">(in module concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.as_integer_ratio">as_integer_ratio() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.as_integer_ratio">(float method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.AS_IS">AS_IS (in module formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.as_posix">as_posix() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.as_string">as_string() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.as_string">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.as_tuple">as_tuple() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.as_uri">as_uri() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-1">ASCII</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    ascii
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.ASCII">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#ascii">ascii() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ascii">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.ascii_letters">ascii_letters (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.ascii_lowercase">ascii_lowercase (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.ascii_uppercase">ascii_uppercase (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.asctime">asctime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.asdict">asdict() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.asend">asend() (agen method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.asin">asin() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.asin">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.asinh">asinh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.asinh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    assert
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-2">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_any_call">assert_any_call() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called">assert_called() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once">assert_called_once() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with">assert_called_once_with() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with">assert_called_with() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls">assert_has_calls() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.assert_line_data">assert_line_data() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_not_called">assert_not_called() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure">assert_python_failure() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok">assert_python_ok() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual">assertAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual">assertCountEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual">assertDictEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual">assertEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse">assertFalse() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertGreater">assertGreater() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual">assertGreaterEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIn">assertIn() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#AssertionError">AssertionError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-19">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    assertions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18">debugging</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIs">assertIs() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance">assertIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone">assertIsNone() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot">assertIsNot() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone">assertIsNotNone() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLess">assertLess() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual">assertLessEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual">assertListEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLogs">assertLogs() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual">assertMultiLineEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual">assertNotAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual">assertNotEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn">assertNotIn() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance">assertNotIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex">assertNotRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises">assertRaises() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex">assertRaisesRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex">assertRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-asserts">asserts (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual">assertSequenceEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual">assertSetEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue">assertTrue() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual">assertTupleEqual() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns">assertWarns() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex">assertWarnsRegex() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    assignment
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">annotated</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">attribute</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">augmented</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-46">class attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-50">class instance attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">slice</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-12">slicing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">subscript</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">subscription</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">target list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST">AST (class in ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#module-ast">ast (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.astimezone">astimezone() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.astuple">astuple() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    async
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">keyword</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    async def
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-34">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    async for
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-11">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-36">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    async with
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-37">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat">async_chat (class in asynchat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.ac_in_buffer_size">async_chat.ac_in_buffer_size (in module asynchat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.ac_out_buffer_size">async_chat.ac_out_buffer_size (in module asynchat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncContextManager">AsyncContextManager (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.asynccontextmanager">asynccontextmanager() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack">AsyncExitStack (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncGenerator">AsyncGenerator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncGenerator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.AsyncGeneratorType">AsyncGeneratorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#module-asynchat">asynchat (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-context-manager"><strong>asynchronous context manager</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><strong>asynchronous generator</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-39">asynchronous iterator</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-39">function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator-iterator"><strong>asynchronous generator iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterable"><strong>asynchronous iterable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><strong>asynchronous iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    asynchronous-generator
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-33">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio">asyncio (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL">asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.PIPE">asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process">asyncio.subprocess.Process (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT">asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterable">AsyncIterable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncIterable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterator">AsyncIterator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.AsyncIterator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore">asyncore (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult">AsyncResult (class in multiprocessing.pool)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.AT">AT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.at_eof">at_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.atan">atan() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.atan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.atan2">atan2() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.atanh">atanh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.atanh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ATEQUAL">ATEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/atexit.html#module-atexit">atexit (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.atexit">(weakref.finalize attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#agen.athrow">athrow() (agen method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.atof">atof() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.atoi">atoi() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-2">atom</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach">attach() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.attach_loop">attach_loop() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock">attach_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler">AttlistDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter">attrgetter() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.attrib">attrib (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">attribute</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-attribute"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">assignment</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-46">assignment, class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-50">assignment, class instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">class instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-23">deletion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">generic special</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-37">reference</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">special</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#AttributeError">AttributeError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.attributes">attributes (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl">AttributesImpl (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl">AttributesNSImpl (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.attroff">attroff() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.attron">attron() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.attrset">attrset() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-0">Audio Interchange File Format</a>, <a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8 (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC">AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC (in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-0">AUDIODEV</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#module-audioop">audioop (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    augmented
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.auth">auth() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.auth">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.authenticate">authenticate() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError">AuthenticationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.authenticators">authenticators() (netrc.netrc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.authkey">authkey (multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.auto">auto (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.autorange">autorange() (timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.avg">avg() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.avgpp">avgpp() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks">avoids_symlink_attacks (shutil.rmtree attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    await
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-12">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-55">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-awaitable"><strong>awaitable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Awaitable">Awaitable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Awaitable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="B">B</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    b&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-18">bytes literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    b&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-18">bytes literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b16decode">b16decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b16encode">b16encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_base64">b2a_base64() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_hex">b2a_hex() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_hqx">b2a_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_qp">b2a_qp() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_uu">b2a_uu() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b32decode">b32decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b32encode">b32encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b64decode">b64decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b64encode">b64encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b85decode">b85decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.b85encode">b85encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl">Babyl (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage">BabylMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.back">back() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">backslash character</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.backslashreplace_errors">backslashreplace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.backup">backup() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.backward">backward() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.BadStatusLine">BadStatusLine</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.BadZipFile">BadZipFile</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.BadZipfile">BadZipfile</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Balloon">Balloon (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Barrier">Barrier (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Barrier">Barrier() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    base64
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-0">encoding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#module-base64">base64 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.base_exec_prefix">base_exec_prefix (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.base_prefix">base_prefix (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler">BaseCGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie">BaseCookie (class in http.cookies)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BaseException">BaseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler">BaseHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler">(class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader">BaseHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler">BaseHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager">BaseManager (class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.basename">basename() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol">BaseProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy">BaseProxy (class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler">BaseRequestHandler (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler">BaseRotatingHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector">BaseSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer">BaseServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-basestring">basestring (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport">BaseTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig">basicConfig() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.BasicContext">BasicContext (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.BasicInterpolation">BasicInterpolation (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.BasicTestRunner">BasicTestRunner (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.baudrate">baudrate() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.bbox">bbox() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.BDADDR_ANY">BDADDR_ANY (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.BDADDR_LOCAL">BDADDR_LOCAL (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    bdb
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb">Bdb (class in bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#module-bdb">bdb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.BdbQuit">BdbQuit</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-bdfl"><strong>BDFL</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.command.bdist_msi.bdist_msi">bdist_msi (class in distutils.command.bdist_msi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.beep">beep() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.Beep">Beep() (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH">BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.begin_fill">begin_fill() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.begin_poly">begin_poly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.below">below() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#index-0">Benchmarking</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-13">benchmarking</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-8">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.betavariate">betavariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bgcolor">bgcolor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bgpic">bgpic() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.bias">bias() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.bidirectional">bidirectional() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bigaddrspacetest">bigaddrspacetest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.BigEndianStructure">BigEndianStructure (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bigmemtest">bigmemtest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#bin">bin() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    binary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-62">arithmetic operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-71">bitwise operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">data, packing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Binary">Binary (class in msilib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary">(class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-binary-file"><strong>binary file</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">binary literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">binary mode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">binary semaphores</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_ADD">BINARY_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_AND">BINARY_AND (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE">BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_LSHIFT">BINARY_LSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY">BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_MODULO">BINARY_MODULO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_MULTIPLY">BINARY_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_OR">BINARY_OR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_POWER">BINARY_POWER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_RSHIFT">BINARY_RSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_SUBSCR">BINARY_SUBSCR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_SUBTRACT">BINARY_SUBTRACT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE">BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BINARY_XOR">BINARY_XOR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.BinaryIO">BinaryIO (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#module-binascii">binascii (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-4">bind (widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.bind">bind() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.bind">(inspect.Signature method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.bind">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.bind_partial">bind_partial() (inspect.Signature method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bind_port">bind_port() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.bind_textdomain_codeset">bind_textdomain_codeset() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.bind_unix_socket">bind_unix_socket() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    binding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">global name</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">name</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-36">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.bindtextdomain">bindtextdomain() (in module gettext)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.bindtextdomain">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    binhex
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binhex.html#module-binhex">binhex (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binhex.html#binhex.binhex">binhex() (in module binhex)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#module-bisect">bisect (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.bisect">bisect() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.bisect_left">bisect_left() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.bisect_right">bisect_right() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#int.bit_length">bit_length() (int method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.bitmap">bitmap() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    bitwise
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">and</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-71">operation, binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">operation, unary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">or</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">xor</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bk">bk() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.bkgd">bkgd() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.bkgdset">bkgdset() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b">blake2b() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-4">blake2b, blake2s</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE">blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE">blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.PERSON_SIZE">blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b.SALT_SIZE">blake2b.SALT_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s">blake2s() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE">blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE">blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.PERSON_SIZE">blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s.SALT_SIZE">blake2s.SALT_SIZE (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-7">blank line</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-1">block</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-0">code</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.block_size">block_size (hmac.HMAC attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains">blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BlockingIOError">BlockingIOError</a>, <a href="library/io.html#io.BlockingIOError">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.blocksize">blocksize (http.client.HTTPConnection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-0">BNF</a>, <a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.body">body() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.body_encode">body_encode() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.body_encoding">body_encoding (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#email.iterators.body_line_iterator">body_line_iterator() (in module email.iterators)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM">BOM (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_BE">BOM_BE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_LE">BOM_LE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF16">BOM_UTF16 (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE">BOM_UTF16_BE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE">BOM_UTF16_LE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF32">BOM_UTF32 (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE">BOM_UTF32_BE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE">BOM_UTF32_LE (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.BOM_UTF8">BOM_UTF8 (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#bool">bool (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Boolean
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">operations</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-0">type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">values</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES">BOOLEAN_STATES (configparser.ConfigParser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#ensurepip.bootstrap">bootstrap() (in module ensurepip)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.border">border() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.bottom">bottom() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.bottom_panel">bottom_panel() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments">BoundArguments (class in inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.BoundaryError">BoundaryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.BoundedSemaphore">BoundedSemaphore (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.BoundedSemaphore">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.BoundedSemaphore">BoundedSemaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.box">box() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.bpformat">bpformat() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.bpprint">bpprint() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    break
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-break">break (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.break_anywhere">break_anywhere() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.break_here">break_here() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words">break_long_words (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BREAK_LOOP">BREAK_LOOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_on_hyphens">break_on_hyphens (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint">Breakpoint (class in bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#breakpoint">breakpoint() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.breakpointhook">breakpointhook() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">breakpoints</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.broadcast_address">broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.broadcast_address">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.broken">broken (threading.Barrier attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.BrokenBarrierError">BrokenBarrierError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor">BrokenExecutor</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BrokenPipeError">BrokenPipeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool">BrokenProcessPool</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool">BrokenThreadPool</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-0">BROWSER</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.BsdDbShelf">BsdDbShelf (class in shelve)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-buffer">buffer (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.buffer">(io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.buffer">(unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    buffer interface
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-0">(see buffer protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    buffer object
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-0">(see buffer protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-0">buffer protocol</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-37">binary sequence types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-29">str (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">buffer size, I/O</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.buffer_info">buffer_info() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_size">buffer_size (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text">buffer_text (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated">buffer_updated() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_used">buffer_used (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase">BufferedIOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol">BufferedProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedRandom">BufferedRandom (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader">BufferedReader (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedRWPair">BufferedRWPair (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedWriter">BufferedWriter (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BufferError">BufferError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler">BufferingHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.BufferTooShort">BufferTooShort</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.bufsize">bufsize() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP">BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_LIST">BUILD_LIST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_LIST_UNPACK">BUILD_LIST_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_MAP">BUILD_MAP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.build_opener">build_opener() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.command.build_py.build_py">build_py (class in distutils.command.build_py)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.command.build_py.build_py_2to3">build_py_2to3 (class in distutils.command.build_py)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_SET">BUILD_SET (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_SET_UNPACK">BUILD_SET_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_SLICE">BUILD_SLICE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_STRING">BUILD_STRING (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE">BUILD_TUPLE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    built-in
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-0">types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    built-in function
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-1">__import__</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-2">abs</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-98">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-1">ascii</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-3">bytes</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">chr</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-0">classmethod</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-2">compile</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-55">[2]</a>, <a href="library/types.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">complex</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-0">divmod</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#index-1">eval</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-6">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-1">exec</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-5">float</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-6">hash</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/stdlib.html#index-0">help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-4">int</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-2">len</a>, <a href="c-api/list.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/mapping.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/object.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="c-api/set.html#index-1">[5]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[6]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">[9]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[10]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-93">[11]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">max</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">min</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">open</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">ord</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-1">pow</a>, <a href="c-api/number.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-97">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">print</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-8">range</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-0">repr</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-100">round</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dis.html#index-0">slice</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-1">staticmethod</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-2">tuple</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-7">type</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    built-in method
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.builtin_module_names">builtin_module_names (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.BuiltinFunctionType">BuiltinFunctionType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter">BuiltinImporter (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.BuiltinMethodType">BuiltinMethodType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    builtins
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/builtins.html#module-builtins">builtins (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ButtonBox">ButtonBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.bye">bye() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.byref">byref() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-21">byte</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    byte-code
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#index-1">file</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.byte_compile">byte_compile() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-24">bytearray</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">interpolation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">methods</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-40">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray">bytearray (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-55">bytecode</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-bytecode"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode">Bytecode (class in dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.codeobj">Bytecode.codeobj (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.first_line">Bytecode.first_line (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.byteorder">byteorder (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-21">bytes</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-3">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">formatting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">interpolation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">methods</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-39">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-29">str (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes">bytes (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.bytes">(uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">bytes literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><strong>bytes-like object</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.bytes_le">bytes_le (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser">BytesFeedParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator">BytesGenerator (class in email.generator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesHeaderParser">BytesHeaderParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO">BytesIO (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser">BytesParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ByteString">ByteString (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ByteString">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.byteswap">byteswap() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.byteswap">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BytesWarning">BytesWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#module-bz2">bz2 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Compressor">BZ2Compressor (class in bz2)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor">BZ2Decompressor (class in bz2)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File">BZ2File (class in bz2)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="C">C</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">C</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">language</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">structures</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-2">C-contiguous</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-10">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_bool">c_bool (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.C_BUILTIN">C_BUILTIN (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_byte">c_byte (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_char">c_char (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_char_p">c_char_p (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.c_contiguous">c_contiguous (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_double">c_double (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.C_EXTENSION">C_EXTENSION (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_float">c_float (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int">c_int (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int16">c_int16 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int32">c_int32 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int64">c_int64 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_int8">c_int8 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_long">c_long (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_longdouble">c_longdouble (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_longlong">c_longlong (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_short">c_short (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_size_t">c_size_t (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ssize_t">c_ssize_t (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ubyte">c_ubyte (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint">c_uint (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint16">c_uint16 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint32">c_uint32 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint64">c_uint64 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_uint8">c_uint8 (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ulong">c_ulong (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ulonglong">c_ulonglong (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ushort">c_ushort (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_void_p">c_void_p (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_wchar">c_wchar (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_wchar_p">c_wchar_p (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CAB">CAB (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.cache_from_source">cache_from_source() (in module imp)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.cache_from_source">(in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.cached">cached (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler">CacheFTPHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.calcobjsize">calcobjsize() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.calcsize">calcsize() (in module struct)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.calcvobjsize">calcvobjsize() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar">Calendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#module-calendar">calendar (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.calendar">calendar() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">call</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">built-in method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">class instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">class object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-47">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">function</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-92">instance</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-54">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">procedure</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">user-defined function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.call">call() (in module subprocess)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call">(in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args">call_args (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list">call_args_list (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_at">call_at() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_count">call_count (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler">call_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION">CALL_FUNCTION (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_EX">CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_KW">CALL_FUNCTION_KW (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_later">call_later() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call.call_list">call_list() (unittest.mock.call method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_METHOD">CALL_METHOD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon">call_soon() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe">call_soon_threadsafe() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.call_tracing">call_tracing() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    callable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Callable">Callable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Callable">(in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#callable">callable() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.CallableProxyType">CallableProxyType (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.callback">callback (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.callback">callback() (contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.callback_args">callback_args (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.callback_kwargs">callback_kwargs (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.callbacks">callbacks (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.called">called (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError">CalledProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">calloc()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CAN_BCM">CAN_BCM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.can_change_color">can_change_color() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.can_fetch">can_fetch() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CAN_ISOTP">CAN_ISOTP (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES">CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.can_symlink">can_symlink() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.can_write_eof">can_write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.can_write_eof">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.can_xattr">can_xattr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.cancel">cancel() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle.cancel">(asyncio.Handle method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.cancel">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.cancel">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.cancel">(sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Timer.cancel">(threading.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later">cancel_dump_traceback_later() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread">cancel_join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.cancelled">cancelled() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle.cancelled">(asyncio.Handle method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.cancelled">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.cancelled">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError">CancelledError</a>, <a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.CancelledError">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.CannotSendHeader">CannotSendHeader</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.CannotSendRequest">CannotSendRequest</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.canonic">canonic() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.canonical">canonical() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.canonical">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.capa">capa() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.capitalize">capitalize() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.capitalize">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.capitalize">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    Capsule
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.captured_stderr">captured_stderr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.captured_stdin">captured_stdin() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.captured_stdout">captured_stdout() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.captureWarnings">captureWarnings() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.capwords">capwords() (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.casefold">casefold() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.cast">cast() (in module ctypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.cast">(in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.cast">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.cat">cat() (in module nis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.catch_warnings">catch_warnings (class in warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.category">category() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.cbreak">cbreak() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-24">CC</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc">ccc() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler">CCompiler (class in distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.CDLL">CDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.ceil">ceil() (in module math)</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.center">center() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.center">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.center">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CERT_NONE">CERT_NONE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL">CERT_OPTIONAL (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED">CERT_REQUIRED (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats">cert_store_stats() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.cert_time_to_seconds">cert_time_to_seconds() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CertificateError">CertificateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-15">certificates</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-10">CFLAGS</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.CFUNCTYPE">CFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    CGI
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-4">debugging</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">exceptions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-1">security</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">tracebacks</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#module-cgi">cgi (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.cgi_directories">cgi_directories (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler">CGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler">CGIHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#module-cgitb">cgitb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.chain">chain() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    chaining
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">comparisons</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-76">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap">ChainMap (class in collections)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ChainMap">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.change_cwd">change_cwd() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.change_root">change_root() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES">CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.channel_class">channel_class (smtpd.SMTPServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels">channels() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.CHAR_MAX">CHAR_MAX (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">character</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-41">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler">CharacterDataHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.characters">characters() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BlockingIOError.characters_written">characters_written (BlockingIOError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset">Charset (class in email.charset)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.charset">charset() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chdir">chdir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.check">check (lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.check">check() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.check">(in module tabnanny)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check__all__">check__all__() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.check_call">check_call() (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.check_environ">check_environ() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_free_after_iterating">check_free_after_iterating() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname">check_hostname (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_impl_detail">check_impl_detail() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_no_resource_warning">check_no_resource_warning() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.OutputChecker.check_output">check_output() (doctest.OutputChecker method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.check_output">(in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.check_returncode">check_returncode() (subprocess.CompletedProcess method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_syntax_error">check_syntax_error() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.check_unused_args">check_unused_args() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.check_warnings">check_warnings() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.checkbox">checkbox() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.checkcache">checkcache() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH">CHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.checkfuncname">checkfuncname() (in module bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.CheckList">CheckList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.checksizeof">checksizeof() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    checksum
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#index-0">Cyclic Redundancy Check</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chflags">chflags() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.chgat">chgat() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.childNodes">childNodes (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ChildProcessError">ChildProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.children">children (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.children">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chmod">chmod() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.chmod">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.choice">choice() (in module random)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.choice">(in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.choices">choices (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.choices">choices() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chown">chown() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.chown">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    chr
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#chr">chr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.chroot">chroot() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk">Chunk (class in chunk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#module-chunk">chunk (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    cipher
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/crypt.html#index-0">DES</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher">cipher() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.circle">circle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.CIRCUMFLEX">CIRCUMFLEX (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL">CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Clamped">Clamped (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-class"><strong>class</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-46">attribute assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-86">body</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-69">constructor</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">definition</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">instance</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">name</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Class">Class (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-1">Class browser</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    class instance
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-50">attribute assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    class object
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">call</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-47">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-class-variable"><strong>class variable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    classmethod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-0">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#classmethod">classmethod() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ClassMethodDescriptorType">ClassMethodDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ClassVar">ClassVar (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-1">clause</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_CONTINUED">CLD_CONTINUED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_DUMPED">CLD_DUMPED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_EXITED">CLD_EXITED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.CLD_TRAPPED">CLD_TRAPPED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.clean">clean() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.cleandoc">cleandoc() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.CleanImport">CleanImport (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#index-2">cleanup functions</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-clear">clear (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Clear Breakpoint</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.clear">clear() (asyncio.Event method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.clear">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clear">(curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.clear">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.clear">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#frame.clear">(frame method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.clear">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear">(http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clear">(in module turtle)</a>, <a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clear">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.clear">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.clear">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.clear">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_all_breaks">clear_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_all_file_breaks">clear_all_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_bpbynumber">clear_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.clear_break">clear_break() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.clear_cache">clear_cache() (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.clear_content">clear_content() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.clear_flags">clear_flags() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.clear_frames">clear_frames() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.clear_history">clear_history() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear_session_cookies">clear_session_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.clear_traces">clear_traces() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.clear_traps">clear_traps() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.clearcache">clearcache() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.ClearData">ClearData() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clearok">clearok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clearscreen">clearscreen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clearstamp">clearstamp() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clearstamps">clearstamps() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Client">Client() (in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.client_address">client_address (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock">clock() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME">CLOCK_BOOTTIME (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_getres">clock_getres() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_gettime">clock_gettime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_gettime_ns">clock_gettime_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_HIGHRES">CLOCK_HIGHRES (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC">CLOCK_MONOTONIC (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW">CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID">CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_PROF">CLOCK_PROF (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_REALTIME">CLOCK_REALTIME (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_settime">clock_settime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.clock_settime_ns">clock_settime_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID">CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.CLOCK_UPTIME">CLOCK_UPTIME (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator.clone">clone() (email.generator.BytesGenerator method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator.clone">(email.generator.Generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.clone">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.clone">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.clone">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.cloneNode">cloneNode() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.close">close() (aifc.aifc method)</a>, <a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.close">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.close">(asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.close">(asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.close">(asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.close">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.close">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.close">(asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.close">(asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.close">(chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.close">(contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.close">(coroutine method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.close">(dbm.dumb.dumbdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.close">(dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.ndbm.close">(dbm.ndbm.ndbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.close">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.close">(email.parser.BytesFeedParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.close">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.close">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.close">(html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.close">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.close">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.close">(in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-42">(in module os)</a>, <a href="library/os.html#os.close">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.close">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.close">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler.close">(logging.FileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.close">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.close">(logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.close">(logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.close">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.close">(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.close">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.close">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.close">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.close">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.Close">Close() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Close">(msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.close">close() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.close">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.close">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.close">(multiprocessing.connection.Listener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.close">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.scandir.close">(os.scandir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.close">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.close">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.close">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.close">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.close">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.close">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf.close">(shelve.Shelf method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.close">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.close">(sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.close">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.close">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.close">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.close">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.close">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.close">(urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.close">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.close">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.Close">Close() (winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.close">close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.close">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.close">(xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.close">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.close_connection">close_connection (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.close_when_done">close_when_done() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.closed">closed (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.closed">(io.IOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.closed">(mmap.mmap attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.closed">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.closed">(select.devpoll attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.closed">(select.epoll attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.closed">(select.kqueue attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.CloseKey">CloseKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.closelog">closelog() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.closerange">closerange() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.closing">closing() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clrtobot">clrtobot() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.clrtoeol">clrtoeol() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#module-cmath">cmath (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    cmd
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd">Cmd (class in cmd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#module-cmd">cmd (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.cmd">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.cmd">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop">cmdloop() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.cmdqueue">cmdqueue (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.cmp">cmp() (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.cmp_op">cmp_op (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key">cmp_to_key() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.cmpfiles">cmpfiles() (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CMSG_LEN">CMSG_LEN() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.CMSG_SPACE">CMSG_SPACE() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_argcount (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR">CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_cellvars (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_code (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_consts (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_COROUTINE">CO_COROUTINE (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_filename (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_firstlineno (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_flags (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_freevars (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.CO_FUTURE_DIVISION">CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_GENERATOR">CO_GENERATOR (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE">CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_lnotab (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_name (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_names (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_NESTED">CO_NESTED (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS">CO_NEWLOCALS (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_nlocals (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_NOFREE">CO_NOFREE (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED">CO_OPTIMIZED (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_stacksize (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_VARARGS">CO_VARARGS (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS">CO_VARKEYWORDS (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-56">co_varnames (code object attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    code
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-0">block</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#module-code">code (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SystemExit.code">(SystemExit attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError.code">(urllib.error.HTTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.code">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.code">(xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#index-0">code object</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-54">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-55">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.code_info">code_info() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo">CodecInfo (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Codecs</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">decode</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">encode</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-codecs">codecs (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value">coded_value (http.cookies.Morsel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codeop.html#module-codeop">codeop (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.codepoint2name">codepoint2name (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes">codes (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.CODESET">CODESET (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.CodeType">CodeType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    coding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-8">style</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-coercion"><strong>coercion</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST.col_offset">col_offset (ast.AST attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.collapse_addresses">collapse_addresses() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value">collapse_rfc2231_value() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.collect">collect() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data">collect_incoming_data() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Collection">Collection (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Collection">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#module-collections">collections (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc">collections.abc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.colno">colno (json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.colno">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.COLON">COLON (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.color">color() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.color_content">color_content() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.color_pair">color_pair() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.colormode">colormode() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#module-colorsys">colorsys (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-4">COLS</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-32">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.column">column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-6">COLUMNS</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.terminal_size.columns">columns (os.terminal_size attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations">combinations() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations_with_replacement">combinations_with_replacement() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.combine">combine() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.combining">combining() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ComboBox">ComboBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox">Combobox (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    comma
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-90">trailing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">tuple display</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.COMMA">COMMA (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command">Command (class in distutils.cmd)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.Command">(class in distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.command">command (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">command line</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs">--check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-help">--help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-version">--version</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption">-?</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id1">-B</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e">-E</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id2">-I</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-j">-J</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o">-O</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo">-OO</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-r">-R</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id3">-S</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-v">-V</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w">-W arg</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id5">-X</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b">-b</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c">-c &lt;command&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-d">-d</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-h">-h</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i">-i</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m">-m &lt;module-name&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-q">-q</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s">-s</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-u">-u</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#id4">-v</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-x">-x</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codeop.html#codeop.CommandCompiler">CommandCompiler (class in codeop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-commands">commands (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-4">comment</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.COMMENT">COMMENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.comment">comment (zipfile.ZipFile attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.comment">(zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment">Comment() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment_url">comment_url (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.commenters">commenters (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CommentHandler">CommentHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CAB.commit">commit() (msilib.CAB method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.Commit">Commit() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.commit">commit() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common">common (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">Common Gateway Interface</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common_dirs">common_dirs (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common_files">common_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.common_funny">common_funny (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.common_types">common_types (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.commonpath">commonpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.commonprefix">commonprefix() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate">communicate() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.communicate">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare">compare() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.Differ.compare">(difflib.Differ method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.compare_digest">compare_digest() (in module hmac)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.compare_digest">(in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.compare_networks">compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.compare_networks">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-COMPARE_OP">COMPARE_OP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare_signal">compare_signal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare_signal">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to">compare_to() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare_total">compare_total() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare_total">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.compare_total_mag">compare_total_mag() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.compare_total_mag">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    comparing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">comparison</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS">COMPARISON_FLAGS (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-75">comparisons</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">chaining</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-76">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32">Compat32 (class in email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32">compat32 (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    compile
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-55">[2]</a>, <a href="library/types.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codeop.html#codeop.Compile">Compile (class in codeop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#compile">compile() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.compile">(distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.compile">(in module py_compile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.compile">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.compile">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.compile_command">compile_command() (in module code)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codeop.html#codeop.compile_command">(in module codeop)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_dir">compile_dir() (in module compileall)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_file">compile_file() (in module compileall)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_path">compile_path() (in module compileall)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#module-compileall">compileall (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    compileall command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode">--invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-b">-b</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-d">-d destdir</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-f">-f</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-i">-i list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-j">-j N</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-l">-l</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-q">-q</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-r">-r</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-x">-x regex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory">directory ...</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-file">file ...</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.compilest">compilest() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/rlcompleter.html#rlcompleter.Completer.complete">complete() (rlcompleter.Completer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.complete_statement">complete_statement() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.completedefault">completedefault() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess">CompletedProcess (class in subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    complex
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">number</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#complex">complex (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex">Complex (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">complex literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-complex-number"><strong>complex number</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    compound
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-0">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    comprehensions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Compressor.compress">compress() (bz2.BZ2Compressor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.compress">(in module bz2)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.compress">(in module gzip)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.compress">(in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.compress">(in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.compress">(in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMACompressor.compress">(lzma.LZMACompressor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Compress.compress">(zlib.Compress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_size">compress_size (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_type">compress_type (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.compressed">compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.compressed">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.compressed">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.compressed">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.compression">compression() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.CompressionError">CompressionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.compressobj">compressobj() (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-32">COMSPEC</a>, <a href="library/subprocess.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.concat">concat() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    concatenation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures">concurrent.futures (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition">Condition (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Condition">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-condition">condition (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control.condition">condition() (msilib.Control method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Condition">Condition() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Conditional
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    conditional
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser">ConfigParser (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#module-configparser">configparser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    configuration
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">file, debugger</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">file, path</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#index-0">configuration information</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.configure">configure() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock">configure_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.confstr">confstr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.confstr_names">confstr_names (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">conjugate() (complex number method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.conjugate">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex.conjugate">(numbers.Complex method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.conn">conn (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.connect">connect() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.connect">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.connect">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.connect">(in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.connect">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.connect">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.connect">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket">connect_accepted_socket() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.connect_ex">connect_ex() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe">connect_read_pipe() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe">connect_write_pipe() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection">Connection (class in multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection">(class in sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.connection">connection (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost">connection_lost() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made">connection_made() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionAbortedError">ConnectionAbortedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionError">ConnectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionRefusedError">ConnectionRefusedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ConnectionResetError">ConnectionResetError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.ConnectRegistry">ConnectRegistry() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.const">const (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-15">constant</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    constructor
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-69">class</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#copyreg.constructor">constructor() (in module copyreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.LimitOverrunError.consumed">consumed (asyncio.LimitOverrunError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-3">container</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iteration over</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Container">Container (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Container">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.contains">contains() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    content type
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-0">MIME</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager">content_manager (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.content_type">content_type (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader">ContentDispositionHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler">ContentHandler (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager">ContentManager (class in email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._Pointer.contents">contents (ctypes._Pointer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents">contents() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.contents">(in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.ContentTooShortError">ContentTooShortError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding">ContentTransferEncoding (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader">ContentTypeHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context">Context (class in contextvars)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context">(class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.context">context (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-52">context management protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-52">context manager</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-101">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-context-manager"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-context-variable"><strong>context variable</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.context_diff">context_diff() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ContextDecorator">ContextDecorator (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib">contextlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ContextManager">ContextManager (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager">contextmanager() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar">ContextVar (class in contextvars)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars">contextvars (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token">contextvars.Token (class in contextvars)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-2">contiguous</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-contiguous"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.contiguous">(memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    continue
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-continue">continue (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-CONTINUE_LOOP">CONTINUE_LOOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control">Control (class in msilib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Control">(class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.control">control() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.control">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.controlnames">controlnames (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls">controls() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    conversion
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-1">arithmetic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">string</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.ConversionError">ConversionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    conversions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">numeric</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args">convert_arg_line_to_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.convert_field">convert_field() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.convert_path">convert_path() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie">Cookie (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.CookieError">CookieError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar">CookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar">cookiejar (urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy">CookiePolicy (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-4">Coordinated Universal Time</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Copy</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    copy
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-4">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#module-copy">copy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.copy">copy() (collections.deque method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.copy">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.copy">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.copy">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.copy">(hashlib.hash method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.copy">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.copy">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.copy">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/copy.html#copy.copy">(in module copy)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy">(in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copy">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.copy">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.copy">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Compress.copy">(zlib.Compress method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.copy">(zlib.Decompress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copy2">copy2() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_abs">copy_abs() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.copy_abs">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.copy_context">copy_context() (in module contextvars)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_decimal">copy_decimal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.file_util.copy_file">copy_file() (in module distutils.file_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.copy_location">copy_location() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_negate">copy_negate() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.copy_negate">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.copy_sign">copy_sign() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.copy_sign">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.copy_tree">copy_tree() (in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfile">copyfile() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfileobj">copyfileobj() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#index-0">copying files</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copymode">copymode() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#module-copyreg">copyreg (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#copyright">copyright (built-in variable)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-27">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.copyright">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.copysign">copysign() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copystat">copystat() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.copytree">copytree() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-103">coroutine</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-coroutine"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-38">function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Coroutine">Coroutine (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Coroutine">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-coroutine-function"><strong>coroutine function</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.coroutine">coroutine() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.coroutine">(in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.CoroutineType">CoroutineType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.cos">cos() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.cos">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.cosh">cosh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.cosh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic.count">count (tracemalloc.Statistic attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count">(tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.count">count() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.count">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.count">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.count">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.count">(in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.count">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count_diff">count_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter">Counter (class in collections)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Counter">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.countOf">countOf() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.countTestCases">countTestCases() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.countTestCases">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.CoverageResults">CoverageResults (class in trace)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-26">CPP</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-28">CPPFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#module-cProfile">cProfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-13">CPU time</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.cpu_count">cpu_count() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.cpu_count">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-cpython"><strong>CPython</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.cpython_only">cpython_only() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.crawl_delay">crawl_delay() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.CRC">CRC (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.crc32">crc32() (in module binascii)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.crc32">(in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.crc_hqx">crc_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.create">create() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.create">(in module venv)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.create">(venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate">create_aggregate() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#zipapp.create_archive">create_archive() (in module zipapp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.create_autospec">create_autospec() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB">CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_collation">create_collation() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.create_configuration">create_configuration() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection">create_connection() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.create_connection">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint">create_datagram_endpoint() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.create_decimal">create_decimal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float">create_decimal_from_float() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context">create_default_context() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE">CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.create_empty_file">create_empty_file() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_function">create_function() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_future">create_future() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.create_module">create_module (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module">create_module() (importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.create_module">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE">CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP">CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW">CREATE_NO_WINDOW (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server">create_server() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#create_shortcut">create_shortcut() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.create_socket">create_socket() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.create_static_lib">create_static_lib() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.create_stats">create_stats() (profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.create_string_buffer">create_string_buffer() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec">create_subprocess_exec() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell">create_subprocess_shell() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.create_system">create_system (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task">create_task() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.create_task">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.create_tree">create_tree() (in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.create_unicode_buffer">create_unicode_buffer() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection">create_unix_connection() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server">create_unix_server() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.create_version">create_version (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createAttribute">createAttribute() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createAttributeNS">createAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createComment">createComment() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocument">createDocument() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocumentType">createDocumentType() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createElement">createElement() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createElementNS">createElementNS() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Widget.tk.createfilehandler">createfilehandler() (tkinter.Widget.tk method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.CreateKey">CreateKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.CreateKeyEx">CreateKeyEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.createLock">createLock() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler.createLock">(logging.NullHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createProcessingInstruction">createProcessingInstruction() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.CreateRecord">CreateRecord() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.createSocket">createSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.createTextNode">createTextNode() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#credits">credits (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.critical">critical() (in module logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.critical">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.CRNCYSTR">CRNCYSTR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.cross">cross() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    crypt
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pwd.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#module-crypt">crypt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.crypt">crypt() (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#index-0">crypt(3)</a>, <a href="library/crypt.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/crypt.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypto.html#index-0">cryptography</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month">cssclass_month (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month_head">cssclass_month_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_noday">cssclass_noday (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year">cssclass_year (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year_head">cssclass_year_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses">cssclasses (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses_weekday_head">cssclasses_weekday_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-0">csv</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#module-csv">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding.cte">cte (email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.cte_type">cte_type (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.ctermid">ctermid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.ctime">ctime() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.ctime">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.ctime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ctrl">ctrl() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT">CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.CTRL_C_EVENT">CTRL_C_EVENT (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes">ctypes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.curdir">curdir (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.currency">currency() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.current">current() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.current_process">current_process() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.current_task">current_task() (asyncio.Task class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.current_task">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.current_thread">current_thread() (in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex">CurrentByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber">CurrentColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.currentframe">currentframe() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber">CurrentLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.curs_set">curs_set() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#module-curses">curses (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#module-curses.ascii">curses.ascii (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#module-curses.panel">curses.panel (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#module-curses.textpad">curses.textpad (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor">Cursor (class in sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.cursor">cursor() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.cursyncup">cursyncup() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler">customize_compiler() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Cut</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.cwd">cwd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.cwd">(pathlib.Path class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.cycle">cycle() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#index-0">Cyclic Redundancy Check</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="D">D</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.D_FMT">D_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.D_T_FMT">D_T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.daemon">daemon (multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.daemon">(threading.Thread attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    dangling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">else</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-0">data</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">packing binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-0">tabular</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">type, immutable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.Data">Data (class in plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserDict.data">data (collections.UserDict attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserList.data">(collections.UserList attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserString.data">(collections.UserString attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.data">(select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.data">(selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.data">(urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Comment.data">(xml.dom.Comment attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.data">(xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Text.data">(xml.dom.Text attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary.data">(xmlrpc.client.Binary attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.data">data() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.DataHandler.data_open">data_open() (urllib.request.DataHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol.data_received">data_received() (asyncio.Protocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    database
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">Unicode</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.DatabaseError">DatabaseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#index-0">databases</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.dataclass">dataclass() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#module-dataclasses">dataclasses (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.datagram_received">datagram_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler">DatagramHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol">DatagramProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler">DatagramRequestHandler (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport">DatagramTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.DataHandler">DataHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date">date (class in datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.date">date() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.date">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.date_time">date_time (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.date_time_string">date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.DateHeader">DateHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime">datetime (class in datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.DateTime">DateTime (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime">datetime (email.headerregistry.DateHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#module-datetime">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">datum</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.day">day (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.day">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.day_abbr">day_abbr (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.day_name">day_name (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.daylight">daylight (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-5">Daylight Saving Time</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.DbfilenameShelf">DbfilenameShelf (class in shelve)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm">dbm (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb">dbm.dumb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    dbm.gnu
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu">dbm.gnu (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    dbm.ndbm
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm">dbm.ndbm (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.dcgettext">dcgettext() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">deallocation, object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.debug">debug (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.DEBUG">DEBUG (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.debug">debug (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.debug">(zipfile.ZipFile attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.debug">debug() (in module doctest)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.debug">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.debug">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.debug">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.debug">(unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.debug">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE">DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_LEAK">DEBUG_LEAK (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.debug_print">debug_print() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL">DEBUG_SAVEALL (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.debug_src">debug_src() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_STATS">DEBUG_STATS (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE">DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-3">debugger</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">configuration file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-0">debugging</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-4">CGI</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18">assertions</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.DebuggingServer">DebuggingServer (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.debuglevel">debuglevel (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DebugRunner">DebugRunner (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal">Decimal (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#module-decimal">decimal (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">decimal literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.decimal">decimal() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.DecimalException">DecimalException (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    decode
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Codecs</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.decode">decode (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.decode">decode() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.Codec.decode">(codecs.Codec method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode">(codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.decode">(in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.decode">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.decode">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uu.html#uu.decode">(in module uu)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder.decode">(json.JSONDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary.decode">(xmlrpc.client.Binary method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.DateTime.decode">(xmlrpc.client.DateTime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.decode_header">decode_header() (in module email.header)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.decode_header">(in module nntplib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.decode_params">decode_params() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.decode_rfc2231">decode_rfc2231() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.decode_source">decode_source() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.decodebytes">decodebytes() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.DecodedGenerator">DecodedGenerator (class in email.generator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.decodestring">decodestring() (in module base64)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.decodestring">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.decomposition">decomposition() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress">decompress() (bz2.BZ2Decompressor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.decompress">(in module bz2)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.decompress">(in module gzip)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.decompress">(in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.decompress">(in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress">(lzma.LZMADecompressor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.decompress">(zlib.Decompress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.decompressobj">decompressobj() (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-decorator"><strong>decorator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DEDENT">DEDENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">DEDENT token</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.dedent">dedent() (in module textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/copy.html#copy.deepcopy">deepcopy() (in module copy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    def
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.def_prog_mode">def_prog_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.def_shell_mode">def_shell_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    default
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">parameter value</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.default">default (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.DEFAULT">DEFAULT (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.default">default (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.default">(optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.default">default() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder.default">(json.JSONEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE">DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (in module io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize">default_bufsize (in module xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.default_exception_handler">default_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict.default_factory">default_factory (collections.defaultdict attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT">DEFAULT_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES">DEFAULT_IGNORES (in module filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open">default_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL">DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.default_timer">default_timer() (in module timeit)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.DefaultContext">DefaultContext (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy">DefaultCookiePolicy (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict">defaultdict (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.DefaultDict">DefaultDict (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy">DefaultEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler">DefaultHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand">DefaultHandlerExpand() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.defaults">defaults() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.DefaultSelector">DefaultSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.defaultTestLoader">defaultTestLoader (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.defaultTestResult">defaultTestResult() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.defects">defects (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.defects">(email.message.EmailMessage attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.defects">(email.message.Message attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.define_macro">define_macro() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    definition
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">function</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.defpath">defpath (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.DefragResult">DefragResult (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes">DefragResultBytes (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.degrees">degrees() (in module math)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.degrees">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    del
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">statement</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.del_param">del_param() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.del_param">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#delattr">delattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.delay">delay() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.delay_output">delay_output() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.delayload">delayload (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.delch">delch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.dele">dele() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.delete">delete() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.delete">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.delete">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_ATTR">DELETE_ATTR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_DEREF">DELETE_DEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_FAST">DELETE_FAST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_GLOBAL">DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_NAME">DELETE_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DELETE_SUBSCR">DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.deleteacl">deleteacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Widget.tk.deletefilehandler">deletefilehandler() (tkinter.Widget.tk method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DeleteKey">DeleteKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DeleteKeyEx">DeleteKeyEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.deleteln">deleteln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.deleteMe">deleteMe() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DeleteValue">DeleteValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    deletion
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-23">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">target</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">target list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.delimiter">delimiter (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-31">delimiters</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.delitem">delitem() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge">deliver_challenge() (in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.delocalize">delocalize() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app">demo_app() (in module wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.denominator">denominator (fractions.Fraction attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational.denominator">(numbers.Rational attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning">DeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque">deque (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Deque">Deque (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.dequeue">dequeue() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert">DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.derwin">derwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    DES
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/crypt.html#index-0">cipher</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.description">description (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.description">description() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.descriptions">descriptions() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-descriptor"><strong>descriptor</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.dest">dest (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">destructor</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.detach">detach() (io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.detach">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.detach">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.detach">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.detach">(weakref.finalize method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.PyHKEY.Detach">Detach() (winreg.PyHKEY method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS">DETACHED_PROCESS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.detect_api_mismatch">detect_api_mismatch() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.detect_encoding">detect_encoding() (in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.detect_language">detect_language() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#index-0">deterministic profiling</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.device_encoding">device_encoding() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.devnull">devnull (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.DEVNULL">DEVNULL (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll">devpoll() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.DevpollSelector">DevpollSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.dgettext">dgettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.dgettext">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect">Dialect (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.dialect">dialect (csv.csvreader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvwriter.dialect">(csv.csvwriter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog">Dialog (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-dict">dict (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict">(built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Dict">Dict (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict">dict() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig">dictConfig() (in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-dictionary"><strong>dictionary</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">type, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-dictionary-view"><strong>dictionary view</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.DictReader">DictReader (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter">DictWriter (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.diff_bytes">diff_bytes() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.diff_files">diff_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.Differ">Differ (class in difflib)</a>, <a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.Differ">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.difference">difference() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.difference_update">difference_update() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#module-difflib">difflib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.digest">digest() (hashlib.hash method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.shake.digest">(hashlib.shake method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.digest">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.digest">(in module hmac)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.digest_size">digest_size (hmac.HMAC attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.digit">digit() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.digits">digits (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#dir">dir() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.dir">(ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp">dircmp (class in filecmp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    directory
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-18">changing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-19">creating</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-20">deleting</a>, <a href="library/shutil.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-1">site-packages</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-22">traversal</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-22">walking</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory">Directory (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.directory">directory (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    directory ...
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#directory_created">directory_created() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry">DirEntry (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirList">DirList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.dirname">dirname() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox">DirSelectBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirSelectDialog">DirSelectDialog (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.DirsOnSysPath">DirsOnSysPath (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.DirTree">DirTree (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#module-dis">dis (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.dis">dis() (dis.Bytecode method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.dis">(in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#pickletools.dis">(in module pickletools)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-disable">disable (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.disable">disable() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.disable">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.disable">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.disable">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.disable">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.disable_faulthandler">disable_faulthandler() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.disable_gc">disable_gc() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args">disable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.DisableReflectionKey">DisableReflectionKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.disassemble">disassemble() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.discard">discard (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.discard">discard() (frozenset method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.discard">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.discard">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.discard_buffers">discard_buffers() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.disco">disco() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.discover">discover() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.disk_usage">disk_usage() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_call">dispatch_call() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_exception">dispatch_exception() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_line">dispatch_line() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_return">dispatch_return() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table">dispatch_table (pickle.Pickler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher">dispatcher (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher_with_send">dispatcher_with_send (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    display
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">dictionary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">set</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">tuple</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-display">display (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.display_name">display_name (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group.display_name">(email.headerregistry.Group attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.displayhook">displayhook() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.dist">dist() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.distance">distance() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.distb">distb() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.Distribution">Distribution (class in distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/distutils.html#module-distutils">distutils (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.archive_util">distutils.archive_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.bcppcompiler">distutils.bcppcompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.ccompiler">distutils.ccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.cmd">distutils.cmd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command">distutils.command (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist">distutils.command.bdist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb">distutils.command.bdist_dumb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi">distutils.command.bdist_msi (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_packager">distutils.command.bdist_packager (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm">distutils.command.bdist_rpm (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst">distutils.command.bdist_wininst (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build">distutils.command.build (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_clib">distutils.command.build_clib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_ext">distutils.command.build_ext (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_py">distutils.command.build_py (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_scripts">distutils.command.build_scripts (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.check">distutils.command.check (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.clean">distutils.command.clean (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.config">distutils.command.config (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install">distutils.command.install (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_data">distutils.command.install_data (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_headers">distutils.command.install_headers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_lib">distutils.command.install_lib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_scripts">distutils.command.install_scripts (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.register">distutils.command.register (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.sdist">distutils.command.sdist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.core">distutils.core (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.cygwinccompiler">distutils.cygwinccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.debug">distutils.debug (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dep_util">distutils.dep_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dir_util">distutils.dir_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dist">distutils.dist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.errors">distutils.errors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.extension">distutils.extension (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.fancy_getopt">distutils.fancy_getopt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.file_util">distutils.file_util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.filelist">distutils.filelist (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.log">distutils.log (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.msvccompiler">distutils.msvccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.spawn">distutils.spawn (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.sysconfig">distutils.sysconfig (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.text_file">distutils.text_file (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.unixccompiler">distutils.unixccompiler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.util">distutils.util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.version">distutils.version (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/setupscript.html#index-0">DISTUTILS_DEBUG</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.divide">divide() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.divide_int">divide_int() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">division</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.DivisionByZero">DivisionByZero (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    divmod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-0">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#divmod">divmod() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.divmod">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow">DllCanUnloadNow() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.DllGetClassObject">DllGetClassObject() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.dllhandle">dllhandle (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.dngettext">dngettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.do_clear">do_clear() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.do_command">do_command() (curses.textpad.Textbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET">do_GET() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake">do_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_HEAD">do_HEAD() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.do_POST">do_POST() (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.doc">doc (json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.doc_header">doc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocFileSuite">DocFileSuite() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.doCleanups">doCleanups() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.docmd">docmd() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">docstring</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-docstring"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.docstring">(doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-1">docstrings</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest">DocTest (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#module-doctest">doctest (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure">DocTestFailure</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFinder">DocTestFinder (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser">DocTestParser (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner">DocTestRunner (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestSuite">DocTestSuite() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype">doctype() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.doctype">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    documentation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-0">generation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-0">online</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-58">documentation string</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-1">documentation strings</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.documentElement">documentElement (xml.dom.Document attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler">DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer">DocXMLRPCServer (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.domain">domain (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain">(tracemalloc.DomainFilter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.domain">(tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace.domain">(tracemalloc.Trace attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_initial_dot">domain_initial_dot (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok">domain_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_specified">domain_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.DomainFilter">DomainFilter (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal">DomainLiberal (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match">DomainRFC2965Match (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict">DomainStrict (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots">DomainStrictNoDots (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain">DomainStrictNonDomain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream">DOMEventStream (class in xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMException">DOMException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr">DomstringSizeErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.done">done() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.done">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.done">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.done">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.done">(xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE">DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1">DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.dont_write_bytecode">dont_write_bytecode (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.doRollover">doRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.doRollover">(logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOT">DOT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.dot">dot() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.DOTALL">DOTALL (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.doublequote">doublequote (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESLASH">DOUBLESLASH (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL">DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESTAR">DOUBLESTAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL">DOUBLESTAREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.doupdate">doupdate() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-down">down (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.down">down() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.drain">drain() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.drop_whitespace">drop_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.dropwhile">dropwhile() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.dst">dst() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.dst">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.dst">(datetime.timezone method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.dst">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler">DTDHandler (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-duck-typing"><strong>duck-typing</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.DumbWriter">DumbWriter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dummy_threading.html#module-dummy_threading">dummy_threading (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.dump">dump() (in module ast)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.dump">(in module json)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.dump">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.dump">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dump">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.dump">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dump">(pickle.Pickler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump">(tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.dump_stats">dump_stats() (profile.Profile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.dump_stats">(pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.dump_traceback">dump_traceback() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.dump_traceback_later">dump_traceback_later() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.dumps">dumps() (in module json)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.dumps">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.dumps">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dumps">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.dumps">(in module xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.dup">dup() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.dup">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.dup2">dup2() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DUP_TOP">DUP_TOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-DUP_TOP_TWO">DUP_TOP_TWO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateOptionError">DuplicateOptionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateSectionError">DuplicateSectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags">dwFlags (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.DynamicClassAttribute">DynamicClassAttribute() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="E">E</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    e
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-28">in numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.e">e (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.e">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.E2BIG">E2BIG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EACCES">EACCES (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EADDRINUSE">EADDRINUSE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL">EADDRNOTAVAIL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EADV">EADV (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EAFNOSUPPORT">EAFNOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-eafp"><strong>EAFP</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EAGAIN">EAGAIN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EALREADY">EALREADY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.east_asian_width">east_asian_width() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADE">EBADE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADF">EBADF (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADFD">EBADFD (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADMSG">EBADMSG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADR">EBADR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADRQC">EBADRQC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBADSLT">EBADSLT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBFONT">EBFONT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EBUSY">EBUSY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECHILD">ECHILD (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.echo">echo() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.echochar">echochar() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECHRNG">ECHRNG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECOMM">ECOMM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECONNABORTED">ECONNABORTED (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECONNREFUSED">ECONNREFUSED (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ECONNRESET">ECONNRESET (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDEADLK">EDEADLK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDEADLOCK">EDEADLOCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDESTADDRREQ">EDESTADDRREQ (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.edit">edit() (curses.textpad.Textbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDOM">EDOM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDOTDOT">EDOTDOT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EDQUOT">EDQUOT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EEXIST">EEXIST (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EFAULT">EFAULT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EFBIG">EFBIG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.effective">effective() (in module bdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo">ehlo() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed">ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EHOSTDOWN">EHOSTDOWN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EHOSTUNREACH">EHOSTUNREACH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EIDRM">EIDRM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EILSEQ">EILSEQ (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EINPROGRESS">EINPROGRESS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EINTR">EINTR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EINVAL">EINVAL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EIO">EIO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EISCONN">EISCONN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EISDIR">EISDIR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EISNAM">EISNAM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL2HLT">EL2HLT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL2NSYNC">EL2NSYNC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL3HLT">EL3HLT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EL3RST">EL3RST (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element">Element (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create">element_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_names">element_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_options">element_options() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler">ElementDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.elements">elements() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree">ElementTree (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBACC">ELIBACC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBBAD">ELIBBAD (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBEXEC">ELIBEXEC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBMAX">ELIBMAX (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELIBSCN">ELIBSCN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    elif
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">keyword</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uu.html#index-0">Ellinghouse, Lance</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Ellipsis
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-8">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#Ellipsis">Ellipsis (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.ELLIPSIS">ELLIPSIS (in module doctest)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ELLIPSIS">(in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELNRNG">ELNRNG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ELOOP">ELOOP (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    else
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">conditional expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">dangling</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.html#module-email">email (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#module-email.charset">email.charset (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager">email.contentmanager (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#module-email.encoders">email.encoders (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#module-email.errors">email.errors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#module-email.generator">email.generator (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#module-email.header">email.header (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#module-email.headerregistry">email.headerregistry (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#module-email.iterators">email.iterators (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#module-email.message">email.message (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#module-email.mime">email.mime (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#module-email.parser">email.parser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#module-email.policy">email.policy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#module-email.utils">email.utils (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage">EmailMessage (class in email.message)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy">EmailPolicy (class in email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMFILE">EMFILE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler.emit">emit() (logging.FileHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.emit">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler.emit">(logging.NullHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler.emit">(logging.StreamHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.HTTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.QueueHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.SMTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.emit">(logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMLINK">EMLINK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Empty">Empty</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    empty
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">list</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">tuple</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.empty">empty (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.empty">(inspect.Signature attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.empty">empty() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.empty">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty">(multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.empty">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.empty">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.empty">(sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE">EMPTY_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.emptyline">emptyline() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMSGSIZE">EMSGSIZE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EMULTIHOP">EMULTIHOP (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-enable">enable (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Breakpoint.enable">enable() (bdb.Breakpoint method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.enable">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.enable">(in module cgitb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.enable">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.enable">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.enable">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks">enable_callback_tracebacks() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args">enable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension">enable_load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.enable_traversal">enable_traversal() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.ENABLE_USER_SITE">ENABLE_USER_SITE (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.EnableReflectionKey">EnableReflectionKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENAMETOOLONG">ENAMETOOLONG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENAVAIL">ENAVAIL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.enclose">enclose() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    encode
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Codecs</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.encode">encode (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.Codec.encode">encode() (codecs.Codec method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header.encode">(email.header.Header method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.encode">(in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.encode">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.encode">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uu.html#uu.encode">(in module uu)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder.encode">(json.JSONEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.encode">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Binary.encode">(xmlrpc.client.Binary method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.DateTime.encode">(xmlrpc.client.DateTime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_7or8bit">encode_7or8bit() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_base64">encode_base64() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_noop">encode_noop() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.encoders.html#email.encoders.encode_quopri">encode_quopri() (in module email.encoders)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.encode_rfc2231">encode_rfc2231() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.encodebytes">encodebytes() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.EncodedFile">EncodedFile() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.encodePriority">encodePriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.encodestring">encodestring() (in module base64)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#quopri.encodestring">(in module quopri)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    encoding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-0">base64</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#index-0">quoted-printable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.encoding">encoding (curses.window attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.ENCODING">ENCODING (in module tarfile)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ENCODING">(in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.encoding">encoding (io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.encoding">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-5">encoding declarations (source file)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.idna">encodings.idna (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.mbcs">encodings.mbcs (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.utf_8_sig">encodings.utf_8_sig (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.encodings_map">encodings_map (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.encodings_map">(mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.end">end (UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.end">end() (re.Match method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end">(xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.end_fill">end_fill() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-END_FINALLY">END_FINALLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers">end_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.end_paragraph">end_paragraph() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.end_poly">end_poly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler">EndCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler">EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endDocument">endDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement">endElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndElementHandler">EndElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElementNS">endElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders">endheaders() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ENDMARKER">ENDMARKER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler">EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.endpos">endpos (re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping">endPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.endswith">endswith() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.endswith">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.endswith">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.endwin">endwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENETDOWN">ENETDOWN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENETRESET">ENETRESET (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENETUNREACH">ENETUNREACH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENFILE">ENFILE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOANO">ENOANO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOBUFS">ENOBUFS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOCSI">ENOCSI (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENODATA">ENODATA (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENODEV">ENODEV (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOENT">ENOENT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOEXEC">ENOEXEC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOLCK">ENOLCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOLINK">ENOLINK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOMEM">ENOMEM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOMSG">ENOMSG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENONET">ENONET (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOPKG">ENOPKG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOPROTOOPT">ENOPROTOOPT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSPC">ENOSPC (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSR">ENOSR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSTR">ENOSTR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOSYS">ENOSYS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTBLK">ENOTBLK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTCONN">ENOTCONN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTDIR">ENOTDIR (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTEMPTY">ENOTEMPTY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTNAM">ENOTNAM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTSOCK">ENOTSOCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTTY">ENOTTY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENOTUNIQ">ENOTUNIQ (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.enqueue">enqueue() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.enqueue_sentinel">enqueue_sentinel() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.ensure_directories">ensure_directories() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future">ensure_future() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip">ensurepip (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enter">enter() (sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context">enter_async_context() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context">enter_context() (contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enterabs">enterabs() (sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.entities">entities (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler">EntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.entitydefs">entitydefs (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver">EntityResolver (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.Enum">Enum (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#module-enum">enum (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.enum_certificates">enum_certificates() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.enum_crls">enum_crls() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#enumerate">enumerate() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.enumerate">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.EnumKey">EnumKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.EnumValue">EnumValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder">EnvBuilder (class in venv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.environ">environ (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#posix.environ">(in module posix)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.environb">environb (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-8">environment</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    environment variable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-5">APPDATA</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-0">AUDIODEV</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-0">BROWSER</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-24">CC</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-10">CFLAGS</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-4">COLS</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-32">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-6">COLUMNS</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-32">COMSPEC</a>, <a href="library/subprocess.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-26">CPP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-28">CPPFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/setupscript.html#index-0">DISTUTILS_DEBUG</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-1">HOME</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-4">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-7">HOMEDRIVE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-8">HOMEPATH</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-5">IDLESTARTUP</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-2">KDEDIR</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-3">LANG</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-3">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-0">LANGUAGE</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-1">LC_ALL</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-2">LC_MESSAGES</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-12">LDCXXSHARED</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-27">LDFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-0">LINES</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-31">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-2">LNAME</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-0">LOGNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-1">MIXERDEV</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-1">PAGER</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-22">PATH</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-5">[5]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-24">[6]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-25">[7]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-26">[8]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-29">[9]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-30">[10]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-31">[11]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-41">[12]</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-3">[13]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-0">[14]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-2">[15]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-24">[16]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-1">[18]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-10">[19]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-11">[20]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-13">[21]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-14">[22]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-15">[23]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-16">[24]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-2">[25]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-3">[26]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-5">[27]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-6">[28]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-8">[29]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-9">[30]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-55">[31]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-58">[32]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-59">[33]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-0">[34]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-1">[35]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-4">PATHEXT</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-2">PLAT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getopt.html#index-0">POSIXLY_CORRECT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-4">PYTHON*</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-50">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-dev.html#index-0">PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-1">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-12">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONCASEOK">PYTHONCASEOK</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-39">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-0">PYTHONDEBUG</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDEBUG">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/development.html#index-0">PYTHONDEVMODE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDEVMODE">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-2">PYTHONDOCS</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-1">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</a>, <a href="faq/programming.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-20">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-24">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-0">PYTHONDUMPREFS</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDUMPREFS">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONEXECUTABLE">PYTHONEXECUTABLE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#index-0">PYTHONFAULTHANDLER</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONFAULTHANDLER">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-23">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-2">PYTHONHASHSEED</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-77">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-15">[5]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-29">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-22">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-33">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-11">[9]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-31">PYTHONHOME</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-32">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-24">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-27">[4]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-1">[6]</a>, <a href="library/test.html#index-0">[7]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME">[8]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-22">[9]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-23">[10]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-26">[11]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-5">[12]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-19">[13]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-21">[14]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-23">[15]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-2">[16]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-7">PYTHONINSPECT</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONINSPECT">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-29">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-18">PYTHONIOENCODING</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-35">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-38">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-21">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-54">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-8">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-31">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-19">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-10">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-35">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-30">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-21">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-1">PYTHONMALLOC</a>, <a href="c-api/memory.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/memory.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-33">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-27">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-38">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-24">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-2">PYTHONMALLOCSTATS</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOCSTATS">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-12">PYTHONNOUSERSITE</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-6">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-13">PYTHONOPTIMIZE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONOPTIMIZE">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-5">PYTHONPATH</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-28">[2]</a>, <a href="extending/building.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-3">[6]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-19">[7]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-20">[8]</a>, <a href="library/test.html#index-1">[9]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-1">[10]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-5">[11]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-6">[12]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH">[13]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-25">[14]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-27">[15]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-28">[16]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-4">[17]</a>, <a href="using/mac.html#index-0">[18]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-18">[19]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-20">[20]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-22">[21]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-7">[22]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-56">[23]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-57">[24]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-27">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-18">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-15">PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-14">PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-6">PYTHONSTARTUP</a>, <a href="library/readline.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP">[5]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-6">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-40">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-41">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-21">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-6">[10]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONTHREADDEBUG">PYTHONTHREADDEBUG</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#index-0">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC</a>, <a href="library/tracemalloc.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/tracemalloc.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-14">PYTHONUNBUFFERED</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUNBUFFERED">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-17">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-8">PYTHONUSERBASE</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-4">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#index-2">PYTHONUSERSITE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-34">PYTHONUTF8</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUTF8">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-36">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-8">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-15">PYTHONVERBOSE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONVERBOSE">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-18">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/warnings.html#index-1">PYTHONWARNINGS</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-19">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-1">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-10">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-36">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#index-0">PYTHON_DOM</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-17">PY_PYTHON</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#index-1">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-31">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-2">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-18">SSL_CERT_FILE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-19">SSL_CERT_PATH</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-3">SystemRoot</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-0">TCL_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-2">TEMP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-1">TERM</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-1">TK_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-3">TMP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-1">TMPDIR</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#index-14">TZ</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-16">[2]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-18">[4]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-19">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-1">USER</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-3">USERNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="install/index.html#index-6">USERPROFILE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-9">USER_BASE</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-2">exec_prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-3">http_proxy</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-4">no_proxy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-1">prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    environment variables
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-13">deleting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-9">setting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#EnvironmentError">EnvironmentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Environments
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-0">virtual</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard">EnvironmentVarGuard (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ENXIO">ENXIO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.eof">eof (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.eof">(lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.eof">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.eof">(ssl.MemoryBIO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.eof">(zlib.Decompress attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.eof_received">eof_received() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol.eof_received">(asyncio.Protocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#EOFError">EOFError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-1">(built-in exception)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EOPNOTSUPP">EOPNOTSUPP (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EOVERFLOW">EOVERFLOW (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPERM">EPERM (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPFNOSUPPORT">EPFNOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.epilogue">epilogue (email.message.EmailMessage attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.epilogue">(email.message.Message attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPIPE">EPIPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-0">epoch</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll">epoll() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.EpollSelector">EpollSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPROTO">EPROTO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT">EPROTONOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EPROTOTYPE">EPROTOTYPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.eq">eq() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.EQEQUAL">EQEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.EQUAL">EQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA">ERA (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA_D_FMT">ERA_D_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA_D_T_FMT">ERA_D_T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.ERA_T_FMT">ERA_T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ERANGE">ERANGE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.erase">erase() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.erasechar">erasechar() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EREMCHG">EREMCHG (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EREMOTE">EREMOTE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EREMOTEIO">EREMOTEIO (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ERESTART">ERESTART (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.erf">erf() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.erfc">erfc() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EROFS">EROFS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.ERR">ERR (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr.errcheck">errcheck (ctypes._FuncPtr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errcode">errcode (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errmsg">errmsg (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    errno
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-3">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#module-errno">errno (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.errno">(OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.Error">Error</a>, <a href="library/binhex.html#binhex.Error">[1]</a>, <a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.Error">[2]</a>, <a href="library/csv.html#csv.Error">[3]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#locale.Error">[4]</a>, <a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Error">[5]</a>, <a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.Error">[6]</a>, <a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Error">[7]</a>, <a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.Error">[8]</a>, <a href="library/uu.html#uu.Error">[9]</a>, <a href="library/wave.html#wave.Error">[10]</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.Error">[11]</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Error">[12]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.error">error</a>, <a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.error">[1]</a>, <a href="library/copy.html#copy.error">[2]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#curses.error">[3]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.error">[4]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.error">[5]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.error">[6]</a>, <a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.error">[7]</a>, <a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.error">[8]</a>, <a href="library/nis.html#nis.error">[9]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#os.error">[10]</a>, <a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.error">[11]</a>, <a href="library/re.html#re.error">[12]</a>, <a href="library/resource.html#resource.error">[13]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#select.error">[14]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.error">[15]</a>, <a href="library/struct.html#struct.error">[16]</a>, <a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.error">[17]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">error handling</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.error">error() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.error">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.error">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error">(urllib.request.OpenerDirector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.error">(xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body">error_body (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_content_type">error_content_type (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers">error_headers (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.error_leader">error_leader() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_message_format">error_message_format (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_output">error_output() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_perm">error_perm</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_proto">error_proto</a>, <a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.error_proto">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received">error_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_reply">error_reply</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status">error_status (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.error_temp">error_temp</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex">ErrorByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.errorcode">errorcode (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorCode">ErrorCode (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber">ErrorColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler">ErrorHandler (class in xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber">ErrorLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Errors
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#index-0">logging</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">errors</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.errors">(io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.errors">(unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.errors">(unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString">ErrorString() (in module xml.parsers.expat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ERRORTOKEN">ERRORTOKEN (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.escape">escape (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.escape">escape() (in module cgi)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#glob.escape">(in module glob)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/html.html#html.escape">(in module html)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.escape">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.escape">(in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.escapechar">escapechar (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.escapedquotes">escapedquotes (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESHUTDOWN">ESHUTDOWN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT">ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESPIPE">ESPIPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESRCH">ESRCH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESRMNT">ESRMNT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESTALE">ESTALE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ESTRPIPE">ESTRPIPE (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETIME">ETIME (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETIMEDOUT">ETIMEDOUT (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.Etiny">Etiny() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETOOMANYREFS">ETOOMANYREFS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.Etop">Etop() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.ETXTBSY">ETXTBSY (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EUCLEAN">EUCLEAN (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EUNATCH">EUNATCH (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EUSERS">EUSERS (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    eval
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#index-1">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/pprint.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-6">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#eval">eval() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    evaluation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-91">order</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event">Event (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Event">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#index-0">event scheduling</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control.event">event() (msilib.Control method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Event">Event() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.events">events (selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-4">(widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EWOULDBLOCK">EWOULDBLOCK (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_CANTCREAT">EX_CANTCREAT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_CONFIG">EX_CONFIG (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_DATAERR">EX_DATAERR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_IOERR">EX_IOERR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOHOST">EX_NOHOST (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOINPUT">EX_NOINPUT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOPERM">EX_NOPERM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOTFOUND">EX_NOTFOUND (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_NOUSER">EX_NOUSER (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_OK">EX_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_OSERR">EX_OSERR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_OSFILE">EX_OSFILE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_PROTOCOL">EX_PROTOCOL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_SOFTWARE">EX_SOFTWARE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_TEMPFAIL">EX_TEMPFAIL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_UNAVAILABLE">EX_UNAVAILABLE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.EX_USAGE">EX_USAGE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example">Example (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure.example">example (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException.example">(doctest.UnexpectedException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.examples">examples (doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException.exc_info">exc_info (doctest.UnexpectedException attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-15">exc_info() (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.exc_info">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.exc_msg">exc_msg (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.exc_type">exc_type (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.excel">excel (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.excel_tab">excel_tab (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    except
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-except">except (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-1">excepthook() (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.excepthook">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#Exception">Exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-12">exception</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-19">AssertionError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">AttributeError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-31">GeneratorExit</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">ImportError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-4">NameError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-34">StopAsyncIteration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-30">StopIteration</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-61">TypeError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-70">ValueError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">ZeroDivisionError</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-29">chaining</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">handler</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">raising</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.EXCEPTION">EXCEPTION (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">exception handler</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.exception">exception() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.exception">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.exception">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.exception">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.exception">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    exceptions
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">in CGI scripts</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    exclusive
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">or</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EXDEV">EXDEV (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    exec
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-1">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/parser.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-56">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-43">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-exec">exec (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#exec">exec() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.exec_module">exec_module (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module">exec_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module">(importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.exec_module">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-2">exec_prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.EXEC_PREFIX">EXEC_PREFIX (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.exec_prefix">exec_prefix (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-execfile">execfile (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execl">execl() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execle">execle() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execlp">execlp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execlpe">execlpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-22">executable (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.executable">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#index-0">Executable Zip Files</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.executable_filename">executable_filename() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.execute">execute() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.execute">(in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Execute">Execute() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.execute">execute() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.execute">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.executemany">executemany() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.executemany">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.executescript">executescript() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.executescript">(sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    execution
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">frame</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-11">restricted</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">stack</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-0">execution model</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader">ExecutionLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor">Executor (class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execv">execv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execve">execve() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execvp">execvp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.execvpe">execvpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox">ExFileSelectBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/errno.html#errno.EXFULL">EXFULL (in module errno)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.exists">exists() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.exists">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.exists">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#exit">exit (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#index-1">exit()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.exit">(argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.exit">(in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.exit">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.exitcode">exitcode (multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-exitfunc">exitfunc (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.exitonclick">exitonclick() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack">ExitStack (class in contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.exp">exp() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.exp">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.exp">(in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.exp">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.expand">expand() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs">expand_tabs (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings">ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode">expandNode() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.expandtabs">expandtabs() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.expandtabs">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.expandtabs">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.expanduser">expanduser() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.expanduser">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.expandvars">expandvars() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#index-0">Expat</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError">ExpatError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.expect">expect() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.expected">expected (asyncio.IncompleteReadError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.expectedFailure">expectedFailure() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.expectedFailures">expectedFailures (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.expires">expires (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.exploded">exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.exploded">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.exploded">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.exploded">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.expm1">expm1() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.expovariate">expovariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.expr">expr() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-0">expression</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-expression"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">Conditional</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">conditional</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">generator</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-24">lambda</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-86">list</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">yield</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.expunge">expunge() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.extend">extend() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.extend">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.extend_path">extend_path() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-EXTENDED_ARG">EXTENDED_ARG (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ExtendedContext">ExtendedContext (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ExtendedInterpolation">ExtendedInterpolation (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.extendleft">extendleft() (collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    extension
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.Extension">Extension (class in distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-extension-module"><strong>extension module</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES">EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader">ExtensionFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.extensions_map">extensions_map (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-1">External Data Representation</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.external_attr">external_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.ExternalClashError">ExternalClashError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate">ExternalEntityParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler">ExternalEntityRefHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.extra">extra (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extract">extract() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary.extract">(traceback.StackSummary class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.extract">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies">extract_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.extract_stack">extract_stack() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.extract_tb">extract_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.extract_version">extract_version (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extractall">extractall() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.extractall">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.ExtractError">ExtractError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extractfile">extractfile() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.extsep">extsep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="F">F</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    f&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-21">formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    f&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-21">formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">f-string</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-f-string"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_back (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_builtins (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_code (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.f_contiguous">f_contiguous (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_globals (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_lasti (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_lineno (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-60">f_locals (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_LOCK">F_LOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_OK">F_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_TEST">F_TEST (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_TLOCK">F_TLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_trace (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_trace_lines (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-61">f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.F_ULOCK">F_ULOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.fabs">fabs() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.factorial">factorial() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory">factory() (importlib.util.LazyLoader class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.fail">fail() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.FAIL_FAST">FAIL_FAST (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.failfast">failfast (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.failureException">failureException (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.failures">failures (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.FakePath">FakePath (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">False</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">false</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-3">False (Built-in object)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#False">(built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.family">family (socket.socket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.fancy_getopt">fancy_getopt() (in module distutils.fancy_getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt">FancyGetopt (class in distutils.fancy_getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FancyURLopener">FancyURLopener (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.fast">fast (pickle.Pickler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.FastChildWatcher">FastChildWatcher (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.fatalError">fatalError() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Fault">Fault (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultCode">faultCode (xmlrpc.client.Fault attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler">faulthandler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultString">faultString (xmlrpc.client.Fault attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fchdir">fchdir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fchmod">fchmod() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fchown">fchown() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.FCICreate">FCICreate() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#module-fcntl">fcntl (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.fcntl">fcntl() (in module fcntl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.fd">fd (selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.fd">fd() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.fd_count">fd_count() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fdatasync">fdatasync() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fdopen">fdopen() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Feature">Feature (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges">feature_external_ges (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes">feature_external_pes (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes">feature_namespace_prefixes (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces">feature_namespaces (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning">feature_string_interning (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_validation">feature_validation (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed">feed() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.feed">(html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.feed">(xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.feed">(xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.FeedParser">FeedParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.fetch">fetch() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Fetch">Fetch() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchall">fetchall() (sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany">fetchmany() (sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchone">fetchone() (sqlite3.Cursor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.fflags">fflags (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.Field">Field (class in dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.field">field() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.field_size_limit">field_size_limit() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.fieldnames">fieldnames (csv.csvreader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.fields">fields (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.fields">fields() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    file
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">.ini</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">.pdbrc</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#index-1">byte-code</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">configuration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#index-0">copying</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-2">debugger configuration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-1">large files</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-2">mime.types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-5">modes</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">path configuration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#index-0">plist</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">temporary</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.file">file (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.file">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    file ...
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/compileall.html#cmdoption-compileall-arg-file">compileall command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    file control
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">UNIX</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    file name
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">temporary</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-file-object"><strong>file object</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#index-0">io module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-4">open() built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-file-like-object"><strong>file-like object</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#file_created">file_created() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.file_dispatcher">file_dispatcher (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FileHandler.file_open">file_open() (urllib.request.FileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.file_size">file_size (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.file_wrapper">file_wrapper (class in asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#module-filecmp">filecmp (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig">fileConfig() (in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar">FileCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.FileEntry">FileEntry (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FileExistsError">FileExistsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder">FileFinder (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler">FileHandler (class in logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FileHandler">(class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.FileInput">FileInput (class in fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#module-fileinput">fileinput (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.FileIO">FileIO (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.filelineno">filelineno() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader">FileLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.filemode">filemode() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.filename">filename (doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.filename">(OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.filename">(http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.filename">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Frame.filename">(tracemalloc.Frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.filename">(zipfile.ZipFile attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.filename">(zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.filename">filename() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.filename2">filename2 (OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.filename_only">filename_only (in module tabnanny)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern">filename_pattern (tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    filenames
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/glob.html#index-0">pathname expansion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-0">wildcard expansion</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.fileno">fileno() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.fileno">(in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.fileno">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.fileno">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.fileno">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.fileno">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.fileno">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.fileno">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.fileno">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.DevpollSelector.fileno">(selectors.DevpollSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.EpollSelector.fileno">(selectors.EpollSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.KqueueSelector.fileno">(selectors.KqueueSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.fileno">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.fileno">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.fileno">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError">FileNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey.fileobj">fileobj (selectors.SelectorKey attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.FileSelectBox">FileSelectBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.FileType">FileType (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.FileWrapper">FileWrapper (class in wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.fill">fill() (in module textwrap)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.fill">(textwrap.TextWrapper method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.fillcolor">fillcolor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.filling">filling() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-filter">filter (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Filter">Filter (class in logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter">(class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.filter">filter (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#filter">filter() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.filter">(in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.filter">(in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Filter.filter">(logging.Filter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.filter">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.filter">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR">FILTER_DIR (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.filter_traces">filter_traces() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.filterfalse">filterfalse() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.filterwarnings">filterwarnings() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">finalization, of objects</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize">finalize (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.finalize_options">finalize_options() (distutils.cmd.Command method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">finalizer</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    finally
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-25">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.find">find() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.find">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFinder.find">(doctest.DocTestFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.find">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.find">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.find">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.find">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-7">find_class() (pickle protocol)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler.find_class">(pickle.Unpickler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.util.find_library">find_library() (in module ctypes.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.find_library_file">find_library_file() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader">find_loader() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.find_loader">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.find_loader">(in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match">find_longest_match() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.NullImporter.find_module">find_module() (imp.NullImporter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Finder.find_module">(importlib.abc.Finder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module">(importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module">(importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module">(importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.find_module">(in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.find_module">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.util.find_msvcrt">find_msvcrt() (in module ctypes.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    find_spec
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-10">finder</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec">find_spec() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec">(importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_spec">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec">(importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.find_spec">(in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.find_unused_port">find_unused_port() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password">find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr method)</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.findall">findall() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.findall">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findall">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.findCaller">findCaller() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-8">finder</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-finder"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-10">find_spec</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Finder">Finder (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.findfactor">findfactor() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.findfile">findfile() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.findfit">findfit() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.finditer">finditer() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.finditer">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.findlabels">findlabels() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.findlinestarts">findlinestarts() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#mailcap.findmatch">findmatch() (in module mailcap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.findmax">findmax() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findtext">findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findtext">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.finish">finish() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.finish_request">finish_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.firstChild">firstChild (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.firstkey">firstkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.firstweekday">firstweekday() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.fix_missing_locations">fix_missing_locations() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.fix_sentence_endings">fix_sentence_endings (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.Flag">Flag (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.flag_bits">flag_bits (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.flags">flags (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.flags">(re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.flags">(select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.flash">flash() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten">flatten() (email.generator.BytesGenerator method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator.flatten">(email.generator.Generator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    flattening
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    float
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-5">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#float">float (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.float_info">float_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.float_repr_style">float_repr_style (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    floating point
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">number</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/float.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">floating point literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FloatingPointError">FloatingPointError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.FloatOperation">FloatOperation (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.flock">flock() (in module fcntl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-floor-division"><strong>floor division</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.floor">floor() (in module math)</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.floordiv">floordiv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Compressor.flush">flush() (bz2.BZ2Compressor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.flush">(formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedWriter.flush">(io.BufferedWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.flush">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.flush">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler.flush">(logging.StreamHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.flush">(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.flush">(logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMACompressor.flush">(lzma.LZMACompressor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.flush">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.flush">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.flush">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.flush">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Compress.flush">(zlib.Compress method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.flush">(zlib.Decompress method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers">flush_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.flush_softspace">flush_softspace() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.flushinp">flushinp() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.FlushKey">FlushKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.fma">fma() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.fma">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.fmod">fmod() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.FMT_BINARY">FMT_BINARY (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.FMT_XML">FMT_XML (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#module-fnmatch">fnmatch (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatch">fnmatch() (in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatchcase">fnmatchcase() (in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.focus">focus() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fold">fold (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.fold">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.fold">fold() (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.fold">(email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.fold">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.fold_binary">fold_binary() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold_binary">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.fold_binary">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    for
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-11">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-FOR_ITER">FOR_ITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.forget">forget() (in module test.support)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.forget">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fork">fork() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pty.html#pty.fork">(in module pty)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingMixIn">ForkingMixIn (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingTCPServer">ForkingTCPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingUDPServer">ForkingUDPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.forkpty">forkpty() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    form
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">lambda</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Form">Form (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.format">format (memoryview attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.format">(struct.Struct attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#format">format() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-72">__str__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.format">format() (in module locale)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.format">(logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.format">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.format">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.format">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.format">(string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary.format">(traceback.StackSummary method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.format">(traceback.TracebackException method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Traceback.format">(tracemalloc.Traceback method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.format_datetime">format_datetime() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_exc">format_exc() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_exception">format_exception() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_exception_only">format_exception_only() (in module traceback)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.format_exception_only">(traceback.TracebackException method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.format_field">format_field() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.format_help">format_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_list">format_list() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.format_map">format_map() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_stack">format_stack() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry">format_stack_entry() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.format_string">format_string() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.format_tb">format_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage">format_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-FORMAT_VALUE">FORMAT_VALUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.formataddr">formataddr() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.formatargspec">formatargspec() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.formatargvalues">formatargvalues() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.formatdate">formatdate() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.FormatError">FormatError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.FormatError">FormatError() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.formatException">formatException() (logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatmonth">formatmonth() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.formatmonth">(calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.formatStack">formatStack() (logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">formatted string literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter">Formatter (class in logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter">(class in string)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#module-formatter">formatter (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Formatter.formatTime">formatTime() (logging.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    formatting
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytearray (%)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytes (%)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">formatting, string (%)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.formatwarning">formatwarning() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear">formatyear() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.formatyear">(calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyearpage">formatyearpage() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-2">Fortran contiguous</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-10">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.forward">forward() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ForwardRef">ForwardRef (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator">found_terminator() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fpathconf">fpathconf() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.fqdn">fqdn (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction">Fraction (class in fractions)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#module-fractions">fractions (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    frame
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">execution</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-59">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Frame">Frame (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html#tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.frame">frame (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.FrameSummary">FrameSummary (class in traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.FrameType">FrameType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    free
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-6">variable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">free()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-4">freeze utility</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.freeze">freeze() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.freeze_support">freeze_support() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.frexp">frexp() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    from
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-5">import statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-36">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">keyword</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-23">yield from expression</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_address">from_address() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_buffer">from_buffer() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_buffer_copy">from_buffer_copy() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#int.from_bytes">from_bytes() (int class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.from_callable">from_callable() (inspect.Signature class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_decimal">from_decimal() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.from_exception">from_exception() (traceback.TracebackException class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file">from_file() (zipfile.ZipInfo class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.from_float">from_float() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_float">(fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.chain.from_iterable">from_iterable() (itertools.chain class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary.from_list">from_list() (traceback.StackSummary class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.from_param">from_param() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.from_traceback">from_traceback() (dis.Bytecode class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.frombuf">frombuf() (tarfile.TarInfo class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.frombytes">frombytes() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.fromfd">fromfd() (in module socket)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.fromfd">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue.fromfd">(select.kqueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromfile">fromfile() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.fromhex">fromhex() (bytearray class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.fromhex">(bytes class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.fromhex">(float class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromisoformat">fromisoformat() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromisoformat">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.fromisoformat">(datetime.time class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.fromkeys">fromkeys() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.fromkeys">(dict class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromlist">fromlist() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromordinal">fromordinal() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromordinal">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.fromshare">fromshare() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromstring">fromstring() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist">fromstringlist() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.fromtarfile">fromtarfile() (tarfile.TarInfo class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromtimestamp">fromtimestamp() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.fromunicode">fromunicode() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.fromutc">fromutc() (datetime.timezone method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter">FrozenImporter (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError">FrozenInstanceError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    frozenset
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset">frozenset (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.FrozenSet">FrozenSet (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.fs_is_case_insensitive">fs_is_case_insensitive() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.FS_NONASCII">FS_NONASCII (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fsdecode">fsdecode() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fsencode">fsencode() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fspath">fspath() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fstat">fstat() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fstatvfs">fstatvfs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.fsum">fsum() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fsync">fsync() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-13">FTP</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-0">ftplib (standard module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP">FTP (class in ftplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FTPHandler.ftp_open">ftp_open() (urllib.request.FTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS">FTP_TLS (class in ftplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FTPHandler">FTPHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib">ftplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.ftruncate">ftruncate() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Full">Full</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.full">full() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.full">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.full">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.full_url">full_url (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.fullmatch">fullmatch() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.fullmatch">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial.func">func (functools.partial attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-funcattrs">funcattrs (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-function"><strong>function</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-23">annotations</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">anonymous</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">argument</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">call</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">call, user-defined</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">definition</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">generator</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">name</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/function.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">user-defined</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function">Function (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-function-annotation"><strong>function annotation</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.function__entry">function__entry (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.function__return">function__return (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.FunctionTestCase">FunctionTestCase (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.FunctionType">FunctionType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#module-functools">functools (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.funny_files">funny_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    future
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-40">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-future">future (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future">Future (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future">(class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning">FutureWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.fwalk">fwalk() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="G">G</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-1">G.722</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.gaierror">gaierror</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.gamma">gamma() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.gammavariate">gammavariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.garbage">garbage (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-2">garbage collection</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.gather">gather() (curses.textpad.Textbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.gauss">gauss() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#module-gc">gc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.gc__done">gc__done (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.gc__start">gc__start (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.gc_collect">gc_collect() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.gcd">gcd() (in module fractions)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.gcd">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ge">ge() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.gen_lib_options">gen_lib_options() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.gen_preprocess_options">gen_preprocess_options() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.gen_uuid">gen_uuid() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.generate_help">generate_help() (distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#index-19">generator</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-generator"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-37">function</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-37">iterator</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-57">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Generator">Generator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator">(class in email.generator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Generator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#index-20">generator expression</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-generator-expression"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-generator-iterator"><strong>generator iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit">GeneratorExit</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-31">exception</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.GeneratorType">GeneratorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    generic
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">special attribute</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Generic">Generic (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-generic-function"><strong>generic function</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit">generic_visit() (ast.NodeVisitor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#pickletools.genops">genops() (in module pickletools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.get">get() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.get">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.get">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.get">(contextvars.ContextVar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.get">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.get">(in module webbrowser)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.get">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.get">(multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.get">(multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.get">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.get">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.get">(tkinter.ttk.Combobox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.get">(tkinter.ttk.Spinbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.get">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.get">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_AITER">GET_AITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_all">get_all() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_all">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.headers.Headers.get_all">(wsgiref.headers.Headers method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_all_breaks">get_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods">get_all_start_methods() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_ANEXT">GET_ANEXT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app">get_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.get_archive_formats">get_archive_formats() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.get_asyncgen_hooks">get_asyncgen_hooks() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.get_attribute">get_attribute() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_AWAITABLE">GET_AWAITABLE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_begidx">get_begidx() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_blocking">get_blocking() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_body">get_body() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.get_body_encoding">get_body_encoding() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_boundary">get_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_boundary">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_bpbynumber">get_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_break">get_break() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_breaks">get_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer">get_buffer() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.get_buffer">(xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.get_buffer">(xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes">get_bytes() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs">get_ca_certs() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.get_cache_token">get_cache_token() (in module abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding">get_channel_binding() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_charset">get_charset() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_charsets">get_charsets() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_charsets">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher">get_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.get_child_watcher">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_children">get_children() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.get_children">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers">get_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.get_clock_info">get_clock_info() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.get_close_matches">get_close_matches() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code">get_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_code">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_code">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_code">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_code">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_completer">get_completer() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_completer_delims">get_completer_delims() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_completion_type">get_completion_type() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_h_filename">get_config_h_filename() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_h_filename">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_var">get_config_var() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_var">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_config_vars">get_config_vars() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_vars">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.get_content">get_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.get_content">(in module email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_charset">get_content_charset() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_charset">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_disposition">get_content_disposition() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_disposition">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_maintype">get_content_maintype() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_maintype">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_subtype">get_content_subtype() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_subtype">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type">get_content_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_type">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_context">get_context() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth">get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.get_coroutine_wrapper">get_coroutine_wrapper() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_count">get_count() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_current_history_length">get_current_history_length() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_data">get_data() (importlib.abc.FileLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data">(importlib.abc.ResourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.get_data">(in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_data">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_date">get_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_debug">get_debug() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_debug">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.get_default">get_default() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.get_default_compiler">get_default_compiler() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.get_default_domain">get_default_domain() (in module nis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_default_type">get_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_default_type">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.get_default_verify_paths">get_default_verify_paths() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.get_dialect">get_dialect() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.get_docstring">get_docstring() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser.get_doctest">get_doctest() (doctest.DocTestParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_endidx">get_endidx() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_environ">get_environ() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.get_errno">get_errno() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop">get_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.get_event_loop_policy">get_event_loop_policy() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser.get_examples">get_examples() (doctest.DocTestParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler">get_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_exec_path">get_exec_path() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info">get_extra_info() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.get_extra_info">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.get_field">get_field() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.get_file">get_file() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.get_file">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF.get_file">(mailbox.MMDF method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_file">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.get_file">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox.get_file">(mailbox.mbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_file_breaks">get_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_filename">get_filename() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_filename">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename">(importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_filename">(importlib.abc.FileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_filename">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_filename">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_flags">get_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_flags">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.get_flags">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.get_folder">get_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.get_folder">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_frees">get_frees() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_freeze_count">get_freeze_count() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.get_from">get_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_from">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.get_full_url">get_full_url() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_globals">get_globals() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_grouped_opcodes">get_grouped_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_handle_inheritable">get_handle_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.get_header">get_header() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_history_item">get_history_item() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_history_length">get_history_length() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_id">get_id() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.get_ident">get_ident() (in module _thread)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.get_ident">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_identifiers">get_identifiers() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.get_importer">get_importer() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_info">get_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_inheritable">get_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.get_inheritable">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.get_instructions">get_instructions() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#zipapp.get_interpreter">get_interpreter() (in module zipapp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_ITER">GET_ITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.get_key">get_key() (selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.get_labels">get_labels() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.get_labels">(mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.get_last_error">get_last_error() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.get_line_buffer">get_line_buffer() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_lineno">get_lineno() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.get_loader">get_loader() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_locals">get_locals() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_logger">get_logger() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.get_loop">get_loop() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.get_loop">(asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.get_magic">get_magic() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_makefile_filename">get_makefile_filename() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_makefile_filename">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.get_map">get_map() (selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks">get_matching_blocks() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_message">get_message() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.get_method">get_method() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Class.get_methods">get_methods() (symtable.Class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key">get_mixed_type_key() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.get_name">get_name() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_name">(symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.get_namespace">get_namespace() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.get_namespaces">get_namespaces() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr">get_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.get_nowait">get_nowait() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.get_nowait">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.get_nowait">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.get_nowait">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_object_traceback">get_object_traceback() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_objects">get_objects() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes">get_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_option">get_option() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_option_group">get_option_group() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.get_option_order">get_option_order() (distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.get_original_stdout">get_original_stdout() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.get_osfhandle">get_osfhandle() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.get_output_charset">get_output_charset() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_param">get_param() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Function.get_parameters">get_parameters() (symtable.Function method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_params">get_params() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_path">get_path() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_path_names">get_path_names() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_paths">get_paths() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload">get_payload() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pid">get_pid() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport">get_pipe_transport() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.get_platform">get_platform() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_platform">(in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.get_poly">get_poly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.get_position">get_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_protocol">get_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_python_inc">get_python_inc() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.get_python_lib">get_python_lib() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_python_version">get_python_version() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get_recsrc">get_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_referents">get_referents() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_referrers">get_referrers() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.get_request">get_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_returncode">get_returncode() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_running_loop">get_running_loop() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_scheme">get_scheme() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_scheme_names">get_scheme_names() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.get_sequences">get_sequences() (mailbox.MH method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.get_sequences">(mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.get_server">get_server() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.get_server_certificate">get_server_certificate() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.get_shapepoly">get_shapepoly() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.get_socket">get_socket() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source">get_source() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_source">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_source">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_source">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/builtdist.html#get_special_folder_path">get_special_folder_path() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.get_stack">get_stack() (asyncio.Task method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.get_stack">(bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_start_method">get_start_method() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.get_starttag_text">get_starttag_text() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_stats">get_stats() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr">get_stderr() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_stderr">(wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin">get_stdin() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_string">get_string() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_subdir">get_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.get_suffixes">get_suffixes() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_symbols">get_symbols() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.get_tag">get_tag() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_task_factory">get_task_factory() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.get_terminal_size">get_terminal_size() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.get_terminal_size">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.get_terminator">get_terminator() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.get_threshold">get_threshold() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.get_token">get_token() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit">get_traceback_limit() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_traced_memory">get_traced_memory() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory">get_tracemalloc_memory() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.get_type">get_type() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.get_type_hints">get_type_hints() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_unixfrom">get_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_unixfrom">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.get_unpack_formats">get_unpack_formats() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_usage">get_usage() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.get_value">get_value() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.get_version">get_version() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.get_visible">get_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.get_wch">get_wch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits">get_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size">get_write_buffer_size() (asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER">GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getacl">getacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.getaddresses">getaddresses() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo">getaddrinfo() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getaddrinfo">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getallocatedblocks">getallocatedblocks() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getandroidapilevel">getandroidapilevel() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getannotation">getannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getargspec">getargspec() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getargvalues">getargvalues() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getatime">getatime() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#getattr">getattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getattr_static">getattr_static() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttribute">getAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNode">getAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNodeNS">getAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNS">getAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetBase">GetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getbegyx">getbegyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getbkgd">getbkgd() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getblocking">getblocking() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean">getboolean() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.getbuffer">getbuffer() (io.BytesIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getByteStream">getByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcallargs">getcallargs() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getcanvas">getcanvas() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.getcapabilities">getcapabilities() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#mailcap.getcaps">getcaps() (in module mailcap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getch">getch() (curses.window method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getch">(in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getCharacterStream">getCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getche">getche() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getcheckinterval">getcheckinterval() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.getChild">getChild() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getchildren">getchildren() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getclasstree">getclasstree() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getclosurevars">getclosurevars() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.GetColumnInfo">GetColumnInfo() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getColumnNumber">getColumnNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcomments">getcomments() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getcompname">getcompname() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getcompname">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getcompname">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getcomptype">getcomptype() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getcomptype">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getcomptype">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getContentHandler">getContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.getcontext">getcontext() (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcoroutinelocals">getcoroutinelocals() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getcoroutinestate">getcoroutinestate() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getctime">getctime() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getcwd">getcwd() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getcwdb">getcwdb() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-getcwdu">getcwdu (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getdecoder">getdecoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getdefaultencoding">getdefaultencoding() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.getdefaultlocale">getdefaultlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getdefaulttimeout">getdefaulttimeout() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getdlopenflags">getdlopenflags() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getdoc">getdoc() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.getDOMImplementation">getDOMImplementation() (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getDTDHandler">getDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel">getEffectiveLevel() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getegid">getegid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagName">getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagName">(xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagNameNS">getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Document method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagNameNS">(xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getencoder">getencoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getEncoding">getEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getEntityResolver">getEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getenv">getenv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getenvb">getenvb() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getErrorHandler">getErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.geteuid">geteuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.getEvent">getEvent() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventCategory">getEventCategory() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventType">getEventType() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXException.getException">getException() (xml.sax.SAXException method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getFeature">getFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.GetFieldCount">GetFieldCount() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getfile">getfile() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors">getfilesystemencodeerrors() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding">getfilesystemencoding() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.FieldStorage.getfirst">getfirst() (cgi.FieldStorage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat">getfloat() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.getfmts">getfmts() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getfqdn">getfqdn() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getframeinfo">getframeinfo() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getframerate">getframerate() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getframerate">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getframerate">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec">getfullargspec() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getgeneratorlocals">getgeneratorlocals() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getgeneratorstate">getgeneratorstate() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getgid">getgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#grp.getgrall">getgrall() (in module grp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#grp.getgrgid">getgrgid() (in module grp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#grp.getgrnam">getgrnam() (in module grp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getgrouplist">getgrouplist() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getgroups">getgroups() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.getheader">getheader() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.getheaders">getheaders() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-12">gethostbyaddr() (in module socket)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostbyaddr">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostbyname">gethostbyname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostbyname_ex">gethostbyname_ex() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#index-12">gethostname() (in module socket)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.gethostname">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getincrementaldecoder">getincrementaldecoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getincrementalencoder">getincrementalencoder() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo">getinfo() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getinnerframes">getinnerframes() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetInputContext">GetInputContext() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.getint">getint() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.GetInteger">GetInteger() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.getitem">getitem() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getiterator">getiterator() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getiterator">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.getitimer">getitimer() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getkey">getkey() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.GetLastError">GetLastError() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getLength">getLength() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLevelName">getLevelName() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.getline">getline() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getLineNumber">getLineNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.FieldStorage.getlist">getlist() (cgi.FieldStorage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getloadavg">getloadavg() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.getlocale">getlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLogger">getLogger() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLoggerClass">getLoggerClass() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getlogin">getlogin() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.getLogRecordFactory">getLogRecordFactory() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getmark">getmark() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getmark">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getmark">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getmarkers">getmarkers() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getmarkers">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getmarkers">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getmaxyx">getmaxyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.getmember">getmember() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmembers">getmembers() (in module inspect)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.getmembers">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord.getMessage">getMessage() (logging.LogRecord method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXException.getMessage">(xml.sax.SAXException method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getMessageID">getMessageID() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmodule">getmodule() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmodulename">getmodulename() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.getmouse">getmouse() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getmro">getmro() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getmtime">getmtime() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.getname">getname() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.getName">getName() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getNameByQName">getNameByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getnameinfo">getnameinfo() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getnameinfo">(in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.getnames">getnames() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getNames">getNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getnchannels">getnchannels() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getnchannels">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getnchannels">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getnframes">getnframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getnframes">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getnframes">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-5">getnode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.getnode">getnode() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#module-getopt">getopt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt.getopt">getopt() (distutils.fancy_getopt.FancyGetopt method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.getopt">(in module getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.GetoptError">GetoptError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getouterframes">getouterframes() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.getoutput">getoutput() (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.getpagesize">getpagesize() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getparams">getparams() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getparams">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getparams">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getparyx">getparyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#module-getpass">getpass (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#getpass.getpass">getpass() (in module getpass)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#getpass.GetPassWarning">GetPassWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert">getpeercert() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getpeername">getpeername() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getpen">getpen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpgid">getpgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpgrp">getpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpid">getpid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.getpos">getpos() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getppid">getppid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding">getpreferredencoding() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getpriority">getpriority() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getprofile">getprofile() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty">GetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getProperty">getProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetPropertyCount">GetPropertyCount() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getprotobyname">getprotobyname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.getproxies">getproxies() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getPublicId">getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getPublicId">(xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwall">getpwall() (in module pwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwnam">getpwnam() (in module pwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwuid">getpwuid() (in module pwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNameByName">getQNameByName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNames">getQNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getquota">getquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.getquotaroot">getquotaroot() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.getrandbits">getrandbits() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getrandom">getrandom() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getreader">getreader() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getrecursionlimit">getrecursionlimit() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getrefcount">getrefcount() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getresgid">getresgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse">getresponse() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getresuid">getresuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.getrlimit">getrlimit() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getroot">getroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.getrusage">getrusage() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.getsample">getsample() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getsampwidth">getsampwidth() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.getsampwidth">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.getsampwidth">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getscreen">getscreen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getservbyname">getservbyname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.getservbyport">getservbyport() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.GetSetDescriptorType">GetSetDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getshapes">getshapes() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getsid">getsid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.getsignal">getsignal() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.getsitepackages">getsitepackages() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.getsize">getsize() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.getsize">(in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getsizeof">getsizeof() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getsockname">getsockname() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.getsockopt">getsockopt() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getsource">getsource() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getsourcefile">getsourcefile() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.getsourcelines">getsourcelines() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/spwd.html#spwd.getspall">getspall() (in module spwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/spwd.html#spwd.getspnam">getspnam() (in module spwd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.getstate">getstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.getstate">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/random.html#random.getstate">(in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.getstatusoutput">getstatusoutput() (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getstr">getstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.GetString">GetString() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.getSubject">getSubject() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.GetSummaryInformation">GetSummaryInformation() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getswitchinterval">getswitchinterval() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getSystemId">getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getSystemId">(xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.getsyx">getsyx() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.gettarinfo">gettarinfo() (tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempdir">gettempdir() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempdirb">gettempdirb() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempprefix">gettempprefix() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.gettempprefixb">gettempprefixb() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames">getTestCaseNames() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#module-gettext">gettext (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.gettext">gettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.gettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.gettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.gettext">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.gettimeout">gettimeout() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.gettrace">gettrace() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.getturtle">getturtle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getType">getType() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getuid">getuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl">geturl() (urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#getpass.getuser">getuser() (in module getpass)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.getuserbase">getuserbase() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.getusersitepackages">getusersitepackages() (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.getvalue">getvalue() (io.BytesIO method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.StringIO.getvalue">(io.StringIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getValue">getValue() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getValueByQName">getValueByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getwch">getwch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.getwche">getwche() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.getweakrefcount">getweakrefcount() (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.getweakrefs">getweakrefs() (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.getwelcome">getwelcome() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.getwelcome">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.getwelcome">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.getwin">getwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.getwindowsversion">getwindowsversion() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.getwriter">getwriter() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.getxattr">getxattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.getyx">getyx() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.gid">gid (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-gil"><strong>GIL</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    glob
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-3">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/glob.html#module-glob">glob (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/glob.html#glob.glob">glob() (in module glob)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.glob">(msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.glob">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    global
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">name binding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">namespace</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-33">global interpreter lock</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#globals">globals() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.globs">globs (doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.gmtime">gmtime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.gname">gname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-10">GNOME</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.GNU_FORMAT">GNU_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#getopt.gnu_getopt">gnu_getopt() (in module getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations">GNUTranslations (class in gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure.got">got (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.goto">goto() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">grammar</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">Graphical User Interface</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.GREATER">GREATER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.GREATEREQUAL">GREATEREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-4">Greenwich Mean Time</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.GRND_NONBLOCK">GRND_NONBLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.GRND_RANDOM">GRND_RANDOM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Group">Group (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.group">group() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.group">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.group">(re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.groupby">groupby() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.groupdict">groupdict() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.groupindex">groupindex (re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">grouping</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.groups">groups (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.groups">(re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.groups">groups() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/grp.html#module-grp">grp (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.gt">gt() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.guess_all_extensions">guess_all_extensions() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_all_extensions">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.guess_extension">guess_extension() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_extension">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.guess_scheme">guess_scheme() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.guess_type">guess_type() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">GUI</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gzip.html#module-gzip">gzip (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile">GzipFile (class in gzip)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="H">H</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.halfdelay">halfdelay() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle">Handle (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">handle an exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle">handle() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.handle">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.handle">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler.handle">(logging.NullHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.handle">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle">(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.handle">(wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept">handle_accept() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted">handle_accepted() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_charref">handle_charref() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_close">handle_close() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_comment">handle_comment() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_connect">handle_connect() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_data">handle_data() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_decl">handle_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.handle_defect">handle_defect() (email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_endtag">handle_endtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_entityref">handle_entityref() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_error">handle_error() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_expect_100">handle_expect_100() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_expt">handle_expt() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request">handle_one_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_pi">handle_pi() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_read">handle_read() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request">handle_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request">(xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_startendtag">handle_startendtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag">handle_starttag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout">handle_timeout() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_write">handle_write() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.handleError">handleError() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.handleError">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    handler
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler">Handler (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.handler">handler() (in module cgitb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.harmonic_mean">harmonic_mean() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_ALPN">HAS_ALPN (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.has_children">has_children() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_colors">has_colors() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_ECDH">HAS_ECDH (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec">has_exec() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.has_extn">has_extn() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function">has_function() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Sniffer.has_header">has_header() (csv.Sniffer method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.has_header">(urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_ic">has_ic() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_il">has_il() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.has_ipv6">has_ipv6 (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-has_key">has_key (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.has_key">has_key() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.has_location">has_location (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME">HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr">has_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_NPN">HAS_NPN (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.has_option">has_option() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.has_option">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.has_section">has_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI">HAS_SNI (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SSLv2">HAS_SSLv2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SSLv3">HAS_SSLv3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.has_ticket">has_ticket (ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1">HAS_TLSv1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1">HAS_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2">HAS_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3">HAS_TLSv1_3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#hasattr">hasattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.hasAttribute">hasAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.hasAttributeNS">hasAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.hasAttributes">hasAttributes() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.hasChildNodes">hasChildNodes() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hascompare">hascompare (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasconst">hasconst (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.hasFeature">hasFeature() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasfree">hasfree (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    hash
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-6">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-4">hash character</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#hash">hash() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-hash-based-pyc"><strong>hash-based pyc</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.block_size">hash.block_size (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.digest_size">hash.digest_size (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.hash_info">hash_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-19">hashable</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-hashable"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Hashable">Hashable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Hashable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.hasHandlers">hasHandlers() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib">hashlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasjabs">hasjabs (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasjrel">hasjrel (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.haslocal">haslocal (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.hasname">hasname (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-HAVE_ARGUMENT">HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS">HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.HAVE_THREADS">HAVE_THREADS (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.HCI_DATA_DIR">HCI_DATA_DIR (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.HCI_FILTER">HCI_FILTER (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP">HCI_TIME_STAMP (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.head">head() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.Header">Header (class in email.header)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.header_encode">header_encode() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.header_encode_lines">header_encode_lines() (email.charset.Charset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.header_encoding">header_encoding (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory">header_factory (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.header_fetch_parse">header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_fetch_parse">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_fetch_parse">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.header_items">header_items() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_max_count">header_max_count() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_max_count">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.header_offset">header_offset (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse">header_source_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_source_parse">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.header_store_parse">header_store_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_store_parse">(email.policy.EmailPolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.header_store_parse">(email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.HeaderError">HeaderError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.HeaderParseError">HeaderParseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.HeaderParser">HeaderParser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry">HeaderRegistry (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    headers
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">MIME</a>, <a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.headers.Headers">Headers (class in wsgiref.headers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers">headers (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError.headers">(urllib.error.HTTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.headers">(xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.heading">heading() (in module turtle)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.heading">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heapify">heapify() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.heapmin">heapmin() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heappop">heappop() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heappush">heappush() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heappushpop">heappushpop() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#module-heapq">heapq (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.heapreplace">heapreplace() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.helo">helo() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    help
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/stdlib.html#index-0">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-0">online</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.help">help (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-help">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#help">help() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.help">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.herror">herror</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.hex">hex (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#hex">hex() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.hex">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.hex">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.hex">(float method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.hex">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    hexadecimal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">hexadecimal literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binhex.html#binhex.hexbin">hexbin() (in module binhex)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.hexdigest">hexdigest() (hashlib.hash method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.shake.hexdigest">(hashlib.shake method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.hexdigest">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.hexdigits">hexdigits (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.hexlify">hexlify() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.hexversion">hexversion (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.hidden">hidden() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.hide">hide() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.hide">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2">hide_cookie2 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.hideturtle">hideturtle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    hierarchy
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">type</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr">HierarchyRequestErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS">HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT">HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG">HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER">HKEY_CURRENT_USER (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA">HKEY_DYN_DATA (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE">HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA">HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.HKEY_USERS">HKEY_USERS (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.hline">hline() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.HList">HList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.hls_to_rgb">hls_to_rgb() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hmac.html#module-hmac">hmac (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-1">HOME</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="install/index.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-4">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.home">home() (in module turtle)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.home">(pathlib.Path class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-7">HOMEDRIVE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-8">HOMEPATH</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.hook_compressed">hook_compressed() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.hook_encoded">hook_encoded() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    hooks
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">import</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">meta</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">path</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.host">host (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.hostmask">hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name">hostname_checks_common_name (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.hosts">hosts (netrc.netrc attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.hosts">hosts() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.hosts">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.hour">hour (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.hour">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.HRESULT">HRESULT (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdError">hStdError (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdInput">hStdInput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput">hStdOutput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.hsv_to_rgb">hsv_to_rgb() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ht">ht() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#index-0">HTML</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.html#module-html">html (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.html">html() (in module cgitb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#module-html.entities">html.entities (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#module-html.parser">html.parser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.html5">html5 (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar">HTMLCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff">HtmlDiff (class in difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser">HTMLParser (class in html.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.htonl">htonl() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.htons">htons() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    HTTP
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-0">http (standard module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-0">http.client (standard module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">protocol</a>, <a href="library/http.client.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[4]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-12">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.HTTP">HTTP (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.html#module-http">http (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#module-http.client">http.client (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#module-http.cookiejar">http.cookiejar (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies">http.cookies (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#module-http.server">http.server (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301">http_error_301() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302">http_error_302() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303">http_error_303() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307">http_error_307() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401">http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401">(urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407">http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407">(urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed">http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed">(urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.http_error_default">http_error_default() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPHandler.http_open">http_open() (urllib.request.HTTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTP_PORT">HTTP_PORT (in module http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-3">http_proxy</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response">http_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.http_version">http_version (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler">HTTPBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection">HTTPConnection (class in http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor">HTTPCookieProcessor (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">httpd</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler">HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler">HTTPDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError">HTTPError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor">HTTPErrorProcessor (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPException">HTTPException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler">HTTPHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPHandler">(class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr">HTTPPasswordMgr (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler">HTTPRedirectHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse">HTTPResponse (class in http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler.https_open">https_open() (urllib.request.HTTPSHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPS_PORT">HTTPS_PORT (in module http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response">https_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection">HTTPSConnection (class in http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.HTTPServer">HTTPServer (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler">HTTPSHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.html#http.HTTPStatus">HTTPStatus (class in http)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.hypot">hypot() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="I">I</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.I">I (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    I/O control
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">POSIX</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">UNIX</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">buffering</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">tty</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.iadd">iadd() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.iand">iand() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.iconcat">iconcat() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    id
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.id">id (ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#id">id() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.id">(unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.idcok">idcok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.ident">ident (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.ident">(threading.Thread attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.identchars">identchars (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-3">identifier</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-10">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.identify">identify() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify">(tkinter.ttk.Widget method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_column">identify_column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_element">identify_element() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_region">identify_region() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_row">identify_row() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    identity
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">test</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">identity of an object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-idioms">idioms (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-0">IDLE</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-idle"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS">IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-5">IDLESTARTUP</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.idlok">idlok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    if
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">conditional expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-11">in comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.if_indextoname">if_indextoname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.if_nameindex">if_nameindex() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.if_nametoindex">if_nametoindex() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ifloordiv">ifloordiv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/glob.html#glob.iglob">iglob() (in module glob)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace">ignorableWhitespace() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-ignore">ignore (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.ignore_errors">ignore_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL">IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.ignore_patterns">ignore_patterns() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.IGNORECASE">IGNORECASE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.ihave">ihave() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler">IISCGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ilshift">ilshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex.imag">imag (numbers.Complex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">imaginary literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap">imap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    IMAP4
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4">IMAP4 (class in imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.abort">IMAP4.abort</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.error">IMAP4.error</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.readonly">IMAP4.readonly</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    IMAP4_SSL
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4_SSL">IMAP4_SSL (class in imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    IMAP4_stream
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4_stream">IMAP4_stream (class in imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap_unordered">imap_unordered() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib">imaplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.imatmul">imatmul() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imghdr.html#module-imghdr">imghdr (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.immedok">immedok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-immutable"><strong>immutable</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">data type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">sequence types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">immutable object</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    immutable sequence
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    immutable types
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-68">subclassing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.imod">imod() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    imp
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#module-imp">imp (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.ImpImporter">ImpImporter (class in pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.impl_detail">impl_detail() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.implementation">implementation (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.ImpLoader">ImpLoader (class in pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    import
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">hooks</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">statement</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-import">import (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">import hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-0">import machinery</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-import-path"><strong>import path</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.import__find__load__done">import__find__load__done (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.import__find__load__start">import__find__load__start (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.import_fresh_module">import_fresh_module() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-IMPORT_FROM">IMPORT_FROM (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module">import_module() (in module importlib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.import_module">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-IMPORT_NAME">IMPORT_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-IMPORT_STAR">IMPORT_STAR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-importer"><strong>importer</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ImportError">ImportError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-importing"><strong>importing</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib">importlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc">importlib.abc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.machinery">importlib.machinery (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.resources">importlib.resources (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.util">importlib.util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-imports">imports (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-imports2">imports2 (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ImportWarning">ImportWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.ImproperConnectionState">ImproperConnectionState</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.imul">imul() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    in
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">keyword</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData.in_dll">in_dll() (ctypes._CData method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_a1">in_table_a1() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_b1">in_table_b1() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c11">in_table_c11() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c11_c12">in_table_c11_c12() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c12">in_table_c12() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c21">in_table_c21() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c21_c22">in_table_c21_c22() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c22">in_table_c22() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c3">in_table_c3() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c4">in_table_c4() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c5">in_table_c5() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c6">in_table_c6() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c7">in_table_c7() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c8">in_table_c8() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_c9">in_table_c9() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_d1">in_table_d1() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.in_table_d2">in_table_d2() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.in_transaction">in_transaction (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.inch">inch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    inclusive
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">or</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.inclusive">inclusive (tracemalloc.DomainFilter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.inclusive">(tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.Incomplete">Incomplete</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.IncompleteRead">IncompleteRead</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError">IncompleteReadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-17">incr_item()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.increment_lineno">increment_lineno() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder">IncrementalDecoder (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.incrementaldecoder">incrementaldecoder (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder">IncrementalEncoder (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.incrementalencoder">incrementalencoder (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder">IncrementalNewlineDecoder (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser">IncrementalParser (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.indent">indent (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.INDENT">INDENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-9">INDENT token</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.indent">indent() (in module textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">indentation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IndentationError">IndentationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">index operation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.index">index() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.index">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.index">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.index">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.index">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.index">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.index">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.index">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IndexError">IndexError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.indexOf">indexOf() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.IndexSizeErr">IndexSizeErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#slice.indices">indices() (slice method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_aton">inet_aton() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_ntoa">inet_ntoa() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_ntop">inet_ntop() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.inet_pton">inet_pton() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Inexact">Inexact (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.inf">inf (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.inf">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    infile
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-infile">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.infile">infile (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-2">Infinity</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.infj">infj (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.info">info() (dis.Bytecode method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.info">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.info">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.info">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.infolist">infolist() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">inheritance</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">ini file</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.init">init() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.init_color">init_color() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.init_database">init_database() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.init_pair">init_pair() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.inited">inited (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.initgroups">initgroups() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.initial_indent">initial_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.initialize_options">initialize_options() (distutils.cmd.Command method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.initscr">initscr() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.inode">inode() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_ADD">INPLACE_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_AND">INPLACE_AND (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE">INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_LSHIFT">INPLACE_LSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY">INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_MODULO">INPLACE_MODULO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_MULTIPLY">INPLACE_MULTIPLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_OR">INPLACE_OR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_POWER">INPLACE_POWER (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_RSHIFT">INPLACE_RSHIFT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_SUBTRACT">INPLACE_SUBTRACT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE">INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-INPLACE_XOR">INPLACE_XOR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-5">input</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-input">(2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#input">input() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.input">(in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.input_charset">input_charset (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.input_codec">input_codec (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.InputOnly">InputOnly (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource">InputSource (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.inquiry">inquiry (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insch">insch() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insdelln">insdelln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.insert">insert() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.insert">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.insert">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.insert">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.insert">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.insert_text">insert_text() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.insertBefore">insertBefore() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insertln">insertln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insnstr">insnstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.insort">insort() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.insort_left">insort_left() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bisect.html#bisect.insort_right">insort_right() (in module bisect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#module-inspect">inspect (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    inspect command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#cmdoption-inspect-details">--details</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader">InspectLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.insstr">insstr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.install">install() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.install">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.install_opener">install_opener() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.install_scripts">install_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.installHandler">installHandler() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    instance
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-92">call</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-54">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    instancemethod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate">instate() (tkinter.ttk.Widget method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.instr">instr() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.instream">instream (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction">Instruction (class in dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.arg">Instruction.arg (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.argrepr">Instruction.argrepr (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.argval">Instruction.argval (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.is_jump_target">Instruction.is_jump_target (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.offset">Instruction.offset (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.opcode">Instruction.opcode (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.opname">Instruction.opname (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.Instruction.starts_line">Instruction.starts_line (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    int
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-4">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-99">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#int">int (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.int">(uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.Int2AP">Int2AP() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.int_info">int_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">integer</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-12">representation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">types, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">integer literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Integral">Integral (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-0">Integrated Development Environment</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.IntegrityError">IntegrityError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">Intel/DVI ADPCM</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.IntEnum">IntEnum (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-interact">interact (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.interact">interact() (code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/code.html#code.interact">(in module code)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.interact">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-interactive"><strong>interactive</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-3">interactive mode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole">InteractiveConsole (class in code)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter">InteractiveInterpreter (class in code)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-intern">intern (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.intern">intern() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-54">internal type</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.internal_attr">internal_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.Internaldate2tuple">Internaldate2tuple() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.internalSubset">internalSubset (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-0">Internet</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">interpolated string literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    interpolation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytearray (%)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">bytes (%)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">interpolation, string (%)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationDepthError">InterpolationDepthError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationError">InterpolationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError">InterpolationMissingOptionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError">InterpolationSyntaxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-interpreted"><strong>interpreted</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-0">interpreter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-33">interpreter lock</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-23">interpreter prompts</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><strong>interpreter shutdown</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment">interpreter_requires_environment() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.interrupt">interrupt() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.interrupt_main">interrupt_main() (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError">InterruptedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.intersection">intersection() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.intersection_update">intersection_update() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.IntFlag">IntFlag (class in enum)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.intro">intro (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr">InuseAttributeErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.inv">inv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr">InvalidAccessErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.invalidate_caches">invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches">(importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.invalidate_caches">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches">(importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.invalidate_caches">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr">InvalidCharacterErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr">InvalidModificationErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.InvalidOperation">InvalidOperation (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.InvalidStateErr">InvalidStateErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError">InvalidStateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.InvalidURL">InvalidURL</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-60">inversion</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.invert">invert() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">invocation</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    io
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.IO">IO (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#module-io">io (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    io.StringIO
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-27">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase">IOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.ioctl">ioctl() (in module fcntl)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.ioctl">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID">IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IOError">IOError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ior">ior() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.ip">ip (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.ip">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.ip_address">ip_address() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.ip_interface">ip_interface() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.ip_network">ip_network() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress">ipaddress (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ipow">ipow() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped">ipv4_mapped (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address">IPv4Address (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface">IPv4Interface (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network">IPv4Network (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.IPV6_ENABLED">IPV6_ENABLED (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address">IPv6Address (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface">IPv6Interface (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network">IPv6Network (class in ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.irshift">irshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    is
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    is not
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.is_">is_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute">is_absolute() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.is_alive">is_alive() (multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.is_alive">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.is_android">is_android (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_assigned">is_assigned() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment">is_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated">is_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_block_device">is_block_device() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked">is_blocked() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_canonical">is_canonical() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_canonical">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_char_device">is_char_device() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK">IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.is_check_supported">is_check_supported() (in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.is_closed">is_closed() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing">is_closing() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.is_dataclass">is_dataclass() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_declared_global">is_declared_global() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.is_dir">is_dir() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_dir">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.is_dir">(zipfile.ZipInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.is_enabled">is_enabled() (in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.is_expired">is_expired() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_fifo">is_fifo() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.is_file">is_file() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_file">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.is_finalizing">is_finalizing() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_finite">is_finite() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_finite">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_free">is_free() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global">is_global (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_global">is_global() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop">is_hop_by_hop() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_imported">is_imported() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_infinite">is_infinite() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_infinite">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#float.is_integer">is_integer() (float method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.is_jython">is_jython (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK">IS_LINE_JUNK() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.is_linetouched">is_linetouched() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_link_local">is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_link_local">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_link_local">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_link_local">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_local">is_local() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_loopback">is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_loopback">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_loopback">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_mount">is_mount() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_multicast">is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_multicast">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_multicast">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_multicast">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart">is_multipart() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.is_multipart">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_namespace">is_namespace() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_nan">is_nan() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_nan">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.is_nested">is_nested() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_normal">is_normal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_normal">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.is_not">is_not() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed">is_not_allowed() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.is_optimized">is_optimized() (symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package">is_package() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.is_package">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.is_package">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.is_package">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.is_package">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.is_package">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_parameter">is_parameter() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private">is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_private">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_private">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.is_python_build">is_python_build() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_qnan">is_qnan() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_qnan">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading">is_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_referenced">is_referenced() (symtable.Symbol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_reserved">is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_reserved">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_reserved">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_reserved">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved">is_reserved() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.is_resource">is_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.is_resource">(in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.is_resource_enabled">is_resource_enabled() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.is_running">is_running() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.is_safe">is_safe (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.is_serving">is_serving() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.is_set">is_set() (asyncio.Event method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.is_set">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_signed">is_signed() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_signed">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_site_local">is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_site_local">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_snan">is_snan() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_snan">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_socket">is_socket() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_subnormal">is_subnormal() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_subnormal">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.is_symlink">is_symlink() (os.DirEntry method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_symlink">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.is_tarfile">is_tarfile() (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.is_term_resized">is_term_resized() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.is_tracing">is_tracing() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.is_tracked">is_tracked() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_unspecified">is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_unspecified">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_unspecified">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_unspecified">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.is_wintouched">is_wintouched() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_zero">is_zero() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.is_zero">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.is_zipfile">is_zipfile() (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.isabs">isabs() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isabstract">isabstract() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#IsADirectoryError">IsADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isalnum">isalnum() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isalnum">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isalnum">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isalnum">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isalpha">isalpha() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isalpha">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isalpha">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isalpha">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isascii">isascii() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isascii">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isascii">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isascii">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isasyncgen">isasyncgen() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isasyncgenfunction">isasyncgenfunction() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.isatty">isatty() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.isatty">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.isatty">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isawaitable">isawaitable() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isblank">isblank() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isblk">isblk() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isbuiltin">isbuiltin() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.ischr">ischr() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isclass">isclass() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isclose">isclose() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isclose">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.iscntrl">iscntrl() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.iscode">iscode() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.iscoroutine">iscoroutine() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutine">(in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.iscoroutinefunction">iscoroutinefunction() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutinefunction">(in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isctrl">isctrl() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.isDaemon">isDaemon() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isdatadescriptor">isdatadescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isdecimal">isdecimal() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isdev">isdev() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isdigit">isdigit() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isdigit">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isdigit">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isdigit">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.isdir">isdir() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isdir">(tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.isdisjoint">isdisjoint() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.isdown">isdown() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement">iselement() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.isenabled">isenabled() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor">isEnabledFor() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.isendwin">isendwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ISEOF">ISEOF() (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.isexpr">isexpr() (in module parser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.isexpr">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isfifo">isfifo() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.isfile">isfile() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isfile">(tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isfinite">isfinite() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isfinite">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.isfirstline">isfirstline() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isframe">isframe() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isfunction">isfunction() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.isfuture">isfuture() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isgenerator">isgenerator() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isgeneratorfunction">isgeneratorfunction() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isgetsetdescriptor">isgetsetdescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isgraph">isgraph() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isidentifier">isidentifier() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isinf">isinf() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isinf">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-isinstance">isinstance (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#isinstance">isinstance() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/keyword.html#keyword.iskeyword">iskeyword() (in module keyword)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.isleap">isleap() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.islice">islice() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.islink">islink() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.islnk">islnk() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.islower">islower() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.islower">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.islower">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.islower">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismemberdescriptor">ismemberdescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ismeta">ismeta() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismethod">ismethod() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismethoddescriptor">ismethoddescriptor() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.ismodule">ismodule() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.ismount">ismount() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.isnan">isnan() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.isnan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ISNONTERMINAL">ISNONTERMINAL() (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isnumeric">isnumeric() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.isocalendar">isocalendar() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isocalendar">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.isoformat">isoformat() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isoformat">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.isoformat">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level">isolation_level (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.isoweekday">isoweekday() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isoweekday">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isprint">isprint() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isprintable">isprintable() (str method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ispunct">ispunct() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.isreadable">isreadable() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.isreadable">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.isrecursive">isrecursive() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.isrecursive">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.isreg">isreg() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.isReservedKey">isReservedKey() (http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.isroutine">isroutine() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.isSameNode">isSameNode() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isspace">isspace() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isspace">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isspace">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isspace">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.isstdin">isstdin() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#issubclass">issubclass() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.issubset">issubset() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.issuite">issuite() (in module parser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.issuite">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.issuperset">issuperset() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.issym">issym() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.ISTERMINAL">ISTERMINAL() (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.istitle">istitle() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.istitle">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.istitle">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.istraceback">istraceback() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.isub">isub() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.isupper">isupper() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.isupper">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isupper">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.isupper">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.isvisible">isvisible() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.isxdigit">isxdigit() (in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    item
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-41">string</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">item selection</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.item">item() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.item">(xml.dom.NamedNodeMap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NodeList.item">(xml.dom.NodeList method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.itemgetter">itemgetter() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.items">items() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.items">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.items">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.items">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.items">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.items">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.items">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.items">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.itemsize">itemsize (array.array attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.itemsize">(memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ItemsView">ItemsView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ItemsView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#iter">iter() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iter">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_attachments">iter_attachments() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.iter_child_nodes">iter_child_nodes() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.iter_fields">iter_fields() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.iter_importers">iter_importers() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.iter_modules">iter_modules() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts">iter_parts() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.iter_unpack">iter_unpack() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.iter_unpack">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-iterable"><strong>iterable</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-88">unpacking</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterable">Iterable (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Iterable">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-iterator"><strong>iterator</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterator">Iterator (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Iterator">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iterator protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.iterdecode">iterdecode() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.iterdir">iterdir() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.iterdump">iterdump() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.iterencode">iterencode() (in module codecs)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder.iterencode">(json.JSONEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind">iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iterfind">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.iteritems">iteritems() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.iterkeys">iterkeys() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates">itermonthdates() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays">itermonthdays() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays2">itermonthdays2() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays3">itermonthdays3() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays4">itermonthdays4() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse">iterparse() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext">itertext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-itertools">itertools (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/itertools.html#module-itertools">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-itertools_imports">itertools_imports (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.itervalues">itervalues() (mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.iterweekdays">iterweekdays() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ITIMER_PROF">ITIMER_PROF (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ITIMER_REAL">ITIMER_REAL (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL">ITIMER_VIRTUAL (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.ItimerError">ItimerError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.itruediv">itruediv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ixor">ixor() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="J">J</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    j
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-29">in numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uu.html#index-0">Jansen, Jack</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Java
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">language</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.java_ver">java_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.join">join() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.join">(bytearray method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.join">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.join">(in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.join">(multiprocessing.JoinableQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.join">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.join">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.join">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.join">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.join">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.join_thread">join_thread() (in module test.support)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue">JoinableQueue (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.joinpath">joinpath() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output">js_output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.js_output">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    json
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#module-json">json (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#module-json.tool">json.tool (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    json.tool command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-sort-keys">--sort-keys</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-infile">infile</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-outfile">outfile</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError">JSONDecodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder">JSONDecoder (class in json)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder">JSONEncoder (class in json)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-jump">jump (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_ABSOLUTE">JUMP_ABSOLUTE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_FORWARD">JUMP_FORWARD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP">JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP">JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="K">K</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.kbhit">kbhit() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-2">KDEDIR</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent">kevent() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">key</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.key">(http.cookies.Morsel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-key-function"><strong>key function</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">key/datum pair</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS">KEY_ALL_ACCESS (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK">KEY_CREATE_LINK (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY">KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS">KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_EXECUTE">KEY_EXECUTE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_NOTIFY">KEY_NOTIFY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE">KEY_QUERY_VALUE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_READ">KEY_READ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE">KEY_SET_VALUE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY">KEY_WOW64_32KEY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY">KEY_WOW64_64KEY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.KEY_WRITE">KEY_WRITE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt">KeyboardInterrupt</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">(built-in exception)</a>, <a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#KeyError">KeyError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.keyname">keyname() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.keypad">keypad() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs">keyrefs() (weakref.WeakKeyDictionary method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.keys">keys() (contextvars.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.keys">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.keys">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.keys">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Row.keys">(sqlite3.Row method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.keys">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.keys">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.KeysView">KeysView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.KeysView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-13">keyword</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">as</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">async</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-35">await</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-55">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">elif</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">else</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">except</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10">finally</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-25">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">from</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">in</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">yield</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/keyword.html#module-keyword">keyword (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-keyword-argument"><strong>keyword argument</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial.keywords">keywords (functools.partial attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.kill">kill() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.kill">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.kill">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.kill">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.kill_python">kill_python() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.killchar">killchar() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.killpg">killpg() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.kind">kind (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.knownfiles">knownfiles (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kqueue">kqueue() (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.KqueueSelector">KqueueSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs">kwargs (inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/keyword.html#keyword.kwlist">kwlist (in module keyword)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="L">L</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.L">L (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.LabelEntry">LabelEntry (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.LabelFrame">LabelFrame (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-lambda"><strong>lambda</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-24">expression</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-85">form</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.LambdaType">LambdaType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-3">LANG</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-3">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-0">LANGUAGE</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    language
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">C</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">Java</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-1">large files</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.LargeZipFile">LargeZipFile</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.last">last() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.last_accepted">last_accepted (multiprocessing.connection.Listener attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.last_traceback">last_traceback (in module sys)</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.last_type">last_type (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.last_value">last_value (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.lastChild">lastChild (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.lastcmd">lastcmd (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.lastgroup">lastgroup (re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.lastindex">lastindex (re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.lastResort">lastResort (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid">lastrowid (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.layout">layout() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#linecache.lazycache">lazycache() (in module linecache)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.LazyLoader">LazyLoader (class in importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LBRACE">LBRACE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-lbyl"><strong>LBYL</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-1">LC_ALL</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_ALL">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_COLLATE">LC_COLLATE (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_CTYPE">LC_CTYPE (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#index-2">LC_MESSAGES</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_MESSAGES">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_MONETARY">LC_MONETARY (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_NUMERIC">LC_NUMERIC (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.LC_TIME">LC_TIME (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lchflags">lchflags() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lchmod">lchmod() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.lchmod">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lchown">lchown() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-12">LDCXXSHARED</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.ldexp">ldexp() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-27">LDFLAGS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.ldgettext">ldgettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.ldngettext">ldngettext() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.le">le() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">leading whitespace</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.leapdays">leapdays() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.leaveok">leaveok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.left">left (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.left">left() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.left_list">left_list (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.left_only">left_only (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LEFTSHIFT">LEFTSHIFT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL">LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    len
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/list.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/mapping.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/object.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="c-api/set.html#index-1">[5]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[6]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">[9]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[10]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-93">[11]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#len">len() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.length">length (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NodeList.length">(xml.dom.NodeList attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.length_hint">length_hint() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LESS">LESS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LESSEQUAL">LESSEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-0">lexical analysis</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-1">lexical definitions</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.lexists">lexists() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.lgamma">lgamma() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.lgettext">lgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.lgettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#module-lib2to3">lib2to3 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.libc_ver">libc_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.library">library (in module dbm.ndbm)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError.library">(ssl.SSLError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_dir_option">library_dir_option() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_filename">library_filename() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.library_option">library_option() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.LibraryLoader">LibraryLoader (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#license">license (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.LifoQueue">LifoQueue (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.LifoQueue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">light-weight processes</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.limit_denominator">limit_denominator() (fractions.Fraction method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.LimitOverrunError">LimitOverrunError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2adpcm">lin2adpcm() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2alaw">lin2alaw() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2lin">lin2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.lin2ulaw">lin2ulaw() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.line">line (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">line continuation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">line joining</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-2">line structure</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.line">line() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">line-buffered I/O</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper.line_buffering">line_buffering (io.TextIOWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvreader.line_num">line_num (csv.csvreader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/linecache.html#module-linecache">linecache (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.AST.lineno">lineno (ast.AST attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.lineno">(doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.lineno">(doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.lineno">(json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.lineno">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.lineno">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.lineno">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.lineno">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.lineno">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Filter.lineno">(tracemalloc.Filter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Frame.lineno">(tracemalloc.Frame attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.lineno">(xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.lineno">lineno() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-0">LINES</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-31">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.terminal_size.lines">lines (os.terminal_size attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.linesep">linesep (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.linesep">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.lineterminator">lineterminator (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.LineTooLong">LineTooLong</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link">link() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.link">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_executable">link_executable() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_lib">link_shared_lib() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.link_shared_object">link_shared_object() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.linkname">linkname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.linux_distribution">linux_distribution() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-list"><strong>list</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">assignment, target</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">comprehensions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">deletion target</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">empty</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-86">expression</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-23">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">target</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">type, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#list">list (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.List">List (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-list">list (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-list-comprehension"><strong>list comprehension</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.list">list() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.list">(multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.list">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.list">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.list">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LIST_APPEND">LIST_APPEND (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.list_dialects">list_dialects() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.list_folders">list_folders() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.list_folders">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.listdir">listdir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.listen">listen() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.listen">(in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.listen">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.listen">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Listener">Listener (class in multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.listMethods">listMethods() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.ListNoteBook">ListNoteBook (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.listxattr">listxattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-6">literal</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.literal_eval">literal_eval() (in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    literals
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">binary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">complex number</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">floating point</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">hexadecimal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">integer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">numeric</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">octal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.LittleEndianStructure">LittleEndianStructure (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.ljust">ljust() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.ljust">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.ljust">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_LOCK">LK_LOCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_NBLCK">LK_NBLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK">LK_NBRLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_RLCK">LK_RLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.LK_UNLCK">LK_UNLCK (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-ll">ll (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.LMTP">LMTP (class in smtplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.ln">ln() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.ln">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-2">LNAME</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.lngettext">lngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.lngettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load">load() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.load">(http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.load">(in module json)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.load">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.load">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.load">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler.load">(pickle.Unpickler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.load">(tracemalloc.Snapshot class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_ATTR">LOAD_ATTR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_BUILD_CLASS">LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain">load_cert_chain() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_CLASSDEREF">LOAD_CLASSDEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_CLOSURE">LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_CONST">LOAD_CONST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs">load_default_certs() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_DEREF">LOAD_DEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params">load_dh_params() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.load_extension">load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_FAST">LOAD_FAST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_GLOBAL">LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_METHOD">LOAD_METHOD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module">load_module() (importlib.abc.FileLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module">(importlib.abc.InspectLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module">(importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module">(importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.load_module">(in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.load_module">(zipimport.zipimporter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_NAME">LOAD_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.load_package_tests">load_package_tests() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations">load_verify_locations() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-8">loader</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-loader"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader">Loader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader">loader (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader_state">loader_state (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.LoadError">LoadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.LoadKey">LoadKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.LibraryLoader.LoadLibrary">LoadLibrary() (ctypes.LibraryLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.loads">loads() (in module json)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.loads">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.loads">(in module pickle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.loads">(in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.loads">(in module xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule">loadTestsFromModule() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName">loadTestsFromName() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromNames">loadTestsFromNames() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase">loadTestsFromTestCase() (unittest.TestLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.local">local (class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.localcontext">localcontext() (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.LOCALE">LOCALE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#module-locale">locale (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.localeconv">localeconv() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar">LocaleHTMLCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.LocaleTextCalendar">LocaleTextCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.localName">localName (xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.localName">(xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#locals">locals() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.localtime">localtime() (in module email.utils)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.localtime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator">Locator (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock">Lock (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Lock">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Lock">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.lock">lock() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.lock">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF.lock">(mailbox.MMDF method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.lock">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.lock">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox.lock">(mailbox.mbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Lock">Lock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-33">lock, interpreter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.lock_held">lock_held() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.lock.locked">locked() (_thread.lock method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.locked">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock.locked">(asyncio.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore.locked">(asyncio.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#fcntl.lockf">lockf() (in module fcntl)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lockf">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.locking">locking() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.LockType">LockType (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.log">log() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.log">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.log">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.log10">log10() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.log10">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.log10">(in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log10">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log1p">log1p() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.log2">log2() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_date_time_string">log_date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_error">log_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception">log_exception() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message">log_message() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_request">log_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.log_to_stderr">log_to_stderr() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logb">logb() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logb">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger">Logger (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LoggerAdapter">LoggerAdapter (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    logging
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#index-0">Errors</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#module-logging">logging (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#module-logging.config">logging.config (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers">logging.handlers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">logical line</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_and">logical_and() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_and">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_invert">logical_invert() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_invert">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_or">logical_or() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_or">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.logical_xor">logical_xor() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.logical_xor">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.login">login() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.login">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.login">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.login">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.login_cram_md5">login_cram_md5() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-0">LOGNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.lognormvariate">lognormvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.logout">logout() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord">LogRecord (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-long">long (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    long integer
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-1">LONG_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.longMessage">longMessage (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.longname">longname() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.lookup">lookup() (in module codecs)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.lookup">(in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable.lookup">(symtable.SymbolTable method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.lookup">(tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.lookup_error">lookup_error() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#LookupError">LookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    loop
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-9">over mutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    loop control
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">target</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.loop">loop() (in module asyncore)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.lower">lower() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.lower">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.lower">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LPAR">LPAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList">lpAttributeList (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache">lru_cache() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lseek">lseek() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.lshift">lshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.LSQB">LSQB (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.lstat">lstat() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.lstat">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.lstrip">lstrip() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.lstrip">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.lstrip">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.lsub">lsub() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.lt">lt() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.lt">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar">LWPCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#module-lzma">lzma (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMACompressor">LZMACompressor (class in lzma)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor">LZMADecompressor (class in lzma)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMAError">LZMAError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMAFile">LZMAFile (class in lzma)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="M">M</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.M">M (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.mac_ver">mac_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.machine">machine() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/macpath.html#module-macpath">macpath (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc.macros">macros (netrc.netrc attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    magic
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-23">method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-magic-method"><strong>magic method</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER">MAGIC_NUMBER (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.MagicMock">MagicMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox">Mailbox (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox">mailbox (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#module-mailcap">mailcap (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir">Maildir (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage">MaildirMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom">mailfrom (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.MailmanProxy">MailmanProxy (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">main()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-30">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.main">(in module py_compile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#site.main">(in module site)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.main">(in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.main_thread">main_thread() (in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.mainloop">mainloop() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.maintype">maintype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.major">major (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.major">major() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.make_alternative">make_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.archive_util.make_archive">make_archive() (in module distutils.archive_util)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.make_archive">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.make_bad_fd">make_bad_fd() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.make_cookies">make_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.make_dataclass">make_dataclass() (in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file">make_file() (difflib.HtmlDiff method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-MAKE_FUNCTION">MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.header.html#email.header.make_header">make_header() (in module email.header)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.make_legacy_pyc">make_legacy_pyc() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.make_mixed">make_mixed() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.make_msgid">make_msgid() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.make_parser">make_parser() (in module xml.sax)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_pkg">make_pkg() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.make_related">make_related() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_script">make_script() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server">make_server() (in module wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_table">make_table() (difflib.HtmlDiff method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.archive_util.make_tarball">make_tarball() (in module distutils.archive_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg">make_zip_pkg() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script">make_zip_script() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.archive_util.make_zipfile">make_zipfile() (in module distutils.archive_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.makedev">makedev() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.makedirs">makedirs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.makeelement">makeelement() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">makefile() (socket method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.makefile">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.makeLogRecord">makeLogRecord() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle">makePickle() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.makeRecord">makeRecord() (logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.makeSocket">makeSocket() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makeSocket">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.maketrans">maketrans() (bytearray static method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.maketrans">(bytes static method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.maketrans">(str static method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">malloc()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32.mangle_from_">mangle_from_ (email.policy.Compat32 attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_">(email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    mangling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">name</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-map">map (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#map">map() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.map">(concurrent.futures.Executor method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.map">(tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-MAP_ADD">MAP_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async">map_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.map_table_b2">map_table_b2() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#stringprep.map_table_b3">map_table_b3() (in module stringprep)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.map_to_type">map_to_type() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord">mapLogRecord() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-mapping"><strong>mapping</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-2">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">types, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping">Mapping (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Mapping">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Control.mapping">mapping() (msilib.Control method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType">MappingProxyType (class in types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MappingView">MappingView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MappingView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.mapPriority">mapPriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap.maps">maps (collections.ChainMap attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.maps">maps() (in module nis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/marshal.html#module-marshal">marshal (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    marshalling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    masking
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Match">Match (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#nis.match">match() (in module nis)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.match">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.match">(pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.match">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname">match_hostname() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.match_test">match_test() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.Matcher.match_value">match_value() (test.support.Matcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.Matcher">Matcher (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.Matcher.matches">matches() (test.support.Matcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    math
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#module-math">math (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.matmul">matmul() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-64">matrix multiplication</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    max
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.max">max (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.max">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.max">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.max">(datetime.timedelta attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#max">max() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.max">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.max">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.max">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count">max_count (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MAX_EMAX">MAX_EMAX (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH">MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (in module configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.max_line_length">max_line_length (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.max_lines">max_lines (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.max_mag">max_mag() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.max_mag">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.max_memuse">max_memuse (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MAX_PREC">MAX_PREC (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.max_prefixlen">max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.max_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.max_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.max_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t">MAX_Py_ssize_t (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxarray">maxarray (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxdeque">maxdeque (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxdict">maxdict (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.maxDiff">maxDiff (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxfrozenset">maxfrozenset (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED">MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version">maximum_version (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.maxlen">maxlen (collections.deque attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxlevel">maxlevel (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxlist">maxlist (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxlong">maxlong (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxother">maxother (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.maxpp">maxpp() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxset">maxset (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.maxsize">maxsize (asyncio.Queue attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.maxsize">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxstring">maxstring (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.maxtuple">maxtuple (reprlib.Repr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.maxunicode">maxunicode (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.MAXYEAR">MAXYEAR (in module datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK">MB_ICONASTERISK (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION">MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONHAND">MB_ICONHAND (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION">MB_ICONQUESTION (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MB_OK">MB_OK (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox">mbox (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage">mboxMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.mean">mean() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median">median() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median_grouped">median_grouped() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median_high">median_high() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.median_low">median_low() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MemberDescriptorType">MemberDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    membership
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">test</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.memmove">memmove() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO">MemoryBIO (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#MemoryError">MemoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler">MemoryHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    memoryview
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memoryview.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview">memoryview (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.memset">memset() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.merge">merge() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message">Message (class in email.message)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Message">(class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-0">message digest, MD5</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.message_factory">message_factory (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_binary_file">message_from_binary_file() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_bytes">message_from_bytes() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_file">message_from_file() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_string">message_from_string() (in module email)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.MessageBeep">MessageBeep() (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.MessageClass">MessageClass (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.MessageError">MessageError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.MessageParseError">MessageParseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages">messages (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    meta
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">hooks</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">meta hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><strong>meta path finder</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.meta">meta() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.meta_path">meta_path (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">metaclass</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-metaclass"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-metaclass">(2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-83">metaclass hint</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder">MetaPathFinder (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.metavar">metavar (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter">MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Meter">Meter (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_CLASS">METH_CLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_COEXIST">METH_COEXIST (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_FASTCALL">METH_FASTCALL (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_NOARGS">METH_NOARGS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_O">METH_O (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_STATIC">METH_STATIC (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#METH_VARARGS">METH_VARARGS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-method"><strong>method</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">built-in</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-23">magic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-1">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-53">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-0">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-31">special</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">user-defined</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.method">method (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-method-resolution-order"><strong>method resolution order</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_BLOWFISH">METHOD_BLOWFISH (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls">method_calls (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_CRYPT">METHOD_CRYPT (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_MD5">METHOD_MD5 (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_SHA256">METHOD_SHA256 (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_SHA512">METHOD_SHA512 (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-methodattrs">methodattrs (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.methodcaller">methodcaller() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MethodDescriptorType">MethodDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodHelp">methodHelp() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    methods
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">bytearray</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-41">bytes</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-30">string</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.methods">methods (in module crypt)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.methods">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodSignature">methodSignature() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#index-1">MethodType (in module types)</a>, <a href="c-api/method.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/types.html#types.MethodType">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MethodWrapperType">MethodWrapperType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH">MH (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage">MHMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.microsecond">microsecond (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.microsecond">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    MIME
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-0">base64 encoding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-0">content type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">headers</a>, <a href="library/mimetypes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#index-0">quoted-printable encoding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.application.MIMEApplication">MIMEApplication (class in email.mime.application)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio">MIMEAudio (class in email.mime.audio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.base.MIMEBase">MIMEBase (class in email.mime.base)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.image.MIMEImage">MIMEImage (class in email.mime.image)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.message.MIMEMessage">MIMEMessage (class in email.mime.message)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart">MIMEMultipart (class in email.mime.multipart)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart">MIMENonMultipart (class in email.mime.nonmultipart)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.MIMEPart">MIMEPart (class in email.message)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.mime.html#email.mime.text.MIMEText">MIMEText (class in email.mime.text)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes">MimeTypes (class in mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#module-mimetypes">mimetypes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader">MIMEVersionHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    min
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.min">min (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.min">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.min">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.min">(datetime.timedelta attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#min">min() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.min">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.min">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MIN_EMIN">MIN_EMIN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.MIN_ETINY">MIN_ETINY (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.min_mag">min_mag() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.min_mag">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.MINEQUAL">MINEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED">MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version">minimum_version (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.minmax">minmax() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.minor">minor (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.minor">minor() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">minus</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.MINUS">MINUS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.minus">minus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.minute">minute (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.minute">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.MINYEAR">MINYEAR (in module datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.mirrored">mirrored() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.misc_header">misc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.MISSING">MISSING (contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS">MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.missing_compiler_executable">missing_compiler_executable() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError">MissingSectionHeaderError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#index-1">MIXERDEV</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.mkd">mkd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.mkdir">mkdir() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.mkdir">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.mkdtemp">mkdtemp() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.mkfifo">mkfifo() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.mknod">mknod() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.mkpath">mkpath() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.mkpath">(in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/crypt.html#crypt.mksalt">mksalt() (in module crypt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.mkstemp">mkstemp() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.mktemp">mktemp() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.mktime">mktime() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.mktime_tz">mktime_tz() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.mlsd">mlsd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap">mmap (class in mmap)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#module-mmap">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF">MMDF (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage">MMDFMessage (class in mailbox)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock">Mock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_add_spec">mock_add_spec() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls">mock_calls (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.mock_open">mock_open() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.mod">mod() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.FileIO.mode">mode (io.FileIO attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.mode">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.mode">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.mode">mode() (in module statistics)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.mode">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    modes
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-5">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.modf">modf() (in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.modified">modified() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.View.Modify">Modify() (msilib.View method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.modify">modify() (select.devpoll method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.modify">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.modify">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.modify">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-module"><strong>module</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">__main__</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-3">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-0">_locale</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-39">_thread</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">array</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-25">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">base64</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">bdb</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">binhex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">builtins</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">cmd</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">copy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pwd.html#index-0">crypt</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">dbm.gnu</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#index-1">dbm.ndbm</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-3">errno</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">extension</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-3">glob</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">imp</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">importing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">io</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-1">json</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#index-1">math</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">namespace</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-0">os</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-0">pickle</a>, <a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/shelve.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-15">pty</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-2">pwd</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#index-1">pyexpat</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-1">re</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">search path</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-18">[6]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-0">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">shelve</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">signal</a>, <a href="library/_thread.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-4">sitecustomize</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-1">socket</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-21">stat</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-6">string</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-14">struct</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">sys</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[5]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-1">urllib.request</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-5">usercustomize</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">uu</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.module">module (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.module">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-8">module spec</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-module-spec"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.module_for_loader">module_for_loader() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.module_from_spec">module_from_spec() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr">module_repr() (importlib.abc.Loader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder">ModuleFinder (class in modulefinder)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#module-modulefinder">modulefinder (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.ModuleInfo">ModuleInfo (class in pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError">ModuleNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-0">modules (in module sys)</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.modules">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.modules">(modulefinder.ModuleFinder attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.modules_cleanup">modules_cleanup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.modules_setup">modules_setup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec">ModuleSpec (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.ModuleType">ModuleType (class in types)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-1">(in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-66">modulo</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.monotonic">monotonic() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.monotonic_ns">monotonic_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.month">month (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.month">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.month">month() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.month_abbr">month_abbr (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.month_name">month_name (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.monthcalendar">monthcalendar() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.monthdatescalendar">monthdatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.monthdays2calendar">monthdays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.monthdayscalendar">monthdayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.monthrange">monthrange() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel">Morsel (class in http.cookies)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.most_common">most_common() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.mouseinterval">mouseinterval() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.mousemask">mousemask() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.move">move() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.move">(curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.move">(in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.move">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.move">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.move_file">move_file() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.file_util.move_file">(in module distutils.file_util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end">move_to_end() (collections.OrderedDict method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar">MozillaCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-mro"><strong>MRO</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#class.mro">mro() (class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.msg">msg (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.msg">(json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.msg">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.msg">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.msg">msg() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#index-0">msi</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#module-msilib">msilib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#module-msvcrt">msvcrt (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.mt_interact">mt_interact() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile.mtime">mtime (gzip.GzipFile attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.mtime">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.mtime">mtime() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.mul">mul() (in module audioop)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.mul">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.MultiCall">MultiCall (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.MULTILINE">MULTILINE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#email.errors.MultipartConversionError">MultipartConversionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-63">multiplication</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.multiply">multiply() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing">multiprocessing (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.connection">multiprocessing.connection (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.dummy">multiprocessing.dummy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.multiprocessing.Manager">multiprocessing.Manager() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.managers">multiprocessing.managers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.pool">multiprocessing.pool (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes">multiprocessing.sharedctypes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-mutable"><strong>mutable</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">object</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">sequence types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">mutable object</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    mutable sequence
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-9">loop over</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping">MutableMapping (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MutableMapping">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence">MutableSequence (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MutableSequence">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSet">MutableSet (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.MutableSet">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.mvderwin">mvderwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.mvwin">mvwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.myrights">myrights() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="N">N</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.N_TOKENS">N_TOKENS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.n_waiting">n_waiting (threading.Barrier attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-4">name</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">binding</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-36">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42">binding, global</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">function</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">mangling</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">rebinding</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">unbinding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.name">name (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.name">(contextvars.ContextVar attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTest.name">(doctest.DocTest attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.name">(email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.name">(hashlib.hash attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.name">(hmac.HMAC attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.name">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.name">(importlib.abc.FileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.name">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.name">(importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.name">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.name">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.name">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NAME">NAME (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.name">name (inspect.Parameter attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.FileIO.name">(io.FileIO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.name">(multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.name">(os.DirEntry attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.name">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.name">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.name">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.name">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.name">(threading.Thread attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.name">(xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.name">(xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.name">name() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.entities.html#html.entities.name2codepoint">name2codepoint (in module html.entities)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><strong>named tuple</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile">NamedTemporaryFile() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.NamedTuple">NamedTuple (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple">namedtuple() (in module collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#NameError">NameError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-4">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-9">NameError (built-in exception)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.namelist">namelist() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#encodings.idna.nameprep">nameprep() (in module encodings.idna)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.namer">namer (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.namereplace_errors">namereplace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    names
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">private</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-3">namespace</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-namespace"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-34">global</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-43">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">package</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.Namespace">Namespace (class in argparse)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.Namespace">(class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><strong>namespace package</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.namespace">namespace() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Namespace">Namespace() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS">NAMESPACE_DNS (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_OID">NAMESPACE_OID (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_URL">NAMESPACE_URL (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.NAMESPACE_X500">NAMESPACE_X500 (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NamespaceErr">NamespaceErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.namespaceURI">namespaceURI (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-2">NaN</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.nan">nan (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.nan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.nanj">nanj (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.NannyNag">NannyNag</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.napms">napms() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.nargs">nargs (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.nbytes">nbytes (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.ndiff">ndiff() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.ndim">ndim (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-ne">ne (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.ne">ne() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input">needs_input (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input">(lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.neg">neg() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">negation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-nested-scope"><strong>nested scope</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.netmask">netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.netmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.NetmaskValueError">NetmaskValueError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc">netrc (class in netrc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/netrc.html#module-netrc">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/netrc.html#netrc.NetrcParseError">NetrcParseError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.netscape">netscape (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.network">network (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.network">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-0">Network News Transfer Protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.network_address">network_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.network_address">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.new">new() (in module hashlib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.new">(in module hmac)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-new-style-class"><strong>new-style class</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_alignment">new_alignment() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap.new_child">new_child() (collections.ChainMap method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.new_class">new_class() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.new_compiler">new_compiler() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.new_event_loop">new_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.new_event_loop">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_font">new_font() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_margin">new_margin() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.new_module">new_module() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.new_panel">new_panel() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_spacing">new_spacing() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.new_styles">new_styles() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dep_util.newer">newer() (in module distutils.dep_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dep_util.newer_group">newer_group() (in module distutils.dep_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dep_util.newer_pairwise">newer_pairwise() (in module distutils.dep_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.newgroups">newgroups() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NEWLINE">NEWLINE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-2">NEWLINE token</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.newlines">newlines (io.TextIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.newnews">newnews() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.newpad">newpad() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.NewType">NewType() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.newwin">newwin() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-next">next (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-next">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#next">next() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.next">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.next">(tarfile.TarFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.next">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.next_minus">next_minus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.next_minus">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.next_plus">next_plus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.next_plus">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.next_toward">next_toward() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.next_toward">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/fileinput.html#fileinput.nextfile">nextfile() (in module fileinput)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.nextkey">nextkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nextSibling">nextSibling (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.GNUTranslations.ngettext">ngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext">(gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.ngettext">(in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.nice">nice() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nis.html#module-nis">nis (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NL">NL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.nl">nl() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.nl_langinfo">nl_langinfo() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.nlargest">nlargest() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.nlst">nlst() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    NNTP
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP">NNTP (class in nntplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.nntp_implementation">nntp_implementation (nntplib.NNTP attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP_SSL">NNTP_SSL (class in nntplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.nntp_version">nntp_version (nntplib.NNTP attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPDataError">NNTPDataError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPError">NNTPError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib">nntplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPPermanentError">NNTPPermanentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPProtocolError">NNTPProtocolError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPReplyError">NNTPReplyError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPTemporaryError">NNTPTemporaryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-4">no_proxy</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.no_tracing">no_tracing() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.no_type_check">no_type_check() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.no_type_check_decorator">no_type_check_decorator() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.nocbreak">nocbreak() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr">NoDataAllowedErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.node">node() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.nodelay">nodelay() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nodeName">nodeName (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeTransformer">NodeTransformer (class in ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nodeType">nodeType (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.nodeValue">nodeValue (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeVisitor">NodeVisitor (class in ast)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.noecho">noecho() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.NOEXPR">NOEXPR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr">NoModificationAllowedErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.nonblock">nonblock() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock">NonCallableMagicMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.NonCallableMock">NonCallableMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    None
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/none.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-3">None (Built-in object)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/constants.html#None">(built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.nonl">nonl() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    nonlocal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-44">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-nonzero">nonzero (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.noop">noop() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.noop">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.NoOptionError">NoOptionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-NOP">NOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.noqiflush">noqiflush() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.noraw">noraw() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.NoReturn">NoReturn (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.normalize">normalize() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.normalize">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.normalize">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.normalize">(in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.normalize">(xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE">NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.normalvariate">normalvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.normcase">normcase() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.normpath">normpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.NoSectionError">NoSectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError">NoSuchMailboxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    not
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">operator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-80">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    not in
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.not_">not_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#NotADirectoryError">NotADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">notation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.notationDecl">notationDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler">NotationDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.notations">notations (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.NotConnected">NotConnected</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.NoteBook">NoteBook (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook">Notebook (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.NotEmptyError">NotEmptyError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NOTEQUAL">NOTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NotFoundErr">NotFoundErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.notify">notify() (asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.notify">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.notify_all">notify_all() (asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.notify_all">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.notimeout">notimeout() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    NotImplemented
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-7">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#NotImplemented">NotImplemented (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#NotImplementedError">NotImplementedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler">NotStandaloneHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.NotSupportedErr">NotSupportedErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.NotSupportedError">NotSupportedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.noutrefresh">noutrefresh() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.now">now() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.NSIG">NSIG (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/heapq.html#heapq.nsmallest">nsmallest() (in module heapq)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NT_OFFSET">NT_OFFSET (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler">NTEventLogHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.ntohl">ntohl() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.ntohs">ntohs() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.ntransfercmd">ntransfercmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    null
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">operation</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.nullcontext">nullcontext() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.NullFormatter">NullFormatter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler">NullHandler (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.NullImporter">NullImporter (class in imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations">NullTranslations (class in gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.NullWriter">NullWriter (class in formatter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.num_addresses">num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.num_addresses">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">number</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">complex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">floating point</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Number">Number (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.NUMBER">NUMBER (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.number_class">number_class() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.number_class">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#module-numbers">numbers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.numerator">numerator (fractions.Fraction attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational.numerator">(numbers.Rational attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    numeric
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">conversions</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-9">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">types, operations on</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">numeric literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.numeric">numeric() (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-9">Numerical Python</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.numinput">numinput() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-numliterals">numliterals (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="O">O</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_APPEND">O_APPEND (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_ASYNC">O_ASYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_BINARY">O_BINARY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_CLOEXEC">O_CLOEXEC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_CREAT">O_CREAT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_DIRECT">O_DIRECT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_DIRECTORY">O_DIRECTORY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_DSYNC">O_DSYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_EXCL">O_EXCL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_EXLOCK">O_EXLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NDELAY">O_NDELAY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOATIME">O_NOATIME (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOCTTY">O_NOCTTY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOFOLLOW">O_NOFOLLOW (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NOINHERIT">O_NOINHERIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_NONBLOCK">O_NONBLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_PATH">O_PATH (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RANDOM">O_RANDOM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RDONLY">O_RDONLY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RDWR">O_RDWR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_RSYNC">O_RSYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SEQUENTIAL">O_SEQUENTIAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SHLOCK">O_SHLOCK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SHORT_LIVED">O_SHORT_LIVED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_SYNC">O_SYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TEMPORARY">O_TEMPORARY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TEXT">O_TEXT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TMPFILE">O_TMPFILE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_TRUNC">O_TRUNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.O_WRONLY">O_WRONLY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.obj">obj (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-object"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">Boolean</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#index-0">Capsule</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-8">Ellipsis</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/none.html#index-0">None</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-7">NotImplemented</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-33">asynchronous-generator</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">built-in method</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#index-0">bytearray</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[2]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-40">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#index-0">bytes</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-39">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-32">callable</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-52">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">class instance</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/code.html#index-0">code</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-54">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-55">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-14">complex</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#index-0">complex number</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">deallocation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-0">dictionary</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-76">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-16">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-0">file</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-0">finalization</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/float.html#index-0">floating point</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-59">frame</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">frozenset</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/function.html#index-0">function</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-40">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-57">generator</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">immutable</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-17">immutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-45">instance</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-0">instancemethod</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">integer</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-27">io.StringIO</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-0">list</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-23">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-0">long integer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-2">mapping</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-11">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/memoryview.html#index-0">memoryview</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/method.html#index-1">method</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-53">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-41">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="tutorial/classes.html#index-0">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-0">module</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-38">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">mutable</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">mutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-0">numeric</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-9">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-25">range</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-1">sequence</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">set</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-27">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">set type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-94">slice</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-0">socket</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">string</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-5">traceback</a>, <a href="library/traceback.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-28">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#index-0">tuple</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-87">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-6">type</a>, <a href="c-api/type.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">user-defined function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">user-defined method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#object">object (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.object">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__">object.__slots__ (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.object_filenames">object_filenames() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    objects
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-8">comparing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">flattening</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">marshalling</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">persistent</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">pickling</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">serializing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obufcount">obufcount() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obuffree">obuffree() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#oct">oct() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    octal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-12">literals</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-26">octal literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.octdigits">octdigits (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.offset">offset (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.offset">(xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.OK">OK (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.old_value">old_value (contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.OleDLL">OleDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onclick">onclick() (in module turtle)</a>, <a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onclick">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ondrag">ondrag() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.onecmd">onecmd() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onkey">onkey() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onkeypress">onkeypress() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onkeyrelease">onkeyrelease() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onrelease">onrelease() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.onscreenclick">onscreenclick() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ontimer">ontimer() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.OP">OP (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_ALL">OP_ALL (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE">OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT">OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION">OP_NO_COMPRESSION (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION">OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2">OP_NO_SSLv2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3">OP_NO_SSLv3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TICKET">OP_NO_TICKET (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1">OP_NO_TLSv1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1">OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2">OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3">OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE">OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE">OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    open
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">built-in function</a>, <a href="tutorial/inputoutput.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#open">open() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.open">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.open">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.open">(in module aifc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.open">(in module bz2)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.open">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.open">(in module dbm)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.open">(in module dbm.dumb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.open">(in module dbm.gnu)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.ndbm.open">(in module dbm.ndbm)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.open">(in module gzip)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.open">(in module io)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.open">(in module lzma)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.open">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.open">(in module ossaudiodev)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.open">(in module shelve)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.open">(in module sunau)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.open">(in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.open">(in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.open">(in module wave)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.open">(in module webbrowser)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.open">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.open">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.open">(tarfile.TarFile class method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.open">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open">(urllib.request.OpenerDirector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.open">(urllib.request.URLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.controller.open">(webbrowser.controller method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.open">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.open_binary">open_binary() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection">open_connection() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.open_new">open_new() (in module webbrowser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.controller.open_new">(webbrowser.controller method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.open_new_tab">open_new_tab() (in module webbrowser)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.controller.open_new_tab">(webbrowser.controller method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.open_osfhandle">open_osfhandle() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.open_resource">open_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.open_text">open_text() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_unix_connection">open_unix_connection() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown">open_unknown() (urllib.request.URLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.open_urlresource">open_urlresource() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.OpenDatabase">OpenDatabase() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector">OpenerDirector (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.openfp">openfp() (in module sunau)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.openfp">(in module wave)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.OpenKey">OpenKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.OpenKeyEx">OpenKeyEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.openlog">openlog() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.openmixer">openmixer() (in module ossaudiodev)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.openpty">openpty() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pty.html#pty.openpty">(in module pty)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    OpenSSL
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-2">(use in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-0">(use in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION">OPENSSL_VERSION (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO">OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER">OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.OpenView">OpenView() (msilib.Database method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    operation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-79">Boolean</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-62">binary arithmetic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-71">binary bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">concatenation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">null</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">power</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">repetition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">shifting</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">slice</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">subscript</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">unary arithmetic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">unary bitwise</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.OperationalError">OperationalError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    operations
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">Boolean</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">masking</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">shifting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    operations on
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">dictionary type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">integer types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">list type</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">mapping types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">numeric types</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">sequence types</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    operator
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">!=</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">% (percent)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-66">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">&amp; (ampersand)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-72">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">* (asterisk)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-63">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">**</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">+ (plus)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-59">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-67">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">- (minus)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-58">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-68">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">/ (slash)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-13">//</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&lt; (less)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">&lt;&lt;</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&lt;=</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">==</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&gt; (greater)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">&gt;=</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-75">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">&gt;&gt;</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-64">@ (at)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">^ (caret)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">and</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-81">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">comparison</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">in</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">is</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-7">is not</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">not</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-80">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-10">not in</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">or</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-82">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-67">overloading</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-92">precedence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">ternary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">| (vertical bar)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">~ (tilde)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-60">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-operator">operator (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#module-operator">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-30">operators</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.opmap">opmap (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.opname">opname (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags">optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#pickletools.optimize">optimize() (in module pickletools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Optional">Optional (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionGroup">OptionGroup (class in optparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.OptionMenu">OptionMenu (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser">OptionParser (class in optparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.Options">Options (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.options">options (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.options">(ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.options">options() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform">optionxform() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>, <a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#module-optparse">optparse (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    or
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">exclusive</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-74">inclusive</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">operator</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-82">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.or_">or_() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    ord
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#ord">ord() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    order
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-91">evaluation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes">ordered_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict">OrderedDict (class in collections)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.OrderedDict">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.origin">origin (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host">origin_req_host (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server">origin_server (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    os
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/posix.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#module-os">os (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#module-os.path">os.path (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.os_environ">os_environ (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError">OSError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#module-ossaudiodev">ossaudiodev (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError">OSSAudioError</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    outfile
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-outfile">json.tool command line option</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">output</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">standard</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.output">output (subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.output">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.output">(unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.output">output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.output">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.output_charset">output_charset (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.output_charset">output_charset() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset.output_codec">output_codec (email.charset.Charset attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.OutputChecker.output_difference">output_difference() (doctest.OutputChecker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.OutputChecker">OutputChecker (class in doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.OutputString">OutputString() (http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.over">over() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Overflow">Overflow (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OverflowError">OverflowError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-1">(built-in exception)</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-5">[4]</a>, <a href="c-api/long.html#index-6">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.overlaps">overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.overlaps">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.overlay">overlay() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.overload">overload() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    overloading
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-67">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.overwrite">overwrite() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.owner">owner() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="P">P</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-p">p (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_ALL">P_ALL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_DETACH">P_DETACH (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_NOWAIT">P_NOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_NOWAITO">P_NOWAITO (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_OVERLAY">P_OVERLAY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_PGID">P_PGID (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_PID">P_PID (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.P_WAIT">P_WAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.pack">pack() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.pack">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.pack">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_array">pack_array() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_bytes">pack_bytes() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_double">pack_double() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_farray">pack_farray() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_float">pack_float() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fopaque">pack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring">pack_fstring() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.pack_into">pack_into() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.pack_into">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_list">pack_list() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_opaque">pack_opaque() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.pack_string">pack_string() (xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">package</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-package"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">namespace</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">portion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-4">regular</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.Package">Package (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    package variable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-0">__all__</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.packed">packed (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.packed">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer">Packer (class in xdrlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    packing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">binary data</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-1">packing (widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-1">PAGER</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.pair_content">pair_content() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.pair_number">pair_number() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.PanedWindow">PanedWindow (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-parameter"><strong>parameter</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-46">call semantics</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-1">difference from argument</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-18">function definition</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">value, default</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter">Parameter (class in inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader">ParameterizedMIMEHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.parameters">parameters (inspect.Signature attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader.params">params (email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pardir">pardir (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-paren">paren (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent">parent (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.parent">(pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Function.parent">(pyclbr.Function attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent">(urllib.request.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.parent">parent() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-8">parenthesized form</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.parentNode">parentNode (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap.parents">parents (collections.ChainMap attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.paretovariate">paretovariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestParser.parse">parse() (doctest.DocTestParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser.parse">(email.parser.BytesParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser.parse">(email.parser.Parser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.parse">(in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse">(in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.parse">(in module xml.dom.minidom)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.parse">(in module xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.parse">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.parse">(in module xml.sax)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.parse">(string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse">(urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.parse">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.Parse">Parse() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse">parse() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.parse_and_bind">parse_and_bind() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args">parse_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES">PARSE_COLNAMES (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.parse_config_h">parse_config_h() (in module sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES">PARSE_DECLTYPES (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_header">parse_header() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args">parse_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args">parse_known_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args">parse_known_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_multipart">parse_multipart() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_qs">parse_qs() (in module cgi)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qs">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_qsl">parse_qsl() (in module cgi)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qsl">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parseaddr">parseaddr() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser.parsebytes">parsebytes() (email.parser.BytesParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parsedate">parsedate() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime">parsedate_to_datetime() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parsedate_tz">parsedate_tz() (in module email.utils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError">ParseError (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ParseFile">ParseFile() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.ParseFlags">ParseFlags() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-0">parser</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser">Parser (class in email.parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#module-parser">parser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate">ParserCreate() (in module xml.parsers.expat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ParserError">ParserError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.ParseResult">ParseResult (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes">ParseResultBytes (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser.parsestr">parsestr() (email.parser.Parser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.parseString">parseString() (in module xml.dom.minidom)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.parseString">(in module xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.parseString">(in module xml.sax)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    parsing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#index-0">Python source code</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">URL</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ParsingError">ParsingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial">partial (asyncio.IncompleteReadError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.partial">partial() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partial">(in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.partialmethod">partialmethod (class in functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.parties">parties (threading.Barrier attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.partition">partition() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.partition">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.partition">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    pass
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.pass_">pass_() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Paste</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.patch">patch() (in module test.support)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch">(in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.dict">patch.dict() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.multiple">patch.multiple() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.object">patch.object() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.stopall">patch.stopall() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-22">PATH</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="faq/library.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/cgi.html#index-5">[5]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-24">[6]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-25">[7]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-26">[8]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-29">[9]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-30">[10]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-31">[11]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-41">[12]</a>, <a href="library/webbrowser.html#index-3">[13]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-0">[14]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-2">[15]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-24">[16]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-1">[18]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-10">[19]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-11">[20]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-13">[21]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-14">[22]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-15">[23]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-16">[24]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-2">[25]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-3">[26]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-5">[27]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-6">[28]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-8">[29]</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-9">[30]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-55">[31]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-58">[32]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-59">[33]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-0">[34]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-1">[35]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    path
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-3">configuration file</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">hooks</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module search</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-18">[6]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-0">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-0">operations</a>, <a href="library/pathlib.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path">Path (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.path">path (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.path">(http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.path">(importlib.abc.FileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.path">(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path">(importlib.machinery.FileFinder attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path">(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.path">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.path">(os.DirEntry attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-16">path based finder</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-1">Path browser</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-entry"><strong>path entry</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><strong>path entry finder</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-entry-hook"><strong>path entry hook</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-9">path hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.path">path() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><strong>path-like object</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path_hook">path_hook() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks">path_hooks (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache">path_importer_cache (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime">path_mtime() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok">path_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats">path_stats() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path_stats">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pathconf">pathconf() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pathconf_names">pathconf_names (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder">PathEntryFinder (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-4">PATHEXT</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-51">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder">PathFinder (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib">pathlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PathLike">PathLike (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.pathname2url">pathname2url() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pathsep">pathsep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Pattern">Pattern (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.pattern">pattern (re.error attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.pattern">(re.Pattern attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.pause">pause() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading">pause_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing">pause_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.PAX_FORMAT">PAX_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.pax_headers">pax_headers (tarfile.TarFile attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.pax_headers">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac">pbkdf2_hmac() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pd">pd() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#index-1">Pdb (class in pdb)</a>, <a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#module-pdb">pdb (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File.peek">peek() (bz2.BZ2File method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile.peek">(gzip.GzipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader.peek">(io.BufferedReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMAFile.peek">(lzma.LZMAFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize.peek">(weakref.finalize method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.peer">peer (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert">PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pen">pen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pencolor">pencolor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.pending">pending (ssl.MemoryBIO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.pending">pending() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning">PendingDeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pendown">pendown() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pensize">pensize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.penup">penup() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-pep"><strong>PEP</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PERCENT">PERCENT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PERCENTEQUAL">PERCENTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.perf_counter">perf_counter() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.perf_counter_ns">perf_counter_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#index-0">Performance</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#PermissionError">PermissionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.permutations">permutations() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.Persist">Persist() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">persistence</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    persistent
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-5">persistent_id (pickle protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.persistent_id">persistent_id() (pickle.Pickler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-5">persistent_load (pickle protocol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load">persistent_load() (pickle.Unpickler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.PF_CAN">PF_CAN (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.PF_PACKET">PF_PACKET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.PF_RDS">PF_RDS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.pformat">pformat() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.pformat">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.PGO">PGO (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.phase">phase() (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-4">Philbrick, Geoff</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">physical line</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-6">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.pi">pi (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.pi">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    pickle
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/copy.html#index-0">module</a>, <a href="library/copyreg.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/shelve.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#module-pickle">pickle (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/copyreg.html#copyreg.pickle">pickle() (in module copyreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.PickleError">PickleError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler">Pickler (class in pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#module-pickletools">pickletools (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pickletools command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-a">-a, --annotate</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-l">-l, --indentlevel=&lt;num&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-m">-m, --memo</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-o">-o, --output=&lt;file&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickletools.html#cmdoption-pickletools-p">-p, --preamble=&lt;preamble&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    pickling
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.PicklingError">PicklingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.pid">pid (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.pid">(multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.pid">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE">PIPE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Pipe">Pipe() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pipe">pipe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pipe2">pipe2() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.PIPE_BUF">PIPE_BUF (in module select)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost">pipe_connection_lost() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received">pipe_data_received() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE">PIPE_MAX_SIZE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pipes.html#module-pipes">pipes (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PKG_DIRECTORY">PKG_DIRECTORY (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#module-pkgutil">pkgutil (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.placeholder">placeholder (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-2">PLAT</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-26">platform (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.platform">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#module-platform">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.platform">platform() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.PlaySound">PlaySound() (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    plist
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib">plistlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.plock">plock() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-59">plus</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PLUS">PLUS (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.plus">plus() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.PLUSEQUAL">PLUSEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.pm">pm() (in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.POINTER">POINTER() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.pointer">pointer() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.polar">polar() (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy">Policy (class in email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll">poll() (in module select)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.poll">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.poll">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.poll">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.poll">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.poll">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.PollSelector">PollSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool">Pool (class in multiprocessing.pool)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.pop">pop() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.pop">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.pop">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.pop">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.pop">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    POP3
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3">POP3 (class in poplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3_SSL">POP3_SSL (class in poplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_alignment">pop_alignment() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.pop_all">pop_all() (contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_BLOCK">POP_BLOCK (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_EXCEPT">POP_EXCEPT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_font">pop_font() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE">POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE">POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_margin">pop_margin() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.pop_source">pop_source() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.pop_style">pop_style() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-POP_TOP">POP_TOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen">Popen (class in subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.popen">popen() (in module os)</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.popen">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict.popitem">popitem() (collections.OrderedDict method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.popitem">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.popitem">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.popleft">popleft() (collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#module-poplib">poplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.PopupMenu">PopupMenu (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.port">port (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.port_specified">port_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-portion"><strong>portion</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-5">package</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError.pos">pos (json.JSONDecodeError attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.pos">(re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.error.pos">(re.error attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.pos">pos() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pos">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.position">position (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.position">position() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-positional-argument"><strong>positional argument</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    POSIX
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">I/O control</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-1">threads</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/posix.html#module-posix">posix (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED">POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE">POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL">POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM">POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL">POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED">POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.posix_fadvise">posix_fadvise() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.posix_fallocate">posix_fallocate() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getopt.html#index-0">POSIXLY_CORRECT</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PosixPath">PosixPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.post">post() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.post">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth">post_handshake_auth (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.post_mortem">post_mortem() (in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup">post_setup() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.postcmd">postcmd() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.postloop">postloop() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pow
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/number.html#index-1">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/number.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-95">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-96">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-97">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#pow">pow() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.pow">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.pow">(in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    power
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-56">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.power">power() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-pp">pp (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#module-pprint">pprint (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.pprint">pprint() (in module pprint)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter.pprint">(pprint.PrettyPrinter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.prcal">prcal() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pread">pread() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.preadv">preadv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.preamble">preamble (email.message.EmailMessage attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.preamble">(email.message.Message attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    precedence
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-92">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.precmd">precmd() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-1">prefix</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.PREFIX">PREFIX (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.prefix">prefix (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.prefix">(xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.prefix">(xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.prefix">(zipimport.zipimporter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.PREFIXES">PREFIXES (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.prefixlen">prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.preloop">preloop() (cmd.Cmd method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.prepare">prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.prepare">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.prepare_class">prepare_class() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source">prepare_input_source() (in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.prepend">prepend() (pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.preprocess">preprocess() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter">PrettyPrinter (class in pprint)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.prev">prev() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.previousSibling">previousSibling (xml.dom.Node attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-36">primary</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    print
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-print">print (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#print">print() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-72">__str__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.print_callees">print_callees() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.print_callers">print_callers() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_directory">print_directory() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_environ">print_environ() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_environ_usage">print_environ_usage() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_exc">print_exc() (in module traceback)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.print_exc">(timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_exception">print_exception() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-PRINT_EXPR">PRINT_EXPR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.print_form">print_form() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.print_help">print_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_last">print_last() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.print_stack">print_stack() (asyncio.Task method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_stack">(in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.print_stats">print_stats() (profile.Profile method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.print_stats">(pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.print_tb">print_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.print_usage">print_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.print_usage">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.print_version">print_version() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.printable">printable (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.printdir">printdir() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PRIO_PGRP">PRIO_PGRP (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PRIO_PROCESS">PRIO_PROCESS (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.PRIO_USER">PRIO_USER (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.PriorityQueue">PriorityQueue (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.PriorityQueue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    private
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-5">names</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.prlimit">prlimit() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth">prmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.prmonth">(in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop">ProactorEventLoop (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    procedure
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">call</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    process
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-1">group</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-5">id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-6">id of parent</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-27">killing</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-10">scheduling priority</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-27">signalling</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process">Process (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.LoggerAdapter.process">process() (logging.LoggerAdapter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.process_exited">process_exited() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message">process_message() (smtpd.SMTPServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.process_request">process_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.process_time">process_time() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.process_time_ns">process_time_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.process_tokens">process_tokens() (in module tabnanny)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.ProcessError">ProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">processes, light-weight</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction">ProcessingInstruction() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.processingInstruction">processingInstruction() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler">ProcessingInstructionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ProcessLookupError">ProcessLookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-13">processor time</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.processor">processor() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor">ProcessPoolExecutor (class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.product">product() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile">Profile (class in profile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#module-profile">profile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-24">profile function</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="library/threading.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-24">profiler</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#index-0">profiling, deterministic</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-1">program</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.ProgrammingError">ProgrammingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar">Progressbar (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.prompt">prompt (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd">prompt_user_passwd() (urllib.request.FancyURLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-23">prompts, interpreter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.propagate">propagate (logging.Logger attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#property">property (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#index-0">property list</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler">property_declaration_handler (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node">property_dom_node (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler">property_lexical_handler (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string">property_xml_string (in module xml.sax.handler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.PropertyMock">PropertyMock (class in unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_c">prot_c() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_p">prot_p() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.proto">proto (socket.socket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    protocol
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">CGI</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-0">FTP</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">HTTP</a>, <a href="library/http.client.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-11">[4]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-12">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">IMAP4</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">IMAP4_SSL</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-0">IMAP4_stream</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-0">NNTP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-0">POP3</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-0">SMTP</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#index-0">Telnet</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-52">context management</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-4">copy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iterator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol">Protocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.protocol">protocol (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2">PROTOCOL_SSLv2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23">PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3">PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS">PROTOCOL_TLS (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER">PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1">PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.protocol_version">protocol_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION">PROTOCOL_VERSION (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError">ProtocolError (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><strong>provisional API</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><strong>provisional package</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.proxy">proxy() (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.proxyauth">proxyauth() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler">ProxyBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler">ProxyDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.ProxyHandler">ProxyHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ProxyType">ProxyType (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ProxyTypes">ProxyTypes (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar.pryear">pryear() (calendar.TextCalendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.ps1">ps1 (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.ps2">ps2 (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#module-pstats">pstats (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.pstdev">pstdev() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.pthread_getcpuclockid">pthread_getcpuclockid() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.pthread_kill">pthread_kill() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.pthread_sigmask">pthread_sigmask() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-1">pthreads</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pty
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-15">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pty.html#module-pty">pty (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.pu">pu() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.publicId">publicId (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom">PullDom (class in xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.punctuation">punctuation (in module string)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars">punctuation_chars (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath">PurePath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.anchor">PurePath.anchor (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.drive">PurePath.drive (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.name">PurePath.name (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.parent">PurePath.parent (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.parents">PurePath.parents (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.parts">PurePath.parts (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.root">PurePath.root (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.stem">PurePath.stem (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.suffix">PurePath.suffix (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.suffixes">PurePath.suffixes (in module pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePosixPath">PurePosixPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.PureProxy">PureProxy (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PureWindowsPath">PureWindowsPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.purge">purge() (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH">Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH">Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.push">push() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.push">(code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack.push">(contextlib.ExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_alignment">push_alignment() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback">push_async_callback() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_exit">push_async_exit() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_font">push_font() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_margin">push_margin() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.push_source">push_source() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.push_style">push_style() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.push_token">push_token() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.push_with_producer">push_with_producer() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.pushbutton">pushbutton() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.put">put() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.put">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.put">(multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.put">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.put">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.put_nowait">put_nowait() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.put_nowait">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.put_nowait">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.put_nowait">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.putch">putch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.putenv">putenv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.putheader">putheader() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.putp">putp() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.putrequest">putrequest() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.putwch">putwch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.putwin">putwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.pvariance">pvariance() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pwd
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#index-2">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pwd.html#module-pwd">pwd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.pwd">pwd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pwrite">pwrite() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.pwritev">pwritev() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_ABS">Py_ABS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_AddPendingCall">Py_AddPendingCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-44">Py_AddPendingCall()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_AtExit">Py_AtExit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-36">Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS">(C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_BLOCK_THREADS">Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer">Py_buffer (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.buf">Py_buffer.buf (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.format">Py_buffer.format (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.internal">Py_buffer.internal (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.itemsize">Py_buffer.itemsize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.len">Py_buffer.len (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.ndim">Py_buffer.ndim (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.obj">Py_buffer.obj (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.readonly">Py_buffer.readonly (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.shape">Py_buffer.shape (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.strides">Py_buffer.strides (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer.suboffsets">Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue">Py_BuildValue (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_BytesWarningFlag">Py_BytesWarningFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_CHARMASK">Py_CHARMASK (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR">Py_CLEAR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile">py_compile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PY_COMPILED">PY_COMPILED (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileString">Py_CompileString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-0">Py_CompileString()</a>, <a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileStringExFlags">Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileStringFlags">Py_CompileStringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_CompileStringObject">Py_CompileStringObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.Py_complex">Py_complex (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_DebugFlag">Py_DebugFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale">Py_DecodeLocale (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF">Py_DECREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-7">Py_DECREF()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag">Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.Py_Ellipsis">Py_Ellipsis (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale">Py_EncodeLocale (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-36">Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS">(C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_EndInterpreter">Py_EndInterpreter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_EnterRecursiveCall">Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_eval_input">Py_eval_input (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_Exit">Py_Exit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_False">Py_False (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_FatalError">Py_FatalError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-30">Py_FatalError()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.Py_FdIsInteractive">Py_FdIsInteractive (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_file_input">Py_file_input (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_Finalize">Py_Finalize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx">Py_FinalizeEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">Py_FinalizeEx()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-41">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-43">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/sys.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="c-api/sys.html#index-2">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PY_FROZEN">PY_FROZEN (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_FrozenFlag">Py_FrozenFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetBuildInfo">Py_GetBuildInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetCompiler">Py_GetCompiler (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetCopyright">Py_GetCopyright (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_GETENV">Py_GETENV (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetExecPrefix">Py_GetExecPrefix (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">Py_GetExecPrefix()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPath">Py_GetPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-20">Py_GetPath()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPlatform">Py_GetPlatform (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPrefix">Py_GetPrefix (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">Py_GetPrefix()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetProgramFullPath">Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">Py_GetProgramFullPath()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetProgramName">Py_GetProgramName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetPythonHome">Py_GetPythonHome (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetVersion">Py_GetVersion (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_HashRandomizationFlag">Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag">Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF">Py_INCREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-7">Py_INCREF()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize">Py_Initialize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">Py_Initialize()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-41">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_InitializeEx">Py_InitializeEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_InspectFlag">Py_InspectFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_InteractiveFlag">Py_InteractiveFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_IsInitialized">Py_IsInitialized (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-29">Py_IsInitialized()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_IsolatedFlag">Py_IsolatedFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_LeaveRecursiveCall">Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag">Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag">Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_Main">Py_Main (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_MAX">Py_MAX (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_MEMBER_SIZE">Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_MIN">Py_MIN (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.Py_mod_create">Py_mod_create (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.Py_mod_exec">Py_mod_exec (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_NewInterpreter">Py_NewInterpreter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/none.html#c.Py_None">Py_None (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_NoSiteFlag">Py_NoSiteFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.Py_NotImplemented">Py_NotImplemented (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_NoUserSiteDirectory">Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.py_object">py_object (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_OptimizeFlag">Py_OptimizeFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#index-2">Py_PRINT_RAW</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-17">PY_PYTHON</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_QuietFlag">Py_QuietFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.Py_REFCNT">Py_REFCNT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_ReprEnter">Py_ReprEnter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.Py_ReprLeave">Py_ReprLeave (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_RETURN_FALSE">Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/none.html#c.Py_RETURN_NONE">Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED">Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE">Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_RETURN_TRUE">Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetPath">Py_SetPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">Py_SetPath()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetProgramName">Py_SetProgramName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">Py_SetProgramName()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-26">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetPythonHome">Py_SetPythonHome (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding">Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_single_input">Py_single_input (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.Py_SIZE">Py_SIZE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.PY_SOURCE">PY_SOURCE (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-3">PY_SSIZE_T_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_STRINGIFY">Py_STRINGIFY (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE">Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_READY">Py_TPFLAGS_READY (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_READYING">Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS">Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_tracefunc">Py_tracefunc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.Py_True">Py_True (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT">Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_tss_t">Py_tss_t (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.Py_TYPE">Py_TYPE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS1">Py_UCS1 (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS2">Py_UCS2 (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS4">Py_UCS4 (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS">Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag">Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE">Py_UNICODE (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE">Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE">Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE">Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM">Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA">Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL">Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT">Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK">Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER">Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC">Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE">Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE">Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE">Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER">Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES">Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL">Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT">Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER">Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC">Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE">Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER">Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_UNREACHABLE">Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#c.Py_UNUSED">Py_UNUSED (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.Py_VaBuildValue">Py_VaBuildValue (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.Py_VerboseFlag">Py_VerboseFlag (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT">Py_VISIT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF">Py_XDECREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-19">Py_XDECREF()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XINCREF">Py_XINCREF (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyAnySet_Check">PyAnySet_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyAnySet_CheckExact">PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_Parse">PyArg_Parse (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple">PyArg_ParseTuple (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-2">PyArg_ParseTuple()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-3">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_UnpackTuple">PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments">PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_VaParse">PyArg_VaParse (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords">PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyASCIIObject">PyASCIIObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods">PyAsyncMethods (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter">PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_anext">PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyAsyncMethods.am_await">PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.PyBool_Check">PyBool_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bool.html#c.PyBool_FromLong">PyBool_FromLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS">PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS">PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_CONTIG">PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_CONTIG_RO">PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS">PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_FORMAT">PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_FULL">PyBUF_FULL (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_FULL_RO">PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_INDIRECT">PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_ND">PyBUF_ND (C macro)</a>, <a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_ND">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_RECORDS">PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_RECORDS_RO">PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_SIMPLE">PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_STRIDED">PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_STRIDED_RO">PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_STRIDES">PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBUF_WRITABLE">PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides">PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_FillInfo">PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_IsContiguous">PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release">PyBuffer_Release (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat">PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_ToContiguous">PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#index-1">PyBufferProcs</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyBufferProcs">(C type)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer">PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer">PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_AS_STRING">PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_AsString">PyByteArray_AsString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Check">PyByteArray_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_CheckExact">PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Concat">PyByteArray_Concat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_FromObject">PyByteArray_FromObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize">PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_GET_SIZE">PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Resize">PyByteArray_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Size">PyByteArray_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_Type">PyByteArray_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArrayObject">PyByteArrayObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_AS_STRING">PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_AsString">PyBytes_AsString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_AsStringAndSize">PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Check">PyBytes_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_CheckExact">PyBytes_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Concat">PyBytes_Concat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_ConcatAndDel">PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromFormat">PyBytes_FromFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromFormatV">PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromObject">PyBytes_FromObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromString">PyBytes_FromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromStringAndSize">PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_GET_SIZE">PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Size">PyBytes_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Type">PyBytes_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytesObject">PyBytesObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyCallable_Check">PyCallable_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PyCallIter_Check">PyCallIter_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PyCallIter_New">PyCallIter_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PyCallIter_Type">PyCallIter_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule">PyCapsule (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_CheckExact">PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_Destructor">PyCapsule_Destructor (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetContext">PyCapsule_GetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetDestructor">PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetName">PyCapsule_GetName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetPointer">PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_Import">PyCapsule_Import (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_IsValid">PyCapsule_IsValid (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_New">PyCapsule_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetContext">PyCapsule_SetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetDestructor">PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetName">PyCapsule_SetName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetPointer">PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Check">PyCell_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_GET">PyCell_GET (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Get">PyCell_Get (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_New">PyCell_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_SET">PyCell_SET (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Set">PyCell_Set (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCell_Type">PyCell_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/cell.html#c.PyCellObject">PyCellObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyCFunction">PyCFunction (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyCFunctionWithKeywords">PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode">PycInvalidationMode (class in py_compile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#module-pyclbr">pyclbr (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_Check">PyCode_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_GetNumFree">PyCode_GetNumFree (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_New">PyCode_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_NewEmpty">PyCode_NewEmpty (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_Type">PyCode_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors">PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Decode">PyCodec_Decode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Decoder">PyCodec_Decoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Encode">PyCodec_Encode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Encoder">PyCodec_Encoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_IgnoreErrors">PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder">PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder">PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_KnownEncoding">PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_LookupError">PyCodec_LookupError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors">PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_Register">PyCodec_Register (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_RegisterError">PyCodec_RegisterError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_ReplaceErrors">PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_StreamReader">PyCodec_StreamReader (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_StreamWriter">PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_StrictErrors">PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors">PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/code.html#c.PyCodeObject">PyCodeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyCompactUnicodeObject">PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PyCompileError">PyCompileError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyCompilerFlags">PyCompilerFlags (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_AsCComplex">PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_Check">PyComplex_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_CheckExact">PyComplex_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_FromCComplex">PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_FromDoubles">PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_ImagAsDouble">PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_RealAsDouble">PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_Type">PyComplex_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplexObject">PyComplexObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext">PyContext (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_CheckExact">PyContext_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_ClearFreeList">PyContext_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Copy">PyContext_Copy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_CopyCurrent">PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Enter">PyContext_Enter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Exit">PyContext_Exit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_New">PyContext_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContext_Type">PyContext_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextToken">PyContextToken (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextToken_CheckExact">PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextToken_Type">PyContextToken_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar">PyContextVar (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_CheckExact">PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Get">PyContextVar_Get (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_New">PyContextVar_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Reset">PyContextVar_Reset (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Set">PyContextVar_Set (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/contextvars.html#c.PyContextVar_Type">PyContextVar_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoro_CheckExact">PyCoro_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoro_New">PyCoro_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoro_Type">PyCoro_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/coro.html#c.PyCoroObject">PyCoroObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_Check">PyDate_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_CheckExact">PyDate_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_FromDate">PyDate_FromDate (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDate_FromTimestamp">PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_Check">PyDateTime_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_CheckExact">PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND">PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS">PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime">PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold">PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_FromTimestamp">PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_GET_DAY">PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_GET_MONTH">PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_GET_YEAR">PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND">PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC">PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDelta_Check">PyDelta_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDelta_CheckExact">PyDelta_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDelta_FromDSU">PyDelta_FromDSU (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_IsData">PyDescr_IsData (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewClassMethod">PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewGetSet">PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewMember">PyDescr_NewMember (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewMethod">PyDescr_NewMethod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyDescr_NewWrapper">PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Check">PyDict_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_CheckExact">PyDict_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Clear">PyDict_Clear (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_ClearFreeList">PyDict_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Contains">PyDict_Contains (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Copy">PyDict_Copy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_DelItem">PyDict_DelItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_DelItemString">PyDict_DelItemString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItem">PyDict_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItemString">PyDict_GetItemString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_GetItemWithError">PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Items">PyDict_Items (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Keys">PyDict_Keys (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Merge">PyDict_Merge (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_MergeFromSeq2">PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_New">PyDict_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Next">PyDict_Next (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_SetDefault">PyDict_SetDefault (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_SetItem">PyDict_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_SetItemString">PyDict_SetItemString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Size">PyDict_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Type">PyDict_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Update">PyDict_Update (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDict_Values">PyDict_Values (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDictObject">PyDictObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#c.PyDictProxy_New">PyDictProxy_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PyDLL">PyDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc">pydoc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_BadArgument">PyErr_BadArgument (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_BadInternalCall">PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_CheckSignals">PyErr_CheckSignals (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear">PyErr_Clear (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-14">PyErr_Clear()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_ExceptionMatches">PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-19">PyErr_ExceptionMatches()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Fetch">PyErr_Fetch (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-1">PyErr_Fetch()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Format">PyErr_Format (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_FormatV">PyErr_FormatV (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_GetExcInfo">PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches">PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewException">PyErr_NewException (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc">PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NoMemory">PyErr_NoMemory (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NormalizeException">PyErr_NormalizeException (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Occurred">PyErr_Occurred (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-13">PyErr_Occurred()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Print">PyErr_Print (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_PrintEx">PyErr_PrintEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_ResourceWarning">PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Restore">PyErr_Restore (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-1">PyErr_Restore()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects">PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetExcInfo">PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrno">PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects">PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename">PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetImportError">PyErr_SetImportError (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass">PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetInterrupt">PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetNone">PyErr_SetNone (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetObject">PyErr_SetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetString">PyErr_SetString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-14">PyErr_SetString()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocation">PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx">PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject">PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnEx">PyErr_WarnEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnExplicit">PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnExplicitObject">PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnFormat">PyErr_WarnFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WriteUnraisable">PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_AcquireLock">PyEval_AcquireLock (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_AcquireThread">PyEval_AcquireThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">PyEval_AcquireThread()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalCode">PyEval_EvalCode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalCodeEx">PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalFrame">PyEval_EvalFrame (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalFrameEx">PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetBuiltins">PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetFrame">PyEval_GetFrame (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetFuncDesc">PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetFuncName">PyEval_GetFuncName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetGlobals">PyEval_GetGlobals (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyEval_GetLocals">PyEval_GetLocals (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_InitThreads">PyEval_InitThreads (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">PyEval_InitThreads()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags">PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReInitThreads">PyEval_ReInitThreads (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReleaseLock">PyEval_ReleaseLock (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReleaseThread">PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">PyEval_ReleaseThread()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_RestoreThread">PyEval_RestoreThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-37">PyEval_RestoreThread()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SaveThread">PyEval_SaveThread (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-37">PyEval_SaveThread()</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SetProfile">PyEval_SetProfile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SetTrace">PyEval_SetTrace (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ThreadsInitialized">PyEval_ThreadsInitialized (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ArithmeticError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_AssertionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_AttributeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BaseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BlockingIOError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BrokenPipeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_BufferError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_BytesWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ChildProcessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ConnectionResetError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_DeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-5">PyExc_EnvironmentError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_EOFError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_Exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_FileExistsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_FileNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_FloatingPointError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_FutureWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_GeneratorExit</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ImportError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_ImportWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_IndentationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_IndexError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_InterruptedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-5">PyExc_IOError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_IsADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_KeyError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_LookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_MemoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_NameError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_NotADirectoryError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_NotImplementedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_OSError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_OverflowError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_PermissionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ProcessLookupError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_RecursionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ReferenceError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_ResourceWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_RuntimeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_RuntimeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_StopAsyncIteration</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_StopIteration</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_SyntaxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_SyntaxWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_SystemError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_SystemExit</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_TabError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_TimeoutError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_TypeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnboundLocalError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_UnicodeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_UserWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ValueError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-6">PyExc_Warning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-5">PyExc_WindowsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-3">PyExc_ZeroDivisionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_GetCause">PyException_GetCause (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_GetContext">PyException_GetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_GetTraceback">PyException_GetTraceback (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_SetCause">PyException_SetCause (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_SetContext">PyException_SetContext (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyException_SetTraceback">PyException_SetTraceback (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    pyexpat
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_FromFd">PyFile_FromFd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_GetLine">PyFile_GetLine (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_WriteObject">PyFile_WriteObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyFile_WriteString">PyFile_WriteString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE">PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_AsDouble">PyFloat_AsDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_Check">PyFloat_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_CheckExact">PyFloat_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_ClearFreeList">PyFloat_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_FromDouble">PyFloat_FromDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_FromString">PyFloat_FromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetInfo">PyFloat_GetInfo (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetMax">PyFloat_GetMax (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetMin">PyFloat_GetMin (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_Type">PyFloat_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/float.html#c.PyFloatObject">PyFloatObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/reflection.html#c.PyFrame_GetLineNumber">PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject">PyFrameObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_Check">PyFrozenSet_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_CheckExact">PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_New">PyFrozenSet_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_Type">PyFrozenSet_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_Check">PyFunction_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetAnnotations">PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetClosure">PyFunction_GetClosure (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetCode">PyFunction_GetCode (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetDefaults">PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetGlobals">PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_GetModule">PyFunction_GetModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_New">PyFunction_New (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_NewWithQualName">PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_SetAnnotations">PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_SetClosure">PyFunction_SetClosure (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_SetDefaults">PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunction_Type">PyFunction_Type (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/function.html#c.PyFunctionObject">PyFunctionObject (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE">PYFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_Check">PyGen_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_CheckExact">PyGen_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_New">PyGen_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_NewWithQualName">PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGen_Type">PyGen_Type (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/gen.html#c.PyGenObject">PyGenObject (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef">PyGetSetDef (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyGILState_Check">PyGILState_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyGILState_Ensure">PyGILState_Ensure (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_AddModuleObject">PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_AppendInittab">PyImport_AppendInittab (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_Cleanup">PyImport_Cleanup (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModule">PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames">PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_FrozenModules">PyImport_FrozenModules (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetImporter">PyImport_GetImporter (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetMagicTag">PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetModule">PyImport_GetModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetModuleDict">PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_Import">PyImport_Import (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject">PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModule">PyImport_ImportModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleEx">PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevel">PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject">PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ReloadModule">PyImport_ReloadModule (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyIndex_Check">PyIndex_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_Check">PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_Function">PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION">PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_New">PyInstanceMethod_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/method.html#c.PyInstanceMethod_Type">PyInstanceMethod_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState">PyInterpreterState (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Clear">PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Delete">PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_GetID">PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Head">PyInterpreterState_Head (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Main">PyInterpreterState_Main (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_New">PyInterpreterState_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Next">PyInterpreterState_Next (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead">PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/iter.html#c.PyIter_Check">PyIter_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iter.html#c.PyIter_Next">PyIter_Next (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Append">PyList_Append (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_AsTuple">PyList_AsTuple (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Check">PyList_Check (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_CheckExact">PyList_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_ClearFreeList">PyList_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GET_ITEM">PyList_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GET_SIZE">PyList_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GetItem">PyList_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-10">PyList_GetItem()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_GetSlice">PyList_GetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Insert">PyList_Insert (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_New">PyList_New (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Reverse">PyList_Reverse (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SET_ITEM">PyList_SET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SetItem">PyList_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-8">PyList_SetItem()</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_SetSlice">PyList_SetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Size">PyList_Size (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Sort">PyList_Sort (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Type">PyList_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/list.html#c.PyListObject">PyListObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsDouble">PyLong_AsDouble (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLong">PyLong_AsLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow">PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongLong">PyLong_AsLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow">PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsSize_t">PyLong_AsSize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsSsize_t">PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLong">PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsVoidPtr">PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_Check">PyLong_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_CheckExact">PyLong_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromDouble">PyLong_FromDouble (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong">PyLong_FromLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromLongLong">PyLong_FromLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromSize_t">PyLong_FromSize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromSsize_t">PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromString">PyLong_FromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnicode">PyLong_FromUnicode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnicodeObject">PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLong">PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong">PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_FromVoidPtr">PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_Type">PyLong_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#c.PyLongObject">PyLongObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Check">PyMapping_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_DelItem">PyMapping_DelItem (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_DelItemString">PyMapping_DelItemString (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_GetItemString">PyMapping_GetItemString (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_HasKey">PyMapping_HasKey (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Items">PyMapping_Items (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Keys">PyMapping_Keys (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Length">PyMapping_Length (C function)</a>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_AddStringMacro">PyModule_AddStringMacro (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Check">PyModule_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_CheckExact">PyModule_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Create">PyModule_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Create2">PyModule_Create2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_ExecDef">PyModule_ExecDef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetDef">PyModule_GetDef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetDict">PyModule_GetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetFilename">PyModule_GetFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetFilenameObject">PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetName">PyModule_GetName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetNameObject">PyModule_GetNameObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_GetState">PyModule_GetState (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_New">PyModule_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_NewObject">PyModule_NewObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_SetDocString">PyModule_SetDocString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_Type">PyModule_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef">PyModuleDef (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_base">PyModuleDef.m_base (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_clear">PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_doc">PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_free">PyModuleDef.m_free (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_methods">PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_name">PyModuleDef.m_name (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_reload">PyModuleDef.m_reload (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_size">PyModuleDef.m_size (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_slots">PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef.m_traverse">PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Init">PyModuleDef_Init (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Slot">PyModuleDef_Slot (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Slot.slot">PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef_Slot.value">PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Absolute">PyNumber_Absolute (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Add">PyNumber_Add (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_And">PyNumber_And (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_AsSsize_t">PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Check">PyNumber_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Divmod">PyNumber_Divmod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Float">PyNumber_Float (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_FloorDivide">PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Index">PyNumber_Index (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceAdd">PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceAnd">PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide">PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceLshift">PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply">PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply">PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceOr">PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlacePower">PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder">PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceRshift">PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract">PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide">PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceXor">PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Invert">PyNumber_Invert (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Long">PyNumber_Long (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Lshift">PyNumber_Lshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_MatrixMultiply">PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Multiply">PyNumber_Multiply (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Negative">PyNumber_Negative (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Or">PyNumber_Or (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Positive">PyNumber_Positive (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Power">PyNumber_Power (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Remainder">PyNumber_Remainder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Rshift">PyNumber_Rshift (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Subtract">PyNumber_Subtract (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_ToBase">PyNumber_ToBase (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_TrueDivide">PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Xor">PyNumber_Xor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyNumberMethods">PyNumberMethods (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject">PyObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject._ob_next">PyObject._ob_next (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject._ob_prev">PyObject._ob_prev (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject.ob_refcnt">PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyObject.ob_type">PyObject.ob_type (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_AsCharBuffer">PyObject_AsCharBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_ASCII">PyObject_ASCII (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/file.html#c.PyObject_AsFileDescriptor">PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_AsReadBuffer">PyObject_AsReadBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_AsWriteBuffer">PyObject_AsWriteBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Bytes">PyObject_Bytes (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Call">PyObject_Call (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallFunction">PyObject_CallFunction (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs">PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallMethod">PyObject_CallMethod (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs">PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_CallObject">PyObject_CallObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/extending.html#index-1">PyObject_CallObject()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Calloc">PyObject_Calloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyObject_CheckBuffer">PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/objbuffer.html#c.PyObject_CheckReadBuffer">PyObject_CheckReadBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_Del">PyObject_Del (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_DelAttr">PyObject_DelAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_DelAttrString">PyObject_DelAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_DelItem">PyObject_DelItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Dir">PyObject_Dir (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Free">PyObject_Free (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Del">PyObject_GC_Del (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_New">PyObject_GC_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_NewVar">PyObject_GC_NewVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Resize">PyObject_GC_Resize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Track">PyObject_GC_Track (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack">PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericGetAttr">PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericGetDict">PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericSetAttr">PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericSetDict">PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_GetArenaAllocator">PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetAttr">PyObject_GetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetAttrString">PyObject_GetAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/buffer.html#c.PyObject_GetBuffer">PyObject_GetBuffer (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem">PyObject_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GetIter">PyObject_GetIter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HasAttr">PyObject_HasAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HasAttrString">PyObject_HasAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Hash">PyObject_Hash (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented">PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD">PyObject_HEAD (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD_INIT">PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_Init">PyObject_Init (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_InitVar">PyObject_InitVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsInstance">PyObject_IsInstance (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsSubclass">PyObject_IsSubclass (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsTrue">PyObject_IsTrue (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Length">PyObject_Length (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_LengthHint">PyObject_LengthHint (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc">PyObject_Malloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_New">PyObject_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_NewVar">PyObject_NewVar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Not">PyObject_Not (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Print">PyObject_Print (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Realloc">PyObject_Realloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Repr">PyObject_Repr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompare">PyObject_RichCompare (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_RichCompareBool">PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_SetArenaAllocator">PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_SetAttr">PyObject_SetAttr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_SetAttrString">PyObject_SetAttrString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem">PyObject_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Size">PyObject_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Str">PyObject_Str (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Type">PyObject_Type (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_TypeCheck">PyObject_TypeCheck (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_VAR_HEAD">PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#c.PyObjectArenaAllocator">PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork">PyOS_AfterFork (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child">PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent">PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_BeforeFork">PyOS_BeforeFork (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_CheckStack">PyOS_CheckStack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_double_to_string">PyOS_double_to_string (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_FSPath">PyOS_FSPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_getsig">PyOS_getsig (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyOS_InputHook">PyOS_InputHook (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer">PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_setsig">PyOS_setsig (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_snprintf">PyOS_snprintf (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_stricmp">PyOS_stricmp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_string_to_double">PyOS_string_to_double (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_strnicmp">PyOS_strnicmp (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_vsnprintf">PyOS_vsnprintf (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseFile">PyParser_SimpleParseFile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags">PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseString">PyParser_SimpleParseString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename">PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    PyPI
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distributing/index.html#index-1">(see Python Package Index (PyPI))</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyProperty_Type">PyProperty_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFile">PyRun_AnyFile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFileEx">PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFileExFlags">PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_AnyFileFlags">PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_File">PyRun_File (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_FileEx">PyRun_FileEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_FileExFlags">PyRun_FileExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_FileFlags">PyRun_FileFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoop">PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags">PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveOne">PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags">PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFile">PyRun_SimpleFile (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFileEx">PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags">PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleString">PyRun_SimpleString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleStringFlags">PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_String">PyRun_String (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_StringFlags">PyRun_StringFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PySeqIter_Check">PySeqIter_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PySeqIter_New">PySeqIter_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/iterator.html#c.PySeqIter_Type">PySeqIter_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Check">PySequence_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Concat">PySequence_Concat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Contains">PySequence_Contains (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Count">PySequence_Count (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_DelItem">PySequence_DelItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_DelSlice">PySequence_DelSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast">PySequence_Fast (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM">PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE">PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Fast_ITEMS">PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem">PySequence_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-10">PySequence_GetItem()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetSlice">PySequence_GetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Index">PySequence_Index (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_InPlaceConcat">PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_InPlaceRepeat">PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_ITEM">PySequence_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Length">PySequence_Length (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_List">PySequence_List (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Repeat">PySequence_Repeat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetItem">PySequence_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetSlice">PySequence_SetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Size">PySequence_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sequence.html#c.PySequence_Tuple">PySequence_Tuple (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods">PySequenceMethods (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item">PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_concat">PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_contains">PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat">PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat">PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_item">PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_length">PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat">PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Add">PySet_Add (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Check">PySet_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Clear">PySet_Clear (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_ClearFreeList">PySet_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Contains">PySet_Contains (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Discard">PySet_Discard (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_GET_SIZE">PySet_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_New">PySet_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Pop">PySet_Pop (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Size">PySet_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Type">PySet_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/set.html#c.PySetObject">PySetObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PySignal_SetWakeupFd">PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_AdjustIndices">PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Check">PySlice_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_GetIndices">PySlice_GetIndices (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_GetIndicesEx">PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_New">PySlice_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Type">PySlice_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Unpack">PySlice_Unpack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyState_AddModule">PyState_AddModule (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyState_FindModule">PyState_FindModule (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/module.html#c.PyState_RemoveModule">PyState_RemoveModule (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_Desc">PyStructSequence_Desc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_Field">PyStructSequence_Field (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM">PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_GetItem">PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_InitType">PyStructSequence_InitType (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_InitType2">PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_New">PyStructSequence_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_NewType">PyStructSequence_NewType (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM">PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_SetItem">PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_UnnamedField">PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOption">PySys_AddWarnOption (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode">PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddXOption">PySys_AddXOption (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_FormatStderr">PySys_FormatStderr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_FormatStdout">PySys_FormatStdout (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_GetObject">PySys_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_GetXOptions">PySys_GetXOptions (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_ResetWarnOptions">PySys_ResetWarnOptions (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgv">PySys_SetArgv (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">PySys_SetArgv()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx">PySys_SetArgvEx (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">PySys_SetArgvEx()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-21">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_SetObject">PySys_SetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_SetPath">PySys_SetPath (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_WriteStderr">PySys_WriteStderr (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_WriteStdout">PySys_WriteStdout (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-python-3000"><strong>Python 3000</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-0">Python Editor</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    Python Enhancement Proposals
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-27">PEP 1</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.0.html#index-0">PEP 100</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/windows.html#index-0">PEP 11</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-50">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-5">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/weakref.html#index-0">PEP 205</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-2">PEP 207</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-10">PEP 208</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-9">PEP 217</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-0">PEP 218</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-0">PEP 227</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-16">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-5">PEP 229</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-4">PEP 230</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-7">PEP 232</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-7">PEP 234</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-0">PEP 235</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-41">PEP 236</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-36">PEP 237</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-46">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-10">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-16">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-1">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/veryhigh.html#index-3">PEP 238</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-17">[1]</a>, <a href="library/__future__.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-11">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-13">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-2">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-11">PEP 241</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-12">PEP 243</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-37">PEP 247</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-0">PEP 249</a>, <a href="library/sqlite3.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-22">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-2">PEP 252</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-0">PEP 253</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-5">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-6">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-1">PEP 255</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-9">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-2">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-14">PEP 261</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/unicode.html#index-0">PEP 263</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/tokenize.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/tokenize.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-3">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-17">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-22">PEP 264</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#index-0">PEP 273</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-10">PEP 274</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/design.html#index-0">PEP 275</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-7">PEP 277</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-34">PEP 278</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-10">PEP 279</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#index-1">PEP 282</a>, <a href="library/shutil.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-12">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-13">PEP 285</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-14">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-10">PEP 288</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/functional.html#index-1">PEP 289</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-10">PEP 292</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-15">PEP 293</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-1">PEP 3000</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-7">PEP 301</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-14">PEP 302</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-13">[2]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-13">[5]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-14">[6]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-15">[7]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-17">[8]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-1">[10]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-0">[11]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-1">[12]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-2">[13]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-1">[14]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-21">[15]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-22">[16]</a>, <a href="library/zipimport.html#index-1">[17]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-1">[18]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-19">[19]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-17">[20]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-18">[21]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-19">[22]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-6">[23]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-2">[24]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-19">[25]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-20">[26]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-2">PEP 305</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-2">PEP 307</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-23">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-84">PEP 308</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-3">PEP 309</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-2">PEP 3100</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-0">PEP 3101</a>, <a href="library/string.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-24">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-7">PEP 3102</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-45">PEP 3104</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-5">PEP 3105</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-6">PEP 3106</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-25">PEP 3107</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-9">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-0">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-17">PEP 3108</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-22">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-11">PEP 3109</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-11">PEP 3110</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-27">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-32">PEP 3111</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-6">PEP 3112</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-15">PEP 3113</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-30">PEP 3114</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#index-0">PEP 3115</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-31">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-85">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-14">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-35">PEP 3116</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-48">PEP 3118</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-29">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-5">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-4">PEP 3119</a>, <a href="c-api/object.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/abc.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-89">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-16">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-10">PEP 3120</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-6">PEP 3121</a>, <a href="howto/cporting.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-34">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-35">PEP 3123</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-17">PEP 3127</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-32">PEP 3129</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-11">PEP 3131</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-13">PEP 3132</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-12">PEP 3134</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-28">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-88">PEP 3135</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-7">PEP 3137</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-3">PEP 3138</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-0">PEP 314</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/abc.html#index-1">PEP 3141</a>, <a href="library/numbers.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-19">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-24">PEP 3144</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/import.html#index-3">PEP 3147</a>, <a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="faq/programming.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/compileall.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/compileall.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/compileall.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-3">[7]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-4">[8]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-5">[9]</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-11">[11]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-21">[12]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-23">[13]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-24">[14]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-1">[15]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-4">[16]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-13">[18]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-3">[19]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-5">[20]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-17">[21]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#index-0">PEP 3148</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-0">PEP 3149</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-4">PEP 3151</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="library/resource.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-9">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-3">PEP 3154</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-39">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-30">PEP 3155</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-14">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-25">PEP 3156</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-26">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-31">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-8">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-33">PEP 318</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-5">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-14">PEP 322</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-0">PEP 324</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-11">PEP 325</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-9">PEP 327</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-3">PEP 328</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-24">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-10">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-17">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-5">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-16">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-34">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-11">PEP 331</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-23">PEP 333</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-0">PEP 3333</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-12">[3]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-13">[4]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-14">[5]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-15">[6]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-2">[7]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-3">[8]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-4">[9]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-7">[11]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-8">[12]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-9">[13]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-9">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/runpy.html#index-6">PEP 338</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-26">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-6">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-27">PEP 339</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-7">PEP 341</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/functional.html#index-0">PEP 342</a>, <a href="howto/functional.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-25">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-28">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-8">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-9">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-9">PEP 343</a>, <a href="library/__future__.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/contextlib.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-102">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-12">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-3">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-25">PEP 347</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-13">PEP 352</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-25">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-14">PEP 353</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-0">PEP 356</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-16">PEP 357</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-0">PEP 361</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-2">PEP 362</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-16">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-4">PEP 366</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-12">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-23">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-25">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-21">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-11">PEP 370</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-31">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-8">PEP 371</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-2">PEP 372</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-0">PEP 373</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-7">PEP 378</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.1.html#index-1">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-26">PEP 380</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-11">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-2">PEP 383</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-1">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/stable.html#index-0">PEP 384</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-14">PEP 385</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-4">PEP 389</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-5">PEP 391</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-0">PEP 392</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-0">PEP 393</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-16">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-28">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-30">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-31">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-32">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-6">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-7">[10]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-18">PEP 395</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-2">PEP 397</a>, <a href="using/windows.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-22">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-0">PEP 398</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-18">PEP 4</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-1">PEP 405</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-12">PEP 409</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-29">PEP 411</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-11">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-13">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-27">[4]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-28">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-30">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-15">PEP 412</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-20">PEP 414</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-13">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-27">PEP 418</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-15">PEP 420</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-28">[2]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-5">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-15">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-20">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-21">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-22">[9]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-2">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-3">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-14">PEP 421</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-24">PEP 424</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distributing/index.html#index-0">PEP 427</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#index-1">PEP 428</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-30">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-7">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-0">PEP 429</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-38">PEP 432</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-16">PEP 434</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-28">PEP 435</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-29">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-6">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-18">PEP 436</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-48">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-49">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-29">PEP 441</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-30">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-3">PEP 442</a>, <a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/gc.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-16">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-45">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-46">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-21">PEP 443</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-36">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-17">PEP 445</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-43">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-44">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-52">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-14">PEP 446</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-22">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-18">PEP 448</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-89">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-5">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-6">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-32">PEP 450</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-7">PEP 451</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/pkgutil.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-5">[6]</a>, <a href="library/runpy.html#index-8">[7]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-17">[8]</a>, <a href="reference/import.html#index-27">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-23">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-3">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-27">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#index-0">PEP 453</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-23">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-24">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-19">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-20">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-27">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-42">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-5">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-53">[10]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-10">PEP 454</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-34">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-35">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-13">PEP 456</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-47">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-47">PEP 461</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-3">PEP 465</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-48">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-17">PEP 466</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-20">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#index-0">PEP 468</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-24">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-13">PEP 471</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-14">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-6">PEP 475</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-14">[2]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-16">[3]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-17">[4]</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-33">[5]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-3">[6]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-4">[7]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-6">[9]</a>, <a href="library/select.html#index-7">[10]</a>, <a href="library/selectors.html#index-0">[11]</a>, <a href="library/signal.html#index-0">[12]</a>, <a href="library/signal.html#index-1">[13]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-10">[14]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-11">[15]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-12">[16]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-13">[17]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-4">[18]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-5">[19]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-7">[20]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-8">[21]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#index-9">[22]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-9">[23]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-15">[24]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-16">[25]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-51">[26]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-16">[27]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-25">PEP 476</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-21">PEP 477</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-0">PEP 478</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-7">PEP 479</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-18">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-37">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-7">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#index-3">PEP 483</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-0">PEP 484</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-32">[2]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-33">[3]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-36">[4]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-4">[7]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-6">[9]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-7">[10]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-9">[11]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-26">[12]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-90">[13]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-17">[14]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-7">[15]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-10">[16]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-11">[17]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-5">[18]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-20">[19]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#index-0">PEP 485</a>, <a href="library/math.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-19">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-20">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-21">PEP 486</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-13">PEP 487</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-15">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-37">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-4">PEP 488</a>, <a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-25">[3]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-7">[4]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-2">[5]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-11">[6]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-12">[7]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-13">[8]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-9">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-24">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-25">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-52">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-8">PEP 489</a>, <a href="extending/building.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="extending/extending.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-18">[3]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-19">[4]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-20">[5]</a>, <a href="library/importlib.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-26">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-28">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-47">[9]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-11">PEP 492</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-12">[1]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-4">[3]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-6">[4]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-7">[5]</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-2">[7]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-1">[8]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-12">[10]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-29">[11]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-38">[12]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-104">[13]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-28">[14]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-1">[15]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-2">[16]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-49">[17]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-54">[18]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-35">[19]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-9">[20]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-26">PEP 493</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-0">PEP 494</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-17">PEP 495</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-13">PEP 498</a>, <a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-25">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-4">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/general.html#index-1">PEP 5</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#index-0">PEP 506</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-28">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-36">PEP 511</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-9">PEP 515</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-8">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-26">PEP 519</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-23">PEP 520</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-25">PEP 523</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-42">PEP 524</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-31">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-32">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-22">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-23">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-5">PEP 525</a>, <a href="library/collections.abc.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/inspect.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-26">[3]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-9">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-27">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-10">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-1">PEP 526</a>, <a href="glossary.html#index-37">[1]</a>, <a href="library/dataclasses.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/dataclasses.html#index-2">[3]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="library/typing.html#index-8">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-27">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-16">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-33">[9]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-6">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-1">[11]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-11">PEP 528</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-9">PEP 529</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-32">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-34">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-20">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-13">PEP 530</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-12">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-37">PEP 538</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-10">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-7">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-45">PEP 539</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-15">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-40">PEP 540</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-12">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-24">PEP 545</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-25">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-9">PEP 552</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-22">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-15">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-4">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-13">PEP 553</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#index-0">PEP 557</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-29">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#index-1">PEP 560</a>, <a href="library/types.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-82">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-91">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-21">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-33">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-13">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-80">PEP 562</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-16">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-14">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-9">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/__future__.html#index-8">PEP 563</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-28">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-2">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-17">PEP 564</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-32">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-17">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-19">PEP 565</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-0">PEP 567</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-future.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/contextvars.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-28">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-30">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-8">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-2">PEP 570</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/general.html#index-0">PEP 6</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-29">PEP 628</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-30">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-0">PEP 7</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="faq/programming.html#index-0">PEP 8</a>, <a href="faq/windows.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="using/unix.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.0.html#index-21">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distributing/index.html#index-1">Python Package Index (PyPI)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-4">PYTHON*</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-8">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-50">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.python.function.entry">python.function.entry (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="howto/instrumentation.html#c.python.function.return">python.function.return (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_branch">python_branch() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_build">python_build() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_compiler">python_compiler() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#index-0">PYTHON_DOM</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_implementation">python_implementation() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.python_is_optimized">python_is_optimized() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_revision">python_revision() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_version">python_version() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.python_version_tuple">python_version_tuple() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-dev.html#index-0">PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG</a>, <a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-1">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-12">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.1.html#index-8">PYTHONCASEOK</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-39">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-0">PYTHONDEBUG</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/development.html#index-0">PYTHONDEVMODE</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pydoc.html#index-2">PYTHONDOCS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-1">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</a>, <a href="faq/programming.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-1">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-20">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-24">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-0">PYTHONDUMPREFS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#index-0">PYTHONFAULTHANDLER</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-2">PYTHONHASHSEED</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-77">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-14">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-15">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-29">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-22">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-33">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-11">[8]</a>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-7">PYTHONINSPECT</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-29">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-18">PYTHONIOENCODING</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-19">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-35">[3]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-38">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-21">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-54">[6]</a>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-10">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-35">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.6.html#index-21">[3]</a>
+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="using/cmdline.html#index-20">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-27">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-18">[2]</a>
+</li>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-6">PYTHONSTARTUP</a>, <a href="library/readline.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="tutorial/appendix.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-6">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-40">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.4.html#index-41">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-21">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-6">[9]</a>
+</li>
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+</li>
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+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#index-8">PYTHONUSERBASE</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-9">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#index-2">PYTHONUSERSITE</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-34">PYTHONUTF8</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-21">[1]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-36">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-8">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-15">PYTHONVERBOSE</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-18">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#index-1">PYTHONWARNINGS</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/warnings.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="using/cmdline.html#index-19">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-8">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-10">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-36">[7]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_create_key">PyThread_create_key (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_delete_key">PyThread_delete_key (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_delete_key_value">PyThread_delete_key_value (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_get_key_value">PyThread_get_key_value (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_ReInitTLS">PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_set_key_value">PyThread_set_key_value (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_alloc">PyThread_tss_alloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_create">PyThread_tss_create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_delete">PyThread_tss_delete (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_free">PyThread_tss_free (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_get">PyThread_tss_get (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_is_created">PyThread_tss_is_created (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_tss_set">PyThread_tss_set (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-35">PyThreadState</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_Delete">PyThreadState_Delete (C function)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_GetDict">PyThreadState_GetDict (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_New">PyThreadState_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_Next">PyThreadState_Next (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc">PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_Swap">PyThreadState_Swap (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_Check">PyTime_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_CheckExact">PyTime_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_FromTime">PyTime_FromTime (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTime_FromTimeAndFold">PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffset">PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName">PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_C_CALL">PyTrace_C_CALL (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION">PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_C_RETURN">PyTrace_C_RETURN (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_CALL">PyTrace_CALL (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_EXCEPTION">PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_LINE">PyTrace_LINE (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_OPCODE">PyTrace_OPCODE (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#c.PyTrace_RETURN">PyTrace_RETURN (C variable)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Check">PyTuple_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_CheckExact">PyTuple_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_ClearFreeList">PyTuple_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GET_ITEM">PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GET_SIZE">PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GetItem">PyTuple_GetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_GetSlice">PyTuple_GetSlice (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_New">PyTuple_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Pack">PyTuple_Pack (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SET_ITEM">PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem">PyTuple_SetItem (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-8">PyTuple_SetItem()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Size">PyTuple_Size (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTuple_Type">PyTuple_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#c.PyTupleObject">PyTupleObject (C type)</a>
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+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Check">PyType_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_CheckExact">PyType_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_ClearCache">PyType_ClearCache (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_FromSpec">PyType_FromSpec (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_FromSpecWithBases">PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericAlloc">PyType_GenericAlloc (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew">PyType_GenericNew (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GetFlags">PyType_GetFlags (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GetSlot">PyType_GetSlot (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_HasFeature">PyType_HasFeature (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_IS_GC">PyType_IS_GC (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_IsSubtype">PyType_IsSubtype (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Modified">PyType_Modified (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready">PyType_Ready (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Type">PyType_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject">PyTypeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc">PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_allocs">PyTypeObject.tp_allocs (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer">PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base">PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_bases">PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize">PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_cache">PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_call">PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_clear">PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc">PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get">PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set">PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dict">PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset">PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_doc">PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize">PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_flags">PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free">PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_frees">PyTypeObject.tp_frees (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattr">PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getattro">PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getset">PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_hash">PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init">PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc">PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize">PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter">PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext">PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc">PyTypeObject.tp_maxalloc (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_members">PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods">PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_mro">PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_name">PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new">PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_next">PyTypeObject.tp_next (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_print">PyTypeObject.tp_print (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_repr">PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare">PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattr">PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_setattro">PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_str">PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses">PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse">PyTypeObject.tp_traverse (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist">PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset">PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTZInfo_Check">PyTZInfo_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTZInfo_CheckExact">PyTZInfo_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA">PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND">PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA">PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND">PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA">PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND">PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AS_DATA">PyUnicode_AS_DATA (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE">PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsASCIIString">PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsCharmapString">PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsEncodedString">PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsLatin1String">PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsMBCSString">PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString">PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4">PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy">PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicode">PyUnicode_AsUnicode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF16String">PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF32String">PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8">PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize">PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8String">PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideChar">PyUnicode_AsWideChar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Check">PyUnicode_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CheckExact">PyUnicode_CheckExact (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_ClearFreeList">PyUnicode_ClearFreeList (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Compare">PyUnicode_Compare (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString">PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Concat">PyUnicode_Concat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Contains">PyUnicode_Contains (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CopyCharacters">PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Count">PyUnicode_Count (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DATA">PyUnicode_DATA (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Decode">PyUnicode_Decode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeASCII">PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap">PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize">PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1">PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocale">PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize">PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS">PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful">PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape">PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape">PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful">PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Encode">PyUnicode_Encode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeASCII">PyUnicode_EncodeASCII (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap">PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage">PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault">PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1">PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale">PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS">PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape">PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape">PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8 (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Fill">PyUnicode_Fill (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Find">PyUnicode_Find (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FindChar">PyUnicode_FindChar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Format">PyUnicode_Format (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject">PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat">PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormatV">PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromKindAndData">PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromObject">PyUnicode_FromObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromString">PyUnicode_FromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/dict.html#index-1">PyUnicode_FromString()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize">PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromUnicode">PyUnicode_FromUnicode (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromWideChar">PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FSConverter">PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FSDecoder">PyUnicode_FSDecoder (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE">PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_SIZE">PyUnicode_GET_SIZE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetLength">PyUnicode_GetLength (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetSize">PyUnicode_GetSize (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_InternFromString">PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_InternInPlace">PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Join">PyUnicode_Join (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_KIND">PyUnicode_KIND (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE">PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_New">PyUnicode_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READ">PyUnicode_READ (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READ_CHAR">PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_ReadChar">PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READY">PyUnicode_READY (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Replace">PyUnicode_Replace (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_RichCompare">PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Split">PyUnicode_Split (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Splitlines">PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Substring">PyUnicode_Substring (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Tailmatch">PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII">PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Translate">PyUnicode_Translate (C function)</a>, <a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Translate">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap">PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Type">PyUnicode_Type (C variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND">PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WRITE">PyUnicode_WRITE (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WriteChar">PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create">PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart">PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart">PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create">PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart">PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart">PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicodeObject">PyUnicodeObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create">PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart">PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart">PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyVarObject">PyVarObject (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyVarObject.ob_size">PyVarObject.ob_size (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#c.PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_Check">PyWeakref_Check (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_CheckProxy">PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_CheckRef">PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT">PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_GetObject">PyWeakref_GetObject (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_NewProxy">PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/weakref.html#c.PyWeakref_NewRef">PyWeakref_NewRef (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/descriptor.html#c.PyWrapper_New">PyWrapper_New (C function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.PyZipFile">PyZipFile (class in zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="Q">Q</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.qiflush">qiflush() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.QName">QName (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.qsize">qsize() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue.qsize">(multiprocessing.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.qsize">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue.qsize">(queue.SimpleQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-qualified-name"><strong>qualified name</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.quantize">quantize() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.quantize">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryInfoKey">QueryInfoKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryReflectionKey">QueryReflectionKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryValue">QueryValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.QueryValueEx">QueryValueEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue">Queue (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/queue.html#module-queue">queue (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.queue">(sched.scheduler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue">Queue() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.QueueEmpty">QueueEmpty</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.QueueFull">QueueFull</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler">QueueHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener">QueueListener (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.quick_ratio">quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#quit">quit (built-in variable)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-quit">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.quit">quit() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.quit">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.quit">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.quit">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/quopri.html#module-quopri">quopri (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.quote">quote() (in module email.utils)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.quote">(in module shlex)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_ALL">QUOTE_ALL (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes">quote_from_bytes() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL">QUOTE_MINIMAL (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_NONE">QUOTE_NONE (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC">QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote_plus">quote_plus() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr">quoteattr() (in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.quotechar">quotechar (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    quoted-printable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/quopri.html#index-0">encoding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.quotes">quotes (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.quoting">quoting (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="R">R</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    r&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-19">raw string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    r&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-19">raw string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.R_OK">R_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.radians">radians() (in module math)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.radians">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.RadioButtonGroup">RadioButtonGroup (class in msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.radiogroup">radiogroup() (msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.radix">radix() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.radix">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.RADIXCHAR">RADIXCHAR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    raise
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-1">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-raise">raise (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-13">raise an exception</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.raise_on_defect">raise_on_defect (email.policy.Policy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-RAISE_VARARGS">RAISE_VARARGS (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    raising
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_add">RAND_add() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_bytes">RAND_bytes() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_egd">RAND_egd() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes">RAND_pseudo_bytes() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_status">RAND_status() (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.randbelow">randbelow() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.randbits">randbits() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.randint">randint() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.Random">Random (class in random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#module-random">random (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.random">random() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.randrange">randrange() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    range
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-8">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-25">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range">range (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RARROW">RARROW (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.ratecv">ratecv() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio">ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational">Rational (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.raw">raw (io.BufferedIOBase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">raw string</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.raw">raw() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager">raw_data_manager (in module email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder.raw_decode">raw_decode() (json.JSONDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-raw_input">raw_input (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.raw_input">raw_input() (code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray">RawArray() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser">RawConfigParser (class in configparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter">RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase">RawIOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.RawPen">RawPen (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter">RawTextHelpFormatter (class in argparse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.RawTurtle">RawTurtle (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue">RawValue() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RBRACE">RBRACE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos">rcpttos (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    re
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-31">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#module-re">re (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.re">(re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.read">read() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.read">(chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.read">(codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.read">(http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.read">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.read">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read">(io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader.read">(io.BufferedReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.read">(io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.read">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.read">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.read">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.read">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.read">(ssl.MemoryBIO method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.read">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.read">(urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.read">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read1">read1() (io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedReader.read1">(io.BufferedReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.read1">(io.BytesIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_all">read_all() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.read_binary">read_binary() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.read_byte">read_byte() (mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.read_bytes">read_bytes() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read_dict">read_dict() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_eager">read_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.read_environ">read_environ() (in module wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events">read_events() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read_file">read_file() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.read_history_file">read_history_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.read_init_file">read_init_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_lazy">read_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.read_mime_types">read_mime_types() (in module mimetypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">READ_RESTRICTED</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_sb_data">read_sb_data() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_some">read_some() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read_string">read_string() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.read_text">read_text() (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.read_text">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.read_token">read_token() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_until">read_until() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_eager">read_very_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_lazy">read_very_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.read_windows_registry">read_windows_registry() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.READABLE">READABLE (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.readable">readable() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.readable">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.readall">readall() (io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.reader">reader() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.ReadError">ReadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly">readexactly() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.readfp">readfp() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp">(mimetypes.MimeTypes method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.readframes">readframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.readframes">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.readframes">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.readinto">readinto() (http.client.HTTPResponse method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto">(io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.readinto">(io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto1">readinto1() (io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO.readinto1">(io.BytesIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#module-readline">readline (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readline">readline() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.readline">(codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.readline">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.readline">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.readline">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.readline">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.readlines">readlines() (codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.readlines">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.readlines">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.readlink">readlink() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule">readmodule() (in module pyclbr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule_ex">readmodule_ex() (in module pyclbr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">READONLY</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.readonly">readonly (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlist">readPlist() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlistFromBytes">readPlistFromBytes() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport">ReadTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil">readuntil() (asyncio.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.readv">readv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.ready">ready() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Real">Real (class in numbers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex.real">real (numbers.Complex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">Real Media File Format</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.real_max_memuse">real_max_memuse (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.real_quick_ratio">real_quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/memory.html#index-0">realloc()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.realpath">realpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS">REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.reap_children">reap_children() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.reap_threads">reap_threads() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.reason">reason (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.reason">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError.reason">(ssl.SSLError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError.reason">(urllib.error.HTTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError.reason">(urllib.error.URLError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.reattach">reattach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    rebinding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">name</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.reccontrols">reccontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data">received_data (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_lines">received_lines (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.recent">recent() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure">reconfigure() (io.TextIOWrapper method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.record_original_stdout">record_original_stdout() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.records">records (unittest.TestCase attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.rect">rect() (in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.rectangle">rectangle() (in module curses.textpad)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#RecursionError">RecursionError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.recursive_repr">recursive_repr() (in module reprlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.recv">recv() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recv">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes">recv_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes_into">recv_bytes_into() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recv_into">recv_into() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvfrom">recvfrom() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvfrom_into">recvfrom_into() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvmsg">recvmsg() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvmsg_into">recvmsg_into() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request">redirect_request() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.redirect_stderr">redirect_stderr() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.redirect_stdout">redirect_stdout() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.redisplay">redisplay() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.redrawln">redrawln() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.redrawwin">redrawwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-reduce">reduce (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.reduce">reduce() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ref">ref (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.refcount_test">refcount_test() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    reference
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-37">attribute</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-reference-count"><strong>reference count</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-2">reference counting</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ReferenceError">ReferenceError</a>, <a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ReferenceError">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.ReferenceType">ReferenceType (in module weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.refold_source">refold_source (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.refresh">refresh() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_BINARY">REG_BINARY (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_DWORD">REG_DWORD (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN">REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN">REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ">REG_EXPAND_SZ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR">REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_LINK">REG_LINK (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ">REG_MULTI_SZ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_NONE">REG_NONE (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_QWORD">REG_QWORD (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN">REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST">REG_RESOURCE_LIST (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST">REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_SZ">REG_SZ (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta.register">register() (abc.ABCMeta method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/atexit.html#atexit.register">(in module atexit)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.register">(in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.register">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#webbrowser.register">(in module webbrowser)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.register">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.register">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.register">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.register">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.register_adapter">register_adapter() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.register_archive_format">register_archive_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.register_at_fork">register_at_fork() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.register_converter">register_converter() (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.register_defect">register_defect() (email.policy.Policy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.register_dialect">register_dialect() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.register_error">register_error() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function">register_function() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance">register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions">register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions">register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions">(xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace">register_namespace() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.register_optionflag">register_optionflag() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.register_shape">register_shape() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.register_unpack_format">register_unpack_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation">registerDOMImplementation() (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.registerResult">registerResult() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    regular
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-4">package</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-regular-package"><strong>regular package</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    relative
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">URL</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-39">import</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.relative_to">relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.lock.release">release() (_thread.lock method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.release">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock.release">(asyncio.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore.release">(asyncio.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.release">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.release">(logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.release">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Lock.release">(multiprocessing.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.RLock.release">(multiprocessing.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.release">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Lock.release">(threading.Lock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.RLock.release">(threading.RLock method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore.release">(threading.Semaphore method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.release_lock">release_lock() (in module imp)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-reload">reload (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.reload">reload() (in module imp)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.reload">(in module importlib)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.relpath">relpath() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.remainder">remainder() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.remainder">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.remainder_near">remainder_near() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.remainder_near">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.RemoteDisconnected">RemoteDisconnected</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.remove">remove() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.remove">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.remove">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.remove">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.remove">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.remove">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.remove">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.remove_child_handler">remove_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback">remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.remove_done_callback">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.remove_flag">remove_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.remove_flag">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.remove_flag">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.remove_folder">remove_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.remove_folder">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.remove_header">remove_header() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.remove_history_item">remove_history_item() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.remove_label">remove_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.remove_option">remove_option() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.remove_option">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.remove_pyc">remove_pyc() (msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_reader">remove_reader() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.remove_section">remove_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.remove_sequence">remove_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler">remove_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.dir_util.remove_tree">remove_tree() (in module distutils.dir_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_writer">remove_writer() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.removeAttribute">removeAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNode">removeAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNS">removeAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.removeChild">removeChild() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.removedirs">removedirs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.removeFilter">removeFilter() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.removeFilter">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.removeHandler">removeHandler() (in module unittest)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.removeHandler">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.removeResult">removeResult() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.removexattr">removexattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.rename">rename() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.rename">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.rename">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.rename">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-renames">renames (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.renames">renames() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded">reopenIfNeeded() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.reorganize">reorganize() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.repeat">repeat() (in module itertools)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.repeat">(in module timeit)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.repeat">(timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    repetition
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.replace">replace() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.replace">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.replace">(curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.replace">(datetime.date method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.replace">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.replace">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.replace">(in module dataclasses)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.replace">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter.replace">(inspect.Parameter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.replace">(inspect.Signature method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.replace">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.replace">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.replace_errors">replace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.replace_header">replace_header() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.replace_header">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.replace_history_item">replace_history_item() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace">replace_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Node.replaceChild">replaceChild() (xml.dom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ReplacePackage">ReplacePackage() (in module modulefinder)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.report">report() (filecmp.dircmp method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.report">(modulefinder.ModuleFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_CDIFF">REPORT_CDIFF (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_failure">report_failure() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.report_full_closure">report_full_closure() (filecmp.dircmp method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_NDIFF">REPORT_NDIFF (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE">REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.report_partial_closure">report_partial_closure() (filecmp.dircmp method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_start">report_start() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_success">report_success() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_UDIFF">REPORT_UDIFF (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_unexpected_exception">report_unexpected_exception() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS">REPORTING_FLAGS (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    repr
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-0">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/typeobj.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-repr">repr (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr">Repr (class in reprlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#repr">repr() (built-in function)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-71">__repr__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.repr">repr() (in module reprlib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.repr">(reprlib.Repr method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#reprlib.Repr.repr1">repr1() (reprlib.Repr method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    representation
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-12">integer</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/reprlib.html#module-reprlib">reprlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request">Request (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.request">request() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.request_queue_size">request_queue_size (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.request_rate">request_rate() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.request_uri">request_uri() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.request_version">request_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass">RequestHandlerClass (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.requestline">requestline (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires">requires() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_bz2">requires_bz2() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_docstrings">requires_docstrings() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_freebsd_version">requires_freebsd_version() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_gzip">requires_gzip() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_IEEE_754">requires_IEEE_754() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_linux_version">requires_linux_version() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_lzma">requires_lzma() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_mac_version">requires_mac_version() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_resource">requires_resource() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.requires_zlib">requires_zlib() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.reserved">reserved (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-13">reserved word</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE">RESERVED_FUTURE (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT">RESERVED_MICROSOFT (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RESERVED_NCS">RESERVED_NCS (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.reset">reset() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.reset">(codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.reset">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader.reset">(codecs.StreamReader method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter.reset">(codecs.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.reset">(contextvars.ContextVar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.reset">(html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.reset">(in module turtle)</a>, <a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.reset">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.reset">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template.reset">(pipes.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.reset">(threading.Barrier method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Packer.reset">(xdrlib.Packer method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.reset">(xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.reset">(xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.reset">(xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock">reset_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.reset_prog_mode">reset_prog_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.reset_shell_mode">reset_shell_mode() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer">resetbuffer() (code.InteractiveConsole method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.resetlocale">resetlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.resetscreen">resetscreen() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.resetty">resetty() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.resetwarnings">resetwarnings() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.resize">resize() (curses.window method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.resize">(in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.resize">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.resize_term">resize_term() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.resizemode">resizemode() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.resizeterm">resizeterm() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.resolution">resolution (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.resolution">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.resolution">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.resolution">(datetime.timedelta attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.resolve">resolve() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.resolve_bases">resolve_bases() (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.resolve_name">resolve_name() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver.resolveEntity">resolveEntity() (xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.Resource">Resource (in module importlib.resources)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#module-resource">resource (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.resource_path">resource_path() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.ResourceDenied">ResourceDenied</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader">ResourceLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader">ResourceReader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning">ResourceWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTPError.response">response (nntplib.NNTPError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.response">response() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.ResponseNotReady">ResponseNotReady</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses">responses (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.responses">(in module http.client)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-restart">restart (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.restore">restore() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">RESTRICTED</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    restricted
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-11">execution</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._FuncPtr.restype">restype (ctypes._FuncPtr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.result">result() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.result">(asyncio.Task method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.result">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.results">results() (trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading">resume_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing">resume_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.retr">retr() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.retrbinary">retrbinary() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve">retrieve() (urllib.request.URLopener method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.retrlines">retrlines() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    return
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-return">return (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.return_annotation">return_annotation (inspect.Signature attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok">return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-RETURN_VALUE">RETURN_VALUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value">return_value (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.returncode">returncode (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.returncode">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.returncode">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.reverse">reverse() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.reverse">(collections.deque method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.reverse">(in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">(sequence method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.reverse_order">reverse_order() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.reverse_pointer">reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#reversed">reversed() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Reversible">Reversible (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Reversible">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert">revert() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.rewind">rewind() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.rewind">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.rewind">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    RFC
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-1">RFC 1014</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#index-22">RFC 1123</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-1">RFC 1321</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-17">RFC 1422</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-20">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-9">RFC 1521</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-3">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-2">RFC 1522</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/quopri.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailcap.html#index-0">RFC 1524</a>, <a href="library/mailcap.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-2">RFC 1730</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-12">RFC 1738</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-2">RFC 1750</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-4">RFC 1766</a>, <a href="library/locale.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-1">RFC 1808</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-45">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-3">RFC 1832</a>, <a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-2">RFC 1869</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#index-1">RFC 1870</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-26">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-1">RFC 1939</a>, <a href="library/poplib.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-22">RFC 2033</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-4">RFC 2045</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-4">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-5">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-6">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-9">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-4">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-10">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-9">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-3">[11]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-6">[12]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-7">[13]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-8">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#index-0">RFC 2045#section-6.8</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#index-0">RFC 2046</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.header.html#index-11">RFC 2047</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-13">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-8">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-4">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-6">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-5">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-3">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-4">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-1">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-11">[11]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-8">[12]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-1">RFC 2060</a>, <a href="library/imaplib.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-1">RFC 2068</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#index-0">RFC 2104</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-17">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-1">RFC 2109</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-21">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-23">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-24">[4]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-4">[6]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-6">[7]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-0">[8]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-3">[10]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-4">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-5">[12]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-6">[13]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookies.html#index-7">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-11">RFC 2183</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-10">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-10">RFC 2231</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-8">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-7">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-7">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-4">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-9">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-5">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-6">[11]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-7">[12]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-8">[13]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-9">[14]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-54">RFC 2295</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-6">RFC 2342</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-19">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-10">RFC 2368</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-1">RFC 2373</a>, <a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-5">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-3">RFC 2396</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-9">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-46">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-34">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-8">RFC 2397</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-4">RFC 2449</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-18">RFC 2487</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-3">RFC 2518</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-3">RFC 2595</a>, <a href="library/poplib.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-0">RFC 2616</a>, <a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="howto/urllib2.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.error.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-10">[4]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-6">[5]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-7">[6]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-10">[7]</a>, <a href="library/wsgiref.html#index-5">[8]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-7">[9]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-8">RFC 2732</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-13">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-57">RFC 2774</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-3">RFC 2818</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.2.html#index-12">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.html#index-0">RFC 2821</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-1">RFC 2822</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-10">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-12">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-9">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-0">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-10">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-3">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.utils.html#index-4">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-1">[12]</a>, <a href="library/mailbox.html#index-0">[13]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-11">[14]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-23">[15]</a>, <a href="tutorial/stdlib.html#index-1">[16]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-20">[17]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-10">RFC 2964</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-0">RFC 2965</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-12">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-13">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-14">[4]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-16">[5]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-17">[6]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-18">[7]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-19">[8]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-2">[9]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-20">[10]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-22">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-25">[12]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-5">[13]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-7">[14]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-8">[15]</a>, <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#index-9">[16]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-3">[18]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-5">[19]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-3">RFC 2980</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-10">RFC 3056</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-0">RFC 3171</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-23">RFC 3207</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-13">RFC 3229</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-11">RFC 3280</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-4">RFC 3330</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging.html#index-0">RFC 3339</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#index-0">RFC 3454</a>, <a href="library/stringprep.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-10">RFC 3490</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-11">[1]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-4">[2]</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-7">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-9">RFC 3490#section-3.1</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-5">RFC 3492</a>, <a href="library/codecs.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-15">RFC 3493</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-8">RFC 3501</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-3">RFC 3542</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/base64.html#index-1">RFC 3548</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/base64.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="library/binascii.html#index-1">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-18">[5]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-4">RFC 3659</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-8">RFC 3879</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-6">RFC 3927</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-1">RFC 3977</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="library/nntplib.html#index-9">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-2">RFC 3986</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-10">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-13">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-44">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-35">[7]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-21">RFC 4086</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-0">RFC 4122</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-10">[2]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-11">[3]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="library/uuid.html#index-4">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-19">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-20">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-1">RFC 4180</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-9">RFC 4193</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-2">RFC 4217</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-7">RFC 4291</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-11">RFC 4380</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#index-1">RFC 4627</a>, <a href="library/json.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-4">RFC 4642</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-11">RFC 4918</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-41">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-42">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-43">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-55">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-7">RFC 4954</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-8">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-3">RFC 5161</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-35">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#index-0">RFC 5233</a>, <a href="library/email.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-10">RFC 5246</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-23">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-22">RFC 5280</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-4">[1]</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-7">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-43">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-53">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-13">RFC 5321</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-6">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-25">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.errors.html#index-0">RFC 5322</a>, <a href="library/email.generator.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.generator.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-0">[3]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-11">[4]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-12">[5]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-14">[6]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-2">[7]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-3">[8]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-5">[9]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-7">[10]</a>, <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#index-8">[11]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-0">[12]</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-2">[13]</a>, <a href="library/email.parser.html#index-0">[14]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-0">[15]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-1">[16]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-2">[17]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-5">[18]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-6">[19]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-9">[20]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-11">[21]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-0">RFC 5424</a>, <a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-3">[2]</a>, <a href="library/logging.handlers.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="howto/logging-cookbook.html#index-1">RFC 5424#section-6</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#index-2">RFC 5735</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-12">RFC 5842</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-56">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-12">RFC 5929</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-14">RFC 6066</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-24">[1]</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-9">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-5">RFC 6125</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-6">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#index-4">RFC 6152</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-39">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#index-3">RFC 6531</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-3">[3]</a>, <a href="library/smtpd.html#index-7">[4]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-3">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-34">[6]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-40">[7]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-41">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.html#index-2">RFC 6532</a>, <a href="library/email.message.html#index-1">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.parser.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/email.policy.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-33">[4]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-45">RFC 6585</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-46">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-47">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-58">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#index-4">RFC 6855</a>, <a href="library/imaplib.html#index-5">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-36">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-37">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#index-5">RFC 6856</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/json.html#index-0">RFC 7159</a>, <a href="library/json.html#index-2">[1]</a>, <a href="library/json.html#index-4">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-3">RFC 7230</a>, <a href="library/urllib.request.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-1">RFC 7231</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-14">[1]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-15">[2]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-16">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-17">[4]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-19">[5]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-2">[6]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-20">[7]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-22">[8]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-24">[9]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-25">[10]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-26">[11]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-27">[12]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-28">[13]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-30">[14]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-31">[15]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-32">[16]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-33">[17]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-35">[18]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-36">[19]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-37">[20]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-39">[21]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-4">[22]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-44">[23]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-48">[24]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-49">[25]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-5">[26]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-50">[27]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-51">[28]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-52">[29]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-53">[30]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-6">[31]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-7">[32]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-8">[33]</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-9">[34]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-18">RFC 7232</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-34">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-10">RFC 7233</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-38">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-23">RFC 7235</a>, <a href="library/http.html#index-29">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-21">RFC 7238</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-13">RFC 7301</a>, <a href="library/ssl.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.5.html#index-42">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-25">RFC 7525</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.html#index-40">RFC 7540</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-5">RFC 7693</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-3">RFC 7914</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-1">RFC 821</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#index-6">RFC 822</a>, <a href="library/email.examples.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/email.header.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="library/gettext.html#index-9">[3]</a>, <a href="library/http.client.html#index-2">[4]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-12">[6]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-6">[7]</a>, <a href="library/smtplib.html#index-9">[8]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-20">[9]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-21">[10]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.2.html#index-21">[11]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#index-1">RFC 854</a>, <a href="library/telnetlib.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#index-1">RFC 959</a>, <a href="library/ftplib.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#index-2">RFC 977</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.rfc2109">rfc2109 (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape">rfc2109_as_netscape (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.rfc2965">rfc2965 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.rfc822_escape">rfc822_escape() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.RFC_4122">RFC_4122 (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.rfile">rfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rfind">rfind() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rfind">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.rfind">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rfind">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.rgb_to_hls">rgb_to_hls() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.rgb_to_hsv">rgb_to_hsv() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.rgb_to_yiq">rgb_to_yiq() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.rglob">rglob() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.right">right (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.right">right() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.right_list">right_list (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.right_only">right_only (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RIGHTSHIFT">RIGHTSHIFT (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL">RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rindex">rindex() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rindex">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rindex">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rjust">rjust() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rjust">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rjust">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter">rlcompleter (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.rlecode_hqx">rlecode_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.rledecode_hqx">rledecode_hqx() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIM_INFINITY">RLIM_INFINITY (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_AS">RLIMIT_AS (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_CORE">RLIMIT_CORE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_CPU">RLIMIT_CPU (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_DATA">RLIMIT_DATA (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE">RLIMIT_FSIZE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK">RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE">RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NICE">RLIMIT_NICE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE">RLIMIT_NOFILE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NPROC">RLIMIT_NPROC (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NPTS">RLIMIT_NPTS (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_OFILE">RLIMIT_OFILE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RSS">RLIMIT_RSS (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO">RLIMIT_RTPRIO (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME">RLIMIT_RTTIME (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE">RLIMIT_SBSIZE (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING">RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_STACK">RLIMIT_STACK (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SWAP">RLIMIT_SWAP (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_VMEM">RLIMIT_VMEM (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.RLock">RLock (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.RLock">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.RLock">RLock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.rmd">rmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.rmdir">rmdir() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.rmdir">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.rmdir">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#index-0">RMFF</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.rms">rms() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree">rmtree() (in module shutil)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.rmtree">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser">RobotFileParser (class in urllib.robotparser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">robots.txt</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.rollback">rollback() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-ROT_THREE">ROT_THREE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-ROT_TWO">ROT_TWO (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.deque.rotate">rotate() (collections.deque method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.rotate">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.rotate">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate">(logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler">RotatingFileHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename">rotation_filename() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotator">rotator (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    round
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-100">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#round">round() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_05UP">ROUND_05UP (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_CEILING">ROUND_CEILING (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_DOWN">ROUND_DOWN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_FLOOR">ROUND_FLOOR (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN">ROUND_HALF_DOWN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN">ROUND_HALF_EVEN (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP">ROUND_HALF_UP (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.ROUND_UP">ROUND_UP (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Rounded">Rounded (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Row">Row (class in sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.row_factory">row_factory (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount">rowcount (sqlite3.Cursor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RPAR">RPAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rpartition">rpartition() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rpartition">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rpartition">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths">rpc_paths (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.rpop">rpop() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.rset">rset() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.rshift">rshift() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rsplit">rsplit() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rsplit">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rsplit">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.RSQB">RSQB (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.rstrip">rstrip() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.rstrip">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.rstrip">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.rt">rt() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_DEEPBIND">RTLD_DEEPBIND (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_GLOBAL">RTLD_GLOBAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_LAZY">RTLD_LAZY (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_LOCAL">RTLD_LOCAL (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_NODELETE">RTLD_NODELETE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_NOLOAD">RTLD_NOLOAD (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RTLD_NOW">RTLD_NOW (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.ruler">ruler (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-run">run (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-2">Run script</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.run">run() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.run">(contextvars.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.run">(distutils.cmd.Command method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.run">(doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.run">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.run">(in module profile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.run">(in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.run">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.run">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.run">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.run">(sched.scheduler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.BasicTestRunner.run">(test.support.BasicTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.run">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.run">(trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.run">(unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.run">(unittest.TestSuite method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestRunner.run">(unittest.TextTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.run">(wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe">run_coroutine_threadsafe() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.run_docstring_examples">run_docstring_examples() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_doctest">run_doctest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_forever">run_forever() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor">run_in_executor() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_in_subinterp">run_in_subinterp() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/runpy.html#runpy.run_module">run_module() (in module runpy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/runpy.html#runpy.run_path">run_path() (in module runpy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end">run_python_until_end() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/modulefinder.html#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.run_script">run_script() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.run_setup">run_setup() (in module distutils.core)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_unittest">run_unittest() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_until_complete">run_until_complete() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_with_locale">run_with_locale() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.run_with_tz">run_with_tz() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.runcall">runcall() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.runcall">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.runcall">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.runcall">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runcode">runcode() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.runctx">runctx() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.runctx">(in module profile)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/profile.html#profile.Profile.runctx">(profile.Profile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.runctx">(trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.runeval">runeval() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.runeval">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.runeval">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace.runfunc">runfunc() (trace.Trace method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.running">running() (concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/runpy.html#module-runpy">runpy (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource">runsource() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.runtime_library_dir_option">runtime_library_dir_option() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError">RuntimeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning">RuntimeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_BOTH">RUSAGE_BOTH (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN">RUSAGE_CHILDREN (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_SELF">RUSAGE_SELF (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.RUSAGE_THREAD">RUSAGE_THREAD (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_DSYNC">RWF_DSYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_HIPRI">RWF_HIPRI (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_NOWAIT">RWF_NOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.RWF_SYNC">RWF_SYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="S">S</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.S">S (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ENFMT">S_ENFMT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IEXEC">S_IEXEC (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFBLK">S_IFBLK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFCHR">S_IFCHR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFDIR">S_IFDIR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFDOOR">S_IFDOOR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFIFO">S_IFIFO (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFLNK">S_IFLNK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFMT">S_IFMT() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFPORT">S_IFPORT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFREG">S_IFREG (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFSOCK">S_IFSOCK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IFWHT">S_IFWHT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IMODE">S_IMODE() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IREAD">S_IREAD (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRGRP">S_IRGRP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IROTH">S_IROTH (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRUSR">S_IRUSR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRWXG">S_IRWXG (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRWXO">S_IRWXO (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IRWXU">S_IRWXU (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISBLK">S_ISBLK() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISCHR">S_ISCHR() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISDIR">S_ISDIR() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISDOOR">S_ISDOOR() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISFIFO">S_ISFIFO() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISGID">S_ISGID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISLNK">S_ISLNK() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISPORT">S_ISPORT() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISREG">S_ISREG() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISSOCK">S_ISSOCK() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISUID">S_ISUID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISVTX">S_ISVTX (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_ISWHT">S_ISWHT() (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWGRP">S_IWGRP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWOTH">S_IWOTH (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWRITE">S_IWRITE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IWUSR">S_IWUSR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IXGRP">S_IXGRP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IXOTH">S_IXOTH (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.S_IXUSR">S_IXUSR (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID.safe">safe (uuid.SafeUUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template.safe_substitute">safe_substitute() (string.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.SafeChildWatcher">SafeChildWatcher (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pprint.html#pprint.saferepr">saferepr() (in module pprint)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID">SafeUUID (class in uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.same_files">same_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.same_quantum">same_quantum() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.same_quantum">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.samefile">samefile() (in module os.path)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.samefile">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.SameFileError">SameFileError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.sameopenfile">sameopenfile() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.samestat">samestat() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.sample">sample() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.save">save() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SAVEDCWD">SAVEDCWD (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.SaveKey">SaveKey() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SaveSignals">SaveSignals (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.savetty">savetty() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM">SAX2DOM (class in xml.dom.pulldom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXException">SAXException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException">SAXNotRecognizedException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException">SAXNotSupportedException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.SAXParseException">SAXParseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.scaleb">scaleb() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.scaleb">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.scandir">scandir() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#index-38">scanf()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#module-sched">sched (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_BATCH">SCHED_BATCH (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_FIFO">SCHED_FIFO (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_get_priority_max">sched_get_priority_max() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_get_priority_min">sched_get_priority_min() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_getaffinity">sched_getaffinity() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_getparam">sched_getparam() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_getscheduler">sched_getscheduler() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_IDLE">SCHED_IDLE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_OTHER">SCHED_OTHER (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_param">sched_param (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_param.sched_priority">sched_priority (os.sched_param attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK">SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_RR">SCHED_RR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_rr_get_interval">sched_rr_get_interval() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_setaffinity">sched_setaffinity() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_setparam">sched_setparam() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_setscheduler">sched_setscheduler() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SCHED_SPORADIC">SCHED_SPORADIC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sched_yield">sched_yield() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sched.html#sched.scheduler">scheduler (class in sched)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.schema">schema (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-3">scope</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-7">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Screen">Screen (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.screensize">screensize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.script_from_examples">script_from_examples() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.scroll">scroll() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ScrolledCanvas">ScrolledCanvas (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.scrollok">scrollok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.scrypt">scrypt() (in module hashlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    sdterr
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">stdin stdout</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.seal">seal() (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    search
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">path, module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-23">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="library/linecache.html#index-0">[4]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-0">[5]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-18">[6]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-0">[7]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.search">search() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.search">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.search">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.second">second (datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.second">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-1">seconds since the epoch</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#module-secrets">secrets (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.SECTCRE">SECTCRE (configparser.ConfigParser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.sections">sections() (configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.secure">secure (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#index-0">secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">Secure Sockets Layer</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    security
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-1">CGI</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.see">see() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.seed">seed() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.seek">seek() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.seek">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.seek">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.seek">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SEEK_CUR">SEEK_CUR (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SEEK_END">SEEK_END (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SEEK_SET">SEEK_SET (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.seekable">seekable() (io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting">seen_greeting (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Select">Select (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#module-select">select (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.select">select() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.select">(in module select)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.select">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.select">(tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol">selected_alpn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol">selected_npn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection">selection() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_add">selection_add() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_remove">selection_remove() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_set">selection_set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_toggle">selection_toggle() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.selector">selector (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop">SelectorEventLoop (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectorKey">SelectorKey (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#module-selectors">selectors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.SelectSelector">SelectSelector (class in selectors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore">Semaphore (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Semaphore">(class in multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore">(class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Semaphore">Semaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-0">semaphores, binary</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.SEMI">SEMI (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.send">send() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.send">(coroutine method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.send">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.send">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.send">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.send">(logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.send">(logging.handlers.SocketHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send">(multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.send">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send_bytes">send_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error">send_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_flowing_data">send_flowing_data() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header">send_header() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_hor_rule">send_hor_rule() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_label_data">send_label_data() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_line_break">send_line_break() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_literal_data">send_literal_data() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.send_message">send_message() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.writer.send_paragraph">send_paragraph() (formatter.writer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response">send_response() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only">send_response_only() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.send_signal">send_signal() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.send_signal">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.send_signal">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendall">sendall() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.sendcmd">sendcmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sendfile">sendfile() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sendfile">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendfile">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.sendfile">(wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError">SendfileNotAvailableError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail">sendmail() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendmsg">sendmsg() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendmsg_afalg">sendmsg_afalg() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto">sendto() (asyncio.DatagramTransport method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendto">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.sentinel">sentinel (in module unittest.mock)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.sentinel">(multiprocessing.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sep">sep (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-sequence"><strong>sequence</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">item</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-17">iteration</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/concrete.html#index-1">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-18">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-51">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[6]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">[7]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-10">[8]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">types, immutable</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">types, mutable</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">types, operations on</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence">Sequence (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Sequence">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.sequence">sequence (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.sequence2st">sequence2st() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher">SequenceMatcher (class in difflib)</a>, <a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    serializing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pickle.html#index-0">objects</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.serve_forever">serve_forever() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    server
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">WWW</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server">Server (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server">server (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_activate">server_activate() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_address">server_address (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_bind">server_bind() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.server_close">server_close() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname">server_hostname (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.server_side">server_side (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software">server_software (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version">server_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.server_version">(http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy">ServerProxy (class in xmlrpc.client)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions">service_actions() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.session">session (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.session_reused">session_reused (ssl.SSLSocket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.session_stats">session_stats() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    set
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/set.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-49">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-27">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-15">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#set">set (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set">Set (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Set">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-4">Set Breakpoint</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    set type
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-26">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.set">set() (asyncio.Event method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.set">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser.set">(configparser.RawConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.ContextVar.set">(contextvars.ContextVar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.set">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set">(ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.set">(test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.set">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.set">(tkinter.ttk.Combobox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.set">(tkinter.ttk.Spinbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set">(tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.set">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SET_ADD">SET_ADD (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-9">set_all()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains">set_allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols">set_alpn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app">set_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.set_asyncgen_hooks">set_asyncgen_hooks() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer">set_authorizer() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_auto_history">set_auto_history() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains">set_blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.set_blocking">set_blocking() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary">set_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_boundary">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_break">set_break() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_charset">set_charset() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher">set_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.set_child_watcher">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set_children">set_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers">set_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_completer">set_completer() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_completer_delims">set_completer_delims() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook">set_completion_display_matches_hook() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.set_content">set_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.set_content">(in module email.contentmanager)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_continue">set_continue() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie">set_cookie() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok">set_cookie_if_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth">set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_wrapper">set_coroutine_wrapper() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Feature.set_current">set_current() (msilib.Feature method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data">set_data() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.set_data">(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_date">set_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_debug">set_debug() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.set_debug">(in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.set_debuglevel">set_debuglevel() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel">(http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.set_debuglevel">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.set_debuglevel">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.set_debuglevel">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.set_debuglevel">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_default_executor">set_default_executor() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_default_type">set_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_default_type">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths">set_default_verify_paths() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults">set_defaults() (argparse.ArgumentParser method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults">(optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve">set_ecdh_curve() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.set_errno">set_errno() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_event_loop">set_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.set_event_loop">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.set_event_loop_policy">set_event_loop_policy() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.set_exception">set_exception() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.set_exception">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler">set_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.set_executable">set_executable() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_executables">set_executables() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_flags">set_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_flags">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.set_flags">(mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage.set_from">set_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_from">(mailbox.MMDFMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.set_handle_inheritable">set_handle_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_history_length">set_history_length() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_include_dirs">set_include_dirs() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_info">set_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.set_inheritable">set_inheritable() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.set_inheritable">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.set_labels">set_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.set_last_error">set_last_error() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_libraries">set_libraries() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_library_dirs">set_library_dirs() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_link_objects">set_link_objects() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-set_literal">set_literal (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.set_loader">set_loader() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.set_match_tests">set_match_tests() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.set_memlimit">set_memlimit() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_next">set_next() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr">set_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols">set_npn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.set_ok">set_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback">set_option_negotiation_callback() (telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset">set_output_charset() (gettext.NullTranslations method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.set_package">set_package() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_param">set_param() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_param">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.set_pasv">set_pasv() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_payload">set_payload() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_policy">set_policy() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.set_position">set_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_pre_input_hook">set_pre_input_hook() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler">set_progress_handler() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.set_protocol">set_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.set_proxy">set_proxy() (urllib.request.Request method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.sysconfig.set_python_build">set_python_build() (in module distutils.sysconfig)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_quit">set_quit() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc">set_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.set_result">set_result() (asyncio.Future method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.set_result">(concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_return">set_return() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future.set_running_or_notify_cancel">set_running_or_notify_cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.set_runtime_library_dirs">set_runtime_library_dirs() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq1">set_seq1() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2">set_seq2() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seqs">set_seqs() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.set_sequences">set_sequences() (mailbox.MH method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MHMessage.set_sequences">(mailbox.MHMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation">set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation">(xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name">set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name">(xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title">set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title">(xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback">set_servername_callback (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.set_spacing">set_spacing() (formatter.formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.set_start_method">set_start_method() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.set_startup_hook">set_startup_hook() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_step">set_step() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_subdir">set_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_task_factory">set_task_factory() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator">set_terminator() (asynchat.async_chat method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.set_threshold">set_threshold() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_trace">set_trace() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.set_trace">(in module bdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.set_trace">(in module pdb)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb.set_trace">(pdb.Pdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback">set_trace_callback() (sqlite3.Connection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel">set_tunnel() (http.client.HTTPConnection method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_type">set_type() (email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.set_unittest_reportflags">set_unittest_reportflags() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_unixfrom">set_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_unixfrom">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.set_until">set_until() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.set_url">set_url() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.set_usage">set_usage() (optparse.OptionParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.set_userptr">set_userptr() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.set_visible">set_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.set_wakeup_fd">set_wakeup_fd() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits">set_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.setacl">setacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.setannotation">setannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#setattr">setattr() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttribute">setAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNode">setAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNodeNS">setAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNS">setAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase">SetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setblocking">setblocking() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setByteStream">setByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tty.html#tty.setcbreak">setcbreak() (in module tty)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setCharacterStream">setCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setcheckinterval">setcheckinterval() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setcomptype">setcomptype() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setcomptype">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setcomptype">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setContentHandler">setContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.setcontext">setcontext() (in module decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.setDaemon">setDaemon() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.setdefault">setdefault() (dict method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.setdefault">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.setdefaulttimeout">setdefaulttimeout() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setdlopenflags">setdlopenflags() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator">setDocumentLocator() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setDTDHandler">setDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setegid">setegid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setEncoding">setEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setEntityResolver">setEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setErrorHandler">setErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.seteuid">seteuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature">setFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.setfirstweekday">setfirstweekday() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt">setfmt() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.setFormatter">setFormatter() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setframerate">setframerate() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setframerate">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setframerate">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setgid">setgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setgroups">setgroups() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.seth">seth() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setheading">setheading() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.sethostname">sethostname() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.SetInteger">SetInteger() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.setitem">setitem() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.setitimer">setitimer() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Handler.setLevel">setLevel() (logging.Handler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.setLevel">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.setlocale">setlocale() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setLocale">setLocale() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.setLoggerClass">setLoggerClass() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.setlogmask">setlogmask() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.setLogRecordFactory">setLogRecordFactory() (in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setmark">setmark() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns">setMaxConns() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.setmode">setmode() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.setName">setName() (threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setnchannels">setnchannels() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setnchannels">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setnchannels">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setnframes">setnframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setnframes">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setnframes">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing">SetParamEntityParsing() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setparameters">setparameters() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setparams">setparams() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setparams">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setparams">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.setpassword">setpassword() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setpgid">setpgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setpgrp">setpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setpos">setpos() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setpos">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.setpos">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.setpos">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setposition">setposition() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setpriority">setpriority() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setprofile">setprofile() (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.setprofile">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.SetProperty">SetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setProperty">setProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setPublicId">setPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.setquota">setquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tty.html#tty.setraw">setraw() (in module tty)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.setrecursionlimit">setrecursionlimit() (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setregid">setregid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setresgid">setresgid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setresuid">setresuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setreuid">setreuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/resource.html#resource.setrlimit">setrlimit() (in module resource)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.setsampwidth">setsampwidth() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setsampwidth">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.setsampwidth">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.setscrreg">setscrreg() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setsid">setsid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt">setsockopt() (socket.socket method)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt">[1]</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.setstate">setstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.setstate">(codecs.IncrementalEncoder method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/random.html#random.setstate">(in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler.setStream">setStream() (logging.StreamHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.SetStream">SetStream() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Record.SetString">SetString() (msilib.Record method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-34">setswitchinterval() (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.setswitchinterval">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.setswitchinterval">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setSystemId">setSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.setsyx">setsyx() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.setTarget">setTarget() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.settiltangle">settiltangle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.settimeout">settimeout() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout">setTimeout() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.settrace">settrace() (in module sys)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.settrace">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setuid">setuid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setundobuffer">setundobuffer() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.core.setup">setup() (in module distutils.core)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setup">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup">(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.setUp">setUp() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_ANNOTATIONS">SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_ASYNC_WITH">SETUP_ASYNC_WITH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.setup_environ">setup_environ() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_EXCEPT">SETUP_EXCEPT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_FINALLY">SETUP_FINALLY (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_LOOP">SETUP_LOOP (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python">setup_python() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts">setup_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults">setup_testing_defaults() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_WITH">SETUP_WITH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.setUpClass">setUpClass() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.setupterm">setupterm() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.SetValue">SetValue() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#winreg.SetValueEx">SetValueEx() (in module winreg)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setworldcoordinates">setworldcoordinates() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.setx">setx() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.setxattr">setxattr() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.sety">sety() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_APPEND">SF_APPEND (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_ARCHIVED">SF_ARCHIVED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_IMMUTABLE">SF_IMMUTABLE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SF_MNOWAIT">SF_MNOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SF_NODISKIO">SF_NODISKIO (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_NOUNLINK">SF_NOUNLINK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.SF_SNAPSHOT">SF_SNAPSHOT (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.SF_SYNC">SF_SYNC (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Shape">Shape (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.shape">shape (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shape">shape() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shapesize">shapesize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shapetransform">shapetransform() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.share">share() (socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers">shared_ciphers() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.shared_object_filename">shared_object_filename() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.shearfactor">shearfactor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf">Shelf (class in shelve)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    shelve
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shelve.html#module-shelve">shelve (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.shift">shift() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.shift">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.util.shift_path_info">shift_path_info() (in module wsgiref.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    shifting
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-69">operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex">shlex (class in shlex)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#module-shlex">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.shortDescription">shortDescription() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.shorten">shorten() (in module textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.shouldFlush">shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.shouldFlush">(logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.shouldStop">shouldStop (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.show">show() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.show_code">show_code() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.show_compilers">show_compilers() (in module distutils.ccompiler)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror">showsyntaxerror() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback">showtraceback() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.showturtle">showturtle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.showwarning">showwarning() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.shuffle">shuffle() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown">shutdown() (concurrent.futures.Executor method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown">(imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.shutdown">(in module logging)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.shutdown">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.shutdown">(socket.socket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown">(socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens">shutdown_asyncgens() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#module-shutil">shutil (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect">side_effect (unittest.mock.Mock attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_BLOCK">SIG_BLOCK (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_DFL">SIG_DFL (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_IGN">SIG_IGN (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_SETMASK">SIG_SETMASK (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.SIG_UNBLOCK">SIG_UNBLOCK (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">SIGINT</a>, <a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.siginterrupt">siginterrupt() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    signal
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-1">module</a>, <a href="library/_thread.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#module-signal">signal (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.signal">signal() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature">Signature (class in inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.signature">signature (inspect.BoundArguments attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.signature">signature() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigpending">sigpending() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigtimedwait">sigtimedwait() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigwait">sigwait() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/signal.html#signal.sigwaitinfo">sigwaitinfo() (in module signal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    simple
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-0">statement</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-0">Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.SimpleCookie">SimpleCookie (class in http.cookies)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.simplefilter">simplefilter() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler">SimpleHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.SimpleNamespace">SimpleNamespace (class in types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue">SimpleQueue (class in multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue">(class in queue)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer">SimpleXMLRPCServer (class in xmlrpc.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.sin">sin() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.sin">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-single-dispatch"><strong>single dispatch</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader">SingleAddressHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.singledispatch">singledispatch() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    singleton
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">tuple</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.sinh">sinh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.sinh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS">SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH">SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SIO_RCVALL">SIO_RCVALL (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#module-site">site (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    site command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-base">--user-base</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#cmdoption-site-user-site">--user-site</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    site-packages
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-1">directory</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    sitecustomize
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-4">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.sixtofour">sixtofour (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.size">size (struct.Struct attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.size">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic.size">(tracemalloc.Statistic attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size">(tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace.size">(tracemalloc.Trace attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.size">size() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.size">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size_diff">size_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-5">SIZE_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sized">Sized (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Sized">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.sizeof">sizeof() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.SKIP">SKIP (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.skip">skip() (chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.skip">(in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket">skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.skip_unless_symlink">skip_unless_symlink() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.skip_unless_xattr">skip_unless_xattr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.skipIf">skipIf() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.skipinitialspace">skipinitialspace (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.skipped">skipped (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.skippedEntity">skippedEntity() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest">SkipTest</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.skipTest">skipTest() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.skipUnless">skipUnless() (in module unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.SLASH">SLASH (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.SLASHEQUAL">SLASHEQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.slave">slave() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.sleep">sleep() (in module asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.sleep">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">slice</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-slice"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/dis.html#index-0">built-in function</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-65">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-94">object</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#slice">slice (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-16">slicing</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-42">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-12">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    SMTP
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#index-0">protocol</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP">SMTP (class in smtplib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.SMTP">(in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_server">smtp_server (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP_SSL">SMTP_SSL (class in smtplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_state">smtp_state (smtpd.SMTPChannel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError">SMTPAuthenticationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel">SMTPChannel (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPConnectError">SMTPConnectError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#module-smtpd">smtpd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPDataError">SMTPDataError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPException">SMTPException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler">SMTPHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPHeloError">SMTPHeloError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib">smtplib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError">SMTPNotSupportedError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused">SMTPRecipientsRefused</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPResponseException">SMTPResponseException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused">SMTPSenderRefused</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer">SMTPServer (class in smtpd)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected">SMTPServerDisconnected</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.SMTPUTF8">SMTPUTF8 (in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot">Snapshot (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_ALIAS">SND_ALIAS (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_ASYNC">SND_ASYNC (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_FILENAME">SND_FILENAME (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_LOOP">SND_LOOP (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_MEMORY">SND_MEMORY (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_NODEFAULT">SND_NODEFAULT (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_NOSTOP">SND_NOSTOP (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_NOWAIT">SND_NOWAIT (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#winsound.SND_PURGE">SND_PURGE (in module winsound)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sndhdr.html#module-sndhdr">sndhdr (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback">sni_callback (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Sniffer.sniff">sniff() (csv.Sniffer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Sniffer">Sniffer (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_accept">sock_accept() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC">SOCK_CLOEXEC (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_connect">sock_connect() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_DGRAM">SOCK_DGRAM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE">SOCK_MAX_SIZE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK">SOCK_NONBLOCK (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_RAW">SOCK_RAW (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_RDM">SOCK_RDM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv">sock_recv() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into">sock_recv_into() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendall">sock_sendall() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile">sock_sendfile() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET">SOCK_SEQPACKET (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM">SOCK_STREAM (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    socket
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-0">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#module-socket">socket (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.socket">(socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.socket">socket() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#index-1">(in module socket)</a>, <a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.socket_type">socket_type (socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler">SocketHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socketpair">socketpair() (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.sockets">sockets (asyncio.Server attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#module-socketserver">socketserver (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SocketType">SocketType (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOL_ALG">SOL_ALG (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOL_RDS">SOL_RDS (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.SOMAXCONN">SOMAXCONN (in module socket)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.sort">sort() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#list.sort">(list method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.sort_stats">sort_stats() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.sortdict">sortdict() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#sorted">sorted() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.sortTestMethodsUsing">sortTestMethodsUsing (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.source">source (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-source">(pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.source">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-5">source character set</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/compileall.html#index-1">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-3">[1]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-6">[2]</a>, <a href="library/py_compile.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/3.7.html#index-31">[4]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-10">[5]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/changelog.html#index-2">[6]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imp.html#imp.source_from_cache">source_from_cache() (in module imp)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.source_from_cache">(in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.source_hash">source_hash() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES">SOURCE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code">source_to_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader static method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader">SourceFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.sourcehook">sourcehook() (shlex.shlex method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader">SourcelessFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader">SourceLoader (class in importlib.abc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">space</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-35">in printf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-45">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#index-4">in string formatting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.span">span() (re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.spawn">spawn() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/pty.html#pty.spawn">(in module pty)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.script_helper.spawn_python">spawn_python() (in module test.support.script_helper)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnl">spawnl() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnle">spawnle() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnlp">spawnlp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnlpe">spawnlpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnv">spawnv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnve">spawnve() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnvp">spawnvp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.spawnvpe">spawnvpe() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.spec_from_file_location">spec_from_file_location() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.util.spec_from_loader">spec_from_loader() (in module importlib.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    special
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">attribute</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-5">attribute, generic</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="glossary.html#index-31">method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-special-method"><strong>special method</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.specified_attributes">specified_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.speed">speed() (in module turtle)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox">Spinbox (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.split">split() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.split">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.split">(in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.split">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.split">(in module shlex)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.split">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.split">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.split_quoted">split_quoted() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.splitdrive">splitdrive() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.splitext">splitext() (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.splitlines">splitlines() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.splitlines">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.splitlines">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.SplitResult">SplitResult (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes">SplitResultBytes (class in urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile">SpooledTemporaryFile() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">sprintf-style formatting</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-43">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/spwd.html#module-spwd">spwd (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3">sqlite3 (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.sqlite_version">sqlite_version (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.sqlite_version_info">sqlite_version_info (in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.sqrt">sqrt() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.sqrt">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.sqrt">(in module cmath)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.sqrt">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">SSL</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#module-ssl">ssl (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-18">SSL_CERT_FILE</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-19">SSL_CERT_PATH</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ssl_version">ssl_version (ftplib.FTP_TLS attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError">SSLCertVerificationError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext">SSLContext (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLEOFError">SSLEOFError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError">SSLError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLErrorNumber">SSLErrorNumber (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLObject">SSLObject (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class">sslobject_class (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession">SSLSession (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket">SSLSocket (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class">sslsocket_class (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSyscallError">SSLSyscallError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3">SSLv3 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantReadError">SSLWantReadError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantWriteError">SSLWantWriteError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLZeroReturnError">SSLZeroReturnError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.st">st() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.st2list">st2list() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.st2tuple">st2tuple() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_ATIME">ST_ATIME (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_atime">st_atime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_atime_ns">st_atime_ns (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_birthtime">st_birthtime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_blksize">st_blksize (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_blocks">st_blocks (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_creator">st_creator (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_CTIME">ST_CTIME (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_ctime">st_ctime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns">st_ctime_ns (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_DEV">ST_DEV (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_dev">st_dev (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_file_attributes">st_file_attributes (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_flags">st_flags (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_fstype">st_fstype (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_gen">st_gen (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_GID">ST_GID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_gid">st_gid (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_INO">ST_INO (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_ino">st_ino (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_MODE">ST_MODE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_mode">st_mode (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_MTIME">ST_MTIME (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_mtime">st_mtime (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns">st_mtime_ns (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_NLINK">ST_NLINK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_nlink">st_nlink (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_rdev">st_rdev (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_rsize">st_rsize (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_SIZE">ST_SIZE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_size">st_size (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_type">st_type (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.ST_UID">ST_UID (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_uid">st_uid (os.stat_result attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stack
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">execution</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">trace</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.stack">stack (traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/idle.html#index-3">stack viewer</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.stack">stack() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#dis.stack_effect">stack_effect() (in module dis)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.stack_size">stack_size() (in module _thread)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.stack_size">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    stackable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">streams</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary">StackSummary (class in traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.stamp">stamp() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    standard
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">output</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-22">Standard C</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">standard input</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.standard_b64decode">standard_b64decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.standard_b64encode">standard_b64encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-standarderror">standarderror (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.standend">standend() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.standout">standout() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.STAR">STAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.STAREQUAL">STAREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.starmap">starmap() (in module itertools)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap_async">starmap_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range.start">start (range attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError.start">(UnicodeError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-66">(slice object attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.start">start() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.start">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.start">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start">(multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.start">(re.Match method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread.start">(threading.Thread method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.start">(tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start">(xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.start_color">start_color() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.start_component">start_component() (msilib.Directory method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.start_new_thread">start_new_thread() (in module _thread)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server">start_server() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.start_serving">start_serving() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.start_threads">start_threads() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.start_tls">start_tls() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_unix_server">start_unix_server() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler">StartCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler">StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startDocument">startDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement">startElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartElementHandler">StartElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElementNS">startElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW">STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.startfile">startfile() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler">StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping">startPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.startswith">startswith() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.startswith">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.startswith">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.startTest">startTest() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.startTestRun">startTestRun() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.starttls">starttls() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.starttls">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.starttls">(smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO">STARTUPINFO (class in subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stat
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-21">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#module-stat">stat (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat">stat() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.stat">(nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.DirEntry.stat">(os.DirEntry method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.stat">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.stat">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.stat_result">stat_result (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget.state">state() (tkinter.ttk.Widget method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-statement"><strong>statement</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-2">assert</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-18"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">assignment</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-15">assignment, annotated</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-14">assignment, augmented</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-34">async def</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-36">async for</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-37">async with</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">break</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-29">class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-0">compound</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">continue</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-5">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">def</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">del</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-70">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">except</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-1">expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">for</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-40">future</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">global</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-42"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">if</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-3"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-12">import</a>, <a href="library/imp.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/site.html#index-2">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-42">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-34"><strong>[4]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4">loop</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-44">nonlocal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-20">pass</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-1">raise</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-27"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-13">return</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-24"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-0">simple</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">try</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">while</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-101">with</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">yield</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">statement grouping</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    staticmethod
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/structures.html#index-1">built-in function</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#staticmethod">staticmethod() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic">Statistic (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff">StatisticDiff (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#module-statistics">statistics (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics">statistics() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.StatisticsError">StatisticsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats">Stats (class in pstats)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.status">status (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.status">status() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.statvfs">statvfs() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE">STD_ERROR_HANDLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE">STD_INPUT_HANDLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE">STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.StdButtonBox">StdButtonBox (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr">stderr (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.stderr">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.stderr">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.stderr">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.stderr">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stderr">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.stdev">stdev() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stdin
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">stdout sdterr</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin">stdin (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.stdin">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.stdin">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">stdio</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    stdout
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-17">sdterr, stdin</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout">stdout (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STDOUT">STDOUT (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">stdout (in module sys)</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.stdout">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError.stdout">(subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess.stdout">(subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.stdout">(subprocess.Popen attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stdout">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-step">step (pdb command)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range.step">(range attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-66">(slice object attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.step">step() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.stereocontrols">stereocontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.stls">stls() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#range.stop">stop (range attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-66">(slice object attribute)</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-44">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.stop">stop() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.stop">(in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener.stop">(logging.handlers.QueueListener method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.stop">(tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.stop">(unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.stop_here">stop_here() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration">StopAsyncIteration</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-34">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#StopIteration">StopIteration</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-30">exception</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.config.html#logging.config.stopListening">stopListening() (in module logging.config)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.stopTest">stopTest() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.stopTestRun">stopTestRun() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.storbinary">storbinary() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.store">store() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.STORE_ACTIONS">STORE_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_ATTR">STORE_ATTR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_DEREF">STORE_DEREF (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_FAST">STORE_FAST (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_GLOBAL">STORE_GLOBAL (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_NAME">STORE_NAME (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-STORE_SUBSCR">STORE_SUBSCR (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.storlines">storlines() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str">str (built-in class)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">(see also string)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.str">str() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.strcoll">strcoll() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.StreamError">StreamError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler">StreamHandler (class in logging)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader">StreamReader (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReader">(class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.streamreader">streamreader (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamReaderWriter">StreamReaderWriter (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamRecoder">StreamRecoder (class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.StreamRequestHandler">StreamRequestHandler (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">streams</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">stackable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter">StreamWriter (class in asyncio)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter">(class in codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.CodecInfo.streamwriter">streamwriter (codecs.CodecInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.strerror">strerror (OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/exceptions.html#index-0">strerror()</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.strerror">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.strftime">strftime() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.strftime">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.strftime">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.strftime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.Dialect.strict">strict (csv.Dialect attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.strict">(in module email.policy)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain">strict_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.strict_errors">strict_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain">strict_ns_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar">strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path">strict_ns_set_path (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable">strict_ns_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable">strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.strides">strides (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    string
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-2">PyObject_Str (C function)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">__format__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-72">__str__() (object method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-74">conversion</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-3">format() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">formatted literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">formatting, printf</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-18">immutable sequences</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-24">interpolated literal</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-33">interpolation, printf</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-41">item</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-30">methods</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#index-6">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">object</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-3">object representation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-28">str (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-10">str() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-26">text sequence type</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.STRING">STRING (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#module-string">string (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Match.string">(re.Match attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.string_at">string_at() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.StringIO">StringIO (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stringprep.html#module-stringprep">stringprep (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-1">strings, documentation</a>, <a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-4">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.strip">strip() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.strip">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.strip">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/profile.html#pstats.Stats.strip_dirs">strip_dirs() (pstats.Stats method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.strip_python_strerr">strip_python_strerr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces">stripspaces (curses.textpad.Textbox attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.strptime">strptime() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.strptime">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.strtobool">strtobool() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    struct
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#index-14">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct">Struct (class in struct)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#module-struct">struct (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><strong>struct sequence</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.struct_time">struct_time (class in time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure">Structure (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    structures
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#index-0">C</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.strxfrm">strxfrm() (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.STType">STType (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    style
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="tutorial/controlflow.html#index-8">coding</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style">Style (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.sub">sub() (in module operator)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.sub">(in module re)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.sub">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.cmd.Command.sub_commands">sub_commands (distutils.cmd.Command attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    subclassing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-68">immutable types</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp.subdirs">subdirs (filecmp.dircmp attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement">SubElement() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit">submit() (concurrent.futures.Executor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.submodule_search_locations">submodule_search_locations (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.subn">subn() (in module re)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/re.html#re.Pattern.subn">(re.Pattern method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnet_of">subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnet_of">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnets">subnets() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnets">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Subnormal">Subnormal (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.suboffsets">suboffsets (memoryview attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.subpad">subpad() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess">subprocess (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec">subprocess_exec() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell">subprocess_shell() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.SubprocessError">SubprocessError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol">SubprocessProtocol (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport">SubprocessTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.subscribe">subscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    subscript
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-15">subscription</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-22">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-39">[3]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-9">assignment</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.subsequent_indent">subsequent_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.util.subst_vars">subst_vars() (in module distutils.util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template.substitute">substitute() (string.Template method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.subTest">subTest() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.subtract">subtract() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.subtract">(decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-68">subtraction</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.subtype">subtype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.subwin">subwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.successful">successful() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.suffix_map">suffix_map (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.suffix_map">(mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-1">suite</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.suite">suite() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.suiteClass">suiteClass (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#sum">sum() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-11">sum_list()</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-12">sum_sequence()</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-16">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestRunner.summarize">summarize() (doctest.DocTestRunner method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.summarize_address_range">summarize_address_range() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sunau.html#module-sunau">sunau (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.Class.super">super (pyclbr.Class attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#super">super() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet">supernet() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet_of">supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet_of">(ipaddress.IPv6Network method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_bytes_environ">supports_bytes_environ (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_dir_fd">supports_dir_fd (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_effective_ids">supports_effective_ids (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_fd">supports_fd (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.supports_follow_symlinks">supports_follow_symlinks (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.path.html#os.path.supports_unicode_filenames">supports_unicode_filenames (in module os.path)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsAbs">SupportsAbs (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsBytes">SupportsBytes (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsComplex">SupportsComplex (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsFloat">SupportsFloat (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsInt">SupportsInt (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.SupportsRound">SupportsRound (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextlib.html#contextlib.suppress">suppress() (in module contextlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.SuppressCrashReport">SuppressCrashReport (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.SW_HIDE">SW_HIDE (in module subprocess)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.swap_attr">swap_attr() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.swap_item">swap_item() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.swapcase">swapcase() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.swapcase">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.swapcase">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/symbol.html#symbol.sym_name">sym_name (in module symbol)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol">Symbol (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symbol.html#module-symbol">symbol (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.SymbolTable">SymbolTable (class in symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.symlink">symlink() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.symlink_to">symlink_to() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.symmetric_difference">symmetric_difference() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.symmetric_difference_update">symmetric_difference_update() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#module-symtable">symtable (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/symtable.html#symtable.symtable">symtable() (in module symtable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.sync">sync() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.gnu.gdbm.sync">(dbm.gnu.gdbm method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sync">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.sync">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf.sync">(shelve.Shelf method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.syncdown">syncdown() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized">synchronized() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager">SyncManager (class in multiprocessing.managers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.syncok">syncok() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.syncup">syncup() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/introduction.html#index-0">syntax</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.SyntaxErr">SyntaxErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError">SyntaxError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SyntaxWarning">SyntaxWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    sys
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-16">module</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-40">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/intro.html#index-20">[2]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-7">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-2">[5]</a>, <a href="tutorial/modules.html#index-4">[6]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#module-sys">sys (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">sys.exc_info</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">sys.last_traceback</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-10">sys.meta_path</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-7">sys.modules</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-17">sys.path</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-17">sys.path_hooks</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/import.html#index-17">sys.path_importer_cache</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">sys.stderr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">sys.stdin</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-53">sys.stdout</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-sys_exc">sys_exc (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.sys_version">sys_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sysconf">sysconf() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.sysconf_names">sysconf_names (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig">sysconfig (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#module-syslog">syslog (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/syslog.html#syslog.syslog">syslog() (in module syslog)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler">SysLogHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.system">system() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.system">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.system_alias">system_alias() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.system_must_validate_cert">system_must_validate_cert() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SystemError">SystemError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/module.html#index-4">(built-in exception)</a>, <a href="c-api/module.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#SystemExit">SystemExit</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-15">(built-in exception)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.DocumentType.systemId">systemId (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.SystemRandom">SystemRandom (class in random)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.SystemRandom">(class in secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-3">SystemRoot</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="T">T</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.T_FMT">T_FMT (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.T_FMT_AMPM">T_FMT_AMPM (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-8">tab</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tab">tab() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#TabError">TabError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#module-tabnanny">tabnanny (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tabs">tabs() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.tabsize">tabsize (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tabular
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-0">data</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tag">tag (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_bind">tag_bind() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_configure">tag_configure() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_has">tag_has() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Element.tagName">tagName (xml.dom.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tail">tail (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.take_snapshot">take_snapshot() (in module tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.takewhile">takewhile() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.tan">tan() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.tan">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.tanh">tanh() (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.tanh">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarError">TarError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile">TarFile (class in tarfile)</a>, <a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile">tarfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tarfile command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-create">--create &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-extract">--extract &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-list">--list &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-test">--test &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-c">-c &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-e">-e &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-l">-l &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-t">-t &lt;tarfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#cmdoption-tarfile-v">-v, --verbose</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-5">target</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">deletion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-6">list</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-6">list assignment</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-21">list, deletion</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-31">loop control</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.target">target (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo">TarInfo (class in tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task">Task (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.task_done">task_done() (asyncio.Queue method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done">(multiprocessing.JoinableQueue method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/queue.html#queue.Queue.task_done">(queue.Queue method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmath.html#cmath.tau">tau (in module cmath)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/math.html#math.tau">(in module math)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">tb_frame (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">tb_lasti (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">tb_lineno (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.tb_locals">tb_locals (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-64">tb_next (traceback attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-tbreak">tbreak (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcdrain">tcdrain() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcflow">tcflow() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcflush">tcflush() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcgetattr">tcgetattr() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.tcgetpgrp">tcgetpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Tcl">Tcl() (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-0">TCL_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.TCPServer">TCPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcsendbreak">tcsendbreak() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#termios.tcsetattr">tcsetattr() (in module termios)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.tcsetpgrp">tcsetpgrp() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.tearDown">tearDown() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass">tearDownClass() (unittest.TestCase method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.tee">tee() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.tell">tell() (aifc.aifc method)</a>, <a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.tell">[1]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/chunk.html#chunk.Chunk.tell">(chunk.Chunk method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.tell">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.tell">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.tell">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_read.tell">(sunau.AU_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.tell">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_read.tell">(wave.Wave_read method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.tell">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet">Telnet (class in telnetlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#module-telnetlib">telnetlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-2">TEMP</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.temp_cwd">temp_cwd() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.temp_dir">temp_dir() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.temp_umask">temp_umask() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.tempdir">tempdir (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#module-tempfile">tempfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pipes.html#pipes.Template">Template (class in pipes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template">(class in string)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Template.template">template (string.Template attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    temporary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">file</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-0">file name</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.TemporaryDirectory">TemporaryDirectory() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#tempfile.TemporaryFile">TemporaryFile() (in module tempfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.teredo">teredo (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#index-1">TERM</a>, <a href="library/curses.html#index-2">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.termattrs">termattrs() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.terminal_size">terminal_size (class in os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate">terminate() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate">(asyncio.SubprocessTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.terminate">(multiprocessing.Process method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate">(multiprocessing.pool.Pool method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.terminate">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-14">termination model</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/termios.html#module-termios">termios (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.termname">termname() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    ternary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-83">operator</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    test
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-78">identity</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-77">membership</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestFailure.test">test (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException.test">(doctest.UnexpectedException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#module-test">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#cgi.test">test() (in module cgi)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#module-test.support">test.support (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#module-test.support.script_helper">test.support.script_helper (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR">TEST_DATA_DIR (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR">TEST_HOME_DIR (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL">TEST_HTTP_URL (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR">TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase">TestCase (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TestFailed">TestFailed</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.testfile">testfile() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN">TESTFN (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_ENCODING">TESTFN_ENCODING (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_NONASCII">TESTFN_NONASCII (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE">TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE">TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TESTFN_UNICODE">TESTFN_UNICODE (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TestHandler">TestHandler (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader">TestLoader (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.testMethodPrefix">testMethodPrefix (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.testmod">testmod() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.testNamePatterns">testNamePatterns (unittest.TestLoader attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult">TestResult (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imghdr.html#imghdr.tests">tests (in module imghdr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.testsource">testsource() (in module doctest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.testsRun">testsRun (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite">TestSuite (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.testzip">testzip() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Text">Text (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.text">text (in module msilib)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException.text">(traceback.TracebackException attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text">(xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><strong>text encoding</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-text-file"><strong>text file</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">text mode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#cgitb.text">text() (in module cgitb)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.Dialog.text">(msilib.Dialog method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.text_factory">text_factory (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox">Textbox (class in curses.textpad)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.TextCalendar">TextCalendar (class in calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.textdomain">textdomain() (in module gettext)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.textdomain">(in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile">TextFile (class in distutils.text_file)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.textinput">textinput() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.TextIO">TextIO (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase">TextIOBase (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper">TextIOWrapper (class in io)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestResult">TextTestResult (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TextTestRunner">TextTestRunner (class in unittest)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#module-textwrap">textwrap (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper">TextWrapper (class in textwrap)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_create">theme_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_names">theme_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_settings">theme_settings() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_use">theme_use() (tkinter.ttk.Style method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.THOUSEP">THOUSEP (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Thread">Thread (class in threading)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.thread">thread() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.thread_info">thread_info (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.thread_time">thread_time() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.thread_time_ns">thread_time_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#module-threading">threading (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.threading_cleanup">threading_cleanup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.threading_setup">threading_setup() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer">ThreadingHTTPServer (class in http.server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn">ThreadingMixIn (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer">ThreadingTCPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer">ThreadingUDPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor">ThreadPoolExecutor (class in concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    threads
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/_thread.html#index-1">POSIX</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-throw">throw (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.throw">throw() (coroutine method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#generator.throw">(generator method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.ticket_lifetime_hint">ticket_lifetime_hint (ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tigetflag">tigetflag() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tigetnum">tigetnum() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tigetstr">tigetstr() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.TILDE">TILDE (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.tilt">tilt() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.tiltangle">tiltangle() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time">time (class in datetime)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#module-time">(module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.time">(ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.time">time() (asyncio.loop method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.time">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.time">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.Time2Internaldate">Time2Internaldate() (in module imaplib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.time_ns">time_ns() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta">timedelta (class in datetime)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler">TimedRotatingFileHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.timegm">timegm() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#module-timeit">timeit (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    timeit command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-n">-n N, --number=N</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-p">-p, --process</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-r">-r N, --repeat=N</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-s">-s S, --setup=S</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-u">-u, --unit=U</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#cmdoption-timeit-v">-v, --verbose</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.timeit">timeit() (in module timeit)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.timeit">(timeit.Timer method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.timeout">timeout</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.timeout">(socketserver.BaseServer attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession.timeout">(ssl.SSLSession attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.timeout">(subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.timeout">timeout() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/_thread.html#_thread.TIMEOUT_MAX">TIMEOUT_MAX (in module _thread)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.TIMEOUT_MAX">(in module threading)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.TimeoutError">TimeoutError</a>, <a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.TimeoutError">[1]</a>, <a href="library/exceptions.html#TimeoutError">[2]</a>, <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.TimeoutError">[3]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.TimeoutExpired">TimeoutExpired</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Timer">Timer (class in threading)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer">(class in timeit)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.TimerHandle">TimerHandle (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.times">times() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP">TIMESTAMP (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.timestamp">timestamp() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.timetuple">timetuple() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.timetuple">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.timetz">timetz() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone">timezone (class in datetime)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/time.html#time.timezone">(in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.title">title() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.title">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.title">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.title">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#index-0">Tix</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir">tix_addbitmapdir() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_cget">tix_cget() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_configure">tix_configure() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_filedialog">tix_filedialog() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap">tix_getbitmap() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage">tix_getimage() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_option_get">tix_option_get() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_resetoptions">tix_resetoptions() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.tixCommand">tixCommand (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">Tk</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.Tk">(class in tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Tk">(class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-3">Tk Option Data Types</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="faq/gui.html#index-1">TK_LIBRARY</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tk.html#index-0">Tkinter</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter">tkinter (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html#module-tkinter.scrolledtext">tkinter.scrolledtext (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#module-tkinter.tix">tkinter.tix (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk">tkinter.ttk (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.TList">TList (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">TLS</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1">TLSv1 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1">TLSv1_1 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2">TLSv1_2 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3">TLSv1_3 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.TLSVersion">TLSVersion (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-3">TMP</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tempfile.html#index-1">TMPDIR</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#int.to_bytes">to_bytes() (int method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.to_eng_string">to_eng_string() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_eng_string">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_integral">to_integral() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.to_integral_exact">to_integral_exact() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_integral_exact">(decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.to_integral_value">to_integral_value() (decimal.Decimal method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.to_sci_string">to_sci_string() (decimal.Context method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#encodings.idna.ToASCII">ToASCII() (in module encodings.idna)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.tobuf">tobuf() (tarfile.TarInfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tobytes">tobytes() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.tobytes">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.today">today() (datetime.date class method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.today">(datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tofile">tofile() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.tok_name">tok_name (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-0">token</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/token.html#module-token">(module)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.token">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.token_bytes">token_bytes() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.token_hex">token_hex() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/secrets.html#secrets.token_urlsafe">token_urlsafe() (in module secrets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.TokenError">TokenError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#module-tokenize">tokenize (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tokenize command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-e">-e, --exact</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#cmdoption-tokenize-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.tokenize">tokenize() (in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tolist">tolist() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.tolist">(memoryview method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.tolist">(parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.tomono">tomono() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.toordinal">toordinal() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.toordinal">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.top">top() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.top">(poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.top_panel">top_panel() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.toprettyxml">toprettyxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.tostereo">tostereo() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tostring">tostring() (array.array method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring">(in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist">tostringlist() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.total_changes">total_changes (sqlite3.Connection attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering">total_ordering() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.total_seconds">total_seconds() (datetime.timedelta method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.ST.totuple">totuple() (parser.ST method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.touch">touch() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.touchline">touchline() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.touchwin">touchwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.tounicode">tounicode() (array.array method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#encodings.idna.ToUnicode">ToUnicode() (in module encodings.idna)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.towards">towards() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.toxml">toxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_async">tp_as_async (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_mapping">tp_as_mapping (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_number">tp_as_number (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_sequence">tp_as_sequence (C member)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.tparm">tparm() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    trace
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">stack</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.Trace">Trace (class in trace)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace">(class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#module-trace">trace (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    trace command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-help">--help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir">--ignore-dir=&lt;dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-ignore-module">--ignore-module=&lt;mod&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-version">--version</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-coverdir">-C, --coverdir=&lt;dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-no-report">-R, --no-report</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-trackcalls">-T, --trackcalls</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-c">-c, --count</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-f">-f, --file=&lt;file&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-g">-g, --timing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-l">-l, --listfuncs</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-m">-m, --missing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-r">-r, --report</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-s">-s, --summary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#cmdoption-trace-t">-t, --trace</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-25">trace function</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#index-8">[1]</a>, <a href="library/threading.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.trace">trace() (in module inspect)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch">trace_dispatch() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    traceback
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#index-5">object</a>, <a href="library/traceback.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-12">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-62">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-28">[4]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Traceback">Traceback (class in tracemalloc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#module-traceback">traceback (module)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Statistic.traceback">(tracemalloc.Statistic attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.traceback">(tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Trace.traceback">(tracemalloc.Trace attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traceback_limit">traceback_limit (tracemalloc.Snapshot attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.traceback_limit">(wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException">TracebackException (class in traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.tracebacklimit">tracebacklimit (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tracebacks
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgitb.html#index-0">in CGI scripts</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.TracebackType">TracebackType (class in types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc">tracemalloc (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.tracer">tracer() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces">traces (tracemalloc.Snapshot attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    trailing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-90">comma</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd">transfercmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.transient_internet">transient_internet() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.TransientResource">TransientResource (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.translate">translate() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.translate">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.translate">(in module fnmatch)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.translate">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/gettext.html#gettext.translation">translation() (in module gettext)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.transport">transport (asyncio.StreamWriter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Transport">Transport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-1">Transport Layer Security</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.traverseproc">traverseproc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#tkinter.tix.Tree">Tree (class in tkinter.tix)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder">TreeBuilder (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview">Treeview (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.triangular">triangular() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">triple-quoted string</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-triple-quoted-string"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-4">True</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-2">true</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/constants.html#True">True (built-in variable)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.truediv">truediv() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/math.html#math.trunc">trunc() (in module math)</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-15">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.truncate">truncate() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.truncate">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    truth
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">value</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.truth">truth() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    try
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#index-0">statement</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-63">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-10"><strong>[2]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#index-0">ttk</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tty
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/termios.html#index-0">I/O control</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/tty.html#module-tty">tty (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.ttyname">ttyname() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    tuple
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="c-api/list.html#index-2">built-in function</a>, <a href="c-api/sequence.html#index-1">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-10">display</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">empty</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/tuple.html#index-0">object</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">[1]</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-24">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">[3]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-40">[4]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-43">[5]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-87">[6]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-20">singleton</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#tuple">tuple (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Tuple">Tuple (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/parser.html#parser.tuple2st">tuple2st() (in module parser)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-tuple_params">tuple_params (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Turtle">Turtle (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#module-turtle">turtle (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#module-turtledemo">turtledemo (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.turtles">turtles() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.TurtleScreen">TurtleScreen (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.turtlesize">turtlesize() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">type</a>, <a href="glossary.html#term-type"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-0">Boolean</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/object.html#index-7">built-in function</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-81">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">data</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-4">hierarchy</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-7">immutable data</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/intro.html#index-6">object</a>, <a href="c-api/type.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/functions.html#index-11">[2]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">operations on dictionary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">operations on list</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#type">type (built-in class)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Type">Type (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.type">type (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/socket.html#socket.socket.type">(socket.socket attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.type">(tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.type">(urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-type-alias"><strong>type alias</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-type-hint"><strong>type hint</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">type of an object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.type_check_only">type_check_only() (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER">TYPE_CHECKER (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.TYPE_CHECKING">TYPE_CHECKING (in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.typeahead">typeahead() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.array.typecode">typecode (array.array attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/array.html#array.typecodes">typecodes (in module array)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.TYPED_ACTIONS">TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.iterators.html#email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator">typed_subpart_iterator() (in module email.iterators)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#TypeError">TypeError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-61">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    types
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-0">built-in</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-20">immutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-57">module</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-21">mutable sequence</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-16">operations on integer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-50">operations on mapping</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-14">operations on numeric</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-19">operations on sequence</a>, <a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-22">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-types">types (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#module-types">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/optparse.html#optparse.Option.TYPES">TYPES (optparse.Option attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-54">types, internal</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.types_map">types_map (in module mimetypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map">(mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mimetypes.html#mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map_inv">types_map_inv (mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.TypeVar">TypeVar (class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/typing.html#module-typing">typing (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-14">TZ</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-15">[1]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-16">[2]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-17">[3]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-18">[4]</a>, <a href="library/time.html#index-19">[5]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo">tzinfo (class in datetime)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.tzinfo">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.tzinfo">(datetime.time attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.tzname">tzname (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.tzname">tzname() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.tzname">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.tzname">(datetime.timezone method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.tzname">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#time.tzset">tzset() (in module time)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="U">U</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    u&#34;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    u&#39;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-16">string literal</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#index-1">u-LAW</a>, <a href="library/audioop.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/sndhdr.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0">ucd_3_2_0 (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#select.kevent.udata">udata (select.kevent attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.UDPServer">UDPServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_APPEND">UF_APPEND (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_COMPRESSED">UF_COMPRESSED (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_HIDDEN">UF_HIDDEN (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_IMMUTABLE">UF_IMMUTABLE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_NODUMP">UF_NODUMP (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_NOUNLINK">UF_NOUNLINK (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stat.html#stat.UF_OPAQUE">UF_OPAQUE (in module stat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.uid">uid (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.uid">uid() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.uidl">uidl() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/audioop.html#audioop.ulaw2lin">ulaw2lin() (in module audioop)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/long.html#index-4">ULONG_MAX</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.umask">umask() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-unalias">unalias (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo.uname">uname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.uname">uname() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.uname">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    unary
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">arithmetic operation</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-57">bitwise operation</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_INVERT">UNARY_INVERT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_NEGATIVE">UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_NOT">UNARY_NOT (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNARY_POSITIVE">UNARY_POSITIVE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    unbinding
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-22">name</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError">UnboundLocalError</a>, <a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-9">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-7">unbuffered I/O</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    UNC paths
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-19">and os.makedirs()</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.UNCHECKED_HASH">UNCHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail">unconsumed_tail (zlib.Decompress attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.unctrl">unctrl() (in module curses)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.unctrl">(in module curses.ascii)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.undefine_macro">undefine_macro() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/decimal.html#decimal.Underflow">Underflow (class in decimal)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-undisplay">undisplay (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.undo">undo() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.undobufferentries">undobufferentries() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.undoc_header">undoc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.html#html.unescape">unescape() (in module html)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.unescape">(in module xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.UnexpectedException">UnexpectedException</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses">unexpectedSuccesses (unittest.TestResult attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/gc.html#gc.unfreeze">unfreeze() (in module gc)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.unget_wch">unget_wch() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.ungetch">ungetch() (in module curses)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.ungetch">(in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.ungetmouse">ungetmouse() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msvcrt.html#msvcrt.ungetwch">ungetwch() (in module msvcrt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/binascii.html#binascii.unhexlify">unhexlify() (in module binascii)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#index-0">Unicode</a>, <a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-19">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#index-0">database</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-unicode">unicode (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-17">Unicode Consortium</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata">unicodedata (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError">UnicodeDecodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError">UnicodeEncodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError">UnicodeError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeTranslateError">UnicodeTranslateError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UnicodeWarning">UnicodeWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.unidata_version">unidata_version (in module unicodedata)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/difflib.html#difflib.unified_diff">unified_diff() (in module difflib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.uniform">uniform() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.UnimplementedFileMode">UnimplementedFileMode</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.Union">Union (class in ctypes)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.Union">(in module typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.union">union() (frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/enum.html#enum.unique">unique() (in module enum)</a>, <a href="library/enum.html#enum.unique">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#module-unittest">unittest (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    unittest command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-locals">--locals</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-b">-b, --buffer</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-c">-c, --catch</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-f">-f, --failfast</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-k">-k</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    unittest-discover command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-p">-p, --pattern pattern</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-s">-s, --start-directory directory</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-t">-t, --top-level-directory directory</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-discover-v">-v, --verbose</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.mock.html#module-unittest.mock">unittest.mock (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><strong>universal newlines</strong></a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/2.3.html#index-8">What&#39;s new</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.4.html#index-7">[1]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.5.html#index-18">[2]</a>, <a href="whatsnew/2.6.html#index-13">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-42">bytearray.splitlines method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-42">bytes.splitlines method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/csv.html#index-3">csv.reader function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/importlib.html#index-16">importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#index-2">io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#index-1">io.TextIOWrapper class</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/functions.html#index-6">open() built-in function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-32">str.splitlines method</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#index-1">subprocess module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">UNIX</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">I/O control</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/fcntl.html#index-0">file control</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.unix_dialect">unix_dialect (class in csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.unix_shell">unix_shell (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.UnixDatagramServer">UnixDatagramServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.UnixStreamServer">UnixStreamServer (class in socketserver)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID.unknown">unknown (uuid.SafeUUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser.unknown_decl">unknown_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.BaseHandler.unknown_open">unknown_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.UnknownHandler.unknown_open">(urllib.request.UnknownHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.UnknownHandler">UnknownHandler (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.UnknownProtocol">UnknownProtocol</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding">UnknownTransferEncoding</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.unlink">unlink() (in module os)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.unlink">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.unlink">(pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.unlink">(xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.unload">unload() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Babyl.unlock">unlock() (mailbox.Babyl method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MH.unlock">(mailbox.MH method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.MMDF.unlock">(mailbox.MMDF method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.unlock">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.unlock">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.mbox.unlock">(mailbox.mbox method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.unpack">unpack() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.unpack">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.unpack_archive">unpack_archive() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_array">unpack_array() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_bytes">unpack_bytes() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_double">unpack_double() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNPACK_EX">UNPACK_EX (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_farray">unpack_farray() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_float">unpack_float() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fopaque">unpack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.unpack_from">unpack_from() (in module struct)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/struct.html#struct.Struct.unpack_from">(struct.Struct method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring">unpack_fstring() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_list">unpack_list() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_opaque">unpack_opaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-UNPACK_SEQUENCE">UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string">unpack_string() (xdrlib.Unpacker method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#xdrlib.Unpacker">Unpacker (class in xdrlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    unpacking
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-17">dictionary</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-47">in function calls</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-88">iterable</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl">unparsedEntityDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler">UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.Unpickler">Unpickler (class in pickle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pickle.html#pickle.UnpicklingError">UnpicklingError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.utils.html#email.utils.unquote">unquote() (in module email.utils)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.unquote">(in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.unquote_plus">unquote_plus() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes">unquote_to_bytes() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-2">unreachable object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.unreadline">unreadline() (distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#index-23">unrecognized escape sequence</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/atexit.html#atexit.unregister">unregister() (in module atexit)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.unregister">(in module faulthandler)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.devpoll.unregister">(select.devpoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.epoll.unregister">(select.epoll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/select.html#select.poll.unregister">(select.poll method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.unregister">(selectors.BaseSelector method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.unregister_archive_format">unregister_archive_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.unregister_dialect">unregister_dialect() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.unregister_unpack_format">unregister_unpack_format() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.SafeUUID.unsafe">unsafe (uuid.SafeUUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.unset">unset() (test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.unsetenv">unsetenv() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader">UnstructuredHeader (class in email.headerregistry)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.unsubscribe">unsubscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.UnsupportedOperation">UnsupportedOperation</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-until">until (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tokenize.html#tokenize.untokenize">untokenize() (in module tokenize)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.untouchwin">untouchwin() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.unused_data">unused_data (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.unused_data">(lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.unused_data">(zlib.Decompress attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.unverifiable">unverifiable (urllib.request.Request attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/inspect.html#inspect.unwrap">unwrap() (in module inspect)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-up">up (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.up">up() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter.update">update() (collections.Counter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.update">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#frozenset.update">(frozenset method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.update">(hashlib.hash method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.update">(hmac.HMAC method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.update">(http.cookies.Morsel method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.update">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.update">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir.update">(mailbox.Maildir method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.CoverageResults.update">(trace.CoverageResults method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated">update_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.update_lines_cols">update_lines_cols() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.update_panels">update_panels() (in module curses.panel)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.BabylMessage.update_visible">update_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.update_wrapper">update_wrapper() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.upper">upper() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.upper">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.upper">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.urandom">urandom() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">URL</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">[2]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">[3]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">parsing</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">relative</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.url">url (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.url2pathname">url2pathname() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlcleanup">urlcleanup() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urldefrag">urldefrag() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode">urlencode() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError">URLError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urljoin">urljoin() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-urllib">urllib (2to3 fixer)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.html#module-urllib">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.error.html#module-urllib.error">urllib.error (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse">urllib.parse (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    urllib.request
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#index-1">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request">urllib.request (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.response">urllib.response (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#module-urllib.robotparser">urllib.robotparser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen">urlopen() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener">URLopener (class in urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlparse">urlparse() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlretrieve">urlretrieve() (in module urllib.request)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.urlsafe_b64decode">urlsafe_b64decode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/base64.html#base64.urlsafe_b64encode">urlsafe_b64encode() (in module base64)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlsplit">urlsplit() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlunparse">urlunparse() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlunsplit">urlunsplit() (in module urllib.parse)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.urn">urn (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.use_default_colors">use_default_colors() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.use_env">use_env() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/cmd.html#cmd.Cmd.use_rawinput">use_rawinput (cmd.Cmd attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UseForeignDTD">UseForeignDTD() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-1">USER</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    user
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-0">effective id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-8">id</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#index-11">id, setting</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.user">user() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    user-defined
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">function</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">function call</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">method</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    user-defined function
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-19">object</a>, <a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-33">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/expressions.html#index-50">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li>
+    user-defined method
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-35">object</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="whatsnew/2.7.html#index-9">USER_BASE</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#site.USER_BASE">(in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_call">user_call() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_exception">user_exception() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_line">user_line() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb.user_return">user_return() (bdb.Bdb method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/site.html#site.USER_SITE">USER_SITE (in module site)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    usercustomize
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/site.html#index-5">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserDict">UserDict (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserList">UserList (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/getpass.html#index-3">USERNAME</a>, <a href="library/os.html#index-3">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.Address.username">username (email.headerregistry.Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="install/index.html#index-6">USERPROFILE</a>, <a href="library/os.path.html#index-5">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.userptr">userptr() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.html#collections.UserString">UserString (class in collections)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#UserWarning">UserWarning</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tarfile.html#tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT">USTAR_FORMAT (in module tarfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-4">UTC</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.utc">utc (datetime.timezone attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp">utcfromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utcnow">utcnow() (datetime.datetime class method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utcoffset">utcoffset() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.time.utcoffset">(datetime.time method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone.utcoffset">(datetime.timezone method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset">(datetime.tzinfo method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.utctimetuple">utctimetuple() (datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8">utf8 (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.utf8">utf8() (poplib.POP3 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.utf8_enabled">utf8_enabled (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.utime">utime() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    uu
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/binascii.html#index-0">module</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/uu.html#module-uu">uu (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID">UUID (class in uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#module-uuid">uuid (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-6">uuid1</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid1">uuid1() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-7">uuid3</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid3">uuid3() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-8">uuid4</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid4">uuid4() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#index-9">uuid5</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid5">uuid5() (in module uuid)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/msilib.html#msilib.UuidCreate">UuidCreate() (in module msilib)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="V">V</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed">v4_int_to_packed() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed">v6_int_to_packed() (in module ipaddress)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.validate.validator">validator() (in module wsgiref.validate)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    value
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-21">default parameter</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">truth</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes._SimpleCData.value">value (ctypes._SimpleCData attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.value">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.value">(http.cookies.Morsel attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.Attr.value">(xml.dom.Attr attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-1">value of an object</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Value">Value() (in module multiprocessing)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value">(in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Value">(multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_decode">value_decode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_encode">value_encode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ValueError">ValueError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-70">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs">valuerefs() (weakref.WeakValueDictionary method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    values
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-59">Boolean</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">writing</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.Context.values">values() (contextvars.Context method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.values">(dict method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.values">(email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.values">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.values">(mailbox.Mailbox method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType.values">(types.MappingProxyType method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ValuesView">ValuesView (class in collections.abc)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/typing.html#typing.ValuesView">(class in typing)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/contextvars.html#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.var">var (contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    variable
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/executionmodel.html#index-6">free</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><strong>variable annotation</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/statistics.html#statistics.variance">variance() (in module statistics)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.variant">variant (uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#vars">vars() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.VBAR">VBAR (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html#tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.vbar">vbar (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/token.html#token.VBAREQUAL">VBAREQUAL (in module token)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.Vec2D">Vec2D (class in turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/venv.html#module-venv">venv (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.VERBOSE">VERBOSE (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tabnanny.html#tabnanny.verbose">verbose (in module tabnanny)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.verbose">(in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.verify">verify() (smtplib.SMTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake">verify_client_post_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_code">verify_code (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT">VERIFY_DEFAULT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags">verify_flags (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_message">verify_message (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode">verify_mode (ssl.SSLContext attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.verify_request">verify_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT">VERIFY_X509_STRICT (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST">VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (in module ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VerifyFlags">VerifyFlags (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.VerifyMode">VerifyMode (class in ssl)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.version">version (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.version">(http.client.HTTPResponse attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.Cookie.version">(http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.version">(in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/marshal.html#marshal.version">(in module marshal)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.version">(in module sqlite3)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="c-api/init.html#index-25">(in module sys)</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-28">[1]</a>, <a href="c-api/init.html#index-29">[2]</a>, <a href="library/sys.html#sys.version">[3]</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.version">(ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.version">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Address.version">(ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.version">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.URLopener.version">(urllib.request.URLopener attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.version">(uuid.UUID attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ensurepip.html#ensurepip.version">version() (in module ensurepip)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.version">(in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.version">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.version_info">version_info (in module sqlite3)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.version_info">(in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string">version_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.Formatter.vformat">vformat() (string.Formatter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    virtual
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/venv.html#index-0">Environments</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-virtual-environment"><strong>virtual environment</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-virtual-machine"><strong>virtual machine</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.NodeVisitor.visit">visit() (ast.NodeVisitor method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="c-api/gcsupport.html#c.visitproc">visitproc (C type)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.window.vline">vline() (curses.window method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.voidcmd">voidcmd() (ftplib.FTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.volume">volume (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.vonmisesvariate">vonmisesvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="W">W</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.W_OK">W_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait">wait() (asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.wait">(asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event.wait">(asyncio.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.wait">(in module concurrent.futures)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.wait">(in module multiprocessing.connection)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.wait">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.wait">(multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.wait">(subprocess.Popen method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Barrier.wait">(threading.Barrier method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.wait">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Event.wait">(threading.Event method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.wait3">wait3() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.wait4">wait4() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.wait_closed">wait_closed() (asyncio.Server method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed">(asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition.wait_for">wait_for() (asyncio.Condition method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for">(in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/threading.html#threading.Condition.wait_for">(threading.Condition method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.wait_threads_exit">wait_threads_exit() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.waitid">waitid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.waitpid">waitpid() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.walk">walk() (email.message.EmailMessage method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.walk">(email.message.Message method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ast.html#ast.walk">(in module ast)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.walk">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.walk_packages">walk_packages() (in module pkgutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.walk_stack">walk_stack() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/traceback.html#traceback.walk_tb">walk_tb() (in module traceback)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/doctest.html#doctest.Example.want">want (doctest.Example attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.warn">warn() (distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.text_file.TextFile.warn">(distutils.text_file.TextFile method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.warn">(in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#warnings.warn_explicit">warn_explicit() (in module warnings)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#Warning">Warning</a>, <a href="library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Warning">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.warning">warning() (in module logging)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/logging.html#logging.Logger.warning">(logging.Logger method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.warning">(xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/warnings.html#index-0">warnings</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/warnings.html#module-warnings">(module)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.WarningsRecorder">WarningsRecorder (class in test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.warnoptions">warnoptions (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.wasSuccessful">wasSuccessful() (unittest.TestResult method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler">WatchedFileHandler (class in logging.handlers)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wave.html#module-wave">wave (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WCONTINUED">WCONTINUED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WCOREDUMP">WCOREDUMP() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary">WeakKeyDictionary (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakMethod">WeakMethod (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#module-weakref">weakref (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakSet">WeakSet (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakValueDictionary">WeakValueDictionary (class in weakref)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/webbrowser.html#module-webbrowser">webbrowser (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.weekday">weekday() (datetime.date method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.weekday">(datetime.datetime method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.weekday">(in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.weekheader">weekheader() (in module calendar)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/random.html#random.weibullvariate">weibullvariate() (in module random)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WEXITED">WEXITED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WEXITSTATUS">WEXITSTATUS() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.wfile">wfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imghdr.html#imghdr.what">what() (in module imghdr)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sndhdr.html#sndhdr.what">(in module sndhdr)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/sndhdr.html#sndhdr.whathdr">whathdr() (in module sndhdr)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-whatis">whatis (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.TimerHandle.when">when() (asyncio.TimerHandle method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-where">where (pdb command)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shutil.html#shutil.which">which() (in module shutil)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dbm.html#dbm.whichdb">whichdb() (in module dbm)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    while
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#index-1">statement</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-30">[1]</a>, <a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-33">[2]</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-4"><strong>[3]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/string.html#string.whitespace">whitespace (in module string)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.whitespace">(shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.whitespace_split">whitespace_split (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Widget">Widget (class in tkinter.ttk)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.width">width (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.width">width() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFCONTINUED">WIFCONTINUED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFEXITED">WIFEXITED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFSIGNALED">WIFSIGNALED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WIFSTOPPED">WIFSTOPPED() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/platform.html#platform.win32_ver">win32_ver() (in module platform)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.WinDLL">WinDLL (class in ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#index-2">window manager (widgets)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.panel.html#curses.panel.Panel.window">window() (curses.panel.Panel method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.window_height">window_height() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.window_width">window_width() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="reference/toplevel_components.html#index-4">Windows</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/configparser.html#index-0">Windows ini file</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#WindowsError">WindowsError</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.WindowsPath">WindowsPath (class in pathlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy">WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder">WindowsRegistryFinder (class in importlib.machinery)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#OSError.winerror">winerror (OSError attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.WinError">WinError() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE">WINFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winreg.html#module-winreg">winreg (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/select.html#index-2">WinSock</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/winsound.html#module-winsound">winsound (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/sys.html#sys.winver">winver (in module sys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    with
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/datamodel.html#index-101">statement</a>, <a href="reference/compound_stmts.html#index-16"><strong>[1]</strong></a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH">WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_START">WITH_CLEANUP_START (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_hostmask">with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_hostmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.with_name">with_name() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_netmask">with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_netmask">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_netmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_netmask">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_prefixlen">with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_prefixlen">(ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/test.html#test.support.with_pymalloc">with_pymalloc() (in module test.support)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix">with_suffix() (pathlib.PurePath method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#BaseException.with_traceback">with_traceback() (BaseException method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WNOHANG">WNOHANG (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WNOWAIT">WNOWAIT (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex.wordchars">wordchars (shlex.shlex attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-0">World Wide Web</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.wrap">wrap() (in module textwrap)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.wrap">(textwrap.TextWrapper method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio">wrap_bio() (ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.wrap_future">wrap_future() (in module asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket">wrap_socket() (in module ssl)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket">(ssl.SSLContext method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.fancy_getopt.wrap_text">wrap_text() (in module distutils.fancy_getopt)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/curses.html#curses.wrapper">wrapper() (in module curses)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/types.html#types.WrapperDescriptorType">WrapperDescriptorType (in module types)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functools.html#functools.wraps">wraps() (in module functools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.html#tkinter.WRITABLE">WRITABLE (in module tkinter)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.writable">writable() (asyncore.dispatcher method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.writable">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.write">write() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.write">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.write">(code.InteractiveInterpreter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter.write">(codecs.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.write">(configparser.ConfigParser method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator.write">(email.generator.BytesGenerator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator.write">(email.generator.Generator method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/os.html#os.write">(in module os)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.write">(in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.write">(io.BufferedIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.BufferedWriter.write">(io.BufferedWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.write">(io.RawIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.write">(io.TextIOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.write">(mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.write">(ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.write">(ssl.MemoryBIO method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.write">(ssl.SSLSocket method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet.write">(telnetlib.Telnet method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write">(xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.write">(zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.write_byte">write_byte() (mmap.mmap method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.write_bytes">write_bytes() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.write_docstringdict">write_docstringdict() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.write_eof">write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO.write_eof">(ssl.MemoryBIO method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="distutils/apiref.html#distutils.file_util.write_file">write_file() (in module distutils.file_util)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/readline.html#readline.write_history_file">write_history_file() (in module readline)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="extending/newtypes.html#index-4">WRITE_RESTRICTED</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/trace.html#trace.CoverageResults.write_results">write_results() (trace.CoverageResults method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.write_text">write_text() (pathlib.Path method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper.write_through">write_through (io.TextIOWrapper attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall">writeall() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.writeframes">writeframes() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.writeframes">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.writeframes">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.writeframesraw">writeframesraw() (aifc.aifc method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.writeframesraw">(sunau.AU_write method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw">(wave.Wave_write method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter.writeheader">writeheader() (csv.DictWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.writelines">writelines() (asyncio.StreamWriter method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines">(asyncio.WriteTransport method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamWriter.writelines">(codecs.StreamWriter method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/io.html#io.IOBase.writelines">(io.IOBase method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.writePlist">writePlist() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/plistlib.html#plistlib.writePlistToBytes">writePlistToBytes() (in module plistlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy">writepy() (zipfile.PyZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/formatter.html#formatter.formatter.writer">writer (formatter.formatter attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.writer">writer() (in module csv)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvwriter.writerow">writerow() (csv.csvwriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/csv.html#csv.csvwriter.writerows">writerows() (csv.csvwriter method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.writestr">writestr() (zipfile.ZipFile method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport">WriteTransport (class in asyncio)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.writev">writev() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#xml.dom.minidom.Node.writexml">writexml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    writing
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-3">values</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr">WrongDocumentErr</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-ws_comma">ws_comma (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper">wsgi_file_wrapper (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multiprocess">wsgi_multiprocess (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multithread">wsgi_multithread (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_run_once">wsgi_run_once (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref">wsgiref (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.handlers">wsgiref.handlers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.headers">wsgiref.headers (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.simple_server">wsgiref.simple_server (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.util">wsgiref.util (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.validate">wsgiref.validate (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler">WSGIRequestHandler (class in wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer">WSGIServer (class in wsgiref.simple_server)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow">wShowWindow (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WSTOPPED">WSTOPPED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WSTOPSIG">WSTOPSIG() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ctypes.html#ctypes.wstring_at">wstring_at() (in module ctypes)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WTERMSIG">WTERMSIG() (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.WUNTRACED">WUNTRACED (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/internet.html#index-0">WWW</a>, <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#index-0">[1]</a>, <a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#index-0">[2]</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/cgi.html#index-0">server</a>, <a href="library/http.server.html#index-0">[1]</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="X">X</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/re.html#re.X">X (in module re)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/ssl.html#index-16">X509 certificate</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.X_OK">X_OK (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.xatom">xatom() (imaplib.IMAP4 method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.XATTR_CREATE">XATTR_CREATE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.XATTR_REPLACE">XATTR_REPLACE (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/os.html#os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX">XATTR_SIZE_MAX (in module os)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.xcor">xcor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#index-0">XDR</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xdrlib.html#module-xdrlib">xdrlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.xhdr">xhdr() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/html.parser.html#index-0">XHTML</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE">XHTML_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.html#module-xml">xml (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XML">XML() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom">xml.dom (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom">xml.dom.minidom (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#module-xml.dom.pulldom">xml.dom.pulldom (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree">xml.etree.ElementTree (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat">xml.parsers.expat (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors">xml.parsers.expat.errors (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.model">xml.parsers.expat.model (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax">xml.sax (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#module-xml.sax.handler">xml.sax.handler (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#module-xml.sax.saxutils">xml.sax.saxutils (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#module-xml.sax.xmlreader">xml.sax.xmlreader (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED">XML_ERROR_ABORTED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY">XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF">XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING">XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE">XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE">XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING">XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD">XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED">XML_ERROR_FINISHED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE">XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING">XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN">XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT">XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI">XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS">XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY">XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE">XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED">XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR">XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID">XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF">XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE">XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED">XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX">XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH">XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL">XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX">XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION">XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN">XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX">XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY">XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE">XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING">XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL">XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE">XML_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/codecs.html#codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors">xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (in module codecs)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler">XmlDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase">XMLFilterBase (class in xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.utils.html#xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator">XMLGenerator (class in xml.sax.saxutils)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID">XMLID() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.dom.html#xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE">XMLNS_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser">XMLParser (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType">XMLParserType (in module xml.parsers.expat)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser">XMLPullParser (class in xml.etree.ElementTree)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader">XMLReader (class in xml.sax.xmlreader)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client">xmlrpc.client (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#module-xmlrpc.server">xmlrpc.server (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    xor
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-73">bitwise</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/operator.html#operator.xor">xor() (in module operator)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.xover">xover() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.xpath">xpath() (nntplib.NNTP method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-xrange">xrange (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-xreadlines">xreadlines (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.xview">xview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="Y">Y</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-3">Y2K</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/turtle.html#turtle.ycor">ycor() (in module turtle)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.date.year">year (datetime.date attribute)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.year">(datetime.datetime attribute)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-3">Year 2000</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/time.html#index-2">Year 2038</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar">yeardatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.yeardays2calendar">yeardays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.yeardayscalendar">yeardayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar method)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/locale.html#locale.YESEXPR">YESEXPR (in module locale)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li>
+    yield
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-32">examples</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">expression</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-21">keyword</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="reference/simple_stmts.html#index-26">statement</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="whatsnew/3.3.html#index-10">yield from (in What&#39;s New)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-YIELD_FROM">YIELD_FROM (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/dis.html#opcode-YIELD_VALUE">YIELD_VALUE (opcode)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/colorsys.html#colorsys.yiq_to_rgb">yiq_to_rgb() (in module colorsys)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.yview">yview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method)</a>
+</li>
+  </ul></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<h2 id="Z">Z</h2>
+<table style="width: 100%" class="indextable genindextable"><tr>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="glossary.html#term-zen-of-python"><strong>Zen of Python</strong></a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError">ZeroDivisionError</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="reference/expressions.html#index-65">exception</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.zfill">zfill() (bytearray method)</a>
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.zfill">(bytes method)</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/stdtypes.html#str.zfill">(str method)</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-zip">zip (2to3 fixer)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/functions.html#zip">zip() (built-in function)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2">ZIP_BZIP2 (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED">ZIP_DEFLATED (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/itertools.html#itertools.zip_longest">zip_longest() (in module itertools)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_LZMA">ZIP_LZMA (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZIP_STORED">ZIP_STORED (in module zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#module-zipapp">zipapp (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    zipapp command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-info">--info</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-c">-c, --compress</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-h">-h, --help</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-m">-m &lt;mainfn&gt;, --main=&lt;mainfn&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-o">-o &lt;output&gt;, --output=&lt;output&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipapp.html#cmdoption-zipapp-p">-p &lt;interpreter&gt;, --python=&lt;interpreter&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+  </ul></td>
+  <td style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><ul>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile">ZipFile (class in zipfile)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile">zipfile (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li>
+    zipfile command line option
+
+      <ul>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-create">--create &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-extract">--extract &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-list">--list &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-test">--test &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-c">-c &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-e">-e &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-l">-l &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+        <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#cmdoption-zipfile-t">-t &lt;zipfile&gt;</a>
+</li>
+      </ul></li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#module-zipimport">zipimport (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter">zipimporter (class in zipimport)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zipimport.html#zipimport.ZipImportError">ZipImportError</a>
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+      <li><a href="library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo">ZipInfo (class in zipfile)</a>
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+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#module-zlib">zlib (module)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION">ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
+      <li><a href="library/zlib.html#zlib.ZLIB_VERSION">ZLIB_VERSION (in module zlib)</a>
+</li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/genindex.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40d1ff5
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/glossary.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/glossary.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5c41de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/glossary.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1132 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Glossary &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="glossary">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Glossary<a class="headerlink" href="#glossary" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="glossary">
+<dt id="term"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code></dt><dd><p>The default Python prompt of the interactive shell.  Often seen for code
+examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-1"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code></dt><dd><p>The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering the
+code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and
+right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple
+quotes), or after specifying a decorator.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-2to3">2to3</dt><dd><p>A tool that tries to convert Python 2.x code to Python 3.x code by
+handling most of the incompatibilities which can be detected by parsing the
+source and traversing the parse tree.</p>
+<p>2to3 is available in the standard library as <a class="reference internal" href="library/2to3.html#module-lib2to3" title="lib2to3: the 2to3 library"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></code></a>; a standalone
+entry point is provided as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/2to3</span></code>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/2to3.html#to3-reference"><span class="std std-ref">2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-abstract-base-class">abstract base class</dt><dd><p>Abstract base classes complement <a class="reference internal" href="#term-duck-typing"><span class="xref std std-term">duck-typing</span></a> by
+providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> would be clumsy or subtly wrong (for example with
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#special-lookup"><span class="std std-ref">magic methods</span></a>).  ABCs introduce virtual
+subclasses, which are classes that don’t inherit from a class but are
+still recognized by <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a>; see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module documentation.  Python comes with many built-in ABCs for
+data structures (in the <a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> module), numbers (in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/numbers.html#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a> module), streams (in the <a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module), import finders
+and loaders (in the <a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc" title="importlib.abc: Abstract base classes related to import"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code></a> module).  You can create your own
+ABCs with the <a class="reference internal" href="library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-annotation">annotation</dt><dd><p>A label associated with a variable, a class
+attribute or a function parameter or return value,
+used by convention as a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-type-hint"><span class="xref std std-term">type hint</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but
+annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions
+are stored in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code>
+special attribute of modules, classes, and functions,
+respectively.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">variable annotation</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#term-function-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">function annotation</span></a>, <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>
+and <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a>, which describe this functionality.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-argument">argument</dt><dd><p>A value passed to a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-function"><span class="xref std std-term">function</span></a> (or <a class="reference internal" href="#term-method"><span class="xref std std-term">method</span></a>) when calling the
+function.  There are two kinds of argument:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em class="dfn">keyword argument</em>: an argument preceded by an identifier (e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name=</span></code>) in a function call or passed as a value in a dictionary
+preceded by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code> are both keyword
+arguments in the following calls to <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">imag</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;real&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;imag&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em class="dfn">positional argument</em>: an argument that is not a keyword argument.
+Positional arguments can appear at the beginning of an argument list
+and/or be passed as elements of an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> preceded by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code> are both positional arguments in the
+following calls:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Arguments are assigned to the named local variables in a function body.
+See the <a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#calls"><span class="std std-ref">Calls</span></a> section for the rules governing this assignment.
+Syntactically, any expression can be used to represent an argument; the
+evaluated value is assigned to the local variable.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-parameter"><span class="xref std std-term">parameter</span></a> glossary entry, the FAQ question on
+<a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#faq-argument-vs-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">the difference between arguments and parameters</span></a>, and <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0362"><strong>PEP 362</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-asynchronous-context-manager">asynchronous context manager</dt><dd><p>An object which controls the environment seen in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement by defining <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aenter__" title="object.__aenter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aexit__" title="object.__aexit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__()</span></code></a> methods.  Introduced by <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-asynchronous-generator">asynchronous generator</dt><dd><p>A function which returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-asynchronous-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator iterator</span></a>.  It
+looks like a coroutine function defined with <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> except
+that it contains <a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> expressions for producing a series of
+values usable in an <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop.</p>
+<p>Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an
+<em>asynchronous generator iterator</em> in some contexts.  In cases where the
+intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.</p>
+<p>An asynchronous generator function may contain <a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a>
+expressions as well as <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statements.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-asynchronous-generator-iterator">asynchronous generator iterator</dt><dd><p>An object created by a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator</span></a> function.</p>
+<p>This is an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a> which when called using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a> method returns an awaitable object which will execute
+the body of the asynchronous generator function until the next
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> expression.</p>
+<p>Each <a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> temporarily suspends processing, remembering the
+location execution state (including local variables and pending
+try-statements).  When the <em>asynchronous generator iterator</em> effectively
+resumes with another awaitable returned by <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a>, it
+picks up where it left off.  See <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525"><strong>PEP 525</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-asynchronous-iterable">asynchronous iterable</dt><dd><p>An object, that can be used in an <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement.
+Must return an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a> from its
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aiter__" title="object.__aiter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__()</span></code></a> method.  Introduced by <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-asynchronous-iterator">asynchronous iterator</dt><dd><p>An object that implements the <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__aiter__" title="object.__aiter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a>
+methods.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__</span></code> must return an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object.
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> resolves the awaitables returned by an asynchronous
+iterator’s <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a> method until it raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> exception.  Introduced by <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-attribute">attribute</dt><dd><p>A value associated with an object which is referenced by name using
+dotted expressions.  For example, if an object <em>o</em> has an attribute
+<em>a</em> it would be referenced as <em>o.a</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-awaitable">awaitable</dt><dd><p>An object that can be used in an <a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expression.  Can be
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> or an object with an <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> method.
+See also <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-bdfl">BDFL</dt><dd><p>Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a. <a class="reference external" href="https://gvanrossum.github.io/">Guido van Rossum</a>, Python’s creator.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-binary-file">binary file</dt><dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> able to read and write
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>.
+Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb+'</span></code>), <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin.buffer</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.buffer</span></code>, and instances of <a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip.GzipFile</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text file</span></a> for a file object able to read and write
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</dt><dd><p>An object that supports the <a class="reference internal" href="c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Protocol</span></a> and can
+export a C-<a class="reference internal" href="#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a> buffer. This includes all <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a> objects, as well as many
+common <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> objects.  Bytes-like objects can
+be used for various operations that work with binary data; these include
+compression, saving to a binary file, and sending over a socket.</p>
+<p>Some operations need the binary data to be mutable.  The documentation
+often refers to these as “read-write bytes-like objects”.  Example
+mutable buffer objects include <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> and a
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> of a <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.
+Other operations require the binary data to be stored in
+immutable objects (“read-only bytes-like objects”); examples
+of these include <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and a <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a>
+of a <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-bytecode">bytecode</dt><dd><p>Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation
+of a Python program in the CPython interpreter.  The bytecode is also
+cached in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files so that executing the same file is
+faster the second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be
+avoided).  This “intermediate language” is said to run on a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-virtual-machine"><span class="xref std std-term">virtual machine</span></a> that executes the machine code corresponding to
+each bytecode. Do note that bytecodes are not expected to work between
+different Python virtual machines, nor to be stable between Python
+releases.</p>
+<p>A list of bytecode instructions can be found in the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/dis.html#bytecodes"><span class="std std-ref">the dis module</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-class">class</dt><dd><p>A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions
+normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the
+class.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-class-variable">class variable</dt><dd><p>A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at
+class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-coercion">coercion</dt><dd><p>The implicit conversion of an instance of one type to another during an
+operation which involves two arguments of the same type.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(3.15)</span></code> converts the floating point number to the integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code>, but
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3+4.5</span></code>, each argument is of a different type (one int, one float),
+and both must be converted to the same type before they can be added or it
+will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  Without coercion, all arguments of even
+compatible types would have to be normalized to the same value by the
+programmer, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(3)+4.5</span></code> rather than just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3+4.5</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-complex-number">complex number</dt><dd><p>An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are
+expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part.  Imaginary
+numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>), often written <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> in mathematics or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code> in
+engineering.  Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are
+written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code> suffix, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3+1j</span></code>.  To get access to complex equivalents of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module, use <a class="reference internal" href="library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a>.  Use of complex numbers is a fairly
+advanced mathematical feature.  If you’re not aware of a need for them,
+it’s almost certain you can safely ignore them.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-context-manager">context manager</dt><dd><p>An object which controls the environment seen in a <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement by defining <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> methods.
+See <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-context-variable">context variable</dt><dd><p>A variable which can have different values depending on its context.
+This is similar to Thread-Local Storage in which each execution
+thread may have a different value for a variable. However, with context
+variables, there may be several contexts in one execution thread and the
+main usage for context variables is to keep track of variables in
+concurrent asynchronous tasks.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-contiguous">contiguous</dt><dd><p id="index-10">A buffer is considered contiguous exactly if it is either
+<em>C-contiguous</em> or <em>Fortran contiguous</em>.  Zero-dimensional buffers are
+C and Fortran contiguous.  In one-dimensional arrays, the items
+must be laid out in memory next to each other, in order of
+increasing indexes starting from zero.  In multidimensional
+C-contiguous arrays, the last index varies the fastest when
+visiting items in order of memory address.  However, in
+Fortran contiguous arrays, the first index varies the fastest.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-coroutine">coroutine</dt><dd><p>Coroutines is a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are
+entered at one point and exited at another point.  Coroutines can be
+entered, exited, and resumed at many different points.  They can be
+implemented with the <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> statement.  See also
+<span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-coroutine-function">coroutine function</dt><dd><p>A function which returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> object.  A coroutine
+function may be defined with the <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> statement,
+and may contain <a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a> keywords.  These were introduced
+by <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-cpython">CPython</dt><dd><p>The canonical implementation of the Python programming language, as
+distributed on <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org">python.org</a>.  The term “CPython”
+is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others
+such as Jython or IronPython.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-decorator">decorator</dt><dd><p>A function returning another function, usually applied as a function
+transformation using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;wrapper</span></code> syntax.  Common examples for
+decorators are <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two
+function definitions are semantically equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@staticmethod</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there.  See
+the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">function definitions</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><span class="std std-ref">class definitions</span></a> for more about decorators.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-descriptor">descriptor</dt><dd><p>Any object which defines the methods <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a>, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delete__" title="object.__delete__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__()</span></code></a>.  When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special
+binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup.  Normally, using
+<em>a.b</em> to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named <em>b</em> in
+the class dictionary for <em>a</em>, but if <em>b</em> is a descriptor, the respective
+descriptor method gets called.  Understanding descriptors is a key to a
+deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features
+including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods,
+and reference to super classes.</p>
+<p>For more information about descriptors’ methods, see <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#descriptors"><span class="std std-ref">Implementing Descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-dictionary">dictionary</dt><dd><p>An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values.  The
+keys can be any object with <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> methods.
+Called a hash in Perl.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-dictionary-view">dictionary view</dt><dd><p>The objects returned from <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.keys()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.values()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.items()</span></code></a> are called dictionary views. They provide a dynamic
+view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary
+changes, the view reflects these changes. To force the
+dictionary view to become a full list use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(dictview)</span></code>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict-views"><span class="std std-ref">Dictionary view objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-docstring">docstring</dt><dd><p>A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class,
+function or module.  While ignored when the suite is executed, it is
+recognized by the compiler and put into the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attribute
+of the enclosing class, function or module.  Since it is available via
+introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the
+object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-duck-typing">duck-typing</dt><dd><p>A programming style which does not look at an object’s type to determine
+if it has the right interface; instead, the method or attribute is simply
+called or used (“If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it
+must be a duck.”)  By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types,
+well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic
+substitution.  Duck-typing avoids tests using <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a>.  (Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base classes</span></a>.)  Instead, it
+typically employs <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> tests or <a class="reference internal" href="#term-eafp"><span class="xref std std-term">EAFP</span></a> programming.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-eafp">EAFP</dt><dd><p>Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission.  This common Python coding
+style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches
+exceptions if the assumption proves false.  This clean and fast style is
+characterized by the presence of many <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>
+statements.  The technique contrasts with the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-lbyl"><span class="xref std std-term">LBYL</span></a> style
+common to many other languages such as C.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-expression">expression</dt><dd><p>A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value.  In other words,
+an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals,
+names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a
+value.  In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs
+are expressions.  There are also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-statement"><span class="xref std std-term">statement</span></a>s which cannot be used
+as expressions, such as <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a>.  Assignments are also statements,
+not expressions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-extension-module">extension module</dt><dd><p>A module written in C or C++, using Python’s C API to interact with the
+core and with user code.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-f-string">f-string</dt><dd><p>String literals prefixed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code> are commonly called
+“f-strings” which is short for
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literals</span></a>.  See also <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498"><strong>PEP 498</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-file-object">file object</dt><dd><p>An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>) to an underlying resource.  Depending
+on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real
+on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device
+(for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes,
+etc.).  File objects are also called <em class="dfn">file-like objects</em> or
+<em class="dfn">streams</em>.</p>
+<p>There are actually three categories of file objects: raw
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary files</span></a>, buffered
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary files</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text files</span></a>.
+Their interfaces are defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module.  The canonical
+way to create a file object is by using the <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-file-like-object">file-like object</dt><dd><p>A synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-finder">finder</dt><dd><p>An object that tries to find the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> for a module that is
+being imported.</p>
+<p>Since Python 3.3, there are two types of finder: <a class="reference internal" href="#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finders</span></a> for use with <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path
+entry finders</span></a> for use with <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a> for much more detail.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-floor-division">floor division</dt><dd><p>Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer.  The floor
+division operator is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code>.  For example, the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">11</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">4</span></code>
+evaluates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> in contrast to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.75</span></code> returned by float true
+division.  Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-11)</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">4</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code> because that is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-2.75</span></code>
+rounded <em>downward</em>. See <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238"><strong>PEP 238</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-function">function</dt><dd><p>A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also
+be passed zero or more <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">arguments</span></a> which may be used in
+the execution of the body. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-parameter"><span class="xref std std-term">parameter</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#term-method"><span class="xref std std-term">method</span></a>,
+and the <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a> section.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-function-annotation">function annotation</dt><dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#term-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">annotation</span></a> of a function parameter or return value.</p>
+<p>Function annotations are usually used for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-type-hint"><span class="xref std std-term">type hints</span></a>: for example, this function is expected to take two
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> arguments and is also expected to have an <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>
+return value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">sum_two_numbers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Function annotation syntax is explained in section <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">variable annotation</span></a> and <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>,
+which describe this functionality.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-future">__future__</dt><dd><p>A pseudo-module which programmers can use to enable new language features
+which are not compatible with the current interpreter.</p>
+<p>By importing the <a class="reference internal" href="library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> module and evaluating its variables,
+you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it
+becomes the default:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">__future__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">division</span>
+<span class="go">_Feature((2, 2, 0, &#39;alpha&#39;, 2), (3, 0, 0, &#39;alpha&#39;, 0), 8192)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-garbage-collection">garbage collection</dt><dd><p>The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore.  Python
+performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage
+collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles.  The
+garbage collector can be controlled using the <a class="reference internal" href="library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="index-19"><span id="term-generator"></span>generator</dt><dd><p>A function which returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator iterator</span></a>.  It looks like a
+normal function except that it contains <a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> expressions
+for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be
+retrieved one at a time with the <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a
+<em>generator iterator</em> in some contexts.  In cases where the intended
+meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-generator-iterator">generator iterator</dt><dd><p>An object created by a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> function.</p>
+<p>Each <a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> temporarily suspends processing, remembering the
+location execution state (including local variables and pending
+try-statements).  When the <em>generator iterator</em> resumes, it picks up where
+it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every
+invocation).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="index-20"><span id="term-generator-expression"></span>generator expression</dt><dd><p>An expression that returns an iterator.  It looks like a normal expression
+followed by a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause defining a loop variable, range,
+and an optional <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> clause.  The combined expression
+generates values for an enclosing function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>         <span class="c1"># sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81</span>
+<span class="go">285</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-generic-function">generic function</dt><dd><p>A function composed of multiple functions implementing the same operation
+for different types. Which implementation should be used during a call is
+determined by the dispatch algorithm.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-single-dispatch"><span class="xref std std-term">single dispatch</span></a> glossary entry, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functools.html#functools.singledispatch" title="functools.singledispatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.singledispatch()</span></code></a> decorator, and <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0443"><strong>PEP 443</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-gil">GIL</dt><dd><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">global interpreter lock</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-global-interpreter-lock">global interpreter lock</dt><dd><p>The mechanism used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a> interpreter to assure that
+only one thread executes Python <a class="reference internal" href="#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> at a time.
+This simplifies the CPython implementation by making the object model
+(including critical built-in types such as <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>) implicitly
+safe against concurrent access.  Locking the entire interpreter
+makes it easier for the interpreter to be multi-threaded, at the
+expense of much of the parallelism afforded by multi-processor
+machines.</p>
+<p>However, some extension modules, either standard or third-party,
+are designed so as to release the GIL when doing computationally-intensive
+tasks such as compression or hashing.  Also, the GIL is always released
+when doing I/O.</p>
+<p>Past efforts to create a “free-threaded” interpreter (one which locks
+shared data at a much finer granularity) have not been successful
+because performance suffered in the common single-processor case. It
+is believed that overcoming this performance issue would make the
+implementation much more complicated and therefore costlier to maintain.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-hash-based-pyc">hash-based pyc</dt><dd><p>A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified
+time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/import.html#pyc-invalidation"><span class="std std-ref">Cached bytecode invalidation</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-hashable">hashable</dt><dd><p>An object is <em>hashable</em> if it has a hash value which never changes during
+its lifetime (it needs a <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method), and can be compared to
+other objects (it needs an <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method).  Hashable objects which
+compare equal must have the same hash value.</p>
+<p>Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member,
+because these data structures use the hash value internally.</p>
+<p>Most of Python’s immutable built-in objects are hashable; mutable
+containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are not; immutable
+containers (such as tuples and frozensets) are only hashable if
+their elements are hashable.  Objects which are
+instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default.  They all
+compare unequal (except with themselves), and their hash value is derived
+from their <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-idle">IDLE</dt><dd><p>An Integrated Development Environment for Python.  IDLE is a basic editor
+and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of
+Python.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-immutable">immutable</dt><dd><p>An object with a fixed value.  Immutable objects include numbers, strings and
+tuples.  Such an object cannot be altered.  A new object has to
+be created if a different value has to be stored.  They play an important
+role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key
+in a dictionary.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-import-path">import path</dt><dd><p>A list of locations (or <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path entries</span></a>) that are
+searched by the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a> for modules to import. During
+import, this list of locations usually comes from <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, but
+for subpackages it may also come from the parent package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>
+attribute.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-importing">importing</dt><dd><p>The process by which Python code in one module is made available to
+Python code in another module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-importer">importer</dt><dd><p>An object that both finds and loads a module; both a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-interactive">interactive</dt><dd><p>Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter
+statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately
+execute them and see their results.  Just launch <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> with no
+arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer’s main
+menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect
+modules and packages (remember <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help(x)</span></code>).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-interpreted">interpreted</dt><dd><p>Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one,
+though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the
+bytecode compiler.  This means that source files can be run directly
+without explicitly creating an executable which is then run.
+Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle
+than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more
+slowly.  See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-interactive"><span class="xref std std-term">interactive</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-interpreter-shutdown">interpreter shutdown</dt><dd><p>When asked to shut down, the Python interpreter enters a special phase
+where it gradually releases all allocated resources, such as modules
+and various critical internal structures.  It also makes several calls
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-garbage-collection"><span class="xref std std-term">garbage collector</span></a>. This can trigger
+the execution of code in user-defined destructors or weakref callbacks.
+Code executed during the shutdown phase can encounter various
+exceptions as the resources it relies on may not function anymore
+(common examples are library modules or the warnings machinery).</p>
+<p>The main reason for interpreter shutdown is that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> module
+or the script being run has finished executing.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-iterable">iterable</dt><dd><p>An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of
+iterables include all sequence types (such as <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>) and some non-sequence types like <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a>, and objects of any classes you define
+with an <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method or with a <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method
+that implements <a class="reference internal" href="#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">Sequence</span></a> semantics.</p>
+<p>Iterables can be
+used in a <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop and in many other places where a sequence is
+needed (<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a>, …).  When an iterable object is passed
+as an argument to the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a>, it returns an
+iterator for the object.  This iterator is good for one pass over the set
+of values.  When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> or deal with iterator objects yourself.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code>
+statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed
+variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop.  See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">sequence</span></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-iterator">iterator</dt><dd><p>An object representing a stream of data.  Repeated calls to the iterator’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method (or passing it to the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a>) return successive items in the stream.  When no more data
+are available a <a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception is raised instead.  At this
+point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code> method just raise <a class="reference internal" href="library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> again.  Iterators
+are required to have an <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method that returns the iterator
+object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most
+places where other iterables are accepted.  One notable exception is code
+which attempts multiple iteration passes.  A container object (such as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> function or use it in a <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop.  Attempting this
+with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used
+in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container.</p>
+<p>More information can be found in <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#typeiter"><span class="std std-ref">Iterator Types</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-key-function">key function</dt><dd><p>A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value
+used for sorting or ordering.  For example, <a class="reference internal" href="library/locale.html#locale.strxfrm" title="locale.strxfrm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.strxfrm()</span></code></a> is
+used to produce a sort key that is aware of locale specific sort
+conventions.</p>
+<p>A number of tools in Python accept key functions to control how elements
+are ordered or grouped.  They include <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/heapq.html#heapq.merge" title="heapq.merge"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq.merge()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/heapq.html#heapq.nsmallest" title="heapq.nsmallest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq.nsmallest()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/heapq.html#heapq.nlargest" title="heapq.nlargest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq.nlargest()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/itertools.html#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.groupby()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>There are several ways to create a key function.  For example. the
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str.lower" title="str.lower"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.lower()</span></code></a> method can serve as a key function for case insensitive
+sorts.  Alternatively, a key function can be built from a
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expression such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span> <span class="pre">r:</span> <span class="pre">(r[0],</span> <span class="pre">r[2])</span></code>.  Also,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module provides three key function constructors:
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter" title="operator.attrgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attrgetter()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/operator.html#operator.itemgetter" title="operator.itemgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemgetter()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/operator.html#operator.methodcaller" title="operator.methodcaller"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methodcaller()</span></code></a>.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="howto/sorting.html#sortinghowto"><span class="std std-ref">Sorting HOW TO</span></a> for examples of how to create and use key functions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-keyword-argument">keyword argument</dt><dd><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">argument</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-lambda">lambda</dt><dd><p>An anonymous inline function consisting of a single <a class="reference internal" href="#term-expression"><span class="xref std std-term">expression</span></a>
+which is evaluated when the function is called.  The syntax to create
+a lambda function is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span> <span class="pre">[parameters]:</span> <span class="pre">expression</span></code></p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-lbyl">LBYL</dt><dd><p>Look before you leap.  This coding style explicitly tests for
+pre-conditions before making calls or lookups.  This style contrasts with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-eafp"><span class="xref std std-term">EAFP</span></a> approach and is characterized by the presence of many
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statements.</p>
+<p>In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a
+race condition between “the looking” and “the leaping”.  For example, the
+code, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">key</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">mapping:</span> <span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">mapping[key]</span></code> can fail if another
+thread removes <em>key</em> from <em>mapping</em> after the test, but before the lookup.
+This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-list">list</dt><dd><p>A built-in Python <a class="reference internal" href="#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">sequence</span></a>.  Despite its name it is more akin
+to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to
+elements is O(1).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-list-comprehension">list comprehension</dt><dd><p>A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and
+return a list with the results.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">result</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">['{:#04x}'.format(x)</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">range(256)</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0]</span></code> generates a list of strings containing
+even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. The <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a>
+clause is optional.  If omitted, all elements in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(256)</span></code> are
+processed.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-loader">loader</dt><dd><p>An object that loads a module. It must define a method named
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code>. A loader is typically returned by a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a>. See <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> for details and
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader" title="importlib.abc.Loader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader</span></code></a> for an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-magic-method">magic method</dt><dd><p id="index-23">An informal synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#term-special-method"><span class="xref std std-term">special method</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-mapping">mapping</dt><dd><p>A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the
+methods specified in the <a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.abc.html#collections-abstract-base-classes"><span class="std std-ref">abstract base classes</span></a>.  Examples
+include <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.defaultdict</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Counter</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-meta-path-finder">meta path finder</dt><dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> returned by a search of <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>.  Meta path
+finders are related to, but different from <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finders</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder</span></code></a> for the methods that meta path
+finders implement.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-metaclass">metaclass</dt><dd><p>The class of a class.  Class definitions create a class name, a class
+dictionary, and a list of base classes.  The metaclass is responsible for
+taking those three arguments and creating the class.  Most object oriented
+programming languages provide a default implementation.  What makes Python
+special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses.  Most users
+never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide
+powerful, elegant solutions.  They have been used for logging attribute
+access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing
+singletons, and many other tasks.</p>
+<p>More information can be found in <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#metaclasses"><span class="std std-ref">Metaclasses</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-method">method</dt><dd><p>A function which is defined inside a class body.  If called as an attribute
+of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as
+its first <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">argument</span></a> (which is usually called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>).
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-function"><span class="xref std std-term">function</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-nested-scope"><span class="xref std std-term">nested scope</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-method-resolution-order">method resolution order</dt><dd><p>Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched
+for a member during lookup. See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/">The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order</a> for details of the
+algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-module">module</dt><dd><p>An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code.  Modules
+have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects.  Modules are loaded
+into Python by the process of <a class="reference internal" href="#term-importing"><span class="xref std std-term">importing</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-package"><span class="xref std std-term">package</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-module-spec">module spec</dt><dd><p>A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a
+module. An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec" title="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-mro">MRO</dt><dd><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-method-resolution-order"><span class="xref std std-term">method resolution order</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-mutable">mutable</dt><dd><p>Mutable objects can change their value but keep their <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a>.  See
+also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-immutable"><span class="xref std std-term">immutable</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-named-tuple">named tuple</dt><dd><p>Any tuple-like class whose indexable elements are also accessible using
+named attributes (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="library/time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a> returns a
+tuple-like object where the <em>year</em> is accessible either with an
+index such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t[0]</span></code> or with a named attribute like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t.tm_year</span></code>).</p>
+<p>A named tuple can be a built-in type such as <a class="reference internal" href="library/time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a>,
+or it can be created with a regular class definition.  A full featured
+named tuple can also be created with the factory function
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a>.  The latter approach automatically
+provides extra features such as a self-documenting representation like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Employee(name='jones',</span> <span class="pre">title='programmer')</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-namespace">namespace</dt><dd><p>The place where a variable is stored.  Namespaces are implemented as
+dictionaries.  There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well
+as nested namespaces in objects (in methods).  Namespaces support
+modularity by preventing naming conflicts.  For instance, the functions
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins.open</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> are distinguished by
+their namespaces.  Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by
+making it clear which module implements a function.  For instance, writing
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#random.seed" title="random.seed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.seed()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="library/itertools.html#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.islice()</span></code></a> makes it clear that those
+functions are implemented by the <a class="reference internal" href="library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a>
+modules, respectively.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-namespace-package">namespace package</dt><dd><p>A <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#term-package"><span class="xref std std-term">package</span></a> which serves only as a container for
+subpackages.  Namespace packages may have no physical representation,
+and specifically are not like a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-regular-package"><span class="xref std std-term">regular package</span></a> because they
+have no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-module"><span class="xref std std-term">module</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-nested-scope">nested scope</dt><dd><p>The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition.  For
+instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to
+variables in the outer function.  Note that nested scopes by default work
+only for reference and not for assignment.  Local variables both read and
+write in the innermost scope.  Likewise, global variables read and write
+to the global namespace.  The <a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> allows writing to outer
+scopes.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-new-style-class">new-style class</dt><dd><p>Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects.  In
+earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python’s newer,
+versatile features like <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__" title="object.__slots__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code></a>, descriptors,
+properties, <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a>, class methods, and static methods.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-object">object</dt><dd><p>Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior
+(methods).  Also the ultimate base class of any <a class="reference internal" href="#term-new-style-class"><span class="xref std std-term">new-style
+class</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-package">package</dt><dd><p>A Python <a class="reference internal" href="#term-module"><span class="xref std std-term">module</span></a> which can contain submodules or recursively,
+subpackages.  Technically, a package is a Python module with an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-regular-package"><span class="xref std std-term">regular package</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace package</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-parameter">parameter</dt><dd><p>A named entity in a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-function"><span class="xref std std-term">function</span></a> (or method) definition that
+specifies an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">argument</span></a> (or in some cases, arguments) that the
+function can accept.  There are five kinds of parameter:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em class="dfn">positional-or-keyword</em>: specifies an argument that can be passed
+either <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">positionally</span></a> or as a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">keyword argument</span></a>.  This is the default kind of parameter, for example <em>foo</em>
+and <em>bar</em> in the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="positional-only-parameter">
+<li><p><em class="dfn">positional-only</em>: specifies an argument that can be supplied only
+by position.  Python has no syntax for defining positional-only
+parameters.  However, some built-in functions have positional-only
+parameters (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="keyword-only-parameter">
+<li><p><em class="dfn">keyword-only</em>: specifies an argument that can be supplied only
+by keyword.  Keyword-only parameters can be defined by including a
+single var-positional parameter or bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> in the parameter list
+of the function definition before them, for example <em>kw_only1</em> and
+<em>kw_only2</em> in the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kw_only1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kw_only2</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em class="dfn">var-positional</em>: specifies that an arbitrary sequence of
+positional arguments can be provided (in addition to any positional
+arguments already accepted by other parameters).  Such a parameter can
+be defined by prepending the parameter name with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, for example
+<em>args</em> in the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em class="dfn">var-keyword</em>: specifies that arbitrarily many keyword arguments
+can be provided (in addition to any keyword arguments already accepted
+by other parameters).  Such a parameter can be defined by prepending
+the parameter name with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>, for example <em>kwargs</em> in the example
+above.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Parameters can specify both optional and required arguments, as well as
+default values for some optional arguments.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">argument</span></a> glossary entry, the FAQ question on
+<a class="reference internal" href="faq/programming.html#faq-argument-vs-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">the difference between arguments and parameters</span></a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.Parameter</span></code></a> class, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a> section, and <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0362"><strong>PEP 362</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-path-entry">path entry</dt><dd><p>A single location on the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a> which the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path
+based finder</span></a> consults to find modules for importing.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-path-entry-finder">path entry finder</dt><dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> returned by a callable on <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a>
+(i.e. a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-entry-hook"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry hook</span></a>) which knows how to locate modules given
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder</span></code></a> for the methods that path entry
+finders implement.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-path-entry-hook">path entry hook</dt><dd><p>A callable on the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hook</span></code> list which returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path
+entry finder</span></a> if it knows how to find modules on a specific <a class="reference internal" href="#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path
+entry</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-path-based-finder">path based finder</dt><dd><p>One of the default <a class="reference internal" href="#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finders</span></a> which
+searches an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a> for modules.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-path-like-object">path-like object</dt><dd><p>An object representing a file system path. A path-like object is either
+a <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object representing a path, or an object
+implementing the <a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> protocol. An object that supports
+the <a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> protocol can be converted to a <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> file system path by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#os.fspath" title="os.fspath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fspath()</span></code></a> function;
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a> can be used to guarantee a
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> result instead, respectively. Introduced
+by <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0519"><strong>PEP 519</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-pep">PEP</dt><dd><p>Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document
+providing information to the Python community, or describing a new
+feature for Python or its processes or environment. PEPs should
+provide a concise technical specification and a rationale for proposed
+features.</p>
+<p>PEPs are intended to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new
+features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting
+the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is
+responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting
+dissenting opinions.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0001"><strong>PEP 1</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-portion">portion</dt><dd><p>A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file)
+that contribute to a namespace package, as defined in <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-positional-argument">positional argument</dt><dd><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">argument</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-provisional-api">provisional API</dt><dd><p>A provisional API is one which has been deliberately excluded from
+the standard library’s backwards compatibility guarantees.  While major
+changes to such interfaces are not expected, as long as they are marked
+provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal
+of the interface) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers.  Such
+changes will not be made gratuitously – they will occur only if serious
+fundamental flaws are uncovered that were missed prior to the inclusion
+of the API.</p>
+<p>Even for provisional APIs, backwards incompatible changes are seen as
+a “solution of last resort” - every attempt will still be made to find
+a backwards compatible resolution to any identified problems.</p>
+<p>This process allows the standard library to continue to evolve over
+time, without locking in problematic design errors for extended periods
+of time.  See <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0411"><strong>PEP 411</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-provisional-package">provisional package</dt><dd><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional API</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-python-3000">Python 3000</dt><dd><p>Nickname for the Python 3.x release line (coined long ago when the
+release of version 3 was something in the distant future.)  This is also
+abbreviated “Py3k”.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-pythonic">Pythonic</dt><dd><p>An idea or piece of code which closely follows the most common idioms
+of the Python language, rather than implementing code using concepts
+common to other languages.  For example, a common idiom in Python is
+to loop over all elements of an iterable using a <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a>
+statement.  Many other languages don’t have this type of construct, so
+people unfamiliar with Python sometimes use a numerical counter instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">food</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">food</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As opposed to the cleaner, Pythonic method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">piece</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">food</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">piece</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-qualified-name">qualified name</dt><dd><p>A dotted name showing the “path” from a module’s global scope to a
+class, function or method defined in that module, as defined in
+<span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3155"><strong>PEP 3155</strong></a>.  For top-level functions and classes, the qualified name
+is the same as the object’s name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C.D&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C.D.meth&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When used to refer to modules, the <em>fully qualified name</em> means the
+entire dotted path to the module, including any parent packages,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.text</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">email.mime.text</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;email.mime.text&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-reference-count">reference count</dt><dd><p>The number of references to an object.  When the reference count of an
+object drops to zero, it is deallocated.  Reference counting is
+generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key element of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a> implementation.  The <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module defines a
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.getrefcount" title="sys.getrefcount"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrefcount()</span></code></a> function that programmers can call to return the
+reference count for a particular object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-regular-package">regular package</dt><dd><p>A traditional <a class="reference internal" href="#term-package"><span class="xref std std-term">package</span></a>, such as a directory containing an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace package</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-slots">__slots__</dt><dd><p>A declaration inside a class that saves memory by pre-declaring space for
+instance attributes and eliminating instance dictionaries.  Though
+popular, the technique is somewhat tricky to get right and is best
+reserved for rare cases where there are large numbers of instances in a
+memory-critical application.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-sequence">sequence</dt><dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> which supports efficient element access using integer
+indices via the <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> special method and defines a
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> method that returns the length of the sequence.
+Some built-in sequence types are <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>. Note that <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> also
+supports <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a>, but is considered a
+mapping rather than a sequence because the lookups use arbitrary
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-immutable"><span class="xref std std-term">immutable</span></a> keys rather than integers.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Sequence</span></code></a> abstract base class
+defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a>, adding <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index()</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a>. Types that implement this expanded
+interface can be registered explicitly using
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-single-dispatch">single dispatch</dt><dd><p>A form of <a class="reference internal" href="#term-generic-function"><span class="xref std std-term">generic function</span></a> dispatch where the implementation is
+chosen based on the type of a single argument.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-slice">slice</dt><dd><p>An object usually containing a portion of a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">sequence</span></a>.  A slice is
+created using the subscript notation, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code> with colons between numbers
+when several are given, such as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variable_name[1:3:5]</span></code>.  The bracket
+(subscript) notation uses <a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#slice" title="slice"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice</span></code></a> objects internally.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-special-method">special method</dt><dd><p id="index-31">A method that is called implicitly by Python to execute a certain
+operation on a type, such as addition.  Such methods have names starting
+and ending with double underscores.  Special methods are documented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="reference/datamodel.html#specialnames"><span class="std std-ref">Special method names</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-statement">statement</dt><dd><p>A statement is part of a suite (a “block” of code).  A statement is either
+an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-expression"><span class="xref std std-term">expression</span></a> or one of several constructs with a keyword, such
+as <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-struct-sequence">struct sequence</dt><dd><p>A tuple with named elements. Struct sequences expose an interface similar
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> in that elements can be accessed either by
+index or as an attribute. However, they do not have any of the named tuple
+methods like <a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._make" title="collections.somenamedtuple._make"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_make()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._asdict" title="collections.somenamedtuple._asdict"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_asdict()</span></code></a>. Examples of struct sequences
+include <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.float_info" title="sys.float_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.float_info</span></code></a> and the return value of <a class="reference internal" href="library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-text-encoding">text encoding</dt><dd><p>A codec which encodes Unicode strings to bytes.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-text-file">text file</dt><dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> able to read and write <a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects.
+Often, a text file actually accesses a byte-oriented datastream
+and handles the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encoding</span></a> automatically.
+Examples of text files are files opened in text mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>),
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>, and instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a> for a file object able to read and write
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-triple-quoted-string">triple-quoted string</dt><dd><p>A string which is bound by three instances of either a quotation mark
+(“) or an apostrophe (‘).  While they don’t provide any functionality
+not available with single-quoted strings, they are useful for a number
+of reasons.  They allow you to include unescaped single and double
+quotes within a string and they can span multiple lines without the
+use of the continuation character, making them especially useful when
+writing docstrings.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-type">type</dt><dd><p>The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is; every
+object has a type.  An object’s type is accessible as its
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#instance.__class__" title="instance.__class__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code></a> attribute or can be retrieved with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(obj)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-type-alias">type alias</dt><dd><p>A synonym for a type, created by assigning the type to an identifier.</p>
+<p>Type aliases are useful for simplifying <a class="reference internal" href="#term-type-hint"><span class="xref std std-term">type hints</span></a>.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remove_gray_shades</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">colors</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]]:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>could be made more readable like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span>
+
+<span class="n">Color</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remove_gray_shades</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">colors</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> and <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>, which describe this functionality.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-type-hint">type hint</dt><dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#term-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">annotation</span></a> that specifies the expected type for a variable, a class
+attribute, or a function parameter or return value.</p>
+<p>Type hints are optional and are not enforced by Python but
+they are useful to static type analysis tools, and aid IDEs with code
+completion and refactoring.</p>
+<p>Type hints of global variables, class attributes, and functions,
+but not local variables, can be accessed using
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/typing.html#typing.get_type_hints" title="typing.get_type_hints"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.get_type_hints()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> and <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>, which describe this functionality.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-universal-newlines">universal newlines</dt><dd><p>A manner of interpreting text streams in which all of the following are
+recognized as ending a line: the Unix end-of-line convention <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>,
+the Windows convention <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>, and the old Macintosh convention
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r'</span></code>.  See <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0278"><strong>PEP 278</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3116"><strong>PEP 3116</strong></a>, as well as
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/stdtypes.html#bytes.splitlines" title="bytes.splitlines"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.splitlines()</span></code></a> for an additional use.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-variable-annotation">variable annotation</dt><dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#term-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">annotation</span></a> of a variable or a class attribute.</p>
+<p>When annotating a variable or a class attribute, assignment is optional:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;annotation&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Variable annotations are usually used for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#term-type-hint"><span class="xref std std-term">type hints</span></a>: for example this variable is expected to take
+<a class="reference internal" href="library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Variable annotation syntax is explained in section <a class="reference internal" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#annassign"><span class="std std-ref">Annotated assignment statements</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-function-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">function annotation</span></a>, <span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>
+and <span class="target" id="index-37"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a>, which describe this functionality.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-virtual-environment">virtual environment</dt><dd><p>A cooperatively isolated runtime environment that allows Python users
+and applications to install and upgrade Python distribution packages
+without interfering with the behaviour of other Python applications
+running on the same system.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-virtual-machine">virtual machine</dt><dd><p>A computer defined entirely in software.  Python’s virtual machine
+executes the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> emitted by the bytecode compiler.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt id="term-zen-of-python">Zen of Python</dt><dd><p>Listing of Python design principles and philosophies that are helpful in
+understanding and using the language.  The listing can be found by typing
+“<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">this</span></code>” at the interactive prompt.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="argparse-tutorial">
+<h1>Argparse Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#argparse-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Tshepang Lekhonkhobe</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p id="id1">This tutorial is intended to be a gentle introduction to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>, the
+recommended command-line parsing module in the Python standard library.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There are two other modules that fulfill the same task, namely
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> (an equivalent for <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code> from the C
+language) and the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>.
+Note also that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> is based on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>,
+and therefore very similar in terms of usage.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="concepts">
+<h2>Concepts<a class="headerlink" href="#concepts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s show the sort of functionality that we are going to explore in this
+introductory tutorial by making use of the <strong class="command">ls</strong> command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> ls
+<span class="go">cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ls pypy
+<span class="go">ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ls -l
+<span class="go">total 20</span>
+<span class="go">drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython</span>
+<span class="go">drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide</span>
+<span class="go">-rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py</span>
+<span class="go">drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ls --help
+<span class="go">Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...</span>
+<span class="go">List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).</span>
+<span class="go">Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.</span>
+<span class="go">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A few concepts we can learn from the four commands:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <strong class="command">ls</strong> command is useful when run without any options at all. It defaults
+to displaying the contents of the current directory.</p></li>
+<li><p>If we want beyond what it provides by default, we tell it a bit more. In
+this case, we want it to display a different directory, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pypy</span></code>.
+What we did is specify what is known as a positional argument. It’s named so
+because the program should know what to do with the value, solely based on
+where it appears on the command line. This concept is more relevant
+to a command like <strong class="command">cp</strong>, whose most basic usage is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp</span> <span class="pre">SRC</span> <span class="pre">DEST</span></code>.
+The first position is <em>what you want copied,</em> and the second
+position is <em>where you want it copied to</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Now, say we want to change behaviour of the program. In our example,
+we display more info for each file instead of just showing the file names.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code> in that case is known as an optional argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>That’s a snippet of the help text. It’s very useful in that you can
+come across a program you have never used before, and can figure out
+how it works simply by reading its help text.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-basics">
+<h2>The basics<a class="headerlink" href="#the-basics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let us start with a very simple example which does (almost) nothing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Following is a result of running the code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --verbose
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h]</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py foo
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h]</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is what is happening:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Running the script without any options results in nothing displayed to
+stdout. Not so useful.</p></li>
+<li><p>The second one starts to display the usefulness of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>
+module. We have done almost nothing, but already we get a nice help message.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> option, which can also be shortened to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code>, is the only
+option we get for free (i.e. no need to specify it). Specifying anything
+else results in an error. But even then, we do get a useful usage message,
+also for free.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="introducing-positional-arguments">
+<h2>Introducing Positional arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#introducing-positional-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;echo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And running the code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] echo</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] echo</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  echo</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py foo
+<span class="go">foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is what’s happening:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>We’ve added the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code> method, which is what we use to specify
+which command-line options the program is willing to accept. In this case,
+I’ve named it <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> so that it’s in line with its function.</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling our program now requires us to specify an option.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code> method actually returns some data from the
+options specified, in this case, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The variable is some form of ‘magic’ that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> performs for free
+(i.e. no need to specify which variable that value is stored in).
+You will also notice that its name matches the string argument given
+to the method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Note however that, although the help display looks nice and all, it currently
+is not as helpful as it can be. For example we see that we got <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> as a
+positional argument, but we don’t know what it does, other than by guessing or
+by reading the source code. So, let’s make it a bit more useful:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;echo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;echo the string you use here&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And we get:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py -h
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] echo</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  echo        echo the string you use here</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now, how about doing something even more useful:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display a square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Following is a result of running the code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;prog.py&quot;, line 5, in &lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">    print(args.square**2)</span>
+<span class="go">TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): &#39;str&#39; and &#39;int&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That didn’t go so well. That’s because <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> treats the options we
+give it as strings, unless we tell it otherwise. So, let’s tell
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> to treat that input as an integer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display a square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Following is a result of running the code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py four
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] square</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: &#39;four&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That went well. The program now even helpfully quits on bad illegal input
+before proceeding.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="introducing-optional-arguments">
+<h2>Introducing Optional arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#introducing-optional-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>So far we have been playing with positional arguments. Let us
+have a look on how to add optional ones:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbosity turned on&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And the output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --verbosity <span class="m">1</span>
+<span class="go">verbosity turned on</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help            show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  --verbosity VERBOSITY</span>
+<span class="go">                        increase output verbosity</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --verbosity
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is what is happening:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The program is written so as to display something when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--verbosity</span></code> is
+specified and display nothing when not.</p></li>
+<li><p>To show that the option is actually optional, there is no error when running
+the program without it. Note that by default, if an optional argument isn’t
+used, the relevant variable, in this case <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args.verbosity</span></code>, is
+given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as a value, which is the reason it fails the truth
+test of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement.</p></li>
+<li><p>The help message is a bit different.</p></li>
+<li><p>When using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--verbosity</span></code> option, one must also specify some value,
+any value.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The above example accepts arbitrary integer values for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--verbosity</span></code>, but for
+our simple program, only two values are actually useful, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+Let’s modify the code accordingly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbosity turned on&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And the output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --verbose
+<span class="go">verbosity turned on</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --verbose <span class="m">1</span>
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  --verbose   increase output verbosity</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is what is happening:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The option is now more of a flag than something that requires a value.
+We even changed the name of the option to match that idea.
+Note that we now specify a new keyword, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code>, and give it the value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_true&quot;</span></code>. This means that, if the option is specified,
+assign the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> to <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args.verbose</span></code>.
+Not specifying it implies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>It complains when you specify a value, in true spirit of what flags
+actually are.</p></li>
+<li><p>Notice the different help text.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="short-options">
+<h3>Short options<a class="headerlink" href="#short-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you are familiar with command line usage,
+you will notice that I haven’t yet touched on the topic of short
+versions of the options. It’s quite simple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbosity turned on&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And here goes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py -v
+<span class="go">verbosity turned on</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help     show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the new ability is also reflected in the help text.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="combining-positional-and-optional-arguments">
+<h2>Combining Positional and Optional arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#combining-positional-and-optional-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Our program keeps growing in complexity:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display a square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;the square of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And now the output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> --verbose
+<span class="go">the square of 4 equals 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --verbose <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">the square of 4 equals 16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>We’ve brought back a positional argument, hence the complaint.</p></li>
+<li><p>Note that the order does not matter.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>How about we give this program of ours back the ability to have
+multiple verbosity values, and actually get to use them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display a square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;the square of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^2 == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And the output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -v
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -v <span class="m">1</span>
+<span class="go">4^2 == 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -v <span class="m">2</span>
+<span class="go">the square of 4 equals 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -v <span class="m">3</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These all look good except the last one, which exposes a bug in our program.
+Let’s fix it by restricting the values the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--verbosity</span></code> option can accept:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display a square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">choices</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;the square of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^2 == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And the output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -v <span class="m">3</span>
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -h
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  square                display a square of a given number</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help            show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  -v {0,1,2}, --verbosity {0,1,2}</span>
+<span class="go">                        increase output verbosity</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the change also reflects both in the error message as well as the
+help string.</p>
+<p>Now, let’s use a different approach of playing with verbosity, which is pretty
+common. It also matches the way the CPython executable handles its own
+verbosity argument (check the output of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">--help</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display the square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;count&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;the square of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^2 == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We have introduced another action, “count”,
+to count the number of occurrences of a specific optional arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -v
+<span class="go">4^2 == 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -vv
+<span class="go">the square of 4 equals 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> --verbosity --verbosity
+<span class="go">the square of 4 equals 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -v <span class="m">1</span>
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -h
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  square           display a square of a given number</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help       show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -vvv
+<span class="go">16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Yes, it’s now more of a flag (similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action=&quot;store_true&quot;</span></code>) in the
+previous version of our script. That should explain the complaint.</p></li>
+<li><p>It also behaves similar to “store_true” action.</p></li>
+<li><p>Now here’s a demonstration of what the “count” action gives. You’ve probably
+seen this sort of usage before.</p></li>
+<li><p>And if you don’t specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> flag, that flag is considered to have
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> value.</p></li>
+<li><p>As should be expected, specifying the long form of the flag, we should get
+the same output.</p></li>
+<li><p>Sadly, our help output isn’t very informative on the new ability our script
+has acquired, but that can always be fixed by improving the documentation for
+our script (e.g. via the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code> keyword argument).</p></li>
+<li><p>That last output exposes a bug in our program.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Let’s fix:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display a square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;count&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># bugfix: replace == with &gt;=</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;the square of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^2 == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And this is what it gives:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -vvv
+<span class="go">the square of 4 equals 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> -vvvv
+<span class="go">the square of 4 equals 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;prog.py&quot;, line 11, in &lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">    if args.verbosity &gt;= 2:</span>
+<span class="go">TypeError: &#39;&gt;=&#39; not supported between instances of &#39;NoneType&#39; and &#39;int&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>First output went well, and fixes the bug we had before.
+That is, we want any value &gt;= 2 to be as verbose as possible.</p></li>
+<li><p>Third output not so good.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Let’s fix that bug:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;display a square of a given number&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;count&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;increase output verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;the square of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^2 == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">square</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We’ve just introduced yet another keyword, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>.
+We’ve set it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> in order to make it comparable to the other int values.
+Remember that by default,
+if an optional argument isn’t specified,
+it gets the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> value, and that cannot be compared to an int value
+(hence the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception).</p>
+<p>And:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can go quite far just with what we’ve learned so far,
+and we have only scratched the surface.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module is very powerful,
+and we’ll explore a bit more of it before we end this tutorial.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="getting-a-little-more-advanced">
+<h2>Getting a little more advanced<a class="headerlink" href="#getting-a-little-more-advanced" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>What if we wanted to expand our tiny program to perform other powers,
+not just squares:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the base&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the exponent&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;count&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> to the power </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py -h
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  x                the base</span>
+<span class="go">  y                the exponent</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help       show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  -v, --verbosity</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span> -v
+<span class="go">4^2 == 16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice that so far we’ve been using verbosity level to <em>change</em> the text
+that gets displayed. The following example instead uses verbosity level
+to display <em>more</em> text instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the base&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the exponent&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;count&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Running &#39;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&#39;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> == &quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span> -v
+<span class="go">4^2 == 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span> -vv
+<span class="go">Running &#39;prog.py&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4^2 == 16</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conflicting-options">
+<h3>Conflicting options<a class="headerlink" href="#conflicting-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>So far, we have been working with two methods of an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse.ArgumentParser</span></code></a> instance. Let’s introduce a third one,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_mutually_exclusive_group()</span></code>. It allows for us to specify options that
+conflict with each other. Let’s also change the rest of the program so that
+the new functionality makes more sense:
+we’ll introduce the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--quiet</span></code> option,
+which will be the opposite of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--verbose</span></code> one:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_mutually_exclusive_group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--quiet&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the base&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the exponent&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quiet</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> to the power </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Our program is now simpler, and we’ve lost some functionality for the sake of
+demonstration. Anyways, here’s the output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span>
+<span class="go">4^2 == 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span> -q
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span> -v
+<span class="go">4 to the power 2 equals 16</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span> -vq
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py <span class="m">4</span> <span class="m">2</span> -v --quiet
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That should be easy to follow. I’ve added that last output so you can see the
+sort of flexibility you get, i.e. mixing long form options with short form
+ones.</p>
+<p>Before we conclude, you probably want to tell your users the main purpose of
+your program, just in case they don’t know:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;calculate X to the power of Y&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_mutually_exclusive_group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--quiet&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the base&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;the exponent&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">answer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quiet</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> to the power </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> equals </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">^</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> == </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that slight difference in the usage text. Note the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[-v</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">-q]</span></code>,
+which tells us that we can either use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code>,
+but not both at the same time:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 prog.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y</span>
+
+<span class="go">calculate X to the power of Y</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  x              the base</span>
+<span class="go">  y              the exponent</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help     show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  -v, --verbose</span>
+<span class="go">  -q, --quiet</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conclusion">
+<h2>Conclusion<a class="headerlink" href="#conclusion" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module offers a lot more than shown here.
+Its docs are quite detailed and thorough, and full of examples.
+Having gone through this tutorial, you should easily digest them
+without feeling overwhelmed.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Argparse Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#concepts">Concepts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-basics">The basics</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introducing-positional-arguments">Introducing Positional arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introducing-optional-arguments">Introducing Optional arguments</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#short-options">Short options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#combining-positional-and-optional-arguments">Combining Positional and Optional arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-a-little-more-advanced">Getting a little more advanced</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conflicting-options">Conflicting options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conclusion">Conclusion</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib2.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ipaddress.html"
+                        title="next chapter">An introduction to the ipaddress module</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/howto/argparse.rst"
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,1806 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>Argument Clinic How-To &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="argument-clinic-how-to">
+<h1>Argument Clinic How-To<a class="headerlink" href="#argument-clinic-how-to" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Larry Hastings</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="topic">
+<p class="topic-title first">Abstract</p>
+<p>Argument Clinic is a preprocessor for CPython C files.
+Its purpose is to automate all the boilerplate involved
+with writing argument parsing code for “builtins”.
+This document shows you how to convert your first C
+function to work with Argument Clinic, and then introduces
+some advanced topics on Argument Clinic usage.</p>
+<p>Currently Argument Clinic is considered internal-only
+for CPython.  Its use is not supported for files outside
+CPython, and no guarantees are made regarding backwards
+compatibility for future versions.  In other words: if you
+maintain an external C extension for CPython, you’re welcome
+to experiment with Argument Clinic in your own code.  But the
+version of Argument Clinic that ships with the next version
+of CPython <em>could</em> be totally incompatible and break all your code.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-goals-of-argument-clinic">
+<h2>The Goals Of Argument Clinic<a class="headerlink" href="#the-goals-of-argument-clinic" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Argument Clinic’s primary goal
+is to take over responsibility for all argument parsing code
+inside CPython.  This means that, when you convert a function
+to work with Argument Clinic, that function should no longer
+do any of its own argument parsing—the code generated by
+Argument Clinic should be a “black box” to you, where CPython
+calls in at the top, and your code gets called at the bottom,
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*args</span></code> (and maybe <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*kwargs</span></code>)
+magically converted into the C variables and types you need.</p>
+<p>In order for Argument Clinic to accomplish its primary goal,
+it must be easy to use.  Currently, working with CPython’s
+argument parsing library is a chore, requiring maintaining
+redundant information in a surprising number of places.
+When you use Argument Clinic, you don’t have to repeat yourself.</p>
+<p>Obviously, no one would want to use Argument Clinic unless
+it’s solving their problem—and without creating new problems of
+its own.
+So it’s paramount that Argument Clinic generate correct code.
+It’d be nice if the code was faster, too, but at the very least
+it should not introduce a major speed regression.  (Eventually Argument
+Clinic <em>should</em> make a major speedup possible—we could
+rewrite its code generator to produce tailor-made argument
+parsing code, rather than calling the general-purpose CPython
+argument parsing library.  That would make for the fastest
+argument parsing possible!)</p>
+<p>Additionally, Argument Clinic must be flexible enough to
+work with any approach to argument parsing.  Python has
+some functions with some very strange parsing behaviors;
+Argument Clinic’s goal is to support all of them.</p>
+<p>Finally, the original motivation for Argument Clinic was
+to provide introspection “signatures” for CPython builtins.
+It used to be, the introspection query functions would throw
+an exception if you passed in a builtin.  With Argument
+Clinic, that’s a thing of the past!</p>
+<p>One idea you should keep in mind, as you work with
+Argument Clinic: the more information you give it, the
+better job it’ll be able to do.
+Argument Clinic is admittedly relatively simple right
+now.  But as it evolves it will get more sophisticated,
+and it should be able to do many interesting and smart
+things with all the information you give it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="basic-concepts-and-usage">
+<h2>Basic Concepts And Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-concepts-and-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Argument Clinic ships with CPython; you’ll find it in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/clinic/clinic.py</span></code>.
+If you run that script, specifying a C file as an argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 Tools/clinic/clinic.py foo.c
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Argument Clinic will scan over the file looking for lines that
+look exactly like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/*[clinic input]
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When it finds one, it reads everything up to a line that looks
+exactly like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>[clinic start generated code]*/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Everything in between these two lines is input for Argument Clinic.
+All of these lines, including the beginning and ending comment
+lines, are collectively called an Argument Clinic “block”.</p>
+<p>When Argument Clinic parses one of these blocks, it
+generates output.  This output is rewritten into the C file
+immediately after the block, followed by a comment containing a checksum.
+The Argument Clinic block now looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/*[clinic input]
+... clinic input goes here ...
+[clinic start generated code]*/
+... clinic output goes here ...
+/*[clinic end generated code: checksum=...]*/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you run Argument Clinic on the same file a second time, Argument Clinic
+will discard the old output and write out the new output with a fresh checksum
+line.  However, if the input hasn’t changed, the output won’t change either.</p>
+<p>You should never modify the output portion of an Argument Clinic block.  Instead,
+change the input until it produces the output you want.  (That’s the purpose of the
+checksum—to detect if someone changed the output, as these edits would be lost
+the next time Argument Clinic writes out fresh output.)</p>
+<p>For the sake of clarity, here’s the terminology we’ll use with Argument Clinic:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The first line of the comment (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/*[clinic</span> <span class="pre">input]</span></code>) is the <em>start line</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The last line of the initial comment (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[clinic</span> <span class="pre">start</span> <span class="pre">generated</span> <span class="pre">code]*/</span></code>) is the <em>end line</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The last line (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/*[clinic</span> <span class="pre">end</span> <span class="pre">generated</span> <span class="pre">code:</span> <span class="pre">checksum=...]*/</span></code>) is the <em>checksum line</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>In between the start line and the end line is the <em>input</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>In between the end line and the checksum line is the <em>output</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>All the text collectively, from the start line to the checksum line inclusively,
+is the <em>block</em>.  (A block that hasn’t been successfully processed by Argument
+Clinic yet doesn’t have output or a checksum line, but it’s still considered
+a block.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="converting-your-first-function">
+<h2>Converting Your First Function<a class="headerlink" href="#converting-your-first-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The best way to get a sense of how Argument Clinic works is to
+convert a function to work with it.  Here, then, are the bare
+minimum steps you’d need to follow to convert a function to
+work with Argument Clinic.  Note that for code you plan to
+check in to CPython, you really should take the conversion farther,
+using some of the advanced concepts you’ll see later on in
+the document (like “return converters” and “self converters”).
+But we’ll keep it simple for this walkthrough so you can learn.</p>
+<p>Let’s dive in!</p>
+<ol class="arabic" start="0">
+<li><p>Make sure you’re working with a freshly updated checkout
+of the CPython trunk.</p></li>
+<li><p>Find a Python builtin that calls either <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>, and hasn’t been converted
+to work with Argument Clinic yet.
+For my example I’m using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pickle.Pickler.dump()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the call to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse</span></code> function uses any of the
+following format units:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>O&amp;
+O!
+es
+es#
+et
+et#
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or if it has multiple calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>,
+you should choose a different function.  Argument Clinic <em>does</em>
+support all of these scenarios.  But these are advanced
+topics—let’s do something simpler for your first function.</p>
+<p>Also, if the function has multiple calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> where it supports different
+types for the same argument, or if the function uses something besides
+PyArg_Parse functions to parse its arguments, it probably
+isn’t suitable for conversion to Argument Clinic.  Argument Clinic
+doesn’t support generic functions or polymorphic parameters.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Add the following boilerplate above the function, creating our block:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Cut the docstring and paste it in between the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[clinic]</span></code> lines,
+removing all the junk that makes it a properly quoted C string.
+When you’re done you should have just the text, based at the left
+margin, with no line wider than 80 characters.
+(Argument Clinic will preserve indents inside the docstring.)</p>
+<p>If the old docstring had a first line that looked like a function
+signature, throw that line away.  (The docstring doesn’t need it
+anymore—when you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code> on your builtin in the future,
+the first line will be built automatically based on the function’s
+signature.)</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>If your docstring doesn’t have a “summary” line, Argument Clinic will
+complain.  So let’s make sure it has one.  The “summary” line should
+be a paragraph consisting of a single 80-column line
+at the beginning of the docstring.</p>
+<p>(Our example docstring consists solely of a summary line, so the sample
+code doesn’t have to change for this step.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Above the docstring, enter the name of the function, followed
+by a blank line.  This should be the Python name of the function,
+and should be the full dotted path
+to the function—it should start with the name of the module,
+include any sub-modules, and if the function is a method on
+a class it should include the class name too.</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>If this is the first time that module or class has been used with Argument
+Clinic in this C file,
+you must declare the module and/or class.  Proper Argument Clinic hygiene
+prefers declaring these in a separate block somewhere near the
+top of the C file, in the same way that include files and statics go at
+the top.  (In our sample code we’ll just show the two blocks next to
+each other.)</p>
+<p>The name of the class and module should be the same as the one
+seen by Python.  Check the name defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> as appropriate.</p>
+<p>When you declare a class, you must also specify two aspects of its type
+in C: the type declaration you’d use for a pointer to an instance of
+this class, and a pointer to the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> for this class.</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">module _pickle</span>
+<span class="cm">class _pickle.Pickler &quot;PicklerObject *&quot; &quot;&amp;Pickler_Type&quot;</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Declare each of the parameters to the function.  Each parameter
+should get its own line.  All the parameter lines should be
+indented from the function name and the docstring.</p>
+<p>The general form of these parameter lines is as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>name_of_parameter: converter
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the parameter has a default value, add that after the
+converter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>name_of_parameter: converter = default_value
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Argument Clinic’s support for “default values” is quite sophisticated;
+please see <a class="reference internal" href="#default-values"><span class="std std-ref">the section below on default values</span></a>
+for more information.</p>
+<p>Add a blank line below the parameters.</p>
+<p>What’s a “converter”?  It establishes both the type
+of the variable used in C, and the method to convert the Python
+value into a C value at runtime.
+For now you’re going to use what’s called a “legacy converter”—a
+convenience syntax intended to make porting old code into Argument
+Clinic easier.</p>
+<p>For each parameter, copy the “format unit” for that
+parameter from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse()</span></code> format argument and
+specify <em>that</em> as its converter, as a quoted
+string.  (“format unit” is the formal name for the one-to-three
+character substring of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code> parameter that tells
+the argument parsing function what the type of the variable
+is and how to convert it.  For more on format units please
+see <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#arg-parsing"><span class="std std-ref">Parsing arguments and building values</span></a>.)</p>
+<p>For multicharacter format units like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z#</span></code>, use the
+entire two-or-three character string.</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span> <span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm"> module _pickle</span>
+<span class="cm"> class _pickle.Pickler &quot;PicklerObject *&quot; &quot;&amp;Pickler_Type&quot;</span>
+<span class="cm"> [clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+
+ <span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm"> _pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    obj: &#39;O&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>If your function has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code> in the format string, meaning some
+parameters have default values, you can ignore it.  Argument
+Clinic infers which parameters are optional based on whether
+or not they have default values.</p>
+<p>If your function has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> in the format string, meaning it
+takes keyword-only arguments, specify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> on a line by
+itself before the first keyword-only argument, indented the
+same as the parameter lines.</p>
+<p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span></code> has neither, so our sample is unchanged.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>If the existing C function calls <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>
+(as opposed to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>), then all its
+arguments are positional-only.</p>
+<p>To mark all parameters as positional-only in Argument Clinic,
+add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> on a line by itself after the last parameter,
+indented the same as the parameter lines.</p>
+<p>Currently this is all-or-nothing; either all parameters are
+positional-only, or none of them are.  (In the future Argument
+Clinic may relax this restriction.)</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">module _pickle</span>
+<span class="cm">class _pickle.Pickler &quot;PicklerObject *&quot; &quot;&amp;Pickler_Type&quot;</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    obj: &#39;O&#39;</span>
+<span class="cm">    /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>It’s helpful to write a per-parameter docstring for each parameter.
+But per-parameter docstrings are optional; you can skip this step
+if you prefer.</p>
+<p>Here’s how to add a per-parameter docstring.  The first line
+of the per-parameter docstring must be indented further than the
+parameter definition.  The left margin of this first line establishes
+the left margin for the whole per-parameter docstring; all the text
+you write will be outdented by this amount.  You can write as much
+text as you like, across multiple lines if you wish.</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">module _pickle</span>
+<span class="cm">class _pickle.Pickler &quot;PicklerObject *&quot; &quot;&amp;Pickler_Type&quot;</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    obj: &#39;O&#39;</span>
+<span class="cm">        The object to be pickled.</span>
+<span class="cm">    /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Save and close the file, then run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/clinic/clinic.py</span></code> on
+it.  With luck everything worked—your block now has output, and
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.c.h</span></code> file has been generated! Reopen the file in your
+text editor to see:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    obj: &#39;O&#39;</span>
+<span class="cm">        The object to be pickled.</span>
+<span class="cm">    /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">_pickle_Pickler_dump</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PicklerObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic end generated code: output=87ecad1261e02ac7 input=552eb1c0f52260d9]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Obviously, if Argument Clinic didn’t produce any output, it’s because
+it found an error in your input.  Keep fixing your errors and retrying
+until Argument Clinic processes your file without complaint.</p>
+<p>For readability, most of the glue code has been generated to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.c.h</span></code>
+file.  You’ll need to include that in your original <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.c</span></code> file,
+typically right after the clinic module block:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;clinic/_pickle.c.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Double-check that the argument-parsing code Argument Clinic generated
+looks basically the same as the existing code.</p>
+<p>First, ensure both places use the same argument-parsing function.
+The existing code must call either
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>;
+ensure that the code generated by Argument Clinic calls the
+<em>exact</em> same function.</p>
+<p>Second, the format string passed in to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> should be <em>exactly</em> the same
+as the hand-written one in the existing function, up to the colon
+or semi-colon.</p>
+<p>(Argument Clinic always generates its format strings
+with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code> followed by the name of the function.  If the
+existing code’s format string ends with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;</span></code>, to provide
+usage help, this change is harmless—don’t worry about it.)</p>
+<p>Third, for parameters whose format units require two arguments
+(like a length variable, or an encoding string, or a pointer
+to a conversion function), ensure that the second argument is
+<em>exactly</em> the same between the two invocations.</p>
+<p>Fourth, inside the output portion of the block you’ll find a preprocessor
+macro defining the appropriate static <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structure for
+this builtin:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define __PICKLE_PICKLER_DUMP_METHODDEF    \</span>
+<span class="cp">{&quot;dump&quot;, (PyCFunction)__pickle_Pickler_dump, METH_O, __pickle_Pickler_dump__doc__},</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This static structure should be <em>exactly</em> the same as the existing static
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structure for this builtin.</p>
+<p>If any of these items differ in <em>any way</em>,
+adjust your Argument Clinic function specification and rerun
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/clinic/clinic.py</span></code> until they <em>are</em> the same.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Notice that the last line of its output is the declaration
+of your “impl” function.  This is where the builtin’s implementation goes.
+Delete the existing prototype of the function you’re modifying, but leave
+the opening curly brace.  Now delete its argument parsing code and the
+declarations of all the variables it dumps the arguments into.
+Notice how the Python arguments are now arguments to this impl function;
+if the implementation used different names for these variables, fix it.</p>
+<p>Let’s reiterate, just because it’s kind of weird.  Your code should now
+look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">return_type</span>
+<span class="nf">your_function_impl</span><span class="p">(...)</span>
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic end generated code: checksum=...]*/</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Argument Clinic generated the checksum line and the function prototype just
+above it.  You should write the opening (and closing) curly braces for the
+function, and the implementation inside.</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">module _pickle</span>
+<span class="cm">class _pickle.Pickler &quot;PicklerObject *&quot; &quot;&amp;Pickler_Type&quot;</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic end generated code: checksum=da39a3ee5e6b4b0d3255bfef95601890afd80709]*/</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    obj: &#39;O&#39;</span>
+<span class="cm">        The object to be pickled.</span>
+<span class="cm">    /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyDoc_STRVAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__pickle_Pickler_dump__doc__</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="s">&quot;Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span>
+<span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">_pickle_Pickler_dump_impl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PicklerObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic end generated code: checksum=3bd30745bf206a48f8b576a1da3d90f55a0a4187]*/</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="cm">/* Check whether the Pickler was initialized correctly (issue3664).</span>
+<span class="cm">       Developers often forget to call __init__() in their subclasses, which</span>
+<span class="cm">       would trigger a segfault without this check. */</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">write</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PicklingError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                     <span class="s">&quot;Pickler.__init__() was not called by %s.__init__()&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                     <span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">tp_name</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_Pickler_ClearBuffer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="p">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Remember the macro with the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structure for this
+function?  Find the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structure for this
+function and replace it with a reference to the macro.  (If the builtin
+is at module scope, this will probably be very near the end of the file;
+if the builtin is a class method, this will probably be below but relatively
+near to the implementation.)</p>
+<p>Note that the body of the macro contains a trailing comma.  So when you
+replace the existing static <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structure with the macro,
+<em>don’t</em> add a comma to the end.</p>
+<p>Sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Pickler_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">__PICKLE_PICKLER_DUMP_METHODDEF</span>
+    <span class="n">__PICKLE_PICKLER_CLEAR_MEMO_METHODDEF</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>                <span class="cm">/* sentinel */</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Compile, then run the relevant portions of the regression-test suite.
+This change should not introduce any new compile-time warnings or errors,
+and there should be no externally-visible change to Python’s behavior.</p>
+<p>Well, except for one difference: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code> run on your function
+should now provide a valid signature!</p>
+<p>Congratulations, you’ve ported your first function to work with Argument Clinic!</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="advanced-topics">
+<h2>Advanced Topics<a class="headerlink" href="#advanced-topics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Now that you’ve had some experience working with Argument Clinic, it’s time
+for some advanced topics.</p>
+<div class="section" id="symbolic-default-values">
+<h3>Symbolic default values<a class="headerlink" href="#symbolic-default-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The default value you provide for a parameter can’t be any arbitrary
+expression.  Currently the following are explicitly supported:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Numeric constants (integer and float)</p></li>
+<li><p>String constants</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Simple symbolic constants like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code>, which must
+start with the name of the module</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In case you’re curious, this is implemented in  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_builtin()</span></code>
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/inspect.py</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(In the future, this may need to get even more elaborate,
+to allow full expressions like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONSTANT</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="renaming-the-c-functions-and-variables-generated-by-argument-clinic">
+<h3>Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument Clinic<a class="headerlink" href="#renaming-the-c-functions-and-variables-generated-by-argument-clinic" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Argument Clinic automatically names the functions it generates for you.
+Occasionally this may cause a problem, if the generated name collides with
+the name of an existing C function.  There’s an easy solution: override the names
+used for the C functions.  Just add the keyword <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;as&quot;</span></code>
+to your function declaration line, followed by the function name you wish to use.
+Argument Clinic will use that function name for the base (generated) function,
+then add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;_impl&quot;</span></code> to the end and use that for the name of the impl function.</p>
+<p>For example, if we wanted to rename the C function names generated for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.Pickler.dump</span></code>, it’d look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">pickle.Pickler.dump as pickler_dumper</span>
+
+<span class="cm">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The base function would now be named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickler_dumper()</span></code>,
+and the impl function would now be named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickler_dumper_impl()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Similarly, you may have a problem where you want to give a parameter
+a specific Python name, but that name may be inconvenient in C.  Argument
+Clinic allows you to give a parameter different names in Python and in C,
+using the same <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;as&quot;</span></code> syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    obj: object</span>
+<span class="cm">    file as file_obj: object</span>
+<span class="cm">    protocol: object = NULL</span>
+<span class="cm">    *</span>
+<span class="cm">    fix_imports: bool = True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here, the name used in Python (in the signature and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords</span></code>
+array) would be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>, but the C variable would be named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file_obj</span></code>.</p>
+<p>You can use this to rename the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> parameter too!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="converting-functions-using-pyarg-unpacktuple">
+<h3>Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple<a class="headerlink" href="#converting-functions-using-pyarg-unpacktuple" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To convert a function parsing its arguments with <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_UnpackTuple" title="PyArg_UnpackTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_UnpackTuple()</span></code></a>,
+simply write out all the arguments, specifying each as an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code>.  You
+may specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> argument to cast the type as appropriate.  All
+arguments should be marked positional-only (add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> on a line by itself
+after the last argument).</p>
+<p>Currently the generated code will use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>, but this
+will change soon.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optional-groups">
+<h3>Optional Groups<a class="headerlink" href="#optional-groups" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some legacy functions have a tricky approach to parsing their arguments:
+they count the number of positional arguments, then use a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">switch</span></code> statement
+to call one of several different <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> calls depending on
+how many positional arguments there are.  (These functions cannot accept
+keyword-only arguments.)  This approach was used to simulate optional
+arguments back before <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> was created.</p>
+<p>While functions using this approach can often be converted to
+use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>, optional arguments, and default values,
+it’s not always possible.  Some of these legacy functions have
+behaviors <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> doesn’t directly support.
+The most obvious example is the builtin function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code>, which has
+an optional argument on the <em>left</em> side of its required argument!
+Another example is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.window.addch()</span></code>, which has a group of two
+arguments that must always be specified together.  (The arguments are
+called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>; if you call the function passing in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>,
+you must also pass in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>—and if you don’t pass in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> you may not
+pass in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> either.)</p>
+<p>In any case, the goal of Argument Clinic is to support argument parsing
+for all existing CPython builtins without changing their semantics.
+Therefore Argument Clinic supports
+this alternate approach to parsing, using what are called <em>optional groups</em>.
+Optional groups are groups of arguments that must all be passed in together.
+They can be to the left or the right of the required arguments.  They
+can <em>only</em> be used with positional-only parameters.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Optional groups are <em>only</em> intended for use when converting
+functions that make multiple calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>!
+Functions that use <em>any</em> other approach for parsing arguments
+should <em>almost never</em> be converted to Argument Clinic using
+optional groups.  Functions using optional groups currently
+cannot have accurate signatures in Python, because Python just
+doesn’t understand the concept.  Please avoid using optional
+groups wherever possible.</p>
+</div>
+<p>To specify an optional group, add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span></code> on a line by itself before
+the parameters you wish to group together, and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">]</span></code> on a line by itself
+after these parameters.  As an example, here’s how <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.window.addch</span></code>
+uses optional groups to make the first two parameters and the last
+parameter optional:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+
+<span class="cm">curses.window.addch</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    [</span>
+<span class="cm">    x: int</span>
+<span class="cm">      X-coordinate.</span>
+<span class="cm">    y: int</span>
+<span class="cm">      Y-coordinate.</span>
+<span class="cm">    ]</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    ch: object</span>
+<span class="cm">      Character to add.</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    [</span>
+<span class="cm">    attr: long</span>
+<span class="cm">      Attributes for the character.</span>
+<span class="cm">    ]</span>
+<span class="cm">    /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>For every optional group, one additional parameter will be passed into the
+impl function representing the group.  The parameter will be an int named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group_{direction}_{number}</span></code>,
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{direction}</span></code> is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">right</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">left</span></code> depending on whether the group
+is before or after the required parameters, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{number}</span></code> is a monotonically
+increasing number (starting at 1) indicating how far away the group is from
+the required parameters.  When the impl is called, this parameter will be set
+to zero if this group was unused, and set to non-zero if this group was used.
+(By used or unused, I mean whether or not the parameters received arguments
+in this invocation.)</p></li>
+<li><p>If there are no required arguments, the optional groups will behave
+as if they’re to the right of the required arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the case of ambiguity, the argument parsing code
+favors parameters on the left (before the required parameters).</p></li>
+<li><p>Optional groups can only contain positional-only parameters.</p></li>
+<li><p>Optional groups are <em>only</em> intended for legacy code.  Please do not
+use optional groups for new code.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-real-argument-clinic-converters-instead-of-legacy-converters">
+<h3>Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of “legacy converters”<a class="headerlink" href="#using-real-argument-clinic-converters-instead-of-legacy-converters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To save time, and to minimize how much you need to learn
+to achieve your first port to Argument Clinic, the walkthrough above tells
+you to use “legacy converters”.  “Legacy converters” are a convenience,
+designed explicitly to make porting existing code to Argument Clinic
+easier.  And to be clear, their use is acceptable when porting code for
+Python 3.4.</p>
+<p>However, in the long term we probably want all our blocks to
+use Argument Clinic’s real syntax for converters.  Why?  A couple
+reasons:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The proper converters are far easier to read and clearer in their intent.</p></li>
+<li><p>There are some format units that are unsupported as “legacy converters”,
+because they require arguments, and the legacy converter syntax doesn’t
+support specifying arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the future we may have a new argument parsing library that isn’t
+restricted to what <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> supports; this flexibility
+won’t be available to parameters using legacy converters.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Therefore, if you don’t mind a little extra effort, please use the normal
+converters instead of legacy converters.</p>
+<p>In a nutshell, the syntax for Argument Clinic (non-legacy) converters
+looks like a Python function call.  However, if there are no explicit
+arguments to the function (all functions take their default values),
+you may omit the parentheses.  Thus <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool()</span></code> are exactly
+the same converters.</p>
+<p>All arguments to Argument Clinic converters are keyword-only.
+All Argument Clinic converters accept the following arguments:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_default</span></code></dt><dd><p>The default value for this parameter when defined in C.
+Specifically, this will be the initializer for the variable declared
+in the “parse function”.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#default-values"><span class="std std-ref">the section on default values</span></a>
+for how to use this.
+Specified as a string.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">annotation</span></code></dt><dd><p>The annotation value for this parameter.  Not currently supported,
+because PEP 8 mandates that the Python library may not use
+annotations.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>In addition, some converters accept additional arguments.  Here is a list
+of these arguments, along with their meanings:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept</span></code></dt><dd><p>A set of Python types (and possibly pseudo-types);
+this restricts the allowable Python argument to values of these types.
+(This is not a general-purpose facility; as a rule it only supports
+specific lists of types as shown in the legacy converter table.)</p>
+<p>To accept <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoneType</span></code> to this set.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bitwise</span></code></dt><dd><p>Only supported for unsigned integers.  The native integer value of this
+Python argument will be written to the parameter without any range checking,
+even for negative values.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter</span></code></dt><dd><p>Only supported by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code> converter.  Specifies the name of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#o-ampersand"><span class="std std-ref">C “converter function”</span></a>
+to use to convert this object to a native type.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code></dt><dd><p>Only supported for strings.  Specifies the encoding to use when converting
+this string from a Python str (Unicode) value into a C <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> value.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subclass_of</span></code></dt><dd><p>Only supported for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code> converter.  Requires that the Python
+value be a subclass of a Python type, as expressed in C.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></dt><dd><p>Only supported for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> converters.  Specifies
+the C type that will be used to declare the variable.  Default value is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zeroes</span></code></dt><dd><p>Only supported for strings.  If true, embedded NUL bytes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\\0'</span></code>) are
+permitted inside the value.  The length of the string will be passed in
+to the impl function, just after the string parameter, as a parameter named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;parameter_name&gt;_length</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Please note, not every possible combination of arguments will work.
+Usually these arguments are implemented by specific <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple</span></code>
+<em>format units</em>, with specific behavior.  For example, currently you cannot
+call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned_short</span></code> without also specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bitwise=True</span></code>.
+Although it’s perfectly reasonable to think this would work, these semantics don’t
+map to any existing format unit.  So Argument Clinic doesn’t support it.  (Or, at
+least, not yet.)</p>
+<p>Below is a table showing the mapping of legacy converters into real
+Argument Clinic converters.  On the left is the legacy converter,
+on the right is the text you’d replace it with.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+<col style="width: 90%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'B'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned_char(bitwise=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned_char</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(accept={str})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'D'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_complex</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'es'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(encoding='name_of_encoding')</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'es#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(encoding='name_of_encoding',</span> <span class="pre">zeroes=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'et'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(encoding='name_of_encoding',</span> <span class="pre">accept={bytes,</span> <span class="pre">bytearray,</span> <span class="pre">str})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'et#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(encoding='name_of_encoding',</span> <span class="pre">accept={bytes,</span> <span class="pre">bytearray,</span> <span class="pre">str},</span> <span class="pre">zeroes=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'h'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'H'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned_short(bitwise=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'I'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned_int(bitwise=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'k'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned_long(bitwise=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'K'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned_long_long(bitwise=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'l'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'L'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O!'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object(subclass_of='&amp;PySomething_Type')</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O&amp;'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object(converter='name_of_c_function')</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'p'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'S'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytesObject</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(zeroes=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s*'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer(accept={buffer,</span> <span class="pre">str})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE(zeroes=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w*'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer(accept={rwbuffer})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Y'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyByteArrayObject</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'y'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(accept={bytes})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'y#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(accept={robuffer},</span> <span class="pre">zeroes=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'y*'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Z'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE(accept={str,</span> <span class="pre">NoneType})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Z#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE(accept={str,</span> <span class="pre">NoneType},</span> <span class="pre">zeroes=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'z'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(accept={str,</span> <span class="pre">NoneType})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'z#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(accept={str,</span> <span class="pre">NoneType},</span> <span class="pre">zeroes=True)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'z*'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer(accept={buffer,</span> <span class="pre">str,</span> <span class="pre">NoneType})</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>As an example, here’s our sample <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.Pickler.dump</span></code> using the proper
+converter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">    obj: object</span>
+<span class="cm">        The object to be pickled.</span>
+<span class="cm">    /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Argument Clinic will show you all the converters it has
+available.  For each converter it’ll show you all the parameters
+it accepts, along with the default value for each parameter.
+Just run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/clinic/clinic.py</span> <span class="pre">--converters</span></code> to see the full list.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="py-buffer">
+<h3>Py_buffer<a class="headerlink" href="#py-buffer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code> converter
+(or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s*'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w*'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*y'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'z*'</span></code> legacy converters),
+you <em>must</em> not call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a> on the provided buffer.
+Argument Clinic generates code that does it for you (in the parsing function).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="advanced-converters">
+<h3>Advanced converters<a class="headerlink" href="#advanced-converters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Remember those format units you skipped for your first
+time because they were advanced?  Here’s how to handle those too.</p>
+<p>The trick is, all those format units take arguments—either
+conversion functions, or types, or strings specifying an encoding.
+(But “legacy converters” don’t support arguments.  That’s why we
+skipped them for your first function.)  The argument you specified
+to the format unit is now an argument to the converter; this
+argument is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter</span></code> (for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O&amp;</span></code>), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subclass_of</span></code> (for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O!</span></code>),
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> (for all the format units that start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code>).</p>
+<p>When using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subclass_of</span></code>, you may also want to use the other
+custom argument for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object()</span></code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code>, which lets you set the type
+actually used for the parameter.  For example, if you want to ensure
+that the object is a subclass of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Type</span></code>, you probably want
+to use the converter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object(type='PyUnicodeObject</span> <span class="pre">*',</span> <span class="pre">subclass_of='&amp;PyUnicode_Type')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>One possible problem with using Argument Clinic: it takes away some possible
+flexibility for the format units starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code>.  When writing a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse</span></code> call by hand, you could theoretically decide at runtime what
+encoding string to pass in to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>.   But now this string must
+be hard-coded at Argument-Clinic-preprocessing-time.  This limitation is deliberate;
+it made supporting this format unit much easier, and may allow for future optimizations.
+This restriction doesn’t seem unreasonable; CPython itself always passes in static
+hard-coded encoding strings for parameters whose format units start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parameter-default-values">
+<span id="default-values"></span><h3>Parameter default values<a class="headerlink" href="#parameter-default-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Default values for parameters can be any of a number of values.
+At their simplest, they can be string, int, or float literals:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>foo: str = &quot;abc&quot;
+bar: int = 123
+bat: float = 45.6
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>They can also use any of Python’s built-in constants:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>yep:  bool = True
+nope: bool = False
+nada: object = None
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s also special support for a default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, and
+for simple expressions, documented in the following sections.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-null-default-value">
+<h3>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> default value<a class="headerlink" href="#the-null-default-value" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For string and object parameters, you can set them to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to indicate
+that there’s no default.  However, that means the C variable will be
+initialized to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code>.  For convenience’s sakes, there’s a special
+value called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> for just this reason: from Python’s perspective it
+behaves like a default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, but the C variable is initialized
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="expressions-specified-as-default-values">
+<h3>Expressions specified as default values<a class="headerlink" href="#expressions-specified-as-default-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The default value for a parameter can be more than just a literal value.
+It can be an entire expression, using math operators and looking up attributes
+on objects.  However, this support isn’t exactly simple, because of some
+non-obvious semantics.</p>
+<p>Consider the following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>foo: Py_ssize_t = sys.maxsize - 1
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code> can have different values on different platforms.  Therefore
+Argument Clinic can’t simply evaluate that expression locally and hard-code it
+in C.  So it stores the default in such a way that it will get evaluated at
+runtime, when the user asks for the function’s signature.</p>
+<p>What namespace is available when the expression is evaluated?  It’s evaluated
+in the context of the module the builtin came from.  So, if your module has an
+attribute called “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_widgets</span></code>”, you may simply use it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>foo: Py_ssize_t = max_widgets
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the symbol isn’t found in the current module, it fails over to looking in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>.  That’s how it can find <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code> for example.  (Since you
+don’t know in advance what modules the user will load into their interpreter,
+it’s best to restrict yourself to modules that are preloaded by Python itself.)</p>
+<p>Evaluating default values only at runtime means Argument Clinic can’t compute
+the correct equivalent C default value.  So you need to tell it explicitly.
+When you use an expression, you must also specify the equivalent expression
+in C, using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_default</span></code> parameter to the converter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>foo: Py_ssize_t(c_default=&quot;PY_SSIZE_T_MAX - 1&quot;) = sys.maxsize - 1
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another complication: Argument Clinic can’t know in advance whether or not the
+expression you supply is valid.  It parses it to make sure it looks legal, but
+it can’t <em>actually</em> know.  You must be very careful when using expressions to
+specify values that are guaranteed to be valid at runtime!</p>
+<p>Finally, because expressions must be representable as static C values, there
+are many restrictions on legal expressions.  Here’s a list of Python features
+you’re not permitted to use:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Function calls.</p></li>
+<li><p>Inline if statements (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">foo</span> <span class="pre">else</span> <span class="pre">5</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Automatic sequence unpacking (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*[1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3]</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>List/set/dict comprehensions and generator expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p>Tuple/list/set/dict literals.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-return-converter">
+<h3>Using a return converter<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-return-converter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default the impl function Argument Clinic generates for you returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.
+But your C function often computes some C type, then converts it into the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>
+at the last moment.  Argument Clinic handles converting your inputs from Python types
+into native C types—why not have it convert your return value from a native C type
+into a Python type too?</p>
+<p>That’s what a “return converter” does.  It changes your impl function to return
+some C type, then adds code to the generated (non-impl) function to handle converting
+that value into the appropriate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The syntax for return converters is similar to that of parameter converters.
+You specify the return converter like it was a return annotation on the
+function itself.  Return converters behave much the same as parameter converters;
+they take arguments, the arguments are all keyword-only, and if you’re not changing
+any of the default arguments you can omit the parentheses.</p>
+<p>(If you use both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;as&quot;</span></code> <em>and</em> a return converter for your function,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;as&quot;</span></code> should come before the return converter.)</p>
+<p>There’s one additional complication when using return converters: how do you
+indicate an error has occurred?  Normally, a function returns a valid (non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>)
+pointer for success, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> for failure.  But if you use an integer return converter,
+all integers are valid.  How can Argument Clinic detect an error?  Its solution: each return
+converter implicitly looks for a special value that indicates an error.  If you return
+that value, and an error has been set (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Occurred()</span></code> returns a true
+value), then the generated code will propagate the error.  Otherwise it will
+encode the value you return like normal.</p>
+<p>Currently Argument Clinic supports only a few return converters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>bool
+int
+unsigned int
+long
+unsigned int
+size_t
+Py_ssize_t
+float
+double
+DecodeFSDefault
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>None of these take parameters.  For the first three, return -1 to indicate
+error.  For <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DecodeFSDefault</span></code>, the return type is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>; return a NULL
+pointer to indicate an error.</p>
+<p>(There’s also an experimental <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoneType</span></code> converter, which lets you
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> on failure, without having
+to increment the reference count on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_None</span></code>.  I’m not sure it adds
+enough clarity to be worth using.)</p>
+<p>To see all the return converters Argument Clinic supports, along with
+their parameters (if any),
+just run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/clinic/clinic.py</span> <span class="pre">--converters</span></code> for the full list.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cloning-existing-functions">
+<h3>Cloning existing functions<a class="headerlink" href="#cloning-existing-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you have a number of functions that look similar, you may be able to
+use Clinic’s “clone” feature.  When you clone an existing function,
+you reuse:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>its parameters, including</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>their names,</p></li>
+<li><p>their converters, with all parameters,</p></li>
+<li><p>their default values,</p></li>
+<li><p>their per-parameter docstrings,</p></li>
+<li><p>their <em>kind</em> (whether they’re positional only,
+positional or keyword, or keyword only), and</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>its return converter.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The only thing not copied from the original function is its docstring;
+the syntax allows you to specify a new docstring.</p>
+<p>Here’s the syntax for cloning a function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">module.class.new_function [as c_basename] = module.class.existing_function</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Docstring for new_function goes here.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The functions can be in different modules or classes.  I wrote
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.class</span></code> in the sample just to illustrate that you must
+use the full path to <em>both</em> functions.)</p>
+<p>Sorry, there’s no syntax for partially-cloning a function, or cloning a function
+then modifying it.  Cloning is an all-or nothing proposition.</p>
+<p>Also, the function you are cloning from must have been previously defined
+in the current file.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calling-python-code">
+<h3>Calling Python code<a class="headerlink" href="#calling-python-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The rest of the advanced topics require you to write Python code
+which lives inside your C file and modifies Argument Clinic’s
+runtime state.  This is simple: you simply define a Python block.</p>
+<p>A Python block uses different delimiter lines than an Argument
+Clinic function block.  It looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[python input]</span>
+<span class="cm"># python code goes here</span>
+<span class="cm">[python start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>All the code inside the Python block is executed at the
+time it’s parsed.  All text written to stdout inside the block
+is redirected into the “output” after the block.</p>
+<p>As an example, here’s a Python block that adds a static integer
+variable to the C code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[python input]</span>
+<span class="cm">print(&#39;static int __ignored_unused_variable__ = 0;&#39;)</span>
+<span class="cm">[python start generated code]*/</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">__ignored_unused_variable__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="cm">/*[python checksum:...]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-self-converter">
+<h3>Using a “self converter”<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-self-converter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Argument Clinic automatically adds a “self” parameter for you
+using a default converter.  It automatically sets the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code>
+of this parameter to the “pointer to an instance” you specified
+when you declared the type.  However, you can override
+Argument Clinic’s converter and specify one yourself.
+Just add your own <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> parameter as the first parameter in a
+block, and ensure that its converter is an instance of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self_converter</span></code> or a subclass thereof.</p>
+<p>What’s the point?  This lets you override the type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>,
+or give it a different default name.</p>
+<p>How do you specify the custom type you want to cast <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> to?
+If you only have one or two functions with the same type for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>,
+you can directly use Argument Clinic’s existing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> converter,
+passing in the type you want to use as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> parameter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">  self: self(type=&quot;PicklerObject *&quot;)</span>
+<span class="cm">  obj: object</span>
+<span class="cm">  /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of the given object to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On the other hand, if you have a lot of functions that will use the same
+type for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>, it’s best to create your own converter, subclassing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self_converter</span></code> but overwriting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> member:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[python input]</span>
+<span class="cm">class PicklerObject_converter(self_converter):</span>
+<span class="cm">    type = &quot;PicklerObject *&quot;</span>
+<span class="cm">[python start generated code]*/</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+
+<span class="cm">_pickle.Pickler.dump</span>
+
+<span class="cm">  self: PicklerObject</span>
+<span class="cm">  obj: object</span>
+<span class="cm">  /</span>
+
+<span class="cm">Write a pickled representation of the given object to the open file.</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-a-custom-converter">
+<h3>Writing a custom converter<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-a-custom-converter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As we hinted at in the previous section… you can write your own converters!
+A converter is simply a Python class that inherits from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CConverter</span></code>.
+The main purpose of a custom converter is if you have a parameter using
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O&amp;</span></code> format unit—parsing this parameter means calling
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> “converter function”.</p>
+<p>Your converter class should be named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*something*_converter</span></code>.
+If the name follows this convention, then your converter class
+will be automatically registered with Argument Clinic; its name
+will be the name of your class with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_converter</span></code> suffix
+stripped off.  (This is accomplished with a metaclass.)</p>
+<p>You shouldn’t subclass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CConverter.__init__</span></code>.  Instead, you should
+write a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter_init()</span></code> function.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter_init()</span></code>
+always accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> parameter; after that, all additional
+parameters <em>must</em> be keyword-only.  Any arguments passed in to
+the converter in Argument Clinic will be passed along to your
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter_init()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There are some additional members of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CConverter</span></code> you may wish
+to specify in your subclass.  Here’s the current list:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></dt><dd><p>The C type to use for this variable.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> should be a Python string specifying the type, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.
+If this is a pointer type, the type string should end with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">*'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code></dt><dd><p>The Python default value for this parameter, as a Python value.
+Or the magic value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unspecified</span></code> if there is no default.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_default</span></code></dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> as it should appear in Python code,
+as a string.
+Or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if there is no default.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_default</span></code></dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> as it should appear in C code,
+as a string.
+Or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if there is no default.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ignored_default</span></code></dt><dd><p>The default value used to initialize the C variable when
+there is no default, but not specifying a default may
+result in an “uninitialized variable” warning.  This can
+easily happen when using option groups—although
+properly-written code will never actually use this value,
+the variable does get passed in to the impl, and the
+C compiler will complain about the “use” of the
+uninitialized value.  This value should always be a
+non-empty string.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter</span></code></dt><dd><p>The name of the C converter function, as a string.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">impl_by_reference</span></code></dt><dd><p>A boolean value.  If true,
+Argument Clinic will add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> in front of the name of
+the variable when passing it into the impl function.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_by_reference</span></code></dt><dd><p>A boolean value.  If true,
+Argument Clinic will add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> in front of the name of
+the variable when passing it into <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Here’s the simplest example of a custom converter, from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/zlibmodule.c</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[python input]</span>
+
+<span class="cm">class ssize_t_converter(CConverter):</span>
+<span class="cm">    type = &#39;Py_ssize_t&#39;</span>
+<span class="cm">    converter = &#39;ssize_t_converter&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="cm">[python start generated code]*/</span>
+<span class="cm">/*[python end generated code: output=da39a3ee5e6b4b0d input=35521e4e733823c7]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This block adds a converter to Argument Clinic named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code>.  Parameters
+declared as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code> will be declared as type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>, and will
+be parsed by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O&amp;'</span></code> format unit, which will call the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t_converter</span></code> converter function.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code> variables
+automatically support default values.</p>
+<p>More sophisticated custom converters can insert custom C code to
+handle initialization and cleanup.
+You can see more examples of custom converters in the CPython
+source tree; grep the C files for the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CConverter</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-a-custom-return-converter">
+<h3>Writing a custom return converter<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-a-custom-return-converter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Writing a custom return converter is much like writing
+a custom converter.  Except it’s somewhat simpler, because return
+converters are themselves much simpler.</p>
+<p>Return converters must subclass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CReturnConverter</span></code>.
+There are no examples yet of custom return converters,
+because they are not widely used yet.  If you wish to
+write your own return converter, please read <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/clinic/clinic.py</span></code>,
+specifically the implementation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CReturnConverter</span></code> and
+all its subclasses.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="meth-o-and-meth-noargs">
+<h3>METH_O and METH_NOARGS<a class="headerlink" href="#meth-o-and-meth-noargs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To convert a function using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_O</span></code>, make sure the function’s
+single argument is using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code> converter, and mark the
+arguments as positional-only:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">meth_o_sample</span>
+
+<span class="cm">     argument: object</span>
+<span class="cm">     /</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To convert a function using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_NOARGS</span></code>, just don’t specify
+any arguments.</p>
+<p>You can still use a self converter, a return converter, and specify
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> argument to the object converter for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_O</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tp-new-and-tp-init-functions">
+<h3>tp_new and tp_init functions<a class="headerlink" href="#tp-new-and-tp-init-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can convert <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code> functions.  Just name
+them <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> as appropriate.  Notes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The function name generated for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code> doesn’t end in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code>
+like it would by default.  It’s just the name of the class, converted
+into a valid C identifier.</p></li>
+<li><p>No <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#define</span></code> is generated for these functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> functions return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Use the docstring as the class docstring.</p></li>
+<li><p>Although <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> functions must always
+accept both the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs</span></code> objects, when converting
+you may specify any signature for these functions that you like.
+(If your function doesn’t support keywords, the parsing function
+generated will throw an exception if it receives any.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changing-and-redirecting-clinic-s-output">
+<h3>Changing and redirecting Clinic’s output<a class="headerlink" href="#changing-and-redirecting-clinic-s-output" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It can be inconvenient to have Clinic’s output interspersed with
+your conventional hand-edited C code.  Luckily, Clinic is configurable:
+you can buffer up its output for printing later (or earlier!), or write
+its output to a separate file.  You can also add a prefix or suffix to
+every line of Clinic’s generated output.</p>
+<p>While changing Clinic’s output in this manner can be a boon to readability,
+it may result in Clinic code using types before they are defined, or
+your code attempting to use Clinic-generated code before it is defined.
+These problems can be easily solved by rearranging the declarations in your file,
+or moving where Clinic’s generated code goes.  (This is why the default behavior
+of Clinic is to output everything into the current block; while many people
+consider this hampers readability, it will never require rearranging your
+code to fix definition-before-use problems.)</p>
+<p>Let’s start with defining some terminology:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><em>field</em></dt><dd><p>A field, in this context, is a subsection of Clinic’s output.
+For example, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#define</span></code> for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code> structure
+is a field, called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methoddef_define</span></code>.  Clinic has seven
+different fields it can output per function definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>docstring_prototype
+docstring_definition
+methoddef_define
+impl_prototype
+parser_prototype
+parser_definition
+impl_definition
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>All the names are of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;a&gt;_&lt;b&gt;&quot;</span></code>,
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;a&gt;&quot;</span></code> is the semantic object represented (the parsing function,
+the impl function, the docstring, or the methoddef structure) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;b&gt;&quot;</span></code>
+represents what kind of statement the field is.  Field names that end in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;_prototype&quot;</span></code>
+represent forward declarations of that thing, without the actual body/data
+of the thing; field names that end in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;_definition&quot;</span></code> represent the actual
+definition of the thing, with the body/data of the thing.  (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;methoddef&quot;</span></code>
+is special, it’s the only one that ends with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;_define&quot;</span></code>, representing that
+it’s a preprocessor #define.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><em>destination</em></dt><dd><p>A destination is a place Clinic can write output to.  There are
+five built-in destinations:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code></dt><dd><p>The default destination: printed in the output section of
+the current Clinic block.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code></dt><dd><p>A text buffer where you can save text for later.  Text sent
+here is appended to the end of any existing text.  It’s an
+error to have any text left in the buffer when Clinic finishes
+processing a file.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code></dt><dd><p>A separate “clinic file” that will be created automatically by Clinic.
+The filename chosen for the file is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{basename}.clinic{extension}</span></code>,
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basename</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extension</span></code> were assigned the output
+from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.splitext()</span></code> run on the current file.  (Example:
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> destination for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pickle.c</span></code> would be written to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pickle.clinic.c</span></code>.)</p>
+<p><strong>Important: When using a</strong> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> <strong>destination, you</strong>
+<em>must check in</em> <strong>the generated file!</strong></p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">two-pass</span></code></dt><dd><p>A buffer like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code>.  However, a two-pass buffer can only
+be dumped once, and it prints out all text sent to it during
+all processing, even from Clinic blocks <em>after</em> the dumping point.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suppress</span></code></dt><dd><p>The text is suppressed—thrown away.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Clinic defines five new directives that let you reconfigure its output.</p>
+<p>The first new directive is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>dump &lt;destination&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This dumps the current contents of the named destination into the output of
+the current block, and empties it.  This only works with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">two-pass</span></code> destinations.</p>
+<p>The second new directive is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span></code>.  The most basic form of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span></code>
+is like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>output &lt;field&gt; &lt;destination&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This tells Clinic to output <em>field</em> to <em>destination</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span></code> also
+supports a special meta-destination, called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">everything</span></code>, which tells
+Clinic to output <em>all</em> fields to that <em>destination</em>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span></code> has a number of other functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>output push
+output pop
+output preset &lt;preset&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span> <span class="pre">push</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span> <span class="pre">pop</span></code> allow you to push and pop
+configurations on an internal configuration stack, so that you
+can temporarily modify the output configuration, then easily restore
+the previous configuration.  Simply push before your change to save
+the current configuration, then pop when you wish to restore the
+previous configuration.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span> <span class="pre">preset</span></code> sets Clinic’s output to one of several built-in
+preset configurations, as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code></dt><dd><p>Clinic’s original starting configuration.  Writes everything
+immediately after the input block.</p>
+<p>Suppress the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_prototype</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docstring_prototype</span></code>, write everything else to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code></dt><dd><p>Designed to write everything to the “clinic file” that it can.
+You then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#include</span></code> this file near the top of your file.
+You may need to rearrange your file to make this work, though
+usually this just means creating forward declarations for various
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typedef</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code> definitions.</p>
+<p>Suppress the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_prototype</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docstring_prototype</span></code>, write the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">impl_definition</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code>, and write everything else to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default filename is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;{dirname}/clinic/{basename}.h&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code></dt><dd><p>Save up most of the output from Clinic, to be written into
+your file near the end.  For Python files implementing modules
+or builtin types, it’s recommended that you dump the buffer
+just above the static structures for your module or
+builtin type; these are normally very near the end.  Using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> may require even more editing than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>, if
+your file has static <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code> arrays defined in the
+middle of the file.</p>
+<p>Suppress the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_prototype</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">impl_prototype</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docstring_prototype</span></code>, write the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">impl_definition</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code>, and write everything else to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">two-pass</span></code></dt><dd><p>Similar to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> preset, but writes forward declarations to
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">two-pass</span></code> buffer, and definitions to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code>.
+This is similar to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> preset, but may require
+less editing than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code>.  Dump the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">two-pass</span></code> buffer
+near the top of your file, and dump the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> near
+the end just like you would when using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> preset.</p>
+<p>Suppresses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">impl_prototype</span></code>, write the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">impl_definition</span></code>
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code>, write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docstring_prototype</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methoddef_define</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_prototype</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">two-pass</span></code>, write everything else
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial-buffer</span></code></dt><dd><p>Similar to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> preset, but writes more things to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code>,
+only writing the really big chunks of generated code to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code>.
+This avoids the definition-before-use problem of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> completely,
+at the small cost of having slightly more stuff in the block’s output.
+Dump the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> near the end, just like you would when using
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> preset.</p>
+<p>Suppresses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">impl_prototype</span></code>, write the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docstring_definition</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_definition</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code>, write everything else to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The third new directive is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">destination</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>destination &lt;name&gt; &lt;command&gt; [...]
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This performs an operation on the destination named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There are two defined subcommands: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> subcommand works like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>destination &lt;name&gt; new &lt;type&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This creates a new destination with name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;name&gt;</span></code> and type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;type&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There are five destination types:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suppress</span></code></dt><dd><p>Throws the text away.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block</span></code></dt><dd><p>Writes the text to the current block.  This is what Clinic
+originally did.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code></dt><dd><p>A simple text buffer, like the “buffer” builtin destination above.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code></dt><dd><p>A text file.  The file destination takes an extra argument,
+a template to use for building the filename, like so:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>destination &lt;name&gt; new &lt;type&gt; &lt;file_template&gt;</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The template can use three strings internally that will be replaced
+by bits of the filename:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="simple">
+<dt>{path}</dt><dd><p>The full path to the file, including directory and full filename.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>{dirname}</dt><dd><p>The name of the directory the file is in.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>{basename}</dt><dd><p>Just the name of the file, not including the directory.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>{basename_root}</dt><dd><p>Basename with the extension clipped off
+(everything up to but not including the last ‘.’).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>{basename_extension}</dt><dd><p>The last ‘.’ and everything after it.  If the basename
+does not contain a period, this will be the empty string.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If there are no periods in the filename, {basename} and {filename}
+are the same, and {extension} is empty.  “{basename}{extension}”
+is always exactly the same as “{filename}”.”</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">two-pass</span></code></dt><dd><p>A two-pass buffer, like the “two-pass” builtin destination above.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code> subcommand works like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>destination &lt;name&gt; clear
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It removes all the accumulated text up to this point in the destination.
+(I don’t know what you’d need this for, but I thought maybe it’d be
+useful while someone’s experimenting.)</p>
+<p>The fourth new directive is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>set line_prefix &quot;string&quot;
+set line_suffix &quot;string&quot;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code> lets you set two internal variables in Clinic.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line_prefix</span></code> is a string that will be prepended to every line of Clinic’s output;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line_suffix</span></code> is a string that will be appended to every line of Clinic’s output.</p>
+<p>Both of these support two format strings:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{block</span> <span class="pre">comment</span> <span class="pre">start}</span></code></dt><dd><p>Turns into the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/*</span></code>, the start-comment text sequence for C files.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{block</span> <span class="pre">comment</span> <span class="pre">end}</span></code></dt><dd><p>Turns into the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*/</span></code>, the end-comment text sequence for C files.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The final new directive is one you shouldn’t need to use directly,
+called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">preserve</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>preserve
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This tells Clinic that the current contents of the output should be kept, unmodified.
+This is used internally by Clinic when dumping output into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> files; wrapping
+it in a Clinic block lets Clinic use its existing checksum functionality to ensure
+the file was not modified by hand before it gets overwritten.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-ifdef-trick">
+<h3>The #ifdef trick<a class="headerlink" href="#the-ifdef-trick" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you’re converting a function that isn’t available on all platforms,
+there’s a trick you can use to make life a little easier.  The existing
+code probably looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#ifdef HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="nf">module_functionname</span><span class="p">(...)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif </span><span class="cm">/* HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And then in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code> structure at the bottom the existing code
+will have:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>#ifdef HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME
+{&#39;functionname&#39;, ... },
+#endif /* HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME */
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this scenario, you should enclose the body of your impl function inside the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#ifdef</span></code>,
+like so:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#ifdef HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME</span>
+<span class="cm">/*[clinic input]</span>
+<span class="cm">module.functionname</span>
+<span class="cm">...</span>
+<span class="cm">[clinic start generated code]*/</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="nf">module_functionname</span><span class="p">(...)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+<span class="p">...</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif </span><span class="cm">/* HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then, remove those three lines from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code> structure,
+replacing them with the macro Argument Clinic generated:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(You can find the real name for this macro inside the generated code.
+Or you can calculate it yourself: it’s the name of your function as defined
+on the first line of your block, but with periods changed to underscores,
+uppercased, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;_METHODDEF&quot;</span></code> added to the end.)</p>
+<p>Perhaps you’re wondering: what if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAVE_FUNCTIONNAME</span></code> isn’t defined?
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF</span></code> macro won’t be defined either!</p>
+<p>Here’s where Argument Clinic gets very clever.  It actually detects that the
+Argument Clinic block might be deactivated by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#ifdef</span></code>.  When that
+happens, it generates a little extra code that looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#ifndef MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF</span>
+    <span class="cp">#define MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif </span><span class="cm">/* !defined(MODULE_FUNCTIONNAME_METHODDEF) */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That means the macro always works.  If the function is defined, this turns
+into the correct structure, including the trailing comma.  If the function is
+undefined, this turns into nothing.</p>
+<p>However, this causes one ticklish problem: where should Argument Clinic put this
+extra code when using the “block” output preset?  It can’t go in the output block,
+because that could be deactivated by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#ifdef</span></code>.  (That’s the whole point!)</p>
+<p>In this situation, Argument Clinic writes the extra code to the “buffer” destination.
+This may mean that you get a complaint from Argument Clinic:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Warning in file &quot;Modules/posixmodule.c&quot; on line 12357:
+Destination buffer &#39;buffer&#39; not empty at end of file, emptying.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When this happens, just open your file, find the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump</span> <span class="pre">buffer</span></code> block that
+Argument Clinic added to your file (it’ll be at the very bottom), then
+move it above the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code> structure where that macro is used.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-argument-clinic-in-python-files">
+<h3>Using Argument Clinic in Python files<a class="headerlink" href="#using-argument-clinic-in-python-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It’s actually possible to use Argument Clinic to preprocess Python files.
+There’s no point to using Argument Clinic blocks, of course, as the output
+wouldn’t make any sense to the Python interpreter.  But using Argument Clinic
+to run Python blocks lets you use Python as a Python preprocessor!</p>
+<p>Since Python comments are different from C comments, Argument Clinic
+blocks embedded in Python files look slightly different.  They look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">#/*[python input]</span>
+<span class="c1">#print(&quot;def foo(): pass&quot;)</span>
+<span class="c1">#[python start generated code]*/</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="c1">#/*[python checksum:...]*/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Argument Clinic How-To</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-goals-of-argument-clinic">The Goals Of Argument Clinic</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-concepts-and-usage">Basic Concepts And Usage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#converting-your-first-function">Converting Your First Function</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#advanced-topics">Advanced Topics</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#symbolic-default-values">Symbolic default values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#renaming-the-c-functions-and-variables-generated-by-argument-clinic">Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument Clinic</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#converting-functions-using-pyarg-unpacktuple">Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optional-groups">Optional Groups</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-real-argument-clinic-converters-instead-of-legacy-converters">Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of “legacy converters”</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#py-buffer">Py_buffer</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#advanced-converters">Advanced converters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parameter-default-values">Parameter default values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-null-default-value">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> default value</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#expressions-specified-as-default-values">Expressions specified as default values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-return-converter">Using a return converter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cloning-existing-functions">Cloning existing functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calling-python-code">Calling Python code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-self-converter">Using a “self converter”</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-a-custom-converter">Writing a custom converter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-a-custom-return-converter">Writing a custom return converter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#meth-o-and-meth-noargs">METH_O and METH_NOARGS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tp-new-and-tp-init-functions">tp_new and tp_init functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changing-and-redirecting-clinic-s-output">Changing and redirecting Clinic’s output</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-ifdef-trick">The #ifdef trick</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-argument-clinic-in-python-files">Using Argument Clinic in Python files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+                        title="previous chapter">An introduction to the ipaddress module</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/cporting.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/cporting.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d3b2e1b
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@@ -0,0 +1,564 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="porting-extension-modules-to-python-3">
+<span id="cporting-howto"></span><h1>Porting Extension Modules to Python 3<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-extension-modules-to-python-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Benjamin Peterson</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="topic">
+<p class="topic-title first">Abstract</p>
+<p>Although changing the C-API was not one of Python 3’s objectives,
+the many Python-level changes made leaving Python 2’s API intact
+impossible.  In fact, some changes such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long()</span></code> unification are more obvious on the C level.  This
+document endeavors to document incompatibilities and how they can
+be worked around.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conditional-compilation">
+<h2>Conditional compilation<a class="headerlink" href="#conditional-compilation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The easiest way to compile only some code for Python 3 is to check
+if <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_MAJOR_VERSION</span></code> is greater than or equal to 3.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#if PY_MAJOR_VERSION &gt;= 3</span>
+<span class="cp">#define IS_PY3K</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>API functions that are not present can be aliased to their equivalents within
+conditional blocks.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-to-object-apis">
+<h2>Changes to Object APIs<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-to-object-apis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 3 merged together some types with similar functions while cleanly
+separating others.</p>
+<div class="section" id="str-unicode-unification">
+<h3>str/unicode Unification<a class="headerlink" href="#str-unicode-unification" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> type is equivalent to Python 2’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode()</span></code>; the C
+functions are called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_*</span></code> for both.  The old 8-bit string type has become
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code></a>, with C functions called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_*</span></code>.  Python 2.6 and later provide a compatibility header,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytesobject.h</span></code>, mapping <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes</span></code> names to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyString</span></code> ones.  For best
+compatibility with Python 3, <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode</span></code> should be used for textual data and
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes</span></code> for binary data.  It’s also important to remember that
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode</span></code> in Python 3 are not interchangeable like
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyString</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode</span></code> are in Python 2.  The following example
+shows best practices with regards to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyString</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;stdlib.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;Python.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;bytesobject.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* text example */</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">say_hello</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;U:say_hello&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;Hello, %S!&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* just a forward */</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="nf">do_encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* bytes example */</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">encode_object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">encoded</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">myobj</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;O:encode_object&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">myobj</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">encoded</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">do_encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myobj</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">encoded</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyBytes_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">encoded</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">encoded</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="long-int-unification">
+<h3>long/int Unification<a class="headerlink" href="#long-int-unification" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3 has only one integer type, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a>.  But it actually
+corresponds to Python 2’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long()</span></code> type—the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> type
+used in Python 2 was removed.  In the C-API, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInt_*</span></code> functions
+are replaced by their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_*</span></code> equivalents.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-initialization-and-state">
+<h2>Module initialization and state<a class="headerlink" href="#module-initialization-and-state" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 3 has a revamped extension module initialization system.  (See
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3121"><strong>PEP 3121</strong></a>.)  Instead of storing module state in globals, they should
+be stored in an interpreter specific structure.  Creating modules that
+act correctly in both Python 2 and Python 3 is tricky.  The following
+simple example demonstrates how.</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">&quot;Python.h&quot;</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">module_state</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#if PY_MAJOR_VERSION &gt;= 3</span>
+<span class="cp">#define GETSTATE(m) ((struct module_state*)PyModule_GetState(m))</span>
+<span class="cp">#else</span>
+<span class="cp">#define GETSTATE(m) (&amp;_state)</span>
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">module_state</span> <span class="n">_state</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">error_out</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">module_state</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">st</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">GETSTATE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">st</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;something bad happened&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">myextension_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&quot;error_out&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">error_out</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#if PY_MAJOR_VERSION &gt;= 3</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="nf">myextension_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">GETSTATE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="nf">myextension_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">GETSTATE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">moduledef</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s">&quot;myextension&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">module_state</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="n">myextension_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">myextension_traverse</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">myextension_clear</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="nb">NULL</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define INITERROR return NULL</span>
+
+<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
+<span class="nf">PyInit_myextension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#else</span>
+<span class="cp">#define INITERROR return</span>
+
+<span class="kt">void</span>
+<span class="n">initmyextension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+<span class="cp">#if PY_MAJOR_VERSION &gt;= 3</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">moduledef</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="cp">#else</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_InitModule</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;myextension&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">myextension_methods</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">INITERROR</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">module_state</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">st</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">GETSTATE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="n">st</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">error</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyErr_NewException</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;myextension.Error&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">st</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">error</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="n">INITERROR</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#if PY_MAJOR_VERSION &gt;= 3</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="cp">#endif</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cobject-replaced-with-capsule">
+<h2>CObject replaced with Capsule<a class="headerlink" href="#cobject-replaced-with-capsule" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Capsule</span></code> object was introduced in Python 3.1 and 2.7 to replace
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CObject</span></code>.  CObjects were useful,
+but the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CObject</span></code> API was problematic: it didn’t permit distinguishing
+between valid CObjects, which allowed mismatched CObjects to crash the
+interpreter, and some of its APIs relied on undefined behavior in C.
+(For further reading on the rationale behind Capsules, please see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5630">bpo-5630</a>.)</p>
+<p>If you’re currently using CObjects, and you want to migrate to 3.1 or newer,
+you’ll need to switch to Capsules.
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CObject</span></code> was deprecated in 3.1 and 2.7 and completely removed in
+Python 3.2.  If you only support 2.7, or 3.1 and above, you
+can simply switch to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Capsule</span></code>.  If you need to support Python 3.0,
+or versions of Python earlier than 2.7,
+you’ll have to support both CObjects and Capsules.
+(Note that Python 3.0 is no longer supported, and it is not recommended
+for production use.)</p>
+<p>The following example header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capsulethunk.h</span></code> may
+solve the problem for you.  Simply write your code against the
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Capsule</span></code> API and include this header file after
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code>.  Your code will automatically use Capsules
+in versions of Python with Capsules, and switch to CObjects
+when Capsules are unavailable.</p>
+<p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capsulethunk.h</span></code> simulates Capsules using CObjects.  However,
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CObject</span></code> provides no place to store the capsule’s “name”.  As a
+result the simulated <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Capsule</span></code> objects created by <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capsulethunk.h</span></code>
+behave slightly differently from real Capsules.  Specifically:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The name parameter passed in to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_New" title="PyCapsule_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_New()</span></code></a> is ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p>The name parameter passed in to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_IsValid" title="PyCapsule_IsValid"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_IsValid()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetPointer" title="PyCapsule_GetPointer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_GetPointer()</span></code></a> is ignored, and no error checking
+of the name is performed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_GetName" title="PyCapsule_GetName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_GetName()</span></code></a> always returns NULL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetName" title="PyCapsule_SetName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_SetName()</span></code></a> always raises an exception and
+returns failure.  (Since there’s no way to store a name
+in a CObject, noisy failure of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_SetName" title="PyCapsule_SetName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_SetName()</span></code></a>
+was deemed preferable to silent failure here.  If this is
+inconvenient, feel free to modify your local
+copy as you see fit.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>You can find <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capsulethunk.h</span></code> in the Python source distribution
+as <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Doc/includes/capsulethunk.h">Doc/includes/capsulethunk.h</a>.  We also include it here for
+your convenience:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#ifndef __CAPSULETHUNK_H</span>
+<span class="cp">#define __CAPSULETHUNK_H</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#if (    (PY_VERSION_HEX &lt;  0x02070000) \</span>
+<span class="cp">     || ((PY_VERSION_HEX &gt;= 0x03000000) \</span>
+<span class="cp">      &amp;&amp; (PY_VERSION_HEX &lt;  0x03010000)) )</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define __PyCapsule_GetField(capsule, field, default_value) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    ( PyCapsule_CheckExact(capsule) \</span>
+<span class="cp">        ? (((PyCObject *)capsule)-&gt;field) \</span>
+<span class="cp">        : (default_value) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    ) \</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define __PyCapsule_SetField(capsule, field, value) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    ( PyCapsule_CheckExact(capsule) \</span>
+<span class="cp">        ? (((PyCObject *)capsule)-&gt;field = value), 1 \</span>
+<span class="cp">        : 0 \</span>
+<span class="cp">    ) \</span>
+
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_Type PyCObject_Type</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_CheckExact(capsule) (PyCObject_Check(capsule))</span>
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, name) (PyCObject_Check(capsule))</span>
+
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_New(pointer, name, destructor) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    (PyCObject_FromVoidPtr(pointer, destructor))</span>
+
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, name) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    (PyCObject_AsVoidPtr(capsule))</span>
+
+<span class="cm">/* Don&#39;t call PyCObject_SetPointer here, it fails if there&#39;s a destructor */</span>
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_SetPointer(capsule, pointer) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    __PyCapsule_SetField(capsule, cobject, pointer)</span>
+
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_GetDestructor(capsule) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    __PyCapsule_GetField(capsule, destructor)</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_SetDestructor(capsule, dtor) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    __PyCapsule_SetField(capsule, destructor, dtor)</span>
+
+
+<span class="cm">/*</span>
+<span class="cm"> * Sorry, there&#39;s simply no place</span>
+<span class="cm"> * to store a Capsule &quot;name&quot; in a CObject.</span>
+<span class="cm"> */</span>
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_GetName(capsule) NULL</span>
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
+<span class="nf">PyCapsule_SetName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">capsule</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">unused</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">unused</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">unused</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_NotImplementedError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s">&quot;can&#39;t use PyCapsule_SetName with CObjects&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_GetContext(capsule) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    __PyCapsule_GetField(capsule, descr)</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#define PyCapsule_SetContext(capsule, context) \</span>
+<span class="cp">    __PyCapsule_SetField(capsule, descr, context)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="nf">PyCapsule_Import</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">no_block</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">object</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">trace</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="kt">size_t</span> <span class="n">name_length</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">strlen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name_dup</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">PyMem_MALLOC</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name_length</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">name_dup</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+    <span class="n">memcpy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name_dup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name_length</span><span class="p">);</span>
+
+    <span class="n">trace</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name_dup</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trace</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">dot</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trace</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sc">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">dot</span><span class="o">++</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sc">&#39;\0&#39;</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">object</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">no_block</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="n">object</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trace</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="n">object</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyImport_ImportModule</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trace</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                    <span class="n">PyErr_Format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_ImportError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="s">&quot;PyCapsule_Import could not &quot;</span>
+                        <span class="s">&quot;import module </span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s">%s</span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">trace</span><span class="p">);</span>
+                <span class="p">}</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">object2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_GetAttrString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">trace</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">);</span>
+            <span class="n">object</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">object2</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="k">goto</span> <span class="n">EXIT</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+
+        <span class="n">trace</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCObject_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyCObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">cobject</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">;</span>
+        <span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cobject</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">cobject</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_Format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s">&quot;PyCapsule_Import </span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s">%s</span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s"> is not valid&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="nl">EXIT</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name_dup</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyMem_FREE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name_dup</span><span class="p">);</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="cp">#endif </span><span class="cm">/* #if PY_VERSION_HEX &lt; 0x02070000 */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+
+<span class="cp">#endif </span><span class="cm">/* __CAPSULETHUNK_H */</span><span class="cp"></span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-options">
+<h2>Other options<a class="headerlink" href="#other-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you are writing a new extension module, you might consider <a class="reference external" href="http://cython.org/">Cython</a>.  It translates a Python-like language to C.  The
+extension modules it creates are compatible with Python 3 and Python 2.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Porting Extension Modules to Python 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conditional-compilation">Conditional compilation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-to-object-apis">Changes to Object APIs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#str-unicode-unification">str/unicode Unification</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#long-int-unification">long/int Unification</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-initialization-and-state">Module initialization and state</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cobject-replaced-with-capsule">CObject replaced with Capsule</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-options">Other options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pyporting.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="curses.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Curses Programming with Python</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/howto/cporting.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+      </div>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="curses-programming-with-python">
+<span id="curses-howto"></span><h1>Curses Programming with Python<a class="headerlink" href="#curses-programming-with-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">Release</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>2.04</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="topic">
+<p class="topic-title first">Abstract</p>
+<p>This document describes how to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> extension
+module to control text-mode displays.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-curses">
+<h2>What is curses?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-curses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The curses library supplies a terminal-independent screen-painting and
+keyboard-handling facility for text-based terminals; such terminals
+include VT100s, the Linux console, and the simulated terminal provided
+by various programs.  Display terminals support various control codes
+to perform common operations such as moving the cursor, scrolling the
+screen, and erasing areas.  Different terminals use widely differing
+codes, and often have their own minor quirks.</p>
+<p>In a world of graphical displays, one might ask “why bother”?  It’s
+true that character-cell display terminals are an obsolete technology,
+but there are niches in which being able to do fancy things with them
+are still valuable.  One niche is on small-footprint or embedded
+Unixes that don’t run an X server.  Another is tools such as OS
+installers and kernel configurators that may have to run before any
+graphical support is available.</p>
+<p>The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the
+programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple
+non-overlapping windows of text.  The contents of a window can be
+changed in various ways—adding text, erasing it, changing its
+appearance—and the curses library will figure out what control codes
+need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output.  curses
+doesn’t provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons, checkboxes,
+or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user interface library such as
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/urwid/">Urwid</a>.</p>
+<p>The curses library was originally written for BSD Unix; the later System V
+versions of Unix from AT&amp;T added many enhancements and new functions. BSD curses
+is no longer maintained, having been replaced by ncurses, which is an
+open-source implementation of the AT&amp;T interface.  If you’re using an
+open-source Unix such as Linux or FreeBSD, your system almost certainly uses
+ncurses.  Since most current commercial Unix versions are based on System V
+code, all the functions described here will probably be available.  The older
+versions of curses carried by some proprietary Unixes may not support
+everything, though.</p>
+<p>The Windows version of Python doesn’t include the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a>
+module.  A ported version called <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses">UniCurses</a> is available.  You could
+also try <a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/console-index.htm">the Console module</a>
+written by Fredrik Lundh, which doesn’t
+use the same API as curses but provides cursor-addressable text output
+and full support for mouse and keyboard input.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-python-curses-module">
+<h3>The Python curses module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-curses-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions provided by
+curses; if you’re already familiar with curses programming in C, it’s really
+easy to transfer that knowledge to Python.  The biggest difference is that the
+Python interface makes things simpler by merging different C functions such as
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addstr()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mvaddstr()</span></code>, and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mvwaddstr()</span></code> into a single
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.addstr" title="curses.window.addstr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addstr()</span></code></a> method.  You’ll see this covered in more
+detail later.</p>
+<p>This HOWTO is an introduction to writing text-mode programs with curses
+and Python. It doesn’t attempt to be a complete guide to the curses API; for
+that, see the Python library guide’s section on ncurses, and the C manual pages
+for ncurses.  It will, however, give you the basic ideas.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="starting-and-ending-a-curses-application">
+<h2>Starting and ending a curses application<a class="headerlink" href="#starting-and-ending-a-curses-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Before doing anything, curses must be initialized.  This is done by
+calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a> function, which will determine the
+terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and
+create various internal data structures.  If successful,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code> returns a window object representing the entire
+screen; this is usually called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdscr</span></code> after the name of the
+corresponding C variable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">curses</span>
+<span class="n">stdscr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">initscr</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Usually curses applications turn off automatic echoing of keys to the
+screen, in order to be able to read keys and only display them under
+certain circumstances.  This requires calling the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.noecho" title="curses.noecho"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noecho()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">noecho</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Applications will also commonly need to react to keys instantly,
+without requiring the Enter key to be pressed; this is called cbreak
+mode, as opposed to the usual buffered input mode.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cbreak</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Terminals usually return special keys, such as the cursor keys or navigation
+keys such as Page Up and Home, as a multibyte escape sequence.  While you could
+write your application to expect such sequences and process them accordingly,
+curses can do it for you, returning a special value such as
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.KEY_LEFT</span></code>.  To get curses to do the job, you’ll have to enable
+keypad mode.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keypad</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Terminating a curses application is much easier than starting one. You’ll need
+to call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nocbreak</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keypad</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to reverse the curses-friendly terminal settings. Then call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.endwin" title="curses.endwin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endwin()</span></code></a> function to restore the terminal to its original
+operating mode.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">endwin</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A common problem when debugging a curses application is to get your terminal
+messed up when the application dies without restoring the terminal to its
+previous state.  In Python this commonly happens when your code is buggy and
+raises an uncaught exception.  Keys are no longer echoed to the screen when
+you type them, for example, which makes using the shell difficult.</p>
+<p>In Python you can avoid these complications and make debugging much easier by
+importing the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.wrapper" title="curses.wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.wrapper()</span></code></a> function and using it like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">curses</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">wrapper</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Clear screen</span>
+    <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clear</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10.</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span>
+        <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addstr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;10 divided by </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1"> is </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">refresh</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getkey</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.wrapper" title="curses.wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapper()</span></code></a> function takes a callable object and does the
+initializations described above, also initializing colors if color
+support is present.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapper()</span></code> then runs your provided callable.
+Once the callable returns, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapper()</span></code> will restore the original
+state of the terminal.  The callable is called inside a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> that catches exceptions, restores
+the state of the terminal, and then re-raises the exception.  Therefore
+your terminal won’t be left in a funny state on exception and you’ll be
+able to read the exception’s message and traceback.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="windows-and-pads">
+<h2>Windows and Pads<a class="headerlink" href="#windows-and-pads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Windows are the basic abstraction in curses.  A window object represents a
+rectangular area of the screen, and supports methods to display text,
+erase it, allow the user to input strings, and so forth.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdscr</span></code> object returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a> function is a
+window object that covers the entire screen.  Many programs may need
+only this single window, but you might wish to divide the screen into
+smaller windows, in order to redraw or clear them separately. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.newwin" title="curses.newwin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newwin()</span></code></a> function creates a new window of a given size,
+returning the new window object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">begin_x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">begin_y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">7</span>
+<span class="n">height</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">40</span>
+<span class="n">win</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">newwin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">height</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">begin_y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">begin_x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the coordinate system used in curses is unusual.
+Coordinates are always passed in the order <em>y,x</em>, and the top-left
+corner of a window is coordinate (0,0).  This breaks the normal
+convention for handling coordinates where the <em>x</em> coordinate comes
+first.  This is an unfortunate difference from most other computer
+applications, but it’s been part of curses since it was first written,
+and it’s too late to change things now.</p>
+<p>Your application can determine the size of the screen by using the
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.LINES</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.COLS</span></code> variables to obtain the <em>y</em> and
+<em>x</em> sizes.  Legal coordinates will then extend from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(0,0)</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(curses.LINES</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">curses.COLS</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When you call a method to display or erase text, the effect doesn’t
+immediately show up on the display.  Instead you must call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a> method of window objects to update the
+screen.</p>
+<p>This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud
+terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the
+time required to redraw the screen was very important.  Instead curses
+accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most
+efficient manner when you call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code>.  For example, if your
+program displays some text in a window and then clears the window,
+there’s no need to send the original text because they’re never
+visible.</p>
+<p>In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn’t
+really complicate programming with curses much. Most programs go into a flurry
+of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action on the
+part of the user.  All you have to do is to be sure that the screen has been
+redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdscr.refresh()</span></code> or the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code> method of some other relevant
+window.</p>
+<p>A pad is a special case of a window; it can be larger than the actual display
+screen, and only a portion of the pad displayed at a time. Creating a pad
+requires the pad’s height and width, while refreshing a pad requires giving the
+coordinates of the on-screen area where a subsection of the pad will be
+displayed.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pad</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">newpad</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is</span>
+<span class="c1"># explained in the next section</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">pad</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">26</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen.</span>
+<span class="c1"># (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display.</span>
+<span class="c1"># (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled</span>
+<span class="c1">#         with pad content.</span>
+<span class="c1"># (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be</span>
+<span class="c1">#          : filled with pad content.</span>
+<span class="n">pad</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">refresh</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">75</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code> call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle
+extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the upper
+left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the pad.  Beyond
+that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and support the same
+methods.</p>
+<p>If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more
+efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker
+as each part of the screen gets updated.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code> actually
+does two things:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Calls the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.noutrefresh" title="curses.window.noutrefresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noutrefresh()</span></code></a> method of each window
+to update an underlying data structure representing the desired
+state of the screen.</p></li>
+<li><p>Calls the function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.doupdate" title="curses.doupdate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doupdate()</span></code></a> function to change the
+physical screen to match the desired state recorded in the data structure.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Instead you can call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noutrefresh()</span></code> on a number of windows to
+update the data structure, and then call <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doupdate()</span></code> to update
+the screen.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="displaying-text">
+<h2>Displaying Text<a class="headerlink" href="#displaying-text" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>From a C programmer’s point of view, curses may sometimes look like a
+twisty maze of functions, all subtly different.  For example,
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addstr()</span></code> displays a string at the current cursor location in
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdscr</span></code> window, while <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mvaddstr()</span></code> moves to a given y,x
+coordinate first before displaying the string. <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waddstr()</span></code> is just
+like <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addstr()</span></code>, but allows specifying a window to use instead of
+using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdscr</span></code> by default. <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mvwaddstr()</span></code> allows specifying both
+a window and a coordinate.</p>
+<p>Fortunately the Python interface hides all these details.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdscr</span></code>
+is a window object like any other, and methods such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.addstr" title="curses.window.addstr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addstr()</span></code></a> accept multiple argument forms.  Usually there
+are four different forms.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Form</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>str</em> or <em>ch</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Display the string <em>str</em> or character <em>ch</em> at
+the current position</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>str</em> or <em>ch</em>, <em>attr</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Display the string <em>str</em> or character <em>ch</em>,
+using attribute <em>attr</em> at the current
+position</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>str</em> or <em>ch</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Move to position <em>y,x</em> within the window, and
+display <em>str</em> or <em>ch</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>str</em> or <em>ch</em>, <em>attr</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Move to position <em>y,x</em> within the window, and
+display <em>str</em> or <em>ch</em>, using attribute <em>attr</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Attributes allow displaying text in highlighted forms such as boldface,
+underline, reverse code, or in color.  They’ll be explained in more detail in
+the next subsection.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.addstr" title="curses.window.addstr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addstr()</span></code></a> method takes a Python string or
+bytestring as the value to be displayed.  The contents of bytestrings
+are sent to the terminal as-is.  Strings are encoded to bytes using
+the value of the window’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> attribute; this defaults to
+the default system encoding as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.addch" title="curses.window.addch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addch()</span></code></a> methods take a character, which can be
+either a string of length 1, a bytestring of length 1, or an integer.</p>
+<p>Constants are provided for extension characters; these constants are
+integers greater than 255.  For example, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_PLMINUS</span></code> is a +/-
+symbol, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_ULCORNER</span></code> is the upper left corner of a box
+(handy for drawing borders).  You can also use the appropriate Unicode
+character.</p>
+<p>Windows remember where the cursor was left after the last operation, so if you
+leave out the <em>y,x</em> coordinates, the string or character will be displayed
+wherever the last operation left off.  You can also move the cursor with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move(y,x)</span></code> method.  Because some terminals always display a flashing cursor,
+you may want to ensure that the cursor is positioned in some location where it
+won’t be distracting; it can be confusing to have the cursor blinking at some
+apparently random location.</p>
+<p>If your application doesn’t need a blinking cursor at all, you can
+call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curs_set(False)</span></code> to make it invisible.  For compatibility
+with older curses versions, there’s a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">leaveok(bool)</span></code> function
+that’s a synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.curs_set" title="curses.curs_set"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curs_set()</span></code></a>.  When <em>bool</em> is true, the
+curses library will attempt to suppress the flashing cursor, and you
+won’t need to worry about leaving it in odd locations.</p>
+<div class="section" id="attributes-and-color">
+<h3>Attributes and Color<a class="headerlink" href="#attributes-and-color" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Characters can be displayed in different ways.  Status lines in a text-based
+application are commonly shown in reverse video, or a text viewer may need to
+highlight certain words.  curses supports this by allowing you to specify an
+attribute for each cell on the screen.</p>
+<p>An attribute is an integer, each bit representing a different
+attribute.  You can try to display text with multiple attribute bits
+set, but curses doesn’t guarantee that all the possible combinations
+are available, or that they’re all visually distinct.  That depends on
+the ability of the terminal being used, so it’s safest to stick to the
+most commonly available attributes, listed here.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_BLINK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Blinking text</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_BOLD</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Extra bright or bold text</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_DIM</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Half bright text</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_REVERSE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Reverse-video text</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_STANDOUT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The best highlighting mode available</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_UNDERLINE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Underlined text</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>So, to display a reverse-video status line on the top line of the screen, you
+could code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addstr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Current mode: Typing mode&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">A_REVERSE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">refresh</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The curses library also supports color on those terminals that provide it. The
+most common such terminal is probably the Linux console, followed by color
+xterms.</p>
+<p>To use color, you must call the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.start_color" title="curses.start_color"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_color()</span></code></a> function soon
+after calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a>, to initialize the default color set
+(the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.wrapper" title="curses.wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.wrapper()</span></code></a> function does this automatically).  Once that’s
+done, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.has_colors" title="curses.has_colors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">has_colors()</span></code></a> function returns TRUE if the terminal
+in use can
+actually display color.  (Note: curses uses the American spelling ‘color’,
+instead of the Canadian/British spelling ‘colour’.  If you’re used to the
+British spelling, you’ll have to resign yourself to misspelling it for the sake
+of these functions.)</p>
+<p>The curses library maintains a finite number of color pairs, containing a
+foreground (or text) color and a background color.  You can get the attribute
+value corresponding to a color pair with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.color_pair" title="curses.color_pair"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color_pair()</span></code></a>
+function; this can be bitwise-OR’ed with other attributes such as
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_REVERSE</span></code>, but again, such combinations are not guaranteed to work
+on all terminals.</p>
+<p>An example, which displays a line of text using color pair 1:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addstr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Pretty text&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color_pair</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">refresh</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As I said before, a color pair consists of a foreground and background color.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init_pair(n,</span> <span class="pre">f,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> function changes the definition of color pair <em>n</em>, to
+foreground color f and background color b.  Color pair 0 is hard-wired to white
+on black, and cannot be changed.</p>
+<p>Colors are numbered, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_color()</span></code> initializes 8 basic
+colors when it activates color mode.  They are: 0:black, 1:red,
+2:green, 3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and 7:white.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a>
+module defines named constants for each of these colors:
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.COLOR_BLACK</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.COLOR_RED</span></code>, and so forth.</p>
+<p>Let’s put all this together. To change color 1 to red text on a white
+background, you would call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">init_pair</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">COLOR_RED</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">COLOR_WHITE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When you change a color pair, any text already displayed using that color pair
+will change to the new colors.  You can also display new text in this color
+with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addstr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;RED ALERT!&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color_pair</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Very fancy terminals can change the definitions of the actual colors to a given
+RGB value.  This lets you change color 1, which is usually red, to purple or
+blue or any other color you like.  Unfortunately, the Linux console doesn’t
+support this, so I’m unable to try it out, and can’t provide any examples.  You
+can check if your terminal can do this by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.can_change_color" title="curses.can_change_color"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">can_change_color()</span></code></a>, which returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the capability is
+there.  If you’re lucky enough to have such a talented terminal, consult your
+system’s man pages for more information.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="user-input">
+<h2>User Input<a class="headerlink" href="#user-input" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms. Python’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module adds a basic text-input widget.  (Other libraries
+such as <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/urwid/">Urwid</a> have more extensive
+collections of widgets.)</p>
+<p>There are two methods for getting input from a window:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.getch" title="curses.window.getch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a> refreshes the screen and then waits for
+the user to hit a key, displaying the key if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.echo" title="curses.echo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo()</span></code></a> has been
+called earlier.  You can optionally specify a coordinate to which
+the cursor should be moved before pausing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.getkey" title="curses.window.getkey"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getkey()</span></code></a> does the same thing but converts the
+integer to a string.  Individual characters are returned as
+1-character strings, and special keys such as function keys return
+longer strings containing a key name such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_UP</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^G</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>It’s possible to not wait for the user using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.nodelay" title="curses.window.nodelay"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodelay()</span></code></a> window method. After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodelay(True)</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getkey()</span></code> for the window become
+non-blocking. To signal that no input is ready, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ERR</span></code> (a value of -1) and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getkey()</span></code> raises an exception.
+There’s also a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.halfdelay" title="curses.halfdelay"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">halfdelay()</span></code></a> function, which can be used to (in
+effect) set a timer on each <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code>; if no input becomes
+available within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second),
+curses raises an exception.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code> method returns an integer; if it’s between 0 and 255, it
+represents the ASCII code of the key pressed.  Values greater than 255 are
+special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys. You can compare the
+value returned to constants such as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.KEY_PPAGE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.KEY_HOME</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.KEY_LEFT</span></code>.  The main loop of
+your program may look something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getch</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;p&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">PrintDocument</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;q&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>  <span class="c1"># Exit the while loop</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">KEY_HOME</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.ascii.html#module-curses.ascii" title="curses.ascii: Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code></a> module supplies ASCII class membership functions that
+take either integer or 1-character string arguments; these may be useful in
+writing more readable tests for such loops.  It also supplies
+conversion functions  that take either integer or 1-character-string arguments
+and return the same type.  For example, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.ascii.html#curses.ascii.ctrl" title="curses.ascii.ctrl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii.ctrl()</span></code></a> returns the
+control character corresponding to its argument.</p>
+<p>There’s also a method to retrieve an entire string,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.getstr" title="curses.window.getstr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstr()</span></code></a>.  It isn’t used very often, because its
+functionality is quite limited; the only editing keys available are
+the backspace key and the Enter key, which terminates the string.  It
+can optionally be limited to a fixed number of characters.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="p">()</span>            <span class="c1"># Enable echoing of characters</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getstr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses.textpad" title="curses.textpad: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code></a> module supplies a text box that supports an
+Emacs-like set of keybindings.  Various methods of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.textpad.Textbox" title="curses.textpad.Textbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Textbox</span></code></a> class support editing with input
+validation and gathering the edit results either with or without
+trailing spaces.  Here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">curses</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">curses.textpad</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Textbox</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rectangle</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addstr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">editwin</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">newwin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">rectangle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">refresh</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">box</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Textbox</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">editwin</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck.</span>
+    <span class="n">box</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">edit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Get resulting contents</span>
+    <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">box</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gather</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See the library documentation on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses.textpad" title="curses.textpad: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="for-more-information">
+<h2>For More Information<a class="headerlink" href="#for-more-information" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This HOWTO doesn’t cover some advanced topics, such as reading the
+contents of the screen or capturing mouse events from an xterm
+instance, but the Python library page for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module is now
+reasonably complete.  You should browse it next.</p>
+<p>If you’re in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses
+functions, consult the manual pages for your curses implementation,
+whether it’s ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor’s.  The manual pages
+will document any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the
+functions, attributes, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_*</span></code> characters available to
+you.</p>
+<p>Because the curses API is so large, some functions aren’t supported in
+the Python interface.  Often this isn’t because they’re difficult to
+implement, but because no one has needed them yet.  Also, Python
+doesn’t yet support the menu library associated with ncurses.
+Patches adding support for these would be welcome; see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/">the Python Developer’s Guide</a> to
+learn more about submitting patches to Python.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html">Writing Programs with NCURSES</a>:
+a lengthy tutorial for C programmers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses">The ncurses man page</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html">The ncurses FAQ</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU">“Use curses… don’t swear”</a>:
+video of a PyCon 2013 talk on controlling terminals using curses or Urwid.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid">“Console Applications with Urwid”</a>:
+video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk demonstrating some applications written using
+Urwid.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Curses Programming with Python</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-curses">What is curses?</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-python-curses-module">The Python curses module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#starting-and-ending-a-curses-application">Starting and ending a curses application</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-and-pads">Windows and Pads</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#displaying-text">Displaying Text</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#attributes-and-color">Attributes and Color</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#user-input">User Input</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#for-more-information">For More Information</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cporting.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Porting Extension Modules to Python 3</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="descriptor.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Descriptor HowTo Guide</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="descriptor-howto-guide">
+<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id1">Descriptor HowTo Guide</a><a class="headerlink" href="#descriptor-howto-guide" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Raymond Hettinger</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">Contact</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>&lt;python at rcn dot com&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="contents topic" id="contents">
+<p class="topic-title first">Contents</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#descriptor-howto-guide" id="id1">Descriptor HowTo Guide</a></p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#abstract" id="id2">Abstract</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#definition-and-introduction" id="id3">Definition and Introduction</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#descriptor-protocol" id="id4">Descriptor Protocol</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#invoking-descriptors" id="id5">Invoking Descriptors</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#descriptor-example" id="id6">Descriptor Example</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#properties" id="id7">Properties</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#functions-and-methods" id="id8">Functions and Methods</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#static-methods-and-class-methods" id="id9">Static Methods and Class Methods</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="abstract">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">Abstract</a><a class="headerlink" href="#abstract" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Defines descriptors, summarizes the protocol, and shows how descriptors are
+called.  Examines a custom descriptor and several built-in Python descriptors
+including functions, properties, static methods, and class methods.  Shows how
+each works by giving a pure Python equivalent and a sample application.</p>
+<p>Learning about descriptors not only provides access to a larger toolset, it
+creates a deeper understanding of how Python works and an appreciation for the
+elegance of its design.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="definition-and-introduction">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">Definition and Introduction</a><a class="headerlink" href="#definition-and-introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with “binding behavior”, one
+whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the descriptor
+protocol.  Those methods are <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delete__" title="object.__delete__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__()</span></code></a>.  If any of those methods are defined for an object, it is
+said to be a descriptor.</p>
+<p>The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
+attribute from an object’s dictionary.  For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.x</span></code> has a lookup chain
+starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.__dict__['x']</span></code>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(a).__dict__['x']</span></code>, and
+continuing through the base classes of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(a)</span></code> excluding metaclasses. If the
+looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods, then Python
+may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor method instead.
+Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods
+were defined.</p>
+<p>Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol.  They are the mechanism
+behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>.
+They are used throughout Python itself to implement the new style classes
+introduced in version 2.2.  Descriptors simplify the underlying C-code and offer
+a flexible set of new tools for everyday Python programs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="descriptor-protocol">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Descriptor Protocol</a><a class="headerlink" href="#descriptor-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">descr.__get__(self,</span> <span class="pre">obj,</span> <span class="pre">type=None)</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code></p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">descr.__set__(self,</span> <span class="pre">obj,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">descr.__delete__(self,</span> <span class="pre">obj)</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+<p>That is all there is to it.  Define any of these methods and an object is
+considered a descriptor and can override default behavior upon being looked up
+as an attribute.</p>
+<p>If an object defines both <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a>, it is considered
+a data descriptor.  Descriptors that only define <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> are called
+non-data descriptors (they are typically used for methods but other uses are
+possible).</p>
+<p>Data and non-data descriptors differ in how overrides are calculated with
+respect to entries in an instance’s dictionary.  If an instance’s dictionary
+has an entry with the same name as a data descriptor, the data descriptor
+takes precedence.  If an instance’s dictionary has an entry with the same
+name as a non-data descriptor, the dictionary entry takes precedence.</p>
+<p>To make a read-only data descriptor, define both <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a> with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a> raising an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> when
+called.  Defining the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a> method with an exception raising
+placeholder is enough to make it a data descriptor.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="invoking-descriptors">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Invoking Descriptors</a><a class="headerlink" href="#invoking-descriptors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A descriptor can be called directly by its method name.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.__get__(obj)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Alternatively, it is more common for a descriptor to be invoked automatically
+upon attribute access.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.d</span></code> looks up <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code> in the dictionary
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code> defines the method <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.__get__(obj)</span></code>
+is invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.</p>
+<p>The details of invocation depend on whether <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code> is an object or a class.</p>
+<p>For objects, the machinery is in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__()</span></code></a> which
+transforms <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b.x</span></code> into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(b).__dict__['x'].__get__(b,</span> <span class="pre">type(b))</span></code>.  The
+implementation works through a precedence chain that gives data descriptors
+priority over instance variables, instance variables priority over non-data
+descriptors, and assigns lowest priority to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> if provided.
+The full C implementation can be found in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_GenericGetAttr" title="PyObject_GenericGetAttr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GenericGetAttr()</span></code></a> in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Objects/object.c">Objects/object.c</a>.</p>
+<p>For classes, the machinery is in <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__getattribute__()</span></code> which transforms
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B.x</span></code> into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B.__dict__['x'].__get__(None,</span> <span class="pre">B)</span></code>.  In pure Python, it looks
+like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getattribute__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Emulate type_getattro() in Objects/typeobject.c&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getattribute__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__get__&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">v</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The important points to remember are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>descriptors are invoked by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> method</p></li>
+<li><p>overriding <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> prevents automatic descriptor calls</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__getattribute__()</span></code> make
+different calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>data descriptors always override instance dictionaries.</p></li>
+<li><p>non-data descriptors may be overridden by instance dictionaries.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The object returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code> also has a custom <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a>
+method for invoking descriptors.  The call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super(B,</span> <span class="pre">obj).m()</span></code> searches
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.__class__.__mro__</span></code> for the base class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> immediately following <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>
+and then returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj,</span> <span class="pre">B)</span></code>.  If not a descriptor,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span></code> is returned unchanged.  If not in the dictionary, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span></code> reverts to a
+search using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The implementation details are in <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super_getattro()</span></code> in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Objects/typeobject.c">Objects/typeobject.c</a>.  and a pure Python equivalent can be found in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation">Guido’s Tutorial</a>.</p>
+<p>The details above show that the mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> methods for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>.  Classes inherit this machinery when they derive from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> or if they have a meta-class providing similar functionality.
+Likewise, classes can turn-off descriptor invocation by overriding
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="descriptor-example">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Descriptor Example</a><a class="headerlink" href="#descriptor-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following code creates a class whose objects are data descriptors which
+print a message for each get or set.  Overriding <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> is
+alternate approach that could do this for every attribute.  However, this
+descriptor is useful for monitoring just a few chosen attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">RevealAccess</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;A data descriptor that sets and returns values</span>
+<span class="sd">       normally and prints a message logging their access.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">initval</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;var&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">initval</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">objtype</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Retrieving&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">val</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__set__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Updating&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">val</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyClass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RevealAccess</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;var &quot;x&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="n">Retrieving</span> <span class="n">var</span> <span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span>
+<span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">20</span>
+<span class="n">Updating</span> <span class="n">var</span> <span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="n">Retrieving</span> <span class="n">var</span> <span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span>
+<span class="mi">20</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="mi">5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The protocol is simple and offers exciting possibilities.  Several use cases are
+so common that they have been packaged into individual function calls.
+Properties, bound methods, static methods, and class methods are all
+based on the descriptor protocol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="properties">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Properties</a><a class="headerlink" href="#properties" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a> is a succinct way of building a data descriptor that
+triggers function calls upon access to an attribute.  Its signature is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fget</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fdel</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">doc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">property</span> <span class="n">attribute</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The documentation shows a typical use to define a managed attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__x</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">delx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">del</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__x</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">setx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;I&#39;m the &#39;x&#39; property.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To see how <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a> is implemented in terms of the descriptor protocol,
+here is a pure Python equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fget</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fdel</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">doc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fget</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fget</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fset</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fdel</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fdel</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">doc</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">fget</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">doc</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">objtype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fget</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;unreadable attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fget</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__set__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fset</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;can&#39;t set attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__delete__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fdel</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;can&#39;t delete attribute&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fdel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fget</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">fget</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fset</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fdel</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fset</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fget</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fset</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fdel</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">deleter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fdel</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fget</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fset</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fdel</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a> builtin helps whenever a user interface has granted
+attribute access and then subsequent changes require the intervention of a
+method.</p>
+<p>For instance, a spreadsheet class may grant access to a cell value through
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cell('b10').value</span></code>. Subsequent improvements to the program require the cell
+to be recalculated on every access; however, the programmer does not want to
+affect existing client code accessing the attribute directly.  The solution is
+to wrap access to the value attribute in a property data descriptor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Cell</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getvalue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Recalculate the cell before returning value&quot;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recalc</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_value</span>
+    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions-and-methods">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">Functions and Methods</a><a class="headerlink" href="#functions-and-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python’s object oriented features are built upon a function based environment.
+Using non-data descriptors, the two are merged seamlessly.</p>
+<p>Class dictionaries store methods as functions.  In a class definition, methods
+are written using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a>, the usual tools for
+creating functions.  Methods only differ from regular functions in that the
+first argument is reserved for the object instance.  By Python convention, the
+instance reference is called <em>self</em> but may be called <em>this</em> or any other
+variable name.</p>
+<p>To support method calls, functions include the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> method for
+binding methods during attribute access.  This means that all functions are
+non-data descriptors which return bound methods when they are invoked from an
+object.  In pure Python, it works like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">objtype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c&quot;</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">types</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MethodType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Running the interpreter shows how the function descriptor works in practice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="go"># Access through the class dictionary does not invoke __get__.</span>
+<span class="go"># It just returns the underlying function object.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function D.f at 0x00C45070&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="go"># Dotted access from a class calls __get__() which just returns</span>
+<span class="go"># the underlying function unchanged.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function D.f at 0x00C45070&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="go"># The function has a __qualname__ attribute to support introspection</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;D.f&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="go"># Dotted access from an instance calls __get__() which returns the</span>
+<span class="go"># function wrapped in a bound method object</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;bound method D.f of &lt;__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90&gt;&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="go"># Internally, the bound method stores the underlying function,</span>
+<span class="go"># the bound instance, and the class of the bound instance.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__func__</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function D.f at 0x1012e5ae8&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__self__</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;__main__.D object at 0x1012e1f98&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;class &#39;method&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="static-methods-and-class-methods">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Static Methods and Class Methods</a><a class="headerlink" href="#static-methods-and-class-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Non-data descriptors provide a simple mechanism for variations on the usual
+patterns of binding functions into methods.</p>
+<p>To recap, functions have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> method so that they can be converted
+to a method when accessed as attributes.  The non-data descriptor transforms an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.f(*args)</span></code> call into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(obj,</span> <span class="pre">*args)</span></code>.  Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">klass.f(*args)</span></code>
+becomes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(*args)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This chart summarizes the binding and its two most useful variants:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 32%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Transformation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Called from an
+Object</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Called from a
+Class</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>function</p></td>
+<td><p>f(obj, *args)</p></td>
+<td><p>f(*args)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>staticmethod</p></td>
+<td><p>f(*args)</p></td>
+<td><p>f(*args)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>classmethod</p></td>
+<td><p>f(type(obj), *args)</p></td>
+<td><p>f(klass, *args)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Static methods return the underlying function without changes.  Calling either
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.f</span></code> is the equivalent of a direct lookup into
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__(c,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;f&quot;)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__(C,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;f&quot;)</span></code>. As a
+result, the function becomes identically accessible from either an object or a
+class.</p>
+<p>Good candidates for static methods are methods that do not reference the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> variable.</p>
+<p>For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for
+experimental data.  The class provides normal methods for computing the average,
+mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on the data. However,
+there may be useful functions which are conceptually related but do not depend
+on the data.  For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erf(x)</span></code> is handy conversion routine that comes up
+in statistical work but does not directly depend on a particular dataset.
+It can be called either from an object or the class:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.erf(1.5)</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">.9332</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sample.erf(1.5)</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">.9332</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Since staticmethods return the underlying function with no changes, the example
+calls are unexciting:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">E</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">E</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">E</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> would look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">StaticMethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">objtype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unlike static methods, class methods prepend the class reference to the
+argument list before calling the function.  This format is the same
+for whether the caller is an object or a class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">E</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">klass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">klass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">classmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">E</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;E&#39;, 3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">E</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;E&#39;, 3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This behavior is useful whenever the function only needs to have a class
+reference and does not care about any underlying data.  One use for classmethods
+is to create alternate class constructors.  In Python 2.3, the classmethod
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.fromkeys" title="dict.fromkeys"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.fromkeys()</span></code></a> creates a new dictionary from a list of keys.  The pure
+Python equivalent is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fromkeys</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">klass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">klass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">d</span>
+    <span class="n">fromkeys</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">classmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromkeys</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now a new dictionary of unique keys can be constructed like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Dict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromkeys</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;: None, &#39;r&#39;: None, &#39;b&#39;: None, &#39;c&#39;: None, &#39;d&#39;: None}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> would look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ClassMethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">klass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">klass</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">klass</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">newfunc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">klass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">newfunc</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Descriptor HowTo Guide</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abstract">Abstract</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#definition-and-introduction">Definition and Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#descriptor-protocol">Descriptor Protocol</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#invoking-descriptors">Invoking Descriptors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#descriptor-example">Descriptor Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#properties">Properties</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions-and-methods">Functions and Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#static-methods-and-class-methods">Static Methods and Class Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="curses.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Curses Programming with Python</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="functional.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Functional Programming HOWTO</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="functional-programming-howto">
+<h1>Functional Programming HOWTO<a class="headerlink" href="#functional-programming-howto" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A. M. Kuchling</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">Release</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>0.32</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>In this document, we’ll take a tour of Python’s features suitable for
+implementing programs in a functional style.  After an introduction to the
+concepts of functional programming, we’ll look at language features such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>s and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>s and relevant library modules such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section explains the basic concept of functional programming; if
+you’re just interested in learning about Python language features,
+skip to the next section on <a class="reference internal" href="#functional-howto-iterators"><span class="std std-ref">Iterators</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Programming languages support decomposing problems in several different ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Most programming languages are <strong>procedural</strong>: programs are lists of
+instructions that tell the computer what to do with the program’s input.  C,
+Pascal, and even Unix shells are procedural languages.</p></li>
+<li><p>In <strong>declarative</strong> languages, you write a specification that describes the
+problem to be solved, and the language implementation figures out how to
+perform the computation efficiently.  SQL is the declarative language you’re
+most likely to be familiar with; a SQL query describes the data set you want
+to retrieve, and the SQL engine decides whether to scan tables or use indexes,
+which subclauses should be performed first, etc.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>Object-oriented</strong> programs manipulate collections of objects.  Objects have
+internal state and support methods that query or modify this internal state in
+some way. Smalltalk and Java are object-oriented languages.  C++ and Python
+are languages that support object-oriented programming, but don’t force the
+use of object-oriented features.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>Functional</strong> programming decomposes a problem into a set of functions.
+Ideally, functions only take inputs and produce outputs, and don’t have any
+internal state that affects the output produced for a given input.  Well-known
+functional languages include the ML family (Standard ML, OCaml, and other
+variants) and Haskell.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The designers of some computer languages choose to emphasize one
+particular approach to programming.  This often makes it difficult to
+write programs that use a different approach.  Other languages are
+multi-paradigm languages that support several different approaches.
+Lisp, C++, and Python are multi-paradigm; you can write programs or
+libraries that are largely procedural, object-oriented, or functional
+in all of these languages.  In a large program, different sections
+might be written using different approaches; the GUI might be
+object-oriented while the processing logic is procedural or
+functional, for example.</p>
+<p>In a functional program, input flows through a set of functions. Each function
+operates on its input and produces some output.  Functional style discourages
+functions with side effects that modify internal state or make other changes
+that aren’t visible in the function’s return value.  Functions that have no side
+effects at all are called <strong>purely functional</strong>.  Avoiding side effects means
+not using data structures that get updated as a program runs; every function’s
+output must only depend on its input.</p>
+<p>Some languages are very strict about purity and don’t even have assignment
+statements such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a=3</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>, but it’s difficult to avoid all
+side effects.  Printing to the screen or writing to a disk file are side
+effects, for example.  For example, in Python a call to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.sleep()</span></code></a> function both return no useful value; they’re only called for
+their side effects of sending some text to the screen or pausing execution for a
+second.</p>
+<p>Python programs written in functional style usually won’t go to the extreme of
+avoiding all I/O or all assignments; instead, they’ll provide a
+functional-appearing interface but will use non-functional features internally.
+For example, the implementation of a function will still use assignments to
+local variables, but won’t modify global variables or have other side effects.</p>
+<p>Functional programming can be considered the opposite of object-oriented
+programming.  Objects are little capsules containing some internal state along
+with a collection of method calls that let you modify this state, and programs
+consist of making the right set of state changes.  Functional programming wants
+to avoid state changes as much as possible and works with data flowing between
+functions.  In Python you might combine the two approaches by writing functions
+that take and return instances representing objects in your application (e-mail
+messages, transactions, etc.).</p>
+<p>Functional design may seem like an odd constraint to work under.  Why should you
+avoid objects and side effects?  There are theoretical and practical advantages
+to the functional style:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Formal provability.</p></li>
+<li><p>Modularity.</p></li>
+<li><p>Composability.</p></li>
+<li><p>Ease of debugging and testing.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="formal-provability">
+<h3>Formal provability<a class="headerlink" href="#formal-provability" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A theoretical benefit is that it’s easier to construct a mathematical proof that
+a functional program is correct.</p>
+<p>For a long time researchers have been interested in finding ways to
+mathematically prove programs correct.  This is different from testing a program
+on numerous inputs and concluding that its output is usually correct, or reading
+a program’s source code and concluding that the code looks right; the goal is
+instead a rigorous proof that a program produces the right result for all
+possible inputs.</p>
+<p>The technique used to prove programs correct is to write down <strong>invariants</strong>,
+properties of the input data and of the program’s variables that are always
+true.  For each line of code, you then show that if invariants X and Y are true
+<strong>before</strong> the line is executed, the slightly different invariants X’ and Y’ are
+true <strong>after</strong> the line is executed.  This continues until you reach the end of
+the program, at which point the invariants should match the desired conditions
+on the program’s output.</p>
+<p>Functional programming’s avoidance of assignments arose because assignments are
+difficult to handle with this technique; assignments can break invariants that
+were true before the assignment without producing any new invariants that can be
+propagated onward.</p>
+<p>Unfortunately, proving programs correct is largely impractical and not relevant
+to Python software. Even trivial programs require proofs that are several pages
+long; the proof of correctness for a moderately complicated program would be
+enormous, and few or none of the programs you use daily (the Python interpreter,
+your XML parser, your web browser) could be proven correct.  Even if you wrote
+down or generated a proof, there would then be the question of verifying the
+proof; maybe there’s an error in it, and you wrongly believe you’ve proved the
+program correct.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="modularity">
+<h3>Modularity<a class="headerlink" href="#modularity" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A more practical benefit of functional programming is that it forces you to
+break apart your problem into small pieces.  Programs are more modular as a
+result.  It’s easier to specify and write a small function that does one thing
+than a large function that performs a complicated transformation.  Small
+functions are also easier to read and to check for errors.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ease-of-debugging-and-testing">
+<h3>Ease of debugging and testing<a class="headerlink" href="#ease-of-debugging-and-testing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Testing and debugging a functional-style program is easier.</p>
+<p>Debugging is simplified because functions are generally small and clearly
+specified.  When a program doesn’t work, each function is an interface point
+where you can check that the data are correct.  You can look at the intermediate
+inputs and outputs to quickly isolate the function that’s responsible for a bug.</p>
+<p>Testing is easier because each function is a potential subject for a unit test.
+Functions don’t depend on system state that needs to be replicated before
+running a test; instead you only have to synthesize the right input and then
+check that the output matches expectations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="composability">
+<h3>Composability<a class="headerlink" href="#composability" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As you work on a functional-style program, you’ll write a number of functions
+with varying inputs and outputs.  Some of these functions will be unavoidably
+specialized to a particular application, but others will be useful in a wide
+variety of programs.  For example, a function that takes a directory path and
+returns all the XML files in the directory, or a function that takes a filename
+and returns its contents, can be applied to many different situations.</p>
+<p>Over time you’ll form a personal library of utilities.  Often you’ll assemble
+new programs by arranging existing functions in a new configuration and writing
+a few functions specialized for the current task.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="iterators">
+<span id="functional-howto-iterators"></span><h2>Iterators<a class="headerlink" href="#iterators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>I’ll start by looking at a Python language feature that’s an important
+foundation for writing functional-style programs: iterators.</p>
+<p>An iterator is an object representing a stream of data; this object returns the
+data one element at a time.  A Python iterator must support a method called
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> that takes no arguments and always returns the next
+element of the stream.  If there are no more elements in the stream,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> must raise the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception.
+Iterators don’t have to be finite, though; it’s perfectly reasonable to write
+an iterator that produces an infinite stream of data.</p>
+<p>The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> function takes an arbitrary object and tries to return
+an iterator that will return the object’s contents or elements, raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the object doesn’t support iteration.  Several of Python’s
+built-in data types support iteration, the most common being lists and
+dictionaries.  An object is called <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> if you can get an iterator
+for it.</p>
+<p>You can experiment with the iteration interface manually:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +ELLIPSIS</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;...iterator object at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__next__</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># same as next(it)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python expects iterable objects in several different contexts, the most
+important being the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement.  In the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">X</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Y</span></code>,
+Y must be an iterator or some object for which <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> can create an
+iterator.  These two statements are equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Iterators can be materialized as lists or tuples by using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple()</span></code></a> constructor functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">iterator</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 2, 3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sequence unpacking also supports iterators: if you know an iterator will return
+N elements, you can unpack them into an N-tuple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">iterator</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">iterator</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 2, 3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Built-in functions such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> can take a single
+iterator argument and will return the largest or smallest element.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;in&quot;</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;not</span> <span class="pre">in&quot;</span></code> operators also support iterators: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">iterator</span></code> is true if
+X is found in the stream returned by the iterator.  You’ll run into obvious
+problems if the iterator is infinite; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a>
+will never return, and if the element X never appears in the stream, the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;in&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;not</span> <span class="pre">in&quot;</span></code> operators won’t return either.</p>
+<p>Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get the
+previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.  Iterator objects
+can optionally provide these additional capabilities, but the iterator protocol
+only specifies the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method.  Functions may therefore
+consume all of the iterator’s output, and if you need to do something different
+with the same stream, you’ll have to create a new iterator.</p>
+<div class="section" id="data-types-that-support-iterators">
+<h3>Data Types That Support Iterators<a class="headerlink" href="#data-types-that-support-iterators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>We’ve already seen how lists and tuples support iterators.  In fact, any Python
+sequence type, such as strings, will automatically support creation of an
+iterator.</p>
+<p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> on a dictionary returns an iterator that will loop over the
+dictionary’s keys:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jan&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Feb&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Mar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Apr&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;May&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Jun&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>     <span class="s1">&#39;Jul&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Aug&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Sep&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Oct&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Nov&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Dec&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Jan 1</span>
+<span class="go">Feb 2</span>
+<span class="go">Mar 3</span>
+<span class="go">Apr 4</span>
+<span class="go">May 5</span>
+<span class="go">Jun 6</span>
+<span class="go">Jul 7</span>
+<span class="go">Aug 8</span>
+<span class="go">Sep 9</span>
+<span class="go">Oct 10</span>
+<span class="go">Nov 11</span>
+<span class="go">Dec 12</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that starting with Python 3.7, dictionary iteration order is guaranteed
+to be the same as the insertion order. In earlier versions, the behaviour was
+unspecified and could vary between implementations.</p>
+<p>Applying <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> to a dictionary always loops over the keys, but
+dictionaries have methods that return other iterators.  If you want to iterate
+over values or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code></a> methods to get an appropriate
+iterator.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict()</span></code></a> constructor can accept an iterator that returns a finite stream
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> tuples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Italy&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Rome&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;France&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Paris&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;US&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Washington DC&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;Italy&#39;: &#39;Rome&#39;, &#39;France&#39;: &#39;Paris&#39;, &#39;US&#39;: &#39;Washington DC&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Files also support iteration by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="io.TextIOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>
+method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can read each
+line of a file like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># do something for each line</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sets can take their contents from an iterable and let you iterate over the set’s
+elements:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">S</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">S</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generator-expressions-and-list-comprehensions">
+<h2>Generator expressions and list comprehensions<a class="headerlink" href="#generator-expressions-and-list-comprehensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Two common operations on an iterator’s output are 1) performing some operation
+for every element, 2) selecting a subset of elements that meet some condition.
+For example, given a list of strings, you might want to strip off trailing
+whitespace from each line or extract all the strings containing a given
+substring.</p>
+<p>List comprehensions and generator expressions (short form: “listcomps” and
+“genexps”) are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from the
+functional programming language Haskell (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.haskell.org/">https://www.haskell.org/</a>).  You can strip
+all the whitespace from a stream of strings with the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">line_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;  line 1</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;line 2  </span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Generator expression -- returns iterator</span>
+<span class="n">stripped_iter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line_list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># List comprehension -- returns list</span>
+<span class="n">stripped_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line_list</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can select only certain elements by adding an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;if&quot;</span></code> condition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stripped_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line_list</span>
+                 <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With a list comprehension, you get back a Python list; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stripped_list</span></code> is a
+list containing the resulting lines, not an iterator.  Generator expressions
+return an iterator that computes the values as necessary, not needing to
+materialize all the values at once.  This means that list comprehensions aren’t
+useful if you’re working with iterators that return an infinite stream or a very
+large amount of data.  Generator expressions are preferable in these situations.</p>
+<p>Generator expressions are surrounded by parentheses (“()”) and list
+comprehensions are surrounded by square brackets (“[]”).  Generator expressions
+have the form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">expression</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence1</span>
+             <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">condition1</span>
+             <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr2</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence2</span>
+             <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">condition2</span>
+             <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr3</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence3</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+             <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">condition3</span>
+             <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">exprN</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequenceN</span>
+             <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">conditionN</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Again, for a list comprehension only the outside brackets are different (square
+brackets instead of parentheses).</p>
+<p>The elements of the generated output will be the successive values of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> clauses are all optional; if present, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code>
+is only evaluated and added to the result when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">condition</span></code> is true.</p>
+<p>Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, but the
+parentheses signalling a function call also count.  If you want to create an
+iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you can write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">obj_total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">list_all_objects</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for...in</span></code> clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
+sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are iterated over from
+left to right, <strong>not</strong> in parallel.  For each element in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence1</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2</span></code> is looped over from the beginning.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence3</span></code> is then looped
+over for each resulting pair of elements from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To put it another way, a list comprehension or generator expression is
+equivalent to the following Python code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr1</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>   <span class="c1"># Skip this element</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr2</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">continue</span>   <span class="c1"># Skip this element</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">exprN</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequenceN</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conditionN</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="k">continue</span>   <span class="c1"># Skip this element</span>
+
+            <span class="c1"># Output the value of</span>
+            <span class="c1"># the expression.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This means that when there are multiple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for...in</span></code> clauses but no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code>
+clauses, the length of the resulting output will be equal to the product of the
+lengths of all the sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output
+list is 9 elements long:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">seq2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq2</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;a&#39;, 1), (&#39;a&#39;, 2), (&#39;a&#39;, 3),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;b&#39;, 1), (&#39;b&#39;, 2), (&#39;b&#39;, 3),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;c&#39;, 1), (&#39;c&#39;, 2), (&#39;c&#39;, 3)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code> is
+creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first list
+comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is correct:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Syntax error</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="c1"># Correct</span>
+<span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generators">
+<h2>Generators<a class="headerlink" href="#generators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Generators are a special class of functions that simplify the task of writing
+iterators.  Regular functions compute a value and return it, but generators
+return an iterator that returns a stream of values.</p>
+<p>You’re doubtless familiar with how regular function calls work in Python or C.
+When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables
+are created.  When the function reaches a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement, the local
+variables are destroyed and the value is returned to the caller.  A later call
+to the same function creates a new private namespace and a fresh set of local
+variables. But, what if the local variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a
+function?  What if you could later resume the function where it left off?  This
+is what generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.</p>
+<p>Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">generate_ints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>       <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Any function containing a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> keyword is a generator function;
+this is detected by Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> compiler which compiles the
+function specially as a result.</p>
+<p>When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value; instead it
+returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol.  On executing
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> expression, the generator outputs the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code>, similar to a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement.  The big difference between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code>
+statement is that on reaching a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> the generator’s state of execution is
+suspended and local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the
+generator’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method, the function will resume
+executing.</p>
+<p>Here’s a sample usage of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generate_ints()</span></code> generator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">generate_ints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +ELLIPSIS</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;generator object generate_ints at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;stdin&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;stdin&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">generate_ints</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You could equally write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">generate_ints(5)</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">generate_ints(3)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Inside a generator function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code> causes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration(value)</span></code>
+to be raised from the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method.  Once this happens, or
+the bottom of the function is reached, the procession of values ends and the
+generator cannot yield any further values.</p>
+<p>You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class
+and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables.  For
+example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.count</span></code> to
+0, and having the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method increment <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.count</span></code> and
+return it.
+However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class
+can be much messier.</p>
+<p>The test suite included with Python’s library,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/test/test_generators.py">Lib/test/test_generators.py</a>, contains
+a number of more interesting examples.  Here’s one generator that implements an
+in-order traversal of a tree using generators recursively.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">label</span>
+
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">right</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Two other examples in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_generators.py</span></code> produce solutions for the N-Queens
+problem (placing N queens on an NxN chess board so that no queen threatens
+another) and the Knight’s Tour (finding a route that takes a knight to every
+square of an NxN chessboard without visiting any square twice).</p>
+<div class="section" id="passing-values-into-a-generator">
+<h3>Passing values into a generator<a class="headerlink" href="#passing-values-into-a-generator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In Python 2.4 and earlier, generators only produced output.  Once a generator’s
+code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to pass any new
+information into the function when its execution is resumed.  You could hack
+together this ability by making the generator look at a global variable or by
+passing in some mutable object that callers then modify, but these approaches
+are messy.</p>
+<p>In Python 2.5 there’s a simple way to pass values into a generator.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> became an expression, returning a value that can be assigned to
+a variable or otherwise operated on:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>I recommend that you <strong>always</strong> put parentheses around a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> expression
+when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in the above example.
+The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s easier to always add them
+instead of having to remember when they’re needed.</p>
+<p>(<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0342"><strong>PEP 342</strong></a> explains the exact rules, which are that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code>-expression must
+always be parenthesized except when it occurs at the top-level expression on the
+right-hand side of an assignment.  This means you can write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">i</span></code>
+but have to use parentheses when there’s an operation, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">(yield</span> <span class="pre">i)</span>
+<span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">12</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>Values are sent into a generator by calling its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send(value)</span></code></a> method.  This method resumes the generator’s code and the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> expression returns the specified value.  If the regular
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method is called, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Here’s a simple counter that increments by 1 and allows changing the value of
+the internal counter.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maximum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">maximum</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># If value provided, change counter</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">val</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">val</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And here’s an example of changing the counter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">9</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;t.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">15</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+    <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> will often be returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, you should always check for
+this case.  Don’t just use its value in expressions unless you’re sure that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> method will be the only method used to resume your
+generator function.</p>
+<p>In addition to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>, there are two other methods on
+generators:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.throw" title="generator.throw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw(type,</span> <span class="pre">value=None,</span> <span class="pre">traceback=None)</span></code></a> is used to
+raise an exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> expression where the generator’s execution is paused.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.close" title="generator.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> exception inside the
+generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this exception, the
+generator’s code must either raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>; catching the exception and doing anything else is
+illegal and will trigger a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.close" title="generator.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>
+will also be called by Python’s garbage collector when the generator is
+garbage-collected.</p>
+<p>If you need to run cleanup code when a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> occurs, I suggest
+using a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try:</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">finally:</span></code> suite instead of catching <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from one-way
+producers of information into both producers and consumers.</p>
+<p>Generators also become <strong>coroutines</strong>, a more generalized form of subroutines.
+Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point (the top of the
+function, and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement), but coroutines can be entered, exited,
+and resumed at many different points (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statements).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="built-in-functions">
+<h2>Built-in functions<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s look in more detail at built-in functions often used with iterators.</p>
+<p>Two of Python’s built-in functions, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> duplicate the
+features of generator expressions:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(f,</span> <span class="pre">iterA,</span> <span class="pre">iterB,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code></a> returns an iterator over the sequence</dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(iterA[0],</span> <span class="pre">iterB[0]),</span> <span class="pre">f(iterA[1],</span> <span class="pre">iterB[1]),</span> <span class="pre">f(iterA[2],</span> <span class="pre">iterB[2]),</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">upper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;sentence&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fragment&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;SENTENCE&#39;, &#39;FRAGMENT&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;sentence&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fragment&#39;</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;SENTENCE&#39;, &#39;FRAGMENT&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>You can of course achieve the same effect with a list comprehension.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter(predicate,</span> <span class="pre">iter)</span></code></a> returns an iterator over all the
+sequence elements that meet a certain condition, and is similarly duplicated by
+list comprehensions.  A <strong>predicate</strong> is a function that returns the truth
+value of some condition; for use with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a>, the predicate must take a
+single value.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">is_even</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This can also be written as a list comprehension:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate(iter,</span> <span class="pre">start=0)</span></code></a> counts off the elements in the
+iterable returning 2-tuples containing the count (from <em>start</em>) and
+each element.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;verb&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;object&#39;</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(0, &#39;subject&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">(1, &#39;verb&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">(2, &#39;object&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a> is often used when looping through a list and recording the
+indexes at which certain conditions are met:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;data.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Blank line at line #</span><span class="si">%i</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">key=None,</span> <span class="pre">reverse=False)</span></code></a> collects all the
+elements of the iterable into a list, sorts the list, and returns the sorted
+result.  The <em>key</em> and <em>reverse</em> arguments are passed through to the
+constructed list’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rand_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rand_list</span>  
+<span class="go">[769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rand_list</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">[769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rand_list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">[9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(For a more detailed discussion of sorting, see the <a class="reference internal" href="sorting.html#sortinghowto"><span class="std std-ref">Sorting HOW TO</span></a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#any" title="any"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">any(iter)</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#all" title="all"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all(iter)</span></code></a> built-ins look at the
+truth values of an iterable’s contents.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#any" title="any"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">any()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if any element
+in the iterable is a true value, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#all" title="all"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if all of the
+elements are true values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">all</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">all</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">all</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip(iterA,</span> <span class="pre">iterB,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code></a> takes one element from each iterable and
+returns them in a tuple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It doesn’t construct an in-memory list and exhaust all the input iterators
+before returning; instead tuples are constructed and returned only if they’re
+requested.  (The technical term for this behaviour is <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation">lazy evaluation</a>.)</p>
+<p>This iterator is intended to be used with iterables that are all of the same
+length.  If the iterables are of different lengths, the resulting stream will be
+the same length as the shortest iterable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You should avoid doing this, though, because an element may be taken from the
+longer iterators and discarded.  This means you can’t go on to use the iterators
+further because you risk skipping a discarded element.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-itertools-module">
+<h2>The itertools module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-itertools-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module contains a number of commonly-used iterators as well
+as functions for combining several iterators.  This section will introduce the
+module’s contents by showing small examples.</p>
+<p>The module’s functions fall into a few broad classes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Functions that create a new iterator based on an existing iterator.</p></li>
+<li><p>Functions for treating an iterator’s elements as function arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>Functions for selecting portions of an iterator’s output.</p></li>
+<li><p>A function for grouping an iterator’s output.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="creating-new-iterators">
+<h3>Creating new iterators<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-new-iterators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.count(start,</span> <span class="pre">step)</span></code></a> returns an infinite
+stream of evenly spaced values.  You can optionally supply the starting number,
+which defaults to 0, and the interval between numbers, which defaults to 1:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">18</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">19</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">35</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">55</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.cycle" title="itertools.cycle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.cycle(iter)</span></code></a> saves a copy of the contents of
+a provided iterable and returns a new iterator that returns its elements from
+first to last.  The new iterator will repeat these elements infinitely.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cycle</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.repeat" title="itertools.repeat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.repeat(elem,</span> <span class="pre">[n])</span></code></a> returns the provided
+element <em>n</em> times, or returns the element endlessly if <em>n</em> is not provided.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abc</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.chain" title="itertools.chain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.chain(iterA,</span> <span class="pre">iterB,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code></a> takes an arbitrary
+number of iterables as input, and returns all the elements of the first
+iterator, then all the elements of the second, and so on, until all of the
+iterables have been exhausted.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chain</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.islice(iter,</span> <span class="pre">[start],</span> <span class="pre">stop,</span> <span class="pre">[step])</span></code></a> returns
+a stream that’s a slice of the iterator.  With a single <em>stop</em> argument, it
+will return the first <em>stop</em> elements.  If you supply a starting index, you’ll
+get <em>stop-start</em> elements, and if you supply a value for <em>step</em>, elements
+will be skipped accordingly.  Unlike Python’s string and list slicing, you can’t
+use negative values for <em>start</em>, <em>stop</em>, or <em>step</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span>
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span>
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.tee" title="itertools.tee"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.tee(iter,</span> <span class="pre">[n])</span></code></a> replicates an iterator; it
+returns <em>n</em> independent iterators that will all return the contents of the
+source iterator.
+If you don’t supply a value for <em>n</em>, the default is 2.  Replicating iterators
+requires saving some of the contents of the source iterator, so this can consume
+significant memory if the iterator is large and one of the new iterators is
+consumed more than the others.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tee</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+   <span class="n">iterA</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterB</span>
+
+<span class="n">where</span> <span class="n">iterA</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span>
+   <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="ow">and</span>   <span class="n">iterB</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span>
+   <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calling-functions-on-elements">
+<h3>Calling functions on elements<a class="headerlink" href="#calling-functions-on-elements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module contains a set of functions corresponding to Python’s
+operators.  Some examples are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.add" title="operator.add"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.add(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a> (adds
+two values), <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.ne" title="operator.ne"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.ne(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a> (same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>), and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter" title="operator.attrgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.attrgetter('id')</span></code></a>
+(returns a callable that fetches the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.id</span></code> attribute).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.starmap" title="itertools.starmap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.starmap(func,</span> <span class="pre">iter)</span></code></a> assumes that the
+iterable will return a stream of tuples, and calls <em>func</em> using these tuples as
+the arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">starmap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/bin&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bin&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;java&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                   <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bin&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;perl&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bin&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ruby&#39;</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="o">/</span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">java</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">perl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">ruby</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="selecting-elements">
+<h3>Selecting elements<a class="headerlink" href="#selecting-elements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Another group of functions chooses a subset of an iterator’s elements based on a
+predicate.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.filterfalse" title="itertools.filterfalse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.filterfalse(predicate,</span> <span class="pre">iter)</span></code></a> is the
+opposite of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a>, returning all elements for which the predicate
+returns false:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filterfalse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.takewhile" title="itertools.takewhile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.takewhile(predicate,</span> <span class="pre">iter)</span></code></a> returns
+elements for as long as the predicate returns true.  Once the predicate returns
+false, the iterator will signal the end of its results.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">less_than_10</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">takewhile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">less_than_10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">takewhile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.dropwhile" title="itertools.dropwhile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.dropwhile(predicate,</span> <span class="pre">iter)</span></code></a> discards
+elements while the predicate returns true, and then returns the rest of the
+iterable’s results.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dropwhile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">less_than_10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">18</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">19</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dropwhile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.compress" title="itertools.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.compress(data,</span> <span class="pre">selectors)</span></code></a> takes two
+iterators and returns only those elements of <em>data</em> for which the corresponding
+element of <em>selectors</em> is true, stopping whenever either one is exhausted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+   <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="combinatoric-functions">
+<h3>Combinatoric functions<a class="headerlink" href="#combinatoric-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations" title="itertools.combinations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.combinations(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">r)</span></code></a>
+returns an iterator giving all possible <em>r</em>-tuple combinations of the
+elements contained in <em>iterable</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combinations</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combinations</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The elements within each tuple remain in the same order as
+<em>iterable</em> returned them.  For example, the number 1 is always before
+2, 3, 4, or 5 in the examples above.  A similar function,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.permutations" title="itertools.permutations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.permutations(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">r=None)</span></code></a>,
+removes this constraint on the order, returning all possible
+arrangements of length <em>r</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">permutations</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">permutations</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="o">...</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you don’t supply a value for <em>r</em> the length of the iterable is used,
+meaning that all the elements are permuted.</p>
+<p>Note that these functions produce all of the possible combinations by
+position and don’t require that the contents of <em>iterable</em> are unique:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">permutations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;aba&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The identical tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('a',</span> <span class="pre">'a',</span> <span class="pre">'b')</span></code> occurs twice, but the two ‘a’
+strings came from different positions.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations_with_replacement" title="itertools.combinations_with_replacement"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">r)</span></code></a>
+function relaxes a different constraint: elements can be repeated
+within a single tuple.  Conceptually an element is selected for the
+first position of each tuple and then is replaced before the second
+element is selected.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combinations_with_replacement</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="grouping-elements">
+<h3>Grouping elements<a class="headerlink" href="#grouping-elements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The last function I’ll discuss, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.groupby(iter,</span> <span class="pre">key_func=None)</span></code></a>, is the most complicated.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key_func(elem)</span></code> is a function
+that can compute a key value for each element returned by the iterable.  If you
+don’t supply a key function, the key is simply each element itself.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code></a> collects all the consecutive elements from the
+underlying iterable that have the same key value, and returns a stream of
+2-tuples containing a key value and an iterator for the elements with that key.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">city_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Decatur&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AL&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Huntsville&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AL&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Selma&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AL&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+             <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Anchorage&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AK&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Nome&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AK&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+             <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Flagstaff&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AZ&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Phoenix&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AZ&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Tucson&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AZ&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+             <span class="o">...</span>
+            <span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_state</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">city_state</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">city_state</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">city_list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">get_state</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;AL&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterator</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;AK&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterator</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;AZ&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterator</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">where</span>
+<span class="n">iterator</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Decatur&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AL&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Huntsville&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AL&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Selma&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AL&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">iterator</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Anchorage&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AK&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Nome&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AK&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">iterator</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Flagstaff&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AZ&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Phoenix&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AZ&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Tucson&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AZ&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code></a> assumes that the underlying iterable’s contents will
+already be sorted based on the key.  Note that the returned iterators also use
+the underlying iterable, so you have to consume the results of iterator-1 before
+requesting iterator-2 and its corresponding key.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-functools-module">
+<h2>The functools module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-functools-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module in Python 2.5 contains some higher-order functions.
+A <strong>higher-order function</strong> takes one or more functions as input and returns a
+new function.  The most useful tool in this module is the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>For programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to construct
+variants of existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in.
+Consider a Python function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code>; you may wish to create a new function
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g(b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code> that’s equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(1,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code>; you’re filling in a value for
+one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code>’s parameters.  This is called “partial function application”.</p>
+<p>The constructor for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code></a> takes the arguments
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(function,</span> <span class="pre">arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...,</span> <span class="pre">kwarg1=value1,</span> <span class="pre">kwarg2=value2)</span></code>.  The resulting
+object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function</span></code> with the
+filled-in arguments.</p>
+<p>Here’s a small but realistic example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">subsystem</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Write the contents of &#39;message&#39; to the specified subsystem.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">subsystem</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">server_log</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">subsystem</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;server&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server_log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Unable to open socket&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce(func,</span> <span class="pre">iter,</span> <span class="pre">[initial_value])</span></code></a>
+cumulatively performs an operation on all the iterable’s elements and,
+therefore, can’t be applied to infinite iterables. <em>func</em> must be a function
+that takes two elements and returns a single value.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a>
+takes the first two elements A and B returned by the iterator and calculates
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(A,</span> <span class="pre">B)</span></code>.  It then requests the third element, C, calculates
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(func(A,</span> <span class="pre">B),</span> <span class="pre">C)</span></code>, combines this result with the fourth element returned,
+and continues until the iterable is exhausted.  If the iterable returns no
+values at all, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised.  If the initial value is
+supplied, it’s used as a starting point and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(initial_value,</span> <span class="pre">A)</span></code> is the
+first calculation.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">operator</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">concat</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BB&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;C&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;ABBC&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">concat</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[],</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.add" title="operator.add"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.add()</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a>, you’ll add up all the
+elements of the iterable.  This case is so common that there’s a special
+built-in called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum()</span></code></a> to compute it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">operator</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For many uses of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a>, though, it can be clearer to just
+write the obvious <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+<span class="c1"># Instead of:</span>
+<span class="n">product</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># You can write:</span>
+<span class="n">product</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="n">product</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A related function is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.accumulate(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">func=operator.add)</span></code></a>.  It performs the same calculation, but instead of
+returning only the final result, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate()</span></code> returns an iterator that
+also yields each partial result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">24</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">120</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-operator-module">
+<h3>The operator module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-operator-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module was mentioned earlier.  It contains a set of
+functions corresponding to Python’s operators.  These functions are often useful
+in functional-style code because they save you from writing trivial functions
+that perform a single operation.</p>
+<p>Some of the functions in this module are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Math operations: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mul()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floordiv()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code>, …</p></li>
+<li><p>Logical operations: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not_()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truth()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Bitwise operations: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">invert()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Comparisons: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ne()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lt()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">le()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gt()</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ge()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Object identity: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_not()</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Consult the operator module’s documentation for a complete list.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="small-functions-and-the-lambda-expression">
+<h2>Small functions and the lambda expression<a class="headerlink" href="#small-functions-and-the-lambda-expression" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When writing functional-style programs, you’ll often need little functions that
+act as predicates or that combine elements in some way.</p>
+<p>If there’s a Python built-in or a module function that’s suitable, you don’t
+need to define a new function at all:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stripped_lines</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">lines</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">existing_files</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file_list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the function you need doesn’t exist, you need to write it.  One way to write
+small functions is to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expression.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code> takes a
+number of parameters and an expression combining these parameters, and creates
+an anonymous function that returns the value of the expression:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">adder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="n">print_assign</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An alternative is to just use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code> statement and define a function in the
+usual way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">adder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_assign</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Which alternative is preferable?  That’s a style question; my usual course is to
+avoid using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code>.</p>
+<p>One reason for my preference is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code> is quite limited in the
+functions it can define.  The result has to be computable as a single
+expression, which means you can’t have multiway <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if...</span> <span class="pre">elif...</span> <span class="pre">else</span></code>
+comparisons or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try...</span> <span class="pre">except</span></code> statements.  If you try to do too much in a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code> statement, you’ll end up with an overly complicated expression that’s
+hard to read.  Quick, what’s the following code doing?</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+<span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]),</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can figure it out, but it takes time to disentangle the expression to figure
+out what’s going on.  Using a short nested <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code> statements makes things a
+little bit better:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">combine</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combine</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>But it would be best of all if I had simply used a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum()</span></code></a> built-in and a generator expression:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Many uses of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a> are clearer when written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> loops.</p>
+<p>Fredrik Lundh once suggested the following set of rules for refactoring uses of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code>:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Write a lambda function.</p></li>
+<li><p>Write a comment explaining what the heck that lambda does.</p></li>
+<li><p>Study the comment for a while, and think of a name that captures the essence
+of the comment.</p></li>
+<li><p>Convert the lambda to a def statement, using that name.</p></li>
+<li><p>Remove the comment.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>I really like these rules, but you’re free to disagree
+about whether this lambda-free style is better.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="revision-history-and-acknowledgements">
+<h2>Revision History and Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#revision-history-and-acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Ian Bicking,
+Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond Hettinger, Jim Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro
+Lameiro, Jussi Salmela, Collin Winter, Blake Winton.</p>
+<p>Version 0.1: posted June 30 2006.</p>
+<p>Version 0.11: posted July 1 2006.  Typo fixes.</p>
+<p>Version 0.2: posted July 10 2006.  Merged genexp and listcomp sections into one.
+Typo fixes.</p>
+<p>Version 0.21: Added more references suggested on the tutor mailing list.</p>
+<p>Version 0.30: Adds a section on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functional</span></code> module written by Collin
+Winter; adds short section on the operator module; a few other edits.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="references">
+<h2>References<a class="headerlink" href="#references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="general">
+<h3>General<a class="headerlink" href="#general" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><strong>Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs</strong>, by Harold Abelson and
+Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman.  Full text at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/">https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/</a>.  In this classic textbook of computer science,
+chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to organize the data
+flow inside a program.  The book uses Scheme for its examples, but many of the
+design approaches described in these chapters are applicable to functional-style
+Python code.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html">http://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html</a>: A general introduction to functional
+programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy historical introduction.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming</a>: General Wikipedia entry
+describing functional programming.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine</a>: Entry for coroutines.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying</a>: Entry for the concept of currying.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-specific">
+<h3>Python-specific<a class="headerlink" href="#python-specific" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://gnosis.cx/TPiP/">http://gnosis.cx/TPiP/</a>: The first chapter of David Mertz’s book
+<cite>Text Processing in Python</cite> discusses functional programming
+for text processing, in the section titled “Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in
+Text Processing”.</p>
+<p>Mertz also wrote a 3-part series of articles on functional programming
+for IBM’s DeveloperWorks site; see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-prog/index.html">part 1</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-prog2/index.html">part 2</a>, and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-prog3/index.html">part 3</a>,</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-documentation">
+<h3>Python documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#python-documentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0289"><strong>PEP 289</strong></a>: “Generator Expressions”</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0342"><strong>PEP 342</strong></a>: “Coroutines via Enhanced Generators” describes the new generator
+features in Python 2.5.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Functional Programming HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formal-provability">Formal provability</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modularity">Modularity</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ease-of-debugging-and-testing">Ease of debugging and testing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#composability">Composability</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iterators">Iterators</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#data-types-that-support-iterators">Data Types That Support Iterators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-expressions-and-list-comprehensions">Generator expressions and list comprehensions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generators">Generators</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#passing-values-into-a-generator">Passing values into a generator</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#built-in-functions">Built-in functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-itertools-module">The itertools module</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-new-iterators">Creating new iterators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calling-functions-on-elements">Calling functions on elements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#selecting-elements">Selecting elements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#combinatoric-functions">Combinatoric functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#grouping-elements">Grouping elements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-functools-module">The functools module</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-operator-module">The operator module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#small-functions-and-the-lambda-expression">Small functions and the lambda expression</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#revision-history-and-acknowledgements">Revision History and Acknowledgements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#references">References</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general">General</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-specific">Python-specific</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-documentation">Python documentation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="descriptor.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Descriptor HowTo Guide</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Logging HOWTO</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+<h1>Python HOWTOs<a class="headerlink" href="#python-howtos" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python HOWTOs are documents that cover a single, specific topic,
+and attempt to cover it fairly completely. Modelled on the Linux
+Documentation Project’s HOWTO collection, this collection is an
+effort to foster documentation that’s more detailed than the
+Python Library Reference.</p>
+<p>Currently, the HOWTOs are:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pyporting.html">Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="instrumenting-cpython-with-dtrace-and-systemtap">
+<span id="instrumentation"></span><h1>Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap<a class="headerlink" href="#instrumenting-cpython-with-dtrace-and-systemtap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>David Malcolm</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>Łukasz Langa</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>DTrace and SystemTap are monitoring tools, each providing a way to inspect
+what the processes on a computer system are doing.  They both use
+domain-specific languages allowing a user to write scripts which:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>filter which processes are to be observed</p></li>
+<li><p>gather data from the processes of interest</p></li>
+<li><p>generate reports on the data</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>As of Python 3.6, CPython can be built with embedded “markers”, also
+known as “probes”, that can be observed by a DTrace or SystemTap script,
+making it easier to monitor what the CPython processes on a system are
+doing.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> DTrace markers are implementation details of the CPython interpreter.
+No guarantees are made about probe compatibility between versions of
+CPython. DTrace scripts can stop working or work incorrectly without
+warning when changing CPython versions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enabling-the-static-markers">
+<h2>Enabling the static markers<a class="headerlink" href="#enabling-the-static-markers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>macOS comes with built-in support for DTrace.  On Linux, in order to
+build CPython with the embedded markers for SystemTap, the SystemTap
+development tools must be installed.</p>
+<p>On a Linux machine, this can be done via:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> yum install systemtap-sdt-devel
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>CPython must then be configured <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-dtrace</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>checking for --with-dtrace... yes
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On macOS, you can list available DTrace probes by running a Python
+process in the background and listing all probes made available by the
+Python provider:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3.6 -q <span class="p">&amp;</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> sudo dtrace -l -P python<span class="nv">$!</span>  <span class="c1"># or: dtrace -l -m python3.6</span>
+
+<span class="go">   ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME</span>
+<span class="go">29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry</span>
+<span class="go">29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry</span>
+<span class="go">29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return</span>
+<span class="go">29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return</span>
+<span class="go">29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done</span>
+<span class="go">29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start</span>
+<span class="go">29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line</span>
+<span class="go">29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On Linux, you can verify if the SystemTap static markers are present in
+the built binary by seeing if it contains a “.note.stapsdt” section.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> readelf -S ./python <span class="p">|</span> grep .note.stapsdt
+<span class="go">[30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you’ve built Python as a shared library (with –enable-shared), you
+need to look instead within the shared library.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 <span class="p">|</span> grep .note.stapsdt
+<span class="go">[29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sufficiently modern readelf can print the metadata:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> readelf -n ./python
+
+<span class="go">Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:</span>
+<span class="go">    Owner                 Data size          Description</span>
+<span class="go">    GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)</span>
+<span class="go">        OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32</span>
+
+<span class="go">Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:</span>
+<span class="go">    Owner                 Data size          Description</span>
+<span class="go">    GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)</span>
+<span class="go">        Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670</span>
+
+<span class="go">Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:</span>
+<span class="go">    Owner                 Data size          Description</span>
+<span class="go">    stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)</span>
+<span class="go">        Provider: python</span>
+<span class="go">        Name: gc__start</span>
+<span class="go">        Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6</span>
+<span class="go">        Arguments: -4@%ebx</span>
+<span class="go">    stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)</span>
+<span class="go">        Provider: python</span>
+<span class="go">        Name: gc__done</span>
+<span class="go">        Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8</span>
+<span class="go">        Arguments: -8@%rax</span>
+<span class="go">    stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)</span>
+<span class="go">        Provider: python</span>
+<span class="go">        Name: function__entry</span>
+<span class="go">        Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8</span>
+<span class="go">        Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax</span>
+<span class="go">    stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)</span>
+<span class="go">        Provider: python</span>
+<span class="go">        Name: function__return</span>
+<span class="go">        Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea</span>
+<span class="go">        Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above metadata contains information for SystemTap describing how it
+can patch strategically-placed machine code instructions to enable the
+tracing hooks used by a SystemTap script.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="static-dtrace-probes">
+<h2>Static DTrace probes<a class="headerlink" href="#static-dtrace-probes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following example DTrace script can be used to show the call/return
+hierarchy of a Python script, only tracing within the invocation of
+a function called “start”. In other words, import-time function
+invocations are not going to be listed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>self int indent;
+
+python$target:::function-entry
+/copyinstr(arg1) == &quot;start&quot;/
+{
+        self-&gt;trace = 1;
+}
+
+python$target:::function-entry
+/self-&gt;trace/
+{
+        printf(&quot;%d\t%*s:&quot;, timestamp, 15, probename);
+        printf(&quot;%*s&quot;, self-&gt;indent, &quot;&quot;);
+        printf(&quot;%s:%s:%d\n&quot;, basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
+        self-&gt;indent++;
+}
+
+python$target:::function-return
+/self-&gt;trace/
+{
+        self-&gt;indent--;
+        printf(&quot;%d\t%*s:&quot;, timestamp, 15, probename);
+        printf(&quot;%*s&quot;, self-&gt;indent, &quot;&quot;);
+        printf(&quot;%s:%s:%d\n&quot;, basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
+}
+
+python$target:::function-return
+/copyinstr(arg1) == &quot;start&quot;/
+{
+        self-&gt;trace = 0;
+}
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It can be invoked like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c <span class="s2">&quot;python3.6 script.py&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
+156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
+156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
+156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
+156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
+156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
+156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
+156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
+156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
+156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
+156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
+156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
+156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
+156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
+156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
+156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
+156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
+156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="static-systemtap-markers">
+<h2>Static SystemTap markers<a class="headerlink" href="#static-systemtap-markers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The low-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use the static
+markers directly.  This requires you to explicitly state the binary file
+containing them.</p>
+<p>For example, this SystemTap script can be used to show the call/return
+hierarchy of a Python script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>probe process(&quot;python&quot;).mark(&quot;function__entry&quot;) {
+     filename = user_string($arg1);
+     funcname = user_string($arg2);
+     lineno = $arg3;
+
+     printf(&quot;%s =&gt; %s in %s:%d\\n&quot;,
+            thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+}
+
+probe process(&quot;python&quot;).mark(&quot;function__return&quot;) {
+    filename = user_string($arg1);
+    funcname = user_string($arg2);
+    lineno = $arg3;
+
+    printf(&quot;%s &lt;= %s in %s:%d\\n&quot;,
+           thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+}
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It can be invoked like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> stap <span class="se">\</span>
+  show-call-hierarchy.stp <span class="se">\</span>
+  -c <span class="s2">&quot;./python test.py&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>11408 python(8274):        =&gt; __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
+11414 python(8274):         =&gt; __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
+11418 python(8274):          =&gt; encode in Lib/os.py:490
+11424 python(8274):          &lt;= encode in Lib/os.py:493
+11428 python(8274):         &lt;= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
+11433 python(8274):        &lt;= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where the columns are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>time in microseconds since start of script</p></li>
+<li><p>name of executable</p></li>
+<li><p>PID of process</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>and the remainder indicates the call/return hierarchy as the script executes.</p>
+<p>For a <cite>–enable-shared</cite> build of CPython, the markers are contained within the
+libpython shared library, and the probe’s dotted path needs to reflect this. For
+example, this line from the above example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>probe process(&quot;python&quot;).mark(&quot;function__entry&quot;) {
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>should instead read:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>probe process(&quot;python&quot;).library(&quot;libpython3.6dm.so.1.0&quot;).mark(&quot;function__entry&quot;) {
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(assuming a debug build of CPython 3.6)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="available-static-markers">
+<h2>Available static markers<a class="headerlink" href="#available-static-markers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.function__entry">
+<code class="descname">function__entry</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>str<em> filename</em>, str<em> funcname</em>, int<em> lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.function__entry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This marker indicates that execution of a Python function has begun.
+It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.</p>
+<p>The filename, function name, and line number are provided back to the
+tracing script as positional arguments, which must be accessed using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$arg1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$arg2</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$arg3</span></code>:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$arg1</span></code> : <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*)</span></code> filename, accessible using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_string($arg1)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$arg2</span></code> : <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*)</span></code> function name, accessible using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_string($arg2)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$arg3</span></code> : <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> line number</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.function__return">
+<code class="descname">function__return</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>str<em> filename</em>, str<em> funcname</em>, int<em> lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.function__return" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This marker is the converse of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.function__entry" title="function__entry"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function__entry()</span></code></a>, and indicates that
+execution of a Python function has ended (either via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code>, or via an
+exception).  It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.</p>
+<p>The arguments are the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#c.function__entry" title="function__entry"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function__entry()</span></code></a></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.line">
+<code class="descname">line</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>str<em> filename</em>, str<em> funcname</em>, int<em> lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.line" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This marker indicates a Python line is about to be executed.  It is
+the equivalent of line-by-line tracing with a Python profiler.  It is
+not triggered within C functions.</p>
+<p>The arguments are the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#c.function__entry" title="function__entry"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function__entry()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.gc__start">
+<code class="descname">gc__start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>int<em> generation</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.gc__start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection cycle.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arg0</span></code> is the generation to scan, like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.collect" title="gc.collect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.collect()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.gc__done">
+<code class="descname">gc__done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>long<em> collected</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.gc__done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fires when the Python interpreter finishes a garbage collection
+cycle. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arg0</span></code> is the number of collected objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.import__find__load__start">
+<code class="descname">import__find__load__start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>str<em> modulename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.import__find__load__start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fires before <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> attempts to find and load the module.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arg0</span></code> is the module name.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.import__find__load__done">
+<code class="descname">import__find__load__done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>str<em> modulename</em>, int<em> found</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.import__find__load__done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fires after <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>’s find_and_load function is called.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arg0</span></code> is the module name, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arg1</span></code> indicates if module was
+successfully loaded.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="systemtap-tapsets">
+<h2>SystemTap Tapsets<a class="headerlink" href="#systemtap-tapsets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The higher-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use a “tapset”:
+SystemTap’s equivalent of a library, which hides some of the lower-level
+details of the static markers.</p>
+<p>Here is a tapset file, based on a non-shared build of CPython:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/*
+   Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and
+   function__return markers:
+ \*/
+probe python.function.entry = process(&quot;python&quot;).mark(&quot;function__entry&quot;)
+{
+    filename = user_string($arg1);
+    funcname = user_string($arg2);
+    lineno = $arg3;
+    frameptr = $arg4
+}
+probe python.function.return = process(&quot;python&quot;).mark(&quot;function__return&quot;)
+{
+    filename = user_string($arg1);
+    funcname = user_string($arg2);
+    lineno = $arg3;
+    frameptr = $arg4
+}
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If this file is installed in SystemTap’s tapset directory (e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/share/systemtap/tapset</span></code>), then these additional probepoints become
+available:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.python.function.entry">
+<code class="descname">python.function.entry</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>str<em> filename</em>, str<em> funcname</em>, int<em> lineno</em>, frameptr<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.python.function.entry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This probe point indicates that execution of a Python function has begun.
+It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="c.python.function.return">
+<code class="descname">python.function.return</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span>str<em> filename</em>, str<em> funcname</em>, int<em> lineno</em>, frameptr<span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#c.python.function.return" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This probe point is the converse of <a class="reference internal" href="#c.python.function.return" title="python.function.return"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.function.return()</span></code></a>, and
+indicates that execution of a Python function has ended (either via
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code>, or via an exception).  It is only triggered for pure-Python
+(bytecode) functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This SystemTap script uses the tapset above to more cleanly implement the
+example given above of tracing the Python function-call hierarchy, without
+needing to directly name the static markers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>probe python.function.entry
+{
+  printf(&quot;%s =&gt; %s in %s:%d\n&quot;,
+         thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+}
+
+probe python.function.return
+{
+  printf(&quot;%s &lt;= %s in %s:%d\n&quot;,
+         thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
+}
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following script uses the tapset above to provide a top-like view of all
+running CPython code, showing the top 20 most frequently-entered bytecode
+frames, each second, across the whole system:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>global fn_calls;
+
+probe python.function.entry
+{
+    fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
+}
+
+probe timer.ms(1000) {
+    printf(&quot;\033[2J\033[1;1H&quot;) /* clear screen \*/
+    printf(&quot;%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n&quot;,
+           &quot;PID&quot;, &quot;FILENAME&quot;, &quot;LINE&quot;, &quot;FUNCTION&quot;, &quot;CALLS&quot;)
+    foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
+        printf(&quot;%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n&quot;,
+            pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
+            fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
+    }
+    delete fn_calls;
+}
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enabling-the-static-markers">Enabling the static markers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#static-dtrace-probes">Static DTrace probes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#static-systemtap-markers">Static SystemTap markers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#available-static-markers">Available static markers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#systemtap-tapsets">SystemTap Tapsets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="clinic.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Argument Clinic How-To</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/ipaddress.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/ipaddress.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b987d7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/ipaddress.html
@@ -0,0 +1,510 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>An introduction to the ipaddress module &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="an-introduction-to-the-ipaddress-module">
+<span id="ipaddress-howto"></span><h1>An introduction to the ipaddress module<a class="headerlink" href="#an-introduction-to-the-ipaddress-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Peter Moody</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>Nick Coghlan</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="topic">
+<p class="topic-title first">Overview</p>
+<p>This document aims to provide a gentle introduction to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> module. It is aimed primarily at users that aren’t
+already familiar with IP networking terminology, but may also be useful
+to network engineers wanting an overview of how <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a>
+represents IP network addressing concepts.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-address-network-interface-objects">
+<h2>Creating Address/Network/Interface objects<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-address-network-interface-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Since <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> is a module for inspecting and manipulating IP addresses,
+the first thing you’ll want to do is create some objects.  You can use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> to create objects from strings and integers.</p>
+<div class="section" id="a-note-on-ip-versions">
+<h3>A Note on IP Versions<a class="headerlink" href="#a-note-on-ip-versions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For readers that aren’t particularly familiar with IP addressing, it’s
+important to know that the Internet Protocol is currently in the process
+of moving from version 4 of the protocol to version 6. This transition is
+occurring largely because version 4 of the protocol doesn’t provide enough
+addresses to handle the needs of the whole world, especially given the
+increasing number of devices with direct connections to the internet.</p>
+<p>Explaining the details of the differences between the two versions of the
+protocol is beyond the scope of this introduction, but readers need to at
+least be aware that these two versions exist, and it will sometimes be
+necessary to force the use of one version or the other.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ip-host-addresses">
+<h3>IP Host Addresses<a class="headerlink" href="#ip-host-addresses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Addresses, often referred to as “host addresses” are the most basic unit
+when working with IP addressing. The simplest way to create addresses is
+to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.ip_address" title="ipaddress.ip_address"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress.ip_address()</span></code></a> factory function, which automatically
+determines whether to create an IPv4 or IPv6 address based on the passed in
+value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:DB8::1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;2001:db8::1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Addresses can also be created directly from integers. Values that will
+fit within 32 bits are assumed to be IPv4 addresses:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3221225985</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42540766411282592856903984951653826561</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;2001:db8::1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To force the use of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, the relevant classes can be
+invoked directly. This is particularly useful to force creation of IPv6
+addresses for small integers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;0.0.0.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;0.0.0.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv6Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;::1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="defining-networks">
+<h3>Defining Networks<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-networks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Host addresses are usually grouped together into IP networks, so
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> provides a way to create, inspect and manipulate network
+definitions. IP network objects are constructed from strings that define the
+range of host addresses that are part of that network. The simplest form
+for that information is a “network address/network prefix” pair, where the
+prefix defines the number of leading bits that are compared to determine
+whether or not an address is part of the network and the network address
+defines the expected value of those bits.</p>
+<p>As for addresses, a factory function is provided that determines the correct
+IP version automatically:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::0/96&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Network(&#39;2001:db8::/96&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Network objects cannot have any host bits set.  The practical effect of this
+is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.0.2.1/24</span></code> does not describe a network.  Such definitions are
+referred to as interface objects since the ip-on-a-network notation is
+commonly used to describe network interfaces of a computer on a given network
+and are described further in the next section.</p>
+<p>By default, attempting to create a network object with host bits set will
+result in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> being raised. To request that the
+additional bits instead be coerced to zero, the flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict=False</span></code> can
+be passed to the constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+   <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/24&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">strict</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>While the string form offers significantly more flexibility, networks can
+also be defined with integers, just like host addresses. In this case, the
+network is considered to contain only the single address identified by the
+integer, so the network prefix includes the entire network address:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3221225984</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/32&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42540766411282592856903984951653826560</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Network(&#39;2001:db8::/128&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As with addresses, creation of a particular kind of network can be forced
+by calling the class constructor directly instead of using the factory
+function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="host-interfaces">
+<h3>Host Interfaces<a class="headerlink" href="#host-interfaces" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As mentioned just above, if you need to describe an address on a particular
+network, neither the address nor the network classes are sufficient.
+Notation like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.0.2.1/24</span></code> is commonly used by network engineers and the
+people who write tools for firewalls and routers as shorthand for “the host
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.0.2.1</span></code> on the network <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.0.2.0/24</span></code>”, Accordingly, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a>
+provides a set of hybrid classes that associate an address with a particular
+network. The interface for creation is identical to that for defining network
+objects, except that the address portion isn’t constrained to being a network
+address.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Interface(&#39;192.0.2.1/24&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::1/96&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Interface(&#39;2001:db8::1/96&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Integer inputs are accepted (as with networks), and use of a particular IP
+version can be forced by calling the relevant constructor directly.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inspecting-address-network-interface-objects">
+<h2>Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#inspecting-address-network-interface-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You’ve gone to the trouble of creating an IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface)
+object, so you probably want to get information about it.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a>
+tries to make doing this easy and intuitive.</p>
+<p>Extracting the IP version:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr6</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr4</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Obtaining the network from an interface:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">host4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">host4</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">network</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">host6</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::1/96&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">host6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">network</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Network(&#39;2001:db8::/96&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finding out how many individual addresses are in a network:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">num_addresses</span>
+<span class="go">256</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::0/96&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">num_addresses</span>
+<span class="go">4294967296</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Iterating through the “usable” addresses on a network:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">net4</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hosts</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">192.0.2.1</span>
+<span class="go">192.0.2.2</span>
+<span class="go">192.0.2.3</span>
+<span class="go">192.0.2.4</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">192.0.2.252</span>
+<span class="go">192.0.2.253</span>
+<span class="go">192.0.2.254</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Obtaining the netmask (i.e. set bits corresponding to the network prefix) or
+the hostmask (any bits that are not part of the netmask):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">netmask</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;255.255.255.0&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hostmask</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;0.0.0.255&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::0/96&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">netmask</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hostmask</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;::ffff:ffff&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Exploding or compressing the address:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exploded</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compressed</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2001:db8::1&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exploded</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compressed</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2001:db8::/96&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>While IPv4 doesn’t support explosion or compression, the associated objects
+still provide the relevant properties so that version neutral code can
+easily ensure the most concise or most verbose form is used for IPv6
+addresses while still correctly handling IPv4 addresses.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="networks-as-lists-of-addresses">
+<h2>Networks as lists of Addresses<a class="headerlink" href="#networks-as-lists-of-addresses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It’s sometimes useful to treat networks as lists.  This means it is possible
+to index them like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net4</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.255&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;2001:db8::1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">net6</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;2001:db8::ffff:ffff&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It also means that network objects lend themselves to using the list
+membership test syntax like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">address</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">network</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># do something</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Containment testing is done efficiently based on the network prefix:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr4</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr4</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.3.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparisons">
+<h2>Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#comparisons" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> provides some simple, hopefully intuitive ways to compare
+objects, where it makes sense:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised if you try to compare objects of
+different versions or different types.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-ip-addresses-with-other-modules">
+<h2>Using IP Addresses with other modules<a class="headerlink" href="#using-ip-addresses-with-other-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Other modules that use IP addresses (such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>) usually won’t
+accept objects from this module directly. Instead, they must be coerced to
+an integer or string that the other module will accept:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">addr4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">addr4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3221225985</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="getting-more-detail-when-instance-creation-fails">
+<h2>Getting more detail when instance creation fails<a class="headerlink" href="#getting-more-detail-when-instance-creation-fails" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When creating address/network/interface objects using the version-agnostic
+factory functions, any errors will be reported as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> with
+a generic error message that simply says the passed in value was not
+recognized as an object of that type. The lack of a specific error is
+because it’s necessary to know whether the value is <em>supposed</em> to be IPv4
+or IPv6 in order to provide more detail on why it has been rejected.</p>
+<p>To support use cases where it is useful to have access to this additional
+detail, the individual class constructors actually raise the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> subclasses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.AddressValueError" title="ipaddress.AddressValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress.AddressValueError</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.NetmaskValueError" title="ipaddress.NetmaskValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress.NetmaskValueError</span></code></a> to indicate exactly which part of
+the definition failed to parse correctly.</p>
+<p>The error messages are significantly more detailed when using the
+class constructors directly. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;192.168.0.256&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;192.168.0.256&#39; does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;192.168.0.256&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ipaddress.AddressValueError</span>: <span class="n">Octet 256 (&gt; 255) not permitted in &#39;192.168.0.256&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;192.168.0.1/64&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;192.168.0.1/64&#39; does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;192.168.0.1/64&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ipaddress.NetmaskValueError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;64&#39; is not a valid netmask</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, both of the module specific exceptions have <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> as their
+parent class, so if you’re not concerned with the particular type of error,
+you can still write code like the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">network</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">address</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">An introduction to the ipaddress module</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-address-network-interface-objects">Creating Address/Network/Interface objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-note-on-ip-versions">A Note on IP Versions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ip-host-addresses">IP Host Addresses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defining-networks">Defining Networks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#host-interfaces">Host Interfaces</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inspecting-address-network-interface-objects">Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#networks-as-lists-of-addresses">Networks as lists of Addresses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-ip-addresses-with-other-modules">Using IP Addresses with other modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-more-detail-when-instance-creation-fails">Getting more detail when instance creation fails</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="argparse.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Argparse Tutorial</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/logging-cookbook.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/logging-cookbook.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d09f7fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/logging-cookbook.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2589 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>Logging Cookbook &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="logging-cookbook">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Logging Cookbook<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-cookbook" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Vinay Sajip &lt;vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This page contains a number of recipes related to logging, which have been found
+useful in the past.</p>
+<div class="section" id="using-logging-in-multiple-modules">
+<h2>Using logging in multiple modules<a class="headerlink" href="#using-logging-in-multiple-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Multiple calls to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.getLogger('someLogger')</span></code> return a reference to the
+same logger object.  This is true not only within the same module, but also
+across modules as long as it is in the same Python interpreter process.  It is
+true for references to the same object; additionally, application code can
+define and configure a parent logger in one module and create (but not
+configure) a child logger in a separate module, and all logger calls to the
+child will pass up to the parent.  Here is a main module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">auxiliary_module</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create logger with &#39;spam_application&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam_application&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># create file handler which logs even debug messages</span>
+<span class="n">fh</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.log&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">fh</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># create console handler with a higher log level</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># create formatter and add it to the handlers</span>
+<span class="n">formatter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">fh</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># add the handlers to the logger</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fh</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ch</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auxiliary_module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Auxiliary</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;calling auxiliary_module.some_function()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">auxiliary_module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_function</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;done with auxiliary_module.some_function()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is the auxiliary module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create logger</span>
+<span class="n">module_logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam_application.auxiliary&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Auxiliary</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;creating an instance of Auxiliary&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;doing something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;done doing something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">some_function</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">module_logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;received a call to &quot;some_function&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
+   creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
+   creating an instance of Auxiliary
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
+   created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
+   calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
+   doing something
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
+   done doing something
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
+   finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
+   calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
+   received a call to &#39;some_function&#39;
+2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
+   done with auxiliary_module.some_function()
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-from-multiple-threads">
+<h2>Logging from multiple threads<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-from-multiple-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Logging from multiple threads requires no special effort. The following example
+shows logging from the main (initial) thread and another thread:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;stop&#39;</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+        <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hi from myfunc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(relativeCreated)6d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(threadName)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">info</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;stop&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">thread</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">worker</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello from main&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.75</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyboardInterrupt</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">info</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;stop&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="n">thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When run, the script should print something like the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>   0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+   3 MainThread Hello from main
+ 505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+ 755 MainThread Hello from main
+1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+1507 MainThread Hello from main
+1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+2258 MainThread Hello from main
+2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+3009 MainThread Hello from main
+3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+3761 MainThread Hello from main
+4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+4513 MainThread Hello from main
+4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This shows the logging output interspersed as one might expect. This approach
+works for more threads than shown here, of course.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multiple-handlers-and-formatters">
+<h2>Multiple handlers and formatters<a class="headerlink" href="#multiple-handlers-and-formatters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Loggers are plain Python objects.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addHandler" title="logging.Logger.addHandler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addHandler()</span></code></a> method has no
+minimum or maximum quota for the number of handlers you may add.  Sometimes it
+will be beneficial for an application to log all messages of all severities to a
+text file while simultaneously logging errors or above to the console.  To set
+this up, simply configure the appropriate handlers.  The logging calls in the
+application code will remain unchanged.  Here is a slight modification to the
+previous simple module-based configuration example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;simple_example&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># create file handler which logs even debug messages</span>
+<span class="n">fh</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.log&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">fh</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># create console handler with a higher log level</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># create formatter and add it to the handlers</span>
+<span class="n">formatter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">fh</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># add the handlers to logger</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ch</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fh</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># &#39;application&#39; code</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;debug message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;info message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;warn message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;error message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;critical message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice that the ‘application’ code does not care about multiple handlers.  All
+that changed was the addition and configuration of a new handler named <em>fh</em>.</p>
+<p>The ability to create new handlers with higher- or lower-severity filters can be
+very helpful when writing and testing an application.  Instead of using many
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statements for debugging, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logger.debug</span></code>: Unlike the print
+statements, which you will have to delete or comment out later, the logger.debug
+statements can remain intact in the source code and remain dormant until you
+need them again.  At that time, the only change that needs to happen is to
+modify the severity level of the logger and/or handler to debug.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-to-multiple-destinations">
+<span id="multiple-destinations"></span><h2>Logging to multiple destinations<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-to-multiple-destinations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s say you want to log to console and file with different message formats and
+in differing circumstances. Say you want to log messages with levels of DEBUG
+and higher to file, and those messages at level INFO and higher to the console.
+Let’s also assume that the file should contain timestamps, but the console
+messages should not. Here’s how you can achieve this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># set up logging to file - see previous section for more details</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-12s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">datefmt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;%m-</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> %H:%M&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;/temp/myapp.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">filemode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr</span>
+<span class="n">console</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">console</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># set a format which is simpler for console use</span>
+<span class="n">formatter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(name)-12s</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># tell the handler to use this format</span>
+<span class="n">console</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># add the handler to the root logger</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">console</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your</span>
+<span class="c1"># application:</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.area1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.area2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The five boxing wizards jump quickly.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When you run this, on the console you will see</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
+myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
+myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
+myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and in the file you will see something like</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
+10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
+10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
+10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
+10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you can see, the DEBUG message only shows up in the file. The other messages
+are sent to both destinations.</p>
+<p>This example uses console and file handlers, but you can use any number and
+combination of handlers you choose.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuration-server-example">
+<h2>Configuration server example<a class="headerlink" href="#configuration-server-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is an example of a module using the logging configuration server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># read initial config file</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;logging.conf&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create and start listener on port 9999</span>
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">9999</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;simpleExample&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># loop through logging calls to see the difference</span>
+    <span class="c1"># new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;debug message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;info message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;warn message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;error message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;critical message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyboardInterrupt</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># cleanup</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stopListening</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And here is a script that takes a filename and sends that file to the server,
+properly preceded with the binary-encoded length, as the new logging
+configuration:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">data_to_send</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">9999</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;connecting...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sending config...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;L&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data_to_send</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data_to_send</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;complete&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dealing-with-handlers-that-block">
+<h2>Dealing with handlers that block<a class="headerlink" href="#dealing-with-handlers-that-block" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes you have to get your logging handlers to do their work without
+blocking the thread you’re logging from. This is common in Web applications,
+though of course it also occurs in other scenarios.</p>
+<p>A common culprit which demonstrates sluggish behaviour is the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHandler</span></code></a>: sending emails can take a long time, for a
+number of reasons outside the developer’s control (for example, a poorly
+performing mail or network infrastructure). But almost any network-based
+handler can block: Even a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> operation may do a
+DNS query under the hood which is too slow (and this query can be deep in the
+socket library code, below the Python layer, and outside your control).</p>
+<p>One solution is to use a two-part approach. For the first part, attach only a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> to those loggers which are accessed from
+performance-critical threads. They simply write to their queue, which can be
+sized to a large enough capacity or initialized with no upper bound to their
+size. The write to the queue will typically be accepted quickly, though you
+will probably need to catch the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Full" title="queue.Full"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Full</span></code></a> exception as a precaution
+in your code. If you are a library developer who has performance-critical
+threads in their code, be sure to document this (together with a suggestion to
+attach only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandlers</span></code> to your loggers) for the benefit of other
+developers who will use your code.</p>
+<p>The second part of the solution is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a>, which has been
+designed as the counterpart to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a>.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> is very simple: it’s passed a queue and some handlers,
+and it fires up an internal thread which listens to its queue for LogRecords
+sent from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandlers</span></code> (or any other source of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecords</span></code>, for that
+matter). The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecords</span></code> are removed from the queue and passed to the
+handlers for processing.</p>
+<p>The advantage of having a separate <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> class is that you
+can use the same instance to service multiple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandlers</span></code>. This is more
+resource-friendly than, say, having threaded versions of the existing handler
+classes, which would eat up one thread per handler for no particular benefit.</p>
+<p>An example of using these two classes follows (imports omitted):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">que</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># no limit on size</span>
+<span class="n">queue_handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">QueueHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">que</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">listener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">QueueListener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">que</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue_handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">formatter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(threadName)s</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1"># The log output will display the thread which generated</span>
+<span class="c1"># the event (the main thread) rather than the internal</span>
+<span class="c1"># thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what</span>
+<span class="c1"># you want to happen.</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Look out!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which, when run, will produce:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>MainThread: Look out!
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Prior to Python 3.5, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> always passed every message
+received from the queue to every handler it was initialized with. (This was
+because it was assumed that level filtering was all done on the other side,
+where the queue is filled.) From 3.5 onwards, this behaviour can be changed
+by passing a keyword argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">respect_handler_level=True</span></code> to the
+listener’s constructor. When this is done, the listener compares the level
+of each message with the handler’s level, and only passes a message to a
+handler if it’s appropriate to do so.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sending-and-receiving-logging-events-across-a-network">
+<span id="network-logging"></span><h2>Sending and receiving logging events across a network<a class="headerlink" href="#sending-and-receiving-logging-events-across-a-network" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s say you want to send logging events across a network, and handle them at
+the receiving end. A simple way of doing this is attaching a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> instance to the root logger at the sending end:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">logging.handlers</span>
+
+<span class="n">rootLogger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">rootLogger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">socketHandler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SocketHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># don&#39;t bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as</span>
+<span class="c1"># an unformatted pickle</span>
+<span class="n">rootLogger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketHandler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your</span>
+<span class="c1"># application:</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.area1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.area2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The five boxing wizards jump quickly.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>At the receiving end, you can set up a receiver using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a>
+module. Here is a basic working example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.handlers</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socketserver</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LogRecordStreamHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Handler for a streaming logging request.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is</span>
+<span class="sd">    configured locally.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">        Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,</span>
+<span class="sd">        followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record</span>
+<span class="sd">        according to whatever policy is configured locally.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+            <span class="n">slen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;L&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+            <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">while</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">slen</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slen</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unPickle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">record</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">makeLogRecord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handleLogRecord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">unPickle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handleLogRecord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one</span>
+        <span class="c1"># implied by the record.</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logname</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logname</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle</span>
+        <span class="c1"># is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want</span>
+        <span class="c1"># to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting</span>
+        <span class="c1"># cycles and network bandwidth!</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LogRecordSocketReceiver</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ThreadingTCPServer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">allow_reuse_address</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="n">port</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">LogRecordStreamHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ThreadingTCPServer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abort</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeout</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">serve_until_stopped</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">select</span>
+        <span class="n">abort</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">abort</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">rd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">wr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ex</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">()],</span>
+                                       <span class="p">[],</span> <span class="p">[],</span>
+                                       <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">rd</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle_request</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">abort</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abort</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(relativeCreated)5d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">tcpserver</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">LogRecordSocketReceiver</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;About to start TCP server...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">tcpserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_until_stopped</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>First run the server, and then the client. On the client side, nothing is
+printed on the console; on the server side, you should see something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>About to start TCP server...
+   59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
+   59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
+   69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
+   69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
+   69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios. If
+these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by overriding
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makePickle()</span></code> method and implementing your
+alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your alternative
+serialization.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output">
+<span id="context-info"></span><h2>Adding contextual information to your logging output<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes you want logging output to contain contextual information in
+addition to the parameters passed to the logging call. For example, in a
+networked application, it may be desirable to log client-specific information
+in the log (e.g. remote client’s username, or IP address). Although you could
+use the <em>extra</em> parameter to achieve this, it’s not always convenient to pass
+the information in this way. While it might be tempting to create
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> instances on a per-connection basis, this is not a good idea
+because these instances are not garbage collected. While this is not a problem
+in practice, when the number of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> instances is dependent on the
+level of granularity you want to use in logging an application, it could
+be hard to manage if the number of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> instances becomes
+effectively unbounded.</p>
+<div class="section" id="using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information">
+<h3>Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information<a class="headerlink" href="#using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An easy way in which you can pass contextual information to be output along
+with logging event information is to use the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code> class.
+This class is designed to look like a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code>, so that you can call
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exception()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log()</span></code>. These methods have the
+same signatures as their counterparts in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code>, so you can use the
+two types of instances interchangeably.</p>
+<p>When you create an instance of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code>, you pass it a
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> instance and a dict-like object which contains your contextual
+information. When you call one of the logging methods on an instance of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code>, it delegates the call to the underlying instance of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> passed to its constructor, and arranges to pass the contextual
+information in the delegated call. Here’s a snippet from the code of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding</span>
+<span class="sd">    contextual information from this adapter instance.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process()</span></code> method of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code> is where the
+contextual information is added to the logging output. It’s passed the message
+and keyword arguments of the logging call, and it passes back (potentially)
+modified versions of these to use in the call to the underlying logger. The
+default implementation of this method leaves the message alone, but inserts
+an ‘extra’ key in the keyword argument whose value is the dict-like object
+passed to the constructor. Of course, if you had passed an ‘extra’ keyword
+argument in the call to the adapter, it will be silently overwritten.</p>
+<p>The advantage of using ‘extra’ is that the values in the dict-like object are
+merged into the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code> instance’s __dict__, allowing you to use
+customized strings with your <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code> instances which know about
+the keys of the dict-like object. If you need a different method, e.g. if you
+want to prepend or append the contextual information to the message string,
+you just need to subclass <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code> and override
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process()</span></code> to do what you need. Here is a simple example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">CustomAdapter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LoggerAdapter</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a</span>
+<span class="sd">    &#39;connid&#39; key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;[</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">] </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extra</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;connid&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which you can use like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">adapter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CustomAdapter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;connid&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">some_conn_id</span><span class="p">})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then any events that you log to the adapter will have the value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_conn_id</span></code> prepended to the log messages.</p>
+<div class="section" id="using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information">
+<h4>Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information<a class="headerlink" href="#using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>You don’t need to pass an actual dict to a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code> - you could
+pass an instance of a class which implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code> so
+that it looks like a dict to logging. This would be useful if you want to
+generate values dynamically (whereas the values in a dict would be constant).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-filters-to-impart-contextual-information">
+<span id="filters-contextual"></span><h3>Using Filters to impart contextual information<a class="headerlink" href="#using-filters-to-impart-contextual-information" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can also add contextual information to log output using a user-defined
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code> instances are allowed to modify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecords</span></code>
+passed to them, including adding additional attributes which can then be output
+using a suitable format string, or if needed a custom <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example in a web application, the request being processed (or at least,
+the interesting parts of it) can be stored in a threadlocal
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.local" title="threading.local"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.local</span></code></a>) variable, and then accessed from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code> to
+add, say, information from the request - say, the remote IP address and remote
+user’s username - to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code>, using the attribute names ‘ip’ and
+‘user’ as in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code> example above. In that case, the same format
+string can be used to get similar output to that shown above. Here’s an example
+script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">random</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">choice</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ContextFilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Filter</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random</span>
+<span class="sd">    data in this demo.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">USERS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;jim&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fred&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;sheila&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">IPS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;123.231.231.123&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+        <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ContextFilter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">user</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ContextFilter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">USERS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">levels</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WARNING</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CRITICAL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-5s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> IP: </span><span class="si">%(ip)-15s</span><span class="s1"> User: </span><span class="si">%(user)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">a1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a.b.c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">a2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d.e.f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ContextFilter</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">a1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addFilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">a2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addFilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">a1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;A debug message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">a1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;An info message with </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;some parameters&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">lvl</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">levels</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">lvlname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLevelName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lvl</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">a2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lvl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;A message at </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> level with </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lvlname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;parameters&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which, when run, produces something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
+2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes">
+<span id="multiple-processes"></span><h2>Logging to a single file from multiple processes<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Although logging is thread-safe, and logging to a single file from multiple
+threads in a single process <em>is</em> supported, logging to a single file from
+<em>multiple processes</em> is <em>not</em> supported, because there is no standard way to
+serialize access to a single file across multiple processes in Python. If you
+need to log to a single file from multiple processes, one way of doing this is
+to have all the processes log to a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code>, and have a
+separate process which implements a socket server which reads from the socket
+and logs to file. (If you prefer, you can dedicate one thread in one of the
+existing processes to perform this function.)
+<a class="reference internal" href="#network-logging"><span class="std std-ref">This section</span></a> documents this approach in more detail and
+includes a working socket receiver which can be used as a starting point for you
+to adapt in your own applications.</p>
+<p>If you are using a recent version of Python which includes the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module, you could write your own handler which uses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> class from this module to serialize access to the
+file from your processes. The existing <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code> and subclasses do
+not make use of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> at present, though they may do so in the
+future. Note that at present, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module does not provide
+working lock functionality on all platforms (see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3770">https://bugs.python.org/issue3770</a>).</p>
+<p>Alternatively, you can use a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code> and a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> to send
+all logging events to one of the processes in your multi-process application.
+The following example script demonstrates how you can do this; in the example
+a separate listener process listens for events sent by other processes and logs
+them according to its own logging configuration. Although the example only
+demonstrates one way of doing it (for example, you may want to use a listener
+thread rather than a separate listener process – the implementation would be
+analogous) it does allow for completely different logging configurations for
+the listener and the other processes in your application, and can be used as
+the basis for code meeting your own specific requirements:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># You&#39;ll need these imports in your own code</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.handlers</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Next two import lines for this demo only</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">random</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">random</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># Because you&#39;ll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the</span>
+<span class="c1"># listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable</span>
+<span class="c1"># for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,</span>
+<span class="c1"># which they use for communication.</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this</span>
+<span class="c1"># simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.</span>
+<span class="c1"># In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid</span>
+<span class="c1"># sending events which would be filtered out between processes.</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">listener_configurer</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RotatingFileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mptest.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">300</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(processName)-10s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events</span>
+<span class="c1"># (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a</span>
+<span class="c1"># LogRecord.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">listener_process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">configurer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">configurer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">record</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">record</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+            <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># No level or filter logic applied - just do it!</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">traceback</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Whoops! Problem:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_exc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Arrays used for random selections in this demo</span>
+
+<span class="n">LEVELS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WARNING</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CRITICAL</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">LOGGERS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a.b.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d.e.f&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">MESSAGES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Random message #1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Random message #2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Random message #3&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Note that on Windows you can&#39;t rely on fork semantics, so each process</span>
+<span class="c1"># will run the logging configuration code when it starts.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker_configurer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">QueueHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Just the one handler needed</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with</span>
+<span class="c1"># random intervening delays before terminating.</span>
+<span class="c1"># The print messages are just so you know it&#39;s doing something!</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker_process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">configurer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">configurer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">current_process</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Worker started: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">LOGGERS</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">LEVELS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MESSAGES</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Worker finished: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Here&#39;s where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start</span>
+<span class="c1"># the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,</span>
+<span class="c1"># then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">listener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">listener_process</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">listener_configurer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">workers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">worker</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">worker_process</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                         <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">worker_configurer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">workers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">worker</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">worker</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">workers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put_nowait</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A variant of the above script keeps the logging in the main process, in a
+separate thread:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.handlers</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Queue</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">logger_thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">record</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">record</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker_process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">qh</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">QueueHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">qh</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">levels</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WARNING</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CRITICAL</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">loggers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar.baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+               <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam.ham&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam.ham.eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">lvl</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">levels</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loggers</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lvl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Message no. </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.Formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(processName)-10s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.StreamHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.FileHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mplog.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;foofile&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.FileHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mplog-foo.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;errors&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.FileHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mplog-errors.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ERROR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foofile&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;errors&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">workers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">wp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">worker_process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;worker </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+        <span class="n">workers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">wp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">lp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logger_thread</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">lp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Once it&#39;s done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">wp</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">workers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">wp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">lp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This variant shows how you can e.g. apply configuration for particular loggers
+- e.g. the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> logger has a special handler which stores all events in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> subsystem in a file <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mplog-foo.log</span></code>. This will be used by the logging
+machinery in the main process (even though the logging events are generated in
+the worker processes) to direct the messages to the appropriate destinations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-file-rotation">
+<h2>Using file rotation<a class="headerlink" href="#using-file-rotation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a new
+file and log to that. You may want to keep a certain number of these files, and
+when that many files have been created, rotate the files so that the number of
+files and the size of the files both remain bounded. For this usage pattern, the
+logging package provides a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">glob</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.handlers</span>
+
+<span class="n">LOG_FILENAME</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging_rotatingfile_example.out&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Set up a specific logger with our desired output level</span>
+<span class="n">my_logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;MyLogger&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">my_logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Add the log message handler to the logger</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RotatingFileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span>
+              <span class="n">LOG_FILENAME</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxBytes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">backupCount</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">my_logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Log some messages</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">my_logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i = </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># See what files are created</span>
+<span class="n">logfiles</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">*&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">LOG_FILENAME</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">logfiles</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The result should be 6 separate files, each with part of the log history for the
+application:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>logging_rotatingfile_example.out
+logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
+logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
+logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
+logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
+logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The most current file is always <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging_rotatingfile_example.out</span></code>,
+and each time it reaches the size limit it is renamed with the suffix
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.1</span></code>. Each of the existing backup files is renamed to increment the suffix
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.1</span></code> becomes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.2</span></code>, etc.)  and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.6</span></code> file is erased.</p>
+<p>Obviously this example sets the log length much too small as an extreme
+example.  You would want to set <em>maxBytes</em> to an appropriate value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="use-of-alternative-formatting-styles">
+<span id="format-styles"></span><h2>Use of alternative formatting styles<a class="headerlink" href="#use-of-alternative-formatting-styles" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When logging was added to the Python standard library, the only way of
+formatting messages with variable content was to use the %-formatting
+method. Since then, Python has gained two new formatting approaches:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a> (added in Python 2.4) and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>
+(added in Python 2.6).</p>
+<p>Logging (as of 3.2) provides improved support for these two additional
+formatting styles. The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code> class been enhanced to take an
+additional, optional keyword parameter named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">style</span></code>. This defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code>, but other possible values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code>, which correspond
+to the other two formatting styles. Backwards compatibility is maintained by
+default (as you would expect), but by explicitly specifying a style parameter,
+you get the ability to specify format strings which work with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>. Here’s an example console
+session to show the possibilities:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                       <span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;{&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bf</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a DEBUG message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a CRITICAL message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">df</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;$asctime $name ${levelname} $message&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                       <span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;$&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">df</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a DEBUG message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a CRITICAL message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs is
+completely independent of how an individual logging message is constructed.
+That can still use %-formatting, as shown here:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is an</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;other,&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ERROR,&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Logging calls (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logger.debug()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logger.info()</span></code> etc.) only take
+positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with keyword
+parameters used only for determining options for how to handle the actual
+logging call (e.g. the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc_info</span></code> keyword parameter to indicate that
+traceback information should be logged, or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extra</span></code> keyword parameter
+to indicate additional contextual information to be added to the log). So
+you cannot directly make logging calls using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a> syntax, because internally the logging package
+uses %-formatting to merge the format string and the variable arguments.
+There would be no changing this while preserving backward compatibility, since
+all logging calls which are out there in existing code will be using %-format
+strings.</p>
+<p>There is, however, a way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to construct
+your individual log messages. Recall that for a message you can use an
+arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the logging package will
+call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code> on that object to get the actual format string. Consider the
+following two classes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">BraceMessage</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fmt</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DollarMessage</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fmt</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">string</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Template</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
+$-formatting to be used to build the actual “message” part which appears in the
+formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or “$message”.
+It’s a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you want to log
+something, but it’s quite palatable if you use an alias such as __ (double
+underscore — not to be confused with _, the single underscore used as a
+synonym/alias for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gettext.html#gettext.gettext" title="gettext.gettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext.gettext()</span></code></a> or its brethren).</p>
+<p>The above classes are not included in Python, though they’re easy enough to
+copy and paste into your own code. They can be used as follows (assuming that
+they’re declared in a module called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wherever</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wherever</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">BraceMessage</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">__</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message with {0} {name}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;placeholders&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Message with 2 placeholders</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>      <span class="n">point</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wherever</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">DollarMessage</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">__</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message with $num $what&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">what</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;placeholders&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Message with 2 placeholders</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>While the above examples use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code> to show how the formatting works, you
+would of course use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logger.debug()</span></code> or similar to actually log using this
+approach.</p>
+<p>One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this
+approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but
+when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a
+handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the
+parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format
+string. That’s because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor
+call to one of the XXXMessage classes.</p>
+<p>If you prefer, you can use a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code> to achieve a similar effect
+to the above, as in the following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fmt</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">StyleAdapter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LoggerAdapter</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">StyleAdapter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="p">{})</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isEnabledFor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(),</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StyleAdapter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello, </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;world!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above script should log the message <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Hello,</span> <span class="pre">world!</span></code> when run with
+Python 3.2 or later.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-logrecord">
+<span id="custom-logrecord"></span><h2>Customizing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-logrecord" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Every logging event is represented by a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instance.
+When an event is logged and not filtered out by a logger’s level, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> is created, populated with information about the event and
+then passed to the handlers for that logger (and its ancestors, up to and
+including the logger where further propagation up the hierarchy is disabled).
+Before Python 3.2, there were only two places where this creation was done:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.makeRecord" title="logging.Logger.makeRecord"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.makeRecord()</span></code></a>, which is called in the normal process of
+logging an event. This invoked <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> directly to create an
+instance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.makeLogRecord" title="logging.makeLogRecord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makeLogRecord()</span></code></a>, which is called with a dictionary containing
+attributes to be added to the LogRecord. This is typically invoked when a
+suitable dictionary has been received over the network (e.g. in pickle form
+via a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a>, or in JSON form via an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This has usually meant that if you need to do anything special with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>, you’ve had to do one of the following.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Create your own <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> subclass, which overrides
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.makeRecord" title="logging.Logger.makeRecord"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.makeRecord()</span></code></a>, and set it using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.setLoggerClass" title="logging.setLoggerClass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLoggerClass()</span></code></a>
+before any loggers that you care about are instantiated.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> to a logger or handler, which does the
+necessary special manipulation you need when its
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter.filter" title="logging.Filter.filter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> method is called.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The first approach would be a little unwieldy in the scenario where (say)
+several different libraries wanted to do different things. Each would attempt
+to set its own <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> subclass, and the one which did this last would
+win.</p>
+<p>The second approach works reasonably well for many cases, but does not allow
+you to e.g. use a specialized subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>. Library
+developers can set a suitable filter on their loggers, but they would have to
+remember to do this every time they introduced a new logger (which they would
+do simply by adding new packages or modules and doing</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>at module level). It’s probably one too many things to think about. Developers
+could also add the filter to a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a> attached to their
+top-level logger, but this would not be invoked if an application developer
+attached a handler to a lower-level library logger — so output from that
+handler would not reflect the intentions of the library developer.</p>
+<p>In Python 3.2 and later, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> creation is done through a
+factory, which you can specify. The factory is just a callable you can set with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.setLogRecordFactory" title="logging.setLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a>, and interrogate with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.getLogRecordFactory" title="logging.getLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a>. The factory is invoked with the same
+signature as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> constructor, as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>
+is the default setting for the factory.</p>
+<p>This approach allows a custom factory to control all aspects of LogRecord
+creation. For example, you could return a subclass, or just add some additional
+attributes to the record once created, using a pattern similar to this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">old_factory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogRecordFactory</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">record_factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">record</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">old_factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">custom_attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mh">0xdecafbad</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">record</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLogRecordFactory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record_factory</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This pattern allows different libraries to chain factories together, and as
+long as they don’t overwrite each other’s attributes or unintentionally
+overwrite the attributes provided as standard, there should be no surprises.
+However, it should be borne in mind that each link in the chain adds run-time
+overhead to all logging operations, and the technique should only be used when
+the use of a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> does not provide the desired result.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subclassing-queuehandler-a-zeromq-example">
+<span id="zeromq-handlers"></span><h2>Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example<a class="headerlink" href="#subclassing-queuehandler-a-zeromq-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can use a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code> subclass to send messages to other kinds
+of queues, for example a ZeroMQ ‘publish’ socket. In the example below,the
+socket is created separately and passed to the handler (as its ‘queue’):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">zmq</span>   <span class="c1"># using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>  <span class="c1"># for serializing records portably</span>
+
+<span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PUB</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value</span>
+<span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tcp://*:5556&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>        <span class="c1"># or wherever</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ZeroMQSocketHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">QueueHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">enqueue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_json</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ZeroMQSocketHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Of course there are other ways of organizing this, for example passing in the
+data needed by the handler to create the socket:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ZeroMQSocketHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">QueueHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">uri</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socktype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PUB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">socket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socktype</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">uri</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">enqueue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_json</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subclassing-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example">
+<h2>Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example<a class="headerlink" href="#subclassing-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can also subclass <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code> to get messages from other kinds
+of queues, for example a ZeroMQ ‘subscribe’ socket. Here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ZeroMQSocketListener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">QueueListener</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">uri</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ctx&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">socket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SUB</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setsockopt_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">zmq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SUBSCRIBE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># subscribe to everything</span>
+        <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">uri</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dequeue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv_json</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">makeLogRecord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>API reference for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Configuration API for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Useful handlers included with the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging-basic-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">A basic logging tutorial</span></a></p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging-advanced-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">A more advanced logging tutorial</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="an-example-dictionary-based-configuration">
+<h2>An example dictionary-based configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#an-example-dictionary-based-configuration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Below is an example of a logging configuration dictionary - it’s taken from
+the <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.9/topics/logging/#configuring-logging">documentation on the Django project</a>.
+This dictionary is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> to put the configuration into effect:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">LOGGING</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;disable_existing_loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(module)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(process)d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(thread)d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;simple&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;filters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;special&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;project.logging.SpecialFilter&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;null&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;django.utils.log.NullHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">:{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;logging.StreamHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;simple&#39;</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;mail_admins&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ERROR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;filters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;special&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;django&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:[</span><span class="s1">&#39;null&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;propagate&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;django.request&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;mail_admins&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ERROR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;propagate&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;myproject.custom&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mail_admins&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;filters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;special&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information about this configuration, you can see the <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.9/topics/logging/#configuring-logging">relevant
+section</a>
+of the Django documentation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing">
+<span id="cookbook-rotator-namer"></span><h2>Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the following
+snippet, which shows zlib-based compression of the log file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">namer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot;.gz&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">rotator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">sf</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">compressed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">df</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">df</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compressed</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">rh</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RotatingFileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">rh</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rotator</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">rotator</span>
+<span class="n">rh</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">namer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namer</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These are not “true” .gz files, as they are bare compressed data, with no
+“container” such as you’d find in an actual gzip file. This snippet is just
+for illustration purposes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example">
+<h2>A more elaborate multiprocessing example<a class="headerlink" href="#a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following working example shows how logging can be used with multiprocessing
+using configuration files. The configurations are fairly simple, but serve to
+illustrate how more complex ones could be implemented in a real multiprocessing
+scenario.</p>
+<p>In the example, the main process spawns a listener process and some worker
+processes. Each of the main process, the listener and the workers have three
+separate configurations (the workers all share the same configuration). We can
+see logging in the main process, how the workers log to a QueueHandler and how
+the listener implements a QueueListener and a more complex logging
+configuration, and arranges to dispatch events received via the queue to the
+handlers specified in the configuration. Note that these configurations are
+purely illustrative, but you should be able to adapt this example to your own
+scenario.</p>
+<p>Here’s the script - the docstrings and the comments hopefully explain how it
+works:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.handlers</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Event</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">current_process</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyHandler</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and</span>
+<span class="sd">    dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,</span>
+<span class="sd">    which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers</span>
+<span class="sd">    configured for those loggers.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># The process name is transformed just to show that it&#39;s the listener</span>
+        <span class="c1"># doing the logging to files and console</span>
+        <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">processName</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> (for </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">current_process</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">processName</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">listener_process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stop_event</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate</span>
+<span class="sd">    process for illustrative purposes.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,</span>
+<span class="sd">    starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion</span>
+<span class="sd">    via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">listener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handlers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">QueueListener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MyHandler</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;posix&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the</span>
+        <span class="c1"># parent process, but should have been disabled following the</span>
+        <span class="c1"># dictConfig call.</span>
+        <span class="c1"># On Windows, since fork isn&#39;t used, the setup logger won&#39;t</span>
+        <span class="c1"># exist in the child, so it would be created and the message</span>
+        <span class="c1"># would appear - hence the &quot;if posix&quot; clause.</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">stop_event</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker_process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In</span>
+<span class="sd">    practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than</span>
+<span class="sd">    ones which are identical to each other.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,</span>
+<span class="sd">    and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected</span>
+<span class="sd">    loggers.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This</span>
+<span class="sd">    is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different</span>
+<span class="sd">    processes a bit more than if it&#39;s left out.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">levels</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WARNING</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CRITICAL</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">loggers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar.baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+               <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam.ham&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam.ham.eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;posix&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the</span>
+        <span class="c1"># parent process, but should have been disabled following the</span>
+        <span class="c1"># dictConfig call.</span>
+        <span class="c1"># On Windows, since fork isn&#39;t used, the setup logger won&#39;t</span>
+        <span class="c1"># exist in the child, so it would be created and the message</span>
+        <span class="c1"># would appear - hence the &quot;if posix&quot; clause.</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">lvl</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">levels</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loggers</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lvl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Message no. </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.01</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.</span>
+    <span class="n">config_initial</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.Formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(processName)-10s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.StreamHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the</span>
+    <span class="c1"># root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># We disable existing loggers to disable the &quot;setup&quot; logger used in the</span>
+    <span class="c1"># parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will</span>
+    <span class="c1"># be there in the child following a fork().</span>
+    <span class="n">config_worker</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;disable_existing_loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;queue&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.handlers.QueueHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;queue&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;queue&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of</span>
+    <span class="c1"># logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however</span>
+    <span class="c1"># you want.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># We disable existing loggers to disable the &quot;setup&quot; logger used in the</span>
+    <span class="c1"># parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will</span>
+    <span class="c1"># be there in the child following a fork().</span>
+    <span class="n">config_listener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;disable_existing_loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.Formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(processName)-10s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;simple&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.Formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(processName)-10s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.StreamHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;simple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.FileHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mplog.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;foofile&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.FileHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mplog-foo.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;errors&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.FileHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mplog-errors.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ERROR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;detailed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foofile&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+            <span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;errors&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works</span>
+    <span class="c1"># normally.</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config_initial</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;About to create workers ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">workers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">wp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">worker_process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;worker </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                     <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config_worker</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+        <span class="n">workers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">wp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Started worker: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">wp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;About to create listener ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">stop_event</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Event</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">lp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">listener_process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;listener&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stop_event</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">config_listener</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">lp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Started listener&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">wp</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">workers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">wp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Workers all done, listening can now stop.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Logging in the parent still works normally.</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Telling listener to stop ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">stop_event</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">lp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;All done.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler">
+<h2>Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5424.html"><strong>RFC 5424</strong></a> requires that a
+Unicode message be sent to a syslog daemon as a set of bytes which have the
+following structure: an optional pure-ASCII component, followed by a UTF-8 Byte
+Order Mark (BOM), followed by Unicode encoded using UTF-8. (See the
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5424.html#section-6"><strong>relevant section of the specification</strong></a>.)</p>
+<p>In Python 3.1, code was added to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> to insert a BOM into the message, but
+unfortunately, it was implemented incorrectly, with the BOM appearing at the
+beginning of the message and hence not allowing any pure-ASCII component to
+appear before it.</p>
+<p>As this behaviour is broken, the incorrect BOM insertion code is being removed
+from Python 3.2.4 and later. However, it is not being replaced, and if you
+want to produce <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5424.html"><strong>RFC 5424</strong></a>-compliant messages which include a BOM, an optional
+pure-ASCII sequence before it and arbitrary Unicode after it, encoded using
+UTF-8, then you need to do the following:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>Attach a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> instance to your
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> instance, with a format string
+such as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s1">&#39;ASCII section</span><span class="se">\ufeff</span><span class="s1">Unicode section&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The Unicode code point U+FEFF, when encoded using UTF-8, will be
+encoded as a UTF-8 BOM – the byte-string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\xef\xbb\xbf'</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Replace the ASCII section with whatever placeholders you like, but make sure
+that the data that appears in there after substitution is always ASCII (that
+way, it will remain unchanged after UTF-8 encoding).</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace the Unicode section with whatever placeholders you like; if the data
+which appears there after substitution contains characters outside the ASCII
+range, that’s fine – it will be encoded using UTF-8.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The formatted message <em>will</em> be encoded using UTF-8 encoding by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code>. If you follow the above rules, you should be able to produce
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5424.html"><strong>RFC 5424</strong></a>-compliant messages. If you don’t, logging may not complain, but your
+messages will not be RFC 5424-compliant, and your syslog daemon may complain.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="implementing-structured-logging">
+<h2>Implementing structured logging<a class="headerlink" href="#implementing-structured-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Although most logging messages are intended for reading by humans, and thus not
+readily machine-parseable, there might be circumstances where you want to output
+messages in a structured format which <em>is</em> capable of being parsed by a program
+(without needing complex regular expressions to parse the log message). This is
+straightforward to achieve using the logging package. There are a number of
+ways in which this could be achieved, but the following is a simple approach
+which uses JSON to serialise the event in a machine-parseable manner:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">StructuredMessage</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> &gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StructuredMessage</span>   <span class="c1"># optional, to improve readability</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;message 1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">123</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fnum</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">123.456</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the above script is run, it prints:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>message 1 &gt;&gt;&gt; {&quot;fnum&quot;: 123.456, &quot;num&quot;: 123, &quot;bar&quot;: &quot;baz&quot;, &quot;foo&quot;: &quot;bar&quot;}
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the order of items might be different according to the version of
+Python used.</p>
+<p>If you need more specialised processing, you can use a custom JSON encoder,
+as in the following complete example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">unicode_literals</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This next bit is to ensure the script runs unchanged on 2.x and 3.x</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">unicode</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">unicode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Encoder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">JSONEncoder</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unicode</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;unicode_escape&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Encoder</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">StructuredMessage</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Encoder</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> &gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StructuredMessage</span>   <span class="c1"># optional, to improve readability</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;message 1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">set_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="n">snowman</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u2603</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When the above script is run, it prints:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>message 1 &gt;&gt;&gt; {&quot;snowman&quot;: &quot;\u2603&quot;, &quot;set_value&quot;: [1, 2, 3]}
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the order of items might be different according to the version of
+Python used.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig">
+<span id="custom-handlers"></span><h2>Customizing handlers with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are times when you want to customize logging handlers in particular ways,
+and if you use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> you may be able to do this without
+subclassing. As an example, consider that you may want to set the ownership of a
+log file. On POSIX, this is easily done using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.chown" title="shutil.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.chown()</span></code></a>, but the file
+handlers in the stdlib don’t offer built-in support. You can customize handler
+creation using a plain function such as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">owned_file_handler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">owner</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">owner</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chown</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">owner</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can then specify, in a logging configuration passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a>,
+that a logging handler be created by calling this function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">LOGGING</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;disable_existing_loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;default&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">:{</span>
+            <span class="c1"># The values below are popped from this dictionary and</span>
+            <span class="c1"># used to create the handler, set the handler&#39;s level and</span>
+            <span class="c1"># its formatter.</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">owned_file_handler</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;default&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="c1"># The values below are passed to the handler creator callable</span>
+            <span class="c1"># as keyword arguments.</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;owner&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;pulse&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pulse&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;chowntest.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;encoding&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example I am setting the ownership using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pulse</span></code> user and group,
+just for the purposes of illustration. Putting it together into a working
+script, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chowntest.py</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">os</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">owned_file_handler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">owner</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">owner</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chown</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">owner</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">LOGGING</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;disable_existing_loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;default&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">:{</span>
+            <span class="c1"># The values below are popped from this dictionary and</span>
+            <span class="c1"># used to create the handler, set the handler&#39;s level and</span>
+            <span class="c1"># its formatter.</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">owned_file_handler</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;default&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="c1"># The values below are passed to the handler creator callable</span>
+            <span class="c1"># as keyword arguments.</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;owner&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;pulse&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pulse&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;chowntest.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;mode&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;encoding&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">LOGGING</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mylogger&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;A debug message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To run this, you will probably need to run as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
+<span class="gp">$</span> cat chowntest.log
+<span class="go">2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ls -l chowntest.log
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that this example uses Python 3.3 because that’s where <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.chown" title="shutil.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.chown()</span></code></a>
+makes an appearance. This approach should work with any Python version that
+supports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> - namely, Python 2.7, 3.2 or later. With pre-3.3
+versions, you would need to implement the actual ownership change using e.g.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chown" title="os.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chown()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>In practice, the handler-creating function may be in a utility module somewhere
+in your project. Instead of the line in the configuration:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">owned_file_handler</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>you could use e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ext://project.util.owned_file_handler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">project.util</span></code> can be replaced with the actual name of the package
+where the function resides. In the above working script, using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'</span></code> should work. Here, the actual callable
+is resolved by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext://</span></code> specification.</p>
+<p>This example hopefully also points the way to how you could implement other
+types of file change - e.g. setting specific POSIX permission bits - in the
+same way, using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Of course, the approach could also be extended to types of handler other than a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler" title="logging.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a> - for example, one of the rotating file handlers,
+or a different type of handler altogether.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application">
+<span id="formatting-styles"></span><h2>Using particular formatting styles throughout your application<a class="headerlink" href="#using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python 3.2, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> gained a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">style</span></code> keyword
+parameter which, while defaulting to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> for backward compatibility, allowed
+the specification of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> to support the formatting approaches
+supported by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>. Note that this
+governs the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs, and is
+completely orthogonal to how an individual logging message is constructed.</p>
+<p>Logging calls (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.debug" title="logging.Logger.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.info" title="logging.Logger.info"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a> etc.) only take
+positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with keyword
+parameters used only for determining options for how to handle the logging call
+(e.g. the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc_info</span></code> keyword parameter to indicate that traceback information
+should be logged, or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extra</span></code> keyword parameter to indicate additional
+contextual information to be added to the log). So you cannot directly make
+logging calls using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a> syntax,
+because internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
+string and the variable arguments. There would no changing this while preserving
+backward compatibility, since all logging calls which are out there in existing
+code will be using %-format strings.</p>
+<p>There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific loggers,
+but that approach also runs into backward compatibility problems because any
+existing code could be using a given logger name and using %-formatting.</p>
+<p>For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and your
+code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of the
+individual logging call. This opens up a couple of ways in which alternative
+formatting styles can be accommodated.</p>
+<div class="section" id="using-logrecord-factories">
+<h3>Using LogRecord factories<a class="headerlink" href="#using-logrecord-factories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In Python 3.2, along with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> changes mentioned
+above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set their own
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> subclasses, using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.setLogRecordFactory" title="logging.setLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a> function.
+You can use this to set your own subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>, which does the
+Right Thing by overriding the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord.getMessage" title="logging.LogRecord.getMessage"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getMessage()</span></code></a> method. The base
+class implementation of this method is where the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">args</span></code> formatting
+happens, and where you can substitute your alternate formatting; however, you
+should be careful to support all formatting styles and allow %-formatting as
+the default, to ensure interoperability with other code. Care should also be
+taken to call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(self.msg)</span></code>, just as the base implementation does.</p>
+<p>Refer to the reference documentation on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.setLogRecordFactory" title="logging.setLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-custom-message-objects">
+<h3>Using custom message objects<a class="headerlink" href="#using-custom-message-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to
+construct your individual log messages. You may recall (from
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#arbitrary-object-messages"><span class="std std-ref">Using arbitrary objects as messages</span></a>) that when logging you can use an arbitrary
+object as a message format string, and that the logging package will call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> on that object to get the actual format string. Consider the
+following two classes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">BraceMessage</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fmt</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DollarMessage</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fmt</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">string</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Template</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
+$-formatting to be used to build the actual “message” part which appears in the
+formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or “$message”.
+If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you want to log
+something, you can make it more palatable if you use an alias such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> for the message (or perhaps <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__</span></code>, if you are using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> for
+localization).</p>
+<p>Examples of this approach are given below. Firstly, formatting with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BraceMessage</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message with </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;placeholders&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Message with 2 placeholders</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message with coordinates: (</span><span class="si">{point.x:.2f}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{point.y:.2f}</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">point</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Secondly, formatting with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DollarMessage</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message with $num $what&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">what</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;placeholders&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Message with 2 placeholders</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this
+approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but
+when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a
+handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the
+parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format
+string. That’s because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor
+call to one of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XXXMessage</span></code> classes shown above.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuring-filters-with-dictconfig">
+<span id="filters-dictconfig"></span><h2>Configuring filters with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#configuring-filters-with-dictconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You <em>can</em> configure filters using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a>, though it
+might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe). Since
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> is the only filter class included in the standard
+library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it’s only there as a
+base class), you will typically need to define your own <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a>
+subclass with an overridden <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter.filter" title="logging.Filter.filter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> method. To do this,
+specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code> key in the configuration dictionary for the filter,
+specifying a callable which will be used to create the filter (a class is the
+most obvious, but you can provide any callable which returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> instance). Here is a complete example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyFilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Filter</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">param</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">param</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">param</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">param</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">allow</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">allow</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">param</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msg</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">allow</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;changed: &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msg</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">allow</span>
+
+<span class="n">LOGGING</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;filters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;myfilter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">MyFilter</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;param&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;noshow&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.StreamHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;filters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;myfilter&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;console&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">LOGGING</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello - noshow&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable which
+constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters. When run, the above
+script will print:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>changed: hello
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which shows that the filter is working as configured.</p>
+<p>A couple of extra points to note:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If you can’t refer to the callable directly in the configuration (e.g. if it
+lives in a different module, and you can’t import it directly where the
+configuration dictionary is), you can use the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext://...</span></code> as described
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging-config-dict-externalobj"><span class="std std-ref">Access to external objects</span></a>. For example, you could have used
+the text <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ext://__main__.MyFilter'</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyFilter</span></code> in the above
+example.</p></li>
+<li><p>As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to configure custom
+handlers and formatters. See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging-config-dict-userdef"><span class="std std-ref">User-defined objects</span></a> for more
+information on how logging supports using user-defined objects in its
+configuration, and see the other cookbook recipe <a class="reference internal" href="#custom-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Customizing handlers with dictConfig()</span></a> above.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customized-exception-formatting">
+<span id="custom-format-exception"></span><h2>Customized exception formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#customized-exception-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting - for
+argument’s sake, let’s say you want exactly one line per logged event, even
+when exception information is present. You can do this with a custom formatter
+class, as shown in the following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">OneLineExceptionFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">formatException</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_info</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">        Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OneLineExceptionFormatter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">formatException</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc_info</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># or format into one line however you want to</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OneLineExceptionFormatter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exc_text</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">s</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">configure_logging</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">fh</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;output.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OneLineExceptionFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1">|</span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1">|</span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">|&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                  <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">fh</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fh</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">configure_logging</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Sample message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ZeroDivisionError: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
+28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero|&#39;Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File &quot;logtest7.py&quot;, line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero&#39;|
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how exception
+information can be formatted to your liking. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#module-traceback" title="traceback: Print or retrieve a stack traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code></a> module may be
+helpful for more specialized needs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="speaking-logging-messages">
+<span id="spoken-messages"></span><h2>Speaking logging messages<a class="headerlink" href="#speaking-logging-messages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages rendered
+in an audible rather than a visible format. This is easy to do if you have
+text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system, even if it doesn’t have
+a Python binding. Most TTS systems have a command line program you can run, and
+this can be invoked from a handler using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a>. It’s assumed here
+that TTS command line programs won’t expect to interact with users or take a
+long time to complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so
+high as to swamp the user with messages, and that it’s acceptable to have the
+messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example implementation
+below waits for one message to be spoken before the next is processed, and this
+might cause other handlers to be kept waiting. Here is a short example showing
+the approach, which assumes that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">espeak</span></code> TTS package is available:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">subprocess</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TTSHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Handler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">emit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Speak slowly in a female English voice</span>
+        <span class="n">cmd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;espeak&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-s150&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-ven+f3&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                             <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">STDOUT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># wait for the program to finish</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">communicate</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">configure_logging</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TTSHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># the default formatter just returns the message</span>
+    <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Goodbye&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">configure_logging</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When run, this script should say “Hello” and then “Goodbye” in a female voice.</p>
+<p>The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and even
+other systems altogether which can process messages via external programs run
+from a command line.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="buffering-logging-messages-and-outputting-them-conditionally">
+<span id="buffered-logging"></span><h2>Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally<a class="headerlink" href="#buffering-logging-messages-and-outputting-them-conditionally" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary area
+and only output them if a certain condition occurs. For example, you may want to
+start logging debug events in a function, and if the function completes without
+errors, you don’t want to clutter the log with the collected debug information,
+but if there is an error, you want all the debug information to be output as well
+as the error.</p>
+<p>Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator for your
+functions where you want logging to behave this way. It makes use of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers.MemoryHandler</span></code></a>, which allows buffering of logged events
+until some condition occurs, at which point the buffered events are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flushed</span></code>
+- passed to another handler (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code> handler) for processing. By default,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryHandler</span></code> flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose
+level is greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen. You can use this
+recipe with a more specialised subclass of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryHandler</span></code> if you want custom
+flushing behavior.</p>
+<p>The example script has a simple function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, which just cycles through
+all the logging levels, writing to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> to say what level it’s about
+to log at, and then actually logging a message at that level. You can pass a
+parameter to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> which, if true, will log at ERROR and CRITICAL levels -
+otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and WARNING levels.</p>
+<p>The script just arranges to decorate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> with a decorator which will do the
+conditional logging that’s required. The decorator takes a logger as a parameter
+and attaches a memory handler for the duration of the call to the decorated
+function. The decorator can be additionally parameterised using a target handler,
+a level at which flushing should occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of
+records buffered). These default to a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> which
+writes to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.ERROR</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">100</span></code> respectively.</p>
+<p>Here’s the script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">logging.handlers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">MemoryHandler</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NullHandler</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">log_if_errors</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">target_handler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flush_level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">capacity</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">target_handler</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">target_handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">flush_level</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">flush_level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ERROR</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">capacity</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">capacity</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">100</span>
+    <span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MemoryHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">capacity</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flushLevel</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">flush_level</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">target_handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">decorator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;call failed&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                <span class="k">raise</span>
+            <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MemoryHandler</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+                <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">removeHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">wrapper</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">decorator</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fail</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;about to log at DEBUG ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Actually logged at DEBUG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;about to log at INFO ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Actually logged at INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;about to log at WARNING ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Actually logged at WARNING&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">fail</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;about to log at ERROR ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Actually logged at ERROR&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;about to log at CRITICAL ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Actually logged at CRITICAL&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fail</span>
+
+<span class="n">decorated_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">log_if_errors</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Calling undecorated foo with False&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Calling undecorated foo with True&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Calling decorated foo with False&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">decorated_foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">write_line</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Calling decorated foo with True&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">decorated_foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When this script is run, the following output should be observed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Calling undecorated foo with False
+about to log at DEBUG ...
+about to log at INFO ...
+about to log at WARNING ...
+Calling undecorated foo with True
+about to log at DEBUG ...
+about to log at INFO ...
+about to log at WARNING ...
+about to log at ERROR ...
+about to log at CRITICAL ...
+Calling decorated foo with False
+about to log at DEBUG ...
+about to log at INFO ...
+about to log at WARNING ...
+Calling decorated foo with True
+about to log at DEBUG ...
+about to log at INFO ...
+about to log at WARNING ...
+about to log at ERROR ...
+Actually logged at DEBUG
+Actually logged at INFO
+Actually logged at WARNING
+Actually logged at ERROR
+about to log at CRITICAL ...
+Actually logged at CRITICAL
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is logged whose
+severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any previous events at lower
+severities are also logged.</p>
+<p>You can of course use the conventional means of decoration:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@log_if_errors</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fail</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="formatting-times-using-utc-gmt-via-configuration">
+<span id="utc-formatting"></span><h2>Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#formatting-times-using-utc-gmt-via-configuration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a class
+such as <cite>UTCFormatter</cite>, shown below:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">UTCFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">converter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gmtime</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and you can then use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTCFormatter</span></code> in your code instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a>. If you want to do that via configuration, you can
+use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> API with an approach illustrated by
+the following complete example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">UTCFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">converter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gmtime</span>
+
+<span class="n">LOGGING</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;disable_existing_loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;utc&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">UTCFormatter</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;local&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;console1&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.StreamHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;utc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;console2&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.StreamHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;local&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;console1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;console2&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+   <span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">LOGGING</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The local time is </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">asctime</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When this script is run, it should print something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
+2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for each
+handler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-context-manager-for-selective-logging">
+<span id="context-manager"></span><h2>Using a context manager for selective logging<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-context-manager-for-selective-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the logging
+configuration and revert it back after doing something. For this, a context
+manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring the logging context.
+Here is a simple example of such a context manager, which allows you to
+optionally change the logging level and add a logging handler purely in the
+scope of the context manager:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LoggingContext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logger</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">level</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">handler</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">close</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__enter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">level</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">old_level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">level</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__exit__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">et</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ev</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tb</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">level</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">old_level</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">removeHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handler</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># implicit return of None =&gt; don&#39;t swallow exceptions</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you specify a level value, the logger’s level is set to that value in the
+scope of the with block covered by the context manager. If you specify a
+handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and removed on exit
+from the block. You can also ask the manager to close the handler for you on
+block exit - you could do this if you don’t need the handler any more.</p>
+<p>To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to the
+above:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1. This should appear just once on stderr.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2. This should not appear.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">LoggingContext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3. This should appear once on stderr.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;4. This should not appear.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">LoggingContext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;6. This should appear just once on stderr.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;7. This should not appear.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We initially set the logger’s level to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code>, so message #1 appears and
+message #2 doesn’t. We then change the level to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code> temporarily in the
+following <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block, and so message #3 appears. After the block exits, the
+logger’s level is restored to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code> and so message #4 doesn’t appear. In the
+next <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block, we set the level to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code> again but also add a handler
+writing to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>. Thus, message #5 appears twice on the console (once
+via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> and once via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code>). After the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement’s
+completion, the status is as it was before so message #6 appears (like message
+#1) whereas message #7 doesn’t (just like message #2).</p>
+<p>If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python logctx.py
+<span class="go">1. This should appear just once on stderr.</span>
+<span class="go">3. This should appear once on stderr.</span>
+<span class="go">5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.</span>
+<span class="go">5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.</span>
+<span class="go">6. This should appear just once on stderr.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If we run it again, but pipe <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/null</span></code>, we see the following,
+which is the only message written to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python logctx.py <span class="m">2</span>&gt;/dev/null
+<span class="go">5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once again, but piping <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/null</span></code>, we get:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python logctx.py &gt;/dev/null
+<span class="go">1. This should appear just once on stderr.</span>
+<span class="go">3. This should appear once on stderr.</span>
+<span class="go">5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.</span>
+<span class="go">6. This should appear just once on stderr.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case, the message #5 printed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> doesn’t appear, as expected.</p>
+<p>Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example to attach
+logging filters temporarily. Note that the above code works in Python 2 as well
+as Python 3.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Logging Cookbook</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-logging-in-multiple-modules">Using logging in multiple modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-from-multiple-threads">Logging from multiple threads</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiple-handlers-and-formatters">Multiple handlers and formatters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-to-multiple-destinations">Logging to multiple destinations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuration-server-example">Configuration server example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dealing-with-handlers-that-block">Dealing with handlers that block</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sending-and-receiving-logging-events-across-a-network">Sending and receiving logging events across a network</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output">Adding contextual information to your logging output</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information">Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information">Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-filters-to-impart-contextual-information">Using Filters to impart contextual information</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes">Logging to a single file from multiple processes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-file-rotation">Using file rotation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#use-of-alternative-formatting-styles">Use of alternative formatting styles</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-logrecord">Customizing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subclassing-queuehandler-a-zeromq-example">Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subclassing-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example">Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#an-example-dictionary-based-configuration">An example dictionary-based configuration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing">Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example">A more elaborate multiprocessing example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler">Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#implementing-structured-logging">Implementing structured logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig">Customizing handlers with <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application">Using particular formatting styles throughout your application</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-logrecord-factories">Using LogRecord factories</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-custom-message-objects">Using custom message objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuring-filters-with-dictconfig">Configuring filters with <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customized-exception-formatting">Customized exception formatting</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#speaking-logging-messages">Speaking logging messages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#buffering-logging-messages-and-outputting-them-conditionally">Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formatting-times-using-utc-gmt-via-configuration">Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-context-manager-for-selective-logging">Using a context manager for selective logging</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Logging HOWTO</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="regex.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Regular Expression HOWTO</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/logging.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/logging.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b5b244
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/logging.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1233 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Logging HOWTO &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="logging-howto">
+<h1>Logging HOWTO<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-howto" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Vinay Sajip &lt;vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="section" id="basic-logging-tutorial">
+<span id="logging-basic-tutorial"></span><h2>Basic Logging Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-logging-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Logging is a means of tracking events that happen when some software runs. The
+software’s developer adds logging calls to their code to indicate that certain
+events have occurred. An event is described by a descriptive message which can
+optionally contain variable data (i.e. data that is potentially different for
+each occurrence of the event). Events also have an importance which the
+developer ascribes to the event; the importance can also be called the <em>level</em>
+or <em>severity</em>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="when-to-use-logging">
+<h3>When to use logging<a class="headerlink" href="#when-to-use-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Logging provides a set of convenience functions for simple logging usage. These
+are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.info" title="logging.info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.warning" title="logging.warning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.error" title="logging.error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.critical" title="logging.critical"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical()</span></code></a>. To determine when to use logging, see the table below, which
+states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for it.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 51%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Task you want to perform</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>The best tool for the task</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Display console output for ordinary
+usage of a command line script or
+program</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Report events that occur during
+normal operation of a program (e.g.
+for status monitoring or fault
+investigation)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.info" title="logging.info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.info()</span></code></a> (or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.debug()</span></code></a> for very
+detailed output for diagnostic
+purposes)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Issue a warning regarding a
+particular runtime event</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.warn" title="warnings.warn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.warn()</span></code></a> in library
+code if the issue is avoidable and
+the client application should be
+modified to eliminate the warning</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.warning" title="logging.warning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.warning()</span></code></a> if there is
+nothing the client application can do
+about the situation, but the event
+should still be noted</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Report an error regarding a
+particular runtime event</p></td>
+<td><p>Raise an exception</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Report suppression of an error
+without raising an exception (e.g.
+error handler in a long-running
+server process)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.error" title="logging.error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.error()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.exception" title="logging.exception"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.exception()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.critical" title="logging.critical"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.critical()</span></code></a> as
+appropriate for the specific error
+and application domain</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The logging functions are named after the level or severity of the events
+they are used to track. The standard levels and their applicability are
+described below (in increasing order of severity):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 76%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Level</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>When it’s used</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Detailed information, typically of interest
+only when diagnosing problems.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Confirmation that things are working as
+expected.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An indication that something unexpected
+happened, or indicative of some problem in
+the near future (e.g. ‘disk space low’).
+The software is still working as expected.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Due to a more serious problem, the software
+has not been able to perform some function.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A serious error, indicating that the program
+itself may be unable to continue running.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The default level is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>, which means that only events of this level
+and above will be tracked, unless the logging package is configured to do
+otherwise.</p>
+<p>Events that are tracked can be handled in different ways. The simplest way of
+handling tracked events is to print them to the console. Another common way
+is to write them to a disk file.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-simple-example">
+<span id="howto-minimal-example"></span><h3>A simple example<a class="headerlink" href="#a-simple-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A very simple example is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Watch out!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># will print a message to the console</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;I told you so&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># will not print anything</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you type these lines into a script and run it, you’ll see:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>WARNING:root:Watch out!
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>printed out on the console. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code> message doesn’t appear because the
+default level is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>. The printed message includes the indication of
+the level and the description of the event provided in the logging call, i.e.
+‘Watch out!’. Don’t worry about the ‘root’ part for now: it will be explained
+later. The actual output can be formatted quite flexibly if you need that;
+formatting options will also be explained later.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-to-a-file">
+<h3>Logging to a file<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-to-a-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A very common situation is that of recording logging events in a file, so let’s
+look at that next. Be sure to try the following in a newly-started Python
+interpreter, and don’t just continue from the session described above:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This message should go to the log file&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;So should this&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;And this, too&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And now if we open the file and look at what we have, we should find the log
+messages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>DEBUG:root:This message should go to the log file
+INFO:root:So should this
+WARNING:root:And this, too
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example also shows how you can set the logging level which acts as the
+threshold for tracking. In this case, because we set the threshold to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code>, all of the messages were printed.</p>
+<p>If you want to set the logging level from a command-line option such as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>--log=INFO
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and you have the value of the parameter passed for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--log</span></code> in some variable
+<em>loglevel</em>, you can use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loglevel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to get the value which you’ll pass to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> via the <em>level</em>
+argument. You may want to error check any user input value, perhaps as in the
+following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the</span>
+<span class="c1"># command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to</span>
+<span class="c1"># specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug</span>
+<span class="n">numeric_level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loglevel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">numeric_level</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Invalid log level: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">loglevel</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">numeric_level</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The call to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> should come <em>before</em> any calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.info" title="logging.info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a> etc. As it’s intended as a one-off simple configuration facility,
+only the first call will actually do anything: subsequent calls are effectively
+no-ops.</p>
+<p>If you run the above script several times, the messages from successive runs
+are appended to the file <em>example.log</em>. If you want each run to start afresh,
+not remembering the messages from earlier runs, you can specify the <em>filemode</em>
+argument, by changing the call in the above example to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filemode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output will be the same as before, but the log file is no longer appended
+to, so the messages from earlier runs are lost.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-from-multiple-modules">
+<h3>Logging from multiple modules<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-from-multiple-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If your program consists of multiple modules, here’s an example of how you
+could organize logging in it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># myapp.py</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mylib</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Started&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">mylib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Finished&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># mylib.py</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_something</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Doing something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you run <em>myapp.py</em>, you should see this in <em>myapp.log</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>INFO:root:Started
+INFO:root:Doing something
+INFO:root:Finished
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is hopefully what you were expecting to see. You can generalize this to
+multiple modules, using the pattern in <em>mylib.py</em>. Note that for this simple
+usage pattern, you won’t know, by looking in the log file, <em>where</em> in your
+application your messages came from, apart from looking at the event
+description. If you want to track the location of your messages, you’ll need
+to refer to the documentation beyond the tutorial level – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging-advanced-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Advanced Logging Tutorial</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-variable-data">
+<h3>Logging variable data<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-variable-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To log variable data, use a format string for the event description message and
+append the variable data as arguments. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> before you </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Look&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;leap!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will display:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>WARNING:root:Look before you leap!
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you can see, merging of variable data into the event description message
+uses the old, %-style of string formatting. This is for backwards
+compatibility: the logging package pre-dates newer formatting options such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>. These newer formatting
+options <em>are</em> supported, but exploring them is outside the scope of this
+tutorial: see <a class="reference internal" href="logging-cookbook.html#formatting-styles"><span class="std std-ref">Using particular formatting styles throughout your application</span></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changing-the-format-of-displayed-messages">
+<h3>Changing the format of displayed messages<a class="headerlink" href="#changing-the-format-of-displayed-messages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To change the format which is used to display messages, you need to
+specify the format you want to use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1">:</span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This message should appear on the console&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;So should this&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;And this, too&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which would print:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
+INFO:So should this
+WARNING:And this, too
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice that the ‘root’ which appeared in earlier examples has disappeared. For
+a full set of things that can appear in format strings, you can refer to the
+documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logrecord-attributes"><span class="std std-ref">LogRecord attributes</span></a>, but for simple usage, you just
+need the <em>levelname</em> (severity), <em>message</em> (event description, including
+variable data) and perhaps to display when the event occurred. This is
+described in the next section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="displaying-the-date-time-in-messages">
+<h3>Displaying the date/time in messages<a class="headerlink" href="#displaying-the-date-time-in-messages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To display the date and time of an event, you would place ‘%(asctime)s’ in
+your format string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;is when this event was logged.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which should print something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The default format for date/time display (shown above) is like ISO8601 or
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3339.html"><strong>RFC 3339</strong></a>. If you need more control over the formatting of the date/time, provide
+a <em>datefmt</em> argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig</span></code>, as in this example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">datefmt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;%m/</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">/%Y %I:%M:%S %p&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;is when this event was logged.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which would display something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The format of the <em>datefmt</em> argument is the same as supported by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="next-steps">
+<h3>Next Steps<a class="headerlink" href="#next-steps" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>That concludes the basic tutorial. It should be enough to get you up and
+running with logging. There’s a lot more that the logging package offers, but
+to get the best out of it, you’ll need to invest a little more of your time in
+reading the following sections. If you’re ready for that, grab some of your
+favourite beverage and carry on.</p>
+<p>If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to incorporate
+logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems or don’t
+understand something, please post a question on the comp.lang.python Usenet
+group (available at <a class="reference external" href="https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/comp.lang.python">https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/comp.lang.python</a>) and you
+should receive help before too long.</p>
+<p>Still here? You can carry on reading the next few sections, which provide a
+slightly more advanced/in-depth tutorial than the basic one above. After that,
+you can take a look at the <a class="reference internal" href="logging-cookbook.html#logging-cookbook"><span class="std std-ref">Logging Cookbook</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="advanced-logging-tutorial">
+<span id="logging-advanced-tutorial"></span><h2>Advanced Logging Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#advanced-logging-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The logging library takes a modular approach and offers several categories
+of components: loggers, handlers, filters, and formatters.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.</p></li>
+<li><p>Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the appropriate
+destination.</p></li>
+<li><p>Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log records
+to output.</p></li>
+<li><p>Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Log event information is passed between loggers, handlers, filters and
+formatters in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>Logging is performed by calling methods on instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a>
+class (hereafter called <em class="dfn">loggers</em>). Each instance has a name, and they are
+conceptually arranged in a namespace hierarchy using dots (periods) as
+separators. For example, a logger named ‘scan’ is the parent of loggers
+‘scan.text’, ‘scan.html’ and ‘scan.pdf’. Logger names can be anything you want,
+and indicate the area of an application in which a logged message originates.</p>
+<p>A good convention to use when naming loggers is to use a module-level logger,
+in each module which uses logging, named as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This means that logger names track the package/module hierarchy, and it’s
+intuitively obvious where events are logged just from the logger name.</p>
+<p>The root of the hierarchy of loggers is called the root logger. That’s the
+logger used by the functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.info" title="logging.info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.warning" title="logging.warning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.error" title="logging.error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.critical" title="logging.critical"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical()</span></code></a>, which just call the same-named method of
+the root logger. The functions and the methods have the same signatures. The
+root logger’s name is printed as ‘root’ in the logged output.</p>
+<p>It is, of course, possible to log messages to different destinations. Support
+is included in the package for writing log messages to files, HTTP GET/POST
+locations, email via SMTP, generic sockets, queues, or OS-specific logging
+mechanisms such as syslog or the Windows NT event log. Destinations are served
+by <em class="dfn">handler</em> classes. You can create your own log destination class if
+you have special requirements not met by any of the built-in handler classes.</p>
+<p>By default, no destination is set for any logging messages. You can specify
+a destination (such as console or file) by using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> as in the
+tutorial examples. If you call the functions  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.info" title="logging.info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.warning" title="logging.warning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.error" title="logging.error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.critical" title="logging.critical"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical()</span></code></a>, they will check to see
+if no destination is set; and if one is not set, they will set a destination
+of the console (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>) and a default format for the displayed
+message before delegating to the root logger to do the actual message output.</p>
+<p>The default format set by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> for messages is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>severity:logger name:message
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can change this by passing a format string to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> with the
+<em>format</em> keyword argument. For all options regarding how a format string is
+constructed, see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#formatter-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Formatter Objects</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="logging-flow">
+<h3>Logging Flow<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-flow" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The flow of log event information in loggers and handlers is illustrated in the
+following diagram.</p>
+<img alt="../_images/logging_flow.png" src="../_images/logging_flow.png" />
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="loggers">
+<h3>Loggers<a class="headerlink" href="#loggers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> objects have a threefold job.  First, they expose several
+methods to application code so that applications can log messages at runtime.
+Second, logger objects determine which log messages to act upon based upon
+severity (the default filtering facility) or filter objects.  Third, logger
+objects pass along relevant log messages to all interested log handlers.</p>
+<p>The most widely used methods on logger objects fall into two categories:
+configuration and message sending.</p>
+<p>These are the most common configuration methods:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.setLevel" title="logging.Logger.setLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.setLevel()</span></code></a> specifies the lowest-severity log message a logger
+will handle, where debug is the lowest built-in severity level and critical
+is the highest built-in severity.  For example, if the severity level is
+INFO, the logger will handle only INFO, WARNING, ERROR, and CRITICAL messages
+and will ignore DEBUG messages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addHandler" title="logging.Logger.addHandler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.addHandler()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.removeHandler" title="logging.Logger.removeHandler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.removeHandler()</span></code></a> add and remove
+handler objects from the logger object.  Handlers are covered in more detail
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#handler-basic"><span class="std std-ref">Handlers</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addFilter" title="logging.Logger.addFilter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.addFilter()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.removeFilter" title="logging.Logger.removeFilter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.removeFilter()</span></code></a> add and remove filter
+objects from the logger object.  Filters are covered in more detail in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#filter"><span class="std std-ref">Filter Objects</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>You don’t need to always call these methods on every logger you create. See the
+last two paragraphs in this section.</p>
+<p>With the logger object configured, the following methods create log messages:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.debug" title="logging.Logger.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.info" title="logging.Logger.info"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.info()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.warning" title="logging.Logger.warning"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.warning()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.error" title="logging.Logger.error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.error()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.critical" title="logging.Logger.critical"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.critical()</span></code></a> all create log records with
+a message and a level that corresponds to their respective method names. The
+message is actually a format string, which may contain the standard string
+substitution syntax of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%f</span></code>, and so on.  The
+rest of their arguments is a list of objects that correspond with the
+substitution fields in the message.  With regard to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>, the
+logging methods care only about a keyword of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc_info</span></code> and use it to
+determine whether to log exception information.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.exception" title="logging.Logger.exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.exception()</span></code></a> creates a log message similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.error" title="logging.Logger.error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.error()</span></code></a>.  The difference is that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.exception" title="logging.Logger.exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.exception()</span></code></a> dumps a
+stack trace along with it.  Call this method only from an exception handler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.log" title="logging.Logger.log"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.log()</span></code></a> takes a log level as an explicit argument.  This is a
+little more verbose for logging messages than using the log level convenience
+methods listed above, but this is how to log at custom log levels.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.getLogger" title="logging.getLogger"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogger()</span></code></a> returns a reference to a logger instance with the specified
+name if it is provided, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root</span></code> if not.  The names are period-separated
+hierarchical structures.  Multiple calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.getLogger" title="logging.getLogger"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogger()</span></code></a> with the same name
+will return a reference to the same logger object.  Loggers that are further
+down in the hierarchical list are children of loggers higher up in the list.
+For example, given a logger with a name of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, loggers with names of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bam</span></code> are all descendants of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Loggers have a concept of <em>effective level</em>. If a level is not explicitly set
+on a logger, the level of its parent is used instead as its effective level.
+If the parent has no explicit level set, <em>its</em> parent is examined, and so on -
+all ancestors are searched until an explicitly set level is found. The root
+logger always has an explicit level set (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code> by default). When deciding
+whether to process an event, the effective level of the logger is used to
+determine whether the event is passed to the logger’s handlers.</p>
+<p>Child loggers propagate messages up to the handlers associated with their
+ancestor loggers. Because of this, it is unnecessary to define and configure
+handlers for all the loggers an application uses. It is sufficient to
+configure handlers for a top-level logger and create child loggers as needed.
+(You can, however, turn off propagation by setting the <em>propagate</em>
+attribute of a logger to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="handlers">
+<span id="handler-basic"></span><h3>Handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> objects are responsible for dispatching the
+appropriate log messages (based on the log messages’ severity) to the handler’s
+specified destination.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> objects can add zero or more handler
+objects to themselves with an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addHandler" title="logging.Logger.addHandler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addHandler()</span></code></a> method.  As an example
+scenario, an application may want to send all log messages to a log file, all
+log messages of error or higher to stdout, and all messages of critical to an
+email address. This scenario requires three individual handlers where each
+handler is responsible for sending messages of a specific severity to a specific
+location.</p>
+<p>The standard library includes quite a few handler types (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#useful-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Useful Handlers</span></a>); the tutorials use mainly <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler" title="logging.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a> in its examples.</p>
+<p>There are very few methods in a handler for application developers to concern
+themselves with.  The only handler methods that seem relevant for application
+developers who are using the built-in handler objects (that is, not creating
+custom handlers) are the following configuration methods:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.setLevel" title="logging.Handler.setLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLevel()</span></code></a> method, just as in logger objects, specifies the
+lowest severity that will be dispatched to the appropriate destination.  Why
+are there two <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLevel()</span></code> methods?  The level set in the logger
+determines which severity of messages it will pass to its handlers.  The level
+set in each handler determines which messages that handler will send on.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.setFormatter" title="logging.Handler.setFormatter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setFormatter()</span></code></a> selects a Formatter object for this handler to
+use.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.addFilter" title="logging.Handler.addFilter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addFilter()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.removeFilter" title="logging.Handler.removeFilter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">removeFilter()</span></code></a> respectively
+configure and deconfigure filter objects on handlers.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Application code should not directly instantiate and use instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a>.  Instead, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> class is a base class that
+defines the interface that all handlers should have and establishes some
+default behavior that child classes can use (or override).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="formatters">
+<h3>Formatters<a class="headerlink" href="#formatters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Formatter objects configure the final order, structure, and contents of the log
+message.  Unlike the base <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.Handler</span></code></a> class, application code may
+instantiate formatter classes, although you could likely subclass the formatter
+if your application needs special behavior.  The constructor takes three
+optional arguments – a message format string, a date format string and a style
+indicator.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.logging.Formatter.__init__">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.Formatter.</code><code class="descname">__init__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fmt=None</em>, <em>datefmt=None</em>, <em>style='%'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.logging.Formatter.__init__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>If there is no message format string, the default is to use the
+raw message.  If there is no date format string, the default date format is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>with the milliseconds tacked on at the end. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">style</span></code> is one of <cite>%</cite>, ‘{‘
+or ‘$’. If one of these is not specified, then ‘%’ will be used.</p>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">style</span></code> is ‘%’, the message format string uses
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(&lt;dictionary</span> <span class="pre">key&gt;)s</span></code> styled string substitution; the possible keys are
+documented in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logrecord-attributes"><span class="std std-ref">LogRecord attributes</span></a>. If the style is ‘{‘, the message
+format string is assumed to be compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> (using
+keyword arguments), while if the style is ‘$’ then the message format string
+should conform to what is expected by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template.substitute" title="string.Template.substitute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template.substitute()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">style</span></code> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The following message format string will log the time in a human-readable
+format, the severity of the message, and the contents of the message, in that
+order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Formatters use a user-configurable function to convert the creation time of a
+record to a tuple. By default, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a> is used; to change this
+for a particular formatter instance, set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter</span></code> attribute of the
+instance to a function with the same signature as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a>. To change it for all formatters, for example if you want
+all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter</span></code> attribute in the
+Formatter class (to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime</span></code> for GMT display).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuring-logging">
+<h3>Configuring Logging<a class="headerlink" href="#configuring-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Programmers can configure logging in three ways:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Creating loggers, handlers, and formatters explicitly using Python
+code that calls the configuration methods listed above.</p></li>
+<li><p>Creating a logging config file and reading it using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a>
+function.</p></li>
+<li><p>Creating a dictionary of configuration information and passing it
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> function.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>For the reference documentation on the last two options, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging-config-api"><span class="std std-ref">Configuration functions</span></a>.  The following example configures a very simple
+logger, a console handler, and a simple formatter using Python code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create logger</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;simple_example&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create console handler and set level to debug</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create formatter</span>
+<span class="n">formatter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Formatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s1"> - </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># add formatter to ch</span>
+<span class="n">ch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFormatter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># add ch to logger</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ch</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># &#39;application&#39; code</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;debug message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;info message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;warn message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;error message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;critical message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Running this module from the command line produces the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python simple_logging_module.py
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following Python module creates a logger, handler, and formatter nearly
+identical to those in the example listed above, with the only difference being
+the names of the objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;logging.conf&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create logger</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;simpleExample&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># &#39;application&#39; code</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;debug message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;info message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;warn message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;error message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;critical message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is the logging.conf file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[loggers]</span>
+<span class="na">keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">root,simpleExample</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handlers]</span>
+<span class="na">keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">consoleHandler</span>
+
+<span class="k">[formatters]</span>
+<span class="na">keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">simpleFormatter</span>
+
+<span class="k">[logger_root]</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">DEBUG</span>
+<span class="na">handlers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">consoleHandler</span>
+
+<span class="k">[logger_simpleExample]</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">DEBUG</span>
+<span class="na">handlers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">consoleHandler</span>
+<span class="na">qualname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">simpleExample</span>
+<span class="na">propagate</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">0</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_consoleHandler]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">StreamHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">DEBUG</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">simpleFormatter</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(sys.stdout,)</span>
+
+<span class="k">[formatter_simpleFormatter]</span>
+<span class="na">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s</span>
+<span class="na">datefmt</span><span class="o">=</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output is nearly identical to that of the non-config-file-based example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python simple_logging_config.py
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message</span>
+<span class="go">2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can see that the config file approach has a few advantages over the Python
+code approach, mainly separation of configuration and code and the ability of
+noncoders to easily modify the logging properties.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a> function takes a default parameter,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disable_existing_loggers</span></code>, which defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for reasons of
+backward compatibility. This may or may not be what you want, since it
+will cause any non-root loggers existing before the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a>
+call to be disabled unless they (or an ancestor) are explicitly named in
+the configuration. Please refer to the reference documentation for more
+information, and specify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for this parameter if you wish.</p>
+<p>The dictionary passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> can also specify a Boolean
+value with key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disable_existing_loggers</span></code>, which if not specified
+explicitly in the dictionary also defaults to being interpreted as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>. This leads to the logger-disabling behaviour described above,
+which may not be what you want - in which case, provide the key
+explicitly with a value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the class names referenced in config files need to be either relative
+to the logging module, or absolute values which can be resolved using normal
+import mechanisms. Thus, you could use either
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WatchedFileHandler</span></code></a> (relative to the logging module) or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler</span></code> (for a class defined in package <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mypackage</span></code>
+and module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mymodule</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mypackage</span></code> is available on the Python import
+path).</p>
+<p>In Python 3.2, a new means of configuring logging has been introduced, using
+dictionaries to hold configuration information. This provides a superset of the
+functionality of the config-file-based approach outlined above, and is the
+recommended configuration method for new applications and deployments. Because
+a Python dictionary is used to hold configuration information, and since you
+can populate that dictionary using different means, you have more options for
+configuration. For example, you can use a configuration file in JSON format,
+or, if you have access to YAML processing functionality, a file in YAML
+format, to populate the configuration dictionary. Or, of course, you can
+construct the dictionary in Python code, receive it in pickled form over a
+socket, or use whatever approach makes sense for your application.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example of the same configuration as above, in YAML format for
+the new dictionary-based approach:</p>
+<div class="highlight-yaml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">version</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">1</span>
+<span class="nt">formatters</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">simple</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">format</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s">&#39;%(asctime)s</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">-</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">%(name)s</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">-</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">%(levelname)s</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">-</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">%(message)s&#39;</span>
+<span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">console</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">class</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">logging.StreamHandler</span>
+    <span class="nt">level</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">DEBUG</span>
+    <span class="nt">formatter</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">simple</span>
+    <span class="nt">stream</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">ext://sys.stdout</span>
+<span class="nt">loggers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">simpleExample</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">level</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">DEBUG</span>
+    <span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p p-Indicator">[</span><span class="nv">console</span><span class="p p-Indicator">]</span>
+    <span class="nt">propagate</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">no</span>
+<span class="nt">root</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">level</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">DEBUG</span>
+  <span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p p-Indicator">[</span><span class="nv">console</span><span class="p p-Indicator">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information about logging using a dictionary, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging-config-api"><span class="std std-ref">Configuration functions</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-happens-if-no-configuration-is-provided">
+<h3>What happens if no configuration is provided<a class="headerlink" href="#what-happens-if-no-configuration-is-provided" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a situation
+where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can be found to
+output the event. The behaviour of the logging package in these
+circumstances is dependent on the Python version.</p>
+<p>For versions of Python prior to 3.2, the behaviour is as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <em>logging.raiseExceptions</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (production mode), the event is
+silently dropped.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>logging.raiseExceptions</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (development mode), a message
+‘No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z’ is printed once.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In Python 3.2 and later, the behaviour is as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The event is output using a ‘handler of last resort’, stored in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.lastResort</span></code>. This internal handler is not associated with any
+logger, and acts like a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> which writes the
+event description message to the current value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> (therefore
+respecting any redirections which may be in effect). No formatting is
+done on the message - just the bare event description message is printed.
+The handler’s level is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>, so all events at this and
+greater severities will be output.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.lastResort</span></code> can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuring-logging-for-a-library">
+<span id="library-config"></span><h3>Configuring Logging for a Library<a class="headerlink" href="#configuring-logging-for-a-library" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When developing a library which uses logging, you should take care to
+document how the library uses logging - for example, the names of loggers
+used. Some consideration also needs to be given to its logging configuration.
+If the using application does not use logging, and library code makes logging
+calls, then (as described in the previous section) events of severity
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code> and greater will be printed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>. This is regarded as
+the best default behaviour.</p>
+<p>If for some reason you <em>don’t</em> want these messages printed in the absence of
+any logging configuration, you can attach a do-nothing handler to the top-level
+logger for your library. This avoids the message being printed, since a handler
+will always be found for the library’s events: it just doesn’t produce any
+output. If the library user configures logging for application use, presumably
+that configuration will add some handlers, and if levels are suitably
+configured then logging calls made in library code will send output to those
+handlers, as normal.</p>
+<p>A do-nothing handler is included in the logging package:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a> (since Python 3.1). An instance of this handler
+could be added to the top-level logger of the logging namespace used by the
+library (<em>if</em> you want to prevent your library’s logged events being output to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> in the absence of logging configuration). If all logging by a
+library <em>foo</em> is done using loggers with names matching ‘foo.x’, ‘foo.x.y’,
+etc. then the code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NullHandler</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>should have the desired effect. If an organisation produces a number of
+libraries, then the logger name specified can be ‘orgname.foo’ rather than
+just ‘foo’.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>It is strongly advised that you <em>do not add any handlers other
+than</em> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a> <em>to your library’s loggers</em>. This is
+because the configuration of handlers is the prerogative of the application
+developer who uses your library. The application developer knows their
+target audience and what handlers are most appropriate for their
+application: if you add handlers ‘under the hood’, you might well interfere
+with their ability to carry out unit tests and deliver logs which suit their
+requirements.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-levels">
+<h2>Logging Levels<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-levels" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table. These are
+primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels, and need them to
+have specific values relative to the predefined levels. If you define a level
+with the same numeric value, it overwrites the predefined value; the predefined
+name is lost.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+<col style="width: 52%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Level</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Numeric value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>50</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>40</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>30</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>20</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>10</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Levels can also be associated with loggers, being set either by the developer or
+through loading a saved logging configuration. When a logging method is called
+on a logger, the logger compares its own level with the level associated with
+the method call. If the logger’s level is higher than the method call’s, no
+logging message is actually generated. This is the basic mechanism controlling
+the verbosity of logging output.</p>
+<p>Logging messages are encoded as instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>
+class. When a logger decides to actually log an event, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instance is created from the logging message.</p>
+<p>Logging messages are subjected to a dispatch mechanism through the use of
+<em class="dfn">handlers</em>, which are instances of subclasses of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a>
+class. Handlers are responsible for ensuring that a logged message (in the form
+of a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>) ends up in a particular location (or set of locations)
+which is useful for the target audience for that message (such as end users,
+support desk staff, system administrators, developers). Handlers are passed
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instances intended for particular destinations. Each logger
+can have zero, one or more handlers associated with it (via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.addHandler" title="logging.Logger.addHandler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addHandler()</span></code></a> method of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a>). In addition to any
+handlers directly associated with a logger, <em>all handlers associated with all
+ancestors of the logger</em> are called to dispatch the message (unless the
+<em>propagate</em> flag for a logger is set to a false value, at which point the
+passing to ancestor handlers stops).</p>
+<p>Just as for loggers, handlers can have levels associated with them. A handler’s
+level acts as a filter in the same way as a logger’s level does. If a handler
+decides to actually dispatch an event, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.emit" title="logging.Handler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a> method is used
+to send the message to its destination. Most user-defined subclasses of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> will need to override this <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.emit" title="logging.Handler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="custom-levels">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>Custom Levels<a class="headerlink" href="#custom-levels" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Defining your own levels is possible, but should not be necessary, as the
+existing levels have been chosen on the basis of practical experience.
+However, if you are convinced that you need custom levels, great care should
+be exercised when doing this, and it is possibly <em>a very bad idea to define
+custom levels if you are developing a library</em>. That’s because if multiple
+library authors all define their own custom levels, there is a chance that
+the logging output from such multiple libraries used together will be
+difficult for the using developer to control and/or interpret, because a
+given numeric value might mean different things for different libraries.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="useful-handlers">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Useful Handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#useful-handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In addition to the base <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> class, many useful subclasses are
+provided:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to streams (file-like
+objects).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler" title="logging.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to disk files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler" title="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseRotatingHandler</span></code></a> is the base class for handlers that
+rotate log files at a certain point. It is not meant to be  instantiated
+directly. Instead, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to disk
+files, with support for maximum log file sizes and log file rotation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to
+disk files, rotating the log file at certain timed intervals.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to TCP/IP
+sockets. Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler" title="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to UDP
+sockets. Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to a designated
+email address.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to a Unix
+syslog daemon, possibly on a remote machine.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NTEventLogHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to a
+Windows NT/2000/XP event log.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to a buffer
+in memory, which is flushed whenever specific criteria are met.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to an HTTP
+server using either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> semantics.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WatchedFileHandler</span></code></a> instances watch the file they are
+logging to. If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using the file
+name. This handler is only useful on Unix-like systems; Windows does not
+support the underlying mechanism used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> instances send messages to a queue, such as
+those implemented in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a> instances do nothing with error messages. They are used
+by library developers who want to use logging, but want to avoid the ‘No
+handlers could be found for logger XXX’ message which can be displayed if
+the library user has not configured logging. See <a class="reference internal" href="#library-config"><span class="std std-ref">Configuring Logging for a Library</span></a> for
+more information.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.FileHandler" title="logging.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a>
+classes are defined in the core logging package. The other handlers are
+defined in a sub-module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>. (There is also another
+sub-module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a>, for configuration functionality.)</p>
+<p>Logged messages are formatted for presentation through instances of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> class. They are initialized with a format string suitable for
+use with the % operator and a dictionary.</p>
+<p>For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferingFormatter</span></code> can be used. In addition to the format
+string (which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for
+header and trailer format strings.</p>
+<p>When filtering based on logger level and/or handler level is not enough,
+instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> can be added to both <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> instances (through their <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.addFilter" title="logging.Handler.addFilter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addFilter()</span></code></a> method).
+Before deciding to process a message further, both loggers and handlers consult
+all their filters for permission. If any filter returns a false value, the
+message is not processed further.</p>
+<p>The basic <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> functionality allows filtering by specific logger
+name. If this feature is used, messages sent to the named logger and its
+children are allowed through the filter, and all others dropped.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions-raised-during-logging">
+<span id="logging-exceptions"></span><h2>Exceptions raised during logging<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions-raised-during-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The logging package is designed to swallow exceptions which occur while logging
+in production. This is so that errors which occur while handling logging events
+- such as logging misconfiguration, network or other similar errors - do not
+cause the application using logging to terminate prematurely.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exceptions are never
+swallowed. Other exceptions which occur during the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.emit" title="logging.Handler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a> method
+of a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> subclass are passed to its <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.handleError" title="logging.Handler.handleError"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handleError()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<p>The default implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler.handleError" title="logging.Handler.handleError"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handleError()</span></code></a> in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a>
+checks to see if a module-level variable, <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raiseExceptions</span></code>, is set. If
+set, a traceback is printed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>. If not set, the exception is
+swallowed.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The default value of <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raiseExceptions</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>. This is
+because during development, you typically want to be notified of any
+exceptions that occur. It’s advised that you set <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raiseExceptions</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for production usage.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-arbitrary-objects-as-messages">
+<span id="arbitrary-object-messages"></span><h2>Using arbitrary objects as messages<a class="headerlink" href="#using-arbitrary-objects-as-messages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In the preceding sections and examples, it has been assumed that the message
+passed when logging the event is a string. However, this is not the only
+possibility. You can pass an arbitrary object as a message, and its
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a> method will be called when the logging system needs to
+convert it to a string representation. In fact, if you want to, you can avoid
+computing a string representation altogether - for example, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> emits an event by pickling it and sending it
+over the wire.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimization">
+<h2>Optimization<a class="headerlink" href="#optimization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Formatting of message arguments is deferred until it cannot be avoided.
+However, computing the arguments passed to the logging method can also be
+expensive, and you may want to avoid doing it if the logger will just throw
+away your event. To decide what to do, you can call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor" title="logging.Logger.isEnabledFor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isEnabledFor()</span></code></a> method which takes a level argument and returns
+true if the event would be created by the Logger for that level of call.
+You can write code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isEnabledFor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message with </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expensive_func1</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+                                        <span class="n">expensive_func2</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>so that if the logger’s threshold is set above <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code>, the calls to
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expensive_func1()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expensive_func2()</span></code> are never made.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In some cases, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor" title="logging.Logger.isEnabledFor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isEnabledFor()</span></code></a> can itself be more
+expensive than you’d like (e.g. for deeply nested loggers where an explicit
+level is only set high up in the logger hierarchy). In such cases (or if you
+want to avoid calling a method in tight loops), you can cache the result of a
+call to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor" title="logging.Logger.isEnabledFor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isEnabledFor()</span></code></a> in a local or instance variable, and use
+that instead of calling the method each time. Such a cached value would only
+need to be recomputed when the logging configuration changes dynamically
+while the application is running (which is not all that common).</p>
+</div>
+<p>There are other optimizations which can be made for specific applications which
+need more precise control over what logging information is collected. Here’s a
+list of things you can do to avoid processing during logging which you don’t
+need:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 54%" />
+<col style="width: 46%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>What you don’t want to collect</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>How to avoid collecting it</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Information about where calls were made from.</p></td>
+<td><p>Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging._srcfile</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+This avoids calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._getframe" title="sys._getframe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._getframe()</span></code></a>, which may help
+to speed up your code in environments
+like PyPy (which can’t speed up code
+that uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._getframe" title="sys._getframe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._getframe()</span></code></a>), if
+and when PyPy supports Python 3.x.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Threading information.</p></td>
+<td><p>Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.logThreads</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Process information.</p></td>
+<td><p>Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.logProcesses</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Also note that the core logging module only includes the basic handlers. If
+you don’t import <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a>, they won’t
+take up any memory.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>API reference for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Configuration API for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Useful handlers included with the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="logging-cookbook.html#logging-cookbook"><span class="std std-ref">A logging cookbook</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Logging HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-logging-tutorial">Basic Logging Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#when-to-use-logging">When to use logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-simple-example">A simple example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-to-a-file">Logging to a file</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-from-multiple-modules">Logging from multiple modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-variable-data">Logging variable data</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changing-the-format-of-displayed-messages">Changing the format of displayed messages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#displaying-the-date-time-in-messages">Displaying the date/time in messages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#next-steps">Next Steps</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#advanced-logging-tutorial">Advanced Logging Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-flow">Logging Flow</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#loggers">Loggers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#handlers">Handlers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formatters">Formatters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuring-logging">Configuring Logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-happens-if-no-configuration-is-provided">What happens if no configuration is provided</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuring-logging-for-a-library">Configuring Logging for a Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-levels">Logging Levels</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#custom-levels">Custom Levels</a></li>
+</ul>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#useful-handlers">Useful Handlers</a></li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-arbitrary-objects-as-messages">Using arbitrary objects as messages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimization">Optimization</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="porting-python-2-code-to-python-3">
+<span id="pyporting-howto"></span><h1>Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-python-2-code-to-python-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Brett Cannon</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="topic">
+<p class="topic-title first">Abstract</p>
+<p>With Python 3 being the future of Python while Python 2 is still in active
+use, it is good to have your project available for both major releases of
+Python. This guide is meant to help you figure out how best to support both
+Python 2 &amp; 3 simultaneously.</p>
+<p>If you are looking to port an extension module instead of pure Python code,
+please see <a class="reference internal" href="cporting.html#cporting-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Porting Extension Modules to Python 3</span></a>.</p>
+<p>If you would like to read one core Python developer’s take on why Python 3
+came into existence, you can read Nick Coghlan’s <a class="reference external" href="https://ncoghlan-devs-python-notes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/python3/questions_and_answers.html">Python 3 Q &amp; A</a> or
+Brett Cannon’s <a class="reference external" href="https://snarky.ca/why-python-3-exists">Why Python 3 exists</a>.</p>
+<p>For help with porting, you can email the <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-porting">python-porting</a> mailing list with
+questions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-short-explanation">
+<h2>The Short Explanation<a class="headerlink" href="#the-short-explanation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To make your project be single-source Python 2/3 compatible, the basic steps
+are:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Only worry about supporting Python 2.7</p></li>
+<li><p>Make sure you have good test coverage (<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/coverage">coverage.py</a> can help;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">coverage</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Learn the differences between Python 2 &amp; 3</p></li>
+<li><p>Use <a class="reference external" href="http://python-future.org/automatic_conversion.html">Futurize</a> (or <a class="reference external" href="https://python-modernize.readthedocs.io/">Modernize</a>) to update your code (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">future</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Use <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/pylint">Pylint</a> to help make sure you don’t regress on your Python 3 support
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">pylint</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Use <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/caniusepython3">caniusepython3</a> to find out which of your dependencies are blocking your
+use of Python 3 (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">caniusepython3</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Once your dependencies are no longer blocking you, use continuous integration
+to make sure you stay compatible with Python 2 &amp; 3 (<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/tox">tox</a> can help test
+against multiple versions of Python; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">tox</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Consider using optional static type checking to make sure your type usage
+works in both Python 2 &amp; 3 (e.g. use <a class="reference external" href="http://mypy-lang.org/">mypy</a> to check your typing under both
+Python 2 &amp; Python 3).</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="details">
+<h2>Details<a class="headerlink" href="#details" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A key point about supporting Python 2 &amp; 3 simultaneously is that you can start
+<strong>today</strong>! Even if your dependencies are not supporting Python 3 yet that does
+not mean you can’t modernize your code <strong>now</strong> to support Python 3. Most changes
+required to support Python 3 lead to cleaner code using newer practices even in
+Python 2 code.</p>
+<p>Another key point is that modernizing your Python 2 code to also support
+Python 3 is largely automated for you. While you might have to make some API
+decisions thanks to Python 3 clarifying text data versus binary data, the
+lower-level work is now mostly done for you and thus can at least benefit from
+the automated changes immediately.</p>
+<p>Keep those key points in mind while you read on about the details of porting
+your code to support Python 2 &amp; 3 simultaneously.</p>
+<div class="section" id="drop-support-for-python-2-6-and-older">
+<h3>Drop support for Python 2.6 and older<a class="headerlink" href="#drop-support-for-python-2-6-and-older" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>While you can make Python 2.5 work with Python 3, it is <strong>much</strong> easier if you
+only have to work with Python 2.7. If dropping Python 2.5 is not an
+option then the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/six">six</a> project can help you support Python 2.5 &amp; 3 simultaneously
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">six</span></code>). Do realize, though, that nearly all the projects listed
+in this HOWTO will not be available to you.</p>
+<p>If you are able to skip Python 2.5 and older, then the required changes
+to your code should continue to look and feel like idiomatic Python code. At
+worst you will have to use a function instead of a method in some instances or
+have to import a function instead of using a built-in one, but otherwise the
+overall transformation should not feel foreign to you.</p>
+<p>But you should aim for only supporting Python 2.7. Python 2.6 is no longer
+freely supported and thus is not receiving bugfixes. This means <strong>you</strong> will have
+to work around any issues you come across with Python 2.6. There are also some
+tools mentioned in this HOWTO which do not support Python 2.6 (e.g., <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/pylint">Pylint</a>),
+and this will become more commonplace as time goes on. It will simply be easier
+for you if you only support the versions of Python that you have to support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="make-sure-you-specify-the-proper-version-support-in-your-setup-py-file">
+<h3>Make sure you specify the proper version support in your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file<a class="headerlink" href="#make-sure-you-specify-the-proper-version-support-in-your-setup-py-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file you should have the proper <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/classifiers">trove classifier</a>
+specifying what versions of Python you support. As your project does not support
+Python 3 yet you should at least have
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Programming</span> <span class="pre">Language</span> <span class="pre">::</span> <span class="pre">Python</span> <span class="pre">::</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">::</span> <span class="pre">Only</span></code> specified. Ideally you should
+also specify each major/minor version of Python that you do support, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Programming</span> <span class="pre">Language</span> <span class="pre">::</span> <span class="pre">Python</span> <span class="pre">::</span> <span class="pre">2.7</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="have-good-test-coverage">
+<h3>Have good test coverage<a class="headerlink" href="#have-good-test-coverage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once you have your code supporting the oldest version of Python 2 you want it
+to, you will want to make sure your test suite has good coverage. A good rule of
+thumb is that if you want to be confident enough in your test suite that any
+failures that appear after having tools rewrite your code are actual bugs in the
+tools and not in your code. If you want a number to aim for, try to get over 80%
+coverage (and don’t feel bad if you find it hard to get better than 90%
+coverage). If you don’t already have a tool to measure test coverage then
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/coverage">coverage.py</a> is recommended.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="learn-the-differences-between-python-2-3">
+<h3>Learn the differences between Python 2 &amp; 3<a class="headerlink" href="#learn-the-differences-between-python-2-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once you have your code well-tested you are ready to begin porting your code to
+Python 3! But to fully understand how your code is going to change and what
+you want to look out for while you code, you will want to learn what changes
+Python 3 makes in terms of Python 2. Typically the two best ways of doing that
+is reading the <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/index.html">“What’s New”</a> doc for each release of Python 3 and the
+<a class="reference external" href="http://python3porting.com/">Porting to Python 3</a> book (which is free online). There is also a handy
+<a class="reference external" href="http://python-future.org/compatible_idioms.html">cheat sheet</a> from the Python-Future project.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="update-your-code">
+<h3>Update your code<a class="headerlink" href="#update-your-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once you feel like you know what is different in Python 3 compared to Python 2,
+it’s time to update your code! You have a choice between two tools in porting
+your code automatically: <a class="reference external" href="http://python-future.org/automatic_conversion.html">Futurize</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://python-modernize.readthedocs.io/">Modernize</a>. Which tool you choose will
+depend on how much like Python 3 you want your code to be. <a class="reference external" href="http://python-future.org/automatic_conversion.html">Futurize</a> does its
+best to make Python 3 idioms and practices exist in Python 2, e.g. backporting
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> type from Python 3 so that you have semantic parity between the
+major versions of Python. <a class="reference external" href="https://python-modernize.readthedocs.io/">Modernize</a>,
+on the other hand, is more conservative and targets a Python 2/3 subset of
+Python, directly relying on <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/six">six</a> to help provide compatibility. As Python 3 is
+the future, it might be best to consider Futurize to begin adjusting to any new
+practices that Python 3 introduces which you are not accustomed to yet.</p>
+<p>Regardless of which tool you choose, they will update your code to run under
+Python 3 while staying compatible with the version of Python 2 you started with.
+Depending on how conservative you want to be, you may want to run the tool over
+your test suite first and visually inspect the diff to make sure the
+transformation is accurate. After you have transformed your test suite and
+verified that all the tests still pass as expected, then you can transform your
+application code knowing that any tests which fail is a translation failure.</p>
+<p>Unfortunately the tools can’t automate everything to make your code work under
+Python 3 and so there are a handful of things you will need to update manually
+to get full Python 3 support (which of these steps are necessary vary between
+the tools). Read the documentation for the tool you choose to use to see what it
+fixes by default and what it can do optionally to know what will (not) be fixed
+for you and what you may have to fix on your own (e.g. using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code> over
+the built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code> function is off by default in Modernize). Luckily,
+though, there are only a couple of things to watch out for which can be
+considered large issues that may be hard to debug if not watched for.</p>
+<div class="section" id="division">
+<h4>Division<a class="headerlink" href="#division" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>In Python 3, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">2.5</span></code> and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>; all division between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> values
+result in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code>. This change has actually been planned since Python 2.2
+which was released in 2002. Since then users have been encouraged to add
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">division</span></code> to any and all files which use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> operators or to be running the interpreter with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Q</span></code> flag. If you
+have not been doing this then you will need to go through your code and do two
+things:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">division</span></code> to your files</p></li>
+<li><p>Update any division operator as necessary to either use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> to use floor
+division or continue using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> and expect a float</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The reason that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> isn’t simply translated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> automatically is that if
+an object defines a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__truediv__</span></code> method but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__floordiv__</span></code> then your
+code would begin to fail (e.g. a user-defined class that uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> to
+signify some operation but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> for the same thing or at all).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-versus-binary-data">
+<h4>Text versus binary data<a class="headerlink" href="#text-versus-binary-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>In Python 2 you could use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> type for both text and binary data.
+Unfortunately this confluence of two different concepts could lead to brittle
+code which sometimes worked for either kind of data, sometimes not. It also
+could lead to confusing APIs if people didn’t explicitly state that something
+that accepted <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> accepted either text or binary data instead of one
+specific type. This complicated the situation especially for anyone supporting
+multiple languages as APIs wouldn’t bother explicitly supporting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code>
+when they claimed text data support.</p>
+<p>To make the distinction between text and binary data clearer and more
+pronounced, Python 3 did what most languages created in the age of the internet
+have done and made text and binary data distinct types that cannot blindly be
+mixed together (Python predates widespread access to the internet). For any code
+that deals only with text or only binary data, this separation doesn’t pose an
+issue. But for code that has to deal with both, it does mean you might have to
+now care about when you are using text compared to binary data, which is why
+this cannot be entirely automated.</p>
+<p>To start, you will need to decide which APIs take text and which take binary
+(it is <strong>highly</strong> recommended you don’t design APIs that can take both due to
+the difficulty of keeping the code working; as stated earlier it is difficult to
+do well). In Python 2 this means making sure the APIs that take text can work
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code> and those that work with binary data work with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> type from Python 3 (which is a subset of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> in Python 2 and acts
+as an alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> type in Python 2). Usually the biggest issue is
+realizing which methods exist on which types in Python 2 &amp; 3 simultaneously
+(for text that’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code> in Python 2 and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> in Python 3, for binary
+that’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> in Python 2 and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> in Python 3). The following
+table lists the <strong>unique</strong> methods of each data type across Python 2 &amp; 3
+(e.g., the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code> method is usable on the equivalent binary data type in
+either Python 2 or 3, but it can’t be used by the textual data type consistently
+between Python 2 and 3 because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> in Python 3 doesn’t have the method). Do
+note that as of Python 3.5 the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mod__</span></code> method was added to the bytes type.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 53%" />
+<col style="width: 47%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><strong>Text data</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Binary data</strong></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p></p></td>
+<td><p>decode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>encode</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>format</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>isdecimal</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>isnumeric</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Making the distinction easier to handle can be accomplished by encoding and
+decoding between binary data and text at the edge of your code. This means that
+when you receive text in binary data, you should immediately decode it. And if
+your code needs to send text as binary data then encode it as late as possible.
+This allows your code to work with only text internally and thus eliminates
+having to keep track of what type of data you are working with.</p>
+<p>The next issue is making sure you know whether the string literals in your code
+represent text or binary data. You should add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> prefix to any
+literal that presents binary data. For text you should add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> prefix to
+the text literal. (there is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> import to force all unspecified
+literals to be Unicode, but usage has shown it isn’t as effective as adding a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> prefix to all literals explicitly)</p>
+<p>As part of this dichotomy you also need to be careful about opening files.
+Unless you have been working on Windows, there is a chance you have not always
+bothered to add the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> mode when opening a binary file (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rb</span></code> for
+binary reading).  Under Python 3, binary files and text files are clearly
+distinct and mutually incompatible; see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module for details.
+Therefore, you <strong>must</strong> make a decision of whether a file will be used for
+binary access (allowing binary data to be read and/or written) or textual access
+(allowing text data to be read and/or written). You should also use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a>
+for opening files instead of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a>
+module is consistent from Python 2 to 3 while the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function
+is not (in Python 3 it’s actually <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a>). Do not bother with the
+outdated practice of using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.open" title="codecs.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.open()</span></code></a> as that’s only necessary for
+keeping compatibility with Python 2.5.</p>
+<p>The constructors of both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> have different semantics for the
+same arguments between Python 2 &amp; 3. Passing an integer to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> in Python 2
+will give you the string representation of the integer: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(3)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'3'</span></code>.
+But in Python 3, an integer argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> will give you a bytes object
+as long as the integer specified, filled with null bytes:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(3)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b'\x00\x00\x00'</span></code>. A similar worry is necessary when passing a
+bytes object to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>. In Python 2 you just get the bytes object back:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(b'3')</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b'3'</span></code>. But in Python 3 you get the string representation of the
+bytes object: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(b'3')</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">&quot;b'3'&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Finally, the indexing of binary data requires careful handling (slicing does
+<strong>not</strong> require any special handling). In Python 2,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'123'[1]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b'2'</span></code> while in Python 3 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'123'[1]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">50</span></code>. Because binary data
+is simply a collection of binary numbers, Python 3 returns the integer value for
+the byte you index on. But in Python 2 because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">str</span></code>, indexing
+returns a one-item slice of bytes. The <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/six">six</a> project has a function
+named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">six.indexbytes()</span></code> which will return an integer like in Python 3:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">six.indexbytes(b'123',</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To summarize:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Decide which of your APIs take text and which take binary data</p></li>
+<li><p>Make sure that your code that works with text also works with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code> and
+code for binary data works with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> in Python 2 (see the table above
+for what methods you cannot use for each type)</p></li>
+<li><p>Mark all binary literals with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> prefix, textual literals with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code>
+prefix</p></li>
+<li><p>Decode binary data to text as soon as possible, encode text as binary data as
+late as possible</p></li>
+<li><p>Open files using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a> and make sure to specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> mode when
+appropriate</p></li>
+<li><p>Be careful when indexing into binary data</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="use-feature-detection-instead-of-version-detection">
+<h4>Use feature detection instead of version detection<a class="headerlink" href="#use-feature-detection-instead-of-version-detection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Inevitably you will have code that has to choose what to do based on what
+version of Python is running. The best way to do this is with feature detection
+of whether the version of Python you’re running under supports what you need.
+If for some reason that doesn’t work then you should make the version check be
+against Python 2 and not Python 3. To help explain this, let’s look at an
+example.</p>
+<p>Let’s pretend that you need access to a feature of <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/importlib.html#module-importlib">importlib</a> that
+is available in Python’s standard library since Python 3.3 and available for
+Python 2 through <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/importlib2">importlib2</a> on PyPI. You might be tempted to write code to
+access e.g. the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code> module by doing the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">abc</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib2</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">abc</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The problem with this code is what happens when Python 4 comes out? It would
+be better to treat Python 2 as the exceptional case instead of Python 3 and
+assume that future Python versions will be more compatible with Python 3 than
+Python 2:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">abc</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib2</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">abc</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The best solution, though, is to do no version detection at all and instead rely
+on feature detection. That avoids any potential issues of getting the version
+detection wrong and helps keep you future-compatible:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">abc</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib2</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">abc</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="prevent-compatibility-regressions">
+<h3>Prevent compatibility regressions<a class="headerlink" href="#prevent-compatibility-regressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once you have fully translated your code to be compatible with Python 3, you
+will want to make sure your code doesn’t regress and stop working under
+Python 3. This is especially true if you have a dependency which is blocking you
+from actually running under Python 3 at the moment.</p>
+<p>To help with staying compatible, any new modules you create should have
+at least the following block of code at the top of it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">absolute_import</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">division</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">print_function</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also run Python 2 with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code> flag to be warned about various
+compatibility issues your code triggers during execution. If you turn warnings
+into errors with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Werror</span></code> then you can make sure that you don’t accidentally
+miss a warning.</p>
+<p>You can also use the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/pylint">Pylint</a> project and its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--py3k</span></code> flag to lint your code
+to receive warnings when your code begins to deviate from Python 3
+compatibility. This also prevents you from having to run <a class="reference external" href="https://python-modernize.readthedocs.io/">Modernize</a> or <a class="reference external" href="http://python-future.org/automatic_conversion.html">Futurize</a>
+over your code regularly to catch compatibility regressions. This does require
+you only support Python 2.7 and Python 3.4 or newer as that is Pylint’s
+minimum Python version support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="check-which-dependencies-block-your-transition">
+<h3>Check which dependencies block your transition<a class="headerlink" href="#check-which-dependencies-block-your-transition" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><strong>After</strong> you have made your code compatible with Python 3 you should begin to
+care about whether your dependencies have also been ported. The <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/caniusepython3">caniusepython3</a>
+project was created to help you determine which projects
+– directly or indirectly – are blocking you from supporting Python 3. There
+is both a command-line tool as well as a web interface at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://caniusepython3.com">https://caniusepython3.com</a>.</p>
+<p>The project also provides code which you can integrate into your test suite so
+that you will have a failing test when you no longer have dependencies blocking
+you from using Python 3. This allows you to avoid having to manually check your
+dependencies and to be notified quickly when you can start running on Python 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="update-your-setup-py-file-to-denote-python-3-compatibility">
+<h3>Update your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file to denote Python 3 compatibility<a class="headerlink" href="#update-your-setup-py-file-to-denote-python-3-compatibility" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once your code works under Python 3, you should update the classifiers in
+your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> to contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Programming</span> <span class="pre">Language</span> <span class="pre">::</span> <span class="pre">Python</span> <span class="pre">::</span> <span class="pre">3</span></code> and to not
+specify sole Python 2 support. This will tell anyone using your code that you
+support Python 2 <strong>and</strong> 3. Ideally you will also want to add classifiers for
+each major/minor version of Python you now support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="use-continuous-integration-to-stay-compatible">
+<h3>Use continuous integration to stay compatible<a class="headerlink" href="#use-continuous-integration-to-stay-compatible" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once you are able to fully run under Python 3 you will want to make sure your
+code always works under both Python 2 &amp; 3. Probably the best tool for running
+your tests under multiple Python interpreters is <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/tox">tox</a>. You can then integrate
+tox with your continuous integration system so that you never accidentally break
+Python 2 or 3 support.</p>
+<p>You may also want to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-bb</span></code> flag with the Python 3 interpreter to
+trigger an exception when you are comparing bytes to strings or bytes to an int
+(the latter is available starting in Python 3.5). By default type-differing
+comparisons simply return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, but if you made a mistake in your
+separation of text/binary data handling or indexing on bytes you wouldn’t easily
+find the mistake. This flag will raise an exception when these kinds of
+comparisons occur, making the mistake much easier to track down.</p>
+<p>And that’s mostly it! At this point your code base is compatible with both
+Python 2 and 3 simultaneously. Your testing will also be set up so that you
+don’t accidentally break Python 2 or 3 compatibility regardless of which version
+you typically run your tests under while developing.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="consider-using-optional-static-type-checking">
+<h3>Consider using optional static type checking<a class="headerlink" href="#consider-using-optional-static-type-checking" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Another way to help port your code is to use a static type checker like
+<a class="reference external" href="http://mypy-lang.org/">mypy</a> or <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/google/pytype">pytype</a> on your code. These tools can be used to analyze your code as
+if it’s being run under Python 2, then you can run the tool a second time as if
+your code is running under Python 3. By running a static type checker twice like
+this you can discover if you’re e.g. misusing binary data type in one version
+of Python compared to another. If you add optional type hints to your code you
+can also explicitly state whether your APIs use textual or binary data, helping
+to make sure everything functions as expected in both versions of Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-short-explanation">The Short Explanation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#details">Details</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#drop-support-for-python-2-6-and-older">Drop support for Python 2.6 and older</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#make-sure-you-specify-the-proper-version-support-in-your-setup-py-file">Make sure you specify the proper version support in your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#have-good-test-coverage">Have good test coverage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#learn-the-differences-between-python-2-3">Learn the differences between Python 2 &amp; 3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#update-your-code">Update your code</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#division">Division</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-versus-binary-data">Text versus binary data</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#use-feature-detection-instead-of-version-detection">Use feature detection instead of version detection</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#prevent-compatibility-regressions">Prevent compatibility regressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#check-which-dependencies-block-your-transition">Check which dependencies block your transition</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#update-your-setup-py-file-to-denote-python-3-compatibility">Update your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file to denote Python 3 compatibility</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#use-continuous-integration-to-stay-compatible">Use continuous integration to stay compatible</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#consider-using-optional-static-type-checking">Consider using optional static type checking</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Python HOWTOs</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cporting.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Porting Extension Modules to Python 3</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/howto/pyporting.rst"
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new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/regex.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1564 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="regular-expression-howto">
+<span id="regex-howto"></span><h1>Regular Expression HOWTO<a class="headerlink" href="#regular-expression-howto" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:amk&#37;&#52;&#48;amk&#46;ca">amk<span>&#64;</span>amk<span>&#46;</span>ca</a>&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="topic">
+<p class="topic-title first">Abstract</p>
+<p>This document is an introductory tutorial to using regular expressions in Python
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module.  It provides a gentler introduction than the
+corresponding section in the Library Reference.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Regular expressions (called REs, or regexes, or regex patterns) are essentially
+a tiny, highly specialized programming language embedded inside Python and made
+available through the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module. Using this little language, you specify
+the rules for the set of possible strings that you want to match; this set might
+contain English sentences, or e-mail addresses, or TeX commands, or anything you
+like.  You can then ask questions such as “Does this string match the pattern?”,
+or “Is there a match for the pattern anywhere in this string?”.  You can also
+use REs to modify a string or to split it apart in various ways.</p>
+<p>Regular expression patterns are compiled into a series of bytecodes which are
+then executed by a matching engine written in C.  For advanced use, it may be
+necessary to pay careful attention to how the engine will execute a given RE,
+and write the RE in a certain way in order to produce bytecode that runs faster.
+Optimization isn’t covered in this document, because it requires that you have a
+good understanding of the matching engine’s internals.</p>
+<p>The regular expression language is relatively small and restricted, so not all
+possible string processing tasks can be done using regular expressions.  There
+are also tasks that <em>can</em> be done with regular expressions, but the expressions
+turn out to be very complicated.  In these cases, you may be better off writing
+Python code to do the processing; while Python code will be slower than an
+elaborate regular expression, it will also probably be more understandable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="simple-patterns">
+<h2>Simple Patterns<a class="headerlink" href="#simple-patterns" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>We’ll start by learning about the simplest possible regular expressions.  Since
+regular expressions are used to operate on strings, we’ll begin with the most
+common task: matching characters.</p>
+<p>For a detailed explanation of the computer science underlying regular
+expressions (deterministic and non-deterministic finite automata), you can refer
+to almost any textbook on writing compilers.</p>
+<div class="section" id="matching-characters">
+<h3>Matching Characters<a class="headerlink" href="#matching-characters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most letters and characters will simply match themselves.  For example, the
+regular expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> will match the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> exactly.  (You can
+enable a case-insensitive mode that would let this RE match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Test</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEST</span></code>
+as well; more about this later.)</p>
+<p>There are exceptions to this rule; some characters are special
+<em class="dfn">metacharacters</em>, and don’t match themselves.  Instead, they signal that
+some out-of-the-ordinary thing should be matched, or they affect other portions
+of the RE by repeating them or changing their meaning.  Much of this document is
+devoted to discussing various metacharacters and what they do.</p>
+<p>Here’s a complete list of the metacharacters; their meanings will be discussed
+in the rest of this HOWTO.</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>. ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first metacharacters we’ll look at are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">]</span></code>. They’re used for
+specifying a character class, which is a set of characters that you wish to
+match.  Characters can be listed individually, or a range of characters can be
+indicated by giving two characters and separating them by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[abc]</span></code> will match any of the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code>; this
+is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-c]</span></code>, which uses a range to express the same set of
+characters.  If you wanted to match only lowercase letters, your RE would be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-z]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Metacharacters are not active inside classes.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[akm$]</span></code> will
+match any of the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'k'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'m'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code>; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code> is
+usually a metacharacter, but inside a character class it’s stripped of its
+special nature.</p>
+<p>You can match the characters not listed within the class by <em class="dfn">complementing</em>
+the set.  This is indicated by including a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code> as the first character of the
+class. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^5]</span></code> will match any character except <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'5'</span></code>.  If the
+caret appears elsewhere in a character class, it does not have special meaning.
+For example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[5^]</span></code> will match either a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'5'</span></code> or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Perhaps the most important metacharacter is the backslash, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code>.   As in Python
+string literals, the backslash can be followed by various characters to signal
+various special sequences.  It’s also used to escape all the metacharacters so
+you can still match them in patterns; for example, if you need to match a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span></code>
+or  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code>, you can precede them with a backslash to remove their special
+meaning: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\[</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Some of the special sequences beginning with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> represent
+predefined sets of characters that are often useful, such as the set
+of digits, the set of letters, or the set of anything that isn’t
+whitespace.</p>
+<p>Let’s take an example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> matches any alphanumeric character.  If
+the regex pattern is expressed in bytes, this is equivalent to the
+class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-zA-Z0-9_]</span></code>.  If the regex pattern is a string, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> will
+match all the characters marked as letters in the Unicode database
+provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module.  You can use the more
+restricted definition of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> in a string pattern by supplying the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.ASCII</span></code></a> flag when compiling the regular expression.</p>
+<p>The following list of special sequences isn’t complete. For a complete
+list of sequences and expanded class definitions for Unicode string
+patterns, see the last part of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re-syntax"><span class="std std-ref">Regular Expression Syntax</span></a> in the Standard Library reference.  In general, the
+Unicode versions match any character that’s in the appropriate
+category in the Unicode database.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to the class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0-9]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\D</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any non-digit character; this is equivalent to the class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^0-9]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\s</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span>
+<span class="pre">\t\n\r\f\v]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\S</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any non-whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^</span>
+<span class="pre">\t\n\r\f\v]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-zA-Z0-9_]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\W</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any non-alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^a-zA-Z0-9_]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>These sequences can be included inside a character class.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[\s,.]</span></code> is a character class that will match any whitespace character, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">','</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The final metacharacter in this section is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code>.  It matches anything except a
+newline character, and there’s an alternate mode (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.DOTALL" title="re.DOTALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.DOTALL</span></code></a>) where it will
+match even a newline.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> is often used where you want to match “any
+character”.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="repeating-things">
+<h3>Repeating Things<a class="headerlink" href="#repeating-things" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Being able to match varying sets of characters is the first thing regular
+expressions can do that isn’t already possible with the methods available on
+strings.  However, if that was the only additional capability of regexes, they
+wouldn’t be much of an advance. Another capability is that you can specify that
+portions of the RE must be repeated a certain number of times.</p>
+<p>The first metacharacter for repeating things that we’ll look at is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>
+doesn’t match the literal character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>; instead, it specifies that the
+previous character can be matched zero or more times, instead of exactly once.</p>
+<p>For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ca*t</span></code> will match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ct'</span></code> (0 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> characters), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cat'</span></code> (1 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'caaat'</span></code> (3 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> characters), and so forth.</p>
+<p>Repetitions such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> are <em class="dfn">greedy</em>; when repeating a RE, the matching
+engine will try to repeat it as many times as possible. If later portions of the
+pattern don’t match, the matching engine will then back up and try again with
+fewer repetitions.</p>
+<p>A step-by-step example will make this more obvious.  Let’s consider the
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[bcd]*b</span></code>.  This matches the letter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, zero or more letters
+from the class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[bcd]</span></code>, and finally ends with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>.  Now imagine matching
+this RE against the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abcbd'</span></code>.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 66%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Step</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Matched</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> in the RE matches.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abcbd</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The engine matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[bcd]*</span></code>,
+going as far as it can, which
+is to the end of the string.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p><em>Failure</em></p></td>
+<td><p>The engine tries to match
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code>, but the current position
+is at the end of the string, so
+it fails.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abcb</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Back up, so that  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[bcd]*</span></code>
+matches one less character.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>5</p></td>
+<td><p><em>Failure</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Try <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> again, but the
+current position is at the last
+character, which is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>6</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Back up again, so that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[bcd]*</span></code> is only matching
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bc</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>6</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abcb</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Try <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> again.  This time
+the character at the
+current position is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>, so
+it succeeds.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The end of the RE has now been reached, and it has matched <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abcb'</span></code>.  This
+demonstrates how the matching engine goes as far as it can at first, and if no
+match is found it will then progressively back up and retry the rest of the RE
+again and again.  It will back up until it has tried zero matches for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[bcd]*</span></code>, and if that subsequently fails, the engine will conclude that the
+string doesn’t match the RE at all.</p>
+<p>Another repeating metacharacter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, which matches one or more times.  Pay
+careful attention to the difference between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> matches
+<em>zero</em> or more times, so whatever’s being repeated may not be present at all,
+while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> requires at least <em>one</em> occurrence.  To use a similar example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ca+t</span></code> will match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cat'</span></code> (1 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'caaat'</span></code> (3 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>s), but won’t
+match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ct'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There are two more repeating qualifiers.  The question mark character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>,
+matches either once or zero times; you can think of it as marking something as
+being optional.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">home-?brew</span></code> matches either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'homebrew'</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'home-brew'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The most complicated repeated qualifier is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{m,n}</span></code>, where <em>m</em> and <em>n</em> are
+decimal integers.  This qualifier means there must be at least <em>m</em> repetitions,
+and at most <em>n</em>.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a/{1,3}b</span></code> will match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a/b'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a//b'</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a///b'</span></code>.  It won’t match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ab'</span></code>, which has no slashes, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a////b'</span></code>, which
+has four.</p>
+<p>You can omit either <em>m</em> or <em>n</em>; in that case, a reasonable value is assumed for
+the missing value.  Omitting <em>m</em> is interpreted as a lower limit of 0, while
+omitting <em>n</em> results in an upper bound of infinity.</p>
+<p>Readers of a reductionist bent may notice that the three other qualifiers can
+all be expressed using this notation.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{0,}</span></code> is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{1,}</span></code>
+is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{0,1}</span></code> is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>.  It’s better to use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> when you can, simply because they’re shorter and easier
+to read.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-regular-expressions">
+<h2>Using Regular Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#using-regular-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Now that we’ve looked at some simple regular expressions, how do we actually use
+them in Python?  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module provides an interface to the regular
+expression engine, allowing you to compile REs into objects and then perform
+matches with them.</p>
+<div class="section" id="compiling-regular-expressions">
+<h3>Compiling Regular Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#compiling-regular-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have
+methods for various operations such as searching for pattern matches or
+performing string substitutions.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ab*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span>
+<span class="go">re.compile(&#39;ab*&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> also accepts an optional <em>flags</em> argument, used to enable
+various special features and syntax variations.  We’ll go over the available
+settings later, but for now a single example will do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ab*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IGNORECASE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The RE is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> as a string.  REs are handled as strings
+because regular expressions aren’t part of the core Python language, and no
+special syntax was created for expressing them.  (There are applications that
+don’t need REs at all, so there’s no need to bloat the language specification by
+including them.) Instead, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module is simply a C extension module
+included with Python, just like the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>Putting REs in strings keeps the Python language simpler, but has one
+disadvantage which is the topic of the next section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-backslash-plague">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>The Backslash Plague<a class="headerlink" href="#the-backslash-plague" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As stated earlier, regular expressions use the backslash character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code>) to
+indicate special forms or to allow special characters to be used without
+invoking their special meaning. This conflicts with Python’s usage of the same
+character for the same purpose in string literals.</p>
+<p>Let’s say you want to write a RE that matches the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\section</span></code>, which
+might be found in a LaTeX file.  To figure out what to write in the program
+code, start with the desired string to be matched.  Next, you must escape any
+backslashes and other metacharacters by preceding them with a backslash,
+resulting in the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\section</span></code>.  The resulting string that must be passed
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\section</span></code>.  However, to express this as a
+Python string literal, both backslashes must be escaped <em>again</em>.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+<col style="width: 69%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Characters</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Stage</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\section</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Text string to be matched</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\section</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Escaped backslash for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\\\\section&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Escaped backslashes for a string literal</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>In short, to match a literal backslash, one has to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\\\\'</span></code> as the RE
+string, because the regular expression must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\</span></code>, and each backslash must
+be expressed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\</span></code> inside a regular Python string literal.  In REs that
+feature backslashes repeatedly, this leads to lots of repeated backslashes and
+makes the resulting strings difficult to understand.</p>
+<p>The solution is to use Python’s raw string notation for regular expressions;
+backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string literal prefixed with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\n&quot;</span></code> is a two-character string containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code>,
+while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\n&quot;</span></code> is a one-character string containing a newline. Regular
+expressions will often be written in Python code using this raw string notation.</p>
+<p>In addition, special escape sequences that are valid in regular expressions,
+but not valid as Python string literals, now result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and will eventually become a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>,
+which means the sequences will be invalid if raw string notation or escaping
+the backslashes isn’t used.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 51%" />
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Regular String</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Raw string</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ab*&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;ab*&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\\\\section&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\\section&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\\w+\\s+\\1&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\w+\s+\1&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="performing-matches">
+<h3>Performing Matches<a class="headerlink" href="#performing-matches" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once you have an object representing a compiled regular expression, what do you
+do with it?  Pattern objects have several methods and attributes.
+Only the most significant ones will be covered here; consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> docs
+for a complete listing.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 72%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method/Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Purpose</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Determine if the RE matches at the beginning
+of the string.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Scan through a string, looking for any
+location where this RE matches.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
+returns them as a list.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finditer()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
+returns them as an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no match can be found.  If
+they’re successful, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> instance is returned,
+containing information about the match: where it starts and ends, the substring
+it matched, and more.</p>
+<p>You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>
+module.  If you have <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> available, you may also want to look at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Tools/demo/redemo.py">Tools/demo/redemo.py</a>, a demonstration program included with the
+Python distribution.  It allows you to enter REs and strings, and displays
+whether the RE matches or fails. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">redemo.py</span></code> can be quite useful when
+trying to debug a complicated RE.</p>
+<p>This HOWTO uses the standard Python interpreter for its examples. First, run the
+Python interpreter, import the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module, and compile a RE:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;[a-z]+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span>
+<span class="go">re.compile(&#39;[a-z]+&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now, you can try matching various strings against the RE <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-z]+</span></code>.  An empty
+string shouldn’t match at all, since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> means ‘one or more repetitions’.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in this case, which will cause the
+interpreter to print no output.  You can explicitly print the result of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code> to make this clear.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now, let’s try it on a string that it should match, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempo</span></code>.  In this
+case, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> will return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>, so you
+should store the result in a variable for later use.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tempo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match=&#39;tempo&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now you can query the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> for information
+about the matching string.  Match object instances
+also have several methods and attributes; the most important ones are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 71%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method/Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Purpose</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the string matched by the RE</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the starting position of the match</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the ending position of the match</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">span()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Return a tuple containing the (start, end)
+positions  of the match</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Trying these methods will soon clarify their meaning:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;tempo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 5)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 5)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.group" title="re.Match.group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group()</span></code></a> returns the substring that was matched by the RE.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.start" title="re.Match.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.end" title="re.Match.end"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end()</span></code></a> return the starting and ending index of the match. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.span" title="re.Match.span"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">span()</span></code></a>
+returns both start and end indexes in a single tuple.  Since the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a>
+method only checks if the RE matches at the start of a string, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code>
+will always be zero.  However, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> method of patterns
+scans through the string, so  the match may not start at zero in that
+case.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;::: message&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;::: message&#39;</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match=&#39;message&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;message&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(4, 11)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In actual programs, the most common style is to store the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> in a variable, and then check if it was
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  This usually looks like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="s1">&#39;string goes here&#39;</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Match found: &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;No match&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Two pattern methods return all of the matches for a pattern.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.findall" title="re.Pattern.findall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></a> returns a list of matching strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\d+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;12&#39;, &#39;11&#39;, &#39;10&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> prefix, making the literal a raw string literal, is needed in this
+example because escape sequences in a normal “cooked” string literal that are
+not recognized by Python, as opposed to regular expressions, now result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and will eventually become a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#the-backslash-plague"><span class="std std-ref">The Backslash Plague</span></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.findall" title="re.Pattern.findall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></a> has to create the entire list before it can be returned as the
+result.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.finditer" title="re.Pattern.finditer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finditer()</span></code></a> method returns a sequence of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> instances as an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">iterator</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finditer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">iterator</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;callable_iterator object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">match</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 2)</span>
+<span class="go">(22, 24)</span>
+<span class="go">(29, 31)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-level-functions">
+<h3>Module-Level Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-level-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You don’t have to create a pattern object and call its methods; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module also provides top-level functions called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.findall" title="re.findall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a>, and so forth.  These functions
+take the same arguments as the corresponding pattern method with
+the RE string added as the first argument, and still return either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> instance.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;From\s+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Fromage amk&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;From\s+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match=&#39;From &#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Under the hood, these functions simply create a pattern object for you
+and call the appropriate method on it.  They also store the compiled
+object in a cache, so future calls using the same RE won’t need to
+parse the pattern again and again.</p>
+<p>Should you use these module-level functions, or should you get the
+pattern and call its methods yourself?  If you’re accessing a regex
+within a loop, pre-compiling it will save a few function calls.
+Outside of loops, there’s not much difference thanks to the internal
+cache.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compilation-flags">
+<h3>Compilation Flags<a class="headerlink" href="#compilation-flags" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions work.
+Flags are available in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module under two names, a long name such as
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORECASE</span></code> and a short, one-letter form such as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I</span></code>.  (If you’re
+familiar with Perl’s pattern modifiers, the one-letter forms use the same
+letters; the short form of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.VERBOSE" title="re.VERBOSE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.VERBOSE</span></code></a> is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.X" title="re.X"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.X</span></code></a>, for example.)
+Multiple flags can be specified by bitwise OR-ing them; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.I</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">re.M</span></code> sets
+both the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code> flags, for example.</p>
+<p>Here’s a table of the available flags, followed by a more detailed explanation
+of each one.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Flag</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Makes several escapes like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d</span></code> match only on ASCII
+characters with the respective property.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOTALL</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> match any character, including
+newlines.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORECASE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Do case-insensitive matches.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Do a locale-aware match.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Multi-line matching, affecting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VERBOSE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X</span></code>
+(for ‘extended’)</p></td>
+<td><p>Enable verbose REs, which can be organized
+more cleanly and understandably.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">I</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">IGNORECASE</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal strings will
+match letters by ignoring case.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[A-Z]</span></code> will match lowercase
+letters, too. Full Unicode matching also works unless the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code>
+flag is used to disable non-ASCII matches.  When the Unicode patterns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-z]</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[A-Z]</span></code> are used in combination with the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORECASE</span></code>
+flag, they will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII
+letters: ‘İ’ (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), ‘ı’ (U+0131,
+Latin small letter dotless i), ‘ſ’ (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and
+‘K’ (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Spam</span></code> will match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Spam'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spam'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spAM'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ſpam'</span></code> (the latter is matched only in Unicode mode).
+This lowercasing doesn’t take the current locale into account;
+it will if you also set the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code> flag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">L</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">LOCALE</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\W</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\B</span></code> and case-insensitive matching dependent
+on the current locale instead of the Unicode database.</p>
+<p>Locales are a feature of the C library intended to help in writing programs
+that take account of language differences.  For example, if you’re
+processing encoded French text, you’d want to be able to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w+</span></code> to
+match words, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> only matches the character class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[A-Za-z]</span></code> in
+bytes patterns; it won’t match bytes corresponding to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">é</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ç</span></code>.
+If your system is configured properly and a French locale is selected,
+certain C functions will tell the program that the byte corresponding to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">é</span></code> should also be considered a letter.
+Setting the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code> flag when compiling a regular expression will cause
+the resulting compiled object to use these C functions for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code>; this is
+slower, but also enables <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w+</span></code> to match French words as you’d expect.
+The use of this flag is discouraged in Python 3 as the locale mechanism
+is very unreliable, it only handles one “culture” at a time, and it only
+works with 8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is already enabled by default
+in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able to handle different
+locales/languages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">M</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">MULTILINE</code></dt>
+<dd><p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> haven’t been explained yet;  they’ll be introduced in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#more-metacharacters"><span class="std std-ref">More Metacharacters</span></a>.)</p>
+<p>Usually <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> matches only at the beginning of the string, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> matches
+only at the end of the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the
+end of the string. When this flag is specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> matches at the beginning
+of the string and at the beginning of each line within the string, immediately
+following each newline.  Similarly, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> metacharacter matches either at
+the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately preceding each
+newline).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">S</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">DOTALL</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Makes the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> special character match any character at all, including a
+newline; without this flag, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> will match anything <em>except</em> a newline.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">A</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">ASCII</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\W</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\B</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\S</span></code> perform ASCII-only
+matching instead of full Unicode matching. This is only meaningful for
+Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">X</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">VERBOSE</code></dt>
+<dd><p>This flag allows you to write regular expressions that are more readable by
+granting you more flexibility in how you can format them.  When this flag has
+been specified, whitespace within the RE string is ignored, except when the
+whitespace is in a character class or preceded by an unescaped backslash; this
+lets you organize and indent the RE more clearly.  This flag also lets you put
+comments within a RE that will be ignored by the engine; comments are marked by
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code> that’s neither in a character class or preceded by an unescaped
+backslash.</p>
+<p>For example, here’s a RE that uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.VERBOSE" title="re.VERBOSE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.VERBOSE</span></code></a>; see how much easier it
+is to read?</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">charref</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2"> &amp;[#]                # Start of a numeric entity reference</span>
+<span class="s2"> (</span>
+<span class="s2">     0[0-7]+         # Octal form</span>
+<span class="s2">   | [0-9]+          # Decimal form</span>
+<span class="s2">   | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # Hexadecimal form</span>
+<span class="s2"> )</span>
+<span class="s2"> ;                   # Trailing semicolon</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">VERBOSE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without the verbose setting, the RE would look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">charref</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&amp;#(0[0-7]+&quot;</span>
+                     <span class="s2">&quot;|[0-9]+&quot;</span>
+                     <span class="s2">&quot;|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the above example, Python’s automatic concatenation of string literals has
+been used to break up the RE into smaller pieces, but it’s still more difficult
+to understand than the version using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.VERBOSE" title="re.VERBOSE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.VERBOSE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="more-pattern-power">
+<h2>More Pattern Power<a class="headerlink" href="#more-pattern-power" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>So far we’ve only covered a part of the features of regular expressions.  In
+this section, we’ll cover some new metacharacters, and how to use groups to
+retrieve portions of the text that was matched.</p>
+<div class="section" id="more-metacharacters">
+<span id="id2"></span><h3>More Metacharacters<a class="headerlink" href="#more-metacharacters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are some metacharacters that we haven’t covered yet.  Most of them will be
+covered in this section.</p>
+<p>Some of the remaining metacharacters to be discussed are <em class="dfn">zero-width
+assertions</em>.  They don’t cause the engine to advance through the string;
+instead, they consume no characters at all, and simply succeed or fail.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> is an assertion that the current position is located at a word
+boundary; the position isn’t changed by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> at all.  This means that
+zero-width assertions should never be repeated, because if they match once at a
+given location, they can obviously be matched an infinite number of times.</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code></dt><dd><p>Alternation, or the “or” operator.   If <em>A</em> and <em>B</em> are regular expressions,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A|B</span></code> will match any string that matches either <em>A</em> or <em>B</em>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code> has very
+low precedence in order to make it work reasonably when you’re alternating
+multi-character strings. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Crow|Servo</span></code> will match either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Crow'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Servo'</span></code>,
+not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Cro'</span></code>, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> or an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'S'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ervo'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To match a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'|'</span></code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\|</span></code>, or enclose it inside a character class,
+as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[|]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches at the beginning of lines.  Unless the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code> flag has been
+set, this will only match at the beginning of the string.  In <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code>
+mode, this also matches immediately after each newline within the string.</p>
+<p>For example, if you wish to match the word <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">From</span></code> only at the beginning of a
+line, the RE to use is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^From</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;^From&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;From Here to Eternity&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=&#39;From&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;^From&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Reciting From Memory&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To match a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\^</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches at the end of a line, which is defined as either the end of the string,
+or any location followed by a newline character.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;}$&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{block}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match=&#39;}&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;}$&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{block}</span><span class="s1"> &#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;}$&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{block}</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match=&#39;}&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To match a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\$</span></code> or enclose it inside a character class,
+as in  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[$]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\A</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches only at the start of the string.  When not in <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code> mode,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\A</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> are effectively the same.  In <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code> mode, they’re
+different: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\A</span></code> still matches only at the beginning of the string, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code>
+may match at any location inside the string that follows a newline character.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\Z</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches only at the end of the string.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code></dt><dd><p>Word boundary.  This is a zero-width assertion that matches only at the
+beginning or end of a word.  A word is defined as a sequence of alphanumeric
+characters, so the end of a word is indicated by whitespace or a
+non-alphanumeric character.</p>
+<p>The following example matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> only when it’s a complete word; it won’t
+match when it’s contained inside another word.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\bclass\b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;no class at all&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match=&#39;class&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;the declassified algorithm&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;one subclass is&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are two subtleties you should remember when using this special sequence.
+First, this is the worst collision between Python’s string literals and regular
+expression sequences.  In Python’s string literals, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> is the backspace
+character, ASCII value 8.  If you’re not using raw strings, then Python will
+convert the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> to a backspace, and your RE won’t match as you expect it to.
+The following example looks the same as our previous RE, but omits the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>
+in front of the RE string.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\b</span><span class="s1">class</span><span class="se">\b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;no class at all&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match=&#39;\x08class\x08&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Second, inside a character class, where there’s no use for this assertion,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> represents the backspace character, for compatibility with Python’s
+string literals.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\B</span></code></dt><dd><p>Another zero-width assertion, this is the opposite of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code>, only matching when
+the current position is not at a word boundary.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="grouping">
+<h3>Grouping<a class="headerlink" href="#grouping" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Frequently you need to obtain more information than just whether the RE matched
+or not.  Regular expressions are often used to dissect strings by writing a RE
+divided into several subgroups which match different components of interest.
+For example, an RFC-822 header line is divided into a header name and a value,
+separated by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>, like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>From: author@example.com
+User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
+MIME-Version: 1.0
+To: editor@example.com
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This can be handled by writing a regular expression which matches an entire
+header line, and has one group which matches the header name, and another group
+which matches the header’s value.</p>
+<p>Groups are marked by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'('</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">')'</span></code> metacharacters. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'('</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">')'</span></code>
+have much the same meaning as they do in mathematical expressions; they group
+together the expressions contained inside them, and you can repeat the contents
+of a group with a repeating qualifier, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{m,n}</span></code>.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(ab)*</span></code> will match zero or more repetitions of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ab</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(ab)*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ababababab&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 10)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Groups indicated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'('</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">')'</span></code> also capture the starting and ending
+index of the text that they match; this can be retrieved by passing an argument
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.group" title="re.Match.group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.start" title="re.Match.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.end" title="re.Match.end"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.span" title="re.Match.span"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">span()</span></code></a>.  Groups are
+numbered starting with 0.  Group 0 is always present; it’s the whole RE, so
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> methods all have group 0 as their default
+argument.  Later we’ll see how to express groups that don’t capture the span
+of text that they match.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(a)b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ab&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;ab&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;ab&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Subgroups are numbered from left to right, from 1 upward.  Groups can be nested;
+to determine the number, just count the opening parenthesis characters, going
+from left to right.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(a(b)c)d&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abcd&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;b&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.group" title="re.Match.group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group()</span></code></a> can be passed multiple group numbers at a time, in which case it
+will return a tuple containing the corresponding values for those groups.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;b&#39;, &#39;abc&#39;, &#39;b&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Match.groups" title="re.Match.groups"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groups()</span></code></a> method returns a tuple containing the strings for all the
+subgroups, from 1 up to however many there are.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;abc&#39;, &#39;b&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Backreferences in a pattern allow you to specify that the contents of an earlier
+capturing group must also be found at the current location in the string.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\1</span></code> will succeed if the exact contents of group 1 can be found at
+the current position, and fails otherwise.  Remember that Python’s string
+literals also use a backslash followed by numbers to allow including arbitrary
+characters in a string, so be sure to use a raw string when incorporating
+backreferences in a RE.</p>
+<p>For example, the following RE detects doubled words in a string.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\b(\w+)\s+\1\b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Paris in the the spring&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;the the&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Backreferences like this aren’t often useful for just searching through a string
+— there are few text formats which repeat data in this way — but you’ll soon
+find out that they’re <em>very</em> useful when performing string substitutions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="non-capturing-and-named-groups">
+<h3>Non-capturing and Named Groups<a class="headerlink" href="#non-capturing-and-named-groups" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Elaborate REs may use many groups, both to capture substrings of interest, and
+to group and structure the RE itself.  In complex REs, it becomes difficult to
+keep track of the group numbers.  There are two features which help with this
+problem.  Both of them use a common syntax for regular expression extensions, so
+we’ll look at that first.</p>
+<p>Perl 5 is well known for its powerful additions to standard regular expressions.
+For these new features the Perl developers couldn’t choose new single-keystroke metacharacters
+or new special sequences beginning with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code> without making Perl’s regular
+expressions confusingly different from standard REs.  If they chose <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> as a
+new metacharacter, for example, old expressions would be assuming that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> was
+a regular character and wouldn’t have escaped it by writing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\&amp;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[&amp;]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The solution chosen by the Perl developers was to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?...)</span></code> as the
+extension syntax.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> immediately after a parenthesis was a syntax error
+because the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> would have nothing to repeat, so this didn’t introduce any
+compatibility problems.  The characters immediately after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>  indicate
+what extension is being used, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?=foo)</span></code> is one thing (a positive lookahead
+assertion) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?:foo)</span></code> is something else (a non-capturing group containing
+the subexpression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Python supports several of Perl’s extensions and adds an extension
+syntax to Perl’s extension syntax.  If the first character after the
+question mark is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code>, you know that it’s an extension that’s
+specific to Python.</p>
+<p>Now that we’ve looked at the general extension syntax, we can return
+to the features that simplify working with groups in complex REs.</p>
+<p>Sometimes you’ll want to use a group to denote a part of a regular expression,
+but aren’t interested in retrieving the group’s contents. You can make this fact
+explicit by using a non-capturing group: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?:...)</span></code>, where you can replace the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code> with any other regular expression.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;([abc])+&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abc&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;c&#39;,)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;(?:[abc])+&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abc&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Except for the fact that you can’t retrieve the contents of what the group
+matched, a non-capturing group behaves exactly the same as a capturing group;
+you can put anything inside it, repeat it with a repetition metacharacter such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, and nest it within other groups (capturing or non-capturing).
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?:...)</span></code> is particularly useful when modifying an existing pattern, since you
+can add new groups without changing how all the other groups are numbered.  It
+should be mentioned that there’s no performance difference in searching between
+capturing and non-capturing groups; neither form is any faster than the other.</p>
+<p>A more significant feature is named groups: instead of referring to them by
+numbers, groups can be referenced by a name.</p>
+<p>The syntax for a named group is one of the Python-specific extensions:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;name&gt;...)</span></code>.  <em>name</em> is, obviously, the name of the group.  Named groups
+behave exactly like capturing groups, and additionally associate a name
+with a group.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> methods that deal with
+capturing groups all accept either integers that refer to the group by number
+or strings that contain the desired group’s name.  Named groups are still
+given numbers, so you can retrieve information about a group in two ways:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(?P&lt;word&gt;\b\w+\b)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(((( Lots of punctuation )))&#39;</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;word&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Lots&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Lots&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Named groups are handy because they let you use easily-remembered names, instead
+of having to remember numbers.  Here’s an example RE from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a>
+module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">InternalDate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;INTERNALDATE &quot;&#39;</span>
+        <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(?P&lt;day&gt;[ 123][0-9])-(?P&lt;mon&gt;[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-&#39;</span>
+        <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(?P&lt;year&gt;[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])&#39;</span>
+        <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39; (?P&lt;hour&gt;[0-9][0-9]):(?P&lt;min&gt;[0-9][0-9]):(?P&lt;sec&gt;[0-9][0-9])&#39;</span>
+        <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39; (?P&lt;zonen&gt;[-+])(?P&lt;zoneh&gt;[0-9][0-9])(?P&lt;zonem&gt;[0-9][0-9])&#39;</span>
+        <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s obviously much easier to retrieve <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.group('zonem')</span></code>, instead of having
+to remember to retrieve group 9.</p>
+<p>The syntax for backreferences in an expression such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(...)\1</span></code> refers to the
+number of the group.  There’s naturally a variant that uses the group name
+instead of the number. This is another Python extension: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P=name)</span></code> indicates
+that the contents of the group called <em>name</em> should again be matched at the
+current point.  The regular expression for finding doubled words,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b(\w+)\s+\1\b</span></code> can also be written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b(?P&lt;word&gt;\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\b(?P&lt;word&gt;\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Paris in the the spring&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;the the&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lookahead-assertions">
+<h3>Lookahead Assertions<a class="headerlink" href="#lookahead-assertions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Another zero-width assertion is the lookahead assertion.  Lookahead assertions
+are available in both positive and negative form, and  look like this:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?=...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Positive lookahead assertion.  This succeeds if the contained regular
+expression, represented here by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>, successfully matches at the current
+location, and fails otherwise. But, once the contained expression has been
+tried, the matching engine doesn’t advance at all; the rest of the pattern is
+tried right where the assertion started.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?!...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Negative lookahead assertion.  This is the opposite of the positive assertion;
+it succeeds if the contained expression <em>doesn’t</em> match at the current position
+in the string.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>To make this concrete, let’s look at a case where a lookahead is useful.
+Consider a simple pattern to match a filename and split it apart into a base
+name and an extension, separated by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code>.  For example, in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">news.rc</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">news</span></code> is the base name, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc</span></code> is the filename’s extension.</p>
+<p>The pattern to match this is quite simple:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*[.].*$</span></code></p>
+<p>Notice that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> needs to be treated specially because it’s a
+metacharacter, so it’s inside a character class to only match that
+specific character.  Also notice the trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code>; this is added to
+ensure that all the rest of the string must be included in the
+extension.  This regular expression matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autoexec.bat</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail.cf</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printers.conf</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Now, consider complicating the problem a bit; what if you want to match
+filenames where the extension is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bat</span></code>? Some incorrect attempts:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*[.][^b].*$</span></code>  The first attempt above tries to exclude <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bat</span></code> by requiring
+that the first character of the extension is not a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code>.  This is wrong,
+because the pattern also doesn’t match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$</span></code></p>
+<p>The expression gets messier when you try to patch up the first solution by
+requiring one of the following cases to match: the first character of the
+extension isn’t <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code>; the second character isn’t <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code>; or the third character
+isn’t <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t</span></code>.  This accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code> and rejects <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autoexec.bat</span></code>, but it
+requires a three-letter extension and won’t accept a filename with a two-letter
+extension such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail.cf</span></code>.  We’ll complicate the pattern again in an
+effort to fix it.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$</span></code></p>
+<p>In the third attempt, the second and third letters are all made optional in
+order to allow matching extensions shorter than three characters, such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail.cf</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The pattern’s getting really complicated now, which makes it hard to read and
+understand.  Worse, if the problem changes and you want to exclude both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bat</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exe</span></code> as extensions, the pattern would get even more complicated and
+confusing.</p>
+<p>A negative lookahead cuts through all this confusion:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$</span></code>  The negative lookahead means: if the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bat</span></code>
+doesn’t match at this point, try the rest of the pattern; if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bat$</span></code> does
+match, the whole pattern will fail.  The trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> is required to ensure
+that something like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample.batch</span></code>, where the extension only starts with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bat</span></code>, will be allowed.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^.]*</span></code> makes sure that the pattern works
+when there are multiple dots in the filename.</p>
+<p>Excluding another filename extension is now easy; simply add it as an
+alternative inside the assertion.  The following pattern excludes filenames that
+end in either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bat</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exe</span></code>:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$</span></code></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="modifying-strings">
+<h2>Modifying Strings<a class="headerlink" href="#modifying-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Up to this point, we’ve simply performed searches against a static string.
+Regular expressions are also commonly used to modify strings in various ways,
+using the following pattern methods:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 72%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method/Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Purpose</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Split the string into a list, splitting it
+wherever the RE matches</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
+replace them with a different string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subn()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Does the same thing as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code>,  but
+returns the new string and the number of
+replacements</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="section" id="splitting-strings">
+<h3>Splitting Strings<a class="headerlink" href="#splitting-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.split" title="re.Pattern.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> method of a pattern splits a string apart
+wherever the RE matches, returning a list of the pieces. It’s similar to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> method of strings but provides much more generality in the
+delimiters that you can split by; string <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code> only supports splitting by
+whitespace or by a fixed string.  As you’d expect, there’s a module-level
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a> function, too.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>maxsplit=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Split <em>string</em> by the matches of the regular expression.  If capturing
+parentheses are used in the RE, then their contents will also be returned as
+part of the resulting list.  If <em>maxsplit</em> is nonzero, at most <em>maxsplit</em> splits
+are performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>You can limit the number of splits made, by passing a value for <em>maxsplit</em>.
+When <em>maxsplit</em> is nonzero, at most <em>maxsplit</em> splits will be made, and the
+remainder of the string is returned as the final element of the list.  In the
+following example, the delimiter is any sequence of non-alphanumeric characters.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\W+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a test, short and sweet, of split().&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;This&#39;, &#39;is&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;test&#39;, &#39;short&#39;, &#39;and&#39;, &#39;sweet&#39;, &#39;of&#39;, &#39;split&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a test, short and sweet, of split().&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;This&#39;, &#39;is&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;test, short and sweet, of split().&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sometimes you’re not only interested in what the text between delimiters is, but
+also need to know what the delimiter was.  If capturing parentheses are used in
+the RE, then their values are also returned as part of the list.  Compare the
+following calls:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\W+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(\W+)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This... is a test.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;This&#39;, &#39;is&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;test&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This... is a test.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;This&#39;, &#39;... &#39;, &#39;is&#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39;test&#39;, &#39;.&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module-level function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a> adds the RE to be used as the first
+argument, but is otherwise the same.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;[\W]+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Words, words, words.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Words&#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;([\W]+)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Words, words, words.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Words&#39;, &#39;, &#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;, &#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;.&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;[\W]+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Words, words, words.&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Words&#39;, &#39;words, words.&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="search-and-replace">
+<h3>Search and Replace<a class="headerlink" href="#search-and-replace" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Another common task is to find all the matches for a pattern, and replace them
+with a different string.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.sub" title="re.Pattern.sub"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a> method takes a replacement value,
+which can be either a string or a function, and the string to be processed.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">.</code><code class="descname">sub</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>replacement</em>, <em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>count=0</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the string obtained by replacing the leftmost non-overlapping
+occurrences of the RE in <em>string</em> by the replacement <em>replacement</em>.  If the
+pattern isn’t found, <em>string</em> is returned unchanged.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>count</em> is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be
+replaced; <em>count</em> must be a non-negative integer.  The default value of 0 means
+to replace all occurrences.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here’s a simple example of using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.sub" title="re.Pattern.sub"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a> method.  It replaces colour
+names with the word <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colour</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(blue|white|red)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;colour&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue socks and red shoes&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;colour socks and colour shoes&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;colour&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue socks and red shoes&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;colour socks and red shoes&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.Pattern.subn" title="re.Pattern.subn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subn()</span></code></a> method does the same work, but returns a 2-tuple containing the
+new string value and the number of replacements  that were performed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(blue|white|red)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;colour&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue socks and red shoes&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;colour socks and colour shoes&#39;, 2)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;colour&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;no colours at all&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;no colours at all&#39;, 0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Empty matches are replaced only when they’re not adjacent to a previous empty match.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abxd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-a-b--d-&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>replacement</em> is a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.  That
+is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> is converted to a single newline character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code> is converted to a
+carriage return, and so forth. Unknown escapes such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\&amp;</span></code> are left alone.
+Backreferences, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\6</span></code>, are replaced with the substring matched by the
+corresponding group in the RE.  This lets you incorporate portions of the
+original text in the resulting replacement string.</p>
+<p>This example matches the word <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">section</span></code> followed by a string enclosed in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">}</span></code>, and changes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">section</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subsection</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;section{ ( [^}]* ) }&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">VERBOSE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;subsection{\1}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s1">&#39;section</span><span class="si">{First}</span><span class="s1"> section</span><span class="si">{second}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;subsection{First} subsection{second}&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s also a syntax for referring to named groups as defined by the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;name&gt;...)</span></code> syntax.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;name&gt;</span></code> will use the substring matched by the
+group named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>, and  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;number&gt;</span></code>  uses the corresponding group number.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;2&gt;</span></code> is therefore equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\2</span></code>,  but isn’t ambiguous in a
+replacement string such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;2&gt;0</span></code>.  (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\20</span></code> would be interpreted as a
+reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the literal
+character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>.)  The following substitutions are all equivalent, but use all
+three variations of the replacement string.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;section{ (?P&lt;name&gt; [^}]* ) }&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">VERBOSE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;subsection{\1}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s1">&#39;section</span><span class="si">{First}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;subsection{First}&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;subsection{\g&lt;1&gt;}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s1">&#39;section</span><span class="si">{First}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;subsection{First}&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;subsection{\g&lt;name&gt;}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s1">&#39;section</span><span class="si">{First}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;subsection{First}&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>replacement</em> can also be a function, which gives you even more control.  If
+<em>replacement</em> is a function, the function is called for every non-overlapping
+occurrence of <em>pattern</em>.  On each call, the function is passed a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a> argument for the match and can use this
+information to compute the desired replacement string and return it.</p>
+<p>In the following example, the replacement function translates decimals into
+hexadecimal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hexrepl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s2">&quot;Return the hex string for a decimal number&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\d+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hexrepl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When using the module-level <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> function, the pattern is passed as
+the first argument.  The pattern may be provided as an object or as a string; if
+you need to specify regular expression flags, you must either use a
+pattern object as the first parameter, or use embedded modifiers in the
+pattern string, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub(&quot;(?i)b+&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;bbbb</span> <span class="pre">BBBB&quot;)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x</span> <span class="pre">x'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="common-problems">
+<h2>Common Problems<a class="headerlink" href="#common-problems" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Regular expressions are a powerful tool for some applications, but in some ways
+their behaviour isn’t intuitive and at times they don’t behave the way you may
+expect them to.  This section will point out some of the most common pitfalls.</p>
+<div class="section" id="use-string-methods">
+<h3>Use String Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#use-string-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Sometimes using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module is a mistake.  If you’re matching a fixed
+string, or a single character class, and you’re not using any <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> features
+such as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.IGNORECASE" title="re.IGNORECASE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORECASE</span></code></a> flag, then the full power of regular expressions
+may not be required. Strings have several methods for performing operations with
+fixed strings and they’re usually much faster, because the implementation is a
+single small C loop that’s been optimized for the purpose, instead of the large,
+more generalized regular expression engine.</p>
+<p>One example might be replacing a single fixed string with another one; for
+example, you might replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">word</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deed</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> seems like the
+function to use for this, but consider the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.replace" title="str.replace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code></a> method.  Note that
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code> will also replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">word</span></code> inside words, turning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">swordfish</span></code>
+into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sdeedfish</span></code>, but the  naive RE <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">word</span></code> would have done that, too.  (To
+avoid performing the substitution on parts of words, the pattern would have to
+be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\bword\b</span></code>, in order to require that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">word</span></code> have a word boundary on
+either side.  This takes the job beyond  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code>’s abilities.)</p>
+<p>Another common task is deleting every occurrence of a single character from a
+string or replacing it with another single character.  You might do this with
+something like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub('\n',</span> <span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">',</span> <span class="pre">S)</span></code>, but <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.translate" title="str.translate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">translate()</span></code></a> is capable of
+doing both tasks and will be faster than any regular expression operation can
+be.</p>
+<p>In short, before turning to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module, consider whether your problem
+can be solved with a faster and simpler string method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="match-versus-search">
+<h3>match() versus search()<a class="headerlink" href="#match-versus-search" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> function only checks if the RE matches at the beginning of the
+string while <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> will scan forward through the string for a match.
+It’s important to keep this distinction in mind.  Remember,  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code> will
+only report a successful match which will start at 0; if the match wouldn’t
+start at zero,  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code> will <em>not</em> report it.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;super&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;superstition&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 5)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;super&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;insuperable&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On the other hand, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> will scan forward through the string,
+reporting the first match it finds.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;super&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;superstition&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 5)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;super&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;insuperable&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">(2, 7)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sometimes you’ll be tempted to keep using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.match()</span></code></a>, and just add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*</span></code>
+to the front of your RE.  Resist this temptation and use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a>
+instead.  The regular expression compiler does some analysis of REs in order to
+speed up the process of looking for a match.  One such analysis figures out what
+the first character of a match must be; for example, a pattern starting with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Crow</span></code> must match starting with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code>.  The analysis lets the engine
+quickly scan through the string looking for the starting character, only trying
+the full match if a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code> is found.</p>
+<p>Adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*</span></code> defeats this optimization, requiring scanning to the end of the
+string and then backtracking to find a match for the rest of the RE.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="greedy-versus-non-greedy">
+<h3>Greedy versus Non-Greedy<a class="headerlink" href="#greedy-versus-non-greedy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When repeating a regular expression, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a*</span></code>, the resulting action is to
+consume as much of the pattern as possible.  This fact often bites you when
+you’re trying to match a pair of balanced delimiters, such as the angle brackets
+surrounding an HTML tag.  The naive pattern for matching a single HTML tag
+doesn’t work because of the greedy nature of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;html&gt;&lt;head&gt;&lt;title&gt;Title&lt;/title&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">32</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;.*&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">span</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 32)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;.*&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;html&gt;&lt;head&gt;&lt;title&gt;Title&lt;/title&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The RE matches the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;html&gt;'</span></code>, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*</span></code> consumes the rest of
+the string.  There’s still more left in the RE, though, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> can’t
+match at the end of the string, so the regular expression engine has to
+backtrack character by character until it finds a match for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>.   The
+final match extends from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;html&gt;'</span></code> to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;/title&gt;'</span></code>, which isn’t what you want.</p>
+<p>In this case, the solution is to use the non-greedy qualifiers <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*?</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+?</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">??</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{m,n}?</span></code>, which match as <em>little</em> text as possible.  In the above
+example, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code> is tried immediately after the first <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> matches, and
+when it fails, the engine advances a character at a time, retrying the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>
+at every step.  This produces just the right result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;.*?&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;html&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Note that parsing HTML or XML with regular expressions is painful.
+Quick-and-dirty patterns will handle common cases, but HTML and XML have special
+cases that will break the obvious regular expression; by the time you’ve written
+a regular expression that handles all of the possible cases, the patterns will
+be <em>very</em> complicated.  Use an HTML or XML parser module for such tasks.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-re-verbose">
+<h3>Using re.VERBOSE<a class="headerlink" href="#using-re-verbose" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By now you’ve probably noticed that regular expressions are a very compact
+notation, but they’re not terribly readable.  REs of moderate complexity can
+become lengthy collections of backslashes, parentheses, and metacharacters,
+making them difficult to read and understand.</p>
+<p>For such REs, specifying the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.VERBOSE" title="re.VERBOSE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.VERBOSE</span></code></a> flag when compiling the regular
+expression can be helpful, because it allows you to format the regular
+expression more clearly.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.VERBOSE</span></code> flag has several effects.  Whitespace in the regular
+expression that <em>isn’t</em> inside a character class is ignored.  This means that an
+expression such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dog</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">cat</span></code> is equivalent to the less readable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dog|cat</span></code>,
+but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a</span> <span class="pre">b]</span></code> will still match the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>, or a space.  In
+addition, you can also put comments inside a RE; comments extend from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code>
+character to the next newline.  When used with triple-quoted strings, this
+enables REs to be formatted more neatly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2"> \s*                 # Skip leading whitespace</span>
+<span class="s2"> (?P&lt;header&gt;[^:]+)   # Header name</span>
+<span class="s2"> \s* :               # Whitespace, and a colon</span>
+<span class="s2"> (?P&lt;value&gt;.*?)      # The header&#39;s value -- *? used to</span>
+<span class="s2">                     # lose the following trailing whitespace</span>
+<span class="s2"> \s*$                # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">VERBOSE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is far more readable than:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\s*(?P&lt;header&gt;[^:]+)\s*:(?P&lt;value&gt;.*?)\s*$&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="feedback">
+<h2>Feedback<a class="headerlink" href="#feedback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Regular expressions are a complicated topic.  Did this document help you
+understand them?  Were there parts that were unclear, or Problems you
+encountered that weren’t covered here?  If so, please send suggestions for
+improvements to the author.</p>
+<p>The most complete book on regular expressions is almost certainly Jeffrey
+Friedl’s Mastering Regular Expressions, published by O’Reilly.  Unfortunately,
+it exclusively concentrates on Perl and Java’s flavours of regular expressions,
+and doesn’t contain any Python material at all, so it won’t be useful as a
+reference for programming in Python.  (The first edition covered Python’s
+now-removed <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regex</span></code> module, which won’t help you much.)  Consider checking
+it out from your library.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Regular Expression HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simple-patterns">Simple Patterns</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#matching-characters">Matching Characters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#repeating-things">Repeating Things</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-regular-expressions">Using Regular Expressions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compiling-regular-expressions">Compiling Regular Expressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-backslash-plague">The Backslash Plague</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#performing-matches">Performing Matches</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-level-functions">Module-Level Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compilation-flags">Compilation Flags</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-pattern-power">More Pattern Power</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-metacharacters">More Metacharacters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#grouping">Grouping</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#non-capturing-and-named-groups">Non-capturing and Named Groups</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lookahead-assertions">Lookahead Assertions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modifying-strings">Modifying Strings</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#splitting-strings">Splitting Strings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#search-and-replace">Search and Replace</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-problems">Common Problems</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#use-string-methods">Use String Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#match-versus-search">match() versus search()</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#greedy-versus-non-greedy">Greedy versus Non-Greedy</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-re-verbose">Using re.VERBOSE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#feedback">Feedback</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging-cookbook.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Logging Cookbook</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sockets.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Socket Programming HOWTO</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="socket-programming-howto">
+<span id="socket-howto"></span><h1>Socket Programming HOWTO<a class="headerlink" href="#socket-programming-howto" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Gordon McMillan</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="topic">
+<p class="topic-title first">Abstract</p>
+<p>Sockets are used nearly everywhere, but are one of the most severely
+misunderstood technologies around. This is a 10,000 foot overview of sockets.
+It’s not really a tutorial - you’ll still have work to do in getting things
+operational. It doesn’t cover the fine points (and there are a lot of them), but
+I hope it will give you enough background to begin using them decently.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sockets">
+<h2>Sockets<a class="headerlink" href="#sockets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>I’m only going to talk about INET (i.e. IPv4) sockets, but they account for at least 99% of
+the sockets in use. And I’ll only talk about STREAM (i.e. TCP) sockets - unless you really
+know what you’re doing (in which case this HOWTO isn’t for you!), you’ll get
+better behavior and performance from a STREAM socket than anything else. I will
+try to clear up the mystery of what a socket is, as well as some hints on how to
+work with blocking and non-blocking sockets. But I’ll start by talking about
+blocking sockets. You’ll need to know how they work before dealing with
+non-blocking sockets.</p>
+<p>Part of the trouble with understanding these things is that “socket” can mean a
+number of subtly different things, depending on context. So first, let’s make a
+distinction between a “client” socket - an endpoint of a conversation, and a
+“server” socket, which is more like a switchboard operator. The client
+application (your browser, for example) uses “client” sockets exclusively; the
+web server it’s talking to uses both “server” sockets and “client” sockets.</p>
+<div class="section" id="history">
+<h3>History<a class="headerlink" href="#history" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Of the various forms of <abbr title="Inter Process Communication">IPC</abbr>,
+sockets are by far the most popular.  On any given platform, there are
+likely to be other forms of IPC that are faster, but for
+cross-platform communication, sockets are about the only game in town.</p>
+<p>They were invented in Berkeley as part of the BSD flavor of Unix. They spread
+like wildfire with the Internet. With good reason — the combination of sockets
+with INET makes talking to arbitrary machines around the world unbelievably easy
+(at least compared to other schemes).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-a-socket">
+<h2>Creating a Socket<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-a-socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Roughly speaking, when you clicked on the link that brought you to this page,
+your browser did something like the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># create an INET, STREAMing socket</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;www.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect</span></code> completes, the socket <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> can be used to send
+in a request for the text of the page. The same socket will read the
+reply, and then be destroyed. That’s right, destroyed. Client sockets
+are normally only used for one exchange (or a small set of sequential
+exchanges).</p>
+<p>What happens in the web server is a bit more complex. First, the web server
+creates a “server socket”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># create an INET, STREAMing socket</span>
+<span class="n">serversocket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port</span>
+<span class="n">serversocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gethostname</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="c1"># become a server socket</span>
+<span class="n">serversocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A couple things to notice: we used <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.gethostname()</span></code> so that the socket
+would be visible to the outside world.  If we had used <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.bind(('localhost',</span>
+<span class="pre">80))</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.bind(('127.0.0.1',</span> <span class="pre">80))</span></code> we would still have a “server” socket,
+but one that was only visible within the same machine.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.bind(('',</span> <span class="pre">80))</span></code>
+specifies that the socket is reachable by any address the machine happens to
+have.</p>
+<p>A second thing to note: low number ports are usually reserved for “well known”
+services (HTTP, SNMP etc). If you’re playing around, use a nice high number (4
+digits).</p>
+<p>Finally, the argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen</span></code> tells the socket library that we want it to
+queue up as many as 5 connect requests (the normal max) before refusing outside
+connections. If the rest of the code is written properly, that should be plenty.</p>
+<p>Now that we have a “server” socket, listening on port 80, we can enter the
+mainloop of the web server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># accept connections from outside</span>
+    <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">clientsocket</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">address</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">serversocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># now do something with the clientsocket</span>
+    <span class="c1"># in this case, we&#39;ll pretend this is a threaded server</span>
+    <span class="n">ct</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">client_thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">clientsocket</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">ct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s actually 3 general ways in which this loop could work - dispatching a
+thread to handle <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clientsocket</span></code>, create a new process to handle
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clientsocket</span></code>, or restructure this app to use non-blocking sockets, and
+multiplex between our “server” socket and any active <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clientsocket</span></code>s using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code>. More about that later. The important thing to understand now is
+this: this is <em>all</em> a “server” socket does. It doesn’t send any data. It doesn’t
+receive any data. It just produces “client” sockets. Each <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clientsocket</span></code> is
+created in response to some <em>other</em> “client” socket doing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code> to the
+host and port we’re bound to. As soon as we’ve created that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clientsocket</span></code>, we
+go back to listening for more connections. The two “clients” are free to chat it
+up - they are using some dynamically allocated port which will be recycled when
+the conversation ends.</p>
+<div class="section" id="ipc">
+<h3>IPC<a class="headerlink" href="#ipc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you need fast IPC between two processes on one machine, you should look into
+pipes or shared memory.  If you do decide to use AF_INET sockets, bind the
+“server” socket to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'localhost'</span></code>. On most platforms, this will take a
+shortcut around a couple of layers of network code and be quite a bit faster.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> integrates cross-platform IPC into a higher-level
+API.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-socket">
+<h2>Using a Socket<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The first thing to note, is that the web browser’s “client” socket and the web
+server’s “client” socket are identical beasts. That is, this is a “peer to peer”
+conversation. Or to put it another way, <em>as the designer, you will have to
+decide what the rules of etiquette are for a conversation</em>. Normally, the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect</span></code>ing socket starts the conversation, by sending in a request, or
+perhaps a signon. But that’s a design decision - it’s not a rule of sockets.</p>
+<p>Now there are two sets of verbs to use for communication. You can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code>, or you can transform your client socket into a file-like beast and
+use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code>. The latter is the way Java presents its sockets.
+I’m not going to talk about it here, except to warn you that you need to use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush</span></code> on sockets. These are buffered “files”, and a common mistake is to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code> something, and then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read</span></code> for a reply. Without a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush</span></code> in
+there, you may wait forever for the reply, because the request may still be in
+your output buffer.</p>
+<p>Now we come to the major stumbling block of sockets - <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code> operate
+on the network buffers. They do not necessarily handle all the bytes you hand
+them (or expect from them), because their major focus is handling the network
+buffers. In general, they return when the associated network buffers have been
+filled (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code>) or emptied (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code>). They then tell you how many bytes they
+handled. It is <em>your</em> responsibility to call them again until your message has
+been completely dealt with.</p>
+<p>When a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code> returns 0 bytes, it means the other side has closed (or is in
+the process of closing) the connection.  You will not receive any more data on
+this connection. Ever.  You may be able to send data successfully; I’ll talk
+more about this later.</p>
+<p>A protocol like HTTP uses a socket for only one transfer. The client sends a
+request, then reads a reply.  That’s it. The socket is discarded. This means that
+a client can detect the end of the reply by receiving 0 bytes.</p>
+<p>But if you plan to reuse your socket for further transfers, you need to realize
+that <em>there is no</em> <abbr title="End of Transfer">EOT</abbr> <em>on a socket.</em> I repeat: if a socket
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code> returns after handling 0 bytes, the connection has been
+broken.  If the connection has <em>not</em> been broken, you may wait on a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code>
+forever, because the socket will <em>not</em> tell you that there’s nothing more to
+read (for now).  Now if you think about that a bit, you’ll come to realize a
+fundamental truth of sockets: <em>messages must either be fixed length</em> (yuck), <em>or
+be delimited</em> (shrug), <em>or indicate how long they are</em> (much better), <em>or end by
+shutting down the connection</em>. The choice is entirely yours, (but some ways are
+righter than others).</p>
+<p>Assuming you don’t want to end the connection, the simplest solution is a fixed
+length message:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MySocket</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;demonstration class only</span>
+<span class="sd">      - coded for clarity, not efficiency</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sock</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span>
+                            <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sock</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mysend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">totalsent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">totalsent</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">MSGLEN</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">totalsent</span><span class="p">:])</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;socket connection broken&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">totalsent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">totalsent</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">sent</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">myreceive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">chunks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+        <span class="n">bytes_recd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">bytes_recd</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">MSGLEN</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">min</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MSGLEN</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">bytes_recd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2048</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;socket connection broken&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">chunks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">bytes_recd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bytes_recd</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunks</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The sending code here is usable for almost any messaging scheme - in Python you
+send strings, and you can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code> to determine its length (even if it has
+embedded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\0</span></code> characters). It’s mostly the receiving code that gets more
+complex. (And in C, it’s not much worse, except you can’t use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strlen</span></code> if the
+message has embedded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\0</span></code>s.)</p>
+<p>The easiest enhancement is to make the first character of the message an
+indicator of message type, and have the type determine the length. Now you have
+two <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code>s - the first to get (at least) that first character so you can
+look up the length, and the second in a loop to get the rest. If you decide to
+go the delimited route, you’ll be receiving in some arbitrary chunk size, (4096
+or 8192 is frequently a good match for network buffer sizes), and scanning what
+you’ve received for a delimiter.</p>
+<p>One complication to be aware of: if your conversational protocol allows multiple
+messages to be sent back to back (without some kind of reply), and you pass
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code> an arbitrary chunk size, you may end up reading the start of a
+following message. You’ll need to put that aside and hold onto it, until it’s
+needed.</p>
+<p>Prefixing the message with its length (say, as 5 numeric characters) gets more
+complex, because (believe it or not), you may not get all 5 characters in one
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code>. In playing around, you’ll get away with it; but in high network loads,
+your code will very quickly break unless you use two <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code> loops - the first
+to determine the length, the second to get the data part of the message. Nasty.
+This is also when you’ll discover that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code> does not always manage to get
+rid of everything in one pass. And despite having read this, you will eventually
+get bit by it!</p>
+<p>In the interests of space, building your character, (and preserving my
+competitive position), these enhancements are left as an exercise for the
+reader. Lets move on to cleaning up.</p>
+<div class="section" id="binary-data">
+<h3>Binary Data<a class="headerlink" href="#binary-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is perfectly possible to send binary data over a socket. The major problem is
+that not all machines use the same formats for binary data. For example, a
+Motorola chip will represent a 16 bit integer with the value 1 as the two hex
+bytes 00 01. Intel and DEC, however, are byte-reversed - that same 1 is 01 00.
+Socket libraries have calls for converting 16 and 32 bit integers - <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntohl,</span>
+<span class="pre">htonl,</span> <span class="pre">ntohs,</span> <span class="pre">htons</span></code> where “n” means <em>network</em> and “h” means <em>host</em>, “s” means
+<em>short</em> and “l” means <em>long</em>. Where network order is host order, these do
+nothing, but where the machine is byte-reversed, these swap the bytes around
+appropriately.</p>
+<p>In these days of 32 bit machines, the ascii representation of binary data is
+frequently smaller than the binary representation. That’s because a surprising
+amount of the time, all those longs have the value 0, or maybe 1. The string “0”
+would be two bytes, while binary is four. Of course, this doesn’t fit well with
+fixed-length messages. Decisions, decisions.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="disconnecting">
+<h2>Disconnecting<a class="headerlink" href="#disconnecting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Strictly speaking, you’re supposed to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown</span></code> on a socket before you
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> it.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown</span></code> is an advisory to the socket at the other end.
+Depending on the argument you pass it, it can mean “I’m not going to send
+anymore, but I’ll still listen”, or “I’m not listening, good riddance!”.  Most
+socket libraries, however, are so used to programmers neglecting to use this
+piece of etiquette that normally a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown();</span>
+<span class="pre">close()</span></code>.  So in most situations, an explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown</span></code> is not needed.</p>
+<p>One way to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown</span></code> effectively is in an HTTP-like exchange. The client
+sends a request and then does a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown(1)</span></code>. This tells the server “This
+client is done sending, but can still receive.”  The server can detect “EOF” by
+a receive of 0 bytes. It can assume it has the complete request.  The server
+sends a reply. If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code> completes successfully then, indeed, the client
+was still receiving.</p>
+<p>Python takes the automatic shutdown a step further, and says that when a socket
+is garbage collected, it will automatically do a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> if it’s needed. But
+relying on this is a very bad habit. If your socket just disappears without
+doing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code>, the socket at the other end may hang indefinitely, thinking
+you’re just being slow. <em>Please</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> your sockets when you’re done.</p>
+<div class="section" id="when-sockets-die">
+<h3>When Sockets Die<a class="headerlink" href="#when-sockets-die" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Probably the worst thing about using blocking sockets is what happens when the
+other side comes down hard (without doing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code>). Your socket is likely to
+hang. TCP is a reliable protocol, and it will wait a long, long time
+before giving up on a connection. If you’re using threads, the entire thread is
+essentially dead. There’s not much you can do about it. As long as you aren’t
+doing something dumb, like holding a lock while doing a blocking read, the
+thread isn’t really consuming much in the way of resources. Do <em>not</em> try to kill
+the thread - part of the reason that threads are more efficient than processes
+is that they avoid the overhead associated with the automatic recycling of
+resources. In other words, if you do manage to kill the thread, your whole
+process is likely to be screwed up.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="non-blocking-sockets">
+<h2>Non-blocking Sockets<a class="headerlink" href="#non-blocking-sockets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you’ve understood the preceding, you already know most of what you need to
+know about the mechanics of using sockets. You’ll still use the same calls, in
+much the same ways. It’s just that, if you do it right, your app will be almost
+inside-out.</p>
+<p>In Python, you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.setblocking(0)</span></code> to make it non-blocking. In C, it’s
+more complex, (for one thing, you’ll need to choose between the BSD flavor
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_NONBLOCK</span></code> and the almost indistinguishable Posix flavor <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_NDELAY</span></code>, which
+is completely different from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_NODELAY</span></code>), but it’s the exact same idea. You
+do this after creating the socket, but before using it. (Actually, if you’re
+nuts, you can switch back and forth.)</p>
+<p>The major mechanical difference is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept</span></code> can return without having done anything. You have (of course) a
+number of choices. You can check return code and error codes and generally drive
+yourself crazy. If you don’t believe me, try it sometime. Your app will grow
+large, buggy and suck CPU. So let’s skip the brain-dead solutions and do it
+right.</p>
+<p>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In C, coding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> is fairly complex. In Python, it’s a piece of cake, but
+it’s close enough to the C version that if you understand <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> in Python,
+you’ll have little trouble with it in C:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ready_to_read</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ready_to_write</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">in_error</span> <span class="o">=</span> \
+               <span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">(</span>
+                  <span class="n">potential_readers</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">potential_writers</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">potential_errs</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">timeout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> three lists: the first contains all sockets that you might
+want to try reading; the second all the sockets you might want to try writing
+to, and the last (normally left empty) those that you want to check for errors.
+You should note that a socket can go into more than one list. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code>
+call is blocking, but you can give it a timeout. This is generally a sensible
+thing to do - give it a nice long timeout (say a minute) unless you have good
+reason to do otherwise.</p>
+<p>In return, you will get three lists. They contain the sockets that are actually
+readable, writable and in error. Each of these lists is a subset (possibly
+empty) of the corresponding list you passed in.</p>
+<p>If a socket is in the output readable list, you can be
+as-close-to-certain-as-we-ever-get-in-this-business that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv</span></code> on that
+socket will return <em>something</em>. Same idea for the writable list. You’ll be able
+to send <em>something</em>. Maybe not all you want to, but <em>something</em> is better than
+nothing.  (Actually, any reasonably healthy socket will return as writable - it
+just means outbound network buffer space is available.)</p>
+<p>If you have a “server” socket, put it in the potential_readers list. If it comes
+out in the readable list, your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept</span></code> will (almost certainly) work. If you
+have created a new socket to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect</span></code> to someone else, put it in the
+potential_writers list. If it shows up in the writable list, you have a decent
+chance that it has connected.</p>
+<p>Actually, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> can be handy even with blocking sockets. It’s one way of
+determining whether you will block - the socket returns as readable when there’s
+something in the buffers.  However, this still doesn’t help with the problem of
+determining whether the other end is done, or just busy with something else.</p>
+<p><strong>Portability alert</strong>: On Unix, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> works both with the sockets and
+files. Don’t try this on Windows. On Windows, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> works with sockets
+only. Also note that in C, many of the more advanced socket options are done
+differently on Windows. In fact, on Windows I usually use threads (which work
+very, very well) with my sockets.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Socket Programming HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sockets">Sockets</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#history">History</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-a-socket">Creating a Socket</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ipc">IPC</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-socket">Using a Socket</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-data">Binary Data</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#disconnecting">Disconnecting</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#when-sockets-die">When Sockets Die</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#non-blocking-sockets">Non-blocking Sockets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="regex.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Regular Expression HOWTO</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sorting.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Sorting HOW TO</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/howto/sockets.rst"
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,473 @@
+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="sorting-how-to">
+<span id="sortinghowto"></span><h1>Sorting HOW TO<a class="headerlink" href="#sorting-how-to" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Andrew Dalke and Raymond Hettinger</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">Release</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>0.1</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Python lists have a built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> method that modifies the list
+in-place.  There is also a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> built-in function that builds a new
+sorted list from an iterable.</p>
+<p>In this document, we explore the various techniques for sorting data using Python.</p>
+<div class="section" id="sorting-basics">
+<h2>Sorting Basics<a class="headerlink" href="#sorting-basics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A simple ascending sort is very easy: just call the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> function. It
+returns a new sorted list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> method. It modifies the list
+in-place (and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to avoid confusion). Usually it’s less convenient
+than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> - but if you don’t need the original list, it’s slightly
+more efficient.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another difference is that the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> method is only defined for
+lists. In contrast, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> function accepts any iterable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;D&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;B&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;B&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;E&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="key-functions">
+<h2>Key Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#key-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Both <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> have a <em>key</em> parameter to specify a
+function to be called on each list element prior to making comparisons.</p>
+<p>For example, here’s a case-insensitive string comparison:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;This is a test string from Andrew&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;Andrew&#39;, &#39;from&#39;, &#39;is&#39;, &#39;string&#39;, &#39;test&#39;, &#39;This&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The value of the <em>key</em> parameter should be a function that takes a single argument
+and returns a key to use for sorting purposes. This technique is fast because
+the key function is called exactly once for each input record.</p>
+<p>A common pattern is to sort complex objects using some of the object’s indices
+as keys. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">student_tuples</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;john&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;jane&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;B&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;dave&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;B&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_tuples</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">student</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">student</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">])</span>   <span class="c1"># sort by age</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same technique works for objects with named attributes. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Student</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">grade</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">age</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">grade</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">grade</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">age</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">age</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">grade</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">age</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">student_objects</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">Student</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;john&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">Student</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;jane&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;B&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">Student</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;dave&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;B&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_objects</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">student</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">student</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">age</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># sort by age</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="operator-module-functions">
+<h2>Operator Module Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#operator-module-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The key-function patterns shown above are very common, so Python provides
+convenience functions to make accessor functions easier and faster. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module has <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.itemgetter" title="operator.itemgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemgetter()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter" title="operator.attrgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attrgetter()</span></code></a>, and a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.methodcaller" title="operator.methodcaller"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methodcaller()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>Using those functions, the above examples become simpler and faster:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">operator</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrgetter</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_tuples</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_objects</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">attrgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;age&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The operator module functions allow multiple levels of sorting. For example, to
+sort by <em>grade</em> then by <em>age</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_tuples</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15), (&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_objects</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">attrgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;grade&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;age&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15), (&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ascending-and-descending">
+<h2>Ascending and Descending<a class="headerlink" href="#ascending-and-descending" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Both <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> accept a <em>reverse</em> parameter with a
+boolean value. This is used to flag descending sorts. For example, to get the
+student data in reverse <em>age</em> order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_tuples</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_objects</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">attrgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;age&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sort-stability-and-complex-sorts">
+<h2>Sort Stability and Complex Sorts<a class="headerlink" href="#sort-stability-and-complex-sorts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sorts are guaranteed to be <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability">stable</a>. That means that
+when multiple records have the same key, their original order is preserved.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;blue&#39;, 1), (&#39;blue&#39;, 2), (&#39;red&#39;, 1), (&#39;red&#39;, 2)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice how the two records for <em>blue</em> retain their original order so that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('blue',</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code> is guaranteed to precede <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('blue',</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This wonderful property lets you build complex sorts in a series of sorting
+steps. For example, to sort the student data by descending <em>grade</em> and then
+ascending <em>age</em>, do the <em>age</em> sort first and then sort again using <em>grade</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_objects</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">attrgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;age&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>     <span class="c1"># sort on secondary key</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">attrgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;grade&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># now sort on primary key, descending</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort">Timsort</a> algorithm used in Python
+does multiple sorts efficiently because it can take advantage of any ordering
+already present in a dataset.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-old-way-using-decorate-sort-undecorate">
+<h2>The Old Way Using Decorate-Sort-Undecorate<a class="headerlink" href="#the-old-way-using-decorate-sort-undecorate" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This idiom is called Decorate-Sort-Undecorate after its three steps:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>First, the initial list is decorated with new values that control the sort order.</p></li>
+<li><p>Second, the decorated list is sorted.</p></li>
+<li><p>Finally, the decorations are removed, creating a list that contains only the
+initial values in the new order.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example, to sort the student data by <em>grade</em> using the DSU approach:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decorated</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">student</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">grade</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">student</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">student</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_objects</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decorated</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">student</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">grade</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">student</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">decorated</span><span class="p">]</span>               <span class="c1"># undecorate</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This idiom works because tuples are compared lexicographically; the first items
+are compared; if they are the same then the second items are compared, and so
+on.</p>
+<p>It is not strictly necessary in all cases to include the index <em>i</em> in the
+decorated list, but including it gives two benefits:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The sort is stable – if two items have the same key, their order will be
+preserved in the sorted list.</p></li>
+<li><p>The original items do not have to be comparable because the ordering of the
+decorated tuples will be determined by at most the first two items. So for
+example the original list could contain complex numbers which cannot be sorted
+directly.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Another name for this idiom is
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform">Schwartzian transform</a>,
+after Randal L. Schwartz, who popularized it among Perl programmers.</p>
+<p>Now that Python sorting provides key-functions, this technique is not often needed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-old-way-using-the-cmp-parameter">
+<h2>The Old Way Using the <em>cmp</em> Parameter<a class="headerlink" href="#the-old-way-using-the-cmp-parameter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Many constructs given in this HOWTO assume Python 2.4 or later. Before that,
+there was no <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> builtin and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> took no keyword
+arguments. Instead, all of the Py2.x versions supported a <em>cmp</em> parameter to
+handle user specified comparison functions.</p>
+<p>In Py3.0, the <em>cmp</em> parameter was removed entirely (as part of a larger effort to
+simplify and unify the language, eliminating the conflict between rich
+comparisons and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cmp__()</span></code> magic method).</p>
+<p>In Py2.x, sort allowed an optional function which can be called for doing the
+comparisons. That function should take two arguments to be compared and then
+return a negative value for less-than, return zero if they are equal, or return
+a positive value for greater-than. For example, we can do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">numeric_compare</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">cmp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">numeric_compare</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or you can reverse the order of comparison with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reverse_numeric</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">cmp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">reverse_numeric</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">[5, 4, 3, 2, 1]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When porting code from Python 2.x to 3.x, the situation can arise when you have
+the user supplying a comparison function and you need to convert that to a key
+function. The following wrapper makes that easy to do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cmp_to_key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mycmp</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Convert a cmp= function into a key= function&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">K</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__lt__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mycmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__gt__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mycmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__eq__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mycmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__le__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mycmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__ge__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mycmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__ne__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mycmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">K</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To convert to a key function, just wrap the old comparison function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">cmp_to_key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">reverse_numeric</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[5, 4, 3, 2, 1]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Python 3.2, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.cmp_to_key()</span></code></a> function was added to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module in the standard library.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="odd-and-ends">
+<h2>Odd and Ends<a class="headerlink" href="#odd-and-ends" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>For locale aware sorting, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.strxfrm" title="locale.strxfrm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.strxfrm()</span></code></a> for a key function or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.strcoll" title="locale.strcoll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.strcoll()</span></code></a> for a comparison function.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>reverse</em> parameter still maintains sort stability (so that records with
+equal keys retain the original order). Interestingly, that effect can be
+simulated without the parameter by using the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> function
+twice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">standard_way</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">double_reversed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">standard_way</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">double_reversed</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">standard_way</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;red&#39;, 1), (&#39;red&#39;, 2), (&#39;blue&#39;, 1), (&#39;blue&#39;, 2)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The sort routines are guaranteed to use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a> when making comparisons
+between two objects. So, it is easy to add a standard sort order to a class by
+defining an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Student</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__lt__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">age</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">age</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">student_objects</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;dave&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 10), (&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, 12), (&#39;john&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, 15)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Key functions need not depend directly on the objects being sorted. A key
+function can also access external resources. For instance, if the student grades
+are stored in a dictionary, they can be used to sort a separate list of student
+names:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">students</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;dave&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;john&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;jane&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">newgrades</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;john&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;F&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;jane&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dave&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;C&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">students</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">newgrades</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;jane&#39;, &#39;dave&#39;, &#39;john&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Sorting HOW TO</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sorting-basics">Sorting Basics</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#key-functions">Key Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operator-module-functions">Operator Module Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ascending-and-descending">Ascending and Descending</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sort-stability-and-complex-sorts">Sort Stability and Complex Sorts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-old-way-using-decorate-sort-undecorate">The Old Way Using Decorate-Sort-Undecorate</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-old-way-using-the-cmp-parameter">The Old Way Using the <em>cmp</em> Parameter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#odd-and-ends">Odd and Ends</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sockets.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Socket Programming HOWTO</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unicode.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Unicode HOWTO</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/howto/sorting.rst"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/unicode.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/unicode.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41c12ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/howto/unicode.html
@@ -0,0 +1,878 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+  <div class="section" id="unicode-howto">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Unicode HOWTO<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-howto" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Release</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>1.12</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This HOWTO discusses Python’s support for the Unicode specification
+for representing textual data, and explains various problems that
+people commonly encounter when trying to work with Unicode.</p>
+<div class="section" id="introduction-to-unicode">
+<h2>Introduction to Unicode<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction-to-unicode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="definitions">
+<h3>Definitions<a class="headerlink" href="#definitions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Today’s programs need to be able to handle a wide variety of
+characters.  Applications are often internationalized to display
+messages and output in a variety of user-selectable languages; the
+same program might need to output an error message in English, French,
+Japanese, Hebrew, or Russian.  Web content can be written in any of
+these languages and can also include a variety of emoji symbols.
+Python’s string type uses the Unicode Standard for representing
+characters, which lets Python programs work with all these different
+possible characters.</p>
+<p>Unicode (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.unicode.org/">https://www.unicode.org/</a>) is a specification that aims to
+list every character used by human languages and give each character
+its own unique code.  The Unicode specifications are continually
+revised and updated to add new languages and symbols.</p>
+<p>A <strong>character</strong> is the smallest possible component of a text.  ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’,
+etc., are all different characters.  So are ‘È’ and ‘Í’.  Characters vary
+depending on the language or context you’re talking
+about.  For example, there’s a character for “Roman Numeral One”, ‘Ⅰ’, that’s
+separate from the uppercase letter ‘I’.  They’ll usually look the same,
+but these are two different characters that have different meanings.</p>
+<p>The Unicode standard describes how characters are represented by
+<strong>code points</strong>.  A code point value is an integer in the range 0 to
+0x10FFFF (about 1.1 million values, with some 110 thousand assigned so
+far).  In the standard and in this document, a code point is written
+using the notation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+265E</span></code> to mean the character with value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x265e</span></code> (9,822 in decimal).</p>
+<p>The Unicode standard contains a lot of tables listing characters and
+their corresponding code points:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>0061    &#39;a&#39;; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
+0062    &#39;b&#39;; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
+0063    &#39;c&#39;; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
+...
+007B    &#39;{&#39;; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
+...
+2167    &#39;Ⅶ&#39;: ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
+2168    &#39;Ⅸ&#39;: ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
+...
+265E    &#39;♞&#39;: BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
+265F    &#39;♟&#39;: BLACK CHESS PAWN
+...
+1F600   &#39;😀&#39;: GRINNING FACE
+1F609   &#39;😉&#39;: WINKING FACE
+...
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Strictly, these definitions imply that it’s meaningless to say ‘this is
+character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+265E</span></code>’.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+265E</span></code> is a code point, which represents some particular
+character; in this case, it represents the character ‘BLACK CHESS KNIGHT’,
+‘♞’.  In
+informal contexts, this distinction between code points and characters will
+sometimes be forgotten.</p>
+<p>A character is represented on a screen or on paper by a set of graphical
+elements that’s called a <strong>glyph</strong>.  The glyph for an uppercase A, for example,
+is two diagonal strokes and a horizontal stroke, though the exact details will
+depend on the font being used.  Most Python code doesn’t need to worry about
+glyphs; figuring out the correct glyph to display is generally the job of a GUI
+toolkit or a terminal’s font renderer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="encodings">
+<h3>Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To summarize the previous section: a Unicode string is a sequence of
+code points, which are numbers from 0 through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x10FFFF</span></code> (1,114,111
+decimal).  This sequence of code points needs to be represented in
+memory as a set of <strong>code units</strong>, and <strong>code units</strong> are then mapped
+to 8-bit bytes.  The rules for translating a Unicode string into a
+sequence of bytes are called a <strong>character encoding</strong>, or just
+an <strong>encoding</strong>.</p>
+<p>The first encoding you might think of is using 32-bit integers as the
+code unit, and then using the CPU’s representation of 32-bit integers.
+In this representation, the string “Python” might look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>   P           y           t           h           o           n
+0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
+   0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This representation is straightforward but using it presents a number of
+problems.</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>It’s not portable; different processors order the bytes differently.</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s very wasteful of space.  In most texts, the majority of the code points
+are less than 127, or less than 255, so a lot of space is occupied by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x00</span></code>
+bytes.  The above string takes 24 bytes compared to the 6 bytes needed for an
+ASCII representation.  Increased RAM usage doesn’t matter too much (desktop
+computers have gigabytes of RAM, and strings aren’t usually that large), but
+expanding our usage of disk and network bandwidth by a factor of 4 is
+intolerable.</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s not compatible with existing C functions such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strlen()</span></code>, so a new
+family of wide string functions would need to be used.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Therefore this encoding isn’t used very much, and people instead choose other
+encodings that are more efficient and convenient, such as UTF-8.</p>
+<p>UTF-8 is one of the most commonly used encodings, and Python often
+defaults to using it.  UTF stands for “Unicode Transformation Format”,
+and the ‘8’ means that 8-bit values are used in the encoding.  (There
+are also UTF-16 and UTF-32 encodings, but they are less frequently
+used than UTF-8.)  UTF-8 uses the following rules:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>If the code point is &lt; 128, it’s represented by the corresponding byte value.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the code point is &gt;= 128, it’s turned into a sequence of two, three, or
+four bytes, where each byte of the sequence is between 128 and 255.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>UTF-8 has several convenient properties:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>It can handle any Unicode code point.</p></li>
+<li><p>A Unicode string is turned into a sequence of bytes that contains embedded
+zero bytes only where they represent the null character (U+0000). This means
+that UTF-8 strings can be processed by C functions such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strcpy()</span></code> and sent
+through protocols that can’t handle zero bytes for anything other than
+end-of-string markers.</p></li>
+<li><p>A string of ASCII text is also valid UTF-8 text.</p></li>
+<li><p>UTF-8 is fairly compact; the majority of commonly used characters can be
+represented with one or two bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p>If bytes are corrupted or lost, it’s possible to determine the start of the
+next UTF-8-encoded code point and resynchronize.  It’s also unlikely that
+random 8-bit data will look like valid UTF-8.</p></li>
+<li><p>UTF-8 is a byte oriented encoding. The encoding specifies that each
+character is represented by a specific sequence of one or more bytes. This
+avoids the byte-ordering issues that can occur with integer and word oriented
+encodings, like UTF-16 and UTF-32, where the sequence of bytes varies depending
+on the hardware on which the string was encoded.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="references">
+<h3>References<a class="headerlink" href="#references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org">Unicode Consortium site</a> has character charts, a
+glossary, and PDF versions of the Unicode specification.  Be prepared for some
+difficult reading.  <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/history/">A chronology</a> of the
+origin and development of Unicode is also available on the site.</p>
+<p>On the Computerphile Youtube channel, Tom Scott briefly
+<cite>discusses the history of Unicode and UTF-8 &lt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4&gt;</cite>
+(9 minutes 36 seconds).</p>
+<p>To help understand the standard, Jukka Korpela has written <a class="reference external" href="http://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html">an introductory
+guide</a> to reading the
+Unicode character tables.</p>
+<p>Another <a class="reference external" href="https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/">good introductory article</a>
+was written by Joel Spolsky.
+If this introduction didn’t make things clear to you, you should try
+reading this alternate article before continuing.</p>
+<p>Wikipedia entries are often helpful; see the entries for “<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding">character encoding</a>” and <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8">UTF-8</a>, for example.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-s-unicode-support">
+<h2>Python’s Unicode Support<a class="headerlink" href="#python-s-unicode-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Now that you’ve learned the rudiments of Unicode, we can look at Python’s
+Unicode features.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-string-type">
+<h3>The String Type<a class="headerlink" href="#the-string-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since Python 3.0, the language’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type contains Unicode
+characters, meaning any string created using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;unicode</span> <span class="pre">rocks!&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'unicode</span>
+<span class="pre">rocks!'</span></code>, or the triple-quoted string syntax is stored as Unicode.</p>
+<p>The default encoding for Python source code is UTF-8, so you can simply
+include a Unicode character in a string literal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/input.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># &#39;File not found&#39; error message.</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Fichier non trouvé&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Side note: Python 3 also supports using Unicode characters in identifiers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">répertoire</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/tmp/records.log&quot;</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">répertoire</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;test</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you can’t enter a particular character in your editor or want to
+keep the source code ASCII-only for some reason, you can also use
+escape sequences in string literals. (Depending on your system,
+you may see the actual capital-delta glyph instead of a u escape.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># Using the character name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\u0394&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\u0394</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>                          <span class="c1"># Using a 16-bit hex value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\u0394&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\U00000394</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>                      <span class="c1"># Using a 32-bit hex value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\u0394&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition, one can create a string using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> method of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  This method takes an <em>encoding</em> argument, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code>,
+and optionally an <em>errors</em> argument.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument specifies the response when the input string can’t be
+converted according to the encoding’s rules.  Legal values for this argument are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> (raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> exception), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> (use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FFFD</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPLACEMENT</span> <span class="pre">CHARACTER</span></code>), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> (just leave the
+character out of the Unicode result), or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> (inserts a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\xNN</span></code> escape sequence).
+The following examples show the differences:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x80</span><span class="s1">abc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;strict&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">UnicodeDecodeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;utf-8&#39; codec can&#39;t decode byte 0x80 in position 0:</span>
+<span class="go">  invalid start byte</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x80</span><span class="s1">abc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;replace&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\ufffdabc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x80</span><span class="s1">abc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;backslashreplace&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\\x80abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x80</span><span class="s1">abc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;ignore&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Encodings are specified as strings containing the encoding’s name.  Python
+comes with roughly 100 different encodings; see the Python Library Reference at
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#standard-encodings"><span class="std std-ref">Standard Encodings</span></a> for a list.  Some encodings have multiple names; for
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'latin-1'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'iso_8859_1'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'8859</span></code>’ are all synonyms for
+the same encoding.</p>
+<p>One-character Unicode strings can also be created with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr()</span></code></a>
+built-in function, which takes integers and returns a Unicode string of length 1
+that contains the corresponding code point.  The reverse operation is the
+built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord()</span></code></a> function that takes a one-character Unicode string and
+returns the code point value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">57344</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\ue000&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\ue000</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">57344</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="converting-to-bytes">
+<h3>Converting to Bytes<a class="headerlink" href="#converting-to-bytes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The opposite method of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a> is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a>,
+which returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> representation of the Unicode string, encoded in the
+requested <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> parameter is the same as the parameter of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> method but supports a few more possible handlers. As well as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> (which in this case
+inserts a question mark instead of the unencodable character), there is
+also <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xmlcharrefreplace'</span></code> (inserts an XML character reference),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backslashreplace</span></code> (inserts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\uNNNN</span></code> escape sequence) and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namereplace</span></code> (inserts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{...}</span></code> escape sequence).</p>
+<p>The following example shows the different results:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">40960</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abcd&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1972</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">UnicodeEncodeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;ascii&#39; codec can&#39;t encode character &#39;\ua000&#39; in</span>
+<span class="go">  position 0: ordinal not in range(128)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ignore&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;abcd&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;replace&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;?abcd?&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;xmlcharrefreplace&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;&amp;#40960;abcd&amp;#1972;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;backslashreplace&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\\ua000abcd\\u07b4&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;namereplace&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The low-level routines for registering and accessing the available
+encodings are found in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module.  Implementing new
+encodings also requires understanding the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module.
+However, the encoding and decoding functions returned by this module
+are usually more low-level than is comfortable, and writing new encodings
+is a specialized task, so the module won’t be covered in this HOWTO.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-literals-in-python-source-code">
+<h3>Unicode Literals in Python Source Code<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-literals-in-python-source-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In Python source code, specific Unicode code points can be written using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u</span></code> escape sequence, which is followed by four hex digits giving the code
+point.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\U</span></code> escape sequence is similar, but expects eight hex digits,
+not four:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;a</span><span class="se">\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="c1">#     ^^^^ two-digit hex escape</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="c1">#         ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="c1">#                     ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using escape sequences for code points greater than 127 is fine in small doses,
+but becomes an annoyance if you’re using many accented characters, as you would
+in a program with messages in French or some other accent-using language.  You
+can also assemble strings using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr()</span></code></a> built-in function, but this is
+even more tedious.</p>
+<p>Ideally, you’d want to be able to write literals in your language’s natural
+encoding.  You could then edit Python source code with your favorite editor
+which would display the accented characters naturally, and have the right
+characters used at runtime.</p>
+<p>Python supports writing source code in UTF-8 by default, but you can use almost
+any encoding if you declare the encoding being used.  This is done by including
+a special comment as either the first or second line of the source file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+<span class="c1"># -*- coding: latin-1 -*-</span>
+
+<span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abcdé&#39;</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The syntax is inspired by Emacs’s notation for specifying variables local to a
+file.  Emacs supports many different variables, but Python only supports
+‘coding’.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-*-</span></code> symbols indicate to Emacs that the comment is special;
+they have no significance to Python but are a convention.  Python looks for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coding:</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coding=name</span></code> in the comment.</p>
+<p>If you don’t include such a comment, the default encoding used will be UTF-8 as
+already mentioned.  See also <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0263"><strong>PEP 263</strong></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-properties">
+<h3>Unicode Properties<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-properties" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Unicode specification includes a database of information about
+code points.  For each defined code point, the information includes
+the character’s name, its category, the numeric value if applicable
+(for characters representing numeric concepts such as the Roman
+numerals, fractions such as one-third and four-fifths, etc.).  There
+are also display-related properties, such as how to use the code point
+in bidirectional text.</p>
+<p>The following program displays some information about several characters, and
+prints the numeric value of one particular character:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unicodedata</span>
+
+<span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">233</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mh">0x0bf2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3972</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6000</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">13231</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%04x</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">category</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Get numeric value of second character</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">numeric</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When run, this prints:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
+1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
+2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
+3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
+4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
+1000.0
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The category codes are abbreviations describing the nature of the character.
+These are grouped into categories such as “Letter”, “Number”, “Punctuation”, or
+“Symbol”, which in turn are broken up into subcategories.  To take the codes
+from the above output, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Ll'</span></code> means ‘Letter, lowercase’, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'No'</span></code> means
+“Number, other”, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Mn'</span></code> is “Mark, nonspacing”, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'So'</span></code> is “Symbol,
+other”.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values">the General Category Values section of the Unicode Character Database documentation</a> for a
+list of category codes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparing-strings">
+<h3>Comparing Strings<a class="headerlink" href="#comparing-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Unicode adds some complication to comparing strings, because the same
+set of characters can be represented by different sequences of code
+points.  For example, a letter like ‘ê’ can be represented as a single
+code point U+00EA, or as U+0065 U+0302, which is the code point for
+‘e’ followed by a code point for ‘COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT’.  These
+will produce the same output when printed, but one is a string of
+length 1 and the other is of length 2.</p>
+<p>One tool for a case-insensitive comparison is the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.casefold" title="str.casefold"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">casefold()</span></code></a> string method that converts a string to a
+case-insensitive form following an algorithm described by the Unicode
+Standard.  This algorithm has special handling for characters such as
+the German letter ‘ß’ (code point U+00DF), which becomes the pair of
+lowercase letters ‘ss’.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">street</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Gürzenichstraße&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">street</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">casefold</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;gürzenichstrasse&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A second tool is the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.normalize" title="unicodedata.normalize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalize()</span></code></a> function that converts strings to one
+of several normal forms, where letters followed by a combining
+character are replaced with single characters.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalize()</span></code> can
+be used to perform string comparisons that won’t falsely report
+inequality if two strings use combining characters differently:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unicodedata</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">compare_strs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">normalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NFD&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">single_char</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ê&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">multiple_chars</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;length of first string=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">single_char</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;length of second string=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">multiple_chars</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compare_strs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">single_char</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">multiple_chars</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When run, this outputs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 compare-strs.py
+<span class="go">length of first string= 1</span>
+<span class="go">length of second string= 2</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.normalize" title="unicodedata.normalize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalize()</span></code></a> function is a
+string giving the desired normalization form, which can be one of
+‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’, and ‘NFKD’.</p>
+<p>The Unicode Standard also specifies how to do caseless comparisons:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unicodedata</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">compare_caseless</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">normalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NFD&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">casefold</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NFD</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">casefold</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Example usage</span>
+<span class="n">single_char</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ê&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">multiple_chars</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compare_caseless</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">single_char</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">multiple_chars</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will print <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  (Why is <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NFD()</span></code> invoked twice?  Because
+there are a few characters that make <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">casefold()</span></code> return a
+non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again. See
+section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-regular-expressions">
+<h3>Unicode Regular Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-regular-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The regular expressions supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module can be provided
+either as bytes or strings.  Some of the special character sequences such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> have different meanings depending on whether
+the pattern is supplied as bytes or a string.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d</span></code> will match the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0-9]</span></code> in bytes but
+in strings will match any character that’s in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Nd'</span></code> category.</p>
+<p>The string in this example has the number 57 written in both Thai and
+Arabic numerals:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\d+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Over </span><span class="se">\u0e55\u0e57</span><span class="s2"> 57 flavours&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When executed, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d+</span></code> will match the Thai numerals and print them
+out.  If you supply the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.ASCII</span></code></a> flag to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d+</span></code> will match the substring “57” instead.</p>
+<p>Similarly, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> matches a wide variety of Unicode characters but
+only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-zA-Z0-9_]</span></code> in bytes or if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.ASCII</span></code></a> is supplied,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\s</span></code> will match either Unicode whitespace characters or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span> <span class="pre">\t\n\r\f\v]</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id2">
+<h3>References<a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some good alternative discussions of Python’s Unicode support are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html">Processing Text Files in Python 3</a>, by Nick Coghlan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html">Pragmatic Unicode</a>, a PyCon 2012 presentation by Ned Batchelder.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type is described in the Python library reference at
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">Text Sequence Type — str</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Marc-André Lemburg gave <a class="reference external" href="https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf">a presentation titled “Python and Unicode” (PDF slides)</a> at
+EuroPython 2002.  The slides are an excellent overview of the design of Python
+2’s Unicode features (where the Unicode string type is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code> and
+literals start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reading-and-writing-unicode-data">
+<h2>Reading and Writing Unicode Data<a class="headerlink" href="#reading-and-writing-unicode-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Once you’ve written some code that works with Unicode data, the next problem is
+input/output.  How do you get Unicode strings into your program, and how do you
+convert Unicode into a form suitable for storage or transmission?</p>
+<p>It’s possible that you may not need to do anything depending on your input
+sources and output destinations; you should check whether the libraries used in
+your application support Unicode natively.  XML parsers often return Unicode
+data, for example.  Many relational databases also support Unicode-valued
+columns and can return Unicode values from an SQL query.</p>
+<p>Unicode data is usually converted to a particular encoding before it gets
+written to disk or sent over a socket.  It’s possible to do all the work
+yourself: open a file, read an 8-bit bytes object from it, and convert the bytes
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode(encoding)</span></code>.  However, the manual approach is not recommended.</p>
+<p>One problem is the multi-byte nature of encodings; one Unicode character can be
+represented by several bytes.  If you want to read the file in arbitrary-sized
+chunks (say, 1024 or 4096 bytes), you need to write error-handling code to catch the case
+where only part of the bytes encoding a single Unicode character are read at the
+end of a chunk.  One solution would be to read the entire file into memory and
+then perform the decoding, but that prevents you from working with files that
+are extremely large; if you need to read a 2 GiB file, you need 2 GiB of RAM.
+(More, really, since for at least a moment you’d need to have both the encoded
+string and its Unicode version in memory.)</p>
+<p>The solution would be to use the low-level decoding interface to catch the case
+of partial coding sequences.  The work of implementing this has already been
+done for you: the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function can return a file-like object
+that assumes the file’s contents are in a specified encoding and accepts Unicode
+parameters for methods such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.read" title="io.TextIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.write" title="io.TextIOBase.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>.  This works through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>’s <em>encoding</em> and
+<em>errors</em> parameters which are interpreted just like those in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Reading Unicode from a file is therefore simple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;unicode.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s also possible to open files in update mode, allowing both reading and
+writing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;w+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u4500</span><span class="s1"> blah blah blah</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()[:</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The Unicode character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FEFF</span></code> is used as a byte-order mark (BOM), and is often
+written as the first character of a file in order to assist with autodetection
+of the file’s byte ordering.  Some encodings, such as UTF-16, expect a BOM to be
+present at the start of a file; when such an encoding is used, the BOM will be
+automatically written as the first character and will be silently dropped when
+the file is read.  There are variants of these encodings, such as ‘utf-16-le’
+and ‘utf-16-be’ for little-endian and big-endian encodings, that specify one
+particular byte ordering and don’t skip the BOM.</p>
+<p>In some areas, it is also convention to use a “BOM” at the start of UTF-8
+encoded files; the name is misleading since UTF-8 is not byte-order dependent.
+The mark simply announces that the file is encoded in UTF-8.  For reading such
+files, use the ‘utf-8-sig’ codec to automatically skip the mark if present.</p>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-filenames">
+<h3>Unicode filenames<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-filenames" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most of the operating systems in common use today support filenames
+that contain arbitrary Unicode characters.  Usually this is
+implemented by converting the Unicode string into some encoding that
+varies depending on the system.  Today Python is converging on using
+UTF-8: Python on MacOS has used UTF-8 for several versions, and Python
+3.6 switched to using UTF-8 on Windows as well.  On Unix systems,
+there will only be a filesystem encoding if you’ve set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> environment variables; if you haven’t, the default
+encoding is again UTF-8.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a> function returns the encoding to use on
+your current system, in case you want to do the encoding manually, but there’s
+not much reason to bother.  When opening a file for reading or writing, you can
+usually just provide the Unicode string as the filename, and it will be
+automatically converted to the right encoding for you:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;filename</span><span class="se">\u4500</span><span class="s1">abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blah</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> will also accept Unicode
+filenames.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> function returns filenames, which raises an issue: should it return
+the Unicode version of filenames, or should it return bytes containing
+the encoded versions?  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> can do both, depending on whether you
+provided the directory path as bytes or a Unicode string.  If you pass a
+Unicode string as the path, filenames will be decoded using the filesystem’s
+encoding and a list of Unicode strings will be returned, while passing a byte
+path will return the filenames as bytes.  For example,
+assuming the default filesystem encoding is UTF-8, running the following
+program:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">fn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;filename</span><span class="se">\u4500</span><span class="s1">abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will produce the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python listdir-test.py
+<span class="go">[b&#39;filename\xe4\x94\x80abc&#39;, ...]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;filename\u4500abc&#39;, ...]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first list contains UTF-8-encoded filenames, and the second list contains
+the Unicode versions.</p>
+<p>Note that on most occasions, you should can just stick with using
+Unicode with these APIs.  The bytes APIs should only be used on
+systems where undecodable file names can be present; that’s
+pretty much only Unix systems now.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tips-for-writing-unicode-aware-programs">
+<h3>Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs<a class="headerlink" href="#tips-for-writing-unicode-aware-programs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This section provides some suggestions on writing software that deals with
+Unicode.</p>
+<p>The most important tip is:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Software should only work with Unicode strings internally, decoding the input
+data as soon as possible and encoding the output only at the end.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If you attempt to write processing functions that accept both Unicode and byte
+strings, you will find your program vulnerable to bugs wherever you combine the
+two different kinds of strings.  There is no automatic encoding or decoding: if
+you do e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">bytes</span></code>, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p>When using data coming from a web browser or some other untrusted source, a
+common technique is to check for illegal characters in a string before using the
+string in a generated command line or storing it in a database.  If you’re doing
+this, be careful to check the decoded string, not the encoded bytes data;
+some encodings may have interesting properties, such as not being bijective
+or not being fully ASCII-compatible.  This is especially true if the input
+data also specifies the encoding, since the attacker can then choose a
+clever way to hide malicious text in the encoded bytestream.</p>
+<div class="section" id="converting-between-file-encodings">
+<h4>Converting Between File Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#converting-between-file-encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="codecs.StreamRecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRecoder</span></code></a> class can transparently convert between
+encodings, taking a stream that returns data in encoding #1
+and behaving like a stream returning data in encoding #2.</p>
+<p>For example, if you have an input file <em>f</em> that’s in Latin-1, you
+can wrap it with a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="codecs.StreamRecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRecoder</span></code></a> to return bytes encoded in
+UTF-8:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">new_f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamRecoder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="c1"># en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and</span>
+    <span class="c1"># by write() to decode its input.</span>
+    <span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getencoder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getdecoder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream.</span>
+    <span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getreader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;latin-1&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getwriter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;latin-1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="files-in-an-unknown-encoding">
+<h4>Files in an Unknown Encoding<a class="headerlink" href="#files-in-an-unknown-encoding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>What can you do if you need to make a change to a file, but don’t know
+the file’s encoding?  If you know the encoding is ASCII-compatible and
+only want to examine or modify the ASCII parts, you can open the file
+with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;ascii&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">errors</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;surrogateescape&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># make changes to the string &#39;data&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fname</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.new&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;ascii&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">errors</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;surrogateescape&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler will decode any non-ASCII bytes
+as code points in a special range running from U+DC80 to
+U+DCFF.  These code points will then turn back into the
+same bytes when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler is used to
+encode the data and write it back out.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id3">
+<h3>References<a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>One section of <a class="reference external" href="http://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010--mastering-python-3-i-o">Mastering Python 3 Input/Output</a>,
+a PyCon 2010 talk by David Beazley, discusses text processing and binary data handling.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf">PDF slides for Marc-André Lemburg’s presentation “Writing Unicode-aware
+Applications in Python”</a>
+discuss questions of character encodings as well as how to internationalize
+and localize an application.  These slides cover Python 2.x only.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python">The Guts of Unicode in Python</a>
+is a PyCon 2013 talk by Benjamin Peterson that discusses the internal Unicode
+representation in Python 3.3.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The initial draft of this document was written by Andrew Kuchling.
+It has since been revised further by Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl,
+Andrew Kuchling, and Ezio Melotti.</p>
+<p>Thanks to the following people who have noted errors or offered
+suggestions on this article: Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick
+Coghlan, Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André
+Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka,
+Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre, Graham Wideman.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Unicode HOWTO</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction-to-unicode">Introduction to Unicode</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#definitions">Definitions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#encodings">Encodings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#references">References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-s-unicode-support">Python’s Unicode Support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-string-type">The String Type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#converting-to-bytes">Converting to Bytes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-literals-in-python-source-code">Unicode Literals in Python Source Code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-properties">Unicode Properties</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparing-strings">Comparing Strings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-regular-expressions">Unicode Regular Expressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2">References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reading-and-writing-unicode-data">Reading and Writing Unicode Data</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-filenames">Unicode filenames</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tips-for-writing-unicode-aware-programs">Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#converting-between-file-encodings">Converting Between File Encodings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#files-in-an-unknown-encoding">Files in an Unknown Encoding</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3">References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sorting.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Sorting HOW TO</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib2.html"
+                        title="next chapter">HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/howto/unicode.rst"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="howto-fetch-internet-resources-using-the-urllib-package">
+<span id="urllib-howto"></span><h1>HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package<a class="headerlink" href="#howto-fetch-internet-resources-using-the-urllib-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/index.shtml">Michael Foord</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There is a French translation of an earlier revision of this
+HOWTO, available at <a class="reference external" href="http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/urllib2_francais.shtml">urllib2 - Le Manuel manquant</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="sidebar">
+<p class="sidebar-title">Related Articles</p>
+<p>You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources
+with Python:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml">Basic Authentication</a></p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>A tutorial on <em>Basic Authentication</em>, with examples in Python.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<p><strong>urllib.request</strong> is a Python module for fetching URLs
+(Uniform Resource Locators). It offers a very simple interface, in the form of
+the <em>urlopen</em> function. This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of
+different protocols. It also offers a slightly more complex interface for
+handling common situations - like basic authentication, cookies, proxies and so
+on. These are provided by objects called handlers and openers.</p>
+<p>urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many “URL schemes” (identified by the string
+before the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;:&quot;</span></code> in URL - for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ftp&quot;</span></code> is the URL scheme of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ftp://python.org/&quot;</span></code>) using their associated network protocols (e.g. FTP, HTTP).
+This tutorial focuses on the most common case, HTTP.</p>
+<p>For straightforward situations <em>urlopen</em> is very easy to use. But as soon as you
+encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP URLs, you will need some
+understanding of the HyperText Transfer Protocol. The most comprehensive and
+authoritative reference to HTTP is <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a>. This is a technical document and
+not intended to be easy to read. This HOWTO aims to illustrate using <em>urllib</em>,
+with enough detail about HTTP to help you through. It is not intended to replace
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> docs, but is supplementary to them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fetching-urls">
+<h2>Fetching URLs<a class="headerlink" href="#fetching-urls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://python.org/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="n">html</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary
+location, you can do so via the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfileobj" title="shutil.copyfileobj"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copyfileobj()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile" title="tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile()</span></code></a> functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tempfile</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://python.org/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NamedTemporaryFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">delete</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tmp_file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copyfileobj</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tmp_file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp_file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">html</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an ‘http:’ URL we
+could have used a URL starting with ‘ftp:’, ‘file:’, etc.).  However, it’s the
+purpose of this tutorial to explain the more complicated cases, concentrating on
+HTTP.</p>
+<p>HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and servers
+send responses. urllib.request mirrors this with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code> object which represents
+the HTTP request you are making. In its simplest form you create a Request
+object that specifies the URL you want to fetch. Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen</span></code> with this
+Request object returns a response object for the URL requested. This response is
+a file-like object, which means you can for example call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.read()</span></code> on the
+response:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.voidspace.org.uk&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="n">the_page</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to handle all URL
+schemes.  For example, you can make an FTP request like so:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ftp://example.com/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects allow you
+to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server.  Second, you can pass
+extra information (“metadata”) <em>about</em> the data or the about request itself, to
+the server - this information is sent as HTTP “headers”.  Let’s look at each of
+these in turn.</p>
+<div class="section" id="data">
+<h3>Data<a class="headerlink" href="#data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a CGI
+(Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application). With HTTP,
+this is often done using what’s known as a <strong>POST</strong> request. This is often what
+your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you filled in on the web. Not
+all POSTs have to come from forms: you can use a POST to transmit arbitrary data
+to your own application. In the common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be
+encoded in a standard way, and then passed to the Request object as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code>
+argument. The encoding is done using a function from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a>
+library.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+
+<span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Michael Foord&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;location&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Northampton&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;language&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># data should be bytes</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="n">the_page</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g. for file upload from HTML
+forms - see <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13">HTML Specification, Form Submission</a> for more
+details).</p>
+<p>If you do not pass the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code> argument, urllib uses a <strong>GET</strong> request. One
+way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests often have
+“side-effects”: they change the state of the system in some way (for example by
+placing an order with the website for a hundredweight of tinned spam to be
+delivered to your door).  Though the HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are
+intended to <em>always</em> cause side-effects, and GET requests <em>never</em> to cause
+side-effects, nothing prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a
+POST requests from having no side-effects. Data can also be passed in an HTTP
+GET request by encoding it in the URL itself.</p>
+<p>This is done as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Somebody Here&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;location&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Northampton&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;language&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">url_values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url_values</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># The order may differ from below.  </span>
+<span class="go">name=Somebody+Here&amp;language=Python&amp;location=Northampton</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.example.com/example.cgi&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">full_url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">url_values</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">full_url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice that the full URL is created by adding a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> to the URL, followed by
+the encoded values.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="headers">
+<h3>Headers<a class="headerlink" href="#headers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>We’ll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add headers
+to your HTTP request.</p>
+<p>Some websites <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id1">1</a> dislike being browsed by programs, or send different versions
+to different browsers <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id2">2</a>. By default urllib identifies itself as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python-urllib/x.y</span></code> (where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> are the major and minor version
+numbers of the Python release,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python-urllib/2.5</span></code>), which may confuse the site, or just plain
+not work. The way a browser identifies itself is through the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">User-Agent</span></code> header <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id10" id="id3">3</a>. When you create a Request object you can
+pass a dictionary of headers in. The following example makes the same
+request as above, but identifies itself as a version of Internet
+Explorer <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id11" id="id4">4</a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+
+<span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">user_agent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Michael Foord&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;location&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Northampton&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;language&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;User-Agent&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">user_agent</span><span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="n">the_page</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The response also has two useful methods. See the section on <a class="reference internal" href="#info-and-geturl">info and geturl</a>
+which comes after we have a look at what happens when things go wrong.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="handling-exceptions">
+<h2>Handling Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#handling-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>urlopen</em> raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code> when it cannot handle a response (though as
+usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> etc. may also be raised).</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code> is the subclass of <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code> raised in the specific case of
+HTTP URLs.</p>
+<p>The exception classes are exported from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.error.html#module-urllib.error" title="urllib.error: Exception classes raised by urllib.request."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="section" id="urlerror">
+<h3>URLError<a class="headerlink" href="#urlerror" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no route to
+the specified server), or the specified server doesn’t exist.  In this case, the
+exception raised will have a ‘reason’ attribute, which is a tuple containing an
+error code and a text error message.</p>
+<p>e.g.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.pretend_server.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">URLError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>      
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">(4, &#39;getaddrinfo failed&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httperror">
+<h3>HTTPError<a class="headerlink" href="#httperror" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric “status code”. Sometimes
+the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil the request. The
+default handlers will handle some of these responses for you (for example, if
+the response is a “redirection” that requests the client fetch the document from
+a different URL, urllib will handle that for you). For those it can’t handle,
+urlopen will raise an <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code>. Typical errors include ‘404’ (page not
+found), ‘403’ (request forbidden), and ‘401’ (authentication required).</p>
+<p>See section 10 of <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a> for a reference on all the HTTP error codes.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code> instance raised will have an integer ‘code’ attribute, which
+corresponds to the error sent by the server.</p>
+<div class="section" id="error-codes">
+<h4>Error Codes<a class="headerlink" href="#error-codes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range), and
+codes in the 100–299 range indicate success, you will usually only see error
+codes in the 400–599 range.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses</span></code></a> is a useful dictionary of
+response codes in that shows all the response codes used by <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a>. The
+dictionary is reproduced here for convenience</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Table mapping response codes to messages; entries have the</span>
+<span class="c1"># form {code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}.</span>
+<span class="n">responses</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Continue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Request received, please continue&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">101</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Switching Protocols&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Switching to new protocol; obey Upgrade header&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+
+    <span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;OK&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Request fulfilled, document follows&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">201</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Created&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Document created, URL follows&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">202</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Accepted&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Request accepted, processing continues off-line&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">203</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Non-Authoritative Information&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Request fulfilled from cache&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">204</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;No Content&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Request fulfilled, nothing follows&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">205</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Reset Content&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Clear input form for further input.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">206</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Partial Content&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Partial content follows.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+
+    <span class="mi">300</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Multiple Choices&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Object has several resources -- see URI list&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">301</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Moved Permanently&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Object moved permanently -- see URI list&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">302</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Found&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Object moved temporarily -- see URI list&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">303</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;See Other&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Object moved -- see Method and URL list&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">304</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Not Modified&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Document has not changed since given time&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">305</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Use Proxy&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;You must use proxy specified in Location to access this &#39;</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;resource.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">307</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Temporary Redirect&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Object moved temporarily -- see URI list&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+
+    <span class="mi">400</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Bad Request&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Bad request syntax or unsupported method&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">401</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Unauthorized&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;No permission -- see authorization schemes&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">402</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Payment Required&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;No payment -- see charging schemes&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">403</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Forbidden&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Request forbidden -- authorization will not help&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">404</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Not Found&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Nothing matches the given URI&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">405</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Method Not Allowed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Specified method is invalid for this server.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">406</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Not Acceptable&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;URI not available in preferred format.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">407</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Proxy Authentication Required&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;You must authenticate with &#39;</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;this proxy before proceeding.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">408</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Request Timeout&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Request timed out; try again later.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">409</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Conflict&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Request conflict.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">410</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Gone&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;URI no longer exists and has been permanently removed.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">411</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Length Required&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Client must specify Content-Length.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">412</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Precondition Failed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Precondition in headers is false.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">413</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Request Entity Too Large&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Entity is too large.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">414</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Request-URI Too Long&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;URI is too long.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">415</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Unsupported Media Type&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Entity body in unsupported format.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">416</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Requested Range Not Satisfiable&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Cannot satisfy request range.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">417</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Expectation Failed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Expect condition could not be satisfied.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+
+    <span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Internal Server Error&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Server got itself in trouble&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">501</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Not Implemented&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;Server does not support this operation&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">502</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Bad Gateway&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Invalid responses from another server/proxy.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">503</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Service Unavailable&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;The server cannot process the request due to a high load&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">504</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Gateway Timeout&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;The gateway server did not receive a timely response&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="mi">505</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;HTTP Version Not Supported&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Cannot fulfill request.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error code
+<em>and</em> an error page. You can use the <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code> instance as a response on the
+page returned. This means that as well as the code attribute, it also has read,
+geturl, and info, methods as returned by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org/fish.html&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">())</span>  
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">404</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">  &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd&quot;&gt;\n\n\n&lt;html</span>
+<span class="go">  ...</span>
+<span class="go">  &lt;title&gt;Page Not Found&lt;/title&gt;\n</span>
+<span class="go">  ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wrapping-it-up">
+<h3>Wrapping it Up<a class="headerlink" href="#wrapping-it-up" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>So if you want to be prepared for <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code> <em>or</em> <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code> there are two
+basic approaches. I prefer the second approach.</p>
+<div class="section" id="number-1">
+<h4>Number 1<a class="headerlink" href="#number-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.error</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">URLError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">HTTPError</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">someurl</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">HTTPError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The server couldn</span><span class="se">\&#39;</span><span class="s1">t fulfill the request.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error code: &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">URLError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;We failed to reach a server.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Reason: &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># everything is fine</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code> <em>must</em> come first, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">URLError</span></code>
+will <em>also</em> catch an <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="number-2">
+<h4>Number 2<a class="headerlink" href="#number-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.error</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">URLError</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">someurl</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">URLError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;reason&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;We failed to reach a server.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Reason: &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;code&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The server couldn</span><span class="se">\&#39;</span><span class="s1">t fulfill the request.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error code: &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># everything is fine</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="info-and-geturl">
+<h2>info and geturl<a class="headerlink" href="#info-and-geturl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The response returned by urlopen (or the <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code> instance) has two
+useful methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">geturl()</span></code> and is defined in the module
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.response" title="urllib.response: Response classes used by urllib."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code></a>..</p>
+<p><strong>geturl</strong> - this returns the real URL of the page fetched. This is useful
+because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen</span></code> (or the opener object used) may have followed a
+redirect. The URL of the page fetched may not be the same as the URL requested.</p>
+<p><strong>info</strong> - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the page
+fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server. It is currently an
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPMessage</span></code> instance.</p>
+<p>Typical headers include ‘Content-length’, ‘Content-type’, and so on. See the
+<a class="reference external" href="http://jkorpela.fi/http.html">Quick Reference to HTTP Headers</a>
+for a useful listing of HTTP headers with brief explanations of their meaning
+and use.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="openers-and-handlers">
+<h2>Openers and Handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#openers-and-handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps
+confusingly-named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.OpenerDirector</span></code></a>). Normally we have been using
+the default opener - via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen</span></code> - but you can create custom
+openers. Openers use handlers. All the “heavy lifting” is done by the
+handlers. Each handler knows how to open URLs for a particular URL scheme (http,
+ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of URL opening, for example HTTP
+redirections or HTTP cookies.</p>
+<p>You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific handlers
+installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies, or to get an
+opener that does not handle redirections.</p>
+<p>To create an opener, instantiate an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code>, and then call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.add_handler(some_handler_instance)</span></code> repeatedly.</p>
+<p>Alternatively, you can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build_opener</span></code>, which is a convenience function for
+creating opener objects with a single function call.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build_opener</span></code> adds
+several handlers by default, but provides a quick way to add more and/or
+override the default handlers.</p>
+<p>Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies, authentication,
+and other common but slightly specialised situations.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install_opener</span></code> can be used to make an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opener</span></code> object the (global) default
+opener. This means that calls to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen</span></code> will use the opener you have
+installed.</p>
+<p>Opener objects have an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open</span></code> method, which can be called directly to fetch
+urls in the same way as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen</span></code> function: there’s no need to call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install_opener</span></code>, except as a convenience.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id5">
+<h2>Basic Authentication<a class="headerlink" href="#id5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPBasicAuthHandler</span></code>. For a more detailed discussion of this subject –
+including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the <a class="reference external" href="http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml">Basic
+Authentication Tutorial</a>.</p>
+<p>When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as the 401
+error code) requesting authentication.  This specifies the authentication scheme
+and a ‘realm’. The header looks like: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WWW-Authenticate:</span> <span class="pre">SCHEME</span>
+<span class="pre">realm=&quot;REALM&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>e.g.</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm=&quot;cPanel Users&quot;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and password
+for the realm included as a header in the request. This is ‘basic
+authentication’. In order to simplify this process we can create an instance of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPBasicAuthHandler</span></code> and an opener to use this handler.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPBasicAuthHandler</span></code> uses an object called a password manager to handle
+the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames. If you know what the
+realm is (from the authentication header sent by the server), then you can use a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code>. Frequently one doesn’t care what the realm is. In that
+case, it is convenient to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</span></code>. This allows
+you to specify a default username and password for a URL. This will be supplied
+in the absence of you providing an alternative combination for a specific
+realm. We indicate this by providing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as the realm argument to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_password</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication. URLs “deeper”
+than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># create a password manager</span>
+<span class="n">password_mgr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Add the username and password.</span>
+<span class="c1"># If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.</span>
+<span class="n">top_level_url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;http://example.com/foo/&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">password_mgr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_password</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">top_level_url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">username</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPBasicAuthHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">password_mgr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create &quot;opener&quot; (OpenerDirector instance)</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># use the opener to fetch a URL</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a_url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Install the opener.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.</span>
+<span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">opener</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In the above example we only supplied our <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPBasicAuthHandler</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build_opener</span></code>. By default openers have the handlers for normal situations
+– <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code> (if a proxy setting such as an <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_proxy</span></code>
+environment variable is set), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnknownHandler</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPDefaultErrorHandler</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPRedirectHandler</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTPHandler</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DataHandler</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPErrorProcessor</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">top_level_url</span></code> is in fact <em>either</em> a full URL (including the ‘http:’ scheme
+component and the hostname and optionally the port number)
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://example.com/&quot;</span></code> <em>or</em> an “authority” (i.e. the hostname,
+optionally including the port number) e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;example.com&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;example.com:8080&quot;</span></code>
+(the latter example includes a port number).  The authority, if present, must
+NOT contain the “userinfo” component - for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;joe:password&#64;example.com&quot;</span></code> is
+not correct.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="proxies">
+<h2>Proxies<a class="headerlink" href="#proxies" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>urllib</strong> will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those. This is through
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code>, which is part of the normal handler chain when a proxy
+setting is detected.  Normally that’s a good thing, but there are occasions
+when it may not be helpful <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id12" id="id6">5</a>. One way to do this is to setup our own
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code>, with no proxies defined. This is done using similar steps to
+setting up a <a class="reference external" href="http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml">Basic Authentication</a> handler:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">proxy_support</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProxyHandler</span><span class="p">({})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy_support</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">opener</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Currently <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> <em>does not</em> support fetching of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">https</span></code> locations
+through a proxy.  However, this can be enabled by extending urllib.request as
+shown in the recipe <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id13" id="id7">6</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP_PROXY</span></code> will be ignored if a variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_METHOD</span></code> is set; see
+the documentation on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.getproxies" title="urllib.request.getproxies"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getproxies()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sockets-and-layers">
+<h2>Sockets and Layers<a class="headerlink" href="#sockets-and-layers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered.  urllib uses
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> library, which in turn uses the socket library.</p>
+<p>As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a response
+before timing out. This can be useful in applications which have to fetch web
+pages. By default the socket module has <em>no timeout</em> and can hang. Currently,
+the socket timeout is not exposed at the http.client or urllib.request levels.
+However, you can set the default timeout globally for all sockets using</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># timeout in seconds</span>
+<span class="n">timeout</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setdefaulttimeout</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout</span>
+<span class="c1"># we have set in the socket module</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.voidspace.org.uk&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="footnotes">
+<h2>Footnotes<a class="headerlink" href="#footnotes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Google for example.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id9"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design - building
+sites using web standards is much more sensible. Unfortunately a lot of
+sites still send different versions to different browsers.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id10"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The user agent for MSIE 6 is
+<em>‘Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0; Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)’</em></p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id11"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">4</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>For details of more HTTP request headers, see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://jkorpela.fi/http.html">Quick Reference to HTTP Headers</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id12"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id6">5</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work. If you
+attempt to fetch <em>localhost</em> URLs through this proxy it blocks them. IE
+is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on. In order to test
+scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from using
+the proxy.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id13"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id7">6</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195/">ASPN Cookbook Recipe</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fetching-urls">Fetching URLs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#data">Data</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#headers">Headers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#handling-exceptions">Handling Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urlerror">URLError</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httperror">HTTPError</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#error-codes">Error Codes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wrapping-it-up">Wrapping it Up</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#number-1">Number 1</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#number-2">Number 2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#info-and-geturl">info and geturl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#openers-and-handlers">Openers and Handlers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id5">Basic Authentication</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#proxies">Proxies</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/index.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44755f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" /><title>3.7.4 Documentation</title>
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+    <div class="document">
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+            
+  <h1>Python 3.7.4 documentation</h1>
+  <p>
+  Welcome! This is the documentation for Python 3.7.4.
+  </p>
+  <p><strong>Parts of the documentation:</strong></p>
+  <table class="contentstable" align="center"><tr>
+    <td width="50%">
+      <p class="biglink"><a class="biglink" href="whatsnew/3.7.html">What's new in Python 3.7?</a><br/>
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+      <p class="biglink"><a class="biglink" href="py-modindex.html">Global Module Index</a><br/>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/install/index.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/install/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4f7b49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/install/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1293 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Installing Python Modules (Legacy version) &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../distutils/apiref.html" title="9. API Reference"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="installing-python-modules-legacy-version">
+<span id="install-index"></span><h1>Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-python-modules-legacy-version" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Greg Ward</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules</span></a></dt><dd><p>The up to date module installation documentations</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p>This document describes the Python Distribution Utilities (“Distutils”) from the
+end-user’s point-of-view, describing how to extend the capabilities of a
+standard Python installation by building and installing third-party Python
+modules and extensions.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This guide only covers the basic tools for building and distributing
+extensions that are provided as part of this version of Python. Third party
+tools offer easier to use and more secure alternatives. Refer to the <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/guides/tool-recommendations/">quick
+recommendations section</a>
+in the Python Packaging User Guide for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<span id="inst-intro"></span><h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Although Python’s extensive standard library covers many programming needs,
+there often comes a time when you need to add some new functionality to your
+Python installation in the form of third-party modules.  This might be necessary
+to support your own programming, or to support an application that you want to
+use and that happens to be written in Python.</p>
+<p>In the past, there has been little support for adding third-party modules to an
+existing Python installation.  With the introduction of the Python Distribution
+Utilities (Distutils for short) in Python 2.0, this changed.</p>
+<p>This document is aimed primarily at the people who need to install third-party
+Python modules: end-users and system administrators who just need to get some
+Python application running, and existing Python programmers who want to add some
+new goodies to their toolbox.  You don’t need to know Python to read this
+document; there will be some brief forays into using Python’s interactive mode
+to explore your installation, but that’s it.  If you’re looking for information
+on how to distribute your own Python modules so that others may use them, see
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/index.html#distutils-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a> manual.  <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/setupscript.html#debug-setup-script"><span class="std std-ref">Debugging the setup script</span></a> may also be of
+interest.</p>
+<div class="section" id="best-case-trivial-installation">
+<span id="inst-trivial-install"></span><h3>Best case: trivial installation<a class="headerlink" href="#best-case-trivial-installation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In the best case, someone will have prepared a special version of the module
+distribution you want to install that is targeted specifically at your platform
+and is installed just like any other software on your platform.  For example,
+the module developer might make an executable installer available for Windows
+users, an RPM package for users of RPM-based Linux systems (Red Hat, SuSE,
+Mandrake, and many others), a Debian package for users of Debian-based Linux
+systems, and so forth.</p>
+<p>In that case, you would download the installer appropriate to your platform and
+do the obvious thing with it: run it if it’s an executable installer, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpm</span>
+<span class="pre">--install</span></code> it if it’s an RPM, etc.  You don’t need to run Python or a setup
+script, you don’t need to compile anything—you might not even need to read any
+instructions (although it’s always a good idea to do so anyway).</p>
+<p>Of course, things will not always be that easy.  You might be interested in a
+module distribution that doesn’t have an easy-to-use installer for your
+platform.  In that case, you’ll have to start with the source distribution
+released by the module’s author/maintainer.  Installing from a source
+distribution is not too hard, as long as the modules are packaged in the
+standard way.  The bulk of this document is about building and installing
+modules from standard source distributions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-new-standard-distutils">
+<span id="inst-new-standard"></span><h3>The new standard: Distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#the-new-standard-distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you download a module source distribution, you can tell pretty quickly if it
+was packaged and distributed in the standard way, i.e. using the Distutils.
+First, the distribution’s name and version number will be featured prominently
+in the name of the downloaded archive, e.g. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.tar.gz</span></code> or
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">widget-0.9.7.zip</span></code>.  Next, the archive will unpack into a similarly-named
+directory: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">widget-0.9.7</span></code>.  Additionally, the
+distribution will contain a setup script <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>, and a file named
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README.txt</span></code> or possibly just <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README</span></code>, which should explain that
+building and installing the module distribution is a simple matter of running
+one command from a terminal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For Windows, this command should be run from a command prompt window
+(<span class="menuselection">Start ‣ Accessories</span>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>setup.py install
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If all these things are true, then you already know how to build and install the
+modules you’ve just downloaded:  Run the command above. Unless you need to
+install things in a non-standard way or customize the build process, you don’t
+really need this manual.  Or rather, the above command is everything you need to
+get out of this manual.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-build-and-install">
+<span id="inst-standard-install"></span><h2>Standard Build and Install<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-build-and-install" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As described in section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-new-standard"><span class="std std-ref">The new standard: Distutils</span></a>, building and installing a module
+distribution using the Distutils is usually one simple command to run from a
+terminal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="platform-variations">
+<span id="inst-platform-variations"></span><h3>Platform variations<a class="headerlink" href="#platform-variations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You should always run the setup command from the distribution root directory,
+i.e. the top-level subdirectory that the module source distribution unpacks
+into.  For example, if you’ve just downloaded a module source distribution
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.tar.gz</span></code> onto a Unix system, the normal thing to do is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>gunzip -c foo-1.0.tar.gz | tar xf -    # unpacks into directory foo-1.0
+cd foo-1.0
+python setup.py install
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On Windows, you’d probably download <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.zip</span></code>.  If you downloaded the
+archive file to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Temp</span></code>, then it would unpack into
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Temp\foo-1.0</span></code>; you can use either an archive manipulator with a
+graphical user interface (such as WinZip) or a command-line tool (such as
+<strong class="program">unzip</strong> or <strong class="program">pkunzip</strong>) to unpack the archive.  Then, open a
+command prompt window and run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>cd c:\Temp\foo-1.0
+python setup.py install
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="splitting-the-job-up">
+<span id="inst-splitting-up"></span><h3>Splitting the job up<a class="headerlink" href="#splitting-the-job-up" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> builds and installs all modules in one run.  If you
+prefer to work incrementally—especially useful if you want to customize the
+build process, or if things are going wrong—you can use the setup script to do
+one thing at a time.  This is particularly helpful when the build and install
+will be done by different users—for example, you might want to build a module
+distribution and hand it off to a system administrator for installation (or do
+it yourself, with super-user privileges).</p>
+<p>For example, you can build everything in one step, and then install everything
+in a second step, by invoking the setup script twice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build
+python setup.py install
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you do this, you will notice that running the <strong class="command">install</strong> command
+first runs the <strong class="command">build</strong> command, which—in this case—quickly notices
+that it has nothing to do, since everything in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build</span></code> directory is
+up-to-date.</p>
+<p>You may not need this ability to break things down often if all you do is
+install modules downloaded off the ‘net, but it’s very handy for more advanced
+tasks.  If you get into distributing your own Python modules and extensions,
+you’ll run lots of individual Distutils commands on their own.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-building-works">
+<span id="inst-how-build-works"></span><h3>How building works<a class="headerlink" href="#how-building-works" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As implied above, the <strong class="command">build</strong> command is responsible for putting the
+files to install into a <em>build directory</em>.  By default, this is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build</span></code>
+under the distribution root; if you’re excessively concerned with speed, or want
+to keep the source tree pristine, you can change the build directory with the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--build-base</span></code> option. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build --build-base=/path/to/pybuild/foo-1.0
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Or you could do this permanently with a directive in your system or personal
+Distutils configuration file; see section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-config-files"><span class="std std-ref">Distutils Configuration Files</span></a>.)  Normally, this
+isn’t necessary.</p>
+<p>The default layout for the build tree is as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>--- build/ --- lib/
+or
+--- build/ --- lib.&lt;plat&gt;/
+               temp.&lt;plat&gt;/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;plat&gt;</span></code> expands to a brief description of the current OS/hardware
+platform and Python version.  The first form, with just a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib</span></code> directory,
+is used for “pure module distributions”—that is, module distributions that
+include only pure Python modules.  If a module distribution contains any
+extensions (modules written in C/C++), then the second form, with two <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;plat&gt;</span></code>
+directories, is used.  In that case, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">temp.</span><em><span class="pre">plat</span></em></code> directory holds
+temporary files generated by the compile/link process that don’t actually get
+installed.  In either case, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib</span></code> (or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib.</span><em><span class="pre">plat</span></em></code>) directory
+contains all Python modules (pure Python and extensions) that will be installed.</p>
+<p>In the future, more directories will be added to handle Python scripts,
+documentation, binary executables, and whatever else is needed to handle the job
+of installing Python modules and applications.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-installation-works">
+<span id="inst-how-install-works"></span><h3>How installation works<a class="headerlink" href="#how-installation-works" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>After the <strong class="command">build</strong> command runs (whether you run it explicitly, or the
+<strong class="command">install</strong> command does it for you), the work of the <strong class="command">install</strong>
+command is relatively simple: all it has to do is copy everything under
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build/lib</span></code> (or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build/lib.</span><em><span class="pre">plat</span></em></code>) to your chosen installation
+directory.</p>
+<p>If you don’t choose an installation directory—i.e., if you just run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span>
+<span class="pre">install</span></code>—then the <strong class="command">install</strong> command installs to the standard
+location for third-party Python modules.  This location varies by platform and
+by how you built/installed Python itself.  On Unix (and Mac OS X, which is also
+Unix-based), it also depends on whether the module distribution being installed
+is pure Python or contains extensions (“non-pure”):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 6%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Platform</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Standard installation location</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Default value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Unix (pure)</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Unix (non-pure)</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec-prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Windows</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">\Lib\site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Python</span><em><span class="pre">XY</span></em><span class="pre">\Lib\site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Most Linux distributions include Python as a standard part of the system, so
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec-prefix</span></em></code> are usually both <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr</span></code> on
+Linux.  If you build Python yourself on Linux (or any Unix-like system), the
+default <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec-prefix</span></em></code> are <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The default installation directory on Windows was <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Program</span>
+<span class="pre">Files\Python</span></code> under Python 1.6a1, 1.5.2, and earlier.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec-prefix</span></em></code> stand for the directories that Python
+is installed to, and where it finds its libraries at run-time.  They are always
+the same under Windows, and very often the same under Unix and Mac OS X.  You
+can find out what your Python installation uses for <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec-prefix</span></em></code> by running Python in interactive mode and typing a few
+simple commands. Under Unix, just type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> at the shell prompt.  Under
+Windows, choose <span class="menuselection">Start ‣ Programs ‣ Python X.Y ‣
+Python (command line)</span>.   Once the interpreter is started, you type Python code
+at the prompt.  For example, on my Linux system, I type the three Python
+statements shown below, and get the output as shown, to find out my
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec-prefix</span></em></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="go">Python 2.4 (#26, Aug  7 2004, 17:19:02)</span>
+<span class="go">Type &quot;help&quot;, &quot;copyright&quot;, &quot;credits&quot; or &quot;license&quot; for more information.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prefix</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exec_prefix</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A few other placeholders are used in this document: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em></code> stands for the
+version of Python, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.2</span></code>; <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">abiflags</span></em></code> will be replaced by
+the value of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.abiflags" title="sys.abiflags"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.abiflags</span></code></a> or the empty string for platforms which don’t
+define ABI flags; <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">distname</span></em></code> will be replaced by the name of the module
+distribution being installed.  Dots and capitalization are important in the
+paths; for example, a value that uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.2</span></code> on UNIX will typically use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python32</span></code> on Windows.</p>
+<p>If you don’t want to install modules to the standard location, or if you don’t
+have permission to write there, then you need to read about alternate
+installations in section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-alt-install"><span class="std std-ref">Alternate Installation</span></a>.  If you want to customize your
+installation directories more heavily, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-custom-install"><span class="std std-ref">Custom Installation</span></a> on
+custom installations.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="alternate-installation">
+<span id="inst-alt-install"></span><h2>Alternate Installation<a class="headerlink" href="#alternate-installation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Often, it is necessary or desirable to install modules to a location other than
+the standard location for third-party Python modules.  For example, on a Unix
+system you might not have permission to write to the standard third-party module
+directory.  Or you might wish to try out a module before making it a standard
+part of your local Python installation.  This is especially true when upgrading
+a distribution already present: you want to make sure your existing base of
+scripts still works with the new version before actually upgrading.</p>
+<p>The Distutils <strong class="command">install</strong> command is designed to make installing module
+distributions to an alternate location simple and painless.  The basic idea is
+that you supply a base directory for the installation, and the
+<strong class="command">install</strong> command picks a set of directories (called an <em>installation
+scheme</em>) under this base directory in which to install files.  The details
+differ across platforms, so read whichever of the following sections applies to
+you.</p>
+<p>Note that the various alternate installation schemes are mutually exclusive: you
+can pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--user</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--home</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-base</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-platbase</span></code>, but you can’t mix from these
+groups.</p>
+<div class="section" id="alternate-installation-the-user-scheme">
+<span id="inst-alt-install-user"></span><h3>Alternate installation: the user scheme<a class="headerlink" href="#alternate-installation-the-user-scheme" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users that don’t
+have write permission to the global site-packages directory or don’t want to
+install into it.  It is enabled with a simple option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --user
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Files will be installed into subdirectories of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.USER_BASE" title="site.USER_BASE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.USER_BASE</span></code></a> (written
+as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em></code> hereafter).  This scheme installs pure Python modules and
+extension modules in the same location (also known as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.USER_SITE" title="site.USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.USER_SITE</span></code></a>).
+Here are the values for UNIX, including Mac OS X:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 80%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Installation directory</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>scripts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">/bin</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>data</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>C headers</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">/include/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><em><span class="pre">abiflags</span></em><span class="pre">/</span><em><span class="pre">distname</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>And here are the values used on Windows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 80%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Installation directory</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">\Python</span><em><span class="pre">XY</span></em><span class="pre">\site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>scripts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">\Python</span><em><span class="pre">XY</span></em><span class="pre">\Scripts</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>data</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>C headers</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">\Python</span><em><span class="pre">XY</span></em><span class="pre">\Include{distname}</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The advantage of using this scheme compared to the other ones described below is
+that the user site-packages directory is under normal conditions always included
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> (see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> for more information), which means that
+there is no additional step to perform after running the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script
+to finalize the installation.</p>
+<p>The <strong class="command">build_ext</strong> command also has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--user</span></code> option to add
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">/include</span></code> to the compiler search path for header files and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">userbase</span></em><span class="pre">/lib</span></code> to the compiler search path for libraries as well as to
+the runtime search path for shared C libraries (rpath).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="alternate-installation-the-home-scheme">
+<span id="inst-alt-install-home"></span><h3>Alternate installation: the home scheme<a class="headerlink" href="#alternate-installation-the-home-scheme" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The idea behind the “home scheme” is that you build and maintain a personal
+stash of Python modules.  This scheme’s name is derived from the idea of a
+“home” directory on Unix, since it’s not unusual for a Unix user to make their
+home directory have a layout similar to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/</span></code>.
+This scheme can be used by anyone, regardless of the operating system they
+are installing for.</p>
+<p>Installing a new module distribution is as simple as</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --home=&lt;dir&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where you can supply any directory you like for the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--home</span></code> option.  On
+Unix, lazy typists can just type a tilde (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code>); the <strong class="command">install</strong> command
+will expand this to your home directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --home=~
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To make Python find the distributions installed with this scheme, you may have
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-search-path"><span class="std std-ref">modify Python’s search path</span></a> or edit
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> (see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a>) to call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.addsitedir" title="site.addsitedir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.addsitedir()</span></code></a> or edit
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--home</span></code> option defines the installation base directory.  Files are
+installed to the following directories under the installation base as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 80%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Installation directory</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">home</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>scripts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">home</span></em><span class="pre">/bin</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>data</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">home</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>C headers</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">home</span></em><span class="pre">/include/python/</span><em><span class="pre">distname</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>(Mentally replace slashes with backslashes if you’re on Windows.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="alternate-installation-unix-the-prefix-scheme">
+<span id="inst-alt-install-prefix-unix"></span><h3>Alternate installation: Unix (the prefix scheme)<a class="headerlink" href="#alternate-installation-unix-the-prefix-scheme" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The “prefix scheme” is useful when you wish to use one Python installation to
+perform the build/install (i.e., to run the setup script), but install modules
+into the third-party module directory of a different Python installation (or
+something that looks like a different Python installation).  If this sounds a
+trifle unusual, it is—that’s why the user and home schemes come before.  However,
+there are at least two known cases where the prefix scheme will be useful.</p>
+<p>First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr</span></code>, rather
+than the more traditional <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local</span></code>.  This is entirely appropriate,
+since in those cases Python is part of “the system” rather than a local add-on.
+However, if you are installing Python modules from source, you probably want
+them to go in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/lib/python2.</span><em><span class="pre">X</span></em></code> rather than
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/lib/python2.</span><em><span class="pre">X</span></em></code>.  This can be done with</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/usr/bin/python setup.py install --prefix=/usr/local
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write to a
+remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for example, the
+Python interpreter accessed as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/bin/python</span></code> might search for
+modules in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/lib/python2.</span><em><span class="pre">X</span></em></code>, but those modules would have to
+be installed to, say, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/mnt/</span><em><span class="pre">&#64;server</span></em><span class="pre">/export/lib/python2.</span><em><span class="pre">X</span></em></code>.  This could
+be done with</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/usr/local/bin/python setup.py install --prefix=/mnt/@server/export
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In either case, the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code> option defines the installation base, and
+the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code> option defines the platform-specific installation
+base, which is used for platform-specific files.  (Currently, this just means
+non-pure module distributions, but could be expanded to C libraries, binary
+executables, etc.)  If <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code> is not supplied, it defaults to
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code>.  Files are installed as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 77%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Installation directory</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Python modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>extension modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec-prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>scripts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/bin</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>data</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>C headers</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/include/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><em><span class="pre">abiflags</span></em><span class="pre">/</span><em><span class="pre">distname</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>There is no requirement that <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code>
+actually point to an alternate Python installation; if the directories listed
+above do not already exist, they are created at installation time.</p>
+<p>Incidentally, the real reason the prefix scheme is important is simply that a
+standard Unix installation uses the prefix scheme, but with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code>
+and <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code> supplied by Python itself as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code>.  Thus, you might think you’ll never use the prefix scheme,
+but every time you run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> without any other options,
+you’re using it.</p>
+<p>Note that installing extensions to an alternate Python installation has no
+effect on how those extensions are built: in particular, the Python header files
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code> and friends) installed with the Python interpreter used to run
+the setup script will be used in compiling extensions.  It is your
+responsibility to ensure that the interpreter used to run extensions installed
+in this way is compatible with the interpreter used to build them.  The best way
+to do this is to ensure that the two interpreters are the same version of Python
+(possibly different builds, or possibly copies of the same build).  (Of course,
+if your <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code> don’t even point to an
+alternate Python installation, this is immaterial.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="alternate-installation-windows-the-prefix-scheme">
+<span id="inst-alt-install-prefix-windows"></span><h3>Alternate installation: Windows (the prefix scheme)<a class="headerlink" href="#alternate-installation-windows-the-prefix-scheme" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Windows has no concept of a user’s home directory, and since the standard Python
+installation under Windows is simpler than under Unix, the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code>
+option has traditionally been used to install additional packages in separate
+locations on Windows.</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --prefix=&quot;\Temp\Python&quot;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to install modules to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\Temp\Python</span></code> directory on the current drive.</p>
+<p>The installation base is defined by the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code> option; the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code> option is not supported under Windows, which means that
+pure Python modules and extension modules are installed into the same location.
+Files are installed as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 79%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Installation directory</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">\Lib\site-packages</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>scripts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">\Scripts</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>data</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>C headers</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">\Include{distname}</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="custom-installation">
+<span id="inst-custom-install"></span><h2>Custom Installation<a class="headerlink" href="#custom-installation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes, the alternate installation schemes described in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inst-alt-install"><span class="std std-ref">Alternate Installation</span></a> just don’t do what you want.  You might want to tweak just
+one or two directories while keeping everything under the same base directory,
+or you might want to completely redefine the installation scheme.  In either
+case, you’re creating a <em>custom installation scheme</em>.</p>
+<p>To create a custom installation scheme, you start with one of the alternate
+schemes and override some of the installation directories used for the various
+types of files, using these options:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 51%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Override option</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Python modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-purelib</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>extension modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-platlib</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>all modules</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-lib</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>scripts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-scripts</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>data</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-data</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>C headers</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-headers</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>These override options can be relative, absolute,
+or explicitly defined in terms of one of the installation base directories.
+(There are two installation base directories, and they are normally the
+same—they only differ when you use the Unix “prefix scheme” and supply
+different <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code> options; using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-lib</span></code>
+will override values computed or given for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-purelib</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-platlib</span></code>, and is recommended for schemes that don’t make a
+difference between Python and extension modules.)</p>
+<p>For example, say you’re installing a module distribution to your home directory
+under Unix—but you want scripts to go in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/scripts</span></code> rather than
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/bin</span></code>. As you might expect, you can override this directory with the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-scripts</span></code> option; in this case, it makes most sense to supply
+a relative path, which will be interpreted relative to the installation base
+directory (your home directory, in this case):</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --home=~ --install-scripts=scripts
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another Unix example: suppose your Python installation was built and installed
+with a prefix of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/python</span></code>, so under a standard  installation
+scripts will wind up in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/python/bin</span></code>.  If you want them in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/bin</span></code> instead, you would supply this absolute directory for the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--install-scripts</span></code> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --install-scripts=/usr/local/bin
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(This performs an installation using the “prefix scheme,” where the prefix is
+whatever your Python interpreter was installed with— <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/python</span></code>
+in this case.)</p>
+<p>If you maintain Python on Windows, you might want third-party modules to live in
+a subdirectory of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code>, rather than right in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code>
+itself.  This is almost as easy as customizing the script installation
+directory—you just have to remember that there are two types of modules
+to worry about, Python and extension modules, which can conveniently be both
+controlled by one option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --install-lib=Site
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The specified installation directory is relative to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code>.  Of
+course, you also have to ensure that this directory is in Python’s module
+search path, such as by putting a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pth</span></code> file in a site directory (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a>).  See section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-search-path"><span class="std std-ref">Modifying Python’s Search Path</span></a> to find out how to modify
+Python’s search path.</p>
+<p>If you want to define an entire installation scheme, you just have to supply all
+of the installation directory options.  The recommended way to do this is to
+supply relative paths; for example, if you want to maintain all Python
+module-related files under <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> in your home directory, and you want a
+separate directory for each platform that you use your home directory from, you
+might define the following installation scheme:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --home=~ \
+                        --install-purelib=python/lib \
+                        --install-platlib=python/lib.$PLAT \
+                        --install-scripts=python/scripts
+                        --install-data=python/data
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or, equivalently,</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --home=~/python \
+                        --install-purelib=lib \
+                        --install-platlib=&#39;lib.$PLAT&#39; \
+                        --install-scripts=scripts
+                        --install-data=data
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$PLAT</span></code> is not (necessarily) an environment variable—it will be expanded by
+the Distutils as it parses your command line options, just as it does when
+parsing your configuration file(s).</p>
+<p>Obviously, specifying the entire installation scheme every time you install a
+new module distribution would be very tedious.  Thus, you can put these options
+into your Distutils config file (see section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-config-files"><span class="std std-ref">Distutils Configuration Files</span></a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[install]</span>
+<span class="na">install-base</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">$HOME</span>
+<span class="na">install-purelib</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">python/lib</span>
+<span class="na">install-platlib</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">python/lib.$PLAT</span>
+<span class="na">install-scripts</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">python/scripts</span>
+<span class="na">install-data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">python/data</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or, equivalently,</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[install]</span>
+<span class="na">install-base</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">$HOME/python</span>
+<span class="na">install-purelib</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">lib</span>
+<span class="na">install-platlib</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">lib.$PLAT</span>
+<span class="na">install-scripts</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">scripts</span>
+<span class="na">install-data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">data</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that these two are <em>not</em> equivalent if you supply a different installation
+base directory when you run the setup script.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py install --install-base=/tmp
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would install pure modules to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/tmp/python/lib</span></code> in the first case, and
+to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/tmp/lib</span></code> in the second case.  (For the second case, you probably
+want to supply an installation base of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/tmp/python</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>You probably noticed the use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$HOME</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$PLAT</span></code> in the sample
+configuration file input.  These are Distutils configuration variables, which
+bear a strong resemblance to environment variables. In fact, you can use
+environment variables in config files on platforms that have such a notion but
+the Distutils additionally define a few extra variables that may not be in your
+environment, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$PLAT</span></code>.  (And of course, on systems that don’t have
+environment variables, such as Mac OS 9, the configuration variables supplied by
+the Distutils are the only ones you can use.) See section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-config-files"><span class="std std-ref">Distutils Configuration Files</span></a>
+for details.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#venv-def"><span class="std std-ref">virtual environment</span></a> is activated, any options
+that change the installation path will be ignored from all distutils configuration
+files to prevent inadvertently installing projects outside of the virtual
+environment.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="modifying-python-s-search-path">
+<span id="inst-search-path"></span><h3>Modifying Python’s Search Path<a class="headerlink" href="#modifying-python-s-search-path" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When the Python interpreter executes an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement, it searches
+for both Python code and extension modules along a search path.  A default value
+for the path is configured into the Python binary when the interpreter is built.
+You can determine the path by importing the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module and printing the
+value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>$ python
+Python 2.2 (#11, Oct  3 2002, 13:31:27)
+[GCC 2.96 20000731 (Red Hat Linux 7.3 2.96-112)] on linux2
+Type &quot;help&quot;, &quot;copyright&quot;, &quot;credits&quot; or &quot;license&quot; for more information.
+&gt;&gt;&gt; import sys
+&gt;&gt;&gt; sys.path
+[&#39;&#39;, &#39;/usr/local/lib/python2.3&#39;, &#39;/usr/local/lib/python2.3/plat-linux2&#39;,
+ &#39;/usr/local/lib/python2.3/lib-tk&#39;, &#39;/usr/local/lib/python2.3/lib-dynload&#39;,
+ &#39;/usr/local/lib/python2.3/site-packages&#39;]
+&gt;&gt;&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The null string in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> represents the current working directory.</p>
+<p>The expected convention for locally installed packages is to put them in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">…</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages/</span></code> directory, but you may want to install Python
+modules into some arbitrary directory.  For example, your site may have a
+convention of keeping all software related to the web server under <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/www</span></code>.
+Add-on Python modules might then belong in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/www/python</span></code>, and in order to
+import them, this directory must be added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.  There are several
+different ways to add the directory.</p>
+<p>The most convenient way is to add a path configuration file to a directory
+that’s already on Python’s path, usually to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.../site-packages/</span></code>
+directory.  Path configuration files have an extension of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pth</span></code>, and each
+line must contain a single path that will be appended to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.  (Because
+the new paths are appended to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, modules in the added directories
+will not override standard modules.  This means you can’t use this mechanism for
+installing fixed versions of standard modules.)</p>
+<p>Paths can be absolute or relative, in which case they’re relative to the
+directory containing the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pth</span></code> file.  See the documentation of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module for more information.</p>
+<p>A slightly less convenient way is to edit the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> file in Python’s
+standard library, and modify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> is automatically
+imported when the Python interpreter is executed, unless the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> switch
+is supplied to suppress this behaviour.  So you could simply edit
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> and add two lines to it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/www/python/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, if you reinstall the same major version of Python (perhaps when
+upgrading from 2.2 to 2.2.2, for example) <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> will be overwritten by
+the stock version.  You’d have to remember that it was modified and save a copy
+before doing the installation.</p>
+<p>There are two environment variables that can modify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> sets an alternate value for the prefix of the Python
+installation.  For example, if <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/www/python</span></code>,
+the search path will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['',</span> <span class="pre">'/www/python/lib/pythonX.Y/',</span>
+<span class="pre">'/www/python/lib/pythonX.Y/plat-linux2',</span> <span class="pre">...]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> variable can be set to a list of paths that will be
+added to the beginning of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.  For example, if <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> is
+set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/www/python:/opt/py</span></code>, the search path will begin with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['/www/python',</span> <span class="pre">'/opt/py']</span></code>.  (Note that directories must exist in order to
+be added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>; the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module removes paths that don’t
+exist.)</p>
+<p>Finally, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> is just a regular Python list, so any Python application
+can modify it by adding or removing entries.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distutils-configuration-files">
+<span id="inst-config-files"></span><h2>Distutils Configuration Files<a class="headerlink" href="#distutils-configuration-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As mentioned above, you can use Distutils configuration files to record personal
+or site preferences for any Distutils options.  That is, any option to any
+command can be stored in one of two or three (depending on your platform)
+configuration files, which will be consulted before the command-line is parsed.
+This means that configuration files will override default values, and the
+command-line will in turn override configuration files.  Furthermore, if
+multiple configuration files apply, values from “earlier” files are overridden
+by “later” files.</p>
+<div class="section" id="location-and-names-of-config-files">
+<span id="inst-config-filenames"></span><h3>Location and names of config files<a class="headerlink" href="#location-and-names-of-config-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The names and locations of the configuration files vary slightly across
+platforms.  On Unix and Mac OS X, the three configuration files (in the order
+they are processed) are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 73%" />
+<col style="width: 9%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Location and filename</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>system</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">ver</span></em><span class="pre">/distutils/distutils.cfg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>personal</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$HOME/.pydistutils.cfg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>local</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>And on Windows, the configuration files are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type of file</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Location and filename</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>system</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">\Lib\distutils\distutils.cfg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>personal</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%HOME%\pydistutils.cfg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>local</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>On all platforms, the “personal” file can be temporarily disabled by
+passing the <cite>–no-user-cfg</cite> option.</p>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Strictly speaking, the system-wide configuration file lives in the directory
+where the Distutils are installed; under Python 1.6 and later on Unix, this is
+as shown. For Python 1.5.2, the Distutils will normally be installed to
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python1.5/site-packages/distutils</span></code>, so the system
+configuration file should be put there under Python 1.5.2.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Unix, if the <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOME</span></code> environment variable is not defined, the user’s
+home directory will be determined with the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpwuid()</span></code> function from the
+standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pwd.html#module-pwd" title="pwd: The password database (getpwnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code></a> module. This is done by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a>
+function used by Distutils.</p></li>
+<li><p>I.e., in the current directory (usually the location of the setup script).</p></li>
+<li><p>(See also note (1).)  Under Python 1.6 and later, Python’s default “installation
+prefix” is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Python</span></code>, so the system configuration file is normally
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Python\Lib\distutils\distutils.cfg</span></code>. Under Python 1.5.2, the
+default prefix was <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Program</span> <span class="pre">Files\Python</span></code>, and the Distutils were not
+part of the standard library—so the system configuration file would be
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Program</span> <span class="pre">Files\Python\distutils\distutils.cfg</span></code> in a standard Python
+1.5.2 installation under Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Windows, if the <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOME</span></code> environment variable is not defined,
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USERPROFILE</span></code> then <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOMEDRIVE</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOMEPATH</span></code> will
+be tried. This is done by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a> function used
+by Distutils.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="syntax-of-config-files">
+<span id="inst-config-syntax"></span><h3>Syntax of config files<a class="headerlink" href="#syntax-of-config-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Distutils configuration files all have the same syntax.  The config files
+are grouped into sections.  There is one section for each Distutils command,
+plus a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> section for global options that affect every command.  Each
+section consists of one option per line, specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option=value</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example, the following is a complete config file that just forces all
+commands to run quietly by default:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[global]</span>
+<span class="na">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If this is installed as the system config file, it will affect all processing of
+any Python module distribution by any user on the current system.  If it is
+installed as your personal config file (on systems that support them), it will
+affect only module distributions processed by you.  And if it is used as the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code> for a particular module distribution, it affects only that
+distribution.</p>
+<p>You could override the default “build base” directory and make the
+<strong class="command">build*</strong> commands always forcibly rebuild all files with the
+following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[build]</span>
+<span class="na">build-base</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">blib</span>
+<span class="na">force</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which corresponds to the command-line arguments</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build --build-base=blib --force
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>except that including the <strong class="command">build</strong> command on the command-line means
+that command will be run.  Including a particular command in config files has no
+such implication; it only means that if the command is run, the options in the
+config file will apply.  (Or if other commands that derive values from it are
+run, they will use the values in the config file.)</p>
+<p>You can find out the complete list of options for any command using the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> option, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build --help
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and you can find out the complete list of global options by using
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> without a command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py --help
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also the “Reference” section of the “Distributing Python Modules” manual.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="building-extensions-tips-and-tricks">
+<span id="inst-building-ext"></span><h2>Building Extensions: Tips and Tricks<a class="headerlink" href="#building-extensions-tips-and-tricks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Whenever possible, the Distutils try to use the configuration information made
+available by the Python interpreter used to run the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script.
+For example, the same compiler and linker flags used to compile Python will also
+be used for compiling extensions.  Usually this will work well, but in
+complicated situations this might be inappropriate.  This section discusses how
+to override the usual Distutils behaviour.</p>
+<div class="section" id="tweaking-compiler-linker-flags">
+<span id="inst-tweak-flags"></span><h3>Tweaking compiler/linker flags<a class="headerlink" href="#tweaking-compiler-linker-flags" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Compiling a Python extension written in C or C++ will sometimes require
+specifying custom flags for the compiler and linker in order to use a particular
+library or produce a special kind of object code. This is especially true if the
+extension hasn’t been tested on your platform, or if you’re trying to
+cross-compile Python.</p>
+<p>In the most general case, the extension author might have foreseen that
+compiling the extensions would be complicated, and provided a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setup</span></code> file
+for you to edit.  This will likely only be done if the module distribution
+contains many separate extension modules, or if they often require elaborate
+sets of compiler flags in order to work.</p>
+<p>A <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setup</span></code> file, if present, is parsed in order to get a list of extensions
+to build.  Each line in a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setup</span></code> describes a single module.  Lines have
+the following structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>module ... [sourcefile ...] [cpparg ...] [library ...]
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Let’s examine each of the fields in turn.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>module</em> is the name of the extension module to be built, and should be a
+valid Python identifier.  You can’t just change this in order to rename a module
+(edits to the source code would also be needed), so this should be left alone.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>sourcefile</em> is anything that’s likely to be a source code file, at least
+judging by the filename.  Filenames ending in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.c</span></code> are assumed to be
+written in C, filenames ending in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.C</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.cc</span></code>, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.c++</span></code> are
+assumed to be C++, and filenames ending in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.m</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mm</span></code> are assumed
+to be in Objective C.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>cpparg</em> is an argument for the C preprocessor,  and is anything starting with
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-D</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-U</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-C</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>library</em> is anything ending in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.a</span></code> or beginning with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code> or
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-L</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If a particular platform requires a special library on your platform, you can
+add it by editing the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setup</span></code> file and running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">build</span></code>.
+For example, if the module defined by the line</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>foo foomodule.c
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>must be linked with the math library <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libm.a</span></code> on your platform, simply add
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-lm</span></code> to the line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>foo foomodule.c -lm
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Arbitrary switches intended for the compiler or the linker can be supplied with
+the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Xcompiler</span></code> <em>arg</em> and <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Xlinker</span></code> <em>arg</em> options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>foo foomodule.c -Xcompiler -o32 -Xlinker -shared -lm
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The next option after <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Xcompiler</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Xlinker</span></code> will be
+appended to the proper command line, so in the above example the compiler will
+be passed the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o32</span></code> option, and the linker will be passed
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-shared</span></code>.  If a compiler option requires an argument, you’ll have to
+supply multiple <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Xcompiler</span></code> options; for example, to pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-x</span> <span class="pre">c++</span></code>
+the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setup</span></code> file would have to contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Xcompiler</span> <span class="pre">-x</span> <span class="pre">-Xcompiler</span> <span class="pre">c++</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Compiler flags can also be supplied through setting the <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS</span></code>
+environment variable.  If set, the contents of <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS</span></code> will be added to
+the compiler flags specified in the  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setup</span></code> file.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-non-microsoft-compilers-on-windows">
+<span id="inst-non-ms-compilers"></span><h3>Using non-Microsoft compilers on Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#using-non-microsoft-compilers-on-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="borland-codegear-c">
+<h4>Borland/CodeGear C++<a class="headerlink" href="#borland-codegear-c" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>This subsection describes the necessary steps to use Distutils with the Borland
+C++ compiler version 5.5.  First you have to know that Borland’s object file
+format (OMF) is different from the format used by the Python version you can
+download from the Python or ActiveState Web site.  (Python is built with
+Microsoft Visual C++, which uses COFF as the object file format.) For this
+reason you have to convert Python’s library <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python25.lib</span></code> into the
+Borland format.  You can do this as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>coff2omf python25.lib python25_bcpp.lib
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coff2omf</span></code> program comes with the Borland compiler.  The file
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python25.lib</span></code> is in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Libs</span></code> directory of your Python
+installation.  If your extension uses other libraries (zlib, …) you have to
+convert them too.</p>
+<p>The converted files have to reside in the same directories as the normal
+libraries.</p>
+<p>How does Distutils manage to use these libraries with their changed names?  If
+the extension needs a library (eg. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>) Distutils checks first if it
+finds a library with suffix <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_bcpp</span></code> (eg. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo_bcpp.lib</span></code>) and then
+uses this library.  In the case it doesn’t find such a special library it uses
+the default name (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.lib</span></code>.) <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id4" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p>To let Distutils compile your extension with Borland C++ you now have to type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build --compiler=bcpp
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to use the Borland C++ compiler as the default, you could specify
+this in your personal or system-wide configuration file for Distutils (see
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-config-files"><span class="std std-ref">Distutils Configuration Files</span></a>.)</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.embarcadero.com/products">C++Builder Compiler</a></dt><dd><p>Information about the free C++ compiler from Borland, including links to the
+download pages.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.cyberus.ca/~g_will/pyExtenDL.shtml">Creating Python Extensions Using Borland’s Free Compiler</a></dt><dd><p>Document describing how to use Borland’s free command-line C++ compiler to build
+Python.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gnu-c-cygwin-mingw">
+<h4>GNU C / Cygwin / MinGW<a class="headerlink" href="#gnu-c-cygwin-mingw" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>This section describes the necessary steps to use Distutils with the GNU C/C++
+compilers in their Cygwin and MinGW distributions. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id2">2</a> For a Python interpreter
+that was built with Cygwin, everything should work without any of these
+following steps.</p>
+<p>Not all extensions can be built with MinGW or Cygwin, but many can.  Extensions
+most likely to not work are those that use C++ or depend on Microsoft Visual C
+extensions.</p>
+<p>To let Distutils compile your extension with Cygwin you have to type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build --compiler=cygwin
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and for Cygwin in no-cygwin mode <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id6" id="id3">3</a> or for MinGW type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python setup.py build --compiler=mingw32
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to use any of these options/compilers as default, you should
+consider writing it in your personal or system-wide configuration file for
+Distutils (see section <a class="reference internal" href="#inst-config-files"><span class="std std-ref">Distutils Configuration Files</span></a>.)</p>
+<div class="section" id="older-versions-of-python-and-mingw">
+<h5>Older Versions of Python and MinGW<a class="headerlink" href="#older-versions-of-python-and-mingw" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h5>
+<p>The following instructions only apply if you’re using a version of Python
+inferior to 2.4.1 with a MinGW inferior to 3.0.0 (with
+binutils-2.13.90-20030111-1).</p>
+<p>These compilers require some special libraries.  This task is more complex than
+for Borland’s C++, because there is no program to convert the library.  First
+you have to create a list of symbols which the Python DLL exports. (You can find
+a good program for this task at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://sourceforge.net/projects/mingw/files/MinGW/Extension/pexports/">https://sourceforge.net/projects/mingw/files/MinGW/Extension/pexports/</a>).</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>pexports python25.dll &gt;python25.def
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The location of an installed <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python25.dll</span></code> will depend on the
+installation options and the version and language of Windows.  In a “just for
+me” installation, it will appear in the root of the installation directory.  In
+a shared installation, it will be located in the system directory.</p>
+<p>Then you can create from these information an import library for gcc.</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/cygwin/bin/dlltool --dllname python25.dll --def python25.def --output-lib libpython25.a
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The resulting library has to be placed in the same directory as
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python25.lib</span></code>. (Should be the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libs</span></code> directory under your Python
+installation directory.)</p>
+<p>If your extension uses other libraries (zlib,…) you might  have to convert
+them too. The converted files have to reside in the same directories as the
+normal libraries do.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://old.zope.org/Members/als/tips/win32_mingw_modules">Building Python modules on MS Windows platform with MinGW</a></dt><dd><p>Information about building the required libraries for the MinGW environment.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id4"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This also means you could replace all existing COFF-libraries with OMF-libraries
+of the same name.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id5"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Check <a class="reference external" href="https://www.sourceware.org/cygwin/">https://www.sourceware.org/cygwin/</a> and <a class="reference external" href="http://www.mingw.org/">http://www.mingw.org/</a> for more
+information</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id6"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Then you have no POSIX emulation available, but you also don’t need
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cygwin1.dll</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#best-case-trivial-installation">Best case: trivial installation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-new-standard-distutils">The new standard: Distutils</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-build-and-install">Standard Build and Install</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#platform-variations">Platform variations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#splitting-the-job-up">Splitting the job up</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-building-works">How building works</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-installation-works">How installation works</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternate-installation">Alternate Installation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternate-installation-the-user-scheme">Alternate installation: the user scheme</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternate-installation-the-home-scheme">Alternate installation: the home scheme</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternate-installation-unix-the-prefix-scheme">Alternate installation: Unix (the prefix scheme)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternate-installation-windows-the-prefix-scheme">Alternate installation: Windows (the prefix scheme)</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#custom-installation">Custom Installation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modifying-python-s-search-path">Modifying Python’s Search Path</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils-configuration-files">Distutils Configuration Files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#location-and-names-of-config-files">Location and names of config files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#syntax-of-config-files">Syntax of config files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#building-extensions-tips-and-tricks">Building Extensions: Tips and Tricks</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tweaking-compiler-linker-flags">Tweaking compiler/linker flags</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-non-microsoft-compilers-on-windows">Using non-Microsoft compilers on Windows</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#borland-codegear-c">Borland/CodeGear C++</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gnu-c-cygwin-mingw">GNU C / Cygwin / MinGW</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#older-versions-of-python-and-mingw">Older Versions of Python and MinGW</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../distutils/apiref.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">9. API Reference</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="installing-python-modules">
+<span id="installing-index"></span><h1>Installing Python Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-python-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Email</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><a class="reference external" href="mailto:distutils-sig&#37;&#52;&#48;python&#46;org">distutils-sig<span>&#64;</span>python<span>&#46;</span>org</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>As a popular open source development project, Python has an active
+supporting community of contributors and users that also make their software
+available for other Python developers to use under open source license terms.</p>
+<p>This allows Python users to share and collaborate effectively, benefiting
+from the solutions others have already created to common (and sometimes
+even rare!) problems, as well as potentially contributing their own
+solutions to the common pool.</p>
+<p>This guide covers the installation part of the process. For a guide to
+creating and sharing your own Python projects, refer to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../distributing/index.html#distributing-index"><span class="std std-ref">distribution guide</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For corporate and other institutional users, be aware that many
+organisations have their own policies around using and contributing to
+open source software. Please take such policies into account when making
+use of the distribution and installation tools provided with Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="key-terms">
+<h2>Key terms<a class="headerlink" href="#key-terms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is the preferred installer program. Starting with Python 3.4, it
+is included by default with the Python binary installers.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <em>virtual environment</em> is a semi-isolated Python environment that allows
+packages to be installed for use by a particular application, rather than
+being installed system wide.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> is the standard tool for creating virtual environments, and has
+been part of Python since Python 3.3. Starting with Python 3.4, it
+defaults to installing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> into all created virtual environments.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">virtualenv</span></code> is a third party alternative (and predecessor) to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code>. It allows virtual environments to be used on versions of
+Python prior to 3.4, which either don’t provide <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> at all, or
+aren’t able to automatically install <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> into created environments.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">Python Packaging Index</a> is a public
+repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by
+other Python users.</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.pypa.io/">Python Packaging Authority</a> is the group of
+developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and
+evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
+file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation,
+and issue trackers on both <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/pypa">GitHub</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bitbucket.org/pypa/">BitBucket</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code> is the original build and distribution system first added to
+the Python standard library in 1998. While direct use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code> is
+being phased out, it still laid the foundation for the current packaging
+and distribution infrastructure, and it not only remains part of the
+standard library, but its name lives on in other ways (such as the name
+of the mailing list used to coordinate Python packaging standards
+development).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> was the recommended tool for creating virtual environments for
+Python 3.3 and 3.4, and is <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/dev/whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated-features">deprecated in Python 3.6</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> is now recommended for creating virtual environments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments">Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="basic-usage">
+<h2>Basic usage<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The standard packaging tools are all designed to be used from the command
+line.</p>
+<p>The following command will install the latest version of a module and its
+dependencies from the Python Packaging Index:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python -m pip install SomePackage
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For POSIX users (including Mac OS X and Linux users), the examples in
+this guide assume the use of a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-virtual-environment"><span class="xref std std-term">virtual environment</span></a>.</p>
+<p>For Windows users, the examples in this guide assume that the option to
+adjust the system PATH environment variable was selected when installing
+Python.</p>
+</div>
+<p>It’s also possible to specify an exact or minimum version directly on the
+command line. When using comparator operators such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> or some other
+special character which get interpreted by shell, the package name and the
+version should be enclosed within double quotes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # specific version
+python -m pip install &quot;SomePackage&gt;=1.0.4&quot;  # minimum version
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Normally, if a suitable module is already installed, attempting to install
+it again will have no effect. Upgrading existing modules must be requested
+explicitly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>More information and resources regarding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> and its capabilities can be
+found in the <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org">Python Packaging User Guide</a>.</p>
+<p>Creation of virtual environments is done through the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> module.
+Installing packages into an active virtual environment uses the commands shown
+above.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/installing/">Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Python Distribution Packages</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-do-i">
+<h2>How do I …?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-do-i" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These are quick answers or links for some common tasks.</p>
+<div class="section" id="install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-4">
+<h3>… install <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?<a class="headerlink" href="#install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python only started bundling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> with Python 3.4. For earlier versions,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> needs to be “bootstrapped” as described in the Python Packaging
+User Guide.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages">Python Packaging User Guide: Requirements for Installing Packages</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="install-packages-just-for-the-current-user">
+<h3>… install packages just for the current user?<a class="headerlink" href="#install-packages-just-for-the-current-user" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Passing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--user</span></code> option to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> will install a
+package just for the current user, rather than for all users of the system.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="install-scientific-python-packages">
+<h3>… install scientific Python packages?<a class="headerlink" href="#install-scientific-python-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A number of scientific Python packages have complex binary dependencies, and
+aren’t currently easy to install using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> directly. At this point in
+time, it will often be easier for users to install these packages by
+<a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/science/">other means</a>
+rather than attempting to install them with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/science/">Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Scientific Packages</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel">
+<h3>… work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?<a class="headerlink" href="#work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On Linux, Mac OS X, and other POSIX systems, use the versioned Python commands
+in combination with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> switch to run the appropriate copy of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
+python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
+python3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
+python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Appropriately versioned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> commands may also be available.</p>
+<p>On Windows, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> Python launcher in combination with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code>
+switch:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>py -2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
+py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
+py -3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
+py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="common-installation-issues">
+<h2>Common installation issues<a class="headerlink" href="#common-installation-issues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux">
+<h3>Installing into the system Python on Linux<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On Linux systems, a Python installation will typically be included as part
+of the distribution. Installing into this Python installation requires
+root access to the system, and may interfere with the operation of the
+system package manager and other components of the system if a component
+is unexpectedly upgraded using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>.</p>
+<p>On such systems, it is often better to use a virtual environment or a
+per-user installation when installing packages with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pip-not-installed">
+<h3>Pip not installed<a class="headerlink" href="#pip-not-installed" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is possible that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> does not get installed by default. One potential fix is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python -m ensurepip --default-pip
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are also additional resources for <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/installing-packages/#install-pip-setuptools-and-wheel">installing pip.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-binary-extensions">
+<h3>Installing binary extensions<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-binary-extensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python has typically relied heavily on source based distribution, with end
+users being expected to compile extension modules from source as part of
+the installation process.</p>
+<p>With the introduction of support for the binary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wheel</span></code> format, and the
+ability to publish wheels for at least Windows and Mac OS X through the
+Python Packaging Index, this problem is expected to diminish over time,
+as users are more regularly able to install pre-built extensions rather
+than needing to build them themselves.</p>
+<p>Some of the solutions for installing <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/science/">scientific software</a>
+that are not yet available as pre-built <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wheel</span></code> files may also help with
+obtaining other binary extensions without needing to build them locally.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/extensions/">Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Installing Python Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#key-terms">Key terms</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-usage">Basic usage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-do-i">How do I …?</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-4">… install <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#install-packages-just-for-the-current-user">… install packages just for the current user?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#install-scientific-python-packages">… install scientific Python packages?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel">… work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-installation-issues">Common installation issues</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux">Installing into the system Python on Linux</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pip-not-installed">Pip not installed</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-binary-extensions">Installing binary extensions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../distributing/index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Distributing Python Modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/2to3.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/2to3.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,762 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="to3-automated-python-2-to-3-code-translation">
+<span id="to3-reference"></span><h1>2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation<a class="headerlink" href="#to3-automated-python-2-to-3-code-translation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>2to3 is a Python program that reads Python 2.x source code and applies a series
+of <em>fixers</em> to transform it into valid Python 3.x code.  The standard library
+contains a rich set of fixers that will handle almost all code.  2to3 supporting
+library <a class="reference internal" href="#module-lib2to3" title="lib2to3: the 2to3 library"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></code></a> is, however, a flexible and generic library, so it is
+possible to write your own fixers for 2to3.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-lib2to3" title="lib2to3: the 2to3 library"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></code></a> could also be
+adapted to custom applications in which Python code needs to be edited
+automatically.</p>
+<div class="section" id="using-2to3">
+<span id="to3-using"></span><h2>Using 2to3<a class="headerlink" href="#using-2to3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>2to3 will usually be installed with the Python interpreter as a script.  It is
+also located in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts</span></code> directory of the Python root.</p>
+<p>2to3’s basic arguments are a list of files or directories to transform.  The
+directories are recursively traversed for Python sources.</p>
+<p>Here is a sample Python 2.x source file, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.py</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">greet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello, </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s2">!&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s2">&quot;What&#39;s your name?&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">raw_input</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">greet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It can be converted to Python 3.x code via 2to3 on the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> 2to3 example.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A diff against the original source file is printed.  2to3 can also write the
+needed modifications right back to the source file.  (A backup of the original
+file is made unless <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> is also given.)  Writing the changes back is
+enabled with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-w</span></code> flag:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> 2to3 -w example.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After transformation, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.py</span></code> looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">greet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello, </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s2">!&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;What&#39;s your name?&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">greet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Comments and exact indentation are preserved throughout the translation process.</p>
+<p>By default, 2to3 runs a set of <a class="reference internal" href="#to3-fixers"><span class="std std-ref">predefined fixers</span></a>.  The
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code> flag lists all available fixers.  An explicit set of fixers to run
+can be given with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code>.  Likewise the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-x</span></code> explicitly disables a
+fixer.  The following example runs only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imports</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">has_key</span></code> fixers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> 2to3 -f imports -f has_key example.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This command runs every fixer except the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply</span></code> fixer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> 2to3 -x apply example.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Some fixers are <em>explicit</em>, meaning they aren’t run by default and must be
+listed on the command line to be run.  Here, in addition to the default fixers,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idioms</span></code> fixer is run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> 2to3 -f all -f idioms example.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice how passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all</span></code> enables all default fixers.</p>
+<p>Sometimes 2to3 will find a place in your source code that needs to be changed,
+but 2to3 cannot fix automatically.  In this case, 2to3 will print a warning
+beneath the diff for a file.  You should address the warning in order to have
+compliant 3.x code.</p>
+<p>2to3 can also refactor doctests.  To enable this mode, use the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-d</span></code>
+flag.  Note that <em>only</em> doctests will be refactored.  This also doesn’t require
+the module to be valid Python.  For example, doctest like examples in a reST
+document could also be refactored with this option.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> option enables output of more information on the translation
+process.</p>
+<p>Since some print statements can be parsed as function calls or statements, 2to3
+cannot always read files containing the print function.  When 2to3 detects the
+presence of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">print_function</span></code> compiler directive, it
+modifies its internal grammar to interpret <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> as a function.  This
+change can also be enabled manually with the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-p</span></code> flag.  Use
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-p</span></code> to run fixers on code that already has had its print statements
+converted.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--output-dir</span></code> option allows specification of an
+alternate directory for processed output files to be written to.  The
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> flag is required when using this as backup files do not make sense
+when not overwriting the input files.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.3: </span>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> option was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--write-unchanged-files</span></code> flag tells 2to3 to always
+write output files even if no changes were required to the file.  This is most
+useful with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> so that an entire Python source tree is copied with
+translation from one directory to another.
+This option implies the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-w</span></code> flag as it would not make sense otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.3: </span>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code> flag was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--add-suffix</span></code> option specifies a string to append to all output
+filenames.  The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> flag is required when specifying this as backups
+are not necessary when writing to different filenames.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> 2to3 -n -W --add-suffix<span class="o">=</span><span class="m">3</span> example.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Will cause a converted file named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.py3</span></code> to be written.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.3: </span>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--add-suffix</span></code> option was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>To translate an entire project from one directory tree to another use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> 2to3 --output-dir<span class="o">=</span>python3-version/mycode -W -n python2-version/mycode
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fixers">
+<span id="to3-fixers"></span><h2>Fixers<a class="headerlink" href="#fixers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Each step of transforming code is encapsulated in a fixer.  The command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2to3</span>
+<span class="pre">-l</span></code> lists them.  As <a class="reference internal" href="#to3-using"><span class="std std-ref">documented above</span></a>, each can be turned on
+and off individually.  They are described here in more detail.</p>
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-apply">
+<code class="descname">apply</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-apply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes usage of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply()</span></code>.  For example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply(function,</span> <span class="pre">*args,</span>
+<span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code> is converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-asserts">
+<code class="descname">asserts</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-asserts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replaces deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> method names with the correct ones.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>From</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>To</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failUnlessEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEquals(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failIfEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEquals(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failUnless(a)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue(a)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_(a)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue(a)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failIf(a)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse" title="unittest.TestCase.assertFalse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertFalse(a)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failUnlessRaises(exc,</span> <span class="pre">cal)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises(exc,</span> <span class="pre">cal)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failUnlessAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEquals(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failIfAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEquals(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-basestring">
+<code class="descname">basestring</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-basestring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basestring</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-buffer">
+<code class="descname">buffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a>.  This fixer is optional
+because the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> API is similar but not exactly the same as
+that of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-dict">
+<code class="descname">dict</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-dict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fixes dictionary iteration methods.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.iteritems()</span></code> is converted to
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.items()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.iterkeys()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.keys()</span></code></a>, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.itervalues()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.values()</span></code></a>.  Similarly,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.viewitems()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.viewkeys()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.viewvalues()</span></code> are
+converted respectively to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.items()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.keys()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.values()</span></code></a>.  It also wraps existing usages of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.items()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.keys()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.values()</span></code></a> in a call to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-except">
+<code class="descname">except</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-except" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">X,</span> <span class="pre">T</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">X</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">T</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-exec">
+<code class="descname">exec</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-exec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> statement to the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-execfile">
+<code class="descname">execfile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-execfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes usage of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execfile()</span></code>.  The argument to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execfile()</span></code> is
+wrapped in calls to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-exitfunc">
+<code class="descname">exitfunc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-exitfunc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Changes assignment of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exitfunc</span></code> to use of the <a class="reference internal" href="atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-filter">
+<code class="descname">filter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> usage in a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-funcattrs">
+<code class="descname">funcattrs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-funcattrs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fixes function attributes that have been renamed.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">my_function.func_closure</span></code> is converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">my_function.__closure__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-future">
+<code class="descname">future</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-future" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">new_feature</span></code> statements.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-getcwdu">
+<code class="descname">getcwdu</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-getcwdu" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Renames <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwdu()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.getcwd" title="os.getcwd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwd()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-has_key">
+<code class="descname">has_key</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-has_key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Changes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.has_key(key)</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">dict</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-idioms">
+<code class="descname">idioms</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-idioms" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This optional fixer performs several transformations that make Python code
+more idiomatic.  Type comparisons like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(x)</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(x)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> are converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">SomeClass)</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> becomes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span> <span class="pre">True</span></code>.  This fixer also tries to make use of
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> in appropriate places.  For example, this block</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is changed to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-import">
+<code class="descname">import</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-import" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Detects sibling imports and converts them to relative imports.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-imports">
+<code class="descname">imports</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-imports" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles module renames in the standard library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-imports2">
+<code class="descname">imports2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-imports2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles other modules renames in the standard library.  It is separate from
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#2to3fixer-imports"><code class="xref std std-2to3fixer docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imports</span></code></a> fixer only because of technical limitations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-input">
+<code class="descname">input</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input(prompt)</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval(input(prompt))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-intern">
+<code class="descname">intern</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-intern" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intern()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.intern" title="sys.intern"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.intern()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-isinstance">
+<code class="descname">isinstance</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-isinstance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fixes duplicate types in the second argument of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a>.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">(int,</span> <span class="pre">int))</span></code> is converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span>
+<span class="pre">int)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">(int,</span> <span class="pre">float,</span> <span class="pre">int))</span></code> is converted to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">(int,</span> <span class="pre">float))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-itertools_imports">
+<code class="descname">itertools_imports</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-itertools_imports" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes imports of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.ifilter()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.izip()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.imap()</span></code>.  Imports of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.ifilterfalse()</span></code> are also
+changed to <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.filterfalse" title="itertools.filterfalse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.filterfalse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-itertools">
+<code class="descname">itertools</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-itertools" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Changes usage of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.ifilter()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.izip()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.imap()</span></code> to their built-in equivalents.
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.ifilterfalse()</span></code> is changed to <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.filterfalse" title="itertools.filterfalse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.filterfalse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-long">
+<code class="descname">long</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-long" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Renames <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-map">
+<code class="descname">map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> in a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> call.  It also changes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(None,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code>
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(x)</span></code>.  Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">future_builtins</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">map</span></code> disables this
+fixer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-metaclass">
+<code class="descname">metaclass</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-metaclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the old metaclass syntax (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__metaclass__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">Meta</span></code> in the class
+body) to the new (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span> <span class="pre">X(metaclass=Meta)</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-methodattrs">
+<code class="descname">methodattrs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-methodattrs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fixes old method attribute names.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meth.im_func</span></code> is converted
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meth.__func__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-ne">
+<code class="descname">ne</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-ne" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the old not-equal syntax, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&gt;</span></code>, to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-next">
+<code class="descname">next</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the use of iterator’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code> methods to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> function.  It also renames <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> methods to
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-nonzero">
+<code class="descname">nonzero</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-nonzero" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Renames <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__nonzero__()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-numliterals">
+<code class="descname">numliterals</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-numliterals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts octal literals into the new syntax.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-operator">
+<code class="descname">operator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-operator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts calls to various functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module to other,
+but equivalent, function calls.  When needed, the appropriate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code>
+statements are added, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code>.  The following mapping
+are made:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>From</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>To</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.isCallable(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.sequenceIncludes(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.contains(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.isSequenceType(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">collections.abc.Sequence)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.isMappingType(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">collections.abc.Mapping)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.isNumberType(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">numbers.Number)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.repeat(obj,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.mul(obj,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.irepeat(obj,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.imul(obj,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-paren">
+<code class="descname">paren</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-paren" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add extra parenthesis where they are required in list comprehensions.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">2]</span></code> becomes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2)]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-print">
+<code class="descname">print</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement to the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-raise">
+<code class="descname">raise</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-raise" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">E,</span> <span class="pre">V</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">E(V)</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">E,</span> <span class="pre">V,</span> <span class="pre">T</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span>
+<span class="pre">E(V).with_traceback(T)</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">E</span></code> is a tuple, the translation will be
+incorrect because substituting tuples for exceptions has been removed in 3.0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-raw_input">
+<code class="descname">raw_input</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-raw_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw_input()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-reduce">
+<code class="descname">reduce</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-reduce" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles the move of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reduce()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-reload">
+<code class="descname">reload</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-reload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-renames">
+<code class="descname">renames</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-renames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Changes <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxint</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-repr">
+<code class="descname">repr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replaces backtick repr with the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-set_literal">
+<code class="descname">set_literal</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-set_literal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replaces use of the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> constructor with set literals.  This fixer
+is optional.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-standarderror">
+<code class="descname">standarderror</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-standarderror" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Renames <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StandardError</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-sys_exc">
+<code class="descname">sys_exc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-sys_exc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Changes the deprecated <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_value</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_type</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_traceback</span></code> to use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-throw">
+<code class="descname">throw</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-throw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fixes the API change in generator’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-tuple_params">
+<code class="descname">tuple_params</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-tuple_params" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes implicit tuple parameter unpacking.  This fixer inserts temporary
+variables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-types">
+<code class="descname">types</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-types" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fixes code broken from the removal of some members in the <a class="reference internal" href="types.html#module-types" title="types: Names for built-in types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-unicode">
+<code class="descname">unicode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-unicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Renames <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-urllib">
+<code class="descname">urllib</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-urllib" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles the rename of <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib2</span></code> to the <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a>
+package.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-ws_comma">
+<code class="descname">ws_comma</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-ws_comma" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes excess whitespace from comma separated items.  This fixer is
+optional.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-xrange">
+<code class="descname">xrange</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-xrange" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Renames <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xrange()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> and wraps existing <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a>
+calls with <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-xreadlines">
+<code class="descname">xreadlines</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-xreadlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Changes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">file.xreadlines()</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">file</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="2to3fixer">
+<dt id="2to3fixer-zip">
+<code class="descname">zip</code><a class="headerlink" href="#2to3fixer-zip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> usage in a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> call.  This is disabled when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">future_builtins</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">zip</span></code> appears.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-lib2to3">
+<span id="lib2to3-2to3-s-library"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-lib2to3" title="lib2to3: the 2to3 library"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></code></a> - 2to3’s library<a class="headerlink" href="#module-lib2to3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/lib2to3/">Lib/lib2to3/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-lib2to3" title="lib2to3: the 2to3 library"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></code></a> API should be considered unstable and may change
+drastically in the future.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-2to3">Using 2to3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fixers">Fixers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-lib2to3"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></code> - 2to3’s library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unittest.mock-examples.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code> — getting started</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="test.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> — Regression tests package for Python</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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+  <div class="section" id="module-__future__">
+<span id="future-future-statement-definitions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> — Future statement definitions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-__future__" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/__future__.py">Lib/__future__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> is a real module, and serves three purposes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>To avoid confusing existing tools that analyze import statements and expect to
+find the modules they’re importing.</p></li>
+<li><p>To ensure that <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#future"><span class="std std-ref">future statements</span></a> run under releases prior to
+2.1 at least yield runtime exceptions (the import of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> will
+fail, because there was no module of that name prior to 2.1).</p></li>
+<li><p>To document when incompatible changes were introduced, and when they will be
+— or were — made mandatory.  This is a form of executable documentation, and
+can be inspected programmatically via importing <a class="reference internal" href="#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> and examining
+its contents.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Each statement in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__.py</span></code> is of the form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">FeatureName</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_Feature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OptionalRelease</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MandatoryRelease</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                       <span class="n">CompilerFlag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where, normally, <em>OptionalRelease</em> is less than <em>MandatoryRelease</em>, and both are
+5-tuples of the same form as <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PY_MAJOR_VERSION</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int</span>
+ <span class="n">PY_MINOR_VERSION</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># the 1; an int</span>
+ <span class="n">PY_MICRO_VERSION</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># the 0; an int</span>
+ <span class="n">PY_RELEASE_LEVEL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># &quot;alpha&quot;, &quot;beta&quot;, &quot;candidate&quot; or &quot;final&quot;; string</span>
+ <span class="n">PY_RELEASE_SERIAL</span> <span class="c1"># the 3; an int</span>
+<span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>OptionalRelease</em> records the first release in which the feature was accepted.</p>
+<p>In the case of a <em>MandatoryRelease</em> that has not yet occurred,
+<em>MandatoryRelease</em> predicts the release in which the feature will become part of
+the language.</p>
+<p>Else <em>MandatoryRelease</em> records when the feature became part of the language; in
+releases at or after that, modules no longer need a future statement to use the
+feature in question, but may continue to use such imports.</p>
+<p><em>MandatoryRelease</em> may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, meaning that a planned feature got
+dropped.</p>
+<p>Instances of class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Feature</span></code> have two corresponding methods,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getOptionalRelease()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getMandatoryRelease()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>CompilerFlag</em> is the (bitfield) flag that should be passed in the fourth
+argument to the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> to enable the feature in
+dynamically compiled code.  This flag is stored in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compiler_flag</span></code>
+attribute on <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Feature</span></code> instances.</p>
+<p>No feature description will ever be deleted from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a>. Since its
+introduction in Python 2.1 the following features have found their way into the
+language using this mechanism:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>feature</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>optional in</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>mandatory in</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>effect</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>nested_scopes</p></td>
+<td><p>2.1.0b1</p></td>
+<td><p>2.2</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0227"><strong>PEP 227</strong></a>:
+<em>Statically Nested Scopes</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>generators</p></td>
+<td><p>2.2.0a1</p></td>
+<td><p>2.3</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255"><strong>PEP 255</strong></a>:
+<em>Simple Generators</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>division</p></td>
+<td><p>2.2.0a2</p></td>
+<td><p>3.0</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238"><strong>PEP 238</strong></a>:
+<em>Changing the Division Operator</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>absolute_import</p></td>
+<td><p>2.5.0a1</p></td>
+<td><p>3.0</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a>:
+<em>Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>with_statement</p></td>
+<td><p>2.5.0a1</p></td>
+<td><p>2.6</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a>:
+<em>The “with” Statement</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>print_function</p></td>
+<td><p>2.6.0a2</p></td>
+<td><p>3.0</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3105"><strong>PEP 3105</strong></a>:
+<em>Make print a function</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>unicode_literals</p></td>
+<td><p>2.6.0a2</p></td>
+<td><p>3.0</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3112"><strong>PEP 3112</strong></a>:
+<em>Bytes literals in Python 3000</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>generator_stop</p></td>
+<td><p>3.5.0b1</p></td>
+<td><p>3.7</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479"><strong>PEP 479</strong></a>:
+<em>StopIteration handling inside generators</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>annotations</p></td>
+<td><p>3.7.0b1</p></td>
+<td><p>4.0</p></td>
+<td><p><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0563"><strong>PEP 563</strong></a>:
+<em>Postponed evaluation of annotations</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#future"><span class="std std-ref">Future statements</span></a></dt><dd><p>How the compiler treats future imports.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
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+        <li class="right" >
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-__main__">
+<span id="main-top-level-script-environment"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> — Top-level script environment<a class="headerlink" href="#module-__main__" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code> is the name of the scope in which top-level code executes.
+A module’s __name__ is set equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code> when read from
+standard input, a script, or from an interactive prompt.</p>
+<p>A module can discover whether or not it is running in the main scope by
+checking its own <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>, which allows a common idiom for conditionally
+executing code in a module when it is run as a script or with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span>
+<span class="pre">-m</span></code> but not when it is imported:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># execute only if run as a script</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a package, the same effect can be achieved by including a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> module, the contents of which will be executed when the
+module is run with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="builtins.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code> — Built-in objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="warnings.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code> — Warning control</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+      </li>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+             >previous</a> |</li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/_dummy_thread.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/_dummy_thread.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcfca47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/_dummy_thread.html
@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>_dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    <link rel="prev" title="_thread — Low-level threading API" href="_thread.html" />
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+    
+    
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
+
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="dummy_threading.html" title="dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="_thread.html" title="_thread — Low-level threading API"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concurrency.html" accesskey="U">Concurrent Execution</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-_dummy_thread">
+<span id="dummy-thread-drop-in-replacement-for-the-thread-module"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-_dummy_thread" title="_dummy_thread: Drop-in replacement for the _thread module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dummy_thread</span></code></a> — Drop-in replacement for the <a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> module<a class="headerlink" href="#module-_dummy_thread" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/_dummy_thread.py">Lib/_dummy_thread.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>Python now always has threading enabled.  Please use <a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a>
+(or, better, <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a>) instead.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a duplicate interface to the <a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> module.
+It was meant to be imported when the <a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> module was not provided
+on a platform.</p>
+<p>Be careful to not use this module where deadlock might occur from a thread being
+created that blocks waiting for another thread to be created.  This often occurs
+with blocking I/O.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="_thread.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code> — Low-level threading API</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="dummy_threading.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code> — Drop-in replacement for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> module</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+    <br />
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+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/_thread.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/_thread.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fbf1ee7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/_thread.html
@@ -0,0 +1,352 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>_thread — Low-level threading API &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="_dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module" href="_dummy_thread.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="queue — A synchronized queue class" href="queue.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
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+  
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="_dummy_thread.html" title="_dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+          <a href="queue.html" title="queue — A synchronized queue class"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concurrency.html" accesskey="U">Concurrent Execution</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-_thread">
+<span id="thread-low-level-threading-api"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> — Low-level threading API<a class="headerlink" href="#module-_thread" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides low-level primitives for working with multiple threads
+(also called <em class="dfn">light-weight processes</em> or <em class="dfn">tasks</em>) — multiple threads of
+control sharing their global data space.  For synchronization, simple locks
+(also called <em class="dfn">mutexes</em> or <em class="dfn">binary semaphores</em>) are provided.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module provides an easier to use and higher-level
+threading API built on top of this module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged" id="index-1">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>This module used to be optional, it is now always available.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This module defines the following constants and functions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="_thread.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised on thread-specific errors.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This is now a synonym of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="_thread.LockType">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">LockType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.LockType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the type of lock objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="_thread.start_new_thread">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">start_new_thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>kwargs</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.start_new_thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start a new thread and return its identifier.  The thread executes the function
+<em>function</em> with the argument list <em>args</em> (which must be a tuple).  The optional
+<em>kwargs</em> argument specifies a dictionary of keyword arguments. When the function
+returns, the thread silently exits.  When the function terminates with an
+unhandled exception, a stack trace is printed and then the thread exits (but
+other threads continue to run).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="_thread.interrupt_main">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">interrupt_main</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.interrupt_main" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Simulate the effect of a <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGINT</span></code> signal arriving in the main
+thread. A thread can use this function to interrupt the main thread.</p>
+<p>If <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGINT</span></code> isn’t handled by Python (it was set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.SIG_DFL" title="signal.SIG_DFL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_DFL</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.SIG_IGN" title="signal.SIG_IGN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_IGN</span></code></a>), this function does
+nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="_thread.exit">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> exception.  When not caught, this will cause the
+thread to exit silently.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="_thread.allocate_lock">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">allocate_lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.allocate_lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new lock object.  Methods of locks are described below.  The lock is
+initially unlocked.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="_thread.get_ident">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">get_ident</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.get_ident" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the ‘thread identifier’ of the current thread.  This is a nonzero
+integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended as a magic cookie to
+be used e.g. to index a dictionary of thread-specific data.  Thread identifiers
+may be recycled when a thread exits and another thread is created.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="_thread.stack_size">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">stack_size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.stack_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The optional
+<em>size</em> argument specifies the stack size to be used for subsequently created
+threads, and must be 0 (use platform or configured default) or a positive
+integer value of at least 32,768 (32 KiB). If <em>size</em> is not specified,
+0 is used.  If changing the thread stack size is
+unsupported, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.  If the specified stack size is
+invalid, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32 KiB
+is currently the minimum supported stack size value to guarantee sufficient
+stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note that some platforms may have
+particular restrictions on values for the stack size, such as requiring a
+minimum stack size &gt; 32 KiB or requiring allocation in multiples of the system
+memory page size - platform documentation should be referred to for more
+information (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size is
+the suggested approach in the absence of more specific information).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows, systems with POSIX threads.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="_thread.TIMEOUT_MAX">
+<code class="descclassname">_thread.</code><code class="descname">TIMEOUT_MAX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.TIMEOUT_MAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum value allowed for the <em>timeout</em> parameter of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock.acquire()</span></code>. Specifying a timeout greater than this value will
+raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Lock objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="_thread.lock.acquire">
+<code class="descclassname">lock.</code><code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>waitflag=1</em>, <em>timeout=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.lock.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Without any optional argument, this method acquires the lock unconditionally, if
+necessary waiting until it is released by another thread (only one thread at a
+time can acquire a lock — that’s their reason for existence).</p>
+<p>If the integer <em>waitflag</em> argument is present, the action depends on its
+value: if it is zero, the lock is only acquired if it can be acquired
+immediately without waiting, while if it is nonzero, the lock is acquired
+unconditionally as above.</p>
+<p>If the floating-point <em>timeout</em> argument is present and positive, it
+specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning.  A negative
+<em>timeout</em> argument specifies an unbounded wait.  You cannot specify
+a <em>timeout</em> if <em>waitflag</em> is zero.</p>
+<p>The return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the lock is acquired successfully,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if not.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>timeout</em> parameter is new.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Lock acquires can now be interrupted by signals on POSIX.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="_thread.lock.release">
+<code class="descclassname">lock.</code><code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.lock.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Releases the lock.  The lock must have been acquired earlier, but not
+necessarily by the same thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="_thread.lock.locked">
+<code class="descclassname">lock.</code><code class="descname">locked</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#_thread.lock.locked" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the status of the lock: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if it has been acquired by some thread,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if not.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to these methods, lock objects can also be used via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">_thread</span>
+
+<span class="n">a_lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">allocate_lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">a_lock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a_lock is locked while this executes&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Caveats:</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+<div></div></blockquote>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-2">
+<li><p>Threads interact strangely with interrupts: the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a>
+exception will be received by an arbitrary thread.  (When the <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a>
+module is available, interrupts always go to the main thread.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a> or raising the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> exception is
+equivalent to calling <a class="reference internal" href="#_thread.exit" title="_thread.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread.exit()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>It is not possible to interrupt the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code> method on a lock — the
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exception will happen after the lock has been acquired.</p></li>
+<li><p>When the main thread exits, it is system defined whether the other threads
+survive.  On most systems, they are killed without executing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> … <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clauses or executing object
+destructors.</p></li>
+<li><p>When the main thread exits, it does not do any of its usual cleanup (except
+that <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> … <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clauses are honored), and the
+standard I/O files are not flushed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="queue.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code> — A synchronized queue class</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="_dummy_thread.html"
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new file mode 100644
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-abc">
+<span id="abc-abstract-base-classes"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> — Abstract Base Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/abc.py">Lib/abc.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides the infrastructure for defining <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base
+classes</span></a> (ABCs) in Python, as outlined in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3119"><strong>PEP 3119</strong></a>;
+see the PEP for why this was added to Python. (See also <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3141"><strong>PEP 3141</strong></a> and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a> module regarding a type hierarchy for numbers based on ABCs.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module has some concrete classes that derive from
+ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived. In addition, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> submodule has some ABCs that can be used to test whether
+a class or instance provides a particular interface, for example, if it is
+hashable or if it is a mapping.</p>
+<p>This module provides the metaclass <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a> for defining ABCs and
+a helper class <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABC" title="abc.ABC"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code></a> to alternatively define ABCs through inheritance:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="abc.ABC">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">abc.</code><code class="descname">ABC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.ABC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A helper class that has <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a> as its metaclass.  With this class,
+an abstract base class can be created by simply deriving from <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABC" title="abc.ABC"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code></a>
+avoiding sometimes confusing metaclass usage, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">abc</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ABC</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyABC</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the type of <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABC" title="abc.ABC"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code></a> is still <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a>, therefore
+inheriting from <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABC" title="abc.ABC"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code></a> requires the usual precautions regarding
+metaclass usage, as multiple inheritance may lead to metaclass conflicts.
+One may also define an abstract base class by passing the metaclass
+keyword and using <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a> directly, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">abc</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ABCMeta</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyABC</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">metaclass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ABCMeta</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="abc.ABCMeta">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">abc.</code><code class="descname">ABCMeta</code><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Metaclass for defining Abstract Base Classes (ABCs).</p>
+<p>Use this metaclass to create an ABC.  An ABC can be subclassed directly, and
+then acts as a mix-in class.  You can also register unrelated concrete
+classes (even built-in classes) and unrelated ABCs as “virtual subclasses” –
+these and their descendants will be considered subclasses of the registering
+ABC by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> function, but the registering ABC
+won’t show up in their MRO (Method Resolution Order) nor will method
+implementations defined by the registering ABC be callable (not even via
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>). <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p>Classes created with a metaclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a> have the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="abc.ABCMeta.register">
+<code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>subclass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.ABCMeta.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register <em>subclass</em> as a “virtual subclass” of this ABC. For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">abc</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ABC</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyABC</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">MyABC</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">issubclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MyABC</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">((),</span> <span class="n">MyABC</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Returns the registered subclass, to allow usage as a class decorator.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>To detect calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta.register" title="abc.ABCMeta.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a>, you can use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#abc.get_cache_token" title="abc.get_cache_token"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_cache_token()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>You can also override this method in an abstract base class:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="abc.ABCMeta.__subclasshook__">
+<code class="descname">__subclasshook__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>subclass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.ABCMeta.__subclasshook__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(Must be defined as a class method.)</p>
+<p>Check whether <em>subclass</em> is considered a subclass of this ABC.  This means
+that you can customize the behavior of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass</span></code> further without the
+need to call <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta.register" title="abc.ABCMeta.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a> on every class you want to consider a
+subclass of the ABC.  (This class method is called from the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasscheck__()</span></code> method of the ABC.)</p>
+<p>This method should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>.  If
+it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the <em>subclass</em> is considered a subclass of this ABC.
+If it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the <em>subclass</em> is not considered a subclass of
+this ABC, even if it would normally be one.  If it returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>, the subclass check is continued with the usual
+mechanism.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>For a demonstration of these concepts, look at this example ABC definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">index</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__len__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_iterator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyIterable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_iterator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__iter__</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__subclasshook__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">cls</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">MyIterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;__iter__&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">B</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__mro__</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+
+<span class="n">MyIterable</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The ABC <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyIterable</span></code> defines the standard iterable method,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__iter__" title="iterator.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, as an abstract method.  The implementation given
+here can still be called from subclasses.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_iterator()</span></code> method
+is also part of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyIterable</span></code> abstract base class, but it does not have
+to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta.__subclasshook__" title="abc.ABCMeta.__subclasshook__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasshook__()</span></code></a> class method defined here says that any class
+that has an <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__iter__" title="iterator.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method in its
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> (or in that of one of its base classes, accessed
+via the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#class.__mro__" title="class.__mro__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro__</span></code></a> list) is considered a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyIterable</span></code> too.</p>
+<p>Finally, the last line makes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Foo</span></code> a virtual subclass of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyIterable</span></code>,
+even though it does not define an <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__iter__" title="iterator.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method (it uses
+the old-style iterable protocol, defined in terms of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>).  Note that this will not make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_iterator</span></code>
+available as a method of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Foo</span></code>, so it is provided separately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module also provides the following decorator:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="abc.abstractmethod">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">abc.</code><code class="descname">abstractmethod</code><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A decorator indicating abstract methods.</p>
+<p>Using this decorator requires that the class’s metaclass is <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a>
+or is derived from it.  A class that has a metaclass derived from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a> cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods
+and properties are overridden.  The abstract methods can be called using any
+of the normal ‘super’ call mechanisms.  <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a> may be used
+to declare abstract methods for properties and descriptors.</p>
+<p>Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to modify the
+abstraction status of a method or class once it is created, are not
+supported.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a> only affects subclasses derived using
+regular inheritance; “virtual subclasses” registered with the ABC’s
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code> method are not affected.</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a> is applied in combination with other method
+descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as shown in
+the following usage examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_classmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="nd">@staticmethod</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="nd">@my_abstract_property</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setter</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_get_x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_set_x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_get_x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_set_x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class machinery,
+the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__isabstractmethod__</span></code>. In general, this attribute should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>
+if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are abstract. For
+example, Python’s built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a> does the equivalent of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Descriptor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__isabstractmethod__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__isabstractmethod__&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span>
+                   <span class="n">f</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fget</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fset</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fdel</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unlike Java abstract methods, these abstract
+methods may have an implementation. This implementation can be
+called via the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> mechanism from the class that
+overrides it.  This could be useful as an end-point for a
+super-call in a framework that uses cooperative
+multiple-inheritance.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module also supports the following legacy decorators:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="abc.abstractclassmethod">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">abc.</code><code class="descname">abstractclassmethod</code><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.abstractclassmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>It is now possible to use <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod</span></code></a> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a>, making this decorator redundant.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A subclass of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a>, indicating an abstract
+classmethod. Otherwise it is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This special case is deprecated, as the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> decorator
+is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
+method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_classmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="abc.abstractstaticmethod">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">abc.</code><code class="descname">abstractstaticmethod</code><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.abstractstaticmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>It is now possible to use <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod</span></code></a> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a>, making this decorator redundant.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A subclass of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a>, indicating an abstract
+staticmethod. Otherwise it is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This special case is deprecated, as the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> decorator
+is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
+method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@staticmethod</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="abc.abstractproperty">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">abc.</code><code class="descname">abstractproperty</code><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.abstractproperty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>It is now possible to use <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property.getter()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property.setter()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property.deleter()</span></code> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code></a>, making this decorator redundant.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A subclass of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a>, indicating an abstract
+property.</p>
+<p>This special case is deprecated, as the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a> decorator
+is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
+method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_abstract_property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above example defines a read-only property; you can also define a
+read-write abstract property by appropriately marking one or more of the
+underlying methods as abstract:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ABC</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setter</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If only some components are abstract, only those components need to be
+updated to create a concrete property in a subclass:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setter</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module also provides the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="abc.get_cache_token">
+<code class="descclassname">abc.</code><code class="descname">get_cache_token</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#abc.get_cache_token" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current abstract base class cache token.</p>
+<p>The token is an opaque object (that supports equality testing) identifying
+the current version of the abstract base class cache for virtual subclasses.
+The token changes with every call to <a class="reference internal" href="#abc.ABCMeta.register" title="abc.ABCMeta.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta.register()</span></code></a> on any ABC.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>C++ programmers should note that Python’s virtual base class
+concept is not the same as C++’s.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="atexit.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> — Exit handlers</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/aifc.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/aifc.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e6cdeb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/aifc.html
@@ -0,0 +1,426 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-aifc">
+<span id="aifc-read-and-write-aiff-and-aifc-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-aifc" title="aifc: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code></a> — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-aifc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/aifc.py">Lib/aifc.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides support for reading and writing AIFF and AIFF-C files.
+AIFF is Audio Interchange File Format, a format for storing digital audio
+samples in a file.  AIFF-C is a newer version of the format that includes the
+ability to compress the audio data.</p>
+<p>Audio files have a number of parameters that describe the audio data. The
+sampling rate or frame rate is the number of times per second the sound is
+sampled.  The number of channels indicate if the audio is mono, stereo, or
+quadro.  Each frame consists of one sample per channel.  The sample size is the
+size in bytes of each sample.  Thus a frame consists of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nchannels</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">samplesize</span></code> bytes, and a second’s worth of audio consists of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nchannels</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">samplesize</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">framerate</span></code> bytes.</p>
+<p>For example, CD quality audio has a sample size of two bytes (16 bits), uses two
+channels (stereo) and has a frame rate of 44,100 frames/second.  This gives a
+frame size of 4 bytes (2*2), and a second’s worth occupies 2*2*44100 bytes
+(176,400 bytes).</p>
+<p>Module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-aifc" title="aifc: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code></a> defines the following function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="aifc.open">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open an AIFF or AIFF-C file and return an object instance with methods that are
+described below.  The argument <em>file</em> is either a string naming a file or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.  <em>mode</em> must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code> when the file must be
+opened for reading, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>  or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code> when the file must be opened for writing.
+If omitted, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.mode</span></code> is used if it exists, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code> is used.  When
+used for writing, the file object should be seekable, unless you know ahead of
+time how many samples you are going to write in total and use
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setnframes()</span></code>.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.open" title="aifc.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function may be used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  When
+the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block completes, the <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.close" title="aifc.aifc.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.open" title="aifc.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> when a file is opened for reading have the
+following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getnchannels">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getnchannels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getnchannels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of audio channels (1 for mono, 2 for stereo).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getsampwidth">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getsampwidth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getsampwidth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size in bytes of individual samples.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getframerate">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getframerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getframerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sampling rate (number of audio frames per second).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getnframes">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getnframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getnframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of audio frames in the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getcomptype">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getcomptype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getcomptype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytes array of length 4 describing the type of compression
+used in the audio file.  For AIFF files, the returned value is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'NONE'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getcompname">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getcompname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getcompname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytes array convertible to a human-readable description
+of the type of compression used in the audio file.  For AIFF files,
+the returned value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'not</span> <span class="pre">compressed'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getparams">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getparams</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getparams" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(nchannels,</span> <span class="pre">sampwidth,</span>
+<span class="pre">framerate,</span> <span class="pre">nframes,</span> <span class="pre">comptype,</span> <span class="pre">compname)</span></code>, equivalent to output of the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getmarkers">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getmarkers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getmarkers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of markers in the audio file.  A marker consists of a tuple of
+three elements.  The first is the mark ID (an integer), the second is the mark
+position in frames from the beginning of the data (an integer), the third is the
+name of the mark (a string).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.getmark">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">getmark</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.getmark" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the tuple as described in <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.getmarkers" title="aifc.aifc.getmarkers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmarkers()</span></code></a> for the mark with the given
+<em>id</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.readframes">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">readframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nframes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.readframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return the next <em>nframes</em> frames from the audio file.  The returned
+data is a string containing for each frame the uncompressed samples of all
+channels.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.rewind">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">rewind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.rewind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rewind the read pointer.  The next <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.readframes" title="aifc.aifc.readframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readframes()</span></code></a> will start from the
+beginning.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setpos">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setpos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setpos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Seek to the specified frame number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.tell">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current frame number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.close">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the AIFF file.  After calling this method, the object can no longer be
+used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.open" title="aifc.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> when a file is opened for writing have all the
+above methods, except for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readframes()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpos()</span></code>.  In addition
+the following methods exist.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get*()</span></code> methods can only be called after
+the corresponding <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set*()</span></code> methods have been called.  Before the first
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code>, all parameters except for the
+number of frames must be filled in.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.aiff">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">aiff</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.aiff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an AIFF file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is created, unless the
+name of the file ends in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.aiff'</span></code> in which case the default is an AIFF file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.aifc">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">aifc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.aifc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an AIFF-C file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is created, unless
+the name of the file ends in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.aiff'</span></code> in which case the default is an AIFF
+file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setnchannels">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setnchannels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nchannels</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setnchannels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify the number of channels in the audio file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setsampwidth">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setsampwidth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setsampwidth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify the size in bytes of audio samples.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setframerate">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setframerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setframerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify the sampling frequency in frames per second.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setnframes">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setnframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nframes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setnframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify the number of frames that are to be written to the audio file. If this
+parameter is not set, or not set correctly, the file needs to support seeking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setcomptype">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setcomptype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setcomptype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Specify the compression type.  If not specified, the audio data will
+not be compressed.  In AIFF files, compression is not possible.
+The name parameter should be a human-readable description of the
+compression type as a bytes array, the type parameter should be a
+bytes array of length 4.  Currently the following compression types
+are supported: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'NONE'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ULAW'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ALAW'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'G722'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setparams">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setparams</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nchannels</em>, <em>sampwidth</em>, <em>framerate</em>, <em>comptype</em>, <em>compname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setparams" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set all the above parameters at once.  The argument is a tuple consisting of the
+various parameters.  This means that it is possible to use the result of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.getparams" title="aifc.aifc.getparams"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getparams()</span></code></a> call as argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.setparams" title="aifc.aifc.setparams"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setparams()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.setmark">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">setmark</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em>, <em>pos</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.setmark" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a mark with the given id (larger than 0), and the given name at the given
+position.  This method can be called at any time before <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.close" title="aifc.aifc.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current write position in the output file.  Useful in combination
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.setmark" title="aifc.aifc.setmark"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setmark()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.writeframes">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">writeframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.writeframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write data to the output file.  This method can only be called after the audio
+file parameters have been set.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="aifc.aifc.writeframesraw">
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">writeframesraw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#aifc.aifc.writeframesraw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#aifc.aifc.writeframes" title="aifc.aifc.writeframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code></a>, except that the header of the audio file is not
+updated.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">aifc.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the AIFF file.  The header of the file is updated to reflect the actual
+size of the audio data. After calling this method, the object can no longer be
+used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="audioop.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code> — Manipulate raw audio data</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="sunau.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code> — Read and write Sun AU files</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/allos.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/allos.html
new file mode 100644
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Generic Operating System Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="generic-operating-system-services">
+<span id="allos"></span><h1>Generic Operating System Services<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-operating-system-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system
+features that are available on (almost) all operating systems, such as files and
+a clock.  The interfaces are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces,
+but they are available on most other systems as well.  Here’s an overview:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables">File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#process-parameters">Process Parameters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-object-creation">File Object Creation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-descriptor-operations">File Descriptor Operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#querying-the-size-of-a-terminal">Querying the size of a terminal</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#inheritance-of-file-descriptors">Inheritance of File Descriptors</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#files-and-directories">Files and Directories</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#interface-to-the-scheduler">Interface to the scheduler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#miscellaneous-system-information">Miscellaneous System Information</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#random-numbers">Random numbers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code> — Core tools for working with streams</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#overview">Overview</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#text-i-o">Text I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#binary-i-o">Binary I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#raw-i-o">Raw I/O</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#high-level-module-interface">High-level Module Interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#in-memory-streams">In-memory streams</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#class-hierarchy">Class hierarchy</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#i-o-base-classes">I/O Base Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#raw-file-i-o">Raw File I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#buffered-streams">Buffered Streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id1">Text I/O</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#performance">Performance</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id2">Binary I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id3">Text I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#reentrancy">Reentrancy</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> — Time access and conversions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#clock-id-constants">Clock ID Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#timezone-constants">Timezone Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#example">Example</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#creating-a-parser">Creating a parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#adding-arguments">Adding arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argumentparser-objects">ArgumentParser objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#prog">prog</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#usage">usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#description">description</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#epilog">epilog</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parents">parents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#formatter-class">formatter_class</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#fromfile-prefix-chars">fromfile_prefix_chars</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-default">argument_default</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#allow-abbrev">allow_abbrev</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#conflict-handler">conflict_handler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#add-help">add_help</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-add-argument-method">The add_argument() method</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#name-or-flags">name or flags</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#action">action</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#nargs">nargs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#const">const</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#default">default</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#type">type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#choices">choices</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#required">required</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#help">help</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#metavar">metavar</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#dest">dest</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#action-classes">Action classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-parse-args-method">The parse_args() method</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#option-value-syntax">Option value syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#invalid-arguments">Invalid arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#arguments-containing">Arguments containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching">Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#beyond-sys-argv">Beyond <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-namespace-object">The Namespace object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#other-utilities">Other utilities</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#sub-commands">Sub-commands</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#filetype-objects">FileType objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-groups">Argument groups</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#mutual-exclusion">Mutual exclusion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parser-defaults">Parser defaults</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#printing-help">Printing help</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#partial-parsing">Partial parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#customizing-file-parsing">Customizing file parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#exiting-methods">Exiting methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#intermixed-parsing">Intermixed parsing</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code">Upgrading optparse code</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getopt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code> — C-style parser for command line options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> — Logging facility for Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logger-objects">Logger Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging-levels">Logging Levels</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#handler-objects">Handler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#formatter-objects">Formatter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#filter-objects">Filter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-objects">LogRecord Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-attributes">LogRecord attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#loggeradapter-objects">LoggerAdapter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#thread-safety">Thread Safety</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-level-functions">Module-Level Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-level-attributes">Module-Level Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#integration-with-the-warnings-module">Integration with the warnings module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code> — Logging configuration</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-functions">Configuration functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-dictionary-schema">Configuration dictionary schema</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#dictionary-schema-details">Dictionary Schema Details</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#incremental-configuration">Incremental Configuration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#object-connections">Object connections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#user-defined-objects">User-defined objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-external-objects">Access to external objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-internal-objects">Access to internal objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#import-resolution-and-custom-importers">Import resolution and custom importers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-file-format">Configuration file format</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code> — Logging handlers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#streamhandler">StreamHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#filehandler">FileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#nullhandler">NullHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#watchedfilehandler">WatchedFileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#baserotatinghandler">BaseRotatingHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#rotatingfilehandler">RotatingFileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#timedrotatingfilehandler">TimedRotatingFileHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#sockethandler">SocketHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#datagramhandler">DatagramHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#sysloghandler">SysLogHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#nteventloghandler">NTEventLogHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#smtphandler">SMTPHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#memoryhandler">MemoryHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#httphandler">HTTPHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#queuehandler">QueueHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#queuelistener">QueueListener</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getpass.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code> — Portable password input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#window-objects">Window Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#module-curses.textpad"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code> — Text input widget for curses programs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#textbox-objects">Textbox objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.ascii.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code> — A panel stack extension for curses</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html#panel-objects">Panel Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code> —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#cross-platform">Cross Platform</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="errno.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> — Standard errno system symbols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> — A foreign function library for Python</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#fundamental-data-types">Fundamental data types</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes">Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference">Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order">Structure/union alignment and byte order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions">Bit fields in structures and unions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#arrays">Arrays</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#pointers">Pointers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#type-conversions">Type conversions</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#callback-functions">Callback functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#accessing-values-exported-from-dlls">Accessing values exported from dlls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#surprises">Surprises</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#variable-sized-data-types">Variable-sized data types</a></li>
+</ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes-reference">ctypes reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#finding-shared-libraries">Finding shared libraries</a></li>
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+<span id="archiving"></span><h1>Data Compression and Archiving<a class="headerlink" href="#data-compression-and-archiving" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter support data compression with the zlib,
+gzip, bzip2 and lzma algorithms, and the creation of ZIP- and tar-format
+archives.  See also <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#archiving-operations"><span class="std std-ref">Archiving operations</span></a> provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code> — Compression compatible with <strong class="program">gzip</strong></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">gzip</strong> files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html#examples-of-usage">Examples of usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">bzip2</strong> compression</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#de-compression-of-files">(De)compression of files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#incremental-de-compression">Incremental (de)compression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#one-shot-de-compression">One-shot (de)compression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#examples-of-usage">Examples of usage</a></li>
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+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code> — Compression using the LZMA algorithm</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory">Compressing and decompressing data in memory</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#specifying-custom-filter-chains">Specifying custom filter chains</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code> — Work with ZIP archives</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#zipfile-objects">ZipFile Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#pyzipfile-objects">PyZipFile Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#zipinfo-objects">ZipInfo Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a><ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-argparse">
+<span id="argparse-parser-for-command-line-options-arguments-and-sub-commands"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands<a class="headerlink" href="#module-argparse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/argparse.py">Lib/argparse.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="sidebar">
+<p class="sidebar-title">Tutorial</p>
+<p>This page contains the API reference information. For a more gentle
+introduction to Python command-line parsing, have a look at the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../howto/argparse.html#id1"><span class="std std-ref">argparse tutorial</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
+interfaces. The program defines what arguments it requires, and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>
+will figure out how to parse those out of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>
+module also automatically generates help and usage messages and issues errors
+when users give the program invalid arguments.</p>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following code is a Python program that takes a list of integers and
+produces either the sum or the max:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Process some integers.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;integers&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;N&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;an integer for the accumulator&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--sum&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;accumulate&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_const&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;sum the integers (default: find the max)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">integers</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Assuming the Python code above is saved into a file called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prog.py</span></code>, it can
+be run at the command line and provides useful help messages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python prog.py -h
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [--sum] N [N ...]</span>
+
+<span class="go">Process some integers.</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> N           an integer for the accumulator</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --sum       sum the integers (default: find the max)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When run with the appropriate arguments, it prints either the sum or the max of
+the command-line integers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python prog.py <span class="m">1</span> <span class="m">2</span> <span class="m">3</span> <span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+
+<span class="gp">$</span> python prog.py <span class="m">1</span> <span class="m">2</span> <span class="m">3</span> <span class="m">4</span> --sum
+<span class="go">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If invalid arguments are passed in, it will issue an error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python prog.py a b c
+<span class="go">usage: prog.py [-h] [--sum] N [N ...]</span>
+<span class="go">prog.py: error: argument N: invalid int value: &#39;a&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following sections walk you through this example.</p>
+<div class="section" id="creating-a-parser">
+<h3>Creating a parser<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-a-parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The first step in using the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> is creating an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Process some integers.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> object will hold all the information necessary to
+parse the command line into Python data types.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="adding-arguments">
+<h3>Adding arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Filling an <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> with information about program arguments is
+done by making calls to the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> method.
+Generally, these calls tell the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> how to take the strings
+on the command line and turn them into objects.  This information is stored and
+used when <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> is called. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;integers&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;N&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;an integer for the accumulator&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--sum&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;accumulate&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_const&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;sum the integers (default: find the max)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Later, calling <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> will return an object with
+two attributes, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">integers</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate</span></code>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">integers</span></code> attribute
+will be a list of one or more ints, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate</span></code> attribute will be
+either the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum()</span></code></a> function, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--sum</span></code> was specified at the command line,
+or the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> function if it was not.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parsing-arguments">
+<h3>Parsing arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> parses arguments through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> method.  This will inspect the command line,
+convert each argument to the appropriate type and then invoke the appropriate action.
+In most cases, this means a simple <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Namespace" title="argparse.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a> object will be built up from
+attributes parsed out of the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--sum&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;7&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;42&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(accumulate=&lt;built-in function sum&gt;, integers=[7, -1, 42])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In a script, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> will typically be called with no
+arguments, and the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> will automatically determine the
+command-line arguments from <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="argumentparser-objects">
+<h2>ArgumentParser objects<a class="headerlink" href="#argumentparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">ArgumentParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prog=None</em>, <em>usage=None</em>, <em>description=None</em>, <em>epilog=None</em>, <em>parents=[]</em>, <em>formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter</em>, <em>prefix_chars='-'</em>, <em>fromfile_prefix_chars=None</em>, <em>argument_default=None</em>, <em>conflict_handler='error'</em>, <em>add_help=True</em>, <em>allow_abbrev=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> object. All parameters should be passed
+as keyword arguments. Each parameter has its own more detailed description
+below, but in short they are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#prog">prog</a> - The name of the program (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#usage">usage</a> - The string describing the program usage (default: generated from
+arguments added to parser)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#description">description</a> - Text to display before the argument help (default: none)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#epilog">epilog</a> - Text to display after the argument help (default: none)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#parents">parents</a> - A list of <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects whose arguments should
+also be included</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#formatter-class">formatter_class</a> - A class for customizing the help output</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#prefix-chars">prefix_chars</a> - The set of characters that prefix optional arguments
+(default: ‘-‘)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#fromfile-prefix-chars">fromfile_prefix_chars</a> - The set of characters that prefix files from
+which additional arguments should be read (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#argument-default">argument_default</a> - The global default value for arguments
+(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#conflict-handler">conflict_handler</a> - The strategy for resolving conflicting optionals
+(usually unnecessary)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#add-help">add_help</a> - Add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h/--help</span></code> option to the parser (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#allow-abbrev">allow_abbrev</a> - Allows long options to be abbreviated if the
+abbreviation is unambiguous. (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>allow_abbrev</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following sections describe how each of these are used.</p>
+<div class="section" id="prog">
+<h3>prog<a class="headerlink" href="#prog" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> to determine
+how to display the name of the program in help messages.  This default is almost
+always desirable because it will make the help messages match how the program was
+invoked on the command line.  For example, consider a file named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myprogram.py</span></code> with the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The help for this program will display <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myprogram.py</span></code> as the program name
+(regardless of where the program was invoked from):</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python myprogram.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO   foo help</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> <span class="nb">cd</span> ..
+<span class="gp">$</span> python subdir/myprogram.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO   foo help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To change this default behavior, another value can be supplied using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prog=</span></code> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;myprogram&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: myprogram [-h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the program name, whether determined from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> or from the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prog=</span></code> argument, is available to help messages using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(prog)s</span></code> format
+specifier.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;myprogram&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo of the </span><span class="si">%(prog)s</span><span class="s1"> program&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="usage">
+<h3>usage<a class="headerlink" href="#usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> calculates the usage message from the
+arguments it contains:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo [FOO]] bar [bar ...]</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> bar          bar help</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help   show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo [FOO]  foo help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The default message can be overridden with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage=</span></code> keyword argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">usage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(prog)s</span><span class="s1"> [options]&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [options]</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> bar          bar help</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help   show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo [FOO]  foo help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(prog)s</span></code> format specifier is available to fill in the program name in
+your usage messages.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="description">
+<h3>description<a class="headerlink" href="#description" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most calls to the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> constructor will use the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">description=</span></code> keyword argument.  This argument gives a brief description of
+what the program does and how it works.  In help messages, the description is
+displayed between the command-line usage string and the help messages for the
+various arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;A foo that bars&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: argparse.py [-h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">A foo that bars</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>By default, the description will be line-wrapped so that it fits within the
+given space.  To change this behavior, see the <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter-class">formatter_class</a> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="epilog">
+<h3>epilog<a class="headerlink" href="#epilog" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some programs like to display additional description of the program after the
+description of the arguments.  Such text can be specified using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epilog=</span></code>
+argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;A foo that bars&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">epilog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;And that&#39;s how you&#39;d foo a bar&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: argparse.py [-h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">A foo that bars</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+
+<span class="go">And that&#39;s how you&#39;d foo a bar</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As with the <a class="reference internal" href="#description">description</a> argument, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epilog=</span></code> text is by default
+line-wrapped, but this behavior can be adjusted with the <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter-class">formatter_class</a>
+argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parents">
+<h3>parents<a class="headerlink" href="#parents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Sometimes, several parsers share a common set of arguments. Rather than
+repeating the definitions of these arguments, a single parser with all the
+shared arguments and passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parents=</span></code> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>
+can be used.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parents=</span></code> argument takes a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>
+objects, collects all the positional and optional actions from them, and adds
+these actions to the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> object being constructed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent_parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">add_help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent_parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--parent&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo_parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parents</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">parent_parser</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo_parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo_parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--parent&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;XXX&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;XXX&#39;, parent=2)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar_parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parents</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">parent_parser</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar_parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar_parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;YYY&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;YYY&#39;, parent=None)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that most parent parsers will specify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_help=False</span></code>.  Otherwise, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> will see two <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h/--help</span></code> options (one in the parent
+and one in the child) and raise an error.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>You must fully initialize the parsers before passing them via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parents=</span></code>.
+If you change the parent parsers after the child parser, those changes will
+not be reflected in the child.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="formatter-class">
+<h3>formatter_class<a class="headerlink" href="#formatter-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects allow the help formatting to be customized by
+specifying an alternate formatting class.  Currently, there are four such
+classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">RawDescriptionHelpFormatter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">RawTextHelpFormatter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">MetavarTypeHelpFormatter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter" title="argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawDescriptionHelpFormatter</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter" title="argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawTextHelpFormatter</span></code></a> give
+more control over how textual descriptions are displayed.
+By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects line-wrap the <a class="reference internal" href="#description">description</a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#epilog">epilog</a> texts in command-line help messages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;this description</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">        was indented weird</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">            but that is okay&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">epilog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">            likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">        be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">        across a couple lines&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">this description was indented weird but that is okay</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+
+<span class="go">likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words</span>
+<span class="go">will be wrapped across a couple lines</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Passing <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter" title="argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawDescriptionHelpFormatter</span></code></a> as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter_class=</span></code>
+indicates that <a class="reference internal" href="#description">description</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#epilog">epilog</a> are already correctly formatted and
+should not be line-wrapped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">formatter_class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RawDescriptionHelpFormatter</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dedent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">        Please do not mess up this text!</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">        --------------------------------</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">            I have indented it</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">            exactly the way</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">            I want it</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">        &#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">Please do not mess up this text!</span>
+<span class="go">--------------------------------</span>
+<span class="go">   I have indented it</span>
+<span class="go">   exactly the way</span>
+<span class="go">   I want it</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter" title="argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawTextHelpFormatter</span></code></a> maintains whitespace for all sorts of help text,
+including argument descriptions. However, multiple new lines are replaced with
+one. If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines, add spaces between the
+newlines.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter" title="argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter</span></code></a> automatically adds information about
+default values to each of the argument help messages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">formatter_class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;FOO!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;BAR!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar [bar ...]]</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter" title="argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MetavarTypeHelpFormatter</span></code></a> uses the name of the <a class="reference internal" href="#type">type</a> argument for each
+argument as the display name for its values (rather than using the <a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a>
+as the regular formatter does):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">formatter_class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MetavarTypeHelpFormatter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  float</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  --foo int</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="prefix-chars">
+<h3>prefix_chars<a class="headerlink" href="#prefix-chars" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most command-line options will use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> as the prefix, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f/--foo</span></code>.
+Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix
+characters, e.g. for options
+like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo</span></code>, may specify them using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix_chars=</span></code> argument
+to the ArgumentParser constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">prefix_chars</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;-+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;+f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;++bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;+f X ++bar Y&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;Y&#39;, f=&#39;X&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix_chars=</span></code> argument defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>. Supplying a set of
+characters that does not include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> will cause <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f/--foo</span></code> options to be
+disallowed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fromfile-prefix-chars">
+<h3>fromfile_prefix_chars<a class="headerlink" href="#fromfile-prefix-chars" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Sometimes, for example when dealing with a particularly long argument lists, it
+may make sense to keep the list of arguments in a file rather than typing it out
+at the command line.  If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromfile_prefix_chars=</span></code> argument is given to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> constructor, then arguments that start with any of the
+specified characters will be treated as files, and will be replaced by the
+arguments they contain.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;args.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromfile_prefix_chars</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;@&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;@args.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(f=&#39;bar&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Arguments read from a file must by default be one per line (but see also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">convert_arg_line_to_args()</span></code></a>) and are treated as if they
+were in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the command
+line.  So in the example above, the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['-f',</span> <span class="pre">'foo',</span> <span class="pre">'&#64;args.txt']</span></code>
+is considered equivalent to the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['-f',</span> <span class="pre">'foo',</span> <span class="pre">'-f',</span> <span class="pre">'bar']</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromfile_prefix_chars=</span></code> argument defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, meaning that
+arguments will never be treated as file references.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="argument-default">
+<h3>argument_default<a class="headerlink" href="#argument-default" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Generally, argument defaults are specified either by passing a default to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> or by calling the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_defaults()</span></code></a> methods with a specific set of name-value
+pairs.  Sometimes however, it may be useful to specify a single parser-wide
+default for arguments.  This can be accomplished by passing the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argument_default=</span></code> keyword argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>.  For example,
+to globally suppress attribute creation on <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>
+calls, we supply <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argument_default=SUPPRESS</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argument_default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SUPPRESS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;BAR&#39;, foo=&#39;1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="allow-abbrev">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>allow_abbrev<a class="headerlink" href="#allow-abbrev" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Normally, when you pass an argument list to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> method of an <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>,
+it <a class="reference internal" href="#prefix-matching"><span class="std std-ref">recognizes abbreviations</span></a> of long options.</p>
+<p>This feature can be disabled by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">allow_abbrev</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">allow_abbrev</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foonley&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_false&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foon&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conflict-handler">
+<h3>conflict_handler<a class="headerlink" href="#conflict-handler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects do not allow two actions with the same option
+string.  By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects raise an exception if an
+attempt is made to create an argument with an option string that is already in
+use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;old foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;new foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="gr"> ..</span>
+<span class="gr">ArgumentError</span>: <span class="n">argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sometimes (e.g. when using <a class="reference internal" href="#parents">parents</a>) it may be useful to simply override any
+older arguments with the same option string.  To get this behavior, the value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'resolve'</span></code> can be supplied to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conflict_handler=</span></code> argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">conflict_handler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;resolve&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;old foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;new foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> -f FOO      old foo help</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO   new foo help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects only remove an action if all of its
+option strings are overridden.  So, in the example above, the old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f/--foo</span></code>
+action is retained as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> action, because only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo</span></code> option
+string was overridden.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="add-help">
+<h3>add_help<a class="headerlink" href="#add-help" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, ArgumentParser objects add an option which simply displays
+the parser’s help message. For example, consider a file named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myprogram.py</span></code> containing the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> is supplied at the command line, the ArgumentParser
+help will be printed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python myprogram.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO   foo help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Occasionally, it may be useful to disable the addition of this help option.
+This can be achieved by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_help=</span></code> argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">add_help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [--foo FOO]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO  foo help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The help option is typically <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h/--help</span></code>. The exception to this is
+if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix_chars=</span></code> is specified and does not include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, in
+which case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> are not valid options.  In
+this case, the first character in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix_chars</span></code> is used to prefix
+the help options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">prefix_chars</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [+h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  +h, ++help  show this help message and exit</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-add-argument-method">
+<h2>The add_argument() method<a class="headerlink" href="#the-add-argument-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">add_argument</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name or flags...</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>action</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>nargs</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>const</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>type</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>choices</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>required</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>help</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>metavar</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>dest</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Define how a single command-line argument should be parsed.  Each parameter
+has its own more detailed description below, but in short they are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#name-or-flags">name or flags</a> - Either a name or a list of option strings, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f,</span> <span class="pre">--foo</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#action">action</a> - The basic type of action to be taken when this argument is
+encountered at the command line.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#nargs">nargs</a> - The number of command-line arguments that should be consumed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#const">const</a> - A constant value required by some <a class="reference internal" href="#action">action</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#nargs">nargs</a> selections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#default">default</a> - The value produced if the argument is absent from the
+command line.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#type">type</a> - The type to which the command-line argument should be converted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#choices">choices</a> - A container of the allowable values for the argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#required">required</a> - Whether or not the command-line option may be omitted
+(optionals only).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#help">help</a> - A brief description of what the argument does.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#metavar">metavar</a> - A name for the argument in usage messages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a> - The name of the attribute to be added to the object returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following sections describe how each of these are used.</p>
+<div class="section" id="name-or-flags">
+<h3>name or flags<a class="headerlink" href="#name-or-flags" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> method must know whether an optional
+argument, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo</span></code>, or a positional argument, like a list of
+filenames, is expected.  The first arguments passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> must therefore be either a series of
+flags, or a simple argument name.  For example, an optional argument could
+be created like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>while a positional argument could be created like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> is called, optional arguments will be
+identified by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> prefix, and the remaining arguments will be assumed to
+be positional:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;BAR&#39;, foo=None)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;BAR&#39;, foo=&#39;FOO&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="action">
+<h3>action<a class="headerlink" href="#action" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects associate command-line arguments with actions.  These
+actions can do just about anything with the command-line arguments associated with
+them, though most actions simply add an attribute to the object returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code> keyword argument specifies
+how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'store'</span></code> - This just stores the argument’s value.  This is the default
+action. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo 1&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'store_const'</span></code> - This stores the value specified by the <a class="reference internal" href="#const">const</a> keyword
+argument.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'store_const'</span></code> action is most commonly used with
+optional arguments that specify some sort of flag.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_const&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=42)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'store_true'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'store_false'</span></code> - These are special cases of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'store_const'</span></code> used for storing the values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+respectively.  In addition, they create default values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> respectively.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_false&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_false&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo --bar&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'append'</span></code> - This stores a list, and appends each argument value to the
+list.  This is useful to allow an option to be specified multiple times.
+Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;append&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo 1 --foo 2&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'append_const'</span></code> - This stores a list, and appends the value specified by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#const">const</a> keyword argument to the list.  (Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="#const">const</a> keyword
+argument defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.)  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'append_const'</span></code> action is typically
+useful when multiple arguments need to store constants to the same list. For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--str&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;types&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;append_const&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--int&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;types&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;append_const&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--str --int&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(types=[&lt;class &#39;str&#39;&gt;, &lt;class &#39;int&#39;&gt;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'count'</span></code> - This counts the number of times a keyword argument occurs. For
+example, this is useful for increasing verbosity levels:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-v&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;count&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-vvv&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(verbose=3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'help'</span></code> - This prints a complete help message for all the options in the
+current parser and then exits. By default a help action is automatically
+added to the parser. See <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> for details of how the
+output is created.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'version'</span></code> - This expects a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version=</span></code> keyword argument in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> call, and prints version information
+and exits when invoked:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--version&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(prog)s</span><span class="s1"> 2.0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--version&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">PROG 2.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an Action subclass or
+other object that implements the same interface.  The recommended way to do
+this is to extend <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Action" title="argparse.Action"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Action</span></code></a>, overriding the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__</span></code> method
+and optionally the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>An example of a custom action:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">FooAction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Action</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">option_strings</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">nargs</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;nargs not allowed&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">FooAction</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option_strings</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__call__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">namespace</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">option_string</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">namespace</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">option_string</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">namespace</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FooAction</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FooAction</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1 --foo 2&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) &#39;1&#39; None</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;1&#39;, foo=None) &#39;2&#39; &#39;--foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;1&#39;, foo=&#39;2&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more details, see <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Action" title="argparse.Action"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Action</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nargs">
+<h3>nargs<a class="headerlink" href="#nargs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>ArgumentParser objects usually associate a single command-line argument with a
+single action to be taken.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code> keyword argument associates a
+different number of command-line arguments with a single action.  The supported
+values are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> (an integer).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> arguments from the command line will be gathered
+together into a list.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c --foo a b&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=[&#39;c&#39;], foo=[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs=1</span></code> produces a list of one item.  This is different from
+the default, in which the item is produced by itself.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="index-0">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>. One argument will be consumed from the command line if possible, and
+produced as a single item.  If no command-line argument is present, the value from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#default">default</a> will be produced.  Note that for optional arguments, there is an
+additional case - the option string is present but not followed by a
+command-line argument.  In this case the value from <a class="reference internal" href="#const">const</a> will be produced.  Some
+examples to illustrate this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;XX&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;YY&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;XX&#39;, foo=&#39;YY&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;XX&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;XX&#39;, foo=&#39;c&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;d&#39;, foo=&#39;d&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One of the more common uses of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs='?'</span></code> is to allow optional input and
+output files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;infile&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;outfile&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;input.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;output.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(infile=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;input.txt&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;,</span>
+<span class="go">          outfile=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;output.txt&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(infile=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;&lt;stdin&gt;&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;,</span>
+<span class="go">          outfile=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;&lt;stdout&gt;&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="index-1">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>.  All command-line arguments present are gathered into a list.  Note that
+it generally doesn’t make much sense to have more than one positional argument
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs='*'</span></code>, but multiple optional arguments with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs='*'</span></code> is
+possible.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a b --foo x y --bar 1 2&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;], baz=[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;], foo=[&#39;x&#39;, &#39;y&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="index-2">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>. Just like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>, all command-line args present are gathered into a
+list.  Additionally, an error message will be generated if there wasn’t at
+least one command-line argument present.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="argparse-remainder">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse.REMAINDER</span></code>.  All the remaining command-line arguments are gathered
+into a list.  This is commonly useful for command line utilities that dispatch
+to other command line utilities:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;command&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;args&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">REMAINDER</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo B cmd --arg1 XX ZZ&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(args=[&#39;--arg1&#39;, &#39;XX&#39;, &#39;ZZ&#39;], command=&#39;cmd&#39;, foo=&#39;B&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code> keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments consumed
+is determined by the <a class="reference internal" href="#action">action</a>.  Generally this means a single command-line argument
+will be consumed and a single item (not a list) will be produced.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="const">
+<h3>const<a class="headerlink" href="#const" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> is used to hold
+constant values that are not read from the command line but are required for
+the various <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> actions.  The two most common uses of it are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> is called with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action='store_const'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action='append_const'</span></code>.  These actions add the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code> value to one of the attributes of the object returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#action">action</a> description for examples.</p></li>
+<li><p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> is called with option strings
+(like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo</span></code>) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs='?'</span></code>.  This creates an optional
+argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line arguments.
+When parsing the command line, if the option string is encountered with no
+command-line argument following it, the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code> will be assumed instead.
+See the <a class="reference internal" href="#nargs">nargs</a> description for examples.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>With the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'store_const'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'append_const'</span></code> actions, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code>
+keyword argument must be given.  For other actions, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="default">
+<h3>default<a class="headerlink" href="#default" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All optional arguments and some positional arguments may be omitted at the
+command line.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> keyword argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a>, whose value defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+specifies what value should be used if the command-line argument is not present.
+For optional arguments, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> value is used when the option string
+was not present at the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;2&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=42)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> value is a string, the parser parses the value as if it
+were a command-line argument.  In particular, the parser applies any <a class="reference internal" href="#type">type</a>
+conversion argument, if provided, before setting the attribute on the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Namespace" title="argparse.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a> return value.  Otherwise, the parser uses the value as is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--length&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;10&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--width&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">10.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For positional arguments with <a class="reference internal" href="#nargs">nargs</a> equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> value
+is used when no command-line argument was present:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;a&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=42)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Providing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default=argparse.SUPPRESS</span></code> causes no attribute to be added if the
+command-line argument was not present:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SUPPRESS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="type">
+<h3>type<a class="headerlink" href="#type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> objects read command-line arguments in as simple
+strings. However, quite often the command-line string should instead be
+interpreted as another type, like a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  The
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> keyword argument of <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> allows any
+necessary type-checking and type conversions to be performed.  Common built-in
+types and functions can be used directly as the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2 temp.txt&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;temp.txt&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;, foo=2)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See the section on the <a class="reference internal" href="#default">default</a> keyword argument for information on when the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> argument is applied to default arguments.</p>
+<p>To ease the use of various types of files, the argparse module provides the
+factory FileType which takes the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bufsize=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding=</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors=</span></code> arguments of the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileType('w')</span></code> can be used to create a writable file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;out.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;out.txt&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type=</span></code> can take any callable that takes a single string argument and returns
+the converted value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">perfect_square</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">sqrt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sqrt</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s2"> is not a perfect square&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">string</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentTypeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">perfect_square</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;9&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=9)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;7&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] foo</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: argument foo: &#39;7&#39; is not a perfect square</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#choices">choices</a> keyword argument may be more convenient for type checkers that
+simply check against a range of values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">choices</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;7&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=7)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;11&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] {5,6,7,8,9}</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: argument foo: invalid choice: 11 (choose from 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="#choices">choices</a> section for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="choices">
+<h3>choices<a class="headerlink" href="#choices" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some command-line arguments should be selected from a restricted set of values.
+These can be handled by passing a container object as the <em>choices</em> keyword
+argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a>.  When the command line is
+parsed, argument values will be checked, and an error message will be displayed
+if the argument was not one of the acceptable values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;game.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;move&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">choices</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;rock&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;paper&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;scissors&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;rock&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(move=&#39;rock&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;fire&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}</span>
+<span class="go">game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: &#39;fire&#39; (choose from &#39;rock&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;paper&#39;, &#39;scissors&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that inclusion in the <em>choices</em> container is checked after any <a class="reference internal" href="#type">type</a>
+conversions have been performed, so the type of the objects in the <em>choices</em>
+container should match the <a class="reference internal" href="#type">type</a> specified:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;doors.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;door&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">choices</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;3&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(door=3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;4&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: doors.py [-h] {1,2,3}</span>
+<span class="go">doors.py: error: argument door: invalid choice: 4 (choose from 1, 2, 3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Any object that supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator can be passed as the <em>choices</em>
+value, so <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> objects, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> objects, custom containers,
+etc. are all supported.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="required">
+<h3>required<a class="headerlink" href="#required" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In general, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module assumes that flags like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--bar</span></code>
+indicate <em>optional</em> arguments, which can always be omitted at the command line.
+To make an option <em>required</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> can be specified for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">required=</span></code>
+keyword argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">required</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;BAR&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: argparse.py [-h] [--foo FOO]</span>
+<span class="go">argparse.py: error: option --foo is required</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As the example shows, if an option is marked as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">required</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> will report an error if that option is not
+present at the command line.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Required options are generally considered bad form because users expect
+<em>options</em> to be <em>optional</em>, and thus they should be avoided when possible.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="help">
+<h3>help<a class="headerlink" href="#help" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code> value is a string containing a brief description of the argument.
+When a user requests help (usually by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> at the
+command line), these <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code> descriptions will be displayed with each
+argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;frobble&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo the bars before frobbling&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;one of the bars to be frobbled&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-h&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: frobble [-h] [--foo] bar [bar ...]</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> bar     one of the bars to be frobbled</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo   foo the bars before frobbling</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code> strings can include various format specifiers to avoid repetition
+of things like the program name or the argument <a class="reference internal" href="#default">default</a>.  The available
+specifiers include the program name, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(prog)s</span></code> and most keyword arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a>, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(default)s</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(type)s</span></code>, etc.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;frobble&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;the bar to </span><span class="si">%(prog)s</span><span class="s1"> (default: </span><span class="si">%(default)s</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: frobble [-h] [bar]</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As the help string supports %-formatting, if you want a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> to appear
+in the help string, you must escape it as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%%</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
+setting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code> value to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse.SUPPRESS</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;frobble&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SUPPRESS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: frobble [-h]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="metavar">
+<h3>metavar<a class="headerlink" href="#metavar" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> generates help messages, it needs some way to refer
+to each expected argument.  By default, ArgumentParser objects use the <a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a>
+value as the “name” of each object.  By default, for positional argument
+actions, the <a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a> value is used directly, and for optional argument actions,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a> value is uppercased.  So, a single positional argument with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest='bar'</span></code> will be referred to as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code>. A single
+optional argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo</span></code> that should be followed by a single command-line argument
+will be referred to as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FOO</span></code>.  An example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;X --foo Y&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;X&#39;, foo=&#39;Y&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> bar</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo FOO</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An alternative name can be specified with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metavar</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;YYY&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;XXX&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;X --foo Y&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;X&#39;, foo=&#39;Y&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> XXX</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo YYY</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metavar</span></code> only changes the <em>displayed</em> name - the name of the
+attribute on the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> object is still determined
+by the <a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a> value.</p>
+<p>Different values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code> may cause the metavar to be used multiple times.
+Providing a tuple to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metavar</span></code> specifies a different display for each of the
+arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go"> -h, --help     show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go"> -x X X</span>
+<span class="go"> --foo bar baz</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dest">
+<h3>dest<a class="headerlink" href="#dest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> actions add some value as an attribute of the
+object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>.  The name of this
+attribute is determined by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> keyword argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a>.  For positional argument actions,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> is normally supplied as the first argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;XXX&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;XXX&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For optional argument actions, the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> is normally inferred from
+the option strings.  <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> generates the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> by
+taking the first long option string and stripping away the initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--</span></code>
+string.  If no long option strings were supplied, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> will be derived from
+the first short option string by stripping the initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> character.  Any
+internal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> characters will be converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> characters to make sure
+the string is a valid attribute name.  The examples below illustrate this
+behavior:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo-bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-y&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f 1 -x 2&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo_bar=&#39;1&#39;, x=&#39;2&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo 1 -y 2&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo_bar=&#39;1&#39;, x=&#39;2&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> allows a custom attribute name to be provided:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo XXX&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=&#39;XXX&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="action-classes">
+<h3>Action classes<a class="headerlink" href="#action-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Action classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a callable
+which processes arguments from the command-line. Any object which follows
+this API may be passed as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code> parameter to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="argparse.Action">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">Action</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>option_strings</em>, <em>dest</em>, <em>nargs=None</em>, <em>const=None</em>, <em>default=None</em>, <em>type=None</em>, <em>choices=None</em>, <em>required=False</em>, <em>help=None</em>, <em>metavar=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.Action" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Action objects are used by an ArgumentParser to represent the information
+needed to parse a single argument from one or more strings from the
+command line. The Action class must accept the two positional arguments
+plus any keyword arguments passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser.add_argument()</span></code></a>
+except for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code> itself.</p>
+<p>Instances of Action (or return value of any callable to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code>
+parameter) should have attributes “dest”, “option_strings”, “default”, “type”,
+“required”, “help”, etc. defined. The easiest way to ensure these attributes
+are defined is to call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Action.__init__</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Action instances should be callable, so subclasses must override the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__</span></code> method, which should accept four parameters:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> - The ArgumentParser object which contains this action.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespace</span></code> - The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Namespace" title="argparse.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a> object that will be returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>.  Most actions add an attribute to this
+object using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#setattr" title="setattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setattr()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code> - The associated command-line arguments, with any type conversions
+applied.  Type conversions are specified with the <a class="reference internal" href="#type">type</a> keyword argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option_string</span></code> - The option string that was used to invoke this action.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option_string</span></code> argument is optional, and will be absent if the action
+is associated with a positional argument.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__</span></code> method may perform arbitrary actions, but will typically set
+attributes on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespace</span></code> based on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-parse-args-method">
+<h2>The parse_args() method<a class="headerlink" href="#the-parse-args-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">parse_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args=None</em>, <em>namespace=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert argument strings to objects and assign them as attributes of the
+namespace.  Return the populated namespace.</p>
+<p>Previous calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> determine exactly what objects are
+created and how they are assigned. See the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#args">args</a> - List of strings to parse.  The default is taken from
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#namespace">namespace</a> - An object to take the attributes.  The default is a new empty
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Namespace" title="argparse.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a> object.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="option-value-syntax">
+<h3>Option value syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#option-value-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> method supports several ways of
+specifying the value of an option (if it takes one).  In the simplest case, the
+option and its value are passed as two separate arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=None, x=&#39;X&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;FOO&#39;, x=None)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For long options (options with names longer than a single character), the option
+and value can also be passed as a single command-line argument, using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code> to
+separate them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo=FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;FOO&#39;, x=None)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For short options (options only one character long), the option and its value
+can be concatenated:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-xX&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=None, x=&#39;X&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Several short options can be joined together, using only a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> prefix,
+as long as only the last option (or none of them) requires a value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-y&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-z&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-xyzZ&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(x=True, y=True, z=&#39;Z&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="invalid-arguments">
+<h3>Invalid arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#invalid-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>While parsing the command line, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> checks for a
+variety of errors, including ambiguous options, invalid types, invalid options,
+wrong number of positional arguments, etc.  When it encounters such an error,
+it exits and prints the error along with a usage message:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># invalid type</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: &#39;spam&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># invalid option</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: no such option: --bar</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># wrong number of arguments</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;badger&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="arguments-containing">
+<h3>Arguments containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#arguments-containing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> method attempts to give errors whenever
+the user has clearly made a mistake, but some situations are inherently
+ambiguous.  For example, the command-line argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> could either be an
+attempt to specify an option or an attempt to provide a positional argument.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> method is cautious here: positional
+arguments may only begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> if they look like negative numbers and
+there are no options in the parser that look like negative numbers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=None, x=&#39;-1&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-5&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;-5&#39;, x=&#39;-1&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># negative number options present, so -1 is an option</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=None, one=&#39;X&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># negative number options present, so -2 is an option</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-2&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: no such option: -2</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># negative number options present, so both -1s are options</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have positional arguments that must begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> and don’t look
+like negative numbers, you can insert the pseudo-argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'--'</span></code> which tells
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> that everything after that is a positional
+argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;-f&#39;, one=None)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching">
+<span id="prefix-matching"></span><h3>Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)<a class="headerlink" href="#argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> method <a class="reference internal" href="#allow-abbrev"><span class="std std-ref">by default</span></a>
+allows long options to be abbreviated to a prefix, if the abbreviation is
+unambiguous (the prefix matches a unique option):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-bacon&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-badger&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-bac MMM&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bacon=&#39;MMM&#39;, badger=None)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-bad WOOD&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bacon=None, badger=&#39;WOOD&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-ba BA&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An error is produced for arguments that could produce more than one options.
+This feature can be disabled by setting <a class="reference internal" href="#allow-abbrev"><span class="std std-ref">allow_abbrev</span></a> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="beyond-sys-argv">
+<span id="args"></span><h3>Beyond <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#beyond-sys-argv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Sometimes it may be useful to have an ArgumentParser parse arguments other than those
+of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a>.  This can be accomplished by passing a list of strings to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>.  This is useful for testing at the
+interactive prompt:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s1">&#39;integers&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;int&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">choices</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;an integer in the range 0..9&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s1">&#39;--sum&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;accumulate&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_const&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;sum the integers (default: find the max)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;3&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;4&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(accumulate=&lt;built-in function max&gt;, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;3&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;4&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--sum&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(accumulate=&lt;built-in function sum&gt;, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-namespace-object">
+<span id="namespace"></span><h3>The Namespace object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-namespace-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="argparse.Namespace">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">Namespace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.Namespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Simple class used by default by <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> to create
+an object holding attributes and return it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This class is deliberately simple, just an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> subclass with a
+readable string representation. If you prefer to have dict-like view of the
+attributes, you can use the standard Python idiom, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#vars" title="vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vars()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">vars</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;foo&#39;: &#39;BAR&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It may also be useful to have an <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> assign attributes to an
+already existing object, rather than a new <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Namespace" title="argparse.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a> object.  This can
+be achieved by specifying the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespace=</span></code> keyword argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">namespace</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;BAR&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-utilities">
+<h2>Other utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#other-utilities" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="sub-commands">
+<h3>Sub-commands<a class="headerlink" href="#sub-commands" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">add_subparsers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>title</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>description</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>prog</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>parser_class</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>action</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>option_string</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>dest</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>required</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>help</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>metavar</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Many programs split up their functionality into a number of sub-commands,
+for example, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span></code> program can invoke sub-commands like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span>
+<span class="pre">checkout</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span> <span class="pre">update</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span> <span class="pre">commit</span></code>.  Splitting up functionality
+this way can be a particularly good idea when a program performs several
+different functions which require different kinds of command-line arguments.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> supports the creation of such sub-commands with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_subparsers()</span></code></a> method.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_subparsers()</span></code></a> method is normally
+called with no arguments and returns a special action object.  This object
+has a single method, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_parser()</span></code>, which takes a
+command name and any <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> constructor arguments, and
+returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> object that can be modified as usual.</p>
+<p>Description of parameters:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>title - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by default
+“subcommands” if description is provided, otherwise uses title for
+positional arguments</p></li>
+<li><p>description - description for the sub-parser group in help output, by
+default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>prog - usage information that will be displayed with sub-command help,
+by default the name of the program and any positional arguments before the
+subparser argument</p></li>
+<li><p>parser_class - class which will be used to create sub-parser instances, by
+default the class of the current parser (e.g. ArgumentParser)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#action">action</a> - the basic type of action to be taken when this argument is
+encountered at the command line</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a> - name of the attribute under which sub-command name will be
+stored; by default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and no value is stored</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#required">required</a> - Whether or not a subcommand must be provided, by default
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#help">help</a> - help for sub-parser group in help output, by default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#metavar">metavar</a> - string presenting available sub-commands in help; by default it
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and presents sub-commands in form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Some example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create the top-level parser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparsers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_subparsers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;sub-command help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create the parser for the &quot;a&quot; command</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;a help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create the parser for the &quot;b&quot; command</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;b help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">choices</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;XYZ&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># parse some argument lists</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;12&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Z&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(baz=&#39;Z&#39;, foo=True)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> will only contain
+attributes for the main parser and the subparser that was selected by the
+command line (and not any other subparsers).  So in the example above, when
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> command is specified, only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code> attributes are
+present, and when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> command is specified, only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">baz</span></code> attributes are present.</p>
+<p>Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only the help
+for that particular parser will be printed.  The help message will not
+include parent parser or sibling parser messages.  (A help message for each
+subparser command, however, can be given by supplying the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help=</span></code> argument
+to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_parser()</span></code> as above.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--help&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  {a,b}   sub-command help</span>
+<span class="go">    a     a help</span>
+<span class="go">    b     b help</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  --foo   foo help</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--help&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG a [-h] bar</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  bar     bar help</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--help&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help     show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_subparsers()</span></code></a> method also supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">title</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">description</span></code>
+keyword arguments.  When either is present, the subparser’s commands will
+appear in their own group in the help output.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparsers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_subparsers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;subcommands&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                                   <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;valid subcommands&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                                   <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;additional help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-h&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help  show this help message and exit</span>
+
+<span class="go">subcommands:</span>
+<span class="go">  valid subcommands</span>
+
+<span class="go">  {foo,bar}   additional help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Furthermore, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_parser</span></code> supports an additional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aliases</span></code> argument,
+which allows multiple strings to refer to the same subparser. This example,
+like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span></code>, aliases <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co</span></code> as a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">checkout</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparsers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_subparsers</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">checkout</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;checkout&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">aliases</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;co&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">checkout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;co&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;bar&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One particularly effective way of handling sub-commands is to combine the use
+of the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_subparsers()</span></code></a> method with calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_defaults()</span></code></a> so
+that each subparser knows which Python function it should execute.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># sub-command functions</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;((</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">))&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">z</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create the top-level parser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparsers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_subparsers</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create the parser for the &quot;foo&quot; command</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_defaults</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create the parser for the &quot;bar&quot; command</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_bar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser_bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_defaults</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># parse the args and call whatever function was selected</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo 1 -x 2&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2.0</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># parse the args and call whatever function was selected</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar XYZYX&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">((XYZYX))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This way, you can let <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> do the job of calling the
+appropriate function after argument parsing is complete.  Associating
+functions with actions like this is typically the easiest way to handle the
+different actions for each of your subparsers.  However, if it is necessary
+to check the name of the subparser that was invoked, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code> keyword
+argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_subparsers()</span></code></a> call will work:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparsers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_subparsers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;subparser_name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparser1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparser1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-x&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparser2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subparser2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;frobble&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(subparser_name=&#39;2&#39;, y=&#39;frobble&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filetype-objects">
+<h3>FileType objects<a class="headerlink" href="#filetype-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="argparse.FileType">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">argparse.</code><code class="descname">FileType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode='r'</em>, <em>bufsize=-1</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.FileType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.FileType" title="argparse.FileType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileType</span></code></a> factory creates objects that can be passed to the type
+argument of <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser.add_argument()</span></code></a>.  Arguments that have
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.FileType" title="argparse.FileType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileType</span></code></a> objects as their type will open command-line arguments as
+files with the requested modes, buffer sizes, encodings and error handling
+(see the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function for more details):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--raw&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;out&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;UTF-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--raw&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;raw.dat&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;file.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(out=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;file.txt&#39; mode=&#39;w&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;, raw=&lt;_io.FileIO name=&#39;raw.dat&#39; mode=&#39;wb&#39;&gt;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>FileType objects understand the pseudo-argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> and automatically
+convert this into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code> for readable <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.FileType" title="argparse.FileType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileType</span></code></a> objects and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> for writable <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.FileType" title="argparse.FileType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileType</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;infile&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(infile=&lt;_io.TextIOWrapper name=&#39;&lt;stdin&gt;&#39; encoding=&#39;UTF-8&#39;&gt;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>encodings</em> and <em>errors</em> keyword arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="argument-groups">
+<h3>Argument groups<a class="headerlink" href="#argument-groups" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">add_argument_group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>title=None</em>, <em>description=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> groups command-line arguments into
+“positional arguments” and “optional arguments” when displaying help
+messages. When there is a better conceptual grouping of arguments than this
+default one, appropriate groups can be created using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument_group()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">add_help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument_group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;group&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar</span>
+
+<span class="go">group:</span>
+<span class="go">  bar    bar help</span>
+<span class="go">  --foo FOO  foo help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument_group()</span></code></a> method returns an argument group object which
+has an <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> method just like a regular
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>.  When an argument is added to the group, the parser
+treats it just like a normal argument, but displays the argument in a
+separate group for help messages.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument_group()</span></code></a> method
+accepts <em>title</em> and <em>description</em> arguments which can be used to
+customize this display:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">add_help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument_group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;group1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;group1 description&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument_group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;group2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;group2 description&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar help&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_help</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo</span>
+
+<span class="go">group1:</span>
+<span class="go">  group1 description</span>
+
+<span class="go">  foo    foo help</span>
+
+<span class="go">group2:</span>
+<span class="go">  group2 description</span>
+
+<span class="go">  --bar BAR  bar help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that any arguments not in your user-defined groups will end up back
+in the usual “positional arguments” and “optional arguments” sections.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mutual-exclusion">
+<h3>Mutual exclusion<a class="headerlink" href="#mutual-exclusion" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">add_mutually_exclusive_group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>required=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a mutually exclusive group. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> will make sure that only
+one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was present on the
+command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_mutually_exclusive_group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_false&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_mutually_exclusive_group()</span></code></a> method also accepts a <em>required</em>
+argument, to indicate that at least one of the mutually exclusive arguments
+is required:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PROG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_mutually_exclusive_group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">required</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_false&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)</span>
+<span class="go">PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not support the
+<em>title</em> and <em>description</em> arguments of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument_group()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parser-defaults">
+<h3>Parser defaults<a class="headerlink" href="#parser-defaults" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">set_defaults</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Most of the time, the attributes of the object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>
+will be fully determined by inspecting the command-line arguments and the argument
+actions.  <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_defaults()</span></code></a> allows some additional
+attributes that are determined without any inspection of the command line to
+be added:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_defaults</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">baz</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;badger&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;736&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(bar=42, baz=&#39;badger&#39;, foo=736)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that parser-level defaults always override argument-level defaults:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_defaults</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(foo=&#39;spam&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parser-level defaults can be particularly useful when working with multiple
+parsers.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_subparsers()</span></code></a> method for an
+example of this type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.get_default">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">get_default</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dest</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.get_default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the default value for a namespace attribute, as set by either
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_argument()</span></code></a> or by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.set_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_defaults()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;badger&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;badger&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="printing-help">
+<h3>Printing help<a class="headerlink" href="#printing-help" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In most typical applications, <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> will take
+care of formatting and printing any usage or error messages.  However, several
+formatting methods are available:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.print_usage">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">print_usage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.print_usage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a brief description of how the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> should be
+invoked on the command line.  If <em>file</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> is
+assumed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.print_help">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">print_help</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.print_help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a help message, including the program usage and information about the
+arguments registered with the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>.  If <em>file</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> is assumed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There are also variants of these methods that simply return a string instead of
+printing it:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">format_usage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string containing a brief description of how the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> should be invoked on the command line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.format_help">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">format_help</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.format_help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string containing a help message, including the program usage and
+information about the arguments registered with the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="partial-parsing">
+<h3>Partial parsing<a class="headerlink" href="#partial-parsing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">parse_known_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args=None</em>, <em>namespace=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Sometimes a script may only parse a few of the command-line arguments, passing
+the remaining arguments on to another script or program. In these cases, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_known_args()</span></code></a> method can be useful.  It works much like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a> except that it does not produce an error when
+extra arguments are present.  Instead, it returns a two item tuple containing
+the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_known_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--badger&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BAR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">(Namespace(bar=&#39;BAR&#39;, foo=True), [&#39;--badger&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#prefix-matching"><span class="std std-ref">Prefix matching</span></a> rules apply to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_known_args()</span></code>. The parser may consume an option even if it’s just
+a prefix of one of its known options, instead of leaving it in the remaining
+arguments list.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-file-parsing">
+<h3>Customizing file parsing<a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-file-parsing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">convert_arg_line_to_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg_line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Arguments that are read from a file (see the <em>fromfile_prefix_chars</em>
+keyword argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> constructor) are read one
+argument per line. <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">convert_arg_line_to_args()</span></code></a> can be overridden for
+fancier reading.</p>
+<p>This method takes a single argument <em>arg_line</em> which is a string read from
+the argument file.  It returns a list of arguments parsed from this string.
+The method is called once per line read from the argument file, in order.</p>
+<p>A useful override of this method is one that treats each space-separated word
+as an argument.  The following example demonstrates how to do this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">convert_arg_line_to_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg_line</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">arg_line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exiting-methods">
+<h3>Exiting methods<a class="headerlink" href="#exiting-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.exit">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status=0</em>, <em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified <em>status</em>
+and, if given, it prints a <em>message</em> before that.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.error">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method prints a usage message including the <em>message</em> to the
+standard error and terminates the program with a status code of 2.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="intermixed-parsing">
+<h3>Intermixed parsing<a class="headerlink" href="#intermixed-parsing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">parse_intermixed_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args=None</em>, <em>namespace=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args">
+<code class="descclassname">ArgumentParser.</code><code class="descname">parse_known_intermixed_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args=None</em>, <em>namespace=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>A number of Unix commands allow the user to intermix optional arguments with
+positional arguments.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_intermixed_args()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_known_intermixed_args()</span></code></a> methods
+support this parsing style.</p>
+<p>These parsers do not support all the argparse features, and will raise
+exceptions if unsupported features are used.  In particular, subparsers,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse.REMAINDER</span></code>, and mutually exclusive groups that include both
+optionals and positionals are not supported.</p>
+<p>The following example shows the difference between
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_known_args()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_intermixed_args()</span></code></a>: the former returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['2',</span>
+<span class="pre">'3']</span></code> as unparsed arguments, while the latter collects all the positionals
+into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rest</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cmd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rest&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_known_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;doit 1 --foo bar 2 3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">(Namespace(cmd=&#39;doit&#39;, foo=&#39;bar&#39;, rest=[1]), [&#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_intermixed_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;doit 1 --foo bar 2 3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(cmd=&#39;doit&#39;, foo=&#39;bar&#39;, rest=[1, 2, 3])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_known_intermixed_args()</span></code></a> returns a two item tuple
+containing the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_intermixed_args()</span></code></a> raises an error if there are any
+remaining unparsed argument strings.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="upgrading-optparse-code">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Upgrading optparse code<a class="headerlink" href="#upgrading-optparse-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Originally, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module had attempted to maintain compatibility
+with <a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>.  However, <a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> was difficult to extend
+transparently, particularly with the changes required to support the new
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs=</span></code> specifiers and better usage messages.  When most everything in
+<a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> had either been copy-pasted over or monkey-patched, it no
+longer seemed practical to try to maintain the backwards compatibility.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module improves on the standard library <a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>
+module in a number of ways including:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Handling positional arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>Supporting sub-commands.</p></li>
+<li><p>Allowing alternative option prefixes like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>Producing more informative usage messages.</p></li>
+<li><p>Providing a much simpler interface for custom <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A partial upgrade path from <a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Replace all <a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.OptionParser.add_option()</span></code></a> calls with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser.add_argument()</span></code></a> calls.</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(options,</span> <span class="pre">args)</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">parser.parse_args()</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">parser.parse_args()</span></code> and add additional <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser.add_argument()</span></code></a>
+calls for the positional arguments. Keep in mind that what was previously
+called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code>, now in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> context is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace <a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args" title="optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args()</span></code></a>
+by using <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_intermixed_args()</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace callback actions and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_*</span></code> keyword arguments with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code> arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace string names for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> keyword arguments with the corresponding
+type objects (e.g. int, float, complex, etc).</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.Values</span></code> with <a class="reference internal" href="#argparse.Namespace" title="argparse.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.OptionError</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.OptionValueError</span></code> with
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentError</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace strings with implicit arguments such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%default</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> with
+the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to format strings, that is,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(default)s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(prog)s</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Replace the OptionParser constructor <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> argument with a call to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.add_argument('--version',</span> <span class="pre">action='version',</span> <span class="pre">version='&lt;the</span> <span class="pre">version&gt;')</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-a-parser">Creating a parser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-arguments">Adding arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argumentparser-objects">ArgumentParser objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#prog">prog</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#usage">usage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#description">description</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#epilog">epilog</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parents">parents</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formatter-class">formatter_class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#prefix-chars">prefix_chars</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fromfile-prefix-chars">fromfile_prefix_chars</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argument-default">argument_default</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#allow-abbrev">allow_abbrev</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conflict-handler">conflict_handler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#add-help">add_help</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-add-argument-method">The add_argument() method</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#name-or-flags">name or flags</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#action">action</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nargs">nargs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#const">const</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default">default</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type">type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#choices">choices</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#required">required</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#help">help</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#metavar">metavar</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dest">dest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#action-classes">Action classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-parse-args-method">The parse_args() method</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#option-value-syntax">Option value syntax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#invalid-arguments">Invalid arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#arguments-containing">Arguments containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching">Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#beyond-sys-argv">Beyond <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-namespace-object">The Namespace object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-utilities">Other utilities</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sub-commands">Sub-commands</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filetype-objects">FileType objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argument-groups">Argument groups</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mutual-exclusion">Mutual exclusion</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parser-defaults">Parser defaults</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printing-help">Printing help</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#partial-parsing">Partial parsing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-file-parsing">Customizing file parsing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exiting-methods">Exiting methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#intermixed-parsing">Intermixed parsing</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#upgrading-optparse-code">Upgrading optparse code</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> — Time access and conversions</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-array">
+<span id="array-efficient-arrays-of-numeric-values"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> — Efficient arrays of numeric values<a class="headerlink" href="#module-array" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines an object type which can compactly represent an array of
+basic values: characters, integers, floating point numbers.  Arrays are sequence
+types and behave very much like lists, except that the type of objects stored in
+them is constrained.  The type is specified at object creation time by using a
+<em class="dfn">type code</em>, which is a single character.  The following type codes are
+defined:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 9%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type code</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Minimum size in bytes</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>signed char</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'B'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned char</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Py_UNICODE</p></td>
+<td><p>Unicode character</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'h'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>signed short</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'H'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned short</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>signed int</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'I'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned int</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'l'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>signed long</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'L'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned long</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'q'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>signed long long</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Q'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unsigned long long</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>double</p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> type code corresponds to Python’s obsolete unicode character
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> which is <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code>). Depending on the
+platform, it can be 16 bits or 32 bits.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> will be removed together with the rest of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a>
+API.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'q'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Q'</span></code> type codes are available only if
+the platform C compiler used to build Python supports C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>,
+or, on Windows, <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int64</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p>The actual representation of values is determined by the machine architecture
+(strictly speaking, by the C implementation).  The actual size can be accessed
+through the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following type:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="array.array">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">array</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>initializer</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A new array whose items are restricted by <em>typecode</em>, and initialized
+from the optional <em>initializer</em> value, which must be a list, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>, or iterable over elements of the
+appropriate type.</p>
+<p>If given a list or string, the initializer is passed to the new array’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.fromlist" title="array.array.fromlist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromlist()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.frombytes" title="array.array.frombytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frombytes()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.fromunicode" title="array.array.fromunicode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromunicode()</span></code></a> method (see below)
+to add initial items to the array.  Otherwise, the iterable initializer is
+passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.extend" title="array.array.extend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="array.typecodes">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">typecodes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#array.typecodes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string with all available type codes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Array objects support the ordinary sequence operations of indexing, slicing,
+concatenation, and multiplication.  When using slice assignment, the assigned
+value must be an array object with the same type code; in all other cases,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised. Array objects also implement the buffer interface,
+and may be used wherever <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> are supported.</p>
+<p>The following data items and methods are also supported:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="array.array.typecode">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">typecode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.typecode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The typecode character used to create the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="array.array.itemsize">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">itemsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.itemsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The length in bytes of one array item in the internal representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.append">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append a new item with value <em>x</em> to the end of the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.buffer_info">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">buffer_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.buffer_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(address,</span> <span class="pre">length)</span></code> giving the current memory address and the
+length in elements of the buffer used to hold array’s contents.  The size of the
+memory buffer in bytes can be computed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.buffer_info()[1]</span> <span class="pre">*</span>
+<span class="pre">array.itemsize</span></code>.  This is occasionally useful when working with low-level (and
+inherently unsafe) I/O interfaces that require memory addresses, such as certain
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code> operations.  The returned numbers are valid as long as the array
+exists and no length-changing operations are applied to it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When using array objects from code written in C or C++ (the only way to
+effectively make use of this information), it makes more sense to use the buffer
+interface supported by array objects.  This method is maintained for backward
+compatibility and should be avoided in new code.  The buffer interface is
+documented in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Protocol</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.byteswap">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">byteswap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.byteswap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>“Byteswap” all items of the array.  This is only supported for values which are
+1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes in size; for other types of values, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is
+raised.  It is useful when reading data from a file written on a machine with a
+different byte order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.count">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of occurrences of <em>x</em> in the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.extend">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">extend</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.extend" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append items from <em>iterable</em> to the end of the array.  If <em>iterable</em> is another
+array, it must have <em>exactly</em> the same type code; if not, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will
+be raised.  If <em>iterable</em> is not an array, it must be iterable and its elements
+must be the right type to be appended to the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.frombytes">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">frombytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.frombytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Appends items from the string, interpreting the string as an array of machine
+values (as if it had been read from a file using the <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.fromfile" title="array.array.fromfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromfile()</span></code></a> method).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.fromstring" title="array.array.fromstring"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromstring()</span></code></a> is renamed to <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.frombytes" title="array.array.frombytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frombytes()</span></code></a> for clarity.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.fromfile">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">fromfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.fromfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read <em>n</em> items (as machine values) from the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> <em>f</em> and append
+them to the end of the array.  If less than <em>n</em> items are available,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> is raised, but the items that were available are still
+inserted into the array. <em>f</em> must be a real built-in file object; something
+else with a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> method won’t do.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.fromlist">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">fromlist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.fromlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append items from the list.  This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">list:</span>
+<span class="pre">a.append(x)</span></code> except that if there is a type error, the array is unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.fromstring">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">fromstring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.fromstring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deprecated alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.frombytes" title="array.array.frombytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frombytes()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.fromunicode">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">fromunicode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.fromunicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extends this array with data from the given unicode string.  The array must
+be a type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> array; otherwise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  Use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc))</span></code> to append Unicode data to an
+array of some other type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.index">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the smallest <em>i</em> such that <em>i</em> is the index of the first occurrence of
+<em>x</em> in the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.insert">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">insert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.insert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a new item with value <em>x</em> in the array before position <em>i</em>. Negative
+values are treated as being relative to the end of the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.pop">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">pop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>i</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.pop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the item with the index <em>i</em> from the array and returns it. The optional
+argument defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, so that by default the last item is removed and
+returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.remove">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the first occurrence of <em>x</em> from the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.reverse">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">reverse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.reverse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reverse the order of the items in the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.tobytes">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">tobytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.tobytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the array to an array of machine values and return the bytes
+representation (the same sequence of bytes that would be written to a file by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.tofile" title="array.array.tofile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tofile()</span></code></a> method.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.tostring" title="array.array.tostring"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tostring()</span></code></a> is renamed to <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.tobytes" title="array.array.tobytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tobytes()</span></code></a> for clarity.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.tofile">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">tofile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.tofile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write all items (as machine values) to the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> <em>f</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.tolist">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">tolist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.tolist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the array to an ordinary list with the same items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.tostring">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">tostring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.tostring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deprecated alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#array.array.tobytes" title="array.array.tobytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tobytes()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="array.array.tounicode">
+<code class="descclassname">array.</code><code class="descname">tounicode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#array.array.tounicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the array to a unicode string.  The array must be a type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> array;
+otherwise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised. Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.tobytes().decode(enc)</span></code> to
+obtain a unicode string from an array of some other type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>When an array object is printed or converted to a string, it is represented as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array(typecode,</span> <span class="pre">initializer)</span></code>.  The <em>initializer</em> is omitted if the array is
+empty, otherwise it is a string if the <em>typecode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code>, otherwise it is a
+list of numbers.  The string is guaranteed to be able to be converted back to an
+array with the same type and value using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>, so long as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> class has been imported using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">array</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">array</span></code>.
+Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;u&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello </span><span class="se">\u2641</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Packing and unpacking of heterogeneous binary data.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="xdrlib.html#module-xdrlib" title="xdrlib: Encoders and decoders for the External Data Representation (XDR)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Packing and unpacking of External Data Representation (XDR) data as used in some
+remote procedure call systems.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://docs.scipy.org/doc/">The Numerical Python Documentation</a></dt><dd><p>The Numeric Python extension (NumPy) defines another array type; see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.numpy.org/">http://www.numpy.org/</a> for further information about Numerical Python.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="bisect.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code> — Array bisection algorithm</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="weakref.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ast.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ast.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a60103f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ast.html
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>ast — Abstract Syntax Trees &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-ast">
+<span id="ast-abstract-syntax-trees"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> — Abstract Syntax Trees<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ast" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/ast.py">Lib/ast.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> module helps Python applications to process trees of the Python
+abstract syntax grammar.  The abstract syntax itself might change with each
+Python release; this module helps to find out programmatically what the current
+grammar looks like.</p>
+<p>An abstract syntax tree can be generated by passing <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST</span></code> as
+a flag to the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> built-in function, or using the <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.parse" title="ast.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a>
+helper provided in this module.  The result will be a tree of objects whose
+classes all inherit from <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.AST" title="ast.AST"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.AST</span></code></a>.  An abstract syntax tree can be
+compiled into a Python code object using the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="section" id="node-classes">
+<h2>Node classes<a class="headerlink" href="#node-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ast.AST">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">AST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.AST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the base of all AST node classes.  The actual node classes are
+derived from the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser/Python.asdl</span></code> file, which is reproduced
+<a class="reference internal" href="#abstract-grammar"><span class="std std-ref">below</span></a>.  They are defined in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ast</span></code> C
+module and re-exported in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>There is one class defined for each left-hand side symbol in the abstract
+grammar (for example, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.stmt</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.expr</span></code>).  In addition,
+there is one class defined for each constructor on the right-hand side; these
+classes inherit from the classes for the left-hand side trees.  For example,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.BinOp</span></code> inherits from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.expr</span></code>.  For production rules
+with alternatives (aka “sums”), the left-hand side class is abstract: only
+instances of specific constructor nodes are ever created.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ast.AST._fields">
+<code class="descname">_fields</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.AST._fields" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Each concrete class has an attribute <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.AST._fields" title="ast.AST._fields"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields</span></code></a> which gives the names
+of all child nodes.</p>
+<p>Each instance of a concrete class has one attribute for each child node,
+of the type as defined in the grammar.  For example, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.BinOp</span></code>
+instances have an attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">left</span></code> of type <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.expr</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If these attributes are marked as optional in the grammar (using a
+question mark), the value might be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If the attributes can have
+zero-or-more values (marked with an asterisk), the values are represented
+as Python lists.  All possible attributes must be present and have valid
+values when compiling an AST with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ast.AST.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.AST.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="ast.AST.col_offset">
+<code class="descname">col_offset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.AST.col_offset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.expr</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.stmt</span></code> subclasses have
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ast.AST.lineno" title="ast.AST.lineno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.AST.col_offset" title="ast.AST.col_offset"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code></a> attributes.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.AST.lineno" title="ast.AST.lineno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code></a> is
+the line number of source text (1-indexed so the first line is line 1) and
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.AST.col_offset" title="ast.AST.col_offset"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code></a> is the UTF-8 byte offset of the first token that
+generated the node.  The UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses
+UTF-8 internally.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The constructor of a class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.T</span></code> parses its arguments as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If there are positional arguments, there must be as many as there are items
+in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T._fields</span></code>; they will be assigned as attributes of these names.</p></li>
+<li><p>If there are keyword arguments, they will set the attributes of the same
+names to the given values.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example, to create and populate an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.UnaryOp</span></code> node, you could
+use</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">node</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UnaryOp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">op</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">USub</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">operand</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Num</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">operand</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">operand</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">operand</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">col_offset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">col_offset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or the more compact</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">node</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UnaryOp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">USub</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Num</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lineno</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">col_offset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                   <span class="n">lineno</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">col_offset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="abstract-grammar">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Abstract Grammar<a class="headerlink" href="#abstract-grammar" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The abstract grammar is currently defined as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>-- ASDL&#39;s 7 builtin types are:
+-- identifier, int, string, bytes, object, singleton, constant
+--
+-- singleton: None, True or False
+-- constant can be None, whereas None means &quot;no value&quot; for object.
+
+module Python
+{
+    mod = Module(stmt* body)
+        | Interactive(stmt* body)
+        | Expression(expr body)
+
+        -- not really an actual node but useful in Jython&#39;s typesystem.
+        | Suite(stmt* body)
+
+    stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
+                       stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns)
+          | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
+                             stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns)
+
+          | ClassDef(identifier name,
+             expr* bases,
+             keyword* keywords,
+             stmt* body,
+             expr* decorator_list)
+          | Return(expr? value)
+
+          | Delete(expr* targets)
+          | Assign(expr* targets, expr value)
+          | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value)
+          -- &#39;simple&#39; indicates that we annotate simple name without parens
+          | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple)
+
+          -- use &#39;orelse&#39; because else is a keyword in target languages
+          | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
+          | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
+          | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
+          | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
+          | With(withitem* items, stmt* body)
+          | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body)
+
+          | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause)
+          | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
+          | Assert(expr test, expr? msg)
+
+          | Import(alias* names)
+          | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level)
+
+          | Global(identifier* names)
+          | Nonlocal(identifier* names)
+          | Expr(expr value)
+          | Pass | Break | Continue
+
+          -- XXX Jython will be different
+          -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
+          attributes (int lineno, int col_offset)
+
+          -- BoolOp() can use left &amp; right?
+    expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values)
+         | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right)
+         | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand)
+         | Lambda(arguments args, expr body)
+         | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse)
+         | Dict(expr* keys, expr* values)
+         | Set(expr* elts)
+         | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
+         | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
+         | DictComp(expr key, expr value, comprehension* generators)
+         | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
+         -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur
+         | Await(expr value)
+         | Yield(expr? value)
+         | YieldFrom(expr value)
+         -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between
+         -- x &lt; 4 &lt; 3 and (x &lt; 4) &lt; 3
+         | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators)
+         | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords)
+         | Num(object n) -- a number as a PyObject.
+         | Str(string s) -- need to specify raw, unicode, etc?
+         | FormattedValue(expr value, int? conversion, expr? format_spec)
+         | JoinedStr(expr* values)
+         | Bytes(bytes s)
+         | NameConstant(singleton value)
+         | Ellipsis
+         | Constant(constant value)
+
+         -- the following expression can appear in assignment context
+         | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx)
+         | Subscript(expr value, slice slice, expr_context ctx)
+         | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx)
+         | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx)
+         | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
+         | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
+
+          -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
+          attributes (int lineno, int col_offset)
+
+    expr_context = Load | Store | Del | AugLoad | AugStore | Param
+
+    slice = Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step)
+          | ExtSlice(slice* dims)
+          | Index(expr value)
+
+    boolop = And | Or
+
+    operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift
+                 | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv
+
+    unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub
+
+    cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn
+
+    comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async)
+
+    excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body)
+                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset)
+
+    arguments = (arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs, expr* kw_defaults,
+                 arg? kwarg, expr* defaults)
+
+    arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation)
+           attributes (int lineno, int col_offset)
+
+    -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs)
+    keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value)
+
+    -- import name with optional &#39;as&#39; alias.
+    alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname)
+
+    withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars)
+}
+
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ast-helpers">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> Helpers<a class="headerlink" href="#ast-helpers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Apart from the node classes, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> module defines these utility functions
+and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.parse">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>filename='&lt;unknown&gt;'</em>, <em>mode='exec'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse the source into an AST node.  Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile(source,</span>
+<span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">mode,</span> <span class="pre">ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
+sufficiently large/complex string due to stack depth limitations
+in Python’s AST compiler.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.literal_eval">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">literal_eval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node_or_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.literal_eval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Safely evaluate an expression node or a string containing a Python literal or
+container display.  The string or node provided may only consist of the
+following Python literal structures: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists,
+dicts, sets, booleans, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This can be used for safely evaluating strings containing Python values from
+untrusted sources without the need to parse the values oneself.  It is not
+capable of evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving
+operators or indexing.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
+sufficiently large/complex string due to stack depth limitations
+in Python’s AST compiler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Now allows bytes and set literals.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.get_docstring">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">get_docstring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em>, <em>clean=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.get_docstring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the docstring of the given <em>node</em> (which must be a
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FunctionDef</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncFunctionDef</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassDef</span></code>,
+or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Module</span></code> node), or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if it has no docstring.
+If <em>clean</em> is true, clean up the docstring’s indentation with
+<a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.cleandoc" title="inspect.cleandoc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.cleandoc()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncFunctionDef</span></code> is now supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.fix_missing_locations">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">fix_missing_locations</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.fix_missing_locations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When you compile a node tree with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, the compiler expects
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code> attributes for every node that supports
+them.  This is rather tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper
+adds these attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to
+the values of the parent node.  It works recursively starting at <em>node</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.increment_lineno">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">increment_lineno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em>, <em>n=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.increment_lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Increment the line number of each node in the tree starting at <em>node</em> by <em>n</em>.
+This is useful to “move code” to a different location in a file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.copy_location">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">copy_location</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>new_node</em>, <em>old_node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.copy_location" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy source location (<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code>) from <em>old_node</em>
+to <em>new_node</em> if possible, and return <em>new_node</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.iter_fields">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">iter_fields</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.iter_fields" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Yield a tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(fieldname,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> for each field in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">node._fields</span></code>
+that is present on <em>node</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.iter_child_nodes">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">iter_child_nodes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.iter_child_nodes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Yield all direct child nodes of <em>node</em>, that is, all fields that are nodes
+and all items of fields that are lists of nodes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.walk">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">walk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.walk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Recursively yield all descendant nodes in the tree starting at <em>node</em>
+(including <em>node</em> itself), in no specified order.  This is useful if you only
+want to modify nodes in place and don’t care about the context.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ast.NodeVisitor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">NodeVisitor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.NodeVisitor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A node visitor base class that walks the abstract syntax tree and calls a
+visitor function for every node found.  This function may return a value
+which is forwarded by the <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeVisitor.visit" title="ast.NodeVisitor.visit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">visit()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>This class is meant to be subclassed, with the subclass adding visitor
+methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ast.NodeVisitor.visit">
+<code class="descname">visit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.NodeVisitor.visit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Visit a node.  The default implementation calls the method called
+<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.visit_</span><em><span class="pre">classname</span></em></code> where <em>classname</em> is the name of the node
+class, or <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit" title="ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generic_visit()</span></code></a> if that method doesn’t exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit">
+<code class="descname">generic_visit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This visitor calls <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeVisitor.visit" title="ast.NodeVisitor.visit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">visit()</span></code></a> on all children of the node.</p>
+<p>Note that child nodes of nodes that have a custom visitor method won’t be
+visited unless the visitor calls <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit" title="ast.NodeVisitor.generic_visit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generic_visit()</span></code></a> or visits them
+itself.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Don’t use the <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeVisitor" title="ast.NodeVisitor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeVisitor</span></code></a> if you want to apply changes to nodes
+during traversal.  For this a special visitor exists
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeTransformer" title="ast.NodeTransformer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeTransformer</span></code></a>) that allows modifications.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ast.NodeTransformer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">NodeTransformer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.NodeTransformer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeVisitor" title="ast.NodeVisitor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeVisitor</span></code></a> subclass that walks the abstract syntax tree and
+allows modification of nodes.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ast.NodeTransformer" title="ast.NodeTransformer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeTransformer</span></code></a> will walk the AST and use the return value of
+the visitor methods to replace or remove the old node.  If the return value
+of the visitor method is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the node will be removed from its
+location, otherwise it is replaced with the return value.  The return value
+may be the original node in which case no replacement takes place.</p>
+<p>Here is an example transformer that rewrites all occurrences of name lookups
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>) to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data['foo']</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">RewriteName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NodeTransformer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">visit_Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">node</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">copy_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Subscript</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;data&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">()),</span>
+            <span class="nb">slice</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">id</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+            <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ctx</span>
+        <span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">node</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Keep in mind that if the node you’re operating on has child nodes you must
+either transform the child nodes yourself or call the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generic_visit()</span></code>
+method for the node first.</p>
+<p>For nodes that were part of a collection of statements (that applies to all
+statement nodes), the visitor may also return a list of nodes rather than
+just a single node.</p>
+<p>Usually you use the transformer like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">node</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">YourTransformer</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ast.dump">
+<code class="descclassname">ast.</code><code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em>, <em>annotate_fields=True</em>, <em>include_attributes=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ast.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a formatted dump of the tree in <em>node</em>.  This is mainly useful for
+debugging purposes.  The returned string will show the names and the values
+for fields.  This makes the code impossible to evaluate, so if evaluation is
+wanted <em>annotate_fields</em> must be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  Attributes such as line
+numbers and column offsets are not dumped by default.  If this is wanted,
+<em>include_attributes</em> can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/">Green Tree Snakes</a>, an external documentation resource, has good
+details on working with Python ASTs.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#node-classes">Node classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abstract-grammar">Abstract Grammar</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ast-helpers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> Helpers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="parser.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> — Access Python parse trees</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asynchat.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asynchat.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a07433
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asynchat.html
@@ -0,0 +1,405 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-asynchat">
+<span id="asynchat-asynchronous-socket-command-response-handler"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-asynchat" title="asynchat: Support for asynchronous command/response protocols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code></a> — Asynchronous socket command/response handler<a class="headerlink" href="#module-asynchat" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/asynchat.py">Lib/asynchat.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Please use <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This module exists for backwards compatibility only.  For new code we
+recommend using <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This module builds on the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> infrastructure, simplifying
+asynchronous clients and servers and making it easier to handle protocols
+whose elements are terminated by arbitrary strings, or are of variable length.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-asynchat" title="asynchat: Support for asynchronous command/response protocols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code></a> defines the abstract class <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a> that you
+subclass, providing implementations of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collect_incoming_data()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">found_terminator()</span></code> methods. It uses the same asynchronous loop as
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a>, and the two types of channel, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat.async_chat</span></code></a>, can freely be mixed in the channel map.
+Typically an <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a> server channel generates new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat.async_chat</span></code></a> channel objects as it receives incoming
+connection requests.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asynchat.</code><code class="descname">async_chat</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is an abstract subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a>. To make
+practical use of the code you must subclass <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a>, providing
+meaningful <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data" title="asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collect_incoming_data()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator" title="asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">found_terminator()</span></code></a>
+methods.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a> methods can be used, although not all make
+sense in a message/response context.</p>
+<p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a> defines a set of
+events that are generated by an analysis of socket conditions after a
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> call. Once the polling loop has been started the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a> object’s methods are called by the event-processing
+framework with no action on the part of the programmer.</p>
+<p>Two class attributes can be modified, to improve performance, or possibly
+even to conserve memory.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.ac_in_buffer_size">
+<code class="descname">ac_in_buffer_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.ac_in_buffer_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The asynchronous input buffer size (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4096</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.ac_out_buffer_size">
+<code class="descname">ac_out_buffer_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.ac_out_buffer_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The asynchronous output buffer size (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4096</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a> allows you to
+define a <abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr> queue of <em>producers</em>. A producer need
+have only one method, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">more()</span></code>, which should return data to be
+transmitted on the channel.
+The producer indicates exhaustion (<em>i.e.</em> that it contains no more data) by
+having its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">more()</span></code> method return the empty bytes object. At this point
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a> object removes the producer from the queue and starts
+using the next producer, if any. When the producer queue is empty the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_write()</span></code> method does nothing. You use the channel object’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator" title="asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_terminator()</span></code></a> method to describe how to recognize the end of, or
+an important breakpoint in, an incoming transmission from the remote
+endpoint.</p>
+<p>To build a functioning <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a> subclass your  input methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data" title="asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collect_incoming_data()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator" title="asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">found_terminator()</span></code></a> must handle the
+data that the channel receives asynchronously. The methods are described
+below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.close_when_done">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">close_when_done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.close_when_done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> on to the producer queue. When this producer is popped off
+the queue it causes the channel to be closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">collect_incoming_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.collect_incoming_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called with <em>data</em> holding an arbitrary amount of received data.  The
+default method, which must be overridden, raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.discard_buffers">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">discard_buffers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.discard_buffers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In emergencies this method will discard any data held in the input and/or
+output buffers and the producer queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">found_terminator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the incoming data stream  matches the termination condition set
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator" title="asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_terminator()</span></code></a>. The default method, which must be overridden,
+raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> exception. The buffered input data
+should be available via an instance attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.get_terminator">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">get_terminator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.get_terminator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current terminator for the channel.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.push">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">push</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.push" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes data on to the channel’s queue to ensure its transmission.
+This is all you need to do to have the channel write the data out to the
+network, although it is possible to use your own producers in more complex
+schemes to implement encryption and chunking, for example.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.push_with_producer">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">push_with_producer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>producer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.push_with_producer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Takes a producer object and adds it to the producer queue associated with
+the channel.  When all currently-pushed producers have been exhausted the
+channel will consume this producer’s data by calling its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">more()</span></code>
+method and send the data to the remote endpoint.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator">
+<code class="descclassname">async_chat.</code><code class="descname">set_terminator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>term</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat.async_chat.set_terminator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the terminating condition to be recognized on the channel.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">term</span></code>
+may be any of three types of value, corresponding to three different ways
+to handle incoming protocol data.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 80%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>term</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>string</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Will call <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator" title="asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">found_terminator()</span></code></a> when the
+string is found in the input stream</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>integer</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Will call <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator" title="asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">found_terminator()</span></code></a> when the
+indicated number of characters have been
+received</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The channel continues to collect data
+forever</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Note that any data following the terminator will be available for reading
+by the channel after <a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator" title="asynchat.async_chat.found_terminator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">found_terminator()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="asynchat-example">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>asynchat Example<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following partial example shows how HTTP requests can be read with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_chat</span></code></a>.  A web server might create an
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_request_handler</span></code> object for each incoming client connection.
+Notice that initially the channel terminator is set to match the blank line at
+the end of the HTTP headers, and a flag indicates that the headers are being
+read.</p>
+<p>Once the headers have been read, if the request is of type POST (indicating
+that further data are present in the input stream) then the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length:</span></code> header is used to set a numeric terminator to read the
+right amount of data from the channel.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_request()</span></code> method is called once all relevant input has been
+marshalled, after setting the channel terminator to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to ensure that
+any extraneous data sent by the web client are ignored.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asynchat</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">http_request_handler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asynchat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">async_chat</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sessions</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">log</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">asynchat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">async_chat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">addr</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sessions</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sessions</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ibuffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obuffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_terminator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\r\n\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reading_headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handling</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cgi_data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">log</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">collect_incoming_data</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Buffer the data&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ibuffer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">found_terminator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reading_headers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reading_headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_headers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ibuffer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ibuffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">op</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;POST&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">clen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getheader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;content-length&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_terminator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">clen</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handling</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_terminator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle_request</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handling</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_terminator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># browsers sometimes over-send</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cgi_data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ibuffer</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handling</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ibuffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle_request</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code> — Asynchronous socket command/response handler</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat-example">asynchat Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncore.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code> — Asynchronous socket handler</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="signal.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code> — Set handlers for asynchronous events</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b1fa93
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@@ -0,0 +1,402 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>High-level API Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="high-level-api-index">
+<h1>High-level API Index<a class="headerlink" href="#high-level-api-index" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This page lists all high-level async/await enabled asyncio APIs.</p>
+<div class="section" id="tasks">
+<h2>Tasks<a class="headerlink" href="#tasks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Utilities to run asyncio programs, create Tasks, and
+await on multiple things with timeouts.</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Create event loop, run a coroutine, close the loop.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_task()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Start an asyncio Task.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.sleep" title="asyncio.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sleep()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Sleep for a number of seconds.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.gather" title="asyncio.gather"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gather()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Schedule and wait for things concurrently.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for" title="asyncio.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Run with a timeout.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.shield" title="asyncio.shield"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shield()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Shield from cancellation.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait" title="asyncio.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Monitor for completion.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.current_task" title="asyncio.current_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">current_task()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the current Task.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.all_tasks" title="asyncio.all_tasks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all_tasks()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return all tasks for an event loop.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Task object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe" title="asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_coroutine_threadsafe()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Schedule a coroutine from another OS thread.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.as_completed" title="asyncio.as_completed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_completed()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Monitor for completion with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> loop.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio-example-gather"><span class="std std-ref">Using asyncio.gather() to run things in parallel</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio-example-waitfor"><span class="std std-ref">Using asyncio.wait_for() to enforce a timeout</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio-example-task-cancel"><span class="std std-ref">Cancellation</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio-example-sleep"><span class="std std-ref">Using asyncio.sleep()</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>See also the main <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">Tasks documentation page</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="queues">
+<h2>Queues<a class="headerlink" href="#queues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Queues should be used to distribute work amongst multiple asyncio Tasks,
+implement connection pools, and pub/sub patterns.</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue" title="asyncio.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A FIFO queue.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.PriorityQueue" title="asyncio.PriorityQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PriorityQueue</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A priority queue.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.LifoQueue" title="asyncio.LifoQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LifoQueue</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A LIFO queue.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-queue.html#asyncio-example-queue-dist"><span class="std std-ref">Using asyncio.Queue to distribute workload between several
+Tasks</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-queue.html#asyncio-queues"><span class="std std-ref">Queues documentation page</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocesses">
+<h2>Subprocesses<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocesses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Utilities to spawn subprocesses and run shell commands.</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_exec()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a subprocess.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_shell()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Run a shell command.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio-example-subprocess-shell"><span class="std std-ref">Executing a shell command</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio-subprocess"><span class="std std-ref">subprocess APIs</span></a>
+documentation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="streams">
+<h2>Streams<a class="headerlink" href="#streams" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>High-level APIs to work with network IO.</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_connection()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Establish a TCP connection.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_unix_connection" title="asyncio.open_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_unix_connection()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Establish a Unix socket connection.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_server()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Start a TCP server.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_unix_server" title="asyncio.start_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_unix_server()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Start a Unix socket server.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>High-level async/await object to receive network data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="asyncio.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>High-level async/await object to send network data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-example-stream"><span class="std std-ref">Example TCP client</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-streams"><span class="std std-ref">streams APIs</span></a>
+documentation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="synchronization">
+<h2>Synchronization<a class="headerlink" href="#synchronization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Threading-like synchronization primitives that can be used in Tasks.</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock" title="asyncio.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A mutex lock.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Event" title="asyncio.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Event</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>An event object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition" title="asyncio.Condition"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Condition</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A condition object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Semaphore" title="asyncio.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A semaphore.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.BoundedSemaphore" title="asyncio.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A bounded semaphore.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio-example-sync-event"><span class="std std-ref">Using asyncio.Event</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>See also the documentation of asyncio
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio-sync"><span class="std std-ref">synchronization primitives</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.TimeoutError" title="asyncio.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimeoutError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Raised on timeout by functions like <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for" title="asyncio.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for()</span></code></a>.
+Keep in mind that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimeoutError</span></code> is <strong>unrelated</strong>
+to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TimeoutError" title="TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutError</span></code></a> exception.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.CancelledError</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Raised when a Task is cancelled. See also <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.cancel" title="asyncio.Task.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.cancel()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio-example-task-cancel"><span class="std std-ref">Handling CancelledError to run code on cancellation request</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>See also the full list of
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio-exceptions"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio-specific exceptions</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">High-level API Index</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tasks">Tasks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#queues">Queues</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocesses">Subprocesses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streams">Streams</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#synchronization">Synchronization</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="developing-with-asyncio">
+<span id="asyncio-dev"></span><h1>Developing with asyncio<a class="headerlink" href="#developing-with-asyncio" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Asynchronous programming is different from classic “sequential”
+programming.</p>
+<p>This page lists common mistakes and traps and explains how
+to avoid them.</p>
+<div class="section" id="debug-mode">
+<span id="asyncio-debug-mode"></span><h2>Debug Mode<a class="headerlink" href="#debug-mode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>By default asyncio runs in production mode.  In order to ease
+the development asyncio has a <em>debug mode</em>.</p>
+<p>There are several ways to enable asyncio debug mode:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Setting the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG</span></code></a> environment variable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Using the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev</span></code> Python command line option.</p></li>
+<li><p>Passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug=True</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.run()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_debug" title="asyncio.loop.set_debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.set_debug()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In addition to enabling the debug mode, consider also:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>setting the log level of the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-logger"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio logger</span></a> to
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.DEBUG</span></code>, for example the following snippet of code
+can be run at startup of the application:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DEBUG</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>configuring the <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module to display
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> warnings.  One way of doing that is by
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> command line option.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When the debug mode is enabled:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>asyncio checks for <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-coroutine-not-scheduled"><span class="std std-ref">coroutines that were not awaited</span></a> and logs them; this mitigates
+the “forgotten await” pitfall.</p></li>
+<li><p>Many non-threadsafe asyncio APIs (such as <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_at" title="asyncio.loop.call_at"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_at()</span></code></a> methods) raise an exception if they are called
+from a wrong thread.</p></li>
+<li><p>The execution time of the I/O selector is logged if it takes too long to
+perform an I/O operation.</p></li>
+<li><p>Callbacks taking longer than 100ms are logged.  The
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.slow_callback_duration</span></code> attribute can be used to set the
+minimum execution duration in seconds that is considered “slow”.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="concurrency-and-multithreading">
+<span id="asyncio-multithreading"></span><h2>Concurrency and Multithreading<a class="headerlink" href="#concurrency-and-multithreading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An event loop runs in a thread (typically the main thread) and executes
+all callbacks and Tasks in its thread.  While a Task is running in the
+event loop, no other Tasks can run in the same thread.  When a Task
+executes an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> expression, the running Task gets suspended, and
+the event loop executes the next Task.</p>
+<p>To schedule a callback from a different OS thread, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon_threadsafe()</span></code></a> method should be used. Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon_threadsafe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Almost all asyncio objects are not thread safe, which is typically
+not a problem unless there is code that works with them from outside
+of a Task or a callback.  If there’s a need for such code to call a
+low-level asyncio API, the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon_threadsafe()</span></code></a> method
+should be used, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon_threadsafe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fut</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cancel</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To schedule a coroutine object from a different OS thread, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe" title="asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_coroutine_threadsafe()</span></code></a> function should be used. It returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.Future</span></code></a> to access the result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">coro_func</span><span class="p">():</span>
+     <span class="k">return</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Later in another OS thread:</span>
+
+<span class="n">future</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_coroutine_threadsafe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro_func</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># Wait for the result:</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">future</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To handle signals and to execute subprocesses, the event loop must be
+run in the main thread.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_in_executor()</span></code></a> method can be used with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> to execute
+blocking code in a different OS thread without blocking the OS thread
+that the event loop runs in.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-blocking-code">
+<span id="asyncio-handle-blocking"></span><h2>Running Blocking Code<a class="headerlink" href="#running-blocking-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Blocking (CPU-bound) code should not be called directly.  For example,
+if a function performs a CPU-intensive calculation for 1 second,
+all concurrent asyncio Tasks and IO operations would be delayed
+by 1 second.</p>
+<p>An executor can be used to run a task in a different thread or even in
+a different process to avoid blocking block the OS thread with the
+event loop.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_in_executor()</span></code></a> method for more
+details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<span id="asyncio-logger"></span><h2>Logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>asyncio uses the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module and all logging is performed
+via the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;asyncio&quot;</span></code> logger.</p>
+<p>The default log level is <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.INFO</span></code>, which can be easily
+adjusted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;asyncio&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WARNING</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="detect-never-awaited-coroutines">
+<span id="asyncio-coroutine-not-scheduled"></span><h2>Detect never-awaited coroutines<a class="headerlink" href="#detect-never-awaited-coroutines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When a coroutine function is called, but not awaited
+(e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coro()</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">coro()</span></code>)
+or the coroutine is not scheduled with <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_task()</span></code></a>, asyncio
+will emit a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning" title="RuntimeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeWarning</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;never scheduled&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">test</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeWarning</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">coroutine</span> <span class="s1">&#39;test&#39;</span> <span class="n">was</span> <span class="n">never</span> <span class="n">awaited</span>
+  <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output in debug mode:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">test</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeWarning</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">coroutine</span> <span class="s1">&#39;test&#39;</span> <span class="n">was</span> <span class="n">never</span> <span class="n">awaited</span>
+<span class="n">Coroutine</span> <span class="n">created</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;../t.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">debug</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+  <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="o">..</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span>
+
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;../t.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">main</span>
+    <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+  <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The usual fix is to either await the coroutine or call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_task()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="detect-never-retrieved-exceptions">
+<h2>Detect never-retrieved exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#detect-never-retrieved-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.set_exception" title="asyncio.Future.set_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.set_exception()</span></code></a> is called but the Future object is
+never awaited on, the exception would never be propagated to the
+user code.  In this case, asyncio would emit a log message when the
+Future object is garbage collected.</p>
+<p>Example of an unhandled exception:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bug</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;not consumed&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bug</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Task</span> <span class="n">exception</span> <span class="n">was</span> <span class="n">never</span> <span class="n">retrieved</span>
+<span class="n">future</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">Task</span> <span class="n">finished</span> <span class="n">coro</span><span class="o">=&lt;</span><span class="n">bug</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="n">done</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">defined</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+  <span class="n">exception</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;not consumed&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;test.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">bug</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;not consumed&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">consumed</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-debug-mode"><span class="std std-ref">Enable the debug mode</span></a> to get the
+traceback where the task was created:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">debug</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output in debug mode:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Task</span> <span class="n">exception</span> <span class="n">was</span> <span class="n">never</span> <span class="n">retrieved</span>
+<span class="n">future</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">Task</span> <span class="n">finished</span> <span class="n">coro</span><span class="o">=&lt;</span><span class="n">bug</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="n">done</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">defined</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="n">exception</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;not consumed&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">created</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">tasks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">321</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="n">source_traceback</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Object</span> <span class="n">created</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;../t.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">debug</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="o">..</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;../t.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">bug</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;not consumed&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">consumed</span>
+</pre></div>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="event-loop">
+<h1>Event Loop<a class="headerlink" href="#event-loop" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p class="rubric">Preface</p>
+<p>The event loop is the core of every asyncio application.
+Event loops run asynchronous tasks and callbacks, perform network
+IO operations, and run subprocesses.</p>
+<p>Application developers should typically use the high-level asyncio functions,
+such as <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.run()</span></code></a>, and should rarely need to reference the loop
+object or call its methods.  This section is intended mostly for authors
+of lower-level code, libraries, and frameworks, who need finer control over
+the event loop behavior.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Obtaining the Event Loop</p>
+<p>The following low-level functions can be used to get, set, or create
+an event loop:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.get_running_loop">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">get_running_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.get_running_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the running event loop in the current OS thread.</p>
+<p>If there is no running event loop a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.
+This function can only be called from a coroutine or a callback.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.get_event_loop">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">get_event_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the current event loop.  If there is no current event loop set
+in the current OS thread and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.set_event_loop" title="asyncio.set_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_event_loop()</span></code></a> has not yet
+been called, asyncio will create a new event loop and set it as the
+current one.</p>
+<p>Because this function has rather complex behavior (especially
+when custom event loop policies are in use), using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.get_running_loop" title="asyncio.get_running_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_running_loop()</span></code></a> function is preferred to <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_event_loop()</span></code></a>
+in coroutines and callbacks.</p>
+<p>Consider also using the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.run()</span></code></a> function instead of using
+lower level functions to manually create and close an event loop.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.set_event_loop">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">set_event_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.set_event_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>loop</em> as a current event loop for the current OS thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.new_event_loop">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">new_event_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.new_event_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new event loop object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that the behaviour of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_event_loop()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.set_event_loop" title="asyncio.set_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_event_loop()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.new_event_loop" title="asyncio.new_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_event_loop()</span></code></a> functions can be altered by
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-policy.html#asyncio-policies"><span class="std std-ref">setting a custom event loop policy</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Contents</p>
+<p>This documentation page contains the following sections:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#event-loop-methods">Event Loop Methods</a> section is the reference documentation of
+the event loop APIs;</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#callback-handles">Callback Handles</a> section documents the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Handle" title="asyncio.Handle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handle</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.TimerHandle" title="asyncio.TimerHandle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimerHandle</span></code></a> instances which are returned from scheduling
+methods such as <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="asyncio.loop.call_later"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_later()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#server-objects">Server Objects</a> section documents types returned from
+event loop methods like <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#event-loop-implementations">Event Loop Implementations</a> section documents the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> classes;</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a> section showcases how to work with some event
+loop APIs.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="event-loop-methods">
+<span id="asyncio-event-loop"></span><h2>Event Loop Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#event-loop-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Event loops have <strong>low-level</strong> APIs for the following:</p>
+<div class="contents local topic" id="contents">
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#running-and-stopping-the-loop" id="id1">Running and stopping the loop</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#scheduling-callbacks" id="id2">Scheduling callbacks</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#scheduling-delayed-callbacks" id="id3">Scheduling delayed callbacks</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-futures-and-tasks" id="id4">Creating Futures and Tasks</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#opening-network-connections" id="id5">Opening network connections</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-network-servers" id="id6">Creating network servers</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#transferring-files" id="id7">Transferring files</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#tls-upgrade" id="id8">TLS Upgrade</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#watching-file-descriptors" id="id9">Watching file descriptors</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-socket-objects-directly" id="id10">Working with socket objects directly</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dns" id="id11">DNS</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-pipes" id="id12">Working with pipes</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unix-signals" id="id13">Unix signals</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#executing-code-in-thread-or-process-pools" id="id14">Executing code in thread or process pools</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#error-handling-api" id="id15">Error Handling API</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#enabling-debug-mode" id="id16">Enabling debug mode</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#running-subprocesses" id="id17">Running Subprocesses</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-and-stopping-the-loop">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id1">Running and stopping the loop</a><a class="headerlink" href="#running-and-stopping-the-loop" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.run_until_complete">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">run_until_complete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>future</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.run_until_complete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run until the <em>future</em> (an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>) has
+completed.</p>
+<p>If the argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">coroutine object</span></a> it
+is implicitly scheduled to run as a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Return the Future’s result or raise its exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.run_forever">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">run_forever</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.run_forever" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the event loop until <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.stop" title="asyncio.loop.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.stop" title="asyncio.loop.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a> is called before <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.run_forever" title="asyncio.loop.run_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_forever()</span></code></a> is called,
+the loop will poll the I/O selector once with a timeout of zero,
+run all callbacks scheduled in response to I/O events (and
+those that were already scheduled), and then exit.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.stop" title="asyncio.loop.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a> is called while <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.run_forever" title="asyncio.loop.run_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_forever()</span></code></a> is running,
+the loop will run the current batch of callbacks and then exit.
+Note that new callbacks scheduled by callbacks will not run in this
+case; instead, they will run the next time <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.run_forever" title="asyncio.loop.run_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_forever()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.run_until_complete" title="asyncio.loop.run_until_complete"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_until_complete()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.stop">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">stop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.stop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop the event loop.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.is_running">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">is_running</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.is_running" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the event loop is currently running.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.is_closed">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">is_closed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.is_closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the event loop was closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.close">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the event loop.</p>
+<p>The loop must not be running when this function is called.
+Any pending callbacks will be discarded.</p>
+<p>This method clears all queues and shuts down the executor, but does
+not wait for the executor to finish.</p>
+<p>This method is idempotent and irreversible.  No other methods
+should be called after the event loop is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">shutdown_asyncgens</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedule all currently open <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator</span></a> objects to
+close with an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#agen.aclose" title="agen.aclose"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aclose()</span></code></a> call.  After calling this method,
+the event loop will issue a warning if a new asynchronous generator
+is iterated. This should be used to reliably finalize all scheduled
+asynchronous generators.</p>
+<p>Note that there is no need to call this function when
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.run()</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_until_complete</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shutdown_asyncgens</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="scheduling-callbacks">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">Scheduling callbacks</a><a class="headerlink" href="#scheduling-callbacks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.call_soon">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">call_soon</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedule a <em>callback</em> to be called with <em>args</em> arguments at
+the next iteration of the event loop.</p>
+<p>Callbacks are called in the order in which they are registered.
+Each callback will be called exactly once.</p>
+<p>An optional keyword-only <em>context</em> argument allows specifying a
+custom <a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#contextvars.Context" title="contextvars.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars.Context</span></code></a> for the <em>callback</em> to run in.
+The current context is used when no <em>context</em> is provided.</p>
+<p>An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Handle" title="asyncio.Handle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Handle</span></code></a> is returned, which can be
+used later to cancel the callback.</p>
+<p>This method is not thread-safe.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">call_soon_threadsafe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A thread-safe variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_soon()</span></code></a>.  Must be used to
+schedule callbacks <em>from another thread</em>.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-multithreading"><span class="std std-ref">concurrency and multithreading</span></a>
+section of the documentation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>context</em> keyword-only parameter was added. See <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a>
+for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note" id="asyncio-pass-keywords">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Most <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> scheduling functions don’t allow passing
+keyword arguments.  To do that, use <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># will schedule &quot;print(&quot;Hello&quot;, flush=True)&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flush</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using partial objects is usually more convenient than using lambdas,
+as asyncio can render partial objects better in debug and error
+messages.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="scheduling-delayed-callbacks">
+<span id="asyncio-delayed-calls"></span><h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">Scheduling delayed callbacks</a><a class="headerlink" href="#scheduling-delayed-callbacks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Event loop provides mechanisms to schedule callback functions
+to be called at some point in the future.  Event loop uses monotonic
+clocks to track time.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.call_later">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">call_later</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delay</em>, <em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedule <em>callback</em> to be called after the given <em>delay</em>
+number of seconds (can be either an int or a float).</p>
+<p>An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.TimerHandle" title="asyncio.TimerHandle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimerHandle</span></code></a> is returned which can
+be used to cancel the callback.</p>
+<p><em>callback</em> will be called exactly once.  If two callbacks are
+scheduled for exactly the same time, the order in which they
+are called is undefined.</p>
+<p>The optional positional <em>args</em> will be passed to the callback when
+it is called. If you want the callback to be called with keyword
+arguments use <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>An optional keyword-only <em>context</em> argument allows specifying a
+custom <a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#contextvars.Context" title="contextvars.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars.Context</span></code></a> for the <em>callback</em> to run in.
+The current context is used when no <em>context</em> is provided.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>context</em> keyword-only parameter was added. See <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a>
+for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.1: </span>In Python 3.7.0 and earlier with the default event loop implementation,
+the <em>delay</em> could not exceed one day.
+This has been fixed in Python 3.7.1.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.call_at">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">call_at</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>when</em>, <em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.call_at" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedule <em>callback</em> to be called at the given absolute timestamp
+<em>when</em> (an int or a float), using the same time reference as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.time" title="asyncio.loop.time"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.time()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This method’s behavior is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="asyncio.loop.call_later"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_later()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.TimerHandle" title="asyncio.TimerHandle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimerHandle</span></code></a> is returned which can
+be used to cancel the callback.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>context</em> keyword-only parameter was added. See <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a>
+for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.1: </span>In Python 3.7.0 and earlier with the default event loop implementation,
+the difference between <em>when</em> and the current time could not exceed
+one day.  This has been fixed in Python 3.7.1.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.time">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">time</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current time, as a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> value, according to
+the event loop’s internal monotonic clock.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.8: </span>In Python 3.7 and earlier timeouts (relative <em>delay</em> or absolute <em>when</em>)
+should not exceed one day.  This has been fixed in Python 3.8.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.sleep" title="asyncio.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.sleep()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-futures-and-tasks">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Creating Futures and Tasks</a><a class="headerlink" href="#creating-futures-and-tasks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.create_future">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">create_future</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.create_future" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> object attached to the event loop.</p>
+<p>This is the preferred way to create Futures in asyncio. This lets
+third-party event loops provide alternative implementations of
+the Future object (with better performance or instrumentation).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.create_task">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">create_task</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>coro</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedule the execution of a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">Coroutines</span></a>.
+Return a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Third-party event loops can use their own subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>
+for interoperability. In this case, the result type is a subclass
+of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.set_task_factory">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">set_task_factory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>factory</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.set_task_factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a task factory that will be used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="asyncio.loop.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_task()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>factory</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> the default task factory will be set.
+Otherwise, <em>factory</em> must be a <em>callable</em> with the signature matching
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(loop,</span> <span class="pre">coro)</span></code>, where <em>loop</em> is a reference to the active
+event loop, and <em>coro</em> is a coroutine object.  The callable
+must return a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a>-compatible object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.get_task_factory">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">get_task_factory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.get_task_factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a task factory or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the default one is in use.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="opening-network-connections">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Opening network connections</a><a class="headerlink" href="#opening-network-connections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.create_connection">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">create_connection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>host=None</em>, <em>port=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>family=0</em>, <em>proto=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>local_addr=None</em>, <em>server_hostname=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a streaming transport connection to a given
+address specified by <em>host</em> and <em>port</em>.</p>
+<p>The socket family can be either <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a> depending on <em>host</em> (or the <em>family</em>
+argument, if provided).</p>
+<p>The socket type will be <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning an
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio protocol</span></a> implementation.</p>
+<p>This method will try to establish the connection in the background.
+When successful, it returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> pair.</p>
+<p>The chronological synopsis of the underlying operation is as follows:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>The connection is established and a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-transport"><span class="std std-ref">transport</span></a>
+is created for it.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>protocol_factory</em> is called without arguments and is expected to
+return a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">protocol</span></a> instance.</p></li>
+<li><p>The protocol instance is coupled with the transport by calling its
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connection_made()</span></code></a> method.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> tuple is returned on success.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The created transport is an implementation-dependent bidirectional
+stream.</p>
+<p>Other arguments:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>ssl</em>: if given and not false, a SSL/TLS transport is created
+(by default a plain TCP transport is created).  If <em>ssl</em> is
+a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object, this context is used to create
+the transport; if <em>ssl</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, a default context returned
+from <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">SSL/TLS security considerations</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>server_hostname</em> sets or overrides the hostname that the target
+server’s certificate will be matched against.  Should only be passed
+if <em>ssl</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  By default the value of the <em>host</em> argument
+is used.  If <em>host</em> is empty, there is no default and you must pass a
+value for <em>server_hostname</em>.  If <em>server_hostname</em> is an empty
+string, hostname matching is disabled (which is a serious security
+risk, allowing for potential man-in-the-middle attacks).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>family</em>, <em>proto</em>, <em>flags</em> are the optional address family, protocol
+and flags to be passed through to getaddrinfo() for <em>host</em> resolution.
+If given, these should all be integers from the corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module constants.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>sock</em>, if given, should be an existing, already connected
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a> object to be used by the transport.
+If <em>sock</em> is given, none of <em>host</em>, <em>port</em>, <em>family</em>, <em>proto</em>, <em>flags</em>
+and <em>local_addr</em> should be specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>local_addr</em>, if given, is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(local_host,</span> <span class="pre">local_port)</span></code> tuple used
+to bind the socket to locally.  The <em>local_host</em> and <em>local_port</em>
+are looked up using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code>, similarly to <em>host</em> and <em>port</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> is (for a TLS connection) the time in seconds
+to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">60.0</span></code> seconds if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (default).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The socket option <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_NODELAY</span></code> is set by default
+for all TCP connections.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for SSL/TLS in <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_connection()</span></code></a> function is a high-level alternative
+API.  It returns a pair of (<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="asyncio.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a>)
+that can be used directly in async/await code.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">create_datagram_endpoint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>local_addr=None</em>, <em>remote_addr=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>family=0</em>, <em>proto=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em>, <em>reuse_address=None</em>, <em>reuse_port=None</em>, <em>allow_broadcast=None</em>, <em>sock=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a datagram connection.</p>
+<p>The socket family can be either <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a>,
+depending on <em>host</em> (or the <em>family</em> argument, if provided).</p>
+<p>The socket type will be <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="socket.SOCK_DGRAM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_DGRAM</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">protocol</span></a> implementation.</p>
+<p>A tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> is returned on success.</p>
+<p>Other arguments:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>local_addr</em>, if given, is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(local_host,</span> <span class="pre">local_port)</span></code> tuple used
+to bind the socket to locally.  The <em>local_host</em> and <em>local_port</em>
+are looked up using <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>remote_addr</em>, if given, is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(remote_host,</span> <span class="pre">remote_port)</span></code> tuple used
+to connect the socket to a remote address.  The <em>remote_host</em> and
+<em>remote_port</em> are looked up using <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>family</em>, <em>proto</em>, <em>flags</em> are the optional address family, protocol
+and flags to be passed through to <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code></a> for <em>host</em>
+resolution. If given, these should all be integers from the
+corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module constants.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>reuse_address</em> tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIME_WAIT</span></code> state, without waiting for its natural timeout to
+expire. If not specified will automatically be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> on
+Unix.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>reuse_port</em> tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be bound to the
+same port as other existing endpoints are bound to, so long as they all
+set this flag when being created. This option is not supported on Windows
+and some Unixes. If the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_REUSEPORT</span></code> constant is not
+defined then this capability is unsupported.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>allow_broadcast</em> tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to send
+messages to the broadcast address.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>sock</em> can optionally be specified in order to use a preexisting,
+already connected, <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a> object to be used by the
+transport. If specified, <em>local_addr</em> and <em>remote_addr</em> should be omitted
+(must be <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>On Windows, with <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a>, this method is not supported.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-udp-echo-client-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">UDP echo client protocol</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-udp-echo-server-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">UDP echo server protocol</span></a> examples.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.4: </span>The <em>family</em>, <em>proto</em>, <em>flags</em>, <em>reuse_address</em>, <em>reuse_port,
+*allow_broadcast</em>, and <em>sock</em> parameters were added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">create_unix_connection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>path=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>server_hostname=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a Unix connection.</p>
+<p>The socket family will be <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a>; socket
+type will be <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> is returned on success.</p>
+<p><em>path</em> is the name of a Unix domain socket and is required,
+unless a <em>sock</em> parameter is specified.  Abstract Unix sockets,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> paths are
+supported.</p>
+<p>See the documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a> method
+for information about arguments to this method.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter can now be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-network-servers">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Creating network servers</a><a class="headerlink" href="#creating-network-servers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.create_server">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">create_server</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>host=None</em>, <em>port=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>family=socket.AF_UNSPEC</em>, <em>flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>backlog=100</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>reuse_address=None</em>, <em>reuse_port=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em>, <em>start_serving=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a TCP server (socket type <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>) listening
+on <em>port</em> of the <em>host</em> address.</p>
+<p>Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Server" title="asyncio.Server"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Arguments:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">protocol</span></a> implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>host</em> parameter can be set to several types which determine where
+the server would be listening:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>If <em>host</em> is a string, the TCP server is bound to a single network
+interface specified by <em>host</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>host</em> is a sequence of strings, the TCP server is bound to all
+network interfaces specified by the sequence.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>host</em> is an empty string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, all interfaces are
+assumed and a list of multiple sockets will be returned (most likely
+one for IPv4 and another one for IPv6).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>family</em> can be set to either <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.AF_INET</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a> to force the socket to use IPv4 or IPv6.
+If not set, the <em>family</em> will be determined from host name
+(defaults to <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNSPEC</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>flags</em> is a bitmask for <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>sock</em> can optionally be specified in order to use a preexisting
+socket object. If specified, <em>host</em> and <em>port</em> must not be specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>backlog</em> is the maximum number of queued connections passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.listen" title="socket.socket.listen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> (defaults to 100).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>ssl</em> can be set to an <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> instance to enable
+TLS over the accepted connections.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>reuse_address</em> tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIME_WAIT</span></code> state, without waiting for its natural timeout to
+expire. If not specified will automatically be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> on
+Unix.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>reuse_port</em> tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be bound to the
+same port as other existing endpoints are bound to, so long as they all
+set this flag when being created. This option is not supported on
+Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> is (for a TLS server) the time in seconds to wait
+for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">60.0</span></code> seconds if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (default).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>start_serving</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) causes the created server
+to start accepting connections immediately.  When set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,
+the user should await on <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Server.start_serving" title="asyncio.Server.start_serving"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.start_serving()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Server.serve_forever" title="asyncio.Server.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.serve_forever()</span></code></a> to make the server to start accepting
+connections.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Added <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> and <em>start_serving</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The socket option <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_NODELAY</span></code> is set by default
+for all TCP connections.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for SSL/TLS in <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.1: </span>The <em>host</em> parameter can be a sequence of strings.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_server()</span></code></a> function is a higher-level alternative API
+that returns a pair of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="asyncio.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a>
+that can be used in an async/await code.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.create_unix_server">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">create_unix_server</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>path=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>backlog=100</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em>, <em>start_serving=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a> but works with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a> socket family.</p>
+<p><em>path</em> is the name of a Unix domain socket, and is required,
+unless a <em>sock</em> argument is provided.  Abstract Unix sockets,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> paths
+are supported.</p>
+<p>See the documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a> method
+for information about arguments to this method.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> and <em>start_serving</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter can now be a <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">connect_accepted_socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>sock</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wrap an already accepted connection into a transport/protocol pair.</p>
+<p>This method can be used by servers that accept connections outside
+of asyncio but that use asyncio to handle them.</p>
+<p>Parameters:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">protocol</span></a> implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>sock</em> is a preexisting socket object returned from
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.accept</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>ssl</em> can be set to an <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> to enable SSL over
+the accepted connections.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> is (for an SSL connection) the time in seconds to
+wait for the SSL handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">60.0</span></code> seconds if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (default).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> pair.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="transferring-files">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Transferring files</a><a class="headerlink" href="#transferring-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.sendfile">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">sendfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>transport</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>offset=0</em>, <em>count=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fallback=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.sendfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <em>file</em> over a <em>transport</em>.  Return the total number of bytes
+sent.</p>
+<p>The method uses high-performance <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile()</span></code></a> if available.</p>
+<p><em>file</em> must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.</p>
+<p><em>offset</em> tells from where to start reading the file. If specified,
+<em>count</em> is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
+sending the file until EOF is reached. File position is always updated,
+even when this method raises an error, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.tell" title="io.IOBase.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.tell()</span></code></a> can be used to obtain the actual
+number of bytes sent.</p>
+<p><em>fallback</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> makes asyncio to manually read and send
+the file when the platform does not support the sendfile system call
+(e.g. Windows or SSL socket on Unix).</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError" title="asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SendfileNotAvailableError</span></code></a> if the system does not support
+the <em>sendfile</em> syscall and <em>fallback</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tls-upgrade">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">TLS Upgrade</a><a class="headerlink" href="#tls-upgrade" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.start_tls">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">start_tls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>transport</em>, <em>protocol</em>, <em>sslcontext</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>server_side=False</em>, <em>server_hostname=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.start_tls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Upgrade an existing transport-based connection to TLS.</p>
+<p>Return a new transport instance, that the <em>protocol</em> must start using
+immediately after the <em>await</em>.  The <em>transport</em> instance passed to
+the <em>start_tls</em> method should never be used again.</p>
+<p>Parameters:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>transport</em> and <em>protocol</em> instances that methods like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_server()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_connection()</span></code></a> return.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>sslcontext</em>: a configured instance of <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>server_side</em> pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when a server-side connection is being
+upgraded (like the one created by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_server()</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>server_hostname</em>: sets or overrides the host name that the target
+server’s certificate will be matched against.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> is (for a TLS connection) the time in seconds to
+wait for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the connection.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">60.0</span></code> seconds if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (default).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="watching-file-descriptors">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Watching file descriptors</a><a class="headerlink" href="#watching-file-descriptors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.add_reader">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">add_reader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start monitoring the <em>fd</em> file descriptor for read availability and
+invoke <em>callback</em> with the specified arguments once <em>fd</em> is available for
+reading.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.remove_reader">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">remove_reader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.remove_reader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop monitoring the <em>fd</em> file descriptor for read availability.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.add_writer">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">add_writer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.add_writer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start monitoring the <em>fd</em> file descriptor for write availability and
+invoke <em>callback</em> with the specified arguments once <em>fd</em> is available for
+writing.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-pass-keywords"><span class="std std-ref">to pass keyword arguments</span></a> to <em>callback</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.remove_writer">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">remove_writer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.remove_writer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop monitoring the <em>fd</em> file descriptor for write availability.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-platforms.html#asyncio-platform-support"><span class="std std-ref">Platform Support</span></a> section
+for some limitations of these methods.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="working-with-socket-objects-directly">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">Working with socket objects directly</a><a class="headerlink" href="#working-with-socket-objects-directly" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In general, protocol implementations that use transport-based APIs
+such as <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>
+are faster than implementations that work with sockets directly.
+However, there are some use cases when performance is not critical, and
+working with <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> objects directly is more
+convenient.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.sock_recv">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">sock_recv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>nbytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.sock_recv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive up to <em>nbytes</em> from <em>sock</em>.  Asynchronous version of
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.recv()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Return the received data as a bytes object.</p>
+<p><em>sock</em> must be a non-blocking socket.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Even though this method was always documented as a coroutine
+method, releases before Python 3.7 returned a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>.
+Since Python 3.7 this is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">sock_recv_into</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>buf</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive data from <em>sock</em> into the <em>buf</em> buffer.  Modeled after the blocking
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.recv_into" title="socket.socket.recv_into"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.recv_into()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Return the number of bytes written to the buffer.</p>
+<p><em>sock</em> must be a non-blocking socket.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.sock_sendall">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">sock_sendall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.sock_sendall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send <em>data</em> to the <em>sock</em> socket. Asynchronous version of
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.sendall" title="socket.socket.sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.sendall()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This method continues to send to the socket until either all data
+in <em>data</em> has been sent or an error occurs.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned
+on success.  On error, an exception is raised. Additionally, there is no way
+to determine how much data, if any, was successfully processed by the
+receiving end of the connection.</p>
+<p><em>sock</em> must be a non-blocking socket.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Even though the method was always documented as a coroutine
+method, before Python 3.7 it returned an <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>.
+Since Python 3.7, this is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.sock_connect">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">sock_connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.sock_connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect <em>sock</em> to a remote socket at <em>address</em>.</p>
+<p>Asynchronous version of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.connect()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sock</em> must be a non-blocking socket.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.2: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">address</span></code> no longer needs to be resolved.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock_connect</span></code>
+will try to check if the <em>address</em> is already resolved by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.inet_pton" title="socket.inet_pton"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.inet_pton()</span></code></a>.  If not,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.getaddrinfo()</span></code></a> will be used to resolve the
+<em>address</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>
+and  <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.open_connection()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.sock_accept">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">sock_accept</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.sock_accept" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accept a connection.  Modeled after the blocking
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.accept()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>The socket must be bound to an address and listening
+for connections. The return value is a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(conn,</span> <span class="pre">address)</span></code> where <em>conn</em>
+is a <em>new</em> socket object usable to send and receive data on the connection,
+and <em>address</em> is the address bound to the socket on the other end of the
+connection.</p>
+<p><em>sock</em> must be a non-blocking socket.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Even though the method was always documented as a coroutine
+method, before Python 3.7 it returned a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>.
+Since Python 3.7, this is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_server()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">sock_sendfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>offset=0</em>, <em>count=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fallback=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a file using high-performance <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile</span></code></a> if possible.
+Return the total number of bytes sent.</p>
+<p>Asynchronous version of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.sendfile" title="socket.socket.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.sendfile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sock</em> must be a non-blocking <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>file</em> must be a regular file object open in binary mode.</p>
+<p><em>offset</em> tells from where to start reading the file. If specified,
+<em>count</em> is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
+sending the file until EOF is reached. File position is always updated,
+even when this method raises an error, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.tell" title="io.IOBase.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.tell()</span></code></a> can be used to obtain the actual
+number of bytes sent.</p>
+<p><em>fallback</em>, when set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, makes asyncio manually read and send
+the file when the platform does not support the sendfile syscall
+(e.g. Windows or SSL socket on Unix).</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError" title="asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SendfileNotAvailableError</span></code></a> if the system does not support
+<em>sendfile</em> syscall and <em>fallback</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>sock</em> must be a non-blocking socket.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dns">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">DNS</a><a class="headerlink" href="#dns" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">getaddrinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>family=0</em>, <em>type=0</em>, <em>proto=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Asynchronous version of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.getaddrinfo" title="socket.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getaddrinfo()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.getnameinfo">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">getnameinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sockaddr</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.getnameinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Asynchronous version of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.getnameinfo" title="socket.getnameinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getnameinfo()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Both <em>getaddrinfo</em> and <em>getnameinfo</em> methods were always documented
+to return a coroutine, but prior to Python 3.7 they were, in fact,
+returning <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> objects.  Starting with Python 3.7
+both methods are coroutines.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="working-with-pipes">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">Working with pipes</a><a class="headerlink" href="#working-with-pipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">connect_read_pipe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>pipe</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the read end of <em>pipe</em> in the event loop.</p>
+<p><em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning an
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio protocol</span></a> implementation.</p>
+<p><em>pipe</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Return pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code>, where <em>transport</em> supports
+the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport" title="asyncio.ReadTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadTransport</span></code></a> interface and <em>protocol</em> is an object
+instantiated by the <em>protocol_factory</em>.</p>
+<p>With <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a> event loop, the <em>pipe</em> is set to
+non-blocking mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">connect_write_pipe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>pipe</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the write end of <em>pipe</em> in the event loop.</p>
+<p><em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning an
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio protocol</span></a> implementation.</p>
+<p><em>pipe</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Return pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code>, where <em>transport</em> supports
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport" title="asyncio.WriteTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WriteTransport</span></code></a> interface and <em>protocol</em> is an object
+instantiated by the <em>protocol_factory</em>.</p>
+<p>With <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a> event loop, the <em>pipe</em> is set to
+non-blocking mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a> does not support the above methods on
+Windows.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> instead for Windows.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unix-signals">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Unix signals</a><a class="headerlink" href="#unix-signals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">add_signal_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signum</em>, <em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>callback</em> as the handler for the <em>signum</em> signal.</p>
+<p>The callback will be invoked by <em>loop</em>, along with other queued callbacks
+and runnable coroutines of that event loop. Unlike signal handlers
+registered using <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.signal" title="signal.signal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.signal()</span></code></a>, a callback registered with this
+function is allowed to interact with the event loop.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the signal number is invalid or uncatchable.
+Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> if there is a problem setting up the handler.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-pass-keywords"><span class="std std-ref">to pass keyword arguments</span></a> to <em>callback</em>.</p>
+<p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.signal" title="signal.signal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.signal()</span></code></a>, this function must be invoked in the main
+thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">remove_signal_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sig</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the handler for the <em>sig</em> signal.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the signal handler was removed, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if
+no handler was set for the given signal.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="executing-code-in-thread-or-process-pools">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">Executing code in thread or process pools</a><a class="headerlink" href="#executing-code-in-thread-or-process-pools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor">
+<em class="property">awaitable </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">run_in_executor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>executor</em>, <em>func</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Arrange for <em>func</em> to be called in the specified executor.</p>
+<p>The <em>executor</em> argument should be an <a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.Executor</span></code></a>
+instance. The default executor is used if <em>executor</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">concurrent.futures</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">blocking_io</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># File operations (such as logging) can block the</span>
+    <span class="c1"># event loop: run them in a thread pool.</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/dev/urandom&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cpu_bound</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># CPU-bound operations will block the event loop:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># in general it is preferable to run them in a</span>
+    <span class="c1"># process pool.</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1">## Options:</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># 1. Run in the default loop&#39;s executor:</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_in_executor</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blocking_io</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;default thread pool&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># 2. Run in a custom thread pool:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">concurrent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">futures</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_in_executor</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blocking_io</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;custom thread pool&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># 3. Run in a custom process pool:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">concurrent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">futures</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProcessPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_in_executor</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cpu_bound</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;custom process pool&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-pass-keywords"><span class="std std-ref">to pass keyword arguments</span></a> to <em>func</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_in_executor()</span></code></a> no longer configures the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_workers</span></code> of the thread pool executor it creates, instead
+leaving it up to the thread pool executor
+(<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>) to set the
+default.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.set_default_executor">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">set_default_executor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>executor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.set_default_executor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>executor</em> as the default executor used by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_in_executor()</span></code></a>.
+<em>executor</em> should be an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>Using an executor that is not an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> is deprecated and
+will trigger an error in Python 3.9.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>executor</em> must be an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="error-handling-api">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">Error Handling API</a><a class="headerlink" href="#error-handling-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Allows customizing how exceptions are handled in the event loop.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">set_exception_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>handler</em> as the new event loop exception handler.</p>
+<p>If <em>handler</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the default exception handler will
+be set.  Otherwise, <em>handler</em> must be a callable with the signature
+matching <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(loop,</span> <span class="pre">context)</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop</span></code>
+is a reference to the active event loop, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code>
+is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code> object containing the details of the exception
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_exception_handler()</span></code></a> documentation for details
+about context).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">get_exception_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current exception handler, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no custom
+exception handler was set.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.default_exception_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">default_exception_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.default_exception_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Default exception handler.</p>
+<p>This is called when an exception occurs and no exception
+handler is set. This can be called by a custom exception
+handler that wants to defer to the default handler behavior.</p>
+<p><em>context</em> parameter has the same meaning as in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_exception_handler()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">call_exception_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the current event loop exception handler.</p>
+<p><em>context</em> is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code> object containing the following keys
+(new keys may be introduced in future Python versions):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>‘message’: Error message;</p></li>
+<li><p>‘exception’ (optional): Exception object;</p></li>
+<li><p>‘future’ (optional): <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> instance;</p></li>
+<li><p>‘handle’ (optional): <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Handle" title="asyncio.Handle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Handle</span></code></a> instance;</p></li>
+<li><p>‘protocol’ (optional): <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">Protocol</span></a> instance;</p></li>
+<li><p>‘transport’ (optional): <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-transport"><span class="std std-ref">Transport</span></a> instance;</p></li>
+<li><p>‘socket’ (optional): <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a> instance.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This method should not be overloaded in subclassed
+event loops.  For custom exception handling, use
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_exception_handler()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enabling-debug-mode">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">Enabling debug mode</a><a class="headerlink" href="#enabling-debug-mode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.get_debug">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">get_debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.get_debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the debug mode (<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a>) of the event loop.</p>
+<p>The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the environment variable
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG</span></code></a> is set to a non-empty string, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.set_debug">
+<code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">set_debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>enabled: bool</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.set_debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the debug mode of the event loop.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">dev</span></code> command line option can now also be used
+to enable the debug mode.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-debug-mode"><span class="std std-ref">debug mode of asyncio</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-subprocesses">
+<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">Running Subprocesses</a><a class="headerlink" href="#running-subprocesses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Methods described in this subsections are low-level.  In regular
+async/await code consider using the high-level
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_subprocess_shell()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> convenience functions instead.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The default asyncio event loop on <strong>Windows</strong> does not support
+subprocesses. See <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-platforms.html#asyncio-windows-subprocess"><span class="std std-ref">Subprocess Support on Windows</span></a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">subprocess_exec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>stdin=subprocess.PIPE</em>, <em>stdout=subprocess.PIPE</em>, <em>stderr=subprocess.PIPE</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a subprocess from one or more string arguments specified by
+<em>args</em>.</p>
+<p><em>args</em> must be a list of strings represented by:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, encoded to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#filesystem-encoding"><span class="std std-ref">filesystem encoding</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The first string specifies the program executable,
+and the remaining strings specify the arguments.  Together, string
+arguments form the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv</span></code> of the program.</p>
+<p>This is similar to the standard library <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>
+class called with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=False</span></code> and the list of strings passed as
+the first argument; however, where <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> takes
+a single argument which is list of strings, <em>subprocess_exec</em>
+takes multiple string arguments.</p>
+<p>The <em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning a subclass of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol" title="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.SubprocessProtocol</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>Other parameters:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>stdin</em>: either a file-like object representing a pipe to be
+connected to the subprocess’s standard input stream using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect_write_pipe()</span></code></a>, or the
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.PIPE</span></code></a>  constant (default). By default a new
+pipe will be created and connected.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>stdout</em>: either a file-like object representing the pipe to be
+connected to the subprocess’s standard output stream using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a>, or the
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.PIPE</span></code></a> constant (default). By default a new pipe
+will be created and connected.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>stderr</em>: either a file-like object representing the pipe to be
+connected to the subprocess’s standard error stream using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a>, or one of
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.PIPE</span></code></a> (default) or <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.STDOUT" title="subprocess.STDOUT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.STDOUT</span></code></a>
+constants.</p>
+<p>By default a new pipe will be created and connected. When
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.STDOUT" title="subprocess.STDOUT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.STDOUT</span></code></a> is specified, the subprocess’ standard
+error stream will be connected to the same pipe as the standard
+output stream.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>All other keyword arguments are passed to <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>
+without interpretation, except for <em>bufsize</em>, <em>universal_newlines</em>
+and <em>shell</em>, which should not be specified at all.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>See the constructor of the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> class
+for documentation on other arguments.</p>
+<p>Returns a pair of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code>, where <em>transport</em>
+conforms to the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.SubprocessTransport</span></code></a> base class and
+<em>protocol</em> is an object instantiated by the <em>protocol_factory</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">loop.</code><code class="descname">subprocess_shell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol_factory</em>, <em>cmd</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>stdin=subprocess.PIPE</em>, <em>stdout=subprocess.PIPE</em>, <em>stderr=subprocess.PIPE</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a subprocess from <em>cmd</em>, which can be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> string encoded to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#filesystem-encoding"><span class="std std-ref">filesystem encoding</span></a>,
+using the platform’s “shell” syntax.</p>
+<p>This is similar to the standard library <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>
+class called with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>protocol_factory</em> must be a callable returning a subclass of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol" title="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessProtocol</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> for more details about
+the remaining arguments.</p>
+<p>Returns a pair of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code>, where <em>transport</em>
+conforms to the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessTransport</span></code></a> base class and
+<em>protocol</em> is an object instantiated by the <em>protocol_factory</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>It is the application’s responsibility to ensure that all whitespace
+and special characters are quoted appropriately to avoid <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection">shell injection</a>
+vulnerabilities. The <a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html#shlex.quote" title="shlex.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex.quote()</span></code></a> function can be used to
+properly escape whitespace and special characters in strings that
+are going to be used to construct shell commands.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-handles">
+<h2>Callback Handles<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-handles" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Handle">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Handle</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A callback wrapper object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon_threadsafe()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Handle.cancel">
+<code class="descname">cancel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Handle.cancel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cancel the callback.  If the callback has already been canceled
+or executed, this method has no effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Handle.cancelled">
+<code class="descname">cancelled</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Handle.cancelled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the callback was cancelled.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.TimerHandle">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">TimerHandle</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.TimerHandle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A callback wrapper object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="asyncio.loop.call_later"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_later()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_at" title="asyncio.loop.call_at"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_at()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This class is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Handle" title="asyncio.Handle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handle</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.TimerHandle.when">
+<code class="descname">when</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.TimerHandle.when" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a scheduled callback time as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> seconds.</p>
+<p>The time is an absolute timestamp, using the same time
+reference as <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.time" title="asyncio.loop.time"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.time()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="server-objects">
+<h2>Server Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#server-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Server objects are created by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_server()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_server()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_unix_server" title="asyncio.start_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_unix_server()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<p>Do not instantiate the class directly.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Server</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>Server</em> objects are asynchronous context managers.  When used in an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code> statement, it’s guaranteed that the Server object is
+closed and not accepting new connections when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code>
+statement is completed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">srv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_server</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">srv</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># some code</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Server object is an asynchronous context manager since Python 3.7.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop serving: close listening sockets and set the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Server.sockets" title="asyncio.Server.sockets"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sockets</span></code></a>
+attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The sockets that represent existing incoming client connections
+are left open.</p>
+<p>The server is closed asynchronously, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Server.wait_closed" title="asyncio.Server.wait_closed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_closed()</span></code></a>
+coroutine to wait until the server is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server.get_loop">
+<code class="descname">get_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server.get_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the event loop associated with the server object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server.start_serving">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">start_serving</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server.start_serving" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start accepting connections.</p>
+<p>This method is idempotent, so it can be called when
+the server is already being serving.</p>
+<p>The <em>start_serving</em> keyword-only parameter to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.start_server()</span></code></a> allows creating a Server object
+that is not accepting connections initially.  In this case
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.start_serving()</span></code>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Server.serve_forever" title="asyncio.Server.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.serve_forever()</span></code></a> can be used
+to make the Server start accepting connections.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server.serve_forever">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">serve_forever</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server.serve_forever" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start accepting connections until the coroutine is cancelled.
+Cancellation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever</span></code> task causes the server
+to be closed.</p>
+<p>This method can be called if the server is already accepting
+connections.  Only one <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever</span></code> task can exist per
+one <em>Server</em> object.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">client_connected</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Communicate with the client with</span>
+    <span class="c1"># reader/writer streams.  For example:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">srv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start_server</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">client_connected</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">srv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server.is_serving">
+<code class="descname">is_serving</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server.is_serving" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the server is accepting new connections.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server.wait_closed">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">wait_closed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server.wait_closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Server.close" title="asyncio.Server.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method completes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.Server.sockets">
+<code class="descname">sockets</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Server.sockets" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a> objects the server is listening on,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the server is closed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Prior to Python 3.7 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.sockets</span></code> used to return an
+internal list of server sockets directly.  In 3.7 a copy
+of that list is returned.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="event-loop-implementations">
+<span id="asyncio-event-loops"></span><h2>Event Loop Implementations<a class="headerlink" href="#event-loop-implementations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>asyncio ships with two different event loop implementations:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>By default asyncio is configured to use <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a>
+on all platforms.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">SelectorEventLoop</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An event loop based on the <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Uses the most efficient <em>selector</em> available for the given
+platform.  It is also possible to manually configure the
+exact selector implementation to be used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">selectors</span>
+
+<span class="n">selector</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SelectSelector</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SelectorEventLoop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">selector</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_event_loop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">ProactorEventLoop</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An event loop for Windows that uses “I/O Completion Ports” (IOCP).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<p>An example how to use <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> on Windows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">platform</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;win32&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProactorEventLoop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_event_loop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-ca/windows/desktop/FileIO/i-o-completion-ports">MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractEventLoop">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">AbstractEventLoop</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for asyncio-compliant event loops.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-event-loop"><span class="std std-ref">Event Loop Methods</span></a> section lists all
+methods that an alternative implementation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractEventLoop</span></code>
+should have defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Note that all examples in this section <strong>purposefully</strong> show how
+to use the low-level event loop APIs, such as <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.run_forever" title="asyncio.loop.run_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_forever()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a>.  Modern asyncio applications rarely
+need to be written this way; consider using the high-level functions
+like <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="hello-world-with-call-soon">
+<span id="asyncio-example-lowlevel-helloworld"></span><h3>Hello World with call_soon()<a class="headerlink" href="#hello-world-with-call-soon" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An example using the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a> method to schedule a
+callback. The callback displays <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Hello</span> <span class="pre">World&quot;</span></code> and then stops the
+event loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hello_world</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;A callback to print &#39;Hello World&#39; and stop the event loop&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello World&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_event_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Schedule a call to hello_world()</span>
+<span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hello_world</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>A similar <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">Hello World</span></a>
+example created with a coroutine and the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="display-the-current-date-with-call-later">
+<span id="asyncio-example-call-later"></span><h3>Display the current date with call_later()<a class="headerlink" href="#display-the-current-date-with-call-later" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An example of a callback displaying the current date every second. The
+callback uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="asyncio.loop.call_later"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_later()</span></code></a> method to reschedule itself
+after 5 seconds, and then stops the event loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">display_date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">end_time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">end_time</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_later</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">display_date</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end_time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_event_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Schedule the first call to display_date()</span>
+<span class="n">end_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mf">5.0</span>
+<span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">display_date</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end_time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>A similar <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio-example-sleep"><span class="std std-ref">current date</span></a> example
+created with a coroutine and the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="watch-a-file-descriptor-for-read-events">
+<span id="asyncio-example-watch-fd"></span><h3>Watch a file descriptor for read events<a class="headerlink" href="#watch-a-file-descriptor-for-read-events" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Wait until a file descriptor received some data using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="asyncio.loop.add_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_reader()</span></code></a> method and then close the event loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">socket</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">socketpair</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create a pair of connected file descriptors</span>
+<span class="n">rsock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">wsock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socketpair</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_event_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reader</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">rsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># We are done: unregister the file descriptor</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove_reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rsock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Stop the event loop</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Register the file descriptor for read event</span>
+<span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rsock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Simulate the reception of data from the network</span>
+<span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Run the event loop</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># We are done. Close sockets and the event loop.</span>
+    <span class="n">rsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">wsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A similar <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-create-connection"><span class="std std-ref">example</span></a>
+using transports, protocols, and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a> method.</p></li>
+<li><p>Another similar <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-example-create-connection-streams"><span class="std std-ref">example</span></a>
+using the high-level <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.open_connection()</span></code></a> function
+and streams.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="set-signal-handlers-for-sigint-and-sigterm">
+<span id="asyncio-example-unix-signals"></span><h3>Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM<a class="headerlink" href="#set-signal-handlers-for-sigint-and-sigterm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>(This <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signals</span></code> example only works on Unix.)</p>
+<p>Register handlers for signals <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGTERM</span></code>
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler" title="asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_signal_handler()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">signal</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">ask_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">signame</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;got signal </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">: exit&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">signame</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">signame</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;SIGINT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;SIGTERM&#39;</span><span class="p">}:</span>
+        <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_signal_handler</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">signal</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">signame</span><span class="p">),</span>
+            <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ask_exit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">signame</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3600</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Event Loop</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#event-loop-methods">Event Loop Methods</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-and-stopping-the-loop">Running and stopping the loop</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#scheduling-callbacks">Scheduling callbacks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#scheduling-delayed-callbacks">Scheduling delayed callbacks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-futures-and-tasks">Creating Futures and Tasks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#opening-network-connections">Opening network connections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-network-servers">Creating network servers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#transferring-files">Transferring files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tls-upgrade">TLS Upgrade</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#watching-file-descriptors">Watching file descriptors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-socket-objects-directly">Working with socket objects directly</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dns">DNS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-pipes">Working with pipes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unix-signals">Unix signals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#executing-code-in-thread-or-process-pools">Executing code in thread or process pools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#error-handling-api">Error Handling API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enabling-debug-mode">Enabling debug mode</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-subprocesses">Running Subprocesses</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callback-handles">Callback Handles</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#server-objects">Server Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#event-loop-implementations">Event Loop Implementations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hello-world-with-call-soon">Hello World with call_soon()</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#display-the-current-date-with-call-later">Display the current date with call_later()</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#watch-a-file-descriptor-for-read-events">Watch a file descriptor for read events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#set-signal-handlers-for-sigint-and-sigterm">Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-exceptions.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Exceptions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-future.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Futures</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-exceptions.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-exceptions.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..636adab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-exceptions.html
@@ -0,0 +1,276 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Exceptions &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<span id="asyncio-exceptions"></span><h1>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.TimeoutError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">TimeoutError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.TimeoutError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The operation has exceeded the given deadline.</p>
+<div class="admonition important">
+<p class="admonition-title">Important</p>
+<p>This exception is different from the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TimeoutError" title="TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutError</span></code></a>
+exception.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.CancelledError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">CancelledError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.CancelledError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The operation has been cancelled.</p>
+<p>This exception can be caught to perform custom operations
+when asyncio Tasks are cancelled.  In almost all situations the
+exception must be re-raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition important">
+<p class="admonition-title">Important</p>
+<p>This exception is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>, so it can be
+accidentally suppressed by an overly broad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try..except</span></code> block:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">operation</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The cancellation is broken because the *except* block</span>
+    <span class="c1"># suppresses the CancelledError exception.</span>
+    <span class="n">log</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;an error has occurred&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Instead, the following pattern should be used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">operation</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CancelledError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">log</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;an error has occurred&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.InvalidStateError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">InvalidStateError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalid internal state of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Can be raised in situations like setting a result value for a
+<em>Future</em> object that already has a result value set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">SendfileNotAvailableError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The “sendfile” syscall is not available for the given
+socket or file type.</p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.IncompleteReadError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">IncompleteReadError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.IncompleteReadError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The requested read operation did not complete fully.</p>
+<p>Raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-streams"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio stream APIs</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This exception is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.IncompleteReadError.expected">
+<code class="descname">expected</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.expected" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The total number (<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) of expected bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial">
+<code class="descname">partial</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> read before the end of stream was reached.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.LimitOverrunError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">LimitOverrunError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.LimitOverrunError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reached the buffer size limit while looking for a separator.</p>
+<p>Raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-streams"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio stream APIs</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.LimitOverrunError.consumed">
+<code class="descname">consumed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.LimitOverrunError.consumed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The total number of to be consumed bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-future.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-future.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f125d5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-future.html
@@ -0,0 +1,435 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Futures &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="futures">
+<span id="asyncio-futures"></span><h1>Futures<a class="headerlink" href="#futures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><em>Future</em> objects are used to bridge <strong>low-level callback-based code</strong>
+with high-level async/await code.</p>
+<div class="section" id="future-functions">
+<h2>Future Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#future-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.isfuture">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">isfuture</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.isfuture" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>obj</em> is either of:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a>,</p></li>
+<li><p>an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task</span></code></a>,</p></li>
+<li><p>a Future-like object with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_asyncio_future_blocking</span></code>
+attribute.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.ensure_future">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">ensure_future</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.ensure_future" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>obj</em> argument as is, if <em>obj</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>, or a Future-like object (<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.isfuture" title="asyncio.isfuture"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfuture()</span></code></a>
+is used for the test.)</p></li>
+<li><p>a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a> object wrapping <em>obj</em>, if <em>obj</em> is a
+coroutine (<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.iscoroutine" title="asyncio.iscoroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iscoroutine()</span></code></a> is used for the test.)</p></li>
+<li><p>a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a> object that would await on <em>obj</em>, if <em>obj</em> is an
+awaitable (<a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.isawaitable" title="inspect.isawaitable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.isawaitable()</span></code></a> is used for the test.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>obj</em> is neither of the above a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition important">
+<p class="admonition-title">Important</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_task()</span></code></a> function which is the
+preferred way for creating new Tasks.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.1: </span>The function accepts any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.wrap_future">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">wrap_future</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>future</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.wrap_future" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wrap a <a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.Future</span></code></a> object in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="future-object">
+<h2>Future Object<a class="headerlink" href="#future-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Future</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A Future represents an eventual result of an asynchronous
+operation.  Not thread-safe.</p>
+<p>Future is an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object.  Coroutines can await on
+Future objects until they either have a result or an exception
+set, or until they are cancelled.</p>
+<p>Typically Futures are used to enable low-level
+callback-based code (e.g. in protocols implemented using asyncio
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-transports-protocols"><span class="std std-ref">transports</span></a>)
+to interoperate with high-level async/await code.</p>
+<p>The rule of thumb is to never expose Future objects in user-facing
+APIs, and the recommended way to create a Future object is to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_future" title="asyncio.loop.create_future"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_future()</span></code></a>.  This way alternative event loop
+implementations can inject their own optimized implementations
+of a Future object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added support for the <a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.result">
+<code class="descname">result</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.result" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the result of the Future.</p>
+<p>If the Future is <em>done</em> and has a result set by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.set_result" title="asyncio.Future.set_result"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_result()</span></code></a> method, the result value is returned.</p>
+<p>If the Future is <em>done</em> and has an exception set by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.set_exception" title="asyncio.Future.set_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_exception()</span></code></a> method, this method raises the exception.</p>
+<p>If the Future has been <em>cancelled</em>, this method raises
+a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>If the Future’s result isn’t yet available, this method raises
+a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="asyncio.InvalidStateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.set_result">
+<code class="descname">set_result</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>result</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.set_result" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark the Future as <em>done</em> and set its result.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="asyncio.InvalidStateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateError</span></code></a> error if the Future is
+already <em>done</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.set_exception">
+<code class="descname">set_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.set_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark the Future as <em>done</em> and set an exception.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="asyncio.InvalidStateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateError</span></code></a> error if the Future is
+already <em>done</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.done">
+<code class="descname">done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the Future is <em>done</em>.</p>
+<p>A Future is <em>done</em> if it was <em>cancelled</em> or if it has a result
+or an exception set with <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.set_result" title="asyncio.Future.set_result"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_result()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.set_exception" title="asyncio.Future.set_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_exception()</span></code></a> calls.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.cancelled">
+<code class="descname">cancelled</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.cancelled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the Future was <em>cancelled</em>.</p>
+<p>The method is usually used to check if a Future is not
+<em>cancelled</em> before setting a result or an exception for it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">fut</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cancelled</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">fut</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.add_done_callback">
+<code class="descname">add_done_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.add_done_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a callback to be run when the Future is <em>done</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>callback</em> is called with the Future object as its only
+argument.</p>
+<p>If the Future is already <em>done</em> when this method is called,
+the callback is scheduled with <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>An optional keyword-only <em>context</em> argument allows specifying a
+custom <a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#contextvars.Context" title="contextvars.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars.Context</span></code></a> for the <em>callback</em> to run in.
+The current context is used when no <em>context</em> is provided.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> can be used to pass parameters
+to the callback, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Call &#39;print(&quot;Future:&quot;, fut)&#39; when &quot;fut&quot; is done.</span>
+<span class="n">fut</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_done_callback</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Future:&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>context</em> keyword-only parameter was added.
+See <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback">
+<code class="descname">remove_done_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <em>callback</em> from the callbacks list.</p>
+<p>Returns the number of callbacks removed, which is typically 1,
+unless a callback was added more than once.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.cancel">
+<code class="descname">cancel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.cancel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cancel the Future and schedule callbacks.</p>
+<p>If the Future is already <em>done</em> or <em>cancelled</em>, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+Otherwise, change the Future’s state to <em>cancelled</em>,
+schedule the callbacks, and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.exception">
+<code class="descname">exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the exception that was set on this Future.</p>
+<p>The exception (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no exception was set) is
+returned only if the Future is <em>done</em>.</p>
+<p>If the Future has been <em>cancelled</em>, this method raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>If the Future isn’t <em>done</em> yet, this method raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="asyncio.InvalidStateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Future.get_loop">
+<code class="descname">get_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Future.get_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the event loop the Future object is bound to.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p id="asyncio-example-future">This example creates a Future object, creates and schedules an
+asynchronous Task to set result for the Future, and waits until
+the Future has a result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">set_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fut</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Sleep for *delay* seconds.</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Set *value* as a result of *fut* Future.</span>
+    <span class="n">fut</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Get the current event loop.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create a new Future object.</span>
+    <span class="n">fut</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_future</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Run &quot;set_after()&quot; coroutine in a parallel Task.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># We are using the low-level &quot;loop.create_task()&quot; API here because</span>
+    <span class="c1"># we already have a reference to the event loop at hand.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Otherwise we could have just used &quot;asyncio.create_task()&quot;.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">set_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fut</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;... world&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait until *fut* has a result (1 second) and print it.</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">fut</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition important">
+<p class="admonition-title">Important</p>
+<p>The Future object was designed to mimic
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.Future</span></code></a>.  Key differences include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>unlike asyncio Futures, <a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.Future</span></code></a>
+instances cannot be awaited.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.result" title="asyncio.Future.result"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future.result()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.exception" title="asyncio.Future.exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future.exception()</span></code></a>
+do not accept the <em>timeout</em> argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.result" title="asyncio.Future.result"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future.result()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.exception" title="asyncio.Future.exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future.exception()</span></code></a>
+raise an <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="asyncio.InvalidStateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateError</span></code></a> exception when the Future is not
+<em>done</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Callbacks registered with <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Future.add_done_callback" title="asyncio.Future.add_done_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future.add_done_callback()</span></code></a>
+are not called immediately.  They are scheduled with
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>asyncio Future is not compatible with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.wait" title="concurrent.futures.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.wait()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.as_completed" title="concurrent.futures.as_completed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.as_completed()</span></code></a> functions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Futures</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#future-functions">Future Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#future-object">Future Object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-eventloop.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Event Loop</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-protocol.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Transports and Protocols</a></p>
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+    <title>Low-level API Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="low-level-api-index">
+<h1>Low-level API Index<a class="headerlink" href="#low-level-api-index" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This page lists all low-level asyncio APIs.</p>
+<div class="section" id="obtaining-the-event-loop">
+<h2>Obtaining the Event Loop<a class="headerlink" href="#obtaining-the-event-loop" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_running_loop" title="asyncio.get_running_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_running_loop()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>The <strong>preferred</strong> function to get the running event loop.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_event_loop()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Get an event loop instance (current or via the policy).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.set_event_loop" title="asyncio.set_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.set_event_loop()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Set the event loop as current via the current policy.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.new_event_loop" title="asyncio.new_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.new_event_loop()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a new event loop.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio-example-future"><span class="std std-ref">Using asyncio.get_running_loop()</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="event-loop-methods">
+<h2>Event Loop Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#event-loop-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>See also the main documentation section about the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-event-loop"><span class="std std-ref">event loop methods</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Lifecycle</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_until_complete" title="asyncio.loop.run_until_complete"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_until_complete()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Run a Future/Task/awaitable until complete.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_forever" title="asyncio.loop.run_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_forever()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Run the event loop forever.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.stop" title="asyncio.loop.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.stop()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop the event loop.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.close" title="asyncio.loop.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.close()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Close the event loop.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.is_running" title="asyncio.loop.is_running"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.is_running()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the event loop is running.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.is_closed" title="asyncio.loop.is_closed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.is_closed()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the event loop is closed.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens" title="asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.shutdown_asyncgens()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Close asynchronous generators.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Debugging</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_debug" title="asyncio.loop.set_debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.set_debug()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Enable or disable the debug mode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_debug" title="asyncio.loop.get_debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.get_debug()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Get the current debug mode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Scheduling Callbacks</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Invoke a callback soon.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon_threadsafe()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>A thread-safe variant of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="asyncio.loop.call_later"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_later()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Invoke a callback <em>after</em> the given time.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_at" title="asyncio.loop.call_at"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_at()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Invoke a callback <em>at</em> the given time.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Thread/Process Pool</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_in_executor()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Run a CPU-bound or other blocking function in
+a <a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> executor.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_default_executor" title="asyncio.loop.set_default_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.set_default_executor()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Set the default executor for <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_in_executor()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Tasks and Futures</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_future" title="asyncio.loop.create_future"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_future()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="asyncio.loop.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_task()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Schedule coroutine as a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_task_factory" title="asyncio.loop.set_task_factory"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.set_task_factory()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Set a factory used by <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="asyncio.loop.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_task()</span></code></a> to
+create <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tasks</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_task_factory" title="asyncio.loop.get_task_factory"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.get_task_factory()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Get the factory <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="asyncio.loop.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_task()</span></code></a> uses
+to create <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tasks</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">DNS</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.getaddrinfo()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Asynchronous version of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.getaddrinfo" title="socket.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getaddrinfo()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getnameinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getnameinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.getnameinfo()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Asynchronous version of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.getnameinfo" title="socket.getnameinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getnameinfo()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Networking and IPC</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a TCP connection.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a TCP server.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_connection()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a Unix socket connection.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_server()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a Unix socket server.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket" title="asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_accepted_socket()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Wrap a <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> into a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code>
+pair.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a datagram (UDP) connection.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sendfile" title="asyncio.loop.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sendfile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Send a file over a transport.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.start_tls" title="asyncio.loop.start_tls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.start_tls()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Upgrade an existing connection to TLS.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Wrap a read end of a pipe into a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> pair.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_write_pipe()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Wrap a write end of a pipe into a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> pair.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Sockets</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv" title="asyncio.loop.sock_recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_recv()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Receive data from the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into" title="asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_recv_into()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Receive data from the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> into a buffer.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendall" title="asyncio.loop.sock_sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_sendall()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Send data to the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_connect" title="asyncio.loop.sock_connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_connect()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Connect the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_accept" title="asyncio.loop.sock_accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_accept()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Accept a <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> connection.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile" title="asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_sendfile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Send a file over the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="asyncio.loop.add_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_reader()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Start watching a file descriptor for read availability.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_reader" title="asyncio.loop.remove_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.remove_reader()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop watching a file descriptor for read availability.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_writer" title="asyncio.loop.add_writer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_writer()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Start watching a file descriptor for write availability.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_writer" title="asyncio.loop.remove_writer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.remove_writer()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop watching a file descriptor for write availability.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Unix Signals</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler" title="asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_signal_handler()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Add a handler for a <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler" title="asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.remove_signal_handler()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Remove a handler for a <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Subprocesses</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Spawn a subprocess.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Spawn a subprocess from a shell command.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Error Handling</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.call_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_exception_handler()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Call the exception handler.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.set_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.set_exception_handler()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Set a new exception handler.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.get_exception_handler()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Get the current exception handler.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.default_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.default_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.default_exception_handler()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>The default exception handler implementation.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Examples</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-example-lowlevel-helloworld"><span class="std std-ref">Using asyncio.get_event_loop() and loop.run_forever()</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-example-call-later"><span class="std std-ref">Using loop.call_later()</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code> to implement
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-tcp-echo-client-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">an echo-client</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-create-connection"><span class="std std-ref">connect a socket</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-example-watch-fd"><span class="std std-ref">Using add_reader() to watch an FD for read events</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-example-unix-signals"><span class="std std-ref">Using loop.add_signal_handler()</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-subprocess-proto"><span class="std std-ref">Using loop.subprocess_exec()</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="transports">
+<h2>Transports<a class="headerlink" href="#transports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All transports implement the following methods:</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.close" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.close()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Close the transport.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.is_closing()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the transport is closing or is closed.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.get_extra_info()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Request for information about the transport.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.set_protocol" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.set_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.set_protocol()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Set a new protocol.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_protocol" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.get_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.get_protocol()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the current protocol.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Transports that can receive data (TCP and Unix connections,
+pipes, etc).  Returned from methods like
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_connection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a>, etc:</p>
+<p class="rubric">Read Transports</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading" title="asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.is_reading()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the transport is receiving.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading" title="asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.pause_reading()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Pause receiving.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading" title="asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.resume_reading()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Resume receiving.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Transports that can Send data (TCP and Unix connections,
+pipes, etc).  Returned from methods like
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_connection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_write_pipe()</span></code></a>, etc:</p>
+<p class="rubric">Write Transports</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.write" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.write()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Write data to the transport.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.writelines()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Write buffers to the transport.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.can_write_eof" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.can_write_eof"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.can_write_eof()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the transport supports sending EOF.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.write_eof()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Close and send EOF after flushing buffered data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.abort" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.abort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.abort()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Close the transport immediately.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.get_write_buffer_size()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return high and low water marks for write flow control.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.set_write_buffer_limits()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Set new high and low water marks for write flow control.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Transports returned by <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<p class="rubric">Datagram Transports</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto" title="asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.sendto()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Send data to the remote peer.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramTransport.abort" title="asyncio.DatagramTransport.abort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.abort()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Close the transport immediately.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Low-level transport abstraction over subprocesses.
+Returned by <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<p class="rubric">Subprocess Transports</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pid" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pid"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.get_pid()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the subprocess process id.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.get_pipe_transport()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the transport for the requested communication pipe
+(<em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em>, or <em>stderr</em>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_returncode" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_returncode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.get_returncode()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the subprocess return code.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.kill()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Kill the subprocess.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.send_signal" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.send_signal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.send_signal()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Send a signal to the subprocess.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.terminate()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Stop the subprocess.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.close" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.close()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Kill the subprocess and close all pipes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="protocols">
+<h2>Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Protocol classes can implement the following <strong>callback methods</strong>:</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connection_made()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when a connection is made.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connection_lost()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when the connection is lost or closed.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause_writing()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when the transport’s buffer goes over the high water mark.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resume_writing()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when the transport’s buffer drains below the low water mark.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Streaming Protocols (TCP, Unix Sockets, Pipes)</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol.data_received" title="asyncio.Protocol.data_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data_received()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when some data is received.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.Protocol.eof_received" title="asyncio.Protocol.eof_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eof_received()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when an EOF is received.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Buffered Streaming Protocols</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_buffer()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called to allocate a new receive buffer.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer_updated()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when the buffer was updated with the received data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.eof_received" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.eof_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eof_received()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when an EOF is received.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Datagram Protocols</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.datagram_received" title="asyncio.DatagramProtocol.datagram_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datagram_received()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when a datagram is received.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received" title="asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_received()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when a previous send or receive operation raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Subprocess Protocols</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received" title="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipe_data_received()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when the child process writes data into its
+<em>stdout</em> or <em>stderr</em> pipe.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost" title="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipe_connection_lost()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when one of the pipes communicating with
+the child process is closed.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.process_exited" title="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.process_exited"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_exited()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Called when the child process has exited.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="event-loop-policies">
+<h2>Event Loop Policies<a class="headerlink" href="#event-loop-policies" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Policies is a low-level mechanism to alter the behavior of
+functions like <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_event_loop()</span></code></a>.  See also
+the main <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-policy.html#asyncio-policies"><span class="std std-ref">policies section</span></a> for more
+details.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Accessing Policies</p>
+<table class="colwidths-given full-width-table docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.get_event_loop_policy" title="asyncio.get_event_loop_policy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Return the current process-wide policy.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.set_event_loop_policy" title="asyncio.set_event_loop_policy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Set a new process-wide policy.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy" title="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractEventLoopPolicy</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base class for policy objects.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Low-level API Index</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#obtaining-the-event-loop">Obtaining the Event Loop</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#event-loop-methods">Event Loop Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#transports">Transports</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#protocols">Protocols</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#event-loop-policies">Event Loop Policies</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-api-index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">High-level API Index</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-dev.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Developing with asyncio</a></p>
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-platforms.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-platforms.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94d1fb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-platforms.html
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Platform Support &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="High-level API Index" href="asyncio-api-index.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Policies" href="asyncio-policy.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/asyncio-platforms.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="asyncio-api-index.html" title="High-level API Index"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="asyncio-policy.html" title="Policies"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="ipc.html" >Networking and Interprocess Communication</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="asyncio.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> — Asynchronous I/O</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="platform-support">
+<span id="asyncio-platform-support"></span><h1>Platform Support<a class="headerlink" href="#platform-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module is designed to be portable,
+but some platforms have subtle differences and limitations
+due to the platforms’ underlying architecture and capabilities.</p>
+<div class="section" id="all-platforms">
+<h2>All Platforms<a class="headerlink" href="#all-platforms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="asyncio.loop.add_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_reader()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_writer" title="asyncio.loop.add_writer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_writer()</span></code></a>
+cannot be used to monitor file I/O.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="windows">
+<h2>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All event loops on Windows do not support the following methods:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_connection()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_server()</span></code></a> are not supported.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.AF_UNIX</span></code></a> socket family is specific to Unix.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler" title="asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_signal_handler()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler" title="asyncio.loop.remove_signal_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.remove_signal_handler()</span></code></a> are not supported.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a> has the following limitations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#selectors.SelectSelector" title="selectors.SelectSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectSelector</span></code></a> is used to wait on socket events:
+it supports sockets and is limited to 512 sockets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="asyncio.loop.add_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_reader()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_writer" title="asyncio.loop.add_writer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_writer()</span></code></a> only accept
+socket handles (e.g. pipe file descriptors are not supported).</p></li>
+<li><p>Pipes are not supported, so the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_write_pipe()</span></code></a> methods are not implemented.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio-subprocess"><span class="std std-ref">Subprocesses</span></a> are not supported, i.e.
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a>
+methods are not implemented.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> has the following limitations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code></a> method
+is not supported.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="asyncio.loop.add_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_reader()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_writer" title="asyncio.loop.add_writer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_writer()</span></code></a>
+methods are not supported.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The resolution of the monotonic clock on Windows is usually around 15.6
+msec.  The best resolution is 0.5 msec. The resolution depends on the
+hardware (availability of <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer">HPET</a>) and on the
+Windows configuration.</p>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess-support-on-windows">
+<span id="asyncio-windows-subprocess"></span><h3>Subprocess Support on Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess-support-on-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a> on Windows does not support subproceses.
+On Windows, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> should be used instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_event_loop_policy</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">your_code</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher" title="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy.set_child_watcher()</span></code></a> function is also
+not supported, as <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> has a different mechanism
+to watch child processes.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="macos">
+<h2>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#macos" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Modern macOS versions are fully supported.</p>
+<p class="rubric">macOS &lt;= 10.8</p>
+<p>On macOS 10.6, 10.7 and 10.8, the default event loop
+uses <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#selectors.KqueueSelector" title="selectors.KqueueSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors.KqueueSelector</span></code></a>, which does not support
+character devices on these versions.  The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a>
+can be manually configured to use <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#selectors.SelectSelector" title="selectors.SelectSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectSelector</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#selectors.PollSelector" title="selectors.PollSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PollSelector</span></code></a> to support character devices on
+these older versions of macOS.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">selectors</span>
+
+<span class="n">selector</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SelectSelector</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SelectorEventLoop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">selector</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_event_loop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Platform Support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#all-platforms">All Platforms</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#windows">Windows</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess-support-on-windows">Subprocess Support on Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#macos">macOS</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-policy.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Policies</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-api-index.html"
+                        title="next chapter">High-level API Index</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-policy.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-policy.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81fe34b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-policy.html
@@ -0,0 +1,413 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Policies &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="Platform Support" href="asyncio-platforms.html" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="asyncio.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> — Asynchronous I/O</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+         |
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="policies">
+<span id="asyncio-policies"></span><h1>Policies<a class="headerlink" href="#policies" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>An event loop policy is a global per-process object that controls
+the management of the event loop. Each event loop has a default
+policy, which can be changed and customized using the policy API.</p>
+<p>A policy defines the notion of <em>context</em> and manages a
+separate event loop per context. The default policy
+defines <em>context</em> to be the current thread.</p>
+<p>By using a custom event loop policy, the behavior of
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_event_loop()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.set_event_loop" title="asyncio.set_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_event_loop()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.new_event_loop" title="asyncio.new_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_event_loop()</span></code></a> functions can be customized.</p>
+<p>Policy objects should implement the APIs defined
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy" title="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractEventLoopPolicy</span></code></a> abstract base class.</p>
+<div class="section" id="getting-and-setting-the-policy">
+<h2>Getting and Setting the Policy<a class="headerlink" href="#getting-and-setting-the-policy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions can be used to get and set the policy
+for the current process:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.get_event_loop_policy">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">get_event_loop_policy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.get_event_loop_policy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current process-wide policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.set_event_loop_policy">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">set_event_loop_policy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.set_event_loop_policy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process-wide policy to <em>policy</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>policy</em> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the default policy is restored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="policy-objects">
+<h2>Policy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#policy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The abstract event loop policy base class is defined as follows:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">AbstractEventLoopPolicy</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class for asyncio policies.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop">
+<code class="descname">get_event_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the event loop for the current context.</p>
+<p>Return an event loop object implementing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.AbstractEventLoop" title="asyncio.AbstractEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractEventLoop</span></code></a> interface.</p>
+<p>This method should never return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_event_loop">
+<code class="descname">set_event_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_event_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the event loop for the current context to <em>loop</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.new_event_loop">
+<code class="descname">new_event_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.new_event_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a new event loop object.</p>
+<p>This method should never return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher">
+<code class="descname">get_child_watcher</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a child process watcher object.</p>
+<p>Return a watcher object implementing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher" title="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractChildWatcher</span></code></a> interface.</p>
+<p>This function is Unix specific.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher">
+<code class="descname">set_child_watcher</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>watcher</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current child process watcher to <em>watcher</em>.</p>
+<p>This function is Unix specific.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>asyncio ships with the following built-in policies:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">DefaultEventLoopPolicy</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default asyncio policy.  Uses <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.SelectorEventLoop" title="asyncio.SelectorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorEventLoop</span></code></a>
+on both Unix and Windows platforms.</p>
+<p>There is no need to install the default policy manually. asyncio
+is configured to use the default policy automatically.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alternative event loop policy that uses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> event loop implementation.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="process-watchers">
+<h2>Process Watchers<a class="headerlink" href="#process-watchers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A process watcher allows customization of how an event loop monitors
+child processes on Unix. Specifically, the event loop needs to know
+when a child process has exited.</p>
+<p>In asyncio, child processes are created with
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a>
+functions.</p>
+<p>asyncio defines the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher" title="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractChildWatcher</span></code></a> abstract base class,
+which child watchers should implement, and has two different
+implementations: <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SafeChildWatcher" title="asyncio.SafeChildWatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SafeChildWatcher</span></code></a> (configured to be used
+by default) and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.FastChildWatcher" title="asyncio.FastChildWatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FastChildWatcher</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio-subprocess-threads"><span class="std std-ref">Subprocess and Threads</span></a>
+section.</p>
+<p>The following two functions can be used to customize the child process watcher
+implementation used by the asyncio event loop:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.get_child_watcher">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">get_child_watcher</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.get_child_watcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current child watcher for the current policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.set_child_watcher">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">set_child_watcher</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>watcher</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.set_child_watcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current child watcher to <em>watcher</em> for the current
+policy.  <em>watcher</em> must implement methods defined in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher" title="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractChildWatcher</span></code></a> base class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Third-party event loops implementations might not support
+custom child watchers.  For such event loops, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.set_child_watcher" title="asyncio.set_child_watcher"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_child_watcher()</span></code></a> might be prohibited or have no effect.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">AbstractChildWatcher</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.add_child_handler">
+<code class="descname">add_child_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.add_child_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a new child handler.</p>
+<p>Arrange for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback(pid,</span> <span class="pre">returncode,</span> <span class="pre">*args)</span></code> to be called
+when a process with PID equal to <em>pid</em> terminates.  Specifying
+another callback for the same process replaces the previous
+handler.</p>
+<p>The <em>callback</em> callable must be thread-safe.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.remove_child_handler">
+<code class="descname">remove_child_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.remove_child_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the handler for process with PID equal to <em>pid</em>.</p>
+<p>The function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the handler was successfully
+removed, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if there was nothing to remove.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.attach_loop">
+<code class="descname">attach_loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.attach_loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attach the watcher to an event loop.</p>
+<p>If the watcher was previously attached to an event loop, then
+it is first detached before attaching to the new loop.</p>
+<p>Note: loop may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the watcher.</p>
+<p>This method has to be called to ensure that underlying
+resources are cleaned-up.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.SafeChildWatcher">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">SafeChildWatcher</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SafeChildWatcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This implementation avoids disrupting other code spawning processes
+by polling every process explicitly on a <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGCHLD</span></code> signal.</p>
+<p>This is a safe solution but it has a significant overhead when
+handling a big number of processes (<em>O(n)</em> each time a
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGCHLD</span></code> is received).</p>
+<p>asyncio uses this safe implementation by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.FastChildWatcher">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">FastChildWatcher</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.FastChildWatcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This implementation reaps every terminated processes by calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.waitpid(-1)</span></code> directly, possibly breaking other code spawning
+processes and waiting for their termination.</p>
+<p>There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
+children (<em>O(1)</em> each time a child terminates).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="custom-policies">
+<h2>Custom Policies<a class="headerlink" href="#custom-policies" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To implement a new event loop policy, it is recommended to subclass
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy" title="asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultEventLoopPolicy</span></code></a> and override the methods for which
+custom behavior is wanted, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyEventLoopPolicy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DefaultEventLoopPolicy</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_event_loop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Get the event loop.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">        This may be None or an instance of EventLoop.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_event_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Do something with loop ...</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">loop</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_event_loop_policy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MyEventLoopPolicy</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
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+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Policies</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-and-setting-the-policy">Getting and Setting the Policy</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#policy-objects">Policy Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#process-watchers">Process Watchers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#custom-policies">Custom Policies</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-protocol.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Transports and Protocols</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="transports-and-protocols">
+<span id="asyncio-transports-protocols"></span><h1>Transports and Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#transports-and-protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p class="rubric">Preface</p>
+<p>Transports and Protocols are used by the <strong>low-level</strong> event loop
+APIs such as <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>.  They use
+callback-based programming style and enable high-performance
+implementations of network or IPC protocols (e.g. HTTP).</p>
+<p>Essentially, transports and protocols should only be used in
+libraries and frameworks and never in high-level asyncio
+applications.</p>
+<p>This documentation page covers both <a class="reference internal" href="#transports">Transports</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#protocols">Protocols</a>.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Introduction</p>
+<p>At the highest level, the transport is concerned with <em>how</em> bytes
+are transmitted, while the protocol determines <em>which</em> bytes to
+transmit (and to some extent when).</p>
+<p>A different way of saying the same thing: a transport is an
+abstraction for a socket (or similar I/O endpoint) while a protocol
+is an abstraction for an application, from the transport’s point
+of view.</p>
+<p>Yet another view is the transport and protocol interfaces
+together define an abstract interface for using network I/O and
+interprocess I/O.</p>
+<p>There is always a 1:1 relationship between transport and protocol
+objects: the protocol calls transport methods to send data,
+while the transport calls protocol methods to pass it data that
+has been received.</p>
+<p>Most of connection oriented event loop methods
+(such as <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>) usually accept a
+<em>protocol_factory</em> argument used to create a <em>Protocol</em> object
+for an accepted connection, represented by a <em>Transport</em> object.
+Such methods usually return a tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(transport,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Contents</p>
+<p>This documentation page contains the following sections:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#transports">Transports</a> section documents asyncio <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseTransport" title="asyncio.BaseTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseTransport</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ReadTransport" title="asyncio.ReadTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadTransport</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport" title="asyncio.WriteTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WriteTransport</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Transport" title="asyncio.Transport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Transport</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.DatagramTransport" title="asyncio.DatagramTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramTransport</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessTransport</span></code></a>
+classes.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#protocols">Protocols</a> section documents asyncio <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseProtocol</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Protocol" title="asyncio.Protocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Protocol</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedProtocol</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.DatagramProtocol" title="asyncio.DatagramProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramProtocol</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol" title="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessProtocol</span></code></a> classes.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a> section showcases how to work with transports,
+protocols, and low-level event loop APIs.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="transports">
+<span id="asyncio-transport"></span><h2>Transports<a class="headerlink" href="#transports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Transports are classes provided by <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> in order to abstract
+various kinds of communication channels.</p>
+<p>Transport objects are always instantiated by an
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-event-loop"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio event loop</span></a>.</p>
+<p>asyncio implements transports for TCP, UDP, SSL, and subprocess pipes.
+The methods available on a transport depend on the transport’s kind.</p>
+<p>The transport classes are <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-multithreading"><span class="std std-ref">not thread safe</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="transports-hierarchy">
+<h3>Transports Hierarchy<a class="headerlink" href="#transports-hierarchy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseTransport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">BaseTransport</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseTransport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for all transports.  Contains methods that all
+asyncio transports share.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">WriteTransport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseTransport</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A base transport for write-only connections.</p>
+<p>Instances of the <em>WriteTransport</em> class are returned from
+the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_write_pipe()</span></code></a> event loop method and
+are also used by subprocess-related methods like
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.ReadTransport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">ReadTransport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseTransport</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.ReadTransport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A base transport for read-only connections.</p>
+<p>Instances of the <em>ReadTransport</em> class are returned from
+the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a> event loop method and
+are also used by subprocess-related methods like
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Transport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Transport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>WriteTransport</em>, <em>ReadTransport</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Transport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interface representing a bidirectional transport, such as a
+TCP connection.</p>
+<p>The user does not instantiate a transport directly; they call a
+utility function, passing it a protocol factory and other
+information necessary to create the transport and protocol.</p>
+<p>Instances of the <em>Transport</em> class are returned from or used by
+event loop methods like <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_connection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sendfile" title="asyncio.loop.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sendfile()</span></code></a>, etc.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.DatagramTransport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">DatagramTransport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseTransport</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.DatagramTransport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A transport for datagram (UDP) connections.</p>
+<p>Instances of the <em>DatagramTransport</em> class are returned from
+the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code></a> event loop method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">SubprocessTransport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseTransport</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstraction to represent a connection between a parent and its
+child OS process.</p>
+<p>Instances of the <em>SubprocessTransport</em> class are returned from
+event loop methods <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="base-transport">
+<h3>Base Transport<a class="headerlink" href="#base-transport" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseTransport.close">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseTransport.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseTransport.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the transport.</p>
+<p>If the transport has a buffer for outgoing
+data, buffered data will be flushed asynchronously.  No more data
+will be received.  After all buffered data is flushed, the
+protocol’s <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.connection_lost()</span></code></a> method will be called with
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> as its argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseTransport.</code><code class="descname">is_closing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the transport is closing or is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseTransport.</code><code class="descname">get_extra_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return information about the transport or underlying resources
+it uses.</p>
+<p><em>name</em> is a string representing the piece of transport-specific
+information to get.</p>
+<p><em>default</em> is the value to return if the information is not
+available, or if the transport does not support querying it
+with the given third-party event loop implementation or on the
+current platform.</p>
+<p>For example, the following code attempts to get the underlying
+socket object of the transport:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_extra_info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;socket&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sock</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getsockopt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Categories of information that can be queried on some transports:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>socket:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'peername'</span></code>: the remote address to which the socket is
+connected, result of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.getpeername" title="socket.socket.getpeername"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.getpeername()</span></code></a>
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> on error)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'socket'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a> instance</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sockname'</span></code>: the socket’s own address,
+result of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.getsockname" title="socket.socket.getsockname"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.getsockname()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>SSL socket:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'compression'</span></code>: the compression algorithm being used as a
+string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the connection isn’t compressed; result
+of <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.compression" title="ssl.SSLSocket.compression"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket.compression()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cipher'</span></code>: a three-value tuple containing the name of the
+cipher being used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines
+its use, and the number of secret bits being used; result of
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher" title="ssl.SSLSocket.cipher"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket.cipher()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'peercert'</span></code>: peer certificate; result of
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sslcontext'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> instance</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ssl_object'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLObject</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></code></a> instance</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>pipe:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'pipe'</span></code>: pipe object</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>subprocess:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'subprocess'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> instance</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseTransport.set_protocol">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseTransport.</code><code class="descname">set_protocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseTransport.set_protocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a new protocol.</p>
+<p>Switching protocol should only be done when both
+protocols are documented to support the switch.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseTransport.get_protocol">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseTransport.</code><code class="descname">get_protocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_protocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="read-only-transports">
+<h3>Read-only Transports<a class="headerlink" href="#read-only-transports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading">
+<code class="descclassname">ReadTransport.</code><code class="descname">is_reading</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the transport is receiving new data.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading">
+<code class="descclassname">ReadTransport.</code><code class="descname">pause_reading</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pause the receiving end of the transport.  No data will be passed to
+the protocol’s <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Protocol.data_received" title="asyncio.Protocol.data_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.data_received()</span></code></a>
+method until <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading" title="asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resume_reading()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The method is idempotent, i.e. it can be called when the
+transport is already paused or closed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading">
+<code class="descclassname">ReadTransport.</code><code class="descname">resume_reading</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resume the receiving end.  The protocol’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Protocol.data_received" title="asyncio.Protocol.data_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.data_received()</span></code></a> method
+will be called once again if some data is available for reading.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The method is idempotent, i.e. it can be called when the
+transport is already reading.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="write-only-transports">
+<h3>Write-only Transports<a class="headerlink" href="#write-only-transports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.abort">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">abort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.abort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending operations
+to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data will be received.
+The protocol’s <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.connection_lost()</span></code></a> method will eventually be
+called with <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> as its argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.can_write_eof">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">can_write_eof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.can_write_eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the transport supports
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write_eof()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> if not.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">get_write_buffer_size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current size of the output buffer used by the transport.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">get_write_buffer_limits</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the <em>high</em> and <em>low</em> watermarks for write flow control. Return a
+tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(low,</span> <span class="pre">high)</span></code> where <em>low</em> and <em>high</em> are positive number of
+bytes.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_write_buffer_limits()</span></code></a> to set the limits.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">set_write_buffer_limits</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>high=None</em>, <em>low=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <em>high</em> and <em>low</em> watermarks for write flow control.</p>
+<p>These two values (measured in number of
+bytes) control when the protocol’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.pause_writing()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.resume_writing()</span></code></a>
+methods are called. If specified, the low watermark must be less
+than or equal to the high watermark.  Neither <em>high</em> nor <em>low</em>
+can be negative.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause_writing()</span></code></a> is called when the buffer size
+becomes greater than or equal to the <em>high</em> value. If writing has
+been paused, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resume_writing()</span></code></a> is called when
+the buffer size becomes less than or equal to the <em>low</em> value.</p>
+<p>The defaults are implementation-specific.  If only the
+high watermark is given, the low watermark defaults to an
+implementation-specific value less than or equal to the
+high watermark.  Setting <em>high</em> to zero forces <em>low</em> to zero as
+well, and causes <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause_writing()</span></code></a> to be called
+whenever the buffer becomes non-empty.  Setting <em>low</em> to zero causes
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resume_writing()</span></code></a> to be called only once the
+buffer is empty. Use of zero for either limit is generally
+sub-optimal as it reduces opportunities for doing I/O and
+computation concurrently.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_write_buffer_limits()</span></code></a>
+to get the limits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.write">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write some <em>data</em> bytes to the transport.</p>
+<p>This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
+to be sent out asynchronously.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">writelines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list_of_data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a list (or any iterable) of data bytes to the transport.
+This is functionally equivalent to calling <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.write" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> on each
+element yielded by the iterable, but may be implemented more
+efficiently.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof">
+<code class="descclassname">WriteTransport.</code><code class="descname">write_eof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the write end of the transport after flushing all buffered data.
+Data may still be received.</p>
+<p>This method can raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> if the transport
+(e.g. SSL) doesn’t support half-closed connections.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datagram-transports">
+<h3>Datagram Transports<a class="headerlink" href="#datagram-transports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto">
+<code class="descclassname">DatagramTransport.</code><code class="descname">sendto</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>addr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send the <em>data</em> bytes to the remote peer given by <em>addr</em> (a
+transport-dependent target address).  If <em>addr</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>,
+the data is sent to the target address given on transport
+creation.</p>
+<p>This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges
+for it to be sent out asynchronously.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.DatagramTransport.abort">
+<code class="descclassname">DatagramTransport.</code><code class="descname">abort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.DatagramTransport.abort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
+operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.
+No more data will be received.  The protocol’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.connection_lost()</span></code></a>
+method will eventually be called with <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> as its argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess-transports">
+<span id="asyncio-subprocess-transports"></span><h3>Subprocess Transports<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess-transports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pid">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessTransport.</code><code class="descname">get_pid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the subprocess process id as an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessTransport.</code><code class="descname">get_pipe_transport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the transport for the communication pipe corresponding to the
+integer file descriptor <em>fd</em>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>: readable streaming transport of the standard input (<em>stdin</em>),
+or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if the subprocess was not created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin=PIPE</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>: writable streaming transport of the standard output (<em>stdout</em>),
+or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if the subprocess was not created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>: writable streaming transport of the standard error (<em>stderr</em>),
+or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if the subprocess was not created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>other <em>fd</em>: <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_returncode">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessTransport.</code><code class="descname">get_returncode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.get_returncode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the subprocess return code as an integer or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>
+if it hasn’t returned, which is similar to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.returncode" title="subprocess.Popen.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen.returncode</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessTransport.</code><code class="descname">kill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Kill the subprocess.</p>
+<p>On POSIX systems, the function sends SIGKILL to the subprocess.
+On Windows, this method is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.kill" title="subprocess.Popen.kill"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen.kill()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.send_signal">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessTransport.</code><code class="descname">send_signal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signal</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.send_signal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send the <em>signal</em> number to the subprocess, as in
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.send_signal" title="subprocess.Popen.send_signal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen.send_signal()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessTransport.</code><code class="descname">terminate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.terminate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop the subprocess.</p>
+<p>On POSIX systems, this method sends SIGTERM to the subprocess.
+On Windows, the Windows API function TerminateProcess() is called to
+stop the subprocess.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.terminate" title="subprocess.Popen.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen.terminate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.close">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessTransport.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Kill the subprocess by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill" title="asyncio.SubprocessTransport.kill"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kill()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>If the subprocess hasn’t returned yet, and close transports of
+<em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em>, and <em>stderr</em> pipes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="protocols">
+<span id="asyncio-protocol"></span><h2>Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>asyncio provides a set of abstract base classes that should be used
+to implement network protocols.  Those classes are meant to be used
+together with <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-transport"><span class="std std-ref">transports</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Subclasses of abstract base protocol classes may implement some or
+all methods.  All these methods are callbacks: they are called by
+transports on certain events, for example when some data is received.
+A base protocol method should be called by the corresponding transport.</p>
+<div class="section" id="base-protocols">
+<h3>Base Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#base-protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseProtocol">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">BaseProtocol</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base protocol with methods that all protocols share.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Protocol">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Protocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseProtocol</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Protocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class for implementing streaming protocols
+(TCP, Unix sockets, etc).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.BufferedProtocol">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">BufferedProtocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseProtocol</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A base class for implementing streaming protocols with manual
+control of the receive buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.DatagramProtocol">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">DatagramProtocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseProtocol</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.DatagramProtocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class for implementing datagram (UDP) protocols.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">SubprocessProtocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>BaseProtocol</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class for implementing protocols communicating with child
+processes (unidirectional pipes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="base-protocol">
+<h3>Base Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#base-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All asyncio protocols can implement Base Protocol callbacks.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Connection Callbacks</p>
+<p>Connection callbacks are called on all protocols, exactly once per
+a successful connection.  All other protocol callbacks can only be
+called between those two methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseProtocol.</code><code class="descname">connection_made</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>transport</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_made" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when a connection is made.</p>
+<p>The <em>transport</em> argument is the transport representing the
+connection.  The protocol is responsible for storing the reference
+to its transport.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseProtocol.</code><code class="descname">connection_lost</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.connection_lost" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the connection is lost or closed.</p>
+<p>The argument is either an exception object or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.
+The latter means a regular EOF is received, or the connection was
+aborted or closed by this side of the connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Flow Control Callbacks</p>
+<p>Flow control callbacks can be called by transports to pause or
+resume writing performed by the protocol.</p>
+<p>See the documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_write_buffer_limits()</span></code></a>
+method for more details.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseProtocol.</code><code class="descname">pause_writing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the transport’s buffer goes over the high watermark.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseProtocol.</code><code class="descname">resume_writing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the transport’s buffer drains below the low watermark.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If the buffer size equals the high watermark,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.pause_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause_writing()</span></code></a> is not called: the buffer size must
+go strictly over.</p>
+<p>Conversely, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing" title="asyncio.BaseProtocol.resume_writing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resume_writing()</span></code></a> is called when the
+buffer size is equal or lower than the low watermark.  These end
+conditions are important to ensure that things go as expected when
+either mark is zero.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="streaming-protocols">
+<h3>Streaming Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#streaming-protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Event methods, such as <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_server()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_connection()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket" title="asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_accepted_socket()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_write_pipe()</span></code></a>
+accept factories that return streaming protocols.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Protocol.data_received">
+<code class="descclassname">Protocol.</code><code class="descname">data_received</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Protocol.data_received" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when some data is received.  <em>data</em> is a non-empty bytes
+object containing the incoming data.</p>
+<p>Whether the data is buffered, chunked or reassembled depends on
+the transport.  In general, you shouldn’t rely on specific semantics
+and instead make your parsing generic and flexible. However,
+data is always received in the correct order.</p>
+<p>The method can be called an arbitrary number of times while
+a connection is open.</p>
+<p>However, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Protocol.eof_received" title="asyncio.Protocol.eof_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.eof_received()</span></code></a>
+is called at most once.  Once <cite>eof_received()</cite> is called,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data_received()</span></code> is not called anymore.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Protocol.eof_received">
+<code class="descclassname">Protocol.</code><code class="descname">eof_received</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Protocol.eof_received" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the other end signals it won’t send any more data
+(for example by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.write_eof"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.write_eof()</span></code></a>, if the other end also uses
+asyncio).</p>
+<p>This method may return a false value (including <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), in which case
+the transport will close itself.  Conversely, if this method returns a
+true value, the protocol used determines whether to close the transport.
+Since the default implementation returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it implicitly closes the
+connection.</p>
+<p>Some transports, including SSL, don’t support half-closed connections,
+in which case returning true from this method will result in the connection
+being closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>State machine:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>start -&gt; connection_made
+    [-&gt; data_received]*
+    [-&gt; eof_received]?
+-&gt; connection_lost -&gt; end
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="buffered-streaming-protocols">
+<h3>Buffered Streaming Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#buffered-streaming-protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><strong>Important:</strong> this has been added to asyncio in Python 3.7
+<em>on a provisional basis</em>!  This is as an experimental API that
+might be changed or removed completely in Python 3.8.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Buffered Protocols can be used with any event loop method
+that supports <a class="reference internal" href="#streaming-protocols">Streaming Protocols</a>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedProtocol</span></code> implementations allow explicit manual allocation
+and control of the receive buffer.  Event loops can then use the buffer
+provided by the protocol to avoid unnecessary data copies.  This
+can result in noticeable performance improvement for protocols that
+receive big amounts of data.  Sophisticated protocol implementations
+can significantly reduce the number of buffer allocations.</p>
+<p>The following callbacks are called on <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedProtocol</span></code></a>
+instances:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer">
+<code class="descclassname">BufferedProtocol.</code><code class="descname">get_buffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sizehint</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to allocate a new receive buffer.</p>
+<p><em>sizehint</em> is the recommended minimum size for the returned
+buffer.  It is acceptable to return smaller or larger buffers
+than what <em>sizehint</em> suggests.  When set to -1, the buffer size
+can be arbitrary. It is an error to return a buffer with a zero size.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_buffer()</span></code> must return an object implementing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer protocol</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated">
+<code class="descclassname">BufferedProtocol.</code><code class="descname">buffer_updated</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nbytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the buffer was updated with the received data.</p>
+<p><em>nbytes</em> is the total number of bytes that were written to the buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.eof_received">
+<code class="descclassname">BufferedProtocol.</code><code class="descname">eof_received</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.eof_received" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>See the documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Protocol.eof_received" title="asyncio.Protocol.eof_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.eof_received()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_buffer()</span></code></a> can be called an arbitrary number
+of times during a connection.  However, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Protocol.eof_received" title="asyncio.Protocol.eof_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">protocol.eof_received()</span></code></a> is called at most once
+and, if called, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.get_buffer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_buffer()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer_updated()</span></code></a> won’t be called after it.</p>
+<p>State machine:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>start -&gt; connection_made
+    [-&gt; get_buffer
+        [-&gt; buffer_updated]?
+    ]*
+    [-&gt; eof_received]?
+-&gt; connection_lost -&gt; end
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datagram-protocols">
+<h3>Datagram Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#datagram-protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Datagram Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol
+factories passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.DatagramProtocol.datagram_received">
+<code class="descclassname">DatagramProtocol.</code><code class="descname">datagram_received</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>addr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.datagram_received" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when a datagram is received.  <em>data</em> is a bytes object containing
+the incoming data.  <em>addr</em> is the address of the peer sending the data;
+the exact format depends on the transport.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received">
+<code class="descclassname">DatagramProtocol.</code><code class="descname">error_received</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when a previous send or receive operation raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.  <em>exc</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>This method is called in rare conditions, when the transport (e.g. UDP)
+detects that a datagram could not be delivered to its recipient.
+In many conditions though, undeliverable datagrams will be silently
+dropped.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On BSD systems (macOS, FreeBSD, etc.) flow control is not supported
+for datagram protocols, because there is no reliable way to detect send
+failures caused by writing too many packets.</p>
+<p>The socket always appears ‘ready’ and excess packets are dropped. An
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> set to <a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#errno.ENOBUFS" title="errno.ENOBUFS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.ENOBUFS</span></code></a> may
+or may not be raised; if it is raised, it will be reported to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received" title="asyncio.DatagramProtocol.error_received"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramProtocol.error_received()</span></code></a> but otherwise ignored.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess-protocols">
+<span id="asyncio-subprocess-protocols"></span><h3>Subprocess Protocols<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess-protocols" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Datagram Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol
+factories passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessProtocol.</code><code class="descname">pipe_data_received</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the child process writes data into its stdout or stderr
+pipe.</p>
+<p><em>fd</em> is the integer file descriptor of the pipe.</p>
+<p><em>data</em> is a non-empty bytes object containing the received data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessProtocol.</code><code class="descname">pipe_connection_lost</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>exc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when one of the pipes communicating with the child process
+is closed.</p>
+<p><em>fd</em> is the integer file descriptor that was closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.process_exited">
+<code class="descclassname">SubprocessProtocol.</code><code class="descname">process_exited</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.process_exited" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the child process has exited.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="tcp-echo-server">
+<span id="asyncio-example-tcp-echo-server-protocol"></span><h3>TCP Echo Server<a class="headerlink" href="#tcp-echo-server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Create a TCP echo server using the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a> method, send back
+received data, and close the connection:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">EchoServerProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Protocol</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_made</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">peername</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_extra_info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;peername&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Connection from </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">peername</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">transport</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">data_received</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Data received: </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Send: </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Close the client socket&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use</span>
+    <span class="c1"># low-level APIs.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_server</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">EchoServerProtocol</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8888</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-tcp-echo-server-streams"><span class="std std-ref">TCP echo server using streams</span></a>
+example uses the high-level <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.start_server()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tcp-echo-client">
+<span id="asyncio-example-tcp-echo-client-protocol"></span><h3>TCP Echo Client<a class="headerlink" href="#tcp-echo-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A TCP echo client using the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a> method, sends
+data, and waits until the connection is closed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">EchoClientProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Protocol</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">on_con_lost</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">on_con_lost</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_made</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Data sent: </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">data_received</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Data received: </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_lost</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The server closed the connection&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use</span>
+    <span class="c1"># low-level APIs.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">on_con_lost</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_future</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Hello World!&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_connection</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">EchoClientProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">on_con_lost</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8888</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait until the protocol signals that the connection</span>
+    <span class="c1"># is lost and close the transport.</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">on_con_lost</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-tcp-echo-client-streams"><span class="std std-ref">TCP echo client using streams</span></a>
+example uses the high-level <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.open_connection()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="udp-echo-server">
+<span id="asyncio-udp-echo-server-protocol"></span><h3>UDP Echo Server<a class="headerlink" href="#udp-echo-server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A UDP echo server, using the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code></a>
+method, sends back received data:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">EchoServerProtocol</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_made</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">transport</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">datagram_received</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Received </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1"> from </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Send </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1"> to </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Starting UDP server&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use</span>
+    <span class="c1"># low-level APIs.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># One protocol instance will be created to serve all</span>
+    <span class="c1"># client requests.</span>
+    <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_datagram_endpoint</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">EchoServerProtocol</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+        <span class="n">local_addr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9999</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3600</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Serve for 1 hour.</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="udp-echo-client">
+<span id="asyncio-udp-echo-client-protocol"></span><h3>UDP Echo Client<a class="headerlink" href="#udp-echo-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A UDP echo client, using the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code></a>
+method, sends data and closes the transport when it receives the answer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">EchoClientProtocol</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_future</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_made</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">transport</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Send:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">datagram_received</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Close the socket&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">error_received</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error received:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_lost</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Connection closed&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use</span>
+    <span class="c1"># low-level APIs.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello World!&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_datagram_endpoint</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">EchoClientProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="n">remote_addr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9999</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">protocol</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="connecting-existing-sockets">
+<span id="asyncio-example-create-connection"></span><h3>Connecting Existing Sockets<a class="headerlink" href="#connecting-existing-sockets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Wait until a socket receives data using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a> method with a protocol:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Protocol</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_future</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_made</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">transport</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">data_received</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># We are done: close the transport;</span>
+        <span class="c1"># connection_lost() will be called automatically.</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">connection_lost</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># The socket has been closed</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use</span>
+    <span class="c1"># low-level APIs.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create a pair of connected sockets</span>
+    <span class="n">rsock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">wsock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socketpair</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register the socket to wait for data.</span>
+    <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_connection</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">MyProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">rsock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Simulate the reception of data from the network.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">protocol</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_con_lost</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">wsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-example-watch-fd"><span class="std std-ref">watch a file descriptor for read events</span></a> example uses the low-level
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="asyncio.loop.add_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_reader()</span></code></a> method to register an FD.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-example-create-connection-streams"><span class="std std-ref">register an open socket to wait for data using streams</span></a> example uses high-level streams
+created by the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_connection()</span></code></a> function in a coroutine.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="loop-subprocess-exec-and-subprocessprotocol">
+<span id="asyncio-example-subprocess-proto"></span><h3>loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol<a class="headerlink" href="#loop-subprocess-exec-and-subprocessprotocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An example of a subprocess protocol used to get the output of a
+subprocess and to wait for the subprocess exit.</p>
+<p>The subprocess is created by th <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DateProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SubprocessProtocol</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exit_future</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit_future</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">exit_future</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">pipe_data_received</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">process_exited</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit_future</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_date</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use</span>
+    <span class="c1"># low-level APIs.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">exit_future</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Future</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># redirect the standard output into a pipe.</span>
+    <span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subprocess_exec</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">DateProtocol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exit_future</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait for the subprocess exit using the process_exited()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># method of the protocol.</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">exit_future</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Close the stdout pipe.</span>
+    <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Read the output which was collected by the</span>
+    <span class="c1"># pipe_data_received() method of the protocol.</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">protocol</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">platform</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;win32&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_event_loop_policy</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">date</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">get_date</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Current date: </span><span class="si">{date}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio-example-create-subprocess-exec"><span class="std std-ref">same example</span></a>
+written using high-level APIs.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Transports and Protocols</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#transports">Transports</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#transports-hierarchy">Transports Hierarchy</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#base-transport">Base Transport</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#read-only-transports">Read-only Transports</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#write-only-transports">Write-only Transports</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datagram-transports">Datagram Transports</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess-transports">Subprocess Transports</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#protocols">Protocols</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#base-protocols">Base Protocols</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#base-protocol">Base Protocol</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streaming-protocols">Streaming Protocols</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#buffered-streaming-protocols">Buffered Streaming Protocols</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datagram-protocols">Datagram Protocols</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess-protocols">Subprocess Protocols</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tcp-echo-server">TCP Echo Server</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tcp-echo-client">TCP Echo Client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#udp-echo-server">UDP Echo Server</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#udp-echo-client">UDP Echo Client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#connecting-existing-sockets">Connecting Existing Sockets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#loop-subprocess-exec-and-subprocessprotocol">loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-future.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Futures</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-queue.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-queue.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87d65fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-queue.html
@@ -0,0 +1,400 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+  <div class="section" id="queues">
+<span id="asyncio-queues"></span><h1>Queues<a class="headerlink" href="#queues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>asyncio queues are designed to be similar to classes of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module.  Although asyncio queues are not thread-safe,
+they are designed to be used specifically in async/await code.</p>
+<p>Note that methods of asyncio queues don’t have a <em>timeout</em> parameter;
+use <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for" title="asyncio.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.wait_for()</span></code></a> function to do queue operations with a
+timeout.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a> section below.</p>
+<div class="section" id="queue">
+<h2>Queue<a class="headerlink" href="#queue" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Queue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>maxsize=0</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A first in, first out (FIFO) queue.</p>
+<p>If <em>maxsize</em> is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is
+infinite.  If it is an integer greater than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">put()</span></code> blocks when the queue reaches <em>maxsize</em>
+until an item is removed by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.get" title="asyncio.Queue.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Unlike the standard library threading <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a>, the size of
+the queue is always known and can be returned by calling the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.qsize" title="asyncio.Queue.qsize"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">qsize()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>This class is <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-multithreading"><span class="std std-ref">not thread safe</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.maxsize">
+<code class="descname">maxsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.maxsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of items allowed in the queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.empty">
+<code class="descname">empty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the queue is empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.full">
+<code class="descname">full</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.full" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if there are <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.maxsize" title="asyncio.Queue.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxsize</span></code></a> items in the queue.</p>
+<p>If the queue was initialized with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxsize=0</span></code> (the default),
+then <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.full" title="asyncio.Queue.full"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">full()</span></code></a> never returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.get">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an item from the queue. If queue is empty,
+wait until an item is available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.get_nowait">
+<code class="descname">get_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.get_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an item if one is immediately available, else raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.QueueEmpty" title="asyncio.QueueEmpty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueEmpty</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.join">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Block until all items in the queue have been received and processed.</p>
+<p>The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added
+to the queue. The count goes down whenever a consumer coroutine calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.task_done" title="asyncio.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> to indicate that the item was retrieved and all
+work on it is complete.  When the count of unfinished tasks drops
+to zero, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.join" title="asyncio.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> unblocks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.put">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">put</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.put" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put an item into the queue. If the queue is full, wait until a
+free slot is available before adding the item.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.put_nowait">
+<code class="descname">put_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.put_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put an item into the queue without blocking.</p>
+<p>If no free slot is immediately available, raise <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.QueueFull" title="asyncio.QueueFull"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueFull</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.qsize">
+<code class="descname">qsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.qsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of items in the queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Queue.task_done">
+<code class="descname">task_done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Queue.task_done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.</p>
+<p>Used by queue consumers. For each <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.get" title="asyncio.Queue.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> used to
+fetch a task, a subsequent call to <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.task_done" title="asyncio.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> tells the
+queue that the processing on the task is complete.</p>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.join" title="asyncio.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> is currently blocking, it will resume when all
+items have been processed (meaning that a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.task_done" title="asyncio.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a>
+call was received for every item that had been <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.put" title="asyncio.Queue.put"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put()</span></code></a>
+into the queue).</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if called more times than there were
+items placed in the queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="priority-queue">
+<h2>Priority Queue<a class="headerlink" href="#priority-queue" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.PriorityQueue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">PriorityQueue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.PriorityQueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue" title="asyncio.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a>; retrieves entries in priority order
+(lowest first).</p>
+<p>Entries are typically tuples of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(priority_number,</span> <span class="pre">data)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lifo-queue">
+<h2>LIFO Queue<a class="headerlink" href="#lifo-queue" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.LifoQueue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">LifoQueue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.LifoQueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue" title="asyncio.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> that retrieves most recently added
+entries first (last in, first out).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.QueueEmpty">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">QueueEmpty</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.QueueEmpty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.get_nowait" title="asyncio.Queue.get_nowait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_nowait()</span></code></a> method
+is called on an empty queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="asyncio.QueueFull">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">QueueFull</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.QueueFull" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Queue.put_nowait" title="asyncio.Queue.put_nowait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put_nowait()</span></code></a> method is called
+on a queue that has reached its <em>maxsize</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="asyncio-example-queue-dist">Queues can be used to distribute workload between several
+concurrent tasks:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Get a &quot;work item&quot; out of the queue.</span>
+        <span class="n">sleep_for</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># Sleep for the &quot;sleep_for&quot; seconds.</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sleep_for</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># Notify the queue that the &quot;work item&quot; has been processed.</span>
+        <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">task_done</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s1"> has slept for </span><span class="si">{sleep_for:.2f}</span><span class="s1"> seconds&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Create a queue that we will use to store our &quot;workload&quot;.</span>
+    <span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Generate random timings and put them into the queue.</span>
+    <span class="n">total_sleep_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">sleep_for</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uniform</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.05</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">total_sleep_time</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">sleep_for</span>
+        <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put_nowait</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sleep_for</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create three worker tasks to process the queue concurrently.</span>
+    <span class="n">tasks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">worker</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;worker-</span><span class="si">{i}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">tasks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait until the queue is fully processed.</span>
+    <span class="n">started_at</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">monotonic</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">total_slept_for</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">monotonic</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">started_at</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Cancel our worker tasks.</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tasks</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">task</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cancel</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Wait until all worker tasks are cancelled.</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gather</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tasks</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_exceptions</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;====&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;3 workers slept in parallel for </span><span class="si">{total_slept_for:.2f}</span><span class="s1"> seconds&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;total expected sleep time: </span><span class="si">{total_sleep_time:.2f}</span><span class="s1"> seconds&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Queues</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#queue">Queue</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#priority-queue">Priority Queue</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lifo-queue">LIFO Queue</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="streams">
+<span id="asyncio-streams"></span><h1>Streams<a class="headerlink" href="#streams" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Streams are high-level async/await-ready primitives to work with
+network connections.  Streams allow sending and receiving data without
+using callbacks or low-level protocols and transports.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-stream">Here is an example of a TCP echo client written using asyncio
+streams:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tcp_echo_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_connection</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8888</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Send: </span><span class="si">{message!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Received: {data.decode()!r}&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Close the connection&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait_closed</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tcp_echo_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello World!&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a> section below.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Stream Functions</p>
+<p>The following top-level asyncio functions can be used to create
+and work with streams:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.open_connection">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">open_connection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=None</em>, <em>port=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>family=0</em>, <em>proto=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>local_addr=None</em>, <em>server_hostname=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.open_connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Establish a network connection and return a pair of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(reader,</span> <span class="pre">writer)</span></code> objects.</p>
+<p>The returned <em>reader</em> and <em>writer</em> objects are instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="asyncio.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> classes.</p>
+<p>The <em>loop</em> argument is optional and can always be determined
+automatically when this function is awaited from a coroutine.</p>
+<p><em>limit</em> determines the buffer size limit used by the
+returned <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> instance.  By default the <em>limit</em>
+is set to 64 KiB.</p>
+<p>The rest of the arguments are passed directly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.start_server">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">start_server</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>client_connected_cb</em>, <em>host=None</em>, <em>port=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>family=socket.AF_UNSPEC</em>, <em>flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>backlog=100</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>reuse_address=None</em>, <em>reuse_port=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em>, <em>start_serving=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.start_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start a socket server.</p>
+<p>The <em>client_connected_cb</em> callback is called whenever a new client
+connection is established.  It receives a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(reader,</span> <span class="pre">writer)</span></code> pair
+as two arguments, instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="asyncio.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> classes.</p>
+<p><em>client_connected_cb</em> can be a plain callable or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">coroutine function</span></a>; if it is a coroutine function,
+it will be automatically scheduled as a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>loop</em> argument is optional and can always be determined
+automatically when this method is awaited from a coroutine.</p>
+<p><em>limit</em> determines the buffer size limit used by the
+returned <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> instance.  By default the <em>limit</em>
+is set to 64 KiB.</p>
+<p>The rest of the arguments are passed directly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> and <em>start_serving</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Unix Sockets</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.open_unix_connection">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">open_unix_connection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>server_hostname=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.open_unix_connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Establish a Unix socket connection and return a pair of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(reader,</span> <span class="pre">writer)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_connection()</span></code></a> but operates on Unix sockets.</p>
+<p>See also the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_connection()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter can now be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.start_unix_server">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">start_unix_server</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>client_connected_cb</em>, <em>path=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>sock=None</em>, <em>backlog=100</em>, <em>ssl=None</em>, <em>ssl_handshake_timeout=None</em>, <em>start_serving=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.start_unix_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start a Unix socket server.</p>
+<p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_server()</span></code></a> but works with Unix sockets.</p>
+<p>See also the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_server()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> and <em>start_serving</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter can now be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="streamreader">
+<h2>StreamReader<a class="headerlink" href="#streamreader" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamReader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">StreamReader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamReader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents a reader object that provides APIs to read data
+from the IO stream.</p>
+<p>It is not recommended to instantiate <em>StreamReader</em> objects
+directly; use <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_connection()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_server()</span></code></a>
+instead.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamReader.read">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamReader.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read up to <em>n</em> bytes.  If <em>n</em> is not provided, or set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>,
+read until EOF and return all read bytes.</p>
+<p>If EOF was received and the internal buffer is empty,
+return an empty <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamReader.readline">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">readline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamReader.readline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read one line, where “line” is a sequence of bytes
+ending with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If EOF is received and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> was not found, the method
+returns partially read data.</p>
+<p>If EOF is received and the internal buffer is empty,
+return an empty <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">readexactly</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read exactly <em>n</em> bytes.</p>
+<p>Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError" title="asyncio.IncompleteReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncompleteReadError</span></code></a> if EOF is reached before <em>n</em>
+can be read.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial" title="asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncompleteReadError.partial</span></code></a>
+attribute to get the partially read data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">readuntil</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>separator=b'\n'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read data from the stream until <em>separator</em> is found.</p>
+<p>On success, the data and separator will be removed from the
+internal buffer (consumed). Returned data will include the
+separator at the end.</p>
+<p>If the amount of data read exceeds the configured stream limit, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.LimitOverrunError" title="asyncio.LimitOverrunError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LimitOverrunError</span></code></a> exception is raised, and the data
+is left in the internal buffer and can be read again.</p>
+<p>If EOF is reached before the complete separator is found,
+an <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError" title="asyncio.IncompleteReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncompleteReadError</span></code></a> exception is raised, and the internal
+buffer is reset.  The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial" title="asyncio.IncompleteReadError.partial"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncompleteReadError.partial</span></code></a> attribute
+may contain a portion of the separator.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamReader.at_eof">
+<code class="descname">at_eof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamReader.at_eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the buffer is empty and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feed_eof()</span></code>
+was called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="streamwriter">
+<h2>StreamWriter<a class="headerlink" href="#streamwriter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">StreamWriter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents a writer object that provides APIs to write data
+to the IO stream.</p>
+<p>It is not recommended to instantiate <em>StreamWriter</em> objects
+directly; use <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_connection()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_server()</span></code></a>
+instead.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.can_write_eof">
+<code class="descname">can_write_eof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.can_write_eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>True</em> if the underlying transport supports
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.write_eof" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.write_eof"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write_eof()</span></code></a> method, <em>False</em> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.write_eof">
+<code class="descname">write_eof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.write_eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the write end of the stream after the buffered write
+data is flushed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.transport">
+<code class="descname">transport</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.transport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the underlying asyncio transport.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.get_extra_info">
+<code class="descname">get_extra_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.get_extra_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Access optional transport information; see
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseTransport.get_extra_info()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write <em>data</em> to the stream.</p>
+<p>This method is not subject to flow control.  Calls to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> should
+be followed by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.drain" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.drain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drain()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.writelines">
+<code class="descname">writelines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.writelines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a list (or any iterable) of bytes to the stream.</p>
+<p>This method is not subject to flow control. Calls to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writelines()</span></code>
+should be followed by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.drain" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.drain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drain()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.drain">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">drain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.drain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until it is appropriate to resume writing to the stream.
+Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">drain</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is a flow control method that interacts with the underlying
+IO write buffer.  When the size of the buffer reaches
+the high watermark, <em>drain()</em> blocks until the size of the
+buffer is drained down to the low watermark and writing can
+be resumed.  When there is nothing to wait for, the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.drain" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.drain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drain()</span></code></a>
+returns immediately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing">
+<code class="descname">is_closing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stream is closed or in the process of
+being closed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">wait_closed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until the stream is closed.</p>
+<p>Should be called after <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.StreamWriter.close" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> to wait until the underlying
+connection is closed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="tcp-echo-client-using-streams">
+<span id="asyncio-tcp-echo-client-streams"></span><h3>TCP echo client using streams<a class="headerlink" href="#tcp-echo-client-using-streams" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>TCP echo client using the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.open_connection()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tcp_echo_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_connection</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8888</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Send: </span><span class="si">{message!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Received: {data.decode()!r}&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Close the connection&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tcp_echo_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello World!&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-tcp-echo-client-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">TCP echo client protocol</span></a>
+example uses the low-level <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tcp-echo-server-using-streams">
+<span id="asyncio-tcp-echo-server-streams"></span><h3>TCP echo server using streams<a class="headerlink" href="#tcp-echo-server-using-streams" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>TCP echo server using the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.start_server()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_echo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_extra_info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;peername&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received </span><span class="si">{message!r}</span><span class="s2"> from </span><span class="si">{addr!r}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Send: </span><span class="si">{message!r}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">drain</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Close the connection&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start_server</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">handle_echo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8888</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sockets</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getsockname</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Serving on </span><span class="si">{addr}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-tcp-echo-server-protocol"><span class="std std-ref">TCP echo server protocol</span></a>
+example uses the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="get-http-headers">
+<h3>Get HTTP headers<a class="headerlink" href="#get-http-headers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Simple example querying HTTP headers of the URL passed on the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_http_headers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlsplit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">url</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">scheme</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;https&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_connection</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="n">url</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hostname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">443</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_connection</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="n">url</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hostname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">query</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;HEAD {url.path or &#39;/&#39;} HTTP/1.0</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Host: </span><span class="si">{url.hostname}</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+    <span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">query</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;latin-1&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;latin1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;HTTP header&gt; </span><span class="si">{line}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Ignore the body, close the socket</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">print_http_headers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="o">//</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">com</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">page</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">html</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or with HTTPS:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="n">https</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="o">//</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">com</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">page</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">html</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="register-an-open-socket-to-wait-for-data-using-streams">
+<span id="asyncio-example-create-connection-streams"></span><h3>Register an open socket to wait for data using streams<a class="headerlink" href="#register-an-open-socket-to-wait-for-data-using-streams" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Coroutine waiting until a socket receives data using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_connection()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wait_for_data</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Get a reference to the current event loop because</span>
+    <span class="c1"># we want to access low-level APIs.</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create a pair of connected sockets.</span>
+    <span class="n">rsock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">wsock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socketpair</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register the open socket to wait for data.</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_connection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">rsock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Simulate the reception of data from the network</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_soon</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait for data</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Got data, we are done: close the socket</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Close the second socket</span>
+    <span class="n">wsock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wait_for_data</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-create-connection"><span class="std std-ref">register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol</span></a> example uses a low-level protocol and
+the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-example-watch-fd"><span class="std std-ref">watch a file descriptor for read events</span></a> example uses the low-level
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_reader" title="asyncio.loop.add_reader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.add_reader()</span></code></a> method to watch a file descriptor.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Streams</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streamreader">StreamReader</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streamwriter">StreamWriter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tcp-echo-client-using-streams">TCP echo client using streams</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tcp-echo-server-using-streams">TCP echo server using streams</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#get-http-headers">Get HTTP headers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#register-an-open-socket-to-wait-for-data-using-streams">Register an open socket to wait for data using streams</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="subprocesses">
+<span id="asyncio-subprocess"></span><h1>Subprocesses<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocesses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This section describes high-level async/await asyncio APIs to
+create and manage subprocesses.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-subprocess-shell">Here’s an example of how asyncio can run a shell command and
+obtain its result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">proc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_subprocess_shell</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stderr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">proc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">communicate</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;[</span><span class="si">{cmd!r}</span><span class="s1"> exited with </span><span class="si">{proc.returncode}</span><span class="s1">]&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;[stdout]</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">{stdout.decode()}&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;[stderr]</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">{stderr.decode()}&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ls /zzz&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will print:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;ls /zzz&#39;</span> <span class="n">exited</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">ls</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">zzz</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">No</span> <span class="n">such</span> <span class="n">file</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">directory</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because all asyncio subprocess functions are asynchronous and asyncio
+provides many tools to work with such functions, it is easy to execute
+and monitor multiple subprocesses in parallel.  It is indeed trivial
+to modify the above example to run several commands simultaneously:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gather</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ls /zzz&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sleep 1; echo &quot;hello&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a> subsection.</p>
+<div class="section" id="creating-subprocesses">
+<h2>Creating Subprocesses<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-subprocesses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">create_subprocess_exec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>program</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em>, <em>stderr=None</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a subprocess.</p>
+<p>The <em>limit</em> argument sets the buffer limit for <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a>
+wrappers for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.stdout</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.stderr</span></code>
+(if <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.PIPE</span></code></a> is passed to <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> arguments).</p>
+<p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>See the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> for other
+parameters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.create_subprocess_shell">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">create_subprocess_shell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em>, <em>stderr=None</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the <em>cmd</em> shell command.</p>
+<p>The <em>limit</em> argument sets the buffer limit for <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a>
+wrappers for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.stdout</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.stderr</span></code>
+(if <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.PIPE</span></code></a> is passed to <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> arguments).</p>
+<p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>See the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a> for other
+parameters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition important">
+<p class="admonition-title">Important</p>
+<p>It is the application’s responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
+special characters are quoted appropriately to avoid <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection">shell injection</a>
+vulnerabilities. The <a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html#shlex.quote" title="shlex.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex.quote()</span></code></a> function can be used to properly
+escape whitespace and special shell characters in strings that are going
+to be used to construct shell commands.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The default asyncio event loop implementation on <strong>Windows</strong> does not
+support subprocesses. Subprocesses are available for Windows if a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> is used.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-platforms.html#asyncio-windows-subprocess"><span class="std std-ref">Subprocess Support on Windows</span></a>
+for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>asyncio also has the following <em>low-level</em> APIs to work with subprocesses:
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_exec()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.subprocess_shell()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_read_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_read_pipe()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe" title="asyncio.loop.connect_write_pipe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_write_pipe()</span></code></a>,
+as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-subprocess-transports"><span class="std std-ref">Subprocess Transports</span></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-subprocess-protocols"><span class="std std-ref">Subprocess Protocols</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<h2>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.PIPE">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.subprocess.</code><code class="descname">PIPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.PIPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Can be passed to the <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> or <em>stderr</em> parameters.</p>
+<p>If <em>PIPE</em> is passed to <em>stdin</em> argument, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.stdin</span></code></a> attribute
+will point to a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="asyncio.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>If <em>PIPE</em> is passed to <em>stdout</em> or <em>stderr</em> arguments, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.stdout</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.stderr</span></code></a>
+attributes will point to <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STDOUT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special value that can be used as the <em>stderr</em> argument and indicates
+that standard error should be redirected into standard output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.subprocess.</code><code class="descname">DEVNULL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special value that can be used as the <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> or <em>stderr</em> argument
+to process creation functions.  It indicates that the special file
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.devnull" title="os.devnull"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.devnull</span></code></a> will be used for the corresponding subprocess stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interacting-with-subprocesses">
+<h2>Interacting with Subprocesses<a class="headerlink" href="#interacting-with-subprocesses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Both <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_shell()</span></code></a>
+functions return instances of the <em>Process</em> class.  <em>Process</em> is a high-level
+wrapper that allows communicating with subprocesses and watching for
+their completion.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.subprocess.</code><code class="descname">Process</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An object that wraps OS processes created by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_exec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_shell()</span></code></a>
+functions.</p>
+<p>This class is designed to have a similar API to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> class, but there are some
+notable differences:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>unlike Popen, Process instances do not have an equivalent to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.poll" title="subprocess.Popen.poll"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a> method;</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> methods don’t have a
+<em>timeout</em> parameter: use the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for" title="asyncio.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for()</span></code></a> function;</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.wait()</span></code></a> method
+is asynchronous, whereas <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.wait" title="subprocess.Popen.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen.wait()</span></code></a> method
+is implemented as a blocking busy loop;</p></li>
+<li><p>the <em>universal_newlines</em> parameter is not supported.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This class is <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-multithreading"><span class="std std-ref">not thread safe</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-subprocess-threads"><span class="std std-ref">Subprocess and Threads</span></a>
+section.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for the child process to terminate.</p>
+<p>Set and return the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.returncode" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This method can deadlock when using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code> and the child process generates so much output
+that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to accept
+more data. Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate()</span></code></a> method when using pipes
+to avoid this condition.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">communicate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interact with process:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>send data to <em>stdin</em> (if <em>input</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>);</p></li>
+<li><p>read data from <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em>, until EOF is reached;</p></li>
+<li><p>wait for process to terminate.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The optional <em>input</em> argument is the data (<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object)
+that will be sent to the child process.</p>
+<p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(stdout_data,</span> <span class="pre">stderr_data)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If either <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BrokenPipeError" title="BrokenPipeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenPipeError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ConnectionResetError" title="ConnectionResetError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionResetError</span></code></a>
+exception is raised when writing <em>input</em> into <em>stdin</em>, the
+exception is ignored.  This condition occurs when the process
+exits before all data are written into <em>stdin</em>.</p>
+<p>If it is desired to send data to the process’ <em>stdin</em>,
+the process needs to be created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin=PIPE</span></code>.  Similarly,
+to get anything other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in the result tuple, the
+process has to be created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> and/or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code> arguments.</p>
+<p>Note, that the data read is buffered in memory, so do not use
+this method if the data size is large or unlimited.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.send_signal">
+<code class="descname">send_signal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signal</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.send_signal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sends the signal <em>signal</em> to the child process.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Windows, <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGTERM</span></code> is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CTRL_C_EVENT</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CTRL_BREAK_EVENT</span></code> can be sent to processes
+started with a <em>creationflags</em> parameter which includes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate">
+<code class="descname">terminate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop the child process.</p>
+<p>On POSIX systems this method sends <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGTERM</span></code> to the
+child process.</p>
+<p>On Windows the Win32 API function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TerminateProcess()</span></code> is
+called to stop the child process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.kill">
+<code class="descname">kill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.kill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Kill the child.</p>
+<p>On POSIX systems this method sends <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGKILL</span></code> to the child
+process.</p>
+<p>On Windows this method is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin">
+<code class="descname">stdin</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Standard input stream (<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter" title="asyncio.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a>) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the process was created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin=None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout">
+<code class="descname">stdout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Standard output stream (<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a>) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the process was created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr">
+<code class="descname">stderr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Standard error stream (<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a>) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the process was created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate()</span></code></a> method rather than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process.stdin.write()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">process.stdout.read()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">process.stderr.read</span></code></a>.
+This avoids deadlocks due to streams pausing reading or writing
+and blocking the child process.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.pid">
+<code class="descname">pid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.pid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process identification number (PID).</p>
+<p>Note that for processes created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_shell" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_shell"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_shell()</span></code></a>
+function, this attribute is the PID of the spawned shell.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.returncode">
+<code class="descname">returncode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process.returncode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return code of the process when it exits.</p>
+<p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> value indicates that the process has not terminated yet.</p>
+<p>A negative value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-N</span></code> indicates that the child was terminated
+by signal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> (POSIX only).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="subprocess-and-threads">
+<span id="asyncio-subprocess-threads"></span><h3>Subprocess and Threads<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess-and-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Standard asyncio event loop supports running subprocesses from
+different threads, but there are limitations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>An event loop must run in the main thread.</p></li>
+<li><p>The child watcher must be instantiated in the main thread
+before executing subprocesses from other threads. Call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-policy.html#asyncio.get_child_watcher" title="asyncio.get_child_watcher"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_child_watcher()</span></code></a> function in the main thread to instantiate
+the child watcher.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Note that alternative event loop implementations might not share
+the above limitations; please refer to their documentation.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-multithreading"><span class="std std-ref">Concurrency and multithreading in asyncio</span></a> section.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h3>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An example using the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process" title="asyncio.asyncio.subprocess.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> class to
+control a subprocess and the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader" title="asyncio.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> class to read from
+its standard output.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-create-subprocess-exec">The subprocess is created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_subprocess_exec()</span></code></a>
+function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_date</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output</span>
+    <span class="c1"># into a pipe.</span>
+    <span class="n">proc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_subprocess_exec</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Read one line of output.</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">proc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait for the subprocess exit.</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">proc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">platform</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;win32&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_event_loop_policy</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">date</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">get_date</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Current date: </span><span class="si">{date}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-example-subprocess-proto"><span class="std std-ref">same example</span></a>
+written using low-level APIs.</p>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-subprocesses">Creating Subprocesses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interacting-with-subprocesses">Interacting with Subprocesses</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess-and-threads">Subprocess and Threads</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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+</ul>
+
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+                        title="previous chapter">Synchronization Primitives</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="synchronization-primitives">
+<span id="asyncio-sync"></span><h1>Synchronization Primitives<a class="headerlink" href="#synchronization-primitives" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>asyncio synchronization primitives are designed to be similar to
+those of the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module with two important caveats:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>asyncio primitives are not thread-safe, therefore they should not
+be used for OS thread synchronization (use <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> for
+that);</p></li>
+<li><p>methods of these synchronization primitives do not accept the <em>timeout</em>
+argument; use the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for" title="asyncio.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.wait_for()</span></code></a> function to perform
+operations with timeouts.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>asyncio has the following basic synchronization primitives:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Lock" title="asyncio.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Event" title="asyncio.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Event</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Condition" title="asyncio.Condition"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Condition</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore" title="asyncio.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BoundedSemaphore" title="asyncio.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="lock">
+<h2>Lock<a class="headerlink" href="#lock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Lock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements a mutex lock for asyncio tasks.  Not thread-safe.</p>
+<p>An asyncio lock can be used to guarantee exclusive access to a
+shared resource.</p>
+<p>The preferred way to use a Lock is an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... later</span>
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># access shared state</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... later</span>
+<span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">acquire</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># access shared state</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">lock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Lock.acquire">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Lock.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire the lock.</p>
+<p>This method waits until the lock is <em>unlocked</em>, sets it to
+<em>locked</em> and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When more than one coroutine is blocked in <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Lock.acquire" title="asyncio.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a>
+waiting for the lock to be unlocked, only one coroutine
+eventually proceeds.</p>
+<p>Acquiring a lock is <em>fair</em>: the coroutine that proceeds will be
+the first coroutine that started waiting on the lock.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Lock.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Lock.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the lock.</p>
+<p>When the lock is <em>locked</em>, reset it to <em>unlocked</em> and return.</p>
+<p>If the lock is <em>unlocked</em>, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Lock.locked">
+<code class="descname">locked</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Lock.locked" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the lock is <em>locked</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="event">
+<h2>Event<a class="headerlink" href="#event" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Event">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Event</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Event" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An event object.  Not thread-safe.</p>
+<p>An asyncio event can be used to notify multiple asyncio tasks
+that some event has happened.</p>
+<p>An Event object manages an internal flag that can be set to <em>true</em>
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> method and reset to <em>false</em> with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Event.clear" title="asyncio.Event.clear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code></a> method.  The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait" title="asyncio.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method blocks until the
+flag is set to <em>true</em>.  The flag is set to <em>false</em> initially.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-sync-event">Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">waiter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">event</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;waiting for it ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">event</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;... got it!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Create an Event object.</span>
+    <span class="n">event</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Event</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Spawn a Task to wait until &#39;event&#39; is set.</span>
+    <span class="n">waiter_task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">waiter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">event</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Sleep for 1 second and set the event.</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">event</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait until the waiter task is finished.</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">waiter_task</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Event.wait">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Event.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until the event is set.</p>
+<p>If the event is set, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> immediately.
+Otherwise block until another task calls <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Event.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Event.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the event.</p>
+<p>All tasks waiting for event to be set will be immediately
+awakened.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Event.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Event.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear (unset) the event.</p>
+<p>Tasks awaiting on <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait" title="asyncio.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> will now block until the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> method is called again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Event.is_set">
+<code class="descname">is_set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Event.is_set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the event is set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="condition">
+<h2>Condition<a class="headerlink" href="#condition" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Condition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lock=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A Condition object.  Not thread-safe.</p>
+<p>An asyncio condition primitive can be used by a task to wait for
+some event to happen and then get exclusive access to a shared
+resource.</p>
+<p>In essence, a Condition object combines the functionality
+of an <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Event" title="asyncio.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Event</span></code></a> and a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Lock" title="asyncio.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a>.  It is possible to have
+multiple Condition objects share one Lock, which allows coordinating
+exclusive access to a shared resource between different tasks
+interested in particular states of that shared resource.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>lock</em> argument must be a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Lock" title="asyncio.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> object or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  In the latter case a new Lock object is created
+automatically.</p>
+<p>The preferred way to use a Condition is an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cond</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Condition</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... later</span>
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cond</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">cond</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cond</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Condition</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... later</span>
+<span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">acquire</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">cond</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">lock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition.acquire">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire the underlying lock.</p>
+<p>This method waits until the underlying lock is <em>unlocked</em>,
+sets it to <em>locked</em> and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition.notify">
+<code class="descname">notify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition.notify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wake up at most <em>n</em> tasks (1 by default) waiting on this
+condition.  The method is no-op if no tasks are waiting.</p>
+<p>The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
+released shortly after.  If called with an <em>unlocked</em> lock
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> error is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition.locked">
+<code class="descname">locked</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition.locked" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the underlying lock is acquired.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition.notify_all">
+<code class="descname">notify_all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition.notify_all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wake up all tasks waiting on this condition.</p>
+<p>This method acts like <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Condition.notify" title="asyncio.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a>, but wakes up all waiting
+tasks.</p>
+<p>The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
+released shortly after.  If called with an <em>unlocked</em> lock
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> error is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the underlying lock.</p>
+<p>When invoked on an unlocked lock, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition.wait">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until notified.</p>
+<p>If the calling task has not acquired the lock when this method is
+called, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks until
+it is awakened by a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Condition.notify" title="asyncio.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Condition.notify_all" title="asyncio.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a> call.
+Once awakened, the Condition re-acquires its lock and this method
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Condition.wait_for">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">wait_for</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>predicate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Condition.wait_for" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until a predicate becomes <em>true</em>.</p>
+<p>The predicate must be a callable which result will be
+interpreted as a boolean value.  The final value is the
+return value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="semaphore">
+<h2>Semaphore<a class="headerlink" href="#semaphore" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Semaphore">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Semaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value=1</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Semaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A Semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.</p>
+<p>A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.acquire" title="asyncio.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> call and incremented by each <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.release" title="asyncio.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> call.
+The counter can never go below zero; when <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.acquire" title="asyncio.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> finds
+that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some task calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.release" title="asyncio.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>value</em> argument gives the initial value for the
+internal counter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> by default). If the given value is
+less than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>The preferred way to use a Semaphore is an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sem</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Semaphore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... later</span>
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">sem</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># work with shared resource</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sem</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Semaphore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... later</span>
+<span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">sem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">acquire</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># work with shared resource</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">sem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Semaphore.acquire">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire a semaphore.</p>
+<p>If the internal counter is greater than zero, decrement
+it by one and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> immediately.  If it is zero, wait
+until a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.release" title="asyncio.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> is called and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Semaphore.locked">
+<code class="descname">locked</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.locked" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if semaphore can not be acquired immediately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Semaphore.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by one.
+Can wake up a task waiting to acquire the semaphore.</p>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.BoundedSemaphore" title="asyncio.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore" title="asyncio.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a> allows
+making more <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code> calls than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code> calls.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="boundedsemaphore">
+<h2>BoundedSemaphore<a class="headerlink" href="#boundedsemaphore" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.BoundedSemaphore">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">BoundedSemaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value=1</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.BoundedSemaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bounded semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.</p>
+<p>Bounded Semaphore is a version of <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore" title="asyncio.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a> that raises
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> in <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Semaphore.release" title="asyncio.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> if it
+increases the internal counter above the initial <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>Acquiring a lock using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">lock</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">lock</span></code> and/or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">lock</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">(yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">lock)</span></code>) is deprecated.  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">lock</span></code> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Synchronization Primitives</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lock">Lock</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#event">Event</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#condition">Condition</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#semaphore">Semaphore</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boundedsemaphore">BoundedSemaphore</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-stream.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Streams</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-task.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/asyncio-task.html
new file mode 100644
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+
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="coroutines-and-tasks">
+<h1>Coroutines and Tasks<a class="headerlink" href="#coroutines-and-tasks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This section outlines high-level asyncio APIs to work with coroutines
+and Tasks.</p>
+<div class="contents local topic" id="contents">
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#coroutines" id="id1">Coroutines</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#awaitables" id="id2">Awaitables</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#running-an-asyncio-program" id="id3">Running an asyncio Program</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-tasks" id="id4">Creating Tasks</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#sleeping" id="id5">Sleeping</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#running-tasks-concurrently" id="id6">Running Tasks Concurrently</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#shielding-from-cancellation" id="id7">Shielding From Cancellation</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#timeouts" id="id8">Timeouts</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#waiting-primitives" id="id9">Waiting Primitives</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#scheduling-from-other-threads" id="id10">Scheduling From Other Threads</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#introspection" id="id11">Introspection</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#task-object" id="id12">Task Object</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-based-coroutines" id="id13">Generator-based Coroutines</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coroutines">
+<span id="coroutine"></span><h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id1">Coroutines</a><a class="headerlink" href="#coroutines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Coroutines declared with async/await syntax is the preferred way of
+writing asyncio applications.  For example, the following snippet
+of code (requires Python 3.7+) prints “hello”, waits 1 second,
+and then prints “world”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">hello</span>
+<span class="go">world</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that simply calling a coroutine will not schedule it to
+be executed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To actually run a coroutine, asyncio provides three main mechanisms:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.run()</span></code></a> function to run the top-level
+entry point “main()” function (see the above example.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Awaiting on a coroutine.  The following snippet of code will
+print “hello” after waiting for 1 second, and then print “world”
+after waiting for <em>another</em> 2 seconds:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">say_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">what</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">what</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;started at {time.strftime(&#39;</span><span class="si">%X</span><span class="s2">&#39;)}&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">say_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">say_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;finished at {time.strftime(&#39;</span><span class="si">%X</span><span class="s2">&#39;)}&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Expected output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">started</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">52</span>
+<span class="n">hello</span>
+<span class="n">world</span>
+<span class="n">finished</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">55</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_task()</span></code></a> function to run coroutines
+concurrently as asyncio <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tasks</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Let’s modify the above example and run two <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">say_after</span></code> coroutines
+<em>concurrently</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">task1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">say_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="n">task2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">say_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;world&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;started at {time.strftime(&#39;</span><span class="si">%X</span><span class="s2">&#39;)}&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait until both tasks are completed (should take</span>
+    <span class="c1"># around 2 seconds.)</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">task1</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">task2</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;finished at {time.strftime(&#39;</span><span class="si">%X</span><span class="s2">&#39;)}&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that expected output now shows that the snippet runs
+1 second faster than before:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">started</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">32</span>
+<span class="n">hello</span>
+<span class="n">world</span>
+<span class="n">finished</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">34</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="awaitables">
+<span id="asyncio-awaitables"></span><h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id2">Awaitables</a><a class="headerlink" href="#awaitables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>We say that an object is an <strong>awaitable</strong> object if it can be used
+in an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expression.  Many asyncio APIs are designed to
+accept awaitables.</p>
+<p>There are three main types of <em>awaitable</em> objects:
+<strong>coroutines</strong>, <strong>Tasks</strong>, and <strong>Futures</strong>.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Coroutines</p>
+<p>Python coroutines are <em>awaitables</em> and therefore can be awaited from
+other coroutines:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">nested</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Nothing happens if we just call &quot;nested()&quot;.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># A coroutine object is created but not awaited,</span>
+    <span class="c1"># so it *won&#39;t run at all*.</span>
+    <span class="n">nested</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Let&#39;s do it differently now and await it:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">nested</span><span class="p">())</span>  <span class="c1"># will print &quot;42&quot;.</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition important">
+<p class="admonition-title">Important</p>
+<p>In this documentation the term “coroutine” can be used for
+two closely related concepts:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>a <em>coroutine function</em>: an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> function;</p></li>
+<li><p>a <em>coroutine object</em>: an object returned by calling a
+<em>coroutine function</em>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<p>asyncio also supports legacy <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-generator-based-coro"><span class="std std-ref">generator-based</span></a> coroutines.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Tasks</p>
+<p><em>Tasks</em> are used to schedule coroutines <em>concurrently</em>.</p>
+<p>When a coroutine is wrapped into a <em>Task</em> with functions like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_task()</span></code></a> the coroutine is automatically
+scheduled to run soon:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">nested</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently</span>
+    <span class="c1"># with &quot;main()&quot;.</span>
+    <span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">nested</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># &quot;task&quot; can now be used to cancel &quot;nested()&quot;, or</span>
+    <span class="c1"># can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">task</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Futures</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> is a special <strong>low-level</strong> awaitable object that
+represents an <strong>eventual result</strong> of an asynchronous operation.</p>
+<p>When a Future object is <em>awaited</em> it means that the coroutine will
+wait until the Future is resolved in some other place.</p>
+<p>Future objects in asyncio are needed to allow callback-based code
+to be used with async/await.</p>
+<p>Normally <strong>there is no need</strong> to create Future objects at the
+application level code.</p>
+<p>Future objects, sometimes exposed by libraries and some asyncio
+APIs, can be awaited:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">function_that_returns_a_future_object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># this is also valid:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gather</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">function_that_returns_a_future_object</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+        <span class="n">some_python_coroutine</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A good example of a low-level function that returns a Future object
+is <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_in_executor" title="asyncio.loop.run_in_executor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_in_executor()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-an-asyncio-program">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">Running an asyncio Program</a><a class="headerlink" href="#running-an-asyncio-program" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.run">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>coro</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>debug=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function runs the passed coroutine, taking care of
+managing the asyncio event loop and <em>finalizing asynchronous
+generators</em>.</p>
+<p>This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop is
+running in the same thread.</p>
+<p>If <em>debug</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the event loop will be run in debug mode.</p>
+<p>This function always creates a new event loop and closes it at
+the end.  It should be used as a main entry point for asyncio
+programs, and should ideally only be called once.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><strong>Important:</strong> this function has been added to asyncio in
+Python 3.7 on a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional basis</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-tasks">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Creating Tasks</a><a class="headerlink" href="#creating-tasks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.create_task">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">create_task</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>coro</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.create_task" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wrap the <em>coro</em> <a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">coroutine</span></a> into a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>
+and schedule its execution.  Return the Task object.</p>
+<p>The task is executed in the loop returned by <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_running_loop" title="asyncio.get_running_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_running_loop()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised if there is no running loop in
+current thread.</p>
+<p>This function has been <strong>added in Python 3.7</strong>.  Prior to
+Python 3.7, the low-level <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future" title="asyncio.ensure_future"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.ensure_future()</span></code></a> function
+can be used instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">coro</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># In Python 3.7+</span>
+<span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This works in all Python versions but is less readable</span>
+<span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ensure_future</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sleeping">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Sleeping</a><a class="headerlink" href="#sleeping" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.sleep">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">sleep</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delay</em>, <em>result=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.sleep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Block for <em>delay</em> seconds.</p>
+<p>If <em>result</em> is provided, it is returned to the caller
+when the coroutine completes.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sleep()</span></code> always suspends the current task, allowing other tasks
+to run.</p>
+<p>The <em>loop</em> argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal
+in Python 3.10.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-sleep">Example of coroutine displaying the current date every second
+for 5 seconds:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">display_date</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_running_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">end_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mf">5.0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="n">end_time</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">display_date</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-tasks-concurrently">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Running Tasks Concurrently</a><a class="headerlink" href="#running-tasks-concurrently" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.gather">
+<em class="property">awaitable </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">gather</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*aws</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>return_exceptions=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.gather" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-awaitables"><span class="std std-ref">awaitable objects</span></a> in the <em>aws</em>
+sequence <em>concurrently</em>.</p>
+<p>If any awaitable in <em>aws</em> is a coroutine, it is automatically
+scheduled as a Task.</p>
+<p>If all awaitables are completed successfully, the result is an
+aggregate list of returned values.  The order of result values
+corresponds to the order of awaitables in <em>aws</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>return_exceptions</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (default), the first
+raised exception is immediately propagated to the task that
+awaits on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gather()</span></code>.  Other awaitables in the <em>aws</em> sequence
+<strong>won’t be cancelled</strong> and will continue to run.</p>
+<p>If <em>return_exceptions</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, exceptions are treated the
+same as successful results, and aggregated in the result list.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gather()</span></code> is <em>cancelled</em>, all submitted awaitables
+(that have not completed yet) are also <em>cancelled</em>.</p>
+<p>If any Task or Future from the <em>aws</em> sequence is <em>cancelled</em>, it is
+treated as if it raised <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> – the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gather()</span></code>
+call is <strong>not</strong> cancelled in this case.  This is to prevent the
+cancellation of one submitted Task/Future to cause other
+Tasks/Futures to be cancelled.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-gather">Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Task </span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s2">: Compute factorial(</span><span class="si">{i}</span><span class="s2">)...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Task </span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s2">: factorial(</span><span class="si">{number}</span><span class="s2">) = </span><span class="si">{f}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Schedule three calls *concurrently*:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gather</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;A&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;B&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;C&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Expected output:</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task A: Compute factorial(2)...</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task B: Compute factorial(2)...</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task C: Compute factorial(2)...</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task A: factorial(2) = 2</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task B: Compute factorial(3)...</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task C: Compute factorial(3)...</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task B: factorial(3) = 6</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task C: Compute factorial(4)...</span>
+<span class="c1">#     Task C: factorial(4) = 24</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>If the <em>gather</em> itself is cancelled, the cancellation is
+propagated regardless of <em>return_exceptions</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shielding-from-cancellation">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Shielding From Cancellation</a><a class="headerlink" href="#shielding-from-cancellation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.shield">
+<em class="property">awaitable </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">shield</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>aw</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.shield" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Protect an <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-awaitables"><span class="std std-ref">awaitable object</span></a>
+from being <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.cancel" title="asyncio.Task.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancelled</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>aw</em> is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.</p>
+<p>The statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">shield</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">something</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>except</em> that if the coroutine containing it is cancelled, the
+Task running in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">something()</span></code> is not cancelled.  From the point
+of view of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">something()</span></code>, the cancellation did not happen.
+Although its caller is still cancelled, so the “await” expression
+still raises a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">something()</span></code> is cancelled by other means (i.e. from within
+itself) that would also cancel <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shield()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If it is desired to completely ignore cancellation (not recommended)
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shield()</span></code> function should be combined with a try/except
+clause, as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">shield</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">something</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">CancelledError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timeouts">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">Timeouts</a><a class="headerlink" href="#timeouts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.wait_for">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">wait_for</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>aw</em>, <em>timeout</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.wait_for" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for the <em>aw</em> <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-awaitables"><span class="std std-ref">awaitable</span></a>
+to complete with a timeout.</p>
+<p>If <em>aw</em> is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.</p>
+<p><em>timeout</em> can either be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a float or int number of seconds
+to wait for.  If <em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, block until the future
+completes.</p>
+<p>If a timeout occurs, it cancels the task and raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.TimeoutError" title="asyncio.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimeoutError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>To avoid the task <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.cancel" title="asyncio.Task.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancellation</span></code></a>,
+wrap it in <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.shield" title="asyncio.shield"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shield()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The function will wait until the future is actually cancelled,
+so the total wait time may exceed the <em>timeout</em>.</p>
+<p>If the wait is cancelled, the future <em>aw</em> is also cancelled.</p>
+<p>The <em>loop</em> argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal
+in Python 3.10.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-waitfor">Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">eternity</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Sleep for one hour</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3600</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;yay!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Wait for at most 1 second</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait_for</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">eternity</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TimeoutError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;timeout!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Expected output:</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1">#     timeout!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>When <em>aw</em> is cancelled due to a timeout, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for</span></code> waits
+for <em>aw</em> to be cancelled.  Previously, it raised
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.TimeoutError" title="asyncio.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimeoutError</span></code></a> immediately.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="waiting-primitives">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Waiting Primitives</a><a class="headerlink" href="#waiting-primitives" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.wait">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>aws</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>return_when=ALL_COMPLETED</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-awaitables"><span class="std std-ref">awaitable objects</span></a> in the <em>aws</em>
+set concurrently and block until the condition specified
+by <em>return_when</em>.</p>
+<p>If any awaitable in <em>aws</em> is a coroutine, it is automatically
+scheduled as a Task.  Passing coroutines objects to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code> directly is deprecated as it leads to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-example-wait-coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">confusing behavior</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Returns two sets of Tasks/Futures: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(done,</span> <span class="pre">pending)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">done</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pending</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">aws</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>loop</em> argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal
+in Python 3.10.</p>
+<p><em>timeout</em> (a float or int), if specified, can be used to control
+the maximum number of seconds to wait before returning.</p>
+<p>Note that this function does not raise <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.TimeoutError" title="asyncio.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimeoutError</span></code></a>.
+Futures or Tasks that aren’t done when the timeout occurs are simply
+returned in the second set.</p>
+<p><em>return_when</em> indicates when this function should return.  It must
+be one of the following constants:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIRST_COMPLETED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The function will return when any
+future finishes or is cancelled.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIRST_EXCEPTION</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The function will return when any
+future finishes by raising an
+exception.  If no future raises an
+exception then it is equivalent to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALL_COMPLETED</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALL_COMPLETED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The function will return when all
+futures finish or are cancelled.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.wait_for" title="asyncio.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code> does not cancel the
+futures when a timeout occurs.</p>
+<div class="admonition note" id="asyncio-example-wait-coroutine">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code> schedules coroutines as Tasks automatically and later
+returns those implicitly created Task objects in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(done,</span> <span class="pre">pending)</span></code>
+sets.  Therefore the following code won’t work as expected:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+
+<span class="n">coro</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">done</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pending</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">})</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">coro</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">done</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># This branch will never be run!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is how the above snippet can be fixed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+
+<span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="n">done</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pending</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">})</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">done</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Everything will work as expected now.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Passing coroutine objects to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code> directly is
+deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.as_completed">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">as_completed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>aws</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.as_completed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-awaitables"><span class="std std-ref">awaitable objects</span></a> in the <em>aws</em>
+set concurrently.  Return an iterator of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> objects.
+Each Future object returned represents the earliest result
+from the set of the remaining awaitables.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.TimeoutError" title="asyncio.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimeoutError</span></code></a> if the timeout occurs before
+all Futures are done.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">as_completed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">aws</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">earliest_result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">f</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="scheduling-from-other-threads">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">Scheduling From Other Threads</a><a class="headerlink" href="#scheduling-from-other-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">run_coroutine_threadsafe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>coro</em>, <em>loop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Submit a coroutine to the given event loop.  Thread-safe.</p>
+<p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.Future</span></code></a> to wait for the result
+from another OS thread.</p>
+<p>This function is meant to be called from a different OS thread
+than the one where the event loop is running.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Create a coroutine</span>
+<span class="n">coro</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Submit the coroutine to a given loop</span>
+<span class="n">future</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_coroutine_threadsafe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">future</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If an exception is raised in the coroutine, the returned Future
+will be notified.  It can also be used to cancel the task in
+the event loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">future</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TimeoutError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">future</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cancel</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;The coroutine raised an exception: </span><span class="si">{exc!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;The coroutine returned: </span><span class="si">{result!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-multithreading"><span class="std std-ref">concurrency and multithreading</span></a>
+section of the documentation.</p>
+<p>Unlike other asyncio functions this function requires the <em>loop</em>
+argument to be passed explicitly.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="introspection">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">Introspection</a><a class="headerlink" href="#introspection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.current_task">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">current_task</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.current_task" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the currently running <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a> instance, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+no task is running.</p>
+<p>If <em>loop</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_running_loop" title="asyncio.get_running_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_running_loop()</span></code></a> is used to get
+the current loop.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.all_tasks">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">all_tasks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.all_tasks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a set of not yet finished <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a> objects run by
+the loop.</p>
+<p>If <em>loop</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_running_loop" title="asyncio.get_running_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_running_loop()</span></code></a> is used for getting
+current loop.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="task-object">
+<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">Task Object</a><a class="headerlink" href="#task-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">Task</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>coro</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future-like</span></code></a> object that runs a Python
+<a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">coroutine</span></a>.  Not thread-safe.</p>
+<p>Tasks are used to run coroutines in event loops.
+If a coroutine awaits on a Future, the Task suspends
+the execution of the coroutine and waits for the completion
+of the Future.  When the Future is <em>done</em>, the execution of
+the wrapped coroutine resumes.</p>
+<p>Event loops use cooperative scheduling: an event loop runs
+one Task at a time.  While a Task awaits for the completion of a
+Future, the event loop runs other Tasks, callbacks, or performs
+IO operations.</p>
+<p>Use the high-level <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_task()</span></code></a> function to create
+Tasks, or the low-level <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="asyncio.loop.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_task()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future" title="asyncio.ensure_future"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_future()</span></code></a> functions.  Manual instantiation of Tasks
+is discouraged.</p>
+<p>To cancel a running Task use the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.cancel" title="asyncio.Task.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancel()</span></code></a> method.  Calling it
+will cause the Task to throw a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception into
+the wrapped coroutine.  If a coroutine is awaiting on a Future
+object during cancellation, the Future object will be cancelled.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.cancelled" title="asyncio.Task.cancelled"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancelled()</span></code></a> can be used to check if the Task was cancelled.
+The method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the wrapped coroutine did not
+suppress the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception and was actually
+cancelled.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task</span></code></a> inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> all of its
+APIs except <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.set_result" title="asyncio.Future.set_result"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.set_result()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.set_exception" title="asyncio.Future.set_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.set_exception()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Tasks support the <a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a> module.  When a Task
+is created it copies the current context and later runs its
+coroutine in the copied context.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added support for the <a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.cancel">
+<code class="descname">cancel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.cancel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Request the Task to be cancelled.</p>
+<p>This arranges for a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception to be thrown
+into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of the event loop.</p>
+<p>The coroutine then has a chance to clean up or even deny the
+request by suppressing the exception with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> …
+… <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code> … <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> block.
+Therefore, unlike <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.cancel" title="asyncio.Future.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.cancel()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.cancel" title="asyncio.Task.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.cancel()</span></code></a> does
+not guarantee that the Task will be cancelled, although
+suppressing cancellation completely is not common and is actively
+discouraged.</p>
+<p id="asyncio-example-task-cancel">The following example illustrates how coroutines can intercept
+the cancellation request:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cancel_me</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cancel_me(): before sleep&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Wait for 1 hour</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3600</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CancelledError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cancel_me(): cancel sleep&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cancel_me(): after sleep&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Create a &quot;cancel_me&quot; Task</span>
+    <span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cancel_me</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait for 1 second</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">task</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cancel</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">task</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CancelledError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;main(): cancel_me is cancelled now&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Expected output:</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1">#     cancel_me(): before sleep</span>
+<span class="c1">#     cancel_me(): cancel sleep</span>
+<span class="c1">#     cancel_me(): after sleep</span>
+<span class="c1">#     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.cancelled">
+<code class="descname">cancelled</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.cancelled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the Task is <em>cancelled</em>.</p>
+<p>The Task is <em>cancelled</em> when the cancellation was requested with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.cancel" title="asyncio.Task.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancel()</span></code></a> and the wrapped coroutine propagated the
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception thrown into it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.done">
+<code class="descname">done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the Task is <em>done</em>.</p>
+<p>A Task is <em>done</em> when the wrapped coroutine either returned
+a value, raised an exception, or the Task was cancelled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.result">
+<code class="descname">result</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.result" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the result of the Task.</p>
+<p>If the Task is <em>done</em>, the result of the wrapped coroutine
+is returned (or if the coroutine raised an exception, that
+exception is re-raised.)</p>
+<p>If the Task has been <em>cancelled</em>, this method raises
+a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>If the Task’s result isn’t yet available, this method raises
+a <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="asyncio.InvalidStateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.exception">
+<code class="descname">exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the exception of the Task.</p>
+<p>If the wrapped coroutine raised an exception that exception
+is returned.  If the wrapped coroutine returned normally
+this method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the Task has been <em>cancelled</em>, this method raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.CancelledError" title="asyncio.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>If the Task isn’t <em>done</em> yet, this method raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html#asyncio.InvalidStateError" title="asyncio.InvalidStateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.add_done_callback">
+<code class="descname">add_done_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.add_done_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a callback to be run when the Task is <em>done</em>.</p>
+<p>This method should only be used in low-level callback-based code.</p>
+<p>See the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.add_done_callback" title="asyncio.Future.add_done_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.add_done_callback()</span></code></a>
+for more details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.remove_done_callback">
+<code class="descname">remove_done_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.remove_done_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <em>callback</em> from the callbacks list.</p>
+<p>This method should only be used in low-level callback-based code.</p>
+<p>See the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback" title="asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.remove_done_callback()</span></code></a>
+for more details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.get_stack">
+<code class="descname">get_stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>limit=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.get_stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the list of stack frames for this Task.</p>
+<p>If the wrapped coroutine is not done, this returns the stack
+where it is suspended.  If the coroutine has completed
+successfully or was cancelled, this returns an empty list.
+If the coroutine was terminated by an exception, this returns
+the list of traceback frames.</p>
+<p>The frames are always ordered from oldest to newest.</p>
+<p>Only one stack frame is returned for a suspended coroutine.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>limit</em> argument sets the maximum number of frames
+to return; by default all available frames are returned.
+The ordering of the returned list differs depending on whether
+a stack or a traceback is returned: the newest frames of a
+stack are returned, but the oldest frames of a traceback are
+returned.  (This matches the behavior of the traceback module.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.print_stack">
+<code class="descname">print_stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.print_stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the stack or traceback for this Task.</p>
+<p>This produces output similar to that of the traceback module
+for the frames retrieved by <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.get_stack" title="asyncio.Task.get_stack"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_stack()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>limit</em> argument is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.Task.get_stack" title="asyncio.Task.get_stack"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_stack()</span></code></a> directly.</p>
+<p>The <em>file</em> argument is an I/O stream to which the output
+is written; by default output is written to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.all_tasks">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">all_tasks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.all_tasks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a set of all tasks for an event loop.</p>
+<p>By default all tasks for the current event loop are returned.
+If <em>loop</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_event_loop()</span></code></a> function
+is used to get the current loop.</p>
+<p>This method is <strong>deprecated</strong> and will be removed in
+Python 3.9.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.all_tasks" title="asyncio.all_tasks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.all_tasks()</span></code></a> function instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="asyncio.Task.current_task">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">current_task</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.Task.current_task" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the currently running task or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>loop</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_event_loop()</span></code></a> function
+is used to get the current loop.</p>
+<p>This method is <strong>deprecated</strong> and will be removed in
+Python 3.9.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.current_task" title="asyncio.current_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.current_task()</span></code></a> function
+instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generator-based-coroutines">
+<span id="asyncio-generator-based-coro"></span><h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Generator-based Coroutines</a><a class="headerlink" href="#generator-based-coroutines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Support for generator-based coroutines is <strong>deprecated</strong> and
+is scheduled for removal in Python 3.10.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Generator-based coroutines predate async/await syntax.  They are
+Python generators that use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> expressions to await
+on Futures and other coroutines.</p>
+<p>Generator-based coroutines should be decorated with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.coroutine" title="asyncio.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;asyncio.coroutine</span></code></a>, although this is not
+enforced.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.coroutine">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">coroutine</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.coroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator to mark generator-based coroutines.</p>
+<p>This decorator enables legacy generator-based coroutines to be
+compatible with async/await code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">coroutine</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">old_style_coroutine</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">yield from</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">old_style_coroutine</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This decorator is <strong>deprecated</strong> and is scheduled for removal in
+Python 3.10.</p>
+<p>This decorator should not be used for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a>
+coroutines.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.iscoroutine">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">iscoroutine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.iscoroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>obj</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">coroutine object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This method is different from <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutine" title="inspect.iscoroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.iscoroutine()</span></code></a> because
+it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for generator-based coroutines.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncio.iscoroutinefunction">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncio.</code><code class="descname">iscoroutinefunction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio.iscoroutinefunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>func</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">coroutine function</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This method is different from <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutinefunction" title="inspect.iscoroutinefunction"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.iscoroutinefunction()</span></code></a>
+because it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for generator-based coroutine functions
+decorated with <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio.coroutine" title="asyncio.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;coroutine</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Coroutines and Tasks</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coroutines">Coroutines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#awaitables">Awaitables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-an-asyncio-program">Running an asyncio Program</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-tasks">Creating Tasks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sleeping">Sleeping</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-tasks-concurrently">Running Tasks Concurrently</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shielding-from-cancellation">Shielding From Cancellation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timeouts">Timeouts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#waiting-primitives">Waiting Primitives</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#scheduling-from-other-threads">Scheduling From Other Threads</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introspection">Introspection</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#task-object">Task Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-based-coroutines">Generator-based Coroutines</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> — Asynchronous I/O</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncio-stream.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Streams</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
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+    <title>asyncio — Asynchronous I/O &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-asyncio">
+<span id="asyncio-asynchronous-i-o"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> — Asynchronous I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#module-asyncio" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="sidebar">
+<p class="sidebar-title">Hello World!</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;... World!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Python 3.7+</span>
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>asyncio is a library to write <strong>concurrent</strong> code using
+the <strong>async/await</strong> syntax.</p>
+<p>asyncio is used as a foundation for multiple Python asynchronous
+frameworks that provide high-performance network and web-servers,
+database connection libraries, distributed task queues, etc.</p>
+<p>asyncio is often a perfect fit for IO-bound and high-level
+<strong>structured</strong> network code.</p>
+<p>asyncio provides a set of <strong>high-level</strong> APIs to:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#coroutine"><span class="std std-ref">run Python coroutines</span></a> concurrently and
+have full control over their execution;</p></li>
+<li><p>perform <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html#asyncio-streams"><span class="std std-ref">network IO and IPC</span></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>control <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio-subprocess"><span class="std std-ref">subprocesses</span></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>distribute tasks via <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-queue.html#asyncio-queues"><span class="std std-ref">queues</span></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html#asyncio-sync"><span class="std std-ref">synchronize</span></a> concurrent code;</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Additionally, there are <strong>low-level</strong> APIs for
+<em>library and framework developers</em> to:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>create and manage <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-event-loop"><span class="std std-ref">event loops</span></a>, which
+provide asynchronous APIs for <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">networking</span></code></a>,
+running <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.loop.subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocesses</span></code></a>,
+handling <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler" title="asyncio.loop.add_signal_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OS</span> <span class="pre">signals</span></code></a>, etc;</p></li>
+<li><p>implement efficient protocols using
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio-transports-protocols"><span class="std std-ref">transports</span></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html#asyncio-futures"><span class="std std-ref">bridge</span></a> callback-based libraries and code
+with async/await syntax.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="rubric">Reference</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<p class="caption"><span class="caption-text">High-level APIs</span></p>
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html">Coroutines and Tasks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-stream.html">Streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-sync.html">Synchronization Primitives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html">Subprocesses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-queue.html">Queues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-exceptions.html">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<p class="caption"><span class="caption-text">Low-level APIs</span></p>
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-eventloop.html">Event Loop</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-future.html">Futures</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-platforms.html">Platform Support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<p class="caption"><span class="caption-text">Guides and Tutorials</span></p>
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-api-index.html">High-level API Index</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-asyncore">
+<span id="asyncore-asynchronous-socket-handler"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> — Asynchronous socket handler<a class="headerlink" href="#module-asyncore" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/asyncore.py">Lib/asyncore.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Please use <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This module exists for backwards compatibility only.  For new code we
+recommend using <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This module provides the basic infrastructure for writing asynchronous  socket
+service clients and servers.</p>
+<p>There are only two ways to have a program on a single processor do  “more than
+one thing at a time.” Multi-threaded programming is the  simplest and most
+popular way to do it, but there is another very different technique, that lets
+you have nearly all the advantages of  multi-threading, without actually using
+multiple threads.  It’s really  only practical if your program is largely I/O
+bound.  If your program is processor bound, then pre-emptive scheduled threads
+are probably what you really need.  Network servers are rarely processor
+bound, however.</p>
+<p>If your operating system supports the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> system call in its I/O
+library (and nearly all do), then you can use it to juggle multiple
+communication channels at once; doing other work while your I/O is taking
+place in the “background.”  Although this strategy can seem strange and
+complex, especially at first, it is in many ways easier to understand and
+control than multi-threaded programming.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> module solves
+many of the difficult problems for you, making the task of building
+sophisticated high-performance network servers and clients a snap.  For
+“conversational” applications and protocols the companion <a class="reference internal" href="asynchat.html#module-asynchat" title="asynchat: Support for asynchronous command/response protocols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code></a>
+module is invaluable.</p>
+<p>The basic idea behind both modules is to create one or more network
+<em>channels</em>, instances of class <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat.async_chat</span></code></a>.  Creating the channels adds them to a global
+map, used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.loop" title="asyncore.loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop()</span></code></a> function if you do not provide it with your own
+<em>map</em>.</p>
+<p>Once the initial channel(s) is(are) created, calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.loop" title="asyncore.loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop()</span></code></a> function
+activates channel service, which continues until the last channel (including
+any that have been added to the map during asynchronous service) is closed.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="asyncore.loop">
+<code class="descclassname">asyncore.</code><code class="descname">loop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>use_poll</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>map</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>count</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.loop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter a polling loop that terminates after count passes or all open
+channels have been closed.  All arguments are optional.  The <em>count</em>
+parameter defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, resulting in the loop terminating only when all
+channels have been closed.  The <em>timeout</em> argument sets the timeout
+parameter for the appropriate <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a>
+call, measured in seconds; the default is 30 seconds.  The <em>use_poll</em>
+parameter, if true, indicates that <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a> should be used in
+preference to <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a> (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <em>map</em> parameter is a dictionary whose items are the channels to watch.
+As channels are closed they are deleted from their map.  If <em>map</em> is
+omitted, a global map is used. Channels (instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat.async_chat</span></code></a> and subclasses
+thereof) can freely be mixed in the map.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncore.</code><code class="descname">dispatcher</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatcher</span></code></a> class is a thin wrapper around a low-level socket
+object. To make it more useful, it has a few methods for event-handling
+which are called from the asynchronous loop.   Otherwise, it can be treated
+as a normal non-blocking socket object.</p>
+<p>The firing of low-level events at certain times or in certain connection
+states tells the asynchronous loop that certain higher-level events have
+taken place.  For example, if we have asked for a socket to connect to
+another host, we know that the connection has been made when the socket
+becomes writable for the first time (at this point you know that you may
+write to it with the expectation of success).  The implied higher-level
+events are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Event</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_connect()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Implied by the first read or write
+event</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_close()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Implied by a read event with no data
+available</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_accepted()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Implied by a read event on a listening
+socket</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>During asynchronous processing, each mapped channel’s <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.readable" title="asyncore.dispatcher.readable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readable()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.writable" title="asyncore.dispatcher.writable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writable()</span></code></a> methods are used to determine whether the channel’s socket
+should be added to the list of channels <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code>ed or
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code>ed for read and write events.</p>
+<p>Thus, the set of channel events is larger than the basic socket events.  The
+full set of methods that can be overridden in your subclass follows:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_read">
+<code class="descname">handle_read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the asynchronous loop detects that a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> call on the
+channel’s socket will succeed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_write">
+<code class="descname">handle_write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the asynchronous loop detects that a writable socket can be
+written.  Often this method will implement the necessary buffering for
+performance.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sent</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_expt">
+<code class="descname">handle_expt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_expt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when there is out of band (OOB) data for a socket connection.  This
+will almost never happen, as OOB is tenuously supported and rarely used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_connect">
+<code class="descname">handle_connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the active opener’s socket actually makes a connection.  Might
+send a “welcome” banner, or initiate a protocol negotiation with the
+remote endpoint, for example.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_close">
+<code class="descname">handle_close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the socket is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_error">
+<code class="descname">handle_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when an exception is raised and not otherwise handled.  The default
+version prints a condensed traceback.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept">
+<code class="descname">handle_accept</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called on listening channels (passive openers) when a connection can be
+established with a new remote endpoint that has issued a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.connect" title="asyncore.dispatcher.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a>
+call for the local endpoint. Deprecated in version 3.2; use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted" title="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_accepted()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted">
+<code class="descname">handle_accepted</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>addr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called on listening channels (passive openers) when a connection has been
+established with a new remote endpoint that has issued a <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.connect" title="asyncore.dispatcher.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a>
+call for the local endpoint.  <em>sock</em> is a <em>new</em> socket object usable to
+send and receive data on the connection, and <em>addr</em> is the address
+bound to the socket on the other end of the connection.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.readable">
+<code class="descname">readable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.readable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called each time around the asynchronous loop to determine whether a
+channel’s socket should be added to the list on which read events can
+occur.  The default method simply returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, indicating that by
+default, all channels will be interested in read events.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.writable">
+<code class="descname">writable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.writable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called each time around the asynchronous loop to determine whether a
+channel’s socket should be added to the list on which write events can
+occur.  The default method simply returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, indicating that by
+default, all channels will be interested in write events.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, each channel delegates or extends many of the socket methods.
+Most of these are nearly identical to their socket partners.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.create_socket">
+<code class="descname">create_socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>family=socket.AF_INET</em>, <em>type=socket.SOCK_STREAM</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.create_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is identical to the creation of a normal socket, and will use the
+same options for creation.  Refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> documentation for
+information on creating sockets.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>family</em> and <em>type</em> arguments can be omitted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.connect">
+<code class="descname">connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>As with the normal socket object, <em>address</em> is a tuple with the first
+element the host to connect to, and the second the port number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.send">
+<code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send <em>data</em> to the remote end-point of the socket.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.recv">
+<code class="descname">recv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer_size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.recv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read at most <em>buffer_size</em> bytes from the socket’s remote end-point.  An
+empty bytes object implies that the channel has been closed from the
+other end.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.recv" title="asyncore.dispatcher.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> , even though
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.poll()</span></code></a> has reported the socket
+ready for reading.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.listen">
+<code class="descname">listen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>backlog</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.listen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Listen for connections made to the socket.  The <em>backlog</em> argument
+specifies the maximum number of queued connections and should be at least
+1; the maximum value is system-dependent (usually 5).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.bind">
+<code class="descname">bind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.bind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind the socket to <em>address</em>.  The socket must not already be bound.  (The
+format of <em>address</em> depends on the address family — refer to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> documentation for more information.)  To mark
+the socket as re-usable (setting the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_REUSEADDR</span></code> option), call
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatcher</span></code></a> object’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_reuse_addr()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.accept">
+<code class="descname">accept</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.accept" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accept a connection.  The socket must be bound to an address and listening
+for connections.  The return value can be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a pair
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(conn,</span> <span class="pre">address)</span></code> where <em>conn</em> is a <em>new</em> socket object usable to send
+and receive data on the connection, and <em>address</em> is the address bound to
+the socket on the other end of the connection.
+When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned it means the connection didn’t take place, in
+which case the server should just ignore this event and keep listening
+for further incoming connections.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the socket.  All future operations on the socket object will fail.
+The remote end-point will receive no more data (after queued data is
+flushed).  Sockets are automatically closed when they are
+garbage-collected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncore.dispatcher_with_send">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncore.</code><code class="descname">dispatcher_with_send</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.dispatcher_with_send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatcher</span></code></a> subclass which adds simple buffered output capability,
+useful for simple clients. For more sophisticated usage use
+<a class="reference internal" href="asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat.async_chat</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncore.file_dispatcher">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncore.</code><code class="descname">file_dispatcher</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.file_dispatcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A file_dispatcher takes a file descriptor or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> along
+with an optional map argument and wraps it for use with the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code>
+or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop()</span></code> functions.  If provided a file object or anything with a
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method, that method will be called and passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.file_wrapper" title="asyncore.file_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file_wrapper</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="asyncore.file_wrapper">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">asyncore.</code><code class="descname">file_wrapper</code><a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore.file_wrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A file_wrapper takes an integer file descriptor and calls <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.dup" title="os.dup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup()</span></code></a> to
+duplicate the handle so that the original handle may be closed independently
+of the file_wrapper.  This class implements sufficient methods to emulate a
+socket for use by the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.file_dispatcher" title="asyncore.file_dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file_dispatcher</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="asyncore-example-basic-http-client">
+<span id="asyncore-example-1"></span><h2>asyncore Example basic HTTP client<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore-example-basic-http-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is a very basic HTTP client that uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatcher</span></code></a> class to
+implement its socket handling:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncore</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">HTTPClient</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncore</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatcher</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">asyncore</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_socket</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;GET </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> HTTP/1.0</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">Host: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\r\n\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span>
+                            <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8192</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">writable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sent</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">client</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">HTTPClient</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">asyncore</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asyncore-example-basic-echo-server">
+<span id="asyncore-example-2"></span><h2>asyncore Example basic echo server<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore-example-basic-echo-server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is a basic echo server that uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatcher</span></code></a> class to accept
+connections and dispatches the incoming connections to a handler:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncore</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">EchoHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncore</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatcher_with_send</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8192</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">EchoServer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asyncore</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatcher</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">asyncore</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_socket</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_reuse_addr</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_accepted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Incoming connection from </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">EchoHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">EchoServer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8080</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">asyncore</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code> — Asynchronous socket handler</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore-example-basic-http-client">asyncore Example basic HTTP client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore-example-basic-echo-server">asyncore Example basic echo server</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="selectors.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code> — High-level I/O multiplexing</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asynchat.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code> — Asynchronous socket command/response handler</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/atexit.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/atexit.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70f6f3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/atexit.html
@@ -0,0 +1,289 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>atexit — Exit handlers &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-atexit">
+<span id="atexit-exit-handlers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> — Exit handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-atexit" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> module defines functions to register and unregister cleanup
+functions.  Functions thus registered are automatically executed upon normal
+interpreter termination.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> runs these functions in the <em>reverse</em>
+order in which they were registered; if you register <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>,
+at interpreter termination time they will be run in the order <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>.</p>
+<p><strong>Note:</strong> The functions registered via this module are not called when the
+program is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal
+internal error is detected, or when <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os._exit" title="os._exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os._exit()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>When used with C-API subinterpreters, registered functions
+are local to the interpreter they were registered in.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="atexit.register">
+<code class="descclassname">atexit.</code><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#atexit.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register <em>func</em> as a function to be executed at termination.  Any optional
+arguments that are to be passed to <em>func</em> must be passed as arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#atexit.register" title="atexit.register"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a>.  It is possible to register the same function and arguments
+more than once.</p>
+<p>At normal program termination (for instance, if <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a> is called or
+the main module’s execution completes), all functions registered are called in
+last in, first out order.  The assumption is that lower level modules will
+normally be imported before higher level modules and thus must be cleaned up
+later.</p>
+<p>If an exception is raised during execution of the exit handlers, a traceback is
+printed (unless <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> is raised) and the exception information is
+saved.  After all exit handlers have had a chance to run the last exception to
+be raised is re-raised.</p>
+<p>This function returns <em>func</em>, which makes it possible to use it as a
+decorator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="atexit.unregister">
+<code class="descclassname">atexit.</code><code class="descname">unregister</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#atexit.unregister" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <em>func</em> from the list of functions to be run at interpreter
+shutdown.  After calling <a class="reference internal" href="#atexit.unregister" title="atexit.unregister"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unregister()</span></code></a>, <em>func</em> is guaranteed not to be
+called when the interpreter shuts down, even if it was registered more than
+once.  <a class="reference internal" href="#atexit.unregister" title="atexit.unregister"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unregister()</span></code></a> silently does nothing if <em>func</em> was not previously
+registered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Useful example of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> to read and write <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> history
+files.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="atexit-example">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> Example<a class="headerlink" href="#atexit-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following simple example demonstrates how a module can initialize a counter
+from a file when it is imported and save the counter’s updated value
+automatically when the program terminates without relying on the application
+making an explicit call into this module at termination.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;counterfile&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">_count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">infile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">_count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">incrcounter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">global</span> <span class="n">_count</span>
+    <span class="n">_count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_count</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">n</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">savecounter</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;counterfile&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">_count</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">atexit</span>
+<span class="n">atexit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">savecounter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Positional and keyword arguments may also be passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#atexit.register" title="atexit.register"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a> to be
+passed along to the registered function when it is called:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">goodbye</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">adjective</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Goodbye, </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">, it was </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> to meet you.&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">adjective</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">atexit</span>
+<span class="n">atexit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">goodbye</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Donny&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nice&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># or:</span>
+<span class="n">atexit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">goodbye</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">adjective</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;nice&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Donny&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Usage as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">atexit</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@atexit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">goodbye</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;You are now leaving the Python sector.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This only works with functions that can be called without arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> — Exit handlers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#atexit-example"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="abc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="traceback.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code> — Print or retrieve a stack traceback</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/audioop.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/audioop.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fae8f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/audioop.html
@@ -0,0 +1,466 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>audioop — Manipulate raw audio data &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-audioop">
+<span id="audioop-manipulate-raw-audio-data"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-audioop" title="audioop: Manipulate raw audio data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code></a> — Manipulate raw audio data<a class="headerlink" href="#module-audioop" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-audioop" title="audioop: Manipulate raw audio data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code></a> module contains some useful operations on sound fragments.
+It operates on sound fragments consisting of signed integer samples 8, 16, 24
+or 32 bits wide, stored in <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>.  All scalar items are
+integers, unless specified otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Support for 24-bit samples was added.
+All functions now accept any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.
+String input now results in an immediate error.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-0">This module provides support for a-LAW, u-LAW and Intel/DVI ADPCM encodings.</p>
+<p>A few of the more complicated operations only take 16-bit samples, otherwise the
+sample size (in bytes) is always a parameter of the operation.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following variables and functions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="audioop.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised on all errors, such as unknown number of bytes per
+sample, etc.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.add">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment1</em>, <em>fragment2</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a fragment which is the addition of the two samples passed as parameters.
+<em>width</em> is the sample width in bytes, either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code>.  Both
+fragments should have the same length.  Samples are truncated in case of overflow.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.adpcm2lin">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">adpcm2lin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>adpcmfragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>state</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.adpcm2lin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode an Intel/DVI ADPCM coded fragment to a linear fragment.  See the
+description of <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.lin2adpcm" title="audioop.lin2adpcm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lin2adpcm()</span></code></a> for details on ADPCM coding. Return a tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(sample,</span> <span class="pre">newstate)</span></code> where the sample has the width specified in <em>width</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.alaw2lin">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">alaw2lin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.alaw2lin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert sound fragments in a-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound fragments.
+a-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so <em>width</em> refers only to the sample
+width of the output fragment here.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.avg">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">avg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.avg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the average over all samples in the fragment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.avgpp">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">avgpp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.avgpp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the average peak-peak value over all samples in the fragment. No
+filtering is done, so the usefulness of this routine is questionable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.bias">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">bias</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>bias</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.bias" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a fragment that is the original fragment with a bias added to each
+sample.  Samples wrap around in case of overflow.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.byteswap">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">byteswap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.byteswap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>“Byteswap” all samples in a fragment and returns the modified fragment.
+Converts big-endian samples to little-endian and vice versa.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.cross">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">cross</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.cross" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of zero crossings in the fragment passed as an argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.findfactor">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">findfactor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>reference</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.findfactor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a factor <em>F</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rms(add(fragment,</span> <span class="pre">mul(reference,</span> <span class="pre">-F)))</span></code> is
+minimal, i.e., return the factor with which you should multiply <em>reference</em> to
+make it match as well as possible to <em>fragment</em>.  The fragments should both
+contain 2-byte samples.</p>
+<p>The time taken by this routine is proportional to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(fragment)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.findfit">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">findfit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>reference</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.findfit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to match <em>reference</em> as well as possible to a portion of <em>fragment</em> (which
+should be the longer fragment).  This is (conceptually) done by taking slices
+out of <em>fragment</em>, using <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.findfactor" title="audioop.findfactor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findfactor()</span></code></a> to compute the best match, and
+minimizing the result.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.
+Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(offset,</span> <span class="pre">factor)</span></code> where <em>offset</em> is the (integer) offset into
+<em>fragment</em> where the optimal match started and <em>factor</em> is the (floating-point)
+factor as per <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.findfactor" title="audioop.findfactor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findfactor()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.findmax">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">findmax</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.findmax" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search <em>fragment</em> for a slice of length <em>length</em> samples (not bytes!) with
+maximum energy, i.e., return <em>i</em> for which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rms(fragment[i*2:(i+length)*2])</span></code>
+is maximal.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.</p>
+<p>The routine takes time proportional to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(fragment)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.getsample">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">getsample</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.getsample" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of sample <em>index</em> from the fragment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.lin2adpcm">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">lin2adpcm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>state</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.lin2adpcm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert samples to 4 bit Intel/DVI ADPCM encoding.  ADPCM coding is an adaptive
+coding scheme, whereby each 4 bit number is the difference between one sample
+and the next, divided by a (varying) step.  The Intel/DVI ADPCM algorithm has
+been selected for use by the IMA, so it may well become a standard.</p>
+<p><em>state</em> is a tuple containing the state of the coder.  The coder returns a tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(adpcmfrag,</span> <span class="pre">newstate)</span></code>, and the <em>newstate</em> should be passed to the next call
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.lin2adpcm" title="audioop.lin2adpcm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lin2adpcm()</span></code></a>.  In the initial call, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> can be passed as the state.
+<em>adpcmfrag</em> is the ADPCM coded fragment packed 2 4-bit values per byte.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.lin2alaw">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">lin2alaw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.lin2alaw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert samples in the audio fragment to a-LAW encoding and return this as a
+bytes object.  a-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby you get a dynamic
+range of about 13 bits using only 8 bit samples.  It is used by the Sun audio
+hardware, among others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.lin2lin">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">lin2lin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>newwidth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.lin2lin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert samples between 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-byte formats.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In some audio formats, such as .WAV files, 16, 24 and 32 bit samples are
+signed, but 8 bit samples are unsigned.  So when converting to 8 bit wide
+samples for these formats, you need to also add 128 to the result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">new_frames</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lin2lin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">frames</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">old_width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">new_frames</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bias</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_frames</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">128</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same, in reverse, has to be applied when converting from 8 to 16, 24
+or 32 bit width samples.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.lin2ulaw">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">lin2ulaw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.lin2ulaw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert samples in the audio fragment to u-LAW encoding and return this as a
+bytes object.  u-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby you get a dynamic
+range of about 14 bits using only 8 bit samples.  It is used by the Sun audio
+hardware, among others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.max">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">max</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the maximum of the <em>absolute value</em> of all samples in a fragment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.maxpp">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">maxpp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.maxpp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the maximum peak-peak value in the sound fragment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.minmax">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">minmax</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.minmax" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple consisting of the minimum and maximum values of all samples in
+the sound fragment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.mul">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">mul</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>factor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.mul" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a fragment that has all samples in the original fragment multiplied by
+the floating-point value <em>factor</em>.  Samples are truncated in case of overflow.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.ratecv">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">ratecv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>nchannels</em>, <em>inrate</em>, <em>outrate</em>, <em>state</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>weightA</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>weightB</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.ratecv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the frame rate of the input fragment.</p>
+<p><em>state</em> is a tuple containing the state of the converter.  The converter returns
+a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(newfragment,</span> <span class="pre">newstate)</span></code>, and <em>newstate</em> should be passed to the next
+call of <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.ratecv" title="audioop.ratecv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ratecv()</span></code></a>.  The initial call should pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as the state.</p>
+<p>The <em>weightA</em> and <em>weightB</em> arguments are parameters for a simple digital filter
+and default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> respectively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.reverse">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">reverse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.reverse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reverse the samples in a fragment and returns the modified fragment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.rms">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">rms</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.rms" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the root-mean-square of the fragment, i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqrt(sum(S_i^2)/n)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This is a measure of the power in an audio signal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.tomono">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">tomono</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>lfactor</em>, <em>rfactor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.tomono" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a stereo fragment to a mono fragment.  The left channel is multiplied by
+<em>lfactor</em> and the right channel by <em>rfactor</em> before adding the two channels to
+give a mono signal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.tostereo">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">tostereo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>lfactor</em>, <em>rfactor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.tostereo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate a stereo fragment from a mono fragment.  Each pair of samples in the
+stereo fragment are computed from the mono sample, whereby left channel samples
+are multiplied by <em>lfactor</em> and right channel samples by <em>rfactor</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="audioop.ulaw2lin">
+<code class="descclassname">audioop.</code><code class="descname">ulaw2lin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fragment</em>, <em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#audioop.ulaw2lin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert sound fragments in u-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound fragments.
+u-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so <em>width</em> refers only to the sample
+width of the output fragment here.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that operations such as <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.mul" title="audioop.mul"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mul()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.max" title="audioop.max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> make no distinction
+between mono and stereo fragments, i.e. all samples are treated equal.  If this
+is a problem the stereo fragment should be split into two mono fragments first
+and recombined later.  Here is an example of how to do that:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul_stereo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lfactor</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rfactor</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">lsample</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tomono</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">rsample</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tomono</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">lsample</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lsample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lfactor</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">rsample</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rsample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rfactor</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">lsample</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tostereo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lsample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">rsample</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tostereo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rsample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lsample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rsample</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you use the ADPCM coder to build network packets and you want your protocol
+to be stateless (i.e. to be able to tolerate packet loss) you should not only
+transmit the data but also the state.  Note that you should send the <em>initial</em>
+state (the one you passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#audioop.lin2adpcm" title="audioop.lin2adpcm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lin2adpcm()</span></code></a>) along to the decoder, not the
+final state (as returned by the coder).  If you want to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#struct.Struct" title="struct.Struct"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.Struct</span></code></a> to store the state in binary you can code the first
+element (the predicted value) in 16 bits and the second (the delta index) in 8.</p>
+<p>The ADPCM coders have never been tried against other ADPCM coders, only against
+themselves.  It could well be that I misinterpreted the standards in which case
+they will not be interoperable with the respective standards.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find*()</span></code> routines might look a bit funny at first sight. They are
+primarily meant to do echo cancellation.  A reasonably fast way to do this is to
+pick the most energetic piece of the output sample, locate that in the input
+sample and subtract the whole output sample from the input sample:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">echocancel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">outputdata</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">inputdata</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">pos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findmax</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">outputdata</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">800</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># one tenth second</span>
+    <span class="n">out_test</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">outputdata</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+    <span class="n">in_test</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">inputdata</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+    <span class="n">ipos</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">factor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findfit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">in_test</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">out_test</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Optional (for better cancellation):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># factor = audioop.findfactor(in_test[ipos*2:ipos*2+len(out_test)],</span>
+    <span class="c1">#              out_test)</span>
+    <span class="n">prefill</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\0</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">ipos</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="n">postfill</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\0</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inputdata</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prefill</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">outputdata</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">outputdata</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">prefill</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">outputdata</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">factor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">postfill</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">audioop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inputdata</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">outputdata</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-base64">
+<span id="base64-base16-base32-base64-base85-data-encodings"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a> — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#module-base64" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/base64.py">Lib/base64.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable
+ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data.
+It provides encoding and decoding functions for the encodings specified in
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3548.html"><strong>RFC 3548</strong></a>, which defines the Base16, Base32, and Base64 algorithms,
+and for the de-facto standard Ascii85 and Base85 encodings.</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3548.html"><strong>RFC 3548</strong></a> encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that it can
+safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as part of an HTTP
+POST request.  The encoding algorithm is not the same as the
+<strong class="program">uuencode</strong> program.</p>
+<p>There are two interfaces provided by this module.  The modern interface
+supports encoding <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> to ASCII
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and decoding <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> or
+strings containing ASCII to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  Both base-64 alphabets
+defined in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3548.html"><strong>RFC 3548</strong></a> (normal, and URL- and filesystem-safe) are supported.</p>
+<p>The legacy interface does not support decoding from strings, but it does
+provide functions for encoding and decoding to and from <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a>.  It only supports the Base64 standard alphabet, and it adds
+newlines every 76 characters as per <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>.  Note that if you are looking
+for <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> support you probably want to be looking at the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a>
+package instead.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of
+the modern interface.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> are now accepted by all
+encoding and decoding functions in this module.  Ascii85/Base85 support added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The modern interface provides:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b64encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b64encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>altchars=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b64encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>s</em> using Base64 and return the encoded
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>altchars</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> of at least
+length 2 (additional characters are ignored) which specifies an alternative
+alphabet for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> characters.  This allows an application to e.g.
+generate URL or filesystem safe Base64 strings.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, for
+which the standard Base64 alphabet is used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b64decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b64decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>altchars=None</em>, <em>validate=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b64decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the Base64 encoded <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string
+<em>s</em> and return the decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>altchars</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string of
+at least length 2 (additional characters are ignored) which specifies the
+alternative alphabet used instead of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> characters.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#binascii.Error" title="binascii.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii.Error</span></code></a> exception is raised
+if <em>s</em> is incorrectly padded.</p>
+<p>If <em>validate</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default), characters that are neither
+in the normal base-64 alphabet nor the alternative alphabet are
+discarded prior to the padding check.  If <em>validate</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+these non-alphabet characters in the input result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#binascii.Error" title="binascii.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii.Error</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.standard_b64encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">standard_b64encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.standard_b64encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>s</em> using the standard Base64 alphabet
+and return the encoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.standard_b64decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">standard_b64decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.standard_b64decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string <em>s</em> using the standard
+Base64 alphabet and return the decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.urlsafe_b64encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">urlsafe_b64encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.urlsafe_b64encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>s</em> using the
+URL- and filesystem-safe alphabet, which
+substitutes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> in the
+standard Base64 alphabet, and return the encoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  The result
+can still contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.urlsafe_b64decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">urlsafe_b64decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.urlsafe_b64decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string <em>s</em>
+using the URL- and filesystem-safe
+alphabet, which substitutes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> instead of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> in the standard Base64 alphabet, and return the decoded
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b32encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b32encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b32encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>s</em> using Base32 and return the
+encoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b32decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b32decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>casefold=False</em>, <em>map01=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b32decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the Base32 encoded <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string <em>s</em> and
+return the decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>casefold</em> is a flag specifying
+whether a lowercase alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes,
+the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3548.html"><strong>RFC 3548</strong></a> allows for optional mapping of the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O
+(oh), and for optional mapping of the digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye)
+or letter L (el).  The optional argument <em>map01</em> when not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, specifies
+which letter the digit 1 should be mapped to (when <em>map01</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the
+digit 0 is always mapped to the letter O).  For security purposes the default is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, so that 0 and 1 are not allowed in the input.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#binascii.Error" title="binascii.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii.Error</span></code></a> is raised if <em>s</em> is
+incorrectly padded or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the
+input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b16encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b16encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b16encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>s</em> using Base16 and return the
+encoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b16decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b16decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>casefold=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b16decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the Base16 encoded <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string <em>s</em> and
+return the decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>casefold</em> is a flag specifying whether a
+lowercase alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes, the default
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#binascii.Error" title="binascii.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii.Error</span></code></a> is raised if <em>s</em> is
+incorrectly padded or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the
+input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.a85encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">a85encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>foldspaces=False</em>, <em>wrapcol=0</em>, <em>pad=False</em>, <em>adobe=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.a85encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>b</em> using Ascii85 and return the
+encoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>foldspaces</em> is an optional flag that uses the special short sequence ‘y’
+instead of 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20) as supported by ‘btoa’. This
+feature is not supported by the “standard” Ascii85 encoding.</p>
+<p><em>wrapcol</em> controls whether the output should have newline (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\n'</span></code>)
+characters added to it. If this is non-zero, each output line will be
+at most this many characters long.</p>
+<p><em>pad</em> controls whether the input is padded to a multiple of 4
+before encoding. Note that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">btoa</span></code> implementation always pads.</p>
+<p><em>adobe</em> controls whether the encoded byte sequence is framed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;~</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~&gt;</span></code>, which is used by the Adobe implementation.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.a85decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">a85decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>foldspaces=False</em>, <em>adobe=False</em>, <em>ignorechars=b' \t\n\r\v'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.a85decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the Ascii85 encoded <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string <em>b</em> and
+return the decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>foldspaces</em> is a flag that specifies whether the ‘y’ short sequence
+should be accepted as shorthand for 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20).
+This feature is not supported by the “standard” Ascii85 encoding.</p>
+<p><em>adobe</em> controls whether the input sequence is in Adobe Ascii85 format
+(i.e. is framed with &lt;~ and ~&gt;).</p>
+<p><em>ignorechars</em> should be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string
+containing characters to ignore
+from the input. This should only contain whitespace characters, and by
+default contains all whitespace characters in ASCII.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b85encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b85encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em>, <em>pad=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b85encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>b</em> using base85 (as used in e.g.
+git-style binary diffs) and return the encoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>pad</em> is true, the input is padded with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\0'</span></code> so its length is a
+multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.b85decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">b85decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.b85decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the base85-encoded <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or ASCII string <em>b</em> and
+return the decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  Padding is implicitly removed, if
+necessary.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The legacy interface:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.decode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em>, <em>output</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the contents of the binary <em>input</em> file and write the resulting binary
+data to the <em>output</em> file. <em>input</em> and <em>output</em> must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a>. <em>input</em> will be read until <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input.readline()</span></code> returns an
+empty bytes object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.decodebytes">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">decodebytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.decodebytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>s</em>, which must contain one or more
+lines of base64 encoded data, and return the decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.decodestring">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">decodestring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.decodestring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deprecated alias of <a class="reference internal" href="#base64.decodebytes" title="base64.decodebytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decodebytes()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.encode">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em>, <em>output</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the contents of the binary <em>input</em> file and write the resulting base64
+encoded data to the <em>output</em> file. <em>input</em> and <em>output</em> must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+objects</span></a>. <em>input</em> will be read until <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input.read()</span></code> returns
+an empty bytes object. <a class="reference internal" href="#base64.encode" title="base64.encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> inserts a newline character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\n'</span></code>)
+after every 76 bytes of the output, as well as ensuring that the output
+always ends with a newline, as per <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> (MIME).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.encodebytes">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">encodebytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.encodebytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>s</em>, which can contain arbitrary binary
+data, and return <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> containing the base64-encoded data, with newlines
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\n'</span></code>) inserted after every 76 bytes of output, and ensuring that
+there is a trailing newline, as per <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> (MIME).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="base64.encodestring">
+<code class="descclassname">base64.</code><code class="descname">encodestring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#base64.encodestring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deprecated alias of <a class="reference internal" href="#base64.encodebytes" title="base64.encodebytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodebytes()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example usage of the module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">base64</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">encoded</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">base64</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b64encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;data to be encoded&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">encoded</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">base64</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b64decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">encoded</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;data to be encoded&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII conversions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1521.html"><strong>RFC 1521</strong></a> - MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies</dt><dd><p>Section 5.2, “Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding,” provides the definition of the
+base64 encoding.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mimetypes.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code> — Map filenames to MIME types</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="binhex.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code> — Encode and decode binhex4 files</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bdb.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bdb.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66af42a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bdb.html
@@ -0,0 +1,619 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>bdb — Debugger framework &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-bdb">
+<span id="bdb-debugger-framework"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-bdb" title="bdb: Debugger framework."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code></a> — Debugger framework<a class="headerlink" href="#module-bdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/bdb.py">Lib/bdb.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bdb" title="bdb: Debugger framework."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code></a> module handles basic debugger functions, like setting breakpoints
+or managing execution via the debugger.</p>
+<p>The following exception is defined:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="bdb.BdbQuit">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">bdb.</code><code class="descname">BdbQuit</code><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.BdbQuit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb" title="bdb.Bdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb</span></code></a> class for quitting the debugger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bdb" title="bdb: Debugger framework."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code></a> module also defines two classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bdb.Breakpoint">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">bdb.</code><code class="descname">Breakpoint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>line</em>, <em>temporary=0</em>, <em>cond=None</em>, <em>funcname=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Breakpoint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts, disabling and
+(re-)enabling, and conditionals.</p>
+<p>Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bpbynumber</span></code>
+and by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(file,</span> <span class="pre">line)</span></code> pairs through <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bplist</span></code>.  The former points to a
+single instance of class <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Breakpoint" title="bdb.Breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Breakpoint</span></code></a>.  The latter points to a list of
+such instances since there may be more than one breakpoint per line.</p>
+<p>When creating a breakpoint, its associated filename should be in canonical
+form.  If a <em>funcname</em> is defined, a breakpoint hit will be counted when the
+first line of that function is executed.  A conditional breakpoint always
+counts a hit.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Breakpoint" title="bdb.Breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Breakpoint</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Breakpoint.deleteMe">
+<code class="descname">deleteMe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Breakpoint.deleteMe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line.  If it is
+the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes the entry for the
+file/line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Breakpoint.enable">
+<code class="descname">enable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Breakpoint.enable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark the breakpoint as enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Breakpoint.disable">
+<code class="descname">disable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Breakpoint.disable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark the breakpoint as disabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Breakpoint.bpformat">
+<code class="descname">bpformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Breakpoint.bpformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint, nicely
+formatted:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The breakpoint number.</p></li>
+<li><p>If it is temporary or not.</p></li>
+<li><p>Its file,line position.</p></li>
+<li><p>The condition that causes a break.</p></li>
+<li><p>If it must be ignored the next N times.</p></li>
+<li><p>The breakpoint hit count.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Breakpoint.bpprint">
+<code class="descname">bpprint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Breakpoint.bpprint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the output of <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Breakpoint.bpformat" title="bdb.Breakpoint.bpformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bpformat()</span></code></a> to the file <em>out</em>, or if it is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, to standard output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">bdb.</code><code class="descname">Bdb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>skip=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb" title="bdb.Bdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb</span></code></a> class acts as a generic Python debugger base class.</p>
+<p>This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a derived class
+should implement user interaction.  The standard debugger class
+(<a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#pdb.Pdb" title="pdb.Pdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.Pdb</span></code></a>) is an example.</p>
+<p>The <em>skip</em> argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
+module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
+originate in a module that matches one of these patterns. Whether a
+frame is considered to originate in a certain module is determined
+by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> in the frame globals.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>The <em>skip</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The following methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb" title="bdb.Bdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb</span></code></a> normally don’t need to be overridden.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.canonic">
+<code class="descname">canonic</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.canonic" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Auxiliary method for getting a filename in a canonical form, that is, as a
+case-normalized (on case-insensitive filesystems) absolute path, stripped
+of surrounding angle brackets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">botframe</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stopframe</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returnframe</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quitting</span></code> attributes with values ready to start debugging.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch">
+<code class="descname">trace_dispatch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>event</em>, <em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is installed as the trace function of debugged frames.  Its
+return value is the new trace function (in most cases, that is, itself).</p>
+<p>The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame, depending on
+the type of event (passed as a string) that is about to be executed.
+<em>event</em> can be one of the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;line&quot;</span></code>: A new line of code is going to be executed.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;call&quot;</span></code>: A function is about to be called, or another code block
+entered.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;return&quot;</span></code>: A function or other code block is about to return.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;exception&quot;</span></code>: An exception has occurred.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;c_call&quot;</span></code>: A C function is about to be called.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;c_return&quot;</span></code>: A C function has returned.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;c_exception&quot;</span></code>: A C function has raised an exception.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For the Python events, specialized functions (see below) are called.  For
+the C events, no action is taken.</p>
+<p>The <em>arg</em> parameter depends on the previous event.</p>
+<p>See the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.settrace" title="sys.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.settrace()</span></code></a> for more information on the
+trace function.  For more information on code and frame objects, refer to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_line">
+<code class="descname">dispatch_line</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_line" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_line" title="bdb.Bdb.user_line"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_line()</span></code></a> method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.BdbQuit" title="bdb.BdbQuit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BdbQuit</span></code></a> exception if the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb.quitting</span></code> flag is set
+(which can be set from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_line" title="bdb.Bdb.user_line"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_line()</span></code></a>).  Return a reference to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch" title="bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_dispatch()</span></code></a> method for further tracing in that scope.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_call">
+<code class="descname">dispatch_call</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_call" title="bdb.Bdb.user_call"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_call()</span></code></a> method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.BdbQuit" title="bdb.BdbQuit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BdbQuit</span></code></a> exception if the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb.quitting</span></code> flag is set
+(which can be set from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_call" title="bdb.Bdb.user_call"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_call()</span></code></a>).  Return a reference to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch" title="bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_dispatch()</span></code></a> method for further tracing in that scope.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_return">
+<code class="descname">dispatch_return</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_return" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_return" title="bdb.Bdb.user_return"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_return()</span></code></a> method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.BdbQuit" title="bdb.BdbQuit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BdbQuit</span></code></a> exception if the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb.quitting</span></code> flag is set
+(which can be set from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_return" title="bdb.Bdb.user_return"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_return()</span></code></a>).  Return a reference to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch" title="bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_dispatch()</span></code></a> method for further tracing in that scope.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_exception">
+<code class="descname">dispatch_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_exception" title="bdb.Bdb.user_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_exception()</span></code></a> method (which should be overridden in subclasses).
+Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.BdbQuit" title="bdb.BdbQuit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BdbQuit</span></code></a> exception if the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb.quitting</span></code> flag is set
+(which can be set from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_exception" title="bdb.Bdb.user_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_exception()</span></code></a>).  Return a reference to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch" title="bdb.Bdb.trace_dispatch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_dispatch()</span></code></a> method for further tracing in that scope.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Normally derived classes don’t override the following methods, but they may
+if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and breakpoints.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.stop_here">
+<code class="descname">stop_here</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.stop_here" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method checks if the <em>frame</em> is somewhere below <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">botframe</span></code> in
+the call stack.  <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">botframe</span></code> is the frame in which debugging started.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.break_here">
+<code class="descname">break_here</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.break_here" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method checks if there is a breakpoint in the filename and line
+belonging to <em>frame</em> or, at least, in the current function.  If the
+breakpoint is a temporary one, this method deletes it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.break_anywhere">
+<code class="descname">break_anywhere</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.break_anywhere" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method checks if there is a breakpoint in the filename of the current
+frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over debugger
+operation.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.user_call">
+<code class="descname">user_call</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>argument_list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_call" title="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_call"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_call()</span></code></a> when there is the
+possibility that a break might be necessary anywhere inside the called
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.user_line">
+<code class="descname">user_line</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_line" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_line" title="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_line"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_line()</span></code></a> when either
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.stop_here" title="bdb.Bdb.stop_here"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop_here()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.break_here" title="bdb.Bdb.break_here"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break_here()</span></code></a> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.user_return">
+<code class="descname">user_return</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>return_value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_return" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_return" title="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_return"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_return()</span></code></a> when <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.stop_here" title="bdb.Bdb.stop_here"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop_here()</span></code></a>
+yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.user_exception">
+<code class="descname">user_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>exc_info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.user_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called from <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.dispatch_exception" title="bdb.Bdb.dispatch_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_exception()</span></code></a> when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.stop_here" title="bdb.Bdb.stop_here"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop_here()</span></code></a> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.do_clear">
+<code class="descname">do_clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.do_clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary one.</p>
+<p>This method must be implemented by derived classes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to affect the
+stepping state.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_step">
+<code class="descname">set_step</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_step" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop after one line of code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_next">
+<code class="descname">set_next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop on the next line in or below the given frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_return">
+<code class="descname">set_return</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_return" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop when returning from the given frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_until">
+<code class="descname">set_until</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_until" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop when the line with the line no greater than the current one is
+reached or when returning from current frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_trace">
+<code class="descname">set_trace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>frame</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start debugging from <em>frame</em>.  If <em>frame</em> is not specified, debugging
+starts from caller’s frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_continue">
+<code class="descname">set_continue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_continue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop only at breakpoints or when finished.  If there are no breakpoints,
+set the system trace function to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_quit">
+<code class="descname">set_quit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_quit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quitting</span></code> attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  This raises <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.BdbQuit" title="bdb.BdbQuit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BdbQuit</span></code></a> in
+the next call to one of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to manipulate
+breakpoints.  These methods return a string containing an error message if
+something went wrong, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if all is well.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.set_break">
+<code class="descname">set_break</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>temporary=0</em>, <em>cond</em>, <em>funcname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.set_break" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a new breakpoint.  If the <em>lineno</em> line doesn’t exist for the
+<em>filename</em> passed as argument, return an error message.  The <em>filename</em>
+should be in canonical form, as described in the <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.canonic" title="bdb.Bdb.canonic"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">canonic()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.clear_break">
+<code class="descname">clear_break</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.clear_break" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the breakpoints in <em>filename</em> and <em>lineno</em>.  If none were set, an
+error message is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.clear_bpbynumber">
+<code class="descname">clear_bpbynumber</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.clear_bpbynumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the breakpoint which has the index <em>arg</em> in the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Breakpoint.bpbynumber</span></code>.  If <em>arg</em> is not numeric or out of range,
+return an error message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.clear_all_file_breaks">
+<code class="descname">clear_all_file_breaks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.clear_all_file_breaks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete all breakpoints in <em>filename</em>.  If none were set, an error message
+is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.clear_all_breaks">
+<code class="descname">clear_all_breaks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.clear_all_breaks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete all existing breakpoints.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.get_bpbynumber">
+<code class="descname">get_bpbynumber</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.get_bpbynumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a breakpoint specified by the given number.  If <em>arg</em> is a string,
+it will be converted to a number.  If <em>arg</em> is a non-numeric string, if
+the given breakpoint never existed or has been deleted, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.get_break">
+<code class="descname">get_break</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.get_break" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check if there is a breakpoint for <em>lineno</em> of <em>filename</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.get_breaks">
+<code class="descname">get_breaks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.get_breaks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return all breakpoints for <em>lineno</em> in <em>filename</em>, or an empty list if
+none are set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.get_file_breaks">
+<code class="descname">get_file_breaks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.get_file_breaks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return all breakpoints in <em>filename</em>, or an empty list if none are set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.get_all_breaks">
+<code class="descname">get_all_breaks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.get_all_breaks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return all breakpoints that are set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a data
+structure representing a stack trace.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.get_stack">
+<code class="descname">get_stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em>, <em>t</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.get_stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a list of records for a frame and all higher (calling) and lower
+frames, and the size of the higher part.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry">
+<code class="descname">format_stack_entry</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame_lineno</em>, <em>lprefix=': '</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string with information about a stack entry, identified by a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(frame,</span> <span class="pre">lineno)</span></code> tuple:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The canonical form of the filename which contains the frame.</p></li>
+<li><p>The function name, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;lambda&gt;&quot;</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The input arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>The return value.</p></li>
+<li><p>The line of code (if it exists).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following two methods can be called by clients to use a debugger to debug
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-statement"><span class="xref std std-term">statement</span></a>, given as a string.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Debug a statement executed via the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> function.  <em>globals</em>
+defaults to <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.__dict__</span></code>, <em>locals</em> defaults to <em>globals</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.runeval">
+<code class="descname">runeval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expr</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.runeval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Debug an expression executed via the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> function.  <em>globals</em> and
+<em>locals</em> have the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.run" title="bdb.Bdb.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.runctx">
+<code class="descname">runctx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>globals</em>, <em>locals</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.runctx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For backwards compatibility.  Calls the <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb.run" title="bdb.Bdb.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bdb.Bdb.runcall">
+<code class="descname">runcall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.Bdb.runcall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Debug a single function call, and return its result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Finally, the module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bdb.checkfuncname">
+<code class="descclassname">bdb.</code><code class="descname">checkfuncname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em>, <em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.checkfuncname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check whether we should break here, depending on the way the breakpoint <em>b</em>
+was set.</p>
+<p>If it was set via line number, it checks if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b.line</span></code> is the same as the one
+in the frame also passed as argument.  If the breakpoint was set via function
+name, we have to check we are in the right frame (the right function) and if
+we are in its first executable line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bdb.effective">
+<code class="descclassname">bdb.</code><code class="descname">effective</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>line</em>, <em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.effective" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine if there is an effective (active) breakpoint at this line of code.
+Return a tuple of the breakpoint and a boolean that indicates if it is ok
+to delete a temporary breakpoint.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(None,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code> if there is no
+matching breakpoint.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bdb.set_trace">
+<code class="descclassname">bdb.</code><code class="descname">set_trace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bdb.set_trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start debugging with a <a class="reference internal" href="#bdb.Bdb" title="bdb.Bdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb</span></code></a> instance from caller’s frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="debug.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Debugging and Profiling</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="faulthandler.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> — Dump the Python traceback</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binary.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binary.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e26204
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binary.html
@@ -0,0 +1,236 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Binary Data Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="binary-data-services">
+<span id="binaryservices"></span><h1>Binary Data Services<a class="headerlink" href="#binary-data-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide some basic services operations
+for manipulation of binary data. Other operations on binary data, specifically
+in relation to file formats and network protocols, are described in the
+relevant sections.</p>
+<p>Some libraries described under <a class="reference internal" href="text.html#textservices"><span class="std std-ref">Text Processing Services</span></a> also work with either
+ASCII-compatible binary formats (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>) or all binary data
+(for example, <a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>In addition, see the documentation for Python’s built-in binary data types in
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#binaryseq"><span class="std std-ref">Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="struct.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code> — Interpret bytes as packed binary data</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#functions-and-exceptions">Functions and Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#format-strings">Format Strings</a><ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-binascii">
+<span id="binascii-convert-between-binary-and-ascii"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a> — Convert between binary and ASCII<a class="headerlink" href="#module-binascii" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a> module contains a number of methods to convert between
+binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations. Normally, you will not
+use these functions directly but use wrapper modules like <a class="reference internal" href="uu.html#module-uu" title="uu: Encode and decode files in uuencode format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="binhex.html#module-binhex" title="binhex: Encode and decode files in binhex4 format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code></a> instead. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a> module contains
+low-level functions written in C for greater speed that are used by the
+higher-level modules.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a2b_*</span></code> functions accept Unicode strings containing only ASCII characters.
+Other functions only accept <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> (such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> and other objects that support the buffer
+protocol).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>ASCII-only unicode strings are now accepted by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a2b_*</span></code> functions.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.a2b_uu">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">a2b_uu</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.a2b_uu" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a single line of uuencoded data back to binary and return the binary
+data. Lines normally contain 45 (binary) bytes, except for the last line. Line
+data may be followed by whitespace.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.b2a_uu">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">b2a_uu</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>backtick=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.b2a_uu" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters, the return value is the
+converted line, including a newline char. The length of <em>data</em> should be at most
+45. If <em>backtick</em> is true, zeros are represented by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'`'</span></code> instead of spaces.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>backtick</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.a2b_base64">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">a2b_base64</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.a2b_base64" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a block of base64 data back to binary and return the binary data. More
+than one line may be passed at a time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.b2a_base64">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">b2a_base64</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>newline=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.b2a_base64" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters in base64 coding. The return
+value is the converted line, including a newline char if <em>newline</em> is
+true.  The output of this function conforms to <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3548.html"><strong>RFC 3548</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the <em>newline</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.a2b_qp">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">a2b_qp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>header=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.a2b_qp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a block of quoted-printable data back to binary and return the binary
+data. More than one line may be passed at a time. If the optional argument
+<em>header</em> is present and true, underscores will be decoded as spaces.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.b2a_qp">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">b2a_qp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>quotetabs=False</em>, <em>istext=True</em>, <em>header=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.b2a_qp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert binary data to a line(s) of ASCII characters in quoted-printable
+encoding.  The return value is the converted line(s). If the optional argument
+<em>quotetabs</em> is present and true, all tabs and spaces will be encoded.   If the
+optional argument <em>istext</em> is present and true, newlines are not encoded but
+trailing whitespace will be encoded. If the optional argument <em>header</em> is
+present and true, spaces will be encoded as underscores per <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1522.html"><strong>RFC 1522</strong></a>. If the
+optional argument <em>header</em> is present and false, newline characters will be
+encoded as well; otherwise linefeed conversion might corrupt the binary data
+stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.a2b_hqx">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">a2b_hqx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.a2b_hqx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert binhex4 formatted ASCII data to binary, without doing RLE-decompression.
+The string should contain a complete number of binary bytes, or (in case of the
+last portion of the binhex4 data) have the remaining bits zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.rledecode_hqx">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">rledecode_hqx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.rledecode_hqx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform RLE-decompression on the data, as per the binhex4 standard. The
+algorithm uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x90</span></code> after a byte as a repeat indicator, followed by a count.
+A count of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> specifies a byte value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x90</span></code>. The routine returns the
+decompressed data, unless data input data ends in an orphaned repeat indicator,
+in which case the <a class="reference internal" href="#binascii.Incomplete" title="binascii.Incomplete"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Incomplete</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Accept only bytestring or bytearray objects as input.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.rlecode_hqx">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">rlecode_hqx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.rlecode_hqx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform binhex4 style RLE-compression on <em>data</em> and return the result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.b2a_hqx">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">b2a_hqx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.b2a_hqx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform hexbin4 binary-to-ASCII translation and return the resulting string. The
+argument should already be RLE-coded, and have a length divisible by 3 (except
+possibly the last fragment).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.crc_hqx">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">crc_hqx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.crc_hqx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compute a 16-bit CRC value of <em>data</em>, starting with <em>value</em> as the
+initial CRC, and return the result.  This uses the CRC-CCITT polynomial
+<em>x</em><sup>16</sup> + <em>x</em><sup>12</sup> + <em>x</em><sup>5</sup> + 1, often represented as
+0x1021.  This CRC is used in the binhex4 format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.crc32">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">crc32</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.crc32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compute CRC-32, the 32-bit checksum of <em>data</em>, starting with an
+initial CRC of <em>value</em>.  The default initial CRC is zero.  The algorithm
+is consistent with the ZIP file checksum.  Since the algorithm is designed for
+use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable for use as a general hash
+algorithm.  Use as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">binascii</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crc32</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello world&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="c1"># Or, in two pieces:</span>
+<span class="n">crc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">binascii</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crc32</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">crc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">binascii</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crc32</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot; world&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">crc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;crc32 = </span><span class="si">{:#010x}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">crc</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.0: </span>The result is always unsigned.
+To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and
+platforms, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crc32(data)</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0xffffffff</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.b2a_hex">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">b2a_hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.b2a_hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="binascii.hexlify">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">hexlify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.hexlify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hexadecimal representation of the binary <em>data</em>.  Every byte of
+<em>data</em> is converted into the corresponding 2-digit hex representation.  The
+returned bytes object is therefore twice as long as the length of <em>data</em>.</p>
+<p>Similar functionality (but returning a text string) is also conveniently
+accessible using the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes.hex" title="bytes.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.hex()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binascii.a2b_hex">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">a2b_hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hexstr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.a2b_hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="binascii.unhexlify">
+<code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">unhexlify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hexstr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.unhexlify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the binary data represented by the hexadecimal string <em>hexstr</em>.  This
+function is the inverse of <a class="reference internal" href="#binascii.b2a_hex" title="binascii.b2a_hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b2a_hex()</span></code></a>. <em>hexstr</em> must contain an even number
+of hexadecimal digits (which can be upper or lower case), otherwise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#binascii.Error" title="binascii.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<p>Similar functionality (accepting only text string arguments, but more
+liberal towards whitespace) is also accessible using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes.fromhex" title="bytes.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.fromhex()</span></code></a> class method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="binascii.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised on errors. These are usually programming errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="binascii.Incomplete">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">binascii.</code><code class="descname">Incomplete</code><a class="headerlink" href="#binascii.Incomplete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised on incomplete data. These are usually not programming errors,
+but may be handled by reading a little more data and trying again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support for RFC compliant base64-style encoding in base 16, 32, 64,
+and 85.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="binhex.html#module-binhex" title="binhex: Encode and decode files in binhex4 format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support for the binhex format used on the Macintosh.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="uu.html#module-uu" title="uu: Encode and decode files in uuencode format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support for UU encoding used on Unix.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="quopri.html#module-quopri" title="quopri: Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-printable encoding."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support for quoted-printable encoding used in MIME email messages.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="binhex.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code> — Encode and decode binhex4 files</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="quopri.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri</span></code> — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binhex.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binhex.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58e6bdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/binhex.html
@@ -0,0 +1,236 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    </style>
+ 
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-binhex">
+<span id="binhex-encode-and-decode-binhex4-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-binhex" title="binhex: Encode and decode files in binhex4 format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code></a> — Encode and decode binhex4 files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-binhex" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/binhex.py">Lib/binhex.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module encodes and decodes files in binhex4 format, a format allowing
+representation of Macintosh files in ASCII. Only the data fork is handled.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-binhex" title="binhex: Encode and decode files in binhex4 format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binhex.binhex">
+<code class="descclassname">binhex.</code><code class="descname">binhex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em>, <em>output</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binhex.binhex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a binary file with filename <em>input</em> to binhex file <em>output</em>. The
+<em>output</em> parameter can either be a filename or a file-like object (any object
+supporting a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="binhex.hexbin">
+<code class="descclassname">binhex.</code><code class="descname">hexbin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em>, <em>output</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#binhex.hexbin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode a binhex file <em>input</em>. <em>input</em> may be a filename or a file-like object
+supporting <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> methods. The resulting file is written
+to a file named <em>output</em>, unless the argument is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in which case the
+output filename is read from the binhex file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following exception is also defined:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="binhex.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">binhex.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#binhex.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when something can’t be encoded using the binhex format (for
+example, a filename is too long to fit in the filename field), or when input is
+not properly encoded binhex data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII conversions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notes">
+<span id="binhex-notes"></span><h2>Notes<a class="headerlink" href="#notes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There is an alternative, more powerful interface to the coder and decoder, see
+the source for details.</p>
+<p>If you code or decode textfiles on non-Macintosh platforms they will still use
+the old Macintosh newline convention (carriage-return as end of line).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code> — Encode and decode binhex4 files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes">Notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="base64.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code> — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="binascii.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code> — Convert between binary and ASCII</a></p>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bisect.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bisect.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1184138
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bisect.html
@@ -0,0 +1,329 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>bisect — Array bisection algorithm &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+  <div class="section" id="module-bisect">
+<span id="bisect-array-bisection-algorithm"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code></a> — Array bisection algorithm<a class="headerlink" href="#module-bisect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/bisect.py">Lib/bisect.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides support for maintaining a list in sorted order without
+having to sort the list after each insertion.  For long lists of items with
+expensive comparison operations, this can be an improvement over the more common
+approach.  The module is called <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code></a> because it uses a basic bisection
+algorithm to do its work.  The source code may be most useful as a working
+example of the algorithm (the boundary conditions are already right!).</p>
+<p>The following functions are provided:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bisect.bisect_left">
+<code class="descclassname">bisect.</code><code class="descname">bisect_left</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>lo=0</em>, <em>hi=len(a)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bisect.bisect_left" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locate the insertion point for <em>x</em> in <em>a</em> to maintain sorted order.
+The parameters <em>lo</em> and <em>hi</em> may be used to specify a subset of the list
+which should be considered; by default the entire list is used.  If <em>x</em> is
+already present in <em>a</em>, the insertion point will be before (to the left of)
+any existing entries.  The return value is suitable for use as the first
+parameter to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.insert()</span></code> assuming that <em>a</em> is already sorted.</p>
+<p>The returned insertion point <em>i</em> partitions the array <em>a</em> into two halves so
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all(val</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">a[lo:i])</span></code> for the left side and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all(val</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">a[i:hi])</span></code> for the right side.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bisect.bisect_right">
+<code class="descclassname">bisect.</code><code class="descname">bisect_right</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>lo=0</em>, <em>hi=len(a)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bisect.bisect_right" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bisect.bisect">
+<code class="descclassname">bisect.</code><code class="descname">bisect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>lo=0</em>, <em>hi=len(a)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bisect.bisect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#bisect.bisect_left" title="bisect.bisect_left"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect_left()</span></code></a>, but returns an insertion point which comes
+after (to the right of) any existing entries of <em>x</em> in <em>a</em>.</p>
+<p>The returned insertion point <em>i</em> partitions the array <em>a</em> into two halves so
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all(val</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">a[lo:i])</span></code> for the left side and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all(val</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">a[i:hi])</span></code> for the right side.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bisect.insort_left">
+<code class="descclassname">bisect.</code><code class="descname">insort_left</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>lo=0</em>, <em>hi=len(a)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bisect.insort_left" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert <em>x</em> in <em>a</em> in sorted order.  This is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.insert(bisect.bisect_left(a,</span> <span class="pre">x,</span> <span class="pre">lo,</span> <span class="pre">hi),</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> assuming that <em>a</em> is
+already sorted.  Keep in mind that the O(log n) search is dominated by
+the slow O(n) insertion step.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bisect.insort_right">
+<code class="descclassname">bisect.</code><code class="descname">insort_right</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>lo=0</em>, <em>hi=len(a)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bisect.insort_right" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bisect.insort">
+<code class="descclassname">bisect.</code><code class="descname">insort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>lo=0</em>, <em>hi=len(a)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bisect.insort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#bisect.insort_left" title="bisect.insort_left"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insort_left()</span></code></a>, but inserting <em>x</em> in <em>a</em> after any existing
+entries of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/">SortedCollection recipe</a> that uses
+bisect to build a full-featured collection class with straight-forward search
+methods and support for a key-function.  The keys are precomputed to save
+unnecessary calls to the key function during searches.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="searching-sorted-lists">
+<h2>Searching Sorted Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#searching-sorted-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The above <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect()</span></code></a> functions are useful for finding insertion points but
+can be tricky or awkward to use for common searching tasks. The following five
+functions show how to transform them into the standard lookups for sorted
+lists:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Locate the leftmost value exactly equal to x&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bisect_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">find_lt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Find rightmost value less than x&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bisect_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">find_le</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Find rightmost value less than or equal to x&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bisect_right</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">find_gt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Find leftmost value greater than x&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bisect_right</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">find_ge</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Find leftmost item greater than or equal to x&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bisect_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-examples">
+<h2>Other Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#other-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="bisect-example">The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect()</span></code></a> function can be useful for numeric table lookups. This
+example uses <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect()</span></code></a> to look up a letter grade for an exam score (say)
+based on a set of ordered numeric breakpoints: 90 and up is an ‘A’, 80 to 89 is
+a ‘B’, and so on:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">grade</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">score</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">breakpoints</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">70</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">grades</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;FDCBA&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bisect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">breakpoints</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">score</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">grades</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">grade</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">score</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">score</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">33</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">77</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">70</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">89</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;F&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, &#39;C&#39;, &#39;C&#39;, &#39;B&#39;, &#39;A&#39;, &#39;A&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unlike the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> function, it does not make sense for the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect()</span></code></a>
+functions to have <em>key</em> or <em>reversed</em> arguments because that would lead to an
+inefficient design (successive calls to bisect functions would not “remember”
+all of the previous key lookups).</p>
+<p>Instead, it is better to search a list of precomputed keys to find the index
+of the record in question:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;yellow&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;black&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">keys</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">]</span>         <span class="c1"># precomputed list of keys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">bisect_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;black&#39;, 0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">bisect_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;blue&#39;, 1)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">bisect_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;red&#39;, 5)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">bisect_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;yellow&#39;, 8)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code> — Array bisection algorithm</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#searching-sorted-lists">Searching Sorted Lists</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-examples">Other Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="heapq.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code> — Heap queue algorithm</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="array.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code> — Efficient arrays of numeric values</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/bisect.rst"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/builtins.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/builtins.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cad7957
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/builtins.html
@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>builtins — Built-in objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+    <link rel="prev" title="sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information" href="sysconfig.html" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-builtins">
+<span id="builtins-built-in-objects"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> — Built-in objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-builtins" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides direct access to all ‘built-in’ identifiers of Python; for
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins.open</span></code> is the full name for the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.  See <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#built-in-funcs"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Functions</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#built-in-consts"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Constants</span></a> for
+documentation.</p>
+<p>This module is not normally accessed explicitly by most applications, but can be
+useful in modules that provide objects with the same name as a built-in value,
+but in which the built-in of that name is also needed.  For example, in a module
+that wants to implement an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function that wraps the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, this module can be used directly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">builtins</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">builtins</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">UpperCaser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">UpperCaser</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&#39;&#39;&#39;Wrapper around a file that converts output to upper-case.&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As an implementation detail, most modules have the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> made
+available as part of their globals.  The value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> is normally
+either this module or the value of this module’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute.
+Since this is an implementation detail, it may not be used by alternate
+implementations of Python.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sysconfig.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> — Provide access to Python’s configuration information</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="__main__.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> — Top-level script environment</a></p>
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+    <br />
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+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bz2.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bz2.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c98b23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/bz2.html
@@ -0,0 +1,511 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm" href="lzma.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="gzip — Support for gzip files" href="gzip.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/bz2.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="lzma.html" title="lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm"
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="archiving.html" accesskey="U">Data Compression and Archiving</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+         |
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-bz2">
+<span id="bz2-support-for-bzip2-compression"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> — Support for <strong class="program">bzip2</strong> compression<a class="headerlink" href="#module-bz2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/bz2.py">Lib/bz2.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a comprehensive interface for compressing and
+decompressing data using the bzip2 compression algorithm.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module contains:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.open" title="bz2.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function and <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a> class for reading and
+writing compressed files.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Compressor" title="bz2.BZ2Compressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2Compressor</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2Decompressor</span></code></a> classes for
+incremental (de)compression.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.compress" title="bz2.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> functions for one-shot
+(de)compression.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>All of the classes in this module may safely be accessed from multiple threads.</p>
+<div class="section" id="de-compression-of-files">
+<h2>(De)compression of files<a class="headerlink" href="#de-compression-of-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bz2.open">
+<code class="descclassname">bz2.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>compresslevel=9</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>As with the constructor for <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a>, the <em>filename</em> argument can be
+an actual filename (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object), or an existing
+file object to read from or write to.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument can be any of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ab'</span></code> for binary mode, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rt'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wt'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xt'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'at'</span></code> for text mode. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>compresslevel</em> argument is an integer from 1 to 9, as for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a>
+constructor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File(filename,</span> <span class="pre">mode,</span> <span class="pre">compresslevel=compresslevel)</span></code>. In
+this case, the <em>encoding</em>, <em>errors</em> and <em>newline</em> arguments must not be
+provided.</p>
+<p>For text mode, a <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a> object is created, and wrapped in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> instance with the specified encoding, error
+handling behavior, and line ending(s).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> (exclusive creation) mode was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2File">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">bz2.</code><code class="descname">BZ2File</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>buffering=None</em>, <em>compresslevel=9</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode.</p>
+<p>If <em>filename</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object, open the named file
+directly. Otherwise, <em>filename</em> should be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, which will
+be used to read or write the compressed data.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument can be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> for reading (default), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> for
+overwriting, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> for exclusive creation, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> for appending. These
+can equivalently be given as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xb'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ab'</span></code>
+respectively.</p>
+<p>If <em>filename</em> is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>buffering</em> argument is ignored. Its use is deprecated.</p>
+<p>If <em>mode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <em>compresslevel</em> can be an integer between
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> specifying the level of compression: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> produces the
+least compression, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> (default) produces the most compression.</p>
+<p>If <em>mode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, the input file may be the concatenation of multiple
+compressed streams.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a> provides all of the members specified by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>, except for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code>.
+Iteration and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement are supported.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a> also provides the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2File.peek">
+<code class="descname">peek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>n</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2File.peek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return buffered data without advancing the file position. At least one
+byte of data will be returned (unless at EOF). The exact number of bytes
+returned is unspecified.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While calling <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File.peek" title="bz2.BZ2File.peek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">peek()</span></code></a> does not change the file position of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a>, it may change the position of the underlying file
+object (e.g. if the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a> was constructed by passing a file
+object for <em>filename</em>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readable()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seekable()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writable()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read1()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code> methods were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support was added for <em>filename</em> being a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> instead of an
+actual filename.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> (append) mode was added, along with support for reading
+multi-stream files.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> (exclusive creation) mode was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method now accepts an argument of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="incremental-de-compression">
+<h2>Incremental (de)compression<a class="headerlink" href="#incremental-de-compression" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Compressor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">bz2.</code><code class="descname">BZ2Compressor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>compresslevel=9</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Compressor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new compressor object. This object may be used to compress data
+incrementally. For one-shot compression, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.compress" title="bz2.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> function
+instead.</p>
+<p><em>compresslevel</em>, if given, must be an integer between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>. The
+default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Compressor.compress">
+<code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Compressor.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provide data to the compressor object. Returns a chunk of compressed data
+if possible, or an empty byte string otherwise.</p>
+<p>When you have finished providing data to the compressor, call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Compressor.flush" title="bz2.BZ2Compressor.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a> method to finish the compression process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Compressor.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Compressor.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finish the compression process. Returns the compressed data left in
+internal buffers.</p>
+<p>The compressor object may not be used after this method has been called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Decompressor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">bz2.</code><code class="descname">BZ2Decompressor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new decompressor object. This object may be used to decompress data
+incrementally. For one-shot compression, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> function
+instead.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This class does not transparently handle inputs containing multiple
+compressed streams, unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a>. If
+you need to decompress a multi-stream input with <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2Decompressor</span></code></a>,
+you must use a new decompressor for each stream.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress">
+<code class="descname">decompress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>max_length=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decompress <em>data</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>), returning
+uncompressed data as bytes. Some of <em>data</em> may be buffered
+internally, for use in later calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a>. The
+returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
+previous calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>max_length</em> is nonnegative, returns at most <em>max_length</em>
+bytes of decompressed data. If this limit is reached and further
+output can be produced, the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">needs_input</span></code></a> attribute will
+be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. In this case, the next call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> may provide <em>data</em> as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> to obtain
+more of the output.</p>
+<p>If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
+because this was less than <em>max_length</em> bytes, or because
+<em>max_length</em> was negative), the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">needs_input</span></code></a> attribute
+will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is reached
+raises an <cite>EOFError</cite>.  Any data found after the end of the
+stream is ignored and saved in the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.unused_data" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.unused_data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unused_data</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>max_length</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.eof">
+<code class="descname">eof</code><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.unused_data">
+<code class="descname">unused_data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.unused_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Data found after the end of the compressed stream.</p>
+<p>If this attribute is accessed before the end of the stream has been
+reached, its value will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input">
+<code class="descname">needs_input</code><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.needs_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> method can provide more
+decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed input.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="one-shot-de-compression">
+<h2>One-shot (de)compression<a class="headerlink" href="#one-shot-de-compression" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bz2.compress">
+<code class="descclassname">bz2.</code><code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>compresslevel=9</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compress <em>data</em>, a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>compresslevel</em>, if given, must be an integer between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>. The
+default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For incremental compression, use a <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Compressor" title="bz2.BZ2Compressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2Compressor</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bz2.decompress">
+<code class="descclassname">bz2.</code><code class="descname">decompress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bz2.decompress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decompress <em>data</em>, a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>data</em> is the concatenation of multiple compressed streams, decompress
+all of the streams.</p>
+<p>For incremental decompression, use a <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Decompressor" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2Decompressor</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support for multi-stream inputs was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples-of-usage">
+<span id="bz2-usage-examples"></span><h2>Examples of usage<a class="headerlink" href="#examples-of-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Below are some examples of typical usage of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.compress" title="bz2.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> to demonstrate round-trip compression:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">bz2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bz2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Data compression ratio</span>
+<span class="go">1.513595166163142</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bz2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decompress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">d</span>  <span class="c1"># Check equality to original object after round-trip</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#bz2.BZ2Compressor" title="bz2.BZ2Compressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2Compressor</span></code></a> for incremental compression:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">bz2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen_data</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunks</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">chunksize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunks</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;z&quot;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">chunksize</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">comp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bz2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BZ2Compressor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">out</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">gen_data</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="c1"># Provide data to the compressor object</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">out</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">out</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">comp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># finished providing data to the compressor.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">out</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">out</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">comp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The example above uses a very “nonrandom” stream of data
+(a stream of <cite>b”z”</cite> chunks).  Random data tends to compress poorly,
+while ordered, repetitive data usually yields a high compression ratio.</p>
+<p>Writing and reading a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">bz2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">bz2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.bz2&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="c1"># Write compressed data to file</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">unused</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">bz2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.bz2&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="c1"># Decompress data from file</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">content</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">content</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">data</span>  <span class="c1"># Check equality to original object after round-trip</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">bzip2</strong> compression</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#de-compression-of-files">(De)compression of files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#incremental-de-compression">Incremental (de)compression</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#one-shot-de-compression">One-shot (de)compression</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples-of-usage">Examples of usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="gzip.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">gzip</strong> files</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="lzma.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code> — Compression using the LZMA algorithm</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/calendar.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/calendar.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02e6bff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/calendar.html
@@ -0,0 +1,640 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>calendar — General calendar-related functions &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
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+ 
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-calendar">
+<span id="calendar-general-calendar-related-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a> — General calendar-related functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-calendar" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/calendar.py">Lib/calendar.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module allows you to output calendars like the Unix <strong class="program">cal</strong> program,
+and provides additional useful functions related to the calendar. By default,
+these calendars have Monday as the first day of the week, and Sunday as the last
+(the European convention). Use <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.setfirstweekday" title="calendar.setfirstweekday"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfirstweekday()</span></code></a> to set the first day of
+the week to Sunday (6) or to any other weekday.  Parameters that specify dates
+are given as integers. For related
+functionality, see also the <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>The functions and classes defined in this module
+use an idealized calendar, the current Gregorian calendar extended indefinitely
+in both directions.  This matches the definition of the “proleptic Gregorian”
+calendar in Dershowitz and Reingold’s book “Calendrical Calculations”, where
+it’s the base calendar for all computations.  Zero and negative years are
+interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard.  Year 0 is 1 BC, year -1 is
+2 BC, and so on.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">Calendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>firstweekday=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar" title="calendar.Calendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Calendar</span></code></a> object. <em>firstweekday</em> is an integer specifying the
+first day of the week. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is Monday (the default), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code> is Sunday.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar" title="calendar.Calendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Calendar</span></code></a> object provides several methods that can be used for
+preparing the calendar data for formatting. This class doesn’t do any formatting
+itself. This is the job of subclasses.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar" title="calendar.Calendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Calendar</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.iterweekdays">
+<code class="descname">iterweekdays</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.iterweekdays" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator for the week day numbers that will be used for one
+week.  The first value from the iterator will be the same as the value of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.firstweekday" title="calendar.firstweekday"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">firstweekday</span></code></a> property.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates">
+<code class="descname">itermonthdates</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator for the month <em>month</em> (1–12) in the year <em>year</em>. This
+iterator will return all days (as <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> objects) for the
+month and all days before the start of the month or after the end of the
+month that are required to get a complete week.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays">
+<code class="descname">itermonthdays</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator for the month <em>month</em> in the year <em>year</em> similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates" title="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itermonthdates()</span></code></a>, but not restricted by the <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a>
+range. Days returned will simply be day of the month numbers.  For the
+days outside of the specified month, the day number is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays2">
+<code class="descname">itermonthdays2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator for the month <em>month</em> in the year <em>year</em> similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates" title="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itermonthdates()</span></code></a>, but not restricted by the <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a>
+range. Days returned will be tuples consisting of a day of the month
+number and a week day number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays3">
+<code class="descname">itermonthdays3</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator for the month <em>month</em> in the year <em>year</em> similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates" title="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itermonthdates()</span></code></a>, but not restricted by the <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a>
+range. Days returned will be tuples consisting of a year, a month and a day
+of the month numbers.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays4">
+<code class="descname">itermonthdays4</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator for the month <em>month</em> in the year <em>year</em> similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates" title="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itermonthdates()</span></code></a>, but not restricted by the <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a>
+range. Days returned will be tuples consisting of a year, a month, a day
+of the month, and a day of the week numbers.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.monthdatescalendar">
+<code class="descname">monthdatescalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.monthdatescalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the weeks in the month <em>month</em> of the <em>year</em> as full
+weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.monthdays2calendar">
+<code class="descname">monthdays2calendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.monthdays2calendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the weeks in the month <em>month</em> of the <em>year</em> as full
+weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven tuples of day numbers and weekday
+numbers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.monthdayscalendar">
+<code class="descname">monthdayscalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.monthdayscalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the weeks in the month <em>month</em> of the <em>year</em> as full
+weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven day numbers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar">
+<code class="descname">yeardatescalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>width=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting. The return
+value is a list of month rows. Each month row contains up to <em>width</em>
+months (defaulting to 3). Each month contains between 4 and 6 weeks and
+each week contains 1–7 days. Days are <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.yeardays2calendar">
+<code class="descname">yeardays2calendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>width=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.yeardays2calendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting (similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar" title="calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yeardatescalendar()</span></code></a>). Entries in the week lists are tuples of day
+numbers and weekday numbers. Day numbers outside this month are zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.Calendar.yeardayscalendar">
+<code class="descname">yeardayscalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>width=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.Calendar.yeardayscalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting (similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar" title="calendar.Calendar.yeardatescalendar"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yeardatescalendar()</span></code></a>). Entries in the week lists are day numbers. Day
+numbers outside this month are zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="calendar.TextCalendar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">TextCalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>firstweekday=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.TextCalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class can be used to generate plain text calendars.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.TextCalendar" title="calendar.TextCalendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextCalendar</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.TextCalendar.formatmonth">
+<code class="descname">formatmonth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>themonth</em>, <em>w=0</em>, <em>l=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.TextCalendar.formatmonth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a month’s calendar in a multi-line string. If <em>w</em> is provided, it
+specifies the width of the date columns, which are centered. If <em>l</em> is
+given, it specifies the number of lines that each week will use. Depends
+on the first weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.setfirstweekday" title="calendar.setfirstweekday"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfirstweekday()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth">
+<code class="descname">prmonth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>themonth</em>, <em>w=0</em>, <em>l=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a month’s calendar as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.TextCalendar.formatmonth" title="calendar.TextCalendar.formatmonth"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatmonth()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.TextCalendar.formatyear">
+<code class="descname">formatyear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>w=2</em>, <em>l=1</em>, <em>c=6</em>, <em>m=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.TextCalendar.formatyear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <em>m</em>-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line string.
+Optional parameters <em>w</em>, <em>l</em>, and <em>c</em> are for date column width, lines per
+week, and number of spaces between month columns, respectively. Depends on
+the first weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.setfirstweekday" title="calendar.setfirstweekday"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfirstweekday()</span></code></a> method.  The earliest year for which a calendar
+can be generated is platform-dependent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.TextCalendar.pryear">
+<code class="descname">pryear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>w=2</em>, <em>l=1</em>, <em>c=6</em>, <em>m=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.TextCalendar.pryear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the calendar for an entire year as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.TextCalendar.formatyear" title="calendar.TextCalendar.formatyear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatyear()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">HTMLCalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>firstweekday=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class can be used to generate HTML calendars.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLCalendar</span></code> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatmonth">
+<code class="descname">formatmonth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>themonth</em>, <em>withyear=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatmonth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a month’s calendar as an HTML table. If <em>withyear</em> is true the year
+will be included in the header, otherwise just the month name will be
+used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear">
+<code class="descname">formatyear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>width=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a year’s calendar as an HTML table. <em>width</em> (defaulting to 3)
+specifies the number of months per row.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyearpage">
+<code class="descname">formatyearpage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>width=3</em>, <em>css='calendar.css'</em>, <em>encoding=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyearpage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a year’s calendar as a complete HTML page. <em>width</em> (defaulting to
+3) specifies the number of months per row. <em>css</em> is the name for the
+cascading style sheet to be used. <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> can be passed if no style
+sheet should be used. <em>encoding</em> specifies the encoding to be used for the
+output (defaulting to the system default encoding).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLCalendar</span></code> has the following attributes you can override to
+customize the CSS classes used by the calendar:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses">
+<code class="descname">cssclasses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of CSS classes used for each weekday. The default class list is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cssclasses</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;mon&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;tue&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wed&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;thu&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;fri&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sat&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sun&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>more styles can be added for each day:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cssclasses</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;mon text-bold&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;tue&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wed&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;thu&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;fri&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sat&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sun red&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the length of this list must be seven items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_noday">
+<code class="descname">cssclass_noday</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_noday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The CSS class for a weekday occurring in the previous or coming month.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses_weekday_head">
+<code class="descname">cssclasses_weekday_head</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses_weekday_head" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of CSS classes used for weekday names in the header row.
+The default is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses" title="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cssclasses</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month_head">
+<code class="descname">cssclass_month_head</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month_head" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The month’s head CSS class (used by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatmonthname()</span></code>).
+The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;month&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month">
+<code class="descname">cssclass_month</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_month" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The CSS class for the whole month’s table (used by <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatmonth" title="calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatmonth"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatmonth()</span></code></a>).
+The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;month&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year">
+<code class="descname">cssclass_year</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The CSS class for the whole year’s table of tables (used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear" title="calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatyear()</span></code></a>). The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;year&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year_head">
+<code class="descname">cssclass_year_head</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclass_year_head" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The CSS class for the table head for the whole year (used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear" title="calendar.HTMLCalendar.formatyear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatyear()</span></code></a>). The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;year&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that although the naming for the above described class attributes is
+singular (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cssclass_month</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cssclass_noday</span></code>), one can replace the
+single CSS class with a space separated list of CSS classes, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;text-bold text-red&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is an example how <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLCalendar</span></code> can be customized:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">CustomHTMLCal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calendar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTMLCalendar</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">cssclasses</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">style</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot; text-nowrap&quot;</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">style</span> <span class="ow">in</span>
+                  <span class="n">calendar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTMLCalendar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cssclasses</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">cssclass_month_head</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;text-center month-head&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">cssclass_month</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;text-center month&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">cssclass_year</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;text-italic lead&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="calendar.LocaleTextCalendar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">LocaleTextCalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>firstweekday=0</em>, <em>locale=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.LocaleTextCalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.TextCalendar" title="calendar.TextCalendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextCalendar</span></code></a> can be passed a locale name in the
+constructor and will return month and weekday names in the specified locale.
+If this locale includes an encoding all strings containing month and weekday
+names will be returned as unicode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">LocaleHTMLCalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>firstweekday=0</em>, <em>locale=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.HTMLCalendar" title="calendar.HTMLCalendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLCalendar</span></code></a> can be passed a locale name in the
+constructor and will return month and weekday names in the specified
+locale. If this locale includes an encoding all strings containing month and
+weekday names will be returned as unicode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatweekday()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatmonthname()</span></code> methods of these two
+classes temporarily change the current locale to the given <em>locale</em>.  Because
+the current locale is a process-wide setting, they are not thread-safe.</p>
+</div>
+<p>For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.setfirstweekday">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">setfirstweekday</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>weekday</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.setfirstweekday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the weekday (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is Monday, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code> is Sunday) to start each week. The
+values <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MONDAY</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TUESDAY</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WEDNESDAY</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">THURSDAY</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FRIDAY</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SATURDAY</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SUNDAY</span></code> are provided for
+convenience. For example, to set the first weekday to Sunday:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">calendar</span>
+<span class="n">calendar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setfirstweekday</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calendar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SUNDAY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.firstweekday">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">firstweekday</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.firstweekday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current setting for the weekday to start each week.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.isleap">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">isleap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.isleap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if <em>year</em> is a leap year, otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.leapdays">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">leapdays</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y1</em>, <em>y2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.leapdays" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the number of leap years in the range from <em>y1</em> to <em>y2</em> (exclusive),
+where <em>y1</em> and <em>y2</em> are years.</p>
+<p>This function works for ranges spanning a century change.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.weekday">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">weekday</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em>, <em>day</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.weekday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the day of the week (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is Monday) for <em>year</em> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1970</span></code>–…),
+<em>month</em> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>–<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">12</span></code>), <em>day</em> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>–<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">31</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.weekheader">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">weekheader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.weekheader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a header containing abbreviated weekday names. <em>n</em> specifies the width in
+characters for one weekday.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.monthrange">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">monthrange</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.monthrange" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns weekday of first day of the month and number of days in month,  for the
+specified <em>year</em> and <em>month</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.monthcalendar">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">monthcalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.monthcalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a matrix representing a month’s calendar.  Each row represents a week;
+days outside of the month a represented by zeros. Each week begins with Monday
+unless set by <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.setfirstweekday" title="calendar.setfirstweekday"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfirstweekday()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.prmonth">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">prmonth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>themonth</em>, <em>w=0</em>, <em>l=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.prmonth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prints a month’s calendar as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.month" title="calendar.month"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">month()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.month">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">month</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>theyear</em>, <em>themonth</em>, <em>w=0</em>, <em>l=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.month" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a month’s calendar in a multi-line string using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatmonth()</span></code>
+of the <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.TextCalendar" title="calendar.TextCalendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextCalendar</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.prcal">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">prcal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>w=0</em>, <em>l=0</em>, <em>c=6</em>, <em>m=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.prcal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prints the calendar for an entire year as returned by  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.calendar">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">calendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>w=2</em>, <em>l=1</em>, <em>c=6</em>, <em>m=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.calendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a 3-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line string using
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatyear()</span></code> of the <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.TextCalendar" title="calendar.TextCalendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextCalendar</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="calendar.timegm">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">timegm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tuple</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.timegm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An unrelated but handy function that takes a time tuple such as returned by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a> function in the <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module, and returns the
+corresponding Unix timestamp value, assuming an epoch of 1970, and the POSIX
+encoding.  In fact, <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#calendar.timegm" title="calendar.timegm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timegm()</span></code></a> are each others’
+inverse.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a> module exports the following data attributes:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="calendar.day_name">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">day_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.day_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array that represents the days of the week in the current locale.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="calendar.day_abbr">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">day_abbr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.day_abbr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the current locale.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="calendar.month_name">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">month_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.month_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array that represents the months of the year in the current locale.  This
+follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it has a length of
+13 and  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">month_name[0]</span></code> is the empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="calendar.month_abbr">
+<code class="descclassname">calendar.</code><code class="descname">month_abbr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#calendar.month_abbr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An array that represents the abbreviated months of the year in the current
+locale.  This follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it
+has a length of 13 and  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">month_abbr[0]</span></code> is the empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Object-oriented interface to dates and times with similar functionality to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Low-level time related functions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/cgi.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/cgi.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..615fc96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/cgi.html
@@ -0,0 +1,676 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>cgi — Common Gateway Interface support &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-cgi">
+<span id="cgi-common-gateway-interface-support"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cgi" title="cgi: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code></a> — Common Gateway Interface support<a class="headerlink" href="#module-cgi" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/cgi.py">Lib/cgi.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>Support module for Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts.</p>
+<p>This module defines a number of utilities for use by CGI scripts written in
+Python.</p>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="cgi-intro">A CGI script is invoked by an HTTP server, usually to process user input
+submitted through an HTML <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;FORM&gt;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;ISINDEX&gt;</span></code> element.</p>
+<p>Most often, CGI scripts live in the server’s special <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi-bin</span></code> directory.
+The HTTP server places all sorts of information about the request (such as the
+client’s hostname, the requested URL, the query string, and lots of other
+goodies) in the script’s shell environment, executes the script, and sends the
+script’s output back to the client.</p>
+<p>The script’s input is connected to the client too, and sometimes the form data
+is read this way; at other times the form data is passed via the “query string”
+part of the URL.  This module is intended to take care of the different cases
+and provide a simpler interface to the Python script.  It also provides a number
+of utilities that help in debugging scripts, and the latest addition is support
+for file uploads from a form (if your browser supports it).</p>
+<p>The output of a CGI script should consist of two sections, separated by a blank
+line.  The first section contains a number of headers, telling the client what
+kind of data is following.  Python code to generate a minimal header section
+looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Content-Type: text/html&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># HTML is following</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>                             <span class="c1"># blank line, end of headers</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The second section is usually HTML, which allows the client software to display
+nicely formatted text with header, in-line images, etc. Here’s Python code that
+prints a simple piece of HTML:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;TITLE&gt;CGI script output&lt;/TITLE&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;H1&gt;This is my first CGI script&lt;/H1&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello, world!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-the-cgi-module">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Using the cgi module<a class="headerlink" href="#using-the-cgi-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Begin by writing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">cgi</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When you write a new script, consider adding these lines:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cgitb</span>
+<span class="n">cgitb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enable</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This activates a special exception handler that will display detailed reports in
+the Web browser if any errors occur.  If you’d rather not show the guts of your
+program to users of your script, you can have the reports saved to files
+instead, with code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cgitb</span>
+<span class="n">cgitb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">display</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logdir</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;/path/to/logdir&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s very helpful to use this feature during script development. The reports
+produced by <a class="reference internal" href="cgitb.html#module-cgitb" title="cgitb: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code></a> provide information that can save you a lot of time in
+tracking down bugs.  You can always remove the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code> line later when you
+have tested your script and are confident that it works correctly.</p>
+<p>To get at submitted form data, use the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> class. If the form
+contains non-ASCII characters, use the <em>encoding</em> keyword parameter set to the
+value of the encoding defined for the document. It is usually contained in the
+META tag in the HEAD section of the HTML document or by the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header).  This reads the form contents from the
+standard input or the environment (depending on the value of various
+environment variables set according to the CGI standard).  Since it may consume
+standard input, it should be instantiated only once.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> instance can be indexed like a Python dictionary.
+It allows membership testing with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator, and also supports
+the standard dictionary method <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code></a> and the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a>.  Form fields containing empty strings are ignored and do not appear
+in the dictionary; to keep such values, provide a true value for the optional
+<em>keep_blank_values</em> keyword parameter when creating the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code>
+instance.</p>
+<p>For instance, the following code (which assumes that the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header and blank line have already been printed)
+checks that the fields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addr</span></code> are both set to a non-empty
+string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">form</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cgi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FieldStorage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="s2">&quot;name&quot;</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">form</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="s2">&quot;addr&quot;</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;H1&gt;Error&lt;/H1&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Please fill in the name and addr fields.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;p&gt;name:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;p&gt;addr:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;addr&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span><span class="n">further</span> <span class="n">form</span> <span class="n">processing</span> <span class="n">here</span><span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here the fields, accessed through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">form[key]</span></code>, are themselves instances of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> (or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MiniFieldStorage</span></code>, depending on the form
+encoding). The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute of the instance yields
+the string value of the field.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getvalue()</span></code> method
+returns this string value directly; it also accepts an optional second argument
+as a default to return if the requested key is not present.</p>
+<p>If the submitted form data contains more than one field with the same name, the
+object retrieved by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">form[key]</span></code> is not a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MiniFieldStorage</span></code> instance but a list of such instances.  Similarly, in
+this situation, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">form.getvalue(key)</span></code> would return a list of strings. If you
+expect this possibility (when your HTML form contains multiple fields with the
+same name), use the <a class="reference internal" href="#cgi.FieldStorage.getlist" title="cgi.FieldStorage.getlist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getlist()</span></code></a> method, which always returns
+a list of values (so that you do not need to special-case the single item
+case).  For example, this code concatenates any number of username fields,
+separated by commas:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;username&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">usernames</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;,&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a field represents an uploaded file, accessing the value via the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute or the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getvalue()</span></code>
+method reads the entire file in memory as bytes.  This may not be what you
+want.  You can test for an uploaded file by testing either the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> attribute or the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>
+attribute.  You can then read the data from the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>
+attribute before it is automatically closed as part of the garbage collection of
+the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> instance
+(the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.RawIOBase.read" title="io.RawIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> methods will
+return bytes):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">fileitem</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;userfile&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">fileitem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># It&#39;s an uploaded file; count lines</span>
+    <span class="n">linecount</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fileitem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="n">linecount</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">linecount</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> objects also support being used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement, which will automatically close them when done.</p>
+<p>If an error is encountered when obtaining the contents of an uploaded file
+(for example, when the user interrupts the form submission by clicking on
+a Back or Cancel button) the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">done</span></code> attribute of the
+object for the field will be set to the value -1.</p>
+<p>The file upload draft standard entertains the possibility of uploading multiple
+files from one field (using a recursive <em class="mimetype">multipart/*</em> encoding).
+When this occurs, the item will be a dictionary-like <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> item.
+This can be determined by testing its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> attribute, which should be
+<em class="mimetype">multipart/form-data</em> (or perhaps another MIME type matching
+<em class="mimetype">multipart/*</em>).  In this case, it can be iterated over recursively
+just like the top-level form object.</p>
+<p>When a form is submitted in the “old” format (as the query string or as a single
+data part of type <em class="mimetype">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</em>), the items will
+actually be instances of the class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MiniFieldStorage</span></code>.  In this case, the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> attributes are always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A form submitted via POST that also has a query string will contain both
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MiniFieldStorage</span></code> items.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> attribute is automatically closed upon the
+garbage collection of the creating <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> instance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for the context management protocol to the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> class.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="higher-level-interface">
+<h2>Higher Level Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#higher-level-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The previous section explains how to read CGI form data using the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> class.  This section describes a higher level interface
+which was added to this class to allow one to do it in a more readable and
+intuitive way.  The interface doesn’t make the techniques described in previous
+sections obsolete — they are still useful to process file uploads efficiently,
+for example.</p>
+<p>The interface consists of two simple methods. Using the methods you can process
+form data in a generic way, without the need to worry whether only one or more
+values were posted under one name.</p>
+<p>In the previous section, you learned to write following code anytime you
+expected a user to post more than one value under one name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;item&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The user is requesting more than one item.</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The user is requesting only one item.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This situation is common for example when a form contains a group of multiple
+checkboxes with the same name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="nb">input</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;checkbox&quot;</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;item&quot;</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;1&quot;</span> <span class="o">/&gt;</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="nb">input</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;checkbox&quot;</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;item&quot;</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;2&quot;</span> <span class="o">/&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In most situations, however, there’s only one form control with a particular
+name in a form and then you expect and need only one value associated with this
+name.  So you write a script containing for example this code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">user</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;user&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The problem with the code is that you should never expect that a client will
+provide valid input to your scripts.  For example, if a curious user appends
+another <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user=foo</span></code> pair to the query string, then the script would crash,
+because in this situation the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getvalue(&quot;user&quot;)</span></code> method call returns a list
+instead of a string.  Calling the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.upper" title="str.upper"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">upper()</span></code></a> method on a list is not valid
+(since lists do not have a method of this name) and results in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>Therefore, the appropriate way to read form data values was to always use the
+code which checks whether the obtained value is a single value or a list of
+values.  That’s annoying and leads to less readable scripts.</p>
+<p>A more convenient approach is to use the methods <a class="reference internal" href="#cgi.FieldStorage.getfirst" title="cgi.FieldStorage.getfirst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfirst()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#cgi.FieldStorage.getlist" title="cgi.FieldStorage.getlist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getlist()</span></code></a> provided by this higher level interface.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cgi.FieldStorage.getfirst">
+<code class="descclassname">FieldStorage.</code><code class="descname">getfirst</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.FieldStorage.getfirst" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method always returns only one value associated with form field <em>name</em>.
+The method returns only the first value in case that more values were posted
+under such name.  Please note that the order in which the values are received
+may vary from browser to browser and should not be counted on. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id2">1</a>  If no such
+form field or value exists then the method returns the value specified by the
+optional parameter <em>default</em>.  This parameter defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if not
+specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cgi.FieldStorage.getlist">
+<code class="descclassname">FieldStorage.</code><code class="descname">getlist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.FieldStorage.getlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method always returns a list of values associated with form field <em>name</em>.
+The method returns an empty list if no such form field or value exists for
+<em>name</em>.  It returns a list consisting of one item if only one such value exists.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Using these methods you can write nice compact code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cgi</span>
+<span class="n">form</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cgi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FieldStorage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">user</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;user&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span>    <span class="c1"># This way it&#39;s safe.</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">form</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;item&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<span id="functions-in-cgi-module"></span><h2>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These are useful if you want more control, or if you want to employ some of the
+algorithms implemented in this module in other circumstances.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.parse">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp=None</em>, <em>environ=os.environ</em>, <em>keep_blank_values=False</em>, <em>strict_parsing=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse a query in the environment or from a file (the file defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>).  The <em>keep_blank_values</em> and <em>strict_parsing</em> parameters are
+passed to <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qs" title="urllib.parse.parse_qs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.parse_qs()</span></code></a> unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.parse_qs">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">parse_qs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>qs</em>, <em>keep_blank_values=False</em>, <em>strict_parsing=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.parse_qs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is deprecated in this module. Use <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qs" title="urllib.parse.parse_qs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.parse_qs()</span></code></a>
+instead. It is maintained here only for backward compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.parse_qsl">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">parse_qsl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>qs</em>, <em>keep_blank_values=False</em>, <em>strict_parsing=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.parse_qsl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is deprecated in this module. Use <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qsl" title="urllib.parse.parse_qsl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.parse_qsl()</span></code></a>
+instead. It is maintained here only for backward compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.parse_multipart">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">parse_multipart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>pdict</em>, <em>encoding=&quot;utf-8&quot;</em>, <em>errors=&quot;replace&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.parse_multipart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse input of type <em class="mimetype">multipart/form-data</em> (for  file uploads).
+Arguments are <em>fp</em> for the input file, <em>pdict</em> for a dictionary containing
+other parameters in the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, and <em>encoding</em>,
+the request encoding.</p>
+<p>Returns a dictionary just like <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.parse_qs" title="urllib.parse.parse_qs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.parse_qs()</span></code></a>: keys are the
+field names, each value is a list of values for that field. For non-file
+fields, the value is a list of strings.</p>
+<p>This is easy to use but not much good if you are expecting megabytes to be
+uploaded — in that case, use the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> class instead
+which is much more flexible.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters.  For non-file fields, the
+value is now a list of strings, not bytes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.parse_header">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">parse_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.parse_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse a MIME header (such as <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>) into a main value and a
+dictionary of parameters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.test">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">test</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.test" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Robust test CGI script, usable as main program. Writes minimal HTTP headers and
+formats all information provided to the script in HTML form.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.print_environ">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">print_environ</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.print_environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format the shell environment in HTML.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.print_form">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">print_form</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>form</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.print_form" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format a form in HTML.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.print_directory">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">print_directory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.print_directory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format the current directory in HTML.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.print_environ_usage">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">print_environ_usage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.print_environ_usage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a list of useful (used by CGI) environment variables in HTML.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgi.escape">
+<code class="descclassname">cgi.</code><code class="descname">escape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>quote=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgi.escape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code> in string <em>s</em> to HTML-safe
+sequences.  Use this if you need to display text that might contain such
+characters in HTML.  If the optional flag <em>quote</em> is true, the quotation mark
+character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>) is also translated; this helps for inclusion in an HTML
+attribute value delimited by double quotes, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;a</span> <span class="pre">href=&quot;...&quot;&gt;</span></code>.  Note
+that single quotes are never translated.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>This function is unsafe because <em>quote</em> is false by default, and therefore
+deprecated.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="html.html#html.escape" title="html.escape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.escape()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="caring-about-security">
+<span id="cgi-security"></span><h2>Caring about security<a class="headerlink" href="#caring-about-security" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-1">There’s one important rule: if you invoke an external program (via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a> functions. or others with similar
+functionality), make very sure you don’t pass arbitrary strings received from
+the client to the shell.  This is a well-known security hole whereby clever
+hackers anywhere on the Web can exploit a gullible CGI script to invoke
+arbitrary shell commands.  Even parts of the URL or field names cannot be
+trusted, since the request doesn’t have to come from your form!</p>
+<p>To be on the safe side, if you must pass a string gotten from a form to a shell
+command, you should make sure the string contains only alphanumeric characters,
+dashes, underscores, and periods.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-your-cgi-script-on-a-unix-system">
+<h2>Installing your CGI script on a Unix system<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-your-cgi-script-on-a-unix-system" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Read the documentation for your HTTP server and check with your local system
+administrator to find the directory where CGI scripts should be installed;
+usually this is in a directory <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi-bin</span></code> in the server tree.</p>
+<p>Make sure that your script is readable and executable by “others”; the Unix file
+mode should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o755</span></code> octal (use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod</span> <span class="pre">0755</span> <span class="pre">filename</span></code>).  Make sure that the
+first line of the script contains <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> starting in column 1 followed by the
+pathname of the Python interpreter, for instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/local/bin/python</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Make sure the Python interpreter exists and is executable by “others”.</p>
+<p>Make sure that any files your script needs to read or write are readable or
+writable, respectively, by “others” — their mode should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o644</span></code> for
+readable and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o666</span></code> for writable.  This is because, for security reasons, the
+HTTP server executes your script as user “nobody”, without any special
+privileges.  It can only read (write, execute) files that everybody can read
+(write, execute).  The current directory at execution time is also different (it
+is usually the server’s cgi-bin directory) and the set of environment variables
+is also different from what you get when you log in.  In particular, don’t count
+on the shell’s search path for executables (<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>) or the Python module
+search path (<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>) to be set to anything interesting.</p>
+<p>If you need to load modules from a directory which is not on Python’s default
+module search path, you can change the path in your script, before importing
+other modules.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">insert</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/home/joe/lib/python&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">insert</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/local/lib/python&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(This way, the directory inserted last will be searched first!)</p>
+<p>Instructions for non-Unix systems will vary; check your HTTP server’s
+documentation (it will usually have a section on CGI scripts).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="testing-your-cgi-script">
+<h2>Testing your CGI script<a class="headerlink" href="#testing-your-cgi-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Unfortunately, a CGI script will generally not run when you try it from the
+command line, and a script that works perfectly from the command line may fail
+mysteriously when run from the server.  There’s one reason why you should still
+test your script from the command line: if it contains a syntax error, the
+Python interpreter won’t execute it at all, and the HTTP server will most likely
+send a cryptic error to the client.</p>
+<p>Assuming your script has no syntax errors, yet it does not work, you have no
+choice but to read the next section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="debugging-cgi-scripts">
+<h2>Debugging CGI scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#debugging-cgi-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-4">First of all, check for trivial installation errors — reading the section
+above on installing your CGI script carefully can save you a lot of time.  If
+you wonder whether you have understood the installation procedure correctly, try
+installing a copy of this module file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.py</span></code>) as a CGI script.  When
+invoked as a script, the file will dump its environment and the contents of the
+form in HTML form. Give it the right mode etc, and send it a request.  If it’s
+installed in the standard <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi-bin</span></code> directory, it should be possible to
+send it a request by entering a URL into your browser of the form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>http://yourhostname/cgi-bin/cgi.py?name=Joe+Blow&amp;addr=At+Home
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If this gives an error of type 404, the server cannot find the script – perhaps
+you need to install it in a different directory.  If it gives another error,
+there’s an installation problem that you should fix before trying to go any
+further.  If you get a nicely formatted listing of the environment and form
+content (in this example, the fields should be listed as “addr” with value “At
+Home” and “name” with value “Joe Blow”), the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.py</span></code> script has been
+installed correctly.  If you follow the same procedure for your own script, you
+should now be able to debug it.</p>
+<p>The next step could be to call the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cgi" title="cgi: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test()</span></code></a> function
+from your script: replace its main code with the single statement</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cgi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This should produce the same results as those gotten from installing the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.py</span></code> file itself.</p>
+<p>When an ordinary Python script raises an unhandled exception (for whatever
+reason: of a typo in a module name, a file that can’t be opened, etc.), the
+Python interpreter prints a nice traceback and exits.  While the Python
+interpreter will still do this when your CGI script raises an exception, most
+likely the traceback will end up in one of the HTTP server’s log files, or be
+discarded altogether.</p>
+<p>Fortunately, once you have managed to get your script to execute <em>some</em> code,
+you can easily send tracebacks to the Web browser using the <a class="reference internal" href="cgitb.html#module-cgitb" title="cgitb: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code></a> module.
+If you haven’t done so already, just add the lines:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cgitb</span>
+<span class="n">cgitb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enable</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to the top of your script.  Then try running it again; when a problem occurs,
+you should see a detailed report that will likely make apparent the cause of the
+crash.</p>
+<p>If you suspect that there may be a problem in importing the <a class="reference internal" href="cgitb.html#module-cgitb" title="cgitb: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code></a> module,
+you can use an even more robust approach (which only uses built-in modules):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Content-Type: text/plain&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="o">...</span><span class="n">your</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="n">here</span><span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This relies on the Python interpreter to print the traceback.  The content type
+of the output is set to plain text, which disables all HTML processing.  If your
+script works, the raw HTML will be displayed by your client.  If it raises an
+exception, most likely after the first two lines have been printed, a traceback
+will be displayed. Because no HTML interpretation is going on, the traceback
+will be readable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="common-problems-and-solutions">
+<h2>Common problems and solutions<a class="headerlink" href="#common-problems-and-solutions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Most HTTP servers buffer the output from CGI scripts until the script is
+completed.  This means that it is not possible to display a progress report on
+the client’s display while the script is running.</p></li>
+<li><p>Check the installation instructions above.</p></li>
+<li><p>Check the HTTP server’s log files.  (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tail</span> <span class="pre">-f</span> <span class="pre">logfile</span></code> in a separate window
+may be useful!)</p></li>
+<li><p>Always check a script for syntax errors first, by doing something like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">script.py</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If your script does not have any syntax errors, try adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">cgitb;</span>
+<span class="pre">cgitb.enable()</span></code> to the top of the script.</p></li>
+<li><p>When invoking external programs, make sure they can be found. Usually, this
+means using absolute path names — <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> is usually not set to a very
+useful value in a CGI script.</p></li>
+<li><p>When reading or writing external files, make sure they can be read or written
+by the userid under which your CGI script will be running: this is typically the
+userid under which the web server is running, or some explicitly specified
+userid for a web server’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suexec</span></code> feature.</p></li>
+<li><p>Don’t try to give a CGI script a set-uid mode.  This doesn’t work on most
+systems, and is a security liability as well.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Note that some recent versions of the HTML specification do state what
+order the field values should be supplied in, but knowing whether a request
+was received from a conforming browser, or even from a browser at all, is
+tedious and error-prone.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code> — Common Gateway Interface support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-the-cgi-module">Using the cgi module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#higher-level-interface">Higher Level Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#caring-about-security">Caring about security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-your-cgi-script-on-a-unix-system">Installing your CGI script on a Unix system</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#testing-your-cgi-script">Testing your CGI script</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debugging-cgi-scripts">Debugging CGI scripts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-problems-and-solutions">Common problems and solutions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="webbrowser.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code> — Convenient Web-browser controller</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cgitb.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code> — Traceback manager for CGI scripts</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/cgi.rst"
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+        </a>
+      </li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/cgitb.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/cgitb.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d528dfe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/cgitb.html
@@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="internet.html" accesskey="U">Internet Protocols and Support</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-cgitb">
+<span id="cgitb-traceback-manager-for-cgi-scripts"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cgitb" title="cgitb: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code></a> — Traceback manager for CGI scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#module-cgitb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/cgitb.py">Lib/cgitb.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cgitb" title="cgitb: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code></a> module provides a special exception handler for Python scripts.
+(Its name is a bit misleading.  It was originally designed to display extensive
+traceback information in HTML for CGI scripts.  It was later generalized to also
+display this information in plain text.)  After this module is activated, if an
+uncaught exception occurs, a detailed, formatted report will be displayed.  The
+report includes a traceback showing excerpts of the source code for each level,
+as well as the values of the arguments and local variables to currently running
+functions, to help you debug the problem.  Optionally, you can save this
+information to a file instead of sending it to the browser.</p>
+<p>To enable this feature, simply add this to the top of your CGI script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cgitb</span>
+<span class="n">cgitb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enable</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The options to the <a class="reference internal" href="#cgitb.enable" title="cgitb.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable()</span></code></a> function control whether the report is
+displayed in the browser and whether the report is logged to a file for later
+analysis.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgitb.enable">
+<code class="descclassname">cgitb.</code><code class="descname">enable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>display=1</em>, <em>logdir=None</em>, <em>context=5</em>, <em>format=&quot;html&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgitb.enable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">This function causes the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cgitb" title="cgitb: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code></a> module to take over the interpreter’s
+default handling for exceptions by setting the value of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.excepthook" title="sys.excepthook"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.excepthook</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>display</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to
+suppress sending the traceback to the browser. If the argument <em>logdir</em> is
+present, the traceback reports are written to files.  The value of <em>logdir</em>
+should be a directory where these files will be placed. The optional argument
+<em>context</em> is the number of lines of context to display around the current line
+of source code in the traceback; this defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>. If the optional
+argument <em>format</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;html&quot;</span></code>, the output is formatted as HTML.  Any other
+value forces plain text output.  The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;html&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgitb.text">
+<code class="descclassname">cgitb.</code><code class="descname">text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>info</em>, <em>context=5</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgitb.text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function handles the exception described by <em>info</em> (a 3-tuple containing
+the result of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>), formatting its traceback as text and
+returning the result as a string. The optional argument <em>context</em> is the
+number of lines of context to display around the current line of source code
+in the traceback; this defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgitb.html">
+<code class="descclassname">cgitb.</code><code class="descname">html</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>info</em>, <em>context=5</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgitb.html" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function handles the exception described by <em>info</em> (a 3-tuple containing
+the result of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>), formatting its traceback as HTML and
+returning the result as a string. The optional argument <em>context</em> is the
+number of lines of context to display around the current line of source code
+in the traceback; this defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cgitb.handler">
+<code class="descclassname">cgitb.</code><code class="descname">handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>info=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cgitb.handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function handles an exception using the default settings (that is, show a
+report in the browser, but don’t log to a file). This can be used when you’ve
+caught an exception and want to report it using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cgitb" title="cgitb: Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code></a>.  The optional
+<em>info</em> argument should be a 3-tuple containing an exception type, exception
+value, and traceback object, exactly like the tuple returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.  If the <em>info</em> argument is not supplied, the current
+exception is obtained from <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cgi.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code> — Common Gateway Interface support</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="wsgiref.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code> — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/cgitb.rst"
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+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/chunk.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/chunk.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b92e3e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/chunk.html
@@ -0,0 +1,324 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>chunk — Read IFF chunked data &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="colorsys — Conversions between color systems" href="colorsys.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="wave — Read and write WAV files" href="wave.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/chunk.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="colorsys.html" title="colorsys — Conversions between color systems"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="wave.html" title="wave — Read and write WAV files"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="mm.html" accesskey="U">Multimedia Services</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-chunk">
+<span id="chunk-read-iff-chunked-data"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-chunk" title="chunk: Module to read IFF chunks."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chunk</span></code></a> — Read IFF chunked data<a class="headerlink" href="#module-chunk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/chunk.py">Lib/chunk.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides an interface for reading files that use EA IFF 85 chunks.
+<a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>  This format is used in at least the Audio Interchange File Format
+(AIFF/AIFF-C) and the Real Media File Format (RMFF).  The WAVE audio file format
+is closely related and can also be read using this module.</p>
+<p>A chunk has the following structure:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Offset</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Length</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Contents</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>Chunk ID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>Size of chunk in big-endian
+byte order, not including the
+header</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p><em>n</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Data bytes, where <em>n</em> is the
+size given in the preceding
+field</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>8 + <em>n</em></p></td>
+<td><p>0 or 1</p></td>
+<td><p>Pad byte needed if <em>n</em> is odd
+and chunk alignment is used</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The ID is a 4-byte string which identifies the type of chunk.</p>
+<p>The size field (a 32-bit value, encoded using big-endian byte order) gives the
+size of the chunk data, not including the 8-byte header.</p>
+<p>Usually an IFF-type file consists of one or more chunks.  The proposed usage of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#chunk.Chunk" title="chunk.Chunk"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Chunk</span></code></a> class defined here is to instantiate an instance at the start
+of each chunk and read from the instance until it reaches the end, after which a
+new instance can be instantiated. At the end of the file, creating a new
+instance will fail with an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">chunk.</code><code class="descname">Chunk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>align=True</em>, <em>bigendian=True</em>, <em>inclheader=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class which represents a chunk.  The <em>file</em> argument is expected to be a
+file-like object.  An instance of this class is specifically allowed.  The
+only method that is needed is <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>.  If the methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.seek" title="io.IOBase.seek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.tell" title="io.IOBase.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code></a> are present and don’t
+raise an exception, they are also used.
+If these methods are present and raise an exception, they are expected to not
+have altered the object.  If the optional argument <em>align</em> is true, chunks
+are assumed to be aligned on 2-byte boundaries.  If <em>align</em> is false, no
+alignment is assumed.  The default value is true.  If the optional argument
+<em>bigendian</em> is false, the chunk size is assumed to be in little-endian order.
+This is needed for WAVE audio files. The default value is true.  If the
+optional argument <em>inclheader</em> is true, the size given in the chunk header
+includes the size of the header.  The default value is false.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#chunk.Chunk" title="chunk.Chunk"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Chunk</span></code></a> object supports the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.getname">
+<code class="descname">getname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.getname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the name (ID) of the chunk.  This is the first 4 bytes of the
+chunk.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.getsize">
+<code class="descname">getsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.getsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the size of the chunk.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close and skip to the end of the chunk.  This does not close the
+underlying file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The remaining methods will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if called after the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#chunk.Chunk.close" title="chunk.Chunk.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method has been called.  Before Python 3.3, they used to
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>, now an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.isatty">
+<code class="descname">isatty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.isatty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.seek">
+<code class="descname">seek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em>, <em>whence=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.seek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the chunk’s current position.  The <em>whence</em> argument is optional and
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (absolute file positioning); other values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>
+(seek relative to the current position) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> (seek relative to the
+file’s end).  There is no return value. If the underlying file does not
+allow seek, only forward seeks are allowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.tell">
+<code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current position into the chunk.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read at most <em>size</em> bytes from the chunk (less if the read hits the end of
+the chunk before obtaining <em>size</em> bytes).  If the <em>size</em> argument is
+negative or omitted, read all data until the end of the chunk.  An empty
+bytes object is returned when the end of the chunk is encountered
+immediately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="chunk.Chunk.skip">
+<code class="descname">skip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chunk.Chunk.skip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Skip to the end of the chunk.  All further calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#chunk.Chunk.read" title="chunk.Chunk.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> for the
+chunk will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code>.  If you are not interested in the contents of
+the chunk, this method should be called so that the file points to the
+start of the next chunk.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>“EA IFF 85” Standard for Interchange Format Files, Jerry Morrison, Electronic
+Arts, January 1985.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-cmath">
+<span id="cmath-mathematical-functions-for-complex-numbers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> — Mathematical functions for complex numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-cmath" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to mathematical functions for complex numbers.  The
+functions in this module accept integers, floating-point numbers or complex
+numbers as arguments. They will also accept any Python object that has either a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__complex__" title="object.__complex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__()</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__float__" title="object.__float__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__float__()</span></code></a> method: these methods are used to
+convert the object to a complex or floating-point number, respectively, and
+the function is then applied to the result of the conversion.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On platforms with hardware and system-level support for signed
+zeros, functions involving branch cuts are continuous on <em>both</em>
+sides of the branch cut: the sign of the zero distinguishes one
+side of the branch cut from the other.  On platforms that do not
+support signed zeros the continuity is as specified below.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conversions-to-and-from-polar-coordinates">
+<h2>Conversions to and from polar coordinates<a class="headerlink" href="#conversions-to-and-from-polar-coordinates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A Python complex number <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> is stored internally using <em>rectangular</em>
+or <em>Cartesian</em> coordinates.  It is completely determined by its <em>real
+part</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z.real</span></code> and its <em>imaginary part</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z.imag</span></code>.  In other
+words:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">real</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imag</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="n">j</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>Polar coordinates</em> give an alternative way to represent a complex
+number.  In polar coordinates, a complex number <em>z</em> is defined by the
+modulus <em>r</em> and the phase angle <em>phi</em>. The modulus <em>r</em> is the distance
+from <em>z</em> to the origin, while the phase <em>phi</em> is the counterclockwise
+angle, measured in radians, from the positive x-axis to the line
+segment that joins the origin to <em>z</em>.</p>
+<p>The following functions can be used to convert from the native
+rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates and back.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.phase">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">phase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.phase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the phase of <em>x</em> (also known as the <em>argument</em> of <em>x</em>), as a
+float.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">phase(x)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.atan2(x.imag,</span>
+<span class="pre">x.real)</span></code>.  The result lies in the range [-<em>π</em>, <em>π</em>], and the branch
+cut for this operation lies along the negative real axis,
+continuous from above.  On systems with support for signed zeros
+(which includes most systems in current use), this means that the
+sign of the result is the same as the sign of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.imag</span></code>, even when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.imag</span></code> is zero:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">phase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">3.141592653589793</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">phase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">0.0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">-3.141592653589793</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number <em>x</em> can be
+computed using the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a> function.  There is no
+separate <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> module function for this operation.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.polar">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">polar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.polar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the representation of <em>x</em> in polar coordinates.  Returns a
+pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(r,</span> <span class="pre">phi)</span></code> where <em>r</em> is the modulus of <em>x</em> and phi is the
+phase of <em>x</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">polar(x)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(abs(x),</span>
+<span class="pre">phase(x))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.rect">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">rect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>r</em>, <em>phi</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.rect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the complex number <em>x</em> with polar coordinates <em>r</em> and <em>phi</em>.
+Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">(math.cos(phi)</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">math.sin(phi)*1j)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="power-and-logarithmic-functions">
+<h2>Power and logarithmic functions<a class="headerlink" href="#power-and-logarithmic-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.exp">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">exp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.exp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>e</em> raised to the power <em>x</em>, where <em>e</em> is the base of natural
+logarithms.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.log">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">log</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>base</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.log" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the logarithm of <em>x</em> to the given <em>base</em>. If the <em>base</em> is not
+specified, returns the natural logarithm of <em>x</em>. There is one branch cut, from 0
+along the negative real axis to -∞, continuous from above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.log10">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">log10</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.log10" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the base-10 logarithm of <em>x</em>. This has the same branch cut as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmath.log" title="cmath.log"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.sqrt">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">sqrt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.sqrt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the square root of <em>x</em>. This has the same branch cut as <a class="reference internal" href="#cmath.log" title="cmath.log"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="trigonometric-functions">
+<h2>Trigonometric functions<a class="headerlink" href="#trigonometric-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.acos">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">acos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.acos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the arc cosine of <em>x</em>. There are two branch cuts: One extends right from
+1 along the real axis to ∞, continuous from below. The other extends left from
+-1 along the real axis to -∞, continuous from above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.asin">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">asin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.asin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the arc sine of <em>x</em>. This has the same branch cuts as <a class="reference internal" href="#cmath.acos" title="cmath.acos"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acos()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.atan">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">atan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.atan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the arc tangent of <em>x</em>. There are two branch cuts: One extends from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1j</span></code> along the imaginary axis to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">∞j</span></code>, continuous from the right. The
+other extends from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1j</span></code> along the imaginary axis to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-∞j</span></code>, continuous
+from the left.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.cos">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">cos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.cos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the cosine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.sin">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">sin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.sin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.tan">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">tan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.tan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the tangent of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hyperbolic-functions">
+<h2>Hyperbolic functions<a class="headerlink" href="#hyperbolic-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.acosh">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">acosh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.acosh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of <em>x</em>. There is one branch cut,
+extending left from 1 along the real axis to -∞, continuous from above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.asinh">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">asinh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.asinh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of <em>x</em>. There are two branch cuts:
+One extends from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1j</span></code> along the imaginary axis to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">∞j</span></code>,
+continuous from the right.  The other extends from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1j</span></code> along
+the imaginary axis to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-∞j</span></code>, continuous from the left.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.atanh">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">atanh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.atanh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of <em>x</em>. There are two branch cuts: One
+extends from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> along the real axis to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">∞</span></code>, continuous from below. The
+other extends from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> along the real axis to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-∞</span></code>, continuous from
+above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.cosh">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">cosh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.cosh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hyperbolic cosine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.sinh">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">sinh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.sinh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hyperbolic sine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.tanh">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">tanh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.tanh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hyperbolic tangent of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="classification-functions">
+<h2>Classification functions<a class="headerlink" href="#classification-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.isfinite">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">isfinite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.isfinite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if both the real and imaginary parts of <em>x</em> are finite, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.isinf">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">isinf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.isinf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if either the real or the imaginary part of <em>x</em> is an
+infinity, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.isnan">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">isnan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.isnan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if either the real or the imaginary part of <em>x</em> is a NaN,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="cmath.isclose">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">isclose</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>rel_tol=1e-09</em>, <em>abs_tol=0.0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.isclose" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the values <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> are close to each other and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to
+given absolute and relative tolerances.</p>
+<p><em>rel_tol</em> is the relative tolerance – it is the maximum allowed difference
+between <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, relative to the larger absolute value of <em>a</em> or <em>b</em>.
+For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rel_tol=0.05</span></code>.  The default
+tolerance is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1e-09</span></code>, which assures that the two values are the same
+within about 9 decimal digits.  <em>rel_tol</em> must be greater than zero.</p>
+<p><em>abs_tol</em> is the minimum absolute tolerance – useful for comparisons near
+zero. <em>abs_tol</em> must be at least zero.</p>
+<p>If no errors occur, the result will be:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(a-b)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">max(rel_tol</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">max(abs(a),</span> <span class="pre">abs(b)),</span> <span class="pre">abs_tol)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The IEEE 754 special values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-inf</span></code> will be
+handled according to IEEE rules.  Specifically, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> is not considered
+close to any other value, including <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-inf</span></code> are only
+considered close to themselves.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0485"><strong>PEP 485</strong></a> – A function for testing approximate equality</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<h2>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="cmath.pi">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">pi</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.pi" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The mathematical constant <em>π</em>, as a float.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="cmath.e">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">e</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.e" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The mathematical constant <em>e</em>, as a float.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="cmath.tau">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">tau</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.tau" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The mathematical constant <em>τ</em>, as a float.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="cmath.inf">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">inf</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.inf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Floating-point positive infinity. Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float('inf')</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="cmath.infj">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">infj</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.infj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Complex number with zero real part and positive infinity imaginary
+part. Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex(0.0,</span> <span class="pre">float('inf'))</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="cmath.nan">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">nan</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.nan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A floating-point “not a number” (NaN) value.  Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float('nan')</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="cmath.nanj">
+<code class="descclassname">cmath.</code><code class="descname">nanj</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmath.nanj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Complex number with zero real part and NaN imaginary part. Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex(0.0,</span> <span class="pre">float('nan'))</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p id="index-1">Note that the selection of functions is similar, but not identical, to that in
+module <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a>.  The reason for having two modules is that some users aren’t
+interested in complex numbers, and perhaps don’t even know what they are.  They
+would rather have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.sqrt(-1)</span></code> raise an exception than return a complex
+number. Also note that the functions defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> always return a
+complex number, even if the answer can be expressed as a real number (in which
+case the complex number has an imaginary part of zero).</p>
+<p>A note on branch cuts: They are curves along which the given function fails to
+be continuous.  They are a necessary feature of many complex functions.  It is
+assumed that if you need to compute with complex functions, you will understand
+about branch cuts.  Consult almost any (not too elementary) book on complex
+variables for enlightenment.  For information of the proper choice of branch
+cuts for numerical purposes, a good reference should be the following:</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>Kahan, W:  Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado about
+nothing’s sign bit.  In Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The state of the art
+in numerical analysis. Clarendon Press (1987) pp165–211.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code> — Mathematical functions for complex numbers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conversions-to-and-from-polar-coordinates">Conversions to and from polar coordinates</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#power-and-logarithmic-functions">Power and logarithmic functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#trigonometric-functions">Trigonometric functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hyperbolic-functions">Hyperbolic functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classification-functions">Classification functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="math.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code> — Mathematical functions</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code> — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-cmd">
+<span id="cmd-support-for-line-oriented-command-interpreters"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cmd" title="cmd: Build line-oriented command interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code></a> — Support for line-oriented command interpreters<a class="headerlink" href="#module-cmd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/cmd.py">Lib/cmd.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a> class provides a simple framework for writing line-oriented
+command interpreters.  These are often useful for test harnesses, administrative
+tools, and prototypes that will later be wrapped in a more sophisticated
+interface.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">cmd.</code><code class="descname">Cmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>completekey='tab'</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a> instance or subclass instance is a line-oriented interpreter
+framework.  There is no good reason to instantiate <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a> itself; rather,
+it’s useful as a superclass of an interpreter class you define yourself in order
+to inherit <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a>’s methods and encapsulate action methods.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>completekey</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> name of a completion
+key; it defaults to <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Tab</kbd>. If <em>completekey</em> is not <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> is available, command completion is done automatically.</p>
+<p>The optional arguments <em>stdin</em> and <em>stdout</em> specify the  input and output file
+objects that the Cmd instance or subclass  instance will use for input and
+output. If not specified, they will default to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If you want a given <em>stdin</em> to be used, make sure to set the instance’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.use_rawinput" title="cmd.Cmd.use_rawinput"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">use_rawinput</span></code></a> attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, otherwise <em>stdin</em> will be
+ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="cmd-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Cmd Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cmd-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a> instance has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.cmdloop">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">cmdloop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>intro=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Repeatedly issue a prompt, accept input, parse an initial prefix off the
+received input, and dispatch to action methods, passing them the remainder of
+the line as argument.</p>
+<p>The optional argument is a banner or intro string to be issued before the first
+prompt (this overrides the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.intro" title="cmd.Cmd.intro"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intro</span></code></a> class attribute).</p>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module is loaded, input will automatically inherit
+<strong class="program">bash</strong>-like history-list editing (e.g. <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-P</kbd> scrolls back
+to the last command, <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-N</kbd> forward to the next one, <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-F</kbd>
+moves the cursor to the right non-destructively, <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-B</kbd> moves the
+cursor to the left non-destructively, etc.).</p>
+<p>An end-of-file on input is passed back as the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'EOF'</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-0">An interpreter instance will recognize a command name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> if and only if it
+has a method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_foo()</span></code>.  As a special case, a line beginning with the
+character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> is dispatched to the method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_help()</span></code>.  As another
+special case, a line beginning with the character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code> is dispatched to the
+method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_shell()</span></code> (if such a method is defined).</p>
+<p>This method will return when the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.postcmd" title="cmd.Cmd.postcmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">postcmd()</span></code></a> method returns a true value.
+The <em>stop</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.postcmd" title="cmd.Cmd.postcmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">postcmd()</span></code></a> is the return value from the command’s
+corresponding <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_*()</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done automatically, and
+completing of commands args is done by calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complete_foo()</span></code> with
+arguments <em>text</em>, <em>line</em>, <em>begidx</em>, and <em>endidx</em>.  <em>text</em> is the string prefix
+we are attempting to match: all returned matches must begin with it. <em>line</em> is
+the current input line with leading whitespace removed, <em>begidx</em> and <em>endidx</em>
+are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which could be used to
+provide different completion depending upon which position the argument is in.</p>
+<p>All subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a> inherit a predefined <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_help()</span></code>.  This
+method, called with an argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'bar'</span></code>, invokes the corresponding method
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help_bar()</span></code>, and if that is not present, prints the docstring of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_bar()</span></code>, if available.  With no argument, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_help()</span></code> lists all
+available help topics (that is, all commands with corresponding
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help_*()</span></code> methods or commands that have docstrings), and also lists any
+undocumented commands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.onecmd">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">onecmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.onecmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to the prompt.
+This may be overridden, but should not normally need to be; see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.precmd" title="cmd.Cmd.precmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">precmd()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.postcmd" title="cmd.Cmd.postcmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">postcmd()</span></code></a> methods for useful execution hooks.  The
+return value is a flag indicating whether interpretation of commands by the
+interpreter should stop.  If there is a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_*()</span></code> method for the command
+<em>str</em>, the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return value
+from the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.default" title="cmd.Cmd.default"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default()</span></code></a> method is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.emptyline">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">emptyline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.emptyline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method called when an empty line is entered in response to the prompt. If this
+method is not overridden, it repeats the last nonempty command entered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.default">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">default</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method called on an input line when the command prefix is not recognized. If
+this method is not overridden, it prints an error message and returns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.completedefault">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">completedefault</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>line</em>, <em>begidx</em>, <em>endidx</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.completedefault" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complete_*()</span></code> method is available.  By default, it returns an empty list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.precmd">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">precmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.precmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hook method executed just before the command line <em>line</em> is interpreted, but
+after the input prompt is generated and issued.  This method is a stub in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a>; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.  The return value is
+used as the command which will be executed by the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.onecmd" title="cmd.Cmd.onecmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onecmd()</span></code></a> method; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.precmd" title="cmd.Cmd.precmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">precmd()</span></code></a> implementation may re-write the command or simply return <em>line</em>
+unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.postcmd">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">postcmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stop</em>, <em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.postcmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hook method executed just after a command dispatch is finished.  This method is
+a stub in <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a>; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.  <em>line</em> is the
+command line which was executed, and <em>stop</em> is a flag which indicates whether
+execution will be terminated after the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.postcmd" title="cmd.Cmd.postcmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">postcmd()</span></code></a>; this will be the
+return value of the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.onecmd" title="cmd.Cmd.onecmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onecmd()</span></code></a> method.  The return value of this method will
+be used as the new value for the internal flag which corresponds to <em>stop</em>;
+returning false will cause interpretation to continue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.preloop">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">preloop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.preloop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hook method executed once when <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop" title="cmd.Cmd.cmdloop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmdloop()</span></code></a> is called.  This method is a stub
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a>; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.postloop">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">postloop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.postloop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hook method executed once when <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop" title="cmd.Cmd.cmdloop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmdloop()</span></code></a> is about to return. This method
+is a stub in <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a>; it exists to be overridden by subclasses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a> subclasses have some public instance variables:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.prompt">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">prompt</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.prompt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The prompt issued to solicit input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.identchars">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">identchars</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.identchars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string of characters accepted for the command prefix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.lastcmd">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">lastcmd</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.lastcmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The last nonempty command prefix seen.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.cmdqueue">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">cmdqueue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.cmdqueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of queued input lines.  The cmdqueue list is checked in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop" title="cmd.Cmd.cmdloop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmdloop()</span></code></a> when new input is needed; if it is nonempty, its elements
+will be processed in order, as if entered at the prompt.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.intro">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">intro</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.intro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string to issue as an intro or banner.  May be overridden by giving the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop" title="cmd.Cmd.cmdloop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmdloop()</span></code></a> method an argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.doc_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">doc_header</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.doc_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The header to issue if the help output has a section for documented commands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.misc_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">misc_header</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.misc_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The header to issue if the help output has a section for miscellaneous  help
+topics (that is, there are <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help_*()</span></code> methods without corresponding
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_*()</span></code> methods).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.undoc_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">undoc_header</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.undoc_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The header to issue if the help output has a section for undocumented  commands
+(that is, there are <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_*()</span></code> methods without corresponding <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help_*()</span></code>
+methods).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.ruler">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">ruler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.ruler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The character used to draw separator lines under the help-message headers.  If
+empty, no ruler line is drawn.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="cmd.Cmd.use_rawinput">
+<code class="descclassname">Cmd.</code><code class="descname">use_rawinput</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmd.Cmd.use_rawinput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A flag, defaulting to true.  If true, <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.cmdloop" title="cmd.Cmd.cmdloop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmdloop()</span></code></a> uses <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a> to
+display a prompt and read the next command; if false, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.write()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin.readline()</span></code> are used. (This means that by importing
+<a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>, on systems that support it, the interpreter will automatically
+support <strong class="program">Emacs</strong>-like line editing  and command-history keystrokes.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cmd-example">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Cmd Example<a class="headerlink" href="#cmd-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cmd" title="cmd: Build line-oriented command interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code></a> module is mainly useful for building custom shells that let a
+user work with a program interactively.</p>
+<p>This section presents a simple example of how to build a shell around a few of
+the commands in the <a class="reference internal" href="turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Basic turtle commands such as <a class="reference internal" href="turtle.html#turtle.forward" title="turtle.forward"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">forward()</span></code></a> are added to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cmd</span></code></a> subclass with method named <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_forward()</span></code>.  The argument is
+converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module.  The docstring is
+used in the help utility provided by the shell.</p>
+<p>The example also includes a basic record and playback facility implemented with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmd.Cmd.precmd" title="cmd.Cmd.precmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">precmd()</span></code></a> method which is responsible for converting the input to
+lowercase and writing the commands to a file.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_playback()</span></code> method
+reads the file and adds the recorded commands to the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmdqueue</span></code> for
+immediate playback:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cmd</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">turtle</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TurtleShell</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Cmd</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">intro</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">prompt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(turtle) &#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># ----- basic turtle commands -----</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_right</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">right</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_goto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">goto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_home</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Return turtle to the home position:  HOME&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_circle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">circle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_position</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Print the current turtle position:  POSITION&#39;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Current position is </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">position</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_heading</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING&#39;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Current heading is </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">(),))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Set the color:  COLOR BLUE&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_undo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_reset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_bye</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE&#39;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Thank you for using Turtle&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">bye</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># ----- record and playback -----</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_record</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd&#39;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_playback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd&#39;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cmdqueue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">precmd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="s1">&#39;playback&#39;</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">TurtleShell</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cmdloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is a sample session with the turtle shell showing the help functions, using
+blank lines to repeat commands, and the simple record and playback facility:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.
+
+(turtle) ?
+
+Documented commands (type help &lt;topic&gt;):
+========================================
+bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
+circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo
+
+(turtle) help forward
+Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
+(turtle) record spiral.cmd
+(turtle) position
+Current position is 0 0
+
+(turtle) heading
+Current heading is 0
+
+(turtle) reset
+(turtle) circle 20
+(turtle) right 30
+(turtle) circle 40
+(turtle) right 30
+(turtle) circle 60
+(turtle) right 30
+(turtle) circle 80
+(turtle) right 30
+(turtle) circle 100
+(turtle) right 30
+(turtle) circle 120
+(turtle) right 30
+(turtle) circle 120
+(turtle) heading
+Current heading is 180
+
+(turtle) forward 100
+(turtle)
+(turtle) right 90
+(turtle) forward 100
+(turtle)
+(turtle) right 90
+(turtle) forward 400
+(turtle) right 90
+(turtle) forward 500
+(turtle) right 90
+(turtle) forward 400
+(turtle) right 90
+(turtle) forward 300
+(turtle) playback spiral.cmd
+Current position is 0 0
+
+Current heading is 0
+
+Current heading is 180
+
+(turtle) bye
+Thank you for using Turtle
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code> — Support for line-oriented command interpreters</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cmd-objects">Cmd Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cmd-example">Cmd Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="turtle.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code> — Turtle graphics</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="shlex.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code> — Simple lexical analysis</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/code.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/code.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a20e0f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/code.html
@@ -0,0 +1,369 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>code — Interpreter base classes &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-code">
+<span id="code-interpreter-base-classes"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> — Interpreter base classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/code.py">Lib/code.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code> module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops in
+Python.  Two classes and convenience functions are included which can be used to
+build applications which provide an interactive interpreter prompt.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveInterpreter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">code.</code><code class="descname">InteractiveInterpreter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user’s namespace); it
+does not deal with input buffering or prompting or input file naming (the
+filename is always passed in explicitly). The optional <em>locals</em> argument
+specifies the dictionary in which code will be executed; it defaults to a newly
+created dictionary with key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__name__'</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__console__'</span></code> and key
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__doc__'</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveConsole">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">code.</code><code class="descname">InteractiveConsole</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>locals=None</em>, <em>filename=&quot;&lt;console&gt;&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveConsole" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter. This class
+builds on <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InteractiveInterpreter</span></code></a> and adds prompting using the familiar
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code>, and input buffering.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="code.interact">
+<code class="descclassname">code.</code><code class="descname">interact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>banner=None</em>, <em>readfunc=None</em>, <em>local=None</em>, <em>exitmsg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.interact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop.  This creates a new
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveConsole" title="code.InteractiveConsole"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InteractiveConsole</span></code></a> and sets <em>readfunc</em> to be used as
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveConsole.raw_input" title="code.InteractiveConsole.raw_input"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InteractiveConsole.raw_input()</span></code></a> method, if provided.  If <em>local</em> is
+provided, it is passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveConsole" title="code.InteractiveConsole"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InteractiveConsole</span></code></a> constructor for
+use as the default namespace for the interpreter loop.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#code.interact" title="code.interact"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interact()</span></code></a>
+method of the instance is then run with <em>banner</em> and <em>exitmsg</em> passed as the
+banner and exit message to use, if provided.  The console object is discarded
+after use.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>exitmsg</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="code.compile_command">
+<code class="descclassname">code.</code><code class="descname">compile_command</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>filename=&quot;&lt;input&gt;&quot;</em>, <em>symbol=&quot;single&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.compile_command" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python’s interpreter
+main loop (a.k.a. the read-eval-print loop).  The tricky part is to determine
+when the user has entered an incomplete command that can be completed by
+entering more text (as opposed to a complete command or a syntax error).  This
+function <em>almost</em> always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main
+loop.</p>
+<p><em>source</em> is the source string; <em>filename</em> is the optional filename from which
+source was read, defaulting to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;input&gt;'</span></code>; and <em>symbol</em> is the optional
+grammar start symbol, which should be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'single'</span></code> (the default) or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'eval'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns a code object (the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile(source,</span> <span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">symbol)</span></code>) if the
+command is complete and valid; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the command is incomplete; raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> if the command is complete and contains a syntax error, or
+raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the command contains an
+invalid literal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="interactive-interpreter-objects">
+<span id="interpreter-objects"></span><h2>Interactive Interpreter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-interpreter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveInterpreter.</code><code class="descname">runsource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>filename=&quot;&lt;input&gt;&quot;</em>, <em>symbol=&quot;single&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compile and run some source in the interpreter. Arguments are the same as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#code.compile_command" title="code.compile_command"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_command()</span></code></a>; the default for <em>filename</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;input&gt;'</span></code>, and for
+<em>symbol</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'single'</span></code>.  One several things can happen:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The input is incorrect; <a class="reference internal" href="#code.compile_command" title="code.compile_command"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_command()</span></code></a> raised an exception
+(<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>).  A syntax traceback will be
+printed by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showsyntaxerror()</span></code></a> method.  <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runsource()</span></code></a>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The input is incomplete, and more input is required; <a class="reference internal" href="#code.compile_command" title="code.compile_command"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_command()</span></code></a>
+returned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runsource()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The input is complete; <a class="reference internal" href="#code.compile_command" title="code.compile_command"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_command()</span></code></a> returned a code object.  The
+code is executed by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runcode" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.runcode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runcode()</span></code></a> (which also handles run-time
+exceptions, except for <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a>). <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.runsource"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runsource()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The return value can be used to decide whether to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code>
+to prompt the next line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveInterpreter.runcode">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveInterpreter.</code><code class="descname">runcode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.runcode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute a code object. When an exception occurs, <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showtraceback()</span></code></a> is called
+to display a traceback.  All exceptions are caught except <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a>,
+which is allowed to propagate.</p>
+<p>A note about <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a>: this exception may occur elsewhere in
+this code, and may not always be caught.  The caller should be prepared to deal
+with it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveInterpreter.</code><code class="descname">showsyntaxerror</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the syntax error that just occurred.  This does not display a stack
+trace because there isn’t one for syntax errors. If <em>filename</em> is given, it is
+stuffed into the exception instead of the default filename provided by Python’s
+parser, because it always uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;string&gt;'</span></code> when reading from a string. The
+output is written by the <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.write" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveInterpreter.</code><code class="descname">showtraceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the exception that just occurred.  We remove the first stack item
+because it is within the interpreter object implementation. The output is
+written by the <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.write" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The full chained traceback is displayed instead
+of just the primary traceback.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveInterpreter.write">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveInterpreter.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a string to the standard error stream (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>). Derived classes
+should override this to provide the appropriate output handling as needed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interactive-console-objects">
+<span id="console-objects"></span><h2>Interactive Console Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-console-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveConsole" title="code.InteractiveConsole"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InteractiveConsole</span></code></a> class is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#code.InteractiveInterpreter" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InteractiveInterpreter</span></code></a>, and so offers all the methods of the
+interpreter objects as well as the following additions.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveConsole.interact">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveConsole.</code><code class="descname">interact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>banner=None</em>, <em>exitmsg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveConsole.interact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closely emulate the interactive Python console. The optional <em>banner</em> argument
+specify the banner to print before the first interaction; by default it prints a
+banner similar to the one printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed
+by the class name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse
+this with the real interpreter – since it’s so close!).</p>
+<p>The optional <em>exitmsg</em> argument specifies an exit message printed when exiting.
+Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message. If <em>exitmsg</em> is not given or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a default message is printed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>To suppress printing any banner, pass an empty string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Print an exit message when exiting.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveConsole.push">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveConsole.</code><code class="descname">push</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveConsole.push" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push a line of source text to the interpreter. The line should not have a
+trailing newline; it may have internal newlines.  The line is appended to a
+buffer and the interpreter’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runsource()</span></code> method is called with the
+concatenated contents of the buffer as source.  If this indicates that the
+command was executed or invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is
+incomplete, and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended.  The
+return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if more input is required, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the line was
+dealt with in some way (this is the same as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runsource()</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveConsole.</code><code class="descname">resetbuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="code.InteractiveConsole.raw_input">
+<code class="descclassname">InteractiveConsole.</code><code class="descname">raw_input</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prompt=&quot;&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#code.InteractiveConsole.raw_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a prompt and read a line.  The returned line does not include the trailing
+newline.  When the user enters the EOF key sequence, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> is raised.
+The base implementation reads from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>; a subclass may replace this
+with a different implementation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code> — Interpreter base classes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interactive-interpreter-objects">Interactive Interpreter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interactive-console-objects">Interactive Console Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="custominterp.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Custom Python Interpreters</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/codecs.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/codecs.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d221c22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/codecs.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1948 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>codecs — Codec registry and base classes &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-codecs">
+<span id="codecs-codec-registry-and-base-classes"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> — Codec registry and base classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/codecs.py">Lib/codecs.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders and
+decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec registry, which
+manages the codec and error handling lookup process. Most standard codecs
+are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a>, which encode text to bytes,
+but there are also codecs provided that encode text to text, and bytes to
+bytes. Custom codecs may encode and decode between arbitrary types, but some
+module features are restricted to use specifically with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a>, or with codecs that encode to
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following functions for encoding and decoding with
+any codec:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.encode">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encodes <em>obj</em> using the codec registered for <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+<p><em>Errors</em> may be given to set the desired error handling scheme. The
+default error handler is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> meaning that encoding errors raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> (or a more codec specific subclass, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a>). Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="#codec-base-classes"><span class="std std-ref">Codec Base Classes</span></a> for more
+information on codec error handling.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.decode">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decodes <em>obj</em> using the codec registered for <em>encoding</em>.</p>
+<p><em>Errors</em> may be given to set the desired error handling scheme. The
+default error handler is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> meaning that decoding errors raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> (or a more codec specific subclass, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a>). Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="#codec-base-classes"><span class="std std-ref">Codec Base Classes</span></a> for more
+information on codec error handling.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The full details for each codec can also be looked up directly:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.lookup">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">lookup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.lookup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Looks up the codec info in the Python codec registry and returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.CodecInfo" title="codecs.CodecInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CodecInfo</span></code></a> object as defined below.</p>
+<p>Encodings are first looked up in the registry’s cache. If not found, the list of
+registered search functions is scanned. If no <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.CodecInfo" title="codecs.CodecInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CodecInfo</span></code></a> object is
+found, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> is raised. Otherwise, the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.CodecInfo" title="codecs.CodecInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CodecInfo</span></code></a> object
+is stored in the cache and returned to the caller.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">CodecInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encode</em>, <em>decode</em>, <em>streamreader=None</em>, <em>streamwriter=None</em>, <em>incrementalencoder=None</em>, <em>incrementaldecoder=None</em>, <em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Codec details when looking up the codec registry. The constructor
+arguments are stored in attributes of the same name:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the encoding.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo.encode">
+<code class="descname">encode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo.decode">
+<code class="descname">decode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The stateless encoding and decoding functions. These must be
+functions or methods which have the same interface as
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.Codec.encode" title="codecs.Codec.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.Codec.decode" title="codecs.Codec.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> methods of Codec
+instances (see <a class="reference internal" href="#codec-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Codec Interface</span></a>).
+The functions or methods are expected to work in a stateless mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo.incrementalencoder">
+<code class="descname">incrementalencoder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo.incrementalencoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo.incrementaldecoder">
+<code class="descname">incrementaldecoder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo.incrementaldecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Incremental encoder and decoder classes or factory functions.
+These have to provide the interface defined by the base classes
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalEncoder</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a>,
+respectively. Incremental codecs can maintain state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo.streamwriter">
+<code class="descname">streamwriter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo.streamwriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.CodecInfo.streamreader">
+<code class="descname">streamreader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.CodecInfo.streamreader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stream writer and reader classes or factory functions. These have to
+provide the interface defined by the base classes
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a>, respectively.
+Stream codecs can maintain state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To simplify access to the various codec components, the module provides
+these additional functions which use <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.lookup" title="codecs.lookup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lookup()</span></code></a> for the codec lookup:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.getencoder">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">getencoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.getencoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its encoder function.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> in case the encoding cannot be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.getdecoder">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">getdecoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.getdecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its decoder function.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> in case the encoding cannot be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.getincrementalencoder">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">getincrementalencoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.getincrementalencoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental encoder
+class or factory function.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> in case the encoding cannot be found or the codec
+doesn’t support an incremental encoder.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.getincrementaldecoder">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">getincrementaldecoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.getincrementaldecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental decoder
+class or factory function.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> in case the encoding cannot be found or the codec
+doesn’t support an incremental decoder.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.getreader">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">getreader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.getreader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a>
+class or factory function.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> in case the encoding cannot be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.getwriter">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">getwriter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.getwriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a>
+class or factory function.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> in case the encoding cannot be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Custom codecs are made available by registering a suitable codec search
+function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.register">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>search_function</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a codec search function. Search functions are expected to take one
+argument, being the encoding name in all lower case letters, and return a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.CodecInfo" title="codecs.CodecInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CodecInfo</span></code></a> object. In case a search function cannot find
+a given encoding, it should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Search function registration is not currently reversible,
+which may cause problems in some cases, such as unit testing or
+module reloading.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>While the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> and the associated <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module are the
+recommended approach for working with encoded text files, this module
+provides additional utility functions and classes that allow the use of a
+wider range of codecs when working with binary files:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.open">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em>, <em>buffering=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open an encoded file using the given <em>mode</em> and return an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReaderWriter" title="codecs.StreamReaderWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReaderWriter</span></code></a>, providing transparent encoding/decoding.
+The default file mode is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, meaning to open the file in read mode.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Underlying encoded files are always opened in binary mode.
+No automatic conversion of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> is done on reading and writing.
+The <em>mode</em> argument may be any binary mode acceptable to the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function; the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> is automatically added.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>encoding</em> specifies the encoding which is to be used for the file.
+Any encoding that encodes to and decodes from bytes is allowed, and
+the data types supported by the file methods depend on the codec used.</p>
+<p><em>errors</em> may be given to define the error handling. It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>
+which causes a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> to be raised in case an encoding error occurs.</p>
+<p><em>buffering</em> has the same meaning as for the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function.  It
+defaults to line buffered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.EncodedFile">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">EncodedFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>data_encoding</em>, <em>file_encoding=None</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.EncodedFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="codecs.StreamRecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRecoder</span></code></a> instance, a wrapped version of <em>file</em>
+which provides transparent transcoding. The original file is closed
+when the wrapped version is closed.</p>
+<p>Data written to the wrapped file is decoded according to the given
+<em>data_encoding</em> and then written to the original file as bytes using
+<em>file_encoding</em>. Bytes read from the original file are decoded
+according to <em>file_encoding</em>, and the result is encoded
+using <em>data_encoding</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>file_encoding</em> is not given, it defaults to <em>data_encoding</em>.</p>
+<p><em>errors</em> may be given to define the error handling. It defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>, which causes <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> to be raised in case an encoding
+error occurs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.iterencode">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">iterencode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterator</em>, <em>encoding</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.iterencode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input provided by
+<em>iterator</em>. This function is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>.
+The <em>errors</em> argument (as well as any
+other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental encoder.</p>
+<p>This function requires that the codec accept text <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects
+to encode. Therefore it does not support bytes-to-bytes encoders such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64_codec</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.iterdecode">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">iterdecode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterator</em>, <em>encoding</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.iterdecode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input provided by
+<em>iterator</em>. This function is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>.
+The <em>errors</em> argument (as well as any
+other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental decoder.</p>
+<p>This function requires that the codec accept <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects
+to decode. Therefore it does not support text-to-text encoders such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rot_13</span></code>, although <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rot_13</span></code> may be used equivalently with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.iterencode" title="codecs.iterencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterencode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The module also provides the following constants which are useful for reading
+and writing to platform dependent files:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="codecs.BOM">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_BE">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_BE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_BE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_LE">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_LE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_LE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_UTF8">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_UTF8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_UTF16">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_UTF16</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_UTF16_BE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_UTF16_LE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_UTF32">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_UTF32</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_UTF32_BE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">BOM_UTF32_LE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These constants define various byte sequences,
+being Unicode byte order marks (BOMs) for several encodings. They are
+used in UTF-16 and UTF-32 data streams to indicate the byte order used,
+and in UTF-8 as a Unicode signature. <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16" title="codecs.BOM_UTF16"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_UTF16</span></code></a> is either
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE" title="codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_UTF16_BE</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE" title="codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_UTF16_LE</span></code></a> depending on the platform’s
+native byte order, <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM" title="codecs.BOM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM</span></code></a> is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16" title="codecs.BOM_UTF16"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_UTF16</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_LE" title="codecs.BOM_LE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_LE</span></code></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE" title="codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_UTF16_LE</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_BE" title="codecs.BOM_BE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_BE</span></code></a> for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE" title="codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOM_UTF16_BE</span></code></a>. The others represent the BOM in UTF-8 and UTF-32
+encodings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="codec-base-classes">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Codec Base Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#codec-base-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module defines a set of base classes which define the
+interfaces for working with codec objects, and can also be used as the basis
+for custom codec implementations.</p>
+<p>Each codec has to define four interfaces to make it usable as codec in Python:
+stateless encoder, stateless decoder, stream reader and stream writer. The
+stream reader and writers typically reuse the stateless encoder/decoder to
+implement the file protocols. Codec authors also need to define how the
+codec will handle encoding and decoding errors.</p>
+<div class="section" id="error-handlers">
+<span id="surrogateescape"></span><span id="id2"></span><h3>Error Handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#error-handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To simplify and standardize error handling,
+codecs may implement different error handling schemes by
+accepting the <em>errors</em> string argument.  The following string values are
+defined and implemented by all standard Python codecs:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a> (or a subclass);
+this is the default.  Implemented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.strict_errors" title="codecs.strict_errors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict_errors()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Ignore the malformed data and continue
+without further notice.  Implemented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.ignore_errors" title="codecs.ignore_errors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore_errors()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The following error handlers are only applicable to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a>:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-1">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Replace with a suitable replacement
+marker; Python will use the official
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FFFD</span></code> REPLACEMENT CHARACTER for the
+built-in codecs on decoding, and ‘?’ on
+encoding.  Implemented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.replace_errors" title="codecs.replace_errors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace_errors()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xmlcharrefreplace'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Replace with the appropriate XML character
+reference (only for encoding).  Implemented
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors" title="codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlcharrefreplace_errors()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Replace with backslashed escape sequences.
+Implemented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.backslashreplace_errors" title="codecs.backslashreplace_errors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backslashreplace_errors()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'namereplace'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Replace with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{...}</span></code> escape sequences
+(only for encoding).  Implemented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.namereplace_errors" title="codecs.namereplace_errors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namereplace_errors()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>On decoding, replace byte with individual
+surrogate code ranging from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+DC80</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+DCFF</span></code>.  This code will then be turned
+back into the same byte when the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler is used
+when encoding the data.  (See <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0383"><strong>PEP 383</strong></a> for
+more.)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>In addition, the following error handler is specific to the given codecs:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Codecs</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogatepass'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>utf-8, utf-16, utf-32,
+utf-16-be, utf-16-le,
+utf-32-be, utf-32-le</p></td>
+<td><p>Allow encoding and decoding of surrogate
+codes.  These codecs normally treat the
+presence of surrogates as an error.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogatepass'</span></code> error handlers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogatepass'</span></code> error handlers now works with utf-16* and utf-32* codecs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'namereplace'</span></code> error handler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> error handlers now works with decoding and
+translating.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The set of allowed values can be extended by registering a new named error
+handler:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.register_error">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">register_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>error_handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.register_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the error handling function <em>error_handler</em> under the name <em>name</em>.
+The <em>error_handler</em> argument will be called during encoding and decoding
+in case of an error, when <em>name</em> is specified as the errors parameter.</p>
+<p>For encoding, <em>error_handler</em> will be called with a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a>
+instance, which contains information about the location of the error. The
+error handler must either raise this or a different exception, or return a
+tuple with a replacement for the unencodable part of the input and a position
+where encoding should continue. The replacement may be either <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will simply copy
+them into the output buffer. If the replacement is a string, the encoder will
+encode the replacement.  Encoding continues on original input at the
+specified position. Negative position values will be treated as being
+relative to the end of the input string. If the resulting position is out of
+bound an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p>Decoding and translating works similarly, except <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeTranslateError" title="UnicodeTranslateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeTranslateError</span></code></a> will be passed to the handler and that the
+replacement from the error handler will be put into the output directly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Previously registered error handlers (including the standard error handlers)
+can be looked up by name:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.lookup_error">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">lookup_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.lookup_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the error handler previously registered under the name <em>name</em>.</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> in case the handler cannot be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following standard error handlers are also made available as module level
+functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.strict_errors">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">strict_errors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.strict_errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> error handling: each encoding or
+decoding error raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.replace_errors">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">replace_errors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.replace_errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> error handling (for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a> only): substitutes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> for encoding errors
+(to be encoded by the codec), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\ufffd'</span></code> (the Unicode replacement
+character) for decoding errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.ignore_errors">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">ignore_errors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.ignore_errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> error handling: malformed data is ignored and
+encoding or decoding is continued without further notice.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">xmlcharrefreplace_errors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xmlcharrefreplace'</span></code> error handling (for encoding with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a> only): the
+unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML character reference.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.backslashreplace_errors">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">backslashreplace_errors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.backslashreplace_errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> error handling (for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a> only): malformed data is
+replaced by a backslashed escape sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codecs.namereplace_errors">
+<code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">namereplace_errors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.namereplace_errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'namereplace'</span></code> error handling (for encoding with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a> only): the
+unencodable character is replaced by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{...}</span></code> escape sequence.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="stateless-encoding-and-decoding">
+<span id="codec-objects"></span><h3>Stateless Encoding and Decoding<a class="headerlink" href="#stateless-encoding-and-decoding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The base <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Codec</span></code> class defines these methods which also define the
+function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.Codec.encode">
+<code class="descclassname">Codec.</code><code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.Codec.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encodes the object <em>input</em> and returns a tuple (output object, length consumed).
+For instance, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encoding</span></a> converts
+a string object to a bytes object using a particular
+character set encoding (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp1252</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iso-8859-1</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument defines the error handling to apply.
+It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> handling.</p>
+<p>The method may not store state in the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Codec</span></code> instance. Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> for codecs which have to keep state in order to make
+encoding efficient.</p>
+<p>The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an empty object
+of the output object type in this situation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.Codec.decode">
+<code class="descclassname">Codec.</code><code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.Codec.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decodes the object <em>input</em> and returns a tuple (output object, length
+consumed).  For instance, for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encoding</span></a>, decoding converts
+a bytes object encoded using a particular
+character set encoding to a string object.</p>
+<p>For text encodings and bytes-to-bytes codecs,
+<em>input</em> must be a bytes object or one which provides the read-only
+buffer interface – for example, buffer objects and memory mapped files.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument defines the error handling to apply.
+It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> handling.</p>
+<p>The method may not store state in the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Codec</span></code> instance. Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> for codecs which have to keep state in order to make
+decoding efficient.</p>
+<p>The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an empty object
+of the output object type in this situation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="incremental-encoding-and-decoding">
+<h3>Incremental Encoding and Decoding<a class="headerlink" href="#incremental-encoding-and-decoding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalEncoder</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a> classes provide
+the basic interface for incremental encoding and decoding. Encoding/decoding the
+input isn’t done with one call to the stateless encoder/decoder function, but
+with multiple calls to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> method of
+the incremental encoder/decoder. The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of
+the encoding/decoding process during method calls.</p>
+<p>The joined output of calls to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> method is
+the same as if all the single inputs were joined into one, and this input was
+encoded/decoded with the stateless encoder/decoder.</p>
+<div class="section" id="incrementalencoder-objects">
+<span id="incremental-encoder-objects"></span><h4>IncrementalEncoder Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#incrementalencoder-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalEncoder</span></code></a> class is used for encoding an input in multiple
+steps. It defines the following methods which every incremental encoder must
+define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalEncoder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">IncrementalEncoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for an <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalEncoder</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface. They are free
+to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by
+the Python codec registry.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalEncoder</span></code></a> may implement different error handling schemes
+by providing the <em>errors</em> keyword argument. See <a class="reference internal" href="#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a> for
+possible values.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+handling strategies during the lifetime of the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalEncoder</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode">
+<code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>final</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encodes <em>object</em> (taking the current state of the encoder into account)
+and returns the resulting encoded object. If this is the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.encode" title="codecs.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> <em>final</em> must be true (the default is false).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalEncoder.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the encoder to the initial state. The output is discarded: call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.encode(object,</span> <span class="pre">final=True)</span></code>, passing an empty byte or text string
+if necessary, to reset the encoder and to get the output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalEncoder.getstate">
+<code class="descname">getstate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.getstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current state of the encoder which must be an integer. The
+implementation should make sure that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is the most common
+state. (States that are more complicated than integers can be converted
+into an integer by marshaling/pickling the state and encoding the bytes
+of the resulting string into an integer).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalEncoder.setstate">
+<code class="descname">setstate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>state</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.setstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the state of the encoder to <em>state</em>. <em>state</em> must be an encoder state
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalEncoder.getstate" title="codecs.IncrementalEncoder.getstate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="incrementaldecoder-objects">
+<span id="incremental-decoder-objects"></span><h4>IncrementalDecoder Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#incrementaldecoder-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a> class is used for decoding an input in multiple
+steps. It defines the following methods which every incremental decoder must
+define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalDecoder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">IncrementalDecoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for an <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface. They are free
+to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by
+the Python codec registry.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a> may implement different error handling schemes
+by providing the <em>errors</em> keyword argument. See <a class="reference internal" href="#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a> for
+possible values.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+handling strategies during the lifetime of the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode">
+<code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>final</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decodes <em>object</em> (taking the current state of the decoder into account)
+and returns the resulting decoded object. If this is the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.decode" title="codecs.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> <em>final</em> must be true (the default is false). If <em>final</em> is
+true the decoder must decode the input completely and must flush all
+buffers. If this isn’t possible (e.g. because of incomplete byte sequences
+at the end of the input) it must initiate error handling just like in the
+stateless case (which might raise an exception).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalDecoder.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the decoder to the initial state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalDecoder.getstate">
+<code class="descname">getstate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.getstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current state of the decoder. This must be a tuple with two
+items, the first must be the buffer containing the still undecoded
+input. The second must be an integer and can be additional state
+info. (The implementation should make sure that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is the most common
+additional state info.) If this additional state info is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> it must be
+possible to set the decoder to the state which has no input buffered and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> as the additional state info, so that feeding the previously
+buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state without
+producing any output. (Additional state info that is more complicated than
+integers can be converted into an integer by marshaling/pickling the info
+and encoding the bytes of the resulting string into an integer.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.IncrementalDecoder.setstate">
+<code class="descname">setstate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>state</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.setstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the state of the decoder to <em>state</em>. <em>state</em> must be a decoder state
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.IncrementalDecoder.getstate" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder.getstate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="stream-encoding-and-decoding">
+<h3>Stream Encoding and Decoding<a class="headerlink" href="#stream-encoding-and-decoding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> classes provide generic
+working interfaces which can be used to implement new encoding submodules very
+easily. See <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.utf_8</span></code> for an example of how this is done.</p>
+<div class="section" id="streamwriter-objects">
+<span id="stream-writer-objects"></span><h4>StreamWriter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#streamwriter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> class is a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Codec</span></code> and defines the
+following methods which every stream writer must define in order to be
+compatible with the Python codec registry.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">StreamWriter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for a <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>All stream writers must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add
+additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the
+Python codec registry.</p>
+<p>The <em>stream</em> argument must be a file-like object open for writing
+text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> may implement different error handling schemes by
+providing the <em>errors</em> keyword argument. See <a class="reference internal" href="#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a> for
+the standard error handlers the underlying stream codec may support.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+handling strategies during the lifetime of the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamWriter.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamWriter.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Writes the object’s contents encoded to the stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamWriter.writelines">
+<code class="descname">writelines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamWriter.writelines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Writes the concatenated list of strings to the stream (possibly by reusing
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter.write" title="codecs.StreamWriter.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method). The standard bytes-to-bytes codecs
+do not support this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamWriter.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamWriter.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flushes and resets the codec buffers used for keeping state.</p>
+<p>Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output is put into
+a clean state that allows appending of new fresh data without having to
+rescan the whole stream to recover state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the above methods, the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> must also inherit
+all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="streamreader-objects">
+<span id="stream-reader-objects"></span><h4>StreamReader Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#streamreader-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> class is a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Codec</span></code> and defines the
+following methods which every stream reader must define in order to be
+compatible with the Python codec registry.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamReader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">StreamReader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for a <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>All stream readers must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add
+additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the
+Python codec registry.</p>
+<p>The <em>stream</em> argument must be a file-like object open for reading
+text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> may implement different error handling schemes by
+providing the <em>errors</em> keyword argument. See <a class="reference internal" href="#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a> for
+the standard error handlers the underlying stream codec may support.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name.
+Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error
+handling strategies during the lifetime of the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>The set of allowed values for the <em>errors</em> argument can be extended with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_error()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamReader.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>chars</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>firstline</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamReader.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.</p>
+<p>The <em>chars</em> argument indicates the number of decoded
+code points or bytes to return. The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader.read" title="codecs.StreamReader.read"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method will
+never return more data than requested, but it might return less,
+if there is not enough available.</p>
+<p>The <em>size</em> argument indicates the approximate maximum
+number of encoded bytes or code points to read
+for decoding. The decoder can modify this setting as
+appropriate. The default value -1 indicates to read and decode as much as
+possible.  This parameter is intended to
+prevent having to decode huge files in one step.</p>
+<p>The <em>firstline</em> flag indicates that
+it would be sufficient to only return the first
+line, if there are decoding errors on later lines.</p>
+<p>The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it should read
+as much data as is allowed within the definition of the encoding and the
+given size, e.g.  if optional encoding endings or state markers are
+available on the stream, these should be read too.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamReader.readline">
+<code class="descname">readline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>keepends</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamReader.readline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded data.</p>
+<p><em>size</em>, if given, is passed as size argument to the stream’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader.read" title="codecs.StreamReader.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>If <em>keepends</em> is false line-endings will be stripped from the lines
+returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamReader.readlines">
+<code class="descname">readlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>sizehint</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>keepends</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamReader.readlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read all lines available on the input stream and return them as a list of
+lines.</p>
+<p>Line-endings are implemented using the codec’s decoder method and are
+included in the list entries if <em>keepends</em> is true.</p>
+<p><em>sizehint</em>, if given, is passed as the <em>size</em> argument to the stream’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader.read" title="codecs.StreamReader.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamReader.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamReader.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resets the codec buffers used for keeping state.</p>
+<p>Note that no stream repositioning should take place.  This method is
+primarily intended to be able to recover from decoding errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the above methods, the <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> must also inherit
+all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="streamreaderwriter-objects">
+<span id="stream-reader-writer"></span><h4>StreamReaderWriter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#streamreaderwriter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReaderWriter" title="codecs.StreamReaderWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReaderWriter</span></code></a> is a convenience class that allows wrapping
+streams which work in both read and write modes.</p>
+<p>The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.lookup" title="codecs.lookup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lookup()</span></code></a> function to construct the instance.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamReaderWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">StreamReaderWriter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream</em>, <em>Reader</em>, <em>Writer</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamReaderWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReaderWriter" title="codecs.StreamReaderWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReaderWriter</span></code></a> instance. <em>stream</em> must be a file-like
+object. <em>Reader</em> and <em>Writer</em> must be factory functions or classes providing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> interface resp. Error handling
+is done in the same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReaderWriter" title="codecs.StreamReaderWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReaderWriter</span></code></a> instances define the combined interfaces of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> classes. They inherit all other
+methods and attributes from the underlying stream.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="streamrecoder-objects">
+<span id="stream-recoder-objects"></span><h4>StreamRecoder Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#streamrecoder-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="codecs.StreamRecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRecoder</span></code></a> translates data from one encoding to another,
+which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding environments.</p>
+<p>The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.lookup" title="codecs.lookup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lookup()</span></code></a> function to construct the instance.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codecs.StreamRecoder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codecs.</code><code class="descname">StreamRecoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream</em>, <em>encode</em>, <em>decode</em>, <em>Reader</em>, <em>Writer</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="codecs.StreamRecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRecoder</span></code></a> instance which implements a two-way conversion:
+<em>encode</em> and <em>decode</em> work on the frontend — the data visible to
+code calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>, while <em>Reader</em> and <em>Writer</em>
+work on the backend — the data in <em>stream</em>.</p>
+<p>You can use these objects to do transparent transcodings from e.g. Latin-1
+to UTF-8 and back.</p>
+<p>The <em>stream</em> argument must be a file-like object.</p>
+<p>The <em>encode</em> and <em>decode</em> arguments must
+adhere to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Codec</span></code> interface. <em>Reader</em> and
+<em>Writer</em> must be factory functions or classes providing objects of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> interface respectively.</p>
+<p>Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream readers and
+writers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="codecs.StreamRecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRecoder</span></code></a> instances define the combined interfaces of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamReader" title="codecs.StreamReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#codecs.StreamWriter" title="codecs.StreamWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter</span></code></a> classes. They inherit all other
+methods and attributes from the underlying stream.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="encodings-and-unicode">
+<span id="encodings-overview"></span><h2>Encodings and Unicode<a class="headerlink" href="#encodings-and-unicode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Strings are stored internally as sequences of code points in
+range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x0</span></code>–<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x10FFFF</span></code>.  (See <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a> for
+more details about the implementation.)
+Once a string object is used outside of CPU and memory, endianness
+and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an issue.  As with other
+codecs, serialising a string into a sequence of bytes is known as <em>encoding</em>,
+and recreating the string from the sequence of bytes is known as <em>decoding</em>.
+There are a variety of different text serialisation codecs, which are
+collectivity referred to as <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encodings</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The simplest text encoding (called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'latin-1'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'iso-8859-1'</span></code>) maps
+the code points 0–255 to the bytes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x0</span></code>–<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xff</span></code>, which means that a string
+object that contains code points above <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+00FF</span></code> can’t be encoded with this
+codec. Doing so will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a> that looks
+like the following (although the details of the error message may differ):
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError:</span> <span class="pre">'latin-1'</span> <span class="pre">codec</span> <span class="pre">can't</span> <span class="pre">encode</span> <span class="pre">character</span> <span class="pre">'\u1234'</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">position</span> <span class="pre">3:</span> <span class="pre">ordinal</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">range(256)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There’s another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings) that choose
+a different subset of all Unicode code points and how these code points are
+mapped to the bytes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x0</span></code>–<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xff</span></code>. To see how this is done simply open
+e.g. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings/cp1252.py</span></code> (which is an encoding that is used primarily on
+Windows). There’s a string constant with 256 characters that shows you which
+character is mapped to which byte value.</p>
+<p>All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 code points
+defined in Unicode. A simple and straightforward way that can store each Unicode
+code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive bytes. There are two
+possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in little endian order. These
+two encodings are called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-32-BE</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-32-LE</span></code> respectively. Their
+disadvantage is that if e.g. you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-32-BE</span></code> on a little endian machine you
+will always have to swap bytes on encoding and decoding. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-32</span></code> avoids this
+problem: bytes will always be in natural endianness. When these bytes are read
+by a CPU with a different endianness, then bytes have to be swapped though. To
+be able to detect the endianness of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-16</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-32</span></code> byte sequence,
+there’s the so called BOM (“Byte Order Mark”). This is the Unicode character
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FEFF</span></code>. This character can be prepended to every <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-16</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-32</span></code>
+byte sequence. The byte swapped version of this character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFFFE</span></code>) is an
+illegal character that may not appear in a Unicode text. So when the
+first character in an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-16</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-32</span></code> byte sequence
+appears to be a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FFFE</span></code> the bytes have to be swapped on decoding.
+Unfortunately the character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FEFF</span></code> had a second purpose as
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZERO</span> <span class="pre">WIDTH</span> <span class="pre">NO-BREAK</span> <span class="pre">SPACE</span></code>: a character that has no width and doesn’t allow
+a word to be split. It can e.g. be used to give hints to a ligature algorithm.
+With Unicode 4.0 using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FEFF</span></code> as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZERO</span> <span class="pre">WIDTH</span> <span class="pre">NO-BREAK</span> <span class="pre">SPACE</span></code> has been
+deprecated (with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+2060</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WORD</span> <span class="pre">JOINER</span></code>) assuming this role). Nevertheless
+Unicode software still must be able to handle <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FEFF</span></code> in both roles: as a BOM
+it’s a device to determine the storage layout of the encoded bytes, and vanishes
+once the byte sequence has been decoded into a string; as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZERO</span> <span class="pre">WIDTH</span>
+<span class="pre">NO-BREAK</span> <span class="pre">SPACE</span></code> it’s a normal character that will be decoded like any other.</p>
+<p>There’s another encoding that is able to encoding the full range of Unicode
+characters: UTF-8. UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means there are no issues
+with byte order in UTF-8. Each byte in a UTF-8 byte sequence consists of two
+parts: marker bits (the most significant bits) and payload bits. The marker bits
+are a sequence of zero to four <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> bits followed by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> bit. Unicode characters are
+encoded like this (with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the
+Unicode character):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Range</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Encoding</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-00000000</span></code> … <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-0000007F</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0xxxxxxx</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-00000080</span></code> … <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-000007FF</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>110xxxxx 10xxxxxx</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-00000800</span></code> … <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-0000FFFF</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-00010000</span></code> … <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U-0010FFFF</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x bit.</p>
+<p>As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+FEFF</span></code> character in
+the decoded string (even if it’s the first character) is treated as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZERO</span>
+<span class="pre">WIDTH</span> <span class="pre">NO-BREAK</span> <span class="pre">SPACE</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Without external information it’s impossible to reliably determine which
+encoding was used for encoding a string. Each charmap encoding can
+decode any random byte sequence. However that’s not possible with UTF-8, as
+UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn’t allow arbitrary byte
+sequences. To increase the reliability with which a UTF-8 encoding can be
+detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8 (that Python 2.5 calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;utf-8-sig&quot;</span></code>) for its Notepad program: Before any of the Unicode characters
+is written to the file, a UTF-8 encoded BOM (which looks like this as a byte
+sequence: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xef</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xbb</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xbf</span></code>) is written. As it’s rather improbable
+that any charmap encoded file starts with these byte values (which would e.g.
+map to</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS</div>
+<div class="line">RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK</div>
+<div class="line">INVERTED QUESTION MARK</div>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8-sig</span></code> encoding can be
+correctly guessed from the byte sequence. So here the BOM is not used to be able
+to determine the byte order used for generating the byte sequence, but as a
+signature that helps in guessing the encoding. On encoding the utf-8-sig codec
+will write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xef</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xbb</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xbf</span></code> as the first three bytes to the file. On
+decoding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8-sig</span></code> will skip those three bytes if they appear as the first
+three bytes in the file.  In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is discouraged and
+should generally be avoided.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-encodings">
+<span id="id3"></span><h2>Standard Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C functions
+or with dictionaries as mapping tables. The following table lists the codecs by
+name, together with a few common aliases, and the languages for which the
+encoding is likely used. Neither the list of aliases nor the list of languages
+is meant to be exhaustive. Notice that spelling alternatives that only differ in
+case or use a hyphen instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> is a valid alias for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf_8'</span></code> codec.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p class="compound-first"><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Some common encodings can bypass the codecs lookup machinery to
+improve performance.  These optimization opportunities are only
+recognized by CPython for a limited set of (case insensitive)
+aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, mbcs
+(Windows only), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16, utf16, utf-32, utf32, and
+the same using underscores instead of dashes. Using alternative
+aliases for these encodings may result in slower execution.</p>
+<div class="compound-last versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Optimization opportunity recognized for us-ascii.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Many of the character sets support the same languages. They vary in individual
+characters (e.g. whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not), and in the
+assignment of characters to code positions. For the European languages in
+particular, the following variants typically exist:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>an ISO 8859 codeset</p></li>
+<li><p>a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from an 8859 codeset,
+but replaces control characters with additional graphic characters</p></li>
+<li><p>an IBM EBCDIC code page</p></li>
+<li><p>an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible</p></li>
+</ul>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Codec</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Aliases</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Languages</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>ascii</p></td>
+<td><p>646, us-ascii</p></td>
+<td><p>English</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>big5</p></td>
+<td><p>big5-tw, csbig5</p></td>
+<td><p>Traditional Chinese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>big5hkscs</p></td>
+<td><p>big5-hkscs, hkscs</p></td>
+<td><p>Traditional Chinese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp037</p></td>
+<td><p>IBM037, IBM039</p></td>
+<td><p>English</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp273</p></td>
+<td><p>273, IBM273, csIBM273</p></td>
+<td><p>German</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp424</p></td>
+<td><p>EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424</p></td>
+<td><p>Hebrew</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp437</p></td>
+<td><p>437, IBM437</p></td>
+<td><p>English</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp500</p></td>
+<td><p>EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH,
+IBM500</p></td>
+<td><p>Western Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp720</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Arabic</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp737</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Greek</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp775</p></td>
+<td><p>IBM775</p></td>
+<td><p>Baltic languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp850</p></td>
+<td><p>850, IBM850</p></td>
+<td><p>Western Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp852</p></td>
+<td><p>852, IBM852</p></td>
+<td><p>Central and Eastern Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp855</p></td>
+<td><p>855, IBM855</p></td>
+<td><p>Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
+Macedonian, Russian, Serbian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp856</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Hebrew</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp857</p></td>
+<td><p>857, IBM857</p></td>
+<td><p>Turkish</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp858</p></td>
+<td><p>858, IBM858</p></td>
+<td><p>Western Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp860</p></td>
+<td><p>860, IBM860</p></td>
+<td><p>Portuguese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp861</p></td>
+<td><p>861, CP-IS, IBM861</p></td>
+<td><p>Icelandic</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp862</p></td>
+<td><p>862, IBM862</p></td>
+<td><p>Hebrew</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp863</p></td>
+<td><p>863, IBM863</p></td>
+<td><p>Canadian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp864</p></td>
+<td><p>IBM864</p></td>
+<td><p>Arabic</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp865</p></td>
+<td><p>865, IBM865</p></td>
+<td><p>Danish, Norwegian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp866</p></td>
+<td><p>866, IBM866</p></td>
+<td><p>Russian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp869</p></td>
+<td><p>869, CP-GR, IBM869</p></td>
+<td><p>Greek</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp874</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Thai</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp875</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Greek</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp932</p></td>
+<td><p>932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp949</p></td>
+<td><p>949, ms949, uhc</p></td>
+<td><p>Korean</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp950</p></td>
+<td><p>950, ms950</p></td>
+<td><p>Traditional Chinese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp1006</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Urdu</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp1026</p></td>
+<td><p>ibm1026</p></td>
+<td><p>Turkish</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp1125</p></td>
+<td><p>1125, ibm1125, cp866u, ruscii</p></td>
+<td><p>Ukrainian</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp1140</p></td>
+<td><p>ibm1140</p></td>
+<td><p>Western Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp1250</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1250</p></td>
+<td><p>Central and Eastern Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp1251</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1251</p></td>
+<td><p>Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
+Macedonian, Russian, Serbian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp1252</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1252</p></td>
+<td><p>Western Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp1253</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1253</p></td>
+<td><p>Greek</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp1254</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1254</p></td>
+<td><p>Turkish</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp1255</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1255</p></td>
+<td><p>Hebrew</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp1256</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1256</p></td>
+<td><p>Arabic</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp1257</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1257</p></td>
+<td><p>Baltic languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>cp1258</p></td>
+<td><p>windows-1258</p></td>
+<td><p>Vietnamese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cp65001</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Windows only: Windows UTF-8
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CP_UTF8</span></code>)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>euc_jp</p></td>
+<td><p>eucjp, ujis, u-jis</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>euc_jis_2004</p></td>
+<td><p>jisx0213, eucjis2004</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>euc_jisx0213</p></td>
+<td><p>eucjisx0213</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>euc_kr</p></td>
+<td><p>euckr, korean, ksc5601,
+ks_c-5601, ks_c-5601-1987,
+ksx1001, ks_x-1001</p></td>
+<td><p>Korean</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>gb2312</p></td>
+<td><p>chinese, csiso58gb231280,
+euc-cn, euccn, eucgb2312-cn,
+gb2312-1980, gb2312-80,
+iso-ir-58</p></td>
+<td><p>Simplified Chinese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>gbk</p></td>
+<td><p>936, cp936, ms936</p></td>
+<td><p>Unified Chinese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>gb18030</p></td>
+<td><p>gb18030-2000</p></td>
+<td><p>Unified Chinese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>hz</p></td>
+<td><p>hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312</p></td>
+<td><p>Simplified Chinese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso2022_jp</p></td>
+<td><p>csiso2022jp, iso2022jp,
+iso-2022-jp</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso2022_jp_1</p></td>
+<td><p>iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso2022_jp_2</p></td>
+<td><p>iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese, Korean, Simplified
+Chinese, Western Europe, Greek</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso2022_jp_2004</p></td>
+<td><p>iso2022jp-2004,
+iso-2022-jp-2004</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso2022_jp_3</p></td>
+<td><p>iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso2022_jp_ext</p></td>
+<td><p>iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso2022_kr</p></td>
+<td><p>csiso2022kr, iso2022kr,
+iso-2022-kr</p></td>
+<td><p>Korean</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>latin_1</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859,
+cp819, latin, latin1, L1</p></td>
+<td><p>West Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso8859_2</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-2, latin2, L2</p></td>
+<td><p>Central and Eastern Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso8859_3</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-3, latin3, L3</p></td>
+<td><p>Esperanto, Maltese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso8859_4</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-4, latin4, L4</p></td>
+<td><p>Baltic languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso8859_5</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-5, cyrillic</p></td>
+<td><p>Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
+Macedonian, Russian, Serbian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso8859_6</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-6, arabic</p></td>
+<td><p>Arabic</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso8859_7</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-7, greek, greek8</p></td>
+<td><p>Greek</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso8859_8</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-8, hebrew</p></td>
+<td><p>Hebrew</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso8859_9</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-9, latin5, L5</p></td>
+<td><p>Turkish</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso8859_10</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-10, latin6, L6</p></td>
+<td><p>Nordic languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso8859_11</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-11, thai</p></td>
+<td><p>Thai languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso8859_13</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-13, latin7, L7</p></td>
+<td><p>Baltic languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso8859_14</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-14, latin8, L8</p></td>
+<td><p>Celtic languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>iso8859_15</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-15, latin9, L9</p></td>
+<td><p>Western Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>iso8859_16</p></td>
+<td><p>iso-8859-16, latin10, L10</p></td>
+<td><p>South-Eastern Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>johab</p></td>
+<td><p>cp1361, ms1361</p></td>
+<td><p>Korean</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>koi8_r</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Russian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>koi8_t</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Tajik</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>koi8_u</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Ukrainian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>kz1048</p></td>
+<td><p>kz_1048, strk1048_2002, rk1048</p></td>
+<td><p>Kazakh</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>mac_cyrillic</p></td>
+<td><p>maccyrillic</p></td>
+<td><p>Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
+Macedonian, Russian, Serbian</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>mac_greek</p></td>
+<td><p>macgreek</p></td>
+<td><p>Greek</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>mac_iceland</p></td>
+<td><p>maciceland</p></td>
+<td><p>Icelandic</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>mac_latin2</p></td>
+<td><p>maclatin2, maccentraleurope</p></td>
+<td><p>Central and Eastern Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>mac_roman</p></td>
+<td><p>macroman, macintosh</p></td>
+<td><p>Western Europe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>mac_turkish</p></td>
+<td><p>macturkish</p></td>
+<td><p>Turkish</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>ptcp154</p></td>
+<td><p>csptcp154, pt154, cp154,
+cyrillic-asian</p></td>
+<td><p>Kazakh</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>shift_jis</p></td>
+<td><p>csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis,
+s_jis</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>shift_jis_2004</p></td>
+<td><p>shiftjis2004, sjis_2004,
+sjis2004</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>shift_jisx0213</p></td>
+<td><p>shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213,
+s_jisx0213</p></td>
+<td><p>Japanese</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>utf_32</p></td>
+<td><p>U32, utf32</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>utf_32_be</p></td>
+<td><p>UTF-32BE</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>utf_32_le</p></td>
+<td><p>UTF-32LE</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>utf_16</p></td>
+<td><p>U16, utf16</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>utf_16_be</p></td>
+<td><p>UTF-16BE</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>utf_16_le</p></td>
+<td><p>UTF-16LE</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>utf_7</p></td>
+<td><p>U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>utf_8</p></td>
+<td><p>U8, UTF, utf8</p></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>utf_8_sig</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>all languages</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The utf-16* and utf-32* encoders no longer allow surrogate code points
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+D800</span></code>–<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+DFFF</span></code>) to be encoded.
+The utf-32* decoders no longer decode
+byte sequences that correspond to surrogate code points.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-specific-encodings">
+<h2>Python Specific Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#python-specific-encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A number of predefined codecs are specific to Python, so their codec names have
+no meaning outside Python.  These are listed in the tables below based on the
+expected input and output types (note that while text encodings are the most
+common use case for codecs, the underlying codec infrastructure supports
+arbitrary data transforms rather than just text encodings).  For asymmetric
+codecs, the stated purpose describes the encoding direction.</p>
+<div class="section" id="text-encodings">
+<h3>Text Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#text-encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following codecs provide <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> encoding and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> decoding, similar to the Unicode text
+encodings.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Codec</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Aliases</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Purpose</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>idna</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Implements <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3490.html"><strong>RFC 3490</strong></a>,
+see also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.idna" title="encodings.idna: Internationalized Domain Names implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.idna</span></code></a>.
+Only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors='strict'</span></code>
+is supported.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>mbcs</p></td>
+<td><p>ansi,
+dbcs</p></td>
+<td><p>Windows only: Encode
+operand according to the
+ANSI codepage (CP_ACP)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>oem</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Windows only: Encode
+operand according to the
+OEM codepage (CP_OEMCP)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>palmos</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Encoding of PalmOS 3.5</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>punycode</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Implements <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3492.html"><strong>RFC 3492</strong></a>.
+Stateful codecs are not
+supported.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>raw_unicode_escape</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Latin-1 encoding with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\uXXXX</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\UXXXXXXXX</span></code> for other
+code points. Existing
+backslashes are not
+escaped in any way.
+It is used in the Python
+pickle protocol.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>undefined</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Raise an exception for
+all conversions, even
+empty strings. The error
+handler is ignored.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>unicode_escape</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Encoding suitable as the
+contents of a Unicode
+literal in ASCII-encoded
+Python source code,
+except that quotes are
+not escaped. Decodes from
+Latin-1 source code.
+Beware that Python source
+code actually uses UTF-8
+by default.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>unicode_internal</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Return the internal
+representation of the
+operand. Stateful codecs
+are not supported.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This representation is
+obsoleted by
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binary-transforms">
+<span id="id4"></span><h3>Binary Transforms<a class="headerlink" href="#binary-transforms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following codecs provide binary transforms: <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>
+to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> mappings.  They are not supported by <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a>
+(which only produces <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> output).</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Codec</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Aliases</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Purpose</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Encoder / decoder</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>base64_codec <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#b64" id="id5">1</a></p></td>
+<td><p>base64, base_64</p></td>
+<td><p>Convert operand to multiline
+MIME base64 (the result
+always includes a trailing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>accepts any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>
+as input for encoding and
+decoding</p>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="base64.html#base64.encodebytes" title="base64.encodebytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64.encodebytes()</span></code></a> /
+<a class="reference internal" href="base64.html#base64.decodebytes" title="base64.decodebytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64.decodebytes()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>bz2_codec</p></td>
+<td><p>bz2</p></td>
+<td><p>Compress the operand
+using bz2</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#bz2.compress" title="bz2.compress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.compress()</span></code></a> /
+<a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.decompress()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>hex_codec</p></td>
+<td><p>hex</p></td>
+<td><p>Convert operand to
+hexadecimal
+representation, with two
+digits per byte</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#binascii.b2a_hex" title="binascii.b2a_hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii.b2a_hex()</span></code></a> /
+<a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#binascii.a2b_hex" title="binascii.a2b_hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii.a2b_hex()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>quopri_codec</p></td>
+<td><p>quopri,
+quotedprintable,
+quoted_printable</p></td>
+<td><p>Convert operand to MIME
+quoted printable</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="quopri.html#quopri.encode" title="quopri.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri.encode()</span></code></a> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quotetabs=True</span></code> /
+<a class="reference internal" href="quopri.html#quopri.decode" title="quopri.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri.decode()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>uu_codec</p></td>
+<td><p>uu</p></td>
+<td><p>Convert the operand using
+uuencode</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="uu.html#uu.encode" title="uu.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu.encode()</span></code></a> /
+<a class="reference internal" href="uu.html#uu.decode" title="uu.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu.decode()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>zlib_codec</p></td>
+<td><p>zip, zlib</p></td>
+<td><p>Compress the operand
+using gzip</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#zlib.compress" title="zlib.compress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib.compress()</span></code></a> /
+<a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib.decompress()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="b64"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id5">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>In addition to <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'base64_codec'</span></code> also accepts ASCII-only instances of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> for
+decoding</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Restoration of the binary transforms.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Restoration of the aliases for the binary transforms.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-transforms">
+<span id="id6"></span><h3>Text Transforms<a class="headerlink" href="#text-transforms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following codec provides a text transform: a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+mapping.  It is not supported by <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a> (which only produces
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> output).</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Codec</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Aliases</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Purpose</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>rot_13</p></td>
+<td><p>rot13</p></td>
+<td><p>Returns the Caesar-cypher
+encryption of the operand</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Restoration of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rot_13</span></code> text transform.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Restoration of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rot13</span></code> alias.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-encodings.idna">
+<span id="encodings-idna-internationalized-domain-names-in-applications"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.idna" title="encodings.idna: Internationalized Domain Names implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.idna</span></code></a> — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications<a class="headerlink" href="#module-encodings.idna" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module implements <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3490.html"><strong>RFC 3490</strong></a> (Internationalized Domain Names in
+Applications) and <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3492.html"><strong>RFC 3492</strong></a> (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
+Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punycode</span></code> encoding
+and <a class="reference internal" href="stringprep.html#module-stringprep" title="stringprep: String preparation, as per RFC 3453"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters in domain
+names. A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www.Alliancefrançaise.nu</span></code>) is converted into an ASCII-compatible encoding
+(ACE, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu</span></code>). The ACE form of the domain
+name is then used in all places where arbitrary characters are not allowed by
+the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP <em class="mailheader">Host</em> fields, and so
+on. This conversion is carried out in the application; if possible invisible to
+the user: The application should transparently convert Unicode domain labels to
+IDNA on the wire, and convert back ACE labels to Unicode before presenting them
+to the user.</p>
+<p>Python supports this conversion in several ways:  the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idna</span></code> codec performs
+conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input string into labels
+based on the separator characters defined in <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3490.html#section-3.1"><strong>section 3.1 of RFC 3490</strong></a>
+and converting each label to ACE as required, and conversely separating an input
+byte string into labels based on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> separator and converting any ACE
+labels found into unicode.  Furthermore, the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module
+transparently converts Unicode host names to ACE, so that applications need not
+be concerned about converting host names themselves when they pass them to the
+socket module. On top of that, modules that have host names as function
+parameters, such as <a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a>, accept Unicode host
+names (<a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> then also transparently sends an IDNA hostname in the
+<em class="mailheader">Host</em> field if it sends that field at all).</p>
+<p>When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name lookup), no
+automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: Applications wishing to present
+such host names to the user should decode them to Unicode.</p>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.idna" title="encodings.idna: Internationalized Domain Names implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.idna</span></code></a> also implements the nameprep procedure, which
+performs certain normalizations on host names, to achieve case-insensitivity of
+international domain names, and to unify similar characters. The nameprep
+functions can be used directly if desired.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="encodings.idna.nameprep">
+<code class="descclassname">encodings.idna.</code><code class="descname">nameprep</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>label</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#encodings.idna.nameprep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the nameprepped version of <em>label</em>. The implementation currently assumes
+query strings, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AllowUnassigned</span></code> is true.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="encodings.idna.ToASCII">
+<code class="descclassname">encodings.idna.</code><code class="descname">ToASCII</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>label</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#encodings.idna.ToASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3490.html"><strong>RFC 3490</strong></a>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UseSTD3ASCIIRules</span></code> is
+assumed to be false.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="encodings.idna.ToUnicode">
+<code class="descclassname">encodings.idna.</code><code class="descname">ToUnicode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>label</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#encodings.idna.ToUnicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3490.html"><strong>RFC 3490</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-encodings.mbcs">
+<span id="encodings-mbcs-windows-ansi-codepage"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.mbcs" title="encodings.mbcs: Windows ANSI codepage"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.mbcs</span></code></a> — Windows ANSI codepage<a class="headerlink" href="#module-encodings.mbcs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Encode operand according to the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows only.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support any error handler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Before 3.2, the <em>errors</em> argument was ignored; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> was always used
+to encode, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> to decode.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-encodings.utf_8_sig">
+<span id="encodings-utf-8-sig-utf-8-codec-with-bom-signature"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.utf_8_sig" title="encodings.utf_8_sig: UTF-8 codec with BOM signature"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.utf_8_sig</span></code></a> — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature<a class="headerlink" href="#module-encodings.utf_8_sig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec: On encoding a UTF-8 encoded
+BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes. For the stateful encoder this
+is only done once (on the first write to the byte stream).  For decoding an
+optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start of the data will be skipped.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code> — Codec registry and base classes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#codec-base-classes">Codec Base Classes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#error-handlers">Error Handlers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#stateless-encoding-and-decoding">Stateless Encoding and Decoding</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#incremental-encoding-and-decoding">Incremental Encoding and Decoding</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#incrementalencoder-objects">IncrementalEncoder Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#incrementaldecoder-objects">IncrementalDecoder Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#stream-encoding-and-decoding">Stream Encoding and Decoding</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streamwriter-objects">StreamWriter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streamreader-objects">StreamReader Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streamreaderwriter-objects">StreamReaderWriter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streamrecoder-objects">StreamRecoder Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#encodings-and-unicode">Encodings and Unicode</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-encodings">Standard Encodings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-specific-encodings">Python Specific Encodings</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-encodings">Text Encodings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-transforms">Binary Transforms</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-transforms">Text Transforms</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.idna"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.idna</span></code> — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.mbcs"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.mbcs</span></code> — Windows ANSI codepage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-encodings.utf_8_sig"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings.utf_8_sig</span></code> — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="struct.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code> — Interpret bytes as packed binary data</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="datatypes.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Data Types</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/codeop.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/codeop.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ec7692
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/codeop.html
@@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>codeop — Compile Python code &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-codeop">
+<span id="codeop-compile-python-code"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-codeop" title="codeop: Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code></a> — Compile Python code<a class="headerlink" href="#module-codeop" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/codeop.py">Lib/codeop.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-codeop" title="codeop: Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code></a> module provides utilities upon which the Python
+read-eval-print loop can be emulated, as is done in the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> module.  As
+a result, you probably don’t want to use the module directly; if you want to
+include such a loop in your program you probably want to use the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a>
+module instead.</p>
+<p>There are two parts to this job:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python  statement: in
+short, telling whether to print ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code>’ or ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>’ next.</p></li>
+<li><p>Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so  subsequent
+input can be compiled with these in effect.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-codeop" title="codeop: Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code></a> module provides a way of doing each of these things, and a way
+of doing them both.</p>
+<p>To do just the former:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="codeop.compile_command">
+<code class="descclassname">codeop.</code><code class="descname">compile_command</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>filename=&quot;&lt;input&gt;&quot;</em>, <em>symbol=&quot;single&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#codeop.compile_command" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tries to compile <em>source</em>, which should be a string of Python code and return a
+code object if <em>source</em> is valid Python code. In that case, the filename
+attribute of the code object will be <em>filename</em>, which defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;input&gt;'</span></code>. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if <em>source</em> is <em>not</em> valid Python code, but is a
+prefix of valid Python code.</p>
+<p>If there is a problem with <em>source</em>, an exception will be raised.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> is raised if there is invalid Python syntax, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if there is an invalid literal.</p>
+<p>The <em>symbol</em> argument determines whether <em>source</em> is compiled as a statement
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'single'</span></code>, the default) or as an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-expression"><span class="xref std std-term">expression</span></a> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'eval'</span></code>).  Any
+other value will cause <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> to  be raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>It is possible (but not likely) that the parser stops parsing with a
+successful outcome before reaching the end of the source; in this case,
+trailing symbols may be ignored instead of causing an error.  For example,
+a backslash followed by two newlines may be followed by arbitrary garbage.
+This will be fixed once the API for the parser is better.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codeop.Compile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codeop.</code><code class="descname">Compile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codeop.Compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances of this class have <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a> methods identical in signature to
+the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, but with the difference that if the
+instance compiles program text containing a <a class="reference internal" href="__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> statement, the
+instance ‘remembers’ and compiles all subsequent program texts with the
+statement in force.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="codeop.CommandCompiler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">codeop.</code><code class="descname">CommandCompiler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#codeop.CommandCompiler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances of this class have <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a> methods identical in signature to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#codeop.compile_command" title="codeop.compile_command"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_command()</span></code></a>; the difference is that if the instance compiles program
+text containing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> statement, the instance ‘remembers’ and
+compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/collections.abc.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/collections.abc.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,633 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-collections.abc">
+<span id="collections-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-containers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> — Abstract Base Classes for Containers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-collections.abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Formerly, this module was part of the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/_collections_abc.py">Lib/_collections_abc.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base classes</span></a> that
+can be used to test whether a class provides a particular interface; for
+example, whether it is hashable or whether it is a mapping.</p>
+<div class="section" id="collections-abstract-base-classes">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Collections Abstract Base Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#collections-abstract-base-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The collections module offers the following <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">ABCs</span></a>:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>ABC</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Inherits from</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Abstract Methods</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Mixin Methods</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Container" title="collections.abc.Container"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Container</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Hashable" title="collections.abc.Hashable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Hashable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Iterator" title="collections.abc.Iterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterator</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Reversible" title="collections.abc.Reversible"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Reversible</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Generator" title="collections.abc.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Iterator" title="collections.abc.Iterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterator</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sized" title="collections.abc.Sized"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sized</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Callable" title="collections.abc.Callable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Collection</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sized" title="collections.abc.Sized"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sized</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Container" title="collections.abc.Container"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Container</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Reversible" title="collections.abc.Reversible"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Reversible</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Collection</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableSequence</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insert</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inherited <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence</span></code></a> methods and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.ByteString" title="collections.abc.ByteString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ByteString</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inherited <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence</span></code></a> methods</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Collection</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__and__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__or__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__sub__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__xor__</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isdisjoint</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MutableSet" title="collections.abc.MutableSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableSet</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inherited <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> methods and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ior__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iand__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ixor__</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__isub__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Collection</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inherited <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code></a> methods and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MappingView" title="collections.abc.MappingView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MappingView</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Sized" title="collections.abc.Sized"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sized</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.ItemsView" title="collections.abc.ItemsView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ItemsView</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MappingView" title="collections.abc.MappingView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MappingView</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.KeysView" title="collections.abc.KeysView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeysView</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MappingView" title="collections.abc.MappingView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MappingView</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.ValuesView" title="collections.abc.ValuesView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValuesView</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MappingView" title="collections.abc.MappingView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MappingView</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Collection</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Awaitable" title="collections.abc.Awaitable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Awaitable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Coroutine" title="collections.abc.Coroutine"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Coroutine</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Awaitable" title="collections.abc.Awaitable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Awaitable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.AsyncIterable" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.AsyncIterator" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterator</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.AsyncIterable" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterable</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.AsyncGenerator" title="collections.abc.AsyncGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncGenerator</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.AsyncIterator" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterator</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asend</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">athrow</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aclose</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Container">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Container</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Container" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.Hashable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Hashable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Hashable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.Sized">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Sized</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Sized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.Callable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Callable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Callable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABCs for classes that provide respectively the methods <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Iterable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Iterable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Iterable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for classes that provide the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Checking <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">Iterable)</span></code> detects classes that are registered
+as <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code></a> or that have an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method, but it does
+not detect classes that iterate with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method.
+The only reliable way to determine whether an object is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a>
+is to call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(obj)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Collection">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Collection</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Collection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for sized iterable container classes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Iterator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Iterator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Iterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for classes that provide the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__iter__" title="iterator.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> methods.  See also the definition of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Reversible">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Reversible</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Reversible" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for iterable classes that also provide the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Generator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Generator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Generator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for generator classes that implement the protocol defined in
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0342"><strong>PEP 342</strong></a> that extends iterators with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.throw" title="generator.throw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.close" title="generator.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> methods.
+See also the definition of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Sequence">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Sequence</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Sequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.MutableSequence">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">MutableSequence</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.ByteString">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">ByteString</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.ByteString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABCs for read-only and mutable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">sequences</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Implementation note: Some of the mixin methods, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index()</span></code>, make
+repeated calls to the underlying <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method.
+Consequently, if <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> is implemented with constant
+access speed, the mixin methods will have linear performance;
+however, if the underlying method is linear (as it would be with a
+linked list), the mixins will have quadratic performance and will
+likely need to be overridden.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The index() method added support for <em>stop</em> and <em>start</em>
+arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Set">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Set</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.MutableSet">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">MutableSet</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.MutableSet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABCs for read-only and mutable sets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Mapping">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Mapping</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Mapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.MutableMapping">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">MutableMapping</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABCs for read-only and mutable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mappings</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.MappingView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">MappingView</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.MappingView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.ItemsView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">ItemsView</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.ItemsView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.KeysView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">KeysView</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.KeysView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="collections.abc.ValuesView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">ValuesView</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.ValuesView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABCs for mapping, items, keys, and values <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-dictionary-view"><span class="xref std std-term">views</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Awaitable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Awaitable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Awaitable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> objects, which can be used in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a>
+expressions.  Custom implementations must provide the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">Coroutine</span></a> objects and instances of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Coroutine" title="collections.abc.Coroutine"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Coroutine</span></code></a> ABC are all instances of this ABC.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In CPython, generator-based coroutines (generators decorated with
+<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.coroutine" title="types.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.coroutine()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.coroutine" title="asyncio.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.coroutine()</span></code></a>) are
+<em>awaitables</em>, even though they do not have an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> method.
+Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(gencoro,</span> <span class="pre">Awaitable)</span></code> for them will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.isawaitable" title="inspect.isawaitable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.isawaitable()</span></code></a> to detect them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.Coroutine">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">Coroutine</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.Coroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for coroutine compatible classes.  These implement the
+following methods, defined in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#coroutine-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Coroutine Objects</span></a>:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.send" title="coroutine.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.throw" title="coroutine.throw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.close" title="coroutine.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.  Custom implementations must also implement
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a>.  All <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Coroutine" title="collections.abc.Coroutine"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Coroutine</span></code></a> instances are also instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Awaitable" title="collections.abc.Awaitable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Awaitable</span></code></a>.  See also the definition of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In CPython, generator-based coroutines (generators decorated with
+<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.coroutine" title="types.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.coroutine()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.coroutine" title="asyncio.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.coroutine()</span></code></a>) are
+<em>awaitables</em>, even though they do not have an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> method.
+Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(gencoro,</span> <span class="pre">Coroutine)</span></code> for them will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.isawaitable" title="inspect.isawaitable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.isawaitable()</span></code></a> to detect them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.AsyncIterable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">AsyncIterable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.AsyncIterable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for classes that provide <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code> method.  See also the
+definition of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.AsyncIterator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">AsyncIterator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.AsyncIterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for classes that provide <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__</span></code>
+methods.  See also the definition of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.abc.AsyncGenerator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.abc.</code><code class="descname">AsyncGenerator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.abc.AsyncGenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ABC for asynchronous generator classes that implement the protocol
+defined in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525"><strong>PEP 525</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide
+particular functionality, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myvar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Sized</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myvar</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to develop
+classes supporting container APIs.  For example, to write a class supporting
+the full <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> API, it is only necessary to supply the three underlying
+abstract methods: <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a>.
+The ABC supplies the remaining methods such as <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__and__" title="object.__and__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__and__()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isdisjoint()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ListBasedSet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&#39;&#39;&#39; Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed</span>
+<span class="sd">        and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. &#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">elements</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lst</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">lst</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">lst</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">elements</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__contains__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">elements</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__len__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">elements</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">s1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ListBasedSet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcdef&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ListBasedSet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;defghi&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">overlap</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s1</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">s2</span>            <span class="c1"># The __and__() method is supported automatically</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notes on using <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MutableSet" title="collections.abc.MutableSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableSet</span></code></a> as a mixin:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin methods need
+a way to create new instances from an iterable. The class constructor is
+assumed to have a signature in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassName(iterable)</span></code>.
+That assumption is factored-out to an internal classmethod called
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_from_iterable()</span></code> which calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cls(iterable)</span></code> to produce a new set.
+If the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> mixin is being used in a class with a different
+constructor signature, you will need to override <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_from_iterable()</span></code>
+with a classmethod that can construct new instances from
+an iterable argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the
+semantics are fixed), redefine <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a>,
+then the other operations will automatically follow suit.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> mixin provides a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_hash()</span></code> method to compute a hash value
+for the set; however, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> is not defined because not all sets
+are hashable or immutable.  To add set hashability using mixins,
+inherit from both <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.Hashable" title="collections.abc.Hashable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Hashable()</span></code></a>, then define
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">Set._hash</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/">OrderedSet recipe</a> for an
+example built on <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.abc.MutableSet" title="collections.abc.MutableSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableSet</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>For more about ABCs, see the <a class="reference internal" href="abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module and <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3119"><strong>PEP 3119</strong></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes for Containers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections-abstract-base-classes">Collections Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="collections.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code> — Container datatypes</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="heapq.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code> — Heap queue algorithm</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/collections.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/collections.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00014ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/collections.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1461 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>collections — Container datatypes &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers" href="collections.abc.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-collections">
+<span id="collections-container-datatypes"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> — Container datatypes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/collections/__init__.py">Lib/collections/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module implements specialized container datatypes providing alternatives to
+Python’s general purpose built-in containers, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 76%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>factory function for creating tuple subclasses with named fields</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>list-like container with fast appends and pops on either end</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>dict-like class for creating a single view of multiple mappings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>dict subclass for counting hashable objects</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>dict subclass that remembers the order entries were added</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>dict subclass that calls a factory function to supply missing values</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict" title="collections.UserDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>wrapper around dictionary objects for easier dict subclassing</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList" title="collections.UserList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>wrapper around list objects for easier list subclassing</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserString" title="collections.UserString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>wrapper around string objects for easier string subclassing</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Moved <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections-abstract-base-classes"><span class="std std-ref">Collections Abstract Base Classes</span></a> to the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> module.
+For backwards compatibility, they continue to be visible in this module through
+Python 3.7.  Subsequently, they will be removed entirely.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="chainmap-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#chainmap-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> class is provided for quickly linking a number of mappings
+so they can be treated as a single unit.  It is often much faster than creating
+a new dictionary and running multiple <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a> calls.</p>
+<p>The class can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.ChainMap">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">ChainMap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*maps</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> groups multiple dicts or other mappings together to
+create a single, updateable view.  If no <em>maps</em> are specified, a single empty
+dictionary is provided so that a new chain always has at least one mapping.</p>
+<p>The underlying mappings are stored in a list.  That list is public and can
+be accessed or updated using the <em>maps</em> attribute.  There is no other state.</p>
+<p>Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is found.  In
+contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on the first mapping.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> incorporates the underlying mappings by reference.  So, if
+one of the underlying mappings gets updated, those changes will be reflected
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>All of the usual dictionary methods are supported.  In addition, there is a
+<em>maps</em> attribute, a method for creating new subcontexts, and a property for
+accessing all but the first mapping:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.ChainMap.maps">
+<code class="descname">maps</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.ChainMap.maps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A user updateable list of mappings.  The list is ordered from
+first-searched to last-searched.  It is the only stored state and can
+be modified to change which mappings are searched.  The list should
+always contain at least one mapping.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.ChainMap.new_child">
+<code class="descname">new_child</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>m=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.ChainMap.new_child" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> containing a new map followed by
+all of the maps in the current instance.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span></code> is specified,
+it becomes the new map at the front of the list of mappings; if not
+specified, an empty dict is used, so that a call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.new_child()</span></code>
+is equivalent to: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap({},</span> <span class="pre">*d.maps)</span></code>.  This method is used for
+creating subcontexts that can be updated without altering values in any
+of the parent mappings.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span></code> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.ChainMap.parents">
+<code class="descname">parents</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.ChainMap.parents" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Property returning a new <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> containing all of the maps in
+the current instance except the first one.  This is useful for skipping
+the first map in the search.  Use cases are similar to those for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> keyword used in <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-nested-scope"><span class="xref std std-term">nested scopes</span></a>.  The use cases also parallel those for the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> function.  A reference to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.parents</span></code> is equivalent to:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note, the iteration order of a <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap()</span></code></a> is determined by
+scanning the mappings last to first:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">baseline</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;music&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bach&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;art&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rembrandt&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">adjustments</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;art&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;van gogh&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;opera&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;carmen&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ChainMap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">adjustments</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">baseline</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;music&#39;, &#39;art&#39;, &#39;opera&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This gives the same ordering as a series of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.update()</span></code></a> calls
+starting with the last mapping:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">combined</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">baseline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">combined</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">adjustments</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combined</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;music&#39;, &#39;art&#39;, &#39;opera&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py">MultiContext class</a>
+in the Enthought <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/enthought/codetools">CodeTools package</a> has options to support
+writing to any mapping in the chain.</p></li>
+<li><p>Django’s <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/django/django/blob/master/django/template/context.py">Context class</a>
+for templating is a read-only chain of mappings.  It also features
+pushing and popping of contexts similar to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap.new_child" title="collections.ChainMap.new_child"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_child()</span></code></a> method and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap.parents" title="collections.ChainMap.parents"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parents</span></code></a> property.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434/">Nested Contexts recipe</a> has options to control
+whether writes and other mutations apply only to the first mapping or to
+any mapping in the chain.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/">greatly simplified read-only version of Chainmap</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="chainmap-examples-and-recipes">
+<h3><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> Examples and Recipes<a class="headerlink" href="#chainmap-examples-and-recipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This section shows various approaches to working with chained maps.</p>
+<p>Example of simulating Python’s internal lookup chain:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">builtins</span>
+<span class="n">pylookup</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ChainMap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">locals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="nb">vars</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">builtins</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of letting user specified command-line arguments take precedence over
+environment variables which in turn take precedence over default values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+
+<span class="n">defaults</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;color&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;user&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;guest&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-u&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--user&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--color&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">namespace</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">command_line_args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">vars</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">namespace</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">combined</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ChainMap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command_line_args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">defaults</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combined</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;color&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combined</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;user&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example patterns for using the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> class to simulate nested
+contexts:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ChainMap</span><span class="p">()</span>        <span class="c1"># Create root context</span>
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new_child</span><span class="p">()</span>     <span class="c1"># Create nested child context</span>
+<span class="n">e</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new_child</span><span class="p">()</span>     <span class="c1"># Child of c, independent from d</span>
+<span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maps</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>             <span class="c1"># Current context dictionary -- like Python&#39;s locals()</span>
+<span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maps</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>            <span class="c1"># Root context -- like Python&#39;s globals()</span>
+<span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parents</span>             <span class="c1"># Enclosing context chain -- like Python&#39;s nonlocals</span>
+
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>            <span class="c1"># Set value in current context</span>
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>                <span class="c1"># Get first key in the chain of contexts</span>
+<span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>            <span class="c1"># Delete from current context</span>
+<span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>               <span class="c1"># All nested values</span>
+<span class="n">k</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">d</span>                <span class="c1"># Check all nested values</span>
+<span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>                <span class="c1"># Number of nested values</span>
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()</span>             <span class="c1"># All nested items</span>
+<span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>               <span class="c1"># Flatten into a regular dictionary</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> class only makes updates (writes and deletions) to the
+first mapping in the chain while lookups will search the full chain.  However,
+if deep writes and deletions are desired, it is easy to make a subclass that
+updates keys found deeper in the chain:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DeepChainMap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ChainMap</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">mapping</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maps</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">mapping</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">mapping</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maps</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__delitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">mapping</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maps</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">mapping</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">mapping</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DeepChainMap</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;zebra&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;black&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;elephant&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;lion&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;yellow&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;lion&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span>         <span class="c1"># update an existing key two levels down</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;snake&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span>           <span class="c1"># new keys get added to the topmost dict</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;elephant&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>            <span class="c1"># remove an existing key one level down</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span>                            <span class="c1"># display result</span>
+<span class="n">DeepChainMap</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;zebra&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;black&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;snake&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="p">{},</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;lion&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="counter-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#counter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A counter tool is provided to support convenient and rapid tallies.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Tally occurrences of words in a list</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cnt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">word</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;green&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">cnt</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cnt</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;blue&#39;: 3, &#39;red&#39;: 2, &#39;green&#39;: 1})</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Find the ten most common words in Hamlet</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">words</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\w+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hamlet.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">words</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">most_common</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;the&#39;, 1143), (&#39;and&#39;, 966), (&#39;to&#39;, 762), (&#39;of&#39;, 669), (&#39;i&#39;, 631),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;you&#39;, 554),  (&#39;a&#39;, 546), (&#39;my&#39;, 514), (&#39;hamlet&#39;, 471), (&#39;in&#39;, 451)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.Counter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">Counter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable-or-mapping</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.Counter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> subclass for counting hashable objects.
+It is a collection where elements are stored as dictionary keys
+and their counts are stored as dictionary values.  Counts are allowed to be
+any integer value including zero or negative counts.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a>
+class is similar to bags or multisets in other languages.</p>
+<p>Elements are counted from an <em>iterable</em> or initialized from another
+<em>mapping</em> (or counter):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">()</span>                           <span class="c1"># a new, empty counter</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;gallahad&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                 <span class="c1"># a new counter from an iterable</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">})</span>      <span class="c1"># a new counter from a mapping</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>             <span class="c1"># a new counter from keyword args</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Counter objects have a dictionary interface except that they return a zero
+count for missing items instead of raising a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ham&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bacon&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>                              <span class="c1"># count of a missing element is zero</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Setting a count to zero does not remove an element from a counter.
+Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> to remove it entirely:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;sausage&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>                        <span class="c1"># counter entry with a zero count</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;sausage&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>                        <span class="c1"># del actually removes the entry</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Counter objects support three methods beyond those available for all
+dictionaries:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.Counter.elements">
+<code class="descname">elements</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.Counter.elements" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over elements repeating each as many times as its
+count.  Elements are returned in arbitrary order.  If an element’s count
+is less than one, <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter.elements" title="collections.Counter.elements"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elements()</span></code></a> will ignore it.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">elements</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;b&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.Counter.most_common">
+<code class="descname">most_common</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>n</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.Counter.most_common" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the <em>n</em> most common elements and their counts from the
+most common to the least.  If <em>n</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter.most_common" title="collections.Counter.most_common"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">most_common()</span></code></a> returns <em>all</em> elements in the counter.
+Elements with equal counts are ordered arbitrarily:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">most_common</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;a&#39;, 5), (&#39;r&#39;, 2), (&#39;b&#39;, 2)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.Counter.subtract">
+<code class="descname">subtract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable-or-mapping</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.Counter.subtract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Elements are subtracted from an <em>iterable</em> or from another <em>mapping</em>
+(or counter).  Like <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.update()</span></code></a> but subtracts counts instead
+of replacing them.  Both inputs and outputs may be zero or negative.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subtract</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;a&#39;: 3, &#39;b&#39;: 0, &#39;c&#39;: -3, &#39;d&#39;: -6})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The usual dictionary methods are available for <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> objects
+except for two which work differently for counters.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.Counter.fromkeys">
+<code class="descname">fromkeys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.Counter.fromkeys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class method is not implemented for <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.Counter.update">
+<code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable-or-mapping</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.Counter.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Elements are counted from an <em>iterable</em> or added-in from another
+<em>mapping</em> (or counter).  Like <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.update()</span></code></a> but adds counts
+instead of replacing them.  Also, the <em>iterable</em> is expected to be a
+sequence of elements, not a sequence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Common patterns for working with <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">())</span>                 <span class="c1"># total of all counts</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clear</span><span class="p">()</span>                       <span class="c1"># reset all counts</span>
+<span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>                         <span class="c1"># list unique elements</span>
+<span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>                          <span class="c1"># convert to a set</span>
+<span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>                         <span class="c1"># convert to a regular dictionary</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()</span>                       <span class="c1"># convert to a list of (elem, cnt) pairs</span>
+<span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list_of_pairs</span><span class="p">))</span>    <span class="c1"># convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">most_common</span><span class="p">()[:</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>       <span class="c1"># n least common elements</span>
+<span class="o">+</span><span class="n">c</span>                              <span class="c1"># remove zero and negative counts</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Several mathematical operations are provided for combining <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a>
+objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts greater than zero).
+Addition and subtraction combine counters by adding or subtracting the counts
+of corresponding elements.  Intersection and union return the minimum and
+maximum of corresponding counts.  Each operation can accept inputs with signed
+counts, but the output will exclude results with counts of zero or less.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">d</span>                       <span class="c1"># add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;a&#39;: 4, &#39;b&#39;: 3})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">d</span>                       <span class="c1"># subtract (keeping only positive counts)</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;a&#39;: 2})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">d</span>                       <span class="c1"># intersection:  min(c[x], d[x]) # doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;a&#39;: 1, &#39;b&#39;: 1})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">d</span>                       <span class="c1"># union:  max(c[x], d[x])</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;a&#39;: 3, &#39;b&#39;: 2})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unary addition and subtraction are shortcuts for adding an empty counter
+or subtracting from an empty counter.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">c</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;a&#39;: 2})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">c</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;b&#39;: 4})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for unary plus, unary minus, and in-place multiset operations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Counters were primarily designed to work with positive integers to represent
+running counts; however, care was taken to not unnecessarily preclude use
+cases needing other types or negative values.  To help with those use cases,
+this section documents the minimum range and type restrictions.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> class itself is a dictionary subclass with no
+restrictions on its keys and values.  The values are intended to be numbers
+representing counts, but you <em>could</em> store anything in the value field.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter.most_common" title="collections.Counter.most_common"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">most_common()</span></code></a> method requires only that the values be orderable.</p></li>
+<li><p>For in-place operations such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c[key]</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>, the value type need only
+support addition and subtraction.  So fractions, floats, and decimals would
+work and negative values are supported.  The same is also true for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter.update" title="collections.Counter.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter.subtract" title="collections.Counter.subtract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subtract()</span></code></a> which allow negative and zero values
+for both inputs and outputs.</p></li>
+<li><p>The multiset methods are designed only for use cases with positive values.
+The inputs may be negative or zero, but only outputs with positive values
+are created.  There are no type restrictions, but the value type needs to
+support addition, subtraction, and comparison.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.Counter.elements" title="collections.Counter.elements"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elements()</span></code></a> method requires integer counts.  It ignores zero and
+negative counts.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html">Bag class</a>
+in Smalltalk.</p></li>
+<li><p>Wikipedia entry for <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset">Multisets</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm">C++ multisets</a>
+tutorial with examples.</p></li>
+<li><p>For mathematical operations on multisets and their use cases, see
+<em>Knuth, Donald. The Art of Computer Programming Volume II,
+Section 4.6.3, Exercise 19</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>To enumerate all distinct multisets of a given size over a given set of
+elements, see <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.combinations_with_replacement" title="itertools.combinations_with_replacement"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.combinations_with_replacement()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">combinations_with_replacement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABC&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># --&gt; AA AB AC BB BC CC</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deque-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#deque-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.deque">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">deque</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>maxlen</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new deque object initialized left-to-right (using <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque.append" title="collections.deque.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a>) with
+data from <em>iterable</em>.  If <em>iterable</em> is not specified, the new deque is empty.</p>
+<p>Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is pronounced “deck”
+and is short for “double-ended queue”).  Deques support thread-safe, memory
+efficient appends and pops from either side of the deque with approximately the
+same O(1) performance in either direction.</p>
+<p>Though <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> objects support similar operations, they are optimized for
+fast fixed-length operations and incur O(n) memory movement costs for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop(0)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insert(0,</span> <span class="pre">v)</span></code> operations which change both the size and
+position of the underlying data representation.</p>
+<p>If <em>maxlen</em> is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, deques may grow to an
+arbitrary length.  Otherwise, the deque is bounded to the specified maximum
+length.  Once a bounded length deque is full, when new items are added, a
+corresponding number of items are discarded from the opposite end.  Bounded
+length deques provide functionality similar to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tail</span></code> filter in
+Unix. They are also useful for tracking transactions and other pools of data
+where only the most recent activity is of interest.</p>
+<p>Deque objects support the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.append">
+<code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>x</em> to the right side of the deque.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.appendleft">
+<code class="descname">appendleft</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.appendleft" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>x</em> to the left side of the deque.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove all elements from the deque leaving it with length 0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.copy">
+<code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shallow copy of the deque.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.count">
+<code class="descname">count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Count the number of deque elements equal to <em>x</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.extend">
+<code class="descname">extend</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.extend" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from the iterable
+argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.extendleft">
+<code class="descname">extendleft</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.extendleft" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from <em>iterable</em>.
+Note, the series of left appends results in reversing the order of
+elements in the iterable argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.index">
+<code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>stop</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the position of <em>x</em> in the deque (at or after index <em>start</em>
+and before index <em>stop</em>).  Returns the first match or raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if not found.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.insert">
+<code class="descname">insert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.insert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert <em>x</em> into the deque at position <em>i</em>.</p>
+<p>If the insertion would cause a bounded deque to grow beyond <em>maxlen</em>,
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.pop">
+<code class="descname">pop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.pop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an element from the right side of the deque. If no
+elements are present, raises an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.popleft">
+<code class="descname">popleft</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.popleft" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an element from the left side of the deque. If no
+elements are present, raises an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.remove">
+<code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the first occurrence of <em>value</em>.  If not found, raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.reverse">
+<code class="descname">reverse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.reverse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reverse the elements of the deque in-place and then return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.deque.rotate">
+<code class="descname">rotate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.rotate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rotate the deque <em>n</em> steps to the right.  If <em>n</em> is negative, rotate
+to the left.</p>
+<p>When the deque is not empty, rotating one step to the right is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.appendleft(d.pop())</span></code>, and rotating one step to the left is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.append(d.popleft())</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Deque objects also provide one read-only attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.deque.maxlen">
+<code class="descname">maxlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.deque.maxlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Maximum size of a deque or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if unbounded.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(d)</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed(d)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.copy(d)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.deepcopy(d)</span></code>, membership testing with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator, and subscript references such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d[-1]</span></code>.  Indexed
+access is O(1) at both ends but slows to O(n) in the middle.  For fast random
+access, use lists instead.</p>
+<p>Starting in version 3.5, deques support <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mul__()</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__imul__()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deque</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ghi&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                 <span class="c1"># make a new deque with three items</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">:</span>                   <span class="c1"># iterate over the deque&#39;s elements</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">elem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">G</span>
+<span class="go">H</span>
+<span class="go">I</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;j&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                    <span class="c1"># add a new entry to the right side</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">appendleft</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                <span class="c1"># add a new entry to the left side</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>                                <span class="c1"># show the representation of the deque</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;j&#39;])</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>                          <span class="c1"># return and remove the rightmost item</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;j&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>                      <span class="c1"># return and remove the leftmost item</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;f&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>                          <span class="c1"># list the contents of the deque</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;g&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;i&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>                             <span class="c1"># peek at leftmost item</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;g&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>                            <span class="c1"># peek at rightmost item</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;i&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">))</span>                <span class="c1"># list the contents of a deque in reverse</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;i&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;g&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;h&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">d</span>                         <span class="c1"># search the deque</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;jkl&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                  <span class="c1"># add multiple elements at once</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;g&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;j&#39;, &#39;k&#39;, &#39;l&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rotate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>                      <span class="c1"># right rotation</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;l&#39;, &#39;g&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;j&#39;, &#39;k&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rotate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>                     <span class="c1"># left rotation</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;g&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;j&#39;, &#39;k&#39;, &#39;l&#39;])</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">))</span>               <span class="c1"># make a new deque in reverse order</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;l&#39;, &#39;k&#39;, &#39;j&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;g&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clear</span><span class="p">()</span>                        <span class="c1"># empty the deque</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>                          <span class="c1"># cannot pop from an empty deque</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;pyshell#6&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">toplevel</span><span class="o">-</span>
+        <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gr">IndexError</span>: <span class="n">pop from an empty deque</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extendleft</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>              <span class="c1"># extendleft() reverses the input order</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;c&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;a&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deque-recipes">
+<h3><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a> Recipes<a class="headerlink" href="#deque-recipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This section shows various approaches to working with deques.</p>
+<p>Bounded length deques provide functionality similar to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tail</span></code> filter
+in Unix:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Return the last n lines of a file&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another approach to using deques is to maintain a sequence of recently
+added elements by appending to the right and popping to the left:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">moving_average</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --&gt; 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0</span>
+    <span class="c1"># http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average</span>
+    <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">appendleft</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">elem</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">n</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling">round-robin scheduler</a> can be implemented with
+input iterators stored in a <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a>.  Values are yielded from the active
+iterator in position zero.  If that iterator is exhausted, it can be removed
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque.popleft" title="collections.deque.popleft"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popleft()</span></code></a>; otherwise, it can be cycled back to the end with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque.rotate" title="collections.deque.rotate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotate()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">roundrobin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;roundrobin(&#39;ABC&#39;, &#39;D&#39;, &#39;EF&#39;) --&gt; A D E B F C&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">iterators</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">iterators</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterators</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+                <span class="n">iterators</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rotate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Remove an exhausted iterator.</span>
+            <span class="n">iterators</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque.rotate" title="collections.deque.rotate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotate()</span></code></a> method provides a way to implement <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a> slicing and
+deletion.  For example, a pure Python implementation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">d[n]</span></code> relies on
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotate()</span></code> method to position elements to be popped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">delete_nth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rotate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rotate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To implement <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a> slicing, use a similar approach applying
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque.rotate" title="collections.deque.rotate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotate()</span></code></a> to bring a target element to the left side of the deque. Remove
+old entries with <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque.popleft" title="collections.deque.popleft"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popleft()</span></code></a>, add new entries with <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.deque.extend" title="collections.deque.extend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend()</span></code></a>, and then
+reverse the rotation.
+With minor variations on that approach, it is easy to implement Forth style
+stack manipulations such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dup</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drop</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">swap</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">over</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pick</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rot</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">roll</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="defaultdict-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#defaultdict-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.defaultdict">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">defaultdict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>default_factory</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new dictionary-like object.  <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a> is a subclass of the
+built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> class.  It overrides one method and adds one writable
+instance variable.  The remaining functionality is the same as for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> class and is not documented here.</p>
+<p>The first argument provides the initial value for the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a>
+attribute; it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. All remaining arguments are treated the same
+as if they were passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> constructor, including keyword
+arguments.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a> objects support the following method in addition to the
+standard <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> operations:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.defaultdict.__missing__">
+<code class="descname">__missing__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.defaultdict.__missing__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a> attribute is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, this raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception with the <em>key</em> as argument.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it is called without arguments
+to provide a default value for the given <em>key</em>, this value is inserted in
+the dictionary for the <em>key</em>, and returned.</p>
+<p>If calling <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a> raises an exception this exception is
+propagated unchanged.</p>
+<p>This method is called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> class when the requested key is not found; whatever it
+returns or raises is then returned or raised by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.__missing__" title="collections.defaultdict.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a> is <em>not</em> called for any operations besides
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>. This means that <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> will, like normal
+dictionaries, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as a default rather than using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a> objects support the following instance variable:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.defaultdict.default_factory">
+<code class="descname">default_factory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute is used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.__missing__" title="collections.defaultdict.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a> method; it is
+initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present, or to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, if absent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="defaultdict-examples">
+<h3><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a> Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#defaultdict-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> as the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a>, it is easy to group a
+sequence of key-value pairs into a dictionary of lists:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;yellow&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;yellow&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">defaultdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;blue&#39;, [2, 4]), (&#39;red&#39;, [1]), (&#39;yellow&#39;, [1, 3])]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When each key is encountered for the first time, it is not already in the
+mapping; so an entry is automatically created using the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a>
+function which returns an empty <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.append()</span></code>
+operation then attaches the value to the new list.  When keys are encountered
+again, the look-up proceeds normally (returning the list for that key) and the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.append()</span></code> operation adds another value to the list. This technique is
+simpler and faster than an equivalent technique using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.setdefault" title="dict.setdefault"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.setdefault()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setdefault</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[])</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;blue&#39;, [2, 4]), (&#39;red&#39;, [1]), (&#39;yellow&#39;, [1, 3])]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Setting the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> makes the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a> useful for counting (like a bag or multiset in other
+languages):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mississippi&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">defaultdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;i&#39;, 4), (&#39;m&#39;, 1), (&#39;p&#39;, 2), (&#39;s&#39;, 4)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When a letter is first encountered, it is missing from the mapping, so the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a> function calls <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> to supply a default count of
+zero.  The increment operation then builds up the count for each letter.</p>
+<p>The function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> which always returns zero is just a special case of
+constant functions.  A faster and more flexible way to create constant functions
+is to use a lambda function which can supply any constant value (not just
+zero):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">constant_factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">defaultdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">constant_factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;missing&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;John&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ran&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(action)s</span><span class="s1"> to </span><span class="si">%(object)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;John ran to &lt;missing&gt;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Setting the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict.default_factory" title="collections.defaultdict.default_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> makes the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a> useful for building a dictionary of sets:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">defaultdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;blue&#39;, {2, 4}), (&#39;red&#39;, {1, 3})]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields<a class="headerlink" href="#namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Named tuples assign meaning to each position in a tuple and allow for more readable,
+self-documenting code.  They can be used wherever regular tuples are used, and
+they add the ability to access fields by name instead of position index.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="collections.namedtuple">
+<code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">namedtuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typename</em>, <em>field_names</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>rename=False</em>, <em>defaults=None</em>, <em>module=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.namedtuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new tuple subclass named <em>typename</em>.  The new subclass is used to
+create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by attribute lookup as
+well as being indexable and iterable.  Instances of the subclass also have a
+helpful docstring (with typename and field_names) and a helpful <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a>
+method which lists the tuple contents in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name=value</span></code> format.</p>
+<p>The <em>field_names</em> are a sequence of strings such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['x',</span> <span class="pre">'y']</span></code>.
+Alternatively, <em>field_names</em> can be a single string with each fieldname
+separated by whitespace and/or commas, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x</span> <span class="pre">y'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x,</span> <span class="pre">y'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Any valid Python identifier may be used for a fieldname except for names
+starting with an underscore.  Valid identifiers consist of letters, digits,
+and underscores but do not start with a digit or underscore and cannot be
+a <a class="reference internal" href="keyword.html#module-keyword" title="keyword: Test whether a string is a keyword in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword</span></code></a> such as <em>class</em>, <em>for</em>, <em>return</em>, <em>global</em>, <em>pass</em>,
+or <em>raise</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>rename</em> is true, invalid fieldnames are automatically replaced
+with positional names.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['abc',</span> <span class="pre">'def',</span> <span class="pre">'ghi',</span> <span class="pre">'abc']</span></code> is
+converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['abc',</span> <span class="pre">'_1',</span> <span class="pre">'ghi',</span> <span class="pre">'_3']</span></code>, eliminating the keyword
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code> and the duplicate fieldname <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>defaults</em> can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> of default values.
+Since fields with a default value must come after any fields without a
+default, the <em>defaults</em> are applied to the rightmost parameters.  For
+example, if the fieldnames are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['x',</span> <span class="pre">'y',</span> <span class="pre">'z']</span></code> and the defaults are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> will be a required argument, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> will default to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> will default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>module</em> is defined, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute of the named tuple is
+set to that value.</p>
+<p>Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so they are
+lightweight and require no more memory than regular tuples.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added support for <em>rename</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>verbose</em> and <em>rename</em> parameters became
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only arguments</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the <em>module</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Remove the <em>verbose</em> parameter and the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_source</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>defaults</em> parameter and the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_field_defaults</span></code>
+attribute.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Basic example</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Point</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Point&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># instantiate with positional or keyword arguments</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>             <span class="c1"># indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)</span>
+<span class="go">33</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span>                <span class="c1"># unpack like a regular tuple</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="go">(11, 22)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span>               <span class="c1"># fields also accessible by name</span>
+<span class="go">33</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span>                       <span class="c1"># readable __repr__ with a name=value style</span>
+<span class="go">Point(x=11, y=22)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Named tuples are especially useful for assigning field names to result tuples returned
+by the <a class="reference internal" href="csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> modules:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">EmployeeRecord</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;EmployeeRecord&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;name, age, title, department, paygrade&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">emp</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">EmployeeRecord</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_make</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;employees.csv&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rb&quot;</span><span class="p">))):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">emp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">emp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/companydata&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">emp</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">EmployeeRecord</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_make</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchall</span><span class="p">()):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">emp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">emp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to the methods inherited from tuples, named tuples support
+three additional methods and two attributes.  To prevent conflicts with
+field names, the method and attribute names start with an underscore.</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="collections.somenamedtuple._make">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">somenamedtuple.</code><code class="descname">_make</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.somenamedtuple._make" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or iterable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_make</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Point(x=11, y=22)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.somenamedtuple._asdict">
+<code class="descclassname">somenamedtuple.</code><code class="descname">_asdict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.somenamedtuple._asdict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> which maps field names to their corresponding
+values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_asdict</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">OrderedDict([(&#39;x&#39;, 11), (&#39;y&#39;, 22)])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> instead of a regular <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.somenamedtuple._replace">
+<code class="descclassname">somenamedtuple.</code><code class="descname">_replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.somenamedtuple._replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new instance of the named tuple replacing specified fields with new
+values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">33</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Point(x=33, y=22)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">partnum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inventory</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">inventory</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">partnum</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">price</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">newprices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">partnum</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">timestamp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.somenamedtuple._fields">
+<code class="descclassname">somenamedtuple.</code><code class="descname">_fields</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.somenamedtuple._fields" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tuple of strings listing the field names.  Useful for introspection
+and for creating new named tuple types from existing named tuples.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields</span>            <span class="c1"># view the field names</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;x&#39;, &#39;y&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Color&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red green blue&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Pixel</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Pixel&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Pixel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">128</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.somenamedtuple._field_defaults">
+<code class="descclassname">somenamedtuple.</code><code class="descname">_field_defaults</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.somenamedtuple._field_defaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping field names to default values.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Account</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Account&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;type&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;balance&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">defaults</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Account</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_field_defaults</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;balance&#39;: 0}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Account</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;premium&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Account(type=&#39;premium&#39;, balance=0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To retrieve a field whose name is stored in a string, use the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a>
+function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">11</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To convert a dictionary to a named tuple, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> operator
+(as described in <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/controlflow.html#tut-unpacking-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">Unpacking Argument Lists</span></a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Point(x=11, y=22)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since a named tuple is a regular Python class, it is easy to add or change
+functionality with a subclass.  Here is how to add a calculated field and
+a fixed-width print format:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Point&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">])):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="vm">__slots__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hypot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Point: x=</span><span class="si">%6.3f</span><span class="s1">  y=</span><span class="si">%6.3f</span><span class="s1">  hypot=</span><span class="si">%6.3f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hypot</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">p</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000</span>
+<span class="go">Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The subclass shown above sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code> to an empty tuple.  This helps
+keep memory requirements low by preventing the creation of instance dictionaries.</p>
+<p>Subclassing is not useful for adding new, stored fields.  Instead, simply
+create a new named tuple type from the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.somenamedtuple._fields" title="collections.somenamedtuple._fields"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields</span></code></a> attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Point3D</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Point3D&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Docstrings can be customized by making direct assignments to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code>
+fields:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Book</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Book&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;id&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;title&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;authors&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Book</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;: Hardcover book in active collection&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Book</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">id</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;13-digit ISBN&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Book</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Title of first printing&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Book</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">authors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;List of authors sorted by last name&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Property docstrings became writeable.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Default values can be implemented by using <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.somenamedtuple._replace" title="collections.somenamedtuple._replace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_replace()</span></code></a> to
+customize a prototype instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Account</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Account&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;owner balance transaction_count&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">default_account</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Account</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;owner name&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">johns_account</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">default_account</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">owner</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;John&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">janes_account</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">default_account</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">owner</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jane&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#typing.NamedTuple" title="typing.NamedTuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.NamedTuple</span></code></a> for a way to add type hints for named
+tuples.  It also provides an elegant notation using the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a>
+keyword:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Component</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NamedTuple</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">part_number</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+    <span class="n">weight</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span>
+    <span class="n">description</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Optional</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.SimpleNamespace" title="types.SimpleNamespace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.SimpleNamespace()</span></code></a> for a mutable namespace based on an
+underlying dictionary instead of a tuple.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#module-dataclasses" title="dataclasses: Generate special methods on user-defined classes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses</span></code></a> module provides a decorator and functions for
+automatically adding generated special methods to user-defined classes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ordereddict-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#ordereddict-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Ordered dictionaries are just like regular dictionaries but have some extra
+capabilities relating to ordering operations.  They have become less
+important now that the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> class gained the ability
+to remember insertion order (this new behavior became guaranteed in
+Python 3.7).</p>
+<p>Some differences from <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> still remain:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The regular <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> was designed to be very good at mapping
+operations.  Tracking insertion order was secondary.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> was designed to be good at reordering operations.
+Space efficiency, iteration speed, and the performance of update
+operations were secondary.</p></li>
+<li><p>Algorithmically, <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> can handle frequent reordering
+operations better than <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  This makes it suitable for tracking
+recent accesses (for example in an <a class="reference external" href="https://medium.com/&#64;krishankantsinghal/my-first-blog-on-medium-583159139237">LRU cache</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The equality operation for <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> checks for matching order.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code> method of <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> has a different
+signature.  It accepts an optional argument to specify which item is popped.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> has a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move_to_end()</span></code> method to
+efficiently reposition an element to an endpoint.</p></li>
+<li><p>Until Python 3.8, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> lacked a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a> method.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.OrderedDict">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">OrderedDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>items</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an instance of a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> subclass that has methods
+specialized for rearranging dictionary order.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.OrderedDict.popitem">
+<code class="descname">popitem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>last=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.OrderedDict.popitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict.popitem" title="collections.OrderedDict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code></a> method for ordered dictionaries returns and removes a
+(key, value) pair.  The pairs are returned in
+<abbr title="last-in, first-out">LIFO</abbr> order if <em>last</em> is true
+or <abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr> order if false.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end">
+<code class="descname">move_to_end</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>last=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move an existing <em>key</em> to either end of an ordered dictionary.  The item
+is moved to the right end if <em>last</em> is true (the default) or to the
+beginning if <em>last</em> is false.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the <em>key</em> does
+not exist:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromkeys</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcde&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">move_to_end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;acdeb&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">move_to_end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;bacde&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the usual mapping methods, ordered dictionaries also support
+reverse iteration using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Equality tests between <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> objects are order-sensitive
+and are implemented as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())</span></code>.
+Equality tests between <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> objects and other
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code></a> objects are order-insensitive like regular
+dictionaries.  This allows <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> objects to be substituted
+anywhere a regular dictionary is used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The items, keys, and values <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-dictionary-view"><span class="xref std std-term">views</span></a>
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> now support reverse iteration using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>With the acceptance of <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0468"><strong>PEP 468</strong></a>, order is retained for keyword arguments
+passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> constructor and its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code>
+method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ordereddict-examples-and-recipes">
+<h3><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> Examples and Recipes<a class="headerlink" href="#ordereddict-examples-and-recipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is straightforward to create an ordered dictionary variant
+that remembers the order the keys were <em>last</em> inserted.
+If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the
+original insertion position is changed and moved to the end:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LastUpdatedOrderedDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Store items in the order the keys were last added&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">move_to_end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> would also be useful for implementing
+variants of <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.lru_cache" title="functools.lru_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.lru_cache()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LRU</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Limit size, evicting the least recently looked-up key when full&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">128</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">maxsize</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">move_to_end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">oldest</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="k">del</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">oldest</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="userdict-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict" title="collections.UserDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#userdict-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The class, <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict" title="collections.UserDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code></a> acts as a wrapper around dictionary objects.
+The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
+subclass directly from <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>; however, this class can be easier
+to work with because the underlying dictionary is accessible as an
+attribute.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.UserDict">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">UserDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>initialdata</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.UserDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class that simulates a dictionary.  The instance’s contents are kept in a
+regular dictionary, which is accessible via the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict.data" title="collections.UserDict.data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code></a> attribute of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict" title="collections.UserDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code></a> instances.  If <em>initialdata</em> is provided, <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict.data" title="collections.UserDict.data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code></a> is
+initialized with its contents; note that a reference to <em>initialdata</em> will not
+be kept, allowing it be used for other purposes.</p>
+<p>In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict" title="collections.UserDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code></a> instances provide the following attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.UserDict.data">
+<code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.UserDict.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A real dictionary used to store the contents of the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserDict" title="collections.UserDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code></a>
+class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="userlist-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList" title="collections.UserList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#userlist-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This class acts as a wrapper around list objects.  It is a useful base class
+for your own list-like classes which can inherit from them and override
+existing methods or add new ones.  In this way, one can add new behaviors to
+lists.</p>
+<p>The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
+subclass directly from <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>; however, this class can be easier
+to work with because the underlying list is accessible as an attribute.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.UserList">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">UserList</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>list</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.UserList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class that simulates a list.  The instance’s contents are kept in a regular
+list, which is accessible via the <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList.data" title="collections.UserList.data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code></a> attribute of <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList" title="collections.UserList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code></a>
+instances.  The instance’s contents are initially set to a copy of <em>list</em>,
+defaulting to the empty list <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>.  <em>list</em> can be any iterable, for
+example a real Python list or a <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList" title="collections.UserList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mutable sequences,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList" title="collections.UserList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code></a> instances provide the following attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.UserList.data">
+<code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.UserList.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A real <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> object used to store the contents of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList" title="collections.UserList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>Subclassing requirements:</strong> Subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserList" title="collections.UserList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code></a> are expected to
+offer a constructor which can be called with either no arguments or one
+argument.  List operations which return a new sequence attempt to create an
+instance of the actual implementation class.  To do so, it assumes that the
+constructor can be called with a single parameter, which is a sequence object
+used as a data source.</p>
+<p>If a derived class does not wish to comply with this requirement, all of the
+special methods supported by this class will need to be overridden; please
+consult the sources for information about the methods which need to be provided
+in that case.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="userstring-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserString" title="collections.UserString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#userstring-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The class, <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserString" title="collections.UserString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code></a> acts as a wrapper around string objects.
+The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
+subclass directly from <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>; however, this class can be easier
+to work with because the underlying string is accessible as an
+attribute.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="collections.UserString">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">collections.</code><code class="descname">UserString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>seq</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.UserString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class that simulates a string object.  The instance’s
+content is kept in a regular string object, which is accessible via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserString.data" title="collections.UserString.data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code></a> attribute of <a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserString" title="collections.UserString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code></a> instances.  The instance’s
+contents are initially set to a copy of <em>seq</em>.  The <em>seq</em> argument can
+be any object which can be converted into a string using the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>In addition to supporting the methods and operations of strings,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserString" title="collections.UserString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code></a> instances provide the following attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="collections.UserString.data">
+<code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#collections.UserString.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A real <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> object used to store the contents of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#collections.UserString" title="collections.UserString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>New methods <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rmod__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">casefold</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_map</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isprintable</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maketrans</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code> — Container datatypes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#chainmap-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#chainmap-examples-and-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code> Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#counter-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deque-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deque-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defaultdict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defaultdict-examples"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code> Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code> Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ordereddict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ordereddict-examples-and-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#userdict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#userlist-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#userstring-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code> objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="calendar.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code> — General calendar-related functions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="collections.abc.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes for Containers</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/colorsys.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/colorsys.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/colorsys.html
@@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>colorsys — Conversions between color systems &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-colorsys">
+<span id="colorsys-conversions-between-color-systems"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-colorsys" title="colorsys: Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colorsys</span></code></a> — Conversions between color systems<a class="headerlink" href="#module-colorsys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/colorsys.py">Lib/colorsys.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-colorsys" title="colorsys: Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colorsys</span></code></a> module defines bidirectional conversions of color values
+between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color space used in
+computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ, HLS (Hue Lightness
+Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value).  Coordinates in all of these color
+spaces are floating point values.  In the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between
+0 and 1, but the I and Q coordinates can be positive or negative.  In all other
+spaces, the coordinates are all between 0 and 1.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>More information about color spaces can be found at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html">http://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm">https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-colorsys" title="colorsys: Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colorsys</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="colorsys.rgb_to_yiq">
+<code class="descclassname">colorsys.</code><code class="descname">rgb_to_yiq</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#colorsys.rgb_to_yiq" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the color from RGB coordinates to YIQ coordinates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="colorsys.yiq_to_rgb">
+<code class="descclassname">colorsys.</code><code class="descname">yiq_to_rgb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>i</em>, <em>q</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#colorsys.yiq_to_rgb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the color from YIQ coordinates to RGB coordinates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="colorsys.rgb_to_hls">
+<code class="descclassname">colorsys.</code><code class="descname">rgb_to_hls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#colorsys.rgb_to_hls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HLS coordinates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="colorsys.hls_to_rgb">
+<code class="descclassname">colorsys.</code><code class="descname">hls_to_rgb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>h</em>, <em>l</em>, <em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#colorsys.hls_to_rgb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the color from HLS coordinates to RGB coordinates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="colorsys.rgb_to_hsv">
+<code class="descclassname">colorsys.</code><code class="descname">rgb_to_hsv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#colorsys.rgb_to_hsv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HSV coordinates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="colorsys.hsv_to_rgb">
+<code class="descclassname">colorsys.</code><code class="descname">hsv_to_rgb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>h</em>, <em>s</em>, <em>v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#colorsys.hsv_to_rgb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the color from HSV coordinates to RGB coordinates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">colorsys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">colorsys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rgb_to_hsv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">colorsys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hsv_to_rgb</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)</span>
+</pre></div>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-compileall">
+<span id="compileall-byte-compile-python-libraries"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> — Byte-compile Python libraries<a class="headerlink" href="#module-compileall" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/compileall.py">Lib/compileall.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides some utility functions to support installing Python
+libraries.  These functions compile Python source files in a directory tree.
+This module can be used to create the cached byte-code files at library
+installation time, which makes them available for use even by users who don’t
+have write permission to the library directories.</p>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-use">
+<h2>Command-line use<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-use" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module can work as a script (using <strong class="program">python -m compileall</strong>) to
+compile Python sources.</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory">
+<code class="descname">directory</code><code class="descclassname"> ...</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-arg-file">
+<code class="descname">file</code><code class="descclassname"> ...</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-arg-file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that contain
+source files, traversed recursively.  If no argument is given, behave as if
+the command line was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span> <span class="pre">&lt;directories</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sys.path&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-l">
+<code class="descname">-l</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-l" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do not recurse into subdirectories, only compile source code files directly
+contained in the named or implied directories.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-f">
+<code class="descname">-f</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-f" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force rebuild even if timestamps are up-to-date.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-q">
+<code class="descname">-q</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-q" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do not print the list of files compiled. If passed once, error messages will
+still be printed. If passed twice (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-qq</span></code>), all output is suppressed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-d">
+<code class="descname">-d</code><code class="descclassname"> destdir</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-d" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Directory prepended to the path to each file being compiled.  This will
+appear in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the
+byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in
+cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is
+executed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-x">
+<code class="descname">-x</code><code class="descclassname"> regex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-x" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>regex is used to search the full path to each file considered for
+compilation, and if the regex produces a match, the file is skipped.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-i">
+<code class="descname">-i</code><code class="descclassname"> list</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-i" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read the file <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code> and add each line that it contains to the list of
+files and directories to compile.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, read lines from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-b">
+<code class="descname">-b</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-b" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the byte-code files to their legacy locations and names, which may
+overwrite byte-code files created by another version of Python.  The default
+is to write files to their <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> locations and names, which allows
+byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to coexist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-r">
+<code class="descname">-r</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-r" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Control the maximum recursion level for subdirectories.
+If this is given, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code> option will not be taken into account.
+<strong class="program">python -m compileall &lt;directory&gt; -r 0</strong> is equivalent to
+<strong class="program">python -m compileall &lt;directory&gt; -l</strong>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-j">
+<code class="descname">-j</code><code class="descclassname"> N</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-j" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use <em>N</em> workers to compile the files within the given directory.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is used, then the result of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.cpu_count" title="os.cpu_count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.cpu_count()</span></code></a>
+will be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode">
+<code class="descname">--invalidation-mode</code><code class="descclassname"> [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Control how the generated byte-code files are invalidated at runtime.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timestamp</span></code> value, means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files with the source timestamp
+and size embedded will be generated. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">checked-hash</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unchecked-hash</span></code> values cause hash-based pycs to be generated. Hash-based
+pycs embed a hash of the source file contents rather than a timestamp. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#pyc-invalidation"><span class="std std-ref">Cached bytecode invalidation</span></a> for more information on how Python validates
+bytecode cache files at runtime.
+The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timestamp</span></code> if the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code> environment
+variable is not set, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">checked-hash</span></code> if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code>
+environment variable is set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code> options.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-j</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-r</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-qq</span></code> options.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code> option
+was changed to a multilevel value.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> will always produce a
+byte-code file ending in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>, never <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--invalidation-mode</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+<p>There is no command-line option to control the optimization level used by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function, because the Python interpreter itself already
+provides the option: <strong class="program">python -O -m compileall</strong>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="public-functions">
+<h2>Public functions<a class="headerlink" href="#public-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="compileall.compile_dir">
+<code class="descclassname">compileall.</code><code class="descname">compile_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dir</em>, <em>maxlevels=10</em>, <em>ddir=None</em>, <em>force=False</em>, <em>rx=None</em>, <em>quiet=0</em>, <em>legacy=False</em>, <em>optimize=-1</em>, <em>workers=1</em>, <em>invalidation_mode=py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#compileall.compile_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Recursively descend the directory tree named by <em>dir</em>, compiling all <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code>
+files along the way. Return a true value if all the files compiled successfully,
+and a false value otherwise.</p>
+<p>The <em>maxlevels</em> parameter is used to limit the depth of the recursion; it
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>ddir</em> is given, it is prepended to the path to each file being compiled
+for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the
+byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in
+cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is
+executed.</p>
+<p>If <em>force</em> is true, modules are re-compiled even if the timestamps are up to
+date.</p>
+<p>If <em>rx</em> is given, its search method is called on the complete path to each
+file considered for compilation, and if it returns a true value, the file
+is skipped.</p>
+<p>If <em>quiet</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (the default), the filenames and other
+information are printed to standard out. Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, only errors are
+printed. Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, all output is suppressed.</p>
+<p>If <em>legacy</em> is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy locations
+and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of
+Python.  The default is to write files to their <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> locations and
+names, which allows byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to
+coexist.</p>
+<p><em>optimize</em> specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It is passed to
+the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>The argument <em>workers</em> specifies how many workers are used to
+compile files in parallel. The default is to not use multiple workers.
+If the platform can’t use multiple workers and <em>workers</em> argument is given,
+then sequential compilation will be used as a fallback.  If <em>workers</em> is
+lower than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p><em>invalidation_mode</em> should be a member of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode" title="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile.PycInvalidationMode</span></code></a> enum and controls how the generated
+pycs are invalidated at runtime.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>legacy</em> and <em>optimize</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>workers</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>quiet</em> parameter was changed to a multilevel value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>legacy</em> parameter only writes out <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files, not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files
+no matter what the value of <em>optimize</em> is.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>invalidation_mode</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="compileall.compile_file">
+<code class="descclassname">compileall.</code><code class="descname">compile_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>ddir=None</em>, <em>force=False</em>, <em>rx=None</em>, <em>quiet=0</em>, <em>legacy=False</em>, <em>optimize=-1</em>, <em>invalidation_mode=py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#compileall.compile_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compile the file with path <em>fullname</em>. Return a true value if the file
+compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.</p>
+<p>If <em>ddir</em> is given, it is prepended to the path to the file being compiled
+for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the
+byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in
+cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is
+executed.</p>
+<p>If <em>rx</em> is given, its search method is passed the full path name to the
+file being compiled, and if it returns a true value, the file is not
+compiled and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>If <em>quiet</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (the default), the filenames and other
+information are printed to standard out. Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, only errors are
+printed. Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, all output is suppressed.</p>
+<p>If <em>legacy</em> is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy locations
+and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of
+Python.  The default is to write files to their <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> locations and
+names, which allows byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to
+coexist.</p>
+<p><em>optimize</em> specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It is passed to
+the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p><em>invalidation_mode</em> should be a member of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="py_compile.html#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode" title="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile.PycInvalidationMode</span></code></a> enum and controls how the generated
+pycs are invalidated at runtime.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>quiet</em> parameter was changed to a multilevel value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>legacy</em> parameter only writes out <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files, not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files
+no matter what the value of <em>optimize</em> is.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>invalidation_mode</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="compileall.compile_path">
+<code class="descclassname">compileall.</code><code class="descname">compile_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>skip_curdir=True</em>, <em>maxlevels=0</em>, <em>force=False</em>, <em>quiet=0</em>, <em>legacy=False</em>, <em>optimize=-1</em>, <em>invalidation_mode=py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#compileall.compile_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Byte-compile all the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files found along <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>. Return a
+true value if all the files compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.</p>
+<p>If <em>skip_curdir</em> is true (the default), the current directory is not included
+in the search.  All other parameters are passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#compileall.compile_dir" title="compileall.compile_dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_dir()</span></code></a>
+function.  Note that unlike the other compile functions, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxlevels</span></code>
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>legacy</em> and <em>optimize</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>quiet</em> parameter was changed to a multilevel value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>legacy</em> parameter only writes out <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files, not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files
+no matter what the value of <em>optimize</em> is.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>invalidation_mode</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To force a recompile of all the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/</span></code>
+subdirectory and all its subdirectories:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">compileall</span>
+
+<span class="n">compileall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile_dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Lib/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">force</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories.</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="n">compileall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile_dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Lib/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;[/</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">][.]svn&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">force</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># pathlib.Path objects can also be used.</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pathlib</span>
+<span class="n">compileall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile_dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Lib/&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">force</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Byte-compile a single source file.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code> — Byte-compile Python libraries</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-use">Command-line use</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#public-functions">Public functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="py_compile.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code> — Compile Python source files</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="dis.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code> — Disassembler for Python bytecode</a></p>
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/concurrency.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/concurrency.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Concurrent Execution &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="concurrent-execution">
+<span id="concurrency"></span><h1>Concurrent Execution<a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent-execution" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide support for concurrent
+execution of code. The appropriate choice of tool will depend on the
+task to be executed (CPU bound vs IO bound) and preferred style of
+development (event driven cooperative multitasking vs preemptive
+multitasking). Here’s an overview:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> — Thread-based parallelism</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#thread-local-data">Thread-Local Data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#thread-objects">Thread Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#lock-objects">Lock Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#rlock-objects">RLock Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#condition-objects">Condition Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#semaphore-objects">Semaphore Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#semaphore-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code> Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#event-objects">Event Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#timer-objects">Timer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#barrier-objects">Barrier Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement">Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> — Process-based parallelism</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#introduction">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#the-process-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code> class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#contexts-and-start-methods">Contexts and start methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#exchanging-objects-between-processes">Exchanging objects between processes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#synchronization-between-processes">Synchronization between processes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#sharing-state-between-processes">Sharing state between processes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#using-a-pool-of-workers">Using a pool of workers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#reference">Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#process-and-exceptions"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code> and exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#pipes-and-queues">Pipes and Queues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#connection-objects">Connection Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#synchronization-primitives">Synchronization primitives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#shared-ctypes-objects">Shared <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#managers">Managers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#customized-managers">Customized managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#using-a-remote-manager">Using a remote manager</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#replacing-os-system">Replacing <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#replacing-the-os-spawn-family">Replacing the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.spawn</span></code> family</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen3">Replacing <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen2()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen3()</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module">Replacing functions from the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#legacy-shell-invocation-functions">Legacy Shell Invocation Functions</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows">Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
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+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sched.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code> — Event scheduler</a><ul>
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+</ul>
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+</ul>
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+</ul>
+</div>
+<p>The following are support modules for some of the above services:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="dummy_threading.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code> — Drop-in replacement for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> module</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-concurrent.futures">
+<span id="concurrent-futures-launching-parallel-tasks"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> — Launching parallel tasks<a class="headerlink" href="#module-concurrent.futures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py">Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py</a>
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py">Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> module provides a high-level interface for
+asynchronously executing callables.</p>
+<p>The asynchronous execution can be performed with threads, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>, or separate processes, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a>.  Both implement the same interface, which is
+defined by the abstract <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<div class="section" id="executor-objects">
+<h2>Executor Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#executor-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Executor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">Executor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract class that provides methods to execute calls asynchronously.  It
+should not be used directly, but through its concrete subclasses.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Executor.submit">
+<code class="descname">submit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fn</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedules the callable, <em>fn</em>, to be executed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fn(*args</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code>
+and returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> object representing the execution of the
+callable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_workers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">future</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">323</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1235</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">future</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Executor.map">
+<code class="descname">map</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*iterables</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>chunksize=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(func,</span> <span class="pre">*iterables)</span></code></a> except:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the <em>iterables</em> are collected immediately rather than lazily;</p></li>
+<li><p><em>func</em> is executed asynchronously and several calls to
+<em>func</em> may be made concurrently.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The returned iterator raises a <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.TimeoutError" title="concurrent.futures.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.TimeoutError</span></code></a>
+if <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> is called and the result isn’t available
+after <em>timeout</em> seconds from the original call to <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.map" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.map()</span></code></a>.
+<em>timeout</em> can be an int or a float.  If <em>timeout</em> is not specified or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, there is no limit to the wait time.</p>
+<p>If a <em>func</em> call raises an exception, then that exception will be
+raised when its value is retrieved from the iterator.</p>
+<p>When using <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a>, this method chops <em>iterables</em>
+into a number of chunks which it submits to the pool as separate
+tasks.  The (approximate) size of these chunks can be specified by
+setting <em>chunksize</em> to a positive integer.  For very long iterables,
+using a large value for <em>chunksize</em> can significantly improve
+performance compared to the default size of 1.  With
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>, <em>chunksize</em> has no effect.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>chunksize</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown">
+<code class="descname">shutdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>wait=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signal the executor that it should free any resources that it is using
+when the currently pending futures are done executing.  Calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.submit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.submit()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.map" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.map()</span></code></a> made after shutdown will
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>wait</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> then this method will not return until all the
+pending futures are done executing and the resources associated with the
+executor have been freed.  If <em>wait</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then this method will
+return immediately and the resources associated with the executor will be
+freed when all pending futures are done executing.  Regardless of the
+value of <em>wait</em>, the entire Python program will not exit until all
+pending futures are done executing.</p>
+<p>You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, which will shutdown the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a>
+(waiting as if <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.shutdown()</span></code></a> were called with <em>wait</em> set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_workers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src1.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest1.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src2.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest2.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src3.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest3.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src4.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest4.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="threadpoolexecutor">
+<h2>ThreadPoolExecutor<a class="headerlink" href="#threadpoolexecutor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> is an <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> subclass that uses a pool of
+threads to execute calls asynchronously.</p>
+<p>Deadlocks can occur when the callable associated with a <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> waits on
+the results of another <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wait_on_b</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">())</span>  <span class="c1"># b will never complete because it is waiting on a.</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wait_on_a</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">())</span>  <span class="c1"># a will never complete because it is waiting on b.</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">executor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_workers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wait_on_b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wait_on_a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wait_on_future</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># This will never complete because there is only one worker thread and</span>
+    <span class="c1"># it is executing this function.</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">executor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_workers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">executor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wait_on_future</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">ThreadPoolExecutor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>max_workers=None</em>, <em>thread_name_prefix=''</em>, <em>initializer=None</em>, <em>initargs=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> subclass that uses a pool of at most <em>max_workers</em>
+threads to execute calls asynchronously.</p>
+<p><em>initializer</em> is an optional callable that is called at the start of
+each worker thread; <em>initargs</em> is a tuple of arguments passed to the
+initializer.  Should <em>initializer</em> raise an exception, all currently
+pending jobs will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool" title="concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenThreadPool</span></code></a>,
+as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If <em>max_workers</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or
+not given, it will default to the number of processors on the machine,
+multiplied by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>, assuming that <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> is often
+used to overlap I/O instead of CPU work and the number of workers
+should be higher than the number of workers
+for <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>The <em>thread_name_prefix</em> argument was added to allow users to
+control the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a> names for worker threads created by
+the pool for easier debugging.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>initializer</em> and <em>initargs</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="threadpoolexecutor-example">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>ThreadPoolExecutor Example<a class="headerlink" href="#threadpoolexecutor-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">concurrent.futures</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+
+<span class="n">URLS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.foxnews.com/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.cnn.com/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;http://europe.wsj.com/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.bbc.co.uk/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;http://some-made-up-domain.com/&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load_url</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timeout</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># We can use a with statement to ensure threads are cleaned up promptly</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">concurrent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">futures</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_workers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Start the load operations and mark each future with its URL</span>
+    <span class="n">future_to_url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">executor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">load_url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="n">url</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">url</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">URLS</span><span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">future</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">concurrent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">futures</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_completed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">future_to_url</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">future_to_url</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">future</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">future</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1"> generated an exception: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1"> page is </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> bytes&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="processpoolexecutor">
+<h2>ProcessPoolExecutor<a class="headerlink" href="#processpoolexecutor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> class is an <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> subclass that
+uses a pool of processes to execute calls asynchronously.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> uses the <a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module, which
+allows it to side-step the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">Global Interpreter Lock</span></a> but also means that
+only picklable objects can be executed and returned.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> module must be importable by worker subprocesses. This means
+that <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> will not work in the interactive interpreter.</p>
+<p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> methods from a callable submitted
+to a <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> will result in deadlock.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">ProcessPoolExecutor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>max_workers=None</em>, <em>mp_context=None</em>, <em>initializer=None</em>, <em>initargs=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> subclass that executes calls asynchronously using a pool
+of at most <em>max_workers</em> processes.  If <em>max_workers</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not
+given, it will default to the number of processors on the machine.
+If <em>max_workers</em> is lower or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, then a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+will be raised.
+On Windows, <em>max_workers</em> must be equal or lower than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">61</span></code>. If it is not
+then <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised. If <em>max_workers</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then
+the default chosen will be at most <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">61</span></code>, even if more processors are
+available.
+<em>mp_context</em> can be a multiprocessing context or None. It will be used to
+launch the workers. If <em>mp_context</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not given, the default
+multiprocessing context is used.</p>
+<p><em>initializer</em> is an optional callable that is called at the start of
+each worker process; <em>initargs</em> is a tuple of arguments passed to the
+initializer.  Should <em>initializer</em> raise an exception, all currently
+pending jobs will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool" title="concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenProcessPool</span></code></a>,
+as well any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>When one of the worker processes terminates abruptly, a
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenProcessPool</span></code> error is now raised.  Previously, behaviour
+was undefined but operations on the executor or its futures would often
+freeze or deadlock.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>mp_context</em> argument was added to allow users to control the
+start_method for worker processes created by the pool.</p>
+<p>Added the <em>initializer</em> and <em>initargs</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="processpoolexecutor-example">
+<span id="id2"></span><h3>ProcessPoolExecutor Example<a class="headerlink" href="#processpoolexecutor-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">concurrent.futures</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+
+<span class="n">PRIMES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+    <span class="mi">112272535095293</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="mi">112582705942171</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="mi">112272535095293</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="mi">115280095190773</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="mi">115797848077099</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="mi">1099726899285419</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">is_prime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+
+    <span class="n">sqrt_n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">floor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sqrt_n</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">concurrent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">futures</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProcessPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">prime</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PRIMES</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">executor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">is_prime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PRIMES</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> is prime: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">prime</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="future-objects">
+<h2>Future Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#future-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> class encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> instances are created by <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.submit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.submit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">Future</code><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable.  <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a>
+instances are created by <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.submit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.submit()</span></code></a> and should not be created
+directly except for testing.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.cancel">
+<code class="descname">cancel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.cancel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attempt to cancel the call.  If the call is currently being executed or
+finished running and cannot be cancelled then the method will return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, otherwise the call will be cancelled and the method will
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.cancelled">
+<code class="descname">cancelled</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.cancelled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the call was successfully cancelled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.running">
+<code class="descname">running</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.running" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the call is currently being executed and cannot be
+cancelled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.done">
+<code class="descname">done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the call was successfully cancelled or finished
+running.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.result">
+<code class="descname">result</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.result" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value returned by the call. If the call hasn’t yet completed
+then this method will wait up to <em>timeout</em> seconds.  If the call hasn’t
+completed in <em>timeout</em> seconds, then a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.TimeoutError" title="concurrent.futures.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.TimeoutError</span></code></a> will be raised. <em>timeout</em> can be
+an int or float.  If <em>timeout</em> is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, there is no
+limit to the wait time.</p>
+<p>If the future is cancelled before completing then <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.CancelledError" title="concurrent.futures.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a>
+will be raised.</p>
+<p>If the call raised, this method will raise the same exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.exception">
+<code class="descname">exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the exception raised by the call.  If the call hasn’t yet
+completed then this method will wait up to <em>timeout</em> seconds.  If the
+call hasn’t completed in <em>timeout</em> seconds, then a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.TimeoutError" title="concurrent.futures.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.TimeoutError</span></code></a> will be raised.  <em>timeout</em> can be
+an int or float.  If <em>timeout</em> is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, there is no
+limit to the wait time.</p>
+<p>If the future is cancelled before completing then <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.CancelledError" title="concurrent.futures.CancelledError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CancelledError</span></code></a>
+will be raised.</p>
+<p>If the call completed without raising, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.add_done_callback">
+<code class="descname">add_done_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fn</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.add_done_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attaches the callable <em>fn</em> to the future.  <em>fn</em> will be called, with the
+future as its only argument, when the future is cancelled or finishes
+running.</p>
+<p>Added callables are called in the order that they were added and are
+always called in a thread belonging to the process that added them.  If
+the callable raises an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> subclass, it will be logged and
+ignored.  If the callable raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> subclass, the
+behavior is undefined.</p>
+<p>If the future has already completed or been cancelled, <em>fn</em> will be
+called immediately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The following <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> methods are meant for use in unit tests and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> implementations.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.set_running_or_notify_cancel">
+<code class="descname">set_running_or_notify_cancel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.set_running_or_notify_cancel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method should only be called by <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> implementations
+before executing the work associated with the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> and by unit
+tests.</p>
+<p>If the method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> was cancelled,
+i.e. <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.cancel" title="concurrent.futures.Future.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.cancel()</span></code></a> was called and returned <cite>True</cite>.  Any threads
+waiting on the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> completing (i.e. through
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.as_completed" title="concurrent.futures.as_completed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_completed()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.wait" title="concurrent.futures.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>) will be woken up.</p>
+<p>If the method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> then the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> was not cancelled
+and has been put in the running state, i.e. calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.running" title="concurrent.futures.Future.running"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.running()</span></code></a> will return <cite>True</cite>.</p>
+<p>This method can only be called once and cannot be called after
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.set_result" title="concurrent.futures.Future.set_result"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.set_result()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.set_exception" title="concurrent.futures.Future.set_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.set_exception()</span></code></a> have been
+called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.set_result">
+<code class="descname">set_result</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>result</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.set_result" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the result of the work associated with the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> to
+<em>result</em>.</p>
+<p>This method should only be used by <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> implementations and
+unit tests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.Future.set_exception">
+<code class="descname">set_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.Future.set_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the result of the work associated with the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> <em>exception</em>.</p>
+<p>This method should only be used by <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> implementations and
+unit tests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-functions">
+<h2>Module Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.wait">
+<code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fs</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>return_when=ALL_COMPLETED</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> instances (possibly created by different
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> instances) given by <em>fs</em> to complete.  Returns a named
+2-tuple of sets.  The first set, named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">done</span></code>, contains the futures that
+completed (finished or cancelled futures) before the wait completed.  The
+second set, named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not_done</span></code>, contains the futures that did not complete
+(pending or running futures).</p>
+<p><em>timeout</em> can be used to control the maximum number of seconds to wait before
+returning.  <em>timeout</em> can be an int or float.  If <em>timeout</em> is not specified
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, there is no limit to the wait time.</p>
+<p><em>return_when</em> indicates when this function should return.  It must be one of
+the following constants:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIRST_COMPLETED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The function will return when any
+future finishes or is cancelled.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIRST_EXCEPTION</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The function will return when any
+future finishes by raising an
+exception.  If no future raises an
+exception then it is equivalent to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALL_COMPLETED</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALL_COMPLETED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The function will return when all
+futures finish or are cancelled.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.as_completed">
+<code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">as_completed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fs</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.as_completed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an iterator over the <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> instances (possibly created by
+different <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.Executor" title="concurrent.futures.Executor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor</span></code></a> instances) given by <em>fs</em> that yields futures as
+they complete (finished or cancelled futures). Any futures given by <em>fs</em> that
+are duplicated will be returned once. Any futures that completed before
+<a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.as_completed" title="concurrent.futures.as_completed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_completed()</span></code></a> is called will be yielded first.  The returned iterator
+raises a <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.TimeoutError" title="concurrent.futures.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.TimeoutError</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a>
+is called and the result isn’t available after <em>timeout</em> seconds from the
+original call to <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.as_completed" title="concurrent.futures.as_completed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_completed()</span></code></a>.  <em>timeout</em> can be an int or float. If
+<em>timeout</em> is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, there is no limit to the wait time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3148"><strong>PEP 3148</strong></a> – futures - execute computations asynchronously</dt><dd><p>The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python
+standard library.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exception-classes">
+<h2>Exception classes<a class="headerlink" href="#exception-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.CancelledError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">CancelledError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.CancelledError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a future is cancelled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.TimeoutError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">TimeoutError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.TimeoutError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a future operation exceeds the given timeout.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.</code><code class="descname">BrokenExecutor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Derived from <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>, this exception class is raised
+when an executor is broken for some reason, and cannot be used
+to submit or execute new tasks.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.thread.</code><code class="descname">BrokenThreadPool</code><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenExecutor</span></code></a>, this exception
+class is raised when one of the workers of a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code>
+has failed initializing.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">concurrent.futures.process.</code><code class="descname">BrokenProcessPool</code><a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenExecutor</span></code></a> (formerly
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>), this exception class is raised when one of the
+workers of a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code> has terminated in a non-clean
+fashion (for example, if it was killed from the outside).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#executor-objects">Executor Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threadpoolexecutor">ThreadPoolExecutor</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threadpoolexecutor-example">ThreadPoolExecutor Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#processpoolexecutor-example">ProcessPoolExecutor Example</a></li>
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+</li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-functions">Module Functions</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/concurrent.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/concurrent.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aee296c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/concurrent.html
@@ -0,0 +1,187 @@
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+<h1>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent</span></code> package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-concurrent-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Currently, there is only one module in this package:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> – Launching parallel tasks</p></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/configparser.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/configparser.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a2c1f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/configparser.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1442 @@
+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-configparser">
+<span id="configparser-configuration-file-parser"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> — Configuration file parser<a class="headerlink" href="#module-configparser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/configparser.py">Lib/configparser.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides the <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a> class which implements a basic
+configuration language which provides a structure similar to what’s found in
+Microsoft Windows INI files.  You can use this to write Python programs which
+can be customized by end users easily.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This library does <em>not</em> interpret or write the value-type prefixes used in
+the Windows Registry extended version of INI syntax.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support for creating Unix shell-like mini-languages which can be used as
+an alternate format for application configuration files.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The json module implements a subset of JavaScript syntax which can also
+be used for this purpose.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="quick-start">
+<h2>Quick Start<a class="headerlink" href="#quick-start" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s take a very basic configuration file that looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[DEFAULT]</span>
+<span class="na">ServerAliveInterval</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">45</span>
+<span class="na">Compression</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">yes</span>
+<span class="na">CompressionLevel</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">9</span>
+<span class="na">ForwardX11</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">yes</span>
+
+<span class="k">[bitbucket.org]</span>
+<span class="na">User</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">hg</span>
+
+<span class="k">[topsecret.server.com]</span>
+<span class="na">Port</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">50022</span>
+<span class="na">ForwardX11</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">no</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The structure of INI files is described <a class="reference external" href="#supported-ini-file-structure">in the following section</a>.  Essentially, the file
+consists of sections, each of which contains keys with values.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> classes can read and write such files.  Let’s start by
+creating the above configuration file programmatically.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEFAULT&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;ServerAliveInterval&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;45&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                     <span class="s1">&#39;Compression&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;yes&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                     <span class="s1">&#39;CompressionLevel&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;9&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;User&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hg&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;topsecret.server.com&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;topsecret.server.com&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Port&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;50022&#39;</span>     <span class="c1"># mutates the parser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;ForwardX11&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;no&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># same here</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEFAULT&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;ForwardX11&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;yes&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.ini&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">configfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">configfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you can see, we can treat a config parser much like a dictionary.
+There are differences, <a class="reference external" href="#mapping-protocol-access">outlined later</a>, but
+the behavior is very close to what you would expect from a dictionary.</p>
+<p>Now that we have created and saved a configuration file, let’s read it
+back and explore the data it holds.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sections</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.ini&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;example.ini&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sections</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;, &#39;topsecret.server.com&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">config</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;bytebong.com&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">config</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;User&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;hg&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEFAULT&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;Compression&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;yes&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;topsecret.server.com&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;ForwardX11&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;no&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Port&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;50022&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">]:</span>  
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">user</span>
+<span class="go">compressionlevel</span>
+<span class="go">serveraliveinterval</span>
+<span class="go">compression</span>
+<span class="go">forwardx11</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;ForwardX11&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;yes&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As we can see above, the API is pretty straightforward.  The only bit of magic
+involves the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code> section which provides default values for all other
+sections <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id1">1</a>.  Note also that keys in sections are
+case-insensitive and stored in lowercase <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id2">1</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="supported-datatypes">
+<h2>Supported Datatypes<a class="headerlink" href="#supported-datatypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Config parsers do not guess datatypes of values in configuration files, always
+storing them internally as strings.  This means that if you need other
+datatypes, you should convert on your own:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Port&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">50022</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;CompressionLevel&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">9.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since this task is so common, config parsers provide a range of handy getter
+methods to handle integers, floats and booleans.  The last one is the most
+interesting because simply passing the value to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool()</span></code> would do no good
+since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool('False')</span></code> is still <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  This is why config parsers also
+provide <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getboolean()</span></code></a>.  This method is case-insensitive and
+recognizes Boolean values from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'yes'</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'no'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'on'</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'off'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'true'</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'false'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1'</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id3">1</a>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ForwardX11&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ForwardX11&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Compression&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Apart from <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getboolean()</span></code></a>, config parsers also
+provide equivalent <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getint" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getint()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfloat()</span></code></a> methods.  You can register your own
+converters and customize the provided ones. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id4">1</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fallback-values">
+<h2>Fallback Values<a class="headerlink" href="#fallback-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As with a dictionary, you can use a section’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> method to
+provide fallback values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Port&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;50022&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;CompressionLevel&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;9&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Cipher&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Cipher&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;3des-cbc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3des-cbc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Please note that default values have precedence over fallback values.
+For instance, in our example the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'CompressionLevel'</span></code> key was
+specified only in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'DEFAULT'</span></code> section.  If we try to get it from
+the section <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'topsecret.server.com'</span></code>, we will always get the default,
+even if we specify a fallback:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;CompressionLevel&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;3&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;9&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One more thing to be aware of is that the parser-level <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> method
+provides a custom, more complex interface, maintained for backwards
+compatibility.  When using this method, a fallback value can be provided via
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fallback</span></code> keyword-only argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bitbucket.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;monster&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>           <span class="n">fallback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;No such things as monsters&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;No such things as monsters&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fallback</span></code> argument can be used with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getint" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getint()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfloat()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getboolean()</span></code></a> methods, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;BatchMode&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">topsecret</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;BatchMode&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fallback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;DEFAULT&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;BatchMode&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;no&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">topsecret</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;BatchMode&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fallback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="supported-ini-file-structure">
+<h2>Supported INI File Structure<a class="headerlink" href="#supported-ini-file-structure" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A configuration file consists of sections, each led by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[section]</span></code> header,
+followed by key/value entries separated by a specific string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code> by
+default <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id5">1</a>).  By default, section names are case sensitive but keys are not
+<a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id6">1</a>.  Leading and trailing whitespace is removed from keys and values.
+Values can be omitted, in which case the key/value delimiter may also be left
+out.  Values can also span multiple lines, as long as they are indented deeper
+than the first line of the value.  Depending on the parser’s mode, blank lines
+may be treated as parts of multiline values or ignored.</p>
+<p>Configuration files may include comments, prefixed by specific
+characters (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;</span></code> by default <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id7">1</a>).  Comments may appear on
+their own on an otherwise empty line, possibly indented. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id8">1</a></p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[Simple Values]</span>
+<span class="na">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">value</span>
+<span class="na">spaces in keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">allowed</span>
+<span class="na">spaces in values</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">allowed as well</span>
+<span class="na">spaces around the delimiter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">obviously</span>
+<span class="na">you can also use : to delimit keys from values</span>
+
+<span class="k">[All Values Are Strings]</span>
+<span class="na">values like this: 1000000</span>
+<span class="na">or this: 3.14159265359</span>
+<span class="na">are they treated as numbers? : no</span>
+<span class="na">integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings</span>
+<span class="na">can use the API to get converted values directly: true</span>
+
+<span class="k">[Multiline Values]</span>
+<span class="na">chorus: I&#39;m a lumberjack, and I&#39;m okay</span>
+    <span class="na">I sleep all night and I work all day</span>
+
+<span class="k">[No Values]</span>
+<span class="na">key_without_value</span>
+<span class="na">empty string value here</span> <span class="o">=</span>
+
+<span class="k">[You can use comments]</span>
+<span class="c1"># like this</span>
+<span class="c1">; or this</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># By default only in an empty line.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Inline comments can be harmful because they prevent users</span>
+<span class="c1"># from using the delimiting characters as parts of values.</span>
+<span class="c1"># That being said, this can be customized.</span>
+
+    <span class="k">[Sections Can Be Indented]</span>
+        <span class="na">can_values_be_as_well</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">True</span>
+<span class="s">        does_that_mean_anything_special = False</span>
+<span class="s">        purpose = formatting for readability</span>
+<span class="s">        multiline_values = are</span>
+<span class="s">            handled just fine as</span>
+<span class="s">            long as they are indented</span>
+<span class="s">            deeper than the first line</span>
+<span class="s">            of a value</span>
+<span class="s">        # Did I mention we can indent comments, too?</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interpolation-of-values">
+<h2>Interpolation of values<a class="headerlink" href="#interpolation-of-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>On top of the core functionality, <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a> supports
+interpolation.  This means values can be preprocessed before returning them
+from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> calls.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt id="configparser.BasicInterpolation">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">BasicInterpolation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.BasicInterpolation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default implementation used by <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>.  It enables
+values to contain format strings which refer to other values in the same
+section, or values in the special default section <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id9">1</a>.  Additional default
+values can be provided on initialization.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[Paths]</span>
+<span class="na">home_dir: /Users</span>
+<span class="na">my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack</span>
+<span class="na">my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the example above, <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a> with <em>interpolation</em> set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BasicInterpolation()</span></code> would resolve <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(home_dir)s</span></code> to the value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">home_dir</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/Users</span></code> in this case).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(my_dir)s</span></code> in effect would
+resolve to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/Users/lumberjack</span></code>.  All interpolations are done on demand so
+keys used in the chain of references do not have to be specified in any
+specific order in the configuration file.</p>
+<p>With <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interpolation</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the parser would simply return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(my_dir)s/Pictures</span></code> as the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">my_pictures</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(home_dir)s/lumberjack</span></code> as the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">my_dir</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt id="configparser.ExtendedInterpolation">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">ExtendedInterpolation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ExtendedInterpolation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alternative handler for interpolation which implements a more advanced
+syntax, used for instance in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zc.buildout</span></code>.  Extended interpolation is
+using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">${section:option}</span></code> to denote a value from a foreign section.
+Interpolation can span multiple levels.  For convenience, if the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">section:</span></code> part is omitted, interpolation defaults to the current section
+(and possibly the default values from the special section).</p>
+<p>For example, the configuration specified above with basic interpolation,
+would look like this with extended interpolation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[Paths]</span>
+<span class="na">home_dir: /Users</span>
+<span class="na">my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack</span>
+<span class="na">my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Values from other sections can be fetched as well:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[Common]</span>
+<span class="na">home_dir: /Users</span>
+<span class="na">library_dir: /Library</span>
+<span class="na">system_dir: /System</span>
+<span class="na">macports_dir: /opt/local</span>
+
+<span class="k">[Frameworks]</span>
+<span class="na">Python: 3.2</span>
+<span class="na">path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/</span>
+
+<span class="k">[Arthur]</span>
+<span class="na">nickname: Two Sheds</span>
+<span class="na">last_name: Jackson</span>
+<span class="na">my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds</span>
+<span class="na">my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures</span>
+<span class="na">python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mapping-protocol-access">
+<h2>Mapping Protocol Access<a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-protocol-access" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Mapping protocol access is a generic name for functionality that enables using
+custom objects as if they were dictionaries.  In case of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a>,
+the mapping interface implementation is using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser['section']['option']</span></code> notation.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser['section']</span></code> in particular returns a proxy for the section’s data in
+the parser.  This means that the values are not copied but they are taken from
+the original parser on demand.  What’s even more important is that when values
+are changed on a section proxy, they are actually mutated in the original
+parser.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> objects behave as close to actual dictionaries as possible.
+The mapping interface is complete and adheres to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code></a> ABC.
+However, there are a few differences that should be taken into account:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>By default, all keys in sections are accessible in a case-insensitive manner
+<a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id10">1</a>.  E.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">option</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">parser[&quot;section&quot;]</span></code> yields only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optionxform</span></code>’ed
+option key names.  This means lowercased keys by default.  At the same time,
+for a section that holds the key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, both expressions return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;section&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;A&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;section&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>All sections include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULTSECT</span></code> values as well which means that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.clear()</span></code> on a section may not leave the section visibly empty.  This is
+because default values cannot be deleted from the section (because technically
+they are not there).  If they are overridden in the section, deleting causes
+the default value to be visible again.  Trying to delete a default value
+causes a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULTSECT</span></code> cannot be removed from the parser:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>trying to delete it raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.clear()</span></code> leaves it intact,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.popitem()</span></code> never returns it.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.get(section,</span> <span class="pre">option,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code> - the second argument is <strong>not</strong>
+a fallback value.  Note however that the section-level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> methods are
+compatible both with the mapping protocol and the classic configparser API.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.items()</span></code> is compatible with the mapping protocol (returns a list of
+<em>section_name</em>, <em>section_proxy</em> pairs including the DEFAULTSECT).  However,
+this method can also be invoked with arguments: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.items(section,</span> <span class="pre">raw,</span>
+<span class="pre">vars)</span></code>.  The latter call returns a list of <em>option</em>, <em>value</em> pairs for
+a specified <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">section</span></code>, with all interpolations expanded (unless
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw=True</span></code> is provided).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The mapping protocol is implemented on top of the existing legacy API so that
+subclasses overriding the original interface still should have mappings working
+as expected.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-parser-behaviour">
+<h2>Customizing Parser Behaviour<a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-parser-behaviour" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are nearly as many INI format variants as there are applications using it.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> goes a long way to provide support for the largest sensible
+set of INI styles available.  The default functionality is mainly dictated by
+historical background and it’s very likely that you will want to customize some
+of the features.</p>
+<p>The most common way to change the way a specific config parser works is to use
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> options:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>defaults</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+<p>This option accepts a dictionary of key-value pairs which will be initially
+put in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code> section.  This makes for an elegant way to support
+concise configuration files that don’t specify values which are the same as
+the documented default.</p>
+<p>Hint: if you want to specify default values for a specific section, use
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_dict()</span></code> before you read the actual file.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>dict_type</em>, default value: <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a></p>
+<p>This option has a major impact on how the mapping protocol will behave and how
+the written configuration files look.  With the default ordered
+dictionary, every section is stored in the order they were added to the
+parser.  Same goes for options within sections.</p>
+<p>An alternative dictionary type can be used for example to sort sections and
+options on write-back.  You can also use a regular dictionary for performance
+reasons.</p>
+<p>Please note: there are ways to add a set of key-value pairs in a single
+operation.  When you use a regular dictionary in those operations, the order
+of the keys will be ordered because dict preserves order from Python 3.7.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_dict</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;section1&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;key1&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;value1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                               <span class="s1">&#39;key2&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;value2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                               <span class="s1">&#39;key3&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;value3&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                  <span class="s1">&#39;section2&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;keyA&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;valueA&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                               <span class="s1">&#39;keyB&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;valueB&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                               <span class="s1">&#39;keyC&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;valueC&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                  <span class="s1">&#39;section3&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                               <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                               <span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sections</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;section1&#39;, &#39;section2&#39;, &#39;section3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">option</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">option</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;section3&#39;</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;foo&#39;, &#39;bar&#39;, &#39;baz&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>allow_no_value</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></p>
+<p>Some configuration files are known to include settings without values, but
+which otherwise conform to the syntax supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a>.  The
+<em>allow_no_value</em> parameter to the constructor can be used to
+indicate that such values should be accepted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sample_config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[mysqld]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  user = mysql</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  skip-external-locking</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  old_passwords = 1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  skip-bdb</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  # we don&#39;t need ACID today</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  skip-innodb</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">allow_no_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sample_config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Settings with values are treated as before:</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;mysqld&quot;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s2">&quot;user&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;mysql&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Settings without values provide None:</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;mysqld&quot;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s2">&quot;skip-bdb&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Settings which aren&#39;t specified still raise an error:</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;mysqld&quot;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s2">&quot;does-not-exist&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;does-not-exist&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>delimiters</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('=',</span> <span class="pre">':')</span></code></p>
+<p>Delimiters are substrings that delimit keys from values within a section.
+The first occurrence of a delimiting substring on a line is considered
+a delimiter.  This means values (but not keys) can contain the delimiters.</p>
+<p>See also the <em>space_around_delimiters</em> argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.write" title="configparser.ConfigParser.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser.write()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>comment_prefixes</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('#',</span> <span class="pre">';')</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><em>inline_comment_prefixes</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+<p>Comment prefixes are strings that indicate the start of a valid comment within
+a config file. <em>comment_prefixes</em> are used only on otherwise empty lines
+(optionally indented) whereas <em>inline_comment_prefixes</em> can be used after
+every valid value (e.g. section names, options and empty lines as well).  By
+default inline comments are disabled and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">';'</span></code> are used as
+prefixes for whole line comments.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>In previous versions of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> behaviour matched
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comment_prefixes=('#',';')</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inline_comment_prefixes=(';',)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Please note that config parsers don’t support escaping of comment prefixes so
+using <em>inline_comment_prefixes</em> may prevent users from specifying option
+values with characters used as comment prefixes.  When in doubt, avoid
+setting <em>inline_comment_prefixes</em>.  In any circumstances, the only way of
+storing comment prefix characters at the beginning of a line in multiline
+values is to interpolate the prefix, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ExtendedInterpolation</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">interpolation</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ExtendedInterpolation</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[DEFAULT]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">hash = #</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[hashes]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">shebang =</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  $</span><span class="si">{hash}</span><span class="s2">!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  $</span><span class="si">{hash}</span><span class="s2"> -*- coding: utf-8 -*-</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">extensions =</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  enabled_extension</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  another_extension</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  #disabled_by_comment</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  yet_another_extension</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">even in multiline values = line #1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  line #2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  line #3</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;hashes&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;shebang&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="go">#!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+<span class="go"># -*- coding: utf-8 -*-</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;hashes&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;extensions&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="go">enabled_extension</span>
+<span class="go">another_extension</span>
+<span class="go">yet_another_extension</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;hashes&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;interpolation not necessary&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">if # is not at line start</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;hashes&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;even in multiline values&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">line #1</span>
+<span class="go">line #2</span>
+<span class="go">line #3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>strict</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></p>
+<p>When set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the parser will not allow for any section or option
+duplicates while reading from a single source (using <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_file()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_string()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_dict()</span></code>).  It is recommended to use strict
+parsers in new applications.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>In previous versions of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> behaviour matched
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict=False</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>empty_lines_in_values</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></p>
+<p>In config parsers, values can span multiple lines as long as they are
+indented more than the key that holds them.  By default parsers also let
+empty lines to be parts of values.  At the same time, keys can be arbitrarily
+indented themselves to improve readability.  In consequence, when
+configuration files get big and complex, it is easy for the user to lose
+track of the file structure.  Take for instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[Section]</span>
+<span class="na">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">multiline</span>
+<span class="s">  value with a gotcha</span>
+
+ <span class="na">this</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">is still a part of the multiline value of &#39;key&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This can be especially problematic for the user to see if she’s using a
+proportional font to edit the file.  That is why when your application does
+not need values with empty lines, you should consider disallowing them.  This
+will make empty lines split keys every time.  In the example above, it would
+produce two keys, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">this</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>default_section</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser.DEFAULTSECT</span></code> (that is:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;DEFAULT&quot;</span></code>)</p>
+<p>The convention of allowing a special section of default values for other
+sections or interpolation purposes is a powerful concept of this library,
+letting users create complex declarative configurations.  This section is
+normally called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;DEFAULT&quot;</span></code> but this can be customized to point to any
+other valid section name.  Some typical values include: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;general&quot;</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;common&quot;</span></code>.  The name provided is used for recognizing default sections
+when reading from any source and is used when writing configuration back to
+a file.  Its current value can be retrieved using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_instance.default_section</span></code> attribute and may be modified at runtime
+(i.e. to convert files from one format to another).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>interpolation</em>, default value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser.BasicInterpolation</span></code></p>
+<p>Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom handler
+through the <em>interpolation</em> argument. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> can be used to turn off
+interpolation completely, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExtendedInterpolation()</span></code> provides a more
+advanced variant inspired by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zc.buildout</span></code>.  More on the subject in the
+<a class="reference external" href="#interpolation-of-values">dedicated documentation section</a>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.RawConfigParser" title="configparser.RawConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawConfigParser</span></code></a> has a default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>converters</em>, default value: not set</p>
+<p>Config parsers provide option value getters that perform type conversion.  By
+default <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getint" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getint()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfloat()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getboolean()</span></code></a> are implemented.  Should other getters be
+desirable, users may define them in a subclass or pass a dictionary where each
+key is a name of the converter and each value is a callable implementing said
+conversion.  For instance, passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{'decimal':</span> <span class="pre">decimal.Decimal}</span></code> would add
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getdecimal()</span></code> on both the parser object and all section proxies.  In
+other words, it will be possible to write both
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_instance.getdecimal('section',</span> <span class="pre">'key',</span> <span class="pre">fallback=0)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key',</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the converter needs to access the state of the parser, it can be
+implemented as a method on a config parser subclass.  If the name of this
+method starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get</span></code>, it will be available on all section proxies, in
+the dict-compatible form (see the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getdecimal()</span></code> example above).</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>More advanced customization may be achieved by overriding default values of
+these parser attributes.  The defaults are defined on the classes, so they may
+be overridden by subclasses or by attribute assignment.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES">
+<code class="descclassname">ConfigParser.</code><code class="descname">BOOLEAN_STATES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>By default when using <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean" title="configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getboolean()</span></code></a>, config parsers
+consider the following values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'yes'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'true'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'on'</span></code> and the following values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'no'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'false'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'off'</span></code>.  You can override this by specifying a custom dictionary of strings
+and their Boolean outcomes. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;section1&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;funky&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nope&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;section1&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;funky&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">Not a boolean: nope</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BOOLEAN_STATES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;sure&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nope&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;section1&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;funky&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Other typical Boolean pairs include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reject</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enabled</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disabled</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform">
+<code class="descclassname">ConfigParser.</code><code class="descname">optionxform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method transforms option names on every read, get, or set
+operation.  The default converts the name to lowercase.  This also
+means that when a configuration file gets written, all keys will be
+lowercase.  Override this method if that’s unsuitable.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[Section1]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Key = Value</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[Section2]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">AnotherKey = Value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">typical</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">typical</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">typical</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;key&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">typical</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section2&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;anotherkey&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RawConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">optionxform</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">option</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">option</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Key&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section2&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;AnotherKey&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The optionxform function transforms option names to a canonical form.
+This should be an idempotent function: if the name is already in
+canonical form, it should be returned unchanged.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.SECTCRE">
+<code class="descclassname">ConfigParser.</code><code class="descname">SECTCRE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.SECTCRE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A compiled regular expression used to parse section headers.  The default
+matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[section]</span></code> to the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;section&quot;</span></code>.  Whitespace is considered
+part of the section name, thus <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span>&#160; <span class="pre">larch</span>&#160; <span class="pre">]</span></code> will be read as a section of
+name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span>&#160; <span class="pre">larch</span>&#160; <span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>.  Override this attribute if that’s unsuitable.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[Section 1]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">option = value</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[  Section 2  ]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">another = val</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">typical</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">typical</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">typical</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sections</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Section 1&#39;, &#39;  Section 2  &#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SECTCRE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\[ *(?P&lt;header&gt;[^]]+?) *\]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sections</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Section 1&#39;, &#39;Section 2&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While ConfigParser objects also use an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OPTCRE</span></code> attribute for recognizing
+option lines, it’s not recommended to override it because that would
+interfere with constructor options <em>allow_no_value</em> and <em>delimiters</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="legacy-api-examples">
+<h2>Legacy API Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#legacy-api-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Mainly because of backwards compatibility concerns, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a>
+provides also a legacy API with explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code> methods.  While there
+are valid use cases for the methods outlined below, mapping protocol access is
+preferred for new projects.  The legacy API is at times more advanced,
+low-level and downright counterintuitive.</p>
+<p>An example of writing to a configuration file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span>
+
+<span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RawConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Please note that using RawConfigParser&#39;s set functions, you can assign</span>
+<span class="c1"># non-string values to keys internally, but will receive an error when</span>
+<span class="c1"># attempting to write to a file or when you get it in non-raw mode. Setting</span>
+<span class="c1"># values using the mapping protocol or ConfigParser&#39;s set() does not allow</span>
+<span class="c1"># such assignments to take place.</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_section</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;an_int&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;15&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a_bool&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a_float&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;3.1415&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fun&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(bar)s</span><span class="s1"> is </span><span class="si">%(baz)s</span><span class="s1">!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Writing our configuration file to &#39;example.cfg&#39;</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">configfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">configfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An example of reading the configuration file again:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span>
+
+<span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RawConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># getfloat() raises an exception if the value is not a float</span>
+<span class="c1"># getint() and getboolean() also do this for their respective types</span>
+<span class="n">a_float</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getfloat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a_float&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">an_int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;an_int&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a_float</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">an_int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Notice that the next output does not interpolate &#39;%(bar)s&#39; or &#39;%(baz)s&#39;.</span>
+<span class="c1"># This is because we are using a RawConfigParser().</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getboolean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a_bool&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To get interpolation, use <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span>
+
+<span class="n">cfg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Set the optional *raw* argument of get() to True if you wish to disable</span>
+<span class="c1"># interpolation in a single get operation.</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">raw</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># -&gt; &quot;Python is fun!&quot;</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">raw</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>   <span class="c1"># -&gt; &quot;%(bar)s is %(baz)s!&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The optional *vars* argument is a dict with members that will take</span>
+<span class="c1"># precedence in interpolation.</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">vars</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Documentation&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;evil&#39;</span><span class="p">}))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The optional *fallback* argument can be used to provide a fallback value</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+      <span class="c1"># -&gt; &quot;Python is fun!&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fallback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Monty is not.&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+      <span class="c1"># -&gt; &quot;Python is fun!&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;monster&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fallback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;No such things as monsters.&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+      <span class="c1"># -&gt; &quot;No such things as monsters.&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># A bare print(cfg.get(&#39;Section1&#39;, &#39;monster&#39;)) would raise NoOptionError</span>
+<span class="c1"># but we can also use:</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;monster&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fallback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">))</span>
+      <span class="c1"># -&gt; None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Default values are available in both types of ConfigParsers.  They are used in
+interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># New instance with &#39;bar&#39; and &#39;baz&#39; defaulting to &#39;Life&#39; and &#39;hard&#39; each</span>
+<span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Life&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hard&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>     <span class="c1"># -&gt; &quot;Python is fun!&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Section1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>     <span class="c1"># -&gt; &quot;Life is hard!&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configparser-objects">
+<span id="id11"></span><h2>ConfigParser Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#configparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">ConfigParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>defaults=None</em>, <em>dict_type=collections.OrderedDict</em>, <em>allow_no_value=False</em>, <em>delimiters=('='</em>, <em>':')</em>, <em>comment_prefixes=('#'</em>, <em>';')</em>, <em>inline_comment_prefixes=None</em>, <em>strict=True</em>, <em>empty_lines_in_values=True</em>, <em>default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT</em>, <em>interpolation=BasicInterpolation()</em>, <em>converters={}</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The main configuration parser.  When <em>defaults</em> is given, it is initialized
+into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults.  When <em>dict_type</em> is given, it
+will be used to create the dictionary objects for the list of sections, for
+the options within a section, and for the default values.</p>
+<p>When <em>delimiters</em> is given, it is used as the set of substrings that
+divide keys from values.  When <em>comment_prefixes</em> is given, it will be used
+as the set of substrings that prefix comments in otherwise empty lines.
+Comments can be indented.  When <em>inline_comment_prefixes</em> is given, it will
+be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in non-empty lines.</p>
+<p>When <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), the parser won’t allow for
+any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source (file,
+string or dictionary), raising <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.DuplicateSectionError" title="configparser.DuplicateSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateSectionError</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.DuplicateOptionError" title="configparser.DuplicateOptionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateOptionError</span></code></a>.  When <em>empty_lines_in_values</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>), each empty line marks the end of an option.  Otherwise,
+internal empty lines of a multiline option are kept as part of the value.
+When <em>allow_no_value</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), options without
+values are accepted; the value held for these is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and they are
+serialized without the trailing delimiter.</p>
+<p>When <em>default_section</em> is given, it specifies the name for the special
+section holding default values for other sections and interpolation purposes
+(normally named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;DEFAULT&quot;</span></code>).  This value can be retrieved and changed on
+runtime using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_section</span></code> instance attribute.</p>
+<p>Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom handler
+through the <em>interpolation</em> argument. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> can be used to turn off
+interpolation completely, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExtendedInterpolation()</span></code> provides a more
+advanced variant inspired by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zc.buildout</span></code>.  More on the subject in the
+<a class="reference external" href="#interpolation-of-values">dedicated documentation section</a>.</p>
+<p>All option names used in interpolation will be passed through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform" title="configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optionxform()</span></code></a> method just like any other option name reference.  For
+example, using the default implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform" title="configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optionxform()</span></code></a> (which
+converts option names to lower case), the values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span> <span class="pre">%(bar)s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span>
+<span class="pre">%(BAR)s</span></code> are equivalent.</p>
+<p>When <em>converters</em> is given, it should be a dictionary where each key
+represents the name of a type converter and each value is a callable
+implementing the conversion from string to the desired datatype.  Every
+converter gets its own corresponding <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get*()</span></code> method on the parser
+object and section proxies.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>The default <em>dict_type</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>allow_no_value</em>, <em>delimiters</em>, <em>comment_prefixes</em>, <em>strict</em>,
+<em>empty_lines_in_values</em>, <em>default_section</em> and <em>interpolation</em> were
+added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>converters</em> argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>defaults</em> argument is read with <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read_dict" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read_dict"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_dict()</span></code></a>,
+providing consistent behavior across the parser: non-string
+keys and values are implicitly converted to strings.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.defaults">
+<code class="descname">defaults</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.defaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.sections">
+<code class="descname">sections</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.sections" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the sections available; the <em>default section</em> is not
+included in the list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.add_section">
+<code class="descname">add_section</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.add_section" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a section named <em>section</em> to the instance.  If a section by the given
+name already exists, <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.DuplicateSectionError" title="configparser.DuplicateSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateSectionError</span></code></a> is raised.  If the
+<em>default section</em> name is passed, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  The name
+of the section must be a string; if not, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Non-string section names raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.has_section">
+<code class="descname">has_section</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.has_section" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates whether the named <em>section</em> is present in the configuration.
+The <em>default section</em> is not acknowledged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.options">
+<code class="descname">options</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of options available in the specified <em>section</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.has_option">
+<code class="descname">has_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.has_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the given <em>section</em> exists, and contains the given <em>option</em>, return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>; otherwise return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.  If the specified
+<em>section</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> or an empty string, DEFAULT is assumed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filenames</em>, <em>encoding=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attempt to read and parse an iterable of filenames, returning a list of
+filenames which were successfully parsed.</p>
+<p>If <em>filenames</em> is a string, a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>, it is treated as
+a single filename.  If a file named in <em>filenames</em> cannot be opened, that
+file will be ignored.  This is designed so that you can specify an
+iterable of potential configuration file locations (for example, the
+current directory, the user’s home directory, and some system-wide
+directory), and all existing configuration files in the iterable will be
+read.</p>
+<p>If none of the named files exist, the <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>
+instance will contain an empty dataset.  An application which requires
+initial values to be loaded from a file should load the required file or
+files using <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read_file" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_file()</span></code></a> before calling <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> for any
+optional files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;defaults.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;site.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/.myapp.cfg&#39;</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+            <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;cp1250&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>encoding</em> parameter.  Previously, all files were read using the
+default encoding for <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.1: </span>The <em>filenames</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <em>filenames</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.read_file">
+<code class="descname">read_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em>, <em>source=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and parse configuration data from <em>f</em> which must be an iterable
+yielding Unicode strings (for example files opened in text mode).</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>source</em> specifies the name of the file being read.  If
+not given and <em>f</em> has a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute, that is used for
+<em>source</em>; the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;???&gt;'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Replaces <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.readfp" title="configparser.ConfigParser.readfp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readfp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.read_string">
+<code class="descname">read_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>source='&lt;string&gt;'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse configuration data from a string.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>source</em> specifies a context-specific name of the
+string passed.  If not given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;string&gt;'</span></code> is used.  This should
+commonly be a filesystem path or a URL.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.read_dict">
+<code class="descname">read_dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dictionary</em>, <em>source='&lt;dict&gt;'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read_dict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load configuration from any object that provides a dict-like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code>
+method.  Keys are section names, values are dictionaries with keys and
+values that should be present in the section.  If the used dictionary
+type preserves order, sections and their keys will be added in order.
+Values are automatically converted to strings.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>source</em> specifies a context-specific name of the
+dictionary passed.  If not given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;dict&gt;</span></code> is used.</p>
+<p>This method can be used to copy state between parsers.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>raw=False</em>, <em>vars=None</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fallback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get an <em>option</em> value for the named <em>section</em>.  If <em>vars</em> is provided, it
+must be a dictionary.  The <em>option</em> is looked up in <em>vars</em> (if provided),
+<em>section</em>, and in <em>DEFAULTSECT</em> in that order.  If the key is not found
+and <em>fallback</em> is provided, it is used as a fallback value.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> can
+be provided as a <em>fallback</em> value.</p>
+<p>All the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> interpolations are expanded in the return values, unless
+the <em>raw</em> argument is true.  Values for interpolation keys are looked up
+in the same manner as the option.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Arguments <em>raw</em>, <em>vars</em> and <em>fallback</em> are keyword only to protect
+users from trying to use the third argument as the <em>fallback</em> fallback
+(especially when using the mapping protocol).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.getint">
+<code class="descname">getint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>raw=False</em>, <em>vars=None</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fallback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A convenience method which coerces the <em>option</em> in the specified <em>section</em>
+to an integer.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.get" title="configparser.ConfigParser.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> for explanation of <em>raw</em>, <em>vars</em> and
+<em>fallback</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat">
+<code class="descname">getfloat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>raw=False</em>, <em>vars=None</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fallback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getfloat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A convenience method which coerces the <em>option</em> in the specified <em>section</em>
+to a floating point number.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.get" title="configparser.ConfigParser.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> for explanation of <em>raw</em>,
+<em>vars</em> and <em>fallback</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean">
+<code class="descname">getboolean</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>raw=False</em>, <em>vars=None</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fallback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.getboolean" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A convenience method which coerces the <em>option</em> in the specified <em>section</em>
+to a Boolean value.  Note that the accepted values for the option are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'yes'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'true'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'on'</span></code>, which cause this method to
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'no'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'false'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'off'</span></code>, which
+cause it to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  These string values are checked in a
+case-insensitive manner.  Any other value will cause it to raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.get" title="configparser.ConfigParser.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> for explanation of <em>raw</em>, <em>vars</em> and
+<em>fallback</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>raw=False</em>, <em>vars=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>raw=False</em>, <em>vars=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>When <em>section</em> is not given, return a list of <em>section_name</em>,
+<em>section_proxy</em> pairs, including DEFAULTSECT.</p>
+<p>Otherwise, return a list of <em>name</em>, <em>value</em> pairs for the options in the
+given <em>section</em>.  Optional arguments have the same meaning as for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.get" title="configparser.ConfigParser.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the given section exists, set the given option to the specified value;
+otherwise raise <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.NoSectionError" title="configparser.NoSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoSectionError</span></code></a>.  <em>option</em> and <em>value</em> must be
+strings; if not, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fileobject</em>, <em>space_around_delimiters=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a representation of the configuration to the specified <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+object</span></a>, which must be opened in text mode (accepting strings).  This
+representation can be parsed by a future <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> call.  If
+<em>space_around_delimiters</em> is true, delimiters between
+keys and values are surrounded by spaces.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.remove_option">
+<code class="descname">remove_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.remove_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the specified <em>option</em> from the specified <em>section</em>.  If the
+section does not exist, raise <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.NoSectionError" title="configparser.NoSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoSectionError</span></code></a>.  If the option
+existed to be removed, return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>; otherwise return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.remove_section">
+<code class="descname">remove_section</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.remove_section" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the specified <em>section</em> from the configuration.  If the section in
+fact existed, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  Otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">optionxform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Transforms the option name <em>option</em> as found in an input file or as passed
+in by client code to the form that should be used in the internal
+structures.  The default implementation returns a lower-case version of
+<em>option</em>; subclasses may override this or client code can set an attribute
+of this name on instances to affect this behavior.</p>
+<p>You don’t need to subclass the parser to use this method, you can also
+set it on an instance, to a function that takes a string argument and
+returns a string.  Setting it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>, for example, would make option
+names case sensitive:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cfgparser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cfgparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">optionxform</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that when reading configuration files, whitespace around the option
+names is stripped before <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform" title="configparser.ConfigParser.optionxform"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optionxform()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.ConfigParser.readfp">
+<code class="descname">readfp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>filename=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.readfp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.read_file" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_file()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.readfp" title="configparser.ConfigParser.readfp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readfp()</span></code></a> now iterates on <em>fp</em> instead of calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fp.readline()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>For existing code calling <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser.readfp" title="configparser.ConfigParser.readfp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readfp()</span></code></a> with arguments which don’t
+support iteration, the following generator may be used as a wrapper
+around the file-like object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">readline_generator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.readfp(fp)</span></code> use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.read_file(readline_generator(fp))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH">
+<code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum depth for recursive interpolation for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> when the <em>raw</em>
+parameter is false.  This is relevant only when the default <em>interpolation</em>
+is used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="rawconfigparser-objects">
+<span id="id13"></span><h2>RawConfigParser Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#rawconfigparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="configparser.RawConfigParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">RawConfigParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>defaults=None</em>, <em>dict_type=collections.OrderedDict</em>, <em>allow_no_value=False</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>delimiters=('='</em>, <em>':')</em>, <em>comment_prefixes=('#'</em>, <em>';')</em>, <em>inline_comment_prefixes=None</em>, <em>strict=True</em>, <em>empty_lines_in_values=True</em>, <em>default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>interpolation</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.RawConfigParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Legacy variant of the <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>.  It has interpolation
+disabled by default and allows for non-string section names, option
+names, and values via its unsafe <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_section</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code> methods,
+as well as the legacy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaults=</span></code> keyword argument handling.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Consider using <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a> instead which checks types of
+the values to be stored internally.  If you don’t want interpolation, you
+can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser(interpolation=None)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.RawConfigParser.add_section">
+<code class="descname">add_section</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.RawConfigParser.add_section" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a section named <em>section</em> to the instance.  If a section by the given
+name already exists, <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.DuplicateSectionError" title="configparser.DuplicateSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateSectionError</span></code></a> is raised.  If the
+<em>default section</em> name is passed, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Type of <em>section</em> is not checked which lets users create non-string named
+sections.  This behaviour is unsupported and may cause internal errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="configparser.RawConfigParser.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>section</em>, <em>option</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.RawConfigParser.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the given section exists, set the given option to the specified value;
+otherwise raise <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.NoSectionError" title="configparser.NoSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoSectionError</span></code></a>.  While it is possible to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.RawConfigParser" title="configparser.RawConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawConfigParser</span></code></a> (or <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a> with <em>raw</em> parameters
+set to true) for <em>internal</em> storage of non-string values, full
+functionality (including interpolation and output to files) can only be
+achieved using string values.</p>
+<p>This method lets users assign non-string values to keys internally.  This
+behaviour is unsupported and will cause errors when attempting to write
+to a file or get it in non-raw mode.  <strong>Use the mapping protocol API</strong>
+which does not allow such assignments to take place.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for all other <a class="reference internal" href="#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.NoSectionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">NoSectionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.NoSectionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a specified section is not found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.DuplicateSectionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">DuplicateSectionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.DuplicateSectionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised if <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_section()</span></code> is called with the name of a section
+that is already present or in strict parsers when a section if found more
+than once in a single input file, string or dictionary.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code> attributes and arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> were added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.DuplicateOptionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">DuplicateOptionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.DuplicateOptionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised by strict parsers if a single option appears twice during
+reading from a single file, string or dictionary. This catches misspellings
+and case sensitivity-related errors, e.g. a dictionary may have two keys
+representing the same case-insensitive configuration key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.NoOptionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">NoOptionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.NoOptionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a specified option is not found in the specified
+section.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.InterpolationError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">InterpolationError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.InterpolationError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for exceptions raised when problems occur performing string
+interpolation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.InterpolationDepthError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">InterpolationDepthError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.InterpolationDepthError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when string interpolation cannot be completed because the
+number of iterations exceeds <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH" title="configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH</span></code></a>.  Subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.InterpolationError" title="configparser.InterpolationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterpolationError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">InterpolationMissingOptionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when an option referenced from a value does not exist.
+Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.InterpolationError" title="configparser.InterpolationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterpolationError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">InterpolationSyntaxError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when the source text into which substitutions are made does
+not conform to the required syntax.  Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#configparser.InterpolationError" title="configparser.InterpolationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterpolationError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">MissingSectionHeaderError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when attempting to parse a file which has no section
+headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="configparser.ParsingError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">configparser.</code><code class="descname">ParsingError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#configparser.ParsingError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when errors occur attempting to parse a file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> attribute and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> argument were renamed to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source</span></code> for consistency.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id14"><span class="brackets">1</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id1">1</a>,<a href="#id2">2</a>,<a href="#id3">3</a>,<a href="#id4">4</a>,<a href="#id5">5</a>,<a href="#id6">6</a>,<a href="#id7">7</a>,<a href="#id8">8</a>,<a href="#id9">9</a>,<a href="#id10">10</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are interested in
+changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference, consult the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-parser-behaviour">Customizing Parser Behaviour</a> section.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code> — Configuration file parser</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#quick-start">Quick Start</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supported-datatypes">Supported Datatypes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fallback-values">Fallback Values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supported-ini-file-structure">Supported INI File Structure</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interpolation-of-values">Interpolation of values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-protocol-access">Mapping Protocol Access</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-parser-behaviour">Customizing Parser Behaviour</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#legacy-api-examples">Legacy API Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configparser-objects">ConfigParser Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#rawconfigparser-objects">RawConfigParser Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="csv.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code> — CSV File Reading and Writing</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="netrc.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code> — netrc file processing</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/constants.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/constants.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b6cb79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/constants.html
@@ -0,0 +1,293 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Built-in Constants &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="built-in-constants">
+<span id="built-in-consts"></span><h1>Built-in Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace.  They are:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="False">
+<code class="descname">False</code><a class="headerlink" href="#False" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The false value of the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a> type. Assignments to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+are illegal and raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="True">
+<code class="descname">True</code><a class="headerlink" href="#True" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The true value of the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a> type. Assignments to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>
+are illegal and raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="None">
+<code class="descname">None</code><a class="headerlink" href="#None" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The sole value of the type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoneType</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is frequently used to
+represent the absence of a value, as when default arguments are not passed to a
+function. Assignments to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> are illegal and raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="NotImplemented">
+<code class="descname">NotImplemented</code><a class="headerlink" href="#NotImplemented" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special value which should be returned by the binary special methods
+(e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__rsub__" title="object.__rsub__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rsub__()</span></code></a>,
+etc.) to indicate that the operation is not implemented with respect to
+the other type; may be returned by the in-place binary special methods
+(e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__imul__" title="object.__imul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__imul__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iand__" title="object.__iand__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iand__()</span></code></a>, etc.) for the same purpose.
+Its truth value is true.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When a binary (or in-place) method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> the
+interpreter will try the reflected operation on the other type (or some
+other fallback, depending on the operator).  If all attempts return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>, the interpreter will raise an appropriate exception.
+Incorrectly returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> will result in a misleading
+error message or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> value being returned to Python code.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#implementing-the-arithmetic-operations"><span class="std std-ref">Implementing the arithmetic operations</span></a> for examples.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> are not interchangeable,
+even though they have similar names and purposes.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> for details on when to use it.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="Ellipsis">
+<code class="descname">Ellipsis</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Ellipsis" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as the ellipsis literal “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>”.  Special value used mostly in conjunction
+with extended slicing syntax for user-defined container data types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="__debug__">
+<code class="descname">__debug__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__debug__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This constant is true if Python was not started with an <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> option.
+See also the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#assert"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The names <a class="reference internal" href="#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#__debug__" title="__debug__"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code></a>
+cannot be reassigned (assignments to them, even as an attribute name, raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>), so they can be considered “true” constants.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants-added-by-the-site-module">
+<h2>Constants added by the <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module<a class="headerlink" href="#constants-added-by-the-site-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module (which is imported automatically during startup, except
+if the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> command-line option is given) adds several constants to the
+built-in namespace.  They are useful for the interactive interpreter shell and
+should not be used in programs.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="quit">
+<code class="descname">quit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#quit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="exit">
+<code class="descname">exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Objects that when printed, print a message like “Use quit() or Ctrl-D
+(i.e. EOF) to exit”, and when called, raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> with the
+specified exit code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="copyright">
+<code class="descname">copyright</code><a class="headerlink" href="#copyright" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="credits">
+<code class="descname">credits</code><a class="headerlink" href="#credits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Objects that when printed or called, print the text of copyright or
+credits, respectively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="license">
+<code class="descname">license</code><a class="headerlink" href="#license" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Object that when printed, prints the message “Type license() to see the
+full license text”, and when called, displays the full license text in a
+pager-like fashion (one screen at a time).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Built-in Constants</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants-added-by-the-site-module">Constants added by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="functions.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Built-in Functions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stdtypes.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Built-in Types</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-contextlib">
+<span id="contextlib-utilities-for-with-statement-contexts"></span><h1><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code> — Utilities for <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>-statement contexts<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/contextlib.py">Lib/contextlib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement. For more information see also <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typecontextmanager"><span class="std std-ref">Context Manager Types</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#context-managers"><span class="std std-ref">With Statement Context Managers</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="utilities">
+<h2>Utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#utilities" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Functions and classes provided:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextlib.AbstractContextManager">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">AbstractContextManager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.AbstractContextManager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> for classes that implement
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__exit__()</span></code></a>. A default
+implementation for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__enter__()</span></code></a> is provided which returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> while <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__exit__()</span></code></a> is an abstract method which by default
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. See also the definition of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typecontextmanager"><span class="std std-ref">Context Manager Types</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">AbstractAsyncContextManager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> for classes that implement
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aenter__" title="object.__aenter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__aenter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aexit__" title="object.__aexit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__aexit__()</span></code></a>. A default
+implementation for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aenter__" title="object.__aenter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__aenter__()</span></code></a> is provided which returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> while <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aexit__" title="object.__aexit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__aexit__()</span></code></a> is an abstract method which by default
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. See also the definition of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#async-context-managers"><span class="std std-ref">Asynchronous Context Managers</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextlib.contextmanager">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">contextmanager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.contextmanager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> that can be used to define a factory
+function for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement context managers, without needing to
+create a class or separate <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+<p>While many objects natively support use in with statements, sometimes a
+resource needs to be managed that isn’t a context manager in its own right,
+and doesn’t implement a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method for use with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.closing</span></code></p>
+<p>An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct resource
+management:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@contextmanager</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">managed_resource</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Code to acquire resource, e.g.:</span>
+    <span class="n">resource</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">acquire_resource</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">resource</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Code to release resource, e.g.:</span>
+        <span class="n">release_resource</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">managed_resource</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3600</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="c1"># Resource is released at the end of this block,</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="c1"># even if code in the block raises an exception</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The function being decorated must return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>-iterator when
+called. This iterator must yield exactly one value, which will be bound to
+the targets in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement’s <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> clause, if any.</p>
+<p>At the point where the generator yields, the block nested in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement is executed.  The generator is then resumed after the block is exited.
+If an unhandled exception occurs in the block, it is reraised inside the
+generator at the point where the yield occurred.  Thus, you can use a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> statement to trap
+the error (if any), or ensure that some cleanup takes place. If an exception is
+trapped merely in order to log it or to perform some action (rather than to
+suppress it entirely), the generator must reraise that exception. Otherwise the
+generator context manager will indicate to the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement that
+the exception has been handled, and execution will resume with the statement
+immediately following the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a> uses <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ContextDecorator" title="contextlib.ContextDecorator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code></a> so the context managers
+it creates can be used as decorators as well as in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements.
+When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on
+each function call (this allows the otherwise “one-shot” context managers
+created by <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a> to meet the requirement that context
+managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Use of <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ContextDecorator" title="contextlib.ContextDecorator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextlib.asynccontextmanager">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">asynccontextmanager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.asynccontextmanager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a>, but creates an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#async-context-managers"><span class="std std-ref">asynchronous context manager</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This function is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> that can be used to define a factory
+function for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement asynchronous context managers,
+without needing to create a class or separate <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aenter__" title="object.__aenter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aexit__" title="object.__aexit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__()</span></code></a> methods. It must be applied to an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous
+generator</span></a> function.</p>
+<p>A simple example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">asynccontextmanager</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@asynccontextmanager</span>
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_connection</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">acquire_db_connection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">conn</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">release_db_connection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_all_users</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">get_connection</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">query</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SELECT ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextlib.closing">
+<code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">closing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>thing</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.closing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a context manager that closes <em>thing</em> upon completion of the block.  This
+is basically equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@contextmanager</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">closing</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">thing</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And lets you write code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">closing</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">closing</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">page</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">page</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>without needing to explicitly close <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">page</span></code>.  Even if an error occurs,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">page.close()</span></code> will be called when the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> block is exited.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="simplifying-support-for-single-optional-context-managers"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextlib.nullcontext">
+<code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">nullcontext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>enter_result=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.nullcontext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a context manager that returns <em>enter_result</em> from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code>, but
+otherwise does nothing. It is intended to be used as a stand-in for an
+optional context manager, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">myfunction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ignore_exceptions</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">ignore_exceptions</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.</span>
+        <span class="n">cm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">contextlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suppress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.</span>
+        <span class="n">cm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">contextlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nullcontext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Do something</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An example using <em>enter_result</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">process_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file_or_path</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file_or_path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># If string, open file</span>
+        <span class="n">cm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file_or_path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Caller is responsible for closing file</span>
+        <span class="n">cm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">nullcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file_or_path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cm</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Perform processing on the file</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextlib.suppress">
+<code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">suppress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*exceptions</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.suppress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified exceptions
+if they occur in the body of a with statement and then resumes execution
+with the first statement following the end of the with statement.</p>
+<p>As with any other mechanism that completely suppresses exceptions, this
+context manager should be used only to cover very specific errors where
+silently continuing with program execution is known to be the right
+thing to do.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">suppress</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">suppress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;somefile.tmp&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">suppress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;someotherfile.tmp&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This code is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;somefile.tmp&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;someotherfile.tmp&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This context manager is <a class="reference internal" href="#reentrant-cms"><span class="std std-ref">reentrant</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextlib.redirect_stdout">
+<code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">redirect_stdout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>new_target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.redirect_stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Context manager for temporarily redirecting <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> to
+another file or file-like object.</p>
+<p>This tool adds flexibility to existing functions or classes whose output
+is hardwired to stdout.</p>
+<p>For example, the output of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> normally is sent to <em>sys.stdout</em>.
+You can capture that output in a string by redirecting the output to an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">redirect_stdout</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To send the output of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> to a file on disk, redirect the output
+to a regular file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;help.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">redirect_stdout</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To send the output of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> to <em>sys.stderr</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">redirect_stdout</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the global side effect on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> means that this
+context manager is not suitable for use in library code and most threaded
+applications. It also has no effect on the output of subprocesses.
+However, it is still a useful approach for many utility scripts.</p>
+<p>This context manager is <a class="reference internal" href="#reentrant-cms"><span class="std std-ref">reentrant</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextlib.redirect_stderr">
+<code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">redirect_stderr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>new_target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.redirect_stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.redirect_stdout" title="contextlib.redirect_stdout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">redirect_stdout()</span></code></a> but redirecting
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> to another file or file-like object.</p>
+<p>This context manager is <a class="reference internal" href="#reentrant-cms"><span class="std std-ref">reentrant</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextlib.ContextDecorator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">ContextDecorator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.ContextDecorator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a decorator.</p>
+<p>Context managers inheriting from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code> have to implement
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__</span></code> as normal. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__</span></code> retains its optional
+exception handling even when used as a decorator.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code> is used by <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a>, so you get this
+functionality automatically.</p>
+<p>Example of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ContextDecorator</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">mycontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ContextDecorator</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__enter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Starting&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__exit__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Finishing&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="nd">@mycontext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The bit in the middle&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">function</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">Starting</span>
+<span class="n">The</span> <span class="n">bit</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">middle</span>
+<span class="n">Finishing</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">mycontext</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The bit in the middle&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">Starting</span>
+<span class="n">The</span> <span class="n">bit</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">middle</span>
+<span class="n">Finishing</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This change is just syntactic sugar for any construct of the following form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Do stuff</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code> lets you instead write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@cm</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Do stuff</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It makes it clear that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cm</span></code> applies to the whole function, rather than
+just a piece of it (and saving an indentation level is nice, too).</p>
+<p>Existing context managers that already have a base class can be extended by
+using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code> as a mixin class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ContextDecorator</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">mycontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ContextBaseClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ContextDecorator</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__enter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__exit__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>As the decorated function must be able to be called multiple times, the
+underlying context manager must support use in multiple <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statements. If this is not the case, then the original construct with the
+explicit <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement inside the function should be used.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextlib.ExitStack">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">ExitStack</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that is designed to make it easy to programmatically
+combine other context managers and cleanup functions, especially those
+that are optional or otherwise driven by input data.</p>
+<p>For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with
+statement as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">files</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fname</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">fname</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">filenames</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="c1"># All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of</span>
+    <span class="c1"># the with statement, even if attempts to open files later</span>
+    <span class="c1"># in the list raise an exception</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are called in
+reverse order when the instance is closed (either explicitly or implicitly
+at the end of a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement). Note that callbacks are <em>not</em>
+invoked implicitly when the context stack instance is garbage collected.</p>
+<p>This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire their
+resources in their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> method (such as file objects) can be
+handled correctly.</p>
+<p>Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of
+registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statements had been used with the registered set of callbacks. This even
+extends to exception handling - if an inner callback suppresses or replaces
+an exception, then outer callbacks will be passed arguments based on that
+updated state.</p>
+<p>This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details of
+correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks. It provides a suitable
+foundation for higher level context managers that manipulate the exit
+stack in application specific ways.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context">
+<code class="descname">enter_context</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cm</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enters a new context manager and adds its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method to
+the callback stack. The return value is the result of the context
+manager’s own <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they normally
+would if used directly as part of a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.ExitStack.push">
+<code class="descname">push</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.ExitStack.push" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds a context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method to the callback stack.</p>
+<p>As <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> is <em>not</em> invoked, this method can be used to cover
+part of an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> implementation with a context manager’s own
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method assumes
+it is a callback with the same signature as a context manager’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method and adds it directly to the callback stack.</p>
+<p>By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress exceptions the
+same way context manager <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> methods can.</p>
+<p>The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing this
+method to be used as a function decorator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.ExitStack.callback">
+<code class="descname">callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.ExitStack.callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds it to
+the callback stack.</p>
+<p>Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot suppress
+exceptions (as they are never passed the exception details).</p>
+<p>The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing this
+method to be used as a function decorator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.ExitStack.pop_all">
+<code class="descname">pop_all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.ExitStack.pop_all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transfers the callback stack to a fresh <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> instance
+and returns it. No callbacks are invoked by this operation - instead,
+they will now be invoked when the new stack is closed (either
+explicitly or implicitly at the end of a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement).</p>
+<p>For example, a group of files can be opened as an “all or nothing”
+operation as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">files</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fname</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">fname</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">filenames</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Hold onto the close method, but don&#39;t call it yet.</span>
+    <span class="n">close_files</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop_all</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span>
+    <span class="c1"># If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be</span>
+    <span class="c1"># closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,</span>
+    <span class="c1"># they will remain open even after the with statement ends.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.ExitStack.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.ExitStack.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in the
+reverse order of registration. For any context managers and exit
+callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will indicate that no
+exception occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextlib.AsyncExitStack">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextlib.</code><code class="descname">AsyncExitStack</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.AsyncExitStack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#async-context-managers"><span class="std std-ref">asynchronous context manager</span></a>, similar
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a>, that supports combining both synchronous and
+asynchronous context managers, as well as having coroutines for
+cleanup logic.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method is not implemented, <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.aclose" title="contextlib.AsyncExitStack.aclose"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aclose()</span></code></a> must be used
+instead.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context">
+<code class="descname">enter_async_context</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cm</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enter_context()</span></code> but expects an asynchronous context
+manager.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_exit">
+<code class="descname">push_async_exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">push()</span></code> but expects either an asynchronous context manager
+or a coroutine function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback">
+<code class="descname">push_async_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback()</span></code> but expects a coroutine function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextlib.AsyncExitStack.aclose">
+<code class="descname">aclose</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib.AsyncExitStack.aclose" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> but properly handles awaitables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Continuing the example for <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.asynccontextmanager" title="contextlib.asynccontextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynccontextmanager()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">AsyncExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">connections</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter_async_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">get_connection</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+    <span class="c1"># All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of</span>
+    <span class="c1"># the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection</span>
+    <span class="c1"># later in the list raise an exception.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples-and-recipes">
+<h2>Examples and Recipes<a class="headerlink" href="#examples-and-recipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective use of
+the tools provided by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers">
+<h3>Supporting a variable number of context managers<a class="headerlink" href="#supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The primary use case for <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> is the one given in the class
+documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers and other
+cleanup operations in a single <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement. The variability
+may come from the number of context managers needed being driven by user
+input (such as opening a user specified collection of files), or from
+some of the context managers being optional:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">resource</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">resources</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">need_special_resource</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="n">special</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">acquire_special_resource</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">release_special_resource</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">special</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Perform operations that use the acquired resources</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As shown, <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> also makes it quite easy to use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statements to manage arbitrary resources that don’t natively support the
+context management protocol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods">
+<h3>Catching exceptions from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> methods<a class="headerlink" href="#catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code>
+method implementation, <em>without</em> inadvertently catching exceptions from
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement body or the context manager’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__</span></code>
+method. By using <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> the steps in the context management
+protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stack</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># handle __enter__ exception</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Handle normal case</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying API
+should be providing a direct resource management interface for use with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> statements, but not
+all APIs are well designed in that regard. When a context manager is the
+only resource management API provided, then <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> can make it
+easier to handle various situations that can’t be handled directly in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation">
+<h3>Cleaning up in an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> implementation<a class="headerlink" href="#cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As noted in the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack.push" title="contextlib.ExitStack.push"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack.push()</span></code></a>, this
+method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if later
+steps in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> implementation fail.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts resource
+acquisition and release functions, along with an optional validation function,
+and maps them to the context management protocol:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">AbstractContextManager</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ResourceManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">AbstractContextManager</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">acquire_resource</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">release_resource</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">check_resource_ok</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">acquire_resource</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">acquire_resource</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release_resource</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">release_resource</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">check_resource_ok</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">check_resource_ok</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_resource_ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">check_resource_ok</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@contextmanager</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_cleanup_on_error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">push</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span>
+            <span class="c1"># The validation check passed and didn&#39;t raise an exception</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it</span>
+            <span class="c1"># back to our caller</span>
+            <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop_all</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__enter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">resource</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">acquire_resource</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_cleanup_on_error</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_resource_ok</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Failed validation for </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+                <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">resource</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__exit__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">exc_details</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># We don&#39;t need to duplicate any of our resource release logic</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release_resource</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables">
+<h3>Replacing any use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try-finally</span></code> and flag variables<a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A pattern you will sometimes see is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try-finally</span></code> statement with a flag
+variable to indicate whether or not the body of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause should
+be executed. In its simplest form (that can’t already be handled just by
+using an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code> clause instead), it looks something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cleanup_needed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">perform_operation</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">cleanup_needed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">cleanup_needed</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">cleanup_resources</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As with any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement based code, this can cause problems for
+development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can end
+up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> makes it possible to instead register a callback for
+execution at the end of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement, and then later decide to skip
+executing that callback:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cleanup_resources</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">perform_operation</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop_all</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This allows the intended cleanup up behaviour to be made explicit up front,
+rather than requiring a separate flag variable.</p>
+<p>If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be simplified
+even further by means of a small helper class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cancel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop_all</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cleanup_resources</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cb</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">perform_operation</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">cb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cancel</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the resource cleanup isn’t already neatly bundled into a standalone
+function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack.callback" title="contextlib.ExitStack.callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack.callback()</span></code></a> to declare the resource cleanup in
+advance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nd">@stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cleanup_resources</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">perform_operation</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop_all</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function
+declared this way cannot take any parameters. Instead, any resources to
+be released must be accessed as closure variables.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator">
+<h3>Using a context manager as a function decorator<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ContextDecorator" title="contextlib.ContextDecorator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code></a> makes it possible to use a context manager in
+both an ordinary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement and also as a function decorator.</p>
+<p>For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements
+with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit.  Rather than
+writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task,
+inheriting from <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ContextDecorator" title="contextlib.ContextDecorator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code></a> provides both capabilities in a
+single definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ContextDecorator</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ContextDecorator</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__enter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Entering: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__exit__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_tb</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Exiting: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;widget loader&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Some time consuming activity goes here&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">load_widget</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And also as a function decorator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;widget loader&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">activity</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Some time consuming activity goes here&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">load_widget</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers
+as function decorators: there’s no way to access the return value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a>. If that value is needed, then it is still necessary to use
+an explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a> - The “with” statement</dt><dd><p>The specification, background, and examples for the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers">
+<span id="single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms"></span><h2>Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers<a class="headerlink" href="#single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Most context managers are written in a way that means they can only be
+used effectively in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement once. These single use
+context managers must be created afresh each time they’re used -
+attempting to use them a second time will trigger an exception or
+otherwise not work correctly.</p>
+<p>This common limitation means that it is generally advisable to create
+context managers directly in the header of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement
+where they are used (as shown in all of the usage examples above).</p>
+<p>Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since
+the first <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement will close the file, preventing any
+further IO operations using that file object.</p>
+<p>Context managers created using <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a> are also single use
+context managers, and will complain about the underlying generator failing
+to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second time:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@contextmanager</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">singleuse</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Before&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">yield</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;After&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">singleuse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Before</span>
+<span class="go">After</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">RuntimeError</span>: <span class="n">generator didn&#39;t yield</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reentrant-context-managers">
+<span id="reentrant-cms"></span><h3>Reentrant context managers<a class="headerlink" href="#reentrant-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>More sophisticated context managers may be “reentrant”. These context
+managers can not only be used in multiple <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements,
+but may also be used <em>inside</em> a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement that is already
+using the same context manager.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock</span></code></a> is an example of a reentrant context manager, as are
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.suppress" title="contextlib.suppress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suppress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.redirect_stdout" title="contextlib.redirect_stdout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">redirect_stdout()</span></code></a>. Here’s a very simple example of
+reentrant use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">redirect_stdout</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stream</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">write_to_stream</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">redirect_stdout</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stream</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">write_to_stream</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;This is written to the stream rather than stdout&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">write_to_stream</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;This is also written to the stream&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;This is written directly to stdout&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">This is written directly to stdout</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">This is written to the stream rather than stdout</span>
+<span class="go">This is also written to the stream</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Real world examples of reentrancy are more likely to involve multiple
+functions calling each other and hence be far more complicated than this
+example.</p>
+<p>Note also that being reentrant is <em>not</em> the same thing as being thread safe.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.redirect_stdout" title="contextlib.redirect_stdout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">redirect_stdout()</span></code></a>, for example, is definitely not thread safe, as it
+makes a global modification to the system state by binding <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>
+to a different stream.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reusable-context-managers">
+<span id="reusable-cms"></span><h3>Reusable context managers<a class="headerlink" href="#reusable-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Distinct from both single use and reentrant context managers are “reusable”
+context managers (or, to be completely explicit, “reusable, but not
+reentrant” context managers, since reentrant context managers are also
+reusable). These context managers support being used multiple times, but
+will fail (or otherwise not work correctly) if the specific context manager
+instance has already been used in a containing with statement.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock" title="threading.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock</span></code></a> is an example of a reusable, but not reentrant,
+context manager (for a reentrant lock, it is necessary to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock</span></code></a> instead).</p>
+<p>Another example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a>, as it invokes <em>all</em> currently registered callbacks
+when leaving any with statement, regardless of where those callbacks
+were added:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Callback: from first context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Leaving first context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Leaving first context</span>
+<span class="go">Callback: from first context</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Callback: from second context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Leaving second context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Leaving second context</span>
+<span class="go">Callback: from second context</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Callback: from outer context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Callback: from inner context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Leaving inner context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Leaving outer context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Leaving inner context</span>
+<span class="go">Callback: from inner context</span>
+<span class="go">Callback: from outer context</span>
+<span class="go">Leaving outer context</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As the output from the example shows, reusing a single stack object across
+multiple with statements works correctly, but attempting to nest them
+will cause the stack to be cleared at the end of the innermost with
+statement, which is unlikely to be desirable behaviour.</p>
+<p>Using separate <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> instances instead of reusing a single
+instance avoids that problem:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">outer_stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">outer_stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Callback: from outer context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ExitStack</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">inner_stack</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">inner_stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Callback: from inner context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Leaving inner context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Leaving outer context&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Leaving inner context</span>
+<span class="go">Callback: from inner context</span>
+<span class="go">Leaving outer context</span>
+<span class="go">Callback: from outer context</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code> — Utilities for <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>-statement contexts</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#utilities">Utilities</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples-and-recipes">Examples and Recipes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers">Supporting a variable number of context managers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods">Catching exceptions from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation">Cleaning up in an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> implementation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables">Replacing any use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try-finally</span></code> and flag variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator">Using a context manager as a function decorator</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers">Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reentrant-context-managers">Reentrant context managers</a></li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-contextvars">
+<span id="contextvars-context-variables"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a> — Context Variables<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contextvars" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides APIs to manage, store, and access context-local
+state.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar" title="contextvars.ContextVar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar</span></code></a> class is used to declare
+and work with <em>Context Variables</em>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.copy_context" title="contextvars.copy_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy_context()</span></code></a>
+function and the <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.Context" title="contextvars.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> class should be used to
+manage the current context in asynchronous frameworks.</p>
+<p>Context managers that have state should use Context Variables
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.local" title="threading.local"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.local()</span></code></a> to prevent their state from
+bleeding to other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.</p>
+<p>See also <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a> for additional details.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="context-variables">
+<h2>Context Variables<a class="headerlink" href="#context-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextvars.ContextVar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextvars.</code><code class="descname">ContextVar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>*</em>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.ContextVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is used to declare a new Context Variable, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">var</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">ContextVar</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ContextVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;var&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The required <em>name</em> parameter is used for introspection and debug
+purposes.</p>
+<p>The optional keyword-only <em>default</em> parameter is returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.get" title="contextvars.ContextVar.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar.get()</span></code></a> when no value for the variable is found
+in the current context.</p>
+<p><strong>Important:</strong> Context Variables should be created at the top module
+level and never in closures.  <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.Context" title="contextvars.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> objects hold strong
+references to context variables which prevents context variables
+from being properly garbage collected.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="contextvars.ContextVar.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the variable.  This is a read-only property.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.ContextVar.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a value for the context variable for the current context.</p>
+<p>If there is no value for the variable in the current context,
+the method will:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>return the value of the <em>default</em> argument of the method,
+if provided; or</p></li>
+<li><p>return the default value for the context variable,
+if it was created with one; or</p></li>
+<li><p>raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.ContextVar.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call to set a new value for the context variable in the current
+context.</p>
+<p>The required <em>value</em> argument is the new value for the context
+variable.</p>
+<p>Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.contextvars.Token" title="contextvars.contextvars.Token"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Token</span></code></a> object that can be used
+to restore the variable to its previous value via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.reset" title="contextvars.ContextVar.reset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar.reset()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.ContextVar.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>token</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the context variable to the value it had before the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.set" title="contextvars.ContextVar.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar.set()</span></code></a> that created the <em>token</em> was used.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ContextVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;var&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">token</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;new value&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># code that uses &#39;var&#39;; var.get() returns &#39;new value&#39;.</span>
+<span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">token</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># After the reset call the var has no value again, so</span>
+<span class="c1"># var.get() would raise a LookupError.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextvars.contextvars.Token">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextvars.</code><code class="descname">Token</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.contextvars.Token" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>Token</em> objects are returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.set" title="contextvars.ContextVar.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar.set()</span></code></a> method.
+They can be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.reset" title="contextvars.ContextVar.reset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar.reset()</span></code></a> method to revert
+the value of the variable to what it was before the corresponding
+<em>set</em>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.var">
+<code class="descclassname">Token.</code><code class="descname">var</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.var" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A read-only property.  Points to the <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar" title="contextvars.ContextVar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar</span></code></a> object
+that created the token.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.old_value">
+<code class="descclassname">Token.</code><code class="descname">old_value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.old_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A read-only property.  Set to the value the variable had before
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar.set" title="contextvars.ContextVar.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar.set()</span></code></a> method call that created the token.
+It points to <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Token.MISSING</span></code> is the variable was not set
+before the call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.MISSING">
+<code class="descclassname">Token.</code><code class="descname">MISSING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.contextvars.Token.Token.MISSING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A marker object used by <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Token.old_value</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="manual-context-management">
+<h2>Manual Context Management<a class="headerlink" href="#manual-context-management" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="contextvars.copy_context">
+<code class="descclassname">contextvars.</code><code class="descname">copy_context</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.copy_context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a copy of the current <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.Context" title="contextvars.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>The following snippet gets a copy of the current context and prints
+all variables and their values that are set in it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">copy_context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The function has an O(1) complexity, i.e. works equally fast for
+contexts with a few context variables and for contexts that have
+a lot of them.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="contextvars.Context">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">contextvars.</code><code class="descname">Context</code><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.Context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A mapping of <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar" title="contextvars.ContextVar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVars</span></code></a> to their values.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context()</span></code> creates an empty context with no values in it.
+To get a copy of the current context use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.copy_context" title="contextvars.copy_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy_context()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>Context implements the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Mapping</span></code></a> interface.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.Context.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callable</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.Context.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code> code in the context object
+the <em>run</em> method is called on.  Return the result of the execution
+or propagate an exception if one occurred.</p>
+<p>Any changes to any context variables that <em>callable</em> makes will
+be contained in the context object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ContextVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;var&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># &#39;var&#39; was set to &#39;spam&#39; before</span>
+    <span class="c1"># calling &#39;copy_context()&#39; and &#39;ctx.run(main)&#39;, so:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># var.get() == ctx[var] == &#39;spam&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ham&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Now, after setting &#39;var&#39; to &#39;ham&#39;:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># var.get() == ctx[var] == &#39;ham&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">copy_context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Any changes that the &#39;main&#39; function makes to &#39;var&#39;</span>
+<span class="c1"># will be contained in &#39;ctx&#39;.</span>
+<span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The &#39;main()&#39; function was run in the &#39;ctx&#39; context,</span>
+<span class="c1"># so changes to &#39;var&#39; are contained in it:</span>
+<span class="c1"># ctx[var] == &#39;ham&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># However, outside of &#39;ctx&#39;, &#39;var&#39; is still set to &#39;spam&#39;:</span>
+<span class="c1"># var.get() == &#39;spam&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The method raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> when called on the same
+context object from more than one OS thread, or when called
+recursively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.Context.copy">
+<code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.Context.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shallow copy of the context object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">var in context</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the <em>context</em> has a value for <em>var</em> set;
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">context[var]</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the <em>var</em> <a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars.ContextVar" title="contextvars.ContextVar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextVar</span></code></a> variable.
+If the variable is not set in the context object, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.Context.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>var</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.Context.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value for <em>var</em> if <em>var</em> has the value in the context
+object.  Return <em>default</em> otherwise.  If <em>default</em> is not given,
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">iter(context)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over the variables stored in the context
+object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">len(proxy)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of variables set in the context object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.Context.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.Context.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all variables in the context object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.Context.values">
+<code class="descname">values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.Context.values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all variables’ values in the context object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextvars.Context.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars.Context.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of 2-tuples containing all variables and their
+values in the context object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asyncio-support">
+<h2>asyncio support<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Context variables are natively supported in <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> and are
+ready to be used without any extra configuration.  For example, here
+is a simple echo server, that uses a context variable to make the
+address of a remote client available in the Task that handles that
+client:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">contextvars</span>
+
+<span class="n">client_addr_var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">contextvars</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ContextVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;client_addr&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">render_goodbye</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The address of the currently handled client can be accessed</span>
+    <span class="c1"># without passing it explicitly to this function.</span>
+
+    <span class="n">client_addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">client_addr_var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Good bye, client @ </span><span class="si">{client_addr}</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_extra_info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;socket&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpeername</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">client_addr_var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># In any code that we call is now possible to get</span>
+    <span class="c1"># client&#39;s address by calling &#39;client_addr_var.get()&#39;.</span>
+
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">render_goodbye</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">srv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start_server</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">handle_request</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8081</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">srv</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">srv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># To test it you can use telnet:</span>
+<span class="c1">#     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code> — Context Variables</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#context-variables">Context Variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#manual-context-management">Manual Context Management</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio-support">asyncio support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="dummy_threading.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code> — Drop-in replacement for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> module</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ipc.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Networking and Interprocess Communication</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/contextvars.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/copy.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/copy.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c46340
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/copy.html
@@ -0,0 +1,258 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>copy — Shallow and deep copy operations &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+      }
+    </style>
+ 
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-copy">
+<span id="copy-shallow-and-deep-copy-operations"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code></a> — Shallow and deep copy operations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-copy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/copy.py">Lib/copy.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Assignment statements in Python do not copy objects, they create bindings
+between a target and an object. For collections that are mutable or contain
+mutable items, a copy is sometimes needed so one can change one copy without
+changing the other. This module provides generic shallow and deep copy
+operations (explained below).</p>
+<p>Interface summary:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="copy.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">copy.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#copy.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shallow copy of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="copy.deepcopy">
+<code class="descclassname">copy.</code><code class="descname">deepcopy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>memo</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#copy.deepcopy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a deep copy of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="copy.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">copy.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#copy.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised for module specific errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The difference between shallow and deep copying is only relevant for compound
+objects (objects that contain other objects, like lists or class instances):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A <em>shallow copy</em> constructs a new compound object and then (to the extent
+possible) inserts <em>references</em> into it to the objects found in the original.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <em>deep copy</em> constructs a new compound object and then, recursively, inserts
+<em>copies</em> into it of the objects found in the original.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Two problems often exist with deep copy operations that don’t exist with shallow
+copy operations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Recursive objects (compound objects that, directly or indirectly, contain a
+reference to themselves) may cause a recursive loop.</p></li>
+<li><p>Because deep copy copies everything it may copy too much, such as data
+which is intended to be shared between copies.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deepcopy()</span></code></a> function avoids these problems by:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>keeping a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memo</span></code> dictionary of objects already copied during the current
+copying pass; and</p></li>
+<li><p>letting user-defined classes override the copying operation or the set of
+components copied.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This module does not copy types like module, method, stack trace, stack frame,
+file, socket, window, array, or any similar types.  It does “copy” functions and
+classes (shallow and deeply), by returning the original object unchanged; this
+is compatible with the way these are treated by the <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Shallow copies of dictionaries can be made using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.copy" title="dict.copy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.copy()</span></code></a>, and
+of lists by assigning a slice of the entire list, for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copied_list</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">original_list[:]</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-0">Classes can use the same interfaces to control copying that they use to control
+pickling.  See the description of module <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> for information on these
+methods.  In fact, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code></a> module uses the registered
+pickle functions from the <a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html#module-copyreg" title="copyreg: Register pickle support functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p id="index-1">In order for a class to define its own copy implementation, it can define
+special methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__copy__()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__deepcopy__()</span></code>.  The former is called
+to implement the shallow copy operation; no additional arguments are passed.
+The latter is called to implement the deep copy operation; it is passed one
+argument, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memo</span></code> dictionary.  If the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__deepcopy__()</span></code> implementation needs
+to make a deep copy of a component, it should call the <a class="reference internal" href="#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deepcopy()</span></code></a> function
+with the component as first argument and the memo dictionary as second argument.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Discussion of the special methods used to support object state retrieval and
+restoration.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+    <title>copyreg — Register pickle support functions &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-copyreg">
+<span id="copyreg-register-pickle-support-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-copyreg" title="copyreg: Register pickle support functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code></a> — Register <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> support functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-copyreg" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/copyreg.py">Lib/copyreg.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-copyreg" title="copyreg: Register pickle support functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code></a> module offers a way to define functions used while pickling
+specific objects.  The <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code></a> modules use those functions
+when pickling/copying those objects.  The module provides configuration
+information about object constructors which are not classes.
+Such constructors may be factory functions or class instances.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="copyreg.constructor">
+<code class="descclassname">copyreg.</code><code class="descname">constructor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#copyreg.constructor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Declares <em>object</em> to be a valid constructor.  If <em>object</em> is not callable (and
+hence not valid as a constructor), raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="copyreg.pickle">
+<code class="descclassname">copyreg.</code><code class="descname">pickle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>constructor=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#copyreg.pickle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Declares that <em>function</em> should be used as a “reduction” function for objects
+of type <em>type</em>.  <em>function</em> should return either a string or a tuple
+containing two or three elements.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>constructor</em> parameter, if provided, is a callable object which
+can be used to reconstruct the object when called with the tuple of arguments
+returned by <em>function</em> at pickling time.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised if
+<em>object</em> is a class or <em>constructor</em> is not callable.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module for more details on the interface
+expected of <em>function</em> and <em>constructor</em>.  Note that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table" title="pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_table</span></code></a> attribute of a pickler
+object or subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.Pickler</span></code></a> can also be used for
+declaring reduction functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The example below would like to show how to register a pickle function and how
+it will be used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">copyreg</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">copy</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">pickle_c</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;pickling a C instance...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">copyreg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pickle_c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">copy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">pickling a C instance...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">pickling a C instance...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code> — Register <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> support functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pickle.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> — Python object serialization</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/crypt.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/crypt.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..505b462
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-crypt">
+<span id="crypt-function-to-check-unix-passwords"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> — Function to check Unix passwords<a class="headerlink" href="#module-crypt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/crypt.py">Lib/crypt.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module implements an interface to the <em class="manpage">crypt(3)</em> routine, which is
+a one-way hash function based upon a modified DES algorithm; see the Unix man
+page for further details.  Possible uses include storing hashed passwords
+so you can check passwords without storing the actual password, or attempting
+to crack Unix passwords with a dictionary.</p>
+<p id="index-1">Notice that the behavior of this module depends on the actual implementation  of
+the <em class="manpage">crypt(3)</em> routine in the running system.  Therefore, any
+extensions available on the current implementation will also  be available on
+this module.</p>
+<div class="section" id="hashing-methods">
+<h2>Hashing Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#hashing-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> module defines the list of hashing methods (not all methods
+are available on all platforms):</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="crypt.METHOD_SHA512">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">METHOD_SHA512</code><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.METHOD_SHA512" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 86 character
+hash based on the SHA-512 hash function.  This is the strongest method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="crypt.METHOD_SHA256">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">METHOD_SHA256</code><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.METHOD_SHA256" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Another Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 43
+character hash based on the SHA-256 hash function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="crypt.METHOD_BLOWFISH">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">METHOD_BLOWFISH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.METHOD_BLOWFISH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Another Modular Crypt Format method with 22 character salt and 31
+character hash based on the Blowfish cipher.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="crypt.METHOD_MD5">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">METHOD_MD5</code><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.METHOD_MD5" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Another Modular Crypt Format method with 8 character salt and 22
+character hash based on the MD5 hash function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="crypt.METHOD_CRYPT">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">METHOD_CRYPT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.METHOD_CRYPT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The traditional method with a 2 character salt and 13 characters of
+hash.  This is the weakest method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-attributes">
+<h2>Module Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="crypt.methods">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">methods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.methods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of available password hashing algorithms, as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt.METHOD_*</span></code> objects.  This list is sorted from strongest to
+weakest.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-functions">
+<h2>Module Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="crypt.crypt">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">crypt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>word</em>, <em>salt=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.crypt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>word</em> will usually be a user’s password as typed at a prompt or  in a graphical
+interface.  The optional <em>salt</em> is either a string as returned from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#crypt.mksalt" title="crypt.mksalt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mksalt()</span></code></a>, one of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt.METHOD_*</span></code> values (though not all
+may be available on all platforms), or a full encrypted password
+including salt, as returned by this function.  If <em>salt</em> is not
+provided, the strongest method will be used (as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#crypt.methods" title="crypt.methods"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methods()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Checking a password is usually done by passing the plain-text password
+as <em>word</em> and the full results of a previous <a class="reference internal" href="#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt()</span></code></a> call,
+which should be the same as the results of this call.</p>
+<p><em>salt</em> (either a random 2 or 16 character string, possibly prefixed with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$digit$</span></code> to indicate the method) which will be used to perturb the
+encryption algorithm.  The characters in <em>salt</em> must be in the set
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[./a-zA-Z0-9]</span></code>, with the exception of Modular Crypt Format which
+prefixes a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$digit$</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returns the hashed password as a string, which will be composed of
+characters from the same alphabet as the salt.</p>
+<p id="index-2">Since a few <em class="manpage">crypt(3)</em> extensions allow different values, with
+different sizes in the <em>salt</em>, it is recommended to use  the full crypted
+password as salt when checking for a password.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Accept <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt.METHOD_*</span></code> values in addition to strings for <em>salt</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="crypt.mksalt">
+<code class="descclassname">crypt.</code><code class="descname">mksalt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>method=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>rounds=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#crypt.mksalt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a randomly generated salt of the specified method.  If no
+<em>method</em> is given, the strongest method available as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#crypt.methods" title="crypt.methods"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methods()</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<p>The return value is a string suitable for passing as the <em>salt</em> argument
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>rounds</em> specifies the number of rounds for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METHOD_SHA256</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METHOD_SHA512</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METHOD_BLOWFISH</span></code>.
+For <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METHOD_SHA256</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METHOD_SHA512</span></code> it must be an integer between
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1000</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">999_999_999</span></code>, the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5000</span></code>.  For
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METHOD_BLOWFISH</span></code> it must be a power of two between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">16</span></code> (2<sup>4</sup>)
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2_147_483_648</span></code> (2<sup>31</sup>), the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4096</span></code>
+(2<sup>12</sup>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>rounds</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A simple example illustrating typical use (a constant-time comparison
+operation is needed to limit exposure to timing attacks.
+<a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#hmac.compare_digest" title="hmac.compare_digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.compare_digest()</span></code></a> is suitable for this purpose):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pwd</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">crypt</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">getpass</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hmac</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">compare_digest</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">compare_hash</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">login</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">username</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Python login: &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">cryptedpasswd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pwd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpwnam</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">username</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">cryptedpasswd</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">cryptedpasswd</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">cryptedpasswd</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;no support for shadow passwords&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">cleartext</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getpass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">compare_hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">crypt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crypt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cleartext</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cryptedpasswd</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">cryptedpasswd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To generate a hash of a password using the strongest available method and
+check it against the original:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">crypt</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hmac</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">compare_digest</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">compare_hash</span>
+
+<span class="n">hashed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">crypt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crypt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">plaintext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">compare_hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hashed</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">crypt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crypt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">plaintext</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">hashed</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hashed version doesn&#39;t validate against original&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code> — Function to check Unix passwords</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashing-methods">Hashing Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-attributes">Module Attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-functions">Module Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="cryptographic-services">
+<span id="crypto"></span><h1>Cryptographic Services<a class="headerlink" href="#cryptographic-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms of a
+cryptographic nature.  They are available at the discretion of the installation.
+On Unix systems, the <a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> module may also be available.
+Here’s an overview:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code> — Secure hashes and message digests</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#hash-algorithms">Hash algorithms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#shake-variable-length-digests">SHAKE variable length digests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#key-derivation">Key derivation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#blake2">BLAKE2</a><ul>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-csv">
+<span id="csv-csv-file-reading-and-writing"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> — CSV File Reading and Writing<a class="headerlink" href="#module-csv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/csv.py">Lib/csv.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The so-called CSV (Comma Separated Values) format is the most common import and
+export format for spreadsheets and databases.  CSV format was used for many
+years prior to attempts to describe the format in a standardized way in
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4180.html"><strong>RFC 4180</strong></a>.  The lack of a well-defined standard means that subtle differences
+often exist in the data produced and consumed by different applications.  These
+differences can make it annoying to process CSV files from multiple sources.
+Still, while the delimiters and quoting characters vary, the overall format is
+similar enough that it is possible to write a single module which can
+efficiently manipulate such data, hiding the details of reading and writing the
+data from the programmer.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module implements classes to read and write tabular data in CSV
+format.  It allows programmers to say, “write this data in the format preferred
+by Excel,” or “read data from this file which was generated by Excel,” without
+knowing the precise details of the CSV format used by Excel.  Programmers can
+also describe the CSV formats understood by other applications or define their
+own special-purpose CSV formats.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> objects read and
+write sequences.  Programmers can also read and write data in dictionary form
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictReader" title="csv.DictReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictWriter" title="csv.DictWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictWriter</span></code></a> classes.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0305"><strong>PEP 305</strong></a> - CSV File API</dt><dd><p>The Python Enhancement Proposal which proposed this addition to Python.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-contents">
+<span id="csv-contents"></span><h2>Module Contents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="csv.reader">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">reader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>csvfile</em>, <em>dialect='excel'</em>, <em>**fmtparams</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.reader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a reader object which will iterate over lines in the given <em>csvfile</em>.
+<em>csvfile</em> can be any object which supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> protocol and returns a
+string each time its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code> method is called — <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a> and list objects are both suitable.   If <em>csvfile</em> is a file object,
+it should be opened with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newline=''</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a>  An optional
+<em>dialect</em> parameter can be given which is used to define a set of parameters
+specific to a particular CSV dialect.  It may be an instance of a subclass of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a> class or one of the strings returned by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.list_dialects" title="csv.list_dialects"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list_dialects()</span></code></a> function.  The other optional <em>fmtparams</em> keyword arguments
+can be given to override individual formatting parameters in the current
+dialect.  For full details about the dialect and formatting parameters, see
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#csv-fmt-params"><span class="std std-ref">Dialects and Formatting Parameters</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Each row read from the csv file is returned as a list of strings.  No
+automatic data type conversion is performed unless the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUOTE_NONNUMERIC</span></code> format
+option is specified (in which case unquoted fields are transformed into floats).</p>
+<p>A short usage example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">spamreader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delimiter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quotechar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">spamreader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;, &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans</span>
+<span class="go">Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="csv.writer">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">writer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>csvfile</em>, <em>dialect='excel'</em>, <em>**fmtparams</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.writer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a writer object responsible for converting the user’s data into delimited
+strings on the given file-like object.  <em>csvfile</em> can be any object with a
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method.  If <em>csvfile</em> is a file object, it should be opened with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newline=''</span></code> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id2">1</a>.  An optional <em>dialect</em>
+parameter can be given which is used to define a set of parameters specific to a
+particular CSV dialect.  It may be an instance of a subclass of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a> class or one of the strings returned by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.list_dialects" title="csv.list_dialects"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list_dialects()</span></code></a> function.  The other optional <em>fmtparams</em> keyword arguments
+can be given to override individual formatting parameters in the current
+dialect.  For full details about the dialect and formatting parameters, see
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#csv-fmt-params"><span class="std std-ref">Dialects and Formatting Parameters</span></a>. To make it
+as easy as possible to interface with modules which implement the DB API, the
+value <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> is written as the empty string.  While this isn’t a
+reversible transformation, it makes it easier to dump SQL NULL data values to
+CSV files without preprocessing the data returned from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cursor.fetch*</span></code> call.
+All other non-string data are stringified with <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> before being written.</p>
+<p>A short usage example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">spamwriter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delimiter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">quotechar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quoting</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">QUOTE_MINIMAL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">spamwriter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerow</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">5</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Baked Beans&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="n">spamwriter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerow</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Lovely Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Wonderful Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="csv.register_dialect">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">register_dialect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>dialect</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>**fmtparams</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.register_dialect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Associate <em>dialect</em> with <em>name</em>.  <em>name</em> must be a string. The
+dialect can be specified either by passing a sub-class of <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a>, or
+by <em>fmtparams</em> keyword arguments, or both, with keyword arguments overriding
+parameters of the dialect. For full details about the dialect and formatting
+parameters, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#csv-fmt-params"><span class="std std-ref">Dialects and Formatting Parameters</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="csv.unregister_dialect">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">unregister_dialect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.unregister_dialect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the dialect associated with <em>name</em> from the dialect registry.  An
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Error" title="csv.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> is raised if <em>name</em> is not a registered dialect name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="csv.get_dialect">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">get_dialect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.get_dialect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the dialect associated with <em>name</em>.  An <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Error" title="csv.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> is raised if
+<em>name</em> is not a registered dialect name.  This function returns an immutable
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="csv.list_dialects">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">list_dialects</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.list_dialects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the names of all registered dialects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="csv.field_size_limit">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">field_size_limit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>new_limit</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.field_size_limit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current maximum field size allowed by the parser. If <em>new_limit</em> is
+given, this becomes the new limit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module defines the following classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="csv.DictReader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">DictReader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em>, <em>fieldnames=None</em>, <em>restkey=None</em>, <em>restval=None</em>, <em>dialect='excel'</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.DictReader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an object that operates like a regular reader but maps the
+information in each row to an <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a>
+whose keys are given by the optional <em>fieldnames</em> parameter.</p>
+<p>The <em>fieldnames</em> parameter is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">sequence</span></a>.  If <em>fieldnames</em> is
+omitted, the values in the first row of file <em>f</em> will be used as the
+fieldnames.  Regardless of how the fieldnames are determined, the ordered
+dictionary preserves their original ordering.</p>
+<p>If a row has more fields than fieldnames, the remaining data is put in a
+list and stored with the fieldname specified by <em>restkey</em> (which defaults
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).  If a non-blank row has fewer fields than fieldnames, the
+missing values are filled-in with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>All other optional or keyword arguments are passed to the underlying
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Returned rows are now of type <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A short usage example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;names.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DictReader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;first_name&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;last_name&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Eric Idle</span>
+<span class="go">John Cleese</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">OrderedDict([(&#39;first_name&#39;, &#39;John&#39;), (&#39;last_name&#39;, &#39;Cleese&#39;)])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="csv.DictWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">DictWriter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em>, <em>fieldnames</em>, <em>restval=''</em>, <em>extrasaction='raise'</em>, <em>dialect='excel'</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.DictWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an object which operates like a regular writer but maps dictionaries
+onto output rows.  The <em>fieldnames</em> parameter is a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence</span></code></a> of keys that identify the order in which values in the
+dictionary passed to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writerow()</span></code> method are written to file
+<em>f</em>.  The optional <em>restval</em> parameter specifies the value to be
+written if the dictionary is missing a key in <em>fieldnames</em>.  If the
+dictionary passed to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writerow()</span></code> method contains a key not found in
+<em>fieldnames</em>, the optional <em>extrasaction</em> parameter indicates what action to
+take.
+If it is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'raise'</span></code>, the default value, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+is raised.
+If it is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code>, extra values in the dictionary are ignored.
+Any other optional or keyword arguments are passed to the underlying
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>Note that unlike the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictReader" title="csv.DictReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictReader</span></code></a> class, the <em>fieldnames</em> parameter
+of the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictWriter" title="csv.DictWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictWriter</span></code></a> class is not optional.</p>
+<p>A short usage example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;names.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">fieldnames</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;first_name&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;last_name&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DictWriter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fieldnames</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">fieldnames</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writeheader</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerow</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;first_name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Baked&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;last_name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Beans&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerow</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;first_name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Lovely&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;last_name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerow</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;first_name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Wonderful&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;last_name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">Dialect</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a> class is a container class relied on primarily for its
+attributes, which are used to define the parameters for a specific
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="csv.excel">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">excel</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.excel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.excel" title="csv.excel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">excel</span></code></a> class defines the usual properties of an Excel-generated CSV
+file.  It is registered with the dialect name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'excel'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="csv.excel_tab">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">excel_tab</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.excel_tab" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.excel_tab" title="csv.excel_tab"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">excel_tab</span></code></a> class defines the usual properties of an Excel-generated
+TAB-delimited file.  It is registered with the dialect name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'excel-tab'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="csv.unix_dialect">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">unix_dialect</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.unix_dialect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.unix_dialect" title="csv.unix_dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unix_dialect</span></code></a> class defines the usual properties of a CSV file
+generated on UNIX systems, i.e. using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> as line terminator and quoting
+all fields.  It is registered with the dialect name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'unix'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="csv.Sniffer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">Sniffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Sniffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Sniffer" title="csv.Sniffer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sniffer</span></code></a> class is used to deduce the format of a CSV file.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Sniffer" title="csv.Sniffer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sniffer</span></code></a> class provides two methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="csv.Sniffer.sniff">
+<code class="descname">sniff</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sample</em>, <em>delimiters=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Sniffer.sniff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Analyze the given <em>sample</em> and return a <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a> subclass
+reflecting the parameters found.  If the optional <em>delimiters</em> parameter
+is given, it is interpreted as a string containing possible valid
+delimiter characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="csv.Sniffer.has_header">
+<code class="descname">has_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sample</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Sniffer.has_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Analyze the sample text (presumed to be in CSV format) and return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the first row appears to be a series of column headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example for <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Sniffer" title="csv.Sniffer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sniffer</span></code></a> use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">dialect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Sniffer</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sniff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">csvfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dialect</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... process CSV file contents here ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module defines the following constants:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="csv.QUOTE_ALL">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">QUOTE_ALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.QUOTE_ALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instructs <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> objects to quote all fields.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">QUOTE_MINIMAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instructs <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> objects to only quote those fields which contain
+special characters such as <em>delimiter</em>, <em>quotechar</em> or any of the characters in
+<em>lineterminator</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">QUOTE_NONNUMERIC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instructs <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> objects to quote all non-numeric fields.</p>
+<p>Instructs the reader to convert all non-quoted fields to type <em>float</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="csv.QUOTE_NONE">
+<code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">QUOTE_NONE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.QUOTE_NONE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instructs <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> objects to never quote fields.  When the current
+<em>delimiter</em> occurs in output data it is preceded by the current <em>escapechar</em>
+character.  If <em>escapechar</em> is not set, the writer will raise <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Error" title="csv.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> if
+any characters that require escaping are encountered.</p>
+<p>Instructs <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader</span></code></a> to perform no special processing of quote characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module defines the following exception:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="csv.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">csv.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised by any of the functions when an error is detected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dialects-and-formatting-parameters">
+<span id="csv-fmt-params"></span><h2>Dialects and Formatting Parameters<a class="headerlink" href="#dialects-and-formatting-parameters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To make it easier to specify the format of input and output records, specific
+formatting parameters are grouped together into dialects.  A dialect is a
+subclass of the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a> class having a set of specific methods and a
+single <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">validate()</span></code> method.  When creating <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a> objects, the programmer can specify a string or a subclass of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a> class as the dialect parameter.  In addition to, or instead
+of, the <em>dialect</em> parameter, the programmer can also specify individual
+formatting parameters, which have the same names as the attributes defined below
+for the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Dialect" title="csv.Dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialect</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>Dialects support the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.delimiter">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">delimiter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.delimiter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A one-character string used to separate fields.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">','</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.doublequote">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">doublequote</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.doublequote" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Controls how instances of <em>quotechar</em> appearing inside a field should
+themselves be quoted.  When <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, the character is doubled. When
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, the <em>escapechar</em> is used as a prefix to the <em>quotechar</em>.  It
+defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>On output, if <em>doublequote</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> and no <em>escapechar</em> is set,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Error" title="csv.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> is raised if a <em>quotechar</em> is found in a field.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.escapechar">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">escapechar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.escapechar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A one-character string used by the writer to escape the <em>delimiter</em> if <em>quoting</em>
+is set to <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.QUOTE_NONE" title="csv.QUOTE_NONE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUOTE_NONE</span></code></a> and the <em>quotechar</em> if <em>doublequote</em> is
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>. On reading, the <em>escapechar</em> removes any special meaning from
+the following character. It defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, which disables escaping.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.lineterminator">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">lineterminator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.lineterminator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string used to terminate lines produced by the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer</span></code></a>. It defaults
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader</span></code></a> is hard-coded to recognise either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> as
+end-of-line, and ignores <em>lineterminator</em>. This behavior may change in the
+future.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.quotechar">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">quotechar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.quotechar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A one-character string used to quote fields containing special characters, such
+as the <em>delimiter</em> or <em>quotechar</em>, or which contain new-line characters.  It
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&quot;'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.quoting">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">quoting</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.quoting" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Controls when quotes should be generated by the writer and recognised by the
+reader.  It can take on any of the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUOTE_*</span></code> constants (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv-contents"><span class="std std-ref">Module Contents</span></a>) and defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL" title="csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUOTE_MINIMAL</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.skipinitialspace">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">skipinitialspace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.skipinitialspace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, whitespace immediately following the <em>delimiter</em> is ignored.
+The default is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.Dialect.strict">
+<code class="descclassname">Dialect.</code><code class="descname">strict</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.Dialect.strict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, raise exception <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.Error" title="csv.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> on bad CSV input.
+The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reader-objects">
+<h2>Reader Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#reader-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Reader objects (<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictReader" title="csv.DictReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictReader</span></code></a> instances and objects returned by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader()</span></code></a> function) have the following public methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="csv.csvreader.__next__">
+<code class="descclassname">csvreader.</code><code class="descname">__next__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.csvreader.__next__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the next row of the reader’s iterable object as a list (if the object
+was returned from <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.reader" title="csv.reader"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader()</span></code></a>) or a dict (if it is a <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictReader" title="csv.DictReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictReader</span></code></a>
+instance), parsed according to the current dialect.  Usually you should call
+this as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next(reader)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Reader objects have the following public attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.csvreader.dialect">
+<code class="descclassname">csvreader.</code><code class="descname">dialect</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.csvreader.dialect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A read-only description of the dialect in use by the parser.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.csvreader.line_num">
+<code class="descclassname">csvreader.</code><code class="descname">line_num</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.csvreader.line_num" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of lines read from the source iterator. This is not the same as the
+number of records returned, as records can span multiple lines.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>DictReader objects have the following public attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.csvreader.fieldnames">
+<code class="descclassname">csvreader.</code><code class="descname">fieldnames</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.csvreader.fieldnames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If not passed as a parameter when creating the object, this attribute is
+initialized upon first access or when the first record is read from the
+file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writer-objects">
+<h2>Writer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#writer-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Writer</span></code> objects (<a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictWriter" title="csv.DictWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictWriter</span></code></a> instances and objects returned by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writer()</span></code></a> function) have the following public methods.  A <em>row</em> must be
+an iterable of strings or numbers for <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Writer</span></code> objects and a dictionary
+mapping fieldnames to strings or numbers (by passing them through <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>
+first) for <a class="reference internal" href="#csv.DictWriter" title="csv.DictWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictWriter</span></code></a> objects.  Note that complex numbers are written
+out surrounded by parens. This may cause some problems for other programs which
+read CSV files (assuming they support complex numbers at all).</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="csv.csvwriter.writerow">
+<code class="descclassname">csvwriter.</code><code class="descname">writerow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>row</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.csvwriter.writerow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the <em>row</em> parameter to the writer’s file object, formatted according to
+the current dialect.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support of arbitrary iterables.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="csv.csvwriter.writerows">
+<code class="descclassname">csvwriter.</code><code class="descname">writerows</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rows</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.csvwriter.writerows" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write all elements in <em>rows</em> (an iterable of <em>row</em> objects as described
+above) to the writer’s file object, formatted according to the current
+dialect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Writer objects have the following public attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="csv.csvwriter.dialect">
+<code class="descclassname">csvwriter.</code><code class="descname">dialect</code><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.csvwriter.dialect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A read-only description of the dialect in use by the writer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>DictWriter objects have the following public method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="csv.DictWriter.writeheader">
+<code class="descclassname">DictWriter.</code><code class="descname">writeheader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#csv.DictWriter.writeheader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a row with the field names (as specified in the constructor).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="csv-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The simplest example of reading a CSV file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Reading a file with an alternate format:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delimiter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quoting</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">QUOTE_NONE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The corresponding simplest possible writing example is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerows</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">someiterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> is used to open a CSV file for reading, the file
+will by default be decoded into unicode using the system default
+encoding (see <a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code></a>).  To decode a file
+using a different encoding, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> argument of open:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some.csv&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same applies to writing in something other than the system default
+encoding: specify the encoding argument when opening the output file.</p>
+<p>Registering a new dialect:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_dialect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;unixpwd&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delimiter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quoting</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">QUOTE_NONE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;unixpwd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A slightly more advanced use of the reader — catching and reporting errors:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;some.csv&#39;</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Error</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;file </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">, line </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">line_num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And while the module doesn’t directly support parsing strings, it can easily be
+done:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;one,two,three&#39;</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets">1</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id1">1</a>,<a href="#id2">2</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newline=''</span></code> is not specified, newlines embedded inside quoted fields
+will not be interpreted correctly, and on platforms that use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code> linendings
+on write an extra <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code> will be added.  It should always be safe to specify
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newline=''</span></code>, since the csv module does its own
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal</span></a>) newline handling.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code> — CSV File Reading and Writing</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dialects-and-formatting-parameters">Dialects and Formatting Parameters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reader-objects">Reader Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writer-objects">Writer Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="fileformats.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">File Formats</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="configparser.html"
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-ctypes">
+<span id="ctypes-a-foreign-function-library-for-python"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> — A foreign function library for Python<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ctypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> is a foreign function library for Python.  It provides C compatible
+data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared libraries.  It can be
+used to wrap these libraries in pure Python.</p>
+<div class="section" id="ctypes-tutorial">
+<span id="ctypes-ctypes-tutorial"></span><h2>ctypes tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Note: The code samples in this tutorial use <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> to make sure that
+they actually work.  Since some code samples behave differently under Linux,
+Windows, or Mac OS X, they contain doctest directives in comments.</p>
+<p>Note: Some code samples reference the ctypes <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a> type.  On platforms
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(long)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">sizeof(int)</span></code> it is an alias to <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_long" title="ctypes.c_long"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_long</span></code></a>.
+So, you should not be confused if <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_long" title="ctypes.c_long"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_long</span></code></a> is printed if you would expect
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a> — they are actually the same type.</p>
+<div class="section" id="loading-dynamic-link-libraries">
+<span id="ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries"></span><h3>Loading dynamic link libraries<a class="headerlink" href="#loading-dynamic-link-libraries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> exports the <em>cdll</em>, and on Windows <em>windll</em> and <em>oledll</em>
+objects, for loading dynamic link libraries.</p>
+<p>You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects. <em>cdll</em>
+loads libraries which export functions using the standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cdecl</span></code> calling
+convention, while <em>windll</em> libraries call functions using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code>
+calling convention. <em>oledll</em> also uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code> calling convention, and
+assumes the functions return a Windows <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HRESULT</span></code> error code. The error
+code is used to automatically raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception when the
+function call fails.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Windows errors used to raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#WindowsError" title="WindowsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsError</span></code></a>, which is now an alias
+of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Here are some examples for Windows. Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> is the MS standard C
+library containing most standard C functions, and uses the cdecl calling
+convention:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;WinDLL &#39;kernel32&#39;, handle ... at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cdll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msvcrt</span><span class="p">)</span>      
+<span class="go">&lt;CDLL &#39;msvcrt&#39;, handle ... at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cdll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msvcrt</span>      
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Windows appends the usual <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dll</span></code> file suffix automatically.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Accessing the standard C library through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cdll.msvcrt</span></code> will use an
+outdated version of the library that may be incompatible with the one
+being used by Python. Where possible, use native Python functionality,
+or else import and use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> module.</p>
+</div>
+<p>On Linux, it is required to specify the filename <em>including</em> the extension to
+load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load libraries. Either the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadLibrary()</span></code> method of the dll loaders should be used, or you should load
+the library by creating an instance of CDLL by calling the constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cdll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LoadLibrary</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;libc.so.6&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;CDLL &#39;libc.so.6&#39;, handle ... at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CDLL</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;libc.so.6&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>       
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span>                           
+<span class="go">&lt;CDLL &#39;libc.so.6&#39;, handle ... at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls">
+<span id="ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls"></span><h3>Accessing functions from loaded dlls<a class="headerlink" href="#accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Functions are accessed as attributes of dll objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">printf</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;_FuncPtr object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GetModuleHandleA</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;_FuncPtr object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MyOwnFunction</span><span class="p">)</span>     
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;ctypes.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">239</span>, in <span class="n">__getattr__</span>
+    <span class="n">func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_StdcallFuncPtr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">function &#39;MyOwnFunction&#39; not found</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that win32 system dlls like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kernel32</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user32</span></code> often export ANSI
+as well as UNICODE versions of a function. The UNICODE version is exported with
+an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">W</span></code> appended to the name, while the ANSI version is exported with an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>
+appended to the name. The win32 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetModuleHandle</span></code> function, which returns a
+<em>module handle</em> for a given module name, has the following C prototype, and a
+macro is used to expose one of them as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetModuleHandle</span></code> depending on whether
+UNICODE is defined or not:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">/*</span> <span class="n">ANSI</span> <span class="n">version</span> <span class="o">*/</span>
+<span class="n">HMODULE</span> <span class="n">GetModuleHandleA</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">LPCSTR</span> <span class="n">lpModuleName</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="o">/*</span> <span class="n">UNICODE</span> <span class="n">version</span> <span class="o">*/</span>
+<span class="n">HMODULE</span> <span class="n">GetModuleHandleW</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">LPCWSTR</span> <span class="n">lpModuleName</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>windll</em> does not try to select one of them by magic, you must access the
+version you need by specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetModuleHandleA</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetModuleHandleW</span></code>
+explicitly, and then call it with bytes or string objects respectively.</p>
+<p>Sometimes, dlls export functions with names which aren’t valid Python
+identifiers, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;??2&#64;YAPAXI&#64;Z&quot;</span></code>. In this case you have to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> to retrieve the function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cdll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msvcrt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;??2@YAPAXI@Z&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;_FuncPtr object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On Windows, some dlls export functions not by name but by ordinal. These
+functions can be accessed by indexing the dll object with the ordinal number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cdll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>  
+<span class="go">&lt;_FuncPtr object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cdll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>  
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;ctypes.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">310</span>, in <span class="n">__getitem__</span>
+    <span class="n">func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_StdcallFuncPtr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">function ordinal 0 not found</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calling-functions">
+<span id="ctypes-calling-functions"></span><h3>Calling functions<a class="headerlink" href="#calling-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can call these functions like any other Python callable. This example uses
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code> function, which returns system time in seconds since the Unix
+epoch, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetModuleHandleA()</span></code> function, which returns a win32 module
+handle.</p>
+<p>This example calls both functions with a NULL pointer (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> should be used
+as the NULL pointer):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">))</span>  
+<span class="go">1150640792</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GetModuleHandleA</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)))</span>  
+<span class="go">0x1d000000</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> may raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> after calling the function, if
+it detects that an invalid number of arguments were passed.  This behavior
+should not be relied upon.  It is deprecated in 3.6.2, and will be removed
+in 3.7.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised when you call an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code> function with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cdecl</span></code> calling convention, or vice versa:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cdll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GetModuleHandleA</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msvcrt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;spam&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To find out the correct calling convention you have to look into the C header
+file or the documentation for the function you want to call.</p>
+<p>On Windows, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> uses win32 structured exception handling to prevent
+crashes from general protection faults when functions are called with invalid
+argument values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GetModuleHandleA</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">OSError</span>: <span class="n">exception: access violation reading 0x00000020</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>, so you
+should be careful anyway.  The <a class="reference internal" href="faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> module can be helpful in
+debugging crashes (e.g. from segmentation faults produced by erroneous C library
+calls).</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only native
+Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these function calls.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is passed as a C <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> pointer, bytes objects and strings are passed
+as pointer to the memory block that contains their data (<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> or
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>).  Python integers are passed as the platforms default C
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> type, their value is masked to fit into the C type.</p>
+<p>Before we move on calling functions with other parameter types, we have to learn
+more about <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> data types.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fundamental-data-types">
+<span id="ctypes-fundamental-data-types"></span><h3>Fundamental data types<a class="headerlink" href="#fundamental-data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> defines a number of primitive C compatible data types:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 46%" />
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>ctypes type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_bool" title="ctypes.c_bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_bool</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Bool</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bool (1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_char" title="ctypes.c_char"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>1-character bytes object</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_wchar" title="ctypes.c_wchar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_wchar</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>1-character string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_byte" title="ctypes.c_byte"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_byte</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ubyte" title="ctypes.c_ubyte"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ubyte</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_short" title="ctypes.c_short"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_short</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ushort" title="ctypes.c_ushort"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ushort</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">short</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_uint" title="ctypes.c_uint"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_uint</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_long" title="ctypes.c_long"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_long</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ulong" title="ctypes.c_ulong"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ulong</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_longlong" title="ctypes.c_longlong"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_longlong</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int64</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ulonglong" title="ctypes.c_ulonglong"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ulonglong</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">__int64</span></code> or
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_size_t" title="ctypes.c_size_t"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_size_t</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size_t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ssize_t" title="ctypes.c_ssize_t"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ssize_t</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code> or
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_float" title="ctypes.c_float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_float</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_double" title="ctypes.c_double"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_double</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_longdouble" title="ctypes.c_longdouble"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_longdouble</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">double</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_char_p" title="ctypes.c_char_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char_p</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> (NUL terminated)</p></td>
+<td><p>bytes object or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_wchar_p" title="ctypes.c_wchar_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_wchar_p</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> (NUL terminated)</p></td>
+<td><p>string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_void_p" title="ctypes.c_void_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_void_p</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>int or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>The constructor accepts any object with a truth value.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>All these types can be created by calling them with an optional initializer of
+the correct type and value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">c_long(0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c_wchar_p</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello, World&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">c_wchar_p(140018365411392)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c_ushort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">c_ushort(65533)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since these types are mutable, their value can also be changed afterwards:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">c_long(42)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">42</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">99</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-99</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_char_p" title="ctypes.c_char_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char_p</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_wchar_p" title="ctypes.c_wchar_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_wchar_p</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_void_p" title="ctypes.c_void_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_void_p</span></code></a> changes the <em>memory location</em> they
+point to, <em>not the contents</em> of the memory block (of course not, because Python
+bytes objects are immutable):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello, World&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c_s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_wchar_p</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">c_wchar_p(139966785747344)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Hello World</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c_s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hi, there&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_s</span><span class="p">)</span>              <span class="c1"># the memory location has changed</span>
+<span class="go">c_wchar_p(139966783348904)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Hi, there</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>                <span class="c1"># first object is unchanged</span>
+<span class="go">Hello, World</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You should be careful, however, not to pass them to functions expecting pointers
+to mutable memory. If you need mutable memory blocks, ctypes has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.create_string_buffer" title="ctypes.create_string_buffer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_string_buffer()</span></code></a> function which creates these in various ways.  The
+current memory block contents can be accessed (or changed) with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw</span></code>
+property; if you want to access it as NUL terminated string, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>
+property:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">create_string_buffer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>            <span class="c1"># create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">raw</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">3 b&#39;\x00\x00\x00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">create_string_buffer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">raw</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">6 b&#39;Hello\x00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">create_string_buffer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># create a 10 byte buffer</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">raw</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">10 b&#39;Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hi&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">raw</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">10 b&#39;Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.create_string_buffer" title="ctypes.create_string_buffer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_string_buffer()</span></code></a> function replaces the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_buffer()</span></code> function
+(which is still available as an alias), as well as the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_string()</span></code> function
+from earlier ctypes releases.  To create a mutable memory block containing
+unicode characters of the C type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.create_unicode_buffer" title="ctypes.create_unicode_buffer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_unicode_buffer()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calling-functions-continued">
+<span id="ctypes-calling-functions-continued"></span><h3>Calling functions, continued<a class="headerlink" href="#calling-functions-continued" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Note that printf prints to the real standard output channel, <em>not</em> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>, so these examples will only work at the console prompt, not
+from within <em>IDLE</em> or <em>PythonWin</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">printf</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello, </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;World!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Hello, World!</span>
+<span class="go">14</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello, %S</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;World!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Hello, World!</span>
+<span class="go">14</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> bottles of beer</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">42 bottles of beer</span>
+<span class="go">19</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2"> bottles of beer</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">42.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ArgumentError</span>: <span class="n">argument 2: exceptions.TypeError: Don&#39;t know how to convert parameter 2</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As has been mentioned before, all Python types except integers, strings, and
+bytes objects have to be wrapped in their corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> type, so
+that they can be converted to the required C data type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;An int </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">, a double </span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1234</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_double</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">An int 1234, a double 3.140000</span>
+<span class="go">31</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types">
+<span id="ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types"></span><h3>Calling functions with your own custom data types<a class="headerlink" href="#calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can also customize <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> argument conversion to allow instances of
+your own classes be used as function arguments.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> looks for an
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_as_parameter_</span></code> attribute and uses this as the function argument.  Of
+course, it must be one of integer, string, or bytes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bottles</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_as_parameter_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">number</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bottles</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Bottles</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> bottles of beer</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bottles</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">42 bottles of beer</span>
+<span class="go">19</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you don’t want to store the instance’s data in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_as_parameter_</span></code>
+instance variable, you could define a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a> which makes the
+attribute available on request.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes">
+<span id="ctypes-specifying-required-argument-types"></span><h3>Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)<a class="headerlink" href="#specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions exported from
+DLLs by setting the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code> must be a sequence of C data types (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code> function is
+probably not a good example here, because it takes a variable number and
+different types of parameters depending on the format string, on the other hand
+this is quite handy to experiment with this feature):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argtypes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">c_char_p</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_char_p</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_double</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;String &#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&#39;, Int </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">, Double </span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hi&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">String &#39;Hi&#39;, Int 10, Double 2.200000</span>
+<span class="go">37</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Specifying a format protects against incompatible argument types (just as a
+prototype for a C function), and tries to convert the arguments to valid types:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ArgumentError</span>: <span class="n">argument 2: exceptions.TypeError: wrong type</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;X&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">X 2 3.000000</span>
+<span class="go">13</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls, you have
+to implement a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_param()</span></code> class method for them to be able to use them
+in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code> sequence. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_param()</span></code> class method receives
+the Python object passed to the function call, it should do a typecheck or
+whatever is needed to make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the
+object itself, its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_as_parameter_</span></code> attribute, or whatever you want to
+pass as the C function argument in this case. Again, the result should be an
+integer, string, bytes, a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> instance, or an object with an
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_as_parameter_</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="return-types">
+<span id="ctypes-return-types"></span><h3>Return types<a class="headerlink" href="#return-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default functions are assumed to return the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> type.  Other
+return types can be specified by setting the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code> attribute of the
+function object.</p>
+<p>Here is a more advanced example, it uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strchr</span></code> function, which expects
+a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strchr</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;d&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>  
+<span class="go">8059983</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">restype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_char_p</span>    <span class="c1"># c_char_p is a pointer to a string</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;d&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;def&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to avoid the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord(&quot;x&quot;)</span></code> calls above, you can set the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code> attribute, and the second argument will be converted from a
+single character Python bytes object into a C char:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">restype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_char_p</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argtypes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">c_char_p</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_char</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;d&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;def&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;def&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ArgumentError</span>: <span class="n">argument 2: exceptions.TypeError: one character string expected</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;d&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;def&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for example) as
+the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code> attribute, if the foreign function returns an integer.  The
+callable will be called with the <em>integer</em> the C function returns, and the
+result of this call will be used as the result of your function call. This is
+useful to check for error return values and automatically raise an exception:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">GetModuleHandle</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kernel32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GetModuleHandleA</span>  
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">ValidHandle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">WinError</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">GetModuleHandle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">restype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ValidHandle</span>  
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">GetModuleHandle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">486539264</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">GetModuleHandle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;something silly&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">3</span>, in <span class="n">ValidHandle</span>
+<span class="gr">OSError</span>: <span class="n">[Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WinError</span></code> is a function which will call Windows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FormatMessage()</span></code> api to
+get the string representation of an error code, and <em>returns</em> an exception.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WinError</span></code> takes an optional error code parameter, if no one is used, it calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.GetLastError" title="ctypes.GetLastError"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetLastError()</span></code></a> to retrieve it.</p>
+<p>Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is available
+through the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errcheck</span></code> attribute; see the reference manual for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference">
+<span id="ctypes-passing-pointers"></span><h3>Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)<a class="headerlink" href="#passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Sometimes a C api function expects a <em>pointer</em> to a data type as parameter,
+probably to write into the corresponding location, or if the data is too large
+to be passed by value. This is also known as <em>passing parameters by reference</em>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> exports the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.byref" title="ctypes.byref"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byref()</span></code></a> function which is used to pass parameters
+by reference.  The same effect can be achieved with the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.pointer" title="ctypes.pointer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointer()</span></code></a> function,
+although <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.pointer" title="ctypes.pointer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointer()</span></code></a> does a lot more work since it constructs a real pointer
+object, so it is faster to use <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.byref" title="ctypes.byref"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byref()</span></code></a> if you don’t need the pointer
+object in Python itself:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_float</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">create_string_buffer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\000</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">0 0.0 b&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sscanf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;1 3.14 Hello&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">byref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">byref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">1 3.1400001049 b&#39;Hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="structures-and-unions">
+<span id="ctypes-structures-unions"></span><h3>Structures and unions<a class="headerlink" href="#structures-and-unions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Structures and unions must derive from the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure" title="ctypes.Structure"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Structure</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Union" title="ctypes.Union"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union</span></code></a>
+base classes which are defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> module. Each subclass must
+define a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code> attribute.  <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code> must be a list of
+<em>2-tuples</em>, containing a <em>field name</em> and a <em>field type</em>.</p>
+<p>The field type must be a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> type like <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a>, or any other
+derived <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> type: structure, union, array, pointer.</p>
+<p>Here is a simple example of a POINT structure, which contains two integers named
+<em>x</em> and <em>y</em>, and also shows how to initialize a structure in the constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">point</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">10 20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">point</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">too many initializers</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can, however, build much more complicated structures.  A structure can
+itself contain other structures by using a structure as a field type.</p>
+<p>Here is a RECT structure which contains two POINTs named <em>upperleft</em> and
+<em>lowerright</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">RECT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;upperleft&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;lowerright&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RECT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upperleft</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upperleft</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lowerright</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lowerright</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 0</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Nested structures can also be initialized in the constructor in several ways:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RECT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RECT</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Field <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-descriptor"><span class="xref std std-term">descriptor</span></a>s can be retrieved from the <em>class</em>, they are useful
+for debugging because they can provide useful information:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">POINT</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Field type=c_long, ofs=0, size=4&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">POINT</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Field type=c_long, ofs=4, size=4&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning" id="ctypes-structureunion-alignment-byte-order">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> does not support passing unions or structures with bit-fields
+to functions by value.  While this may work on 32-bit x86, it’s not
+guaranteed by the library to work in the general case.  Unions and
+structures with bit-fields should always be passed to functions by pointer.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order">
+<h3>Structure/union alignment and byte order<a class="headerlink" href="#structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, Structure and Union fields are aligned in the same way the C
+compiler does it. It is possible to override this behavior be specifying a
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pack_</span></code> class attribute in the subclass definition. This must be set to a
+positive integer and specifies the maximum alignment for the fields. This is
+what <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#pragma</span> <span class="pre">pack(n)</span></code> also does in MSVC.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions.  To build
+structures with non-native byte order, you can use one of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.BigEndianStructure" title="ctypes.BigEndianStructure"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BigEndianStructure</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.LittleEndianStructure" title="ctypes.LittleEndianStructure"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LittleEndianStructure</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BigEndianUnion</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LittleEndianUnion</span></code> base classes.  These
+classes cannot contain pointer fields.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions">
+<span id="ctypes-bit-fields-in-structures-unions"></span><h3>Bit fields in structures and unions<a class="headerlink" href="#bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields. Bit fields
+are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is specified as the third
+item in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code> tuples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;first_16&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;second_16&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">first_16</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Field type=c_long, ofs=0:0, bits=16&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">second_16</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Field type=c_long, ofs=0:16, bits=16&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="arrays">
+<span id="ctypes-arrays"></span><h3>Arrays<a class="headerlink" href="#arrays" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Arrays are sequences, containing a fixed number of instances of the same type.</p>
+<p>The recommended way to create array types is by multiplying a data type with a
+positive integer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">TenPointsArrayType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINT</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is an example of a somewhat artificial data type, a structure containing 4
+POINTs among other stuff:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyStruct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_float</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;point_array&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINT</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MyStruct</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">point_array</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Instances are created in the usual way, by calling the class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">arr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TenPointsArrayType</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">pt</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">arr</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above code print a series of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> lines, because the array contents is
+initialized to zeros.</p>
+<p>Initializers of the correct type can also be specified:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">TenIntegers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_int</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ii</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TenIntegers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ii</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ii</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pointers">
+<span id="ctypes-pointers"></span><h3>Pointers<a class="headerlink" href="#pointers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Pointer instances are created by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.pointer" title="ctypes.pointer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointer()</span></code></a> function on a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Pointer instances have a <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._Pointer.contents" title="ctypes._Pointer.contents"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contents</span></code></a> attribute which
+returns the object to which the pointer points, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> object above:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span>
+<span class="go">c_long(42)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> does not have OOR (original object return), it constructs a
+new, equivalent object each time you retrieve an attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Assigning another <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a> instance to the pointer’s contents attribute
+would cause the pointer to point to the memory location where this is stored:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span>
+<span class="go">c_long(99)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Pointer instances can also be indexed with integers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">99</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Assigning to an integer index changes the pointed to value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">c_long(99)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">22</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">c_long(22)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is also possible to use indexes different from 0, but you must know what
+you’re doing, just as in C: You can access or change arbitrary memory locations.
+Generally you only use this feature if you receive a pointer from a C function,
+and you <em>know</em> that the pointer actually points to an array instead of a single
+item.</p>
+<p>Behind the scenes, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.pointer" title="ctypes.pointer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointer()</span></code></a> function does more than simply create
+pointer instances, it has to create pointer <em>types</em> first. This is done with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.POINTER" title="ctypes.POINTER"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER()</span></code></a> function, which accepts any <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> type, and returns a
+new type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PI</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PI</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;class &#39;ctypes.LP_c_long&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">expected c_long instead of int</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Calling the pointer type without an argument creates a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> pointer.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> pointers have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> boolean value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">null_ptr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">)()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">null_ptr</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> checks for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> when dereferencing pointers (but dereferencing
+invalid non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> pointers would crash Python):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">null_ptr</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">....</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">NULL pointer access</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">null_ptr</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1234</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">....</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">NULL pointer access</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="type-conversions">
+<span id="ctypes-type-conversions"></span><h3>Type conversions<a class="headerlink" href="#type-conversions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Usually, ctypes does strict type checking.  This means, if you have
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER(c_int)</span></code> in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code> list of a function or as the type of
+a member field in a structure definition, only instances of exactly the same
+type are accepted.  There are some exceptions to this rule, where ctypes accepts
+other objects.  For example, you can pass compatible array instances instead of
+pointer types.  So, for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER(c_int)</span></code>, ctypes accepts an array of c_int:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;count&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;values&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">))]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Bar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a pointer type
+(such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER(c_int)</span></code>) in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code>, an object of the pointed
+type (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code> in this case) can be passed to the function.  ctypes will apply
+the required <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.byref" title="ctypes.byref"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byref()</span></code></a> conversion in this case automatically.</p>
+<p>To set a POINTER type field to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, you can assign <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sometimes you have instances of incompatible types.  In C, you can cast one type
+into another type.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.cast" title="ctypes.cast"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cast()</span></code></a> function which can be
+used in the same way.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bar</span></code> structure defined above accepts
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER(c_int)</span></code> pointers or <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a> arrays for its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code> field,
+but not instances of other types:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_byte</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For these cases, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.cast" title="ctypes.cast"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cast()</span></code></a> function is handy.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.cast" title="ctypes.cast"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cast()</span></code></a> function can be used to cast a ctypes instance into a pointer
+to a different ctypes data type.  <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.cast" title="ctypes.cast"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cast()</span></code></a> takes two parameters, a ctypes
+object that is or can be converted to a pointer of some kind, and a ctypes
+pointer type.  It returns an instance of the second argument, which references
+the same memory block as the first argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_byte</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>So, <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.cast" title="ctypes.cast"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cast()</span></code></a> can be used to assign to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code> field of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bar</span></code> the
+structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Bar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">c_byte</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)(),</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="incomplete-types">
+<span id="ctypes-incomplete-types"></span><h3>Incomplete Types<a class="headerlink" href="#incomplete-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><em>Incomplete Types</em> are structures, unions or arrays whose members are not yet
+specified. In C, they are specified by forward declarations, which are defined
+later:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">struct</span> <span class="n">cell</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="o">/*</span> <span class="n">forward</span> <span class="n">declaration</span> <span class="o">*/</span>
+
+<span class="n">struct</span> <span class="n">cell</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">;</span>
+    <span class="n">struct</span> <span class="n">cell</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">};</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The straightforward translation into ctypes code would be this, but it does not
+work:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">cell</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_char_p</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;next&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cell</span><span class="p">))]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">cell</span>
+<span class="gr">NameError</span>: <span class="n">name &#39;cell&#39; is not defined</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>because the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span> <span class="pre">cell</span></code> is not available in the class statement itself.
+In <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>, we can define the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cell</span></code> class and set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code>
+attribute later, after the class statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">cell</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cell</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_char_p</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                 <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;next&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cell</span><span class="p">))]</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lets try it. We create two instances of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cell</span></code>, and let them point to each
+other, and finally follow the pointer chain a few times:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cell</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cell</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-functions">
+<span id="ctypes-callback-functions"></span><h3>Callback functions<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> allows creating C callable function pointers from Python callables.
+These are sometimes called <em>callback functions</em>.</p>
+<p>First, you must create a class for the callback function. The class knows the
+calling convention, the return type, and the number and types of arguments this
+function will receive.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.CFUNCTYPE" title="ctypes.CFUNCTYPE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFUNCTYPE()</span></code></a> factory function creates types for callback functions
+using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cdecl</span></code> calling convention. On Windows, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE" title="ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WINFUNCTYPE()</span></code></a>
+factory function creates types for callback functions using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code>
+calling convention.</p>
+<p>Both of these factory functions are called with the result type as first
+argument, and the callback functions expected argument types as the remaining
+arguments.</p>
+<p>I will present an example here which uses the standard C library’s
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">qsort()</span></code> function, that is used to sort items with the help of a callback
+function.  <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">qsort()</span></code> will be used to sort an array of integers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IntArray5</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_int</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ia</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IntArray5</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">33</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">qsort</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">qsort</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">qsort</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">restype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">qsort()</span></code> must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number of
+items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the comparison
+function, the callback. The callback will then be called with two pointers to
+items, and it must return a negative integer if the first item is smaller than
+the second, a zero if they are equal, and a positive integer otherwise.</p>
+<p>So our callback function receives pointers to integers, and must return an
+integer. First we create the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> for the callback function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">CMPFUNC</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CFUNCTYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To get started, here is a simple callback that shows the values it gets
+passed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">py_cmp_func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;py_cmp_func&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cmp_func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CMPFUNC</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">py_cmp_func</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">qsort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ia</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ia</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">cmp_func</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 5 1</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 33 99</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 7 33</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 5 7</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 1 7</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now we can actually compare the two items and return a useful result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">py_cmp_func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;py_cmp_func&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">qsort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ia</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ia</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">CMPFUNC</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">py_cmp_func</span><span class="p">))</span> 
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 5 1</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 33 99</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 7 33</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 1 7</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 5 7</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As we can easily check, our array is sorted now:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ia</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">1 5 7 33 99</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The function factories can be used as decorator factories, so we may as well
+write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@CFUNCTYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">py_cmp_func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;py_cmp_func&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">qsort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ia</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ia</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">py_cmp_func</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 5 1</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 33 99</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 7 33</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 1 7</span>
+<span class="go">py_cmp_func 5 7</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Make sure you keep references to <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.CFUNCTYPE" title="ctypes.CFUNCTYPE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFUNCTYPE()</span></code></a> objects as long as they
+are used from C code. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> doesn’t, and if you don’t, they may be
+garbage collected, crashing your program when a callback is made.</p>
+<p>Also, note that if the callback function is called in a thread created
+outside of Python’s control (e.g. by the foreign code that calls the
+callback), ctypes creates a new dummy Python thread on every invocation. This
+behavior is correct for most purposes, but it means that values stored with
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.local" title="threading.local"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.local</span></code></a> will <em>not</em> survive across different callbacks, even when
+those calls are made from the same C thread.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="accessing-values-exported-from-dlls">
+<span id="ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls"></span><h3>Accessing values exported from dlls<a class="headerlink" href="#accessing-values-exported-from-dlls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export variables. An
+example in the Python library itself is the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_OptimizeFlag" title="Py_OptimizeFlag"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_OptimizeFlag</span></code></a>, an integer
+set to 0, 1, or 2, depending on the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a> flag given on
+startup.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> can access values like this with the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in_dll()</span></code> class methods of
+the type.  <em>pythonapi</em> is a predefined symbol giving access to the Python C
+api:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">opt_flag</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">in_dll</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pythonapi</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Py_OptimizeFlag&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">opt_flag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">c_long(0)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the interpreter would have been started with <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a>, the sample would
+have printed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_long(1)</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_long(2)</span></code> if <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a> would have been
+specified.</p>
+<p>An extended example which also demonstrates the use of pointers accesses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_FrozenModules" title="PyImport_FrozenModules"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_FrozenModules</span></code></a> pointer exported by Python.</p>
+<p>Quoting the docs for that value:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>This pointer is initialized to point to an array of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">_frozen</span></code>
+records, terminated by one whose members are all <em>NULL</em> or zero.  When a frozen
+module is imported, it is searched in this table.  Third-party code could play
+tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>So manipulating this pointer could even prove useful. To restrict the example
+size, we show only how this table can be read with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">struct_frozen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_char_p</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;code&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_ubyte</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;size&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We have defined the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">_frozen</span></code> data type, so we can get the pointer
+to the table:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">FrozenTable</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">struct_frozen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">FrozenTable</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">in_dll</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pythonapi</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;PyImport_FrozenModules&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">table</span></code> is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointer</span></code> to the array of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_frozen</span></code> records, we
+can iterate over it, but we just have to make sure that our loop terminates,
+because pointers have no size. Sooner or later it would probably crash with an
+access violation or whatever, so it’s better to break out of the loop when we
+hit the NULL entry:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">table</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">item</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">break</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ascii&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">item</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">_frozen_importlib 31764</span>
+<span class="go">_frozen_importlib_external 41499</span>
+<span class="go">__hello__ 161</span>
+<span class="go">__phello__ -161</span>
+<span class="go">__phello__.spam 161</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The fact that standard Python has a frozen module and a frozen package
+(indicated by the negative size member) is not well known, it is only used for
+testing. Try it out with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">__hello__</span></code> for example.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="surprises">
+<span id="ctypes-surprises"></span><h3>Surprises<a class="headerlink" href="#surprises" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are some edges in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> where you might expect something other
+than what actually happens.</p>
+<p>Consider the following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">RECT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RECT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1 2 3 4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># now swap the two points</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3 4 3 4</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Hm. We certainly expected the last statement to print <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span> <span class="pre">4</span> <span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code>. What
+happened? Here are the steps of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc.a,</span> <span class="pre">rc.b</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">rc.b,</span> <span class="pre">rc.a</span></code> line above:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">temp0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">temp1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">temp0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">temp1</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">temp0</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">temp1</span></code> are objects still using the internal buffer of
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc</span></code> object above. So executing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc.a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">temp0</span></code> copies the buffer
+contents of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">temp0</span></code> into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc</span></code> ‘s buffer.  This, in turn, changes the
+contents of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">temp1</span></code>. So, the last assignment <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc.b</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">temp1</span></code>, doesn’t have
+the expected effect.</p>
+<p>Keep in mind that retrieving sub-objects from Structure, Unions, and Arrays
+doesn’t <em>copy</em> the sub-object, instead it retrieves a wrapper object accessing
+the root-object’s underlying buffer.</p>
+<p>Another example that may behave different from what one would expect is this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c_char_p</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abc def ghi&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abc def ghi&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Why is it printing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>?  ctypes instances are objects containing a memory
+block plus some <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-descriptor"><span class="xref std std-term">descriptor</span></a>s accessing the contents of the memory.
+Storing a Python object in the memory block does not store the object itself,
+instead the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contents</span></code> of the object is stored.  Accessing the contents again
+constructs a new Python object each time!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="variable-sized-data-types">
+<span id="ctypes-variable-sized-data-types"></span><h3>Variable-sized data types<a class="headerlink" href="#variable-sized-data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> provides some support for variable-sized arrays and structures.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.resize" title="ctypes.resize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resize()</span></code></a> function can be used to resize the memory buffer of an
+existing ctypes object.  The function takes the object as first argument, and
+the requested size in bytes as the second argument.  The memory block cannot be
+made smaller than the natural memory block specified by the objects type, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if this is tried:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">short_array</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_short</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">short_array</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">short_array</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">minimum size is 8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">short_array</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">short_array</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">32</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">short_array</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is nice and fine, but how would one access the additional elements
+contained in this array?  Since the type still only knows about 4 elements, we
+get errors accessing other elements:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">short_array</span><span class="p">[:]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 0, 0, 0]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">short_array</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">IndexError</span>: <span class="n">invalid index</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another way to use variable-sized data types with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> is to use the
+dynamic nature of Python, and (re-)define the data type after the required size
+is already known, on a case by case basis.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ctypes-reference">
+<span id="ctypes-ctypes-reference"></span><h2>ctypes reference<a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="finding-shared-libraries">
+<span id="ctypes-finding-shared-libraries"></span><h3>Finding shared libraries<a class="headerlink" href="#finding-shared-libraries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When programming in a compiled language, shared libraries are accessed when
+compiling/linking a program, and when the program is run.</p>
+<p>The purpose of the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_library()</span></code> function is to locate a library in a way
+similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on platforms with several
+versions of a shared library the most recent should be loaded), while the ctypes
+library loaders act like when a program is run, and call the runtime loader
+directly.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.util</span></code> module provides a function which can help to determine
+the library to load.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.util.</code><code class="descname">find_library</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to find a library and return a pathname.  <em>name</em> is the library name without
+any prefix like <em>lib</em>, suffix like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dylib</span></code> or version number (this
+is the form used for the posix linker option <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code>).  If no library can
+be found, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The exact functionality is system dependent.</p>
+<p>On Linux, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_library()</span></code> tries to run external programs
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/sbin/ldconfig</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcc</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">objdump</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ld</span></code>) to find the library file.
+It returns the filename of the library file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>On Linux, the value of the environment variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LD_LIBRARY_PATH</span></code> is used
+when searching for libraries, if a library cannot be found by any other means.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Here are some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes.util</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">find_library</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">find_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;m&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;libm.so.6&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">find_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;libc.so.6&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">find_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;bz2&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;libbz2.so.1.0&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On OS X, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_library()</span></code> tries several predefined naming schemes and paths
+to locate the library, and returns a full pathname if successful:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes.util</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">find_library</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">find_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/lib/libc.dylib&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">find_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;m&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/lib/libm.dylib&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">find_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;bz2&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">find_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;AGL&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On Windows, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_library()</span></code> searches along the system search path, and
+returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined naming scheme a call
+like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_library(&quot;c&quot;)</span></code> will fail and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If wrapping a shared library with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>, it <em>may</em> be better to determine
+the shared library name at development time, and hardcode that into the wrapper
+module instead of using <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_library()</span></code> to locate the library at runtime.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="loading-shared-libraries">
+<span id="ctypes-loading-shared-libraries"></span><h3>Loading shared libraries<a class="headerlink" href="#loading-shared-libraries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are several ways to load shared libraries into the Python process.  One
+way is to instantiate one of the following classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.CDLL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">CDLL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>mode=DEFAULT_MODE</em>, <em>handle=None</em>, <em>use_errno=False</em>, <em>use_last_error=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.CDLL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries. Functions in these
+libraries use the standard C calling convention, and are assumed to return
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.OleDLL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">OleDLL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>mode=DEFAULT_MODE</em>, <em>handle=None</em>, <em>use_errno=False</em>, <em>use_last_error=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.OleDLL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
+functions in these libraries use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code> calling convention, and are
+assumed to return the windows specific <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.HRESULT" title="ctypes.HRESULT"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HRESULT</span></code></a> code.  <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.HRESULT" title="ctypes.HRESULT"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HRESULT</span></code></a>
+values contain information specifying whether the function call failed or
+succeeded, together with additional error code.  If the return value signals a
+failure, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is automatically raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#WindowsError" title="WindowsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsError</span></code></a> used to be raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.WinDLL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">WinDLL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>mode=DEFAULT_MODE</em>, <em>handle=None</em>, <em>use_errno=False</em>, <em>use_last_error=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.WinDLL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
+functions in these libraries use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code> calling convention, and are
+assumed to return <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> by default.</p>
+<p>On Windows CE only the standard calling convention is used, for convenience the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.WinDLL" title="ctypes.WinDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WinDLL</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.OleDLL" title="ctypes.OleDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OleDLL</span></code></a> use the standard calling convention on this
+platform.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">global interpreter lock</span></a> is released before calling any
+function exported by these libraries, and reacquired afterwards.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.PyDLL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">PyDLL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>mode=DEFAULT_MODE</em>, <em>handle=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.PyDLL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances of this class behave like <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.CDLL" title="ctypes.CDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDLL</span></code></a> instances, except that the
+Python GIL is <em>not</em> released during the function call, and after the function
+execution the Python error flag is checked. If the error flag is set, a Python
+exception is raised.</p>
+<p>Thus, this is only useful to call Python C api functions directly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>All these classes can be instantiated by calling them with at least one
+argument, the pathname of the shared library.  If you have an existing handle to
+an already loaded shared library, it can be passed as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle</span></code> named
+parameter, otherwise the underlying platforms <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dlopen</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadLibrary</span></code>
+function is used to load the library into the process, and to get a handle to
+it.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> parameter can be used to specify how the library is loaded.  For
+details, consult the <em class="manpage">dlopen(3)</em> manpage.  On Windows, <em>mode</em> is
+ignored.  On posix systems, RTLD_NOW is always added, and is not
+configurable.</p>
+<p>The <em>use_errno</em> parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes mechanism that
+allows accessing the system <a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> error number in a safe way.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> maintains a thread-local copy of the systems <a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a>
+variable; if you call foreign functions created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">use_errno=True</span></code> then the
+<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> value before the function call is swapped with the ctypes private
+copy, the same happens immediately after the function call.</p>
+<p>The function <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.get_errno" title="ctypes.get_errno"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.get_errno()</span></code></a> returns the value of the ctypes private
+copy, and the function <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.set_errno" title="ctypes.set_errno"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.set_errno()</span></code></a> changes the ctypes private copy
+to a new value and returns the former value.</p>
+<p>The <em>use_last_error</em> parameter, when set to true, enables the same mechanism for
+the Windows error code which is managed by the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.GetLastError" title="ctypes.GetLastError"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetLastError()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetLastError()</span></code> Windows API functions; <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.get_last_error" title="ctypes.get_last_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.get_last_error()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.set_last_error" title="ctypes.set_last_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.set_last_error()</span></code></a> are used to request and change the ctypes private
+copy of the windows error code.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_GLOBAL</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Flag to use as <em>mode</em> parameter.  On platforms where this flag is not available,
+it is defined as the integer zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_LOCAL</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Flag to use as <em>mode</em> parameter.  On platforms where this is not available, it
+is the same as <em>RTLD_GLOBAL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">DEFAULT_MODE</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The default mode which is used to load shared libraries.  On OSX 10.3, this is
+<em>RTLD_GLOBAL</em>, otherwise it is the same as <em>RTLD_LOCAL</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instances of these classes have no public methods.  Functions exported by the
+shared library can be accessed as attributes or by index.  Please note that
+accessing the function through an attribute caches the result and therefore
+accessing it repeatedly returns the same object each time.  On the other hand,
+accessing it through an index returns a new object each time:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">CDLL</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CDLL</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;libc.so.6&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># On Linux</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;time&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">libc</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;time&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following public attributes are available, their name starts with an
+underscore to not clash with exported function names:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes.PyDLL._handle">
+<code class="descclassname">PyDLL.</code><code class="descname">_handle</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.PyDLL._handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The system handle used to access the library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes.PyDLL._name">
+<code class="descclassname">PyDLL.</code><code class="descname">_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.PyDLL._name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the library passed in the constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated objects,
+which are instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.LibraryLoader" title="ctypes.LibraryLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LibraryLoader</span></code></a> class, either by calling the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadLibrary()</span></code> method, or by retrieving the library as attribute of the
+loader instance.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.LibraryLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">LibraryLoader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dlltype</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.LibraryLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class which loads shared libraries.  <em>dlltype</em> should be one of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.CDLL" title="ctypes.CDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDLL</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.PyDLL" title="ctypes.PyDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDLL</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.WinDLL" title="ctypes.WinDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WinDLL</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.OleDLL" title="ctypes.OleDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OleDLL</span></code></a> types.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> has special behavior: It allows loading a shared library by
+accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance.  The result is cached,
+so repeated attribute accesses return the same library each time.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ctypes.LibraryLoader.LoadLibrary">
+<code class="descname">LoadLibrary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.LibraryLoader.LoadLibrary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a shared library into the process and return it.  This method always
+returns a new instance of the library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These prefabricated library loaders are available:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">cdll</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.CDLL" title="ctypes.CDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDLL</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">windll</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: Creates <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.WinDLL" title="ctypes.WinDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WinDLL</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">oledll</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: Creates <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.OleDLL" title="ctypes.OleDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OleDLL</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">pydll</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.PyDLL" title="ctypes.PyDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDLL</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>For accessing the C Python api directly, a ready-to-use Python shared library
+object is available:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">pythonapi</code></dt>
+<dd><p>An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.PyDLL" title="ctypes.PyDLL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDLL</span></code></a> that exposes Python C API functions as
+attributes.  Note that all these functions are assumed to return C
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, which is of course not always the truth, so you have to assign
+the correct <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code> attribute to use these functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="foreign-functions">
+<span id="ctypes-foreign-functions"></span><h3>Foreign functions<a class="headerlink" href="#foreign-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed as
+attributes of loaded shared libraries.  The function objects created in this way
+by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes data instances as
+arguments, and return the default result type specified by the library loader.
+They are instances of a private class:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes._FuncPtr">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">_FuncPtr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for C callable foreign functions.</p>
+<p>Instances of foreign functions are also C compatible data types; they
+represent C function pointers.</p>
+<p>This behavior can be customized by assigning to special attributes of the
+foreign function object.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._FuncPtr.restype">
+<code class="descname">restype</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr.restype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign function.
+Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span></code>, a function not returning anything.</p>
+<p>It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not a ctypes
+type, in this case the function is assumed to return a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, and
+the callable will be called with this integer, allowing further
+processing or error checking.  Using this is deprecated, for more flexible
+post processing or error checking use a ctypes data type as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr.restype" title="ctypes._FuncPtr.restype"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code></a> and assign a callable to the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr.errcheck" title="ctypes._FuncPtr.errcheck"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errcheck</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes">
+<code class="descname">argtypes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assign a tuple of ctypes types to specify the argument types that the
+function accepts.  Functions using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code> calling convention can
+only be called with the same number of arguments as the length of this
+tuple; functions using the C calling convention accept additional,
+unspecified arguments as well.</p>
+<p>When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is passed to the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_param()</span></code> class method of the items in the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes" title="ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code></a>
+tuple, this method allows adapting the actual argument to an object that
+the foreign function accepts.  For example, a <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_char_p" title="ctypes.c_char_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char_p</span></code></a> item in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes" title="ctypes._FuncPtr.argtypes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code></a> tuple will convert a string passed as argument into
+a bytes object using ctypes conversion rules.</p>
+<p>New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not ctypes
+types, but each item must have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_param()</span></code> method which returns a
+value usable as argument (integer, string, ctypes instance).  This allows
+defining adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._FuncPtr.errcheck">
+<code class="descname">errcheck</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._FuncPtr.errcheck" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assign a Python function or another callable to this attribute. The
+callable will be called with three or more arguments:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">callable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>result</em>, <em>func</em>, <em>arguments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p><em>result</em> is what the foreign function returns, as specified by the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p><em>func</em> is the foreign function object itself, this allows reusing the
+same callable object to check or post process the results of several
+functions.</p>
+<p><em>arguments</em> is a tuple containing the parameters originally passed to
+the function call, this allows specializing the behavior on the
+arguments used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The object that this function returns will be returned from the
+foreign function call, but it can also check the result value
+and raise an exception if the foreign function call failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ctypes.ArgumentError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">ArgumentError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.ArgumentError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when a foreign function call cannot convert one of the
+passed arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="function-prototypes">
+<span id="ctypes-function-prototypes"></span><h3>Function prototypes<a class="headerlink" href="#function-prototypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Foreign functions can also be created by instantiating function prototypes.
+Function prototypes are similar to function prototypes in C; they describe a
+function (return type, argument types, calling convention) without defining an
+implementation.  The factory functions must be called with the desired result
+type and the argument types of the function, and can be used as decorator
+factories, and as such, be applied to functions through the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;wrapper</span></code> syntax.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes-callback-functions"><span class="std std-ref">Callback functions</span></a> for examples.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.CFUNCTYPE">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">CFUNCTYPE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>restype</em>, <em>*argtypes</em>, <em>use_errno=False</em>, <em>use_last_error=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.CFUNCTYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The returned function prototype creates functions that use the standard C
+calling convention.  The function will release the GIL during the call.  If
+<em>use_errno</em> is set to true, the ctypes private copy of the system
+<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> variable is exchanged with the real <a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> value before
+and after the call; <em>use_last_error</em> does the same for the Windows error
+code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">WINFUNCTYPE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>restype</em>, <em>*argtypes</em>, <em>use_errno=False</em>, <em>use_last_error=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdcall</span></code> calling convention, except on Windows CE where
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE" title="ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WINFUNCTYPE()</span></code></a> is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.CFUNCTYPE" title="ctypes.CFUNCTYPE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFUNCTYPE()</span></code></a>.  The function will
+release the GIL during the call.  <em>use_errno</em> and <em>use_last_error</em> have the
+same meaning as above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">PYFUNCTYPE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>restype</em>, <em>*argtypes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The returned function prototype creates functions that use the Python calling
+convention.  The function will <em>not</em> release the GIL during the call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Function prototypes created by these factory functions can be instantiated in
+different ways, depending on the type and number of the parameters in the call:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">prototype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a foreign function at the specified address which must be an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">prototype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a C callable function (a callback function) from a Python <em>callable</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">prototype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func_spec</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>paramflags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a foreign function exported by a shared library. <em>func_spec</em> must
+be a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name_or_ordinal,</span> <span class="pre">library)</span></code>. The first item is the name of
+the exported function as string, or the ordinal of the exported function
+as small integer.  The second item is the shared library instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">prototype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>vtbl_index</em>, <em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>paramflags</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>iid</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a foreign function that will call a COM method. <em>vtbl_index</em> is
+the index into the virtual function table, a small non-negative
+integer. <em>name</em> is name of the COM method. <em>iid</em> is an optional pointer to
+the interface identifier which is used in extended error reporting.</p>
+<p>COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a pointer to
+the COM interface as first argument, in addition to those parameters that
+are specified in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code> tuple.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The optional <em>paramflags</em> parameter creates foreign function wrappers with much
+more functionality than the features described above.</p>
+<p><em>paramflags</em> must be a tuple of the same length as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Each item in this tuple contains further information about a parameter, it must
+be a tuple containing one, two, or three items.</p>
+<p>The first item is an integer containing a combination of direction
+flags for the parameter:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="simple">
+<dt>1</dt><dd><p>Specifies an input parameter to the function.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>2</dt><dd><p>Output parameter.  The foreign function fills in a value.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>4</dt><dd><p>Input parameter which defaults to the integer zero.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The optional second item is the parameter name as string.  If this is specified,
+the foreign function can be called with named parameters.</p>
+<p>The optional third item is the default value for this parameter.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>This example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageBoxW</span></code> function so
+that it supports default parameters and named arguments. The C declaration from
+the windows header file is this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">WINUSERAPI</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="n">WINAPI</span>
+<span class="n">MessageBoxW</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">HWND</span> <span class="n">hWnd</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">LPCWSTR</span> <span class="n">lpText</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">LPCWSTR</span> <span class="n">lpCaption</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">UINT</span> <span class="n">uType</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is the wrapping with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">WINFUNCTYPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">windll</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes.wintypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">HWND</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">LPCWSTR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">UINT</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">prototype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">WINFUNCTYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">HWND</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">LPCWSTR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">LPCWSTR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">UINT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">paramflags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hwnd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;text&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hi&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;caption&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello from ctypes&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;flags&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MessageBox</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">prototype</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;MessageBoxW&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">user32</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">paramflags</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageBox</span></code> foreign function can now be called in these ways:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MessageBox</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MessageBox</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Spam, spam, spam&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MessageBox</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">flags</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo bar&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A second example demonstrates output parameters.  The win32 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetWindowRect</span></code>
+function retrieves the dimensions of a specified window by copying them into
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RECT</span></code> structure that the caller has to supply.  Here is the C declaration:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">WINUSERAPI</span> <span class="n">BOOL</span> <span class="n">WINAPI</span>
+<span class="n">GetWindowRect</span><span class="p">(</span>
+     <span class="n">HWND</span> <span class="n">hWnd</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="n">LPRECT</span> <span class="n">lpRect</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is the wrapping with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">WINFUNCTYPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">windll</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">WinError</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes.wintypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BOOL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">HWND</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">RECT</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">prototype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">WINFUNCTYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BOOL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">HWND</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">RECT</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">paramflags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hwnd&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;lprect&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">GetWindowRect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">prototype</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;GetWindowRect&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">windll</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">user32</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">paramflags</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Functions with output parameters will automatically return the output parameter
+value if there is a single one, or a tuple containing the output parameter
+values when there are more than one, so the GetWindowRect function now returns a
+RECT instance, when called.</p>
+<p>Output parameters can be combined with the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errcheck</span></code> protocol to do
+further output processing and error checking.  The win32 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetWindowRect</span></code> api
+function returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BOOL</span></code> to signal success or failure, so this function could
+do the error checking, and raises an exception when the api call failed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">errcheck</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">WinError</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">GetWindowRect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">errcheck</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">errcheck</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errcheck</span></code> function returns the argument tuple it receives
+unchanged, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> continues the normal processing it does on the output
+parameters.  If you want to return a tuple of window coordinates instead of a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RECT</span></code> instance, you can retrieve the fields in the function and return them
+instead, the normal processing will no longer take place:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">errcheck</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">WinError</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bottom</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">right</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">GetWindowRect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">errcheck</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">errcheck</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="utility-functions">
+<span id="ctypes-utility-functions"></span><h3>Utility functions<a class="headerlink" href="#utility-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.addressof">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">addressof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.addressof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the address of the memory buffer as integer.  <em>obj</em> must be an
+instance of a ctypes type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.alignment">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">alignment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj_or_type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.alignment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the alignment requirements of a ctypes type. <em>obj_or_type</em> must be a
+ctypes type or instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.byref">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">byref</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>offset</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.byref" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a light-weight pointer to <em>obj</em>, which must be an instance of a
+ctypes type.  <em>offset</em> defaults to zero, and must be an integer that will be
+added to the internal pointer value.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byref(obj,</span> <span class="pre">offset)</span></code> corresponds to this C code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(((</span><span class="n">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">offset</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The returned object can only be used as a foreign function call parameter.
+It behaves similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointer(obj)</span></code>, but the construction is a lot faster.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.cast">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">cast</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.cast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is similar to the cast operator in C. It returns a new instance
+of <em>type</em> which points to the same memory block as <em>obj</em>.  <em>type</em> must be a
+pointer type, and <em>obj</em> must be an object that can be interpreted as a
+pointer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.create_string_buffer">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">create_string_buffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>init_or_size</em>, <em>size=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.create_string_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function creates a mutable character buffer. The returned object is a
+ctypes array of <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_char" title="ctypes.c_char"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>init_or_size</em> must be an integer which specifies the size of the array, or a
+bytes object which will be used to initialize the array items.</p>
+<p>If a bytes object is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one item
+larger than its length so that the last element in the array is a NUL
+termination character. An integer can be passed as second argument which allows
+specifying the size of the array if the length of the bytes should not be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.create_unicode_buffer">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">create_unicode_buffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>init_or_size</em>, <em>size=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.create_unicode_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer. The returned object is
+a ctypes array of <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_wchar" title="ctypes.c_wchar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_wchar</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>init_or_size</em> must be an integer which specifies the size of the array, or a
+string which will be used to initialize the array items.</p>
+<p>If a string is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one item
+larger than the length of the string so that the last element in the array is a
+NUL termination character. An integer can be passed as second argument which
+allows specifying the size of the array if the length of the string should not
+be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">DllCanUnloadNow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
+COM servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow function that
+the _ctypes extension dll exports.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.DllGetClassObject">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">DllGetClassObject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.DllGetClassObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
+COM servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllGetClassObject function
+that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ctypes</span></code> extension dll exports.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.util.find_library">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.util.</code><code class="descname">find_library</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.util.find_library" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to find a library and return a pathname.  <em>name</em> is the library name
+without any prefix like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib</span></code>, suffix like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dylib</span></code> or version
+number (this is the form used for the posix linker option <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code>).  If
+no library can be found, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The exact functionality is system dependent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.util.find_msvcrt">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.util.</code><code class="descname">find_msvcrt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.util.find_msvcrt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: return the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python,
+and by the extension modules.  If the name of the library cannot be
+determined, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>If you need to free memory, for example, allocated by an extension module
+with a call to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free(void</span> <span class="pre">*)</span></code>, it is important that you use the
+function in the same library that allocated the memory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.FormatError">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">FormatError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>code</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.FormatError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: Returns a textual description of the error code <em>code</em>.  If no
+error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the Windows
+api function GetLastError.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.GetLastError">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">GetLastError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.GetLastError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
+This function calls the Windows <cite>GetLastError()</cite> function directly,
+it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.get_errno">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">get_errno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.get_errno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> variable in the calling thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.get_last_error">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">get_last_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.get_last_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LastError</span></code> variable in the calling thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.memmove">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">memmove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dst</em>, <em>src</em>, <em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.memmove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies <em>count</em> bytes from
+<em>src</em> to <em>dst</em>. <em>dst</em> and <em>src</em> must be integers or ctypes instances that can
+be converted to pointers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.memset">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">memset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dst</em>, <em>c</em>, <em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.memset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as the standard C memset library function: fills the memory block at
+address <em>dst</em> with <em>count</em> bytes of value <em>c</em>. <em>dst</em> must be an integer
+specifying an address, or a ctypes instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.POINTER">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">POINTER</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.POINTER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This factory function creates and returns a new ctypes pointer type. Pointer
+types are cached and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly is
+cheap. <em>type</em> must be a ctypes type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.pointer">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">pointer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.pointer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function creates a new pointer instance, pointing to <em>obj</em>. The returned
+object is of the type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER(type(obj))</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note: If you just want to pass a pointer to an object to a foreign function
+call, you should use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byref(obj)</span></code> which is much faster.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.resize">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function resizes the internal memory buffer of <em>obj</em>, which must be an
+instance of a ctypes type.  It is not possible to make the buffer smaller
+than the native size of the objects type, as given by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(type(obj))</span></code>,
+but it is possible to enlarge the buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.set_errno">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">set_errno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.set_errno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system <a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a>
+variable in the calling thread to <em>value</em> and return the previous value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.set_last_error">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">set_last_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.set_last_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LastError</span></code> variable in the calling thread to <em>value</em> and return the
+previous value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.sizeof">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">sizeof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj_or_type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.sizeof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the size in bytes of a ctypes type or instance memory buffer.
+Does the same as the C <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof</span></code> operator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.string_at">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">string_at</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em>, <em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.string_at" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function returns the C string starting at memory address <em>address</em> as a bytes
+object. If size is specified, it is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed
+to be zero-terminated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.WinError">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">WinError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code=None</em>, <em>descr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.WinError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: this function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes. It
+creates an instance of OSError.  If <em>code</em> is not specified,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetLastError</span></code> is called to determine the error code. If <em>descr</em> is not
+specified, <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.FormatError" title="ctypes.FormatError"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FormatError()</span></code></a> is called to get a textual description of the
+error.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#WindowsError" title="WindowsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsError</span></code></a> used to be created.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ctypes.wstring_at">
+<code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">wstring_at</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em>, <em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.wstring_at" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function returns the wide character string starting at memory address
+<em>address</em> as a string.  If <em>size</em> is specified, it is used as the number of
+characters of the string, otherwise the string is assumed to be
+zero-terminated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="data-types">
+<span id="ctypes-data-types"></span><h3>Data types<a class="headerlink" href="#data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">_CData</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This non-public class is the common base class of all ctypes data types.
+Among other things, all ctypes type instances contain a memory block that
+hold C compatible data; the address of the memory block is returned by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.addressof" title="ctypes.addressof"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addressof()</span></code></a> helper function. Another instance variable is exposed as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._CData._objects" title="ctypes._CData._objects"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_objects</span></code></a>; this contains other Python objects that need to be kept
+alive in case the memory block contains pointers.</p>
+<p>Common methods of ctypes data types, these are all class methods (to be
+exact, they are methods of the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-metaclass"><span class="xref std std-term">metaclass</span></a>):</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData.from_buffer">
+<code class="descname">from_buffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>offset</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData.from_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a ctypes instance that shares the buffer of the
+<em>source</em> object.  The <em>source</em> object must support the writeable buffer
+interface.  The optional <em>offset</em> parameter specifies an offset into the
+source buffer in bytes; the default is zero.  If the source buffer is not
+large enough a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData.from_buffer_copy">
+<code class="descname">from_buffer_copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>offset</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData.from_buffer_copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method creates a ctypes instance, copying the buffer from the
+<em>source</em> object buffer which must be readable.  The optional <em>offset</em>
+parameter specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the default
+is zero.  If the source buffer is not large enough a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData.from_address">
+<code class="descname">from_address</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData.from_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a ctypes type instance using the memory specified by
+<em>address</em> which must be an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData.from_param">
+<code class="descname">from_param</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData.from_param" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method adapts <em>obj</em> to a ctypes type.  It is called with the actual
+object used in a foreign function call when the type is present in the
+foreign function’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argtypes</span></code> tuple; it must return an object that
+can be used as a function call parameter.</p>
+<p>All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this classmethod
+that normally returns <em>obj</em> if that is an instance of the type.  Some
+types accept other objects as well.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData.in_dll">
+<code class="descname">in_dll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>library</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData.in_dll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a ctypes type instance exported by a shared
+library. <em>name</em> is the name of the symbol that exports the data, <em>library</em>
+is the loaded shared library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Common instance variables of ctypes data types:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData._b_base_">
+<code class="descname">_b_base_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData._b_base_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sometimes ctypes data instances do not own the memory block they contain,
+instead they share part of the memory block of a base object.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._CData._b_base_" title="ctypes._CData._b_base_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_b_base_</span></code></a> read-only member is the root ctypes object that owns the
+memory block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData._b_needsfree_">
+<code class="descname">_b_needsfree_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData._b_needsfree_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This read-only variable is true when the ctypes data instance has
+allocated the memory block itself, false otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._CData._objects">
+<code class="descname">_objects</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._CData._objects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This member is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a dictionary containing Python objects
+that need to be kept alive so that the memory block contents is kept
+valid.  This object is only exposed for debugging; never modify the
+contents of this dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ctypes-fundamental-data-types-2">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>Fundamental data types<a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes-fundamental-data-types-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes._SimpleCData">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">_SimpleCData</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._SimpleCData" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This non-public class is the base class of all fundamental ctypes data
+types. It is mentioned here because it contains the common attributes of the
+fundamental ctypes data types.  <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._SimpleCData" title="ctypes._SimpleCData"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_SimpleCData</span></code></a> is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes._CData" title="ctypes._CData"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_CData</span></code></a>, so it inherits their methods and attributes. ctypes data
+types that are not and do not contain pointers can now be pickled.</p>
+<p>Instances have a single attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._SimpleCData.value">
+<code class="descname">value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._SimpleCData.value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute contains the actual value of the instance. For integer and
+pointer types, it is an integer, for character types, it is a single
+character bytes object or string, for character pointer types it is a
+Python bytes object or string.</p>
+<p>When the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute is retrieved from a ctypes instance, usually
+a new object is returned each time.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> does <em>not</em> implement
+original object return, always a new object is constructed.  The same is
+true for all other ctypes object instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results, or, for
+example, by retrieving structure field members or array items, are transparently
+converted to native Python types.  In other words, if a foreign function has a
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code> of <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_char_p" title="ctypes.c_char_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char_p</span></code></a>, you will always receive a Python bytes
+object, <em>not</em> a <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_char_p" title="ctypes.c_char_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char_p</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>Subclasses of fundamental data types do <em>not</em> inherit this behavior. So, if a
+foreign functions <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_void_p" title="ctypes.c_void_p"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_void_p</span></code></a>, you will
+receive an instance of this subclass from the function call. Of course, you can
+get the value of the pointer by accessing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p>These are the fundamental ctypes data types:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_byte">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_byte</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_byte" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code> datatype, and interprets the value as
+small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no
+overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_char">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_char</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_char" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code> datatype, and interprets the value as a single
+character.  The constructor accepts an optional string initializer, the
+length of the string must be exactly one character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_char_p">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_char_p</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_char_p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> datatype when it points to a zero-terminated
+string.  For a general character pointer that may also point to binary data,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER(c_char)</span></code> must be used.  The constructor accepts an integer
+address, or a bytes object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_double">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_double</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_double" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional float initializer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_longdouble">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_longdouble</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_longdouble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">double</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional float initializer.  On platforms where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(long</span> <span class="pre">double)</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">sizeof(double)</span></code> it is an alias to <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_double" title="ctypes.c_double"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_double</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_float">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_float</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional float initializer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_int">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_int</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On platforms
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(int)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">sizeof(long)</span></code> it is an alias to <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_long" title="ctypes.c_long"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_long</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_int8">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_int8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_int8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 8-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_byte" title="ctypes.c_byte"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_byte</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_int16">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_int16</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_int16" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 16-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_short" title="ctypes.c_short"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_short</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_int32">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_int32</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_int32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 32-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_int64">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_int64</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_int64" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 64-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_longlong" title="ctypes.c_longlong"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_longlong</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_long">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_long</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_long" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_longlong">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_longlong</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_longlong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts
+an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_short">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_short</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_short" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">short</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_size_t">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_size_t</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_size_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size_t</span></code> datatype.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_ssize_t">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_ssize_t</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_ssize_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code> datatype.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_ubyte">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_ubyte</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_ubyte" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code> datatype, it interprets the value as
+small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no
+overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_uint">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_uint</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_uint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On platforms
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(int)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">sizeof(long)</span></code> it is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ulong" title="ctypes.c_ulong"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ulong</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_uint8">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_uint8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_uint8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 8-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ubyte" title="ctypes.c_ubyte"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ubyte</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_uint16">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_uint16</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_uint16" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 16-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ushort" title="ctypes.c_ushort"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ushort</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_uint32">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_uint32</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_uint32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 32-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_uint" title="ctypes.c_uint"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_uint</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_uint64">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_uint64</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_uint64" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C 64-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code> datatype.  Usually an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_ulonglong" title="ctypes.c_ulonglong"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_ulonglong</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_ulong">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_ulong</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_ulong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts an
+optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_ulonglong">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_ulonglong</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_ulonglong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> datatype.  The constructor
+accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_ushort">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_ushort</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_ushort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">short</span></code> datatype.  The constructor accepts
+an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_void_p">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_void_p</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_void_p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> type.  The value is represented as integer.
+The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_wchar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_wchar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_wchar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> datatype, and interprets the value as a
+single character unicode string.  The constructor accepts an optional string
+initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_wchar_p">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_wchar_p</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_wchar_p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> datatype, which must be a pointer to a
+zero-terminated wide character string.  The constructor accepts an integer
+address, or a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.c_bool">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">c_bool</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.c_bool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represent the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code> datatype (more accurately, <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Bool</span></code> from
+C99).  Its value can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, and the constructor accepts any object
+that has a truth value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.HRESULT">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">HRESULT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.HRESULT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows only: Represents a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HRESULT</span></code> value, which contains success or
+error information for a function or method call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.py_object">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">py_object</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.py_object" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents the C <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></a> datatype.  Calling this without an
+argument creates a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></a> pointer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.wintypes</span></code> module provides quite some other Windows specific
+data types, for example <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HWND</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WPARAM</span></code>, or <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DWORD</span></code>.  Some
+useful structures like <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSG</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RECT</span></code> are also defined.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="structured-data-types">
+<span id="ctypes-structured-data-types"></span><h3>Structured data types<a class="headerlink" href="#structured-data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.Union">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">Union</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Union" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for unions in native byte order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.BigEndianStructure">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">BigEndianStructure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.BigEndianStructure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for structures in <em>big endian</em> byte order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.LittleEndianStructure">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">LittleEndianStructure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.LittleEndianStructure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for structures in <em>little endian</em> byte order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Structures with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer type fields, or any
+other data types containing pointer type fields.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.Structure">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">Structure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Structure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for structures in <em>native</em> byte order.</p>
+<p>Concrete structure and union types must be created by subclassing one of these
+types, and at least define a <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> class variable. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> will
+create <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-descriptor"><span class="xref std std-term">descriptor</span></a>s which allow reading and writing the fields by direct
+attribute accesses.  These are the</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes.Structure._fields_">
+<code class="descname">_fields_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A sequence defining the structure fields.  The items must be 2-tuples or
+3-tuples.  The first item is the name of the field, the second item
+specifies the type of the field; it can be any ctypes data type.</p>
+<p>For integer type fields like <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.c_int" title="ctypes.c_int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int</span></code></a>, a third optional item can be
+given.  It must be a small positive integer defining the bit width of the
+field.</p>
+<p>Field names must be unique within one structure or union.  This is not
+checked, only one field can be accessed when names are repeated.</p>
+<p>It is possible to define the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> class variable <em>after</em> the
+class statement that defines the Structure subclass, this allows creating
+data types that directly or indirectly reference themselves:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">List</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="n">List</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;pnext&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">List</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+                 <span class="o">...</span>
+                <span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> class variable must, however, be defined before the
+type is first used (an instance is created, <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.sizeof" title="ctypes.sizeof"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof()</span></code></a> is called on it,
+and so on).  Later assignments to the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> class variable will
+raise an AttributeError.</p>
+<p>It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structure types, they inherit
+the fields of the base class plus the <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> defined in the
+sub-subclass, if any.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes.Structure._pack_">
+<code class="descname">_pack_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Structure._pack_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment of
+structure fields in the instance.  <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._pack_" title="ctypes.Structure._pack_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pack_</span></code></a> must already be defined
+when <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes.Structure._anonymous_">
+<code class="descname">_anonymous_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Structure._anonymous_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed (anonymous) fields.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._anonymous_" title="ctypes.Structure._anonymous_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_anonymous_</span></code></a> must be already defined when <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> is
+assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.</p>
+<p>The fields listed in this variable must be structure or union type fields.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> will create descriptors in the structure type that allows
+accessing the nested fields directly, without the need to create the
+structure or union field.</p>
+<p>Here is an example type (Windows):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">_U</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;lptdesc&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TYPEDESC</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;lpadesc&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ARRAYDESC</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hreftype&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">HREFTYPE</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TYPEDESC</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">_anonymous_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;u&quot;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;u&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_U</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;vt&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">VARTYPE</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPEDESC</span></code> structure describes a COM data type, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vt</span></code> field
+specifies which one of the union fields is valid.  Since the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> field
+is defined as anonymous field, it is now possible to access the members
+directly off the TYPEDESC instance. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">td.lptdesc</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">td.u.lptdesc</span></code>
+are equivalent, but the former is faster since it does not need to create
+a temporary union instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">td</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TYPEDESC</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">td</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">vt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">VT_PTR</span>
+<span class="n">td</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lptdesc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_type</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">td</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lptdesc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">POINTER</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_type</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structures, they inherit the
+fields of the base class.  If the subclass definition has a separate
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> variable, the fields specified in this are appended to the
+fields of the base class.</p>
+<p>Structure and union constructors accept both positional and keyword
+arguments.  Positional arguments are used to initialize member fields in the
+same order as they are appear in <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a>.  Keyword arguments in the
+constructor are interpreted as attribute assignments, so they will initialize
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a> with the same name, or create new attributes for names not
+present in <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Structure._fields_" title="ctypes.Structure._fields_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="arrays-and-pointers">
+<span id="ctypes-arrays-pointers"></span><h3>Arrays and pointers<a class="headerlink" href="#arrays-and-pointers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes.Array">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">Array</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Array" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for arrays.</p>
+<p>The recommended way to create concrete array types is by multiplying any
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> data type with a positive integer.  Alternatively, you can subclass
+this type and define <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Array._length_" title="ctypes.Array._length_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_length_</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Array._type_" title="ctypes.Array._type_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_type_</span></code></a> class variables.
+Array elements can be read and written using standard
+subscript and slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is
+<em>not</em> itself an <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.Array" title="ctypes.Array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Array</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes.Array._length_">
+<code class="descname">_length_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Array._length_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A positive integer specifying the number of elements in the array.
+Out-of-range subscripts result in an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>. Will be
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes.Array._type_">
+<code class="descname">_type_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes.Array._type_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies the type of each element in the array.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to
+initialize the elements in order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ctypes._Pointer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ctypes.</code><code class="descname">_Pointer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._Pointer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Private, abstract base class for pointers.</p>
+<p>Concrete pointer types are created by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.POINTER" title="ctypes.POINTER"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POINTER()</span></code></a> with the
+type that will be pointed to; this is done automatically by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes.pointer" title="ctypes.pointer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointer()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If a pointer points to an array, its elements can be read and
+written using standard subscript and slice accesses.  Pointer objects
+have no size, so <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  Negative
+subscripts will read from the memory <em>before</em> the pointer (as in C), and
+out-of-range subscripts will probably crash with an access violation (if
+you’re lucky).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._Pointer._type_">
+<code class="descname">_type_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._Pointer._type_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies the type pointed to.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ctypes._Pointer.contents">
+<code class="descname">contents</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes._Pointer.contents" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the object to which to pointer points.  Assigning to this
+attribute changes the pointer to point to the assigned object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> — A foreign function library for Python</a><ul>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#loading-dynamic-link-libraries">Loading dynamic link libraries</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls">Accessing functions from loaded dlls</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calling-functions">Calling functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fundamental-data-types">Fundamental data types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calling-functions-continued">Calling functions, continued</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types">Calling functions with your own custom data types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes">Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#return-types">Return types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference">Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#structures-and-unions">Structures and unions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order">Structure/union alignment and byte order</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions">Bit fields in structures and unions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#arrays">Arrays</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pointers">Pointers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-conversions">Type conversions</a></li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#accessing-values-exported-from-dlls">Accessing values exported from dlls</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#surprises">Surprises</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#variable-sized-data-types">Variable-sized data types</a></li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#structured-data-types">Structured data types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#arrays-and-pointers">Arrays and pointers</a></li>
+</ul>
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new file mode 100644
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+  <div class="section" id="module-curses.ascii">
+<span id="curses-ascii-utilities-for-ascii-characters"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.ascii" title="curses.ascii: Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code></a> — Utilities for ASCII characters<a class="headerlink" href="#module-curses.ascii" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.ascii" title="curses.ascii: Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code></a> module supplies name constants for ASCII characters and
+functions to test membership in various ASCII character classes.  The constants
+supplied are names for control characters as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 77%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NUL</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOH</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Start of heading, console interrupt</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STX</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Start of text</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ETX</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>End of text</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>End of transmission</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENQ</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Enquiry, goes with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACK</span></code> flow control</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Acknowledgement</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BEL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bell</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Backspace</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TAB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Tab</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Alias for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TAB</span></code>: “Horizontal tab”</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LF</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Line feed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Alias for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LF</span></code>: “New line”</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Vertical tab</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FF</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Form feed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Carriage return</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shift-out, begin alternate character set</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SI</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shift-in, resume default character set</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DLE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Data-link escape</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DC1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>XON, for flow control</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DC2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Device control 2, block-mode flow control</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DC3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>XOFF, for flow control</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DC4</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Device control 4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NAK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Negative acknowledgement</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SYN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Synchronous idle</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ETB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>End transmission block</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Cancel</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EM</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>End of medium</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SUB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Substitute</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ESC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Escape</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>File separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Group separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Record separator, block-mode terminator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">US</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Unit separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Space</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Delete</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Note that many of these have little practical significance in modern usage.  The
+mnemonics derive from teleprinter conventions that predate digital computers.</p>
+<p>The module supplies the following functions, patterned on those in the standard
+C library:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isalnum">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isalnum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isalnum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII alphanumeric character; it is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isalpha(c)</span> <span class="pre">or</span>
+<span class="pre">isdigit(c)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isalpha">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isalpha</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isalpha" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII alphabetic character; it is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isupper(c)</span> <span class="pre">or</span>
+<span class="pre">islower(c)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isascii">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isascii</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isascii" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for a character value that fits in the 7-bit ASCII set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isblank">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isblank</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isblank" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII whitespace character; space or horizontal tab.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.iscntrl">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">iscntrl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.iscntrl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII control character (in the range 0x00 to 0x1f or 0x7f).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isdigit">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isdigit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isdigit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII decimal digit, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'9'</span></code>.  This is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">string.digits</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isgraph">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isgraph</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isgraph" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for ASCII any printable character except space.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.islower">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">islower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.islower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII lower-case character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isprint">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isprint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isprint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for any ASCII printable character including space.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.ispunct">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">ispunct</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.ispunct" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for any printable ASCII character which is not a space or an alphanumeric
+character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isspace">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isspace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isspace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for ASCII white-space characters; space, line feed, carriage return, form
+feed, horizontal tab, vertical tab.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isupper">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isupper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isupper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII uppercase letter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isxdigit">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isxdigit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isxdigit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII hexadecimal digit.  This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">string.hexdigits</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.isctrl">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">isctrl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.isctrl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.ismeta">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">ismeta</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.ismeta" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for a non-ASCII character (ordinal values 0x80 and above).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These functions accept either integers or single-character strings; when the argument is a
+string, it is first converted using the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that all these functions check ordinal bit values derived from the
+character of the string you pass in; they do not actually know anything about
+the host machine’s character encoding.</p>
+<p>The following two functions take either a single-character string or integer
+byte value; they return a value of the same type.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.ascii">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">ascii</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.ascii" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the ASCII value corresponding to the low 7 bits of <em>c</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.ctrl">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">ctrl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.ctrl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the control character corresponding to the given character (the character
+bit value is bitwise-anded with 0x1f).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.alt">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">alt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.alt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the 8-bit character corresponding to the given ASCII character (the
+character bit value is bitwise-ored with 0x80).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following function takes either a single-character string or integer value;
+it returns a string.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.unctrl">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">unctrl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.unctrl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representation of the ASCII character <em>c</em>.  If <em>c</em> is printable,
+this string is the character itself.  If the character is a control character
+(0x00–0x1f) the string consists of a caret (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code>) followed by the
+corresponding uppercase letter. If the character is an ASCII delete (0x7f) the
+string is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^?'</span></code>.  If the character has its meta bit (0x80) set, the meta bit
+is stripped, the preceding rules applied, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code> prepended to the result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="curses.ascii.controlnames">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.ascii.</code><code class="descname">controlnames</code><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ascii.controlnames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A 33-element string array that contains the ASCII mnemonics for the thirty-two
+ASCII control characters from 0 (NUL) to 0x1f (US), in order, plus the mnemonic
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SP</span></code> for the space character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="curses.panel.html"
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+  <div class="section" id="module-curses">
+<span id="curses-terminal-handling-for-character-cell-displays"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays<a class="headerlink" href="#module-curses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module provides an interface to the curses library, the
+de-facto standard for portable advanced terminal handling.</p>
+<p>While curses is most widely used in the Unix environment, versions are available
+for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well.  This extension module is
+designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source curses library hosted on
+Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Whenever the documentation mentions a <em>character</em> it can be specified
+as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a one-byte byte string.</p>
+<p>Whenever the documentation mentions a <em>character string</em> it can be specified
+as a Unicode string or a byte string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since version 5.4, the ncurses library decides how to interpret non-ASCII data
+using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nl_langinfo</span></code> function.  That means that you have to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.setlocale()</span></code></a> in the application and encode Unicode strings
+using one of the system’s available encodings.  This example uses the
+system’s default encoding:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">locale</span>
+<span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_ALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpreferredencoding</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then use <em>code</em> as the encoding for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a> calls.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="curses.ascii.html#module-curses.ascii" title="curses.ascii: Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Utilities for working with ASCII characters, regardless of your locale settings.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html#module-curses.panel" title="curses.panel: A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.textpad" title="curses.textpad: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Editable text widget for curses supporting  <strong class="program">Emacs</strong>-like bindings.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/curses.html#curses-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Curses Programming with Python</span></a></dt><dd><p>Tutorial material on using curses with Python, by Andrew Kuchling and Eric
+Raymond.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Tools/demo/">Tools/demo/</a> directory in the Python source distribution contains
+some example programs using the curses bindings provided by this module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<span id="curses-functions"></span><h2>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> defines the following exception:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="curses.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a curses library function returns an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Whenever <em>x</em> or <em>y</em> arguments to a function or a method are optional, they
+default to the current cursor location. Whenever <em>attr</em> is optional, it defaults
+to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_NORMAL</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.baudrate">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">baudrate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.baudrate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the output speed of the terminal in bits per second.  On software
+terminal emulators it will have a fixed high value. Included for historical
+reasons; in former times, it was used to  write output loops for time delays and
+occasionally to change interfaces depending on the line speed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.beep">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">beep</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.beep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Emit a short attention sound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.can_change_color">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">can_change_color</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.can_change_color" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, depending on whether the programmer can change the colors
+displayed by the terminal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.cbreak">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">cbreak</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.cbreak" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter cbreak mode.  In cbreak mode (sometimes called “rare” mode) normal tty
+line buffering is turned off and characters are available to be read one by one.
+However, unlike raw mode, special characters (interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow
+control) retain their effects on the tty driver and calling program.  Calling
+first <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.raw" title="curses.raw"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw()</span></code></a> then <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.cbreak" title="curses.cbreak"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cbreak()</span></code></a> leaves the terminal in cbreak mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.color_content">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">color_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>color_number</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.color_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components in the color
+<em>color_number</em>, which must be between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLORS</span></code>.  Return a 3-tuple,
+containing the R,G,B values for the given color, which will be between
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (no component) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1000</span></code> (maximum amount of component).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.color_pair">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">color_pair</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>color_number</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.color_pair" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the attribute value for displaying text in the specified color.  This
+attribute value can be combined with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_STANDOUT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_REVERSE</span></code>,
+and the other <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_*</span></code> attributes.  <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.pair_number" title="curses.pair_number"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pair_number()</span></code></a> is the counterpart
+to this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.curs_set">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">curs_set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>visibility</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.curs_set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the cursor state.  <em>visibility</em> can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, for invisible,
+normal, or very visible.  If the terminal supports the visibility requested, return the
+previous cursor state; otherwise raise an exception.  On many
+terminals, the “visible” mode is an underline cursor and the “very visible” mode
+is a block cursor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.def_prog_mode">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">def_prog_mode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.def_prog_mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Save the current terminal mode as the “program” mode, the mode when the running
+program is using curses.  (Its counterpart is the “shell” mode, for when the
+program is not in curses.)  Subsequent calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.reset_prog_mode" title="curses.reset_prog_mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset_prog_mode()</span></code></a> will
+restore this mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.def_shell_mode">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">def_shell_mode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.def_shell_mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Save the current terminal mode as the “shell” mode, the mode when the running
+program is not using curses.  (Its counterpart is the “program” mode, when the
+program is using curses capabilities.) Subsequent calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.reset_shell_mode" title="curses.reset_shell_mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset_shell_mode()</span></code></a> will restore this mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.delay_output">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">delay_output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ms</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.delay_output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert an <em>ms</em> millisecond pause in output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.doupdate">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">doupdate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.doupdate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the physical screen.  The curses library keeps two data structures, one
+representing the current physical screen contents and a virtual screen
+representing the desired next state.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.doupdate" title="curses.doupdate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doupdate()</span></code></a> ground updates the
+physical screen to match the virtual screen.</p>
+<p>The virtual screen may be updated by a <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.noutrefresh" title="curses.window.noutrefresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noutrefresh()</span></code></a> call after write
+operations such as <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.addstr" title="curses.window.addstr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addstr()</span></code></a> have been performed on a window.  The normal
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a> call is simply <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noutrefresh()</span></code> followed by <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doupdate()</span></code>;
+if you have to update multiple windows, you can speed performance and perhaps
+reduce screen flicker by issuing <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noutrefresh()</span></code> calls on all windows,
+followed by a single <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doupdate()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.echo">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">echo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.echo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter echo mode.  In echo mode, each character input is echoed to the screen as
+it is entered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.endwin">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">endwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.endwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>De-initialize the library, and return terminal to normal status.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.erasechar">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">erasechar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.erasechar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the user’s current erase character as a one-byte bytes object.  Under Unix operating systems this
+is a property of the controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by
+the curses library itself.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.filter">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.filter" title="curses.filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> routine, if used, must be called before <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a> is
+called.  The effect is that, during those calls, <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINES</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>; the
+capabilities <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cup</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cud</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cud1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cuu1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cuu</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vpa</span></code> are disabled; and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">home</span></code>
+string is set to the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cr</span></code>. The effect is that the cursor is confined to
+the current line, and so are screen updates.  This may be used for enabling
+character-at-a-time  line editing without touching the rest of the screen.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.flash">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">flash</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.flash" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flash the screen.  That is, change it to reverse-video and then change it back
+in a short interval.  Some people prefer such as ‘visible bell’ to the audible
+attention signal produced by <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.beep" title="curses.beep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">beep()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.flushinp">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">flushinp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.flushinp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flush all input buffers.  This throws away any  typeahead  that  has been typed
+by the user and has not yet been processed by the program.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.getmouse">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">getmouse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.getmouse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>After <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.getch" title="curses.window.getch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a> returns <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MOUSE</span></code> to signal a mouse event, this
+method should be call to retrieve the queued mouse event, represented as a
+5-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(id,</span> <span class="pre">x,</span> <span class="pre">y,</span> <span class="pre">z,</span> <span class="pre">bstate)</span></code>. <em>id</em> is an ID value used to distinguish
+multiple devices, and <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>z</em> are the event’s coordinates.  (<em>z</em> is
+currently unused.)  <em>bstate</em> is an integer value whose bits will be set to
+indicate the type of event, and will be the bitwise OR of one or more of the
+following constants, where <em>n</em> is the button number from 1 to 4:
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTONn_PRESSED</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTONn_RELEASED</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTONn_CLICKED</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTON_SHIFT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTON_CTRL</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUTTON_ALT</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.getsyx">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">getsyx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.getsyx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current coordinates of the virtual screen cursor as a tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code>.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.leaveok" title="curses.window.leaveok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">leaveok</span></code></a> is currently <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-1,</span> <span class="pre">-1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.getwin">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">getwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.getwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putwin()</span></code> call.
+The routine then creates and initializes a new window using that data, returning
+the new window object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.has_colors">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">has_colors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.has_colors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the terminal can display colors; otherwise, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.has_ic">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">has_ic</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.has_ic" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the terminal has insert- and delete-character capabilities.
+This function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern software
+terminal emulators have such capabilities.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.has_il">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">has_il</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.has_il" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the terminal has insert- and delete-line capabilities, or can
+simulate  them  using scrolling regions. This function is included for
+historical reasons only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such
+capabilities.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.has_key">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">has_key</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.has_key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Take a key value <em>ch</em>, and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the current terminal type recognizes
+a key with that value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.halfdelay">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">halfdelay</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tenths</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.halfdelay" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Used for half-delay mode, which is similar to cbreak mode in that characters
+typed by the user are immediately available to the program. However, after
+blocking for <em>tenths</em> tenths of seconds, raise an exception if nothing has
+been typed.  The value of <em>tenths</em> must be a number between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">255</span></code>.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.nocbreak" title="curses.nocbreak"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nocbreak()</span></code></a> to leave half-delay mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.init_color">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">init_color</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>color_number</em>, <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.init_color" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the definition of a color, taking the number of the color to be changed
+followed by three RGB values (for the amounts of red, green, and blue
+components).  The value of <em>color_number</em> must be between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLORS</span></code>.  Each of <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, <em>b</em>, must be a value between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1000</span></code>.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.init_color" title="curses.init_color"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init_color()</span></code></a> is used, all occurrences of that color on the
+screen immediately change to the new definition.  This function is a no-op on
+most terminals; it is active only if <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.can_change_color" title="curses.can_change_color"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">can_change_color()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.init_pair">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">init_pair</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pair_number</em>, <em>fg</em>, <em>bg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.init_pair" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the definition of a color-pair.  It takes three arguments: the number of
+the color-pair to be changed, the foreground color number, and the background
+color number.  The value of <em>pair_number</em> must be between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_PAIRS</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> color pair is wired to white on black and cannot
+be changed).  The value of <em>fg</em> and <em>bg</em> arguments must be between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLORS</span></code>.  If the color-pair was previously initialized, the screen is
+refreshed and all occurrences of that color-pair are changed to the new
+definition.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.initscr">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">initscr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.initscr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initialize the library. Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#curses-window-objects"><span class="std std-ref">window</span></a> object
+which represents the whole screen.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If there is an error opening the terminal, the underlying curses library may
+cause the interpreter to exit.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.is_term_resized">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">is_term_resized</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.is_term_resized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.resize_term" title="curses.resize_term"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resize_term()</span></code></a> would modify the window structure,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.isendwin">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">isendwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.isendwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.endwin" title="curses.endwin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endwin()</span></code></a> has been called (that is, the  curses library has
+been deinitialized).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.keyname">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">keyname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>k</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.keyname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the key numbered <em>k</em> as a bytes object.  The name of a key generating printable
+ASCII character is the key’s character.  The name of a control-key combination
+is a two-byte bytes object consisting of a caret (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'^'</span></code>) followed by the corresponding
+printable ASCII character.  The name of an alt-key combination (128–255) is a
+bytes object consisting of the prefix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'M-'</span></code> followed by the name of the corresponding
+ASCII character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.killchar">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">killchar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.killchar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the user’s current line kill character as a one-byte bytes object. Under Unix operating systems
+this is a property of the controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set
+by the curses library itself.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.longname">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">longname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.longname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytes object containing the terminfo long name field describing the current
+terminal.  The maximum length of a verbose description is 128 characters.  It is
+defined only after the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.meta">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">meta</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.meta" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, allow 8-bit characters to be input.  If
+<em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,  allow only 7-bit chars.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.mouseinterval">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">mouseinterval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>interval</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.mouseinterval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press and release
+events in order for them to be recognized as a click, and return the previous
+interval value.  The default value is 200 msec, or one fifth of a second.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.mousemask">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">mousemask</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mousemask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.mousemask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(availmask,</span>
+<span class="pre">oldmask)</span></code>.   <em>availmask</em> indicates which of the specified mouse events can be
+reported; on complete failure it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  <em>oldmask</em> is the previous value of
+the given window’s mouse event mask.  If this function is never called, no mouse
+events are ever reported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.napms">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">napms</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ms</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.napms" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sleep for <em>ms</em> milliseconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.newpad">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">newpad</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.newpad" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a pointer to a new pad data structure with the given number
+of lines and columns.  Return a pad as a window object.</p>
+<p>A pad is like a window, except that it is not restricted by the screen size, and
+is not necessarily associated with a particular part of the screen.  Pads can be
+used when a large window is needed, and only a part of the window will be on the
+screen at one time.  Automatic refreshes of pads (such as from scrolling or
+echoing of input) do not occur.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.noutrefresh" title="curses.window.noutrefresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noutrefresh()</span></code></a>
+methods of a pad require 6 arguments to specify the part of the pad to be
+displayed and the location on the screen to be used for the display. The
+arguments are <em>pminrow</em>, <em>pmincol</em>, <em>sminrow</em>, <em>smincol</em>, <em>smaxrow</em>, <em>smaxcol</em>; the <em>p</em>
+arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be displayed and
+the <em>s</em> arguments define a clipping box on the screen within which the pad region
+is to be displayed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.newwin">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">newwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.newwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">newwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em>, <em>begin_y</em>, <em>begin_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#curses-window-objects"><span class="std std-ref">window</span></a>, whose left-upper corner
+is at  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(begin_y,</span> <span class="pre">begin_x)</span></code>, and whose height/width is  <em>nlines</em>/<em>ncols</em>.</p>
+<p>By default, the window will extend from the  specified position to the lower
+right corner of the screen.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.nl">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">nl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.nl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter newline mode.  This mode translates the return key into newline on input,
+and translates newline into return and line-feed on output. Newline mode is
+initially on.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.nocbreak">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">nocbreak</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.nocbreak" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Leave cbreak mode.  Return to normal “cooked” mode with line buffering.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.noecho">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">noecho</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.noecho" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Leave echo mode.  Echoing of input characters is turned off.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.nonl">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">nonl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.nonl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Leave newline mode.  Disable translation of return into newline on input, and
+disable low-level translation of newline into newline/return on output (but this
+does not change the behavior of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addch('\n')</span></code>, which always does the
+equivalent of return and line feed on the virtual screen).  With translation
+off, curses can sometimes speed up vertical motion a little; also, it will be
+able to detect the return key on input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.noqiflush">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">noqiflush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.noqiflush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noqiflush()</span></code> routine is used, normal flush of input and output queues
+associated with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INTR</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUIT</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SUSP</span></code> characters will not be done.  You may
+want to call <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noqiflush()</span></code> in a signal handler if you want output to
+continue as though the interrupt had not occurred, after the handler exits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.noraw">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">noraw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.noraw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Leave raw mode. Return to normal “cooked” mode with line buffering.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.pair_content">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">pair_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pair_number</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.pair_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(fg,</span> <span class="pre">bg)</span></code> containing the colors for the requested color pair.
+The value of <em>pair_number</em> must be between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_PAIRS</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.pair_number">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">pair_number</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.pair_number" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of the color-pair set by the attribute value <em>attr</em>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.color_pair" title="curses.color_pair"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color_pair()</span></code></a> is the counterpart to this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.putp">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">putp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.putp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tputs(str,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">putchar)</span></code>; emit the value of a specified
+terminfo capability for the current terminal.  Note that the output of <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.putp" title="curses.putp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putp()</span></code></a>
+always goes to standard output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.qiflush">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">qiflush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>flag</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.qiflush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the effect is the same as calling <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.noqiflush" title="curses.noqiflush"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">noqiflush()</span></code></a>. If
+<em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, or no argument is provided, the queues will be flushed when
+these control characters are read.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.raw">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">raw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.raw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter raw mode.  In raw mode, normal line buffering and  processing of
+interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control keys are turned off; characters are
+presented to curses input functions one by one.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.reset_prog_mode">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">reset_prog_mode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.reset_prog_mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restore the  terminal  to “program” mode, as previously saved  by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.def_prog_mode" title="curses.def_prog_mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def_prog_mode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.reset_shell_mode">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">reset_shell_mode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.reset_shell_mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restore the  terminal  to “shell” mode, as previously saved  by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.def_shell_mode" title="curses.def_shell_mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def_shell_mode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.resetty">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">resetty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.resetty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restore the state of the terminal modes to what it was at the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.savetty" title="curses.savetty"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">savetty()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.resize_term">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">resize_term</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.resize_term" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Backend function used by <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.resizeterm" title="curses.resizeterm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resizeterm()</span></code></a>, performing most of the work;
+when resizing the windows, <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.resize_term" title="curses.resize_term"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resize_term()</span></code></a> blank-fills the areas that are
+extended.  The calling application should fill in these areas with
+appropriate data.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resize_term()</span></code> function attempts to resize all
+windows.  However, due to the calling convention of pads, it is not possible
+to resize these without additional interaction with the application.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.resizeterm">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">resizeterm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.resizeterm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resize the standard and current windows to the specified dimensions, and
+adjusts other bookkeeping data used by the curses library that record the
+window dimensions (in particular the SIGWINCH handler).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.savetty">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">savetty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.savetty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Save the current state of the terminal modes in a buffer, usable by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.resetty" title="curses.resetty"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resetty()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.setsyx">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">setsyx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.setsyx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the virtual screen cursor to <em>y</em>, <em>x</em>. If <em>y</em> and <em>x</em> are both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.leaveok" title="curses.window.leaveok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">leaveok</span></code></a> is set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.setupterm">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">setupterm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>term=None</em>, <em>fd=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.setupterm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initialize the terminal.  <em>term</em> is a string giving
+the terminal name, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; if omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the value of the
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TERM</span></code> environment variable will be used.  <em>fd</em> is the
+file descriptor to which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not
+supplied or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, the file descriptor for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> will be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.start_color">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">start_color</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.start_color" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must be called if the programmer wants to use colors, and before any other color
+manipulation routine is called.  It is good practice to call this routine right
+after <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#curses.start_color" title="curses.start_color"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_color()</span></code></a> initializes eight basic colors (black, red,  green, yellow,
+blue, magenta, cyan, and white), and two global variables in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a>
+module, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLORS</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_PAIRS</span></code>, containing the maximum number
+of colors and color-pairs the terminal can support.  It also restores the colors
+on the terminal to the values they had when the terminal was just turned on.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.termattrs">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">termattrs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.termattrs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a logical OR of all video attributes supported by the terminal.  This
+information is useful when a curses program needs complete control over the
+appearance of the screen.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.termname">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">termname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.termname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TERM</span></code>, as a bytes object,
+truncated to 14 characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.tigetflag">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">tigetflag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>capname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.tigetflag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the Boolean capability corresponding to the terminfo
+capability name <em>capname</em> as an integer.  Return the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if <em>capname</em> is not a
+Boolean capability, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if it is canceled or absent from the terminal
+description.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.tigetnum">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">tigetnum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>capname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.tigetnum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the numeric capability corresponding to the terminfo
+capability name <em>capname</em> as an integer.  Return the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-2</span></code> if <em>capname</em> is not a
+numeric capability, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if it is canceled or absent from the terminal
+description.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.tigetstr">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">tigetstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>capname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.tigetstr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the string capability corresponding to the terminfo
+capability name <em>capname</em> as a bytes object.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if <em>capname</em>
+is not a terminfo “string capability”, or is canceled or absent from the
+terminal description.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.tparm">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">tparm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.tparm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instantiate the bytes object <em>str</em> with the supplied parameters, where <em>str</em> should
+be a parameterized string obtained from the terminfo database.  E.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tparm(tigetstr(&quot;cup&quot;),</span> <span class="pre">5,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span></code> could result in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\033[6;4H'</span></code>, the exact
+result depending on terminal type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.typeahead">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">typeahead</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.typeahead" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify that the file descriptor <em>fd</em> be used for typeahead checking.  If <em>fd</em>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, then no typeahead checking is done.</p>
+<p>The curses library does “line-breakout optimization” by looking for typeahead
+periodically while updating the screen.  If input is found, and it is coming
+from a tty, the current update is postponed until refresh or doupdate is called
+again, allowing faster response to commands typed in advance. This function
+allows specifying a different file descriptor for typeahead checking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.unctrl">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">unctrl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.unctrl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the character <em>ch</em>.
+Control characters are represented as a caret followed by the character, for
+example as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'^C'</span></code>. Printing characters are left as they are.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ungetch">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">ungetch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ungetch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push <em>ch</em> so the next <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.getch" title="curses.window.getch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a> will return it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Only one <em>ch</em> can be pushed before <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code> is called.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.update_lines_cols">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">update_lines_cols</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.update_lines_cols" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINES</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLS</span></code>. Useful for detecting manual screen resize.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.unget_wch">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">unget_wch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.unget_wch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push <em>ch</em> so the next <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.get_wch" title="curses.window.get_wch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_wch()</span></code></a> will return it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Only one <em>ch</em> can be pushed before <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_wch()</span></code> is called.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.ungetmouse">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">ungetmouse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>z</em>, <em>bstate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ungetmouse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MOUSE</span></code> event onto the input queue, associating the given
+state data with it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.use_env">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">use_env</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.use_env" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If used, this function should be called before <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a> or newterm are
+called.  When <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the values of lines and columns specified in the
+terminfo database will be used, even if environment variables <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINES</span></code>
+and <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLUMNS</span></code> (used by default) are set, or if curses is running in a
+window (in which case default behavior would be to use the window size if
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINES</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLUMNS</span></code> are not set).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.use_default_colors">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">use_default_colors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.use_default_colors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allow use of default values for colors on terminals supporting this feature. Use
+this to support transparency in your application.  The default color is assigned
+to the color number <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>. After calling this function,  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init_pair(x,</span>
+<span class="pre">curses.COLOR_RED,</span> <span class="pre">-1)</span></code> initializes, for instance, color pair <em>x</em> to a red
+foreground color on the default background.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.wrapper">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">wrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.wrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initialize curses and call another callable object, <em>func</em>, which should be the
+rest of your curses-using application.  If the application raises an exception,
+this function will restore the terminal to a sane state before re-raising the
+exception and generating a traceback.  The callable object <em>func</em> is then passed
+the main window ‘stdscr’ as its first argument, followed by any other arguments
+passed to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapper()</span></code>.  Before calling <em>func</em>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapper()</span></code> turns on
+cbreak mode, turns off echo, enables the terminal keypad, and initializes colors
+if the terminal has color support.  On exit (whether normally or by exception)
+it restores cooked mode, turns on echo, and disables the terminal keypad.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="window-objects">
+<span id="curses-window-objects"></span><h2>Window Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#window-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Window objects, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.newwin" title="curses.newwin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newwin()</span></code></a> above, have
+the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.addch">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">addch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.addch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">addch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>ch</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Paint character <em>ch</em> at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> with attributes <em>attr</em>, overwriting any
+character previously painter at that location.  By default, the character
+position and attributes are the current settings for the window object.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises a <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.error" title="curses.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.error</span></code></a>.
+Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow,
+or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the character is printed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.addnstr">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">addnstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em>, <em>n</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.addnstr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">addnstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>str</em>, <em>n</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Paint at most <em>n</em> characters of the character string <em>str</em> at
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> with attributes
+<em>attr</em>, overwriting anything previously on the display.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.addstr">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">addstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.addstr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">addstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>str</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Paint the character string <em>str</em> at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> with attributes
+<em>attr</em>, overwriting anything previously on the display.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.error" title="curses.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.error</span></code></a>.
+Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow,
+or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the string is printed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.attroff">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">attroff</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.attroff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove attribute <em>attr</em> from the “background” set applied to all writes to the
+current window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.attron">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">attron</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.attron" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add attribute <em>attr</em> from the “background” set applied to all writes to the
+current window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.attrset">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">attrset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.attrset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the “background” set of attributes to <em>attr</em>.  This set is initially
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (no attributes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.bkgd">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">bkgd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.bkgd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the background property of the window to the character <em>ch</em>, with
+attributes <em>attr</em>.  The change is then applied to every character position in
+that window:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The attribute of every character in the window  is changed to the new
+background attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p>Wherever  the  former background character appears, it is changed to the new
+background character.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.bkgdset">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">bkgdset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.bkgdset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the window’s background.  A window’s background consists of a character and
+any combination of attributes.  The attribute part of the background is combined
+(OR’ed) with all non-blank characters that are written into the window.  Both
+the character and attribute parts of the background are combined with the blank
+characters.  The background becomes a property of the character and moves with
+the character through any scrolling and insert/delete line/character operations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.border">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">border</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>ls</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>rs</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>ts</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>bs</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>tl</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>tr</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>bl</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>br</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.border" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Draw a border around the edges of the window. Each parameter specifies  the
+character to use for a specific part of the border; see the table below for more
+details.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> value for any parameter will cause the default character to be used for
+that parameter.  Keyword parameters can <em>not</em> be used.  The defaults are listed
+in this table:</p>
+</div>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Parameter</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Default value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>ls</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Left side</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_VLINE</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>rs</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Right side</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_VLINE</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>ts</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Top</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_HLINE</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>bs</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Bottom</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_HLINE</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>tl</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Upper-left corner</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_ULCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>tr</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Upper-right corner</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_URCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>bl</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Bottom-left corner</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LLCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>br</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Bottom-right corner</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LRCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.box">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">box</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>vertch</em>, <em>horch</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.box" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.border" title="curses.window.border"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">border()</span></code></a>, but both <em>ls</em> and <em>rs</em> are <em>vertch</em> and both <em>ts</em> and
+<em>bs</em> are <em>horch</em>.  The default corner characters are always used by this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.chgat">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">chgat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.chgat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">chgat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>num</em>, <em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">chgat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">chgat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>num</em>, <em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the attributes of <em>num</em> characters at the current cursor position, or at
+position <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> if supplied. If <em>num</em> is not given or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>,
+the attribute will be set on all the characters to the end of the line.  This
+function moves cursor to position <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> if supplied. The changed line
+will be touched using the <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.touchline" title="curses.window.touchline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">touchline()</span></code></a> method so that the contents will
+be redisplayed by the next window refresh.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.clear">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.erase" title="curses.window.erase"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erase()</span></code></a>, but also cause the whole window to be repainted upon next
+call to <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.clearok">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">clearok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.clearok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the next call to <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a> will clear the window
+completely.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.clrtobot">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">clrtobot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.clrtobot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Erase from cursor to the end of the window: all lines below the cursor are
+deleted, and then the equivalent of <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.clrtoeol" title="curses.window.clrtoeol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clrtoeol()</span></code></a> is performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.clrtoeol">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">clrtoeol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.clrtoeol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Erase from cursor to the end of the line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.cursyncup">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">cursyncup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.cursyncup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the current cursor position of all the ancestors of the window to
+reflect the current cursor position of the window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.delch">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">delch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.delch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete any character at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.deleteln">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">deleteln</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.deleteln" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the line under the cursor. All following lines are moved up by one line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.derwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">derwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>begin_y</em>, <em>begin_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.derwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">derwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em>, <em>begin_y</em>, <em>begin_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>An abbreviation for “derive window”, <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.derwin" title="curses.window.derwin"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">derwin()</span></code></a> is the same as calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.subwin" title="curses.window.subwin"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subwin()</span></code></a>, except that <em>begin_y</em> and <em>begin_x</em> are relative to the origin
+of the window, rather than relative to the entire screen.  Return a window
+object for the derived window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.echochar">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">echochar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.echochar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add character <em>ch</em> with attribute <em>attr</em>, and immediately  call <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a>
+on the window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.enclose">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">enclose</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.enclose" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether the given pair of screen-relative character-cell coordinates are
+enclosed by the given window, returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  It is useful for
+determining what subset of the screen windows enclose the location of a mouse
+event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="curses.window.encoding">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">encoding</code><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and characters).
+The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent window when a subwindow
+is created, for example with <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.subwin" title="curses.window.subwin"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">window.subwin()</span></code></a>. By default, the locale
+encoding is used (see <a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.erase">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">erase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.erase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getbegyx">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getbegyx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getbegyx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> of co-ordinates of upper-left corner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getbkgd">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getbkgd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getbkgd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the given window’s current background character/attribute pair.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getch">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a character. Note that the integer returned does <em>not</em> have to be in ASCII
+range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are represented by numbers higher
+than 255.  In no-delay mode, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if there is no input, otherwise
+wait until a key is pressed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.get_wch">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">get_wch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.get_wch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a wide character. Return a character for most keys, or an integer for
+function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys.
+In no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getkey">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getkey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getkey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.getch" title="curses.window.getch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a>
+does. Function keys, keypad keys and other special keys return a multibyte
+string containing the key name.  In no-delay mode, raise an exception if
+there is no input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getmaxyx">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getmaxyx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getmaxyx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> of the height and width of the window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getparyx">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getparyx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getparyx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the beginning coordinates of this window relative to its parent window
+as a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-1,</span> <span class="pre">-1)</span></code> if this window has no
+parent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getstr">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getstr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing capacity.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.getyx">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">getyx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.getyx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> of current cursor position  relative to the window’s
+upper-left corner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.hline">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">hline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.hline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">hline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>ch</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Display a horizontal line starting at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> with length <em>n</em> consisting of
+the character <em>ch</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.idcok">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">idcok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.idcok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, curses no longer considers using the hardware insert/delete
+character feature of the terminal; if <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, use of character insertion
+and deletion is enabled.  When curses is first initialized, use of character
+insert/delete is enabled by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.idlok">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">idlok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.idlok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> will try and use hardware line
+editing facilities. Otherwise, line insertion/deletion are disabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.immedok">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">immedok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.immedok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, any change in the window image automatically causes the
+window to be refreshed; you no longer have to call <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a> yourself.
+However, it may degrade performance considerably, due to repeated calls to
+wrefresh.  This option is disabled by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.inch">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">inch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.inch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the character at the given position in the window. The bottom 8 bits are
+the character proper, and upper bits are the attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.insch">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.insch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>ch</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Paint character <em>ch</em> at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> with attributes <em>attr</em>, moving the line from
+position <em>x</em> right by one character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.insdelln">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insdelln</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.insdelln" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert <em>nlines</em> lines into the specified window above the current line.  The
+<em>nlines</em> bottom lines are lost.  For negative <em>nlines</em>, delete <em>nlines</em> lines
+starting with the one under the cursor, and move the remaining lines up.  The
+bottom <em>nlines</em> lines are cleared.  The current cursor position remains the
+same.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.insertln">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insertln</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.insertln" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a blank line under the cursor. All following lines are moved down by one
+line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.insnstr">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insnstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em>, <em>n</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.insnstr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insnstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>str</em>, <em>n</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the line) before
+the character under the cursor, up to <em>n</em> characters.   If <em>n</em> is zero or
+negative, the entire string is inserted. All characters to the right of the
+cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost characters on the line being lost.
+The cursor position does not change (after moving to <em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, if specified).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.insstr">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.insstr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">insstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>str</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>attr</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the line) before
+the character under the cursor.  All characters to the right of the cursor are
+shifted right, with the rightmost characters on the line being lost.  The cursor
+position does not change (after moving to <em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, if specified).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.instr">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">instr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>n</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.instr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">instr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>n</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window starting at the
+current cursor position, or at <em>y</em>, <em>x</em> if specified. Attributes are stripped
+from the characters.  If <em>n</em> is specified, <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.instr" title="curses.window.instr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instr()</span></code></a> returns a string
+at most <em>n</em> characters long (exclusive of the trailing NUL).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.is_linetouched">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">is_linetouched</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.is_linetouched" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the specified line was modified since the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a>; otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.error" title="curses.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.error</span></code></a>
+exception if <em>line</em> is not valid for the given window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.is_wintouched">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">is_wintouched</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.is_wintouched" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the specified window was modified since the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a>; otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.keypad">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">keypad</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.keypad" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, escape sequences generated by some keys (keypad,  function keys)
+will be interpreted by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a>. If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, escape sequences will be
+left as is in the input stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.leaveok">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">leaveok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.leaveok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, cursor is left where it is on update, instead of being at “cursor
+position.”  This reduces cursor movement where possible. If possible the cursor
+will be made invisible.</p>
+<p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, cursor will always be at “cursor position” after an update.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.move">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">move</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>new_y</em>, <em>new_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.move" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move cursor to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(new_y,</span> <span class="pre">new_x)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.mvderwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">mvderwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.mvderwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move the window inside its parent window.  The screen-relative parameters of
+the window are not changed.  This routine is used to display different parts of
+the parent window at the same physical position on the screen.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.mvwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">mvwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>new_y</em>, <em>new_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.mvwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move the window so its upper-left corner is at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(new_y,</span> <span class="pre">new_x)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.nodelay">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">nodelay</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.nodelay" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.getch" title="curses.window.getch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a> will be non-blocking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.notimeout">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">notimeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.notimeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, escape sequences will not be timed out.</p>
+<p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, after a few milliseconds, an escape sequence will not be
+interpreted, and will be left in the input stream as is.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.noutrefresh">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">noutrefresh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.noutrefresh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark for refresh but wait.  This function updates the data structure
+representing the desired state of the window, but does not force an update of
+the physical screen.  To accomplish that, call  <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.doupdate" title="curses.doupdate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doupdate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.overlay">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">overlay</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>destwin</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>sminrow</em>, <em>smincol</em>, <em>dminrow</em>, <em>dmincol</em>, <em>dmaxrow</em>, <em>dmaxcol</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.overlay" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Overlay the window on top of <em>destwin</em>. The windows need not be the same size,
+only the overlapping region is copied. This copy is non-destructive, which means
+that the current background character does not overwrite the old contents of
+<em>destwin</em>.</p>
+<p>To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.overlay" title="curses.window.overlay"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">overlay()</span></code></a> can be used. <em>sminrow</em> and <em>smincol</em> are the upper-left
+coordinates of the source window, and the other variables mark a rectangle in
+the destination window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.overwrite">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">overwrite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>destwin</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>sminrow</em>, <em>smincol</em>, <em>dminrow</em>, <em>dmincol</em>, <em>dmaxrow</em>, <em>dmaxcol</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.overwrite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Overwrite the window on top of <em>destwin</em>. The windows need not be the same size,
+in which case only the overlapping region is copied. This copy is destructive,
+which means that the current background character overwrites the old contents of
+<em>destwin</em>.</p>
+<p>To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.overwrite" title="curses.window.overwrite"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">overwrite()</span></code></a> can be used. <em>sminrow</em> and <em>smincol</em> are the upper-left
+coordinates of the source window, the other variables mark a rectangle in the
+destination window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.putwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">putwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.putwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write all data associated with the window into the provided file object.  This
+information can be later retrieved using the <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.getwin" title="curses.getwin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getwin()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.redrawln">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">redrawln</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>beg</em>, <em>num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.redrawln" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicate that the <em>num</em> screen lines, starting at line <em>beg</em>, are corrupted and
+should be completely redrawn on the next <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a> call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.redrawwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">redrawwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.redrawwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Touch the entire window, causing it to be completely redrawn on the next
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a> call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.refresh">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">refresh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>pminrow</em>, <em>pmincol</em>, <em>sminrow</em>, <em>smincol</em>, <em>smaxrow</em>, <em>smaxcol</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous
+drawing/deleting methods).</p>
+<p>The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a pad created
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.newpad" title="curses.newpad"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newpad()</span></code></a>.  The additional parameters are needed to indicate what part
+of the pad and screen are involved. <em>pminrow</em> and <em>pmincol</em> specify the upper
+left-hand corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad.  <em>sminrow</em>,
+<em>smincol</em>, <em>smaxrow</em>, and <em>smaxcol</em> specify the edges of the rectangle to be
+displayed on the screen.  The lower right-hand corner of the rectangle to be
+displayed in the pad is calculated from the screen coordinates, since the
+rectangles must be the same size.  Both rectangles must be entirely contained
+within their respective structures.  Negative values of <em>pminrow</em>, <em>pmincol</em>,
+<em>sminrow</em>, or <em>smincol</em> are treated as if they were zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.resize">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reallocate storage for a curses window to adjust its dimensions to the
+specified values.  If either dimension is larger than the current values, the
+window’s data is filled with blanks that have the current background
+rendition (as set by <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.bkgdset" title="curses.window.bkgdset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bkgdset()</span></code></a>) merged into them.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.scroll">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">scroll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>lines=1</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.scroll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by <em>lines</em> lines.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.scrollok">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">scrollok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.scrollok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Control what happens when the cursor of a window is moved off the edge of the
+window or scrolling region, either as a result of a newline action on the bottom
+line, or typing the last character of the last line.  If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the
+cursor is left on the bottom line.  If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the window is scrolled up
+one line.  Note that in order to get the physical scrolling effect on the
+terminal, it is also necessary to call <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.idlok" title="curses.window.idlok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idlok()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.setscrreg">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">setscrreg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>top</em>, <em>bottom</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.setscrreg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the scrolling region from line <em>top</em> to line <em>bottom</em>. All scrolling actions
+will take place in this region.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.standend">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">standend</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.standend" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Turn off the standout attribute.  On some terminals this has the side effect of
+turning off all attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.standout">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">standout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.standout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Turn on attribute <em>A_STANDOUT</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.subpad">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">subpad</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>begin_y</em>, <em>begin_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.subpad" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">subpad</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em>, <em>begin_y</em>, <em>begin_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(begin_y,</span> <span class="pre">begin_x)</span></code>, and
+whose width/height is <em>ncols</em>/<em>nlines</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.subwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">subwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>begin_y</em>, <em>begin_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.subwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">subwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nlines</em>, <em>ncols</em>, <em>begin_y</em>, <em>begin_x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(begin_y,</span> <span class="pre">begin_x)</span></code>, and
+whose width/height is <em>ncols</em>/<em>nlines</em>.</p>
+<p>By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position to the lower
+right corner of the window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.syncdown">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">syncdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.syncdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Touch each location in the window that has been touched in any of its ancestor
+windows.  This routine is called by <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a>, so it should almost never
+be necessary to call it manually.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.syncok">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">syncok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.syncok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.syncup" title="curses.window.syncup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syncup()</span></code></a> is called automatically
+whenever there is a change in the window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.syncup">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">syncup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.syncup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Touch all locations in ancestors of the window that have been changed in  the
+window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.timeout">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">timeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delay</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.timeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set blocking or non-blocking read behavior for the window.  If <em>delay</em> is
+negative, blocking read is used (which will wait indefinitely for input).  If
+<em>delay</em> is zero, then non-blocking read is used, and <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.getch" title="curses.window.getch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a> will
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if no input is waiting.  If <em>delay</em> is positive, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.getch" title="curses.window.getch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a> will block for <em>delay</em> milliseconds, and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if there is
+still no input at the end of that time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.touchline">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">touchline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start</em>, <em>count</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>changed</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.touchline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pretend <em>count</em> lines have been changed, starting with line <em>start</em>.  If
+<em>changed</em> is supplied, it specifies whether the affected lines are marked as
+having been changed (<em>changed</em><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=True</span></code>) or unchanged (<em>changed</em><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=False</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.touchwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">touchwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.touchwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pretend the whole window has been changed, for purposes of drawing
+optimizations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.untouchwin">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">untouchwin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.untouchwin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark all lines in  the  window  as unchanged since the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.window.refresh" title="curses.window.refresh"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refresh()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.window.vline">
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">vline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.window.vline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">window.</code><code class="descname">vline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>ch</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Display a vertical line starting at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> with length <em>n</em> consisting of the
+character <em>ch</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<h2>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module defines the following data members:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="curses.ERR">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">ERR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.ERR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Some curses routines  that  return  an integer, such as  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code>, return
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.ERR" title="curses.ERR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERR</span></code></a> upon failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="curses.OK">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">OK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.OK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Some curses routines  that  return  an integer, such as  <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.napms" title="curses.napms"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">napms()</span></code></a>, return
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.OK" title="curses.OK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OK</span></code></a> upon success.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="curses.version">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.</code><code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bytes object representing the current version of the module.  Also available as
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__version__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Some constants are available to specify character cell attributes.
+The exact constants available are system dependent.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_ALTCHARSET</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Alternate character set mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_BLINK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Blink mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_BOLD</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bold mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_DIM</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Dim mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_INVIS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Invisible or blank mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_ITALIC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Italic mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_NORMAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Normal attribute</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_PROTECT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Protected mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_REVERSE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Reverse background and
+foreground colors</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_STANDOUT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Standout mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_UNDERLINE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Underline mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_HORIZONTAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Horizontal highlight</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_LEFT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Left highlight</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_LOW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Low highlight</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_RIGHT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Right highlight</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_TOP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Top highlight</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_VERTICAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Vertical highlight</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_CHARTEXT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bit-mask to extract a
+character</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_ITALIC</span></code> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Several constants are available to extract corresponding attributes returned
+by some methods.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Bit-mask</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_ATTRIBUTES</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bit-mask to extract
+attributes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_CHARTEXT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bit-mask to extract a
+character</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A_COLOR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bit-mask to extract
+color-pair field information</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_</span></code>.
+The exact keycaps available are system dependent.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Key constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Key</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MIN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Minimum key value</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_BREAK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Break key (unreliable)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_DOWN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Down-arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_UP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Up-arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_LEFT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Left-arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_RIGHT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Right-arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_HOME</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Home key (upward+left arrow)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_BACKSPACE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Backspace (unreliable)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_F0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Function keys.  Up to 64 function keys are
+supported.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_Fn</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Value of function key <em>n</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_DL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Delete line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_IL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Insert line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_DC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Delete character</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_IC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Insert char or enter insert mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_EIC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exit insert char mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CLEAR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Clear screen</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_EOS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Clear to end of screen</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_EOL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Clear to end of line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SF</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Scroll 1 line forward</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Scroll 1 line backward (reverse)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_NPAGE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Next page</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_PPAGE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Previous page</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_STAB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Set tab</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CTAB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Clear tab</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CATAB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Clear all tabs</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_ENTER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Enter or send (unreliable)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SRESET</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Soft (partial) reset (unreliable)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_RESET</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Reset or hard reset (unreliable)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_PRINT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Print</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_LL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Home down or bottom (lower left)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_A1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Upper left of keypad</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_A3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Upper right of keypad</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_B2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Center of keypad</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_C1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Lower left of keypad</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_C3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Lower right of keypad</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_BTAB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Back tab</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_BEG</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Beg (beginning)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CANCEL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Cancel</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CLOSE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Close</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_COMMAND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Cmd (command)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_COPY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Copy</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CREATE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Create</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_END</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>End</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_EXIT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exit</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_FIND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Find</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_HELP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Help</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MARK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Mark</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MESSAGE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Message</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MOVE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Move</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_NEXT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Next</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_OPEN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_OPTIONS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Options</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_PREVIOUS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Prev (previous)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_REDO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Redo</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_REFERENCE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Ref (reference)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_REFRESH</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Refresh</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_REPLACE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Replace</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_RESTART</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Restart</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_RESUME</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Resume</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SAVE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Save</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SBEG</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Beg (beginning)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SCANCEL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Cancel</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SCOMMAND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Command</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SCOPY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Copy</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SCREATE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Create</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SDC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Delete char</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SDL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Delete line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SELECT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Select</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SEND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted End</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SEOL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Clear line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SEXIT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Exit</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SFIND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Find</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SHELP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Help</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SHOME</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Home</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SIC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Input</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SLEFT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Left arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SMESSAGE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Message</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SMOVE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Move</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SNEXT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Next</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SOPTIONS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Options</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SPREVIOUS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Prev</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SPRINT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Print</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SREDO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Redo</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SREPLACE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Replace</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SRIGHT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Right arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SRSUME</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Resume</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SSAVE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Save</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SSUSPEND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Suspend</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SUNDO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifted Undo</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SUSPEND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Suspend</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_UNDO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Undo</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MOUSE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Mouse event has occurred</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_RESIZE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Terminal resize event</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_MAX</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Maximum key value</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>On VT100s and their software emulations, such as X terminal emulators, there are
+normally at least four function keys (<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_F1</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_F2</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_F3</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_F4</span></code>) available, and the arrow keys mapped to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_UP</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_DOWN</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_LEFT</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_RIGHT</span></code> in
+the obvious way.  If your machine has a PC keyboard, it is safe to expect arrow
+keys and twelve function keys (older PC keyboards may have only ten function
+keys); also, the following keypad mappings are standard:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 62%" />
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Keycap</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Insert</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>KEY_IC</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Delete</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>KEY_DC</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Home</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>KEY_HOME</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">End</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>KEY_END</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Page Up</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>KEY_PPAGE</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Page Down</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>KEY_NPAGE</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The following table lists characters from the alternate character set. These are
+inherited from the VT100 terminal, and will generally be  available on software
+emulations such as X terminals.  When there is no graphic available, curses
+falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>These are available only after <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.initscr" title="curses.initscr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initscr()</span></code></a> has  been called.</p>
+</div>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>ACS code</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BBSS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for upper right corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BLOCK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>solid square block</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BOARD</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>board of squares</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BSBS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for horizontal line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BSSB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for upper left corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BSSS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for top tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BTEE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bottom tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_BULLET</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bullet</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_CKBOARD</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>checker board (stipple)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_DARROW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>arrow pointing down</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_DEGREE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>degree symbol</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_DIAMOND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>diamond</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_GEQUAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>greater-than-or-equal-to</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_HLINE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>horizontal line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LANTERN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>lantern symbol</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LARROW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>left arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LEQUAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>less-than-or-equal-to</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LLCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>lower left-hand corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LRCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>lower right-hand corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_LTEE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>left tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_NEQUAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>not-equal sign</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_PI</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>letter pi</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_PLMINUS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>plus-or-minus sign</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_PLUS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>big plus sign</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_RARROW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>right arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_RTEE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>right tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_S1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>scan line 1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_S3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>scan line 3</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_S7</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>scan line 7</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_S9</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>scan line 9</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_SBBS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for lower right corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_SBSB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for vertical line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_SBSS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for right tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_SSBB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for lower left corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_SSBS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for bottom tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_SSSB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for left tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_SSSS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>alternate name for crossover or big plus</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_STERLING</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>pound sterling</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_TTEE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>top tee</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_UARROW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>up arrow</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_ULCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>upper left corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_URCORNER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>upper right corner</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACS_VLINE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>vertical line</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The following table lists the predefined colors:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+<col style="width: 60%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Color</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_BLACK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Black</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_BLUE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Blue</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_CYAN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Cyan (light greenish blue)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_GREEN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Green</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_MAGENTA</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Magenta (purplish red)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_RED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Red</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_WHITE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>White</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLOR_YELLOW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Yellow</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-curses.textpad">
+<span id="curses-textpad-text-input-widget-for-curses-programs"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.textpad" title="curses.textpad: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code></a> — Text input widget for curses programs<a class="headerlink" href="#module-curses.textpad" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.textpad" title="curses.textpad: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code></a> module provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox" title="curses.textpad.Textbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Textbox</span></code></a> class that handles
+elementary text editing in a curses window, supporting a set of keybindings
+resembling those of Emacs (thus, also of Netscape Navigator, BBedit 6.x,
+FrameMaker, and many other programs).  The module also provides a
+rectangle-drawing function useful for framing text boxes or for other purposes.</p>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.textpad" title="curses.textpad: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code></a> defines the following function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.textpad.rectangle">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.textpad.</code><code class="descname">rectangle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>win</em>, <em>uly</em>, <em>ulx</em>, <em>lry</em>, <em>lrx</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.textpad.rectangle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Draw a rectangle.  The first argument must be a window object; the remaining
+arguments are coordinates relative to that window.  The second and third
+arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper left hand corner of the
+rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth arguments are the y and x
+coordinates of the lower right hand corner. The rectangle will be drawn using
+VT100/IBM PC forms characters on terminals that make this possible (including
+xterm and most other software terminal emulators).  Otherwise it will be drawn
+with ASCII  dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="textbox-objects">
+<span id="curses-textpad-objects"></span><h2>Textbox objects<a class="headerlink" href="#textbox-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can instantiate a <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox" title="curses.textpad.Textbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Textbox</span></code></a> object as follows:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="curses.textpad.Textbox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">curses.textpad.</code><code class="descname">Textbox</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>win</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a textbox widget object.  The <em>win</em> argument should be a curses
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses-window-objects"><span class="std std-ref">window</span></a> object in which the textbox is to
+be contained. The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at the
+upper left hand corner of the containing window, with coordinates <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(0,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.
+The instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces" title="curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stripspaces</span></code></a> flag is initially on.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox" title="curses.textpad.Textbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Textbox</span></code></a> objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.textpad.Textbox.edit">
+<code class="descname">edit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>validator</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox.edit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the entry point you will normally use.  It accepts editing
+keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is entered.  If
+<em>validator</em> is supplied, it must be a function.  It will be called for
+each keystroke entered with the keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch
+is done on the result. This method returns the window contents as a
+string; whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces" title="curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stripspaces</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.textpad.Textbox.do_command">
+<code class="descname">do_command</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox.do_command" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process a single command keystroke.  Here are the supported special
+keystrokes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Keystroke</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Action</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-A</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Go to left edge of window.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-B</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Cursor left, wrapping to previous line if
+appropriate.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-D</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Delete character under cursor.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-E</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Go to right edge (stripspaces off) or end
+of line (stripspaces on).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-F</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Cursor right, wrapping to next line when
+appropriate.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-G</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Terminate, returning the window contents.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-H</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Delete character backward.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-J</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Terminate if the window is 1 line,
+otherwise insert newline.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-K</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>If line is blank, delete it, otherwise
+clear to end of line.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-L</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Refresh screen.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-N</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Cursor down; move down one line.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-O</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Insert a blank line at cursor location.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-P</kbd></p></td>
+<td><p>Cursor up; move up one line.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Move operations do nothing if the cursor is at an edge where the movement
+is not possible.  The following synonyms are supported where possible:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Keystroke</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_LEFT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-B</kbd></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_RIGHT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-F</kbd></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_UP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-P</kbd></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_DOWN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-N</kbd></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_BACKSPACE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-h</kbd></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>All other keystrokes are treated as a command to insert the given
+character and move right (with line wrapping).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.textpad.Textbox.gather">
+<code class="descname">gather</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox.gather" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the
+window are included is affected by the <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces" title="curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stripspaces</span></code></a> member.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces">
+<code class="descname">stripspaces</code><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.textpad.Textbox.stripspaces" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute is a flag which controls the interpretation of blanks in
+the window.  When it is on, trailing blanks on each line are ignored; any
+cursor motion that would land the cursor on a trailing blank goes to the
+end of that line instead, and trailing blanks are stripped when the window
+contents are gathered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#window-objects">Window Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.textpad"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code> — Text input widget for curses programs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#textbox-objects">Textbox objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code> — Portable password input</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="curses.ascii.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/curses.panel.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/curses.panel.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe06e7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/curses.panel.html
@@ -0,0 +1,309 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-curses.panel">
+<span id="curses-panel-a-panel-stack-extension-for-curses"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.panel" title="curses.panel: A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code></a> — A panel stack extension for curses<a class="headerlink" href="#module-curses.panel" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Panels are windows with the added feature of depth, so they can be stacked on
+top of each other, and only the visible portions of each window will be
+displayed.  Panels can be added, moved up or down in the stack, and removed.</p>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<span id="cursespanel-functions"></span><h2>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-curses.panel" title="curses.panel: A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code></a> defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.panel.bottom_panel">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.panel.</code><code class="descname">bottom_panel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.bottom_panel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the bottom panel in the panel stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.panel.new_panel">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.panel.</code><code class="descname">new_panel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>win</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.new_panel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window <em>win</em>. Be aware
+that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced explicitly.  If you
+don’t, the panel object is garbage collected and removed from the panel stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.panel.top_panel">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.panel.</code><code class="descname">top_panel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.top_panel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the top panel in the panel stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="curses.panel.update_panels">
+<code class="descclassname">curses.panel.</code><code class="descname">update_panels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.update_panels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Updates the virtual screen after changes in the panel stack. This does not call
+<a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#curses.doupdate" title="curses.doupdate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.doupdate()</span></code></a>, so you’ll have to do this yourself.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="panel-objects">
+<span id="curses-panel-objects"></span><h2>Panel Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#panel-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Panel objects, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#curses.panel.new_panel" title="curses.panel.new_panel"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_panel()</span></code></a> above, are windows with a
+stacking order. There’s always a window associated with a panel which determines
+the content, while the panel methods are responsible for the window’s depth in
+the panel stack.</p>
+<p>Panel objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.above">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">above</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.above" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the panel above the current panel.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.below">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">below</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.below" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the panel below the current panel.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.bottom">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">bottom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.bottom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.hidden">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">hidden</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.hidden" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the panel is hidden (not visible), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.hide">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">hide</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.hide" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hide the panel. This does not delete the object, it just makes the window on
+screen invisible.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.move">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">move</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.move" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move the panel to the screen coordinates <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(y,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>win</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the window associated with the panel to the window <em>win</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.set_userptr">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">set_userptr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.set_userptr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the panel’s user pointer to <em>obj</em>. This is used to associate an arbitrary
+piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.show">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">show</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.show" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the panel (which might have been hidden).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.top">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">top</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.top" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push panel to the top of the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.userptr">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">userptr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.userptr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the user pointer for the panel.  This might be any Python object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="curses.panel.Panel.window">
+<code class="descclassname">Panel.</code><code class="descname">window</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#curses.panel.Panel.window" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the window object associated with the panel.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code> — A panel stack extension for curses</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#panel-objects">Panel Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="curses.ascii.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="platform.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code> —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/custominterp.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/custominterp.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5ce881
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/custominterp.html
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+
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+
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+<span id="custominterp"></span><h1>Custom Python Interpreters<a class="headerlink" href="#custom-python-interpreters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar to
+Python’s interactive interpreter.  If you want a Python interpreter that
+supports some special feature in addition to the Python language, you should
+look at the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> module.  (The <a class="reference internal" href="codeop.html#module-codeop" title="codeop: Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code></a> module is lower-level, used
+to support compiling a possibly-incomplete chunk of Python code.)</p>
+<p>The full list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="code.html#interactive-console-objects">Interactive Console Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="codeop.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code> — Compile Python code</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/dataclasses.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/dataclasses.html
new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-dataclasses">
+<span id="dataclasses-data-classes"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dataclasses" title="dataclasses: Generate special methods on user-defined classes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses</span></code></a> — Data Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-dataclasses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dataclasses.py">Lib/dataclasses.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a decorator and functions for automatically
+adding generated <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-special-method"><span class="xref std std-term">special method</span></a>s such as <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> to user-defined classes.  It was originally described
+in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0557"><strong>PEP 557</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>The member variables to use in these generated methods are defined
+using <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a> type annotations.  For example this code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">InventoryItem</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&#39;&#39;&#39;Class for keeping track of an item in inventory.&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span>
+    <span class="n">unit_price</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span>
+    <span class="n">quantity_on_hand</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">total_cost</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unit_price</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantity_on_hand</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Will add, among other things, a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> that looks like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unit_price</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quantity_on_hand</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unit_price</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">unit_price</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantity_on_hand</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">quantity_on_hand</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not
+directly specified in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InventoryItem</span></code> definition shown above.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-level-decorators-classes-and-functions">
+<h2>Module-level decorators, classes, and functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-level-decorators-classes-and-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.dataclass">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">dataclass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>init=True</em>, <em>repr=True</em>, <em>eq=True</em>, <em>order=False</em>, <em>unsafe_hash=False</em>, <em>frozen=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> that is used to add generated
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-special-method"><span class="xref std std-term">special method</span></a>s to classes, as described below.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> decorator examines the class to find
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field</span></code>s.  A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field</span></code> is defined as class variable that has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">type annotation</span></a>.  With two
+exceptions described below, nothing in <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a>
+examines the type specified in the variable annotation.</p>
+<p>The order of the fields in all of the generated methods is the
+order in which they appear in the class definition.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> decorator will add various “dunder” methods to
+the class, described below.  If any of the added methods already
+exist on the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented
+below. The decorator returns the same class that is called on; no new
+class is created.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> is used just as a simple decorator with no parameters,
+it acts as if it has the default values documented in this
+signature.  That is, these three uses of <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> are
+equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@dataclass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@dataclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">init</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">eq</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">order</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unsafe_hash</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frozen</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The parameters to <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code>: If true (the default), a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method will be
+generated.</p>
+<p>If the class already defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>, this parameter is
+ignored.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code>: If true (the default), a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> method will be
+generated.  The generated repr string will have the class name and
+the name and repr of each field, in the order they are defined in
+the class.  Fields that are marked as being excluded from the repr
+are not included.  For example:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InventoryItem(name='widget',</span> <span class="pre">unit_price=3.0,</span> <span class="pre">quantity_on_hand=10)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the class already defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a>, this parameter is
+ignored.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code>: If true (the default), an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method will be
+generated.  This method compares the class as if it were a tuple
+of its fields, in order.  Both instances in the comparison must
+be of the identical type.</p>
+<p>If the class already defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a>, this parameter is
+ignored.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">order</span></code>: If true (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a> methods will be
+generated.  These compare the class as if it were a tuple of its
+fields, in order.  Both instances in the comparison must be of the
+identical type.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">order</span></code> is true and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code> is false, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>If the class already defines any of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a>, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsafe_hash</span></code>: If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default), a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method
+is generated according to how <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen</span></code> are set.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> is used by built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a>, and when objects are
+added to hashed collections such as dictionaries and sets.  Having a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> implies that instances of the class are immutable.
+Mutability is a complicated property that depends on the programmer’s
+intent, the existence and behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a>, and the values of
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen</span></code> flags in the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> decorator.</p>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> will not implicitly add a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>
+method unless it is safe to do so.  Neither will it add or change an
+existing explicitly defined <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method.  Setting the class
+attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> has a specific meaning to Python, as
+described in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> documentation.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> is not explicit defined, or if it is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+then <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> <em>may</em> add an implicit <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method.
+Although not recommended, you can force <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> to create a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsafe_hash=True</span></code>. This might be the case
+if your class is logically immutable but can nonetheless be mutated.
+This is a specialized use case and should be considered carefully.</p>
+<p>Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>
+method.  Note that you cannot both have an explicit <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>
+method in your dataclass and set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsafe_hash=True</span></code>; this will result
+in a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen</span></code> are both true, by default <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> will
+generate a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method for you.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code> is true and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen</span></code> is false, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, marking it
+unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable).  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code> is false,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> will be left untouched meaning the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>
+method of the superclass will be used (if the superclass is
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, this means it will fall back to id-based hashing).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen</span></code>: If true (the default is False), assigning to fields will
+generate an exception.  This emulates read-only frozen instances.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delattr__" title="object.__delattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delattr__()</span></code></a> is defined in the class, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.  See the discussion below.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field</span></code>s may optionally specify a default value, using normal
+Python syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>       <span class="c1"># &#39;a&#39; has no default value</span>
+    <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>   <span class="c1"># assign a default value for &#39;b&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> will be included in the added
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method, which will be defined as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised if a field without a default value
+follows a field with a default value.  This is true either when this
+occurs in a single class, or as a result of class inheritance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.field">
+<code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">field</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>default=MISSING</em>, <em>default_factory=MISSING</em>, <em>repr=True</em>, <em>hash=None</em>, <em>init=True</em>, <em>compare=True</em>, <em>metadata=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.field" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is
+required.  There are, however, some dataclass features that
+require additional per-field information.  To satisfy this need for
+additional information, you can replace the default field value
+with a call to the provided <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.field" title="dataclasses.field"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field()</span></code></a> function.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">default_factory</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mylist</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As shown above, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MISSING</span></code> value is a sentinel object used to
+detect if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code> parameters are
+provided.  This sentinel is used because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is a valid value
+for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>.  No code should directly use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MISSING</span></code>
+value.</p>
+<p>The parameters to <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.field" title="dataclasses.field"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field()</span></code></a> are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>: If provided, this will be the default value for this
+field.  This is needed because the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.field" title="dataclasses.field"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field()</span></code></a> call itself
+replaces the normal position of the default value.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code>: If provided, it must be a zero-argument
+callable that will be called when a default value is needed for
+this field.  Among other purposes, this can be used to specify
+fields with mutable default values, as discussed below.  It is an
+error to specify both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code>: If true (the default), this field is included as a
+parameter to the generated <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code>: If true (the default), this field is included in the
+string returned by the generated <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> method.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare</span></code>: If true (the default), this field is included in the
+generated equality and comparison methods (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a>, et al.).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash</span></code>: This can be a bool or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If true, this field is
+included in the generated <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the
+default), use the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare</span></code>: this would normally be
+the expected behavior.  A field should be considered in the hash
+if it’s used for comparisons.  Setting this value to anything
+other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is discouraged.</p>
+<p>One possible reason to set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash=False</span></code> but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare=True</span></code>
+would be if a field is expensive to compute a hash value for,
+that field is needed for equality testing, and there are other
+fields that contribute to the type’s hash value.  Even if a field
+is excluded from the hash, it will still be used for comparisons.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metadata</span></code>: This can be a mapping or None. None is treated as
+an empty dict.  This value is wrapped in
+<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MappingProxyType()</span></code></a> to make it read-only, and exposed
+on the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.Field" title="dataclasses.Field"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Field</span></code></a> object. It is not used at all by Data
+Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism.
+Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as a
+namespace in the metadata.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.field" title="dataclasses.field"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field()</span></code></a>, then the class attribute for this field will be
+replaced by the specified <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> value.  If no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> is
+provided, then the class attribute will be deleted.  The intent is
+that after the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> decorator runs, the class
+attributes will all contain the default values for the fields, just
+as if the default value itself were specified.  For example,
+after:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+    <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">20</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The class attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.z</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10</span></code>, the class attribute
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.t</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">20</span></code>, and the class attributes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.x</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.y</span></code> will not be set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="dataclasses.Field">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">Field</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.Field" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.Field" title="dataclasses.Field"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Field</span></code></a> objects describe each defined field. These objects
+are created internally, and are returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.fields" title="dataclasses.fields"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields()</span></code></a>
+module-level method (see below).  Users should never instantiate a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.Field" title="dataclasses.Field"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Field</span></code></a> object directly.  Its documented attributes are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>: The name of the field.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code>: The type of the field.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metadata</span></code> have the identical meaning and
+values as they do in the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.field" title="dataclasses.field"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field()</span></code></a> declaration.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Other attributes may exist, but they are private and must not be
+inspected or relied on.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.fields">
+<code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">fields</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>class_or_instance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.fields" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a tuple of <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.Field" title="dataclasses.Field"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Field</span></code></a> objects that define the fields for this
+dataclass.  Accepts either a dataclass, or an instance of a dataclass.
+Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if not passed a dataclass or instance of one.
+Does not return pseudo-fields which are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassVar</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InitVar</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.asdict">
+<code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">asdict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>instance</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dict_factory=dict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.asdict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the dataclass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code> to a dict (by using the
+factory function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict_factory</span></code>).  Each dataclass is converted
+to a dict of its fields, as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name:</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code> pairs.  dataclasses, dicts,
+lists, and tuples are recursed into.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span>
+     <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+     <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+     <span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">asdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">asdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;mylist&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[{</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">}]}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code> is not a dataclass instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.astuple">
+<code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">astuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>instance</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>tuple_factory=tuple</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.astuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the dataclass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code> to a tuple (by using the
+factory function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple_factory</span></code>).  Each dataclass is converted
+to a tuple of its field values.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and
+tuples are recursed into.</p>
+<p>Continuing from the previous example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">astuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">astuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">([(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)],)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code> is not a dataclass instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.make_dataclass">
+<code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">make_dataclass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cls_name</em>, <em>fields</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>bases=()</em>, <em>namespace=None</em>, <em>init=True</em>, <em>repr=True</em>, <em>eq=True</em>, <em>order=False</em>, <em>unsafe_hash=False</em>, <em>frozen=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.make_dataclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new dataclass with name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cls_name</span></code>, fields as defined
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields</span></code>, base classes as given in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bases</span></code>, and initialized
+with a namespace as given in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespace</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields</span></code> is an
+iterable whose elements are each either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">type)</span></code>,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">type,</span> <span class="pre">Field)</span></code>.  If just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is supplied,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.Any</span></code> is used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code>.  The values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">order</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsafe_hash</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen</span></code> have
+the same meaning as they do in <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This function is not strictly required, because any Python
+mechanism for creating a new class with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> can
+then apply the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> function to convert that class to
+a dataclass.  This function is provided as a convenience.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">make_dataclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;C&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                     <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))],</span>
+                   <span class="n">namespace</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;add_one&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+    <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;typing.Any&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add_one</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>instance</em>, <em>**changes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new object of the same type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code>, replacing
+fields with values from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">changes</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code> is not a Data
+Class, raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  If values in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">changes</span></code> do not
+specify fields, raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The newly returned object is created by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>
+method of the dataclass.  This ensures that
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code>, if present, is also called.</p>
+<p>Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be
+specified on the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.replace" title="dataclasses.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code></a> so that they can be passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>It is an error for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">changes</span></code> to contain any fields that are
+defined as having <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init=False</span></code>.  A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised
+in this case.</p>
+<p>Be forewarned about how <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init=False</span></code> fields work during a call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.replace" title="dataclasses.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code></a>.  They are not copied from the source object, but
+rather are initialized in <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code>, if they’re
+initialized at all.  It is expected that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init=False</span></code> fields will
+be rarely and judiciously used.  If they are used, it might be wise
+to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code> (or similarly named) method which handles instance
+copying.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dataclasses.is_dataclass">
+<code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">is_dataclass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>class_or_instance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.is_dataclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns True if its parameter is a dataclass or an instance of one,
+otherwise returns False.</p>
+<p>If you need to know if a class is an instance of a dataclass (and
+not a dataclass itself), then add a further check for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span>
+<span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">type)</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">is_dataclass_instance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">is_dataclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="post-init-processing">
+<h2>Post-init processing<a class="headerlink" href="#post-init-processing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The generated <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> code will call a method named
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code>, if <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code> is defined on the
+class.  It will normally be called as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.__post_init__()</span></code>.
+However, if any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InitVar</span></code> fields are defined, they will also be
+passed to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code> in the order they were defined in the
+class.  If no <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method is generated, then
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code> will not automatically be called.</p>
+<p>Among other uses, this allows for initializing field values that
+depend on one or more other fields.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span>
+    <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span>
+    <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">init</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__post_init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass
+parameters to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code>.  Also see the warning about how
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.replace" title="dataclasses.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code></a> handles <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init=False</span></code> fields.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-variables">
+<h2>Class variables<a class="headerlink" href="#class-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>One of two places where <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> actually inspects the type
+of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as defined
+in <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a>.  It does this by checking if the type of the field is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.ClassVar</span></code>.  If a field is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassVar</span></code>, it is excluded
+from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass
+mechanisms.  Such <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassVar</span></code> pseudo-fields are not returned by the
+module-level <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.fields" title="dataclasses.fields"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="init-only-variables">
+<h2>Init-only variables<a class="headerlink" href="#init-only-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The other place where <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> inspects a type annotation is to
+determine if a field is an init-only variable.  It does this by seeing
+if the type of a field is of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses.InitVar</span></code>.  If a field
+is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InitVar</span></code>, it is considered a pseudo-field called an init-only
+field.  As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the
+module-level <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.fields" title="dataclasses.fields"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields()</span></code></a> function.  Init-only fields are added as
+parameters to the generated <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method, and are passed to
+the optional <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__post_init__()</span></code> method.  They are not otherwise used
+by dataclasses.</p>
+<p>For example, suppose a field will be initialized from a database, if a
+value is not provided when creating the class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+    <span class="n">j</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="n">database</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">InitVar</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">DatabaseType</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__post_init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">database</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">j</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">database</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">database</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lookup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;j&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">database</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">my_database</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case, <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.fields" title="dataclasses.fields"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fields()</span></code></a> will return <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.Field" title="dataclasses.Field"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Field</span></code></a> objects for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code>, but not for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">database</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="frozen-instances">
+<h2>Frozen instances<a class="headerlink" href="#frozen-instances" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects.  However,
+by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen=True</span></code> to the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> decorator you can
+emulate immutability.  In that case, dataclasses will add
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delattr__" title="object.__delattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delattr__()</span></code></a> methods to the class.  These
+methods will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError" title="dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrozenInstanceError</span></code></a> when invoked.</p>
+<p>There is a tiny performance penalty when using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen=True</span></code>:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
+must use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__setattr__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inheritance">
+<h2>Inheritance<a class="headerlink" href="#inheritance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When the dataclass is being created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> decorator,
+it looks through all of the class’s base classes in reverse MRO (that
+is, starting at <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>) and, for each dataclass that it finds,
+adds the fields from that base class to an ordered mapping of fields.
+After all of the base class fields are added, it adds its own fields
+to the ordered mapping.  All of the generated methods will use this
+combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields.  Because the fields
+are in insertion order, derived classes override base classes.  An
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Base</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Any</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">15.0</span>
+    <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Base</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">15</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The final list of fields is, in order, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code>.  The final
+type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, as specified in class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The generated <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> will look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="default-factory-functions">
+<h2>Default factory functions<a class="headerlink" href="#default-factory-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses.field" title="dataclasses.field"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field()</span></code></a> specifies a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code>, it is called with
+zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed.  For
+example, to create a new instance of a list, use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mylist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">default_factory</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a field is excluded from <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> (using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init=False</span></code>)
+and the field also specifies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_factory</span></code>, then the default
+factory function will always be called from the generated
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> function.  This happens because there is no other
+way to give the field an initial value.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mutable-default-values">
+<h2>Mutable default values<a class="headerlink" href="#mutable-default-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Python stores default member variable values in class attributes.
+Consider this example, not using dataclasses:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">o1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">o2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">o1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">o2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">o1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">o1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">o2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the two instances of class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> share the same class
+variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, as expected.</p>
+<p>Using dataclasses, <em>if</em> this code was valid:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">List</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>it would generate code similar to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This has the same issue as the original example using class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>.
+That is, two instances of class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code> that do not specify a value for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> when creating a class instance will share the same copy of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>.  Because dataclasses just use normal Python class creation
+they also share this behavior.  There is no general way for Data
+Classes to detect this condition.  Instead, dataclasses will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if it detects a default parameter of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code>.  This is a partial solution, but it does protect
+against many common errors.</p>
+<p>Using default factory functions is a way to create new instances of
+mutable types as default values for fields:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">default_factory</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">dataclasses.</code><code class="descname">FrozenInstanceError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an implicitly defined <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delattr__" title="object.__delattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delattr__()</span></code></a> is called on a dataclass which was defined with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozen=True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses</span></code> — Data Classes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-level-decorators-classes-and-functions">Module-level decorators, classes, and functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#post-init-processing">Post-init processing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-variables">Class variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#init-only-variables">Init-only variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#frozen-instances">Frozen instances</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inheritance">Inheritance</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default-factory-functions">Default factory functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mutable-default-values">Mutable default values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="warnings.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code> — Warning control</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="contextlib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code> — Utilities for <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>-statement contexts</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/datatypes.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/datatypes.html
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+  <div class="section" id="data-types">
+<span id="datatypes"></span><h1>Data Types<a class="headerlink" href="#data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide a variety of specialized data
+types such as dates and times, fixed-type arrays, heap queues, synchronized
+queues, and sets.</p>
+<p>Python also provides some built-in data types, in particular,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> class is used to hold
+Unicode strings, and the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> class is used to hold binary data.</p>
+<p>The following modules are documented in this chapter:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> — Basic date and time types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#available-types">Available Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#timedelta-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#date-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#time-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#tzinfo-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#timezone-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#strftime-and-strptime-behavior"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> Behavior</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code> — General calendar-related functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code> — Container datatypes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#chainmap-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#chainmap-examples-and-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code> Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#counter-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#deque-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#deque-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#defaultdict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#defaultdict-examples"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code> Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code> Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#ordereddict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#ordereddict-examples-and-recipes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#userdict-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#userlist-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code> objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#userstring-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code> objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes for Containers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections-abstract-base-classes">Collections Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code> — Heap queue algorithm</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html#basic-examples">Basic Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html#priority-queue-implementation-notes">Priority Queue Implementation Notes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html#theory">Theory</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="bisect.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code> — Array bisection algorithm</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bisect.html#searching-sorted-lists">Searching Sorted Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bisect.html#other-examples">Other Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="array.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code> — Efficient arrays of numeric values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code> — Weak references</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#weak-reference-objects">Weak Reference Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#example">Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#finalizer-objects">Finalizer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#comparing-finalizers-with-del-methods">Comparing finalizers with <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code> methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="types.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code> — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="types.html#dynamic-type-creation">Dynamic Type Creation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="types.html#standard-interpreter-types">Standard Interpreter Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="types.html#additional-utility-classes-and-functions">Additional Utility Classes and Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="types.html#coroutine-utility-functions">Coroutine Utility Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="copy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code> — Shallow and deep copy operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pprint.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code> — Data pretty printer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pprint.html#prettyprinter-objects">PrettyPrinter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pprint.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="reprlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code> — Alternate <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> implementation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reprlib.html#repr-objects">Repr Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reprlib.html#subclassing-repr-objects">Subclassing Repr Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code> — Support for enumerations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#creating-an-enum">Creating an Enum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#programmatic-access-to-enumeration-members-and-their-attributes">Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#duplicating-enum-members-and-values">Duplicating enum members and values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#ensuring-unique-enumeration-values">Ensuring unique enumeration values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#using-automatic-values">Using automatic values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#iteration">Iteration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations">Allowed members and attributes of enumerations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#restricted-enum-subclassing">Restricted Enum subclassing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#pickling">Pickling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#functional-api">Functional API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#derived-enumerations">Derived Enumerations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#intenum">IntEnum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#intflag">IntFlag</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#flag">Flag</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#others">Others</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#interesting-examples">Interesting examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#omitting-values">Omitting values</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#using-auto">Using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#using-object">Using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#using-a-descriptive-string">Using a descriptive string</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#using-a-custom-new">Using a custom <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#orderedenum">OrderedEnum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#duplicatefreeenum">DuplicateFreeEnum</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#planet">Planet</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#timeperiod">TimePeriod</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#how-are-enums-different">How are Enums different?</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum-classes">Enum Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum-members-aka-instances">Enum Members (aka instances)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#finer-points">Finer Points</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#supported-dunder-names">Supported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dunder__</span></code> names</a></li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-datetime">
+<span id="datetime-basic-date-and-time-types"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> — Basic date and time types<a class="headerlink" href="#module-datetime" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/datetime.py">Lib/datetime.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times in
+both simple and complex ways.  While date and time arithmetic is supported, the
+focus of the implementation is on efficient attribute extraction for output
+formatting and manipulation. For related functionality, see also the
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>There are two kinds of date and time objects: “naive” and “aware”.</p>
+<p>An aware object has sufficient knowledge of applicable algorithmic and
+political time adjustments, such as time zone and daylight saving time
+information, to locate itself relative to other aware objects.  An aware object
+is used to represent a specific moment in time that is not open to
+interpretation <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a>.</p>
+<p>A naive object does not contain enough information to unambiguously locate
+itself relative to other date/time objects.  Whether a naive object represents
+Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time in some other timezone is
+purely up to the program, just like it is up to the program whether a
+particular number represents metres, miles, or mass.  Naive objects are easy to
+understand and to work with, at the cost of ignoring some aspects of reality.</p>
+<p>For applications requiring aware objects, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>
+objects have an optional time zone information attribute, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code>, that
+can be set to an instance of a subclass of the abstract <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> class.
+These <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> objects capture information about the offset from UTC
+time, the time zone name, and whether Daylight Saving Time is in effect.  Note
+that only one concrete <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> class, the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> class, is
+supplied by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> class can
+represent simple timezones with fixed offset from UTC, such as UTC itself or
+North American EST and EDT timezones.  Supporting timezones at deeper levels of
+detail is up to the application.  The rules for time adjustment across the
+world are more political than rational, change frequently, and there is no
+standard suitable for every application aside from UTC.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module exports the following constants:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="datetime.MINYEAR">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">MINYEAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.MINYEAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The smallest year number allowed in a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MINYEAR" title="datetime.MINYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="datetime.MAXYEAR">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">MAXYEAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.MAXYEAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The largest year number allowed in a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MAXYEAR" title="datetime.MAXYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9999</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>General calendar related functions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Time access and conversions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="available-types">
+<h2>Available Types<a class="headerlink" href="#available-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">date</code></dt>
+<dd><p>An idealized naive date, assuming the current Gregorian calendar always was, and
+always will be, in effect. Attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.year" title="datetime.date.year"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">year</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.month" title="datetime.date.month"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">month</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.day" title="datetime.date.day"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">day</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">time</code></dt>
+<dd><p>An idealized time, independent of any particular day, assuming that every day
+has exactly 24*60*60 seconds (there is no notion of “leap seconds” here).
+Attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.hour" title="datetime.time.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.minute" title="datetime.time.minute"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minute</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.second" title="datetime.time.second"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">second</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.microsecond" title="datetime.time.microsecond"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microsecond</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">datetime</code></dt>
+<dd><p>A combination of a date and a time. Attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.year" title="datetime.datetime.year"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">year</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.month" title="datetime.datetime.month"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">month</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.day" title="datetime.datetime.day"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">day</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.hour" title="datetime.datetime.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.minute" title="datetime.datetime.minute"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minute</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.second" title="datetime.datetime.second"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">second</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.microsecond" title="datetime.datetime.microsecond"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microsecond</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">timedelta</code></dt>
+<dd><p>A duration expressing the difference between two <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>,
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instances to microsecond resolution.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">tzinfo</code></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class for time zone information objects.  These are used by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> classes to provide a customizable notion of
+time adjustment (for example, to account for time zone and/or daylight saving
+time).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">timezone</code></dt>
+<dd><p>A class that implements the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> abstract base class as a
+fixed offset from the UTC.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Objects of these types are immutable.</p>
+<p>Objects of the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> type are always naive.</p>
+<p>An object of type <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> may be naive or aware.
+A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object <em>d</em> is aware if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.tzinfo</span></code> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)</span></code> does not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.tzinfo</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.tzinfo</span></code> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <em>d</em> is naive.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object <em>t</em> is aware
+if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t.tzinfo</span></code> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)</span></code> does not return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Otherwise, <em>t</em> is naive.</p>
+<p>The distinction between naive and aware doesn’t apply to <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a>
+objects.</p>
+<p>Subclass relationships:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">object</span>
+    <span class="n">timedelta</span>
+    <span class="n">tzinfo</span>
+        <span class="n">timezone</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span>
+    <span class="n">date</span>
+        <span class="n">datetime</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timedelta-objects">
+<span id="datetime-timedelta"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#timedelta-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object represents a duration, the difference between two
+dates or times.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="datetime.timedelta">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">timedelta</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>days=0</em>, <em>seconds=0</em>, <em>microseconds=0</em>, <em>milliseconds=0</em>, <em>minutes=0</em>, <em>hours=0</em>, <em>weeks=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All arguments are optional and default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  Arguments may be integers
+or floats, and may be positive or negative.</p>
+<p>Only <em>days</em>, <em>seconds</em> and <em>microseconds</em> are stored internally.  Arguments are
+converted to those units:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A millisecond is converted to 1000 microseconds.</p></li>
+<li><p>A minute is converted to 60 seconds.</p></li>
+<li><p>An hour is converted to 3600 seconds.</p></li>
+<li><p>A week is converted to 7 days.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>and days, seconds and microseconds are then normalized so that the
+representation is unique, with</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">microseconds</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">1000000</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">seconds</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">3600*24</span></code> (the number of seconds in one day)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-999999999</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">days</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">999999999</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If any argument is a float and there are fractional microseconds,
+the fractional microseconds left over from all arguments are
+combined and their sum is rounded to the nearest microsecond using
+round-half-to-even tiebreaker.  If no argument is a float, the
+conversion and normalization processes are exact (no information is
+lost).</p>
+<p>If the normalized value of days lies outside the indicated range,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Note that normalization of negative values may be surprising at first. For
+example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">microseconds</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">days</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seconds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">microseconds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(-1, 86399, 999999)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Class attributes are:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.timedelta.min">
+<code class="descclassname">timedelta.</code><code class="descname">min</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timedelta.min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The most negative <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(-999999999)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.timedelta.max">
+<code class="descclassname">timedelta.</code><code class="descname">max</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timedelta.max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The most positive <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(days=999999999,</span>
+<span class="pre">hours=23,</span> <span class="pre">minutes=59,</span> <span class="pre">seconds=59,</span> <span class="pre">microseconds=999999)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.timedelta.resolution">
+<code class="descclassname">timedelta.</code><code class="descname">resolution</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timedelta.resolution" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The smallest possible difference between non-equal <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(microseconds=1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that, because of normalization, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.max</span></code> &gt; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-timedelta.min</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-timedelta.max</span></code> is not representable as a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Instance attributes (read-only):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 71%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">days</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Between -999999999 and 999999999 inclusive</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seconds</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Between 0 and 86399 inclusive</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microseconds</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Between 0 and 999999 inclusive</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Supported operations:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">t3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Sum of <em>t2</em> and <em>t3</em>. Afterwards <em>t1</em>-<em>t2</em> ==
+<em>t3</em> and <em>t1</em>-<em>t3</em> == <em>t2</em> are true. (1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">t3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Difference of <em>t2</em> and <em>t3</em>. Afterwards <em>t1</em>
+== <em>t2</em> - <em>t3</em> and <em>t2</em> == <em>t1</em> + <em>t3</em> are
+true. (1)(6)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">t2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Delta multiplied by an integer.
+Afterwards <em>t1</em> // i == <em>t2</em> is true,
+provided <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>In general, <em>t1</em> * i == <em>t1</em> * (i-1) + <em>t1</em>
+is true. (1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">t2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Delta multiplied by a float. The result is
+rounded to the nearest multiple of
+timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">t3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Division (3) of overall duration <em>t2</em> by
+interval unit <em>t3</em>. Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>
+object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">i</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Delta divided by a float or an int. The result
+is rounded to the nearest multiple of
+timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">i</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">t3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The floor is computed and the remainder (if
+any) is thrown away.  In the second case, an
+integer is returned. (3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">t3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The remainder is computed as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object. (3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">q,</span> <span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">divmod(t1,</span> <span class="pre">t2)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Computes the quotient and the remainder:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">q</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">t2</span></code> (3) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t1</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">t2</span></code>.
+q is an integer and r is a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a>
+object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+t1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object with the
+same value. (2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-t1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>equivalent to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a>(-<em>t1.days</em>,
+-<em>t1.seconds</em>, -<em>t1.microseconds</em>),
+and to <em>t1</em>* -1. (1)(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(t)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>equivalent to +<em>t</em> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t.days</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, and
+to -<em>t</em> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t.days</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>. (2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(t)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns a string in the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[D</span> <span class="pre">day[s],</span> <span class="pre">][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU]</span></code>, where D
+is negative for negative <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t</span></code>. (5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(t)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns a string representation of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object as a constructor
+call with canonical attribute values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>This is exact, but may overflow.</p></li>
+<li><p>This is exact, and cannot overflow.</p></li>
+<li><p>Division by 0 raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>-<em>timedelta.max</em> is not representable as a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object.</p></li>
+<li><p>String representations of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects are normalized
+similarly to their internal representation.  This leads to somewhat
+unusual results for negative timedeltas.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-1 day, 19:00:00</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">t3</span></code> will always be equal to the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t2</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">(-t3)</span></code> except
+when t3 is equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.max</span></code>; in that case the former will produce a result
+while the latter will overflow.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>In addition to the operations listed above <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects support
+certain additions and subtractions with <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+objects (see below).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Floor division and true division of a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object by another
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object are now supported, as are remainder operations and
+the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a> function.  True division and multiplication of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object by a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> object are now supported.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Comparisons of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects are supported with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object representing the smaller duration considered to be the
+smaller timedelta. In order to stop mixed-type comparisons from falling back to
+the default comparison by object address, when a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object is
+compared to an object of a different type, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised unless the
+comparison is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>.  The latter cases return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, respectively.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> (usable as dictionary keys), support
+efficient pickling, and in Boolean contexts, a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object is
+considered to be true if and only if it isn’t equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(0)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Instance methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.timedelta.total_seconds">
+<code class="descclassname">timedelta.</code><code class="descname">total_seconds</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timedelta.total_seconds" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the total number of seconds contained in the duration. Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">td</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">timedelta(seconds=1)</span></code>. For interval units other than seconds, use the
+division form directly (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">td</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">timedelta(microseconds=1)</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Note that for very large time intervals (greater than 270 years on
+most platforms) this method will lose microsecond accuracy.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">days</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">365</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">another_year</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">weeks</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">days</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">84</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                         <span class="n">minutes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">seconds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">600</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># adds up to 365 days</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">year</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">total_seconds</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">31536000.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">another_year</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ten_years</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">year</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ten_years</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ten_years</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">days</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">365</span>
+<span class="go">(datetime.timedelta(days=3650), 10)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">nine_years</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ten_years</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">year</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">nine_years</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nine_years</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">days</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">365</span>
+<span class="go">(datetime.timedelta(days=3285), 9)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">three_years</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">nine_years</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">three_years</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">three_years</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">days</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">365</span>
+<span class="go">(datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">abs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">three_years</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">ten_years</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">three_years</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">year</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="date-objects">
+<span id="datetime-date"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#date-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> object represents a date (year, month and day) in an idealized
+calendar, the current Gregorian calendar indefinitely extended in both
+directions.  January 1 of year 1 is called day number 1, January 2 of year 1 is
+called day number 2, and so on.  This matches the definition of the “proleptic
+Gregorian” calendar in Dershowitz and Reingold’s book Calendrical Calculations,
+where it’s the base calendar for all computations.  See the book for algorithms
+for converting between proleptic Gregorian ordinals and many other calendar
+systems.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="datetime.date">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">date</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em>, <em>day</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All arguments are required.  Arguments may be integers, in the following
+ranges:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">year</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">month</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">12</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">day</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">number</span> <span class="pre">of</span> <span class="pre">days</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">the</span> <span class="pre">given</span> <span class="pre">month</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">year</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If an argument outside those ranges is given, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Other constructors, all class methods:</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.date.today">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">today</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.today" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current local date.  This is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.fromtimestamp(time.time())</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.date.fromtimestamp">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">fromtimestamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timestamp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.fromtimestamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the local date corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as is returned
+by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>.  This may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>, if the timestamp is out
+of the range of values supported by the platform C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> function,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> on <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> failure.
+It’s common for this to be restricted to years from 1970 through 2038.  Note
+that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their notion of a
+timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.date.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromtimestamp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the timestamp
+is out of the range of values supported by the platform C
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> function. Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> on <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> failure.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.date.fromordinal">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">fromordinal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ordinal</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.fromordinal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the date corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian ordinal, where January
+1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised unless <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">ordinal</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span>
+<span class="pre">date.max.toordinal()</span></code>. For any date <em>d</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.fromordinal(d.toordinal())</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">d</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.date.fromisoformat">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">fromisoformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.fromisoformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> corresponding to a <em>date_string</em> in the format emitted
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.isoformat" title="datetime.date.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.isoformat()</span></code></a>. Specifically, this function supports strings in
+the format(s) <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">YYYY-MM-DD</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition caution">
+<p class="admonition-title">Caution</p>
+<p>This does not support parsing arbitrary ISO 8601 strings - it is only intended
+as the inverse operation of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.isoformat" title="datetime.date.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.isoformat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Class attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.date.min">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">min</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The earliest representable date, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(MINYEAR,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.date.max">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">max</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The latest representable date, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(MAXYEAR,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">31)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.date.resolution">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">resolution</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.resolution" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The smallest possible difference between non-equal date objects,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(days=1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instance attributes (read-only):</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.date.year">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">year</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.year" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Between <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MINYEAR" title="datetime.MINYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MAXYEAR" title="datetime.MAXYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code></a> inclusive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.date.month">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">month</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.month" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Between 1 and 12 inclusive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.date.day">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">day</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.day" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given year.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Supported operations:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+<col style="width: 60%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date2</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">date1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>date2</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.days</span></code> days removed
+from <em>date1</em>.  (1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date2</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">date1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Computes <em>date2</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date2</span> <span class="pre">+</span>
+<span class="pre">timedelta</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">date1</span></code>. (2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">date1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">date2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">date2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>date1</em> is considered less than <em>date2</em> when
+<em>date1</em> precedes <em>date2</em> in time. (4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p><em>date2</em> is moved forward in time if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.days</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, or backward if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.days</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.  Afterward <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date2</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">date1</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">timedelta.days</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.seconds</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.microseconds</span></code> are ignored.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> is raised if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date2.year</span></code> would be smaller than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MINYEAR" title="datetime.MINYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span></code></a> or larger than <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MAXYEAR" title="datetime.MAXYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.seconds</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.microseconds</span></code> are ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p>This is exact, and cannot overflow.  timedelta.seconds and
+timedelta.microseconds are 0, and date2 + timedelta == date1 after.</p></li>
+<li><p>In other words, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">date2</span></code> if and only if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date1.toordinal()</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span>
+<span class="pre">date2.toordinal()</span></code>. Date comparison raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if
+the other comparand isn’t also a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> object. However,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> is returned instead if the other comparand has a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timetuple()</span></code> attribute.  This hook gives other kinds of date objects a
+chance at implementing mixed-type comparison. If not, when a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a>
+object is compared to an object of a different type, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised
+unless the comparison is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>.  The latter cases return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, respectively.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Dates can be used as dictionary keys. In Boolean contexts, all <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a>
+objects are considered to be true.</p>
+<p>Instance methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year=self.year</em>, <em>month=self.month</em>, <em>day=self.day</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a date with the same value, except for those parameters given new
+values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.  For example, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">date(2002,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">31)</span></code>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.replace(day=26)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">date(2002,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">26)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.timetuple">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">timetuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.timetuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a> such as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a>.
+The hours, minutes and seconds are 0, and the DST flag is -1. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.timetuple()</span></code>
+is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time((d.year,</span> <span class="pre">d.month,</span> <span class="pre">d.day,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span>
+<span class="pre">d.weekday(),</span> <span class="pre">yday,</span> <span class="pre">-1))</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yday</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">d.toordinal()</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">date(d.year,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span>
+<span class="pre">1).toordinal()</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> is the day number within the current year starting with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for January 1st.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.toordinal">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">toordinal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.toordinal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1 of year 1
+has ordinal 1.  For any <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> object <em>d</em>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.fromordinal(d.toordinal())</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">d</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.weekday">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">weekday</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.weekday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and Sunday is 6.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(2002,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">4).weekday()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code>, a Wednesday. See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.isoweekday" title="datetime.date.isoweekday"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isoweekday()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.isoweekday">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">isoweekday</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.isoweekday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and Sunday is 7.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(2002,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">4).isoweekday()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">3</span></code>, a Wednesday. See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.weekday" title="datetime.date.weekday"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weekday()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.isocalendar" title="datetime.date.isocalendar"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isocalendar()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.isocalendar">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">isocalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.isocalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a 3-tuple, (ISO year, ISO week number, ISO weekday).</p>
+<p>The ISO calendar is a widely used variant of the Gregorian calendar. See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm">https://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm</a> for a good
+explanation.</p>
+<p>The ISO year consists of 52 or 53 full weeks, and where a week starts on a
+Monday and ends on a Sunday.  The first week of an ISO year is the first
+(Gregorian) calendar week of a year containing a Thursday. This is called week
+number 1, and the ISO year of that Thursday is the same as its Gregorian year.</p>
+<p>For example, 2004 begins on a Thursday, so the first week of ISO year 2004
+begins on Monday, 29 Dec 2003 and ends on Sunday, 4 Jan 2004, so that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(2003,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">29).isocalendar()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">(2004,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(2004,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span>
+<span class="pre">4).isocalendar()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">(2004,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">7)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.isoformat">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">isoformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.isoformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the date in ISO 8601 format, ‘YYYY-MM-DD’.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(2002,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">4).isoformat()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'2002-12-04'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.__str__">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For a date <em>d</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(d)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.isoformat()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.ctime">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">ctime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.ctime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the date, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(2002,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span>
+<span class="pre">4).ctime()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'Wed</span> <span class="pre">Dec</span> <span class="pre">4</span> <span class="pre">00:00:00</span> <span class="pre">2002'</span></code>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.ctime()</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))</span></code> on platforms where the native C
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctime()</span></code> function (which <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.ctime" title="time.ctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.ctime()</span></code></a> invokes, but which
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.ctime" title="datetime.date.ctime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.ctime()</span></code></a> does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.strftime">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">strftime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.strftime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the date, controlled by an explicit format string.
+Format codes referring to hours, minutes or seconds will see 0 values. For a
+complete list of formatting directives, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#strftime-strptime-behavior"><span class="std std-ref">strftime() and strptime() Behavior</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.date.__format__">
+<code class="descclassname">date.</code><code class="descname">__format__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.date.__format__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.strftime" title="datetime.date.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.strftime()</span></code></a>. This makes it possible to specify a format
+string for a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> object in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string
+literals</span></a> and when using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>. For a
+complete list of formatting directives, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#strftime-strptime-behavior"><span class="std std-ref">strftime() and strptime() Behavior</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example of counting days to an event:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">date</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">today</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">today</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">today</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromtimestamp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">my_birthday</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">24</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">my_birthday</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">today</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">my_birthday</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">my_birthday</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">my_birthday</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time_to_birthday</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">abs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">my_birthday</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">today</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time_to_birthday</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">days</span>
+<span class="go">202</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of working with <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">date</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromordinal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">730920</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timetuple</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">:</span>     
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2002                # year</span>
+<span class="go">3                   # month</span>
+<span class="go">11                  # day</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="go">0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)</span>
+<span class="go">70                  # 70th day in the year</span>
+<span class="go">-1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ic</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isocalendar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ic</span><span class="p">:</span>    
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2002                # ISO year</span>
+<span class="go">11                  # ISO week number</span>
+<span class="go">1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2002-03-11&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">/%m/%y&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;11/03/02&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;%A </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">. %B %Y&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Monday 11. March 2002&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;The </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1"> is {0:</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">}, the </span><span class="si">{2}</span><span class="s1"> is {0:%B}.&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;day&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;month&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;The day is 11, the month is March.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datetime-objects">
+<span id="datetime-datetime"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object is a single object containing all the information
+from a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> object and a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object.  Like a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a>
+object, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> assumes the current Gregorian calendar extended in
+both directions; like a time object, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> assumes there are exactly
+3600*24 seconds in every day.</p>
+<p>Constructor:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">datetime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year</em>, <em>month</em>, <em>day</em>, <em>hour=0</em>, <em>minute=0</em>, <em>second=0</em>, <em>microsecond=0</em>, <em>tzinfo=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fold=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The year, month and day arguments are required.  <em>tzinfo</em> may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or an
+instance of a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass.  The remaining arguments may be integers,
+in the following ranges:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">year</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">month</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">12</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">day</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">number</span> <span class="pre">of</span> <span class="pre">days</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">the</span> <span class="pre">given</span> <span class="pre">month</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">year</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">hour</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">24</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">minute</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">60</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">second</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">60</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">microsecond</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">1000000</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">[0,</span> <span class="pre">1]</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If an argument outside those ranges is given, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Other constructors, all class methods:</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.today">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">today</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.today" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current local datetime, with <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())</span></code>. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.now" title="datetime.datetime.now"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">now()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromtimestamp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.now">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">now</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tz=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.now" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current local date and time.  If optional argument <em>tz</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+or not specified, this is like <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.today" title="datetime.datetime.today"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">today()</span></code></a>, but, if possible, supplies more
+precision than can be gotten from going through a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> timestamp
+(for example, this may be possible on platforms supplying the C
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettimeofday()</span></code> function).</p>
+<p>If <em>tz</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it must be an instance of a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass, and the
+current date and time are converted to <em>tz</em>’s time zone.  In this case the
+result is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tz.fromutc(datetime.utcnow().replace(tzinfo=tz))</span></code>.
+See also <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.today" title="datetime.datetime.today"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">today()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.utcnow" title="datetime.datetime.utcnow"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcnow()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.utcnow">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">utcnow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.utcnow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current UTC date and time, with <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This is like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.now" title="datetime.datetime.now"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">now()</span></code></a>, but returns the current UTC date and time, as a naive
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object.  An aware current UTC datetime can be obtained by
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.now(timezone.utc)</span></code>.  See also <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.now" title="datetime.datetime.now"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">now()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">fromtimestamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timestamp</em>, <em>tz=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the local date and time corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as is
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>. If optional argument <em>tz</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not
+specified, the timestamp is converted to the platform’s local date and time, and
+the returned <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object is naive.</p>
+<p>If <em>tz</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it must be an instance of a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass, and the
+timestamp is converted to <em>tz</em>’s time zone.  In this case the result is
+equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tz.fromutc(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp).replace(tzinfo=tz))</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromtimestamp()</span></code></a> may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>, if the timestamp is out of
+the range of values supported by the platform C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> or
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> functions, and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> on <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> or
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> failure.
+It’s common for this to be restricted to years in
+1970 through 2038. Note that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in
+their notion of a timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromtimestamp()</span></code></a>,
+and then it’s possible to have two timestamps differing by a second that yield
+identical <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> objects. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcfromtimestamp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the timestamp
+is out of the range of values supported by the platform C
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> functions. Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> on <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code>
+failure.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromtimestamp()</span></code></a> may return instances with <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fold" title="datetime.datetime.fold"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code></a> set to 1.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">utcfromtimestamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timestamp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the UTC <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>, if the timestamp is
+out of the range of values supported by the platform C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> function,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> on <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> failure.
+It’s common for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.</p>
+<p>To get an aware <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object, call <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromtimestamp()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromtimestamp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timestamp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On the POSIX compliant platforms, it is equivalent to the following
+expression:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1970</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seconds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timestamp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>except the latter formula always supports the full years range: between
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MINYEAR" title="datetime.MINYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MAXYEAR" title="datetime.MAXYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code></a> inclusive.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the timestamp
+is out of the range of values supported by the platform C
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> function. Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> on <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> failure.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.fromordinal">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">fromordinal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ordinal</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.fromordinal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian ordinal,
+where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised unless <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span>
+<span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">ordinal</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">datetime.max.toordinal()</span></code>.  The hour, minute, second and
+microsecond of the result are all 0, and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.combine">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">combine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date</em>, <em>time</em>, <em>tzinfo=self.tzinfo</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.combine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object whose date components are equal to the
+given <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> object’s, and whose time components
+are equal to the given <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object’s.  If the <em>tzinfo</em>
+argument is provided, its value is used to set the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute
+of the result, otherwise the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute of the <em>time</em> argument
+is used.</p>
+<p>For any <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object <em>d</em>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">datetime.combine(d.date(),</span> <span class="pre">d.time(),</span> <span class="pre">d.tzinfo)</span></code>.  If date is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object, its time components and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attributes
+are ignored.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the <em>tzinfo</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.fromisoformat">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">fromisoformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.fromisoformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> corresponding to a <em>date_string</em> in one of the
+formats emitted by <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date.isoformat" title="datetime.date.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.isoformat()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.isoformat" title="datetime.datetime.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.isoformat()</span></code></a>.
+Specifically, this function supports strings in the format(s)
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">YYYY-MM-DD[*HH[:MM[:SS[.fff[fff]]]][+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]]]</span></code>,
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> can match any single character.</p>
+<div class="admonition caution">
+<p class="admonition-title">Caution</p>
+<p>This does not support parsing arbitrary ISO 8601 strings - it is only intended
+as the inverse operation of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.isoformat" title="datetime.datetime.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.isoformat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.strptime">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">strptime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date_string</em>, <em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.strptime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> corresponding to <em>date_string</em>, parsed according to
+<em>format</em>.  This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string,</span>
+<span class="pre">format)[0:6]))</span></code>. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the date_string and format
+can’t be parsed by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strptime()</span></code></a> or if it returns a value which isn’t a
+time tuple. For a complete list of formatting directives, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#strftime-strptime-behavior"><span class="std std-ref">strftime() and strptime() Behavior</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Class attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.min">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">min</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The earliest representable <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime(MINYEAR,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span>
+<span class="pre">tzinfo=None)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.max">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">max</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The latest representable <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime(MAXYEAR,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span> <span class="pre">31,</span> <span class="pre">23,</span> <span class="pre">59,</span>
+<span class="pre">59,</span> <span class="pre">999999,</span> <span class="pre">tzinfo=None)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.resolution">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">resolution</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.resolution" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The smallest possible difference between non-equal <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> objects,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(microseconds=1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instance attributes (read-only):</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.year">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">year</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.year" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Between <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MINYEAR" title="datetime.MINYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MAXYEAR" title="datetime.MAXYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code></a> inclusive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.month">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">month</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.month" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Between 1 and 12 inclusive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.day">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">day</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.day" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given year.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.hour">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">hour</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.hour" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(24)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.minute">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">minute</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.minute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(60)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.second">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">second</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.second" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(60)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.microsecond">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">microsecond</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.microsecond" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(1000000)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.tzinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">tzinfo</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The object passed as the <em>tzinfo</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> constructor,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if none was passed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.fold">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">fold</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.fold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0,</span> <span class="pre">1]</span></code>.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated interval.  (A
+repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back at the end of daylight saving
+time or when the UTC offset for the current zone is decreased for political reasons.)
+The value 0 (1) represents the earlier (later) of the two moments with the same wall
+time representation.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Supported operations:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 55%" />
+<col style="width: 45%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime2</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">datetime1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime2</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">datetime1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">datetime1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">datetime2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">datetime2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Compares <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>. (4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>datetime2 is a duration of timedelta removed from datetime1, moving forward in
+time if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.days</span></code> &gt; 0, or backward if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta.days</span></code> &lt; 0.  The
+result has the same <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute as the input datetime, and
+datetime2 - datetime1 == timedelta after. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> is raised if
+datetime2.year would be smaller than <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MINYEAR" title="datetime.MINYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span></code></a> or larger than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.MAXYEAR" title="datetime.MAXYEAR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code></a>. Note that no time zone adjustments are done even if the
+input is an aware object.</p></li>
+<li><p>Computes the datetime2 such that datetime2 + timedelta == datetime1. As for
+addition, the result has the same <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute as the input
+datetime, and no time zone adjustments are done even if the input is aware.</p></li>
+<li><p>Subtraction of a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> from a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> is defined only if
+both operands are naive, or if both are aware.  If one is aware and the other is
+naive, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attributes are ignored, and the result is a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a>
+object <em>t</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime2</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">t</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">datetime1</span></code>.  No time zone adjustments
+are done in this case.</p>
+<p>If both are aware and have different <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attributes, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a-b</span></code> acts
+as if <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> were first converted to naive UTC datetimes first.  The
+result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a.replace(tzinfo=None)</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">a.utcoffset())</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">(b.replace(tzinfo=None)</span>
+<span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">b.utcoffset())</span></code> except that the implementation never overflows.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>datetime1</em> is considered less than <em>datetime2</em> when <em>datetime1</em> precedes
+<em>datetime2</em> in time.</p>
+<p>If one comparand is naive and the other is aware, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+is raised if an order comparison is attempted.  For equality
+comparisons, naive instances are never equal to aware instances.</p>
+<p>If both comparands are aware, and have the same <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute, the
+common <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute is ignored and the base datetimes are
+compared.  If both comparands are aware and have different <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>
+attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting their UTC
+offsets (obtained from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.utcoffset()</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Equality comparisons between naive and aware <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+instances don’t raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In order to stop comparison from falling back to the default scheme of comparing
+object addresses, datetime comparison normally raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the
+other comparand isn’t also a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object.  However,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> is returned instead if the other comparand has a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timetuple()</span></code> attribute.  This hook gives other kinds of date objects a
+chance at implementing mixed-type comparison.  If not, when a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+object is compared to an object of a different type, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised
+unless the comparison is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>.  The latter cases return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, respectively.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> objects can be used as dictionary keys. In Boolean contexts,
+all <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> objects are considered to be true.</p>
+<p>Instance methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.date">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">date</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.date" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> object with same year, month and day.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.time">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">time</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object with same hour, minute, second, microsecond and fold.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  See also method <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.timetz" title="datetime.datetime.timetz"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timetz()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The fold value is copied to the returned <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.timetz">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">timetz</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.timetz" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object with same hour, minute, second, microsecond, fold, and
+tzinfo attributes.  See also method <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The fold value is copied to the returned <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>year=self.year</em>, <em>month=self.month</em>, <em>day=self.day</em>, <em>hour=self.hour</em>, <em>minute=self.minute</em>, <em>second=self.second</em>, <em>microsecond=self.microsecond</em>, <em>tzinfo=self.tzinfo</em>, <em>* fold=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a datetime with the same attributes, except for those attributes given
+new values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.  Note that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo=None</span></code> can be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware
+datetime with no conversion of date and time data.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.astimezone">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">astimezone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tz=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.astimezone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object with new <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute <em>tz</em>,
+adjusting the date and time data so the result is the same UTC time as
+<em>self</em>, but in <em>tz</em>’s local time.</p>
+<p>If provided, <em>tz</em> must be an instance of a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass, and its
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.utcoffset" title="datetime.datetime.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.dst" title="datetime.datetime.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> methods must not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If <em>self</em>
+is naive, it is presumed to represent time in the system timezone.</p>
+<p>If called without arguments (or with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tz=None</span></code>) the system local
+timezone is assumed for the target timezone.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tzinfo</span></code> attribute of the converted
+datetime instance will be set to an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a>
+with the zone name and offset obtained from the OS.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.tzinfo</span></code> is <em>tz</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.astimezone(tz)</span></code> is equal to <em>self</em>:  no
+adjustment of date or time data is performed. Else the result is local
+time in the timezone <em>tz</em>, representing the same UTC time as <em>self</em>:  after
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astz</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">dt.astimezone(tz)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astz</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">astz.utcoffset()</span></code> will have
+the same date and time data as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">dt.utcoffset()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If you merely want to attach a time zone object <em>tz</em> to a datetime <em>dt</em> without
+adjustment of date and time data, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)</span></code>.  If you
+merely want to remove the time zone object from an aware datetime <em>dt</em> without
+conversion of date and time data, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt.replace(tzinfo=None)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that the default <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo.fromutc()</span></code></a> method can be overridden in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass to affect the result returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.astimezone" title="datetime.datetime.astimezone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astimezone()</span></code></a>.
+Ignoring error cases, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.astimezone" title="datetime.datetime.astimezone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astimezone()</span></code></a> acts like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">astimezone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tz</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">tz</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Convert self to UTC, and attach the new time zone object.</span>
+    <span class="n">utc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utcoffset</span><span class="p">())</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">tz</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Convert from UTC to tz&#39;s local time.</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">tz</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromutc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>tz</em> now can be omitted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.astimezone" title="datetime.datetime.astimezone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astimezone()</span></code></a> method can now be called on naive instances that
+are presumed to represent system local time.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.utcoffset">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">utcoffset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.utcoffset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, else returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self)</span></code>, and raises an exception if the latter doesn’t
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object with magnitude less than one day.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.dst">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">dst</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.dst" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, else returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.tzinfo.dst(self)</span></code>, and raises an exception if the latter doesn’t return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object with magnitude less than one day.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.tzname">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">tzname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.tzname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, else returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.tzinfo.tzname(self)</span></code>, raises an exception if the latter doesn’t return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a string object,</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.timetuple">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">timetuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.timetuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a> such as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.timetuple()</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time((d.year,</span> <span class="pre">d.month,</span> <span class="pre">d.day,</span>
+<span class="pre">d.hour,</span> <span class="pre">d.minute,</span> <span class="pre">d.second,</span> <span class="pre">d.weekday(),</span> <span class="pre">yday,</span> <span class="pre">dst))</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yday</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">d.toordinal()</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">date(d.year,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">1).toordinal()</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> is the day number within
+the current year starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for January 1st. The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> flag
+of the result is set according to the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.dst" title="datetime.datetime.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> method: <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.dst" title="datetime.datetime.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>;
+else if <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.dst" title="datetime.datetime.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> returns a non-zero value, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>;
+else <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.utctimetuple">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">utctimetuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.utctimetuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance <em>d</em> is naive, this is the same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.timetuple()</span></code> except that <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> is forced to 0 regardless of what
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.dst()</span></code> returns.  DST is never in effect for a UTC time.</p>
+<p>If <em>d</em> is aware, <em>d</em> is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.utcoffset()</span></code>, and a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a> for the
+normalized time is returned.  <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> is forced to 0. Note
+that an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> may be raised if <em>d</em>.year was
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MINYEAR</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAXYEAR</span></code> and UTC adjustment spills over a year
+boundary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.toordinal">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">toordinal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.toordinal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date.  The same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.date().toordinal()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.timestamp">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">timestamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.timestamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+instance.  The return value is a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> similar to that
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Naive <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instances are assumed to represent local
+time and this method relies on the platform C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktime()</span></code>
+function to perform the conversion.  Since <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+supports wider range of values than <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktime()</span></code> on many
+platforms, this method may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> for times far
+in the past or far in the future.</p>
+<p>For aware <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instances, the return value is computed
+as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1970</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">total_seconds</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.timestamp" title="datetime.datetime.timestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timestamp()</span></code></a> method uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fold" title="datetime.datetime.fold"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code></a> attribute to
+disambiguate the times during a repeated interval.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp directly from a
+naive <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance representing UTC time.  If your
+application uses this convention and your system timezone is not
+set to UTC, you can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo=timezone.utc</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">timestamp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timestamp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or by calculating the timestamp directly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">timestamp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1970</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seconds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.weekday">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">weekday</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.weekday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and Sunday is 6.
+The same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.date().weekday()</span></code>. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.isoweekday" title="datetime.datetime.isoweekday"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isoweekday()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.isoweekday">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">isoweekday</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.isoweekday" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and Sunday is 7.
+The same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.date().isoweekday()</span></code>. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.weekday" title="datetime.datetime.weekday"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weekday()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.isocalendar" title="datetime.datetime.isocalendar"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isocalendar()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.isocalendar">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">isocalendar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.isocalendar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a 3-tuple, (ISO year, ISO week number, ISO weekday).  The same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.date().isocalendar()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.isoformat">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">isoformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep='T'</em>, <em>timespec='auto'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.isoformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the date and time in ISO 8601 format,
+YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff or, if <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.microsecond" title="datetime.datetime.microsecond"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microsecond</span></code></a> is 0,
+YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.utcoffset" title="datetime.datetime.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> does not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a string is
+appended, giving the UTC offset:
+YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]] or, if <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.microsecond" title="datetime.datetime.microsecond"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microsecond</span></code></a>
+is 0 YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]].</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>sep</em> (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'T'</span></code>) is a one-character separator,
+placed between the date and time portions of the result.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">datetime</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TZ</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">utcoffset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">minutes</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">399</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2002</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">TZ</span><span class="p">())</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The optional argument <em>timespec</em> specifies the number of additional
+components of the time to include (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'auto'</span></code>).
+It can be one of the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'auto'</span></code>: Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'seconds'</span></code> if <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.microsecond" title="datetime.datetime.microsecond"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microsecond</span></code></a> is 0,
+same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'microseconds'</span></code> otherwise.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hours'</span></code>: Include the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.hour" title="datetime.datetime.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a> in the two-digit HH format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'minutes'</span></code>: Include <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.hour" title="datetime.datetime.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.minute" title="datetime.datetime.minute"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minute</span></code></a> in HH:MM format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'seconds'</span></code>: Include <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.hour" title="datetime.datetime.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.minute" title="datetime.datetime.minute"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minute</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.second" title="datetime.datetime.second"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">second</span></code></a>
+in HH:MM:SS format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'milliseconds'</span></code>: Include full time, but truncate fractional second
+part to milliseconds. HH:MM:SS.sss format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'microseconds'</span></code>: Include full time in HH:MM:SS.ffffff format.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised on an invalid <em>timespec</em> argument.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timespec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;minutes&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2002-12-25T00:00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2015</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">59</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timespec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;microseconds&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added the <em>timespec</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.__str__">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance <em>d</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(d)</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.isoformat('</span> <span class="pre">')</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.ctime">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">ctime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.ctime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the date and time, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime(2002,</span> <span class="pre">12,</span>
+<span class="pre">4,</span> <span class="pre">20,</span> <span class="pre">30,</span> <span class="pre">40).ctime()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'Wed</span> <span class="pre">Dec</span>&#160; <span class="pre">4</span> <span class="pre">20:30:40</span> <span class="pre">2002'</span></code>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.ctime()</span></code> is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))</span></code> on platforms where the
+native C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctime()</span></code> function (which <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.ctime" title="time.ctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.ctime()</span></code></a> invokes, but which
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.ctime" title="datetime.datetime.ctime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.ctime()</span></code></a> does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.strftime">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">strftime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.strftime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the date and time, controlled by an explicit format
+string.  For a complete list of formatting directives, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#strftime-strptime-behavior"><span class="std std-ref">strftime() and strptime() Behavior</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.datetime.__format__">
+<code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">__format__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.datetime.__format__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.strftime" title="datetime.datetime.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.strftime()</span></code></a>.  This makes it possible to specify a format
+string for a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string
+literals</span></a> and when using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>.  For a
+complete list of formatting directives, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#strftime-strptime-behavior"><span class="std std-ref">strftime() and strptime() Behavior</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Examples of working with datetime objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">time</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Using datetime.combine()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2005</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combine</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Using datetime.now() or datetime.utcnow()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">()</span>   
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utcnow</span><span class="p">()</span>   
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Using datetime.strptime()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strptime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;21/11/06 16:30&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">/%m/%y %H:%M&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timetuple</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tt</span><span class="p">:</span>   
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">2006    # year</span>
+<span class="go">11      # month</span>
+<span class="go">21      # day</span>
+<span class="go">16      # hour</span>
+<span class="go">30      # minute</span>
+<span class="go">0       # second</span>
+<span class="go">1       # weekday (0 = Monday)</span>
+<span class="go">325     # number of days since 1st January</span>
+<span class="go">-1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Date in ISO format</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ic</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isocalendar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ic</span><span class="p">:</span>   
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">2006    # ISO year</span>
+<span class="go">47      # ISO week</span>
+<span class="go">2       # ISO weekday</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Formatting datetime</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;%A, </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">. %B %Y %I:%M%p&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;The </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1"> is {0:</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">}, the </span><span class="si">{2}</span><span class="s1"> is {0:%B}, the </span><span class="si">{3}</span><span class="s1"> is {0:%I:%M%p}.&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;day&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;month&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;time&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using datetime with tzinfo:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timezone</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">KabulTz</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="c1"># Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">UTC_MOVE_DATE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1944</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">31</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">utcoffset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">1945</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1945</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timetuple</span><span class="p">()[:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1945</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="c1"># If dt falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="c1"># to resolve. See PEP495</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">minutes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fold</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">minutes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fromutc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># A custom implementation is required for fromutc as</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># the input to this function is a datetime with utc values</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># but with a tzinfo set to self</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;fromutc() requires a datetime argument&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;dt.tzinfo is not self&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UTC_MOVE_DATE</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">minutes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tzname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UTC_MOVE_DATE</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;+04:30&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;+04&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span>  <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{self.__class__.__name__}</span><span class="s2">()&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tz1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">KabulTz</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Datetime before the change</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1900</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">21</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">tz1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utcoffset</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">4:00:00</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Datetime after the change</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2006</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">tz1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utcoffset</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">4:30:00</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Convert datetime to another time zone</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">astimezone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt3</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt2</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utctimetuple</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">dt3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utctimetuple</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="time-objects">
+<span id="datetime-time"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#time-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A time object represents a (local) time of day, independent of any particular
+day, and subject to adjustment via a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="datetime.time">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">time</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hour=0</em>, <em>minute=0</em>, <em>second=0</em>, <em>microsecond=0</em>, <em>tzinfo=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fold=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All arguments are optional.  <em>tzinfo</em> may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or an instance of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass.  The remaining arguments may be integers, in the
+following ranges:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">hour</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">24</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">minute</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">60</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">second</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">60</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">microsecond</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">1000000</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">[0,</span> <span class="pre">1]</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If an argument outside those ranges is given, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  All
+default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> except <em>tzinfo</em>, which defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Class attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.min">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">min</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The earliest representable <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time(0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.max">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">max</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The latest representable <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time(23,</span> <span class="pre">59,</span> <span class="pre">59,</span> <span class="pre">999999)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.resolution">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">resolution</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.resolution" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The smallest possible difference between non-equal <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> objects,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(microseconds=1)</span></code>, although note that arithmetic on
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> objects is not supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instance attributes (read-only):</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.hour">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">hour</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.hour" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(24)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.minute">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">minute</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.minute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(60)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.second">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">second</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.second" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(60)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.microsecond">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">microsecond</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.microsecond" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(1000000)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.tzinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">tzinfo</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The object passed as the tzinfo argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> constructor, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if none was passed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.time.fold">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">fold</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.fold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0,</span> <span class="pre">1]</span></code>.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated interval.  (A
+repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back at the end of daylight saving
+time or when the UTC offset for the current zone is decreased for political reasons.)
+The value 0 (1) represents the earlier (later) of the two moments with the same wall
+time representation.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Supported operations:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>comparison of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>, where <em>a</em> is considered less
+than <em>b</em> when <em>a</em> precedes <em>b</em> in time.  If one comparand is naive and the other
+is aware, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised if an order comparison is attempted. For equality
+comparisons, naive instances are never equal to aware instances.</p>
+<p>If both comparands are aware, and have
+the same <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute, the common <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attribute is
+ignored and the base times are compared.  If both comparands are aware and
+have different <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by
+subtracting their UTC offsets (obtained from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.utcoffset()</span></code>). In order
+to stop mixed-type comparisons from falling back to the default comparison by
+object address, when a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object is compared to an object of a
+different type, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised unless the comparison is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>.  The latter cases return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, respectively.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Equality comparisons between naive and aware <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> instances
+don’t raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>hash, use as dict key</p></li>
+<li><p>efficient pickling</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In boolean contexts, a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object is always considered to be true.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Before Python 3.5, a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object was considered to be false if it
+represented midnight in UTC.  This behavior was considered obscure and
+error-prone and has been removed in Python 3.5.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13936">bpo-13936</a> for full
+details.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Other constructor:</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="datetime.time.fromisoformat">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">fromisoformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>time_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.fromisoformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> corresponding to a <em>time_string</em> in one of the
+formats emitted by <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.isoformat" title="datetime.time.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.isoformat()</span></code></a>. Specifically, this function supports
+strings in the format(s) <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HH[:MM[:SS[.fff[fff]]]][+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]]</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition caution">
+<p class="admonition-title">Caution</p>
+<p>This does not support parsing arbitrary ISO 8601 strings - it is only intended
+as the inverse operation of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.isoformat" title="datetime.time.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.isoformat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instance methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hour=self.hour</em>, <em>minute=self.minute</em>, <em>second=self.second</em>, <em>microsecond=self.microsecond</em>, <em>tzinfo=self.tzinfo</em>, <em>* fold=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> with the same value, except for those attributes given
+new values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.  Note that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo=None</span></code> can be specified to create a naive <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> from an
+aware <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>, without conversion of the time data.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.isoformat">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">isoformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timespec='auto'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.isoformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the time in ISO 8601 format, HH:MM:SS.ffffff or, if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.microsecond" title="datetime.time.microsecond"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microsecond</span></code></a> is 0, HH:MM:SS If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.utcoffset" title="datetime.time.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> does not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a
+string is appended, giving the UTC offset: HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]
+or, if self.microsecond is 0, HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]].</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>timespec</em> specifies the number of additional
+components of the time to include (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'auto'</span></code>).
+It can be one of the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'auto'</span></code>: Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'seconds'</span></code> if <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.microsecond" title="datetime.time.microsecond"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">microsecond</span></code></a> is 0,
+same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'microseconds'</span></code> otherwise.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hours'</span></code>: Include the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.hour" title="datetime.time.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a> in the two-digit HH format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'minutes'</span></code>: Include <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.hour" title="datetime.time.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.minute" title="datetime.time.minute"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minute</span></code></a> in HH:MM format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'seconds'</span></code>: Include <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.hour" title="datetime.time.hour"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.minute" title="datetime.time.minute"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minute</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.second" title="datetime.time.second"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">second</span></code></a>
+in HH:MM:SS format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'milliseconds'</span></code>: Include full time, but truncate fractional second
+part to milliseconds. HH:MM:SS.sss format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'microseconds'</span></code>: Include full time in HH:MM:SS.ffffff format.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised on an invalid <em>timespec</em> argument.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">time</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hour</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">minute</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">second</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">microsecond</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">123456</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timespec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;minutes&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12:34&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hour</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">minute</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">second</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">microsecond</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timespec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;microseconds&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12:34:56.000000&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timespec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;auto&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12:34:56&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added the <em>timespec</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.__str__">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For a time <em>t</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(t)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t.isoformat()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.strftime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">strftime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.strftime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the time, controlled by an explicit format
+string.  For a complete list of formatting directives, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#strftime-strptime-behavior"><span class="std std-ref">strftime() and strptime() Behavior</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.__format__">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">__format__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.__format__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.strftime" title="datetime.time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>. This makes it possible to specify a format string
+for a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string
+literals</span></a> and when using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>.  For a
+complete list of formatting directives, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#strftime-strptime-behavior"><span class="std std-ref">strftime() and strptime() Behavior</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.utcoffset">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">utcoffset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.utcoffset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, else returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)</span></code>, and raises an exception if the latter doesn’t
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object with magnitude less than one day.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.dst">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">dst</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.dst" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, else returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.tzinfo.dst(None)</span></code>, and raises an exception if the latter doesn’t return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object with magnitude less than one day.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.time.tzname">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">tzname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.time.tzname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time.tzinfo" title="datetime.time.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, else returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.tzinfo.tzname(None)</span></code>, or raises an exception if the latter doesn’t
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a string object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TZ1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">utcoffset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tzname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;+01:00&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span>  <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{self.__class__.__name__}</span><span class="s2">()&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">TZ1</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12:10:30+01:00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.timedelta(0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzname</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;+01:00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;%H:%M:%S %Z&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12:10:30 +01:00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;The </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1"> is {:%H:%M}.&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;time&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;The time is 12:10.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tzinfo-objects">
+<span id="datetime-tzinfo"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#tzinfo-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="datetime.tzinfo">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">tzinfo</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an abstract base class, meaning that this class should not be
+instantiated directly.  You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least)
+supply implementations of the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> methods needed by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> methods you use.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module supplies
+a simple concrete subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a>, which can represent
+timezones with fixed offset from UTC such as UTC itself or North American EST and
+EDT.</p>
+<p>An instance of (a concrete subclass of) <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> can be passed to the
+constructors for <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> objects. The latter objects
+view their attributes as being in local time, and the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> object
+supports methods revealing offset of local time from UTC, the name of the time
+zone, and DST offset, all relative to a date or time object passed to them.</p>
+<p>Special requirement for pickling:  A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass must have an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method that can be called with no arguments, else it can be
+pickled but possibly not unpickled again.  This is a technical requirement that
+may be relaxed in the future.</p>
+<p>A concrete subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> may need to implement the following
+methods.  Exactly which methods are needed depends on the uses made of aware
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> objects.  If in doubt, simply implement all of them.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset">
+<code class="descclassname">tzinfo.</code><code class="descname">utcoffset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return offset of local time from UTC, as a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object that is
+positive east of UTC.  If local time is
+west of UTC, this should be negative.  Note that this is intended to be the
+total offset from UTC; for example, if a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> object represents both
+time zone and DST adjustments, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset" title="datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> should return their sum.  If
+the UTC offset isn’t known, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Else the value returned must be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object strictly between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-timedelta(hours=24)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(hours=24)</span></code> (the magnitude of the offset must be less
+than one day).  Most implementations of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset" title="datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> will probably look
+like one of these two:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">CONSTANT</span>                 <span class="c1"># fixed-offset class</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">CONSTANT</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># daylight-aware class</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset" title="datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> does not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.dst" title="datetime.tzinfo.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> should not return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> either.</p>
+<p>The default implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset" title="datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.tzinfo.dst">
+<code class="descclassname">tzinfo.</code><code class="descname">dst</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.tzinfo.dst" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the daylight saving time (DST) adjustment, as a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a>
+object or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if DST information isn’t known.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(0)</span></code> if DST is not
+in effect. If DST is in effect, return the offset as a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> object
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset" title="datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a> for details). Note that DST offset, if applicable, has
+already been added to the UTC offset returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset" title="datetime.tzinfo.utcoffset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code></a>, so there’s
+no need to consult <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.dst" title="datetime.tzinfo.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> unless you’re interested in obtaining DST info
+separately.  For example, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.timetuple" title="datetime.datetime.timetuple"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timetuple()</span></code></a> calls its <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>
+attribute’s <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.dst" title="datetime.tzinfo.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> method to determine how the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> flag
+should be set, and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo.fromutc()</span></code></a> calls <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.dst" title="datetime.tzinfo.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> to account for
+DST changes when crossing time zones.</p>
+<p>An instance <em>tz</em> of a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass that models both standard and
+daylight times must be consistent in this sense:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tz.utcoffset(dt)</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">tz.dst(dt)</span></code></p>
+<p>must return the same result for every <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> <em>dt</em> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt.tzinfo</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">tz</span></code>  For sane <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclasses, this expression yields the time
+zone’s “standard offset”, which should not depend on the date or the time, but
+only on geographic location.  The implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.astimezone" title="datetime.datetime.astimezone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.astimezone()</span></code></a>
+relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it’s the programmer’s
+responsibility to ensure it.  If a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass cannot guarantee
+this, it may be able to override the default implementation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo.fromutc()</span></code></a> to work correctly with <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astimezone()</span></code> regardless.</p>
+<p>Most implementations of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.dst" title="datetime.tzinfo.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> will probably look like one of these two:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># a fixed-offset class:  doesn&#39;t account for DST</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone&#39;s DST</span>
+    <span class="c1"># transition times based on the input dt.year, and expressed</span>
+    <span class="c1"># in standard local time.  Then</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dston</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">dstoff</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The default implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.dst" title="datetime.tzinfo.dst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst()</span></code></a> raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The DST offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.tzinfo.tzname">
+<code class="descclassname">tzinfo.</code><code class="descname">tzname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.tzinfo.tzname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the time zone name corresponding to the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object <em>dt</em>, as
+a string. Nothing about string names is defined by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module,
+and there’s no requirement that it mean anything in particular.  For example,
+“GMT”, “UTC”, “-500”, “-5:00”, “EDT”, “US/Eastern”, “America/New York” are all
+valid replies.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if a string name isn’t known.  Note that this is
+a method rather than a fixed string primarily because some <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>
+subclasses will wish to return different names depending on the specific value
+of <em>dt</em> passed, especially if the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> class is accounting for
+daylight time.</p>
+<p>The default implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.tzname" title="datetime.tzinfo.tzname"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzname()</span></code></a> raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These methods are called by a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object, in
+response to their methods of the same names.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object passes
+itself as the argument, and a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> object passes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as the
+argument.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass’s methods should therefore be prepared to
+accept a <em>dt</em> argument of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or of class <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is passed, it’s up to the class designer to decide the best
+response.  For example, returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is appropriate if the class wishes to
+say that time objects don’t participate in the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> protocols.  It
+may be more useful for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset(None)</span></code> to return the standard UTC offset, as
+there is no other convention for discovering the standard offset.</p>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object is passed in response to a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt.tzinfo</span></code> is the same object as <em>self</em>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> methods can
+rely on this, unless user code calls <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> methods directly.  The
+intent is that the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> methods interpret <em>dt</em> as being in local
+time, and not need worry about objects in other timezones.</p>
+<p>There is one more <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> method that a subclass may wish to override:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc">
+<code class="descclassname">tzinfo.</code><code class="descname">fromutc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is called from the default <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.astimezone" title="datetime.datetime.astimezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.astimezone()</span></code></a>
+implementation.  When called from that, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt.tzinfo</span></code> is <em>self</em>, and <em>dt</em>’s
+date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC time.  The purpose
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromutc()</span></code></a> is to adjust the date and time data, returning an
+equivalent datetime in <em>self</em>’s local time.</p>
+<p>Most <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclasses should be able to inherit the default
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromutc()</span></code></a> implementation without problems.  It’s strong enough to handle
+fixed-offset time zones, and time zones accounting for both standard and
+daylight time, and the latter even if the DST transition times differ in
+different years.  An example of a time zone the default <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromutc()</span></code></a>
+implementation may not handle correctly in all cases is one where the standard
+offset (from UTC) depends on the specific date and time passed, which can happen
+for political reasons. The default implementations of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astimezone()</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromutc()</span></code></a> may not produce the result you want if the result is one of the
+hours straddling the moment the standard offset changes.</p>
+<p>Skipping code for error cases, the default <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo.fromutc" title="datetime.tzinfo.fromutc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromutc()</span></code></a> implementation acts
+like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fromutc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># raise ValueError error if dt.tzinfo is not self</span>
+    <span class="n">dtoff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utcoffset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">dtdst</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None</span>
+    <span class="n">delta</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dtoff</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">dtdst</span>  <span class="c1"># this is self&#39;s standard offset</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">delta</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">delta</span>   <span class="c1"># convert to standard local time</span>
+        <span class="n">dtdst</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># raise ValueError if dtdst is None</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dtdst</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">dtdst</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">dt</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In the following <a class="reference download internal" download="" href="../_downloads/6bc7a57013e3076d5e194caa123fe59c/tzinfo_examples.py"><code class="xref download docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo_examples.py</span></code></a> file there are some examples of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> classes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="n">ZERO</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">HOUR</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">SECOND</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seconds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># A class capturing the platform&#39;s idea of local time.</span>
+<span class="c1"># (May result in wrong values on historical times in</span>
+<span class="c1">#  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had</span>
+<span class="c1">#  changed in the past.)</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">_time</span>
+
+<span class="n">STDOFFSET</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seconds</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">daylight</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">DSTOFFSET</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seconds</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">altzone</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">DSTOFFSET</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">STDOFFSET</span>
+
+<span class="n">DSTDIFF</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DSTOFFSET</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">STDOFFSET</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LocalTimezone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fromutc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+        <span class="n">stamp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1970</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">SECOND</span>
+        <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">localtime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stamp</span><span class="p">)[:</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="n">dst_diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DSTDIFF</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">SECOND</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Detect fold</span>
+        <span class="n">fold</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">localtime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stamp</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">dst_diff</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">microsecond</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">microsecond</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fold</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">fold</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">utcoffset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_isdst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">DSTOFFSET</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">STDOFFSET</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_isdst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">DSTDIFF</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ZERO</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tzname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzname</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_isdst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_isdst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">tt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">month</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">day</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hour</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">minute</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">second</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">weekday</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">stamp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mktime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">tt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">localtime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stamp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">tt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tm_isdst</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="n">Local</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">LocalTimezone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+
+<span class="c1"># A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">first_sunday_on_or_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">days_to_go</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">6</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">weekday</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">days_to_go</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">days_to_go</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">dt</span>
+
+
+<span class="c1"># US DST Rules</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US</span>
+<span class="c1"># DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules</span>
+<span class="c1"># and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):</span>
+<span class="c1"># http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm</span>
+<span class="c1"># http://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second</span>
+<span class="c1"># Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.</span>
+<span class="n">DSTSTART_2007</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.</span>
+<span class="n">DSTEND_2007</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first</span>
+<span class="c1"># Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last</span>
+<span class="c1"># Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.</span>
+<span class="n">DSTSTART_1987_2006</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">DSTEND_1987_2006</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last</span>
+<span class="c1"># Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)</span>
+<span class="c1"># on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday</span>
+<span class="c1"># on or after Oct 25.</span>
+<span class="n">DSTSTART_1967_1986</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">24</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">DSTEND_1967_1986</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DSTEND_1987_2006</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">us_dst_range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return</span>
+    <span class="c1"># start = end for no DST.</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="mi">2006</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">year</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">dststart</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstend</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DSTSTART_2007</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">DSTEND_2007</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="mi">1986</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">2007</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">dststart</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstend</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DSTSTART_1987_2006</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">DSTEND_1987_2006</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="mi">1966</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">1987</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">dststart</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstend</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DSTSTART_1967_1986</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">DSTEND_1967_1986</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+
+    <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first_sunday_on_or_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dststart</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first_sunday_on_or_after</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dstend</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">USTimeZone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">hours</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reprname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstname</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdoffset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">hours</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reprname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">reprname</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">stdname</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dstname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dstname</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reprname</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tzname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dstname</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdname</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">utcoffset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdoffset</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.</span>
+            <span class="c1"># It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default</span>
+            <span class="c1"># fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()</span>
+            <span class="c1"># implementation) passes a datetime with dt.tzinfo is self.</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ZERO</span>
+        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+        <span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">us_dst_range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Can&#39;t compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from</span>
+        <span class="c1"># dt first.</span>
+        <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># DST is in effect.</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Fold (an ambiguous hour): use dt.fold to disambiguate.</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ZERO</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fold</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fold</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">ZERO</span>
+        <span class="c1"># DST is off.</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ZERO</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fromutc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+        <span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">us_dst_range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">std_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dt</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdoffset</span>
+        <span class="n">dst_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">std_time</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">dst_time</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Repeated hour</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">std_time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fold</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">std_time</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">start</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">dst_time</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Standard time</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">std_time</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">std_time</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">end</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Daylight saving time</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">dst_time</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">Eastern</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">USTimeZone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Eastern&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="s2">&quot;EST&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;EDT&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Central</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">USTimeZone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Central&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="s2">&quot;CST&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;CDT&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Mountain</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">USTimeZone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Mountain&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;MST&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;MDT&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Pacific</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">USTimeZone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Pacific&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="s2">&quot;PST&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;PDT&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that there are unavoidable subtleties twice per year in a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>
+subclass accounting for both standard and daylight time, at the DST transition
+points.  For concreteness, consider US Eastern (UTC -0500), where EDT begins the
+minute after 1:59 (EST) on the second Sunday in March, and ends the minute after
+1:59 (EDT) on the first Sunday in November:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>  <span class="n">UTC</span>   <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>
+  <span class="n">EST</span>  <span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span> <span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>
+  <span class="n">EDT</span>  <span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>
+
+<span class="n">start</span>  <span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span> <span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>
+
+  <span class="n">end</span>  <span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>  <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">MM</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When DST starts (the “start” line), the local wall clock leaps from 1:59 to
+3:00.  A wall time of the form 2:MM doesn’t really make sense on that day, so
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astimezone(Eastern)</span></code> won’t deliver a result with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hour</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code> on the day DST
+begins.  For example, at the Spring forward transition of 2016, we get</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timezone</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tzinfo_examples</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">HOUR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Eastern</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u0</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2016</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">u0</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">HOUR</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">astimezone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Eastern</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;UTC =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzname</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST</span>
+<span class="go">06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST</span>
+<span class="go">07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT</span>
+<span class="go">08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When DST ends (the “end” line), there’s a potentially worse problem: there’s an
+hour that can’t be spelled unambiguously in local wall time: the last hour of
+daylight time.  In Eastern, that’s times of the form 5:MM UTC on the day
+daylight time ends.  The local wall clock leaps from 1:59 (daylight time) back
+to 1:00 (standard time) again. Local times of the form 1:MM are ambiguous.
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">astimezone()</span></code> mimics the local clock’s behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC
+hours into the same local hour then.  In the Eastern example, UTC times of the
+form 5:MM and 6:MM both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times
+have the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fold" title="datetime.datetime.fold"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code></a> attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to 1.
+For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u0</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2016</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">u0</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">HOUR</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">astimezone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Eastern</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;UTC =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzname</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fold</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0</span>
+<span class="go">05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0</span>
+<span class="go">06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1</span>
+<span class="go">07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instances that differ only by the value of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fold" title="datetime.datetime.fold"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code></a> attribute are considered equal in comparisons.</p>
+<p>Applications that can’t bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly check the
+value of the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.fold" title="datetime.datetime.fold"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code></a> attribute or avoid using hybrid
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a>,
+or any other fixed-offset <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> subclass (such as a class representing
+only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/tz.html">dateutil.tz</a></dt><dd><p>The standard library has <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> class for handling arbitrary
+fixed offsets from UTC and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone.utc" title="datetime.timezone.utc"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone.utc</span></code></a> as UTC timezone instance.</p>
+<p><em>dateutil.tz</em> library brings the <em>IANA timezone database</em> (also known as the
+Olson database) to Python and its usage is recommended.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/time-zones">IANA timezone database</a></dt><dd><p>The Time Zone Database (often called tz, tzdata or zoneinfo) contains code and
+data that represent the history of local time for many representative
+locations around the globe. It is updated periodically to reflect changes
+made by political bodies to time zone boundaries, UTC offsets, and
+daylight-saving rules.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timezone-objects">
+<span id="datetime-timezone"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#timezone-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> class is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>, each
+instance of which represents a timezone defined by a fixed offset from
+UTC.  Note that objects of this class cannot be used to represent
+timezone information in the locations where different offsets are used
+in different days of the year or where historical changes have been
+made to civil time.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="datetime.timezone">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">datetime.</code><code class="descname">timezone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>offset</em>, <em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timezone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>offset</em> argument must be specified as a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a>
+object representing the difference between the local time and UTC.  It must
+be strictly between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-timedelta(hours=24)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(hours=24)</span></code>, otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> argument is optional.  If specified it must be a string that
+will be used as the value returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.tzname" title="datetime.datetime.tzname"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.tzname()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.timezone.utcoffset">
+<code class="descclassname">timezone.</code><code class="descname">utcoffset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timezone.utcoffset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the fixed value specified when the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> instance is
+constructed.  The <em>dt</em> argument is ignored.  The return value is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> instance equal to the difference between the
+local time and UTC.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.timezone.tzname">
+<code class="descclassname">timezone.</code><code class="descname">tzname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timezone.tzname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the fixed value specified when the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> instance
+is constructed.  If <em>name</em> is not provided in the constructor, the
+name returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzname(dt)</span></code> is generated from the value of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset</span></code> as follows.  If <em>offset</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(0)</span></code>, the name
+is “UTC”, otherwise it is a string ‘UTC±HH:MM’, where ± is the sign
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset</span></code>, HH and MM are two digits of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset.hours</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset.minutes</span></code> respectively.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Name generated from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset=timedelta(0)</span></code> is now plain ‘UTC’, not
+‘UTC+00:00’.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.timezone.dst">
+<code class="descclassname">timezone.</code><code class="descname">dst</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timezone.dst" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Always returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="datetime.timezone.fromutc">
+<code class="descclassname">timezone.</code><code class="descname">fromutc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timezone.fromutc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">offset</span></code>.  The <em>dt</em> argument must be an aware
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Class attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="datetime.timezone.utc">
+<code class="descclassname">timezone.</code><code class="descname">utc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#datetime.timezone.utc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UTC timezone, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone(timedelta(0))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="strftime-and-strptime-behavior">
+<span id="strftime-strptime-behavior"></span><span id="index-0"></span><h2><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> Behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#strftime-and-strptime-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> objects all support a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime(format)</span></code> method, to create a string representing the time under the
+control of an explicit format string.  Broadly speaking, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.strftime(fmt)</span></code>
+acts like the <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime(fmt,</span> <span class="pre">d.timetuple())</span></code>
+although not all objects support a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timetuple()</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>Conversely, the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.strptime" title="datetime.datetime.strptime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.strptime()</span></code></a> class method creates a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object from a string representing a date and time and a
+corresponding format string. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.strptime(date_string,</span> <span class="pre">format)</span></code> is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string,</span> <span class="pre">format)[0:6]))</span></code>, except
+when the format includes sub-second components or timezone offset information,
+which are supported in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.strptime</span></code> but are discarded by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strptime</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> objects, the format codes for year, month, and day should not
+be used, as time objects have no such values.  If they’re used anyway, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1900</span></code>
+is substituted for the year, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for the month and day.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> objects, the format codes for hours, minutes, seconds, and
+microseconds should not be used, as <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> objects have no such
+values.  If they’re used anyway, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is substituted for them.</p>
+<p>For the <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime.strptime" title="datetime.datetime.strptime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.strptime()</span></code></a> class method, the default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1900-01-01T00:00:00.000</span></code>:
+any components not specified in the format string will be pulled from the default value. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id4" id="id2">2</a></p>
+<p>The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because Python
+calls the platform C library’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> function, and platform
+variations are common.  To see the full set of format codes supported on your
+platform, consult the <em class="manpage">strftime(3)</em> documentation.</p>
+<p>For the same reason, handling of format strings containing Unicode code points
+that can’t be represented in the charset of the current locale is also
+platform-dependent. On some platforms such code points are preserved intact in
+the output, while on others <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime</span></code> may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a> or return
+an empty string instead.</p>
+<p>The following is a list of all the format codes that the C standard (1989
+version) requires, and these work on all platforms with a standard C
+implementation.  Note that the 1999 version of the C standard added additional
+format codes.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 32%" />
+<col style="width: 9%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Directive</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Example</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Weekday as locale’s
+abbreviated name.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">Sun, Mon, …, Sat
+(en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">So, Mo, …, Sa
+(de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%A</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Weekday as locale’s full name.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">Sunday, Monday, …,
+Saturday (en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">Sonntag, Montag, …,
+Samstag (de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%w</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Weekday as a decimal number,
+where 0 is Sunday and 6 is
+Saturday.</p></td>
+<td><p>0, 1, …, 6</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Day of the month as a
+zero-padded decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>01, 02, …, 31</p></td>
+<td><p>(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Month as locale’s abbreviated
+name.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">Jan, Feb, …, Dec
+(en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">Jan, Feb, …, Dez
+(de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%B</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Month as locale’s full name.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">January, February,
+…, December (en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">Januar, Februar, …,
+Dezember (de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%m</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Month as a zero-padded
+decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>01, 02, …, 12</p></td>
+<td><p>(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Year without century as a
+zero-padded decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>00, 01, …, 99</p></td>
+<td><p>(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Year with century as a decimal
+number.</p></td>
+<td><p>0001, 0002, …, 2013,
+2014, …, 9998, 9999</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%H</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hour (24-hour clock) as a
+zero-padded decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>00, 01, …, 23</p></td>
+<td><p>(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%I</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hour (12-hour clock) as a
+zero-padded decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>01, 02, …, 12</p></td>
+<td><p>(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%p</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s equivalent of either
+AM or PM.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">AM, PM (en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">am, pm (de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1),
+(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%M</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Minute as a zero-padded
+decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>00, 01, …, 59</p></td>
+<td><p>(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%S</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Second as a zero-padded
+decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>00, 01, …, 59</p></td>
+<td><p>(4),
+(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%f</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Microsecond as a decimal
+number, zero-padded on the
+left.</p></td>
+<td><p>000000, 000001, …,
+999999</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>UTC offset in the form
+±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]] (empty
+string if the object is
+naive).</p></td>
+<td><p>(empty), +0000,
+-0400, +1030,
++063415,
+-030712.345216</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Time zone name (empty string
+if the object is naive).</p></td>
+<td><p>(empty), UTC, EST, CST</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%j</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Day of the year as a
+zero-padded decimal number.</p></td>
+<td><p>001, 002, …, 366</p></td>
+<td><p>(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Week number of the year
+(Sunday as the first day of
+the week) as a zero padded
+decimal number. All days in a
+new year preceding the first
+Sunday are considered to be in
+week 0.</p></td>
+<td><p>00, 01, …, 53</p></td>
+<td><p>(7),
+(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%W</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Week number of the year
+(Monday as the first day of
+the week) as a decimal number.
+All days in a new year
+preceding the first Monday
+are considered to be in
+week 0.</p></td>
+<td><p>00, 01, …, 53</p></td>
+<td><p>(7),
+(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s appropriate date and
+time representation.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">Tue Aug 16 21:30:00
+1988 (en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">Di 16 Aug 21:30:00
+1988 (de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s appropriate date
+representation.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">08/16/88 (None);</div>
+<div class="line">08/16/1988 (en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">16.08.1988 (de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%X</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s appropriate time
+representation.</p></td>
+<td><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">21:30:00 (en_US);</div>
+<div class="line">21:30:00 (de_DE)</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%%</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> character.</p></td>
+<td><p>%</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Several additional directives not required by the C89 standard are included for
+convenience. These parameters all correspond to ISO 8601 date values. These
+may not be available on all platforms when used with the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code>
+method. The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives are not interchangeable
+with the year and week number directives above. Calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> with
+incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601 directives will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 32%" />
+<col style="width: 9%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Directive</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Example</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%G</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ISO 8601 year with century
+representing the year that
+contains the greater part of
+the ISO week (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code>).</p></td>
+<td><p>0001, 0002, …, 2013,
+2014, …, 9998, 9999</p></td>
+<td><p>(8)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%u</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ISO 8601 weekday as a decimal
+number where 1 is Monday.</p></td>
+<td><p>1, 2, …, 7</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ISO 8601 week as a decimal
+number with Monday as
+the first day of the week.
+Week 01 is the week containing
+Jan 4.</p></td>
+<td><p>01, 02, …, 53</p></td>
+<td><p>(8),
+(9)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%G</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%u</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code> were added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>Because the format depends on the current locale, care should be taken when
+making assumptions about the output value. Field orderings will vary (for
+example, “month/day/year” versus “day/month/year”), and the output may
+contain Unicode characters encoded using the locale’s default encoding (for
+example, if the current locale is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ja_JP</span></code>, the default encoding could be
+any one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eucJP</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SJIS</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code>; use <a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.getlocale" title="locale.getlocale"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getlocale()</span></code></a>
+to determine the current locale’s encoding).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> method can parse years in the full [1, 9999] range, but
+years &lt; 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>In previous versions, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> method was restricted to
+years &gt;= 1900.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>In version 3.2, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> method was restricted to
+years &gt;= 1000.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>When used with the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> method, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%p</span></code> directive only affects
+the output hour field if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%I</span></code> directive is used to parse the hour.</p></li>
+<li><p>Unlike the <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module does not support
+leap seconds.</p></li>
+<li><p>When used with the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> method, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%f</span></code> directive
+accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the right.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%f</span></code> is
+an extension to the set of format characters in the C standard (but
+implemented separately in datetime objects, and therefore always
+available).</p></li>
+<li><p>For a naive object, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code> format codes are replaced by empty
+strings.</p>
+<p>For an aware object:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code></dt><dd><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code> is transformed into a string of the form
+±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]], where HH is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC
+offset hours, MM is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
+minutes, SS is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
+seconds and ffffff is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC
+offset microseconds.  The ffffff part is omitted when the offset is a
+whole number of seconds and both the ffffff and the SS part is omitted
+when the offset is a whole number of minutes.  For example, if
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utcoffset()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta(hours=-3,</span> <span class="pre">minutes=-30)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code> is
+replaced with the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-0330'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole number of minutes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>When the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code> directive is provided to the  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> method,
+the UTC offsets can have a colon as a separator between hours, minutes
+and seconds.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+01:00:00'</span></code> will be parsed as an offset of one hour.
+In addition, providing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Z'</span></code> is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+00:00'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code></dt><dd><p>If <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzname()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code> is replaced by an empty
+string.  Otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code> is replaced by the returned value, which must
+be a string.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>When the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code> directive is provided to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> method, an
+aware <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object will be produced.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code> of the
+result will be set to a <a class="reference internal" href="#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>When used with the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%W</span></code> are only used
+in calculations when the day of the week and the calendar year (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Y</span></code>)
+are specified.</p></li>
+<li><p>Similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%W</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code> is only used in calculations when the
+day of the week and the ISO year (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%G</span></code>) are specified in a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> format string. Also note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%G</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Y</span></code> are not
+interchangeable.</p></li>
+<li><p>When used with the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> method, the leading zero is optional
+for  formats <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%m</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%H</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%I</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%M</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%S</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%J</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%W</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code>. Format <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%y</span></code> does require a leading zero.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>If, that is, we ignore the effects of Relativity</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id4"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.strptime('Feb</span> <span class="pre">29',</span> <span class="pre">'%b</span> <span class="pre">%d')</span></code> will fail since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1900</span></code> is not a leap year.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> — Basic date and time types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#available-types">Available Types</a></li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-dbm">
+<span id="dbm-interfaces-to-unix-databases"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a> — Interfaces to Unix “databases”<a class="headerlink" href="#module-dbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dbm/__init__.py">Lib/dbm/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a> is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database —
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a>.  If none of these modules is installed, the
+slow-but-simple implementation in module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> will be used.  There
+is a <a class="reference external" href="https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm">third party interface</a> to
+the Oracle Berkeley DB.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="dbm.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">dbm.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the supported
+modules, with a unique exception also named <a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.error" title="dbm.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.error</span></code></a> as the first
+item — the latter is used when <a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.error" title="dbm.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.error</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dbm.whichdb">
+<code class="descclassname">dbm.</code><code class="descname">whichdb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.whichdb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function attempts to guess which of the several simple database modules
+available — <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> — should
+be used to open a given file.</p>
+<p>Returns one of the following values: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the file can’t be opened
+because it’s unreadable or doesn’t exist; the empty string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>) if the
+file’s format can’t be guessed; or a string containing the required module
+name, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'dbm.ndbm'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'dbm.gnu'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dbm.open">
+<code class="descclassname">dbm.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>flag='r'</em>, <em>mode=0o666</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the database file <em>file</em> and return a corresponding object.</p>
+<p>If the database file already exists, the <a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.whichdb" title="dbm.whichdb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whichdb()</span></code></a> function is used to
+determine its type and the appropriate module is used; if it does not exist,
+the first module listed above that can be imported is used.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>flag</em> argument can be:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 83%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open existing database for reading only
+(default)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open existing database for reading and
+writing</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open database for reading and writing,
+creating it if it doesn’t exist</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Always create a new, empty database, open
+for reading and writing</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The optional <em>mode</em> argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+database has to be created.  It defaults to octal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o666</span></code> (and will be
+modified by the prevailing umask).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.open" title="dbm.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> supports the same basic functionality as
+dictionaries; keys and their corresponding values can be stored, retrieved, and
+deleted, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code> method are
+available, as well as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault()</span></code> are now available in all database modules.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Key and values are always stored as bytes. This means that when
+strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default encoding before
+being stored.</p>
+<p>These objects also support being used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, which
+will automatically close them when done.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added native support for the context management protocol to the objects
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.open" title="dbm.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title,  and
+then prints out the contents of the database:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">dbm</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Open database, creating it if necessary.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">dbm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cache&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Record some values</span>
+    <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;there&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python Website&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.cnn.com&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Cable News Network&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Note that the keys are considered bytes now.</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Python Website&#39;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Notice how the value is now in bytes.</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.cnn.com&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Cable News Network&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Often-used methods of the dict interface work too.</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">db</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;not present&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Storing a non-string key or value will raise an exception (most</span>
+    <span class="c1"># likely a TypeError).</span>
+    <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.yahoo.com&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># db is automatically closed when leaving the with statement.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Persistence module which stores non-string data.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p>The individual submodules are described in the following sections.</p>
+<div class="section" id="module-dbm.gnu">
+<span id="dbm-gnu-gnu-s-reinterpretation-of-dbm"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a> — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dbm/gnu.py">Lib/dbm/gnu.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module is quite similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a> module, but uses the GNU library
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code> instead to provide some additional functionality.  Please note that the
+file formats created by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> are incompatible.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a> module provides an interface to the GNU DBM library.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu.gdbm</span></code> objects behave like mappings (dictionaries), except that keys and
+values are always converted to bytes before storing.  Printing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code>
+object doesn’t print the
+keys and values, and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code> methods are not
+supported.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="dbm.gnu.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">dbm.gnu.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.gnu.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised on <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a>-specific errors, such as I/O errors. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is
+raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dbm.gnu.open">
+<code class="descclassname">dbm.gnu.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flag</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>mode</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.gnu.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code> database and return a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code> object.  The <em>filename</em>
+argument is the name of the database file.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>flag</em> argument can be:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 83%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open existing database for reading only
+(default)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open existing database for reading and
+writing</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open database for reading and writing,
+creating it if it doesn’t exist</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Always create a new, empty database, open
+for reading and writing</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The following additional characters may be appended to the flag to control
+how the database is opened:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 83%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open the database in fast mode.  Writes
+to the database will not be synchronized.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Synchronized mode. This will cause changes
+to the database to be immediately written
+to the file.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Do not lock database.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Not all flags are valid for all versions of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code>.  The module constant
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_flags</span></code> is a string of supported flag characters.  The exception
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.gnu.error" title="dbm.gnu.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></a> is raised if an invalid flag is specified.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>mode</em> argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+database has to be created.  It defaults to octal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o666</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In addition to the dictionary-like methods, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code> objects have the
+following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.gnu.gdbm.firstkey">
+<code class="descclassname">gdbm.</code><code class="descname">firstkey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.gnu.gdbm.firstkey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>It’s possible to loop over every key in the database using this method  and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.gnu.gdbm.nextkey" title="dbm.gnu.gdbm.nextkey"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nextkey()</span></code></a> method.  The traversal is ordered by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code>’s internal
+hash values, and won’t be sorted by the key values.  This method returns
+the starting key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.gnu.gdbm.nextkey">
+<code class="descclassname">gdbm.</code><code class="descname">nextkey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.gnu.gdbm.nextkey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the key that follows <em>key</em> in the traversal.  The following code prints
+every key in the database <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">db</span></code>, without having to create a list in memory that
+contains them all:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">k</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">db</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstkey</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">k</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">k</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">db</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nextkey</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.gnu.gdbm.reorganize">
+<code class="descclassname">gdbm.</code><code class="descname">reorganize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.gnu.gdbm.reorganize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to shrink the space
+used by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code> file, this routine will reorganize the database.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code>
+objects will not shorten the length of a database file except by using this
+reorganization; otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and reused as new
+(key, value) pairs are added.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.gnu.gdbm.sync">
+<code class="descclassname">gdbm.</code><code class="descname">sync</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.gnu.gdbm.sync" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method forces any
+unwritten data to be written to the disk.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.gnu.gdbm.close">
+<code class="descclassname">gdbm.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.gnu.gdbm.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code> database.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-dbm.ndbm">
+<span id="dbm-ndbm-interface-based-on-ndbm"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> — Interface based on ndbm<a class="headerlink" href="#module-dbm.ndbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dbm/ndbm.py">Lib/dbm/ndbm.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> module provides an interface to the Unix “(n)dbm” library.
+Dbm objects behave like mappings (dictionaries), except that keys and values are
+always stored as bytes. Printing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code> object doesn’t print the keys and
+values, and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code> methods are not supported.</p>
+<p>This module can be used with the “classic” ndbm interface or the GNU GDBM
+compatibility interface. On Unix, the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script will attempt
+to locate the appropriate header file to simplify building this module.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="dbm.ndbm.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">dbm.ndbm.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.ndbm.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised on <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a>-specific errors, such as I/O errors. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised
+for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dbm.ndbm.library">
+<code class="descclassname">dbm.ndbm.</code><code class="descname">library</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.ndbm.library" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndbm</span></code> implementation library used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dbm.ndbm.open">
+<code class="descclassname">dbm.ndbm.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flag</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>mode</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.ndbm.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a dbm database and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndbm</span></code> object.  The <em>filename</em> argument is the
+name of the database file (without the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dir</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pag</span></code> extensions).</p>
+<p>The optional <em>flag</em> argument must be one of these values:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 83%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open existing database for reading only
+(default)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open existing database for reading and
+writing</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open database for reading and writing,
+creating it if it doesn’t exist</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Always create a new, empty database, open
+for reading and writing</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The optional <em>mode</em> argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+database has to be created.  It defaults to octal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o666</span></code> (and will be
+modified by the prevailing umask).</p>
+<p>In addition to the dictionary-like methods, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndbm</span></code> objects
+provide the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.ndbm.ndbm.close">
+<code class="descclassname">ndbm.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.ndbm.ndbm.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndbm</span></code> database.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-dbm.dumb">
+<span id="dbm-dumb-portable-dbm-implementation"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> — Portable DBM implementation<a class="headerlink" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dbm/dumb.py">Lib/dbm/dumb.py</a></p>
+<div class="admonition note" id="index-0">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> module is intended as a last resort fallback for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a> module when a more robust module is not available. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a>
+module is not written for speed and is not nearly as heavily used as the other
+database modules.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> module provides a persistent dictionary-like interface which
+is written entirely in Python.  Unlike other modules such as <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a> no
+external library is required.  As with other persistent mappings, the keys and
+values are always stored as bytes.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="dbm.dumb.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">dbm.dumb.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.dumb.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised on <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a>-specific errors, such as I/O errors.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is
+raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dbm.dumb.open">
+<code class="descclassname">dbm.dumb.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flag</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>mode</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.dumb.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumbdbm</span></code> database and return a dumbdbm object.  The <em>filename</em> argument is
+the basename of the database file (without any specific extensions).  When a
+dumbdbm database is created, files with <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dat</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dir</span></code> extensions
+are created.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>flag</em> argument supports only the semantics of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code> values.  Other values will default to database being always
+opened for update, and will be created if it does not exist.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>mode</em> argument is the Unix mode of the file, used only when the
+database has to be created.  It defaults to octal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o666</span></code> (and will be modified
+by the prevailing umask).</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>It is possible to crash the Python interpreter when loading a database
+with a sufficiently large/complex entry due to stack depth limitations in
+Python’s AST compiler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#dbm.dumb.open" title="dbm.dumb.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> always creates a new database when the flag has the value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>Creating database in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> modes.  Modifying database in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> mode.</p>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to the methods provided by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.MutableMapping</span></code></a> class, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumbdbm</span></code> objects
+provide the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.sync">
+<code class="descclassname">dumbdbm.</code><code class="descname">sync</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.sync" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files.  This method is called
+by the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelve.sync()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.close">
+<code class="descclassname">dumbdbm.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dbm.dumb.dumbdbm.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumbdbm</span></code> database.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code> — Interfaces to Unix “databases”</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.gnu"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code> — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.ndbm"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code> — Interface based on ndbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dbm.dumb"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code> — Portable DBM implementation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="marshal.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code> — Internal Python object serialization</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sqlite3.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/dbm.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/debug.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/debug.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4390165
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+
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+  <div class="section" id="debugging-and-profiling">
+<h1>Debugging and Profiling<a class="headerlink" href="#debugging-and-profiling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>These libraries help you with Python development: the debugger enables you to
+step through code, analyze stack frames and set breakpoints etc., and the
+profilers run code and give you a detailed breakdown of execution times,
+allowing you to identify bottlenecks in your programs.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="bdb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code> — Debugger framework</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="faulthandler.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> — Dump the Python traceback</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faulthandler.html#fault-handler-state">Fault handler state</a></li>
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+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="profile.html">The Python Profilers</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="profile.html#what-is-deterministic-profiling">What Is Deterministic Profiling?</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="trace.html#command-line-usage">Command-Line Usage</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="trace.html#programmatic-interface">Programmatic Interface</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tracemalloc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> — Trace memory allocations</a><ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/decimal.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/decimal.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8bf0e31
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-decimal">
+<span id="decimal-decimal-fixed-point-and-floating-point-arithmetic"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic<a class="headerlink" href="#module-decimal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/decimal.py">Lib/decimal.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module provides support for fast correctly-rounded
+decimal floating point arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> datatype:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Decimal “is based on a floating-point model which was designed with people
+in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle – computers must
+provide an arithmetic that works in the same way as the arithmetic that
+people learn at school.” – excerpt from the decimal arithmetic specification.</p></li>
+<li><p>Decimal numbers can be represented exactly.  In contrast, numbers like
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.1</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.2</span></code> do not have exact representations in binary
+floating point. End users typically would not expect <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">2.2</span></code> to display
+as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.3000000000000003</span></code> as it does with binary floating point.</p></li>
+<li><p>The exactness carries over into arithmetic.  In decimal floating point, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.1</span>
+<span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">0.1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">0.1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">0.3</span></code> is exactly equal to zero.  In binary floating point, the result
+is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5.5511151231257827e-017</span></code>.  While near to zero, the differences
+prevent reliable equality testing and differences can accumulate. For this
+reason, decimal is preferred in accounting applications which have strict
+equality invariants.</p></li>
+<li><p>The decimal module incorporates a notion of significant places so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.30</span>
+<span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1.20</span></code> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.50</span></code>.  The trailing zero is kept to indicate significance.
+This is the customary presentation for monetary applications. For
+multiplication, the “schoolbook” approach uses all the figures in the
+multiplicands.  For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.3</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">1.2</span></code> gives <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.56</span></code> while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.30</span> <span class="pre">*</span>
+<span class="pre">1.20</span></code> gives <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.5600</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Unlike hardware based binary floating point, the decimal module has a user
+alterable precision (defaulting to 28 places) which can be as large as needed for
+a given problem:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.142857&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">28</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.1428571428571428571428571429&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Both binary and decimal floating point are implemented in terms of published
+standards.  While the built-in float type exposes only a modest portion of its
+capabilities, the decimal module exposes all required parts of the standard.
+When needed, the programmer has full control over rounding and signal handling.
+This includes an option to enforce exact arithmetic by using exceptions
+to block any inexact operations.</p></li>
+<li><p>The decimal module was designed to support “without prejudice, both exact
+unrounded decimal arithmetic (sometimes called fixed-point arithmetic)
+and rounded floating-point arithmetic.”  – excerpt from the decimal
+arithmetic specification.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The module design is centered around three concepts:  the decimal number, the
+context for arithmetic, and signals.</p>
+<p>A decimal number is immutable.  It has a sign, coefficient digits, and an
+exponent.  To preserve significance, the coefficient digits do not truncate
+trailing zeros.  Decimals also include special values such as
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>.  The standard also
+differentiates <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0</span></code> from <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The context for arithmetic is an environment specifying precision, rounding
+rules, limits on exponents, flags indicating the results of operations, and trap
+enablers which determine whether signals are treated as exceptions.  Rounding
+options include <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_CEILING" title="decimal.ROUND_CEILING"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_CEILING</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_DOWN" title="decimal.ROUND_DOWN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_DOWN</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_FLOOR" title="decimal.ROUND_FLOOR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_FLOOR</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_DOWN</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_UP</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_UP" title="decimal.ROUND_UP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_UP</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_05UP" title="decimal.ROUND_05UP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_05UP</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Signals are groups of exceptional conditions arising during the course of
+computation.  Depending on the needs of the application, signals may be ignored,
+considered as informational, or treated as exceptions. The signals in the
+decimal module are: <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Clamped" title="decimal.Clamped"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Clamped</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.DivisionByZero" title="decimal.DivisionByZero"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DivisionByZero</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="decimal.Inexact"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Inexact</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Rounded" title="decimal.Rounded"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rounded</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Subnormal" title="decimal.Subnormal"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Subnormal</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Overflow" title="decimal.Overflow"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Overflow</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Underflow" title="decimal.Underflow"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Underflow</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.FloatOperation" title="decimal.FloatOperation"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatOperation</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler.  When a signal is
+encountered, its flag is set to one, then, if the trap enabler is
+set to one, an exception is raised.  Flags are sticky, so the user needs to
+reset them before monitoring a calculation.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, <a class="reference external" href="http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html">The General Decimal Arithmetic
+Specification</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="quick-start-tutorial">
+<span id="decimal-tutorial"></span><h2>Quick-start Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#quick-start-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the current
+context with <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="decimal.getcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code></a> and, if necessary, setting new values for
+precision, rounding, or enabled traps:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,</span>
+<span class="go">        capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,</span>
+<span class="go">        InvalidOperation])</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">7</span>       <span class="c1"># Set a new precision</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or tuples.
+Construction from an integer or a float performs an exact conversion of the
+value of that integer or float.  Decimal numbers include special values such as
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> which stands for “Not a number”, positive and negative
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">28</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;10&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.14&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.14&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.14&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.4142135623730951&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0.5&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.414213562373095048801688724&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NaN&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;NaN&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-Infinity&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-Infinity&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.FloatOperation" title="decimal.FloatOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatOperation</span></code></a> signal is trapped, accidental mixing of
+decimals and floats in constructors or ordering comparisons raises
+an exception:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traps</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">FloatOperation</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">decimal.FloatOperation</span>: <span class="n">[&lt;class &#39;decimal.FloatOperation&#39;&gt;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.5&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mf">3.7</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">decimal.FloatOperation</span>: <span class="n">[&lt;class &#39;decimal.FloatOperation&#39;&gt;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.5&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mf">3.5</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of digits
+input.  Context precision and rounding only come into play during arithmetic
+operations.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.0&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.1415926535&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.1415926535&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.1415926535&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2.7182818285&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;5.85987&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rounding</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ROUND_UP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.1415926535&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2.7182818285&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;5.85988&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the internal limits of the C version are exceeded, constructing
+a decimal raises <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;1e9999999999999999999&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">decimal.InvalidOperation</span>: <span class="n">[&lt;class &#39;decimal.InvalidOperation&#39;&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python.  Here is a small decimal
+floating point flying circus:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;9.25&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">min</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.03&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[Decimal(&#39;0.03&#39;), Decimal(&#39;1.00&#39;), Decimal(&#39;1.34&#39;), Decimal(&#39;1.87&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> Decimal(&#39;2.35&#39;), Decimal(&#39;3.45&#39;), Decimal(&#39;9.25&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;19.29&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1.34&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.34</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.3&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;6.70&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;2.5058&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.77&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">28</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.414213562373095048801688724&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;2.718281828459045235360287471&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;10&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ln</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;2.302585092994045684017991455&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;10&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log10</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quantize()</span></code> method rounds a number to a fixed exponent.  This method is
+useful for monetary applications that often round results to a fixed number of
+places:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;7.325&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.01&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">rounding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ROUND_DOWN</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;7.32&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;7.325&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">rounding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ROUND_UP</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;8&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As shown above, the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="decimal.getcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code></a> function accesses the current context and
+allows the settings to be changed.  This approach meets the needs of most
+applications.</p>
+<p>For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts using the
+Context() constructor.  To make an alternate active, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.setcontext" title="decimal.setcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setcontext()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+<p>In accordance with the standard, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module provides two ready to
+use standard contexts, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.BasicContext" title="decimal.BasicContext"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BasicContext</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ExtendedContext" title="decimal.ExtendedContext"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExtendedContext</span></code></a>. The
+former is especially useful for debugging because many of the traps are
+enabled:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">myothercontext</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rounding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ROUND_HALF_DOWN</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">setcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myothercontext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ExtendedContext</span>
+<span class="go">Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,</span>
+<span class="go">        capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">setcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ExtendedContext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.142857143&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;Infinity&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">setcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BasicContext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;pyshell#143&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">-toplevel-</span>
+    <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">DivisionByZero</span>: <span class="n">x / 0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions
+encountered during computations.  The flags remain set until explicitly cleared,
+so it is best to clear the flags before each set of monitored computations by
+using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear_flags()</span></code> method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">setcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ExtendedContext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clear_flags</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">355</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">113</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.14159292&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,</span>
+<span class="go">        capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>flags</em> entry shows that the rational approximation to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pi</span></code> was
+rounded (digits beyond the context precision were thrown away) and that the
+result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-zero).</p>
+<p>Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traps</span></code> field of a
+context:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">setcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ExtendedContext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;Infinity&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traps</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">DivisionByZero</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;pyshell#112&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">-toplevel-</span>
+    <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">DivisionByZero</span>: <span class="n">x / 0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Most programs adjust the current context only once, at the beginning of the
+program.  And, in many applications, data is converted to <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> with
+a single cast inside a loop.  With context set and decimals created, the bulk of
+the program manipulates the data no differently than with other Python numeric
+types.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="decimal-objects">
+<span id="decimal-decimal"></span><h2>Decimal objects<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Decimal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value=&quot;0&quot;</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a new <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> object based from <em>value</em>.</p>
+<p><em>value</em> can be an integer, string, tuple, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, or another <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>
+object. If no <em>value</em> is given, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('0')</span></code>.  If <em>value</em> is a
+string, it should conform to the decimal numeric string syntax after leading
+and trailing whitespace characters, as well as underscores throughout, are removed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sign</span>           <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">digit</span>          <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;0&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;3&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;4&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;5&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;6&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;7&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;8&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;9&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">indicator</span>      <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;E&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">digits</span>         <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="n">digit</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">digit</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">part</span>   <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="n">digits</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">digits</span>
+<span class="n">exponent</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">part</span>  <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="n">indicator</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">digits</span>
+<span class="n">infinity</span>       <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;Infinity&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Inf&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">nan</span>            <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;NaN&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;sNaN&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">numeric</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">value</span>  <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">part</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">exponent</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">infinity</span>
+<span class="n">numeric</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">string</span> <span class="p">::</span><span class="o">=</span>  <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">numeric</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">nan</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code>
+appears above.  These include decimal digits from various other
+alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
+with the fullwidth digits <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\uff10'</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\uff19'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>value</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>, it should have three components, a sign
+(<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for positive or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for negative), a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> of
+digits, and an integer exponent. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal((0,</span> <span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">4,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">4),</span> <span class="pre">-3))</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('1.414')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>value</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, the binary floating point value is losslessly
+converted to its exact decimal equivalent.  This conversion can often require
+53 or more digits of precision.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal(float('1.1'))</span></code>
+converts to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>context</em> precision does not affect how many digits are stored. That is
+determined exclusively by the number of digits in <em>value</em>. For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('3.00000')</span></code> records all five zeros even if the context precision is
+only three.</p>
+<p>The purpose of the <em>context</em> argument is determining what to do if <em>value</em> is a
+malformed string.  If the context traps <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a>, an exception
+is raised; otherwise, the constructor returns a new Decimal with the value of
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Once constructed, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> objects are immutable.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The argument to the constructor is now permitted to be a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> arguments raise an exception if the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.FloatOperation" title="decimal.FloatOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatOperation</span></code></a>
+trap is set. By default the trap is off.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Underscores are allowed for grouping, as with integral and floating-point
+literals in code.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Decimal floating point objects share many properties with the other built-in
+numeric types such as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  All of the usual math
+operations and special methods apply.  Likewise, decimal objects can be
+copied, pickled, printed, used as dictionary keys, used as set elements,
+compared, sorted, and coerced to another type (such as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>There are some small differences between arithmetic on Decimal objects and
+arithmetic on integers and floats.  When the remainder operator <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> is
+applied to Decimal objects, the sign of the result is the sign of the
+<em>dividend</em> rather than the sign of the divisor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-3&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The integer division operator <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> behaves analogously, returning the
+integer part of the true quotient (truncating towards zero) rather than its
+floor, so as to preserve the usual identity <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">(x</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">y)</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">7</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="go">-2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> operators implement the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remainder</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divide-integer</span></code> operations (respectively) as described in the
+specification.</p>
+<p>Decimal objects cannot generally be combined with floats or
+instances of <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> in arithmetic operations:
+an attempt to add a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> to a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, for
+example, will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  However, it is possible to
+use Python’s comparison operators to compare a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>
+instance <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> with another number <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>.  This avoids confusing results
+when doing equality comparisons between numbers of different types.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Mixed-type comparisons between <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instances and other
+numeric types are now fully supported.</p>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal floating point
+objects also have a number of specialized methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.adjusted">
+<code class="descname">adjusted</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.adjusted" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the adjusted exponent after shifting out the coefficient’s
+rightmost digits until only the lead digit remains:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('321e+5').adjusted()</span></code> returns seven.  Used for determining the
+position of the most significant digit with respect to the decimal point.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.as_integer_ratio">
+<code class="descname">as_integer_ratio</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.as_integer_ratio" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(n,</span> <span class="pre">d)</span></code> of integers that represent the given
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and
+with a positive denominator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-3.14&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(-157, 50)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The conversion is exact.  Raise OverflowError on infinities and ValueError
+on NaNs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.as_tuple">
+<code class="descname">as_tuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.as_tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> representation of the number:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DecimalTuple(sign,</span> <span class="pre">digits,</span> <span class="pre">exponent)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.canonical">
+<code class="descname">canonical</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.canonical" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the canonical encoding of the argument.  Currently, the encoding of
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance is always canonical, so this operation returns
+its argument unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.compare">
+<code class="descname">compare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare the values of two Decimal instances.  <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare" title="decimal.Decimal.compare"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare()</span></code></a> returns a
+Decimal instance, and if either operand is a NaN then the result is a
+NaN:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">NaN</span>  <span class="o">==&gt;</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NaN&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">b</span>            <span class="o">==&gt;</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">b</span>           <span class="o">==&gt;</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">b</span>            <span class="o">==&gt;</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.compare_signal">
+<code class="descname">compare_signal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare_signal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This operation is identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare" title="decimal.Decimal.compare"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare()</span></code></a> method, except that all
+NaNs signal.  That is, if neither operand is a signaling NaN then any
+quiet NaN operand is treated as though it were a signaling NaN.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.compare_total">
+<code class="descname">compare_total</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare_total" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their
+numerical value.  Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare" title="decimal.Decimal.compare"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare()</span></code></a> method, but the result
+gives a total ordering on <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instances.  Two
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instances with the same numeric value but different
+representations compare unequal in this ordering:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;12.0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare_total</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;12&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Quiet and signaling NaNs are also included in the total ordering.  The
+result of this function is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('0')</span></code> if both operands have the same
+representation, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('-1')</span></code> if the first operand is lower in the
+total order than the second, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('1')</span></code> if the first operand is
+higher in the total order than the second operand.  See the specification
+for details of the total order.</p>
+<p>This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.compare_total_mag">
+<code class="descname">compare_total_mag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare_total_mag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their
+value as in <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.compare_total" title="decimal.Decimal.compare_total"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare_total()</span></code></a>, but ignoring the sign of each operand.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.compare_total_mag(y)</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs())</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.conjugate">
+<code class="descname">conjugate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.conjugate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Just returns self, this method is only to comply with the Decimal
+Specification.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.copy_abs">
+<code class="descname">copy_abs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.copy_abs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the absolute value of the argument.  This operation is unaffected
+by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is
+performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.copy_negate">
+<code class="descname">copy_negate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.copy_negate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the negation of the argument.  This operation is unaffected by the
+context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.copy_sign">
+<code class="descname">copy_sign</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.copy_sign" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the same as the
+sign of the second operand.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2.3&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy_sign</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-1.5&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-2.3&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.exp">
+<code class="descname">exp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.exp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the (natural) exponential function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e**x</span></code> at the
+given number.  The result is correctly rounded using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</span></code></a> rounding mode.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;2.718281828459045235360287471&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">321</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;2.561702493119680037517373933E+139&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.from_float">
+<code class="descname">from_float</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.from_float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Classmethod that converts a float to a decimal number, exactly.</p>
+<p>Note <cite>Decimal.from_float(0.1)</cite> is not the same as <cite>Decimal(‘0.1’)</cite>.
+Since 0.1 is not exactly representable in binary floating point, the
+value is stored as the nearest representable value which is
+<cite>0x1.999999999999ap-4</cite>.  That equivalent value in decimal is
+<cite>0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625</cite>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>From Python 3.2 onwards, a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance
+can also be constructed directly from a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;nan&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;NaN&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;inf&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;Infinity&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-inf&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-Infinity&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.fma">
+<code class="descname">fma</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>third</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.fma" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fused multiply-add.  Return self*other+third with no rounding of the
+intermediate product self*other.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fma</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;11&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_canonical">
+<code class="descname">is_canonical</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_canonical" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is canonical and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>
+otherwise.  Currently, a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance is always canonical, so
+this operation always returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_finite">
+<code class="descname">is_finite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_finite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is a finite number, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> if the argument is an infinity or a NaN.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_infinite">
+<code class="descname">is_infinite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_infinite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is either positive or negative
+infinity and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_nan">
+<code class="descname">is_nan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_nan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is a (quiet or signaling) NaN and
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_normal">
+<code class="descname">is_normal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_normal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is a <em>normal</em> finite number.  Return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> if the argument is zero, subnormal, infinite or a NaN.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_qnan">
+<code class="descname">is_qnan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_qnan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is a quiet NaN, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_signed">
+<code class="descname">is_signed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_signed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument has a negative sign and
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.  Note that zeros and NaNs can both carry signs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_snan">
+<code class="descname">is_snan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_snan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is a signaling NaN and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>
+otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_subnormal">
+<code class="descname">is_subnormal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_subnormal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is subnormal, and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>
+otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.is_zero">
+<code class="descname">is_zero</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.is_zero" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the argument is a (positive or negative) zero and
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.ln">
+<code class="descname">ln</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.ln" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the natural (base e) logarithm of the operand.  The result is
+correctly rounded using the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</span></code></a> rounding mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.log10">
+<code class="descname">log10</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.log10" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the base ten logarithm of the operand.  The result is correctly
+rounded using the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</span></code></a> rounding mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.logb">
+<code class="descname">logb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.logb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For a nonzero number, return the adjusted exponent of its operand as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance.  If the operand is a zero then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('-Infinity')</span></code> is returned and the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.DivisionByZero" title="decimal.DivisionByZero"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DivisionByZero</span></code></a> flag
+is raised.  If the operand is an infinity then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('Infinity')</span></code> is
+returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.logical_and">
+<code class="descname">logical_and</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_and" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_and" title="decimal.Decimal.logical_and"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_and()</span></code></a> is a logical operation which takes two <em>logical
+operands</em> (see <a class="reference internal" href="#logical-operands-label"><span class="std std-ref">Logical operands</span></a>).  The result is the
+digit-wise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code> of the two operands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.logical_invert">
+<code class="descname">logical_invert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_invert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_invert" title="decimal.Decimal.logical_invert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_invert()</span></code></a> is a logical operation.  The
+result is the digit-wise inversion of the operand.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.logical_or">
+<code class="descname">logical_or</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_or" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_or" title="decimal.Decimal.logical_or"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_or()</span></code></a> is a logical operation which takes two <em>logical
+operands</em> (see <a class="reference internal" href="#logical-operands-label"><span class="std std-ref">Logical operands</span></a>).  The result is the
+digit-wise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code> of the two operands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.logical_xor">
+<code class="descname">logical_xor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_xor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.logical_xor" title="decimal.Decimal.logical_xor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_xor()</span></code></a> is a logical operation which takes two <em>logical
+operands</em> (see <a class="reference internal" href="#logical-operands-label"><span class="std std-ref">Logical operands</span></a>).  The result is the
+digit-wise exclusive or of the two operands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.max">
+<code class="descname">max</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max(self,</span> <span class="pre">other)</span></code> except that the context rounding rule is applied
+before returning and that <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> values are either signaled or
+ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or
+quiet).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.max_mag">
+<code class="descname">max_mag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.max_mag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.max" title="decimal.Decimal.max"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> method, but the comparison is done using the
+absolute values of the operands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.min">
+<code class="descname">min</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min(self,</span> <span class="pre">other)</span></code> except that the context rounding rule is applied
+before returning and that <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> values are either signaled or
+ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or
+quiet).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.min_mag">
+<code class="descname">min_mag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.min_mag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.min" title="decimal.Decimal.min"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> method, but the comparison is done using the
+absolute values of the operands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.next_minus">
+<code class="descname">next_minus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.next_minus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the largest number representable in the given context (or in the
+current thread’s context if no context is given) that is smaller than the
+given operand.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.next_plus">
+<code class="descname">next_plus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.next_plus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the smallest number representable in the given context (or in the
+current thread’s context if no context is given) that is larger than the
+given operand.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.next_toward">
+<code class="descname">next_toward</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.next_toward" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the two operands are unequal, return the number closest to the first
+operand in the direction of the second operand.  If both operands are
+numerically equal, return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to
+be the same as the sign of the second operand.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.normalize">
+<code class="descname">normalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.normalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Normalize the number by stripping the rightmost trailing zeros and
+converting any result equal to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('0')</span></code> to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('0e0')</span></code>. Used for producing canonical values for attributes
+of an equivalence class. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('32.100')</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('0.321000e+2')</span></code> both normalize to the equivalent value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('32.1')</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.number_class">
+<code class="descname">number_class</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.number_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string describing the <em>class</em> of the operand.  The returned value
+is one of the following ten strings.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;-Infinity&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is negative infinity.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;-Normal&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is a negative normal number.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;-Subnormal&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is negative and subnormal.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;-Zero&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is a negative zero.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;+Zero&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is a positive zero.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;+Subnormal&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is positive and subnormal.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;+Normal&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is a positive normal number.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;+Infinity&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is positive infinity.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;NaN&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is a quiet NaN (Not a Number).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;sNaN&quot;</span></code>, indicating that the operand is a signaling NaN.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.quantize">
+<code class="descname">quantize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exp</em>, <em>rounding=None</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.quantize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a value equal to the first operand after rounding and having the
+exponent of the second operand.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.41421356&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.000&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.414&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unlike other operations, if the length of the coefficient after the
+quantize operation would be greater than precision, then an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a> is signaled. This guarantees that, unless there
+is an error condition, the quantized exponent is always equal to that of
+the right-hand operand.</p>
+<p>Also unlike other operations, quantize never signals Underflow, even if
+the result is subnormal and inexact.</p>
+<p>If the exponent of the second operand is larger than that of the first
+then rounding may be necessary.  In this case, the rounding mode is
+determined by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rounding</span></code> argument if given, else by the given
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code> argument; if neither argument is given the rounding mode of
+the current thread’s context is used.</p>
+<p>An error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is greater than
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emax</span></code> or less than <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Etiny</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.radix">
+<code class="descname">radix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.radix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal(10)</span></code>, the radix (base) in which the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>
+class does all its arithmetic.  Included for compatibility with the
+specification.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.remainder_near">
+<code class="descname">remainder_near</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.remainder_near" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the remainder from dividing <em>self</em> by <em>other</em>.  This differs from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">other</span></code> in that the sign of the remainder is chosen so as to
+minimize its absolute value.  More precisely, the return value is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">n</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">other</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> is the integer nearest to the exact
+value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">other</span></code>, and if two integers are equally near then the
+even one is chosen.</p>
+<p>If the result is zero then its sign will be the sign of <em>self</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">18</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remainder_near</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-2&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remainder_near</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;5&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">35</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remainder_near</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;-5&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.rotate">
+<code class="descname">rotate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.rotate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the result of rotating the digits of the first operand by an amount
+specified by the second operand.  The second operand must be an integer in
+the range -precision through precision.  The absolute value of the second
+operand gives the number of places to rotate.  If the second operand is
+positive then rotation is to the left; otherwise rotation is to the right.
+The coefficient of the first operand is padded on the left with zeros to
+length precision if necessary.  The sign and exponent of the first operand
+are unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.same_quantum">
+<code class="descname">same_quantum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.same_quantum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether both are
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed
+and no rounding is performed.  As an exception, the C version may raise
+InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot be converted exactly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.scaleb">
+<code class="descname">scaleb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.scaleb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the first operand with exponent adjusted by the second.
+Equivalently, return the first operand multiplied by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10**other</span></code>.  The
+second operand must be an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.shift">
+<code class="descname">shift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.shift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the result of shifting the digits of the first operand by an amount
+specified by the second operand.  The second operand must be an integer in
+the range -precision through precision.  The absolute value of the second
+operand gives the number of places to shift.  If the second operand is
+positive then the shift is to the left; otherwise the shift is to the
+right.  Digits shifted into the coefficient are zeros.  The sign and
+exponent of the first operand are unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.sqrt">
+<code class="descname">sqrt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.sqrt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the square root of the argument to full precision.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.to_eng_string">
+<code class="descname">to_eng_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.to_eng_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent is needed.</p>
+<p>Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.  This
+can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place and may
+require the addition of either one or two trailing zeros.</p>
+<p>For example, this converts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('123E+1')</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('1.23E+3')</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.to_integral">
+<code class="descname">to_integral</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rounding=None</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.to_integral" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.to_integral_value" title="decimal.Decimal.to_integral_value"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">to_integral_value()</span></code></a> method.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">to_integral</span></code>
+name has been kept for compatibility with older versions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.to_integral_exact">
+<code class="descname">to_integral_exact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rounding=None</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.to_integral_exact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round to the nearest integer, signaling <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="decimal.Inexact"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Inexact</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Rounded" title="decimal.Rounded"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rounded</span></code></a> as appropriate if rounding occurs.  The rounding mode is
+determined by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rounding</span></code> parameter if given, else by the given
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code>.  If neither parameter is given then the rounding mode of the
+current context is used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Decimal.to_integral_value">
+<code class="descname">to_integral_value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rounding=None</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Decimal.to_integral_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round to the nearest integer without signaling <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="decimal.Inexact"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Inexact</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Rounded" title="decimal.Rounded"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rounded</span></code></a>.  If given, applies <em>rounding</em>; otherwise, uses the
+rounding method in either the supplied <em>context</em> or the current context.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="logical-operands">
+<span id="logical-operands-label"></span><h3>Logical operands<a class="headerlink" href="#logical-operands" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_and()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_invert()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_or()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logical_xor()</span></code> methods expect their arguments to be <em>logical
+operands</em>.  A <em>logical operand</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance whose
+exponent and sign are both zero, and whose digits are all either
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="context-objects">
+<span id="decimal-context"></span><h2>Context objects<a class="headerlink" href="#context-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Contexts are environments for arithmetic operations.  They govern precision, set
+rules for rounding, determine which signals are treated as exceptions, and limit
+the range for exponents.</p>
+<p>Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="decimal.getcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.setcontext" title="decimal.setcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setcontext()</span></code></a> functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="decimal.getcontext">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">getcontext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current context for the active thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="decimal.setcontext">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">setcontext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.setcontext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current context for the active thread to <em>c</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>You can also use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement and the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.localcontext" title="decimal.localcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localcontext()</span></code></a>
+function to temporarily change the active context.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="decimal.localcontext">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">localcontext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ctx=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.localcontext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a context manager that will set the current context for the active thread
+to a copy of <em>ctx</em> on entry to the with-statement and restore the previous context
+when exiting the with-statement. If no context is specified, a copy of the
+current context is used.</p>
+<p>For example, the following code sets the current decimal precision to 42 places,
+performs a calculation, and then automatically restores the previous context:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">localcontext</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">localcontext</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>   <span class="c1"># Perform a high precision calculation</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">calculate_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">+</span><span class="n">s</span>  <span class="c1"># Round the final result back to the default precision</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>New contexts can also be created using the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> constructor
+described below. In addition, the module provides three pre-made contexts:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.BasicContext">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">BasicContext</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.BasicContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic
+Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_UP</span></code></a>.  All flags are cleared.  All traps are enabled (treated
+as exceptions) except <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="decimal.Inexact"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Inexact</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Rounded" title="decimal.Rounded"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rounded</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Subnormal" title="decimal.Subnormal"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Subnormal</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Because many of the traps are enabled, this context is useful for debugging.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.ExtendedContext">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ExtendedContext</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ExtendedContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic
+Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</span></code></a>.  All flags are cleared.  No traps are enabled (so that
+exceptions are not raised during computations).</p>
+<p>Because the traps are disabled, this context is useful for applications that
+prefer to have result value of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code> instead of
+raising exceptions.  This allows an application to complete a run in the
+presence of conditions that would otherwise halt the program.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.DefaultContext">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">DefaultContext</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.DefaultContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This context is used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> constructor as a prototype for new
+contexts.  Changing a field (such a precision) has the effect of changing the
+default for new contexts created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>This context is most useful in multi-threaded environments.  Changing one of the
+fields before threads are started has the effect of setting system-wide
+defaults.  Changing the fields after threads have started is not recommended as
+it would require thread synchronization to prevent race conditions.</p>
+<p>In single threaded environments, it is preferable to not use this context at
+all.  Instead, simply create contexts explicitly as described below.</p>
+<p>The default values are <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prec</span></code>=<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">28</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rounding</span></code>=<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN" title="decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</span></code></a>,
+and enabled traps for <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Overflow" title="decimal.Overflow"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Overflow</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.DivisionByZero" title="decimal.DivisionByZero"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DivisionByZero</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Context">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Context</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prec=None</em>, <em>rounding=None</em>, <em>Emin=None</em>, <em>Emax=None</em>, <em>capitals=None</em>, <em>clamp=None</em>, <em>flags=None</em>, <em>traps=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new context.  If a field is not specified or is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the
+default values are copied from the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.DefaultContext" title="decimal.DefaultContext"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultContext</span></code></a>.  If the <em>flags</em>
+field is not specified or is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, all flags are cleared.</p>
+<p><em>prec</em> is an integer in the range [<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.MAX_PREC" title="decimal.MAX_PREC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAX_PREC</span></code></a>] that sets
+the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.</p>
+<p>The <em>rounding</em> option is one of the constants listed in the section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#rounding-modes">Rounding Modes</a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>traps</em> and <em>flags</em> fields list any signals to be set. Generally, new
+contexts should only set traps and leave the flags clear.</p>
+<p>The <em>Emin</em> and <em>Emax</em> fields are integers specifying the outer limits allowable
+for exponents. <em>Emin</em> must be in the range [<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.MIN_EMIN" title="decimal.MIN_EMIN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIN_EMIN</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>],
+<em>Emax</em> in the range [<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.MAX_EMAX" title="decimal.MAX_EMAX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAX_EMAX</span></code></a>].</p>
+<p>The <em>capitals</em> field is either <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (the default). If set to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, exponents are printed with a capital <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">E</span></code>; otherwise, a
+lowercase <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code> is used: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('6.02e+23')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>clamp</em> field is either <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (the default) or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.
+If set to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, the exponent <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code> of a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>
+instance representable in this context is strictly limited to the
+range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emin</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">prec</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">e</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">Emax</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">prec</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.  If <em>clamp</em> is
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> then a weaker condition holds: the adjusted exponent of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance is at most <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emax</span></code>.  When <em>clamp</em> is
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, a large normal number will, where possible, have its
+exponent reduced and a corresponding number of zeros added to its
+coefficient, in order to fit the exponent constraints; this
+preserves the value of the number but loses information about
+significant trailing zeros.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Emax</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">999</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">clamp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.23e999&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.23000E+999&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A <em>clamp</em> value of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> allows compatibility with the
+fixed-width decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> class defines several general purpose methods as well as
+a large number of methods for doing arithmetic directly in a given context.
+In addition, for each of the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> methods described above (with
+the exception of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">adjusted()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_tuple()</span></code> methods) there is
+a corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> method.  For example, for a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a>
+instance <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.exp(x)</span></code> is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.exp(context=C)</span></code>.  Each <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> method accepts a
+Python integer (an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>) anywhere that a
+Decimal instance is accepted.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.clear_flags">
+<code class="descname">clear_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.clear_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resets all of the flags to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.clear_traps">
+<code class="descname">clear_traps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.clear_traps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resets all of the traps to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.copy">
+<code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a duplicate of the context.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.copy_decimal">
+<code class="descname">copy_decimal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.copy_decimal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the Decimal instance num.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.create_decimal">
+<code class="descname">create_decimal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.create_decimal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new Decimal instance from <em>num</em> but using <em>self</em> as
+context. Unlike the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> constructor, the context precision,
+rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to the conversion.</p>
+<p>This is useful because constants are often given to a greater precision
+than is needed by the application.  Another benefit is that rounding
+immediately eliminates unintended effects from digits beyond the current
+precision. In the following example, using unrounded inputs means that
+adding zero to a sum can change the result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.4445&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0023&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;4.45&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.4445&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0023&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;4.44&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This method implements the to-number operation of the IBM specification.
+If the argument is a string, no leading or trailing whitespace or
+underscores are permitted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float">
+<code class="descname">create_decimal_from_float</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new Decimal instance from a float <em>f</em> but rounding using <em>self</em>
+as the context.  Unlike the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.from_float" title="decimal.Decimal.from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal.from_float()</span></code></a> class method,
+the context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to
+the conversion.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rounding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ROUND_DOWN</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_decimal_from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.1415&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">traps</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Inexact</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_decimal_from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">decimal.Inexact</span>: <span class="n">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.Etiny">
+<code class="descname">Etiny</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.Etiny" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a value equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emin</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">prec</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> which is the minimum exponent
+value for subnormal results.  When underflow occurs, the exponent is set
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context.Etiny" title="decimal.Context.Etiny"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Etiny</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.Etop">
+<code class="descname">Etop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.Etop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a value equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emax</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">prec</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The usual approach to working with decimals is to create <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>
+instances and then apply arithmetic operations which take place within the
+current context for the active thread.  An alternative approach is to use
+context methods for calculating within a specific context.  The methods are
+similar to those for the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> class and are only briefly
+recounted here.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.abs">
+<code class="descname">abs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.abs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the absolute value of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.add">
+<code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sum of <em>x</em> and <em>y</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.canonical">
+<code class="descname">canonical</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.canonical" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the same Decimal object <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.compare">
+<code class="descname">compare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.compare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> numerically.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.compare_signal">
+<code class="descname">compare_signal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.compare_signal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares the values of the two operands numerically.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.compare_total">
+<code class="descname">compare_total</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.compare_total" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares two operands using their abstract representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.compare_total_mag">
+<code class="descname">compare_total_mag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.compare_total_mag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares two operands using their abstract representation, ignoring sign.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.copy_abs">
+<code class="descname">copy_abs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.copy_abs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a copy of <em>x</em> with the sign set to 0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.copy_negate">
+<code class="descname">copy_negate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.copy_negate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a copy of <em>x</em> with the sign inverted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.copy_sign">
+<code class="descname">copy_sign</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.copy_sign" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copies the sign from <em>y</em> to <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.divide">
+<code class="descname">divide</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.divide" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>x</em> divided by <em>y</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.divide_int">
+<code class="descname">divide_int</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.divide_int" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>x</em> divided by <em>y</em>, truncated to an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.divmod">
+<code class="descname">divmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.divmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.exp">
+<code class="descname">exp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.exp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <cite>e ** x</cite>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.fma">
+<code class="descname">fma</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>z</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.fma" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <em>x</em> multiplied by <em>y</em>, plus <em>z</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_canonical">
+<code class="descname">is_canonical</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_canonical" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is canonical; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_finite">
+<code class="descname">is_finite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_finite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is finite; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_infinite">
+<code class="descname">is_infinite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_infinite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is infinite; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_nan">
+<code class="descname">is_nan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_nan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_normal">
+<code class="descname">is_normal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_normal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a normal number; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_qnan">
+<code class="descname">is_qnan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_qnan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_signed">
+<code class="descname">is_signed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_signed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is negative; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_snan">
+<code class="descname">is_snan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_snan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_subnormal">
+<code class="descname">is_subnormal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_subnormal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is subnormal; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.is_zero">
+<code class="descname">is_zero</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.is_zero" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a zero; otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.ln">
+<code class="descname">ln</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.ln" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.log10">
+<code class="descname">log10</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.log10" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the base 10 logarithm of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.logb">
+<code class="descname">logb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.logb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand’s MSD.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.logical_and">
+<code class="descname">logical_and</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.logical_and" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Applies the logical operation <em>and</em> between each operand’s digits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.logical_invert">
+<code class="descname">logical_invert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.logical_invert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invert all the digits in <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.logical_or">
+<code class="descname">logical_or</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.logical_or" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Applies the logical operation <em>or</em> between each operand’s digits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.logical_xor">
+<code class="descname">logical_xor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.logical_xor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Applies the logical operation <em>xor</em> between each operand’s digits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.max">
+<code class="descname">max</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares two values numerically and returns the maximum.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.max_mag">
+<code class="descname">max_mag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.max_mag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.min">
+<code class="descname">min</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares two values numerically and returns the minimum.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.min_mag">
+<code class="descname">min_mag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.min_mag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.minus">
+<code class="descname">minus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.minus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Minus corresponds to the unary prefix minus operator in Python.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.multiply">
+<code class="descname">multiply</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.multiply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the product of <em>x</em> and <em>y</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.next_minus">
+<code class="descname">next_minus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.next_minus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the largest representable number smaller than <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.next_plus">
+<code class="descname">next_plus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.next_plus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the smallest representable number larger than <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.next_toward">
+<code class="descname">next_toward</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.next_toward" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the number closest to <em>x</em>, in direction towards <em>y</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.normalize">
+<code class="descname">normalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.normalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reduces <em>x</em> to its simplest form.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.number_class">
+<code class="descname">number_class</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.number_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an indication of the class of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.plus">
+<code class="descname">plus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.plus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Plus corresponds to the unary prefix plus operator in Python.  This
+operation applies the context precision and rounding, so it is <em>not</em> an
+identity operation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.power">
+<code class="descname">power</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>modulo=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.power" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> to the power of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>, reduced modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulo</span></code> if given.</p>
+<p>With two arguments, compute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x**y</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is negative then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>
+must be integral.  The result will be inexact unless <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> is integral and
+the result is finite and can be expressed exactly in ‘precision’ digits.
+The rounding mode of the context is used. Results are always correctly-rounded
+in the Python version.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The C module computes <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context.power" title="decimal.Context.power"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">power()</span></code></a> in terms of the correctly-rounded
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context.exp" title="decimal.Context.exp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exp()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context.ln" title="decimal.Context.ln"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ln()</span></code></a> functions. The result is well-defined but
+only “almost always correctly-rounded”.</p>
+</div>
+<p>With three arguments, compute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x**y)</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">modulo</span></code>.  For the three argument
+form, the following restrictions on the arguments hold:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>all three arguments must be integral</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> must be nonnegative</p></li>
+<li><p>at least one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> must be nonzero</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulo</span></code> must be nonzero and have at most ‘precision’ digits</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The value resulting from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context.power(x,</span> <span class="pre">y,</span> <span class="pre">modulo)</span></code> is
+equal to the value that would be obtained by computing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x**y)</span>
+<span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">modulo</span></code> with unbounded precision, but is computed more
+efficiently.  The exponent of the result is zero, regardless of
+the exponents of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulo</span></code>.  The result is
+always exact.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.quantize">
+<code class="descname">quantize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.quantize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a value equal to <em>x</em> (rounded), having the exponent of <em>y</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.radix">
+<code class="descname">radix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.radix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Just returns 10, as this is Decimal, :)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.remainder">
+<code class="descname">remainder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.remainder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the remainder from integer division.</p>
+<p>The sign of the result, if non-zero, is the same as that of the original
+dividend.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.remainder_near">
+<code class="descname">remainder_near</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.remainder_near" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code>, where <em>n</em> is the integer nearest the exact value
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> (if the result is 0 then its sign will be the sign of <em>x</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.rotate">
+<code class="descname">rotate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.rotate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a rotated copy of <em>x</em>, <em>y</em> times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.same_quantum">
+<code class="descname">same_quantum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.same_quantum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the two operands have the same exponent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.scaleb">
+<code class="descname">scaleb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.scaleb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the first operand after adding the second value its exp.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.shift">
+<code class="descname">shift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.shift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a shifted copy of <em>x</em>, <em>y</em> times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.sqrt">
+<code class="descname">sqrt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.sqrt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Square root of a non-negative number to context precision.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.subtract">
+<code class="descname">subtract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.subtract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the difference between <em>x</em> and <em>y</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.to_eng_string">
+<code class="descname">to_eng_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.to_eng_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent is needed.</p>
+<p>Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.  This
+can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place and may
+require the addition of either one or two trailing zeros.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.to_integral_exact">
+<code class="descname">to_integral_exact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.to_integral_exact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rounds to an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="decimal.Context.to_sci_string">
+<code class="descname">to_sci_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Context.to_sci_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts a number to a string using scientific notation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<span id="decimal-rounding-modes"></span><h2>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The constants in this section are only relevant for the C module. They
+are also included in the pure Python version for compatibility.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"></th>
+<th class="head"><p>32-bit</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>64-bit</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.MAX_PREC">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">MAX_PREC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.MAX_PREC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">425000000</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">999999999999999999</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.MAX_EMAX">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">MAX_EMAX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.MAX_EMAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">425000000</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">999999999999999999</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.MIN_EMIN">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">MIN_EMIN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.MIN_EMIN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-425000000</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-999999999999999999</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.MIN_ETINY">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">MIN_ETINY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.MIN_ETINY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-849999999</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1999999999999999997</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.HAVE_THREADS">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">HAVE_THREADS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.HAVE_THREADS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>. If Python is compiled without threads, the
+C version automatically disables the expensive thread local context
+machinery. In this case, the value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="rounding-modes">
+<h2>Rounding modes<a class="headerlink" href="#rounding-modes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_CEILING">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_CEILING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_CEILING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round towards <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_DOWN">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_DOWN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_DOWN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round towards zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_FLOOR">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_FLOOR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_FLOOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round towards <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_HALF_DOWN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round to nearest with ties going towards zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_HALF_UP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round to nearest with ties going away from zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_UP">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_UP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_UP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round away from zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="decimal.ROUND_05UP">
+<code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">ROUND_05UP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.ROUND_05UP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero would have
+been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="signals">
+<span id="decimal-signals"></span><h2>Signals<a class="headerlink" href="#signals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Signals represent conditions that arise during computation. Each corresponds to
+one context flag and one context trap enabler.</p>
+<p>The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered. After the
+computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for instance, to
+determine whether a computation was exact). After checking the flags, be sure to
+clear all flags before starting the next computation.</p>
+<p>If the context’s trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition causes a
+Python exception to be raised.  For example, if the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.DivisionByZero" title="decimal.DivisionByZero"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DivisionByZero</span></code></a> trap
+is set, then a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.DivisionByZero" title="decimal.DivisionByZero"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DivisionByZero</span></code></a> exception is raised upon encountering the
+condition.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Clamped">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Clamped</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Clamped" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.</p>
+<p>Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the context’s
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emin</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emax</span></code> limits.  If possible, the exponent is reduced to
+fit by adding zeros to the coefficient.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.DecimalException">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">DecimalException</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.DecimalException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for other signals and a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ArithmeticError" title="ArithmeticError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArithmeticError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.DivisionByZero">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">DivisionByZero</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.DivisionByZero" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.</p>
+<p>Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number to a negative
+power.  If this signal is not trapped, returns <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code> with the sign determined by the inputs to the calculation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Inexact">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Inexact</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.</p>
+<p>Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding. The rounded result
+is returned.  The signal flag or trap is used to detect when results are
+inexact.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.InvalidOperation">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">InvalidOperation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An invalid operation was performed.</p>
+<p>Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense. If not
+trapped, returns <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>.  Possible causes include:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Infinity</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">Infinity</span>
+<span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">Infinity</span>
+<span class="n">Infinity</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Infinity</span>
+<span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">Infinity</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">non</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">integer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="n">Infinity</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Overflow">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Overflow</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Overflow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Numerical overflow.</p>
+<p>Indicates the exponent is larger than <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emax</span></code> after rounding has
+occurred.  If not trapped, the result depends on the rounding mode, either
+pulling inward to the largest representable finite number or rounding outward
+to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>.  In either case, <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="decimal.Inexact"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Inexact</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Rounded" title="decimal.Rounded"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rounded</span></code></a>
+are also signaled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Rounded">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Rounded</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Rounded" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.</p>
+<p>Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits are zero
+(such as rounding <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5.00</span></code> to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5.0</span></code>).  If not trapped, returns
+the result unchanged.  This signal is used to detect loss of significant
+digits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Subnormal">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Subnormal</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Subnormal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exponent was lower than <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emin</span></code> prior to rounding.</p>
+<p>Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too small). If
+not trapped, returns the result unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.Underflow">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">Underflow</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.Underflow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.</p>
+<p>Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding. <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="decimal.Inexact"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Inexact</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Subnormal" title="decimal.Subnormal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Subnormal</span></code></a> are also signaled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="decimal.FloatOperation">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">decimal.</code><code class="descname">FloatOperation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#decimal.FloatOperation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.</p>
+<p>If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals is
+permitted in the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> constructor,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context.create_decimal" title="decimal.Context.create_decimal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_decimal()</span></code></a> and all comparison operators.
+Both conversion and comparisons are exact. Any occurrence of a mixed
+operation is silently recorded by setting <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.FloatOperation" title="decimal.FloatOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatOperation</span></code></a> in the
+context flags. Explicit conversions with <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal.from_float" title="decimal.Decimal.from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_float()</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float" title="decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_decimal_from_float()</span></code></a> do not set the flag.</p>
+<p>Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and explicit
+conversions are silent. All other mixed operations raise <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.FloatOperation" title="decimal.FloatOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatOperation</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">exceptions</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArithmeticError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exceptions</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Exception</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">DecimalException</span>
+        <span class="n">Clamped</span>
+        <span class="n">DivisionByZero</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">DecimalException</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exceptions</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">Inexact</span>
+            <span class="n">Overflow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Inexact</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Rounded</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">Underflow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Inexact</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Rounded</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Subnormal</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">InvalidOperation</span>
+        <span class="n">Rounded</span>
+        <span class="n">Subnormal</span>
+        <span class="n">FloatOperation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">DecimalException</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exceptions</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TypeError</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="floating-point-notes">
+<span id="decimal-notes"></span><h2>Floating Point Notes<a class="headerlink" href="#floating-point-notes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision">
+<h3>Mitigating round-off error with increased precision<a class="headerlink" href="#mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation error
+(making it possible to represent <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.1</span></code> exactly); however, some operations
+can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed the fixed precision.</p>
+<p>The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or subtraction
+of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of significance.  Knuth
+provides two instructive examples where rounded floating point arithmetic with
+insufficient precision causes the breakdown of the associative and distributive
+properties of addition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="go"># Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">getcontext</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">8</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">11111113</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">11111111</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;7.51111111&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">w</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;9.5111111&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;10&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;6.0000003&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.01&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.0060000&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module makes it possible to restore the identities by
+expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of significance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">11111113</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">11111111</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;7.51111111&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">w</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;9.51111111&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;9.51111111&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;6.0000003&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.0060000&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.0060000&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="special-values">
+<h3>Special values<a class="headerlink" href="#special-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The number system for the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module provides special values
+including <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sNaN</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>,
+and two zeros, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+0</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Infinities can be constructed directly with:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('Infinity')</span></code>. Also,
+they can arise from dividing by zero when the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.DivisionByZero" title="decimal.DivisionByZero"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DivisionByZero</span></code></a> signal is
+not trapped.  Likewise, when the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Overflow" title="decimal.Overflow"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Overflow</span></code></a> signal is not trapped, infinity
+can result from rounding beyond the limits of the largest representable number.</p>
+<p>The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic operations
+where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers.  For instance,
+adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite result.</p>
+<p>Some operations are indeterminate and return <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>, or if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a> signal is trapped, raise an exception.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0/0</span></code> returns <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> which means “not a number”.  This variety of
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> is quiet and, once created, will flow through other computations
+always resulting in another <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>.  This behavior can be useful for a
+series of computations that occasionally have missing inputs — it allows the
+calculation to proceed while flagging specific results as invalid.</p>
+<p>A variant is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sNaN</span></code> which signals rather than remaining quiet after every
+operation.  This is a useful return value when an invalid result needs to
+interrupt a calculation for special handling.</p>
+<p>The behavior of Python’s comparison operators can be a little surprising where a
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> is involved.  A test for equality where one of the operands is a
+quiet or signaling <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> always returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> (even when doing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')</span></code>), while a test for inequality always returns
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.  An attempt to compare two Decimals using any of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> operators will raise the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a> signal
+if either operand is a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>, and return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> if this signal is
+not trapped.  Note that the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not
+specify the behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons
+involving a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in
+section 5.7).  To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare-signal()</span></code> methods instead.</p>
+<p>The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow. They keep the sign
+that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried out to greater
+precision.  Since their magnitude is zero, both positive and negative zeros are
+treated as equal and their sign is informational.</p>
+<p>In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there are
+various representations of zero with differing precisions yet equivalent in
+value.  This takes a bit of getting used to.  For an eye accustomed to
+normalized floating point representations, it is not immediately obvious that
+the following calculation returns a value equal to zero:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Infinity&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0E-1000026&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="working-with-threads">
+<span id="decimal-threads"></span><h2>Working with threads<a class="headerlink" href="#working-with-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="decimal.getcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code></a> function accesses a different <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> object for
+each thread.  Having separate thread contexts means that threads may make
+changes (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext().prec=10</span></code>) without interfering with other threads.</p>
+<p>Likewise, the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.setcontext" title="decimal.setcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setcontext()</span></code></a> function automatically assigns its target to
+the current thread.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.setcontext" title="decimal.setcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setcontext()</span></code></a> has not been called before <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="decimal.getcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code></a>, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="decimal.getcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code></a> will automatically create a new context for use in the
+current thread.</p>
+<p>The new context is copied from a prototype context called <em>DefaultContext</em>. To
+control the defaults so that each thread will use the same values throughout the
+application, directly modify the <em>DefaultContext</em> object. This should be done
+<em>before</em> any threads are started so that there won’t be a race condition between
+threads calling <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.getcontext" title="decimal.getcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code></a>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched</span>
+<span class="n">DefaultContext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">12</span>
+<span class="n">DefaultContext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rounding</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ROUND_DOWN</span>
+<span class="n">DefaultContext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traps</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ExtendedContext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traps</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">DefaultContext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traps</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">InvalidOperation</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="n">setcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">DefaultContext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Afterwards, the threads can be started</span>
+<span class="n">t1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">t2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">t3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+ <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="recipes">
+<span id="decimal-recipes"></span><h2>Recipes<a class="headerlink" href="#recipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that demonstrate ways
+to work with the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">moneyfmt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">places</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">curr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+             <span class="n">pos</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">neg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">trailneg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    places:  required number of places after the decimal point</span>
+<span class="sd">    curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)</span>
+<span class="sd">    sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)</span>
+<span class="sd">    dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)</span>
+<span class="sd">             only specify as blank when places is zero</span>
+<span class="sd">    pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: &#39;+&#39;, space or blank</span>
+<span class="sd">    neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: &#39;-&#39;, &#39;(&#39;, space or blank</span>
+<span class="sd">    trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  &#39;-&#39;, &#39;)&#39;, space or blank</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; d = Decimal(&#39;-1234567.8901&#39;)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; moneyfmt(d, curr=&#39;$&#39;)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &#39;-$1,234,567.89&#39;</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep=&#39;.&#39;, dp=&#39;&#39;, neg=&#39;&#39;, trailneg=&#39;-&#39;)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &#39;1.234.568-&#39;</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; moneyfmt(d, curr=&#39;$&#39;, neg=&#39;(&#39;, trailneg=&#39;)&#39;)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &#39;($1,234,567.89)&#39;</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=&#39; &#39;)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &#39;123 456 789.00&#39;</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; moneyfmt(Decimal(&#39;-0.02&#39;), neg=&#39;&lt;&#39;, trailneg=&#39;&gt;&#39;)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &#39;&lt;0.02&gt;&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">places</span>      <span class="c1"># 2 places --&gt; &#39;0.01&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_tuple</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="n">digits</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">next</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">digits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trailneg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">places</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">digits</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="s1">&#39;0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">places</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">digits</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+            <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sep</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">curr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">build</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">neg</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sign</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">pi</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Compute Pi to the current precision.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(pi())</span>
+<span class="sd">    3.141592653589793238462643383</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>  <span class="c1"># extra digits for intermediate steps</span>
+    <span class="n">three</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># substitute &quot;three=3.0&quot; for regular floats</span>
+    <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">na</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">da</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">three</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">24</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">lasts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span>
+        <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">na</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">na</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">na</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">8</span>
+        <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">da</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">da</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">da</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">32</span>
+        <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">d</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">t</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">+</span><span class="n">s</span>               <span class="c1"># unary plus applies the new precision</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">exp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(exp(Decimal(1)))</span>
+<span class="sd">    2.718281828459045235360287471</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(exp(Decimal(2)))</span>
+<span class="sd">    7.389056098930650227230427461</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(exp(2.0))</span>
+<span class="sd">    7.38905609893</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(exp(2+0j))</span>
+<span class="sd">    (7.38905609893+0j)</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fact</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">lasts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span>
+        <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+        <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">fact</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">+</span><span class="n">s</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.</span>
+<span class="sd">    For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(cos(Decimal(&#39;0.5&#39;)))</span>
+<span class="sd">    0.8775825618903727161162815826</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(cos(0.5))</span>
+<span class="sd">    0.87758256189</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(cos(0.5+0j))</span>
+<span class="sd">    (0.87758256189+0j)</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fact</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sign</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">lasts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span>
+        <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+        <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+        <span class="n">sign</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">sign</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">+</span><span class="n">s</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">sin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return the sine of x as measured in radians.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.</span>
+<span class="sd">    For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(sin(Decimal(&#39;0.5&#39;)))</span>
+<span class="sd">    0.4794255386042030002732879352</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(sin(0.5))</span>
+<span class="sd">    0.479425538604</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(sin(0.5+0j))</span>
+<span class="sd">    (0.479425538604+0j)</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fact</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sign</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">lasts</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">lasts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span>
+        <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+        <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+        <span class="n">sign</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">sign</span>
+    <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">+</span><span class="n">s</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="decimal-faq">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Decimal FAQ<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal-faq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Q. It is cumbersome to type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal('1234.5')</span></code>.  Is there a way to
+minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?</p>
+<p>A. Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">D</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.23&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.45&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;4.68&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs have many
+places and need to be rounded.  Others are not supposed to have excess digits
+and need to be validated.  What methods should be used?</p>
+<p>A. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quantize()</span></code> method rounds to a fixed number of decimal places. If
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Inexact" title="decimal.Inexact"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Inexact</span></code></a> trap is set, it is also useful for validation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span>       <span class="c1"># same as Decimal(&#39;0.01&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Round to two places</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.214&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.21&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Validate that a number does not exceed two places</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.21&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traps</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Inexact</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.21&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.214&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traps</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Inexact</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+   <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">Inexact</span>: <span class="n">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Q. Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant
+throughout an application?</p>
+<p>A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an integer
+will automatically preserve fixed point.  Others operations, like division and
+non-integer multiplication, will change the number of decimal places and need to
+be followed-up with a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quantize()</span></code> step:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;102.72&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>           <span class="c1"># Initial fixed-point values</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.17&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span>                           <span class="c1"># Addition preserves fixed-point</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;105.89&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;99.55&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">42</span>                          <span class="c1"># So does integer multiplication</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;4314.24&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># Must quantize non-integer multiplication</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;325.62&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># And quantize division</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.03&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In developing fixed-point applications, it is convenient to define functions
+to handle the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quantize()</span></code> step:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">div</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">TWOPLACES</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>                       <span class="c1"># Automatically preserve fixed-point</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;325.62&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">div</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.03&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Q. There are many ways to express the same value.  The numbers <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">200</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">200.000</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2E2</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">02E+4</span></code> all have the same value at
+various precisions. Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
+canonical value?</p>
+<p>A. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalize()</span></code> method maps all equivalent values to a single
+representative:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">normalize</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[Decimal(&#39;2E+2&#39;), Decimal(&#39;2E+2&#39;), Decimal(&#39;2E+2&#39;), Decimal(&#39;2E+2&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Q. Some decimal values always print with exponential notation.  Is there a way
+to get a non-exponential representation?</p>
+<p>A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the number
+of significant places in the coefficient.  For example, expressing
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5.0E+3</span></code> as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5000</span></code> keeps the value constant but cannot show the
+original’s two-place significance.</p>
+<p>If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy to
+remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but keeping the
+value unchanged:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remove_exponent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quantize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">to_integral</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">normalize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">remove_exponent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;5E+3&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;5000&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Q. Is there a way to convert a regular float to a <a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>?</p>
+<p>A. Yes, any binary floating point number can be exactly expressed as a
+Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than intuition would
+suggest:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Q. Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven’t gotten a
+spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding anomalies.</p>
+<p>A. The decimal module makes it easy to test results.  A best practice is to
+re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding modes.
+Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision, rounding mode issues,
+ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable algorithm.</p>
+<p>Q. I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of operations but
+not to the inputs.  Is there anything to watch out for when mixing values of
+different precisions?</p>
+<p>A. Yes.  The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and so is
+the arithmetic on those values.  Only the results are rounded.  The advantage
+for inputs is that “what you type is what you get”.  A disadvantage is that the
+results can look odd if you forget that the inputs haven’t been rounded:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.104&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2.104&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;5.21&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.104&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0.000&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2.104&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;5.20&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of inputs
+using the unary plus operation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.23456789&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># unary plus triggers rounding</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.23&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#decimal.Context.create_decimal" title="decimal.Context.create_decimal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context.create_decimal()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rounding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ROUND_DOWN</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.2345678&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.2345&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Q. Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?</p>
+<p>A. Yes.  In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions of
+the decimal module integrate the high speed <a class="reference external" href="https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html">libmpdec</a> library for
+arbitrary precision correctly-rounded decimal floating point arithmetic.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libmpdec</span></code> uses <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm">Karatsuba multiplication</a>
+for medium-sized numbers and the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform">Number Theoretic Transform</a>
+for very large numbers.  However, to realize this performance gain, the
+context needs to be set for unrounded calculations.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MAX_PREC</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Emax</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MAX_EMAX</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Emin</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MIN_EMIN</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code> — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#quick-start-tutorial">Quick-start Tutorial</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal-objects">Decimal objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logical-operands">Logical operands</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#context-objects">Context objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#rounding-modes">Rounding modes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#signals">Signals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#floating-point-notes">Floating Point Notes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision">Mitigating round-off error with increased precision</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-values">Special values</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-threads">Working with threads</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#recipes">Recipes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal-faq">Decimal FAQ</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cmath.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code> — Mathematical functions for complex numbers</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="fractions.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code> — Rational numbers</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/development.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/development.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/development.html
@@ -0,0 +1,350 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Development Tools &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+  <div class="section" id="development-tools">
+<span id="development"></span><h1>Development Tools<a class="headerlink" href="#development-tools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter help you write software.  For example, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module takes a module and generates documentation based on the
+module’s contents.  The <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> modules contains
+frameworks for writing unit tests that automatically exercise code and verify
+that the expected output is produced.  <strong class="program">2to3</strong> can translate Python 2.x
+source code into valid Python 3.x code.</p>
+<p>The list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="typing.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> — Support for type hints</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#type-aliases">Type aliases</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#newtype">NewType</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#callable">Callable</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#generics">Generics</a></li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="text.html" accesskey="U">Text Processing Services</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
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+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-difflib">
+<span id="difflib-helpers-for-computing-deltas"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a> — Helpers for computing deltas<a class="headerlink" href="#module-difflib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/difflib.py">Lib/difflib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences. It
+can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce difference
+information in various formats, including HTML and context and unified
+diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the <a class="reference internal" href="filecmp.html#module-filecmp" title="filecmp: Compare files efficiently."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">SequenceMatcher</code><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a flexible class for comparing pairs of sequences of any type, so long
+as the sequence elements are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>.  The basic algorithm predates, and is a
+little fancier than, an algorithm published in the late 1980’s by Ratcliff and
+Obershelp under the hyperbolic name “gestalt pattern matching.”  The idea is to
+find the longest contiguous matching subsequence that contains no “junk”
+elements; these “junk” elements are ones that are uninteresting in some
+sense, such as blank lines or whitespace.  (Handling junk is an
+extension to the Ratcliff and Obershelp algorithm.) The same
+idea is then applied recursively to the pieces of the sequences to the left and
+to the right of the matching subsequence.  This does not yield minimal edit
+sequences, but does tend to yield matches that “look right” to people.</p>
+<p><strong>Timing:</strong> The basic Ratcliff-Obershelp algorithm is cubic time in the worst
+case and quadratic time in the expected case. <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> is
+quadratic time for the worst case and has expected-case behavior dependent in a
+complicated way on how many elements the sequences have in common; best case
+time is linear.</p>
+<p><strong>Automatic junk heuristic:</strong> <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> supports a heuristic that
+automatically treats certain sequence items as junk. The heuristic counts how many
+times each individual item appears in the sequence. If an item’s duplicates (after
+the first one) account for more than 1% of the sequence and the sequence is at least
+200 items long, this item is marked as “popular” and is treated as junk for
+the purpose of sequence matching. This heuristic can be turned off by setting
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autojunk</span></code> argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> when creating the <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>autojunk</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="difflib.Differ">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">Differ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.Differ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a class for comparing sequences of lines of text, and producing
+human-readable differences or deltas.  Differ uses <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a>
+both to compare sequences of lines, and to compare sequences of characters
+within similar (near-matching) lines.</p>
+<p>Each line of a <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ" title="difflib.Differ"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ</span></code></a> delta begins with a two-letter code:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 81%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Code</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>line unique to sequence 1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>line unique to sequence 2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span>&#160; <span class="pre">'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>line common to both sequences</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>line not present in either input sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Lines beginning with ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>’ attempt to guide the eye to intraline differences,
+and were not present in either input sequence. These lines can be confusing if
+the sequences contain tab characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="difflib.HtmlDiff">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">HtmlDiff</code><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.HtmlDiff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class can be used to create an HTML table (or a complete HTML file
+containing the table) showing a side by side, line by line comparison of text
+with inter-line and intra-line change highlights.  The table can be generated in
+either full or contextual difference mode.</p>
+<p>The constructor for this class is:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.HtmlDiff.__init__">
+<code class="descname">__init__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tabsize=8</em>, <em>wrapcolumn=None</em>, <em>linejunk=None</em>, <em>charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.HtmlDiff.__init__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initializes instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.HtmlDiff" title="difflib.HtmlDiff"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HtmlDiff</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>tabsize</em> is an optional keyword argument to specify tab stop spacing and
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>wrapcolumn</em> is an optional keyword to specify column number where lines are
+broken and wrapped, defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> where lines are not wrapped.</p>
+<p><em>linejunk</em> and <em>charjunk</em> are optional keyword arguments passed into <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.ndiff" title="difflib.ndiff"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndiff()</span></code></a>
+(used by <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.HtmlDiff" title="difflib.HtmlDiff"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HtmlDiff</span></code></a> to generate the side by side HTML differences).  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.ndiff" title="difflib.ndiff"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndiff()</span></code></a> documentation for argument default values and descriptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods are public:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file">
+<code class="descname">make_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fromlines</em>, <em>tolines</em>, <em>fromdesc=''</em>, <em>todesc=''</em>, <em>context=False</em>, <em>numlines=5</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>charset='utf-8'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares <em>fromlines</em> and <em>tolines</em> (lists of strings) and returns a string which
+is a complete HTML file containing a table showing line by line differences with
+inter-line and intra-line changes highlighted.</p>
+<p><em>fromdesc</em> and <em>todesc</em> are optional keyword arguments to specify from/to file
+column header strings (both default to an empty string).</p>
+<p><em>context</em> and <em>numlines</em> are both optional keyword arguments. Set <em>context</em> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when contextual differences are to be shown, else the default is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> to show the full files. <em>numlines</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>.  When <em>context</em>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> <em>numlines</em> controls the number of context lines which surround the
+difference highlights.  When <em>context</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> <em>numlines</em> controls the
+number of lines which are shown before a difference highlight when using the
+“next” hyperlinks (setting to zero would cause the “next” hyperlinks to place
+the next difference highlight at the top of the browser without any leading
+context).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>charset</em> keyword-only argument was added.  The default charset of
+HTML document changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ISO-8859-1'</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.HtmlDiff.make_table">
+<code class="descname">make_table</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fromlines</em>, <em>tolines</em>, <em>fromdesc=''</em>, <em>todesc=''</em>, <em>context=False</em>, <em>numlines=5</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_table" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares <em>fromlines</em> and <em>tolines</em> (lists of strings) and returns a string which
+is a complete HTML table showing line by line differences with inter-line and
+intra-line changes highlighted.</p>
+<p>The arguments for this method are the same as those for the <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file" title="difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_file()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/diff.py</span></code> is a command-line front-end to this class and
+contains a good example of its use.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.context_diff">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">context_diff</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>fromfile=''</em>, <em>tofile=''</em>, <em>fromfiledate=''</em>, <em>tofiledate=''</em>, <em>n=3</em>, <em>lineterm='\n'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.context_diff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> (lists of strings); return a delta (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>
+generating the delta lines) in context diff format.</p>
+<p>Context diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have changed plus
+a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in a before/after style.  The
+number of context lines is set by <em>n</em> which defaults to three.</p>
+<p>By default, the diff control lines (those with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">***</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">---</span></code>) are created
+with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that inputs created from
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readlines" title="io.IOBase.readlines"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.readlines()</span></code></a> result in diffs that are suitable for use with
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.writelines" title="io.IOBase.writelines"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.writelines()</span></code></a> since both the inputs and outputs have trailing
+newlines.</p>
+<p>For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the <em>lineterm</em> argument to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code> so that the output will be uniformly newline free.</p>
+<p>The context diff format normally has a header for filenames and modification
+times.  Any or all of these may be specified using strings for <em>fromfile</em>,
+<em>tofile</em>, <em>fromfiledate</em>, and <em>tofiledate</em>.  The modification times are normally
+expressed in the ISO 8601 format. If not specified, the
+strings default to blanks.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bacon</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ham</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;guido</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;python</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggy</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hamster</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;guido</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writelines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context_diff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromfile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;before.py&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tofile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;after.py&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">*** before.py</span>
+<span class="go">--- after.py</span>
+<span class="go">***************</span>
+<span class="go">*** 1,4 ****</span>
+<span class="go">! bacon</span>
+<span class="go">! eggs</span>
+<span class="go">! ham</span>
+<span class="go">  guido</span>
+<span class="go">--- 1,4 ----</span>
+<span class="go">! python</span>
+<span class="go">! eggy</span>
+<span class="go">! hamster</span>
+<span class="go">  guido</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib-interface"><span class="std std-ref">A command-line interface to difflib</span></a> for a more detailed example.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.get_close_matches">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">get_close_matches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>word</em>, <em>possibilities</em>, <em>n=3</em>, <em>cutoff=0.6</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.get_close_matches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the best “good enough” matches.  <em>word</em> is a sequence for which
+close matches are desired (typically a string), and <em>possibilities</em> is a list of
+sequences against which to match <em>word</em> (typically a list of strings).</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>n</em> (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code>) is the maximum number of close matches to
+return; <em>n</em> must be greater than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>cutoff</em> (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.6</span></code>) is a float in the range [0, 1].
+Possibilities that don’t score at least that similar to <em>word</em> are ignored.</p>
+<p>The best (no more than <em>n</em>) matches among the possibilities are returned in a
+list, sorted by similarity score, most similar first.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">get_close_matches</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;appel&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;ape&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;peach&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;puppy&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;apple&#39;, &#39;ape&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">keyword</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">get_close_matches</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;wheel&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keyword</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;while&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">get_close_matches</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pineapple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keyword</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">get_close_matches</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;accept&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keyword</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;except&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.ndiff">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">ndiff</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>linejunk=None</em>, <em>charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.ndiff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> (lists of strings); return a <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ" title="difflib.Differ"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ</span></code></a>-style
+delta (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> generating the delta lines).</p>
+<p>Optional keyword parameters <em>linejunk</em> and <em>charjunk</em> are filtering functions
+(or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>):</p>
+<p><em>linejunk</em>: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns
+true if the string is junk, or false if not. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. There
+is also a module-level function <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK" title="difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IS_LINE_JUNK()</span></code></a>, which filters out lines
+without visible characters, except for at most one pound character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code>)
+– however the underlying <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> class does a dynamic
+analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute noise, and this
+usually works better than using this function.</p>
+<p><em>charjunk</em>: A function that accepts a character (a string of length 1), and
+returns if the character is junk, or false if not. The default is module-level
+function <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK" title="difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IS_CHARACTER_JUNK()</span></code></a>, which filters out whitespace characters (a
+blank or tab; it’s a bad idea to include newline in this!).</p>
+<p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/ndiff.py</span></code> is a command-line front-end to this function.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ndiff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;one</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">two</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">three</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>             <span class="s1">&#39;ore</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">tree</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">emu</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">diff</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">- one</span>
+<span class="go">?  ^</span>
+<span class="go">+ ore</span>
+<span class="go">?  ^</span>
+<span class="go">- two</span>
+<span class="go">- three</span>
+<span class="go">?  -</span>
+<span class="go">+ tree</span>
+<span class="go">+ emu</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.restore">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">restore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em>, <em>which</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.restore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return one of the two sequences that generated a delta.</p>
+<p>Given a <em>sequence</em> produced by <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ.compare" title="difflib.Differ.compare"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ.compare()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.ndiff" title="difflib.ndiff"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndiff()</span></code></a>, extract
+lines originating from file 1 or 2 (parameter <em>which</em>), stripping off line
+prefixes.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ndiff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;one</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">two</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">three</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>             <span class="s1">&#39;ore</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">tree</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">emu</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">diff</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># materialize the generated delta into a list</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">restore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">diff</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">one</span>
+<span class="go">two</span>
+<span class="go">three</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">restore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">diff</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">ore</span>
+<span class="go">tree</span>
+<span class="go">emu</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.unified_diff">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">unified_diff</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>fromfile=''</em>, <em>tofile=''</em>, <em>fromfiledate=''</em>, <em>tofiledate=''</em>, <em>n=3</em>, <em>lineterm='\n'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.unified_diff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> (lists of strings); return a delta (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>
+generating the delta lines) in unified diff format.</p>
+<p>Unified diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have changed plus
+a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in an inline style (instead of
+separate before/after blocks).  The number of context lines is set by <em>n</em> which
+defaults to three.</p>
+<p>By default, the diff control lines (those with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">---</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+++</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;&#64;</span></code>) are
+created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that inputs created from
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readlines" title="io.IOBase.readlines"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.readlines()</span></code></a> result in diffs that are suitable for use with
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.writelines" title="io.IOBase.writelines"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.writelines()</span></code></a> since both the inputs and outputs have trailing
+newlines.</p>
+<p>For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the <em>lineterm</em> argument to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code> so that the output will be uniformly newline free.</p>
+<p>The context diff format normally has a header for filenames and modification
+times.  Any or all of these may be specified using strings for <em>fromfile</em>,
+<em>tofile</em>, <em>fromfiledate</em>, and <em>tofiledate</em>.  The modification times are normally
+expressed in the ISO 8601 format. If not specified, the
+strings default to blanks.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;bacon</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ham</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;guido</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;python</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggy</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hamster</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;guido</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writelines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unified_diff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromfile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;before.py&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tofile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;after.py&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">--- before.py</span>
+<span class="go">+++ after.py</span>
+<span class="go">@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@</span>
+<span class="go">-bacon</span>
+<span class="go">-eggs</span>
+<span class="go">-ham</span>
+<span class="go">+python</span>
+<span class="go">+eggy</span>
+<span class="go">+hamster</span>
+<span class="go"> guido</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib-interface"><span class="std std-ref">A command-line interface to difflib</span></a> for a more detailed example.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.diff_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">diff_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dfunc</em>, <em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>fromfile=b''</em>, <em>tofile=b''</em>, <em>fromfiledate=b''</em>, <em>tofiledate=b''</em>, <em>n=3</em>, <em>lineterm=b'\n'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.diff_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> (lists of bytes objects) using <em>dfunc</em>; yield a
+sequence of delta lines (also bytes) in the format returned by <em>dfunc</em>.
+<em>dfunc</em> must be a callable, typically either <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.unified_diff" title="difflib.unified_diff"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unified_diff()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.context_diff" title="difflib.context_diff"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context_diff()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Allows you to compare data with unknown or inconsistent encoding. All
+inputs except <em>n</em> must be bytes objects, not str. Works by losslessly
+converting all inputs (except <em>n</em>) to str, and calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dfunc(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span>
+<span class="pre">fromfile,</span> <span class="pre">tofile,</span> <span class="pre">fromfiledate,</span> <span class="pre">tofiledate,</span> <span class="pre">n,</span> <span class="pre">lineterm)</span></code>. The output of
+<em>dfunc</em> is then converted back to bytes, so the delta lines that you
+receive have the same unknown/inconsistent encodings as <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">IS_LINE_JUNK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true for ignorable lines.  The line <em>line</em> is ignorable if <em>line</em> is
+blank or contains a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code>, otherwise it is not ignorable.  Used as a
+default for parameter <em>linejunk</em> in <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.ndiff" title="difflib.ndiff"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndiff()</span></code></a> in older versions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK">
+<code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">IS_CHARACTER_JUNK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true for ignorable characters.  The character <em>ch</em> is ignorable if <em>ch</em>
+is a space or tab, otherwise it is not ignorable.  Used as a default for
+parameter <em>charjunk</em> in <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.ndiff" title="difflib.ndiff"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndiff()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.drdobbs.com/database/pattern-matching-the-gestalt-approach/184407970">Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach</a></dt><dd><p>Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E. Metzener. This
+was published in <a class="reference external" href="http://www.drdobbs.com/">Dr. Dobb’s Journal</a> in July, 1988.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sequencematcher-objects">
+<span id="sequence-matcher"></span><h2>SequenceMatcher Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#sequencematcher-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> class has this constructor:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">SequenceMatcher</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>isjunk=None</em>, <em>a=''</em>, <em>b=''</em>, <em>autojunk=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Optional argument <em>isjunk</em> must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) or a one-argument
+function that takes a sequence element and returns true if and only if the
+element is “junk” and should be ignored. Passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for <em>isjunk</em> is
+equivalent to passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span> <span class="pre">x:</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>; in other words, no elements are ignored.
+For example, pass:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s2">&quot; </span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>if you’re comparing lines as sequences of characters, and don’t want to synch up
+on blanks or hard tabs.</p>
+<p>The optional arguments <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> are sequences to be compared; both default to
+empty strings.  The elements of both sequences must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>autojunk</em> can be used to disable the automatic junk
+heuristic.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>autojunk</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<p>SequenceMatcher objects get three data attributes: <em>bjunk</em> is the
+set of elements of <em>b</em> for which <em>isjunk</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>; <em>bpopular</em> is the set of
+non-junk elements considered popular by the heuristic (if it is not
+disabled); <em>b2j</em> is a dict mapping the remaining elements of <em>b</em> to a list
+of positions where they occur. All three are reset whenever <em>b</em> is reset
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seqs" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seqs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_seqs()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_seq2()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>bjunk</em> and <em>bpopular</em> attributes.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seqs">
+<code class="descname">set_seqs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seqs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the two sequences to be compared.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> computes and caches detailed information about the
+second sequence, so if you want to compare one sequence against many
+sequences, use <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_seq2()</span></code></a> to set the commonly used sequence once and
+call <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq1" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq1"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_seq1()</span></code></a> repeatedly, once for each of the other sequences.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq1">
+<code class="descname">set_seq1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the first sequence to be compared.  The second sequence to be compared
+is not changed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2">
+<code class="descname">set_seq2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.set_seq2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the second sequence to be compared.  The first sequence to be compared
+is not changed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match">
+<code class="descname">find_longest_match</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>alo</em>, <em>ahi</em>, <em>blo</em>, <em>bhi</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Find longest matching block in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[alo:ahi]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[blo:bhi]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>isjunk</em> was omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_longest_match()</span></code></a> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(i,</span> <span class="pre">j,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span></code> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i:i+k]</span></code> is equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[j:j+k]</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alo</span>
+<span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">i+k</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">ahi</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blo</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">j</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">j+k</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">bhi</span></code>. For all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(i',</span> <span class="pre">j',</span>
+<span class="pre">k')</span></code> meeting those conditions, the additional conditions <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">k'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span>
+<span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">i'</span></code>, and if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">i'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">j'</span></code> are also met. In other words, of
+all maximal matching blocks, return one that starts earliest in <em>a</em>, and
+of all those maximal matching blocks that start earliest in <em>a</em>, return
+the one that starts earliest in <em>b</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SequenceMatcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot; abcd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcd abcd&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find_longest_match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>isjunk</em> was provided, first the longest matching block is determined
+as above, but with the additional restriction that no junk element appears
+in the block.  Then that block is extended as far as possible by matching
+(only) junk elements on both sides. So the resulting block never matches
+on junk except as identical junk happens to be adjacent to an interesting
+match.</p>
+<p>Here’s the same example as before, but considering blanks to be junk. That
+prevents <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">abcd'</span></code> from matching the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">abcd'</span></code> at the tail end of the
+second sequence directly.  Instead only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abcd'</span></code> can match, and
+matches the leftmost <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abcd'</span></code> in the second sequence:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SequenceMatcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot; abcd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcd abcd&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find_longest_match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If no blocks match, this returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(alo,</span> <span class="pre">blo,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Match(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks">
+<code class="descname">get_matching_blocks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return list of triples describing non-overlapping matching subsequences.
+Each triple is of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(i,</span> <span class="pre">j,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code>,
+and means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i:i+n]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b[j:j+n]</span></code>.  The
+triples are monotonically increasing in <em>i</em> and <em>j</em>.</p>
+<p>The last triple is a dummy, and has the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(len(a),</span> <span class="pre">len(b),</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.  It
+is the only triple with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(i,</span> <span class="pre">j,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(i',</span> <span class="pre">j',</span> <span class="pre">n')</span></code>
+are adjacent triples in the list, and the second is not the last triple in
+the list, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i+n</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">i'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j+n</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">j'</span></code>; in other words, adjacent
+triples always describe non-adjacent equal blocks.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SequenceMatcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abxcd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcd&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_matching_blocks</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes">
+<code class="descname">get_opcodes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return list of 5-tuples describing how to turn <em>a</em> into <em>b</em>. Each tuple is
+of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(tag,</span> <span class="pre">i1,</span> <span class="pre">i2,</span> <span class="pre">j1,</span> <span class="pre">j2)</span></code>.  The first tuple has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i1</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">j1</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">0</span></code>, and remaining tuples have <em>i1</em> equal to the <em>i2</em> from the preceding
+tuple, and, likewise, <em>j1</em> equal to the previous <em>j2</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>tag</em> values are strings, with these meanings:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 75%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i1:i2]</span></code> should be replaced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[j1:j2]</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'delete'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i1:i2]</span></code> should be deleted.  Note that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j1</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">j2</span></code> in this case.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'insert'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[j1:j2]</span></code> should be inserted at
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i1:i1]</span></code>. Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i1</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">i2</span></code> in
+this case.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'equal'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i1:i2]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b[j1:j2]</span></code> (the sub-sequences
+are equal).</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;qabxcd&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abycdf&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SequenceMatcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">j1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">j2</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_opcodes</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:7}</span><span class="s1">   a[</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">:</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">] --&gt; b[</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">:</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">] </span><span class="si">{!r:&gt;8}</span><span class="s1"> --&gt; </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">j1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">j2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">i2</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">j2</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">delete    a[0:1] --&gt; b[0:0]      &#39;q&#39; --&gt; &#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">equal     a[1:3] --&gt; b[0:2]     &#39;ab&#39; --&gt; &#39;ab&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">replace   a[3:4] --&gt; b[2:3]      &#39;x&#39; --&gt; &#39;y&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">equal     a[4:6] --&gt; b[3:5]     &#39;cd&#39; --&gt; &#39;cd&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">insert    a[6:6] --&gt; b[5:6]       &#39;&#39; --&gt; &#39;f&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_grouped_opcodes">
+<code class="descname">get_grouped_opcodes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=3</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_grouped_opcodes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> of groups with up to <em>n</em> lines of context.</p>
+<p>Starting with the groups returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_opcodes()</span></code></a>, this method
+splits out smaller change clusters and eliminates intervening ranges which
+have no changes.</p>
+<p>The groups are returned in the same format as <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_opcodes()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio">
+<code class="descname">ratio</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a measure of the sequences’ similarity as a float in the range [0,
+1].</p>
+<p>Where T is the total number of elements in both sequences, and M is the
+number of matches, this is 2.0*M / T. Note that this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> if the
+sequences are identical, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0</span></code> if they have nothing in common.</p>
+<p>This is expensive to compute if <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_matching_blocks()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_opcodes()</span></code></a> hasn’t already been called, in which case you may want
+to try <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.quick_ratio" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.quick_ratio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quick_ratio()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.real_quick_ratio" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.real_quick_ratio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real_quick_ratio()</span></code></a> first to get an
+upper bound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.quick_ratio">
+<code class="descname">quick_ratio</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.quick_ratio" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an upper bound on <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ratio()</span></code></a> relatively quickly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.SequenceMatcher.real_quick_ratio">
+<code class="descname">real_quick_ratio</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.real_quick_ratio" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an upper bound on <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.ratio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ratio()</span></code></a> very quickly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The three methods that return the ratio of matching to total characters can give
+different results due to differing levels of approximation, although
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quick_ratio()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real_quick_ratio()</span></code> are always at least as large as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ratio()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SequenceMatcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bcde&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.75</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quick_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.75</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">real_quick_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sequencematcher-examples">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>SequenceMatcher Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#sequencematcher-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be “junk”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SequenceMatcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="s2">&quot;private Thread currentThread;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="s2">&quot;private volatile Thread currentThread;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ratio()</span></code> returns a float in [0, 1], measuring the similarity of the
+sequences.  As a rule of thumb, a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ratio()</span></code> value over 0.6 means the
+sequences are close matches:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ratio</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">0.866</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you’re only interested in where the sequences match,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_matching_blocks()</span></code> is handy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">block</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_matching_blocks</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a[</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">] and b[</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">] match for </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> elements&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">block</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements</span>
+<span class="go">a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements</span>
+<span class="go">a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the last tuple returned by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_matching_blocks()</span></code> is always a
+dummy, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(len(a),</span> <span class="pre">len(b),</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>, and this is the only case in which the last
+tuple element (number of elements matched) is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second, use
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_opcodes()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">opcode</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_opcodes</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%6s</span><span class="s2"> a[</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">:</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">] b[</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">:</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">]&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">opcode</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go"> equal a[0:8] b[0:8]</span>
+<span class="go">insert a[8:8] b[8:17]</span>
+<span class="go"> equal a[8:29] b[17:38]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.get_close_matches" title="difflib.get_close_matches"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_close_matches()</span></code></a> function in this module which shows how
+simple code building on <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> can be used to do useful
+work.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729/">Simple version control recipe</a> for a small application
+built with <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="differ-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Differ Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#differ-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ" title="difflib.Differ"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ</span></code></a>-generated deltas make no claim to be <strong>minimal</strong>
+diffs. To the contrary, minimal diffs are often counter-intuitive, because they
+synch up anywhere possible, sometimes accidental matches 100 pages apart.
+Restricting synch points to contiguous matches preserves some notion of
+locality, at the occasional cost of producing a longer diff.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ" title="difflib.Differ"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ</span></code></a> class has this constructor:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">difflib.</code><code class="descname">Differ</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>linejunk=None</em>, <em>charjunk=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Optional keyword parameters <em>linejunk</em> and <em>charjunk</em> are for filter functions
+(or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>):</p>
+<p><em>linejunk</em>: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns true
+if the string is junk.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, meaning that no line is
+considered junk.</p>
+<p><em>charjunk</em>: A function that accepts a single character argument (a string of
+length 1), and returns true if the character is junk. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+meaning that no character is considered junk.</p>
+<p>These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
+differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
+be ignored.  Read the description of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_longest_match()</span></code></a> method’s <em>isjunk</em>
+parameter for an explanation.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ" title="difflib.Differ"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ</span></code></a> objects are used (deltas generated) via a single method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="difflib.Differ.compare">
+<code class="descname">compare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#difflib.Differ.compare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a sequence of lines).</p>
+<p>Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings ending with
+newlines.  Such sequences can be obtained from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readlines" title="io.IOBase.readlines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code></a> method of file-like objects.  The delta
+generated also consists of newline-terminated strings, ready to be
+printed as-is via the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.writelines" title="io.IOBase.writelines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writelines()</span></code></a> method of a
+file-like object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="differ-example">
+<span id="differ-examples"></span><h2>Differ Example<a class="headerlink" href="#differ-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This example compares two texts. First we set up the texts, sequences of
+individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences can also be
+obtained from the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code> method of file-like objects):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">  2. Explicit is better than implicit.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">  3. Simple is better than complex.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">  4. Complex is better than complicated.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text1</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">  3.   Simple is better than complex.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">  4. Complicated is better than complex.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">  5. Flat is better than nested.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Next we instantiate a Differ object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Differ</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that when instantiating a <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ" title="difflib.Differ"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ</span></code></a> object we may pass functions to
+filter out line and character “junk.”  See the <a class="reference internal" href="#difflib.Differ" title="difflib.Differ"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ()</span></code></a> constructor for
+details.</p>
+<p>Finally, we compare the two:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">result</span></code> is a list of strings, so let’s pretty-print it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">pprint</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;?     ++\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;?            ^                     ---- ^\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;?           ++++ ^                      ^\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As a single multi-line string it looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writelines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.</span>
+<span class="go">-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.</span>
+<span class="go">-   3. Simple is better than complex.</span>
+<span class="go">+   3.   Simple is better than complex.</span>
+<span class="go">?     ++</span>
+<span class="go">-   4. Complex is better than complicated.</span>
+<span class="go">?            ^                     ---- ^</span>
+<span class="go">+   4. Complicated is better than complex.</span>
+<span class="go">?           ++++ ^                      ^</span>
+<span class="go">+   5. Flat is better than nested.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-command-line-interface-to-difflib">
+<span id="difflib-interface"></span><h2>A command-line interface to difflib<a class="headerlink" href="#a-command-line-interface-to-difflib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This example shows how to use difflib to create a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">diff</span></code>-like utility.
+It is also contained in the Python source distribution, as
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/diff.py</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python3</span>
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot; Command line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:</span>
+
+<span class="sd">* ndiff:    lists every line and highlights interline changes.</span>
+<span class="sd">* context:  highlights clusters of changes in a before/after format.</span>
+<span class="sd">* unified:  highlights clusters of changes in an inline format.</span>
+<span class="sd">* html:     generates side by side comparison with change highlights.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">os</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">difflib</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timezone</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">file_mtime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromtimestamp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_mtime</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                               <span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">astimezone</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+
+    <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Produce a context format diff (default)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-u&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Produce a unified format diff&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-m&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Produce HTML side by side diff &#39;</span>
+                             <span class="s1">&#39;(can use -c and -l in conjunction)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-n&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Produce a ndiff format diff&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--lines&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Set number of context lines (default 3)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;fromfile&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tofile&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">options</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lines</span>
+    <span class="n">fromfile</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromfile</span>
+    <span class="n">tofile</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tofile</span>
+
+    <span class="n">fromdate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">file_mtime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">todate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">file_mtime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tofile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromfile</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ff</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">fromlines</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ff</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tofile</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tf</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">tolines</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">difflib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unified_diff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromlines</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tolines</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tofile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromdate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">todate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">difflib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ndiff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromlines</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tolines</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">difflib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HtmlDiff</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">make_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromlines</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">tolines</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">fromfile</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">tofile</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">numlines</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">difflib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">context_diff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromlines</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tolines</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tofile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromdate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">todate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writelines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">diff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code> — Helpers for computing deltas</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequencematcher-objects">SequenceMatcher Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequencematcher-examples">SequenceMatcher Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#differ-objects">Differ Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#differ-example">Differ Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-command-line-interface-to-difflib">A command-line interface to difflib</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="re.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code> — Regular expression operations</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="textwrap.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code> — Text wrapping and filling</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/difflib.rst"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-dis">
+<span id="dis-disassembler-for-python-bytecode"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> — Disassembler for Python bytecode<a class="headerlink" href="#module-dis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dis.py">Lib/dis.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> module supports the analysis of CPython <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> by
+disassembling it. The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an input is
+defined in the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/opcode.h</span></code> and used by the compiler and the
+interpreter.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p class="compound-first"><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Bytecode is an implementation detail of the CPython interpreter.  No
+guarantees are made that bytecode will not be added, removed, or changed
+between versions of Python.  Use of this module should not be considered to
+work across Python VMs or Python releases.</p>
+<div class="compound-last versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Use 2 bytes for each instruction. Previously the number of bytes varied
+by instruction.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Example: Given the function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myfunc()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">myfunc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alist</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alist</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myfunc()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dis</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dis</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myfunc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">  2           0 LOAD_GLOBAL              0 (len)</span>
+<span class="go">              2 LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)</span>
+<span class="go">              4 CALL_FUNCTION            1</span>
+<span class="go">              6 RETURN_VALUE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The “2” is a line number).</p>
+<div class="section" id="bytecode-analysis">
+<h2>Bytecode analysis<a class="headerlink" href="#bytecode-analysis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Bytecode" title="dis.Bytecode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytecode</span></code></a> object that provides easy access to details of the compiled
+code.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="dis.Bytecode">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">Bytecode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>first_line=None</em>, <em>current_offset=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Bytecode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator, asynchronous
+generator, coroutine, method, string of source code, or a code object (as
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed below, most
+notably <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.get_instructions" title="dis.get_instructions"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_instructions()</span></code></a>, as iterating over a <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Bytecode" title="dis.Bytecode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytecode</span></code></a>
+instance yields the bytecode operations as <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Instruction" title="dis.Instruction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Instruction</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+<p>If <em>first_line</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it indicates the line number that should be
+reported for the first source line in the disassembled code.  Otherwise, the
+source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code
+object.</p>
+<p>If <em>current_offset</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it refers to an instruction offset in the
+disassembled code. Setting this means <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Bytecode.dis" title="dis.Bytecode.dis"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis()</span></code></a> will display a “current
+instruction” marker against the specified opcode.</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="dis.Bytecode.from_traceback">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">from_traceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Bytecode.from_traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Bytecode" title="dis.Bytecode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytecode</span></code></a> instance from the given traceback, setting
+<em>current_offset</em> to the instruction responsible for the exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Bytecode.codeobj">
+<code class="descname">codeobj</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Bytecode.codeobj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The compiled code object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Bytecode.first_line">
+<code class="descname">first_line</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Bytecode.first_line" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The first source line of the code object (if available)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dis.Bytecode.dis">
+<code class="descname">dis</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Bytecode.dis" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same as printed by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dis.dis" title="dis.dis"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis.dis()</span></code></a>, but returned as a multi-line string).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dis.Bytecode.info">
+<code class="descname">info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Bytecode.info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information about the
+code object, like <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.code_info" title="dis.code_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code_info()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bytecode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dis</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Bytecode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myfunc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">instr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">bytecode</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">instr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">opname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">LOAD_GLOBAL</span>
+<span class="go">LOAD_FAST</span>
+<span class="go">CALL_FUNCTION</span>
+<span class="go">RETURN_VALUE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="analysis-functions">
+<h2>Analysis functions<a class="headerlink" href="#analysis-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> module also defines the following analysis functions that convert
+the input directly to the desired output. They can be useful if only a single
+operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn’t useful:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.code_info">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">code_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.code_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object information
+for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine,
+method, source code string or code object.</p>
+<p>Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly implementation
+dependent and they may change arbitrarily across Python VMs or Python
+releases.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.show_code">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">show_code</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.show_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
+source code string or code object to <em>file</em> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> if <em>file</em>
+is not specified).</p>
+<p>This is a convenient shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print(code_info(x),</span> <span class="pre">file=file)</span></code>,
+intended for interactive exploration at the interpreter prompt.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added <em>file</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.dis">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">dis</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em>, <em>depth=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.dis" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disassemble the <em>x</em> object.  <em>x</em> can denote either a module, a class, a
+method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous generator, a coroutine,
+a code object, a string of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode.
+For a module, it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles
+all methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or
+sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction.
+It also recursively disassembles nested code objects (the code of
+comprehensions, generator expressions and nested functions, and the code
+used for building nested classes).
+Strings are first compiled to code objects with the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>
+built-in function before being disassembled.  If no object is provided, this
+function disassembles the last traceback.</p>
+<p>The disassembly is written as text to the supplied <em>file</em> argument if
+provided and to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>The maximal depth of recursion is limited by <em>depth</em> unless it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">depth=0</span></code> means no recursion.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added <em>file</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Implemented recursive disassembling and added <em>depth</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.distb">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">distb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.distb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last
+traceback if none was passed.  The instruction causing the exception is
+indicated.</p>
+<p>The disassembly is written as text to the supplied <em>file</em> argument if
+provided and to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added <em>file</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.disassemble">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">disassemble</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em>, <em>lasti=-1</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.disassemble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="dis.disco">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">disco</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em>, <em>lasti=-1</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.disco" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if <em>lasti</em> was
+provided.  The output is divided in the following columns:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>the line number, for the first instruction of each line</p></li>
+<li><p>the current instruction, indicated as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--&gt;</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p>a labelled instruction, indicated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code>,</p></li>
+<li><p>the address of the instruction,</p></li>
+<li><p>the operation code name,</p></li>
+<li><p>operation parameters, and</p></li>
+<li><p>interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable names,
+constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.</p>
+<p>The disassembly is written as text to the supplied <em>file</em> argument if
+provided and to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added <em>file</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.get_instructions">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">get_instructions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>first_line=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.get_instructions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function, method,
+source code string or code object.</p>
+<p>The iterator generates a series of <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Instruction" title="dis.Instruction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Instruction</span></code></a> named tuples giving
+the details of each operation in the supplied code.</p>
+<p>If <em>first_line</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it indicates the line number that should be
+reported for the first source line in the disassembled code.  Otherwise, the
+source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code
+object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.findlinestarts">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">findlinestarts</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.findlinestarts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This generator function uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_firstlineno</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code>
+attributes of the code object <em>code</em> to find the offsets which are starts of
+lines in the source code.  They are generated as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(offset,</span> <span class="pre">lineno)</span></code> pairs.
+See <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Objects/lnotab_notes.txt">Objects/lnotab_notes.txt</a> for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code> format and
+how to decode it.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Line numbers can be decreasing. Before, they were always increasing.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.findlabels">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">findlabels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.findlabels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Detect all offsets in the code object <em>code</em> which are jump targets, and
+return a list of these offsets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dis.stack_effect">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">stack_effect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>opcode</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>oparg</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.stack_effect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compute the stack effect of <em>opcode</em> with argument <em>oparg</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-bytecode-instructions">
+<span id="bytecodes"></span><h2>Python Bytecode Instructions<a class="headerlink" href="#python-bytecode-instructions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.get_instructions" title="dis.get_instructions"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_instructions()</span></code></a> function and <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Bytecode" title="dis.Bytecode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytecode</span></code></a> class provide
+details of bytecode instructions as <a class="reference internal" href="#dis.Instruction" title="dis.Instruction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Instruction</span></code></a> instances:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">Instruction</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Details for a bytecode operation</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.opcode">
+<code class="descname">opcode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.opcode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values listed
+below and the bytecode values in the <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-collections"><span class="std std-ref">Opcode collections</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.opname">
+<code class="descname">opname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.opname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>human readable name for operation</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.arg">
+<code class="descname">arg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.arg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.argval">
+<code class="descname">argval</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.argval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>resolved arg value (if known), otherwise same as arg</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.argrepr">
+<code class="descname">argrepr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.argrepr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>human readable description of operation argument</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.offset">
+<code class="descname">offset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.offset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>start index of operation within bytecode sequence</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.starts_line">
+<code class="descname">starts_line</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.starts_line" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.Instruction.is_jump_target">
+<code class="descname">is_jump_target</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.Instruction.is_jump_target" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if other code jumps to here, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.</p>
+<p><strong>General instructions</strong></p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-NOP">
+<code class="descname">NOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-NOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-POP_TOP">
+<code class="descname">POP_TOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-POP_TOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the top-of-stack (TOS) item.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-ROT_TWO">
+<code class="descname">ROT_TWO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-ROT_TWO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Swaps the two top-most stack items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-ROT_THREE">
+<code class="descname">ROT_THREE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-ROT_THREE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Lifts second and third stack item one position up, moves top down to position
+three.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DUP_TOP">
+<code class="descname">DUP_TOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DUP_TOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Duplicates the reference on top of the stack.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DUP_TOP_TWO">
+<code class="descname">DUP_TOP_TWO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DUP_TOP_TWO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Duplicates the two references on top of the stack, leaving them in the
+same order.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>Unary operations</strong></p>
+<p>Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the
+result back on the stack.</p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-UNARY_POSITIVE">
+<code class="descname">UNARY_POSITIVE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-UNARY_POSITIVE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">+TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-UNARY_NEGATIVE">
+<code class="descname">UNARY_NEGATIVE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-UNARY_NEGATIVE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">-TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-UNARY_NOT">
+<code class="descname">UNARY_NOT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-UNARY_NOT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-UNARY_INVERT">
+<code class="descname">UNARY_INVERT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-UNARY_INVERT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">~TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-GET_ITER">
+<code class="descname">GET_ITER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-GET_ITER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iter(TOS)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER">
+<code class="descname">GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span></code> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator iterator</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> object
+it is left as is.  Otherwise, implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iter(TOS)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>Binary operations</strong></p>
+<p>Binary operations remove the top of the stack (TOS) and the second top-most
+stack item (TOS1) from the stack.  They perform the operation, and put the
+result back on the stack.</p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_POWER">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_POWER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_POWER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_MULTIPLY">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_MULTIPLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_MULTIPLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&#64;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_MODULO">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_MODULO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_MODULO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_ADD">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_ADD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_ADD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_SUBTRACT">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_SUBTRACT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_SUBTRACT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_SUBSCR">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_SUBSCR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_SUBSCR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1[TOS]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_LSHIFT">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_LSHIFT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_LSHIFT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_RSHIFT">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_RSHIFT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_RSHIFT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_AND">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_AND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_AND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_XOR">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_XOR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_XOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">^</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BINARY_OR">
+<code class="descname">BINARY_OR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BINARY_OR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>In-place operations</strong></p>
+<p>In-place operations are like binary operations, in that they remove TOS and
+TOS1, and push the result back on the stack, but the operation is done in-place
+when TOS1 supports it, and the resulting TOS may be (but does not have to be)
+the original TOS1.</p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_POWER">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_POWER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_POWER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_MULTIPLY">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_MULTIPLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_MULTIPLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&#64;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_MODULO">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_MODULO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_MODULO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_ADD">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_ADD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_ADD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_SUBTRACT">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_SUBTRACT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_SUBTRACT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_LSHIFT">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_LSHIFT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_LSHIFT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_RSHIFT">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_RSHIFT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_RSHIFT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_AND">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_AND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_AND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_XOR">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_XOR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_XOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">^</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-INPLACE_OR">
+<code class="descname">INPLACE_OR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-INPLACE_OR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements in-place <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-STORE_SUBSCR">
+<code class="descname">STORE_SUBSCR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-STORE_SUBSCR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS1[TOS]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DELETE_SUBSCR">
+<code class="descname">DELETE_SUBSCR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DELETE_SUBSCR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">TOS1[TOS]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>Coroutine opcodes</strong></p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-GET_AWAITABLE">
+<code class="descname">GET_AWAITABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-GET_AWAITABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">get_awaitable(TOS)</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_awaitable(o)</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o</span></code> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o</span></code> is a coroutine object or a generator object with
+the CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE flag, or resolves
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.__await__</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-GET_AITER">
+<code class="descname">GET_AITER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-GET_AITER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS.__aiter__()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Returning awaitable objects from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code> is no longer
+supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-GET_ANEXT">
+<code class="descname">GET_ANEXT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-GET_ANEXT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PUSH(get_awaitable(TOS.__anext__()))</span></code>.  See <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET_AWAITABLE</span></code>
+for details about <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_awaitable</span></code></p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH">
+<code class="descname">BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resolves <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__</span></code> from the object on top of the
+stack.  Pushes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__</span></code> and result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__()</span></code> to the stack.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-SETUP_ASYNC_WITH">
+<code class="descname">SETUP_ASYNC_WITH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-SETUP_ASYNC_WITH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new frame object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>Miscellaneous opcodes</strong></p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-PRINT_EXPR">
+<code class="descname">PRINT_EXPR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-PRINT_EXPR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements the expression statement for the interactive mode.  TOS is removed
+from the stack and printed.  In non-interactive mode, an expression statement
+is terminated with <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-POP_TOP"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP_TOP</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BREAK_LOOP">
+<code class="descname">BREAK_LOOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BREAK_LOOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Terminates a loop due to a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-CONTINUE_LOOP">
+<code class="descname">CONTINUE_LOOP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-CONTINUE_LOOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Continues a loop due to a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> statement.  <em>target</em> is the
+address to jump to (which should be a <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-FOR_ITER"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FOR_ITER</span></code></a> instruction).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-SET_ADD">
+<code class="descname">SET_ADD</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-SET_ADD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set.add(TOS1[-i],</span> <span class="pre">TOS)</span></code>.  Used to implement set comprehensions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LIST_APPEND">
+<code class="descname">LIST_APPEND</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LIST_APPEND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.append(TOS[-i],</span> <span class="pre">TOS)</span></code>.  Used to implement list comprehensions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-MAP_ADD">
+<code class="descname">MAP_ADD</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-MAP_ADD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.setitem(TOS1[-i],</span> <span class="pre">TOS,</span> <span class="pre">TOS1)</span></code>.  Used to implement dict
+comprehensions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>For all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-SET_ADD"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SET_ADD</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-LIST_APPEND"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST_APPEND</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-MAP_ADD"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAP_ADD</span></code></a>
+instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the
+container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further
+iterations of the loop.</p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-RETURN_VALUE">
+<code class="descname">RETURN_VALUE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-RETURN_VALUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns with TOS to the caller of the function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-YIELD_VALUE">
+<code class="descname">YIELD_VALUE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-YIELD_VALUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pops TOS and yields it from a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-YIELD_FROM">
+<code class="descname">YIELD_FROM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-YIELD_FROM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pops TOS and delegates to it as a subiterator from a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-SETUP_ANNOTATIONS">
+<code class="descname">SETUP_ANNOTATIONS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-SETUP_ANNOTATIONS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks whether <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> is defined in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code>, if not it is
+set up to an empty <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code>. This opcode is only emitted if a class
+or module body contains <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">variable annotations</span></a>
+statically.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-IMPORT_STAR">
+<code class="descname">IMPORT_STAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-IMPORT_STAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Loads all symbols not starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code> directly from the module TOS to
+the local namespace. The module is popped after loading all names. This
+opcode implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-POP_BLOCK">
+<code class="descname">POP_BLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-POP_BLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes one block from the block stack.  Per frame, there is a stack of
+blocks, denoting nested loops, try statements, and such.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-POP_EXCEPT">
+<code class="descname">POP_EXCEPT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-POP_EXCEPT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes one block from the block stack. The popped block must be an exception
+handler block, as implicitly created when entering an except handler.  In
+addition to popping extraneous values from the frame stack, the last three
+popped values are used to restore the exception state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-END_FINALLY">
+<code class="descname">END_FINALLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-END_FINALLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Terminates a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause.  The interpreter recalls whether the
+exception has to be re-raised, or whether the function returns, and continues
+with the outer-next block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_BUILD_CLASS">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_BUILD_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_BUILD_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins.__build_class__()</span></code> onto the stack.  It is later called
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION</span></code></a> to construct a class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-SETUP_WITH">
+<code class="descname">SETUP_WITH</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-SETUP_WITH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts.  First,
+it loads <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> from the context manager and pushes it onto
+the stack for later use by <code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WITH_CLEANUP</span></code>.  Then,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> is called, and a finally block pointing to <em>delta</em>
+is pushed.  Finally, the result of calling the enter method is pushed onto
+the stack.  The next opcode will either ignore it (<a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-POP_TOP"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP_TOP</span></code></a>), or
+store it in (a) variable(s) (<a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-STORE_FAST"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_FAST</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-STORE_NAME"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_NAME</span></code></a>, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-UNPACK_SEQUENCE"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UNPACK_SEQUENCE</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_START">
+<code class="descname">WITH_CLEANUP_START</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_START" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cleans up the stack when a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement block exits.  TOS is the
+context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> bound method. Below TOS are 1–3 values
+indicating how/why the finally clause was entered:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>SECOND = <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>(SECOND, THIRD) = (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WHY_{RETURN,CONTINUE}</span></code>), retval</p></li>
+<li><p>SECOND = <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WHY_*</span></code>; no retval below it</p></li>
+<li><p>(SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH) = exc_info()</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In the last case, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS(SECOND,</span> <span class="pre">THIRD,</span> <span class="pre">FOURTH)</span></code> is called, otherwise
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS(None,</span> <span class="pre">None,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code>.  Pushes SECOND and result of the call
+to the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH">
+<code class="descname">WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pops exception type and result of ‘exit’ function call from the stack.</p>
+<p>If the stack represents an exception, <em>and</em> the function call returns a
+‘true’ value, this information is “zapped” and replaced with a single
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WHY_SILENCED</span></code> to prevent <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-END_FINALLY"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">END_FINALLY</span></code></a> from re-raising the
+exception.  (But non-local gotos will still be resumed.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>All of the following opcodes use their arguments.</p>
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-STORE_NAME">
+<code class="descname">STORE_NAME</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-STORE_NAME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code>. <em>namei</em> is the index of <em>name</em> in the attribute
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names</span></code> of the code object. The compiler tries to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-STORE_FAST"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_FAST</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-STORE_GLOBAL"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_GLOBAL</span></code></a> if possible.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DELETE_NAME">
+<code class="descname">DELETE_NAME</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DELETE_NAME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code>, where <em>namei</em> is the index into <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names</span></code>
+attribute of the code object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-UNPACK_SEQUENCE">
+<code class="descname">UNPACK_SEQUENCE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-UNPACK_SEQUENCE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks TOS into <em>count</em> individual values, which are put onto the stack
+right-to-left.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-UNPACK_EX">
+<code class="descname">UNPACK_EX</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>counts</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-UNPACK_EX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in TOS into
+individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the
+number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all
+leftover items.</p>
+<p>The low byte of <em>counts</em> is the number of values before the list value, the
+high byte of <em>counts</em> the number of values after it.  The resulting values
+are put onto the stack right-to-left.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-STORE_ATTR">
+<code class="descname">STORE_ATTR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-STORE_ATTR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS.name</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span></code>, where <em>namei</em> is the index of name in
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DELETE_ATTR">
+<code class="descname">DELETE_ATTR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DELETE_ATTR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">TOS.name</span></code>, using <em>namei</em> as index into <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-STORE_GLOBAL">
+<code class="descname">STORE_GLOBAL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-STORE_GLOBAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Works as <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-STORE_NAME"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_NAME</span></code></a>, but stores the name as a global.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DELETE_GLOBAL">
+<code class="descname">DELETE_GLOBAL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DELETE_GLOBAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Works as <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-DELETE_NAME"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DELETE_NAME</span></code></a>, but deletes a global name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_CONST">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_CONST</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>consti</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_CONST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_consts[consti]</span></code> onto the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_NAME">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_NAME</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_NAME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes the value associated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names[namei]</span></code> onto the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_TUPLE">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_TUPLE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a tuple consuming <em>count</em> items from the stack, and pushes the
+resulting tuple onto the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_LIST">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_LIST</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_LIST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Works as <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_TUPLE</span></code></a>, but creates a list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_SET">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_SET</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_SET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Works as <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_TUPLE</span></code></a>, but creates a set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_MAP">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_MAP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_MAP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">count</span></code> items
+so that the dictionary holds <em>count</em> entries:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{...,</span> <span class="pre">TOS3:</span> <span class="pre">TOS2,</span> <span class="pre">TOS1:</span> <span class="pre">TOS}</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an
+empty dictionary pre-sized to hold <em>count</em> items.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version of <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_MAP"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_MAP</span></code></a> specialized for constant keys.  <em>count</em>
+values are consumed from the stack.  The top element on the stack contains
+a tuple of keys.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_STRING">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_STRING</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_STRING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concatenates <em>count</em> strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string
+onto the stack.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pops <em>count</em> iterables from the stack, joins them in a single tuple,
+and pushes the result.  Implements iterable unpacking in tuple
+displays <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(*x,</span> <span class="pre">*y,</span> <span class="pre">*z)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK</span></code></a>,
+but is used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(*x,</span> <span class="pre">*y,</span> <span class="pre">*z)</span></code> call syntax. The stack item at position
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> should be the corresponding callable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_LIST_UNPACK">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_LIST_UNPACK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_LIST_UNPACK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK</span></code></a>, but pushes a list
+instead of tuple.  Implements iterable unpacking in list
+displays <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[*x,</span> <span class="pre">*y,</span> <span class="pre">*z]</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_SET_UNPACK">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_SET_UNPACK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_SET_UNPACK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK</span></code></a>, but pushes a set
+instead of tuple.  Implements iterable unpacking in set
+displays <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{*x,</span> <span class="pre">*y,</span> <span class="pre">*z}</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pops <em>count</em> mappings from the stack, merges them into a single dictionary,
+and pushes the result.  Implements dictionary unpacking in dictionary
+displays <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{**x,</span> <span class="pre">**y,</span> <span class="pre">**z}</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK</span></code></a>,
+but is used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(**x,</span> <span class="pre">**y,</span> <span class="pre">**z)</span></code> call syntax.  The stack item at
+position <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code> should be the corresponding callable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The position of the callable is determined by adding 2 to the opcode
+argument instead of encoding it in the second byte of the argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_ATTR">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_ATTR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_ATTR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replaces TOS with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr(TOS,</span> <span class="pre">co_names[namei])</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-COMPARE_OP">
+<code class="descname">COMPARE_OP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>opname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-COMPARE_OP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp_op[opname]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-IMPORT_NAME">
+<code class="descname">IMPORT_NAME</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-IMPORT_NAME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Imports the module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names[namei]</span></code>.  TOS and TOS1 are popped and provide
+the <em>fromlist</em> and <em>level</em> arguments of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>.  The module
+object is pushed onto the stack.  The current namespace is not affected: for
+a proper import statement, a subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-STORE_FAST"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_FAST</span></code></a> instruction
+modifies the namespace.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-IMPORT_FROM">
+<code class="descname">IMPORT_FROM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-IMPORT_FROM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Loads the attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names[namei]</span></code> from the module found in TOS. The
+resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-STORE_FAST"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_FAST</span></code></a> instruction.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-JUMP_FORWARD">
+<code class="descname">JUMP_FORWARD</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-JUMP_FORWARD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Increments bytecode counter by <em>delta</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE">
+<code class="descname">POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to <em>target</em>.  TOS is popped.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE">
+<code class="descname">POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to <em>target</em>.  TOS is popped.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP">
+<code class="descname">JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to <em>target</em> and leaves TOS on the
+stack.  Otherwise (TOS is false), TOS is popped.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP">
+<code class="descname">JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to <em>target</em> and leaves TOS on the
+stack.  Otherwise (TOS is true), TOS is popped.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-JUMP_ABSOLUTE">
+<code class="descname">JUMP_ABSOLUTE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-JUMP_ABSOLUTE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set bytecode counter to <em>target</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-FOR_ITER">
+<code class="descname">FOR_ITER</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-FOR_ITER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>TOS is an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>.  Call its <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method.  If
+this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below
+it).  If the iterator indicates it is exhausted TOS is popped, and the byte
+code counter is incremented by <em>delta</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_GLOBAL">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_GLOBAL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_GLOBAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Loads the global named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names[namei]</span></code> onto the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-SETUP_LOOP">
+<code class="descname">SETUP_LOOP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-SETUP_LOOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a block for a loop onto the block stack.  The block spans from the
+current instruction with a size of <em>delta</em> bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-SETUP_EXCEPT">
+<code class="descname">SETUP_EXCEPT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-SETUP_EXCEPT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. <em>delta</em>
+points to the first except block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-SETUP_FINALLY">
+<code class="descname">SETUP_FINALLY</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-SETUP_FINALLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. <em>delta</em>
+points to the finally block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_FAST">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_FAST</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>var_num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_FAST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a reference to the local <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_varnames[var_num]</span></code> onto the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-STORE_FAST">
+<code class="descname">STORE_FAST</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>var_num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-STORE_FAST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stores TOS into the local <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_varnames[var_num]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DELETE_FAST">
+<code class="descname">DELETE_FAST</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>var_num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DELETE_FAST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deletes local <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_varnames[var_num]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_CLOSURE">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_CLOSURE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_CLOSURE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot <em>i</em> of the cell and free
+variable storage.  The name of the variable is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_cellvars[i]</span></code> if <em>i</em> is
+less than the length of <em>co_cellvars</em>.  Otherwise it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_freevars[i</span> <span class="pre">-</span>
+<span class="pre">len(co_cellvars)]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_DEREF">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_DEREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_DEREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Loads the cell contained in slot <em>i</em> of the cell and free variable storage.
+Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_CLASSDEREF">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_CLASSDEREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_CLASSDEREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Much like <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-LOAD_DEREF"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOAD_DEREF</span></code></a> but first checks the locals dictionary before
+consulting the cell.  This is used for loading free variables in class
+bodies.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-STORE_DEREF">
+<code class="descname">STORE_DEREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-STORE_DEREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stores TOS into the cell contained in slot <em>i</em> of the cell and free variable
+storage.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-DELETE_DEREF">
+<code class="descname">DELETE_DEREF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-DELETE_DEREF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Empties the cell contained in slot <em>i</em> of the cell and free variable storage.
+Used by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-RAISE_VARARGS">
+<code class="descname">RAISE_VARARGS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-RAISE_VARARGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code> statement,
+depending on the value of <em>argc</em>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>0: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code> (re-raise previous exception)</p></li>
+<li><p>1: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code> (raise exception instance or type at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>2: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">TOS1</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">TOS</span></code> (raise exception instance or type at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS1</span></code>
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOS</span></code>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-CALL_FUNCTION">
+<code class="descname">CALL_FUNCTION</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls a callable object with positional arguments.
+<em>argc</em> indicates the number of positional arguments.
+The top of the stack contains positional arguments, with the right-most
+argument on top.  Below the arguments is a callable object to call.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION</span></code> pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
+calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
+returned by the callable object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>This opcode is used only for calls with positional arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_KW">
+<code class="descname">CALL_FUNCTION_KW</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_KW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls a callable object with positional (if any) and keyword arguments.
+<em>argc</em> indicates the total number of positional and keyword arguments.
+The top element on the stack contains a tuple of keyword argument names.
+Below that are keyword arguments in the order corresponding to the tuple.
+Below that are positional arguments, with the right-most parameter on
+top.  Below the arguments is a callable object to call.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION_KW</span></code> pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
+calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
+returned by the callable object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Keyword arguments are packed in a tuple instead of a dictionary,
+<em>argc</em> indicates the total number of arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_EX">
+<code class="descname">CALL_FUNCTION_EX</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_EX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword
+arguments.  If the lowest bit of <em>flags</em> is set, the top of the stack
+contains a mapping object containing additional keyword arguments.
+Below that is an iterable object containing positional arguments and
+a callable object to call.  <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL</span></code></a> can be used for merging multiple
+mapping objects and iterables containing arguments.
+Before the callable is called, the mapping object and iterable object
+are each “unpacked” and their contents passed in as keyword and
+positional arguments respectively.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION_EX</span></code> pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
+calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
+returned by the callable object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-LOAD_METHOD">
+<code class="descname">LOAD_METHOD</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namei</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-LOAD_METHOD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Loads a method named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names[namei]</span></code> from TOS object. TOS is popped and
+method and TOS are pushed when interpreter can call unbound method directly.
+TOS will be used as the first argument (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>) by <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-CALL_METHOD"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_METHOD</span></code></a>.
+Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> and  method is pushed (method is bound method or
+something else).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-CALL_METHOD">
+<code class="descname">CALL_METHOD</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-CALL_METHOD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls a method.  <em>argc</em> is number of positional arguments.
+Keyword arguments are not supported.  This opcode is designed to be used
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-LOAD_METHOD"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOAD_METHOD</span></code></a>.  Positional arguments are on top of the stack.
+Below them, two items described in <a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-LOAD_METHOD"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOAD_METHOD</span></code></a> on the stack.
+All of them are popped and return value is pushed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-MAKE_FUNCTION">
+<code class="descname">MAKE_FUNCTION</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-MAKE_FUNCTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pushes a new function object on the stack.  From bottom to top, the consumed
+stack must consist of values if the argument carries a specified flag value</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x01</span></code> a tuple of default values for positional-only and
+positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x02</span></code> a dictionary of keyword-only parameters’ default values</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x04</span></code> an annotation dictionary</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x08</span></code> a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure</p></li>
+<li><p>the code associated with the function (at TOS1)</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-qualified-name"><span class="xref std std-term">qualified name</span></a> of the function (at TOS)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-BUILD_SLICE">
+<code class="descname">BUILD_SLICE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-BUILD_SLICE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Pushes a slice object on the stack.  <em>argc</em> must be 2 or 3.  If it is 2,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice(TOS1,</span> <span class="pre">TOS)</span></code> is pushed; if it is 3, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice(TOS2,</span> <span class="pre">TOS1,</span> <span class="pre">TOS)</span></code> is
+pushed. See the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#slice" title="slice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice()</span></code></a> built-in function for more information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-EXTENDED_ARG">
+<code class="descname">EXTENDED_ARG</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ext</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-EXTENDED_ARG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default one
+byte. <em>ext</em> holds an additional byte which act as higher bits in the argument.
+For each opcode, at most three prefixal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXTENDED_ARG</span></code> are allowed, forming
+an argument from two-byte to four-byte.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-FORMAT_VALUE">
+<code class="descname">FORMAT_VALUE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-FORMAT_VALUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).  Pops
+an optional <em>fmt_spec</em> from the stack, then a required <em>value</em>.
+<em>flags</em> is interpreted as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(flags</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0x03)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0x00</span></code>: <em>value</em> is formatted as-is.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(flags</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0x03)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0x01</span></code>: call <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> on <em>value</em> before
+formatting it.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(flags</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0x03)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0x02</span></code>: call <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> on <em>value</em> before
+formatting it.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(flags</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0x03)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0x03</span></code>: call <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a> on <em>value</em> before
+formatting it.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(flags</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0x04)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0x04</span></code>: pop <em>fmt_spec</em> from the stack and use
+it, else use an empty <em>fmt_spec</em>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Formatting is performed using <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Format()</span></code>.  The
+result is pushed on the stack.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="opcode">
+<dt id="opcode-HAVE_ARGUMENT">
+<code class="descname">HAVE_ARGUMENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-HAVE_ARGUMENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line between
+opcodes which don’t use their argument and those that do
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">HAVE_ARGUMENT</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">HAVE_ARGUMENT</span></code>, respectively).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">HAVE_ARGUMENT</span></code>
+ignore it. Before, only opcodes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">HAVE_ARGUMENT</span></code> had an argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="opcode-collections">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Opcode collections<a class="headerlink" href="#opcode-collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
+instructions:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.opname">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">opname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.opname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.opmap">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">opmap</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.opmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.cmp_op">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">cmp_op</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.cmp_op" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of all compare operation names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.hasconst">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">hasconst</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.hasconst" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.hasfree">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">hasfree</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.hasfree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable (note that ‘free’ in this
+context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner
+scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope.  It does
+<em>not</em> include references to global or builtin scopes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.hasname">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">hasname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.hasname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.hasjrel">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">hasjrel</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.hasjrel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.hasjabs">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">hasjabs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.hasjabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.haslocal">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">haslocal</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.haslocal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="dis.hascompare">
+<code class="descclassname">dis.</code><code class="descname">hascompare</code><a class="headerlink" href="#dis.hascompare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code> — Disassembler for Python bytecode</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytecode-analysis">Bytecode analysis</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#analysis-functions">Analysis functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-bytecode-instructions">Python Bytecode Instructions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#opcode-collections">Opcode collections</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="compileall.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code> — Byte-compile Python libraries</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="pickletools.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code> — Tools for pickle developers</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,215 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Software Packaging and Distribution &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+<h1>Software Packaging and Distribution<a class="headerlink" href="#software-packaging-and-distribution" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>These libraries help you with publishing and installing Python software.
+While these modules are designed to work in conjunction with the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">Python Package Index</a>, they can also be used
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/distutils.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/distutils.html
new file mode 100644
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+
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+
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+  <div class="section" id="module-distutils">
+<span id="distutils-building-and-installing-python-modules"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> — Building and installing Python modules<a class="headerlink" href="#module-distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> package provides support for building and installing
+additional modules into a Python installation.  The new modules may be either
+100%-pure Python, or may be extension modules written in C, or may be
+collections of Python packages which include modules coded in both Python and C.</p>
+<p>Most Python users will <em>not</em> want to use this module directly, but instead
+use the cross-version tools maintained by the Python Packaging Authority. In
+particular,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/">setuptools</a> is an
+enhanced alternative to <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> that provides:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>support for declaring project dependencies</p></li>
+<li><p>additional mechanisms for configuring which files to include in source
+releases (including plugins for integration with version control systems)</p></li>
+<li><p>the ability to declare project “entry points”, which can be used as the
+basis for application plugin systems</p></li>
+<li><p>the ability to automatically generate Windows command line executables at
+installation time rather than needing to prebuild them</p></li>
+<li><p>consistent behaviour across all supported Python versions</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The recommended <a class="reference external" href="https://pip.pypa.io/">pip</a> installer runs all
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> scripts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setuptools</span></code>, even if the script itself only
+imports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code>. Refer to the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org">Python Packaging User Guide</a> for more
+information.</p>
+<p>For the benefits of packaging tool authors and users seeking a deeper
+understanding of the details of the current packaging and distribution
+system, the legacy <a class="reference internal" href="#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> based user documentation and API
+reference remain available:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../install/index.html#install-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/index.html#distutils-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/doctest.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/doctest.html
new file mode 100644
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
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+    <title>doctest — Test interactive Python examples &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+  <div class="section" id="module-doctest">
+<span id="doctest-test-interactive-python-examples"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> — Test interactive Python examples<a class="headerlink" href="#module-doctest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/doctest.py">Lib/doctest.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module searches for pieces of text that look like interactive
+Python sessions, and then executes those sessions to verify that they work
+exactly as shown.  There are several common ways to use doctest:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>To check that a module’s docstrings are up-to-date by verifying that all
+interactive examples still work as documented.</p></li>
+<li><p>To perform regression testing by verifying that interactive examples from a
+test file or a test object work as expected.</p></li>
+<li><p>To write tutorial documentation for a package, liberally illustrated with
+input-output examples.  Depending on whether the examples or the expository text
+are emphasized, this has the flavor of “literate testing” or “executable
+documentation”.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Here’s a complete but small example module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">This is the &quot;example&quot; module.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">The example module supplies one function, factorial().  For example,</span>
+
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt; factorial(5)</span>
+<span class="sd">120</span>
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return the factorial of n, an exact integer &gt;= 0.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]</span>
+<span class="sd">    [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; factorial(30)</span>
+<span class="sd">    265252859812191058636308480000000</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; factorial(-1)</span>
+<span class="sd">    Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="sd">        ...</span>
+<span class="sd">    ValueError: n must be &gt;= 0</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer:</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; factorial(30.1)</span>
+<span class="sd">    Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="sd">        ...</span>
+<span class="sd">    ValueError: n must be exact integer</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; factorial(30.0)</span>
+<span class="sd">    265252859812191058636308480000000</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    It must also not be ridiculously large:</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; factorial(1e100)</span>
+<span class="sd">    Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="sd">        ...</span>
+<span class="sd">    OverflowError: n too large</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;n must be &gt;= 0&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">floor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;n must be exact integer&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># catch a value like 1e300</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">OverflowError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;n too large&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="n">factor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">factor</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">*=</span> <span class="n">factor</span>
+        <span class="n">factor</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+    <span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testmod</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you run <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.py</span></code> directly from the command line, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>
+works its magic:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python example.py
+<span class="gp">$</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s no output!  That’s normal, and it means all the examples worked.  Pass
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> to the script, and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> prints a detailed log of what
+it’s trying, and prints a summary at the end:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python example.py -v
+<span class="go">Trying:</span>
+<span class="go">    factorial(5)</span>
+<span class="go">Expecting:</span>
+<span class="go">    120</span>
+<span class="go">ok</span>
+<span class="go">Trying:</span>
+<span class="go">    [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]</span>
+<span class="go">Expecting:</span>
+<span class="go">    [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]</span>
+<span class="go">ok</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And so on, eventually ending with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Trying:
+    factorial(1e100)
+Expecting:
+    Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+    OverflowError: n too large
+ok
+2 items passed all tests:
+   1 tests in __main__
+   8 tests in __main__.factorial
+9 tests in 2 items.
+9 passed and 0 failed.
+Test passed.
+$
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That’s all you need to know to start making productive use of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>!
+Jump in.  The following sections provide full details.  Note that there are many
+examples of doctests in the standard Python test suite and libraries.
+Especially useful examples can be found in the standard test file
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_doctest.py</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="simple-usage-checking-examples-in-docstrings">
+<span id="doctest-simple-testmod"></span><h2>Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings<a class="headerlink" href="#simple-usage-checking-examples-in-docstrings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The simplest way to start using doctest (but not necessarily the way you’ll
+continue to do it) is to end each module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code> with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+    <span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testmod</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> then examines docstrings in module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Running the module as a script causes the examples in the docstrings to get
+executed and verified:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This won’t display anything unless an example fails, in which case the failing
+example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, and the
+final line of output is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">***Test</span> <span class="pre">Failed***</span> <span class="pre">N</span> <span class="pre">failures.</span></code>, where <em>N</em> is the
+number of examples that failed.</p>
+<p>Run it with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> switch instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and a detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard output, along
+with assorted summaries at the end.</p>
+<p>You can force verbose mode by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose=True</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>, or
+prohibit it by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose=False</span></code>.  In either of those cases,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code> is not examined by <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a> (so passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> or not
+has no effect).</p>
+<p>There is also a command line shortcut for running <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>.  You can
+instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module directly from the
+standard library and pass the module name(s) on the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">doctest</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will import <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.py</span></code> as a standalone module and run
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a> on it.  Note that this may not work correctly if the file is
+part of a package and imports other submodules from that package.</p>
+<p>For more information on <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-basic-api"><span class="std std-ref">Basic API</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="simple-usage-checking-examples-in-a-text-file">
+<span id="doctest-simple-testfile"></span><h2>Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File<a class="headerlink" href="#simple-usage-checking-examples-in-a-text-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Another simple application of doctest is testing interactive examples in a text
+file.  This can be done with the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+<span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testfile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;example.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That short script executes and verifies any interactive Python examples
+contained in the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.txt</span></code>.  The file content is treated as if it
+were a single giant docstring; the file doesn’t need to contain a Python
+program!   For example, perhaps <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.txt</span></code> contains this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>The ``example`` module
+======================
+
+Using ``factorial``
+-------------------
+
+This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
+``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:
+
+    &gt;&gt;&gt; from example import factorial
+
+Now use it:
+
+    &gt;&gt;&gt; factorial(6)
+    120
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.testfile(&quot;example.txt&quot;)</span></code> then finds the error in this
+documentation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;./example.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">txt</span>
+<span class="n">Failed</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Expected</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="mi">120</span>
+<span class="n">Got</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="mi">720</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As with <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a> won’t display anything unless an
+example fails.  If an example does fail, then the failing example(s) and the
+cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, using the same format as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a> looks for files in the calling module’s directory.
+See section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-basic-api"><span class="std std-ref">Basic API</span></a> for a description of the optional arguments
+that can be used to tell it to look for files in other locations.</p>
+<p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a>’s verbosity can be set with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> command-line switch or with the optional keyword argument
+<em>verbose</em>.</p>
+<p>There is also a command line shortcut for running <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a>.  You can
+instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module directly from the
+standard library and pass the file name(s) on the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">doctest</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">txt</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because the file name does not end with <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> infers that
+it must be run with <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a>, not <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For more information on <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a>, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-basic-api"><span class="std std-ref">Basic API</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-it-works">
+<span id="doctest-how-it-works"></span><h2>How It Works<a class="headerlink" href="#how-it-works" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section examines in detail how doctest works: which docstrings it looks at,
+how it finds interactive examples, what execution context it uses, how it
+handles exceptions, and how option flags can be used to control its behavior.
+This is the information that you need to know to write doctest examples; for
+information about actually running doctest on these examples, see the following
+sections.</p>
+<div class="section" id="which-docstrings-are-examined">
+<span id="doctest-which-docstrings"></span><h3>Which Docstrings Are Examined?<a class="headerlink" href="#which-docstrings-are-examined" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The module docstring, and all function, class and method docstrings are
+searched.  Objects imported into the module are not searched.</p>
+<p>In addition, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M.__test__</span></code> exists and “is true”, it must be a dict, and each
+entry maps a (string) name to a function object, class object, or string.
+Function and class object docstrings found from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M.__test__</span></code> are searched, and
+strings are treated as if they were docstrings.  In output, a key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">K</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M.__test__</span></code> appears with name</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">&gt;.</span><span class="n">__test__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">K</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Any classes found are recursively searched similarly, to test docstrings in
+their contained methods and nested classes.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Prior to version 3.4, extension modules written in C were not fully
+searched by doctest.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-are-docstring-examples-recognized">
+<span id="doctest-finding-examples"></span><h3>How are Docstring Examples Recognized?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-are-docstring-examples-recognized" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In most cases a copy-and-paste of an interactive console session works fine,
+but doctest isn’t trying to do an exact emulation of any specific Python shell.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># comments are ignored</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">12</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="go">12</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;yes&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;no&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;NO&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;NO!!!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">no</span>
+<span class="go">NO</span>
+<span class="go">NO!!!</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-0">Any expected output must immediately follow the final <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'...</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code>
+line containing the code, and the expected output (if any) extends to the next
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code> or all-whitespace line.</p>
+<p>The fine print:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Expected output cannot contain an all-whitespace line, since such a line is
+taken to signal the end of expected output.  If expected output does contain a
+blank line, put <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;BLANKLINE&gt;</span></code> in your doctest example each place a blank line
+is expected.</p></li>
+<li><p>All hard tab characters are expanded to spaces, using 8-column tab stops.
+Tabs in output generated by the tested code are not modified.  Because any
+hard tabs in the sample output <em>are</em> expanded, this means that if the code
+output includes hard tabs, the only way the doctest can pass is if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" title="doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span></code></a> option or <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-directives"><span class="std std-ref">directive</span></a>
+is in effect.
+Alternatively, the test can be rewritten to capture the output and compare it
+to an expected value as part of the test.  This handling of tabs in the
+source was arrived at through trial and error, and has proven to be the least
+error prone way of handling them.  It is possible to use a different
+algorithm for handling tabs by writing a custom <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a> class.</p></li>
+<li><p>Output to stdout is captured, but not output to stderr (exception tracebacks
+are captured via a different means).</p></li>
+<li><p>If you continue a line via backslashing in an interactive session, or for any
+other reason use a backslash, you should use a raw docstring, which will
+preserve your backslashes exactly as you type them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sa">r</span><span class="sd">&#39;&#39;&#39;Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Otherwise, the backslash will be interpreted as part of the string. For example,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> above would be interpreted as a newline character.  Alternatively, you
+can double each backslash in the doctest version (and not use a raw string):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sd">&#39;&#39;&#39;Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The starting column doesn’t matter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Easy!&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; import math</span>
+<span class="go">          &gt;&gt;&gt; math.floor(1.9)</span>
+<span class="go">          1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and as many leading whitespace characters are stripped from the expected output
+as appeared in the initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code> line that started the example.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-s-the-execution-context">
+<span id="doctest-execution-context"></span><h3>What’s the Execution Context?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-the-execution-context" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, each time <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> finds a docstring to test, it uses a
+<em>shallow copy</em> of <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code>’s globals, so that running tests doesn’t change the
+module’s real globals, and so that one test in <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code> can’t leave behind
+crumbs that accidentally allow another test to work.  This means examples can
+freely use any names defined at top-level in <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code>, and names defined earlier
+in the docstring being run. Examples cannot see names defined in other
+docstrings.</p>
+<p>You can force use of your own dict as the execution context by passing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globs=your_dict</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-about-exceptions">
+<span id="doctest-exceptions"></span><h3>What About Exceptions?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-about-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>No problem, provided that the traceback is the only output produced by the
+example:  just paste in the traceback. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a> Since tracebacks contain details
+that are likely to change rapidly (for example, exact file paths and line
+numbers), this is one case where doctest works hard to be flexible in what it
+accepts.</p>
+<p>Simple example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">list.remove(x): x not in list</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That doctest succeeds if <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised, with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.remove(x):</span>
+<span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">list</span></code> detail as shown.</p>
+<p>The expected output for an exception must start with a traceback header, which
+may be either of the following two lines, indented the same as the first line of
+the example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">innermost</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The traceback header is followed by an optional traceback stack, whose contents
+are ignored by doctest.  The traceback stack is typically omitted, or copied
+verbatim from an interactive session.</p>
+<p>The traceback stack is followed by the most interesting part: the line(s)
+containing the exception type and detail.  This is usually the last line of a
+traceback, but can extend across multiple lines if the exception has a
+multi-line detail:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;multi</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">    line</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">detail&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">multi</span>
+<span class="go">    line</span>
+<span class="go">detail</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The last three lines (starting with <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>) are compared against the
+exception’s type and detail, and the rest are ignored.</p>
+<p>Best practice is to omit the traceback stack, unless it adds significant
+documentation value to the example.  So the last example is probably better as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;multi</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">    line</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">detail&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">multi</span>
+<span class="go">    line</span>
+<span class="go">detail</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that tracebacks are treated very specially.  In particular, in the
+rewritten example, the use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code> is independent of doctest’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.ELLIPSIS" title="doctest.ELLIPSIS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ELLIPSIS</span></code></a> option.  The ellipsis in that example could be left out, or
+could just as well be three (or three hundred) commas or digits, or an indented
+transcript of a Monty Python skit.</p>
+<p>Some details you should read once, but won’t need to remember:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Doctest can’t guess whether your expected output came from an exception
+traceback or from ordinary printing.  So, e.g., an example that expects
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError:</span> <span class="pre">42</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">prime</span></code> will pass whether <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is actually
+raised or if the example merely prints that traceback text.  In practice,
+ordinary output rarely begins with a traceback header line, so this doesn’t
+create real problems.</p></li>
+<li><p>Each line of the traceback stack (if present) must be indented further than
+the first line of the example, <em>or</em> start with a non-alphanumeric character.
+The first line following the traceback header indented the same and starting
+with an alphanumeric is taken to be the start of the exception detail.  Of
+course this does the right thing for genuine tracebacks.</p></li>
+<li><p>When the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL" title="doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL</span></code></a> doctest option is specified,
+everything following the leftmost colon and any module information in the
+exception name is ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p>The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>s.  But doctest uses the traceback header line to
+distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions.  So in the rare case where you need
+to test a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> that omits the traceback header, you will need to
+manually add the traceback header line to your test example.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="index-1">
+<li><p>For some <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>s, Python displays the character position of the
+syntax error, using a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> marker:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>
+    <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+      <span class="o">^</span>
+<span class="gr">SyntaxError</span>: <span class="n">invalid syntax</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since the lines showing the position of the error come before the exception type
+and detail, they are not checked by doctest.  For example, the following test
+would pass, even though it puts the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> marker in the wrong location:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>
+    <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="o">^</span>
+<span class="gr">SyntaxError</span>: <span class="n">invalid syntax</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="option-flags">
+<span id="doctest-options"></span><span id="option-flags-and-directives"></span><h3>Option Flags<a class="headerlink" href="#option-flags" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A number of option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior.
+Symbolic names for the flags are supplied as module constants, which can be
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#bitwise"><span class="std std-ref">bitwise ORed</span></a> together and passed to various functions.
+The names can also be used in <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-directives"><span class="std std-ref">doctest directives</span></a>,
+and may be passed to the doctest command line interface via the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> option.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> command line option.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The first group of options define test semantics, controlling aspects of how
+doctest decides whether actual output matches an example’s expected output:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>By default, if an expected output block contains just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, an actual output
+block containing just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> is considered to be a match, and
+similarly for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> versus <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1" title="doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1</span></code></a> is
+specified, neither substitution is allowed.  The default behavior caters to that
+Python changed the return type of many functions from integer to boolean;
+doctests expecting “little integer” output still work in these cases.  This
+option will probably go away, but not for several years.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>By default, if an expected output block contains a line containing only the
+string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;BLANKLINE&gt;</span></code>, then that line will match a blank line in the actual
+output.  Because a genuinely blank line delimits the expected output, this is
+the only way to communicate that a blank line is expected.  When
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" title="doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE</span></code></a> is specified, this substitution is not allowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, all sequences of whitespace (blanks and newlines) are treated as
+equal.  Any sequence of whitespace within the expected output will match any
+sequence of whitespace within the actual output. By default, whitespace must
+match exactly. <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" title="doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span></code></a> is especially useful when a line of
+expected output is very long, and you want to wrap it across multiple lines in
+your source.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.ELLIPSIS">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">ELLIPSIS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.ELLIPSIS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, an ellipsis marker (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>) in the expected output can match
+any substring in the actual output.  This includes substrings that span line
+boundaries, and empty substrings, so it’s best to keep usage of this simple.
+Complicated uses can lead to the same kinds of “oops, it matched too much!”
+surprises that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*</span></code> is prone to in regular expressions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, an example that expects an exception passes if an exception of
+the expected type is raised, even if the exception detail does not match.  For
+example, an example expecting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError:</span> <span class="pre">42</span></code> will pass if the actual
+exception raised is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError:</span> <span class="pre">3*14</span></code>, but will fail, e.g., if
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>It will also ignore the module name used in Python 3 doctest reports. Hence
+both of these variations will work with the flag specified, regardless of
+whether the test is run under Python 2.7 or Python 3.2 (or later versions):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">CustomError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="gr">CustomError</span>: <span class="n">message</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">CustomError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="gr">my_module.CustomError</span>: <span class="n">message</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.ELLIPSIS" title="doctest.ELLIPSIS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ELLIPSIS</span></code></a> can also be used to ignore the
+details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail based
+on whether or not the module details are printed as part of the
+exception name. Using <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL" title="doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL</span></code></a> and the details
+from Python 2.3 is also the only clear way to write a doctest that doesn’t
+care about the exception detail yet continues to pass under Python 2.3 or
+earlier (those releases do not support <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-directives"><span class="std std-ref">doctest directives</span></a> and ignore them as irrelevant comments). For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;moo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">object doesn&#39;t support item assignment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>passes under Python 2.3 and later Python versions with the flag specified,
+even though the detail
+changed in Python 2.4 to say “does not” instead of “doesn’t”.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL" title="doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL</span></code></a> now also ignores any information relating
+to the module containing the exception under test.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.SKIP">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">SKIP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.SKIP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, do not run the example at all.  This can be useful in contexts
+where doctest examples serve as both documentation and test cases, and an
+example should be included for documentation purposes, but should not be
+checked.  E.g., the example’s output might be random; or the example might
+depend on resources which would be unavailable to the test driver.</p>
+<p>The SKIP flag can also be used for temporarily “commenting out” examples.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">COMPARISON_FLAGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bitmask or’ing together all the comparison flags above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The second group of options controls how test failures are reported:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.REPORT_UDIFF">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">REPORT_UDIFF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.REPORT_UDIFF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and actual outputs are
+displayed using a unified diff.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.REPORT_CDIFF">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">REPORT_CDIFF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.REPORT_CDIFF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and actual outputs
+will be displayed using a context diff.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.REPORT_NDIFF">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">REPORT_NDIFF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.REPORT_NDIFF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, differences are computed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib.Differ</span></code>, using the same
+algorithm as the popular <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndiff.py</span></code> utility. This is the only method that
+marks differences within lines as well as across lines.  For example, if a line
+of expected output contains digit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> where actual output contains letter
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code>, a line is inserted with a caret marking the mismatching column positions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, display the first failing example in each doctest, but suppress
+output for all remaining examples.  This will prevent doctest from reporting
+correct examples that break because of earlier failures; but it might also hide
+incorrect examples that fail independently of the first failure.  When
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE" title="doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE</span></code></a> is specified, the remaining examples are
+still run, and still count towards the total number of failures reported; only
+the output is suppressed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.FAIL_FAST">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">FAIL_FAST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.FAIL_FAST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, exit after the first failing example and don’t attempt to run
+the remaining examples. Thus, the number of failures reported will be at most
+1.  This flag may be useful during debugging, since examples after the first
+failure won’t even produce debugging output.</p>
+<p>The doctest command line accepts the option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> as a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span>
+<span class="pre">FAIL_FAST</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">REPORTING_FLAGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bitmask or’ing together all the reporting flags above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There is also a way to register new option flag names, though this isn’t
+useful unless you intend to extend <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> internals via subclassing:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.register_optionflag">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">register_optionflag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.register_optionflag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new option flag with a given name, and return the new flag’s integer
+value.  <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.register_optionflag" title="doctest.register_optionflag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_optionflag()</span></code></a> can be used when subclassing
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> to create new options that are
+supported by your subclasses.  <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.register_optionflag" title="doctest.register_optionflag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_optionflag()</span></code></a> should always be
+called using the following idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">MY_FLAG</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">register_optionflag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;MY_FLAG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="directives">
+<span id="doctest-directives"></span><span id="index-4"></span><h3>Directives<a class="headerlink" href="#directives" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Doctest directives may be used to modify the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">option flags</span></a> for an individual example.  Doctest directives are
+special Python comments following an example’s source code:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-directive">directive            </strong> ::=  &quot;#&quot; &quot;doctest:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-directive-options"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">directive_options</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-directive-options">directive_options    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-directive-option"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">directive_option</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-directive-option"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">directive_option</span></code></a>)\*
+<strong id="grammar-token-directive-option">directive_option     </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-on-or-off"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">on_or_off</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-directive-option-name"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">directive_option_name</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-on-or-off">on_or_off            </strong> ::=  &quot;+&quot; \| &quot;-&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-directive-option-name">directive_option_name</strong> ::=  &quot;DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE&quot; \| &quot;NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE&quot; \| ...
+</pre>
+<p>Whitespace is not allowed between the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> and the directive option
+name.  The directive option name can be any of the option flag names explained
+above.</p>
+<p>An example’s doctest directives modify doctest’s behavior for that single
+example.  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> to enable the named behavior, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> to disable it.</p>
+<p>For example, this test passes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)))</span> 
+<span class="go">[0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,</span>
+<span class="go">10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output doesn’t have
+two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and because the actual output
+is on a single line.  This test also passes, and also requires a directive to do
+so:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)))</span> 
+<span class="go">[0, 1, ..., 18, 19]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by
+commas:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)))</span> 
+<span class="go">[0,    1, ...,   18,    19]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they are
+combined:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)))</span> 
+<span class="gp">... </span>                       
+<span class="go">[0,    1, ...,   18,    19]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As the previous example shows, you can add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code> lines to your example
+containing only directives.  This can be useful when an example is too long for
+a directive to comfortably fit on the same line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>
+<span class="go">[0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that since all options are disabled by default, and directives apply only
+to the example they appear in, enabling options (via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> in a directive) is
+usually the only meaningful choice.  However, option flags can also be passed to
+functions that run doctests, establishing different defaults.  In such cases,
+disabling an option via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> in a directive can be useful.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="warnings">
+<span id="doctest-warnings"></span><h3>Warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> is serious about requiring exact matches in expected output.  If
+even a single character doesn’t match, the test fails.  This will probably
+surprise you a few times, as you learn exactly what Python does and doesn’t
+guarantee about output.  For example, when printing a set, Python doesn’t
+guarantee that the element is printed in any particular order, so a test like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">{&quot;Hermione&quot;, &quot;Harry&quot;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is vulnerable!  One workaround is to do</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hermione&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Harry&quot;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>instead.  Another is to do</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Harry&#39;, &#39;Hermione&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Before Python 3.6, when printing a dict, Python did not guarantee that
+the key-value pairs was printed in any particular order.</p>
+</div>
+<p>There are others, but you get the idea.</p>
+<p>Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># certain to fail some of the time</span>
+<span class="go">7948648</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>   <span class="c1"># the default repr() for instances embeds an address</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;__main__.C instance at 0x00AC18F0&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.ELLIPSIS" title="doctest.ELLIPSIS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ELLIPSIS</span></code></a> directive gives a nice approach for the last example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span> 
+<span class="go">&lt;__main__.C instance at 0x...&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations across
+platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for float formatting,
+and C libraries vary widely in quality here.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mf">1.</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">7</span>  <span class="c1"># risky</span>
+<span class="go">0.14285714285714285</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># safer</span>
+<span class="go">0.142857142857</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># much safer</span>
+<span class="go">0.142857</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Numbers of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I/2.**J</span></code> are safe across all platforms, and I often
+contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mf">3.</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">4</span>  <span class="c1"># utterly safe</span>
+<span class="go">0.75</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Simple fractions are also easier for people to understand, and that makes for
+better documentation.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="basic-api">
+<span id="doctest-basic-api"></span><h2>Basic API<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The functions <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a> provide a simple interface to
+doctest that should be sufficient for most basic uses.  For a less formal
+introduction to these two functions, see sections <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-simple-testmod"><span class="std std-ref">Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings</span></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-simple-testfile"><span class="std std-ref">Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.testfile">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">testfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>module_relative=True</em>, <em>name=None</em>, <em>package=None</em>, <em>globs=None</em>, <em>verbose=None</em>, <em>report=True</em>, <em>optionflags=0</em>, <em>extraglobs=None</em>, <em>raise_on_error=False</em>, <em>parser=DocTestParser()</em>, <em>encoding=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.testfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All arguments except <em>filename</em> are optional, and should be specified in keyword
+form.</p>
+<p>Test examples in the file named <em>filename</em>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(failure_count,</span>
+<span class="pre">test_count)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>module_relative</em> specifies how the filename should be
+interpreted:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <em>module_relative</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), then <em>filename</em> specifies an
+OS-independent module-relative path.  By default, this path is relative to the
+calling module’s directory; but if the <em>package</em> argument is specified, then it
+is relative to that package.  To ensure OS-independence, <em>filename</em> should use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> characters to separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path
+(i.e., it may not begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>module_relative</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, then <em>filename</em> specifies an OS-specific
+path.  The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths are resolved with
+respect to the current working directory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Optional argument <em>name</em> gives the name of the test; by default, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.basename(filename)</span></code> is used.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>package</em> is a Python package or the name of a Python package
+whose directory should be used as the base directory for a module-relative
+filename.  If no package is specified, then the calling module’s directory is
+used as the base directory for module-relative filenames.  It is an error to
+specify <em>package</em> if <em>module_relative</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>globs</em> gives a dict to be used as the globals when executing
+examples.  A new shallow copy of this dict is created for the doctest, so its
+examples start with a clean slate. By default, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a new empty dict
+is used.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>extraglobs</em> gives a dict merged into the globals used to
+execute examples.  This works like <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.update()</span></code></a>:  if <em>globs</em> and
+<em>extraglobs</em> have a common key, the associated value in <em>extraglobs</em> appears in
+the combined dict.  By default, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, no extra globals are used.  This
+is an advanced feature that allows parameterization of doctests.  For example, a
+doctest can be written for a base class, using a generic name for the class,
+then reused to test any number of subclasses by passing an <em>extraglobs</em> dict
+mapping the generic name to the subclass to be tested.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>verbose</em> prints lots of stuff if true, and prints only
+failures if false; by default, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it’s true if and only if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-v'</span></code>
+is in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>report</em> prints a summary at the end when true, else prints
+nothing at the end.  In verbose mode, the summary is detailed, else the summary
+is very brief (in fact, empty if all tests passed).</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>optionflags</em> (default value 0) takes the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#bitwise"><span class="std std-ref">bitwise OR</span></a> of option flags.
+See section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">Option Flags</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>raise_on_error</em> defaults to false.  If true, an exception is
+raised upon the first failure or unexpected exception in an example.  This
+allows failures to be post-mortem debugged. Default behavior is to continue
+running examples.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>parser</em> specifies a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a> (or subclass) that
+should be used to extract tests from the files.  It defaults to a normal parser
+(i.e., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser()</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>encoding</em> specifies an encoding that should be used to
+convert the file to unicode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.testmod">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">testmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>m=None</em>, <em>name=None</em>, <em>globs=None</em>, <em>verbose=None</em>, <em>report=True</em>, <em>optionflags=0</em>, <em>extraglobs=None</em>, <em>raise_on_error=False</em>, <em>exclude_empty=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.testmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All arguments are optional, and all except for <em>m</em> should be specified in
+keyword form.</p>
+<p>Test examples in docstrings in functions and classes reachable from module <em>m</em>
+(or module <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> if <em>m</em> is not supplied or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), starting with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__doc__</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Also test examples reachable from dict <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__test__</span></code>, if it exists and is not
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__test__</span></code> maps names (strings) to functions, classes and
+strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples; strings are
+searched directly, as if they were docstrings.</p>
+<p>Only docstrings attached to objects belonging to module <em>m</em> are searched.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(failure_count,</span> <span class="pre">test_count)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>name</em> gives the name of the module; by default, or if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__name__</span></code> is used.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>exclude_empty</em> defaults to false.  If true, objects for which
+no doctests are found are excluded from consideration. The default is a backward
+compatibility hack, so that code still using <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.master.summarize()</span></code> in
+conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a> continues to get output for objects with no
+tests. The <em>exclude_empty</em> argument to the newer <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder" title="doctest.DocTestFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFinder</span></code></a>
+constructor defaults to true.</p>
+<p>Optional arguments <em>extraglobs</em>, <em>verbose</em>, <em>report</em>, <em>optionflags</em>,
+<em>raise_on_error</em>, and <em>globs</em> are the same as for function <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a>
+above, except that <em>globs</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__dict__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.run_docstring_examples">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">run_docstring_examples</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em>, <em>globs</em>, <em>verbose=False</em>, <em>name=&quot;NoName&quot;</em>, <em>compileflags=None</em>, <em>optionflags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.run_docstring_examples" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test examples associated with object <em>f</em>; for example, <em>f</em> may be a string,
+a module, a function, or a class object.</p>
+<p>A shallow copy of dictionary argument <em>globs</em> is used for the execution context.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>name</em> is used in failure messages, and defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;NoName&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If optional argument <em>verbose</em> is true, output is generated even if there are no
+failures.  By default, output is generated only in case of an example failure.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>compileflags</em> gives the set of flags that should be used by
+the Python compiler when running the examples.  By default, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+flags are deduced corresponding to the set of future features found in <em>globs</em>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>optionflags</em> works as for function <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a> above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest-api">
+<span id="doctest-unittest-api"></span><h2>Unittest API<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As your collection of doctest’ed modules grows, you’ll want a way to run all
+their doctests systematically.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> provides two functions that can
+be used to create <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> test suites from modules and text files
+containing doctests.  To integrate with <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> test discovery, include
+a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests()</span></code> function in your test module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">my_module_with_doctests</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load_tests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tests</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ignore</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">tests</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addTests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DocTestSuite</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">my_module_with_doctests</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">tests</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are two main functions for creating <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> instances
+from text files and modules with doctests:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.DocFileSuite">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DocFileSuite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*paths</em>, <em>module_relative=True</em>, <em>package=None</em>, <em>setUp=None</em>, <em>tearDown=None</em>, <em>globs=None</em>, <em>optionflags=0</em>, <em>parser=DocTestParser()</em>, <em>encoding=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocFileSuite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert doctest tests from one or more text files to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The returned <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> is to be run by the unittest framework
+and runs the interactive examples in each file.  If an example in any file
+fails, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failureException</span></code>
+exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the test and a
+(sometimes approximate) line number.</p>
+<p>Pass one or more paths (as strings) to text files to be examined.</p>
+<p>Options may be provided as keyword arguments:</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>module_relative</em> specifies how the filenames in <em>paths</em>
+should be interpreted:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <em>module_relative</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), then each filename in
+<em>paths</em> specifies an OS-independent module-relative path.  By default, this
+path is relative to the calling module’s directory; but if the <em>package</em>
+argument is specified, then it is relative to that package.  To ensure
+OS-independence, each filename should use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> characters to separate path
+segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>module_relative</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, then each filename in <em>paths</em> specifies
+an OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths
+are resolved with respect to the current working directory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Optional argument <em>package</em> is a Python package or the name of a Python
+package whose directory should be used as the base directory for
+module-relative filenames in <em>paths</em>.  If no package is specified, then the
+calling module’s directory is used as the base directory for module-relative
+filenames.  It is an error to specify <em>package</em> if <em>module_relative</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>setUp</em> specifies a set-up function for the test suite.
+This is called before running the tests in each file.  The <em>setUp</em> function
+will be passed a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object.  The setUp function can access the
+test globals as the <em>globs</em> attribute of the test passed.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>tearDown</em> specifies a tear-down function for the test
+suite.  This is called after running the tests in each file.  The <em>tearDown</em>
+function will be passed a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object.  The setUp function can
+access the test globals as the <em>globs</em> attribute of the test passed.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>globs</em> is a dictionary containing the initial global
+variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is created for each
+test.  By default, <em>globs</em> is a new empty dictionary.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>optionflags</em> specifies the default doctest options for the
+tests, created by or-ing together individual option flags.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">Option Flags</span></a>. See function <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.set_unittest_reportflags" title="doctest.set_unittest_reportflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_unittest_reportflags()</span></code></a> below
+for a better way to set reporting options.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>parser</em> specifies a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a> (or subclass)
+that should be used to extract tests from the files.  It defaults to a normal
+parser (i.e., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser()</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>encoding</em> specifies an encoding that should be used to
+convert the file to unicode.</p>
+<p>The global <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> is added to the globals provided to doctests loaded
+from a text file using <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocFileSuite" title="doctest.DocFileSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocFileSuite()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestSuite">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DocTestSuite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module=None</em>, <em>globs=None</em>, <em>extraglobs=None</em>, <em>test_finder=None</em>, <em>setUp=None</em>, <em>tearDown=None</em>, <em>checker=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestSuite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert doctest tests for a module to a <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The returned <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> is to be run by the unittest framework
+and runs each doctest in the module.  If any of the doctests fail, then the
+synthesized unit test fails, and a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failureException</span></code> exception is raised
+showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate)
+line number.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>module</em> provides the module to be tested.  It can be a module
+object or a (possibly dotted) module name.  If not specified, the module calling
+this function is used.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>globs</em> is a dictionary containing the initial global
+variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is created for each
+test.  By default, <em>globs</em> is a new empty dictionary.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>extraglobs</em> specifies an extra set of global variables, which
+is merged into <em>globs</em>.  By default, no extra globals are used.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>test_finder</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder" title="doctest.DocTestFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFinder</span></code></a> object (or a
+drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from the module.</p>
+<p>Optional arguments <em>setUp</em>, <em>tearDown</em>, and <em>optionflags</em> are the same as for
+function <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocFileSuite" title="doctest.DocFileSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocFileSuite()</span></code></a> above.</p>
+<p>This function uses the same search technique as <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testmod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestSuite" title="doctest.DocTestSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestSuite()</span></code></a> returns an empty <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> if <em>module</em>
+contains no docstrings instead of raising <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Under the covers, <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestSuite" title="doctest.DocTestSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestSuite()</span></code></a> creates a <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> out
+of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.DocTestCase</span></code> instances, and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestCase</span></code> is a
+subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a>. <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestCase</span></code> isn’t documented
+here (it’s an internal detail), but studying its code can answer questions about
+the exact details of <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> integration.</p>
+<p>Similarly, <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocFileSuite" title="doctest.DocFileSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocFileSuite()</span></code></a> creates a <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> out of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.DocFileCase</span></code> instances, and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocFileCase</span></code> is a subclass
+of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestCase</span></code>.</p>
+<p>So both ways of creating a <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> run instances of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestCase</span></code>.  This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> functions yourself, you can control the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> options in
+use directly, by passing option flags to <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> functions.  However, if
+you’re writing a <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> framework, <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> ultimately controls
+when and how tests get run.  The framework author typically wants to control
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line
+options), but there’s no way to pass options through <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> test runners.</p>
+<p>For this reason, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> also supports a notion of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>
+reporting flags specific to <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> support, via this function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.set_unittest_reportflags">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">set_unittest_reportflags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.set_unittest_reportflags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> reporting flags to use.</p>
+<p>Argument <em>flags</em> takes the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#bitwise"><span class="std std-ref">bitwise OR</span></a> of option flags.  See
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">Option Flags</span></a>.  Only “reporting flags” can be used.</p>
+<p>This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests run by module
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>:  the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runTest()</span></code> method of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestCase</span></code> looks at
+the option flags specified for the test case when the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestCase</span></code>
+instance was constructed.  If no reporting flags were specified (which is the
+typical and expected case), <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>’s <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> reporting flags are
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#bitwise"><span class="std std-ref">bitwise ORed</span></a> into the option flags, and the option flags
+so augmented are passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> instance created to
+run the doctest.  If any reporting flags were specified when the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestCase</span></code> instance was constructed, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> reporting flags are ignored.</p>
+<p>The value of the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> reporting flags in effect before the function
+was called is returned by the function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="advanced-api">
+<span id="doctest-advanced-api"></span><h2>Advanced API<a class="headerlink" href="#advanced-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The basic API is a simple wrapper that’s intended to make doctest easy to use.
+It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users’ needs; however, if you
+require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish to extend doctest’s
+capabilities, then you should use the advanced API.</p>
+<p>The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used to store
+the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a>: A single Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-statement"><span class="xref std std-term">statement</span></a>, paired with its expected
+output.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>: A collection of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a>s, typically extracted
+from a single docstring or text file.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and check
+doctest examples:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder" title="doctest.DocTestFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFinder</span></code></a>: Finds all docstrings in a given module, and uses a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a> to create a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> from every docstring that
+contains interactive examples.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a>: Creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object from a string (such
+as an object’s docstring).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a>: Executes the examples in a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>, and uses
+an <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a> to verify their output.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a>: Compares the actual output from a doctest example with
+the expected output, and decides whether they match.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the following
+diagram:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>                            <span class="nb">list</span> <span class="n">of</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="o">+------+</span>                   <span class="o">+---------+</span>
+<span class="o">|</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">|</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">DocTestFinder</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">DocTest</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">DocTestRunner</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">results</span>
+<span class="o">+------+</span>    <span class="o">|</span>        <span class="o">^</span>     <span class="o">+---------+</span>     <span class="o">|</span>       <span class="o">^</span>    <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">printed</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="o">|</span>        <span class="o">|</span>     <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Example</span> <span class="o">|</span>     <span class="o">|</span>       <span class="o">|</span>
+            <span class="n">v</span>        <span class="o">|</span>     <span class="o">|</span>   <span class="o">...</span>   <span class="o">|</span>     <span class="n">v</span>       <span class="o">|</span>
+           <span class="n">DocTestParser</span>   <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Example</span> <span class="o">|</span>   <span class="n">OutputChecker</span>
+                           <span class="o">+---------+</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doctest-objects">
+<span id="doctest-doctest"></span><h3>DocTest Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#doctest-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTest">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DocTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>examples</em>, <em>globs</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>docstring</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single namespace.  The
+constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> defines the following attributes.  They are initialized by
+the constructor, and should not be modified directly.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTest.examples">
+<code class="descname">examples</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTest.examples" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a> objects encoding the individual interactive Python
+examples that should be run by this test.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTest.globs">
+<code class="descname">globs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTest.globs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run in. This is a
+dictionary mapping names to values.  Any changes to the namespace made by the
+examples (such as binding new variables) will be reflected in <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest.globs" title="doctest.DocTest.globs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globs</span></code></a>
+after the test is run.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTest.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTest.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string name identifying the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>.  Typically, this is the name
+of the object or file that the test was extracted from.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTest.filename">
+<code class="descname">filename</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTest.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the file that this <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> was extracted from; or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the filename is unknown, or if the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> was not
+extracted from a file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTest.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTest.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The line number within <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest.filename" title="doctest.DocTest.filename"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code></a> where this <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> begins, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the line number is unavailable.  This line number is zero-based
+with respect to the beginning of the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTest.docstring">
+<code class="descname">docstring</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTest.docstring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string that the test was extracted from, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the string is
+unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example-objects">
+<span id="doctest-example"></span><h3>Example Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#example-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="doctest.Example">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">Example</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>want</em>, <em>exc_msg=None</em>, <em>lineno=0</em>, <em>indent=0</em>, <em>options=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.Example" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and its expected
+output.  The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of
+the same names.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a> defines the following attributes.  They are initialized by
+the constructor, and should not be modified directly.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.Example.source">
+<code class="descname">source</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.Example.source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string containing the example’s source code.  This source code consists of a
+single Python statement, and always ends with a newline; the constructor adds
+a newline when necessary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.Example.want">
+<code class="descname">want</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.Example.want" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The expected output from running the example’s source code (either from
+stdout, or a traceback in case of exception).  <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example.want" title="doctest.Example.want"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">want</span></code></a> ends with a
+newline unless no output is expected, in which case it’s an empty string.  The
+constructor adds a newline when necessary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.Example.exc_msg">
+<code class="descname">exc_msg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.Example.exc_msg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The exception message generated by the example, if the example is expected to
+generate an exception; or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if it is not expected to generate an
+exception.  This exception message is compared against the return value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#traceback.format_exception_only" title="traceback.format_exception_only"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.format_exception_only()</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example.exc_msg" title="doctest.Example.exc_msg"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc_msg</span></code></a> ends with a newline
+unless it’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  The constructor adds a newline if needed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.Example.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.Example.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The line number within the string containing this example where the example
+begins.  This line number is zero-based with respect to the beginning of the
+containing string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.Example.indent">
+<code class="descname">indent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.Example.indent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The example’s indentation in the containing string, i.e., the number of space
+characters that precede the example’s first prompt.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.Example.options">
+<code class="descname">options</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.Example.options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping from option flags to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, which is used
+to override default options for this example.  Any option flags not contained
+in this dictionary are left at their default value (as specified by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a>’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optionflags</span></code>). By default, no options are set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doctestfinder-objects">
+<span id="doctest-doctestfinder"></span><h3>DocTestFinder objects<a class="headerlink" href="#doctestfinder-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestFinder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DocTestFinder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>verbose=False</em>, <em>parser=DocTestParser()</em>, <em>recurse=True</em>, <em>exclude_empty=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A processing class used to extract the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>s that are relevant to
+a given object, from its docstring and the docstrings of its contained objects.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>s can be extracted from modules, classes, functions,
+methods, staticmethods, classmethods, and properties.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>verbose</em> can be used to display the objects searched by
+the finder.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (no output).</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>parser</em> specifies the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a> object (or a
+drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from docstrings.</p>
+<p>If the optional argument <em>recurse</em> is false, then <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder.find" title="doctest.DocTestFinder.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFinder.find()</span></code></a>
+will only examine the given object, and not any contained objects.</p>
+<p>If the optional argument <em>exclude_empty</em> is false, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder.find" title="doctest.DocTestFinder.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFinder.find()</span></code></a> will include tests for objects with empty docstrings.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder" title="doctest.DocTestFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFinder</span></code></a> defines the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestFinder.find">
+<code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestFinder.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>s that are defined by <em>obj</em>’s
+docstring, or by any of its contained objects’ docstrings.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>name</em> specifies the object’s name; this name will be
+used to construct names for the returned <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>s.  If <em>name</em> is
+not specified, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.__name__</span></code> is used.</p>
+<p>The optional parameter <em>module</em> is the module that contains the given object.
+If the module is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then the test finder will attempt
+to automatically determine the correct module.  The object’s module is used:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>As a default namespace, if <em>globs</em> is not specified.</p></li>
+<li><p>To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests from objects that are
+imported from other modules.  (Contained objects with modules other than
+<em>module</em> are ignored.)</p></li>
+<li><p>To find the name of the file containing the object.</p></li>
+<li><p>To help find the line number of the object within its file.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>module</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, no attempt to find the module will be made.  This is
+obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest itself: if <em>module</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, or
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> but cannot be found automatically, then all objects are considered
+to belong to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will
+(recursively) be searched for doctests.</p>
+<p>The globals for each <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> is formed by combining <em>globs</em> and
+<em>extraglobs</em> (bindings in <em>extraglobs</em> override bindings in <em>globs</em>).  A new
+shallow copy of the globals dictionary is created for each <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>.
+If <em>globs</em> is not specified, then it defaults to the module’s <em>__dict__</em>, if
+specified, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code> otherwise.  If <em>extraglobs</em> is not specified, then it
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doctestparser-objects">
+<span id="doctest-doctestparser"></span><h3>DocTestParser objects<a class="headerlink" href="#doctestparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DocTestParser</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a string, and use
+them to create a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a> defines the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestParser.get_doctest">
+<code class="descname">get_doctest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>globs</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestParser.get_doctest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and collect them into a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p><em>globs</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>filename</em>, and <em>lineno</em> are attributes for the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object.  See the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> for more
+information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestParser.get_examples">
+<code class="descname">get_examples</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>name='&lt;string&gt;'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestParser.get_examples" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return them as a list
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a> objects.  Line numbers are 0-based.  The optional argument
+<em>name</em> is a name identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestParser.parse">
+<code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>name='&lt;string&gt;'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestParser.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Divide the given string into examples and intervening text, and return them as
+a list of alternating <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a>s and strings. Line numbers for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a>s are 0-based.  The optional argument <em>name</em> is a name
+identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doctestrunner-objects">
+<span id="doctest-doctestrunner"></span><h3>DocTestRunner objects<a class="headerlink" href="#doctestrunner-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestRunner">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DocTestRunner</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>checker=None</em>, <em>verbose=None</em>, <em>optionflags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive examples in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done by an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a>.  This comparison may be customized with a number of
+option flags; see section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">Option Flags</span></a> for more information.  If the
+option flags are insufficient, then the comparison may also be customized by
+passing a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a> to the constructor.</p>
+<p>The test runner’s display output can be controlled in two ways. First, an output
+function can be passed to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestRunner.run()</span></code>; this function will be called
+with strings that should be displayed.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.write</span></code>.  If
+capturing the output is not sufficient, then the display output can be also
+customized by subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_start" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">report_start()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_success" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_success"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">report_success()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_unexpected_exception" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_unexpected_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">report_unexpected_exception()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_failure" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_failure"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">report_failure()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional keyword argument <em>checker</em> specifies the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a>
+object (or drop-in replacement) that should be used to compare the expected
+outputs to the actual outputs of doctest examples.</p>
+<p>The optional keyword argument <em>verbose</em> controls the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a>’s
+verbosity.  If <em>verbose</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then information is printed about each
+example, as it is run.  If <em>verbose</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, then only failures are
+printed.  If <em>verbose</em> is unspecified, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then verbose output is used
+iff the command-line switch <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> is used.</p>
+<p>The optional keyword argument <em>optionflags</em> can be used to control how the test
+runner compares expected output to actual output, and how it displays failures.
+For more information, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">Option Flags</span></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestParser" title="doctest.DocTestParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestParser</span></code></a> defines the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_start">
+<code class="descname">report_start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em>, <em>test</em>, <em>example</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Report that the test runner is about to process the given example. This method
+is provided to allow subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> to customize their
+output; it should not be called directly.</p>
+<p><em>example</em> is the example about to be processed.  <em>test</em> is the test
+<em>containing example</em>.  <em>out</em> is the output function that was passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.run" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner.run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_success">
+<code class="descname">report_success</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em>, <em>test</em>, <em>example</em>, <em>got</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_success" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Report that the given example ran successfully.  This method is provided to
+allow subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> to customize their output; it
+should not be called directly.</p>
+<p><em>example</em> is the example about to be processed.  <em>got</em> is the actual output
+from the example.  <em>test</em> is the test containing <em>example</em>.  <em>out</em> is the
+output function that was passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.run" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner.run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_failure">
+<code class="descname">report_failure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em>, <em>test</em>, <em>example</em>, <em>got</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_failure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Report that the given example failed.  This method is provided to allow
+subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> to customize their output; it should not
+be called directly.</p>
+<p><em>example</em> is the example about to be processed.  <em>got</em> is the actual output
+from the example.  <em>test</em> is the test containing <em>example</em>.  <em>out</em> is the
+output function that was passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.run" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner.run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestRunner.report_unexpected_exception">
+<code class="descname">report_unexpected_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em>, <em>test</em>, <em>example</em>, <em>exc_info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.report_unexpected_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception. This method is
+provided to allow subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> to customize their
+output; it should not be called directly.</p>
+<p><em>example</em> is the example about to be processed. <em>exc_info</em> is a tuple
+containing information about the unexpected exception (as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>). <em>test</em> is the test containing <em>example</em>.  <em>out</em> is the
+output function that was passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.run" title="doctest.DocTestRunner.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner.run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestRunner.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>compileflags=None</em>, <em>out=None</em>, <em>clear_globs=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the examples in <em>test</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object), and display the
+results using the writer function <em>out</em>.</p>
+<p>The examples are run in the namespace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.globs</span></code>.  If <em>clear_globs</em> is
+true (the default), then this namespace will be cleared after the test runs,
+to help with garbage collection. If you would like to examine the namespace
+after the test completes, then use <em>clear_globs=False</em>.</p>
+<p><em>compileflags</em> gives the set of flags that should be used by the Python
+compiler when running the examples.  If not specified, then it will default to
+the set of future-import flags that apply to <em>globs</em>.</p>
+<p>The output of each example is checked using the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a>’s
+output checker, and the results are formatted by the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner.report_*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestRunner.summarize">
+<code class="descname">summarize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>verbose=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner.summarize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by this DocTestRunner,
+and return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResults(failed,</span> <span class="pre">attempted)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>verbose</em> argument controls how detailed the summary is.  If the
+verbosity is not specified, then the <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a>’s verbosity is
+used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="outputchecker-objects">
+<span id="doctest-outputchecker"></span><h3>OutputChecker objects<a class="headerlink" href="#outputchecker-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="doctest.OutputChecker">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">OutputChecker</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest example
+matches the expected output.  <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a> defines two methods:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker.check_output" title="doctest.OutputChecker.check_output"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a>, which compares a given pair of outputs, and returns true
+if they match; and <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker.output_difference" title="doctest.OutputChecker.output_difference"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output_difference()</span></code></a>, which returns a string describing
+the differences between two outputs.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.OutputChecker" title="doctest.OutputChecker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code></a> defines the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.OutputChecker.check_output">
+<code class="descname">check_output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>want</em>, <em>got</em>, <em>optionflags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.OutputChecker.check_output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> iff the actual output from an example (<em>got</em>) matches the
+expected output (<em>want</em>).  These strings are always considered to match if
+they are identical; but depending on what option flags the test runner is
+using, several non-exact match types are also possible.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">Option Flags</span></a> for more information about option flags.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="doctest.OutputChecker.output_difference">
+<code class="descname">output_difference</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>example</em>, <em>got</em>, <em>optionflags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.OutputChecker.output_difference" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string describing the differences between the expected output for a
+given example (<em>example</em>) and the actual output (<em>got</em>).  <em>optionflags</em> is the
+set of option flags used to compare <em>want</em> and <em>got</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="debugging">
+<span id="doctest-debugging"></span><h2>Debugging<a class="headerlink" href="#debugging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Doctest provides several mechanisms for debugging doctest examples:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Several functions convert doctests to executable Python programs, which can be
+run under the Python debugger, <a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DebugRunner" title="doctest.DebugRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DebugRunner</span></code></a> class is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> that
+raises an exception for the first failing example, containing information about
+that example. This information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on
+the example.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> cases generated by <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestSuite" title="doctest.DocTestSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestSuite()</span></code></a> support the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.debug" title="doctest.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a> method defined by <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>You can add a call to <a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#pdb.set_trace" title="pdb.set_trace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code></a> in a doctest example, and you’ll
+drop into the Python debugger when that line is executed.  Then you can inspect
+current values of variables, and so on.  For example, suppose <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.py</span></code>
+contains just this module docstring:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt; def f(x):</span>
+<span class="sd">...     g(x*2)</span>
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt; def g(x):</span>
+<span class="sd">...     print(x+3)</span>
+<span class="sd">...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()</span>
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt; f(3)</span>
+<span class="sd">9</span>
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then an interactive Python session may look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">a</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testmod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">--Return--</span>
+<span class="go">&gt; &lt;doctest a[1]&gt;(3)g()-&gt;None</span>
+<span class="go">-&gt; import pdb; pdb.set_trace()</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) list</span>
+<span class="go">  1     def g(x):</span>
+<span class="go">  2         print(x+3)</span>
+<span class="go">  3  -&gt;     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()</span>
+<span class="go">[EOF]</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) p x</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) step</span>
+<span class="go">--Return--</span>
+<span class="go">&gt; &lt;doctest a[0]&gt;(2)f()-&gt;None</span>
+<span class="go">-&gt; g(x*2)</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) list</span>
+<span class="go">  1     def f(x):</span>
+<span class="go">  2  -&gt;     g(x*2)</span>
+<span class="go">[EOF]</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) p x</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) step</span>
+<span class="go">--Return--</span>
+<span class="go">&gt; &lt;doctest a[2]&gt;(1)?()-&gt;None</span>
+<span class="go">-&gt; f(3)</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) cont</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 3)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the synthesized
+code under the debugger:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.script_from_examples">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">script_from_examples</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.script_from_examples" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert text with examples to a script.</p>
+<p>Argument <em>s</em> is a string containing doctest examples.  The string is converted
+to a Python script, where doctest examples in <em>s</em> are converted to regular code,
+and everything else is converted to Python comments.  The generated script is
+returned as a string. For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">script_from_examples</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">    Set x and y to 1 and 2.</span>
+<span class="s2">    &gt;&gt;&gt; x, y = 1, 2</span>
+
+<span class="s2">    Print their sum:</span>
+<span class="s2">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(x+y)</span>
+<span class="s2">    3</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>displays:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Set x and y to 1 and 2.</span>
+<span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># Print their sum:</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># Expected:</span>
+<span class="c1">## 3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function is used internally by other functions (see below), but can also be
+useful when you want to transform an interactive Python session into a Python
+script.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.testsource">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">testsource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.testsource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the doctest for an object to a script.</p>
+<p>Argument <em>module</em> is a module object, or dotted name of a module, containing the
+object whose doctests are of interest.  Argument <em>name</em> is the name (within the
+module) of the object with the doctests of interest.  The result is a string,
+containing the object’s docstring converted to a Python script, as described for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.script_from_examples" title="doctest.script_from_examples"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">script_from_examples()</span></code></a> above.  For example, if module <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.py</span></code>
+contains a top-level function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code>, then</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">a</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testsource</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;a.f&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>prints a script version of function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code>’s docstring, with doctests
+converted to code, and the rest placed in comments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.debug">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>pm=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Debug the doctests for an object.</p>
+<p>The <em>module</em> and <em>name</em> arguments are the same as for function
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testsource" title="doctest.testsource"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testsource()</span></code></a> above.  The synthesized Python script for the named object’s
+docstring is written to a temporary file, and then that file is run under the
+control of the Python debugger, <a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A shallow copy of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.__dict__</span></code> is used for both local and global
+execution context.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>pm</em> controls whether post-mortem debugging is used.  If <em>pm</em>
+has a true value, the script file is run directly, and the debugger gets
+involved only if the script terminates via raising an unhandled exception.  If
+it does, then post-mortem debugging is invoked, via <a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#pdb.post_mortem" title="pdb.post_mortem"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.post_mortem()</span></code></a>,
+passing the traceback object from the unhandled exception.  If <em>pm</em> is not
+specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from the start, via
+passing an appropriate <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> call to <a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#pdb.run" title="pdb.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="doctest.debug_src">
+<code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">debug_src</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>pm=False</em>, <em>globs=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.debug_src" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Debug the doctests in a string.</p>
+<p>This is like function <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.debug" title="doctest.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a> above, except that a string containing
+doctest examples is specified directly, via the <em>src</em> argument.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>pm</em> has the same meaning as in function <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.debug" title="doctest.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a> above.</p>
+<p>Optional argument <em>globs</em> gives a dictionary to use as both local and global
+execution context.  If not specified, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, an empty dictionary is used.
+If specified, a shallow copy of the dictionary is used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DebugRunner" title="doctest.DebugRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DebugRunner</span></code></a> class, and the special exceptions it may raise, are of
+most interest to testing framework authors, and will only be sketched here.  See
+the source code, and especially <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DebugRunner" title="doctest.DebugRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DebugRunner</span></code></a>’s docstring (which is a
+doctest!) for more details:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="doctest.DebugRunner">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DebugRunner</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>checker=None</em>, <em>verbose=None</em>, <em>optionflags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DebugRunner" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> that raises an exception as soon as a
+failure is encountered.  If an unexpected exception occurs, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.UnexpectedException" title="doctest.UnexpectedException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnexpectedException</span></code></a> exception is raised, containing the test, the
+example, and the original exception.  If the output doesn’t match, then a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFailure" title="doctest.DocTestFailure"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFailure</span></code></a> exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and
+the actual output.</p>
+<p>For information about the constructor parameters and methods, see the
+documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> in section <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-advanced-api"><span class="std std-ref">Advanced API</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There are two exceptions that may be raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DebugRunner" title="doctest.DebugRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DebugRunner</span></code></a> instances:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestFailure">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">DocTestFailure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>example</em>, <em>got</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestFailure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An exception raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> to signal that a doctest example’s
+actual output did not match its expected output. The constructor arguments are
+used to initialize the attributes of the same names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestFailure" title="doctest.DocTestFailure"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFailure</span></code></a> defines the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestFailure.test">
+<code class="descclassname">DocTestFailure.</code><code class="descname">test</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestFailure.test" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object that was being run when the example failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestFailure.example">
+<code class="descclassname">DocTestFailure.</code><code class="descname">example</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestFailure.example" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a> that failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.DocTestFailure.got">
+<code class="descclassname">DocTestFailure.</code><code class="descname">got</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.DocTestFailure.got" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The example’s actual output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="doctest.UnexpectedException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">doctest.</code><code class="descname">UnexpectedException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>example</em>, <em>exc_info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.UnexpectedException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An exception raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTestRunner" title="doctest.DocTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code></a> to signal that a doctest
+example raised an unexpected exception.  The constructor arguments are used
+to initialize the attributes of the same names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.UnexpectedException" title="doctest.UnexpectedException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnexpectedException</span></code></a> defines the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.UnexpectedException.test">
+<code class="descclassname">UnexpectedException.</code><code class="descname">test</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.UnexpectedException.test" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocTest" title="doctest.DocTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTest</span></code></a> object that was being run when the example failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.UnexpectedException.example">
+<code class="descclassname">UnexpectedException.</code><code class="descname">example</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.UnexpectedException.example" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.Example" title="doctest.Example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Example</span></code></a> that failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="doctest.UnexpectedException.exc_info">
+<code class="descclassname">UnexpectedException.</code><code class="descname">exc_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#doctest.UnexpectedException.exc_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple containing information about the unexpected exception, as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="soapbox">
+<span id="doctest-soapbox"></span><h2>Soapbox<a class="headerlink" href="#soapbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As mentioned in the introduction, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> has grown to have three primary
+uses:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Checking examples in docstrings.</p></li>
+<li><p>Regression testing.</p></li>
+<li><p>Executable documentation / literate testing.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>These uses have different requirements, and it is important to distinguish them.
+In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure test cases makes for bad
+documentation.</p>
+<p>When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care. There’s an art to
+this that needs to be learned—it may not be natural at first.  Examples should
+add genuine value to the documentation.  A good example can often be worth many
+words. If done with care, the examples will be invaluable for your users, and
+will pay back the time it takes to collect them many times over as the years go
+by and things change.  I’m still amazed at how often one of my <a class="reference internal" href="#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>
+examples stops working after a “harmless” change.</p>
+<p>Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially if you
+don’t skimp on explanatory text.  By interleaving prose and examples, it becomes
+much easier to keep track of what’s actually being tested, and why.  When a test
+fails, good prose can make it much easier to figure out what the problem is, and
+how it should be fixed.  It’s true that you could write extensive comments in
+code-based testing, but few programmers do. Many have found that using doctest
+approaches instead leads to much clearer tests.  Perhaps this is simply because
+doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while writing
+comments in code is a little harder.  I think it goes deeper than just that:
+the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test is that you want to
+explain the fine points of your software, and illustrate them with examples.
+This in turn naturally leads to test files that start with the simplest
+features, and logically progress to complications and edge cases.  A coherent
+narrative is the result, instead of a collection of isolated functions that test
+isolated bits of functionality seemingly at random.  It’s a different attitude,
+and produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and
+explaining.</p>
+<p>Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files.  There are
+several options for organizing tests:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and test the
+files using <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.testfile" title="doctest.testfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#doctest.DocFileSuite" title="doctest.DocFileSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocFileSuite()</span></code></a>.  This is recommended,
+although is easiest to do for new projects, designed from the start to use
+doctest.</p></li>
+<li><p>Define functions named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_regrtest_topic</span></code> that consist of single docstrings,
+containing test cases for the named topics.  These functions can be included in
+the same file as the module, or separated out into a separate test file.</p></li>
+<li><p>Define a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__test__</span></code> dictionary mapping from regression test topics to
+docstrings containing test cases.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When you have placed your tests in a module, the module can itself be the test
+runner.  When a test fails, you can arrange for your test runner to re-run only
+the failing doctest while you debug the problem.  Here is a minimal example of
+such a test runner:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+    <span class="n">flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">REPORT_NDIFF</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FAIL_FAST</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">__test__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_docstring_examples</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">optionflags</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">flags</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">fail</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testmod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">optionflags</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">flags</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> failures out of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> tests&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fail</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">total</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Examples containing both expected output and an exception are not supported.
+Trying to guess where one ends and the other begins is too error-prone, and that
+also makes for a confusing test.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code> — Test interactive Python examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simple-usage-checking-examples-in-docstrings">Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simple-usage-checking-examples-in-a-text-file">Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-it-works">How It Works</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#which-docstrings-are-examined">Which Docstrings Are Examined?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-are-docstring-examples-recognized">How are Docstring Examples Recognized?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-s-the-execution-context">What’s the Execution Context?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-about-exceptions">What About Exceptions?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#option-flags">Option Flags</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#directives">Directives</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#warnings">Warnings</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-api">Basic API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest-api">Unittest API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#advanced-api">Advanced API</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest-objects">DocTest Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example-objects">Example Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doctestfinder-objects">DocTestFinder objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doctestparser-objects">DocTestParser objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doctestrunner-objects">DocTestRunner objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#outputchecker-objects">OutputChecker objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debugging">Debugging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#soapbox">Soapbox</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pydoc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code> — Documentation generator and online help system</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unittest.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code> — Unit testing framework</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/doctest.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/dummy_threading.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/dummy_threading.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1a4ad9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/dummy_threading.html
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-dummy_threading">
+<span id="dummy-threading-drop-in-replacement-for-the-threading-module"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-dummy_threading" title="dummy_threading: Drop-in replacement for the threading module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code></a> — Drop-in replacement for the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module<a class="headerlink" href="#module-dummy_threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dummy_threading.py">Lib/dummy_threading.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>Python now always has threading enabled.  Please use <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a duplicate interface to the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.
+It was meant to be imported when the <a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> module was not provided
+on a platform.</p>
+<p>Be careful to not use this module where deadlock might occur from a thread being
+created that blocks waiting for another thread to be created.  This often occurs
+with blocking I/O.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.charset.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.charset.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d28541
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.charset.html
@@ -0,0 +1,386 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email.charset: Representing character sets &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+    <link rel="next" title="email.encoders: Encoders" href="email.encoders.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="email.header: Internationalized headers" href="email.header.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/email.charset.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="email.encoders.html" title="email.encoders: Encoders"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="email.header.html" title="email.header: Internationalized headers"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="netdata.html" >Internet Data Handling</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email.charset">
+<span id="email-charset-representing-character-sets"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a>: Representing character sets<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.charset" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/charset.py">Lib/email/charset.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module is part of the legacy (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code>) email API.  In the new
+API only the aliases table is used.</p>
+<p>The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the module.</p>
+<p>This module provides a class <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> for representing character sets
+and character set conversions in email messages, as well as a character set
+registry and several convenience methods for manipulating this registry.
+Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> are used in several other modules within the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package.</p>
+<p>Import this class from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.charset.</code><code class="descname">Charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Map character sets to their email properties.</p>
+<p>This class provides information about the requirements imposed on email for a
+specific character set.  It also provides convenience routines for converting
+between character sets, given the availability of the applicable codecs.  Given
+a character set, it will do its best to provide information on how to use that
+character set in an email message in an RFC-compliant way.</p>
+<p>Certain character sets must be encoded with quoted-printable or base64 when used
+in email headers or bodies.  Certain character sets must be converted outright,
+and are not allowed in email.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>input_charset</em> is as described below; it is always coerced to lower
+case.  After being alias normalized it is also used as a lookup into the
+registry of character sets to find out the header encoding, body encoding, and
+output conversion codec to be used for the character set.  For example, if
+<em>input_charset</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iso-8859-1</span></code>, then headers and bodies will be encoded using
+quoted-printable and no output conversion codec is necessary.  If
+<em>input_charset</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">euc-jp</span></code>, then headers will be encoded with base64, bodies
+will not be encoded, but output text will be converted from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">euc-jp</span></code>
+character set to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iso-2022-jp</span></code> character set.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instances have the following data attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.input_charset">
+<code class="descname">input_charset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.input_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The initial character set specified.  Common aliases are converted to
+their <em>official</em> email names (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">latin_1</span></code> is converted to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iso-8859-1</span></code>).  Defaults to 7-bit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">us-ascii</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.header_encoding">
+<code class="descname">header_encoding</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.header_encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the character set must be encoded before it can be used in an email
+header, this attribute will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.QP</span></code> (for
+quoted-printable), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.BASE64</span></code> (for base64 encoding), or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.SHORTEST</span></code> for the shortest of QP or BASE64 encoding. Otherwise,
+it will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.body_encoding">
+<code class="descname">body_encoding</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.body_encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <em>header_encoding</em>, but describes the encoding for the mail
+message’s body, which indeed may be different than the header encoding.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.SHORTEST</span></code> is not allowed for <em>body_encoding</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.output_charset">
+<code class="descname">output_charset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.output_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Some character sets must be converted before they can be used in email
+headers or bodies.  If the <em>input_charset</em> is one of them, this attribute
+will contain the name of the character set output will be converted to.
+Otherwise, it will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.input_codec">
+<code class="descname">input_codec</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.input_codec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the Python codec used to convert the <em>input_charset</em> to
+Unicode.  If no conversion codec is necessary, this attribute will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.output_codec">
+<code class="descname">output_codec</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.output_codec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the Python codec used to convert Unicode to the
+<em>output_charset</em>.  If no conversion codec is necessary, this attribute
+will have the same value as the <em>input_codec</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instances also have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.get_body_encoding">
+<code class="descname">get_body_encoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.get_body_encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the content transfer encoding used for body encoding.</p>
+<p>This is either the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoted-printable</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code> depending on
+the encoding used, or it is a function, in which case you should call the
+function with a single argument, the Message object being encoded.  The
+function should then set the <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>
+header itself to whatever is appropriate.</p>
+<p>Returns the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoted-printable</span></code> if <em>body_encoding</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QP</span></code>,
+returns the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code> if <em>body_encoding</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BASE64</span></code>, and
+returns the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.get_output_charset">
+<code class="descname">get_output_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.get_output_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the output character set.</p>
+<p>This is the <em>output_charset</em> attribute if that is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, otherwise
+it is <em>input_charset</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.header_encode">
+<code class="descname">header_encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.header_encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Header-encode the string <em>string</em>.</p>
+<p>The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be based on the
+<em>header_encoding</em> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.header_encode_lines">
+<code class="descname">header_encode_lines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>maxlengths</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.header_encode_lines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Header-encode a <em>string</em> by converting it first to bytes.</p>
+<p>This is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset.header_encode" title="email.charset.Charset.header_encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_encode()</span></code></a> except that the string is fit
+into maximum line lengths as given by the argument <em>maxlengths</em>, which
+must be an iterator: each element returned from this iterator will provide
+the next maximum line length.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.body_encode">
+<code class="descname">body_encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.body_encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Body-encode the string <em>string</em>.</p>
+<p>The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be based on the
+<em>body_encoding</em> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> class also provides a number of methods to support
+standard operations and built-in functions.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.__str__">
+<code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <em>input_charset</em> as a string coerced to lower
+case. <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset.__str__" title="email.charset.Charset.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.__eq__">
+<code class="descname">__eq__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.__eq__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method allows you to compare two <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instances for
+equality.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.charset.Charset.__ne__">
+<code class="descname">__ne__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.Charset.__ne__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method allows you to compare two <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instances for
+inequality.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a> module also provides the following functions for adding
+new entries to the global character set, alias, and codec registries:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.charset.add_charset">
+<code class="descclassname">email.charset.</code><code class="descname">add_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>charset</em>, <em>header_enc=None</em>, <em>body_enc=None</em>, <em>output_charset=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.add_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add character properties to the global registry.</p>
+<p><em>charset</em> is the input character set, and must be the canonical name of a
+character set.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>header_enc</em> and <em>body_enc</em> is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.QP</span></code> for
+quoted-printable, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.BASE64</span></code> for base64 encoding,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.SHORTEST</span></code> for the shortest of quoted-printable or base64 encoding,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for no encoding.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHORTEST</span></code> is only valid for
+<em>header_enc</em>. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for no encoding.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>output_charset</em> is the character set that the output should be in.
+Conversions will proceed from input charset, to Unicode, to the output charset
+when the method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset.convert()</span></code> is called.  The default is to output in
+the same character set as the input.</p>
+<p>Both <em>input_charset</em> and <em>output_charset</em> must have Unicode codec entries in the
+module’s character set-to-codec mapping; use <a class="reference internal" href="#email.charset.add_codec" title="email.charset.add_codec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_codec()</span></code></a> to add codecs the
+module does not know about.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module’s documentation for
+more information.</p>
+<p>The global character set registry is kept in the module global dictionary
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARSETS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.charset.add_alias">
+<code class="descclassname">email.charset.</code><code class="descname">add_alias</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>alias</em>, <em>canonical</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.add_alias" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a character set alias.  <em>alias</em> is the alias name, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">latin-1</span></code>.
+<em>canonical</em> is the character set’s canonical name, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iso-8859-1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The global charset alias registry is kept in the module global dictionary
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALIASES</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.charset.add_codec">
+<code class="descclassname">email.charset.</code><code class="descname">add_codec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>charset</em>, <em>codecname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.charset.add_codec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a codec that map characters in the given character set to and from Unicode.</p>
+<p><em>charset</em> is the canonical name of a character set. <em>codecname</em> is the name of a
+Python codec, as appropriate for the second argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.header.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code>: Internationalized headers</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.encoders.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code>: Encoders</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/email.charset.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.compat32-message.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.compat32-message.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a08549
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.compat32-message.html
@@ -0,0 +1,921 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email.message.Message: Representing an email message using the compat32 API &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="email-message-message-representing-an-email-message-using-the-compat32-api">
+<span id="compat32-message"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a>: Representing an email message using the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> API<a class="headerlink" href="#email-message-message-representing-an-email-message-using-the-compat32-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> class is very similar to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> class, without the methods added by that
+class, and with the default behavior of certain other methods being slightly
+different.  We also document here some methods that, while supported by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> class, are not recommended unless you are
+dealing with legacy code.</p>
+<p>The philosophy and structure of the two classes is otherwise the same.</p>
+<p>This document describes the behavior under the default (for <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>)
+policy <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code></a>.  If you are going to use another policy,
+you should be using the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> class instead.</p>
+<p>An email message consists of <em>headers</em> and a <em>payload</em>.  Headers must be
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5233.html"><strong>RFC 5233</strong></a> style names and values, where the field name and value are
+separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or the
+field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary object, or
+a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set of headers and
+their own payload.  The latter type of payload is indicated by the message
+having a MIME type such as <em class="mimetype">multipart/*</em> or
+<em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>.</p>
+<p>The conceptual model provided by a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object is that of an
+ordered dictionary of headers with additional methods for accessing both
+specialized information from the headers, for accessing the payload, for
+generating a serialized version of the message, and for recursively walking
+over the object tree.  Note that duplicate headers are supported but special
+methods must be used to access them.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> pseudo-dictionary is indexed by the header names, which
+must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary are strings that are
+supposed to contain only ASCII characters; there is some special handling for
+non-ASCII input, but it doesn’t always produce the correct results.  Headers
+are stored and returned in case-preserving form, but field names are matched
+case-insensitively.  There may also be a single envelope header, also known as
+the <em>Unix-From</em> header or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">From_</span></code> header.  The <em>payload</em> is either a
+string or bytes, in the case of simple message objects, or a list of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects, for MIME container documents (e.g.
+<em class="mimetype">multipart/*</em> and <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>).</p>
+<p>Here are the methods of the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.message.Message">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.message.</code><code class="descname">Message</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy=compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>policy</em> is specified (it must be an instance of a <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a>
+class) use the rules it specifies to update and serialize the representation
+of the message.  If <em>policy</em> is not set, use the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> policy, which maintains backward compatibility with
+the Python 3.2 version of the email package.  For more information see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> documentation.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>policy</em> keyword argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.as_string">
+<code class="descname">as_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unixfrom=False</em>, <em>maxheaderlen=0</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.as_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When optional <em>unixfrom</em>
+is true, the envelope header is included in the returned string.
+<em>unixfrom</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  For backward compatibility reasons,
+<em>maxheaderlen</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, so if you want a different value you
+must override it explicitly (the value specified for <em>max_line_length</em> in
+the policy will be ignored by this method).  The <em>policy</em> argument may be
+used to override the default policy obtained from the message instance.
+This can be used to control some of the formatting produced by the
+method, since the specified <em>policy</em> will be passed to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Flattening the message may trigger changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> if
+defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a string
+(for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).</p>
+<p>Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not always
+format the message the way you want.  For example, by default it does
+not do the mangling of lines that begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">From</span></code> that is
+required by the unix mbox format.  For more flexibility, instantiate a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> instance and use its
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator.flatten" title="email.generator.Generator.flatten"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flatten()</span></code></a> method directly.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.generator</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Generator</span>
+<span class="n">fp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Generator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mangle_from_</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxheaderlen</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">g</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flatten</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the message object contains binary data that is not encoded according
+to RFC standards, the non-compliant data will be replaced by unicode
+“unknown character” code points.  (See also <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.as_bytes" title="email.message.Message.as_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_bytes()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>the <em>policy</em> keyword argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.__str__">
+<code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.as_string" title="email.message.Message.as_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_string()</span></code></a>.  Allows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(msg)</span></code> to produce a
+string containing the formatted message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.as_bytes">
+<code class="descname">as_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unixfrom=False</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.as_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When optional
+<em>unixfrom</em> is true, the envelope header is included in the returned
+string.  <em>unixfrom</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  The <em>policy</em> argument may be
+used to override the default policy obtained from the message instance.
+This can be used to control some of the formatting produced by the
+method, since the specified <em>policy</em> will be passed to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Flattening the message may trigger changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> if
+defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a string
+(for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).</p>
+<p>Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not always
+format the message the way you want.  For example, by default it does
+not do the mangling of lines that begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">From</span></code> that is
+required by the unix mbox format.  For more flexibility, instantiate a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> instance and use its
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flatten()</span></code></a> method directly.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BytesIO</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.generator</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BytesGenerator</span>
+<span class="n">fp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BytesGenerator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mangle_from_</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxheaderlen</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">g</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flatten</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.__bytes__">
+<code class="descname">__bytes__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.__bytes__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.as_bytes" title="email.message.Message.as_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_bytes()</span></code></a>.  Allows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(msg)</span></code> to produce a
+bytes object containing the formatted message.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.is_multipart">
+<code class="descname">is_multipart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the message’s payload is a list of
+sub-<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects, otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  When
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the payload should be a string
+object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).  (Note that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> does not necessarily mean that
+“msg.get_content_maintype() == ‘multipart’” will return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart</span></code> will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> is of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message/rfc822</span></code>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.set_unixfrom">
+<code class="descname">set_unixfrom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unixfrom</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.set_unixfrom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the message’s envelope header to <em>unixfrom</em>, which should be a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_unixfrom">
+<code class="descname">get_unixfrom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_unixfrom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s envelope header.  Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the
+envelope header was never set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.attach">
+<code class="descname">attach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>payload</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.attach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add the given <em>payload</em> to the current payload, which must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or
+a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects before the call. After the call, the
+payload will always be a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects.  If you want to
+set the payload to a scalar object (e.g. a string), use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.set_payload" title="email.message.Message.set_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_payload()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class its functionality is
+replaced by <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> and the
+related <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_payload">
+<code class="descname">get_payload</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i=None</em>, <em>decode=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current payload, which will be a list of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects when <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, or a
+string when <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  If the payload is a list
+and you mutate the list object, you modify the message’s payload in place.</p>
+<p>With optional argument <em>i</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="email.message.Message.get_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_payload()</span></code></a> will return the <em>i</em>-th
+element of the payload, counting from zero, if <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> will be raised if <em>i</em> is less than 0 or
+greater than or equal to the number of items in the payload.  If the
+payload is a string (i.e.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>) and <em>i</em> is
+given, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>decode</em> is a flag indicating whether the payload should be
+decoded or not, according to the <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>
+header. When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and the message is not a multipart, the payload will
+be decoded if this header’s value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoted-printable</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code>.
+If some other encoding is used, or <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>
+header is missing, the payload is
+returned as-is (undecoded).  In all cases the returned value is binary
+data.  If the message is a multipart and the <em>decode</em> flag is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.  If the payload is base64 and it was not
+perfectly formed (missing padding, characters outside the base64
+alphabet), then an appropriate defect will be added to the message’s
+defect property (<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidBase64PaddingDefect</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidBase64CharactersDefect</span></code>, respectively).</p>
+<p>When <em>decode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default) the body is returned as a string
+without decoding the <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>.  However,
+for a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of 8bit, an attempt is made
+to decode the original bytes using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> specified by the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> error handler.
+If no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> is specified, or if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> given is not
+recognized by the email package, the body is decoded using the default
+ASCII charset.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class its functionality is
+replaced by <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts" title="email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_parts()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.set_payload">
+<code class="descname">set_payload</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>payload</em>, <em>charset=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.set_payload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the entire message object’s payload to <em>payload</em>.  It is the client’s
+responsibility to ensure the payload invariants.  Optional <em>charset</em> sets
+the message’s default character set; see <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.set_charset" title="email.message.Message.set_charset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_charset()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class its functionality is
+replaced by <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.set_charset">
+<code class="descname">set_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>charset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.set_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the character set of the payload to <em>charset</em>, which can either be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance (see <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a>), a
+string naming a character set, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If it is a string, it will
+be converted to a <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance.  If <em>charset</em>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter will be removed from the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header (the message will not be otherwise
+modified).  Anything else will generate a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If there is no existing <em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em> header one will be
+added.  If there is no existing <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, one
+will be added with a value of <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em>.  Whether the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header already exists or not, its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code>
+parameter will be set to <em>charset.output_charset</em>.   If
+<em>charset.input_charset</em> and <em>charset.output_charset</em> differ, the payload
+will be re-encoded to the <em>output_charset</em>.  If there is no existing
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header, then the payload will be
+transfer-encoded, if needed, using the specified
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a>, and a header with the appropriate value
+will be added.  If a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header
+already exists, the payload is assumed to already be correctly encoded
+using that <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> and is not modified.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class its functionality is
+replaced by the <em>charset</em> parameter of the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.emailmessage.EmailMessage.set_content()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_charset">
+<code class="descname">get_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance associated with the
+message’s payload.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class it always returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods implement a mapping-like interface for accessing the
+message’s <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a> headers.  Note that there are some semantic differences
+between these methods and a normal mapping (i.e. dictionary) interface.  For
+example, in a dictionary there are no duplicate keys, but here there may be
+duplicate message headers.  Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed
+order to the keys returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.keys" title="email.message.Message.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code></a>, but in a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object,
+headers are always returned in the order they appeared in the original
+message, or were added to the message later.  Any header deleted and then
+re-added are always appended to the end of the header list.</p>
+<p>These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward maximal
+convenience.</p>
+<p>Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message is not
+included in the mapping interface.</p>
+<p>In a model generated from bytes, any header values that (in contravention of
+the RFCs) contain non-ASCII bytes will, when retrieved through this
+interface, be represented as <a class="reference internal" href="email.header.html#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> objects with
+a charset of <cite>unknown-8bit</cite>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.__len__">
+<code class="descname">__len__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.__len__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.__contains__">
+<code class="descname">__contains__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.__contains__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the message object has a field named <em>name</em>. Matching is
+done case-insensitively and <em>name</em> should not include the trailing colon.
+Used for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;message-id&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">myMessage</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message-ID:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">myMessage</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;message-id&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.__getitem__">
+<code class="descname">__getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the named header field.  <em>name</em> should not include the
+colon field separator.  If the header is missing, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned; a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is never raised.</p>
+<p>Note that if the named field appears more than once in the message’s
+headers, exactly which of those field values will be returned is
+undefined.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_all" title="email.message.Message.get_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_all()</span></code></a> method to get the values of all the
+extant named headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.__setitem__">
+<code class="descname">__setitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.__setitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a header to the message with field name <em>name</em> and value <em>val</em>.  The
+field is appended to the end of the message’s existing fields.</p>
+<p>Note that this does <em>not</em> overwrite or delete any existing header with the same
+name.  If you want to ensure that the new header is the only one present in the
+message with field name <em>name</em>, delete the field first, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python roolz!&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.__delitem__">
+<code class="descname">__delitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.__delitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete all occurrences of the field with name <em>name</em> from the message’s
+headers.  No exception is raised if the named field isn’t present in the
+headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all the message’s header field names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.values">
+<code class="descname">values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all the message’s field values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message’s field headers and
+values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.__getitem__" title="email.message.Message.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> except that optional <em>failobj</em> is returned if the
+named header is missing (defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here are some additional useful methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_all">
+<code class="descname">get_all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all the values for the field named <em>name</em>. If there are
+no such named headers in the message, <em>failobj</em> is returned (defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.add_header">
+<code class="descname">add_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_name</em>, <em>_value</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.add_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extended header setting.  This method is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.__setitem__" title="email.message.Message.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>
+except that additional header parameters can be provided as keyword
+arguments.  <em>_name</em> is the header field to add and <em>_value</em> is the
+<em>primary</em> value for the header.</p>
+<p>For each item in the keyword argument dictionary <em>_params</em>, the key is
+taken as the parameter name, with underscores converted to dashes (since
+dashes are illegal in Python identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will
+be added as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=&quot;value&quot;</span></code> unless the value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case
+only the key will be added.  If the value contains non-ASCII characters,
+it can be specified as a three tuple in the format
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(CHARSET,</span> <span class="pre">LANGUAGE,</span> <span class="pre">VALUE)</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARSET</span></code> is a string naming the
+charset to be used to encode the value, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code> can usually be set
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or the empty string (see <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a> for other possibilities),
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VALUE</span></code> is the string value containing non-ASCII code points.  If
+a three tuple is not passed and the value contains non-ASCII characters,
+it is automatically encoded in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a> format using a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARSET</span></code>
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-Disposition&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;attachment&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bud.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will add a header that looks like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Content</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Disposition</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">attachment</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;bud.gif&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An example with non-ASCII characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-Disposition&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;attachment&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+               <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;iso-8859-1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Fußballer.ppt&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Which produces</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Content</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Disposition</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">attachment</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">*=</span><span class="s2">&quot;iso-8859-1&#39;&#39;Fu%DFballer.ppt&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.replace_header">
+<code class="descname">replace_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_name</em>, <em>_value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.replace_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the message that
+matches <em>_name</em>, retaining header order and field name case.  If no
+matching header was found, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_content_type">
+<code class="descname">get_content_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s content type.  The returned string is coerced to
+lower case of the form <em class="mimetype">maintype/subtype</em>.  If there was no
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header in the message the default type as given
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_default_type" title="email.message.Message.get_default_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_default_type()</span></code></a> will be returned.  Since according to
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>, messages always have a default type, <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_type" title="email.message.Message.get_content_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content_type()</span></code></a>
+will always return a value.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> defines a message’s default type to be <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em>
+unless it appears inside a <em class="mimetype">multipart/digest</em> container, in
+which case it would be <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>.  If the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header has an invalid type specification,
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> mandates that the default type be <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_content_maintype">
+<code class="descname">get_content_maintype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_maintype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s main content type.  This is the <em class="mimetype">maintype</em>
+part of the string returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_type" title="email.message.Message.get_content_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content_type()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_content_subtype">
+<code class="descname">get_content_subtype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_subtype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s sub-content type.  This is the <em class="mimetype">subtype</em>
+part of the string returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_type" title="email.message.Message.get_content_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content_type()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_default_type">
+<code class="descname">get_default_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_default_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default content
+type of <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em>, except for messages that are subparts of
+<em class="mimetype">multipart/digest</em> containers.  Such subparts have a default
+content type of <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.set_default_type">
+<code class="descname">set_default_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ctype</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.set_default_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the default content type.  <em>ctype</em> should either be
+<em class="mimetype">text/plain</em> or <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>, although this is not
+enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_params">
+<code class="descname">get_params</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em>, <em>header='content-type'</em>, <em>unquote=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_params" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> parameters, as a list.
+The elements of the returned list are 2-tuples of key/value pairs, as
+split on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code> sign.  The left hand side of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code> is the key,
+while the right hand side is the value.  If there is no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code> sign in
+the parameter the value is the empty string, otherwise the value is as
+described in <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_param" title="email.message.Message.get_param"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_param()</span></code></a> and is unquoted if optional <em>unquote</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default).</p>
+<p>Optional <em>failobj</em> is the object to return if there is no
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.  Optional <em>header</em> is the header to
+search instead of <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class its functionality is
+replaced by the <em>params</em> property of the individual header objects
+returned by the header access methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_param">
+<code class="descname">get_param</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>param</em>, <em>failobj=None</em>, <em>header='content-type'</em>, <em>unquote=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_param" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header’s parameter
+<em>param</em> as a string.  If the message has no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header or if there is no such parameter, then <em>failobj</em> is returned
+(defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Optional <em>header</em> if given, specifies the message header to use instead of
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>.</p>
+<p>Parameter keys are always compared case insensitively.  The return value
+can either be a string, or a 3-tuple if the parameter was <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>
+encoded.  When it’s a 3-tuple, the elements of the value are of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(CHARSET,</span> <span class="pre">LANGUAGE,</span> <span class="pre">VALUE)</span></code>.  Note that both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARSET</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code> can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case you should consider <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VALUE</span></code>
+to be encoded in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">us-ascii</span></code> charset.  You can usually ignore
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If your application doesn’t care whether the parameter was encoded as in
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>, you can collapse the parameter value by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html#email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value" title="email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value()</span></code></a>, passing in the return value
+from <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_param" title="email.message.Message.get_param"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_param()</span></code></a>.  This will return a suitably decoded Unicode
+string when the value is a tuple, or the original string unquoted if it
+isn’t.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">rawparam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_param</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">param</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utils</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">collapse_rfc2231_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rawparam</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In any case, the parameter value (either the returned string, or the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VALUE</span></code> item in the 3-tuple) is always unquoted, unless <em>unquote</em> is set
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class its functionality is
+replaced by the <em>params</em> property of the individual header objects
+returned by the header access methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.set_param">
+<code class="descname">set_param</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>param</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>header='Content-Type'</em>, <em>requote=True</em>, <em>charset=None</em>, <em>language=''</em>, <em>replace=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.set_param" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a parameter in the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.  If the
+parameter already exists in the header, its value will be replaced with
+<em>value</em>.  If the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header as not yet been defined
+for this message, it will be set to <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em> and the new
+parameter value will be appended as per <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>header</em> specifies an alternative header to
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>, and all parameters will be quoted as necessary
+unless optional <em>requote</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>).</p>
+<p>If optional <em>charset</em> is specified, the parameter will be encoded
+according to <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>. Optional <em>language</em> specifies the RFC 2231
+language, defaulting to the empty string.  Both <em>charset</em> and <em>language</em>
+should be strings.</p>
+<p>If <em>replace</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default) the header is moved to the
+end of the list of headers.  If <em>replace</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the header
+will be updated in place.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> keyword was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.del_param">
+<code class="descname">del_param</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>param</em>, <em>header='content-type'</em>, <em>requote=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.del_param" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the given parameter completely from the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header.  The header will be re-written in place without the parameter or
+its value.  All values will be quoted as necessary unless <em>requote</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>).  Optional <em>header</em> specifies an
+alternative to <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.set_type">
+<code class="descname">set_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>header='Content-Type'</em>, <em>requote=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.set_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the main type and subtype for the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header. <em>type</em> must be a string in the form <em class="mimetype">maintype/subtype</em>,
+otherwise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>This method replaces the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, keeping all
+the parameters in place.  If <em>requote</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, this leaves the
+existing header’s quoting as is, otherwise the parameters will be quoted
+(the default).</p>
+<p>An alternative header can be specified in the <em>header</em> argument. When the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header is set a <em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em>
+header is also added.</p>
+<p>This is a legacy method.  On the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> class its functionality is
+replaced by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_filename">
+<code class="descname">get_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> parameter of the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header of the message.  If the header
+does not have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> parameter, this method falls back to looking
+for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> parameter on the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.  If
+neither is found, or the header is missing, then <em>failobj</em> is returned.
+The returned string will always be unquoted as per
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html#email.utils.unquote" title="email.utils.unquote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils.unquote()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_boundary">
+<code class="descname">get_boundary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_boundary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boundary</span></code> parameter of the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header of the message, or <em>failobj</em> if either
+the header is missing, or has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boundary</span></code> parameter.  The returned
+string will always be unquoted as per <a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html#email.utils.unquote" title="email.utils.unquote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils.unquote()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.set_boundary">
+<code class="descname">set_boundary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>boundary</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.set_boundary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boundary</span></code> parameter of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header to
+<em>boundary</em>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.set_boundary" title="email.message.Message.set_boundary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_boundary()</span></code></a> will always quote <em>boundary</em> if
+necessary.  A <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#email.errors.HeaderParseError" title="email.errors.HeaderParseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderParseError</span></code></a> is raised if the
+message object has no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.</p>
+<p>Note that using this method is subtly different than deleting the old
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header and adding a new one with the new
+boundary via <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.add_header" title="email.message.Message.add_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_header()</span></code></a>, because <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.set_boundary" title="email.message.Message.set_boundary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_boundary()</span></code></a> preserves
+the order of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header in the list of
+headers. However, it does <em>not</em> preserve any continuation lines which may
+have been present in the original <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_content_charset">
+<code class="descname">get_content_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header,
+coerced to lower case.  If there is no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, or if
+that header has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter, <em>failobj</em> is returned.</p>
+<p>Note that this method differs from <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.get_charset" title="email.message.Message.get_charset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_charset()</span></code></a> which returns the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance for the default encoding of the message body.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_charsets">
+<code class="descname">get_charsets</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_charsets" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list containing the character set names in the message.  If the
+message is a <em class="mimetype">multipart</em>, then the list will contain one element
+for each subpart in the payload, otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.</p>
+<p>Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter in the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header for the
+represented subpart.  However, if the subpart has no
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter, or is not of
+the <em class="mimetype">text</em> main MIME type, then that item in the returned list
+will be <em>failobj</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.get_content_disposition">
+<code class="descname">get_content_disposition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.get_content_disposition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the message’s
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header if it has one, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  The
+possible values for this method are <em>inline</em>, <em>attachment</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the message follows <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2183.html"><strong>RFC 2183</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.walk">
+<code class="descname">walk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.walk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.walk" title="email.message.Message.walk"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> method is an all-purpose generator which can be used to
+iterate over all the parts and subparts of a message object tree, in
+depth-first traversal order.  You will typically use <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.walk" title="email.message.Message.walk"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> as the
+iterator in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a multipart
+message structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">part</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">walk</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_type</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">multipart/report</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">message/delivery-status</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk</span></code> iterates over the subparts of any part where
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, even though
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg.get_content_maintype()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'multipart'</span></code> may return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  We
+can see this in our example by making use of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_structure</span></code> debug
+helper function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">part</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">walk</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_maintype</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;multipart&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>          <span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_multipart</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">True True</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="go">False True</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="go">False True</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">_structure</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">multipart/report</span>
+<span class="go">    text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">    message/delivery-status</span>
+<span class="go">        text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">        text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">    message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">        text/plain</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code> parts are not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiparts</span></code>, but they do contain
+subparts. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk</span></code> descends
+into the subparts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects can also optionally contain two instance attributes,
+which can be used when generating the plain text of a MIME message.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.preamble">
+<code class="descname">preamble</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.preamble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the blank line
+following the headers, and the first multipart boundary string. Normally,
+this text is never visible in a MIME-aware mail reader because it falls
+outside the standard MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of
+the message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware reader, this
+text can become visible.</p>
+<p>The <em>preamble</em> attribute contains this leading extra-armor text for MIME
+documents.  When the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a> discovers some text
+after the headers but before the first boundary string, it assigns this
+text to the message’s <em>preamble</em> attribute.  When the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> is writing out the plain text
+representation of a MIME message, and it finds the
+message has a <em>preamble</em> attribute, it will write this text in the area
+between the headers and the first boundary.  See <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<p>Note that if the message object has no preamble, the <em>preamble</em> attribute
+will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.epilogue">
+<code class="descname">epilogue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.epilogue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>epilogue</em> attribute acts the same way as the <em>preamble</em> attribute,
+except that it contains text that appears between the last boundary and
+the end of the message.</p>
+<p>You do not need to set the epilogue to the empty string in order for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> to print a newline at the end of the
+file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.message.Message.defects">
+<code class="descname">defects</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.Message.defects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>defects</em> attribute contains a list of all the problems found when
+parsing this message.  See <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#module-email.errors" title="email.errors: The exception classes used by the email package."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code></a> for a detailed description
+of the possible parsing defects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.examples.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code>: Examples</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.mime.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-email.contentmanager">
+<span id="email-contentmanager-managing-mime-content"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.contentmanager" title="email.contentmanager: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.contentmanager</span></code></a>: Managing MIME Content<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.contentmanager" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/contentmanager.py">Lib/email/contentmanager.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.ContentManager">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.contentmanager.</code><code class="descname">ContentManager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.ContentManager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for content managers.  Provides the standard registry mechanisms
+to register converters between MIME content and other representations, as
+well as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content</span></code> dispatch methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.ContentManager.get_content">
+<code class="descname">get_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.get_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up a handler function based on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetype</span></code> of <em>msg</em> (see next
+paragraph), call it, passing through all arguments, and return the result
+of the call.  The expectation is that the handler will extract the
+payload from <em>msg</em> and return an object that encodes information about
+the extracted data.</p>
+<p>To find the handler, look for the following keys in the registry,
+stopping with the first one found:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the string representing the full MIME type (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintype/subtype</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>the string representing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintype</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>the empty string</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If none of these keys produce a handler, raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> for the
+full MIME type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.ContentManager.set_content">
+<code class="descname">set_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>obj</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.set_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintype</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>, raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>; otherwise
+look up a handler function based on the type of <em>obj</em> (see next
+paragraph), call <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.clear_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.clear_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear_content()</span></code></a> on the
+<em>msg</em>, and call the handler function, passing through all arguments.  The
+expectation is that the handler will transform and store <em>obj</em> into
+<em>msg</em>, possibly making other changes to <em>msg</em> as well, such as adding
+various MIME headers to encode information needed to interpret the stored
+data.</p>
+<p>To find the handler, obtain the type of <em>obj</em> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typ</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">type(obj)</span></code>), and
+look for the following keys in the registry, stopping with the first one
+found:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the type itself (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typ</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>the type’s fully qualified name (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typ.__module__</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">'.'</span> <span class="pre">+</span>
+<span class="pre">typ.__qualname__</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>the type’s qualname (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typ.__qualname__</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>the type’s name (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typ.__name__</span></code>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for each of
+the types in the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mro"><span class="xref std std-term">MRO</span></a> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typ.__mro__</span></code>).  Finally, if no other key
+yields a handler, check for a handler for the key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If there is
+no handler for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> for the fully
+qualified name of the type.</p>
+<p>Also add a <em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em> header if one is not present (see
+also <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.MIMEPart" title="email.message.MIMEPart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEPart</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_get_handler">
+<code class="descname">add_get_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_get_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Record the function <em>handler</em> as the handler for <em>key</em>.  For the possible
+values of <em>key</em>, see <a class="reference internal" href="#email.contentmanager.get_content" title="email.contentmanager.get_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_set_handler">
+<code class="descname">add_set_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typekey</em>, <em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.add_set_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Record <em>handler</em> as the function to call when an object of a type
+matching <em>typekey</em> is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.contentmanager.set_content" title="email.contentmanager.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a>.  For the possible
+values of <em>typekey</em>, see <a class="reference internal" href="#email.contentmanager.set_content" title="email.contentmanager.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="content-manager-instances">
+<h2>Content Manager Instances<a class="headerlink" href="#content-manager-instances" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager" title="email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw_data_manager</span></code></a>, although more may be added in the future.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager" title="email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw_data_manager</span></code></a> is the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code></a> provided by
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a> and its derivatives.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager">
+<code class="descclassname">email.contentmanager.</code><code class="descname">raw_data_manager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This content manager provides only a minimum interface beyond that provided
+by <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> itself:  it deals only with text, raw
+byte strings, and <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects.  Nevertheless, it
+provides significant advantages compared to the base API: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content</span></code> on
+a text part will return a unicode string without the application needing to
+manually decode it, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content</span></code> provides a rich set of options for
+controlling the headers added to a part and controlling the content transfer
+encoding, and it enables the use of the various <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_</span></code> methods, thereby
+simplifying the creation of multipart messages.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.get_content">
+<code class="descclassname">email.contentmanager.</code><code class="descname">get_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>errors='replace'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.get_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the payload of the part as either a string (for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text</span></code> parts), an
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> object (for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message/rfc822</span></code>
+parts), or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> object (for all other non-multipart types).  Raise
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if called on a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  If the part is a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text</span></code> part and <em>errors</em> is specified, use it as the error handler when
+decoding the payload to unicode.  The default error handler is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.contentmanager.set_content">
+<code class="descclassname">email.contentmanager.</code><code class="descname">set_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>&lt;'str'&gt;</em>, <em>subtype=&quot;plain&quot;</em>, <em>charset='utf-8'                     cte=None</em>, <em>disposition=None</em>, <em>filename=None</em>, <em>cid=None</em>, <em>params=None</em>, <em>headers=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.contentmanager.set_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">email.contentmanager.</code><code class="descname">set_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>&lt;'bytes'&gt;</em>, <em>maintype</em>, <em>subtype</em>, <em>cte=&quot;base64&quot;</em>, <em>disposition=None</em>, <em>filename=None</em>, <em>cid=None</em>, <em>params=None</em>, <em>headers=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">email.contentmanager.</code><code class="descname">set_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>&lt;'EmailMessage'&gt;</em>, <em>cte=None</em>, <em>disposition=None</em>, <em>filename=None</em>, <em>cid=None</em>, <em>params=None</em>, <em>headers=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Add headers and payload to <em>msg</em>:</p>
+<p>Add a <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintype/subtype</span></code>
+value.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>For <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>, set the MIME <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintype</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text</span></code>, and set the
+subtype to <em>subtype</em> if it is specified, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plain</span></code> if it is not.</p></li>
+<li><p>For <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>, use the specified <em>maintype</em> and <em>subtype</em>, or
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if they are not specified.</p></li>
+<li><p>For <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> objects, set the maintype
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code>, and set the subtype to <em>subtype</em> if it is
+specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc822</span></code> if it is not.  If <em>subtype</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code>, raise an error (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> objects must be used to
+construct <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message/partial</span></code> parts).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If <em>charset</em> is provided (which is valid only for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>), encode the
+string to bytes using the specified character set.  The default is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code>.  If the specified <em>charset</em> is a known alias for a standard
+MIME charset name, use the standard charset instead.</p>
+<p>If <em>cte</em> is set, encode the payload using the specified content transfer
+encoding, and set the <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header to
+that value.  Possible values for <em>cte</em> are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoted-printable</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binary</span></code>.  If the input cannot be
+encoded in the specified encoding (for example, specifying a <em>cte</em> of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code> for an input that contains non-ASCII values), raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>For <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> objects, if <em>cte</em> is not set use heuristics to
+determine the most compact encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p>For <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>, per <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2046.html"><strong>RFC 2046</strong></a>, raise
+an error if a <em>cte</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoted-printable</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code> is
+requested for <em>subtype</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc822</span></code>, and for any <em>cte</em> other than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code> for <em>subtype</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">external-body</span></code>.  For
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message/rfc822</span></code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> if <em>cte</em> is not specified.  For
+all other values of <em>subtype</em>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>A <em>cte</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binary</span></code> does not actually work correctly yet.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code> object as modified by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content</span></code> is
+correct, but <a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> does not
+serialize it correctly.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>disposition</em> is set, use it as the value of the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header.  If not specified, and
+<em>filename</em> is specified, add the header with the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attachment</span></code>.
+If <em>disposition</em> is not specified and <em>filename</em> is also not specified,
+do not add the header.  The only valid values for <em>disposition</em> are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attachment</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inline</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>filename</em> is specified, use it as the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code>
+parameter of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header.</p>
+<p>If <em>cid</em> is specified, add a <em class="mailheader">Content-ID</em> header with
+<em>cid</em> as its value.</p>
+<p>If <em>params</em> is specified, iterate its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items</span></code> method and use the
+resulting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs to set additional parameters on the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.</p>
+<p>If <em>headers</em> is specified and is a list of strings of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">headername:</span> <span class="pre">headervalue</span></code> or a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header</span></code> objects
+(distinguished from strings by having a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute), add the
+headers to <em>msg</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Originally added in 3.4 as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional module</span></a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.contentmanager</span></code>: Managing MIME Content</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#content-manager-instances">Content Manager Instances</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.headerregistry.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.headerregistry</span></code>: Custom Header Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.examples.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code>: Examples</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/email.contentmanager.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             >next</a> |</li>
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+             >previous</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" ><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
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+      </ul>
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+    <div class="footer">
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+    <br />
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+    <br />
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+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.encoders.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.encoders.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df714b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.encoders.html
@@ -0,0 +1,251 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email.encoders: Encoders &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities" href="email.utils.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="email.charset: Representing character sets" href="email.charset.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/email.encoders.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="email.utils.html" title="email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="email.charset.html" title="email.charset: Representing character sets"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="netdata.html" >Internet Data Handling</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email.encoders">
+<span id="email-encoders-encoders"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.encoders" title="email.encoders: Encoders for email message payloads."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code></a>: Encoders<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.encoders" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/encoders.py">Lib/email/encoders.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module is part of the legacy (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code>) email API.  In the
+new API the functionality is provided by the <em>cte</em> parameter of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>This module is deprecated in Python 3.  The functions provided here
+should not be called explicitly since the <a class="reference internal" href="email.mime.html#email.mime.text.MIMEText" title="email.mime.text.MIMEText"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEText</span></code></a>
+class sets the content type and CTE header using the <em>_subtype</em> and <em>_charset</em>
+values passed during the instaniation of that class.</p>
+<p>The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the module.</p>
+<p>When creating <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects from scratch, you often
+need to encode the payloads for transport through compliant mail servers. This
+is especially true for <em class="mimetype">image/*</em> and <em class="mimetype">text/*</em> type messages
+containing binary data.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package provides some convenient encodings in its
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoders</span></code> module.  These encoders are actually used by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.mime.html#email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio" title="email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEAudio</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="email.mime.html#email.mime.image.MIMEImage" title="email.mime.image.MIMEImage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEImage</span></code></a>
+class constructors to provide default encodings.  All encoder functions take
+exactly one argument, the message object to encode.  They usually extract the
+payload, encode it, and reset the payload to this newly encoded value.  They
+should also set the <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header as appropriate.</p>
+<p>Note that these functions are not meaningful for a multipart message.  They
+must be applied to individual subparts instead, and will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if passed a message whose type is multipart.</p>
+<p>Here are the encoding functions provided:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.encoders.encode_quopri">
+<code class="descclassname">email.encoders.</code><code class="descname">encode_quopri</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.encoders.encode_quopri" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encodes the payload into quoted-printable form and sets the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoted-printable</span></code> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>.
+This is a good encoding to use when most of your payload is normal printable
+data, but contains a few unprintable characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.encoders.encode_base64">
+<code class="descclassname">email.encoders.</code><code class="descname">encode_base64</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.encoders.encode_base64" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encodes the payload into base64 form and sets the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code>.  This is a good
+encoding to use when most of your payload is unprintable data since it is a more
+compact form than quoted-printable.  The drawback of base64 encoding is that it
+renders the text non-human readable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.encoders.encode_7or8bit">
+<code class="descclassname">email.encoders.</code><code class="descname">encode_7or8bit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.encoders.encode_7or8bit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This doesn’t actually modify the message’s payload, but it does set the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header to either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> as
+appropriate, based on the payload data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.encoders.encode_noop">
+<code class="descclassname">email.encoders.</code><code class="descname">encode_noop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.encoders.encode_noop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This does nothing; it doesn’t even set the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Note that encoding with <a class="reference internal" href="#email.encoders.encode_quopri" title="email.encoders.encode_quopri"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode_quopri()</span></code></a> also encodes all tabs and space
+characters in the data.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.charset.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code>: Representing character sets</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.utils.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils</span></code>: Miscellaneous utilities</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/email.encoders.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             >next</a> |</li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="netdata.html" >Internet Data Handling</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" ><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
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+    <br />
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+    <br />
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+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.errors.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.errors.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27bed83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.errors.html
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email.errors: Exception and Defect classes &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-email.errors">
+<span id="email-errors-exception-and-defect-classes"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.errors" title="email.errors: The exception classes used by the email package."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code></a>: Exception and Defect classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.errors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/errors.py">Lib/email/errors.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The following exception classes are defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.errors" title="email.errors: The exception classes used by the email package."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="email.errors.MessageError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">email.errors.</code><code class="descname">MessageError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.errors.MessageError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the base class for all exceptions that the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package can
+raise.  It is derived from the standard <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> class and defines no
+additional methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="email.errors.MessageParseError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">email.errors.</code><code class="descname">MessageParseError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.errors.MessageParseError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the base class for exceptions raised by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a> class.  It is derived from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.errors.MessageError" title="email.errors.MessageError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageError</span></code></a>.  This class is also used internally by the parser used
+by <a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html#module-email.headerregistry" title="email.headerregistry: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">headerregistry</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="email.errors.HeaderParseError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">email.errors.</code><code class="descname">HeaderParseError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.errors.HeaderParseError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised under some error conditions when parsing the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> headers of a
+message, this class is derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#email.errors.MessageParseError" title="email.errors.MessageParseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageParseError</span></code></a>.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_boundary()</span></code></a> method will raise this
+error if the content type is unknown when the method is called.
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.header.html#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> may raise this error for certain base64
+decoding errors, and when an attempt is made to create a header that appears
+to contain an embedded header (that is, there is what is supposed to be a
+continuation line that has no leading whitespace and looks like a header).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="email.errors.BoundaryError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">email.errors.</code><code class="descname">BoundaryError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.errors.BoundaryError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deprecated and no longer used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="email.errors.MultipartConversionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">email.errors.</code><code class="descname">MultipartConversionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.errors.MultipartConversionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a payload is added to a <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object
+using <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_payload()</span></code>, but the payload is already a scalar and the
+message’s <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> main type is not either
+<em class="mimetype">multipart</em> or missing.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.errors.MultipartConversionError" title="email.errors.MultipartConversionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MultipartConversionError</span></code></a> multiply
+inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="#email.errors.MessageError" title="email.errors.MessageError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageError</span></code></a> and the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Since <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.add_payload()</span></code> is deprecated, this exception is rarely
+raised in practice.  However the exception may also be raised if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach" title="email.message.Message.attach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach()</span></code></a>
+method is called on an instance of a class derived from
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.mime.html#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMENonMultipart</span></code></a> (e.g.
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.mime.html#email.mime.image.MIMEImage" title="email.mime.image.MIMEImage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEImage</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here is the list of the defects that the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#email.parser.FeedParser" title="email.parser.FeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FeedParser</span></code></a>
+can find while parsing messages.  Note that the defects are added to the message
+where the problem was found, so for example, if a message nested inside a
+<em class="mimetype">multipart/alternative</em> had a malformed header, that nested message
+object would have a defect, but the containing messages would not.</p>
+<p>All defect classes are subclassed from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors.MessageDefect</span></code>.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect</span></code> – A message claimed to be a multipart,
+but had no <em class="mimetype">boundary</em> parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect</span></code> – The start boundary claimed in the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header was never found.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect</span></code> – A start boundary was found, but
+no corresponding close boundary was ever found.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect</span></code> – The message had a continuation
+line as its first header line.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect</span></code> - A “Unix From” header was found in the
+middle of a header block.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect</span></code> - A line was found while parsing
+headers that had no leading white space but contained no ‘:’.  Parsing
+continues assuming that the line represents the first line of the body.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MalformedHeaderDefect</span></code> – A header was found that was missing a colon,
+or was otherwise malformed.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This defect has not been used for several Python versions.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MultipartInvariantViolationDefect</span></code> – A message claimed to be a
+<em class="mimetype">multipart</em>, but no subparts were found.  Note that when a message
+has this defect, its <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> method may
+return false even though its content type claims to be <em class="mimetype">multipart</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidBase64PaddingDefect</span></code> – When decoding a block of base64
+encoded bytes, the padding was not correct.  Enough padding is added to
+perform the decode, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidBase64CharactersDefect</span></code> – When decoding a block of base64
+encoded bytes, characters outside the base64 alphabet were encountered.
+The characters are ignored, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidBase64LengthDefect</span></code> – When decoding a block of base64 encoded
+bytes, the number of non-padding base64 characters was invalid (1 more than
+a multiple of 4).  The encoded block was kept as-is.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.policy.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code>: Policy Objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.headerregistry.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.headerregistry</span></code>: Custom Header Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.examples.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.examples.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1882984
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.examples.html
@@ -0,0 +1,569 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email: Examples &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+    <link rel="next" title="email.message.Message: Representing an email message using the compat32 API" href="email.compat32-message.html" />
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="netdata.html" >Internet Data Handling</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
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+  <div class="section" id="email-examples">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a>: Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#email-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Here are a few examples of how to use the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package to read, write,
+and send simple email messages, as well as more complex MIME messages.</p>
+<p>First, let’s see how to create and send a simple text message (both the
+text content and the addresses may contain unicode characters):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Import smtplib for the actual sending function</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Import the email modules we&#39;ll need</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.message</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Open the plain text file whose name is in textfile for reading.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">textfile</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Create a text/plain message</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_content</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># me == the sender&#39;s email address</span>
+<span class="c1"># you == the recipient&#39;s email address</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;The contents of </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">textfile</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;From&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">me</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;To&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">you</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Send the message via our own SMTP server.</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> headers can easily be done by the using the classes
+from the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Import the email modules we&#39;ll need</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.parser</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BytesParser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Parser</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.policy</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">default</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># If the e-mail headers are in a file, uncomment these two lines:</span>
+<span class="c1"># with open(messagefile, &#39;rb&#39;) as fp:</span>
+<span class="c1">#     headers = BytesParser(policy=default).parse(fp)</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#  Or for parsing headers in a string (this is an uncommon operation), use:</span>
+<span class="n">headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parsestr</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;From: Foo Bar &lt;user@example.com&gt;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;To: &lt;someone_else@example.com&gt;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Subject: Test message</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;Body would go here</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#  Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary:</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;To: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;From: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># You can also access the parts of the addresses:</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Recipient username: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addresses</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">username</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Sender name: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addresses</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">display_name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here’s an example of how to send a MIME message containing a bunch of family
+pictures that may be residing in a directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Import smtplib for the actual sending function</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># And imghdr to find the types of our images</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">imghdr</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Here are the email package modules we&#39;ll need</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.message</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create the container email message.</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Our family reunion&#39;</span>
+<span class="c1"># me == the sender&#39;s email address</span>
+<span class="c1"># family = the list of all recipients&#39; email addresses</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;From&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">me</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;To&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;, &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">family</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">preamble</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Our family reunion&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Open the files in binary mode.  Use imghdr to figure out the</span>
+<span class="c1"># MIME subtype for each specific image.</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">file</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pngfiles</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">img_data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_attachment</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">img_data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maintype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;image&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                 <span class="n">subtype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">imghdr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">what</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">img_data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Send the email via our own SMTP server.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here’s an example of how to send the entire contents of a directory as an email
+message: <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id2">1</a></p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python3</span>
+
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+<span class="c1"># For guessing MIME type based on file name extension</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mimetypes</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ArgumentParser</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.message</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.policy</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SMTP</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s2">Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.</span>
+<span class="s2">Unless the -o option is given, the email is sent by forwarding to your local</span>
+<span class="s2">SMTP server, which then does the normal delivery process.  Your local machine</span>
+<span class="s2">must be running an SMTP server.</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--directory&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;Mail the contents of the specified directory,</span>
+<span class="s2">                        otherwise use the current directory.  Only the regular</span>
+<span class="s2">                        files in the directory are sent, and we don&#39;t recurse to</span>
+<span class="s2">                        subdirectories.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-o&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--output&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;FILE&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;Print the composed message to FILE instead of</span>
+<span class="s2">                        sending the message to the SMTP server.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-s&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--sender&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">required</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;The value of the From: header (required)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-r&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--recipient&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">required</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;append&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;RECIPIENT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[],</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;recipients&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;A To: header value (at least one required)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">directory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">directory</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">directory</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">directory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Create the message</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Contents of directory </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abspath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">directory</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;To&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;, &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recipients</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;From&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sender</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">preamble</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">directory</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">path</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">directory</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isfile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">continue</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Guess the content type based on the file&#39;s extension.  Encoding</span>
+        <span class="c1"># will be ignored, although we should check for simple things like</span>
+        <span class="c1"># gzip&#39;d or compressed files.</span>
+        <span class="n">ctype</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">guess_type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">ctype</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">encoding</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># No guess could be made, or the file is encoded (compressed), so</span>
+            <span class="c1"># use a generic bag-of-bits type.</span>
+            <span class="n">ctype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;application/octet-stream&#39;</span>
+        <span class="n">maintype</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">subtype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ctype</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_attachment</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+                               <span class="n">maintype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">maintype</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                               <span class="n">subtype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">subtype</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                               <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Now send or store the message</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here’s an example of how to unpack a MIME message like the one
+above, into a directory of files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python3</span>
+
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">email</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mimetypes</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.policy</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">default</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ArgumentParser</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s2">Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--directory&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">required</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;Unpack the MIME message into the named</span>
+<span class="s2">                        directory, which will be created if it doesn&#39;t already</span>
+<span class="s2">                        exist.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;msgfile&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msgfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message_from_binary_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mkdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">directory</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileExistsError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+    <span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">part</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">walk</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="c1"># multipart/* are just containers</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_maintype</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;multipart&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">continue</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Applications should really sanitize the given filename so that an</span>
+        <span class="c1"># email message can&#39;t be used to overwrite important files</span>
+        <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_filename</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">ext</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">guess_extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_type</span><span class="p">())</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">ext</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="c1"># Use a generic bag-of-bits extension</span>
+                <span class="n">ext</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.bin&#39;</span>
+            <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;part-</span><span class="si">%03d%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">directory</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_payload</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here’s an example of how to create an HTML message with an alternative plain
+text version.  To make things a bit more interesting, we include a related
+image in the html part, and we save a copy of what we are going to send to
+disk, as well as sending it.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python3</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.message</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.headerregistry</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Address</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.utils</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">make_msgid</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create the base text message.</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">EmailMessage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Ayons asperges pour le déjeuner&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;From&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Pepé Le Pew&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;pepe&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;example.com&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;To&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Penelope Pussycat&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;penelope&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;example.com&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+             <span class="n">Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Fabrette Pussycat&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;fabrette&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;example.com&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_content</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s2">Salut!</span>
+
+<span class="s2">Cela ressemble à un excellent recipie[1] déjeuner.</span>
+
+<span class="s2">[1] http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718</span>
+
+<span class="s2">--Pepé</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Add the html version.  This converts the message into a multipart/alternative</span>
+<span class="c1"># container, with the original text message as the first part and the new html</span>
+<span class="c1"># message as the second part.</span>
+<span class="n">asparagus_cid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">make_msgid</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_alternative</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;html&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">  &lt;head&gt;&lt;/head&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">  &lt;body&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">    &lt;p&gt;Salut!&lt;/p&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">    &lt;p&gt;Cela ressemble à un excellent</span>
+<span class="s2">        &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718&quot;&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">            recipie</span>
+<span class="s2">        &lt;/a&gt; déjeuner.</span>
+<span class="s2">    &lt;/p&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">    &lt;img src=&quot;cid:</span><span class="si">{asparagus_cid}</span><span class="s2">&quot; /&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">  &lt;/body&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;/html&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">asparagus_cid</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">asparagus_cid</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]),</span> <span class="n">subtype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;html&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># note that we needed to peel the &lt;&gt; off the msgid for use in the html.</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Now add the related image to the html part.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;roasted-asparagus.jpg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">img</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_payload</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_related</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">img</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;image&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;jpeg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="n">cid</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">asparagus_cid</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Make a local copy of what we are going to send.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;outgoing.msg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Send the message via local SMTP server.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If we were sent the message from the last example, here is one way we could
+process it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tempfile</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mimetypes</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">webbrowser</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Import the email modules we&#39;ll need</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">policy</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.parser</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BytesParser</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># An imaginary module that would make this work and be safe.</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">imaginary</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">magic_html_parser</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># In a real program you&#39;d get the filename from the arguments.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;outgoing.msg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BytesParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary, and any non-ASCII will</span>
+<span class="c1"># be converted to unicode:</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;To:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;From:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># If we want to print a preview of the message content, we can extract whatever</span>
+<span class="c1"># the least formatted payload is and print the first three lines.  Of course,</span>
+<span class="c1"># if the message has no plain text part printing the first three lines of html</span>
+<span class="c1"># is probably useless, but this is just a conceptual example.</span>
+<span class="n">simplest</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_body</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">preferencelist</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;plain&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;html&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">simplest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)[:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+
+<span class="n">ans</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;View full message?&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">ans</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;n&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># We can extract the richest alternative in order to display it:</span>
+<span class="n">richest</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_body</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">partfiles</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">richest</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;content-type&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maintype</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;text&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">richest</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;content-type&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subtype</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;plain&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">richest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">richest</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;content-type&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subtype</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;html&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">body</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">richest</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Don&#39;t know how to display </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">richest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_type</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">richest</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;content-type&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">content_type</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;multipart/related&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">body</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">richest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_body</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">preferencelist</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;html&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">part</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">richest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iter_attachments</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="n">fn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_filename</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">extension</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_filename</span><span class="p">())[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">extension</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">guess_extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_type</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NamedTemporaryFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">suffix</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">extension</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delete</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content</span><span class="p">())</span>
+            <span class="c1"># again strip the &lt;&gt; to go from email form of cid to html form.</span>
+            <span class="n">partfiles</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;content-id&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Don&#39;t know how to display </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">richest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_type</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NamedTemporaryFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delete</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The magic_html_parser has to rewrite the href=&quot;cid:....&quot; attributes to</span>
+    <span class="c1"># point to the filenames in partfiles.  It also has to do a safety-sanitize</span>
+    <span class="c1"># of the html.  It could be written using html.parser.</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">magic_html_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">body</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">partfiles</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">webbrowser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">fn</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">partfiles</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Of course, there are lots of email messages that could break this simple</span>
+<span class="c1"># minded program, but it will handle the most common ones.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Up to the prompt, the output from the above is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>To: Penelope Pussycat &lt;penelope@example.com&gt;, Fabrette Pussycat &lt;fabrette@example.com&gt;
+From: Pepé Le Pew &lt;pepe@example.com&gt;
+Subject: Ayons asperges pour le déjeuner
+
+Salut!
+
+Cela ressemble à un excellent recipie[1] déjeuner.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Thanks to Matthew Dixon Cowles for the original inspiration and examples.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.contentmanager.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.contentmanager</span></code>: Managing MIME Content</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.compat32-message.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code>: Representing an email message using the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code> API</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.generator.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.generator.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..220cfe7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.generator.html
@@ -0,0 +1,433 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email.generator: Generating MIME documents &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="email.policy: Policy Objects" href="email.policy.html" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
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+ 
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+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email.generator">
+<span id="email-generator-generating-mime-documents"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code></a>: Generating MIME documents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.generator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/generator.py">Lib/email/generator.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>One of the most common tasks is to generate the flat (serialized) version of
+the email message represented by a message object structure.  You will need to
+do this if you want to send your message via <a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib.SMTP.sendmail()</span></code></a> or
+the <a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module, or print the message on the console.  Taking a
+message object structure and producing a serialized representation is the job
+of the generator classes.</p>
+<p>As with the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code></a> module, you aren’t limited to the functionality
+of the bundled generator; you could write one from scratch yourself.  However
+the bundled generator knows how to generate most email in a standards-compliant
+way, should handle MIME and non-MIME email messages just fine, and is designed
+so that the bytes-oriented parsing and generation operations are inverses,
+assuming the same non-transforming <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> is used for both.  That
+is, parsing the serialized byte stream via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a> class and then regenerating the serialized
+byte stream using <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> should produce output identical to
+the input <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a>.  (On the other hand, using the generator on an
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> constructed by program may result in
+changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> object as defaults are
+filled in.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> class can be used to flatten a message into a text (as
+opposed to binary) serialized representation, but since Unicode cannot
+represent binary data directly, the message is of necessity transformed into
+something that contains only ASCII characters, using the standard email RFC
+Content Transfer Encoding techniques for encoding email messages for transport
+over channels that are not “8 bit clean”.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.generator.BytesGenerator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.generator.</code><code class="descname">BytesGenerator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>outfp</em>, <em>mangle_from_=None</em>, <em>maxheaderlen=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> object that will write any message provided
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flatten()</span></code></a> method, or any surrogateescape encoded text provided
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator.write" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method, to the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file-like object</span></a> <em>outfp</em>.
+<em>outfp</em> must support a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code> method that accepts binary data.</p>
+<p>If optional <em>mangle_from_</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, put a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> character in front of
+any line in the body that starts with the exact string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;From</span> <span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>, that is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">From</span></code> followed by a space at the beginning of a line.  <em>mangle_from_</em>
+defaults to the value of the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_" title="email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mangle_from_</span></code></a>
+setting of the <em>policy</em> (which is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> policy and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for all others).
+<em>mangle_from_</em> is intended for use when messages are stored in unix mbox
+format (see <a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html">WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD</a>).</p>
+<p>If <em>maxheaderlen</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, refold any header lines that are longer
+than <em>maxheaderlen</em>, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, do not rewrap any headers.  If
+<em>manheaderlen</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), wrap headers and other message
+lines according to the <em>policy</em> settings.</p>
+<p>If <em>policy</em> is specified, use that policy to control message generation.  If
+<em>policy</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), use the policy associated with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+object passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flatten</span></code> to control the message generation.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code></a> for details on what <em>policy</em> controls.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The default behavior of the <em>mangle_from_</em>
+and <em>maxheaderlen</em> parameters is to follow the policy.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten">
+<code class="descname">flatten</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>unixfrom=False</em>, <em>linesep=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator.flatten" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the textual representation of the message object structure rooted
+at <em>msg</em> to the output file specified when the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a>
+instance was created.</p>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> option <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.cte_type" title="email.policy.Policy.cte_type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code></a>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> (the default), copy any headers in the original parsed
+message that have not been modified to the output with any bytes with the
+high bit set reproduced as in the original, and preserve the non-ASCII
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of any body parts that have them.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>, convert the bytes with the high bit set as
+needed using an ASCII-compatible <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>.
+That is, transform parts with non-ASCII
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>
+(<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit</em>) to an ASCII compatible
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>, and encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII
+bytes in headers using the MIME <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unknown-8bit</span></code> character set, thus
+rendering them RFC-compliant.</p>
+<p>If <em>unixfrom</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, print the envelope header delimiter used by
+the Unix mailbox format (see <a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a>) before the first of the
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> headers of the root message object.  If the root object has
+no envelope header, craft a standard one.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+Note that for subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.</p>
+<p>If <em>linesep</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, use it as the separator character between
+all the lines of the flattened message.  If <em>linesep</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the
+default), use the value specified in the <em>policy</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.generator.BytesGenerator.clone">
+<code class="descname">clone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator.clone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an independent clone of this <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> instance with
+the exact same option settings, and <em>fp</em> as the new <em>outfp</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.generator.BytesGenerator.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode <em>s</em> using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> codec and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error
+handler, and pass it to the <em>write</em> method of the <em>outfp</em> passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a>’s constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>As a convenience, <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> provides the methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes" title="email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_bytes()</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(aMessage)</span></code> (a.k.a.
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__bytes__" title="email.message.EmailMessage.__bytes__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bytes__()</span></code></a>), which simplify the generation of
+a serialized binary representation of a message object.  For more detail, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Because strings cannot represent binary data, the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> class must
+convert any binary data in any message it flattens to an ASCII compatible
+format, by converting them to an ASCII compatible
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer_Encoding</em>.  Using the terminology of the email
+RFCs, you can think of this as <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> serializing to an I/O stream
+that is not “8 bit clean”.  In other words, most applications will want
+to be using <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a>, and not <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.generator.Generator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.generator.</code><code class="descname">Generator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>outfp</em>, <em>mangle_from_=None</em>, <em>maxheaderlen=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> object that will write any message provided
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator.flatten" title="email.generator.Generator.flatten"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flatten()</span></code></a> method, or any text provided to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator.write" title="email.generator.Generator.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>
+method, to the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file-like object</span></a> <em>outfp</em>.  <em>outfp</em> must support a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code> method that accepts string data.</p>
+<p>If optional <em>mangle_from_</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, put a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> character in front of
+any line in the body that starts with the exact string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;From</span> <span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>, that is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">From</span></code> followed by a space at the beginning of a line.  <em>mangle_from_</em>
+defaults to the value of the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_" title="email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mangle_from_</span></code></a>
+setting of the <em>policy</em> (which is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> policy and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for all others).
+<em>mangle_from_</em> is intended for use when messages are stored in unix mbox
+format (see <a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html">WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD</a>).</p>
+<p>If <em>maxheaderlen</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, refold any header lines that are longer
+than <em>maxheaderlen</em>, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, do not rewrap any headers.  If
+<em>manheaderlen</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), wrap headers and other message
+lines according to the <em>policy</em> settings.</p>
+<p>If <em>policy</em> is specified, use that policy to control message generation.  If
+<em>policy</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), use the policy associated with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+object passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flatten</span></code> to control the message generation.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code></a> for details on what <em>policy</em> controls.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The default behavior of the <em>mangle_from_</em>
+and <em>maxheaderlen</em> parameters is to follow the policy.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.generator.Generator.flatten">
+<code class="descname">flatten</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>unixfrom=False</em>, <em>linesep=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.Generator.flatten" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the textual representation of the message object structure rooted
+at <em>msg</em> to the output file specified when the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a>
+instance was created.</p>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> option <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.cte_type" title="email.policy.Policy.cte_type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code></a>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code>, generate the message as if the option were set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>.
+(This is required because strings cannot represent non-ASCII bytes.)
+Convert any bytes with the high bit set as needed using an
+ASCII-compatible <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>.  That is,
+transform parts with non-ASCII <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>
+(<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit</em>) to an ASCII compatible
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>, and encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII
+bytes in headers using the MIME <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unknown-8bit</span></code> character set, thus
+rendering them RFC-compliant.</p>
+<p>If <em>unixfrom</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, print the envelope header delimiter used by
+the Unix mailbox format (see <a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a>) before the first of the
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> headers of the root message object.  If the root object has
+no envelope header, craft a standard one.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+Note that for subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.</p>
+<p>If <em>linesep</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, use it as the separator character between
+all the lines of the flattened message.  If <em>linesep</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the
+default), use the value specified in the <em>policy</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added support for re-encoding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> message bodies, and the
+<em>linesep</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.generator.Generator.clone">
+<code class="descname">clone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.Generator.clone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an independent clone of this <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> instance with the
+exact same options, and <em>fp</em> as the new <em>outfp</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.generator.Generator.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.Generator.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write <em>s</em> to the <em>write</em> method of the <em>outfp</em> passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a>’s constructor.  This provides just enough file-like
+API for <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> instances to be used in the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>As a convenience, <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> provides the methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.as_string" title="email.message.EmailMessage.as_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_string()</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(aMessage)</span></code> (a.k.a.
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.__str__" title="email.message.EmailMessage.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a>), which simplify the generation of
+a formatted string representation of a message object.  For more detail, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code></a> module also provides a derived class,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.DecodedGenerator" title="email.generator.DecodedGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DecodedGenerator</span></code></a>, which is like the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> base class,
+except that non-<em class="mimetype">text</em> parts are not serialized, but are instead
+represented in the output stream by a string derived from a template filled
+in with information about the part.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.generator.DecodedGenerator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.generator.</code><code class="descname">DecodedGenerator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>outfp</em>, <em>mangle_from_=None</em>, <em>maxheaderlen=None</em>, <em>fmt=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.generator.DecodedGenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Act like <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a>, except that for any subpart of the message
+passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator.flatten" title="email.generator.Generator.flatten"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator.flatten()</span></code></a>, if the subpart is of main type
+<em class="mimetype">text</em>, print the decoded payload of the subpart, and if the main
+type is not <em class="mimetype">text</em>, instead of printing it fill in the string
+<em>fmt</em> using information from the part and print the resulting
+filled-in string.</p>
+<p>To fill in <em>fmt</em>, execute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fmt</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">part_info</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">part_info</span></code>
+is a dictionary composed of the following keys and values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> – Full MIME type of the non-<em class="mimetype">text</em> part</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintype</span></code> – Main MIME type of the non-<em class="mimetype">text</em> part</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subtype</span></code> – Sub-MIME type of the non-<em class="mimetype">text</em> part</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> – Filename of the non-<em class="mimetype">text</em> part</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">description</span></code> – Description associated with the non-<em class="mimetype">text</em> part</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> – Content transfer encoding of the non-<em class="mimetype">text</em> part</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>fmt</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, use the following default <em>fmt</em>:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>“[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename %(filename)s]”</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Optional <em>_mangle_from_</em> and <em>maxheaderlen</em> are as with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> base class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This statement assumes that you use the appropriate setting for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unixfrom</span></code>, and that there are no <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code> settings calling for
+automatic adjustments (for example,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refold_source</span></code> must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">none</span></code>, which is
+<em>not</em> the default).  It is also not 100% true, since if the message
+does not conform to the RFC standards occasionally information about the
+exact original text is lost during parsing error recovery.  It is a goal
+to fix these latter edge cases when possible.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.parser.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code>: Parsing email messages</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.policy.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code>: Policy Objects</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/email.generator.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+      </div>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-email.header">
+<span id="email-header-internationalized-headers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a>: Internationalized headers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.header" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/header.py">Lib/email/header.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module is part of the legacy (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code>) email API.  In the current API
+encoding and decoding of headers is handled transparently by the
+dictionary-like API of the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> class.  In
+addition to uses in legacy code, this module can be useful in applications that
+need to completely control the character sets used when encoding headers.</p>
+<p>The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the module.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a> is the base standard that describes the format of email messages.
+It derives from the older <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> standard which came into widespread use at
+a time when most email was composed of ASCII characters only.  <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a> is a
+specification written assuming email contains only 7-bit ASCII characters.</p>
+<p>Of course, as email has been deployed worldwide, it has become
+internationalized, such that language specific character sets can now be used in
+email messages.  The base standard still requires email messages to be
+transferred using only 7-bit ASCII characters, so a slew of RFCs have been
+written describing how to encode email containing non-ASCII characters into
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant format. These RFCs include <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2046.html"><strong>RFC 2046</strong></a>,
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>, and <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>. The <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package supports these standards
+in its <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>If you want to include non-ASCII characters in your email headers, say in the
+<em class="mailheader">Subject</em> or <em class="mailheader">To</em> fields, you should use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class and assign the field in the <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>
+object to an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instead of using a string for the header
+value.  Import the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a> module.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.message</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Message</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.header</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Header</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Message</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;p</span><span class="se">\xf6</span><span class="s1">stal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;iso-8859-1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">h</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_string</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice here how we wanted the <em class="mailheader">Subject</em> field to contain a non-ASCII
+character?  We did this by creating a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instance and passing in
+the character set that the byte string was encoded in.  When the subsequent
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance was flattened, the <em class="mailheader">Subject</em>
+field was properly <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> encoded.  MIME-aware mail readers would show this
+header using the embedded ISO-8859-1 character.</p>
+<p>Here is the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class description:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.header.Header">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.header.</code><code class="descname">Header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s=None</em>, <em>charset=None</em>, <em>maxlinelen=None</em>, <em>header_name=None</em>, <em>continuation_ws=' '</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a MIME-compliant header that can contain strings in different character
+sets.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>s</em> is the initial header value.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), the
+initial header value is not set.  You can later append to the header with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> method calls.  <em>s</em> may be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, but see the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> documentation for semantics.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>charset</em> serves two purposes: it has the same meaning as the <em>charset</em>
+argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> method.  It also sets the default character set
+for all subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> calls that omit the <em>charset</em> argument.  If
+<em>charset</em> is not provided in the constructor (the default), the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">us-ascii</span></code>
+character set is used both as <em>s</em>’s initial charset and as the default for
+subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> calls.</p>
+<p>The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via <em>maxlinelen</em>.  For
+splitting the first line to a shorter value (to account for the field header
+which isn’t included in <em>s</em>, e.g. <em class="mailheader">Subject</em>) pass in the name of the
+field in <em>header_name</em>.  The default <em>maxlinelen</em> is 76, and the default value
+for <em>header_name</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, meaning it is not taken into account for the
+first line of a long, split header.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>continuation_ws</em> must be <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant folding
+whitespace, and is usually either a space or a hard tab character.  This
+character will be prepended to continuation lines.  <em>continuation_ws</em>
+defaults to a single space character.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>errors</em> is passed straight through to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.header.Header.append">
+<code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>charset=None</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append the string <em>s</em> to the MIME header.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>charset</em>, if given, should be a <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a>
+instance (see <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a>) or the name of a character set, which
+will be converted to a <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance.  A value
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) means that the <em>charset</em> given in the constructor
+is used.</p>
+<p><em>s</em> may be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.  If it is an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, then <em>charset</em> is the encoding of that byte
+string, and a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a> will be raised if the string cannot be
+decoded with that character set.</p>
+<p>If <em>s</em> is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, then <em>charset</em> is a hint specifying
+the character set of the characters in the string.</p>
+<p>In either case, when producing an <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant header using
+<span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> rules, the string will be encoded using the output codec of
+the charset.  If the string cannot be encoded using the output codec, a
+UnicodeError will be raised.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>errors</em> is passed as the errors argument to the decode call
+if <em>s</em> is a byte string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.header.Header.encode">
+<code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>splitchars=';</em>, <em>\t'</em>, <em>maxlinelen=None</em>, <em>linesep='\n'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode a message header into an RFC-compliant format, possibly wrapping
+long lines and encapsulating non-ASCII parts in base64 or quoted-printable
+encodings.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>splitchars</em> is a string containing characters which should be
+given extra weight by the splitting algorithm during normal header
+wrapping.  This is in very rough support of <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>’s ‘higher level
+syntactic breaks’:  split points preceded by a splitchar are preferred
+during line splitting, with the characters preferred in the order in
+which they appear in the string.  Space and tab may be included in the
+string to indicate whether preference should be given to one over the
+other as a split point when other split chars do not appear in the line
+being split.  Splitchars does not affect <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> encoded lines.</p>
+<p><em>maxlinelen</em>, if given, overrides the instance’s value for the maximum
+line length.</p>
+<p><em>linesep</em> specifies the characters used to separate the lines of the
+folded header.  It defaults to the most useful value for Python
+application code (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>), but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code> can be specified in order
+to produce headers with RFC-compliant line separators.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>linesep</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class also provides a number of methods to support
+standard operators and built-in functions.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.header.Header.__str__">
+<code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an approximation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> as a string, using an
+unlimited line length.  All pieces are converted to unicode using the
+specified encoding and joined together appropriately.  Any pieces with a
+charset of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'unknown-8bit'</span></code> are decoded as ASCII using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code>
+error handler.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added handling for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'unknown-8bit'</span></code> charset.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.header.Header.__eq__">
+<code class="descname">__eq__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.__eq__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method allows you to compare two <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instances for
+equality.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.header.Header.__ne__">
+<code class="descname">__ne__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.__ne__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method allows you to compare two <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instances for
+inequality.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a> module also provides the following convenient functions.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.header.decode_header">
+<code class="descclassname">email.header.</code><code class="descname">decode_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.decode_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode a message header value without converting the character set. The header
+value is in <em>header</em>.</p>
+<p>This function returns a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(decoded_string,</span> <span class="pre">charset)</span></code> pairs containing
+each of the decoded parts of the header.  <em>charset</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for non-encoded
+parts of the header, otherwise a lower case string containing the name of the
+character set specified in the encoded string.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.header</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">decode_header</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decode_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(b&#39;p\xf6stal&#39;, &#39;iso-8859-1&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.header.make_header">
+<code class="descclassname">email.header.</code><code class="descname">make_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>decoded_seq</em>, <em>maxlinelen=None</em>, <em>header_name=None</em>, <em>continuation_ws=' '</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.make_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instance from a sequence of pairs as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.decode_header" title="email.header.decode_header"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_header()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.decode_header" title="email.header.decode_header"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_header()</span></code></a> takes a header value string and returns a sequence of
+pairs of the format <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(decoded_string,</span> <span class="pre">charset)</span></code> where <em>charset</em> is the name of
+the character set.</p>
+<p>This function takes one of those sequence of pairs and returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instance.  Optional <em>maxlinelen</em>, <em>header_name</em>, and
+<em>continuation_ws</em> are as in the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.mime.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.charset.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code>: Representing character sets</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.headerregistry.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.headerregistry.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2d158c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.headerregistry.html
@@ -0,0 +1,696 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email.headerregistry">
+<span id="email-headerregistry-custom-header-objects"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.headerregistry" title="email.headerregistry: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.headerregistry</span></code></a>: Custom Header Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.headerregistry" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/headerregistry.py">Lib/email/headerregistry.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>Headers are represented by customized subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.  The
+particular class used to represent a given header is determined by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code></a> of the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> in
+effect when the headers are created.  This section documents the particular
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code> implemented by the email package for handling <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>
+compliant email messages, which not only provides customized header objects for
+various header types, but also provides an extension mechanism for applications
+to add their own custom header types.</p>
+<p>When using any of the policy objects derived from
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a>, all headers are produced by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry" title="email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderRegistry</span></code></a> and have <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader" title="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code></a> as their last base
+class.  Each header class has an additional base class that is determined by
+the type of the header.  For example, many headers have the class
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader" title="email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnstructuredHeader</span></code></a> as their other base class.  The specialized second
+class for a header is determined by the name of the header, using a lookup
+table stored in the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry" title="email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderRegistry</span></code></a>.  All of this is managed
+transparently for the typical application program, but interfaces are provided
+for modifying the default behavior for use by more complex applications.</p>
+<p>The sections below first document the header base classes and their attributes,
+followed by the API for modifying the behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry" title="email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderRegistry</span></code></a>, and
+finally the support classes used to represent the data parsed from structured
+headers.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">BaseHeader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>name</em> and <em>value</em> are passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code> from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code></a> call.  The string value of
+any header object is the <em>value</em> fully decoded to unicode.</p>
+<p>This base class defines the following read-only properties:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the header (the portion of the field before the ‘:’).  This
+is exactly the value passed in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code></a> call for <em>name</em>; that
+is, case is preserved.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.defects">
+<code class="descname">defects</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.defects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderDefect</span></code> instances reporting any
+RFC compliance problems found during parsing.  The email package tries to
+be complete about detecting compliance issues.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#module-email.errors" title="email.errors: The exception classes used by the email package."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code></a>
+module for a discussion of the types of defects that may be reported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count">
+<code class="descname">max_count</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum number of headers of this type that can have the same
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>.  A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> means unlimited.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code> value
+for this attribute is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; it is expected that specialized header
+classes will override this value as needed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code> also provides the following method, which is called by the
+email library code and should not in general be called by application
+programs:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.fold">
+<code class="descname">fold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>policy</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.fold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string containing <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.linesep" title="email.policy.Policy.linesep"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linesep</span></code></a>
+characters as required to correctly fold the header according to
+<em>policy</em>.  A <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.cte_type" title="email.policy.Policy.cte_type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code></a> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> will be
+treated as if it were <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>, since headers may not contain arbitrary
+binary data.  If <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,
+non-ASCII data will be <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> encoded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code> by itself cannot be used to create a header object.  It
+defines a protocol that each specialized header cooperates with in order to
+produce the header object.  Specifically, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code> requires that
+the specialized class provide a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse</span></code>.  This
+method is called as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwds</span></code> is a dictionary containing one pre-initialized key, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defects</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defects</span></code> is an empty list.  The parse method should append any detected
+defects to this list.  On return, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwds</span></code> dictionary <em>must</em> contain
+values for at least the keys <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decoded</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defects</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decoded</span></code>
+should be the string value for the header (that is, the header value fully
+decoded to unicode).  The parse method should assume that <em>string</em> may
+contain content-transfer-encoded parts, but should correctly handle all valid
+unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded header values.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code>’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code> then creates the header instance, and calls its
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> method.  The specialized class only needs to provide an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code>
+method if it wishes to set additional attributes beyond those provided by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code> itself.  Such an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> method should look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_myattr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kw</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myattr&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That is, anything extra that the specialized class puts in to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwds</span></code>
+dictionary should be removed and handled, and the remaining contents of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kw</span></code> (and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code>) passed to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHeader</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">UnstructuredHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An “unstructured” header is the default type of header in <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>.
+Any header that does not have a specified syntax is treated as
+unstructured.  The classic example of an unstructured header is the
+<em class="mailheader">Subject</em> header.</p>
+<p>In <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>, an unstructured header is a run of arbitrary text in the
+ASCII character set.  <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>, however, has an <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> compatible
+mechanism for encoding non-ASCII text as ASCII characters within a header
+value.  When a <em>value</em> containing encoded words is passed to the
+constructor, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnstructuredHeader</span></code> parser converts such encoded words
+into unicode, following the <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> rules for unstructured text.  The
+parser uses heuristics to attempt to decode certain non-compliant encoded
+words.  Defects are registered in such cases, as well as defects for issues
+such as invalid characters within the encoded words or the non-encoded text.</p>
+<p>This header type provides no additional attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.DateHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">DateHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.DateHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> specifies a very specific format for dates within email headers.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DateHeader</span></code> parser recognizes that date format, as well as
+recognizing a number of variant forms that are sometimes found “in the
+wild”.</p>
+<p>This header type provides the following additional attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime">
+<code class="descname">datetime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the header value can be recognized as a valid date of one form or
+another, this attribute will contain a <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+instance representing that date.  If the timezone of the input date is
+specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0000</span></code> (indicating it is in UTC but contains no
+information about the source timezone), then <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime" title="email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> will be a
+naive <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>.  If a specific timezone offset is
+found (including <cite>+0000</cite>), then <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime" title="email.headerregistry.DateHeader.datetime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> will contain an aware
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> that uses <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timezone</span></code></a> to record the timezone
+offset.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decoded</span></code> value of the header is determined by formatting the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> according to the <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> rules; that is, it is set to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utils</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When creating a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DateHeader</span></code>, <em>value</em> may be
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance.  This means, for example, that
+the following code is valid and does what one would expect:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Date&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2011</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">21</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because this is a naive <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> it will be interpreted as a UTC
+timestamp, and the resulting value will have a timezone of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0000</span></code>.  Much
+more useful is to use the <a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html#email.utils.localtime" title="email.utils.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> function from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html#module-email.utils" title="email.utils: Miscellaneous email package utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utils</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Date&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">utils</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">localtime</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example sets the date header to the current time and date using
+the current timezone offset.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.AddressHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">AddressHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Address headers are one of the most complex structured header types.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AddressHeader</span></code> class provides a generic interface to any address
+header.</p>
+<p>This header type provides the following additional attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.groups">
+<code class="descname">groups</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.groups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.Group" title="email.headerregistry.Group"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Group</span></code></a> objects encoding the
+addresses and groups found in the header value.  Addresses that are
+not part of a group are represented in this list as single-address
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Groups</span></code> whose <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.Group.display_name" title="email.headerregistry.Group.display_name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">display_name</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.addresses">
+<code class="descname">addresses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader.addresses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.Address" title="email.headerregistry.Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code></a> objects encoding all
+of the individual addresses from the header value.  If the header value
+contains any groups, the individual addresses from the group are included
+in the list at the point where the group occurs in the value (that is,
+the list of addresses is “flattened” into a one dimensional list).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decoded</span></code> value of the header will have all encoded words decoded to
+unicode.  <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#module-encodings.idna" title="encodings.idna: Internationalized Domain Names implementation"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idna</span></code></a> encoded domain names are also decoded to
+unicode.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decoded</span></code> value is set by <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join</span></code></a>ing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> value of the elements of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groups</span></code> attribute with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">',</span>
+<span class="pre">'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.Address" title="email.headerregistry.Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.Group" title="email.headerregistry.Group"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Group</span></code></a> objects in any combination
+may be used to set the value of an address header.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Group</span></code> objects whose
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">display_name</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> will be interpreted as single addresses, which
+allows an address list to be copied with groups intact by using the list
+obtained from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groups</span></code> attribute of the source header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">SingleAddressHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.AddressHeader" title="email.headerregistry.AddressHeader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AddressHeader</span></code></a> that adds one
+additional attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader.address">
+<code class="descname">address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader.address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The single address encoded by the header value.  If the header value
+actually contains more than one address (which would be a violation of
+the RFC under the default <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a>), accessing this attribute
+will result in a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Many of the above classes also have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unique</span></code> variant (for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UniqueUnstructuredHeader</span></code>).  The only difference is that in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unique</span></code>
+variant, <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count" title="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_count</span></code></a> is set to 1.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">MIMEVersionHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>There is really only one valid value for the <em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em>
+header, and that is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code>.  For future proofing, this header class
+supports other valid version numbers.  If a version number has a valid value
+per <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>, then the header object will have non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> values for
+the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.version">
+<code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version number as a string, with any whitespace and/or comments
+removed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.major">
+<code class="descname">major</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.major" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The major version number as an integer</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.minor">
+<code class="descname">minor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader.minor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The minor version number as an integer</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">ParameterizedMIMEHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>MIME headers all start with the prefix ‘Content-‘.  Each specific header has
+a certain value, described under the class for that header.  Some can
+also take a list of supplemental parameters, which have a common format.
+This class serves as a base for all the MIME headers that take parameters.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader.params">
+<code class="descname">params</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader.params" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping parameter names to parameter values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">ContentTypeHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader" title="email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParameterizedMIMEHeader</span></code></a> class that handles the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.content_type">
+<code class="descname">content_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.content_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The content type string, in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maintype/subtype</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.maintype">
+<code class="descname">maintype</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.maintype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.subtype">
+<code class="descname">subtype</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader.subtype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">ContentDispositionHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader" title="email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParameterizedMIMEHeader</span></code></a> class that handles the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">content-disposition</code></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inline</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attachment</span></code> are the only valid values in common use.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">ContentTransferEncoding</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles the <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding.cte">
+<code class="descname">cte</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding.cte" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Valid values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoted-printable</span></code>.  See <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> for more information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">HeaderRegistry</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base_class=BaseHeader</em>, <em>default_class=UnstructuredHeader</em>, <em>use_default_map=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the factory used by <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a> by default.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderRegistry</span></code> builds the class used to create a header instance
+dynamically, using <em>base_class</em> and a specialized class retrieved from a
+registry that it holds.  When a given header name does not appear in the
+registry, the class specified by <em>default_class</em> is used as the specialized
+class.  When <em>use_default_map</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), the standard
+mapping of header names to classes is copied in to the registry during
+initialization.  <em>base_class</em> is always the last class in the generated
+class’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code> list.</p>
+<p>The default mappings are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">subject</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>UniqueUnstructuredHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">date</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>UniqueDateHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">resent-date</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>DateHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">orig-date</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>UniqueDateHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">sender</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>UniqueSingleAddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">resent-sender</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>SingleAddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">to</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>UniqueAddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">resent-to</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>AddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">cc</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>UniqueAddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">resent-cc</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>AddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">from</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>UniqueAddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">resent-from</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>AddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">reply-to</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>UniqueAddressHeader</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderRegistry</span></code> has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.map_to_type">
+<code class="descname">map_to_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>cls</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.map_to_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>name</em> is the name of the header to be mapped.  It will be converted to
+lower case in the registry.  <em>cls</em> is the specialized class to be used,
+along with <em>base_class</em>, to create the class used to instantiate headers
+that match <em>name</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__getitem__">
+<code class="descname">__getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct and return a class to handle creating a <em>name</em> header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__call__">
+<code class="descname">__call__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.__call__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieves the specialized header associated with <em>name</em> from the
+registry (using <em>default_class</em> if <em>name</em> does not appear in the
+registry) and composes it with <em>base_class</em> to produce a class,
+calls the constructed class’s constructor, passing it the same
+argument list, and finally returns the class instance created thereby.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following classes are the classes used to represent data parsed from
+structured headers and can, in general, be used by an application program to
+construct structured values to assign to specific headers.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Address">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">Address</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>display_name=''</em>, <em>username=''</em>, <em>domain=''</em>, <em>addr_spec=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The class used to represent an email address.  The general form of an
+address is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">display_name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">username</span><span class="nd">@domain</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">username</span><span class="nd">@domain</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where each part must conform to specific syntax rules spelled out in
+<span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>As a convenience <em>addr_spec</em> can be specified instead of <em>username</em> and
+<em>domain</em>, in which case <em>username</em> and <em>domain</em> will be parsed from the
+<em>addr_spec</em>.  An <em>addr_spec</em> must be a properly RFC quoted string; if it is
+not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code> will raise an error.  Unicode characters are allowed and
+will be property encoded when serialized.  However, per the RFCs, unicode is
+<em>not</em> allowed in the username portion of the address.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Address.display_name">
+<code class="descname">display_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Address.display_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The display name portion of the address, if any, with all quoting
+removed.  If the address does not have a display name, this attribute
+will be an empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Address.username">
+<code class="descname">username</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Address.username" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">username</span></code> portion of the address, with all quoting removed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Address.domain">
+<code class="descname">domain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Address.domain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code> portion of the address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Address.addr_spec">
+<code class="descname">addr_spec</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Address.addr_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">username&#64;domain</span></code> portion of the address, correctly quoted
+for use as a bare address (the second form shown above).  This
+attribute is not mutable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Address.__str__">
+<code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Address.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> value of the object is the address quoted according to
+<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> rules, but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any non-ASCII
+characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To support SMTP (<span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5321.html"><strong>RFC 5321</strong></a>), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code> handles one special case: if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">username</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code> are both the empty string (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), then
+the string value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Group">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.headerregistry.</code><code class="descname">Group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>display_name=None</em>, <em>addresses=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The class used to represent an address group.  The general form of an
+address group is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">display_name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">];</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As a convenience for processing lists of addresses that consist of a mixture
+of groups and single addresses, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Group</span></code> may also be used to represent
+single addresses that are not part of a group by setting <em>display_name</em> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and providing a list of the single address as <em>addresses</em>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Group.display_name">
+<code class="descname">display_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Group.display_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">display_name</span></code> of the group.  If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and there is
+exactly one <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addresses</span></code>, then the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Group</span></code> represents a
+single address that is not in a group.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Group.addresses">
+<code class="descname">addresses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Group.addresses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A possibly empty tuple of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.headerregistry.Address" title="email.headerregistry.Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code></a> objects representing the
+addresses in the group.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.headerregistry.Group.__str__">
+<code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.headerregistry.Group.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> value of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Group</span></code> is formatted according to <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>,
+but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any non-ASCII characters.  If
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">display_name</span></code> is none and there is a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code> in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addresses</span></code> list, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> value will be the same as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> of
+that single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Address</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Originally added in 3.3 as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional module</span></a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.errors.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code>: Exception and Defect classes</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.contentmanager.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.contentmanager</span></code>: Managing MIME Content</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b67a871
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.html
@@ -0,0 +1,316 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email — An email and MIME handling package &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email">
+<span id="email-an-email-and-mime-handling-package"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> — An email and MIME handling package<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/__init__.py">Lib/email/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package is a library for managing email messages.  It is
+specifically <em>not</em> designed to do any sending of email messages to SMTP
+(<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2821.html"><strong>RFC 2821</strong></a>), NNTP, or other servers; those are functions of modules such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package attempts to be as
+RFC-compliant as possible, supporting <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5233.html"><strong>RFC 5233</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6532.html"><strong>RFC 6532</strong></a>, as well as
+such MIME-related RFCs as <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2046.html"><strong>RFC 2046</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2183.html"><strong>RFC 2183</strong></a>,
+and <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>The overall structure of the email package can be divided into three major
+components, plus a fourth component that controls the behavior of the other
+components.</p>
+<p>The central component of the package is an “object model” that represents email
+messages.  An application interacts with the package primarily through the
+object model interface defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code></a> sub-module.  The
+application can use this API to ask questions about an existing email, to
+construct a new email, or to add or remove email subcomponents that themselves
+use the same object model interface.  That is, following the nature of email
+messages and their MIME subcomponents, the email object model is a tree
+structure of objects that all provide the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+API.</p>
+<p>The other two major components of the package are the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> and
+the <a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a>.  The parser takes the serialized version of an
+email message (a stream of bytes) and converts it into a tree of
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> objects.  The generator takes an
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> and turns it back into a serialized byte
+stream.  (The parser and generator also handle streams of text characters, but
+this usage is discouraged as it is too easy to end up with messages that are
+not valid in one way or another.)</p>
+<p>The control component is the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> module.  Every
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>, every <a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a>, and every
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> has an associated <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> object that
+controls its behavior.  Usually an application only needs to specify the policy
+when an <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> is created, either by directly
+instantiating an <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>  to create a new email,
+or by parsing an input stream using a <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a>.  But the policy can
+be changed when the message is serialized using a <a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a>.
+This allows, for example, a generic email message to be parsed from disk, but
+to serialize it using standard SMTP settings when sending it to an email
+server.</p>
+<p>The email package does its best to hide the details of the various governing
+RFCs from the application.  Conceptually the application should be able to
+treat the email message as a structured tree of unicode text and binary
+attachments, without having to worry about how these are represented when
+serialized.  In practice, however, it is often necessary to be aware of at
+least some of the rules governing MIME messages and their structure,
+specifically the names and nature of the MIME “content types” and how they
+identify multipart documents.  For the most part this knowledge should only be
+required for more complex applications, and even then it should only be the
+high level structure in question, and not the details of how those structures
+are represented.  Since MIME content types are used widely in modern internet
+software (not just email), this will be a familiar concept to many programmers.</p>
+<p>The following sections describe the functionality of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package.
+We start with the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code></a> object model, which is the primary
+interface an application will use, and follow that with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a> components.  Then we cover the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> controls, which completes the treatment of the main
+components of the library.</p>
+<p>The next three sections cover the exceptions the package may raise and the
+defects (non-compliance with the RFCs) that the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> may
+detect.  Then we cover the <a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html#module-email.headerregistry" title="email.headerregistry: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">headerregistry</span></code></a> and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager" title="email.contentmanager: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contentmanager</span></code></a> sub-components, which provide tools for doing more
+detailed manipulation of headers and payloads, respectively.  Both of these
+components contain features relevant to consuming and producing non-trivial
+messages, but also document their extensibility APIs, which will be of interest
+to advanced applications.</p>
+<p>Following those is a set of examples of using the fundamental parts of the APIs
+covered in the preceding sections.</p>
+<p>The foregoing represent the modern (unicode friendly) API of the email package.
+The remaining sections, starting with the <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>
+class, cover the legacy <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> API that deals much more
+directly with the details of how email messages are represented.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> API does <em>not</em> hide the details of the RFCs from
+the application, but for applications that need to operate at that level, they
+can be useful tools.  This documentation is also relevant for applications that
+are still using the <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> API for backward
+compatibility reasons.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Docs reorganized and rewritten to promote the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a>
+API.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Contents of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package documentation:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code>: Representing an email message</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code>: Parsing email messages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#feedparser-api">FeedParser API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#parser-api">Parser API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#additional-notes">Additional notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code>: Generating MIME documents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code>: Policy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code>: Exception and Defect classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.headerregistry</span></code>: Custom Header Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.contentmanager</span></code>: Managing MIME Content</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html#content-manager-instances">Content Manager Instances</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.examples.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code>: Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<p>Legacy API:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code>: Representing an email message using the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code> API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.mime.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.header.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code>: Internationalized headers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code>: Representing character sets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.encoders.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code>: Encoders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils</span></code>: Miscellaneous utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.iterators.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.iterators</span></code>: Iterators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) client</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="poplib.html#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>POP (Post Office Protocol) client</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) client</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>NNTP (Net News Transport Protocol) client</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Tools for creating, reading, and managing collections of messages on disk
+using a variety standard formats.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html#module-smtpd" title="smtpd: A SMTP server implementation in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>SMTP server framework (primarily useful for testing)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="netdata.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Internet Data Handling</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.message.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code>: Representing an email message</a></p>
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.iterators.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.iterators.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d1ee7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.iterators.html
@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+          <a href="email.utils.html" title="email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email.iterators">
+<span id="email-iterators-iterators"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.iterators" title="email.iterators: Iterate over a  message object tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.iterators</span></code></a>: Iterators<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.iterators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/iterators.py">Lib/email/iterators.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Iterating over a message object tree is fairly easy with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.walk" title="email.message.Message.walk"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.walk</span></code></a> method.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.iterators" title="email.iterators: Iterate over a  message object tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.iterators</span></code></a> module provides some useful higher level iterations over
+message object trees.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.iterators.body_line_iterator">
+<code class="descclassname">email.iterators.</code><code class="descname">body_line_iterator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>decode=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.iterators.body_line_iterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This iterates over all the payloads in all the subparts of <em>msg</em>, returning the
+string payloads line-by-line.  It skips over all the subpart headers, and it
+skips over any subpart with a payload that isn’t a Python string.  This is
+somewhat equivalent to reading the flat text representation of the message from
+a file using <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="io.TextIOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>, skipping over all the
+intervening headers.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>decode</em> is passed through to <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="email.message.Message.get_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.get_payload</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator">
+<code class="descclassname">email.iterators.</code><code class="descname">typed_subpart_iterator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>maintype='text'</em>, <em>subtype=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This iterates over all the subparts of <em>msg</em>, returning only those subparts that
+match the MIME type specified by <em>maintype</em> and <em>subtype</em>.</p>
+<p>Note that <em>subtype</em> is optional; if omitted, then subpart MIME type matching is
+done only with the main type.  <em>maintype</em> is optional too; it defaults to
+<em class="mimetype">text</em>.</p>
+<p>Thus, by default <a class="reference internal" href="#email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator" title="email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typed_subpart_iterator()</span></code></a> returns each subpart that has a
+MIME type of <em class="mimetype">text/*</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following function has been added as a useful debugging tool.  It should
+<em>not</em> be considered part of the supported public interface for the package.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.iterators._structure">
+<code class="descclassname">email.iterators.</code><code class="descname">_structure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>fp=None</em>, <em>level=0</em>, <em>include_default=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.iterators._structure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prints an indented representation of the content types of the message object
+structure.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message_from_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">somefile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">_structure</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">multipart/mixed</span>
+<span class="go">    text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">    text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">    multipart/digest</span>
+<span class="go">        message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">            text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">        message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">            text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">        message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">            text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">        message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">            text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">        message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">            text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">    text/plain</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Optional <em>fp</em> is a file-like object to print the output to.  It must be
+suitable for Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.  <em>level</em> is used internally.
+<em>include_default</em>, if true, prints the default type as well.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email.message">
+<span id="email-message-representing-an-email-message"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code></a>: Representing an email message<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.message" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/message.py">Lib/email/message.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>The central class in the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package is the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+class, imported from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code></a> module.  It is the base class for
+the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> object model.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> provides the core
+functionality for setting and querying header fields, for accessing message
+bodies, and for creating or modifying structured messages.</p>
+<p>An email message consists of <em>headers</em> and a <em>payload</em> (which is also referred
+to as the <em>content</em>).  Headers are <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> or <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6532.html"><strong>RFC 6532</strong></a> style field names
+and values, where the field name and value are separated by a colon.  The colon
+is not part of either the field name or the field value.  The payload may be a
+simple text message, or a binary object, or a structured sequence of
+sub-messages each with their own set of headers and their own payload.  The
+latter type of payload is indicated by the message having a MIME type such as
+<em class="mimetype">multipart/*</em> or <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>.</p>
+<p>The conceptual model provided by an <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> object is that of an
+ordered dictionary of headers coupled with a <em>payload</em> that represents the
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a> body of the message, which might be a list of sub-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code>
+objects.  In addition to the normal dictionary methods for accessing the header
+names and values, there are methods for accessing specialized information from
+the headers (for example the MIME content type), for operating on the payload,
+for generating a serialized version of the message, and for recursively walking
+over the object tree.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> dictionary-like interface is indexed by the header
+names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary are strings
+with some extra methods.  Headers are stored and returned in case-preserving
+form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.  Unlike a real dict,
+there is an ordering to the keys, and there can be duplicate keys.  Additional
+methods are provided for working with headers that have duplicate keys.</p>
+<p>The <em>payload</em> is either a string or bytes object, in the case of simple message
+objects, or a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> objects, for MIME container
+documents such as <em class="mimetype">multipart/*</em> and <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>
+message objects.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.message.</code><code class="descname">EmailMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy=default</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>policy</em> is specified use the rules it specifies to update and serialize
+the representation of the message.  If <em>policy</em> is not set, use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.default" title="email.policy.default"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code></a> policy, which follows the rules of the email
+RFCs except for line endings (instead of the RFC mandated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code>, it uses
+the Python standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> line endings).  For more information see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> documentation.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.as_string">
+<code class="descname">as_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unixfrom=False</em>, <em>maxheaderlen=None</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.as_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When optional
+<em>unixfrom</em> is true, the envelope header is included in the returned
+string.  <em>unixfrom</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  For backward compatibility
+with the base <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> class <em>maxheaderlen</em> is
+accepted, but defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, which means that by default the line
+length is controlled by the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_line_length</span></code> of the policy.  The
+<em>policy</em> argument may be used to override the default policy obtained
+from the message instance.  This can be used to control some of the
+formatting produced by the method, since the specified <em>policy</em> will be
+passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Flattening the message may trigger changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+if defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a
+string (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).</p>
+<p>Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not be the
+most useful way to serialize messages in your application, especially if
+you are dealing with multiple messages.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator.Generator</span></code></a> for a more flexible API for
+serializing messages.  Note also that this method is restricted to
+producing messages serialized as “7 bit clean” when
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, which is the default.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>the default behavior when <em>maxheaderlen</em>
+is not specified was changed from defaulting to 0 to defaulting
+to the value of <em>max_line_length</em> from the policy.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.__str__">
+<code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True))</span></code>.  Allows
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(msg)</span></code> to produce a string containing the serialized message in a
+readable format.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>the method was changed to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8=True</span></code>,
+thus producing an <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>-like message representation, instead of
+being a direct alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.as_string" title="email.message.EmailMessage.as_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_string()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes">
+<code class="descname">as_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unixfrom=False</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When optional
+<em>unixfrom</em> is true, the envelope header is included in the returned
+string.  <em>unixfrom</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  The <em>policy</em> argument may be
+used to override the default policy obtained from the message instance.
+This can be used to control some of the formatting produced by the
+method, since the specified <em>policy</em> will be passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Flattening the message may trigger changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+if defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation to a
+string (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or modified).</p>
+<p>Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not be the
+most useful way to serialize messages in your application, especially if
+you are dealing with multiple messages.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator.BytesGenerator</span></code></a> for a more flexible API for
+serializing messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.__bytes__">
+<code class="descname">__bytes__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__bytes__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes" title="email.message.EmailMessage.as_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_bytes()</span></code></a>.  Allows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(msg)</span></code> to produce a
+bytes object containing the serialized message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart">
+<code class="descname">is_multipart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the message’s payload is a list of
+sub-<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> objects, otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  When
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the payload should be a string
+object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).  Note that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> does not necessarily mean that
+“msg.get_content_maintype() == ‘multipart’” will return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart</span></code> will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> is of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message/rfc822</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.set_unixfrom">
+<code class="descname">set_unixfrom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unixfrom</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_unixfrom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the message’s envelope header to <em>unixfrom</em>, which should be a
+string.  (See <a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> for a brief description of
+this header.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_unixfrom">
+<code class="descname">get_unixfrom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_unixfrom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s envelope header.  Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the
+envelope header was never set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods implement the mapping-like interface for accessing the
+message’s headers.  Note that there are some semantic differences
+between these methods and a normal mapping (i.e. dictionary) interface.  For
+example, in a dictionary there are no duplicate keys, but here there may be
+duplicate message headers.  Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed
+order to the keys returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.keys" title="email.message.EmailMessage.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code></a>, but in an <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+object, headers are always returned in the order they appeared in the
+original message, or in which they were added to the message later.  Any
+header deleted and then re-added is always appended to the end of the
+header list.</p>
+<p>These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
+convenience in the most common use cases.</p>
+<p>Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message is not
+included in the mapping interface.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.__len__">
+<code class="descname">__len__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__len__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.__contains__">
+<code class="descname">__contains__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__contains__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the message object has a field named <em>name</em>. Matching is
+done without regard to case and <em>name</em> does not include the trailing
+colon.  Used for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;message-id&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">myMessage</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message-ID:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">myMessage</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;message-id&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.__getitem__">
+<code class="descname">__getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the named header field.  <em>name</em> does not include the
+colon field separator.  If the header is missing, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned; a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is never raised.</p>
+<p>Note that if the named field appears more than once in the message’s
+headers, exactly which of those field values will be returned is
+undefined.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_all" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_all()</span></code></a> method to get the values of all the
+extant headers named <em>name</em>.</p>
+<p>Using the standard (non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code>) policies, the returned value is an
+instance of a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader" title="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.headerregistry.BaseHeader</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.__setitem__">
+<code class="descname">__setitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__setitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a header to the message with field name <em>name</em> and value <em>val</em>.  The
+field is appended to the end of the message’s existing headers.</p>
+<p>Note that this does <em>not</em> overwrite or delete any existing header with the same
+name.  If you want to ensure that the new header is the only one present in the
+message with field name <em>name</em>, delete the field first, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python roolz!&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code> defines certain headers to be unique (as the standard
+policies do), this method may raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when an attempt
+is made to assign a value to such a header when one already exists.  This
+behavior is intentional for consistency’s sake, but do not depend on it
+as we may choose to make such assignments do an automatic deletion of the
+existing header in the future.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.__delitem__">
+<code class="descname">__delitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__delitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete all occurrences of the field with name <em>name</em> from the message’s
+headers.  No exception is raised if the named field isn’t present in the
+headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all the message’s header field names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.values">
+<code class="descname">values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all the message’s field values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message’s field headers and
+values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__getitem__" title="email.message.EmailMessage.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> except that optional <em>failobj</em> is returned if the
+named header is missing (<em>failobj</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here are some additional useful header related methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_all">
+<code class="descname">get_all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all the values for the field named <em>name</em>. If there are
+no such named headers in the message, <em>failobj</em> is returned (defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.add_header">
+<code class="descname">add_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_name</em>, <em>_value</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.add_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extended header setting.  This method is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.__setitem__" title="email.message.EmailMessage.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>
+except that additional header parameters can be provided as keyword
+arguments.  <em>_name</em> is the header field to add and <em>_value</em> is the
+<em>primary</em> value for the header.</p>
+<p>For each item in the keyword argument dictionary <em>_params</em>, the key is
+taken as the parameter name, with underscores converted to dashes (since
+dashes are illegal in Python identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will
+be added as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=&quot;value&quot;</span></code> unless the value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case
+only the key will be added.</p>
+<p>If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and language may
+be explicitly controlled by specifying the value as a three tuple in the
+format <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(CHARSET,</span> <span class="pre">LANGUAGE,</span> <span class="pre">VALUE)</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARSET</span></code> is a string
+naming the charset to be used to encode the value, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code> can
+usually be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or the empty string (see <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a> for other
+possibilities), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VALUE</span></code> is the string value containing non-ASCII
+code points.  If a three tuple is not passed and the value contains
+non-ASCII characters, it is automatically encoded in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a> format
+using a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARSET</span></code> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Here is an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-Disposition&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;attachment&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bud.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will add a header that looks like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Content</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Disposition</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">attachment</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;bud.gif&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An example of the extended interface with non-ASCII characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-Disposition&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;attachment&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+               <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;iso-8859-1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Fußballer.ppt&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.replace_header">
+<code class="descname">replace_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_name</em>, <em>_value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.replace_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the message that
+matches <em>_name</em>, retaining header order and field name case of the
+original header.  If no matching header is found, raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type">
+<code class="descname">get_content_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s content type, coerced to lower case of the form
+<em class="mimetype">maintype/subtype</em>.  If there is no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header in the message return the value returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_default_type" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_default_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_default_type()</span></code></a>.  If the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header is
+invalid, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text/plain</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(According to <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>, messages always have a default type,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content_type()</span></code></a> will always return a value.  <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> defines
+a message’s default type to be <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em> unless it appears
+inside a <em class="mimetype">multipart/digest</em> container, in which case it would
+be <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>.  If the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header
+has an invalid type specification, <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a> mandates that the default
+type be <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_maintype">
+<code class="descname">get_content_maintype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_maintype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s main content type.  This is the <em class="mimetype">maintype</em>
+part of the string returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content_type()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_subtype">
+<code class="descname">get_content_subtype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_subtype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the message’s sub-content type.  This is the <em class="mimetype">subtype</em>
+part of the string returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content_type()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_default_type">
+<code class="descname">get_default_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_default_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default content
+type of <em class="mimetype">text/plain</em>, except for messages that are subparts of
+<em class="mimetype">multipart/digest</em> containers.  Such subparts have a default
+content type of <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.set_default_type">
+<code class="descname">set_default_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ctype</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_default_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the default content type.  <em>ctype</em> should either be
+<em class="mimetype">text/plain</em> or <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>, although this is
+not enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, so it only affects the return value of
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content_type</span></code> methods when no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header is present in the message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.set_param">
+<code class="descname">set_param</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>param</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>header='Content-Type'</em>, <em>requote=True</em>, <em>charset=None</em>, <em>language=''</em>, <em>replace=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_param" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a parameter in the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.  If the
+parameter already exists in the header, replace its value with <em>value</em>.
+When <em>header</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Type</span></code> (the default) and the header does not
+yet exist in the message, add it, set its value to
+<em class="mimetype">text/plain</em>, and append the new parameter value.  Optional
+<em>header</em> specifies an alternative header to <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>.</p>
+<p>If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and language may
+be explicitly specified using the optional <em>charset</em> and <em>language</em>
+parameters.  Optional <em>language</em> specifies the <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a> language,
+defaulting to the empty string.  Both <em>charset</em> and <em>language</em> should be
+strings.  The default is to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> <em>charset</em> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for
+the <em>language</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>replace</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default) the header is moved to the
+end of the list of headers.  If <em>replace</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the header
+will be updated in place.</p>
+<p>Use of the <em>requote</em> parameter with <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> objects is
+deprecated.</p>
+<p>Note that existing parameter values of headers may be accessed through
+the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">params</span></code> attribute of the
+header value (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> keyword was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.del_param">
+<code class="descname">del_param</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>param</em>, <em>header='content-type'</em>, <em>requote=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.del_param" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the given parameter completely from the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header.  The header will be re-written in place without the parameter or
+its value.  Optional <em>header</em> specifies an alternative to
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>.</p>
+<p>Use of the <em>requote</em> parameter with <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> objects is
+deprecated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_filename">
+<code class="descname">get_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> parameter of the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header of the message.  If the header
+does not have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> parameter, this method falls back to looking
+for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> parameter on the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.  If
+neither is found, or the header is missing, then <em>failobj</em> is returned.
+The returned string will always be unquoted as per
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html#email.utils.unquote" title="email.utils.unquote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils.unquote()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_boundary">
+<code class="descname">get_boundary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_boundary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boundary</span></code> parameter of the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header of the message, or <em>failobj</em> if either
+the header is missing, or has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boundary</span></code> parameter.  The returned
+string will always be unquoted as per <a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html#email.utils.unquote" title="email.utils.unquote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils.unquote()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary">
+<code class="descname">set_boundary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>boundary</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boundary</span></code> parameter of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header to
+<em>boundary</em>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_boundary()</span></code></a> will always quote <em>boundary</em> if
+necessary.  A <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#email.errors.HeaderParseError" title="email.errors.HeaderParseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderParseError</span></code></a> is raised if the
+message object has no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.</p>
+<p>Note that using this method is subtly different from deleting the old
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header and adding a new one with the new
+boundary via <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.add_header" title="email.message.EmailMessage.add_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_header()</span></code></a>, because <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_boundary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_boundary()</span></code></a> preserves
+the order of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header in the list of
+headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_charset">
+<code class="descname">get_content_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter of the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header,
+coerced to lower case.  If there is no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header, or if
+that header has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter, <em>failobj</em> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_charsets">
+<code class="descname">get_charsets</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>failobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_charsets" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list containing the character set names in the message.  If the
+message is a <em class="mimetype">multipart</em>, then the list will contain one element
+for each subpart in the payload, otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.</p>
+<p>Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter in the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header for the
+represented subpart.  If the subpart has no <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header, no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter, or is not of the <em class="mimetype">text</em> main
+MIME type, then that item in the returned list will be <em>failobj</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment">
+<code class="descname">is_attachment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if there is a <em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header
+and its (case insensitive) value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attachment</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.2: </span>is_attachment is now a method instead of a property, for consistency
+with <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.is_multipart" title="email.message.Message.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_disposition">
+<code class="descname">get_content_disposition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content_disposition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the message’s
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header if it has one, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  The
+possible values for this method are <em>inline</em>, <em>attachment</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the message follows <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2183.html"><strong>RFC 2183</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods relate to interrogating and manipulating the content
+(payload) of the message.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.walk">
+<code class="descname">walk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.walk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.walk" title="email.message.EmailMessage.walk"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> method is an all-purpose generator which can be used to
+iterate over all the parts and subparts of a message object tree, in
+depth-first traversal order.  You will typically use <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.walk" title="email.message.EmailMessage.walk"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> as the
+iterator in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a multipart
+message structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">part</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">walk</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_type</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">multipart/report</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">message/delivery-status</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">text/plain</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk</span></code> iterates over the subparts of any part where
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, even though
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg.get_content_maintype()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'multipart'</span></code> may return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  We
+can see this in our example by making use of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_structure</span></code> debug
+helper function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">part</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">walk</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_content_maintype</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;multipart&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>          <span class="n">part</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_multipart</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">True True</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="go">False True</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="go">False True</span>
+<span class="go">False False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">_structure</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">multipart/report</span>
+<span class="go">    text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">    message/delivery-status</span>
+<span class="go">        text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">        text/plain</span>
+<span class="go">    message/rfc822</span>
+<span class="go">        text/plain</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code> parts are not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiparts</span></code>, but they do contain
+subparts. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk</span></code> descends
+into the subparts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_body">
+<code class="descname">get_body</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>preferencelist=('related'</em>, <em>'html'</em>, <em>'plain')</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_body" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the MIME part that is the best candidate to be the “body” of the
+message.</p>
+<p><em>preferencelist</em> must be a sequence of strings from the set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">related</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plain</span></code>, and indicates the order of preference for the
+content type of the part returned.</p>
+<p>Start looking for candidate matches with the object on which the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_body</span></code> method is called.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">related</span></code> is not included in <em>preferencelist</em>, consider the root
+part (or subpart of the root part) of any related encountered as a
+candidate if the (sub-)part matches a preference.</p>
+<p>When encountering a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>, check the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code> parameter
+and if a part with a matching <em class="mailheader">Content-ID</em> is found, consider
+only it when looking for candidate matches.  Otherwise consider only the
+first (default root) part of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If a part has a <em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header, only consider
+the part a candidate match if the value of the header is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inline</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If none of the candidates matches any of the preferences in
+<em>preferencelist</em>, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Notes: (1) For most applications the only <em>preferencelist</em> combinations
+that really make sense are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('plain',)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('html',</span> <span class="pre">'plain')</span></code>, and the
+default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('related',</span> <span class="pre">'html',</span> <span class="pre">'plain')</span></code>.  (2) Because matching starts
+with the object on which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_body</span></code> is called, calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_body</span></code> on
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code> will return the object itself unless
+<em>preferencelist</em> has a non-default value. (3) Messages (or message parts)
+that do not specify a <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> or whose
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header is invalid will be treated as if they
+are of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text/plain</span></code>, which may occasionally cause <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_body</span></code> to
+return unexpected results.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.iter_attachments">
+<code class="descname">iter_attachments</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_attachments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the message
+that are not candidate “body” parts.  That is, skip the first occurrence
+of each of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text/plain</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text/html</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/alternative</span></code> (unless they are explicitly marked as
+attachments via <em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition: attachment</em>), and
+return all remaining parts.  When applied directly to a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>, return an iterator over the all the related parts
+except the root part (ie: the part pointed to by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code> parameter,
+or the first part if there is no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code> parameter or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code>
+parameter doesn’t match the <em class="mailheader">Content-ID</em> of any of the
+parts).  When applied directly to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/alternative</span></code> or a
+non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>, return an empty iterator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts">
+<code class="descname">iter_parts</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the message,
+which will be empty for a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  (See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.walk" title="email.message.EmailMessage.walk"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content">
+<code class="descname">get_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>content_manager=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the <a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.get_content" title="email.contentmanager.ContentManager.get_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content()</span></code></a> method
+of the <em>content_manager</em>, passing self as the message object, and passing
+along any other arguments or keywords as additional arguments.  If
+<em>content_manager</em> is not specified, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code> specified
+by the current <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content">
+<code class="descname">set_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>content_manager=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the <a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.ContentManager.set_content" title="email.contentmanager.ContentManager.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> method
+of the <em>content_manager</em>, passing self as the message object, and passing
+along any other arguments or keywords as additional arguments.  If
+<em>content_manager</em> is not specified, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code> specified
+by the current <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.make_related">
+<code class="descname">make_related</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>boundary=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.make_related" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code> message into a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code> message,
+moving any existing <em class="mailheader">Content-</em> headers and payload into a
+(new) first part of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  If <em>boundary</em> is specified, use
+it as the boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the boundary
+to be automatically created when it is needed (for example, when the
+message is serialized).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.make_alternative">
+<code class="descname">make_alternative</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>boundary=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.make_alternative" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code> or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code> into a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/alternative</span></code>, moving any existing <em class="mailheader">Content-</em>
+headers and payload into a (new) first part of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  If
+<em>boundary</em> is specified, use it as the boundary string in the multipart,
+otherwise leave the boundary to be automatically created when it is
+needed (for example, when the message is serialized).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.make_mixed">
+<code class="descname">make_mixed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>boundary=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.make_mixed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>, or a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart-alternative</span></code> into a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/mixed</span></code>, moving any existing
+<em class="mailheader">Content-</em> headers and payload into a (new) first part of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  If <em>boundary</em> is specified, use it as the boundary string
+in the multipart, otherwise leave the boundary to be automatically
+created when it is needed (for example, when the message is serialized).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.add_related">
+<code class="descname">add_related</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>content_manager=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.add_related" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the message is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>, create a new message
+object, pass all of the arguments to its <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> method,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach" title="email.message.Message.attach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach()</span></code></a> it to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  If
+the message is a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>, call <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.make_related" title="email.message.EmailMessage.make_related"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_related()</span></code></a> and then
+proceed as above.  If the message is any other type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>,
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>. If <em>content_manager</em> is not specified, use
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code> specified by the current <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a>.
+If the added part has no <em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header,
+add one with the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inline</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.add_alternative">
+<code class="descname">add_alternative</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>content_manager=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.add_alternative" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the message is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/alternative</span></code>, create a new message
+object, pass all of the arguments to its <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> method, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach" title="email.message.Message.attach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach()</span></code></a> it to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  If the
+message is a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>, call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.make_alternative" title="email.message.EmailMessage.make_alternative"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_alternative()</span></code></a> and then proceed as above.  If the message is
+any other type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>, raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>. If
+<em>content_manager</em> is not specified, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code> specified
+by the current <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.add_attachment">
+<code class="descname">add_attachment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>content_manager=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.add_attachment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the message is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/mixed</span></code>, create a new message object,
+pass all of the arguments to its <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> method, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach" title="email.message.Message.attach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach()</span></code></a> it to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>.  If the
+message is a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/related</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/alternative</span></code>, call <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.make_mixed" title="email.message.EmailMessage.make_mixed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_mixed()</span></code></a> and then proceed as
+above. If <em>content_manager</em> is not specified, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code>
+specified by the current <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a>.  If the added part
+has no <em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header, add one with the value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attachment</span></code>.  This method can be used both for explicit attachments
+(<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition: attachment</em>) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inline</span></code> attachments
+(<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition: inline</em>), by passing appropriate
+options to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the payload and all of the headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.clear_content">
+<code class="descname">clear_content</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.clear_content" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the payload and all of the <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-</span></code> headers, leaving
+all other headers intact and in their original order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> objects have the following instance attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.preamble">
+<code class="descname">preamble</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.preamble" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the blank line
+following the headers, and the first multipart boundary string. Normally,
+this text is never visible in a MIME-aware mail reader because it falls
+outside the standard MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of
+the message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware reader, this
+text can become visible.</p>
+<p>The <em>preamble</em> attribute contains this leading extra-armor text for MIME
+documents.  When the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a> discovers some text
+after the headers but before the first boundary string, it assigns this
+text to the message’s <em>preamble</em> attribute.  When the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> is writing out the plain text
+representation of a MIME message, and it finds the
+message has a <em>preamble</em> attribute, it will write this text in the area
+between the headers and the first boundary.  See <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<p>Note that if the message object has no preamble, the <em>preamble</em> attribute
+will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.epilogue">
+<code class="descname">epilogue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.epilogue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>epilogue</em> attribute acts the same way as the <em>preamble</em> attribute,
+except that it contains text that appears between the last boundary and
+the end of the message.  As with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.preamble" title="email.message.EmailMessage.preamble"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">preamble</span></code></a>,
+if there is no epilog text this attribute will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.message.EmailMessage.defects">
+<code class="descname">defects</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.defects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>defects</em> attribute contains a list of all the problems found when
+parsing this message.  See <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#module-email.errors" title="email.errors: The exception classes used by the email package."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code></a> for a detailed description
+of the possible parsing defects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.message.MIMEPart">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.message.</code><code class="descname">MIMEPart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy=default</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message.MIMEPart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class represents a subpart of a MIME message.  It is identical to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>, except that no <em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em> headers are
+added when <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> is called, since sub-parts do
+not need their own <em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em> headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Originally added in 3.4 as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional module</span></a>.  Docs for legacy message class moved to
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#compat32-message"><span class="std std-ref">email.message.Message: Representing an email message using the compat32 API</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.parser.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code>: Parsing email messages</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.mime.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.mime.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0bb732
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.mime.html
@@ -0,0 +1,394 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-email.mime">
+<span id="email-mime-creating-email-and-mime-objects-from-scratch"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.mime" title="email.mime: Build MIME messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code></a>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.mime" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/mime/">Lib/email/mime/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module is part of the legacy (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code>) email API.  Its functionality
+is partially replaced by the <a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager" title="email.contentmanager: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contentmanager</span></code></a> in the new API, but
+in certain applications these classes may still be useful, even in non-legacy
+code.</p>
+<p>Ordinarily, you get a message object structure by passing a file or some text to
+a parser, which parses the text and returns the root message object.  However
+you can also build a complete message structure from scratch, or even individual
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects by hand.  In fact, you can also take an
+existing structure and add new <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects, move them
+around, etc.  This makes a very convenient interface for slicing-and-dicing MIME
+messages.</p>
+<p>You can create a new object structure by creating <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>
+instances, adding attachments and all the appropriate headers manually.  For MIME
+messages though, the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package provides some convenient subclasses to
+make things easier.</p>
+<p>Here are the classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.base.MIMEBase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.base.</code><code class="descname">MIMEBase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_maintype</em>, <em>_subtype</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=compat32</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.base.MIMEBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.base</span></code></p>
+<p>This is the base class for all the MIME-specific subclasses of
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>.  Ordinarily you won’t create instances
+specifically of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.base.MIMEBase" title="email.mime.base.MIMEBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEBase</span></code></a>, although you could.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.base.MIMEBase" title="email.mime.base.MIMEBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEBase</span></code></a>
+is provided primarily as a convenient base class for more specific
+MIME-aware subclasses.</p>
+<p><em>_maintype</em> is the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> major type (e.g. <em class="mimetype">text</em>
+or <em class="mimetype">image</em>), and <em>_subtype</em> is the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> minor
+type  (e.g. <em class="mimetype">plain</em> or <em class="mimetype">gif</em>).  <em>_params</em> is a parameter
+key/value dictionary and is passed directly to <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.add_header" title="email.message.Message.add_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.add_header</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>policy</em> is specified, (defaults to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> policy) it will be passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.base.MIMEBase" title="email.mime.base.MIMEBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEBase</span></code></a> class always adds a <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header
+(based on <em>_maintype</em>, <em>_subtype</em>, and <em>_params</em>), and a
+<em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em> header (always set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>policy</em> keyword-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.nonmultipart.</code><code class="descname">MIMENonMultipart</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.nonmultipart</span></code></p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.base.MIMEBase" title="email.mime.base.MIMEBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEBase</span></code></a>, this is an intermediate base
+class for MIME messages that are not <em class="mimetype">multipart</em>.  The primary
+purpose of this class is to prevent the use of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach" title="email.message.Message.attach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach()</span></code></a> method, which only makes sense for
+<em class="mimetype">multipart</em> messages.  If <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach" title="email.message.Message.attach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach()</span></code></a>
+is called, a <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#email.errors.MultipartConversionError" title="email.errors.MultipartConversionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MultipartConversionError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.multipart.</code><code class="descname">MIMEMultipart</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_subtype='mixed'</em>, <em>boundary=None</em>, <em>_subparts=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=compat32</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.multipart</span></code></p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.base.MIMEBase" title="email.mime.base.MIMEBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEBase</span></code></a>, this is an intermediate base
+class for MIME messages that are <em class="mimetype">multipart</em>.  Optional <em>_subtype</em>
+defaults to <em class="mimetype">mixed</em>, but can be used to specify the subtype of the
+message.  A <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header of <em class="mimetype">multipart/_subtype</em>
+will be added to the message object.  A <em class="mailheader">MIME-Version</em> header will
+also be added.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>boundary</em> is the multipart boundary string.  When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the
+default), the boundary is calculated when needed (for example, when the
+message is serialized).</p>
+<p><em>_subparts</em> is a sequence of initial subparts for the payload.  It must be
+possible to convert this sequence to a list.  You can always attach new subparts
+to the message by using the <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.attach" title="email.message.Message.attach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.attach</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>policy</em> argument defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Additional parameters for the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header are taken from
+the keyword arguments, or passed into the <em>_params</em> argument, which is a keyword
+dictionary.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>policy</em> keyword-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.application.MIMEApplication">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.application.</code><code class="descname">MIMEApplication</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_data</em>, <em>_subtype='octet-stream'</em>, <em>_encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=compat32</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.application.MIMEApplication" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.application</span></code></p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMENonMultipart</span></code></a>, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.application.MIMEApplication" title="email.mime.application.MIMEApplication"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEApplication</span></code></a> class is used to represent MIME message objects of
+major type <em class="mimetype">application</em>.  <em>_data</em> is a string containing the raw
+byte data.  Optional <em>_subtype</em> specifies the MIME subtype and defaults to
+<em class="mimetype">octet-stream</em>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>_encoder</em> is a callable (i.e. function) which will perform the actual
+encoding of the data for transport.  This callable takes one argument, which is
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.application.MIMEApplication" title="email.mime.application.MIMEApplication"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEApplication</span></code></a> instance. It should use
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="email.message.Message.get_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_payload()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_payload" title="email.message.Message.set_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_payload()</span></code></a> to change the payload to encoded
+form.  It should also add
+any <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> or other headers to the message
+object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.encoders.html#module-email.encoders" title="email.encoders: Encoders for email message payloads."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code></a> module for a list of the built-in encoders.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>policy</em> argument defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>_params</em> are passed straight through to the base class constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>policy</em> keyword-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.audio.</code><code class="descname">MIMEAudio</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_audiodata</em>, <em>_subtype=None</em>, <em>_encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=compat32</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.audio</span></code></p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMENonMultipart</span></code></a>, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio" title="email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEAudio</span></code></a> class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
+<em class="mimetype">audio</em>. <em>_audiodata</em> is a string containing the raw audio data.  If
+this data can be decoded by the standard Python module <a class="reference internal" href="sndhdr.html#module-sndhdr" title="sndhdr: Determine type of a sound file."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code></a>, then the
+subtype will be automatically included in the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.
+Otherwise you can explicitly specify the audio subtype via the <em>_subtype</em>
+argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed and <em>_subtype</em> was not given,
+then <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>_encoder</em> is a callable (i.e. function) which will perform the actual
+encoding of the audio data for transport.  This callable takes one argument,
+which is the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio" title="email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEAudio</span></code></a> instance. It should use
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="email.message.Message.get_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_payload()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_payload" title="email.message.Message.set_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_payload()</span></code></a> to change the payload to encoded
+form.  It should also add
+any <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> or other headers to the message
+object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.encoders.html#module-email.encoders" title="email.encoders: Encoders for email message payloads."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code></a> module for a list of the built-in encoders.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>policy</em> argument defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>_params</em> are passed straight through to the base class constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>policy</em> keyword-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.image.MIMEImage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.image.</code><code class="descname">MIMEImage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_imagedata</em>, <em>_subtype=None</em>, <em>_encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=compat32</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.image.MIMEImage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.image</span></code></p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMENonMultipart</span></code></a>, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.image.MIMEImage" title="email.mime.image.MIMEImage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEImage</span></code></a> class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
+<em class="mimetype">image</em>. <em>_imagedata</em> is a string containing the raw image data.  If
+this data can be decoded by the standard Python module <a class="reference internal" href="imghdr.html#module-imghdr" title="imghdr: Determine the type of image contained in a file or byte stream."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code></a>, then the
+subtype will be automatically included in the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header.
+Otherwise you can explicitly specify the image subtype via the <em>_subtype</em>
+argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed and <em>_subtype</em> was not given,
+then <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>_encoder</em> is a callable (i.e. function) which will perform the actual
+encoding of the image data for transport.  This callable takes one argument,
+which is the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.image.MIMEImage" title="email.mime.image.MIMEImage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEImage</span></code></a> instance. It should use
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="email.message.Message.get_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_payload()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_payload" title="email.message.Message.set_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_payload()</span></code></a> to change the payload to encoded
+form.  It should also add
+any <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> or other headers to the message
+object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.encoders.html#module-email.encoders" title="email.encoders: Encoders for email message payloads."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code></a> module for a list of the built-in encoders.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>policy</em> argument defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>_params</em> are passed straight through to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.base.MIMEBase" title="email.mime.base.MIMEBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEBase</span></code></a>
+constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>policy</em> keyword-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.message.MIMEMessage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.message.</code><code class="descname">MIMEMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_msg</em>, <em>_subtype='rfc822'</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.message.MIMEMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.message</span></code></p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMENonMultipart</span></code></a>, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.message.MIMEMessage" title="email.mime.message.MIMEMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEMessage</span></code></a> class is used to create MIME objects of main type
+<em class="mimetype">message</em>. <em>_msg</em> is used as the payload, and must be an instance
+of class <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> (or a subclass thereof), otherwise
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>_subtype</em> sets the subtype of the message; it defaults to
+<em class="mimetype">rfc822</em>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>policy</em> argument defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>policy</em> keyword-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.mime.text.MIMEText">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.mime.text.</code><code class="descname">MIMEText</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_text</em>, <em>_subtype='plain'</em>, <em>_charset=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.mime.text.MIMEText" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Module: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.text</span></code></p>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMENonMultipart</span></code></a>, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.text.MIMEText" title="email.mime.text.MIMEText"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEText</span></code></a> class is used to create MIME objects of major type
+<em class="mimetype">text</em>. <em>_text</em> is the string for the payload.  <em>_subtype</em> is the
+minor type and defaults to <em class="mimetype">plain</em>.  <em>_charset</em> is the character
+set of the text and is passed as an argument to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart" title="email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMENonMultipart</span></code></a> constructor; it defaults
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">us-ascii</span></code> if the string contains only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii</span></code> code points, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> otherwise.  The <em>_charset</em> parameter accepts either a string or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>Unless the <em>_charset</em> argument is explicitly set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the
+MIMEText object created will have both a <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header
+with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> parameter, and a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>
+header.  This means that a subsequent <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_payload</span></code> call will not result
+in an encoded payload, even if a charset is passed in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_payload</span></code>
+command.  You can “reset” this behavior by deleting the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Transfer-Encoding</span></code> header, after which a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_payload</span></code> call
+will automatically encode the new payload (and add a new
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header).</p>
+<p>Optional <em>policy</em> argument defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>_charset</em> also accepts <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>policy</em> keyword-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <div class="section" id="module-email.parser">
+<span id="email-parser-parsing-email-messages"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code></a>: Parsing email messages<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/parser.py">Lib/email/parser.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Message object structures can be created in one of two ways: they can be
+created from whole cloth by creating an <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+object, adding headers using the dictionary interface, and adding payload(s)
+using <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> and related methods, or
+they can be created by parsing a serialized representation of the email
+message.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package provides a standard parser that understands most email
+document structures, including MIME documents.  You can pass the parser a
+bytes, string or file object, and the parser will return to you the root
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> instance of the object structure.  For
+simple, non-MIME messages the payload of this root object will likely be a
+string containing the text of the message.  For MIME messages, the root object
+will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> from its <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a>
+method, and the subparts can be accessed via the payload manipulation methods,
+such as <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_body" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_body"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_body()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts" title="email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_parts()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.walk" title="email.message.EmailMessage.walk"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>There are actually two parser interfaces available for use, the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a>
+API and the incremental <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.FeedParser" title="email.parser.FeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FeedParser</span></code></a> API.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a> API is
+most useful if you have the entire text of the message in memory, or if the
+entire message lives in a file on the file system.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.FeedParser" title="email.parser.FeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FeedParser</span></code></a> is more
+appropriate when you are reading the message from a stream which might block
+waiting for more input (such as reading an email message from a socket).  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.FeedParser" title="email.parser.FeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FeedParser</span></code></a> can consume and parse the message incrementally, and only
+returns the root object when you close the parser.</p>
+<p>Note that the parser can be extended in limited ways, and of course you can
+implement your own parser completely from scratch.  All of the logic that
+connects the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package’s bundled parser and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> class is embodied in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code>
+class, so a custom parser can create message object trees any way it finds
+necessary by implementing custom versions of the appropriate <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code>
+methods.</p>
+<div class="section" id="feedparser-api">
+<h2>FeedParser API<a class="headerlink" href="#feedparser-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a>, imported from the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.feedparser</span></code> module,
+provides an API that is conducive to incremental parsing of email messages,
+such as would be necessary when reading the text of an email message from a
+source that can block (such as a socket).  The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a> can of
+course be used to parse an email message fully contained in a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+object</span></a>, string, or file, but the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a> API may be more
+convenient for such use cases.  The semantics and results of the two parser
+APIs are identical.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a>’s API is simple; you create an instance, feed it a
+bunch of bytes until there’s no more to feed it, then close the parser to
+retrieve the root message object.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a> is extremely
+accurate when parsing standards-compliant messages, and it does a very good job
+of parsing non-compliant messages, providing information about how a message
+was deemed broken.  It will populate a message object’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.defects" title="email.message.EmailMessage.defects"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defects</span></code></a> attribute with a list of any
+problems it found in a message.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#module-email.errors" title="email.errors: The exception classes used by the email package."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code></a> module for the
+list of defects that it can find.</p>
+<p>Here is the API for the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.parser.BytesFeedParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.parser.</code><code class="descname">BytesFeedParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_factory=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a> instance.  Optional <em>_factory</em> is a
+no-argument callable; if not specified use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.message_factory" title="email.policy.Policy.message_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_factory</span></code></a> from the <em>policy</em>.  Call
+<em>_factory</em> whenever a new message object is needed.</p>
+<p>If <em>policy</em> is specified use the rules it specifies to update the
+representation of the message.  If <em>policy</em> is not set, use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> policy, which maintains backward
+compatibility with the Python 3.2 version of the email package and provides
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> as the default factory.  All other policies
+provide <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> as the default <em>_factory</em>. For
+more information on what else <em>policy</em> controls, see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> documentation.</p>
+<p>Note: <strong>The policy keyword should always be specified</strong>; The default will
+change to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.default" title="email.policy.default"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy.default</span></code></a> in a future version of Python.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>_factory</em> defaults to the policy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_factory</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed">
+<code class="descname">feed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Feed the parser some more data.  <em>data</em> should be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+object</span></a> containing one or more lines.  The lines can be partial and the
+parser will stitch such partial lines together properly.  The lines can
+have any of the three common line endings: carriage return, newline, or
+carriage return and newline (they can even be mixed).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.parser.BytesFeedParser.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Complete the parsing of all previously fed data and return the root
+message object.  It is undefined what happens if <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feed()</span></code></a> is called
+after this method has been called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.parser.FeedParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.parser.</code><code class="descname">FeedParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_factory=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.FeedParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Works like <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a> except that the input to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser.feed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feed()</span></code></a> method must be a string.  This is of limited
+utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid is for it to
+contain only ASCII text or, if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, no binary attachments.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parser-api">
+<h2>Parser API<a class="headerlink" href="#parser-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a> class, imported from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code></a> module,
+provides an API that can be used to parse a message when the complete contents
+of the message are available in a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or file.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code></a> module also provides <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a> for parsing strings,
+and header-only parsers, <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesHeaderParser" title="email.parser.BytesHeaderParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesHeaderParser</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.HeaderParser" title="email.parser.HeaderParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderParser</span></code></a>, which can be used if you’re only interested in the
+headers of the message.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesHeaderParser" title="email.parser.BytesHeaderParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesHeaderParser</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.HeaderParser" title="email.parser.HeaderParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderParser</span></code></a>
+can be much faster in these situations, since they do not attempt to parse the
+message body, instead setting the payload to the raw body.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.parser.BytesParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.parser.</code><code class="descname">BytesParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a> instance.  The <em>_class</em> and <em>policy</em>
+arguments have the same meaning and semantics as the <em>_factory</em>
+and <em>policy</em> arguments of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note: <strong>The policy keyword should always be specified</strong>; The default will
+change to <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.default" title="email.policy.default"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy.default</span></code></a> in a future version of Python.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Removed the <em>strict</em> argument that was deprecated in 2.4.  Added the
+<em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>_class</em> defaults to the policy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_factory</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.parser.BytesParser.parse">
+<code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>headersonly=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.BytesParser.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read all the data from the binary file-like object <em>fp</em>, parse the
+resulting bytes, and return the message object.  <em>fp</em> must support
+both the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>
+methods.</p>
+<p>The bytes contained in <em>fp</em> must be formatted as a block of <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>
+(or, if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6532.html"><strong>RFC 6532</strong></a>)
+style headers and header continuation lines, optionally preceded by an
+envelope header.  The header block is terminated either by the end of the
+data or by a blank line.  Following the header block is the body of the
+message (which may contain MIME-encoded subparts, including subparts
+with a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Optional <em>headersonly</em> is a flag specifying whether to stop parsing after
+reading the headers or not.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, meaning it parses
+the entire contents of the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.parser.BytesParser.parsebytes">
+<code class="descname">parsebytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em>, <em>headersonly=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.BytesParser.parsebytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser.parse" title="email.parser.BytesParser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> method, except it takes a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+object</span></a> instead of a file-like object.  Calling this method on a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is equivalent to wrapping <em>bytes</em> in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a> instance first and calling <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser.parse" title="email.parser.BytesParser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>headersonly</em> is as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser.parse" title="email.parser.BytesParser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.parser.BytesHeaderParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.parser.</code><code class="descname">BytesHeaderParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.BytesHeaderParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exactly like <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a>, except that <em>headersonly</em>
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.parser.Parser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.parser.</code><code class="descname">Parser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.Parser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is parallel to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a>, but handles string input.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Removed the <em>strict</em> argument.  Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>_class</em> defaults to the policy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_factory</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.parser.Parser.parse">
+<code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>headersonly=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.Parser.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read all the data from the text-mode file-like object <em>fp</em>, parse the
+resulting text, and return the root message object.  <em>fp</em> must support
+both the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="io.TextIOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.read" title="io.TextIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> methods on file-like objects.</p>
+<p>Other than the text mode requirement, this method operates like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser.parse" title="email.parser.BytesParser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser.parse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.parser.Parser.parsestr">
+<code class="descname">parsestr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>headersonly=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.Parser.parsestr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser.parse" title="email.parser.Parser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> method, except it takes a string object
+instead of a file-like object.  Calling this method on a string is
+equivalent to wrapping <em>text</em> in a <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a> instance first
+and calling <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser.parse" title="email.parser.Parser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>headersonly</em> is as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser.parse" title="email.parser.Parser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.parser.HeaderParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.parser.</code><code class="descname">HeaderParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.parser.HeaderParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exactly like <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a>, except that <em>headersonly</em>
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Since creating a message object structure from a string or a file object is such
+a common task, four functions are provided as a convenience.  They are available
+in the top-level <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package namespace.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.message_from_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">email.</code><code class="descname">message_from_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message_from_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a message object structure from a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.  This is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser().parsebytes(s)</span></code>.  Optional <em>_class</em> and
+<em>policy</em> are interpreted as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a> class
+constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Removed the <em>strict</em> argument.  Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.message_from_binary_file">
+<code class="descclassname">email.</code><code class="descname">message_from_binary_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message_from_binary_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a message object structure tree from an open binary <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+object</span></a>.  This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser().parse(fp)</span></code>.  <em>_class</em> and
+<em>policy</em> are interpreted as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a> class
+constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Removed the <em>strict</em> argument.  Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.message_from_string">
+<code class="descclassname">email.</code><code class="descname">message_from_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message_from_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a message object structure from a string.  This is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser().parsestr(s)</span></code>.  <em>_class</em> and <em>policy</em> are interpreted as
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a> class constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Removed the <em>strict</em> argument.  Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.message_from_file">
+<code class="descclassname">email.</code><code class="descname">message_from_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>_class=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>policy=policy.compat32</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.message_from_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a message object structure tree from an open <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.
+This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser().parse(fp)</span></code>.  <em>_class</em> and <em>policy</em> are
+interpreted as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code></a> class constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Removed the <em>strict</em> argument.  Added the <em>policy</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>_class</em> defaults to the policy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_factory</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here’s an example of how you might use <a class="reference internal" href="#email.message_from_bytes" title="email.message_from_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_from_bytes()</span></code></a> at an
+interactive Python prompt:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">email</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message_from_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myBytes</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="additional-notes">
+<h2>Additional notes<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-notes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are some notes on the parsing semantics:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Most non-<em class="mimetype">multipart</em> type messages are parsed as a single message
+object with a string payload.  These objects will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts" title="email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_parts()</span></code></a> will yield an empty list.</p></li>
+<li><p>All <em class="mimetype">multipart</em> type messages will be parsed as a container message
+object with a list of sub-message objects for their payload.  The outer
+container message will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts" title="email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_parts()</span></code></a> will yield a list of subparts.</p></li>
+<li><p>Most messages with a content type of <em class="mimetype">message/*</em> (such as
+<em class="mimetype">message/delivery-status</em> and <em class="mimetype">message/rfc822</em>) will also
+be parsed as container object containing a list payload of length 1.  Their
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> method will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+The single element yielded by <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts" title="email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_parts()</span></code></a>
+will be a sub-message object.</p></li>
+<li><p>Some non-standards-compliant messages may not be internally consistent about
+their <em class="mimetype">multipart</em>-edness.  Such messages may have a
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> header of type <em class="mimetype">multipart</em>, but their
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart" title="email.message.EmailMessage.is_multipart"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart()</span></code></a> method may return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+If such messages were parsed with the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.parser.FeedParser" title="email.parser.FeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FeedParser</span></code></a>,
+they will have an instance of the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MultipartInvariantViolationDefect</span></code> class in their
+<em>defects</em> attribute list.  See <a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html#module-email.errors" title="email.errors: The exception classes used by the email package."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code></a> for details.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code>: Parsing email messages</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#feedparser-api">FeedParser API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parser-api">Parser API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-notes">Additional notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.message.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code>: Representing an email message</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.generator.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code>: Generating MIME documents</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/email.parser.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+  <div class="section" id="module-email.policy">
+<span id="email-policy-policy-objects"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code></a>: Policy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.policy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/policy.py">Lib/email/policy.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package’s prime focus is the handling of email messages as
+described by the various email and MIME RFCs.  However, the general format of
+email messages (a block of header fields each consisting of a name followed by
+a colon followed by a value, the whole block followed by a blank line and an
+arbitrary ‘body’), is a format that has found utility outside of the realm of
+email.  Some of these uses conform fairly closely to the main email RFCs, some
+do not.  Even when working with email, there are times when it is desirable to
+break strict compliance with the RFCs, such as generating emails that
+interoperate with email servers that do not themselves follow the standards, or
+that implement extensions you want to use in ways that violate the
+standards.</p>
+<p>Policy objects give the email package the flexibility to handle all these
+disparate use cases.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> object encapsulates a set of attributes and methods that
+control the behavior of various components of the email package during use.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> instances can be passed to various classes and methods in the
+email package to alter the default behavior.  The settable values and their
+defaults are described below.</p>
+<p>There is a default policy used by all classes in the email package.  For all of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> classes and the related convenience functions, and for
+the <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> class, this is the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code></a>
+policy, via its corresponding pre-defined instance <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.  This
+policy provides for complete backward compatibility (in some cases, including
+bug compatibility) with the pre-Python3.3 version of the email package.</p>
+<p>This default value for the <em>policy</em> keyword to
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> is the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a> policy, via
+its pre-defined instance <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.default" title="email.policy.default"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+object is created, it acquires a policy.  If the message is created by a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a>, a policy passed to the parser will be the policy used by
+the message it creates.  If the message is created by the program, then the
+policy can be specified when it is created.  When a message is passed to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a>, the generator uses the policy from the message by
+default, but you can also pass a specific policy to the generator that will
+override the one stored on the message object.</p>
+<p>The default value for the <em>policy</em> keyword for the <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code></a> classes
+and the parser convenience functions <strong>will be changing</strong> in a future version of
+Python.  Therefore you should <strong>always specify explicitly which policy you want
+to use</strong> when calling any of the classes and functions described in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The first part of this documentation covers the features of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a>, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> that defines the features that are common to all
+policy objects, including <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.  This includes certain hook
+methods that are called internally by the email package, which a custom policy
+could override to obtain different behavior.  The second part describes the
+concrete classes <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code></a>, which implement
+the hooks that provide the standard behavior and the backward compatible
+behavior and features, respectively.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> instances are immutable, but they can be cloned, accepting the
+same keyword arguments as the class constructor and returning a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> instance that is a copy of the original but with the specified
+attributes values changed.</p>
+<p>As an example, the following code could be used to read an email message from a
+file on disk and pass it to the system <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail</span></code> program on a Unix system:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">message_from_binary_file</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.generator</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BytesGenerator</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">policy</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">subprocess</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PIPE</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymsg.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message_from_binary_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;sendmail&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;To&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addresses</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]],</span> <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BytesGenerator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">linesep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">g</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flatten</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here we are telling <a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> to use the RFC
+correct line separator characters when creating the binary string to feed into
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail's</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code>, where the default policy would use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> line
+separators.</p>
+<p>Some email package methods accept a <em>policy</em> keyword argument, allowing the
+policy to be overridden for that method.  For example, the following code uses
+the <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.as_bytes" title="email.message.Message.as_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_bytes()</span></code></a> method of the <em>msg</em> object from
+the previous example and writes the message to a file using the native line
+separators for the platform on which it is running:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;converted.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">linesep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">linesep</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="go">17</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Policy objects can also be combined using the addition operator, producing a
+policy object whose settings are a combination of the non-default values of the
+summed objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">compat_SMTP</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compat32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">linesep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">compat_strict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compat32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">raise_on_defect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">compat_strict_SMTP</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">compat_SMTP</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">compat_strict</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This operation is not commutative; that is, the order in which the objects are
+added matters.  To illustrate:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">policy100</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compat32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_line_length</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">policy80</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compat32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_line_length</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apolicy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">policy100</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">policy80</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apolicy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">max_line_length</span>
+<span class="go">80</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apolicy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">policy80</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">policy100</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apolicy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">max_line_length</span>
+<span class="go">100</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">Policy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> for all policy classes.  It provides
+default implementations for a couple of trivial methods, as well as the
+implementation of the immutability property, the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.clone" title="email.policy.Policy.clone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clone()</span></code></a> method, and
+the constructor semantics.</p>
+<p>The constructor of a policy class can be passed various keyword arguments.
+The arguments that may be specified are any non-method properties on this
+class, plus any additional non-method properties on the concrete class.  A
+value specified in the constructor will override the default value for the
+corresponding attribute.</p>
+<p>This class defines the following properties, and thus values for the
+following may be passed in the constructor of any policy class:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.max_line_length">
+<code class="descname">max_line_length</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.max_line_length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum length of any line in the serialized output, not counting the
+end of line character(s).  Default is 78, per <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>.  A value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> indicates that no line wrapping should be
+done at all.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.linesep">
+<code class="descname">linesep</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.linesep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string to be used to terminate lines in serialized output.  The
+default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> because that’s the internal end-of-line discipline used
+by Python, though <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code> is required by the RFCs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.cte_type">
+<code class="descname">cte_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.cte_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Controls the type of Content Transfer Encodings that may be or are
+required to be used.  The possible values are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 89%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>all data must be “7 bit clean” (ASCII-only).  This means that
+where necessary data will be encoded using either
+quoted-printable or base64 encoding.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>data is not constrained to be 7 bit clean.  Data in headers is
+still required to be ASCII-only and so will be encoded (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.fold_binary" title="email.policy.Policy.fold_binary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold_binary()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code></a> below for
+exceptions), but body parts may use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> CTE.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code> value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> only works with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code>, not
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code>, because strings cannot contain binary data.  If a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code> is operating under a policy that specifies
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type=8bit</span></code>, it will act as if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.raise_on_defect">
+<code class="descname">raise_on_defect</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.raise_on_defect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, any defects encountered will be raised as errors.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> (the default), defects will be passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.register_defect" title="email.policy.Policy.register_defect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_defect()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_">
+<code class="descname">mangle_from_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, lines starting with <em>“From “</em> in the body are
+escaped by putting a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> in front of them. This parameter is used when
+the message is being serialized by a generator.
+Default: <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The <em>mangle_from_</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.message_factory">
+<code class="descname">message_factory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.message_factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A factory function for constructing a new empty message object.  Used
+by the parser when building messages.  Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in
+which case <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> method is intended to be called by code using
+the email library to create policy instances with custom settings:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.clone">
+<code class="descname">clone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.clone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> instance whose attributes have the same
+values as the current instance, except where those attributes are
+given new values by the keyword arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The remaining <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> methods are called by the email package code,
+and are not intended to be called by an application using the email package.
+A custom policy must implement all of these methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.handle_defect">
+<code class="descname">handle_defect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>defect</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.handle_defect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle a <em>defect</em> found on <em>obj</em>.  When the email package calls this
+method, <em>defect</em> will always be a subclass of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Defect</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default implementation checks the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.raise_on_defect" title="email.policy.Policy.raise_on_defect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise_on_defect</span></code></a> flag.  If
+it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <em>defect</em> is raised as an exception.  If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+(the default), <em>obj</em> and <em>defect</em> are passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.register_defect" title="email.policy.Policy.register_defect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_defect()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.register_defect">
+<code class="descname">register_defect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>defect</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.register_defect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a <em>defect</em> on <em>obj</em>.  In the email package, <em>defect</em> will always
+be a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Defect</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default implementation calls the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append</span></code> method of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defects</span></code>
+attribute of <em>obj</em>.  When the email package calls <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.handle_defect" title="email.policy.Policy.handle_defect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_defect</span></code></a>,
+<em>obj</em> will normally have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defects</span></code> attribute that has an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append</span></code>
+method.  Custom object types used with the email package (for example,
+custom <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> objects) should also provide such an attribute,
+otherwise defects in parsed messages will raise unexpected errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.header_max_count">
+<code class="descname">header_max_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.header_max_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the maximum allowed number of headers named <em>name</em>.</p>
+<p>Called when a header is added to an <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object.  If the returned value is not
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, and there are already a number of headers with the
+name <em>name</em> greater than or equal to the value returned, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Because the default behavior of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.__setitem__</span></code> is to append the
+value to the list of headers, it is easy to create duplicate headers
+without realizing it.  This method allows certain headers to be limited
+in the number of instances of that header that may be added to a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> programmatically.  (The limit is not observed by the parser,
+which will faithfully produce as many headers as exist in the message
+being parsed.)</p>
+<p>The default implementation returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for all header names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.header_source_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_source_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sourcelines</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.header_source_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The email package calls this method with a list of strings, each string
+ending with the line separation characters found in the source being
+parsed.  The first line includes the field header name and separator.
+All whitespace in the source is preserved.  The method should return the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> tuple that is to be stored in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> to
+represent the parsed header.</p>
+<p>If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the existing
+email package policies, <em>name</em> should be the case preserved name (all
+characters up to the ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code>’ separator), while <em>value</em> should be the
+unfolded value (all line separator characters removed, but whitespace
+kept intact), stripped of leading whitespace.</p>
+<p><em>sourcelines</em> may contain surrogateescaped binary data.</p>
+<p>There is no default implementation</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.header_store_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_store_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.header_store_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The email package calls this method with the name and value provided by
+the application program when the application program is modifying a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> programmatically (as opposed to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> created by a
+parser).  The method should return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> tuple that is to
+be stored in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> to represent the header.</p>
+<p>If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the existing
+email package policies, the <em>name</em> and <em>value</em> should be strings or
+string subclasses that do not change the content of the passed in
+arguments.</p>
+<p>There is no default implementation</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.header_fetch_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_fetch_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.header_fetch_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The email package calls this method with the <em>name</em> and <em>value</em> currently
+stored in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> when that header is requested by the
+application program, and whatever the method returns is what is passed
+back to the application as the value of the header being retrieved.
+Note that there may be more than one header with the same name stored in
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code>; the method is passed the specific name and value of the
+header destined to be returned to the application.</p>
+<p><em>value</em> may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There should be no
+surrogateescaped binary data in the value returned by the method.</p>
+<p>There is no default implementation</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.fold">
+<code class="descname">fold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.fold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The email package calls this method with the <em>name</em> and <em>value</em> currently
+stored in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> for a given header.  The method should return a
+string that represents that header “folded” correctly (according to the
+policy settings) by composing the <em>name</em> with the <em>value</em> and inserting
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.linesep" title="email.policy.Policy.linesep"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linesep</span></code></a> characters at the appropriate places.  See <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>
+for a discussion of the rules for folding email headers.</p>
+<p><em>value</em> may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There should be no
+surrogateescaped binary data in the string returned by the method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Policy.fold_binary">
+<code class="descname">fold_binary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Policy.fold_binary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.fold" title="email.policy.Policy.fold"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold()</span></code></a>, except that the returned value should be a
+bytes object rather than a string.</p>
+<p><em>value</em> may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  These could be
+converted back into binary data in the returned bytes object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">EmailPolicy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This concrete <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> provides behavior that is intended to be fully
+compliant with the current email RFCs.  These include (but are not limited
+to) <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>, and the current MIME RFCs.</p>
+<p>This policy adds new header parsing and folding algorithms.  Instead of
+simple strings, headers are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> subclasses with attributes that depend
+on the type of the field.  The parsing and folding algorithm fully implement
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>The default value for the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.message_factory" title="email.policy.Policy.message_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_factory</span></code></a>
+attribute is <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>In addition to the settable attributes listed above that apply to all
+policies, this policy adds the following additional attributes:</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8">
+<code class="descname">utf8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, follow <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>, supporting non-ASCII characters in
+headers by encoding them as “encoded words”.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, follow
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6532.html"><strong>RFC 6532</strong></a> and use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> encoding for headers.  Messages
+formatted in this way may be passed to SMTP servers that support
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> extension (<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.refold_source">
+<code class="descname">refold_source</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.refold_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the value for a header in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> object originated from a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> (as opposed to being set by a program), this
+attribute indicates whether or not a generator should refold that value
+when transforming the message back into serialized form.  The possible
+values are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 89%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">none</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>all source values use original folding</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>source values that have any line that is longer than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_line_length</span></code> will be refolded</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>all values are refolded.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory">
+<code class="descname">header_factory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A callable that takes two arguments, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>, where
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is a header field name and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> is an unfolded header field
+value, and returns a string subclass that represents that header.  A
+default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code> (see <a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html#module-email.headerregistry" title="email.headerregistry: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">headerregistry</span></code></a>) is provided
+that supports custom parsing for the various address and date <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>
+header field types, and the major MIME header field stypes.  Support for
+additional custom parsing will be added in the future.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager">
+<code class="descname">content_manager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An object with at least two methods: get_content and set_content.  When
+the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.get_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.get_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_content()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage.set_content" title="email.message.EmailMessage.set_content"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_content()</span></code></a> method of an
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> object is called, it calls the
+corresponding method of this object, passing it the message object as its
+first argument, and any arguments or keywords that were passed to it as
+additional arguments.  By default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code> is set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html#email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager" title="email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw_data_manager</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The class provides the following concrete implementations of the abstract
+methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_max_count">
+<code class="descname">header_max_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_max_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the value of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html#email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count" title="email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_count</span></code></a> attribute of the
+specialized class used to represent the header with the given name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_source_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sourcelines</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name is parsed as everything up to the ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code>’ and returned
+unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading whitespace off
+the remainder of the first line, joining all subsequent lines together,
+and stripping any trailing carriage return or linefeed characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_store_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_store_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_store_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name is returned unchanged.  If the input value has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>
+attribute and it matches <em>name</em> ignoring case, the value is returned
+unchanged.  Otherwise the <em>name</em> and <em>value</em> are passed to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code>, and the resulting header object is returned as
+the value.  In this case a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code> is raised if the input value
+contains CR or LF characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_fetch_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_fetch_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_fetch_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the value has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute, it is returned to unmodified.
+Otherwise the <em>name</em>, and the <em>value</em> with any CR or LF characters
+removed, are passed to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code>, and the resulting
+header object is returned.  Any surrogateescaped bytes get turned into
+the unicode unknown-character glyph.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold">
+<code class="descname">fold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Header folding is controlled by the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.refold_source" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.refold_source"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refold_source</span></code></a> policy setting.
+A value is considered to be a ‘source value’ if and only if it does not
+have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute (having a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute means it is a
+header object of some sort).  If a source value needs to be refolded
+according to the policy, it is converted into a header object by
+passing the <em>name</em> and the <em>value</em> with any CR and LF characters removed
+to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code>.  Folding of a header object is done by
+calling its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code> method with the current policy.</p>
+<p>Source values are split into lines using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.splitlines" title="str.splitlines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitlines()</span></code></a>.  If
+the value is not to be refolded, the lines are rejoined using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linesep</span></code> from the policy and returned.  The exception is lines
+containing non-ascii binary data.  In that case the value is refolded
+regardless of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refold_source</span></code> setting, which causes the binary data
+to be CTE encoded using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unknown-8bit</span></code> charset.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold_binary">
+<code class="descname">fold_binary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold_binary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold()</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.cte_type" title="email.policy.Policy.cte_type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>, except
+that the returned value is bytes.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy.cte_type" title="email.policy.Policy.cte_type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code>, non-ASCII binary data is
+converted back
+into bytes.  Headers with binary data are not refolded, regardless of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">refold_header</span></code> setting, since there is no way to know whether the
+binary data consists of single byte characters or multibyte characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a> provide defaults suitable for
+specific application domains.  Note that in the future the behavior of these
+instances (in particular the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP</span></code> instance) may be adjusted to conform even
+more closely to the RFCs relevant to their domains.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="email.policy.default">
+<code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">default</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An instance of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code> with all defaults unchanged.  This policy
+uses the standard Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> line endings rather than the RFC-correct
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="email.policy.SMTP">
+<code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">SMTP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.SMTP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Suitable for serializing messages in conformance with the email RFCs.
+Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>, but with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linesep</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code>, which is RFC
+compliant.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="email.policy.SMTPUTF8">
+<code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">SMTPUTF8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.SMTPUTF8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code> except that <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+Useful for serializing messages to a message store without using encoded
+words in the headers.  Should only be used for SMTP transmission if the
+sender or recipient addresses have non-ASCII characters (the
+<a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.send_message" title="smtplib.SMTP.send_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib.SMTP.send_message()</span></code></a> method handles this automatically).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="email.policy.HTTP">
+<code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">HTTP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.HTTP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Suitable for serializing headers with for use in HTTP traffic.  Like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code> except that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_line_length</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (unlimited).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="email.policy.strict">
+<code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">strict</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.strict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convenience instance.  The same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> except that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise_on_defect</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  This allows any policy to be made
+strict by writing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">somepolicy</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strict</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>With all of these <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicies</span></code></a>, the effective API of
+the email package is changed from the Python 3.2 API in the following ways:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Setting a header on a <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> results in that
+header being parsed and a header object created.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fetching a header value from a <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> results
+in that header being parsed and a header object created and
+returned.</p></li>
+<li><p>Any header object, or any header that is refolded due to the
+policy settings, is folded using an algorithm that fully implements the
+RFC folding algorithms, including knowing where encoded words are required
+and allowed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>From the application view, this means that any header obtained through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> is a header object with extra
+attributes, whose string value is the fully decoded unicode value of the
+header.  Likewise, a header may be assigned a new value, or a new header
+created, using a unicode string, and the policy will take care of converting
+the unicode string into the correct RFC encoded form.</p>
+<p>The header objects and their attributes are described in
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html#module-email.headerregistry" title="email.headerregistry: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">headerregistry</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="email.policy.Compat32">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">Compat32</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Compat32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This concrete <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> is the backward compatibility policy.  It
+replicates the behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> module also defines an instance of this class,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>, that is used as the default policy.  Thus the default
+behavior of the email package is to maintain compatibility with Python 3.2.</p>
+<p>The following attributes have values that are different from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> default:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="email.policy.Compat32.mangle_from_">
+<code class="descname">mangle_from_</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Compat32.mangle_from_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
+abstract methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_source_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sourcelines</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name is parsed as everything up to the ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code>’ and returned
+unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading whitespace off
+the remainder of the first line, joining all subsequent lines together,
+and stripping any trailing carriage return or linefeed characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Compat32.header_store_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_store_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Compat32.header_store_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name and value are returned unmodified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Compat32.header_fetch_parse">
+<code class="descname">header_fetch_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Compat32.header_fetch_parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the value contains binary data, it is converted into a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.header.html#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> object using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unknown-8bit</span></code> charset.
+Otherwise it is returned unmodified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Compat32.fold">
+<code class="descname">fold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Compat32.fold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Headers are folded using the <a class="reference internal" href="email.header.html#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> folding
+algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value, and wraps
+each resulting line to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_line_length</span></code>.  Non-ASCII binary data are
+CTE encoded using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unknown-8bit</span></code> charset.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="email.policy.Compat32.fold_binary">
+<code class="descname">fold_binary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.Compat32.fold_binary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Headers are folded using the <a class="reference internal" href="email.header.html#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> folding
+algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value, and wraps
+each resulting line to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_line_length</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cte_type</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code>, non-ascii binary data is CTE encoded using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unknown-8bit</span></code>
+charset.  Otherwise the original source header is used, with its existing
+line breaks and any (RFC invalid) binary data it may contain.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="email.policy.compat32">
+<code class="descclassname">email.policy.</code><code class="descname">compat32</code><a class="headerlink" href="#email.policy.compat32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code></a>, providing  backward compatibility with the
+behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Originally added in 3.3 as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional feature</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.generator.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code>: Generating MIME documents</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.errors.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code>: Exception and Defect classes</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/email.policy.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" ><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
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+         |
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+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.utils.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.utils.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a1a72e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/email.utils.html
@@ -0,0 +1,412 @@
+
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+  <div class="section" id="module-email.utils">
+<span id="email-utils-miscellaneous-utilities"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.utils" title="email.utils: Miscellaneous email package utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils</span></code></a>: Miscellaneous utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.utils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/email/utils.py">Lib/email/utils.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>There are a couple of useful utilities provided in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.utils" title="email.utils: Miscellaneous email package utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils</span></code></a>
+module:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.localtime">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">localtime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.localtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return local time as an aware datetime object.  If called without
+arguments, return current time.  Otherwise <em>dt</em> argument should be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance, and it is converted to the local time
+zone according to the system time zone database.  If <em>dt</em> is naive (that
+is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dt.tzinfo</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), it is assumed to be in local time.  In this
+case, a positive or zero value for <em>isdst</em> causes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime</span></code> to presume
+initially that summer time (for example, Daylight Saving Time) is or is not
+(respectively) in effect for the specified time.  A negative value for
+<em>isdst</em> causes the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime</span></code> to attempt to divine whether summer time
+is in effect for the specified time.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.make_msgid">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">make_msgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>idstring=None</em>, <em>domain=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.make_msgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a string suitable for an <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant
+<em class="mailheader">Message-ID</em> header.  Optional <em>idstring</em> if given, is a string
+used to strengthen the uniqueness of the message id.  Optional <em>domain</em> if
+given provides the portion of the msgid after the ‘&#64;’.  The default is the
+local hostname.  It is not normally necessary to override this default, but
+may be useful certain cases, such as a constructing distributed system that
+uses a consistent domain name across multiple hosts.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>domain</em> keyword.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The remaining functions are part of the legacy (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code>) email API.  There
+is no need to directly use these with the new API, since the parsing and
+formatting they provide is done automatically by the header parsing machinery
+of the new API.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.quote">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">quote</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.quote" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new string with backslashes in <em>str</em> replaced by two backslashes, and
+double quotes replaced by backslash-double quote.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.unquote">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">unquote</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.unquote" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new string which is an <em>unquoted</em> version of <em>str</em>. If <em>str</em> ends and
+begins with double quotes, they are stripped off.  Likewise if <em>str</em> ends and
+begins with angle brackets, they are stripped off.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.parseaddr">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">parseaddr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.parseaddr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse address – which should be the value of some address-containing field such
+as <em class="mailheader">To</em> or <em class="mailheader">Cc</em> – into its constituent <em>realname</em> and
+<em>email address</em> parts.  Returns a tuple of that information, unless the parse
+fails, in which case a 2-tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('',</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.formataddr">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">formataddr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pair</em>, <em>charset='utf-8'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.formataddr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The inverse of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.parseaddr" title="email.utils.parseaddr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parseaddr()</span></code></a>, this takes a 2-tuple of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(realname,</span>
+<span class="pre">email_address)</span></code> and returns the string value suitable for a <em class="mailheader">To</em> or
+<em class="mailheader">Cc</em> header.  If the first element of <em>pair</em> is false, then the
+second element is returned unmodified.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>charset</em> is the character set that will be used in the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>
+encoding of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realname</span></code> if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realname</span></code> contains non-ASCII
+characters.  Can be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a>.  Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>charset</em> option.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.getaddresses">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">getaddresses</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fieldvalues</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.getaddresses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a list of 2-tuples of the form returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parseaddr()</span></code>.
+<em>fieldvalues</em> is a sequence of header field values as might be returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_all" title="email.message.Message.get_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.get_all</span></code></a>.  Here’s a simple
+example that gets all the recipients of a message:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.utils</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">getaddresses</span>
+
+<span class="n">tos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_all</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="n">ccs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_all</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="n">resent_tos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_all</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;resent-to&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="n">resent_ccs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_all</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;resent-cc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
+<span class="n">all_recipients</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getaddresses</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tos</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">ccs</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">resent_tos</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">resent_ccs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.parsedate">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">parsedate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.parsedate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attempts to parse a date according to the rules in <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>. however, some
+mailers don’t follow that format as specified, so <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.parsedate" title="email.utils.parsedate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parsedate()</span></code></a> tries to
+guess correctly in such cases.  <em>date</em> is a string containing an <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>
+date, such as  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Mon,</span> <span class="pre">20</span> <span class="pre">Nov</span> <span class="pre">1995</span> <span class="pre">19:12:08</span> <span class="pre">-0500&quot;</span></code>.  If it succeeds in parsing
+the date, <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.parsedate" title="email.utils.parsedate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parsedate()</span></code></a> returns a 9-tuple that can be passed directly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.mktime" title="time.mktime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.mktime()</span></code></a>; otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> will be returned.  Note that indexes 6,
+7, and 8 of the result tuple are not usable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.parsedate_tz">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">parsedate_tz</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.parsedate_tz" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Performs the same function as <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.parsedate" title="email.utils.parsedate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parsedate()</span></code></a>, but returns either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or
+a 10-tuple; the first 9 elements make up a tuple that can be passed directly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.mktime" title="time.mktime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.mktime()</span></code></a>, and the tenth is the offset of the date’s timezone from UTC
+(which is the official term for Greenwich Mean Time) <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>.  If the input string
+has no timezone, the last element of the tuple returned is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Note that
+indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result tuple are not usable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">parsedate_to_datetime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The inverse of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.format_datetime" title="email.utils.format_datetime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_datetime()</span></code></a>.  Performs the same function as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.parsedate" title="email.utils.parsedate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parsedate()</span></code></a>, but on success returns a <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>.  If
+the input date has a timezone of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0000</span></code>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> will be a naive
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code>, and if the date is conforming to the RFCs it will represent a
+time in UTC but with no indication of the actual source timezone of the
+message the date comes from.  If the input date has any other valid timezone
+offset, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> will be an aware <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> with the
+corresponding a <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.mktime_tz">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">mktime_tz</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tuple</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.mktime_tz" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Turn a 10-tuple as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.parsedate_tz" title="email.utils.parsedate_tz"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parsedate_tz()</span></code></a> into a UTC
+timestamp (seconds since the Epoch).  If the timezone item in the
+tuple is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, assume local time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.formatdate">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">formatdate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeval=None</em>, <em>localtime=False</em>, <em>usegmt=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.formatdate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a date string as per <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Fri</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">09</span> <span class="n">Nov</span> <span class="mi">2001</span> <span class="mi">01</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">08</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">47</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">0000</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Optional <em>timeval</em> if given is a floating point time value as accepted by
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a>, otherwise the current time is
+used.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>localtime</em> is a flag that when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, interprets <em>timeval</em>, and
+returns a date relative to the local timezone instead of UTC, properly taking
+daylight savings time into account. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> meaning UTC is
+used.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>usegmt</em> is a flag that when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, outputs a  date string with the
+timezone as an ascii string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GMT</span></code>, rather than a numeric <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0000</span></code>. This is
+needed for some protocols (such as HTTP). This only applies when <em>localtime</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.format_datetime">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">format_datetime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dt</em>, <em>usegmt=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.format_datetime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatdate</span></code>, but the input is a <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance.  If it is
+a naive datetime, it is assumed to be “UTC with no information about the
+source timezone”, and the conventional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0000</span></code> is used for the timezone.
+If it is an aware <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code>, then the numeric timezone offset is used.
+If it is an aware timezone with offset zero, then <em>usegmt</em> may be set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, in which case the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GMT</span></code> is used instead of the numeric
+timezone offset.  This provides a way to generate standards conformant HTTP
+date headers.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.decode_rfc2231">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">decode_rfc2231</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.decode_rfc2231" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the string <em>s</em> according to <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.encode_rfc2231">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">encode_rfc2231</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>charset=None</em>, <em>language=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.encode_rfc2231" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the string <em>s</em> according to <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>.  Optional <em>charset</em> and
+<em>language</em>, if given is the character set name and language name to use.  If
+neither is given, <em>s</em> is returned as-is.  If <em>charset</em> is given but <em>language</em>
+is not, the string is encoded using the empty string for <em>language</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">collapse_rfc2231_value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em>, <em>errors='replace'</em>, <em>fallback_charset='us-ascii'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When a header parameter is encoded in <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a> format,
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_param" title="email.message.Message.get_param"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.get_param</span></code></a> may return a
+3-tuple containing the character set,
+language, and value.  <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value" title="email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collapse_rfc2231_value()</span></code></a> turns this into a unicode
+string.  Optional <em>errors</em> is passed to the <em>errors</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> method; it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code>.  Optional
+<em>fallback_charset</em> specifies the character set to use if the one in the
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a> header is not known by Python; it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'us-ascii'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For convenience, if the <em>value</em> passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value" title="email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collapse_rfc2231_value()</span></code></a> is not
+a tuple, it should be a string and it is returned unquoted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="email.utils.decode_params">
+<code class="descclassname">email.utils.</code><code class="descname">decode_params</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.utils.decode_params" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode parameters list according to <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>.  <em>params</em> is a sequence of
+2-tuples containing elements of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(content-type,</span> <span class="pre">string-value)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Note that the sign of the timezone offset is the opposite of the sign of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.timezone</span></code> variable for the same timezone; the latter variable follows
+the POSIX standard while this module follows <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.encoders.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code>: Encoders</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.iterators.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.iterators</span></code>: Iterators</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+
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+    <title>ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-ensurepip">
+<span id="ensurepip-bootstrapping-the-pip-installer"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> — Bootstrapping the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> installer<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ensurepip" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> package provides support for bootstrapping the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>
+installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment. This
+bootstrapping approach reflects the fact that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is an independent
+project with its own release cycle, and the latest available stable version
+is bundled with maintenance and feature releases of the CPython reference
+interpreter.</p>
+<p>In most cases, end users of Python shouldn’t need to invoke this module
+directly (as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> should be bootstrapped by default), but it may be
+needed if installing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> was skipped when installing Python (or
+when creating a virtual environment) or after explicitly uninstalling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This module <em>does not</em> access the internet. All of the components
+needed to bootstrap <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> are included as internal parts of the
+package.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules</span></a></dt><dd><p>The end user guide for installing Python packages</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a>: Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations</dt><dd><p>The original rationale and specification for this module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-interface">
+<h2>Command line interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The command line interface is invoked using the interpreter’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> switch.</p>
+<p>The simplest possible invocation is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">ensurepip</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This invocation will install <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> if it is not already installed,
+but otherwise does nothing. To ensure the installed version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>
+is at least as recent as the one bundled with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code>, pass the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--upgrade</span></code> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">ensurepip</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">upgrade</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>By default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is installed into the current virtual environment
+(if one is active) or into the system site packages (if there is no
+active virtual environment). The installation location can be controlled
+through two additional command line options:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--root</span> <span class="pre">&lt;dir&gt;</span></code>: Installs <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> relative to the given root directory
+rather than the root of the currently active virtual environment (if any)
+or the default root for the current Python installation.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--user</span></code>: Installs <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> into the user site packages directory rather
+than globally for the current Python installation (this option is not
+permitted inside an active virtual environment).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>By default, the scripts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX.Y</span></code> will be installed (where
+X.Y stands for the version of Python used to invoke <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code>). The
+scripts installed can be controlled through two additional command line
+options:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--altinstall</span></code>: if an alternate installation is requested, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX</span></code>
+script will <em>not</em> be installed.</p></li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--default-pip</span></code>: if a “default pip” installation is requested, the</dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> script will be installed in addition to the two regular scripts.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Providing both of the script selection options will trigger an exception.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-api">
+<h2>Module API<a class="headerlink" href="#module-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> exposes two functions for programmatic use:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ensurepip.version">
+<code class="descclassname">ensurepip.</code><code class="descname">version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ensurepip.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a string specifying the bundled version of pip that will be
+installed when bootstrapping an environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ensurepip.bootstrap">
+<code class="descclassname">ensurepip.</code><code class="descname">bootstrap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>root=None</em>, <em>upgrade=False</em>, <em>user=False</em>, <em>altinstall=False</em>, <em>default_pip=False</em>, <em>verbosity=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ensurepip.bootstrap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bootstraps <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> into the current or designated environment.</p>
+<p><em>root</em> specifies an alternative root directory to install relative to.
+If <em>root</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then installation uses the default install location
+for the current environment.</p>
+<p><em>upgrade</em> indicates whether or not to upgrade an existing installation
+of an earlier version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> to the bundled version.</p>
+<p><em>user</em> indicates whether to use the user scheme rather than installing
+globally.</p>
+<p>By default, the scripts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX.Y</span></code> will be installed (where
+X.Y stands for the current version of Python).</p>
+<p>If <em>altinstall</em> is set, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX</span></code> will <em>not</em> be installed.</p>
+<p>If <em>default_pip</em> is set, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> will be installed in addition to
+the two regular scripts.</p>
+<p>Setting both <em>altinstall</em> and <em>default_pip</em> will trigger
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>verbosity</em> controls the level of output to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> from the
+bootstrapping operation.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bootstrapping process has side effects on both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>. Invoking the command line interface in a subprocess
+instead allows these side effects to be avoided.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bootstrapping process may install additional modules required by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>, but other software should not assume those dependencies will
+always be present by default (as the dependencies may be removed in a
+future version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-enum">
+<span id="enum-support-for-enumerations"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a> — Support for enumerations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-enum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/enum.py">Lib/enum.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>An enumeration is a set of symbolic names (members) bound to unique,
+constant values.  Within an enumeration, the members can be compared
+by identity, and the enumeration itself can be iterated over.</p>
+<div class="section" id="module-contents">
+<h2>Module Contents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module defines four enumeration classes that can be used to define unique
+sets of names and values: <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a>.  It also defines one decorator, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.unique" title="enum.unique"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unique()</span></code></a>, and one
+helper, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="enum.Enum">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">enum.</code><code class="descname">Enum</code><a class="headerlink" href="#enum.Enum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for creating enumerated constants.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#functional-api">Functional API</a> for an alternate construction syntax.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="enum.IntEnum">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">enum.</code><code class="descname">IntEnum</code><a class="headerlink" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for creating enumerated constants that are also
+subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="enum.IntFlag">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">enum.</code><code class="descname">IntFlag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be combined using
+the bitwise operators without losing their <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> membership.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> members are also subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="enum.Flag">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">enum.</code><code class="descname">Flag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#enum.Flag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be combined using
+the bitwise operations without losing their <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> membership.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="enum.unique">
+<code class="descclassname">enum.</code><code class="descname">unique</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#enum.unique" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enum class decorator that ensures only one name is bound to any one value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="enum.auto">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">enum.</code><code class="descname">auto</code><a class="headerlink" href="#enum.auto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances are replaced with an appropriate value for Enum members.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-an-enum">
+<h2>Creating an Enum<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-an-enum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Enumerations are created using the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a> syntax, which makes them
+easy to read and write.  An alternative creation method is described in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#functional-api">Functional API</a>.  To define an enumeration, subclass <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> as
+follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Enum</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Enum member values</p>
+<p>Member values can be anything: <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, etc..  If
+the exact value is unimportant you may use <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a> instances and an
+appropriate value will be chosen for you.  Care must be taken if you mix
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a> with other values.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Nomenclature</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Color</span></code> is an <em>enumeration</em> (or <em>enum</em>)</p></li>
+<li><p>The attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Color.RED</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Color.GREEN</span></code>, etc., are
+<em>enumeration members</em> (or <em>enum members</em>) and are functionally constants.</p></li>
+<li><p>The enum members have <em>names</em> and <em>values</em> (the name of
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Color.RED</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RED</span></code>, the value of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Color.BLUE</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code>, etc.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Even though we use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a> syntax to create Enums, Enums
+are not normal Python classes.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#how-are-enums-different">How are Enums different?</a> for
+more details.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Enumeration members have human readable string representations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Color.RED</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>…while their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code> has more information:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.RED: 1&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>type</em> of an enumeration member is the enumeration it belongs to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;enum &#39;Color&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Enum members also have a property that contains just their item name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">RED</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Enumerations support iteration, in definition order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Shake</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">VANILLA</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">7</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">CHOCOLATE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">COOKIES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">MINT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">shake</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">Shake</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shake</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Shake.VANILLA</span>
+<span class="go">Shake.CHOCOLATE</span>
+<span class="go">Shake.COOKIES</span>
+<span class="go">Shake.MINT</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Enumeration members are hashable, so they can be used in dictionaries and sets:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apples</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apples</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red delicious&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apples</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;granny smith&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">apples</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red delicious&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;granny smith&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="programmatic-access-to-enumeration-members-and-their-attributes">
+<h2>Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#programmatic-access-to-enumeration-members-and-their-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes it’s useful to access members in enumerations programmatically (i.e.
+situations where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Color.RED</span></code> won’t do because the exact color is not known
+at program-writing time).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> allows such access:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.RED: 1&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.BLUE: 3&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to access enum members by <em>name</em>, use item access:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;RED&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.RED: 1&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;GREEN&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.GREEN: 2&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have an enum member and need its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">member</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">member</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;RED&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">member</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="duplicating-enum-members-and-values">
+<h2>Duplicating enum members and values<a class="headerlink" href="#duplicating-enum-members-and-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Having two enum members with the same name is invalid:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SQUARE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SQUARE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">Attempted to reuse key: &#39;SQUARE&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, two enum members are allowed to have the same value.  Given two members
+A and B with the same value (and A defined first), B is an alias to A.  By-value
+lookup of the value of A and B will return A.  By-name lookup of B will also
+return A:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SQUARE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">DIAMOND</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">CIRCLE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SQUARE</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Shape.SQUARE: 2&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Shape.SQUARE: 2&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Shape.SQUARE: 2&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Attempting to create a member with the same name as an already
+defined attribute (another member, a method, etc.) or attempting to create
+an attribute with the same name as a member is not allowed.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ensuring-unique-enumeration-values">
+<h2>Ensuring unique enumeration values<a class="headerlink" href="#ensuring-unique-enumeration-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same value.
+When this behavior isn’t desired, the following decorator can be used to
+ensure each value is used only once in the enumeration:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">enum.</code><code class="descname">unique</code></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a> decorator specifically for enumerations.  It searches an
+enumeration’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__members__</span></code> gathering any aliases it finds; if any are
+found <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised with the details:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unique</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@unique</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Mistake</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">ONE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">TWO</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">THREE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">FOUR</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">duplicate values found in &lt;enum &#39;Mistake&#39;&gt;: FOUR -&gt; THREE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-automatic-values">
+<h2>Using automatic values<a class="headerlink" href="#using-automatic-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If the exact value is unimportant you can use <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">auto</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Color.RED: 1&gt;, &lt;Color.BLUE: 2&gt;, &lt;Color.GREEN: 3&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The values are chosen by <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_generate_next_value_()</span></code>, which can be
+overridden:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AutoName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_generate_next_value_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last_values</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Ordinal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">AutoName</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">NORTH</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SOUTH</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">EAST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">WEST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Ordinal</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Ordinal.NORTH: &#39;NORTH&#39;&gt;, &lt;Ordinal.SOUTH: &#39;SOUTH&#39;&gt;, &lt;Ordinal.EAST: &#39;EAST&#39;&gt;, &lt;Ordinal.WEST: &#39;WEST&#39;&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The goal of the default <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_generate_next_value_()</span></code> methods is to provide
+the next <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> in sequence with the last <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> provided, but
+the way it does this is an implementation detail and may change.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="iteration">
+<h2>Iteration<a class="headerlink" href="#iteration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Shape.SQUARE: 2&gt;, &lt;Shape.DIAMOND: 1&gt;, &lt;Shape.CIRCLE: 3&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The special attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__members__</span></code> is an ordered dictionary mapping names
+to members.  It includes all names defined in the enumeration, including the
+aliases:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">member</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__members__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">member</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;SQUARE&#39;, &lt;Shape.SQUARE: 2&gt;)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;DIAMOND&#39;, &lt;Shape.DIAMOND: 1&gt;)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;CIRCLE&#39;, &lt;Shape.CIRCLE: 3&gt;)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE&#39;, &lt;Shape.SQUARE: 2&gt;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__members__</span></code> attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access to
+the enumeration members.  For example, finding all the aliases:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">member</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__members__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">member</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparisons">
+<h2>Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#comparisons" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Enumeration members are compared by identity:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are <em>not</em> supported.  Enum
+members are not integers (but see <a class="reference internal" href="#intenum">IntEnum</a> below):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;&lt;&#39; not supported between instances of &#39;Color&#39; and &#39;Color&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Equality comparisons are defined though:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Comparisons against non-enumeration values will always compare not equal
+(again, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> was explicitly designed to behave differently, see
+below):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations">
+<h2>Allowed members and attributes of enumerations<a class="headerlink" href="#allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The examples above use integers for enumeration values.  Using integers is
+short and handy (and provided by default by the <a class="reference internal" href="#functional-api">Functional API</a>), but not
+strictly enforced.  In the vast majority of use-cases, one doesn’t care what
+the actual value of an enumeration is.  But if the value <em>is</em> important,
+enumerations can have arbitrary values.</p>
+<p>Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special methods as
+usual.  If we have this enumeration:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Mood</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">FUNKY</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">HAPPY</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">describe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># self is the member here</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;my custom str! </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">favorite_mood</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># cls here is the enumeration</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HAPPY</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Mood</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">favorite_mood</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mood.HAPPY: 3&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Mood</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HAPPY</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">describe</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;HAPPY&#39;, 3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Mood</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FUNKY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;my custom str! 1&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end with
+a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all other
+attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of this
+enumeration, with the exception of special methods (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a>, etc.), descriptors (methods are also descriptors), and
+variable names listed in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ignore_</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note:  if your enumeration defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> then
+whatever value(s) were given to the enum member will be passed into those
+methods.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#planet">Planet</a> for an example.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="restricted-enum-subclassing">
+<h2>Restricted Enum subclassing<a class="headerlink" href="#restricted-enum-subclassing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> class must have one base Enum class, up to one concrete
+data type, and as many <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>-based mixin classes as needed.  The
+order of these base classes is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">EnumName</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">mix</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="ow">in</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">,]</span> <span class="n">base</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Also, subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does not define
+any members.  So this is forbidden:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MoreColor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">PINK</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">17</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">Cannot extend enumerations</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>But this is allowed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">some_behavior</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">HAPPY</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SAD</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a violation of
+some important invariants of types and instances.  On the other hand, it makes
+sense to allow sharing some common behavior between a group of enumerations.
+(See <a class="reference internal" href="#orderedenum">OrderedEnum</a> for an example.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pickling">
+<h2>Pickling<a class="headerlink" href="#pickling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">test.test_enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fruit</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loads</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fruit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TOMATO</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Fruit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TOMATO</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be defined in
+the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to be importable
+from that module.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>With pickle protocol version 4 it is possible to easily pickle enums
+nested in other classes.</p>
+</div>
+<p>It is possible to modify how Enum members are pickled/unpickled by defining
+<a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce_ex__()</span></code></a> in the enumeration class.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functional-api">
+<h2>Functional API<a class="headerlink" href="#functional-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> class is callable, providing the following functional API:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Animal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ANT BEE CAT DOG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;enum &#39;Animal&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ANT</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Animal.ANT: 1&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ANT</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Animal</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Animal.ANT: 1&gt;, &lt;Animal.BEE: 2&gt;, &lt;Animal.CAT: 3&gt;, &lt;Animal.DOG: 4&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The semantics of this API resemble <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple</span></code></a>. The first
+argument of the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> is the name of the enumeration.</p>
+<p>The second argument is the <em>source</em> of enumeration member names.  It can be a
+whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a sequence of
+2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g. dictionary) of names to
+values.  The last two options enable assigning arbitrary values to
+enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing integers starting with 1 (use
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code> parameter to specify a different starting value).  A
+new class derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> is returned.  In other words, the above
+assignment to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Animal</span></code> is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Animal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">ANT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BEE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">CAT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">DOG</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The reason for defaulting to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> as the starting number and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> in a boolean sense, but enum members all evaluate
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame stack
+implementation details are used to try and figure out which module the
+enumeration is being created in (e.g. it will fail if you use a utility
+function in separate module, and also may not work on IronPython or Jython).
+The solution is to specify the module name explicitly as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Animal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ANT BEE CAT DOG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module</span></code> is not supplied, and Enum cannot determine what it is,
+the new Enum members will not be unpicklable; to keep errors closer to
+the source, pickling will be disabled.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__qualname__" title="definition.__qualname__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code></a> being set to the location where pickle will be able
+to find the class.  For example, if the class was made available in class
+SomeData in the global scope:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Animal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ANT BEE CAT DOG&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">qualname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;SomeData.Animal&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The complete signature is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;NewEnumName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">names</span><span class="o">=&lt;...&gt;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;...&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">qualname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;...&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=&lt;</span><span class="n">mixed</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">class</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="field-list">
+<dt class="field-odd">value</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>What the new Enum class will record as its name.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">names</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>The Enum members.  This can be a whitespace or comma separated string
+(values will start at 1 unless otherwise specified):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s1">&#39;RED GREEN BLUE&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;RED,GREEN,BLUE&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;RED, GREEN, BLUE&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or an iterator of names:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;RED&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;GREEN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BLUE&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or an iterator of (name, value) pairs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;CYAN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;MAGENTA&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;YELLOW&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or a mapping:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;CHARTREUSE&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;SEA_GREEN&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ROSEMARY&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">module</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>name of module where new Enum class can be found.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">qualname</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>where in module new Enum class can be found.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">type</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>type to mix in to new Enum class.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">start</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>number to start counting at if only names are passed in.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>start</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="derived-enumerations">
+<h2>Derived Enumerations<a class="headerlink" href="#derived-enumerations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="intenum">
+<h3>IntEnum<a class="headerlink" href="#intenum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The first variation of <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> that is provided is also a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  Members of an <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> can be compared to integers;
+by extension, integer enumerations of different types can also be compared
+to each other:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">IntEnum</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">IntEnum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">CIRCLE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SQUARE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">IntEnum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">POST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GET</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Shape</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CIRCLE</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CIRCLE</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">POST</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, they still can’t be compared to standard <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> enumerations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">IntEnum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">CIRCLE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SQUARE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CIRCLE</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> values behave like integers in other ways you’d expect:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CIRCLE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CIRCLE</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;b&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Shape</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SQUARE</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="intflag">
+<h3>IntFlag<a class="headerlink" href="#intflag" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The next variation of <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> provided, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a>, is also based
+on <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  The difference being <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> members can be combined
+using the bitwise operators (&amp;, |, ^, ~) and the result is still an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> member.  However, as the name implies, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a>
+members also subclass <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and can be used wherever an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> is
+used.  Any operation on an <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> member besides the bit-wise
+operations will lose the <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> membership.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Sample <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">IntFlag</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Perm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">IntFlag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">R</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">W</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">X</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">R</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">W</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Perm.R|W: 6&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">R</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">W</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">RW</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">R</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">W</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">R</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">RW</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is also possible to name the combinations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Perm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">IntFlag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">R</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">W</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">X</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RWX</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">7</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RWX</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Perm.RWX: 7&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="o">~</span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RWX</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Perm.-8: -8&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another important difference between <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> is that
+if no flags are set (the value is 0), its boolean evaluation is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">R</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">X</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Perm.0: 0&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">R</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">X</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> members are also subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> they can
+be combined with them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Perm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">X</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="mi">8</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Perm.8|X: 9&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="flag">
+<h3>Flag<a class="headerlink" href="#flag" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The last variation is <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a>.  Like <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a>
+members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&amp;, |, ^, ~).  Unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a>, they cannot be combined with, nor compared against, any
+other <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> enumeration, nor <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  While it is possible to
+specify the values directly it is recommended to use <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a> as the
+value and let <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> select an appropriate value.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a>, if a combination of <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> members results in no
+flags being set, the boolean evaluation is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Flag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">auto</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Flag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.0: 0&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8, …),
+while combinations of flags won’t:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Flag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">WHITE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">GREEN</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WHITE</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.WHITE: 7&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Giving a name to the “no flags set” condition does not change its boolean
+value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Flag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLACK</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLACK</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.BLACK: 0&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BLACK</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For the majority of new code, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> are strongly
+recommended, since <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> break some
+semantic promises of an enumeration (by being comparable to integers, and
+thus by transitivity to other unrelated enumerations).  <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a> should be used only in cases where <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> will not do; for example, when integer constants are replaced
+with enumerations, or for interoperability with other systems.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="others">
+<h3>Others<a class="headerlink" href="#others" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>While <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> is part of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a> module, it would be very
+simple to implement independently:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">IntEnum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for example
+a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StrEnum</span></code> that mixes in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Some rules:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>When subclassing <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a>, mix-in types must appear before
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> itself in the sequence of bases, as in the <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a>
+example above.</p></li>
+<li><p>While <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> can have members of any type, once you mix in an
+additional type, all the members must have values of that type, e.g.
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> above.  This restriction does not apply to mix-ins which only
+add methods and don’t specify another data type such as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>When another data type is mixed in, the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute is <em>not the
+same</em> as the enum member itself, although it is equivalent and will compare
+equal.</p></li>
+<li><p>%-style formatting:  <cite>%s</cite> and <cite>%r</cite> call the <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> class’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> respectively; other codes (such as
+<cite>%i</cite> or <cite>%h</cite> for IntEnum) treat the enum member as its mixed-in type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Formatted string literals</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> will use the mixed-in
+type’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a>.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> class’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> is desired, use the <cite>!s</cite> or <cite>!r</cite> format codes.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interesting-examples">
+<h2>Interesting examples<a class="headerlink" href="#interesting-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>While <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlag</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> are
+expected to cover the majority of use-cases, they cannot cover them all.  Here
+are recipes for some different types of enumerations that can be used directly,
+or as examples for creating one’s own.</p>
+<div class="section" id="omitting-values">
+<h3>Omitting values<a class="headerlink" href="#omitting-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In many use-cases one doesn’t care what the actual value of an enumeration
+is. There are several ways to define this type of simple enumeration:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>use instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a> for the value</p></li>
+<li><p>use instances of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> as the value</p></li>
+<li><p>use a descriptive string as the value</p></li>
+<li><p>use a tuple as the value and a custom <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> to replace the
+tuple with an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> value</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are not
+important, and also enables one to add, remove, or reorder members without
+having to renumber the remaining members.</p>
+<p>Whichever method you choose, you should provide a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> that also hides
+the (unimportant) value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">NoValue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">.</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&gt;&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-auto">
+<h4>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#using-auto" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a> would look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NoValue</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.GREEN&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-object">
+<h4>Using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#using-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> would look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NoValue</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.GREEN&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-descriptive-string">
+<h4>Using a descriptive string<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-descriptive-string" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Using a string as the value would look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NoValue</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;stop&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;go&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;too fast!&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.GREEN&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;go&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-custom-new">
+<h4>Using a custom <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-custom-new" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Using an auto-numbering <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> would look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AutoNumber</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NoValue</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__new__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__members__</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__new__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_value_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">AutoNumber</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.GREEN&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GREEN</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum
+members; it is then replaced by Enum’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> which is used after
+class creation for lookup of existing members.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="orderedenum">
+<h3>OrderedEnum<a class="headerlink" href="#orderedenum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An ordered enumeration that is not based on <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> and so maintains
+the normal <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> invariants (such as not being comparable to other
+enumerations):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">OrderedEnum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__ge__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__gt__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__le__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__lt__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Grade</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OrderedEnum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">A</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">B</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">D</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">F</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Grade</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">Grade</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">A</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="duplicatefreeenum">
+<h3>DuplicateFreeEnum<a class="headerlink" href="#duplicatefreeenum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Raises an error if a duplicate member name is found instead of creating an
+alias:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DuplicateFreeEnum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">cls</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">e</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="s2">&quot;aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s2"> --&gt; </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">DuplicateFreeEnum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GRENE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  &#39;GRENE&#39; --&gt; &#39;GREEN&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This is a useful example for subclassing Enum to add or change other
+behaviors as well as disallowing aliases.  If the only desired change is
+disallowing aliases, the <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.unique" title="enum.unique"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unique()</span></code></a> decorator can be used instead.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="planet">
+<h3>Planet<a class="headerlink" href="#planet" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> is defined the value of the enum member
+will be passed to those methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Planet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">MERCURY</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.303e+23</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.4397e6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">VENUS</span>   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">4.869e+24</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">6.0518e6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">EARTH</span>   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">5.976e+24</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">6.37814e6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">MARS</span>    <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">6.421e+23</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.3972e6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">JUPITER</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.9e+27</span><span class="p">,</span>   <span class="mf">7.1492e7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SATURN</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">5.688e+26</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">6.0268e7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">URANUS</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">8.686e+25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5559e7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">NEPTUNE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.024e+26</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.4746e7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">radius</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mass</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mass</span>       <span class="c1"># in kilograms</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">radius</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">radius</span>   <span class="c1"># in meters</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">surface_gravity</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">G</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">6.67300E-11</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">G</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mass</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">radius</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">radius</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Planet</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">EARTH</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">(5.976e+24, 6378140.0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Planet</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">EARTH</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">surface_gravity</span>
+<span class="go">9.802652743337129</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timeperiod">
+<h3>TimePeriod<a class="headerlink" href="#timeperiod" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An example to show the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ignore_</span></code> attribute in use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Period</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s2">&quot;different lengths of time&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_ignore_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Period i&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">Period</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">vars</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">367</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">Period</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;day_</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Period</span><span class="p">)[:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)&gt;, &lt;Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)&gt;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Period</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)&gt;, &lt;Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-are-enums-different">
+<h2>How are Enums different?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-are-enums-different" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Enums have a custom metaclass that affects many aspects of both derived Enum
+classes and their instances (members).</p>
+<div class="section" id="enum-classes">
+<h3>Enum Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#enum-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnumMeta</span></code> metaclass is responsible for providing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__" title="object.__dir__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> and other methods that
+allow one to do things with an <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> class that fail on a typical
+class, such as <cite>list(Color)</cite> or <cite>some_enum_var in Color</cite>.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnumMeta</span></code> is
+responsible for ensuring that various other methods on the final <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a>
+class are correct (such as <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enum-members-aka-instances">
+<h3>Enum Members (aka instances)<a class="headerlink" href="#enum-members-aka-instances" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The most interesting thing about Enum members is that they are singletons.
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnumMeta</span></code> creates them all while it is creating the <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a>
+class itself, and then puts a custom <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> in place to ensure
+that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only the existing
+member instances.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finer-points">
+<h3>Finer Points<a class="headerlink" href="#finer-points" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="supported-dunder-names">
+<h4>Supported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dunder__</span></code> names<a class="headerlink" href="#supported-dunder-names" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__members__</span></code> is an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">member_name</span></code>:<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">member</span></code>
+items.  It is only available on the class.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>, if specified, must create and return the enum members; it is
+also a very good idea to set the member’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_value_</span></code> appropriately.  Once
+all the members are created it is no longer used.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="supported-sunder-names">
+<h4>Supported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_sunder_</span></code> names<a class="headerlink" href="#supported-sunder-names" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_name_</span></code> – name of the member</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_value_</span></code> – value of the member; can be set / modified in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_missing_</span></code> – a lookup function used when a value is not found; may be
+overridden</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ignore_</span></code> – a list of names, either as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>,
+that will not be transformed into members, and will be removed from the final
+class</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_order_</span></code> – used in Python 2/3 code to ensure member order is consistent
+(class attribute, removed during class creation)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_generate_next_value_</span></code> – used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#functional-api">Functional API</a> and by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a> to get an appropriate value for an enum member; may be
+overridden</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_missing_</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_order_</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_generate_next_value_</span></code></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ignore_</span></code></p>
+</div>
+<p>To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_order_</span></code> attribute can
+be provided.  It will be checked against the actual order of the enumeration
+and raise an error if the two do not match:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_order_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;RED GREEN BLUE&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">member order does not match _order_</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In Python 2 code the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_order_</span></code> attribute is necessary as definition
+order is lost before it can be recorded.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enum-member-type">
+<h4><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> member type<a class="headerlink" href="#enum-member-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> members are instances of their <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> class, and are
+normally accessed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnumClass.member</span></code>.  Under certain circumstances they
+can also be accessed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnumClass.member.member</span></code>, but you should never do
+this as that lookup may fail or, worse, return something besides the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> member you are looking for (this is another good reason to use
+all-uppercase names for members):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">FieldTypes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">FieldTypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;FieldTypes.size: 2&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">FieldTypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="boolean-value-of-enum-classes-and-members">
+<h4>Boolean value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> classes and members<a class="headerlink" href="#boolean-value-of-enum-classes-and-members" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> members that are mixed with non-<a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> types (such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, etc.) are evaluated according to the mixed-in
+type’s rules; otherwise, all members evaluate as <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.  To make your
+own Enum’s boolean evaluation depend on the member’s value add the following to
+your class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__bool__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> classes always evaluate as <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enum-classes-with-methods">
+<h4><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> classes with methods<a class="headerlink" href="#enum-classes-with-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>If you give your <a class="reference internal" href="#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> subclass extra methods, like the <a class="reference internal" href="#planet">Planet</a>
+class above, those methods will show up in a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> of the member,
+but not of the class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Planet</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;EARTH&#39;, &#39;JUPITER&#39;, &#39;MARS&#39;, &#39;MERCURY&#39;, &#39;NEPTUNE&#39;, &#39;SATURN&#39;, &#39;URANUS&#39;, &#39;VENUS&#39;, &#39;__class__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__members__&#39;, &#39;__module__&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Planet</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">EARTH</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;__class__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__module__&#39;, &#39;name&#39;, &#39;surface_gravity&#39;, &#39;value&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="combining-members-of-flag">
+<h4>Combining members of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#combining-members-of-flag" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>If a combination of Flag members is not named, the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> will include
+all named flags and all named combinations of flags that are in the value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Flag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">BLUE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">MAGENTA</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">BLUE</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">YELLOW</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">RED</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">GREEN</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">CYAN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">GREEN</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">BLUE</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># named combination</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.YELLOW: 3&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># not named combination</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Color.CYAN|MAGENTA|BLUE|YELLOW|GREEN|RED: 7&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code> — Support for enumerations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-an-enum">Creating an Enum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#programmatic-access-to-enumeration-members-and-their-attributes">Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#duplicating-enum-members-and-values">Duplicating enum members and values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ensuring-unique-enumeration-values">Ensuring unique enumeration values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-automatic-values">Using automatic values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iteration">Iteration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations">Allowed members and attributes of enumerations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#restricted-enum-subclassing">Restricted Enum subclassing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickling">Pickling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functional-api">Functional API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#derived-enumerations">Derived Enumerations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#intenum">IntEnum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#intflag">IntFlag</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#flag">Flag</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#others">Others</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interesting-examples">Interesting examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#omitting-values">Omitting values</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-auto">Using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auto</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-object">Using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-descriptive-string">Using a descriptive string</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-custom-new">Using a custom <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#orderedenum">OrderedEnum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#duplicatefreeenum">DuplicateFreeEnum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#planet">Planet</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timeperiod">TimePeriod</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-are-enums-different">How are Enums different?</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum-classes">Enum Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum-members-aka-instances">Enum Members (aka instances)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finer-points">Finer Points</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supported-dunder-names">Supported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dunder__</span></code> names</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supported-sunder-names">Supported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_sunder_</span></code> names</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum-member-type"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> member type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-value-of-enum-classes-and-members">Boolean value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> classes and members</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum-classes-with-methods"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> classes with methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#combining-members-of-flag">Combining members of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="reprlib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code> — Alternate <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> implementation</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="numeric.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Numeric and Mathematical Modules</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/enum.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
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+  </div>
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+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-errno">
+<span id="errno-standard-errno-system-symbols"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> — Standard errno system symbols<a class="headerlink" href="#module-errno" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module makes available standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> system symbols. The value of each
+symbol is the corresponding integer value. The names and descriptions are
+borrowed from <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linux/include/errno.h</span></code>, which should be pretty
+all-inclusive.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.errorcode">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">errorcode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.errorcode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary providing a mapping from the errno value to the string name in the
+underlying system.  For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM]</span></code> maps to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'EPERM'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To translate a numeric error code to an error message, use <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.strerror" title="os.strerror"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.strerror()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Of the following list, symbols that are not used on the current platform are not
+defined by the module.  The specific list of defined symbols is available as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.errorcode.keys()</span></code>.  Symbols available can include:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EPERM">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EPERM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EPERM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Operation not permitted</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOENT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No such file or directory</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ESRCH">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ESRCH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ESRCH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No such process</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EINTR">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EINTR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EINTR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interrupted system call.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>This error is mapped to the exception <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EIO">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>I/O error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENXIO">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENXIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENXIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No such device or address</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.E2BIG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">E2BIG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.E2BIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Arg list too long</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOEXEC">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOEXEC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOEXEC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exec format error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBADF">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBADF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBADF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bad file number</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ECHILD">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ECHILD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ECHILD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No child processes</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EAGAIN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EAGAIN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EAGAIN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try again</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOMEM">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOMEM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOMEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Out of memory</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EACCES">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EACCES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EACCES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Permission denied</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EFAULT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EFAULT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EFAULT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bad address</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTBLK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTBLK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTBLK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Block device required</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBUSY">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBUSY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBUSY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Device or resource busy</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EEXIST">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EEXIST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EEXIST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File exists</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EXDEV">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EXDEV</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EXDEV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cross-device link</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENODEV">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENODEV</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENODEV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No such device</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTDIR">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTDIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTDIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Not a directory</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EISDIR">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EISDIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EISDIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is a directory</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EINVAL">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EINVAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EINVAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalid argument</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENFILE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENFILE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENFILE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File table overflow</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EMFILE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EMFILE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EMFILE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Too many open files</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTTY">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTTY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTTY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Not a typewriter</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ETXTBSY">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ETXTBSY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ETXTBSY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Text file busy</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EFBIG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EFBIG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EFBIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File too large</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOSPC">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOSPC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOSPC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No space left on device</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ESPIPE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ESPIPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ESPIPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Illegal seek</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EROFS">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EROFS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EROFS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read-only file system</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EMLINK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EMLINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EMLINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Too many links</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EPIPE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EPIPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EPIPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Broken pipe</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EDOM">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EDOM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EDOM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Math argument out of domain of func</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ERANGE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ERANGE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ERANGE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Math result not representable</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EDEADLK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EDEADLK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EDEADLK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resource deadlock would occur</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENAMETOOLONG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENAMETOOLONG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENAMETOOLONG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File name too long</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOLCK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOLCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOLCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No record locks available</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOSYS">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOSYS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOSYS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function not implemented</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTEMPTY">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTEMPTY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTEMPTY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Directory not empty</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ELOOP">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ELOOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ELOOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Too many symbolic links encountered</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EWOULDBLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EWOULDBLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EWOULDBLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Operation would block</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOMSG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOMSG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOMSG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No message of desired type</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EIDRM">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EIDRM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EIDRM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identifier removed</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ECHRNG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ECHRNG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ECHRNG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Channel number out of range</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EL2NSYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EL2NSYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EL2NSYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Level 2 not synchronized</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EL3HLT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EL3HLT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EL3HLT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Level 3 halted</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EL3RST">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EL3RST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EL3RST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Level 3 reset</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ELNRNG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ELNRNG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ELNRNG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Link number out of range</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EUNATCH">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EUNATCH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EUNATCH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Protocol driver not attached</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOCSI">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOCSI</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOCSI" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No CSI structure available</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EL2HLT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EL2HLT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EL2HLT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Level 2 halted</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBADE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBADE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBADE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalid exchange</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBADR">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBADR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBADR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalid request descriptor</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EXFULL">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EXFULL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EXFULL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exchange full</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOANO">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOANO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOANO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No anode</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBADRQC">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBADRQC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBADRQC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalid request code</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBADSLT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBADSLT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBADSLT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalid slot</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EDEADLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EDEADLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EDEADLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File locking deadlock error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBFONT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBFONT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBFONT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bad font file format</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOSTR">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOSTR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOSTR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Device not a stream</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENODATA">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENODATA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENODATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No data available</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ETIME">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ETIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ETIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Timer expired</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOSR">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOSR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOSR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Out of streams resources</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENONET">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENONET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENONET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Machine is not on the network</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOPKG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOPKG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOPKG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Package not installed</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EREMOTE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EREMOTE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EREMOTE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Object is remote</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOLINK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOLINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOLINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Link has been severed</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EADV">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EADV</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EADV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Advertise error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ESRMNT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ESRMNT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ESRMNT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Srmount error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ECOMM">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ECOMM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ECOMM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Communication error on send</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EPROTO">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EPROTO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EPROTO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Protocol error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EMULTIHOP">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EMULTIHOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EMULTIHOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Multihop attempted</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EDOTDOT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EDOTDOT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EDOTDOT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>RFS specific error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBADMSG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBADMSG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBADMSG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Not a data message</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EOVERFLOW">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EOVERFLOW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EOVERFLOW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Value too large for defined data type</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTUNIQ">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTUNIQ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTUNIQ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name not unique on network</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EBADFD">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EBADFD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EBADFD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File descriptor in bad state</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EREMCHG">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EREMCHG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EREMCHG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remote address changed</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ELIBACC">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ELIBACC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ELIBACC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Can not access a needed shared library</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ELIBBAD">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ELIBBAD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ELIBBAD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accessing a corrupted shared library</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ELIBSCN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ELIBSCN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ELIBSCN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>.lib section in a.out corrupted</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ELIBMAX">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ELIBMAX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ELIBMAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attempting to link in too many shared libraries</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ELIBEXEC">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ELIBEXEC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ELIBEXEC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cannot exec a shared library directly</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EILSEQ">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EILSEQ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EILSEQ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Illegal byte sequence</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ERESTART">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ERESTART</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ERESTART" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interrupted system call should be restarted</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ESTRPIPE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ESTRPIPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ESTRPIPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Streams pipe error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EUSERS">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EUSERS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EUSERS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Too many users</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTSOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTSOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTSOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Socket operation on non-socket</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EDESTADDRREQ">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EDESTADDRREQ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EDESTADDRREQ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Destination address required</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EMSGSIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EMSGSIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EMSGSIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Message too long</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EPROTOTYPE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EPROTOTYPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EPROTOTYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Protocol wrong type for socket</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOPROTOOPT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOPROTOOPT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOPROTOOPT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Protocol not available</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EPROTONOSUPPORT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Protocol not supported</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ESOCKTNOSUPPORT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Socket type not supported</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EOPNOTSUPP">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EOPNOTSUPP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EOPNOTSUPP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Operation not supported on transport endpoint</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EPFNOSUPPORT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EPFNOSUPPORT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EPFNOSUPPORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Protocol family not supported</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EAFNOSUPPORT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EAFNOSUPPORT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EAFNOSUPPORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Address family not supported by protocol</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EADDRINUSE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EADDRINUSE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EADDRINUSE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Address already in use</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EADDRNOTAVAIL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cannot assign requested address</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENETDOWN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENETDOWN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENETDOWN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Network is down</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENETUNREACH">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENETUNREACH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENETUNREACH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Network is unreachable</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENETRESET">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENETRESET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENETRESET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Network dropped connection because of reset</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ECONNABORTED">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ECONNABORTED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ECONNABORTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Software caused connection abort</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ECONNRESET">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ECONNRESET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ECONNRESET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connection reset by peer</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOBUFS">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOBUFS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOBUFS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No buffer space available</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EISCONN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EISCONN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EISCONN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transport endpoint is already connected</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTCONN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTCONN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTCONN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transport endpoint is not connected</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ESHUTDOWN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ESHUTDOWN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ESHUTDOWN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ETOOMANYREFS">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ETOOMANYREFS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ETOOMANYREFS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Too many references: cannot splice</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ETIMEDOUT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ETIMEDOUT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ETIMEDOUT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connection timed out</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ECONNREFUSED">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ECONNREFUSED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ECONNREFUSED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connection refused</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EHOSTDOWN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EHOSTDOWN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EHOSTDOWN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Host is down</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EHOSTUNREACH">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EHOSTUNREACH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EHOSTUNREACH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No route to host</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EALREADY">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EALREADY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EALREADY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Operation already in progress</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EINPROGRESS">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EINPROGRESS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EINPROGRESS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Operation now in progress</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ESTALE">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ESTALE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ESTALE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stale NFS file handle</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EUCLEAN">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EUCLEAN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EUCLEAN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Structure needs cleaning</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENOTNAM">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENOTNAM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENOTNAM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Not a XENIX named type file</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.ENAVAIL">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">ENAVAIL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.ENAVAIL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No XENIX semaphores available</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EISNAM">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EISNAM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EISNAM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is a named type file</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EREMOTEIO">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EREMOTEIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EREMOTEIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remote I/O error</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="errno.EDQUOT">
+<code class="descclassname">errno.</code><code class="descname">EDQUOT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#errno.EDQUOT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Quota exceeded</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/exceptions.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/exceptions.html
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Built-in Exceptions &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="built-in-exceptions">
+<span id="bltin-exceptions"></span><h1>Built-in Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">In Python, all exceptions must be instances of a class that derives from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a>.  In a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement with an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>
+clause that mentions a particular class, that clause also handles any exception
+classes derived from that class (but not exception classes from which <em>it</em> is
+derived).  Two exception classes that are not related via subclassing are never
+equivalent, even if they have the same name.</p>
+<p id="index-1">The built-in exceptions listed below can be generated by the interpreter or
+built-in functions.  Except where mentioned, they have an “associated value”
+indicating the detailed cause of the error.  This may be a string or a tuple of
+several items of information (e.g., an error code and a string explaining the
+code).  The associated value is usually passed as arguments to the exception
+class’s constructor.</p>
+<p>User code can raise built-in exceptions.  This can be used to test an exception
+handler or to report an error condition “just like” the situation in which the
+interpreter raises the same exception; but beware that there is nothing to
+prevent user code from raising an inappropriate error.</p>
+<p>The built-in exception classes can be subclassed to define new exceptions;
+programmers are encouraged to derive new exceptions from the <a class="reference internal" href="#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>
+class or one of its subclasses, and not from <a class="reference internal" href="#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a>.  More
+information on defining exceptions is available in the Python Tutorial under
+<a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/errors.html#tut-userexceptions"><span class="std std-ref">User-defined Exceptions</span></a>.</p>
+<p>When raising (or re-raising) an exception in an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> is automatically set to the last exception caught; if the
+new exception is not handled the traceback that is eventually displayed will
+include the originating exception(s) and the final exception.</p>
+<p>When raising a new exception (rather than using a bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code> to re-raise
+the exception currently being handled), the implicit exception context can be
+supplemented with an explicit cause by using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">new_exc</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">original_exc</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The expression following <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> must be an exception or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. It
+will be set as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> on the raised exception. Setting
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> also implicitly sets the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__suppress_context__</span></code>
+attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, so that using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">new_exc</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code>
+effectively replaces the old exception with the new one for display
+purposes (e.g. converting <a class="reference internal" href="#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>), while
+leaving the old exception available in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> for introspection
+when debugging.</p>
+<p>The default traceback display code shows these chained exceptions in
+addition to the traceback for the exception itself. An explicitly chained
+exception in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> is always shown when present. An implicitly
+chained exception in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> is shown only if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code>
+is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__suppress_context__</span></code> is false.</p>
+<p>In either case, the exception itself is always shown after any chained
+exceptions so that the final line of the traceback always shows the last
+exception that was raised.</p>
+<div class="section" id="base-classes">
+<h2>Base classes<a class="headerlink" href="#base-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following exceptions are used mostly as base classes for other exceptions.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="BaseException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">BaseException</code><a class="headerlink" href="#BaseException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class for all built-in exceptions.  It is not meant to be directly
+inherited by user-defined classes (for that, use <a class="reference internal" href="#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>).  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> is called on an instance of this class, the representation of
+the argument(s) to the instance are returned, or the empty string when
+there were no arguments.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="BaseException.args">
+<code class="descname">args</code><a class="headerlink" href="#BaseException.args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The tuple of arguments given to the exception constructor.  Some built-in
+exceptions (like <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>) expect a certain number of arguments and
+assign a special meaning to the elements of this tuple, while others are
+usually called only with a single string giving an error message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="BaseException.with_traceback">
+<code class="descname">with_traceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#BaseException.with_traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method sets <em>tb</em> as the new traceback for the exception and returns
+the exception object.  It is usually used in exception handling code like
+this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">SomeException</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">tb</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exc_info</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">OtherException</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_traceback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tb</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="Exception">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">Exception</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All built-in, non-system-exiting exceptions are derived from this class.  All
+user-defined exceptions should also be derived from this class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ArithmeticError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ArithmeticError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ArithmeticError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class for those built-in exceptions that are raised for various
+arithmetic errors: <a class="reference internal" href="#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#FloatingPointError" title="FloatingPointError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatingPointError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="BufferError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">BufferError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#BufferError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer</span></a> related operation cannot be
+performed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="LookupError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">LookupError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#LookupError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class for the exceptions that are raised when a key or index used on
+a mapping or sequence is invalid: <a class="reference internal" href="#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.  This
+can be raised directly by <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.lookup" title="codecs.lookup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.lookup()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="concrete-exceptions">
+<h2>Concrete exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#concrete-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="AssertionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">AssertionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#AssertionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Raised when an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#assert"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code></a> statement fails.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="AttributeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">AttributeError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#AttributeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an attribute reference (see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#attribute-references"><span class="std std-ref">Attribute references</span></a>) or
+assignment fails.  (When an object does not support attribute references or
+attribute assignments at all, <a class="reference internal" href="#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="EOFError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">EOFError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#EOFError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a> function hits an end-of-file condition (EOF)
+without reading any data. (N.B.: the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.read()</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.readline()</span></code></a> methods return an empty string when they hit EOF.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="FloatingPointError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">FloatingPointError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#FloatingPointError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Not currently used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="GeneratorExit">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">GeneratorExit</code><a class="headerlink" href="#GeneratorExit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> is closed;
+see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.close" title="generator.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator.close()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#coroutine.close" title="coroutine.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coroutine.close()</span></code></a>.  It
+directly inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> since
+it is technically not an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ImportError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ImportError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ImportError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement has troubles trying to
+load a module.  Also raised when the “from list” in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span></code>
+has a name that cannot be found.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> attributes can be set using keyword-only
+arguments to the constructor. When set they represent the name of the module
+that was attempted to be imported and the path to any file which triggered
+the exception, respectively.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> attributes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ModuleNotFoundError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ModuleNotFoundError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ModuleNotFoundError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> which is raised by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a>
+when a module could not be located.  It is also raised when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+is found in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="IndexError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">IndexError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#IndexError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a sequence subscript is out of range.  (Slice indices are
+silently truncated to fall in the allowed range; if an index is not an
+integer, <a class="reference internal" href="#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="KeyError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">KeyError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#KeyError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a mapping (dictionary) key is not found in the set of existing keys.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="KeyboardInterrupt">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">KeyboardInterrupt</code><a class="headerlink" href="#KeyboardInterrupt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the user hits the interrupt key (normally <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> or
+<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Delete</kbd>).  During execution, a check for interrupts is made
+regularly. The exception inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> so as to not be
+accidentally caught by code that catches <a class="reference internal" href="#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> and thus prevent
+the interpreter from exiting.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="MemoryError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">MemoryError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#MemoryError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an operation runs out of memory but the situation may still be
+rescued (by deleting some objects).  The associated value is a string indicating
+what kind of (internal) operation ran out of memory. Note that because of the
+underlying memory management architecture (C’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> function), the
+interpreter may not always be able to completely recover from this situation; it
+nevertheless raises an exception so that a stack traceback can be printed, in
+case a run-away program was the cause.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="NameError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">NameError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#NameError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a local or global name is not found.  This applies only to
+unqualified names.  The associated value is an error message that includes the
+name that could not be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="NotImplementedError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">NotImplementedError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#NotImplementedError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.  In user defined base
+classes, abstract methods should raise this exception when they require
+derived classes to override the method, or while the class is being
+developed to indicate that the real implementation still needs to be added.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>It should not be used to indicate that an operator or method is not
+meant to be supported at all – in that case either leave the operator /
+method undefined or, if a subclass, set it to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> are not interchangeable,
+even though they have similar names and purposes.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a> for details on when to use it.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="OSError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">OSError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>arg</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#OSError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">OSError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>errno</em>, <em>strerror</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>winerror</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>filename2</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-3">This exception is raised when a system function returns a system-related
+error, including I/O failures such as “file not found” or “disk full”
+(not for illegal argument types or other incidental errors).</p>
+<p>The second form of the constructor sets the corresponding attributes,
+described below.  The attributes default to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if not
+specified.  For backwards compatibility, if three arguments are passed,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#BaseException.args" title="BaseException.args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code></a> attribute contains only a 2-tuple
+of the first two constructor arguments.</p>
+<p>The constructor often actually returns a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, as
+described in <a class="reference internal" href="#os-exceptions">OS exceptions</a> below.  The particular subclass depends on
+the final <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError.errno" title="OSError.errno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> value.  This behaviour only occurs when
+constructing <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> directly or via an alias, and is not
+inherited when subclassing.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="OSError.errno">
+<code class="descname">errno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#OSError.errno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A numeric error code from the C variable <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="OSError.winerror">
+<code class="descname">winerror</code><a class="headerlink" href="#OSError.winerror" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Under Windows, this gives you the native
+Windows error code.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError.errno" title="OSError.errno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> attribute is then an approximate
+translation, in POSIX terms, of that native error code.</p>
+<p>Under Windows, if the <em>winerror</em> constructor argument is an integer,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError.errno" title="OSError.errno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> attribute is determined from the Windows error code,
+and the <em>errno</em> argument is ignored.  On other platforms, the
+<em>winerror</em> argument is ignored, and the <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError.winerror" title="OSError.winerror"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winerror</span></code></a> attribute
+does not exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="OSError.strerror">
+<code class="descname">strerror</code><a class="headerlink" href="#OSError.strerror" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The corresponding error message, as provided by
+the operating system.  It is formatted by the C
+functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">perror()</span></code> under POSIX, and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FormatMessage()</span></code>
+under Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="OSError.filename">
+<code class="descname">filename</code><a class="headerlink" href="#OSError.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="OSError.filename2">
+<code class="descname">filename2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#OSError.filename2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For exceptions that involve a file system path (such as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.unlink()</span></code></a>), <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError.filename" title="OSError.filename"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code></a> is the file name passed to the function.
+For functions that involve two file system paths (such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rename()</span></code></a>), <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError.filename2" title="OSError.filename2"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename2</span></code></a> corresponds to the second
+file name passed to the function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#EnvironmentError" title="EnvironmentError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvironmentError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#WindowsError" title="WindowsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsError</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.error" title="select.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.error</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.error</span></code> have been merged into <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, and the
+constructor may return a subclass.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError.filename" title="OSError.filename"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code></a> attribute is now the original file name passed to
+the function, instead of the name encoded to or decoded from the
+filesystem encoding.  Also, the <em>filename2</em> constructor argument and
+attribute was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="OverflowError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">OverflowError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#OverflowError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large to be
+represented.  This cannot occur for integers (which would rather raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> than give up).  However, for historical reasons,
+OverflowError is sometimes raised for integers that are outside a required
+range.   Because of the lack of standardization of floating point exception
+handling in C, most floating point operations are not checked.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="RecursionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">RecursionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#RecursionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.  It is raised when the
+interpreter detects that the maximum recursion depth (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getrecursionlimit" title="sys.getrecursionlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getrecursionlimit()</span></code></a>) is exceeded.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Previously, a plain <a class="reference internal" href="#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ReferenceError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ReferenceError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ReferenceError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when a weak reference proxy, created by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#weakref.proxy" title="weakref.proxy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref.proxy()</span></code></a> function, is used to access an attribute of the referent
+after it has been garbage collected. For more information on weak references,
+see the <a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="RuntimeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">RuntimeError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#RuntimeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an error is detected that doesn’t fall in any of the other
+categories.  The associated value is a string indicating what precisely went
+wrong.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="StopIteration">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">StopIteration</code><a class="headerlink" href="#StopIteration" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised by built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> and an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method to signal that there are no further
+items produced by the iterator.</p>
+<p>The exception object has a single attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>, which is
+given as an argument when constructing the exception, and defaults
+to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> function
+returns, a new <a class="reference internal" href="#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> instance is
+raised, and the value returned by the function is used as the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> parameter to the constructor of the exception.</p>
+<p>If a generator code directly or indirectly raises <a class="reference internal" href="#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>,
+it is converted into a <a class="reference internal" href="#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> (retaining the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> as the new exception’s cause).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute and the ability for generator functions to
+use it to return a value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Introduced the RuntimeError transformation via
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">generator_stop</span></code>, see <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479"><strong>PEP 479</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Enable <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479"><strong>PEP 479</strong></a> for all code by default: a <a class="reference internal" href="#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>
+error raised in a generator is transformed into a <a class="reference internal" href="#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="StopAsyncIteration">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">StopAsyncIteration</code><a class="headerlink" href="#StopAsyncIteration" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must be raised by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a> method of an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a> object to stop the iteration.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="SyntaxError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">SyntaxError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#SyntaxError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the parser encounters a syntax error.  This may occur in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement, in a call to the built-in functions <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>, or when reading the initial script or standard input
+(also interactively).</p>
+<p>Instances of this class have attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text</span></code> for easier access to the details.  <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>
+of the exception instance returns only the message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="IndentationError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">IndentationError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#IndentationError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for syntax errors related to incorrect indentation.  This is a
+subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="TabError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">TabError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#TabError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when indentation contains an inconsistent use of tabs and spaces.
+This is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#IndentationError" title="IndentationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndentationError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="SystemError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">SystemError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#SystemError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the situation does not
+look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope. The associated value is a
+string indicating what went wrong (in low-level terms).</p>
+<p>You should report this to the author or maintainer of your Python interpreter.
+Be sure to report the version of the Python interpreter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code>; it is
+also printed at the start of an interactive Python session), the exact error
+message (the exception’s associated value) and if possible the source of the
+program that triggered the error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="SystemExit">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">SystemExit</code><a class="headerlink" href="#SystemExit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a> function.  It inherits from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> so that it is not accidentally
+caught by code that catches <a class="reference internal" href="#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.  This allows the exception to
+properly propagate up and cause the interpreter to exit.  When it is not
+handled, the Python interpreter exits; no stack traceback is printed.  The
+constructor accepts the same optional argument passed to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a>.
+If the value is an integer, it specifies the system exit status (passed to
+C’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit()</span></code> function); if it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the exit status is zero; if
+it has another type (such as a string), the object’s value is printed and
+the exit status is one.</p>
+<p>A call to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a> is translated into an exception so that clean-up
+handlers (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clauses of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statements) can be
+executed, and so that a debugger can execute a script without running the risk
+of losing control.  The <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os._exit" title="os._exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os._exit()</span></code></a> function can be used if it is
+absolutely positively necessary to exit immediately (for example, in the child
+process after a call to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="SystemExit.code">
+<code class="descname">code</code><a class="headerlink" href="#SystemExit.code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The exit status or error message that is passed to the constructor.
+(Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="TypeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">TypeError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#TypeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an operation or function is applied to an object of inappropriate
+type.  The associated value is a string giving details about the type mismatch.</p>
+<p>This exception may be raised by user code to indicate that an attempted
+operation on an object is not supported, and is not meant to be. If an object
+is meant to support a given operation but has not yet provided an
+implementation, <a class="reference internal" href="#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> is the proper exception to raise.</p>
+<p>Passing arguments of the wrong type (e.g. passing a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> when an
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> is expected) should result in a <a class="reference internal" href="#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>, but passing
+arguments with the wrong value (e.g. a number outside expected boundaries)
+should result in a <a class="reference internal" href="#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="UnboundLocalError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">UnboundLocalError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnboundLocalError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a reference is made to a local variable in a function or method, but
+no value has been bound to that variable.  This is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="UnicodeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">UnicodeError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a Unicode-related encoding or decoding error occurs.  It is a
+subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a> has attributes that describe the encoding or decoding
+error.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">err.object[err.start:err.end]</span></code> gives the particular
+invalid input that the codec failed on.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="UnicodeError.encoding">
+<code class="descname">encoding</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeError.encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the encoding that raised the error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="UnicodeError.reason">
+<code class="descname">reason</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeError.reason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string describing the specific codec error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="UnicodeError.object">
+<code class="descname">object</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeError.object" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The object the codec was attempting to encode or decode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="UnicodeError.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeError.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The first index of invalid data in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="UnicodeError.end">
+<code class="descname">end</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeError.end" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The index after the last invalid data in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="UnicodeEncodeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">UnicodeEncodeError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeEncodeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during encoding.  It is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="UnicodeDecodeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">UnicodeDecodeError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeDecodeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during decoding.  It is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="UnicodeTranslateError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">UnicodeTranslateError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeTranslateError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during translating.  It is a subclass
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ValueError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ValueError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ValueError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an operation or function receives an argument that has the
+right type but an inappropriate value, and the situation is not described by a
+more precise exception such as <a class="reference internal" href="#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ZeroDivisionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ZeroDivisionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ZeroDivisionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the second argument of a division or modulo operation is zero.  The
+associated value is a string indicating the type of the operands and the
+operation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following exceptions are kept for compatibility with previous versions;
+starting from Python 3.3, they are aliases of <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="EnvironmentError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">EnvironmentError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#EnvironmentError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="IOError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">IOError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#IOError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="WindowsError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">WindowsError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#WindowsError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Only available on Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="os-exceptions">
+<h3>OS exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#os-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following exceptions are subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, they get raised
+depending on the system error code.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="BlockingIOError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">BlockingIOError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#BlockingIOError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an operation would block on an object (e.g. socket) set
+for non-blocking operation.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EAGAIN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EALREADY</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EWOULDBLOCK</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINPROGRESS</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In addition to those of <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> can have
+one more attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="BlockingIOError.characters_written">
+<code class="descname">characters_written</code><a class="headerlink" href="#BlockingIOError.characters_written" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer containing the number of characters written to the stream
+before it blocked.  This attribute is available when using the
+buffered I/O classes from the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ChildProcessError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ChildProcessError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ChildProcessError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an operation on a child process failed.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ECHILD</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ConnectionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ConnectionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ConnectionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A base class for connection-related issues.</p>
+<p>Subclasses are <a class="reference internal" href="#BrokenPipeError" title="BrokenPipeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenPipeError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ConnectionAbortedError" title="ConnectionAbortedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionAbortedError</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ConnectionRefusedError" title="ConnectionRefusedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionRefusedError</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ConnectionResetError" title="ConnectionResetError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionResetError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="BrokenPipeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">BrokenPipeError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#BrokenPipeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a>, raised when trying to write on a
+pipe while the other end has been closed, or trying to write on a socket
+which has been shutdown for writing.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPIPE</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ESHUTDOWN</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ConnectionAbortedError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ConnectionAbortedError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ConnectionAbortedError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a>, raised when a connection attempt
+is aborted by the peer.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ECONNABORTED</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ConnectionRefusedError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ConnectionRefusedError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ConnectionRefusedError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a>, raised when a connection attempt
+is refused by the peer.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ECONNREFUSED</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ConnectionResetError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ConnectionResetError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ConnectionResetError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a>, raised when a connection is
+reset by the peer.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ECONNRESET</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="FileExistsError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">FileExistsError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#FileExistsError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when trying to create a file or directory which already exists.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EEXIST</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="FileNotFoundError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">FileNotFoundError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#FileNotFoundError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a file or directory is requested but doesn’t exist.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENOENT</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="InterruptedError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">InterruptedError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#InterruptedError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a system call is interrupted by an incoming signal.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#errno.EINTR" title="errno.EINTR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINTR</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Python now retries system calls when a syscall is interrupted by a
+signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a>
+for the rationale), instead of raising <a class="reference internal" href="#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="IsADirectoryError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">IsADirectoryError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#IsADirectoryError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a file operation (such as <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.remove" title="os.remove"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.remove()</span></code></a>) is requested
+on a directory.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EISDIR</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="NotADirectoryError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">NotADirectoryError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#NotADirectoryError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a directory operation (such as <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a>) is requested
+on something which is not a directory.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENOTDIR</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="PermissionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">PermissionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#PermissionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when trying to run an operation without the adequate access
+rights - for example filesystem permissions.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EACCES</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPERM</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ProcessLookupError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ProcessLookupError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ProcessLookupError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a given process doesn’t exist.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ESRCH</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="TimeoutError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">TimeoutError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#TimeoutError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a system function timed out at the system level.
+Corresponds to <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ETIMEDOUT</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>All the above <a class="reference internal" href="#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> subclasses were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3151"><strong>PEP 3151</strong></a> - Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="warnings">
+<span id="warning-categories-as-exceptions"></span><h2>Warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following exceptions are used as warning categories; see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#warning-categories"><span class="std std-ref">Warning Categories</span></a> documentation for more details.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="Warning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">Warning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#Warning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warning categories.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="UserWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">UserWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UserWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings generated by user code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="DeprecationWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">DeprecationWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#DeprecationWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings about deprecated features when those warnings are
+intended for other Python developers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="PendingDeprecationWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">PendingDeprecationWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings about features which are obsolete and
+expected to be deprecated in the future, but are not deprecated
+at the moment.</p>
+<p>This class is rarely used as emitting a warning about a possible
+upcoming deprecation is unusual, and <a class="reference internal" href="#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>
+is preferred for already active deprecations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="SyntaxWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">SyntaxWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#SyntaxWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings about dubious syntax.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="RuntimeWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">RuntimeWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#RuntimeWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings about dubious runtime behavior.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="FutureWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">FutureWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#FutureWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings about deprecated features when those warnings are
+intended for end users of applications that are written in Python.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ImportWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ImportWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ImportWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings about probable mistakes in module imports.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="UnicodeWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">UnicodeWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#UnicodeWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings related to Unicode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="BytesWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">BytesWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#BytesWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings related to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ResourceWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descname">ResourceWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ResourceWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for warnings related to resource usage. Ignored by the default
+warning filters.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exception-hierarchy">
+<h2>Exception hierarchy<a class="headerlink" href="#exception-hierarchy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The class hierarchy for built-in exceptions is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ne">BaseException</span>
+ <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">SystemExit</span>
+ <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">KeyboardInterrupt</span>
+ <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">GeneratorExit</span>
+ <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">StopAsyncIteration</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ArithmeticError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">FloatingPointError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">OverflowError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">AssertionError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">BufferError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">EOFError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">ModuleNotFoundError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">LookupError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">IndexError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">MemoryError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">UnboundLocalError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">BlockingIOError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ChildProcessError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ConnectionError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">BrokenPipeError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ConnectionAbortedError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ConnectionRefusedError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ConnectionResetError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">FileExistsError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">InterruptedError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">IsADirectoryError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">NotADirectoryError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">PermissionError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ProcessLookupError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">TimeoutError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ReferenceError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">NotImplementedError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">RecursionError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">SyntaxError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">IndentationError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>         <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">TabError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">SystemError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">TypeError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">UnicodeError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>         <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">UnicodeDecodeError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>         <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">UnicodeEncodeError</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>         <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">UnicodeTranslateError</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">Warning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">PendingDeprecationWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">SyntaxWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">UserWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">FutureWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ImportWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">UnicodeWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">BytesWarning</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="ne">ResourceWarning</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Built-in Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#base-classes">Base classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#concrete-exceptions">Concrete exceptions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#os-exceptions">OS exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#warnings">Warnings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exception-hierarchy">Exception hierarchy</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stdtypes.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Built-in Types</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/exceptions.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/faulthandler.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/faulthandler.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1eda27d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/faulthandler.html
@@ -0,0 +1,357 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-faulthandler">
+<span id="faulthandler-dump-the-python-traceback"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> — Dump the Python traceback<a class="headerlink" href="#module-faulthandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault,
+after a timeout, or on a user signal. Call <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler.enable()</span></code></a> to
+install fault handlers for the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGSEGV</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGFPE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGABRT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGBUS</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGILL</span></code> signals. You can also
+enable them at startup by setting the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONFAULTHANDLER"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONFAULTHANDLER</span></code></a> environment
+variable or by using the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> command line option.</p>
+<p>The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport or the
+Windows fault handler. The module uses an alternative stack for signal handlers
+if the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigaltstack()</span></code> function is available. This allows it to dump the
+traceback even on a stack overflow.</p>
+<p>The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only use
+signal-safe functions (e.g. it cannot allocate memory on the heap). Because of
+this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to normal Python
+tracebacks:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Only ASCII is supported. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backslashreplace</span></code> error handler is used on
+encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p>Each string is limited to 500 characters.</p></li>
+<li><p>Only the filename, the function name and the line number are
+displayed. (no source code)</p></li>
+<li><p>It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads.</p></li>
+<li><p>The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>By default, the Python traceback is written to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>. To see
+tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal. A log file can
+alternatively be passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler.enable()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash or when
+Python is deadlocked.</p>
+<div class="section" id="dumping-the-traceback">
+<h2>Dumping the traceback<a class="headerlink" href="#dumping-the-traceback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.dump_traceback">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">dump_traceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=sys.stderr</em>, <em>all_threads=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.dump_traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dump the tracebacks of all threads into <em>file</em>. If <em>all_threads</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, dump only the current thread.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fault-handler-state">
+<h2>Fault handler state<a class="headerlink" href="#fault-handler-state" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.enable">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">enable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=sys.stderr</em>, <em>all_threads=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.enable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGSEGV</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGFPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGABRT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGBUS</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGILL</span></code>
+signals to dump the Python traceback. If <em>all_threads</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+produce tracebacks for every running thread. Otherwise, dump only the current
+thread.</p>
+<p>The <em>file</em> must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled: see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler-fd"><span class="std std-ref">issue with file descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>On Windows, a handler for Windows exception is also installed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.disable">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">disable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.disable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.is_enabled">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">is_enabled</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.is_enabled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check if the fault handler is enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout">
+<h2>Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout<a class="headerlink" href="#dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.dump_traceback_later">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">dump_traceback_later</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout</em>, <em>repeat=False</em>, <em>file=sys.stderr</em>, <em>exit=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.dump_traceback_later" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of <em>timeout</em> seconds, or
+every <em>timeout</em> seconds if <em>repeat</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  If <em>exit</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, call
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_exit()</span></code> with status=1 after dumping the tracebacks.  (Note
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_exit()</span></code> exits the process immediately, which means it doesn’t do any
+cleanup like flushing file buffers.) If the function is called twice, the new
+call replaces previous parameters and resets the timeout. The timer has a
+sub-second resolution.</p>
+<p>The <em>file</em> must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later" title="faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancel_dump_traceback_later()</span></code></a> is called: see <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler-fd"><span class="std std-ref">issue with file
+descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This function is implemented using a watchdog thread and therefore is not
+available if Python is compiled with threads disabled.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">cancel_dump_traceback_later</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cancel the last call to <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.dump_traceback_later" title="faulthandler.dump_traceback_later"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump_traceback_later()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dumping-the-traceback-on-a-user-signal">
+<h2>Dumping the traceback on a user signal<a class="headerlink" href="#dumping-the-traceback-on-a-user-signal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.register">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signum</em>, <em>file=sys.stderr</em>, <em>all_threads=True</em>, <em>chain=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a user signal: install a handler for the <em>signum</em> signal to dump
+the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if <em>all_threads</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, into <em>file</em>. Call the previous handler if chain is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>file</em> must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.unregister" title="faulthandler.unregister"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unregister()</span></code></a>: see <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler-fd"><span class="std std-ref">issue with file descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Not available on Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="faulthandler.unregister">
+<code class="descclassname">faulthandler.</code><code class="descname">unregister</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signum</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler.unregister" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the <em>signum</em> signal
+installed by <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.register" title="faulthandler.register"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a>. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the signal was registered,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>Not available on Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="issue-with-file-descriptors">
+<span id="faulthandler-fd"></span><h2>Issue with file descriptors<a class="headerlink" href="#issue-with-file-descriptors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.dump_traceback_later" title="faulthandler.dump_traceback_later"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump_traceback_later()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler.register" title="faulthandler.register"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a> keep the
+file descriptor of their <em>file</em> argument. If the file is closed and its file
+descriptor is reused by a new file, or if <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.dup2" title="os.dup2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup2()</span></code></a> is used to replace
+the file descriptor, the traceback will be written into a different file. Call
+these functions again each time that the file is replaced.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the fault
+handler:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 -c <span class="s2">&quot;import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">Segmentation fault</span>
+
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 -q -X faulthandler
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; import ctypes
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; ctypes.string_at<span class="o">(</span><span class="m">0</span><span class="o">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault</span>
+
+<span class="go">Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py&quot;, line 486 in string_at</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1 in &lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">Segmentation fault</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> — Dump the Python traceback</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dumping-the-traceback">Dumping the traceback</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fault-handler-state">Fault handler state</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout">Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dumping-the-traceback-on-a-user-signal">Dumping the traceback on a user signal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#issue-with-file-descriptors">Issue with file descriptors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bdb.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code> — Debugger framework</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="pdb.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code> — The Python Debugger</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,329 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-fcntl">
+<span id="fcntl-the-fcntl-and-ioctl-system-calls"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-fcntl" title="fcntl: The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code></a> — The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl</span></code> system calls<a class="headerlink" href="#module-fcntl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module performs file control and I/O control on file descriptors. It is an
+interface to the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code> Unix routines.  For a
+complete description of these calls, see <em class="manpage">fcntl(2)</em> and
+<em class="manpage">ioctl(2)</em> Unix manual pages.</p>
+<p>All functions in this module take a file descriptor <em>fd</em> as their first
+argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin.fileno()</span></code>, or an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase</span></code></a> object, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>
+itself, which provides a <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> that returns a genuine file
+descriptor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Operations in this module used to raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> where they now
+raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fcntl.fcntl">
+<code class="descclassname">fcntl.</code><code class="descname">fcntl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>cmd</em>, <em>arg=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fcntl.fcntl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform the operation <em>cmd</em> on file descriptor <em>fd</em> (file objects providing
+a <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method are accepted as well).  The values used
+for <em>cmd</em> are operating system dependent, and are available as constants
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-fcntl" title="fcntl: The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code></a> module, using the same names as used in the relevant C
+header files. The argument <em>arg</em> can either be an integer value, or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object. With an integer value, the return value of this
+function is the integer return value of the C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code> call.  When
+the argument is bytes it represents a binary structure, e.g. created by
+<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack()</span></code></a>. The binary data is copied to a buffer whose address is
+passed to the C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code> call.  The return value after a successful
+call is the contents of the buffer, converted to a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.
+The length of the returned object will be the same as the length of the
+<em>arg</em> argument. This is limited to 1024 bytes. If the information returned
+in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes, this is
+most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data
+corruption.</p>
+<p>If the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code> fails, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fcntl.ioctl">
+<code class="descclassname">fcntl.</code><code class="descname">ioctl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>request</em>, <em>arg=0</em>, <em>mutate_flag=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fcntl.ioctl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.fcntl" title="fcntl.fcntl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code></a> function, except
+that the argument handling is even more complicated.</p>
+<p>The <em>request</em> parameter is limited to values that can fit in 32-bits.
+Additional constants of interest for use as the <em>request</em> argument can be
+found in the <a class="reference internal" href="termios.html#module-termios" title="termios: POSIX style tty control. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code></a> module, under the same names as used in
+the relevant C header files.</p>
+<p>The parameter <em>arg</em> can be one of an integer, an object supporting the
+read-only buffer interface (like <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>) or an object supporting
+the read-write buffer interface (like <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>In all but the last case, behaviour is as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.fcntl" title="fcntl.fcntl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+<p>If a mutable buffer is passed, then the behaviour is determined by the value of
+the <em>mutate_flag</em> parameter.</p>
+<p>If it is false, the buffer’s mutability is ignored and behaviour is as for a
+read-only buffer, except that the 1024 byte limit mentioned above is avoided –
+so long as the buffer you pass is at least as long as what the operating system
+wants to put there, things should work.</p>
+<p>If <em>mutate_flag</em> is true (the default), then the buffer is (in effect) passed
+to the underlying <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.ioctl" title="fcntl.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code></a> system call, the latter’s return code is
+passed back to the calling Python, and the buffer’s new contents reflect the
+action of the <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.ioctl" title="fcntl.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code></a>.  This is a slight simplification, because if the
+supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied into a static
+buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.ioctl" title="fcntl.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code></a> and copied back
+into the supplied buffer.</p>
+<p>If the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code> fails, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<p>An example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">fcntl</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">struct</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">termios</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpgrp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">13341</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;h&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ioctl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TIOCGPGRP</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;  &quot;</span><span class="p">))[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">13341</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;h&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ioctl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TIOCGPGRP</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">buf</span>
+<span class="go">array(&#39;h&#39;, [13341])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fcntl.flock">
+<code class="descclassname">fcntl.</code><code class="descname">flock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>operation</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fcntl.flock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform the lock operation <em>operation</em> on file descriptor <em>fd</em> (file objects providing
+a <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method are accepted as well). See the Unix manual
+<em class="manpage">flock(2)</em> for details.  (On some systems, this function is emulated
+using <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>If the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flock()</span></code> fails, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fcntl.lockf">
+<code class="descclassname">fcntl.</code><code class="descname">lockf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>cmd</em>, <em>len=0</em>, <em>start=0</em>, <em>whence=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fcntl.lockf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is essentially a wrapper around the <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.fcntl" title="fcntl.fcntl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code></a> locking calls.
+<em>fd</em> is the file descriptor of the file to lock or unlock, and <em>cmd</em>
+is one of the following values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_UN</span></code> – unlock</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_SH</span></code> – acquire a shared lock</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_EX</span></code> – acquire an exclusive lock</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When <em>cmd</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_SH</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_EX</span></code>, it can also be
+bitwise ORed with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_NB</span></code> to avoid blocking on lock acquisition.
+If <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_NB</span></code> is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> will be raised and the exception will have an <em>errno</em>
+attribute set to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EACCES</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EAGAIN</span></code> (depending on the
+operating system; for portability, check for both values).  On at least some
+systems, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCK_EX</span></code> can only be used if the file descriptor refers to a
+file opened for writing.</p>
+<p><em>len</em> is the number of bytes to lock, <em>start</em> is the byte offset at
+which the lock starts, relative to <em>whence</em>, and <em>whence</em> is as with
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.seek" title="io.IOBase.seek"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.seek()</span></code></a>, specifically:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> – relative to the start of the file (<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.SEEK_SET" title="os.SEEK_SET"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_SET</span></code></a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> – relative to the current buffer position (<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.SEEK_CUR" title="os.SEEK_CUR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_CUR</span></code></a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> – relative to the end of the file (<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.SEEK_END" title="os.SEEK_END"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_END</span></code></a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The default for <em>start</em> is 0, which means to start at the beginning of the file.
+The default for <em>len</em> is 0 which means to lock to the end of the file.  The
+default for <em>whence</em> is also 0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">fcntl</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">rv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">F_SETFL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">O_NDELAY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">lockdata</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hhllhh&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">F_WRLCK</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">rv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">F_SETLKW</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lockdata</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that in the first example the return value variable <em>rv</em> will hold an
+integer value; in the second example it will hold a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.  The
+structure lay-out for the <em>lockdata</em> variable is system dependent — therefore
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.flock" title="fcntl.flock"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flock()</span></code></a> call may be better.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>If the locking flags <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_SHLOCK" title="os.O_SHLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_SHLOCK</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_EXLOCK" title="os.O_EXLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_EXLOCK</span></code></a> are
+present in the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module (on BSD only), the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a>
+function provides an alternative to the <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.lockf" title="fcntl.lockf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lockf()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#fcntl.flock" title="fcntl.flock"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flock()</span></code></a>
+functions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filecmp.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filecmp.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e673f44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filecmp.html
@@ -0,0 +1,392 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-filecmp">
+<span id="filecmp-file-and-directory-comparisons"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-filecmp" title="filecmp: Compare files efficiently."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code></a> — File and Directory Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#module-filecmp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/filecmp.py">Lib/filecmp.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-filecmp" title="filecmp: Compare files efficiently."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code></a> module defines functions to compare files and directories,
+with various optional time/correctness trade-offs. For comparing files,
+see also the <a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-filecmp" title="filecmp: Compare files efficiently."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="filecmp.cmp">
+<code class="descclassname">filecmp.</code><code class="descname">cmp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f1</em>, <em>f2</em>, <em>shallow=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.cmp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare the files named <em>f1</em> and <em>f2</em>, returning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if they seem equal,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>If <em>shallow</em> is true, files with identical <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> signatures are
+taken to be equal.  Otherwise, the contents of the files are compared.</p>
+<p>Note that no external programs are called from this function, giving it
+portability and efficiency.</p>
+<p>This function uses a cache for past comparisons and the results,
+with cache entries invalidated if the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> information for the
+file changes.  The entire cache may be cleared using <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.clear_cache" title="filecmp.clear_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear_cache()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="filecmp.cmpfiles">
+<code class="descclassname">filecmp.</code><code class="descname">cmpfiles</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dir1</em>, <em>dir2</em>, <em>common</em>, <em>shallow=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.cmpfiles" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare the files in the two directories <em>dir1</em> and <em>dir2</em> whose names are
+given by <em>common</em>.</p>
+<p>Returns three lists of file names: <em>match</em>, <em>mismatch</em>,
+<em>errors</em>.  <em>match</em> contains the list of files that match, <em>mismatch</em> contains
+the names of those that don’t, and <em>errors</em> lists the names of files which
+could not be compared.  Files are listed in <em>errors</em> if they don’t exist in
+one of the directories, the user lacks permission to read them or if the
+comparison could not be done for some other reason.</p>
+<p>The <em>shallow</em> parameter has the same meaning and default value as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.cmp" title="filecmp.cmp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp.cmp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmpfiles('a',</span> <span class="pre">'b',</span> <span class="pre">['c',</span> <span class="pre">'d/e'])</span></code> will compare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a/c</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b/c</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a/d/e</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b/d/e</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d/e'</span></code> will each be in
+one of the three returned lists.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="filecmp.clear_cache">
+<code class="descclassname">filecmp.</code><code class="descname">clear_cache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.clear_cache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the filecmp cache. This may be useful if a file is compared so quickly
+after it is modified that it is within the mtime resolution of
+the underlying filesystem.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="the-dircmp-class">
+<span id="dircmp-objects"></span><h2>The <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.dircmp" title="filecmp.dircmp"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code></a> class<a class="headerlink" href="#the-dircmp-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">filecmp.</code><code class="descname">dircmp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>ignore=None</em>, <em>hide=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the directories <em>a</em>
+and <em>b</em>.  <em>ignore</em> is a list of names to ignore, and defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES" title="filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES</span></code></a>.  <em>hide</em> is a list of names to hide, and
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[os.curdir,</span> <span class="pre">os.pardir]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.dircmp" title="filecmp.dircmp"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code></a> class compares files by doing <em>shallow</em> comparisons
+as described for <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.cmp" title="filecmp.cmp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp.cmp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.dircmp" title="filecmp.dircmp"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code></a> class provides the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.report">
+<code class="descname">report</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.report" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print (to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>) a comparison between <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.report_partial_closure">
+<code class="descname">report_partial_closure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.report_partial_closure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a comparison between <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> and common immediate
+subdirectories.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.report_full_closure">
+<code class="descname">report_full_closure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.report_full_closure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a comparison between <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> and common subdirectories
+(recursively).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.dircmp" title="filecmp.dircmp"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code></a> class offers a number of interesting attributes that may be
+used to get various bits of information about the directory trees being
+compared.</p>
+<p>Note that via <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> hooks, all attributes are computed lazily,
+so there is no speed penalty if only those attributes which are lightweight
+to compute are used.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.left">
+<code class="descname">left</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.left" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The directory <em>a</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.right">
+<code class="descname">right</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.right" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The directory <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.left_list">
+<code class="descname">left_list</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.left_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files and subdirectories in <em>a</em>, filtered by <em>hide</em> and <em>ignore</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.right_list">
+<code class="descname">right_list</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.right_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files and subdirectories in <em>b</em>, filtered by <em>hide</em> and <em>ignore</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.common">
+<code class="descname">common</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.common" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files and subdirectories in both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.left_only">
+<code class="descname">left_only</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.left_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files and subdirectories only in <em>a</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.right_only">
+<code class="descname">right_only</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.right_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files and subdirectories only in <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.common_dirs">
+<code class="descname">common_dirs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.common_dirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subdirectories in both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.common_files">
+<code class="descname">common_files</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.common_files" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files in both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.common_funny">
+<code class="descname">common_funny</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.common_funny" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Names in both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, such that the type differs between the
+directories, or names for which <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> reports an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.same_files">
+<code class="descname">same_files</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.same_files" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files which are identical in both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, using the class’s
+file comparison operator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.diff_files">
+<code class="descname">diff_files</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.diff_files" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files which are in both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, whose contents differ according
+to the class’s file comparison operator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.funny_files">
+<code class="descname">funny_files</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.funny_files" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Files which are in both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, but could not be compared.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.dircmp.subdirs">
+<code class="descname">subdirs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.dircmp.subdirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping names in <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.dircmp.common_dirs" title="filecmp.dircmp.common_dirs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">common_dirs</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.dircmp" title="filecmp.dircmp"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code></a>
+objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES">
+<code class="descclassname">filecmp.</code><code class="descname">DEFAULT_IGNORES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>List of directories ignored by <a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp.dircmp" title="filecmp.dircmp"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code></a> by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here is a simplified example of using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subdirs</span></code> attribute to search
+recursively through two directories to show common different files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">filecmp</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">dircmp</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_diff_files</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dcmp</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dcmp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">diff_files</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;diff_file </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> found in </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> and </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dcmp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>              <span class="n">dcmp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">right</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">sub_dcmp</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dcmp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subdirs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">print_diff_files</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sub_dcmp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dcmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dircmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;dir1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dir2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> 
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">print_diff_files</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dcmp</span><span class="p">)</span> 
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code> — File and Directory Comparisons</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-dircmp-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code> class</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stat.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code> — Interpreting <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> results</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tempfile.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fileformats.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fileformats.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..803d7ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fileformats.html
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>File Formats &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="file-formats">
+<span id="fileformats"></span><h1>File Formats<a class="headerlink" href="#file-formats" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter parse various miscellaneous file formats
+that aren’t markup languages and are not related to e-mail.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="csv.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code> — CSV File Reading and Writing</a><ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-fileinput">
+<span id="fileinput-iterate-over-lines-from-multiple-input-streams"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-fileinput" title="fileinput: Loop over standard input or a list of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code></a> — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams<a class="headerlink" href="#module-fileinput" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/fileinput.py">Lib/fileinput.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module implements a helper class and functions to quickly write a
+loop over standard input or a list of files. If you just want to read or
+write one file see <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The typical use is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fileinput</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">fileinput</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">input</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This iterates over the lines of all files listed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>, defaulting
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code> if the list is empty.  If a filename is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>, it is also
+replaced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code> and the optional arguments <em>mode</em> and <em>openhook</em>
+are ignored.  To specify an alternative list of filenames, pass it as the
+first argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.input" title="fileinput.input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a>.  A single file name is also allowed.</p>
+<p>All files are opened in text mode by default, but you can override this by
+specifying the <em>mode</em> parameter in the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.input" title="fileinput.input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code></a>.  If an I/O error occurs during opening or reading a file,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> used to be raised; it is now an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code> is used more than once, the second and further use will return
+no lines, except perhaps for interactive use, or if it has been explicitly reset
+(e.g. using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin.seek(0)</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Empty files are opened and immediately closed; the only time their presence in
+the list of filenames is noticeable at all is when the last file opened is
+empty.</p>
+<p>Lines are returned with any newlines intact, which means that the last line in
+a file may not have one.</p>
+<p>You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via the
+<em>openhook</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.input" title="fileinput.input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput.input()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput()</span></code></a>. The
+hook must be a function that takes two arguments, <em>filename</em> and <em>mode</em>, and
+returns an accordingly opened file-like object. Two useful hooks are already
+provided by this module.</p>
+<p>The following function is the primary interface of this module:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.input">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">input</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>files=None</em>, <em>inplace=False</em>, <em>backup=''</em>, <em>bufsize=0</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>openhook=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code></a> class.  The instance will be used
+as global state for the functions of this module, and is also returned to use
+during iteration.  The parameters to this function will be passed along to the
+constructor of the <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code></a> instance can be used as a context manager in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  In this example, <em>input</em> is closed after the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement is exited, even if an exception occurs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">fileinput</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">files</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Can be used as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>The <em>bufsize</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions use the global state created by <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.input" title="fileinput.input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput.input()</span></code></a>;
+if there is no active state, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.filename">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the file currently being read.  Before the first line has
+been read, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the integer “file descriptor” for the current file. When no file is
+opened (before the first line and between files), returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.lineno">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">lineno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the cumulative line number of the line that has just been read.  Before
+the first line has been read, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  After the last line of the last
+file has been read, returns the line number of that line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.filelineno">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">filelineno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.filelineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the line number in the current file.  Before the first line has been
+read, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  After the last line of the last file has been read,
+returns the line number of that line within the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.isfirstline">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">isfirstline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.isfirstline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the line just read is the first line of its file, otherwise
+returns false.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.isstdin">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">isstdin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.isstdin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the last line was read from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>, otherwise returns
+false.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.nextfile">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">nextfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.nextfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the current file so that the next iteration will read the first line from
+the next file (if any); lines not read from the file will not count towards the
+cumulative line count.  The filename is not changed until after the first line
+of the next file has been read.  Before the first line has been read, this
+function has no effect; it cannot be used to skip the first file.  After the
+last line of the last file has been read, this function has no effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.close">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The class which implements the sequence behavior provided by the module is
+available for subclassing as well:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="fileinput.FileInput">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">FileInput</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>files=None</em>, <em>inplace=False</em>, <em>backup=''</em>, <em>bufsize=0</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>openhook=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code></a> is the implementation; its methods <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.filename" title="fileinput.filename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.fileno" title="fileinput.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.lineno" title="fileinput.lineno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.filelineno" title="fileinput.filelineno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filelineno()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.isfirstline" title="fileinput.isfirstline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfirstline()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.isstdin" title="fileinput.isstdin"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isstdin()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.nextfile" title="fileinput.nextfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nextfile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.close" title="fileinput.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> correspond to the
+functions of the same name in the module. In addition it has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="io.TextIOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> method which returns the next input line,
+and a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method which implements the sequence behavior.
+The sequence must be accessed in strictly sequential order; random access
+and <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="io.TextIOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> cannot be mixed.</p>
+<p>With <em>mode</em> you can specify which file mode will be passed to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>. It
+must be one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rU'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>openhook</em>, when given, must be a function that takes two arguments,
+<em>filename</em> and <em>mode</em>, and returns an accordingly opened file-like object. You
+cannot use <em>inplace</em> and <em>openhook</em> together.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code></a> instance can be used as a context manager in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  In this example, <em>input</em> is closed after the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement is exited, even if an exception occurs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">FileInput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">files</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Can be used as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rU'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code> modes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>The <em>bufsize</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>Optional in-place filtering:</strong> if the keyword argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inplace=True</span></code> is
+passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.input" title="fileinput.input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput.input()</span></code></a> or to the <a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput.FileInput" title="fileinput.FileInput"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code></a> constructor, the
+file is moved to a backup file and standard output is directed to the input file
+(if a file of the same name as the backup file already exists, it will be
+replaced silently).  This makes it possible to write a filter that rewrites its
+input file in place.  If the <em>backup</em> parameter is given (typically as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backup='.&lt;some</span> <span class="pre">extension&gt;'</span></code>), it specifies the extension for the backup file,
+and the backup file remains around; by default, the extension is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.bak'</span></code> and
+it is deleted when the output file is closed.  In-place filtering is disabled
+when standard input is read.</p>
+<p>The two following opening hooks are provided by this module:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.hook_compressed">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">hook_compressed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.hook_compressed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transparently opens files compressed with gzip and bzip2 (recognized by the
+extensions <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.gz'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.bz2'</span></code>) using the <a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a>
+modules.  If the filename extension is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.gz'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.bz2'</span></code>, the file is
+opened normally (ie, using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> without any decompression).</p>
+<p>Usage example:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fi</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed)</span></code></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fileinput.hook_encoded">
+<code class="descclassname">fileinput.</code><code class="descname">hook_encoded</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em>, <em>errors=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput.hook_encoded" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a hook which opens each file with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, using the given
+<em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> to read the file.</p>
+<p>Usage example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fi</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded(&quot;utf-8&quot;,</span>
+<span class="pre">&quot;surrogateescape&quot;))</span></code></p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the optional <em>errors</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filesys.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filesys.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4066191
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/filesys.html
@@ -0,0 +1,247 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>File and Directory Access &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="file-and-directory-access">
+<span id="filesys"></span><h1>File and Directory Access<a class="headerlink" href="#file-and-directory-access" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter deal with disk files and directories.  For
+example, there are modules for reading the properties of files, manipulating
+paths in a portable way, and creating temporary files.  The full list of modules
+in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code> — Object-oriented filesystem paths</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#basic-use">Basic use</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pure-paths">Pure paths</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#general-properties">General properties</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#operators">Operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#accessing-individual-parts">Accessing individual parts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#methods-and-properties">Methods and properties</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#concrete-paths">Concrete paths</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module">Correspondence to tools in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code> — Common pathname manipulations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="fileinput.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code> — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code> — Interpreting <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> results</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="filecmp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code> — File and Directory Comparisons</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="filecmp.html#the-dircmp-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code> class</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code> — Generate temporary files and directories</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#deprecated-functions-and-variables">Deprecated functions and variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="glob.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code> — Unix style pathname pattern expansion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch</span></code> — Unix filename pattern matching</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="linecache.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code> — Random access to text lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code> — High-level file operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#directory-and-files-operations">Directory and files operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#copytree-example">copytree example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#rmtree-example">rmtree example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#archiving-operations">Archiving operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#archiving-example">Archiving example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal">Querying the size of the output terminal</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="macpath.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macpath</span></code> — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Operating system interfaces, including functions to work with files at a
+lower level than Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Python’s built-in I/O library, including both abstract classes and
+some concrete classes such as file I/O.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The standard way to open files for reading and writing with Python.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+<!DOCTYPE html>
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-fnmatch">
+<span id="fnmatch-unix-filename-pattern-matching"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-fnmatch" title="fnmatch: Unix shell style filename pattern matching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch</span></code></a> — Unix filename pattern matching<a class="headerlink" href="#module-fnmatch" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/fnmatch.py">Lib/fnmatch.py</a></p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><hr class="docutils" id="index-1" />
+<p>This module provides support for Unix shell-style wildcards, which are <em>not</em> the
+same as regular expressions (which are documented in the <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module).  The
+special characters used in shell-style wildcards are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-2">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 75%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Pattern</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>matches everything</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>matches any single character</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[seq]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>matches any character in <em>seq</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[!seq]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>matches any character not in <em>seq</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'[?]'</span></code> matches the character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-3">Note that the filename separator (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code> on Unix) is <em>not</em> special to this
+module.  See module <a class="reference internal" href="glob.html#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> for pathname expansion (<a class="reference internal" href="glob.html#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fnmatch.filter" title="fnmatch.filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> to match pathname segments).  Similarly, filenames starting with
+a period are not special for this module, and are matched by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>
+patterns.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fnmatch.fnmatch">
+<code class="descclassname">fnmatch.</code><code class="descname">fnmatch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fnmatch.fnmatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether the <em>filename</em> string matches the <em>pattern</em> string, returning
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.  Both parameters are case-normalized
+using <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.normcase" title="os.path.normcase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.normcase()</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="#fnmatch.fnmatchcase" title="fnmatch.fnmatchcase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatchcase()</span></code></a> can be used to perform a
+case-sensitive comparison, regardless of whether that’s standard for the
+operating system.</p>
+<p>This example will print all file names in the current directory with the
+extension <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.txt</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fnmatch</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">file</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">fnmatch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fnmatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fnmatch.fnmatchcase">
+<code class="descclassname">fnmatch.</code><code class="descname">fnmatchcase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fnmatch.fnmatchcase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether <em>filename</em> matches <em>pattern</em>, returning <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>; the comparison is case-sensitive and does not apply
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.normcase" title="os.path.normcase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.normcase()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fnmatch.filter">
+<code class="descclassname">fnmatch.</code><code class="descname">filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>names</em>, <em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fnmatch.filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the subset of the list of <em>names</em> that match <em>pattern</em>. It is the same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[n</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">n</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">names</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">fnmatch(n,</span> <span class="pre">pattern)]</span></code>, but implemented more efficiently.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fnmatch.translate">
+<code class="descclassname">fnmatch.</code><code class="descname">translate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fnmatch.translate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the shell-style <em>pattern</em> converted to a regular expression for
+using with <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.match()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fnmatch</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">regex</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fnmatch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">translate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">regex</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;(?s:.*\\.txt)\\Z&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">reobj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">regex</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">reobj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match=&#39;foobar.txt&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="glob.html#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Unix shell-style path expansion.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-formatter">
+<span id="formatter-generic-output-formatting"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-formatter" title="formatter: Generic output formatter and device interface. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code></a> — Generic output formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#module-formatter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Due to lack of usage, the formatter module has been deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module supports two interface definitions, each with multiple
+implementations: The <em>formatter</em> interface, and the <em>writer</em> interface which is
+required by the formatter interface.</p>
+<p>Formatter objects transform an abstract flow of formatting events into specific
+output events on writer objects.  Formatters manage several stack structures to
+allow various properties of a writer object to be changed and restored; writers
+need not be able to handle relative changes nor any sort of “change back”
+operation.  Specific writer properties which may be controlled via formatter
+objects are horizontal alignment, font, and left margin indentations.  A
+mechanism is provided which supports providing arbitrary, non-exclusive style
+settings to a writer as well.  Additional interfaces facilitate formatting
+events which are not reversible, such as paragraph separation.</p>
+<p>Writer objects encapsulate device interfaces.  Abstract devices, such as file
+formats, are supported as well as physical devices.  The provided
+implementations all work with abstract devices.  The interface makes available
+mechanisms for setting the properties which formatter objects manage and
+inserting data into the output.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-formatter-interface">
+<span id="formatter-interface"></span><h2>The Formatter Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#the-formatter-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Interfaces to create formatters are dependent on the specific formatter class
+being instantiated.  The interfaces described below are the required interfaces
+which all formatters must support once initialized.</p>
+<p>One data element is defined at the module level:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="formatter.AS_IS">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">AS_IS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.AS_IS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Value which can be used in the font specification passed to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">push_font()</span></code>
+method described below, or as the new value to any other <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">push_property()</span></code>
+method.  Pushing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_IS</span></code> value allows the corresponding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop_property()</span></code>
+method to be called without having to track whether the property was changed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attributes are defined for formatter instance objects:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.writer">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">writer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.writer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The writer instance with which the formatter interacts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.end_paragraph">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">end_paragraph</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blanklines</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.end_paragraph" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close any open paragraphs and insert at least <em>blanklines</em> before the next
+paragraph.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.add_line_break">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">add_line_break</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.add_line_break" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a hard line break if one does not already exist.  This does not break the
+logical paragraph.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.add_hor_rule">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">add_hor_rule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.add_hor_rule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a horizontal rule in the output.  A hard break is inserted if there is
+data in the current paragraph, but the logical paragraph is not broken.  The
+arguments and keywords are passed on to the writer’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_line_break()</span></code>
+method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">add_flowing_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provide data which should be formatted with collapsed whitespace. Whitespace
+from preceding and successive calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data" title="formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_flowing_data()</span></code></a> is considered as
+well when the whitespace collapse is performed.  The data which is passed to
+this method is expected to be word-wrapped by the output device.  Note that any
+word-wrapping still must be performed by the writer object due to the need to
+rely on device and font information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.add_literal_data">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">add_literal_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.add_literal_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provide data which should be passed to the writer unchanged. Whitespace,
+including newline and tab characters, are considered legal in the value of
+<em>data</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.add_label_data">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">add_label_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>counter</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.add_label_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a label which should be placed to the left of the current left margin.
+This should be used for constructing bulleted or numbered lists.  If the
+<em>format</em> value is a string, it is interpreted as a format specification for
+<em>counter</em>, which should be an integer. The result of this formatting becomes the
+value of the label; if <em>format</em> is not a string it is used as the label value
+directly. The label value is passed as the only argument to the writer’s
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_label_data()</span></code> method.  Interpretation of non-string label values is
+dependent on the associated writer.</p>
+<p>Format specifications are strings which, in combination with a counter value,
+are used to compute label values.  Each character in the format string is copied
+to the label value, with some characters recognized to indicate a transform on
+the counter value.  Specifically, the character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1'</span></code> represents the counter
+value formatter as an Arabic number, the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>
+represent alphabetic representations of the counter value in upper and lower
+case, respectively, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'I'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code> represent the counter value in Roman
+numerals, in upper and lower case.  Note that the alphabetic and roman
+transforms require that the counter value be greater than zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.flush_softspace">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">flush_softspace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.flush_softspace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send any pending whitespace buffered from a previous call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data" title="formatter.formatter.add_flowing_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_flowing_data()</span></code></a> to the associated writer object.  This should be called
+before any direct manipulation of the writer object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.push_alignment">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">push_alignment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>align</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.push_alignment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push a new alignment setting onto the alignment stack.  This may be
+<a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.AS_IS" title="formatter.AS_IS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_IS</span></code></a> if no change is desired.  If the alignment value is changed from
+the previous setting, the writer’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_alignment()</span></code> method is called with
+the <em>align</em> value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.pop_alignment">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">pop_alignment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.pop_alignment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restore the previous alignment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.push_font">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">push_font</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>(size</em>, <em>italic</em>, <em>bold</em>, <em>teletype)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.push_font" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change some or all font properties of the writer object.  Properties which are
+not set to <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.AS_IS" title="formatter.AS_IS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_IS</span></code></a> are set to the values passed in while others are
+maintained at their current settings.  The writer’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_font()</span></code> method is
+called with the fully resolved font specification.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.pop_font">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">pop_font</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.pop_font" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restore the previous font.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.push_margin">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">push_margin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>margin</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.push_margin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Increase the number of left margin indentations by one, associating the logical
+tag <em>margin</em> with the new indentation.  The initial margin level is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.
+Changed values of the logical tag must be true values; false values other than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.AS_IS" title="formatter.AS_IS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_IS</span></code></a> are not sufficient to change the margin.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.pop_margin">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">pop_margin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.pop_margin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restore the previous margin.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.push_style">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">push_style</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*styles</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.push_style" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push any number of arbitrary style specifications.  All styles are pushed onto
+the styles stack in order.  A tuple representing the entire stack, including
+<a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.AS_IS" title="formatter.AS_IS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_IS</span></code></a> values, is passed to the writer’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_styles()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.pop_style">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">pop_style</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.pop_style" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pop the last <em>n</em> style specifications passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.formatter.push_style" title="formatter.formatter.push_style"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">push_style()</span></code></a>.  A tuple
+representing the revised stack, including <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.AS_IS" title="formatter.AS_IS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_IS</span></code></a> values, is passed to
+the writer’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_styles()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.set_spacing">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">set_spacing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spacing</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.set_spacing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the spacing style for the writer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.formatter.assert_line_data">
+<code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">assert_line_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.formatter.assert_line_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Inform the formatter that data has been added to the current paragraph
+out-of-band.  This should be used when the writer has been manipulated
+directly.  The optional <em>flag</em> argument can be set to false if the writer
+manipulations produced a hard line break at the end of the output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="formatter-implementations">
+<span id="formatter-impls"></span><h2>Formatter Implementations<a class="headerlink" href="#formatter-implementations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Two implementations of formatter objects are provided by this module. Most
+applications may use one of these classes without modification or subclassing.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="formatter.NullFormatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">NullFormatter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>writer=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.NullFormatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A formatter which does nothing.  If <em>writer</em> is omitted, a <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.NullWriter" title="formatter.NullWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullWriter</span></code></a>
+instance is created.  No methods of the writer are called by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.NullFormatter" title="formatter.NullFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullFormatter</span></code></a> instances.  Implementations should inherit from this
+class if implementing a writer interface but don’t need to inherit any
+implementation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="formatter.AbstractFormatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">AbstractFormatter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>writer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.AbstractFormatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The standard formatter.  This implementation has demonstrated wide applicability
+to many writers, and may be used directly in most circumstances.  It has been
+used to implement a full-featured World Wide Web browser.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-writer-interface">
+<span id="writer-interface"></span><h2>The Writer Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#the-writer-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Interfaces to create writers are dependent on the specific writer class being
+instantiated.  The interfaces described below are the required interfaces which
+all writers must support once initialized. Note that while most applications can
+use the <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.AbstractFormatter" title="formatter.AbstractFormatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractFormatter</span></code></a> class as a formatter, the writer must
+typically be provided by the application.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.flush">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flush any buffered output or device control events.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.new_alignment">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">new_alignment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>align</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.new_alignment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the alignment style.  The <em>align</em> value can be any object, but by convention
+is a string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> indicates that the writer’s “preferred”
+alignment should be used. Conventional <em>align</em> values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'left'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'center'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'right'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'justify'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.new_font">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">new_font</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>font</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.new_font" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the font style.  The value of <em>font</em> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, indicating that the
+device’s default font should be used, or a tuple of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(size,</span>
+<span class="pre">italic,</span> <span class="pre">bold,</span> <span class="pre">teletype)</span></code>.  Size will be a string indicating the size of
+font that should be used; specific strings and their interpretation must be
+defined by the application.  The <em>italic</em>, <em>bold</em>, and <em>teletype</em> values are
+Boolean values specifying which of those font attributes should be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.new_margin">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">new_margin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>margin</em>, <em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.new_margin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the margin level to the integer <em>level</em> and the logical tag to <em>margin</em>.
+Interpretation of the logical tag is at the writer’s discretion; the only
+restriction on the value of the logical tag is that it not be a false value for
+non-zero values of <em>level</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.new_spacing">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">new_spacing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spacing</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.new_spacing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the spacing style to <em>spacing</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.new_styles">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">new_styles</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>styles</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.new_styles" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set additional styles.  The <em>styles</em> value is a tuple of arbitrary values; the
+value <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.AS_IS" title="formatter.AS_IS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS_IS</span></code></a> should be ignored.  The <em>styles</em> tuple may be interpreted
+either as a set or as a stack depending on the requirements of the application
+and writer implementation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.send_line_break">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">send_line_break</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.send_line_break" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Break the current line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.send_paragraph">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">send_paragraph</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blankline</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.send_paragraph" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Produce a paragraph separation of at least <em>blankline</em> blank lines, or the
+equivalent.  The <em>blankline</em> value will be an integer.  Note that the
+implementation will receive a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.writer.send_line_break" title="formatter.writer.send_line_break"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_line_break()</span></code></a> before this call
+if a line break is needed;  this method should not include ending the last line
+of the paragraph. It is only responsible for vertical spacing between
+paragraphs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.send_hor_rule">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">send_hor_rule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.send_hor_rule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display a horizontal rule on the output device.  The arguments to this method
+are entirely application- and writer-specific, and should be interpreted with
+care.  The method implementation may assume that a line break has already been
+issued via <a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.writer.send_line_break" title="formatter.writer.send_line_break"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_line_break()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.send_flowing_data">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">send_flowing_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.send_flowing_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Output character data which may be word-wrapped and re-flowed as needed.  Within
+any sequence of calls to this method, the writer may assume that spans of
+multiple whitespace characters have been collapsed to single space characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.send_literal_data">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">send_literal_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.send_literal_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Output character data which has already been formatted for display.  Generally,
+this should be interpreted to mean that line breaks indicated by newline
+characters should be preserved and no new line breaks should be introduced.  The
+data may contain embedded newline and tab characters, unlike data provided to
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_formatted_data()</span></code> interface.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="formatter.writer.send_label_data">
+<code class="descclassname">writer.</code><code class="descname">send_label_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.writer.send_label_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>data</em> to the left of the current left margin, if possible. The value of
+<em>data</em> is not restricted; treatment of non-string values is entirely
+application- and writer-dependent.  This method will only be called at the
+beginning of a line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writer-implementations">
+<span id="writer-impls"></span><h2>Writer Implementations<a class="headerlink" href="#writer-implementations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Three implementations of the writer object interface are provided as examples by
+this module.  Most applications will need to derive new writer classes from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#formatter.NullWriter" title="formatter.NullWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullWriter</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="formatter.NullWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">NullWriter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.NullWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A writer which only provides the interface definition; no actions are taken on
+any methods.  This should be the base class for all writers which do not need to
+inherit any implementation methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="formatter.AbstractWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">AbstractWriter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.AbstractWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A writer which can be used in debugging formatters, but not much else.  Each
+method simply announces itself by printing its name and arguments on standard
+output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="formatter.DumbWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">formatter.</code><code class="descname">DumbWriter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=None</em>, <em>maxcol=72</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#formatter.DumbWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Simple writer class which writes output on the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> passed
+in as <em>file</em> or, if <em>file</em> is omitted, on standard output.  The output is
+simply word-wrapped to the number of columns specified by <em>maxcol</em>.  This
+class is suitable for reflowing a sequence of paragraphs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> — Generic output formatting</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-formatter-interface">The Formatter Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formatter-implementations">Formatter Implementations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-writer-interface">The Writer Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writer-implementations">Writer Implementations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fractions.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fractions.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63194b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/fractions.html
@@ -0,0 +1,372 @@
+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-fractions">
+<span id="fractions-rational-numbers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> — Rational numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-fractions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/fractions.py">Lib/fractions.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> module provides support for rational number arithmetic.</p>
+<p>A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of integers, from
+another rational number, or from a string.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">fractions.</code><code class="descname">Fraction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>numerator=0</em>, <em>denominator=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">fractions.</code><code class="descname">Fraction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other_fraction</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">fractions.</code><code class="descname">Fraction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>float</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">fractions.</code><code class="descname">Fraction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>decimal</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">fractions.</code><code class="descname">Fraction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>The first version requires that <em>numerator</em> and <em>denominator</em> are instances
+of <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Rational" title="numbers.Rational"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Rational</span></code></a> and returns a new <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> instance
+with value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numerator/denominator</span></code>. If <em>denominator</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, it
+raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a>. The second version requires that
+<em>other_fraction</em> is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Rational" title="numbers.Rational"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Rational</span></code></a> and returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> instance with the same value.  The next two versions accept
+either a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> instance, and return a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> instance with exactly the same value.  Note that due to the
+usual issues with binary floating-point (see <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/floatingpoint.html#tut-fp-issues"><span class="std std-ref">Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</span></a>), the
+argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction(1.1)</span></code> is not exactly equal to 11/10, and so
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction(1.1)</span></code> does <em>not</em> return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction(11,</span> <span class="pre">10)</span></code> as one might expect.
+(But see the documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction.limit_denominator" title="fractions.Fraction.limit_denominator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">limit_denominator()</span></code></a> method below.)
+The last version of the constructor expects a string or unicode instance.
+The usual form for this instance is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">numerator</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span> <span class="n">denominator</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where the optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sign</span></code> may be either ‘+’ or ‘-‘ and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numerator</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">denominator</span></code> (if present) are strings of
+decimal digits.  In addition, any string that represents a finite
+value and is accepted by the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> constructor is also
+accepted by the <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> constructor.  In either form the
+input string may also have leading and/or trailing whitespace.
+Here are some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(-8, 5)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">123</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(123, 1)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(0, 1)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3/7&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(3, 7)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39; -3/7 &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(-3, 7)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.414213 </span><span class="se">\t\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(1414213, 1000000)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-.125&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(-1, 8)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;7e-6&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(7, 1000000)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.25</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(9, 4)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.1&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(11, 10)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> class inherits from the abstract base class
+<a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Rational" title="numbers.Rational"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Rational</span></code></a>, and implements all of the methods and
+operations from that class.  <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> instances are hashable,
+and should be treated as immutable.  In addition,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> has the following properties and methods:</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> constructor now accepts <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.numerator">
+<code class="descname">numerator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.numerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Numerator of the Fraction in lowest term.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.denominator">
+<code class="descname">denominator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.denominator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Denominator of the Fraction in lowest term.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.from_float">
+<code class="descname">from_float</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.from_float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class method constructs a <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> representing the exact
+value of <em>flt</em>, which must be a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>. Beware that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction.from_float(0.3)</span></code> is not the same value as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction(3,</span> <span class="pre">10)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> instance directly from a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.from_decimal">
+<code class="descname">from_decimal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.from_decimal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class method constructs a <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> representing the exact
+value of <em>dec</em>, which must be a <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> instance directly from a <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.limit_denominator">
+<code class="descname">limit_denominator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>max_denominator=1000000</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.limit_denominator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finds and returns the closest <a class="reference internal" href="#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> that has
+denominator at most max_denominator.  This method is useful for finding
+rational approximations to a given floating-point number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3.1415926535897932&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">limit_denominator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(355, 113)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or for recovering a rational number that’s represented as a float:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cos</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">limit_denominator</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(1, 2)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">limit_denominator</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(11, 10)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.__floor__">
+<code class="descname">__floor__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.__floor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the greatest <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">self</span></code>.  This method can
+also be accessed through the <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.floor()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">floor</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">floor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">355</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">113</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.__ceil__">
+<code class="descname">__ceil__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.__ceil__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the least <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">self</span></code>.  This method can
+also be accessed through the <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.ceil()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="fractions.Fraction.__round__">
+<code class="descname">__round__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.Fraction.__round__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">__round__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ndigits</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>The first version returns the nearest <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>,
+rounding half to even. The second version rounds <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> to the
+nearest multiple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction(1,</span> <span class="pre">10**ndigits)</span></code> (logically, if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndigits</span></code> is negative), again rounding half toward even.  This
+method can also be accessed through the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="fractions.gcd">
+<code class="descclassname">fractions.</code><code class="descname">gcd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#fractions.gcd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the greatest common divisor of the integers <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.  If either
+<em>a</em> or <em>b</em> is nonzero, then the absolute value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcd(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is the
+largest integer that divides both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcd(a,b)</span></code> has the same
+sign as <em>b</em> if <em>b</em> is nonzero; otherwise it takes the sign of <em>a</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcd(0,</span>
+<span class="pre">0)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.5: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.gcd" title="math.gcd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.gcd()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The abstract base classes making up the numeric tower.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+  <div class="section" id="program-frameworks">
+<span id="frameworks"></span><h1>Program Frameworks<a class="headerlink" href="#program-frameworks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter are frameworks that will largely dictate
+the structure of your program.  Currently the modules described  here are all
+oriented toward writing command-line interfaces.</p>
+<p>The full list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="turtle.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code> — Turtle graphics</a><ul>
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new file mode 100644
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+  <div class="section" id="module-ftplib">
+<span id="ftplib-ftp-protocol-client"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> — FTP protocol client<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ftplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/ftplib.py">Lib/ftplib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines the class <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> and a few related items. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> class implements the client side of the FTP protocol.  You can use
+this to write Python programs that perform a variety of automated FTP jobs, such
+as mirroring other FTP servers.  It is also used by the module
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> to handle URLs that use FTP.  For more information on FTP
+(File Transfer Protocol), see Internet <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc959.html"><strong>RFC 959</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>Here’s a sample session using the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ftplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">FTP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">FTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ftp.debian.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># connect to host, default port</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">login</span><span class="p">()</span>                     <span class="c1"># user anonymous, passwd anonymous@</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;230 Login successful.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cwd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;debian&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>               <span class="c1"># change into &quot;debian&quot; directory</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">retrlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;LIST&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>           <span class="c1"># list directory contents</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool</span>
+<span class="go">drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project</span>
+<span class="go">drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;226 Directory send OK.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">retrbinary</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;RETR README&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;README&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;226 Transfer complete.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module defines the following items:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ftplib.</code><code class="descname">FTP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>user=''</em>, <em>passwd=''</em>, <em>acct=''</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>source_address=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> class.  When <em>host</em> is given, the
+method call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect(host)</span></code> is made.  When <em>user</em> is given, additionally
+the method call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">login(user,</span> <span class="pre">passwd,</span> <span class="pre">acct)</span></code> is made (where <em>passwd</em> and
+<em>acct</em> default to the empty string when not given).  The optional <em>timeout</em>
+parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the
+connection attempt (if is not specified, the global default timeout setting
+will be used). <em>source_address</em> is a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> for the socket
+to bind to as its source address before connecting.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> class supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ftplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">FTP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">FTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ftp1.at.proftpd.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ftp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">ftp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">login</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">ftp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dir</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>source_address</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP_TLS">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ftplib.</code><code class="descname">FTP_TLS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>user=''</em>, <em>passwd=''</em>, <em>acct=''</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>certfile=None</em>, <em>context=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>source_address=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as described in
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4217.html"><strong>RFC 4217</strong></a>.
+Connect as usual to port 21 implicitly securing the FTP control connection
+before authenticating. Securing the data connection requires the user to
+explicitly ask for it by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_p" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_p"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prot_p()</span></code></a> method.  <em>context</em>
+is a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object which allows bundling SSL configuration
+options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
+long-lived) structure.  Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> for best practices.</p>
+<p><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are a legacy alternative to <em>context</em> – they
+can point to PEM-formatted private key and certificate chain files
+(respectively) for the SSL connection.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>source_address</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The class now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are deprecated in favor of <em>context</em>.
+Please use <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> instead, or let
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> select the system’s trusted CA
+certificates for you.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Here’s a sample session using the <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP_TLS</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftps</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">FTP_TLS</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ftp.pureftpd.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftps</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">login</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;230 Anonymous user logged in&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftps</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prot_p</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;200 Data protection level set to &quot;private&quot;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ftps</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nlst</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;6jack&#39;, &#39;OpenBSD&#39;, &#39;antilink&#39;, &#39;blogbench&#39;, &#39;bsdcam&#39;, &#39;clockspeed&#39;, &#39;djbdns-jedi&#39;, &#39;docs&#39;, &#39;eaccelerator-jedi&#39;, &#39;favicon.ico&#39;, &#39;francotone&#39;, &#39;fugu&#39;, &#39;ignore&#39;, &#39;libpuzzle&#39;, &#39;metalog&#39;, &#39;minidentd&#39;, &#39;misc&#39;, &#39;mysql-udf-global-user-variables&#39;, &#39;php-jenkins-hash&#39;, &#39;php-skein-hash&#39;, &#39;php-webdav&#39;, &#39;phpaudit&#39;, &#39;phpbench&#39;, &#39;pincaster&#39;, &#39;ping&#39;, &#39;posto&#39;, &#39;pub&#39;, &#39;public&#39;, &#39;public_keys&#39;, &#39;pure-ftpd&#39;, &#39;qscan&#39;, &#39;qtc&#39;, &#39;sharedance&#39;, &#39;skycache&#39;, &#39;sound&#39;, &#39;tmp&#39;, &#39;ucarp&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ftplib.error_reply">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ftplib.</code><code class="descname">error_reply</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.error_reply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ftplib.error_temp">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ftplib.</code><code class="descname">error_temp</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.error_temp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when an error code signifying a temporary error (response
+codes in the range 400–499) is received.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ftplib.error_perm">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ftplib.</code><code class="descname">error_perm</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.error_perm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when an error code signifying a permanent error (response
+codes in the range 500–599) is received.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ftplib.error_proto">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ftplib.</code><code class="descname">error_proto</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.error_proto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does not fit
+the response specifications of the File Transfer Protocol, i.e. begin with a
+digit in the range 1–5.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ftplib.all_errors">
+<code class="descclassname">ftplib.</code><code class="descname">all_errors</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.all_errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The set of all exceptions (as a tuple) that methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a>
+instances may raise as a result of problems with the FTP connection (as
+opposed to programming errors made by the caller).  This set includes the
+four exceptions listed above as well as <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="netrc.html#module-netrc" title="netrc: Loading of .netrc files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Parser for the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.netrc</span></code> file format.  The file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.netrc</span></code> is
+typically used by FTP clients to load user authentication information
+before prompting the user.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ftp-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>FTP Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#ftp-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Several methods are available in two flavors: one for handling text files and
+another for binary files.  These are named for the command which is used
+followed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lines</span></code> for the text version or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binary</span></code> for the binary version.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.set_debuglevel">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">set_debuglevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.set_debuglevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the instance’s debugging level.  This controls the amount of debugging
+output printed.  The default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, produces no debugging output.  A value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line
+per request.  A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> or higher produces the maximum amount of
+debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the control connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.connect">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>port=0</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>source_address=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect to the given host and port.  The default port number is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">21</span></code>, as
+specified by the FTP protocol specification.  It is rarely needed to specify a
+different port number.  This function should be called only once for each
+instance; it should not be called at all if a host was given when the instance
+was created.  All other methods can only be used after a connection has been
+made.
+The optional <em>timeout</em> parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the
+connection attempt. If no <em>timeout</em> is passed, the global default timeout
+setting will be used.
+<em>source_address</em> is a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> for the socket to bind to as
+its source address before connecting.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>source_address</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.getwelcome">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">getwelcome</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.getwelcome" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the initial
+connection.  (This message sometimes contains disclaimers or help information
+that may be relevant to the user.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.login">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">login</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user='anonymous'</em>, <em>passwd=''</em>, <em>acct=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.login" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Log in as the given <em>user</em>.  The <em>passwd</em> and <em>acct</em> parameters are optional and
+default to the empty string.  If no <em>user</em> is specified, it defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'anonymous'</span></code>.  If <em>user</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'anonymous'</span></code>, the default <em>passwd</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'anonymous&#64;'</span></code>.  This function should be called only once for each instance,
+after a connection has been established; it should not be called at all if a
+host and user were given when the instance was created.  Most FTP commands are
+only allowed after the client has logged in.  The <em>acct</em> parameter supplies
+“accounting information”; few systems implement this.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.abort">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">abort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.abort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abort a file transfer that is in progress.  Using this does not always work, but
+it’s worth a try.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.sendcmd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">sendcmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.sendcmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a simple command string to the server and return the response string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.voidcmd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">voidcmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.voidcmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a simple command string to the server and handle the response.  Return
+nothing if a response code corresponding to success (codes in the range
+200–299) is received.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.error_reply" title="ftplib.error_reply"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_reply</span></code></a> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.retrbinary">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">retrbinary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>callback</em>, <em>blocksize=8192</em>, <em>rest=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.retrbinary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve a file in binary transfer mode.  <em>cmd</em> should be an appropriate
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RETR</span></code> command: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'RETR</span> <span class="pre">filename'</span></code>. The <em>callback</em> function is called for
+each block of data received, with a single bytes argument giving the data
+block. The optional <em>blocksize</em> argument specifies the maximum chunk size to
+read on the low-level socket object created to do the actual transfer (which
+will also be the largest size of the data blocks passed to <em>callback</em>).  A
+reasonable default is chosen. <em>rest</em> means the same thing as in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd" title="ftplib.FTP.transfercmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transfercmd()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.retrlines">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">retrlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>callback=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.retrlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve a file or directory listing in ASCII transfer mode.  <em>cmd</em> should be
+an appropriate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RETR</span></code> command (see <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.retrbinary" title="ftplib.FTP.retrbinary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">retrbinary()</span></code></a>) or a command such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NLST</span></code> (usually just the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'LIST'</span></code>).
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span></code> retrieves a list of files and information about those files.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NLST</span></code> retrieves a list of file names.
+The <em>callback</em> function is called for each line with a string argument
+containing the line with the trailing CRLF stripped.  The default <em>callback</em>
+prints the line to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.set_pasv">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">set_pasv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.set_pasv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable “passive” mode if <em>val</em> is true, otherwise disable passive mode.
+Passive mode is on by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.storbinary">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">storbinary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>blocksize=8192</em>, <em>callback=None</em>, <em>rest=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.storbinary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Store a file in binary transfer mode.  <em>cmd</em> should be an appropriate
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STOR</span></code> command: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;STOR</span> <span class="pre">filename&quot;</span></code>. <em>fp</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>
+(opened in binary mode) which is read until EOF using its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>
+method in blocks of size <em>blocksize</em> to provide the data to be stored.
+The <em>blocksize</em> argument defaults to 8192.  <em>callback</em> is an optional single
+parameter callable that is called on each block of data after it is sent.
+<em>rest</em> means the same thing as in the <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd" title="ftplib.FTP.transfercmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transfercmd()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>rest</em> parameter added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.storlines">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">storlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>callback=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.storlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Store a file in ASCII transfer mode.  <em>cmd</em> should be an appropriate
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STOR</span></code> command (see <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.storbinary" title="ftplib.FTP.storbinary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">storbinary()</span></code></a>).  Lines are read until EOF from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> <em>fp</em> (opened in binary mode) using its <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>
+method to provide the data to be stored.  <em>callback</em> is an optional single
+parameter callable that is called on each line after it is sent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.transfercmd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">transfercmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>rest=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initiate a transfer over the data connection.  If the transfer is active, send an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPRT</span></code> or  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PORT</span></code> command and the transfer command specified by <em>cmd</em>, and
+accept the connection.  If the server is passive, send an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPSV</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PASV</span></code>
+command, connect to it, and start the transfer command.  Either way, return the
+socket for the connection.</p>
+<p>If optional <em>rest</em> is given, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REST</span></code> command is sent to the server, passing
+<em>rest</em> as an argument.  <em>rest</em> is usually a byte offset into the requested file,
+telling the server to restart sending the file’s bytes at the requested offset,
+skipping over the initial bytes.  Note however that <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc959.html"><strong>RFC 959</strong></a> requires only that
+<em>rest</em> be a string containing characters in the printable range from ASCII code
+33 to ASCII code 126.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd" title="ftplib.FTP.transfercmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transfercmd()</span></code></a> method, therefore, converts
+<em>rest</em> to a string, but no check is performed on the string’s contents.  If the
+server does not recognize the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REST</span></code> command, an <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.error_reply" title="ftplib.error_reply"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_reply</span></code></a> exception
+will be raised.  If this happens, simply call <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd" title="ftplib.FTP.transfercmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transfercmd()</span></code></a> without a
+<em>rest</em> argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.ntransfercmd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">ntransfercmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>rest=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.ntransfercmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd" title="ftplib.FTP.transfercmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transfercmd()</span></code></a>, but returns a tuple of the data connection and the
+expected size of the data.  If the expected size could not be computed, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+will be returned as the expected size.  <em>cmd</em> and <em>rest</em> means the same thing as
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.transfercmd" title="ftplib.FTP.transfercmd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transfercmd()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.mlsd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">mlsd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=&quot;&quot;</em>, <em>facts=[]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.mlsd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List a directory in a standardized format by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MLSD</span></code> command
+(<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3659.html"><strong>RFC 3659</strong></a>).  If <em>path</em> is omitted the current directory is assumed.
+<em>facts</em> is a list of strings representing the type of information desired
+(e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[&quot;type&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;size&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;perm&quot;]</span></code>).  Return a generator object yielding a
+tuple of two elements for every file found in path.  First element is the
+file name, the second one is a dictionary containing facts about the file
+name.  Content of this dictionary might be limited by the <em>facts</em> argument
+but server is not guaranteed to return all requested facts.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.nlst">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">nlst</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argument</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.nlst" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of file names as returned by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NLST</span></code> command.  The
+optional <em>argument</em> is a directory to list (default is the current server
+directory).  Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard options to
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NLST</span></code> command.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If your server supports the command, <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.mlsd" title="ftplib.FTP.mlsd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mlsd()</span></code></a> offers a better API.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.dir">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argument</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Produce a directory listing as returned by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span></code> command, printing it to
+standard output.  The optional <em>argument</em> is a directory to list (default is the
+current server directory).  Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard
+options to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span></code> command.  If the last argument is a function, it is used
+as a <em>callback</em> function as for <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.retrlines" title="ftplib.FTP.retrlines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">retrlines()</span></code></a>; the default prints to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>.  This method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If your server supports the command, <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.mlsd" title="ftplib.FTP.mlsd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mlsd()</span></code></a> offers a better API.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.rename">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">rename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fromname</em>, <em>toname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.rename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rename file <em>fromname</em> on the server to <em>toname</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.delete">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">delete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.delete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the file named <em>filename</em> from the server.  If successful, returns the
+text of the response, otherwise raises <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.error_perm" title="ftplib.error_perm"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_perm</span></code></a> on permission errors or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.error_reply" title="ftplib.error_reply"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_reply</span></code></a> on other errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.cwd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">cwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.cwd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current directory on the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.mkd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">mkd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.mkd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new directory on the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.pwd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">pwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.pwd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the pathname of the current directory on the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.rmd">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">rmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dirname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.rmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the directory named <em>dirname</em> on the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.size">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Request the size of the file named <em>filename</em> on the server.  On success, the
+size of the file is returned as an integer, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.
+Note that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIZE</span></code> command is not  standardized, but is supported by many
+common server implementations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.quit">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">quit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.quit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUIT</span></code> command to the server and close the connection. This is the
+“polite” way to close a connection, but it may raise an exception if the server
+responds with an error to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUIT</span></code> command.  This implies a call to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.close" title="ftplib.FTP.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method which renders the <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> instance useless for
+subsequent calls (see below).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP.close">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the connection unilaterally.  This should not be applied to an already
+closed connection such as after a successful call to <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.quit" title="ftplib.FTP.quit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit()</span></code></a>.
+After this call the <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a> instance should not be used any more (after
+a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.close" title="ftplib.FTP.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.quit" title="ftplib.FTP.quit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit()</span></code></a> you cannot reopen the
+connection by issuing another <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP.login" title="ftplib.FTP.login"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">login()</span></code></a> method).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ftp-tls-objects">
+<h2>FTP_TLS Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#ftp-tls-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP_TLS</span></code></a> class inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code></a>, defining these additional objects:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP_TLS.ssl_version">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP_TLS.</code><code class="descname">ssl_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ssl_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The SSL version to use (defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP_TLS.auth">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP_TLS.</code><code class="descname">auth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS.auth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set up a secure control connection by using TLS or SSL, depending on what
+is specified in the <a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ssl_version" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS.ssl_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl_version</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The method now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP_TLS.</code><code class="descname">ccc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be useful to take
+advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT with non-secure FTP
+without opening fixed ports.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_p">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP_TLS.</code><code class="descname">prot_p</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set up secure data connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_c">
+<code class="descclassname">FTP_TLS.</code><code class="descname">prot_c</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib.FTP_TLS.prot_c" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set up clear text data connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code> — FTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ftp-objects">FTP Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ftp-tls-objects">FTP_TLS Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="http.client.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code> — HTTP protocol client</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/functional.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/functional.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ed767e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/functional.html
@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Functional Programming Modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="functional-programming-modules">
+<h1>Functional Programming Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#functional-programming-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide functions and classes that support
+a functional programming style, and general operations on callables.</p>
+<p>The following modules are documented in this chapter:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code> — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertool-functions">Itertool functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools-recipes">Itertools Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="functools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code> — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#partial-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="operator.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code> — Standard operators as functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="operator.html#mapping-operators-to-functions">Mapping Operators to Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="operator.html#in-place-operators">In-place Operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="statistics.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code> — Mathematical statistics functions</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="itertools.html"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="built-in-functions">
+<span id="built-in-funcs"></span><h1>Built-in Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into it that
+are always available.  They are listed here in alphabetical order.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"></th>
+<th class="head"></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Built-in Functions</p></th>
+<th class="head"></th>
+<th class="head"></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#delattr" title="delattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delattr()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-memoryview"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-set"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#all" title="all"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-dict"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#setattr" title="setattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setattr()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#any" title="any"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">any()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hex()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#slice" title="slice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#bin" title="bin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">oct()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-str"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-bytearray"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-bytes"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-tuple"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#callable" title="callable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-frozenset"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-list"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#func-range"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#vars" title="vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vars()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#globals" title="globals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globals()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="abs">
+<code class="descname">abs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#abs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the absolute value of a number.  The argument may be an
+integer or a floating point number.  If the argument is a complex number, its
+magnitude is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="all">
+<code class="descname">all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if all elements of the <em>iterable</em> are true (or if the iterable
+is empty).  Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">all</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="any">
+<code class="descname">any</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#any" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if any element of the <em>iterable</em> is true.  If the iterable
+is empty, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ascii">
+<code class="descname">ascii</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ascii" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>As <a class="reference internal" href="#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>, return a string containing a printable representation of an
+object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\U</span></code> escapes.  This generates a string
+similar to that returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> in Python 2.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="bin">
+<code class="descname">bin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with “0b”. The result
+is a valid Python expression. If <em>x</em> is not a Python <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> object, it
+has to define an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> method that returns an integer. Some
+examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0b11&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-0b1010&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If prefix “0b” is desired or not, you can use either of the following ways.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;#b&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0b1110&#39;, &#39;1110&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{14:#b}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{14:b}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0b1110&#39;, &#39;1110&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bool">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">bool</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  <em>x</em> is converted
+using the standard <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#truth"><span class="std std-ref">truth testing procedure</span></a>.  If <em>x</em> is false
+or omitted, this returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>; otherwise it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a> class is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> (see <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric"><span class="std std-ref">Numeric Types — int, float, complex</span></a>).
+It cannot be subclassed further.  Its only instances are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (see <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bltin-boolean-values"><span class="std std-ref">Boolean Values</span></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged" id="index-0">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>x</em> is now a positional-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="breakpoint">
+<code class="descname">breakpoint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kws</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#breakpoint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function drops you into the debugger at the call site.  Specifically,
+it calls <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.breakpointhook" title="sys.breakpointhook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code></a>, passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kws</span></code> straight
+through.  By default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code> calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#pdb.set_trace" title="pdb.set_trace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code></a> expecting no arguments.  In this case, it is
+purely a convenience function so you don’t have to explicitly import
+<a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> or type as much code to enter the debugger.  However,
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.breakpointhook" title="sys.breakpointhook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code></a> can be set to some other function and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a> will automatically call that, allowing you to drop into
+the debugger of choice.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-bytearray"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">bytearray</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>source</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>encoding</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new array of bytes.  The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> class is a mutable
+sequence of integers in the range 0 &lt;= x &lt; 256.  It has most of the usual
+methods of mutable sequences, described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-mutable"><span class="std std-ref">Mutable Sequence Types</span></a>, as well
+as most methods that the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> type has, see <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes-methods"><span class="std std-ref">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>source</em> parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
+different ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If it is a <em>string</em>, you must also give the <em>encoding</em> (and optionally,
+<em>errors</em>) parameters; <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray()</span></code></a> then converts the string to
+bytes using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If it is an <em>integer</em>, the array will have that size and will be
+initialized with null bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p>If it is an object conforming to the <em>buffer</em> interface, a read-only buffer
+of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array.</p></li>
+<li><p>If it is an <em>iterable</em>, it must be an iterable of integers in the range
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">256</span></code>, which are used as the initial contents of the array.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#binaryseq"><span class="std std-ref">Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typebytearray"><span class="std std-ref">Bytearray Objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-bytes"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>source</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>encoding</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new “bytes” object, which is an immutable sequence of integers in
+the range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">256</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> is an immutable version of
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> – it has the same non-mutating methods and the same
+indexing and slicing behavior.</p>
+<p>Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#strings"><span class="std std-ref">String and Bytes literals</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#binaryseq"><span class="std std-ref">Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typebytes"><span class="std std-ref">Bytes Objects</span></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes-methods"><span class="std std-ref">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="callable">
+<code class="descname">callable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#callable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the <em>object</em> argument appears callable,
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> if not.  If this returns true, it is still possible that a
+call fails, but if it is false, calling <em>object</em> will never succeed.
+Note that classes are callable (calling a class returns a new instance);
+instances are callable if their class has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>This function was first removed in Python 3.0 and then brought back
+in Python 3.2.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="chr">
+<code class="descname">chr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#chr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the string representing a character whose Unicode code point is the
+integer <em>i</em>.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr(97)</span></code> returns the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, while
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr(8364)</span></code> returns the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'€'</span></code>. This is the inverse of <a class="reference internal" href="#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in
+base 16).  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised if <em>i</em> is outside that range.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="classmethod">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descname">classmethod</code><a class="headerlink" href="#classmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transform a method into a class method.</p>
+<p>A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just like an
+instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this
+idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;classmethod</span></code> form is a function <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>A class method can be called either on the class (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.f()</span></code>) or on an instance (such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C().f()</span></code>).  The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
+method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the
+implied first argument.</p>
+<p>Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
+see <a class="reference internal" href="#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For more information on class methods, see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="compile">
+<code class="descname">compile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>mode</em>, <em>flags=0</em>, <em>dont_inherit=False</em>, <em>optimize=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compile the <em>source</em> into a code or AST object.  Code objects can be executed
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>.  <em>source</em> can either be a normal string, a
+byte string, or an AST object.  Refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> module documentation
+for information on how to work with AST objects.</p>
+<p>The <em>filename</em> argument should give the file from which the code was read;
+pass some recognizable value if it wasn’t read from a file (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;string&gt;'</span></code> is
+commonly used).</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exec'</span></code> if <em>source</em> consists of a sequence of statements, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'eval'</span></code> if it
+consists of a single expression, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'single'</span></code> if it consists of a single
+interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
+evaluate to something other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> will be printed).</p>
+<p>The optional arguments <em>flags</em> and <em>dont_inherit</em> control which <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#future"><span class="std std-ref">future
+statements</span></a> affect the compilation of <em>source</em>.  If neither
+is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with those future
+statements that are in effect in the code that is calling <a class="reference internal" href="#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>.  If the
+<em>flags</em> argument is given and <em>dont_inherit</em> is not (or is zero) then the
+future statements specified by the <em>flags</em> argument are used in addition to
+those that would be used anyway. If <em>dont_inherit</em> is a non-zero integer then
+the <em>flags</em> argument is it – the future statements in effect around the call
+to compile are ignored.</p>
+<p>Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to
+specify multiple statements.  The bitfield required to specify a given feature
+can be found as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compiler_flag</span></code> attribute on
+the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Feature</span></code> instance in the <a class="reference internal" href="__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The argument <em>optimize</em> specifies the optimization level of the compiler; the
+default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> selects the optimization level of the interpreter as
+given by <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> options.  Explicit levels are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (no optimization;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code> is true), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (asserts are removed, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code> is false)
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> (docstrings are removed too).</p>
+<p>This function raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> if the compiled source is invalid,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the source contains null bytes.</p>
+<p>If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#ast.parse" title="ast.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.parse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When compiling a string with multi-line code in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'single'</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'eval'</span></code> mode, input must be terminated by at least one newline
+character.  This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and complete
+statements in the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
+sufficiently large/complex string when compiling to an AST
+object due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines.  Also input in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exec'</span></code> mode
+does not have to end in a newline anymore.  Added the <em>optimize</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> was raised when null bytes were encountered
+in <em>source</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="complex">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">complex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>real</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>imag</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#complex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a complex number with the value <em>real</em> + <em>imag</em>*1j or convert a string
+or number to a complex number.  If the first parameter is a string, it will
+be interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a
+second parameter.  The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument
+may be any numeric type (including complex).  If <em>imag</em> is omitted, it
+defaults to zero and the constructor serves as a numeric conversion like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.  If both arguments are omitted, returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0j</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace
+around the central <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> operator.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex('1+2j')</span></code> is fine, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex('1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">2j')</span></code> raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The complex type is described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric"><span class="std std-ref">Numeric Types — int, float, complex</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="delattr">
+<code class="descname">delattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#delattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a relative of <a class="reference internal" href="#setattr" title="setattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setattr()</span></code></a>.  The arguments are an object and a
+string.  The string must be the name of one of the object’s attributes.  The
+function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delattr(x,</span> <span class="pre">'foobar')</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">x.foobar</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-dict"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kwarg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapping</em>, <em>**kwarg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>**kwarg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new dictionary.  The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> object is the dictionary class.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesmapping"><span class="std std-ref">Mapping Types — dict</span></a> for documentation about this class.</p>
+<p>For other containers see the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> classes, as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="dir">
+<code class="descname">dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope.  With an
+argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.</p>
+<p>If the object has a method named <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__" title="object.__dir__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__()</span></code></a>, this method will be called and
+must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> function to customize the way
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> reports their attributes.</p>
+<p>If the object does not provide <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__" title="object.__dir__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__()</span></code></a>, the function tries its best to
+gather information from the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute, if defined, and
+from its type object.  The resulting list is not necessarily complete, and may
+be inaccurate when the object has a custom <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The default <a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> mechanism behaves differently with different types of
+objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete,
+information:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module’s
+attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
+attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.</p></li>
+<li><p>Otherwise, the list contains the object’s attributes’ names, the names of its
+class’s attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class’s base
+classes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The resulting list is sorted alphabetically.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">()</span>   <span class="c1"># show the names in the module namespace  # doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;__builtins__&#39;, &#39;__name__&#39;, &#39;struct&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">struct</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># show the names in the struct module # doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Struct&#39;, &#39;__all__&#39;, &#39;__builtins__&#39;, &#39;__cached__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__file__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;__initializing__&#39;, &#39;__loader__&#39;, &#39;__name__&#39;, &#39;__package__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;_clearcache&#39;, &#39;calcsize&#39;, &#39;error&#39;, &#39;pack&#39;, &#39;pack_into&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;unpack&#39;, &#39;unpack_from&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Shape</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__dir__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;area&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;perimeter&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;location&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Shape</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;area&#39;, &#39;location&#39;, &#39;perimeter&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Because <a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
+interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more
+than it tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names,
+and its detailed behavior may change across releases.  For example,
+metaclass attributes are not in the result list when the argument is a
+class.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="divmod">
+<code class="descname">divmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#divmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
+consisting of their quotient and remainder when using integer division.  With
+mixed operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
+integers, the result is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>. For floating point
+numbers the result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(q,</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>, where <em>q</em> is usually <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.floor(a</span> <span class="pre">/</span>
+<span class="pre">b)</span></code> but may be 1 less than that.  In any case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">q</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> is very
+close to <em>a</em>, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> is non-zero it has the same sign as <em>b</em>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span>
+<span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">abs(a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">abs(b)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="enumerate">
+<code class="descname">enumerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>start=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#enumerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an enumerate object. <em>iterable</em> must be a sequence, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>, or some other object which supports iteration.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method of the iterator returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a> returns a tuple containing a count (from <em>start</em> which
+defaults to 0) and the values obtained from iterating over <em>iterable</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">seasons</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Spring&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Summer&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Fall&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Winter&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seasons</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(0, &#39;Spring&#39;), (1, &#39;Summer&#39;), (2, &#39;Fall&#39;), (3, &#39;Winter&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seasons</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, &#39;Spring&#39;), (2, &#39;Summer&#39;), (3, &#39;Fall&#39;), (4, &#39;Winter&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">start</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">elem</span>
+        <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="eval">
+<code class="descname">eval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expression</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#eval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals.  If provided,
+<em>globals</em> must be a dictionary.  If provided, <em>locals</em> can be any mapping
+object.</p>
+<p>The <em>expression</em> argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
+(technically speaking, a condition list) using the <em>globals</em> and <em>locals</em>
+dictionaries as global and local namespace.  If the <em>globals</em> dictionary is
+present and does not contain a value for the key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code>, a
+reference to the dictionary of the built-in module <a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> is
+inserted under that key before <em>expression</em> is parsed.
+This means that <em>expression</em> normally has full
+access to the standard <a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module and restricted environments are
+propagated.  If the <em>locals</em> dictionary is omitted it defaults to the <em>globals</em>
+dictionary.  If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the
+environment where <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> is called.  The return value is the result of
+the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x+1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
+those created by <a class="reference internal" href="#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>).  In this case pass a code object instead
+of a string.  If the code object has been compiled with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exec'</span></code> as the
+<em>mode</em> argument, <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>’s return value will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>
+function.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#globals" title="globals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globals()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> functions
+returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
+useful to pass around for use by <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#ast.literal_eval" title="ast.literal_eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.literal_eval()</span></code></a> for a function that can safely evaluate strings
+with expressions containing only literals.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="exec">
+<code class="descname">exec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>globals</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>locals</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#exec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. <em>object</em> must be
+either a string or a code object.  If it is a string, the string is parsed as
+a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error
+occurs). <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a> If it is a code object, it is simply executed.  In all cases,
+the code that’s executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the
+section “File input” in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statements may not be used outside of
+function definitions even within the context of code passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> function. The return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the
+current scope.  If only <em>globals</em> is provided, it must be a dictionary, which
+will be used for both the global and the local variables.  If <em>globals</em> and
+<em>locals</em> are given, they are used for the global and local variables,
+respectively.  If provided, <em>locals</em> can be any mapping object.  Remember
+that at module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary. If exec
+gets two separate objects as <em>globals</em> and <em>locals</em>, the code will be
+executed as if it were embedded in a class definition.</p>
+<p>If the <em>globals</em> dictionary does not contain a value for the key
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code>, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module
+<a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> is inserted under that key.  That way you can control what
+builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> dictionary into <em>globals</em> before passing it to <a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The built-in functions <a class="reference internal" href="#globals" title="globals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globals()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> return the current
+global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around
+for use as the second and third argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The default <em>locals</em> act as described for function <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> below:
+modifications to the default <em>locals</em> dictionary should not be attempted.
+Pass an explicit <em>locals</em> dictionary if you need to see effects of the
+code on <em>locals</em> after function <a class="reference internal" href="#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> returns.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="filter">
+<code class="descname">filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct an iterator from those elements of <em>iterable</em> for which <em>function</em>
+returns true.  <em>iterable</em> may be either a sequence, a container which
+supports iteration, or an iterator.  If <em>function</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the identity
+function is assumed, that is, all elements of <em>iterable</em> that are false are
+removed.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter(function,</span> <span class="pre">iterable)</span></code> is equivalent to the generator
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(item</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">item</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">iterable</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">function(item))</span></code> if function is
+not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(item</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">item</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">iterable</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">item)</span></code> if function is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.filterfalse" title="itertools.filterfalse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.filterfalse()</span></code></a> for the complementary function that returns
+elements of <em>iterable</em> for which <em>function</em> returns false.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="float">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">float</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Return a floating point number constructed from a number or string <em>x</em>.</p>
+<p>If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally
+preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in whitespace.  The optional
+sign may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>; a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code> sign has no effect on the value
+produced.  The argument may also be a string representing a NaN
+(not-a-number), or a positive or negative infinity.  More precisely, the
+input must conform to the following grammar after leading and trailing
+whitespace characters are removed:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-sign">sign          </strong> ::=  &quot;+&quot; | &quot;-&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-infinity">infinity      </strong> ::=  &quot;Infinity&quot; | &quot;inf&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-nan">nan           </strong> ::=  &quot;nan&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-numeric-value">numeric_value </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-floatnumber"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floatnumber</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-infinity"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">infinity</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-nan"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nan</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-numeric-string">numeric_string</strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="string.html#grammar-token-sign"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sign</span></code></a>] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-numeric-value"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numeric_value</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>Here <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floatnumber</span></code> is the form of a Python floating-point literal,
+described in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#floating"><span class="std std-ref">Floating point literals</span></a>.  Case is not significant, so, for example,
+“inf”, “Inf”, “INFINITY” and “iNfINity” are all acceptable spellings for
+positive infinity.</p>
+<p>Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating point number, a
+floating point number with the same value (within Python’s floating point
+precision) is returned.  If the argument is outside the range of a Python
+float, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p>For a general Python object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(x)</span></code> delegates to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__float__()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If no argument is given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;+1.23&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.23</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;   -12345</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-12345.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1e-003&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.001</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;+1E6&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1000000.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-Infinity&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-inf</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The float type is described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric"><span class="std std-ref">Numeric Types — int, float, complex</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>x</em> is now a positional-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>format_spec</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a <em>value</em> to a “formatted” representation, as controlled by
+<em>format_spec</em>.  The interpretation of <em>format_spec</em> will depend on the type
+of the <em>value</em> argument, however there is a standard formatting syntax that
+is used by most built-in types: <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatspec"><span class="std std-ref">Format Specification Mini-Language</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The default <em>format_spec</em> is an empty string which usually gives the same
+effect as calling <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(value)</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format(value,</span> <span class="pre">format_spec)</span></code> is translated to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(value).__format__(value,</span> <span class="pre">format_spec)</span></code> which bypasses the instance
+dictionary when searching for the value’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a> method.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised if the method search reaches
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> and the <em>format_spec</em> is non-empty, or if either the
+<em>format_spec</em> or the return value are not strings.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object().__format__(format_spec)</span></code> raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+if <em>format_spec</em> is not an empty string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-frozenset"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">frozenset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> object, optionally with elements taken from
+<em>iterable</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code> is a built-in class.  See <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#types-set"><span class="std std-ref">Set Types — set, frozenset</span></a> for documentation about this class.</p>
+<p>For other containers see the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> classes, as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="getattr">
+<code class="descname">getattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#getattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the named attribute of <em>object</em>.  <em>name</em> must be a string.
+If the string is the name of one of the object’s attributes, the result is the
+value of that attribute.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr(x,</span> <span class="pre">'foobar')</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.foobar</span></code>.  If the named attribute does not exist, <em>default</em> is returned if
+provided, otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="globals">
+<code class="descname">globals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#globals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table. This is always
+the dictionary of the current module (inside a function or method, this is the
+module where it is defined, not the module from which it is called).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hasattr">
+<code class="descname">hasattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hasattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The arguments are an object and a string.  The result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the
+string is the name of one of the object’s attributes, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if not. (This
+is implemented by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr(object,</span> <span class="pre">name)</span></code> and seeing whether it
+raises an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> or not.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hash">
+<code class="descname">hash</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hash" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hash value of the object (if it has one).  Hash values are
+integers.  They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a
+dictionary lookup.  Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash
+value (even if they are of different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For objects with custom <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> methods, note that <a class="reference internal" href="#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a>
+truncates the return value based on the bit width of the host machine.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="help">
+<code class="descname">help</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invoke the built-in help system.  (This function is intended for interactive
+use.)  If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the
+interpreter console.  If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up
+as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
+topic, and a help page is printed on the console.  If the argument is any other
+kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.</p>
+<p>Note that if a slash(/) appears in the parameter list of a function, when
+invoking <a class="reference internal" href="#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a>, it means that the parameters prior to the slash are
+positional-only. For more info, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../faq/programming.html#faq-positional-only-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This function is added to the built-in namespace by the <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Changes to <a class="reference internal" href="pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> mean that the reported
+signatures for callables are now more comprehensive and consistent.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hex">
+<code class="descname">hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with
+“0x”. If <em>x</em> is not a Python <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> object, it has to define an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> method that returns an integer. Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0xff&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-0x2a&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to convert an integer number to an uppercase or lower hexadecimal
+string with prefix or not, you can use either of the following ways:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%#x</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%x</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%X</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">255</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0xff&#39;, &#39;ff&#39;, &#39;FF&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;#x&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0xff&#39;, &#39;ff&#39;, &#39;FF&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{255:#x}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{255:x}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{255:X}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0xff&#39;, &#39;ff&#39;, &#39;FF&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> for converting a hexadecimal string to an
+integer using a base of 16.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#float.hex" title="float.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.hex()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="id">
+<code class="descname">id</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#id" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the “identity” of an object.  This is an integer which
+is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
+Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same <a class="reference internal" href="#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a>
+value.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> This is the address of the object in memory.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="input">
+<code class="descname">input</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>prompt</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <em>prompt</em> argument is present, it is written to standard output without
+a trailing newline.  The function then reads a line from input, converts it
+to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that.  When EOF is
+read, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> is raised.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--&gt; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">--&gt; Monty Python&#39;s Flying Circus</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span>  
+<span class="go">&quot;Monty Python&#39;s Flying Circus&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module was loaded, then <a class="reference internal" href="#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a> will use it
+to provide elaborate line editing and history features.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="int">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">int</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#int" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">int</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>base=10</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an integer object constructed from a number or string <em>x</em>, or return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if no arguments are given.  If <em>x</em> defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(x)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__int__()</span></code>.  If <em>x</em> defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__trunc__" title="object.__trunc__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__trunc__()</span></code></a>,
+it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__trunc__()</span></code>.
+For floating point numbers, this truncates towards zero.</p>
+<p>If <em>x</em> is not a number or if <em>base</em> is given, then <em>x</em> must be a string,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> instance representing an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#integers"><span class="std std-ref">integer
+literal</span></a> in radix <em>base</em>.  Optionally, the literal can be
+preceded by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> (with no space in between) and surrounded by
+whitespace.  A base-n literal consists of the digits 0 to n-1, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code>
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z</span></code>) having
+values 10 to 35.  The default <em>base</em> is 10. The allowed values are 0 and 2–36.
+Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can be optionally prefixed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0b</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0B</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0O</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0X</span></code>, as with integer literals in code.  Base 0
+means to interpret exactly as a code literal, so that the actual base is 2,
+8, 10, or 16, and so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('010',</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code> is not legal, while
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('010')</span></code> is, as well as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('010',</span> <span class="pre">8)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The integer type is described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric"><span class="std std-ref">Numeric Types — int, float, complex</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>If <em>base</em> is not an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and the <em>base</em> object has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base.__index__</span></code></a> method, that method is called
+to obtain an integer for the base.  Previous versions used
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base.__int__</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base.__index__</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>x</em> is now a positional-only parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="isinstance">
+<code class="descname">isinstance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>classinfo</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#isinstance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the <em>object</em> argument is an instance of the <em>classinfo</em>
+argument, or of a (direct, indirect or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">virtual</span></a>) subclass thereof.  If <em>object</em> is not
+an object of the given type, the function always returns false.
+If <em>classinfo</em> is a tuple of type objects (or recursively, other such
+tuples), return true if <em>object</em> is an instance of any of the types.
+If <em>classinfo</em> is not a type or tuple of types and such tuples,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="issubclass">
+<code class="descname">issubclass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>class</em>, <em>classinfo</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#issubclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>class</em> is a subclass (direct, indirect or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">virtual</span></a>) of <em>classinfo</em>.  A
+class is considered a subclass of itself. <em>classinfo</em> may be a tuple of class
+objects, in which case every entry in <em>classinfo</em> will be checked. In any other
+case, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="iter">
+<code class="descname">iter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>sentinel</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#iter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> object.  The first argument is interpreted very
+differently depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a
+second argument, <em>object</em> must be a collection object which supports the
+iteration protocol (the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method), or it must support the
+sequence protocol (the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method with integer arguments
+starting at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>).  If it does not support either of those protocols,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised. If the second argument, <em>sentinel</em>, is given,
+then <em>object</em> must be a callable object.  The iterator created in this case
+will call <em>object</em> with no arguments for each call to its
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method; if the value returned is equal to
+<em>sentinel</em>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> will be raised, otherwise the value will
+be returned.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typeiter"><span class="std std-ref">Iterator Types</span></a>.</p>
+<p>One useful application of the second form of <a class="reference internal" href="#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> is to build a
+block-reader. For example, reading fixed-width blocks from a binary
+database file until the end of file is reached:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">functools</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">partial</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mydata.db&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">block</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">64</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">process_block</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">block</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="len">
+<code class="descname">len</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#len" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the length (the number of items) of an object.  The argument may be a
+sequence (such as a string, bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection
+(such as a dictionary, set, or frozen set).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-list"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Rather than being a function, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> is actually a mutable
+sequence type, as documented in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-list"><span class="std std-ref">Lists</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq"><span class="std std-ref">Sequence Types — list, tuple, range</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locals">
+<code class="descname">locals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
+Free variables are returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> when it is called in function
+blocks, but not in class blocks. Note that at the module level, <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#globals" title="globals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globals()</span></code></a> are the same dictionary.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not
+affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="map">
+<code class="descname">map</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>iterable</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator that applies <em>function</em> to every item of <em>iterable</em>,
+yielding the results.  If additional <em>iterable</em> arguments are passed,
+<em>function</em> must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all
+iterables in parallel.  With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the
+shortest iterable is exhausted.  For cases where the function inputs are
+already arranged into argument tuples, see <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.starmap" title="itertools.starmap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.starmap()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="max">
+<code class="descname">max</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>*</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>key</em>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">max</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg1</em>, <em>arg2</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>key</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more
+arguments.</p>
+<p>If one positional argument is provided, it should be an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a>.
+The largest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more positional
+arguments are provided, the largest of the positional arguments is
+returned.</p>
+<p>There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The <em>key</em> argument specifies
+a one-argument ordering function like that used for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a>. The
+<em>default</em> argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is
+empty. If the iterable is empty and <em>default</em> is not provided, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>If multiple items are maximal, the function returns the first one
+encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools
+such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">key=keyfunc,</span> <span class="pre">reverse=True)[0]</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq.nlargest(1,</span> <span class="pre">iterable,</span> <span class="pre">key=keyfunc)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>default</em> keyword-only argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-memoryview"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">memoryview</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a “memory view” object created from the given argument.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typememoryview"><span class="std std-ref">Memory Views</span></a> for more information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="min">
+<code class="descname">min</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>*</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>key</em>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">min</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg1</em>, <em>arg2</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>key</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more
+arguments.</p>
+<p>If one positional argument is provided, it should be an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a>.
+The smallest item in the iterable is returned.  If two or more positional
+arguments are provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is
+returned.</p>
+<p>There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The <em>key</em> argument specifies
+a one-argument ordering function like that used for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a>. The
+<em>default</em> argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is
+empty. If the iterable is empty and <em>default</em> is not provided, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>If multiple items are minimal, the function returns the first one
+encountered.  This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools
+such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">key=keyfunc)[0]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq.nsmallest(1,</span>
+<span class="pre">iterable,</span> <span class="pre">key=keyfunc)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>default</em> keyword-only argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="next">
+<code class="descname">next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterator</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve the next item from the <em>iterator</em> by calling its
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method.  If <em>default</em> is given, it is returned
+if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="object">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">object</code><a class="headerlink" href="#object" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new featureless object.  <a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> is a base for all classes.
+It has the methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  This
+function does not accept any arguments.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> does <em>not</em> have a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>, so you can’t
+assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="oct">
+<code class="descname">oct</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#oct" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with “0o”.  The result
+is a valid Python expression. If <em>x</em> is not a Python <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> object, it
+has to define an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> method that returns an integer. For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">oct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0o10&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">oct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-0o70&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to convert an integer number to octal string either with prefix
+“0o” or not, you can use either of the following ways.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%#o</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%o</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0o12&#39;, &#39;12&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;#o&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;o&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0o12&#39;, &#39;12&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{10:#o}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{10:o}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;0o12&#39;, &#39;12&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><span class="target" id="index-4"></span></div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="open">
+<code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>buffering=-1</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em>, <em>closefd=True</em>, <em>opener=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open <em>file</em> and return a corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.  If the file
+cannot be opened, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p><em>file</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> giving the pathname (absolute or
+relative to the current working directory) of the file to be opened or an
+integer file descriptor of the file to be wrapped.  (If a file descriptor is
+given, it is closed when the returned I/O object is closed, unless <em>closefd</em>
+is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.)</p>
+<p><em>mode</em> is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is
+opened.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> which means open for reading in text mode.
+Other common values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> for writing (truncating the file if it
+already exists), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> for exclusive creation and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> for appending
+(which on <em>some</em> Unix systems, means that <em>all</em> writes append to the end of
+the file regardless of the current seek position).  In text mode, if
+<em>encoding</em> is not specified the encoding used is platform dependent:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding(False)</span></code> is called to get the current locale
+encoding. (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave
+<em>encoding</em> unspecified.)  The available modes are:</p>
+<span class="target" id="filemodes"></span><table class="docutils align-center" id="index-5">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 88%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Character</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>open for reading (default)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>open for writing, truncating the file first</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>open for writing, appending to the end of the file if it exists</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>binary mode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'t'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>text mode (default)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>open a disk file for updating (reading and writing)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The default mode is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> (open for reading text, synonym of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rt'</span></code>).
+For binary read-write access, the mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w+b'</span></code> opens and truncates the file
+to 0 bytes.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r+b'</span></code> opens the file without truncation.</p>
+<p>As mentioned in the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io-overview"><span class="std std-ref">Overview</span></a>, Python distinguishes between binary
+and text I/O.  Files opened in binary mode (including <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> in the <em>mode</em>
+argument) return contents as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects without any decoding.  In
+text mode (the default, or when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'t'</span></code> is included in the <em>mode</em> argument),
+the contents of the file are returned as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, the bytes having been
+first decoded using a platform-dependent encoding or using the specified
+<em>encoding</em> if given.</p>
+<p>There is an additional mode character permitted, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code>, which no longer
+has any effect, and is considered deprecated. It previously enabled
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> in text mode, which became the default behaviour
+in Python 3.0. Refer to the documentation of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#open-newline-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">newline</span></a> parameter for further details.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Python doesn’t depend on the underlying operating system’s notion of text
+files; all the processing is done by Python itself, and is therefore
+platform-independent.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>buffering</em> is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy.  Pass 0
+to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary mode), 1 to select line
+buffering (only usable in text mode), and an integer &gt; 1 to indicate the size
+in bytes of a fixed-size chunk buffer.  When no <em>buffering</em> argument is
+given, the default buffering policy works as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the buffer is
+chosen using a heuristic trying to determine the underlying device’s “block
+size” and falling back on <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE" title="io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</span></code></a>.  On many systems,
+the buffer will typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.</p></li>
+<li><p>“Interactive” text files (files for which <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.isatty" title="io.IOBase.isatty"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isatty()</span></code></a>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>) use line buffering.  Other text files use the policy
+described above for binary files.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><em>encoding</em> is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the file.
+This should only be used in text mode.  The default encoding is platform
+dependent (whatever <a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code></a> returns), but any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-encoding"><span class="xref std std-term">text encoding</span></a> supported by Python
+can be used.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module for
+the list of supported encodings.</p>
+<p><em>errors</em> is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding
+errors are to be handled—this cannot be used in binary mode.
+A variety of standard error handlers are available
+(listed under <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a>), though any
+error handling name that has been registered with
+<a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.register_error()</span></code></a> is also valid.  The standard names
+include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> to raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception if there is
+an encoding error.  The default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> has the same
+effect.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> ignores errors.  Note that ignoring encoding errors
+can lead to data loss.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> causes a replacement marker (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>) to be inserted
+where there is malformed data.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> will represent any incorrect bytes as code
+points in the Unicode Private Use Area ranging from U+DC80 to
+U+DCFF.  These private code points will then be turned back into
+the same bytes when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler is used
+when writing data.  This is useful for processing files in an
+unknown encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xmlcharrefreplace'</span></code> is only supported when writing to a file.
+Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced with the
+appropriate XML character reference <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#nnn;</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> replaces malformed data by Python’s backslashed
+escape sequences.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'namereplace'</span></code> (also only supported when writing)
+replaces unsupported characters with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{...}</span></code> escape sequences.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p id="open-newline-parameter"><span id="index-6"></span><em>newline</em> controls how <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> mode works (it only
+applies to text mode).  It can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r'</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>.  It works as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When reading input from the stream, if <em>newline</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, universal
+newlines mode is enabled.  Lines in the input can end in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>, and these are translated into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> before
+being returned to the caller.  If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, universal newlines mode is
+enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.  If it
+has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated by the
+given string, and the line ending is returned to the caller untranslated.</p></li>
+<li><p>When writing output to the stream, if <em>newline</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>
+characters written are translated to the system default line separator,
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.linesep" title="os.linesep"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.linesep</span></code></a>.  If <em>newline</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, no translation
+takes place.  If <em>newline</em> is any of the other legal values, any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>
+characters written are translated to the given string.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>closefd</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and a file descriptor rather than a filename was
+given, the underlying file descriptor will be kept open when the file is
+closed.  If a filename is given <em>closefd</em> must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default)
+otherwise an error will be raised.</p>
+<p>A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as <em>opener</em>. The underlying
+file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling <em>opener</em> with
+(<em>file</em>, <em>flags</em>). <em>opener</em> must return an open file descriptor (passing
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open</span></code></a> as <em>opener</em> results in functionality similar to passing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The newly created file is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The following example uses the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">dir_fd</span></a> parameter of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> function to open a file relative to a given directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dir_fd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;somedir&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">O_RDONLY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flags</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flags</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dir_fd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">dir_fd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spamspam.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">opener</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dir_fd</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># don&#39;t leak a file descriptor</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The type of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function
+depends on the mode.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> is used to open a file in a text
+mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wt'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rt'</span></code>, etc.), it returns a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOBase</span></code></a> (specifically <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>).  When used
+to open a file in a binary mode with buffering, the returned class is a
+subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>.  The exact class varies: in read
+binary mode, it returns an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedReader</span></code></a>; in write binary and
+append binary modes, it returns an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedWriter</span></code></a>, and in
+read/write mode, it returns an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedRandom" title="io.BufferedRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedRandom</span></code></a>.  When buffering is
+disabled, the raw stream, a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.RawIOBase</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.FileIO</span></code></a>, is returned.</p>
+<p id="index-7">See also the file handling modules, such as, <a class="reference internal" href="fileinput.html#module-fileinput" title="fileinput: Loop over standard input or a list of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a>
+(where <a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> is declared), <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<blockquote>
+<div><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <em>opener</em> parameter was added.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> mode was added.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> used to be raised, it is now an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> is now raised if the file opened in exclusive
+creation mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>) already exists.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<blockquote>
+<div><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The file is now non-inheritable.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 4.0: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code> mode.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<blockquote>
+<div><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'namereplace'</span></code> error handler was added.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<blockquote>
+<div><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Support added to accept objects implementing <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Windows, opening a console buffer may return a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.RawIOBase</span></code></a> other than <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.FileIO</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ord">
+<code class="descname">ord</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ord" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given a string representing one Unicode character, return an integer
+representing the Unicode code point of that character.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord('a')</span></code> returns the integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">97</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord('€')</span></code> (Euro sign)
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8364</span></code>.  This is the inverse of <a class="reference internal" href="#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pow">
+<code class="descname">pow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>z</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>x</em> to the power <em>y</em>; if <em>z</em> is present, return <em>x</em> to the power <em>y</em>,
+modulo <em>z</em> (computed more efficiently than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code>). The two-argument
+form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> is equivalent to using the power operator: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x**y</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types, the
+coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>
+operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion)
+unless the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
+converted to float and a float result is delivered.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10**2</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">100</span></code>, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10**-2</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.01</span></code>.  If the second argument is
+negative, the third argument must be omitted.  If <em>z</em> is present, <em>x</em> and <em>y</em>
+must be of integer types, and <em>y</em> must be non-negative.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="print">
+<code class="descname">print</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*objects</em>, <em>sep=' '</em>, <em>end='\n'</em>, <em>file=sys.stdout</em>, <em>flush=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print <em>objects</em> to the text stream <em>file</em>, separated by <em>sep</em> and followed
+by <em>end</em>.  <em>sep</em>, <em>end</em>, <em>file</em> and <em>flush</em>, if present, must be given as keyword
+arguments.</p>
+<p>All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> does and
+written to the stream, separated by <em>sep</em> and followed by <em>end</em>.  Both <em>sep</em>
+and <em>end</em> must be strings; they can also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, which means to use the
+default values.  If no <em>objects</em> are given, <a class="reference internal" href="#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> will just write
+<em>end</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>file</em> argument must be an object with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write(string)</span></code> method; if it
+is not present or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> will be used.  Since printed
+arguments are converted to text strings, <a class="reference internal" href="#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> cannot be used with
+binary mode file objects.  For these, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.write(...)</span></code> instead.</p>
+<p>Whether output is buffered is usually determined by <em>file</em>, but if the
+<em>flush</em> keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>flush</em> keyword argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="property">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">property</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fget=None</em>, <em>fset=None</em>, <em>fdel=None</em>, <em>doc=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#property" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a property attribute.</p>
+<p><em>fget</em> is a function for getting an attribute value.  <em>fset</em> is a function
+for setting an attribute value. <em>fdel</em> is a function for deleting an attribute
+value.  And <em>doc</em> creates a docstring for the attribute.</p>
+<p>A typical use is to define a managed attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">delx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">del</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span>
+
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">setx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;I&#39;m the &#39;x&#39; property.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>c</em> is an instance of <em>C</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.x</span></code> will invoke the getter,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code> will invoke the setter and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">c.x</span></code> the deleter.</p>
+<p>If given, <em>doc</em> will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
+property will copy <em>fget</em>’s docstring (if it exists).  This makes it possible to
+create read-only properties easily using <a class="reference internal" href="#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a> as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Parrot</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_voltage</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">100000</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">voltage</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Get the current voltage.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_voltage</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;property</span></code> decorator turns the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">voltage()</span></code> method into a “getter”
+for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets the docstring for
+<em>voltage</em> to “Get the current voltage.”</p>
+<p>A property object has <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getter</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setter</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deleter</span></code> methods usable as decorators that create a
+copy of the property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
+decorated function.  This is best explained with an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;I&#39;m the &#39;x&#39; property.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setter</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deleter</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">del</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This code is exactly equivalent to the first example.  Be sure to give the
+additional functions the same name as the original property (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> in this
+case.)</p>
+<p>The returned property object also has the attributes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fget</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fset</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fdel</span></code> corresponding to the constructor arguments.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The docstrings of property objects are now writeable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-range"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">range</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">range</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start</em>, <em>stop</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>step</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Rather than being a function, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> is actually an immutable
+sequence type, as documented in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-range"><span class="std std-ref">Ranges</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq"><span class="std std-ref">Sequence Types — list, tuple, range</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="repr">
+<code class="descname">repr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.  For many
+types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
+object with the same value when passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>, otherwise the
+representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
+of the type of the object together with additional information often
+including the name and address of the object.  A class can control what this
+function returns for its instances by defining a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="reversed">
+<code class="descname">reversed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>seq</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#reversed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a reverse <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>.  <em>seq</em> must be an object which has
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a> method or supports the sequence protocol (the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> method and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method with integer
+arguments starting at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="round">
+<code class="descname">round</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>number</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>ndigits</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#round" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>number</em> rounded to <em>ndigits</em> precision after the decimal
+point.  If <em>ndigits</em> is omitted or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it returns the
+nearest integer to its input.</p>
+<p>For the built-in types supporting <a class="reference internal" href="#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a>, values are rounded to the
+closest multiple of 10 to the power minus <em>ndigits</em>; if two multiples are
+equally close, rounding is done toward the even choice (so, for example,
+both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(0.5)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(-0.5)</span></code> are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(1.5)</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>).  Any integer value is valid for <em>ndigits</em> (positive, zero, or
+negative).  The return value is an integer if <em>ndigits</em> is omitted or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+Otherwise the return value has the same type as <em>number</em>.</p>
+<p>For a general Python object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">number</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round</span></code> delegates to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">number.__round__</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> for floats can be surprising: for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(2.675,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code> gives <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.67</span></code> instead of the expected <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.68</span></code>.
+This is not a bug: it’s a result of the fact that most decimal fractions
+can’t be represented exactly as a float.  See <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/floatingpoint.html#tut-fp-issues"><span class="std std-ref">Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</span></a> for
+more information.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-set"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> object, optionally with elements taken from
+<em>iterable</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code> is a built-in class.  See <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#types-set"><span class="std std-ref">Set Types — set, frozenset</span></a> for documentation about this class.</p>
+<p>For other containers see the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> classes, as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="setattr">
+<code class="descname">setattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#setattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the counterpart of <a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a>.  The arguments are an object, a
+string and an arbitrary value.  The string may name an existing attribute or a
+new attribute.  The function assigns the value to the attribute, provided the
+object allows it.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setattr(x,</span> <span class="pre">'foobar',</span> <span class="pre">123)</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.foobar</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">123</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="slice">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">slice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#slice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">slice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start</em>, <em>stop</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>step</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-9">Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-slice"><span class="xref std std-term">slice</span></a> object representing the set of indices specified by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop,</span> <span class="pre">step)</span></code>.  The <em>start</em> and <em>step</em> arguments default to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Slice objects have read-only data attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code> which merely return the argument
+values (or their default).  They have no other explicit functionality;
+however they are used by Numerical Python and other third party extensions.
+Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is used.  For
+example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[start:stop:step]</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[start:stop,</span> <span class="pre">i]</span></code>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.islice()</span></code></a> for an alternate version that returns an iterator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sorted">
+<code class="descname">sorted</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>key=None</em>, <em>reverse=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sorted" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new sorted list from the items in <em>iterable</em>.</p>
+<p>Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword arguments.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison
+key from each element in <em>iterable</em> (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=str.lower</span></code>).  The
+default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (compare the elements directly).</p>
+<p><em>reverse</em> is a boolean value.  If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then the list elements are
+sorted as if each comparison were reversed.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.cmp_to_key()</span></code></a> to convert an old-style <em>cmp</em> function to a
+<em>key</em> function.</p>
+<p>The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> function is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is
+stable if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that
+compare equal — this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for
+example, sort by department, then by salary grade).</p>
+<p>For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/sorting.html#sortinghowto"><span class="std std-ref">Sorting HOW TO</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="staticmethod">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descname">staticmethod</code><a class="headerlink" href="#staticmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transform a method into a static method.</p>
+<p>A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
+method, use this idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nd">@staticmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;staticmethod</span></code> form is a function <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>A static method can be called either on the class (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.f()</span></code>) or on an instance (such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C().f()</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. Also see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> for a variant that is useful for creating alternate class
+constructors.</p>
+<p>Like all decorators, it is also possible to call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod</span></code> as
+a regular function and do something with its result.  This is needed
+in some cases where you need a reference to a function from a class
+body and you want to avoid the automatic transformation to instance
+method.  For these cases, use this idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">builtin_open</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information on static methods, see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-str"><span id="index-10"></span></span><dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">str</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">str</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object=b''</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> version of <em>object</em>.  See <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> is the built-in string <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-class"><span class="xref std std-term">class</span></a>.  For general information
+about strings, see <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">Text Sequence Type — str</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sum">
+<code class="descname">sum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sums <em>start</em> and the items of an <em>iterable</em> from left to right and returns the
+total.  <em>start</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>. The <em>iterable</em>’s items are normally numbers,
+and the start value is not allowed to be a string.</p>
+<p>For some use cases, there are good alternatives to <a class="reference internal" href="#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum()</span></code></a>.
+The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''.join(sequence)</span></code>.  To add floating point values with extended precision,
+see <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.fsum" title="math.fsum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.fsum()</span></code></a>.  To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using
+<a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.chain" title="itertools.chain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.chain()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="super">
+<code class="descname">super</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>type</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>object-or-type</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#super" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
+class of <em>type</em>.  This is useful for accessing inherited methods that have
+been overridden in a class. The search order is same as that used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> except that the <em>type</em> itself is skipped.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#class.__mro__" title="class.__mro__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro__</span></code></a> attribute of the <em>type</em> lists the method
+resolution search order used by both <a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>.  The
+attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
+updated.</p>
+<p>If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound.  If
+the second argument is an object, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">type)</span></code> must be true.  If
+the second argument is a type, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass(type2,</span> <span class="pre">type)</span></code> must be true (this
+is useful for classmethods).</p>
+<p>There are two typical use cases for <em>super</em>.  In a class hierarchy with
+single inheritance, <em>super</em> can be used to refer to parent classes without
+naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable.  This use
+closely parallels the use of <em>super</em> in other programming languages.</p>
+<p>The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance in a
+dynamic execution environment.  This use case is unique to Python and is
+not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only support
+single inheritance.  This makes it possible to implement “diamond diagrams”
+where multiple base classes implement the same method.  Good design dictates
+that this method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
+order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
+to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can include
+sibling classes that are unknown prior to runtime).</p>
+<p>For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">B</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># This does the same thing as:</span>
+                               <span class="c1"># super(C, self).method(arg)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> is implemented as part of the binding process for
+explicit dotted attribute lookups such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super().__getitem__(name)</span></code>.
+It does so by implementing its own <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> method for searching
+classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
+Accordingly, <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
+operators such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()[name]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Also note that, aside from the zero argument form, <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> is not
+limited to use inside methods.  The two argument form specifies the
+arguments exactly and makes the appropriate references.  The zero
+argument form only works inside a class definition, as the compiler fills
+in the necessary details to correctly retrieve the class being defined,
+as well as accessing the current instance for ordinary methods.</p>
+<p>For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>, see <a class="reference external" href="https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/">guide to using super()</a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="func-tuple"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">tuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Rather than being a function, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> is actually an immutable
+sequence type, as documented in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-tuple"><span class="std std-ref">Tuples</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq"><span class="std std-ref">Sequence Types — list, tuple, range</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="type">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>bases</em>, <em>dict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-11">With one argument, return the type of an <em>object</em>.  The return value is a
+type object and generally the same object as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#instance.__class__" title="instance.__class__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__class__</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> built-in function is recommended for testing the type
+of an object, because it takes subclasses into account.</p>
+<p>With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is essentially a
+dynamic form of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a> statement. The <em>name</em> string is the
+class name and becomes the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> attribute; the <em>bases</em>
+tuple itemizes the base classes and becomes the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code></a>
+attribute; and the <em>dict</em> dictionary is the namespace containing definitions
+for class body and is copied to a standard dictionary to become the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute.  For example, the following two
+statements create identical <a class="reference internal" href="#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">X</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">X</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">,),</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bltin-type-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Type Objects</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> which don’t override <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> may no
+longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="vars">
+<code class="descname">vars</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#vars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute for a module, class, instance,
+or any other object with a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>
+attribute; however, other objects may have write restrictions on their
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attributes (for example, classes use a
+<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.MappingProxyType</span></code></a> to prevent direct dictionary updates).</p>
+<p>Without an argument, <a class="reference internal" href="#vars" title="vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vars()</span></code></a> acts like <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a>.  Note, the
+locals dictionary is only useful for reads since updates to the locals
+dictionary are ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zip">
+<code class="descname">zip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*iterables</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables.</p>
+<p>Returns an iterator of tuples, where the <em>i</em>-th tuple contains
+the <em>i</em>-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables.  The
+iterator stops when the shortest input iterable is exhausted. With a single
+iterable argument, it returns an iterator of 1-tuples.  With no arguments,
+it returns an empty iterator.  Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># zip(&#39;ABCD&#39;, &#39;xy&#39;) --&gt; Ax By</span>
+    <span class="n">sentinel</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">iterators</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">iterators</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterators</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span>
+            <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">elem</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This
+makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups
+using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip(*[iter(s)]*n)</span></code>.  This repeats the <em>same</em> iterator <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> times
+so that each output tuple has the result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> calls to the iterator.
+This has the effect of dividing the input into n-length chunks.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> should only be used with unequal length inputs when you don’t
+care about trailing, unmatched values from the longer iterables.  If those
+values are important, use <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.zip_longest" title="itertools.zip_longest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.zip_longest()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> in conjunction with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> operator can be used to unzip a
+list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zipped</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">zipped</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="__import__">
+<code class="descname">__import__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em>, <em>fromlist=()</em>, <em>level=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#__import__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="admonition note" id="index-12">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
+programming, unlike <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This function is invoked by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement.  It can be
+replaced (by importing the <a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module and assigning to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins.__import__</span></code>) in order to change semantics of the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement, but doing so is <strong>strongly</strong> discouraged as it
+is usually simpler to use import hooks (see <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>) to attain the same
+goals and does not cause issues with code which assumes the default import
+implementation is in use.  Direct use of <a class="reference internal" href="#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> is also
+discouraged in favor of <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The function imports the module <em>name</em>, potentially using the given <em>globals</em>
+and <em>locals</em> to determine how to interpret the name in a package context.
+The <em>fromlist</em> gives the names of objects or submodules that should be
+imported from the module given by <em>name</em>.  The standard implementation does
+not use its <em>locals</em> argument at all, and uses its <em>globals</em> only to
+determine the package context of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<p><em>level</em> specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (the
+default) means only perform absolute imports.  Positive values for
+<em>level</em> indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the
+directory of the module calling <a class="reference internal" href="#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> (see <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a> for the
+details).</p>
+<p>When the <em>name</em> variable is of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.module</span></code>, normally, the
+top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, <em>not</em> the
+module named by <em>name</em>.  However, when a non-empty <em>fromlist</em> argument is
+given, the module named by <em>name</em> is returned.</p>
+<p>For example, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">spam</span></code> results in bytecode resembling the
+following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">__import__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="p">[],</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">spam.ham</span></code> results in this call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">__import__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.ham&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="p">[],</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note how <a class="reference internal" href="#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> returns the toplevel module here because this is
+the object that is bound to a name by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">spam.ham</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">eggs,</span> <span class="pre">sausage</span> <span class="pre">as</span>
+<span class="pre">saus</span></code> results in</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">_temp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">__import__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.ham&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;sausage&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">eggs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_temp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">eggs</span>
+<span class="n">saus</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_temp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sausage</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.ham</span></code> module is returned from <a class="reference internal" href="#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>.  From this
+object, the names to import are retrieved and assigned to their respective
+names.</p>
+<p>If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name,
+use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Negative values for <em>level</em> are no longer supported (which also changes
+the default value to 0).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Note that the parser only accepts the Unix-style end of line convention.
+If you are reading the code from a file, make sure to use newline conversion
+mode to convert Windows or Mac-style newlines.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/functools.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/functools.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b9162d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/functools.html
@@ -0,0 +1,675 @@
+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-functools">
+<span id="functools-higher-order-functions-and-operations-on-callable-objects"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-functools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/functools.py">Lib/functools.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module is for higher-order functions: functions that act on
+or return other functions. In general, any callable object can be treated as a
+function for the purposes of this module.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.cmp_to_key">
+<code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">cmp_to_key</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.cmp_to_key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transform an old-style comparison function to a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-key-function"><span class="xref std std-term">key function</span></a>.  Used
+with tools that accept key functions (such as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html#heapq.nlargest" title="heapq.nlargest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq.nlargest()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html#heapq.nsmallest" title="heapq.nsmallest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq.nsmallest()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.groupby()</span></code></a>).  This function is primarily used as a transition
+tool for programs being converted from Python 2 which supported the use of
+comparison functions.</p>
+<p>A comparison function is any callable that accept two arguments, compares them,
+and returns a negative number for less-than, zero for equality, or a positive
+number for greater-than.  A key function is a callable that accepts one
+argument and returns another value to be used as the sort key.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">cmp_to_key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strcoll</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># locale-aware sort order</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/sorting.html#sortinghowto"><span class="std std-ref">Sorting HOW TO</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.lru_cache">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">lru_cache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>maxsize=128</em>, <em>typed=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.lru_cache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator to wrap a function with a memoizing callable that saves up to the
+<em>maxsize</em> most recent calls.  It can save time when an expensive or I/O bound
+function is periodically called with the same arguments.</p>
+<p>Since a dictionary is used to cache results, the positional and keyword
+arguments to the function must be hashable.</p>
+<p>Distinct argument patterns may be considered to be distinct calls with
+separate cache entries.  For example, <cite>f(a=1, b=2)</cite> and <cite>f(b=2, a=1)</cite>
+differ in their keyword argument order and may have two separate cache
+entries.</p>
+<p>If <em>maxsize</em> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the LRU feature is disabled and the cache can
+grow without bound.  The LRU feature performs best when <em>maxsize</em> is a
+power-of-two.</p>
+<p>If <em>typed</em> is set to true, function arguments of different types will be
+cached separately.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(3)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(3.0)</span></code> will be treated
+as distinct calls with distinct results.</p>
+<p>To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the <em>maxsize</em>
+parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cache_info()</span></code>
+function that returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> showing <em>hits</em>, <em>misses</em>,
+<em>maxsize</em> and <em>currsize</em>.  In a multi-threaded environment, the hits
+and misses are approximate.</p>
+<p>The decorator also provides a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cache_clear()</span></code> function for clearing or
+invalidating the cache.</p>
+<p>The original underlying function is accessible through the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute.  This is useful for introspection, for
+bypassing the cache, or for rewrapping the function with a different cache.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_algorithms#Examples">LRU (least recently used) cache</a> works
+best when the most recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for
+example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change each day).
+The cache’s size limit assures that the cache does not grow without bound on
+long-running processes such as web servers.</p>
+<p>In general, the LRU cache should only be used when you want to reuse
+previously computed values.  Accordingly, it doesn’t make sense to cache
+functions with side-effects, functions that need to create distinct mutable
+objects on each call, or impure functions such as time() or random().</p>
+<p>Example of an LRU cache for static web content:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@lru_cache</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_pep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Retrieve text of a Python Enhancement Proposal&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">resource</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-</span><span class="si">%04d</span><span class="s1">/&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">num</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Not Found&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">290</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">308</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">320</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">218</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">320</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">279</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">289</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">320</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9991</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="n">pep</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">get_pep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pep</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">get_pep</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_info</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">CacheInfo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hits</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">misses</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">currsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of efficiently computing
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number">Fibonacci numbers</a>
+using a cache to implement a
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming">dynamic programming</a>
+technique:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@lru_cache</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">n</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">21</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">55</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">89</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">144</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">233</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">377</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">610</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">fib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_info</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">CacheInfo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hits</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">28</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">misses</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">currsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>typed</em> option.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.total_ordering">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">total_ordering</code><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.total_ordering" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given a class defining one or more rich comparison ordering methods, this
+class decorator supplies the rest.  This simplifies the effort involved
+in specifying all of the possible rich comparison operations:</p>
+<p>The class must define one of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a>.
+In addition, the class should supply an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@total_ordering</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Student</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_is_valid_operand</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;lastname&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span>
+                <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;firstname&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__eq__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_is_valid_operand</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">==</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__lt__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_is_valid_operand</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While this decorator makes it easy to create well behaved totally
+ordered types, it <em>does</em> come at the cost of slower execution and
+more complex stack traces for the derived comparison methods. If
+performance benchmarking indicates this is a bottleneck for a given
+application, implementing all six rich comparison methods instead is
+likely to provide an easy speed boost.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Returning NotImplemented from the underlying comparison function for
+unrecognised types is now supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.partial">
+<code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">partial</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**keywords</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.partial" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#partial-objects"><span class="std std-ref">partial object</span></a> which when called
+will behave like <em>func</em> called with the positional arguments <em>args</em>
+and keyword arguments <em>keywords</em>. If more arguments are supplied to the
+call, they are appended to <em>args</em>. If additional keyword arguments are
+supplied, they extend and override <em>keywords</em>.
+Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">keywords</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">newfunc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">fargs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">fkeywords</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">newkeywords</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">newkeywords</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fkeywords</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">fargs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">newkeywords</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">newfunc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span>
+    <span class="n">newfunc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span>
+    <span class="n">newfunc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keywords</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">keywords</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">newfunc</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code></a> is used for partial function application which “freezes”
+some portion of a function’s arguments and/or keywords resulting in a new object
+with a simplified signature.  For example, <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code></a> can be used to create
+a callable that behaves like the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> function where the <em>base</em> argument
+defaults to two:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">functools</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">partial</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basetwo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">base</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basetwo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Convert base 2 string to an int.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basetwo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;10010&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">18</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="functools.partialmethod">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">partialmethod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**keywords</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.partialmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partialmethod" title="functools.partialmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partialmethod</span></code></a> descriptor which behaves
+like <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> except that it is designed to be used as a method
+definition rather than being directly callable.</p>
+<p><em>func</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-descriptor"><span class="xref std std-term">descriptor</span></a> or a callable (objects which are both,
+like normal functions, are handled as descriptors).</p>
+<p>When <em>func</em> is a descriptor (such as a normal Python function,
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractmethod()</span></code> or
+another instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partialmethod" title="functools.partialmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partialmethod</span></code></a>), calls to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__</span></code> are
+delegated to the underlying descriptor, and an appropriate
+<a class="reference internal" href="#partial-objects"><span class="std std-ref">partial object</span></a> returned as the result.</p>
+<p>When <em>func</em> is a non-descriptor callable, an appropriate bound method is
+created dynamically. This behaves like a normal Python function when
+used as a method: the <em>self</em> argument will be inserted as the first
+positional argument, even before the <em>args</em> and <em>keywords</em> supplied to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partialmethod" title="functools.partialmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partialmethod</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Cell</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_alive</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">alive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_alive</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">set_state</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_alive</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">state</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">set_alive</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">partialmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">set_state</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">set_dead</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">partialmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">set_state</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Cell</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alive</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_alive</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alive</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.reduce">
+<code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">reduce</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>initializer</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.reduce" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Apply <em>function</em> of two arguments cumulatively to the items of <em>sequence</em>, from
+left to right, so as to reduce the sequence to a single value.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reduce(lambda</span> <span class="pre">x,</span> <span class="pre">y:</span> <span class="pre">x+y,</span> <span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3,</span> <span class="pre">4,</span> <span class="pre">5])</span></code> calculates <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)</span></code>.
+The left argument, <em>x</em>, is the accumulated value and the right argument, <em>y</em>, is
+the update value from the <em>sequence</em>.  If the optional <em>initializer</em> is present,
+it is placed before the items of the sequence in the calculation, and serves as
+a default when the sequence is empty.  If <em>initializer</em> is not given and
+<em>sequence</em> contains only one item, the first item is returned.</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reduce</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">initializer</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">initializer</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">initializer</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.singledispatch">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">singledispatch</code><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.singledispatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transform a function into a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-single-dispatch"><span class="xref std std-term">single-dispatch</span></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generic-function"><span class="xref std std-term">generic function</span></a>.</p>
+<p>To define a generic function, decorate it with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;singledispatch</span></code>
+decorator. Note that the dispatch happens on the type of the first argument,
+create your function accordingly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">functools</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">singledispatch</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@singledispatch</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Let me just say,&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code>
+attribute of the generic function.  It is a decorator.  For functions
+annotated with types, the decorator will infer the type of the first
+argument automatically:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Strength in numbers, eh?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Enumerate this:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">elem</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For code which doesn’t use type annotations, the appropriate type
+argument can be passed explicitly to the decorator itself:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Better than complicated.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">real</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To enable registering lambdas and pre-existing functions, the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code> attribute can be used in a functional form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">nothing</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Nothing.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">nothing</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code> attribute returns the undecorated function which
+enables decorator stacking, pickling, as well as creating unit tests for
+each variant independently:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="nd">@fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fun_num</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Half of your number:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun_num</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">fun</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When called, the generic function dispatches on the type of the first
+argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello, world.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Hello, world.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;test.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Let me just say, test.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Strength in numbers, eh? 42</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Enumerate this:</span>
+<span class="go">0 spam</span>
+<span class="go">1 spam</span>
+<span class="go">2 eggs</span>
+<span class="go">3 spam</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Nothing.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.23</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.615</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Where there is no registered implementation for a specific type, its
+method resolution order is used to find a more generic implementation.
+The original function decorated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;singledispatch</span></code> is registered
+for the base <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code> type, which means it is used if no better
+implementation is found.</p>
+<p>To check which implementation will the generic function choose for
+a given type, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch()</span></code> attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function fun_num at 0x1035a2840&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># note: default implementation</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function fun at 0x103fe0000&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To access all registered implementations, use the read-only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">registry</span></code>
+attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">registry</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">dict_keys([&lt;class &#39;NoneType&#39;&gt;, &lt;class &#39;int&#39;&gt;, &lt;class &#39;object&#39;&gt;,</span>
+<span class="go">          &lt;class &#39;decimal.Decimal&#39;&gt;, &lt;class &#39;list&#39;&gt;,</span>
+<span class="go">          &lt;class &#39;float&#39;&gt;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">registry</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function fun_num at 0x1035a2840&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">registry</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function fun at 0x103fe0000&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code> attribute supports using type annotations.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.update_wrapper">
+<code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">update_wrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>wrapper</em>, <em>wrapped</em>, <em>assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS</em>, <em>updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.update_wrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update a <em>wrapper</em> function to look like the <em>wrapped</em> function. The optional
+arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of the original function are
+assigned directly to the matching attributes on the wrapper function and which
+attributes of the wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes
+from the original function. The default values for these arguments are the
+module level constants <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS</span></code> (which assigns to the wrapper
+function’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code>, the documentation string) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WRAPPER_UPDATES</span></code> (which
+updates the wrapper function’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code>, i.e. the instance dictionary).</p>
+<p>To allow access to the original function for introspection and other purposes
+(e.g. bypassing a caching decorator such as <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.lru_cache" title="functools.lru_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lru_cache()</span></code></a>), this function
+automatically adds a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute to the wrapper that refers to
+the function being wrapped.</p>
+<p>The main intended use for this function is in <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> functions which
+wrap the decorated function and return the wrapper. If the wrapper function is
+not updated, the metadata of the returned function will reflect the wrapper
+definition rather than the original function definition, which is typically less
+than helpful.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#functools.update_wrapper" title="functools.update_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update_wrapper()</span></code></a> may be used with callables other than functions. Any
+attributes named in <em>assigned</em> or <em>updated</em> that are missing from the object
+being wrapped are ignored (i.e. this function will not attempt to set them
+on the wrapper function). <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> is still raised if the
+wrapper function itself is missing any attributes named in <em>updated</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Automatic addition of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Copying of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> attribute by default.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Missing attributes no longer trigger an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute now always refers to the wrapped
+function, even if that function defined a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute.
+(see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17482">bpo-17482</a>)</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="functools.wraps">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">functools.</code><code class="descname">wraps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>wrapped</em>, <em>assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS</em>, <em>updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.wraps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a convenience function for invoking <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.update_wrapper" title="functools.update_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update_wrapper()</span></code></a> as a
+function decorator when defining a wrapper function.  It is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial(update_wrapper,</span> <span class="pre">wrapped=wrapped,</span> <span class="pre">assigned=assigned,</span> <span class="pre">updated=updated)</span></code>.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">functools</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">wraps</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_decorator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@wraps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Calling decorated function&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">wrapper</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@my_decorator</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">example</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Docstring&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Called example function&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">example</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Calling decorated function</span>
+<span class="go">Called example function</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;example&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Docstring&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example function
+would have been <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wrapper'</span></code>, and the docstring of the original <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example()</span></code>
+would have been lost.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="partial-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#partial-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> objects are callable objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code></a>. They
+have three read-only attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="functools.partial.func">
+<code class="descclassname">partial.</code><code class="descname">func</code><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.partial.func" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A callable object or function.  Calls to the <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> object will be
+forwarded to <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial.func" title="functools.partial.func"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func</span></code></a> with new arguments and keywords.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="functools.partial.args">
+<code class="descclassname">partial.</code><code class="descname">args</code><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.partial.args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The leftmost positional arguments that will be prepended to the positional
+arguments provided to a <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> object call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="functools.partial.keywords">
+<code class="descclassname">partial.</code><code class="descname">keywords</code><a class="headerlink" href="#functools.partial.keywords" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The keyword arguments that will be supplied when the <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> object is
+called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> objects are like <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function</span></code> objects in that they are
+callable, weak referencable, and can have attributes.  There are some important
+differences.  For instance, the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attributes
+are not created automatically.  Also, <a class="reference internal" href="#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial</span></code></a> objects defined in
+classes behave like static methods and do not transform into bound methods
+during instance attribute look-up.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code> — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects</a><ul>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-gc">
+<span id="gc-garbage-collector-interface"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> — Garbage Collector interface<a class="headerlink" href="#module-gc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides an interface to the optional garbage collector.  It
+provides the ability to disable the collector, tune the collection frequency,
+and set debugging options.  It also provides access to unreachable objects that
+the collector found but cannot free.  Since the collector supplements the
+reference counting already used in Python, you can disable the collector if you
+are sure your program does not create reference cycles.  Automatic collection
+can be disabled by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.disable()</span></code>.  To debug a leaking program call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)</span></code>. Notice that this includes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL</span></code>, causing garbage-collected objects to be saved in
+gc.garbage for inspection.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module provides the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.enable">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">enable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.enable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable automatic garbage collection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.disable">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">disable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.disable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disable automatic garbage collection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.isenabled">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">isenabled</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.isenabled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if automatic collection is enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.collect">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">collect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>generation=2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.collect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>With no arguments, run a full collection.  The optional argument <em>generation</em>
+may be an integer specifying which generation to collect (from 0 to 2).  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the generation number  is invalid. The number of
+unreachable objects found is returned.</p>
+<p>The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are cleared
+whenever a full collection or collection of the highest generation (2)
+is run.  Not all items in some free lists may be freed due to the
+particular implementation, in particular <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.set_debug">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">set_debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.set_debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the garbage collection debugging flags. Debugging information will be
+written to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>.  See below for a list of debugging flags which can be
+combined using bit operations to control debugging.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_debug">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the debugging flags currently set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_objects">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_objects</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_objects" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding the list
+returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_stats">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of three per-generation dictionaries containing collection
+statistics since interpreter start.  The number of keys may change
+in the future, but currently each dictionary will contain the following
+items:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code> is the number of times this generation was collected;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collected</span></code> is the total number of objects collected inside this
+generation;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uncollectable</span></code> is the total number of objects which were found
+to be uncollectable (and were therefore moved to the <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">garbage</span></code></a>
+list) inside this generation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.set_threshold">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">set_threshold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>threshold0</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>threshold1</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>threshold2</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.set_threshold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the garbage collection thresholds (the collection frequency). Setting
+<em>threshold0</em> to zero disables collection.</p>
+<p>The GC classifies objects into three generations depending on how many
+collection sweeps they have survived.  New objects are placed in the youngest
+generation (generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>).  If an object survives a collection it is moved
+into the next older generation.  Since generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> is the oldest
+generation, objects in that generation remain there after a collection.  In
+order to decide when to run, the collector keeps track of the number object
+allocations and deallocations since the last collection.  When the number of
+allocations minus the number of deallocations exceeds <em>threshold0</em>, collection
+starts.  Initially only generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is examined.  If generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> has
+been examined more than <em>threshold1</em> times since generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> has been
+examined, then generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> is examined as well.  Similarly, <em>threshold2</em>
+controls the number of collections of generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> before collecting
+generation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_count">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current collection  counts as a tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(count0,</span> <span class="pre">count1,</span>
+<span class="pre">count2)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_threshold">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_threshold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_threshold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current collection thresholds as a tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(threshold0,</span>
+<span class="pre">threshold1,</span> <span class="pre">threshold2)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_referrers">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_referrers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*objs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_referrers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the list of objects that directly refer to any of objs. This function
+will only locate those containers which support garbage collection; extension
+types which do refer to other objects but do not support garbage collection will
+not be found.</p>
+<p>Note that objects which have already been dereferenced, but which live in cycles
+and have not yet been collected by the garbage collector can be listed among the
+resulting referrers.  To get only currently live objects, call <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.collect" title="gc.collect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collect()</span></code></a>
+before calling <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.get_referrers" title="gc.get_referrers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_referrers()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Care must be taken when using objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.get_referrers" title="gc.get_referrers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_referrers()</span></code></a> because
+some of them could still be under construction and hence in a temporarily
+invalid state. Avoid using <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.get_referrers" title="gc.get_referrers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_referrers()</span></code></a> for any purpose other than
+debugging.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_referents">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_referents</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*objs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_referents" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of objects directly referred to by any of the arguments. The
+referents returned are those objects visited by the arguments’ C-level
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> methods (if any), and may not be all objects actually
+directly reachable.  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> methods are supported only by objects
+that support garbage collection, and are only required to visit objects that may
+be involved in a cycle.  So, for example, if an integer is directly reachable
+from an argument, that integer object may or may not appear in the result list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.is_tracked">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">is_tracked</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.is_tracked" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the object is currently tracked by the garbage collector,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  As a general rule, instances of atomic types aren’t
+tracked and instances of non-atomic types (containers, user-defined
+objects…) are.  However, some type-specific optimizations can be present
+in order to suppress the garbage collector footprint of simple instances
+(e.g. dicts containing only atomic keys and values):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_tracked</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_tracked</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_tracked</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_tracked</span><span class="p">({})</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_tracked</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_tracked</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[]})</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.freeze">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">freeze</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.freeze" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Freeze all the objects tracked by gc - move them to a permanent generation
+and ignore all the future collections. This can be used before a POSIX
+fork() call to make the gc copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection.
+Also collection before a POSIX fork() call may free pages for future
+allocation which can cause copy-on-write too so it’s advised to disable gc
+in master process and freeze before fork and enable gc in child process.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.unfreeze">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">unfreeze</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.unfreeze" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unfreeze the objects in the permanent generation, put them back into the
+oldest generation.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gc.get_freeze_count">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">get_freeze_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.get_freeze_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of objects in the permanent generation.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following variables are provided for read-only access (you can mutate the
+values but should not rebind them):</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="gc.garbage">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">garbage</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.garbage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of objects which the collector found to be unreachable but could
+not be freed (uncollectable objects).  Starting with Python 3.4, this
+list should be empty most of the time, except when using instances of
+C extension types with a non-NULL <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_del</span></code> slot.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL" title="gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG_SAVEALL</span></code></a> is set, then all unreachable objects will be
+added to this list rather than freed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>If this list is non-empty at <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><span class="xref std std-term">interpreter shutdown</span></a>, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> is emitted, which is silent by default.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE" title="gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE</span></code></a> is set, in addition all uncollectable objects
+are printed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Following <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0442"><strong>PEP 442</strong></a>, objects with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method don’t end
+up in <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.garbage</span></code></a> anymore.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="gc.callbacks">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">callbacks</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.callbacks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of callbacks that will be invoked by the garbage collector before and
+after collection.  The callbacks will be called with two arguments,
+<em>phase</em> and <em>info</em>.</p>
+<p><em>phase</em> can be one of two values:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>“start”: The garbage collection is about to start.</p>
+<p>“stop”: The garbage collection has finished.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p><em>info</em> is a dict providing more information for the callback.  The following
+keys are currently defined:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>“generation”: The oldest generation being collected.</p>
+<p>“collected”: When <em>phase</em> is “stop”, the number of objects
+successfully collected.</p>
+<p>“uncollectable”: When <em>phase</em> is “stop”, the number of objects
+that could not be collected and were put in <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">garbage</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Applications can add their own callbacks to this list.  The primary
+use cases are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Gathering statistics about garbage collection, such as how often
+various generations are collected, and how long the collection
+takes.</p>
+<p>Allowing applications to identify and clear their own uncollectable
+types when they appear in <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">garbage</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following constants are provided for use with <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.set_debug" title="gc.set_debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_debug()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="gc.DEBUG_STATS">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">DEBUG_STATS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.DEBUG_STATS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print statistics during collection.  This information can be useful when tuning
+the collection frequency.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">DEBUG_COLLECTABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print information on collectable objects found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print information of uncollectable objects found (objects which are not
+reachable but cannot be freed by the collector).  These objects will be added
+to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">garbage</span></code> list.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Also print the contents of the <a class="reference internal" href="#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">garbage</span></code></a> list at
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><span class="xref std std-term">interpreter shutdown</span></a>, if it isn’t empty.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">DEBUG_SAVEALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When set, all unreachable objects found will be appended to <em>garbage</em> rather
+than being freed.  This can be useful for debugging a leaking program.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="gc.DEBUG_LEAK">
+<code class="descclassname">gc.</code><code class="descname">DEBUG_LEAK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gc.DEBUG_LEAK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The debugging flags necessary for the collector to print information about a
+leaking program (equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG_COLLECTABLE</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE</span> <span class="pre">|</span>
+<span class="pre">DEBUG_SAVEALL</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-getopt">
+<span id="getopt-c-style-parser-for-command-line-options"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> — C-style parser for command line options<a class="headerlink" href="#module-getopt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/getopt.py">Lib/getopt.py</a></p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> module is a parser for command line options whose API is
+designed to be familiar to users of the C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code> function. Users who
+are unfamiliar with the C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code> function or who would like to write
+less code and get better help and error messages should consider using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module instead.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code>.
+It supports the same conventions as the Unix <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code> function (including
+the special meanings of arguments of the form ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>‘ and ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--</span></code>‘).  Long
+options similar to those supported by GNU software may be used as well via an
+optional third argument.</p>
+<p>This module provides two functions and an
+exception:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="getopt.getopt">
+<code class="descclassname">getopt.</code><code class="descname">getopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em>, <em>shortopts</em>, <em>longopts=[]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#getopt.getopt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses command line options and parameter list.  <em>args</em> is the argument list to
+be parsed, without the leading reference to the running program. Typically, this
+means <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>. <em>shortopts</em> is the string of option letters that the
+script wants to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a
+colon (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>; i.e., the same format that Unix <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code> uses).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unlike GNU <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code>, after a non-option argument, all further
+arguments are considered also non-options. This is similar to the way
+non-GNU Unix systems work.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>longopts</em>, if specified, must be a list of strings with the names of the
+long options which should be supported.  The leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'--'</span></code> characters
+should not be included in the option name.  Long options which require an
+argument should be followed by an equal sign (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code>).  Optional arguments
+are not supported.  To accept only long options, <em>shortopts</em> should be an
+empty string.  Long options on the command line can be recognized so long as
+they provide a prefix of the option name that matches exactly one of the
+accepted options.  For example, if <em>longopts</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['foo',</span> <span class="pre">'frob']</span></code>, the
+option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--fo</span></code> will match as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo</span></code>, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--f</span></code> will
+not match uniquely, so <a class="reference internal" href="#getopt.GetoptError" title="getopt.GetoptError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetoptError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p>The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(option,</span>
+<span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs; the second is the list of program arguments left after the
+option list was stripped (this is a trailing slice of <em>args</em>).  Each
+option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element, prefixed
+with a hyphen for short options (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-x'</span></code>) or two hyphens for long
+options (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'--long-option'</span></code>), and the option argument as its
+second element, or an empty string if the option has no argument.  The
+options occur in the list in the same order in which they were found, thus
+allowing multiple occurrences.  Long and short options may be mixed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="getopt.gnu_getopt">
+<code class="descclassname">getopt.</code><code class="descname">gnu_getopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em>, <em>shortopts</em>, <em>longopts=[]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#getopt.gnu_getopt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function works like <a class="reference internal" href="#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a>, except that GNU style scanning mode is
+used by default. This means that option and non-option arguments may be
+intermixed. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a> function stops processing options as soon as a
+non-option argument is encountered.</p>
+<p>If the first character of the option string is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>, or if the environment
+variable <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIXLY_CORRECT</span></code> is set, then option processing stops as
+soon as a non-option argument is encountered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="getopt.GetoptError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">getopt.</code><code class="descname">GetoptError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#getopt.GetoptError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or when
+an option requiring an argument is given none. The argument to the exception is
+a string indicating the cause of the error.  For long options, an argument given
+to an option which does not require one will also cause this exception to be
+raised.  The attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt</span></code> give the error message and
+related option; if there is no specific option to which the exception relates,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt</span></code> is an empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="getopt.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">getopt.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#getopt.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#getopt.GetoptError" title="getopt.GetoptError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetoptError</span></code></a>; for backward compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example using only Unix style options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">getopt</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;-a&#39;, &#39;-b&#39;, &#39;-cfoo&#39;, &#39;-d&#39;, &#39;bar&#39;, &#39;a1&#39;, &#39;a2&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">optlist</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getopt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getopt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc:d:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">optlist</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;-a&#39;, &#39;&#39;), (&#39;-b&#39;, &#39;&#39;), (&#39;-c&#39;, &#39;foo&#39;), (&#39;-d&#39;, &#39;bar&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a1&#39;, &#39;a2&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using long option names is equally easy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;--condition=foo&#39;, &#39;--testing&#39;, &#39;--output-file&#39;, &#39;abc.def&#39;, &#39;-x&#39;, &#39;a1&#39;, &#39;a2&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">optlist</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getopt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getopt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s1">&#39;condition=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;output-file=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;testing&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">optlist</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;--condition&#39;, &#39;foo&#39;), (&#39;--testing&#39;, &#39;&#39;), (&#39;--output-file&#39;, &#39;abc.def&#39;), (&#39;-x&#39;, &#39;&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a1&#39;, &#39;a2&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In a script, typical usage is something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">getopt</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">opts</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getopt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getopt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:],</span> <span class="s2">&quot;ho:v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;help&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;output=&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">getopt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GetoptError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># print help information and exit:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">err</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># will print something like &quot;option -a not recognized&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">usage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="n">verbose</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">opts</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">verbose</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">o</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-h&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--help&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">usage</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">o</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-o&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--output&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unhandled option&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ...</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with less code
+and more informative help and error messages by using the <a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-o&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--output&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-v&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... do something with args.output ...</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... do something with args.verbose ..</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Alternative command line option and argument parsing library.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="argparse.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> — Logging facility for Python</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/getpass.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/getpass.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58321a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/getpass.html
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>getpass — Portable password input &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-getpass">
+<span id="getpass-portable-password-input"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-getpass" title="getpass: Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code></a> — Portable password input<a class="headerlink" href="#module-getpass" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/getpass.py">Lib/getpass.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-getpass" title="getpass: Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code></a> module provides two functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="getpass.getpass">
+<code class="descclassname">getpass.</code><code class="descname">getpass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prompt='Password: '</em>, <em>stream=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#getpass.getpass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prompt the user for a password without echoing.  The user is prompted using
+the string <em>prompt</em>, which defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Password:</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code>.  On Unix, the
+prompt is written to the file-like object <em>stream</em> using the replace error
+handler if needed.  <em>stream</em> defaults to the controlling terminal
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/tty</span></code>) or if that is unavailable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> (this
+argument is ignored on Windows).</p>
+<p>If echo free input is unavailable getpass() falls back to printing
+a warning message to <em>stream</em> and reading from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code> and
+issuing a <a class="reference internal" href="#getpass.GetPassWarning" title="getpass.GetPassWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetPassWarning</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you call getpass from within IDLE, the input may be done in the
+terminal you launched IDLE from rather than the idle window itself.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="getpass.GetPassWarning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">getpass.</code><code class="descname">GetPassWarning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#getpass.GetPassWarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UserWarning" title="UserWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserWarning</span></code></a> subclass issued when password input may be echoed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="getpass.getuser">
+<code class="descclassname">getpass.</code><code class="descname">getuser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#getpass.getuser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the “login name” of the user.</p>
+<p>This function checks the environment variables <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOGNAME</span></code>,
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USER</span></code>, <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LNAME</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USERNAME</span></code>, in order, and
+returns the value of the first one which is set to a non-empty string.  If
+none are set, the login name from the password database is returned on
+systems which support the <a class="reference internal" href="pwd.html#module-pwd" title="pwd: The password database (getpwnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code></a> module, otherwise, an exception is
+raised.</p>
+<p>In general, this function should be preferred over <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.getlogin" title="os.getlogin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getlogin()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.handlers.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code> — Logging handlers</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="curses.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-gettext">
+<span id="gettext-multilingual-internationalization-services"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> — Multilingual internationalization services<a class="headerlink" href="#module-gettext" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/gettext.py">Lib/gettext.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module provides internationalization (I18N) and localization
+(L10N) services for your Python modules and applications. It supports both the
+GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> message catalog API and a higher level, class-based API that may
+be more appropriate for Python files.  The interface described below allows you
+to write your module and application messages in one natural language, and
+provide a catalog of translated messages for running under different natural
+languages.</p>
+<p>Some hints on localizing your Python modules and applications are also given.</p>
+<div class="section" id="gnu-gettext-api">
+<h2>GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> API<a class="headerlink" href="#gnu-gettext-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module defines the following API, which is very similar to
+the GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> API.  If you use this API you will affect the
+translation of your entire application globally.  Often this is what you want if
+your application is monolingual, with the choice of language dependent on the
+locale of your user.  If you are localizing a Python module, or if your
+application needs to switch languages on the fly, you probably want to use the
+class-based API instead.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.bindtextdomain">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">bindtextdomain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>localedir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.bindtextdomain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind the <em>domain</em> to the locale directory <em>localedir</em>.  More concretely,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> will look for binary <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> files for the given domain using
+the path (on Unix): <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">localedir</span></em><span class="pre">/</span><em><span class="pre">language</span></em><span class="pre">/LC_MESSAGES/</span><em><span class="pre">domain</span></em><span class="pre">.mo</span></code>, where
+<em>languages</em> is searched for in the environment variables <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code>,
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_ALL</span></code>, <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_MESSAGES</span></code>, and <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code> respectively.</p>
+<p>If <em>localedir</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then the current binding for <em>domain</em> is
+returned. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.bind_textdomain_codeset">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">bind_textdomain_codeset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>codeset=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.bind_textdomain_codeset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind the <em>domain</em> to <em>codeset</em>, changing the encoding of byte strings
+returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.lgettext" title="gettext.lgettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgettext()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.ldgettext" title="gettext.ldgettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ldgettext()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.lngettext" title="gettext.lngettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lngettext()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.ldngettext" title="gettext.ldngettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ldngettext()</span></code></a> functions.
+If <em>codeset</em> is omitted, then the current binding is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.textdomain">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">textdomain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.textdomain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change or query the current global domain.  If <em>domain</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then the
+current global domain is returned, otherwise the global domain is set to
+<em>domain</em>, which is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.gettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">gettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.gettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the localized translation of <em>message</em>, based on the current global
+domain, language, and locale directory.  This function is usually aliased as
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> in the local namespace (see examples below).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.dgettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">dgettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.dgettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.gettext" title="gettext.gettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code></a>, but look the message up in the specified <em>domain</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.ngettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">ngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.ngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.gettext" title="gettext.gettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code></a>, but consider plural forms. If a translation is found,
+apply the plural formula to <em>n</em>, and return the resulting message (some
+languages have more than two plural forms). If no translation is found, return
+<em>singular</em> if <em>n</em> is 1; return <em>plural</em> otherwise.</p>
+<p>The Plural formula is taken from the catalog header. It is a C or Python
+expression that has a free variable <em>n</em>; the expression evaluates to the index
+of the plural in the catalog. See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html">the GNU gettext documentation</a>
+for the precise syntax to be used in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.po</span></code> files and the
+formulas for a variety of languages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.dngettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">dngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.dngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.ngettext" title="gettext.ngettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ngettext()</span></code></a>, but look the message up in the specified <em>domain</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.lgettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">lgettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.lgettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.ldgettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">ldgettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.ldgettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.lngettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">lngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.lngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.ldngettext">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">ldngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.ldngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to the corresponding functions without the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code> prefix
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.gettext" title="gettext.gettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.dgettext" title="gettext.dgettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dgettext()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.ngettext" title="gettext.ngettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ngettext()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.dngettext" title="gettext.dngettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dngettext()</span></code></a>),
+but the translation is returned as a byte string encoded in the preferred
+system encoding if no other encoding was explicitly set with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.bind_textdomain_codeset" title="gettext.bind_textdomain_codeset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind_textdomain_codeset()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>These functions should be avoided in Python 3, because they return
+encoded bytes.  It’s much better to use alternatives which return
+Unicode strings instead, since most Python applications will want to
+manipulate human readable text as strings instead of bytes.  Further,
+it’s possible that you may get unexpected Unicode-related exceptions
+if there are encoding problems with the translated strings.  It is
+possible that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l*()</span></code> functions will be deprecated in future Python
+versions due to their inherent problems and limitations.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> also defines a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dcgettext()</span></code> method, but
+this was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example of typical usage for this API:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gettext</span>
+<span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bindtextdomain</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapplication&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/path/to/my/language/directory&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">textdomain</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapplication&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gettext</span>
+<span class="c1"># ...</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a translatable string.&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-based-api">
+<h2>Class-based API<a class="headerlink" href="#class-based-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The class-based API of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module gives you more flexibility and
+greater convenience than the GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> API.  It is the recommended
+way of localizing your Python applications and modules.  <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code> defines
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations" title="gettext.GNUTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code></a> class which implements the parsing of GNU <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> format
+files, and has methods for returning strings. Instances of this class can also
+install themselves in the built-in namespace as the function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.find">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>localedir=None</em>, <em>languages=None</em>, <em>all=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function implements the standard <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> file search algorithm.  It
+takes a <em>domain</em>, identical to what <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.textdomain" title="gettext.textdomain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textdomain()</span></code></a> takes.  Optional
+<em>localedir</em> is as in <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.bindtextdomain" title="gettext.bindtextdomain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bindtextdomain()</span></code></a>. Optional <em>languages</em> is a list of
+strings, where each string is a language code.</p>
+<p>If <em>localedir</em> is not given, then the default system locale directory is used.
+<a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id4" id="id2">2</a>  If <em>languages</em> is not given, then the following environment variables are
+searched: <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANGUAGE</span></code>, <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_ALL</span></code>, <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_MESSAGES</span></code>, and
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code>.  The first one returning a non-empty value is used for the
+<em>languages</em> variable. The environment variables should contain a colon separated
+list of languages, which will be split on the colon to produce the expected list
+of language code strings.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.find" title="gettext.find"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a> then expands and normalizes the languages, and then iterates
+through them, searching for an existing file built of these components:</p>
+<p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">localedir</span></em><span class="pre">/</span><em><span class="pre">language</span></em><span class="pre">/LC_MESSAGES/</span><em><span class="pre">domain</span></em><span class="pre">.mo</span></code></p>
+<p>The first such file name that exists is returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.find" title="gettext.find"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a>. If no such
+file is found, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned. If <em>all</em> is given, it returns a list
+of all file names, in the order in which they appear in the languages list or
+the environment variables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.translation">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">translation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>localedir=None</em>, <em>languages=None</em>, <em>class_=None</em>, <em>fallback=False</em>, <em>codeset=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.translation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*Translations</span></code> instance based on the <em>domain</em>, <em>localedir</em>,
+and <em>languages</em>, which are first passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.find" title="gettext.find"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a> to get a list of the
+associated <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> file paths.  Instances with identical <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> file
+names are cached.  The actual class instantiated is <em>class_</em> if
+provided, otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations" title="gettext.GNUTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code></a>.  The class’s constructor must
+take a single <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> argument.  If provided, <em>codeset</em> will change
+the charset used to encode translated strings in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgettext()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lngettext()</span></code></a>
+methods.</p>
+<p>If multiple files are found, later files are used as fallbacks for earlier ones.
+To allow setting the fallback, <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#copy.copy" title="copy.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.copy()</span></code></a> is used to clone each
+translation object from the cache; the actual instance data is still shared with
+the cache.</p>
+<p>If no <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> file is found, this function raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if
+<em>fallback</em> is false (which is the default), and returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations" title="gettext.NullTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullTranslations</span></code></a> instance if <em>fallback</em> is true.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> used to be raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gettext.install">
+<code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">install</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>localedir=None</em>, <em>codeset=None</em>, <em>names=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.install" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This installs the function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> in Python’s builtins namespace, based on
+<em>domain</em>, <em>localedir</em>, and <em>codeset</em> which are passed to the function
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.translation" title="gettext.translation"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">translation()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For the <em>names</em> parameter, please see the description of the translation
+object’s <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.install" title="gettext.NullTranslations.install"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application that are
+candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code>
+function, like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This string will be translated.&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For convenience, you want the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> function to be installed in Python’s
+builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all modules of your
+application.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="the-nulltranslations-class">
+<h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations" title="gettext.NullTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullTranslations</span></code></a> class<a class="headerlink" href="#the-nulltranslations-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Translation classes are what actually implement the translation of original
+source file message strings to translated message strings. The base class used
+by all translation classes is <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations" title="gettext.NullTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullTranslations</span></code></a>; this provides the basic
+interface you can use to write your own specialized translation classes.  Here
+are the methods of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullTranslations</span></code>:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">NullTranslations</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Takes an optional <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> <em>fp</em>, which is ignored by the base class.
+Initializes “protected” instance variables <em>_info</em> and <em>_charset</em> which are set
+by derived classes, as well as <em>_fallback</em>, which is set through
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.add_fallback" title="gettext.NullTranslations.add_fallback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_fallback()</span></code></a>.  It then calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self._parse(fp)</span></code> if <em>fp</em> is not
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations._parse">
+<code class="descname">_parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations._parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No-op in the base class, this method takes file object <em>fp</em>, and reads
+the data from the file, initializing its message catalog.  If you have an
+unsupported message catalog file format, you should override this method
+to parse your format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.add_fallback">
+<code class="descname">add_fallback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fallback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.add_fallback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>fallback</em> as the fallback object for the current translation object.
+A translation object should consult the fallback if it cannot provide a
+translation for a given message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.gettext">
+<code class="descname">gettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.gettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If a fallback has been set, forward <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code> to the fallback.
+Otherwise, return <em>message</em>.  Overridden in derived classes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext">
+<code class="descname">ngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If a fallback has been set, forward <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ngettext()</span></code> to the fallback.
+Otherwise, return <em>singular</em> if <em>n</em> is 1; return <em>plural</em> otherwise.
+Overridden in derived classes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext">
+<code class="descname">lgettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext">
+<code class="descname">lngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.gettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.gettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ngettext()</span></code></a>, but the translation
+is returned as a byte string encoded in the preferred system encoding
+if no encoding was explicitly set with <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset" title="gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_output_charset()</span></code></a>.
+Overridden in derived classes.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>These methods should be avoided in Python 3.  See the warning for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.lgettext" title="gettext.lgettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgettext()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.info">
+<code class="descname">info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the “protected” <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_info</span></code> variable, a dictionary containing
+the metadata found in the message catalog file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.charset">
+<code class="descname">charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the encoding of the message catalog file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.output_charset">
+<code class="descname">output_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.output_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the encoding used to return translated messages in <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.lgettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgettext()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.lngettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lngettext()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset">
+<code class="descname">set_output_charset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>charset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the encoding used to return translated messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.NullTranslations.install">
+<code class="descname">install</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>names=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.install" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method installs <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.gettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.gettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code></a> into the built-in namespace,
+binding it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the <em>names</em> parameter is given, it must be a sequence containing the
+names of functions you want to install in the builtins namespace in
+addition to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code>.  Supported names are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gettext'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ngettext'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'lgettext'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'lngettext'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient way, to make
+the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> function available to your application.  Because it affects
+the entire application globally, and specifically the built-in namespace,
+localized modules should never install <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code>. Instead, they should use
+this code to make <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> available to their module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gettext</span>
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">translation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gettext</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This puts <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> only in the module’s global namespace and so only
+affects calls within this module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-gnutranslations-class">
+<h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations" title="gettext.GNUTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code></a> class<a class="headerlink" href="#the-gnutranslations-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module provides one additional class derived from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations" title="gettext.NullTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullTranslations</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations" title="gettext.GNUTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code></a>.  This class overrides
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_parse()</span></code> to enable reading GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> format <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> files
+in both big-endian and little-endian format.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations" title="gettext.GNUTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code></a> parses optional metadata out of the translation
+catalog. It is convention with GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> to include metadata as
+the translation for the empty string. This metadata is in <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a>-style
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key:</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code> pairs, and should contain the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Project-Id-Version</span></code> key.  If the
+key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Type</span></code> is found, then the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset</span></code> property is used to
+initialize the “protected” <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_charset</span></code> instance variable, defaulting to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if not found.  If the charset encoding is specified, then all message
+ids and message strings read from the catalog are converted to Unicode using
+this encoding, else ASCII is assumed.</p>
+<p>Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*gettext()</span></code> methods
+will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings.</p>
+<p>The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set as the
+“protected” <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_info</span></code> instance variable.</p>
+<p>If the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> file’s magic number is invalid, the major version number is
+unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations" title="gettext.GNUTranslations"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code></a> class can raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="gettext.GNUTranslations">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">gettext.</code><code class="descname">GNUTranslations</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The following methods are overridden from the base class implementation:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.GNUTranslations.gettext">
+<code class="descname">gettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations.gettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up the <em>message</em> id in the catalog and return the corresponding message
+string, as a Unicode string.  If there is no entry in the catalog for the
+<em>message</em> id, and a fallback has been set, the look up is forwarded to the
+fallback’s <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.gettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.gettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code></a> method.  Otherwise, the
+<em>message</em> id is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.GNUTranslations.ngettext">
+<code class="descname">ngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations.ngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  <em>singular</em> is used as the message id
+for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while <em>n</em> is used to determine which
+plural form to use.  The returned message string is a Unicode string.</p>
+<p>If the message id is not found in the catalog, and a fallback is specified,
+the request is forwarded to the fallback’s <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext" title="gettext.NullTranslations.ngettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ngettext()</span></code></a>
+method.  Otherwise, when <em>n</em> is 1 <em>singular</em> is returned, and <em>plural</em> is
+returned in all other cases.</p>
+<p>Here is an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">cat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">GNUTranslations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">somefile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ngettext</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;There is </span><span class="si">%(num)d</span><span class="s1"> file in this directory&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;There are </span><span class="si">%(num)d</span><span class="s1"> files in this directory&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;num&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.GNUTranslations.lgettext">
+<code class="descname">lgettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations.lgettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gettext.GNUTranslations.lngettext">
+<code class="descname">lngettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>singular</em>, <em>plural</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations.lngettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations.gettext" title="gettext.GNUTranslations.gettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.GNUTranslations.ngettext" title="gettext.GNUTranslations.ngettext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ngettext()</span></code></a>, but the translation
+is returned as a byte string encoded in the preferred system encoding
+if no encoding  was explicitly set with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset" title="gettext.NullTranslations.set_output_charset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_output_charset()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>These methods should be avoided in Python 3.  See the warning for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.lgettext" title="gettext.lgettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgettext()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="solaris-message-catalog-support">
+<h3>Solaris message catalog support<a class="headerlink" href="#solaris-message-catalog-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Solaris operating system defines its own binary <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> file format, but
+since no documentation can be found on this format, it is not supported at this
+time.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-catalog-constructor">
+<h3>The Catalog constructor<a class="headerlink" href="#the-catalog-constructor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-10">GNOME uses a version of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module by James Henstridge, but this
+version has a slightly different API.  Its documented usage was:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gettext</span>
+<span class="n">cat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Catalog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">domain</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">localedir</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gettext</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For compatibility with this older module, the function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Catalog()</span></code> is an
+alias for the <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.translation" title="gettext.translation"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">translation()</span></code></a> function described above.</p>
+<p>One difference between this module and Henstridge’s: his catalog objects
+supported access through a mapping API, but this appears to be unused and so is
+not currently supported.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="internationalizing-your-programs-and-modules">
+<h2>Internationalizing your programs and modules<a class="headerlink" href="#internationalizing-your-programs-and-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Internationalization (I18N) refers to the operation by which a program is made
+aware of multiple languages.  Localization (L10N) refers to the adaptation of
+your program, once internationalized, to the local language and cultural habits.
+In order to provide multilingual messages for your Python programs, you need to
+take the following steps:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>prepare your program or module by specially marking translatable strings</p></li>
+<li><p>run a suite of tools over your marked files to generate raw messages catalogs</p></li>
+<li><p>create language-specific translations of the message catalogs</p></li>
+<li><p>use the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module so that message strings are properly translated</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the strings in
+your files.  Any string that needs to be translated should be marked by wrapping
+it in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_('...')</span></code> — that is, a call to the function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mylog.txt&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;writing a log message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'writing</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">log</span> <span class="pre">message'</span></code> is marked as a candidate
+for translation, while the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mylog.txt'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> are not.</p>
+<p>There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation.
+The original GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> only supported C or C++ source
+code but its extended version <strong class="program">xgettext</strong> scans code written
+in a number of languages, including Python, to find strings marked as
+translatable.  <a class="reference external" href="http://babel.pocoo.org/">Babel</a> is a Python
+internationalization library that includes a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pybabel</span></code> script to
+extract and compile message catalogs.  François Pinard’s program
+called <strong class="program">xpot</strong> does a similar job and is available as part of
+his <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/pinard/po-utils">po-utils package</a>.</p>
+<p>(Python also includes pure-Python versions of these programs, called
+<strong class="program">pygettext.py</strong> and <strong class="program">msgfmt.py</strong>; some Python distributions
+will install them for you.  <strong class="program">pygettext.py</strong> is similar to
+<strong class="program">xgettext</strong>, but only understands Python source code and
+cannot handle other programming languages such as C or C++.
+<strong class="program">pygettext.py</strong> supports a command-line interface similar to
+<strong class="program">xgettext</strong>; for details on its use, run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pygettext.py</span>
+<span class="pre">--help</span></code>.  <strong class="program">msgfmt.py</strong> is binary compatible with GNU
+<strong class="program">msgfmt</strong>.  With these two programs, you may not need the GNU
+<strong class="program">gettext</strong> package to internationalize your Python
+applications.)</p>
+<p><strong class="program">xgettext</strong>, <strong class="program">pygettext</strong>, and similar tools generate
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.po</span></code> files that are message catalogs.  They are structured
+human-readable files that contain every marked string in the source
+code, along with a placeholder for the translated versions of these
+strings.</p>
+<p>Copies of these <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.po</span></code> files are then handed over to the
+individual human translators who write translations for every
+supported natural language.  They send back the completed
+language-specific versions as a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;language-name&gt;.po</span></code> file that’s
+compiled into a machine-readable <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> binary catalog file using
+the <strong class="program">msgfmt</strong> program.  The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> files are used by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module for the actual translation processing at
+run-time.</p>
+<p>How you use the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module in your code depends on whether you are
+internationalizing a single module or your entire application. The next two
+sections will discuss each case.</p>
+<div class="section" id="localizing-your-module">
+<h3>Localizing your module<a class="headerlink" href="#localizing-your-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you are localizing your module, you must take care not to make global
+changes, e.g. to the built-in namespace. You should not use the GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong>
+API but instead the class-based API.</p>
+<p>Let’s say your module is called “spam” and the module’s various natural language
+translation <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mo</span></code> files reside in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/share/locale</span></code> in GNU
+<strong class="program">gettext</strong> format.  Here’s what you would put at the top of your
+module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gettext</span>
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">translation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/share/locale&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gettext</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="localizing-your-application">
+<h3>Localizing your application<a class="headerlink" href="#localizing-your-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you are localizing your application, you can install the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> function
+globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main driver file of your
+application.  This will let all your application-specific files just use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_('...')</span></code> without having to explicitly install it in each file.</p>
+<p>In the simple case then, you need only add the following bit of code to the main
+driver file of your application:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gettext</span>
+<span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapplication&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you need to set the locale directory, you can pass it into the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.install" title="gettext.install"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gettext</span>
+<span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapplication&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/share/locale&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changing-languages-on-the-fly">
+<h3>Changing languages on the fly<a class="headerlink" href="#changing-languages-on-the-fly" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If your program needs to support many languages at the same time, you may want
+to create multiple translation instances and then switch between them
+explicitly, like so:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gettext</span>
+
+<span class="n">lang1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">translation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapplication&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">languages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;en&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">lang2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">translation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapplication&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">languages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;fr&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">lang3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gettext</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">translation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapplication&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">languages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;de&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># start by using language1</span>
+<span class="n">lang1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... time goes by, user selects language 2</span>
+<span class="n">lang2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... more time goes by, user selects language 3</span>
+<span class="n">lang3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deferred-translations">
+<h3>Deferred translations<a class="headerlink" href="#deferred-translations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In most coding situations, strings are translated where they are coded.
+Occasionally however, you need to mark strings for translation, but defer actual
+translation until later.  A classic example is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">animals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;mollusk&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="s1">&#39;albatross&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="s1">&#39;rat&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="s1">&#39;penguin&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="s1">&#39;python&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="c1"># ...</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">animals</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here, you want to mark the strings in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">animals</span></code> list as being
+translatable, but you don’t actually want to translate them until they are
+printed.</p>
+<p>Here is one way you can handle this situation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+
+<span class="n">animals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mollusk&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;albatross&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rat&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;penguin&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">_</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ...</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">animals</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This works because the dummy definition of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> simply returns the string
+unchanged.  And this dummy definition will temporarily override any definition
+of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> in the built-in namespace (until the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> command). Take
+care, though if you have a previous definition of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> in the local
+namespace.</p>
+<p>Note that the second use of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code> will not identify “a” as being
+translatable to the <strong class="program">gettext</strong> program, because the parameter
+is not a string literal.</p>
+<p>Another way to handle this is with the following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">N_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+
+<span class="n">animals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">N_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mollusk&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">N_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;albatross&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">N_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rat&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">N_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;penguin&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+           <span class="n">N_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ...</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">animals</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N_()</span></code>, which won’t conflict with any definition of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_()</span></code>.
+However, you will need to teach your message extraction program to
+look for translatable strings marked with <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N_()</span></code>. <strong class="program">xgettext</strong>,
+<strong class="program">pygettext</strong>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pybabel</span> <span class="pre">extract</span></code>, and <strong class="program">xpot</strong> all
+support this through the use of the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-k</span></code> command-line switch.
+The choice of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N_()</span></code> here is totally arbitrary; it could have just
+as easily been <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MarkThisStringForTranslation()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following people contributed code, feedback, design suggestions, previous
+implementations, and valuable experience to the creation of this module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Peter Funk</p></li>
+<li><p>James Henstridge</p></li>
+<li><p>Juan David Ibáñez Palomar</p></li>
+<li><p>Marc-André Lemburg</p></li>
+<li><p>Martin von Löwis</p></li>
+<li><p>François Pinard</p></li>
+<li><p>Barry Warsaw</p></li>
+<li><p>Gustavo Niemeyer</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on RedHat Linux
+it is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/share/locale</span></code>, but on Solaris it is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/lib/locale</span></code>.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module does not try to support these system dependent
+defaults; instead its default is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/share/locale</span></code> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.prefix" title="sys.prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code></a>). For this reason, it is always best to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.bindtextdomain" title="gettext.bindtextdomain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bindtextdomain()</span></code></a> with an explicit absolute path at the start of your
+application.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id4"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>See the footnote for <a class="reference internal" href="#gettext.bindtextdomain" title="gettext.bindtextdomain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bindtextdomain()</span></code></a> above.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code> — Multilingual internationalization services</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gnu-gettext-api">GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-based-api">Class-based API</a><ul>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#localizing-your-module">Localizing your module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#localizing-your-application">Localizing your application</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changing-languages-on-the-fly">Changing languages on the fly</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deferred-translations">Deferred translations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-glob">
+<span id="glob-unix-style-pathname-pattern-expansion"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> — Unix style pathname pattern expansion<a class="headerlink" href="#module-glob" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/glob.py">Lib/glob.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p id="index-1">The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> module finds all the pathnames matching a specified pattern
+according to the rules used by the Unix shell, although results are returned in
+arbitrary order.  No tilde expansion is done, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>, and character
+ranges expressed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code> will be correctly matched.  This is done by using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatch" title="fnmatch.fnmatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch.fnmatch()</span></code></a> functions in concert, and
+not by actually invoking a subshell.  Note that unlike <a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatch" title="fnmatch.fnmatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch.fnmatch()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> treats filenames beginning with a dot (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code>) as special cases.
+(For tilde and shell variable expansion, use <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expandvars" title="os.path.expandvars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expandvars()</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<p>For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'[?]'</span></code> matches the character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> module offers high-level path objects.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="glob.glob">
+<code class="descclassname">glob.</code><code class="descname">glob</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>recursive=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#glob.glob" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a possibly-empty list of path names that match <em>pathname</em>, which must be
+a string containing a path specification. <em>pathname</em> can be either absolute
+(like <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile</span></code>) or relative (like
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">../../Tools/*/*.gif</span></code>), and can contain shell-style wildcards. Broken
+symlinks are included in the results (as in the shell).</p>
+<p id="index-2">If <em>recursive</em> is true, the pattern “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>” will match any files and zero or
+more directories and subdirectories.  If the pattern is followed by an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sep</span></code>, only directories and subdirectories match.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Using the “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>” pattern in large directory trees may consume
+an inordinate amount of time.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Support for recursive globs using “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>”.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="glob.iglob">
+<code class="descclassname">glob.</code><code class="descname">iglob</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>recursive=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#glob.iglob" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> which yields the same values as <a class="reference internal" href="#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob()</span></code></a>
+without actually storing them all simultaneously.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="glob.escape">
+<code class="descclassname">glob.</code><code class="descname">escape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#glob.escape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Escape all special characters (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'['</span></code>).
+This is useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may
+have special characters in it.  Special characters in drive/UNC
+sharepoints are not escaped, e.g. on Windows
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escape('//?/c:/Quo</span> <span class="pre">vadis?.txt')</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'//?/c:/Quo</span> <span class="pre">vadis[?].txt'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>For example, consider a directory containing the following files:
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.gif</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2.txt</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">card.gif</span></code> and a subdirectory <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub</span></code>
+which contains only the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.txt</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob()</span></code></a> will produce
+the following results.  Notice how any leading components of the path are
+preserved.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">glob</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;./[0-9].*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;./1.gif&#39;, &#39;./2.txt&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1.gif&#39;, &#39;card.gif&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;?.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1.gif&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;**/*.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">recursive</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;2.txt&#39;, &#39;sub/3.txt&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;./**/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">recursive</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;./&#39;, &#39;./sub/&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the directory contains files starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> they won’t be matched by
+default. For example, consider a directory containing <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">card.gif</span></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.card.gif</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">glob</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;card.gif&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.c*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;.card.gif&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html#module-fnmatch" title="fnmatch: Unix shell style filename pattern matching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Shell-style filename (not path) expansion</p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/grp.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/grp.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5965813
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@@ -0,0 +1,262 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>grp — The group database &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-grp">
+<span id="grp-the-group-database"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-grp" title="grp: The group database (getgrnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code></a> — The group database<a class="headerlink" href="#module-grp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to the Unix group database. It is available on all
+Unix versions.</p>
+<p>Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes
+correspond to the members of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group</span></code> structure (Attribute field below, see
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;pwd.h&gt;</span></code>):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>gr_name</p></td>
+<td><p>the name of the group</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>gr_passwd</p></td>
+<td><p>the (encrypted) group password;
+often empty</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>gr_gid</p></td>
+<td><p>the numerical group ID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p>gr_mem</p></td>
+<td><p>all the group member’s  user
+names</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member list is a
+list of strings. (Note that most users are not explicitly listed as members of
+the group they are in according to the password database.  Check both databases
+to get complete membership information.  Also note that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gr_name</span></code> that
+starts with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> is likely to be a YP/NIS reference and may not be
+accessible via <a class="reference internal" href="#grp.getgrnam" title="grp.getgrnam"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgrnam()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#grp.getgrgid" title="grp.getgrgid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgrgid()</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<p>It defines the following items:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="grp.getgrgid">
+<code class="descclassname">grp.</code><code class="descname">getgrgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>gid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#grp.getgrgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>
+is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Since Python 3.6 the support of non-integer arguments like floats or
+strings in <a class="reference internal" href="#grp.getgrgid" title="grp.getgrgid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgrgid()</span></code></a> is deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="grp.getgrnam">
+<code class="descclassname">grp.</code><code class="descname">getgrnam</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#grp.getgrnam" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the group database entry for the given group name. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is
+raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="grp.getgrall">
+<code class="descclassname">grp.</code><code class="descname">getgrall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#grp.getgrall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="pwd.html#module-pwd" title="pwd: The password database (getpwnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>An interface to the user database, similar to this.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="spwd.html#module-spwd" title="spwd: The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>An interface to the shadow password database, similar to this.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="spwd.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code> — The shadow password database</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="crypt.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code> — Function to check Unix passwords</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/gzip.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/gzip.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc72b73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/gzip.html
@@ -0,0 +1,390 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>gzip — Support for gzip files &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-gzip">
+<span id="gzip-support-for-gzip-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> — Support for <strong class="program">gzip</strong> files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-gzip" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/gzip.py">Lib/gzip.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a simple interface to compress and decompress files just
+like the GNU programs <strong class="program">gzip</strong> and <strong class="program">gunzip</strong> would.</p>
+<p>The data compression is provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module provides the <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> class, as well as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.open" title="gzip.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.compress" title="gzip.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.decompress" title="gzip.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> convenience functions.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> class reads and writes <strong class="program">gzip</strong>-format files,
+automatically compressing or decompressing the data so that it looks like an
+ordinary <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that additional file formats which can be decompressed by the
+<strong class="program">gzip</strong> and <strong class="program">gunzip</strong> programs, such  as those produced by
+<strong class="program">compress</strong> and <strong class="program">pack</strong>, are not supported by this module.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following items:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gzip.open">
+<code class="descclassname">gzip.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode='rb'</em>, <em>compresslevel=9</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gzip.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a gzip-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>filename</em> argument can be an actual filename (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object), or an existing file object to read from or write to.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument can be any of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ab'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xb'</span></code> for binary mode, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rt'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'at'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wt'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xt'</span></code> for text mode. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>compresslevel</em> argument is an integer from 0 to 9, as for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a>
+constructor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile(filename,</span> <span class="pre">mode,</span> <span class="pre">compresslevel)</span></code>. In this case, the
+<em>encoding</em>, <em>errors</em> and <em>newline</em> arguments must not be provided.</p>
+<p>For text mode, a <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> object is created, and wrapped in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> instance with the specified encoding, error
+handling behavior, and line ending(s).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added support for <em>filename</em> being a file object, support for text mode,
+and the <em>encoding</em>, <em>errors</em> and <em>newline</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xb'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xt'</span></code> modes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="gzip.GzipFile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">gzip.</code><code class="descname">GzipFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=None</em>, <em>mode=None</em>, <em>compresslevel=9</em>, <em>fileobj=None</em>, <em>mtime=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for the <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> class, which simulates most of the
+methods of a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, with the exception of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code>
+method.  At least one of <em>fileobj</em> and <em>filename</em> must be given a non-trivial
+value.</p>
+<p>The new class instance is based on <em>fileobj</em>, which can be a regular file, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> object, or any other object which simulates a file.  It
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case <em>filename</em> is opened to provide a file
+object.</p>
+<p>When <em>fileobj</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <em>filename</em> argument is only used to be
+included in the <strong class="program">gzip</strong> file header, which may include the original
+filename of the uncompressed file.  It defaults to the filename of <em>fileobj</em>, if
+discernible; otherwise, it defaults to the empty string, and in this case the
+original filename is not included in the header.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument can be any of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ab'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xb'</span></code>, depending on whether the file will be read or
+written.  The default is the mode of <em>fileobj</em> if discernible; otherwise, the
+default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that the file is always opened in binary mode. To open a compressed file
+in text mode, use <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.open" title="gzip.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> (or wrap your <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> with an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>The <em>compresslevel</em> argument is an integer from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> controlling
+the level of compression; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> is fastest and produces the least
+compression, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> is slowest and produces the most compression. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>
+is no compression. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>mtime</em> argument is an optional numeric timestamp to be written to
+the last modification time field in the stream when compressing.  It
+should only be provided in compression mode.  If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the
+current time is used.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile.mtime" title="gzip.GzipFile.mtime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mtime</span></code></a> attribute for more details.</p>
+<p>Calling a <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> object’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method does not close
+<em>fileobj</em>, since you might wish to append more material after the compressed
+data.  This also allows you to pass an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> object opened for
+writing as <em>fileobj</em>, and retrieve the resulting memory buffer using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> object’s <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO.getvalue" title="io.BytesIO.getvalue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getvalue()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> supports the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> interface,
+including iteration and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  Only the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code> method isn’t implemented.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> also provides the following method and attribute:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="gzip.GzipFile.peek">
+<code class="descname">peek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gzip.GzipFile.peek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read <em>n</em> uncompressed bytes without advancing the file position.
+At most one single read on the compressed stream is done to satisfy
+the call.  The number of bytes returned may be more or less than
+requested.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While calling <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile.peek" title="gzip.GzipFile.peek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">peek()</span></code></a> does not change the file position of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a>, it may change the position of the underlying
+file object (e.g. if the <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> was constructed with the
+<em>fileobj</em> parameter).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="gzip.GzipFile.mtime">
+<code class="descname">mtime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#gzip.GzipFile.mtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When decompressing, the value of the last modification time field in
+the most recently read header may be read from this attribute, as an
+integer.  The initial value before reading any headers is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>All <strong class="program">gzip</strong> compressed streams are required to contain this
+timestamp field.  Some programs, such as <strong class="program">gunzip</strong>, make use
+of the timestamp.  The format is the same as the return value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> and the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat_result.st_mtime" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime</span></code></a> attribute of
+the object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added, along with the
+<em>mtime</em> constructor argument and <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile.mtime" title="gzip.GzipFile.mtime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mtime</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Support for zero-padded and unseekable files was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read1" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read1"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase.read1()</span></code></a> method is now implemented.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xb'</span></code> modes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for writing arbitrary
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method now accepts an argument of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gzip.compress">
+<code class="descclassname">gzip.</code><code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>compresslevel=9</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gzip.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compress the <em>data</em>, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object containing
+the compressed data.  <em>compresslevel</em> has the same meaning as in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> constructor above.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="gzip.decompress">
+<code class="descclassname">gzip.</code><code class="descname">decompress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#gzip.decompress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decompress the <em>data</em>, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object containing the
+uncompressed data.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="examples-of-usage">
+<span id="gzip-usage-examples"></span><h2>Examples of usage<a class="headerlink" href="#examples-of-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Example of how to read a compressed file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gzip</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/home/joe/file.txt.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">file_content</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of how to create a compressed GZIP file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gzip</span>
+<span class="n">content</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Lots of content here&quot;</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/home/joe/file.txt.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">content</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of how to GZIP compress an existing file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gzip</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/home/joe/file.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f_in</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/home/joe/file.txt.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f_out</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copyfileobj</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f_in</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f_out</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of how to GZIP compress a binary string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gzip</span>
+<span class="n">s_in</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Lots of content here&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">s_out</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s_in</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The basic data compression module needed to support the <strong class="program">gzip</strong> file
+format.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">gzip</strong> files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples-of-usage">Examples of usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="zlib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code> — Compression compatible with <strong class="program">gzip</strong></a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bz2.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">bzip2</strong> compression</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/gzip.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/hashlib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/hashlib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a14564c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/hashlib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,919 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-hashlib">
+<span id="hashlib-secure-hashes-and-message-digests"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> — Secure hashes and message digests<a class="headerlink" href="#module-hashlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/hashlib.py">Lib/hashlib.py</a></p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module implements a common interface to many different secure hash and
+message digest algorithms.  Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA1,
+SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, and SHA512 (defined in FIPS 180-2) as well as RSA’s MD5
+algorithm (defined in Internet <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1321.html"><strong>RFC 1321</strong></a>).  The terms “secure hash” and
+“message digest” are interchangeable.  Older algorithms were called message
+digests.  The modern term is secure hash.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you want the adler32 or crc32 hash functions, they are available in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Some algorithms have known hash collision weaknesses, refer to the “See
+also” section at the end.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hash-algorithms">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Hash algorithms<a class="headerlink" href="#hash-algorithms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There is one constructor method named for each type of <em class="dfn">hash</em>.  All return
+a hash object with the same simple interface. For example: use <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha256()</span></code> to
+create a SHA-256 hash object. You can now feed this object with <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+objects</span></a> (normally <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>) using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code> method.
+At any point you can ask it for the <em class="dfn">digest</em> of the
+concatenation of the data fed to it so far using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexdigest()</span></code> methods.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For better multithreading performance, the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> is released for
+data larger than 2047 bytes at object creation or on update.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Feeding string objects into <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code> is not supported, as hashes work
+on bytes, not on characters.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-2">Constructors for hash algorithms that are always present in this module are
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha1()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha224()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha256()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha384()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha512()</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.blake2b" title="hashlib.blake2b"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2b()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.blake2s" title="hashlib.blake2s"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2s()</span></code></a>.
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">md5()</span></code> is normally available as well, though it
+may be missing if you are using a rare “FIPS compliant” build of Python.
+Additional algorithms may also be available depending upon the OpenSSL
+library that Python uses on your platform. On most platforms the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_224()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_256()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_384()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_512()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_128()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_256()</span></code> are also available.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>SHA3 (Keccak) and SHAKE constructors <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_224()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_256()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_384()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_512()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_128()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_256()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.blake2b" title="hashlib.blake2b"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2b()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.blake2s" title="hashlib.blake2s"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2s()</span></code></a> were added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>For example, to obtain the digest of the byte string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'Nobody</span> <span class="pre">inspects</span> <span class="pre">the</span>
+<span class="pre">spammish</span> <span class="pre">repetition'</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha256</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Nobody inspects&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot; the spammish repetition&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest_size</span>
+<span class="go">32</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">block_size</span>
+<span class="go">64</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>More condensed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha224</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Nobody inspects the spammish repetition&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;a4337bc45a8fc544c03f52dc550cd6e1e87021bc896588bd79e901e2&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hashlib.new">
+<code class="descclassname">hashlib.</code><code class="descname">new</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>data</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.new" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is a generic constructor that takes the string <em>name</em> of the desired
+algorithm as its first parameter.  It also exists to allow access to the
+above listed hashes as well as any other algorithms that your OpenSSL
+library may offer.  The named constructors are much faster than <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.new" title="hashlib.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new()</span></code></a>
+and should be preferred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.new" title="hashlib.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new()</span></code></a> with an algorithm provided by OpenSSL:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ripemd160&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Nobody inspects the spammish repetition&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;cc4a5ce1b3df48aec5d22d1f16b894a0b894eccc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Hashlib provides the following constant attributes:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed">
+<code class="descclassname">hashlib.</code><code class="descname">algorithms_guaranteed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A set containing the names of the hash algorithms guaranteed to be supported
+by this module on all platforms.  Note that ‘md5’ is in this list despite
+some upstream vendors offering an odd “FIPS compliant” Python build that
+excludes it.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.algorithms_available">
+<code class="descclassname">hashlib.</code><code class="descname">algorithms_available</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.algorithms_available" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A set containing the names of the hash algorithms that are available in the
+running Python interpreter.  These names will be recognized when passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.new" title="hashlib.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new()</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed" title="hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">algorithms_guaranteed</span></code></a> will always be a subset.  The
+same algorithm may appear multiple times in this set under different names
+(thanks to OpenSSL).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following values are provided as constant attributes of the hash objects
+returned by the constructors:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.hash.digest_size">
+<code class="descclassname">hash.</code><code class="descname">digest_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.hash.digest_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The size of the resulting hash in bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.hash.block_size">
+<code class="descclassname">hash.</code><code class="descname">block_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.hash.block_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A hash object has the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="hashlib.hash.name">
+<code class="descclassname">hash.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.hash.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The canonical name of this hash, always lowercase and always suitable as a
+parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.new" title="hashlib.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new()</span></code></a> to create another hash of this type.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The name attribute has been present in CPython since its inception, but
+until Python 3.4 was not formally specified, so may not exist on some
+platforms.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A hash object has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hashlib.hash.update">
+<code class="descclassname">hash.</code><code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.hash.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the hash object with the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.
+Repeated calls are equivalent to a single call with the
+concatenation of all the arguments: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.update(a);</span> <span class="pre">m.update(b)</span></code> is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.update(a+b)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>The Python GIL is released to allow other threads to run while hash
+updates on data larger than 2047 bytes is taking place when using hash
+algorithms supplied by OpenSSL.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hashlib.hash.digest">
+<code class="descclassname">hash.</code><code class="descname">digest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.hash.digest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the digest of the data passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.hash.update" title="hashlib.hash.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a> method so far.
+This is a bytes object of size <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.hash.digest_size" title="hashlib.hash.digest_size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest_size</span></code></a> which may contain bytes in
+the whole range from 0 to 255.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hashlib.hash.hexdigest">
+<code class="descclassname">hash.</code><code class="descname">hexdigest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.hash.hexdigest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.hash.digest" title="hashlib.hash.digest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code></a> except the digest is returned as a string object of
+double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be used to
+exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary environments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hashlib.hash.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">hash.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.hash.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy (“clone”) of the hash object.  This can be used to efficiently
+compute the digests of data sharing a common initial substring.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shake-variable-length-digests">
+<h2>SHAKE variable length digests<a class="headerlink" href="#shake-variable-length-digests" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_128()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_256()</span></code> algorithms provide variable
+length digests with length_in_bits//2 up to 128 or 256 bits of security.
+As such, their digest methods require a length. Maximum length is not limited
+by the SHAKE algorithm.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hashlib.shake.digest">
+<code class="descclassname">shake.</code><code class="descname">digest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.shake.digest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the digest of the data passed to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code> method so far.
+This is a bytes object of size <em>length</em> which may contain bytes in
+the whole range from 0 to 255.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hashlib.shake.hexdigest">
+<code class="descclassname">shake.</code><code class="descname">hexdigest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.shake.hexdigest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.shake.digest" title="hashlib.shake.digest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code></a> except the digest is returned as a string object of
+double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be used to
+exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary environments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="key-derivation">
+<h2>Key derivation<a class="headerlink" href="#key-derivation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Key derivation and key stretching algorithms are designed for secure password
+hashing. Naive algorithms such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha1(password)</span></code> are not resistant against
+brute-force attacks. A good password hashing function must be tunable, slow, and
+include a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28cryptography%29">salt</a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac">
+<code class="descclassname">hashlib.</code><code class="descname">pbkdf2_hmac</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hash_name</em>, <em>password</em>, <em>salt</em>, <em>iterations</em>, <em>dklen=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The function provides PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2. It
+uses HMAC as pseudorandom function.</p>
+<p>The string <em>hash_name</em> is the desired name of the hash digest algorithm for
+HMAC, e.g. ‘sha1’ or ‘sha256’. <em>password</em> and <em>salt</em> are interpreted as
+buffers of bytes. Applications and libraries should limit <em>password</em> to
+a sensible length (e.g. 1024). <em>salt</em> should be about 16 or more bytes from
+a proper source, e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The number of <em>iterations</em> should be chosen based on the hash algorithm and
+computing power. As of 2013, at least 100,000 iterations of SHA-256 are
+suggested.</p>
+<p><em>dklen</em> is the length of the derived key. If <em>dklen</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then the
+digest size of the hash algorithm <em>hash_name</em> is used, e.g. 64 for SHA-512.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">binascii</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dk</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pbkdf2_hmac</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sha256&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;password&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;salt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">binascii</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexlify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;0394a2ede332c9a13eb82e9b24631604c31df978b4e2f0fbd2c549944f9d79a5&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>A fast implementation of <em>pbkdf2_hmac</em> is available with OpenSSL.  The
+Python implementation uses an inline version of <a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a>. It is about
+three times slower and doesn’t release the GIL.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hashlib.scrypt">
+<code class="descclassname">hashlib.</code><code class="descname">scrypt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>salt</em>, <em>n</em>, <em>r</em>, <em>p</em>, <em>maxmem=0</em>, <em>dklen=64</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.scrypt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The function provides scrypt password-based key derivation function as
+defined in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7914.html"><strong>RFC 7914</strong></a>.</p>
+<p><em>password</em> and <em>salt</em> must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>.  Applications and libraries should limit <em>password</em>
+to a sensible length (e.g. 1024).  <em>salt</em> should be about 16 or more
+bytes from a proper source, e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>n</em> is the CPU/Memory cost factor, <em>r</em> the block size, <em>p</em> parallelization
+factor and <em>maxmem</em> limits memory (OpenSSL 1.1.0 defaults to 32 MiB).
+<em>dklen</em> is the length of the derived key.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: OpenSSL 1.1+.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="blake2">
+<h2>BLAKE2<a class="headerlink" href="#blake2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-4"><a class="reference external" href="https://blake2.net">BLAKE2</a> is a cryptographic hash function defined in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7693.html"><strong>RFC 7693</strong></a> that comes in two
+flavors:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>BLAKE2b</strong>, optimized for 64-bit platforms and produces digests of any size
+between 1 and 64 bytes,</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>BLAKE2s</strong>, optimized for 8- to 32-bit platforms and produces digests of any
+size between 1 and 32 bytes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>BLAKE2 supports <strong>keyed mode</strong> (a faster and simpler replacement for <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code">HMAC</a>),
+<strong>salted hashing</strong>, <strong>personalization</strong>, and <strong>tree hashing</strong>.</p>
+<p>Hash objects from this module follow the API of standard library’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<div class="section" id="creating-hash-objects">
+<h3>Creating hash objects<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-hash-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New hash objects are created by calling constructor functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2b">
+<code class="descclassname">hashlib.</code><code class="descname">blake2b</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data=b''</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>digest_size=64</em>, <em>key=b''</em>, <em>salt=b''</em>, <em>person=b''</em>, <em>fanout=1</em>, <em>depth=1</em>, <em>leaf_size=0</em>, <em>node_offset=0</em>, <em>node_depth=0</em>, <em>inner_size=0</em>, <em>last_node=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2b" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2s">
+<code class="descclassname">hashlib.</code><code class="descname">blake2s</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data=b''</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>digest_size=32</em>, <em>key=b''</em>, <em>salt=b''</em>, <em>person=b''</em>, <em>fanout=1</em>, <em>depth=1</em>, <em>leaf_size=0</em>, <em>node_offset=0</em>, <em>node_depth=0</em>, <em>inner_size=0</em>, <em>last_node=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2s" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>These functions return the corresponding hash objects for calculating
+BLAKE2b or BLAKE2s. They optionally take these general parameters:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>data</em>: initial chunk of data to hash, which must be
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.  It can be passed only as positional argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>digest_size</em>: size of output digest in bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>key</em>: key for keyed hashing (up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 32 bytes for
+BLAKE2s).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>salt</em>: salt for randomized hashing (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 8
+bytes for BLAKE2s).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>person</em>: personalization string (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 8 bytes
+for BLAKE2s).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The following table shows limits for general parameters (in bytes):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Hash</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>digest_size</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>len(key)</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>len(salt)</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>len(person)</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>BLAKE2b</p></td>
+<td><p>64</p></td>
+<td><p>64</p></td>
+<td><p>16</p></td>
+<td><p>16</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>BLAKE2s</p></td>
+<td><p>32</p></td>
+<td><p>32</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>BLAKE2 specification defines constant lengths for salt and personalization
+parameters, however, for convenience, this implementation accepts byte
+strings of any size up to the specified length. If the length of the
+parameter is less than specified, it is padded with zeros, thus, for
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'salt'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'salt\x00'</span></code> is the same value. (This is not
+the case for <em>key</em>.)</p>
+</div>
+<p>These sizes are available as module <a class="reference internal" href="#constants">constants</a> described below.</p>
+<p>Constructor functions also accept the following tree hashing parameters:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>fanout</em>: fanout (0 to 255, 0 if unlimited, 1 in sequential mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>depth</em>: maximal depth of tree (1 to 255, 255 if unlimited, 1 in
+sequential mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>leaf_size</em>: maximal byte length of leaf (0 to 2**32-1, 0 if unlimited or in
+sequential mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>node_offset</em>: node offset (0 to 2**64-1 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 2**48-1 for
+BLAKE2s, 0 for the first, leftmost, leaf, or in sequential mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>node_depth</em>: node depth (0 to 255, 0 for leaves, or in sequential mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>inner_size</em>: inner digest size (0 to 64 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 32 for
+BLAKE2s, 0 in sequential mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>last_node</em>: boolean indicating whether the processed node is the last
+one (<cite>False</cite> for sequential mode).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="figure align-center">
+<img alt="Explanation of tree mode parameters." src="../_images/hashlib-blake2-tree.png" />
+</div>
+<p>See section 2.10 in <a class="reference external" href="https://blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf">BLAKE2 specification</a> for comprehensive review of tree
+hashing.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<h3>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2b.SALT_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2b.</code><code class="descname">SALT_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2b.SALT_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2s.SALT_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2s.</code><code class="descname">SALT_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2s.SALT_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Salt length (maximum length accepted by constructors).</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2b.PERSON_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2b.</code><code class="descname">PERSON_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2b.PERSON_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2s.PERSON_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2s.</code><code class="descname">PERSON_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2s.PERSON_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Personalization string length (maximum length accepted by constructors).</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2b.</code><code class="descname">MAX_KEY_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2s.</code><code class="descname">MAX_KEY_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Maximum key size.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2b.</code><code class="descname">MAX_DIGEST_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="hashlib.blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">blake2s.</code><code class="descname">MAX_DIGEST_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib.blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Maximum digest size that the hash function can output.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h3>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="simple-hashing">
+<h4>Simple hashing<a class="headerlink" href="#simple-hashing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>To calculate hash of some data, you should first construct a hash object by
+calling the appropriate constructor function (<a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.blake2b" title="hashlib.blake2b"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2b()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.blake2s" title="hashlib.blake2s"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2s()</span></code></a>), then update it with the data by calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code> on the
+object, and, finally, get the digest out of the object by calling
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code> (or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexdigest()</span></code> for hex-encoded string).</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As a shortcut, you can pass the first chunk of data to update directly to the
+constructor as the positional argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can call <a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib.hash.update" title="hashlib.hash.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash.update()</span></code></a> as many times as you need to iteratively
+update the hash:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">items</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;world&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-different-digest-sizes">
+<h4>Using different digest sizes<a class="headerlink" href="#using-different-digest-sizes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>BLAKE2 has configurable size of digests up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b and up to 32
+bytes for BLAKE2s. For example, to replace SHA-1 with BLAKE2b without changing
+the size of output, we can tell BLAKE2b to produce 20-byte digests:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;d24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest_size</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Hash objects with different digest sizes have completely different outputs
+(shorter hashes are <em>not</em> prefixes of longer hashes); BLAKE2b and BLAKE2s
+produce different outputs even if the output length is the same:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blake2s</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;6fa1d8fcfd719046d762&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;eb6ec15daf9546254f0809&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">blake2s</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">blake2s</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;567004bf96e4a25773ebf4&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="keyed-hashing">
+<h4>Keyed hashing<a class="headerlink" href="#keyed-hashing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Keyed hashing can be used for authentication as a faster and simpler
+replacement for <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code">Hash-based message authentication code</a> (HMAC).
+BLAKE2 can be securely used in prefix-MAC mode thanks to the
+indifferentiability property inherited from BLAKE.</p>
+<p>This example shows how to get a (hex-encoded) 128-bit authentication code for
+message <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'message</span> <span class="pre">data'</span></code> with key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'pseudorandom</span> <span class="pre">key'</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;pseudorandom key&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;message data&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As a practical example, a web application can symmetrically sign cookies sent
+to users and later verify them to make sure they weren’t tampered with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hmac</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">compare_digest</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">SECRET_KEY</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;pseudorandomly generated server secret key&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">AUTH_SIZE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">16</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">sign</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">AUTH_SIZE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SECRET_KEY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">verify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">good_sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">compare_digest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">good_sig</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cookie</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;user-alice&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s2">,</span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">user-alice,b&#39;43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">verify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">verify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;user-bob&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">verify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Even though there’s a native keyed hashing mode, BLAKE2 can, of course, be used
+in HMAC construction with <a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">hmac</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hmac</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;secret key&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">digestmod</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">blake2s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="randomized-hashing">
+<h4>Randomized hashing<a class="headerlink" href="#randomized-hashing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>By setting <em>salt</em> parameter users can introduce randomization to the hash
+function. Randomized hashing is useful for protecting against collision attacks
+on the hash function used in digital signatures.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Randomized hashing is designed for situations where one party, the message
+preparer, generates all or part of a message to be signed by a second
+party, the message signer. If the message preparer is able to find
+cryptographic hash function collisions (i.e., two messages producing the
+same hash value), then they might prepare meaningful versions of the message
+that would produce the same hash value and digital signature, but with
+different results (e.g., transferring $1,000,000 to an account, rather than
+$10). Cryptographic hash functions have been designed with collision
+resistance as a major goal, but the current concentration on attacking
+cryptographic hash functions may result in a given cryptographic hash
+function providing less collision resistance than expected. Randomized
+hashing offers the signer additional protection by reducing the likelihood
+that a preparer can generate two or more messages that ultimately yield the
+same hash value during the digital signature generation process — even if
+it is practical to find collisions for the hash function. However, the use
+of randomized hashing may reduce the amount of security provided by a
+digital signature when all portions of the message are prepared
+by the signer.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-106/final">NIST SP-800-106 “Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures”</a>)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>In BLAKE2 the salt is processed as a one-time input to the hash function during
+initialization, rather than as an input to each compression function.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p><em>Salted hashing</em> (or just hashing) with BLAKE2 or any other general-purpose
+cryptographic hash function, such as SHA-256, is not suitable for hashing
+passwords.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://blake2.net/#qa">BLAKE2 FAQ</a> for more
+information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;some message&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Calculate the first hash with a random salt.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">salt1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urandom</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SALT_SIZE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">salt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">salt1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">salt2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urandom</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SALT_SIZE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">salt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">salt2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># The digests are different.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">h2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="personalization">
+<h4>Personalization<a class="headerlink" href="#personalization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Sometimes it is useful to force hash function to produce different digests for
+the same input for different purposes. Quoting the authors of the Skein hash
+function:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>We recommend that all application designers seriously consider doing this;
+we have seen many protocols where a hash that is computed in one part of
+the protocol can be used in an entirely different part because two hash
+computations were done on similar or related data, and the attacker can
+force the application to make the hash inputs the same. Personalizing each
+hash function used in the protocol summarily stops this type of attack.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="http://www.skein-hash.info/sites/default/files/skein1.3.pdf">The Skein Hash Function Family</a>,
+p. 21)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>BLAKE2 can be personalized by passing bytes to the <em>person</em> argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">FILES_HASH_PERSON</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;MyApp Files Hash&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">BLOCK_HASH_PERSON</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;MyApp Block Hash&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">person</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FILES_HASH_PERSON</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;the same content&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">person</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">BLOCK_HASH_PERSON</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;the same content&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Personalization together with the keyed mode can also be used to derive different
+keys from a single one.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2s</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">base64</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">b64decode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b64encode</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">orig_key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b64decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">enc_key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2s</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">orig_key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">person</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;kEncrypt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mac_key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2s</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">orig_key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">person</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;kMAC&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b64encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">enc_key</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b64encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mac_key</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tree-mode">
+<h4>Tree mode<a class="headerlink" href="#tree-mode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Here’s an example of hashing a minimal tree with two leaf nodes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>  <span class="mi">10</span>
+ <span class="o">/</span>  \
+<span class="mi">00</span>  <span class="mi">01</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example uses 64-byte internal digests, and returns the 32-byte final
+digest:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">FANOUT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">DEPTH</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">LEAF_SIZE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4096</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">INNER_SIZE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">64</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Left leaf</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">h00</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">LEAF_SIZE</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">fanout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FANOUT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEPTH</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>              <span class="n">leaf_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">LEAF_SIZE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">inner_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">INNER_SIZE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>              <span class="n">node_offset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">node_depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last_node</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Right leaf</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">h01</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">LEAF_SIZE</span><span class="p">:],</span> <span class="n">fanout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FANOUT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEPTH</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>              <span class="n">leaf_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">LEAF_SIZE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">inner_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">INNER_SIZE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>              <span class="n">node_offset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">node_depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last_node</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Root node</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">h10</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">blake2b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digest_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fanout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FANOUT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEPTH</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>              <span class="n">leaf_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">LEAF_SIZE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">inner_size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">INNER_SIZE</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>              <span class="n">node_offset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">node_depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last_node</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h10</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h00</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h10</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h01</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digest</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h10</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="credits">
+<h3>Credits<a class="headerlink" href="#credits" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://blake2.net">BLAKE2</a> was designed by <em>Jean-Philippe Aumasson</em>, <em>Samuel Neves</em>, <em>Zooko
+Wilcox-O’Hearn</em>, and <em>Christian Winnerlein</em> based on <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST_hash_function_competition">SHA-3</a> finalist <a class="reference external" href="https://131002.net/blake/">BLAKE</a>
+created by <em>Jean-Philippe Aumasson</em>, <em>Luca Henzen</em>, <em>Willi Meier</em>, and
+<em>Raphael C.-W. Phan</em>.</p>
+<p>It uses core algorithm from <a class="reference external" href="https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html">ChaCha</a> cipher designed by <em>Daniel J.  Bernstein</em>.</p>
+<p>The stdlib implementation is based on <a class="reference external" href="https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/">pyblake2</a> module. It was written by
+<em>Dmitry Chestnykh</em> based on C implementation written by <em>Samuel Neves</em>. The
+documentation was copied from <a class="reference external" href="https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/">pyblake2</a> and written by <em>Dmitry Chestnykh</em>.</p>
+<p>The C code was partly rewritten for Python by <em>Christian Heimes</em>.</p>
+<p>The following public domain dedication applies for both C hash function
+implementation, extension code, and this documentation:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>To the extent possible under law, the author(s) have dedicated all copyright
+and related and neighboring rights to this software to the public domain
+worldwide. This software is distributed without any warranty.</p>
+<p>You should have received a copy of the CC0 Public Domain Dedication along
+with this software. If not, see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/</a>.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The following people have helped with development or contributed their changes
+to the project and the public domain according to the Creative Commons Public
+Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>Alexandr Sokolovskiy</em></p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>A module to generate message authentication codes using hashes.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Another way to encode binary hashes for non-binary environments.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://blake2.net">https://blake2.net</a></dt><dd><p>Official BLAKE2 website.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://csrc.nist.gov/csrc/media/publications/fips/180/2/archive/2002-08-01/documents/fips180-2.pdf">https://csrc.nist.gov/csrc/media/publications/fips/180/2/archive/2002-08-01/documents/fips180-2.pdf</a></dt><dd><p>The FIPS 180-2 publication on Secure Hash Algorithms.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Cryptographic_hash_algorithms">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Cryptographic_hash_algorithms</a></dt><dd><p>Wikipedia article with information on which algorithms have known issues and
+what that means regarding their use.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2898.txt">https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2898.txt</a></dt><dd><p>PKCS #5: Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.0</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code> — Secure hashes and message digests</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hash-algorithms">Hash algorithms</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shake-variable-length-digests">SHAKE variable length digests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#key-derivation">Key derivation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#blake2">BLAKE2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-hash-objects">Creating hash objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simple-hashing">Simple hashing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-different-digest-sizes">Using different digest sizes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#keyed-hashing">Keyed hashing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#randomized-hashing">Randomized hashing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#personalization">Personalization</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tree-mode">Tree mode</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#credits">Credits</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="crypto.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Cryptographic Services</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="hmac.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code> — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/hashlib.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/heapq.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/heapq.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81687bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/heapq.html
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>heapq — Heap queue algorithm &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-heapq">
+<span id="heapq-heap-queue-algorithm"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> — Heap queue algorithm<a class="headerlink" href="#module-heapq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/heapq.py">Lib/heapq.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides an implementation of the heap queue algorithm, also known
+as the priority queue algorithm.</p>
+<p>Heaps are binary trees for which every parent node has a value less than or
+equal to any of its children.  This implementation uses arrays for which
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap[k]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">heap[2*k+1]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap[k]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">heap[2*k+2]</span></code> for all <em>k</em>, counting
+elements from zero.  For the sake of comparison, non-existing elements are
+considered to be infinite.  The interesting property of a heap is that its
+smallest element is always the root, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap[0]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The API below differs from textbook heap algorithms in two aspects: (a) We use
+zero-based indexing.  This makes the relationship between the index for a node
+and the indexes for its children slightly less obvious, but is more suitable
+since Python uses zero-based indexing. (b) Our pop method returns the smallest
+item, not the largest (called a “min heap” in textbooks; a “max heap” is more
+common in texts because of its suitability for in-place sorting).</p>
+<p>These two make it possible to view the heap as a regular Python list without
+surprises: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap[0]</span></code> is the smallest item, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap.sort()</span></code> maintains the
+heap invariant!</p>
+<p>To create a heap, use a list initialized to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>, or you can transform a
+populated list into a heap via function <a class="reference internal" href="#heapq.heapify" title="heapq.heapify"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapify()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The following functions are provided:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.heappush">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">heappush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>heap</em>, <em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.heappush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push the value <em>item</em> onto the <em>heap</em>, maintaining the heap invariant.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.heappop">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">heappop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>heap</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.heappop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pop and return the smallest item from the <em>heap</em>, maintaining the heap
+invariant.  If the heap is empty, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> is raised.  To access the
+smallest item without popping it, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap[0]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.heappushpop">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">heappushpop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>heap</em>, <em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.heappushpop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push <em>item</em> on the heap, then pop and return the smallest item from the
+<em>heap</em>.  The combined action runs more efficiently than <a class="reference internal" href="#heapq.heappush" title="heapq.heappush"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappush()</span></code></a>
+followed by a separate call to <a class="reference internal" href="#heapq.heappop" title="heapq.heappop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappop()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.heapify">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">heapify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.heapify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transform list <em>x</em> into a heap, in-place, in linear time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.heapreplace">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">heapreplace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>heap</em>, <em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.heapreplace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pop and return the smallest item from the <em>heap</em>, and also push the new <em>item</em>.
+The heap size doesn’t change. If the heap is empty, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>This one step operation is more efficient than a <a class="reference internal" href="#heapq.heappop" title="heapq.heappop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappop()</span></code></a> followed by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#heapq.heappush" title="heapq.heappush"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappush()</span></code></a> and can be more appropriate when using a fixed-size heap.
+The pop/push combination always returns an element from the heap and replaces
+it with <em>item</em>.</p>
+<p>The value returned may be larger than the <em>item</em> added.  If that isn’t
+desired, consider using <a class="reference internal" href="#heapq.heappushpop" title="heapq.heappushpop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappushpop()</span></code></a> instead.  Its push/pop
+combination returns the smaller of the two values, leaving the larger value
+on the heap.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The module also offers three general purpose functions based on heaps.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.merge">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">merge</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*iterables</em>, <em>key=None</em>, <em>reverse=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.merge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Merge multiple sorted inputs into a single sorted output (for example, merge
+timestamped entries from multiple log files).  Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>
+over the sorted values.</p>
+<p>Similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables))</span></code> but returns an iterable, does
+not pull the data into memory all at once, and assumes that each of the input
+streams is already sorted (smallest to largest).</p>
+<p>Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword arguments.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> specifies a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-key-function"><span class="xref std std-term">key function</span></a> of one argument that is used to
+extract a comparison key from each input element.  The default value is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (compare the elements directly).</p>
+<p><em>reverse</em> is a boolean value.  If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then the input elements
+are merged as if each comparison were reversed. To achieve behavior similar
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables),</span> <span class="pre">reverse=True)</span></code>, all iterables must
+be sorted from largest to smallest.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the optional <em>key</em> and <em>reverse</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.nlargest">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">nlargest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em>, <em>iterable</em>, <em>key=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.nlargest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list with the <em>n</em> largest elements from the dataset defined by
+<em>iterable</em>.  <em>key</em>, if provided, specifies a function of one argument that is
+used to extract a comparison key from each element in <em>iterable</em> (for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=str.lower</span></code>).  Equivalent to:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">key=key,</span>
+<span class="pre">reverse=True)[:n]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="heapq.nsmallest">
+<code class="descclassname">heapq.</code><code class="descname">nsmallest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em>, <em>iterable</em>, <em>key=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#heapq.nsmallest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list with the <em>n</em> smallest elements from the dataset defined by
+<em>iterable</em>.  <em>key</em>, if provided, specifies a function of one argument that is
+used to extract a comparison key from each element in <em>iterable</em> (for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=str.lower</span></code>).  Equivalent to:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">key=key)[:n]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The latter two functions perform best for smaller values of <em>n</em>.  For larger
+values, it is more efficient to use the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> function.  Also, when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n==1</span></code>, it is more efficient to use the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a>
+functions.  If repeated usage of these functions is required, consider turning
+the iterable into an actual heap.</p>
+<div class="section" id="basic-examples">
+<h2>Basic Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort">heapsort</a> can be implemented by
+pushing all values onto a heap and then popping off the smallest values one at a
+time:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">heapsort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">heappop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">))]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heapsort</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(iterable)</span></code>, but unlike <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>, this
+implementation is not stable.</p>
+<p>Heap elements can be tuples.  This is useful for assigning comparison values
+(such as task priorities) alongside the main record being tracked:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;write code&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;release product&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;write spec&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;create tests&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heappop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(1, &#39;write spec&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="priority-queue-implementation-notes">
+<h2>Priority Queue Implementation Notes<a class="headerlink" href="#priority-queue-implementation-notes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue">priority queue</a> is common use
+for a heap, and it presents several implementation challenges:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Sort stability:  how do you get two tasks with equal priorities to be returned
+in the order they were originally added?</p></li>
+<li><p>Tuple comparison breaks for (priority, task) pairs if the priorities are equal
+and the tasks do not have a default comparison order.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the priority of a task changes, how do you move it to a new position in
+the heap?</p></li>
+<li><p>Or if a pending task needs to be deleted, how do you find it and remove it
+from the queue?</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A solution to the first two challenges is to store entries as 3-element list
+including the priority, an entry count, and the task.  The entry count serves as
+a tie-breaker so that two tasks with the same priority are returned in the order
+they were added. And since no two entry counts are the same, the tuple
+comparison will never attempt to directly compare two tasks.</p>
+<p>Another solution to the problem of non-comparable tasks is to create a wrapper
+class that ignores the task item and only compares the priority field:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">dataclasses</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">dataclass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">field</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Any</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@dataclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">order</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">PrioritizedItem</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">priority</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+    <span class="n">item</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Any</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compare</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The remaining challenges revolve around finding a pending task and making
+changes to its priority or removing it entirely.  Finding a task can be done
+with a dictionary pointing to an entry in the queue.</p>
+<p>Removing the entry or changing its priority is more difficult because it would
+break the heap structure invariants.  So, a possible solution is to mark the
+entry as removed and add a new entry with the revised priority:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pq</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>                         <span class="c1"># list of entries arranged in a heap</span>
+<span class="n">entry_finder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>               <span class="c1"># mapping of tasks to entries</span>
+<span class="n">REMOVED</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;removed-task&gt;&#39;</span>      <span class="c1"># placeholder for a removed task</span>
+<span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">()</span>     <span class="c1"># unique sequence count</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">priority</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Add a new task or update the priority of an existing task&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">entry_finder</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">remove_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">entry</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">priority</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">task</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">entry_finder</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">entry</span>
+    <span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pq</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">entry</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remove_task</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Mark an existing task as REMOVED.  Raise KeyError if not found.&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">entry</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">entry_finder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">entry</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">REMOVED</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">pop_task</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Remove and return the lowest priority task. Raise KeyError if empty.&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">pq</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">priority</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">heappop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pq</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">REMOVED</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">entry_finder</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">]</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">task</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pop from an empty priority queue&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="theory">
+<h2>Theory<a class="headerlink" href="#theory" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Heaps are arrays for which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[k]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">a[2*k+1]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[k]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">a[2*k+2]</span></code> for all
+<em>k</em>, counting elements from 0.  For the sake of comparison, non-existing
+elements are considered to be infinite.  The interesting property of a heap is
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[0]</span></code> is always its smallest element.</p>
+<p>The strange invariant above is meant to be an efficient memory representation
+for a tournament.  The numbers below are <em>k</em>, not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[k]</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>                               <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+              <span class="mi">1</span>                                 <span class="mi">2</span>
+
+      <span class="mi">3</span>               <span class="mi">4</span>                <span class="mi">5</span>               <span class="mi">6</span>
+
+  <span class="mi">7</span>       <span class="mi">8</span>       <span class="mi">9</span>       <span class="mi">10</span>      <span class="mi">11</span>      <span class="mi">12</span>      <span class="mi">13</span>      <span class="mi">14</span>
+
+<span class="mi">15</span> <span class="mi">16</span>   <span class="mi">17</span> <span class="mi">18</span>   <span class="mi">19</span> <span class="mi">20</span>   <span class="mi">21</span> <span class="mi">22</span>   <span class="mi">23</span> <span class="mi">24</span>   <span class="mi">25</span> <span class="mi">26</span>   <span class="mi">27</span> <span class="mi">28</span>   <span class="mi">29</span> <span class="mi">30</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the tree above, each cell <em>k</em> is topping <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2*k+1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2*k+2</span></code>. In a usual
+binary tournament we see in sports, each cell is the winner over the two cells
+it tops, and we can trace the winner down the tree to see all opponents s/he
+had.  However, in many computer applications of such tournaments, we do not need
+to trace the history of a winner. To be more memory efficient, when a winner is
+promoted, we try to replace it by something else at a lower level, and the rule
+becomes that a cell and the two cells it tops contain three different items, but
+the top cell “wins” over the two topped cells.</p>
+<p>If this heap invariant is protected at all time, index 0 is clearly the overall
+winner.  The simplest algorithmic way to remove it and find the “next” winner is
+to move some loser (let’s say cell 30 in the diagram above) into the 0 position,
+and then percolate this new 0 down the tree, exchanging values, until the
+invariant is re-established. This is clearly logarithmic on the total number of
+items in the tree. By iterating over all items, you get an O(n log n) sort.</p>
+<p>A nice feature of this sort is that you can efficiently insert new items while
+the sort is going on, provided that the inserted items are not “better” than the
+last 0’th element you extracted.  This is especially useful in simulation
+contexts, where the tree holds all incoming events, and the “win” condition
+means the smallest scheduled time.  When an event schedules other events for
+execution, they are scheduled into the future, so they can easily go into the
+heap.  So, a heap is a good structure for implementing schedulers (this is what
+I used for my MIDI sequencer :-).</p>
+<p>Various structures for implementing schedulers have been extensively studied,
+and heaps are good for this, as they are reasonably speedy, the speed is almost
+constant, and the worst case is not much different than the average case.
+However, there are other representations which are more efficient overall, yet
+the worst cases might be terrible.</p>
+<p>Heaps are also very useful in big disk sorts.  You most probably all know that a
+big sort implies producing “runs” (which are pre-sorted sequences, whose size is
+usually related to the amount of CPU memory), followed by a merging passes for
+these runs, which merging is often very cleverly organised <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>. It is very
+important that the initial sort produces the longest runs possible.  Tournaments
+are a good way to achieve that.  If, using all the memory available to hold a
+tournament, you replace and percolate items that happen to fit the current run,
+you’ll produce runs which are twice the size of the memory for random input, and
+much better for input fuzzily ordered.</p>
+<p>Moreover, if you output the 0’th item on disk and get an input which may not fit
+in the current tournament (because the value “wins” over the last output value),
+it cannot fit in the heap, so the size of the heap decreases.  The freed memory
+could be cleverly reused immediately for progressively building a second heap,
+which grows at exactly the same rate the first heap is melting.  When the first
+heap completely vanishes, you switch heaps and start a new run.  Clever and
+quite effective!</p>
+<p>In a word, heaps are useful memory structures to know.  I use them in a few
+applications, and I think it is good to keep a ‘heap’ module around. :-)</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The disk balancing algorithms which are current, nowadays, are more annoying
+than clever, and this is a consequence of the seeking capabilities of the disks.
+On devices which cannot seek, like big tape drives, the story was quite
+different, and one had to be very clever to ensure (far in advance) that each
+tape movement will be the most effective possible (that is, will best
+participate at “progressing” the merge).  Some tapes were even able to read
+backwards, and this was also used to avoid the rewinding time. Believe me, real
+good tape sorts were quite spectacular to watch! From all times, sorting has
+always been a Great Art! :-)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code> — Heap queue algorithm</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-examples">Basic Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#priority-queue-implementation-notes">Priority Queue Implementation Notes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#theory">Theory</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="collections.abc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes for Containers</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="bisect.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code> — Array bisection algorithm</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-hmac">
+<span id="hmac-keyed-hashing-for-message-authentication"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication<a class="headerlink" href="#module-hmac" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/hmac.py">Lib/hmac.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2104.html"><strong>RFC 2104</strong></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hmac.new">
+<code class="descclassname">hmac.</code><code class="descname">new</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>msg=None</em>, <em>digestmod=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.new" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new hmac object.  <em>key</em> is a bytes or bytearray object giving the
+secret key.  If <em>msg</em> is present, the method call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update(msg)</span></code> is made.
+<em>digestmod</em> is the digest name, digest constructor or module for the HMAC
+object to use. It supports any name suitable to <a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#hashlib.new" title="hashlib.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.new()</span></code></a> and
+defaults to the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.md5</span></code> constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Parameter <em>key</em> can be a bytes or bytearray object.
+Parameter <em>msg</em> can be of any type supported by <a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a>.
+Parameter <em>digestmod</em> can be the name of a hash algorithm.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>MD5 as implicit default digest for <em>digestmod</em> is deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hmac.digest">
+<code class="descclassname">hmac.</code><code class="descname">digest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>digest</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.digest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return digest of <em>msg</em> for given secret <em>key</em> and <em>digest</em>. The
+function is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HMAC(key,</span> <span class="pre">msg,</span> <span class="pre">digest).digest()</span></code>, but
+uses an optimized C or inline implementation, which is faster for messages
+that fit into memory. The parameters <em>key</em>, <em>msg</em>, and <em>digest</em> have
+the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.new" title="hmac.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>CPython implementation detail, the optimized C implementation is only used
+when <em>digest</em> is a string and name of a digest algorithm, which is
+supported by OpenSSL.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An HMAC object has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hmac.HMAC.update">
+<code class="descclassname">HMAC.</code><code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.HMAC.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the hmac object with <em>msg</em>.  Repeated calls are equivalent to a
+single call with the concatenation of all the arguments:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.update(a);</span> <span class="pre">m.update(b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.update(a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Parameter <em>msg</em> can be of any type supported by <a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hmac.HMAC.digest">
+<code class="descclassname">HMAC.</code><code class="descname">digest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.HMAC.digest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the digest of the bytes passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.HMAC.update" title="hmac.HMAC.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a> method so far.
+This bytes object will be the same length as the <em>digest_size</em> of the digest
+given to the constructor.  It may contain non-ASCII bytes, including NUL
+bytes.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>When comparing the output of <a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.digest" title="hmac.digest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code></a> to an externally-supplied
+digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.compare_digest" title="hmac.compare_digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare_digest()</span></code></a> function instead of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> operator
+to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hmac.HMAC.hexdigest">
+<code class="descclassname">HMAC.</code><code class="descname">hexdigest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.HMAC.hexdigest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.digest" title="hmac.digest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code></a> except the digest is returned as a string twice the
+length containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be used to exchange the
+value safely in email or other non-binary environments.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>When comparing the output of <a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.HMAC.hexdigest" title="hmac.HMAC.hexdigest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexdigest()</span></code></a> to an externally-supplied
+digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.compare_digest" title="hmac.compare_digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare_digest()</span></code></a> function instead of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> operator
+to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="hmac.HMAC.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">HMAC.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.HMAC.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy (“clone”) of the hmac object.  This can be used to efficiently
+compute the digests of strings that share a common initial substring.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A hash object has the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="hmac.HMAC.digest_size">
+<code class="descclassname">HMAC.</code><code class="descname">digest_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.HMAC.digest_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The size of the resulting HMAC digest in bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="hmac.HMAC.block_size">
+<code class="descclassname">HMAC.</code><code class="descname">block_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.HMAC.block_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="hmac.HMAC.name">
+<code class="descclassname">HMAC.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.HMAC.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The canonical name of this HMAC, always lowercase, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac-md5</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This module also provides the following helper function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="hmac.compare_digest">
+<code class="descclassname">hmac.</code><code class="descname">compare_digest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#hmac.compare_digest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.  This function uses an approach designed to prevent
+timing analysis by avoiding content-based short circuiting behaviour,
+making it appropriate for cryptography.  <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> must both be of the
+same type: either <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> (ASCII only, as e.g. returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hmac.HMAC.hexdigest" title="hmac.HMAC.hexdigest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HMAC.hexdigest()</span></code></a>), or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> are of different lengths, or if an error occurs,
+a timing attack could theoretically reveal information about the
+types and lengths of <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>—but not their values.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The Python module providing secure hash functions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
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+
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code> — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets</a></p>
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+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="XML Processing Modules" href="xml.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser" href="html.parser.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/html.entities.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="xml.html" title="XML Processing Modules"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="html.parser.html" title="html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="markup.html" accesskey="U">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-html.entities">
+<span id="html-entities-definitions-of-html-general-entities"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-html.entities" title="html.entities: Definitions of HTML general entities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code></a> — Definitions of HTML general entities<a class="headerlink" href="#module-html.entities" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/html/entities.py">Lib/html/entities.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module defines four dictionaries, <a class="reference internal" href="#html.entities.html5" title="html.entities.html5"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html5</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#html.entities.name2codepoint" title="html.entities.name2codepoint"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name2codepoint</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#html.entities.codepoint2name" title="html.entities.codepoint2name"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codepoint2name</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#html.entities.entitydefs" title="html.entities.entitydefs"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">entitydefs</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="html.entities.html5">
+<code class="descclassname">html.entities.</code><code class="descname">html5</code><a class="headerlink" href="#html.entities.html5" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a> to the
+equivalent Unicode character(s), e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html5['gt;']</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>.
+Note that the trailing semicolon is included in the name (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gt;'</span></code>),
+however some of the names are accepted by the standard even without the
+semicolon: in this case the name is present with and without the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">';'</span></code>.
+See also <a class="reference internal" href="html.html#html.unescape" title="html.unescape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.unescape()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="html.entities.entitydefs">
+<code class="descclassname">html.entities.</code><code class="descname">entitydefs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#html.entities.entitydefs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping XHTML 1.0 entity definitions to their replacement text in
+ISO Latin-1.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="html.entities.name2codepoint">
+<code class="descclassname">html.entities.</code><code class="descname">name2codepoint</code><a class="headerlink" href="#html.entities.name2codepoint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary that maps HTML entity names to the Unicode code points.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="html.entities.codepoint2name">
+<code class="descclassname">html.entities.</code><code class="descname">codepoint2name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#html.entities.codepoint2name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary that maps Unicode code points to HTML entity names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/html5/syntax.html#named-character-references">https://www.w3.org/TR/html5/syntax.html#named-character-references</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="html.parser.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code> — Simple HTML and XHTML parser</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.html"
+                        title="next chapter">XML Processing Modules</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/html.entities.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="html.parser.html" title="html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser"
+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="markup.html" >Structured Markup Processing Tools</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/html.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/html.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0cc0758
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/html.html
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>html — HyperText Markup Language support &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser" href="html.parser.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Structured Markup Processing Tools" href="markup.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/html.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="html.parser.html" title="html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="markup.html" title="Structured Markup Processing Tools"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="markup.html" accesskey="U">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-html">
+<span id="html-hypertext-markup-language-support"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-html" title="html: Helpers for manipulating HTML."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code></a> — HyperText Markup Language support<a class="headerlink" href="#module-html" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/html/__init__.py">Lib/html/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module defines utilities to manipulate HTML.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="html.escape">
+<code class="descclassname">html.</code><code class="descname">escape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>quote=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.escape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> in string <em>s</em> to HTML-safe
+sequences.  Use this if you need to display text that might contain such
+characters in HTML.  If the optional flag <em>quote</em> is true, the characters
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>) and (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span></code>) are also translated; this helps for inclusion in an HTML
+attribute value delimited by quotes, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;a</span> <span class="pre">href=&quot;...&quot;&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="html.unescape">
+<code class="descclassname">html.</code><code class="descname">unescape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.unescape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert all named and numeric character references (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;gt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#62;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#x3e;</span></code>) in the string <em>s</em> to the corresponding Unicode
+characters.  This function uses the rules defined by the HTML 5 standard
+for both valid and invalid character references, and the <a class="reference internal" href="html.entities.html#html.entities.html5" title="html.entities.html5"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span> <span class="pre">of</span>
+<span class="pre">HTML</span> <span class="pre">5</span> <span class="pre">named</span> <span class="pre">character</span> <span class="pre">references</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Submodules in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code> package are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="html.parser.html#module-html.parser" title="html.parser: A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code></a> – HTML/XHTML parser with lenient parsing mode</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="html.entities.html#module-html.entities" title="html.entities: Definitions of HTML general entities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code></a> – HTML entity definitions</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="markup.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="html.parser.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code> — Simple HTML and XHTML parser</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/html.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="html.parser.html" title="html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser"
+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="markup.html" title="Structured Markup Processing Tools"
+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="markup.html" >Structured Markup Processing Tools</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/html.parser.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/html.parser.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ef80af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/html.parser.html
@@ -0,0 +1,517 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-html.parser">
+<span id="html-parser-simple-html-and-xhtml-parser"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-html.parser" title="html.parser: A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code></a> — Simple HTML and XHTML parser<a class="headerlink" href="#module-html.parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/html/parser.py">Lib/html/parser.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines a class <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> which serves as the basis for
+parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) and XHTML.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">html.parser.</code><code class="descname">HTMLParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>convert_charrefs=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a parser instance able to parse invalid markup.</p>
+<p>If <em>convert_charrefs</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), all character
+references (except the ones in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">script</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">style</span></code> elements) are
+automatically converted to the corresponding Unicode characters.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> instance is fed HTML data and calls handler methods
+when start tags, end tags, text, comments, and other markup elements are
+encountered.  The user should subclass <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> and override its
+methods to implement the desired behavior.</p>
+<p>This parser does not check that end tags match start tags or call the end-tag
+handler for elements which are closed implicitly by closing an outer element.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><em>convert_charrefs</em> keyword argument added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The default value for argument <em>convert_charrefs</em> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="example-html-parser-application">
+<h2>Example HTML Parser Application<a class="headerlink" href="#example-html-parser-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As a basic example, below is a simple HTML parser that uses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> class to print out start tags, end tags, and data
+as they are encountered:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">html.parser</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">HTMLParser</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyHTMLParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HTMLParser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_starttag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Encountered a start tag:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_endtag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Encountered an end tag :&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_data</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Encountered some data  :&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyHTMLParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;html&gt;&lt;head&gt;&lt;title&gt;Test&lt;/title&gt;&lt;/head&gt;&#39;</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;body&gt;&lt;h1&gt;Parse me!&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;/body&gt;&lt;/html&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output will then be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Encountered a start tag: html
+Encountered a start tag: head
+Encountered a start tag: title
+Encountered some data  : Test
+Encountered an end tag : title
+Encountered an end tag : head
+Encountered a start tag: body
+Encountered a start tag: h1
+Encountered some data  : Parse me!
+Encountered an end tag : h1
+Encountered an end tag : body
+Encountered an end tag : html
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="htmlparser-methods">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#htmlparser-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.feed">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">feed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.feed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Feed some text to the parser.  It is processed insofar as it consists of
+complete elements; incomplete data is buffered until more data is fed or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.close" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> is called.  <em>data</em> must be <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.close">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force processing of all buffered data as if it were followed by an end-of-file
+mark.  This method may be redefined by a derived class to define additional
+processing at the end of the input, but the redefined version should always call
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> base class method <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.close" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.reset">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the instance.  Loses all unprocessed data.  This is called implicitly at
+instantiation time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.getpos">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">getpos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.getpos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return current line number and offset.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.get_starttag_text">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">get_starttag_text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.get_starttag_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the text of the most recently opened start tag.  This should not normally
+be needed for structured processing, but may be useful in dealing with HTML “as
+deployed” or for re-generating input with minimal changes (whitespace between
+attributes can be preserved, etc.).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods are called when data or markup elements are encountered
+and they are meant to be overridden in a subclass.  The base class
+implementations do nothing (except for <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_startendtag" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_startendtag"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_startendtag()</span></code></a>):</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_starttag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag</em>, <em>attrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called to handle the start of a tag (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;div</span> <span class="pre">id=&quot;main&quot;&gt;</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <em>tag</em> argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case. The <em>attrs</em>
+argument is a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs containing the attributes found
+inside the tag’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&gt;</span></code> brackets.  The <em>name</em> will be translated to lower case,
+and quotes in the <em>value</em> have been removed, and character and entity references
+have been replaced.</p>
+<p>For instance, for the tag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;A</span> <span class="pre">HREF=&quot;https://www.cwi.nl/&quot;&gt;</span></code>, this method
+would be called as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_starttag('a',</span> <span class="pre">[('href',</span> <span class="pre">'https://www.cwi.nl/')])</span></code>.</p>
+<p>All entity references from <a class="reference internal" href="html.entities.html#module-html.entities" title="html.entities: Definitions of HTML general entities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code></a> are replaced in the attribute
+values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_endtag">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_endtag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_endtag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called to handle the end tag of an element (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;/div&gt;</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <em>tag</em> argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_startendtag">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_startendtag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag</em>, <em>attrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_startendtag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_starttag()</span></code></a>, but called when the parser encounters an
+XHTML-style empty tag (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;img</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">/&gt;</span></code>).  This method may be overridden by
+subclasses which require this particular lexical information; the default
+implementation simply calls <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_starttag"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_starttag()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_endtag" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_endtag"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_endtag()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_data">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called to process arbitrary data (e.g. text nodes and the
+content of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;script&gt;...&lt;/script&gt;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;style&gt;...&lt;/style&gt;</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_entityref">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_entityref</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_entityref" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called to process a named character reference of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;name;</span></code> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;gt;</span></code>), where <em>name</em> is a general entity reference
+(e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gt'</span></code>).  This method is never called if <em>convert_charrefs</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_charref">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_charref</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_charref" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric character
+references of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#NNN;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#xNNN;</span></code>.  For example, the decimal
+equivalent for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;gt;</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#62;</span></code>, whereas the hexadecimal is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#x3E;</span></code>;
+in this case the method will receive <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'62'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x3E'</span></code>.  This method
+is never called if <em>convert_charrefs</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_comment">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_comment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_comment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called when a comment is encountered (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!--comment--&gt;</span></code>).</p>
+<p>For example, the comment <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!--</span> <span class="pre">comment</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span></code> will cause this method to be
+called with the argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">comment</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The content of Internet Explorer conditional comments (condcoms) will also be
+sent to this method, so, for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!--[if</span> <span class="pre">IE</span> <span class="pre">9]&gt;IE9-specific</span> <span class="pre">content&lt;![endif]--&gt;</span></code>,
+this method will receive <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'[if</span> <span class="pre">IE</span> <span class="pre">9]&gt;IE9-specific</span> <span class="pre">content&lt;![endif]'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_decl">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_decl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>decl</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_decl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called to handle an HTML doctype declaration (e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!DOCTYPE</span> <span class="pre">html&gt;</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <em>decl</em> parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration inside
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!...&gt;</span></code> markup (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'DOCTYPE</span> <span class="pre">html'</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_pi">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">handle_pi</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_pi" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method called when a processing instruction is encountered.  The <em>data</em>
+parameter will contain the entire processing instruction. For example, for the
+processing instruction <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;?proc</span> <span class="pre">color='red'&gt;</span></code>, this method would be called as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_pi(&quot;proc</span> <span class="pre">color='red'&quot;)</span></code>.  It is intended to be overridden by a derived
+class; the base class implementation does nothing.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> class uses the SGML syntactic rules for processing
+instructions.  An XHTML processing instruction using the trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> will
+cause the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> to be included in <em>data</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="html.parser.HTMLParser.unknown_decl">
+<code class="descclassname">HTMLParser.</code><code class="descname">unknown_decl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.unknown_decl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called when an unrecognized declaration is read by the parser.</p>
+<p>The <em>data</em> parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration inside
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;![...]&gt;</span></code> markup.  It is sometimes useful to be overridden by a
+derived class.  The base class implementation does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="htmlparser-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate more
+examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">html.parser</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">HTMLParser</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">html.entities</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">name2codepoint</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyHTMLParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HTMLParser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_starttag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Start tag:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">attr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;     attr:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_endtag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;End tag  :&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_data</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Data     :&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_comment</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Comment  :&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_entityref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name2codepoint</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">])</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Named ent:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_charref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:],</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Num ent  :&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_decl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Decl     :&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyHTMLParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing a doctype:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot; &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="s1">&#39;&quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot; &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;img src=&quot;python-logo.png&quot; alt=&quot;The Python logo&quot;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Start tag: img</span>
+<span class="go">     attr: (&#39;src&#39;, &#39;python-logo.png&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">     attr: (&#39;alt&#39;, &#39;The Python logo&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;h1&gt;Python&lt;/h1&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Start tag: h1</span>
+<span class="go">Data     : Python</span>
+<span class="go">End tag  : h1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The content of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">script</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">style</span></code> elements is returned as is, without
+further parsing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;style type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;#python { color: green }&lt;/style&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Start tag: style</span>
+<span class="go">     attr: (&#39;type&#39;, &#39;text/css&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">Data     : #python { color: green }</span>
+<span class="go">End tag  : style</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="s1">&#39;alert(&quot;&lt;strong&gt;hello!&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;);&lt;/script&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Start tag: script</span>
+<span class="go">     attr: (&#39;type&#39;, &#39;text/javascript&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">Data     : alert(&quot;&lt;strong&gt;hello!&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;);</span>
+<span class="go">End tag  : script</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing comments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;!-- a comment --&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;!--[if IE 9]&gt;IE-specific content&lt;![endif]--&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Comment  :  a comment</span>
+<span class="go">Comment  : [if IE 9]&gt;IE-specific content&lt;![endif]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing named and numeric character references and converting them to the
+correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&amp;gt;&amp;#62;&amp;#x3E;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Named ent: &gt;</span>
+<span class="go">Num ent  : &gt;</span>
+<span class="go">Num ent  : &gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Feeding incomplete chunks to <a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.feed" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.feed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feed()</span></code></a> works, but
+<a class="reference internal" href="#html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_data" title="html.parser.HTMLParser.handle_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_data()</span></code></a> might be called more than once
+(unless <em>convert_charrefs</em> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;sp&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;an&gt;buff&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ered &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;text&lt;/s&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pan&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Start tag: span</span>
+<span class="go">Data     : buff</span>
+<span class="go">Data     : ered</span>
+<span class="go">Data     : text</span>
+<span class="go">End tag  : span</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing invalid HTML (e.g. unquoted attributes) also works:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a class=link href=#main&gt;tag soup&lt;/p &gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Start tag: p</span>
+<span class="go">Start tag: a</span>
+<span class="go">     attr: (&#39;class&#39;, &#39;link&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">     attr: (&#39;href&#39;, &#39;#main&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">Data     : tag soup</span>
+<span class="go">End tag  : p</span>
+<span class="go">End tag  : a</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code> — Simple HTML and XHTML parser</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example-html-parser-application">Example HTML Parser Application</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#htmlparser-methods"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code> Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="html.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code> — HyperText Markup Language support</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="html.entities.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code> — Definitions of HTML general entities</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/html.parser.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.client.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.client.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c1fc70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.client.html
@@ -0,0 +1,775 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>http.client — HTTP protocol client &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+        </form>
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+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-http.client">
+<span id="http-client-http-protocol-client"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> — HTTP protocol client<a class="headerlink" href="#module-http.client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/http/client.py">Lib/http/client.py</a></p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><hr class="docutils" id="index-1" />
+<p>This module defines classes which implement the client side of the HTTP and
+HTTPS protocols.  It is normally not used directly — the module
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and HTTPS.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://docs.python-requests.org/">Requests package</a>
+is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>HTTPS support is only available if Python was compiled with SSL support
+(through the <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module).</p>
+</div>
+<p>The module provides the following classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">HTTPConnection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=None</em>, <span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>source_address=None</em>, <em>blocksize=8192</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> instance represents one transaction with an HTTP
+server.  It should be instantiated passing it a host and optional port
+number.  If no port number is passed, the port is extracted from the host
+string if it has the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">host:port</span></code>, else the default HTTP port (80) is
+used.  If the optional <em>timeout</em> parameter is given, blocking
+operations (like connection attempts) will timeout after that many seconds
+(if it is not given, the global default timeout setting is used).
+The optional <em>source_address</em> parameter may be a tuple of a (host, port)
+to use as the source address the HTTP connection is made from.
+The optional <em>blocksize</em> parameter sets the buffer size in bytes for
+sending a file-like message body.</p>
+<p>For example, the following calls all create instances that connect to the server
+at the same host and port:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org:80&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>source_address</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The  <em>strict</em> parameter was removed. HTTP 0.9-style “Simple Responses” are
+not longer supported.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>blocksize</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPSConnection">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">HTTPSConnection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=None</em>, <em>key_file=None</em>, <em>cert_file=None</em>, <span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>source_address=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>context=None</em>, <em>check_hostname=None</em>, <em>blocksize=8192</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> that uses SSL for communication with
+secure servers.  Default port is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">443</span></code>.  If <em>context</em> is specified, it
+must be a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> instance describing the various SSL
+options.</p>
+<p>Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> for more information on best practices.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>source_address</em>, <em>context</em> and <em>check_hostname</em> were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>This class now supports HTTPS virtual hosts if possible (that is,
+if <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a> is true).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <em>strict</em> parameter was removed. HTTP 0.9-style “Simple Responses” are
+no longer supported.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.3: </span>This class now performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks
+by default. To revert to the previous, unverified, behavior
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl._create_unverified_context()</span></code> can be passed to the <em>context</em>
+parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.4: </span>This class now enables TLS 1.3
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth" title="ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth</span></code></a> for the default <em>context</em> or
+when <em>cert_file</em> is passed with a custom <em>context</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><em>key_file</em> and <em>cert_file</em> are deprecated in favor of <em>context</em>.
+Please use <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> instead, or let
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> select the system’s trusted CA
+certificates for you.</p>
+<p>The <em>check_hostname</em> parameter is also deprecated; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> attribute of <em>context</em> should
+be used instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">HTTPResponse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>debuglevel=0</em>, <em>method=None</em>, <em>url=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class whose instances are returned upon successful connection.  Not
+instantiated directly by user.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <em>strict</em> parameter was removed. HTTP 0.9 style “Simple Responses” are
+no longer supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following exceptions are raised as appropriate:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">HTTPException</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  It is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.NotConnected">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">NotConnected</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.NotConnected" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.InvalidURL">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">InvalidURL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.InvalidURL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>, raised if a port is given and is either
+non-numeric or empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.UnknownProtocol">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">UnknownProtocol</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.UnknownProtocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">UnknownTransferEncoding</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.UnimplementedFileMode">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">UnimplementedFileMode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.UnimplementedFileMode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.IncompleteRead">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">IncompleteRead</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.IncompleteRead" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.ImproperConnectionState">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">ImproperConnectionState</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.ImproperConnectionState" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.CannotSendRequest">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">CannotSendRequest</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.CannotSendRequest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.ImproperConnectionState" title="http.client.ImproperConnectionState"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImproperConnectionState</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.CannotSendHeader">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">CannotSendHeader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.CannotSendHeader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.ImproperConnectionState" title="http.client.ImproperConnectionState"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImproperConnectionState</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.ResponseNotReady">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">ResponseNotReady</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.ResponseNotReady" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.ImproperConnectionState" title="http.client.ImproperConnectionState"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImproperConnectionState</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.BadStatusLine">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">BadStatusLine</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.BadStatusLine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.  Raised if a server responds with a HTTP
+status code that we don’t understand.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.LineTooLong">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">LineTooLong</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.LineTooLong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPException" title="http.client.HTTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPException</span></code></a>.  Raised if an excessively long line
+is received in the HTTP protocol from the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.client.RemoteDisconnected">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">RemoteDisconnected</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.RemoteDisconnected" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ConnectionResetError" title="ConnectionResetError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionResetError</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.BadStatusLine" title="http.client.BadStatusLine"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BadStatusLine</span></code></a>.  Raised
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection.getresponse()</span></code></a> when the attempt to read the response
+results in no data read from the connection, indicating that the remote end
+has closed the connection.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.BadStatusLine" title="http.client.BadStatusLine"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BadStatusLine</span></code></a><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('')</span></code> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The constants defined in this module are:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTP_PORT">
+<code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">HTTP_PORT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTP_PORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default port for the HTTP protocol (always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">80</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPS_PORT">
+<code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">HTTPS_PORT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPS_PORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default port for the HTTPS protocol (always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">443</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="http.client.responses">
+<code class="descclassname">http.client.</code><code class="descname">responses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.responses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This dictionary maps the HTTP 1.1 status codes to the W3C names.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND]</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Not</span> <span class="pre">Found'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="http.html#http-status-codes"><span class="std std-ref">HTTP status codes</span></a> for a list of HTTP status codes that are
+available in this module as constants.</p>
+<div class="section" id="httpconnection-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>HTTPConnection Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpconnection-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.request">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>method</em>, <em>url</em>, <em>body=None</em>, <em>headers={}</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>encode_chunked=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This will send a request to the server using the HTTP request
+method <em>method</em> and the selector <em>url</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>body</em> is specified, the specified data is sent after the headers are
+finished.  It may be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>, an
+open <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, or an iterable of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  If <em>body</em>
+is a string, it is encoded as ISO-8859-1, the default for HTTP.  If it
+is a bytes-like object, the bytes are sent as is.  If it is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+object</span></a>, the contents of the file is sent; this file object should
+support at least the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> method.  If the file object is an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOBase</span></code></a>, the data returned by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>
+method will be encoded as ISO-8859-1, otherwise the data returned by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> is sent as is.  If <em>body</em> is an iterable, the elements of the
+iterable are sent as is until the iterable is exhausted.</p>
+<p>The <em>headers</em> argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to send
+with the request.</p>
+<p>If <em>headers</em> contains neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding,
+but there is a request body, one of those
+header fields will be added automatically.  If
+<em>body</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the Content-Length header is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for
+methods that expect a body (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PUT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATCH</span></code>).  If
+<em>body</em> is a string or a bytes-like object that is not also a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file</span></a>, the Content-Length header is
+set to its length.  Any other type of <em>body</em> (files
+and iterables in general) will be chunk-encoded, and the
+Transfer-Encoding header will automatically be set instead of
+Content-Length.</p>
+<p>The <em>encode_chunked</em> argument is only relevant if Transfer-Encoding is
+specified in <em>headers</em>.  If <em>encode_chunked</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the
+HTTPConnection object assumes that all encoding is handled by the
+calling code.  If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the body will be chunk-encoded.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Chunked transfer encoding has been added to the HTTP protocol
+version 1.1.  Unless the HTTP server is known to handle HTTP 1.1,
+the caller must either specify the Content-Length, or must pass a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or bytes-like object that is not also a file as the
+body representation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><em>body</em> can now be an iterable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>If neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding are set in
+<em>headers</em>, file and iterable <em>body</em> objects are now chunk-encoded.
+The <em>encode_chunked</em> argument was added.
+No attempt is made to determine the Content-Length for file
+objects.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">getresponse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Should be called after a request is sent to get the response from the server.
+Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse" title="http.client.HTTPResponse"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPResponse</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Note that you must have read the whole response before you can send a new
+request to the server.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a> or subclass is raised, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> object will be ready to reconnect when
+a new request is sent.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">set_debuglevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the debugging level.  The default debug level is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, meaning no
+debugging output is printed.  Any value greater than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> will cause all
+currently defined debug output to be printed to stdout.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debuglevel</span></code>
+is passed to any new <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse" title="http.client.HTTPResponse"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPResponse</span></code></a> objects that are created.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">set_tunnel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=None</em>, <em>headers=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the host and the port for HTTP Connect Tunnelling. This allows running
+the connection through a proxy server.</p>
+<p>The host and port arguments specify the endpoint of the tunneled connection
+(i.e. the address included in the CONNECT request, <em>not</em> the address of the
+proxy server).</p>
+<p>The headers argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to send with
+the CONNECT request.</p>
+<p>For example, to tunnel through a HTTPS proxy server running locally on port
+8080, we would pass the address of the proxy to the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>
+constructor, and the address of the host that we eventually want to reach to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_tunnel()</span></code></a> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.client</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPSConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8080</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_tunnel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;www.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;HEAD&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s2">&quot;/index.html&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.connect">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect to the server specified when the object was created.  By default,
+this is called automatically when making a request if the client does not
+already have a connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.close">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the connection to the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.blocksize">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">blocksize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.blocksize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Buffer size in bytes for sending a file-like message body.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>As an alternative to using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request()</span></code> method described above, you can
+also send your request step by step, by using the four functions below.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.putrequest">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">putrequest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>method</em>, <em>url</em>, <em>skip_host=False</em>, <em>skip_accept_encoding=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.putrequest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This should be the first call after the connection to the server has been
+made. It sends a line to the server consisting of the <em>method</em> string,
+the <em>url</em> string, and the HTTP version (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP/1.1</span></code>).  To disable automatic
+sending of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Host:</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Accept-Encoding:</span></code> headers (for example to accept
+additional content encodings), specify <em>skip_host</em> or <em>skip_accept_encoding</em>
+with non-False values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.putheader">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">putheader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header</em>, <em>argument</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.putheader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a>-style header to the server.  It sends a line to the server
+consisting of the header, a colon and a space, and the first argument.  If more
+arguments are given, continuation lines are sent, each consisting of a tab and
+an argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">endheaders</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_body=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>encode_chunked=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a blank line to the server, signalling the end of the headers. The
+optional <em>message_body</em> argument can be used to pass a message body
+associated with the request.</p>
+<p>If <em>encode_chunked</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the result of each iteration of
+<em>message_body</em> will be chunk-encoded as specified in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7230.html"><strong>RFC 7230</strong></a>,
+Section 3.3.1.  How the data is encoded is dependent on the type of
+<em>message_body</em>.  If <em>message_body</em> implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer interface</span></a> the encoding will result in a single chunk.
+If <em>message_body</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Iterable</span></code></a>, each iteration
+of <em>message_body</em> will result in a chunk.  If <em>message_body</em> is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, each call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.read()</span></code> will result in a chunk.
+The method automatically signals the end of the chunk-encoded data
+immediately after <em>message_body</em>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Due to the chunked encoding specification, empty chunks
+yielded by an iterator body will be ignored by the chunk-encoder.
+This is to avoid premature termination of the read of the request by
+the target server due to malformed encoding.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Chunked encoding support.  The <em>encode_chunked</em> parameter was
+added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPConnection.send">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPConnection.</code><code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send data to the server.  This should be used directly only after the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endheaders()</span></code></a> method has been called and before <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getresponse()</span></code></a> is
+called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httpresponse-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>HTTPResponse Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpresponse-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse" title="http.client.HTTPResponse"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPResponse</span></code></a> instance wraps the HTTP response from the
+server.  It provides access to the request headers and the entity
+body.  The response is an iterable object and can be used in a with
+statement.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> interface is now implemented and
+all of its reader operations are supported.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.read">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>amt</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads and returns the response body, or up to the next <em>amt</em> bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.readinto">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">readinto</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.readinto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads up to the next len(b) bytes of the response body into the buffer <em>b</em>.
+Returns the number of bytes read.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.getheader">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">getheader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.getheader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the header <em>name</em>, or <em>default</em> if there is no header
+matching <em>name</em>.  If there is more than one  header with the name <em>name</em>,
+return all of the values joined by ‘, ‘.  If ‘default’ is any iterable other
+than a single string, its elements are similarly returned joined by commas.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.getheaders">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">getheaders</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.getheaders" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of (header, value) tuples.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno</span></code> of the underlying socket.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.msg">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">msg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.msg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPMessage</span></code> instance containing the response
+headers.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPMessage</span></code> is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.version">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>HTTP protocol version used by server.  10 for HTTP/1.0, 11 for HTTP/1.1.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.status">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">status</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.status" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Status code returned by server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.reason">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">reason</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.reason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reason phrase returned by server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.debuglevel">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">debuglevel</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.debuglevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A debugging hook.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.debuglevel" title="http.client.HTTPResponse.debuglevel"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debuglevel</span></code></a> is greater than zero, messages
+will be printed to stdout as the response is read and parsed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.client.HTTPResponse.closed">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPResponse.</code><code class="descname">closed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.client.HTTPResponse.closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stream is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is an example session that uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.client</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPSConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;www.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;GET&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getresponse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">200 OK</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">r1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># This will return entire content.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># The following example demonstrates reading data in chunks.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;GET&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getresponse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">r1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">closed</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># 200 bytes</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;&lt;!doctype html&gt;\n&lt;!--[if&quot;...</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Example of an invalid request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPSConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;docs.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;GET&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/parrot.spam&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getresponse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">404 Not Found</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">r2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is an example session that uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HEAD</span></code> method.  Note that the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HEAD</span></code> method never returns any data.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.client</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPSConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;www.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;HEAD&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getresponse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">200 OK</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is an example session that shows how to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> requests:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.client</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">params</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;@number&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">12524</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;@type&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;issue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;@action&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;show&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;Content-type&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;application/x-www-form-urlencoded&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>           <span class="s2">&quot;Accept&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;text/plain&quot;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;bugs.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;POST&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">params</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getresponse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">302 Found</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Redirecting to &lt;a href=&quot;http://bugs.python.org/issue12524&quot;&gt;http://bugs.python.org/issue12524&lt;/a&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Client side <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP</span> <span class="pre">PUT</span></code> requests are very similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> requests. The
+difference lies only the server side where HTTP server will allow resources to
+be created via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PUT</span></code> request. It should be noted that custom HTTP methods
++are also handled in <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.Request</span></code></a> by sending the appropriate
++method attribute.Here is an example session that shows how to do <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PUT</span></code>
+request using http.client:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># This creates an HTTP message</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># with the content of BODY as the enclosed representation</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># for the resource http://localhost:8080/file</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.client</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">BODY</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;***filecontents***&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8080</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;PUT&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">BODY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getresponse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">200, OK</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httpmessage-objects">
+<span id="id3"></span><h2>HTTPMessage Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpmessage-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPMessage</span></code> instance holds the headers from an HTTP
+response.  It is implemented using the <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code> — HTTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpconnection-objects">HTTPConnection Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpresponse-objects">HTTPResponse Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpmessage-objects">HTTPMessage Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="http.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code> — HTTP modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ftplib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code> — FTP protocol client</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.cookiejar.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.cookiejar.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8c99c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.cookiejar.html
@@ -0,0 +1,932 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules" href="xmlrpc.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="http.cookies — HTTP state management" href="http.cookies.html" />
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="xmlrpc.html" title="xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="http.cookies.html" title="http.cookies — HTTP state management"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="internet.html" accesskey="U">Internet Protocols and Support</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-http.cookiejar">
+<span id="http-cookiejar-cookie-handling-for-http-clients"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> — Cookie handling for HTTP clients<a class="headerlink" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/http/cookiejar.py">Lib/http/cookiejar.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> module defines classes for automatic handling of HTTP
+cookies.  It is useful for accessing web sites that require small pieces of data
+– <em class="dfn">cookies</em> – to be set on the client machine by an HTTP response from a
+web server, and then returned to the server in later HTTP requests.</p>
+<p>Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> are handled.  RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default.
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently treated
+either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the ‘policy’ in effect.
+Note that the great majority of cookies on the Internet are Netscape cookies.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> attempts to follow the de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which
+differs substantially from that set out in the original Netscape specification),
+including taking note of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max-age</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code> cookie-attributes
+introduced with RFC 2965.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The various named parameters found in <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> and
+<em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie2</em> headers (eg. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expires</span></code>) are
+conventionally referred to as <em class="dfn">attributes</em>.  To distinguish them from
+Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the term
+<em class="dfn">cookie-attribute</em> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The module defines the following exception:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.LoadError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">LoadError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.LoadError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileCookieJar</span></code></a> raise this exception on failure to load
+cookies from a file.  <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.LoadError" title="http.cookiejar.LoadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadError</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>LoadError was made a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following classes are provided:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">CookieJar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>policy</em> is an object implementing the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> interface.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> class stores HTTP cookies.  It extracts cookies from HTTP
+requests, and returns them in HTTP responses. <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> instances
+automatically expire contained cookies when necessary.  Subclasses are also
+responsible for storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">FileCookieJar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>delayload=None</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>policy</em> is an object implementing the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> interface.  For the
+other arguments, see the documentation for the corresponding attributes.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> which can load cookies from, and perhaps save cookies to, a
+file on disk.  Cookies are <strong>NOT</strong> loaded from the named file until either the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">revert()</span></code></a> method is called.  Subclasses of this class are
+documented in section <a class="reference internal" href="#file-cookie-jar-classes"><span class="std std-ref">FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">CookiePolicy</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should be accepted
+from / returned to the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">DefaultCookiePolicy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blocked_domains=None</em>, <em>allowed_domains=None</em>, <em>netscape=True</em>, <em>rfc2965=False</em>, <em>rfc2109_as_netscape=None</em>, <em>hide_cookie2=False</em>, <em>strict_domain=False</em>, <em>strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True</em>, <em>strict_ns_unverifiable=False</em>, <em>strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal</em>, <em>strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False</em>, <em>strict_ns_set_path=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only.
+<em>blocked_domains</em> is a sequence of domain names that we never accept cookies
+from, nor return cookies to. <em>allowed_domains</em> if not <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, this is a
+sequence of the only domains for which we accept and return cookies.  For all
+other arguments, see the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a> implements the standard accept / reject rules for
+Netscape and <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> cookies.  By default, <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> cookies (ie. cookies
+received in a <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> header with a version cookie-attribute of
+1) are treated according to the RFC 2965 rules.  However, if RFC 2965 handling
+is turned off or <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc2109_as_netscape</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, RFC 2109 cookies are
+‘downgraded’ by the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> instance to Netscape cookies, by
+setting the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> attribute of the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> instance to 0.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a> also provides some parameters to allow some
+fine-tuning of policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">Cookie</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class represents Netscape, <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> cookies.  It is not
+expected that users of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> construct their own <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a>
+instances.  Instead, if necessary, call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_cookies()</span></code> on a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>URL opening with automatic cookie handling.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a> modules do not depend on each
+other.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://curl.haxx.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html">https://curl.haxx.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html</a></dt><dd><p>The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol.  Though this is
+still the dominant protocol, the ‘Netscape cookie protocol’ implemented by all
+the major browsers (and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a>) only bears a passing resemblance to
+the one sketched out in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cookie_spec.html</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> - HTTP State Management Mechanism</dt><dd><p>Obsoleted by <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a>. Uses <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> with version=1.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> - HTTP State Management Mechanism</dt><dd><p>The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed.  Uses <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie2</em> in
+place of <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em>.  Not widely used.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html">http://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html</a></dt><dd><p>Unfinished errata to <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2964.html"><strong>RFC 2964</strong></a> - Use of HTTP State Management</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects">
+<span id="cookie-jar-objects"></span><h2>CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> objects support the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> protocol for iterating over
+contained <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.add_cookie_header">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">add_cookie_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.add_cookie_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add correct <em class="mailheader">Cookie</em> header to <em>request</em>.</p>
+<p>If policy allows (ie. the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc2965</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hide_cookie2</span></code> attributes of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a>’s <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> instance are true and false
+respectively), the <em class="mailheader">Cookie2</em> header is also added when appropriate.</p>
+<p>The <em>request</em> object (usually a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request..Request</span></code> instance)
+must support the methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_full_url()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_host()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_type()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unverifiable()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">has_header()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_header()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_items()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_unredirected_header()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">origin_req_host</span></code> attribute as documented by
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>request</em> object needs <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">origin_req_host</span></code> attribute. Dependency on a
+deprecated method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_origin_req_host()</span></code> has been removed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">extract_cookies</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>response</em>, <em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract cookies from HTTP <em>response</em> and store them in the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a>,
+where allowed by policy.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> will look for allowable <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> and
+<em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie2</em> headers in the <em>response</em> argument, and store cookies
+as appropriate (subject to the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.set_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.set_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy.set_ok()</span></code></a> method’s approval).</p>
+<p>The <em>response</em> object (usually the result of a call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.urlopen()</span></code></a>, or similar) should support an <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code>
+method, which returns an <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>The <em>request</em> object (usually a <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.Request</span></code></a> instance)
+must support the methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_full_url()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_host()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unverifiable()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">origin_req_host</span></code> attribute, as documented
+by <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a>.  The request is used to set default values for
+cookie-attributes as well as for checking that the cookie is allowed to be
+set.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>request</em> object needs <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">origin_req_host</span></code> attribute. Dependency on a
+deprecated method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_origin_req_host()</span></code> has been removed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_policy">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">set_policy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_policy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> instance to be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.make_cookies">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">make_cookies</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>response</em>, <em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.make_cookies" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> objects extracted from <em>response</em> object.</p>
+<p>See the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract_cookies()</span></code></a> for the interfaces required of
+the <em>response</em> and <em>request</em> arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">set_cookie_if_ok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cookie</em>, <em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> if policy says it’s OK to do so.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">set_cookie</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cookie</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.set_cookie" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a>, without checking with policy to see whether or not it
+should be set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>domain</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>path</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>name</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear some cookies.</p>
+<p>If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies.  If given a single argument,
+only cookies belonging to that <em>domain</em> will be removed. If given two arguments,
+cookies belonging to the specified <em>domain</em> and URL <em>path</em> are removed.  If
+given three arguments, then the cookie with the specified <em>domain</em>, <em>path</em> and
+<em>name</em> is removed.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if no matching cookie exists.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear_session_cookies">
+<code class="descclassname">CookieJar.</code><code class="descname">clear_session_cookies</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.clear_session_cookies" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Discard all session cookies.</p>
+<p>Discards all contained cookies that have a true <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard</span></code> attribute
+(usually because they had either no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max-age</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expires</span></code> cookie-attribute,
+or an explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard</span></code> cookie-attribute).  For interactive browsers, the end
+of a session usually corresponds to closing the browser window.</p>
+<p>Note that the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">save()</span></code> method won’t save session cookies anyway, unless you
+ask otherwise by passing a true <em>ignore_discard</em> argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileCookieJar</span></code></a> implements the following additional methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.save">
+<code class="descclassname">FileCookieJar.</code><code class="descname">save</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=None</em>, <em>ignore_discard=False</em>, <em>ignore_expires=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.save" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Save cookies to a file.</p>
+<p>This base class raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.  Subclasses may leave this
+method unimplemented.</p>
+<p><em>filename</em> is the name of file in which to save cookies.  If <em>filename</em> is not
+specified, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.filename</span></code> is used (whose default is the value passed to
+the constructor, if any); if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.filename</span></code> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p><em>ignore_discard</em>: save even cookies set to be discarded. <em>ignore_expires</em>: save
+even cookies that have expired</p>
+<p>The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the cookies it
+contains.  Saved cookies can be restored later using the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">revert()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load">
+<code class="descclassname">FileCookieJar.</code><code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=None</em>, <em>ignore_discard=False</em>, <em>ignore_expires=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load cookies from a file.</p>
+<p>Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones.</p>
+<p>Arguments are as for <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.save" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.save"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">save()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.LoadError" title="http.cookiejar.LoadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadError</span></code></a> will be raised.  Also, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> may be raised, for
+example if the file does not exist.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> used to be raised, it is now an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert">
+<code class="descclassname">FileCookieJar.</code><code class="descname">revert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=None</em>, <em>ignore_discard=False</em>, <em>ignore_expires=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.revert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">revert()</span></code></a> can raise the same exceptions as <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a>. If there is a
+failure, the object’s state will not be altered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileCookieJar</span></code></a> instances have the following public attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.filename">
+<code class="descclassname">FileCookieJar.</code><code class="descname">filename</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filename of default file in which to keep cookies.  This attribute may be
+assigned to.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.delayload">
+<code class="descclassname">FileCookieJar.</code><code class="descname">delayload</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar.delayload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If true, load cookies lazily from disk.  This attribute should not be assigned
+to.  This is only a hint, since this only affects performance, not behaviour
+(unless the cookies on disk are changing). A <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> object may
+ignore it.  None of the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileCookieJar</span></code></a> classes included in the standard
+library lazily loads cookies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers">
+<span id="file-cookie-jar-classes"></span><h2>FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers<a class="headerlink" href="#filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> subclasses are provided for reading and
+writing.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">MozillaCookieJar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>delayload=None</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileCookieJar</span></code></a> that can load from and save cookies to disk in the
+Mozilla <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cookies.txt</span></code> file format (which is also used by the Lynx and Netscape
+browsers).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This loses information about <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> cookies, and also about newer or
+non-standard cookie-attributes such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Back up your cookies before saving if you have cookies whose loss / corruption
+would be inconvenient (there are some subtleties which may lead to slight
+changes in the file over a load / save round-trip).</p>
+</div>
+<p>Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get clobbered by
+Mozilla.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookiejar.</code><code class="descname">LWPCookieJar</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>delayload=None</em>, <em>policy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileCookieJar</span></code></a> that can load from and save cookies to disk in format
+compatible with the libwww-perl library’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set-Cookie3</span></code> file format.  This is
+convenient if you want to store cookies in a human-readable file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cookiepolicy-objects">
+<span id="cookie-policy-objects"></span><h2>CookiePolicy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cookiepolicy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Objects implementing the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> interface have the following
+methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.set_ok">
+<code class="descclassname">CookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">set_ok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cookie</em>, <em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.set_ok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted from server.</p>
+<p><em>cookie</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> instance.  <em>request</em> is an object
+implementing the interface defined by the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.extract_cookies"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar.extract_cookies()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok">
+<code class="descclassname">CookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">return_ok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cookie</em>, <em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned to server.</p>
+<p><em>cookie</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> instance.  <em>request</em> is an object
+implementing the interface defined by the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar.add_cookie_header" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar.add_cookie_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar.add_cookie_header()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok">
+<code class="descclassname">CookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">domain_return_ok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return false if cookies should not be returned, given cookie domain.</p>
+<p>This method is an optimization.  It removes the need for checking every cookie
+with a particular domain (which might involve reading many files).  Returning
+true from <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain_return_ok()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path_return_ok()</span></code></a> leaves all the
+work to <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_ok()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain_return_ok()</span></code></a> returns true for the cookie domain,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path_return_ok()</span></code></a> is called for the cookie path.  Otherwise,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path_return_ok()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_ok()</span></code></a> are never called for that cookie
+domain.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path_return_ok()</span></code></a> returns true, <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_ok()</span></code></a> is called
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> object itself for a full check.  Otherwise,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_ok()</span></code></a> is never called for that cookie path.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain_return_ok()</span></code></a> is called for every <em>cookie</em> domain, not just
+for the <em>request</em> domain.  For example, the function might be called with both
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;.example.com&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;www.example.com&quot;</span></code> if the request domain is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;www.example.com&quot;</span></code>.  The same goes for <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path_return_ok()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>request</em> argument is as documented for <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_ok()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok">
+<code class="descclassname">CookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">path_return_ok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>request</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.path_return_ok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return false if cookies should not be returned, given cookie path.</p>
+<p>See the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain_return_ok()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> interface must also supply the following attributes,
+indicating which protocols should be used, and how.  All of these attributes may
+be assigned to.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.netscape">
+<code class="descclassname">CookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">netscape</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.netscape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implement Netscape protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.rfc2965">
+<code class="descclassname">CookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">rfc2965</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.rfc2965" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implement <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2">
+<code class="descclassname">CookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">hide_cookie2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t add <em class="mailheader">Cookie2</em> header to requests (the presence of this header
+indicates to the server that we understand <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> cookies).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The most useful way to define a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> class is by subclassing
+from <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a> and overriding some or all of the methods
+above.  <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> itself may be used as a ‘null policy’ to allow
+setting and receiving any and all cookies (this is unlikely to be useful).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="defaultcookiepolicy-objects">
+<span id="default-cookie-policy-objects"></span><h2>DefaultCookiePolicy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#defaultcookiepolicy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.</p>
+<p>Both <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> and Netscape cookies are covered.  RFC 2965 handling is switched
+off by default.</p>
+<p>The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and call
+its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your own additional
+checks:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.cookiejar</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyCookiePolicy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cookiejar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DefaultCookiePolicy</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">set_ok</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">request</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cookiejar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DefaultCookiePolicy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_ok</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">request</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to the features required to implement the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a>
+interface, this class allows you to block and allow domains from setting and
+receiving cookies.  There are also some strictness switches that allow you to
+tighten up the rather loose Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of
+blocking some benign cookies).</p>
+<p>A domain blacklist and whitelist is provided (both off by default). Only domains
+not in the blacklist and present in the whitelist (if the whitelist is active)
+participate in cookie setting and returning.  Use the <em>blocked_domains</em>
+constructor argument, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blocked_domains()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_blocked_domains()</span></code> methods (and the corresponding argument and methods
+for <em>allowed_domains</em>).  If you set a whitelist, you can turn it off again by
+setting it to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal the
+cookie domain to be matched.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;example.com&quot;</span></code> matches a blacklist
+entry of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;example.com&quot;</span></code>, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;www.example.com&quot;</span></code> does not.  Domains that do
+start with a dot are matched by more specific domains too. For example, both
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;www.example.com&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;www.coyote.example.com&quot;</span></code> match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;.example.com&quot;</span></code>
+(but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;example.com&quot;</span></code> itself does not).  IP addresses are an exception, and
+must match exactly.  For example, if blocked_domains contains <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;192.168.1.2&quot;</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;.168.1.2&quot;</span></code>, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a> implements the following additional methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">blocked_domains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">set_blocked_domains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blocked_domains</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the sequence of blocked domains.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">is_blocked</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether <em>domain</em> is on the blacklist for setting or receiving cookies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">allowed_domains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a tuple).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">set_allowed_domains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>allowed_domains</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the sequence of allowed domains, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">is_not_allowed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether <em>domain</em> is not on the whitelist for setting or receiving
+cookies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a> instances have the following attributes, which are
+all initialised from the constructor arguments of the same name, and which may
+all be assigned to.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">rfc2109_as_netscape</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If true, request that the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieJar</span></code></a> instance downgrade <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> cookies
+(ie. cookies received in a <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> header with a version
+cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by setting the version attribute of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> instance to 0.  The default value is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, in which
+case RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded if and only if <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> handling is turned
+off.  Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>General strictness switches:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">strict_domain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code top-level
+domains like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.co.uk</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.gov.uk</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.co.nz</span></code>.etc.  This is far from perfect
+and isn’t guaranteed to work!</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> protocol strictness switches:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">strict_rfc2965_unverifiable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Follow <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an unverifiable
+transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a request for an image hosted on
+another site).  If this is false, cookies are <em>never</em> blocked on the basis of
+verifiability</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Netscape protocol strictness switches:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">strict_ns_unverifiable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Apply <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> rules on unverifiable transactions even to Netscape cookies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">strict_ns_domain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for Netscape
+cookies.  See below for acceptable values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">strict_ns_set_initial_dollar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">strict_ns_set_path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t allow setting cookies whose path doesn’t path-match request URI.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict_ns_domain</span></code> is a collection of flags.  Its value is constructed by
+or-ing together (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain</span></code> means
+both flags are set).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">DomainStrictNoDots</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When setting cookies, the ‘host prefix’ must not contain a dot (eg.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www.foo.bar.com</span></code> can’t set a cookie for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.bar.com</span></code>, because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www.foo</span></code>
+contains a dot).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">DomainStrictNonDomain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cookies that did not explicitly specify a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code> cookie-attribute can only
+be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the cookie (eg.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.example.com</span></code> won’t be returned cookies from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.com</span></code> that had no
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code> cookie-attribute).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">DomainRFC2965Match</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When setting cookies, require a full <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> domain-match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most useful
+combinations of the above flags:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">DomainLiberal</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to 0 (ie. all of the above Netscape domain strictness flags switched
+off).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict">
+<code class="descclassname">DefaultCookiePolicy.</code><code class="descname">DomainStrict</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cookie-objects">
+<h2>Cookie Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cookie-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> instances have Python attributes roughly corresponding to the
+standard cookie-attributes specified in the various cookie standards.  The
+correspondence is not one-to-one, because there are complicated rules for
+assigning default values, because the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max-age</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expires</span></code>
+cookie-attributes contain equivalent information, and because <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> cookies
+may be ‘downgraded’ by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape)
+cookies.</p>
+<p>Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in rare
+circumstances in a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookiePolicy</span></code></a> method.  The class does not enforce
+internal consistency, so you should know what you’re doing if you do that.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.version">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Integer or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.  Netscape cookies have <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.version" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie.version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></a> 0. <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> and
+<span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> cookies have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> cookie-attribute of 1.  However, note that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> may ‘downgrade’ RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which
+case <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.version" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie.version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></a> is 0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.name">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cookie name (a string).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.value">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cookie value (a string), or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.port">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">port</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.port" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>String representing a port or a set of ports (eg. ‘80’, or ‘80,8080’), or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.path">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cookie path (a string, eg. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/acme/rocket_launchers'</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.secure">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">secure</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.secure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.expires">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">expires</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.expires" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.  See also the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.is_expired" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie.is_expired"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_expired()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.discard">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">discard</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.discard" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this is a session cookie.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">comment</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>String comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment_url">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">comment_url</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.comment_url" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie,
+or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.rfc2109">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">rfc2109</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.rfc2109" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this cookie was received as an <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> cookie (ie. the cookie
+arrived in a <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> header, and the value of the Version
+cookie-attribute in that header was 1).  This attribute is provided because
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> may ‘downgrade’ RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in
+which case <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.version" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie.version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></a> is 0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.port_specified">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">port_specified</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.port_specified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the server (in the
+<em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> / <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie2</em> header).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_specified">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">domain_specified</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_specified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if a domain was explicitly specified by the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_initial_dot">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">domain_initial_dot</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.domain_initial_dot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with a dot
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes.  These may be
+accessed using the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">has_nonstandard_attr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if cookie has the named cookie-attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">get_nonstandard_attr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value. Otherwise, return
+<em>default</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">set_nonstandard_attr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the value of the named cookie-attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie" title="http.cookiejar.Cookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code></a> class also defines the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookiejar.Cookie.is_expired">
+<code class="descclassname">Cookie.</code><code class="descname">is_expired</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>now=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookiejar.Cookie.is_expired" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested it should
+expire.  If <em>now</em> is given (in seconds since the epoch), return whether the
+cookie has expired at the specified time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The first example shows the most common usage of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.cookiejar</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="n">cj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cookiejar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CookieJar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPCookieProcessor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cj</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://example.com/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla, or Lynx
+cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the cookies file):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">http.cookiejar</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="n">cj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cookiejar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MozillaCookieJar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;~&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;.netscape&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;cookies.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPCookieProcessor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cj</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://example.com/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The next example illustrates the use of <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a>. Turn on
+<span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a> cookies, be more strict about domains when setting and returning
+Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting cookies or having them
+returned:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">http.cookiejar</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">CookieJar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">DefaultCookiePolicy</span>
+<span class="n">policy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DefaultCookiePolicy</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">rfc2965</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">strict_ns_domain</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Policy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DomainStrict</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">blocked_domains</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;ads.net&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;.ads.net&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">cj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CookieJar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPCookieProcessor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cj</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://example.com/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code> — Cookie handling for HTTP clients</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects">CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers">FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cookiepolicy-objects">CookiePolicy Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defaultcookiepolicy-objects">DefaultCookiePolicy Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cookie-objects">Cookie Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="http.cookies.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code> — HTTP state management</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xmlrpc.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc</span></code> — XMLRPC server and client modules</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.cookies.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.cookies.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f467b30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.cookies.html
@@ -0,0 +1,468 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>http.cookies — HTTP state management &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-http.cookies">
+<span id="http-cookies-http-state-management"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a> — HTTP state management<a class="headerlink" href="#module-http.cookies" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/http/cookies.py">Lib/http/cookies.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a> module defines classes for abstracting the concept of
+cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism. It supports both simple string-only
+cookies, and provides an abstraction for having any serializable data-type as
+cookie value.</p>
+<p>The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2068.html"><strong>RFC 2068</strong></a> specifications.  It has since been discovered that
+MSIE 3.0x doesn’t follow the character rules outlined in those specs and also
+many current day browsers and servers have relaxed parsing rules when comes to
+Cookie handling.  As a result, the parsing rules used are a bit less strict.</p>
+<p>The character set, <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string.ascii_letters" title="string.ascii_letters"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.ascii_letters</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string.digits" title="string.digits"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.digits</span></code></a> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!#$%&amp;'*+-.^_`|~:</span></code> denote the set of valid characters allowed by this module
+in Cookie name (as <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.key" title="http.cookies.Morsel.key"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Allowed ‘:’ as a valid Cookie name character.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On encountering an invalid cookie, <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.CookieError" title="http.cookies.CookieError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieError</span></code></a> is raised, so if your
+cookie data comes from a browser you should always prepare for invalid data
+and catch <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.CookieError" title="http.cookies.CookieError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CookieError</span></code></a> on parsing.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="http.cookies.CookieError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookies.</code><code class="descname">CookieError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.CookieError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception failing because of <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> invalidity: incorrect attributes,
+incorrect <em class="mailheader">Set-Cookie</em> header, etc.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookies.BaseCookie">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookies.</code><code class="descname">BaseCookie</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>input</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is a dictionary-like object whose keys are strings and whose values
+are <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Morsel</span></code></a> instances. Note that upon setting a key to a value, the
+value is first converted to a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Morsel</span></code></a> containing the key and the value.</p>
+<p>If <em>input</em> is given, it is passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.load" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie.load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookies.SimpleCookie">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookies.</code><code class="descname">SimpleCookie</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>input</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.SimpleCookie" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class derives from <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCookie</span></code></a> and overrides <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value_decode()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value_encode()</span></code>. SimpleCookie supports strings as cookie values.
+When setting the value, SimpleCookie calls the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> to convert
+the value to a string. Values received from HTTP are kept as strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>HTTP cookie handling for web <em>clients</em>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a> modules do not depend on each other.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> - HTTP State Management Mechanism</dt><dd><p>This is the state management specification implemented by this module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cookie-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Cookie Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cookie-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_decode">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseCookie.</code><code class="descname">value_decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(real_value,</span> <span class="pre">coded_value)</span></code> from a string representation.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real_value</span></code> can be any type. This method does no decoding in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCookie</span></code></a> — it exists so it can be overridden.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_encode">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseCookie.</code><code class="descname">value_encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(real_value,</span> <span class="pre">coded_value)</span></code>. <em>val</em> can be any type, but
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coded_value</span></code> will always be converted to a string.
+This method does no encoding in <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCookie</span></code></a> — it exists so it can
+be overridden.</p>
+<p>In general, it should be the case that <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_encode" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value_encode()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_decode" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie.value_decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value_decode()</span></code></a> are inverses on the range of <em>value_decode</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.BaseCookie.output">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseCookie.</code><code class="descname">output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrs=None</em>, <em>header='Set-Cookie:'</em>, <em>sep='\r\n'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers. <em>attrs</em> and
+<em>header</em> are sent to each <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Morsel</span></code></a>’s <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.output" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie.output"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output()</span></code></a> method. <em>sep</em> is used
+to join the headers together, and is by default the combination <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>
+(CRLF).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseCookie.</code><code class="descname">js_output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrs=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which
+supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP headers was sent.</p>
+<p>The meaning for <em>attrs</em> is the same as in <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.output" title="http.cookies.BaseCookie.output"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.BaseCookie.load">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseCookie.</code><code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rawdata</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.BaseCookie.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>rawdata</em> is a string, parse it as an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP_COOKIE</span></code> and add the values
+found there as <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Morsel</span></code></a>s. If it is a dictionary, it is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">rawdata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">cookie</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">v</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="morsel-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Morsel Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#morsel-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.cookies.</code><code class="descname">Morsel</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract a key/value pair, which has some <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> attributes.</p>
+<p>Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant — the valid
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> attributes, which are</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expires</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comment</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max-age</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secure</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httponly</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httponly</span></code> specifies that the cookie is only transferred
+in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through JavaScript. This is intended
+to mitigate some forms of cross-site scripting.</p>
+<p>The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code> now takes <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.key" title="http.cookies.Morsel.key"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code></a>
+into account.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Attributes <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.key" title="http.cookies.Morsel.key"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coded_value</span></code></a> are read-only.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.set" title="http.cookies.Morsel.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> for
+setting them.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.value">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of the cookie.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">coded_value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The encoded value of the cookie — this is what should be sent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.key">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">key</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the cookie.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.set">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>coded_value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <em>key</em>, <em>value</em> and <em>coded_value</em> attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.isReservedKey">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">isReservedKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>K</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.isReservedKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether <em>K</em> is a member of the set of keys of a <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Morsel</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.output">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrs=None</em>, <em>header='Set-Cookie:'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representation of the Morsel, suitable to be sent as an HTTP
+header. By default, all the attributes are included, unless <em>attrs</em> is given, in
+which case it should be a list of attributes to use. <em>header</em> is by default
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Set-Cookie:&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.js_output">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">js_output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrs=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.js_output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which
+supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP header was sent.</p>
+<p>The meaning for <em>attrs</em> is the same as in <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.output" title="http.cookies.Morsel.output"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.OutputString">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">OutputString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrs=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.OutputString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the Morsel, without any surrounding HTTP or
+JavaScript.</p>
+<p>The meaning for <em>attrs</em> is the same as in <a class="reference internal" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.output" title="http.cookies.Morsel.output"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.update">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>values</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the values in the Morsel dictionary with the values in the dictionary
+<em>values</em>.  Raise an error if any of the keys in the <em>values</em> dict is not a
+valid <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>an error is raised for invalid keys.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shallow copy of the Morsel object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>return a Morsel object instead of a dict.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.cookies.Morsel.setdefault">
+<code class="descclassname">Morsel.</code><code class="descname">setdefault</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>value=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.cookies.Morsel.setdefault" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise an error if key is not a valid <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2109.html"><strong>RFC 2109</strong></a> attribute, otherwise
+behave the same as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict.setdefault" title="dict.setdefault"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.setdefault()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="cookie-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following example demonstrates how to use the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">http</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">cookies</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cookies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleCookie</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;fig&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;newton&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;sugar&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wafer&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># generate HTTP headers</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: fig=newton</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="c1"># same thing</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: fig=newton</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cookies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleCookie</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;rocky&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;road&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;rocky&quot;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s2">&quot;path&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/cookie&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">header</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Cookie:&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">attrs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[],</span> <span class="n">header</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Cookie:&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Cookie: rocky=road</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cookies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleCookie</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;chips=ahoy; vienna=finger&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># load from a string (HTTP header)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: vienna=finger</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cookies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleCookie</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;keebler=&quot;E=everybody; L=</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">&quot;Loves</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">&quot;; fudge=</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">012;&quot;;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: keebler=&quot;E=everybody; L=\&quot;Loves\&quot;; fudge=\012;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cookies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleCookie</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;oreo&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;doublestuff&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;oreo&quot;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s2">&quot;path&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cookies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleCookie</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;twix&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;none for you&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;twix&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;none for you&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cookies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleCookie</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">7</span> <span class="c1"># equivalent to C[&quot;number&quot;] = str(7)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;string&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;seven&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;7&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;string&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;seven&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: number=7</span>
+<span class="go">Set-Cookie: string=seven</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code> — HTTP state management</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cookie-objects">Cookie Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#morsel-objects">Morsel Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="http.server.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.html
new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-http">
+<span id="http-http-modules"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http" title="http: HTTP status codes and messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code></a> — HTTP modules<a class="headerlink" href="#module-http" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/http/__init__.py">Lib/http/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http" title="http: HTTP status codes and messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code></a> is a package that collects several modules for working with the
+HyperText Transfer Protocol:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> is a low-level HTTP protocol client; for high-level URL
+opening use <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> contains basic HTTP server classes based on <a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a> has utilities for implementing state management with cookies</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#module-http.cookiejar" title="http.cookiejar: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code></a> provides persistence of cookies</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http" title="http: HTTP status codes and messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code></a> is also a module that defines a number of HTTP status codes and
+associated messages through the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.HTTPStatus" title="http.HTTPStatus"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.HTTPStatus</span></code></a> enum:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.HTTPStatus">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.</code><code class="descname">HTTPStatus</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.HTTPStatus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntEnum</span></code></a> that defines a set of HTTP status codes,
+reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.</p>
+<p>Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">http</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">HTTPStatus</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">HTTPStatus</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OK</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;HTTPStatus.OK: 200&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">HTTPStatus</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OK</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">200</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPStatus</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OK</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">200</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">HTTPStatus</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OK</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">phrase</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;OK&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">HTTPStatus</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OK</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">description</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Request fulfilled, document follows&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HTTPStatus</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;HTTPStatus.CONTINUE: 100&gt;, &lt;HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS: 101&gt;, ...]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="http-status-codes">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>HTTP status codes<a class="headerlink" href="#http-status-codes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Supported,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml">IANA-registered</a>
+status codes available in <a class="reference internal" href="#http.HTTPStatus" title="http.HTTPStatus"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.HTTPStatus</span></code></a> are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 6%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Code</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Enum Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Details</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">100</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONTINUE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.2.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">101</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.2.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">102</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROCESSING</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2518.html"><strong>RFC 2518</strong></a>, Section 10.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">200</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">201</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">202</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCEPTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.3.3</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">203</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.3.4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">204</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NO_CONTENT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.3.5</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">205</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RESET_CONTENT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.3.6</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">206</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PARTIAL_CONTENT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7233.html"><strong>RFC 7233</strong></a>, Section 4.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">207</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTI_STATUS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4918.html"><strong>RFC 4918</strong></a>, Section 11.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">208</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALREADY_REPORTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV Binding Extensions <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5842.html"><strong>RFC 5842</strong></a>, Section 7.1 (Experimental)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">226</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IM_USED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Delta Encoding in HTTP <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3229.html"><strong>RFC 3229</strong></a>, Section 10.4.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">300</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTIPLE_CHOICES</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.4.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">301</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MOVED_PERMANENTLY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.4.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">302</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FOUND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.4.3</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">303</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEE_OTHER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.4.4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">304</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOT_MODIFIED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7232.html"><strong>RFC 7232</strong></a>, Section 4.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">305</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USE_PROXY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.4.5</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">307</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEMPORARY_REDIRECT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.4.7</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">308</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PERMANENT_REDIRECT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Permanent Redirect <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7238.html"><strong>RFC 7238</strong></a>, Section 3 (Experimental)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">400</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BAD_REQUEST</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">401</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UNAUTHORIZED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 Authentication <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7235.html"><strong>RFC 7235</strong></a>, Section 3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">402</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAYMENT_REQUIRED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">403</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORBIDDEN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.3</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">404</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOT_FOUND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">405</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.5</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">406</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOT_ACCEPTABLE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.6</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">407</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 Authentication <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7235.html"><strong>RFC 7235</strong></a>, Section 3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">408</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_TIMEOUT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.7</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">409</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONFLICT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.8</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">410</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GONE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.9</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">411</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LENGTH_REQUIRED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.10</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">412</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRECONDITION_FAILED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7232.html"><strong>RFC 7232</strong></a>, Section 4.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">413</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_ENTITY_TOO_LARGE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.11</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">414</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_URI_TOO_LONG</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.12</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">415</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-37"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.13</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">416</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUESTED_RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 Range Requests <span class="target" id="index-38"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7233.html"><strong>RFC 7233</strong></a>, Section 4.4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">417</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXPECTATION_FAILED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-39"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.14</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">421</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MISDIRECTED_REQUEST</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/2 <span class="target" id="index-40"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7540.html"><strong>RFC 7540</strong></a>, Section 9.1.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">422</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UNPROCESSABLE_ENTITY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV <span class="target" id="index-41"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4918.html"><strong>RFC 4918</strong></a>, Section 11.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">423</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCKED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV <span class="target" id="index-42"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4918.html"><strong>RFC 4918</strong></a>, Section 11.3</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">424</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FAILED_DEPENDENCY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV <span class="target" id="index-43"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4918.html"><strong>RFC 4918</strong></a>, Section 11.4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">426</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UPGRADE_REQUIRED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-44"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.5.15</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">428</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRECONDITION_REQUIRED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Additional HTTP Status Codes <span class="target" id="index-45"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6585.html"><strong>RFC 6585</strong></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">429</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TOO_MANY_REQUESTS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Additional HTTP Status Codes <span class="target" id="index-46"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6585.html"><strong>RFC 6585</strong></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">431</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Additional HTTP Status Codes <span class="target" id="index-47"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6585.html"><strong>RFC 6585</strong></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">500</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-48"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.6.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">501</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOT_IMPLEMENTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-49"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.6.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">502</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BAD_GATEWAY</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-50"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.6.3</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">503</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-51"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.6.4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">504</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GATEWAY_TIMEOUT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-52"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.6.5</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">505</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>HTTP/1.1 <span class="target" id="index-53"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7231.html"><strong>RFC 7231</strong></a>, Section 6.6.6</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">506</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Transparent Content Negotiation in HTTP <span class="target" id="index-54"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2295.html"><strong>RFC 2295</strong></a>, Section 8.1 (Experimental)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">507</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV <span class="target" id="index-55"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4918.html"><strong>RFC 4918</strong></a>, Section 11.5</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">508</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOOP_DETECTED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebDAV Binding Extensions <span class="target" id="index-56"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5842.html"><strong>RFC 5842</strong></a>, Section 7.2 (Experimental)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">510</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOT_EXTENDED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An HTTP Extension Framework <span class="target" id="index-57"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2774.html"><strong>RFC 2774</strong></a>, Section 7 (Experimental)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">511</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Additional HTTP Status Codes <span class="target" id="index-58"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6585.html"><strong>RFC 6585</strong></a>, Section 6</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>In order to preserve backwards compatibility, enum values are also present
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> module in the form of constants. The enum name is
+equal to the constant name (i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.HTTPStatus.OK</span></code> is also available as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.OK</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">421</span> <span class="pre">MISDIRECTED_REQUEST</span></code> status code.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code> — HTTP modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http-status-codes">HTTP status codes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.robotparser.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.robotparser</span></code> —  Parser for robots.txt</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="http.client.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code> — HTTP protocol client</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/http.rst"
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.server.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.server.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3cad6fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/http.server.html
@@ -0,0 +1,710 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>http.server — HTTP servers &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-http.server">
+<span id="http-server-http-servers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> — HTTP servers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-http.server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/http/server.py">Lib/http/server.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines classes for implementing HTTP servers (Web servers).</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> is not recommended for production. It only implements
+basic security checks.</p>
+</div>
+<p>One class, <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.HTTPServer" title="http.server.HTTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPServer</span></code></a>, is a <a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.TCPServer</span></code></a> subclass.
+It creates and listens at the HTTP socket, dispatching the requests to a
+handler.  Code to create and run the server looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">server_class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">HTTPServer</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">handler_class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">server_address</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">server_class</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">server_address</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">handler_class</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.server.HTTPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.server.</code><code class="descname">HTTPServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.HTTPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class builds on the <a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCPServer</span></code></a> class by storing
+the server address as instance variables named <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_name</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_port</span></code>. The server is accessible by the handler, typically
+through the handler’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server</span></code> instance variable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.server.</code><code class="descname">ThreadingHTTPServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is identical to HTTPServer but uses threads to handle
+requests by using the <a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a>. This
+is useful to handle web browsers pre-opening sockets, on which
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.HTTPServer" title="http.server.HTTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPServer</span></code></a> would wait indefinitely.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.HTTPServer" title="http.server.HTTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPServer</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer" title="http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingHTTPServer</span></code></a> must be given
+a <em>RequestHandlerClass</em> on instantiation, of which this module
+provides three different variants:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.server.</code><code class="descname">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em>, <em>server</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is used to handle the HTTP requests that arrive at the server.  By
+itself, it cannot respond to any actual HTTP requests; it must be subclassed
+to handle each request method (e.g. GET or POST).
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> provides a number of class and instance
+variables, and methods for use by subclasses.</p>
+<p>The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a method
+specific to the request type. The method name is constructed from the
+request. For example, for the request method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SPAM</span></code>, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_SPAM()</span></code>
+method will be called with no arguments. All of the relevant information is
+stored in instance variables of the handler.  Subclasses should not need to
+override or extend the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> has the following instance variables:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.client_address">
+<code class="descname">client_address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.client_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains a tuple of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> referring to the client’s
+address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server">
+<code class="descname">server</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the server instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.close_connection">
+<code class="descname">close_connection</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.close_connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Boolean that should be set before <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_one_request()</span></code></a> returns,
+indicating if another request may be expected, or if the connection should
+be shut down.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.requestline">
+<code class="descname">requestline</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.requestline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the string representation of the HTTP request line. The
+terminating CRLF is stripped. This attribute should be set by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_one_request()</span></code></a>. If no valid request line was processed, it
+should be set to the empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.command">
+<code class="descname">command</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.command" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the command (request type). For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'GET'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.path">
+<code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the request path.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.request_version">
+<code class="descname">request_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.request_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the version string from the request. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'HTTP/1.0'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers">
+<code class="descname">headers</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds an instance of the class specified by the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.MessageClass" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.MessageClass"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageClass</span></code></a> class
+variable. This instance parses and manages the headers in the HTTP
+request. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_headers()</span></code> function from
+<a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> is used to parse the headers and it requires that the
+HTTP request provide a valid <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a> style header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.rfile">
+<code class="descname">rfile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.rfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> input stream, ready to read from
+the start of the optional input data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.wfile">
+<code class="descname">wfile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.wfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the
+client. Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used when writing to
+this stream in order to achieve successful interoperation with HTTP
+clients.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>This is an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> stream.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> has the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version">
+<code class="descname">server_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies the server software version.  You may want to override this. The
+format is multiple whitespace-separated strings, where each string is of
+the form name[/version]. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'BaseHTTP/0.2'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.sys_version">
+<code class="descname">sys_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.sys_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains the Python system version, in a form usable by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version_string</span></code></a> method and the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_version</span></code></a> class
+variable. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Python/1.4'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_message_format">
+<code class="descname">error_message_format</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_message_format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies a format string that should be used by <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_error()</span></code></a> method
+for building an error response to the client. The string is filled by
+default with variables from <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">responses</span></code></a> based on the status code
+that passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_error()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_content_type">
+<code class="descname">error_content_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_content_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies the Content-Type HTTP header of error responses sent to the
+client.  The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'text/html'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.protocol_version">
+<code class="descname">protocol_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.protocol_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This specifies the HTTP protocol version used in responses.  If set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'HTTP/1.1'</span></code>, the server will permit HTTP persistent connections;
+however, your server <em>must</em> then include an accurate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length</span></code>
+header (using <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_header()</span></code></a>) in all of its responses to clients.
+For backwards compatibility, the setting defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'HTTP/1.0'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.MessageClass">
+<code class="descname">MessageClass</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.MessageClass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies an <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a>-like class to parse HTTP
+headers.  Typically, this is not overridden, and it defaults to
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPMessage</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses">
+<code class="descname">responses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute contains a mapping of error code integers to two-element tuples
+containing a short and long message. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{code:</span> <span class="pre">(shortmessage,</span>
+<span class="pre">longmessage)}</span></code>. The <em>shortmessage</em> is usually used as the <em>message</em> key in an
+error response, and <em>longmessage</em> as the <em>explain</em> key.  It is used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_response_only()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_error()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> instance has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle">
+<code class="descname">handle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_one_request()</span></code></a> once (or, if persistent connections are
+enabled, multiple times) to handle incoming HTTP requests. You should
+never need to override it; instead, implement appropriate <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_*()</span></code>
+methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request">
+<code class="descname">handle_one_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method will parse and dispatch the request to the appropriate
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_*()</span></code> method.  You should never need to override it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_expect_100">
+<code class="descname">handle_expect_100</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_expect_100" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When a HTTP/1.1 compliant server receives an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Expect:</span> <span class="pre">100-continue</span></code>
+request header it responds back with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">100</span> <span class="pre">Continue</span></code> followed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">200</span>
+<span class="pre">OK</span></code> headers.
+This method can be overridden to raise an error if the server does not
+want the client to continue.  For e.g. server can chose to send <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">417</span>
+<span class="pre">Expectation</span> <span class="pre">Failed</span></code> as a response header and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error">
+<code class="descname">send_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em>, <em>message=None</em>, <em>explain=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client. The numeric <em>code</em>
+specifies the HTTP error code, with <em>message</em> as an optional, short, human
+readable description of the error.  The <em>explain</em> argument can be used to
+provide more detailed information about the error; it will be formatted
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_message_format" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_message_format"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_message_format</span></code></a> attribute and emitted, after
+a complete set of headers, as the response body.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">responses</span></code></a>
+attribute holds the default values for <em>message</em> and <em>explain</em> that
+will be used if no value is provided; for unknown codes the default value
+for both is the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">???</span></code>. The body will be empty if the method is
+HEAD or the response code is one of the following: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1xx</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">204</span> <span class="pre">No</span> <span class="pre">Content</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">205</span> <span class="pre">Reset</span> <span class="pre">Content</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">304</span> <span class="pre">Not</span> <span class="pre">Modified</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The error response includes a Content-Length header.
+Added the <em>explain</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response">
+<code class="descname">send_response</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em>, <em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the accepted
+request. The HTTP response line is written to the internal buffer,
+followed by <em>Server</em> and <em>Date</em> headers. The values for these two headers
+are picked up from the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version_string()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.date_time_string" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.date_time_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date_time_string()</span></code></a> methods, respectively. If the server does not
+intend to send any other headers using the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_header()</span></code></a> method,
+then <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_response()</span></code></a> should be followed by an <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_headers()</span></code></a>
+call.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Headers are stored to an internal buffer and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_headers()</span></code></a>
+needs to be called explicitly.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header">
+<code class="descname">send_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>keyword</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be written to the
+output stream when either <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_headers()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush_headers()</span></code></a> is
+invoked. <em>keyword</em> should specify the header keyword, with <em>value</em>
+specifying its value. Note that, after the send_header calls are done,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_headers()</span></code></a> MUST BE called in order to complete the operation.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Headers are stored in an internal buffer.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only">
+<code class="descname">send_response_only</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em>, <em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">100</span>
+<span class="pre">Continue</span></code> response is sent by the server to the client. The headers not
+buffered and sent directly the output stream.If the <em>message</em> is not
+specified, the HTTP message corresponding the response <em>code</em>  is sent.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers">
+<code class="descname">end_headers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds a blank line
+(indicating the end of the HTTP headers in the response)
+to the headers buffer and calls <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush_headers()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The buffered headers are written to the output stream.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers">
+<code class="descname">flush_headers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the internal
+headers buffer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_request">
+<code class="descname">log_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code='-'</em>, <em>size='-'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs an accepted (successful) request. <em>code</em> should specify the numeric
+HTTP code associated with the response. If a size of the response is
+available, then it should be passed as the <em>size</em> parameter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_error">
+<code class="descname">log_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled. By default, it passes
+the message to <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log_message()</span></code></a>, so it takes the same arguments
+(<em>format</em> and additional values).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message">
+<code class="descname">log_message</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs an arbitrary message to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>. This is typically overridden
+to create custom error logging mechanisms. The <em>format</em> argument is a
+standard printf-style format string, where the additional arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log_message()</span></code></a> are applied as inputs to the formatting. The client
+ip address and current date and time are prefixed to every message logged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string">
+<code class="descname">version_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the server software’s version string. This is a combination of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_version</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.sys_version" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.sys_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys_version</span></code></a> attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.date_time_string">
+<code class="descname">date_time_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timestamp=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.date_time_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the date and time given by <em>timestamp</em> (which must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or in
+the format returned by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>), formatted for a message
+header. If <em>timestamp</em> is omitted, it uses the current date and time.</p>
+<p>The result looks like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Sun,</span> <span class="pre">06</span> <span class="pre">Nov</span> <span class="pre">1994</span> <span class="pre">08:49:37</span> <span class="pre">GMT'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_date_time_string">
+<code class="descname">log_date_time_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_date_time_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.address_string">
+<code class="descname">address_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.address_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the client address.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Previously, a name lookup was performed. To avoid name resolution
+delays, it now always returns the IP address.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.server.</code><code class="descname">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em>, <em>server</em>, <em>directory=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class serves files from the current directory and below, directly
+mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests.</p>
+<p>A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base class
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a>.  This class implements the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_GET()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_HEAD" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_HEAD"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_HEAD()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<p>The following are defined as class-level attributes of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.server_version">
+<code class="descname">server_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.server_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;SimpleHTTP/&quot;</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">__version__</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__version__</span></code> is
+defined at the module level.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.extensions_map">
+<code class="descname">extensions_map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.extensions_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types. The default is
+signified by an empty string, and is considered to be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">application/octet-stream</span></code>. The mapping is used case-insensitively,
+and so should contain only lower-cased keys.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.directory">
+<code class="descname">directory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.directory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If not specified, the directory to serve is the current working directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> class defines the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_HEAD">
+<code class="descname">do_HEAD</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_HEAD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method serves the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'HEAD'</span></code> request type: it sends the headers it
+would send for the equivalent <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code> request. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_GET()</span></code></a>
+method for a more complete explanation of the possible headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET">
+<code class="descname">do_GET</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the request as a
+path relative to the current working directory.</p>
+<p>If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is checked for a
+file named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index.html</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index.htm</span></code> (in that order). If found, the
+file’s contents are returned; otherwise a directory listing is generated
+by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list_directory()</span></code> method. This method uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> to scan the directory, and returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">404</span></code> error
+response if the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listdir()</span></code></a> fails.</p>
+<p>If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened. Any <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>
+exception in opening the requested file is mapped to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">404</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'File</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">found'</span></code> error. If there was a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'If-Modified-Since'</span></code>
+header in the request, and the file was not modified after this time,
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">304</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Not</span> <span class="pre">Modified'</span></code> response is sent. Otherwise, the content
+type is guessed by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_type()</span></code> method, which in turn
+uses the <em>extensions_map</em> variable, and the file contents are returned.</p>
+<p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Content-type:'</span></code> header with the guessed content type is output,
+followed by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Content-Length:'</span></code> header with the file’s size and a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Last-Modified:'</span></code> header with the file’s modification time.</p>
+<p>Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers, and then the
+contents of the file are output. If the file’s MIME type starts with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text/</span></code> the file is opened in text mode; otherwise binary mode is used.</p>
+<p>For example usage, see the implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test()</span></code></a> function
+invocation in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Support of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'If-Modified-Since'</span></code> header.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> class can be used in the following
+manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files relative to
+the current directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.server</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socketserver</span>
+
+<span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">8000</span>
+
+<span class="n">Handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TCPServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Handler</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;serving at port&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="http-server-cli"><a class="reference internal" href="#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> can also be invoked directly using the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a>
+switch of the interpreter with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span> <span class="pre">number</span></code> argument.  Similar to
+the previous example, this serves files relative to the current directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span> <span class="mi">8000</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>By default, server binds itself to all interfaces.  The option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b/--bind</span></code>
+specifies a specific address to which it should bind.  For example, the
+following command causes the server to bind to localhost only:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span> <span class="mi">8000</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">bind</span> <span class="mf">127.0</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mf">0.1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--bind</span></code> argument was introduced.</p>
+</div>
+<p>By default, server uses the current directory. The option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-d/--directory</span></code>
+specifies a directory to which it should serve the files. For example,
+the following command uses a specific directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">directory</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="o">/</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--directory</span></code> specify alternate directory</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">http.server.</code><code class="descname">CGIHTTPRequestHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em>, <em>server</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is used to serve either files or output of CGI scripts from the
+current directory and below. Note that mapping HTTP hierarchic structure to
+local directory structure is exactly as in <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>CGI scripts run by the <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> class cannot execute
+redirects (HTTP code 302), because code 200 (script output follows) is
+sent prior to execution of the CGI script.  This pre-empts the status
+code.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The class will however, run the CGI script, instead of serving it as a file,
+if it guesses it to be a CGI script.  Only directory-based CGI are used —
+the other common server configuration is to treat special extensions as
+denoting CGI scripts.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_GET()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_HEAD()</span></code> functions are modified to run CGI scripts
+and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the request leads to
+somewhere below the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi_directories</span></code> path.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> defines the following data member:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.cgi_directories">
+<code class="descname">cgi_directories</code><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.cgi_directories" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['/cgi-bin',</span> <span class="pre">'/htbin']</span></code> and describes directories to
+treat as containing CGI scripts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> defines the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.do_POST">
+<code class="descname">do_POST</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler.do_POST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method serves the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'POST'</span></code> request type, only allowed for CGI
+scripts.  Error 501, “Can only POST to CGI scripts”, is output when trying
+to POST to a non-CGI url.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for security
+reasons.  Problems with the CGI script will be translated to error 403.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> can be enabled in the command line by passing
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--cgi</span></code> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">cgi</span> <span class="mi">8000</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="http.cookies.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/i18n.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/i18n.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcd0606
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/i18n.html
@@ -0,0 +1,215 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Internationalization &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="gettext — Multilingual internationalization services" href="gettext.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices" href="ossaudiodev.html" />
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+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/i18n.html" />
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+    
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+    <div class="document">
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="internationalization">
+<span id="i18n"></span><h1>Internationalization<a class="headerlink" href="#internationalization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter help you write software that is
+independent of language and locale by providing mechanisms for selecting a
+language to be used in  program messages or by tailoring output to match local
+conventions.</p>
+<p>The list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code> — Multilingual internationalization services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#gnu-gettext-api">GNU <strong class="program">gettext</strong> API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#class-based-api">Class-based API</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#the-nulltranslations-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullTranslations</span></code> class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#the-gnutranslations-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTranslations</span></code> class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#solaris-message-catalog-support">Solaris message catalog support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#the-catalog-constructor">The Catalog constructor</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#internationalizing-your-programs-and-modules">Internationalizing your programs and modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#localizing-your-module">Localizing your module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#localizing-your-application">Localizing your application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#changing-languages-on-the-fly">Changing languages on the fly</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#deferred-translations">Deferred translations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="locale.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code> — Internationalization services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#background-details-hints-tips-and-caveats">Background, details, hints, tips and caveats</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#for-extension-writers-and-programs-that-embed-python">For extension writers and programs that embed Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#access-to-message-catalogs">Access to message catalogs</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/idle.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/idle.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e62205
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/idle.html
@@ -0,0 +1,950 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>IDLE &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="idle">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/idlelib/">Lib/idlelib/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment.</p>
+<p>IDLE has the following features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>coded in 100% pure Python, using the <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> GUI toolkit</p></li>
+<li><p>cross-platform: works mostly the same on Windows, Unix, and macOS</p></li>
+<li><p>Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing
+of code input, output, and error messages</p></li>
+<li><p>multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing,
+smart indent, call tips, auto completion, and other features</p></li>
+<li><p>search within any window, replace within editor windows, and search
+through multiple files (grep)</p></li>
+<li><p>debugger with persistent breakpoints, stepping, and viewing
+of global and local namespaces</p></li>
+<li><p>configuration, browsers, and other dialogs</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="menus">
+<h2>Menus<a class="headerlink" href="#menus" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window and the Editor window.  It is
+possible to have multiple editor windows simultaneously.  On Windows and
+Linux, each has its own top menu.  Each menu documented below indicates
+which window type it is associated with.</p>
+<p>Output windows, such as used for Edit =&gt; Find in Files, are a subtype of editor
+window.  They currently have the same top menu but a different
+default title and context menu.</p>
+<p>On macOS, there is one application menu.  It dynamically changes according
+to the window currently selected.  It has an IDLE menu, and some entries
+described below are moved around to conform to Apple guidelines.</p>
+<div class="section" id="file-menu-shell-and-editor">
+<h3>File menu (Shell and Editor)<a class="headerlink" href="#file-menu-shell-and-editor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>New File</dt><dd><p>Create a new file editing window.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Open…</dt><dd><p>Open an existing file with an Open dialog.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Recent Files</dt><dd><p>Open a list of recent files.  Click one to open it.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Open Module…</dt><dd><p>Open an existing module (searches sys.path).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-1">
+<dt>Class Browser</dt><dd><p>Show functions, classes, and methods in the current Editor file in a
+tree structure.  In the shell, open a module first.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Path Browser</dt><dd><p>Show sys.path directories, modules, functions, classes and methods in a
+tree structure.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Save</dt><dd><p>Save the current window to the associated file, if there is one.  Windows
+that have been changed since being opened or last saved have a * before
+and after the window title.  If there is no associated file,
+do Save As instead.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Save As…</dt><dd><p>Save the current window with a Save As dialog.  The file saved becomes the
+new associated file for the window.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Save Copy As…</dt><dd><p>Save the current window to different file without changing the associated
+file.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Print Window</dt><dd><p>Print the current window to the default printer.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Close</dt><dd><p>Close the current window (ask to save if unsaved).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Exit</dt><dd><p>Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved windows).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="edit-menu-shell-and-editor">
+<h3>Edit menu (Shell and Editor)<a class="headerlink" href="#edit-menu-shell-and-editor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Undo</dt><dd><p>Undo the last change to the current window.  A maximum of 1000 changes may
+be undone.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Redo</dt><dd><p>Redo the last undone change to the current window.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Cut</dt><dd><p>Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Copy</dt><dd><p>Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Paste</dt><dd><p>Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The clipboard functions are also available in context menus.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Select All</dt><dd><p>Select the entire contents of the current window.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Find…</dt><dd><p>Open a search dialog with many options</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Find Again</dt><dd><p>Repeat the last search, if there is one.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Find Selection</dt><dd><p>Search for the currently selected string, if there is one.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Find in Files…</dt><dd><p>Open a file search dialog.  Put results in a new output window.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Replace…</dt><dd><p>Open a search-and-replace dialog.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Go to Line</dt><dd><p>Move cursor to the line number requested and make that line visible.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Show Completions</dt><dd><p>Open a scrollable list allowing selection of keywords and attributes. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#completions"><span class="std std-ref">Completions</span></a> in the Editing and navigation section below.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Expand Word</dt><dd><p>Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same window;
+repeat to get a different expansion.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Show call tip</dt><dd><p>After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window with
+function parameter hints.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#calltips"><span class="std std-ref">Calltips</span></a> in the
+Editing and navigation section below.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Show surrounding parens</dt><dd><p>Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="format-menu-editor-window-only">
+<span id="format-menu"></span><h3>Format menu (Editor window only)<a class="headerlink" href="#format-menu-editor-window-only" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Indent Region</dt><dd><p>Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Dedent Region</dt><dd><p>Shift selected lines left by the indent width (default 4 spaces).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Comment Out Region</dt><dd><p>Insert ## in front of selected lines.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Uncomment Region</dt><dd><p>Remove leading # or ## from selected lines.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Tabify Region</dt><dd><p>Turn <em>leading</em> stretches of spaces into tabs. (Note: We recommend using
+4 space blocks to indent Python code.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Untabify Region</dt><dd><p>Turn <em>all</em> tabs into the correct number of spaces.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Toggle Tabs</dt><dd><p>Open a dialog to switch between indenting with spaces and tabs.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>New Indent Width</dt><dd><p>Open a dialog to change indent width. The accepted default by the Python
+community is 4 spaces.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Format Paragraph</dt><dd><p>Reformat the current blank-line-delimited paragraph in comment block or
+multiline string or selected line in a string.  All lines in the
+paragraph will be formatted to less than N columns, where N defaults to 72.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Strip trailing whitespace</dt><dd><p>Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the last
+non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip to each line,
+including lines within multiline strings.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="run-menu-editor-window-only">
+<span id="index-2"></span><h3>Run menu (Editor window only)<a class="headerlink" href="#run-menu-editor-window-only" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple" id="python-shell">
+<dt>Python Shell</dt><dd><p>Open or wake up the Python Shell window.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="check-module">
+<dt>Check Module</dt><dd><p>Check the syntax of the module currently open in the Editor window. If the
+module has not been saved IDLE will either prompt the user to save or
+autosave, as selected in the General tab of the Idle Settings dialog.  If
+there is a syntax error, the approximate location is indicated in the
+Editor window.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="run-module">
+<dt>Run Module</dt><dd><p>Do <a class="reference internal" href="#check-module"><span class="std std-ref">Check Module</span></a>.  If no error, restart the shell to clean the
+environment, then execute the module.  Output is displayed in the Shell
+window.  Note that output requires use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code>.
+When execution is complete, the Shell retains focus and displays a prompt.
+At this point, one may interactively explore the result of execution.
+This is similar to executing a file with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-i</span> <span class="pre">file</span></code> at a command
+line.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="run-custom">
+<dt>Run… Customized</dt><dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#run-module"><span class="std std-ref">Run Module</span></a>, but run the module with customized
+settings.  <em>Command Line Arguments</em> extend <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> as if passed
+on a command line. The module can be run in the Shell without restarting.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shell-menu-shell-window-only">
+<h3>Shell menu (Shell window only)<a class="headerlink" href="#shell-menu-shell-window-only" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>View Last Restart</dt><dd><p>Scroll the shell window to the last Shell restart.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Restart Shell</dt><dd><p>Restart the shell to clean the environment.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Previous History</dt><dd><p>Cycle through earlier commands in history which match the current entry.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Next History</dt><dd><p>Cycle through later commands in history which match the current entry.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Interrupt Execution</dt><dd><p>Stop a running program.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="debug-menu-shell-window-only">
+<h3>Debug menu (Shell window only)<a class="headerlink" href="#debug-menu-shell-window-only" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Go to File/Line</dt><dd><p>Look on the current line. with the cursor, and the line above for a filename
+and line number.  If found, open the file if not already open, and show the
+line.  Use this to view source lines referenced in an exception traceback
+and lines found by Find in Files. Also available in the context menu of
+the Shell window and Output windows.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-3">
+<dt>Debugger (toggle)</dt><dd><p>When activated, code entered in the Shell or run from an Editor will run
+under the debugger.  In the Editor, breakpoints can be set with the context
+menu.  This feature is still incomplete and somewhat experimental.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Stack Viewer</dt><dd><p>Show the stack traceback of the last exception in a tree widget, with
+access to locals and globals.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Auto-open Stack Viewer</dt><dd><p>Toggle automatically opening the stack viewer on an unhandled exception.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="options-menu-shell-and-editor">
+<h3>Options menu (Shell and Editor)<a class="headerlink" href="#options-menu-shell-and-editor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Configure IDLE</dt><dd><p>Open a configuration dialog and change preferences for the following:
+fonts, indentation, keybindings, text color themes, startup windows and
+size, additional help sources, and extensions.  On macOS,  open the
+configuration dialog by selecting Preferences in the application
+menu. For more, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#preferences"><span class="std std-ref">Setting preferences</span></a> under Help and preferences.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Show/Hide Code Context (Editor Window only)</dt><dd><p>Open a pane at the top of the edit window which shows the block context
+of the code which has scrolled above the top of the window.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#code-context"><span class="std std-ref">Code Context</span></a> in the Editing and Navigation section below.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Zoom/Restore Height</dt><dd><p>Toggles the window between normal size and maximum height. The initial size
+defaults to 40 lines by 80 chars unless changed on the General tab of the
+Configure IDLE dialog.  The maximum height for a screen is determined by
+momentarily maximizing a window the first time one is zoomed on the screen.
+Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height.  This toogle has
+no effect when a window is maximized.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="window-menu-shell-and-editor">
+<h3>Window menu (Shell and Editor)<a class="headerlink" href="#window-menu-shell-and-editor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Lists the names of all open windows; select one to bring it to the foreground
+(deiconifying it if necessary).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="help-menu-shell-and-editor">
+<h3>Help menu (Shell and Editor)<a class="headerlink" href="#help-menu-shell-and-editor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>About IDLE</dt><dd><p>Display version, copyright, license, credits, and more.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>IDLE Help</dt><dd><p>Display this IDLE document, detailing the menu options, basic editing and
+navigation, and other tips.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Python Docs</dt><dd><p>Access local Python documentation, if installed, or start a web browser
+and open docs.python.org showing the latest Python documentation.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Turtle Demo</dt><dd><p>Run the turtledemo module with example Python code and turtle drawings.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Additional help sources may be added here with the Configure IDLE dialog under
+the General tab. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#help-sources"><span class="std std-ref">Help sources</span></a> subsection below
+for more on Help menu choices.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="context-menus">
+<span id="index-4"></span><h3>Context Menus<a class="headerlink" href="#context-menus" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Open a context menu by right-clicking in a window (Control-click on macOS).
+Context menus have the standard clipboard functions also on the Edit menu.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Cut</dt><dd><p>Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Copy</dt><dd><p>Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Paste</dt><dd><p>Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Editor windows also have breakpoint functions.  Lines with a breakpoint set are
+specially marked.  Breakpoints only have an effect when running under the
+debugger.  Breakpoints for a file are saved in the user’s .idlerc directory.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Set Breakpoint</dt><dd><p>Set a breakpoint on the current line.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Clear Breakpoint</dt><dd><p>Clear the breakpoint on that line.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Shell and Output windows also have the following.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Go to file/line</dt><dd><p>Same as in Debug menu.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The Shell window also has an output squeezing facility explained in the <em>Python
+Shell window</em> subsection below.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Squeeze</dt><dd><p>If the cursor is over an output line, squeeze all the output between
+the code above and the prompt below down to a ‘Squeezed text’ label.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="editing-and-navigation">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Editing and navigation<a class="headerlink" href="#editing-and-navigation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="editor-windows">
+<h3>Editor windows<a class="headerlink" href="#editor-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>IDLE may open editor windows when it starts, depending on settings
+and how you start IDLE.  Thereafter, use the File menu.  There can be only
+one open editor window for a given file.</p>
+<p>The title bar contains the name of the file, the full path, and the version
+of Python and IDLE running the window.  The status bar contains the line
+number (‘Ln’) and column number (‘Col’).  Line numbers start with 1;
+column numbers with 0.</p>
+<p>IDLE assumes that files with a known .py* extension contain Python code
+and that other files do not.  Run Python code with the Run menu.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="key-bindings">
+<h3>Key bindings<a class="headerlink" href="#key-bindings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In this section, ‘C’ refers to the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control</kbd> key on Windows and Unix and
+the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Command</kbd> key on macOS.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Backspace</kbd> deletes to the left; <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Del</kbd> deletes to the right</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-Backspace</kbd> delete word left; <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-Del</kbd> delete word to the right</p></li>
+<li><p>Arrow keys and <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Page Up</kbd>/<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Page Down</kbd> to move around</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-LeftArrow</kbd> and <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-RightArrow</kbd> moves by words</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Home</kbd>/<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">End</kbd> go to begin/end of line</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-Home</kbd>/<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-End</kbd> go to begin/end of file</p></li>
+<li><p>Some useful Emacs bindings are inherited from Tcl/Tk:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-a</kbd> beginning of line</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-e</kbd> end of line</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-k</kbd> kill line (but doesn’t put it in clipboard)</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-l</kbd> center window around the insertion point</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-b</kbd> go backward one character without deleting (usually you can
+also use the cursor key for this)</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-f</kbd> go forward one character without deleting (usually you can
+also use the cursor key for this)</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-p</kbd> go up one line (usually you can also use the cursor key for
+this)</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-d</kbd> delete next character</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Standard keybindings (like <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-c</kbd> to copy and <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-v</kbd> to paste)
+may work.  Keybindings are selected in the Configure IDLE dialog.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="automatic-indentation">
+<h3>Automatic indentation<a class="headerlink" href="#automatic-indentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>After a block-opening statement, the next line is indented by 4 spaces (in the
+Python Shell window by one tab).  After certain keywords (break, return etc.)
+the next line is dedented.  In leading indentation, <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Backspace</kbd> deletes up
+to 4 spaces if they are there. <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Tab</kbd> inserts spaces (in the Python
+Shell window one tab), number depends on Indent width. Currently, tabs
+are restricted to four spaces due to Tcl/Tk limitations.</p>
+<p>See also the indent/dedent region commands on the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#format-menu"><span class="std std-ref">Format menu</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="completions">
+<span id="id3"></span><h3>Completions<a class="headerlink" href="#completions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Completions are supplied for functions, classes, and attributes of classes,
+both built-in and user-defined. Completions are also provided for
+filenames.</p>
+<p>The AutoCompleteWindow (ACW) will open after a predefined delay (default is
+two seconds) after a ‘.’ or (in a string) an os.sep is typed. If after one
+of those characters (plus zero or more other characters) a tab is typed
+the ACW will open immediately if a possible continuation is found.</p>
+<p>If there is only one possible completion for the characters entered, a
+<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Tab</kbd> will supply that completion without opening the ACW.</p>
+<p>‘Show Completions’ will force open a completions window, by default the
+<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-space</kbd> will open a completions window. In an empty
+string, this will contain the files in the current directory. On a
+blank line, it will contain the built-in and user-defined functions and
+classes in the current namespaces, plus any modules imported. If some
+characters have been entered, the ACW will attempt to be more specific.</p>
+<p>If a string of characters is typed, the ACW selection will jump to the
+entry most closely matching those characters.  Entering a <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">tab</kbd> will
+cause the longest non-ambiguous match to be entered in the Editor window or
+Shell.  Two <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">tab</kbd> in a row will supply the current ACW selection, as
+will return or a double click.  Cursor keys, Page Up/Down, mouse selection,
+and the scroll wheel all operate on the ACW.</p>
+<p>“Hidden” attributes can be accessed by typing the beginning of hidden
+name after a ‘.’, e.g. ‘_’. This allows access to modules with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> set, or to class-private attributes.</p>
+<p>Completions and the ‘Expand Word’ facility can save a lot of typing!</p>
+<p>Completions are currently limited to those in the namespaces. Names in
+an Editor window which are not via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> will
+not be found.  Run the module once with your imports to correct this situation.
+Note that IDLE itself places quite a few modules in sys.modules, so
+much can be found by default, e.g. the re module.</p>
+<p>If you don’t like the ACW popping up unbidden, simply make the delay
+longer or disable the extension.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calltips">
+<span id="id4"></span><h3>Calltips<a class="headerlink" href="#calltips" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A calltip is shown when one types <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">(</kbd> after the name of an <em>accessible</em>
+function.  A name expression may include dots and subscripts.  A calltip
+remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved out of the argument area,
+or <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">)</kbd> is typed.  When the cursor is in the argument part of a definition,
+the menu or shortcut display a calltip.</p>
+<p>A calltip consists of the function signature and the first line of the
+docstring.  For builtins without an accessible signature, the calltip
+consists of all lines up the fifth line or the first blank line.  These
+details may change.</p>
+<p>The set of <em>accessible</em> functions depends on what modules have been imported
+into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself,
+and what definitions have been run, all since the last restart.</p>
+<p>For example, restart the Shell and enter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.count(</span></code>.  A calltip
+appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own use.
+(This could change.)  Enter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.write(</span></code> and nothing appears.  Idle does
+not import turtle.  The menu or shortcut do nothing either.  Enter
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">turtle</span></code> and then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.write(</span></code> will work.</p>
+<p>In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.  One
+might want to run a file after writing the import statements at the top,
+or immediately run an existing file before editing.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="code-context">
+<span id="id5"></span><h3>Code Context<a class="headerlink" href="#code-context" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Within an editor window containing Python code, code context can be toggled
+in order to show or hide a pane at the top of the window.  When shown, this
+pane freezes the opening lines for block code, such as those beginning with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> keywords, that would have otherwise scrolled
+out of view.  The size of the pane will be expanded and contracted as needed
+to show the all current levels of context, up to the maximum number of
+lines defined in the Configure IDLE dialog (which defaults to 15).  If there
+are no current context lines and the feature is toggled on, a single blank
+line will display.  Clicking on a line in the context pane will move that
+line to the top of the editor.</p>
+<p>The text and background colors for the context pane can be configured under
+the Highlights tab in the Configure IDLE dialog.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-shell-window">
+<h3>Python Shell window<a class="headerlink" href="#python-shell-window" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>With IDLE’s Shell, one enters, edits, and recalls complete statements.
+Most consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time.</p>
+<p>When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly executed
+until one hits <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Return</kbd>.  One may edit pasted code first.
+If one pastes more that one statement into Shell, the result will be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> when multiple statements are compiled as if they were one.</p>
+<p>The editing features described in previous subsections work when entering
+code interactively.  IDLE’s Shell window also responds to the following keys.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-c</kbd> interrupts executing command</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-d</kbd> sends end-of-file; closes window if typed at a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code> prompt</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Alt-/</kbd> (Expand word) is also useful to reduce typing</p>
+<p>Command history</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Alt-p</kbd> retrieves previous command matching what you have typed. On
+macOS use <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-p</kbd>.</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Alt-n</kbd> retrieves next. On macOS use <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">C-n</kbd>.</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Return</kbd> while on any previous command retrieves that command</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-colors">
+<h3>Text colors<a class="headerlink" href="#text-colors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Idle defaults to black on white text, but colors text with special meanings.
+For the shell, these are shell output, shell error, user output, and
+user error.  For Python code, at the shell prompt or in an editor, these are
+keywords, builtin class and function names, names following <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code>, strings, and comments. For any text window, these are the cursor (when
+present), found text (when possible), and selected text.</p>
+<p>Text coloring is done in the background, so uncolorized text is occasionally
+visible.  To change the color scheme, use the Configure IDLE dialog
+Highlighting tab.  The marking of debugger breakpoint lines in the editor and
+text in popups and dialogs is not user-configurable.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="startup-and-code-execution">
+<h2>Startup and code execution<a class="headerlink" href="#startup-and-code-execution" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Upon startup with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code> option, IDLE will execute the file referenced by
+the environment variables <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IDLESTARTUP</span></code> or <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a>.
+IDLE first checks for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IDLESTARTUP</span></code>; if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IDLESTARTUP</span></code> is present the file
+referenced is run.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IDLESTARTUP</span></code> is not present, IDLE checks for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code>.  Files referenced by these environment variables are
+convenient places to store functions that are used frequently from the IDLE
+shell, or for executing import statements to import common modules.</p>
+<p>In addition, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tk</span></code> also loads a startup file if it is present.  Note that the
+Tk file is loaded unconditionally.  This additional file is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.Idle.py</span></code> and is
+looked for in the user’s home directory.  Statements in this file will be
+executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not useful for importing
+functions to be used from IDLE’s Python shell.</p>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-usage">
+<h3>Command line usage<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>idle.py [-c command] [-d] [-e] [-h] [-i] [-r file] [-s] [-t title] [-] [arg] ...
+
+-c command  run command in the shell window
+-d          enable debugger and open shell window
+-e          open editor window
+-h          print help message with legal combinations and exit
+-i          open shell window
+-r file     run file in shell window
+-s          run $IDLESTARTUP or $PYTHONSTARTUP first, in shell window
+-t title    set title of shell window
+-           run stdin in shell (- must be last option before args)
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If there are arguments:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> is used, all arguments are placed in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:...]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-c'</span></code>,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-r'</span></code>.  No editor window is opened, even if that is the default
+set in the Options dialog.</p></li>
+<li><p>Otherwise, arguments are files opened for editing and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code> reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="startup-failure">
+<h3>Startup failure<a class="headerlink" href="#startup-failure" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the user
+code execution process.  A connection must be established whenever the Shell
+starts or restarts.  (The latter is indicated by a divider line that says
+‘RESTART’). If the user process fails to connect to the GUI process, it
+displays a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tk</span></code> error box with a ‘cannot connect’ message that directs the
+user here.  It then exits.</p>
+<p>A common cause of failure is a user-written file with the same name as a
+standard library module, such as <em>random.py</em> and <em>tkinter.py</em>. When such a
+file is located in the same directory as a file that is about to be run,
+IDLE cannot import the stdlib file.  The current fix is to rename the
+user file.</p>
+<p>Though less common than in the past, an antivirus or firewall program may
+stop the connection.  If the program cannot be taught to allow the
+connection, then it must be turned off for IDLE to work.  It is safe to
+allow this internal connection because no data is visible on external
+ports.  A similar problem is a network mis-configuration that blocks
+connections.</p>
+<p>Python installation issues occasionally stop IDLE: multiple versions can
+clash, or a single installation might need admin access.  If one undo the
+clash, or cannot or does not want to run as admin, it might be easiest to
+completely remove Python and start over.</p>
+<p>A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem.  On Windows, use Task
+Manager to detect and stop one.  Sometimes a restart initiated by a program
+crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail to connect.  Dismissing
+the error box or Restart Shell on the Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.</p>
+<p>When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in
+~/.idlerc/ (~ is one’s home directory).  If there is a problem, an error
+message should be displayed.  Leaving aside random disk glitches, this can
+be prevented by never editing the files by hand, using the configuration
+dialog, under Options, instead Options.  Once it happens, the solution may
+be to delete one or more of the configuration files.</p>
+<p>If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console, try
+starting from a console (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">idlelib)</span></code> and see if a message appears.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-user-code">
+<h3>Running user code<a class="headerlink" href="#running-user-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is
+intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default method,
+directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal window.
+However, the different interface and operation occasionally affect
+visible results.  For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> starts with more entries,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.activeCount()</span></code> returns 2 instead of 1.</p>
+<p>By default, IDLE runs user code in a separate OS process rather than in
+the user interface process that runs the shell and editor.  In the execution
+process, it replaces <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>
+with objects that get input from and send output to the Shell window.
+The original values stored in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__stdin__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__stdout__</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__stderr__</span></code> are not touched, but may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When Shell has the focus, it controls the keyboard and screen.  This is
+normally transparent, but functions that directly access the keyboard
+and screen will not work.  These include system-specific functions that
+determine whether a key has been pressed and if so, which.</p>
+<p>IDLE’s standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses
+created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by modules
+such as multiprocessing.  If such subprocess use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input</span></code> from sys.stdin
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code> to sys.stdout or sys.stderr,
+IDLE should be started in a command line window.  The secondary subprocess
+will then be attached to that window for input and output.</p>
+<p>The IDLE code running in the execution process adds frames to the call stack
+that would not be there otherwise.  IDLE wraps <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getrecursionlimit</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setrecursionlimit</span></code> to reduce the effect of the additional stack frames.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code> is reset by user code, such as with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload(sys)</span></code>,
+IDLE’s changes are lost and input from the keyboard and output to the screen
+will not work correctly.</p>
+<p>When user code raises SystemExit either directly or by calling sys.exit, IDLE
+returns to a Shell prompt instead of exiting.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="user-output-in-shell">
+<h3>User output in Shell<a class="headerlink" href="#user-output-in-shell" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When a program outputs text, the result is determined by the
+corresponding output device.  When IDLE executes user code, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> are connected to the display area of IDLE’s Shell.  Some of
+its features are inherited from the underlying Tk Text widget.  Others
+are programmed additions.  Where it matters, Shell is designed for development
+rather than production runs.</p>
+<p>For instance, Shell never throws away output.  A program that sends unlimited
+output to Shell will eventually fill memory, resulting in a memory error.
+In contrast, some system text windows only keep the last n lines of output.
+A Windows console, for instance, keeps a user-settable 1 to 9999 lines,
+with 300 the default.</p>
+<p>A Tk Text widget, and hence IDLE’s Shell, displays characters (codepoints) in
+the BMP (Basic Multilingual Plane) subset of Unicode.  Which characters are
+displayed with a proper glyph and which with a replacement box depends on the
+operating system and installed fonts.  Tab characters cause the following text
+to begin after the next tab stop. (They occur every 8 ‘characters’).  Newline
+characters cause following text to appear on a new line.  Other control
+characters are ignored or displayed as a space, box, or something else,
+depending on the operating system and font.  (Moving the text cursor through
+such output with arrow keys may exhibit some surprising spacing behavior.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">b</span><span class="se">\a</span><span class="s1">&lt;</span><span class="se">\x02</span><span class="s1">&gt;&lt;</span><span class="se">\r</span><span class="s1">&gt;</span><span class="se">\b</span><span class="s1">c</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">d&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># Enter 22 chars.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">14</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span>  <span class="c1"># Display repr(s)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;a\tb\x07&lt;\x02&gt;&lt;\r&gt;\x08c\nd&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Display s as is.</span>
+<span class="go"># Result varies by OS and font.  Try it.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code> function is used for interactive echo of expression
+values.  It returns an altered version of the input string in which
+control codes, some BMP codepoints, and all non-BMP codepoints are
+replaced with escape codes. As demonstrated above, it allows one to
+identify the characters in a string, regardless of how they are displayed.</p>
+<p>Normal and error output are generally kept separate (on separate lines)
+from code input and each other.  They each get different highlight colors.</p>
+<p>For SyntaxError tracebacks, the normal ‘^’ marking where the error was
+detected is replaced by coloring the text with an error highlight.
+When code run from a file causes other exceptions, one may right click
+on a traceback line to jump to the corresponding line in an IDLE editor.
+The file will be opened if necessary.</p>
+<p>Shell has a special facility for squeezing output lines down to a
+‘Squeezed text’ label.  This is done automatically
+for output over N lines (N = 50 by default).
+N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General
+page of the Settings dialog.  Output with fewer lines can be squeezed by
+right clicking on the output.  This can be useful lines long enough to slow
+down scrolling.</p>
+<p>Squeezed output is expanded in place by double-clicking the label.
+It can also be sent to the clipboard or a separate view window by
+right-clicking the label.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="developing-tkinter-applications">
+<h3>Developing tkinter applications<a class="headerlink" href="#developing-tkinter-applications" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>IDLE is intentionally different from standard Python in order to
+facilitate development of tkinter programs.  Enter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">tkinter</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">tk;</span>
+<span class="pre">root</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">tk.Tk()</span></code> in standard Python and nothing appears.  Enter the same
+in IDLE and a tk window appears.  In standard Python, one must also enter
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root.update()</span></code> to see the window.  IDLE does the equivalent in the
+background, about 20 times a second, which is about every 50 milliseconds.
+Next enter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">tk.Button(root,</span> <span class="pre">text='button');</span> <span class="pre">b.pack()</span></code>.  Again,
+nothing visibly changes in standard Python until one enters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root.update()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Most tkinter programs run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root.mainloop()</span></code>, which usually does not
+return until the tk app is destroyed.  If the program is run with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-i</span></code> or from an IDLE editor, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code> shell prompt does not
+appear until <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mainloop()</span></code> returns, at which time there is nothing left
+to interact with.</p>
+<p>When running a tkinter program from an IDLE editor, one can comment out
+the mainloop call.  One then gets a shell prompt immediately and can
+interact with the live application.  One just has to remember to
+re-enable the mainloop call when running in standard Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-without-a-subprocess">
+<h3>Running without a subprocess<a class="headerlink" href="#running-without-a-subprocess" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a socket,
+which uses the internal loopback interface.  This connection is not
+externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the Internet.
+If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.</p>
+<p>If the attempt to make the socket connection fails, Idle will notify you.
+Such failures are sometimes transient, but if persistent, the problem
+may be either a firewall blocking the connection or misconfiguration of
+a particular system.  Until the problem is fixed, one can run Idle with
+the -n command line switch.</p>
+<p>If IDLE is started with the -n command line switch it will run in a
+single process and will not create the subprocess which runs the RPC
+Python execution server.  This can be useful if Python cannot create
+the subprocess or the RPC socket interface on your platform.  However,
+in this mode user code is not isolated from IDLE itself.  Also, the
+environment is not restarted when Run/Run Module (F5) is selected.  If
+your code has been modified, you must reload() the affected modules and
+re-import any specific items (e.g. from foo import baz) if the changes
+are to take effect.  For these reasons, it is preferable to run IDLE
+with the default subprocess if at all possible.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="help-and-preferences">
+<h2>Help and preferences<a class="headerlink" href="#help-and-preferences" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="help-sources">
+<span id="id6"></span><h3>Help sources<a class="headerlink" href="#help-sources" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Help menu entry “IDLE Help” displays a formatted html version of the
+IDLE chapter of the Library Reference.  The result, in a read-only
+tkinter text window, is close to what one sees in a web browser.
+Navigate through the text with a mousewheel,
+the scrollbar, or up and down arrow keys held down.
+Or click the TOC (Table of Contents) button and select a section
+header in the opened box.</p>
+<p>Help menu entry “Python Docs” opens the extensive sources of help,
+including tutorials, available at docs.python.org/x.y, where ‘x.y’
+is the currently running Python version.  If your system
+has an off-line copy of the docs (this may be an installation option),
+that will be opened instead.</p>
+<p>Selected URLs can be added or removed from the help menu at any time using the
+General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog .</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="setting-preferences">
+<span id="preferences"></span><h3>Setting preferences<a class="headerlink" href="#setting-preferences" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The font preferences, highlighting, keys, and general preferences can be
+changed via Configure IDLE on the Option menu.
+Non-default user settings are saved in a .idlerc directory in the user’s
+home directory.  Problems caused by bad user configuration files are solved
+by editing or deleting one or more of the files in .idlerc.</p>
+<p>On the Font tab, see the text sample for the effect of font face and size
+on multiple characters in multiple languages.  Edit the sample to add
+other characters of personal interest.  Use the sample to select
+monospaced fonts.  If particular characters have problems in Shell or an
+editor, add them to the top of the sample and try changing first size
+and then font.</p>
+<p>On the Highlights and Keys tab, select a built-in or custom color theme
+and key set.  To use a newer built-in color theme or key set with older
+IDLEs, save it as a new custom theme or key set and it well be accessible
+to older IDLEs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idle-on-macos">
+<h3>IDLE on macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#idle-on-macos" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Under System Preferences: Dock, one can set “Prefer tabs when opening
+documents” to “Always”.  This setting is not compatible with the tk/tkinter
+GUI framework used by IDLE, and it breaks a few IDLE features.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="extensions">
+<h3>Extensions<a class="headerlink" href="#extensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>IDLE contains an extension facility.  Preferences for extensions can be
+changed with the Extensions tab of the preferences dialog. See the
+beginning of config-extensions.def in the idlelib directory for further
+information.  The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example
+also used for testing.</p>
+</div>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debug-menu-shell-window-only">Debug menu (Shell window only)</a></li>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-shell-window">Python Shell window</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-colors">Text colors</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#startup-and-code-execution">Startup and code execution</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-usage">Command line usage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#startup-failure">Startup failure</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-user-code">Running user code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#user-output-in-shell">User output in Shell</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#developing-tkinter-applications">Developing tkinter applications</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-without-a-subprocess">Running without a subprocess</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#help-and-preferences">Help and preferences</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#help-sources">Help sources</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#setting-preferences">Setting preferences</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idle-on-macos">IDLE on macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extensions">Extensions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="tkinter.scrolledtext.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imaplib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imaplib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca77822
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imaplib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,812 @@
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+  <div class="section" id="module-imaplib">
+<span id="imaplib-imap4-protocol-client"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> — IMAP4 protocol client<a class="headerlink" href="#module-imaplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/imaplib.py">Lib/imaplib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines three classes, <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4_SSL" title="imaplib.IMAP4_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4_SSL</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4_stream" title="imaplib.IMAP4_stream"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4_stream</span></code></a>, which encapsulate a connection to an IMAP4 server and
+implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client protocol as defined in
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2060.html"><strong>RFC 2060</strong></a>. It is backward compatible with IMAP4 (<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1730.html"><strong>RFC 1730</strong></a>) servers, but
+note that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STATUS</span></code> command is not supported in IMAP4.</p>
+<p>Three classes are provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> module, <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> is the
+base class:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">imaplib.</code><code class="descname">IMAP4</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>port=IMAP4_PORT</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol.  The connection is created and
+protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined when the instance is
+initialized. If <em>host</em> is not specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> (the local host) is used. If
+<em>port</em> is omitted, the standard IMAP4 port (143) is used.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> class supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  When used
+like this, the IMAP4 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOGOUT</span></code> command is issued automatically when the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement exits.  E.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">imaplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">IMAP4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">IMAP4</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;domain.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">noop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;OK&#39;, [b&#39;Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised on any errors.  The reason for the exception is passed to the
+constructor as a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.abort">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">abort</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.abort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised.  This is a sub-class of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.error" title="imaplib.IMAP4.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.error</span></code></a>.  Note that closing the instance and instantiating a new one
+will usually allow recovery from this exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.readonly">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">readonly</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.readonly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status changed by the
+server.  This is a sub-class of <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.error" title="imaplib.IMAP4.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.error</span></code></a>.  Some other client now has
+write permission, and the mailbox will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write
+permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There’s also a subclass for secure connections:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4_SSL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">imaplib.</code><code class="descname">IMAP4_SSL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>certfile=None</em>, <em>ssl_context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4_SSL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a subclass derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> that connects over an SSL
+encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket module that was compiled
+with SSL support).  If <em>host</em> is not specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> (the local host) is used.
+If <em>port</em> is omitted, the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used.
+<em>ssl_context</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object which allows bundling
+SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
+(potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> for
+best practices.</p>
+<p><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are a legacy alternative to <em>ssl_context</em> - they
+can point to PEM-formatted private key and certificate chain files for
+the SSL connection.  Note that the <em>keyfile</em>/<em>certfile</em> parameters are
+mutually exclusive with <em>ssl_context</em>, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised
+if <em>keyfile</em>/<em>certfile</em> is provided along with <em>ssl_context</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>ssl_context</em> parameter added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The class now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are deprecated in favor of <em>ssl_context</em>.
+Please use <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> instead, or let
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> select the system’s trusted CA
+certificates for you.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4_stream">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">imaplib.</code><code class="descname">IMAP4_stream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>command</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4_stream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a subclass derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> that connects to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin/stdout</span></code> file descriptors created by passing <em>command</em> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following utility functions are defined:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imaplib.Internaldate2tuple">
+<code class="descclassname">imaplib.</code><code class="descname">Internaldate2tuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>datestr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.Internaldate2tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse an IMAP4 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INTERNALDATE</span></code> string and return corresponding local
+time.  The return value is a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a> tuple or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the string has wrong format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imaplib.Int2AP">
+<code class="descclassname">imaplib.</code><code class="descname">Int2AP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.Int2AP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts an integer into a string representation using characters from the set
+[<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> .. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code>].</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imaplib.ParseFlags">
+<code class="descclassname">imaplib.</code><code class="descname">ParseFlags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flagstr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.ParseFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts an IMAP4 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FLAGS</span></code> response to a tuple of individual flags.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imaplib.Time2Internaldate">
+<code class="descclassname">imaplib.</code><code class="descname">Time2Internaldate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date_time</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.Time2Internaldate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert <em>date_time</em> to an IMAP4 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INTERNALDATE</span></code> representation.
+The return value is a string in the form: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;DD-Mmm-YYYY</span> <span class="pre">HH:MM:SS</span>
+<span class="pre">+HHMM&quot;</span></code> (including double-quotes).  The <em>date_time</em> argument can
+be a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>), a 9-tuple representing local time
+an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a> (as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a>), an aware instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a>, or a double-quoted string.  In the last
+case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in particular,
+after an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXPUNGE</span></code> command performs deletions the remaining messages are
+renumbered. So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead, with the UID command.</p>
+<p>At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more extensive
+example of usage.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>Documents describing the protocol, and sources and binaries  for servers
+implementing it, can all be found at the University of Washington’s <em>IMAP
+Information Center</em> (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.washington.edu/imap/">https://www.washington.edu/imap/</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="imap4-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>IMAP4 Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#imap4-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name, either
+upper-case or lower-case.</p>
+<p>All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTHENTICATE</span></code>,
+and the last argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">APPEND</span></code> which is passed as an IMAP4 literal.  If
+necessary (the string contains IMAP4 protocol-sensitive characters and isn’t
+enclosed with either parentheses or double quotes) each string is quoted.
+However, the <em>password</em> argument to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOGIN</span></code> command is always quoted. If
+you want to avoid having an argument string quoted (eg: the <em>flags</em> argument to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE</span></code>) then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'(\Deleted)'</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Each command returns a tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">[data,</span> <span class="pre">...])</span></code> where <em>type</em> is usually
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'OK'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NO'</span></code>, and <em>data</em> is either the text from the command response,
+or mandated results from the command. Each <em>data</em> is either a string, or a
+tuple. If a tuple, then the first part is the header of the response, and the
+second part contains the data (ie: ‘literal’ value).</p>
+<p>The <em>message_set</em> options to commands below is a string specifying one or more
+messages to be acted upon.  It may be a simple message number (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1'</span></code>), a range
+of message numbers (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'2:4'</span></code>), or a group of non-contiguous ranges separated by
+commas (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1:3,6:9'</span></code>).  A range can contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite
+upper bound (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'3:*'</span></code>).</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> instance has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.append">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em>, <em>flags</em>, <em>date_time</em>, <em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append <em>message</em> to named mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.authenticate">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">authenticate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mechanism</em>, <em>authobject</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.authenticate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Authenticate command — requires response processing.</p>
+<p><em>mechanism</em> specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used - it should
+appear in the instance variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capabilities</span></code> in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTH=mechanism</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>authobject</em> must be a callable object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">authobject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It will be called to process server continuation responses; the <em>response</em>
+argument it is passed will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>.  It should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> <em>data</em>
+that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.  It should return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the client abort response <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> should be sent instead.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>string usernames and passwords are now encoded to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> instead of
+being limited to ASCII.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.check">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checkpoint mailbox on server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.close">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close currently selected mailbox. Deleted messages are removed from writable
+mailbox. This is the recommended command before <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOGOUT</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_set</em>, <em>new_mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy <em>message_set</em> messages onto end of <em>new_mailbox</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.create">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create new mailbox named <em>mailbox</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.delete">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">delete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.delete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete old mailbox named <em>mailbox</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.deleteacl">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">deleteacl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em>, <em>who</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.deleteacl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.enable">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">enable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>capability</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.enable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable <em>capability</em> (see <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5161.html"><strong>RFC 5161</strong></a>).  Most capabilities do not need to be
+enabled.  Currently only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF8=ACCEPT</span></code> capability is supported
+(see <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html"><strong>RFC 6855</strong></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.enable" title="imaplib.IMAP4.enable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable()</span></code></a> method itself, and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html"><strong>RFC 6855</strong></a> support.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.expunge">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">expunge</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.expunge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox. Generates an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXPUNGE</span></code>
+response for each deleted message. Returned data contains a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXPUNGE</span></code>
+message numbers in order received.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.fetch">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">fetch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_set</em>, <em>message_parts</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.fetch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fetch (parts of) messages.  <em>message_parts</em> should be a string of message part
+names enclosed within parentheses, eg: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;(UID</span> <span class="pre">BODY[TEXT])&quot;</span></code>.  Returned data
+are tuples of message part envelope and data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.getacl">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">getacl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.getacl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACL</span></code>s for <em>mailbox</em>. The method is non-standard, but is supported
+by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cyrus</span></code> server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.getannotation">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">getannotation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em>, <em>entry</em>, <em>attribute</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.getannotation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve the specified <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ANNOTATION</span></code>s for <em>mailbox</em>. The method is
+non-standard, but is supported by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cyrus</span></code> server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.getquota">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">getquota</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>root</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.getquota" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quota</span></code> <em>root</em>’s resource usage and limits. This method is part of the
+IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.getquotaroot">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">getquotaroot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.getquotaroot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quota</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">roots</span></code> for the named <em>mailbox</em>. This method is part
+of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.list">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>directory</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>pattern</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List mailbox names in <em>directory</em> matching <em>pattern</em>.  <em>directory</em> defaults to
+the top-level mail folder, and <em>pattern</em> defaults to match anything.  Returned
+data contains a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span></code> responses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.login">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">login</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user</em>, <em>password</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.login" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identify the client using a plaintext password. The <em>password</em> will be quoted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.login_cram_md5">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">login_cram_md5</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user</em>, <em>password</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.login_cram_md5" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRAM-MD5</span></code> authentication when identifying the client to protect
+the password.  Will only work if the server <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAPABILITY</span></code> response includes the
+phrase <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTH=CRAM-MD5</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.logout">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">logout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.logout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Shutdown connection to server. Returns server <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BYE</span></code> response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.lsub">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">lsub</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>directory='&quot;&quot;'</em>, <em>pattern='*'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.lsub" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern. <em>directory</em>
+defaults to the top level directory and <em>pattern</em> defaults to match any mailbox.
+Returned data are tuples of message part envelope and data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.myrights">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">myrights</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.myrights" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e. the rights that I have on mailbox).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.namespace">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">namespace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.namespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2342.html"><strong>RFC 2342</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.noop">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">noop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.noop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOOP</span></code> to server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.open">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Opens socket to <em>port</em> at <em>host</em>.  This method is implicitly called by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> constructor.  The connection objects established by this
+method will be used in the <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.read" title="imaplib.IMAP4.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.read()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.readline" title="imaplib.IMAP4.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.readline()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.send" title="imaplib.IMAP4.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.send()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown" title="imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.shutdown()</span></code></a> methods.  You may override
+this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.partial">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">partial</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_num</em>, <em>message_part</em>, <em>start</em>, <em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.partial" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fetch truncated part of a message. Returned data is a tuple of message part
+envelope and data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.proxyauth">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">proxyauth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.proxyauth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assume authentication as <em>user</em>. Allows an authorised administrator to proxy
+into any user’s mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.read">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads <em>size</em> bytes from the remote server. You may override this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.readline">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">readline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.readline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads one line from the remote server. You may override this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.recent">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">recent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.recent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prompt server for an update. Returned data is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no new messages, else
+value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RECENT</span></code> response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.rename">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">rename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>oldmailbox</em>, <em>newmailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.rename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rename mailbox named <em>oldmailbox</em> to <em>newmailbox</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.response">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">response</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.response" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return data for response <em>code</em> if received, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. Returns the given
+code, instead of the usual type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.search">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">search</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>charset</em>, <em>criterion</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.search" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search mailbox for matching messages.  <em>charset</em> may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case
+no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARSET</span></code> will be specified in the request to the server.  The IMAP
+protocol requires that at least one criterion be specified; an exception will be
+raised when the server returns an error.  <em>charset</em> must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF8=ACCEPT</span></code> capability was enabled using the <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.enable" title="imaplib.IMAP4.enable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable()</span></code></a>
+command.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># M is a connected IMAP4 instance...</span>
+<span class="n">typ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msgnums</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FROM&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&quot;LDJ&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># or:</span>
+<span class="n">typ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msgnums</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(FROM &quot;LDJ&quot;)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.select">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">select</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox='INBOX'</em>, <em>readonly=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.select" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Select a mailbox. Returned data is the count of messages in <em>mailbox</em>
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXISTS</span></code> response).  The default <em>mailbox</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'INBOX'</span></code>.  If the <em>readonly</em>
+flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not allowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.send">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sends <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code> to the remote server. You may override this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.setacl">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">setacl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em>, <em>who</em>, <em>what</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.setacl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACL</span></code> for <em>mailbox</em>. The method is non-standard, but is supported by
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cyrus</span></code> server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.setannotation">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">setannotation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em>, <em>entry</em>, <em>attribute</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.setannotation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ANNOTATION</span></code>s for <em>mailbox</em>. The method is non-standard, but is
+supported by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cyrus</span></code> server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.setquota">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">setquota</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>root</em>, <em>limits</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.setquota" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quota</span></code> <em>root</em>’s resource <em>limits</em>. This method is part of the IMAP4
+QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">shutdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close connection established in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open</span></code>.  This method is implicitly
+called by <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.logout" title="imaplib.IMAP4.logout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.logout()</span></code></a>.  You may override this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.socket">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns socket instance used to connect to server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.sort">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">sort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sort_criteria</em>, <em>charset</em>, <em>search_criterion</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.sort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort</span></code> command is a variant of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search</span></code> with sorting semantics for the
+results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of matching message
+numbers.</p>
+<p>Sort has two arguments before the <em>search_criterion</em> argument(s); a
+parenthesized list of <em>sort_criteria</em>, and the searching <em>charset</em>.  Note that
+unlike <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search</span></code>, the searching <em>charset</em> argument is mandatory.  There is also
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uid</span> <span class="pre">sort</span></code> command which corresponds to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort</span></code> the way that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uid</span> <span class="pre">search</span></code>
+corresponds to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search</span></code>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort</span></code> command first searches the mailbox for
+messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset argument for
+the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then returns the
+numbers of matching messages.</p>
+<p>This is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4rev1</span></code> extension command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.starttls">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">starttls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ssl_context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.starttls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTTLS</span></code> command.  The <em>ssl_context</em> argument is optional
+and should be a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object.  This will enable
+encryption on the IMAP connection.  Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> for
+best practices.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The method now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.status">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">status</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em>, <em>names</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.status" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Request named status conditions for <em>mailbox</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.store">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">store</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_set</em>, <em>command</em>, <em>flag_list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.store" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox.  <em>command</em> is specified by
+section 6.4.6 of <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2060.html"><strong>RFC 2060</strong></a> as being one of “FLAGS”, “+FLAGS”, or “-FLAGS”,
+optionally with a suffix of “.SILENT”.</p>
+<p>For example, to set the delete flag on all messages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">typ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ALL&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">():</span>
+   <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">store</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;+FLAGS&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">Deleted&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expunge</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Creating flags containing ‘]’ (for example: “[test]”) violates
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3501.html"><strong>RFC 3501</strong></a> (the IMAP protocol).  However, imaplib has historically
+allowed creation of such tags, and popular IMAP servers, such as Gmail,
+accept and produce such flags.  There are non-Python programs which also
+create such tags.  Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and
+servers are supposed to be strict, imaplib nonetheless continues to allow
+such tags to be created for backward compatibility reasons, and as of
+Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent from the server, since this
+improves real-world compatibility.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.subscribe">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">subscribe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.subscribe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subscribe to new mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.thread">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>threading_algorithm</em>, <em>charset</em>, <em>search_criterion</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread</span></code> command is a variant of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search</span></code> with threading semantics for
+the results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of thread members.</p>
+<p>Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited by spaces,
+indicating successive parent and child.</p>
+<p>Thread has two arguments before the <em>search_criterion</em> argument(s); a
+<em>threading_algorithm</em>, and the searching <em>charset</em>.  Note that unlike
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search</span></code>, the searching <em>charset</em> argument is mandatory.  There is also a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uid</span> <span class="pre">thread</span></code> command which corresponds to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread</span></code> the way that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uid</span>
+<span class="pre">search</span></code> corresponds to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search</span></code>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread</span></code> command first searches the
+mailbox for messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset
+argument for the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria. It then
+returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified threading
+algorithm.</p>
+<p>This is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4rev1</span></code> extension command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.uid">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">uid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>command</em>, <em>arg</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.uid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than message
+number.  Returns response appropriate to command.  At least one argument must be
+supplied; if none are provided, the server will return an error and an exception
+will be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.unsubscribe">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">unsubscribe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailbox</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.unsubscribe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unsubscribe from old mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.xatom">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">xatom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.xatom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allow simple extension commands notified by server in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAPABILITY</span></code> response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attributes are defined on instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_VERSION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The most recent supported protocol in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAPABILITY</span></code> response from the
+server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.debug">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">debug</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Integer value to control debugging output.  The initialize value is taken from
+the module variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Debug</span></code>.  Values greater than three trace each command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="imaplib.IMAP4.utf8_enabled">
+<code class="descclassname">IMAP4.</code><code class="descname">utf8_enabled</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.utf8_enabled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Boolean value that is normally <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, but is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib.IMAP4.enable" title="imaplib.IMAP4.enable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable()</span></code></a> command is successfully issued for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF8=ACCEPT</span></code>
+capability.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="imap4-example">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>IMAP4 Example<a class="headerlink" href="#imap4-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox and
+retrieves and prints all messages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">getpass</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">imaplib</span>
+
+<span class="n">M</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">imaplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IMAP4</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">login</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getpass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getuser</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">getpass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpass</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">typ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ALL&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">typ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(RFC822)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Message </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logout</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code> — IMAP4 protocol client</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#imap4-objects">IMAP4 Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#imap4-example">IMAP4 Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="poplib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code> — POP3 protocol client</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="nntplib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code> — NNTP protocol client</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imghdr.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imghdr.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e70884
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imghdr.html
@@ -0,0 +1,274 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>imghdr — Determine the type of an image &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="sndhdr.html" title="sndhdr — Determine type of sound file"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="mm.html" accesskey="U">Multimedia Services</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-imghdr">
+<span id="imghdr-determine-the-type-of-an-image"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-imghdr" title="imghdr: Determine the type of image contained in a file or byte stream."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code></a> — Determine the type of an image<a class="headerlink" href="#module-imghdr" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/imghdr.py">Lib/imghdr.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-imghdr" title="imghdr: Determine the type of image contained in a file or byte stream."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code></a> module determines the type of image contained in a file or
+byte stream.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-imghdr" title="imghdr: Determine the type of image contained in a file or byte stream."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code></a> module defines the following function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imghdr.what">
+<code class="descclassname">imghdr.</code><code class="descname">what</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>h=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imghdr.what" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tests the image data contained in the file named by <em>filename</em>, and returns a
+string describing the image type.  If optional <em>h</em> is provided, the <em>filename</em>
+is ignored and <em>h</em> is assumed to contain the byte stream to test.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following image types are recognized, as listed below with the return value
+from <a class="reference internal" href="#imghdr.what" title="imghdr.what"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">what()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 26%" />
+<col style="width: 74%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Image format</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rgb'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SGI ImgLib Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gif'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>GIF 87a and 89a Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'pbm'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Portable Bitmap Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'pgm'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Portable Graymap Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ppm'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Portable Pixmap Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'tiff'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>TIFF Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rast'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Sun Raster Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xbm'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>X Bitmap Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'jpeg'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>JPEG data in JFIF or Exif formats</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'bmp'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>BMP files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'png'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Portable Network Graphics</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'webp'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>WebP files</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exr'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>OpenEXR Files</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The <em>exr</em> and <em>webp</em> formats were added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>You can extend the list of file types <a class="reference internal" href="#module-imghdr" title="imghdr: Determine the type of image contained in a file or byte stream."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code></a> can recognize by appending
+to this variable:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="imghdr.tests">
+<code class="descclassname">imghdr.</code><code class="descname">tests</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imghdr.tests" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of functions performing the individual tests.  Each function takes two
+arguments: the byte-stream and an open file-like object. When <a class="reference internal" href="#imghdr.what" title="imghdr.what"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">what()</span></code></a> is
+called with a byte-stream, the file-like object will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The test function should return a string describing the image type if the test
+succeeded, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if it failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">imghdr</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">imghdr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">what</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bass.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;gif&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="colorsys.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colorsys</span></code> — Conversions between color systems</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sndhdr.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code> — Determine type of sound file</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imp.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imp.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5196f6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/imp.html
@@ -0,0 +1,593 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>imp — Access the import internals &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="superseded.html" accesskey="U">Superseded Modules</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-imp">
+<span id="imp-access-the-import-internals"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> — Access the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#importsystem"><span class="std std-ref">import</span></a> internals<a class="headerlink" href="#module-imp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/imp.py">Lib/imp.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> package is pending deprecation in favor of <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides an interface to the mechanisms used to implement the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement.  It defines the following constants and functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.get_magic">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">get_magic</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.get_magic" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Return the magic string value used to recognize byte-compiled code files
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files).  (This value may be different for each Python version.)</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER" title="importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.get_suffixes">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">get_suffixes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.get_suffixes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of 3-element tuples, each describing a particular type of
+module. Each triple has the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(suffix,</span> <span class="pre">mode,</span> <span class="pre">type)</span></code>, where <em>suffix</em> is
+a string to be appended to the module name to form the filename to search
+for, <em>mode</em> is the mode string to pass to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function
+to open the file (this can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> for text files or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code> for binary
+files), and <em>type</em> is the file type, which has one of the values
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imp.PY_SOURCE" title="imp.PY_SOURCE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SOURCE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.PY_COMPILED" title="imp.PY_COMPILED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_COMPILED</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.C_EXTENSION" title="imp.C_EXTENSION"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C_EXTENSION</span></code></a>, described
+below.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>Use the constants defined on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib.machinery" title="importlib.machinery: Importers and path hooks"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.find_module">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">find_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>path</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.find_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to find the module <em>name</em>.  If <em>path</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the list of
+directory names given by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> is searched, but first a few special
+places are searched: the function tries to find a built-in module with the
+given name (<a class="reference internal" href="#imp.C_BUILTIN" title="imp.C_BUILTIN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C_BUILTIN</span></code></a>), then a frozen module (<a class="reference internal" href="#imp.PY_FROZEN" title="imp.PY_FROZEN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_FROZEN</span></code></a>),
+and on some systems some other places are looked in as well (on Windows, it
+looks in the registry which may point to a specific file).</p>
+<p>Otherwise, <em>path</em> must be a list of directory names; each directory is
+searched for files with any of the suffixes returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.get_suffixes" title="imp.get_suffixes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_suffixes()</span></code></a>
+above.  Invalid names in the list are silently ignored (but all list items
+must be strings).</p>
+<p>If search is successful, the return value is a 3-element tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(file,</span>
+<span class="pre">pathname,</span> <span class="pre">description)</span></code>:</p>
+<p><em>file</em> is an open <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> positioned at the beginning, <em>pathname</em>
+is the pathname of the file found, and <em>description</em> is a 3-element tuple as
+contained in the list returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.get_suffixes" title="imp.get_suffixes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_suffixes()</span></code></a> describing the kind of
+module found.</p>
+<p>If the module does not live in a file, the returned <em>file</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+<em>pathname</em> is the empty string, and the <em>description</em> tuple contains empty
+strings for its suffix and mode; the module type is indicated as given in
+parentheses above.  If the search is unsuccessful, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is
+raised.  Other exceptions indicate problems with the arguments or
+environment.</p>
+<p>If the module is a package, <em>file</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <em>pathname</em> is the package
+path and the last item in the <em>description</em> tuple is <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.PKG_DIRECTORY" title="imp.PKG_DIRECTORY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG_DIRECTORY</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This function does not handle hierarchical module names (names containing
+dots).  In order to find <em>P.M</em>, that is, submodule <em>M</em> of package <em>P</em>, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imp.find_module" title="imp.find_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.load_module" title="imp.load_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code></a> to find and load package <em>P</em>, and
+then use <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.find_module" title="imp.find_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a> with the <em>path</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P.__path__</span></code>.
+When <em>P</em> itself has a dotted name, apply this recipe recursively.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.find_spec" title="importlib.util.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.find_spec()</span></code></a> instead unless Python 3.3
+compatibility is required, in which case use
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.find_loader" title="importlib.find_loader"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.find_loader()</span></code></a>. For example usage of the former case,
+see the <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a> section of the <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>
+documentation.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.load_module">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>pathname</em>, <em>description</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a module that was previously found by <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.find_module" title="imp.find_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a> (or by an
+otherwise conducted search yielding compatible results).  This function does
+more than importing the module: if the module was already imported, it will
+reload the module!  The <em>name</em> argument indicates the full
+module name (including the package name, if this is a submodule of a
+package).  The <em>file</em> argument is an open file, and <em>pathname</em> is the
+corresponding file name; these can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, respectively, when
+the module is a package or not being loaded from a file.  The <em>description</em>
+argument is a tuple, as would be returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.get_suffixes" title="imp.get_suffixes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_suffixes()</span></code></a>, describing
+what kind of module must be loaded.</p>
+<p>If the load is successful, the return value is the module object; otherwise,
+an exception (usually <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>) is raised.</p>
+<p><strong>Important:</strong> the caller is responsible for closing the <em>file</em> argument, if
+it was not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, even when an exception is raised.  This is best done
+using a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> … <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>If previously used in conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.find_module" title="imp.find_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.find_module()</span></code></a> then
+consider using <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a>, otherwise use the loader
+returned by the replacement you chose for <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.find_module" title="imp.find_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.find_module()</span></code></a>. If you
+called <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.load_module" title="imp.load_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.load_module()</span></code></a> and related functions directly with file
+path arguments then use a combination of
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.spec_from_file_location" title="importlib.util.spec_from_file_location"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.spec_from_file_location()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.module_from_spec" title="importlib.util.module_from_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_from_spec()</span></code></a>. See the <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a>
+section of the <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> documentation for details of the various
+approaches.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.new_module">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">new_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.new_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new empty module object called <em>name</em>.  This object is <em>not</em> inserted
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.module_from_spec" title="importlib.util.module_from_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_from_spec()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.reload">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">reload</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.reload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reload a previously imported <em>module</em>.  The argument must be a module object, so
+it must have been successfully imported before.  This is useful if you have
+edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the
+new version without leaving the Python interpreter.  The return value is the
+module object (the same as the <em>module</em> argument).</p>
+<p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload(module)</span></code> is executed:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Python modules’ code is recompiled and the module-level code reexecuted,
+defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module’s
+dictionary.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> function of extension modules is not called a second
+time.</p></li>
+<li><p>As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after
+their reference counts drop to zero.</p></li>
+<li><p>The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed
+objects.</p></li>
+<li><p>Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are
+not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace
+where they occur if that is desired.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There are a number of other caveats:</p>
+<p>When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module’s global
+variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will override the old
+definitions, so this is generally not a problem.  If the new version of a module
+does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition
+remains.  This feature can be used to the module’s advantage if it maintains a
+global table or cache of objects — with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement it can test
+for the table’s presence and skip its initialization if desired:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cache</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is legal though generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
+loaded modules, except for <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>.
+In many cases, however, extension modules are not designed to be initialized
+more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.</p>
+<p>If a module imports objects from another module using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> …
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> …, calling <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.reload" title="imp.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code></a> for the other module does not
+redefine the objects imported from it — one way around this is to re-execute
+the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code> statement, another is to use <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> and qualified
+names (<em>module</em>.*name*) instead.</p>
+<p>If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines
+the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances — they
+continue to use the old class definition.  The same is true for derived classes.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Relies on both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> being defined on the module
+being reloaded instead of just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions are conveniences for handling <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> byte-compiled
+file paths.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.cache_from_source">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">cache_from_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>debug_override=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.cache_from_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> path to the byte-compiled file associated with the
+source <em>path</em>.  For example, if <em>path</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz.py</span></code> the return
+value would be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc</span></code> for Python 3.2.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cpython-32</span></code> string comes from the current magic tag (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imp.get_tag" title="imp.get_tag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_tag()</span></code></a>; if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is not defined then
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> will be raised). By passing in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for <em>debug_override</em> you can override the system’s value for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code>, leading to optimized bytecode.</p>
+<p><em>path</em> need not exist.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>If <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.cache_from_source" title="importlib.util.cache_from_source"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.cache_from_source()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>debug_override</em> parameter no longer creates a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> file.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.source_from_cache">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">source_from_cache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.source_from_cache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given the <em>path</em> to a <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> file name, return the associated source code
+file path.  For example, if <em>path</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc</span></code> the returned path would be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz.py</span></code>.  <em>path</em> need not exist, however if it does not conform
+to <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> format, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised. If
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is not defined,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> when
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is not defined.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.source_from_cache" title="importlib.util.source_from_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.source_from_cache()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.get_tag">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">get_tag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.get_tag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> magic tag string matching this version of Python’s
+magic number, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.get_magic" title="imp.get_magic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_magic()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> directly starting
+in Python 3.3.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions help interact with the import system’s internal
+locking mechanism.  Locking semantics of imports are an implementation
+detail which may vary from release to release.  However, Python ensures
+that circular imports work without any deadlocks.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.lock_held">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">lock_held</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.lock_held" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the global import lock is currently held, else
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. On platforms without threads, always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>On platforms with threads, a thread executing an import first holds a
+global import lock, then sets up a per-module lock for the rest of the
+import.  This blocks other threads from importing the same module until
+the original import completes, preventing other threads from seeing
+incomplete module objects constructed by the original thread.  An
+exception is made for circular imports, which by construction have to
+expose an incomplete module object at some point.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for
+the most part.  A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks,
+such as initializing the per-module locks.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.acquire_lock">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">acquire_lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.acquire_lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire the interpreter’s global import lock for the current thread.
+This lock should be used by import hooks to ensure thread-safety when
+importing modules.</p>
+<p>Once a thread has acquired the import lock, the same thread may acquire it
+again without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it has
+acquired it.</p>
+<p>On platforms without threads, this function does nothing.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for
+the most part.  A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks,
+such as initializing the per-module locks.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="imp.release_lock">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">release_lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.release_lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the interpreter’s global import lock. On platforms without
+threads, this function does nothing.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for
+the most part.  A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks,
+such as initializing the per-module locks.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following constants with integer values, defined in this module, are used
+to indicate the search result of <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.find_module" title="imp.find_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="imp.PY_SOURCE">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">PY_SOURCE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.PY_SOURCE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module was found as a source file.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="imp.PY_COMPILED">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">PY_COMPILED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.PY_COMPILED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module was found as a compiled code object file.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="imp.C_EXTENSION">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">C_EXTENSION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.C_EXTENSION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module was found as dynamically loadable shared library.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="imp.PKG_DIRECTORY">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">PKG_DIRECTORY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.PKG_DIRECTORY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module was found as a package directory.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="imp.C_BUILTIN">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">C_BUILTIN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.C_BUILTIN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module was found as a built-in module.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="imp.PY_FROZEN">
+<code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">PY_FROZEN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.PY_FROZEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module was found as a frozen module.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="imp.NullImporter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">imp.</code><code class="descname">NullImporter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.NullImporter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.NullImporter" title="imp.NullImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullImporter</span></code></a> type is a <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> import hook that handles
+non-directory path strings by failing to find any modules.  Calling this type
+with an existing directory or empty string raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.
+Otherwise, a <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.NullImporter" title="imp.NullImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullImporter</span></code></a> instance is returned.</p>
+<p>Instances have only one method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="imp.NullImporter.find_module">
+<code class="descname">find_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>path</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#imp.NullImporter.find_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method always returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, indicating that the requested module could
+not be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is inserted into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code> instead of an
+instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.NullImporter" title="imp.NullImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullImporter</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Insert <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="examples-imp"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following function emulates what was the standard import statement up to
+Python 1.4 (no hierarchical module names).  (This <em>implementation</em> wouldn’t work
+in that version, since <a class="reference internal" href="#imp.find_module" title="imp.find_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a> has been extended and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#imp.load_module" title="imp.load_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code></a> has been added in 1.4.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">imp</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__import__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromlist</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Fast path: see if the module has already been imported.</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># If any of the following calls raises an exception,</span>
+    <span class="c1"># there&#39;s a problem we can&#39;t handle -- let the caller handle it.</span>
+
+    <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pathname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">description</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pathname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">description</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Since we may exit via an exception, close fp explicitly.</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code> — Access the <span class="xref std std-ref">import</span> internals</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="optparse.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> — Parser for command line options</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="undoc.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Undocumented Modules</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/imp.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+         |
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+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/importlib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/importlib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e2eb96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/importlib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2105 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>importlib — The implementation of import &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
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+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="language.html" title="Python Language Services"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+
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+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-importlib">
+<span id="importlib-the-implementation-of-import"></span><h1><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> — The implementation of <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#module-importlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/importlib/__init__.py">Lib/importlib/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The purpose of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> package is two-fold. One is to provide the
+implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement (and thus, by extension, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function) in Python source code. This provides an
+implementation of <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> which is portable to any Python
+interpreter. This also provides an implementation which is easier to
+comprehend than one implemented in a programming language other than Python.</p>
+<p>Two, the components to implement <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> are exposed in this
+package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects (known
+generically as an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importer"><span class="xref std std-term">importer</span></a>) to participate in the import process.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><span class="std std-ref">The import statement</span></a></dt><dd><p>The language reference for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/">Packages specification</a></dt><dd><p>Original specification of packages. Some semantics have changed since
+the writing of this document (e.g. redirecting based on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>The <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.__import__" title="importlib.__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function</dt><dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement is syntactic sugar for this function.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0235"><strong>PEP 235</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0263"><strong>PEP 263</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Defining Python Source Code Encodings</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a></dt><dd><p>New Import Hooks</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0366"><strong>PEP 366</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Main module explicit relative imports</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Implicit namespace packages</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a></dt><dd><p>A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Elimination of PYO files</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Multi-phase extension module initialization</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0552"><strong>PEP 552</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Deterministic pycs</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3120"><strong>PEP 3120</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a></dt><dd><p>PYC Repository Directories</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<h2>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.__import__">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.</code><code class="descname">__import__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em>, <em>fromlist=()</em>, <em>level=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.__import__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An implementation of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Programmatic importing of modules should use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module()</span></code></a>
+instead of this function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.import_module">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.</code><code class="descname">import_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>package=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.import_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Import a module. The <em>name</em> argument specifies what module to
+import in absolute or relative terms
+(e.g. either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.mod</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">..mod</span></code>). If the name is
+specified in relative terms, then the <em>package</em> argument must be set to
+the name of the package which is to act as the anchor for resolving the
+package name (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module('..mod',</span> <span class="pre">'pkg.subpkg')</span></code> will import
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.mod</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module()</span></code></a> function acts as a simplifying wrapper around
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.__import__" title="importlib.__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.__import__()</span></code></a>. This means all semantics of the function are
+derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.__import__" title="importlib.__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.__import__()</span></code></a>. The most important difference
+between these two functions is that <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module()</span></code></a> returns the
+specified package or module (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.mod</span></code>), while <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>
+returns the top-level package or module (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg</span></code>).</p>
+<p>If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since the
+interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source file), you may
+need to call <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">invalidate_caches()</span></code></a> in order for the new module to be
+noticed by the import system.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Parent packages are automatically imported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.find_loader">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.</code><code class="descname">find_loader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>path=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.find_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Find the loader for a module, optionally within the specified <em>path</em>. If the
+module is in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules[name].__loader__</span></code> is
+returned (unless the loader would be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or is not set, in which case
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised). Otherwise a search using <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>
+is done. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned if no loader is found.</p>
+<p>A dotted name does not have its parents implicitly imported as that requires
+loading them and that may not be desired. To properly import a submodule you
+will need to import all parent packages of the submodule and use the correct
+argument to <em>path</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> is not set, raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>, just like when the
+attribute is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.util.find_spec" title="importlib.util.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.find_spec()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.invalidate_caches">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.</code><code class="descname">invalidate_caches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.invalidate_caches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>. If a finder implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">invalidate_caches()</span></code> then it
+will be called to perform the invalidation.  This function should be called
+if any modules are created/installed while your program is running to
+guarantee all finders will notice the new module’s existence.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.reload">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.</code><code class="descname">reload</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.reload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reload a previously imported <em>module</em>.  The argument must be a module object,
+so it must have been successfully imported before.  This is useful if you
+have edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try
+out the new version without leaving the Python interpreter.  The return value
+is the module object (which can be different if re-importing causes a
+different object to be placed in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code></a> is executed:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Python module’s code is recompiled and the module-level code re-executed,
+defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module’s
+dictionary by reusing the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> which originally loaded the
+module.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> function of extension modules is not called a second
+time.</p></li>
+<li><p>As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed
+after their reference counts drop to zero.</p></li>
+<li><p>The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or
+changed objects.</p></li>
+<li><p>Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are
+not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace
+where they occur if that is desired.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There are a number of other caveats:</p>
+<p>When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module’s global
+variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will override the old
+definitions, so this is generally not a problem.  If the new version of a
+module does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old
+definition remains.  This feature can be used to the module’s advantage if it
+maintains a global table or cache of objects — with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>
+statement it can test for the table’s presence and skip its initialization if
+desired:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cache</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically loaded
+modules.  Reloading <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> and other
+key modules is not recommended.  In many cases extension modules are not
+designed to be initialized more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways
+when reloaded.</p>
+<p>If a module imports objects from another module using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> …
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> …, calling <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code></a> for the other module does not
+redefine the objects imported from it — one way around this is to
+re-execute the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code> statement, another is to use <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code>
+and qualified names (<em>module.name</em>) instead.</p>
+<p>If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that
+defines the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances —
+they continue to use the old class definition.  The same is true for derived
+classes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> is raised when the module being reloaded lacks
+a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleSpec</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-importlib.abc">
+<span id="importlib-abc-abstract-base-classes-related-to-import"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.abc" title="importlib.abc: Abstract base classes related to import"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code></a> – Abstract base classes related to import<a class="headerlink" href="#module-importlib.abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/importlib/abc.py">Lib/importlib/abc.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.abc" title="importlib.abc: Abstract base classes related to import"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code></a> module contains all of the core abstract base classes
+used by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a>. Some subclasses of the core abstract base classes
+are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs.</p>
+<p>ABC hierarchy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">object</span>
+ <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">Finder</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">deprecated</span><span class="p">)</span>
+ <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">MetaPathFinder</span>
+ <span class="o">|</span>    <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">PathEntryFinder</span>
+ <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">Loader</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">ResourceLoader</span> <span class="o">--------+</span>
+      <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">InspectLoader</span>          <span class="o">|</span>
+           <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">ExecutionLoader</span> <span class="o">--+</span>
+                                 <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">FileLoader</span>
+                                 <span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">SourceLoader</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.Finder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">Finder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.Finder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class representing a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MetaPathFinder</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathEntryFinder</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.Finder.find_module">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">find_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.Finder.find_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method for finding a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> for the specified
+module.  Originally specified in <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>, this method was meant
+for use in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> and in the path-based import subsystem.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when called instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">MetaPathFinder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class representing a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finder</span></a>. For
+compatibility, this is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Finder" title="importlib.abc.Finder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Finder</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec">
+<code class="descname">find_spec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>target=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method for finding a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module-spec"><span class="xref std std-term">spec</span></a> for
+the specified module.  If this is a top-level import, <em>path</em> will
+be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or
+module and <em>path</em> will be the value of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a> from the
+parent package. If a spec cannot be found, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.
+When passed in, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code> is a module object that the finder may
+use to make a more educated guess about what spec to return.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module">
+<code class="descname">find_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A legacy method for finding a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> for the specified
+module.  If this is a top-level import, <em>path</em> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or module and <em>path</em>
+will be the value of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a> from the parent
+package. If a loader cannot be found, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> is defined, backwards-compatible functionality is
+provided.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when called instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>. Can use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> to provide
+functionality.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.invalidate_caches">
+<code class="descname">invalidate_caches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.invalidate_caches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal
+cache used by the finder. Used by <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.invalidate_caches()</span></code></a>
+when invalidating the caches of all finders on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when called instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">PathEntryFinder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class representing a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a>.  Though
+it bears some similarities to <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MetaPathFinder</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathEntryFinder</span></code>
+is meant for use only within the path-based import subsystem provided
+by <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathFinder</span></code>. This ABC is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Finder" title="importlib.abc.Finder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Finder</span></code></a> for
+compatibility reasons only.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec">
+<code class="descname">find_spec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>target=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method for finding a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module-spec"><span class="xref std std-term">spec</span></a> for
+the specified module.  The finder will search for the module only
+within the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry</span></a> to which it is assigned.  If a spec
+cannot be found, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.  When passed in, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code>
+is a module object that the finder may use to make a more educated
+guess about what spec to return.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader">
+<code class="descname">find_loader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A legacy method for finding a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> for the specified
+module.  Returns a 2-tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(loader,</span> <span class="pre">portion)</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">portion</span></code>
+is a sequence of file system locations contributing to part of a namespace
+package. The loader may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> while specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">portion</span></code> to
+signify the contribution of the file system locations to a namespace
+package. An empty list can be used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">portion</span></code> to signify the loader
+is not part of a namespace package. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loader</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">portion</span></code> is the empty list then no loader or location for a namespace
+package were found (i.e. failure to find anything for the module).</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> is defined then backwards-compatible functionality is
+provided.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(None,</span> <span class="pre">[])</span></code> instead of raising <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.
+Uses <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> when available to provide functionality.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module">
+<code class="descname">find_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Finder.find_module" title="importlib.abc.Finder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Finder.find_module()</span></code></a> which is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.find_loader(fullname)[0]</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches">
+<code class="descname">invalidate_caches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal
+cache used by the finder. Used by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathFinder.invalidate_caches()</span></code>
+when invalidating the caches of all cached finders.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.Loader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">Loader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.Loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a>.
+See <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> for the exact definition for a loader.</p>
+<p>Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_resource_reader(fullname)</span></code> method as specified by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Introduced the optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_resource_reader()</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module">
+<code class="descname">create_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A method that returns the module object to use when
+importing a module.  This method may return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+indicating that default module creation semantics should take place.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Starting in Python 3.6, this method will not be optional when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> is defined.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module">
+<code class="descname">exec_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method that executes the module in its own namespace
+when a module is imported or reloaded.  The module should already
+be initialized when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code> is called. When this method exists,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a> must be defined.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a> must also be defined.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module">
+<code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A legacy method for loading a module. If the module cannot be
+loaded, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is raised, otherwise the loaded module is
+returned.</p>
+<p>If the requested module already exists in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, that
+module should be used and reloaded.
+Otherwise the loader should create a new module and insert it into
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> before any loading begins, to prevent recursion
+from the import. If the loader inserted a module and the load fails, it
+must be removed by the loader from <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>; modules already
+in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> before the loader began execution should be left
+alone (see <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.util.module_for_loader" title="importlib.util.module_for_loader"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_for_loader()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>The loader should set several attributes on the module.
+(Note that some of these attributes can change when a module is
+reloaded):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The name of the module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The path to where the module data is stored (not set for built-in
+modules).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__cached__" title="__cached__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The path to where a compiled version of the module is/should be
+stored (not set when the attribute would be inappropriate).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>A list of strings specifying the search path within a
+package. This attribute is not set on modules.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The parent package for the module/package. If the module is
+top-level then it has a value of the empty string. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.util.module_for_loader" title="importlib.util.module_for_loader"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_for_loader()</span></code></a> decorator can handle the
+details for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The loader used to load the module. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.util.module_for_loader" title="importlib.util.module_for_loader"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_for_loader()</span></code></a> decorator can handle the
+details for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> is available then backwards-compatible
+functionality is provided.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> when called instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>. Functionality provided when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> is available.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The recommended API for loading a module is <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a>
+(and <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a>).  Loaders should implement
+it instead of load_module().  The import machinery takes care of
+all the other responsibilities of load_module() when exec_module()
+is implemented.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr">
+<code class="descname">module_repr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A legacy method which when implemented calculates and returns the
+given module’s repr, as a string. The module type’s default repr() will
+use the result of this method as appropriate.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Made optional instead of an abstractmethod.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The import machinery now takes care of this automatically.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ResourceReader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">ResourceReader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> to provide the ability to read
+<em>resources</em>.</p>
+<p>From the perspective of this ABC, a <em>resource</em> is a binary
+artifact that is shipped within a package. Typically this is
+something like a data file that lives next to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>
+file of the package. The purpose of this class is to help abstract
+out the accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if
+the package and its data file(s) are stored in a e.g. zip file
+versus on the file system.</p>
+<p>For any of methods of this class, a <em>resource</em> argument is
+expected to be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> which represents
+conceptually just a file name. This means that no subdirectory
+paths should be included in the <em>resource</em> argument. This is
+because the location of the package the reader is for, acts as the
+“directory”. Hence the metaphor for directories and file
+names is packages and resources, respectively. This is also why
+instances of this class are expected to directly correlate to
+a specific package (instead of potentially representing multiple
+packages or a module).</p>
+<p>Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
+provide a method called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_resource_reader(fullname)</span></code> which
+returns an object implementing this ABC’s interface. If the module
+specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>. An object compatible with this ABC should only be
+returned when the specified module is a package.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ResourceReader.open_resource">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">open_resource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.open_resource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an opened, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file-like object</span></a> for binary reading
+of the <em>resource</em>.</p>
+<p>If the resource cannot be found, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ResourceReader.resource_path">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">resource_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.resource_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the file system path to the <em>resource</em>.</p>
+<p>If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ResourceReader.is_resource">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">is_resource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.is_resource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the named <em>name</em> is considered a resource.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>name</em> does not exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">contents</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> of strings over the contents of
+the package. Do note that it is not required that all names
+returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g. it is
+acceptable to return names for which <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.is_resource" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader.is_resource"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_resource()</span></code></a> would
+be false.</p>
+<p>Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
+situations where how a package and its resources are stored
+are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
+For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
+when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
+the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
+directly.</p>
+<p>The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">ResourceLoader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> which implements the optional
+<span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> protocol for loading arbitrary resources from the storage
+back-end.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>This ABC is deprecated in favour of supporting resource loading
+through <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">get_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method to return the bytes for the data located at <em>path</em>.
+Loaders that have a file-like storage back-end
+that allows storing arbitrary data
+can implement this abstract method to give direct access
+to the data stored. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is to be raised if the <em>path</em> cannot
+be found. The <em>path</em> is expected to be constructed using a module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a> attribute or an item from a package’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.InspectLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">InspectLoader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> which implements the optional
+<span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> protocol for loaders that inspect modules.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code">
+<code class="descname">get_code</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the code object for a module, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the module does not
+have a code object (as would be the case, for example, for a built-in
+module).  Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> if loader cannot find the
+requested module.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While the method has a default implementation, it is suggested that
+it be overridden if possible for performance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged" id="index-16">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>No longer abstract and a concrete implementation is provided.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">get_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method to return the source of a module. It is returned as
+a text string using <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a>, translating all
+recognized line separators into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> characters.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if no source is available (e.g. a built-in module). Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> if the loader cannot find the module specified.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package">
+<code class="descname">is_package</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method to return a true value if the module is a package, a
+false value otherwise. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is raised if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> cannot find the module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="staticmethod">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code">
+<em class="property">static </em><code class="descname">source_to_code</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>path='&lt;string&gt;'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a code object from Python source.</p>
+<p>The <em>data</em> argument can be whatever the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function
+supports (i.e. string or bytes). The <em>path</em> argument should be
+the “path” to where the source code originated from, which can be an
+abstract concept (e.g. location in a zip file).</p>
+<p>With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module by
+running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec(code,</span> <span class="pre">module.__dict__)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Made the method static.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module">
+<code class="descname">exec_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module">
+<code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loader.load_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">ExecutionLoader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class which inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader</span></code></a> that,
+when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a script. The ABC
+represents an optional <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> protocol.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">get_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract method that is to return the value of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a> for
+the specified module. If no path is available, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+<p>If source code is available, then the method should return the path to
+the source file, regardless of whether a bytecode was used to load the
+module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.FileLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">FileLoader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class which inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceLoader</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader" title="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExecutionLoader</span></code></a>, providing concrete implementations of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceLoader.get_data()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename" title="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExecutionLoader.get_filename()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>fullname</em> argument is a fully resolved name of the module the loader is
+to handle. The <em>path</em> argument is the path to the file for the module.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.FileLoader.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the module the loader can handle.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.FileLoader.path">
+<code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Path to the file of the module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module">
+<code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls super’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_filename">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">get_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader.path" title="importlib.abc.FileLoader.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_data">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">get_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads <em>path</em> as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.abc.</code><code class="descname">SourceLoader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally bytecode)
+file loading. The class inherits from both <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceLoader</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader" title="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExecutionLoader</span></code></a>, requiring the implementation of:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceLoader.get_data()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename" title="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExecutionLoader.get_filename()</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Should only return the path to the source file; sourceless
+loading is not supported.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional bytecode
+file support. Not implementing these optional methods (or causing them to
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>) causes the loader to
+only work with source code. Implementing the methods allows the loader to
+work with source <em>and</em> bytecode files; it does not allow for <em>sourceless</em>
+loading where only bytecode is provided.  Bytecode files are an
+optimization to speed up loading by removing the parsing step of Python’s
+compiler, and so no bytecode-specific API is exposed.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats">
+<code class="descname">path_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Optional abstract method which returns a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> containing
+metadata about the specified path.  Supported dictionary keys are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mtime'</span></code> (mandatory): an integer or floating-point number
+representing the modification time of the source code;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'size'</span></code> (optional): the size in bytes of the source code.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for future
+extensions. If the path cannot be handled, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime">
+<code class="descname">path_mtime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Optional abstract method which returns the modification time for the
+specified path.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This method is deprecated in favour of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path_stats()</span></code></a>.  You don’t
+have to implement it, but it is still available for compatibility
+purposes. Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the path cannot be handled.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data">
+<code class="descname">set_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a file
+path. Any intermediate directories which do not exist are to be created
+automatically.</p>
+<p>When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only
+(<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#errno.EACCES" title="errno.EACCES"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EACCES</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a>), do not propagate the
+exception.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>No longer raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> when called.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_code">
+<code class="descname">get_code</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader.get_code()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module">
+<code class="descname">exec_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module">
+<code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loader.load_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source">
+<code class="descname">get_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader.get_source()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.is_package">
+<code class="descname">is_package</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.is_package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader.is_package()</span></code></a>. A module
+is determined to be a package if its file path (as provided by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename" title="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader.get_filename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExecutionLoader.get_filename()</span></code></a>) is a file named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> when the file extension is removed <strong>and</strong> the module name
+itself does not end in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-importlib.resources">
+<span id="importlib-resources-resources"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.resources" title="importlib.resources: Package resource reading, opening, and access"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.resources</span></code></a> – Resources<a class="headerlink" href="#module-importlib.resources" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/importlib/resources.py">Lib/importlib/resources.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>This module leverages Python’s import system to provide access to <em>resources</em>
+within <em>packages</em>.  If you can import a package, you can access resources
+within that package.  Resources can be opened or read, in either binary or
+text mode.</p>
+<p>Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it’s important
+to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor.  Resources and packages <strong>do
+not</strong> have to exist as physical files and directories on the file system.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This module provides functionality similar to <a class="reference external" href="https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html">pkg_resources</a> <a class="reference external" href="http://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access">Basic
+Resource Access</a>
+without the performance overhead of that package.  This makes reading
+resources included in packages easier, with more stable and consistent
+semantics.</p>
+<p>The standalone backport of this module provides more information
+on <a class="reference external" href="http://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html">using importlib.resources</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="http://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html">migrating from pkg_resources to importlib.resources</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_resource_reader(fullname)</span></code> method as specified by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The following types are defined.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.Package">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">Package</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.Package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> type is defined as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[str,</span> <span class="pre">ModuleType]</span></code>.  This means
+that where the function describes accepting a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code>, you can pass in
+either a string or a module.  Module objects must have a resolvable
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.submodule_search_locations</span></code> that is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.Resource">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">Resource</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.Resource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This type describes the resource names passed into the various functions
+in this package.  This is defined as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[str,</span> <span class="pre">os.PathLike]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions are available.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.open_binary">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">open_binary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em>, <em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.open_binary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open for binary reading the <em>resource</em> within <em>package</em>.</p>
+<p><em>package</em> is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> requirements.  <em>resource</em> is the name of the resource to open
+within <em>package</em>; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  This function returns a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.BinaryIO</span></code> instance, a binary I/O stream open for reading.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.open_text">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">open_text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em>, <em>resource</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.open_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open for text reading the <em>resource</em> within <em>package</em>.  By default, the
+resource is opened for reading as UTF-8.</p>
+<p><em>package</em> is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> requirements.  <em>resource</em> is the name of the resource to open
+within <em>package</em>; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em>
+have the same meaning as with built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This function returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.TextIO</span></code> instance, a text I/O stream open
+for reading.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.read_binary">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">read_binary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em>, <em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.read_binary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return the contents of the <em>resource</em> within <em>package</em> as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>package</em> is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> requirements.  <em>resource</em> is the name of the resource to open
+within <em>package</em>; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  This function returns the
+contents of the resource as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.read_text">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">read_text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em>, <em>resource</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.read_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return the contents of <em>resource</em> within <em>package</em> as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>.
+By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.</p>
+<p><em>package</em> is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> requirements.  <em>resource</em> is the name of the resource to open
+within <em>package</em>; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).  <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em>
+have the same meaning as with built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.  This function
+returns the contents of the resource as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.path">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em>, <em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the path to the <em>resource</em> as an actual file system path.  This
+function returns a context manager for use in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.
+The context manager provides a <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.Path</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file created when the
+resource needs to be extracted from e.g. a zip file.</p>
+<p><em>package</em> is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> requirements.  <em>resource</em> is the name of the resource to open
+within <em>package</em>; it may not contain path separators and it may not have
+sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.is_resource">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">is_resource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.is_resource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if there is a resource named <em>name</em> in the package,
+otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  Remember that directories are <em>not</em> resources!
+<em>package</em> is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> requirements.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.resources.contents">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.resources.</code><code class="descname">contents</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.resources.contents" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterable over the named items within the package.  The iterable
+returns <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> resources (e.g. files) and non-resources
+(e.g. directories).  The iterable does not recurse into subdirectories.</p>
+<p><em>package</em> is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Package</span></code> requirements.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-importlib.machinery">
+<span id="importlib-machinery-importers-and-path-hooks"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.machinery" title="importlib.machinery: Importers and path hooks"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery</span></code></a> – Importers and path hooks<a class="headerlink" href="#module-importlib.machinery" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/importlib/machinery.py">Lib/importlib/machinery.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module contains the various objects that help <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a>
+find and load modules.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">SOURCE_SUFFIXES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for source
+modules.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized bytecode
+modules.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.5: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES" title="importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BYTECODE_SUFFIXES</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized bytecode
+modules.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.5: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES" title="importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BYTECODE_SUFFIXES</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">BYTECODE_SUFFIXES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for bytecode
+modules (including the leading dot).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The value is no longer dependent on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">EXTENSION_SUFFIXES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
+extension modules.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.all_suffixes">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">all_suffixes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.all_suffixes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes for
+modules recognized by the standard import machinery. This is a
+helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path
+potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the kind
+of module (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.getmodulename" title="inspect.getmodulename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getmodulename()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">BuiltinImporter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importer"><span class="xref std std-term">importer</span></a> for built-in modules. All known built-in modules are
+listed in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.builtin_module_names" title="sys.builtin_module_names"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.builtin_module_names</span></code></a>. This class implements the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.InspectLoader</span></code></a> ABCs.</p>
+<p>Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+instantiation.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>As part of <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a>, the builtin importer now implements
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loader.create_module()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loader.exec_module()</span></code></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">FrozenImporter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importer"><span class="xref std std-term">importer</span></a> for frozen modules. This class implements the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.InspectLoader</span></code></a> ABCs.</p>
+<p>Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+instantiation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">WindowsRegistryFinder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">Finder</span></a> for modules declared in the Windows registry.  This class
+implements the <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder</span></code></a> ABC.</p>
+<p>Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+instantiation.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> configuration instead. Future versions of Python may
+not enable this finder by default.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.PathFinder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">PathFinder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.PathFinder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">Finder</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> and package <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attributes.
+This class implements the <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder</span></code></a> ABC.</p>
+<p>Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for
+instantiation.</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">find_spec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path=None</em>, <em>target=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class method that attempts to find a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module-spec"><span class="xref std std-term">spec</span></a>
+for the module specified by <em>fullname</em> on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> or, if
+defined, on <em>path</em>. For each path entry that is searched,
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> is checked. If a non-false object
+is found then it is used as the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a> to look
+for the module being searched for. If no entry is found in
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>, then <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> is
+searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored
+in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> along with being queried about
+the module. If no finder is ever found then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is both
+stored in the cache and returned.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the current working directory – represented by an empty string –
+is no longer valid then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned but no value is cached
+in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">find_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A legacy wrapper around <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">invalidate_caches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches()</span></code></a> on all
+finders stored in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> that define the method.
+Otherwise entries in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> are
+deleted.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Entries of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> are deleted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Calls objects in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> with the current working
+directory for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> (i.e. the empty string).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.FileFinder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">FileFinder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*loader_details</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder</span></code></a> which
+caches results from the file system.</p>
+<p>The <em>path</em> argument is the directory for which the finder is in charge of
+searching.</p>
+<p>The <em>loader_details</em> argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples each
+containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader recognizes.
+The loaders are expected to be callables which accept two arguments of
+the module’s name and the path to the file found.</p>
+<p>The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making stat calls
+for each module search to verify the cache is not outdated. Because cache
+staleness relies upon the granularity of the operating system’s state
+information of the file system, there is a potential race condition of
+searching for a module, creating a new file, and then searching for the
+module the new file represents. If the operations happen fast enough to fit
+within the granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail. To
+prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically, make sure
+to call <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.invalidate_caches()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path">
+<code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The path the finder will search in.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_spec">
+<code class="descname">find_spec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>target=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attempt to find the spec to handle <em>fullname</em> within <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path" title="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader">
+<code class="descname">find_loader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attempt to find the loader to handle <em>fullname</em> within <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path" title="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.invalidate_caches">
+<code class="descname">invalidate_caches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.invalidate_caches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear out the internal cache.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path_hook">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">path_hook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*loader_details</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.path_hook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class method which returns a closure for use on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a>.
+An instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.FileFinder" title="importlib.machinery.FileFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileFinder</span></code></a> is returned by the closure using the
+path argument given to the closure directly and <em>loader_details</em>
+indirectly.</p>
+<p>If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">SourceFileLoader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader</span></code></a> by
+subclassing <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader" title="importlib.abc.FileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.FileLoader</span></code></a> and providing some concrete
+implementations of other methods.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the module that this loader will handle.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path">
+<code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The path to the source file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.is_package">
+<code class="descname">is_package</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.is_package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path" title="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a> appears to be for a package.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path_stats">
+<code class="descname">path_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.path_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.set_data">
+<code class="descname">set_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.set_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module">
+<code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a> where
+specifying the name of the module to load is optional.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">SourcelessFileLoader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.FileLoader" title="importlib.abc.FileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.FileLoader</span></code></a> which can
+import bytecode files (i.e. no source code files exist).</p>
+<p>Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source code
+files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python
+implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode
+format.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the module the loader will handle.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path">
+<code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The path to the bytecode file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.is_package">
+<code class="descname">is_package</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.is_package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determines if the module is a package based on <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path" title="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_code">
+<code class="descname">get_code</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the code object for <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.name" title="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> created from <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path" title="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_source">
+<code class="descname">get_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.get_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as bytecode files have no source when this loader is
+used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module">
+<code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a> where
+specifying the name of the module to load is optional.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">ExtensionFileLoader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader" title="importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader</span></code></a> for
+extension modules.</p>
+<p>The <em>fullname</em> argument specifies the name of the module the loader is to
+support. The <em>path</em> argument is the path to the extension module’s file.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the module the loader supports.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.path">
+<code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Path to the extension module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.create_module">
+<code class="descname">create_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.create_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates the module object from the given specification in accordance
+with <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.exec_module">
+<code class="descname">exec_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.exec_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initializes the given module object in accordance with <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.is_package">
+<code class="descname">is_package</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.is_package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the file path points to a package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code>
+module based on <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES" title="importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXTENSION_SUFFIXES</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_code">
+<code class="descname">get_code</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as extension modules lack a code object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_source">
+<code class="descname">get_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as extension modules do not have source code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_filename">
+<code class="descname">get_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.path" title="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.machinery.</code><code class="descname">ModuleSpec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>loader</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>origin=None</em>, <em>loader_state=None</em>, <em>is_package=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A specification for a module’s import-system-related state.  This is
+typically exposed as the module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> attribute.  In the
+descriptions below, the names in parentheses give the corresponding
+attribute available directly on the module object.
+E.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.__spec__.origin</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">module.__file__</span></code>.  Note however that
+while the <em>values</em> are usually equivalent, they can differ since there is
+no synchronization between the two objects.  Thus it is possible to update
+the module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> at runtime, and this will not be automatically
+reflected in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.submodule_search_locations</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>)</p>
+<p>A string for the fully-qualified name of the module.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader">
+<code class="descname">loader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code>)</p>
+<p>The loader to use for loading.  For namespace packages this should be
+set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.origin">
+<code class="descname">origin</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.origin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code>)</p>
+<p>Name of the place from which the module is loaded, e.g. “builtin” for
+built-in modules and the filename for modules loaded from source.
+Normally “origin” should be set, but it may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default)
+which indicates it is unspecified (e.g. for namespace packages).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.submodule_search_locations">
+<code class="descname">submodule_search_locations</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.submodule_search_locations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>)</p>
+<p>List of strings for where to find submodules, if a package (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+otherwise).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader_state">
+<code class="descname">loader_state</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader_state" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Container of extra module-specific data for use during loading (or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.cached">
+<code class="descname">cached</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.cached" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>)</p>
+<p>String for where the compiled module should be stored (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent">
+<code class="descname">parent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code>)</p>
+<p>(Read-only) Fully-qualified name of the package to which the module
+belongs as a submodule (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.has_location">
+<code class="descname">has_location</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.has_location" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Boolean indicating whether or not the module’s “origin”
+attribute refers to a loadable location.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-importlib.util">
+<span id="importlib-util-utility-code-for-importers"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.util" title="importlib.util: Utility code for importers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util</span></code></a> – Utility code for importers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-importlib.util" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/importlib/util.py">Lib/importlib/util.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module contains the various objects that help in the construction of
+an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importer"><span class="xref std std-term">importer</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">MAGIC_NUMBER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The bytes which represent the bytecode version number. If you need help with
+loading/writing bytecode then consider <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.SourceLoader" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.cache_from_source">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">cache_from_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>debug_override=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>optimization=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.cache_from_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a>/<span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a> path to the byte-compiled file associated
+with the source <em>path</em>.  For example, if <em>path</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz.py</span></code> the return
+value would be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc</span></code> for Python 3.2.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cpython-32</span></code> string comes from the current magic tag (see
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_tag()</span></code>; if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is not defined then
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> will be raised).</p>
+<p>The <em>optimization</em> parameter is used to specify the optimization level of the
+bytecode file. An empty string represents no optimization, so
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz.py</span></code> with an <em>optimization</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> will result in a
+bytecode path of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc</span></code>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> causes
+the interpter’s optimization level to be used. Any other value’s string
+representation being used, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz.py</span></code> with an <em>optimization</em> of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> will lead to the bytecode path of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc</span></code>. The string representation
+of <em>optimization</em> can only be alphanumeric, else <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>The <em>debug_override</em> parameter is deprecated and can be used to override
+the system’s value for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code>. A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> value is the equivalent of
+setting <em>optimization</em> to the empty string. A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> value is the same as
+setting <em>optimization</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>. If both <em>debug_override</em> an <em>optimization</em>
+are not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>optimization</em> parameter was added and the <em>debug_override</em> parameter
+was deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.source_from_cache">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">source_from_cache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.source_from_cache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given the <em>path</em> to a <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> file name, return the associated source code
+file path.  For example, if <em>path</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc</span></code> the returned path would be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz.py</span></code>.  <em>path</em> need not exist, however if it does not conform
+to <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> or <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a> format, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised. If
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is not defined,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.decode_source">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">decode_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source_bytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.decode_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a string
+with universal newlines (as required by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.resolve_name">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">resolve_name</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>package</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.resolve_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one.</p>
+<p>If  <strong>name</strong> has no leading dots, then <strong>name</strong> is simply returned. This
+allows for usage such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.resolve_name('sys',</span> <span class="pre">__package__)</span></code> without doing a
+check to see if the <strong>package</strong> argument is needed.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if <strong>name</strong> is a relative module name but
+package is a false value (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or the empty string).
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is also raised a relative name would escape its containing
+package (e.g. requesting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">..bacon</span></code> from within the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> package).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.find_spec">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">find_spec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>package=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.find_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Find the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module-spec"><span class="xref std std-term">spec</span></a> for a module, optionally relative to
+the specified <strong>package</strong> name. If the module is in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>,
+then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules[name].__spec__</span></code> is returned (unless the spec would be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or is not set, in which case <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised).
+Otherwise a search using <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> is done. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is
+returned if no spec is found.</p>
+<p>If <strong>name</strong> is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is
+automatically imported.</p>
+<p><strong>name</strong> and <strong>package</strong> work the same as for <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> if
+<strong>package</strong> is in fact not a package (i.e. lacks a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a>
+attribute).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.module_from_spec">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">module_from_spec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.module_from_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new module based on <strong>spec</strong> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec.loader.create_module</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec.loader.create_module</span></code></a>
+does not return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset.
+Also, no <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> will be raised if triggered while accessing
+<strong>spec</strong> or setting an attribute on the module.</p>
+<p>This function is preferred over using <a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.ModuleType" title="types.ModuleType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.ModuleType</span></code></a> to create a
+new module as <strong>spec</strong> is used to set as many import-controlled attributes on
+the module as possible.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.module_for_loader">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">module_for_loader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.module_for_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a>
+to handle selecting the proper
+module object to load with. The decorated method is expected to have a call
+signature taking two positional arguments
+(e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module(self,</span> <span class="pre">module)</span></code>) for which the second argument
+will be the module <strong>object</strong> to be used by the loader.
+Note that the decorator will not work on static methods because of the
+assumption of two arguments.</p>
+<p>The decorated method will take in the <strong>name</strong> of the module to be loaded
+as expected for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a>. If the module is not found in
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> then a new one is constructed. Regardless of where the
+module came from, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a> set to <strong>self</strong> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a>
+is set based on what <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package()</span></code></a> returns
+(if available). These attributes are set unconditionally to support
+reloading.</p>
+<p>If an exception is raised by the decorated method and a module was added to
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, then the module will be removed to prevent a partially
+initialized module from being in left in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>. If the module
+was already in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> then it is left alone.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a> are automatically set
+(when possible).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Set <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a>
+unconditionally to support reloading.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The import machinery now directly performs all the functionality
+provided by this function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.set_loader">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">set_loader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.set_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a>
+to set the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a>
+attribute on the returned module. If the attribute is already set the
+decorator does nothing. It is assumed that the first positional argument to
+the wrapped method (i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>) is what <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a> should be set
+to.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> if set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, as if the attribute does not
+exist.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The import machinery takes care of this automatically.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.set_package">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">set_package</code><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.set_package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a> to set the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a> attribute on the returned module. If <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a>
+is set and has a value other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> it will not be changed.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The import machinery takes care of this automatically.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.spec_from_loader">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">spec_from_loader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>loader</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>origin=None</em>, <em>is_package=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.spec_from_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A factory function for creating a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleSpec</span></code> instance based
+on a loader.  The parameters have the same meaning as they do for
+ModuleSpec.  The function uses available <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> APIs, such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader.is_package()</span></code>, to fill in any missing
+information on the spec.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.spec_from_file_location">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">spec_from_file_location</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>location</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>loader=None</em>, <em>submodule_search_locations=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.spec_from_file_location" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A factory function for creating a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleSpec</span></code> instance based
+on the path to a file.  Missing information will be filled in on the
+spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication that the
+module will be file-based.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="importlib.util.source_hash">
+<code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">source_hash</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source_bytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.source_hash" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hash of <em>source_bytes</em> as bytes. A hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file embeds
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.util.source_hash" title="importlib.util.source_hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source_hash()</span></code></a> of the corresponding source file’s contents in its
+header.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="importlib.util.LazyLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">importlib.util.</code><code class="descname">LazyLoader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loader</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.LazyLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module until the
+module has an attribute accessed.</p>
+<p>This class <strong>only</strong> works with loaders that define
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> as control over what module type
+is used for the module is required. For those same reasons, the loader’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a> method must return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a
+type for which its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> attribute can be mutated along with not
+using <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-slots"><span class="xref std std-term">slots</span></a>. Finally, modules which substitute the object
+placed into <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> will not work as there is no way to properly
+replace the module references throughout the interpreter safely;
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if such a substitution is detected.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For projects where startup time is critical, this class allows for
+potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module if it is never used.
+For projects where startup time is not essential then use of this class is
+<strong>heavily</strong> discouraged due to error messages created during loading being
+postponed and thus occurring out of context.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Began calling <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a>, removing the
+compatibility warning for <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter" title="importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader" title="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">factory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>loader</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A static method which returns a callable that creates a lazy loader. This
+is meant to be used in situations where the loader is passed by class
+instead of by instance.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">suffixes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">machinery</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOURCE_SUFFIXES</span>
+<span class="n">loader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">machinery</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SourceFileLoader</span>
+<span class="n">lazy_loader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">util</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LazyLoader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">finder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">machinery</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileFinder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lazy_loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">suffixes</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="importlib-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="importing-programmatically">
+<h3>Importing programmatically<a class="headerlink" href="#importing-programmatically" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To programmatically import a module, use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span>
+
+<span class="n">itertools</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">import_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;itertools&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported">
+<h3>Checking if a module can be imported<a class="headerlink" href="#checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually doing the
+import, then you should use <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.util.find_spec" title="importlib.util.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.find_spec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">importlib.util</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># For illustrative purposes.</span>
+<span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;itertools&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="n">spec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">util</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find_spec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">spec</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;can&#39;t find the itertools module&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># If you chose to perform the actual import ...</span>
+    <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">util</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module_from_spec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exec_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Adding the module to sys.modules is optional.</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">module</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="importing-a-source-file-directly">
+<h3>Importing a source file directly<a class="headerlink" href="#importing-a-source-file-directly" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To import a Python source file directly, use the following recipe
+(Python 3.5 and newer only):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">importlib.util</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># For illustrative purposes.</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tokenize</span>
+<span class="n">file_path</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tokenize</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__file__</span>
+<span class="n">module_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tokenize</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+
+<span class="n">spec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">util</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spec_from_file_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file_path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">util</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module_from_spec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exec_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># Optional; only necessary if you want to be able to import the module</span>
+<span class="c1"># by name later.</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">module_name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">module</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="setting-up-an-importer">
+<h3>Setting up an importer<a class="headerlink" href="#setting-up-an-importer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importer"><span class="xref std std-term">importer</span></a>. This means managing both the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a>
+side of things. For finders there are two flavours to choose from depending on
+your needs: a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finder</span></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a>. The
+former is what you would put on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> while the latter is what
+you create using a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-hook"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry hook</span></a> on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> which works
+with <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> entries to potentially create a finder. This example will
+show you how to register your own importers so that import will use them (for
+creating an importer for yourself, read the documentation for the appropriate
+classes defined within this package):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">importlib.machinery</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># For illustrative purposes only.</span>
+<span class="n">SpamMetaPathFinder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">machinery</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PathFinder</span>
+<span class="n">SpamPathEntryFinder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">machinery</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FileFinder</span>
+<span class="n">loader_details</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">machinery</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SourceFileLoader</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">machinery</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOURCE_SUFFIXES</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Setting up a meta path finder.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of</span>
+<span class="c1"># priority.</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meta_path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SpamMetaPathFinder</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Setting up a path entry finder.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms</span>
+<span class="c1"># of priority.</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path_hooks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SpamPathEntryFinder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path_hook</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loader_details</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="approximating-importlib-import-module">
+<h3>Approximating <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#approximating-importlib-import-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to
+expose most of the import machinery through importlib. The following
+helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an
+approximate implementation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> (Python 3.4 and newer for the importlib usage,
+Python 3.6 and newer for other parts of the code).</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">importlib.util</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">import_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">package</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;An approximate implementation of import.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">absolute_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">util</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resolve_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">package</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">absolute_name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+    <span class="n">path</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">absolute_name</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">parent_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">absolute_name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rpartition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parent_module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">import_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parent_name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">path</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parent_module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__spec__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submodule_search_locations</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">finder</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meta_path</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">spec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">finder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find_spec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">absolute_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">spec</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;No module named </span><span class="si">{absolute_name!r}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">ModuleNotFoundError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">absolute_name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">util</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module_from_spec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exec_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">absolute_name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">module</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">path</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parent_module</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">module</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> — The implementation of <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.abc"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code> – Abstract base classes related to import</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.resources"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.resources</span></code> – Resources</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.machinery"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery</span></code> – Importers and path hooks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-importlib.util"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util</span></code> – Utility code for importers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importing-programmatically">Importing programmatically</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported">Checking if a module can be imported</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importing-a-source-file-directly">Importing a source file directly</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#setting-up-an-importer">Setting up an importer</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#approximating-importlib-import-module">Approximating <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="runpy.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code> — Locating and executing Python modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="language.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Python Language Services</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+
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+
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+    <title>The Python Standard Library &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="the-python-standard-library">
+<span id="library-index"></span><h1>The Python Standard Library<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-standard-library" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>While <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/index.html#reference-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Language Reference</span></a> describes the exact syntax and
+semantics of the Python language, this library reference manual
+describes the standard library that is distributed with Python. It also
+describes some of the optional components that are commonly included
+in Python distributions.</p>
+<p>Python’s standard library is very extensive, offering a wide range of
+facilities as indicated by the long table of contents listed below. The
+library contains built-in modules (written in C) that provide access to
+system functionality such as file I/O that would otherwise be
+inaccessible to Python programmers, as well as modules written in Python
+that provide standardized solutions for many problems that occur in
+everyday programming. Some of these modules are explicitly designed to
+encourage and enhance the portability of Python programs by abstracting
+away platform-specifics into platform-neutral APIs.</p>
+<p>The Python installers for the Windows platform usually include
+the entire standard library and often also include many additional
+components. For Unix-like operating systems Python is normally provided
+as a collection of packages, so it may be necessary to use the packaging
+tools provided with the operating system to obtain some or all of the
+optional components.</p>
+<p>In addition to the standard library, there is a growing collection of
+several thousand components (from individual programs and modules to
+packages and entire application development frameworks), available from
+the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">Python Package Index</a>.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#notes-on-availability">Notes on availability</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html">Built-in Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html">Built-in Constants</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#constants-added-by-the-site-module">Constants added by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html">Built-in Types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#truth-value-testing">Truth Value Testing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#boolean-operations-and-or-not">Boolean Operations — <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#numeric-types-int-float-complex">Numeric Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator-types">Iterator Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#sequence-types-list-tuple-range">Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#text-sequence-type-str">Text Sequence Type — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview">Binary Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set-types-set-frozenset">Set Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#mapping-types-dict">Mapping Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#context-manager-types">Context Manager Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#other-built-in-types">Other Built-in Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#special-attributes">Special Attributes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html">Built-in Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#base-classes">Base classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#concrete-exceptions">Concrete exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#warnings">Warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exception-hierarchy">Exception hierarchy</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="text.html">Text Processing Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code> — Common string operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code> — Regular expression operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code> — Helpers for computing deltas</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="textwrap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code> — Text wrapping and filling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unicodedata.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code> — Unicode Database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stringprep.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code> — Internet String Preparation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="readline.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code> — GNU readline interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="rlcompleter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code> — Completion function for GNU readline</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="binary.html">Binary Data Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="struct.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code> — Interpret bytes as packed binary data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code> — Codec registry and base classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="datatypes.html">Data Types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code> — Basic date and time types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code> — General calendar-related functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code> — Container datatypes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes for Containers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code> — Heap queue algorithm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bisect.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code> — Array bisection algorithm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="array.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code> — Efficient arrays of numeric values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code> — Weak references</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="types.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code> — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="copy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code> — Shallow and deep copy operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pprint.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code> — Data pretty printer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="reprlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code> — Alternate <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> implementation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code> — Support for enumerations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="numeric.html">Numeric and Mathematical Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code> — Numeric abstract base classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code> — Mathematical functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code> — Mathematical functions for complex numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code> — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code> — Rational numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code> — Generate pseudo-random numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="statistics.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code> — Mathematical statistics functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="functional.html">Functional Programming Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code> — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="functools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code> — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="operator.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code> — Standard operators as functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="filesys.html">File and Directory Access</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code> — Object-oriented filesystem paths</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code> — Common pathname manipulations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="fileinput.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code> — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code> — Interpreting <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> results</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="filecmp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code> — File and Directory Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code> — Generate temporary files and directories</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="glob.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code> — Unix style pathname pattern expansion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch</span></code> — Unix filename pattern matching</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="linecache.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code> — Random access to text lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code> — High-level file operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="macpath.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macpath</span></code> — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="persistence.html">Data Persistence</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> — Python object serialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code> — Register <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> support functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code> — Python object persistence</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code> — Internal Python object serialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code> — Interfaces to Unix “databases”</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="archiving.html">Data Compression and Archiving</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code> — Compression compatible with <strong class="program">gzip</strong></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">gzip</strong> files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">bzip2</strong> compression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code> — Compression using the LZMA algorithm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code> — Work with ZIP archives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tarfile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code> — Read and write tar archive files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="fileformats.html">File Formats</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="csv.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code> — CSV File Reading and Writing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code> — Configuration file parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="netrc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code> — netrc file processing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xdrlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code> — Encode and decode XDR data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="plistlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code> — Generate and parse Mac OS X <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.plist</span></code> files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="crypto.html">Cryptographic Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="hashlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code> — Secure hashes and message digests</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code> — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="secrets.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code> — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="allos.html">Generic Operating System Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code> — Core tools for working with streams</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> — Time access and conversions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="getopt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code> — C-style parser for command line options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> — Logging facility for Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code> — Logging configuration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code> — Logging handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="getpass.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code> — Portable password input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.html#module-curses.textpad"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code> — Text input widget for curses programs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.ascii.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.ascii</span></code> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code> — A panel stack extension for curses</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code> —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errno.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> — Standard errno system symbols</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> — A foreign function library for Python</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="concurrency.html">Concurrent Execution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="threading.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> — Thread-based parallelism</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> — Process-based parallelism</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.html">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent</span></code> package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> — Launching parallel tasks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> — Subprocess management</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sched.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code> — Event scheduler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="queue.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code> — A synchronized queue class</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code> — Low-level threading API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="_dummy_thread.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dummy_thread</span></code> — Drop-in replacement for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dummy_threading.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code> — Drop-in replacement for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code> — Context Variables</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#context-variables">Context Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#manual-context-management">Manual Context Management</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="contextvars.html#asyncio-support">asyncio support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ipc.html">Networking and Interprocess Communication</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> — Asynchronous I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code> — Low-level networking interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="select.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> — Waiting for I/O completion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code> — High-level I/O multiplexing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code> — Asynchronous socket handler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="asynchat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code> — Asynchronous socket command/response handler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="signal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code> — Set handlers for asynchronous events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mmap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code> — Memory-mapped file support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="netdata.html">Internet Data Handling</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code> — JSON encoder and decoder</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mailcap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailcap</span></code> — Mailcap file handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code> — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mimetypes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code> — Map filenames to MIME types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="base64.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code> — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="binhex.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code> — Encode and decode binhex4 files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code> — Convert between binary and ASCII</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="quopri.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri</span></code> — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="uu.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code> — Encode and decode uuencode files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="markup.html">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="html.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code> — HyperText Markup Language support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="html.parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code> — Simple HTML and XHTML parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="html.entities.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code> — Definitions of HTML general entities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.html">XML Processing Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code> — The ElementTree XML API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code> — The Document Object Model API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code> — Minimal DOM implementation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.pulldom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code> — Support for building partial DOM trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code> — Support for SAX2 parsers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code> — Base classes for SAX handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.utils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.saxutils</span></code> — SAX Utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code> — Interface for XML parsers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code> — Fast XML parsing using Expat</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="internet.html">Internet Protocols and Support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="webbrowser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code> — Convenient Web-browser controller</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code> — Common Gateway Interface support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgitb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code> — Traceback manager for CGI scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code> — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code> — URL handling modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> — Extensible library for opening URLs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.response"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code> — Response classes used by urllib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code> — Parse URLs into components</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code> — Exception classes raised by urllib.request</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.robotparser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.robotparser</span></code> —  Parser for robots.txt</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code> — HTTP modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code> — HTTP protocol client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ftplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code> — FTP protocol client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="poplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code> — POP3 protocol client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="imaplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code> — IMAP4 protocol client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code> — NNTP protocol client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code> — SMTP protocol client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code> — SMTP Server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="telnetlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnetlib</span></code> — Telnet client</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="uuid.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code> — UUID objects according to <strong>RFC 4122</strong></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code> — A framework for network servers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.server.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code> — HTTP servers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code> — HTTP state management</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code> — Cookie handling for HTTP clients</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc</span></code> — XMLRPC server and client modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code> — XML-RPC client access</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code> — Basic XML-RPC servers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code> — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="mm.html">Multimedia Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="audioop.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code> — Manipulate raw audio data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="aifc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code> — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sunau.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code> — Read and write Sun AU files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wave.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code> — Read and write WAV files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="chunk.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chunk</span></code> — Read IFF chunked data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="colorsys.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colorsys</span></code> — Conversions between color systems</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="imghdr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code> — Determine the type of an image</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sndhdr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code> — Determine type of sound file</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ossaudiodev.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code> — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="i18n.html">Internationalization</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code> — Multilingual internationalization services</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="locale.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code> — Internationalization services</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="frameworks.html">Program Frameworks</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="turtle.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code> — Turtle graphics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code> — Support for line-oriented command interpreters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code> — Simple lexical analysis</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tk.html">Graphical User Interfaces with Tk</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code> — Python interface to Tcl/Tk</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code> — Tk themed widgets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.tix.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code> — Extension widgets for Tk</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.scrolledtext.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.scrolledtext</span></code> — Scrolled Text Widget</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="idle.html">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="othergui.html">Other Graphical User Interface Packages</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="development.html">Development Tools</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> — Support for type hints</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pydoc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code> — Documentation generator and online help system</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code> — Test interactive Python examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code> — Unit testing framework</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code> — mock object library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock-examples.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code> — getting started</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2to3.html">2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="test.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> — Regression tests package for Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test.support"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code> — Utilities for the Python test suite</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test.support.script_helper"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support.script_helper</span></code> — Utilities for the Python execution tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="debug.html">Debugging and Profiling</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="bdb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code> — Debugger framework</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="faulthandler.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> — Dump the Python traceback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code> — The Python Debugger</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="profile.html">The Python Profilers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="timeit.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code> — Measure execution time of small code snippets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="trace.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code> — Trace or track Python statement execution</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tracemalloc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> — Trace memory allocations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="distribution.html">Software Packaging and Distribution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="distutils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code> — Building and installing Python modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ensurepip.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code> — Bootstrapping the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> installer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> — Creation of virtual environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipapp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code> — Manage executable Python zip archives</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="python.html">Python Runtime Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code> — System-specific parameters and functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sysconfig.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> — Provide access to Python’s configuration information</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code> — Built-in objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> — Top-level script environment</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code> — Warning control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses</span></code> — Data Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code> — Utilities for <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>-statement contexts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="abc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="atexit.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> — Exit handlers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code> — Print or retrieve a stack traceback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="__future__.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> — Future statement definitions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="gc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code> — Garbage Collector interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code> — Inspect live objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="site.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> — Site-specific configuration hook</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="custominterp.html">Custom Python Interpreters</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="code.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code> — Interpreter base classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="codeop.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codeop</span></code> — Compile Python code</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html">Importing Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipimport.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code> — Import modules from Zip archives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pkgutil.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code> — Package extension utility</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modulefinder.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulefinder</span></code> — Find modules used by a script</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="runpy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code> — Locating and executing Python modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> — The implementation of <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="language.html">Python Language Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> — Access Python parse trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ast.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> — Abstract Syntax Trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="symtable.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symtable</span></code> — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="symbol.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symbol</span></code> — Constants used with Python parse trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="token.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code> — Constants used with Python parse trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="keyword.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword</span></code> — Testing for Python keywords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code> — Tokenizer for Python source</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tabnanny.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabnanny</span></code> — Detection of ambiguous indentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyclbr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code> — Python class browser support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="py_compile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code> — Compile Python source files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compileall.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code> — Byte-compile Python libraries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dis.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code> — Disassembler for Python bytecode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code> — Tools for pickle developers</a></li>
+</ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="formatter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> — Generic output formatting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html">MS Windows Specific Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code> — Read and write Microsoft Installer files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msvcrt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code> — Windows registry access</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="winsound.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winsound</span></code> — Sound-playing interface for Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html">Unix Specific Services</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="posix.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code> — The most common POSIX system calls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pwd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code> — The password database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="spwd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code> — The shadow password database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="grp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code> — The group database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code> — Function to check Unix passwords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="termios.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code> — POSIX style tty control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tty.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code> — Terminal control functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pty.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code> — Pseudo-terminal utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="fcntl.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> — The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl</span></code> system calls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pipes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code> — Interface to shell pipelines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="resource.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code> — Resource usage information</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="nis.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code> — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="syslog.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code> — Unix syslog library routines</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="superseded.html">Superseded Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> — Parser for command line options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="imp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code> — Access the <span class="xref std std-ref">import</span> internals</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="undoc.html">Undocumented Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="undoc.html#platform-specific-modules">Platform specific modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/inspect.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/inspect.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c0839f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/inspect.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1801 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>inspect — Inspect live objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="site — Site-specific configuration hook" href="site.html" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+      }
+    </style>
+ 
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+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-inspect">
+<span id="inspect-inspect-live-objects"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> — Inspect live objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/inspect.py">Lib/inspect.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module provides several useful functions to help get
+information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions,
+tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects.  For example, it can help you
+examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract
+and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need
+to display a detailed traceback.</p>
+<p>There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking,
+getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the
+interpreter stack.</p>
+<div class="section" id="types-and-members">
+<span id="inspect-types"></span><h2>Types and members<a class="headerlink" href="#types-and-members" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmembers()</span></code></a> function retrieves the members of an object such as a
+class or module. The functions whose names begin with “is” are mainly
+provided as convenient choices for the second argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmembers()</span></code></a>.
+They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special
+attributes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+<col style="width: 47%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>module</p></td>
+<td><p>__doc__</p></td>
+<td><p>documentation string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__file__</p></td>
+<td><p>filename (missing for
+built-in modules)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>class</p></td>
+<td><p>__doc__</p></td>
+<td><p>documentation string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__name__</p></td>
+<td><p>name with which this
+class was defined</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__qualname__</p></td>
+<td><p>qualified name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__module__</p></td>
+<td><p>name of module in which
+this class was defined</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>method</p></td>
+<td><p>__doc__</p></td>
+<td><p>documentation string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__name__</p></td>
+<td><p>name with which this
+method was defined</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__qualname__</p></td>
+<td><p>qualified name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__func__</p></td>
+<td><p>function object
+containing implementation
+of method</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__self__</p></td>
+<td><p>instance to which this
+method is bound, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>function</p></td>
+<td><p>__doc__</p></td>
+<td><p>documentation string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__name__</p></td>
+<td><p>name with which this
+function was defined</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__qualname__</p></td>
+<td><p>qualified name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__code__</p></td>
+<td><p>code object containing
+compiled function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__defaults__</p></td>
+<td><p>tuple of any default
+values for positional or
+keyword parameters</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__kwdefaults__</p></td>
+<td><p>mapping of any default
+values for keyword-only
+parameters</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__globals__</p></td>
+<td><p>global namespace in which
+this function was defined</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__annotations__</p></td>
+<td><p>mapping of parameters
+names to annotations;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;return&quot;</span></code> key is
+reserved for return
+annotations.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>traceback</p></td>
+<td><p>tb_frame</p></td>
+<td><p>frame object at this
+level</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>tb_lasti</p></td>
+<td><p>index of last attempted
+instruction in bytecode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>tb_lineno</p></td>
+<td><p>current line number in
+Python source code</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>tb_next</p></td>
+<td><p>next inner traceback
+object (called by this
+level)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>frame</p></td>
+<td><p>f_back</p></td>
+<td><p>next outer frame object
+(this frame’s caller)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>f_builtins</p></td>
+<td><p>builtins namespace seen
+by this frame</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>f_code</p></td>
+<td><p>code object being
+executed in this frame</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>f_globals</p></td>
+<td><p>global namespace seen by
+this frame</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>f_lasti</p></td>
+<td><p>index of last attempted
+instruction in bytecode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>f_lineno</p></td>
+<td><p>current line number in
+Python source code</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>f_locals</p></td>
+<td><p>local namespace seen by
+this frame</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>f_trace</p></td>
+<td><p>tracing function for this
+frame, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>code</p></td>
+<td><p>co_argcount</p></td>
+<td><p>number of arguments (not
+including keyword only
+arguments, * or **
+args)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_code</p></td>
+<td><p>string of raw compiled
+bytecode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_cellvars</p></td>
+<td><p>tuple of names of cell
+variables (referenced by
+containing scopes)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_consts</p></td>
+<td><p>tuple of constants used
+in the bytecode</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_filename</p></td>
+<td><p>name of file in which
+this code object was
+created</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_firstlineno</p></td>
+<td><p>number of first line in
+Python source code</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_flags</p></td>
+<td><p>bitmap of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CO_*</span></code> flags,
+read more <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-module-co-flags"><span class="std std-ref">here</span></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_lnotab</p></td>
+<td><p>encoded mapping of line
+numbers to bytecode
+indices</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_freevars</p></td>
+<td><p>tuple of names of free
+variables (referenced via
+a function’s closure)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_kwonlyargcount</p></td>
+<td><p>number of keyword only
+arguments (not including
+** arg)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_name</p></td>
+<td><p>name with which this code
+object was defined</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_names</p></td>
+<td><p>tuple of names of local
+variables</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_nlocals</p></td>
+<td><p>number of local variables</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_stacksize</p></td>
+<td><p>virtual machine stack
+space required</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>co_varnames</p></td>
+<td><p>tuple of names of
+arguments and local
+variables</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>generator</p></td>
+<td><p>__name__</p></td>
+<td><p>name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__qualname__</p></td>
+<td><p>qualified name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>gi_frame</p></td>
+<td><p>frame</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>gi_running</p></td>
+<td><p>is the generator running?</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>gi_code</p></td>
+<td><p>code</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>gi_yieldfrom</p></td>
+<td><p>object being iterated by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>coroutine</p></td>
+<td><p>__name__</p></td>
+<td><p>name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__qualname__</p></td>
+<td><p>qualified name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>cr_await</p></td>
+<td><p>object being awaited on,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>cr_frame</p></td>
+<td><p>frame</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>cr_running</p></td>
+<td><p>is the coroutine running?</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>cr_code</p></td>
+<td><p>code</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>cr_origin</p></td>
+<td><p>where coroutine was
+created, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth" title="sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>builtin</p></td>
+<td><p>__doc__</p></td>
+<td><p>documentation string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__name__</p></td>
+<td><p>original name of this
+function or method</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>__qualname__</p></td>
+<td><p>qualified name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>__self__</p></td>
+<td><p>instance to which a
+method is bound, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gi_yieldfrom</span></code> attributes to generators.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> attribute of generators is now set from the function
+name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cr_origin</span></code> attribute to coroutines.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getmembers">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getmembers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>predicate</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return all the members of an object in a list of (name, value) pairs sorted by
+name.  If the optional <em>predicate</em> argument is supplied, only members for which
+the predicate returns a true value are included.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmembers()</span></code></a> will only return class attributes defined in the
+metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been
+listed in the metaclass’ custom <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__" title="object.__dir__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getmodulename">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getmodulename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmodulename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the module named by the file <em>path</em>, without including the
+names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of
+the entries in <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.machinery.all_suffixes" title="importlib.machinery.all_suffixes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.all_suffixes()</span></code></a>. If it matches,
+the final path component is returned with the extension removed.
+Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>Note that this function <em>only</em> returns a meaningful name for actual
+Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will
+still return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The function is based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.ismodule">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">ismodule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismodule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isclass">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isclass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python
+code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.ismethod">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">ismethod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a bound method written in Python.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isfunction">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isfunction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a Python function, which includes functions
+created by a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-lambda"><span class="xref std std-term">lambda</span></a> expression.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isgeneratorfunction">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isgeneratorfunction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgeneratorfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a Python generator function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isgenerator">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isgenerator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a generator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.iscoroutinefunction">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">iscoroutinefunction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.iscoroutinefunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine-function"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine function</span></a>
+(a function defined with an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> syntax).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.iscoroutine">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">iscoroutine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.iscoroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> created by an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isawaitable">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isawaitable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isawaitable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object can be used in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expression.</p>
+<p>Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular
+generators:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span>
+<span class="nd">@types</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">coroutine</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen_coro</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span>
+
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">isawaitable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">isawaitable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen_coro</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isasyncgenfunction">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isasyncgenfunction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isasyncgenfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator</span></a> function,
+for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">agen</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isasyncgenfunction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">agen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isasyncgen">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isasyncgen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isasyncgen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator iterator</span></a>
+created by an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator</span></a> function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.istraceback">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">istraceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.istraceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a traceback.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isframe">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isframe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isframe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a frame.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.iscode">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">iscode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.iscode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isbuiltin">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isbuiltin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isbuiltin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isroutine">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isroutine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isabstract">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isabstract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isabstract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is an abstract base class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.ismethoddescriptor">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">ismethoddescriptor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismethoddescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="inspect.ismethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ismethod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isclass" title="inspect.isclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isclass()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isfunction" title="inspect.isfunction"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfunction()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isbuiltin" title="inspect.isbuiltin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isbuiltin()</span></code></a>
+are true.</p>
+<p>This, for example, is true of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int.__add__</span></code>.  An object passing this test
+has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> method but not a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a>
+method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> attribute is usually
+sensible, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> often is.</p>
+<p>Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests
+return false from the <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethoddescriptor" title="inspect.ismethoddescriptor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ismethoddescriptor()</span></code></a> test, simply because the
+other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on having the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code> attribute (etc) when an object passes <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="inspect.ismethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ismethod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isdatadescriptor">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isdatadescriptor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isdatadescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a data descriptor.</p>
+<p>Data descriptors have both a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__</span></code></a> and a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__</span></code></a> method.
+Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members.  The
+latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for
+those types, which is robust across Python implementations.  Typically, data
+descriptors will also have <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attributes
+(properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is
+not guaranteed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.isgetsetdescriptor">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">isgetsetdescriptor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgetsetdescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a getset descriptor.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code></a> structures.  For Python implementations without such
+types, this method will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.ismemberdescriptor">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">ismemberdescriptor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismemberdescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the object is a member descriptor.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemberDef</span></code></a> structures.  For Python implementations without such
+types, this method will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="retrieving-source-code">
+<span id="inspect-source"></span><h2>Retrieving source code<a class="headerlink" href="#retrieving-source-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getdoc">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getdoc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getdoc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.cleandoc" title="inspect.cleandoc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cleandoc()</span></code></a>.
+If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is
+a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation
+string from the inheritance hierarchy.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getcomments">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getcomments</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcomments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the
+object’s source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the
+Python source file (if the object is a module).  If the object’s source code
+is unavailable, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  This could happen if the object has been
+defined in C or the interactive shell.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getfile">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined.
+This will fail with a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the object is a built-in module,
+class, or function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getmodule">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getmodule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmodule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to guess which module an object was defined in.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getsourcefile">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getsourcefile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsourcefile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined.  This
+will fail with a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the object is a built-in module, class, or
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getsourcelines">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getsourcelines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsourcelines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The
+argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
+object.  The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the
+object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first
+line of code was found.  An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised if the source code cannot
+be retrieved.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>, now an alias of the
+former.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getsource">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getsource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module,
+class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object.  The source code is
+returned as a single string.  An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised if the source code
+cannot be retrieved.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>, now an alias of the
+former.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.cleandoc">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">cleandoc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>doc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.cleandoc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks
+of code.</p>
+<p>All leading whitespace is removed from the first line.  Any leading whitespace
+that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed.  Empty
+lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed.  Also, all tabs are
+expanded to spaces.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object">
+<span id="inspect-signature-object"></span><h2>Introspecting callables with the Signature object<a class="headerlink" href="#introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its
+return annotation.  To retrieve a Signature object, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.signature">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">signature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callable</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_wrapped=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.signature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature</span></code></a> object for the given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">inspect</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">signature</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">signature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sig</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parameters</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;b:int&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parameters</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">annotation</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;class &#39;int&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to
+<a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if no signature can be provided, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if that type of object is not supported.</p>
+<p>A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior
+to it are positional-only. For more info, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../faq/programming.html#faq-positional-only-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">follow_wrapped</span></code> parameter. Pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> to get a signature of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable</span></code> specifically (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable.__wrapped__</span></code> will not be used to
+unwrap decorated callables.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of
+Python.  For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in
+C provide no metadata about their arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">Signature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parameters=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>return_annotation=Signature.empty</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return
+annotation.  For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter</span></code></a> object in its <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.parameters" title="inspect.Signature.parameters"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameters</span></code></a> collection.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>parameters</em> argument is a sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter</span></code></a>
+objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters with
+duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right order, i.e.
+positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with
+defaults follow parameters without defaults.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>return_annotation</em> argument, can be an arbitrary Python object,
+is the “return” annotation of the callable.</p>
+<p>Signature objects are <em>immutable</em>.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.replace" title="inspect.Signature.replace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.replace()</span></code></a> to make a
+modified copy.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Signature objects are picklable and hashable.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature.empty">
+<code class="descname">empty</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature.parameters">
+<code class="descname">parameters</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.parameters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ordered mapping of parameters’ names to the corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter</span></code></a> objects.  Parameters appear in strict definition
+order, including keyword-only parameters.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
+order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
+this order had always been preserved in Python 3.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature.return_annotation">
+<code class="descname">return_annotation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.return_annotation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The “return” annotation for the callable.  If the callable has no “return”
+annotation, this attribute is set to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.empty" title="inspect.Signature.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.empty</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature.bind">
+<code class="descname">bind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters.
+Returns <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundArguments</span></code></a> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> match the
+signature, or raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature.bind_partial">
+<code class="descname">bind_partial</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Works the same way as <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.bind()</span></code></a>, but allows the omission of
+some required arguments (mimics <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> behavior.)
+Returns <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundArguments</span></code></a>, or raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the
+passed arguments do not match the signature.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature.replace">
+<code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*[, parameters][, return_annotation]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked
+on.  It is possible to pass different <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameters</span></code> and/or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_annotation</span></code> to override the corresponding properties of the base
+signature.  To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.empty" title="inspect.Signature.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.empty</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">signature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">new_sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_annotation</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;new return anno&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_sig</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;(a, b) -&gt; &#39;new return anno&#39;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="inspect.Signature.from_callable">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">from_callable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_wrapped=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.from_callable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature</span></code></a> (or its subclass) object for a given callable
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code>.  Pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">follow_wrapped=False</span></code> to get a signature of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code>
+without unwrapping its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> chain.</p>
+<p>This method simplifies subclassing of <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MySignature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Signature</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="n">sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MySignature</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_callable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">min</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sig</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MySignature</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="inspect.Parameter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">Parameter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>kind</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>default=Parameter.empty</em>, <em>annotation=Parameter.empty</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parameter objects are <em>immutable</em>.  Instead of modifying a Parameter object,
+you can use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.replace" title="inspect.Parameter.replace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter.replace()</span></code></a> to create a modified copy.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Parameter objects are picklable and hashable.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Parameter.empty">
+<code class="descname">empty</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and
+annotations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Parameter.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the parameter as a string.  The name must be a valid
+Python identifier.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p class="compound-first"><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.0</span></code> on the
+code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator
+expressions.</p>
+<div class="compound-last versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">implicit0</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Parameter.default">
+<code class="descname">default</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default value for the parameter.  If the parameter has no default
+value, this attribute is set to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="inspect.Parameter.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter.empty</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Parameter.annotation">
+<code class="descname">annotation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.annotation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The annotation for the parameter.  If the parameter has no annotation,
+this attribute is set to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="inspect.Parameter.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter.empty</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.Parameter.kind">
+<code class="descname">kind</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.kind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter.  Possible values
+(accessible via <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter</span></code></a>, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY</span></code>):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 34%" />
+<col style="width: 66%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>POSITIONAL_ONLY</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Value must be supplied as a positional
+argument.</p>
+<p>Python has no explicit syntax for defining
+positional-only parameters, but many built-in
+and extension module functions (especially
+those that accept only one or two parameters)
+accept them.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Value may be supplied as either a keyword or
+positional argument (this is the standard
+binding behaviour for functions implemented
+in Python.)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>VAR_POSITIONAL</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t
+bound to any other parameter. This
+corresponds to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> parameter in a
+Python function definition.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>KEYWORD_ONLY</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.
+Keyword only parameters are those which
+appear after a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> entry in a
+Python function definition.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>VAR_KEYWORD</em></p></td>
+<td><p>A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound
+to any other parameter. This corresponds to a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> parameter in a Python function
+definition.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">signature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">param</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parameters</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">param</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">param</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">KEYWORD_ONLY</span> <span class="ow">and</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                       <span class="n">param</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">default</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">param</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Parameter:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">param</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Parameter: c</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="inspect.Parameter.replace">
+<code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><blockquote>
+<div><p>Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked
+on.  To override a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter</span></code></a> attribute, pass the corresponding
+argument.  To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a
+Parameter, pass <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="inspect.Parameter.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter.empty</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">inspect</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Parameter</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">param</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Parameter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Parameter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">KEYWORD_ONLY</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">param</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;foo=42&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">param</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="c1"># Will create a shallow copy of &#39;param&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;foo=42&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">param</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Parameter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">annotation</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;foo:&#39;spam&#39;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> set
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kind</span></code> was set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSITIONAL_ONLY</span></code>.
+This is no longer permitted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="inspect.BoundArguments">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">BoundArguments</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Result of a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.bind()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="inspect.Signature.bind_partial"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.bind_partial()</span></code></a> call.
+Holds the mapping of arguments to the function’s parameters.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments">
+<code class="descname">arguments</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ordered, mutable mapping (<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a>) of
+parameters’ names to arguments’ values.  Contains only explicitly bound
+arguments.  Changes in <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arguments</span></code></a> will reflect in <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.args" title="inspect.BoundArguments.args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs" title="inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Should be used in conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.parameters" title="inspect.Signature.parameters"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.parameters</span></code></a> for any
+argument processing purposes.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Arguments for which <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.bind()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="inspect.Signature.bind_partial"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.bind_partial()</span></code></a> relied on a default value are skipped.
+However, if needed, use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults" title="inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundArguments.apply_defaults()</span></code></a> to add
+them.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.BoundArguments.args">
+<code class="descname">args</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of positional arguments values.  Dynamically computed from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arguments</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs">
+<code class="descname">kwargs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dict of keyword arguments values.  Dynamically computed from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arguments</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="inspect.BoundArguments.signature">
+<code class="descname">signature</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.signature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A reference to the parent <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults">
+<code class="descname">apply_defaults</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set default values for missing arguments.</p>
+<p>For variable-positional arguments (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code>) the default is an
+empty tuple.</p>
+<p>For variable-keyword arguments (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>) the default is an
+empty dict.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ham&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ba</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">signature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ba</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_defaults</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ba</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">arguments</span>
+<span class="go">OrderedDict([(&#39;a&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;), (&#39;b&#39;, &#39;ham&#39;), (&#39;args&#39;, ())])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.args" title="inspect.BoundArguments.args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs" title="inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs</span></code></a> properties can be used to invoke
+functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">sig</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">signature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">ba</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">ba</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">ba</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0362"><strong>PEP 362</strong></a> - Function Signature Object.</dt><dd><p>The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="classes-and-functions">
+<span id="inspect-classes-functions"></span><h2>Classes and functions<a class="headerlink" href="#classes-and-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getclasstree">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getclasstree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>classes</em>, <em>unique=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getclasstree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a
+nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry
+immediately precedes the list.  Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a
+tuple of its base classes.  If the <em>unique</em> argument is true, exactly one entry
+appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list.  Otherwise,
+classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple
+times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getargspec">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getargspec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgSpec(args,</span> <span class="pre">varargs,</span> <span class="pre">keywords,</span> <span class="pre">defaults)</span></code> is
+returned. <em>args</em> is a list of the parameter names. <em>varargs</em> and <em>keywords</em>
+are the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> parameters or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. <em>defaults</em> is a
+tuple of default argument values or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if there are no default
+arguments; if this tuple has <em>n</em> elements, they correspond to the last
+<em>n</em> elements listed in <em>args</em>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.0: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfullargspec()</span></code></a> for an updated API that is usually a drop-in
+replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and
+keyword-only parameters.</p>
+<p>Alternatively, use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-signature-object"><span class="std std-ref">Signature Object</span></a>, which provide a
+more structured introspection API for callables.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getfullargspec">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getfullargspec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getfullargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> is returned:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FullArgSpec(args,</span> <span class="pre">varargs,</span> <span class="pre">varkw,</span> <span class="pre">defaults,</span> <span class="pre">kwonlyargs,</span> <span class="pre">kwonlydefaults,</span>
+<span class="pre">annotations)</span></code></p>
+<p><em>args</em> is a list of the positional parameter names.
+<em>varargs</em> is the name of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> parameter or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if arbitrary
+positional arguments are not accepted.
+<em>varkw</em> is the name of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> parameter or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if arbitrary
+keyword arguments are not accepted.
+<em>defaults</em> is an <em>n</em>-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the
+last <em>n</em> positional parameters, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if there are no such defaults
+defined.
+<em>kwonlyargs</em> is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
+<em>kwonlydefaults</em> is a dictionary mapping parameter names from <em>kwonlyargs</em>
+to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
+<em>annotations</em> is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations.
+The special key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;return&quot;</span></code> is used to report the function return value
+annotation (if any).</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-signature-object"><span class="std std-ref">Signature Object</span></a> provide the recommended
+API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like
+positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module
+APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to
+maintain compatibility with the Python 2 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code> module API.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>This function is now based on <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a>, but still ignores
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attributes and includes the already bound first
+parameter in the signature output for bound methods.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed
+in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for
+single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getargspec" title="inspect.getargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getargspec()</span></code></a> API.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
+order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
+this order had always been preserved in Python 3.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getargvalues">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getargvalues</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getargvalues" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgInfo(args,</span> <span class="pre">varargs,</span> <span class="pre">keywords,</span> <span class="pre">locals)</span></code> is
+returned. <em>args</em> is a list of the argument names.  <em>varargs</em> and <em>keywords</em>
+are the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> arguments or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <em>locals</em> is the
+locals dictionary of the given frame.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.formatargspec">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">formatargspec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>varargs</em>, <em>varkw</em>, <em>defaults</em>, <em>kwonlyargs</em>, <em>kwonlydefaults</em>, <em>annotations</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>formatarg</em>, <em>formatvarargs</em>, <em>formatvarkw</em>, <em>formatvalue</em>, <em>formatreturns</em>, <em>formatannotations</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.formatargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfullargspec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The first seven arguments are (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">varargs</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">varkw</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaults</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwonlyargs</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwonlydefaults</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">annotations</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> argument name, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> argument name, default values, return annotation
+and individual annotations into strings, respectively.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">inspect</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">formatargspec</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">getfullargspec</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">formatargspec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">getfullargspec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;(a: int, b: float)&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.5: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-signature-object"><span class="std std-ref">Signature Object</span></a>, which provide a
+better introspecting API for callables.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.formatargvalues">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">formatargvalues</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>varargs</em>, <em>varkw</em>, <em>locals</em>, <em>formatarg</em>, <em>formatvarargs</em>, <em>formatvarkw</em>, <em>formatvalue</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.formatargvalues" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getargvalues" title="inspect.getargvalues"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getargvalues()</span></code></a>.  The format* arguments are the corresponding optional
+formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getmro">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getmro</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cls</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in method resolution
+order.  No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method
+resolution order depends on cls’s type.  Unless a very peculiar user-defined
+metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getcallargs">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getcallargs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcallargs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind the <em>args</em> and <em>kwds</em> to the argument names of the Python function or
+method <em>func</em>, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the
+first argument (typically named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>) to the associated instance. A dict
+is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> arguments, if any) to their values from <em>args</em> and <em>kwds</em>. In case of
+invoking <em>func</em> incorrectly, i.e. whenever <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code> would raise
+an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type
+and the same or similar message is raised. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">inspect</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">getcallargs</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">named</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcallargs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;named&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{},</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pos&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,)}</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcallargs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;named&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pos&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">()}</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcallargs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">f() missing 1 required positional argument: &#39;a&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.5: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.bind()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="inspect.Signature.bind_partial"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.bind_partial()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getclosurevars">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getclosurevars</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getclosurevars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
+method <em>func</em> to their current values. A
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClosureVars(nonlocals,</span> <span class="pre">globals,</span> <span class="pre">builtins,</span> <span class="pre">unbound)</span></code>
+is returned. <em>nonlocals</em> maps referenced names to lexical closure
+variables, <em>globals</em> to the function’s module globals and <em>builtins</em> to
+the builtins visible from the function body. <em>unbound</em> is the set of names
+referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the
+current module globals and builtins.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>func</em> is not a Python function or method.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.unwrap">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">unwrap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>stop=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.unwrap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the object wrapped by <em>func</em>. It follows the chain of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code>
+attributes returning the last object in the chain.</p>
+<p><em>stop</em> is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain
+as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if
+the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true
+value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the
+chain has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__signature__</span></code> attribute defined.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if a cycle is encountered.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-interpreter-stack">
+<span id="inspect-stack"></span><h2>The interpreter stack<a class="headerlink" href="#the-interpreter-stack" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When the following functions return “frame records,” each record is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameInfo(frame,</span> <span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">lineno,</span> <span class="pre">function,</span> <span class="pre">code_context,</span> <span class="pre">index)</span></code>.
+The tuple contains the frame object, the filename, the line number of the
+current line,
+the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the
+index of the current line within that list.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Return a named tuple instead of a tuple.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame
+records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference
+cycles.  Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects
+which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much
+longer even if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled.  If such cycles must
+be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the
+delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs.</p>
+<p>Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local
+variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause.  This is also important if the cycle detector was
+disabled when Python was compiled or using <a class="reference internal" href="gc.html#gc.disable" title="gc.disable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.disable()</span></code></a>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle_stackframe_without_leak</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">frame</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currentframe</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># do something with the frame</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">frame</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback
+later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#frame.clear" title="frame.clear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frame.clear()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The optional <em>context</em> argument supported by most of these functions specifies
+the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current
+line.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getframeinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getframeinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>context=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getframeinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get information about a frame or traceback object.  A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback(filename,</span> <span class="pre">lineno,</span> <span class="pre">function,</span> <span class="pre">code_context,</span> <span class="pre">index)</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getouterframes">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getouterframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame</em>, <em>context=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getouterframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames.  These frames
+represent the calls that lead to the creation of <em>frame</em>. The first entry in the
+returned list represents <em>frame</em>; the last entry represents the outermost call
+on <em>frame</em>’s stack.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuples</span></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameInfo(frame,</span> <span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">lineno,</span> <span class="pre">function,</span> <span class="pre">code_context,</span> <span class="pre">index)</span></code>
+is returned.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getinnerframes">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getinnerframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>traceback</em>, <em>context=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getinnerframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a list of frame records for a traceback’s frame and all inner frames.  These
+frames represent calls made as a consequence of <em>frame</em>.  The first entry in the
+list represents <em>traceback</em>; the last entry represents where the exception was
+raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuples</span></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameInfo(frame,</span> <span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">lineno,</span> <span class="pre">function,</span> <span class="pre">code_context,</span> <span class="pre">index)</span></code>
+is returned.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.currentframe">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">currentframe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.currentframe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter,
+which isn’t guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.  If
+running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this
+function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.stack">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of frame records for the caller’s stack.  The first entry in the
+returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost
+call on the stack.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuples</span></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameInfo(frame,</span> <span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">lineno,</span> <span class="pre">function,</span> <span class="pre">code_context,</span> <span class="pre">index)</span></code>
+is returned.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.trace">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">trace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the
+frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in.  The first
+entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
+exception was raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuples</span></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameInfo(frame,</span> <span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">lineno,</span> <span class="pre">function,</span> <span class="pre">code_context,</span> <span class="pre">index)</span></code>
+is returned.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fetching-attributes-statically">
+<h2>Fetching attributes statically<a class="headerlink" href="#fetching-attributes-statically" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Both <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> can trigger code execution when
+fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like
+properties, will be invoked and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a>
+may be called.</p>
+<p>For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this
+can be inconvenient. <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getattr_static" title="inspect.getattr_static"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr_static()</span></code></a> has the same signature as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a>
+but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getattr_static">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getattr_static</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>attr</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getattr_static" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
+descriptor protocol, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes
+that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes)
+and may find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors
+that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects
+instead of instance members.</p>
+<p>If the instance <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> is shadowed by another member (for
+example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance
+members.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getattr_static" title="inspect.getattr_static"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr_static()</span></code></a> does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or
+getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object
+is returned instead of the underlying attribute.</p>
+<p>You can handle these with code like the following. Note that
+for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger
+code execution:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">_foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="vm">__slots__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">slot_descriptor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">getset_descriptor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">wrapper_descriptor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;__add__&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">descriptor_types</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slot_descriptor</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">getset_descriptor</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">wrapper_descriptor</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getattr_static</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">descriptor_types</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__get__</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># descriptors can raise AttributeError to</span>
+        <span class="c1"># indicate there is no underlying value</span>
+        <span class="c1"># in which case the descriptor itself will</span>
+        <span class="c1"># have to do</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="current-state-of-generators-and-coroutines">
+<h2>Current State of Generators and Coroutines<a class="headerlink" href="#current-state-of-generators-and-coroutines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
+generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
+executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
+terminated. <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getgeneratorstate" title="inspect.getgeneratorstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgeneratorstate()</span></code></a> allows the current state of a
+generator to be determined easily.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getgeneratorstate">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getgeneratorstate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>generator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getgeneratorstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get current state of a generator-iterator.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Possible states are:</dt><dd><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.</p></li>
+<li><p>GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p>GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.</p></li>
+<li><p>GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getcoroutinestate">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getcoroutinestate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>coroutine</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcoroutinestate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get current state of a coroutine object.  The function is intended to be
+used with coroutine objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> functions, but
+will accept any coroutine-like object that has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cr_running</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cr_frame</span></code> attributes.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Possible states are:</dt><dd><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.</p></li>
+<li><p>CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p>CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.</p></li>
+<li><p>CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is
+mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being
+updated as expected:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getgeneratorlocals">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getgeneratorlocals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>generator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getgeneratorlocals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the mapping of live local variables in <em>generator</em> to their current
+values.  A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values.
+This is the equivalent of calling <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> in the body of the
+generator, and all the same caveats apply.</p>
+<p>If <em>generator</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> with no currently associated frame,
+then an empty dictionary is returned.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised if
+<em>generator</em> is not a Python generator object.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame
+for introspection, which isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all
+implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always
+return an empty dictionary.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="inspect.getcoroutinelocals">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">getcoroutinelocals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>coroutine</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcoroutinelocals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is analogous to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getgeneratorlocals" title="inspect.getgeneratorlocals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgeneratorlocals()</span></code></a>, but
+works for coroutine objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="code-objects-bit-flags">
+<span id="inspect-module-co-flags"></span><h2>Code Objects Bit Flags<a class="headerlink" href="#code-objects-bit-flags" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python code objects have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_flags</span></code> attribute, which is a bitmap of
+the following flags:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_OPTIMIZED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The code object is optimized, using fast locals.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_NEWLOCALS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_locals</span></code> when
+the code object is executed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_VARARGS">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_VARARGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_VARARGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The code object has a variable positional parameter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code>-like).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_VARKEYWORDS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The code object has a variable keyword parameter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>-like).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_NESTED">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_NESTED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_NESTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_GENERATOR">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_GENERATOR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_GENERATOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
+a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_NOFREE">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_NOFREE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_NOFREE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_COROUTINE">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_COROUTINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_COROUTINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.
+When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.
+See <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
+coroutines.  Generator objects with this flag can be used in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> expression, and can <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> coroutine objects.
+See <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR">
+<code class="descclassname">inspect.</code><code class="descname">CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
+function.  When the code object is executed it returns an
+asynchronous generator object.  See <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525"><strong>PEP 525</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other
+Python implementations.  Furthermore, the flags are an implementation
+detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases.
+It’s recommended to use public APIs from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module
+for any introspection needs.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-interface">
+<span id="inspect-module-cli"></span><h2>Command Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module also provides a basic introspection capability
+from the command line.</p>
+<p>By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
+module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
+appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-inspect-details">
+<code class="descname">--details</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-inspect-details" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print information about the specified object rather than the source code</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code> — Inspect live objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types-and-members">Types and members</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#retrieving-source-code">Retrieving source code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object">Introspecting callables with the Signature object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes-and-functions">Classes and functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-interpreter-stack">The interpreter stack</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fetching-attributes-statically">Fetching attributes statically</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#current-state-of-generators-and-coroutines">Current State of Generators and Coroutines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#code-objects-bit-flags">Code Objects Bit Flags</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-interface">Command Line Interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="gc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code> — Garbage Collector interface</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="site.html"
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/internet.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/internet.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80ba60d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/internet.html
@@ -0,0 +1,397 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Internet Protocols and Support &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller" href="webbrowser.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat" href="pyexpat.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+      }
+    </style>
+ 
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="webbrowser.html" title="webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="pyexpat.html" title="xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="internet-protocols-and-support">
+<span id="internet"></span><h1>Internet Protocols and Support<a class="headerlink" href="#internet-protocols-and-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><p id="index-1">The modules described in this chapter implement Internet protocols and  support
+for related technology.  They are all implemented in Python. Most of these
+modules require the presence of the system-dependent module <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>, which
+is currently supported on most popular platforms.  Here is an overview:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="webbrowser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code> — Convenient Web-browser controller</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="webbrowser.html#browser-controller-objects">Browser Controller Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code> — Common Gateway Interface support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#using-the-cgi-module">Using the cgi module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#higher-level-interface">Higher Level Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#caring-about-security">Caring about security</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#installing-your-cgi-script-on-a-unix-system">Installing your CGI script on a Unix system</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#testing-your-cgi-script">Testing your CGI script</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#debugging-cgi-scripts">Debugging CGI scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cgi.html#common-problems-and-solutions">Common problems and solutions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="cgitb.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code> — Traceback manager for CGI scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code> — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.util"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util</span></code> – WSGI environment utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.headers</span></code> – WSGI response header tools</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.simple_server"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code> – a simple WSGI HTTP server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.validate"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.validate</span></code> — WSGI conformance checker</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.handlers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers</span></code> – server/gateway base classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wsgiref.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code> — URL handling modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> — Extensible library for opening URLs</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#request-objects">Request Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#openerdirector-objects">OpenerDirector Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#basehandler-objects">BaseHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httpredirecthandler-objects">HTTPRedirectHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httpcookieprocessor-objects">HTTPCookieProcessor Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#proxyhandler-objects">ProxyHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httppasswordmgr-objects">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#abstractbasicauthhandler-objects">AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httpbasicauthhandler-objects">HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#proxybasicauthhandler-objects">ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#abstractdigestauthhandler-objects">AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httpdigestauthhandler-objects">HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#proxydigestauthhandler-objects">ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httphandler-objects">HTTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httpshandler-objects">HTTPSHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#filehandler-objects">FileHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#datahandler-objects">DataHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#ftphandler-objects">FTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#cacheftphandler-objects">CacheFTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#unknownhandler-objects">UnknownHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#httperrorprocessor-objects">HTTPErrorProcessor Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#legacy-interface">Legacy interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib-request-restrictions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> Restrictions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.response"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code> — Response classes used by urllib</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code> — Parse URLs into components</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#url-parsing">URL Parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes">Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#structured-parse-results">Structured Parse Results</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#url-quoting">URL Quoting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code> — Exception classes raised by urllib.request</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.robotparser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.robotparser</span></code> —  Parser for robots.txt</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="http.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code> — HTTP modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.html#http-status-codes">HTTP status codes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code> — HTTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#httpconnection-objects">HTTPConnection Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#httpresponse-objects">HTTPResponse Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#httpmessage-objects">HTTPMessage Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ftplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code> — FTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ftplib.html#ftp-objects">FTP Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ftplib.html#ftp-tls-objects">FTP_TLS Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="poplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code> — POP3 protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="poplib.html#pop3-objects">POP3 Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="poplib.html#pop3-example">POP3 Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="imaplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code> — IMAP4 protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="imaplib.html#imap4-objects">IMAP4 Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="imaplib.html#imap4-example">IMAP4 Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code> — NNTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html#nntp-objects">NNTP Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html#attributes">Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="nntplib.html#utility-functions">Utility functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code> — SMTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#smtp-objects">SMTP Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#smtp-example">SMTP Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code> — SMTP Server</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html#smtpserver-objects">SMTPServer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html#debuggingserver-objects">DebuggingServer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html#pureproxy-objects">PureProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html#mailmanproxy-objects">MailmanProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="smtpd.html#smtpchannel-objects">SMTPChannel Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="telnetlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnetlib</span></code> — Telnet client</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="telnetlib.html#telnet-objects">Telnet Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="telnetlib.html#telnet-example">Telnet Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="uuid.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code> — UUID objects according to <strong>RFC 4122</strong></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="uuid.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code> — A framework for network servers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#server-creation-notes">Server Creation Notes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#server-objects">Server Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#request-handler-objects">Request Handler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#socketserver-tcpserver-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.TCPServer</span></code> Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#socketserver-udpserver-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.UDPServer</span></code> Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#asynchronous-mixins">Asynchronous Mixins</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="http.server.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code> — HTTP servers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code> — HTTP state management</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html#cookie-objects">Cookie Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html#morsel-objects">Morsel Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookies.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar</span></code> — Cookie handling for HTTP clients</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects">CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers">FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#cookiepolicy-objects">CookiePolicy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#defaultcookiepolicy-objects">DefaultCookiePolicy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#cookie-objects">Cookie Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc</span></code> — XMLRPC server and client modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code> — XML-RPC client access</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#serverproxy-objects">ServerProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#datetime-objects">DateTime Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#binary-objects">Binary Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#fault-objects">Fault Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#protocolerror-objects">ProtocolError Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#multicall-objects">MultiCall Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#convenience-functions">Convenience Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#example-of-client-usage">Example of Client Usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#example-of-client-and-server-usage">Example of Client and Server Usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code> — Basic XML-RPC servers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#simplexmlrpcserver-objects">SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#simplexmlrpcserver-example">SimpleXMLRPCServer Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#cgixmlrpcrequesthandler">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#documenting-xmlrpc-server">Documenting XMLRPC server</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#docxmlrpcserver-objects">DocXMLRPCServer Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#doccgixmlrpcrequesthandler">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code> — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#convenience-factory-functions">Convenience factory functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#ip-addresses">IP Addresses</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#address-objects">Address objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#conversion-to-strings-and-integers">Conversion to Strings and Integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#operators">Operators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#comparison-operators">Comparison operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#arithmetic-operators">Arithmetic operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#ip-network-definitions">IP Network definitions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#prefix-net-mask-and-host-mask">Prefix, net mask and host mask</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#network-objects">Network objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#id1">Operators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#logical-operators">Logical operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#iteration">Iteration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#networks-as-containers-of-addresses">Networks as containers of addresses</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#interface-objects">Interface objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#id2">Operators</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#id3">Logical operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#other-module-level-functions">Other Module Level Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ipaddress.html#custom-exceptions">Custom Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/intro.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/intro.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a62577a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/intro.html
@@ -0,0 +1,235 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Introduction &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="introduction">
+<span id="library-intro"></span><h1>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The “Python library” contains several different kinds of components.</p>
+<p>It contains data types that would normally be considered part of the “core” of a
+language, such as numbers and lists.  For these types, the Python language core
+defines the form of literals and places some constraints on their semantics, but
+does not fully define the semantics.  (On the other hand, the language core does
+define syntactic properties like the spelling and priorities of operators.)</p>
+<p>The library also contains built-in functions and exceptions — objects that can
+be used by all Python code without the need of an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement.
+Some of these are defined by the core language, but many are not essential for
+the core semantics and are only described here.</p>
+<p>The bulk of the library, however, consists of a collection of modules. There are
+many ways to dissect this collection.  Some modules are written in C and built
+in to the Python interpreter; others are written in Python and imported in
+source form.  Some modules provide interfaces that are highly specific to
+Python, like printing a stack trace; some provide interfaces that are specific
+to particular operating systems, such as access to specific hardware; others
+provide interfaces that are specific to a particular application domain, like
+the World Wide Web. Some modules are available in all versions and ports of
+Python; others are only available when the underlying system supports or
+requires them; yet others are available only when a particular configuration
+option was chosen at the time when Python was compiled and installed.</p>
+<p>This manual is organized “from the inside out:” it first describes the built-in
+functions, data types and exceptions, and finally the modules, grouped in
+chapters of related modules.</p>
+<p>This means that if you start reading this manual from the start, and skip to the
+next chapter when you get bored, you will get a reasonable overview of the
+available modules and application areas that are supported by the Python
+library.  Of course, you don’t <em>have</em> to read it like a novel — you can also
+browse the table of contents (in front of the manual), or look for a specific
+function, module or term in the index (in the back).  And finally, if you enjoy
+learning about random subjects, you choose a random page number (see module
+<a class="reference internal" href="random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a>) and read a section or two.  Regardless of the order in which you
+read the sections of this manual, it helps to start with chapter
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#built-in-funcs"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Functions</span></a>, as the remainder of the manual assumes familiarity with
+this material.</p>
+<p>Let the show begin!</p>
+<div class="section" id="notes-on-availability">
+<span id="availability"></span><h2>Notes on availability<a class="headerlink" href="#notes-on-availability" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>An “Availability: Unix” note means that this function is commonly found on
+Unix systems.  It does not make any claims about its existence on a specific
+operating system.</p></li>
+<li><p>If not separately noted, all functions that claim “Availability: Unix” are
+supported on Mac OS X, which builds on a Unix core.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes-on-availability">Notes on availability</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">The Python Standard Library</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="functions.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Built-in Functions</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/intro.rst"
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+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
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+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/io.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/io.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3382ed7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/io.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1304 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>io — Core tools for working with streams &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="time — Time access and conversions" href="time.html" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-io">
+<span id="io-core-tools-for-working-with-streams"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> — Core tools for working with streams<a class="headerlink" href="#module-io" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/io.py">Lib/io.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="overview">
+<span id="io-overview"></span><h2>Overview<a class="headerlink" href="#overview" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-0">The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module provides Python’s main facilities for dealing with various
+types of I/O.  There are three main types of I/O: <em>text I/O</em>, <em>binary I/O</em>
+and <em>raw I/O</em>.  These are generic categories, and various backing stores can
+be used for each of them.  A concrete object belonging to any of these
+categories is called a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.  Other common terms are <em>stream</em>
+and <em>file-like object</em>.</p>
+<p>Independent of its category, each concrete stream object will also have
+various capabilities: it can be read-only, write-only, or read-write. It can
+also allow arbitrary random access (seeking forwards or backwards to any
+location), or only sequential access (for example in the case of a socket or
+pipe).</p>
+<p>All streams are careful about the type of data you give to them.  For example
+giving a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> object to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method of a binary stream
+will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  So will giving a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method of a text stream.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Operations that used to raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> now raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, since
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> is now an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-i-o">
+<h3>Text I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#text-i-o" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Text I/O expects and produces <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects.  This means that whenever
+the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the case of a file),
+encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as well as optional
+translation of platform-specific newline characters.</p>
+<p>The easiest way to create a text stream is with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, optionally
+specifying an encoding:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;r&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In-memory text streams are also available as <a class="reference internal" href="#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;some initial text data&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binary-i-o">
+<h3>Binary I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#binary-i-o" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Binary I/O (also called <em>buffered I/O</em>) expects
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> and produces <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+objects.  No encoding, decoding, or newline translation is performed.  This
+category of streams can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when
+manual control over the handling of text data is desired.</p>
+<p>The easiest way to create a binary stream is with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> in
+the mode string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.jpg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In-memory binary streams are also available as <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;some initial binary data: </span><span class="se">\x00\x01</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The binary stream API is described in detail in the docs of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Other library modules may provide additional ways to create text or binary
+streams.  See <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.makefile()</span></code></a> for example.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raw-i-o">
+<h3>Raw I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#raw-i-o" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Raw I/O (also called <em>unbuffered I/O</em>) is generally used as a low-level
+building-block for binary and text streams; it is rarely useful to directly
+manipulate a raw stream from user code.  Nevertheless, you can create a raw
+stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering disabled:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.jpg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rb&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">buffering</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="high-level-module-interface">
+<h2>High-level Module Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#high-level-module-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An int containing the default buffer size used by the module’s buffered I/O
+classes.  <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> uses the file’s blksize (as obtained by
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>) if possible.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="io.open">
+<code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>buffering=-1</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em>, <em>closefd=True</em>, <em>opener=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an alias for the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="io.BlockingIOError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">BlockingIOError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BlockingIOError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a compatibility alias for the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a>
+exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="io.UnsupportedOperation">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">UnsupportedOperation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.UnsupportedOperation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An exception inheriting <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> that is raised
+when an unsupported operation is called on a stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="in-memory-streams">
+<h3>In-memory streams<a class="headerlink" href="#in-memory-streams" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is also possible to use a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> as a
+file for both reading and writing.  For strings <a class="reference internal" href="#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a> can be used
+like a file opened in text mode.  <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a> can be used like a file
+opened in binary mode.  Both provide full read-write capabilities with random
+access.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>contains the standard IO streams: <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-hierarchy">
+<h2>Class hierarchy<a class="headerlink" href="#class-hierarchy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The implementation of I/O streams is organized as a hierarchy of classes.  First
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base classes</span></a> (ABCs), which are used to
+specify the various categories of streams, then concrete classes providing the
+standard stream implementations.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The abstract base classes also provide default implementations of some
+methods in order to help implementation of concrete stream classes.  For
+example, <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> provides unoptimized implementations of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>At the top of the I/O hierarchy is the abstract base class <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>.  It
+defines the basic interface to a stream.  Note, however, that there is no
+separation between reading and writing to streams; implementations are allowed
+to raise <a class="reference internal" href="#io.UnsupportedOperation" title="io.UnsupportedOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnsupportedOperation</span></code></a> if they do not support a given operation.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> ABC extends <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>.  It deals with the reading
+and writing of bytes to a stream.  <a class="reference internal" href="#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileIO</span></code></a> subclasses <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a>
+to provide an interface to files in the machine’s file system.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> ABC deals with buffering on a raw byte stream
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a>).  Its subclasses, <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRWPair" title="io.BufferedRWPair"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRWPair</span></code></a> buffer streams that are
+readable, writable, and both readable and writable.  <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRandom" title="io.BufferedRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRandom</span></code></a>
+provides a buffered interface to random access streams.  Another
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> subclass, <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a>, is a stream of in-memory
+bytes.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> ABC, another subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>, deals with
+streams whose bytes represent text, and handles encoding and decoding to and
+from strings. <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>, which extends it, is a buffered text
+interface to a buffered raw stream (<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>). Finally,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a> is an in-memory stream for text.</p>
+<p>Argument names are not part of the specification, and only the arguments of
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> are intended to be used as keyword arguments.</p>
+<p>The following table summarizes the ABCs provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>ABC</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Inherits</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Stub Methods</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Mixin Methods and Properties</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closed</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isatty</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readable</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seekable</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writable</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writelines</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inherited <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> methods, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readall</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read1</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inherited <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> methods, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto1</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inherited <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> methods, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newlines</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="section" id="i-o-base-classes">
+<h3>I/O Base Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#i-o-base-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.IOBase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">IOBase</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The abstract base class for all I/O classes, acting on streams of bytes.
+There is no public constructor.</p>
+<p>This class provides empty abstract implementations for many methods
+that derived classes can override selectively; the default
+implementations represent a file that cannot be read, written or
+seeked.</p>
+<p>Even though <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> does not declare <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>
+or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> because their signatures will vary, implementations and
+clients should consider those methods part of the interface.  Also,
+implementations may raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> (or <a class="reference internal" href="#io.UnsupportedOperation" title="io.UnsupportedOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnsupportedOperation</span></code></a>)
+when operations they do not support are called.</p>
+<p>The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file is
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  Other <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> are
+accepted as method arguments too.  Text I/O classes work with <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> data.</p>
+<p>Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is
+undefined.  Implementations may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> in this case.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> (and its subclasses) supports the iterator protocol, meaning
+that an <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> object can be iterated over yielding the lines in a
+stream.  Lines are defined slightly differently depending on whether the
+stream is a binary stream (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding
+character strings).  See <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> below.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> is also a context manager and therefore supports the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  In this example, <em>file</em> is closed after the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement’s suite is finished—even if an exception occurs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Spam and eggs!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> provides these data attributes and methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flush and close this stream. This method has no effect if the file is
+already closed. Once the file is closed, any operation on the file
+(e.g. reading or writing) will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>As a convenience, it is allowed to call this method more than once;
+only the first call, however, will have an effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.closed">
+<code class="descname">closed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stream is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.fileno">
+<code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the stream if it
+exists.  An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised if the IO object does not use a file
+descriptor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flush the write buffers of the stream if applicable.  This does nothing
+for read-only and non-blocking streams.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.isatty">
+<code class="descname">isatty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.isatty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stream is interactive (i.e., connected to
+a terminal/tty device).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.readable">
+<code class="descname">readable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.readable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stream can be read from.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>
+will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.readline">
+<code class="descname">readline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.readline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return one line from the stream.  If <em>size</em> is specified, at
+most <em>size</em> bytes will be read.</p>
+<p>The line terminator is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\n'</span></code> for binary files; for text files,
+the <em>newline</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> can be used to select the line
+terminator(s) recognized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.readlines">
+<code class="descname">readlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hint=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.readlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return a list of lines from the stream.  <em>hint</em> can be specified
+to control the number of lines read: no more lines will be read if the
+total size (in bytes/characters) of all lines so far exceeds <em>hint</em>.</p>
+<p>Note that it’s already possible to iterate on file objects using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span>
+<span class="pre">line</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">file:</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> without calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.readlines()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.seek">
+<code class="descname">seek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>offset</em>, <em>whence=SEEK_SET</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.seek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the stream position to the given byte <em>offset</em>.  <em>offset</em> is
+interpreted relative to the position indicated by <em>whence</em>.  The default
+value for <em>whence</em> is <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_SET</span></code>.  Values for <em>whence</em> are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_SET</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> – start of the stream (the default);
+<em>offset</em> should be zero or positive</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_CUR</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> – current stream position; <em>offset</em> may
+be negative</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_END</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> – end of the stream; <em>offset</em> is usually
+negative</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Return the new absolute position.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_*</span></code> constants.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Some operating systems could support additional values, like
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_HOLE</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_DATA</span></code>. The valid values
+for a file could depend on it being open in text or binary mode.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.seekable">
+<code class="descname">seekable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.seekable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stream supports random access.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.seek" title="io.IOBase.seek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.tell" title="io.IOBase.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.truncate" title="io.IOBase.truncate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code></a> will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.tell">
+<code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current stream position.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.truncate">
+<code class="descname">truncate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.truncate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resize the stream to the given <em>size</em> in bytes (or the current position
+if <em>size</em> is not specified).  The current stream position isn’t changed.
+This resizing can extend or reduce the current file size.  In case of
+extension, the contents of the new file area depend on the platform
+(on most systems, additional bytes are zero-filled).  The new file size
+is returned.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Windows will now zero-fill files when extending.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.writable">
+<code class="descname">writable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.writable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stream supports writing.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.truncate" title="io.IOBase.truncate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code></a> will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.writelines">
+<code class="descname">writelines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lines</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.writelines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a list of lines to the stream.  Line separators are not added, so it
+is usual for each of the lines provided to have a line separator at the
+end.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.IOBase.__del__">
+<code class="descname">__del__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IOBase.__del__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prepare for object destruction. <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> provides a default
+implementation of this method that calls the instance’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.RawIOBase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">RawIOBase</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for raw binary I/O.  It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>.  There is no
+public constructor.</p>
+<p>Raw binary I/O typically provides low-level access to an underlying OS
+device or API, and does not try to encapsulate it in high-level primitives
+(this is left to Buffered I/O and Text I/O, described later in this page).</p>
+<p>In addition to the attributes and methods from <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> provides the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.RawIOBase.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.RawIOBase.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read up to <em>size</em> bytes from the object and return them.  As a convenience,
+if <em>size</em> is unspecified or -1, all bytes until EOF are returned.
+Otherwise, only one system call is ever made.  Fewer than <em>size</em> bytes may
+be returned if the operating system call returns fewer than <em>size</em> bytes.</p>
+<p>If 0 bytes are returned, and <em>size</em> was not 0, this indicates end of file.
+If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>The default implementation defers to <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase.readall" title="io.RawIOBase.readall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readall()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase.readinto" title="io.RawIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.RawIOBase.readall">
+<code class="descname">readall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.RawIOBase.readall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using multiple
+calls to the stream if necessary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.RawIOBase.readinto">
+<code class="descname">readinto</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.RawIOBase.readinto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>b</em>, and return the
+number of bytes read.  For example, <em>b</em> might be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.
+If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes
+are available, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.RawIOBase.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.RawIOBase.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the given <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>, <em>b</em>, to the
+underlying raw stream, and return the number of
+bytes written.  This can be less than the length of <em>b</em> in
+bytes, depending on specifics of the underlying raw
+stream, and especially if it is in non-blocking mode.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is
+returned if the raw stream is set not to block and no single byte could
+be readily written to it.  The caller may release or mutate <em>b</em> after
+this method returns, so the implementation should only access <em>b</em>
+during the method call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">BufferedIOBase</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for binary streams that support some kind of buffering.
+It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>. There is no public constructor.</p>
+<p>The main difference with <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> is that methods <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto" title="io.BufferedIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.write" title="io.BufferedIOBase.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> will try (respectively) to read as much
+input as requested or to consume all given output, at the expense of
+making perhaps more than one system call.</p>
+<p>In addition, those methods can raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> if the
+underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode and cannot take or give
+enough data; unlike their <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> counterparts, they will
+never return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Besides, the <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method does not have a default
+implementation that defers to <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto" title="io.BufferedIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A typical <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> implementation should not inherit from a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> implementation, but wrap one, like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a> do.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> provides or overrides these methods and attribute in
+addition to those from <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase.raw">
+<code class="descname">raw</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.raw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The underlying raw stream (a <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> instance) that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> deals with.  This is not part of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> API and may not exist on some implementations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase.detach">
+<code class="descname">detach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.detach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Separate the underlying raw stream from the buffer and return it.</p>
+<p>After the raw stream has been detached, the buffer is in an unusable
+state.</p>
+<p>Some buffers, like <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a>, do not have the concept of a single
+raw stream to return from this method.  They raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.UnsupportedOperation" title="io.UnsupportedOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnsupportedOperation</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return up to <em>size</em> bytes.  If the argument is omitted, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+or negative, data is read and returned until EOF is reached.  An empty
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object is returned if the stream is already at EOF.</p>
+<p>If the argument is positive, and the underlying raw stream is not
+interactive, multiple raw reads may be issued to satisfy the byte count
+(unless EOF is reached first).  But for interactive raw streams, at most
+one raw read will be issued, and a short result does not imply that EOF is
+imminent.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> is raised if the underlying raw stream is in
+non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase.read1">
+<code class="descname">read1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.read1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return up to <em>size</em> bytes, with at most one call to the
+underlying raw stream’s <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase.read" title="io.RawIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> (or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase.readinto" title="io.RawIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a>) method.  This can be useful if you are
+implementing your own buffering on top of a <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+<p>If <em>size</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> (the default), an arbitrary number of bytes are
+returned (more than zero unless EOF is reached).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase.readinto">
+<code class="descname">readinto</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>b</em> and return the number of bytes read.
+For example, <em>b</em> might be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>, multiple reads may be issued to the underlying raw
+stream, unless the latter is interactive.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> is raised if the underlying raw stream is in non
+blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase.readinto1">
+<code class="descname">readinto1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>b</em>, using at most one call to
+the underlying raw stream’s <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase.read" title="io.RawIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> (or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase.readinto" title="io.RawIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a>) method. Return the number of bytes read.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> is raised if the underlying raw stream is in non
+blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedIOBase.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the given <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>, <em>b</em>, and return the number
+of bytes written (always equal to the length of <em>b</em> in bytes, since if
+the write fails an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> will be raised).  Depending on the
+actual implementation, these bytes may be readily written to the
+underlying stream, or held in a buffer for performance and latency
+reasons.</p>
+<p>When in non-blocking mode, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> is raised if the
+data needed to be written to the raw stream but it couldn’t accept
+all the data without blocking.</p>
+<p>The caller may release or mutate <em>b</em> after this method returns,
+so the implementation should only access <em>b</em> during the method call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raw-file-i-o">
+<h3>Raw File I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#raw-file-i-o" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.FileIO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">FileIO</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>closefd=True</em>, <em>opener=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.FileIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileIO</span></code></a> represents an OS-level file containing bytes data.
+It implements the <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> interface (and therefore the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> interface, too).</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> can be one of two things:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>a character string or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object representing the path to the
+file which will be opened. In this case closefd must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default)
+otherwise an error will be raised.</p></li>
+<li><p>an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level file descriptor
+to which the resulting <a class="reference internal" href="#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileIO</span></code></a> object will give access. When the
+FileIO object is closed this fd will be closed as well, unless <em>closefd</em>
+is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> for reading
+(default), writing, exclusive creation or appending. The file will be
+created if it doesn’t exist when opened for writing or appending; it will be
+truncated when opened for writing. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> will be raised if
+it already exists when opened for creating. Opening a file for creating
+implies writing, so this mode behaves in a similar way to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>. Add a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code> to the mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> (when called with a positive argument), <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> methods on this class will only make one system call.</p>
+<p>A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as <em>opener</em>. The underlying
+file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling <em>opener</em> with
+(<em>name</em>, <em>flags</em>). <em>opener</em> must return an open file descriptor (passing
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open</span></code></a> as <em>opener</em> results in functionality similar to passing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The newly created file is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> built-in function for examples on using the <em>opener</em>
+parameter.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>opener</em> parameter was added.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> mode was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The file is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to the attributes and methods from <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileIO</span></code></a> provides the following data
+attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.FileIO.mode">
+<code class="descname">mode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.FileIO.mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The mode as given in the constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.FileIO.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.FileIO.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file name.  This is the file descriptor of the file when no name is
+given in the constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="buffered-streams">
+<h3>Buffered Streams<a class="headerlink" href="#buffered-streams" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Buffered I/O streams provide a higher-level interface to an I/O device
+than raw I/O does.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.BytesIO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">BytesIO</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>initial_bytes</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BytesIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A stream implementation using an in-memory bytes buffer.  It inherits
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>.  The buffer is discarded when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>initial_bytes</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> that
+contains initial data.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a> provides or overrides these methods in addition to those
+from <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BytesIO.getbuffer">
+<code class="descname">getbuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BytesIO.getbuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the buffer
+without copying them.  Also, mutating the view will transparently
+update the contents of the buffer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">view</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getbuffer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">view</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;56&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;ab56ef&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>As long as the view exists, the <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a> object cannot be
+resized or closed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BytesIO.getvalue">
+<code class="descname">getvalue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BytesIO.getvalue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> containing the entire contents of the buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BytesIO.read1">
+<code class="descname">read1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BytesIO.read1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a>, this is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>size</em> argument is now optional.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BytesIO.readinto1">
+<code class="descname">readinto1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BytesIO.readinto1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a>, this is the same as <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto" title="io.BufferedIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.BufferedReader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">BufferedReader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>raw</em>, <em>buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A buffer providing higher-level access to a readable, sequential
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> object.  It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>.
+When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be
+requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal buffer.
+The buffered data can then be returned directly on subsequent reads.</p>
+<p>The constructor creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a> for the given readable
+<em>raw</em> stream and <em>buffer_size</em>.  If <em>buffer_size</em> is omitted,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE" title="io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a> provides or overrides these methods in addition to
+those from <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedReader.peek">
+<code class="descname">peek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedReader.peek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position.  At most one
+single read on the raw stream is done to satisfy the call. The number of
+bytes returned may be less or more than requested.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedReader.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedReader.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return <em>size</em> bytes, or if <em>size</em> is not given or negative, until
+EOF or if the read call would block in non-blocking mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedReader.read1">
+<code class="descname">read1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedReader.read1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return up to <em>size</em> bytes with only one call on the raw stream.
+If at least one byte is buffered, only buffered bytes are returned.
+Otherwise, one raw stream read call is made.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>size</em> argument is now optional.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.BufferedWriter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">BufferedWriter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>raw</em>, <em>buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A buffer providing higher-level access to a writeable, sequential
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> object.  It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>.
+When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an internal
+buffer.  The buffer will be written out to the underlying <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a>
+object under various conditions, including:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;</p></li>
+<li><p>when <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter.flush" title="io.BufferedWriter.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a> is called;</p></li>
+<li><p>when a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code> is requested (for <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRandom" title="io.BufferedRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRandom</span></code></a> objects);</p></li>
+<li><p>when the <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a> object is closed or destroyed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The constructor creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a> for the given writeable
+<em>raw</em> stream.  If the <em>buffer_size</em> is not given, it defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE" title="io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a> provides or overrides these methods in addition to
+those from <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedWriter.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedWriter.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> should be raised if the raw stream blocks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.BufferedWriter.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedWriter.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>, <em>b</em>, and return the
+number of bytes written.  When in non-blocking mode, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> is raised if the buffer needs to be written out but
+the raw stream blocks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.BufferedRandom">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">BufferedRandom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>raw</em>, <em>buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedRandom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A buffered interface to random access streams.  It inherits
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a>, and further supports
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code> functionality.</p>
+<p>The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw stream, given
+in the first argument.  If the <em>buffer_size</em> is omitted it defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE" title="io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRandom" title="io.BufferedRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRandom</span></code></a> is capable of anything <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a> can do.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.BufferedRWPair">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">BufferedRWPair</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>reader</em>, <em>writer</em>, <em>buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.BufferedRWPair" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A buffered I/O object combining two unidirectional <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a>
+objects – one readable, the other writeable – into a single bidirectional
+endpoint.  It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>reader</em> and <em>writer</em> are <a class="reference internal" href="#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code></a> objects that are readable and
+writeable respectively.  If the <em>buffer_size</em> is omitted it defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE" title="io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRWPair" title="io.BufferedRWPair"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRWPair</span></code></a> implements all of <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>’s methods
+except for <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase.detach" title="io.BufferedIOBase.detach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code></a>, which raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.UnsupportedOperation" title="io.UnsupportedOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnsupportedOperation</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRWPair" title="io.BufferedRWPair"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRWPair</span></code></a> does not attempt to synchronize accesses to
+its underlying raw streams.  You should not pass it the same object
+as reader and writer; use <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRandom" title="io.BufferedRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRandom</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id1">
+<h3>Text I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">TextIOBase</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for text streams.  This class provides a character and line based
+interface to stream I/O.  It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>.
+There is no public constructor.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> provides or overrides these data attributes and
+methods in addition to those from <a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase" title="io.IOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOBase</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.encoding">
+<code class="descname">encoding</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the encoding used to decode the stream’s bytes into
+strings, and to encode strings into bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.errors">
+<code class="descname">errors</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The error setting of the decoder or encoder.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.newlines">
+<code class="descname">newlines</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.newlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string, a tuple of strings, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, indicating the newlines
+translated so far.  Depending on the implementation and the initial
+constructor flags, this may not be available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.buffer">
+<code class="descname">buffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The underlying binary buffer (a <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> instance) that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> deals with.  This is not part of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> API and may not exist in some implementations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.detach">
+<code class="descname">detach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.detach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Separate the underlying binary buffer from the <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> and
+return it.</p>
+<p>After the underlying buffer has been detached, the <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> is
+in an unusable state.</p>
+<p>Some <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> implementations, like <a class="reference internal" href="#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a>, may not
+have the concept of an underlying buffer and calling this method will
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="#io.UnsupportedOperation" title="io.UnsupportedOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnsupportedOperation</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read and return at most <em>size</em> characters from the stream as a single
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.  If <em>size</em> is negative or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, reads until EOF.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.readline">
+<code class="descname">readline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read until newline or EOF and return a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>.  If the stream is
+already at EOF, an empty string is returned.</p>
+<p>If <em>size</em> is specified, at most <em>size</em> characters will be read.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.seek">
+<code class="descname">seek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>offset</em>, <em>whence=SEEK_SET</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.seek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the stream position to the given <em>offset</em>.  Behaviour depends on
+the <em>whence</em> parameter.  The default value for <em>whence</em> is
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_SET</span></code>.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_SET</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>: seek from the start of the stream
+(the default); <em>offset</em> must either be a number returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase.tell" title="io.TextIOBase.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase.tell()</span></code></a>, or zero.  Any other <em>offset</em> value
+produces undefined behaviour.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_CUR</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>: “seek” to the current position;
+<em>offset</em> must be zero, which is a no-operation (all other values
+are unsupported).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_END</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>: seek to the end of the stream;
+<em>offset</em> must be zero (all other values are unsupported).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Return the new absolute position as an opaque number.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_*</span></code> constants.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.tell">
+<code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current stream position as an opaque number.  The number
+does not usually represent a number of bytes in the underlying
+binary storage.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.TextIOBase.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOBase.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the string <em>s</em> to the stream and return the number of characters
+written.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.TextIOWrapper">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">TextIOWrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em>, <em>line_buffering=False</em>, <em>write_through=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOWrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A buffered text stream over a <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> binary stream.
+It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>encoding</em> gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be decoded or
+encoded with.  It defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding(False)</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>errors</em> is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding
+errors are to be handled.  Pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> to raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+exception if there is an encoding error (the default of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> has the same
+effect), or pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> to ignore errors.  (Note that ignoring encoding
+errors can lead to data loss.)  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> causes a replacement marker
+(such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>) to be inserted where there is malformed data.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> causes malformed data to be replaced by a
+backslashed escape sequence.  When writing, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xmlcharrefreplace'</span></code>
+(replace with the appropriate XML character reference)  or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'namereplace'</span></code>
+(replace with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{...}</span></code> escape sequences) can be used.  Any other error
+handling name that has been registered with
+<a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.register_error()</span></code></a> is also valid.</p>
+<p id="index-1"><em>newline</em> controls how line endings are handled.  It can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>.  It works as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When reading input from the stream, if <em>newline</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> mode is enabled.  Lines in the input can end in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>, and these are translated into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>
+before being returned to the caller.  If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, universal newlines
+mode is enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.
+If it has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated
+by the given string, and the line ending is returned to the caller
+untranslated.</p></li>
+<li><p>When writing output to the stream, if <em>newline</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>
+characters written are translated to the system default line separator,
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.linesep" title="os.linesep"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.linesep</span></code></a>.  If <em>newline</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, no translation
+takes place.  If <em>newline</em> is any of the other legal values, any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>
+characters written are translated to the given string.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>line_buffering</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code> is implied when a call to
+write contains a newline character or a carriage return.</p>
+<p>If <em>write_through</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, calls to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> are guaranteed
+not to be buffered: any data written on the <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>
+object is immediately handled to its underlying binary <em>buffer</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>write_through</em> argument has been added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The default <em>encoding</em> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding(False)</span></code>
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code>. Don’t change temporary the
+locale encoding using <a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.setlocale()</span></code></a>, use the current locale
+encoding instead of the user preferred encoding.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> provides these members in addition to those of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> and its parents:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.TextIOWrapper.line_buffering">
+<code class="descname">line_buffering</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOWrapper.line_buffering" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether line buffering is enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="io.TextIOWrapper.write_through">
+<code class="descname">write_through</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOWrapper.write_through" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether writes are passed immediately to the underlying binary
+buffer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure">
+<code class="descname">reconfigure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*[, encoding][, errors][, newline][,                      line_buffering][, write_through]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reconfigure this text stream using new settings for <em>encoding</em>,
+<em>errors</em>, <em>newline</em>, <em>line_buffering</em> and <em>write_through</em>.</p>
+<p>Parameters not specified keep current settings, except
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors='strict'</span></code> is used when <em>encoding</em> is specified but
+<em>errors</em> is not specified.</p>
+<p>It is not possible to change the encoding or newline if some data
+has already been read from the stream. On the other hand, changing
+encoding after write is possible.</p>
+<p>This method does an implicit stream flush before setting the
+new parameters.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.StringIO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">StringIO</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>initial_value=''</em>, <em>newline='\n'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.StringIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An in-memory stream for text I/O.  The text buffer is discarded when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+<p>The initial value of the buffer can be set by providing <em>initial_value</em>.
+If newline translation is enabled, newlines will be encoded as if by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase.write" title="io.TextIOBase.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>.  The stream is positioned at the start of
+the buffer.</p>
+<p>The <em>newline</em> argument works like that of <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>.
+The default is to consider only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> characters as ends of lines and
+to do no newline translation.  If <em>newline</em> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+newlines are written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> on all platforms, but universal
+newline decoding is still performed when reading.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a> provides this method in addition to those from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a> and its parents:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="io.StringIO.getvalue">
+<code class="descname">getvalue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#io.StringIO.getvalue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> containing the entire contents of the buffer.
+Newlines are decoded as if by <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOBase.read" title="io.TextIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>, although
+the stream position is not changed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span>
+
+<span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">output</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;First line.</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Second line.&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Retrieve file contents -- this will be</span>
+<span class="c1"># &#39;First line.\nSecond line.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">contents</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Close object and discard memory buffer --</span>
+<span class="c1"># .getvalue() will now raise an exception.</span>
+<span class="n">output</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt id="io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">io.</code><code class="descname">IncrementalNewlineDecoder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A helper codec that decodes newlines for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> mode.
+It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.IncrementalDecoder" title="codecs.IncrementalDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.IncrementalDecoder</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="performance">
+<h2>Performance<a class="headerlink" href="#performance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section discusses the performance of the provided concrete I/O
+implementations.</p>
+<div class="section" id="id2">
+<h3>Binary I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By reading and writing only large chunks of data even when the user asks for a
+single byte, buffered I/O hides any inefficiency in calling and executing the
+operating system’s unbuffered I/O routines.  The gain depends on the OS and the
+kind of I/O which is performed.  For example, on some modern OSes such as Linux,
+unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as buffered I/O.  The bottom line, however,
+is that buffered I/O offers predictable performance regardless of the platform
+and the backing device.  Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use
+buffered I/O rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id3">
+<h3>Text I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower than
+binary I/O over the same storage, because it requires conversions between
+unicode and binary data using a character codec.  This can become noticeable
+handling huge amounts of text data like large log files.  Also,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper.tell()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper.seek()</span></code> are both quite slow
+due to the reconstruction algorithm used.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a>, however, is a native in-memory unicode container and will
+exhibit similar speed to <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multi-threading">
+<h3>Multi-threading<a class="headerlink" href="#multi-threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileIO</span></code></a> objects are thread-safe to the extent that the operating system
+calls (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read(2)</span></code> under Unix) they wrap are thread-safe too.</p>
+<p>Binary buffered objects (instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRandom" title="io.BufferedRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRandom</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRWPair" title="io.BufferedRWPair"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRWPair</span></code></a>)
+protect their internal structures using a lock; it is therefore safe to call
+them from multiple threads at once.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> objects are not thread-safe.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reentrancy">
+<h3>Reentrancy<a class="headerlink" href="#reentrancy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Binary buffered objects (instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedWriter" title="io.BufferedWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRandom" title="io.BufferedRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRandom</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#io.BufferedRWPair" title="io.BufferedRWPair"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRWPair</span></code></a>)
+are not reentrant.  While reentrant calls will not happen in normal situations,
+they can arise from doing I/O in a <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> handler.  If a thread tries to
+re-enter a buffered object which it is already accessing, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>
+is raised.  Note this doesn’t prohibit a different thread from entering the
+buffered object.</p>
+<p>The above implicitly extends to text files, since the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function
+will wrap a buffered object inside a <a class="reference internal" href="#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>.  This includes
+standard streams and therefore affects the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> as
+well.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code> — Core tools for working with streams</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#overview">Overview</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-i-o">Text I/O</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-i-o">Binary I/O</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raw-i-o">Raw I/O</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#high-level-module-interface">High-level Module Interface</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#in-memory-streams">In-memory streams</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-hierarchy">Class hierarchy</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#i-o-base-classes">I/O Base Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raw-file-i-o">Raw File I/O</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#buffered-streams">Buffered Streams</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id1">Text I/O</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#performance">Performance</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2">Binary I/O</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3">Text I/O</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reentrancy">Reentrancy</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="os.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="time.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> — Time access and conversions</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/io.rst"
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ipaddress.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ipaddress.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..373e8d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ipaddress.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1399 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
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+  <div class="section" id="module-ipaddress">
+<span id="ipaddress-ipv4-ipv6-manipulation-library"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ipaddress" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/ipaddress.py">Lib/ipaddress.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and
+operate on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks.</p>
+<p>The functions and classes in this module make it straightforward to handle
+various tasks related to IP addresses, including checking whether or not two
+hosts are on the same subnet, iterating over all hosts in a particular
+subnet, checking whether or not a string represents a valid IP address or
+network definition, and so on.</p>
+<p>This is the full module API reference—for an overview and introduction, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../howto/ipaddress.html#ipaddress-howto"><span class="std std-ref">An introduction to the ipaddress module</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="convenience-factory-functions">
+<h2>Convenience factory functions<a class="headerlink" href="#convenience-factory-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> module provides factory functions to conveniently create
+IP addresses, networks and interfaces:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.ip_address">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">ip_address</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.ip_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address" title="ipaddress.IPv6Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Address</span></code></a> object depending on
+the IP address passed as argument.  Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be
+supplied; integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default.
+A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>address</em> does not represent a valid IPv4
+or IPv6 address.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;2001:db8::&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.ip_network">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">ip_network</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.ip_network" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> object depending on
+the IP address passed as argument.  <em>address</em> is a string or integer
+representing the IP network.  Either IPv4 or IPv6 networks may be supplied;
+integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default.  <em>strict</em>
+is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> constructor.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>address</em> does not represent a valid IPv4 or
+IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.0/28&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.168.0.0/28&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.ip_interface">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">ip_interface</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.ip_interface" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface" title="ipaddress.IPv4Interface"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Interface</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface" title="ipaddress.IPv6Interface"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Interface</span></code></a> object depending
+on the IP address passed as argument.  <em>address</em> is a string or integer
+representing the IP address.  Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be supplied;
+integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>address</em> does not represent a valid IPv4 or
+IPv6 address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>One downside of these convenience functions is that the need to handle both
+IPv4 and IPv6 formats means that error messages provide minimal
+information on the precise error, as the functions don’t know whether the
+IPv4 or IPv6 format was intended. More detailed error reporting can be
+obtained by calling the appropriate version specific class constructors
+directly.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ip-addresses">
+<h2>IP Addresses<a class="headerlink" href="#ip-addresses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="address-objects">
+<h3>Address objects<a class="headerlink" href="#address-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address" title="ipaddress.IPv6Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Address</span></code></a> objects share a lot of common
+attributes.  Some attributes that are only meaningful for IPv6 addresses are
+also implemented by <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a> objects, in order to make it easier to
+write code that handles both IP versions correctly.  Address objects are
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>, so they can be used as keys in dictionaries.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">IPv4Address</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct an IPv4 address.  An <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.AddressValueError" title="ipaddress.AddressValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AddressValueError</span></code></a> is raised if
+<em>address</em> is not a valid IPv4 address.</p>
+<p>The following constitutes a valid IPv4 address:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>A string in decimal-dot notation, consisting of four decimal integers in
+the inclusive range 0–255, separated by dots (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.168.0.1</span></code>). Each
+integer represents an octet (byte) in the address. Leading zeroes are
+tolerated only for values less than 8 (as there is no ambiguity
+between the decimal and octal interpretations of such strings).</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer that fits into 32 bits.</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer packed into a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object of length 4 (most
+significant octet first).</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3232235521</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\xC0\xA8\x00\x01</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.version">
+<code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The appropriate version number: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code> for IPv4, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code> for IPv6.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.max_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">max_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.max_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The total number of bits in the address representation for this
+version: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">32</span></code> for IPv4, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">128</span></code> for IPv6.</p>
+<p>The prefix defines the number of leading bits in an  address that
+are compared to determine whether or not an address is part of a
+network.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.compressed">
+<code class="descname">compressed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.compressed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.exploded">
+<code class="descname">exploded</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.exploded" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string representation in dotted decimal notation. Leading zeroes
+are never included in the representation.</p>
+<p>As IPv4 does not define a shorthand notation for addresses with octets
+set to zero, these two attributes are always the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(addr)</span></code>
+for IPv4 addresses. Exposing these attributes makes it easier to
+write display code that can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.packed">
+<code class="descname">packed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.packed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The binary representation of this address - a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object of
+the appropriate length (most significant octet first). This is 4 bytes
+for IPv4 and 16 bytes for IPv6.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.reverse_pointer">
+<code class="descname">reverse_pointer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.reverse_pointer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the reverse DNS PTR record for the IP address, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;127.0.0.1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse_pointer</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;2001:db8::1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse_pointer</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is the name that could be used for performing a PTR lookup, not the
+resolved hostname itself.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_multicast">
+<code class="descname">is_multicast</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_multicast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the address is reserved for multicast use.  See
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3171.html"><strong>RFC 3171</strong></a> (for IPv4) or <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2373.html"><strong>RFC 2373</strong></a> (for IPv6).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private">
+<code class="descname">is_private</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the address is allocated for private networks.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml">iana-ipv4-special-registry</a> (for IPv4) or <a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml">iana-ipv6-special-registry</a>
+(for IPv6).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global">
+<code class="descname">is_global</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the address is allocated for public networks.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml">iana-ipv4-special-registry</a> (for IPv4) or <a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml">iana-ipv6-special-registry</a>
+(for IPv6).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_unspecified">
+<code class="descname">is_unspecified</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_unspecified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the address is unspecified.  See <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5735.html"><strong>RFC 5735</strong></a> (for IPv4)
+or <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2373.html"><strong>RFC 2373</strong></a> (for IPv6).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_reserved">
+<code class="descname">is_reserved</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_reserved" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the address is otherwise IETF reserved.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_loopback">
+<code class="descname">is_loopback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_loopback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this is a loopback address.  See <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3330.html"><strong>RFC 3330</strong></a> (for IPv4)
+or <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2373.html"><strong>RFC 2373</strong></a> (for IPv6).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_link_local">
+<code class="descname">is_link_local</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_link_local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the address is reserved for link-local usage.  See
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3927.html"><strong>RFC 3927</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">IPv6Address</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct an IPv6 address.  An <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.AddressValueError" title="ipaddress.AddressValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AddressValueError</span></code></a> is raised if
+<em>address</em> is not a valid IPv6 address.</p>
+<p>The following constitutes a valid IPv6 address:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>A string consisting of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each
+group representing 16 bits.  The groups are separated by colons.
+This describes an <em>exploded</em> (longhand) notation.  The string can
+also be <em>compressed</em> (shorthand notation) by various means.  See
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4291.html"><strong>RFC 4291</strong></a> for details.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def&quot;</span></code> can be compressed to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;::abc:7:def&quot;</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer that fits into 128 bits.</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer packed into a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object of length 16, big-endian.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv6Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2001:db8::1000&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv6Address(&#39;2001:db8::1000&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.compressed">
+<code class="descname">compressed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.compressed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>The short form of the address representation, with leading zeroes in
+groups omitted and the longest sequence of groups consisting entirely of
+zeroes collapsed to a single empty group.</p>
+<p>This is also the value returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(addr)</span></code> for IPv6 addresses.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.exploded">
+<code class="descname">exploded</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.exploded" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>The long form of the address representation, with all leading zeroes and
+groups consisting entirely of zeroes included.</p>
+<p>For the following attributes, see the corresponding documentation of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.packed">
+<code class="descname">packed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.packed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer">
+<code class="descname">reverse_pointer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.version">
+<code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.max_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">max_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.max_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_multicast">
+<code class="descname">is_multicast</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_multicast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private">
+<code class="descname">is_private</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global">
+<code class="descname">is_global</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_unspecified">
+<code class="descname">is_unspecified</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_unspecified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_reserved">
+<code class="descname">is_reserved</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_reserved" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback">
+<code class="descname">is_loopback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_link_local">
+<code class="descname">is_link_local</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_link_local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>is_global</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_site_local">
+<code class="descname">is_site_local</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_site_local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the address is reserved for site-local usage.  Note that
+the site-local address space has been deprecated by <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3879.html"><strong>RFC 3879</strong></a>. Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_private</span></code></a> to test if this address is in the
+space of unique local addresses as defined by <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4193.html"><strong>RFC 4193</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped">
+<code class="descname">ipv4_mapped</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses (starting with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">::FFFF/96</span></code>), this property will report the embedded IPv4 address.
+For any other address, this property will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.sixtofour">
+<code class="descname">sixtofour</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.sixtofour" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For addresses that appear to be 6to4 addresses  (starting with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2002::/16</span></code>) as defined by <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3056.html"><strong>RFC 3056</strong></a>, this property will report
+the embedded IPv4 address.  For any other address, this property will
+be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Address.teredo">
+<code class="descname">teredo</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address.teredo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For addresses that appear to be Teredo addresses (starting with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2001::/32</span></code>) as defined by <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4380.html"><strong>RFC 4380</strong></a>, this property will report
+the embedded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(server,</span> <span class="pre">client)</span></code> IP address pair.  For any other
+address, this property will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conversion-to-strings-and-integers">
+<h3>Conversion to Strings and Integers<a class="headerlink" href="#conversion-to-strings-and-integers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To interoperate with networking interfaces such as the socket module,
+addresses must be converted to strings or integers. This is handled using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> builtin functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">3232235521</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv6Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;::1&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;::1&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv6Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;::1&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="operators">
+<h3>Operators<a class="headerlink" href="#operators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Address objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise, operators can
+only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with
+IPv6).</p>
+<div class="section" id="comparison-operators">
+<h4>Comparison operators<a class="headerlink" href="#comparison-operators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison operators.  Some
+examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="arithmetic-operators">
+<h4>Arithmetic operators<a class="headerlink" href="#arithmetic-operators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Integers can be added to or subtracted from address objects.  Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;127.0.0.5&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;126.255.255.255&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;255.255.255.255&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ipaddress.AddressValueError</span>: <span class="n">4294967296 (&gt;= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ip-network-definitions">
+<h2>IP Network definitions<a class="headerlink" href="#ip-network-definitions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> objects provide a mechanism
+for defining and inspecting IP network definitions.  A network definition
+consists of a <em>mask</em> and a <em>network address</em>, and as such defines a range of
+IP addresses that equal the network address when masked (binary AND) with the
+mask.  For example, a network definition with the mask <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">255.255.255.0</span></code> and
+the network address <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.168.1.0</span></code> consists of IP addresses in the inclusive
+range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.168.1.0</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.168.1.255</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="prefix-net-mask-and-host-mask">
+<h3>Prefix, net mask and host mask<a class="headerlink" href="#prefix-net-mask-and-host-mask" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks.  A <em>prefix</em>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/&lt;nbits&gt;</span></code> is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits are set in
+the network mask.  A <em>net mask</em> is an IP address with some number of
+high-order bits set.  Thus the prefix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/24</span></code> is equivalent to the net mask
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">255.255.255.0</span></code> in IPv4, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ffff:ff00::</span></code> in IPv6.  In addition, a
+<em>host mask</em> is the logical inverse of a <em>net mask</em>, and is sometimes used
+(for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a network mask.  The
+host mask equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/24</span></code> in IPv4 is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0.0.255</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="network-objects">
+<h3>Network objects<a class="headerlink" href="#network-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network
+objects as well.  In addition, network objects implement additional attributes.
+All of these are common between <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a>,
+so to avoid duplication they are only documented for <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a>.
+Network objects are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>, so they can be used as keys in
+dictionaries.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">IPv4Network</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct an IPv4 network definition.  <em>address</em> can be one of the following:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask, separated by
+a slash (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>).  The IP address is the network address, and the mask
+can be either a single number, which means it’s a <em>prefix</em>, or a string
+representation of an IPv4 address.  If it’s the latter, the mask is
+interpreted as a <em>net mask</em> if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a
+<em>host mask</em> if it starts with a zero field, with the single exception of
+an all-zero mask which is treated as a <em>net mask</em>.  If no mask is provided,
+it’s considered to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/32</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example, the following <em>address</em> specifications are equivalent:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.168.1.0/24</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>An integer that fits into 32 bits.  This is equivalent to a
+single-address network, with the network address being <em>address</em> and
+the mask being <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/32</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer packed into a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object of length 4, big-endian.
+The interpretation is similar to an integer <em>address</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address
+description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a 4-bytes packed
+integer, or an existing IPv4Address object; and the netmask is either
+an integer representing the prefix length (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">24</span></code>) or a string
+representing the prefix mask (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">255.255.255.0</span></code>).</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.AddressValueError" title="ipaddress.AddressValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AddressValueError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>address</em> is not a valid IPv4
+address.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.NetmaskValueError" title="ipaddress.NetmaskValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NetmaskValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the mask is not valid for
+an IPv4 address.</p>
+<p>If <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and host bits are set in the supplied address,
+then <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  Otherwise, the host bits are masked out
+to determine the appropriate network address.</p>
+<p>Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other network/address
+objects will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the argument’s IP version is
+incompatible to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the two-tuple form for the <em>address</em> constructor parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.version">
+<code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.max_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">max_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.max_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_multicast">
+<code class="descname">is_multicast</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_multicast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_private">
+<code class="descname">is_private</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_private" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_unspecified">
+<code class="descname">is_unspecified</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_unspecified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_reserved">
+<code class="descname">is_reserved</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_reserved" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_loopback">
+<code class="descname">is_loopback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_loopback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_link_local">
+<code class="descname">is_link_local</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.is_link_local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they are true
+for both the network address and the broadcast address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.network_address">
+<code class="descname">network_address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.network_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The network address for the network. The network address and the
+prefix length together uniquely define a network.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.broadcast_address">
+<code class="descname">broadcast_address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.broadcast_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The broadcast address for the network. Packets sent to the broadcast
+address should be received by every host on the network.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.hostmask">
+<code class="descname">hostmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.hostmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The host mask, as an <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.netmask">
+<code class="descname">netmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.netmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The net mask, as an <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">with_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.compressed">
+<code class="descname">compressed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.compressed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.exploded">
+<code class="descname">exploded</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.exploded" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representation of the network, with the mask in prefix
+notation.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_prefixlen</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compressed</span></code> are always the same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(network)</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exploded</span></code> uses the exploded form the network address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_netmask">
+<code class="descname">with_netmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_netmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representation of the network, with the mask in net mask
+notation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_hostmask">
+<code class="descname">with_hostmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.with_hostmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representation of the network, with the mask in host mask
+notation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.num_addresses">
+<code class="descname">num_addresses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.num_addresses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The total number of addresses in the network.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Length of the network prefix, in bits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.hosts">
+<code class="descname">hosts</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.hosts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The usable
+hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the
+network address itself and the network broadcast address.  For networks
+with a mask length of 31, the network address and network broadcast
+address are also included in the result.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/29&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hosts</span><span class="p">())</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;), IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.2&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.3&#39;), IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.4&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.5&#39;), IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.6&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/31&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hosts</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.0&#39;), IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.overlaps">
+<code class="descname">overlaps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.overlaps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this network is partly or wholly contained in <em>other</em> or
+<em>other</em> is wholly contained in this network.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.address_exclude">
+<code class="descname">address_exclude</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>network</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.address_exclude" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the given
+<em>network</em> from this one.  Returns an iterator of network objects.
+Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>network</em> is not completely contained in
+this network.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/28&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/32&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">address_exclude</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n2</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.8/29&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.4/30&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.2/31&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/32&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnets">
+<code class="descname">subnets</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefixlen_diff=1</em>, <em>new_prefix=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnets" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The subnets that join to make the current network definition, depending
+on the argument values.  <em>prefixlen_diff</em> is the amount our prefix
+length should be increased by.  <em>new_prefix</em> is the desired new
+prefix of the subnets; it must be larger than our prefix.  One and
+only one of <em>prefixlen_diff</em> and <em>new_prefix</em> must be set.  Returns an
+iterator of network objects.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subnets</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/25&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.128/25&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subnets</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prefixlen_diff</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/26&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.64/26&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.128/26&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.192/26&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subnets</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_prefix</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">26</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/26&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.64/26&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.128/26&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.192/26&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subnets</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_prefix</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;new prefix must be longer&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">new prefix must be longer</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subnets</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_prefix</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/25&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.128/25&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet">
+<code class="descname">supernet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefixlen_diff=1</em>, <em>new_prefix=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The supernet containing this network definition, depending on the
+argument values.  <em>prefixlen_diff</em> is the amount our prefix length
+should be decreased by.  <em>new_prefix</em> is the desired new prefix of
+the supernet; it must be smaller than our prefix.  One and only one
+of <em>prefixlen_diff</em> and <em>new_prefix</em> must be set.  Returns a single
+network object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supernet</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/23&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supernet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prefixlen_diff</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.0.0/22&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supernet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_prefix</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.0.0/20&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnet_of">
+<code class="descname">subnet_of</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnet_of" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <em>True</em> if this network is a subnet of <em>other</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.1.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.1.128/30&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subnet_of</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet_of">
+<code class="descname">supernet_of</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet_of" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <em>True</em> if this network is a supernet of <em>other</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.1.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.168.1.128/30&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supernet_of</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Network.compare_networks">
+<code class="descname">compare_networks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.compare_networks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compare this network to <em>other</em>.  In this comparison only the network
+addresses are considered; host bits aren’t.  Returns either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/32&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare_networks</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.2/32&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">-1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/32&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare_networks</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/32&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/32&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare_networks</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip_network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.1/32&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>It uses the same ordering and comparison algorithm as “&lt;”, “==”, and “&gt;”</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">IPv6Network</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct an IPv6 network definition.  <em>address</em> can be one of the following:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix length,
+separated by a slash (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>).  The IP address is the network address,
+and the prefix length must be a single number, the <em>prefix</em>.  If no
+prefix length is provided, it’s considered to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/128</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported.  That means
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2001:db00::0/24</span></code> is a valid argument while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::</span></code>
+not.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>An integer that fits into 128 bits.  This is equivalent to a
+single-address network, with the network address being <em>address</em> and
+the mask being <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/128</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer packed into a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object of length 16, big-endian.
+The interpretation is similar to an integer <em>address</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address
+description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a 16-bytes packed
+integer, or an existing IPv6Address object; and the netmask is an
+integer representing the prefix length.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.AddressValueError" title="ipaddress.AddressValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AddressValueError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>address</em> is not a valid IPv6
+address.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.NetmaskValueError" title="ipaddress.NetmaskValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NetmaskValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the mask is not valid for
+an IPv6 address.</p>
+<p>If <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and host bits are set in the supplied address,
+then <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  Otherwise, the host bits are masked out
+to determine the appropriate network address.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the two-tuple form for the <em>address</em> constructor parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.version">
+<code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.max_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">max_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.max_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_multicast">
+<code class="descname">is_multicast</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_multicast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_private">
+<code class="descname">is_private</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_private" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_unspecified">
+<code class="descname">is_unspecified</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_unspecified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_reserved">
+<code class="descname">is_reserved</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_reserved" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_loopback">
+<code class="descname">is_loopback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_loopback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_link_local">
+<code class="descname">is_link_local</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_link_local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.network_address">
+<code class="descname">network_address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.network_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.broadcast_address">
+<code class="descname">broadcast_address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.broadcast_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.hostmask">
+<code class="descname">hostmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.hostmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.netmask">
+<code class="descname">netmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.netmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">with_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.compressed">
+<code class="descname">compressed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.compressed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.exploded">
+<code class="descname">exploded</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.exploded" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_netmask">
+<code class="descname">with_netmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_netmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_hostmask">
+<code class="descname">with_hostmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.with_hostmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.num_addresses">
+<code class="descname">num_addresses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.num_addresses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.hosts">
+<code class="descname">hosts</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.hosts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The usable
+hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the
+Subnet-Router anycast address.  For networks with a mask length of 127,
+the Subnet-Router anycast address is also included in the result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.overlaps">
+<code class="descname">overlaps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.overlaps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.address_exclude">
+<code class="descname">address_exclude</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>network</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.address_exclude" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnets">
+<code class="descname">subnets</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefixlen_diff=1</em>, <em>new_prefix=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnets" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet">
+<code class="descname">supernet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefixlen_diff=1</em>, <em>new_prefix=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnet_of">
+<code class="descname">subnet_of</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.subnet_of" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet_of">
+<code class="descname">supernet_of</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.supernet_of" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.compare_networks">
+<code class="descname">compare_networks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.compare_networks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_site_local">
+<code class="descname">is_site_local</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network.is_site_local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is true
+for both the network address and the broadcast address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id1">
+<h3>Operators<a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Network objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise, operators can
+only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with
+IPv6).</p>
+<div class="section" id="logical-operators">
+<h4>Logical operators<a class="headerlink" href="#logical-operators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.
+Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="iteration">
+<h4>Iteration<a class="headerlink" href="#iteration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to the
+network.  For iteration, <em>all</em> hosts are returned, including unusable hosts
+(for usable hosts, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network.hosts" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network.hosts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hosts()</span></code></a> method).  An
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/28&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">addr</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.0&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.2&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.3&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.4&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.5&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.6&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.7&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.8&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.9&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.10&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.11&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.12&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.13&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.14&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.15&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="networks-as-containers-of-addresses">
+<h4>Networks as containers of addresses<a class="headerlink" href="#networks-as-containers-of-addresses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Network objects can act as containers of addresses.  Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/28&#39;</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.0&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/28&#39;</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.15&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.6&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/28&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.3.6&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/28&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interface-objects">
+<h2>Interface objects<a class="headerlink" href="#interface-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Interface objects are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>, so they can be used as keys in
+dictionaries.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Interface">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">IPv4Interface</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct an IPv4 interface.  The meaning of <em>address</em> is as in the
+constructor of <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a>, except that arbitrary host addresses
+are always accepted.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface" title="ipaddress.IPv4Interface"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Interface</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a>, so it inherits
+all the attributes from that class.  In addition, the following attributes
+are available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Interface.ip">
+<code class="descname">ip</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.ip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The address (<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a>) without network information.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IPv4Interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.5/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.5&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Interface.network">
+<code class="descname">network</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.network" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The network (<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a>) this interface belongs to.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IPv4Interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.5/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">network</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">with_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representation of the interface with the mask in prefix notation.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IPv4Interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.5/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_prefixlen</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;192.0.2.5/24&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_netmask">
+<code class="descname">with_netmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_netmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representation of the interface with the network as a net mask.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IPv4Interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.5/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_netmask</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_hostmask">
+<code class="descname">with_hostmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface.with_hostmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representation of the interface with the network as a host mask.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IPv4Interface</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.5/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">interface</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_hostmask</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Interface">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">IPv6Interface</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct an IPv6 interface.  The meaning of <em>address</em> is as in the
+constructor of <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a>, except that arbitrary host addresses
+are always accepted.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface" title="ipaddress.IPv6Interface"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Interface</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address" title="ipaddress.IPv6Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Address</span></code></a>, so it inherits
+all the attributes from that class.  In addition, the following attributes
+are available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Interface.ip">
+<code class="descname">ip</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.ip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Interface.network">
+<code class="descname">network</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.network" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_prefixlen">
+<code class="descname">with_prefixlen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_prefixlen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_netmask">
+<code class="descname">with_netmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_netmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_hostmask">
+<code class="descname">with_hostmask</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Interface.with_hostmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Interface" title="ipaddress.IPv4Interface"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Interface</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="id2">
+<h3>Operators<a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Interface objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise, operators
+can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with
+IPv6).</p>
+<div class="section" id="id3">
+<h4>Logical operators<a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.</p>
+<p>For equality comparison (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>), both the IP address and network
+must be the same for the objects to be equal.  An interface will not compare
+equal to any address or network object.</p>
+<p>For ordering (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, etc) the rules are different.  Interface and
+address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the address
+objects will always sort before the interface objects.  Two interface objects
+are first compared by their networks and, if those are the same, then by their
+IP addresses.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-module-level-functions">
+<h2>Other Module Level Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#other-module-level-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module also provides the following module level functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">v4_int_to_packed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order.
+<em>address</em> is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP address.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an
+IPv4 IP address.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ip_address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3221225985</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Address(&#39;192.0.2.1&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">v4_int_to_packed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3221225985</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\xc0\x00\x02\x01&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">v6_int_to_packed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order.
+<em>address</em> is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP address.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an
+IPv6 IP address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.summarize_address_range">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">summarize_address_range</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>last</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.summarize_address_range" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first and last
+IP addresses.  <em>first</em> is the first <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address" title="ipaddress.IPv6Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Address</span></code></a> in the range and <em>last</em> is the last <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Address" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Address</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Address" title="ipaddress.IPv6Address"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Address</span></code></a> in the range.  A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised if
+<em>first</em> or <em>last</em> are not IP addresses or are not of the same version.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>last</em> is not greater than <em>first</em> or if
+<em>first</em> address version is not 4 or 6.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">ipaddr</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">ipaddr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">summarize_address_range</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.130&#39;</span><span class="p">))]</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/25&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.128/31&#39;), IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.130/32&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.collapse_addresses">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">collapse_addresses</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>addresses</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.collapse_addresses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator of the collapsed <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> objects.  <em>addresses</em> is an iterator of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> objects.  A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is
+raised if <em>addresses</em> contains mixed version objects.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">ipaddr</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">ipaddr</span> <span class="ow">in</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">collapse_addresses</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/25&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.128/25&#39;</span><span class="p">)])]</span>
+<span class="go">[IPv4Network(&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key">
+<code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">get_mixed_type_key</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses.  Address
+and Network objects are not sortable by default; they’re fundamentally
+different, so the expression:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;192.0.2.0/24&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>doesn’t make sense.  There are some times however, where you may wish to
+have <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> sort these anyway.  If you need to do this, you can use
+this function as the <em>key</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>obj</em> is either a network or address object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="custom-exceptions">
+<h2>Custom Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#custom-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the
+module defines the following exceptions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ipaddress.AddressValueError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">AddressValueError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ValueError</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.AddressValueError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Any value error related to the address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ipaddress.NetmaskValueError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ipaddress.</code><code class="descname">NetmaskValueError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ValueError</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress.NetmaskValueError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Any value error related to the net mask.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code> — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#convenience-factory-functions">Convenience factory functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ip-addresses">IP Addresses</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#address-objects">Address objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conversion-to-strings-and-integers">Conversion to Strings and Integers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operators">Operators</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparison-operators">Comparison operators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#arithmetic-operators">Arithmetic operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ip-network-definitions">IP Network definitions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#prefix-net-mask-and-host-mask">Prefix, net mask and host mask</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#network-objects">Network objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id1">Operators</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logical-operators">Logical operators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iteration">Iteration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#networks-as-containers-of-addresses">Networks as containers of addresses</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interface-objects">Interface objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2">Operators</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3">Logical operators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-module-level-functions">Other Module Level Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#custom-exceptions">Custom Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xmlrpc.server.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code> — Basic XML-RPC servers</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mm.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Multimedia Services</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="networking-and-interprocess-communication">
+<span id="ipc"></span><h1>Networking and Interprocess Communication<a class="headerlink" href="#networking-and-interprocess-communication" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide mechanisms for
+networking and inter-processes communication.</p>
+<p>Some modules only work for two processes that are on the same machine, e.g.
+<a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="mmap.html#module-mmap" title="mmap: Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a>.  Other modules support networking protocols
+that two or more processes can use to communicate across machines.</p>
+<p>The list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-itertools">
+<span id="itertools-functions-creating-iterators-for-efficient-looping"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping<a class="headerlink" href="#module-itertools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module implements a number of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> building blocks inspired
+by constructs from APL, Haskell, and SML.  Each has been recast in a form
+suitable for Python.</p>
+<p>The module standardizes a core set of fast, memory efficient tools that are
+useful by themselves or in combination.  Together, they form an “iterator
+algebra” making it possible to construct specialized tools succinctly and
+efficiently in pure Python.</p>
+<p>For instance, SML provides a tabulation tool: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabulate(f)</span></code> which produces a
+sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(0),</span> <span class="pre">f(1),</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>.  The same effect can be achieved in Python
+by combining <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code></a> to form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(f,</span> <span class="pre">count())</span></code>.</p>
+<p>These tools and their built-in counterparts also work well with the high-speed
+functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module.  For example, the multiplication
+operator can be mapped across two vectors to form an efficient dot-product:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum(map(operator.mul,</span> <span class="pre">vector1,</span> <span class="pre">vector2))</span></code>.</p>
+<p><strong>Infinite iterators:</strong></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Iterator</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Arguments</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Results</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Example</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>start, [step]</p></td>
+<td><p>start, start+step, start+2*step, …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count(10)</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">10</span> <span class="pre">11</span> <span class="pre">12</span> <span class="pre">13</span> <span class="pre">14</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.cycle" title="itertools.cycle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cycle()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p</p></td>
+<td><p>p0, p1, … plast, p0, p1, …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cycle('ABCD')</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">C</span> <span class="pre">D</span> <span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">C</span> <span class="pre">D</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.repeat" title="itertools.repeat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repeat()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>elem [,n]</p></td>
+<td><p>elem, elem, elem, … endlessly or up to n times</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repeat(10,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">10</span> <span class="pre">10</span> <span class="pre">10</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><strong>Iterators terminating on the shortest input sequence:</strong></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Iterator</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Arguments</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Results</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Example</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p [,func]</p></td>
+<td><p>p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate([1,2,3,4,5])</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">3</span> <span class="pre">6</span> <span class="pre">10</span> <span class="pre">15</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.chain" title="itertools.chain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chain()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p, q, …</p></td>
+<td><p>p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chain('ABC',</span> <span class="pre">'DEF')</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">C</span> <span class="pre">D</span> <span class="pre">E</span> <span class="pre">F</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.chain.from_iterable" title="itertools.chain.from_iterable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chain.from_iterable()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>iterable</p></td>
+<td><p>p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chain.from_iterable(['ABC',</span> <span class="pre">'DEF'])</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">C</span> <span class="pre">D</span> <span class="pre">E</span> <span class="pre">F</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.compress" title="itertools.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>data, selectors</p></td>
+<td><p>(d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress('ABCDEF',</span> <span class="pre">[1,0,1,0,1,1])</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">C</span> <span class="pre">E</span> <span class="pre">F</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.dropwhile" title="itertools.dropwhile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dropwhile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>pred, seq</p></td>
+<td><p>seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when pred fails</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dropwhile(lambda</span> <span class="pre">x:</span> <span class="pre">x&lt;5,</span> <span class="pre">[1,4,6,4,1])</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">6</span> <span class="pre">4</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.filterfalse" title="itertools.filterfalse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filterfalse()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>pred, seq</p></td>
+<td><p>elements of seq where pred(elem) is false</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filterfalse(lambda</span> <span class="pre">x:</span> <span class="pre">x%2,</span> <span class="pre">range(10))</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">4</span> <span class="pre">6</span> <span class="pre">8</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>iterable[, key]</p></td>
+<td><p>sub-iterators grouped by value of key(v)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islice()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>seq, [start,] stop [, step]</p></td>
+<td><p>elements from seq[start:stop:step]</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islice('ABCDEFG',</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">C</span> <span class="pre">D</span> <span class="pre">E</span> <span class="pre">F</span> <span class="pre">G</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.starmap" title="itertools.starmap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starmap()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>func, seq</p></td>
+<td><p>func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starmap(pow,</span> <span class="pre">[(2,5),</span> <span class="pre">(3,2),</span> <span class="pre">(10,3)])</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">32</span> <span class="pre">9</span> <span class="pre">1000</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.takewhile" title="itertools.takewhile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">takewhile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>pred, seq</p></td>
+<td><p>seq[0], seq[1], until pred fails</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">takewhile(lambda</span> <span class="pre">x:</span> <span class="pre">x&lt;5,</span> <span class="pre">[1,4,6,4,1])</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">4</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.tee" title="itertools.tee"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tee()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>it, n</p></td>
+<td><p>it1, it2, … itn  splits one iterator into n</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.zip_longest" title="itertools.zip_longest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip_longest()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p, q, …</p></td>
+<td><p>(p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), …</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip_longest('ABCD',</span> <span class="pre">'xy',</span> <span class="pre">fillvalue='-')</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span> <span class="pre">Ax</span> <span class="pre">By</span> <span class="pre">C-</span> <span class="pre">D-</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><strong>Combinatoric iterators:</strong></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Iterator</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Arguments</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Results</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.product" title="itertools.product"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p, q, … [repeat=1]</p></td>
+<td><p>cartesian product, equivalent to a nested for-loop</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.permutations" title="itertools.permutations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">permutations()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p[, r]</p></td>
+<td><p>r-length tuples, all possible orderings, no repeated elements</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.combinations" title="itertools.combinations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p, r</p></td>
+<td><p>r-length tuples, in sorted order, no repeated elements</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.combinations_with_replacement" title="itertools.combinations_with_replacement"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations_with_replacement()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>p, r</p></td>
+<td><p>r-length tuples, in sorted order, with repeated elements</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product('ABCD',</span> <span class="pre">repeat=2)</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AA</span> <span class="pre">AB</span> <span class="pre">AC</span> <span class="pre">AD</span> <span class="pre">BA</span> <span class="pre">BB</span> <span class="pre">BC</span> <span class="pre">BD</span> <span class="pre">CA</span> <span class="pre">CB</span> <span class="pre">CC</span> <span class="pre">CD</span> <span class="pre">DA</span> <span class="pre">DB</span> <span class="pre">DC</span> <span class="pre">DD</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">permutations('ABCD',</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AB</span> <span class="pre">AC</span> <span class="pre">AD</span> <span class="pre">BA</span> <span class="pre">BC</span> <span class="pre">BD</span> <span class="pre">CA</span> <span class="pre">CB</span> <span class="pre">CD</span> <span class="pre">DA</span> <span class="pre">DB</span> <span class="pre">DC</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations('ABCD',</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AB</span> <span class="pre">AC</span> <span class="pre">AD</span> <span class="pre">BC</span> <span class="pre">BD</span> <span class="pre">CD</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations_with_replacement('ABCD',</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AA</span> <span class="pre">AB</span> <span class="pre">AC</span> <span class="pre">AD</span> <span class="pre">BB</span> <span class="pre">BC</span> <span class="pre">BD</span> <span class="pre">CC</span> <span class="pre">CD</span> <span class="pre">DD</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="section" id="itertool-functions">
+<span id="itertools-functions"></span><h2>Itertool functions<a class="headerlink" href="#itertool-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following module functions all construct and return iterators. Some provide
+streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by functions or
+loops that truncate the stream.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.accumulate">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">accumulate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>func</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.accumulate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums, or accumulated
+results of other binary functions (specified via the optional
+<em>func</em> argument).  If <em>func</em> is supplied, it should be a function
+of two arguments. Elements of the input <em>iterable</em> may be any type
+that can be accepted as arguments to <em>func</em>. (For example, with
+the default operation of addition, elements may be any addable
+type including <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a>.) If the input iterable is empty, the
+output iterable will also be empty.</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Return running totals&#39;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) --&gt; 1 3 6 10 15</span>
+    <span class="c1"># accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) --&gt; 1 2 6 24 120</span>
+    <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">total</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">total</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">total</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are a number of uses for the <em>func</em> argument.  It can be set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> for a running minimum, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> for a running maximum, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="operator.html#operator.mul" title="operator.mul"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.mul()</span></code></a> for a running product.  Amortization tables can be
+built by accumulating interest and applying payments.  First-order
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation">recurrence relations</a>
+can be modeled by supplying the initial value in the iterable and using only
+the accumulated total in <em>func</em> argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">))</span>     <span class="c1"># running product</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">))</span>              <span class="c1"># running maximum</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]</span>
+
+<span class="go"># Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 4 annual payments of 90</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cashflows</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cashflows</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">bal</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">bal</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mf">1.05</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">pmt</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[1000, 960.0, 918.0, 873.9000000000001, 827.5950000000001]</span>
+
+<span class="go"># Chaotic recurrence relation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_map</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logistic_map</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">3.8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x0</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">inputs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">36</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># only the initial value is used</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.2f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inputs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logistic_map</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;0.40&#39;, &#39;0.91&#39;, &#39;0.30&#39;, &#39;0.81&#39;, &#39;0.60&#39;, &#39;0.92&#39;, &#39;0.29&#39;, &#39;0.79&#39;, &#39;0.63&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;0.88&#39;, &#39;0.39&#39;, &#39;0.90&#39;, &#39;0.33&#39;, &#39;0.84&#39;, &#39;0.52&#39;, &#39;0.95&#39;, &#39;0.18&#39;, &#39;0.57&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;0.93&#39;, &#39;0.25&#39;, &#39;0.71&#39;, &#39;0.79&#39;, &#39;0.63&#39;, &#39;0.88&#39;, &#39;0.39&#39;, &#39;0.91&#39;, &#39;0.32&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;0.83&#39;, &#39;0.54&#39;, &#39;0.95&#39;, &#39;0.20&#39;, &#39;0.60&#39;, &#39;0.91&#39;, &#39;0.30&#39;, &#39;0.80&#39;, &#39;0.60&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a> for a similar function that returns only the
+final accumulated value.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the optional <em>func</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.chain">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">chain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*iterables</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.chain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable until it is
+exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until all of the iterables are
+exhausted.  Used for treating consecutive sequences as a single sequence.
+Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">chain</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># chain(&#39;ABC&#39;, &#39;DEF&#39;) --&gt; A B C D E F</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="itertools.chain.from_iterable">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">chain.</code><code class="descname">from_iterable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.chain.from_iterable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alternate constructor for <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.chain" title="itertools.chain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chain()</span></code></a>.  Gets chained inputs from a
+single iterable argument that is evaluated lazily.  Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">from_iterable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># chain.from_iterable([&#39;ABC&#39;, &#39;DEF&#39;]) --&gt; A B C D E F</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.combinations">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">combinations</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>r</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.combinations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>r</em> length subsequences of elements from the input <em>iterable</em>.</p>
+<p>Combinations are emitted in lexicographic sort order.  So, if the
+input <em>iterable</em> is sorted, the combination tuples will be produced
+in sorted order.</p>
+<p>Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
+value.  So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeat
+values in each combination.</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">combinations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># combinations(&#39;ABCD&#39;, 2) --&gt; AB AC AD BC BD CD</span>
+    <span class="c1"># combinations(range(4), 3) --&gt; 012 013 023 123</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span>
+    <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span>
+        <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The code for <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.combinations" title="itertools.combinations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations()</span></code></a> can be also expressed as a subsequence
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.permutations" title="itertools.permutations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">permutations()</span></code></a> after filtering entries where the elements are not
+in sorted order (according to their position in the input pool):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">combinations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">permutations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The number of items returned is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n!</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">r!</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">(n-r)!</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code>
+or zero when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.combinations_with_replacement">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">combinations_with_replacement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>r</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.combinations_with_replacement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>r</em> length subsequences of elements from the input <em>iterable</em>
+allowing individual elements to be repeated more than once.</p>
+<p>Combinations are emitted in lexicographic sort order.  So, if the
+input <em>iterable</em> is sorted, the combination tuples will be produced
+in sorted order.</p>
+<p>Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
+value.  So if the input elements are unique, the generated combinations
+will also be unique.</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">combinations_with_replacement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># combinations_with_replacement(&#39;ABC&#39;, 2) --&gt; AA AB AC BB BC CC</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span>
+    <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">r</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span>
+        <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The code for <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.combinations_with_replacement" title="itertools.combinations_with_replacement"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations_with_replacement()</span></code></a> can be also expressed as
+a subsequence of <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.product" title="itertools.product"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product()</span></code></a> after filtering entries where the elements
+are not in sorted order (according to their position in the input pool):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">combinations_with_replacement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">product</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The number of items returned is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(n+r-1)!</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">r!</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">(n-1)!</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.compress">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>selectors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that filters elements from <em>data</em> returning only those that
+have a corresponding element in <em>selectors</em> that evaluates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+Stops when either the <em>data</em> or <em>selectors</em> iterables has been exhausted.
+Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># compress(&#39;ABCDEF&#39;, [1,0,1,0,1,1]) --&gt; A C E F</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.count">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start=0</em>, <em>step=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values starting with number <em>start</em>. Often
+used as an argument to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> to generate consecutive data points.
+Also, used with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> to add sequence numbers.  Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">step</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># count(10) --&gt; 10 11 12 13 14 ...</span>
+    <span class="c1"># count(2.5, 0.5) -&gt; 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">start</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">n</span>
+        <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">step</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When counting with floating point numbers, better accuracy can sometimes be
+achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(start</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">step</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">i</span>
+<span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">count())</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added <em>step</em> argument and allowed non-integer arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.cycle">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">cycle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.cycle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator returning elements from the iterable and saving a copy of each.
+When the iterable is exhausted, return elements from the saved copy.  Repeats
+indefinitely.  Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cycle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># cycle(&#39;ABCD&#39;) --&gt; A B C D A B C D A B C D ...</span>
+    <span class="n">saved</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+        <span class="n">saved</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">saved</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">saved</span><span class="p">:</span>
+              <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note, this member of the toolkit may require significant auxiliary storage
+(depending on the length of the iterable).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.dropwhile">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">dropwhile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>predicate</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.dropwhile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that drops elements from the iterable as long as the predicate
+is true; afterwards, returns every element.  Note, the iterator does not produce
+<em>any</em> output until the predicate first becomes false, so it may have a lengthy
+start-up time.  Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dropwhile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">predicate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># dropwhile(lambda x: x&lt;5, [1,4,6,4,1]) --&gt; 6 4 1</span>
+    <span class="n">iterable</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">predicate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.filterfalse">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">filterfalse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>predicate</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.filterfalse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that filters elements from iterable returning only those for
+which the predicate is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. If <em>predicate</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, return the items
+that are false. Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">filterfalse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">predicate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># filterfalse(lambda x: x%2, range(10)) --&gt; 0 2 4 6 8</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">predicate</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">predicate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bool</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">predicate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.groupby">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">groupby</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>key=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.groupby" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that returns consecutive keys and groups from the <em>iterable</em>.
+The <em>key</em> is a function computing a key value for each element.  If not
+specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <em>key</em> defaults to an identity function and returns
+the element unchanged.  Generally, the iterable needs to already be sorted on
+the same key function.</p>
+<p>The operation of <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code></a> is similar to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uniq</span></code> filter in Unix.  It
+generates a break or new group every time the value of the key function changes
+(which is why it is usually necessary to have sorted the data using the same key
+function).  That behavior differs from SQL’s GROUP BY which aggregates common
+elements regardless of their input order.</p>
+<p>The returned group is itself an iterator that shares the underlying iterable
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code></a>.  Because the source is shared, when the <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code></a>
+object is advanced, the previous group is no longer visible.  So, if that data
+is needed later, it should be stored as a list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">groups</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="n">uniquekeys</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">keyfunc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">g</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keyfunc</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">groups</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">))</span>      <span class="c1"># Store group iterator as a list</span>
+    <span class="n">uniquekeys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code></a> is roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">groupby</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># [k for k, g in groupby(&#39;AAAABBBCCDAABBB&#39;)] --&gt; A B C D A B</span>
+    <span class="c1"># [list(g) for k, g in groupby(&#39;AAAABBBCCD&#39;)] --&gt; AAAA BBB CC D</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keyfunc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">key</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tgtkey</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currkey</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currvalue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__next__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">id</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currkey</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tgtkey</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currvalue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># Exit on StopIteration</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currkey</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keyfunc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currvalue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tgtkey</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currkey</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currkey</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_grouper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tgtkey</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">id</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_grouper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tgtkey</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">id</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="nb">id</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currkey</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">tgtkey</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currvalue</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currvalue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">return</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currkey</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keyfunc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currvalue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.islice">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">islice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>stop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.islice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">islice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>start</em>, <em>stop</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>step</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable. If <em>start</em> is
+non-zero, then elements from the iterable are skipped until start is reached.
+Afterward, elements are returned consecutively unless <em>step</em> is set higher than
+one which results in items being skipped.  If <em>stop</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then iteration
+continues until the iterator is exhausted, if at all; otherwise, it stops at the
+specified position.  Unlike regular slicing, <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islice()</span></code></a> does not support
+negative values for <em>start</em>, <em>stop</em>, or <em>step</em>.  Can be used to extract related
+fields from data where the internal structure has been flattened (for example, a
+multi-line report may list a name field on every third line).  Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># islice(&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;, 2) --&gt; A B</span>
+    <span class="c1"># islice(&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;, 2, 4) --&gt; C D</span>
+    <span class="c1"># islice(&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;, 2, None) --&gt; C D E F G</span>
+    <span class="c1"># islice(&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;, 0, None, 2) --&gt; A C E G</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">step</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">step</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">step</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">nexti</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Consume *iterable* up to the *start* position.</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">pass</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">nexti</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+                <span class="n">nexti</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Consume to *stop*.</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>start</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then iteration starts at zero. If <em>step</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+then the step defaults to one.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.permutations">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">permutations</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>r=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.permutations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return successive <em>r</em> length permutations of elements in the <em>iterable</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>r</em> is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then <em>r</em> defaults to the length
+of the <em>iterable</em> and all possible full-length permutations
+are generated.</p>
+<p>Permutations are emitted in lexicographic sort order.  So, if the
+input <em>iterable</em> is sorted, the permutation tuples will be produced
+in sorted order.</p>
+<p>Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
+value.  So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeat
+values in each permutation.</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">permutations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># permutations(&#39;ABCD&#39;, 2) --&gt; AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC</span>
+    <span class="c1"># permutations(range(3)) --&gt; 012 021 102 120 201 210</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">r</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span>
+    <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">cycles</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+            <span class="n">cycles</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">cycles</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+                <span class="n">cycles</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+            <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">j</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cycles</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+                <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+                <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">])</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The code for <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.permutations" title="itertools.permutations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">permutations()</span></code></a> can be also expressed as a subsequence of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.product" title="itertools.product"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product()</span></code></a>, filtered to exclude entries with repeated elements (those
+from the same position in the input pool):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">permutations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">r</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">product</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The number of items returned is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n!</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">(n-r)!</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code>
+or zero when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.product">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">product</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*iterables</em>, <em>repeat=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.product" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cartesian product of input iterables.</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to nested for-loops in a generator expression. For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product(A,</span> <span class="pre">B)</span></code> returns the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">((x,y)</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">B)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The nested loops cycle like an odometer with the rightmost element advancing
+on every iteration.  This pattern creates a lexicographic ordering so that if
+the input’s iterables are sorted, the product tuples are emitted in sorted
+order.</p>
+<p>To compute the product of an iterable with itself, specify the number of
+repetitions with the optional <em>repeat</em> keyword argument.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product(A,</span> <span class="pre">repeat=4)</span></code> means the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product(A,</span> <span class="pre">A,</span> <span class="pre">A,</span> <span class="pre">A)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This function is roughly equivalent to the following code, except that the
+actual implementation does not build up intermediate results in memory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">product</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># product(&#39;ABCD&#39;, &#39;xy&#39;) --&gt; Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy</span>
+    <span class="c1"># product(range(2), repeat=3) --&gt; 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111</span>
+    <span class="n">pools</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">repeat</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[[]]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pools</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">result</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">prod</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prod</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.repeat">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">repeat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>times</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.repeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that returns <em>object</em> over and over again. Runs indefinitely
+unless the <em>times</em> argument is specified. Used as argument to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> for
+invariant parameters to the called function.  Also used with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> to
+create an invariant part of a tuple record.</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">times</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># repeat(10, 3) --&gt; 10 10 10</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">times</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">object</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">times</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">object</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A common use for <em>repeat</em> is to supply a stream of constant values to <em>map</em>
+or <em>zip</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.starmap">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">starmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.starmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that computes the function using arguments obtained from
+the iterable.  Used instead of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> when argument parameters are already
+grouped in tuples from a single iterable (the data has been “pre-zipped”).  The
+difference between <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.starmap" title="itertools.starmap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starmap()</span></code></a> parallels the distinction
+between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function(a,b)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function(*c)</span></code>. Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">starmap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) --&gt; 32 9 1000</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.takewhile">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">takewhile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>predicate</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.takewhile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that returns elements from the iterable as long as the
+predicate is true.  Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">takewhile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">predicate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># takewhile(lambda x: x&lt;5, [1,4,6,4,1]) --&gt; 1 4</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">predicate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.tee">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">tee</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>n=2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.tee" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>n</em> independent iterators from a single iterable.</p>
+<p>The following Python code helps explain what <em>tee</em> does (although the actual
+implementation is more complex and uses only a single underlying
+<abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr> queue).</p>
+<p>Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">deques</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mydeque</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">mydeque</span><span class="p">:</span>             <span class="c1"># when the local deque is empty</span>
+                <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                    <span class="n">newval</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># fetch a new value and</span>
+                <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                    <span class="k">return</span>
+                <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">deques</span><span class="p">:</span>        <span class="c1"># load it to all the deques</span>
+                    <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newval</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">mydeque</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">deques</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.tee" title="itertools.tee"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tee()</span></code></a> has made a split, the original <em>iterable</em> should not be
+used anywhere else; otherwise, the <em>iterable</em> could get advanced without
+the tee objects being informed.</p>
+<p>This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending on how
+much temporary data needs to be stored). In general, if one iterator uses
+most or all of the data before another iterator starts, it is faster to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.tee" title="itertools.tee"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tee()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="itertools.zip_longest">
+<code class="descclassname">itertools.</code><code class="descname">zip_longest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*iterables</em>, <em>fillvalue=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#itertools.zip_longest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables. If the
+iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in with <em>fillvalue</em>.
+Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.  Roughly equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">zip_longest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fillvalue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># zip_longest(&#39;ABCD&#39;, &#39;xy&#39;, fillvalue=&#39;-&#39;) --&gt; Ax By C- D-</span>
+    <span class="n">iterators</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">num_active</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterators</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">num_active</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterators</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">num_active</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+                <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">num_active</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                    <span class="k">return</span>
+                <span class="n">iterators</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fillvalue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fillvalue</span>
+            <span class="n">values</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.zip_longest" title="itertools.zip_longest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip_longest()</span></code></a>
+function should be wrapped with something that limits the number of calls
+(for example <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islice()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#itertools.takewhile" title="itertools.takewhile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">takewhile()</span></code></a>).  If not specified,
+<em>fillvalue</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="itertools-recipes">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Itertools Recipes<a class="headerlink" href="#itertools-recipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section shows recipes for creating an extended toolset using the existing
+itertools as building blocks.</p>
+<p>The extended tools offer the same high performance as the underlying toolset.
+The superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one at a time
+rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at once. Code volume is
+kept small by linking the tools together in a functional style which helps
+eliminate temporary variables.  High speed is retained by preferring
+“vectorized” building blocks over the use of for-loops and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>s
+which incur interpreter overhead.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">take</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Return first n items of the iterable as a list&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">prepend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Prepend a single value in front of an iterator&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) -&gt; 1 2 3 4</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">chain</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tabulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Return function(0), function(1), ...&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Return an iterator over the last n items&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># tail(3, &#39;ABCDEFG&#39;) --&gt; E F G</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxlen</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">consume</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely.&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># feed the entire iterator into a zero-length deque</span>
+        <span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxlen</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># advance to the empty slice starting at position n</span>
+        <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterator</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">nth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Returns the nth item or a default value&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">all_equal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">quantify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pred</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Count how many times the predicate is true&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pred</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">padnone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Returns the sequence elements and then returns None indefinitely.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Useful for emulating the behavior of the built-in map() function.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">chain</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">ncycles</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Returns the sequence elements n times&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">chain</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_iterable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dotproduct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vec1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">vec2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">vec1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">vec2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">flatten</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">listOfLists</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Flatten one level of nesting&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">chain</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_iterable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">listOfLists</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">repeatfunc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">times</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Repeat calls to func with specified arguments.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Example:  repeatfunc(random.random)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">times</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">starmap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">starmap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">times</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">pairwise</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;s -&gt; (s0,s1), (s1,s2), (s2, s3), ...&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">grouper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fillvalue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Collect data into fixed-length chunks or blocks&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># grouper(&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;, 3, &#39;x&#39;) --&gt; ABC DEF Gxx&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">n</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">zip_longest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fillvalue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">fillvalue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">roundrobin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;roundrobin(&#39;ABC&#39;, &#39;D&#39;, &#39;EF&#39;) --&gt; A D E B F C&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Recipe credited to George Sakkis</span>
+    <span class="n">num_active</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">nexts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cycle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__next__</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterables</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">num_active</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">for</span> <span class="nb">next</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">nexts</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Remove the iterator we just exhausted from the cycle.</span>
+            <span class="n">num_active</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+            <span class="n">nexts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cycle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">nexts</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num_active</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">partition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pred</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Use a predicate to partition entries into false entries and true entries&#39;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># partition(is_odd, range(10)) --&gt; 0 2 4 6 8   and  1 3 5 7 9</span>
+    <span class="n">t1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">filterfalse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pred</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pred</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">powerset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;powerset([1,2,3]) --&gt; () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">chain</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_iterable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combinations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">unique_everseen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;List unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen.&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># unique_everseen(&#39;AAAABBBCCDAABBB&#39;) --&gt; A B C D</span>
+    <span class="c1"># unique_everseen(&#39;ABBCcAD&#39;, str.lower) --&gt; A B C D</span>
+    <span class="n">seen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">seen_add</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">seen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">filterfalse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">seen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__contains__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">seen_add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">k</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">k</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seen</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">seen_add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">element</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">unique_justseen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;List unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen.&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># unique_justseen(&#39;AAAABBBCCDAABBB&#39;) --&gt; A B C D A B</span>
+    <span class="c1"># unique_justseen(&#39;ABBCcAD&#39;, str.lower) --&gt; A B C A D</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">iter_except</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exception</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot; Call a function repeatedly until an exception is raised.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Converts a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface.</span>
+<span class="sd">    Like builtins.iter(func, sentinel) but uses an exception instead</span>
+<span class="sd">    of a sentinel to end the loop.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Examples:</span>
+<span class="sd">        iter_except(functools.partial(heappop, h), IndexError)   # priority queue iterator</span>
+<span class="sd">        iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError)                         # non-blocking dict iterator</span>
+<span class="sd">        iter_except(d.popleft, IndexError)                       # non-blocking deque iterator</span>
+<span class="sd">        iter_except(q.get_nowait, Queue.Empty)                   # loop over a producer Queue</span>
+<span class="sd">        iter_except(s.pop, KeyError)                             # non-blocking set iterator</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">first</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">()</span>            <span class="c1"># For database APIs needing an initial cast to db.first()</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">first_true</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pred</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Returns the first true value in the iterable.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    If no true value is found, returns *default*</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    If *pred* is not None, returns the first item</span>
+<span class="sd">    for which pred(item) is true.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># first_true([a,b,c], x) --&gt; a or b or c or x</span>
+    <span class="c1"># first_true([a,b], x, f) --&gt; a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pred</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">random_product</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Random selection from itertools.product(*args, **kwds)&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">pools</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">repeat</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pools</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">random_permutation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">r</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">random_combination</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">random_combination_with_replacement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Random selection from itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">randrange</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">nth_combination</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">index</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Equivalent to list(combinations(iterable, r))[index]&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">pool</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>
+    <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="n">k</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">min</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">k</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">c</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">IndexError</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="o">//</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="n">c</span>
+            <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">//</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note, many of the above recipes can be optimized by replacing global lookups
+with local variables defined as default values.  For example, the
+<em>dotproduct</em> recipe can be written as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dotproduct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vec1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">vec2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mul</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">vec1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">vec2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-json">
+<span id="json-json-encoder-and-decoder"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> — JSON encoder and decoder<a class="headerlink" href="#module-json" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/json/__init__.py">Lib/json/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://json.org">JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)</a>, specified by
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7159.html"><strong>RFC 7159</strong></a> (which obsoletes <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4627.html"><strong>RFC 4627</strong></a>) and by
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-404.htm">ECMA-404</a>,
+is a lightweight data interchange format inspired by
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript">JavaScript</a> object literal syntax
+(although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#rfc-errata" id="id1">1</a> ).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
+<a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>Encoding basic Python object hierarchies:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)}])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;[&quot;foo&quot;, {&quot;bar&quot;: [&quot;baz&quot;, null, 1.0, 2]}]&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s2">foo</span><span class="se">\b</span><span class="s2">ar&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;\&quot;foo\bar&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u1234</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;\u1234&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;\\&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="n">sort_keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">{&quot;a&quot;: 0, &quot;b&quot;: 0, &quot;c&quot;: 0}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">io</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dump</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;streaming API&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;[&quot;streaming API&quot;]&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Compact encoding:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;4&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;6&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">}],</span> <span class="n">separators</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;[1,2,3,{&quot;4&quot;:5,&quot;6&quot;:7}]&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Pretty printing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;4&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;6&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="n">sort_keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">indent</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">{</span>
+<span class="go">    &quot;4&quot;: 5,</span>
+<span class="go">    &quot;6&quot;: 7</span>
+<span class="go">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Decoding JSON:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;[&quot;foo&quot;, {&quot;bar&quot;:[&quot;baz&quot;, null, 1.0, 2]}]&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;foo&#39;, {&#39;bar&#39;: [&#39;baz&#39;, None, 1.0, 2]}]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">&quot;foo</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">bar&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&quot;foo\x08ar&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">io</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;[&quot;streaming API&quot;]&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">io</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;streaming API&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Specializing JSON object decoding:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">as_complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dct</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__complex__&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dct</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dct</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;real&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">dct</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;imag&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">dct</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{&quot;__complex__&quot;: true, &quot;real&quot;: 1, &quot;imag&quot;: 2}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">object_hook</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">as_complex</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(1+2j)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parse_float</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.1&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Extending <a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONEncoder" title="json.JSONEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONEncoder</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ComplexEncoder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">JSONEncoder</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">real</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imag</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># Let the base class default method raise the TypeError</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">JSONEncoder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ComplexEncoder</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;[2.0, 1.0]&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ComplexEncoder</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;[2.0, 1.0]&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ComplexEncoder</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iterencode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;[2.0&#39;, &#39;, 1.0&#39;, &#39;]&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-json.tool" title="json.tool: A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.tool</span></code></a> from the shell to validate and pretty-print:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s1">&#39;{&quot;json&quot;:&quot;obj&quot;}&#39;</span> <span class="p">|</span> python -m json.tool
+<span class="go">{</span>
+<span class="go">    &quot;json&quot;: &quot;obj&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">}</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s1">&#39;{1.2:3.4}&#39;</span> <span class="p">|</span> python -m json.tool
+<span class="go">Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#json-commandline"><span class="std std-ref">Command Line Interface</span></a> for detailed documentation.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>JSON is a subset of <a class="reference external" href="http://yaml.org/">YAML</a> 1.2.  The JSON produced by
+this module’s default settings (in particular, the default <em>separators</em>
+value) is also a subset of YAML 1.0 and 1.1.  This module can thus also be
+used as a YAML serializer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="basic-usage">
+<h2>Basic Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="json.dump">
+<code class="descclassname">json.</code><code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>skipkeys=False</em>, <em>ensure_ascii=True</em>, <em>check_circular=True</em>, <em>allow_nan=True</em>, <em>cls=None</em>, <em>indent=None</em>, <em>separators=None</em>, <em>default=None</em>, <em>sort_keys=False</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Serialize <em>obj</em> as a JSON formatted stream to <em>fp</em> (a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.write()</span></code>-supporting
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file-like object</span></a>) using this <a class="reference internal" href="#py-to-json-table"><span class="std std-ref">conversion table</span></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>skipkeys</em> is true (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), then dict keys that are not
+of a basic type (<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) will be skipped instead of raising a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module always produces <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects, not
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects. Therefore, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fp.write()</span></code> must support <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+input.</p>
+<p>If <em>ensure_ascii</em> is true (the default), the output is guaranteed to
+have all incoming non-ASCII characters escaped.  If <em>ensure_ascii</em> is
+false, these characters will be output as-is.</p>
+<p>If <em>check_circular</em> is false (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>), then the circular
+reference check for container types will be skipped and a circular reference
+will result in an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> (or worse).</p>
+<p>If <em>allow_nan</em> is false (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>), then it will be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> to serialize out of range <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> values (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nan</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-inf</span></code>) in strict compliance of the JSON specification.
+If <em>allow_nan</em> is true, their JavaScript equivalents (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code>) will be used.</p>
+<p>If <em>indent</em> is a non-negative integer or string, then JSON array elements and
+object members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  An indent level
+of 0, negative, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code> will only insert newlines.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default)
+selects the most compact representation. Using a positive integer indent
+indents that many spaces per level.  If <em>indent</em> is a string (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\t&quot;</span></code>),
+that string is used to indent each level.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Allow strings for <em>indent</em> in addition to integers.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If specified, <em>separators</em> should be an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(item_separator,</span> <span class="pre">key_separator)</span></code>
+tuple.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',</span> <span class="pre">',</span> <span class="pre">':</span> <span class="pre">')</span></code> if <em>indent</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',',</span> <span class="pre">':</span> <span class="pre">')</span></code> otherwise.  To get the most compact JSON representation,
+you should specify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',',</span> <span class="pre">':')</span></code> to eliminate whitespace.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',',</span> <span class="pre">':</span> <span class="pre">')</span></code> as default if <em>indent</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If specified, <em>default</em> should be a function that gets called for objects that
+can’t otherwise be serialized.  It should return a JSON encodable version of
+the object or raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  If not specified, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+is raised.</p>
+<p>If <em>sort_keys</em> is true (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), then the output of
+dictionaries will be sorted by key.</p>
+<p>To use a custom <a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONEncoder" title="json.JSONEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONEncoder</span></code></a> subclass (e.g. one that overrides the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default()</span></code> method to serialize additional types), specify it with the
+<em>cls</em> kwarg; otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONEncoder" title="json.JSONEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONEncoder</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>All optional parameters are now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a>, JSON is not a framed protocol,
+so trying to serialize multiple objects with repeated calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#json.dump" title="json.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a> using the same <em>fp</em> will result in an invalid JSON file.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="json.dumps">
+<code class="descclassname">json.</code><code class="descname">dumps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>skipkeys=False</em>, <em>ensure_ascii=True</em>, <em>check_circular=True</em>, <em>allow_nan=True</em>, <em>cls=None</em>, <em>indent=None</em>, <em>separators=None</em>, <em>default=None</em>, <em>sort_keys=False</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.dumps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Serialize <em>obj</em> to a JSON formatted <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> using this <a class="reference internal" href="#py-to-json-table"><span class="std std-ref">conversion
+table</span></a>.  The arguments have the same meaning as in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#json.dump" title="json.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Keys in key/value pairs of JSON are always of the type <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>. When
+a dictionary is converted into JSON, all the keys of the dictionary are
+coerced to strings. As a result of this, if a dictionary is converted
+into JSON and then back into a dictionary, the dictionary may not equal
+the original one. That is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads(dumps(x))</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code> if x has non-string
+keys.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="json.load">
+<code class="descclassname">json.</code><code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>cls=None</em>, <em>object_hook=None</em>, <em>parse_float=None</em>, <em>parse_int=None</em>, <em>parse_constant=None</em>, <em>object_pairs_hook=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deserialize <em>fp</em> (a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.read()</span></code>-supporting <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text file</span></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a> containing a JSON document) to a Python object using
+this <a class="reference internal" href="#json-to-py-table"><span class="std std-ref">conversion table</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>object_hook</em> is an optional function that will be called with the result of
+any object literal decoded (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>).  The return value of
+<em>object_hook</em> will be used instead of the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  This feature can be used
+to implement custom decoders (e.g. <a class="reference external" href="http://www.jsonrpc.org">JSON-RPC</a>
+class hinting).</p>
+<p><em>object_pairs_hook</em> is an optional function that will be called with the
+result of any object literal decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The
+return value of <em>object_pairs_hook</em> will be used instead of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.
+If <em>object_hook</em> is also defined, the <em>object_pairs_hook</em> takes priority.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added support for <em>object_pairs_hook</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>parse_float</em>, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON
+float to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(num_str)</span></code>.
+This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON floats
+(e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p><em>parse_int</em>, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON int
+to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(num_str)</span></code>.  This can
+be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON integers
+(e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p><em>parse_constant</em>, if specified, will be called with one of the following
+strings: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-Infinity'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Infinity'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NaN'</span></code>.
+This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers
+are encountered.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span><em>parse_constant</em> doesn’t get called on ‘null’, ‘true’, ‘false’ anymore.</p>
+</div>
+<p>To use a custom <a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONDecoder" title="json.JSONDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecoder</span></code></a> subclass, specify it with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cls</span></code>
+kwarg; otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONDecoder" title="json.JSONDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecoder</span></code></a> is used.  Additional keyword arguments
+will be passed to the constructor of the class.</p>
+<p>If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONDecodeError" title="json.JSONDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecodeError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>All optional parameters are now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>fp</em> can now be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a>. The input encoding should be
+UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="json.loads">
+<code class="descclassname">json.</code><code class="descname">loads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>cls=None</em>, <em>object_hook=None</em>, <em>parse_float=None</em>, <em>parse_int=None</em>, <em>parse_constant=None</em>, <em>object_pairs_hook=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.loads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deserialize <em>s</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>
+instance containing a JSON document) to a Python object using this
+<a class="reference internal" href="#json-to-py-table"><span class="std std-ref">conversion table</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The other arguments have the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="#json.load" title="json.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a>, except
+<em>encoding</em> which is ignored and deprecated.</p>
+<p>If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONDecodeError" title="json.JSONDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecodeError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>s</em> can now be of type <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>. The
+input encoding should be UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="encoders-and-decoders">
+<h2>Encoders and Decoders<a class="headerlink" href="#encoders-and-decoders" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecoder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">json.</code><code class="descname">JSONDecoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>object_hook=None</em>, <em>parse_float=None</em>, <em>parse_int=None</em>, <em>parse_constant=None</em>, <em>strict=True</em>, <em>object_pairs_hook=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Simple JSON decoder.</p>
+<p>Performs the following translations in decoding by default:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="json-to-py-table">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 44%" />
+<col style="width: 56%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>JSON</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>object</p></td>
+<td><p>dict</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>array</p></td>
+<td><p>list</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>string</p></td>
+<td><p>str</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>number (int)</p></td>
+<td><p>int</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>number (real)</p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>true</p></td>
+<td><p>True</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>false</p></td>
+<td><p>False</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>null</p></td>
+<td><p>None</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>It also understands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code> as their
+corresponding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code> values, which is outside the JSON spec.</p>
+<p><em>object_hook</em>, if specified, will be called with the result of every JSON
+object decoded and its return value will be used in place of the given
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  This can be used to provide custom deserializations (e.g. to
+support JSON-RPC class hinting).</p>
+<p><em>object_pairs_hook</em>, if specified will be called with the result of every
+JSON object decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The return value of
+<em>object_pairs_hook</em> will be used instead of the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  This
+feature can be used to implement custom decoders.  If <em>object_hook</em> is also
+defined, the <em>object_pairs_hook</em> takes priority.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added support for <em>object_pairs_hook</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>parse_float</em>, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON
+float to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(num_str)</span></code>.
+This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON floats
+(e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p><em>parse_int</em>, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON int
+to be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(num_str)</span></code>.  This can
+be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON integers
+(e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p><em>parse_constant</em>, if specified, will be called with one of the following
+strings: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-Infinity'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Infinity'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NaN'</span></code>.
+This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers
+are encountered.</p>
+<p>If <em>strict</em> is false (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> is the default), then control characters
+will be allowed inside strings.  Control characters in this context are
+those with character codes in the 0–31 range, including <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\t'</span></code> (tab),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\0'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONDecodeError" title="json.JSONDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecodeError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>All parameters are now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecoder.decode">
+<code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecoder.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the Python representation of <em>s</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instance
+containing a JSON document).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONDecodeError" title="json.JSONDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecodeError</span></code></a> will be raised if the given JSON document is not
+valid.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecoder.raw_decode">
+<code class="descname">raw_decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecoder.raw_decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode a JSON document from <em>s</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> beginning with a
+JSON document) and return a 2-tuple of the Python representation
+and the index in <em>s</em> where the document ended.</p>
+<p>This can be used to decode a JSON document from a string that may have
+extraneous data at the end.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="json.JSONEncoder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">json.</code><code class="descname">JSONEncoder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>skipkeys=False</em>, <em>ensure_ascii=True</em>, <em>check_circular=True</em>, <em>allow_nan=True</em>, <em>sort_keys=False</em>, <em>indent=None</em>, <em>separators=None</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONEncoder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extensible JSON encoder for Python data structures.</p>
+<p>Supports the following objects and types by default:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="py-to-json-table">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 73%" />
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Python</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>JSON</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>dict</p></td>
+<td><p>object</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>list, tuple</p></td>
+<td><p>array</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>str</p></td>
+<td><p>string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>int, float, int- &amp; float-derived Enums</p></td>
+<td><p>number</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>True</p></td>
+<td><p>true</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>False</p></td>
+<td><p>false</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>None</p></td>
+<td><p>null</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for int- and float-derived Enum classes.</p>
+</div>
+<p>To extend this to recognize other objects, subclass and implement a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONEncoder.default" title="json.JSONEncoder.default"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default()</span></code></a> method with another method that returns a serializable object
+for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o</span></code> if possible, otherwise it should call the superclass implementation
+(to raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>If <em>skipkeys</em> is false (the default), then it is a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> to
+attempt encoding of keys that are not <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If <em>skipkeys</em> is true, such items are simply
+skipped.</p>
+<p>If <em>ensure_ascii</em> is true (the default), the output is guaranteed to
+have all incoming non-ASCII characters escaped.  If <em>ensure_ascii</em> is
+false, these characters will be output as-is.</p>
+<p>If <em>check_circular</em> is true (the default), then lists, dicts, and custom
+encoded objects will be checked for circular references during encoding to
+prevent an infinite recursion (which would cause an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>).
+Otherwise, no such check takes place.</p>
+<p>If <em>allow_nan</em> is true (the default), then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code> will be encoded as such.  This behavior is not JSON
+specification compliant, but is consistent with most JavaScript based
+encoders and decoders.  Otherwise, it will be a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> to encode
+such floats.</p>
+<p>If <em>sort_keys</em> is true (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), then the output of dictionaries
+will be sorted by key; this is useful for regression tests to ensure that
+JSON serializations can be compared on a day-to-day basis.</p>
+<p>If <em>indent</em> is a non-negative integer or string, then JSON array elements and
+object members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  An indent level
+of 0, negative, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code> will only insert newlines.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default)
+selects the most compact representation. Using a positive integer indent
+indents that many spaces per level.  If <em>indent</em> is a string (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\t&quot;</span></code>),
+that string is used to indent each level.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Allow strings for <em>indent</em> in addition to integers.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If specified, <em>separators</em> should be an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(item_separator,</span> <span class="pre">key_separator)</span></code>
+tuple.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',</span> <span class="pre">',</span> <span class="pre">':</span> <span class="pre">')</span></code> if <em>indent</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',',</span> <span class="pre">':</span> <span class="pre">')</span></code> otherwise.  To get the most compact JSON representation,
+you should specify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',',</span> <span class="pre">':')</span></code> to eliminate whitespace.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(',',</span> <span class="pre">':</span> <span class="pre">')</span></code> as default if <em>indent</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If specified, <em>default</em> should be a function that gets called for objects that
+can’t otherwise be serialized.  It should return a JSON encodable version of
+the object or raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  If not specified, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>All parameters are now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="json.JSONEncoder.default">
+<code class="descname">default</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONEncoder.default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implement this method in a subclass such that it returns a serializable
+object for <em>o</em>, or calls the base implementation (to raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>For example, to support arbitrary iterators, you could implement default
+like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="p">):</span>
+   <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+       <span class="n">iterable</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">)</span>
+   <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+       <span class="k">pass</span>
+   <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+       <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+   <span class="c1"># Let the base class default method raise the TypeError</span>
+   <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">JSONEncoder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="json.JSONEncoder.encode">
+<code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONEncoder.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a JSON string representation of a Python data structure, <em>o</em>.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">JSONEncoder</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;baz&quot;</span><span class="p">]})</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;{&quot;foo&quot;: [&quot;bar&quot;, &quot;baz&quot;]}&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="json.JSONEncoder.iterencode">
+<code class="descname">iterencode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>o</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONEncoder.iterencode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the given object, <em>o</em>, and yield each string representation as
+available.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">JSONEncoder</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iterencode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bigobject</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">mysocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecodeError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">json.</code><code class="descname">JSONDecodeError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>doc</em>, <em>pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecodeError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> with the following additional attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecodeError.msg">
+<code class="descname">msg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecodeError.msg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The unformatted error message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecodeError.doc">
+<code class="descname">doc</code><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecodeError.doc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The JSON document being parsed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecodeError.pos">
+<code class="descname">pos</code><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecodeError.pos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The start index of <em>doc</em> where parsing failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecodeError.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecodeError.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The line corresponding to <em>pos</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="json.JSONDecodeError.colno">
+<code class="descname">colno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#json.JSONDecodeError.colno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The column corresponding to <em>pos</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-compliance-and-interoperability">
+<h2>Standard Compliance and Interoperability<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-compliance-and-interoperability" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The JSON format is specified by <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7159.html"><strong>RFC 7159</strong></a> and by
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-404.htm">ECMA-404</a>.
+This section details this module’s level of compliance with the RFC.
+For simplicity, <a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONEncoder" title="json.JSONEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONEncoder</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#json.JSONDecoder" title="json.JSONDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecoder</span></code></a> subclasses, and
+parameters other than those explicitly mentioned, are not considered.</p>
+<p>This module does not comply with the RFC in a strict fashion, implementing some
+extensions that are valid JavaScript but not valid JSON.  In particular:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Infinite and NaN number values are accepted and output;</p></li>
+<li><p>Repeated names within an object are accepted, and only the value of the last
+name-value pair is used.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Since the RFC permits RFC-compliant parsers to accept input texts that are not
+RFC-compliant, this module’s deserializer is technically RFC-compliant under
+default settings.</p>
+<div class="section" id="character-encodings">
+<h3>Character Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#character-encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The RFC requires that JSON be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or
+UTF-32, with UTF-8 being the recommended default for maximum interoperability.</p>
+<p>As permitted, though not required, by the RFC, this module’s serializer sets
+<em>ensure_ascii=True</em> by default, thus escaping the output so that the resulting
+strings only contain ASCII characters.</p>
+<p>Other than the <em>ensure_ascii</em> parameter, this module is defined strictly in
+terms of conversion between Python objects and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unicode</span> <span class="pre">strings</span></code></a>, and thus does not otherwise directly address
+the issue of character encodings.</p>
+<p>The RFC prohibits adding a byte order mark (BOM) to the start of a JSON text,
+and this module’s serializer does not add a BOM to its output.
+The RFC permits, but does not require, JSON deserializers to ignore an initial
+BOM in their input.  This module’s deserializer raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+when an initial BOM is present.</p>
+<p>The RFC does not explicitly forbid JSON strings which contain byte sequences
+that don’t correspond to valid Unicode characters (e.g. unpaired UTF-16
+surrogates), but it does note that they may cause interoperability problems.
+By default, this module accepts and outputs (when present in the original
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) code points for such sequences.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="infinite-and-nan-number-values">
+<h3>Infinite and NaN Number Values<a class="headerlink" href="#infinite-and-nan-number-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The RFC does not permit the representation of infinite or NaN number values.
+Despite that, by default, this module accepts and outputs <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Infinity</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Infinity</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> as if they were valid JSON number literal values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Neither of these calls raises an exception, but the results are not valid JSON</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-inf&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-Infinity&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;nan&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;NaN&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Same when deserializing</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-Infinity&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-inf</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NaN&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">nan</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the serializer, the <em>allow_nan</em> parameter can be used to alter this
+behavior.  In the deserializer, the <em>parse_constant</em> parameter can be used to
+alter this behavior.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="repeated-names-within-an-object">
+<h3>Repeated Names Within an Object<a class="headerlink" href="#repeated-names-within-an-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The RFC specifies that the names within a JSON object should be unique, but
+does not mandate how repeated names in JSON objects should be handled.  By
+default, this module does not raise an exception; instead, it ignores all but
+the last name-value pair for a given name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">weird_json</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;{&quot;x&quot;: 1, &quot;x&quot;: 2, &quot;x&quot;: 3}&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">weird_json</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;x&#39;: 3}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>object_pairs_hook</em> parameter can be used to alter this behavior.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="top-level-non-object-non-array-values">
+<h3>Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values<a class="headerlink" href="#top-level-non-object-non-array-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The old version of JSON specified by the obsolete <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4627.html"><strong>RFC 4627</strong></a> required that
+the top-level value of a JSON text must be either a JSON object or array
+(Python <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>), and could not be a JSON null,
+boolean, number, or string value.  <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7159.html"><strong>RFC 7159</strong></a> removed that restriction, and
+this module does not and has never implemented that restriction in either its
+serializer or its deserializer.</p>
+<p>Regardless, for maximum interoperability, you may wish to voluntarily adhere
+to the restriction yourself.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="implementation-limitations">
+<h3>Implementation Limitations<a class="headerlink" href="#implementation-limitations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some JSON deserializer implementations may set limits on:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the size of accepted JSON texts</p></li>
+<li><p>the maximum level of nesting of JSON objects and arrays</p></li>
+<li><p>the range and precision of JSON numbers</p></li>
+<li><p>the content and maximum length of JSON strings</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This module does not impose any such limits beyond those of the relevant
+Python datatypes themselves or the Python interpreter itself.</p>
+<p>When serializing to JSON, beware any such limitations in applications that may
+consume your JSON.  In particular, it is common for JSON numbers to be
+deserialized into IEEE 754 double precision numbers and thus subject to that
+representation’s range and precision limitations.  This is especially relevant
+when serializing Python <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> values of extremely large magnitude, or
+when serializing instances of “exotic” numerical types such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-json.tool">
+<span id="command-line-interface"></span><span id="json-commandline"></span><h2>Command Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#module-json.tool" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/json/tool.py">Lib/json/tool.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-json.tool" title="json.tool: A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.tool</span></code></a> module provides a simple command line interface to validate
+and pretty-print JSON objects.</p>
+<p>If the optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">infile</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">outfile</span></code> arguments are not
+specified, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> will be used respectively:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s1">&#39;{&quot;json&quot;: &quot;obj&quot;}&#39;</span> <span class="p">|</span> python -m json.tool
+<span class="go">{</span>
+<span class="go">    &quot;json&quot;: &quot;obj&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">}</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s1">&#39;{1.2:3.4}&#39;</span> <span class="p">|</span> python -m json.tool
+<span class="go">Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The output is now in the same order as the input. Use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-json-tool-sort-keys"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--sort-keys</span></code></a> option to sort the output of dictionaries
+alphabetically by key.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-options">
+<h3>Command line options<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-json-tool-arg-infile">
+<code class="descname">infile</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-infile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The JSON file to be validated or pretty-printed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m json.tool mp_films.json
+<span class="go">[</span>
+<span class="go">    {</span>
+<span class="go">        &quot;title&quot;: &quot;And Now for Something Completely Different&quot;,</span>
+<span class="go">        &quot;year&quot;: 1971</span>
+<span class="go">    },</span>
+<span class="go">    {</span>
+<span class="go">        &quot;title&quot;: &quot;Monty Python and the Holy Grail&quot;,</span>
+<span class="go">        &quot;year&quot;: 1975</span>
+<span class="go">    }</span>
+<span class="go">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>infile</em> is not specified, read from <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-json-tool-arg-outfile">
+<code class="descname">outfile</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-json-tool-arg-outfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the output of the <em>infile</em> to the given <em>outfile</em>. Otherwise, write it
+to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-json-tool-sort-keys">
+<code class="descname">--sort-keys</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-json-tool-sort-keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sort the output of dictionaries alphabetically by key.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-json-tool-h">
+<code class="descname">-h</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--help</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-json-tool-h" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Show the help message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="rfc-errata"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>As noted in <a class="reference external" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159">the errata for RFC 7159</a>,
+JSON permits literal U+2028 (LINE SEPARATOR) and
+U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR) characters in strings, whereas JavaScript
+(as of ECMAScript Edition 5.1) does not.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code> — JSON encoder and decoder</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-usage">Basic Usage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#encoders-and-decoders">Encoders and Decoders</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-compliance-and-interoperability">Standard Compliance and Interoperability</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#character-encodings">Character Encodings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#infinite-and-nan-number-values">Infinite and NaN Number Values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#repeated-names-within-an-object">Repeated Names Within an Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#top-level-non-object-non-array-values">Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#implementation-limitations">Implementation Limitations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-json.tool">Command Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-options">Command line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.iterators.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.iterators</span></code>: Iterators</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mailcap.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailcap</span></code> — Mailcap file handling</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/keyword.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/keyword.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23c0b72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/keyword.html
@@ -0,0 +1,200 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>keyword — Testing for Python keywords &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-keyword">
+<span id="keyword-testing-for-python-keywords"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-keyword" title="keyword: Test whether a string is a keyword in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword</span></code></a> — Testing for Python keywords<a class="headerlink" href="#module-keyword" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/keyword.py">Lib/keyword.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module allows a Python program to determine if a string is a keyword.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="keyword.iskeyword">
+<code class="descclassname">keyword.</code><code class="descname">iskeyword</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#keyword.iskeyword" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>s</em> is a Python keyword.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="keyword.kwlist">
+<code class="descclassname">keyword.</code><code class="descname">kwlist</code><a class="headerlink" href="#keyword.kwlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence containing all the keywords defined for the interpreter.  If any
+keywords are defined to only be active when particular <a class="reference internal" href="__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a>
+statements are in effect, these will be included as well.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code> — Constants used with Python parse trees</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="tokenize.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code> — Tokenizer for Python source</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/language.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/language.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7ae501
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/language.html
@@ -0,0 +1,245 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Python Language Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="parser — Access Python parse trees" href="parser.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="importlib — The implementation of import" href="importlib.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/language.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+      }
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="python-language-services">
+<span id="language"></span><h1>Python Language Services<a class="headerlink" href="#python-language-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python provides a number of modules to assist in working with the Python
+language.  These modules support tokenizing, parsing, syntax analysis, bytecode
+disassembly, and various other facilities.</p>
+<p>These modules include:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> — Access Python parse trees</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#creating-st-objects">Creating ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#converting-st-objects">Converting ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#queries-on-st-objects">Queries on ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#exceptions-and-error-handling">Exceptions and Error Handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#st-objects">ST Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#example-emulation-of-compile">Example: Emulation of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ast.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> — Abstract Syntax Trees</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#node-classes">Node classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#abstract-grammar">Abstract Grammar</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#ast-helpers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> Helpers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="symtable.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symtable</span></code> — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="symtable.html#generating-symbol-tables">Generating Symbol Tables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="symtable.html#examining-symbol-tables">Examining Symbol Tables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="symbol.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symbol</span></code> — Constants used with Python parse trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="token.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code> — Constants used with Python parse trees</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="keyword.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword</span></code> — Testing for Python keywords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code> — Tokenizer for Python source</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#tokenizing-input">Tokenizing Input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#command-line-usage">Command-Line Usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tabnanny.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabnanny</span></code> — Detection of ambiguous indentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pyclbr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code> — Python class browser support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyclbr.html#function-objects">Function Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyclbr.html#class-objects">Class Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="py_compile.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code> — Compile Python source files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="compileall.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code> — Byte-compile Python libraries</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compileall.html#command-line-use">Command-line use</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compileall.html#public-functions">Public functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="dis.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code> — Disassembler for Python bytecode</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dis.html#bytecode-analysis">Bytecode analysis</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dis.html#analysis-functions">Analysis functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dis.html#python-bytecode-instructions">Python Bytecode Instructions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dis.html#opcode-collections">Opcode collections</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code> — Tools for pickle developers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html#command-line-usage">Command line usage</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html#command-line-options">Command line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html#programmatic-interface">Programmatic Interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="importlib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> — The implementation of <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="parser.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> — Access Python parse trees</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
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+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/linecache.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/linecache.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e8505d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/linecache.html
@@ -0,0 +1,238 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>linecache — Random access to text lines &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="shutil — High-level file operations" href="shutil.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching" href="fnmatch.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/linecache.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
+ 
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="shutil.html" title="shutil — High-level file operations"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="fnmatch.html" title="fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="filesys.html" accesskey="U">File and Directory Access</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-linecache">
+<span id="linecache-random-access-to-text-lines"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-linecache" title="linecache: This module provides random access to individual lines from text files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code></a> — Random access to text lines<a class="headerlink" href="#module-linecache" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/linecache.py">Lib/linecache.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-linecache" title="linecache: This module provides random access to individual lines from text files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code></a> module allows one to get any line from a Python source file, while
+attempting to optimize internally, using a cache, the common case where many
+lines are read from a single file.  This is used by the <a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#module-traceback" title="traceback: Print or retrieve a stack traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code></a> module
+to retrieve source lines for inclusion in  the formatted traceback.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#tokenize.open" title="tokenize.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize.open()</span></code></a> function is used to open files. This
+function uses <a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#tokenize.detect_encoding" title="tokenize.detect_encoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize.detect_encoding()</span></code></a> to get the encoding of the
+file; in the absence of an encoding token, the file encoding defaults to UTF-8.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-linecache" title="linecache: This module provides random access to individual lines from text files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="linecache.getline">
+<code class="descclassname">linecache.</code><code class="descname">getline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>module_globals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#linecache.getline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get line <em>lineno</em> from file named <em>filename</em>. This function will never raise an
+exception — it will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> on errors (the terminating newline character
+will be included for lines that are found).</p>
+<p id="index-0">If a file named <em>filename</em> is not found, the function will look for it in the
+module search path, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, after first checking for a <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> in <em>module_globals</em>, in case the module was imported from a
+zipfile or other non-filesystem import source.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="linecache.clearcache">
+<code class="descclassname">linecache.</code><code class="descname">clearcache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#linecache.clearcache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the cache.  Use this function if you no longer need lines from files
+previously read using <a class="reference internal" href="#linecache.getline" title="linecache.getline"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getline()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="linecache.checkcache">
+<code class="descclassname">linecache.</code><code class="descname">checkcache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#linecache.checkcache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check the cache for validity.  Use this function if files in the cache  may have
+changed on disk, and you require the updated version.  If <em>filename</em> is omitted,
+it will check all the entries in the cache.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="linecache.lazycache">
+<code class="descclassname">linecache.</code><code class="descname">lazycache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>module_globals</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#linecache.lazycache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Capture enough detail about a non-file-based module to permit getting its
+lines later via <a class="reference internal" href="#linecache.getline" title="linecache.getline"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getline()</span></code></a> even if <em>module_globals</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in the later
+call. This avoids doing I/O until a line is actually needed, without having
+to carry the module globals around indefinitely.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">linecache</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">linecache</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getline</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">linecache</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;import sys\n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="fnmatch.html"
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="shutil.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code> — High-level file operations</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/locale.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/locale.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8c0c31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/locale.html
@@ -0,0 +1,862 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>locale — Internationalization services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="i18n.html" accesskey="U">Internationalization</a> &#187;</li>
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+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-locale">
+<span id="locale-internationalization-services"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> — Internationalization services<a class="headerlink" href="#module-locale" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/locale.py">Lib/locale.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module opens access to the POSIX locale database and
+functionality. The POSIX locale mechanism allows programmers to deal with
+certain cultural issues in an application, without requiring the programmer to
+know all the specifics of each country where the software is executed.</p>
+<p id="index-0">The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module is implemented on top of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_locale</span></code> module,
+which in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module defines the following exception and functions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="locale.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when the locale passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a> is not
+recognized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.setlocale">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">setlocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>category</em>, <em>locale=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.setlocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>locale</em> is given and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a> modifies the locale
+setting for the <em>category</em>. The available categories are listed in the data
+description below. <em>locale</em> may be a string, or an iterable of two strings
+(language code and encoding). If it’s an iterable, it’s converted to a locale
+name using the locale aliasing engine. An empty string specifies the user’s
+default settings. If the modification of the locale fails, the exception
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.Error" title="locale.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> is raised. If successful, the new locale setting is returned.</p>
+<p>If <em>locale</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the current setting for <em>category</em> is
+returned.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a> is not thread-safe on most systems. Applications typically
+start with a call of</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">locale</span>
+<span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_ALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This sets the locale for all categories to the user’s default setting (typically
+specified in the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code> environment variable).  If the locale is not
+changed thereafter, using multithreading should not cause problems.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.localeconv">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">localeconv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.localeconv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the database of the local conventions as a dictionary. This dictionary
+has the following strings as keys:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Category</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Key</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_NUMERIC" title="locale.LC_NUMERIC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'decimal_point'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Decimal point character.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'grouping'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Sequence of numbers specifying
+which relative positions the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'thousands_sep'</span></code> is
+expected.  If the sequence is
+terminated with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.CHAR_MAX" title="locale.CHAR_MAX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHAR_MAX</span></code></a>, no further
+grouping is performed. If the
+sequence terminates with a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>,  the last group size is
+repeatedly used.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'thousands_sep'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character used between groups.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_MONETARY" title="locale.LC_MONETARY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_MONETARY</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'int_curr_symbol'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>International currency symbol.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'currency_symbol'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Local currency symbol.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Whether the currency symbol
+precedes the value (for
+positive resp. negative
+values).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Whether the currency symbol is
+separated from the value  by a
+space (for positive resp.
+negative values).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mon_decimal_point'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Decimal point used for
+monetary values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'frac_digits'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number of fractional digits
+used in local formatting of
+monetary values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'int_frac_digits'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number of fractional digits
+used in international
+formatting of monetary values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mon_thousands_sep'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Group separator used for
+monetary values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mon_grouping'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'grouping'</span></code>,
+used for monetary values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'positive_sign'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Symbol used to annotate a
+positive monetary value.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'negative_sign'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Symbol used to annotate a
+negative monetary value.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The position of the sign (for
+positive resp. negative
+values), see below.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>All numeric values can be set to <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.CHAR_MAX" title="locale.CHAR_MAX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHAR_MAX</span></code></a> to indicate that there is no
+value specified in this locale.</p>
+<p>The possible values for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'p_sign_posn'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n_sign_posn'</span></code> are given below.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 75%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Currency and value are surrounded by
+parentheses.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The sign should precede the value and
+currency symbol.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The sign should follow the value and
+currency symbol.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The sign should immediately precede the
+value.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The sign should immediately follow the
+value.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHAR_MAX</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Nothing is specified in this locale.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The function sets temporarily the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code>
+locale or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_MONETARY</span></code> locale if locales are different and numeric or
+monetary strings are non-ASCII. This temporary change affects other threads.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function now sets temporarily the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale in some cases.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.nl_langinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">nl_langinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.nl_langinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return some locale-specific information as a string.  This function is not
+available on all systems, and the set of possible options might also vary
+across platforms.  The possible argument values are numbers, for which
+symbolic constants are available in the locale module.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.nl_langinfo" title="locale.nl_langinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nl_langinfo()</span></code></a> function accepts one of the following keys.  Most
+descriptions are taken from the corresponding description in the GNU C
+library.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.CODESET">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">CODESET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.CODESET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a string with the name of the character encoding used in the
+selected locale.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.D_T_FMT">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">D_T_FMT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.D_T_FMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a string that can be used as a format string for <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to
+represent date and time in a locale-specific way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.D_FMT">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">D_FMT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.D_FMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a string that can be used as a format string for <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to
+represent a date in a locale-specific way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.T_FMT">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">T_FMT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.T_FMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a string that can be used as a format string for <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to
+represent a time in a locale-specific way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.T_FMT_AMPM">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">T_FMT_AMPM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.T_FMT_AMPM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a format string for <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to represent time in the am/pm
+format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">DAY_1 ... DAY_7</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the name of the n-th day of the week.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This follows the US convention of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DAY_1</span></code> being Sunday, not the
+international convention (ISO 8601) that Monday is the first day of the
+week.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">ABDAY_1 ... ABDAY_7</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the abbreviated name of the n-th day of the week.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">MON_1 ... MON_12</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the name of the n-th month.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">ABMON_1 ... ABMON_12</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the abbreviated name of the n-th month.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.RADIXCHAR">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">RADIXCHAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.RADIXCHAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the radix character (decimal dot, decimal comma, etc.).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.THOUSEP">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">THOUSEP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.THOUSEP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the separator character for thousands (groups of three digits).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.YESEXPR">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">YESEXPR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.YESEXPR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex function to
+recognize a positive response to a yes/no question.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The expression is in the syntax suitable for the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regex()</span></code> function
+from the C library, which might differ from the syntax used in <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.NOEXPR">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">NOEXPR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.NOEXPR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex(3) function to
+recognize a negative response to a yes/no question.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.CRNCYSTR">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">CRNCYSTR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.CRNCYSTR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the currency symbol, preceded by “-” if the symbol should appear before
+the value, “+” if the symbol should appear after the value, or “.” if the
+symbol should replace the radix character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.ERA">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">ERA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.ERA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a string that represents the era used in the current locale.</p>
+<p>Most locales do not define this value.  An example of a locale which does
+define this value is the Japanese one.  In Japan, the traditional
+representation of dates includes the name of the era corresponding to the
+then-emperor’s reign.</p>
+<p>Normally it should not be necessary to use this value directly. Specifying
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">E</span></code> modifier in their format strings causes the <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>
+function to use this information.  The format of the returned string is not
+specified, and therefore you should not assume knowledge of it on different
+systems.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.ERA_D_T_FMT">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">ERA_D_T_FMT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.ERA_D_T_FMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a format string for <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to represent date and time in a
+locale-specific era-based way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.ERA_D_FMT">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">ERA_D_FMT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.ERA_D_FMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a format string for <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to represent a date in a
+locale-specific era-based way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.ERA_T_FMT">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">ERA_T_FMT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.ERA_T_FMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a format string for <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to represent a time in a
+locale-specific era-based way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.ALT_DIGITS">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">ALT_DIGITS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.ALT_DIGITS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a representation of up to 100 values used to represent the values
+0 to 99.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.getdefaultlocale">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">getdefaultlocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>envvars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.getdefaultlocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tries to determine the default locale settings and returns them as a tuple of
+the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(language</span> <span class="pre">code,</span> <span class="pre">encoding)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>According to POSIX, a program which has not called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale(LC_ALL,</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code>
+runs using the portable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code> locale.  Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale(LC_ALL,</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code> lets
+it use the default locale as defined by the <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code> variable.  Since we
+do not want to interfere with the current locale setting we thus emulate the
+behavior in the way described above.</p>
+<p>To maintain compatibility with other platforms, not only the <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code>
+variable is tested, but a list of variables given as envvars parameter.  The
+first found to be defined will be used.  <em>envvars</em> defaults to the search
+path used in GNU gettext; it must always contain the variable name
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'LANG'</span></code>.  The GNU gettext search path contains <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'LC_ALL'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'LC_CTYPE'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'LANG'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'LANGUAGE'</span></code>, in that order.</p>
+<p>Except for the code <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code>, the language code corresponds to <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1766.html"><strong>RFC 1766</strong></a>.
+<em>language code</em> and <em>encoding</em> may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if their values cannot be
+determined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.getlocale">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">getlocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>category=LC_CTYPE</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.getlocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current setting for the given locale category as sequence containing
+<em>language code</em>, <em>encoding</em>. <em>category</em> may be one of the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_*</span></code> values
+except <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_ALL" title="locale.LC_ALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_ALL</span></code></a>.  It defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_CTYPE" title="locale.LC_CTYPE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Except for the code <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code>, the language code corresponds to <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1766.html"><strong>RFC 1766</strong></a>.
+<em>language code</em> and <em>encoding</em> may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if their values cannot be
+determined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.getpreferredencoding">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">getpreferredencoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>do_setlocale=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the encoding used for text data, according to user preferences.  User
+preferences are expressed differently on different systems, and might not be
+available programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a
+guess.</p>
+<p>On some systems, it is necessary to invoke <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a> to obtain the user
+preferences, so this function is not thread-safe. If invoking setlocale is not
+necessary or desired, <em>do_setlocale</em> should be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>On Android or in the UTF-8 mode (<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> option), always
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'UTF-8'</span></code>, the locale and the <em>do_setlocale</em> argument are ignored.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function now always returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> on Android or if the UTF-8 mode
+is enabled.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.normalize">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">normalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>localename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.normalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a normalized locale code for the given locale name.  The returned locale
+code is formatted for use with <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a>.  If normalization fails, the
+original name is returned unchanged.</p>
+<p>If the given encoding is not known, the function defaults to the default
+encoding for the locale code just like <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.resetlocale">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">resetlocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>category=LC_ALL</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.resetlocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the locale for <em>category</em> to the default setting.</p>
+<p>The default setting is determined by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.getdefaultlocale" title="locale.getdefaultlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getdefaultlocale()</span></code></a>.
+<em>category</em> defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_ALL" title="locale.LC_ALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_ALL</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.strcoll">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">strcoll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string1</em>, <em>string2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.strcoll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compares two strings according to the current <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_COLLATE" title="locale.LC_COLLATE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_COLLATE</span></code></a> setting. As
+any other compare function, returns a negative, or a positive value, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>,
+depending on whether <em>string1</em> collates before or after <em>string2</em> or is equal to
+it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.strxfrm">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">strxfrm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.strxfrm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transforms a string to one that can be used in locale-aware
+comparisons.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strxfrm(s1)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">strxfrm(s2)</span></code> is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strcoll(s1,</span> <span class="pre">s2)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.  This function can be used
+when the same string is compared repeatedly, e.g. when collating a
+sequence of strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.format_string">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">format_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>val</em>, <em>grouping=False</em>, <em>monetary=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.format_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Formats a number <em>val</em> according to the current <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_NUMERIC" title="locale.LC_NUMERIC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code></a> setting.
+The format follows the conventions of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator.  For floating point
+values, the decimal point is modified if appropriate.  If <em>grouping</em> is true,
+also takes the grouping into account.</p>
+<p>If <em>monetary</em> is true, the conversion uses monetary thousands separator and
+grouping strings.</p>
+<p>Processes formatting specifiers as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">val</span></code>, but takes the current
+locale settings into account.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>monetary</em> keyword parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.format">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>val</em>, <em>grouping=False</em>, <em>monetary=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Please note that this function works like <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.format_string" title="locale.format_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_string()</span></code></a> but will
+only work for exactly one <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%char</span></code> specifier.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%f'</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%.0f'</span></code> are both valid specifiers, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%f</span> <span class="pre">KiB'</span></code> is not.</p>
+<p>For whole format strings, use <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.format_string" title="locale.format_string"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_string()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.format_string" title="locale.format_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_string()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.currency">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">currency</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>val</em>, <em>symbol=True</em>, <em>grouping=False</em>, <em>international=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.currency" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Formats a number <em>val</em> according to the current <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_MONETARY" title="locale.LC_MONETARY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_MONETARY</span></code></a> settings.</p>
+<p>The returned string includes the currency symbol if <em>symbol</em> is true, which is
+the default. If <em>grouping</em> is true (which is not the default), grouping is done
+with the value. If <em>international</em> is true (which is not the default), the
+international currency symbol is used.</p>
+<p>Note that this function will not work with the ‘C’ locale, so you have to set a
+locale via <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a> first.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.str">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">str</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>float</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.str" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Formats a floating point number using the same format as the built-in function
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(float)</span></code>, but takes the decimal point into account.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.delocalize">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">delocalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.delocalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts a string into a normalized number string, following the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_NUMERIC" title="locale.LC_NUMERIC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code></a> settings.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.atof">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">atof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.atof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts a string to a floating point number, following the <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_NUMERIC" title="locale.LC_NUMERIC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code></a>
+settings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.atoi">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">atoi</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.atoi" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts a string to an integer, following the <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_NUMERIC" title="locale.LC_NUMERIC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code></a> conventions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.LC_CTYPE">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">LC_CTYPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.LC_CTYPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-6">Locale category for the character type functions.  Depending on the settings of
+this category, the functions of module <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> dealing with case change
+their behaviour.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.LC_COLLATE">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">LC_COLLATE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.LC_COLLATE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locale category for sorting strings.  The functions <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.strcoll" title="locale.strcoll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strcoll()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.strxfrm" title="locale.strxfrm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strxfrm()</span></code></a> of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module are affected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.LC_TIME">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">LC_TIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.LC_TIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locale category for the formatting of time.  The function <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>
+follows these conventions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.LC_MONETARY">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">LC_MONETARY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.LC_MONETARY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locale category for formatting of monetary values.  The available options are
+available from the <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.localeconv" title="locale.localeconv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localeconv()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.LC_MESSAGES">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">LC_MESSAGES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.LC_MESSAGES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locale category for message display. Python currently does not support
+application specific locale-aware messages.  Messages displayed by the operating
+system, like those returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.strerror" title="os.strerror"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.strerror()</span></code></a> might be affected by this
+category.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.LC_NUMERIC">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">LC_NUMERIC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.LC_NUMERIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locale category for formatting numbers.  The functions <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.format" title="locale.format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.atoi" title="locale.atoi"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atoi()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.atof" title="locale.atof"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atof()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.str" title="locale.str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module are
+affected by that category.  All other numeric formatting operations are not
+affected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.LC_ALL">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">LC_ALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.LC_ALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Combination of all locale settings.  If this flag is used when the locale is
+changed, setting the locale for all categories is attempted. If that fails for
+any category, no category is changed at all.  When the locale is retrieved using
+this flag, a string indicating the setting for all categories is returned. This
+string can be later used to restore the settings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="locale.CHAR_MAX">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">CHAR_MAX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.CHAR_MAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a symbolic constant used for different values returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.localeconv" title="locale.localeconv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localeconv()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">locale</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">loc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getlocale</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># get current locale</span>
+<span class="go"># use German locale; name might vary with platform</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_ALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;de_DE&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strcoll</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;f</span><span class="se">\xe4</span><span class="s1">n&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># compare a string containing an umlaut</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_ALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># use user&#39;s preferred locale</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_ALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;C&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># use default (C) locale</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_ALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loc</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># restore saved locale</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="background-details-hints-tips-and-caveats">
+<h2>Background, details, hints, tips and caveats<a class="headerlink" href="#background-details-hints-tips-and-caveats" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be
+relatively expensive to change.  On top of that, some implementation are broken
+in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core dumps.  This makes the
+locale somewhat painful to use correctly.</p>
+<p>Initially, when a program is started, the locale is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> locale, no matter
+what the user’s preferred locale is.  There is one exception: the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.LC_CTYPE" title="locale.LC_CTYPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code></a> category is changed at startup to set the current locale
+encoding to the user’s preferred locale encoding. The program must explicitly
+say that it wants the user’s preferred locale settings for other categories by
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale(LC_ALL,</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>It is generally a bad idea to call <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a> in some library routine,
+since as a side effect it affects the entire program.  Saving and restoring it
+is almost as bad: it is expensive and affects other threads that happen to run
+before the settings have been restored.</p>
+<p>If, when coding a module for general use, you need a locale independent version
+of an operation that is affected by the locale (such as
+certain formats used with <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>), you will have to find a way to
+do it without using the standard library routine.  Even better is convincing
+yourself that using locale settings is okay.  Only as a last resort should you
+document that your module is not compatible with non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> locale settings.</p>
+<p>The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to use the
+special functions defined by this module: <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.atof" title="locale.atof"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atof()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.atoi" title="locale.atoi"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atoi()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#locale.format" title="locale.format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.str" title="locale.str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>There is no way to perform case conversions and character classifications
+according to the locale.  For (Unicode) text strings these are done according
+to the character value only, while for byte strings, the conversions and
+classifications are done according to the ASCII value of the byte, and bytes
+whose high bit is set (i.e., non-ASCII bytes) are never converted or considered
+part of a character class such as letter or whitespace.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="for-extension-writers-and-programs-that-embed-python">
+<span id="embedding-locale"></span><h2>For extension writers and programs that embed Python<a class="headerlink" href="#for-extension-writers-and-programs-that-embed-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Extension modules should never call <a class="reference internal" href="#locale.setlocale" title="locale.setlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setlocale()</span></code></a>, except to find out what
+the current locale is.  But since the return value can only be used portably to
+restore it, that is not very useful (except perhaps to find out whether or not
+the locale is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>).</p>
+<p>When Python code uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module to change the locale, this also
+affects the embedding application.  If the embedding application doesn’t want
+this to happen, it should remove the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_locale</span></code> extension module (which does
+all the work) from the table of built-in modules in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config.c</span></code> file,
+and make sure that the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_locale</span></code> module is not accessible as a shared
+library.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="access-to-message-catalogs">
+<span id="locale-gettext"></span><h2>Access to message catalogs<a class="headerlink" href="#access-to-message-catalogs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.gettext">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">gettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.gettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.dgettext">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">dgettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>msg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.dgettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.dcgettext">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">dcgettext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>category</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.dcgettext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.textdomain">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">textdomain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.textdomain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="locale.bindtextdomain">
+<code class="descclassname">locale.</code><code class="descname">bindtextdomain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain</em>, <em>dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#locale.bindtextdomain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>The locale module exposes the C library’s gettext interface on systems that
+provide this interface.  It consists of the functions <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dgettext()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dcgettext()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textdomain()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bindtextdomain()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind_textdomain_codeset()</span></code>.  These are similar to the same functions in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module, but use the C library’s binary format for message
+catalogs, and the C library’s search algorithms for locating message catalogs.</p>
+<p>Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these functions, and
+should use <a class="reference internal" href="gettext.html#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> instead.  A known exception to this rule are
+applications that link with additional C libraries which internally invoke
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext()</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dcgettext()</span></code>.  For these applications, it may be
+necessary to bind the text domain, so that the libraries can properly locate
+their message catalogs.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code> — Internationalization services</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#background-details-hints-tips-and-caveats">Background, details, hints, tips and caveats</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#for-extension-writers-and-programs-that-embed-python">For extension writers and programs that embed Python</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#access-to-message-catalogs">Access to message catalogs</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="gettext.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code> — Multilingual internationalization services</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="frameworks.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Program Frameworks</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/logging.config.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/logging.config.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9607a8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/logging.config.html
@@ -0,0 +1,935 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>logging.config — Logging configuration &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-logging.config">
+<span id="logging-config-logging-configuration"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a> — Logging configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#module-logging.config" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/logging/config.py">Lib/logging/config.py</a></p>
+<div class="sidebar">
+<p class="sidebar-title">Important</p>
+<p>This page contains only reference information. For tutorials,
+please see</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-basic-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Basic Tutorial</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-advanced-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Advanced Tutorial</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-cookbook"><span class="std std-ref">Logging Cookbook</span></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This section describes the API for configuring the logging module.</p>
+<div class="section" id="configuration-functions">
+<span id="logging-config-api"></span><h2>Configuration functions<a class="headerlink" href="#configuration-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions configure the logging module. They are located in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a> module.  Their use is optional — you can configure the
+logging module using these functions or by making calls to the main API (defined
+in <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> itself) and defining handlers which are declared either in
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.config.dictConfig">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.config.</code><code class="descname">dictConfig</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>config</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><blockquote>
+<div><p>Takes the logging configuration from a dictionary.  The contents of
+this dictionary are described in <a class="reference internal" href="#logging-config-dictschema"><span class="std std-ref">Configuration dictionary schema</span></a>
+below.</p>
+<p>If an error is encountered during configuration, this function will
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> with a suitably descriptive message.  The
+following is a (possibly incomplete) list of conditions which will
+raise an error:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> which is not a string or which is a string not
+corresponding to an actual logging level.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">propagate</span></code> value which is not a boolean.</p></li>
+<li><p>An id which does not have a corresponding destination.</p></li>
+<li><p>A non-existent handler id found during an incremental call.</p></li>
+<li><p>An invalid logger name.</p></li>
+<li><p>Inability to resolve to an internal or external object.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Parsing is performed by the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictConfigurator</span></code> class, whose
+constructor is passed the dictionary used for configuration, and
+has a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure()</span></code> method.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a> module
+has a callable attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfigClass</span></code>
+which is initially set to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictConfigurator</span></code>.
+You can replace the value of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfigClass</span></code> with a
+suitable implementation of your own.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> calls <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfigClass</span></code> passing
+the specified dictionary, and then calls the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure()</span></code> method on
+the returned object to put the configuration into effect:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">dictConfigClass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">configure</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For example, a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictConfigurator</span></code> could call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictConfigurator.__init__()</span></code> in its own <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>, then
+set up custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure()</span></code> call. <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfigClass</span></code> would be bound to
+this new subclass, and then <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> could be called exactly as
+in the default, uncustomized state.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.config.fileConfig">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.config.</code><code class="descname">fileConfig</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fname</em>, <em>defaults=None</em>, <em>disable_existing_loggers=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.config.fileConfig" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads the logging configuration from a <a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a>-format file. The
+format of the file should be as described in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging-config-fileformat"><span class="std std-ref">Configuration file format</span></a>.
+This function can be called several times from an application, allowing an
+end user to select from various pre-canned configurations (if the developer
+provides a mechanism to present the choices and load the chosen
+configuration).</p>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fname</strong> – A filename, or a file-like object, or an instance derived
+from <a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser" title="configparser.RawConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawConfigParser</span></code></a>. If a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawConfigParser</span></code>-derived instance is passed, it is used as
+is. Otherwise, a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Configparser</span></code> is
+instantiated, and the configuration read by it from the
+object passed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fname</span></code>. If that has a <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>
+method, it is assumed to be a file-like object and read using
+<a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read_file" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_file()</span></code></a>; otherwise,
+it is assumed to be a filename and passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>defaults</strong> – Defaults to be passed to the ConfigParser can be specified
+in this argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>disable_existing_loggers</strong> – If specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, loggers which
+exist when this call is made are left
+enabled. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> because this
+enables old behaviour in a
+backward-compatible way. This behaviour is to
+disable any existing non-root loggers unless
+they or their ancestors are explicitly named
+in the logging configuration.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>An instance of a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser" title="configparser.RawConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawConfigParser</span></code></a> is
+now accepted as a value for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fname</span></code>. This facilitates:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Use of a configuration file where logging configuration is just part
+of the overall application configuration.</p></li>
+<li><p>Use of a configuration read from a file, and then modified by the using
+application (e.g. based on command-line parameters or other aspects
+of the runtime environment) before being passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.config.listen">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.config.</code><code class="descname">listen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT</em>, <em>verify=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.config.listen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Starts up a socket server on the specified port, and listens for new
+configurations. If no port is specified, the module’s default
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT</span></code> is used. Logging configurations will be
+sent as a file suitable for processing by <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a>. Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> instance on which
+you can call <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread.start" title="threading.Thread.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> to start the server, and which
+you can <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> when appropriate. To stop the server,
+call <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.stopListening" title="logging.config.stopListening"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stopListening()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify</span></code> argument, if specified, should be a callable which should
+verify whether bytes received across the socket are valid and should be
+processed. This could be done by encrypting and/or signing what is sent
+across the socket, such that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify</span></code> callable can perform
+signature verification and/or decryption. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify</span></code> callable is called
+with a single argument - the bytes received across the socket - and should
+return the bytes to be processed, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to indicate that the bytes should
+be discarded. The returned bytes could be the same as the passed in bytes
+(e.g. when only verification is done), or they could be completely different
+(perhaps if decryption were performed).</p>
+<p>To send a configuration to the socket, read in the configuration file and
+send it to the socket as a sequence of bytes preceded by a four-byte length
+string packed in binary using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack('&gt;L',</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Because portions of the configuration are passed through
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>, use of this function may open its users to a security risk.
+While the function only binds to a socket on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localhost</span></code>, and so does
+not accept connections from remote machines, there are scenarios where
+untrusted code could be run under the account of the process which calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a>. Specifically, if the process calling <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> runs
+on a multi-user machine where users cannot trust each other, then a
+malicious user could arrange to run essentially arbitrary code in a
+victim user’s process, simply by connecting to the victim’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> socket and sending a configuration which runs whatever
+code the attacker wants to have executed in the victim’s process. This is
+especially easy to do if the default port is used, but not hard even if a
+different port is used). To avoid the risk of this happening, use the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify</span></code> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> to prevent unrecognised
+configurations from being applied.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify</span></code> argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you want to send configurations to the listener which don’t
+disable existing loggers, you will need to use a JSON format for
+the configuration, which will use <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> for configuration.
+This method allows you to specify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disable_existing_loggers</span></code> as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> in the configuration you send.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.config.stopListening">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.config.</code><code class="descname">stopListening</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.config.stopListening" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stops the listening server which was created with a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a>.
+This is typically called before calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code> on the return value from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuration-dictionary-schema">
+<span id="logging-config-dictschema"></span><h2>Configuration dictionary schema<a class="headerlink" href="#configuration-dictionary-schema" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Describing a logging configuration requires listing the various
+objects to create and the connections between them; for example, you
+may create a handler named ‘console’ and then say that the logger
+named ‘startup’ will send its messages to the ‘console’ handler.
+These objects aren’t limited to those provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a>
+module because you might write your own formatter or handler class.
+The parameters to these classes may also need to include external
+objects such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>.  The syntax for describing these
+objects and connections is defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#logging-config-dict-connections"><span class="std std-ref">Object connections</span></a>
+below.</p>
+<div class="section" id="dictionary-schema-details">
+<h3>Dictionary Schema Details<a class="headerlink" href="#dictionary-schema-details" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The dictionary passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> must contain the following
+keys:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>version</em> - to be set to an integer value representing the schema
+version.  The only valid value at present is 1, but having this key
+allows the schema to evolve while still preserving backwards
+compatibility.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>All other keys are optional, but if present they will be interpreted
+as described below.  In all cases below where a ‘configuring dict’ is
+mentioned, it will be checked for the special <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'()'</span></code> key to see if a
+custom instantiation is required.  If so, the mechanism described in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging-config-dict-userdef"><span class="std std-ref">User-defined objects</span></a> below is used to create an instance;
+otherwise, the context is used to determine what to instantiate.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>formatters</em> - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
+key is a formatter id and each value is a dict describing how to
+configure the corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>The configuring dict is searched for keys <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datefmt</span></code>
+(with defaults of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) and these are used to construct a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>filters</em> - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key
+is a filter id and each value is a dict describing how to configure
+the corresponding Filter instance.</p>
+<p>The configuring dict is searched for the key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> (defaulting to the
+empty string) and this is used to construct a <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.Filter</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>handlers</em> - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
+key is a handler id and each value is a dict describing how to
+configure the corresponding Handler instance.</p>
+<p>The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> (mandatory).  This is the fully qualified name of the
+handler class.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> (optional).  The level of the handler.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> (optional).  The id of the formatter for this
+handler.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filters</span></code> (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
+handler.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>All <em>other</em> keys are passed through as keyword arguments to the
+handler’s constructor.  For example, given the snippet:</p>
+<div class="highlight-yaml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">console</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">class </span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">logging.StreamHandler</span>
+    <span class="nt">formatter</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">brief</span>
+    <span class="nt">level   </span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">INFO</span>
+    <span class="nt">filters</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p p-Indicator">[</span><span class="nv">allow_foo</span><span class="p p-Indicator">]</span>
+    <span class="nt">stream  </span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">ext://sys.stdout</span>
+  <span class="nt">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">class </span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler</span>
+    <span class="nt">formatter</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">precise</span>
+    <span class="nt">filename</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">logconfig.log</span>
+    <span class="nt">maxBytes</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">1024</span>
+    <span class="nt">backupCount</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>the handler with id <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">console</span></code> is instantiated as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.StreamHandler</span></code></a>, using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> as the underlying
+stream.  The handler with id <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> is instantiated as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> with the keyword arguments
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename='logconfig.log',</span> <span class="pre">maxBytes=1024,</span> <span class="pre">backupCount=3</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>loggers</em> - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key
+is a logger name and each value is a dict describing how to
+configure the corresponding Logger instance.</p>
+<p>The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> (optional).  The level of the logger.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">propagate</span></code> (optional).  The propagation setting of the logger.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filters</span></code> (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
+logger.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code> (optional).  A list of ids of the handlers for this
+logger.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The specified loggers will be configured according to the level,
+propagation, filters and handlers specified.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>root</em> - this will be the configuration for the root logger.
+Processing of the configuration will be as for any logger, except
+that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">propagate</span></code> setting will not be applicable.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>incremental</em> - whether the configuration is to be interpreted as
+incremental to the existing configuration.  This value defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, which means that the specified configuration replaces the
+existing configuration with the same semantics as used by the
+existing <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a> API.</p>
+<p>If the specified value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the configuration is processed
+as described in the section on <a class="reference internal" href="#logging-config-dict-incremental"><span class="std std-ref">Incremental Configuration</span></a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>disable_existing_loggers</em> - whether any existing non-root loggers are
+to be disabled. This setting mirrors the parameter of the same name in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a>. If absent, this parameter defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+This value is ignored if <em>incremental</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="incremental-configuration">
+<span id="logging-config-dict-incremental"></span><h3>Incremental Configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#incremental-configuration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is difficult to provide complete flexibility for incremental
+configuration.  For example, because objects such as filters
+and formatters are anonymous, once a configuration is set up, it is
+not possible to refer to such anonymous objects when augmenting a
+configuration.</p>
+<p>Furthermore, there is not a compelling case for arbitrarily altering
+the object graph of loggers, handlers, filters, formatters at
+run-time, once a configuration is set up; the verbosity of loggers and
+handlers can be controlled just by setting levels (and, in the case of
+loggers, propagation flags).  Changing the object graph arbitrarily in
+a safe way is problematic in a multi-threaded environment; while not
+impossible, the benefits are not worth the complexity it adds to the
+implementation.</p>
+<p>Thus, when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">incremental</span></code> key of a configuration dict is present
+and is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the system will completely ignore any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatters</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filters</span></code> entries, and process only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code>
+settings in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code> entries, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">propagate</span></code> settings in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loggers</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root</span></code> entries.</p>
+<p>Using a value in the configuration dict lets configurations to be sent
+over the wire as pickled dicts to a socket listener. Thus, the logging
+verbosity of a long-running application can be altered over time with
+no need to stop and restart the application.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="object-connections">
+<span id="logging-config-dict-connections"></span><h3>Object connections<a class="headerlink" href="#object-connections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The schema describes a set of logging objects - loggers,
+handlers, formatters, filters - which are connected to each other in
+an object graph.  Thus, the schema needs to represent connections
+between the objects.  For example, say that, once configured, a
+particular logger has attached to it a particular handler.  For the
+purposes of this discussion, we can say that the logger represents the
+source, and the handler the destination, of a connection between the
+two.  Of course in the configured objects this is represented by the
+logger holding a reference to the handler.  In the configuration dict,
+this is done by giving each destination object an id which identifies
+it unambiguously, and then using the id in the source object’s
+configuration to indicate that a connection exists between the source
+and the destination object with that id.</p>
+<p>So, for example, consider the following YAML snippet:</p>
+<div class="highlight-yaml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">formatters</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">brief</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># configuration for formatter with id &#39;brief&#39; goes here</span>
+  <span class="nt">precise</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># configuration for formatter with id &#39;precise&#39; goes here</span>
+<span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">h1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="c1">#This is an id</span>
+   <span class="c1"># configuration of handler with id &#39;h1&#39; goes here</span>
+   <span class="nt">formatter</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">brief</span>
+  <span class="nt">h2</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="c1">#This is another id</span>
+   <span class="c1"># configuration of handler with id &#39;h2&#39; goes here</span>
+   <span class="nt">formatter</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">precise</span>
+<span class="nt">loggers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">foo.bar.baz</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># other configuration for logger &#39;foo.bar.baz&#39;</span>
+    <span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p p-Indicator">[</span><span class="nv">h1</span><span class="p p-Indicator">,</span> <span class="nv">h2</span><span class="p p-Indicator">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Note: YAML used here because it’s a little more readable than the
+equivalent Python source form for the dictionary.)</p>
+<p>The ids for loggers are the logger names which would be used
+programmatically to obtain a reference to those loggers, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>.  The ids for Formatters and Filters can be any string
+value (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">brief</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">precise</span></code> above) and they are transient,
+in that they are only meaningful for processing the configuration
+dictionary and used to determine connections between objects, and are
+not persisted anywhere when the configuration call is complete.</p>
+<p>The above snippet indicates that logger named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code> should
+have two handlers attached to it, which are described by the handler
+ids <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h2</span></code>. The formatter for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h1</span></code> is that described by id
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">brief</span></code>, and the formatter for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h2</span></code> is that described by id
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">precise</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="user-defined-objects">
+<span id="logging-config-dict-userdef"></span><h3>User-defined objects<a class="headerlink" href="#user-defined-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The schema supports user-defined objects for handlers, filters and
+formatters.  (Loggers do not need to have different types for
+different instances, so there is no support in this configuration
+schema for user-defined logger classes.)</p>
+<p>Objects to be configured are described by dictionaries
+which detail their configuration.  In some places, the logging system
+will be able to infer from the context how an object is to be
+instantiated, but when a user-defined object is to be instantiated,
+the system will not know how to do this.  In order to provide complete
+flexibility for user-defined object instantiation, the user needs
+to provide a ‘factory’ - a callable which is called with a
+configuration dictionary and which returns the instantiated object.
+This is signalled by an absolute import path to the factory being
+made available under the special key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'()'</span></code>.  Here’s a concrete
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-yaml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">formatters</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">brief</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">format</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s">&#39;%(message)s&#39;</span>
+  <span class="nt">default</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">format</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s">&#39;%(asctime)s</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">%(name)-15s</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">%(message)s&#39;</span>
+    <span class="nt">datefmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s">&#39;%Y-%m-%d</span><span class="nv"> </span><span class="s">%H:%M:%S&#39;</span>
+  <span class="nt">custom</span><span class="p">:</span>
+      <span class="nt">()</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">my.package.customFormatterFactory</span>
+      <span class="nt">bar</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">baz</span>
+      <span class="nt">spam</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">99.9</span>
+      <span class="nt">answer</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">42</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above YAML snippet defines three formatters.  The first, with id
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">brief</span></code>, is a standard <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.Formatter</span></code></a> instance with the
+specified format string.  The second, with id <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>, has a
+longer format and also defines the time format explicitly, and will
+result in a <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.Formatter</span></code></a> initialized with those two format
+strings.  Shown in Python source form, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">brief</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>
+formatters have configuration sub-dictionaries:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span>
+  <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span>
+  <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+  <span class="s1">&#39;datefmt&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;%Y-%m-</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> %H:%M:%S&#39;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>respectively, and as these dictionaries do not contain the special key
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'()'</span></code>, the instantiation is inferred from the context: as a result,
+standard <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.Formatter</span></code></a> instances are created.  The
+configuration sub-dictionary for the third formatter, with id
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code>, is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span>
+  <span class="s1">&#39;()&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;my.package.customFormatterFactory&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+  <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+  <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="mf">99.9</span><span class="p">,</span>
+  <span class="s1">&#39;answer&#39;</span> <span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and this contains the special key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'()'</span></code>, which means that
+user-defined instantiation is wanted.  In this case, the specified
+factory callable will be used. If it is an actual callable it will be
+used directly - otherwise, if you specify a string (as in the example)
+the actual callable will be located using normal import mechanisms.
+The callable will be called with the <strong>remaining</strong> items in the
+configuration sub-dictionary as keyword arguments.  In the above
+example, the formatter with id <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code> will be assumed to be
+returned by the call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">my</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">package</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">customFormatterFactory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">99.9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answer</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'()'</span></code> has been used as the special key because it is not a
+valid keyword parameter name, and so will not clash with the names of
+the keyword arguments used in the call.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'()'</span></code> also serves as a
+mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="access-to-external-objects">
+<span id="logging-config-dict-externalobj"></span><h3>Access to external objects<a class="headerlink" href="#access-to-external-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are times where a configuration needs to refer to objects
+external to the configuration, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>.  If the
+configuration dict is constructed using Python code, this is
+straightforward, but a problem arises when the configuration is
+provided via a text file (e.g. JSON, YAML).  In a text file, there is
+no standard way to distinguish <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> from the literal string
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sys.stderr'</span></code>.  To facilitate this distinction, the configuration
+system looks for certain special prefixes in string values and
+treat them specially.  For example, if the literal string
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ext://sys.stderr'</span></code> is provided as a value in the configuration,
+then the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext://</span></code> will be stripped off and the remainder of the
+value processed using normal import mechanisms.</p>
+<p>The handling of such prefixes is done in a way analogous to protocol
+handling: there is a generic mechanism to look for prefixes which
+match the regular expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^(?P&lt;prefix&gt;[a-z]+)://(?P&lt;suffix&gt;.*)$</span></code>
+whereby, if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code> is recognised, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suffix</span></code> is processed
+in a prefix-dependent manner and the result of the processing replaces
+the string value.  If the prefix is not recognised, then the string
+value will be left as-is.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="access-to-internal-objects">
+<span id="logging-config-dict-internalobj"></span><h3>Access to internal objects<a class="headerlink" href="#access-to-internal-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As well as external objects, there is sometimes also a need to refer
+to objects in the configuration.  This will be done implicitly by the
+configuration system for things that it knows about.  For example, the
+string value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'DEBUG'</span></code> for a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> in a logger or handler will
+automatically be converted to the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.DEBUG</span></code>, and the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filters</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> entries will take an
+object id and resolve to the appropriate destination object.</p>
+<p>However, a more generic mechanism is needed for user-defined
+objects which are not known to the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module.  For
+example, consider <a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers.MemoryHandler</span></code></a>, which takes
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code> argument which is another handler to delegate to. Since
+the system already knows about this class, then in the configuration,
+the given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code> just needs to be the object id of the relevant
+target handler, and the system will resolve to the handler from the
+id.  If, however, a user defines a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">my.package.MyHandler</span></code> which has
+an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alternate</span></code> handler, the configuration system would not know that
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alternate</span></code> referred to a handler.  To cater for this, a generic
+resolution system allows the user to specify:</p>
+<div class="highlight-yaml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># configuration of file handler goes here</span>
+
+  <span class="nt">custom</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">()</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">my.package.MyHandler</span>
+    <span class="nt">alternate</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">cfg://handlers.file</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The literal string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cfg://handlers.file'</span></code> will be resolved in an
+analogous way to strings with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ext://</span></code> prefix, but looking
+in the configuration itself rather than the import namespace.  The
+mechanism allows access by dot or by index, in a similar way to
+that provided by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format</span></code>.  Thus, given the following snippet:</p>
+<div class="highlight-yaml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">handlers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="nt">email</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nt">class</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">logging.handlers.SMTPHandler</span>
+    <span class="nt">mailhost</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">localhost</span>
+    <span class="nt">fromaddr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">my_app@domain.tld</span>
+    <span class="nt">toaddrs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+      <span class="p p-Indicator">-</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">support_team@domain.tld</span>
+      <span class="p p-Indicator">-</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">dev_team@domain.tld</span>
+    <span class="nt">subject</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="l l-Scalar l-Scalar-Plain">Houston, we have a problem.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>in the configuration, the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cfg://handlers'</span></code> would resolve to
+the dict with key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code>, the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cfg://handlers.email</span></code>
+would resolve to the dict with key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code> dict,
+and so on.  The string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1]</span></code> would
+resolve to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'dev_team.domain.tld'</span></code> and the string
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]'</span></code> would resolve to the value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'support_team&#64;domain.tld'</span></code>. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subject</span></code> value could be accessed
+using either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cfg://handlers.email.subject'</span></code> or, equivalently,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'</span></code>.  The latter form only needs to be
+used if the key contains spaces or non-alphanumeric characters.  If an
+index value consists only of decimal digits, access will be attempted
+using the corresponding integer value, falling back to the string
+value if needed.</p>
+<p>Given a string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123</span></code>, this will
+resolve to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']</span></code>.
+If the string is specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123]</span></code>,
+the system will attempt to retrieve the value from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123]</span></code>, and fall back
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']</span></code> if that
+fails.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="import-resolution-and-custom-importers">
+<span id="logging-import-resolution"></span><h3>Import resolution and custom importers<a class="headerlink" href="#import-resolution-and-custom-importers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Import resolution, by default, uses the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function
+to do its importing. You may want to replace this with your own importing
+mechanism: if so, you can replace the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importer</span></code> attribute of the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictConfigurator</span></code> or its superclass, the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseConfigurator</span></code> class. However, you need to be
+careful because of the way functions are accessed from classes via
+descriptors. If you are using a Python callable to do your imports, and you
+want to define it at class level rather than instance level, you need to wrap
+it with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">import_module</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseConfigurator</span>
+
+<span class="n">BaseConfigurator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">importer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">import_module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You don’t need to wrap with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> if you’re setting the import
+callable on a configurator <em>instance</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuration-file-format">
+<span id="logging-config-fileformat"></span><h2>Configuration file format<a class="headerlink" href="#configuration-file-format" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The configuration file format understood by <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a> is based on
+<a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> functionality. The file must contain sections called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[loggers]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[handlers]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[formatters]</span></code> which identify by name the
+entities of each type which are defined in the file. For each such entity, there
+is a separate section which identifies how that entity is configured.  Thus, for
+a logger named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log01</span></code> in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[loggers]</span></code> section, the relevant
+configuration details are held in a section <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[logger_log01]</span></code>. Similarly, a
+handler called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hand01</span></code> in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[handlers]</span></code> section will have its
+configuration held in a section called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[handler_hand01]</span></code>, while a formatter
+called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">form01</span></code> in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[formatters]</span></code> section will have its configuration
+specified in a section called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[formatter_form01]</span></code>. The root logger
+configuration must be specified in a section called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[logger_root]</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a> API is older than the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a> API and does
+not provide functionality to cover certain aspects of logging. For example,
+you cannot configure <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> objects, which provide for
+filtering of messages beyond simple integer levels, using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a>.
+If you need to have instances of <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> in your logging
+configuration, you will need to use <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a>. Note that future
+enhancements to configuration functionality will be added to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code></a>, so it’s worth considering transitioning to this newer
+API when it’s convenient to do so.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Examples of these sections in the file are given below.</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[loggers]</span>
+<span class="na">keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handlers]</span>
+<span class="na">keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09</span>
+
+<span class="k">[formatters]</span>
+<span class="na">keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The root logger must specify a level and a list of handlers. An example of a
+root logger section is given below.</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[logger_root]</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">NOTSET</span>
+<span class="na">handlers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">hand01</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> entry can be one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG,</span> <span class="pre">INFO,</span> <span class="pre">WARNING,</span> <span class="pre">ERROR,</span> <span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code>. For the root logger only, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code> means that all messages will be
+logged. Level values are <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>uated in the context of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code>
+package’s namespace.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code> entry is a comma-separated list of handler names, which must
+appear in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[handlers]</span></code> section. These names must appear in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[handlers]</span></code> section and have corresponding sections in the configuration
+file.</p>
+<p>For loggers other than the root logger, some additional information is required.
+This is illustrated by the following example.</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[logger_parser]</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">DEBUG</span>
+<span class="na">handlers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">hand01</span>
+<span class="na">propagate</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">1</span>
+<span class="na">qualname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">compiler.parser</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code> entries are interpreted as for the root logger,
+except that if a non-root logger’s level is specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code>, the system
+consults loggers higher up the hierarchy to determine the effective level of the
+logger. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">propagate</span></code> entry is set to 1 to indicate that messages must
+propagate to handlers higher up the logger hierarchy from this logger, or 0 to
+indicate that messages are <strong>not</strong> propagated to handlers up the hierarchy. The
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">qualname</span></code> entry is the hierarchical channel name of the logger, that is to
+say the name used by the application to get the logger.</p>
+<p>Sections which specify handler configuration are exemplified by the following.</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[handler_hand01]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">StreamHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">NOTSET</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form01</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(sys.stdout,)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> entry indicates the handler’s class (as determined by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>
+in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> package’s namespace). The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> is interpreted as for
+loggers, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code> is taken to mean ‘log everything’.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> entry indicates the key name of the formatter for this
+handler. If blank, a default formatter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging._defaultFormatter</span></code>) is used.
+If a name is specified, it must appear in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[formatters]</span></code> section and have
+a corresponding section in the configuration file.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> entry, when <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>uated in the context of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code>
+package’s namespace, is the list of arguments to the constructor for the handler
+class. Refer to the constructors for the relevant handlers, or to the examples
+below, to see how typical entries are constructed. If not provided, it defaults
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs</span></code> entry, when <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>uated in the context of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> package’s namespace, is the keyword argument dict to the constructor
+for the handler class. If not provided, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[handler_hand02]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">FileHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">DEBUG</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form02</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(&#39;python.log&#39;, &#39;w&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_hand03]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">handlers.SocketHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">INFO</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form03</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(&#39;localhost&#39;, handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_hand04]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">handlers.DatagramHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">WARN</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form04</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(&#39;localhost&#39;, handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_hand05]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">handlers.SysLogHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">ERROR</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form05</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">((&#39;localhost&#39;, handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_hand06]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">handlers.NTEventLogHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">CRITICAL</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form06</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(&#39;Python Application&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;Application&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_hand07]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">handlers.SMTPHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">WARN</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form07</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(&#39;localhost&#39;, &#39;from@abc&#39;, [&#39;user1@abc&#39;, &#39;user2@xyz&#39;], &#39;Logger Subject&#39;)</span>
+<span class="na">kwargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">{&#39;timeout&#39;: 10.0}</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_hand08]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">handlers.MemoryHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">NOTSET</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form08</span>
+<span class="na">target</span><span class="o">=</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(10, ERROR)</span>
+
+<span class="k">[handler_hand09]</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">handlers.HTTPHandler</span>
+<span class="na">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">NOTSET</span>
+<span class="na">formatter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">form09</span>
+<span class="na">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">(&#39;localhost:9022&#39;, &#39;/log&#39;, &#39;GET&#39;)</span>
+<span class="na">kwargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">{&#39;secure&#39;: True}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sections which specify formatter configuration are typified by the following.</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[formatter_form01]</span>
+<span class="na">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s</span>
+<span class="na">datefmt</span><span class="o">=</span>
+<span class="na">class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">logging.Formatter</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code> entry is the overall format string, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datefmt</span></code> entry is
+the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code>-compatible date/time format string.  If empty, the
+package substitutes something which is almost equivalent to specifying the date
+format string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%Y-%m-%d</span> <span class="pre">%H:%M:%S'</span></code>.  This format also specifies milliseconds,
+which are appended to the result of using the above format string, with a comma
+separator.  An example time in this format is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2003-01-23</span> <span class="pre">00:29:50,411</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> entry is optional.  It indicates the name of the formatter’s class
+(as a dotted module and class name.)  This option is useful for instantiating a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> subclass.  Subclasses of
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> can present exception tracebacks in an expanded or
+condensed format.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Due to the use of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> as described above, there are
+potential security risks which result from using the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> to send
+and receive configurations via sockets. The risks are limited to where
+multiple users with no mutual trust run code on the same machine; see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> documentation for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>API reference for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Useful handlers included with the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code> — Logging configuration</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuration-functions">Configuration functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuration-dictionary-schema">Configuration dictionary schema</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dictionary-schema-details">Dictionary Schema Details</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#incremental-configuration">Incremental Configuration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#object-connections">Object connections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#user-defined-objects">User-defined objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#access-to-external-objects">Access to external objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#access-to-internal-objects">Access to internal objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#import-resolution-and-custom-importers">Import resolution and custom importers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuration-file-format">Configuration file format</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> — Logging facility for Python</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.handlers.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code> — Logging handlers</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/logging.config.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-logging.handlers">
+<span id="logging-handlers-logging-handlers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> — Logging handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/logging/handlers.py">Lib/logging/handlers.py</a></p>
+<div class="sidebar">
+<p class="sidebar-title">Important</p>
+<p>This page contains only reference information. For tutorials,
+please see</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-basic-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Basic Tutorial</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-advanced-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Advanced Tutorial</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-cookbook"><span class="std std-ref">Logging Cookbook</span></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The following useful handlers are provided in the package. Note that three of
+the handlers (<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.FileHandler" title="logging.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a>) are actually defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module itself,
+but have been documented here along with the other handlers.</p>
+<div class="section" id="streamhandler">
+<span id="stream-handler"></span><h2>StreamHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#streamhandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the core <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package,
+sends logging output to streams such as <em>sys.stdout</em>, <em>sys.stderr</em> or any
+file-like object (or, more precisely, any object which supports <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code> methods).</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.StreamHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">StreamHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.StreamHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> class. If <em>stream</em> is
+specified, the instance will use it for logging output; otherwise, <em>sys.stderr</em>
+will be used.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.StreamHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.StreamHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If a formatter is specified, it is used to format the record. The record
+is then written to the stream with a terminator. If exception information
+is present, it is formatted using <a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#traceback.print_exception" title="traceback.print_exception"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.print_exception()</span></code></a> and
+appended to the stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.StreamHandler.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.StreamHandler.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flushes the stream by calling its <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.StreamHandler.flush" title="logging.StreamHandler.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a> method. Note that the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method is inherited from <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> and so
+does no output, so an explicit <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.StreamHandler.flush" title="logging.StreamHandler.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a> call may be needed at times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.StreamHandler.setStream">
+<code class="descname">setStream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.StreamHandler.setStream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the instance’s stream to the specified value, if it is different.
+The old stream is flushed before the new stream is set.</p>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>stream</strong> – The stream that the handler should use.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">Returns</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>the old stream, if the stream was changed, or <em>None</em> if it wasn’t.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code> class now has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminator</span></code> attribute, default
+value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, which is used as the terminator when writing a formatted
+record to a stream. If you don’t want this newline termination, you can
+set the handler instance’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminator</span></code> attribute to the empty string.
+In earlier versions, the terminator was hardcoded as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filehandler">
+<span id="file-handler"></span><h2>FileHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#filehandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.FileHandler" title="logging.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the core <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package,
+sends logging output to a disk file.  It inherits the output functionality from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.FileHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">FileHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode='a'</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>delay=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.FileHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.FileHandler" title="logging.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a> class. The specified file is
+opened and used as the stream for logging. If <em>mode</em> is not specified,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> is used.  If <em>encoding</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it is used to open the file
+with that encoding.  If <em>delay</em> is true, then file opening is deferred until the
+first call to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.FileHandler.emit" title="logging.FileHandler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a>. By default, the file grows indefinitely.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>As well as string values, <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> objects are also accepted
+for the <em>filename</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.FileHandler.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.FileHandler.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closes the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.FileHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.FileHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Outputs the record to the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nullhandler">
+<span id="null-handler"></span><h2>NullHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#nullhandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the core <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package,
+does not do any formatting or output. It is essentially a ‘no-op’ handler
+for use by library developers.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.NullHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">NullHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.NullHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.NullHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.NullHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.NullHandler.handle">
+<code class="descname">handle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.NullHandler.handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.NullHandler.createLock">
+<code class="descname">createLock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.NullHandler.createLock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for the lock, since there is no
+underlying I/O to which access needs to be serialized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#library-config"><span class="std std-ref">Configuring Logging for a Library</span></a> for more information on how to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NullHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="watchedfilehandler">
+<span id="watched-file-handler"></span><h2>WatchedFileHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#watchedfilehandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WatchedFileHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>
+module, is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code> which watches the file it is logging to. If
+the file changes, it is closed and reopened using the file name.</p>
+<p>A file change can happen because of usage of programs such as <em>newsyslog</em> and
+<em>logrotate</em> which perform log file rotation. This handler, intended for use
+under Unix/Linux, watches the file to see if it has changed since the last emit.
+(A file is deemed to have changed if its device or inode have changed.) If the
+file has changed, the old file stream is closed, and the file opened to get a
+new stream.</p>
+<p>This handler is not appropriate for use under Windows, because under Windows
+open log files cannot be moved or renamed - logging opens the files with
+exclusive locks - and so there is no need for such a handler. Furthermore,
+<em>ST_INO</em> is not supported under Windows; <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a> always returns zero
+for this value.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">WatchedFileHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode='a'</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>delay=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WatchedFileHandler</span></code></a> class. The specified
+file is opened and used as the stream for logging. If <em>mode</em> is not specified,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> is used.  If <em>encoding</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it is used to open the file
+with that encoding.  If <em>delay</em> is true, then file opening is deferred until the
+first call to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.emit" title="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a>.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>As well as string values, <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> objects are also accepted
+for the <em>filename</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded">
+<code class="descname">reopenIfNeeded</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks to see if the file has changed.  If it has, the existing stream is
+flushed and closed and the file opened again, typically as a precursor to
+outputting the record to the file.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Outputs the record to the file, but first calls <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded" title="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reopenIfNeeded()</span></code></a> to
+reopen the file if it has changed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="baserotatinghandler">
+<span id="base-rotating-handler"></span><h2>BaseRotatingHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#baserotatinghandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler" title="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseRotatingHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>
+module, is the base class for the rotating file handlers,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code></a>. You should
+not need to instantiate this class, but it has attributes and methods you may
+need to override.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">BaseRotatingHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>delay=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The parameters are as for <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code>. The attributes are:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.namer">
+<code class="descname">namer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.namer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this attribute is set to a callable, the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename" title="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotation_filename()</span></code></a>
+method delegates to this callable. The parameters passed to the callable
+are those passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename" title="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotation_filename()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The namer function is called quite a few times during rollover,
+so it should be as simple and as fast as possible. It should also
+return the same output every time for a given input, otherwise the
+rollover behaviour may not work as expected.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotator">
+<code class="descname">rotator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this attribute is set to a callable, the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate" title="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotate()</span></code></a> method
+delegates to this callable.  The parameters passed to the callable are
+those passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate" title="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename">
+<code class="descname">rotation_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>default_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Modify the filename of a log file when rotating.</p>
+<p>This is provided so that a custom filename can be provided.</p>
+<p>The default implementation calls the ‘namer’ attribute of the handler,
+if it’s callable, passing the default name to it. If the attribute isn’t
+callable (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), the name is returned unchanged.</p>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>default_name</strong> – The default name for the log file.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate">
+<code class="descname">rotate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>dest</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler.rotate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When rotating, rotate the current log.</p>
+<p>The default implementation calls the ‘rotator’ attribute of the handler,
+if it’s callable, passing the source and dest arguments to it. If the
+attribute isn’t callable (the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), the source is simply
+renamed to the destination.</p>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>source</strong> – The source filename. This is normally the base
+filename, e.g. ‘test.log’.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>dest</strong> – The destination filename. This is normally
+what the source is rotated to, e.g. ‘test.log.1’.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The reason the attributes exist is to save you having to subclass - you can use
+the same callables for instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code></a>. If either the namer or rotator callable
+raises an exception, this will be handled in the same way as any other
+exception during an <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code> call, i.e. via the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handleError()</span></code> method
+of the handler.</p>
+<p>If you need to make more significant changes to rotation processing, you can
+override the methods.</p>
+<p>For an example, see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#cookbook-rotator-namer"><span class="std std-ref">Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="rotatingfilehandler">
+<span id="rotating-file-handler"></span><h2>RotatingFileHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#rotatingfilehandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>
+module, supports rotation of disk log files.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">RotatingFileHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode='a'</em>, <em>maxBytes=0</em>, <em>backupCount=0</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>delay=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> class. The specified
+file is opened and used as the stream for logging. If <em>mode</em> is not specified,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> is used.  If <em>encoding</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it is used to open the file
+with that encoding.  If <em>delay</em> is true, then file opening is deferred until the
+first call to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.emit" title="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a>.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.</p>
+<p>You can use the <em>maxBytes</em> and <em>backupCount</em> values to allow the file to
+<em class="dfn">rollover</em> at a predetermined size. When the size is about to be exceeded,
+the file is closed and a new file is silently opened for output. Rollover occurs
+whenever the current log file is nearly <em>maxBytes</em> in length; but if either of
+<em>maxBytes</em> or <em>backupCount</em> is zero, rollover never occurs, so you generally want
+to set <em>backupCount</em> to at least 1, and have a non-zero <em>maxBytes</em>.
+When <em>backupCount</em> is non-zero, the system will save old log files by appending
+the extensions ‘.1’, ‘.2’ etc., to the filename. For example, with a <em>backupCount</em>
+of 5 and a base file name of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log</span></code>, you would get <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.1</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.2</span></code>, up to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.5</span></code>. The file being
+written to is always <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log</span></code>.  When this file is filled, it is closed
+and renamed to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.1</span></code>, and if files <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.1</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.2</span></code>, etc. exist, then they are renamed to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.2</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app.log.3</span></code> etc. respectively.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>As well as string values, <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> objects are also accepted
+for the <em>filename</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.doRollover">
+<code class="descname">doRollover</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.doRollover" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Does a rollover, as described above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as described
+previously.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timedrotatingfilehandler">
+<span id="timed-rotating-file-handler"></span><h2>TimedRotatingFileHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#timedrotatingfilehandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module, supports rotation of disk log files at certain
+timed intervals.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">TimedRotatingFileHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>when='h'</em>, <em>interval=1</em>, <em>backupCount=0</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>delay=False</em>, <em>utc=False</em>, <em>atTime=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> class. The
+specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging. On rotating it also
+sets the filename suffix. Rotating happens based on the product of <em>when</em> and
+<em>interval</em>.</p>
+<p>You can use the <em>when</em> to specify the type of <em>interval</em>. The list of possible
+values is below.  Note that they are not case sensitive.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Type of interval</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>If/how <em>atTime</em> is used</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'S'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Seconds</p></td>
+<td><p>Ignored</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'M'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Minutes</p></td>
+<td><p>Ignored</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'H'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hours</p></td>
+<td><p>Ignored</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'D'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Days</p></td>
+<td><p>Ignored</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'W0'-'W6'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Weekday (0=Monday)</p></td>
+<td><p>Used to compute initial
+rollover time</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'midnight'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Roll over at midnight, if
+<em>atTime</em> not specified,
+else at time <em>atTime</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Used to compute initial
+rollover time</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When using weekday-based rotation, specify ‘W0’ for Monday, ‘W1’ for
+Tuesday, and so on up to ‘W6’ for Sunday. In this case, the value passed for
+<em>interval</em> isn’t used.</p>
+<p>The system will save old log files by appending extensions to the filename.
+The extensions are date-and-time based, using the strftime format
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S</span></code> or a leading portion thereof, depending on the
+rollover interval.</p>
+<p>When computing the next rollover time for the first time (when the handler
+is created), the last modification time of an existing log file, or else
+the current time, is used to compute when the next rotation will occur.</p>
+<p>If the <em>utc</em> argument is true, times in UTC will be used; otherwise
+local time is used.</p>
+<p>If <em>backupCount</em> is nonzero, at most <em>backupCount</em> files
+will be kept, and if more would be created when rollover occurs, the oldest
+one is deleted. The deletion logic uses the interval to determine which
+files to delete, so changing the interval may leave old files lying around.</p>
+<p>If <em>delay</em> is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.emit" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>atTime</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it must be a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time</span></code> instance which
+specifies the time of day when rollover occurs, for the cases where rollover
+is set to happen “at midnight” or “on a particular weekday”. Note that in
+these cases, the <em>atTime</em> value is effectively used to compute the <em>initial</em>
+rollover, and subsequent rollovers would be calculated via the normal
+interval calculation.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Calculation of the initial rollover time is done when the handler
+is initialised. Calculation of subsequent rollover times is done only
+when rollover occurs, and rollover occurs only when emitting output. If
+this is not kept in mind, it might lead to some confusion. For example,
+if an interval of “every minute” is set, that does not mean you will
+always see log files with times (in the filename) separated by a minute;
+if, during application execution, logging output is generated more
+frequently than once a minute, <em>then</em> you can expect to see log files
+with times separated by a minute. If, on the other hand, logging messages
+are only output once every five minutes (say), then there will be gaps in
+the file times corresponding to the minutes where no output (and hence no
+rollover) occurred.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><em>atTime</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>As well as string values, <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> objects are also accepted
+for the <em>filename</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.doRollover">
+<code class="descname">doRollover</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.doRollover" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Does a rollover, as described above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as described above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sockethandler">
+<span id="socket-handler"></span><h2>SocketHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#sockethandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module,
+sends logging output to a network socket. The base class uses a TCP socket.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">SocketHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> class intended to
+communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by <em>host</em> and <em>port</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code> is specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a Unix domain socket is created
+using the value in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">host</span></code> - otherwise, a TCP socket is created.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closes the socket.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary and writes it to the socket in
+binary format. If there is an error with the socket, silently drops the
+packet. If the connection was previously lost, re-establishes the
+connection. To unpickle the record at the receiving end into a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>, use the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.makeLogRecord" title="logging.makeLogRecord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makeLogRecord()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.handleError">
+<code class="descname">handleError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.handleError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles an error which has occurred during <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.emit" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a>. The most likely
+cause is a lost connection. Closes the socket so that we can retry on the
+next event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makeSocket">
+<code class="descname">makeSocket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makeSocket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a factory method which allows subclasses to define the precise
+type of socket they want. The default implementation creates a TCP socket
+(<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle">
+<code class="descname">makePickle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary in binary format with a length
+prefix, and returns it ready for transmission across the socket. The
+details of this operation are equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record_attr_dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">datalen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;L&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">datalen</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">data</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that pickles aren’t completely secure. If you are concerned about
+security, you may want to override this method to implement a more secure
+mechanism. For example, you can sign pickles using HMAC and then verify
+them on the receiving end, or alternatively you can disable unpickling of
+global objects on the receiving end.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.send">
+<code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>packet</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a pickled byte-string <em>packet</em> to the socket. The format of the sent
+byte-string is as described in the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makePickle()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This function allows for partial sends, which can happen when the network
+is busy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.createSocket">
+<code class="descname">createSocket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.createSocket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tries to create a socket; on failure, uses an exponential back-off
+algorithm.  On initial failure, the handler will drop the message it was
+trying to send.  When subsequent messages are handled by the same
+instance, it will not try connecting until some time has passed.  The
+default parameters are such that the initial delay is one second, and if
+after that delay the connection still can’t be made, the handler will
+double the delay each time up to a maximum of 30 seconds.</p>
+<p>This behaviour is controlled by the following handler attributes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">retryStart</span></code> (initial delay, defaulting to 1.0 seconds).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">retryFactor</span></code> (multiplier, defaulting to 2.0).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">retryMax</span></code> (maximum delay, defaulting to 30.0 seconds).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This means that if the remote listener starts up <em>after</em> the handler has
+been used, you could lose messages (since the handler won’t even attempt
+a connection until the delay has elapsed, but just silently drop messages
+during the delay period).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datagramhandler">
+<span id="datagram-handler"></span><h2>DatagramHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#datagramhandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler" title="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>
+module, inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> to support sending logging messages
+over UDP sockets.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">DatagramHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler" title="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramHandler</span></code></a> class intended to
+communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by <em>host</em> and <em>port</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code> is specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a Unix domain socket is created
+using the value in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">host</span></code> - otherwise, a UDP socket is created.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary and writes it to the socket in
+binary format. If there is an error with the socket, silently drops the
+packet. To unpickle the record at the receiving end into a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>, use the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.makeLogRecord" title="logging.makeLogRecord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makeLogRecord()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.makeSocket">
+<code class="descname">makeSocket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.makeSocket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The factory method of <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> is here overridden to create
+a UDP socket (<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="socket.SOCK_DGRAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_DGRAM</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.send">
+<code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a pickled byte-string to a socket. The format of the sent byte-string
+is as described in the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler.makePickle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler.makePickle()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sysloghandler">
+<span id="syslog-handler"></span><h2>SysLogHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#sysloghandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module,
+supports sending logging messages to a remote or local Unix syslog.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">SysLogHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address=('localhost'</em>, <em>SYSLOG_UDP_PORT)</em>, <em>facility=LOG_USER</em>, <em>socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> class intended to
+communicate with a remote Unix machine whose address is given by <em>address</em> in
+the form of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> tuple.  If <em>address</em> is not specified,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('localhost',</span> <span class="pre">514)</span></code> is used.  The address is used to open a socket.  An
+alternative to providing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> tuple is providing an address as a
+string, for example ‘/dev/log’. In this case, a Unix domain socket is used to
+send the message to the syslog. If <em>facility</em> is not specified,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_USER</span></code> is used. The type of socket opened depends on the
+<em>socktype</em> argument, which defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="socket.SOCK_DGRAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_DGRAM</span></code></a> and thus
+opens a UDP socket. To open a TCP socket (for use with the newer syslog
+daemons such as rsyslog), specify a value of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that if your server is not listening on UDP port 514,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> may appear not to work. In that case, check what
+address you should be using for a domain socket - it’s system dependent.
+For example, on Linux it’s usually ‘/dev/log’ but on OS/X it’s
+‘/var/run/syslog’. You’ll need to check your platform and use the
+appropriate address (you may need to do this check at runtime if your
+application needs to run on several platforms). On Windows, you pretty
+much have to use the UDP option.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>socktype</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closes the socket to the remote host.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The record is formatted, and then sent to the syslog server. If exception
+information is present, it is <em>not</em> sent to the server.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2.1: </span>(See: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12168">bpo-12168</a>.) In earlier versions, the message sent to the
+syslog daemons was always terminated with a NUL byte, because early
+versions of these daemons expected a NUL terminated message - even
+though it’s not in the relevant specification (<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5424.html"><strong>RFC 5424</strong></a>). More recent
+versions of these daemons don’t expect the NUL byte but strip it off
+if it’s there, and even more recent daemons (which adhere more closely
+to RFC 5424) pass the NUL byte on as part of the message.</p>
+<p>To enable easier handling of syslog messages in the face of all these
+differing daemon behaviours, the appending of the NUL byte has been
+made configurable, through the use of a class-level attribute,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append_nul</span></code>. This defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (preserving the existing
+behaviour) but can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> on a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code> instance
+in order for that instance to <em>not</em> append the NUL terminator.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>(See: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12419">bpo-12419</a>.) In earlier versions, there was no facility for
+an “ident” or “tag” prefix to identify the source of the message. This
+can now be specified using a class-level attribute, defaulting to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code> to preserve existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code> instance in order for that instance to prepend
+the ident to every message handled. Note that the provided ident must
+be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message exactly as is.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.encodePriority">
+<code class="descname">encodePriority</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>facility</em>, <em>priority</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.encodePriority" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encodes the facility and priority into an integer. You can pass in strings
+or integers - if strings are passed, internal mapping dictionaries are
+used to convert them to integers.</p>
+<p>The symbolic <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_</span></code> values are defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> and
+mirror the values defined in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys/syslog.h</span></code> header file.</p>
+<p><strong>Priorities</strong></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Name (string)</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Symbolic value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alert</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_ALERT</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crit</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_CRIT</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_DEBUG</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emerg</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">panic</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_EMERG</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">err</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_ERR</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_INFO</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notice</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_NOTICE</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_WARNING</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><strong>Facilities</strong></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Name (string)</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Symbolic value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auth</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_AUTH</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">authpriv</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_AUTHPRIV</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cron</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_CRON</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_DAEMON</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_FTP</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kern</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_KERN</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lpr</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LPR</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mail</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_MAIL</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">news</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_NEWS</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_SYSLOG</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_USER</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uucp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_UUCP</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL3</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local4</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL4</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local5</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL5</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local6</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL6</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local7</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>LOG_LOCAL7</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.mapPriority">
+<code class="descname">mapPriority</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>levelname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.mapPriority" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Maps a logging level name to a syslog priority name.
+You may need to override this if you are using custom levels, or
+if the default algorithm is not suitable for your needs. The
+default algorithm maps <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code> to the equivalent syslog names, and all other level
+names to ‘warning’.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nteventloghandler">
+<span id="nt-eventlog-handler"></span><h2>NTEventLogHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#nteventloghandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NTEventLogHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>
+module, supports sending logging messages to a local Windows NT, Windows 2000 or
+Windows XP event log. Before you can use it, you need Mark Hammond’s Win32
+extensions for Python installed.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">NTEventLogHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>appname</em>, <em>dllname=None</em>, <em>logtype='Application'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NTEventLogHandler</span></code></a> class. The <em>appname</em> is
+used to define the application name as it appears in the event log. An
+appropriate registry entry is created using this name. The <em>dllname</em> should give
+the fully qualified pathname of a .dll or .exe which contains message
+definitions to hold in the log (if not specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'win32service.pyd'</span></code> is used
+- this is installed with the Win32 extensions and contains some basic
+placeholder message definitions. Note that use of these placeholders will make
+your event logs big, as the entire message source is held in the log. If you
+want slimmer logs, you have to pass in the name of your own .dll or .exe which
+contains the message definitions you want to use in the event log). The
+<em>logtype</em> is one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Application'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'System'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Security'</span></code>, and
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Application'</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>At this point, you can remove the application name from the registry as a
+source of event log entries. However, if you do this, you will not be able
+to see the events as you intended in the Event Log Viewer - it needs to be
+able to access the registry to get the .dll name. The current version does
+not do this.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determines the message ID, event category and event type, and then logs
+the message in the NT event log.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventCategory">
+<code class="descname">getEventCategory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventCategory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the event category for the record. Override this if you want to
+specify your own categories. This version returns 0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventType">
+<code class="descname">getEventType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getEventType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the event type for the record. Override this if you want to
+specify your own types. This version does a mapping using the handler’s
+typemap attribute, which is set up in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> to a dictionary
+which contains mappings for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code>. If you are using
+your own levels, you will either need to override this method or place a
+suitable dictionary in the handler’s <em>typemap</em> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getMessageID">
+<code class="descname">getMessageID</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler.getMessageID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the message ID for the record. If you are using your own messages,
+you could do this by having the <em>msg</em> passed to the logger being an ID
+rather than a format string. Then, in here, you could use a dictionary
+lookup to get the message ID. This version returns 1, which is the base
+message ID in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win32service.pyd</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtphandler">
+<span id="smtp-handler"></span><h2>SMTPHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#smtphandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module,
+supports sending logging messages to an email address via SMTP.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">SMTPHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mailhost</em>, <em>fromaddr</em>, <em>toaddrs</em>, <em>subject</em>, <em>credentials=None</em>, <em>secure=None</em>, <em>timeout=1.0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHandler</span></code></a> class. The instance is
+initialized with the from and to addresses and subject line of the email. The
+<em>toaddrs</em> should be a list of strings. To specify a non-standard SMTP port, use
+the (host, port) tuple format for the <em>mailhost</em> argument. If you use a string,
+the standard SMTP port is used. If your SMTP server requires authentication, you
+can specify a (username, password) tuple for the <em>credentials</em> argument.</p>
+<p>To specify the use of a secure protocol (TLS), pass in a tuple to the
+<em>secure</em> argument. This will only be used when authentication credentials are
+supplied. The tuple should be either an empty tuple, or a single-value tuple
+with the name of a keyfile, or a 2-value tuple with the names of the keyfile
+and certificate file. (This tuple is passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.starttls" title="smtplib.SMTP.starttls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib.SMTP.starttls()</span></code></a> method.)</p>
+<p>A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server using the
+<em>timeout</em> argument.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>timeout</em> argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.getSubject">
+<code class="descname">getSubject</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.getSubject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If you want to specify a subject line which is record-dependent, override
+this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="memoryhandler">
+<span id="memory-handler"></span><h2>MemoryHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryhandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module,
+supports buffering of logging records in memory, periodically flushing them to a
+<em class="dfn">target</em> handler. Flushing occurs whenever the buffer is full, or when an
+event of a certain severity or greater is seen.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryHandler</span></code></a> is a subclass of the more general
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler" title="logging.handlers.BufferingHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferingHandler</span></code></a>, which is an abstract class. This buffers logging
+records in memory. Whenever each record is added to the buffer, a check is made
+by calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shouldFlush()</span></code> to see if the buffer should be flushed.  If it
+should, then <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code> is expected to do the flushing.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BufferingHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">BufferingHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>capacity</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initializes the handler with a buffer of the specified capacity. Here,
+<em>capacity</em> means the number of logging records buffered.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Appends the record to the buffer. If <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.shouldFlush" title="logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.shouldFlush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shouldFlush()</span></code></a> returns true,
+calls <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.flush" title="logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a> to process the buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>You can override this to implement custom flushing behavior. This version
+just zaps the buffer to empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.shouldFlush">
+<code class="descname">shouldFlush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.shouldFlush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the buffer is up to capacity. This method can be
+overridden to implement custom flushing strategies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">MemoryHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>capacity</em>, <em>flushLevel=ERROR</em>, <em>target=None</em>, <em>flushOnClose=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryHandler</span></code></a> class. The instance is
+initialized with a buffer size of <em>capacity</em> (number of records buffered).
+If <em>flushLevel</em> is not specified, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code> is used. If no <em>target</em> is
+specified, the target will need to be set using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.setTarget" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.setTarget"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setTarget()</span></code></a> before this
+handler does anything useful. If <em>flushOnClose</em> is specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,
+then the buffer is <em>not</em> flushed when the handler is closed. If not specified
+or specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the previous behaviour of flushing the buffer will
+occur when the handler is closed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>flushOnClose</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.flush" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a>, sets the target to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and clears the
+buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler" title="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryHandler</span></code></a>, flushing means just sending the buffered
+records to the target, if there is one. The buffer is also cleared when
+this happens. Override if you want different behavior.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.setTarget">
+<code class="descname">setTarget</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.setTarget" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the target handler for this handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.shouldFlush">
+<code class="descname">shouldFlush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.shouldFlush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks for buffer full or a record at the <em>flushLevel</em> or higher.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httphandler">
+<span id="http-handler"></span><h2>HTTPHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#httphandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module,
+supports sending logging messages to a Web server, using either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> semantics.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">HTTPHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>url</em>, <em>method='GET'</em>, <em>secure=False</em>, <em>credentials=None</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code></a> class. The <em>host</em> can be
+of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">host:port</span></code>, should you need to use a specific port number.  If
+no <em>method</em> is specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code> is used. If <em>secure</em> is true, a HTTPS
+connection will be used. The <em>context</em> parameter may be set to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> instance to configure the SSL settings used for the
+HTTPS connection. If <em>credentials</em> is specified, it should be a 2-tuple
+consisting of userid and password, which will be placed in a HTTP
+‘Authorization’ header using Basic authentication. If you specify
+credentials, you should also specify secure=True so that your userid and
+password are not passed in cleartext across the wire.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>context</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord">
+<code class="descname">mapLogRecord</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provides a dictionary, based on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">record</span></code>, which is to be URL-encoded
+and sent to the web server. The default implementation just returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">record.__dict__</span></code>. This method can be overridden if e.g. only a
+subset of <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> is to be sent to the web server, or
+if more specific customization of what’s sent to the server is required.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sends the record to the Web server as a URL-encoded dictionary. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mapLogRecord()</span></code></a> method is used to convert the record to the
+dictionary to be sent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since preparing a record for sending it to a Web server is not
+the same as a generic formatting operation, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Handler.setFormatter" title="logging.Handler.setFormatter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setFormatter()</span></code></a> to specify a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> for a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code></a> has no effect.
+Instead of calling <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Handler.format" title="logging.Handler.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a>, this handler calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mapLogRecord()</span></code></a> and then <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlencode()</span></code></a> to encode the
+dictionary in a form suitable for sending to a Web server.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="queuehandler">
+<span id="queue-handler"></span><h2>QueueHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#queuehandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module,
+supports sending logging messages to a queue, such as those implemented in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>Along with the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> class, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> can be used
+to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from the one which does the
+logging. This is important in Web applications and also other service
+applications where threads servicing clients need to respond as quickly as
+possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHandler</span></code></a>) are done on a separate thread.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">QueueHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>queue</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> class. The instance is
+initialized with the queue to send messages to. The <em>queue</em> can be any
+queue-like object; it’s used as-is by the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.enqueue" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler.enqueue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enqueue()</span></code></a> method, which
+needs to know how to send messages to it. The queue is not <em>required</em> to
+have the task tracking API, which means that you can use
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue" title="queue.SimpleQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleQueue</span></code></a> instances for <em>queue</em>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueHandler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord. Should an exception
+occur (e.g. because a bounded queue has filled up), the
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Handler.handleError" title="logging.Handler.handleError"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handleError()</span></code></a> method is called to handle the
+error. This can result in the record silently being dropped (if
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.raiseExceptions</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>) or a message printed to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> (if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.raiseExceptions</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueHandler.prepare">
+<code class="descname">prepare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.prepare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prepares a record for queuing. The object returned by this
+method is enqueued.</p>
+<p>The base implementation formats the record to merge the message,
+arguments, and exception information, if present.  It also
+removes unpickleable items from the record in-place.</p>
+<p>You might want to override this method if you want to convert
+the record to a dict or JSON string, or send a modified copy
+of the record while leaving the original intact.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueHandler.enqueue">
+<code class="descname">enqueue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler.enqueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enqueues the record on the queue using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put_nowait()</span></code>; you may
+want to override this if you want to use blocking behaviour, or a
+timeout, or a customized queue implementation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="queuelistener">
+<span id="queue-listener"></span><h2>QueueListener<a class="headerlink" href="#queuelistener" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> class, located in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>
+module, supports receiving logging messages from a queue, such as those
+implemented in the <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> modules. The
+messages are received from a queue in an internal thread and passed, on
+the same thread, to one or more handlers for processing. While
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> is not itself a handler, it is documented here
+because it works hand-in-hand with <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Along with the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueHandler" title="logging.handlers.QueueHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code></a> class, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> can be used
+to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from the one which does the
+logging. This is important in Web applications and also other service
+applications where threads servicing clients need to respond as quickly as
+possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.SMTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.SMTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHandler</span></code></a>) are done on a separate thread.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueListener">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.handlers.</code><code class="descname">QueueListener</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>queue</em>, <em>*handlers</em>, <em>respect_handler_level=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> class. The instance is
+initialized with the queue to send messages to and a list of handlers which
+will handle entries placed on the queue. The queue can be any queue-like
+object; it’s passed as-is to the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.dequeue" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener.dequeue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dequeue()</span></code></a> method, which needs
+to know how to get messages from it. The queue is not <em>required</em> to have the
+task tracking API (though it’s used if available), which means that you can
+use <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue" title="queue.SimpleQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleQueue</span></code></a> instances for <em>queue</em>.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">respect_handler_level</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, a handler’s level is respected
+(compared with the level for the message) when deciding whether to pass
+messages to that handler; otherwise, the behaviour is as in previous Python
+versions - to always pass each message to each handler.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">respect_handler_levels</span></code> argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueListener.dequeue">
+<code class="descname">dequeue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>block</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.dequeue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dequeues a record and return it, optionally blocking.</p>
+<p>The base implementation uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code>. You may want to override this
+method if you want to use timeouts or work with custom queue
+implementations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueListener.prepare">
+<code class="descname">prepare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.prepare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prepare a record for handling.</p>
+<p>This implementation just returns the passed-in record. You may want to
+override this method if you need to do any custom marshalling or
+manipulation of the record before passing it to the handlers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueListener.handle">
+<code class="descname">handle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle a record.</p>
+<p>This just loops through the handlers offering them the record
+to handle. The actual object passed to the handlers is that which
+is returned from <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.prepare" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener.prepare"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prepare()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueListener.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Starts the listener.</p>
+<p>This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for
+LogRecords to process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueListener.stop">
+<code class="descname">stop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.stop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stops the listener.</p>
+<p>This asks the thread to terminate, and then waits for it to do so.
+Note that if you don’t call this before your application exits, there
+may be some records still left on the queue, which won’t be processed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.handlers.QueueListener.enqueue_sentinel">
+<code class="descname">enqueue_sentinel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.handlers.QueueListener.enqueue_sentinel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit. This
+implementation uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put_nowait()</span></code>.  You may want to override this
+method if you want to use timeouts or work with custom queue
+implementations.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>API reference for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Configuration API for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code> — Logging handlers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streamhandler">StreamHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filehandler">FileHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nullhandler">NullHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#watchedfilehandler">WatchedFileHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#baserotatinghandler">BaseRotatingHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#rotatingfilehandler">RotatingFileHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timedrotatingfilehandler">TimedRotatingFileHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sockethandler">SocketHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datagramhandler">DatagramHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sysloghandler">SysLogHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nteventloghandler">NTEventLogHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtphandler">SMTPHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#memoryhandler">MemoryHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httphandler">HTTPHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#queuehandler">QueueHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#queuelistener">QueueListener</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.config.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code> — Logging configuration</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="getpass.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code> — Portable password input</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-logging">
+<span id="logging-logging-facility-for-python"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> — Logging facility for Python<a class="headerlink" href="#module-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/logging/__init__.py">Lib/logging/__init__.py</a></p>
+<div class="sidebar" id="index-0">
+<p class="sidebar-title">Important</p>
+<p>This page contains the API reference information. For tutorial
+information and discussion of more advanced topics, see</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-basic-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Basic Tutorial</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-advanced-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Advanced Tutorial</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-cookbook"><span class="std std-ref">Logging Cookbook</span></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module defines functions and classes which implement a flexible event
+logging system for applications and libraries.</p>
+<p>The key benefit of having the logging API provided by a standard library module
+is that all Python modules can participate in logging, so your application log
+can include your own messages integrated with messages from third-party
+modules.</p>
+<p>The module provides a lot of functionality and flexibility.  If you are
+unfamiliar with logging, the best way to get to grips with it is to see the
+tutorials (see the links on the right).</p>
+<p>The basic classes defined by the module, together with their functions, are
+listed below.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.</p></li>
+<li><p>Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the appropriate
+destination.</p></li>
+<li><p>Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log records
+to output.</p></li>
+<li><p>Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="logger-objects">
+<span id="logger"></span><h2>Logger Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#logger-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Loggers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that Loggers should
+<em>NEVER</em> be instantiated directly, but always through the module-level function
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.getLogger(name)</span></code>.  Multiple calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.getLogger" title="logging.getLogger"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogger()</span></code></a> with the same
+name will always return a reference to the same Logger object.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code> (though it could also be just plain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, for example).
+Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of loggers
+higher up in the list.  For example, given a logger with a name of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>,
+loggers with names of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bam</span></code> are all
+descendants of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>.  The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the Python
+package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your loggers on a
+per-module basis using the recommended construction
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.getLogger(__name__)</span></code>.  That’s because in a module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>
+is the module’s name in the Python package namespace.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.Logger">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">Logger</code><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.propagate">
+<code class="descname">propagate</code><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.propagate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this attribute evaluates to true, events logged to this logger will be
+passed to the handlers of higher level (ancestor) loggers, in addition to
+any handlers attached to this logger. Messages are passed directly to the
+ancestor loggers’ handlers - neither the level nor filters of the ancestor
+loggers in question are considered.</p>
+<p>If this evaluates to false, logging messages are not passed to the handlers
+of ancestor loggers.</p>
+<p>The constructor sets this attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you attach a handler to a logger <em>and</em> one or more of its
+ancestors, it may emit the same record multiple times. In general, you
+should not need to attach a handler to more than one logger - if you just
+attach it to the appropriate logger which is highest in the logger
+hierarchy, then it will see all events logged by all descendant loggers,
+provided that their propagate setting is left set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>. A common
+scenario is to attach handlers only to the root logger, and to let
+propagation take care of the rest.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.setLevel">
+<code class="descname">setLevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.setLevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the threshold for this logger to <em>level</em>. Logging messages which are less
+severe than <em>level</em> will be ignored; logging messages which have severity <em>level</em>
+or higher will be emitted by whichever handler or handlers service this logger,
+unless a handler’s level has been set to a higher severity level than <em>level</em>.</p>
+<p>When a logger is created, the level is set to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code> (which causes
+all messages to be processed when the logger is the root logger, or delegation
+to the parent when the logger is a non-root logger). Note that the root logger
+is created with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The term ‘delegation to the parent’ means that if a logger has a level of
+NOTSET, its chain of ancestor loggers is traversed until either an ancestor with
+a level other than NOTSET is found, or the root is reached.</p>
+<p>If an ancestor is found with a level other than NOTSET, then that ancestor’s
+level is treated as the effective level of the logger where the ancestor search
+began, and is used to determine how a logging event is handled.</p>
+<p>If the root is reached, and it has a level of NOTSET, then all messages will be
+processed. Otherwise, the root’s level will be used as the effective level.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#levels"><span class="std std-ref">Logging Levels</span></a> for a list of levels.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>level</em> parameter now accepts a string representation of the
+level such as ‘INFO’ as an alternative to the integer constants
+such as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code>. Note, however, that levels are internally stored
+as integers, and methods such as e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel" title="logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getEffectiveLevel()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor" title="logging.Logger.isEnabledFor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isEnabledFor()</span></code></a> will return/expect to be passed integers.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.isEnabledFor">
+<code class="descname">isEnabledFor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lvl</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates if a message of severity <em>lvl</em> would be processed by this logger.
+This method checks first the module-level level set by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.disable(lvl)</span></code> and then the logger’s effective level as determined
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel" title="logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getEffectiveLevel()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel">
+<code class="descname">getEffectiveLevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates the effective level for this logger. If a value other than
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code> has been set using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.setLevel" title="logging.Logger.setLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLevel()</span></code></a>, it is returned. Otherwise,
+the hierarchy is traversed towards the root until a value other than
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code> is found, and that value is returned. The value returned is
+an integer, typically one of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.DEBUG</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.INFO</span></code>
+etc.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.getChild">
+<code class="descname">getChild</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.getChild" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a logger which is a descendant to this logger, as determined by the suffix.
+Thus, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi')</span></code> would return the same
+logger as would be returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi')</span></code>. This is a
+convenience method, useful when the parent logger is named using e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>
+rather than a literal string.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.debug">
+<code class="descname">debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code> on this logger. The <em>msg</em> is the
+message format string, and the <em>args</em> are the arguments which are merged into
+<em>msg</em> using the string formatting operator. (Note that this means that you can
+use keywords in the format string, together with a single dictionary argument.)</p>
+<p>There are three keyword arguments in <em>kwargs</em> which are inspected:
+<em>exc_info</em>, <em>stack_info</em>, and <em>extra</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>exc_info</em> does not evaluate as false, it causes exception information to be
+added to the logging message. If an exception tuple (in the format returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>) or an exception instance is provided, it is used;
+otherwise, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a> is called to get the exception information.</p>
+<p>The second optional keyword argument is <em>stack_info</em>, which defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. If true, stack information is added to the logging
+message, including the actual logging call. Note that this is not the same
+stack information as that displayed through specifying <em>exc_info</em>: The
+former is stack frames from the bottom of the stack up to the logging call
+in the current thread, whereas the latter is information about stack frames
+which have been unwound, following an exception, while searching for
+exception handlers.</p>
+<p>You can specify <em>stack_info</em> independently of <em>exc_info</em>, e.g. to just show
+how you got to a certain point in your code, even when no exceptions were
+raised. The stack frames are printed following a header line which says:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Stack (most recent call last):
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This mimics the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span> <span class="pre">(most</span> <span class="pre">recent</span> <span class="pre">call</span> <span class="pre">last):</span></code> which is used when
+displaying exception frames.</p>
+<p>The third keyword argument is <em>extra</em> which can be used to pass a
+dictionary which is used to populate the __dict__ of the LogRecord created for
+the logging event with user-defined attributes. These custom attributes can then
+be used as you like. For example, they could be incorporated into logged
+messages. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">FORMAT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(clientip)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(user)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FORMAT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;clientip&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;user&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fbloggs&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tcpserver&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Protocol problem: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;connection reset&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would print something like</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The keys in the dictionary passed in <em>extra</em> should not clash with the keys used
+by the logging system. (See the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> documentation for more
+information on which keys are used by the logging system.)</p>
+<p>If you choose to use these attributes in logged messages, you need to exercise
+some care. In the above example, for instance, the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> has been
+set up with a format string which expects ‘clientip’ and ‘user’ in the attribute
+dictionary of the LogRecord. If these are missing, the message will not be
+logged because a string formatting exception will occur. So in this case, you
+always need to pass the <em>extra</em> dictionary with these keys.</p>
+<p>While this might be annoying, this feature is intended for use in specialized
+circumstances, such as multi-threaded servers where the same code executes in
+many contexts, and interesting conditions which arise are dependent on this
+context (such as remote client IP address and authenticated user name, in the
+above example). In such circumstances, it is likely that specialized
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a>s would be used with particular <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a>s.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>stack_info</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>exc_info</em> parameter can now accept exception instances.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.info">
+<code class="descname">info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code> on this logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.warning">
+<code class="descname">warning</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.warning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code> on this logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There is an obsolete method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn</span></code> which is functionally
+identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning</span></code>. As <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn</span></code> is deprecated, please do not use
+it - use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning</span></code> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.error">
+<code class="descname">error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code> on this logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.critical">
+<code class="descname">critical</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.critical" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code> on this logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.log">
+<code class="descname">log</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lvl</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.log" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with integer level <em>lvl</em> on this logger. The other arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.exception">
+<code class="descname">exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code> on this logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>. Exception info is added to the logging
+message. This method should only be called from an exception handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.addFilter">
+<code class="descname">addFilter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filter</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.addFilter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds the specified filter <em>filter</em> to this logger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.removeFilter">
+<code class="descname">removeFilter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filter</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.removeFilter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the specified filter <em>filter</em> from this logger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.filter">
+<code class="descname">filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Applies this logger’s filters to the record and returns a true value if the
+record is to be processed. The filters are consulted in turn, until one of
+them returns a false value. If none of them return a false value, the record
+will be processed (passed to handlers). If one returns a false value, no
+further processing of the record occurs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.addHandler">
+<code class="descname">addHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hdlr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.addHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds the specified handler <em>hdlr</em> to this logger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.removeHandler">
+<code class="descname">removeHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hdlr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.removeHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the specified handler <em>hdlr</em> from this logger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.findCaller">
+<code class="descname">findCaller</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stack_info=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.findCaller" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finds the caller’s source filename and line number. Returns the filename, line
+number, function name and stack information as a 4-element tuple. The stack
+information is returned as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> unless <em>stack_info</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.handle">
+<code class="descname">handle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles a record by passing it to all handlers associated with this logger and
+its ancestors (until a false value of <em>propagate</em> is found). This method is used
+for unpickled records received from a socket, as well as those created locally.
+Logger-level filtering is applied using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.filter" title="logging.Logger.filter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.makeRecord">
+<code class="descname">makeRecord</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>lvl</em>, <em>fn</em>, <em>lno</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>exc_info</em>, <em>func=None</em>, <em>extra=None</em>, <em>sinfo=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.makeRecord" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a factory method which can be overridden in subclasses to create
+specialized <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Logger.hasHandlers">
+<code class="descname">hasHandlers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Logger.hasHandlers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks to see if this logger has any handlers configured. This is done by
+looking for handlers in this logger and its parents in the logger hierarchy.
+Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if a handler was found, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. The method stops searching
+up the hierarchy whenever a logger with the ‘propagate’ attribute set to
+false is found - that will be the last logger which is checked for the
+existence of handlers.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Loggers can now be pickled and unpickled.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging-levels">
+<span id="levels"></span><h2>Logging Levels<a class="headerlink" href="#logging-levels" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table. These are
+primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels, and need them to
+have specific values relative to the predefined levels. If you define a level
+with the same numeric value, it overwrites the predefined value; the predefined
+name is lost.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+<col style="width: 52%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Level</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Numeric value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>50</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>40</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>30</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>20</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>10</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="handler-objects">
+<span id="handler"></span><h2>Handler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#handler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Handlers have the following attributes and methods. Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a>
+is never instantiated directly; this class acts as a base for more useful
+subclasses. However, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method in subclasses needs to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler.__init__" title="logging.Handler.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler.__init__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.Handler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">Handler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.__init__">
+<code class="descname">__init__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level=NOTSET</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.__init__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initializes the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a> instance by setting its level, setting the list
+of filters to the empty list and creating a lock (using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler.createLock" title="logging.Handler.createLock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">createLock()</span></code></a>) for
+serializing access to an I/O mechanism.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.createLock">
+<code class="descname">createLock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.createLock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initializes a thread lock which can be used to serialize access to underlying
+I/O functionality which may not be threadsafe.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.acquire">
+<code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquires the thread lock created with <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler.createLock" title="logging.Handler.createLock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">createLock()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Releases the thread lock acquired with <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler.acquire" title="logging.Handler.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.setLevel">
+<code class="descname">setLevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.setLevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the threshold for this handler to <em>level</em>. Logging messages which are
+less severe than <em>level</em> will be ignored. When a handler is created, the
+level is set to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTSET</span></code> (which causes all messages to be
+processed).</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#levels"><span class="std std-ref">Logging Levels</span></a> for a list of levels.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>level</em> parameter now accepts a string representation of the
+level such as ‘INFO’ as an alternative to the integer constants
+such as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.setFormatter">
+<code class="descname">setFormatter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fmt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.setFormatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> for this handler to <em>fmt</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.addFilter">
+<code class="descname">addFilter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filter</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.addFilter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds the specified filter <em>filter</em> to this handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.removeFilter">
+<code class="descname">removeFilter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filter</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.removeFilter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the specified filter <em>filter</em> from this handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.filter">
+<code class="descname">filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Applies this handler’s filters to the record and returns a true value if the
+record is to be processed. The filters are consulted in turn, until one of
+them returns a false value. If none of them return a false value, the record
+will be emitted. If one returns a false value, the handler will not emit the
+record.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ensure all logging output has been flushed. This version does nothing and is
+intended to be implemented by subclasses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tidy up any resources used by the handler. This version does no output but
+removes the handler from an internal list of handlers which is closed when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.shutdown" title="logging.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a> is called. Subclasses should ensure that this gets called
+from overridden <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler.close" title="logging.Handler.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.handle">
+<code class="descname">handle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Conditionally emits the specified logging record, depending on filters which may
+have been added to the handler. Wraps the actual emission of the record with
+acquisition/release of the I/O thread lock.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.handleError">
+<code class="descname">handleError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.handleError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method should be called from handlers when an exception is encountered
+during an <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler.emit" title="logging.Handler.emit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code></a> call. If the module-level attribute
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raiseExceptions</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, exceptions get silently ignored. This is
+what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care about
+errors in the logging system, they are more interested in application
+errors. You could, however, replace this with a custom handler if you wish.
+The specified record is the one which was being processed when the exception
+occurred. (The default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raiseExceptions</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, as that is
+more useful during development).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do formatting for a record - if a formatter is set, use it. Otherwise, use the
+default formatter for the module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Handler.emit">
+<code class="descname">emit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Handler.emit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do whatever it takes to actually log the specified logging record. This version
+is intended to be implemented by subclasses and so raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>For a list of handlers included as standard, see <a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="formatter-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Formatter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#formatter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> objects have the following attributes and methods. They are
+responsible for converting a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> to (usually) a string which can
+be interpreted by either a human or an external system. The base
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> allows a formatting string to be specified. If none is
+supplied, the default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%(message)s'</span></code> is used, which just includes
+the message in the logging call. To have additional items of information in the
+formatted output (such as a timestamp), keep reading.</p>
+<p>A Formatter can be initialized with a format string which makes use of knowledge
+of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> attributes - such as the default value mentioned above
+making use of the fact that the user’s message and arguments are pre-formatted
+into a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>’s <em>message</em> attribute.  This format string contains
+standard Python %-style mapping keys. See section <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#old-string-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">printf-style String Formatting</span></a>
+for more information on string formatting.</p>
+<p>The useful mapping keys in a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> are given in the section on
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logrecord-attributes"><span class="std std-ref">LogRecord attributes</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.Formatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">Formatter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fmt=None</em>, <em>datefmt=None</em>, <em>style='%'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Formatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> class.  The instance is
+initialized with a format string for the message as a whole, as well as a
+format string for the date/time portion of a message.  If no <em>fmt</em> is
+specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%(message)s'</span></code> is used.  If no <em>datefmt</em> is specified, a format
+is used which is described in the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter.formatTime" title="logging.Formatter.formatTime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatTime()</span></code></a> documentation.</p>
+<p>The <em>style</em> parameter can be one of ‘%’, ‘{‘ or ‘$’ and determines how
+the format string will be merged with its data: using one of %-formatting,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>. See <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#formatting-styles"><span class="std std-ref">Using particular formatting styles throughout your application</span></a>
+for more information on using {- and $-formatting for log messages.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>style</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Formatter.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Formatter.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The record’s attribute dictionary is used as the operand to a string
+formatting operation. Returns the resulting string. Before formatting the
+dictionary, a couple of preparatory steps are carried out. The <em>message</em>
+attribute of the record is computed using <em>msg</em> % <em>args</em>. If the
+formatting string contains <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(asctime)'</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter.formatTime" title="logging.Formatter.formatTime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatTime()</span></code></a> is called
+to format the event time. If there is exception information, it is
+formatted using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter.formatException" title="logging.Formatter.formatException"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatException()</span></code></a> and appended to the message. Note
+that the formatted exception information is cached in attribute
+<em>exc_text</em>. This is useful because the exception information can be
+pickled and sent across the wire, but you should be careful if you have
+more than one <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> subclass which customizes the formatting
+of exception information. In this case, you will have to clear the cached
+value after a formatter has done its formatting, so that the next
+formatter to handle the event doesn’t use the cached value but
+recalculates it afresh.</p>
+<p>If stack information is available, it’s appended after the exception
+information, using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter.formatStack" title="logging.Formatter.formatStack"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatStack()</span></code></a> to transform it if necessary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Formatter.formatTime">
+<code class="descname">formatTime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em>, <em>datefmt=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Formatter.formatTime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method should be called from <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> by a formatter which
+wants to make use of a formatted time. This method can be overridden in
+formatters to provide for any specific requirement, but the basic behavior
+is as follows: if <em>datefmt</em> (a string) is specified, it is used with
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> to format the creation time of the
+record. Otherwise, the format ‘%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu’ is used, where the
+uuu part is a millisecond value and the other letters are as per the
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> documentation.  An example time in this format is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2003-01-23</span> <span class="pre">00:29:50,411</span></code>.  The resulting string is returned.</p>
+<p>This function uses a user-configurable function to convert the creation
+time to a tuple. By default, <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a> is used; to change
+this for a particular formatter instance, set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter</span></code> attribute
+to a function with the same signature as <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a>. To change it for all formatters, for example if you
+want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">converter</span></code>
+attribute in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code> class.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Previously, the default format was hard-coded as in this example:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2010-09-06</span> <span class="pre">22:38:15,292</span></code> where the part before the comma is
+handled by a strptime format string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%Y-%m-%d</span> <span class="pre">%H:%M:%S'</span></code>), and the
+part after the comma is a millisecond value. Because strptime does not
+have a format placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value is
+appended using another format string, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%s,%03d'</span></code> — and both of these
+format strings have been hardcoded into this method. With the change,
+these strings are defined as class-level attributes which can be
+overridden at the instance level when desired. The names of the
+attributes are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_time_format</span></code> (for the strptime format string)
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_msec_format</span></code> (for appending the millisecond value).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Formatter.formatException">
+<code class="descname">formatException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc_info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Formatter.formatException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Formats the specified exception information (a standard exception tuple as
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>) as a string. This default implementation
+just uses <a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#traceback.print_exception" title="traceback.print_exception"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.print_exception()</span></code></a>. The resulting string is
+returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Formatter.formatStack">
+<code class="descname">formatStack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stack_info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Formatter.formatStack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Formats the specified stack information (a string as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#traceback.print_stack" title="traceback.print_stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.print_stack()</span></code></a>, but with the last newline removed) as a
+string. This default implementation just returns the input value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filter-objects">
+<span id="filter"></span><h2>Filter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#filter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filters</span></code> can be used by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handlers</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Loggers</span></code> for more sophisticated
+filtering than is provided by levels. The base filter class only allows events
+which are below a certain point in the logger hierarchy. For example, a filter
+initialized with ‘A.B’ will allow events logged by loggers ‘A.B’, ‘A.B.C’,
+‘A.B.C.D’, ‘A.B.D’ etc. but not ‘A.BB’, ‘B.A.B’ etc. If initialized with the
+empty string, all events are passed.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.Filter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">Filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> class. If <em>name</em> is specified, it
+names a logger which, together with its children, will have its events allowed
+through the filter. If <em>name</em> is the empty string, allows every event.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.Filter.filter">
+<code class="descname">filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>record</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.Filter.filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is the specified record to be logged? Returns zero for no, nonzero for
+yes. If deemed appropriate, the record may be modified in-place by this
+method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that filters attached to handlers are consulted before an event is
+emitted by the handler, whereas filters attached to loggers are consulted
+whenever an event is logged (using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.info" title="logging.info"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a>,
+etc.), before sending an event to handlers. This means that events which have
+been generated by descendant loggers will not be filtered by a logger’s filter
+setting, unless the filter has also been applied to those descendant loggers.</p>
+<p>You don’t actually need to subclass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code>: you can pass any instance
+which has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter</span></code> method with the same semantics.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>You don’t need to create specialized <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code> classes, or use other
+classes with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter</span></code> method: you can use a function (or other
+callable) as a filter. The filtering logic will check to see if the filter
+object has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter</span></code> attribute: if it does, it’s assumed to be a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code> and its <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Filter.filter" title="logging.Filter.filter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> method is called. Otherwise, it’s
+assumed to be a callable and called with the record as the single
+parameter. The returned value should conform to that returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Filter.filter" title="logging.Filter.filter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Although filters are used primarily to filter records based on more
+sophisticated criteria than levels, they get to see every record which is
+processed by the handler or logger they’re attached to: this can be useful if
+you want to do things like counting how many records were processed by a
+particular logger or handler, or adding, changing or removing attributes in
+the LogRecord being processed. Obviously changing the LogRecord needs to be
+done with some care, but it does allow the injection of contextual information
+into logs (see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#filters-contextual"><span class="std std-ref">Using Filters to impart contextual information</span></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logrecord-objects">
+<span id="log-record"></span><h2>LogRecord Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#logrecord-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instances are created automatically by the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a>
+every time something is logged, and can be created manually via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.makeLogRecord" title="logging.makeLogRecord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makeLogRecord()</span></code></a> (for example, from a pickled event received over the
+wire).</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.LogRecord">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">LogRecord</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>level</em>, <em>pathname</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>exc_info</em>, <em>func=None</em>, <em>sinfo=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains all the information pertinent to the event being logged.</p>
+<p>The primary information is passed in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code>, which
+are combined using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">args</span></code> to create the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code> field of the
+record.</p>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>name</strong> – The name of the logger used to log the event represented by
+this LogRecord. Note that this name will always have this
+value, even though it may be emitted by a handler attached to
+a different (ancestor) logger.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>level</strong> – The numeric level of the logging event (one of DEBUG, INFO etc.)
+Note that this is converted to <em>two</em> attributes of the LogRecord:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">levelno</span></code> for the numeric value and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">levelname</span></code> for the
+corresponding level name.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>pathname</strong> – The full pathname of the source file where the logging call
+was made.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>lineno</strong> – The line number in the source file where the logging call was
+made.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>msg</strong> – The event description message, possibly a format string with
+placeholders for variable data.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>args</strong> – Variable data to merge into the <em>msg</em> argument to obtain the
+event description.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>exc_info</strong> – An exception tuple with the current exception information,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no exception information is available.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>func</strong> – The name of the function or method from which the logging call
+was invoked.</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>sinfo</strong> – A text string representing stack information from the base of
+the stack in the current thread, up to the logging call.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.LogRecord.getMessage">
+<code class="descname">getMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.LogRecord.getMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the message for this <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instance after merging any
+user-supplied arguments with the message. If the user-supplied message
+argument to the logging call is not a string, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> is called on it to
+convert it to a string. This allows use of user-defined classes as
+messages, whose <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__</span></code> method can return the actual format string to
+be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The creation of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code> has been made more configurable by
+providing a factory which is used to create the record. The factory can be
+set using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.getLogRecordFactory" title="logging.getLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.setLogRecordFactory" title="logging.setLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a>
+(see this for the factory’s signature).</p>
+</div>
+<p>This functionality can be used to inject your own values into a
+LogRecord at creation time. You can use the following pattern:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">old_factory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogRecordFactory</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">record_factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">record</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">old_factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">record</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">custom_attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mh">0xdecafbad</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">record</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLogRecordFactory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record_factory</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With this pattern, multiple factories could be chained, and as long
+as they don’t overwrite each other’s attributes or unintentionally
+overwrite the standard attributes listed above, there should be no
+surprises.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logrecord-attributes">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>LogRecord attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#logrecord-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The LogRecord has a number of attributes, most of which are derived from the
+parameters to the constructor. (Note that the names do not always correspond
+exactly between the LogRecord constructor parameters and the LogRecord
+attributes.) These attributes can be used to merge data from the record into
+the format string. The following table lists (in alphabetical order) the
+attribute names, their meanings and the corresponding placeholder in a %-style
+format string.</p>
+<p>If you are using {}-formatting (<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>), you can use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{attrname}</span></code> as the placeholder in the format string. If you are using
+$-formatting (<a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>), use the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">${attrname}</span></code>. In
+both cases, of course, replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attrname</span></code> with the actual attribute name
+you want to use.</p>
+<p>In the case of {}-formatting, you can specify formatting flags by placing them
+after the attribute name, separated from it with a colon. For example: a
+placeholder of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{msecs:03d}</span></code> would format a millisecond value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code> as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">004</span></code>. Refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> documentation for full details on
+the options available to you.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 53%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Format</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>args</p></td>
+<td><p>You shouldn’t need to
+format this yourself.</p></td>
+<td><p>The tuple of arguments merged into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span></code> to
+produce <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code>, or a dict whose values
+are used for the merge (when there is only one
+argument, and it is a dictionary).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>asctime</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(asctime)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Human-readable time when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> was created.  By default
+this is of the form ‘2003-07-08 16:49:45,896’
+(the numbers after the comma are millisecond
+portion of the time).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>created</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(created)f</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Time when the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> was created
+(as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>exc_info</p></td>
+<td><p>You shouldn’t need to
+format this yourself.</p></td>
+<td><p>Exception tuple (à la <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info</span></code>) or,
+if no exception has occurred, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>filename</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(filename)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Filename portion of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathname</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>funcName</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(funcName)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Name of function containing the logging call.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>levelname</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(levelname)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Text logging level for the message
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'DEBUG'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'INFO'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'WARNING'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ERROR'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'CRITICAL'</span></code>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>levelno</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(levelno)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Numeric logging level for the message
+(<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>lineno</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(lineno)d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Source line number where the logging call was
+issued (if available).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>message</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(message)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The logged message, computed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span> <span class="pre">%</span>
+<span class="pre">args</span></code>. This is set when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter.format" title="logging.Formatter.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter.format()</span></code></a> is invoked.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>module</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(module)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Module (name portion of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>msecs</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(msecs)d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Millisecond portion of the time when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> was created.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>msg</p></td>
+<td><p>You shouldn’t need to
+format this yourself.</p></td>
+<td><p>The format string passed in the original
+logging call. Merged with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> to
+produce <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code>, or an arbitrary object
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#arbitrary-object-messages"><span class="std std-ref">Using arbitrary objects as messages</span></a>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>name</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(name)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Name of the logger used to log the call.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>pathname</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(pathname)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Full pathname of the source file where the
+logging call was issued (if available).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>process</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(process)d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Process ID (if available).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>processName</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(processName)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Process name (if available).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>relativeCreated</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(relativeCreated)d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Time in milliseconds when the LogRecord was
+created, relative to the time the logging
+module was loaded.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>stack_info</p></td>
+<td><p>You shouldn’t need to
+format this yourself.</p></td>
+<td><p>Stack frame information (where available)
+from the bottom of the stack in the current
+thread, up to and including the stack frame
+of the logging call which resulted in the
+creation of this record.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>thread</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(thread)d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Thread ID (if available).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>threadName</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(threadName)s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Thread name (if available).</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span><em>processName</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="loggeradapter-objects">
+<span id="logger-adapter"></span><h2>LoggerAdapter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#loggeradapter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LoggerAdapter" title="logging.LoggerAdapter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code></a> instances are used to conveniently pass contextual
+information into logging calls. For a usage example, see the section on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#context-info"><span class="std std-ref">adding contextual information to your logging output</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="logging.LoggerAdapter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">LoggerAdapter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>logger</em>, <em>extra</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.LoggerAdapter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LoggerAdapter" title="logging.LoggerAdapter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code></a> initialized with an
+underlying <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> instance and a dict-like object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="logging.LoggerAdapter.process">
+<code class="descname">process</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.LoggerAdapter.process" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Modifies the message and/or keyword arguments passed to a logging call in
+order to insert contextual information. This implementation takes the object
+passed as <em>extra</em> to the constructor and adds it to <em>kwargs</em> using key
+‘extra’. The return value is a (<em>msg</em>, <em>kwargs</em>) tuple which has the
+(possibly modified) versions of the arguments passed in.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the above, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LoggerAdapter" title="logging.LoggerAdapter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code></a> supports the following
+methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.debug" title="logging.Logger.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.info" title="logging.Logger.info"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.warning" title="logging.Logger.warning"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.error" title="logging.Logger.error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.exception" title="logging.Logger.exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exception()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.critical" title="logging.Logger.critical"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.log" title="logging.Logger.log"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor" title="logging.Logger.isEnabledFor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isEnabledFor()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel" title="logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getEffectiveLevel()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.setLevel" title="logging.Logger.setLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLevel()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.hasHandlers" title="logging.Logger.hasHandlers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasHandlers()</span></code></a>. These methods have the same signatures as their
+counterparts in <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a>, so you can use the two types of instances
+interchangeably.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.isEnabledFor" title="logging.Logger.isEnabledFor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isEnabledFor()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel" title="logging.Logger.getEffectiveLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getEffectiveLevel()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.setLevel" title="logging.Logger.setLevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLevel()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger.hasHandlers" title="logging.Logger.hasHandlers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasHandlers()</span></code></a> methods were added
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LoggerAdapter" title="logging.LoggerAdapter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code></a>.  These methods delegate to the underlying logger.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="thread-safety">
+<h2>Thread Safety<a class="headerlink" href="#thread-safety" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special work
+needing to be done by its clients. It achieves this though using threading
+locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module’s shared data, and
+each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to its underlying I/O.</p>
+<p>If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a>
+module, you may not be able to use logging from within such handlers. This is
+because lock implementations in the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module are not always
+re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such signal handlers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-level-functions">
+<h2>Module-Level Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-level-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In addition to the classes described above, there are a number of module-level
+functions.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.getLogger">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">getLogger</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.getLogger" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, return a
+logger which is the root logger of the hierarchy. If specified, the name is
+typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like <em>‘a’</em>, <em>‘a.b’</em> or <em>‘a.b.c.d’</em>.
+Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer who is using logging.</p>
+<p>All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger instance.
+This means that logger instances never need to be passed between different parts
+of an application.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.getLoggerClass">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">getLoggerClass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.getLoggerClass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return either the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> class, or the last class passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.setLoggerClass" title="logging.setLoggerClass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLoggerClass()</span></code></a>. This function may be called from within a new class
+definition, to ensure that installing a customized <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> class will
+not undo customizations already applied by other code. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLoggerClass</span><span class="p">()):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... override behaviour here</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.getLogRecordFactory">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">getLogRecordFactory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.getLogRecordFactory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a callable which is used to create a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>This function has been provided, along with <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.setLogRecordFactory" title="logging.setLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a>,
+to allow developers more control over how the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>
+representing a logging event is constructed.</p>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.setLogRecordFactory" title="logging.setLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a> for more information about the how the
+factory is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.debug">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code> on the root logger. The <em>msg</em> is the
+message format string, and the <em>args</em> are the arguments which are merged into
+<em>msg</em> using the string formatting operator. (Note that this means that you can
+use keywords in the format string, together with a single dictionary argument.)</p>
+<p>There are three keyword arguments in <em>kwargs</em> which are inspected: <em>exc_info</em>
+which, if it does not evaluate as false, causes exception information to be
+added to the logging message. If an exception tuple (in the format returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>) or an exception instance is provided, it is used;
+otherwise, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a> is called to get the exception information.</p>
+<p>The second optional keyword argument is <em>stack_info</em>, which defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. If true, stack information is added to the logging
+message, including the actual logging call. Note that this is not the same
+stack information as that displayed through specifying <em>exc_info</em>: The
+former is stack frames from the bottom of the stack up to the logging call
+in the current thread, whereas the latter is information about stack frames
+which have been unwound, following an exception, while searching for
+exception handlers.</p>
+<p>You can specify <em>stack_info</em> independently of <em>exc_info</em>, e.g. to just show
+how you got to a certain point in your code, even when no exceptions were
+raised. The stack frames are printed following a header line which says:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Stack (most recent call last):
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This mimics the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span> <span class="pre">(most</span> <span class="pre">recent</span> <span class="pre">call</span> <span class="pre">last):</span></code> which is used when
+displaying exception frames.</p>
+<p>The third optional keyword argument is <em>extra</em> which can be used to pass a
+dictionary which is used to populate the __dict__ of the LogRecord created for
+the logging event with user-defined attributes. These custom attributes can then
+be used as you like. For example, they could be incorporated into logged
+messages. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">FORMAT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)-15s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(clientip)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(user)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FORMAT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;clientip&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;192.168.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;user&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fbloggs&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Protocol problem: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;connection reset&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would print something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The keys in the dictionary passed in <em>extra</em> should not clash with the keys used
+by the logging system. (See the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> documentation for more
+information on which keys are used by the logging system.)</p>
+<p>If you choose to use these attributes in logged messages, you need to exercise
+some care. In the above example, for instance, the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> has been
+set up with a format string which expects ‘clientip’ and ‘user’ in the attribute
+dictionary of the LogRecord. If these are missing, the message will not be
+logged because a string formatting exception will occur. So in this case, you
+always need to pass the <em>extra</em> dictionary with these keys.</p>
+<p>While this might be annoying, this feature is intended for use in specialized
+circumstances, such as multi-threaded servers where the same code executes in
+many contexts, and interesting conditions which arise are dependent on this
+context (such as remote client IP address and authenticated user name, in the
+above example). In such circumstances, it is likely that specialized
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a>s would be used with particular <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Handler" title="logging.Handler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code></a>s.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>stack_info</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.info">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code> on the root logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.warning">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">warning</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.warning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code> on the root logger. The arguments
+are interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There is an obsolete function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn</span></code> which is functionally
+identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning</span></code>. As <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn</span></code> is deprecated, please do not use
+it - use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning</span></code> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.error">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code> on the root logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.critical">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">critical</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.critical" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code> on the root logger. The arguments
+are interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.exception">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code> on the root logger. The arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>. Exception info is added to the logging
+message. This function should only be called from an exception handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.log">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">log</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.log" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logs a message with level <em>level</em> on the root logger. The other arguments are
+interpreted as for <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The above module-level convenience functions, which delegate to the
+root logger, call <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> to ensure that at least one handler
+is available. Because of this, they should <em>not</em> be used in threads,
+in versions of Python earlier than 2.7.1 and 3.2, unless at least one
+handler has been added to the root logger <em>before</em> the threads are
+started. In earlier versions of Python, due to a thread safety shortcoming
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a>, this can (under rare circumstances) lead to
+handlers being added multiple times to the root logger, which can in turn
+lead to multiple messages for the same event.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.disable">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">disable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lvl=CRITICAL</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.disable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provides an overriding level <em>lvl</em> for all loggers which takes precedence over
+the logger’s own level. When the need arises to temporarily throttle logging
+output down across the whole application, this function can be useful. Its
+effect is to disable all logging calls of severity <em>lvl</em> and below, so that
+if you call it with a value of INFO, then all INFO and DEBUG events would be
+discarded, whereas those of severity WARNING and above would be processed
+according to the logger’s effective level. If
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.disable(logging.NOTSET)</span></code> is called, it effectively removes this
+overriding level, so that logging output again depends on the effective
+levels of individual loggers.</p>
+<p>Note that if you have defined any custom logging level higher than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code> (this is not recommended), you won’t be able to rely on the
+default value for the <em>lvl</em> parameter, but will have to explicitly supply a
+suitable value.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>lvl</em> parameter was defaulted to level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code>. See Issue
+#28524 for more information about this change.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.addLevelName">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">addLevelName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lvl</em>, <em>levelName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.addLevelName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Associates level <em>lvl</em> with text <em>levelName</em> in an internal dictionary, which is
+used to map numeric levels to a textual representation, for example when a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> formats a message. This function can also be used to define
+your own levels. The only constraints are that all levels used must be
+registered using this function, levels should be positive integers and they
+should increase in increasing order of severity.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you are thinking of defining your own levels, please see the
+section on <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#custom-levels"><span class="std std-ref">Custom Levels</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.getLevelName">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">getLevelName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lvl</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.getLevelName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the textual representation of logging level <em>lvl</em>. If the level is one
+of the predefined levels <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code> then you get the corresponding string. If you
+have associated levels with names using <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.addLevelName" title="logging.addLevelName"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addLevelName()</span></code></a> then the name you
+have associated with <em>lvl</em> is returned. If a numeric value corresponding to one
+of the defined levels is passed in, the corresponding string representation is
+returned. Otherwise, the string ‘Level %s’ % lvl is returned.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Levels are internally integers (as they need to be compared in the
+logging logic). This function is used to convert between an integer level
+and the level name displayed in the formatted log output by means of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(levelname)s</span></code> format specifier (see <a class="reference internal" href="#logrecord-attributes"><span class="std std-ref">LogRecord attributes</span></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>In Python versions earlier than 3.4, this function could also be passed a
+text level, and would return the corresponding numeric value of the level.
+This undocumented behaviour was considered a mistake, and was removed in
+Python 3.4, but reinstated in 3.4.2 due to retain backward compatibility.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.makeLogRecord">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">makeLogRecord</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrdict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.makeLogRecord" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates and returns a new <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instance whose attributes are
+defined by <em>attrdict</em>. This function is useful for taking a pickled
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> attribute dictionary, sent over a socket, and reconstituting
+it as a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> instance at the receiving end.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.basicConfig">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">basicConfig</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.basicConfig" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Does basic configuration for the logging system by creating a
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> with a default <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.Formatter" title="logging.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> and adding it to the
+root logger. The functions <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.debug" title="logging.debug"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.info" title="logging.info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.warning" title="logging.warning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#logging.error" title="logging.error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.critical" title="logging.critical"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical()</span></code></a> will call <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> automatically
+if no handlers are defined for the root logger.</p>
+<p>This function does nothing if the root logger already has handlers
+configured for it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function should be called from the main thread
+before other threads are started. In versions of Python prior to
+2.7.1 and 3.2, if this function is called from multiple threads,
+it is possible (in rare circumstances) that a handler will be added
+to the root logger more than once, leading to unexpected results
+such as messages being duplicated in the log.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The following keyword arguments are supported.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 76%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Format</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>filename</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies that a FileHandler be created,
+using the specified filename, rather than a
+StreamHandler.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>filemode</em></p></td>
+<td><p>If <em>filename</em> is specified, open the file
+in this <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#filemodes"><span class="std std-ref">mode</span></a>. Defaults
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>format</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Use the specified format string for the
+handler.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>datefmt</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Use the specified date/time format, as
+accepted by <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>style</em></p></td>
+<td><p>If <em>format</em> is specified, use this style
+for the format string. One of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code> for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#old-string-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">printf-style</span></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a> respectively.
+Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>level</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Set the root logger level to the specified
+<a class="reference internal" href="#levels"><span class="std std-ref">level</span></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>stream</em></p></td>
+<td><p>Use the specified stream to initialize the
+StreamHandler. Note that this argument is
+incompatible with <em>filename</em> - if both
+are present, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code> is raised.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>handlers</em></p></td>
+<td><p>If specified, this should be an iterable of
+already created handlers to add to the root
+logger. Any handlers which don’t already
+have a formatter set will be assigned the
+default formatter created in this function.
+Note that this argument is incompatible
+with <em>filename</em> or <em>stream</em> - if both
+are present, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code> is raised.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>style</em> argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>handlers</em> argument was added. Additional checks were added to
+catch situations where incompatible arguments are specified (e.g.
+<em>handlers</em> together with <em>stream</em> or <em>filename</em>, or <em>stream</em>
+together with <em>filename</em>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.shutdown">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">shutdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.shutdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Informs the logging system to perform an orderly shutdown by flushing and
+closing all handlers. This should be called at application exit and no
+further use of the logging system should be made after this call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.setLoggerClass">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">setLoggerClass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>klass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.setLoggerClass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tells the logging system to use the class <em>klass</em> when instantiating a logger.
+The class should define <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> such that only a name argument is
+required, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> should call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger.__init__()</span></code>. This
+function is typically called before any loggers are instantiated by applications
+which need to use custom logger behavior. After this call, as at any other
+time, do not instantiate loggers directly using the subclass: continue to use
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.getLogger" title="logging.getLogger"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.getLogger()</span></code></a> API to get your loggers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.setLogRecordFactory">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">setLogRecordFactory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>factory</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.setLogRecordFactory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a callable which is used to create a <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>factory</strong> – The factory callable to be used to instantiate a log record.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>This function has been provided, along with <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.getLogRecordFactory" title="logging.getLogRecordFactory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogRecordFactory()</span></code></a>, to
+allow developers more control over how the <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a> representing
+a logging event is constructed.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The factory has the following signature:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">factory(name,</span> <span class="pre">level,</span> <span class="pre">fn,</span> <span class="pre">lno,</span> <span class="pre">msg,</span> <span class="pre">args,</span> <span class="pre">exc_info,</span> <span class="pre">func=None,</span> <span class="pre">sinfo=None,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code></p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">name</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>The logger name.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">level</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>The logging level (numeric).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">fn</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>The full pathname of the file where the logging call was made.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">lno</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>The line number in the file where the logging call was made.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">msg</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>The logging message.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">args</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>The arguments for the logging message.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">exc_info</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>An exception tuple, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">func</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>The name of the function or method which invoked the logging
+call.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-odd">sinfo</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A stack traceback such as is provided by
+<a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#traceback.print_stack" title="traceback.print_stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.print_stack()</span></code></a>, showing the call hierarchy.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="field-even">kwargs</dt>
+<dd class="field-even"><p>Additional keyword arguments.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-level-attributes">
+<h2>Module-Level Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-level-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="logging.lastResort">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">lastResort</code><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.lastResort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A “handler of last resort” is available through this attribute. This
+is a <a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> writing to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> with a level of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>, and is used to handle logging events in the absence of any
+logging configuration. The end result is to just print the message to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>. This replaces the earlier error message saying that
+“no handlers could be found for logger XYZ”. If you need the earlier
+behaviour for some reason, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lastResort</span></code> can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="integration-with-the-warnings-module">
+<h2>Integration with the warnings module<a class="headerlink" href="#integration-with-the-warnings-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#logging.captureWarnings" title="logging.captureWarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">captureWarnings()</span></code></a> function can be used to integrate <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a>
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="logging.captureWarnings">
+<code class="descclassname">logging.</code><code class="descname">captureWarnings</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>capture</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#logging.captureWarnings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used to turn the capture of warnings by logging on and
+off.</p>
+<p>If <em>capture</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, warnings issued by the <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module will
+be redirected to the logging system. Specifically, a warning will be
+formatted using <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#warnings.formatwarning" title="warnings.formatwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.formatwarning()</span></code></a> and the resulting string
+logged to a logger named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'py.warnings'</span></code> with a severity of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>capture</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the redirection of warnings to the logging system
+will stop, and warnings will be redirected to their original destinations
+(i.e. those in effect before <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">captureWarnings(True)</span></code> was called).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#module-logging.config" title="logging.config: Configuration of the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Configuration API for the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Useful handlers included with the logging module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0282"><strong>PEP 282</strong></a> - A Logging System</dt><dd><p>The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python standard
+library.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.red-dove.com/python_logging.html">Original Python logging package</a></dt><dd><p>This is the original source for the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package.  The version of the
+package available from this site is suitable for use with Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x
+and 2.2.x, which do not include the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package in the standard
+library.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code> — Logging facility for Python</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logger-objects">Logger Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging-levels">Logging Levels</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#handler-objects">Handler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formatter-objects">Formatter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filter-objects">Filter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logrecord-objects">LogRecord Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logrecord-attributes">LogRecord attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#loggeradapter-objects">LoggerAdapter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thread-safety">Thread Safety</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-level-functions">Module-Level Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-level-attributes">Module-Level Attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#integration-with-the-warnings-module">Integration with the warnings module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="getopt.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code> — C-style parser for command line options</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="logging.config.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></code> — Logging configuration</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/logging.rst"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-lzma">
+<span id="lzma-compression-using-the-lzma-algorithm"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> — Compression using the LZMA algorithm<a class="headerlink" href="#module-lzma" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/lzma.py">Lib/lzma.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides classes and convenience functions for compressing and
+decompressing data using the LZMA compression algorithm. Also included is a file
+interface supporting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.xz</span></code> and legacy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.lzma</span></code> file formats used by the
+<strong class="program">xz</strong> utility, as well as raw compressed streams.</p>
+<p>The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a>
+module. However, note that <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a> is <em>not</em> thread-safe, unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File</span></code></a>, so if you need to use a single <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a> instance
+from multiple threads, it is necessary to protect it with a lock.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMAError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">LZMAError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMAError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or
+decompression, or while initializing the compressor/decompressor state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="reading-and-writing-compressed-files">
+<h2>Reading and writing compressed files<a class="headerlink" href="#reading-and-writing-compressed-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="lzma.open">
+<code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>mode=&quot;rb&quot;</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>format=None</em>, <em>check=-1</em>, <em>preset=None</em>, <em>filters=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>filename</em> argument can be either an actual file name (given as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like</span></a> object), in
+which case the named file is opened, or it can be an existing file object
+to read from or write to.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument can be any of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;r&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;rb&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;w&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;wb&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xb&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;a&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ab&quot;</span></code> for binary mode, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;rt&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;wt&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xt&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;at&quot;</span></code> for text mode. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;rb&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When opening a file for reading, the <em>format</em> and <em>filters</em> arguments have
+the same meanings as for <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMADecompressor</span></code></a>. In this case, the <em>check</em>
+and <em>preset</em> arguments should not be used.</p>
+<p>When opening a file for writing, the <em>format</em>, <em>check</em>, <em>preset</em> and
+<em>filters</em> arguments have the same meanings as for <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor" title="lzma.LZMACompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMACompressor</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a>
+constructor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile(filename,</span> <span class="pre">mode,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>. In this case, the <em>encoding</em>,
+<em>errors</em> and <em>newline</em> arguments must not be provided.</p>
+<p>For text mode, a <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a> object is created, and wrapped in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> instance with the specified encoding, error
+handling behavior, and line ending(s).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xb&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xt&quot;</span></code> modes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMAFile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">LZMAFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=None</em>, <em>mode=&quot;r&quot;</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>format=None</em>, <em>check=-1</em>, <em>preset=None</em>, <em>filters=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary mode.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a> can wrap an already-open <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, or operate
+directly on a named file. The <em>filename</em> argument specifies either the file
+object to wrap, or the name of the file to open (as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like</span></a> object). When wrapping an
+existing file object, the wrapped file will not be closed when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a> is closed.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument can be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;r&quot;</span></code> for reading (default), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;w&quot;</span></code> for
+overwriting, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;</span></code> for exclusive creation, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;a&quot;</span></code> for appending. These
+can equivalently be given as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;rb&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;wb&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xb&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ab&quot;</span></code>
+respectively.</p>
+<p>If <em>filename</em> is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;w&quot;</span></code> does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;a&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When opening a file for reading, the input file may be the concatenation of
+multiple separate compressed streams. These are transparently decoded as a
+single logical stream.</p>
+<p>When opening a file for reading, the <em>format</em> and <em>filters</em> arguments have
+the same meanings as for <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMADecompressor</span></code></a>. In this case, the <em>check</em>
+and <em>preset</em> arguments should not be used.</p>
+<p>When opening a file for writing, the <em>format</em>, <em>check</em>, <em>preset</em> and
+<em>filters</em> arguments have the same meanings as for <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor" title="lzma.LZMACompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMACompressor</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a> supports all the members specified by
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>, except for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code>.
+Iteration and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement are supported.</p>
+<p>The following method is also provided:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMAFile.peek">
+<code class="descname">peek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMAFile.peek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return buffered data without advancing the file position. At least one
+byte of data will be returned, unless EOF has been reached. The exact
+number of bytes returned is unspecified (the <em>size</em> argument is ignored).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While calling <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile.peek" title="lzma.LZMAFile.peek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">peek()</span></code></a> does not change the file position of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a>, it may change the position of the underlying
+file object (e.g. if the <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a> was constructed by passing a
+file object for <em>filename</em>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xb&quot;</span></code> modes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method now accepts an argument of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory">
+<h2>Compressing and decompressing data in memory<a class="headerlink" href="#compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMACompressor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">LZMACompressor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format=FORMAT_XZ</em>, <em>check=-1</em>, <em>preset=None</em>, <em>filters=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a compressor object, which can be used to compress data incrementally.</p>
+<p>For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.compress" title="lzma.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>format</em> argument specifies what container format should be used.
+Possible values are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_XZ</span></code>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.xz</span></code> container format.</dt><dd><p>This is the default format.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_ALONE</span></code>: The legacy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.lzma</span></code> container format.</dt><dd><p>This format is more limited than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.xz</span></code> – it does not support integrity
+checks or multiple filters.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_RAW</span></code>: A raw data stream, not using any container format.</dt><dd><p>This format specifier does not support integrity checks, and requires that
+you always specify a custom filter chain (for both compression and
+decompression). Additionally, data compressed in this manner cannot be
+decompressed using <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_AUTO</span></code> (see <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMADecompressor</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <em>check</em> argument specifies the type of integrity check to include in the
+compressed data. This check is used when decompressing, to ensure that the
+data has not been corrupted. Possible values are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_NONE</span></code>: No integrity check.
+This is the default (and the only acceptable value) for
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_ALONE</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_RAW</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_CRC32</span></code>: 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_CRC64</span></code>: 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.
+This is the default for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_XZ</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_SHA256</span></code>: 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If the specified check is not supported, an <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAError" title="lzma.LZMAError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>The compression settings can be specified either as a preset compression
+level (with the <em>preset</em> argument), or in detail as a custom filter chain
+(with the <em>filters</em> argument).</p>
+<p>The <em>preset</em> argument (if provided) should be an integer between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> (inclusive), optionally OR-ed with the constant
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRESET_EXTREME</span></code>. If neither <em>preset</em> nor <em>filters</em> are given, the
+default behavior is to use <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRESET_DEFAULT</span></code> (preset level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code>).
+Higher presets produce smaller output, but make the compression process
+slower.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In addition to being more CPU-intensive, compression with higher presets
+also requires much more memory (and produces output that needs more memory
+to decompress). With preset <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> for example, the overhead for an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor" title="lzma.LZMACompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMACompressor</span></code></a> object can be as high as 800 MiB. For this reason,
+it is generally best to stick with the default preset.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>filters</em> argument (if provided) should be a filter chain specifier.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#filter-chain-specs"><span class="std std-ref">Specifying custom filter chains</span></a> for details.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMACompressor.compress">
+<code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compress <em>data</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object), returning a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+object containing compressed data for at least part of the input. Some of
+<em>data</em> may be buffered internally, for use in later calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.compress" title="lzma.compress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor.flush" title="lzma.LZMACompressor.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a>. The returned data should be
+concatenated with the output of any previous calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.compress" title="lzma.compress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMACompressor.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finish the compression process, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object
+containing any data stored in the compressor’s internal buffers.</p>
+<p>The compressor cannot be used after this method has been called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMADecompressor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">LZMADecompressor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format=FORMAT_AUTO</em>, <em>memlimit=None</em>, <em>filters=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a decompressor object, which can be used to decompress data
+incrementally.</p>
+<p>For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed stream at
+once, see <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.decompress" title="lzma.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>format</em> argument specifies the container format that should be used. The
+default is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_AUTO</span></code>, which can decompress both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.xz</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.lzma</span></code> files. Other possible values are <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_XZ</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_ALONE</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_RAW</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>memlimit</em> argument specifies a limit (in bytes) on the amount of memory
+that the decompressor can use. When this argument is used, decompression will
+fail with an <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAError" title="lzma.LZMAError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAError</span></code></a> if it is not possible to decompress the input
+within the given memory limit.</p>
+<p>The <em>filters</em> argument specifies the filter chain that was used to create
+the stream being decompressed. This argument is required if <em>format</em> is
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_RAW</span></code>, but should not be used for other formats.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#filter-chain-specs"><span class="std std-ref">Specifying custom filter chains</span></a> for more information about filter chains.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This class does not transparently handle inputs containing multiple
+compressed streams, unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.decompress" title="lzma.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMAFile</span></code></a>. To
+decompress a multi-stream input with <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMADecompressor</span></code></a>, you must
+create a new decompressor for each stream.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress">
+<code class="descname">decompress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>max_length=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decompress <em>data</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>), returning
+uncompressed data as bytes. Some of <em>data</em> may be buffered
+internally, for use in later calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.decompress" title="lzma.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a>. The
+returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
+previous calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.decompress" title="lzma.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>max_length</em> is nonnegative, returns at most <em>max_length</em>
+bytes of decompressed data. If this limit is reached and further
+output can be produced, the <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">needs_input</span></code></a> attribute will
+be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. In this case, the next call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> may provide <em>data</em> as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> to obtain
+more of the output.</p>
+<p>If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
+because this was less than <em>max_length</em> bytes, or because
+<em>max_length</em> was negative), the <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">needs_input</span></code></a> attribute
+will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is reached
+raises an <cite>EOFError</cite>.  Any data found after the end of the
+stream is ignored and saved in the <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.unused_data" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor.unused_data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unused_data</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>max_length</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMADecompressor.check">
+<code class="descname">check</code><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The ID of the integrity check used by the input stream. This may be
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_UNKNOWN</span></code> until enough of the input has been decoded to
+determine what integrity check it uses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMADecompressor.eof">
+<code class="descname">eof</code><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMADecompressor.unused_data">
+<code class="descname">unused_data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.unused_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Data found after the end of the compressed stream.</p>
+<p>Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input">
+<code class="descname">needs_input</code><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.needs_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> method can provide more
+decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed input.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="lzma.compress">
+<code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>format=FORMAT_XZ</em>, <em>check=-1</em>, <em>preset=None</em>, <em>filters=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compress <em>data</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object), returning the compressed data as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMACompressor" title="lzma.LZMACompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMACompressor</span></code></a> above for a description of the <em>format</em>, <em>check</em>,
+<em>preset</em> and <em>filters</em> arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="lzma.decompress">
+<code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">decompress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>format=FORMAT_AUTO</em>, <em>memlimit=None</em>, <em>filters=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.decompress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decompress <em>data</em> (a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object), returning the uncompressed data
+as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>If <em>data</em> is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed streams,
+decompress all of these streams, and return the concatenation of the results.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#lzma.LZMADecompressor" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMADecompressor</span></code></a> above for a description of the <em>format</em>,
+<em>memlimit</em> and <em>filters</em> arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="miscellaneous">
+<h2>Miscellaneous<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="lzma.is_check_supported">
+<code class="descclassname">lzma.</code><code class="descname">is_check_supported</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>check</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#lzma.is_check_supported" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the given integrity check is supported on this system.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_NONE</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_CRC32</span></code> are always supported.
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_CRC64</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECK_SHA256</span></code> may be unavailable if you are
+using a version of <strong class="program">liblzma</strong> that was compiled with a limited
+feature set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="specifying-custom-filter-chains">
+<span id="filter-chain-specs"></span><h2>Specifying custom filter chains<a class="headerlink" href="#specifying-custom-filter-chains" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A filter chain specifier is a sequence of dictionaries, where each dictionary
+contains the ID and options for a single filter. Each dictionary must contain
+the key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;id&quot;</span></code>, and may contain additional keys to specify filter-dependent
+options. Valid filter IDs are as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>Compression filters:</dt><dd><ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_LZMA1</span></code> (for use with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_ALONE</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_LZMA2</span></code> (for use with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_XZ</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_RAW</span></code>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>Delta filter:</dt><dd><ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_DELTA</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) filters:</dt><dd><ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_X86</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_IA64</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_ARM</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_ARMTHUMB</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_POWERPC</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_SPARC</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>A filter chain can consist of up to 4 filters, and cannot be empty. The last
+filter in the chain must be a compression filter, and any other filters must be
+delta or BCJ filters.</p>
+<p>Compression filters support the following options (specified as additional
+entries in the dictionary representing the filter):</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">preset</span></code>: A compression preset to use as a source of default values for
+options that are not specified explicitly.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict_size</span></code>: Dictionary size in bytes. This should be between 4 KiB and
+1.5 GiB (inclusive).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc</span></code>: Number of literal context bits.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lp</span></code>: Number of literal position bits. The sum <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">lp</span></code> must be at
+most 4.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pb</span></code>: Number of position bits; must be at most 4.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode</span></code>: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MODE_FAST</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MODE_NORMAL</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nice_len</span></code>: What should be considered a “nice length” for a match.
+This should be 273 or less.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mf</span></code>: What match finder to use – <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MF_HC3</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MF_HC4</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MF_BT2</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MF_BT3</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MF_BT4</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">depth</span></code>: Maximum search depth used by match finder. 0 (default) means to
+select automatically based on other filter options.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The delta filter stores the differences between bytes, producing more repetitive
+input for the compressor in certain circumstances. It supports one option,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dist</span></code>. This indicates the distance between bytes to be subtracted. The
+default is 1, i.e. take the differences between adjacent bytes.</p>
+<p>The BCJ filters are intended to be applied to machine code. They convert
+relative branches, calls and jumps in the code to use absolute addressing, with
+the aim of increasing the redundancy that can be exploited by the compressor.
+These filters support one option, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_offset</span></code>. This specifies the address
+that should be mapped to the beginning of the input data. The default is 0.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Reading in a compressed file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">lzma</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;file.xz&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">file_content</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Creating a compressed file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">lzma</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Insert Data Here&quot;</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;file.xz&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Compressing data in memory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">lzma</span>
+<span class="n">data_in</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Insert Data Here&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">data_out</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data_in</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Incremental compression:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">lzma</span>
+<span class="n">lzc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LZMACompressor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">out1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lzc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Some data</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">out2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lzc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Another piece of data</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">out3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lzc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Even more data</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">out4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lzc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1"># Concatenate all the partial results:</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">out1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">out2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">out3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">out4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Writing compressed data to an already-open file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">lzma</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;file.xz&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;This data will not be compressed</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">lzf</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">lzf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;This *will* be compressed</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Not compressed</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Creating a compressed file using a custom filter chain:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">lzma</span>
+<span class="n">my_filters</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;id&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FILTER_DELTA</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;dist&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">},</span>
+    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;id&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FILTER_LZMA2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;preset&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">7</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PRESET_EXTREME</span><span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lzma</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;file.xz&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filters</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">my_filters</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;blah blah blah&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code> — Compression using the LZMA algorithm</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reading-and-writing-compressed-files">Reading and writing compressed files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory">Compressing and decompressing data in memory</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#specifying-custom-filter-chains">Specifying custom filter chains</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">bzip2</strong> compression</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/macpath.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/macpath.html
new file mode 100644
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+<span id="macpath-mac-os-9-path-manipulation-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-macpath" title="macpath: Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macpath</span></code></a> — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-macpath" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/macpath.py">Lib/macpath.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.7, will be removed in version 3.8.</span></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module is the Mac OS 9 (and earlier) implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>
+module. It can be used to manipulate old-style Macintosh pathnames on Mac OS X
+(or any other platform).</p>
+<p>The following functions are available in this module: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normcase()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normpath()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isabs()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isdir()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfile()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exists()</span></code>. For other functions available in
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> dummy counterparts are available.</p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mailbox.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mailbox.html
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index 0000000..27274fd
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+  <div class="section" id="module-mailbox">
+<span id="mailbox-manipulate-mailboxes-in-various-formats"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats<a class="headerlink" href="#module-mailbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/mailbox.py">Lib/mailbox.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module defines two classes, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>, for
+accessing and manipulating on-disk mailboxes and the messages they contain.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> offers a dictionary-like mapping from keys to messages.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> extends the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code></a> module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> class with format-specific state and behavior.
+Supported mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Represent and manipulate messages.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mailbox-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">Mailbox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A mailbox, which may be inspected and modified.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> class defines an interface and is not intended to be
+instantiated.  Instead, format-specific subclasses should inherit from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> and your code should instantiate a particular subclass.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> interface is dictionary-like, with small keys
+corresponding to messages. Keys are issued by the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance
+with which they will be used and are only meaningful to that <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a>
+instance. A key continues to identify a message even if the corresponding
+message is modified, such as by replacing it with another message.</p>
+<p>Messages may be added to a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance using the set-like
+method <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.add" title="mailbox.Mailbox.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> and removed using a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement or the set-like
+methods <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.remove" title="mailbox.Mailbox.remove"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.discard" title="mailbox.Mailbox.discard"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> interface semantics differ from dictionary semantics in some
+noteworthy ways. Each time a message is requested, a new representation
+(typically a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance) is generated based upon the current
+state of the mailbox. Similarly, when a message is added to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance, the provided message representation’s contents are
+copied. In neither case is a reference to the message representation kept by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>The default <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> iterator iterates over message representations,
+not keys as the default dictionary iterator does. Moreover, modification of a
+mailbox during iteration is safe and well-defined. Messages added to the
+mailbox after an iterator is created will not be seen by the
+iterator. Messages removed from the mailbox before the iterator yields them
+will be silently skipped, though using a key from an iterator may result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception if the corresponding message is subsequently
+removed.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Be very cautious when modifying mailboxes that might be simultaneously
+changed by some other process.  The safest mailbox format to use for such
+tasks is Maildir; try to avoid using single-file formats such as mbox for
+concurrent writing.  If you’re modifying a mailbox, you <em>must</em> lock it by
+calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.lock" title="mailbox.Mailbox.lock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lock()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.unlock" title="mailbox.Mailbox.unlock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlock()</span></code></a> methods <em>before</em> reading any
+messages in the file or making any changes by adding or deleting a
+message.  Failing to lock the mailbox runs the risk of losing messages or
+corrupting the entire mailbox.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.add">
+<code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>message</em> to the mailbox and return the key that has been assigned to
+it.</p>
+<p>Parameter <em>message</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> instance, a string, a byte string, or a
+file-like object (which should be open in binary mode). If <em>message</em> is
+an instance of the
+appropriate format-specific <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass (e.g., if it’s an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> instance and this is an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mbox" title="mailbox.mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a> instance), its
+format-specific information is used. Otherwise, reasonable defaults for
+format-specific information are used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Support for binary input was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.remove">
+<code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.__delitem__">
+<code class="descname">__delitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__delitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.discard">
+<code class="descname">discard</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.discard" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the message corresponding to <em>key</em> from the mailbox.</p>
+<p>If no such message exists, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception is raised if the
+method was called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.remove" title="mailbox.Mailbox.remove"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__delitem__" title="mailbox.Mailbox.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a> but no
+exception is raised if the method was called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.discard" title="mailbox.Mailbox.discard"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard()</span></code></a>. The
+behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.discard" title="mailbox.Mailbox.discard"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard()</span></code></a> may be preferred if the underlying mailbox
+format supports concurrent modification by other processes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__">
+<code class="descname">__setitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace the message corresponding to <em>key</em> with <em>message</em>. Raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception if no message already corresponds to <em>key</em>.</p>
+<p>As with <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.add" title="mailbox.Mailbox.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a>, parameter <em>message</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>
+instance, an <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> instance, a string, a byte
+string, or a file-like object (which should be open in binary mode). If
+<em>message</em> is an
+instance of the appropriate format-specific <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass
+(e.g., if it’s an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> instance and this is an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mbox" title="mailbox.mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a> instance), its format-specific information is
+used. Otherwise, the format-specific information of the message that
+currently corresponds to <em>key</em> is left unchanged.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.iterkeys">
+<code class="descname">iterkeys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.iterkeys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over all keys if called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.iterkeys" title="mailbox.Mailbox.iterkeys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterkeys()</span></code></a> or return a
+list of keys if called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.keys" title="mailbox.Mailbox.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.itervalues">
+<code class="descname">itervalues</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.itervalues" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__">
+<code class="descname">__iter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.values">
+<code class="descname">values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over representations of all messages if called as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.itervalues" title="mailbox.Mailbox.itervalues"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itervalues()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__" title="mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> or return a list of such
+representations if called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.values" title="mailbox.Mailbox.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code></a>. The messages are represented
+as instances of the appropriate format-specific <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass
+unless a custom message factory was specified when the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a>
+instance was initialized.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__" title="mailbox.Mailbox.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> is unlike that of dictionaries, which
+iterate over keys.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.iteritems">
+<code class="descname">iteritems</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.iteritems" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over (<em>key</em>, <em>message</em>) pairs, where <em>key</em> is a key and
+<em>message</em> is a message representation, if called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.iteritems" title="mailbox.Mailbox.iteritems"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iteritems()</span></code></a> or
+return a list of such pairs if called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.items" title="mailbox.Mailbox.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code></a>. The messages are
+represented as instances of the appropriate format-specific
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
+when the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance was initialized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.__getitem__">
+<code class="descname">__getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a representation of the message corresponding to <em>key</em>. If no such
+message exists, <em>default</em> is returned if the method was called as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.get" title="mailbox.Mailbox.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> and a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception is raised if the method was
+called as <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__getitem__" title="mailbox.Mailbox.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>. The message is represented as an instance
+of the appropriate format-specific <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass unless a
+custom message factory was specified when the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance
+was initialized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.get_message">
+<code class="descname">get_message</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.get_message" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a representation of the message corresponding to <em>key</em> as an
+instance of the appropriate format-specific <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass, or
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception if no such message exists.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes">
+<code class="descname">get_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a byte representation of the message corresponding to <em>key</em>, or
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception if no such message exists.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.get_string">
+<code class="descname">get_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.get_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representation of the message corresponding to <em>key</em>, or
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception if no such message exists.  The
+message is processed through <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> to
+convert it to a 7bit clean representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.get_file">
+<code class="descname">get_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.get_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a file-like representation of the message corresponding to <em>key</em>,
+or raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception if no such message exists.  The
+file-like object behaves as if open in binary mode.  This file should be
+closed once it is no longer needed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The file object really is a binary file; previously it was incorrectly
+returned in text mode.  Also, the file-like object now supports the
+context management protocol: you can use a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement to
+automatically close it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unlike other representations of messages, file-like representations are
+not necessarily independent of the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance that
+created them or of the underlying mailbox.  More specific documentation
+is provided by each subclass.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.__contains__">
+<code class="descname">__contains__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__contains__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>key</em> corresponds to a message, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.__len__">
+<code class="descname">__len__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__len__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a count of messages in the mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete all messages from the mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.pop">
+<code class="descname">pop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.pop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a representation of the message corresponding to <em>key</em> and delete
+the message. If no such message exists, return <em>default</em>. The message is
+represented as an instance of the appropriate format-specific
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
+when the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance was initialized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.popitem">
+<code class="descname">popitem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.popitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an arbitrary (<em>key</em>, <em>message</em>) pair, where <em>key</em> is a key and
+<em>message</em> is a message representation, and delete the corresponding
+message. If the mailbox is empty, raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception. The
+message is represented as an instance of the appropriate format-specific
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
+when the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance was initialized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.update">
+<code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parameter <em>arg</em> should be a <em>key</em>-to-<em>message</em> mapping or an iterable of
+(<em>key</em>, <em>message</em>) pairs. Updates the mailbox so that, for each given
+<em>key</em> and <em>message</em>, the message corresponding to <em>key</em> is set to
+<em>message</em> as if by using <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__" title="mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>. As with <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__" title="mailbox.Mailbox.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>,
+each <em>key</em> must already correspond to a message in the mailbox or else a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception will be raised, so in general it is incorrect
+for <em>arg</em> to be a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unlike with dictionaries, keyword arguments are not supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write any pending changes to the filesystem. For some <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a>
+subclasses, changes are always written immediately and <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.flush" title="mailbox.Mailbox.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a> does
+nothing, but you should still make a habit of calling this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.lock">
+<code class="descname">lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire an exclusive advisory lock on the mailbox so that other processes
+know not to modify it. An <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.ExternalClashError" title="mailbox.ExternalClashError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExternalClashError</span></code></a> is raised if the lock
+is not available. The particular locking mechanisms used depend upon the
+mailbox format.  You should <em>always</em> lock the mailbox before making any
+modifications to its contents.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.unlock">
+<code class="descname">unlock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.unlock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the lock on the mailbox, if any.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Mailbox.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Mailbox.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flush the mailbox, unlock it if necessary, and close any open files. For
+some <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> subclasses, this method does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="maildir">
+<span id="mailbox-maildir"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#maildir" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">Maildir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dirname</em>, <em>factory=None</em>, <em>create=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> for mailboxes in Maildir format. Parameter
+<em>factory</em> is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation
+(which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation.
+If <em>factory</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> is used as the default message
+representation. If <em>create</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the mailbox is created if it does not
+exist.</p>
+<p>It is for historical reasons that <em>dirname</em> is named as such rather than <em>path</em>.</p>
+<p>Maildir is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the qmail mail
+transfer agent and now widely supported by other programs. Messages in a
+Maildir mailbox are stored in separate files within a common directory
+structure. This design allows Maildir mailboxes to be accessed and modified
+by multiple unrelated programs without data corruption, so file locking is
+unnecessary.</p>
+<p>Maildir mailboxes contain three subdirectories, namely: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tmp</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code>, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cur</span></code>. Messages are created momentarily in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tmp</span></code> subdirectory and then moved to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> subdirectory to
+finalize delivery. A mail user agent may subsequently move the message to the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cur</span></code> subdirectory and store information about the state of the message
+in a special “info” section appended to its file name.</p>
+<p>Folders of the style introduced by the Courier mail transfer agent are also
+supported. Any subdirectory of the main mailbox is considered a folder if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> is the first character in its name. Folder names are represented by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a> without the leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>. Each folder is itself a Maildir
+mailbox but should not contain other folders. Instead, a logical nesting is
+indicated using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> to delimit levels, e.g., “Archived.2005.07”.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The Maildir specification requires the use of a colon (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>) in certain
+message file names. However, some operating systems do not permit this
+character in file names, If you wish to use a Maildir-like format on such
+an operating system, you should specify another character to use
+instead. The exclamation point (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code>) is a popular choice. For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mailbox</span>
+<span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Maildir</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">colon</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;!&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colon</span></code> attribute may also be set on a per-instance basis.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a> instances have all of the methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> in
+addition to the following:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.list_folders">
+<code class="descname">list_folders</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.list_folders" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the names of all folders.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.get_folder">
+<code class="descname">get_folder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>folder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.get_folder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a> instance representing the folder whose name is
+<em>folder</em>. A <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError" title="mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoSuchMailboxError</span></code></a> exception is raised if the folder
+does not exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.add_folder">
+<code class="descname">add_folder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>folder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.add_folder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a folder whose name is <em>folder</em> and return a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a>
+instance representing it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.remove_folder">
+<code class="descname">remove_folder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>folder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.remove_folder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the folder whose name is <em>folder</em>. If the folder contains any
+messages, a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.NotEmptyError" title="mailbox.NotEmptyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotEmptyError</span></code></a> exception will be raised and the folder
+will not be deleted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.clean">
+<code class="descname">clean</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.clean" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete temporary files from the mailbox that have not been accessed in the
+last 36 hours. The Maildir specification says that mail-reading programs
+should do this occasionally.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Some <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> methods implemented by <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a> deserve special
+remarks:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.add">
+<code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.__setitem__">
+<code class="descname">__setitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.__setitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.update">
+<code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>These methods generate unique file names based upon the current process
+ID. When using multiple threads, undetected name clashes may occur and
+cause corruption of the mailbox unless threads are coordinated to avoid
+using these methods to manipulate the same mailbox simultaneously.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All changes to Maildir mailboxes are immediately applied, so this method
+does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.lock">
+<code class="descname">lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.unlock">
+<code class="descname">unlock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.unlock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Maildir mailboxes do not support (or require) locking, so these methods do
+nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a> instances do not keep any open files and the underlying
+mailboxes do not support locking, so this method does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Maildir.get_file">
+<code class="descname">get_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Maildir.get_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to modify or
+remove the underlying message while the returned file remains open.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.qmail.org/man/man5/maildir.html">maildir man page from qmail</a></dt><dd><p>The original specification of the format.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html">Using maildir format</a></dt><dd><p>Notes on Maildir by its inventor. Includes an updated name-creation scheme and
+details on “info” semantics.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html">maildir man page from Courier</a></dt><dd><p>Another specification of the format. Describes a common extension for supporting
+folders.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mbox">
+<span id="mailbox-mbox"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mbox" title="mailbox.mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.mbox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">mbox</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>factory=None</em>, <em>create=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mbox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> for mailboxes in mbox format. Parameter <em>factory</em>
+is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which
+behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If
+<em>factory</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> is used as the default message
+representation. If <em>create</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the mailbox is created if it does not
+exist.</p>
+<p>The mbox format is the classic format for storing mail on Unix systems. All
+messages in an mbox mailbox are stored in a single file with the beginning of
+each message indicated by a line whose first five characters are “From “.</p>
+<p>Several variations of the mbox format exist to address perceived shortcomings in
+the original. In the interest of compatibility, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mbox" title="mailbox.mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a> implements the
+original format, which is sometimes referred to as <em class="dfn">mboxo</em>. This means that
+the <em class="mailheader">Content-Length</em> header, if present, is ignored and that any
+occurrences of “From ” at the beginning of a line in a message body are
+transformed to “&gt;From ” when storing the message, although occurrences of “&gt;From
+” are not transformed to “From ” when reading the message.</p>
+<p>Some <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> methods implemented by <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mbox" title="mailbox.mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a> deserve special
+remarks:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mbox.get_file">
+<code class="descname">get_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mbox.get_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Using the file after calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> on the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mbox" title="mailbox.mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a> instance may yield unpredictable results or raise an
+exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mbox.lock">
+<code class="descname">lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mbox.lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.mbox.unlock">
+<code class="descname">unlock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mbox.unlock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if available, the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flock()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lockf()</span></code> system calls.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.qmail.org/man/man5/mbox.html">mbox man page from qmail</a></dt><dd><p>A specification of the format and its variations.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&amp;topic=mbox">mbox man page from tin</a></dt><dd><p>Another specification of the format, with details on locking.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html">Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad</a></dt><dd><p>An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a variation.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml">“mbox” is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats</a></dt><dd><p>A history of mbox variations.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mh">
+<span id="mailbox-mh"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mh" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">MH</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>factory=None</em>, <em>create=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> for mailboxes in MH format. Parameter <em>factory</em>
+is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which
+behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If
+<em>factory</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> is used as the default message
+representation. If <em>create</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the mailbox is created if it does not
+exist.</p>
+<p>MH is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the MH Message Handling
+System, a mail user agent. Each message in an MH mailbox resides in its own
+file. An MH mailbox may contain other MH mailboxes (called <em class="dfn">folders</em>) in
+addition to messages. Folders may be nested indefinitely. MH mailboxes also
+support <em class="dfn">sequences</em>, which are named lists used to logically group
+messages without moving them to sub-folders. Sequences are defined in a file
+called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mh_sequences</span></code> in each folder.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a> class manipulates MH mailboxes, but it does not attempt to
+emulate all of <strong class="program">mh</strong>’s behaviors. In particular, it does not modify
+and is not affected by the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mh_profile</span></code> files that
+are used by <strong class="program">mh</strong> to store its state and configuration.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a> instances have all of the methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> in addition
+to the following:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.list_folders">
+<code class="descname">list_folders</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.list_folders" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the names of all folders.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.get_folder">
+<code class="descname">get_folder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>folder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.get_folder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a> instance representing the folder whose name is
+<em>folder</em>. A <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError" title="mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoSuchMailboxError</span></code></a> exception is raised if the folder
+does not exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.add_folder">
+<code class="descname">add_folder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>folder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.add_folder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a folder whose name is <em>folder</em> and return an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a> instance
+representing it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.remove_folder">
+<code class="descname">remove_folder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>folder</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.remove_folder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the folder whose name is <em>folder</em>. If the folder contains any
+messages, a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.NotEmptyError" title="mailbox.NotEmptyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotEmptyError</span></code></a> exception will be raised and the folder
+will not be deleted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.get_sequences">
+<code class="descname">get_sequences</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.get_sequences" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary of sequence names mapped to key lists. If there are no
+sequences, the empty dictionary is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.set_sequences">
+<code class="descname">set_sequences</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequences</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.set_sequences" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Re-define the sequences that exist in the mailbox based upon <em>sequences</em>,
+a dictionary of names mapped to key lists, like returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH.get_sequences" title="mailbox.MH.get_sequences"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_sequences()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.pack">
+<code class="descname">pack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.pack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rename messages in the mailbox as necessary to eliminate gaps in
+numbering.  Entries in the sequences list are updated correspondingly.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Already-issued keys are invalidated by this operation and should not be
+subsequently used.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Some <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> methods implemented by <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a> deserve special
+remarks:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.remove">
+<code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.__delitem__">
+<code class="descname">__delitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.__delitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.discard">
+<code class="descname">discard</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.discard" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These methods immediately delete the message. The MH convention of marking
+a message for deletion by prepending a comma to its name is not used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.lock">
+<code class="descname">lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.unlock">
+<code class="descname">unlock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.unlock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if available, the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flock()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lockf()</span></code> system calls. For MH mailboxes, locking
+the mailbox means locking the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mh_sequences</span></code> file and, only for the
+duration of any operations that affect them, locking individual message
+files.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.get_file">
+<code class="descname">get_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.get_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to remove the
+underlying message while the returned file remains open.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All changes to MH mailboxes are immediately applied, so this method does
+nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MH.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MH.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a> instances do not keep any open files, so this method is
+equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH.unlock" title="mailbox.MH.unlock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlock()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.nongnu.org/nmh/">nmh - Message Handling System</a></dt><dd><p>Home page of <strong class="program">nmh</strong>, an updated version of the original <strong class="program">mh</strong>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/">MH &amp; nmh: Email for Users &amp; Programmers</a></dt><dd><p>A GPL-licensed book on <strong class="program">mh</strong> and <strong class="program">nmh</strong>, with some information
+on the mailbox format.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="babyl">
+<span id="mailbox-babyl"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Babyl" title="mailbox.Babyl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Babyl</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#babyl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.Babyl">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">Babyl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>factory=None</em>, <em>create=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Babyl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> for mailboxes in Babyl format. Parameter
+<em>factory</em> is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation
+(which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation.
+If <em>factory</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> is used as the default message
+representation. If <em>create</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the mailbox is created if it does not
+exist.</p>
+<p>Babyl is a single-file mailbox format used by the Rmail mail user agent
+included with Emacs. The beginning of a message is indicated by a line
+containing the two characters Control-Underscore (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\037'</span></code>) and Control-L
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\014'</span></code>). The end of a message is indicated by the start of the next
+message or, in the case of the last message, a line containing a
+Control-Underscore (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\037'</span></code>) character.</p>
+<p>Messages in a Babyl mailbox have two sets of headers, original headers and
+so-called visible headers. Visible headers are typically a subset of the
+original headers that have been reformatted or abridged to be more
+attractive. Each message in a Babyl mailbox also has an accompanying list of
+<em class="dfn">labels</em>, or short strings that record extra information about the
+message, and a list of all user-defined labels found in the mailbox is kept
+in the Babyl options section.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Babyl" title="mailbox.Babyl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Babyl</span></code></a> instances have all of the methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> in
+addition to the following:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Babyl.get_labels">
+<code class="descname">get_labels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Babyl.get_labels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the names of all user-defined labels used in the mailbox.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The actual messages are inspected to determine which labels exist in
+the mailbox rather than consulting the list of labels in the Babyl
+options section, but the Babyl section is updated whenever the mailbox
+is modified.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Some <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> methods implemented by <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Babyl" title="mailbox.Babyl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Babyl</span></code></a> deserve special
+remarks:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Babyl.get_file">
+<code class="descname">get_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Babyl.get_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In Babyl mailboxes, the headers of a message are not stored contiguously
+with the body of the message. To generate a file-like representation, the
+headers and body are copied together into an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> instance,
+which has an API identical to that of a
+file. As a result, the file-like object is truly independent of the
+underlying mailbox but does not save memory compared to a string
+representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.Babyl.lock">
+<code class="descname">lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Babyl.lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.Babyl.unlock">
+<code class="descname">unlock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Babyl.unlock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if available, the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flock()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lockf()</span></code> system calls.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL">Format of Version 5 Babyl Files</a></dt><dd><p>A specification of the Babyl format.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html">Reading Mail with Rmail</a></dt><dd><p>The Rmail manual, with some information on Babyl semantics.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mmdf">
+<span id="mailbox-mmdf"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDF" title="mailbox.MMDF"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDF</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mmdf" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDF">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">MMDF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>factory=None</em>, <em>create=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> for mailboxes in MMDF format. Parameter <em>factory</em>
+is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which
+behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If
+<em>factory</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> is used as the default message
+representation. If <em>create</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the mailbox is created if it does not
+exist.</p>
+<p>MMDF is a single-file mailbox format invented for the Multichannel Memorandum
+Distribution Facility, a mail transfer agent. Each message is in the same
+form as an mbox message but is bracketed before and after by lines containing
+four Control-A (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\001'</span></code>) characters. As with the mbox format, the
+beginning of each message is indicated by a line whose first five characters
+are “From “, but additional occurrences of “From ” are not transformed to
+“&gt;From ” when storing messages because the extra message separator lines
+prevent mistaking such occurrences for the starts of subsequent messages.</p>
+<p>Some <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> methods implemented by <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDF" title="mailbox.MMDF"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDF</span></code></a> deserve special
+remarks:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDF.get_file">
+<code class="descname">get_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDF.get_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Using the file after calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> on the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDF" title="mailbox.MMDF"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDF</span></code></a> instance may yield unpredictable results or raise an
+exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDF.lock">
+<code class="descname">lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDF.lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDF.unlock">
+<code class="descname">unlock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDF.unlock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if available, the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flock()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lockf()</span></code> system calls.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&amp;topic=mmdf">mmdf man page from tin</a></dt><dd><p>A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a newsreader.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF">MMDF</a></dt><dd><p>A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum Distribution
+Facility.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="message-objects">
+<span id="mailbox-message-objects"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#message-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.Message">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">Message</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Message" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#module-email.message" title="email.message: The base class representing email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code></a> module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>. Subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox.Message</span></code></a> add
+mailbox-format-specific state and behavior.</p>
+<p>If <em>message</em> is omitted, the new instance is created in a default, empty state.
+If <em>message</em> is an <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> instance, its contents are
+copied; furthermore, any format-specific information is converted insofar as
+possible if <em>message</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance. If <em>message</em> is a string,
+a byte string,
+or a file, it should contain an <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant message, which is read
+and parsed.  Files should be open in binary mode, but text mode files
+are accepted for backward compatibility.</p>
+<p>The format-specific state and behaviors offered by subclasses vary, but in
+general it is only the properties that are not specific to a particular
+mailbox that are supported (although presumably the properties are specific
+to a particular mailbox format). For example, file offsets for single-file
+mailbox formats and file names for directory-based mailbox formats are not
+retained, because they are only applicable to the original mailbox. But state
+such as whether a message has been read by the user or marked as important is
+retained, because it applies to the message itself.</p>
+<p>There is no requirement that <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instances be used to represent
+messages retrieved using <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instances. In some situations, the
+time and memory required to generate <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> representations might
+not be acceptable. For such situations, <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instances also
+offer string and file-like representations, and a custom message factory may
+be specified when a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> instance is initialized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="maildirmessage">
+<span id="mailbox-maildirmessage"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#maildirmessage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">MaildirMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A message with Maildir-specific behaviors. Parameter <em>message</em> has the same
+meaning as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>Typically, a mail user agent application moves all of the messages in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> subdirectory to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cur</span></code> subdirectory after the first time
+the user opens and closes the mailbox, recording that the messages are old
+whether or not they’ve actually been read. Each message in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cur</span></code> has an
+“info” section added to its file name to store information about its state.
+(Some mail readers may also add an “info” section to messages in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code>.)  The “info” section may take one of two forms: it may contain
+“2,” followed by a list of standardized flags (e.g., “2,FR”) or it may
+contain “1,” followed by so-called experimental information. Standard flags
+for Maildir messages are as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 68%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Flag</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D</p></td>
+<td><p>Draft</p></td>
+<td><p>Under composition</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F</p></td>
+<td><p>Flagged</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked as important</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>P</p></td>
+<td><p>Passed</p></td>
+<td><p>Forwarded, resent, or bounced</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>R</p></td>
+<td><p>Replied</p></td>
+<td><p>Replied to</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>S</p></td>
+<td><p>Seen</p></td>
+<td><p>Read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>T</p></td>
+<td><p>Trashed</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked for subsequent deletion</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instances offer the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_subdir">
+<code class="descname">get_subdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_subdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return either “new” (if the message should be stored in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code>
+subdirectory) or “cur” (if the message should be stored in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cur</span></code>
+subdirectory).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>A message is typically moved from <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cur</span></code> after its
+mailbox has been accessed, whether or not the message is has been
+read. A message <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span></code> has been read if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;S&quot;</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">msg.get_flags()</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_subdir">
+<code class="descname">set_subdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>subdir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_subdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the subdirectory the message should be stored in. Parameter <em>subdir</em>
+must be either “new” or “cur”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_flags">
+<code class="descname">get_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the
+message complies with the standard Maildir format, the result is the
+concatenation in alphabetical order of zero or one occurrence of each of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'D'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'P'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'R'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'S'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'T'</span></code>. The empty string
+is returned if no flags are set or if “info” contains experimental
+semantics.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_flags">
+<code class="descname">set_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flags specified by <em>flags</em> and unset all others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.add_flag">
+<code class="descname">add_flag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.add_flag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flag(s) specified by <em>flag</em> without changing other flags. To add
+more than one flag at a time, <em>flag</em> may be a string of more than one
+character. The current “info” is overwritten whether or not it contains
+experimental information rather than flags.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.remove_flag">
+<code class="descname">remove_flag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.remove_flag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unset the flag(s) specified by <em>flag</em> without changing other flags. To
+remove more than one flag at a time, <em>flag</em> maybe a string of more than
+one character.  If “info” contains experimental information rather than
+flags, the current “info” is not modified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_date">
+<code class="descname">get_date</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_date" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the delivery date of the message as a floating-point number
+representing seconds since the epoch.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_date">
+<code class="descname">set_date</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_date" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the delivery date of the message to <em>date</em>, a floating-point number
+representing seconds since the epoch.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_info">
+<code class="descname">get_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.get_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string containing the “info” for a message. This is useful for
+accessing and modifying “info” that is experimental (i.e., not a list of
+flags).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_info">
+<code class="descname">set_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage.set_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set “info” to <em>info</em>, which should be a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instance, the <em class="mailheader">Status</em>
+and <em class="mailheader">X-Status</em> headers are omitted and the following conversions
+take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a>
+state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“cur” subdirectory</p></td>
+<td><p>O flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>F flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag</p></td>
+<td><p>A flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>S flag</p></td>
+<td><p>R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T flag</p></td>
+<td><p>D flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 54%" />
+<col style="width: 46%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“cur” subdirectory</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“cur” subdirectory and S flag</p></td>
+<td><p>no “unseen” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“flagged” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>R flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“replied” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“cur” subdirectory</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“cur” subdirectory and S flag</p></td>
+<td><p>no “unseen” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>P flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“forwarded” or “resent” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>R flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“answered” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>T flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“deleted” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mboxmessage">
+<span id="mailbox-mboxmessage"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mboxmessage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.mboxMessage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">mboxMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A message with mbox-specific behaviors. Parameter <em>message</em> has the same meaning
+as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>Messages in an mbox mailbox are stored together in a single file. The
+sender’s envelope address and the time of delivery are typically stored in a
+line beginning with “From ” that is used to indicate the start of a message,
+though there is considerable variation in the exact format of this data among
+mbox implementations. Flags that indicate the state of the message, such as
+whether it has been read or marked as important, are typically stored in
+<em class="mailheader">Status</em> and <em class="mailheader">X-Status</em> headers.</p>
+<p>Conventional flags for mbox messages are as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 67%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Flag</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R</p></td>
+<td><p>Read</p></td>
+<td><p>Read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O</p></td>
+<td><p>Old</p></td>
+<td><p>Previously detected by MUA</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D</p></td>
+<td><p>Deleted</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked for subsequent deletion</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F</p></td>
+<td><p>Flagged</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked as important</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>A</p></td>
+<td><p>Answered</p></td>
+<td><p>Replied to</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The “R” and “O” flags are stored in the <em class="mailheader">Status</em> header, and the
+“D”, “F”, and “A” flags are stored in the <em class="mailheader">X-Status</em> header. The
+flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> instances offer the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mboxMessage.get_from">
+<code class="descname">get_from</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage.get_from" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the “From ” line that marks the start of the
+message in an mbox mailbox. The leading “From ” and the trailing newline
+are excluded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mboxMessage.set_from">
+<code class="descname">set_from</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>from_</em>, <em>time_=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage.set_from" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the “From ” line to <em>from_</em>, which should be specified without a
+leading “From ” or trailing newline. For convenience, <em>time_</em> may be
+specified and will be formatted appropriately and appended to <em>from_</em>. If
+<em>time_</em> is specified, it should be a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a> instance, a
+tuple suitable for passing to <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mboxMessage.get_flags">
+<code class="descname">get_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage.get_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the
+message complies with the conventional format, the result is the
+concatenation in the following order of zero or one occurrence of each of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'R'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'D'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mboxMessage.set_flags">
+<code class="descname">set_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage.set_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flags specified by <em>flags</em> and unset all others. Parameter <em>flags</em>
+should be the concatenation in any order of zero or more occurrences of
+each of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'R'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'D'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mboxMessage.add_flag">
+<code class="descname">add_flag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage.add_flag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flag(s) specified by <em>flag</em> without changing other flags. To add
+more than one flag at a time, <em>flag</em> may be a string of more than one
+character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.mboxMessage.remove_flag">
+<code class="descname">remove_flag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage.remove_flag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unset the flag(s) specified by <em>flag</em> without changing other flags. To
+remove more than one flag at a time, <em>flag</em> maybe a string of more than
+one character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance, a “From ” line is generated based upon the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance’s delivery date, and the following conversions
+take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag</p></td>
+<td><p>S flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“cur” subdirectory</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D flag</p></td>
+<td><p>T flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>F flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag and O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>no “unseen” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“flagged” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“replied” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+<col style="width: 60%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag and O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>no “unseen” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“deleted” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“answered” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a>
+instance, the “From ” line is copied and all flags directly correspond:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 62%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag</p></td>
+<td><p>R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>O flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D flag</p></td>
+<td><p>D flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>F flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>A flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mhmessage">
+<span id="mailbox-mhmessage"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mhmessage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.MHMessage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">MHMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A message with MH-specific behaviors. Parameter <em>message</em> has the same meaning
+as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>MH messages do not support marks or flags in the traditional sense, but they
+do support sequences, which are logical groupings of arbitrary messages. Some
+mail reading programs (although not the standard <strong class="program">mh</strong> and
+<strong class="program">nmh</strong>) use sequences in much the same way flags are used with other
+formats, as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 81%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Sequence</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>unseen</p></td>
+<td><p>Not read, but previously detected by MUA</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>replied</p></td>
+<td><p>Replied to</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>flagged</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked as important</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instances offer the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MHMessage.get_sequences">
+<code class="descname">get_sequences</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MHMessage.get_sequences" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the names of sequences that include this message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MHMessage.set_sequences">
+<code class="descname">set_sequences</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequences</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MHMessage.set_sequences" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of sequences that include this message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MHMessage.add_sequence">
+<code class="descname">add_sequence</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MHMessage.add_sequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>sequence</em> to the list of sequences that include this message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MHMessage.remove_sequence">
+<code class="descname">remove_sequence</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MHMessage.remove_sequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <em>sequence</em> from the list of sequences that include this message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 61%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“unseen” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>no S flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“replied” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“flagged” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>F flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instance, the <em class="mailheader">Status</em>
+and <em class="mailheader">X-Status</em> headers are omitted and the following conversions
+take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a>
+state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“unseen” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>no R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“replied” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>A flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“flagged” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>F flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“unseen” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“replied” sequence</p></td>
+<td><p>“answered” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="babylmessage">
+<span id="mailbox-babylmessage"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#babylmessage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">BabylMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A message with Babyl-specific behaviors. Parameter <em>message</em> has the same
+meaning as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>Certain message labels, called <em class="dfn">attributes</em>, are defined by convention
+to have special meanings. The attributes are as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 79%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Label</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>unseen</p></td>
+<td><p>Not read, but previously detected by MUA</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>deleted</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked for subsequent deletion</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>filed</p></td>
+<td><p>Copied to another file or mailbox</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>answered</p></td>
+<td><p>Replied to</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>forwarded</p></td>
+<td><p>Forwarded</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>edited</p></td>
+<td><p>Modified by the user</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>resent</p></td>
+<td><p>Resent</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>By default, Rmail displays only visible headers. The <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a>
+class, though, uses the original headers because they are more
+complete. Visible headers may be accessed explicitly if desired.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instances offer the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage.get_labels">
+<code class="descname">get_labels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage.get_labels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of labels on the message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage.set_labels">
+<code class="descname">set_labels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>labels</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage.set_labels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of labels on the message to <em>labels</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage.add_label">
+<code class="descname">add_label</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>label</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage.add_label" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>label</em> to the list of labels on the message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage.remove_label">
+<code class="descname">remove_label</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>label</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage.remove_label" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <em>label</em> from the list of labels on the message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage.get_visible">
+<code class="descname">get_visible</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage.get_visible" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance whose headers are the message’s
+visible headers and whose body is empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage.set_visible">
+<code class="descname">set_visible</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>visible</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage.set_visible" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the message’s visible headers to be the same as the headers in
+<em>message</em>.  Parameter <em>visible</em> should be a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> instance, a string, or a file-like object
+(which should be open in text mode).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.BabylMessage.update_visible">
+<code class="descname">update_visible</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage.update_visible" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance’s original headers are modified, the
+visible headers are not automatically modified to correspond. This method
+updates the visible headers as follows: each visible header with a
+corresponding original header is set to the value of the original header,
+each visible header without a corresponding original header is removed,
+and any of <em class="mailheader">Date</em>, <em class="mailheader">From</em>, <em class="mailheader">Reply-To</em>,
+<em class="mailheader">To</em>, <em class="mailheader">CC</em>, and <em class="mailheader">Subject</em> that are
+present in the original headers but not the visible headers are added to
+the visible headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 62%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“unseen” label</p></td>
+<td><p>no S flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“deleted” label</p></td>
+<td><p>T flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“answered” label</p></td>
+<td><p>R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“forwarded” label</p></td>
+<td><p>P flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instance, the <em class="mailheader">Status</em>
+and <em class="mailheader">X-Status</em> headers are omitted and the following conversions
+take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 28%" />
+<col style="width: 72%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a>
+state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“unseen” label</p></td>
+<td><p>no R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“deleted” label</p></td>
+<td><p>D flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“answered” label</p></td>
+<td><p>A flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“unseen” label</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“answered” label</p></td>
+<td><p>“replied” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mmdfmessage">
+<span id="mailbox-mmdfmessage"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mmdfmessage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDFMessage">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">MMDFMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A message with MMDF-specific behaviors. Parameter <em>message</em> has the same meaning
+as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>As with message in an mbox mailbox, MMDF messages are stored with the
+sender’s address and the delivery date in an initial line beginning with
+“From “.  Likewise, flags that indicate the state of the message are
+typically stored in <em class="mailheader">Status</em> and <em class="mailheader">X-Status</em> headers.</p>
+<p>Conventional flags for MMDF messages are identical to those of mbox message
+and are as follows:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 67%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Flag</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R</p></td>
+<td><p>Read</p></td>
+<td><p>Read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O</p></td>
+<td><p>Old</p></td>
+<td><p>Previously detected by MUA</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D</p></td>
+<td><p>Deleted</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked for subsequent deletion</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F</p></td>
+<td><p>Flagged</p></td>
+<td><p>Marked as important</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>A</p></td>
+<td><p>Answered</p></td>
+<td><p>Replied to</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The “R” and “O” flags are stored in the <em class="mailheader">Status</em> header, and the
+“D”, “F”, and “A” flags are stored in the <em class="mailheader">X-Status</em> header. The
+flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instances offer the following methods, which are
+identical to those offered by <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_from">
+<code class="descname">get_from</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_from" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the “From ” line that marks the start of the
+message in an mbox mailbox. The leading “From ” and the trailing newline
+are excluded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_from">
+<code class="descname">set_from</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>from_</em>, <em>time_=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_from" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the “From ” line to <em>from_</em>, which should be specified without a
+leading “From ” or trailing newline. For convenience, <em>time_</em> may be
+specified and will be formatted appropriately and appended to <em>from_</em>. If
+<em>time_</em> is specified, it should be a <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></code></a> instance, a
+tuple suitable for passing to <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_flags">
+<code class="descname">get_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage.get_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the
+message complies with the conventional format, the result is the
+concatenation in the following order of zero or one occurrence of each of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'R'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'D'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_flags">
+<code class="descname">set_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage.set_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flags specified by <em>flags</em> and unset all others. Parameter <em>flags</em>
+should be the concatenation in any order of zero or more occurrences of
+each of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'R'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'O'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'D'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDFMessage.add_flag">
+<code class="descname">add_flag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage.add_flag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flag(s) specified by <em>flag</em> without changing other flags. To add
+more than one flag at a time, <em>flag</em> may be a string of more than one
+character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mailbox.MMDFMessage.remove_flag">
+<code class="descname">remove_flag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage.remove_flag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unset the flag(s) specified by <em>flag</em> without changing other flags. To
+remove more than one flag at a time, <em>flag</em> maybe a string of more than
+one character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance, a “From ” line is generated based upon the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> instance’s delivery date, and the following conversions
+take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MaildirMessage" title="mailbox.MaildirMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag</p></td>
+<td><p>S flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“cur” subdirectory</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D flag</p></td>
+<td><p>T flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>F flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MHMessage" title="mailbox.MHMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag and O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>no “unseen” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“flagged” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“replied” sequence</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> instance, the following conversions take place:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+<col style="width: 60%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.BabylMessage" title="mailbox.BabylMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag and O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>no “unseen” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“unseen” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“deleted” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>“answered” label</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MMDFMessage" title="mailbox.MMDFMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a> instance is created based upon an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> instance, the “From ” line is copied and all flags directly
+correspond:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 62%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Resulting state</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.mboxMessage" title="mailbox.mboxMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a> state</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>R flag</p></td>
+<td><p>R flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>O flag</p></td>
+<td><p>O flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>D flag</p></td>
+<td><p>D flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>F flag</p></td>
+<td><p>F flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>A flag</p></td>
+<td><p>A flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following exception classes are defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="mailbox.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The based class for all other module-specific exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">NoSuchMailboxError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a mailbox is expected but is not found, such as when instantiating a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code></a> subclass with a path that does not exist (and with the <em>create</em>
+parameter set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), or when opening a folder that does not exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="mailbox.NotEmptyError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">NotEmptyError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.NotEmptyError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a mailbox is not empty but is expected to be, such as when deleting
+a folder that contains messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="mailbox.ExternalClashError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">ExternalClashError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.ExternalClashError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of the program
+causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing to acquire a lock that
+another program already holds a lock, or when a uniquely-generated file name
+already exists.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="mailbox.FormatError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">mailbox.</code><code class="descname">FormatError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox.FormatError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the data in a file cannot be parsed, such as when an <a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox.MH" title="mailbox.MH"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a>
+instance attempts to read a corrupted <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mh_sequences</span></code> file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="mailbox-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A simple example of printing the subjects of all messages in a mailbox that seem
+interesting:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mailbox</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">message</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mbox</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/mbox&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">subject</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>       <span class="c1"># Could possibly be None.</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">subject</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">subject</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">subject</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To copy all mail from a Babyl mailbox to an MH mailbox, converting all of the
+format-specific information that can be converted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mailbox</span>
+<span class="n">destination</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MH</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/Mail&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">destination</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">message</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Babyl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/RMAIL&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">destination</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MHMessage</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">destination</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">destination</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unlock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example sorts mail from several mailing lists into different mailboxes,
+being careful to avoid mail corruption due to concurrent modification by other
+programs, mail loss due to interruption of the program, or premature termination
+due to malformed messages in the mailbox:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mailbox</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">email.errors</span>
+
+<span class="n">list_names</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python-list&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python-dev&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python-bugs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">boxes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mbox</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/email/</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">list_names</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">inbox</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Maildir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/Maildir&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">factory</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iterkeys</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">inbox</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">errors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MessageParseError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>                <span class="c1"># The message is malformed. Just leave it.</span>
+
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">list_names</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">list_id</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;list-id&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">list_id</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">list_id</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Get mailbox to use</span>
+            <span class="n">box</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">boxes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+            <span class="c1"># Write copy to disk before removing original.</span>
+            <span class="c1"># If there&#39;s a crash, you might duplicate a message, but</span>
+            <span class="c1"># that&#39;s better than losing a message completely.</span>
+            <span class="n">box</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">box</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">box</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">box</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unlock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+            <span class="c1"># Remove original message</span>
+            <span class="n">inbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">inbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">discard</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">inbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">inbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unlock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>               <span class="c1"># Found destination, so stop looking.</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">box</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">boxes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itervalues</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">box</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code> — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mh"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#babyl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Babyl</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mmdf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDF</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#message-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#maildirmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mboxmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mhmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#babylmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mmdfmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mailcap.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailcap</span></code> — Mailcap file handling</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mimetypes.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code> — Map filenames to MIME types</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mailcap.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mailcap.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>mailcap — Mailcap file handling &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-mailcap">
+<span id="mailcap-mailcap-file-handling"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-mailcap" title="mailcap: Mailcap file handling."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailcap</span></code></a> — Mailcap file handling<a class="headerlink" href="#module-mailcap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/mailcap.py">Lib/mailcap.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Mailcap files are used to configure how MIME-aware applications such as mail
+readers and Web browsers react to files with different MIME types. (The name
+“mailcap” is derived from the phrase “mail capability”.)  For example, a mailcap
+file might contain a line like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">video/mpeg;</span> <span class="pre">xmpeg</span> <span class="pre">%s</span></code>.  Then, if the user
+encounters an email message or Web document with the MIME type
+<em class="mimetype">video/mpeg</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> will be replaced by a filename (usually one
+belonging to a temporary file) and the <strong class="program">xmpeg</strong> program can be
+automatically started to view the file.</p>
+<p>The mailcap format is documented in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1524.html"><strong>RFC 1524</strong></a>, “A User Agent Configuration
+Mechanism For Multimedia Mail Format Information,” but is not an Internet
+standard.  However, mailcap files are supported on most Unix systems.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mailcap.findmatch">
+<code class="descclassname">mailcap.</code><code class="descname">findmatch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>caps</em>, <em>MIMEtype</em>, <em>key='view'</em>, <em>filename='/dev/null'</em>, <em>plist=[]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailcap.findmatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a 2-tuple; the first element is a string containing the command line to
+be executed (which can be passed to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a>), and the second element
+is the mailcap entry for a given MIME type.  If no matching MIME type can be
+found, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(None,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is the name of the field desired, which represents the type of activity to
+be performed; the default value is ‘view’, since in the  most common case you
+simply want to view the body of the MIME-typed data.  Other possible values
+might be ‘compose’ and ‘edit’, if you wanted to create a new body of the given
+MIME type or alter the existing body data.  See <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1524.html"><strong>RFC 1524</strong></a> for a complete list
+of these fields.</p>
+<p><em>filename</em> is the filename to be substituted for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> in the command line; the
+default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/dev/null'</span></code> which is almost certainly not what you want, so
+usually you’ll override it by specifying a filename.</p>
+<p><em>plist</em> can be a list containing named parameters; the default value is simply
+an empty list.  Each entry in the list must be a string containing the parameter
+name, an equals sign (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code>), and the parameter’s value.  Mailcap entries can
+contain  named parameters like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%{foo}</span></code>, which will be replaced by the value
+of the parameter named ‘foo’.  For example, if the command line <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showpartial</span>
+<span class="pre">%{id}</span> <span class="pre">%{number}</span> <span class="pre">%{total}</span></code> was in a mailcap file, and <em>plist</em> was set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['id=1',</span> <span class="pre">'number=2',</span> <span class="pre">'total=3']</span></code>, the resulting command line would be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'showpartial</span> <span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">3'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In a mailcap file, the “test” field can optionally be specified to test some
+external condition (such as the machine architecture, or the window system in
+use) to determine whether or not the mailcap line applies.  <a class="reference internal" href="#mailcap.findmatch" title="mailcap.findmatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findmatch()</span></code></a>
+will automatically check such conditions and skip the entry if the check fails.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mailcap.getcaps">
+<code class="descclassname">mailcap.</code><code class="descname">getcaps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mailcap.getcaps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a dictionary mapping MIME types to a list of mailcap file entries. This
+dictionary must be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#mailcap.findmatch" title="mailcap.findmatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findmatch()</span></code></a> function.  An entry is stored
+as a list of dictionaries, but it shouldn’t be necessary to know the details of
+this representation.</p>
+<p>The information is derived from all of the mailcap files found on the system.
+Settings in the user’s mailcap file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$HOME/.mailcap</span></code> will override
+settings in the system mailcap files <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/etc/mailcap</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/etc/mailcap</span></code>, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/etc/mailcap</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mailcap</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mailcap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getcaps</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mailcap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findmatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;video/mpeg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;tmp1223&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;xmpeg tmp1223&#39;, {&#39;view&#39;: &#39;xmpeg %s&#39;})</span>
+</pre></div>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="mailbox.html"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/markup.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/markup.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..32f6d5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/markup.html
@@ -0,0 +1,295 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Structured Markup Processing Tools &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="html — HyperText Markup Language support" href="html.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="uu — Encode and decode uuencode files" href="uu.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/markup.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="html.html" title="html — HyperText Markup Language support"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="uu.html" title="uu — Encode and decode uuencode files"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="structured-markup-processing-tools">
+<span id="markup"></span><h1>Structured Markup Processing Tools<a class="headerlink" href="#structured-markup-processing-tools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python supports a variety of modules to work with various forms of structured
+data markup.  This includes modules to work with the Standard Generalized Markup
+Language (SGML) and the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and several interfaces
+for working with the Extensible Markup Language (XML).</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="html.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code> — HyperText Markup Language support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="html.parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code> — Simple HTML and XHTML parser</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="html.parser.html#example-html-parser-application">Example HTML Parser Application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="html.parser.html#htmlparser-methods"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code> Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="html.parser.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="html.entities.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code> — Definitions of HTML general entities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.html">XML Processing Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities">XML vulnerabilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#the-defusedxml-and-defusedexpat-packages">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedxml</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedexpat</span></code> Packages</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code> — The ElementTree XML API</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#tutorial">Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml-tree-and-elements">XML tree and elements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#parsing-xml">Parsing XML</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing">Pull API for non-blocking parsing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#finding-interesting-elements">Finding interesting elements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#modifying-an-xml-file">Modifying an XML File</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#building-xml-documents">Building XML documents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#parsing-xml-with-namespaces">Parsing XML with Namespaces</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#additional-resources">Additional resources</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#xpath-support">XPath support</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#example">Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#supported-xpath-syntax">Supported XPath syntax</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#reference">Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#element-objects">Element Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#elementtree-objects">ElementTree Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#qname-objects">QName Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#treebuilder-objects">TreeBuilder Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#xmlparser-objects">XMLParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#xmlpullparser-objects">XMLPullParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code> — The Document Object Model API</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#objects-in-the-dom">Objects in the DOM</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#domimplementation-objects">DOMImplementation Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#node-objects">Node Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#nodelist-objects">NodeList Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#documenttype-objects">DocumentType Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#document-objects">Document Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#element-objects">Element Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#attr-objects">Attr Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#namednodemap-objects">NamedNodeMap Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#comment-objects">Comment Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#text-and-cdatasection-objects">Text and CDATASection Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#processinginstruction-objects">ProcessingInstruction Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#conformance">Conformance</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#type-mapping">Type Mapping</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#accessor-methods">Accessor Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code> — Minimal DOM implementation</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html#dom-objects">DOM Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html#dom-example">DOM Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html#minidom-and-the-dom-standard">minidom and the DOM standard</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.pulldom.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code> — Support for building partial DOM trees</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.pulldom.html#domeventstream-objects">DOMEventStream Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code> — Support for SAX2 parsers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.html#saxexception-objects">SAXException Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code> — Base classes for SAX handlers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#contenthandler-objects">ContentHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#dtdhandler-objects">DTDHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#entityresolver-objects">EntityResolver Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#errorhandler-objects">ErrorHandler Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.utils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.saxutils</span></code> — SAX Utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code> — Interface for XML parsers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xmlreader-objects">XMLReader Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#incrementalparser-objects">IncrementalParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#locator-objects">Locator Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#inputsource-objects">InputSource Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#the-attributes-interface">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code> Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#the-attributesns-interface">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code> Interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code> — Fast XML parsing using Expat</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#xmlparser-objects">XMLParser Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#expaterror-exceptions">ExpatError Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#example">Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.model">Content Model Descriptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors">Expat error constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
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+
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code> — Encode and decode uuencode files</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="html.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code> — HyperText Markup Language support</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/marshal.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/marshal.html
new file mode 100644
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-marshal">
+<span id="marshal-internal-python-object-serialization"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> — Internal Python object serialization<a class="headerlink" href="#module-marshal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module contains functions that can read and write Python values in a binary
+format.  The format is specific to Python, but independent of machine
+architecture issues (e.g., you can write a Python value to a file on a PC,
+transport the file to a Sun, and read it back there).  Details of the format are
+undocumented on purpose; it may change between Python versions (although it
+rarely does). <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p id="index-0">This is not a general “persistence” module.  For general persistence and
+transfer of Python objects through RPC calls, see the modules <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> module exists mainly to support reading and
+writing the “pseudo-compiled” code for Python modules of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files.
+Therefore, the Python maintainers reserve the right to modify the marshal format
+in backward incompatible ways should the need arise.  If you’re serializing and
+de-serializing Python objects, use the <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module instead – the
+performance is comparable, version independence is guaranteed, and pickle
+supports a substantially wider range of objects than marshal.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> module is not intended to be secure against erroneous or
+maliciously constructed data.  Never unmarshal data received from an
+untrusted or unauthenticated source.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-1">Not all Python object types are supported; in general, only objects whose value
+is independent from a particular invocation of Python can be written and read by
+this module.  The following types are supported: booleans, integers, floating
+point numbers, complex numbers, strings, bytes, bytearrays, tuples, lists, sets,
+frozensets, dictionaries, and code objects, where it should be understood that
+tuples, lists, sets, frozensets and dictionaries are only supported as long as
+the values contained therein are themselves supported.  The
+singletons <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> can also be
+marshalled and unmarshalled.
+For format <em>version</em> lower than 3, recursive lists, sets and dictionaries cannot
+be written (see below).</p>
+<p>There are functions that read/write files as well as functions operating on
+bytes-like objects.</p>
+<p>The module defines these functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="marshal.dump">
+<code class="descclassname">marshal.</code><code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em>, <em>file</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>version</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#marshal.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the value on the open file.  The value must be a supported type.  The
+file must be a writeable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a>.</p>
+<p>If the value has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported type, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception is raised — but garbage data will also be written
+to the file.  The object will not be properly read back by <a class="reference internal" href="#marshal.load" title="marshal.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>version</em> argument indicates the data format that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump</span></code> should use
+(see below).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="marshal.load">
+<code class="descclassname">marshal.</code><code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#marshal.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read one value from the open file and return it.  If no valid value is read
+(e.g. because the data has a different Python version’s incompatible marshal
+format), raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  The
+file must be a readable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If an object containing an unsupported type was marshalled with <a class="reference internal" href="#marshal.dump" title="marshal.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#marshal.load" title="marshal.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> will substitute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for the unmarshallable type.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="marshal.dumps">
+<code class="descclassname">marshal.</code><code class="descname">dumps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>version</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#marshal.dumps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the bytes object that would be written to a file by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump(value,</span> <span class="pre">file)</span></code>.  The
+value must be a supported type.  Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception if value
+has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported type.</p>
+<p>The <em>version</em> argument indicates the data format that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps</span></code> should use
+(see below).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="marshal.loads">
+<code class="descclassname">marshal.</code><code class="descname">loads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#marshal.loads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> to a value.  If no valid value is found, raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  Extra bytes in the
+input are ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, the following constants are defined:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="marshal.version">
+<code class="descclassname">marshal.</code><code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#marshal.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates the format that the module uses. Version 0 is the historical
+format, version 1 shares interned strings and version 2 uses a binary format
+for floating point numbers.
+Version 3 adds support for object instancing and recursion.
+The current version is 4.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of this module stems from a bit of terminology used by the designers of
+Modula-3 (amongst others), who use the term “marshalling” for shipping of data
+around in a self-contained form. Strictly speaking, “to marshal” means to
+convert some data from internal to external form (in an RPC buffer for instance)
+and “unmarshalling” for the reverse process.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/math.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/math.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e49450b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/math.html
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-math">
+<span id="math-mathematical-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> — Mathematical functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-math" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to the mathematical functions defined by the C
+standard.</p>
+<p>These functions cannot be used with complex numbers; use the functions of the
+same name from the <a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> module if you require support for complex
+numbers.  The distinction between functions which support complex numbers and
+those which don’t is made since most users do not want to learn quite as much
+mathematics as required to understand complex numbers.  Receiving an exception
+instead of a complex result allows earlier detection of the unexpected complex
+number used as a parameter, so that the programmer can determine how and why it
+was generated in the first place.</p>
+<p>The following functions are provided by this module.  Except when explicitly
+noted otherwise, all return values are floats.</p>
+<div class="section" id="number-theoretic-and-representation-functions">
+<h2>Number-theoretic and representation functions<a class="headerlink" href="#number-theoretic-and-representation-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.ceil">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">ceil</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.ceil" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the ceiling of <em>x</em>, the smallest integer greater than or equal to <em>x</em>.
+If <em>x</em> is not a float, delegates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__ceil__()</span></code>, which should return an
+<a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a> value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.copysign">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">copysign</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.copysign" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a float with the magnitude (absolute value) of <em>x</em> but the sign of
+<em>y</em>.  On platforms that support signed zeros, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copysign(1.0,</span> <span class="pre">-0.0)</span></code>
+returns <em>-1.0</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.fabs">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">fabs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.fabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the absolute value of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.factorial">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">factorial</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.factorial" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>x</em> factorial as an integer.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>x</em> is not integral or
+is negative.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.floor">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">floor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.floor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the floor of <em>x</em>, the largest integer less than or equal to <em>x</em>.
+If <em>x</em> is not a float, delegates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__floor__()</span></code>, which should return an
+<a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a> value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.fmod">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">fmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.fmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fmod(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code>, as defined by the platform C library. Note that the
+Python expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> may not return the same result.  The intent of the C
+standard is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fmod(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> be exactly (mathematically; to infinite
+precision) equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">n*y</span></code> for some integer <em>n</em> such that the result has
+the same sign as <em>x</em> and magnitude less than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(y)</span></code>.  Python’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>
+returns a result with the sign of <em>y</em> instead, and may not be exactly computable
+for float arguments. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fmod(-1e-100,</span> <span class="pre">1e100)</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1e-100</span></code>, but
+the result of Python’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1e-100</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">1e100</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1e100-1e-100</span></code>, which cannot be
+represented exactly as a float, and rounds to the surprising <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1e100</span></code>.  For
+this reason, function <a class="reference internal" href="#math.fmod" title="math.fmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fmod()</span></code></a> is generally preferred when working with
+floats, while Python’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is preferred when working with integers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.frexp">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">frexp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.frexp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the mantissa and exponent of <em>x</em> as the pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(m,</span> <span class="pre">e)</span></code>.  <em>m</em> is a float
+and <em>e</em> is an integer such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">m</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">2**e</span></code> exactly. If <em>x</em> is zero,
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(0.0,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.5</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">abs(m)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.  This is used to “pick
+apart” the internal representation of a float in a portable way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.fsum">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">fsum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.fsum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an accurate floating point sum of values in the iterable.  Avoids
+loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial sums:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">0.9999999999999999</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fsum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">1.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The algorithm’s accuracy depends on IEEE-754 arithmetic guarantees and the
+typical case where the rounding mode is half-even.  On some non-Windows
+builds, the underlying C library uses extended precision addition and may
+occasionally double-round an intermediate sum causing it to be off in its
+least significant bit.</p>
+<p>For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090/">ASPN cookbook
+recipes for accurate floating point summation</a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.gcd">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">gcd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.gcd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the greatest common divisor of the integers <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.  If either
+<em>a</em> or <em>b</em> is nonzero, then the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcd(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is the largest
+positive integer that divides both <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcd(0,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.isclose">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">isclose</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>rel_tol=1e-09</em>, <em>abs_tol=0.0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.isclose" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the values <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> are close to each other and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to
+given absolute and relative tolerances.</p>
+<p><em>rel_tol</em> is the relative tolerance – it is the maximum allowed difference
+between <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, relative to the larger absolute value of <em>a</em> or <em>b</em>.
+For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rel_tol=0.05</span></code>.  The default
+tolerance is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1e-09</span></code>, which assures that the two values are the same
+within about 9 decimal digits.  <em>rel_tol</em> must be greater than zero.</p>
+<p><em>abs_tol</em> is the minimum absolute tolerance – useful for comparisons near
+zero. <em>abs_tol</em> must be at least zero.</p>
+<p>If no errors occur, the result will be:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(a-b)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">max(rel_tol</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">max(abs(a),</span> <span class="pre">abs(b)),</span> <span class="pre">abs_tol)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The IEEE 754 special values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-inf</span></code> will be
+handled according to IEEE rules.  Specifically, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code> is not considered
+close to any other value, including <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-inf</span></code> are only
+considered close to themselves.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0485"><strong>PEP 485</strong></a> – A function for testing approximate equality</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.isfinite">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">isfinite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.isfinite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is neither an infinity nor a NaN, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  (Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0</span></code> <em>is</em> considered finite.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.isinf">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">isinf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.isinf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a positive or negative infinity, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.isnan">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">isnan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.isnan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a NaN (not a number), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.ldexp">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">ldexp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.ldexp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">(2**i)</span></code>.  This is essentially the inverse of function
+<a class="reference internal" href="#math.frexp" title="math.frexp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frexp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.modf">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">modf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.modf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the fractional and integer parts of <em>x</em>.  Both results carry the sign
+of <em>x</em> and are floats.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.remainder">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">remainder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.remainder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the IEEE 754-style remainder of <em>x</em> with respect to <em>y</em>.  For
+finite <em>x</em> and finite nonzero <em>y</em>, this is the difference <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">n*y</span></code>,
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> is the closest integer to the exact value of the quotient <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">/</span>
+<span class="pre">y</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is exactly halfway between two consecutive integers, the
+nearest <em>even</em> integer is used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code>.  The remainder <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">remainder(x,</span>
+<span class="pre">y)</span></code> thus always satisfies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(r)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">0.5</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">abs(y)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Special cases follow IEEE 754: in particular, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remainder(x,</span> <span class="pre">math.inf)</span></code> is
+<em>x</em> for any finite <em>x</em>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remainder(x,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remainder(math.inf,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> for any non-NaN <em>x</em>.
+If the result of the remainder operation is zero, that zero will have
+the same sign as <em>x</em>.</p>
+<p>On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating-point, the result of this
+operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error is introduced.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.trunc">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">trunc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.trunc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Real</span></code></a> value <em>x</em> truncated to an
+<a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a> (usually an integer). Delegates to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__trunc__" title="object.__trunc__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__trunc__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#math.frexp" title="math.frexp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frexp()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#math.modf" title="math.modf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modf()</span></code></a> have a different call/return pattern
+than their C equivalents: they take a single argument and return a pair of
+values, rather than returning their second return value through an ‘output
+parameter’ (there is no such thing in Python).</p>
+<p>For the <a class="reference internal" href="#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ceil()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floor()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#math.modf" title="math.modf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modf()</span></code></a> functions, note that <em>all</em>
+floating-point numbers of sufficiently large magnitude are exact integers.
+Python floats typically carry no more than 53 bits of precision (the same as the
+platform C double type), in which case any float <em>x</em> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(x)</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">2**52</span></code>
+necessarily has no fractional bits.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="power-and-logarithmic-functions">
+<h2>Power and logarithmic functions<a class="headerlink" href="#power-and-logarithmic-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.exp">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">exp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.exp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>e</em> raised to the power <em>x</em>, where <em>e</em> = 2.718281… is the base
+of natural logarithms.  This is usually more accurate than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.e</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(math.e,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.expm1">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">expm1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.expm1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>e</em> raised to the power <em>x</em>, minus 1.  Here <em>e</em> is the base of natural
+logarithms.  For small floats <em>x</em>, the subtraction in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exp(x)</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>
+can result in a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance">significant loss of precision</a>; the <a class="reference internal" href="#math.expm1" title="math.expm1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expm1()</span></code></a>
+function provides a way to compute this quantity to full precision:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expm1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1e-5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span>  <span class="c1"># gives result accurate to 11 places</span>
+<span class="go">1.0000050000069649e-05</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expm1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1e-5</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># result accurate to full precision</span>
+<span class="go">1.0000050000166668e-05</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.log">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">log</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>base</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.log" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>With one argument, return the natural logarithm of <em>x</em> (to base <em>e</em>).</p>
+<p>With two arguments, return the logarithm of <em>x</em> to the given <em>base</em>,
+calculated as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log(x)/log(base)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.log1p">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">log1p</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.log1p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the natural logarithm of <em>1+x</em> (base <em>e</em>). The
+result is calculated in a way which is accurate for <em>x</em> near zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.log2">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">log2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.log2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the base-2 logarithm of <em>x</em>. This is usually more accurate than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log(x,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#int.bit_length" title="int.bit_length"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int.bit_length()</span></code></a> returns the number of bits necessary to represent
+an integer in binary, excluding the sign and leading zeros.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.log10">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">log10</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.log10" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the base-10 logarithm of <em>x</em>.  This is usually more accurate
+than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log(x,</span> <span class="pre">10)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.pow">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">pow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.pow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> raised to the power <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>.  Exceptional cases follow
+Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard as far as possible.  In particular,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(1.0,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(x,</span> <span class="pre">0.0)</span></code> always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code>, even
+when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is a zero or a NaN.  If both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> are finite,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is negative, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> is not an integer then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code>
+is undefined, and raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Unlike the built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> operator, <a class="reference internal" href="#math.pow" title="math.pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.pow()</span></code></a> converts both
+its arguments to type <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> or the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a> function for computing exact integer powers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.sqrt">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">sqrt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.sqrt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the square root of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="trigonometric-functions">
+<h2>Trigonometric functions<a class="headerlink" href="#trigonometric-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.acos">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">acos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.acos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the arc cosine of <em>x</em>, in radians.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.asin">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">asin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.asin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the arc sine of <em>x</em>, in radians.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.atan">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">atan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.atan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the arc tangent of <em>x</em>, in radians.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.atan2">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">atan2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.atan2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atan(y</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code>, in radians. The result is between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-pi</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pi</span></code>.
+The vector in the plane from the origin to point <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> makes this angle
+with the positive X axis. The point of <a class="reference internal" href="#math.atan2" title="math.atan2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atan2()</span></code></a> is that the signs of both
+inputs are known to it, so it can compute the correct quadrant for the angle.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atan(1)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atan2(1,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code> are both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pi/4</span></code>, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atan2(-1,</span>
+<span class="pre">-1)</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3*pi/4</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.cos">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">cos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.cos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the cosine of <em>x</em> radians.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.hypot">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">hypot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.hypot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the Euclidean norm, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqrt(x*x</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">y*y)</span></code>. This is the length of the vector
+from the origin to point <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.sin">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">sin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.sin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sine of <em>x</em> radians.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.tan">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">tan</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.tan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the tangent of <em>x</em> radians.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="angular-conversion">
+<h2>Angular conversion<a class="headerlink" href="#angular-conversion" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.degrees">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">degrees</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.degrees" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert angle <em>x</em> from radians to degrees.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.radians">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">radians</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.radians" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert angle <em>x</em> from degrees to radians.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hyperbolic-functions">
+<h2>Hyperbolic functions<a class="headerlink" href="#hyperbolic-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_function">Hyperbolic functions</a>
+are analogs of trigonometric functions that are based on hyperbolas
+instead of circles.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.acosh">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">acosh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.acosh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.asinh">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">asinh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.asinh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.atanh">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">atanh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.atanh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.cosh">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">cosh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.cosh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hyperbolic cosine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.sinh">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">sinh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.sinh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hyperbolic sine of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.tanh">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">tanh</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.tanh" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the hyperbolic tangent of <em>x</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="special-functions">
+<h2>Special functions<a class="headerlink" href="#special-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.erf">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">erf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.erf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function">error function</a> at
+<em>x</em>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#math.erf" title="math.erf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erf()</span></code></a> function can be used to compute traditional statistical
+functions such as the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution#Cumulative_distribution_function">cumulative standard normal distribution</a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">phi</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">erf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">)))</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mf">2.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.erfc">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">erfc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.erfc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the complementary error function at <em>x</em>.  The <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function">complementary error
+function</a> is defined as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">erf(x)</span></code>.  It is used for large values of <em>x</em> where a subtraction
+from one would cause a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance">loss of significance</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.gamma">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">gamma</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.gamma" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function">Gamma function</a> at
+<em>x</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="math.lgamma">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">lgamma</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#math.lgamma" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma
+function at <em>x</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<h2>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="math.pi">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">pi</code><a class="headerlink" href="#math.pi" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The mathematical constant <em>π</em> = 3.141592…, to available precision.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="math.e">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">e</code><a class="headerlink" href="#math.e" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The mathematical constant <em>e</em> = 2.718281…, to available precision.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="math.tau">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">tau</code><a class="headerlink" href="#math.tau" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The mathematical constant <em>τ</em> = 6.283185…, to available precision.
+Tau is a circle constant equal to 2<em>π</em>, the ratio of a circle’s circumference to
+its radius. To learn more about Tau, check out Vi Hart’s video <a class="reference external" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jG7vhMMXagQ">Pi is (still)
+Wrong</a>, and start celebrating
+<a class="reference external" href="https://tauday.com/">Tau day</a> by eating twice as much pie!</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="math.inf">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">inf</code><a class="headerlink" href="#math.inf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A floating-point positive infinity.  (For negative infinity, use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-math.inf</span></code>.)  Equivalent to the output of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float('inf')</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="math.nan">
+<code class="descclassname">math.</code><code class="descname">nan</code><a class="headerlink" href="#math.nan" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A floating-point “not a number” (NaN) value.  Equivalent to the output of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float('nan')</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p class="compound-first"><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module consists mostly of thin wrappers around the platform C
+math library functions.  Behavior in exceptional cases follows Annex F of
+the C99 standard where appropriate.  The current implementation will raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> for invalid operations like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqrt(-1.0)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log(0.0)</span></code>
+(where C99 Annex F recommends signaling invalid operation or divide-by-zero),
+and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> for results that overflow (for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exp(1000.0)</span></code>).  A NaN will not be returned from any of the functions
+above unless one or more of the input arguments was a NaN; in that case,
+most functions will return a NaN, but (again following C99 Annex F) there
+are some exceptions to this rule, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(float('nan'),</span> <span class="pre">0.0)</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hypot(float('nan'),</span> <span class="pre">float('inf'))</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="compound-last">Note that Python makes no effort to distinguish signaling NaNs from
+quiet NaNs, and behavior for signaling NaNs remains unspecified.
+Typical behavior is to treat all NaNs as though they were quiet.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Complex number versions of many of these functions.</p>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#number-theoretic-and-representation-functions">Number-theoretic and representation functions</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-mimetypes">
+<span id="mimetypes-map-filenames-to-mime-types"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-mimetypes" title="mimetypes: Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code></a> — Map filenames to MIME types<a class="headerlink" href="#module-mimetypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/mimetypes.py">Lib/mimetypes.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-mimetypes" title="mimetypes: Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code></a> module converts between a filename or URL and the MIME type
+associated with the filename extension.  Conversions are provided from filename
+to MIME type and from MIME type to filename extension; encodings are not
+supported for the latter conversion.</p>
+<p>The module provides one class and a number of convenience functions. The
+functions are the normal interface to this module, but some applications may be
+interested in the class as well.</p>
+<p>The functions described below provide the primary interface for this module.  If
+the module has not been initialized, they will call <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.init" title="mimetypes.init"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init()</span></code></a> if they rely on
+the information <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.init" title="mimetypes.init"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init()</span></code></a> sets up.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mimetypes.guess_type">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">guess_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.guess_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Guess the type of a file based on its filename or URL, given by <em>url</em>.  The
+return value is a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">encoding)</span></code> where <em>type</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the
+type can’t be guessed (missing or unknown suffix) or a string of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'type/subtype'</span></code>, usable for a MIME <em class="mailheader">content-type</em> header.</p>
+<p><em>encoding</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for no encoding or the name of the program used to encode
+(e.g. <strong class="program">compress</strong> or <strong class="program">gzip</strong>). The encoding is suitable for use
+as a <em class="mailheader">Content-Encoding</em> header, <strong>not</strong> as a
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> header. The mappings are table driven.
+Encoding suffixes are case sensitive; type suffixes are first tried case
+sensitively, then case insensitively.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>strict</em> argument is a flag specifying whether the list of known MIME types
+is limited to only the official types <a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml">registered with IANA</a>.
+When <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), only the IANA types are supported; when
+<em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, some additional non-standard but commonly used MIME types
+are also recognized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mimetypes.guess_all_extensions">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">guess_all_extensions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.guess_all_extensions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Guess the extensions for a file based on its MIME type, given by <em>type</em>. The
+return value is a list of strings giving all possible filename extensions,
+including the leading dot (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>).  The extensions are not guaranteed to have
+been associated with any particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME
+type <em>type</em> by <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.guess_type" title="mimetypes.guess_type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_type()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>strict</em> argument has the same meaning as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.guess_type" title="mimetypes.guess_type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_type()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mimetypes.guess_extension">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">guess_extension</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.guess_extension" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Guess the extension for a file based on its MIME type, given by <em>type</em>. The
+return value is a string giving a filename extension, including the leading dot
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>).  The extension is not guaranteed to have been associated with any
+particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type <em>type</em> by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.guess_type" title="mimetypes.guess_type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_type()</span></code></a>.  If no extension can be guessed for <em>type</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is
+returned.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>strict</em> argument has the same meaning as with the <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.guess_type" title="mimetypes.guess_type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_type()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Some additional functions and data items are available for controlling the
+behavior of the module.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mimetypes.init">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">init</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>files=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.init" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initialize the internal data structures.  If given, <em>files</em> must be a sequence
+of file names which should be used to augment the default type map.  If omitted,
+the file names to use are taken from <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.knownfiles" title="mimetypes.knownfiles"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">knownfiles</span></code></a>; on Windows, the
+current registry settings are loaded.  Each file named in <em>files</em> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.knownfiles" title="mimetypes.knownfiles"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">knownfiles</span></code></a> takes precedence over those named before it.  Calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.init" title="mimetypes.init"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init()</span></code></a> repeatedly is allowed.</p>
+<p>Specifying an empty list for <em>files</em> will prevent the system defaults from
+being applied: only the well-known values will be present from a built-in list.</p>
+<p>If <em>files</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> the internal data structure is completely rebuilt to its
+initial default value. This is a stable operation and will produce the same results
+when called multiple times.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Previously, Windows registry settings were ignored.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mimetypes.read_mime_types">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">read_mime_types</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.read_mime_types" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load the type map given in the file <em>filename</em>, if it exists.  The type map is
+returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions, including the leading dot
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>), to strings of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'type/subtype'</span></code>.  If the file <em>filename</em>
+does not exist or cannot be read, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="mimetypes.add_type">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">add_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>ext</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.add_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a mapping from the MIME type <em>type</em> to the extension <em>ext</em>. When the
+extension is already known, the new type will replace the old one. When the type
+is already known the extension will be added to the list of known extensions.</p>
+<p>When <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), the mapping will be added to the
+official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="mimetypes.inited">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">inited</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.inited" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flag indicating whether or not the global data structures have been initialized.
+This is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> by <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.init" title="mimetypes.init"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="mimetypes.knownfiles">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">knownfiles</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.knownfiles" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">List of type map file names commonly installed.  These files are typically named
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mime.types</span></code> and are installed in different locations by different
+packages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="mimetypes.suffix_map">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">suffix_map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.suffix_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow recognition of
+encoded files for which the encoding and the type are indicated by the same
+extension.  For example, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tgz</span></code> extension is mapped to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.gz</span></code>
+to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="mimetypes.encodings_map">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">encodings_map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.encodings_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="mimetypes.types_map">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">types_map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.types_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping filename extensions to MIME types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="mimetypes.common_types">
+<code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">common_types</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.common_types" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping filename extensions to non-standard, but commonly found MIME
+types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example usage of the module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mimetypes</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">init</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">knownfiles</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;/etc/mime.types&#39;, &#39;/etc/httpd/mime.types&#39;, ... ]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suffix_map</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;.tgz&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;.tar.gz&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encodings_map</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;gzip&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">types_map</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;.tgz&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;application/x-tar-gz&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mimetypes-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>MimeTypes Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes" title="mimetypes.MimeTypes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MimeTypes</span></code></a> class may be useful for applications which may want more
+than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface similar to the one of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-mimetypes" title="mimetypes: Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mimetypes.</code><code class="descname">MimeTypes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filenames=()</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class represents a MIME-types database.  By default, it provides access to
+the same database as the rest of this module. The initial database is a copy of
+that provided by the module, and may be extended by loading additional
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mime.types</span></code>-style files into the database using the <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.read" title="mimetypes.MimeTypes.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp" title="mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readfp()</span></code></a> methods.  The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before
+loading additional data if the default data is not desired.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>filenames</em> parameter can be used to cause additional files to be
+loaded “on top” of the default database.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.suffix_map">
+<code class="descname">suffix_map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.suffix_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow recognition of
+encoded files for which the encoding and the type are indicated by the same
+extension.  For example, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tgz</span></code> extension is mapped to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.tar.gz</span></code>
+to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately.  This is initially a
+copy of the global <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.suffix_map" title="mimetypes.suffix_map"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suffix_map</span></code></a> defined in the module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.encodings_map">
+<code class="descname">encodings_map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.encodings_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.  This is initially a
+copy of the global <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.encodings_map" title="mimetypes.encodings_map"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings_map</span></code></a> defined in the module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map">
+<code class="descname">types_map</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions to MIME types:
+the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the second one is for
+the standard types. They are initialized by <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.common_types" title="mimetypes.common_types"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">common_types</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.types_map" title="mimetypes.types_map"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types_map</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map_inv">
+<code class="descname">types_map_inv</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.types_map_inv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a list of filename
+extensions: the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the
+second one is for the standard types. They are initialized by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.common_types" title="mimetypes.common_types"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">common_types</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.types_map" title="mimetypes.types_map"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types_map</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_extension">
+<code class="descname">guess_extension</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_extension" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.guess_extension" title="mimetypes.guess_extension"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_extension()</span></code></a> function, using the tables stored as part
+of the object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type">
+<code class="descname">guess_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.guess_type" title="mimetypes.guess_type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_type()</span></code></a> function, using the tables stored as part of
+the object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_all_extensions">
+<code class="descname">guess_all_extensions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_all_extensions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.guess_all_extensions" title="mimetypes.guess_all_extensions"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_all_extensions()</span></code></a> function, using the tables stored
+as part of the object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load MIME information from a file named <em>filename</em>.  This uses <a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp" title="mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readfp()</span></code></a> to
+parse the file.</p>
+<p>If <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, information will be added to list of standard types,
+else to the list of non-standard types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp">
+<code class="descname">readfp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.readfp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load MIME type information from an open file <em>fp</em>.  The file must have the format of
+the standard <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mime.types</span></code> files.</p>
+<p>If <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, information will be added to the list of standard
+types, else to the list of non-standard types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mimetypes.MimeTypes.read_windows_registry">
+<code class="descname">read_windows_registry</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>strict=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes.MimeTypes.read_windows_registry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load MIME type information from the Windows registry.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<p>If <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, information will be added to the list of standard
+types, else to the list of non-standard types.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code> — Map filenames to MIME types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes-objects">MimeTypes Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mailbox.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code> — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/misc.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/misc.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9edf629
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/misc.html
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Miscellaneous Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="formatter — Generic output formatting" href="formatter.html" />
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+    
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+    <style>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
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+  <div class="section" id="miscellaneous-services">
+<span id="misc"></span><h1>Miscellaneous Services<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide miscellaneous services that are
+available in all Python versions.  Here’s an overview:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="formatter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> — Generic output formatting</a><ul>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="formatter.html"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mm.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mm.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06966ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/mm.html
@@ -0,0 +1,209 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Multimedia Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+<span id="mmedia"></span><h1>Multimedia Services<a class="headerlink" href="#multimedia-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms or interfaces
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+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="audioop.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code> — Manipulate raw audio data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="aifc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code> — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sunau.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code> — Read and write Sun AU files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sunau.html#au-read-objects">AU_read Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sunau.html#au-write-objects">AU_write Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="wave.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code> — Read and write WAV files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wave.html#wave-read-objects">Wave_read Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="wave.html#wave-write-objects">Wave_write Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="chunk.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chunk</span></code> — Read IFF chunked data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="colorsys.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colorsys</span></code> — Conversions between color systems</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="imghdr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code> — Determine the type of an image</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sndhdr.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code> — Determine type of sound file</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="ossaudiodev.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code> — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ossaudiodev.html#audio-device-objects">Audio Device Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="ossaudiodev.html#mixer-device-objects">Mixer Device Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-mmap">
+<span id="mmap-memory-mapped-file-support"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-mmap" title="mmap: Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a> — Memory-mapped file support<a class="headerlink" href="#module-mmap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Memory-mapped file objects behave like both <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> and like
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a>.  You can use mmap objects in most places
+where <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> are expected; for example, you can use the <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>
+module to search through a memory-mapped file.  You can also change a single
+byte by doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[index]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">97</span></code>, or change a subsequence by assigning to a
+slice: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[i1:i2]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">b'...'</span></code>.  You can also read and write data starting at
+the current file position, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code> through the file to different positions.</p>
+<p>A memory-mapped file is created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a> constructor, which is
+different on Unix and on Windows.  In either case you must provide a file
+descriptor for a file opened for update. If you wish to map an existing Python
+file object, use its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method to obtain the correct value for the
+<em>fileno</em> parameter.  Otherwise, you can open the file using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> function, which returns a file descriptor directly (the file
+still needs to be closed when done).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you want to create a memory-mapping for a writable, buffered file, you
+should <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.flush" title="io.IOBase.flush"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a> the file first.  This is necessary to ensure
+that local modifications to the buffers are actually available to the
+mapping.</p>
+</div>
+<p>For both the Unix and Windows versions of the constructor, <em>access</em> may be
+specified as an optional keyword parameter. <em>access</em> accepts one of four
+values: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_READ</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_WRITE</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_COPY</span></code> to
+specify read-only, write-through or copy-on-write memory respectively, or
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_DEFAULT</span></code> to defer to <em>prot</em>.  <em>access</em> can be used on both Unix
+and Windows.  If <em>access</em> is not specified, Windows mmap returns a
+write-through mapping.  The initial memory values for all three access types
+are taken from the specified file.  Assignment to an <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_READ</span></code>
+memory map raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.  Assignment to an
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_WRITE</span></code> memory map affects both memory and the underlying file.
+Assignment to an <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_COPY</span></code> memory map affects memory but does not
+update the underlying file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_DEFAULT</span></code> constant.</p>
+</div>
+<p>To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with the length.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mmap.</code><code class="descname">mmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fileno</em>, <em>length</em>, <em>tagname=None</em>, <em>access=ACCESS_DEFAULT</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>offset</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><strong>(Windows version)</strong> Maps <em>length</em> bytes from the file specified by the
+file handle <em>fileno</em>, and creates a mmap object.  If <em>length</em> is larger
+than the current size of the file, the file is extended to contain <em>length</em>
+bytes.  If <em>length</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the maximum length of the map is the current
+size of the file, except that if the file is empty Windows raises an
+exception (you cannot create an empty mapping on Windows).</p>
+<p><em>tagname</em>, if specified and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, is a string giving a tag name for
+the mapping.  Windows allows you to have many different mappings against
+the same file.  If you specify the name of an existing tag, that tag is
+opened, otherwise a new tag of this name is created.  If this parameter is
+omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the mapping is created without a name.  Avoiding the
+use of the tag parameter will assist in keeping your code portable between
+Unix and Windows.</p>
+<p><em>offset</em> may be specified as a non-negative integer offset. mmap references
+will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the file. <em>offset</em>
+defaults to 0.  <em>offset</em> must be a multiple of the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">mmap.</code><code class="descname">mmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fileno</em>, <em>length</em>, <em>flags=MAP_SHARED</em>, <em>prot=PROT_WRITE|PROT_READ</em>, <em>access=ACCESS_DEFAULT</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>offset</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p><strong>(Unix version)</strong> Maps <em>length</em> bytes from the file specified by the file
+descriptor <em>fileno</em>, and returns a mmap object.  If <em>length</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the
+maximum length of the map will be the current size of the file when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+<p><em>flags</em> specifies the nature of the mapping. <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAP_PRIVATE</span></code> creates a
+private copy-on-write mapping, so changes to the contents of the mmap
+object will be private to this process, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAP_SHARED</span></code> creates a
+mapping that’s shared with all other processes mapping the same areas of
+the file.  The default value is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAP_SHARED</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>prot</em>, if specified, gives the desired memory protection; the two most
+useful values are <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROT_READ</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROT_WRITE</span></code>, to specify
+that the pages may be read or written.  <em>prot</em> defaults to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROT_READ</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">PROT_WRITE</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>access</em> may be specified in lieu of <em>flags</em> and <em>prot</em> as an optional
+keyword parameter.  It is an error to specify both <em>flags</em>, <em>prot</em> and
+<em>access</em>.  See the description of <em>access</em> above for information on how to
+use this parameter.</p>
+<p><em>offset</em> may be specified as a non-negative integer offset. mmap references
+will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the file. <em>offset</em>
+defaults to 0. <em>offset</em> must be a multiple of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY</span></code>
+which is equal to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAGESIZE</span></code> on Unix systems.</p>
+<p>To ensure validity of the created memory mapping the file specified
+by the descriptor <em>fileno</em> is internally automatically synchronized
+with physical backing store on Mac OS X and OpenVMS.</p>
+<p>This example shows a simple way of using <a class="reference internal" href="#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mmap</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># write a simple example file</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello Python!</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;r+b&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># memory-map the file, size 0 means whole file</span>
+    <span class="n">mm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mmap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mmap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># read content via standard file methods</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">())</span>  <span class="c1"># prints b&quot;Hello Python!\n&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># read content via slice notation</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mm</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>  <span class="c1"># prints b&quot;Hello&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># update content using slice notation;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># note that new content must have same size</span>
+    <span class="n">mm</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">:]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot; world!</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... and read again using standard file methods</span>
+    <span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">())</span>  <span class="c1"># prints b&quot;Hello  world!\n&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># close the map</span>
+    <span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a> can also be used as a context manager in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mmap</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">mmap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mmap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mm</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello world!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Context manager support.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The next example demonstrates how to create an anonymous map and exchange
+data between the parent and child processes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mmap</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="n">mm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mmap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mmap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello world!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fork</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># In a child process</span>
+    <span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="n">mm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Memory-mapped file objects support the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closes the mmap. Subsequent calls to other methods of the object will
+result in a ValueError exception being raised. This will not close
+the open file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.closed">
+<code class="descname">closed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the file is closed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.find">
+<code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the lowest index in the object where the subsequence <em>sub</em> is
+found, such that <em>sub</em> is contained in the range [<em>start</em>, <em>end</em>].
+Optional arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are interpreted as in slice notation.
+Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.flush">
+<code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>offset</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to disk. Without
+use of this call there is no guarantee that changes are written back before
+the object is destroyed.  If <em>offset</em> and <em>size</em> are specified, only
+changes to the given range of bytes will be flushed to disk; otherwise, the
+whole extent of the mapping is flushed.  <em>offset</em> must be a multiple of the
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAGESIZE</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY</span></code>.</p>
+<p><strong>(Windows version)</strong> A nonzero value returned indicates success; zero
+indicates failure.</p>
+<p><strong>(Unix version)</strong> A zero value is returned to indicate success. An
+exception is raised when the call failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.move">
+<code class="descname">move</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dest</em>, <em>src</em>, <em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.move" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the <em>count</em> bytes starting at offset <em>src</em> to the destination index
+<em>dest</em>.  If the mmap was created with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_READ</span></code>, then calls to
+move will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>n</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> containing up to <em>n</em> bytes starting from the
+current file position. If the argument is omitted, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or negative,
+return all bytes from the current file position to the end of the
+mapping. The file position is updated to point after the bytes that were
+returned.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Argument can be omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.read_byte">
+<code class="descname">read_byte</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.read_byte" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a byte at the current file position as an integer, and advances
+the file position by 1.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.readline">
+<code class="descname">readline</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.readline" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a single line, starting at the current file position and up to the
+next newline.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.resize">
+<code class="descname">resize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.resize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any. If the mmap was created
+with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_READ</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_COPY</span></code>, resizing the map will
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.rfind">
+<code class="descname">rfind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.rfind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the highest index in the object where the subsequence <em>sub</em> is
+found, such that <em>sub</em> is contained in the range [<em>start</em>, <em>end</em>].
+Optional arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are interpreted as in slice notation.
+Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.seek">
+<code class="descname">seek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>whence</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.seek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the file’s current position.  <em>whence</em> argument is optional and
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_SET</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (absolute file positioning); other
+values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_CUR</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (seek relative to the current
+position) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_END</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> (seek relative to the file’s end).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.size">
+<code class="descname">size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the length of the file, which can be larger than the size of the
+memory-mapped area.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.tell">
+<code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current position of the file pointer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the bytes in <em>bytes</em> into memory at the current position of the
+file pointer and return the number of bytes written (never less than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(bytes)</span></code>, since if the write fails, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be
+raised).  The file position is updated to point after the bytes that
+were written.  If the mmap was created with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_READ</span></code>, then
+writing to it will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The number of bytes written is now returned.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="mmap.mmap.write_byte">
+<code class="descname">write_byte</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>byte</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#mmap.mmap.write_byte" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the integer <em>byte</em> into memory at the current
+position of the file pointer; the file position is advanced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>. If
+the mmap was created with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ACCESS_READ</span></code>, then writing to it will
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="signal.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code> — Set handlers for asynchronous events</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="netdata.html"
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/modulefinder.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/modulefinder.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1166c6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/modulefinder.html
@@ -0,0 +1,297 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>modulefinder — Find modules used by a script &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-modulefinder">
+<span id="modulefinder-find-modules-used-by-a-script"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-modulefinder" title="modulefinder: Find modules used by a script."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulefinder</span></code></a> — Find modules used by a script<a class="headerlink" href="#module-modulefinder" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/modulefinder.py">Lib/modulefinder.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder" title="modulefinder.ModuleFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleFinder</span></code></a> class that can be used to determine
+the set of modules imported by a script. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulefinder.py</span></code> can also be run as
+a script, giving the filename of a Python script as its argument, after which a
+report of the imported modules will be printed.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="modulefinder.AddPackagePath">
+<code class="descclassname">modulefinder.</code><code class="descname">AddPackagePath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pkg_name</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#modulefinder.AddPackagePath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Record that the package named <em>pkg_name</em> can be found in the specified <em>path</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="modulefinder.ReplacePackage">
+<code class="descclassname">modulefinder.</code><code class="descname">ReplacePackage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>oldname</em>, <em>newname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#modulefinder.ReplacePackage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allows specifying that the module named <em>oldname</em> is in fact the package named
+<em>newname</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="modulefinder.ModuleFinder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">modulefinder.</code><code class="descname">ModuleFinder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>excludes=[]</em>, <em>replace_paths=[]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class provides <a class="reference internal" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.run_script" title="modulefinder.ModuleFinder.run_script"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_script()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.report" title="modulefinder.ModuleFinder.report"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">report()</span></code></a> methods to determine
+the set of modules imported by a script. <em>path</em> can be a list of directories to
+search for modules; if not specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> is used.  <em>debug</em> sets the
+debugging level; higher values make the class print debugging messages about
+what it’s doing. <em>excludes</em> is a list of module names to exclude from the
+analysis. <em>replace_paths</em> is a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(oldpath,</span> <span class="pre">newpath)</span></code> tuples that will
+be replaced in module paths.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="modulefinder.ModuleFinder.report">
+<code class="descname">report</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.report" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a report to standard output that lists the modules imported by the
+script and their paths, as well as modules that are missing or seem to be
+missing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="modulefinder.ModuleFinder.run_script">
+<code class="descname">run_script</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.run_script" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Analyze the contents of the <em>pathname</em> file, which must contain Python
+code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="modulefinder.ModuleFinder.modules">
+<code class="descname">modules</code><a class="headerlink" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder.modules" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping module names to modules. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#modulefinder-example"><span class="std std-ref">Example usage of ModuleFinder</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="example-usage-of-modulefinder">
+<span id="modulefinder-example"></span><h2>Example usage of <a class="reference internal" href="#modulefinder.ModuleFinder" title="modulefinder.ModuleFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleFinder</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#example-usage-of-modulefinder" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The script that is going to get analyzed later on (bacon.py):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">itertools</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">baconhameggs</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">guido.python.ham</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The script that will output the report of bacon.py:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">modulefinder</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ModuleFinder</span>
+
+<span class="n">finder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ModuleFinder</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">finder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_script</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bacon.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Loaded modules:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mod</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">finder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">: &#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mod</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">globalnames</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())[:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Modules not imported:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">finder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">badmodules</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sample output (may vary depending on the architecture):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Loaded</span> <span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">_types</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">copyreg</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="n">_inverted_registry</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">_slotnames</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">__all__</span>
+<span class="n">sre_compile</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="n">isstring</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">_sre</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">_optimize_unicode</span>
+<span class="n">_sre</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">sre_constants</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="n">REPEAT_ONE</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">makedict</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">AT_END_LINE</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">re</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="vm">__module__</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">finditer</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">_expand</span>
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">__main__</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="n">re</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">baconhameggs</span>
+<span class="n">sre_parse</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="n">_PATTERNENDERS</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">SRE_FLAG_UNICODE</span>
+<span class="n">array</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">types</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="vm">__module__</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">IntType</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">TypeType</span>
+<span class="o">---------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Modules</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">imported</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="n">guido</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ham</span>
+<span class="n">baconhameggs</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulefinder</span></code> — Find modules used by a script</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example-usage-of-modulefinder">Example usage of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleFinder</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pkgutil.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code> — Package extension utility</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code> — Locating and executing Python modules</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
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+  <div class="section" id="importing-modules">
+<span id="modules"></span><h1>Importing Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#importing-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide new ways to import other Python
+modules and hooks for customizing the import process.</p>
+<p>The full list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="zipimport.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code> — Import modules from Zip archives</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipimport.html#zipimporter-objects">zipimporter Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="zipimport.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pkgutil.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code> — Package extension utility</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="modulefinder.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulefinder</span></code> — Find modules used by a script</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modulefinder.html#example-usage-of-modulefinder">Example usage of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleFinder</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-msilib">
+<span id="msilib-read-and-write-microsoft-installer-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-msilib" title="msilib: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code></a> — Read and write Microsoft Installer files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-msilib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/msilib/__init__.py">Lib/msilib/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-msilib" title="msilib: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code></a> supports the creation of Microsoft Installer (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.msi</span></code>) files.
+Because these files often contain an embedded “cabinet” file (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.cab</span></code>), it also
+exposes an API to create CAB files. Support for reading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.cab</span></code> files is
+currently not implemented; read support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.msi</span></code> database is possible.</p>
+<p>This package aims to provide complete access to all tables in an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.msi</span></code> file,
+therefore, it is a fairly low-level API. Two primary applications of this
+package are the <a class="reference internal" href="distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdist_msi</span></code>, and the creation of
+Python installer package itself (although that currently uses a different
+version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The package contents can be roughly split into four parts: low-level CAB
+routines, low-level MSI routines, higher-level MSI routines, and standard table
+structures.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.FCICreate">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">FCICreate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cabname</em>, <em>files</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.FCICreate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new CAB file named <em>cabname</em>. <em>files</em> must be a list of tuples, each
+containing the name of the file on disk, and the name of the file inside the CAB
+file.</p>
+<p>The files are added to the CAB file in the order they appear in the list. All
+files are added into a single CAB file, using the MSZIP compression algorithm.</p>
+<p>Callbacks to Python for the various steps of MSI creation are currently not
+exposed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.UuidCreate">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">UuidCreate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.UuidCreate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the string representation of a new unique identifier. This wraps the
+Windows API functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UuidCreate()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UuidToString()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.OpenDatabase">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">OpenDatabase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>persist</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.OpenDatabase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new database object by calling MsiOpenDatabase.   <em>path</em> is the file
+name of the MSI file; <em>persist</em> can be one of the constants
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDBOPEN_CREATEDIRECT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDBOPEN_CREATE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDBOPEN_DIRECT</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDBOPEN_READONLY</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDBOPEN_TRANSACT</span></code>, and may include the flag
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDBOPEN_PATCHFILE</span></code>. See the Microsoft documentation for the meaning of
+these flags; depending on the flags, an existing database is opened, or a new
+one created.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.CreateRecord">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">CreateRecord</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.CreateRecord" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new record object by calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSICreateRecord()</span></code>. <em>count</em> is the
+number of fields of the record.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.init_database">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">init_database</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>schema</em>, <em>ProductName</em>, <em>ProductCode</em>, <em>ProductVersion</em>, <em>Manufacturer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.init_database" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a new database <em>name</em>, initialize it with <em>schema</em>, and set
+the properties <em>ProductName</em>, <em>ProductCode</em>, <em>ProductVersion</em>, and
+<em>Manufacturer</em>.</p>
+<p><em>schema</em> must be a module object containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tables</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Validation_records</span></code> attributes; typically, <a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.schema" title="msilib.schema"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.schema</span></code></a> should be
+used.</p>
+<p>The database will contain just the schema and the validation records when this
+function returns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.add_data">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">add_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>database</em>, <em>table</em>, <em>records</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.add_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add all <em>records</em> to the table named <em>table</em> in <em>database</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>table</em> argument must be one of the predefined tables in the MSI schema,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Feature'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'File'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Component'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Dialog'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Control'</span></code>,
+etc.</p>
+<p><em>records</em> should be a list of tuples, each one containing all fields of a
+record according to the schema of the table.  For optional fields,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> can be passed.</p>
+<p>Field values can be ints, strings, or instances of the Binary class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="msilib.Binary">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">Binary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Binary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represents entries in the Binary table; inserting such an object using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.add_data" title="msilib.add_data"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_data()</span></code></a> reads the file named <em>filename</em> into the table.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.add_tables">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">add_tables</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>database</em>, <em>module</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.add_tables" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add all table content from <em>module</em> to <em>database</em>. <em>module</em> must contain an
+attribute <em>tables</em> listing all tables for which content should be added, and one
+attribute per table that has the actual content.</p>
+<p>This is typically used to install the sequence tables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.add_stream">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">add_stream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>database</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.add_stream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add the file <em>path</em> into the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Stream</span></code> table of <em>database</em>, with the stream
+name <em>name</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msilib.gen_uuid">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">gen_uuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.gen_uuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new UUID, in the format that MSI typically requires (i.e. in curly
+braces, and with all hexdigits in upper-case).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb432265.aspx">FCICreate</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379205.aspx">UuidCreate</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379352.aspx">UuidToString</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="database-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Database Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#database-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Database.OpenView">
+<code class="descclassname">Database.</code><code class="descname">OpenView</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Database.OpenView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a view object, by calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDatabaseOpenView()</span></code>. <em>sql</em> is the SQL
+statement to execute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Database.Commit">
+<code class="descclassname">Database.</code><code class="descname">Commit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Database.Commit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Commit the changes pending in the current transaction, by calling
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIDatabaseCommit()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Database.GetSummaryInformation">
+<code class="descclassname">Database.</code><code class="descname">GetSummaryInformation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Database.GetSummaryInformation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new summary information object, by calling
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiGetSummaryInformation()</span></code>.  <em>count</em> is the maximum number of updated
+values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Database.Close">
+<code class="descclassname">Database.</code><code class="descname">Close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Database.Close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the database object, through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiCloseHandle()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370082.aspx">MSIDatabaseOpenView</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370075.aspx">MSIDatabaseCommit</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370301.aspx">MSIGetSummaryInformation</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370067.aspx">MsiCloseHandle</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="view-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>View Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#view-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.View.Execute">
+<code class="descclassname">View.</code><code class="descname">Execute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.View.Execute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the SQL query of the view, through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIViewExecute()</span></code>. If
+<em>params</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it is a record describing actual values of the
+parameter tokens in the query.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.View.GetColumnInfo">
+<code class="descclassname">View.</code><code class="descname">GetColumnInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>kind</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.View.GetColumnInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a record describing the columns of the view, through calling
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiViewGetColumnInfo()</span></code>. <em>kind</em> can be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSICOLINFO_NAMES</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSICOLINFO_TYPES</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.View.Fetch">
+<code class="descclassname">View.</code><code class="descname">Fetch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.View.Fetch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a result record of the query, through calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiViewFetch()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.View.Modify">
+<code class="descclassname">View.</code><code class="descname">Modify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>kind</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.View.Modify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Modify the view, by calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiViewModify()</span></code>. <em>kind</em> can be one of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_SEEK</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_REFRESH</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_INSERT</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_UPDATE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_ASSIGN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_REPLACE</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_MERGE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_DELETE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_INSERT_TEMPORARY</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_NEW</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_FIELD</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_DELETE</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>data</em> must be a record describing the new data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.View.Close">
+<code class="descclassname">View.</code><code class="descname">Close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.View.Close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the view, through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiViewClose()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370513.aspx">MsiViewExecute</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370516.aspx">MSIViewGetColumnInfo</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370514.aspx">MsiViewFetch</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370519.aspx">MsiViewModify</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370510.aspx">MsiViewClose</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="summary-information-objects">
+<span id="summary-objects"></span><h2>Summary Information Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#summary-information-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty">
+<code class="descclassname">SummaryInformation.</code><code class="descname">GetProperty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a property of the summary, through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty()</span></code>.
+<em>field</em> is the name of the property, and can be one of the constants
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_CODEPAGE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_TITLE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_SUBJECT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_AUTHOR</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_KEYWORDS</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_COMMENTS</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_TEMPLATE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_LASTAUTHOR</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_REVNUMBER</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_LASTPRINTED</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_CREATE_DTM</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_LASTSAVE_DTM</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_PAGECOUNT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_WORDCOUNT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_CHARCOUNT</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_APPNAME</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PID_SECURITY</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.SummaryInformation.GetPropertyCount">
+<code class="descclassname">SummaryInformation.</code><code class="descname">GetPropertyCount</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetPropertyCount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of summary properties, through
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.SummaryInformation.SetProperty">
+<code class="descclassname">SummaryInformation.</code><code class="descname">SetProperty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.SummaryInformation.SetProperty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a property through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty()</span></code>. <em>field</em> can have the
+same values as in <a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty" title="msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetProperty()</span></code></a>, <em>value</em> is the new value of the property.
+Possible value types are integer and string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.SummaryInformation.Persist">
+<code class="descclassname">SummaryInformation.</code><code class="descname">Persist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.SummaryInformation.Persist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the modified properties to the summary information stream, using
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiSummaryInfoPersist()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370409.aspx">MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370488.aspx">MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370491.aspx">MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370490.aspx">MsiSummaryInfoPersist</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="record-objects">
+<span id="id3"></span><h2>Record Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#record-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Record.GetFieldCount">
+<code class="descclassname">Record.</code><code class="descname">GetFieldCount</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Record.GetFieldCount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of fields of the record, through
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiRecordGetFieldCount()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Record.GetInteger">
+<code class="descclassname">Record.</code><code class="descname">GetInteger</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Record.GetInteger" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of <em>field</em> as an integer where possible.  <em>field</em> must
+be an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Record.GetString">
+<code class="descclassname">Record.</code><code class="descname">GetString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Record.GetString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of <em>field</em> as a string where possible.  <em>field</em> must
+be an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Record.SetString">
+<code class="descclassname">Record.</code><code class="descname">SetString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Record.SetString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>field</em> to <em>value</em> through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiRecordSetString()</span></code>. <em>field</em> must be an
+integer; <em>value</em> a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Record.SetStream">
+<code class="descclassname">Record.</code><code class="descname">SetStream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Record.SetStream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>field</em> to the contents of the file named <em>value</em>, through
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiRecordSetStream()</span></code>. <em>field</em> must be an integer; <em>value</em> a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Record.SetInteger">
+<code class="descclassname">Record.</code><code class="descname">SetInteger</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Record.SetInteger" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>field</em> to <em>value</em> through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiRecordSetInteger()</span></code>. Both <em>field</em> and
+<em>value</em> must be an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Record.ClearData">
+<code class="descclassname">Record.</code><code class="descname">ClearData</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Record.ClearData" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set all fields of the record to 0, through <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MsiRecordClearData()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370366.aspx">MsiRecordGetFieldCount</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370373.aspx">MsiRecordSetString</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370372.aspx">MsiRecordSetStream</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370371.aspx">MsiRecordSetInteger</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370364.aspx">MsiRecordClearData</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="errors">
+<span id="msi-errors"></span><h2>Errors<a class="headerlink" href="#errors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All wrappers around MSI functions raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIError</span></code>; the string inside the
+exception will contain more detail.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cab-objects">
+<span id="cab"></span><h2>CAB Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cab-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="msilib.CAB">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">CAB</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.CAB" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The class <a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.CAB" title="msilib.CAB"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAB</span></code></a> represents a CAB file. During MSI construction, files
+will be added simultaneously to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Files</span></code> table, and to a CAB file. Then,
+when all files have been added, the CAB file can be written, then added to the
+MSI file.</p>
+<p><em>name</em> is the name of the CAB file in the MSI file.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.CAB.append">
+<code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>full</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>logical</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.CAB.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add the file with the pathname <em>full</em> to the CAB file, under the name
+<em>logical</em>.  If there is already a file named <em>logical</em>, a new file name is
+created.</p>
+<p>Return the index of the file in the CAB file, and the new name of the file
+inside the CAB file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.CAB.commit">
+<code class="descname">commit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>database</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.CAB.commit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate a CAB file, add it as a stream to the MSI file, put it into the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Media</span></code> table, and remove the generated file from the disk.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="directory-objects">
+<span id="msi-directory"></span><h2>Directory Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#directory-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="msilib.Directory">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">Directory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>database</em>, <em>cab</em>, <em>basedir</em>, <em>physical</em>, <em>logical</em>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>componentflags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Directory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new directory in the Directory table. There is a current component at
+each point in time for the directory, which is either explicitly created through
+<a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.Directory.start_component" title="msilib.Directory.start_component"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_component()</span></code></a>, or implicitly when files are added for the first time.
+Files are added into the current component, and into the cab file.  To create a
+directory, a base directory object needs to be specified (can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), the
+path to the physical directory, and a logical directory name.  <em>default</em>
+specifies the DefaultDir slot in the directory table. <em>componentflags</em> specifies
+the default flags that new components get.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Directory.start_component">
+<code class="descname">start_component</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>component=None</em>, <em>feature=None</em>, <em>flags=None</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>uuid=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Directory.start_component" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add an entry to the Component table, and make this component the current
+component for this directory. If no component name is given, the directory
+name is used. If no <em>feature</em> is given, the current feature is used. If no
+<em>flags</em> are given, the directory’s default flags are used. If no <em>keyfile</em>
+is given, the KeyPath is left null in the Component table.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Directory.add_file">
+<code class="descname">add_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>src=None</em>, <em>version=None</em>, <em>language=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Directory.add_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a file to the current component of the directory, starting a new one
+if there is no current component. By default, the file name in the source
+and the file table will be identical. If the <em>src</em> file is specified, it
+is interpreted relative to the current directory. Optionally, a <em>version</em>
+and a <em>language</em> can be specified for the entry in the File table.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Directory.glob">
+<code class="descname">glob</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>exclude=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Directory.glob" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a list of files to the current component as specified in the glob
+pattern.  Individual files can be excluded in the <em>exclude</em> list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Directory.remove_pyc">
+<code class="descname">remove_pyc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Directory.remove_pyc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files on uninstall.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368295.aspx">Directory Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368596.aspx">File Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368007.aspx">Component Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368579.aspx">FeatureComponents Table</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="features">
+<span id="id4"></span><h2>Features<a class="headerlink" href="#features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="msilib.Feature">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">Feature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>db</em>, <em>id</em>, <em>title</em>, <em>desc</em>, <em>display</em>, <em>level=1</em>, <em>parent=None</em>, <em>directory=None</em>, <em>attributes=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Feature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a new record to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Feature</span></code> table, using the values <em>id</em>, <em>parent.id</em>,
+<em>title</em>, <em>desc</em>, <em>display</em>, <em>level</em>, <em>directory</em>, and <em>attributes</em>. The
+resulting feature object can be passed to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_component()</span></code> method of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.Directory" title="msilib.Directory"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Directory</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Feature.set_current">
+<code class="descname">set_current</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Feature.set_current" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make this feature the current feature of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-msilib" title="msilib: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code></a>. New components are
+automatically added to the default feature, unless a feature is explicitly
+specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368585.aspx">Feature Table</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gui-classes">
+<span id="msi-gui"></span><h2>GUI classes<a class="headerlink" href="#gui-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-msilib" title="msilib: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code></a> provides several classes that wrap the GUI tables in an MSI
+database. However, no standard user interface is provided; use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi" title="distutils.command.bdist_msi: Build a binary distribution as a Windows MSI file"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdist_msi</span></code></a> to create MSI files with a user-interface
+for installing Python packages.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="msilib.Control">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">Control</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dlg</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Control" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class of the dialog controls. <em>dlg</em> is the dialog object the control
+belongs to, and <em>name</em> is the control’s name.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Control.event">
+<code class="descname">event</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>event</em>, <em>argument</em>, <em>condition=1</em>, <em>ordering=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Control.event" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an entry into the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ControlEvent</span></code> table for this control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Control.mapping">
+<code class="descname">mapping</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>event</em>, <em>attribute</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Control.mapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an entry into the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EventMapping</span></code> table for this control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Control.condition">
+<code class="descname">condition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>action</em>, <em>condition</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Control.condition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make an entry into the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ControlCondition</span></code> table for this control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="msilib.RadioButtonGroup">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">RadioButtonGroup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dlg</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>property</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.RadioButtonGroup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a radio button control named <em>name</em>. <em>property</em> is the installer property
+that gets set when a radio button is selected.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.RadioButtonGroup.add">
+<code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, <em>text</em>, <em>value=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.RadioButtonGroup.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a radio button named <em>name</em> to the group, at the coordinates <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>,
+<em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, and with the label <em>text</em>. If <em>value</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it
+defaults to <em>name</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">Dialog</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>db</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>w</em>, <em>h</em>, <em>attr</em>, <em>title</em>, <em>first</em>, <em>default</em>, <em>cancel</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.Dialog" title="msilib.Dialog"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialog</span></code></a> object. An entry in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dialog</span></code> table is made,
+with the specified coordinates, dialog attributes, title, name of the first,
+default, and cancel controls.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog.control">
+<code class="descname">control</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>type</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, <em>attributes</em>, <em>property</em>, <em>text</em>, <em>control_next</em>, <em>help</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog.control" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#msilib.Control" title="msilib.Control"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Control</span></code></a> object. An entry in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Control</span></code> table is
+made with the specified parameters.</p>
+<p>This is a generic method; for specific types, specialized methods are
+provided.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog.text">
+<code class="descname">text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, <em>attributes</em>, <em>text</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog.text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code> control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog.bitmap">
+<code class="descname">bitmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, <em>text</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog.bitmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bitmap</span></code> control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog.line">
+<code class="descname">line</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog.line" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Line</span></code> control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog.pushbutton">
+<code class="descname">pushbutton</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, <em>attributes</em>, <em>text</em>, <em>next_control</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog.pushbutton" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PushButton</span></code> control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog.radiogroup">
+<code class="descname">radiogroup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, <em>attributes</em>, <em>property</em>, <em>text</em>, <em>next_control</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog.radiogroup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RadioButtonGroup</span></code> control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="msilib.Dialog.checkbox">
+<code class="descname">checkbox</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>height</em>, <em>attributes</em>, <em>property</em>, <em>text</em>, <em>next_control</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.Dialog.checkbox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CheckBox</span></code> control.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368286.aspx">Dialog Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368044.aspx">Control Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368039.aspx">Control Types</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368035.aspx">ControlCondition Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368037.aspx">ControlEvent Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368559.aspx">EventMapping Table</a>
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370962.aspx">RadioButton Table</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="precomputed-tables">
+<span id="msi-tables"></span><h2>Precomputed tables<a class="headerlink" href="#precomputed-tables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-msilib" title="msilib: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code></a> provides a few subpackages that contain only schema and table
+definitions. Currently, these definitions are based on MSI version 2.0.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="msilib.schema">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">schema</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.schema" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the standard MSI schema for MSI 2.0, with the <em>tables</em> variable
+providing a list of table definitions, and <em>_Validation_records</em> providing the
+data for MSI validation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="msilib.sequence">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">sequence</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.sequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This module contains table contents for the standard sequence tables:
+<em>AdminExecuteSequence</em>, <em>AdminUISequence</em>, <em>AdvtExecuteSequence</em>,
+<em>InstallExecuteSequence</em>, and <em>InstallUISequence</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="msilib.text">
+<code class="descclassname">msilib.</code><code class="descname">text</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msilib.text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This module contains definitions for the UIText and ActionText tables, for the
+standard installer actions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#database-objects">Database Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#view-objects">View Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#summary-information-objects">Summary Information Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#record-objects">Record Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#errors">Errors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cab-objects">CAB Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#directory-objects">Directory Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#features">Features</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gui-classes">GUI classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#precomputed-tables">Precomputed tables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="windows.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">MS Windows Specific Services</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="msvcrt.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/msvcrt.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/msvcrt.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88a8303
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,345 @@
+
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+
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+    <title>msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-msvcrt">
+<span id="msvcrt-useful-routines-from-the-ms-vc-runtime"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-msvcrt" title="msvcrt: Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code></a> — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime<a class="headerlink" href="#module-msvcrt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows platforms.
+Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the  Windows
+implementations of their services.  For example, the <a class="reference internal" href="getpass.html#module-getpass" title="getpass: Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code></a> module uses
+this in the implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="getpass.html#module-getpass" title="getpass: Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform API
+documentation.</p>
+<p>The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O
+api. The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is of limited use
+for internationalized applications. The wide char API should be used where
+ever possible.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Operations in this module now raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> where <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>
+was raised.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-operations">
+<span id="msvcrt-files"></span><h2>File Operations<a class="headerlink" href="#file-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.locking">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">locking</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>mode</em>, <em>nbytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.locking" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Lock part of a file based on file descriptor <em>fd</em> from the C runtime.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> on failure.  The locked region of the file extends from the
+current file position for <em>nbytes</em> bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the
+file.  <em>mode</em> must be one of the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LK_*</span></code> constants listed below. Multiple
+regions in a file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap.  Adjacent
+regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="msvcrt.LK_LOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">LK_LOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.LK_LOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="msvcrt.LK_RLCK">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">LK_RLCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.LK_RLCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, the program
+immediately tries again after 1 second.  If, after 10 attempts, the bytes cannot
+be locked, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="msvcrt.LK_NBLCK">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">LK_NBLCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.LK_NBLCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">LK_NBRLCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="msvcrt.LK_UNLCK">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">LK_UNLCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.LK_UNLCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unlocks the specified bytes, which must have been previously locked.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.setmode">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">setmode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.setmode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor <em>fd</em>. To set it to
+text mode, <em>flags</em> should be <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_TEXT" title="os.O_TEXT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_TEXT</span></code></a>; for binary, it should be
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_BINARY" title="os.O_BINARY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_BINARY</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.open_osfhandle">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">open_osfhandle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handle</em>, <em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.open_osfhandle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle <em>handle</em>.  The <em>flags</em>
+parameter should be a bitwise OR of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_APPEND" title="os.O_APPEND"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_APPEND</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_RDONLY" title="os.O_RDONLY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_RDONLY</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_TEXT" title="os.O_TEXT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_TEXT</span></code></a>.  The returned file descriptor may be used as a parameter
+to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fdopen()</span></code></a> to create a file object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.get_osfhandle">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">get_osfhandle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.get_osfhandle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file handle for the file descriptor <em>fd</em>.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if
+<em>fd</em> is not recognized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="console-i-o">
+<span id="msvcrt-console"></span><h2>Console I/O<a class="headerlink" href="#console-i-o" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.kbhit">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">kbhit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.kbhit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if a keypress is waiting to be read.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.getch">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">getch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.getch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte string.
+Nothing is echoed to the console.  This call will block if a keypress
+is not already available, but will not wait for <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Enter</kbd> to be
+pressed. If the pressed key was a special function key, this will
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\000'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\xe0'</span></code>; the next call will return the keycode.
+The <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> keypress cannot be read with this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.getwch">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">getwch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.getwch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wide char variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#msvcrt.getch" title="msvcrt.getch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a>, returning a Unicode value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.getche">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">getche</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.getche" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#msvcrt.getch" title="msvcrt.getch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a>, but the keypress will be echoed if it  represents a
+printable character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.getwche">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">getwche</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.getwche" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wide char variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#msvcrt.getche" title="msvcrt.getche"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getche()</span></code></a>, returning a Unicode value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.putch">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">putch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>char</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.putch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the byte string <em>char</em> to the console without buffering.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.putwch">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">putwch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unicode_char</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.putwch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wide char variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#msvcrt.putch" title="msvcrt.putch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putch()</span></code></a>, accepting a Unicode value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.ungetch">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">ungetch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>char</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.ungetch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cause the byte string <em>char</em> to be “pushed back” into the console buffer;
+it will be the next character read by <a class="reference internal" href="#msvcrt.getch" title="msvcrt.getch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getch()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#msvcrt.getche" title="msvcrt.getche"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getche()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.ungetwch">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">ungetwch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unicode_char</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.ungetwch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wide char variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#msvcrt.ungetch" title="msvcrt.ungetch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ungetch()</span></code></a>, accepting a Unicode value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-functions">
+<span id="msvcrt-other"></span><h2>Other Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#other-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="msvcrt.heapmin">
+<code class="descclassname">msvcrt.</code><code class="descname">heapmin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#msvcrt.heapmin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> heap to clean itself up and return unused blocks to
+the operating system.  On failure, this raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-operations">File Operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#console-i-o">Console I/O</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-functions">Other Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="msilib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code> — Read and write Microsoft Installer files</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="winreg.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code> — Windows registry access</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/multiprocessing.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/multiprocessing.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7d98b8
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@@ -0,0 +1,3397 @@
+
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+  <div class="section" id="module-multiprocessing">
+<span id="multiprocessing-process-based-parallelism"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> — Process-based parallelism<a class="headerlink" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/multiprocessing/">Lib/multiprocessing/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> is a package that supports spawning processes using an
+API similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> package
+offers both local and remote concurrency, effectively side-stepping the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">Global Interpreter Lock</span></a> by using subprocesses instead of threads.  Due
+to this, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module allows the programmer to fully
+leverage multiple processors on a given machine.  It runs on both Unix and
+Windows.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module also introduces APIs which do not have
+analogs in the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.  A prime example of this is the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a> object which offers a convenient means of
+parallelizing the execution of a function across multiple input values,
+distributing the input data across processes (data parallelism).  The following
+example demonstrates the common practice of defining such functions in a module
+so that child processes can successfully import that module.  This basic example
+of data parallelism using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a>,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Pool</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will print to standard output</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-process-class">
+<h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> class<a class="headerlink" href="#the-process-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a>, processes are spawned by creating a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a>
+object and then calling its <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.start" title="multiprocessing.Process.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> method.  <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a>
+follows the API of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a>.  A trivial example of a
+multiprocess program is</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bob&#39;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To show the individual process IDs involved, here is an expanded example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;module name:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;parent process:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getppid</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;process id:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpid</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;function f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;main line&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bob&#39;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For an explanation of why the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code> part is
+necessary, see <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-programming"><span class="std std-ref">Programming guidelines</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contexts-and-start-methods">
+<h3>Contexts and start methods<a class="headerlink" href="#contexts-and-start-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="multiprocessing-start-methods">Depending on the platform, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> supports three ways
+to start a process.  These <em>start methods</em> are</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl>
+<dt><em>spawn</em></dt><dd><p>The parent process starts a fresh python interpreter process.  The
+child process will only inherit those resources necessary to run
+the process objects <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.run" title="multiprocessing.Process.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method.  In particular,
+unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the parent process
+will not be inherited.  Starting a process using this method is
+rather slow compared to using <em>fork</em> or <em>forkserver</em>.</p>
+<p>Available on Unix and Windows.  The default on Windows.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><em>fork</em></dt><dd><p>The parent process uses <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a> to fork the Python
+interpreter.  The child process, when it begins, is effectively
+identical to the parent process.  All resources of the parent are
+inherited by the child process.  Note that safely forking a
+multithreaded process is problematic.</p>
+<p>Available on Unix only.  The default on Unix.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><em>forkserver</em></dt><dd><p>When the program starts and selects the <em>forkserver</em> start method,
+a server process is started.  From then on, whenever a new process
+is needed, the parent process connects to the server and requests
+that it fork a new process.  The fork server process is single
+threaded so it is safe for it to use <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a>.  No
+unnecessary resources are inherited.</p>
+<p>Available on Unix platforms which support passing file descriptors
+over Unix pipes.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><em>spawn</em> added on all unix platforms, and <em>forkserver</em> added for
+some unix platforms.
+Child processes no longer inherit all of the parents inheritable
+handles on Windows.</p>
+</div>
+<p>On Unix using the <em>spawn</em> or <em>forkserver</em> start methods will also
+start a <em>semaphore tracker</em> process which tracks the unlinked named
+semaphores created by processes of the program.  When all processes
+have exited the semaphore tracker unlinks any remaining semaphores.
+Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal
+there may be some “leaked” semaphores.  (Unlinking the named semaphores
+is a serious matter since the system allows only a limited number, and
+they will not be automatically unlinked until the next reboot.)</p>
+<p>To select a start method you use the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.set_start_method" title="multiprocessing.set_start_method"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_start_method()</span></code></a> in
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code> clause of the main module.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">mp</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">mp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_start_method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spawn&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.set_start_method" title="multiprocessing.set_start_method"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_start_method()</span></code></a> should not be used more than once in the
+program.</p>
+<p>Alternatively, you can use <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.get_context" title="multiprocessing.get_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_context()</span></code></a> to obtain a context
+object.  Context objects have the same API as the multiprocessing
+module, and allow one to use multiple start methods in the same
+program.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">mp</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spawn&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that objects related to one context may not be compatible with
+processes for a different context.  In particular, locks created using
+the <em>fork</em> context cannot be passed to processes started using the
+<em>spawn</em> or <em>forkserver</em> start methods.</p>
+<p>A library which wants to use a particular start method should probably
+use <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.get_context" title="multiprocessing.get_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_context()</span></code></a> to avoid interfering with the choice of the
+library user.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'forkserver'</span></code> start methods cannot currently
+be used with “frozen” executables (i.e., binaries produced by
+packages like <strong>PyInstaller</strong> and <strong>cx_Freeze</strong>) on Unix.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code> start method does work.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exchanging-objects-between-processes">
+<h3>Exchanging objects between processes<a class="headerlink" href="#exchanging-objects-between-processes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> supports two types of communication channel between
+processes:</p>
+<p><strong>Queues</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> class is a near clone of <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Queue</span></code></a>.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Queue</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">())</span>    <span class="c1"># prints &quot;[42, None, &#39;hello&#39;]&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Queues are thread and process safe.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p><strong>Pipes</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Pipe" title="multiprocessing.Pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pipe()</span></code></a> function returns a pair of connection objects connected by a
+pipe which by default is duplex (two-way).  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Pipe</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">parent_conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Pipe</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_conn</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parent_conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">())</span>   <span class="c1"># prints &quot;[42, None, &#39;hello&#39;]&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The two connection objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Pipe" title="multiprocessing.Pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pipe()</span></code></a> represent the two ends of
+the pipe.  Each connection object has <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code> methods (among others).  Note that data in a pipe
+may become corrupted if two processes (or threads) try to read from or write
+to the <em>same</em> end of the pipe at the same time.  Of course there is no risk
+of corruption from processes using different ends of the pipe at the same
+time.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="synchronization-between-processes">
+<h3>Synchronization between processes<a class="headerlink" href="#synchronization-between-processes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> contains equivalents of all the synchronization
+primitives from <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a>.  For instance one can use a lock to ensure
+that only one process prints to standard output at a time:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Lock</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">acquire</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without using the lock output from the different processes is liable to get all
+mixed up.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sharing-state-between-processes">
+<h3>Sharing state between processes<a class="headerlink" href="#sharing-state-between-processes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As mentioned above, when doing concurrent programming it is usually best to
+avoid using shared state as far as possible.  This is particularly true when
+using multiple processes.</p>
+<p>However, if you really do need to use some shared data then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> provides a couple of ways of doing so.</p>
+<p><strong>Shared memory</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Data can be stored in a shared memory map using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Value" title="multiprocessing.Value"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Value</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Array" title="multiprocessing.Array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Array</span></code></a>.  For example, the following code</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Array</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">3.1415927</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+        <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">arr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arr</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arr</span><span class="p">[:])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will print</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">3.1415927</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code> arguments used when creating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">num</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arr</span></code> are
+typecodes of the kind used by the <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code> indicates a
+double precision float and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code> indicates a signed integer.  These shared
+objects will be process and thread-safe.</p>
+<p>For more flexibility in using shared memory one can use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes: Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</span></code></a> module which supports the creation of
+arbitrary ctypes objects allocated from shared memory.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p><strong>Server process</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>A manager object returned by <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Manager()</span></code> controls a server process which
+holds Python objects and allows other processes to manipulate them using
+proxies.</p>
+<p>A manager returned by <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Manager()</span></code> will support types
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.Namespace" title="multiprocessing.managers.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Semaphore" title="multiprocessing.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore" title="multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Condition" title="multiprocessing.Condition"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Condition</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Event" title="multiprocessing.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Event</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Barrier" title="multiprocessing.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Barrier</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Value" title="multiprocessing.Value"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Value</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Array" title="multiprocessing.Array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Array</span></code></a>.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Manager</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">0.25</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Manager</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+        <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will print</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span><span class="mf">0.25</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Server process managers are more flexible than using shared memory objects
+because they can be made to support arbitrary object types.  Also, a single
+manager can be shared by processes on different computers over a network.
+They are, however, slower than using shared memory.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-pool-of-workers">
+<h3>Using a pool of workers<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-pool-of-workers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a> class represents a pool of worker
+processes.  It has methods which allows tasks to be offloaded to the worker
+processes in a few different ways.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">TimeoutError</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># start 4 worker processes</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">processes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># print &quot;[0, 1, 4,..., 81]&quot;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># print same numbers in arbitrary order</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imap_unordered</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># evaluate &quot;f(20)&quot; asynchronously</span>
+        <span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,))</span>      <span class="c1"># runs in *only* one process</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>             <span class="c1"># prints &quot;400&quot;</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># evaluate &quot;os.getpid()&quot; asynchronously</span>
+        <span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpid</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">())</span> <span class="c1"># runs in *only* one process</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>             <span class="c1"># prints the PID of that process</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes</span>
+        <span class="n">multiple_results</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpid</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">())</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">res</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">multiple_results</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># make a single worker sleep for 10 secs</span>
+        <span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">TimeoutError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;For the moment, the pool remains available for more work&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># exiting the &#39;with&#39;-block has stopped the pool</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Now the pool is closed and no longer available&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the methods of a pool should only ever be used by the
+process which created it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Functionality within this package requires that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> module be
+importable by the children. This is covered in <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-programming"><span class="std std-ref">Programming guidelines</span></a>
+however it is worth pointing out here. This means that some examples, such
+as the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.pool.Pool</span></code></a> examples will not work in the
+interactive interpreter. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Pool</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Process PoolWorker-1:</span>
+<span class="go">Process PoolWorker-2:</span>
+<span class="go">Process PoolWorker-3:</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;module&#39; object has no attribute &#39;f&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">AttributeError: &#39;module&#39; object has no attribute &#39;f&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">AttributeError: &#39;module&#39; object has no attribute &#39;f&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(If you try this it will actually output three full tracebacks
+interleaved in a semi-random fashion, and then you may have to
+stop the master process somehow.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reference">
+<h2>Reference<a class="headerlink" href="#reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> package mostly replicates the API of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="section" id="process-and-exceptions">
+<h3><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> and exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#process-and-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Process</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>group=None</em>, <em>target=None</em>, <em>name=None</em>, <em>args=()</em>, <em>kwargs={}</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>daemon=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process objects represent activity that is run in a separate process. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> class has equivalents of all the methods of
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments. <em>group</em>
+should always be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; it exists solely for compatibility with
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a>.  <em>target</em> is the callable object to be invoked by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.run" title="multiprocessing.Process.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, meaning nothing is
+called. <em>name</em> is the process name (see <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.name" title="multiprocessing.Process.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> for more details).
+<em>args</em> is the argument tuple for the target invocation.  <em>kwargs</em> is a
+dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation.  If provided,
+the keyword-only <em>daemon</em> argument sets the process <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.daemon" title="multiprocessing.Process.daemon"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code></a> flag
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), this flag will be
+inherited from the creating process.</p>
+<p>By default, no arguments are passed to <em>target</em>.</p>
+<p>If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it invokes the
+base class constructor (<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.__init__()</span></code>) before doing anything else
+to the process.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>daemon</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method representing the process’s activity.</p>
+<p>You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.run" title="multiprocessing.Process.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>
+method invokes the callable object passed to the object’s constructor as
+the target argument, if any, with sequential and keyword arguments taken
+from the <em>args</em> and <em>kwargs</em> arguments, respectively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start the process’s activity.</p>
+<p>This must be called at most once per process object.  It arranges for the
+object’s <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.run" title="multiprocessing.Process.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method to be invoked in a separate process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.join">
+<code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the optional argument <em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), the method
+blocks until the process whose <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.join" title="multiprocessing.Process.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> method is called terminates.
+If <em>timeout</em> is a positive number, it blocks at most <em>timeout</em> seconds.
+Note that the method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if its process terminates or if the
+method times out.  Check the process’s <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.exitcode" title="multiprocessing.Process.exitcode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exitcode</span></code></a> to determine if
+it terminated.</p>
+<p>A process can be joined many times.</p>
+<p>A process cannot join itself because this would cause a deadlock.  It is
+an error to attempt to join a process before it has been started.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The process’s name.  The name is a string used for identification purposes
+only.  It has no semantics.  Multiple processes may be given the same
+name.</p>
+<p>The initial name is set by the constructor.  If no explicit name is
+provided to the constructor, a name of the form
+‘Process-N<sub>1</sub>:N<sub>2</sub>:…:N<sub>k</sub>’ is constructed, where
+each N<sub>k</sub> is the N-th child of its parent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.is_alive">
+<code class="descname">is_alive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.is_alive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether the process is alive.</p>
+<p>Roughly, a process object is alive from the moment the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.start" title="multiprocessing.Process.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a>
+method returns until the child process terminates.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.daemon">
+<code class="descname">daemon</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.daemon" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The process’s daemon flag, a Boolean value.  This must be set before
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.start" title="multiprocessing.Process.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+<p>The initial value is inherited from the creating process.</p>
+<p>When a process exits, it attempts to terminate all of its daemonic child
+processes.</p>
+<p>Note that a daemonic process is not allowed to create child processes.
+Otherwise a daemonic process would leave its children orphaned if it gets
+terminated when its parent process exits. Additionally, these are <strong>not</strong>
+Unix daemons or services, they are normal processes that will be
+terminated (and not joined) if non-daemonic processes have exited.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the  <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a> API, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> objects
+also support the following attributes and methods:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.pid">
+<code class="descname">pid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.pid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the process ID.  Before the process is spawned, this will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.exitcode">
+<code class="descname">exitcode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.exitcode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The child’s exit code.  This will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the process has not yet
+terminated.  A negative value <em>-N</em> indicates that the child was terminated
+by signal <em>N</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.authkey">
+<code class="descname">authkey</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.authkey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The process’s authentication key (a byte string).</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> is initialized the main process is assigned a
+random string using <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> object is created, it will inherit the
+authentication key of its parent process, although this may be changed by
+setting <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.authkey" title="multiprocessing.Process.authkey"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">authkey</span></code></a> to another byte string.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-auth-keys"><span class="std std-ref">Authentication keys</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.sentinel">
+<code class="descname">sentinel</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.sentinel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A numeric handle of a system object which will become “ready” when
+the process ends.</p>
+<p>You can use this value if you want to wait on several events at
+once using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.wait" title="multiprocessing.connection.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.connection.wait()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.join" title="multiprocessing.Process.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> is simpler.</p>
+<p>On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WaitForSingleObject</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WaitForMultipleObjects</span></code> family of API calls.  On Unix, this is
+a file descriptor usable with primitives from the <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.terminate">
+<code class="descname">terminate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.terminate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Terminate the process.  On Unix this is done using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGTERM</span></code> signal;
+on Windows <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TerminateProcess()</span></code> is used.  Note that exit handlers and
+finally clauses, etc., will not be executed.</p>
+<p>Note that descendant processes of the process will <em>not</em> be terminated –
+they will simply become orphaned.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>If this method is used when the associated process is using a pipe or
+queue then the pipe or queue is liable to become corrupted and may
+become unusable by other process.  Similarly, if the process has
+acquired a lock or semaphore etc. then terminating it is liable to
+cause other processes to deadlock.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.kill">
+<code class="descname">kill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.kill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.terminate" title="multiprocessing.Process.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a> but using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGKILL</span></code> signal on Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Process.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Process.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> object, releasing all resources associated
+with it.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the underlying process
+is still running.  Once <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.close" title="multiprocessing.Process.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> returns successfully, most
+other methods and attributes of the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> object will
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.start" title="multiprocessing.Process.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.join" title="multiprocessing.Process.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.is_alive" title="multiprocessing.Process.is_alive"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_alive()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.terminate" title="multiprocessing.Process.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.exitcode" title="multiprocessing.Process.exitcode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exitcode</span></code></a> methods should only be called by
+the process that created the process object.</p>
+<p>Example usage of some of the methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">time</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">signal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_alive</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Process(Process-1, initial)&gt; False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_alive</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Process(Process-1, started)&gt; True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">terminate</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_alive</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Process(Process-1, stopped[SIGTERM])&gt; False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exitcode</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">signal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SIGTERM</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.ProcessError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">ProcessError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.ProcessError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class of all <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.BufferTooShort">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">BufferTooShort</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.BufferTooShort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection.recv_bytes_into()</span></code> when the supplied
+buffer object is too small for the message read.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code> is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.BufferTooShort" title="multiprocessing.BufferTooShort"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferTooShort</span></code></a> then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e.args[0]</span></code> will give
+the message as a byte string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.AuthenticationError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">AuthenticationError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when there is an authentication error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.TimeoutError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">TimeoutError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.TimeoutError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised by methods with a timeout when the timeout expires.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pipes-and-queues">
+<h3>Pipes and Queues<a class="headerlink" href="#pipes-and-queues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When using multiple processes, one generally uses message passing for
+communication between processes and avoids having to use any synchronization
+primitives like locks.</p>
+<p>For passing messages one can use <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Pipe" title="multiprocessing.Pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pipe()</span></code></a> (for a connection between two
+processes) or a queue (which allows multiple producers and consumers).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue" title="multiprocessing.SimpleQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleQueue</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JoinableQueue</span></code></a> types
+are multi-producer, multi-consumer <abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr>
+queues modelled on the <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Queue</span></code></a> class in the
+standard library.  They differ in that <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> lacks the
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue.task_done" title="queue.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue.join" title="queue.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> methods introduced
+into Python 2.5’s <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Queue</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>If you use <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JoinableQueue</span></code></a> then you <strong>must</strong> call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JoinableQueue.task_done()</span></code></a> for each task removed from the queue or else the
+semaphore used to count the number of unfinished tasks may eventually overflow,
+raising an exception.</p>
+<p>Note that one can also create a shared queue by using a manager object – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-managers"><span class="std std-ref">Managers</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> uses the usual <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Empty</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Full" title="queue.Full"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Full</span></code></a> exceptions to signal a timeout.  They are not available in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> namespace so you need to import them from
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When an object is put on a queue, the object is pickled and a
+background thread later flushes the pickled data to an underlying
+pipe.  This has some consequences which are a little surprising,
+but should not cause any practical difficulties – if they really
+bother you then you can instead use a queue created with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-managers"><span class="std std-ref">manager</span></a>.</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>After putting an object on an empty queue there may be an
+infinitesimal delay before the queue’s <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.empty" title="multiprocessing.Queue.empty"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">empty()</span></code></a>
+method returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.get_nowait" title="multiprocessing.Queue.get_nowait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_nowait()</span></code></a> can
+return without raising <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Empty</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If multiple processes are enqueuing objects, it is possible for
+the objects to be received at the other end out-of-order.
+However, objects enqueued by the same process will always be in
+the expected order with respect to each other.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>If a process is killed using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.terminate" title="multiprocessing.Process.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.terminate()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.kill" title="os.kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.kill()</span></code></a>
+while it is trying to use a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a>, then the data in the queue is
+likely to become corrupted.  This may cause any other process to get an
+exception when it tries to use the queue later on.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>As mentioned above, if a child process has put items on a queue (and it has
+not used <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread" title="multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread</span></code></a>), then that process will
+not terminate until all buffered items have been flushed to the pipe.</p>
+<p>This means that if you try joining that process you may get a deadlock unless
+you are sure that all items which have been put on the queue have been
+consumed.  Similarly, if the child process is non-daemonic then the parent
+process may hang on exit when it tries to join all its non-daemonic children.</p>
+<p>Note that a queue created using a manager does not have this issue.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-programming"><span class="std std-ref">Programming guidelines</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Pipe">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Pipe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>duplex</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Pipe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(conn1,</span> <span class="pre">conn2)</span></code> of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> objects representing the
+ends of a pipe.</p>
+<p>If <em>duplex</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) then the pipe is bidirectional.  If
+<em>duplex</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then the pipe is unidirectional: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conn1</span></code> can only be
+used for receiving messages and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conn2</span></code> can only be used for sending
+messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Queue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>maxsize</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a process shared queue implemented using a pipe and a few
+locks/semaphores.  When a process first puts an item on the queue a feeder
+thread is started which transfers objects from a buffer into the pipe.</p>
+<p>The usual <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Empty</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Full" title="queue.Full"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Full</span></code></a> exceptions from the
+standard library’s <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module are raised to signal timeouts.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> implements all the methods of <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Queue</span></code></a> except for
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue.task_done" title="queue.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue.join" title="queue.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.qsize">
+<code class="descname">qsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.qsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the approximate size of the queue.  Because of
+multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this number is not reliable.</p>
+<p>Note that this may raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> on Unix platforms like
+Mac OS X where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sem_getvalue()</span></code> is not implemented.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.empty">
+<code class="descname">empty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the queue is empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  Because of
+multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is not reliable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.full">
+<code class="descname">full</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.full" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the queue is full, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  Because of
+multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is not reliable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.put">
+<code class="descname">put</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>block</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.put" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put obj into the queue.  If the optional argument <em>block</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>
+(the default) and <em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), block if necessary until
+a free slot is available.  If <em>timeout</em> is a positive number, it blocks at
+most <em>timeout</em> seconds and raises the <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Full" title="queue.Full"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Full</span></code></a> exception if no
+free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise (<em>block</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), put an item on the queue if a free slot is immediately
+available, else raise the <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Full" title="queue.Full"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Full</span></code></a> exception (<em>timeout</em> is
+ignored in that case).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.put_nowait">
+<code class="descname">put_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.put_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put(obj,</span> <span class="pre">False)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>block</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args <em>block</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) and <em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), block if
+necessary until an item is available.  If <em>timeout</em> is a positive number,
+it blocks at most <em>timeout</em> seconds and raises the <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Empty</span></code></a>
+exception if no item was available within that time.  Otherwise (block is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>), return an item if one is immediately available, else raise the
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Empty</span></code></a> exception (<em>timeout</em> is ignored in that case).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.get_nowait">
+<code class="descname">get_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.get_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get(False)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Queue</span></code></a> has a few additional methods not found in
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Queue</span></code></a>.  These methods are usually unnecessary for most
+code:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicate that no more data will be put on this queue by the current
+process.  The background thread will quit once it has flushed all buffered
+data to the pipe.  This is called automatically when the queue is garbage
+collected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread">
+<code class="descname">join_thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Join the background thread.  This can only be used after <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.close" title="multiprocessing.Queue.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> has
+been called.  It blocks until the background thread exits, ensuring that
+all data in the buffer has been flushed to the pipe.</p>
+<p>By default if a process is not the creator of the queue then on exit it
+will attempt to join the queue’s background thread.  The process can call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread" title="multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancel_join_thread()</span></code></a> to make <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread" title="multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join_thread()</span></code></a> do nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread">
+<code class="descname">cancel_join_thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevent <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread" title="multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join_thread()</span></code></a> from blocking.  In particular, this prevents
+the background thread from being joined automatically when the process
+exits – see <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread" title="multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join_thread()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A better name for this method might be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">allow_exit_without_flush()</span></code>.  It is likely to cause enqueued
+data to lost, and you almost certainly will not need to use it.
+It is really only there if you need the current process to exit
+immediately without waiting to flush enqueued data to the
+underlying pipe, and you don’t care about lost data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This class’s functionality requires a functioning shared semaphore
+implementation on the host operating system. Without one, the
+functionality in this class will be disabled, and attempts to
+instantiate a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> will result in an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>. See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3770">bpo-3770</a> for additional information.  The same holds true for any
+of the specialized queue types listed below.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.SimpleQueue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">SimpleQueue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>It is a simplified <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> type, very close to a locked <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Pipe" title="multiprocessing.Pipe"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pipe</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty">
+<code class="descname">empty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the queue is empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an item from the queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.put">
+<code class="descname">put</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.put" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put <em>item</em> into the queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">JoinableQueue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>maxsize</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JoinableQueue</span></code></a>, a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> subclass, is a queue which
+additionally has <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.join" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done">
+<code class="descname">task_done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete. Used by queue
+consumers.  For each <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.get" title="multiprocessing.Queue.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> used to fetch a task, a subsequent
+call to <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> tells the queue that the processing on the task
+is complete.</p>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue.join" title="queue.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> is currently blocking, it will resume when all
+items have been processed (meaning that a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> call was
+received for every item that had been <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.put" title="multiprocessing.Queue.put"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put()</span></code></a> into the queue).</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if called more times than there were items
+placed in the queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.join">
+<code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Block until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed.</p>
+<p>The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the
+queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done" title="multiprocessing.JoinableQueue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> to indicate that the item was retrieved and all work on
+it is complete.  When the count of unfinished tasks drops to zero,
+<a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue.join" title="queue.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> unblocks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="miscellaneous">
+<h3>Miscellaneous<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.active_children">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">active_children</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.active_children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return list of all live children of the current process.</p>
+<p>Calling this has the side effect of “joining” any processes which have
+already finished.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.cpu_count">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">cpu_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.cpu_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of CPUs in the system.</p>
+<p>This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current process can
+use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))</span></code></p>
+<p>May raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.cpu_count" title="os.cpu_count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.cpu_count()</span></code></a></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.current_process">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">current_process</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.current_process" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> object corresponding to the current process.</p>
+<p>An analogue of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.current_thread" title="threading.current_thread"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.current_thread()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.freeze_support">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">freeze_support</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.freeze_support" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add support for when a program which uses <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> has been
+frozen to produce a Windows executable.  (Has been tested with <strong>py2exe</strong>,
+<strong>PyInstaller</strong> and <strong>cx_Freeze</strong>.)</p>
+<p>One needs to call this function straight after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code> line of the main module.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">freeze_support</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">freeze_support</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">freeze_support()</span></code> line is omitted then trying to run the frozen
+executable will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">freeze_support()</span></code> has no effect when invoked on any operating
+system other than Windows.  In addition, if the module is being run
+normally by the Python interpreter on Windows (the program has not been
+frozen), then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">freeze_support()</span></code> has no effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">get_all_start_methods</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which
+is the default.  The possible start methods are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'forkserver'</span></code>.  On Windows only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code> is
+available.  On Unix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code> are always
+supported, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code> being the default.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.get_context">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">get_context</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>method=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.get_context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a context object which has the same attributes as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>If <em>method</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then the default context is returned.
+Otherwise <em>method</em> should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'forkserver'</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the specified
+start method is not available.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.get_start_method">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">get_start_method</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>allow_none=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.get_start_method" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of start method used for starting processes.</p>
+<p>If the start method has not been fixed and <em>allow_none</em> is false,
+then the start method is fixed to the default and the name is
+returned.  If the start method has not been fixed and <em>allow_none</em>
+is true then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>The return value can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'forkserver'</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code> is the default on Unix, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code> is
+the default on Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.set_executable">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">set_executable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.set_executable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child process.
+(By default <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.executable" title="sys.executable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code></a> is used).  Embedders will probably need to
+do some thing like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">set_executable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exec_prefix</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pythonw.exe&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>before they can create child processes.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Now supported on Unix when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code> start method is used.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.set_start_method">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">set_start_method</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>method</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.set_start_method" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the method which should be used to start child processes.
+<em>method</em> can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'fork'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'spawn'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'forkserver'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that this should be called at most once, and it should be
+protected inside the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code> clause of the
+main module.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> contains no analogues of
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.active_count" title="threading.active_count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.active_count()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.enumerate" title="threading.enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.enumerate()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.settrace" title="threading.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.settrace()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.setprofile" title="threading.setprofile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.setprofile()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Timer" title="threading.Timer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Timer</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.local" title="threading.local"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.local</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="connection-objects">
+<h3>Connection Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#connection-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Connection objects allow the sending and receiving of picklable objects or
+strings.  They can be thought of as message oriented connected sockets.</p>
+<p>Connection objects are usually created using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Pipe" title="multiprocessing.Pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pipe</span></code></a> – see also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-listeners-clients"><span class="std std-ref">Listeners and Clients</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.connection.</code><code class="descname">Connection</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send">
+<code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an object to the other end of the connection which should be read
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The object must be picklable.  Very large pickles (approximately 32 MiB+,
+though it depends on the OS) may raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv">
+<code class="descname">recv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an object sent from the other end of the connection using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>.  Blocks until there is something to receive.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if there is nothing left to receive
+and the other end was closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.fileno">
+<code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file descriptor or handle used by the connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the connection.</p>
+<p>This is called automatically when the connection is garbage collected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.poll">
+<code class="descname">poll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.poll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether there is any data available to be read.</p>
+<p>If <em>timeout</em> is not specified then it will return immediately.  If
+<em>timeout</em> is a number then this specifies the maximum time in seconds to
+block.  If <em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then an infinite timeout is used.</p>
+<p>Note that multiple connection objects may be polled at once by
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.wait" title="multiprocessing.connection.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.connection.wait()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send_bytes">
+<code class="descname">send_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>offset</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send byte data from a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> as a complete message.</p>
+<p>If <em>offset</em> is given then data is read from that position in <em>buffer</em>.  If
+<em>size</em> is given then that many bytes will be read from buffer.  Very large
+buffers (approximately 32 MiB+, though it depends on the OS) may raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes">
+<code class="descname">recv_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>maxlength</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a complete message of byte data sent from the other end of the
+connection as a string.  Blocks until there is something to receive.
+Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if there is nothing left
+to receive and the other end has closed.</p>
+<p>If <em>maxlength</em> is specified and the message is longer than <em>maxlength</em>
+then <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised and the connection will no longer be
+readable.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This function used to raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>, which is now an
+alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes_into">
+<code class="descname">recv_bytes_into</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>offset</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv_bytes_into" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read into <em>buffer</em> a complete message of byte data sent from the other end
+of the connection and return the number of bytes in the message.  Blocks
+until there is something to receive.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if there is nothing left to receive and the other end was
+closed.</p>
+<p><em>buffer</em> must be a writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.  If
+<em>offset</em> is given then the message will be written into the buffer from
+that position.  Offset must be a non-negative integer less than the
+length of <em>buffer</em> (in bytes).</p>
+<p>If the buffer is too short then a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferTooShort</span></code> exception is
+raised and the complete message is available as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e.args[0]</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code>
+is the exception instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Connection objects themselves can now be transferred between processes
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection.send()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection.recv()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Connection objects now support the context management protocol – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typecontextmanager"><span class="std std-ref">Context Manager Types</span></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__enter__" title="contextmanager.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> returns the
+connection object, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__exit__" title="contextmanager.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> calls <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.close" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Pipe</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Pipe</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[1, &#39;hello&#39;, None]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;thank you&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv_bytes</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;thank you&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">arr1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">arr2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arr1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv_bytes_into</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arr2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arr1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">arr1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">arr2</span>
+<span class="go">array(&#39;i&#39;, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection.recv()</span></code></a> method automatically unpickles the data it
+receives, which can be a security risk unless you can trust the process
+which sent the message.</p>
+<p>Therefore, unless the connection object was produced using <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pipe()</span></code> you
+should only use the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>
+methods after performing some sort of authentication.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-auth-keys"><span class="std std-ref">Authentication keys</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>If a process is killed while it is trying to read or write to a pipe then
+the data in the pipe is likely to become corrupted, because it may become
+impossible to be sure where the message boundaries lie.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="synchronization-primitives">
+<h3>Synchronization primitives<a class="headerlink" href="#synchronization-primitives" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Generally synchronization primitives are not as necessary in a multiprocess
+program as they are in a multithreaded program.  See the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Note that one can also create synchronization primitives by using a manager
+object – see <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-managers"><span class="std std-ref">Managers</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Barrier">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Barrier</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parties</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>action</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Barrier" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A barrier object: a clone of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Barrier" title="threading.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Barrier</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">BoundedSemaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bounded semaphore object: a close analog of
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.BoundedSemaphore" title="threading.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire</span></code> method’s
+first argument is named <em>block</em>, as is consistent with <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock.acquire" title="multiprocessing.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock.acquire()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Mac OS X, this is indistinguishable from <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Semaphore" title="multiprocessing.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a> because
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sem_getvalue()</span></code> is not implemented on that platform.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Condition">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Condition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>lock</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Condition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A condition variable: an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Condition" title="threading.Condition"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Condition</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>lock</em> is specified then it should be a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a>
+object from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Condition.wait_for" title="threading.Condition.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for()</span></code></a> method was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Event">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Event</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Event" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A clone of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Event" title="threading.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Event</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Lock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Lock</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A non-recursive lock object: a close analog of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock" title="threading.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock</span></code></a>.
+Once a process or thread has acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to
+acquire it from any process or thread will block until it is released;
+any process or thread may release it.  The concepts and behaviors of
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock" title="threading.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock</span></code></a> as it applies to threads are replicated here in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Lock</span></code></a> as it applies to either processes or threads,
+except as noted.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> is actually a factory function which returns an
+instance of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock</span></code> initialized with a
+default context.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol and thus may be
+used in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Lock.acquire">
+<code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>block=True</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Lock.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.</p>
+<p>With the <em>block</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), the method call
+will block until the lock is in an unlocked state, then set it to locked
+and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  Note that the name of this first argument differs
+from that in <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock.acquire()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>With the <em>block</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the method call does not
+block.  If the lock is currently in a locked state, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>;
+otherwise set the lock to a locked state and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When invoked with a positive, floating-point value for <em>timeout</em>, block
+for at most the number of seconds specified by <em>timeout</em> as long as
+the lock can not be acquired.  Invocations with a negative value for
+<em>timeout</em> are equivalent to a <em>timeout</em> of zero.  Invocations with a
+<em>timeout</em> value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) set the timeout period to
+infinite.  Note that the treatment of negative or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> values for
+<em>timeout</em> differs from the implemented behavior in
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock.acquire()</span></code></a>.  The <em>timeout</em> argument has no practical
+implications if the <em>block</em> argument is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and is thus
+ignored.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the lock has been acquired or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if
+the timeout period has elapsed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Lock.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Lock.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release a lock.  This can be called from any process or thread, not only
+the process or thread which originally acquired the lock.</p>
+<p>Behavior is the same as in <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock.release()</span></code></a> except that
+when invoked on an unlocked lock, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.RLock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">RLock</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A recursive lock object: a close analog of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock</span></code></a>.  A
+recursive lock must be released by the process or thread that acquired it.
+Once a process or thread has acquired a recursive lock, the same process
+or thread may acquire it again without blocking; that process or thread
+must release it once for each time it has been acquired.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> is actually a factory function which returns an
+instance of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock</span></code> initialized with a
+default context.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol and thus may be
+used in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.RLock.acquire">
+<code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>block=True</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.RLock.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the <em>block</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, block until the
+lock is in an unlocked state (not owned by any process or thread) unless
+the lock is already owned by the current process or thread.  The current
+process or thread then takes ownership of the lock (if it does not
+already have ownership) and the recursion level inside the lock increments
+by one, resulting in a return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  Note that there are
+several differences in this first argument’s behavior compared to the
+implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock.acquire" title="threading.RLock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock.acquire()</span></code></a>, starting with the name
+of the argument itself.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the <em>block</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, do not block.
+If the lock has already been acquired (and thus is owned) by another
+process or thread, the current process or thread does not take ownership
+and the recursion level within the lock is not changed, resulting in
+a return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  If the lock is in an unlocked state, the
+current process or thread takes ownership and the recursion level is
+incremented, resulting in a return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Use and behaviors of the <em>timeout</em> argument are the same as in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock.acquire" title="multiprocessing.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock.acquire()</span></code></a>.  Note that some of these behaviors of <em>timeout</em>
+differ from the implemented behaviors in <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock.acquire" title="threading.RLock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock.acquire()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.RLock.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.RLock.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after the
+decrement the recursion level is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not
+owned by any process or thread) and if any other processes or threads
+are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one
+of them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level is still
+nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the calling process or
+thread.</p>
+<p>Only call this method when the calling process or thread owns the lock.
+An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> is raised if this method is called by a process
+or thread other than the owner or if the lock is in an unlocked (unowned)
+state.  Note that the type of exception raised in this situation
+differs from the implemented behavior in <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock.release" title="threading.RLock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock.release()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Semaphore">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Semaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Semaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A semaphore object: a close analog of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Semaphore" title="threading.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Semaphore</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire</span></code> method’s
+first argument is named <em>block</em>, as is consistent with <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock.acquire" title="multiprocessing.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock.acquire()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Mac OS X, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sem_timedwait</span></code> is unsupported, so calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code> with
+a timeout will emulate that function’s behavior using a sleeping loop.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If the SIGINT signal generated by <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl-C</kbd> arrives while the main thread is
+blocked by a call to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundedSemaphore.acquire()</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock.acquire" title="multiprocessing.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock.acquire()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock.acquire" title="multiprocessing.RLock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock.acquire()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore.acquire()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Condition.acquire()</span></code>
+or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Condition.wait()</span></code> then the call will be immediately interrupted and
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p>This differs from the behaviour of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> where SIGINT will be
+ignored while the equivalent blocking calls are in progress.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Some of this package’s functionality requires a functioning shared semaphore
+implementation on the host operating system. Without one, the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.synchronize</span></code> module will be disabled, and attempts to
+import it will result in an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>. See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3770">bpo-3770</a> for additional information.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shared-ctypes-objects">
+<h3>Shared <a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#shared-ctypes-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is possible to create shared objects using shared memory which can be
+inherited by child processes.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Value">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode_or_type</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>lock=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> object allocated from shared memory.  By default the
+return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the object.  The object
+itself can be accessed via the <em>value</em> attribute of a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Value" title="multiprocessing.Value"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Value</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>typecode_or_type</em> determines the type of the returned object: it is either a
+ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a>
+module.  <em>*args</em> is passed on to the constructor for the type.</p>
+<p>If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) then a new recursive lock
+object is created to synchronize access to the value.  If <em>lock</em> is
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> object then that will be used to
+synchronize access to the value.  If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then
+access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
+by a lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.</p>
+<p>Operations like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> which involve a read and write are not
+atomic.  So if, for instance, you want to atomically increment a
+shared value it is insufficient to just do</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Assuming the associated lock is recursive (which it is by default)
+you can instead do</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">counter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_lock</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">counter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <em>lock</em> is a keyword-only argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.Array">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Array</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode_or_type</em>, <em>size_or_initializer</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>lock=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.Array" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.  By default the return
+value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the array.</p>
+<p><em>typecode_or_type</em> determines the type of the elements of the returned array:
+it is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module.  If <em>size_or_initializer</em> is an integer, then it
+determines the length of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.
+Otherwise, <em>size_or_initializer</em> is a sequence which is used to initialize
+the array and whose length determines the length of the array.</p>
+<p>If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) then a new lock object is created to
+synchronize access to the value.  If <em>lock</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> object then that will be used to synchronize access to the
+value.  If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then access to the returned object will not be
+automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
+“process-safe”.</p>
+<p>Note that <em>lock</em> is a keyword only argument.</p>
+<p>Note that an array of <a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes.c_char" title="ctypes.c_char"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.c_char</span></code></a> has <em>value</em> and <em>raw</em>
+attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes">
+<span id="the-multiprocessing-sharedctypes-module"></span><h4>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes: Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</span></code></a> module<a class="headerlink" href="#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes: Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</span></code></a> module provides functions for allocating
+<a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> objects from shared memory which can be inherited by child
+processes.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Although it is possible to store a pointer in shared memory remember that
+this will refer to a location in the address space of a specific process.
+However, the pointer is quite likely to be invalid in the context of a second
+process and trying to dereference the pointer from the second process may
+cause a crash.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.sharedctypes.</code><code class="descname">RawArray</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode_or_type</em>, <em>size_or_initializer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.</p>
+<p><em>typecode_or_type</em> determines the type of the elements of the returned array:
+it is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module.  If <em>size_or_initializer</em> is an integer then it
+determines the length of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.
+Otherwise <em>size_or_initializer</em> is a sequence which is used to initialize the
+array and whose length determines the length of the array.</p>
+<p>Note that setting and getting an element is potentially non-atomic – use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Array()</span></code></a> instead to make sure that access is automatically synchronized
+using a lock.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.sharedctypes.</code><code class="descname">RawValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode_or_type</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory.</p>
+<p><em>typecode_or_type</em> determines the type of the returned object: it is either a
+ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a>
+module.  <em>*args</em> is passed on to the constructor for the type.</p>
+<p>Note that setting and getting the value is potentially non-atomic – use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Value()</span></code></a> instead to make sure that access is automatically synchronized
+using a lock.</p>
+<p>Note that an array of <a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes.c_char" title="ctypes.c_char"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.c_char</span></code></a> has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw</span></code>
+attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve strings – see
+documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.sharedctypes.</code><code class="descname">Array</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode_or_type</em>, <em>size_or_initializer</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>lock=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawArray()</span></code></a> except that depending on the value of <em>lock</em> a
+process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes
+array.</p>
+<p>If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) then a new lock object is created to
+synchronize access to the value.  If <em>lock</em> is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> object
+then that will be used to synchronize access to the
+value.  If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then access to the returned object will not be
+automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
+“process-safe”.</p>
+<p>Note that <em>lock</em> is a keyword-only argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.sharedctypes.</code><code class="descname">Value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode_or_type</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>lock=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawValue()</span></code></a> except that depending on the value of <em>lock</em> a
+process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes
+object.</p>
+<p>If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) then a new lock object is created to
+synchronize access to the value.  If <em>lock</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Lock" title="multiprocessing.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> object then that will be used to synchronize access to the
+value.  If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then access to the returned object will not be
+automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
+“process-safe”.</p>
+<p>Note that <em>lock</em> is a keyword-only argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.sharedctypes.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory which is a copy of the
+ctypes object <em>obj</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.sharedctypes.</code><code class="descname">synchronized</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>lock</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a process-safe wrapper object for a ctypes object which uses <em>lock</em> to
+synchronize access.  If <em>lock</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) then a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.RLock" title="multiprocessing.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.RLock</span></code></a> object is created automatically.</p>
+<p>A synchronized wrapper will have two methods in addition to those of the
+object it wraps: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_obj()</span></code> returns the wrapped object and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_lock()</span></code> returns the lock object used for synchronization.</p>
+<p>Note that accessing the ctypes object through the wrapper can be a lot slower
+than accessing the raw ctypes object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Synchronized objects support the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The table below compares the syntax for creating shared ctypes objects from
+shared memory with the normal ctypes syntax.  (In the table <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyStruct</span></code> is some
+subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="ctypes.html#ctypes.Structure" title="ctypes.Structure"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.Structure</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>ctypes</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>sharedctypes using type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>sharedctypes using typecode</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>c_double(2.4)</p></td>
+<td><p>RawValue(c_double, 2.4)</p></td>
+<td><p>RawValue(‘d’, 2.4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>MyStruct(4, 6)</p></td>
+<td><p>RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>(c_short * 7)()</p></td>
+<td><p>RawArray(c_short, 7)</p></td>
+<td><p>RawArray(‘h’, 7)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8)</p></td>
+<td><p>RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8))</p></td>
+<td><p>RawArray(‘i’, (9, 2, 8))</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Below is an example where a number of ctypes objects are modified by a child
+process:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Lock</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Array</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_double</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Structure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_double</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_double</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">modify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">**=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">**=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">**=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+        <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">**=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c_double</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mf">3.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">A</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="mf">1.875</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">6.25</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">5.75</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.375</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">9.5</span><span class="p">)],</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">modify</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The results printed are</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>49
+0.1111111111111111
+HELLO WORLD
+[(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="managers">
+<span id="multiprocessing-managers"></span><h3>Managers<a class="headerlink" href="#managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Managers provide a way to create data which can be shared between different
+processes, including sharing over a network between processes running on
+different machines. A manager object controls a server process which manages
+<em>shared objects</em>.  Other processes can access the shared objects by using
+proxies.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.multiprocessing.Manager">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">Manager</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.multiprocessing.Manager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a started <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager" title="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyncManager</span></code></a> object which
+can be used for sharing objects between processes.  The returned manager
+object corresponds to a spawned child process and has methods which will
+create shared objects and return corresponding proxies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="module-multiprocessing.managers"></span><p>Manager processes will be shutdown as soon as they are garbage collected or
+their parent process exits.  The manager classes are defined in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.managers" title="multiprocessing.managers: Share data between process with shared objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.managers</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.managers.</code><code class="descname">BaseManager</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>address</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>authkey</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a BaseManager object.</p>
+<p>Once created one should call <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_server().serve_forever()</span></code> to ensure
+that the manager object refers to a started manager process.</p>
+<p><em>address</em> is the address on which the manager process listens for new
+connections.  If <em>address</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then an arbitrary one is chosen.</p>
+<p><em>authkey</em> is the authentication key which will be used to check the
+validity of incoming connections to the server process.  If
+<em>authkey</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">current_process().authkey</span></code> is used.
+Otherwise <em>authkey</em> is used and it must be a byte string.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>initializer</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>initargs</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start a subprocess to start the manager.  If <em>initializer</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+then the subprocess will call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initializer(*initargs)</span></code> when it starts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.get_server">
+<code class="descname">get_server</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.get_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server</span></code> object which represents the actual server under
+the control of the Manager. The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server</span></code> object supports the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever()</span></code> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_server</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server</span></code> additionally has an <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.address" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.address"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">address</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.connect">
+<code class="descname">connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect a local manager object to a remote manager process:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.shutdown">
+<code class="descname">shutdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.shutdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop the process used by the manager.  This is only available if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> has been used to start the server process.</p>
+<p>This can be called multiple times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register">
+<code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typeid</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>callable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>proxytype</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>exposed</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>method_to_typeid</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>create_method</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A classmethod which can be used for registering a type or callable with
+the manager class.</p>
+<p><em>typeid</em> is a “type identifier” which is used to identify a particular
+type of shared object.  This must be a string.</p>
+<p><em>callable</em> is a callable used for creating objects for this type
+identifier.  If a manager instance will be connected to the
+server using the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.connect" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> method, or if the
+<em>create_method</em> argument is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> then this can be left as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>proxytype</em> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseProxy</span></code></a> which is used to create
+proxies for shared objects with this <em>typeid</em>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then a proxy
+class is created automatically.</p>
+<p><em>exposed</em> is used to specify a sequence of method names which proxies for
+this typeid should be allowed to access using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseProxy._callmethod()</span></code></a>.  (If <em>exposed</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">proxytype._exposed_</span></code> is used instead if it exists.)  In the case
+where no exposed list is specified, all “public methods” of the shared
+object will be accessible.  (Here a “public method” means any attribute
+which has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a> method and whose name does not begin
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code>.)</p>
+<p><em>method_to_typeid</em> is a mapping used to specify the return type of those
+exposed methods which should return a proxy.  It maps method names to
+typeid strings.  (If <em>method_to_typeid</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">proxytype._method_to_typeid_</span></code> is used instead if it exists.)  If a
+method’s name is not a key of this mapping or if the mapping is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+then the object returned by the method will be copied by value.</p>
+<p><em>create_method</em> determines whether a method should be created with name
+<em>typeid</em> which can be used to tell the server process to create a new
+shared object and return a proxy for it.  By default it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseManager</span></code></a> instances also have one read-only property:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.address">
+<code class="descname">address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The address used by the manager.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Manager objects support the context management protocol – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typecontextmanager"><span class="std std-ref">Context Manager Types</span></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__enter__" title="contextmanager.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> starts the
+server process (if it has not already started) and then returns the
+manager object.  <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__exit__" title="contextmanager.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> calls <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.shutdown" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>In previous versions <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__enter__" title="contextmanager.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> did not start the
+manager’s server process if it was not already started.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.managers.</code><code class="descname">SyncManager</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseManager</span></code></a> which can be used for the synchronization
+of processes.  Objects of this type are returned by
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Manager()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Its methods create and return <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-proxy-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Proxy Objects</span></a> for a
+number of commonly used data types to be synchronized across processes.
+This notably includes shared lists and dictionaries.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Barrier">
+<code class="descname">Barrier</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parties</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>action</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Barrier" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Barrier" title="threading.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Barrier</span></code></a> object and return a
+proxy for it.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.BoundedSemaphore">
+<code class="descname">BoundedSemaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.BoundedSemaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.BoundedSemaphore" title="threading.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a> object and return a
+proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Condition">
+<code class="descname">Condition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>lock</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Condition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Condition" title="threading.Condition"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Condition</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for
+it.</p>
+<p>If <em>lock</em> is supplied then it should be a proxy for a
+<a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock" title="threading.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Condition.wait_for" title="threading.Condition.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for()</span></code></a> method was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Event">
+<code class="descname">Event</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Event" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Event" title="threading.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Event</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Lock">
+<code class="descname">Lock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Lock" title="threading.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Namespace">
+<code class="descname">Namespace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Namespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.Namespace" title="multiprocessing.managers.Namespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Namespace</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue">
+<code class="descname">Queue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>maxsize</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.Queue</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.RLock">
+<code class="descname">RLock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.RLock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Semaphore">
+<code class="descname">Semaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Semaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Semaphore" title="threading.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Semaphore</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for
+it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Array">
+<code class="descname">Array</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode</em>, <em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Array" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an array and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Value">
+<code class="descname">Value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typecode</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an object with a writable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute and return a proxy
+for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict">
+<code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapping</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.list">
+<code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a shared <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> object and return a proxy for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Shared objects are capable of being nested.  For example, a shared
+container object such as a shared list can contain other shared objects
+which will all be managed and synchronized by the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager" title="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyncManager</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.Namespace">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.managers.</code><code class="descname">Namespace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.Namespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A type that can register with <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager" title="multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyncManager</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A namespace object has no public methods, but does have writable attributes.
+Its representation shows the values of its attributes.</p>
+<p>However, when using a proxy for a namespace object, an attribute beginning
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code> will be an attribute of the proxy and not an attribute of the
+referent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Manager</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Global</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Namespace</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Global</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Global</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Global</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">12.3</span>    <span class="c1"># this is an attribute of the proxy</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Global</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Namespace(x=10, y=&#39;hello&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="customized-managers">
+<h4>Customized managers<a class="headerlink" href="#customized-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>To create one’s own manager, one creates a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseManager</span></code></a> and
+uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a> classmethod to register new types or
+callables with the manager class.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MathsClass</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">MyManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Maths&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MathsClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">MyManager</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">maths</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Maths</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maths</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>         <span class="c1"># prints 7</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maths</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">))</span>         <span class="c1"># prints 56</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-remote-manager">
+<h4>Using a remote manager<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-remote-manager" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>It is possible to run a manager server on one machine and have clients use it
+from other machines (assuming that the firewalls involved allow it).</p>
+<p>Running the following commands creates a server for a single shared queue which
+remote clients can access:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">queue</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Queue</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;get_queue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callable</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_server</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One client can access the server as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;get_queue&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another client can also use it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;get_queue&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;hello&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Local processes can also access that queue, using the code from above on the
+client to access it remotely:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Queue</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Worker</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">q</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">q</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Worker</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;local hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Worker</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;get_queue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callable</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">QueueManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_server</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="proxy-objects">
+<span id="multiprocessing-proxy-objects"></span><h3>Proxy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#proxy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A proxy is an object which <em>refers</em> to a shared object which lives (presumably)
+in a different process.  The shared object is said to be the <em>referent</em> of the
+proxy.  Multiple proxy objects may have the same referent.</p>
+<p>A proxy object has methods which invoke corresponding methods of its referent
+(although not every method of the referent will necessarily be available through
+the proxy).  In this way, a proxy can be used just like its referent can:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Manager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Manager</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;ListProxy object, typeid &#39;list&#39; at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[4, 9, 16]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice that applying <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> to a proxy will return the representation of
+the referent, whereas applying <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> will return the representation of
+the proxy.</p>
+<p>An important feature of proxy objects is that they are picklable so they can be
+passed between processes.  As such, a referent can contain
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-proxy-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Proxy Objects</span></a>.  This permits nesting of these managed
+lists, dicts, and other <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-proxy-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Proxy Objects</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>         <span class="c1"># referent of a now contains referent of b</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;ListProxy object, typeid &#39;list&#39; at ...&gt;] []</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;hello&#39;] [&#39;hello&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Similarly, dict and list proxies may be nested inside one another:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l_outer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">([</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d_first_inner</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">l_outer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d_first_inner</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d_first_inner</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l_outer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l_outer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">26</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l_outer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;: 1, &#39;b&#39;: 2}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l_outer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;c&#39;: 3, &#39;z&#39;: 26}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If standard (non-proxy) <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> objects are contained
+in a referent, modifications to those mutable values will not be propagated
+through the manager because the proxy has no way of knowing when the values
+contained within are modified.  However, storing a value in a container proxy
+(which triggers a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__</span></code> on the proxy object) does propagate through
+the manager and so to effectively modify such an item, one could re-assign the
+modified value to the container proxy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)</span>
+<span class="n">lproxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">lproxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">({})</span>
+<span class="c1"># now mutate the dictionary</span>
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">lproxy</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="c1"># at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by</span>
+<span class="c1"># updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change</span>
+<span class="n">lproxy</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">d</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This approach is perhaps less convenient than employing nested
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-proxy-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Proxy Objects</span></a> for most use cases but also
+demonstrates a level of control over the synchronization.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The proxy types in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> do nothing to support comparisons
+by value.  So, for instance, we have:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One should just use a copy of the referent instead when making comparisons.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.managers.</code><code class="descname">BaseProxy</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Proxy objects are instances of subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseProxy</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod">
+<code class="descname">_callmethod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>methodname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>kwds</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call and return the result of a method of the proxy’s referent.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">proxy</span></code> is a proxy whose referent is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code> then the expression</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_callmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">methodname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will evaluate the expression</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">methodname</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>in the manager’s process.</p>
+<p>The returned value will be a copy of the result of the call or a proxy to
+a new shared object – see documentation for the <em>method_to_typeid</em>
+argument of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseManager.register()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If an exception is raised by the call, then is re-raised by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_callmethod()</span></code></a>.  If some other exception is raised in the manager’s
+process then this is converted into a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RemoteError</span></code> exception and is
+raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_callmethod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note in particular that an exception will be raised if <em>methodname</em> has
+not been <em>exposed</em>.</p>
+<p>An example of the usage of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod" title="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._callmethod"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_callmethod()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_callmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__len__&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_callmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__getitem__&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">),))</span> <span class="c1"># equivalent to l[2:7]</span>
+<span class="go">[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_callmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__getitem__&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,))</span>          <span class="c1"># equivalent to l[20]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">IndexError</span>: <span class="n">list index out of range</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._getvalue">
+<code class="descname">_getvalue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy._getvalue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the referent.</p>
+<p>If the referent is unpicklable then this will raise an exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__repr__">
+<code class="descname">__repr__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__repr__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a representation of the proxy object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__str__">
+<code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the representation of the referent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="cleanup">
+<h4>Cleanup<a class="headerlink" href="#cleanup" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>A proxy object uses a weakref callback so that when it gets garbage collected it
+deregisters itself from the manager which owns its referent.</p>
+<p>A shared object gets deleted from the manager process when there are no longer
+any proxies referring to it.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-multiprocessing.pool">
+<span id="process-pools"></span><h3>Process Pools<a class="headerlink" href="#module-multiprocessing.pool" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>One can create a pool of processes which will carry out tasks submitted to it
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.pool.</code><code class="descname">Pool</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>processes</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>initializer</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>initargs</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>maxtasksperchild</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>context</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A process pool object which controls a pool of worker processes to which jobs
+can be submitted.  It supports asynchronous results with timeouts and
+callbacks and has a parallel map implementation.</p>
+<p><em>processes</em> is the number of worker processes to use.  If <em>processes</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then the number returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.cpu_count" title="os.cpu_count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.cpu_count()</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<p>If <em>initializer</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then each worker process will call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initializer(*initargs)</span></code> when it starts.</p>
+<p><em>maxtasksperchild</em> is the number of tasks a worker process can complete
+before it will exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process, to enable
+unused resources to be freed. The default <em>maxtasksperchild</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, which
+means worker processes will live as long as the pool.</p>
+<p><em>context</em> can be used to specify the context used for starting
+the worker processes.  Usually a pool is created using the
+function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Pool()</span></code> or the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool()</span></code></a> method
+of a context object.  In both cases <em>context</em> is set
+appropriately.</p>
+<p>Note that the methods of the pool object should only be called by
+the process which created the pool.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><em>maxtasksperchild</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span><em>context</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Worker processes within a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a> typically live for the complete
+duration of the Pool’s work queue. A frequent pattern found in other
+systems (such as Apache, mod_wsgi, etc) to free resources held by
+workers is to allow a worker within a pool to complete only a set
+amount of work before being exiting, being cleaned up and a new
+process spawned to replace the old one. The <em>maxtasksperchild</em>
+argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a> exposes this ability to the end user.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply">
+<code class="descname">apply</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>kwds</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call <em>func</em> with arguments <em>args</em> and keyword arguments <em>kwds</em>.  It blocks
+until the result is ready. Given this blocks, <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply_async()</span></code></a> is
+better suited for performing work in parallel. Additionally, <em>func</em>
+is only executed in one of the workers of the pool.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async">
+<code class="descname">apply_async</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>kwds</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>callback</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>error_callback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A variant of the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply()</span></code></a> method which returns a result object.</p>
+<p>If <em>callback</em> is specified then it should be a callable which accepts a
+single argument.  When the result becomes ready <em>callback</em> is applied to
+it, that is unless the call failed, in which case the <em>error_callback</em>
+is applied instead.</p>
+<p>If <em>error_callback</em> is specified then it should be a callable which
+accepts a single argument.  If the target function fails, then
+the <em>error_callback</em> is called with the exception instance.</p>
+<p>Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the thread which
+handles the results will get blocked.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map">
+<code class="descname">map</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>chunksize</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A parallel equivalent of the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> built-in function (it supports only
+one <em>iterable</em> argument though).  It blocks until the result is ready.</p>
+<p>This method chops the iterable into a number of chunks which it submits to
+the process pool as separate tasks.  The (approximate) size of these
+chunks can be specified by setting <em>chunksize</em> to a positive integer.</p>
+<p>Note that it may cause high memory usage for very long iterables. Consider
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imap()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap_unordered" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap_unordered"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imap_unordered()</span></code></a> with explicit <em>chunksize</em>
+option for better efficiency.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async">
+<code class="descname">map_async</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>chunksize</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>callback</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>error_callback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A variant of the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> method which returns a result object.</p>
+<p>If <em>callback</em> is specified then it should be a callable which accepts a
+single argument.  When the result becomes ready <em>callback</em> is applied to
+it, that is unless the call failed, in which case the <em>error_callback</em>
+is applied instead.</p>
+<p>If <em>error_callback</em> is specified then it should be a callable which
+accepts a single argument.  If the target function fails, then
+the <em>error_callback</em> is called with the exception instance.</p>
+<p>Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the thread which
+handles the results will get blocked.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap">
+<code class="descname">imap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>chunksize</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A lazier version of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>chunksize</em> argument is the same as the one used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a>
+method.  For very long iterables using a large value for <em>chunksize</em> can
+make the job complete <strong>much</strong> faster than using the default value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Also if <em>chunksize</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> then the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code> method of the iterator
+returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imap()</span></code></a> method has an optional <em>timeout</em> parameter:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next(timeout)</span></code> will raise <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.TimeoutError" title="multiprocessing.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.TimeoutError</span></code></a> if the
+result cannot be returned within <em>timeout</em> seconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap_unordered">
+<code class="descname">imap_unordered</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>chunksize</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap_unordered" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.imap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imap()</span></code></a> except that the ordering of the results from the
+returned iterator should be considered arbitrary.  (Only when there is
+only one worker process is the order guaranteed to be “correct”.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap">
+<code class="descname">starmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>chunksize</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> except that the elements of the <em>iterable</em> are expected
+to be iterables that are unpacked as arguments.</p>
+<p>Hence an <em>iterable</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[(1,2),</span> <span class="pre">(3,</span> <span class="pre">4)]</span></code> results in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[func(1,2),</span>
+<span class="pre">func(3,4)]</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap_async">
+<code class="descname">starmap_async</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>chunksize</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>callback</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>error_callback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap_async" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A combination of <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starmap()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map_async()</span></code></a> that iterates over
+<em>iterable</em> of iterables and calls <em>func</em> with the iterables unpacked.
+Returns a result object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents any more tasks from being submitted to the pool.  Once all the
+tasks have been completed the worker processes will exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate">
+<code class="descname">terminate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stops the worker processes immediately without completing outstanding
+work.  When the pool object is garbage collected <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a> will be
+called immediately.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.join">
+<code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for the worker processes to exit.  One must call <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.close" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a> before using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.join" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Pool objects now support the context management protocol – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typecontextmanager"><span class="std std-ref">Context Manager Types</span></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__enter__" title="contextmanager.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> returns the
+pool object, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__exit__" title="contextmanager.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> calls <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.pool.</code><code class="descname">AsyncResult</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The class of the result returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool.apply_async()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool.map_async()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the result when it arrives.  If <em>timeout</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and the
+result does not arrive within <em>timeout</em> seconds then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.TimeoutError" title="multiprocessing.TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.TimeoutError</span></code></a> is raised.  If the remote call raised
+an exception then that exception will be reraised by <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.get" title="multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.wait">
+<code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until the result is available or until <em>timeout</em> seconds pass.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.ready">
+<code class="descname">ready</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.ready" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether the call has completed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.successful">
+<code class="descname">successful</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult.successful" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether the call completed without raising an exception.  Will
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> if the result is not ready.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following example demonstrates the use of a pool:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Pool</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">processes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">:</span>         <span class="c1"># start 4 worker processes</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,))</span> <span class="c1"># evaluate &quot;f(10)&quot; asynchronously in a single process</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>        <span class="c1"># prints &quot;100&quot; unless your computer is *very* slow</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)))</span>       <span class="c1"># prints &quot;[0, 1, 4,..., 81]&quot;</span>
+
+        <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">))</span>                     <span class="c1"># prints &quot;0&quot;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">))</span>                     <span class="c1"># prints &quot;1&quot;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>           <span class="c1"># prints &quot;4&quot; unless your computer is *very* slow</span>
+
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>        <span class="c1"># raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-multiprocessing.connection">
+<span id="listeners-and-clients"></span><span id="multiprocessing-listeners-clients"></span><h3>Listeners and Clients<a class="headerlink" href="#module-multiprocessing.connection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Usually message passing between processes is done using queues or by using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> objects returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Pipe" title="multiprocessing.Pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pipe()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>However, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.connection" title="multiprocessing.connection: API for dealing with sockets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.connection</span></code></a> module allows some extra
+flexibility.  It basically gives a high level message oriented API for dealing
+with sockets or Windows named pipes.  It also has support for <em>digest
+authentication</em> using the <a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> module, and for polling
+multiple connections at the same time.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.connection.</code><code class="descname">deliver_challenge</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>connection</em>, <em>authkey</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a randomly generated message to the other end of the connection and wait
+for a reply.</p>
+<p>If the reply matches the digest of the message using <em>authkey</em> as the key
+then a welcome message is sent to the other end of the connection.  Otherwise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError" title="multiprocessing.AuthenticationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AuthenticationError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.connection.</code><code class="descname">answer_challenge</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>connection</em>, <em>authkey</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive a message, calculate the digest of the message using <em>authkey</em> as the
+key, and then send the digest back.</p>
+<p>If a welcome message is not received, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError" title="multiprocessing.AuthenticationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AuthenticationError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Client">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.connection.</code><code class="descname">Client</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>family</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>authkey</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Client" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attempt to set up a connection to the listener which is using address
+<em>address</em>, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The type of the connection is determined by <em>family</em> argument, but this can
+generally be omitted since it can usually be inferred from the format of
+<em>address</em>. (See <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-address-formats"><span class="std std-ref">Address Formats</span></a>)</p>
+<p>If <em>authkey</em> is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be
+used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No
+authentication is done if <em>authkey</em> is None.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError" title="multiprocessing.AuthenticationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AuthenticationError</span></code></a> is raised if authentication fails.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-auth-keys"><span class="std std-ref">Authentication keys</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Listener">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.connection.</code><code class="descname">Listener</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>address</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>family</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>backlog</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>authkey</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Listener" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A wrapper for a bound socket or Windows named pipe which is ‘listening’ for
+connections.</p>
+<p><em>address</em> is the address to be used by the bound socket or named pipe of the
+listener object.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If an address of ‘0.0.0.0’ is used, the address will not be a connectable
+end point on Windows. If you require a connectable end-point,
+you should use ‘127.0.0.1’.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>family</em> is the type of socket (or named pipe) to use.  This can be one of
+the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_INET'</span></code> (for a TCP socket), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_UNIX'</span></code> (for a Unix
+domain socket) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_PIPE'</span></code> (for a Windows named pipe).  Of these only
+the first is guaranteed to be available.  If <em>family</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then the
+family is inferred from the format of <em>address</em>.  If <em>address</em> is also
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then a default is chosen.  This default is the family which is
+assumed to be the fastest available.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-address-formats"><span class="std std-ref">Address Formats</span></a>.  Note that if <em>family</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_UNIX'</span></code> and address is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then the socket will be created in a
+private temporary directory created using <a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.mkstemp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the listener object uses a socket then <em>backlog</em> (1 by default) is passed
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.listen" title="socket.socket.listen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> method of the socket once it has been
+bound.</p>
+<p>If <em>authkey</em> is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be
+used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No
+authentication is done if <em>authkey</em> is None.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError" title="multiprocessing.AuthenticationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AuthenticationError</span></code></a> is raised if authentication fails.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing-auth-keys"><span class="std std-ref">Authentication keys</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept">
+<code class="descname">accept</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accept a connection on the bound socket or named pipe of the listener
+object and return a <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> object.
+If authentication is attempted and fails, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.AuthenticationError" title="multiprocessing.AuthenticationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AuthenticationError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Listener.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object.  This is
+called automatically when the listener is garbage collected.  However it
+is advisable to call it explicitly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Listener objects have the following read-only properties:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Listener.address">
+<code class="descname">address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The address which is being used by the Listener object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.Listener.last_accepted">
+<code class="descname">last_accepted</code><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.last_accepted" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The address from which the last accepted connection came.  If this is
+unavailable then it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Listener objects now support the context management protocol – see
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typecontextmanager"><span class="std std-ref">Context Manager Types</span></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__enter__" title="contextmanager.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> returns the
+listener object, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#contextmanager.__exit__" title="contextmanager.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> calls <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Listener.close" title="multiprocessing.connection.Listener.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.connection.wait">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.connection.</code><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object_list</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.connection.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait till an object in <em>object_list</em> is ready.  Returns the list of
+those objects in <em>object_list</em> which are ready.  If <em>timeout</em> is a
+float then the call blocks for at most that many seconds.  If
+<em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then it will block for an unlimited period.
+A negative timeout is equivalent to a zero timeout.</p>
+<p>For both Unix and Windows, an object can appear in <em>object_list</em> if
+it is</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>a readable <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> object;</p></li>
+<li><p>a connected and readable <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a> object; or</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.sentinel" title="multiprocessing.Process.sentinel"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel</span></code></a> attribute of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> object.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A connection or socket object is ready when there is data available
+to be read from it, or the other end has been closed.</p>
+<p><strong>Unix</strong>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait(object_list,</span> <span class="pre">timeout)</span></code> almost equivalent
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select(object_list,</span> <span class="pre">[],</span> <span class="pre">[],</span> <span class="pre">timeout)</span></code>.  The difference is
+that, if <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a> is interrupted by a signal, it can
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> with an error number of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINTR</span></code>, whereas
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.wait" title="multiprocessing.connection.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> will not.</p>
+<p><strong>Windows</strong>: An item in <em>object_list</em> must either be an integer
+handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the
+documentation of the Win32 function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WaitForMultipleObjects()</span></code>)
+or it can be an object with a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method which returns a
+socket handle or pipe handle.  (Note that pipe handles and socket
+handles are <strong>not</strong> waitable handles.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><strong>Examples</strong></p>
+<p>The following server code creates a listener which uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'secret</span> <span class="pre">password'</span></code> as
+an authentication key.  It then waits for a connection and sends some data to
+the client:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.connection</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Listener</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">array</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">array</span>
+
+<span class="n">address</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6000</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># family is deduced to be &#39;AF_INET&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Listener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;secret password&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">listener</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;connection accepted from&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">listener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">last_accepted</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">2.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;junk&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1729</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following code connects to the server and receives some data from the
+server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.connection</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Client</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">array</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">array</span>
+
+<span class="n">address</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">address</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">authkey</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;secret password&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">())</span>                  <span class="c1"># =&gt; [2.25, None, &#39;junk&#39;, float]</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv_bytes</span><span class="p">())</span>            <span class="c1"># =&gt; &#39;hello&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">arr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv_bytes_into</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arr</span><span class="p">))</span>    <span class="c1"># =&gt; 8</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arr</span><span class="p">)</span>                          <span class="c1"># =&gt; array(&#39;i&#39;, [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following code uses <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.wait" title="multiprocessing.connection.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> to
+wait for messages from multiple processes at once:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Pipe</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">current_process</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.connection</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">wait</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">current_process</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">readers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Pipe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">duplex</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">readers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that</span>
+        <span class="c1"># p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This</span>
+        <span class="c1"># ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,</span>
+        <span class="c1"># wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.</span>
+        <span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">readers</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">readers</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">EOFError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">readers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="address-formats">
+<span id="multiprocessing-address-formats"></span><h4>Address Formats<a class="headerlink" href="#address-formats" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>An <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_INET'</span></code> address is a tuple of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(hostname,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> where
+<em>hostname</em> is a string and <em>port</em> is an integer.</p></li>
+<li><p>An <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_UNIX'</span></code> address is a string representing a filename on the
+filesystem.</p></li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>An <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_PIPE'</span></code> address is a string of the form</dt><dd><p><code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\.\pipe{PipeName}'</span></code>.  To use <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Client" title="multiprocessing.connection.Client"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Client()</span></code></a> to connect to a named
+pipe on a remote computer called <em>ServerName</em> one should use an address of the
+form <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\</span><em><span class="pre">ServerName</span></em><span class="pre">\pipe{PipeName}'</span></code> instead.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Note that any string beginning with two backslashes is assumed by default to be
+an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_PIPE'</span></code> address rather than an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'AF_UNIX'</span></code> address.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="authentication-keys">
+<span id="multiprocessing-auth-keys"></span><h3>Authentication keys<a class="headerlink" href="#authentication-keys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When one uses <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv" title="multiprocessing.connection.Connection.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection.recv</span></code></a>, the
+data received is automatically
+unpickled. Unfortunately unpickling data from an untrusted source is a security
+risk. Therefore <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Listener" title="multiprocessing.connection.Listener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Listener</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.connection.Client" title="multiprocessing.connection.Client"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Client()</span></code></a> use the <a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> module
+to provide digest authentication.</p>
+<p>An authentication key is a byte string which can be thought of as a
+password: once a connection is established both ends will demand proof
+that the other knows the authentication key.  (Demonstrating that both
+ends are using the same key does <strong>not</strong> involve sending the key over
+the connection.)</p>
+<p>If authentication is requested but no authentication key is specified then the
+return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">current_process().authkey</span></code> is used (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a>).  This value will be automatically inherited by
+any <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> object that the current process creates.
+This means that (by default) all processes of a multi-process program will share
+a single authentication key which can be used when setting up connections
+between themselves.</p>
+<p>Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<h3>Logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some support for logging is available.  Note, however, that the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a>
+package does not use process shared locks so it is possible (depending on the
+handler type) for messages from different processes to get mixed up.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.get_logger">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">get_logger</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.get_logger" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the logger used by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a>.  If necessary, a new one
+will be created.</p>
+<p>When first created the logger has level <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.NOTSET</span></code> and no
+default handler. Messages sent to this logger will not by default propagate
+to the root logger.</p>
+<p>Note that on Windows child processes will only inherit the level of the
+parent process’s logger – any other customization of the logger will not be
+inherited.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="multiprocessing.log_to_stderr">
+<code class="descclassname">multiprocessing.</code><code class="descname">log_to_stderr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing.log_to_stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function performs a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.get_logger" title="multiprocessing.get_logger"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_logger()</span></code></a> but in addition to
+returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a handler which sends
+output to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> using format
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s]</span> <span class="pre">%(message)s'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Below is an example session with logging turned on:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log_to_stderr</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setLevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;doomed&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[WARNING/MainProcess] doomed</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Manager</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()</span>
+<span class="go">[INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...</span>
+<span class="go">[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at &#39;/.../listener-...&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">m</span>
+<span class="go">[INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager</span>
+<span class="go">[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a full table of logging levels, see the <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-multiprocessing.dummy">
+<span id="the-multiprocessing-dummy-module"></span><h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.dummy" title="multiprocessing.dummy: Dumb wrapper around threading."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.dummy</span></code></a> module<a class="headerlink" href="#module-multiprocessing.dummy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.dummy" title="multiprocessing.dummy: Dumb wrapper around threading."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.dummy</span></code></a> replicates the API of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> but is
+no more than a wrapper around the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="programming-guidelines">
+<span id="multiprocessing-programming"></span><h2>Programming guidelines<a class="headerlink" href="#programming-guidelines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are certain guidelines and idioms which should be adhered to when using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="all-start-methods">
+<h3>All start methods<a class="headerlink" href="#all-start-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following applies to all start methods.</p>
+<p>Avoid shared state</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>As far as possible one should try to avoid shifting large amounts of data
+between processes.</p>
+<p>It is probably best to stick to using queues or pipes for communication
+between processes rather than using the lower level synchronization
+primitives.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Picklability</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Ensure that the arguments to the methods of proxies are picklable.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Thread safety of proxies</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Do not use a proxy object from more than one thread unless you protect it
+with a lock.</p>
+<p>(There is never a problem with different processes using the <em>same</em> proxy.)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Joining zombie processes</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>On Unix when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes a zombie.
+There should never be very many because each time a new process starts (or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.active_children" title="multiprocessing.active_children"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">active_children()</span></code></a> is called) all completed processes
+which have not yet been joined will be joined.  Also calling a finished
+process’s <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.is_alive" title="multiprocessing.Process.is_alive"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.is_alive</span></code></a> will
+join the process.  Even so it is probably good
+practice to explicitly join all the processes that you start.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Better to inherit than pickle/unpickle</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>When using the <em>spawn</em> or <em>forkserver</em> start methods many types
+from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> need to be picklable so that child
+processes can use them.  However, one should generally avoid
+sending shared objects to other processes using pipes or queues.
+Instead you should arrange the program so that a process which
+needs access to a shared resource created elsewhere can inherit it
+from an ancestor process.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Avoid terminating processes</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Using the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.terminate" title="multiprocessing.Process.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.terminate</span></code></a>
+method to stop a process is liable to
+cause any shared resources (such as locks, semaphores, pipes and queues)
+currently being used by the process to become broken or unavailable to other
+processes.</p>
+<p>Therefore it is probably best to only consider using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.terminate" title="multiprocessing.Process.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.terminate</span></code></a> on processes
+which never use any shared resources.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Joining processes that use queues</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Bear in mind that a process that has put items in a queue will wait before
+terminating until all the buffered items are fed by the “feeder” thread to
+the underlying pipe.  (The child process can call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread" title="multiprocessing.Queue.cancel_join_thread"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue.cancel_join_thread</span></code></a>
+method of the queue to avoid this behaviour.)</p>
+<p>This means that whenever you use a queue you need to make sure that all
+items which have been put on the queue will eventually be removed before the
+process is joined.  Otherwise you cannot be sure that processes which have
+put items on the queue will terminate.  Remember also that non-daemonic
+processes will be joined automatically.</p>
+<p>An example which will deadlock is the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Queue</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">1000000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>                    <span class="c1"># this deadlocks</span>
+    <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A fix here would be to swap the last two lines (or simply remove the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p.join()</span></code> line).</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Explicitly pass resources to child processes</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>On Unix using the <em>fork</em> start method, a child process can make
+use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a
+global resource.  However, it is better to pass the object as an
+argument to the constructor for the child process.</p>
+<p>Apart from making the code (potentially) compatible with Windows
+and the other start methods this also ensures that as long as the
+child process is still alive the object will not be garbage
+collected in the parent process.  This might be important if some
+resource is freed when the object is garbage collected in the
+parent process.</p>
+<p>So for instance</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Lock</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">do</span> <span class="n">something</span> <span class="n">using</span> <span class="s2">&quot;lock&quot;</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>should be rewritten as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Lock</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">do</span> <span class="n">something</span> <span class="n">using</span> <span class="s2">&quot;l&quot;</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">,))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Beware of replacing <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> with a “file like object”</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> originally unconditionally called:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>in the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap()</span></code> method — this resulted
+in issues with processes-in-processes. This has been changed to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">devnull</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">O_RDONLY</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">closefd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each other
+resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a potential danger
+to applications which replace <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin()</span></code></a> with a “file-like object”
+with output buffering.  This danger is that if multiple processes call
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> on this file-like object, it could result in the same
+data being flushed to the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.</p>
+<p>If you write a file-like object and implement your own caching, you can
+make it fork-safe by storing the pid whenever you append to the cache,
+and discarding the cache when the pid changes. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@property</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cache</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpid</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_pid</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_pid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pid</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_cache</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information, see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5155">bpo-5155</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5313">bpo-5313</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5331">bpo-5331</a></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-spawn-and-forkserver-start-methods">
+<h3>The <em>spawn</em> and <em>forkserver</em> start methods<a class="headerlink" href="#the-spawn-and-forkserver-start-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are a few extra restriction which don’t apply to the <em>fork</em>
+start method.</p>
+<p>More picklability</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Ensure that all arguments to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.__init__()</span></code> are picklable.
+Also, if you subclass <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> then make sure that
+instances will be picklable when the <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.start" title="multiprocessing.Process.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.start</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Global variables</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Bear in mind that if code run in a child process tries to access a global
+variable, then the value it sees (if any) may not be the same as the value
+in the parent process at the time that <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.Process.start" title="multiprocessing.Process.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.start</span></code></a> was called.</p>
+<p>However, global variables which are just module level constants cause no
+problems.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Safe importing of main module</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new Python
+interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such a starting a new
+process).</p>
+<p>For example, using the <em>spawn</em> or <em>forkserver</em> start method
+running the following module would fail with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Instead one should protect the “entry point” of the program by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span>
+<span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'__main__':</span></code> as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">freeze_support</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">set_start_method</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">freeze_support</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">set_start_method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spawn&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">freeze_support()</span></code> line can be omitted if the program will be run
+normally instead of frozen.)</p>
+<p>This allows the newly spawned Python interpreter to safely import the module
+and then run the module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo()</span></code> function.</p>
+<p>Similar restrictions apply if a pool or manager is created in the main
+module.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="multiprocessing-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Demonstration of how to create and use customized managers and proxies:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">freeze_support</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing.managers</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">BaseProxy</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">operator</span>
+
+<span class="c1">##</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;you called Foo.f()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;you called Foo.g()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_h</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;you called Foo._h()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># A simple generator function</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">baz</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">i</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Proxy type for generator objects</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">GeneratorProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseProxy</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">_exposed_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;__next__&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__next__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_callmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__next__&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Function to return the operator module</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_operator_module</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">operator</span>
+
+<span class="c1">##</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyManager</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseManager</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy</span>
+<span class="n">MyManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Foo1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy</span>
+<span class="n">MyManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Foo2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exposed</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;g&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;_h&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies</span>
+<span class="n">MyManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">baz</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">proxytype</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">GeneratorProxy</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy</span>
+<span class="n">MyManager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;operator&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">get_operator_module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1">##</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">manager</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyManager</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">f1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo1</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">f1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">f1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;_h&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_exposed_</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;g&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">f2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo2</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">f2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">f2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_h</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_exposed_</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;g&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;_h&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">baz</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&gt;&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">op</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;op.add(23, 45) =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">op</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;op.pow(2, 94) =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">op</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">94</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;op._exposed_ =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">op</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_exposed_</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1">##</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">freeze_support</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># Functions used by test code</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">calculate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> says that </span><span class="si">%s%s</span><span class="s1"> = </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">current_process</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+        <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">calculatestar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">calculate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">plus</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mf">5.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">pow3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">noop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># Test code</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">PROCESSES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Creating pool with </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> processes</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">PROCESSES</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PROCESSES</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1">#</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Tests</span>
+        <span class="c1">#</span>
+
+        <span class="n">TASKS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)]</span> <span class="o">+</span> \
+                <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">plus</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+        <span class="n">results</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calculate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">t</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">TASKS</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="n">imap_it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calculatestar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TASKS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">imap_unordered_it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imap_unordered</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calculatestar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TASKS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Ordered results using pool.apply_async():&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">results</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Ordered results using pool.imap():&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">imap_it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">imap_unordered_it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calculatestar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TASKS</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="c1">#</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Test error handling</span>
+        <span class="c1">#</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Testing error handling:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,)))</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">Got ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;expected ZeroDivisionError&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))))</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">Got ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;expected ZeroDivisionError&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)))))</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">Got ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;expected ZeroDivisionError&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                    <span class="k">pass</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+            <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;expected ZeroDivisionError&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">Got ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="c1">#</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Testing timeouts</span>
+        <span class="c1">#</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">res</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calculate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TASKS</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n\t</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">res</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.02</span><span class="p">))</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TimeoutError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pool</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calculatestar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TASKS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n\t</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.02</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TimeoutError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">multiprocessing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">freeze_support</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An example showing how to use queues to feed tasks to a collection of worker
+processes and collect the results:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">current_process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">freeze_support</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># Function run by worker processes</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;STOP&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">calculate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">output</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># Function used to calculate result</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">calculate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> says that </span><span class="si">%s%s</span><span class="s1"> = </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> \
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">current_process</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># Functions referenced by tasks</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">plus</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+    <span class="n">TASKS1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+    <span class="n">TASKS2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">plus</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create queues</span>
+    <span class="n">task_queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">done_queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Submit tasks</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">TASKS1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">task_queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Start worker processes</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">worker</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task_queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">done_queue</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Get and print results</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Unordered results:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TASKS1</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">done_queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Add more tasks using `put()`</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">TASKS2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">task_queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Get and print some more results</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TASKS2</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">done_queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Tell child processes to stop</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">task_queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;STOP&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">freeze_support</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> — Process-based parallelism</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-process-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code> class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contexts-and-start-methods">Contexts and start methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exchanging-objects-between-processes">Exchanging objects between processes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#synchronization-between-processes">Synchronization between processes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sharing-state-between-processes">Sharing state between processes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-pool-of-workers">Using a pool of workers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference">Reference</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#process-and-exceptions"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code> and exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pipes-and-queues">Pipes and Queues</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#connection-objects">Connection Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#synchronization-primitives">Synchronization primitives</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shared-ctypes-objects">Shared <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code> Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#managers">Managers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customized-managers">Customized managers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-remote-manager">Using a remote manager</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#proxy-objects">Proxy Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cleanup">Cleanup</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.pool">Process Pools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.connection">Listeners and Clients</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#address-formats">Address Formats</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#authentication-keys">Authentication keys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">Logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-multiprocessing.dummy">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.dummy</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#programming-guidelines">Programming guidelines</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#all-start-methods">All start methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-spawn-and-forkserver-start-methods">The <em>spawn</em> and <em>forkserver</em> start methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="threading.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> — Thread-based parallelism</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="concurrent.html"
+                        title="next chapter">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent</span></code> package</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/netdata.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/netdata.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79ec4af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/netdata.html
@@ -0,0 +1,265 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="internet-data-handling">
+<span id="netdata"></span><h1>Internet Data Handling<a class="headerlink" href="#internet-data-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This chapter describes modules which support handling data formats commonly used
+on the Internet.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="email.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message</span></code>: Representing an email message</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser</span></code>: Parsing email messages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#feedparser-api">FeedParser API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#parser-api">Parser API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#additional-notes">Additional notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.generator</span></code>: Generating MIME documents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy</span></code>: Policy Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.errors.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.errors</span></code>: Exception and Defect classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.headerregistry.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.headerregistry</span></code>: Custom Header Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.contentmanager</span></code>: Managing MIME Content</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="email.contentmanager.html#content-manager-instances">Content Manager Instances</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.examples.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code>: Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code>: Representing an email message using the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code> API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.mime.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.header.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code>: Internationalized headers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code>: Representing character sets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.encoders.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.encoders</span></code>: Encoders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.utils.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils</span></code>: Miscellaneous utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="email.iterators.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.iterators</span></code>: Iterators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code> — JSON encoder and decoder</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#basic-usage">Basic Usage</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#encoders-and-decoders">Encoders and Decoders</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#standard-compliance-and-interoperability">Standard Compliance and Interoperability</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#character-encodings">Character Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#infinite-and-nan-number-values">Infinite and NaN Number Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#repeated-names-within-an-object">Repeated Names Within an Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#top-level-non-object-non-array-values">Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#implementation-limitations">Implementation Limitations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#module-json.tool">Command Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="json.html#command-line-options">Command line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="mailcap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailcap</span></code> — Mailcap file handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code> — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mailbox-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mailbox</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mh"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#babyl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Babyl</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mmdf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDF</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#message-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#maildirmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MaildirMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mboxmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mboxMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mhmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MHMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#babylmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BabylMessage</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#mmdfmessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MMDFMessage</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mailbox.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="mimetypes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code> — Map filenames to MIME types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mimetypes.html#mimetypes-objects">MimeTypes Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="base64.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code> — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="binhex.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binhex</span></code> — Encode and decode binhex4 files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="binhex.html#notes">Notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code> — Convert between binary and ASCII</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="quopri.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri</span></code> — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="uu.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code> — Encode and decode uuencode files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mmap.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code> — Memory-mapped file support</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="email.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/netrc.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/netrc.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fa252c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/netrc.html
@@ -0,0 +1,271 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>netrc — netrc file processing &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-netrc">
+<span id="netrc-netrc-file-processing"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-netrc" title="netrc: Loading of .netrc files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code></a> — netrc file processing<a class="headerlink" href="#module-netrc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/netrc.py">Lib/netrc.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#netrc.netrc" title="netrc.netrc"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code></a> class parses and encapsulates the netrc file format used by
+the Unix <strong class="program">ftp</strong> program and other FTP clients.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="netrc.netrc">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">netrc.</code><code class="descname">netrc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>file</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#netrc.netrc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#netrc.netrc" title="netrc.netrc"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code></a> instance or subclass instance encapsulates data from  a netrc
+file.  The initialization argument, if present, specifies the file to parse.  If
+no argument is given, the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.netrc</span></code> in the user’s home directory –
+as determined by <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a> – will be read.  Otherwise,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> exception will be raised.
+Parse errors will raise <a class="reference internal" href="#netrc.NetrcParseError" title="netrc.NetrcParseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NetrcParseError</span></code></a> with diagnostic
+information including the file name, line number, and terminating token.
+If no argument is specified on a POSIX system, the presence of passwords in
+the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.netrc</span></code> file will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#netrc.NetrcParseError" title="netrc.NetrcParseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NetrcParseError</span></code></a> if the file
+ownership or permissions are insecure (owned by a user other than the user
+running the process, or accessible for read or write by any other user).
+This implements security behavior equivalent to that of ftp and other
+programs that use <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.netrc</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the POSIX permission check.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a> is used to find the location of the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.netrc</span></code> file when <em>file</em> is not passed as argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="netrc.NetrcParseError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">netrc.</code><code class="descname">NetrcParseError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#netrc.NetrcParseError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="#netrc.netrc" title="netrc.netrc"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code></a> class when syntactical errors are
+encountered in source text.  Instances of this exception provide three
+interesting attributes:  <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span></code> is a textual explanation of the error,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> is the name of the source file, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code> gives the
+line number on which the error was found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="netrc-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>netrc Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#netrc-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#netrc.netrc" title="netrc.netrc"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code></a> instance has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="netrc.netrc.authenticators">
+<code class="descclassname">netrc.</code><code class="descname">authenticators</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#netrc.netrc.authenticators" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a 3-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(login,</span> <span class="pre">account,</span> <span class="pre">password)</span></code> of authenticators for <em>host</em>.
+If the netrc file did not contain an entry for the given host, return the tuple
+associated with the ‘default’ entry.  If neither matching host nor default entry
+is available, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="netrc.netrc.__repr__">
+<code class="descclassname">netrc.</code><code class="descname">__repr__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#netrc.netrc.__repr__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dump the class data as a string in the format of a netrc file. (This discards
+comments and may reorder the entries.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#netrc.netrc" title="netrc.netrc"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code></a> have public instance variables:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="netrc.netrc.hosts">
+<code class="descclassname">netrc.</code><code class="descname">hosts</code><a class="headerlink" href="#netrc.netrc.hosts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping host names to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(login,</span> <span class="pre">account,</span> <span class="pre">password)</span></code> tuples.  The
+‘default’ entry, if any, is represented as a pseudo-host by that name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="netrc.netrc.macros">
+<code class="descclassname">netrc.</code><code class="descname">macros</code><a class="headerlink" href="#netrc.netrc.macros" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping macro names to string lists.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Passwords are limited to a subset of the ASCII character set.  All ASCII
+punctuation is allowed in passwords, however, note that whitespace and
+non-printable characters are not allowed in passwords.  This is a limitation
+of the way the .netrc file is parsed and may be removed in the future.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code> — netrc file processing</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#netrc-objects">netrc Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="configparser.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code> — Configuration file parser</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xdrlib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code> — Encode and decode XDR data</a></p>
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nis.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nis.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e51de2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nis.html
@@ -0,0 +1,232 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages) &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="syslog — Unix syslog library routines" href="syslog.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="resource — Resource usage information" href="resource.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+    <li class="right">
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-nis">
+<span id="nis-interface-to-sun-s-nis-yellow-pages"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-nis" title="nis: Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code></a> — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)<a class="headerlink" href="#module-nis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-nis" title="nis: Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code></a> module gives a thin wrapper around the NIS library, useful for
+central administration of several hosts.</p>
+<p>Because NIS exists only on Unix systems, this module is only available for Unix.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-nis" title="nis: Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="nis.match">
+<code class="descclassname">nis.</code><code class="descname">match</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>mapname</em>, <em>domain=default_domain</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nis.match" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the match for <em>key</em> in map <em>mapname</em>, or raise an error
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#nis.error" title="nis.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis.error</span></code></a>) if there is none. Both should be strings, <em>key</em> is 8-bit
+clean. Return value is an arbitrary array of bytes (may contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> and
+other joys).</p>
+<p>Note that <em>mapname</em> is first checked if it is an alias to another name.</p>
+<p>The <em>domain</em> argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the lookup. If
+unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="nis.cat">
+<code class="descclassname">nis.</code><code class="descname">cat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapname</em>, <em>domain=default_domain</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nis.cat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary mapping <em>key</em> to <em>value</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match(key,</span>
+<span class="pre">mapname)==value</span></code>. Note that both keys and values of the dictionary are
+arbitrary arrays of bytes.</p>
+<p>Note that <em>mapname</em> is first checked if it is an alias to another name.</p>
+<p>The <em>domain</em> argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the lookup. If
+unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="nis.maps">
+<code class="descclassname">nis.</code><code class="descname">maps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>domain=default_domain</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nis.maps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all valid maps.</p>
+<p>The <em>domain</em> argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the lookup. If
+unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="nis.get_default_domain">
+<code class="descclassname">nis.</code><code class="descname">get_default_domain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nis.get_default_domain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the system default NIS domain.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-nis" title="nis: Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code></a> module defines the following exception:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="nis.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">nis.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nis.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An error raised when a NIS function returns an error code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="resource.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code> — Resource usage information</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="syslog.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code> — Unix syslog library routines</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/nis.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+        <li>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="unix.html" >Unix Specific Services</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nntplib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nntplib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cf3bf5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/nntplib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,773 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-nntplib">
+<span id="nntplib-nntp-protocol-client"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> — NNTP protocol client<a class="headerlink" href="#module-nntplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/nntplib.py">Lib/nntplib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines the class <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a> which implements the client side of
+the Network News Transfer Protocol.  It can be used to implement a news reader
+or poster, or automated news processors.  It is compatible with <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html"><strong>RFC 3977</strong></a>
+as well as the older <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc977.html"><strong>RFC 977</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2980.html"><strong>RFC 2980</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>Here are two small examples of how it can be used.  To list some statistics
+about a newsgroup and print the subjects of the last 10 articles:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">nntplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NNTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;news.gmane.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;gmane.comp.python.committers&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Group&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;has&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;articles, range&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Group gmane.comp.python.committers has 1096 articles, range 1 to 1096</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">overviews</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">over</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">over</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">overviews</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nntplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">over</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">1087 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa</span>
+<span class="go">1088 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze</span>
+<span class="go">1089 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze</span>
+<span class="go">1090 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa</span>
+<span class="go">1091 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa</span>
+<span class="go">1092 Updated ssh key</span>
+<span class="go">1093 Re: Updated ssh key</span>
+<span class="go">1094 Re: Updated ssh key</span>
+<span class="go">1095 Hello fellow committers!</span>
+<span class="go">1096 Re: Hello fellow committers!</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;205 Bye!&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To post an article from a binary file (this assumes that the article has valid
+headers, and that you have right to post on the particular newsgroup):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">nntplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NNTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;news.gmane.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;article.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">post</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;240 Article posted successfully.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;205 Bye!&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module itself defines the following classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=119</em>, <em>user=None</em>, <em>password=None</em>, <em>readermode=None</em>, <em>usenetrc=False</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a> object, representing a connection
+to the NNTP server running on host <em>host</em>, listening at port <em>port</em>.
+An optional <em>timeout</em> can be specified for the socket connection.
+If the optional <em>user</em> and <em>password</em> are provided, or if suitable
+credentials are present in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/.netrc</span></code> and the optional flag <em>usenetrc</em>
+is true, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTHINFO</span> <span class="pre">USER</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTHINFO</span> <span class="pre">PASS</span></code> commands are used
+to identify and authenticate the user to the server.  If the optional
+flag <em>readermode</em> is true, then a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode</span> <span class="pre">reader</span></code> command is sent before
+authentication is performed.  Reader mode is sometimes necessary if you are
+connecting to an NNTP server on the local machine and intend to call
+reader-specific commands, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group</span></code>.  If you get unexpected
+<a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTPPermanentError" title="nntplib.NNTPPermanentError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTPPermanentError</span></code></a>s, you might need to set <em>readermode</em>.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a> class supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement to
+unconditionally consume <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exceptions and to close the NNTP
+connection when done, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">nntplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">NNTP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">NNTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;news.gmane.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;gmane.comp.python.committers&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers&#39;, 1755, 1, 1755, &#39;gmane.comp.python.committers&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>usenetrc</em> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> by default.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP_SSL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTP_SSL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=563</em>, <em>user=None</em>, <em>password=None</em>, <em>ssl_context=None</em>, <em>readermode=None</em>, <em>usenetrc=False</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP_SSL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP_SSL" title="nntplib.NNTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP_SSL</span></code></a> object, representing an encrypted
+connection to the NNTP server running on host <em>host</em>, listening at
+port <em>port</em>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP_SSL" title="nntplib.NNTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP_SSL</span></code></a> objects have the same methods as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a> objects.  If <em>port</em> is omitted, port 563 (NNTPS) is used.
+<em>ssl_context</em> is also optional, and is a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> object.
+Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> for best practices.
+All other parameters behave the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that SSL-on-563 is discouraged per <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4642.html"><strong>RFC 4642</strong></a>, in favor of
+STARTTLS as described below.  However, some servers only support the
+former.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The class now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTPError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTPError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTPError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Derived from the standard exception <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>, this is the base
+class for all exceptions raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module.  Instances
+of this class have the following attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTPError.response">
+<code class="descname">response</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTPError.response" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The response of the server if available, as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTPReplyError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTPReplyError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTPReplyError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTPTemporaryError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTPTemporaryError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTPTemporaryError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a response code in the range 400–499 is received.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTPPermanentError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTPPermanentError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTPPermanentError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a response code in the range 500–599 is received.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTPProtocolError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTPProtocolError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTPProtocolError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does not begin
+with a digit in the range 1–5.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTPDataError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">NNTPDataError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTPDataError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when there is some error in the response data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="nntp-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>NNTP Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#nntp-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When connected, <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP_SSL" title="nntplib.NNTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP_SSL</span></code></a> objects support the
+following methods and attributes.</p>
+<div class="section" id="attributes">
+<h3>Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.nntp_version">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">nntp_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.nntp_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer representing the version of the NNTP protocol supported by the
+server.  In practice, this should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> for servers advertising
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html"><strong>RFC 3977</strong></a> compliance and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for others.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.nntp_implementation">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">nntp_implementation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.nntp_implementation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string describing the software name and version of the NNTP server,
+or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if not advertised by the server.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods">
+<h3>Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <em>response</em> that is returned as the first item in the return tuple of almost
+all methods is the server’s response: a string beginning with a three-digit
+code.  If the server’s response indicates an error, the method raises one of
+the above exceptions.</p>
+<p>Many of the following methods take an optional keyword-only argument <em>file</em>.
+When the <em>file</em> argument is supplied, it must be either a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>
+opened for binary writing, or the name of an on-disk file to be written to.
+The method will then write any data returned by the server (except for the
+response line and the terminating dot) to the file; any list of lines,
+tuples or objects that the method normally returns will be empty.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Many of the following methods have been reworked and fixed, which makes
+them incompatible with their 3.1 counterparts.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.quit">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">quit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.quit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUIT</span></code> command and close the connection.  Once this method has been
+called, no other methods of the NNTP object should be called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.getwelcome">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">getwelcome</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.getwelcome" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the initial
+connection.  (This message sometimes contains disclaimers or help information
+that may be relevant to the user.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.getcapabilities">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">getcapabilities</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.getcapabilities" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html"><strong>RFC 3977</strong></a> capabilities advertised by the server, as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> instance mapping capability names to (possibly empty) lists
+of values. On legacy servers which don’t understand the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAPABILITIES</span></code>
+command, an empty dictionary is returned instead.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NNTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;news.gmane.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;POST&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getcapabilities</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.login">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">login</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user=None</em>, <em>password=None</em>, <em>usenetrc=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.login" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTHINFO</span></code> commands with the user name and password.  If <em>user</em>
+and <em>password</em> are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <em>usenetrc</em> is true, credentials from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.netrc</span></code> will be used if possible.</p>
+<p>Unless intentionally delayed, login is normally performed during the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a> object initialization and separately calling this function
+is unnecessary.  To force authentication to be delayed, you must not set
+<em>user</em> or <em>password</em> when creating the object, and must set <em>usenetrc</em> to
+False.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.starttls">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">starttls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.starttls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTTLS</span></code> command.  This will enable encryption on the NNTP
+connection.  The <em>context</em> argument is optional and should be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object.  Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> for best
+practices.</p>
+<p>Note that this may not be done after authentication information has
+been transmitted, and authentication occurs by default if possible during a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code></a> object initialization.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.login" title="nntplib.NNTP.login"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP.login()</span></code></a> for information
+on suppressing this behavior.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The method now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.newgroups">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">newgroups</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>date</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.newgroups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NEWGROUPS</span></code> command.  The <em>date</em> argument should be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> object.
+Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">groups)</span></code> where <em>groups</em> is a list representing
+the groups that are new since the given <em>date</em>. If <em>file</em> is supplied,
+though, then <em>groups</em> will be empty.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">groups</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">newgroups</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">timedelta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">days</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">85</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">GroupInfo(group=&#39;gmane.network.tor.devel&#39;, last=&#39;4&#39;, first=&#39;1&#39;, flag=&#39;m&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.newnews">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">newnews</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>group</em>, <em>date</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.newnews" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NEWNEWS</span></code> command.  Here, <em>group</em> is a group name or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>, and
+<em>date</em> has the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.newgroups" title="nntplib.NNTP.newgroups"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">newgroups()</span></code></a>.  Return a pair
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">articles)</span></code> where <em>articles</em> is a list of message ids.</p>
+<p>This command is frequently disabled by NNTP server administrators.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.list">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>group_pattern=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span> <span class="pre">ACTIVE</span></code> command.  Return a pair
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">list)</span></code> where <em>list</em> is a list of tuples representing all
+the groups available from this NNTP server, optionally matching the
+pattern string <em>group_pattern</em>.  Each tuple has the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(group,</span> <span class="pre">last,</span> <span class="pre">first,</span> <span class="pre">flag)</span></code>, where <em>group</em> is a group name, <em>last</em>
+and <em>first</em> are the last and first article numbers, and <em>flag</em> usually
+takes one of these values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>: Local postings and articles from peers are allowed.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span></code>: The group is moderated and all postings must be approved.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code>: No local postings are allowed, only articles from peers.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code>: Articles from peers are filed in the junk group instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>: No local postings, and articles from peers are ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=foo.bar</span></code>: Articles are filed in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code> group instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>flag</em> has another value, then the status of the newsgroup should be
+considered unknown.</p>
+<p>This command can return very large results, especially if <em>group_pattern</em>
+is not specified.  It is best to cache the results offline unless you
+really need to refresh them.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>group_pattern</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.descriptions">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">descriptions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>grouppattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.descriptions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST</span> <span class="pre">NEWSGROUPS</span></code> command, where <em>grouppattern</em> is a wildmat string as
+specified in <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html"><strong>RFC 3977</strong></a> (it’s essentially the same as DOS or UNIX shell wildcard
+strings).  Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">descriptions)</span></code>, where <em>descriptions</em>
+is a dictionary mapping group names to textual descriptions.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">descs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">descriptions</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;gmane.comp.python.*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">descs</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">295</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">descs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popitem</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;gmane.comp.python.bio.general&#39;, &#39;BioPython discussion list (Moderated)&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.description">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">description</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>group</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.description" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a description for a single group <em>group</em>.  If more than one group matches
+(if ‘group’ is a real wildmat string), return the first match.   If no group
+matches, return an empty string.</p>
+<p>This elides the response code from the server.  If the response code is needed,
+use <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.descriptions" title="nntplib.NNTP.descriptions"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">descriptions()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.group">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GROUP</span></code> command, where <em>name</em> is the group name.  The group is
+selected as the current group, if it exists.  Return a tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">count,</span> <span class="pre">first,</span> <span class="pre">last,</span> <span class="pre">name)</span></code> where <em>count</em> is the (estimated)
+number of articles in the group, <em>first</em> is the first article number in
+the group, <em>last</em> is the last article number in the group, and <em>name</em>
+is the group name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.over">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">over</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_spec</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.over" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OVER</span></code> command, or an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XOVER</span></code> command on legacy servers.
+<em>message_spec</em> can be either a string representing a message id, or
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(first,</span> <span class="pre">last)</span></code> tuple of numbers indicating a range of articles in
+the current group, or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(first,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code> tuple indicating a range of
+articles starting from <em>first</em> to the last article in the current group,
+or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> to select the current article in the current group.</p>
+<p>Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">overviews)</span></code>.  <em>overviews</em> is a list of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(article_number,</span> <span class="pre">overview)</span></code> tuples, one for each article selected
+by <em>message_spec</em>.  Each <em>overview</em> is a dictionary with the same number
+of items, but this number depends on the server.  These items are either
+message headers (the key is then the lower-cased header name) or metadata
+items (the key is then the metadata name prepended with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;:&quot;</span></code>).  The
+following items are guaranteed to be present by the NNTP specification:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subject</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message-id</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">references</span></code>
+headers</p></li>
+<li><p>the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:bytes</span></code> metadata: the number of bytes in the entire raw article
+(including headers and body)</p></li>
+<li><p>the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:lines</span></code> metadata: the number of lines in the article body</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The value of each item is either a string, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if not present.</p>
+<p>It is advisable to use the <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.decode_header" title="nntplib.decode_header"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_header()</span></code></a> function on header
+values when they may contain non-ASCII characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;gmane.comp.python.devel&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">overviews</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">over</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">art_num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">over</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">overviews</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">art_num</span>
+<span class="go">117216</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">over</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;xref&#39;, &#39;from&#39;, &#39;:lines&#39;, &#39;:bytes&#39;, &#39;references&#39;, &#39;date&#39;, &#39;message-id&#39;, &#39;subject&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">over</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;=?UTF-8?B?Ik1hcnRpbiB2LiBMw7Z3aXMi?= &lt;martin@v.loewis.de&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">nntplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">over</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&quot;Martin v. Löwis&quot; &lt;martin@v.loewis.de&gt;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.help">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">help</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELP</span></code> command.  Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">list)</span></code> where <em>list</em> is a
+list of help strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.stat">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">stat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_spec=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.stat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STAT</span></code> command, where <em>message_spec</em> is either a message id
+(enclosed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>) or an article number in the current group.
+If <em>message_spec</em> is omitted or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the current article in the
+current group is considered.  Return a triple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">number,</span> <span class="pre">id)</span></code>
+where <em>number</em> is the article number and <em>id</em> is the message id.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;gmane.comp.python.devel&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message_id</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message_id</span>
+<span class="go">(9099, &#39;&lt;20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com&gt;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.next">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NEXT</span></code> command.  Return as for <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.stat" title="nntplib.NNTP.stat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.last">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">last</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.last" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LAST</span></code> command.  Return as for <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.stat" title="nntplib.NNTP.stat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.article">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">article</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_spec=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.article" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ARTICLE</span></code> command, where <em>message_spec</em> has the same meaning as
+for <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.stat" title="nntplib.NNTP.stat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>.  Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">info)</span></code> where <em>info</em>
+is a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple</span></code></a> with three attributes <em>number</em>,
+<em>message_id</em> and <em>lines</em> (in that order).  <em>number</em> is the article number
+in the group (or 0 if the information is not available), <em>message_id</em> the
+message id as a string, and <em>lines</em> a list of lines (without terminating
+newlines) comprising the raw message including headers and body.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">info</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">article</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">number</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message_id</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&lt;20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lines</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">65</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lines</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Path: main.gmane.org!not-for-mail&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lines</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;From: Neal Norwitz &lt;neal@metaslash.com&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lines</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;There is a patch for 2.3 as well as 2.2.&#39;, b&#39;&#39;, b&#39;Neal&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.head">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">head</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_spec=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.head" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.article" title="nntplib.NNTP.article"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">article()</span></code></a>, but sends a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HEAD</span></code> command.  The <em>lines</em>
+returned (or written to <em>file</em>) will only contain the message headers, not
+the body.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.body">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">body</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_spec=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.body" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.article" title="nntplib.NNTP.article"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">article()</span></code></a>, but sends a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BODY</span></code> command.  The <em>lines</em>
+returned (or written to <em>file</em>) will only contain the message body, not the
+headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.post">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">post</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.post" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Post an article using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> command.  The <em>data</em> argument is either
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> opened for binary reading, or any iterable of bytes
+objects (representing raw lines of the article to be posted).  It should
+represent a well-formed news article, including the required headers.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.post" title="nntplib.NNTP.post"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">post()</span></code></a> method automatically escapes lines beginning with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> and
+appends the termination line.</p>
+<p>If the method succeeds, the server’s response is returned.  If the server
+refuses posting, a <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTPReplyError" title="nntplib.NNTPReplyError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTPReplyError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.ihave">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">ihave</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message_id</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.ihave" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IHAVE</span></code> command. <em>message_id</em> is the id of the message to send
+to the server (enclosed in  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>).  The <em>data</em> parameter
+and the return value are the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.post" title="nntplib.NNTP.post"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">post()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.date">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">date</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.date" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">date)</span></code>.  <em>date</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+object containing the current date and time of the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.slave">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">slave</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.slave" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SLAVE</span></code> command.  Return the server’s <em>response</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.set_debuglevel">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">set_debuglevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.set_debuglevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the instance’s debugging level.  This controls the amount of debugging
+output printed.  The default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, produces no debugging output.  A value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line
+per request or response.  A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> or higher produces the maximum amount
+of debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the connection
+(including message text).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following are optional NNTP extensions defined in <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2980.html"><strong>RFC 2980</strong></a>.  Some of
+them have been superseded by newer commands in <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html"><strong>RFC 3977</strong></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.xhdr">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">xhdr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hdr</em>, <em>str</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.xhdr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XHDR</span></code> command.  The <em>hdr</em> argument is a header keyword, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'subject'</span></code>.  The <em>str</em> argument should have the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'first-last'</span></code>
+where <em>first</em> and <em>last</em> are the first and last article numbers to search.
+Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">list)</span></code>, where <em>list</em> is a list of pairs <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(id,</span>
+<span class="pre">text)</span></code>, where <em>id</em> is an article number (as a string) and <em>text</em> is the text of
+the requested header for that article. If the <em>file</em> parameter is supplied, then
+the output of the  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XHDR</span></code> command is stored in a file.  If <em>file</em> is a string,
+then the method will open a file with that name, write to it  then close it.
+If <em>file</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, then it will start calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> on
+it to store the lines of the command output. If <em>file</em> is supplied, then the
+returned <em>list</em> is an empty list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.xover">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">xover</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start</em>, <em>end</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.xover" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XOVER</span></code> command.  <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are article numbers
+delimiting the range of articles to select.  The return value is the
+same of for <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.over" title="nntplib.NNTP.over"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">over()</span></code></a>.  It is recommended to use <a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib.NNTP.over" title="nntplib.NNTP.over"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">over()</span></code></a>
+instead, since it will automatically use the newer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OVER</span></code> command
+if available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="nntplib.NNTP.xpath">
+<code class="descclassname">NNTP.</code><code class="descname">xpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.NNTP.xpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(resp,</span> <span class="pre">path)</span></code>, where <em>path</em> is the directory path to the
+article with message ID <em>id</em>.  Most of the time, this extension is not
+enabled by NNTP server administrators.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>The XPATH extension is not actively used.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="utility-functions">
+<h2>Utility functions<a class="headerlink" href="#utility-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module also defines the following utility function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="nntplib.decode_header">
+<code class="descclassname">nntplib.</code><code class="descname">decode_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header_str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib.decode_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode a header value, un-escaping any escaped non-ASCII characters.
+<em>header_str</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> object.  The unescaped value is
+returned.  Using this function is recommended to display some headers
+in a human readable form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decode_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Some subject&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Some subject&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decode_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;=?ISO-8859-15?Q?D=E9buter_en_Python?=&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Débuter en Python&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decode_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Re: =?UTF-8?B?cHJvYmzDqG1lIGRlIG1hdHJpY2U=?=&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Re: problème de matrice&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code> — NNTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nntp-objects">NNTP Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#attributes">Attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#utility-functions">Utility functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="imaplib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code> — IMAP4 protocol client</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="smtplib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code> — SMTP protocol client</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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+  <div class="section" id="module-numbers">
+<span id="numbers-numeric-abstract-base-classes"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a> — Numeric abstract base classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-numbers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/numbers.py">Lib/numbers.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a> module (<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3141"><strong>PEP 3141</strong></a>) defines a hierarchy of numeric
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base classes</span></a> which progressively define
+more operations.  None of the types defined in this module can be instantiated.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="numbers.Number">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">numbers.</code><code class="descname">Number</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Number" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The root of the numeric hierarchy. If you just want to check if an argument
+<em>x</em> is a number, without caring what kind, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">Number)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="the-numeric-tower">
+<h2>The numeric tower<a class="headerlink" href="#the-numeric-tower" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="numbers.Complex">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">numbers.</code><code class="descname">Complex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Complex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclasses of this type describe complex numbers and include the operations
+that work on the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a> type. These are: conversions to
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex.real" title="numbers.Complex.real"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex.imag" title="numbers.Complex.imag"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imag</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex.conjugate" title="numbers.Complex.conjugate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conjugate()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>. All
+except <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code> are abstract.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="numbers.Complex.real">
+<code class="descname">real</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Complex.real" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract. Retrieves the real component of this number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="numbers.Complex.imag">
+<code class="descname">imag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Complex.imag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract. Retrieves the imaginary component of this number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="numbers.Complex.conjugate">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">conjugate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Complex.conjugate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract. Returns the complex conjugate. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1+3j).conjugate()</span>
+<span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">(1-3j)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="numbers.Real">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">numbers.</code><code class="descname">Real</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Real" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>To <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex" title="numbers.Complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Real</span></code></a> adds the operations that work on real
+numbers.</p>
+<p>In short, those are: a conversion to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.trunc" title="math.trunc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.trunc()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.floor()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.ceil()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Real also provides defaults for <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex.real" title="numbers.Complex.real"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex.imag" title="numbers.Complex.imag"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imag</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex.conjugate" title="numbers.Complex.conjugate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conjugate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="numbers.Rational">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">numbers.</code><code class="descname">Rational</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Rational" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subtypes <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Real</span></code></a> and adds
+<a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Rational.numerator" title="numbers.Rational.numerator"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numerator</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Rational.denominator" title="numbers.Rational.denominator"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">denominator</span></code></a> properties, which
+should be in lowest terms. With these, it provides a default for
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="numbers.Rational.numerator">
+<code class="descname">numerator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Rational.numerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="numbers.Rational.denominator">
+<code class="descname">denominator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Rational.denominator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="numbers.Integral">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">numbers.</code><code class="descname">Integral</code><a class="headerlink" href="#numbers.Integral" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subtypes <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Rational" title="numbers.Rational"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rational</span></code></a> and adds a conversion to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  Provides
+defaults for <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Rational.numerator" title="numbers.Rational.numerator"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numerator</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Rational.denominator" title="numbers.Rational.denominator"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">denominator</span></code></a>.  Adds abstract methods for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> and
+bit-string operations: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notes-for-type-implementors">
+<h2>Notes for type implementors<a class="headerlink" href="#notes-for-type-implementors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Implementors should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash
+them to the same values. This may be subtle if there are two different
+extensions of the real numbers. For example, <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a>
+implements <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a> as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__hash__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">denominator</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Get integers right.</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">numerator</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Expensive check, but definitely correct.</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Use tuple&#39;s hash to avoid a high collision rate on</span>
+        <span class="c1"># simple fractions.</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">numerator</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">denominator</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="adding-more-numeric-abcs">
+<h3>Adding More Numeric ABCs<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-more-numeric-abcs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are, of course, more possible ABCs for numbers, and this would
+be a poor hierarchy if it precluded the possibility of adding
+those. You can add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyFoo</span></code> between <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex" title="numbers.Complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Real</span></code></a> with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyFoo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Complex</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">MyFoo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Real</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="implementing-the-arithmetic-operations">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>Implementing the arithmetic operations<a class="headerlink" href="#implementing-the-arithmetic-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>We want to implement the arithmetic operations so that mixed-mode
+operations either call an implementation whose author knew about the
+types of both arguments, or convert both to the nearest built in type
+and do the operation there. For subtypes of <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a>, this
+means that <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__radd__" title="object.__radd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__radd__()</span></code></a> should be defined as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyIntegral</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Integral</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__add__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MyIntegral</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">do_my_adding_stuff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">OtherTypeIKnowAbout</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">do_my_other_adding_stuff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__radd__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MyIntegral</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">do_my_adding_stuff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">OtherTypeIKnowAbout</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">do_my_other_adding_stuff</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Integral</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Real</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Complex</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are 5 different cases for a mixed-type operation on subclasses
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex" title="numbers.Complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code></a>. I’ll refer to all of the above code that doesn’t
+refer to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyIntegral</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OtherTypeIKnowAbout</span></code> as
+“boilerplate”. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> will be an instance of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>, which is a subtype
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex" title="numbers.Complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code></a> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">:</span> <span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">&lt;:</span> <span class="pre">Complex</span></code>), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">:</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">&lt;:</span>
+<span class="pre">Complex</span></code>. I’ll consider <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> defines an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a> which accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code>, all is
+well.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> falls back to the boilerplate code, and it were to
+return a value from <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a>, we’d miss the possibility
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> defines a more intelligent <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__radd__" title="object.__radd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__radd__()</span></code></a>, so the
+boilerplate should return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a> from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a>. (Or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> may not implement <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a> at
+all.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__radd__" title="object.__radd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__radd__()</span></code></a> gets a chance. If it accepts
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code>, all is well.</p></li>
+<li><p>If it falls back to the boilerplate, there are no more possible
+methods to try, so this is where the default implementation
+should live.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">&lt;:</span> <span class="pre">A</span></code>, Python tries <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B.__radd__</span></code> before
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.__add__</span></code>. This is ok, because it was implemented with
+knowledge of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>, so it can handle those instances before
+delegating to <a class="reference internal" href="#numbers.Complex" title="numbers.Complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">&lt;:</span> <span class="pre">Complex</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">&lt;:</span> <span class="pre">Real</span></code> without sharing any other knowledge,
+then the appropriate shared operation is the one involving the built
+in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>, and both <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__radd__" title="object.__radd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__radd__()</span></code></a> s land there, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a+b</span>
+<span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b+a</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Because most of the operations on any given type will be very similar,
+it can be useful to define a helper function which generates the
+forward and reverse instances of any given operator. For example,
+<a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> uses:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_operator_fallbacks</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">monomorphic_operator</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fallback_operator</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">monomorphic_operator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fallback_operator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fallback_operator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+    <span class="n">forward</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">fallback_operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">forward</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">monomorphic_operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Rational</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Includes ints.</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">monomorphic_operator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">numbers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Real</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fallback_operator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">numbers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Complex</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fallback_operator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">NotImplemented</span>
+    <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__r&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">fallback_operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">monomorphic_operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reverse</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;a + b&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">numerator</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">denominator</span> <span class="o">+</span>
+                    <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">numerator</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">denominator</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">denominator</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">denominator</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="fm">__add__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="fm">__radd__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_operator_fallbacks</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_add</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code> — Numeric abstract base classes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-numeric-tower">The numeric tower</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes-for-type-implementors">Notes for type implementors</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-more-numeric-abcs">Adding More Numeric ABCs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#implementing-the-arithmetic-operations">Implementing the arithmetic operations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="numeric.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Numeric and Mathematical Modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="math.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code> — Mathematical functions</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/numeric.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/numeric.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a450e0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/numeric.html
@@ -0,0 +1,258 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+  <div class="section" id="numeric-and-mathematical-modules">
+<span id="numeric"></span><h1>Numeric and Mathematical Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#numeric-and-mathematical-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functions
+and data types. The <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a> module defines an abstract hierarchy of
+numeric types. The <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> modules contain various
+mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. The <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a>
+module supports exact representations of decimal numbers, using arbitrary precision
+arithmetic.</p>
+<p>The following modules are documented in this chapter:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code> — Numeric abstract base classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#the-numeric-tower">The numeric tower</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#notes-for-type-implementors">Notes for type implementors</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#adding-more-numeric-abcs">Adding More Numeric ABCs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#implementing-the-arithmetic-operations">Implementing the arithmetic operations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code> — Mathematical functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#number-theoretic-and-representation-functions">Number-theoretic and representation functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#power-and-logarithmic-functions">Power and logarithmic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#trigonometric-functions">Trigonometric functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#angular-conversion">Angular conversion</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#hyperbolic-functions">Hyperbolic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#special-functions">Special functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code> — Mathematical functions for complex numbers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#conversions-to-and-from-polar-coordinates">Conversions to and from polar coordinates</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#power-and-logarithmic-functions">Power and logarithmic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#trigonometric-functions">Trigonometric functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#hyperbolic-functions">Hyperbolic functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#classification-functions">Classification functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code> — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#quick-start-tutorial">Quick-start Tutorial</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal-objects">Decimal objects</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#logical-operands">Logical operands</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#context-objects">Context objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#rounding-modes">Rounding modes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#signals">Signals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#floating-point-notes">Floating Point Notes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision">Mitigating round-off error with increased precision</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#special-values">Special values</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#working-with-threads">Working with threads</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#recipes">Recipes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal-faq">Decimal FAQ</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code> — Rational numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code> — Generate pseudo-random numbers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html#bookkeeping-functions">Bookkeeping functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html#functions-for-integers">Functions for integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html#functions-for-sequences">Functions for sequences</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html#real-valued-distributions">Real-valued distributions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html#alternative-generator">Alternative Generator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html#notes-on-reproducibility">Notes on Reproducibility</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="random.html#examples-and-recipes">Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="statistics.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code> — Mathematical statistics functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="statistics.html#averages-and-measures-of-central-location">Averages and measures of central location</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-operator">
+<span id="operator-standard-operators-as-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> — Standard operators as functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-operator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/operator.py">Lib/operator.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module exports a set of efficient functions corresponding to
+the intrinsic operators of Python.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.add(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> is
+equivalent to the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x+y</span></code>. Many function names are those used for
+special methods, without the double underscores.  For backward compatibility,
+many of these have a variant with the double underscores kept. The variants
+without the double underscores are preferred for clarity.</p>
+<p>The functions fall into categories that perform object comparisons, logical
+operations, mathematical operations and sequence operations.</p>
+<p>The object comparison functions are useful for all objects, and are named after
+the rich comparison operators they support:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.lt">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">lt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.lt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.le">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">le</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.le" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.eq">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">eq</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.eq" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.ne">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">ne</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ne" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.ge">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">ge</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.gt">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">gt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.gt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__lt__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__lt__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__lt__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__le__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__le__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__le__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__eq__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__eq__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__eq__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__ne__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__ne__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ne__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__ge__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__ge__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ge__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__gt__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__gt__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__gt__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform “rich comparisons” between <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>. Specifically, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">le(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq(a,</span>
+<span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ne(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ge(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span>
+<span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.  Note that these functions can return any value, which may
+or may not be interpretable as a Boolean value.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#comparisons"><span class="std std-ref">Comparisons</span></a> for more information about rich comparisons.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The logical operations are also generally applicable to all objects, and support
+truth tests, identity tests, and boolean operations:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.not_">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">not_</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.not_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__not__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__not__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__not__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the outcome of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code></a> <em>obj</em>.  (Note that there is no
+<a class="reference internal" href="#operator.__not__" title="operator.__not__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__not__()</span></code></a> method for object instances; only the interpreter core defines
+this operation.  The result is affected by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> methods.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.truth">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">truth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.truth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if <em>obj</em> is true, and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.  This is
+equivalent to using the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.is_">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">is_</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.is_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.  Tests object identity.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.is_not">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">is_not</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.is_not" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.  Tests object identity.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.abs">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">abs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.abs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__abs__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__abs__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__abs__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the absolute value of <em>obj</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.add">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__add__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__add__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__add__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>, for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> numbers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.and_">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">and_</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.and_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__and__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__and__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__and__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the bitwise and of <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.floordiv">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">floordiv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.floordiv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__floordiv__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__floordiv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__floordiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.index">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__index__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__index__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__index__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>a</em> converted to an integer.  Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.__index__()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.inv">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">inv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.inv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.invert">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">invert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.invert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__inv__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__inv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__inv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__invert__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__invert__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__invert__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the bitwise inverse of the number <em>obj</em>.  This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~obj</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.lshift">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">lshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.lshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__lshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__lshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__lshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>a</em> shifted left by <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.mod">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">mod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.mod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__mod__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__mod__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__mod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.mul">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">mul</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.mul" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__mul__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__mul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__mul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>, for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> numbers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.matmul">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">matmul</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.matmul" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__matmul__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__matmul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__matmul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&#64;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.neg">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">neg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.neg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__neg__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__neg__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__neg__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>obj</em> negated (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-obj</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.or_">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">or_</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.or_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__or__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__or__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__or__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the bitwise or of <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.pos">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">pos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.pos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__pos__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__pos__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__pos__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>obj</em> positive (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+obj</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.pow">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">pow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.pow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__pow__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__pow__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__pow__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>, for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> numbers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.rshift">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">rshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.rshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__rshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__rshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__rshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>a</em> shifted right by <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.sub">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">sub</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.sub" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__sub__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__sub__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__sub__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.truediv">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">truediv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.truediv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__truediv__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__truediv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__truediv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> where 2/3 is .66 rather than 0.  This is also known as
+“true” division.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.xor">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">xor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.xor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__xor__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__xor__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__xor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the bitwise exclusive or of <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Operations which work with sequences (some of them with mappings too) include:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.concat">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">concat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__concat__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__concat__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__concat__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> sequences.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.contains">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">contains</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.contains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__contains__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__contains__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__contains__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the outcome of the test <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code>. Note the reversed operands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.countOf">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">countOf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.countOf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of occurrences of <em>b</em> in <em>a</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.delitem">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">delitem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.delitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__delitem__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__delitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__delitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the value of <em>a</em> at index <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.getitem">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">getitem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.getitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__getitem__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of <em>a</em> at index <em>b</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.indexOf">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">indexOf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.indexOf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the index of the first of occurrence of <em>b</em> in <em>a</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.setitem">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">setitem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.setitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__setitem__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__setitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__setitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the value of <em>a</em> at index <em>b</em> to <em>c</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.length_hint">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">length_hint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>default=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.length_hint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an estimated length for the object <em>o</em>. First try to return its
+actual length, then an estimate using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__length_hint__" title="object.__length_hint__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__length_hint__()</span></code></a>, and
+finally return the default value.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module also defines tools for generalized attribute and item
+lookups.  These are useful for making fast field extractors as arguments for
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.groupby" title="itertools.groupby"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.groupby()</span></code></a>, or other functions that
+expect a function argument.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.attrgetter">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">attrgetter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.attrgetter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">attrgetter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*attrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a callable object that fetches <em>attr</em> from its operand.
+If more than one attribute is requested, returns a tuple of attributes.
+The attribute names can also contain dots. For example:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">attrgetter('name')</span></code>, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b.name</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">attrgetter('name',</span> <span class="pre">'date')</span></code>, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(b.name,</span> <span class="pre">b.date)</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">attrgetter('name.first',</span> <span class="pre">'name.last')</span></code>, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(b.name.first,</span> <span class="pre">b.name.last)</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">attrgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;attribute name must be a string&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">attr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">resolve_attr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resolve_attr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">attr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">g</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">resolve_attr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;.&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.itemgetter">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">itemgetter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.itemgetter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">itemgetter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*items</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a callable object that fetches <em>item</em> from its operand using the
+operand’s <a class="reference internal" href="#operator.__getitem__" title="operator.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method.  If multiple items are specified,
+returns a tuple of lookup values.  For example:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">itemgetter(2)</span></code>, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(r)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r[2]</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">itemgetter(2,</span> <span class="pre">5,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span></code>, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g(r)</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(r[2],</span> <span class="pre">r[5],</span> <span class="pre">r[3])</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">g</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The items can be any type accepted by the operand’s <a class="reference internal" href="#operator.__getitem__" title="operator.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+method.  Dictionaries accept any hashable value.  Lists, tuples, and
+strings accept an index or a slice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;B&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;B&#39;, &#39;D&#39;, &#39;F&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">))(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABCDEFG&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;CDEFG&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">soldier</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rank</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;captain&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;dotterbart&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rank&#39;</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">soldier</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;captain&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of using <a class="reference internal" href="#operator.itemgetter" title="operator.itemgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemgetter()</span></code></a> to retrieve specific fields from a
+tuple record:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">inventory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pear&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcount</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getcount</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">inventory</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 2, 5, 1]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inventory</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">getcount</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;orange&#39;, 1), (&#39;banana&#39;, 2), (&#39;apple&#39;, 3), (&#39;pear&#39;, 5)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.methodcaller">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">methodcaller</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.methodcaller" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a callable object that calls the method <em>name</em> on its operand.  If
+additional arguments and/or keyword arguments are given, they will be given
+to the method as well.  For example:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">methodcaller('name')</span></code>, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b.name()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">methodcaller('name',</span> <span class="pre">'foo',</span> <span class="pre">bar=1)</span></code>, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b.name('foo',</span> <span class="pre">bar=1)</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">methodcaller</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">caller</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">caller</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="mapping-operators-to-functions">
+<span id="operator-map"></span><h2>Mapping Operators to Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-operators-to-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This table shows how abstract operations correspond to operator symbols in the
+Python syntax and the functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 26%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 45%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Syntax</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Function</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Addition</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Concatenation</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seq1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">seq2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concat(seq1,</span> <span class="pre">seq2)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Containment Test</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">seq</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contains(seq,</span> <span class="pre">obj)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Division</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truediv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Division</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floordiv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Bitwise And</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Bitwise Exclusive Or</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">^</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xor(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Bitwise Inversion</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">invert(a)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Bitwise Or</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Exponentiation</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Identity</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Identity</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_not(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Indexed Assignment</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[k]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setitem(obj,</span> <span class="pre">k,</span> <span class="pre">v)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Indexed Deletion</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">obj[k]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delitem(obj,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Indexing</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[k]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getitem(obj,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Left Shift</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Modulo</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mod(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Multiplication</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mul(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Matrix Multiplication</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&#64;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">matmul(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Negation (Arithmetic)</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">neg(a)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Negation (Logical)</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not_(a)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Positive</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pos(a)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Right Shift</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Slice Assignment</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seq[i:j]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">values</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setitem(seq,</span> <span class="pre">slice(i,</span> <span class="pre">j),</span> <span class="pre">values)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Slice Deletion</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">seq[i:j]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delitem(seq,</span> <span class="pre">slice(i,</span> <span class="pre">j))</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Slicing</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seq[i:j]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getitem(seq,</span> <span class="pre">slice(i,</span> <span class="pre">j))</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>String Formatting</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">obj</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mod(s,</span> <span class="pre">obj)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Subtraction</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Truth Test</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truth(obj)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Ordering</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Ordering</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">le(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Equality</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eq(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Difference</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ne(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Ordering</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ge(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Ordering</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="in-place-operators">
+<h2>In-place Operators<a class="headerlink" href="#in-place-operators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Many operations have an “in-place” version.  Listed below are functions
+providing a more primitive access to in-place operators than the usual syntax
+does; for example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-statement"><span class="xref std std-term">statement</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">operator.iadd(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code>.  Another way to put it is to say that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">operator.iadd(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> is equivalent to the compound statement
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">x;</span> <span class="pre">z</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In those examples, note that when an in-place method is called, the computation
+and assignment are performed in two separate steps.  The in-place functions
+listed below only do the first step, calling the in-place method.  The second
+step, assignment, is not handled.</p>
+<p>For immutable targets such as strings, numbers, and tuples, the updated
+value is computed, but not assigned back to the input variable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">iadd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39; world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;hello world&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;hello&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For mutable targets such as lists and dictionaries, the in-place method
+will perform the update, so no subsequent assignment is necessary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;h&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;o&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">iadd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;o&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;h&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39;w&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;d&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;h&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39;w&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;d&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.iadd">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">iadd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.iadd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__iadd__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__iadd__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__iadd__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iadd(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.iand">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">iand</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.iand" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__iand__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__iand__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__iand__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iand(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&amp;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.iconcat">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">iconcat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.iconcat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__iconcat__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__iconcat__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__iconcat__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iconcat(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> sequences.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.ifloordiv">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">ifloordiv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ifloordiv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__ifloordiv__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__ifloordiv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ifloordiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ifloordiv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">//=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.ilshift">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">ilshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ilshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__ilshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__ilshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ilshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ilshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.imod">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">imod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.imod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__imod__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__imod__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__imod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">imod(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.imul">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">imul</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.imul" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__imul__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__imul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__imul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">imul(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.imatmul">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">imatmul</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.imatmul" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__imatmul__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__imatmul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__imatmul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">imatmul(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&#64;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.ior">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">ior</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ior" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__ior__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__ior__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ior__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ior(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">|=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.ipow">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">ipow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ipow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__ipow__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__ipow__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ipow__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ipow(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">**=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.irshift">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">irshift</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.irshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__irshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__irshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__irshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">irshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.isub">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">isub</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.isub" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__isub__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__isub__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__isub__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">isub(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">-=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.itruediv">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">itruediv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.itruediv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__itruediv__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__itruediv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__itruediv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">itruediv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="operator.ixor">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">ixor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ixor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="operator.__ixor__">
+<code class="descclassname">operator.</code><code class="descname">__ixor__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ixor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ixor(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">^=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-operators-to-functions">Mapping Operators to Functions</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-optparse">
+<span id="optparse-parser-for-command-line-options"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> — Parser for command line options<a class="headerlink" href="#module-optparse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/optparse.py">Lib/optparse.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> module is deprecated and will not be developed further;
+development will continue with the <a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library for parsing
+command-line options than the old <a class="reference internal" href="getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> module.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> uses a
+more declarative style of command-line parsing: you create an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a>, populate it with options, and parse the command
+line. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> allows users to specify options in the conventional
+GNU/POSIX syntax, and additionally generates usage and help messages for you.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example of using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> in a simple script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">optparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;write report to FILE&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;FILE&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--quiet&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;don&#39;t print status messages to stdout&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With these few lines of code, users of your script can now do the “usual thing”
+on the command-line, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">yourscript</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">outfile</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">q</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As it parses the command line, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> sets attributes of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code> object returned by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code> based on user-supplied
+command-line values.  When <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code> returns from parsing this command
+line, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options.filename</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;outfile&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options.verbose</span></code> will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> supports both long and short options, allows short
+options to be merged together, and allows options to be associated with their
+arguments in a variety of ways.  Thus, the following command lines are all
+equivalent to the above example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">yourscript</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="n">outfile</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">quiet</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">yourscript</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">quiet</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">file</span> <span class="n">outfile</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">yourscript</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">foutfile</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">yourscript</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">qfoutfile</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Additionally, users can run one of</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">yourscript</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">h</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">yourscript</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">help</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will print out a brief summary of your script’s options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Usage: &lt;yourscript&gt; [options]
+
+Options:
+  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+  -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
+  -q, --quiet           don&#39;t print status messages to stdout
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where the value of <em>yourscript</em> is determined at runtime (normally from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="section" id="background">
+<span id="optparse-background"></span><h2>Background<a class="headerlink" href="#background" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of programs
+with straightforward, conventional command-line interfaces.  To that end, it
+supports only the most common command-line syntax and semantics conventionally
+used under Unix.  If you are unfamiliar with these conventions, read this
+section to acquaint yourself with them.</p>
+<div class="section" id="terminology">
+<span id="optparse-terminology"></span><h3>Terminology<a class="headerlink" href="#terminology" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl>
+<dt>argument</dt><dd><p>a string entered on the command-line, and passed by the shell to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execl()</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execv()</span></code>.  In Python, arguments are elements of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is the name of the program being executed).  Unix shells
+also use the term “word”.</p>
+<p>It is occasionally desirable to substitute an argument list other than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>, so you should read “argument” as “an element of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>, or of some other list provided as a substitute for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>”.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>option</dt><dd><p>an argument used to supply extra information to guide or customize the
+execution of a program.  There are many different syntaxes for options; the
+traditional Unix syntax is a hyphen (“-“) followed by a single letter,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-x</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-F</span></code>.  Also, traditional Unix syntax allows multiple
+options to be merged into a single argument, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-x</span> <span class="pre">-F</span></code> is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-xF</span></code>.  The GNU project introduced <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--</span></code> followed by a series of
+hyphen-separated words, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--file</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--dry-run</span></code>.  These are the
+only two option syntaxes provided by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Some other option syntaxes that the world has seen include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>a hyphen followed by a few letters, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-pf</span></code> (this is <em>not</em> the same
+as multiple options merged into a single argument)</p></li>
+<li><p>a hyphen followed by a whole word, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-file</span></code> (this is technically
+equivalent to the previous syntax, but they aren’t usually seen in the same
+program)</p></li>
+<li><p>a plus sign followed by a single letter, or a few letters, or a word, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+f</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+rgb</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>a slash followed by a letter, or a few letters, or a word, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/f</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/file</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>These option syntaxes are not supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>, and they never
+will be.  This is deliberate: the first three are non-standard on any
+environment, and the last only makes sense if you’re exclusively targeting
+VMS, MS-DOS, and/or Windows.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>option argument</dt><dd><p>an argument that follows an option, is closely associated with that option,
+and is consumed from the argument list when that option is. With
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>, option arguments may either be in a separate argument from
+their option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>-f foo
+--file foo
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or included in the same argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>-ffoo
+--file=foo
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Typically, a given option either takes an argument or it doesn’t. Lots of
+people want an “optional option arguments” feature, meaning that some options
+will take an argument if they see it, and won’t if they don’t.  This is
+somewhat controversial, because it makes parsing ambiguous: if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-a</span></code> takes
+an optional argument and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> is another option entirely, how do we
+interpret <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-ab</span></code>?  Because of this ambiguity, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> does not
+support this feature.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>positional argument</dt><dd><p>something leftover in the argument list after options have been parsed, i.e.
+after options and their arguments have been parsed and removed from the
+argument list.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>required option</dt><dd><p>an option that must be supplied on the command-line; note that the phrase
+“required option” is self-contradictory in English.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> doesn’t
+prevent you from implementing required options, but doesn’t give you much
+help at it either.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>For example, consider this hypothetical command-line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">prog</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">report</span> <span class="n">report</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">txt</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="n">bar</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--report</span></code> are both options.  Assuming that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--report</span></code>
+takes one argument, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">report.txt</span></code> is an option argument.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code> are positional arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-are-options-for">
+<span id="optparse-what-options-for"></span><h3>What are options for?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-are-options-for" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Options are used to provide extra information to tune or customize the execution
+of a program.  In case it wasn’t clear, options are usually <em>optional</em>.  A
+program should be able to run just fine with no options whatsoever.  (Pick a
+random program from the Unix or GNU toolsets.  Can it run without any options at
+all and still make sense?  The main exceptions are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tar</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dd</span></code>—all of which are mutant oddballs that have been rightly criticized
+for their non-standard syntax and confusing interfaces.)</p>
+<p>Lots of people want their programs to have “required options”.  Think about it.
+If it’s required, then it’s <em>not optional</em>!  If there is a piece of information
+that your program absolutely requires in order to run successfully, that’s what
+positional arguments are for.</p>
+<p>As an example of good command-line interface design, consider the humble <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp</span></code>
+utility, for copying files.  It doesn’t make much sense to try to copy files
+without supplying a destination and at least one source. Hence, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp</span></code> fails if
+you run it with no arguments.  However, it has a flexible, useful syntax that
+does not require any options at all:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cp</span> <span class="n">SOURCE</span> <span class="n">DEST</span>
+<span class="n">cp</span> <span class="n">SOURCE</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">DEST</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">DIR</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can get pretty far with just that.  Most <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp</span></code> implementations provide a
+bunch of options to tweak exactly how the files are copied: you can preserve
+mode and modification time, avoid following symlinks, ask before clobbering
+existing files, etc.  But none of this distracts from the core mission of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp</span></code>, which is to copy either one file to another, or several files to another
+directory.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-are-positional-arguments-for">
+<span id="optparse-what-positional-arguments-for"></span><h3>What are positional arguments for?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-are-positional-arguments-for" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Positional arguments are for those pieces of information that your program
+absolutely, positively requires to run.</p>
+<p>A good user interface should have as few absolute requirements as possible.  If
+your program requires 17 distinct pieces of information in order to run
+successfully, it doesn’t much matter <em>how</em> you get that information from the
+user—most people will give up and walk away before they successfully run the
+program.  This applies whether the user interface is a command-line, a
+configuration file, or a GUI: if you make that many demands on your users, most
+of them will simply give up.</p>
+<p>In short, try to minimize the amount of information that users are absolutely
+required to supply—use sensible defaults whenever possible.  Of course, you
+also want to make your programs reasonably flexible.  That’s what options are
+for.  Again, it doesn’t matter if they are entries in a config file, widgets in
+the “Preferences” dialog of a GUI, or command-line options—the more options
+you implement, the more flexible your program is, and the more complicated its
+implementation becomes.  Too much flexibility has drawbacks as well, of course;
+too many options can overwhelm users and make your code much harder to maintain.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tutorial">
+<span id="optparse-tutorial"></span><h2>Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>While <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> is quite flexible and powerful, it’s also straightforward
+to use in most cases.  This section covers the code patterns that are common to
+any <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>-based program.</p>
+<p>First, you need to import the OptionParser class; then, early in the main
+program, create an OptionParser instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">optparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then you can start defining options.  The basic syntax is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">attr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each option has one or more option strings, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--file</span></code>,
+and several option attributes that tell <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> what to expect and what
+to do when it encounters that option on the command line.</p>
+<p>Typically, each option will have one short option string and one long option
+string, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You’re free to define as many short option strings and as many long option
+strings as you like (including zero), as long as there is at least one option
+string overall.</p>
+<p>The option strings passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.add_option()</span></code></a> are effectively
+labels for the
+option defined by that call.  For brevity, we will frequently refer to
+<em>encountering an option</em> on the command line; in reality, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>
+encounters <em>option strings</em> and looks up options from them.</p>
+<p>Once all of your options are defined, instruct <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> to parse your
+program’s command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(If you like, you can pass a custom argument list to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code>, but
+that’s rarely necessary: by default it uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code> returns two values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code>, an object containing values for all of your options—e.g. if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--file</span></code> takes a single string argument, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options.file</span></code> will be the
+filename supplied by the user, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the user did not supply that
+option</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code>, the list of positional arguments leftover after parsing options</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This tutorial section only covers the four most important option attributes:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.action" title="optparse.Option.action"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>
+(destination), and <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="optparse.Option.help"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code></a>. Of these, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.action" title="optparse.Option.action"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code></a> is the
+most fundamental.</p>
+<div class="section" id="understanding-option-actions">
+<span id="optparse-understanding-option-actions"></span><h3>Understanding option actions<a class="headerlink" href="#understanding-option-actions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Actions tell <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> what to do when it encounters an option on the
+command line.  There is a fixed set of actions hard-coded into <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>;
+adding new actions is an advanced topic covered in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-extending-optparse"><span class="std std-ref">Extending optparse</span></a>.  Most actions tell <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> to store
+a value in some variable—for example, take a string from the command line and
+store it in an attribute of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If you don’t specify an option action, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">store</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-store-action">
+<span id="optparse-store-action"></span><h3>The store action<a class="headerlink" href="#the-store-action" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The most common option action is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">store</span></code>, which tells <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> to take
+the next argument (or the remainder of the current argument), ensure that it is
+of the correct type, and store it to your chosen destination.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;string&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now let’s make up a fake command line and ask <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> to parse it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> sees the option string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code>, it consumes the next
+argument, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.txt</span></code>, and stores it in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options.filename</span></code>.  So, after this
+call to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options.filename</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;foo.txt&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Some other option types supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code>.
+Here’s an option that expects an integer argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-n&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;int&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;num&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that this option has no long option string, which is perfectly acceptable.
+Also, there’s no explicit action, since the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">store</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Let’s parse another fake command-line.  This time, we’ll jam the option argument
+right up against the option: since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n42</span></code> (one argument) is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span> <span class="pre">42</span></code> (two arguments), the code</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;-n42&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will print <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">42</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If you don’t specify a type, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> assumes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code>.  Combined with
+the fact that the default action is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">store</span></code>, that means our first example can
+be a lot shorter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you don’t supply a destination, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> figures out a sensible
+default from the option strings: if the first long option string is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo-bar</span></code>, then the default destination is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo_bar</span></code>.  If there are no
+long option strings, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> looks at the first short option string: the
+default destination for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> also includes the built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code> type.  Adding
+types is covered in section <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-extending-optparse"><span class="std std-ref">Extending optparse</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="handling-boolean-flag-options">
+<span id="optparse-handling-boolean-options"></span><h3>Handling boolean (flag) options<a class="headerlink" href="#handling-boolean-flag-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Flag options—set a variable to true or false when a particular option is
+seen—are quite common.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> supports them with two separate actions,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">store_true</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">store_false</span></code>.  For example, you might have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose</span></code>
+flag that is turned on with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> and off with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here we have two different options with the same destination, which is perfectly
+OK.  (It just means you have to be a bit careful when setting default
+values—see below.)</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> encounters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> on the command line, it sets
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options.verbose</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>; when it encounters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options.verbose</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-actions">
+<span id="optparse-other-actions"></span><h3>Other actions<a class="headerlink" href="#other-actions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some other actions supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> are:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_const&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>store a constant value</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>append this option’s argument to a list</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;count&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>increment a counter by one</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;callback&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>call a specified function</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>These are covered in section <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-reference-guide"><span class="std std-ref">Reference Guide</span></a>, Reference Guide
+and section <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-option-callbacks"><span class="std std-ref">Option Callbacks</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="default-values">
+<span id="optparse-default-values"></span><h3>Default values<a class="headerlink" href="#default-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All of the above examples involve setting some variable (the “destination”) when
+certain command-line options are seen.  What happens if those options are never
+seen?  Since we didn’t supply any defaults, they are all set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  This
+is usually fine, but sometimes you want more control.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> lets you
+supply a default value for each destination, which is assigned before the
+command line is parsed.</p>
+<p>First, consider the verbose/quiet example.  If we want <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> to set
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> unless <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code> is seen, then we can do this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since default values apply to the <em>destination</em> rather than to any particular
+option, and these two options happen to have the same destination, this is
+exactly equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Consider this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Again, the default value for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>: the last default
+value supplied for any particular destination is the one that counts.</p>
+<p>A clearer way to specify default values is the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_defaults()</span></code> method of
+OptionParser, which you can call at any time before calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_defaults</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As before, the last value specified for a given option destination is the one
+that counts.  For clarity, try to use one method or the other of setting default
+values, not both.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generating-help">
+<span id="optparse-generating-help"></span><h3>Generating help<a class="headerlink" href="#generating-help" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s ability to generate help and usage text automatically is
+useful for creating user-friendly command-line interfaces.  All you have to do
+is supply a <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="optparse.Option.help"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code></a> value for each option, and optionally a short
+usage message for your whole program.  Here’s an OptionParser populated with
+user-friendly (documented) options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">usage</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">usage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">usage</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;make lots of noise [default]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--quiet&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;be vewwy quiet (I&#39;m hunting wabbits)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;FILE&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;write output to FILE&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-m&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--mode&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;intermediate&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;interaction mode: novice, intermediate, &quot;</span>
+                       <span class="s2">&quot;or expert [default: </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">efault]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> encounters either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> on the
+command-line, or if you just call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.print_help()</span></code>, it prints the
+following to standard output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Usage: &lt;yourscript&gt; [options] arg1 arg2
+
+Options:
+  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+  -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
+  -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I&#39;m hunting wabbits)
+  -f FILE, --filename=FILE
+                        write output to FILE
+  -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
+                        expert [default: intermediate]
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(If the help output is triggered by a help option, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> exits after
+printing the help text.)</p>
+<p>There’s a lot going on here to help <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> generate the best possible
+help message:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>the script defines its own usage message:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">usage</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> expands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> in the usage string to the name of the
+current program, i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])</span></code>.  The expanded string
+is then printed before the detailed option help.</p>
+<p>If you don’t supply a usage string, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> uses a bland but sensible
+default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Usage:</span> <span class="pre">%prog</span> <span class="pre">[options]&quot;</span></code>, which is fine if your script doesn’t
+take any positional arguments.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>every option defines a help string, and doesn’t worry about
+line-wrapping—<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> takes care of wrapping lines and making
+the help output look good.</p></li>
+<li><p>options that take a value indicate this fact in their automatically-generated
+help message, e.g. for the “mode” option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">MODE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">MODE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here, “MODE” is called the meta-variable: it stands for the argument that the
+user is expected to supply to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--mode</span></code>.  By default,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> converts the destination variable name to uppercase and uses
+that for the meta-variable.  Sometimes, that’s not what you want—for
+example, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--filename</span></code> option explicitly sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metavar=&quot;FILE&quot;</span></code>,
+resulting in this automatically-generated option description:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="n">FILE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">FILE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is important for more than just saving space, though: the manually
+written help text uses the meta-variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE</span></code> to clue the user in that
+there’s a connection between the semi-formal syntax <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span> <span class="pre">FILE</span></code> and the informal
+semantic description “write output to FILE”. This is a simple but effective
+way to make your help text a lot clearer and more useful for end users.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>options that have a default value can include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%default</span></code> in the help
+string—<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will replace it with <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of the option’s
+default value.  If an option has no default value (or the default value is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%default</span></code> expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">none</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="grouping-options">
+<h4>Grouping Options<a class="headerlink" href="#grouping-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>When dealing with many options, it is convenient to group these options for
+better help output.  An <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a> can contain several option groups,
+each of which can contain several options.</p>
+<p>An option group is obtained using the class <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionGroup" title="optparse.OptionGroup"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionGroup</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionGroup">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">optparse.</code><code class="descname">OptionGroup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parser</em>, <em>title</em>, <em>description=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionGroup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>where</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>parser is the <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a> instance the group will be inserted in
+to</p></li>
+<li><p>title is the group title</p></li>
+<li><p>description, optional, is a long description of the group</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionGroup" title="optparse.OptionGroup"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionGroup</span></code></a> inherits from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionContainer</span></code> (like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a>) and so the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_option()</span></code> method can be used to add
+an option to the group.</p>
+<p>Once all the options are declared, using the <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a> method
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_option_group()</span></code> the group is added to the previously defined parser.</p>
+<p>Continuing with the parser defined in the previous section, adding an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionGroup" title="optparse.OptionGroup"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionGroup</span></code></a> to a parser is easy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionGroup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Dangerous Options&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="s2">&quot;Caution: use these options at your own risk.  &quot;</span>
+                    <span class="s2">&quot;It is believed that some of them bite.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-g&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Group option.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option_group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This would result in the following help output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Usage: &lt;yourscript&gt; [options] arg1 arg2
+
+Options:
+  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+  -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
+  -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I&#39;m hunting wabbits)
+  -f FILE, --filename=FILE
+                        write output to FILE
+  -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
+                        expert [default: intermediate]
+
+  Dangerous Options:
+    Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
+    of them bite.
+
+    -g                  Group option.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A bit more complete example might involve using more than one group: still
+extending the previous example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionGroup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Dangerous Options&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="s2">&quot;Caution: use these options at your own risk.  &quot;</span>
+                    <span class="s2">&quot;It is believed that some of them bite.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-g&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Group option.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option_group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">group</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionGroup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Debug Options&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-d&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--debug&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Print debug information&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--sql&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Print all SQL statements executed&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">group</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-e&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Print every action done&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option_group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>that results in the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Usage: &lt;yourscript&gt; [options] arg1 arg2
+
+Options:
+  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+  -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
+  -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I&#39;m hunting wabbits)
+  -f FILE, --filename=FILE
+                        write output to FILE
+  -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
+                        [default: intermediate]
+
+  Dangerous Options:
+    Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
+    of them bite.
+
+    -g                  Group option.
+
+  Debug Options:
+    -d, --debug         Print debug information
+    -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
+    -e                  Print every action done
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another interesting method, in particular when working programmatically with
+option groups is:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.get_option_group">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">get_option_group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>opt_str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.get_option_group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionGroup" title="optparse.OptionGroup"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionGroup</span></code></a> to which the short or long option
+string <em>opt_str</em> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-o'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'--option'</span></code>) belongs. If
+there’s no such <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionGroup" title="optparse.OptionGroup"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionGroup</span></code></a>, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="printing-a-version-string">
+<span id="optparse-printing-version-string"></span><h3>Printing a version string<a class="headerlink" href="#printing-a-version-string" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Similar to the brief usage string, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> can also print a version
+string for your program.  You have to supply the string as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code>
+argument to OptionParser:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">usage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;%prog [-f] [-q]&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;%prog 1.0&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> is expanded just like it is in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage</span></code>.  Apart from that,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> can contain anything you like.  When you supply it, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>
+automatically adds a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--version</span></code> option to your parser. If it encounters
+this option on the command line, it expands your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> string (by
+replacing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code>), prints it to stdout, and exits.</p>
+<p>For example, if your script is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/foo</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> /usr/bin/foo --version
+<span class="go">foo 1.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following two methods can be used to print and get the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> string:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.print_version">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">print_version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.print_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the version message for the current program (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.version</span></code>) to
+<em>file</em> (default stdout).  As with <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.print_usage" title="optparse.OptionParser.print_usage"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_usage()</span></code></a>, any occurrence
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.version</span></code> is replaced with the name of the current
+program.  Does nothing if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.version</span></code> is empty or undefined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.get_version">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">get_version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.get_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.print_version" title="optparse.OptionParser.print_version"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_version()</span></code></a> but returns the version string instead of
+printing it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-optparse-handles-errors">
+<span id="optparse-how-optparse-handles-errors"></span><h3>How <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> handles errors<a class="headerlink" href="#how-optparse-handles-errors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are two broad classes of errors that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> has to worry about:
+programmer errors and user errors.  Programmer errors are usually erroneous
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.add_option()</span></code></a>, e.g. invalid option strings, unknown
+option attributes, missing option attributes, etc.  These are dealt with in the
+usual way: raise an exception (either <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.OptionError</span></code> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>) and let the program crash.</p>
+<p>Handling user errors is much more important, since they are guaranteed to happen
+no matter how stable your code is.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> can automatically detect
+some user errors, such as bad option arguments (passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span> <span class="pre">4x</span></code> where
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> takes an integer argument), missing arguments (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> at the end
+of the command line, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> takes an argument of any type).  Also,
+you can call <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.error()</span></code> to signal an application-defined error
+condition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;options -a and -b are mutually exclusive&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In either case, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> handles the error the same way: it prints the
+program’s usage message and an error message to standard error and exits with
+error status 2.</p>
+<p>Consider the first example above, where the user passes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4x</span></code> to an option
+that takes an integer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
+<span class="go">Usage: foo [options]</span>
+
+<span class="go">foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: &#39;4x&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or, where the user fails to pass a value at all:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> /usr/bin/foo -n
+<span class="go">Usage: foo [options]</span>
+
+<span class="go">foo: error: -n option requires an argument</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>-generated error messages take care always to mention the
+option involved in the error; be sure to do the same when calling
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.error()</span></code> from your application code.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s default error-handling behaviour does not suit your needs,
+you’ll need to subclass OptionParser and override its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit()</span></code>
+and/or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="putting-it-all-together">
+<span id="optparse-putting-it-all-together"></span><h3>Putting it all together<a class="headerlink" href="#putting-it-all-together" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Here’s what <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>-based scripts usually look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">optparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">usage</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;usage: %prog [options] arg&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">usage</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                      <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;read data from FILENAME&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                      <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--quiet&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                      <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;incorrect number of arguments&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;reading </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">...&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reference-guide">
+<span id="optparse-reference-guide"></span><h2>Reference Guide<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-guide" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="creating-the-parser">
+<span id="optparse-creating-parser"></span><h3>Creating the parser<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-the-parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The first step in using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> is to create an OptionParser instance.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">optparse.</code><code class="descname">OptionParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The OptionParser constructor has no required arguments, but a number of
+optional keyword arguments.  You should always pass them as keyword
+arguments, i.e. do not rely on the order in which the arguments are declared.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%prog</span> <span class="pre">[options]&quot;</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>The usage summary to print when your program is run incorrectly or with a
+help option.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> prints the usage string, it expands
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])</span></code> (or to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prog</span></code> if you
+passed that keyword argument).  To suppress a usage message, pass the
+special value <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option_list</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>A list of Option objects to populate the parser with.  The options in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option_list</span></code> are added after any options in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">standard_option_list</span></code> (a
+class attribute that may be set by OptionParser subclasses), but before
+any version or help options. Deprecated; use <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_option()</span></code></a> after
+creating the parser instead.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option_class</span></code> (default: optparse.Option)</dt><dd><p>Class to use when adding options to the parser in <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_option()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>A version string to print when the user supplies a version option. If you
+supply a true value for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> automatically adds a
+version option with the single option string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--version</span></code>.  The
+substring <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> is expanded the same as for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conflict_handler</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;error&quot;</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>Specifies what to do when options with conflicting option strings are
+added to the parser; see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-conflicts-between-options"><span class="std std-ref">Conflicts between options</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">description</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>A paragraph of text giving a brief overview of your program.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> reformats this paragraph to fit the current terminal width
+and prints it when the user requests help (after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage</span></code>, but before the
+list of options).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> (default: a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndentedHelpFormatter</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>An instance of optparse.HelpFormatter that will be used for printing help
+text.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> provides two concrete classes for this purpose:
+IndentedHelpFormatter and TitledHelpFormatter.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_help_option</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>If true, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will add a help option (with option strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code>) to the parser.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prog</span></code></dt><dd><p>The string to use when expanding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code>
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epilog</span></code> (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</dt><dd><p>A paragraph of help text to print after the option help.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="populating-the-parser">
+<span id="optparse-populating-parser"></span><h3>Populating the parser<a class="headerlink" href="#populating-the-parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are several ways to populate the parser with options.  The preferred way
+is by using <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.add_option()</span></code></a>, as shown in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Tutorial</span></a>.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_option()</span></code> can be called in one of two ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>pass it an Option instance (as returned by <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_option()</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>pass it any combination of positional and keyword arguments that are
+acceptable to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_option()</span></code> (i.e., to the Option constructor), and it
+will create the Option instance for you</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The other alternative is to pass a list of pre-constructed Option instances to
+the OptionParser constructor, as in:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">option_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+    <span class="n">make_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;string&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="n">make_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--quiet&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option_list</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">option_list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_option()</span></code> is a factory function for creating Option instances;
+currently it is an alias for the Option constructor.  A future version of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> may split Option into several classes, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_option()</span></code>
+will pick the right class to instantiate.  Do not instantiate Option directly.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="defining-options">
+<span id="optparse-defining-options"></span><h3>Defining options<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Each Option instance represents a set of synonymous command-line option strings,
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--file</span></code>.  You can specify any number of short or
+long option strings, but you must specify at least one overall option string.</p>
+<p>The canonical way to create an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Option</span></code> instance is with the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_option()</span></code> method of <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.add_option">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">add_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">add_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*opt_str</em>, <em>attr=value</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>To define an option with only a short option string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And to define an option with only a long option string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The keyword arguments define attributes of the new Option object.  The most
+important option attribute is <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.action" title="optparse.Option.action"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code></a>, and it largely
+determines which other attributes are relevant or required.  If you pass
+irrelevant option attributes, or fail to pass required ones, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>
+raises an <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionError</span></code> exception explaining your mistake.</p>
+<p>An option’s <em>action</em> determines what <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> does when it encounters
+this option on the command-line.  The standard option actions hard-coded into
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> are:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>store this option’s argument (default)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_const&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>store a constant value</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_true&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>store a true value</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_false&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>store a false value</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>append this option’s argument to a list</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append_const&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>append a constant value to a list</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;count&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>increment a counter by one</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;callback&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>call a specified function</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;help&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>print a usage message including all options and the documentation for them</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>(If you don’t supply an action, the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code>.  For this action,
+you may also supply <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> option
+attributes; see <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-standard-option-actions"><span class="std std-ref">Standard option actions</span></a>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>As you can see, most actions involve storing or updating a value somewhere.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> always creates a special object for this, conventionally called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code> (it happens to be an instance of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.Values</span></code>).  Option
+arguments (and various other values) are stored as attributes of this object,
+according to the <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> (destination) option attribute.</p>
+<p>For example, when you call</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>one of the first things <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> does is create the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code> object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Values</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If one of the options in this parser is defined with</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;string&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and the command-line being parsed includes any of the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">ffoo</span>
+<span class="o">-</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="o">--</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="o">--</span><span class="n">file</span> <span class="n">foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>, on seeing this option, will do the equivalent of</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> option attributes are almost
+as important as <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.action" title="optparse.Option.action"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code></a>, but <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.action" title="optparse.Option.action"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code></a> is the only
+one that makes sense for <em>all</em> options.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="option-attributes">
+<span id="optparse-option-attributes"></span><h3>Option attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#option-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following option attributes may be passed as keyword arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.add_option()</span></code></a>.  If you pass an option attribute that is not
+relevant to a particular option, or fail to pass a required option attribute,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionError</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.action">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">action</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.action" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code>)</p>
+<p>Determines <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s behaviour when this option is seen on the
+command line; the available options are documented <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-standard-option-actions"><span class="std std-ref">here</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.type">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code>)</p>
+<p>The argument type expected by this option (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;int&quot;</span></code>);
+the available option types are documented <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-standard-option-types"><span class="std std-ref">here</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.dest">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">dest</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: derived from option strings)</p>
+<p>If the option’s action implies writing or modifying a value somewhere, this
+tells <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> where to write it: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> names an
+attribute of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code> object that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> builds as it parses
+the command line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.default">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">default</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value to use for this option’s destination if the option is not seen on
+the command line.  See also <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults" title="optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.set_defaults()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.nargs">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">nargs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: 1)</p>
+<p>How many arguments of type <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> should be consumed when this
+option is seen.  If &gt; 1, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will store a tuple of values to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.const">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">const</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.const" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For actions that store a constant value, the constant value to store.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.choices">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">choices</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.choices" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For options of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;choice&quot;</span></code>, the list of strings the user may choose
+from.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.callback">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">callback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For options with action <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;callback&quot;</span></code>, the callable to call when this option
+is seen.  See section <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-option-callbacks"><span class="std std-ref">Option Callbacks</span></a> for detail on the
+arguments passed to the callable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.callback_args">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">callback_args</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.callback_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="optparse.Option.callback_kwargs">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">callback_kwargs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.callback_kwargs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Additional positional and keyword arguments to pass to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> after the
+four standard callback arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.help">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">help</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Help text to print for this option when listing all available options after
+the user supplies a <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="optparse.Option.help"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code></a> option (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code>).  If
+no help text is supplied, the option will be listed without help text.  To
+hide this option, use the special value <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.metavar">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">metavar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.metavar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: derived from option strings)</p>
+<p>Stand-in for the option argument(s) to use when printing help text.  See
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">Tutorial</span></a> for an example.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-option-actions">
+<span id="optparse-standard-option-actions"></span><h3>Standard option actions<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-option-actions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The various option actions all have slightly different requirements and effects.
+Most actions have several relevant option attributes which you may specify to
+guide <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s behaviour; a few have required attributes, which you
+must specify for any option using that action.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code> [relevant: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.choices" title="optparse.Option.choices"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choices</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>The option must be followed by an argument, which is converted to a value
+according to <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> and stored in <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a> &gt; 1, multiple arguments will be consumed from the
+command line; all will be converted according to <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> and
+stored to <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> as a tuple.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-standard-option-types"><span class="std std-ref">Standard option types</span></a> section.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.choices" title="optparse.Option.choices"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choices</span></code></a> is supplied (a list or tuple of strings), the type
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;choice&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> is not supplied, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> is not supplied, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> derives a destination
+from the first long option string (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo-bar</span></code> implies
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo_bar</span></code>). If there are no long option strings, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> derives a
+destination from the first short option string (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> implies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-f&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-p&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;float&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;point&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As it parses the command line</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">txt</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.5</span> <span class="mi">4</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">fbar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">txt</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will set</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo.txt&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">point</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">4.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bar.txt&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_const&quot;</span></code> [required: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.const" title="optparse.Option.const"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code></a>; relevant:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>The value <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.const" title="optparse.Option.const"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code></a> is stored in <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-q&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--quiet&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_const&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_const&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--noisy&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_const&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--noisy</span></code> is seen, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will set</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_true&quot;</span></code> [relevant: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>A special case of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_const&quot;</span></code> that stores a true value to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_false&quot;</span></code> [relevant: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_true&quot;</span></code>, but stores a false value.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--clobber&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;clobber&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--no-clobber&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_false&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;clobber&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code> [relevant: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.choices" title="optparse.Option.choices"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choices</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>The option must be followed by an argument, which is appended to the list in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>.  If no default value for <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> is
+supplied, an empty list is automatically created when <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> first
+encounters this option on the command-line.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a> &gt; 1,
+multiple arguments are consumed, and a tuple of length <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a>
+is appended to <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The defaults for <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> are the same as
+for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code> action.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-t&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--tracks&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;append&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;int&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-t3</span></code> is seen on the command-line, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> does the equivalent
+of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tracks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tracks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;3&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If, a little later on, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--tracks=4</span></code> is seen, it does:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tracks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;4&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append</span></code> action calls the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append</span></code> method on the current value of the
+option.  This means that any default value specified must have an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append</span></code>
+method.  It also means that if the default value is non-empty, the default
+elements will be present in the parsed value for the option, with any values
+from the command line appended after those default values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--files&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;append&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/.mypkg/defaults&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">opts</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;--files&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;overrides.mypkg&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">opts</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">files</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;~/.mypkg/defaults&#39;, &#39;overrides.mypkg&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append_const&quot;</span></code> [required: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.const" title="optparse.Option.const"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code></a>; relevant:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_const&quot;</span></code>, but the value <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.const" title="optparse.Option.const"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code></a> is appended to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>; as with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, and an empty list is automatically created the first time the option
+is encountered.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;count&quot;</span></code> [relevant: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>Increment the integer stored at <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>.  If no default value is
+supplied, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a> is set to zero before being incremented the
+first time.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;count&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbosity&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first time <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> is seen on the command line, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> does the
+equivalent of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Every subsequent occurrence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> results in</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbosity</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;callback&quot;</span></code> [required: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback" title="optparse.Option.callback"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code></a>; relevant:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_args" title="optparse.Option.callback_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_args</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_kwargs" title="optparse.Option.callback_kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_kwargs</span></code></a>]</p>
+<p>Call the function specified by <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback" title="optparse.Option.callback"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code></a>, which is called as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See section <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-option-callbacks"><span class="std std-ref">Option Callbacks</span></a> for more detail.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;help&quot;</span></code></p>
+<p>Prints a complete help message for all the options in the current option
+parser.  The help message is constructed from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage</span></code> string passed to
+OptionParser’s constructor and the <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="optparse.Option.help"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code></a> string passed to every
+option.</p>
+<p>If no <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="optparse.Option.help"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code></a> string is supplied for an option, it will still be
+listed in the help message.  To omit an option entirely, use the special value
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> automatically adds a <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="optparse.Option.help"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code></a> option to all
+OptionParsers, so you do not normally need to create one.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">optparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">SUPPRESS_HELP</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># usually, a help option is added automatically, but that can</span>
+<span class="c1"># be suppressed using the add_help_option argument</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">add_help_option</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-h&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--help&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;help&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-v&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Be moderately verbose&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Input file to read data from&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--secret&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SUPPRESS_HELP</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> sees either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> on the command line,
+it will print something like the following help message to stdout (assuming
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;foo.py&quot;</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Usage: foo.py [options]
+
+Options:
+  -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
+  -v                Be moderately verbose
+  --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After printing the help message, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> terminates your process with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit(0)</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;version&quot;</span></code></p>
+<p>Prints the version number supplied to the OptionParser to stdout and exits.
+The version number is actually formatted and printed by the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_version()</span></code> method of OptionParser.  Generally only relevant if the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> argument is supplied to the OptionParser constructor.  As with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.help" title="optparse.Option.help"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code></a> options, you will rarely create <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> options,
+since <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> automatically adds them when needed.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-option-types">
+<span id="optparse-standard-option-types"></span><h3>Standard option types<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-option-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> has five built-in option types: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;int&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;choice&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;float&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;complex&quot;</span></code>.  If you need to add new
+option types, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse-extending-optparse"><span class="std std-ref">Extending optparse</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Arguments to string options are not checked or converted in any way: the text on
+the command line is stored in the destination (or passed to the callback) as-is.</p>
+<p>Integer arguments (type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;int&quot;</span></code>) are parsed as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>if the number starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x</span></code>, it is parsed as a hexadecimal number</p></li>
+<li><p>if the number starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, it is parsed as an octal number</p></li>
+<li><p>if the number starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0b</span></code>, it is parsed as a binary number</p></li>
+<li><p>otherwise, the number is parsed as a decimal number</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The conversion is done by calling <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> with the appropriate base (2, 8,
+10, or 16).  If this fails, so will <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>, although with a more useful
+error message.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;float&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;complex&quot;</span></code> option arguments are converted directly with
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a>, with similar error-handling.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;choice&quot;</span></code> options are a subtype of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code> options.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.choices" title="optparse.Option.choices"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choices</span></code></a> option attribute (a sequence of strings) defines the
+set of allowed option arguments.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.check_choice()</span></code> compares
+user-supplied option arguments against this master list and raises
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionValueError</span></code> if an invalid string is given.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parsing-arguments">
+<span id="optparse-parsing-arguments"></span><h3>Parsing arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call its
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where the input parameters are</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code></dt><dd><p>the list of arguments to process (default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[1:]</span></code>)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code></dt><dd><p>an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.Values</span></code> object to store option arguments in (default: a
+new instance of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Values</span></code>) – if you give an existing object, the
+option defaults will not be initialized on it</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>and the return values are</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code></dt><dd><p>the same object that was passed in as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code>, or the optparse.Values
+instance created by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a></p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code></dt><dd><p>the leftover positional arguments after all options have been processed</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The most common usage is to supply neither keyword argument.  If you supply
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code>, it will be modified with repeated <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#setattr" title="setattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setattr()</span></code></a> calls (roughly one
+for every option argument stored to an option destination) and returned by
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code> encounters any errors in the argument list, it calls the
+OptionParser’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code> method with an appropriate end-user error message.
+This ultimately terminates your process with an exit status of 2 (the
+traditional Unix exit status for command-line errors).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser">
+<span id="optparse-querying-manipulating-option-parser"></span><h3>Querying and manipulating your option parser<a class="headerlink" href="#querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The default behavior of the option parser can be customized slightly, and you
+can also poke around your option parser and see what’s there.  OptionParser
+provides several methods to help you out:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">disable_interspersed_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set parsing to stop on the first non-option.  For example, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-a</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> are both simple options that take no arguments, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>
+normally accepts this syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">prog</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">arg1</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="n">arg2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and treats it as equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">prog</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="n">arg1</span> <span class="n">arg2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To disable this feature, call <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args" title="optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disable_interspersed_args()</span></code></a>.  This
+restores traditional Unix syntax, where option parsing stops with the first
+non-option argument.</p>
+<p>Use this if you have a command processor which runs another command which has
+options of its own and you want to make sure these options don’t get
+confused.  For example, each command might have a different set of options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">enable_interspersed_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set parsing to not stop on the first non-option, allowing interspersing
+switches with command arguments.  This is the default behavior.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.get_option">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">get_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>opt_str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.get_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the Option instance with the option string <em>opt_str</em>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+no options have that option string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.has_option">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">has_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>opt_str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.has_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the OptionParser has an option with option string <em>opt_str</em>
+(e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--verbose</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.remove_option">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">remove_option</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>opt_str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.remove_option" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a> has an option corresponding to <em>opt_str</em>, that
+option is removed.  If that option provided any other option strings, all of
+those option strings become invalid. If <em>opt_str</em> does not occur in any
+option belonging to this <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a>, raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conflicts-between-options">
+<span id="optparse-conflicts-between-options"></span><h3>Conflicts between options<a class="headerlink" href="#conflicts-between-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you’re not careful, it’s easy to define options with conflicting option
+strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-n&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--dry-run&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-n&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--noisy&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(This is particularly true if you’ve defined your own OptionParser subclass with
+some standard options.)</p>
+<p>Every time you add an option, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> checks for conflicts with existing
+options.  If it finds any, it invokes the current conflict-handling mechanism.
+You can set the conflict-handling mechanism either in the constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">conflict_handler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or with a separate call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_conflict_handler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The available conflict handlers are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;error&quot;</span></code> (default)</dt><dd><p>assume option conflicts are a programming error and raise
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionConflictError</span></code></p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;resolve&quot;</span></code></dt><dd><p>resolve option conflicts intelligently (see below)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>As an example, let’s define an <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a> that resolves conflicts
+intelligently and add conflicting options to it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conflict_handler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;resolve&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-n&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--dry-run&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;do no harm&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-n&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--noisy&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;be noisy&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>At this point, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> detects that a previously-added option is already
+using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> option string.  Since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conflict_handler</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;resolve&quot;</span></code>,
+it resolves the situation by removing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> from the earlier option’s list of
+option strings.  Now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--dry-run</span></code> is the only way for the user to activate
+that option.  If the user asks for help, the help message will reflect that:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Options</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">dry</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">run</span>     <span class="n">do</span> <span class="n">no</span> <span class="n">harm</span>
+  <span class="o">...</span>
+  <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">noisy</span>   <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">noisy</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s possible to whittle away the option strings for a previously-added option
+until there are none left, and the user has no way of invoking that option from
+the command-line.  In that case, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> removes that option completely,
+so it doesn’t show up in help text or anywhere else. Carrying on with our
+existing OptionParser:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--dry-run&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;new dry-run option&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>At this point, the original <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--dry-run</span></code> option is no longer
+accessible, so <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> removes it, leaving this help text:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Options</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="o">...</span>
+  <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">noisy</span>   <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">noisy</span>
+  <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">dry</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">run</span>     <span class="n">new</span> <span class="n">dry</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">run</span> <span class="n">option</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cleanup">
+<span id="optparse-cleanup"></span><h3>Cleanup<a class="headerlink" href="#cleanup" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>OptionParser instances have several cyclic references.  This should not be a
+problem for Python’s garbage collector, but you may wish to break the cyclic
+references explicitly by calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">destroy()</span></code> on your
+OptionParser once you are done with it.  This is particularly useful in
+long-running applications where large object graphs are reachable from your
+OptionParser.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-methods">
+<span id="optparse-other-methods"></span><h3>Other methods<a class="headerlink" href="#other-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>OptionParser supports several other public methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.set_usage">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">set_usage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>usage</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.set_usage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the usage string according to the rules described above for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usage</span></code>
+constructor keyword argument.  Passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> sets the default usage
+string; use <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE</span></code> to suppress a usage message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.print_usage">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">print_usage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.print_usage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the usage message for the current program (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.usage</span></code>) to <em>file</em>
+(default stdout).  Any occurrence of the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%prog</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.usage</span></code>
+is replaced with the name of the current program.  Does nothing if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.usage</span></code> is empty or not defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.get_usage">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">get_usage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.get_usage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.print_usage" title="optparse.OptionParser.print_usage"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_usage()</span></code></a> but returns the usage string instead of
+printing it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults">
+<code class="descclassname">OptionParser.</code><code class="descname">set_defaults</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dest=value</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set default values for several option destinations at once.  Using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults" title="optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_defaults()</span></code></a> is the preferred way to set default values for options,
+since multiple options can share the same destination.  For example, if
+several “mode” options all set the same destination, any one of them can set
+the default, and the last one wins:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--advanced&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_const&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;mode&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;advanced&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;novice&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># overridden below</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--novice&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_const&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;mode&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;novice&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;advanced&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># overrides above setting</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To avoid this confusion, use <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults" title="optparse.OptionParser.set_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_defaults()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_defaults</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;advanced&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--advanced&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_const&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;mode&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;advanced&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--novice&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_const&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;mode&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">const</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;novice&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="option-callbacks">
+<span id="optparse-option-callbacks"></span><h2>Option Callbacks<a class="headerlink" href="#option-callbacks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s built-in actions and types aren’t quite enough for your
+needs, you have two choices: extend <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> or define a callback option.
+Extending <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> is more general, but overkill for a lot of simple
+cases.  Quite often a simple callback is all you need.</p>
+<p>There are two steps to defining a callback option:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>define the option itself using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;callback&quot;</span></code> action</p></li>
+<li><p>write the callback; this is a function (or method) that takes at least four
+arguments, as described below</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="defining-a-callback-option">
+<span id="optparse-defining-callback-option"></span><h3>Defining a callback option<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-a-callback-option" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As always, the easiest way to define a callback option is by using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser.add_option" title="optparse.OptionParser.add_option"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.add_option()</span></code></a> method.  Apart from <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.action" title="optparse.Option.action"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code></a>, the
+only option attribute you must specify is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code>, the function to call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">my_callback</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback</span></code> is a function (or other callable object), so you must have already
+defined <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">my_callback()</span></code> when you create this callback option. In this simple
+case, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> doesn’t even know if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code> takes any arguments,
+which usually means that the option takes no arguments—the mere presence of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code> on the command-line is all it needs to know.  In some
+circumstances, though, you might want your callback to consume an arbitrary
+number of command-line arguments.  This is where writing callbacks gets tricky;
+it’s covered later in this section.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> always passes four particular arguments to your callback, and it
+will only pass additional arguments if you specify them via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_args" title="optparse.Option.callback_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_args</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_kwargs" title="optparse.Option.callback_kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_kwargs</span></code></a>.  Thus, the
+minimal callback function signature is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The four arguments to a callback are described below.</p>
+<p>There are several other option attributes that you can supply when you define a
+callback option:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>has its usual meaning: as with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code> actions, it
+instructs <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> to consume one argument and convert it to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>.  Rather than storing the converted value(s) anywhere,
+though, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> passes it to your callback function.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>also has its usual meaning: if it is supplied and &gt; 1, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will
+consume <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a> arguments, each of which must be convertible to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>.  It then passes a tuple of converted values to your
+callback.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_args" title="optparse.Option.callback_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_args</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>a tuple of extra positional arguments to pass to the callback</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_kwargs" title="optparse.Option.callback_kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_kwargs</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>a dictionary of extra keyword arguments to pass to the callback</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-callbacks-are-called">
+<span id="optparse-how-callbacks-called"></span><h3>How callbacks are called<a class="headerlink" href="#how-callbacks-are-called" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All callbacks are called as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option</span></code></dt><dd><p>is the Option instance that’s calling the callback</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt_str</span></code></dt><dd><p>is the option string seen on the command-line that’s triggering the callback.
+(If an abbreviated long option was used, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt_str</span></code> will be the full,
+canonical option string—e.g. if the user puts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foo</span></code> on the
+command-line as an abbreviation for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--foobar</span></code>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt_str</span></code> will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;--foobar&quot;</span></code>.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code></dt><dd><p>is the argument to this option seen on the command-line.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> will
+only expect an argument if <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> is set; the type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> will be
+the type implied by the option’s type.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> for this option is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (no argument expected), then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a>
+&gt; 1, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> will be a tuple of values of the appropriate type.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></dt><dd><p>is the OptionParser instance driving the whole thing, mainly useful because
+you can access some other interesting data through its instance attributes:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.largs</span></code></dt><dd><p>the current list of leftover arguments, ie. arguments that have been
+consumed but are neither options nor option arguments. Feel free to modify
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.largs</span></code>, e.g. by adding more arguments to it.  (This list will
+become <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code>, the second return value of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code>.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.rargs</span></code></dt><dd><p>the current list of remaining arguments, ie. with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt_str</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> (if applicable) removed, and only the arguments following them
+still there.  Feel free to modify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.rargs</span></code>, e.g. by consuming more
+arguments.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.values</span></code></dt><dd><p>the object where option values are by default stored (an instance of
+optparse.OptionValues).  This lets callbacks use the same mechanism as the
+rest of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> for storing option values; you don’t need to mess
+around with globals or closures.  You can also access or modify the
+value(s) of any options already encountered on the command-line.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code></dt><dd><p>is a tuple of arbitrary positional arguments supplied via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_args" title="optparse.Option.callback_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_args</span></code></a> option attribute.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs</span></code></dt><dd><p>is a dictionary of arbitrary keyword arguments supplied via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.callback_kwargs" title="optparse.Option.callback_kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback_kwargs</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raising-errors-in-a-callback">
+<span id="optparse-raising-errors-in-callback"></span><h3>Raising errors in a callback<a class="headerlink" href="#raising-errors-in-a-callback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The callback function should raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionValueError</span></code> if there are any
+problems with the option or its argument(s).  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> catches this and
+terminates the program, printing the error message you supply to stderr.  Your
+message should be clear, concise, accurate, and mention the option at fault.
+Otherwise, the user will have a hard time figuring out what they did wrong.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-example-1-trivial-callback">
+<span id="optparse-callback-example-1"></span><h3>Callback example 1: trivial callback<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-example-1-trivial-callback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Here’s an example of a callback option that takes no arguments, and simply
+records that the option was seen:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">record_foo_seen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">saw_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">record_foo_seen</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Of course, you could do that with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_true&quot;</span></code> action.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-example-2-check-option-order">
+<span id="optparse-callback-example-2"></span><h3>Callback example 2: check option order<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-example-2-check-option-order" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Here’s a slightly more interesting example: record the fact that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-a</span></code> is
+seen, but blow up if it comes after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> in the command-line.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">check_order</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">OptionValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;can&#39;t use -a after -b&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-a&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">check_order</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-b&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized">
+<span id="optparse-callback-example-3"></span><h3>Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you want to re-use this callback for several similar options (set a flag, but
+blow up if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> has already been seen), it needs a bit of work: the error
+message and the flag that it sets must be generalized.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">check_order</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">OptionValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;can&#39;t use </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> after -b&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-a&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">check_order</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-b&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store_true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">check_order</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition">
+<span id="optparse-callback-example-4"></span><h3>Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Of course, you could put any condition in there—you’re not limited to checking
+the values of already-defined options.  For example, if you have options that
+should not be called when the moon is full, all you have to do is this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">check_moon</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">is_moon_full</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">OptionValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> option invalid when moon is full&quot;</span>
+                               <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">check_moon</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(The definition of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_moon_full()</span></code> is left as an exercise for the reader.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-example-5-fixed-arguments">
+<span id="optparse-callback-example-5"></span><h3>Callback example 5: fixed arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-example-5-fixed-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Things get slightly more interesting when you define callback options that take
+a fixed number of arguments.  Specifying that a callback option takes arguments
+is similar to defining a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code> option: if you define
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, then the option takes one argument that must be
+convertible to that type; if you further define <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a>, then the
+option takes <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.nargs" title="optparse.Option.nargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nargs</span></code></a> arguments.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example that just emulates the standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code> action:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">store_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;--foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">store_value</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;int&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> takes care of consuming 3 arguments and converting
+them to integers for you; all you have to do is store them.  (Or whatever;
+obviously you don’t need a callback for this example.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callback-example-6-variable-arguments">
+<span id="optparse-callback-example-6"></span><h3>Callback example 6: variable arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#callback-example-6-variable-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Things get hairy when you want an option to take a variable number of arguments.
+For this case, you must write a callback, as <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> doesn’t provide any
+built-in capabilities for it.  And you have to deal with certain intricacies of
+conventional Unix command-line parsing that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> normally handles for
+you.  In particular, callbacks should implement the conventional rules for bare
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> arguments:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> can be option arguments</p></li>
+<li><p>bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--</span></code> (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
+processing and discard the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
+processing but keep the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> (append it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser.largs</span></code>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If you want an option that takes a variable number of arguments, there are
+several subtle, tricky issues to worry about.  The exact implementation you
+choose will be based on which trade-offs you’re willing to make for your
+application (which is why <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> doesn’t support this sort of thing
+directly).</p>
+<p>Nevertheless, here’s a stab at a callback for an option with variable
+arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">vararg_callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt_str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">floatable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rargs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># stop on --foo like options</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--&quot;</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="c1"># stop on -a, but not on -3 or -3.0</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;-&quot;</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">floatable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rargs</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+    <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;--callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;vararg_attr&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;callback&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">vararg_callback</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="extending-optparse">
+<span id="optparse-extending-optparse"></span><h2>Extending <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#extending-optparse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Since the two major controlling factors in how <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> interprets
+command-line options are the action and type of each option, the most likely
+direction of extension is to add new actions and new types.</p>
+<div class="section" id="adding-new-types">
+<span id="optparse-adding-new-types"></span><h3>Adding new types<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-new-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To add new types, you need to define your own subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Option</span></code> class.  This class has a couple of attributes that define
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s types: <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.TYPES" title="optparse.Option.TYPES"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPES</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER" title="optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPE_CHECKER</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.TYPES">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">TYPES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.TYPES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of type names; in your subclass, simply define a new tuple
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.TYPES" title="optparse.Option.TYPES"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPES</span></code></a> that builds on the standard one.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">TYPE_CHECKER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping type names to type-checking functions.  A type-checking
+function has the following signature:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">check_mytype</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">option</span></code> is an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Option</span></code> instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt</span></code> is an option string
+(e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code>), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> is the string from the command line that must
+be checked and converted to your desired type.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_mytype()</span></code> should
+return an object of the hypothetical type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mytype</span></code>.  The value returned by
+a type-checking function will wind up in the OptionValues instance returned
+by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser.parse_args()</span></code>, or be passed to a callback as the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> parameter.</p>
+<p>Your type-checking function should raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionValueError</span></code> if it
+encounters any problems.  <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionValueError</span></code> takes a single string
+argument, which is passed as-is to <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.OptionParser" title="optparse.OptionParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code></a>’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code>
+method, which in turn prepends the program name and the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;error:&quot;</span></code>
+and prints everything to stderr before terminating the process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here’s a silly example that demonstrates adding a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;complex&quot;</span></code> option type to
+parse Python-style complex numbers on the command line.  (This is even sillier
+than it used to be, because <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> 1.3 added built-in support for
+complex numbers, but never mind.)</p>
+<p>First, the necessary imports:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">copy</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">copy</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">optparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">OptionValueError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You need to define your type-checker first, since it’s referred to later (in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER" title="optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPE_CHECKER</span></code></a> class attribute of your Option subclass):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">check_complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">OptionValueError</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="s2">&quot;option </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">: invalid complex value: </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">opt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, the Option subclass:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyOption</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Option</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">TYPES</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TYPES</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;complex&quot;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+    <span class="n">TYPE_CHECKER</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TYPE_CHECKER</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">TYPE_CHECKER</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;complex&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">check_complex</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(If we didn’t make a <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> of <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER" title="optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Option.TYPE_CHECKER</span></code></a>, we would end
+up modifying the <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER" title="optparse.Option.TYPE_CHECKER"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPE_CHECKER</span></code></a> attribute of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s
+Option class.  This being Python, nothing stops you from doing that except good
+manners and common sense.)</p>
+<p>That’s it!  Now you can write a script that uses the new option type just like
+any other <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>-based script, except you have to instruct your
+OptionParser to use MyOption instead of Option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option_class</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">MyOption</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;complex&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternately, you can build your own option list and pass it to OptionParser; if
+you don’t use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_option()</span></code> in the above way, you don’t need to tell
+OptionParser which option class to use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">option_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">MyOption</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;store&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;complex&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">option_list</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">option_list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="adding-new-actions">
+<span id="optparse-adding-new-actions"></span><h3>Adding new actions<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-new-actions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Adding new actions is a bit trickier, because you have to understand that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> has a couple of classifications for actions:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>“store” actions</dt><dd><p>actions that result in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> storing a value to an attribute of the
+current OptionValues instance; these options require a <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.dest" title="optparse.Option.dest"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dest</span></code></a>
+attribute to be supplied to the Option constructor.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>“typed” actions</dt><dd><p>actions that take a value from the command line and expect it to be of a
+certain type; or rather, a string that can be converted to a certain type.
+These options require a <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.type" title="optparse.Option.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> attribute to the Option
+constructor.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>These are overlapping sets: some default “store” actions are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store_const&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;count&quot;</span></code>, while the default “typed”
+actions are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;store&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;callback&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When you add an action, you need to categorize it by listing it in at least one
+of the following class attributes of Option (all are lists of strings):</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.ACTIONS">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">ACTIONS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.ACTIONS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All actions must be listed in ACTIONS.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.STORE_ACTIONS">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">STORE_ACTIONS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.STORE_ACTIONS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>“store” actions are additionally listed here.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.TYPED_ACTIONS">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">TYPED_ACTIONS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.TYPED_ACTIONS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>“typed” actions are additionally listed here.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS">
+<code class="descclassname">Option.</code><code class="descname">ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Actions that always take a type (i.e. whose options always take a value) are
+additionally listed here.  The only effect of this is that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>
+assigns the default type, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code>, to options with no explicit type
+whose action is listed in <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS" title="optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In order to actually implement your new action, you must override Option’s
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">take_action()</span></code> method and add a case that recognizes your action.</p>
+<p>For example, let’s add an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;extend&quot;</span></code> action.  This is similar to the standard
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code> action, but instead of taking a single value from the command-line
+and appending it to an existing list, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;extend&quot;</span></code> will take multiple values in
+a single comma-delimited string, and extend an existing list with them.  That
+is, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--names</span></code> is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;extend&quot;</span></code> option of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code>, the command
+line</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">--</span><span class="n">names</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">bar</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">names</span> <span class="n">blah</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">names</span> <span class="n">ding</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">dong</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would result in a list</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blah&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;ding&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;dong&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Again we define a subclass of Option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyOption</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Option</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="n">ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;extend&quot;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+    <span class="n">STORE_ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">STORE_ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;extend&quot;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+    <span class="n">TYPED_ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TYPED_ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;extend&quot;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+    <span class="n">ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;extend&quot;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">take_action</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">action</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;extend&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">lvalue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;,&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">values</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ensure_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[])</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lvalue</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">Option</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">take_action</span><span class="p">(</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">opt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Features of note:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;extend&quot;</span></code> both expects a value on the command-line and stores that value
+somewhere, so it goes in both <a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.STORE_ACTIONS" title="optparse.Option.STORE_ACTIONS"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_ACTIONS</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.TYPED_ACTIONS" title="optparse.Option.TYPED_ACTIONS"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPED_ACTIONS</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>to ensure that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> assigns the default type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;string&quot;</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;extend&quot;</span></code> actions, we put the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;extend&quot;</span></code> action in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS" title="optparse.Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS</span></code></a> as well.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyOption.take_action()</span></code> implements just this one new action, and passes
+control back to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Option.take_action()</span></code> for the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>
+actions.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code> is an instance of the optparse_parser.Values class, which provides
+the very useful <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_value()</span></code> method. <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_value()</span></code> is
+essentially <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> with a safety valve; it is called as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">values</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ensure_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attr</span></code> attribute of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values</span></code> doesn’t exist or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then
+ensure_value() first sets it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>, and then returns ‘value. This is
+very handy for actions like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;extend&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;append&quot;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;count&quot;</span></code>, all
+of which accumulate data in a variable and expect that variable to be of a
+certain type (a list for the first two, an integer for the latter).  Using
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_value()</span></code> means that scripts using your action don’t have to worry
+about setting a default value for the option destinations in question; they
+can just leave the default as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_value()</span></code> will take care of
+getting it right when it’s needed.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> — Parser for command line options</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#background">Background</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#terminology">Terminology</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-are-options-for">What are options for?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-are-positional-arguments-for">What are positional arguments for?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tutorial">Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#understanding-option-actions">Understanding option actions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-store-action">The store action</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#handling-boolean-flag-options">Handling boolean (flag) options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-actions">Other actions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default-values">Default values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generating-help">Generating help</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#grouping-options">Grouping Options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printing-a-version-string">Printing a version string</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-optparse-handles-errors">How <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> handles errors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#putting-it-all-together">Putting it all together</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference-guide">Reference Guide</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-the-parser">Creating the parser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#populating-the-parser">Populating the parser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defining-options">Defining options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#option-attributes">Option attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-option-actions">Standard option actions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-option-types">Standard option types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser">Querying and manipulating your option parser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conflicts-between-options">Conflicts between options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cleanup">Cleanup</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-methods">Other methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#option-callbacks">Option Callbacks</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defining-a-callback-option">Defining a callback option</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-callbacks-are-called">How callbacks are called</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raising-errors-in-a-callback">Raising errors in a callback</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callback-example-1-trivial-callback">Callback example 1: trivial callback</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callback-example-2-check-option-order">Callback example 2: check option order</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized">Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition">Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callback-example-5-fixed-arguments">Callback example 5: fixed arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callback-example-6-variable-arguments">Callback example 6: variable arguments</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extending-optparse">Extending <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-new-types">Adding new types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-new-actions">Adding new actions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="superseded.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Superseded Modules</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/os.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/os.html
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-os">
+<span id="os-miscellaneous-operating-system-interfaces"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces<a class="headerlink" href="#module-os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/os.py">Lib/os.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a portable way of using operating system dependent
+functionality.  If you just want to read or write a file see <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, if
+you want to manipulate paths, see the <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> module, and if you want to
+read all the lines in all the files on the command line see the <a class="reference internal" href="fileinput.html#module-fileinput" title="fileinput: Loop over standard input or a list of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code></a>
+module.  For creating temporary files and directories see the <a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a>
+module, and for high-level file and directory handling see the <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+<p>Notes on the availability of these functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The design of all built-in operating system dependent modules of Python is
+such that as long as the same functionality is available, it uses the same
+interface; for example, the function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat(path)</span></code> returns stat
+information about <em>path</em> in the same format (which happens to have originated
+with the POSIX interface).</p></li>
+<li><p>Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also available
+through the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module, but using them is of course a threat to
+portability.</p></li>
+<li><p>All functions accepting path or file names accept both bytes and string
+objects, and result in an object of the same type, if a path or file name is
+returned.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>All functions in this module raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> (or subclasses thereof) in
+the case of invalid or inaccessible file names and paths, or other arguments
+that have the correct type, but are not accepted by the operating system.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="os.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alias for the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.name">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the operating system dependent module imported.  The following
+names have currently been registered: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'posix'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'nt'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'java'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.platform" title="sys.platform"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code></a> has a finer granularity.  <a class="reference internal" href="#os.uname" title="os.uname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.uname()</span></code></a> gives
+system-dependent version information.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#module-platform" title="platform: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code></a> module provides detailed checks for the
+system’s identity.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables">
+<span id="filesystem-encoding"></span><span id="os-filenames"></span><h2>File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables<a class="headerlink" href="#file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables are
+represented using the string type. On some systems, decoding these strings to
+and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the operating system. Python
+uses the file system encoding to perform this conversion (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>On some systems, conversion using the file system encoding may fail. In this
+case, Python uses the <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#surrogateescape"><span class="std std-ref">surrogateescape encoding error handler</span></a>, which means that undecodable bytes are replaced by a
+Unicode character U+DCxx on decoding, and these are again translated to the
+original byte on encoding.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The file system encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes
+below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API
+functions may raise UnicodeErrors.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="process-parameters">
+<span id="os-procinfo"></span><h2>Process Parameters<a class="headerlink" href="#process-parameters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions and data items provide information and operate on the current
+process and user.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.ctermid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">ctermid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.ctermid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of the process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.environ">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">environ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a> object representing the string environment. For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ['HOME']</span></code> is the pathname of your home directory (on some platforms),
+and is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getenv(&quot;HOME&quot;)</span></code> in C.</p>
+<p>This mapping is captured the first time the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module is imported,
+typically during Python startup as part of processing <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code>.  Changes
+to the environment made after this time are not reflected in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>,
+except for changes made by modifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> directly.</p>
+<p>If the platform supports the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a> function, this mapping may be used
+to modify the environment as well as query the environment.  <a class="reference internal" href="#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a> will
+be called automatically when the mapping is modified.</p>
+<p>On Unix, keys and values use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler. Use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.environb" title="os.environb"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environb</span></code></a> if you would like
+to use a different encoding.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a> directly does not change <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>, so it’s better
+to modify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On some platforms, including FreeBSD and Mac OS X, setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code> may
+cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system documentation for
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a> is not provided, a modified copy of this mapping  may be
+passed to the appropriate process-creation functions to cause  child processes
+to use a modified environment.</p>
+<p>If the platform supports the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.unsetenv" title="os.unsetenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsetenv()</span></code></a> function, you can delete items in
+this mapping to unset environment variables. <a class="reference internal" href="#os.unsetenv" title="os.unsetenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsetenv()</span></code></a> will be called
+automatically when an item is deleted from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>, and when
+one of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code> methods is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.environb">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">environb</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.environb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bytes version of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code></a>: a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a> object representing the
+environment as byte strings. <a class="reference internal" href="#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.environb" title="os.environb"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environb</span></code></a> are
+synchronized (modify <a class="reference internal" href="#os.environb" title="os.environb"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environb</span></code></a> updates <a class="reference internal" href="#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code></a>, and vice
+versa).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.environb" title="os.environb"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environb</span></code></a> is only available if <a class="reference internal" href="#os.supports_bytes_environ" title="os.supports_bytes_environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supports_bytes_environ</span></code></a> is
+True.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">chdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fchdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getcwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>These functions are described in <a class="reference internal" href="#os-file-dir"><span class="std std-ref">Files and Directories</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fsencode">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fsencode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fsencode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like</span></a> <em>filename</em> to the filesystem
+encoding with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> on
+Windows; return <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> unchanged.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsdecode()</span></code></a> is the reverse function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Support added to accept objects implementing the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a>
+interface.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fsdecode">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fsdecode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fsdecode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like</span></a> <em>filename</em> from the
+filesystem encoding with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>
+on Windows; return <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> unchanged.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsencode()</span></code></a> is the reverse function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Support added to accept objects implementing the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a>
+interface.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fspath">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fspath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fspath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file system representation of the path.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> is passed in, it is returned unchanged.
+Otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike.__fspath__" title="os.PathLike.__fspath__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__fspath__()</span></code></a> is called and its value is
+returned as long as it is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.
+In all other cases, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="os.PathLike">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">PathLike</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.PathLike" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> for objects representing a file system path,
+e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.PurePath</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="os.PathLike.__fspath__">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">__fspath__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.PathLike.__fspath__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file system path representation of the object.</p>
+<p>The method should only return a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object,
+with the preference being for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getenv">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getenv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getenv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the environment variable <em>key</em> if it exists, or
+<em>default</em> if it doesn’t. <em>key</em>, <em>default</em> and the result are str.</p>
+<p>On Unix, keys and values are decoded with <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler. Use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getenvb" title="os.getenvb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getenvb()</span></code></a> if you
+would like to use a different encoding.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most flavors of Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getenvb">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getenvb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getenvb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the environment variable <em>key</em> if it exists, or
+<em>default</em> if it doesn’t. <em>key</em>, <em>default</em> and the result are bytes.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.getenvb" title="os.getenvb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getenvb()</span></code></a> is only available if <a class="reference internal" href="#os.supports_bytes_environ" title="os.supports_bytes_environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supports_bytes_environ</span></code></a>
+is True.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most flavors of Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.get_exec_path">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">get_exec_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>env=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.get_exec_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the list of directories that will be searched for a named
+executable, similar to a shell, when launching a process.
+<em>env</em>, when specified, should be an environment variable dictionary
+to lookup the PATH in.
+By default, when <em>env</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getegid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getegid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getegid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the effective group id of the current process.  This corresponds to the
+“set id” bit on the file being executed in the current process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.geteuid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">geteuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.geteuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Return the current process’s effective user id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getgid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Return the real group id of the current process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getgrouplist">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getgrouplist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user</em>, <em>group</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getgrouplist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return list of group ids that <em>user</em> belongs to. If <em>group</em> is not in the
+list, it is included; typically, <em>group</em> is specified as the group ID
+field from the password record for <em>user</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getgroups">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getgroups</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getgroups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Mac OS X, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getgroups" title="os.getgroups"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgroups()</span></code></a> behavior differs somewhat from
+other Unix platforms. If the Python interpreter was built with a
+deployment target of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10.5</span></code> or earlier, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getgroups" title="os.getgroups"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgroups()</span></code></a> returns
+the list of effective group ids associated with the current user process;
+this list is limited to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16,
+and may be modified by calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.setgroups" title="os.setgroups"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setgroups()</span></code></a> if suitably privileged.
+If built with a deployment target greater than <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10.5</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.getgroups" title="os.getgroups"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgroups()</span></code></a> returns the current group access list for the user
+associated with the effective user id of the process; the group access
+list may change over the lifetime of the process, it is not affected by
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.setgroups" title="os.setgroups"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setgroups()</span></code></a>, and its length is not limited to 16.  The
+deployment target value, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET</span></code>, can be
+obtained with <a class="reference internal" href="sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_var" title="sysconfig.get_config_var"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig.get_config_var()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getlogin">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getlogin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getlogin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal of the
+process.  For most purposes, it is more useful to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="getpass.html#getpass.getuser" title="getpass.getuser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass.getuser()</span></code></a> since the latter checks the environment variables
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOGNAME</span></code> or <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USERNAME</span></code> to find out who the user is, and
+falls back to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0]</span></code> to get the login name of the
+current real user id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getpgid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getpgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getpgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the process group id of the process with process id <em>pid</em>. If <em>pid</em> is 0,
+the process group id of the current process is returned.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getpgrp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getpgrp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getpgrp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-4">Return the id of the current process group.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getpid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getpid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getpid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-5">Return the current process id.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getppid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getppid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getppid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-6">Return the parent’s process id.  When the parent process has exited, on Unix
+the id returned is the one of the init process (1), on Windows it is still
+the same id, which may be already reused by another process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added support for Windows.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getpriority">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getpriority</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which</em>, <em>who</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getpriority" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-7">Get program scheduling priority.  The value <em>which</em> is one of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PROCESS" title="os.PRIO_PROCESS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PROCESS</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PGRP" title="os.PRIO_PGRP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PGRP</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_USER" title="os.PRIO_USER"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_USER</span></code></a>, and <em>who</em>
+is interpreted relative to <em>which</em> (a process identifier for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PROCESS" title="os.PRIO_PROCESS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PROCESS</span></code></a>, process group identifier for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PGRP" title="os.PRIO_PGRP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PGRP</span></code></a>, and a
+user ID for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_USER" title="os.PRIO_USER"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_USER</span></code></a>).  A zero value for <em>who</em> denotes
+(respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process,
+or the real user ID of the calling process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.PRIO_PROCESS">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">PRIO_PROCESS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.PRIO_PROCESS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.PRIO_PGRP">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">PRIO_PGRP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.PRIO_PGRP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.PRIO_USER">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">PRIO_USER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.PRIO_USER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parameters for the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getpriority" title="os.getpriority"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpriority()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.setpriority" title="os.setpriority"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpriority()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getresuid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getresuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getresuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process’s
+real, effective, and saved user ids.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getresgid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getresgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getresgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process’s
+real, effective, and saved group ids.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getuid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-8">Return the current process’s real user id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.initgroups">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">initgroups</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>username</em>, <em>gid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.initgroups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of
+the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified
+group id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.putenv">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">putenv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.putenv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-9">Set the environment variable named <em>key</em> to the string <em>value</em>.  Such
+changes to the environment affect subprocesses started with <a class="reference internal" href="#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execv" title="os.execv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execv()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most flavors of Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On some platforms, including FreeBSD and Mac OS X, setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code> may
+cause memory leaks. Refer to the system documentation for putenv.</p>
+</div>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a> is supported, assignments to items in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> are
+automatically translated into corresponding calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a>; however,
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a> don’t update <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>, so it is actually
+preferable to assign to items of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setegid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setegid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>egid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setegid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process’s effective group id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.seteuid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">seteuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>euid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.seteuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process’s effective user id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setgid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>gid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process’ group id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setgroups">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setgroups</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>groups</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setgroups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process to
+<em>groups</em>. <em>groups</em> must be a sequence, and each element must be an integer
+identifying a group. This operation is typically available only to the superuser.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Mac OS X, the length of <em>groups</em> may not exceed the
+system-defined maximum number of effective group ids, typically 16.
+See the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getgroups" title="os.getgroups"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgroups()</span></code></a> for cases where it may not
+return the same group list set by calling setgroups().</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setpgrp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setpgrp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setpgrp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the system call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpgrp()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpgrp(0,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code> depending on
+which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the semantics.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setpgid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setpgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>pgrp</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setpgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the system call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpgid()</span></code> to set the process group id of the
+process with id <em>pid</em> to the process group with id <em>pgrp</em>.  See the Unix manual
+for the semantics.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setpriority">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setpriority</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which</em>, <em>who</em>, <em>priority</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setpriority" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-10">Set program scheduling priority. The value <em>which</em> is one of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PROCESS" title="os.PRIO_PROCESS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PROCESS</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PGRP" title="os.PRIO_PGRP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PGRP</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_USER" title="os.PRIO_USER"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_USER</span></code></a>, and <em>who</em>
+is interpreted relative to <em>which</em> (a process identifier for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PROCESS" title="os.PRIO_PROCESS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PROCESS</span></code></a>, process group identifier for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_PGRP" title="os.PRIO_PGRP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_PGRP</span></code></a>, and a
+user ID for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PRIO_USER" title="os.PRIO_USER"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PRIO_USER</span></code></a>). A zero value for <em>who</em> denotes
+(respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process,
+or the real user ID of the calling process.
+<em>priority</em> is a value in the range -20 to 19. The default priority is 0;
+lower priorities cause more favorable scheduling.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setregid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setregid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rgid</em>, <em>egid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setregid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process’s real and effective group ids.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setresgid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setresgid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rgid</em>, <em>egid</em>, <em>sgid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setresgid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process’s real, effective, and saved group ids.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setresuid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setresuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ruid</em>, <em>euid</em>, <em>suid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setresuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process’s real, effective, and saved user ids.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setreuid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setreuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ruid</em>, <em>euid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setreuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current process’s real and effective user ids.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getsid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getsid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getsid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the system call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsid()</span></code>.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setsid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setsid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setsid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the system call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setsid()</span></code>.  See the Unix manual for the semantics.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setuid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>uid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-11">Set the current process’s user id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.strerror">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">strerror</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.strerror" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the error message corresponding to the error code in <em>code</em>.
+On platforms where <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strerror()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> when given an unknown
+error number, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.supports_bytes_environ">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">supports_bytes_environ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.supports_bytes_environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the native OS type of the environment is bytes (eg. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> on
+Windows).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.umask">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">umask</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.umask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.uname">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">uname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.uname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-12">Returns information identifying the current operating system.
+The return value is an object with five attributes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysname</span></code> - operating system name</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodename</span></code> - name of machine on network (implementation-defined)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release</span></code> - operating system release</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code> - operating system version</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">machine</span></code> - hardware identifier</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
+like a five-tuple containing <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysname</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodename</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">machine</span></code>
+in that order.</p>
+<p>Some systems truncate <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodename</span></code> to 8 characters or to the
+leading component; a better way to get the hostname is
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.gethostname" title="socket.gethostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.gethostname()</span></code></a>  or even
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: recent flavors of Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object
+with named attributes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.unsetenv">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">unsetenv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.unsetenv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-13">Unset (delete) the environment variable named <em>key</em>. Such changes to the
+environment affect subprocesses started with <a class="reference internal" href="#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execv" title="os.execv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execv()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#os.unsetenv" title="os.unsetenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsetenv()</span></code></a> is supported, deletion of items in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> is
+automatically translated into a corresponding call to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.unsetenv" title="os.unsetenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsetenv()</span></code></a>; however,
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.unsetenv" title="os.unsetenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsetenv()</span></code></a> don’t update <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>, so it is actually
+preferable to delete items of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most flavors of Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-object-creation">
+<span id="os-newstreams"></span><h2>File Object Creation<a class="headerlink" href="#file-object-creation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This function creates new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a>.  (See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> for opening file descriptors.)</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fdopen">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fdopen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fdopen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor <em>fd</em>.  This is an
+alias of the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> built-in function and accepts the same arguments.
+The only difference is that the first argument of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fdopen()</span></code></a> must always
+be an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-descriptor-operations">
+<span id="os-fd-ops"></span><h2>File Descriptor Operations<a class="headerlink" href="#file-descriptor-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions operate on I/O streams referenced using file descriptors.</p>
+<p>File descriptors are small integers corresponding to a file that has been opened
+by the current process.  For example, standard input is usually file descriptor
+0, standard output is 1, and standard error is 2.  Further files opened by a
+process will then be assigned 3, 4, 5, and so forth.  The name “file descriptor”
+is slightly deceptive; on Unix platforms, sockets and pipes are also referenced
+by file descriptors.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method can be used to obtain the file descriptor
+associated with a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> when required.  Note that using the file
+descriptor directly will bypass the file object methods, ignoring aspects such
+as internal buffering of data.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.close">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close file descriptor <em>fd</em>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
+descriptor as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.pipe" title="os.pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipe()</span></code></a>.  To close a “file
+object” returned by the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> or by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fdopen()</span></code></a>, use its <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.closerange">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">closerange</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd_low</em>, <em>fd_high</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.closerange" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close all file descriptors from <em>fd_low</em> (inclusive) to <em>fd_high</em> (exclusive),
+ignoring errors. Equivalent to (but much faster than):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">fd</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd_low</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fd_high</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.device_encoding">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">device_encoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.device_encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string describing the encoding of the device associated with <em>fd</em>
+if it is connected to a terminal; else return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.dup">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">dup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.dup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a duplicate of file descriptor <em>fd</em>. The new file descriptor is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<p>On Windows, when duplicating a standard stream (0: stdin, 1: stdout,
+2: stderr), the new file descriptor is <a class="reference internal" href="#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.dup2">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">dup2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>fd2</em>, <em>inheritable=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.dup2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Duplicate file descriptor <em>fd</em> to <em>fd2</em>, closing the latter first if
+necessary. Return <em>fd2</em>. The new file descriptor is <a class="reference internal" href="#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">inheritable</span></a> by default or non-inheritable if <em>inheritable</em>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Add the optional <em>inheritable</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Return <em>fd2</em> on success. Previously, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> was always returned.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fchmod">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fchmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fchmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the mode of the file given by <em>fd</em> to the numeric <em>mode</em>.  See the
+docs for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod()</span></code></a> for possible values of <em>mode</em>.  As of Python 3.3, this
+is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod(fd,</span> <span class="pre">mode)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fchown">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fchown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>uid</em>, <em>gid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fchown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the owner and group id of the file given by <em>fd</em> to the numeric <em>uid</em>
+and <em>gid</em>.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.chown" title="os.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chown()</span></code></a>.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chown(fd,</span> <span class="pre">uid,</span>
+<span class="pre">gid)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fdatasync">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fdatasync</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fdatasync" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force write of file with filedescriptor <em>fd</em> to disk. Does not force update of
+metadata.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is not available on MacOS.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fpathconf">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fpathconf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fpathconf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return system configuration information relevant to an open file. <em>name</em>
+specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the
+name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of
+standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some platforms define
+additional names as well.  The names known to the host operating system are
+given in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathconf_names</span></code> dictionary.  For configuration variables not
+included in that mapping, passing an integer for <em>name</em> is also accepted.</p>
+<p>If <em>name</em> is a string and is not known, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  If a
+specific value for <em>name</em> is not supported by the host system, even if it is
+included in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathconf_names</span></code>, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised with
+<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#errno.EINVAL" title="errno.EINVAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EINVAL</span></code></a> for the error number.</p>
+<p>As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pathconf(fd,</span> <span class="pre">name)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fstat">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fstat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fstat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the status of the file descriptor <em>fd</em>. Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+<p>As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat(fd)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fstatvfs">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fstatvfs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fstatvfs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with
+file descriptor <em>fd</em>, like <a class="reference internal" href="#os.statvfs" title="os.statvfs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statvfs()</span></code></a>.  As of Python 3.3, this is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.statvfs(fd)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fsync">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fsync</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fsync" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force write of file with filedescriptor <em>fd</em> to disk.  On Unix, this calls the
+native <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsync()</span></code> function; on Windows, the MS <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_commit()</span></code> function.</p>
+<p>If you’re starting with a buffered Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> <em>f</em>, first do
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.flush()</span></code>, and then do <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsync(f.fileno())</span></code>, to ensure that all internal
+buffers associated with <em>f</em> are written to disk.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.ftruncate">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">ftruncate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.ftruncate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor <em>fd</em>, so that it is at
+most <em>length</em> bytes in size.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.truncate(fd,</span> <span class="pre">length)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for Windows</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.get_blocking">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">get_blocking</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.get_blocking" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the blocking mode of the file descriptor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_NONBLOCK" title="os.O_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> flag is set, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the flag is cleared.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#os.set_blocking" title="os.set_blocking"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_blocking()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.setblocking" title="socket.socket.setblocking"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.setblocking()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.isatty">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">isatty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.isatty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the file descriptor <em>fd</em> is open and connected to a
+tty(-like) device, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.lockf">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">lockf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>cmd</em>, <em>len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.lockf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.
+<em>fd</em> is an open file descriptor.
+<em>cmd</em> specifies the command to use - one of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.F_LOCK" title="os.F_LOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F_LOCK</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.F_TLOCK" title="os.F_TLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F_TLOCK</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.F_ULOCK" title="os.F_ULOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F_ULOCK</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.F_TEST" title="os.F_TEST"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F_TEST</span></code></a>.
+<em>len</em> specifies the section of the file to lock.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.F_LOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">F_LOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.F_LOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.F_TLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">F_TLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.F_TLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.F_ULOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">F_ULOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.F_ULOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.F_TEST">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">F_TEST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.F_TEST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flags that specify what action <a class="reference internal" href="#os.lockf" title="os.lockf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lockf()</span></code></a> will take.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.lseek">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">lseek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>pos</em>, <em>how</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.lseek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current position of file descriptor <em>fd</em> to position <em>pos</em>, modified
+by <em>how</em>: <a class="reference internal" href="#os.SEEK_SET" title="os.SEEK_SET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_SET</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to set the position relative to the
+beginning of the file; <a class="reference internal" href="#os.SEEK_CUR" title="os.SEEK_CUR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_CUR</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> to set it relative to the
+current position; <a class="reference internal" href="#os.SEEK_END" title="os.SEEK_END"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_END</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> to set it relative to the end of
+the file. Return the new cursor position in bytes, starting from the beginning.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SEEK_SET">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SEEK_SET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SEEK_SET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.SEEK_CUR">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SEEK_CUR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SEEK_CUR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.SEEK_END">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SEEK_END</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SEEK_END" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parameters to the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.lseek" title="os.lseek"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lseek()</span></code></a> function. Their values are 0, 1, and 2,
+respectively.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Some operating systems could support additional values, like
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_HOLE</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_DATA</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.open">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>flags</em>, <em>mode=0o777</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the file <em>path</em> and set various flags according to <em>flags</em> and possibly
+its mode according to <em>mode</em>.  When computing <em>mode</em>, the current umask value
+is first masked out.  Return the file descriptor for the newly opened file.
+The new file descriptor is <a class="reference internal" href="#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<p>For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time documentation;
+flag constants (like <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_RDONLY" title="os.O_RDONLY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_RDONLY</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_WRONLY" title="os.O_WRONLY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_WRONLY</span></code></a>) are defined in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module.  In particular, on Windows adding
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_BINARY" title="os.O_BINARY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_BINARY</span></code></a> is needed to open files in binary mode.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a> with the <em>dir_fd</em> parameter.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is intended for low-level I/O.  For normal usage, use the
+built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, which returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> with
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> methods (and many more).  To
+wrap a file descriptor in a file object, use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fdopen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following constants are options for the <em>flags</em> parameter to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function.  They can be combined using the bitwise OR operator
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>.  Some of them are not available on all platforms.  For descriptions of
+their availability and use, consult the <em class="manpage">open(2)</em> manual page on Unix
+or <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx">the MSDN</a> on Windows.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.O_RDONLY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_RDONLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_RDONLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_WRONLY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_WRONLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_WRONLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_RDWR">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_RDWR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_RDWR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_APPEND">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_APPEND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_APPEND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_CREAT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_CREAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_CREAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_EXCL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_EXCL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_EXCL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_TRUNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_TRUNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_TRUNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The above constants are available on Unix and Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.O_DSYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_DSYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_DSYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_RSYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_RSYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_RSYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_SYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_SYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_SYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_NDELAY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_NDELAY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_NDELAY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_NONBLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_NONBLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_NONBLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_NOCTTY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_NOCTTY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_NOCTTY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_CLOEXEC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_CLOEXEC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_CLOEXEC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The above constants are only available on Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Add <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_CLOEXEC" title="os.O_CLOEXEC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_CLOEXEC</span></code></a> constant.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.O_BINARY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_BINARY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_BINARY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_NOINHERIT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_NOINHERIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_NOINHERIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_SHORT_LIVED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_SHORT_LIVED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_SHORT_LIVED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_TEMPORARY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_TEMPORARY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_TEMPORARY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_RANDOM">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_RANDOM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_RANDOM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_SEQUENTIAL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_SEQUENTIAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_SEQUENTIAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_TEXT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_TEXT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_TEXT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The above constants are only available on Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.O_ASYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_ASYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_ASYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_DIRECT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_DIRECT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_DIRECT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_DIRECTORY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_DIRECTORY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_DIRECTORY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_NOFOLLOW">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_NOFOLLOW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_NOFOLLOW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_NOATIME">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_NOATIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_NOATIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_PATH">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_PATH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_PATH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_TMPFILE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_TMPFILE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_TMPFILE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_SHLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_SHLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_SHLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.O_EXLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">O_EXLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.O_EXLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The above constants are extensions and not present if they are not defined by
+the C library.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Add <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_PATH" title="os.O_PATH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_PATH</span></code></a> on systems that support it.
+Add <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_TMPFILE" title="os.O_TMPFILE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_TMPFILE</span></code></a>, only available on Linux Kernel 3.11
+  or newer.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.openpty">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">openpty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.openpty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-15">Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(master,</span> <span class="pre">slave)</span></code> for the pty and the tty, respectively. The new file
+descriptors are <a class="reference internal" href="#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>. For a (slightly) more
+portable approach, use the <a class="reference internal" href="pty.html#module-pty" title="pty: Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Linux. (Linux)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: some flavors of Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.pipe">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pipe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pipe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a pipe.  Return a pair of file descriptors <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(r,</span> <span class="pre">w)</span></code> usable for
+reading and writing, respectively. The new file descriptor is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.pipe2">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pipe2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pipe2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a pipe with <em>flags</em> set atomically.
+<em>flags</em> can be constructed by ORing together one or more of these values:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_NONBLOCK" title="os.O_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_NONBLOCK</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_CLOEXEC" title="os.O_CLOEXEC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_CLOEXEC</span></code></a>.
+Return a pair of file descriptors <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(r,</span> <span class="pre">w)</span></code> usable for reading and writing,
+respectively.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: some flavors of Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.posix_fallocate">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">posix_fallocate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>len</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.posix_fallocate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified by <em>fd</em>
+starting from <em>offset</em> and continuing for <em>len</em> bytes.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.posix_fadvise">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">posix_fadvise</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>len</em>, <em>advice</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.posix_fadvise" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus allowing
+the kernel to make optimizations.
+The advice applies to the region of the file specified by <em>fd</em> starting at
+<em>offset</em> and continuing for <em>len</em> bytes.
+<em>advice</em> is one of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL" title="os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX_FADV_NORMAL</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL" title="os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM" title="os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX_FADV_RANDOM</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE" title="os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED" title="os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED" title="os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">POSIX_FADV_NORMAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">POSIX_FADV_RANDOM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flags that can be used in <em>advice</em> in <a class="reference internal" href="#os.posix_fadvise" title="os.posix_fadvise"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix_fadvise()</span></code></a> that specify
+the access pattern that is likely to be used.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.pread">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>n</em>, <em>offset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read at most <em>n</em> bytes from file descriptor <em>fd</em> at a position of <em>offset</em>,
+leaving the file offset unchanged.</p>
+<p>Return a bytestring containing the bytes read. If the end of the file
+referred to by <em>fd</em> has been reached, an empty bytes object is returned.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.preadv">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">preadv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>buffers</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.preadv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read from a file descriptor <em>fd</em> at a position of <em>offset</em> into mutable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> <em>buffers</em>, leaving the file
+offset unchanged.  Transfer data into each buffer until it is full and then
+move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the rest of the data.</p>
+<p>The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the following
+flags:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.RWF_HIPRI" title="os.RWF_HIPRI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RWF_HIPRI</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.RWF_NOWAIT" title="os.RWF_NOWAIT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RWF_NOWAIT</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less than the
+total capacity of all the objects.</p>
+<p>The operating system may set a limit (<a class="reference internal" href="#os.sysconf" title="os.sysconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf()</span></code></a> value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SC_IOV_MAX'</span></code>) on the number of buffers that can be used.</p>
+<p>Combine the functionality of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.readv" title="os.readv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.readv()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.pread" title="os.pread"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pread()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.30 and newer, FreeBSD 6.0 and newer,
+OpenBSD 2.7 and newer. Using flags requires Linux 4.6 or newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.RWF_NOWAIT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RWF_NOWAIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RWF_NOWAIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do not wait for data which is not immediately available. If this flag is
+specified, the system call will return instantly if it would have to read
+data from the backing storage or wait for a lock.</p>
+<p>If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of bytes read.
+If no bytes were read, it will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> and set errno to
+<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#errno.EAGAIN" title="errno.EAGAIN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EAGAIN</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 4.14 and newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.RWF_HIPRI">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RWF_HIPRI</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RWF_HIPRI" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>High priority read/write. Allows block-based filesystems to use polling
+of the device, which provides lower latency, but may use additional
+resources.</p>
+<p>Currently, on Linux, this feature is usable only on a file descriptor opened
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_DIRECT" title="os.O_DIRECT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_DIRECT</span></code></a> flag.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 4.6 and newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.pwrite">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pwrite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>str</em>, <em>offset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pwrite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the bytestring in <em>str</em> to file descriptor <em>fd</em> at position of
+<em>offset</em>, leaving the file offset unchanged.</p>
+<p>Return the number of bytes actually written.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.pwritev">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pwritev</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>buffers</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pwritev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the <em>buffers</em> contents to file descriptor <em>fd</em> at a offset <em>offset</em>,
+leaving the file offset unchanged.  <em>buffers</em> must be a sequence of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>. Buffers are processed in
+array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written before
+proceeding to the second, and so on.</p>
+<p>The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the following
+flags:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.RWF_DSYNC" title="os.RWF_DSYNC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RWF_DSYNC</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.RWF_SYNC" title="os.RWF_SYNC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RWF_SYNC</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Return the total number of bytes actually written.</p>
+<p>The operating system may set a limit (<a class="reference internal" href="#os.sysconf" title="os.sysconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf()</span></code></a> value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SC_IOV_MAX'</span></code>) on the number of buffers that can be used.</p>
+<p>Combine the functionality of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.writev" title="os.writev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.writev()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.pwrite" title="os.pwrite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pwrite()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.30 and newer, FreeBSD 6.0 and newer,
+OpenBSD 2.7 and newer. Using flags requires Linux 4.7 or newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.RWF_DSYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RWF_DSYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RWF_DSYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provide a per-write equivalent of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_DSYNC" title="os.O_DSYNC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_DSYNC</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open(2)</span></code> flag. This
+flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 4.7 and newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.RWF_SYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RWF_SYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RWF_SYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provide a per-write equivalent of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_SYNC" title="os.O_SYNC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_SYNC</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open(2)</span></code> flag. This
+flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 4.7 and newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.read">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read at most <em>n</em> bytes from file descriptor <em>fd</em>.</p>
+<p>Return a bytestring containing the bytes read. If the end of the file
+referred to by <em>fd</em> has been reached, an empty bytes object is returned.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
+descriptor as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.pipe" title="os.pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipe()</span></code></a>.  To read a
+“file object” returned by the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> or by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fdopen()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>, use its
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sendfile">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sendfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em>, <em>in</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>count</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sendfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sendfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em>, <em>in</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>count</em>, <span class="optional">[</span><em>headers</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>trailers</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy <em>count</em> bytes from file descriptor <em>in</em> to file descriptor <em>out</em>
+starting at <em>offset</em>.
+Return the number of bytes sent. When EOF is reached return 0.</p>
+<p>The first function notation is supported by all platforms that define
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>On Linux, if <em>offset</em> is given as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the bytes are read from the
+current position of <em>in</em> and the position of <em>in</em> is updated.</p>
+<p>The second case may be used on Mac OS X and FreeBSD where <em>headers</em> and
+<em>trailers</em> are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written before and
+after the data from <em>in</em> is written. It returns the same as the first case.</p>
+<p>On Mac OS X and FreeBSD, a value of 0 for <em>count</em> specifies to send until
+the end of <em>in</em> is reached.</p>
+<p>All platforms support sockets as <em>out</em> file descriptor, and some platforms
+allow other types (e.g. regular file, pipe) as well.</p>
+<p>Cross-platform applications should not use <em>headers</em>, <em>trailers</em> and <em>flags</em>
+arguments.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For a higher-level wrapper of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code></a>, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.sendfile" title="socket.socket.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.sendfile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.set_blocking">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">set_blocking</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>blocking</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.set_blocking" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the blocking mode of the specified file descriptor. Set the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.O_NONBLOCK" title="os.O_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> flag if blocking is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, clear the flag otherwise.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#os.get_blocking" title="os.get_blocking"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_blocking()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.setblocking" title="socket.socket.setblocking"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.setblocking()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SF_NODISKIO">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SF_NODISKIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SF_NODISKIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.SF_MNOWAIT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SF_MNOWAIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SF_MNOWAIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.SF_SYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SF_SYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SF_SYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parameters to the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code></a> function, if the implementation supports
+them.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.readv">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">readv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>buffers</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.readv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read from a file descriptor <em>fd</em> into a number of mutable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+objects</span></a> <em>buffers</em>. Transfer data into each buffer until
+it is full and then move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the
+rest of the data.</p>
+<p>Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less than the
+total capacity of all the objects.</p>
+<p>The operating system may set a limit (<a class="reference internal" href="#os.sysconf" title="os.sysconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf()</span></code></a> value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SC_IOV_MAX'</span></code>) on the number of buffers that can be used.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.tcgetpgrp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">tcgetpgrp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.tcgetpgrp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the process group associated with the terminal given by <em>fd</em> (an open
+file descriptor as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.tcsetpgrp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">tcsetpgrp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>pg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.tcsetpgrp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the process group associated with the terminal given by <em>fd</em> (an open file
+descriptor as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a>) to <em>pg</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.ttyname">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">ttyname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.ttyname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with
+file descriptor <em>fd</em>.  If <em>fd</em> is not associated with a terminal device, an
+exception is raised.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.write">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the bytestring in <em>str</em> to file descriptor <em>fd</em>.</p>
+<p>Return the number of bytes actually written.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
+descriptor as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.pipe" title="os.pipe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipe()</span></code></a>.  To write a “file
+object” returned by the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> or by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fdopen()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>, use its
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.writev">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">writev</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>buffers</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.writev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the contents of <em>buffers</em> to file descriptor <em>fd</em>. <em>buffers</em> must be
+a sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>. Buffers are
+processed in array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written
+before proceeding to the second, and so on.</p>
+<p>Returns the total number of bytes actually written.</p>
+<p>The operating system may set a limit (<a class="reference internal" href="#os.sysconf" title="os.sysconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf()</span></code></a> value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SC_IOV_MAX'</span></code>) on the number of buffers that can be used.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="querying-the-size-of-a-terminal">
+<span id="terminal-size"></span><h3>Querying the size of a terminal<a class="headerlink" href="#querying-the-size-of-a-terminal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.get_terminal_size">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">get_terminal_size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd=STDOUT_FILENO</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.get_terminal_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of the terminal window as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(columns,</span> <span class="pre">lines)</span></code>,
+tuple of type <a class="reference internal" href="#os.terminal_size" title="os.terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminal_size</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fd</span></code> (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STDOUT_FILENO</span></code>, or standard
+output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried.</p>
+<p>If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>
+is raised.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#shutil.get_terminal_size" title="shutil.get_terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.get_terminal_size()</span></code></a> is the high-level function which
+should normally be used, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.get_terminal_size</span></code> is the low-level
+implementation.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="os.terminal_size">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">terminal_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.terminal_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of tuple, holding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(columns,</span> <span class="pre">lines)</span></code> of the terminal window size.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.terminal_size.columns">
+<code class="descname">columns</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.terminal_size.columns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Width of the terminal window in characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.terminal_size.lines">
+<code class="descname">lines</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.terminal_size.lines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Height of the terminal window in characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inheritance-of-file-descriptors">
+<span id="fd-inheritance"></span><h3>Inheritance of File Descriptors<a class="headerlink" href="#inheritance-of-file-descriptors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>A file descriptor has an “inheritable” flag which indicates if the file descriptor
+can be inherited by child processes.  Since Python 3.4, file descriptors
+created by Python are non-inheritable by default.</p>
+<p>On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes at the
+execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited.</p>
+<p>On Windows, non-inheritable handles and file descriptors are closed in child
+processes, except for standard streams (file descriptors 0, 1 and 2: stdin, stdout
+and stderr), which are always inherited.  Using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*</span></code></a> functions,
+all inheritable handles and all inheritable file descriptors are inherited.
+Using the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module, all file descriptors except standard
+streams are closed, and inheritable handles are only inherited if the
+<em>close_fds</em> parameter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.get_inheritable">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">get_inheritable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.get_inheritable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the “inheritable” flag of the specified file descriptor (a boolean).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.set_inheritable">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">set_inheritable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>inheritable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.set_inheritable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the “inheritable” flag of the specified file descriptor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.get_handle_inheritable">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">get_handle_inheritable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.get_handle_inheritable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the “inheritable” flag of the specified handle (a boolean).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.set_handle_inheritable">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">set_handle_inheritable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handle</em>, <em>inheritable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.set_handle_inheritable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the “inheritable” flag of the specified handle.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="files-and-directories">
+<span id="os-file-dir"></span><h2>Files and Directories<a class="headerlink" href="#files-and-directories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>On some Unix platforms, many of these functions support one or more of these
+features:</p>
+<ul id="path-fd">
+<li><p><strong>specifying a file descriptor:</strong>
+For some functions, the <em>path</em> argument can be not only a string giving a path
+name, but also a file descriptor.  The function will then operate on the file
+referred to by the descriptor.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f...</span></code> version of the function.)</p>
+<p>You can check whether or not <em>path</em> can be specified as a file descriptor on
+your platform using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.supports_fd" title="os.supports_fd"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_fd</span></code></a>.  If it is unavailable, using it
+will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the function also supports <em>dir_fd</em> or <em>follow_symlinks</em> arguments, it is
+an error to specify one of those when supplying <em>path</em> as a file descriptor.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="dir-fd">
+<li><p><strong>paths relative to directory descriptors:</strong> If <em>dir_fd</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it
+should be a file descriptor referring to a directory, and the path to operate
+on should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.  If the
+path is absolute, <em>dir_fd</em> is ignored.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...at</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f...at</span></code> version of the function.)</p>
+<p>You can check whether or not <em>dir_fd</em> is supported on your platform using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.supports_dir_fd" title="os.supports_dir_fd"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_dir_fd</span></code></a>.  If it is unavailable, using it will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="follow-symlinks">
+<li><p><strong>not following symlinks:</strong> If <em>follow_symlinks</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, and the last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link,
+the function will operate on the symbolic link itself instead of the file the
+link points to.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l...</span></code> version of
+the function.)</p>
+<p>You can check whether or not <em>follow_symlinks</em> is supported on your platform
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.supports_follow_symlinks" title="os.supports_follow_symlinks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_follow_symlinks</span></code></a>.  If it is unavailable, using it
+will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.access">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">access</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>mode</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em>, <em>effective_ids=False</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.access" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use the real uid/gid to test for access to <em>path</em>.  Note that most operations
+will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine can be used in a
+suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user has the specified access to
+<em>path</em>.  <em>mode</em> should be <a class="reference internal" href="#os.F_OK" title="os.F_OK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F_OK</span></code></a> to test the existence of <em>path</em>, or it
+can be the inclusive OR of one or more of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.R_OK" title="os.R_OK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">R_OK</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.W_OK" title="os.W_OK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">W_OK</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.X_OK" title="os.X_OK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X_OK</span></code></a> to test permissions.  Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if access is allowed,
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> if not. See the Unix man page <em class="manpage">access(2)</em> for more
+information.</p>
+<p>This function can support specifying <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory
+descriptors</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>effective_ids</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">access()</span></code></a> will perform its access
+checks using the effective uid/gid instead of the real uid/gid.
+<em>effective_ids</em> may not be supported on your platform; you can check whether
+or not it is available using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.supports_effective_ids" title="os.supports_effective_ids"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_effective_ids</span></code></a>.  If it is
+unavailable, using it will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">access()</span></code></a> to check if a user is authorized to e.g. open a file
+before actually doing so using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> creates a security hole,
+because the user might exploit the short time interval between checking
+and opening the file to manipulate it. It’s preferable to use <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-eafp"><span class="xref std std-term">EAFP</span></a>
+techniques. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">access</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">R_OK</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;some default data&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is better written as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">fp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">PermissionError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;some default data&quot;</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>I/O operations may fail even when <a class="reference internal" href="#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">access()</span></code></a> indicates that they would
+succeed, particularly for operations on network filesystems which may have
+permissions semantics beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>dir_fd</em>, <em>effective_ids</em>, and <em>follow_symlinks</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.F_OK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">F_OK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.F_OK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.R_OK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">R_OK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.R_OK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.W_OK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">W_OK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.W_OK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.X_OK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">X_OK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.X_OK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Values to pass as the <em>mode</em> parameter of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">access()</span></code></a> to test the
+existence, readability, writability and executability of <em>path</em>,
+respectively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.chdir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">chdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.chdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-18">Change the current working directory to <em>path</em>.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>.  The
+descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file.</p>
+<p>This function can raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> and subclasses such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotADirectoryError" title="NotADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotADirectoryError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for specifying <em>path</em> as a file descriptor
+on some platforms.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.chflags">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">chflags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>flags</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.chflags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flags of <em>path</em> to the numeric <em>flags</em>. <em>flags</em> may take a combination
+(bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.UF_NODUMP" title="stat.UF_NODUMP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.UF_NODUMP</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.UF_IMMUTABLE" title="stat.UF_IMMUTABLE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.UF_IMMUTABLE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.UF_APPEND" title="stat.UF_APPEND"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.UF_APPEND</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.UF_OPAQUE" title="stat.UF_OPAQUE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.UF_OPAQUE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.UF_NOUNLINK" title="stat.UF_NOUNLINK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.UF_NOUNLINK</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.UF_COMPRESSED" title="stat.UF_COMPRESSED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.UF_COMPRESSED</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.UF_HIDDEN" title="stat.UF_HIDDEN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.UF_HIDDEN</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.SF_ARCHIVED" title="stat.SF_ARCHIVED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.SF_ARCHIVED</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.SF_IMMUTABLE" title="stat.SF_IMMUTABLE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.SF_IMMUTABLE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.SF_APPEND" title="stat.SF_APPEND"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.SF_APPEND</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.SF_NOUNLINK" title="stat.SF_NOUNLINK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.SF_NOUNLINK</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.SF_SNAPSHOT" title="stat.SF_SNAPSHOT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.SF_SNAPSHOT</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>follow_symlinks</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.chmod">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">chmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>mode</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.chmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the mode of <em>path</em> to the numeric <em>mode</em>. <em>mode</em> may take one of the
+following values (as defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module) or bitwise ORed
+combinations of them:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_ISUID" title="stat.S_ISUID"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_ISUID</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_ISGID" title="stat.S_ISGID"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_ISGID</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_ENFMT" title="stat.S_ENFMT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_ENFMT</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_ISVTX" title="stat.S_ISVTX"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_ISVTX</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IREAD" title="stat.S_IREAD"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IREAD</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IWRITE" title="stat.S_IWRITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IWRITE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IEXEC" title="stat.S_IEXEC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IEXEC</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IRWXU" title="stat.S_IRWXU"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IRWXU</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IRUSR" title="stat.S_IRUSR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IRUSR</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IWUSR" title="stat.S_IWUSR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IWUSR</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IXUSR" title="stat.S_IXUSR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IXUSR</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IRWXG" title="stat.S_IRWXG"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IRWXG</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IRGRP" title="stat.S_IRGRP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IRGRP</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IWGRP" title="stat.S_IWGRP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IWGRP</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IXGRP" title="stat.S_IXGRP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IXGRP</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IRWXO" title="stat.S_IRWXO"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IRWXO</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IROTH" title="stat.S_IROTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IROTH</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IWOTH" title="stat.S_IWOTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IWOTH</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_IXOTH" title="stat.S_IXOTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IXOTH</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not
+following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Although Windows supports <a class="reference internal" href="#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod()</span></code></a>, you can only set the file’s
+read-only flag with it (via the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IWRITE</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IREAD</span></code>
+constants or a corresponding integer value).  All other bits are ignored.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for specifying <em>path</em> as an open file descriptor,
+and the <em>dir_fd</em> and <em>follow_symlinks</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.chown">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">chown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>uid</em>, <em>gid</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.chown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the owner and group id of <em>path</em> to the numeric <em>uid</em> and <em>gid</em>.  To
+leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not
+following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#shutil.chown" title="shutil.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.chown()</span></code></a> for a higher-level function that accepts names in
+addition to numeric ids.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for <em>path</em>,
+and the <em>dir_fd</em> and <em>follow_symlinks</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Supports a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.chroot">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">chroot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.chroot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the root directory of the current process to <em>path</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fchdir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fchdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fchdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file
+descriptor <em>fd</em>.  The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an
+open file.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chdir(fd)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getcwd">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getcwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getcwd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the current working directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getcwdb">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getcwdb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getcwdb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytestring representing the current working directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.lchflags">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">lchflags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.lchflags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flags of <em>path</em> to the numeric <em>flags</em>, like <a class="reference internal" href="#os.chflags" title="os.chflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chflags()</span></code></a>, but do
+not follow symbolic links.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chflags(path,</span> <span class="pre">flags,</span> <span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.lchmod">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">lchmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.lchmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the mode of <em>path</em> to the numeric <em>mode</em>. If path is a symlink, this
+affects the symlink rather than the target.  See the docs for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod()</span></code></a>
+for possible values of <em>mode</em>.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod(path,</span> <span class="pre">mode,</span> <span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.lchown">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">lchown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>uid</em>, <em>gid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.lchown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the owner and group id of <em>path</em> to the numeric <em>uid</em> and <em>gid</em>.  This
+function will not follow symbolic links.  As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chown(path,</span> <span class="pre">uid,</span> <span class="pre">gid,</span> <span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False)</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.link">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">link</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>src_dir_fd=None</em>, <em>dst_dir_fd=None</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.link" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a hard link pointing to <em>src</em> named <em>dst</em>.</p>
+<p>This function can support specifying <em>src_dir_fd</em> and/or <em>dst_dir_fd</em> to
+supply <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not
+following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added Windows support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>src_dir_fd</em>, <em>dst_dir_fd</em>, and <em>follow_symlinks</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.listdir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">listdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path='.'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.listdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by
+<em>path</em>.  The list is in arbitrary order, and does not include the special
+entries <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'..'</span></code> even if they are present in the directory.</p>
+<p><em>path</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.  If <em>path</em> is of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>
+(directly or indirectly through the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface),
+the filenames returned will also be of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>;
+in all other circumstances, they will be of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This function can also support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>To encode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> filenames to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>, use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsencode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> function returns directory entries along with
+file attribute information, giving better performance for many
+common use cases.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter became optional.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for <em>path</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.lstat">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">lstat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.lstat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform the equivalent of an <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstat()</span></code> system call on the given path.
+Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>, but does not follow symbolic links. Return a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>On platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat(path,</span> <span class="pre">dir_fd=dir_fd,</span>
+<span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This function can also support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>dir_fd</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.mkdir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">mkdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>mode=0o777</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.mkdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a directory named <em>path</em> with numeric mode <em>mode</em>.</p>
+<p>If the directory already exists, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p id="mkdir-modebits">On some systems, <em>mode</em> is ignored.  Where it is used, the current umask
+value is first masked out.  If bits other than the last 9 (i.e. the last 3
+digits of the octal representation of the <em>mode</em>) are set, their meaning is
+platform-dependent.  On some platforms, they are ignored and you should call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod()</span></code></a> explicitly to set them.</p>
+<p>This function can also support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p>It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="tempfile.mkdtemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.mkdtemp()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.makedirs">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">makedirs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>mode=0o777</em>, <em>exist_ok=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.makedirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-19">Recursive directory creation function.  Like <a class="reference internal" href="#os.mkdir" title="os.mkdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdir()</span></code></a>, but makes all
+intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> parameter is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.mkdir" title="os.mkdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdir()</span></code></a> for creating the leaf
+directory; see <a class="reference internal" href="#mkdir-modebits"><span class="std std-ref">the mkdir() description</span></a> for how it
+is interpreted.  To set the file permission bits of any newly-created parent
+directories you can set the umask before invoking <a class="reference internal" href="#os.makedirs" title="os.makedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makedirs()</span></code></a>.  The
+file permission bits of existing parent directories are not changed.</p>
+<p>If <em>exist_ok</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default), an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> is
+raised if the target directory already exists.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.makedirs" title="os.makedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makedirs()</span></code></a> will become confused if the path elements to create
+include <a class="reference internal" href="#os.pardir" title="os.pardir"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pardir</span></code></a> (eg. “..” on UNIX systems).</p>
+</div>
+<p>This function handles UNC paths correctly.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>exist_ok</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.1: </span>Before Python 3.4.1, if <em>exist_ok</em> was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and the directory existed,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.makedirs" title="os.makedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makedirs()</span></code></a> would still raise an error if <em>mode</em> did not match the
+mode of the existing directory. Since this behavior was impossible to
+implement safely, it was removed in Python 3.4.1. See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21082">bpo-21082</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>mode</em> argument no longer affects the file permission bits of
+newly-created intermediate-level directories.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.mkfifo">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">mkfifo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>mode=0o666</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.mkfifo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named <em>path</em> with numeric mode <em>mode</em>.
+The current umask value is first masked out from the mode.</p>
+<p>This function can also support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p>FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files.  FIFOs exist until they
+are deleted (for example with <a class="reference internal" href="#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.unlink()</span></code></a>). Generally, FIFOs are used as
+rendezvous between “client” and “server” type processes: the server opens the
+FIFO for reading, and the client opens it for writing.  Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#os.mkfifo" title="os.mkfifo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkfifo()</span></code></a>
+doesn’t open the FIFO — it just creates the rendezvous point.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.mknod">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">mknod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>mode=0o600</em>, <em>device=0</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.mknod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named
+<em>path</em>. <em>mode</em> specifies both the permissions to use and the type of node
+to be created, being combined (bitwise OR) with one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IFREG</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IFCHR</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IFBLK</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IFIFO</span></code> (those constants are
+available in <a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a>).  For <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IFCHR</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_IFBLK</span></code>,
+<em>device</em> defines the newly created device special file (probably using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.makedev" title="os.makedev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.makedev()</span></code></a>), otherwise it is ignored.</p>
+<p>This function can also support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.major">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">major</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>device</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.major" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_dev</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_rdev</span></code> field from <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.minor">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">minor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>device</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.minor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_dev</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_rdev</span></code> field from <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.makedev">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">makedev</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>major</em>, <em>minor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.makedev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.pathconf">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pathconf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pathconf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return system configuration information relevant to a named file. <em>name</em>
+specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the
+name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of
+standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some platforms define
+additional names as well.  The names known to the host operating system are
+given in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathconf_names</span></code> dictionary.  For configuration variables not
+included in that mapping, passing an integer for <em>name</em> is also accepted.</p>
+<p>If <em>name</em> is a string and is not known, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  If a
+specific value for <em>name</em> is not supported by the host system, even if it is
+included in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathconf_names</span></code>, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised with
+<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#errno.EINVAL" title="errno.EINVAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EINVAL</span></code></a> for the error number.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.pathconf_names">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pathconf_names</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pathconf_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping names accepted by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.pathconf" title="os.pathconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathconf()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fpathconf" title="os.fpathconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fpathconf()</span></code></a> to
+the integer values defined for those names by the host operating system.  This
+can be used to determine the set of names known to the system.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.readlink">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">readlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.readlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points.  The
+result may be either an absolute or relative pathname; if it is relative, it
+may be converted to an absolute pathname using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path),</span> <span class="pre">result)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the <em>path</em> is a string object (directly or indirectly through a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface), the result will also be a string object,
+and the call may raise a UnicodeDecodeError. If the <em>path</em> is a bytes
+object (direct or indirectly), the result will be a bytes object.</p>
+<p>This function can also support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.remove">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove (delete) the file <em>path</em>.  If <em>path</em> is a directory, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IsADirectoryError" title="IsADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IsADirectoryError</span></code></a> is raised.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmdir()</span></code></a> to remove directories.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p>On Windows, attempting to remove a file that is in use causes an exception to
+be raised; on Unix, the directory entry is removed but the storage allocated
+to the file is not made available until the original file is no longer in use.</p>
+<p>This function is semantically identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlink()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.removedirs">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">removedirs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.removedirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-20">Remove directories recursively.  Works like <a class="reference internal" href="#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmdir()</span></code></a> except that, if the
+leaf directory is successfully removed, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.removedirs" title="os.removedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">removedirs()</span></code></a>  tries to
+successively remove every parent directory mentioned in  <em>path</em> until an error
+is raised (which is ignored, because it generally means that a parent directory
+is not empty). For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz')</span></code> will first remove
+the directory <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo/bar/baz'</span></code>, and then remove <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo/bar'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo'</span></code> if
+they are empty. Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the leaf directory could not be
+successfully removed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.rename">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">rename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>src_dir_fd=None</em>, <em>dst_dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.rename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rename the file or directory <em>src</em> to <em>dst</em>. If <em>dst</em> exists, the operation
+will fail with an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> subclass in a number of cases:</p>
+<p>On Windows, if <em>dst</em> exists a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> is always raised.</p>
+<p>On Unix, if <em>src</em> is a file and <em>dst</em> is a directory or vice-versa, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IsADirectoryError" title="IsADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IsADirectoryError</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotADirectoryError" title="NotADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotADirectoryError</span></code></a> will be raised
+respectively.  If both are directories and <em>dst</em> is empty, <em>dst</em> will be
+silently replaced.  If <em>dst</em> is a non-empty directory, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>
+is raised. If both are files, <em>dst</em> it will be replaced silently if the user
+has permission.  The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if <em>src</em> and
+<em>dst</em> are on different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
+atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).</p>
+<p>This function can support specifying <em>src_dir_fd</em> and/or <em>dst_dir_fd</em> to
+supply <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p>If you want cross-platform overwriting of the destination, use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.replace" title="os.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>src_dir_fd</em> and <em>dst_dir_fd</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.renames">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">renames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>old</em>, <em>new</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.renames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Recursive directory or file renaming function. Works like <a class="reference internal" href="#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rename()</span></code></a>, except
+creation of any intermediate directories needed to make the new pathname good is
+attempted first. After the rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path
+segments of the old name will be pruned away using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.removedirs" title="os.removedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">removedirs()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function can fail with the new directory structure made if you lack
+permissions needed to remove the leaf directory or file.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>old</em> and <em>new</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>src_dir_fd=None</em>, <em>dst_dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rename the file or directory <em>src</em> to <em>dst</em>.  If <em>dst</em> is a directory,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> will be raised.  If <em>dst</em> exists and is a file, it will
+be replaced silently if the user has permission.  The operation may fail
+if <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em> are on different filesystems.  If successful,
+the renaming will be an atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).</p>
+<p>This function can support specifying <em>src_dir_fd</em> and/or <em>dst_dir_fd</em> to
+supply <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.rmdir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">rmdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.rmdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove (delete) the directory <em>path</em>.  If the directory does not exist or is
+not empty, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> or an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised
+respectively.  In order to remove whole directory trees,
+<a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.rmtree()</span></code></a> can be used.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.scandir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">scandir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path='.'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.scandir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry" title="os.DirEntry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code></a> objects corresponding to the
+entries in the directory given by <em>path</em>. The entries are yielded in
+arbitrary order, and the special entries <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'..'</span></code> are not
+included.</p>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listdir()</span></code></a> can significantly
+increase the performance of code that also needs file type or file
+attribute information, because <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry" title="os.DirEntry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code></a> objects expose this
+information if the operating system provides it when scanning a directory.
+All <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry" title="os.DirEntry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code></a> methods may perform a system call, but
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry.is_dir" title="os.DirEntry.is_dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_dir()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry.is_file" title="os.DirEntry.is_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_file()</span></code></a> usually only
+require a system call for symbolic links; <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry.stat" title="os.DirEntry.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry.stat()</span></code></a>
+always requires a system call on Unix but only requires one for
+symbolic links on Windows.</p>
+<p><em>path</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.  If <em>path</em> is of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>
+(directly or indirectly through the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface),
+the type of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry.name" title="os.DirEntry.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry.path" title="os.DirEntry.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>
+attributes of each <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry" title="os.DirEntry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code></a> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>; in all other
+circumstances, they will be of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This function can also support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> iterator supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol
+and has the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="os.scandir.close">
+<code class="descclassname">scandir.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.scandir.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the iterator and free acquired resources.</p>
+<p>This is called automatically when the iterator is exhausted or garbage
+collected, or when an error happens during iterating.  However it
+is advisable to call it explicitly or use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following example shows a simple use of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> to display all
+the files (excluding directories) in the given <em>path</em> that don’t start with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">entry.is_file()</span></code> call will generally not make an additional
+system call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">scandir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">entry</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">entry</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">entry</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_file</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">entry</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Unix-based systems, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> uses the system’s
+<a class="reference external" href="http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html">opendir()</a>
+and
+<a class="reference external" href="http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html">readdir()</a>
+functions. On Windows, it uses the Win32
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx">FindFirstFileW</a>
+and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx">FindNextFileW</a>
+functions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir.close" title="os.scandir.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method.  If a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> iterator is neither
+exhausted nor explicitly closed a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> will be emitted
+in its destructor.</p>
+<p>The function accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added support for <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">file descriptors</span></a> on Unix.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">DirEntry</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Object yielded by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> to expose the file path and other file
+attributes of a directory entry.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> will provide as much of this information as possible without
+making additional system calls. When a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstat()</span></code> system call
+is made, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> object will cache the result.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> instances are not intended to be stored in long-lived data
+structures; if you know the file metadata has changed or if a long time has
+elapsed since calling <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a>, call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat(entry.path)</span></code> to fetch
+up-to-date information.</p>
+<p>Because the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> methods can make operating system calls, they may
+also raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>. If you need very fine-grained
+control over errors, you can catch <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> when calling one of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> methods and handle as appropriate.</p>
+<p>To be directly usable as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code>
+implements the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface.</p>
+<p>Attributes and methods on a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> instance are as follows:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The entry’s base filename, relative to the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> <em>path</em>
+argument.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#os.name" title="os.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> attribute will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> if the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a>
+<em>path</em> argument is of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> otherwise.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsdecode()</span></code></a> to decode byte filenames.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry.path">
+<code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The entry’s full path name: equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join(scandir_path,</span>
+<span class="pre">entry.name)</span></code> where <em>scandir_path</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> <em>path</em>
+argument.  The path is only absolute if the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> <em>path</em>
+argument was absolute.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> <em>path</em>
+argument was a <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">file descriptor</span></a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a>
+attribute is the same as the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.name" title="os.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></a> attribute will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> if the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a>
+<em>path</em> argument is of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> otherwise.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsdecode()</span></code></a> to decode byte filenames.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry.inode">
+<code class="descname">inode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry.inode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the inode number of the entry.</p>
+<p>The result is cached on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> object. Use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat(entry.path,</span> <span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False).st_ino</span></code> to fetch up-to-date
+information.</p>
+<p>On the first, uncached call, a system call is required on Windows but
+not on Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry.is_dir">
+<code class="descname">is_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry.is_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this entry is a directory or a symbolic link pointing
+to a directory; return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the entry is or points to any other
+kind of file, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.</p>
+<p>If <em>follow_symlinks</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> only if this entry
+is a directory (without following symlinks); return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the
+entry is any other kind of file or if it doesn’t exist anymore.</p>
+<p>The result is cached on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> object, with a separate cache
+for <em>follow_symlinks</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. Call <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> along
+with <a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#stat.S_ISDIR" title="stat.S_ISDIR"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.S_ISDIR()</span></code></a> to fetch up-to-date information.</p>
+<p>On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in most cases.
+Specifically, for non-symlinks, neither Windows or Unix require a system
+call, except on certain Unix file systems, such as network file systems,
+that return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dirent.d_type</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">DT_UNKNOWN</span></code>. If the entry is a symlink,
+a system call will be required to follow the symlink unless
+<em>follow_symlinks</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This method can raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, such as <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a>,
+but <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> is caught and not raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry.is_file">
+<code class="descname">is_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry.is_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this entry is a file or a symbolic link pointing to a
+file; return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the entry is or points to a directory or other
+non-file entry, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.</p>
+<p>If <em>follow_symlinks</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> only if this entry
+is a file (without following symlinks); return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the entry is
+a directory or other non-file entry, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.</p>
+<p>The result is cached on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> object. Caching, system calls
+made, and exceptions raised are as per <a class="reference internal" href="#os.DirEntry.is_dir" title="os.DirEntry.is_dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_dir()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry.is_symlink">
+<code class="descname">is_symlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry.is_symlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this entry is a symbolic link (even if broken);
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the entry points to a directory or any kind of file,
+or if it doesn’t exist anymore.</p>
+<p>The result is cached on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> object. Call
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.islink" title="os.path.islink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.islink()</span></code></a> to fetch up-to-date information.</p>
+<p>On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in most cases.
+Specifically, neither Windows or Unix require a system call, except on
+certain Unix file systems, such as network file systems, that return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dirent.d_type</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">DT_UNKNOWN</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This method can raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, such as <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a>,
+but <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> is caught and not raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="os.DirEntry.stat">
+<code class="descname">stat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.DirEntry.stat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code></a> object for this entry. This method
+follows symbolic links by default; to stat a symbolic link add the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False</span></code> argument.</p>
+<p>On Unix, this method always requires a system call. On Windows, it
+only requires a system call if <em>follow_symlinks</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and the
+entry is a symbolic link.</p>
+<p>On Windows, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ino</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_dev</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_nlink</span></code> attributes of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code></a> are always set to zero. Call <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> to
+get these attributes.</p>
+<p>The result is cached on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> object, with a separate cache
+for <em>follow_symlinks</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>. Call <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> to
+fetch up-to-date information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
+and methods of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code> and of <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.Path</span></code></a>.  In
+particular, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute has the same
+meaning, as do the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_dir()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_file()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_symlink()</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> methods.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added support for the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface.  Added support
+for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> paths on Windows.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.stat">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">stat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the status of a file or a file descriptor. Perform the equivalent of a
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> system call on the given path. <em>path</em> may be specified as
+either a string or bytes – directly or indirectly through the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a>
+interface – or as an open file descriptor. Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+<p>This function normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the argument
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False</span></code>, or use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-21">Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">statinfo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;somefile.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">statinfo</span>
+<span class="go">os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,</span>
+<span class="go">st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,</span>
+<span class="go">st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">statinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_size</span>
+<span class="go">264</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstat()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstat()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>dir_fd</em> and <em>follow_symlinks</em> arguments, specifying a file
+descriptor instead of a path.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="os.stat_result">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">stat_result</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code> structure. It is used for the result of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fstat()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_mode">
+<code class="descname">st_mode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_ino">
+<code class="descname">st_ino</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_ino" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Platform dependent, but if non-zero, uniquely identifies the
+file for a given value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_dev</span></code>. Typically:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the inode number on Unix,</p></li>
+<li><p>the <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363788">file index</a> on
+Windows</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_dev">
+<code class="descname">st_dev</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_dev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identifier of the device on which this file resides.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_nlink">
+<code class="descname">st_nlink</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_nlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of hard links.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_uid">
+<code class="descname">st_uid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_uid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>User identifier of the file owner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_gid">
+<code class="descname">st_gid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_gid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Group identifier of the file owner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_size">
+<code class="descname">st_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a symbolic link.
+The size of a symbolic link is the length of the pathname it contains,
+without a terminating null byte.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Timestamps:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_atime">
+<code class="descname">st_atime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_mtime">
+<code class="descname">st_mtime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_ctime">
+<code class="descname">st_ctime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Platform dependent:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the time of most recent metadata change on Unix,</p></li>
+<li><p>the time of creation on Windows, expressed in seconds.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_atime_ns">
+<code class="descname">st_atime_ns</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns">
+<code class="descname">st_mtime_ns</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of most recent content modification expressed in nanoseconds as an
+integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns">
+<code class="descname">st_ctime_ns</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Platform dependent:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the time of most recent metadata change on Unix,</p></li>
+<li><p>the time of creation on Windows, expressed in nanoseconds as an
+integer.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The exact meaning and resolution of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime" title="os.stat_result.st_atime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_atime</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime" title="os.stat_result.st_ctime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ctime</span></code></a> attributes depend on the operating
+system and the file system. For example, on Windows systems using the FAT
+or FAT32 file systems, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime</span></code></a> has 2-second resolution, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime" title="os.stat_result.st_atime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_atime</span></code></a> has only 1-day resolution.  See your operating system
+documentation for details.</p>
+<p>Similarly, although <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_atime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_atime_ns</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime_ns</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ctime_ns</span></code></a> are always expressed in nanoseconds, many
+systems do not provide nanosecond precision.  On systems that do
+provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point object used to
+store <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime" title="os.stat_result.st_atime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_atime</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime" title="os.stat_result.st_ctime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ctime</span></code></a>
+cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly inexact.
+If you need the exact timestamps you should always use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_atime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_atime_ns</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime_ns</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ctime_ns</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may also be
+available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_blocks">
+<code class="descname">st_blocks</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_blocks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.
+This may be smaller than <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_size" title="os.stat_result.st_size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_size</span></code></a>/512 when the file has holes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_blksize">
+<code class="descname">st_blksize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_blksize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>“Preferred” blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing to a file in
+smaller chunks may cause an inefficient read-modify-rewrite.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_rdev">
+<code class="descname">st_rdev</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_rdev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type of device if an inode device.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_flags">
+<code class="descname">st_flags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>User defined flags for file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes may be
+available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use them):</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_gen">
+<code class="descname">st_gen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_gen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File generation number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_birthtime">
+<code class="descname">st_birthtime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_birthtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of file creation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>On Solaris and derivatives, the following attributes may also be
+available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_fstype">
+<code class="descname">st_fstype</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_fstype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>String that uniquely identifies the type of the filesystem that
+contains the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>On Mac OS systems, the following attributes may also be available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_rsize">
+<code class="descname">st_rsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_rsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Real size of the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_creator">
+<code class="descname">st_creator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_creator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creator of the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_type">
+<code class="descname">st_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>On Windows systems, the following attribute is also available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.stat_result.st_file_attributes">
+<code class="descname">st_file_attributes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.stat_result.st_file_attributes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Windows file attributes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dwFileAttributes</span></code> member of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION</span></code> structure returned by
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetFileInformationByHandle()</span></code>. See the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_*</span></code>
+constants in the <a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The standard module <a class="reference internal" href="stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> defines functions and constants that are
+useful for extracting information from a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code> structure. (On
+Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)</p>
+<p>For backward compatibility, a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code></a> instance is also
+accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and
+portable) members of the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code> structure, in the order
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mode" title="os.stat_result.st_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mode</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ino" title="os.stat_result.st_ino"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ino</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_dev" title="os.stat_result.st_dev"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_dev</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_nlink" title="os.stat_result.st_nlink"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_nlink</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_uid" title="os.stat_result.st_uid"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_uid</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_gid" title="os.stat_result.st_gid"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_gid</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_size" title="os.stat_result.st_size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_size</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime" title="os.stat_result.st_atime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_atime</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime" title="os.stat_result.st_ctime"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ctime</span></code></a>. More items may be added at the end by
+some implementations. For compatibility with older Python versions,
+accessing <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code></a> as a tuple always returns integers.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_atime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_atime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_atime_ns</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_mtime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_mtime_ns</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns" title="os.stat_result.st_ctime_ns"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ctime_ns</span></code></a> members.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Added the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_file_attributes" title="os.stat_result.st_file_attributes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_file_attributes</span></code></a> member on Windows.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Windows now returns the file index as <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_ino" title="os.stat_result.st_ino"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_ino</span></code></a> when
+available.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Added the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat_result.st_fstype" title="os.stat_result.st_fstype"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_fstype</span></code></a> member to Solaris/derivatives.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.statvfs">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">statvfs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.statvfs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform a <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statvfs()</span></code> system call on the given path.  The return value is
+an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the given path, and
+correspond to the members of the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statvfs</span></code> structure, namely:
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_bsize</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_frsize</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_blocks</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_bfree</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_bavail</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_files</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_ffree</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_favail</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_flag</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_namemax</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_fsid</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Two module-level constants are defined for the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_flag</span></code> attribute’s
+bit-flags: if <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_RDONLY</span></code> is set, the filesystem is mounted
+read-only, and if <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NOSUID</span></code> is set, the semantics of
+setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.</p>
+<p>Additional module-level constants are defined for GNU/glibc based systems.
+These are <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NODEV</span></code> (disallow access to device special files),
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NOEXEC</span></code> (disallow program execution), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_SYNCHRONOUS</span></code>
+(writes are synced at once), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_MANDLOCK</span></code> (allow mandatory locks on an FS),
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_WRITE</span></code> (write on file/directory/symlink), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_APPEND</span></code>
+(append-only file), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_IMMUTABLE</span></code> (immutable file), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NOATIME</span></code>
+(do not update access times), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NODIRATIME</span></code> (do not update directory access
+times), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_RELATIME</span></code> (update atime relative to mtime/ctime).</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_RDONLY</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NOSUID</span></code> constants were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for <em>path</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NODEV</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NOEXEC</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_SYNCHRONOUS</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_MANDLOCK</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_WRITE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_APPEND</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_IMMUTABLE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NOATIME</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_NODIRATIME</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_RELATIME</span></code> constants were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Added <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_fsid</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.supports_dir_fd">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">supports_dir_fd</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.supports_dir_fd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> object indicating which functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module permit use of their <em>dir_fd</em> parameter.  Different platforms
+provide different functionality, and an option that might work on one might
+be unsupported on another.  For consistency’s sakes, functions that support
+<em>dir_fd</em> always allow specifying the parameter, but will raise an exception
+if the functionality is not actually available.</p>
+<p>To check whether a particular function permits use of its <em>dir_fd</em>
+parameter, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supports_dir_fd</span></code>.  As an example,
+this expression determines whether the <em>dir_fd</em> parameter of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>
+is locally available:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supports_dir_fd</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Currently <em>dir_fd</em> parameters only work on Unix platforms; none of them work
+on Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.supports_effective_ids">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">supports_effective_ids</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.supports_effective_ids" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> object indicating which functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module permit use of the <em>effective_ids</em> parameter for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.access()</span></code></a>.  If the local platform supports it, the collection will
+contain <a class="reference internal" href="#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.access()</span></code></a>, otherwise it will be empty.</p>
+<p>To check whether you can use the <em>effective_ids</em> parameter for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.access()</span></code></a>, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supports_effective_ids</span></code>,
+like so:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">access</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supports_effective_ids</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Currently <em>effective_ids</em> only works on Unix platforms; it does not work on
+Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.supports_fd">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">supports_fd</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.supports_fd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> object indicating which functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module permit specifying their <em>path</em> parameter as an open file
+descriptor.  Different platforms provide different functionality, and an
+option that might work on one might be unsupported on another.  For
+consistency’s sakes, functions that support <em>fd</em> always allow specifying
+the parameter, but will raise an exception if the functionality is not
+actually available.</p>
+<p>To check whether a particular function permits specifying an open file
+descriptor for its <em>path</em> parameter, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator on
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supports_fd</span></code>. As an example, this expression determines whether
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.chdir" title="os.chdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chdir()</span></code></a> accepts open file descriptors when called on your local
+platform:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chdir</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supports_fd</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.supports_follow_symlinks">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">supports_follow_symlinks</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.supports_follow_symlinks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code></a> object indicating which functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module permit use of their <em>follow_symlinks</em> parameter.  Different
+platforms provide different functionality, and an option that might work on
+one might be unsupported on another.  For consistency’s sakes, functions that
+support <em>follow_symlinks</em> always allow specifying the parameter, but will
+raise an exception if the functionality is not actually available.</p>
+<p>To check whether a particular function permits use of its <em>follow_symlinks</em>
+parameter, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supports_follow_symlinks</span></code>.  As an
+example, this expression determines whether the <em>follow_symlinks</em> parameter
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> is locally available:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">supports_follow_symlinks</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.symlink">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">symlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>target_is_directory=False</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.symlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a symbolic link pointing to <em>src</em> named <em>dst</em>.</p>
+<p>On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not
+morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is present, the type of the
+symlink will be created to match. Otherwise, the symlink will be created
+as a directory if <em>target_is_directory</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or a file symlink (the
+default) otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, <em>target_is_directory</em> is ignored.</p>
+<p>Symbolic link support was introduced in Windows 6.0 (Vista).  <a class="reference internal" href="#os.symlink" title="os.symlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symlink()</span></code></a>
+will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> on Windows versions earlier than 6.0.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Windows, the <em>SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege</em> is required in order to
+successfully create symlinks. This privilege is not typically granted to
+regular users but is available to accounts which can escalate privileges
+to the administrator level. Either obtaining the privilege or running your
+application as an administrator are ways to successfully create symlinks.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised when the function is called by an unprivileged
+user.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>dir_fd</em> argument, and now allow <em>target_is_directory</em>
+on non-Windows platforms.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sync">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sync</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sync" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force write of everything to disk.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.truncate">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">truncate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.truncate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Truncate the file corresponding to <em>path</em>, so that it is at most
+<em>length</em> bytes in size.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for Windows</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.unlink">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">unlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.unlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove (delete) the file <em>path</em>.  This function is semantically
+identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.remove" title="os.remove"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code></a>; the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlink</span></code> name is its
+traditional Unix name.  Please see the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.remove" title="os.remove"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code></a> for further information.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <em>dir_fd</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.utime">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">utime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>times=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <span class="optional">[</span><em>ns</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>dir_fd=None</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.utime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the access and modified times of the file specified by <em>path</em>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.utime" title="os.utime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utime()</span></code></a> takes two optional parameters, <em>times</em> and <em>ns</em>.
+These specify the times set on <em>path</em> and are used as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <em>ns</em> is specified,
+it must be a 2-tuple of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(atime_ns,</span> <span class="pre">mtime_ns)</span></code>
+where each member is an int expressing nanoseconds.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>times</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+it must be a 2-tuple of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(atime,</span> <span class="pre">mtime)</span></code>
+where each member is an int or float expressing seconds.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>times</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <em>ns</em> is unspecified,
+this is equivalent to specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ns=(atime_ns,</span> <span class="pre">mtime_ns)</span></code>
+where both times are the current time.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>It is an error to specify tuples for both <em>times</em> and <em>ns</em>.</p>
+<p>Whether a directory can be given for <em>path</em>
+depends on whether the operating system implements directories as files
+(for example, Windows does not).  Note that the exact times you set here may
+not be returned by a subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a> call, depending on the
+resolution with which your operating system records access and modification
+times; see <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>.  The best way to preserve exact times is to
+use the <em>st_atime_ns</em> and <em>st_mtime_ns</em> fields from the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>
+result object with the <em>ns</em> parameter to <cite>utime</cite>.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not
+following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for <em>path</em>,
+and the <em>dir_fd</em>, <em>follow_symlinks</em>, and <em>ns</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.walk">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">walk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>top</em>, <em>topdown=True</em>, <em>onerror=None</em>, <em>followlinks=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.walk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-22">Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
+either top-down or bottom-up. For each directory in the tree rooted at directory
+<em>top</em> (including <em>top</em> itself), it yields a 3-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(dirpath,</span> <span class="pre">dirnames,</span>
+<span class="pre">filenames)</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>dirpath</em> is a string, the path to the directory.  <em>dirnames</em> is a list of the
+names of the subdirectories in <em>dirpath</em> (excluding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'..'</span></code>).
+<em>filenames</em> is a list of the names of the non-directory files in <em>dirpath</em>.
+Note that the names in the lists contain no path components.  To get a full path
+(which begins with <em>top</em>) to a file or directory in <em>dirpath</em>, do
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join(dirpath,</span> <span class="pre">name)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If optional argument <em>topdown</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or not specified, the triple for a
+directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories
+(directories are generated top-down).  If <em>topdown</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the triple
+for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories
+(directories are generated bottom-up). No matter the value of <em>topdown</em>, the
+list of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory and
+its subdirectories are generated.</p>
+<p>When <em>topdown</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the caller can modify the <em>dirnames</em> list in-place
+(perhaps using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> or slice assignment), and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> will only
+recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in <em>dirnames</em>; this can be
+used to prune the search, impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> about directories the caller creates or renames before it resumes
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> again.  Modifying <em>dirnames</em> when <em>topdown</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> has
+no effect on the behavior of the walk, because in bottom-up mode the directories
+in <em>dirnames</em> are generated before <em>dirpath</em> itself is generated.</p>
+<p>By default, errors from the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> call are ignored.  If optional
+argument <em>onerror</em> is specified, it should be a function; it will be called with
+one argument, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instance.  It can report the error to continue
+with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk.  Note that the filename
+is available as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> attribute of the exception object.</p>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> will not walk down into symbolic links that resolve to
+directories. Set <em>followlinks</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> to visit directories pointed to by
+symlinks, on systems that support them.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Be aware that setting <em>followlinks</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> can lead to infinite
+recursion if a link points to a parent directory of itself. <a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a>
+does not keep track of the directories it visited already.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you pass a relative pathname, don’t change the current working directory
+between resumptions of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> never changes the current
+directory, and assumes that its caller doesn’t either.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
+directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn’t look under any
+CVS subdirectory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">os.path</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">join</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">getsize</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">files</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">walk</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python/Lib/email&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;consumes&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getsize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">files</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;bytes in&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">files</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;non-directory files&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;CVS&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;CVS&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># don&#39;t visit CVS directories</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the next example (simple implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.rmtree()</span></code></a>),
+walking the tree bottom-up is essential, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmdir()</span></code></a> doesn’t allow
+deleting a directory before the directory is empty:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Delete everything reachable from the directory named in &quot;top&quot;,</span>
+<span class="c1"># assuming there are no symbolic links.</span>
+<span class="c1"># CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == &#39;/&#39;, it</span>
+<span class="c1"># could delete all your disk files.</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">files</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">walk</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">topdown</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">files</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rmdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>This function now calls <a class="reference internal" href="#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a>,
+making it faster by reducing the number of calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fwalk">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fwalk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>top='.'</em>, <em>topdown=True</em>, <em>onerror=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=False</em>, <em>dir_fd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fwalk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-23">This behaves exactly like <a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a>, except that it yields a 4-tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(dirpath,</span> <span class="pre">dirnames,</span> <span class="pre">filenames,</span> <span class="pre">dirfd)</span></code>, and it supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir_fd</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>dirpath</em>, <em>dirnames</em> and <em>filenames</em> are identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> output,
+and <em>dirfd</em> is a file descriptor referring to the directory <em>dirpath</em>.</p>
+<p>This function always supports <a class="reference internal" href="#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to directory descriptors</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.  Note however
+that, unlike other functions, the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fwalk" title="os.fwalk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fwalk()</span></code></a> default value for
+<em>follow_symlinks</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fwalk" title="os.fwalk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fwalk()</span></code></a> yields file descriptors, those are only valid until
+the next iteration step, so you should duplicate them (e.g. with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.dup" title="os.dup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dup()</span></code></a>) if you want to keep them longer.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
+directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn’t look under any
+CVS subdirectory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">files</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rootfd</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fwalk</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python/Lib/email&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;consumes&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dir_fd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">rootfd</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_size</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">files</span><span class="p">]),</span>
+          <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;bytes in&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">files</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;non-directory files&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;CVS&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;CVS&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># don&#39;t visit CVS directories</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmdir()</span></code></a> doesn’t allow deleting a directory before the directory is
+empty:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Delete everything reachable from the directory named in &quot;top&quot;,</span>
+<span class="c1"># assuming there are no symbolic links.</span>
+<span class="c1"># CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == &#39;/&#39;, it</span>
+<span class="c1"># could delete all your disk files.</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">files</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rootfd</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fwalk</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">topdown</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">files</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unlink</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dir_fd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">rootfd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rmdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dir_fd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">rootfd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added support for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> paths.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="linux-extended-attributes">
+<h3>Linux extended attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#linux-extended-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>These functions are all available on Linux only.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getxattr">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getxattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>attribute</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getxattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the extended filesystem attribute <em>attribute</em> for
+<em>path</em>. <em>attribute</em> can be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface). If it is str, it is encoded with the filesystem
+encoding.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>path</em> and <em>attribute</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.listxattr">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">listxattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.listxattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the extended filesystem attributes on <em>path</em>.  The
+attributes in the list are represented as strings decoded with the filesystem
+encoding.  If <em>path</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.listxattr" title="os.listxattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listxattr()</span></code></a> will examine the current
+directory.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.removexattr">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">removexattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>attribute</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.removexattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the extended filesystem attribute <em>attribute</em> from <em>path</em>.
+<em>attribute</em> should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface). If it is a string, it is encoded
+with the filesystem encoding.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>path</em> and <em>attribute</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.setxattr">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">setxattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>attribute</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>flags=0</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.setxattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the extended filesystem attribute <em>attribute</em> on <em>path</em> to <em>value</em>.
+<em>attribute</em> must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs (directly or
+indirectly through the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a> interface). If it is a str,
+it is encoded with the filesystem encoding.  <em>flags</em> may be
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.XATTR_REPLACE" title="os.XATTR_REPLACE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XATTR_REPLACE</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.XATTR_CREATE" title="os.XATTR_CREATE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XATTR_CREATE</span></code></a>. If <a class="reference internal" href="#os.XATTR_REPLACE" title="os.XATTR_REPLACE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XATTR_REPLACE</span></code></a> is
+given and the attribute does not exist, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EEXISTS</span></code> will be raised.
+If <a class="reference internal" href="#os.XATTR_CREATE" title="os.XATTR_CREATE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XATTR_CREATE</span></code></a> is given and the attribute already exists, the
+attribute will not be created and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENODATA</span></code> will be raised.</p>
+<p>This function can support <a class="reference internal" href="#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">specifying a file descriptor</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not following symlinks</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>A bug in Linux kernel versions less than 2.6.39 caused the flags argument
+to be ignored on some filesystems.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>path</em> and <em>attribute</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">XATTR_SIZE_MAX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum size the value of an extended attribute can be. Currently, this
+is 64 KiB on Linux.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.XATTR_CREATE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">XATTR_CREATE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.XATTR_CREATE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a possible value for the flags argument in <a class="reference internal" href="#os.setxattr" title="os.setxattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setxattr()</span></code></a>. It
+indicates the operation must create an attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.XATTR_REPLACE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">XATTR_REPLACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.XATTR_REPLACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a possible value for the flags argument in <a class="reference internal" href="#os.setxattr" title="os.setxattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setxattr()</span></code></a>. It
+indicates the operation must replace an existing attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="process-management">
+<span id="os-process"></span><h2>Process Management<a class="headerlink" href="#process-management" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions may be used to create and manage processes.</p>
+<p>The various <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execl" title="os.execl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec*</span></code></a> functions take a list of arguments for the new
+program loaded into the process.  In each case, the first of these arguments is
+passed to the new program as its own name rather than as an argument a user may
+have typed on a command line.  For the C programmer, this is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[0]</span></code>
+passed to a program’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code>.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.execv('/bin/echo',</span>
+<span class="pre">['foo',</span> <span class="pre">'bar'])</span></code> will only print <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code> on standard output; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> will seem
+to be ignored.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.abort">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">abort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.abort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGABRT</span></code> signal to the current process.  On Unix, the default
+behavior is to produce a core dump; on Windows, the process immediately returns
+an exit code of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code>.  Be aware that calling this function will not call the
+Python signal handler registered for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGABRT</span></code> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.signal" title="signal.signal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.signal()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.execl">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>arg0</em>, <em>arg1</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.execle">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>arg0</em>, <em>arg1</em>, <em>...</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.execlp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execlp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>arg0</em>, <em>arg1</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execlp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.execlpe">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execlpe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>arg0</em>, <em>arg1</em>, <em>...</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execlpe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.execv">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.execve">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execve</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execve" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.execvp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execvp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execvp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.execvpe">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">execvpe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.execvpe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These functions all execute a new program, replacing the current process; they
+do not return.  On Unix, the new executable is loaded into the current process,
+and will have the same process id as the caller.  Errors will be reported as
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exceptions.</p>
+<p>The current process is replaced immediately. Open file objects and
+descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered
+on these open files, you should flush them using
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.flush()</span></code> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fsync" title="os.fsync"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsync()</span></code></a> before calling an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.execl" title="os.execl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec*</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>The “l” and “v” variants of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execl" title="os.execl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec*</span></code></a> functions differ in how
+command-line arguments are passed.  The “l” variants are perhaps the easiest
+to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
+individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execl*()</span></code>
+functions.  The “v” variants are good when the number of parameters is
+variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the <em>args</em>
+parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process should start with
+the name of the command being run, but this is not enforced.</p>
+<p>The variants which include a “p” near the end (<a class="reference internal" href="#os.execlp" title="os.execlp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execlp()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.execlpe" title="os.execlpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execlpe()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execvp" title="os.execvp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execvp()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execvpe" title="os.execvpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execvpe()</span></code></a>) will use the
+<span class="target" id="index-24"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable to locate the program <em>file</em>.  When the
+environment is being replaced (using one of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execl" title="os.execl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec*e</span></code></a> variants,
+discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
+the <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> variable. The other variants, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execl" title="os.execl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execl()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execle" title="os.execle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execle()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.execv" title="os.execv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execv()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execve" title="os.execve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execve()</span></code></a>, will not use the <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> variable to
+locate the executable; <em>path</em> must contain an appropriate absolute or relative
+path.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execle" title="os.execle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execle()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execlpe" title="os.execlpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execlpe()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execve" title="os.execve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execve()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execvpe" title="os.execvpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execvpe()</span></code></a> (note
+that these all end in “e”), the <em>env</em> parameter must be a mapping which is
+used to define the environment variables for the new process (these are used
+instead of the current process’ environment); the functions <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execl" title="os.execl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execl()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.execlp" title="os.execlp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execlp()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execv" title="os.execv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execv()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execvp" title="os.execvp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execvp()</span></code></a> all cause the new process to
+inherit the environment of the current process.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execve" title="os.execve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execve()</span></code></a> on some platforms, <em>path</em> may also be specified as an open
+file descriptor.  This functionality may not be supported on your platform;
+you can check whether or not it is available using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.supports_fd" title="os.supports_fd"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_fd</span></code></a>.
+If it is unavailable, using it will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for <em>path</em>
+for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execve" title="os.execve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execve()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os._exit">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">_exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os._exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit the process with status <em>n</em>, without calling cleanup handlers, flushing
+stdio buffers, etc.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The standard way to exit is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit(n)</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#os._exit" title="os._exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_exit()</span></code></a> should
+normally only be used in the child process after a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following exit codes are defined and can be used with <a class="reference internal" href="#os._exit" title="os._exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_exit()</span></code></a>,
+although they are not required.  These are typically used for system programs
+written in Python, such as a mail server’s external command delivery program.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Some of these may not be available on all Unix platforms, since there is some
+variation.  These constants are defined where they are defined by the underlying
+platform.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_OK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_OK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_OK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means no error occurred.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_USAGE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_USAGE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_USAGE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means the command was used incorrectly, such as when the wrong
+number of arguments are given.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_DATAERR">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_DATAERR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_DATAERR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means the input data was incorrect.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_NOINPUT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_NOINPUT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_NOINPUT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means an input file did not exist or was not readable.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_NOUSER">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_NOUSER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_NOUSER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means a specified user did not exist.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_NOHOST">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_NOHOST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_NOHOST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means a specified host did not exist.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_UNAVAILABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_UNAVAILABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_UNAVAILABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_SOFTWARE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_SOFTWARE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_SOFTWARE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means an internal software error was detected.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_OSERR">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_OSERR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_OSERR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means an operating system error was detected, such as the
+inability to fork or create a pipe.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_OSFILE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_OSFILE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_OSFILE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means some system file did not exist, could not be opened, or had
+some other kind of error.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_CANTCREAT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_CANTCREAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_CANTCREAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means a user specified output file could not be created.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_IOERR">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_IOERR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_IOERR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means that an error occurred while doing I/O on some file.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_TEMPFAIL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_TEMPFAIL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_TEMPFAIL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means a temporary failure occurred.  This indicates something
+that may not really be an error, such as a network connection that couldn’t be
+made during a retryable operation.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_PROTOCOL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_PROTOCOL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_PROTOCOL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means that a protocol exchange was illegal, invalid, or not
+understood.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_NOPERM">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_NOPERM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_NOPERM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means that there were insufficient permissions to perform the
+operation (but not intended for file system problems).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_CONFIG">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_CONFIG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_CONFIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means that some kind of configuration error occurred.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.EX_NOTFOUND">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">EX_NOTFOUND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.EX_NOTFOUND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit code that means something like “an entry was not found”.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.fork">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">fork</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.fork" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fork a child process.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> in the child and the child’s process id in the
+parent.  If an error occurs <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Note that some platforms including FreeBSD &lt;= 6.3 and Cygwin have
+known issues when using fork() from a thread.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> for applications that use the SSL module with fork().</p>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.forkpty">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">forkpty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.forkpty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fork a child process, using a new pseudo-terminal as the child’s controlling
+terminal. Return a pair of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(pid,</span> <span class="pre">fd)</span></code>, where <em>pid</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> in the child, the
+new child’s process id in the parent, and <em>fd</em> is the file descriptor of the
+master end of the pseudo-terminal.  For a more portable approach, use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="pty.html#module-pty" title="pty: Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Linux. (Linux)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code></a> module.  If an error occurs <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: some flavors of Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.kill">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">kill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>sig</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.kill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-27">Send signal <em>sig</em> to the process <em>pid</em>.  Constants for the specific signals
+available on the host platform are defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Windows: The <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.CTRL_C_EVENT" title="signal.CTRL_C_EVENT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.CTRL_C_EVENT</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT" title="signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT</span></code></a> signals are special signals which can
+only be sent to console processes which share a common console window,
+e.g., some subprocesses. Any other value for <em>sig</em> will cause the process
+to be unconditionally killed by the TerminateProcess API, and the exit code
+will be set to <em>sig</em>. The Windows version of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.kill" title="os.kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kill()</span></code></a> additionally takes
+process handles to be killed.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#signal.pthread_kill" title="signal.pthread_kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.pthread_kill()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Windows support.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.killpg">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">killpg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pgid</em>, <em>sig</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.killpg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-28">Send the signal <em>sig</em> to the process group <em>pgid</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.nice">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">nice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>increment</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.nice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>increment</em> to the process’s “niceness”.  Return the new niceness.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.plock">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">plock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>op</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.plock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Lock program segments into memory.  The value of <em>op</em> (defined in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;sys/lock.h&gt;</span></code>) determines which segments are locked.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.popen">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">popen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>buffering=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.popen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a pipe to or from command <em>cmd</em>.
+The return value is an open file object
+connected to the pipe, which can be read or written depending on whether <em>mode</em>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> (default) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>. The <em>buffering</em> argument has the same meaning as
+the corresponding argument to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function. The
+returned file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> method returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if the subprocess exited
+successfully, or the subprocess’s return code if there was an
+error. On POSIX systems, if the return code is positive it
+represents the return value of the process left-shifted by one
+byte.  If the return code is negative, the process was terminated
+by the signal given by the negated value of the return code.  (For
+example, the return value might be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">signal.SIGKILL</span></code> if the
+subprocess was killed.)  On Windows systems, the return value
+contains the signed integer return code from the child process.</p>
+<p>This is implemented using <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>; see that class’s
+documentation for more powerful ways to manage and communicate with
+subprocesses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.register_at_fork">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">register_at_fork</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>before=None</em>, <em>after_in_parent=None</em>, <em>after_in_child=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.register_at_fork" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register callables to be executed when a new child process is forked
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a> or similar process cloning APIs.
+The parameters are optional and keyword-only.
+Each specifies a different call point.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>before</em> is a function called before forking a child process.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>after_in_parent</em> is a function called from the parent process
+after forking a child process.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>after_in_child</em> is a function called from the child process.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>These calls are only made if control is expected to return to the
+Python interpreter.  A typical <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> launch will not
+trigger them as the child is not going to re-enter the interpreter.</p>
+<p>Functions registered for execution before forking are called in
+reverse registration order.  Functions registered for execution
+after forking (either in the parent or in the child) are called
+in registration order.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> calls made by third-party C code may not
+call those functions, unless it explicitly calls <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_BeforeFork" title="PyOS_BeforeFork"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_BeforeFork()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Parent"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Child"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Child()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>There is no way to unregister a function.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.spawnl">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.spawnle">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>...</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.spawnlp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnlp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnlp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.spawnlpe">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnlpe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>...</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnlpe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.spawnv">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.spawnve">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnve</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnve" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.spawnvp">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnvp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnvp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.spawnvpe">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">spawnvpe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>env</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.spawnvpe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the program <em>path</em> in a new process.</p>
+<p>(Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module provides more powerful facilities for
+spawning new processes and retrieving their results; using that module is
+preferable to using these functions.  Check especially the
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess-replacements"><span class="std std-ref">Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module</span></a> section.)</p>
+<p>If <em>mode</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_NOWAIT" title="os.P_NOWAIT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_NOWAIT</span></code></a>, this function returns the process id of the new
+process; if <em>mode</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_WAIT" title="os.P_WAIT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_WAIT</span></code></a>, returns the process’s exit code if it
+exits normally, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-signal</span></code>, where <em>signal</em> is the signal that killed the
+process.  On Windows, the process id will actually be the process handle, so can
+be used with the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>The “l” and “v” variants of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*</span></code></a> functions differ in how
+command-line arguments are passed.  The “l” variants are perhaps the easiest
+to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
+individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnl*()</span></code> functions.  The “v” variants are good when the number of
+parameters is variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as
+the <em>args</em> parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process must
+start with the name of the command being run.</p>
+<p>The variants which include a second “p” near the end (<a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnlp" title="os.spawnlp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnlp()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnlpe" title="os.spawnlpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnlpe()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnvp" title="os.spawnvp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnvp()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnvpe" title="os.spawnvpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnvpe()</span></code></a>) will use the
+<span class="target" id="index-29"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable to locate the program <em>file</em>.  When the
+environment is being replaced (using one of the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*e</span></code></a> variants,
+discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
+the <span class="target" id="index-30"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> variable.  The other variants, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnl()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnle" title="os.spawnle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnle()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnv" title="os.spawnv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnv()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnve" title="os.spawnve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnve()</span></code></a>, will not use the
+<span class="target" id="index-31"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> variable to locate the executable; <em>path</em> must contain an
+appropriate absolute or relative path.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnle" title="os.spawnle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnle()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnlpe" title="os.spawnlpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnlpe()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnve" title="os.spawnve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnve()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnvpe" title="os.spawnvpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnvpe()</span></code></a>
+(note that these all end in “e”), the <em>env</em> parameter must be a mapping
+which is used to define the environment variables for the new process (they are
+used instead of the current process’ environment); the functions
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnl()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnlp" title="os.spawnlp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnlp()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnv" title="os.spawnv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnv()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnvp" title="os.spawnvp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnvp()</span></code></a> all cause
+the new process to inherit the environment of the current process.  Note that
+keys and values in the <em>env</em> dictionary must be strings; invalid keys or
+values will cause the function to fail, with a return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">127</span></code>.</p>
+<p>As an example, the following calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnlp" title="os.spawnlp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnlp()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnvpe" title="os.spawnvpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnvpe()</span></code></a> are
+equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawnlp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">P_WAIT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cp&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cp&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;index.html&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/dev/null&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;cp&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;index.html&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/dev/null&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawnvpe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">P_WAIT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cp&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.  <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnlp" title="os.spawnlp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnlp()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnlpe" title="os.spawnlpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnlpe()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnvp" title="os.spawnvp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnvp()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnvpe" title="os.spawnvpe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnvpe()</span></code></a> are not available on Windows.  <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnle" title="os.spawnle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnle()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnve" title="os.spawnve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawnve()</span></code></a> are not thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module instead.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.P_NOWAIT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_NOWAIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_NOWAIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.P_NOWAITO">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_NOWAITO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_NOWAITO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible values for the <em>mode</em> parameter to the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*</span></code></a> family of
+functions.  If either of these values is given, the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*()</span></code> functions
+will return as soon as the new process has been created, with the process id as
+the return value.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.P_WAIT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_WAIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_WAIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for the <em>mode</em> parameter to the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*</span></code></a> family of
+functions.  If this is given as <em>mode</em>, the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*()</span></code> functions will not
+return until the new process has run to completion and will return the exit code
+of the process the run is successful, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-signal</span></code> if a signal kills the
+process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.P_DETACH">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_DETACH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_DETACH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.P_OVERLAY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_OVERLAY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_OVERLAY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible values for the <em>mode</em> parameter to the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*</span></code></a> family of
+functions.  These are less portable than those listed above. <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_DETACH" title="os.P_DETACH"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_DETACH</span></code></a>
+is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_NOWAIT" title="os.P_NOWAIT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_NOWAIT</span></code></a>, but the new process is detached from the
+console of the calling process. If <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_OVERLAY" title="os.P_OVERLAY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_OVERLAY</span></code></a> is used, the current
+process will be replaced; the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*</span></code></a> function will not return.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.startfile">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">startfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>operation</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.startfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start a file with its associated application.</p>
+<p>When <em>operation</em> is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'open'</span></code>, this acts like double-clicking
+the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an argument to the
+<strong class="program">start</strong> command from the interactive command shell: the file is opened
+with whatever application (if any) its extension is associated.</p>
+<p>When another <em>operation</em> is given, it must be a “command verb” that specifies
+what should be done with the file. Common verbs documented by Microsoft are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'print'</span></code> and  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'edit'</span></code> (to be used on files) as well as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'explore'</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'find'</span></code> (to be used on directories).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.startfile" title="os.startfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startfile()</span></code></a> returns as soon as the associated application is launched.
+There is no option to wait for the application to close, and no way to retrieve
+the application’s exit status.  The <em>path</em> parameter is relative to the current
+directory.  If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first character
+is not a slash (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code>); the underlying Win32 <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ShellExecute()</span></code> function
+doesn’t work if it is.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.normpath" title="os.path.normpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.normpath()</span></code></a> function to ensure that
+the path is properly encoded for Win32.</p>
+<p>To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ShellExecute()</span></code>
+function is not resolved until this function is first called.  If the function
+cannot be resolved, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.system">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">system</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>command</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.system" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented by calling
+the Standard C function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code>, and has the same limitations.
+Changes to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>, etc. are not reflected in the environment of
+the executed command. If <em>command</em> generates any output, it will be sent to
+the interpreter standard output stream.</p>
+<p>On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded in the
+format specified for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.wait" title="os.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>.  Note that POSIX does not specify the
+meaning of the return value of the C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code> function, so the return
+value of the Python function is system-dependent.</p>
+<p>On Windows, the return value is that returned by the system shell after
+running <em>command</em>.  The shell is given by the Windows environment variable
+<span class="target" id="index-32"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMSPEC</span></code>: it is usually <strong class="program">cmd.exe</strong>, which returns the exit
+status of the command run; on systems using a non-native shell, consult your
+shell documentation.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module provides more powerful facilities for spawning
+new processes and retrieving their results; using that module is preferable
+to using this function.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess-replacements"><span class="std std-ref">Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module</span></a> section in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> documentation for some helpful recipes.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.times">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">times</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.times" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current global process times.
+The return value is an object with five attributes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span></code> - user time</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system</span></code></a> - system time</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">children_user</span></code> - user time of all child processes</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">children_system</span></code> - system time of all child processes</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elapsed</span></code> - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a five-tuple
+containing <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">children_user</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">children_system</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elapsed</span></code> in that order.</p>
+<p>See the Unix manual page
+<em class="manpage">times(2)</em> or the corresponding Windows Platform API documentation.
+On Windows, only <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system</span></code></a> are known; the other
+attributes are zero.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object
+with named attributes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.wait">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for completion of a child process, and return a tuple containing its pid
+and exit status indication: a 16-bit number, whose low byte is the signal number
+that killed the process, and whose high byte is the exit status (if the signal
+number is zero); the high bit of the low byte is set if a core file was
+produced.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.waitid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">waitid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>idtype</em>, <em>id</em>, <em>options</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.waitid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for the completion of one or more child processes.
+<em>idtype</em> can be <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_PID" title="os.P_PID"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_PID</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_PGID" title="os.P_PGID"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_PGID</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_ALL" title="os.P_ALL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_ALL</span></code></a>.
+<em>id</em> specifies the pid to wait on.
+<em>options</em> is constructed from the ORing of one or more of <a class="reference internal" href="#os.WEXITED" title="os.WEXITED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WEXITED</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.WSTOPPED" title="os.WSTOPPED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSTOPPED</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.WCONTINUED" title="os.WCONTINUED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WCONTINUED</span></code></a> and additionally may be ORed with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.WNOHANG" title="os.WNOHANG"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WNOHANG</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.WNOWAIT" title="os.WNOWAIT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WNOWAIT</span></code></a>. The return value is an object
+representing the data contained in the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">siginfo_t</span></code> structure, namely:
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_pid</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_uid</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_signo</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_status</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_code</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if <a class="reference internal" href="#os.WNOHANG" title="os.WNOHANG"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WNOHANG</span></code></a> is specified and there are no
+children in a waitable state.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.P_PID">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_PID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_PID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.P_PGID">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_PGID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_PGID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.P_ALL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">P_ALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.P_ALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These are the possible values for <em>idtype</em> in <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitid" title="os.waitid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitid()</span></code></a>. They affect
+how <em>id</em> is interpreted.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.WEXITED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WEXITED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WEXITED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.WSTOPPED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WSTOPPED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WSTOPPED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.WNOWAIT">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WNOWAIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WNOWAIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flags that can be used in <em>options</em> in <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitid" title="os.waitid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitid()</span></code></a> that specify what
+child signal to wait for.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.CLD_EXITED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">CLD_EXITED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.CLD_EXITED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.CLD_DUMPED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">CLD_DUMPED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.CLD_DUMPED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.CLD_TRAPPED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">CLD_TRAPPED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.CLD_TRAPPED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.CLD_CONTINUED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">CLD_CONTINUED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.CLD_CONTINUED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These are the possible values for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_code</span></code> in the result returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitid" title="os.waitid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitid()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.waitpid">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">waitpid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>options</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.waitpid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The details of this function differ on Unix and Windows.</p>
+<p>On Unix: Wait for completion of a child process given by process id <em>pid</em>, and
+return a tuple containing its process id and exit status indication (encoded as
+for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.wait" title="os.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>).  The semantics of the call are affected by the value of the
+integer <em>options</em>, which should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for normal operation.</p>
+<p>If <em>pid</em> is greater than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a> requests status information for
+that specific process.  If <em>pid</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the request is for the status of any
+child in the process group of the current process.  If <em>pid</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, the
+request pertains to any child of the current process.  If <em>pid</em> is less than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, status is requested for any process in the process group <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-pid</span></code> (the
+absolute value of <em>pid</em>).</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised with the value of errno when the syscall
+returns -1.</p>
+<p>On Windows: Wait for completion of a process given by process handle <em>pid</em>, and
+return a tuple containing <em>pid</em>, and its exit status shifted left by 8 bits
+(shifting makes cross-platform use of the function easier). A <em>pid</em> less than or
+equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> has no special meaning on Windows, and raises an exception. The
+value of integer <em>options</em> has no effect. <em>pid</em> can refer to any process whose
+id is known, not necessarily a child process. The <a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*</span></code></a>
+functions called with <a class="reference internal" href="#os.P_NOWAIT" title="os.P_NOWAIT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P_NOWAIT</span></code></a> return suitable process handles.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
+exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.wait3">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">wait3</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>options</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.wait3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a>, except no process id argument is given and a
+3-element tuple containing the child’s process id, exit status indication,
+and resource usage information is returned.  Refer to
+<a class="reference internal" href="resource.html#module-resource" title="resource: An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code></a>.<a class="reference internal" href="resource.html#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrusage()</span></code></a> for details on resource usage
+information.  The option argument is the same as that provided to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.wait4" title="os.wait4"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait4()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.wait4">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">wait4</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>options</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.wait4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a>, except a 3-element tuple, containing the child’s
+process id, exit status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
+Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="resource.html#module-resource" title="resource: An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code></a>.<a class="reference internal" href="resource.html#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrusage()</span></code></a> for details on
+resource usage information.  The arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.wait4" title="os.wait4"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait4()</span></code></a> are the same
+as those provided to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.WNOHANG">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WNOHANG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WNOHANG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The option for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a> to return immediately if no child process status
+is available immediately. The function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(0,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code> in this case.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.WCONTINUED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WCONTINUED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WCONTINUED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This option causes child processes to be reported if they have been continued
+from a job control stop since their status was last reported.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: some Unix systems.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.WUNTRACED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WUNTRACED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WUNTRACED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This option causes child processes to be reported if they have been stopped but
+their current state has not been reported since they were stopped.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions take a process status code as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.wait" title="os.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a> as a parameter.  They may be
+used to determine the disposition of a process.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WCOREDUMP">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WCOREDUMP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WCOREDUMP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if a core dump was generated for the process, otherwise
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WIFCONTINUED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WIFCONTINUED</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WIFCONTINUED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the process has been continued from a job control stop,
+otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WIFSTOPPED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WIFSTOPPED</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WIFSTOPPED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the process has been stopped, otherwise return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WIFSIGNALED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WIFSIGNALED</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WIFSIGNALED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the process exited due to a signal, otherwise return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WIFEXITED">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WIFEXITED</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WIFEXITED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the process exited using the <em class="manpage">exit(2)</em> system call,
+otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WEXITSTATUS">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WEXITSTATUS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WEXITSTATUS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WIFEXITED(status)</span></code> is true, return the integer parameter to the
+<em class="manpage">exit(2)</em> system call.  Otherwise, the return value is meaningless.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WSTOPSIG">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WSTOPSIG</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WSTOPSIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the signal which caused the process to stop.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.WTERMSIG">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">WTERMSIG</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>status</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.WTERMSIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the signal which caused the process to exit.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interface-to-the-scheduler">
+<h2>Interface to the scheduler<a class="headerlink" href="#interface-to-the-scheduler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating
+system. They are only available on some Unix platforms. For more detailed
+information, consult your Unix manpages.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are supported by the
+operating system.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SCHED_OTHER">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SCHED_OTHER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SCHED_OTHER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default scheduling policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SCHED_BATCH">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SCHED_BATCH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SCHED_BATCH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Scheduling policy for CPU-intensive processes that tries to preserve
+interactivity on the rest of the computer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SCHED_IDLE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SCHED_IDLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SCHED_IDLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Scheduling policy for extremely low priority background tasks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SCHED_SPORADIC">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SCHED_SPORADIC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SCHED_SPORADIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Scheduling policy for sporadic server programs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SCHED_FIFO">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SCHED_FIFO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SCHED_FIFO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A First In First Out scheduling policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SCHED_RR">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SCHED_RR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SCHED_RR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A round-robin scheduling policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This flag can be OR’ed with any other scheduling policy. When a process with
+this flag set forks, its child’s scheduling policy and priority are reset to
+the default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="os.sched_param">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_param</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sched_priority</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_param" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class represents tunable scheduling parameters used in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.sched_setparam" title="os.sched_setparam"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_setparam()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.sched_setscheduler" title="os.sched_setscheduler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_setscheduler()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.sched_getparam" title="os.sched_getparam"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_getparam()</span></code></a>. It is immutable.</p>
+<p>At the moment, there is only one possible parameter:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="os.sched_param.sched_priority">
+<code class="descname">sched_priority</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_param.sched_priority" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The scheduling priority for a scheduling policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_get_priority_min">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_get_priority_min</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_get_priority_min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the minimum priority value for <em>policy</em>. <em>policy</em> is one of the
+scheduling policy constants above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_get_priority_max">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_get_priority_max</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>policy</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_get_priority_max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the maximum priority value for <em>policy</em>. <em>policy</em> is one of the
+scheduling policy constants above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_setscheduler">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_setscheduler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>policy</em>, <em>param</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_setscheduler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the scheduling policy for the process with PID <em>pid</em>. A <em>pid</em> of 0 means
+the calling process. <em>policy</em> is one of the scheduling policy constants
+above. <em>param</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.sched_param" title="os.sched_param"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_param</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_getscheduler">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_getscheduler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_getscheduler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the scheduling policy for the process with PID <em>pid</em>. A <em>pid</em> of 0
+means the calling process. The result is one of the scheduling policy
+constants above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_setparam">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_setparam</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>param</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_setparam" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a scheduling parameters for the process with PID <em>pid</em>. A <em>pid</em> of 0 means
+the calling process. <em>param</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.sched_param" title="os.sched_param"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_param</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_getparam">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_getparam</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_getparam" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the scheduling parameters as a <a class="reference internal" href="#os.sched_param" title="os.sched_param"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_param</span></code></a> instance for the
+process with PID <em>pid</em>. A <em>pid</em> of 0 means the calling process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_rr_get_interval">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_rr_get_interval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_rr_get_interval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the round-robin quantum in seconds for the process with PID <em>pid</em>. A
+<em>pid</em> of 0 means the calling process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_yield">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_yield</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_yield" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Voluntarily relinquish the CPU.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_setaffinity">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_setaffinity</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>mask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_setaffinity" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restrict the process with PID <em>pid</em> (or the current process if zero) to a
+set of CPUs.  <em>mask</em> is an iterable of integers representing the set of
+CPUs to which the process should be restricted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sched_getaffinity">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sched_getaffinity</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sched_getaffinity" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the set of CPUs the process with PID <em>pid</em> (or the current process
+if zero) is restricted to.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="miscellaneous-system-information">
+<span id="os-path"></span><h2>Miscellaneous System Information<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous-system-information" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.confstr">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">confstr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.confstr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return string-valued system configuration values. <em>name</em> specifies the
+configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the name of a
+defined system value; these names are specified in a number of standards (POSIX,
+Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.
+The names known to the host operating system are given as the keys of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">confstr_names</span></code> dictionary.  For configuration variables not included in that
+mapping, passing an integer for <em>name</em> is also accepted.</p>
+<p>If the configuration value specified by <em>name</em> isn’t defined, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is
+returned.</p>
+<p>If <em>name</em> is a string and is not known, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  If a
+specific value for <em>name</em> is not supported by the host system, even if it is
+included in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">confstr_names</span></code>, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised with
+<a class="reference internal" href="errno.html#errno.EINVAL" title="errno.EINVAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EINVAL</span></code></a> for the error number.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.confstr_names">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">confstr_names</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.confstr_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping names accepted by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.confstr" title="os.confstr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">confstr()</span></code></a> to the integer values
+defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
+determine the set of names known to the system.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.cpu_count">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">cpu_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.cpu_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of CPUs in the system. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if undetermined.</p>
+<p>This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current process can
+use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))</span></code></p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getloadavg">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getloadavg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getloadavg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of processes in the system run queue averaged over the last
+1, 5, and 15 minutes or raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the load average was
+unobtainable.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.sysconf">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sysconf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sysconf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return integer-valued system configuration values. If the configuration value
+specified by <em>name</em> isn’t defined, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is returned.  The comments regarding
+the <em>name</em> parameter for <a class="reference internal" href="#os.confstr" title="os.confstr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">confstr()</span></code></a> apply here as well; the dictionary that
+provides information on the known names is given by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf_names</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.sysconf_names">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sysconf_names</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sysconf_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping names accepted by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.sysconf" title="os.sysconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf()</span></code></a> to the integer values
+defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
+determine the set of names known to the system.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following data values are used to support path manipulation operations.  These
+are defined for all platforms.</p>
+<p>Higher-level operations on pathnames are defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-34"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.curdir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">curdir</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.curdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the current
+directory. This is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> for Windows and POSIX. Also available via
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-35"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.pardir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pardir</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pardir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the parent
+directory. This is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'..'</span></code> for Windows and POSIX. Also available via
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-36"></span><span class="target" id="index-37"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.sep">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">sep</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.sep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The character used by the operating system to separate pathname components.
+This is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code> for POSIX and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\\'</span></code> for Windows.  Note that knowing this
+is not sufficient to be able to parse or concatenate pathnames — use
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.split" title="os.path.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.split()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.join" title="os.path.join"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join()</span></code></a> — but it is occasionally
+useful. Also available via <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-38"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.altsep">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">altsep</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.altsep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alternative character used by the operating system to separate pathname
+components, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if only one separator character exists.  This is set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code> on Windows systems where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sep</span></code> is a backslash. Also available via
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-39"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.extsep">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">extsep</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.extsep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The character which separates the base filename from the extension; for example,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.py</span></code>. Also available via <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-40"></span><dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.pathsep">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">pathsep</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.pathsep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The character conventionally used by the operating system to separate search
+path components (as in <span class="target" id="index-41"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>), such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code> for POSIX or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">';'</span></code> for
+Windows. Also available via <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.defpath">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">defpath</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.defpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default search path used by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.execl" title="os.execl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec*p*</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn*p*</span></code></a> if the environment doesn’t have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'PATH'</span></code>
+key. Also available via <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.linesep">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">linesep</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.linesep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string used to separate (or, rather, terminate) lines on the current
+platform.  This may be a single character, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> for POSIX, or
+multiple characters, for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code> for Windows. Do not use
+<em>os.linesep</em> as a line terminator when writing files opened in text mode (the
+default); use a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> instead, on all platforms.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.devnull">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">devnull</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.devnull" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file path of the null device. For example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/dev/null'</span></code> for
+POSIX, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'nul'</span></code> for Windows.  Also available via <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.RTLD_LAZY">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_LAZY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RTLD_LAZY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.RTLD_NOW">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_NOW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RTLD_NOW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.RTLD_GLOBAL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_GLOBAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RTLD_GLOBAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.RTLD_LOCAL">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_LOCAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RTLD_LOCAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.RTLD_NODELETE">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_NODELETE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RTLD_NODELETE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.RTLD_NOLOAD">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_NOLOAD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RTLD_NOLOAD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="os.RTLD_DEEPBIND">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">RTLD_DEEPBIND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.RTLD_DEEPBIND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flags for use with the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.setdlopenflags" title="sys.setdlopenflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdlopenflags()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getdlopenflags" title="sys.getdlopenflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getdlopenflags()</span></code></a> functions.  See the Unix manual page
+<em class="manpage">dlopen(3)</em> for what the different flags mean.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="random-numbers">
+<h2>Random numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#random-numbers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.getrandom">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">getrandom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.getrandom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get up to <em>size</em> random bytes. The function can return less bytes than
+requested.</p>
+<p>These bytes can be used to seed user-space random number generators or for
+cryptographic purposes.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> relies on entropy gathered from device drivers and other
+sources of environmental noise. Unnecessarily reading large quantities of
+data will have a negative impact on  other users  of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/random</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> devices.</p>
+<p>The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of the
+following values ORed together: <a class="reference internal" href="#os.GRND_RANDOM" title="os.GRND_RANDOM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.GRND_RANDOM</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.GRND_NONBLOCK" title="os.GRND_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GRND_NONBLOCK</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference external" href="http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html">Linux getrandom() manual page</a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 3.17 and newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.urandom">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">urandom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.urandom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string of <em>size</em> random bytes suitable for cryptographic use.</p>
+<p>This function returns random bytes from an OS-specific randomness source.  The
+returned data should be unpredictable enough for cryptographic applications,
+though its exact quality depends on the OS implementation.</p>
+<p>On Linux, if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> syscall is available, it is used in
+blocking mode: block until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized
+(128 bits of entropy are collected by the kernel). See the <span class="target" id="index-42"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0524"><strong>PEP 524</strong></a> for
+the rationale. On Linux, the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getrandom" title="os.getrandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code></a> function can be used to get
+random bytes in non-blocking mode (using the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.GRND_NONBLOCK" title="os.GRND_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GRND_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> flag) or
+to poll until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized.</p>
+<p>On a Unix-like system, random bytes are read from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code>
+device. If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> device is not available or not readable, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<p>On Windows, it will use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CryptGenRandom()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="secrets.html#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module provides higher level functions. For an
+easy-to-use interface to the random number generator provided by your
+platform, please see <a class="reference internal" href="random.html#random.SystemRandom" title="random.SystemRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.SystemRandom</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.0: </span>On Linux, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> is now used in blocking mode to increase the
+security.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.2: </span>On Linux, if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> syscall blocks (the urandom entropy pool
+is not initialized yet), fall back on reading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>On Linux 3.17 and newer, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> syscall is now used
+when available.  On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, the C <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getentropy()</span></code>
+function is now used. These functions avoid the usage of an internal file
+descriptor.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.GRND_NONBLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">GRND_NONBLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.GRND_NONBLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>By  default, when reading from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/random</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getrandom" title="os.getrandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code></a> blocks if
+no random bytes are available, and when reading from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code>, it blocks
+if the entropy pool has not yet been initialized.</p>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.GRND_NONBLOCK" title="os.GRND_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GRND_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> flag is set, then <a class="reference internal" href="#os.getrandom" title="os.getrandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code></a> does not
+block in these cases, but instead immediately raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.GRND_RANDOM">
+<code class="descclassname">os.</code><code class="descname">GRND_RANDOM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.GRND_RANDOM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If  this  bit  is  set,  then  random bytes are drawn from the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/random</span></code> pool instead of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> pool.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables">File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#process-parameters">Process Parameters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-object-creation">File Object Creation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-descriptor-operations">File Descriptor Operations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#querying-the-size-of-a-terminal">Querying the size of a terminal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inheritance-of-file-descriptors">Inheritance of File Descriptors</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#files-and-directories">Files and Directories</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#linux-extended-attributes">Linux extended attributes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#process-management">Process Management</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interface-to-the-scheduler">Interface to the scheduler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#miscellaneous-system-information">Miscellaneous System Information</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#random-numbers">Random numbers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="allos.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Generic Operating System Services</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="io.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code> — Core tools for working with streams</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-os.path">
+<span id="os-path-common-pathname-manipulations"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> — Common pathname manipulations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-os.path" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/posixpath.py">Lib/posixpath.py</a> (for POSIX),
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/ntpath.py">Lib/ntpath.py</a> (for Windows NT),
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/macpath.py">Lib/macpath.py</a> (for Macintosh)</p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module implements some useful functions on pathnames. To read or
+write files see <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, and for accessing the filesystem see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module. The path parameters can be passed as either strings,
+or bytes. Applications are encouraged to represent file names as
+(Unicode) character strings. Unfortunately, some file names may not be
+representable as strings on Unix, so applications that need to support
+arbitrary file names on Unix should use bytes objects to represent
+path names. Vice versa, using bytes objects cannot represent all file
+names on Windows (in the standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbcs</span></code> encoding), hence Windows
+applications should use string objects to access all files.</p>
+<p>Unlike a unix shell, Python does not do any <em>automatic</em> path expansions.
+Functions such as <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expanduser()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.expandvars" title="os.path.expandvars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expandvars()</span></code></a> can be invoked
+explicitly when an application desires shell-like path expansion.  (See also
+the <a class="reference internal" href="glob.html#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> module.)</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> module offers high-level path objects.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>All of these functions accept either only bytes or only string objects as
+their parameters.  The result is an object of the same type, if a path or
+file name is returned.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since different operating systems have different path name conventions, there
+are several versions of this module in the standard library.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> module is always the path module suitable for the operating
+system Python is running on, and therefore usable for local paths.  However,
+you can also import and use the individual modules if you want to manipulate
+a path that is <em>always</em> in one of the different formats.  They all have the
+same interface:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixpath</span></code> for UNIX-style paths</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntpath</span></code> for Windows paths</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="macpath.html#module-macpath" title="macpath: Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macpath</span></code></a> for old-style MacOS paths</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.abspath">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">abspath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.abspath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname <em>path</em>. On most
+platforms, this is equivalent to calling the function <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.normpath" title="os.path.normpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normpath()</span></code></a> as
+follows: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normpath(join(os.getcwd(),</span> <span class="pre">path))</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.basename">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">basename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.basename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the base name of pathname <em>path</em>.  This is the second element of the
+pair returned by passing <em>path</em> to the function <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.split" title="os.path.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a>.  Note that
+the result of this function is different
+from the Unix <strong class="program">basename</strong> program; where <strong class="program">basename</strong> for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/foo/bar/'</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'bar'</span></code>, the <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.basename" title="os.path.basename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basename()</span></code></a> function returns an
+empty string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.commonpath">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">commonpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>paths</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.commonpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the sequence
+<em>paths</em>.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>paths</em> contains both absolute and relative
+pathnames, or if <em>paths</em> is empty.  Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.commonprefix" title="os.path.commonprefix"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commonprefix()</span></code></a>, this
+returns a valid path.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like objects</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.commonprefix">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">commonprefix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.commonprefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the longest path prefix (taken character-by-character) that is a
+prefix of all paths in  <em>list</em>.  If <em>list</em> is empty, return the empty string
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function may return invalid paths because it works a
+character at a time.  To obtain a valid path, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.commonpath" title="os.path.commonpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commonpath()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commonprefix</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/l&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commonpath</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.dirname">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">dirname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.dirname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the directory name of pathname <em>path</em>.  This is the first element of
+the pair returned by passing <em>path</em> to the function <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.split" title="os.path.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.exists">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">exists</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.exists" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>path</em> refers to an existing path or an open
+file descriptor.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for broken symbolic links.  On
+some platforms, this function may return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if permission is
+not granted to execute <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> on the requested file, even
+if the <em>path</em> physically exists.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>path</em> can now be an integer: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> is returned if it is an
+ open file descriptor, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.lexists">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">lexists</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.lexists" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>path</em> refers to an existing path. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for
+broken symbolic links.   Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.exists" title="os.path.exists"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exists()</span></code></a> on platforms lacking
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.expanduser">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">expanduser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.expanduser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>On Unix and Windows, return the argument with an initial component of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~user</span></code> replaced by that <em>user</em>’s home directory.</p>
+<p id="index-2">On Unix, an initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> is replaced by the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOME</span></code>
+if it is set; otherwise the current user’s home directory is looked up in the
+password directory through the built-in module <a class="reference internal" href="pwd.html#module-pwd" title="pwd: The password database (getpwnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code></a>. An initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~user</span></code>
+is looked up directly in the password directory.</p>
+<p>On Windows, <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOME</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USERPROFILE</span></code> will be used if set,
+otherwise a combination of <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOMEPATH</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOMEDRIVE</span></code> will be
+used.  An initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~user</span></code> is handled by stripping the last directory component
+from the created user path derived above.</p>
+<p>If the expansion fails or if the path does not begin with a tilde, the path is
+returned unchanged.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.expandvars">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">expandvars</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.expandvars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the argument with environment variables expanded.  Substrings of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$name</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">${name}</span></code> are replaced by the value of environment variable
+<em>name</em>.  Malformed variable names and references to non-existing variables are
+left unchanged.</p>
+<p>On Windows, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%name%</span></code> expansions are supported in addition to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$name</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">${name}</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.getatime">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">getatime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.getatime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the time of last access of <em>path</em>.  The return value is a floating point number giving
+the number of seconds since the epoch (see the  <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module).  Raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.getmtime">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">getmtime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.getmtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the time of last modification of <em>path</em>.  The return value is a floating point number
+giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see the  <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module).
+Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.getctime">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">getctime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.getctime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the system’s ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the time of the
+last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is the creation time for <em>path</em>.
+The return value is a number giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see
+the  <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module).  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the file does not exist or
+is inaccessible.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.getsize">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">getsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.getsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size, in bytes, of <em>path</em>.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the file does
+not exist or is inaccessible.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.isabs">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">isabs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.isabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>path</em> is an absolute pathname.  On Unix, that means it
+begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with a (back)slash after chopping
+off a potential drive letter.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.isfile">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">isfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.isfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>path</em> is an <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.exists" title="os.path.exists"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">existing</span></code></a> regular file.
+This follows symbolic links, so both <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.islink" title="os.path.islink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islink()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.isfile" title="os.path.isfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfile()</span></code></a> can
+be true for the same path.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.isdir">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">isdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.isdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>path</em> is an <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.exists" title="os.path.exists"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">existing</span></code></a> directory.  This
+follows symbolic links, so both <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.islink" title="os.path.islink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islink()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.isdir" title="os.path.isdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isdir()</span></code></a> can be true
+for the same path.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.islink">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">islink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.islink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>path</em> refers to an <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.exists" title="os.path.exists"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">existing</span></code></a> directory
+entry that is a symbolic link.  Always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if symbolic links are not
+supported by the Python runtime.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.ismount">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">ismount</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.ismount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if pathname <em>path</em> is a <em class="dfn">mount point</em>: a point in a
+file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX, the
+function checks whether <em>path</em>’s parent, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">path</span></em><span class="pre">/..</span></code>, is on a different
+device than <em>path</em>, or whether <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">path</span></em><span class="pre">/..</span></code> and <em>path</em> point to the same
+i-node on the same device — this should detect mount points for all Unix
+and POSIX variants.  It is not able to reliably detect bind mounts on the
+same filesystem.  On Windows, a drive letter root and a share UNC are
+always mount points, and for any other path <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetVolumePathName</span></code> is called
+to see if it is different from the input path.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>Support for detecting non-root mount points on Windows.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.join">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>*paths</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Join one or more path components intelligently.  The return value is the
+concatenation of <em>path</em> and any members of <em>*paths</em> with exactly one
+directory separator (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sep</span></code>) following each non-empty part except the
+last, meaning that the result will only end in a separator if the last
+part is empty.  If a component is an absolute path, all previous
+components are thrown away and joining continues from the absolute path
+component.</p>
+<p>On Windows, the drive letter is not reset when an absolute path component
+(e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\foo'</span></code>) is encountered.  If a component contains a drive
+letter, all previous components are thrown away and the drive letter is
+reset.  Note that since there is a current directory for each drive,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join(&quot;c:&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;foo&quot;)</span></code> represents a path relative to the current
+directory on drive <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:</span></code> (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c:foo</span></code>), not <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c:\foo</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>path</em> and <em>paths</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.normcase">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">normcase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.normcase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Normalize the case of a pathname.  On Windows, convert all characters in the
+pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward slashes to backward slashes.
+On other operating systems, return the path unchanged.
+Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if the type of <em>path</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> (directly
+or indirectly through the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> interface).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.normpath">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">normpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.normpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Normalize a pathname by collapsing redundant separators and up-level
+references so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A//B</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A/B/</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A/./B</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A/foo/../B</span></code> all
+become <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A/B</span></code>.  This string manipulation may change the meaning of a path
+that contains symbolic links.  On Windows, it converts forward slashes to
+backward slashes. To normalize case, use <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.normcase" title="os.path.normcase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normcase()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.realpath">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">realpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.realpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating any symbolic
+links encountered in the path (if they are supported by the operating system).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.relpath">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">relpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>start=os.curdir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.relpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a relative filepath to <em>path</em> either from the current directory or
+from an optional <em>start</em> directory.  This is a path computation:  the
+filesystem is not accessed to confirm the existence or nature of <em>path</em> or
+<em>start</em>.</p>
+<p><em>start</em> defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.curdir" title="os.curdir"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.curdir</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.samefile">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">samefile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path1</em>, <em>path2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.samefile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or directory.
+This is determined by the device number and i-node number and raises an
+exception if an <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> call on either pathname fails.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added Windows support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Windows now uses the same implementation as all other platforms.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.sameopenfile">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">sameopenfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp1</em>, <em>fp2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.sameopenfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the file descriptors <em>fp1</em> and <em>fp2</em> refer to the same file.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added Windows support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.samestat">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">samestat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stat1</em>, <em>stat2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.samestat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the stat tuples <em>stat1</em> and <em>stat2</em> refer to the same file.
+These structures may have been returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fstat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>.  This function implements the
+underlying comparison used by <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.samefile" title="os.path.samefile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">samefile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.sameopenfile" title="os.path.sameopenfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sameopenfile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added Windows support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.split">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the pathname <em>path</em> into a pair, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(head,</span> <span class="pre">tail)</span></code> where <em>tail</em> is the
+last pathname component and <em>head</em> is everything leading up to that.  The
+<em>tail</em> part will never contain a slash; if <em>path</em> ends in a slash, <em>tail</em>
+will be empty.  If there is no slash in <em>path</em>, <em>head</em> will be empty.  If
+<em>path</em> is empty, both <em>head</em> and <em>tail</em> are empty.  Trailing slashes are
+stripped from <em>head</em> unless it is the root (one or more slashes only).  In
+all cases, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join(head,</span> <span class="pre">tail)</span></code> returns a path to the same location as <em>path</em>
+(but the strings may differ).  Also see the functions <a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.dirname" title="os.path.dirname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dirname()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#os.path.basename" title="os.path.basename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basename()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.splitdrive">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">splitdrive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.splitdrive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the pathname <em>path</em> into a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(drive,</span> <span class="pre">tail)</span></code> where <em>drive</em> is either
+a mount point or the empty string.  On systems which do not use drive
+specifications, <em>drive</em> will always be the empty string.  In all cases, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drive</span>
+<span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">tail</span></code> will be the same as <em>path</em>.</p>
+<p>On Windows, splits a pathname into drive/UNC sharepoint and relative path.</p>
+<p>If the path contains a drive letter, drive will contain everything
+up to and including the colon.
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitdrive(&quot;c:/dir&quot;)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(&quot;c:&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;/dir&quot;)</span></code></p>
+<p>If the path contains a UNC path, drive will contain the host name
+and share, up to but not including the fourth separator.
+e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitdrive(&quot;//host/computer/dir&quot;)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(&quot;//host/computer&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;/dir&quot;)</span></code></p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="os.path.splitext">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">splitext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.splitext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the pathname <em>path</em> into a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(root,</span> <span class="pre">ext)</span></code>  such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">ext</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">path</span></code>, and <em>ext</em> is empty or begins with a period and contains at most one
+period. Leading periods on the basename are  ignored; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitext('.cshrc')</span></code>
+returns  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('.cshrc',</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="os.path.supports_unicode_filenames">
+<code class="descclassname">os.path.</code><code class="descname">supports_unicode_filenames</code><a class="headerlink" href="#os.path.supports_unicode_filenames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if arbitrary Unicode strings can be used as file names (within limitations
+imposed by the file system).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pathlib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code> — Object-oriented filesystem paths</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="fileinput.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code> — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/os.path.rst"
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ossaudiodev.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ossaudiodev.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83ecc05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ossaudiodev.html
@@ -0,0 +1,638 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+  <div class="section" id="module-ossaudiodev">
+<span id="ossaudiodev-access-to-oss-compatible-audio-devices"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ossaudiodev" title="ossaudiodev: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (Linux, FreeBSD)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code></a> — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ossaudiodev" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module allows you to access the OSS (Open Sound System) audio interface.
+OSS is available for a wide range of open-source and commercial Unices, and is
+the standard audio interface for Linux and recent versions of FreeBSD.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Operations in this module now raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> where <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>
+was raised.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.opensound.com/pguide/oss.pdf">Open Sound System Programmer’s Guide</a></dt><dd><p>the official documentation for the OSS C API</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The module defines a large number of constants supplied by the OSS device
+driver; see <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;sys/soundcard.h&gt;</span></code> on either Linux or FreeBSD for a listing.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ossaudiodev" title="ossaudiodev: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (Linux, FreeBSD)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code></a> defines the following variables and functions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ossaudiodev.</code><code class="descname">OSSAudioError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised on certain errors.  The argument is a string describing
+what went wrong.</p>
+<p>(If <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ossaudiodev" title="ossaudiodev: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (Linux, FreeBSD)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code></a> receives an error from a system call such as
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>, or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code>, it raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.
+Errors detected directly by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ossaudiodev" title="ossaudiodev: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (Linux, FreeBSD)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code></a> result in <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError" title="ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSSAudioError</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<p>(For backwards compatibility, the exception class is also available as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev.error</span></code>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.open">
+<code class="descclassname">ossaudiodev.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">ossaudiodev.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>device</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Open an audio device and return an OSS audio device object.  This object
+supports many file-like methods, such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> (although there are subtle differences between conventional Unix
+read/write semantics and those of OSS audio devices).  It also supports a number
+of audio-specific methods; see below for the complete list of methods.</p>
+<p><em>device</em> is the audio device filename to use.  If it is not specified, this
+module first looks in the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUDIODEV</span></code> for a device
+to use.  If not found, it falls back to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/dsp</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>mode</em> is one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> for read-only (record) access, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> for
+write-only (playback) access and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rw'</span></code> for both. Since many sound cards
+only allow one process to have the recorder or player open at a time, it is a
+good idea to open the device only for the activity needed.  Further, some
+sound cards are half-duplex: they can be opened for reading or writing, but
+not both at once.</p>
+<p>Note the unusual calling syntax: the <em>first</em> argument is optional, and the
+second is required.  This is a historical artifact for compatibility with the
+older <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linuxaudiodev</span></code> module which <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ossaudiodev" title="ossaudiodev: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (Linux, FreeBSD)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code></a> supersedes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.openmixer">
+<code class="descclassname">ossaudiodev.</code><code class="descname">openmixer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>device</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.openmixer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a mixer device and return an OSS mixer device object.   <em>device</em> is the
+mixer device filename to use.  If it is not specified, this module first looks
+in the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIXERDEV</span></code> for a device to use.  If not
+found, it falls back to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/mixer</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="audio-device-objects">
+<span id="ossaudio-device-objects"></span><h2>Audio Device Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#audio-device-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Before you can write to or read from an audio device, you must call three
+methods in the correct order:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfmt()</span></code> to set the output format</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">channels()</span></code> to set the number of channels</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">speed()</span></code> to set the sample rate</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Alternately, you can use the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setparameters()</span></code> method to set all three audio
+parameters at once.  This is more convenient, but may not be as flexible in all
+cases.</p>
+<p>The audio device objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.open" title="ossaudiodev.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> define the following methods
+and (read-only) attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.close">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Explicitly close the audio device.  When you are done writing to or reading from
+an audio device, you should explicitly close it.  A closed device cannot be used
+again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file descriptor associated with the device.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.read">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read <em>size</em> bytes from the audio input and return them as a Python string.
+Unlike most Unix device drivers, OSS audio devices in blocking mode (the
+default) will block <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.read" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.read"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> until the entire requested amount of data is
+available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.write">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>data</em> to the audio device and return the
+number of bytes written.  If the audio device is in blocking mode (the
+default), the entire data is always written (again, this is different from
+usual Unix device semantics).  If the device is in non-blocking mode, some
+data may not be written—see <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeall()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">writeall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> <em>data</em> to the audio device: waits until
+the audio device is able to accept data, writes as much data as it will
+accept, and repeats until <em>data</em> has been completely written. If the device
+is in blocking mode (the default), this has the same effect as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.write" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>; <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.writeall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeall()</span></code></a> is only useful in non-blocking mode.  Has
+no return value, since the amount of data written is always equal to the
+amount of data supplied.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Audio device objects also support the context management protocol, i.e. they can
+be used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The following methods each map to exactly one <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code> system call.  The
+correspondence is obvious: for example, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfmt()</span></code> corresponds to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SNDCTL_DSP_SETFMT</span></code> ioctl, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sync()</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SNDCTL_DSP_SYNC</span></code> (this can
+be useful when consulting the OSS documentation).  If the underlying
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code> fails, they all raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.nonblock">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">nonblock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.nonblock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put the device into non-blocking mode.  Once in non-blocking mode, there is no
+way to return it to blocking mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.getfmts">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">getfmts</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.getfmts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bitmask of the audio output formats supported by the soundcard.  Some
+of the formats supported by OSS are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 64%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Format</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_MU_LAW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a logarithmic encoding (used by Sun <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.au</span></code>
+files and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/audio</span></code>)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_A_LAW</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a logarithmic encoding</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_IMA_ADPCM</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a 4:1 compressed format defined by the
+Interactive Multimedia Association</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_U8</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Unsigned, 8-bit audio</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_S16_LE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed, 16-bit audio, little-endian byte
+order (as used by Intel processors)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_S16_BE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed, 16-bit audio, big-endian byte order
+(as used by 68k, PowerPC, Sparc)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_S8</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed, 8 bit audio</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_U16_LE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Unsigned, 16-bit little-endian audio</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_U16_BE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Unsigned, 16-bit big-endian audio</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Consult the OSS documentation for a full list of audio formats, and note that
+most devices support only a subset of these formats.  Some older devices only
+support <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_U8</span></code>; the most common format used today is
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_S16_LE</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">setfmt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to set the current audio format to <em>format</em>—see <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.getfmts" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.getfmts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfmts()</span></code></a> for a
+list.  Returns the audio format that the device was set to, which may not be the
+requested format.  May also be used to return the current audio format—do this
+by passing an “audio format” of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AFMT_QUERY</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">channels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nchannels</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the number of output channels to <em>nchannels</em>.  A value of 1 indicates
+monophonic sound, 2 stereophonic.  Some devices may have more than 2 channels,
+and some high-end devices may not support mono. Returns the number of channels
+the device was set to.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">speed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>samplerate</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to set the audio sampling rate to <em>samplerate</em> samples per second.  Returns
+the rate actually set.  Most sound devices don’t support arbitrary sampling
+rates.  Common rates are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 86%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Rate</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>8000</p></td>
+<td><p>default rate for <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/audio</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>11025</p></td>
+<td><p>speech recording</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>22050</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>44100</p></td>
+<td><p>CD quality audio (at 16 bits/sample and 2
+channels)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>96000</p></td>
+<td><p>DVD quality audio (at 24 bits/sample)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.sync">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">sync</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.sync" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until the sound device has played every byte in its buffer.  (This happens
+implicitly when the device is closed.)  The OSS documentation recommends closing
+and re-opening the device rather than using <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.sync" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.sync"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sync()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.reset">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Immediately stop playing or recording and return the device to a state where it
+can accept commands.  The OSS documentation recommends closing and re-opening
+the device after calling <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.reset" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.reset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.post">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">post</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.post" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tell the driver that there is likely to be a pause in the output, making it
+possible for the device to handle the pause more intelligently.  You might use
+this after playing a spot sound effect, before waiting for user input, or before
+doing disk I/O.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following convenience methods combine several ioctls, or one ioctl and some
+simple calculations.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setparameters">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">setparameters</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>nchannels</em>, <em>samplerate</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>strict=False</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setparameters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the key audio sampling parameters—sample format, number of channels, and
+sampling rate—in one method call.  <em>format</em>,  <em>nchannels</em>, and <em>samplerate</em>
+should be as specified in the <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfmt()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">channels()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">speed()</span></code></a>  methods.  If <em>strict</em> is true, <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setparameters" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setparameters"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setparameters()</span></code></a> checks to
+see if each parameter was actually set to the requested value, and raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError" title="ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSSAudioError</span></code></a> if not.  Returns a tuple (<em>format</em>, <em>nchannels</em>,
+<em>samplerate</em>) indicating the parameter values that were actually set by the
+device driver (i.e., the same as the return values of <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.setfmt"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setfmt()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.channels"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">channels()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed" title="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.speed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">speed()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">channels</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rate</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dsp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setparameters</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">channels</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rate</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dsp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setfmt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">channels</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dsp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">channels</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">channels</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">rate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dsp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rate</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.bufsize">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">bufsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.bufsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the size of the hardware buffer, in samples.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obufcount">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">obufcount</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obufcount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the number of samples that are in the hardware buffer yet to be played.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obuffree">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">obuffree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.obuffree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the number of samples that could be queued into the hardware buffer to
+be played without blocking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Audio device objects also support several read-only attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.closed">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">closed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Boolean indicating whether the device has been closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.name">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>String containing the name of the device file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.mode">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_audio_device.</code><code class="descname">mode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device.mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The I/O mode for the file, either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;r&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;rw&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;w&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mixer-device-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Mixer Device Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#mixer-device-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The mixer object provides two file-like methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.close">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method closes the open mixer device file.  Any further attempts to use the
+mixer after this file is closed will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the file handle number of the open mixer device file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Mixer objects also support the context management protocol.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The remaining methods are specific to audio mixing:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">controls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a bitmask specifying the available mixer controls (“Control”
+being a specific mixable “channel”, such as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOUND_MIXER_PCM</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOUND_MIXER_SYNTH</span></code>).  This bitmask indicates a subset of all available
+mixer controls—the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOUND_MIXER_*</span></code> constants defined at module level.
+To determine if, for example, the current mixer object supports a PCM mixer, use
+the following Python code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mixer</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ossaudiodev</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">openmixer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">mixer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">controls</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">ossaudiodev</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOUND_MIXER_PCM</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># PCM is supported</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For most purposes, the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME</span></code> (master volume) and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOUND_MIXER_PCM</span></code> controls should suffice—but code that uses the mixer
+should be flexible when it comes to choosing mixer controls.  On the Gravis
+Ultrasound, for example, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME</span></code> does not exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.stereocontrols">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">stereocontrols</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.stereocontrols" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a bitmask indicating stereo mixer controls.  If a bit is set, the
+corresponding control is stereo; if it is unset, the control is either
+monophonic or not supported by the mixer (use in combination with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls" title="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">controls()</span></code></a> to determine which).</p>
+<p>See the code example for the <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls" title="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">controls()</span></code></a> function for an example of getting
+data from a bitmask.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.reccontrols">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">reccontrols</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.reccontrols" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a bitmask specifying the mixer controls that may be used to record.  See
+the code example for <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls" title="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.controls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">controls()</span></code></a> for an example of reading from a bitmask.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>control</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the volume of a given mixer control.  The returned volume is a 2-tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(left_volume,right_volume)</span></code>.  Volumes are specified as numbers from 0
+(silent) to 100 (full volume).  If the control is monophonic, a 2-tuple is still
+returned, but both volumes are the same.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError" title="ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSSAudioError</span></code></a> if an invalid control is specified, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if an unsupported control is specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>control</em>, <em>(left</em>, <em>right)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the volume for a given mixer control to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(left,right)</span></code>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">left</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">right</span></code> must be ints and between 0 (silent) and 100 (full volume).  On
+success, the new volume is returned as a 2-tuple. Note that this may not be
+exactly the same as the volume specified, because of the limited resolution of
+some soundcard’s mixers.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="#ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError" title="ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSSAudioError</span></code></a> if an invalid mixer control was specified, or if the
+specified volumes were out-of-range.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get_recsrc">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">get_recsrc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.get_recsrc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a bitmask indicating which control(s) are currently being
+used as a recording source.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc">
+<code class="descclassname">oss_mixer_device.</code><code class="descname">set_recsrc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bitmask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call this function to specify a recording source.  Returns a bitmask indicating
+the new recording source (or sources) if successful; raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if an
+invalid source was specified.  To set the current recording source to the
+microphone input:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mixer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setrecsrc</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">ossaudiodev</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOUND_MIXER_MIC</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code> — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#audio-device-objects">Audio Device Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mixer-device-objects">Mixer Device Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sndhdr.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code> — Determine type of sound file</a></p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+  <div class="section" id="other-graphical-user-interface-packages">
+<span id="other-gui-packages"></span><h1>Other Graphical User Interface Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#other-graphical-user-interface-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Major cross-platform (Windows, Mac OS X, Unix-like) GUI toolkits are
+available for Python:</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.gnome.org/Projects/PyGObject">PyGObject</a></dt><dd><p>PyGObject provides introspection bindings for C libraries using
+<a class="reference external" href="https://developer.gnome.org/gobject/stable/">GObject</a>.  One of
+these libraries is the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.gtk.org/">GTK+ 3</a> widget set.
+GTK+ comes with many more widgets than Tkinter provides.  An online
+<a class="reference external" href="https://python-gtk-3-tutorial.readthedocs.io/">Python GTK+ 3 Tutorial</a>
+is available.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.pygtk.org/">PyGTK</a></dt><dd><p>PyGTK provides bindings for an older version
+of the library, GTK+ 2.  It provides an object oriented interface that
+is slightly higher level than the C one.  There are also bindings to
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.gnome.org/">GNOME</a>.  An online <a class="reference external" href="http://www.pygtk.org/pygtk2tutorial/index.html">tutorial</a> is available.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro">PyQt</a></dt><dd><p>PyQt is a <strong class="program">sip</strong>-wrapped binding to the Qt toolkit.  Qt is an
+extensive C++ GUI application development framework that is
+available for Unix, Windows and Mac OS X. <strong class="program">sip</strong> is a tool
+for generating bindings for C++ libraries as Python classes, and
+is specifically designed for Python.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.qt.io/PySide">PySide</a></dt><dd><p>PySide is a newer binding to the Qt toolkit, provided by Nokia.
+Compared to PyQt, its licensing scheme is friendlier to non-open source
+applications.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.wxpython.org">wxPython</a></dt><dd><p>wxPython is a cross-platform GUI toolkit for Python that is built around
+the popular <a class="reference external" href="https://www.wxwidgets.org/">wxWidgets</a> (formerly wxWindows)
+C++ toolkit.  It provides a native look and feel for applications on
+Windows, Mac OS X, and Unix systems by using each platform’s native
+widgets where ever possible, (GTK+ on Unix-like systems).  In addition to
+an extensive set of widgets, wxPython provides classes for online
+documentation and context sensitive help, printing, HTML viewing,
+low-level device context drawing, drag and drop, system clipboard access,
+an XML-based resource format and more, including an ever growing library
+of user-contributed modules.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p>PyGTK, PyQt, and wxPython, all have a modern look and feel and more
+widgets than Tkinter. In addition, there are many other GUI toolkits for
+Python, both cross-platform, and platform-specific. See the <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming">GUI Programming</a> page in the Python Wiki for a
+much more complete list, and also for links to documents where the
+different GUI toolkits are compared.</p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-parser">
+<span id="parser-access-python-parse-trees"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> — Access Python parse trees<a class="headerlink" href="#module-parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module provides an interface to Python’s internal parser and
+byte-code compiler.  The primary purpose for this interface is to allow Python
+code to edit the parse tree of a Python expression and create executable code
+from this.  This is better than trying to parse and modify an arbitrary Python
+code fragment as a string because parsing is performed in a manner identical to
+the code forming the application.  It is also faster.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>From Python 2.5 onward, it’s much more convenient to cut in at the Abstract
+Syntax Tree (AST) generation and compilation stage, using the <a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+</div>
+<p>There are a few things to note about this module which are important to making
+use of the data structures created.  This is not a tutorial on editing the parse
+trees for Python code, but some examples of using the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module are
+presented.</p>
+<p>Most importantly, a good understanding of the Python grammar processed by the
+internal parser is required.  For full information on the language syntax, refer
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/index.html#reference-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Language Reference</span></a>.  The parser
+itself is created from a grammar specification defined in the file
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Grammar/Grammar</span></code> in the standard Python distribution.  The parse trees
+stored in the ST objects created by this module are the actual output from the
+internal parser when created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.expr" title="parser.expr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expr()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.suite" title="parser.suite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite()</span></code></a> functions,
+described below.  The ST objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.sequence2st" title="parser.sequence2st"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2st()</span></code></a> faithfully
+simulate those structures.  Be aware that the values of the sequences which are
+considered “correct” will vary from one version of Python to another as the
+formal grammar for the language is revised.  However, transporting code from one
+Python version to another as source text will always allow correct parse trees
+to be created in the target version, with the only restriction being that
+migrating to an older version of the interpreter will not support more recent
+language constructs.  The parse trees are not typically compatible from one
+version to another, whereas source code has always been forward-compatible.</p>
+<p>Each element of the sequences returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.st2list" title="parser.st2list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st2list()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.st2tuple" title="parser.st2tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st2tuple()</span></code></a>
+has a simple form.  Sequences representing non-terminal elements in the grammar
+always have a length greater than one.  The first element is an integer which
+identifies a production in the grammar.  These integers are given symbolic names
+in the C header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/graminit.h</span></code> and the Python module
+<a class="reference internal" href="symbol.html#module-symbol" title="symbol: Constants representing internal nodes of the parse tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symbol</span></code></a>.  Each additional element of the sequence represents a component
+of the production as recognized in the input string: these are always sequences
+which have the same form as the parent.  An important aspect of this structure
+which should be noted is that keywords used to identify the parent node type,
+such as the keyword <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> in an <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if_stmt</span></code>, are included in the
+node tree without any special treatment.  For example, the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> keyword
+is represented by the tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">'if')</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> is the numeric value
+associated with all <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NAME</span></code> tokens, including variable and function names
+defined by the user.  In an alternate form returned when line number information
+is requested, the same token might be represented as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">'if',</span> <span class="pre">12)</span></code>, where
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">12</span></code> represents the line number at which the terminal symbol was found.</p>
+<p>Terminal elements are represented in much the same way, but without any child
+elements and the addition of the source text which was identified.  The example
+of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> keyword above is representative.  The various types of
+terminal symbols are defined in the C header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/token.h</span></code> and
+the Python module <a class="reference internal" href="token.html#module-token" title="token: Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The ST objects are not required to support the functionality of this module,
+but are provided for three purposes: to allow an application to amortize the
+cost of processing complex parse trees, to provide a parse tree representation
+which conserves memory space when compared to the Python list or tuple
+representation, and to ease the creation of additional modules in C which
+manipulate parse trees.  A simple “wrapper” class may be created in Python to
+hide the use of ST objects.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module defines functions for a few distinct purposes.  The
+most important purposes are to create ST objects and to convert ST objects to
+other representations such as parse trees and compiled code objects, but there
+are also functions which serve to query the type of parse tree represented by an
+ST object.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="symbol.html#module-symbol" title="symbol: Constants representing internal nodes of the parse tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symbol</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Useful constants representing internal nodes of the parse tree.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="token.html#module-token" title="token: Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Useful constants representing leaf nodes of the parse tree and functions for
+testing node values.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-st-objects">
+<span id="creating-sts"></span><h2>Creating ST Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-st-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>ST objects may be created from source code or from a parse tree. When creating
+an ST object from source, different functions are used to create the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'eval'</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exec'</span></code> forms.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.expr">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">expr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.expr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.expr" title="parser.expr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expr()</span></code></a> function parses the parameter <em>source</em> as if it were an input
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile(source,</span> <span class="pre">'file.py',</span> <span class="pre">'eval')</span></code>.  If the parse succeeds, an ST object
+is created to hold the internal parse tree representation, otherwise an
+appropriate exception is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.suite">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">suite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.suite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.suite" title="parser.suite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite()</span></code></a> function parses the parameter <em>source</em> as if it were an input
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile(source,</span> <span class="pre">'file.py',</span> <span class="pre">'exec')</span></code>.  If the parse succeeds, an ST object
+is created to hold the internal parse tree representation, otherwise an
+appropriate exception is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.sequence2st">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">sequence2st</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.sequence2st" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function accepts a parse tree represented as a sequence and builds an
+internal representation if possible.  If it can validate that the tree conforms
+to the Python grammar and all nodes are valid node types in the host version of
+Python, an ST object is created from the internal representation and returned
+to the called.  If there is a problem creating the internal representation, or
+if the tree cannot be validated, a <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.ParserError" title="parser.ParserError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParserError</span></code></a> exception is raised.  An
+ST object created this way should not be assumed to compile correctly; normal
+exceptions raised by compilation may still be initiated when the ST object is
+passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.compilest" title="parser.compilest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compilest()</span></code></a>.  This may indicate problems not related to syntax
+(such as a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> exception), but may also be due to constructs such
+as the result of parsing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">f(0)</span></code>, which escapes the Python parser but is
+checked by the bytecode compiler.</p>
+<p>Sequences representing terminal tokens may be represented as either two-element
+lists of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">'name')</span></code> or as three-element lists of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span>
+<span class="pre">'name',</span> <span class="pre">56)</span></code>.  If the third element is present, it is assumed to be a valid
+line number.  The line number may be specified for any subset of the terminal
+symbols in the input tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.tuple2st">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">tuple2st</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.tuple2st" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the same function as <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.sequence2st" title="parser.sequence2st"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2st()</span></code></a>.  This entry point is
+maintained for backward compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="converting-st-objects">
+<span id="converting-sts"></span><h2>Converting ST Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#converting-st-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>ST objects, regardless of the input used to create them, may be converted to
+parse trees represented as list- or tuple- trees, or may be compiled into
+executable code objects.  Parse trees may be extracted with or without line
+numbering information.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.st2list">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">st2list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>st</em>, <em>line_info=False</em>, <em>col_info=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.st2list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function accepts an ST object from the caller in <em>st</em> and returns a
+Python list representing the equivalent parse tree.  The resulting list
+representation can be used for inspection or the creation of a new parse tree in
+list form.  This function does not fail so long as memory is available to build
+the list representation.  If the parse tree will only be used for inspection,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#parser.st2tuple" title="parser.st2tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st2tuple()</span></code></a> should be used instead to reduce memory consumption and
+fragmentation.  When the list representation is required, this function is
+significantly faster than retrieving a tuple representation and converting that
+to nested lists.</p>
+<p>If <em>line_info</em> is true, line number information will be included for all
+terminal tokens as a third element of the list representing the token.  Note
+that the line number provided specifies the line on which the token <em>ends</em>.
+This information is omitted if the flag is false or omitted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.st2tuple">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">st2tuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>st</em>, <em>line_info=False</em>, <em>col_info=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.st2tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function accepts an ST object from the caller in <em>st</em> and returns a
+Python tuple representing the equivalent parse tree.  Other than returning a
+tuple instead of a list, this function is identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.st2list" title="parser.st2list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st2list()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>line_info</em> is true, line number information will be included for all
+terminal tokens as a third element of the list representing the token.  This
+information is omitted if the flag is false or omitted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.compilest">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">compilest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>st</em>, <em>filename='&lt;syntax-tree&gt;'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.compilest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">The Python byte compiler can be invoked on an ST object to produce code objects
+which can be used as part of a call to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>
+functions. This function provides the interface to the compiler, passing the
+internal parse tree from <em>st</em> to the parser, using the source file name
+specified by the <em>filename</em> parameter. The default value supplied for <em>filename</em>
+indicates that the source was an ST object.</p>
+<p>Compiling an ST object may result in exceptions related to compilation; an
+example would be a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> caused by the parse tree for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">f(0)</span></code>:
+this statement is considered legal within the formal grammar for Python but is
+not a legal language construct.  The <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> raised for this
+condition is actually generated by the Python byte-compiler normally, which is
+why it can be raised at this point by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module.  Most causes of
+compilation failure can be diagnosed programmatically by inspection of the parse
+tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="queries-on-st-objects">
+<span id="querying-sts"></span><h2>Queries on ST Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#queries-on-st-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Two functions are provided which allow an application to determine if an ST was
+created as an expression or a suite.  Neither of these functions can be used to
+determine if an ST was created from source code via <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.expr" title="parser.expr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expr()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#parser.suite" title="parser.suite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite()</span></code></a> or from a parse tree via <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.sequence2st" title="parser.sequence2st"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2st()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.isexpr">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">isexpr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>st</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.isexpr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">When <em>st</em> represents an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'eval'</span></code> form, this function returns true, otherwise
+it returns false.  This is useful, since code objects normally cannot be queried
+for this information using existing built-in functions.  Note that the code
+objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.compilest" title="parser.compilest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compilest()</span></code></a> cannot be queried like this either, and
+are identical to those created by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="parser.issuite">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">issuite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>st</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.issuite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function mirrors <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.isexpr" title="parser.isexpr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isexpr()</span></code></a> in that it reports whether an ST object
+represents an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exec'</span></code> form, commonly known as a “suite.”  It is not safe to
+assume that this function is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">isexpr(st)</span></code>, as additional
+syntactic fragments may be supported in the future.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions-and-error-handling">
+<span id="st-errors"></span><h2>Exceptions and Error Handling<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions-and-error-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The parser module defines a single exception, but may also pass other built-in
+exceptions from other portions of the Python runtime environment.  See each
+function for information about the exceptions it can raise.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="parser.ParserError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">ParserError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.ParserError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a failure occurs within the parser module.  This is
+generally produced for validation failures rather than the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> raised during normal parsing. The exception argument is
+either a string describing the reason of the failure or a tuple containing a
+sequence causing the failure from a parse tree passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.sequence2st" title="parser.sequence2st"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2st()</span></code></a>
+and an explanatory string.  Calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.sequence2st" title="parser.sequence2st"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2st()</span></code></a> need to be able to
+handle either type of exception, while calls to other functions in the module
+will only need to be aware of the simple string values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that the functions <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.compilest" title="parser.compilest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compilest()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.expr" title="parser.expr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expr()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.suite" title="parser.suite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite()</span></code></a> may
+raise exceptions which are normally raised by the parsing and compilation
+process.  These include the built in exceptions <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a>.  In these
+cases, these exceptions carry all the meaning normally associated with them.
+Refer to the descriptions of each function for detailed information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="st-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>ST Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#st-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Ordered and equality comparisons are supported between ST objects. Pickling of
+ST objects (using the <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module) is also supported.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="parser.STType">
+<code class="descclassname">parser.</code><code class="descname">STType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.STType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of the objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.expr" title="parser.expr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expr()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#parser.suite" title="parser.suite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#parser.sequence2st" title="parser.sequence2st"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequence2st()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>ST objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="parser.ST.compile">
+<code class="descclassname">ST.</code><code class="descname">compile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename='&lt;syntax-tree&gt;'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.ST.compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compilest(st,</span> <span class="pre">filename)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="parser.ST.isexpr">
+<code class="descclassname">ST.</code><code class="descname">isexpr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.ST.isexpr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isexpr(st)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="parser.ST.issuite">
+<code class="descclassname">ST.</code><code class="descname">issuite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.ST.issuite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issuite(st)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="parser.ST.tolist">
+<code class="descclassname">ST.</code><code class="descname">tolist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line_info=False</em>, <em>col_info=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.ST.tolist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st2list(st,</span> <span class="pre">line_info,</span> <span class="pre">col_info)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="parser.ST.totuple">
+<code class="descclassname">ST.</code><code class="descname">totuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line_info=False</em>, <em>col_info=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#parser.ST.totuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st2tuple(st,</span> <span class="pre">line_info,</span> <span class="pre">col_info)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example-emulation-of-compile">
+<h2>Example: Emulation of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#example-emulation-of-compile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>While many useful operations may take place between parsing and bytecode
+generation, the simplest operation is to do nothing.  For this purpose, using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module to produce an intermediate data structure is equivalent
+to the code</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a + 5&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;file.py&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eval&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The equivalent operation using the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module is somewhat longer, and
+allows the intermediate internal parse tree to be retained as an ST object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">parser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">st</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a + 5&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">st</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;file.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An application which needs both ST and code objects can package this code into
+readily available functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">parser</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load_suite</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source_string</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">st</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source_string</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">st</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">st</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load_expression</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source_string</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">st</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source_string</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">st</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">st</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> — Access Python parse trees</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-st-objects">Creating ST Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#converting-st-objects">Converting ST Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#queries-on-st-objects">Queries on ST Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions-and-error-handling">Exceptions and Error Handling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#st-objects">ST Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example-emulation-of-compile">Example: Emulation of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pathlib">
+<span id="pathlib-object-oriented-filesystem-paths"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> — Object-oriented filesystem paths<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pathlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pathlib.py">Lib/pathlib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module offers classes representing filesystem paths with semantics
+appropriate for different operating systems.  Path classes are divided
+between <a class="reference internal" href="#pure-paths"><span class="std std-ref">pure paths</span></a>, which provide purely computational
+operations without I/O, and <a class="reference internal" href="#concrete-paths"><span class="std std-ref">concrete paths</span></a>, which
+inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.</p>
+<img alt="../_images/pathlib-inheritance.png" class="align-center" src="../_images/pathlib-inheritance.png" />
+<p>If you’ve never used this module before or just aren’t sure which class is
+right for your task, <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> is most likely what you need. It instantiates
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#concrete-paths"><span class="std std-ref">concrete path</span></a> for the platform the code is running on.</p>
+<p>Pure paths are useful in some special cases; for example:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>If you want to manipulate Windows paths on a Unix machine (or vice versa).
+You cannot instantiate a <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.WindowsPath" title="pathlib.WindowsPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsPath</span></code></a> when running on Unix, but you
+can instantiate <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PureWindowsPath" title="pathlib.PureWindowsPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PureWindowsPath</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>You want to make sure that your code only manipulates paths without actually
+accessing the OS. In this case, instantiating one of the pure classes may be
+useful since those simply don’t have any OS-accessing operations.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0428"><strong>PEP 428</strong></a>: The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>For low-level path manipulation on strings, you can also use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="basic-use">
+<h2>Basic use<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-use" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Importing the main class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">pathlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Path</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Listing subdirectories:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iterdir</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_dir</span><span class="p">()]</span>
+<span class="go">[PosixPath(&#39;.hg&#39;), PosixPath(&#39;docs&#39;), PosixPath(&#39;dist&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;__pycache__&#39;), PosixPath(&#39;build&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Listing Python source files in this directory tree:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;**/*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[PosixPath(&#39;test_pathlib.py&#39;), PosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;pathlib.py&#39;), PosixPath(&#39;docs/conf.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;build/lib/pathlib.py&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Navigating inside a directory tree:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="s1">&#39;init.d&#39;</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="s1">&#39;reboot&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/etc/init.d/reboot&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resolve</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Querying path properties:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_dir</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Opening a file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;#!/bin/bash\n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pure-paths">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Pure paths<a class="headerlink" href="#pure-paths" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Pure path objects provide path-handling operations which don’t actually
+access a filesystem.  There are three ways to access these classes, which
+we also call <em>flavours</em>:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pathlib.</code><code class="descname">PurePath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*pathsegments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic class that represents the system’s path flavour (instantiating
+it creates either a <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePosixPath" title="pathlib.PurePosixPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePosixPath</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PureWindowsPath" title="pathlib.PureWindowsPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PureWindowsPath</span></code></a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># Running on a Unix machine</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each element of <em>pathsegments</em> can be either a string representing a
+path segment, an object implementing the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> interface
+which returns a string, or another path object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;some/path&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;foo/some/path/bar&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;foo/bar&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When <em>pathsegments</em> is empty, the current directory is assumed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;.&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When several absolute paths are given, the last is taken as an anchor
+(mimicking <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.join" title="os.path.join"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join()</span></code></a>’s behaviour):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lib64&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/usr/lib64&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Windows&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d:bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;d:bar&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, in a Windows path, changing the local root doesn’t discard the
+previous drive setting:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Windows&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/Program Files&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/Program Files&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Spurious slashes and single dots are collapsed, but double dots (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'..'</span></code>)
+are not, since this would change the meaning of a path in the face of
+symbolic links:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo//bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;foo/bar&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo/./bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;foo/bar&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo/../bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;foo/../bar&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(a naïve approach would make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')</span></code> equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePosixPath('bar')</span></code>, which is wrong if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> is a symbolic link
+to another directory)</p>
+<p>Pure path objects implement the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> interface, allowing them
+to be used anywhere the interface is accepted.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added support for the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> interface.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePosixPath">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pathlib.</code><code class="descname">PurePosixPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*pathsegments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePosixPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>, this path flavour represents non-Windows
+filesystem paths:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/etc&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>pathsegments</em> is specified similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pathlib.PureWindowsPath">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pathlib.</code><code class="descname">PureWindowsPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*pathsegments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PureWindowsPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>, this path flavour represents Windows
+filesystem paths:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/Program Files&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>pathsegments</em> is specified similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Regardless of the system you’re running on, you can instantiate all of
+these classes, since they don’t provide any operation that does system calls.</p>
+<div class="section" id="general-properties">
+<h3>General properties<a class="headerlink" href="#general-properties" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Paths are immutable and hashable.  Paths of a same flavour are comparable
+and orderable.  These properties respect the flavour’s case-folding
+semantics:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;C:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Paths of a different flavour compare unequal and cannot be ordered:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;&lt;&#39; not supported between instances of &#39;PureWindowsPath&#39; and &#39;PurePosixPath&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="operators">
+<h3>Operators<a class="headerlink" href="#operators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The slash operator helps create child paths, similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.join" title="os.path.join"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/etc&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="s1">&#39;init.d&#39;</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="s1">&#39;apache2&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/etc/init.d/apache2&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bin&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr&#39;</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">q</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/usr/bin&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A path object can be used anywhere an object implementing <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a>
+is accepted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fspath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/etc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The string representation of a path is the raw filesystem path itself
+(in native form, e.g. with backslashes under Windows), which you can
+pass to any function taking a file path as a string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/etc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Program Files&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:\\Program Files&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Similarly, calling <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> on a path gives the raw filesystem path as a
+bytes object, as encoded by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;/etc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> is only recommended under Unix.  Under Windows,
+the unicode form is the canonical representation of filesystem paths.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="accessing-individual-parts">
+<h3>Accessing individual parts<a class="headerlink" href="#accessing-individual-parts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To access the individual “parts” (components) of a path, use the following
+property:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.parts">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">parts</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.parts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple giving access to the path’s various components:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/bin/python3&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parts</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;/&#39;, &#39;usr&#39;, &#39;bin&#39;, &#39;python3&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Program Files/PSF&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parts</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;c:\\&#39;, &#39;Program Files&#39;, &#39;PSF&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(note how the drive and local root are regrouped in a single part)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-and-properties">
+<h3>Methods and properties<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-and-properties" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Pure paths provide the following methods and properties:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.drive">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">drive</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.drive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representing the drive letter or name, if any:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">drive</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">drive</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">drive</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>UNC shares are also considered drives:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;//host/share/foo.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">drive</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\\\\host\\share&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.root">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">root</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.root" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representing the (local or global) root, if any:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">root</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\\&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">root</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">root</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>UNC shares always have a root:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;//host/share&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">root</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\\&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.anchor">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">anchor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.anchor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The concatenation of the drive and root:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">anchor</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:\\&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">anchor</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">anchor</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;//host/share&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">anchor</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\\\\host\\share\\&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.parents">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">parents</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.parents" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An immutable sequence providing access to the logical ancestors of
+the path:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/foo/bar/setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parents</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/foo/bar&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parents</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/foo&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parents</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.parent">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">parent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The logical parent of the path:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/a/b/c/d&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parent</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/a/b/c&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You cannot go past an anchor, or empty path:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parent</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parent</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;.&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This is a purely lexical operation, hence the following behaviour:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo/..&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parent</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;foo&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to walk an arbitrary filesystem path upwards, it is
+recommended to first call <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.resolve" title="pathlib.Path.resolve"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.resolve()</span></code></a> so as to resolve
+symlinks and eliminate <cite>“..”</cite> components.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.name">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string representing the final path component, excluding the drive and
+root, if any:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library/setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>UNC drive names are not considered:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;//some/share/setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;//some/share&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.suffix">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">suffix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.suffix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file extension of the final component, if any:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library/setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suffix</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;.py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library.tar.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suffix</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;.gz&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suffix</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.suffixes">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">suffixes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.suffixes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of the path’s file extensions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library.tar.gar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suffixes</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;.tar&#39;, &#39;.gar&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library.tar.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suffixes</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;.tar&#39;, &#39;.gz&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">suffixes</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.stem">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">stem</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.stem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The final path component, without its suffix:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library.tar.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stem</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;library.tar&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library.tar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stem</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;library&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my/library&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stem</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;library&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.as_posix">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">as_posix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.as_posix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representation of the path with forward slashes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">windows&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:\\windows&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_posix</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:/windows&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.as_uri">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">as_uri</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.as_uri" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represent the path as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> URI.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if
+the path isn’t absolute.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_uri</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;file:///etc/passwd&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Windows&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_uri</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;file:///c:/Windows&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">is_absolute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether the path is absolute or not.  A path is considered absolute
+if it has both a root and (if the flavour allows) a drive:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/a/b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_absolute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a/b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_absolute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/a/b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_absolute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/a/b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_absolute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_absolute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;//some/share&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_absolute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">is_reserved</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>With <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PureWindowsPath" title="pathlib.PureWindowsPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PureWindowsPath</span></code></a>, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path is considered
+reserved under Windows, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  With <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePosixPath" title="pathlib.PurePosixPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePosixPath</span></code></a>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is always returned.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;nul&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_reserved</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;nul&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_reserved</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>File system calls on reserved paths can fail mysteriously or have
+unintended effects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.joinpath">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">joinpath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.joinpath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calling this method is equivalent to combining the path with each of
+the <em>other</em> arguments in turn:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">joinpath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">joinpath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">joinpath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;init.d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;apache2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;/etc/init.d/apache2&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">joinpath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/Program Files&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/Program Files&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.match">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">match</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.match" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Match this path against the provided glob-style pattern.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>
+if matching is successful, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>If <em>pattern</em> is relative, the path can be either relative or absolute,
+and matching is done from the right:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a/b.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/a/b/c.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b/*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/a/b/c.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a/*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>pattern</em> is absolute, the path must be absolute, and the whole path
+must match:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/a.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PurePath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a/b.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As with other methods, case-sensitivity is observed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.PY&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.relative_to">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">relative_to</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.relative_to" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compute a version of this path relative to the path represented by
+<em>other</em>.  If it’s impossible, ValueError is raised:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PurePosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">relative_to</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;etc/passwd&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">relative_to</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PurePosixPath(&#39;passwd&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">relative_to</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;pathlib.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">694</span>, in <span class="n">relative_to</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatted</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;/etc/passwd&#39; does not start with &#39;/usr&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.with_name">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">with_name</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.with_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new path with the <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.name" title="pathlib.PurePath.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> changed.  If the original path
+doesn’t have a name, ValueError is raised:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/Downloads/setup.py&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">751</span>, in <span class="n">with_name</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s2"> has an empty name&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/&#39;) has an empty name</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix">
+<code class="descclassname">PurePath.</code><code class="descname">with_suffix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new path with the <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.suffix" title="pathlib.PurePath.suffix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suffix</span></code></a> changed.  If the original path
+doesn’t have a suffix, the new <em>suffix</em> is appended instead.  If the
+<em>suffix</em> is an empty string, the original suffix is removed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_suffix</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.bz2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;README&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_suffix</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;README.txt&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PureWindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;README.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_suffix</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PureWindowsPath(&#39;README&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="concrete-paths">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Concrete paths<a class="headerlink" href="#concrete-paths" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Concrete paths are subclasses of the pure path classes.  In addition to
+operations provided by the latter, they also provide methods to do system
+calls on path objects.  There are three ways to instantiate concrete paths:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pathlib.</code><code class="descname">Path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*pathsegments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>, this class represents concrete paths of
+the system’s path flavour (instantiating it creates either a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PosixPath" title="pathlib.PosixPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PosixPath</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.WindowsPath" title="pathlib.WindowsPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsPath</span></code></a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>pathsegments</em> is specified similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pathlib.PosixPath">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pathlib.</code><code class="descname">PosixPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*pathsegments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.PosixPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePosixPath" title="pathlib.PurePosixPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePosixPath</span></code></a>, this class
+represents concrete non-Windows filesystem paths:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/etc&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>pathsegments</em> is specified similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pathlib.WindowsPath">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pathlib.</code><code class="descname">WindowsPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*pathsegments</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.WindowsPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PureWindowsPath" title="pathlib.PureWindowsPath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PureWindowsPath</span></code></a>, this class
+represents concrete Windows filesystem paths:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">WindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/Program Files/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">WindowsPath(&#39;c:/Program Files&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>pathsegments</em> is specified similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>You can only instantiate the class flavour that corresponds to your system
+(allowing system calls on non-compatible path flavours could lead to
+bugs or failures in your application):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;posix&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">PosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">WindowsPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;pathlib.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">798</span>, in <span class="n">__new__</span>
+    <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="gr">NotImplementedError</span>: <span class="n">cannot instantiate &#39;WindowsPath&#39; on your system</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods">
+<h3>Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Concrete paths provide the following methods in addition to pure paths
+methods.  Many of these methods can raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if a system
+call fails (for example because the path doesn’t exist):</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.cwd">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">cwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.cwd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new path object representing the current directory (as returned
+by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.getcwd" title="os.getcwd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwd()</span></code></a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cwd</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/home/antoine/pathlib&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.home">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">home</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.home" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new path object representing the user’s home directory (as
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> construct):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/home/antoine&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.stat">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">stat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.stat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return information about this path (similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>).
+The result is looked up at each call to this method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_size</span>
+<span class="go">956</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_mtime</span>
+<span class="go">1327883547.852554</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.chmod">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">chmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.chmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the file mode and permissions, like <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_mode</span>
+<span class="go">33277</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chmod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mo">0o444</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_mode</span>
+<span class="go">33060</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.exists">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">exists</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.exists" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the path points to an existing file or directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;nonexistentfile&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If the path points to a symlink, <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.exists" title="pathlib.Path.exists"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exists()</span></code></a> returns whether the
+symlink <em>points to</em> an existing file or directory.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.expanduser">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">expanduser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.expanduser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new path with expanded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~user</span></code> constructs,
+as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PosixPath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/films/Monty Python&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/home/eric/films/Monty Python&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.glob">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">glob</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.glob" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Glob the given relative <em>pattern</em> in the directory represented by this path,
+yielding all matching files (of any kind):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[PosixPath(&#39;pathlib.py&#39;), PosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;), PosixPath(&#39;test_pathlib.py&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*/*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[PosixPath(&#39;docs/conf.py&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>” pattern means “this directory and all subdirectories,
+recursively”.  In other words, it enables recursive globbing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;**/*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[PosixPath(&#39;build/lib/pathlib.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;docs/conf.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;pathlib.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;test_pathlib.py&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Using the “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>” pattern in large directory trees may consume
+an inordinate amount of time.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.group">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the group owning the file.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised
+if the file’s gid isn’t found in the system database.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_dir">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path points to a directory (or a symbolic link
+pointing to a directory), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it points to another kind of file.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken symlink;
+other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_file">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path points to a regular file (or a symbolic link
+pointing to a regular file), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it points to another kind of file.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken symlink;
+other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_mount">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_mount</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_mount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path is a <em class="dfn">mount point</em>: a point in a
+file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX, the
+function checks whether <em>path</em>’s parent, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path/..</span></code>, is on a different
+device than <em>path</em>, or whether <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path/..</span></code> and <em>path</em> point to the same
+i-node on the same device — this should detect mount points for all Unix
+and POSIX variants.  Not implemented on Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_symlink">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_symlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_symlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path points to a symbolic link, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is also returned if the path doesn’t exist; other errors (such
+as permission errors) are propagated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_socket">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path points to a Unix socket (or a symbolic link
+pointing to a Unix socket), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it points to another kind of file.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken symlink;
+other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_fifo">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_fifo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_fifo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path points to a FIFO (or a symbolic link
+pointing to a FIFO), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it points to another kind of file.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken symlink;
+other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_block_device">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_block_device</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_block_device" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path points to a block device (or a symbolic link
+pointing to a block device), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it points to another kind of file.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken symlink;
+other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.is_char_device">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">is_char_device</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.is_char_device" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the path points to a character device (or a symbolic link
+pointing to a character device), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it points to another kind of file.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken symlink;
+other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.iterdir">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">iterdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.iterdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When the path points to a directory, yield path objects of the directory
+contents:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;docs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">child</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iterdir</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="n">child</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;docs/conf.py&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;docs/_templates&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;docs/make.bat&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;docs/index.rst&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;docs/_build&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;docs/_static&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;docs/Makefile&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.lchmod">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">lchmod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.lchmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.chmod" title="pathlib.Path.chmod"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.chmod()</span></code></a> but, if the path points to a symbolic link, the
+symbolic link’s mode is changed rather than its target’s.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.lstat">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">lstat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.lstat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.stat" title="pathlib.Path.stat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.stat()</span></code></a> but, if the path points to a symbolic link, return
+the symbolic link’s information rather than its target’s.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.mkdir">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">mkdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode=0o777</em>, <em>parents=False</em>, <em>exist_ok=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.mkdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new directory at this given path.  If <em>mode</em> is given, it is
+combined with the process’ <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">umask</span></code> value to determine the file mode
+and access flags.  If the path already exists, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a>
+is raised.</p>
+<p>If <em>parents</em> is true, any missing parents of this path are created
+as needed; they are created with the default permissions without taking
+<em>mode</em> into account (mimicking the POSIX <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdir</span> <span class="pre">-p</span></code> command).</p>
+<p>If <em>parents</em> is false (the default), a missing parent raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>exist_ok</em> is false (the default), <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> is
+raised if the target directory already exists.</p>
+<p>If <em>exist_ok</em> is true, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> exceptions will be
+ignored (same behavior as the POSIX <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdir</span> <span class="pre">-p</span></code> command), but only if the
+last path component is not an existing non-directory file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>exist_ok</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.open">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode='r'</em>, <em>buffering=-1</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the file pointed to by the path, like the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>
+function does:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;#!/usr/bin/env python3\n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.owner">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">owner</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.owner" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the user owning the file.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised
+if the file’s uid isn’t found in the system database.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.read_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">read_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.read_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the binary contents of the pointed-to file as a bytes object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my_binary_file&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Binary file contents&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_bytes</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Binary file contents&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.read_text">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">read_text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.read_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the decoded contents of the pointed-to file as a string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my_text_file&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_text</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Text file contents&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">18</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_text</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Text file contents&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The file is opened and then closed. The optional parameters have the same
+meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.rename">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">rename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.rename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rename this file or directory to the given <em>target</em>.  On Unix, if
+<em>target</em> exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user
+has permission.  <em>target</em> can be either a string or another path object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some text&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">9</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">target</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rename</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;some text&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rename this file or directory to the given <em>target</em>.  If <em>target</em> points
+to an existing file or directory, it will be unconditionally replaced.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.resolve">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">resolve</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>strict=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.resolve" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make the path absolute, resolving any symlinks.  A new path object is
+returned:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;.&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resolve</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/home/antoine/pathlib&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>“<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">..</span></code>” components are also eliminated (this is the only method to do so):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;docs/../setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resolve</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the path doesn’t exist and <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a>
+is raised.  If <em>strict</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the path is resolved as far as possible
+and any remainder is appended without checking whether it exists.  If an
+infinite loop is encountered along the resolution path, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>
+is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>The <em>strict</em> argument (pre-3.6 behavior is strict).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.rglob">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">rglob</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.rglob" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is like calling <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.glob" title="pathlib.Path.glob"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.glob()</span></code></a> with “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**/</span></code>” added in front of the
+given relative <em>pattern</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rglob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*.py&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[PosixPath(&#39;build/lib/pathlib.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;docs/conf.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;pathlib.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;setup.py&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> PosixPath(&#39;test_pathlib.py&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.rmdir">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">rmdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.rmdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove this directory.  The directory must be empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.samefile">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">samefile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other_path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.samefile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether this path points to the same file as <em>other_path</em>, which
+can be either a Path object, or a string.  The semantics are similar
+to <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.samefile" title="os.path.samefile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.samefile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.samestat" title="os.path.samestat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.samestat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> can be raised if either file cannot be accessed for some
+reason.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">samefile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">samefile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.symlink_to">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">symlink_to</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>target_is_directory=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.symlink_to" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make this path a symbolic link to <em>target</em>.  Under Windows,
+<em>target_is_directory</em> must be true (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>) if the link’s target
+is a directory.  Under POSIX, <em>target_is_directory</em>’s value is ignored.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mylink&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">symlink_to</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setup.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resolve</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">PosixPath(&#39;/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_size</span>
+<span class="go">956</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lstat</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_size</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
+of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.symlink" title="os.symlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.symlink()</span></code></a>’s.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.touch">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">touch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode=0o666</em>, <em>exist_ok=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.touch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a file at this given path.  If <em>mode</em> is given, it is combined
+with the process’ <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">umask</span></code> value to determine the file mode and access
+flags.  If the file already exists, the function succeeds if <em>exist_ok</em>
+is true (and its modification time is updated to the current time),
+otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.unlink">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">unlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.unlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove this file or symbolic link.  If the path points to a directory,
+use <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.rmdir" title="pathlib.Path.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.rmdir()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.write_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">write_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.write_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the file pointed to in bytes mode, write <em>data</em> to it, and close the
+file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my_binary_file&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Binary file contents&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_bytes</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Binary file contents&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An existing file of the same name is overwritten.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pathlib.Path.write_text">
+<code class="descclassname">Path.</code><code class="descname">write_text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib.Path.write_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the file pointed to in text mode, write <em>data</em> to it, and close the
+file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;my_text_file&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_text</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Text file contents&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">18</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_text</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Text file contents&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module">
+<h2>Correspondence to tools in the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module<a class="headerlink" href="#correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Below is a table mapping various <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> functions to their corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> equivalent.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Although <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.relpath" title="os.path.relpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.relpath()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.relative_to" title="pathlib.PurePath.relative_to"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath.relative_to()</span></code></a> have some
+overlapping use-cases, their semantics differ enough to warrant not
+considering them equivalent.</p>
+</div>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 55%" />
+<col style="width: 45%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>os and os.path</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>pathlib</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.abspath" title="os.path.abspath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.abspath()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.resolve" title="pathlib.Path.resolve"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.resolve()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.chmod" title="pathlib.Path.chmod"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.chmod()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.mkdir" title="os.mkdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.mkdir()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.mkdir" title="pathlib.Path.mkdir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.mkdir()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rename()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.rename" title="pathlib.Path.rename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.rename()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.replace" title="os.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.replace()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.replace" title="pathlib.Path.replace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.replace()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rmdir()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.rmdir" title="pathlib.Path.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.rmdir()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.remove" title="os.remove"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.remove()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.unlink()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.unlink" title="pathlib.Path.unlink"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.unlink()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.getcwd" title="os.getcwd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwd()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.cwd" title="pathlib.Path.cwd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.cwd()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.exists" title="os.path.exists"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.exists()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.exists" title="pathlib.Path.exists"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.exists()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.expanduser" title="pathlib.Path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.expanduser()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.home" title="pathlib.Path.home"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.home()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.isdir" title="os.path.isdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.isdir()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.is_dir" title="pathlib.Path.is_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.is_dir()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.isfile" title="os.path.isfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.isfile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.is_file" title="pathlib.Path.is_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.is_file()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.islink" title="os.path.islink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.islink()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.is_symlink" title="pathlib.Path.is_symlink"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.is_symlink()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.stat" title="pathlib.Path.stat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.stat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.owner" title="pathlib.Path.owner"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.owner()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.group" title="pathlib.Path.group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.group()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.isabs" title="os.path.isabs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.isabs()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute" title="pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath.is_absolute()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.join" title="os.path.join"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.join()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.joinpath" title="pathlib.PurePath.joinpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath.joinpath()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.basename" title="os.path.basename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.basename()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.name" title="pathlib.PurePath.name"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath.name</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.dirname" title="os.path.dirname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.dirname()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.parent" title="pathlib.PurePath.parent"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath.parent</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.samefile" title="os.path.samefile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.samefile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.Path.samefile" title="pathlib.Path.samefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.samefile()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.splitext" title="os.path.splitext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.splitext()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib.PurePath.suffix" title="pathlib.PurePath.suffix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PurePath.suffix</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code> — Object-oriented filesystem paths</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-use">Basic use</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pure-paths">Pure paths</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-properties">General properties</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operators">Operators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#accessing-individual-parts">Accessing individual parts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-and-properties">Methods and properties</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#concrete-paths">Concrete paths</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods">Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module">Correspondence to tools in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="filesys.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">File and Directory Access</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="os.path.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code> — Common pathname manipulations</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pdb.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pdb.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07dd7a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pdb.html
@@ -0,0 +1,757 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>pdb — The Python Debugger &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pdb">
+<span id="pdb-the-python-debugger"></span><span id="debugger"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> — The Python Debugger<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pdb.py">Lib/pdb.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> defines an interactive source code debugger for Python
+programs.  It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and single stepping at
+the source line level, inspection of stack frames, source code listing, and
+evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the context of any stack frame.  It also
+supports post-mortem debugging and can be called under program control.</p>
+<p id="index-1">The debugger is extensible – it is actually defined as the class <a class="reference internal" href="#pdb.Pdb" title="pdb.Pdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pdb</span></code></a>.
+This is currently undocumented but easily understood by reading the source.  The
+extension interface uses the modules <a class="reference internal" href="bdb.html#module-bdb" title="bdb: Debugger framework."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="cmd.html#module-cmd" title="cmd: Build line-oriented command interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The debugger’s prompt is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(Pdb)</span></code>. Typical usage to run a program under control
+of the debugger is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pdb</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mymodule</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pdb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.test()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt; &lt;string&gt;(0)?()</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) continue</span>
+<span class="go">&gt; &lt;string&gt;(1)?()</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb) continue</span>
+<span class="go">NameError: &#39;spam&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt; &lt;string&gt;(1)?()</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Tab-completion via the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module is available for commands and
+command arguments, e.g. the current global and local names are offered as
+arguments of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code> command.</p>
+</div>
+<p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.py</span></code> can also be invoked as a script to debug other scripts.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python3</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">pdb</span> <span class="n">myscript</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When invoked as a script, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem debugging if
+the program being debugged exits abnormally.  After post-mortem debugging (or
+after normal exit of the program), pdb will restart the program.  Automatic
+restarting preserves pdb’s state (such as breakpoints) and in most cases is more
+useful than quitting the debugger upon program’s exit.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.py</span></code> now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code> option that executes commands as if given
+in a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> file, see <a class="reference internal" href="#debugger-commands"><span class="std std-ref">Debugger Commands</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.py</span></code> now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> option that execute modules similar to the way
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span> <span class="pre">-m</span></code> does. As with a script, the debugger will pause execution just
+before the first line of the module.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The typical usage to break into the debugger from a running program is to
+insert</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pdb</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">pdb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_trace</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>at the location you want to break into the debugger.  You can then step through
+the code following this statement, and continue running without the debugger
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-continue"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> command.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a>, when called with defaults, can be used
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">pdb;</span> <span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The typical usage to inspect a crashed program is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pdb</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mymodule</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;./mymodule.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">4</span>, in <span class="n">test</span>
+    <span class="n">test2</span><span class="p">()</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;./mymodule.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">3</span>, in <span class="n">test2</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spam</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">NameError</span>: <span class="n">spam</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pdb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pm</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&gt; ./mymodule.py(3)test2()</span>
+<span class="go">-&gt; print(spam)</span>
+<span class="go">(Pdb)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger in a
+slightly different way:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pdb.run">
+<code class="descclassname">pdb.</code><code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>statement</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the <em>statement</em> (given as a string or a code object) under debugger
+control.  The debugger prompt appears before any code is executed; you can
+set breakpoints and type <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-continue"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a>, or you can step through the
+statement using <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-step"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-next"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code></a> (all these commands are
+explained below).  The optional <em>globals</em> and <em>locals</em> arguments specify the
+environment in which the code is executed; by default the dictionary of the
+module <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> is used.  (See the explanation of the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> functions.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pdb.runeval">
+<code class="descclassname">pdb.</code><code class="descname">runeval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expression</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.runeval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Evaluate the <em>expression</em> (given as a string or a code object) under debugger
+control.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#pdb.runeval" title="pdb.runeval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runeval()</span></code></a> returns, it returns the value of the
+expression.  Otherwise this function is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#pdb.run" title="pdb.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pdb.runcall">
+<code class="descclassname">pdb.</code><code class="descname">runcall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.runcall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the <em>function</em> (a function or method object, not a string) with the
+given arguments.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#pdb.runcall" title="pdb.runcall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runcall()</span></code></a> returns, it returns whatever the
+function call returned.  The debugger prompt appears as soon as the function
+is entered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pdb.set_trace">
+<code class="descclassname">pdb.</code><code class="descname">set_trace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>header=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.set_trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame.  This is useful to hard-code
+a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the code is not
+otherwise being debugged (e.g. when an assertion fails).  If given,
+<em>header</em> is printed to the console just before debugging begins.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The keyword-only argument <em>header</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pdb.post_mortem">
+<code class="descclassname">pdb.</code><code class="descname">post_mortem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>traceback=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.post_mortem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter post-mortem debugging of the given <em>traceback</em> object.  If no
+<em>traceback</em> is given, it uses the one of the exception that is currently
+being handled (an exception must be being handled if the default is to be
+used).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pdb.pm">
+<code class="descclassname">pdb.</code><code class="descname">pm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.pm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter post-mortem debugging of the traceback found in
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.last_traceback" title="sys.last_traceback"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_traceback</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run*</span></code> functions and <a class="reference internal" href="#pdb.set_trace" title="pdb.set_trace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_trace()</span></code></a> are aliases for instantiating the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pdb.Pdb" title="pdb.Pdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pdb</span></code></a> class and calling the method of the same name.  If you want to
+access further features, you have to do this yourself:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pdb.Pdb">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pdb.</code><code class="descname">Pdb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>completekey='tab'</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em>, <em>skip=None</em>, <em>nosigint=False</em>, <em>readrc=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.Pdb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#pdb.Pdb" title="pdb.Pdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pdb</span></code></a> is the debugger class.</p>
+<p>The <em>completekey</em>, <em>stdin</em> and <em>stdout</em> arguments are passed to the
+underlying <a class="reference internal" href="cmd.html#cmd.Cmd" title="cmd.Cmd"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd.Cmd</span></code></a> class; see the description there.</p>
+<p>The <em>skip</em> argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style module name
+patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that originate in a module
+that matches one of these patterns. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p>By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent when the
+user presses <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl-C</kbd> on the console) when you give a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> command.
+This allows you to break into the debugger again by pressing <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl-C</kbd>.  If you
+want Pdb not to touch the SIGINT handler, set <em>nosigint</em> to true.</p>
+<p>The <em>readrc</em> argument defaults to true and controls whether Pdb will load
+.pdbrc files from the filesystem.</p>
+<p>Example call to enable tracing with <em>skip</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pdb</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">pdb</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Pdb</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">skip</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;django.*&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_trace</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>The <em>skip</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>nosigint</em> argument.  Previously, a SIGINT handler was never set by
+Pdb.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>readrc</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pdb.Pdb.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>statement</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.Pdb.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="pdb.Pdb.runeval">
+<code class="descname">runeval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expression</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.Pdb.runeval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="pdb.Pdb.runcall">
+<code class="descname">runcall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.Pdb.runcall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="pdb.Pdb.set_trace">
+<code class="descname">set_trace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pdb.Pdb.set_trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>See the documentation for the functions explained above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="debugger-commands">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Debugger Commands<a class="headerlink" href="#debugger-commands" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The commands recognized by the debugger are listed below.  Most commands can be
+abbreviated to one or two letters as indicated; e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h(elp)</span></code> means that
+either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span></code> can be used to enter the help command (but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">he</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hel</span></code>, nor <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">H</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Help</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELP</span></code>).  Arguments to commands must be
+separated by whitespace (spaces or tabs).  Optional arguments are enclosed in
+square brackets (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>) in the command syntax; the square brackets must not be
+typed.  Alternatives in the command syntax are separated by a vertical bar
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Entering a blank line repeats the last command entered.  Exception: if the last
+command was a <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-list"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> command, the next 11 lines are listed.</p>
+<p>Commands that the debugger doesn’t recognize are assumed to be Python statements
+and are executed in the context of the program being debugged.  Python
+statements can also be prefixed with an exclamation point (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!</span></code>).  This is a
+powerful way to inspect the program being debugged; it is even possible to
+change a variable or call a function.  When an exception occurs in such a
+statement, the exception name is printed but the debugger’s state is not
+changed.</p>
+<p>The debugger supports <a class="reference internal" href="#debugger-aliases"><span class="std std-ref">aliases</span></a>.  Aliases can have
+parameters which allows one a certain level of adaptability to the context under
+examination.</p>
+<p>Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;;</span></code>.  (A
+single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;</span></code> is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands in a line
+that is passed to the Python parser.)  No intelligence is applied to separating
+the commands; the input is split at the first <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;;</span></code> pair, even if it is in the
+middle of a quoted string.</p>
+<p id="index-2">If a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> exists in the user’s home directory or in the current
+directory, it is read in and executed as if it had been typed at the debugger
+prompt.  This is particularly useful for aliases.  If both files exist, the one
+in the home directory is read first and aliases defined there can be overridden
+by the local file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> can now contain commands that continue debugging, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-continue"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-next"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code></a>.  Previously, these commands had no
+effect.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-help">
+<code class="descname">h(elp)</code><code class="descclassname"> [command]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Without argument, print the list of available commands.  With a <em>command</em> as
+argument, print help about that command.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span> <span class="pre">pdb</span></code> displays the full
+documentation (the docstring of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> module).  Since the <em>command</em>
+argument must be an identifier, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help</span> <span class="pre">exec</span></code> must be entered to get help on
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!</span></code> command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-where">
+<code class="descname">w(here)</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-where" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom.  An arrow
+indicates the current frame, which determines the context of most commands.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-down">
+<code class="descname">d(own)</code><code class="descclassname"> [count]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-down" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move the current frame <em>count</em> (default one) levels down in the stack trace
+(to a newer frame).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-up">
+<code class="descname">u(p)</code><code class="descclassname"> [count]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-up" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move the current frame <em>count</em> (default one) levels up in the stack trace (to
+an older frame).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-break">
+<code class="descname">b(reak)</code><code class="descclassname"> [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-break" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>With a <em>lineno</em> argument, set a break there in the current file.  With a
+<em>function</em> argument, set a break at the first executable statement within
+that function.  The line number may be prefixed with a filename and a colon,
+to specify a breakpoint in another file (probably one that hasn’t been loaded
+yet).  The file is searched on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.  Note that each breakpoint
+is assigned a number to which all the other breakpoint commands refer.</p>
+<p>If a second argument is present, it is an expression which must evaluate to
+true before the breakpoint is honored.</p>
+<p>Without argument, list all breaks, including for each breakpoint, the number
+of times that breakpoint has been hit, the current ignore count, and the
+associated condition if any.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-tbreak">
+<code class="descname">tbreak</code><code class="descclassname"> [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-tbreak" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Temporary breakpoint, which is removed automatically when it is first hit.
+The arguments are the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-break"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-clear">
+<code class="descname">cl(ear)</code><code class="descclassname"> [filename:lineno | bpnumber [bpnumber ...]]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>With a <em>filename:lineno</em> argument, clear all the breakpoints at this line.
+With a space separated list of breakpoint numbers, clear those breakpoints.
+Without argument, clear all breaks (but first ask confirmation).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-disable">
+<code class="descname">disable</code><code class="descclassname"> [bpnumber [bpnumber ...]]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-disable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disable the breakpoints given as a space separated list of breakpoint
+numbers.  Disabling a breakpoint means it cannot cause the program to stop
+execution, but unlike clearing a breakpoint, it remains in the list of
+breakpoints and can be (re-)enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-enable">
+<code class="descname">enable</code><code class="descclassname"> [bpnumber [bpnumber ...]]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-enable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable the breakpoints specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-ignore">
+<code class="descname">ignore</code><code class="descclassname"> bpnumber [count]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-ignore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number.  If count is omitted,
+the ignore count is set to 0.  A breakpoint becomes active when the ignore
+count is zero.  When non-zero, the count is decremented each time the
+breakpoint is reached and the breakpoint is not disabled and any associated
+condition evaluates to true.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-condition">
+<code class="descname">condition</code><code class="descclassname"> bpnumber [condition]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-condition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a new <em>condition</em> for the breakpoint, an expression which must evaluate
+to true before the breakpoint is honored.  If <em>condition</em> is absent, any
+existing condition is removed; i.e., the breakpoint is made unconditional.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-commands">
+<code class="descname">commands</code><code class="descclassname"> [bpnumber]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-commands" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify a list of commands for breakpoint number <em>bpnumber</em>.  The commands
+themselves appear on the following lines.  Type a line containing just
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end</span></code> to terminate the commands. An example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Pdb</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">commands</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">com</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">p</span> <span class="n">some_variable</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">com</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">end</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Pdb</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To remove all commands from a breakpoint, type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commands</span></code> and follow it
+immediately with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end</span></code>; that is, give no commands.</p>
+<p>With no <em>bpnumber</em> argument, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commands</span></code> refers to the last breakpoint set.</p>
+<p>You can use breakpoint commands to start your program up again.  Simply use
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-continue"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> command, or <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-step"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code></a>,
+or any other command that resumes execution.</p>
+<p>Specifying any command resuming execution
+(currently <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-continue"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-step"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-next"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-return"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-jump"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">jump</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-quit"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit</span></code></a> and their abbreviations)
+terminates the command list (as if
+that command was immediately followed by end). This is because any time you
+resume execution (even with a simple next or step), you may encounter another
+breakpoint—which could have its own command list, leading to ambiguities about
+which list to execute.</p>
+<p>If you use the ‘silent’ command in the command list, the usual message about
+stopping at a breakpoint is not printed.  This may be desirable for breakpoints
+that are to print a specific message and then continue.  If none of the other
+commands print anything, you see no sign that the breakpoint was reached.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-step">
+<code class="descname">s(tep)</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-step" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the current line, stop at the first possible occasion (either in a
+function that is called or on the next line in the current function).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-next">
+<code class="descname">n(ext)</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Continue execution until the next line in the current function is reached or
+it returns.  (The difference between <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-next"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-step"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code></a> is
+that <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-step"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code></a> stops inside a called function, while <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-next"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code></a>
+executes called functions at (nearly) full speed, only stopping at the next
+line in the current function.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-until">
+<code class="descname">unt(il)</code><code class="descclassname"> [lineno]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-until" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Without argument, continue execution until the line with a number greater
+than the current one is reached.</p>
+<p>With a line number, continue execution until a line with a number greater or
+equal to that is reached.  In both cases, also stop when the current frame
+returns.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Allow giving an explicit line number.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-return">
+<code class="descname">r(eturn)</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-return" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Continue execution until the current function returns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-continue">
+<code class="descname">c(ont(inue))</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-continue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Continue execution, only stop when a breakpoint is encountered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-jump">
+<code class="descname">j(ump)</code><code class="descclassname"> lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-jump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the next line that will be executed.  Only available in the bottom-most
+frame.  This lets you jump back and execute code again, or jump forward to
+skip code that you don’t want to run.</p>
+<p>It should be noted that not all jumps are allowed – for instance it is not
+possible to jump into the middle of a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop or out of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-list">
+<code class="descname">l(ist)</code><code class="descclassname"> [first[, last]]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List source code for the current file.  Without arguments, list 11 lines
+around the current line or continue the previous listing.  With <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> as
+argument, list 11 lines around the current line.  With one argument,
+list 11 lines around at that line.  With two arguments, list the given range;
+if the second argument is less than the first, it is interpreted as a count.</p>
+<p>The current line in the current frame is indicated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-&gt;</span></code>.  If an
+exception is being debugged, the line where the exception was originally
+raised or propagated is indicated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code>, if it differs from the current
+line.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code> marker.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-ll">
+<code class="descname">ll</code><code class="descclassname"> | longlist</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-ll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List all source code for the current function or frame.  Interesting lines
+are marked as for <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-list"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-args">
+<code class="descname">a(rgs)</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the argument list of the current function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-p">
+<code class="descname">p</code><code class="descclassname"> expression</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Evaluate the <em>expression</em> in the current context and print its value.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code> can also be used, but is not a debugger command — this executes the
+Python <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-pp">
+<code class="descname">pp</code><code class="descclassname"> expression</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-pp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like the <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-p"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code></a> command, except the value of the expression is
+pretty-printed using the <a class="reference internal" href="pprint.html#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-whatis">
+<code class="descname">whatis</code><code class="descclassname"> expression</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-whatis" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the type of the <em>expression</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-source">
+<code class="descname">source</code><code class="descclassname"> expression</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to get source code for the given object and display it.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-display">
+<code class="descname">display</code><code class="descclassname"> [expression]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-display" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the value of the expression if it changed, each time execution stops
+in the current frame.</p>
+<p>Without expression, list all display expressions for the current frame.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-undisplay">
+<code class="descname">undisplay</code><code class="descclassname"> [expression]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-undisplay" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do not display the expression any more in the current frame.  Without
+expression, clear all display expressions for the current frame.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-interact">
+<code class="descname">interact</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-interact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start an interactive interpreter (using the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> module) whose global
+namespace contains all the (global and local) names found in the current
+scope.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="debugger-aliases"></span><dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-alias">
+<code class="descname">alias</code><code class="descclassname"> [name [command]]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-alias" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an alias called <em>name</em> that executes <em>command</em>.  The command must
+<em>not</em> be enclosed in quotes.  Replaceable parameters can be indicated by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%2</span></code>, and so on, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%*</span></code> is replaced by all the parameters.
+If no command is given, the current alias for <em>name</em> is shown. If no
+arguments are given, all aliases are listed.</p>
+<p>Aliases may be nested and can contain anything that can be legally typed at
+the pdb prompt.  Note that internal pdb commands <em>can</em> be overridden by
+aliases.  Such a command is then hidden until the alias is removed.  Aliasing
+is recursively applied to the first word of the command line; all other words
+in the line are left alone.</p>
+<p>As an example, here are two useful aliases (especially when placed in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> file):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Print instance variables (usage &quot;pi classInst&quot;)</span>
+<span class="n">alias</span> <span class="n">pi</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="o">%</span><span class="mf">1.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;%1.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s2">&quot;=&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">%</span><span class="mf">1.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="c1"># Print instance variables in self</span>
+<span class="n">alias</span> <span class="n">ps</span> <span class="n">pi</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-unalias">
+<code class="descname">unalias</code><code class="descclassname"> name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-unalias" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the specified alias.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-!">
+<code class="descname">!</code><code class="descclassname"> statement</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-!" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the (one-line) <em>statement</em> in the context of the current stack frame.
+The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first word of the statement
+resembles a debugger command.  To set a global variable, you can prefix the
+assignment command with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement on the same line,
+e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Pdb</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">global</span> <span class="n">list_options</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">list_options</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;-l&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Pdb</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><code class="descclassname"> [args ...]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="pdbcommand-restart">
+<code class="descname">restart</code><code class="descclassname"> [args ...]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-restart" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restart the debugged Python program.  If an argument is supplied, it is split
+with <a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> and the result is used as the new <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a>.
+History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options are preserved.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-restart"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restart</span></code></a> is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#pdbcommand-run"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="pdbcommand">
+<dt id="pdbcommand-quit">
+<code class="descname">q(uit)</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pdbcommand-quit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Quit from the debugger.  The program being executed is aborted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module
+is determined by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> in the frame globals.</p>
+</dd>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/persistence.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/persistence.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..353681b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/persistence.html
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Data Persistence &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="data-persistence">
+<span id="persistence"></span><h1>Data Persistence<a class="headerlink" href="#data-persistence" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter support storing Python data in a
+persistent form on disk.  The <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> modules can turn
+many Python data types into a stream of bytes and then recreate the objects from
+the bytes.  The various DBM-related modules support a family of hash-based file
+formats that store a mapping of strings to other strings.</p>
+<p>The list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> — Python object serialization</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#relationship-to-other-python-modules">Relationship to other Python modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#comparison-with-marshal">Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#comparison-with-json">Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#data-stream-format">Data stream format</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-interface">Module Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled">What can be pickled and unpickled?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#pickling-class-instances">Pickling Class Instances</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#persistence-of-external-objects">Persistence of External Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#dispatch-tables">Dispatch Tables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#handling-stateful-objects">Handling Stateful Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#restricting-globals">Restricting Globals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code> — Register <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> support functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code> — Python object persistence</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#restrictions">Restrictions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code> — Internal Python object serialization</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code> — Interfaces to Unix “databases”</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code> — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code> — Interface based on ndbm</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code> — Portable DBM implementation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#module-functions-and-constants">Module functions and constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#connection-objects">Connection Objects</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#sqlite-and-python-types">SQLite and Python types</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#using-adapters-to-store-additional-python-types-in-sqlite-databases">Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#letting-your-object-adapt-itself">Letting your object adapt itself</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#registering-an-adapter-callable">Registering an adapter callable</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="sqlite3.html#converting-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types">Converting SQLite values to custom Python types</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pickle.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pickle.html
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pickle">
+<span id="pickle-python-object-serialization"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> — Python object serialization<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pickle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pickle.py">Lib/pickle.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module implements binary protocols for serializing and
+de-serializing a Python object structure.  <em>“Pickling”</em> is the process
+whereby a Python object hierarchy is converted into a byte stream, and
+<em>“unpickling”</em> is the inverse operation, whereby a byte stream
+(from a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>) is converted
+back into an object hierarchy.  Pickling (and unpickling) is alternatively
+known as “serialization”, “marshalling,” <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id6" id="id1">1</a> or “flattening”; however, to
+avoid confusion, the terms used here are “pickling” and “unpickling”.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module is not secure against erroneous or maliciously
+constructed data.  Never unpickle data received from an untrusted or
+unauthenticated source.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="relationship-to-other-python-modules">
+<h2>Relationship to other Python modules<a class="headerlink" href="#relationship-to-other-python-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="comparison-with-marshal">
+<h3>Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#comparison-with-marshal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python has a more primitive serialization module called <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a>, but in
+general <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> should always be the preferred way to serialize Python
+objects.  <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> exists primarily to support Python’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
+files.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module differs from <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> in several significant ways:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module keeps track of the objects it has already serialized,
+so that later references to the same object won’t be serialized again.
+<a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> doesn’t do this.</p>
+<p>This has implications both for recursive objects and object sharing.  Recursive
+objects are objects that contain references to themselves.  These are not
+handled by marshal, and in fact, attempting to marshal recursive objects will
+crash your Python interpreter.  Object sharing happens when there are multiple
+references to the same object in different places in the object hierarchy being
+serialized.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> stores such objects only once, and ensures that all
+other references point to the master copy.  Shared objects remain shared, which
+can be very important for mutable objects.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes and their
+instances.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> can save and restore class instances transparently,
+however the class definition must be importable and live in the same module as
+when the object was stored.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> serialization format is not guaranteed to be portable
+across Python versions.  Because its primary job in life is to support
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files, the Python implementers reserve the right to change the
+serialization format in non-backwards compatible ways should the need arise.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> serialization format is guaranteed to be backwards compatible
+across Python releases provided a compatible pickle protocol is chosen and
+pickling and unpickling code deals with Python 2 to Python 3 type differences
+if your data is crossing that unique breaking change language boundary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparison-with-json">
+<h3>Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#comparison-with-json" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are fundamental differences between the pickle protocols and
+<a class="reference external" href="http://json.org">JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)</a>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>JSON is a text serialization format (it outputs unicode text, although
+most of the time it is then encoded to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code>), while pickle is
+a binary serialization format;</p></li>
+<li><p>JSON is human-readable, while pickle is not;</p></li>
+<li><p>JSON is interoperable and widely used outside of the Python ecosystem,
+while pickle is Python-specific;</p></li>
+<li><p>JSON, by default, can only represent a subset of the Python built-in
+types, and no custom classes; pickle can represent an extremely large
+number of Python types (many of them automatically, by clever usage
+of Python’s introspection facilities; complex cases can be tackled by
+implementing <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-inst"><span class="std std-ref">specific object APIs</span></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module: a standard library module allowing JSON
+serialization and deserialization.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="data-stream-format">
+<span id="pickle-protocols"></span><h2>Data stream format<a class="headerlink" href="#data-stream-format" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-1">The data format used by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> is Python-specific.  This has the
+advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external standards such as
+JSON or XDR (which can’t represent pointer sharing); however it means that
+non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct pickled Python objects.</p>
+<p>By default, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> data format uses a relatively compact binary
+representation.  If you need optimal size characteristics, you can efficiently
+<a class="reference internal" href="archiving.html"><span class="doc">compress</span></a> pickled data.</p>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html#module-pickletools" title="pickletools: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code></a> contains tools for analyzing data streams
+generated by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html#module-pickletools" title="pickletools: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code></a> source code has extensive
+comments about opcodes used by pickle protocols.</p>
+<p>There are currently 5 different protocols which can be used for pickling.
+The higher the protocol used, the more recent the version of Python needed
+to read the pickle produced.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Protocol version 0 is the original “human-readable” protocol and is
+backwards compatible with earlier versions of Python.</p></li>
+<li><p>Protocol version 1 is an old binary format which is also compatible with
+earlier versions of Python.</p></li>
+<li><p>Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3.  It provides much more
+efficient pickling of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-new-style-class"><span class="xref std std-term">new-style class</span></a>es.  Refer to <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0307"><strong>PEP 307</strong></a> for
+information about improvements brought by protocol 2.</p></li>
+<li><p>Protocol version 3 was added in Python 3.0.  It has explicit support for
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects and cannot be unpickled by Python 2.x.  This is
+the default protocol, and the recommended protocol when compatibility with
+other Python 3 versions is required.</p></li>
+<li><p>Protocol version 4 was added in Python 3.4.  It adds support for very large
+objects, pickling more kinds of objects, and some data format
+optimizations.  Refer to <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3154"><strong>PEP 3154</strong></a> for information about improvements
+brought by protocol 4.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Serialization is a more primitive notion than persistence; although
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> reads and writes file objects, it does not handle the issue of
+naming persistent objects, nor the (even more complicated) issue of concurrent
+access to persistent objects.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module can transform a complex
+object into a byte stream and it can transform the byte stream into an object
+with the same internal structure.  Perhaps the most obvious thing to do with
+these byte streams is to write them onto a file, but it is also conceivable to
+send them across a network or store them in a database.  The <a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a>
+module provides a simple interface to pickle and unpickle objects on
+DBM-style database files.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-interface">
+<h2>Module Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#module-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To serialize an object hierarchy, you simply call the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dumps" title="pickle.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a> function.
+Similarly, to de-serialize a data stream, you call the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.loads" title="pickle.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a> function.
+However, if you want more control over serialization and de-serialization,
+you can create a <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler</span></code></a> or an <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpickler</span></code></a> object, respectively.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module provides the following constants:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL">
+<code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer, the highest <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-protocols"><span class="std std-ref">protocol version</span></a>
+available.  This value can be passed as a <em>protocol</em> value to functions
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dump" title="pickle.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dumps" title="pickle.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a> as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler</span></code></a>
+constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL">
+<code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">DEFAULT_PROTOCOL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer, the default <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-protocols"><span class="std std-ref">protocol version</span></a> used
+for pickling.  May be less than <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</span></code></a>.  Currently the
+default protocol is 3, a new protocol designed for Python 3.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module provides the following functions to make the pickling
+process more convenient:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pickle.dump">
+<code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>protocol=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fix_imports=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a pickled representation of <em>obj</em> to the open <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> <em>file</em>.
+This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler(file,</span> <span class="pre">protocol).dump(obj)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>protocol</em> argument, an integer, tells the pickler to use
+the given protocol; supported protocols are 0 to <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</span></code></a>.
+If not specified, the default is <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_PROTOCOL</span></code></a>.  If a negative
+number is specified, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</span></code></a> is selected.</p>
+<p>The <em>file</em> argument must have a write() method that accepts a single bytes
+argument.  It can thus be an on-disk file opened for binary writing, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> instance, or any other custom object that meets this
+interface.</p>
+<p>If <em>fix_imports</em> is true and <em>protocol</em> is less than 3, pickle will try to
+map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in Python 2, so
+that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pickle.dumps">
+<code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">dumps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>protocol=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fix_imports=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.dumps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the pickled representation of the object as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object,
+instead of writing it to a file.</p>
+<p>Arguments <em>protocol</em> and <em>fix_imports</em> have the same meaning as in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dump" title="pickle.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pickle.load">
+<code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fix_imports=True</em>, <em>encoding=&quot;ASCII&quot;</em>, <em>errors=&quot;strict&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a pickled object representation from the open <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>
+<em>file</em> and return the reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein.
+This is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpickler(file).load()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
+protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled object’s
+representation are ignored.</p>
+<p>The argument <em>file</em> must have two methods, a read() method that takes an
+integer argument, and a readline() method that requires no arguments.  Both
+methods should return bytes.  Thus <em>file</em> can be an on-disk file opened for
+binary reading, an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> object, or any other custom object
+that meets this interface.</p>
+<p>Optional keyword arguments are <em>fix_imports</em>, <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em>,
+which are used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
+by Python 2.  If <em>fix_imports</em> is true, pickle will try to map the old
+Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The <em>encoding</em> and
+<em>errors</em> tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string instances pickled by Python
+2; these default to ‘ASCII’ and ‘strict’, respectively.  The <em>encoding</em> can
+be ‘bytes’ to read these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.
+Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding='latin1'</span></code> is required for unpickling NumPy arrays and
+instances of <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> pickled by Python 2.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pickle.loads">
+<code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">loads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes_object</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fix_imports=True</em>, <em>encoding=&quot;ASCII&quot;</em>, <em>errors=&quot;strict&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.loads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a pickled object hierarchy from a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object and return the
+reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein.</p>
+<p>The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
+protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled object’s
+representation are ignored.</p>
+<p>Optional keyword arguments are <em>fix_imports</em>, <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em>,
+which are used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
+by Python 2.  If <em>fix_imports</em> is true, pickle will try to map the old
+Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The <em>encoding</em> and
+<em>errors</em> tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string instances pickled by Python
+2; these default to ‘ASCII’ and ‘strict’, respectively.  The <em>encoding</em> can
+be ‘bytes’ to read these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.
+Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding='latin1'</span></code> is required for unpickling NumPy arrays and
+instances of <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> pickled by Python 2.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module defines three exceptions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="pickle.PickleError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">PickleError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.PickleError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Common base class for the other pickling exceptions.  It inherits
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="pickle.PicklingError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">PicklingError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.PicklingError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Error raised when an unpicklable object is encountered by <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler</span></code></a>.
+It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.PickleError" title="pickle.PickleError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PickleError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-picklable"><span class="std std-ref">What can be pickled and unpickled?</span></a> to learn what kinds of objects can be
+pickled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="pickle.UnpicklingError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">UnpicklingError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.UnpicklingError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Error raised when there is a problem unpickling an object, such as a data
+corruption or a security violation.  It inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.PickleError" title="pickle.PickleError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PickleError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that other exceptions may also be raised during unpickling, including
+(but not necessarily limited to) AttributeError, EOFError, ImportError, and
+IndexError.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module exports two classes, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpickler</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pickle.Pickler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">Pickler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>protocol=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fix_imports=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This takes a binary file for writing a pickle data stream.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>protocol</em> argument, an integer, tells the pickler to use
+the given protocol; supported protocols are 0 to <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</span></code></a>.
+If not specified, the default is <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_PROTOCOL</span></code></a>.  If a negative
+number is specified, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</span></code></a> is selected.</p>
+<p>The <em>file</em> argument must have a write() method that accepts a single bytes
+argument.  It can thus be an on-disk file opened for binary writing, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> instance, or any other custom object that meets this
+interface.</p>
+<p>If <em>fix_imports</em> is true and <em>protocol</em> is less than 3, pickle will try to
+map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in Python 2, so
+that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pickle.Pickler.dump">
+<code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a pickled representation of <em>obj</em> to the open file object given in
+the constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pickle.Pickler.persistent_id">
+<code class="descname">persistent_id</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler.persistent_id" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do nothing by default.  This exists so a subclass can override it.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.persistent_id" title="pickle.Pickler.persistent_id"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">persistent_id()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <em>obj</em> is pickled as usual.  Any
+other value causes <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler</span></code></a> to emit the returned value as a
+persistent ID for <em>obj</em>.  The meaning of this persistent ID should be
+defined by <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load" title="pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpickler.persistent_load()</span></code></a>.  Note that the value
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.persistent_id" title="pickle.Pickler.persistent_id"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">persistent_id()</span></code></a> cannot itself have a persistent ID.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-persistent"><span class="std std-ref">Persistence of External Objects</span></a> for details and examples of uses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table">
+<code class="descname">dispatch_table</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A pickler object’s dispatch table is a registry of <em>reduction
+functions</em> of the kind which can be declared using
+<a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html#copyreg.pickle" title="copyreg.pickle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg.pickle()</span></code></a>.  It is a mapping whose keys are classes
+and whose values are reduction functions.  A reduction function
+takes a single argument of the associated class and should
+conform to the same interface as a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<p>By default, a pickler object will not have a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table" title="pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_table</span></code></a> attribute, and it will instead use the
+global dispatch table managed by the <a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html#module-copyreg" title="copyreg: Register pickle support functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code></a> module.
+However, to customize the pickling for a specific pickler object
+one can set the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table" title="pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_table</span></code></a> attribute to a dict-like
+object.  Alternatively, if a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler</span></code></a> has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table" title="pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_table</span></code></a> attribute then this will be used as the
+default dispatch table for instances of that class.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-dispatch"><span class="std std-ref">Dispatch Tables</span></a> for usage examples.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pickle.Pickler.fast">
+<code class="descname">fast</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler.fast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deprecated. Enable fast mode if set to a true value.  The fast mode
+disables the usage of memo, therefore speeding the pickling process by not
+generating superfluous PUT opcodes.  It should not be used with
+self-referential objects, doing otherwise will cause <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pickler</span></code></a> to
+recurse infinitely.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html#pickletools.optimize" title="pickletools.optimize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools.optimize()</span></code></a> if you need more compact pickles.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pickle.Unpickler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pickle.</code><code class="descname">Unpickler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fix_imports=True</em>, <em>encoding=&quot;ASCII&quot;</em>, <em>errors=&quot;strict&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This takes a binary file for reading a pickle data stream.</p>
+<p>The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
+protocol argument is needed.</p>
+<p>The argument <em>file</em> must have two methods, a read() method that takes an
+integer argument, and a readline() method that requires no arguments.  Both
+methods should return bytes.  Thus <em>file</em> can be an on-disk file object
+opened for binary reading, an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> object, or any other
+custom object that meets this interface.</p>
+<p>Optional keyword arguments are <em>fix_imports</em>, <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em>,
+which are used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
+by Python 2.  If <em>fix_imports</em> is true, pickle will try to map the old
+Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The <em>encoding</em> and
+<em>errors</em> tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string instances pickled by Python
+2; these default to ‘ASCII’ and ‘strict’, respectively.  The <em>encoding</em> can
+be ‘bytes’ to read these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pickle.Unpickler.load">
+<code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Unpickler.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a pickled object representation from the open file object given in
+the constructor, and return the reconstituted object hierarchy specified
+therein.  Bytes past the pickled object’s representation are ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load">
+<code class="descname">persistent_load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.UnpicklingError" title="pickle.UnpicklingError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnpicklingError</span></code></a> by default.</p>
+<p>If defined, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load" title="pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">persistent_load()</span></code></a> should return the object specified by
+the persistent ID <em>pid</em>.  If an invalid persistent ID is encountered, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.UnpicklingError" title="pickle.UnpicklingError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnpicklingError</span></code></a> should be raised.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-persistent"><span class="std std-ref">Persistence of External Objects</span></a> for details and examples of uses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pickle.Unpickler.find_class">
+<code class="descname">find_class</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Unpickler.find_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Import <em>module</em> if necessary and return the object called <em>name</em> from it,
+where the <em>module</em> and <em>name</em> arguments are <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects.  Note,
+unlike its name suggests, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.find_class" title="pickle.Unpickler.find_class"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_class()</span></code></a> is also used for finding
+functions.</p>
+<p>Subclasses may override this to gain control over what type of objects and
+how they can be loaded, potentially reducing security risks. Refer to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-restrict"><span class="std std-ref">Restricting Globals</span></a> for details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled">
+<span id="pickle-picklable"></span><h2>What can be pickled and unpickled?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following types can be pickled:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>integers, floating point numbers, complex numbers</p></li>
+<li><p>strings, bytes, bytearrays</p></li>
+<li><p>tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable objects</p></li>
+<li><p>functions defined at the top level of a module (using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a>, not
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>built-in functions defined at the top level of a module</p></li>
+<li><p>classes that are defined at the top level of a module</p></li>
+<li><p>instances of such classes whose <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> or the result of
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a> is picklable  (see section <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-inst"><span class="std std-ref">Pickling Class Instances</span></a> for
+details).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Attempts to pickle unpicklable objects will raise the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.PicklingError" title="pickle.PicklingError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PicklingError</span></code></a>
+exception; when this happens, an unspecified number of bytes may have already
+been written to the underlying file.  Trying to pickle a highly recursive data
+structure may exceed the maximum recursion depth, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RecursionError" title="RecursionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code></a> will be
+raised in this case.  You can carefully raise this limit with
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.setrecursionlimit" title="sys.setrecursionlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setrecursionlimit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by “fully qualified”
+name reference, not by value. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id7" id="id2">2</a>  This means that only the function name is
+pickled, along with the name of the module the function is defined in.  Neither
+the function’s code, nor any of its function attributes are pickled.  Thus the
+defining module must be importable in the unpickling environment, and the module
+must contain the named object, otherwise an exception will be raised. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id3">3</a></p>
+<p>Similarly, classes are pickled by named reference, so the same restrictions in
+the unpickling environment apply.  Note that none of the class’s code or data is
+pickled, so in the following example the class attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attr</span></code> is not
+restored in the unpickling environment:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">attr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;A class attribute&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="n">picklestring</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be defined in
+the top level of a module.</p>
+<p>Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class’s code and data are not
+pickled along with them.  Only the instance data are pickled.  This is done on
+purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods to the class and still
+load objects that were created with an earlier version of the class.  If you
+plan to have long-lived objects that will see many versions of a class, it may
+be worthwhile to put a version number in the objects so that suitable
+conversions can be made by the class’s <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pickling-class-instances">
+<span id="pickle-inst"></span><h2>Pickling Class Instances<a class="headerlink" href="#pickling-class-instances" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In this section, we describe the general mechanisms available to you to define,
+customize, and control how class instances are pickled and unpickled.</p>
+<p>In most cases, no additional code is needed to make instances picklable.  By
+default, pickle will retrieve the class and the attributes of an instance via
+introspection. When a class instance is unpickled, its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method
+is usually <em>not</em> invoked.  The default behaviour first creates an uninitialized
+instance and then restores the saved attributes.  The following code shows an
+implementation of this behaviour:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">save</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attributes</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__new__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">attributes</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Classes can alter the default behaviour by providing one or several special
+methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__getnewargs_ex__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__getnewargs_ex__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implements the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="object.__getnewargs_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs_ex__()</span></code></a> method can dictate the values passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method upon unpickling.  The method must return a pair
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(args,</span> <span class="pre">kwargs)</span></code> where <em>args</em> is a tuple of positional arguments
+and <em>kwargs</em> a dictionary of named arguments for constructing the
+object.  Those will be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method upon
+unpickling.</p>
+<p>You should implement this method if the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method of your
+class requires keyword-only arguments.  Otherwise, it is recommended for
+compatibility to implement <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="object.__getnewargs_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs_ex__()</span></code></a> is now used in protocols 2 and 3.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__getnewargs__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__getnewargs__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method serves a similar purpose as <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="object.__getnewargs_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs_ex__()</span></code></a>, but
+supports only positional arguments.  It must return a tuple of arguments
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> which will be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method upon unpickling.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__()</span></code></a> will not be called if <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="object.__getnewargs_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs_ex__()</span></code></a> is
+defined.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Before Python 3.6, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__()</span></code></a> was called instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="object.__getnewargs_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs_ex__()</span></code></a> in protocols 2 and 3.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__getstate__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__getstate__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getstate__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled; if the class
+defines the method <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a>, it is called and the returned object
+is pickled as the contents for the instance, instead of the contents of the
+instance’s dictionary.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a> method is absent, the
+instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> is pickled as usual.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__setstate__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__setstate__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>state</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__setstate__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Upon unpickling, if the class defines <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a>, it is called with
+the unpickled state.  In that case, there is no requirement for the state
+object to be a dictionary.  Otherwise, the pickled state must be a dictionary
+and its items are assigned to the new instance’s dictionary.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a> returns a false value, the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a>
+method will not be called upon unpickling.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Refer to the section <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-state"><span class="std std-ref">Handling Stateful Objects</span></a> for more information about how to use
+the methods <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>At unpickling time, some methods like <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> may be called upon the
+instance.  In case those methods rely on some internal invariant being
+true, the type should implement <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="object.__getnewargs_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs_ex__()</span></code></a> to establish such an invariant; otherwise,
+neither <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> nor <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> will be called.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-4">As we shall see, pickle does not use directly the methods described above.  In
+fact, these methods are part of the copy protocol which implements the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a> special method.  The copy protocol provides a unified
+interface for retrieving the data necessary for pickling and copying
+objects. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id4">4</a></p>
+<p>Although powerful, implementing <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a> directly in your classes is
+error prone.  For this reason, class designers should use the high-level
+interface (i.e., <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs_ex__" title="object.__getnewargs_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs_ex__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a>) whenever possible.  We will show, however, cases where
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a> is the only option or leads to more efficient pickling
+or both.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__reduce__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__reduce__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__reduce__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The interface is currently defined as follows.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a> method
+takes no argument and shall return either a string or preferably a tuple (the
+returned object is often referred to as the “reduce value”).</p>
+<p>If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the name of a
+global variable.  It should be the object’s local name relative to its
+module; the pickle module searches the module namespace to determine the
+object’s module.  This behaviour is typically useful for singletons.</p>
+<p>When a tuple is returned, it must be between two and five items long.
+Optional items can either be omitted, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> can be provided as their
+value.  The semantics of each item are in order:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A callable object that will be called to create the initial version of the
+object.</p></li>
+<li><p>A tuple of arguments for the callable object.  An empty tuple must be given
+if the callable does not accept any argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>Optionally, the object’s state, which will be passed to the object’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a> method as previously described.  If the object has no
+such method then, the value must be a dictionary and it will be added to
+the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p>Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding successive items.
+These items will be appended to the object either using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.append(item)</span></code> or, in batch, using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.extend(list_of_items)</span></code>.
+This is primarily used for list subclasses, but may be used by other
+classes as long as they have <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend()</span></code> methods with
+the appropriate signature.  (Whether <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend()</span></code> is
+used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well as the number
+of items to append, so both must be supported.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Optionally, an iterator (not a sequence) yielding successive key-value
+pairs.  These items will be stored to the object using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[key]</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">value</span></code>.  This is primarily used for dictionary subclasses, but may be used
+by other classes as long as they implement <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__reduce_ex__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__reduce_ex__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alternatively, a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce_ex__()</span></code></a> method may be defined.  The only
+difference is this method should take a single integer argument, the protocol
+version.  When defined, pickle will prefer it over the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a>
+method.  In addition, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a> automatically becomes a synonym for
+the extended version.  The main use for this method is to provide
+backwards-compatible reduce values for older Python releases.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="persistence-of-external-objects">
+<span id="pickle-persistent"></span><h3>Persistence of External Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#persistence-of-external-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-5">For the benefit of object persistence, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module supports the
+notion of a reference to an object outside the pickled data stream.  Such
+objects are referenced by a persistent ID, which should be either a string of
+alphanumeric characters (for protocol 0) <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id10" id="id5">5</a> or just an arbitrary object (for
+any newer protocol).</p>
+<p>The resolution of such persistent IDs is not defined by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a>
+module; it will delegate this resolution to the user defined methods on the
+pickler and unpickler, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.persistent_id" title="pickle.Pickler.persistent_id"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">persistent_id()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load" title="pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">persistent_load()</span></code></a> respectively.</p>
+<p>To pickle objects that have an external persistent id, the pickler must have a
+custom <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.persistent_id" title="pickle.Pickler.persistent_id"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">persistent_id()</span></code></a> method that takes an object as an
+argument and returns either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or the persistent id for that object.
+When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned, the pickler simply pickles the object as normal.
+When a persistent ID string is returned, the pickler will pickle that object,
+along with a marker so that the unpickler will recognize it as a persistent ID.</p>
+<p>To unpickle external objects, the unpickler must have a custom
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load" title="pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">persistent_load()</span></code></a> method that takes a persistent ID object and
+returns the referenced object.</p>
+<p>Here is a comprehensive example presenting how persistent ID can be used to
+pickle external objects by reference.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Simple example presenting how persistent ID can be used to pickle</span>
+<span class="c1"># external objects by reference.</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Simple class representing a record in our database.</span>
+<span class="n">MemoRecord</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;MemoRecord&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;key, task&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DBPickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Pickler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">persistent_id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Instead of pickling MemoRecord as a regular class instance, we emit a</span>
+        <span class="c1"># persistent ID.</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MemoRecord</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Here, our persistent ID is simply a tuple, containing a tag and a</span>
+            <span class="c1"># key, which refers to a specific record in the database.</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;MemoRecord&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># If obj does not have a persistent ID, return None. This means obj</span>
+            <span class="c1"># needs to be pickled as usual.</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DBUnpickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Unpickler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">connection</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connection</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">persistent_load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pid</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># This method is invoked whenever a persistent ID is encountered.</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Here, pid is the tuple returned by DBPickler.</span>
+        <span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">type_tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key_id</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pid</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">type_tag</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;MemoRecord&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Fetch the referenced record from the database and return it.</span>
+            <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;SELECT * FROM memos WHERE key=?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key_id</span><span class="p">),))</span>
+            <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">MemoRecord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">task</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Always raises an error if you cannot return the correct object.</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Otherwise, the unpickler will think None is the object referenced</span>
+            <span class="c1"># by the persistent ID.</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UnpicklingError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;unsupported persistent object&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Initialize and populate our database.</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;CREATE TABLE memos(key INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, task TEXT)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">tasks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;give food to fish&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;prepare group meeting&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;fight with a zebra&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tasks</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;INSERT INTO memos VALUES(NULL, ?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">task</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Fetch the records to be pickled.</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;SELECT * FROM memos&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">memos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">MemoRecord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">task</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">task</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Save the records using our custom DBPickler.</span>
+    <span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">DBPickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dump</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">memos</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Pickled records:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">memos</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Update a record, just for good measure.</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;UPDATE memos SET task=&#39;learn italian&#39; WHERE key=1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Load the records from the pickle data stream.</span>
+    <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">memos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DBUnpickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Unpickled records:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">memos</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dispatch-tables">
+<span id="pickle-dispatch"></span><h3>Dispatch Tables<a class="headerlink" href="#dispatch-tables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If one wants to customize pickling of some classes without disturbing
+any other code which depends on pickling, then one can create a
+pickler with a private dispatch table.</p>
+<p>The global dispatch table managed by the <a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html#module-copyreg" title="copyreg: Register pickle support functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code></a> module is
+available as <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg.dispatch_table</span></code>.  Therefore, one may
+choose to use a modified copy of <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg.dispatch_table</span></code> as a
+private dispatch table.</p>
+<p>For example</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Pickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatch_table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">copyreg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatch_table</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatch_table</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">reduce_SomeClass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>creates an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.Pickler</span></code></a> with a private dispatch
+table which handles the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> class specially.  Alternatively,
+the code</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyPickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Pickler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">dispatch_table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">copyreg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispatch_table</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">dispatch_table</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">reduce_SomeClass</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyPickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>does the same, but all instances of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyPickler</span></code> will by default
+share the same dispatch table.  The equivalent code using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html#module-copyreg" title="copyreg: Register pickle support functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code></a> module is</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">copyreg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reduce_SomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Pickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="handling-stateful-objects">
+<span id="pickle-state"></span><h3>Handling Stateful Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#handling-stateful-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-6">Here’s an example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a class.
+The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextReader</span></code> class opens a text file, and returns the line number and
+line contents each time its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code> method is called. If a
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextReader</span></code> instance is pickled, all attributes <em>except</em> the file object
+member are saved. When the instance is unpickled, the file is reopened, and
+reading resumes from the last location. The <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a> methods are used to implement this behavior.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TextReader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Print and number lines in a text file.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">filename</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">readline</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">endswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%i</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getstate__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Copy the object&#39;s state from self.__dict__ which contains</span>
+        <span class="c1"># all our instance attributes. Always use the dict.copy()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># method to avoid modifying the original state.</span>
+        <span class="n">state</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Remove the unpicklable entries.</span>
+        <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;file&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">state</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setstate__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Restore instance attributes (i.e., filename and lineno).</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">state</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Restore the previously opened file&#39;s state. To do so, we need to</span>
+        <span class="c1"># reopen it and read from it until the line count is restored.</span>
+        <span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Finally, save the file.</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">file</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A sample usage might be something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TextReader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1: Hello world!&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2: I am line number two.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">new_reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">new_reader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3: Goodbye!&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="restricting-globals">
+<span id="pickle-restrict"></span><h2>Restricting Globals<a class="headerlink" href="#restricting-globals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-7">By default, unpickling will import any class or function that it finds in the
+pickle data.  For many applications, this behaviour is unacceptable as it
+permits the unpickler to import and invoke arbitrary code.  Just consider what
+this hand-crafted pickle data stream does when loaded:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;cos</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">system</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">(S&#39;echo hello world&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">tR.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">hello world</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, the unpickler imports the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a> function and then
+apply the string argument “echo hello world”.  Although this example is
+inoffensive, it is not difficult to imagine one that could damage your system.</p>
+<p>For this reason, you may want to control what gets unpickled by customizing
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.find_class" title="pickle.Unpickler.find_class"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpickler.find_class()</span></code></a>.  Unlike its name suggests,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.find_class" title="pickle.Unpickler.find_class"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpickler.find_class()</span></code></a> is called whenever a global (i.e., a class or
+a function) is requested.  Thus it is possible to either completely forbid
+globals or restrict them to a safe subset.</p>
+<p>Here is an example of an unpickler allowing only few safe classes from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module to be loaded:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">builtins</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span>
+
+<span class="n">safe_builtins</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;range&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;complex&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;set&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;frozenset&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;slice&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">RestrictedUnpickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Unpickler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">find_class</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Only allow safe classes from builtins.</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;builtins&quot;</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">safe_builtins</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">builtins</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Forbid everything else.</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UnpicklingError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;global &#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">.</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&#39; is forbidden&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span>
+                                     <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">restricted_loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Helper function analogous to pickle.loads().&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">RestrictedUnpickler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A sample usage of our unpickler working has intended:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">restricted_loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">)]))</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, range(0, 15)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">restricted_loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;cos</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">system</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">(S&#39;echo hello world&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">tR.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">pickle.UnpicklingError</span>: <span class="n">global &#39;os.system&#39; is forbidden</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">restricted_loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;cbuiltins</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">eval</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                 <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;(S</span><span class="se">\&#39;</span><span class="s1">getattr(__import__(&quot;os&quot;), &quot;system&quot;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                 <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;(&quot;echo hello world&quot;)</span><span class="se">\&#39;\n</span><span class="s1">tR.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">pickle.UnpicklingError</span>: <span class="n">global &#39;builtins.eval&#39; is forbidden</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As our examples shows, you have to be careful with what you allow to be
+unpickled.  Therefore if security is a concern, you may want to consider
+alternatives such as the marshalling API in <a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> or
+third-party solutions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="performance">
+<h2>Performance<a class="headerlink" href="#performance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Recent versions of the pickle protocol (from protocol 2 and upwards) feature
+efficient binary encodings for several common features and built-in types.
+Also, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module has a transparent optimizer written in C.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="pickle-example"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For the simplest code, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dump" title="pickle.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.load" title="pickle.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># An arbitrary collection of objects supported by pickle.</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">],</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;character string&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;byte string&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;data.pickle&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Pickle the &#39;data&#39; dictionary using the highest protocol available.</span>
+    <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dump</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example reads the resulting pickled data.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pickle</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;data.pickle&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The protocol version used is detected automatically, so we do not</span>
+    <span class="c1"># have to specify it.</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="copyreg.html#module-copyreg" title="copyreg: Register pickle support functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Pickle interface constructor registration for extension types.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="pickletools.html#module-pickletools" title="pickletools: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Tools for working with and analyzing pickled data.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Indexed databases of objects; uses <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Shallow and deep object copying.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>High-performance serialization of built-in types.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id6"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t confuse this with the <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> module</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id7"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This is why <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> functions cannot be pickled:  all
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code> functions share the same name:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;lambda&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The exception raised will likely be an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> or an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> but it could be something else.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id9"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">4</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code></a> module uses this protocol for shallow and deep copying
+operations.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id10"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id5">5</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The limitation on alphanumeric characters is due to the fact
+the persistent IDs, in protocol 0, are delimited by the newline
+character.  Therefore if any kind of newline characters occurs in
+persistent IDs, the resulting pickle will become unreadable.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> — Python object serialization</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#relationship-to-other-python-modules">Relationship to other Python modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparison-with-marshal">Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparison-with-json">Comparison with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#data-stream-format">Data stream format</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-interface">Module Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled">What can be pickled and unpickled?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickling-class-instances">Pickling Class Instances</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#persistence-of-external-objects">Persistence of External Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dispatch-tables">Dispatch Tables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#handling-stateful-objects">Handling Stateful Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#restricting-globals">Restricting Globals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="persistence.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Data Persistence</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="copyreg.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code> — Register <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> support functions</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,304 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>pickletools — Tools for pickle developers &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pickletools">
+<span id="pickletools-tools-for-pickle-developers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickletools" title="pickletools: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code></a> — Tools for pickle developers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pickletools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pickletools.py">Lib/pickletools.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module contains various constants relating to the intimate details of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module, some lengthy comments about the implementation, and a
+few useful functions for analyzing pickled data.  The contents of this module
+are useful for Python core developers who are working on the <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a>;
+ordinary users of the <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module probably won’t find the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickletools" title="pickletools: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code></a> module relevant.</p>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-usage">
+<h2>Command line usage<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>When invoked from the command line, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">pickletools</span></code> will
+disassemble the contents of one or more pickle files.  Note that if
+you want to see the Python object stored in the pickle rather than the
+details of pickle format, you may want to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">pickle</span></code> instead.
+However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an
+untrusted source, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">pickletools</span></code> is a safer option because it does
+not execute pickle bytecode.</p>
+<p>For example, with a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code> pickled in file <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.pickle</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m pickle x.pickle
+<span class="go">(1, 2)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">$</span> python -m pickletools x.pickle
+<span class="go">    0: \x80 PROTO      3</span>
+<span class="go">    2: K    BININT1    1</span>
+<span class="go">    4: K    BININT1    2</span>
+<span class="go">    6: \x86 TUPLE2</span>
+<span class="go">    7: q    BINPUT     0</span>
+<span class="go">    9: .    STOP</span>
+<span class="go">highest protocol among opcodes = 2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-options">
+<h3>Command line options<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-pickletools-a">
+<code class="descname">-a</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--annotate</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-pickletools-a" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Annotate each line with a short opcode description.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-pickletools-o">
+<code class="descname">-o</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--output</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;file&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-pickletools-o" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of a file where the output should be written.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-pickletools-l">
+<code class="descname">-l</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--indentlevel</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;num&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-pickletools-l" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK level.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-pickletools-m">
+<code class="descname">-m</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--memo</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-pickletools-m" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When multiple objects are disassembled, preserve memo between
+disassemblies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-pickletools-p">
+<code class="descname">-p</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--preamble</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;preamble&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-pickletools-p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When more than one pickle file are specified, print given preamble
+before each disassembly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="programmatic-interface">
+<h2>Programmatic Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#programmatic-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pickletools.dis">
+<code class="descclassname">pickletools.</code><code class="descname">dis</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pickle</em>, <em>out=None</em>, <em>memo=None</em>, <em>indentlevel=4</em>, <em>annotate=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickletools.dis" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Outputs a symbolic disassembly of the pickle to the file-like
+object <em>out</em>, defaulting to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>.  <em>pickle</em> can be a
+string or a file-like object.  <em>memo</em> can be a Python dictionary
+that will be used as the pickle’s memo; it can be used to perform
+disassemblies across multiple pickles created by the same
+pickler. Successive levels, indicated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MARK</span></code> opcodes in the
+stream, are indented by <em>indentlevel</em> spaces.  If a nonzero value
+is given to <em>annotate</em>, each opcode in the output is annotated with
+a short description.  The value of <em>annotate</em> is used as a hint for
+the column where annotation should start.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>annotate</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pickletools.genops">
+<code class="descclassname">pickletools.</code><code class="descname">genops</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pickle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickletools.genops" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Provides an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> over all of the opcodes in a pickle, returning a
+sequence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(opcode,</span> <span class="pre">arg,</span> <span class="pre">pos)</span></code> triples.  <em>opcode</em> is an instance of an
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpcodeInfo</span></code> class; <em>arg</em> is the decoded value, as a Python object, of
+the opcode’s argument; <em>pos</em> is the position at which this opcode is located.
+<em>pickle</em> can be a string or a file-like object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pickletools.optimize">
+<code class="descclassname">pickletools.</code><code class="descname">optimize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>picklestring</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pickletools.optimize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a new equivalent pickle string after eliminating unused <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PUT</span></code>
+opcodes. The optimized pickle is shorter, takes less transmission time,
+requires less storage space, and unpickles more efficiently.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
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+
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-usage">Command line usage</a><ul>
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+</ul>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#programmatic-interface">Programmatic Interface</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pipes.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pipes.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..014f681
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pipes">
+<span id="pipes-interface-to-shell-pipelines"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pipes" title="pipes: A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code></a> — Interface to shell pipelines<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pipes.py">Lib/pipes.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pipes" title="pipes: A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code></a> module defines a class to abstract the concept of a <em>pipeline</em>
+— a sequence of converters from one file to  another.</p>
+<p>Because the module uses <strong class="program">/bin/sh</strong> command lines, a POSIX or compatible
+shell for <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a> is required.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pipes" title="pipes: A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code></a> module defines the following class:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pipes.Template">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pipes.</code><code class="descname">Template</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An abstraction of a pipeline.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pipes</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pipes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tr a-z A-Z&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pipefile&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pipefile&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;HELLO WORLD&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="template-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Template Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#template-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Template objects following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pipes.Template.reset">
+<code class="descclassname">Template.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restore a pipeline template to its initial state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pipes.Template.clone">
+<code class="descclassname">Template.</code><code class="descname">clone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template.clone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new, equivalent, pipeline template.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pipes.Template.debug">
+<code class="descclassname">Template.</code><code class="descname">debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>flag</em> is true, turn debugging on. Otherwise, turn debugging off. When
+debugging is on, commands to be executed are printed, and the shell is given
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span> <span class="pre">-x</span></code> command to be more verbose.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pipes.Template.append">
+<code class="descclassname">Template.</code><code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>kind</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append a new action at the end. The <em>cmd</em> variable must be a valid bourne shell
+command. The <em>kind</em> variable consists of two letters.</p>
+<p>The first letter can be either of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> (which means the command reads its
+standard input), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> (which means the commands reads a given file on the
+command line) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> (which means the commands reads no input, and hence
+must be first.)</p>
+<p>Similarly, the second letter can be either of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> (which means  the command
+writes to standard output), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> (which means the  command writes a file on
+the command line) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> (which means the command does not write anything,
+and hence must be last.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pipes.Template.prepend">
+<code class="descclassname">Template.</code><code class="descname">prepend</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>kind</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template.prepend" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a new action at the beginning. See <a class="reference internal" href="#pipes.Template.append" title="pipes.Template.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> for explanations of the
+arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pipes.Template.open">
+<code class="descclassname">Template.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a file-like object, open to <em>file</em>, but read from or written to by the
+pipeline.  Note that only one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> may be given.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pipes.Template.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">Template.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>infile</em>, <em>outfile</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pipes.Template.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy <em>infile</em> to <em>outfile</em> through the pipe.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code> — Interface to shell pipelines</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#template-objects">Template Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> — The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl</span></code> system calls</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pkgutil.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pkgutil.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e9604f
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,398 @@
+
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+  <div class="section" id="module-pkgutil">
+<span id="pkgutil-package-extension-utility"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pkgutil" title="pkgutil: Utilities for the import system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code></a> — Package extension utility<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pkgutil" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pkgutil.py">Lib/pkgutil.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides utilities for the import system, in particular package
+support.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pkgutil.ModuleInfo">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">ModuleInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module_finder</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>ispkg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.ModuleInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A namedtuple that holds a brief summary of a module’s info.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.extend_path">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">extend_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.extend_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extend the search path for the modules which comprise a package.  Intended
+use is to place the following code in a package’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">pkgutil</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">extend_path</span>
+<span class="n">__path__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">extend_path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__path__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will add to the package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> all subdirectories of directories
+on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> named after the package.  This is useful if one wants to
+distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple
+directories.</p>
+<p>It also looks for <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pkg</span></code> files beginning where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> matches the
+<em>name</em> argument.  This feature is similar to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pth</span></code> files (see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module for more information), except that it doesn’t special-case
+lines starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code>.  A <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pkg</span></code> file is trusted at face
+value: apart from checking for duplicates, all entries found in a
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pkg</span></code> file are added to the path, regardless of whether they exist
+on the filesystem.  (This is a feature.)</p>
+<p>If the input path is not a list (as is the case for frozen packages) it is
+returned unchanged.  The input path is not modified; an extended copy is
+returned.  Items are only appended to the copy at the end.</p>
+<p>It is assumed that <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is a sequence.  Items of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>
+that are not strings referring to existing directories are ignored. Unicode
+items on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> that cause errors when used as filenames may cause
+this function to raise an exception (in line with <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.isdir" title="os.path.isdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.isdir()</span></code></a>
+behavior).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pkgutil.ImpImporter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">ImpImporter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dirname=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.ImpImporter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> Finder that wraps Python’s “classic” import algorithm.</p>
+<p>If <em>dirname</em> is a string, a <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> finder is created that searches that
+directory.  If <em>dirname</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> finder is created that
+searches the current <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, plus any modules that are frozen or
+built-in.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#pkgutil.ImpImporter" title="pkgutil.ImpImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImpImporter</span></code></a> does not currently support being used by
+placement on <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This emulation is no longer needed, as the standard import mechanism
+is now fully PEP 302 compliant and available in <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="pkgutil.ImpLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">ImpLoader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em>, <em>file</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>etc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.ImpLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">Loader</span></a> that wraps Python’s “classic” import algorithm.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This emulation is no longer needed, as the standard import mechanism
+is now fully PEP 302 compliant and available in <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.find_loader">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">find_loader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.find_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve a module <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> for the given <em>fullname</em>.</p>
+<p>This is a backwards compatibility wrapper around
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.find_spec" title="importlib.util.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.find_spec()</span></code></a> that converts most failures to
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> and only returns the loader rather than the full
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleSpec</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Updated to be based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> rather than relying
+on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Updated to be based on <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.get_importer">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">get_importer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path_item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.get_importer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> for the given <em>path_item</em>.</p>
+<p>The returned finder is cached in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> if it was
+newly created by a path hook.</p>
+<p>The cache (or part of it) can be cleared manually if a rescan of
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> is necessary.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Updated to be based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> rather than relying
+on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.get_loader">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">get_loader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module_or_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.get_loader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> object for <em>module_or_name</em>.</p>
+<p>If the module or package is accessible via the normal import mechanism, a
+wrapper around the relevant part of that machinery is returned.  Returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the module cannot be found or imported.  If the named module is
+not already imported, its containing package (if any) is imported, in order
+to establish the package <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Updated to be based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> rather than relying
+on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Updated to be based on <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.iter_importers">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">iter_importers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.iter_importers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Yield <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> objects for the given module name.</p>
+<p>If fullname contains a ‘.’, the finders will be for the package
+containing fullname, otherwise they will be all registered top level
+finders (i.e. those on both sys.meta_path and sys.path_hooks).</p>
+<p>If the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a side
+effect of invoking this function.</p>
+<p>If no module name is specified, all top level finders are produced.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Updated to be based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> rather than relying
+on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.iter_modules">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">iter_modules</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=None</em>, <em>prefix=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.iter_modules" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Yields <a class="reference internal" href="#pkgutil.ModuleInfo" title="pkgutil.ModuleInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleInfo</span></code></a> for all submodules on <em>path</em>, or, if
+<em>path</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, all top-level modules on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>path</em> should be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a list of paths to look for modules in.</p>
+<p><em>prefix</em> is a string to output on the front of every module name on output.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Only works for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> which defines an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_modules()</span></code>
+method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides
+implementations for <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder" title="importlib.machinery.FileFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.FileFinder</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter" title="zipimport.zipimporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport.zipimporter</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Updated to be based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> rather than relying
+on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.walk_packages">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">walk_packages</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=None</em>, <em>prefix=''</em>, <em>onerror=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.walk_packages" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Yields <a class="reference internal" href="#pkgutil.ModuleInfo" title="pkgutil.ModuleInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleInfo</span></code></a> for all modules recursively on
+<em>path</em>, or, if <em>path</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, all accessible modules.</p>
+<p><em>path</em> should be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a list of paths to look for modules in.</p>
+<p><em>prefix</em> is a string to output on the front of every module name on output.</p>
+<p>Note that this function must import all <em>packages</em> (<em>not</em> all modules!) on
+the given <em>path</em>, in order to access the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute to find
+submodules.</p>
+<p><em>onerror</em> is a function which gets called with one argument (the name of the
+package which was being imported) if any exception occurs while trying to
+import a package.  If no <em>onerror</em> function is supplied, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>s
+are caught and ignored, while all other exceptions are propagated,
+terminating the search.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># list all modules python can access</span>
+<span class="n">walk_packages</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># list all submodules of ctypes</span>
+<span class="n">walk_packages</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__path__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Only works for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> which defines an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_modules()</span></code>
+method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides
+implementations for <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder" title="importlib.machinery.FileFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.FileFinder</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter" title="zipimport.zipimporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport.zipimporter</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Updated to be based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> rather than relying
+on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pkgutil.get_data">
+<code class="descclassname">pkgutil.</code><code class="descname">get_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>package</em>, <em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pkgutil.get_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a resource from a package.</p>
+<p>This is a wrapper for the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_data</span></code></a> API.  The
+<em>package</em> argument should be the name of a package, in standard module format
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code>).  The <em>resource</em> argument should be in the form of a relative
+filename, using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> as the path separator.  The parent directory name
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">..</span></code> is not allowed, and nor is a rooted name (starting with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The function returns a binary string that is the contents of the specified
+resource.</p>
+<p>For packages located in the filesystem, which have already been imported,
+this is the rough equivalent of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dirname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">package</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">resource</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the package cannot be located or loaded, or it uses a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a>
+which does not support <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_data</span></code></a>,
+then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.  In particular, the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace packages</span></a> does not support
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_data</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/platform.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/platform.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..031a60e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/platform.html
@@ -0,0 +1,473 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-platform">
+<span id="platform-access-to-underlying-platform-s-identifying-data"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-platform" title="platform: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code></a> —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data<a class="headerlink" href="#module-platform" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/platform.py">Lib/platform.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Specific platforms listed alphabetically, with Linux included in the Unix
+section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cross-platform">
+<h2>Cross Platform<a class="headerlink" href="#cross-platform" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.architecture">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">architecture</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>executable=sys.executable</em>, <em>bits=''</em>, <em>linkage=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.architecture" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Queries the given executable (defaults to the Python interpreter binary) for
+various architecture information.</p>
+<p>Returns a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(bits,</span> <span class="pre">linkage)</span></code> which contain information about the bit
+architecture and the linkage format used for the executable. Both values are
+returned as strings.</p>
+<p>Values that cannot be determined are returned as given by the parameter presets.
+If bits is given as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(pointer)</span></code> (or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(long)</span></code> on Python version &lt; 1.5.2) is used as indicator for the
+supported pointer size.</p>
+<p>The function relies on the system’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> command to do the actual work.
+This is available on most if not all Unix  platforms and some non-Unix platforms
+and then only if the executable points to the Python interpreter.  Reasonable
+defaults are used when the above needs are not met.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Mac OS X (and perhaps other platforms), executable files may be
+universal files containing multiple architectures.</p>
+<p>To get at the “64-bitness” of the current interpreter, it is more
+reliable to query the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a> attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">is_64bits</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxsize</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">32</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.machine">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">machine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.machine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the machine type, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i386'</span></code>. An empty string is returned if the
+value cannot be determined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.node">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">node</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.node" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the computer’s network name (may not be fully qualified!). An empty
+string is returned if the value cannot be determined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.platform">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">platform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>aliased=0</em>, <em>terse=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.platform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a single string identifying the underlying platform with as much useful
+information as possible.</p>
+<p>The output is intended to be <em>human readable</em> rather than machine parseable. It
+may look different on different platforms and this is intended.</p>
+<p>If <em>aliased</em> is true, the function will use aliases for various platforms that
+report system names which differ from their common names, for example SunOS will
+be reported as Solaris.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.system_alias" title="platform.system_alias"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system_alias()</span></code></a> function is used to implement
+this.</p>
+<p>Setting <em>terse</em> to true causes the function to return only the absolute minimum
+information needed to identify the platform.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.processor">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">processor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.processor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the (real) processor name, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'amdk6'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>An empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined. Note that many
+platforms do not provide this information or simply return the same value as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#platform.machine" title="platform.machine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">machine()</span></code></a>.  NetBSD does this.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.python_build">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">python_build</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.python_build" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(buildno,</span> <span class="pre">builddate)</span></code> stating the Python build number and
+date as strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.python_compiler">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">python_compiler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.python_compiler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a string identifying the compiler used for compiling Python.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.python_branch">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">python_branch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.python_branch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a string identifying the Python implementation SCM branch.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.python_implementation">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">python_implementation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.python_implementation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a string identifying the Python implementation. Possible return values
+are: ‘CPython’, ‘IronPython’, ‘Jython’, ‘PyPy’.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.python_revision">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">python_revision</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.python_revision" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a string identifying the Python implementation SCM revision.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.python_version">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">python_version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.python_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the Python version as string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'major.minor.patchlevel'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that unlike the Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code>, the returned value will always
+include the patchlevel (it defaults to 0).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.python_version_tuple">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">python_version_tuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.python_version_tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the Python version as tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(major,</span> <span class="pre">minor,</span> <span class="pre">patchlevel)</span></code> of strings.</p>
+<p>Note that unlike the Python <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code>, the returned value will always
+include the patchlevel (it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.release">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the system’s release, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'2.2.0'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NT'</span></code> An empty string is
+returned if the value cannot be determined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.system">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">system</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.system" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the system/OS name, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Linux'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Windows'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Java'</span></code>. An
+empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.system_alias">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">system_alias</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>system</em>, <em>release</em>, <em>version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.system_alias" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(system,</span> <span class="pre">release,</span> <span class="pre">version)</span></code> aliased to common marketing names used
+for some systems.  It also does some reordering of the information in some cases
+where it would otherwise cause confusion.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.version">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the system’s release version, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#3</span> <span class="pre">on</span> <span class="pre">degas'</span></code>. An empty string is
+returned if the value cannot be determined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.uname">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">uname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.uname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fairly portable uname interface. Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a>
+containing six attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.system" title="platform.system"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.node" title="platform.node"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">node</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.release" title="platform.release"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#platform.version" title="platform.version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.machine" title="platform.machine"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">machine</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.processor" title="platform.processor"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">processor</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that this adds a sixth attribute (<a class="reference internal" href="#platform.processor" title="platform.processor"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">processor</span></code></a>) not present
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.uname" title="os.uname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.uname()</span></code></a> result.  Also, the attribute names are different
+for the first two attributes; <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.uname" title="os.uname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.uname()</span></code></a> names them
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysname</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodename</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Entries which cannot be determined are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="java-platform">
+<h2>Java Platform<a class="headerlink" href="#java-platform" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.java_ver">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">java_ver</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>release=''</em>, <em>vendor=''</em>, <em>vminfo=(''</em>, <em>''</em>, <em>'')</em>, <em>osinfo=(''</em>, <em>''</em>, <em>'')</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.java_ver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Version interface for Jython.</p>
+<p>Returns a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(release,</span> <span class="pre">vendor,</span> <span class="pre">vminfo,</span> <span class="pre">osinfo)</span></code> with <em>vminfo</em> being a
+tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(vm_name,</span> <span class="pre">vm_release,</span> <span class="pre">vm_vendor)</span></code> and <em>osinfo</em> being a tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(os_name,</span> <span class="pre">os_version,</span> <span class="pre">os_arch)</span></code>. Values which cannot be determined are set to
+the defaults given as parameters (which all default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="windows-platform">
+<h2>Windows Platform<a class="headerlink" href="#windows-platform" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.win32_ver">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">win32_ver</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>release=''</em>, <em>version=''</em>, <em>csd=''</em>, <em>ptype=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.win32_ver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get additional version information from the Windows Registry and return a tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(release,</span> <span class="pre">version,</span> <span class="pre">csd,</span> <span class="pre">ptype)</span></code> referring to OS release, version number,
+CSD level (service pack) and OS type (multi/single processor).</p>
+<p>As a hint: <em>ptype</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Uniprocessor</span> <span class="pre">Free'</span></code> on single processor NT machines
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Multiprocessor</span> <span class="pre">Free'</span></code> on multi processor machines. The <em>‘Free’</em> refers
+to the OS version being free of debugging code. It could also state <em>‘Checked’</em>
+which means the OS version uses debugging code, i.e. code that checks arguments,
+ranges, etc.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function works best with Mark Hammond’s
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win32all</span></code> package installed, but also on Python 2.3 and
+later (support for this was added in Python 2.6). It obviously
+only runs on Win32 compatible platforms.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="win95-98-specific">
+<h3>Win95/98 specific<a class="headerlink" href="#win95-98-specific" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.popen">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">popen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>bufsize=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.popen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Portable <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.popen" title="platform.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a> interface.  Find a working popen implementation
+preferring <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win32pipe.popen()</span></code>.  On Windows NT, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win32pipe.popen()</span></code>
+should work; on Windows 9x it hangs due to bugs in the MS C library.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3: </span>This function is obsolete.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module.  Check
+especially the <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess-replacements"><span class="std std-ref">Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module</span></a> section.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mac-os-platform">
+<h2>Mac OS Platform<a class="headerlink" href="#mac-os-platform" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.mac_ver">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">mac_ver</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>release=''</em>, <em>versioninfo=(''</em>, <em>''</em>, <em>'')</em>, <em>machine=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.mac_ver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get Mac OS version information and return it as tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(release,</span> <span class="pre">versioninfo,</span>
+<span class="pre">machine)</span></code> with <em>versioninfo</em> being a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(version,</span> <span class="pre">dev_stage,</span>
+<span class="pre">non_release_version)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Entries which cannot be determined are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>.  All tuple entries are
+strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unix-platforms">
+<h2>Unix Platforms<a class="headerlink" href="#unix-platforms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.dist">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">dist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>distname=''</em>, <em>version=''</em>, <em>id=''</em>, <em>supported_dists=('SuSE'</em>, <em>'debian'</em>, <em>'redhat'</em>, <em>'mandrake'</em>, <em>...)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.dist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is another name for <a class="reference internal" href="#platform.linux_distribution" title="platform.linux_distribution"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linux_distribution()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.5, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>See alternative like the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/distro">distro</a> package.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.linux_distribution">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">linux_distribution</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>distname=''</em>, <em>version=''</em>, <em>id=''</em>, <em>supported_dists=('SuSE'</em>, <em>'debian'</em>, <em>'redhat'</em>, <em>'mandrake'</em>, <em>...)</em>, <em>full_distribution_name=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.linux_distribution" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tries to determine the name of the Linux OS distribution name.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supported_dists</span></code> may be given to define the set of Linux distributions to
+look for. It defaults to a list of currently supported Linux distributions
+identified by their release file name.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">full_distribution_name</span></code> is true (default), the full distribution read
+from the OS is returned. Otherwise the short name taken from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supported_dists</span></code> is used.</p>
+<p>Returns a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(distname,version,id)</span></code> which defaults to the args given as
+parameters.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id</span></code> is the item in parentheses after the version number.  It
+is usually the version codename.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.5, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>See alternative like the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/distro">distro</a> package.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="platform.libc_ver">
+<code class="descclassname">platform.</code><code class="descname">libc_ver</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>executable=sys.executable</em>, <em>lib=''</em>, <em>version=''</em>, <em>chunksize=16384</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#platform.libc_ver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tries to determine the libc version against which the file executable (defaults
+to the Python interpreter) is linked.  Returns a tuple of strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(lib,</span>
+<span class="pre">version)</span></code> which default to the given parameters in case the lookup fails.</p>
+<p>Note that this function has intimate knowledge of how different libc versions
+add symbols to the executable is probably only usable for executables compiled
+using <strong class="program">gcc</strong>.</p>
+<p>The file is read and scanned in chunks of <em>chunksize</em> bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code> —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cross-platform">Cross Platform</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#java-platform">Java Platform</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-platform">Windows Platform</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#win95-98-specific">Win95/98 specific</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mac-os-platform">Mac OS Platform</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unix-platforms">Unix Platforms</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="curses.panel.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code> — A panel stack extension for curses</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="errno.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> — Standard errno system symbols</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/platform.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/plistlib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/plistlib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0667c31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/plistlib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,403 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Cryptographic Services" href="crypto.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data" href="xdrlib.html" />
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+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/plistlib.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="fileformats.html" accesskey="U">File Formats</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-plistlib">
+<span id="plistlib-generate-and-parse-mac-os-x-plist-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-plistlib" title="plistlib: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code></a> — Generate and parse Mac OS X <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.plist</span></code> files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-plistlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/plistlib.py">Lib/plistlib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides an interface for reading and writing the “property list”
+files used mainly by Mac OS X and supports both binary and XML plist files.</p>
+<p>The property list (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.plist</span></code>) file format is a simple serialization supporting
+basic object types, like dictionaries, lists, numbers and strings.  Usually the
+top level object is a dictionary.</p>
+<p>To write out and to parse a plist file, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.dump" title="plistlib.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<p>To work with plist data in bytes objects, use <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.dumps" title="plistlib.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.loads" title="plistlib.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Values can be strings, integers, floats, booleans, tuples, lists, dictionaries
+(but only with string keys), <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.Data" title="plistlib.Data"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Data</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytesarray</span></code>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>New API, old API deprecated.  Support for binary format plists added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://developer.apple.com/library/content/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/">PList manual page</a></dt><dd><p>Apple’s documentation of the file format.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p>This module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.load">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fmt=None</em>, <em>use_builtin_types=True</em>, <em>dict_type=dict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a plist file. <em>fp</em> should be a readable and binary file object.
+Return the unpacked root object (which usually is a
+dictionary).</p>
+<p>The <em>fmt</em> is the format of the file and the following values are valid:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>: Autodetect the file format</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.FMT_XML" title="plistlib.FMT_XML"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FMT_XML</span></code></a>: XML file format</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.FMT_BINARY" title="plistlib.FMT_BINARY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FMT_BINARY</span></code></a>: Binary plist format</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If <em>use_builtin_types</em> is true (the default) binary data will be returned
+as instances of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, otherwise it is returned as instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.Data" title="plistlib.Data"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Data</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>dict_type</em> is the type used for dictionaries that are read from the
+plist file.</p>
+<p>XML data for the <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.FMT_XML" title="plistlib.FMT_XML"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FMT_XML</span></code></a> format is parsed using the Expat parser
+from <a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> – see its documentation for possible
+exceptions on ill-formed XML.  Unknown elements will simply be ignored
+by the plist parser.</p>
+<p>The parser for the binary format raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidFileException</span></code>
+when the file cannot be parsed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.loads">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">loads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fmt=None</em>, <em>use_builtin_types=True</em>, <em>dict_type=dict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.loads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a plist from a bytes object. See <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> for an explanation of
+the keyword arguments.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.dump">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fmt=FMT_XML</em>, <em>sort_keys=True</em>, <em>skipkeys=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write <em>value</em> to a plist file. <em>Fp</em> should be a writable, binary
+file object.</p>
+<p>The <em>fmt</em> argument specifies the format of the plist file and can be
+one of the following values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.FMT_XML" title="plistlib.FMT_XML"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FMT_XML</span></code></a>: XML formatted plist file</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.FMT_BINARY" title="plistlib.FMT_BINARY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FMT_BINARY</span></code></a>: Binary formatted plist file</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When <em>sort_keys</em> is true (the default) the keys for dictionaries will be
+written to the plist in sorted order, otherwise they will be written in
+the iteration order of the dictionary.</p>
+<p>When <em>skipkeys</em> is false (the default) the function raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+when a key of a dictionary is not a string, otherwise such keys are skipped.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised if the object is of an unsupported type or
+a container that contains objects of unsupported types.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> will be raised for integer values that cannot
+be represented in (binary) plist files.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.dumps">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">dumps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>fmt=FMT_XML</em>, <em>sort_keys=True</em>, <em>skipkeys=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.dumps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>value</em> as a plist-formatted bytes object. See
+the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.dump" title="plistlib.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a> for an explanation of the keyword
+arguments of this function.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions are deprecated:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.readPlist">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">readPlist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathOrFile</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.readPlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a plist file. <em>pathOrFile</em> may be either a file name or a (readable
+and binary) file object. Returns the unpacked root object (which usually
+is a dictionary).</p>
+<p>This function calls <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> to do the actual work, see the documentation
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">that</span> <span class="pre">function</span></code></a> for an explanation of the keyword arguments.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Dict values in the result are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use
+attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.writePlist">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">writePlist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rootObject</em>, <em>pathOrFile</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.writePlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write <em>rootObject</em> to an XML plist file. <em>pathOrFile</em> may be either a file name
+or a (writable and binary) file object</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.dump" title="plistlib.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.readPlistFromBytes">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">readPlistFromBytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.readPlistFromBytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a plist data from a bytes object.  Return the root object.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> for a description of the keyword arguments.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.loads" title="plistlib.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Dict values in the result are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use
+attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="plistlib.writePlistToBytes">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">writePlistToBytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rootObject</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.writePlistToBytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>rootObject</em> as an XML plist-formatted bytes object.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib.dumps" title="plistlib.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following classes are available:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="plistlib.Data">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">Data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.Data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a “data” wrapper object around the bytes object <em>data</em>.  This is used
+in functions converting from/to plists to represent the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;data&gt;</span></code> type
+available in plists.</p>
+<p>It has one attribute, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code>, that can be used to retrieve the Python
+bytes object stored in it.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>Use a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following constants are available:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="plistlib.FMT_XML">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">FMT_XML</code><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.FMT_XML" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The XML format for plist files.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="plistlib.FMT_BINARY">
+<code class="descclassname">plistlib.</code><code class="descname">FMT_BINARY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib.FMT_BINARY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The binary format for plist files</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Generating a plist:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pl</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">aString</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Doodah&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">aList</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;A&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;B&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">32.1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]],</span>
+    <span class="n">aFloat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">anInt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">728</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">aDict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">anotherString</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;hello &amp; hi there!&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">aThirdString</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;M</span><span class="se">\xe4</span><span class="s2">ssig, Ma</span><span class="se">\xdf</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">aTrueValue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">aFalseValue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="n">someData</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;binary gunk&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">someMoreData</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;lots of binary gunk&gt;&quot;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">aDate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromtimestamp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mktime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gmtime</span><span class="p">())),</span>
+<span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fileName</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">dump</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing a plist:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fileName</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">pl</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pl</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;aKey&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code> — Generate and parse Mac OS X <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.plist</span></code> files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xdrlib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code> — Encode and decode XDR data</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="crypto.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Cryptographic Services</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/plistlib.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
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+        <li class="right" >
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+          <a href="xdrlib.html" title="xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data"
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+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
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+    <li class="right">
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/poplib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/poplib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f0509f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/poplib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,437 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>poplib — POP3 protocol client &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client" href="imaplib.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="ftplib — FTP protocol client" href="ftplib.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
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+  <div class="section" id="module-poplib">
+<span id="poplib-pop3-protocol-client"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a> — POP3 protocol client<a class="headerlink" href="#module-poplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/poplib.py">Lib/poplib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines a class, <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3" title="poplib.POP3"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3</span></code></a>, which encapsulates a connection to a
+POP3 server and implements the protocol as defined in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1939.html"><strong>RFC 1939</strong></a>. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3" title="poplib.POP3"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3</span></code></a> class supports both the minimal and optional command sets from
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1939.html"><strong>RFC 1939</strong></a>. The <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3" title="poplib.POP3"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3</span></code></a> class also supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STLS</span></code> command introduced
+in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2595.html"><strong>RFC 2595</strong></a> to enable encrypted communication on an already established connection.</p>
+<p>Additionally, this module provides a class <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3_SSL" title="poplib.POP3_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3_SSL</span></code></a>, which provides
+support for connecting to POP3 servers that use SSL as an underlying protocol
+layer.</p>
+<p>Note that POP3, though widely supported, is obsolescent.  The implementation
+quality of POP3 servers varies widely, and too many are quite poor. If your
+mailserver supports IMAP, you would be better off using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib.IMAP4</span></code></a> class, as IMAP servers tend to be better implemented.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a> module provides two classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">poplib.</code><code class="descname">POP3</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=POP3_PORT</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements the actual POP3 protocol.  The connection is created when
+the instance is initialized. If <em>port</em> is omitted, the standard POP3 port (110)
+is used. The optional <em>timeout</em> parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the
+connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will
+be used).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3_SSL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">poplib.</code><code class="descname">POP3_SSL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=POP3_SSL_PORT</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>certfile=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3_SSL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3" title="poplib.POP3"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3</span></code></a> that connects to the server over an SSL
+encrypted socket.  If <em>port</em> is not specified, 995, the standard POP3-over-SSL
+port is used.  <em>timeout</em> works as in the <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3" title="poplib.POP3"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3</span></code></a> constructor.
+<em>context</em> is an optional <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object which allows
+bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a
+single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a>
+for best practices.</p>
+<p><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are a legacy alternative to <em>context</em> - they can
+point to PEM-formatted private key and certificate chain files,
+respectively, for the SSL connection.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>context</em> parameter added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The class now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are deprecated in favor of <em>context</em>.
+Please use <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> instead, or let
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> select the system’s trusted CA
+certificates for you.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>One exception is defined as an attribute of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="poplib.error_proto">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">poplib.</code><code class="descname">error_proto</code><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.error_proto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised on any errors from this module (errors from <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>
+module are not caught). The reason for the exception is passed to the
+constructor as a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The standard Python IMAP module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html">Frequently Asked Questions About Fetchmail</a></dt><dd><p>The FAQ for the <strong class="program">fetchmail</strong> POP/IMAP client collects information on
+POP3 server variations and RFC noncompliance that may be useful if you need to
+write an application based on the POP protocol.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pop3-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>POP3 Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#pop3-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All POP3 commands are represented by methods of the same name, in lower-case;
+most return the response text sent by the server.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3" title="poplib.POP3"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3</span></code></a> instance has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.set_debuglevel">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">set_debuglevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.set_debuglevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the instance’s debugging level.  This controls the amount of debugging
+output printed.  The default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, produces no debugging output.  A value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line
+per request.  A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> or higher produces the maximum amount of
+debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the control connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.getwelcome">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">getwelcome</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.getwelcome" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the greeting string sent by the POP3 server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.capa">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">capa</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.capa" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query the server’s capabilities as specified in <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2449.html"><strong>RFC 2449</strong></a>.
+Returns a dictionary in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{'name':</span> <span class="pre">['param'...]}</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.user">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">user</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>username</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.user" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send user command, response should indicate that a password is required.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.pass_">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">pass_</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.pass_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send password, response includes message count and mailbox size. Note: the
+mailbox on the server is locked until <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit()</span></code> is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.apop">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">apop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user</em>, <em>secret</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.apop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use the more secure APOP authentication to log into the POP3 server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.rpop">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">rpop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.rpop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use RPOP authentication (similar to UNIX r-commands) to log into POP3 server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.stat">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">stat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.stat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get mailbox status.  The result is a tuple of 2 integers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(message</span> <span class="pre">count,</span>
+<span class="pre">mailbox</span> <span class="pre">size)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.list">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>which</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Request message list, result is in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">['mesg_num</span> <span class="pre">octets',</span>
+<span class="pre">...],</span> <span class="pre">octets)</span></code>. If <em>which</em> is set, it is the message to list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.retr">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">retr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.retr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve whole message number <em>which</em>, and set its seen flag. Result is in form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">['line',</span> <span class="pre">...],</span> <span class="pre">octets)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.dele">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">dele</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.dele" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flag message number <em>which</em> for deletion.  On most servers deletions are not
+actually performed until QUIT (the major exception is Eudora QPOP, which
+deliberately violates the RFCs by doing pending deletes on any disconnect).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.rset">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">rset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.rset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove any deletion marks for the mailbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.noop">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">noop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.noop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do nothing.  Might be used as a keep-alive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.quit">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">quit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.quit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signoff:  commit changes, unlock mailbox, drop connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.top">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">top</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which</em>, <em>howmuch</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.top" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieves the message header plus <em>howmuch</em> lines of the message after the
+header of message number <em>which</em>. Result is in form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">['line',</span> <span class="pre">...],</span>
+<span class="pre">octets)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The POP3 TOP command this method uses, unlike the RETR command, doesn’t set the
+message’s seen flag; unfortunately, TOP is poorly specified in the RFCs and is
+frequently broken in off-brand servers. Test this method by hand against the
+POP3 servers you will use before trusting it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.uidl">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">uidl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.uidl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return message digest (unique id) list. If <em>which</em> is specified, result contains
+the unique id for that message in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'response</span> <span class="pre">mesgnum</span> <span class="pre">uid</span></code>, otherwise
+result is list <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(response,</span> <span class="pre">['mesgnum</span> <span class="pre">uid',</span> <span class="pre">...],</span> <span class="pre">octets)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.utf8">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">utf8</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.utf8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to switch to UTF-8 mode. Returns the server response if successful,
+raises <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.error_proto" title="poplib.error_proto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_proto</span></code></a> if not. Specified in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6856.html"><strong>RFC 6856</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="poplib.POP3.stls">
+<code class="descclassname">POP3.</code><code class="descname">stls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#poplib.POP3.stls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start a TLS session on the active connection as specified in <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2595.html"><strong>RFC 2595</strong></a>.
+This is only allowed before user authentication</p>
+<p><em>context</em> parameter is a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object which allows
+bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into
+a single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a>
+for best practices.</p>
+<p>This method supports hostname checking via
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#poplib.POP3_SSL" title="poplib.POP3_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3_SSL</span></code></a> have no additional methods. The interface of this
+subclass is identical to its parent.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pop3-example">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>POP3 Example<a class="headerlink" href="#pop3-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox and
+retrieves and prints all messages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">getpass</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">poplib</span>
+
+<span class="n">M</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">poplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">POP3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">user</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getpass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getuser</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pass_</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getpass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpass</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="n">numMessages</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">numMessages</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">j</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">retr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more extensive
+example of usage.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code> — POP3 protocol client</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pop3-objects">POP3 Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pop3-example">POP3 Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ftplib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code> — FTP protocol client</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="imaplib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code> — IMAP4 protocol client</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/posix.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/posix.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f549b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/posix.html
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>posix — The most common POSIX system calls &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-posix">
+<span id="posix-the-most-common-posix-system-calls"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a> — The most common POSIX system calls<a class="headerlink" href="#module-posix" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to operating system functionality that is
+standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly disguised Unix
+interface).</p>
+<p id="index-0"><strong>Do not import this module directly.</strong>  Instead, import the module <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a>,
+which provides a <em>portable</em> version of this interface.  On Unix, the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a>
+module provides a superset of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a> interface.  On non-Unix operating
+systems the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a> module is not available, but a subset is always
+available through the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> interface.  Once <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> is imported, there is
+<em>no</em> performance penalty in using it instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a>.  In addition,
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> provides some additional functionality, such as automatically calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.putenv" title="os.putenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putenv()</span></code></a> when an entry in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> is changed.</p>
+<p>Errors are reported as exceptions; the usual exceptions are given for type
+errors, while errors reported by the system calls raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="large-file-support">
+<span id="posix-large-files"></span><h2>Large File Support<a class="headerlink" href="#large-file-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-1">Several operating systems (including AIX, HP-UX, Irix and Solaris) provide
+support for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> are 32-bit values. This is typically accomplished
+by defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values. Such files are
+sometimes referred to as <em class="dfn">large files</em>.</p>
+<p>Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">off_t</span></code> is
+larger than a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> and the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> type is available and is
+at least as large as an <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">off_t</span></code>.
+It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain compiler flags
+to enable this mode. For example, it is enabled by default with recent versions
+of Irix, but with Solaris 2.6 and 2.7 you need to do something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">CFLAGS</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`&quot;</span> <span class="n">OPT</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;-g -O2 $CFLAGS&quot;</span> \
+        <span class="o">./</span><span class="n">configure</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On large-file-capable Linux systems, this might work:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">CFLAGS</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64&#39;</span> <span class="n">OPT</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;-g -O2 $CFLAGS&quot;</span> \
+        <span class="o">./</span><span class="n">configure</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-module-contents">
+<span id="posix-contents"></span><h2>Notable Module Contents<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In addition to many functions described in the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module documentation,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a> defines the following data item:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="posix.environ">
+<code class="descclassname">posix.</code><code class="descname">environ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#posix.environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary representing the string environment at the time the interpreter
+was started. Keys and values are bytes on Unix and str on Windows. For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ[b'HOME']</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ['HOME']</span></code> on Windows) is the
+pathname of your home directory, equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getenv(&quot;HOME&quot;)</span></code> in C.</p>
+<p>Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment passed on by
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.execv" title="os.execv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execv()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code></a>; if you need to
+change the environment, pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.execve" title="os.execve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execve()</span></code></a> or add
+variable assignments and export statements to the command string for
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>On Unix, keys and values are bytes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module provides an alternate implementation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code>
+which updates the environment on modification. Note also that updating
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code></a> will render this dictionary obsolete. Use of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module version of this is recommended over direct access to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code> — The most common POSIX system calls</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#large-file-support">Large File Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-module-contents">Notable Module Contents</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unix.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Unix Specific Services</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pwd.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code> — The password database</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/posix.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pprint">
+<span id="pprint-data-pretty-printer"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code></a> — Data pretty printer<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pprint" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pprint.py">Lib/pprint.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code></a> module provides a capability to “pretty-print” arbitrary
+Python data structures in a form which can be used as input to the interpreter.
+If the formatted structures include objects which are not fundamental Python
+types, the representation may not be loadable.  This may be the case if objects
+such as files, sockets or classes are included, as well as many other
+objects which are not representable as Python literals.</p>
+<p>The formatted representation keeps objects on a single line if it can, and
+breaks them onto multiple lines if they don’t fit within the allowed width.
+Construct <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> objects explicitly if you need to adjust the
+width constraint.</p>
+<p>Dictionaries are sorted by key before the display is computed.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code></a> module defines one class:</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt id="pprint.PrettyPrinter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pprint.</code><code class="descname">PrettyPrinter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>indent=1</em>, <em>width=80</em>, <em>depth=None</em>, <em>stream=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>compact=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> instance.  This constructor understands
+several keyword parameters.  An output stream may be set using the <em>stream</em>
+keyword; the only method used on the stream object is the file protocol’s
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method.  If not specified, the <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> adopts
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>.  The
+amount of indentation added for each recursive level is specified by <em>indent</em>;
+the default is one.  Other values can cause output to look a little odd, but can
+make nesting easier to spot.  The number of levels which may be printed is
+controlled by <em>depth</em>; if the data structure being printed is too deep, the next
+contained level is replaced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>.  By default, there is no constraint on
+the depth of the objects being formatted.  The desired output width is
+constrained using the <em>width</em> parameter; the default is 80 characters.  If a
+structure cannot be formatted within the constrained width, a best effort will
+be made.  If <em>compact</em> is false (the default) each item of a long sequence
+will be formatted on a separate line.  If <em>compact</em> is true, as many items
+as will fit within the <em>width</em> will be formatted on each output line.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the <em>compact</em> parameter.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stuff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lumberjack&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;knights&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ni&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">insert</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">[:])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PrettyPrinter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">indent</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[   [&#39;spam&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;lumberjack&#39;, &#39;knights&#39;, &#39;ni&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">    &#39;spam&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">    &#39;eggs&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">    &#39;lumberjack&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">    &#39;knights&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">    &#39;ni&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PrettyPrinter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">41</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">compact</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[[&#39;spam&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;lumberjack&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;knights&#39;, &#39;ni&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;spam&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;lumberjack&#39;, &#39;knights&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;ni&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tup</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;lumberjack&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;knights&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ni&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;dead&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;parrot&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;fresh fruit&#39;</span><span class="p">,))))))))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PrettyPrinter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tup</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;spam&#39;, (&#39;eggs&#39;, (&#39;lumberjack&#39;, (&#39;knights&#39;, (&#39;ni&#39;, (&#39;dead&#39;, (...)))))))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code></a> module also provides several shortcut functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pprint.pformat">
+<code class="descclassname">pprint.</code><code class="descname">pformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>indent=1</em>, <em>width=80</em>, <em>depth=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>compact=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.pformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the formatted representation of <em>object</em> as a string.  <em>indent</em>,
+<em>width</em>, <em>depth</em> and <em>compact</em> will be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a>
+constructor as formatting parameters.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the <em>compact</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pprint.pprint">
+<code class="descclassname">pprint.</code><code class="descname">pprint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>stream=None</em>, <em>indent=1</em>, <em>width=80</em>, <em>depth=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>compact=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.pprint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prints the formatted representation of <em>object</em> on <em>stream</em>, followed by a
+newline.  If <em>stream</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> is used.  This may be used
+in the interactive interpreter instead of the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function for
+inspecting values (you can even reassign <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">pprint.pprint</span></code> for use
+within a scope).  <em>indent</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>depth</em> and <em>compact</em> will be passed
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> constructor as formatting parameters.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the <em>compact</em> parameter.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stuff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lumberjack&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;knights&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ni&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">insert</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Recursion on list with id=...&gt;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;spam&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;eggs&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;lumberjack&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;knights&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;ni&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pprint.isreadable">
+<code class="descclassname">pprint.</code><code class="descname">isreadable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.isreadable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Determine if the formatted representation of <em>object</em> is “readable,” or can be
+used to reconstruct the value using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>.  This always returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+for recursive objects.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isreadable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pprint.isrecursive">
+<code class="descclassname">pprint.</code><code class="descname">isrecursive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.isrecursive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine if <em>object</em> requires a recursive representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>One more support function is also defined:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pprint.saferepr">
+<code class="descclassname">pprint.</code><code class="descname">saferepr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.saferepr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string representation of <em>object</em>, protected against recursive data
+structures.  If the representation of <em>object</em> exposes a recursive entry, the
+recursive reference will be represented as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;Recursion</span> <span class="pre">on</span> <span class="pre">typename</span> <span class="pre">with</span>
+<span class="pre">id=number&gt;</span></code>.  The representation is not otherwise formatted.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">saferepr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stuff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;[&lt;Recursion on list with id=...&gt;, &#39;spam&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;lumberjack&#39;, &#39;knights&#39;, &#39;ni&#39;]&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="prettyprinter-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>PrettyPrinter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#prettyprinter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pprint.PrettyPrinter.pformat">
+<code class="descclassname">PrettyPrinter.</code><code class="descname">pformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter.pformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the formatted representation of <em>object</em>.  This takes into account the
+options passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pprint.PrettyPrinter.pprint">
+<code class="descclassname">PrettyPrinter.</code><code class="descname">pprint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter.pprint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the formatted representation of <em>object</em> on the configured stream,
+followed by a newline.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods provide the implementations for the corresponding
+functions of the same names.  Using these methods on an instance is slightly
+more efficient since new <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> objects don’t need to be
+created.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pprint.PrettyPrinter.isreadable">
+<code class="descclassname">PrettyPrinter.</code><code class="descname">isreadable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter.isreadable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-2">Determine if the formatted representation of the object is “readable,” or can be
+used to reconstruct the value using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>.  Note that this returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for recursive objects.  If the <em>depth</em> parameter of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> is set and the object is deeper than allowed, this
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pprint.PrettyPrinter.isrecursive">
+<code class="descclassname">PrettyPrinter.</code><code class="descname">isrecursive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter.isrecursive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine if the object requires a recursive representation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This method is provided as a hook to allow subclasses to modify the way objects
+are converted to strings.  The default implementation uses the internals of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.saferepr" title="pprint.saferepr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">saferepr()</span></code></a> implementation.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pprint.PrettyPrinter.format">
+<code class="descclassname">PrettyPrinter.</code><code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em>, <em>context</em>, <em>maxlevels</em>, <em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns three values: the formatted version of <em>object</em> as a string, a flag
+indicating whether the result is readable, and a flag indicating whether
+recursion was detected.  The first argument is the object to be presented.  The
+second is a dictionary which contains the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a> of objects that are part of
+the current presentation context (direct and indirect containers for <em>object</em>
+that are affecting the presentation) as the keys; if an object needs to be
+presented which is already represented in <em>context</em>, the third return value
+should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  Recursive calls to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pprint.PrettyPrinter.format" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method should add
+additional entries for containers to this dictionary.  The third argument,
+<em>maxlevels</em>, gives the requested limit to recursion; this will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if there
+is no requested limit.  This argument should be passed unmodified to recursive
+calls. The fourth argument, <em>level</em>, gives the current level; recursive calls
+should be passed a value less than that of the current call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="pprint-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To demonstrate several uses of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint()</span></code></a> function and its parameters,
+let’s fetch information about a project from <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">PyPI</a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/json&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">project_info</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">resp</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="s1">&#39;info&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In its basic form, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint()</span></code></a> shows the whole object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">project_info</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;author&#39;: &#39;The Python Packaging Authority&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;author_email&#39;: &#39;pypa-dev@googlegroups.com&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;bugtrack_url&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;classifiers&#39;: [&#39;Development Status :: 3 - Alpha&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Intended Audience :: Developers&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Programming Language :: Python :: 2&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Programming Language :: Python :: 3&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;description&#39;: &#39;A sample Python project\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;=======================\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;This is the description file for the project.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;ReStructured Text. It\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;should be written for\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;that purpose.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;Typical contents for this file would include an overview of &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;the project, basic\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;changelog in here is not\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;a good idea, although a simple &quot;What\&#39;s New&quot; section for the &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;most recent version\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;may be appropriate.&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;description_content_type&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;docs_url&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;download_url&#39;: &#39;UNKNOWN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;downloads&#39;: {&#39;last_day&#39;: -1, &#39;last_month&#39;: -1, &#39;last_week&#39;: -1},</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;home_page&#39;: &#39;https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;keywords&#39;: &#39;sample setuptools development&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;license&#39;: &#39;MIT&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;maintainer&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;maintainer_email&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;name&#39;: &#39;sampleproject&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;package_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;platform&#39;: &#39;UNKNOWN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;project_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;project_urls&#39;: {&#39;Download&#39;: &#39;UNKNOWN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                  &#39;Homepage&#39;: &#39;https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject&#39;},</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;release_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;requires_dist&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;requires_python&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;summary&#39;: &#39;A sample Python project&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;version&#39;: &#39;1.2.0&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The result can be limited to a certain <em>depth</em> (ellipsis is used for deeper
+contents):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">project_info</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;author&#39;: &#39;The Python Packaging Authority&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;author_email&#39;: &#39;pypa-dev@googlegroups.com&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;bugtrack_url&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;classifiers&#39;: [...],</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;description&#39;: &#39;A sample Python project\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;=======================\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;This is the description file for the project.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;ReStructured Text. It\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;should be written for\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;that purpose.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;Typical contents for this file would include an overview of &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;the project, basic\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;changelog in here is not\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;a good idea, although a simple &quot;What\&#39;s New&quot; section for the &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;most recent version\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;may be appropriate.&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;description_content_type&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;docs_url&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;download_url&#39;: &#39;UNKNOWN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;downloads&#39;: {...},</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;home_page&#39;: &#39;https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;keywords&#39;: &#39;sample setuptools development&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;license&#39;: &#39;MIT&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;maintainer&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;maintainer_email&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;name&#39;: &#39;sampleproject&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;package_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;platform&#39;: &#39;UNKNOWN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;project_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;project_urls&#39;: {...},</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;release_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;requires_dist&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;requires_python&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;summary&#39;: &#39;A sample Python project&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;version&#39;: &#39;1.2.0&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Additionally, maximum character <em>width</em> can be suggested. If a long object
+cannot be split, the specified width will be exceeded:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">project_info</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">depth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;author&#39;: &#39;The Python Packaging Authority&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;author_email&#39;: &#39;pypa-dev@googlegroups.com&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;bugtrack_url&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;classifiers&#39;: [...],</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;description&#39;: &#39;A sample Python project\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;=======================\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;This is the description file for the &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;project.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;written using ReStructured Text. It\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;will be used to generate the project &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;webpage on PyPI, and should be written &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;for\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;that purpose.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;Typical contents for this file would &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;include an overview of the project, &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;basic\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;usage examples, etc. Generally, including &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;the project changelog in here is not\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;a good idea, although a simple &quot;What\&#39;s &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;New&quot; section for the most recent version\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                &#39;may be appropriate.&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;description_content_type&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;docs_url&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;download_url&#39;: &#39;UNKNOWN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;downloads&#39;: {...},</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;home_page&#39;: &#39;https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;keywords&#39;: &#39;sample setuptools development&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;license&#39;: &#39;MIT&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;maintainer&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;maintainer_email&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;name&#39;: &#39;sampleproject&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;package_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;platform&#39;: &#39;UNKNOWN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;project_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;project_urls&#39;: {...},</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;release_url&#39;: &#39;https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;requires_dist&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;requires_python&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;summary&#39;: &#39;A sample Python project&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;version&#39;: &#39;1.2.0&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code> — Data pretty printer</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#prettyprinter-objects">PrettyPrinter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="copy.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code> — Shallow and deep copy operations</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="reprlib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code> — Alternate <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> implementation</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/pprint.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+    </ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/profile.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/profile.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54fc278
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/profile.html
@@ -0,0 +1,856 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>The Python Profilers &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="the-python-profilers">
+<span id="profile"></span><h1>The Python Profilers<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-profilers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/profile.py">Lib/profile.py</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pstats.py">Lib/pstats.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="introduction-to-the-profilers">
+<span id="profiler-introduction"></span><h2>Introduction to the profilers<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction-to-the-profilers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-0"><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> provide <em class="dfn">deterministic profiling</em> of
+Python programs. A <em class="dfn">profile</em> is a set of statistics that describes how
+often and for how long various parts of the program executed. These statistics
+can be formatted into reports via the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pstats" title="pstats: Statistics object for use with the profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstats</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The Python standard library provides two different implementations of the same
+profiling interface:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> is recommended for most users; it’s a C extension with
+reasonable overhead that makes it suitable for profiling long-running
+programs.  Based on <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lsprof</span></code>, contributed by Brett Rosen and Ted
+Czotter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a>, a pure Python module whose interface is imitated by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a>, but which adds significant overhead to profiled programs.
+If you’re trying to extend the profiler in some way, the task might be easier
+with this module.  Originally designed and written by Jim Roskind.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution profile for a given
+program, not for benchmarking purposes (for that, there is <a class="reference internal" href="timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> for
+reasonably accurate results).  This particularly applies to benchmarking
+Python code against C code: the profilers introduce overhead for Python code,
+but not for C-level functions, and so the C code would seem faster than any
+Python one.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="instant-user-s-manual">
+<span id="profile-instant"></span><h2>Instant User’s Manual<a class="headerlink" href="#instant-user-s-manual" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section is provided for users that “don’t want to read the manual.” It
+provides a very brief overview, and allows a user to rapidly perform profiling
+on an existing application.</p>
+<p>To profile a function that takes a single argument, you can do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cProfile</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="n">cProfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;re.compile(&quot;foo|bar&quot;)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Use <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> if the latter is not available on
+your system.)</p>
+<p>The above action would run <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> and print profile results like
+the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>      <span class="mi">197</span> <span class="n">function</span> <span class="n">calls</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">192</span> <span class="n">primitive</span> <span class="n">calls</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="mf">0.002</span> <span class="n">seconds</span>
+
+<span class="n">Ordered</span> <span class="n">by</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">standard</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+
+<span class="n">ncalls</span>  <span class="n">tottime</span>  <span class="n">percall</span>  <span class="n">cumtime</span>  <span class="n">percall</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">lineno</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">)</span>
+     <span class="mi">1</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.001</span>    <span class="mf">0.001</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+     <span class="mi">1</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.001</span>    <span class="mf">0.001</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">212</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">compile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+     <span class="mi">1</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.001</span>    <span class="mf">0.001</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">268</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_compile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+     <span class="mi">1</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span> <span class="n">sre_compile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">172</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_compile_charset</span><span class="p">)</span>
+     <span class="mi">1</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span> <span class="n">sre_compile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">201</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_optimize_charset</span><span class="p">)</span>
+     <span class="mi">4</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span> <span class="n">sre_compile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_identityfunction</span><span class="p">)</span>
+   <span class="mi">3</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">1</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span>    <span class="mf">0.000</span> <span class="n">sre_compile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">33</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_compile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first line indicates that 197 calls were monitored.  Of those calls, 192
+were <em class="dfn">primitive</em>, meaning that the call was not induced via recursion. The
+next line: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ordered</span> <span class="pre">by:</span> <span class="pre">standard</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code>, indicates that the text string in the
+far right column was used to sort the output. The column headings include:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>ncalls</dt><dd><p>for the number of calls.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>tottime</dt><dd><p>for the total time spent in the given function (and excluding time made in
+calls to sub-functions)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>percall</dt><dd><p>is the quotient of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tottime</span></code> divided by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ncalls</span></code></p>
+</dd>
+<dt>cumtime</dt><dd><p>is the cumulative time spent in this and all subfunctions (from invocation
+till exit). This figure is accurate <em>even</em> for recursive functions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>percall</dt><dd><p>is the quotient of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cumtime</span></code> divided by primitive calls</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>filename:lineno(function)</dt><dd><p>provides the respective data of each function</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>When there are two numbers in the first column (for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3/1</span></code>), it means
+that the function recursed.  The second value is the number of primitive calls
+and the former is the total number of calls.  Note that when the function does
+not recurse, these two values are the same, and only the single figure is
+printed.</p>
+<p>Instead of printing the output at the end of the profile run, you can save the
+results to a file by specifying a filename to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cProfile</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="n">cProfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;re.compile(&quot;foo|bar&quot;)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;restats&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstats.Stats</span></code></a> class reads profile results from a file and formats
+them in various ways.</p>
+<p>The file <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> can also be invoked as a script to profile another
+script.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">cProfile</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="n">output_file</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="n">sort_order</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">myscript</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code> specifies one of the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.sort_stats" title="pstats.Stats.sort_stats"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_stats()</span></code></a> sort values to sort
+the output by. This only applies when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> is not supplied.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pstats" title="pstats: Statistics object for use with the profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstats</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class has a variety of methods
+for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile results file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pstats</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">pstats</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SortKey</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pstats</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;restats&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip_dirs</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.strip_dirs" title="pstats.Stats.strip_dirs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strip_dirs()</span></code></a> method removed the extraneous path from all
+the module names. The <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.sort_stats" title="pstats.Stats.sort_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_stats()</span></code></a> method sorted all the
+entries according to the standard module/line/name string that is printed. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.print_stats" title="pstats.Stats.print_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_stats()</span></code></a> method printed out all the statistics.  You
+might try the following sort calls:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SortKey</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first call will actually sort the list by function name, and the second call
+will print out the statistics.  The following are some interesting calls to
+experiment with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SortKey</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CUMULATIVE</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This sorts the profile by cumulative time in a function, and then only prints
+the ten most significant lines.  If you want to understand what algorithms are
+taking time, the above line is what you would use.</p>
+<p>If you were looking to see what functions were looping a lot, and taking a lot
+of time, you would do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SortKey</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TIME</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to sort according to time spent within each function, and then print the
+statistics for the top ten functions.</p>
+<p>You might also try:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SortKey</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FILENAME</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__init__&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will sort all the statistics by file name, and then print out statistics
+for only the class init methods (since they are spelled with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> in
+them).  As one final example, you could try:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SortKey</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TIME</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">SortKey</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CUMULATIVE</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;init&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This line sorts statistics with a primary key of time, and a secondary key of
+cumulative time, and then prints out some of the statistics. To be specific, the
+list is first culled down to 50% (re: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.5</span></code>) of its original size, then only
+lines containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init</span></code> are maintained, and that sub-sub-list is printed.</p>
+<p>If you wondered what functions called the above functions, you could now (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code>
+is still sorted according to the last criteria) do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_callers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;init&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and you would get a list of callers for each of the listed functions.</p>
+<p>If you want more functionality, you’re going to have to read the manual, or
+guess what the following functions do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_callees</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;restats&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Invoked as a script, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pstats" title="pstats: Statistics object for use with the profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstats</span></code></a> module is a statistics browser for
+reading and examining profile dumps.  It has a simple line-oriented interface
+(implemented using <a class="reference internal" href="cmd.html#module-cmd" title="cmd: Build line-oriented command interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code></a>) and interactive help.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-cProfile">
+<span id="profile-and-cprofile-module-reference"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> Module Reference<a class="headerlink" href="#module-cProfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<span class="target" id="module-profile"></span><p>Both the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> modules provide the following
+functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="profile.run">
+<code class="descclassname">profile.</code><code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>command</em>, <em>filename=None</em>, <em>sort=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>
+function, and an optional file name.  In all cases this routine executes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">exec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and gathers profiling statistics from the execution. If no file name is
+present, then this function automatically creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a>
+instance and prints a simple profiling report. If the sort value is specified,
+it is passed to this <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> instance to control how the
+results are sorted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="profile.runctx">
+<code class="descclassname">profile.</code><code class="descname">runctx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>command</em>, <em>globals</em>, <em>locals</em>, <em>filename=None</em>, <em>sort=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.runctx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.run" title="profile.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>, with added arguments to supply the
+globals and locals dictionaries for the <em>command</em> string. This routine
+executes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">exec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and gathers profiling statistics as in the <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.run" title="profile.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> function above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="profile.Profile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">profile.</code><code class="descname">Profile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timer=None</em>, <em>timeunit=0.0</em>, <em>subcalls=True</em>, <em>builtins=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is normally only used if more precise control over profiling is
+needed than what the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.run()</span></code> function provides.</p>
+<p>A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to run via
+the <em>timer</em> argument. This must be a function that returns a single number
+representing the current time. If the number is an integer, the <em>timeunit</em>
+specifies a multiplier that specifies the duration of each unit of time. For
+example, if the timer returns times measured in thousands of seconds, the
+time unit would be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.001</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Directly using the <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.Profile" title="profile.Profile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Profile</span></code></a> class allows formatting profile results
+without writing the profile data to a file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">cProfile</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">pstats</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">io</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">pstats</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SortKey</span>
+<span class="n">pr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cProfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Profile</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">pr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enable</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1"># ... do something ...</span>
+<span class="n">pr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">disable</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">sortby</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SortKey</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CUMULATIVE</span>
+<span class="n">ps</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pstats</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stream</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sortby</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">ps</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.enable">
+<code class="descname">enable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.enable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start collecting profiling data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.disable">
+<code class="descname">disable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.disable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop collecting profiling data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.create_stats">
+<code class="descname">create_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.create_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop collecting profiling data and record the results internally
+as the current profile.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.print_stats">
+<code class="descname">print_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sort=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.print_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> object based on the current
+profile and print the results to stdout.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.dump_stats">
+<code class="descname">dump_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.dump_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the results of the current profile to <em>filename</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Profile the cmd via <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.runctx">
+<code class="descname">runctx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>globals</em>, <em>locals</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.runctx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Profile the cmd via <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> with the specified global and
+local environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="profile.Profile.runcall">
+<code class="descname">runcall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#profile.Profile.runcall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Profile <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function actually
+returns.  If the interpreter is terminated (e.g. via a <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a> call
+during the called command/function execution) no profiling results will be
+printed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-stats-class">
+<span id="profile-stats"></span><h2>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code> Class<a class="headerlink" href="#the-stats-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Analysis of the profiler data is done using the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<span class="target" id="module-pstats"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">pstats.</code><code class="descname">Stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*filenames or profile</em>, <em>stream=sys.stdout</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class constructor creates an instance of a “statistics object” from a
+<em>filename</em> (or list of filenames) or from a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Profile</span></code> instance. Output
+will be printed to the stream specified by <em>stream</em>.</p>
+<p>The file selected by the above constructor must have been created by the
+corresponding version of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a>.  To be specific,
+there is <em>no</em> file compatibility guaranteed with future versions of this
+profiler, and there is no compatibility with files produced by other
+profilers, or the same profiler run on a different operating system.  If
+several files are provided, all the statistics for identical functions will
+be coalesced, so that an overall view of several processes can be considered
+in a single report.  If additional files need to be combined with data in an
+existing <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> object, the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.add" title="pstats.Stats.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> method
+can be used.</p>
+<p>Instead of reading the profile data from a file, a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.Profile</span></code>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.Profile" title="profile.Profile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile.Profile</span></code></a> object can be used as the profile data source.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.strip_dirs">
+<code class="descname">strip_dirs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.strip_dirs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method for the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class removes all leading path
+information from file names.  It is very useful in reducing the size of
+the printout to fit within (close to) 80 columns.  This method modifies
+the object, and the stripped information is lost.  After performing a
+strip operation, the object is considered to have its entries in a
+“random” order, as it was just after object initialization and loading.
+If <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.strip_dirs" title="pstats.Stats.strip_dirs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strip_dirs()</span></code></a> causes two function names to be
+indistinguishable (they are on the same line of the same filename, and
+have the same function name), then the statistics for these two entries
+are accumulated into a single entry.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.add">
+<code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*filenames</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method of the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class accumulates additional profiling
+information into the current profiling object.  Its arguments should refer
+to filenames created by the corresponding version of <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.run" title="profile.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile.run()</span></code></a>
+or <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.run()</span></code>. Statistics for identically named (re: file, line,
+name) functions are automatically accumulated into single function
+statistics.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.dump_stats">
+<code class="descname">dump_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.dump_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Save the data loaded into the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> object to a file named
+<em>filename</em>.  The file is created if it does not exist, and is overwritten
+if it already exists.  This is equivalent to the method of the same name
+on the <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.Profile" title="profile.Profile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile.Profile</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.Profile</span></code> classes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.sort_stats">
+<code class="descname">sort_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*keys</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.sort_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method modifies the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> object by sorting it according to
+the supplied criteria.  The argument can be either a string or a SortKey
+enum identifying the basis of a sort (example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'time'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'name'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SortKey.TIME</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SortKey.NAME</span></code>). The SortKey enums argument have
+advantage over the string argument in that it is more robust and less
+error prone.</p>
+<p>When more than one key is provided, then additional keys are used as
+secondary criteria when there is equality in all keys selected before
+them.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_stats(SortKey.NAME,</span> <span class="pre">SortKey.FILE)</span></code> will sort
+all the entries according to their function name, and resolve all ties
+(identical function names) by sorting by file name.</p>
+<p>For the string argument, abbreviations can be used for any key names, as
+long as the abbreviation is unambiguous.</p>
+<p>The following are the valid string and SortKey:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 34%" />
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Valid String Arg</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Valid enum Arg</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'calls'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.CALLS</p></td>
+<td><p>call count</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cumulative'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.CUMULATIVE</p></td>
+<td><p>cumulative time</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cumtime'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>N/A</p></td>
+<td><p>cumulative time</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'file'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>N/A</p></td>
+<td><p>file name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'filename'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.FILENAME</p></td>
+<td><p>file name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'module'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>N/A</p></td>
+<td><p>file name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ncalls'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>N/A</p></td>
+<td><p>call count</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'pcalls'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.PCALLS</p></td>
+<td><p>primitive call count</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'line'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.LINE</p></td>
+<td><p>line number</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'name'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.NAME</p></td>
+<td><p>function name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'nfl'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.NFL</p></td>
+<td><p>name/file/line</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'stdname'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.STDNAME</p></td>
+<td><p>standard name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'time'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>SortKey.TIME</p></td>
+<td><p>internal time</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'tottime'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>N/A</p></td>
+<td><p>internal time</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order (placing most
+time consuming items first), where as name, file, and line number searches
+are in ascending order (alphabetical). The subtle distinction between
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SortKey.NFL</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SortKey.STDNAME</span></code> is that the standard name is a
+sort of the name as printed, which means that the embedded line numbers
+get compared in an odd way.  For example, lines 3, 20, and 40 would (if
+the file names were the same) appear in the string order 20, 3 and 40.
+In contrast, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SortKey.NFL</span></code> does a numeric compare of the line numbers.
+In fact, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)</span></code> is the same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_stats(SortKey.NAME,</span> <span class="pre">SortKey.FILENAME,</span> <span class="pre">SortKey.LINE)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For backward-compatibility reasons, the numeric arguments <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> are permitted.  They are interpreted as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'stdname'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'calls'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'time'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cumulative'</span></code> respectively.  If this old
+style format (numeric) is used, only one sort key (the numeric key) will
+be used, and additional arguments will be silently ignored.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Added the SortKey enum.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.reverse_order">
+<code class="descname">reverse_order</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.reverse_order" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method for the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class reverses the ordering of the
+basic list within the object.  Note that by default ascending vs
+descending order is properly selected based on the sort key of choice.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.print_stats">
+<code class="descname">print_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*restrictions</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.print_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method for the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class prints out a report as described
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.run" title="profile.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile.run()</span></code></a> definition.</p>
+<p>The order of the printing is based on the last
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.sort_stats" title="pstats.Stats.sort_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_stats()</span></code></a> operation done on the object (subject to
+caveats in <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.add" title="pstats.Stats.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.strip_dirs" title="pstats.Stats.strip_dirs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strip_dirs()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list down to the
+significant entries.  Initially, the list is taken to be the complete set
+of profiled functions.  Each restriction is either an integer (to select a
+count of lines), or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to
+select a percentage of lines), or a string that will interpreted as a
+regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is printed).
+If several restrictions are provided, then they are applied sequentially.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would first limit the printing to first 10% of list, and then only print
+functions that were part of filename <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*foo:</span></code>.  In contrast, the
+command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">print_stats</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>would limit the list to all functions having file names <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*foo:</span></code>,
+and then proceed to only print the first 10% of them.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.print_callers">
+<code class="descname">print_callers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*restrictions</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.print_callers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method for the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class prints a list of all functions
+that called each function in the profiled database.  The ordering is
+identical to that provided by <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.print_stats" title="pstats.Stats.print_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_stats()</span></code></a>, and the
+definition of the restricting argument is also identical.  Each caller is
+reported on its own line.  The format differs slightly depending on the
+profiler that produced the stats:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>With <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a>, a number is shown in parentheses after each caller
+to show how many times this specific call was made.  For convenience, a
+second non-parenthesized number repeats the cumulative time spent in the
+function at the right.</p></li>
+<li><p>With <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a>, each caller is preceded by three numbers: the
+number of times this specific call was made, and the total and
+cumulative times spent in the current function while it was invoked by
+this specific caller.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="pstats.Stats.print_callees">
+<code class="descname">print_callees</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*restrictions</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pstats.Stats.print_callees" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method for the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats" title="pstats.Stats"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code></a> class prints a list of all function
+that were called by the indicated function.  Aside from this reversal of
+direction of calls (re: called vs was called by), the arguments and
+ordering are identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pstats.Stats.print_callers" title="pstats.Stats.print_callers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_callers()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-is-deterministic-profiling">
+<span id="deterministic-profiling"></span><h2>What Is Deterministic Profiling?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-is-deterministic-profiling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em class="dfn">Deterministic profiling</em> is meant to reflect the fact that all <em>function
+call</em>, <em>function return</em>, and <em>exception</em> events are monitored, and precise
+timings are made for the intervals between these events (during which time the
+user’s code is executing).  In contrast, <em class="dfn">statistical profiling</em> (which is
+not done by this module) randomly samples the effective instruction pointer, and
+deduces where time is being spent.  The latter technique traditionally involves
+less overhead (as the code does not need to be instrumented), but provides only
+relative indications of where time is being spent.</p>
+<p>In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the presence
+of instrumented code is not required to do deterministic profiling.  Python
+automatically provides a <em class="dfn">hook</em> (optional callback) for each event.  In
+addition, the interpreted nature of Python tends to add so much overhead to
+execution, that deterministic profiling tends to only add small processing
+overhead in typical applications.  The result is that deterministic profiling is
+not that expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the
+execution of a Python program.</p>
+<p>Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising counts),
+and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call counts).  Internal
+time statistics can be used to identify “hot loops” that should be carefully
+optimized.  Cumulative time statistics should be used to identify high level
+errors in the selection of algorithms.  Note that the unusual handling of
+cumulative times in this profiler allows statistics for recursive
+implementations of algorithms to be directly compared to iterative
+implementations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="limitations">
+<span id="profile-limitations"></span><h2>Limitations<a class="headerlink" href="#limitations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information. There is a
+fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy.  The most
+obvious restriction is that the underlying “clock” is only ticking at a rate
+(typically) of about .001 seconds.  Hence no measurements will be more accurate
+than the underlying clock.  If enough measurements are taken, then the “error”
+will tend to average out. Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a
+second source of error.</p>
+<p>The second problem is that it “takes a while” from when an event is dispatched
+until the profiler’s call to get the time actually <em>gets</em> the state of the
+clock.  Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the profiler event
+handler from the time that the clock’s value was obtained (and then squirreled
+away), until the user’s code is once again executing.  As a result, functions
+that are called many times, or call many functions, will typically accumulate
+this error. The error that accumulates in this fashion is typically less than
+the accuracy of the clock (less than one clock tick), but it <em>can</em> accumulate
+and become very significant.</p>
+<p>The problem is more important with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> than with the lower-overhead
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a>.  For this reason, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> provides a means of
+calibrating itself for a given platform so that this error can be
+probabilistically (on the average) removed. After the profiler is calibrated, it
+will be more accurate (in a least square sense), but it will sometimes produce
+negative numbers (when call counts are exceptionally low, and the gods of
+probability work against you :-). )  Do <em>not</em> be alarmed by negative numbers in
+the profile.  They should <em>only</em> appear if you have calibrated your profiler,
+and the results are actually better than without calibration.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calibration">
+<span id="profile-calibration"></span><h2>Calibration<a class="headerlink" href="#calibration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The profiler of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> module subtracts a constant from each event
+handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the time function, and
+socking away the results.  By default, the constant is 0. The following
+procedure can be used to obtain a better constant for a given platform (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#profile-limitations"><span class="std std-ref">Limitations</span></a>).</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">profile</span>
+<span class="n">pr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">profile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Profile</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">calibrate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument, directly
+and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both. It then computes the
+hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that as a float.  For example,
+on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running Mac OS X, and using Python’s time.process_time() as
+the timer, the magical number is about 4.04e-6.</p>
+<p>The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result. If your
+computer is <em>very</em> fast, or your timer function has poor resolution, you might
+have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get consistent results.</p>
+<p>When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">profile</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter.</span>
+<span class="n">profile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Profile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bias</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">your_computed_bias</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance.</span>
+<span class="n">pr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">profile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Profile</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">pr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bias</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">your_computed_bias</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor.</span>
+<span class="n">pr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">profile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Profile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bias</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">your_computed_bias</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant, and then
+your results will “less often” show up as negative in profile statistics.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-a-custom-timer">
+<span id="profile-timers"></span><h2>Using a custom timer<a class="headerlink" href="#using-a-custom-timer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to force use
+of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing function you want
+to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Profile</span></code> class constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">profile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Profile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">your_time_func</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The resulting profiler will then call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">your_time_func</span></code>. Depending on whether
+you are using <a class="reference internal" href="#profile.Profile" title="profile.Profile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile.Profile</span></code></a> or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.Profile</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">your_time_func</span></code>’s return value will be interpreted differently:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#profile.Profile" title="profile.Profile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile.Profile</span></code></a></dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">your_time_func</span></code> should return a single number, or a list of numbers whose
+sum is the current time (like what <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.times" title="os.times"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.times()</span></code></a> returns).  If the
+function returns a single time number, or the list of returned numbers has
+length 2, then you will get an especially fast version of the dispatch
+routine.</p>
+<p>Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the timer function
+that you choose (see <a class="reference internal" href="#profile-calibration"><span class="std std-ref">Calibration</span></a>).  For most machines, a timer
+that returns a lone integer value will provide the best results in terms of
+low overhead during profiling.  (<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.times" title="os.times"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.times()</span></code></a> is <em>pretty</em> bad, as it
+returns a tuple of floating point values).  If you want to substitute a
+better timer in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a
+replacement dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the
+appropriate calibration constant.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.Profile</span></code></dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">your_time_func</span></code> should return a single number.  If it returns integers,
+you can also invoke the class constructor with a second argument specifying
+the real duration of one unit of time.  For example, if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">your_integer_time_func</span></code> returns times measured in thousands of seconds,
+you would construct the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Profile</span></code> instance as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cProfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Profile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">your_integer_time_func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.001</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.Profile</span></code> class cannot be calibrated, custom timer
+functions should be used with care and should be as fast as possible.  For
+the best results with a custom timer, it might be necessary to hard-code it
+in the C source of the internal <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_lsprof</span></code> module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Python 3.3 adds several new functions in <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> that can be used to make
+precise measurements of process or wall-clock time. For example, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">The Python Profilers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction-to-the-profilers">Introduction to the profilers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#instant-user-s-manual">Instant User’s Manual</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code> Module Reference</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-stats-class">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code> Class</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-is-deterministic-profiling">What Is Deterministic Profiling?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#limitations">Limitations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calibration">Calibration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-a-custom-timer">Using a custom timer</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pdb.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code> — The Python Debugger</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="timeit.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code> — Measure execution time of small code snippets</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,287 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-pty">
+<span id="pty-pseudo-terminal-utilities"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pty" title="pty: Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Linux. (Linux)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code></a> — Pseudo-terminal utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pty" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pty.py">Lib/pty.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pty" title="pty: Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Linux. (Linux)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code></a> module defines operations for handling the pseudo-terminal
+concept: starting another process and being able to write to and read from its
+controlling terminal programmatically.</p>
+<p>Because pseudo-terminal handling is highly platform dependent, there is code to
+do it only for Linux. (The Linux code is supposed to work on other platforms,
+but hasn’t been tested yet.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pty" title="pty: Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Linux. (Linux)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pty.fork">
+<code class="descclassname">pty.</code><code class="descname">fork</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pty.fork" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fork. Connect the child’s controlling terminal to a pseudo-terminal. Return
+value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(pid,</span> <span class="pre">fd)</span></code>. Note that the child  gets <em>pid</em> 0, and the <em>fd</em> is
+<em>invalid</em>. The parent’s return value is the <em>pid</em> of the child, and <em>fd</em> is a
+file descriptor connected to the child’s controlling terminal (and also to the
+child’s standard input and output).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pty.openpty">
+<code class="descclassname">pty.</code><code class="descname">openpty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pty.openpty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a new pseudo-terminal pair, using <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.openpty" title="os.openpty"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.openpty()</span></code></a> if possible, or
+emulation code for generic Unix systems. Return a pair of file descriptors
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(master,</span> <span class="pre">slave)</span></code>, for the master and the slave end, respectively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pty.spawn">
+<code class="descclassname">pty.</code><code class="descname">spawn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>argv</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>master_read</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>stdin_read</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pty.spawn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Spawn a process, and connect its controlling terminal with the current
+process’s standard io. This is often used to baffle programs which insist on
+reading from the controlling terminal. It is expected that the process
+spawned behind the pty will eventually terminate, and when it does <em>spawn</em>
+will return.</p>
+<p>The functions <em>master_read</em> and <em>stdin_read</em> are passed a file descriptor
+which they should read from, and they should always return a byte string. In
+order to force spawn to return before the child process exits an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> should be thrown.</p>
+<p>The default implementation for both functions will read and return up to 1024
+bytes each time the function is called. The <em>master_read</em> callback is passed
+the pseudoterminal’s master file descriptor to read output from the child
+process, and <em>stdin_read</em> is passed file descriptor 0, to read from the
+parent process’s standard input.</p>
+<p>Returning an empty byte string from either callback is interpreted as an
+end-of-file (EOF) condition, and that callback will not be called after
+that. If <em>stdin_read</em> signals EOF the controlling terminal can no longer
+communicate with the parent process OR the child process. Unless the child
+process will quit without any input, <em>spawn</em> will then loop forever. If
+<em>master_read</em> signals EOF the same behavior results (on linux at least).</p>
+<p>If both callbacks signal EOF then <em>spawn</em> will probably never return, unless
+<em>select</em> throws an error on your platform when passed three empty lists. This
+is a bug, documented in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26228">issue 26228</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#pty.spawn" title="pty.spawn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn()</span></code></a> now returns the status value from <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.waitpid()</span></code></a>
+on the child process.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following program acts like the Unix command <em class="manpage">script(1)</em>, using a
+pseudo-terminal to record all input and output of a terminal session in a
+“typescript”.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pty</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;append&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-p&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;use_python&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;typescript&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">options</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">shell</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executable</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">use_python</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SHELL&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;sh&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span>
+<span class="n">mode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ab&#39;</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">script</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">script</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">data</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Script started, file is&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">script</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;Script started on </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">asctime</span><span class="p">())</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="n">pty</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shell</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">read</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">script</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;Script done on </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">asctime</span><span class="p">())</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Script done, file is&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code> — Pseudo-terminal utilities</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tty.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code> — Terminal control functions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="fcntl.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> — The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl</span></code> system calls</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pwd.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pwd.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73fe825
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pwd.html
@@ -0,0 +1,273 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>pwd — The password database &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pwd">
+<span id="pwd-the-password-database"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pwd" title="pwd: The password database (getpwnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code></a> — The password database<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pwd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to the Unix user account and password database.  It
+is available on all Unix versions.</p>
+<p>Password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes
+correspond to the members of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">passwd</span></code> structure (Attribute field below,
+see <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;pwd.h&gt;</span></code>):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Login name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_passwd</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Optional encrypted password</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_uid</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Numerical user ID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_gid</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Numerical group ID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_gecos</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>User name or comment field</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>5</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_dir</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>User home directory</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>6</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_shell</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>User command interpreter</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The uid and gid items are integers, all others are strings. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is
+raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p id="index-0">In traditional Unix the field <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pw_passwd</span></code> usually contains a password
+encrypted with a DES derived algorithm (see module <a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a>).  However most
+modern unices  use a so-called <em>shadow password</em> system.  On those unices the
+<em>pw_passwd</em> field only contains an asterisk (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>) or the  letter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>
+where the encrypted password is stored in a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/etc/shadow</span></code> which is
+not world readable.  Whether the <em>pw_passwd</em> field contains anything useful is
+system-dependent.  If available, the <a class="reference internal" href="spwd.html#module-spwd" title="spwd: The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code></a> module should be used where
+access to the encrypted password is required.</p>
+</div>
+<p>It defines the following items:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pwd.getpwuid">
+<code class="descclassname">pwd.</code><code class="descname">getpwuid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>uid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pwd.getpwuid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the password database entry for the given numeric user ID.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pwd.getpwnam">
+<code class="descclassname">pwd.</code><code class="descname">getpwnam</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pwd.getpwnam" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the password database entry for the given user name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pwd.getpwall">
+<code class="descclassname">pwd.</code><code class="descname">getpwall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pwd.getpwall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all available password database entries, in arbitrary order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="grp.html#module-grp" title="grp: The group database (getgrnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>An interface to the group database, similar to this.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="spwd.html#module-spwd" title="spwd: The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>An interface to the shadow password database, similar to this.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="posix.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code> — The most common POSIX system calls</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="spwd.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code> — The shadow password database</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/pwd.rst"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-py_compile">
+<span id="py-compile-compile-python-source-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> — Compile Python source files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-py_compile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/py_compile.py">Lib/py_compile.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> module provides a function to generate a byte-code file
+from a source file, and another function used when the module source file is
+invoked as a script.</p>
+<p>Though not often needed, this function can be useful when installing modules for
+shared use, especially if some of the users may not have permission to write the
+byte-code cache files in the directory containing the source code.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="py_compile.PyCompileError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">py_compile.</code><code class="descname">PyCompileError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#py_compile.PyCompileError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when an error occurs while attempting to compile the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="py_compile.compile">
+<code class="descclassname">py_compile.</code><code class="descname">compile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>cfile=None</em>, <em>dfile=None</em>, <em>doraise=False</em>, <em>optimize=-1</em>, <em>invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#py_compile.compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code cache file.
+The source code is loaded from the file named <em>file</em>.  The byte-code is
+written to <em>cfile</em>, which defaults to the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a>/<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a> path, ending
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>.
+For example, if <em>file</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz.py</span></code> <em>cfile</em> will default to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc</span></code> for Python 3.2.  If <em>dfile</em> is
+specified, it is used as the name of the source file in error messages when
+instead of <em>file</em>.  If <em>doraise</em> is true, a <a class="reference internal" href="#py_compile.PyCompileError" title="py_compile.PyCompileError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCompileError</span></code></a> is raised
+when an error is encountered while compiling <em>file</em>. If <em>doraise</em> is false
+(the default), an error string is written to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>, but no exception
+is raised.  This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e.
+whatever <em>cfile</em> value was used.</p>
+<p>If the path that <em>cfile</em> becomes (either explicitly specified or computed)
+is a symlink or non-regular file, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> will be raised.
+This is to act as a warning that import will turn those paths into regular
+files if it is allowed to write byte-compiled files to those paths. This is
+a side-effect of import using file renaming to place the final byte-compiled
+file into place to prevent concurrent file writing issues.</p>
+<p><em>optimize</em> controls the optimization level and is passed to the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function.  The default of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> selects the optimization
+level of the current interpreter.</p>
+<p><em>invalidation_mode</em> should be a member of the <a class="reference internal" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode" title="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PycInvalidationMode</span></code></a>
+enum and controls how the generated bytecode cache is invalidated at
+runtime.  The default is <a class="reference internal" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH" title="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH</span></code></a> if
+the <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code> environment variable is set, otherwise
+the default is <a class="reference internal" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP" title="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Changed default value of <em>cfile</em> to be <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a>-compliant.  Previous
+default was <em>file</em> + <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'o'</span></code> if optimization was enabled).
+Also added the <em>optimize</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Changed code to use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> for the byte-code cache file writing.
+This means file creation/writing semantics now match what <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>
+does, e.g. permissions, write-and-move semantics, etc. Also added the
+caveat that <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>cfile</em> is a symlink or
+non-regular file.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <em>invalidation_mode</em> parameter was added as specified in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0552"><strong>PEP 552</strong></a>.
+If the <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code> environment variable is set,
+<em>invalidation_mode</em> will be forced to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH" title="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.2: </span>The <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code> environment variable no longer
+overrides the value of the <em>invalidation_mode</em> argument, and determines
+its default value instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">py_compile.</code><code class="descname">PycInvalidationMode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to determine
+whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file
+indicates the desired invalidation mode in its header. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#pyc-invalidation"><span class="std std-ref">Cached bytecode invalidation</span></a> for more information on how Python invalidates
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files at runtime.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP">
+<code class="descname">TIMESTAMP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file includes the timestamp and size of the source file,
+which Python will compare against the metadata of the source file at
+runtime to determine if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file needs to be regenerated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH">
+<code class="descname">CHECKED_HASH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file includes a hash of the source file content, which Python
+will compare against the source at runtime to determine if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
+file needs to be regenerated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.UNCHECKED_HASH">
+<code class="descname">UNCHECKED_HASH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.UNCHECKED_HASH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH" title="py_compile.PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHECKED_HASH</span></code></a>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file includes a hash of the source
+file content. However, Python will at runtime assume the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file is
+up to date and not validate the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> against the source file at all.</p>
+<p>This option is useful when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pycs</span></code> are kept up to date by some
+system external to Python like a build system.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="py_compile.main">
+<code class="descclassname">py_compile.</code><code class="descname">main</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#py_compile.main" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compile several source files.  The files named in <em>args</em> (or on the command
+line, if <em>args</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) are compiled and the resulting byte-code is
+cached in the normal manner.  This function does not search a directory
+structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named explicitly.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> is the only parameter in args, the list of files is taken from
+standard input.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>When this module is run as a script, the <a class="reference internal" href="#py_compile.main" title="py_compile.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code></a> is used to compile all the
+files named on the command line.  The exit status is nonzero if one of the files
+could not be compiled.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Utilities to compile all Python source files in a directory tree.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pyclbr.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code> — Python class browser support</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="compileall.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code> — Byte-compile Python libraries</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyclbr.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyclbr.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eeeb50a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyclbr.html
@@ -0,0 +1,348 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>pyclbr — Python class browser support &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pyclbr">
+<span id="pyclbr-python-class-browser-support"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pyclbr" title="pyclbr: Supports information extraction for a Python class browser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code></a> — Python class browser support<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pyclbr" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pyclbr.py">Lib/pyclbr.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pyclbr" title="pyclbr: Supports information extraction for a Python class browser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code></a> module provides limited information about the
+functions, classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module.  The
+information is sufficient to implement a module browser.  The
+information is extracted from the Python source code rather than by
+importing the module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code.
+This restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not
+implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension
+modules.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pyclbr.readmodule">
+<code class="descclassname">pyclbr.</code><code class="descname">readmodule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em>, <em>path=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.readmodule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class
+descriptors.  If possible, descriptors for imported base classes are
+included.  Parameter <em>module</em> is a string with the name of the module
+to read; it may be the name of a module within a package.  If given,
+<em>path</em> is a sequence of directory paths prepended to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>,
+which is used to locate the module source code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="pyclbr.readmodule_ex">
+<code class="descclassname">pyclbr.</code><code class="descname">readmodule_ex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em>, <em>path=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.readmodule_ex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class
+descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> statement.  The returned dictionary maps
+module-level function and class names to their descriptors.  Nested
+objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent.  As
+with readmodule, <em>module</em> names the module to be read and <em>path</em> is
+prepended to sys.path.  If the module being read is a package, the
+returned dictionary has a key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__path__'</span></code> whose value is a list
+containing the package search path.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Descriptors for nested definitions.  They are accessed through the
+new children attribute.  Each has a new parent attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of
+Function and Class classes.  Users are not expected to create instances
+of these classes.</p>
+<div class="section" id="function-objects">
+<span id="pyclbr-function-objects"></span><h2>Function Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#function-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Function</span></code> instances describe functions defined by def
+statements.  They have the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Function.file">
+<code class="descclassname">Function.</code><code class="descname">file</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Function.file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the file in which the function is defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Function.module">
+<code class="descclassname">Function.</code><code class="descname">module</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Function.module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the module defining the function described.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Function.name">
+<code class="descclassname">Function.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Function.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Function.lineno">
+<code class="descclassname">Function.</code><code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Function.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The line number in the file where the definition starts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Function.parent">
+<code class="descclassname">Function.</code><code class="descname">parent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Function.parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For top-level functions, None.  For nested functions, the parent.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Function.children">
+<code class="descclassname">Function.</code><code class="descname">children</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Function.children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and
+classes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-objects">
+<span id="pyclbr-class-objects"></span><h2>Class Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#class-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Class</span></code> instances describe classes defined by class
+statements.  They have the same attributes as Functions and two more.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.file">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">file</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the file in which the class is defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.module">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">module</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the module defining the class described.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.name">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.lineno">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The line number in the file where the definition starts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.parent">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">parent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For top-level classes, None.  For nested classes, the parent.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.children">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">children</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and
+classes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.super">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">super</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.super" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Class</span></code> objects which describe the immediate base
+classes of the class being described.  Classes which are named as
+superclasses but which are not discoverable by <a class="reference internal" href="#pyclbr.readmodule_ex" title="pyclbr.readmodule_ex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readmodule_ex()</span></code></a>
+are listed as a string with the class name instead of as
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Class</span></code> objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="pyclbr.Class.methods">
+<code class="descclassname">Class.</code><code class="descname">methods</code><a class="headerlink" href="#pyclbr.Class.methods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping method names to line numbers.  This can be
+derived from the newer children dictionary, but remains for
+back-compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code> — Python class browser support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#function-objects">Function Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-objects">Class Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tabnanny.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabnanny</span></code> — Detection of ambiguous indentation</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="py_compile.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code> — Compile Python source files</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/pyclbr.rst"
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+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pydoc.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pydoc.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..89794e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pydoc.html
@@ -0,0 +1,266 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
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+    
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="development.html" accesskey="U">Development Tools</a> &#187;</li>
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-pydoc">
+<span id="pydoc-documentation-generator-and-online-help-system"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> — Documentation generator and online help system<a class="headerlink" href="#module-pydoc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/pydoc.py">Lib/pydoc.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module automatically generates documentation from Python
+modules.  The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the console,
+served to a Web browser, or saved to HTML files.</p>
+<p>For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation is
+derived from the docstring (i.e. the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attribute) of the object,
+and recursively of its documentable members.  If there is no docstring,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> tries to obtain a description from the block of comment lines just
+above the definition of the class, function or method in the source file, or at
+the top of the module (see <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.getcomments" title="inspect.getcomments"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getcomments()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> invokes the online help system in the
+interactive interpreter, which uses <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> to generate its documentation
+as text on the console.  The same text documentation can also be viewed from
+outside the Python interpreter by running <strong class="program">pydoc</strong> as a script at the
+operating system’s command prompt. For example, running</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pydoc</span> <span class="n">sys</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>at a shell prompt will display documentation on the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module, in a
+style similar to the manual pages shown by the Unix <strong class="program">man</strong> command.  The
+argument to <strong class="program">pydoc</strong> can be the name of a function, module, or package,
+or a dotted reference to a class, method, or function within a module or module
+in a package.  If the argument to <strong class="program">pydoc</strong> looks like a path (that is,
+it contains the path separator for your operating system, such as a slash in
+Unix), and refers to an existing Python source file, then documentation is
+produced for that file.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In order to find objects and their documentation, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> imports the
+module(s) to be documented.  Therefore, any code on module level will be
+executed on that occasion.  Use an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">'__main__':</span></code> guard to
+only execute code when a file is invoked as a script and not just imported.</p>
+</div>
+<p>When printing output to the console, <strong class="program">pydoc</strong> attempts to paginate the
+output for easier reading.  If the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAGER</span></code> environment variable is set,
+<strong class="program">pydoc</strong> will use its value as a pagination program.</p>
+<p>Specifying a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-w</span></code> flag before the argument will cause HTML documentation
+to be written out to a file in the current directory, instead of displaying text
+on the console.</p>
+<p>Specifying a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-k</span></code> flag before the argument will search the synopsis
+lines of all available modules for the keyword given as the argument, again in a
+manner similar to the Unix <strong class="program">man</strong> command.  The synopsis line of a
+module is the first line of its documentation string.</p>
+<p>You can also use <strong class="program">pydoc</strong> to start an HTTP server on the local machine
+that will serve documentation to visiting Web browsers.  <strong class="program">pydoc -p 1234</strong>
+will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to browse the
+documentation at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http://localhost:1234/</span></code> in your preferred Web browser.
+Specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> as the port number will select an arbitrary unused port.</p>
+<p><strong class="program">pydoc -n &lt;hostname&gt;</strong> will start the server listening at the given
+hostname.  By default the hostname is ‘localhost’ but if you want the server to
+be reached from other machines, you may want to change the host name that the
+server responds to.  During development this is especially useful if you want
+to run pydoc from within a container.</p>
+<p><strong class="program">pydoc -b</strong> will start the server and additionally open a web
+browser to a module index page.  Each served page has a navigation bar at the
+top where you can <em>Get</em> help on an individual item, <em>Search</em> all modules with a
+keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the <em>Module index</em>, <em>Topics</em> and
+<em>Keywords</em> pages.</p>
+<p>When <strong class="program">pydoc</strong> generates documentation, it uses the current environment
+and path to locate modules.  Thus, invoking <strong class="program">pydoc spam</strong>
+documents precisely the version of the module you would get if you started the
+Python interpreter and typed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">spam</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Y</span></code> are the
+major and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter.  This can
+be overridden by setting the <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDOCS</span></code> environment variable
+to a different URL or to a local directory containing the Library
+Reference Manual pages.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-g</span></code> command line option was removed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> now uses <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code></a> rather than
+<a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec()</span></code></a> to extract signature information from
+callables.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="typing.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> — Support for type hints</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="doctest.html"
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyexpat.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyexpat.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2dd72c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/pyexpat.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1103 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Internet Protocols and Support" href="internet.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers" href="xml.sax.reader.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/pyexpat.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="internet.html" title="Internet Protocols and Support"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="xml.sax.reader.html" title="xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="markup.html" accesskey="U">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.parsers.expat">
+<span id="xml-parsers-expat-fast-xml-parsing-using-expat"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> — Fast XML parsing using Expat<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module is not secure against maliciously
+constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-0">The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> module is a Python interface to the Expat
+non-validating XML parser. The module provides a single extension type,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code>, that represents the current state of an XML parser.  After
+an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> object has been created, various attributes of the object
+can be set to handler functions.  When an XML document is then fed to the
+parser, the handler functions are called for the character data and markup in
+the XML document.</p>
+<p id="index-1">This module uses the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module to provide access to the Expat
+parser.  Direct use of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module is deprecated.</p>
+<p>This module provides one exception and one type object:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.</code><code class="descname">ExpatError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The exception raised when Expat reports an error.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#expaterror-objects"><span class="std std-ref">ExpatError Exceptions</span></a> for more information on interpreting Expat errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError" title="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExpatError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.</code><code class="descname">XMLParserType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of the return values from the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate" title="xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParserCreate()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> module contains two functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.</code><code class="descname">ErrorString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>errno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an explanatory string for a given error number <em>errno</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.</code><code class="descname">ParserCreate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding=None</em>, <em>namespace_separator=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates and returns a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> object.   <em>encoding</em>, if specified,
+must be a string naming the encoding  used by the XML data.  Expat doesn’t
+support as many encodings as Python does, and its repertoire of encodings can’t
+be extended; it supports UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1), and ASCII.  If
+<em>encoding</em> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a> is given it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the
+document.</p>
+<p>Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled by providing a
+value for <em>namespace_separator</em>.  The value must be a one-character string; a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised if the string has an illegal length (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+is considered the same as omission).  When namespace processing is enabled,
+element type names and attribute names that belong to a namespace will be
+expanded.  The element name passed to the element handlers
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StartElementHandler</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EndElementHandler</span></code> will be the
+concatenation of the namespace URI, the namespace separator character, and the
+local part of the name.  If the namespace separator is a zero byte (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr(0)</span></code>)
+then the namespace URI and the local part will be concatenated without any
+separator.</p>
+<p>For example, if <em>namespace_separator</em> is set to a space character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code>) and
+the following document is parsed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-xml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot;?&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;root</span> <span class="na">xmlns    =</span> <span class="s">&quot;http://default-namespace.org/&quot;</span>
+      <span class="na">xmlns:py =</span> <span class="s">&quot;http://www.python.org/ns/&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+  <span class="nt">&lt;py:elem1</span> <span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+  <span class="nt">&lt;elem2</span> <span class="na">xmlns=</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;</span> <span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;/root&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StartElementHandler</span></code> will receive the following strings for each
+element:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">http</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="o">//</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">namespace</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">org</span><span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">root</span>
+<span class="n">http</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="o">//</span><span class="n">www</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">org</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">ns</span><span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">elem1</span>
+<span class="n">elem2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Due to limitations in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Expat</span></code> library used by <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code>,
+the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> instance returned can only be used to parse a single
+XML document.  Call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParserCreate</span></code> for each document to provide unique
+parser instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.libexpat.org/">The Expat XML Parser</a></dt><dd><p>Home page of the Expat project.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xmlparser-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>XMLParser Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#xmlparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.Parse">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">Parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>isfinal</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.Parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses the contents of the string <em>data</em>, calling the appropriate handler
+functions to process the parsed data.  <em>isfinal</em> must be true on the final call
+to this method; it allows the parsing of a single file in fragments,
+not the submission of multiple files.
+<em>data</em> can be the empty string at any time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ParseFile">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ParseFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ParseFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse XML data reading from the object <em>file</em>.  <em>file</em> only needs to provide
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read(nbytes)</span></code> method, returning the empty string when there’s no more
+data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">SetBase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the base to be used for resolving relative URIs in system identifiers in
+declarations.  Resolving relative identifiers is left to the application: this
+value will be passed through as the <em>base</em> argument to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExternalEntityRefHandler()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotationDeclHandler()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnparsedEntityDeclHandler()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetBase">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">GetBase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a string containing the base set by a previous call to <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetBase()</span></code></a>,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if  <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetBase()</span></code></a> hasn’t been called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetInputContext">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">GetInputContext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetInputContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the input data that generated the current event as a string. The data is
+in the encoding of the entity which contains the text. When called while an
+event handler is not active, the return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ExternalEntityParserCreate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>encoding</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a “child” parser which can be used to parse an external parsed entity
+referred to by content parsed by the parent parser.  The <em>context</em> parameter
+should be the string passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExternalEntityRefHandler()</span></code></a> handler
+function, described below. The child parser is created with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ordered_attributes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.specified_attributes" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.specified_attributes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">specified_attributes</span></code></a> set to the values of
+this parser.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">SetParamEntityParsing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Control parsing of parameter entities (including the external DTD subset).
+Possible <em>flag</em> values are <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS</span></code>.  Return true if setting the flag
+was successful.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UseForeignDTD">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">UseForeignDTD</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>flag</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UseForeignDTD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calling this with a true value for <em>flag</em> (the default) will cause Expat to call
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExternalEntityRefHandler</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> for all arguments to
+allow an alternate DTD to be loaded.  If the document does not contain a
+document type declaration, the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExternalEntityRefHandler</span></code></a> will still be
+called, but the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StartDoctypeDeclHandler</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EndDoctypeDeclHandler</span></code></a> will not be called.</p>
+<p>Passing a false value for <em>flag</em> will cancel a previous call that passed a true
+value, but otherwise has no effect.</p>
+<p>This method can only be called before the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.Parse" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.Parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parse()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ParseFile" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ParseFile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParseFile()</span></code></a>
+methods are called; calling it after either of those have been called causes
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError" title="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExpatError</span></code></a> to be raised with the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> attribute set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> objects have the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_size">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">buffer_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The size of the buffer used when <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer_text</span></code></a> is true.
+A new buffer size can be set by assigning a new integer value
+to this attribute.
+When the size is changed, the buffer will be flushed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">buffer_text</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Setting this to true causes the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> object to buffer textual
+content returned by Expat to avoid multiple calls to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CharacterDataHandler()</span></code></a> callback whenever possible.  This can improve
+performance substantially since Expat normally breaks character data into chunks
+at every line ending.  This attribute is false by default, and may be changed at
+any time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_used">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">buffer_used</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_used" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer_text</span></code></a> is enabled, the number of bytes stored in the buffer.
+These bytes represent UTF-8 encoded text.  This attribute has no meaningful
+interpretation when <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.buffer_text"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer_text</span></code></a> is false.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ordered_attributes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Setting this attribute to a non-zero integer causes the attributes to be
+reported as a list rather than a dictionary.  The attributes are presented in
+the order found in the document text.  For each attribute, two list entries are
+presented: the attribute name and the attribute value.  (Older versions of this
+module also used this format.)  By default, this attribute is false; it may be
+changed at any time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.specified_attributes">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">specified_attributes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.specified_attributes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to a non-zero integer, the parser will report only those attributes which
+were specified in the document instance and not those which were derived from
+attribute declarations.  Applications which set this need to be especially
+careful to use what additional information is available from the declarations as
+needed to comply with the standards for the behavior of XML processors.  By
+default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent error
+encountered by an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> object, and will only have correct values
+once a call to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parse()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParseFile()</span></code> has raised an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError" title="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ErrorByteIndex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Byte index at which an error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorCode">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ErrorCode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorCode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Numeric code specifying the problem.  This value can be passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString" title="xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ErrorString()</span></code></a> function, or compared to one of the constants defined in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ErrorColumnNumber</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Column number at which an error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ErrorLineNumber</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Line number at which an error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attributes contain values relating to the current parse location
+in an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> object.  During a callback reporting a parse event they
+indicate the location of the first of the sequence of characters that generated
+the event.  When called outside of a callback, the position indicated will be
+just past the last parse event (regardless of whether there was an associated
+callback).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">CurrentByteIndex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Current byte index in the parser input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">CurrentColumnNumber</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Current column number in the parser input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">CurrentLineNumber</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Current line number in the parser input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here is the list of handlers that can be set.  To set a handler on an
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlparser</span></code> object <em>o</em>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o.handlername</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">func</span></code>.  <em>handlername</em> must
+be taken from the following list, and <em>func</em> must be a callable object accepting
+the correct number of arguments.  The arguments are all strings, unless
+otherwise stated.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">XmlDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>version</em>, <em>encoding</em>, <em>standalone</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the XML declaration is parsed.  The XML declaration is the
+(optional) declaration of the applicable version of the XML recommendation, the
+encoding of the document text, and an optional “standalone” declaration.
+<em>version</em> and <em>encoding</em> will be strings, and <em>standalone</em> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the
+document is declared standalone, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if it is declared not to be standalone,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if the standalone clause was omitted. This is only available with
+Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">StartDoctypeDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>doctypeName</em>, <em>systemId</em>, <em>publicId</em>, <em>has_internal_subset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!DOCTYPE</span>
+<span class="pre">...</span></code>).  The <em>doctypeName</em> is provided exactly as presented.  The <em>systemId</em> and
+<em>publicId</em> parameters give the system and public identifiers if specified, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if omitted.  <em>has_internal_subset</em> will be true if the document
+contains and internal document declaration subset. This requires Expat version
+1.2 or newer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">EndDoctypeDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration. This requires
+Expat version 1.2 or newer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ElementDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>model</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called once for each element type declaration.  <em>name</em> is the name of the
+element type, and <em>model</em> is a representation of the content model.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">AttlistDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>elname</em>, <em>attname</em>, <em>type</em>, <em>default</em>, <em>required</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for each declared attribute for an element type.  If an attribute list
+declaration declares three attributes, this handler is called three times, once
+for each attribute.  <em>elname</em> is the name of the element to which the
+declaration applies and <em>attname</em> is the name of the attribute declared.  The
+attribute type is a string passed as <em>type</em>; the possible values are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'CDATA'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ID'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'IDREF'</span></code>, … <em>default</em> gives the default value for
+the attribute used when the attribute is not specified by the document instance,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if there is no default value (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#IMPLIED</span></code> values).  If the
+attribute is required to be given in the document instance, <em>required</em> will be
+true. This requires Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartElementHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">StartElementHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>attributes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartElementHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for the start of every element.  <em>name</em> is a string containing the
+element name, and <em>attributes</em> is the element attributes. If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ordered_attributes</span></code></a> is true, this is a list (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ordered_attributes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ordered_attributes</span></code></a> for a full description). Otherwise it’s a
+dictionary mapping names to values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndElementHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">EndElementHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndElementHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for the end of every element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ProcessingInstructionHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for every processing instruction.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">CharacterDataHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for character data.  This will be called for normal character data, CDATA
+marked content, and ignorable whitespace.  Applications which must distinguish
+these cases can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StartCdataSectionHandler</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EndCdataSectionHandler</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementDeclHandler</span></code></a> callbacks to
+collect the required information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">UnparsedEntityDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>entityName</em>, <em>base</em>, <em>systemId</em>, <em>publicId</em>, <em>notationName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations.  This is only present for
+version 1.2 of the Expat library; for more recent versions, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EntityDeclHandler</span></code></a> instead.  (The underlying function in the Expat
+library has been declared obsolete.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">EntityDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>entityName</em>, <em>is_parameter_entity</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>base</em>, <em>systemId</em>, <em>publicId</em>, <em>notationName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for all entity declarations.  For parameter and internal entities,
+<em>value</em> will be a string giving the declared contents of the entity; this will
+be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for external entities.  The <em>notationName</em> parameter will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for parsed entities, and the name of the notation for unparsed
+entities. <em>is_parameter_entity</em> will be true if the entity is a parameter entity
+or false for general entities (most applications only need to be concerned with
+general entities). This is only available starting with version 1.95.0 of the
+Expat library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">NotationDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>notationName</em>, <em>base</em>, <em>systemId</em>, <em>publicId</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for notation declarations.  <em>notationName</em>, <em>base</em>, and <em>systemId</em>, and
+<em>publicId</em> are strings if given.  If the public identifier is omitted,
+<em>publicId</em> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">StartNamespaceDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em>, <em>uri</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when an element contains a namespace declaration.  Namespace declarations
+are processed before the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartElementHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartElementHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StartElementHandler</span></code></a> is called for the element
+on which declarations are placed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">EndNamespaceDeclHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the closing tag is reached for an element  that contained a
+namespace declaration.  This is called once for each namespace declaration on
+the element in the reverse of the order for which the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StartNamespaceDeclHandler</span></code></a> was called to indicate the start of each
+namespace declaration’s scope.  Calls to this handler are made after the
+corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndElementHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndElementHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EndElementHandler</span></code></a> for the end of the element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CommentHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">CommentHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.CommentHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for comments.  <em>data</em> is the text of the comment, excluding the leading
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;!-</span></code><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-'</span></code> and trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-</span></code><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-&gt;'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">StartCdataSectionHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called at the start of a CDATA section.  This and <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EndCdataSectionHandler</span></code></a>
+are needed to be able to identify the syntactical start and end for CDATA
+sections.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">EndCdataSectionHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called at the end of a CDATA section.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">DefaultHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for any characters in the XML document for which no applicable handler
+has been specified.  This means characters that are part of a construct which
+could be reported, but for which no handler has been supplied.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">DefaultHandlerExpand</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the same as the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultHandler()</span></code></a>,  but doesn’t inhibit expansion
+of internal entities. The entity reference will not be passed to the default
+handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">NotStandaloneHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called if the XML document hasn’t been declared as being a standalone document.
+This happens when there is an external subset or a reference to a parameter
+entity, but the XML declaration does not set standalone to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yes</span></code> in an XML
+declaration.  If this handler returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, then the parser will raise an
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE</span></code> error.  If this handler is not set, no
+exception is raised by the parser for this condition.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlparser.</code><code class="descname">ExternalEntityRefHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em>, <em>base</em>, <em>systemId</em>, <em>publicId</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called for references to external entities.  <em>base</em> is the current base, as set
+by a previous call to <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetBase"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetBase()</span></code></a>.  The public and system identifiers,
+<em>systemId</em> and <em>publicId</em>, are strings if given; if the public identifier is not
+given, <em>publicId</em> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  The <em>context</em> value is opaque and should
+only be used as described below.</p>
+<p>For external entities to be parsed, this handler must be implemented. It is
+responsible for creating the sub-parser using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)</span></code>, initializing it with the appropriate
+callbacks, and parsing the entity.  This handler should return an integer; if it
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the parser will raise an
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING</span></code> error, otherwise parsing will
+continue.</p>
+<p>If this handler is not provided, external entities are reported by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler" title="xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.DefaultHandler"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultHandler</span></code></a> callback, if provided.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="expaterror-exceptions">
+<span id="expaterror-objects"></span><h2>ExpatError Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#expaterror-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError" title="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExpatError</span></code></a> exceptions have a number of interesting attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.code">
+<code class="descclassname">ExpatError.</code><code class="descname">code</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Expat’s internal error number for the specific error.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages" title="xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors.messages</span></code></a> dictionary maps
+these error numbers to Expat’s error messages.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.parsers.expat</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ParserCreate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ExpatError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">errors</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ParserCreate</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_xml_document</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">ExpatError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Error:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">errors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">messages</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors" title="xml.parsers.expat.errors"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code></a> module also provides error message
+constants and a dictionary <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes" title="xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codes</span></code></a> mapping
+these messages back to the error codes, see below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.lineno">
+<code class="descclassname">ExpatError.</code><code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Line number on which the error was detected.  The first line is numbered <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.offset">
+<code class="descclassname">ExpatError.</code><code class="descname">offset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.offset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Character offset into the line where the error occurred.  The first column is
+numbered <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="expat-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following program defines three handlers that just print out their
+arguments.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xml.parsers.expat</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># 3 handler functions</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">start_element</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Start element:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">end_element</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;End element:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">char_data</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Character data:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xml</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ParserCreate</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StartElementHandler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">start_element</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">EndElementHandler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">end_element</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CharacterDataHandler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">char_data</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot;?&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;parent id=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;child1 name=&quot;paul&quot;&gt;Text goes here&lt;/child1&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;child2 name=&quot;fred&quot;&gt;More text&lt;/child2&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;/parent&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output from this program is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Start</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">parent</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;id&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;top&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">Start</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">child1</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;paul&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">Character</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Text goes here&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">End</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">child1</span>
+<span class="n">Character</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">Start</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">child2</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fred&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">Character</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;More text&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">End</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">child2</span>
+<span class="n">Character</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">End</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">parent</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-xml.parsers.expat.model">
+<span id="content-model-descriptions"></span><span id="expat-content-models"></span><h2>Content Model Descriptions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat.model" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Content models are described using nested tuples.  Each tuple contains four
+values: the type, the quantifier, the name, and a tuple of children.  Children
+are simply additional content model descriptions.</p>
+<p>The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat.model" title="xml.parsers.expat.model"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat.model</span></code></a> module.  These constants can be collected in two
+groups: the model type group and the quantifier group.</p>
+<p>The constants in the model type group are:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CTYPE_ANY</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The element named by the model name was declared to have a content model of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ANY</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CTYPE_CHOICE</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is used for
+content models such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(A</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">C)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CTYPE_EMPTY</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Elements which are declared to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EMPTY</span></code> have this model type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CTYPE_MIXED</code></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CTYPE_NAME</code></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CTYPE_SEQ</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Models which represent a series of models which follow one after the other are
+indicated with this model type.  This is used for models such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(A,</span> <span class="pre">B,</span> <span class="pre">C)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The constants in the quantifier group are:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CQUANT_NONE</code></dt>
+<dd><p>No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CQUANT_OPT</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A?</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CQUANT_PLUS</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The model must occur one or more times (like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A+</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.model.</code><code class="descname">XML_CQUANT_REP</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The model must occur zero or more times, as for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A*</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-xml.parsers.expat.errors">
+<span id="expat-error-constants"></span><span id="expat-errors"></span><h2>Expat error constants<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following constants are provided in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors" title="xml.parsers.expat.errors"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat.errors</span></code></a>
+module.  These constants are useful in interpreting some of the attributes of
+the <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExpatError</span></code> exception objects raised when an error has occurred.
+Since for backwards compatibility reasons, the constants’ value is the error
+<em>message</em> and not the numeric error <em>code</em>, you do this by comparing its
+<a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> attribute with
+<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_</span><em><span class="pre">CONSTANT_NAME</span></em><span class="pre">]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code> module has the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">codes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping numeric error codes to their string descriptions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">messages</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping string descriptions to their error codes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An entity reference in an attribute value referred to an external entity instead
+of an internal entity.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A character reference referred to a character which is illegal in XML (for
+example, character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, or ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;#0;</span></code>’).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An entity reference referred to an entity which was declared with a notation, so
+cannot be parsed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An attribute was used more than once in a start tag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an input byte could not properly be assigned to a character; for
+example, a NUL byte (value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>) in a UTF-8 input stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Something other than whitespace occurred after the document element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An XML declaration was found somewhere other than the start of the input data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to contain exactly
+one top-level element)..</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Expat was not able to allocate memory internally.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A parameter entity reference was found where it was not allowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An incomplete character was found in the input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An entity reference contained another reference to the same entity; possibly via
+a different name, and possibly indirectly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_SYNTAX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Some unspecified syntax error was encountered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An end tag did not match the innermost open start tag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Some token (such as a start tag) was not closed before the end of the stream or
+the next token was encountered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A reference was made to an entity which was not defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The document encoding is not supported by Expat.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A CDATA marked section was not closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The parser determined that the document was not “standalone” though it declared
+itself to be in the XML declaration, and the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotStandaloneHandler</span></code> was
+set and returned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled in, but
+Expat was configured without DTD support.  This should never be reported by a
+standard build of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A behavioral change was requested after parsing started that can only be changed
+before parsing has started.  This is (currently) only raised by
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UseForeignDTD()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An undeclared prefix was found when namespace processing was enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The document attempted to remove the namespace declaration associated with a
+prefix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A parameter entity contained incomplete markup.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_XML_DECL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The document contained no document element at all.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>There was an error parsing a text declaration in an external entity.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_PUBLICID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Characters were found in the public id that are not allowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The requested operation was made on a suspended parser, but isn’t allowed.  This
+includes attempts to provide additional input or to stop the parser.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An attempt to resume the parser was made when the parser had not been suspended.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_ABORTED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This should not be reported to Python applications.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_FINISHED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The requested operation was made on a parser which was finished parsing input,
+but isn’t allowed.  This includes attempts to provide additional input or to
+stop the parser.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.parsers.expat.errors.</code><code class="descname">XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
+appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
+not. See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl">https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl</a>
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml">https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code> — Fast XML parsing using Expat</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlparser-objects">XMLParser Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#expaterror-exceptions">ExpatError Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat.model">Content Model Descriptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors">Expat error constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.sax.reader.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/python.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/python.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,273 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Python Runtime Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li class="right" >
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="python-runtime-services">
+<span id="python"></span><h1>Python Runtime Services<a class="headerlink" href="#python-runtime-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of services related
+to the Python interpreter and its interaction with its environment.  Here’s an
+overview:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code> — System-specific parameters and functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="sysconfig.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> — Provide access to Python’s configuration information</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sysconfig.html#configuration-variables">Configuration variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sysconfig.html#installation-paths">Installation paths</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sysconfig.html#other-functions">Other functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="sysconfig.html#using-sysconfig-as-a-script">Using <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> as a script</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code> — Built-in objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> — Top-level script environment</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code> — Warning control</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#the-warnings-filter">The Warnings Filter</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#describing-warning-filters">Describing Warning Filters</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#default-warning-filter">Default Warning Filter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#overriding-the-default-filter">Overriding the default filter</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#temporarily-suppressing-warnings">Temporarily Suppressing Warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#testing-warnings">Testing Warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies">Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#available-functions">Available Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#available-context-managers">Available Context Managers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses</span></code> — Data Classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#module-level-decorators-classes-and-functions">Module-level decorators, classes, and functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#post-init-processing">Post-init processing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#class-variables">Class variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#init-only-variables">Init-only variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#frozen-instances">Frozen instances</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#inheritance">Inheritance</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#default-factory-functions">Default factory functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#mutable-default-values">Mutable default values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code> — Utilities for <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>-statement contexts</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#utilities">Utilities</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#examples-and-recipes">Examples and Recipes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers">Supporting a variable number of context managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods">Catching exceptions from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation">Cleaning up in an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> implementation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables">Replacing any use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try-finally</span></code> and flag variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator">Using a context manager as a function decorator</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers">Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#reentrant-context-managers">Reentrant context managers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#reusable-context-managers">Reusable context managers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="abc.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code> — Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="atexit.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> — Exit handlers</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="atexit.html#atexit-example"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code> — Print or retrieve a stack traceback</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#tracebackexception-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#stacksummary-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#framesummary-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#traceback-examples">Traceback Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-queue">
+<span id="queue-a-synchronized-queue-class"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> — A synchronized queue class<a class="headerlink" href="#module-queue" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/queue.py">Lib/queue.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module implements multi-producer, multi-consumer queues.
+It is especially useful in threaded programming when information must be
+exchanged safely between multiple threads.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> class in this
+module implements all the required locking semantics.  It depends on the
+availability of thread support in Python; see the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+<p>The module implements three types of queue, which differ only in the order in
+which the entries are retrieved.  In a <abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr>
+queue, the first tasks added are the first retrieved. In a
+<abbr title="last-in, first-out">LIFO</abbr> queue, the most recently added entry is
+the first retrieved (operating like a stack).  With a priority queue,
+the entries are kept sorted (using the <a class="reference internal" href="heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> module) and the
+lowest valued entry is retrieved first.</p>
+<p>Internally, those three types of queues use locks to temporarily block
+competing threads; however, they are not designed to handle reentrancy
+within a thread.</p>
+<p>In addition, the module implements a “simple”
+<abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr> queue type, <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.SimpleQueue" title="queue.SimpleQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleQueue</span></code></a>, whose
+specific implementation provides additional guarantees
+in exchange for the smaller functionality.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module defines the following classes and exceptions:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="queue.Queue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">queue.</code><code class="descname">Queue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>maxsize=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for a <abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr> queue.  <em>maxsize</em> is
+an integer that sets the upperbound
+limit on the number of items that can be placed in the queue.  Insertion will
+block once this size has been reached, until queue items are consumed.  If
+<em>maxsize</em> is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="queue.LifoQueue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">queue.</code><code class="descname">LifoQueue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>maxsize=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.LifoQueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for a <abbr title="last-in, first-out">LIFO</abbr> queue.  <em>maxsize</em> is
+an integer that sets the upperbound
+limit on the number of items that can be placed in the queue.  Insertion will
+block once this size has been reached, until queue items are consumed.  If
+<em>maxsize</em> is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="queue.PriorityQueue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">queue.</code><code class="descname">PriorityQueue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>maxsize=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.PriorityQueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for a priority queue.  <em>maxsize</em> is an integer that sets the upperbound
+limit on the number of items that can be placed in the queue.  Insertion will
+block once this size has been reached, until queue items are consumed.  If
+<em>maxsize</em> is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.</p>
+<p>The lowest valued entries are retrieved first (the lowest valued entry is the
+one returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(list(entries))[0]</span></code>).  A typical pattern for entries
+is a tuple in the form: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(priority_number,</span> <span class="pre">data)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the <em>data</em> elements are not comparable, the data can be wrapped in a class
+that ignores the data item and only compares the priority number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">dataclasses</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">dataclass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">field</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Any</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@dataclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">order</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">PrioritizedItem</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">priority</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+    <span class="n">item</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Any</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">field</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compare</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="queue.SimpleQueue">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">queue.</code><code class="descname">SimpleQueue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.SimpleQueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constructor for an unbounded <abbr title="first-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr> queue.
+Simple queues lack advanced functionality such as task tracking.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="queue.Empty">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">queue.</code><code class="descname">Empty</code><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when non-blocking <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.get" title="queue.Queue.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> (or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.get_nowait" title="queue.Queue.get_nowait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_nowait()</span></code></a>) is called
+on a <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> object which is empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="queue.Full">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">queue.</code><code class="descname">Full</code><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Full" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when non-blocking <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.put" title="queue.Queue.put"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put()</span></code></a> (or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.put_nowait" title="queue.Queue.put_nowait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put_nowait()</span></code></a>) is called
+on a <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> object which is full.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="queue-objects">
+<span id="queueobjects"></span><h2>Queue Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#queue-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Queue objects (<a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.LifoQueue" title="queue.LifoQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LifoQueue</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.PriorityQueue" title="queue.PriorityQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PriorityQueue</span></code></a>)
+provide the public methods described below.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.qsize">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">qsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.qsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() &gt; 0 doesn’t
+guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block, nor will qsize() &lt; maxsize
+guarantee that put() will not block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.empty">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">empty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the queue is empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  If empty()
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to put()
+will not block.  Similarly, if empty() returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> it doesn’t
+guarantee that a subsequent call to get() will not block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.full">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">full</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.full" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the queue is full, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  If full()
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to get()
+will not block.  Similarly, if full() returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> it doesn’t
+guarantee that a subsequent call to put() will not block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.put">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">put</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>block=True</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.put" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put <em>item</em> into the queue. If optional args <em>block</em> is true and <em>timeout</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), block if necessary until a free slot is available. If
+<em>timeout</em> is a positive number, it blocks at most <em>timeout</em> seconds and raises
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Full" title="queue.Full"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Full</span></code></a> exception if no free slot was available within that time.
+Otherwise (<em>block</em> is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot is
+immediately available, else raise the <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Full" title="queue.Full"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Full</span></code></a> exception (<em>timeout</em> is
+ignored in that case).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.put_nowait">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">put_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.put_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put(item,</span> <span class="pre">False)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.get">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>block=True</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an item from the queue. If optional args <em>block</em> is true and
+<em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), block if necessary until an item is available.
+If <em>timeout</em> is a positive number, it blocks at most <em>timeout</em> seconds and
+raises the <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Empty</span></code></a> exception if no item was available within that time.
+Otherwise (<em>block</em> is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
+else raise the <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Empty</span></code></a> exception (<em>timeout</em> is ignored in that case).</p>
+<p>Prior to 3.0 on POSIX systems, and for all versions on Windows, if
+<em>block</em> is true and <em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, this operation goes into
+an uninterruptible wait on an underlying lock. This means that no exceptions
+can occur, and in particular a SIGINT will not trigger a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.get_nowait">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">get_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.get_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get(False)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Two methods are offered to support tracking whether enqueued tasks have been
+fully processed by daemon consumer threads.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.task_done">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">task_done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.task_done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.  Used by queue consumer
+threads.  For each <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.get" title="queue.Queue.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> used to fetch a task, a subsequent call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.task_done" title="queue.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> tells the queue that the processing on the task is complete.</p>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.join" title="queue.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> is currently blocking, it will resume when all items have been
+processed (meaning that a <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.task_done" title="queue.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> call was received for every item
+that had been <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.put" title="queue.Queue.put"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put()</span></code></a> into the queue).</p>
+<p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if called more times than there were items placed in
+the queue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.Queue.join">
+<code class="descclassname">Queue.</code><code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.Queue.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Blocks until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed.</p>
+<p>The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the queue.
+The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.task_done" title="queue.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code></a> to
+indicate that the item was retrieved and all work on it is complete. When the
+count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.join" title="queue.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> unblocks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example of how to wait for enqueued tasks to be completed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">worker</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="n">do_work</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">task_done</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">q</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">threads</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num_worker_threads</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">worker</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">threads</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">source</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># block until all tasks are done</span>
+<span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># stop workers</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num_worker_threads</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">q</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">t</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">threads</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="simplequeue-objects">
+<h2>SimpleQueue Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#simplequeue-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#queue.SimpleQueue" title="queue.SimpleQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleQueue</span></code></a> objects provide the public methods described below.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.SimpleQueue.qsize">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleQueue.</code><code class="descname">qsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.SimpleQueue.qsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() &gt; 0 doesn’t
+guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.SimpleQueue.empty">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleQueue.</code><code class="descname">empty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.SimpleQueue.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the queue is empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise. If empty()
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to get()
+will not block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.SimpleQueue.put">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleQueue.</code><code class="descname">put</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>block=True</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.SimpleQueue.put" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put <em>item</em> into the queue.  The method never blocks and always succeeds
+(except for potential low-level errors such as failure to allocate memory).
+The optional args <em>block</em> and <em>timeout</em> are ignored and only provided
+for compatibility with <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.put" title="queue.Queue.put"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue.put()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> This method has a C implementation which is reentrant.  That is, a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> call can be interrupted by another <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put()</span></code>
+call in the same thread without deadlocking or corrupting internal
+state inside the queue.  This makes it appropriate for use in
+destructors such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__</span></code> methods or <a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> callbacks.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.SimpleQueue.put_nowait">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleQueue.</code><code class="descname">put_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.SimpleQueue.put_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">put(item)</span></code>, provided for compatibility with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Queue.put_nowait" title="queue.Queue.put_nowait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue.put_nowait()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.SimpleQueue.get">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleQueue.</code><code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>block=True</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.SimpleQueue.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args <em>block</em> is true and
+<em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), block if necessary until an item is available.
+If <em>timeout</em> is a positive number, it blocks at most <em>timeout</em> seconds and
+raises the <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Empty</span></code></a> exception if no item was available within that time.
+Otherwise (<em>block</em> is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
+else raise the <a class="reference internal" href="#queue.Empty" title="queue.Empty"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Empty</span></code></a> exception (<em>timeout</em> is ignored in that case).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="queue.SimpleQueue.get_nowait">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleQueue.</code><code class="descname">get_nowait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#queue.SimpleQueue.get_nowait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get(False)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Class <a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Queue" title="multiprocessing.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Queue</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>A queue class for use in a multi-processing (rather than multi-threading)
+context.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a> is an alternative implementation of unbounded
+queues with fast atomic <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.deque.append" title="collections.deque.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.deque.popleft" title="collections.deque.popleft"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popleft()</span></code></a> operations that do not require locking.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code> — A synchronized queue class</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#queue-objects">Queue Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simplequeue-objects">SimpleQueue Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sched.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code> — Event scheduler</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="_thread.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code> — Low-level threading API</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/quopri.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/quopri.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a91060
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/quopri.html
@@ -0,0 +1,238 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-quopri">
+<span id="quopri-encode-and-decode-mime-quoted-printable-data"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-quopri" title="quopri: Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-printable encoding."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri</span></code></a> — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data<a class="headerlink" href="#module-quopri" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/quopri.py">Lib/quopri.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module performs quoted-printable transport encoding and decoding, as
+defined in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1521.html"><strong>RFC 1521</strong></a>: “MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One:
+Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies”.
+The quoted-printable encoding is designed for data where there are relatively
+few nonprintable characters; the base64 encoding scheme available via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a> module is more compact if there are many such characters, as when
+sending a graphics file.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="quopri.decode">
+<code class="descclassname">quopri.</code><code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em>, <em>output</em>, <em>header=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#quopri.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decode the contents of the <em>input</em> file and write the resulting decoded binary
+data to the <em>output</em> file. <em>input</em> and <em>output</em> must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file objects</span></a>.  If the optional argument <em>header</em> is present and true, underscore
+will be decoded as space. This is used to decode “Q”-encoded headers as
+described in <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1522.html"><strong>RFC 1522</strong></a>: “MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
+Part Two: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="quopri.encode">
+<code class="descclassname">quopri.</code><code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input</em>, <em>output</em>, <em>quotetabs</em>, <em>header=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#quopri.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encode the contents of the <em>input</em> file and write the resulting quoted-printable
+data to the <em>output</em> file. <em>input</em> and <em>output</em> must be
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file objects</span></a>. <em>quotetabs</em>, a
+non-optional flag which controls whether to encode embedded spaces
+and tabs; when true it encodes such embedded whitespace, and when
+false it leaves them unencoded.
+Note that spaces and tabs appearing at the end of lines are always encoded,
+as per <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1521.html"><strong>RFC 1521</strong></a>.  <em>header</em> is a flag which controls if spaces are encoded
+as underscores as per <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1522.html"><strong>RFC 1522</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="quopri.decodestring">
+<code class="descclassname">quopri.</code><code class="descname">decodestring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>header=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#quopri.decodestring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#quopri.decode" title="quopri.decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a>, except that it accepts a source <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and
+returns the corresponding decoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="quopri.encodestring">
+<code class="descclassname">quopri.</code><code class="descname">encodestring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>quotetabs=False</em>, <em>header=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#quopri.encodestring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#quopri.encode" title="quopri.encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a>, except that it accepts a source <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and
+returns the corresponding encoded <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>. By default, it sends a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> value to <em>quotetabs</em> parameter of the <a class="reference internal" href="#quopri.encode" title="quopri.encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Encode and decode MIME base64 data</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="binascii.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code> — Convert between binary and ASCII</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="uu.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code> — Encode and decode uuencode files</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/random.html
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>random — Generate pseudo-random numbers &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-random">
+<span id="random-generate-pseudo-random-numbers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> — Generate pseudo-random numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-random" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/random.py">Lib/random.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module implements pseudo-random number generators for various
+distributions.</p>
+<p>For integers, there is uniform selection from a range. For sequences, there is
+uniform selection of a random element, a function to generate a random
+permutation of a list in-place, and a function for random sampling without
+replacement.</p>
+<p>On the real line, there are functions to compute uniform, normal (Gaussian),
+lognormal, negative exponential, gamma, and beta distributions. For generating
+distributions of angles, the von Mises distribution is available.</p>
+<p>Almost all module functions depend on the basic function <a class="reference internal" href="#random.random" title="random.random"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random()</span></code></a>, which
+generates a random float uniformly in the semi-open range [0.0, 1.0).  Python
+uses the Mersenne Twister as the core generator.  It produces 53-bit precision
+floats and has a period of 2**19937-1.  The underlying implementation in C is
+both fast and threadsafe.  The Mersenne Twister is one of the most extensively
+tested random number generators in existence.  However, being completely
+deterministic, it is not suitable for all purposes, and is completely unsuitable
+for cryptographic purposes.</p>
+<p>The functions supplied by this module are actually bound methods of a hidden
+instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#random.Random" title="random.Random"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.Random</span></code></a> class.  You can instantiate your own
+instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#random.Random" title="random.Random"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Random</span></code></a> to get generators that don’t share state.</p>
+<p>Class <a class="reference internal" href="#random.Random" title="random.Random"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Random</span></code></a> can also be subclassed if you want to use a different
+basic generator of your own devising: in that case, override the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seed()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstate()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setstate()</span></code> methods.
+Optionally, a new generator can supply a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandbits()</span></code> method — this
+allows <a class="reference internal" href="#random.randrange" title="random.randrange"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange()</span></code></a> to produce selections over an arbitrarily large range.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module also provides the <a class="reference internal" href="#random.SystemRandom" title="random.SystemRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemRandom</span></code></a> class which
+uses the system function <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> to generate random numbers
+from sources provided by the operating system.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The pseudo-random generators of this module should not be used for
+security purposes.  For security or cryptographic uses, see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="secrets.html#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, “Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally
+equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator”, ACM Transactions on
+Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol. 8, No. 1, January pp.3–30 1998.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707/">Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe</a> for a compatible alternative
+random number generator with a long period and comparatively simple update
+operations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bookkeeping-functions">
+<h2>Bookkeeping functions<a class="headerlink" href="#bookkeeping-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.seed">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">seed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a=None</em>, <em>version=2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.seed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Initialize the random number generator.</p>
+<p>If <em>a</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the current system time is used.  If
+randomness sources are provided by the operating system, they are used
+instead of the system time (see the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> function for details
+on availability).</p>
+<p>If <em>a</em> is an int, it is used directly.</p>
+<p>With version 2 (the default), a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>
+object gets converted to an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and all of its bits are used.</p>
+<p>With version 1 (provided for reproducing random sequences from older versions
+of Python), the algorithm for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> generates a
+narrower range of seeds.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Moved to the version 2 scheme which uses all of the bits in a string seed.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.getstate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">getstate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.getstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an object capturing the current internal state of the generator.  This
+object can be passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#random.setstate" title="random.setstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setstate()</span></code></a> to restore the state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.setstate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">setstate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>state</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.setstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>state</em> should have been obtained from a previous call to <a class="reference internal" href="#random.getstate" title="random.getstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstate()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#random.setstate" title="random.setstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setstate()</span></code></a> restores the internal state of the generator to what it was at
+the time <a class="reference internal" href="#random.getstate" title="random.getstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstate()</span></code></a> was called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.getrandbits">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">getrandbits</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>k</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.getrandbits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a Python integer with <em>k</em> random bits. This method is supplied with
+the MersenneTwister generator and some other generators may also provide it
+as an optional part of the API. When available, <a class="reference internal" href="#random.getrandbits" title="random.getrandbits"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandbits()</span></code></a> enables
+<a class="reference internal" href="#random.randrange" title="random.randrange"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange()</span></code></a> to handle arbitrarily large ranges.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions-for-integers">
+<h2>Functions for integers<a class="headerlink" href="#functions-for-integers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.randrange">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">randrange</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.randrange" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">randrange</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start</em>, <em>stop</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>step</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a randomly selected element from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop,</span> <span class="pre">step)</span></code>.  This is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choice(range(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop,</span> <span class="pre">step))</span></code>, but doesn’t actually build a
+range object.</p>
+<p>The positional argument pattern matches that of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a>.  Keyword arguments
+should not be used because the function may use them in unexpected ways.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#random.randrange" title="random.randrange"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange()</span></code></a> is more sophisticated about producing equally distributed
+values.  Formerly it used a style like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(random()*n)</span></code> which could produce
+slightly uneven distributions.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.randint">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">randint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.randint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random integer <em>N</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">N</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.  Alias for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange(a,</span> <span class="pre">b+1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions-for-sequences">
+<h2>Functions for sequences<a class="headerlink" href="#functions-for-sequences" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.choice">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">choice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>seq</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.choice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random element from the non-empty sequence <em>seq</em>. If <em>seq</em> is empty,
+raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.choices">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">choices</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>population</em>, <em>weights=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>cum_weights=None</em>, <em>k=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.choices" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <em>k</em> sized list of elements chosen from the <em>population</em> with replacement.
+If the <em>population</em> is empty, raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If a <em>weights</em> sequence is specified, selections are made according to the
+relative weights.  Alternatively, if a <em>cum_weights</em> sequence is given, the
+selections are made according to the cumulative weights (perhaps computed
+using <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.accumulate()</span></code></a>).  For example, the relative weights
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[10,</span> <span class="pre">5,</span> <span class="pre">30,</span> <span class="pre">5]</span></code> are equivalent to the cumulative weights
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[10,</span> <span class="pre">15,</span> <span class="pre">45,</span> <span class="pre">50]</span></code>.  Internally, the relative weights are converted to
+cumulative weights before making selections, so supplying the cumulative
+weights saves work.</p>
+<p>If neither <em>weights</em> nor <em>cum_weights</em> are specified, selections are made
+with equal probability.  If a weights sequence is supplied, it must be
+the same length as the <em>population</em> sequence.  It is a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+to specify both <em>weights</em> and <em>cum_weights</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>weights</em> or <em>cum_weights</em> can use any numeric type that interoperates
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> values returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random()</span></code></a> (that includes
+integers, floats, and fractions but excludes decimals).</p>
+<p>For a given seed, the <a class="reference internal" href="#random.choices" title="random.choices"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choices()</span></code></a> function with equal weighting
+typically produces a different sequence than repeated calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#random.choice" title="random.choice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choice()</span></code></a>.  The algorithm used by <a class="reference internal" href="#random.choices" title="random.choices"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choices()</span></code></a> uses floating
+point arithmetic for internal consistency and speed.  The algorithm used
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#random.choice" title="random.choice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choice()</span></code></a> defaults to integer arithmetic with repeated selections
+to avoid small biases from round-off error.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.shuffle">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">shuffle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>random</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.shuffle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Shuffle the sequence <em>x</em> in place.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>random</em> is a 0-argument function returning a random
+float in [0.0, 1.0); by default, this is the function <a class="reference internal" href="#random.random" title="random.random"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>To shuffle an immutable sequence and return a new shuffled list, use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample(x,</span> <span class="pre">k=len(x))</span></code> instead.</p>
+<p>Note that even for small <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(x)</span></code>, the total number of permutations of <em>x</em>
+can quickly grow larger than the period of most random number generators.
+This implies that most permutations of a long sequence can never be
+generated.  For example, a sequence of length 2080 is the largest that
+can fit within the period of the Mersenne Twister random number generator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.sample">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">sample</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>population</em>, <em>k</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.sample" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <em>k</em> length list of unique elements chosen from the population sequence
+or set. Used for random sampling without replacement.</p>
+<p>Returns a new list containing elements from the population while leaving the
+original population unchanged.  The resulting list is in selection order so that
+all sub-slices will also be valid random samples.  This allows raffle winners
+(the sample) to be partitioned into grand prize and second place winners (the
+subslices).</p>
+<p>Members of the population need not be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> or unique.  If the population
+contains repeats, then each occurrence is a possible selection in the sample.</p>
+<p>To choose a sample from a range of integers, use a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> object as an
+argument.  This is especially fast and space efficient for sampling from a large
+population:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample(range(10000000),</span> <span class="pre">k=60)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the sample size is larger than the population size, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="real-valued-distributions">
+<h2>Real-valued distributions<a class="headerlink" href="#real-valued-distributions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions generate specific real-valued distributions. Function
+parameters are named after the corresponding variables in the distribution’s
+equation, as used in common mathematical practice; most of these equations can
+be found in any statistics text.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.random">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">random</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.random" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the next random floating point number in the range [0.0, 1.0).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.uniform">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">uniform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.uniform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random floating point number <em>N</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">N</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">N</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code> for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The end-point value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> may or may not be included in the range
+depending on floating-point rounding in the equation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">(b-a)</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">random()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.triangular">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">triangular</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>low</em>, <em>high</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.triangular" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random floating point number <em>N</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">low</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">N</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">high</span></code> and
+with the specified <em>mode</em> between those bounds.  The <em>low</em> and <em>high</em> bounds
+default to zero and one.  The <em>mode</em> argument defaults to the midpoint
+between the bounds, giving a symmetric distribution.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.betavariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">betavariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>alpha</em>, <em>beta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.betavariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Beta distribution.  Conditions on the parameters are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alpha</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">beta</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>. Returned values range between 0 and 1.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.expovariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">expovariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lambd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.expovariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exponential distribution.  <em>lambd</em> is 1.0 divided by the desired
+mean.  It should be nonzero.  (The parameter would be called
+“lambda”, but that is a reserved word in Python.)  Returned values
+range from 0 to positive infinity if <em>lambd</em> is positive, and from
+negative infinity to 0 if <em>lambd</em> is negative.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.gammavariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">gammavariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>alpha</em>, <em>beta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.gammavariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Gamma distribution.  (<em>Not</em> the gamma function!)  Conditions on the
+parameters are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alpha</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">beta</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The probability distribution function is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>          <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alpha</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">beta</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">pdf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span>  <span class="o">--------------------------------------</span>
+            <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gamma</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alpha</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">beta</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="n">alpha</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.gauss">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">gauss</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mu</em>, <em>sigma</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.gauss" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Gaussian distribution.  <em>mu</em> is the mean, and <em>sigma</em> is the standard
+deviation.  This is slightly faster than the <a class="reference internal" href="#random.normalvariate" title="random.normalvariate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalvariate()</span></code></a> function
+defined below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.lognormvariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">lognormvariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mu</em>, <em>sigma</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.lognormvariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Log normal distribution.  If you take the natural logarithm of this
+distribution, you’ll get a normal distribution with mean <em>mu</em> and standard
+deviation <em>sigma</em>.  <em>mu</em> can have any value, and <em>sigma</em> must be greater than
+zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.normalvariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">normalvariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mu</em>, <em>sigma</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.normalvariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Normal distribution.  <em>mu</em> is the mean, and <em>sigma</em> is the standard deviation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.vonmisesvariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">vonmisesvariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mu</em>, <em>kappa</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.vonmisesvariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>mu</em> is the mean angle, expressed in radians between 0 and 2*<em>pi</em>, and <em>kappa</em>
+is the concentration parameter, which must be greater than or equal to zero.  If
+<em>kappa</em> is equal to zero, this distribution reduces to a uniform random angle
+over the range 0 to 2*<em>pi</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.paretovariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">paretovariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>alpha</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.paretovariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pareto distribution.  <em>alpha</em> is the shape parameter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="random.weibullvariate">
+<code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">weibullvariate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>alpha</em>, <em>beta</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.weibullvariate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Weibull distribution.  <em>alpha</em> is the scale parameter and <em>beta</em> is the shape
+parameter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="alternative-generator">
+<h2>Alternative Generator<a class="headerlink" href="#alternative-generator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="random.Random">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">Random</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>seed</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.Random" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class that implements the default pseudo-random number generator used by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="random.SystemRandom">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">random.</code><code class="descname">SystemRandom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>seed</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#random.SystemRandom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class that uses the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> function for generating random numbers
+from sources provided by the operating system. Not available on all systems.
+Does not rely on software state, and sequences are not reproducible. Accordingly,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#random.seed" title="random.seed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seed()</span></code></a> method has no effect and is ignored.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#random.getstate" title="random.getstate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstate()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#random.setstate" title="random.setstate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setstate()</span></code></a> methods raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> if called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notes-on-reproducibility">
+<h2>Notes on Reproducibility<a class="headerlink" href="#notes-on-reproducibility" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes it is useful to be able to reproduce the sequences given by a pseudo
+random number generator.  By re-using a seed value, the same sequence should be
+reproducible from run to run as long as multiple threads are not running.</p>
+<p>Most of the random module’s algorithms and seeding functions are subject to
+change across Python versions, but two aspects are guaranteed not to change:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If a new seeding method is added, then a backward compatible seeder will be
+offered.</p></li>
+<li><p>The generator’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random()</span></code> method will continue to produce the same
+sequence when the compatible seeder is given the same seed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples-and-recipes">
+<span id="random-examples"></span><h2>Examples and Recipes<a class="headerlink" href="#examples-and-recipes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Basic examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">()</span>                             <span class="c1"># Random float:  0.0 &lt;= x &lt; 1.0</span>
+<span class="go">0.37444887175646646</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uniform</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">10.0</span><span class="p">)</span>                   <span class="c1"># Random float:  2.5 &lt;= x &lt; 10.0</span>
+<span class="go">3.1800146073117523</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expovariate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>                   <span class="c1"># Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds</span>
+<span class="go">5.148957571865031</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">randrange</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>                        <span class="c1"># Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive</span>
+<span class="go">7</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">randrange</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">101</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>                 <span class="c1"># Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive</span>
+<span class="go">26</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;win&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lose&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;draw&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>      <span class="c1"># Single random element from a sequence</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;draw&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">deck</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ace two three four&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">shuffle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">deck</span><span class="p">)</span>                        <span class="c1"># Shuffle a list</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">deck</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;four&#39;, &#39;two&#39;, &#39;ace&#39;, &#39;three&#39;]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># Four samples without replacement</span>
+<span class="go">[40, 10, 50, 30]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Simulations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">choices</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;black&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;green&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">18</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">18</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;red&#39;, &#39;green&#39;, &#39;black&#39;, &#39;black&#39;, &#39;red&#39;, &#39;black&#39;]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck of 52 playing cards</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># and determine the proportion of cards with a ten-value</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># (a ten, jack, queen, or king).</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">deck</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tens</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">low_cards</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">36</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">seen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">deck</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">elements</span><span class="p">()),</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">seen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tens&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">20</span>
+<span class="go">0.15</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">trial</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">choices</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;HT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cum_weights</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.60</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.00</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;H&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trial</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">10000</span>
+<span class="go">0.4169</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">trial</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">2500</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choices</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">7500</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trial</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">10000</span>
+<span class="go">0.7958</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)">statistical bootstrapping</a> using resampling
+with replacement to estimate a confidence interval for the mean of a sample of
+size five:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># http://statistics.about.com/od/Applications/a/Example-Of-Bootstrapping.htm</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">statistics</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">mean</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">random</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">choices</span>
+
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="n">means</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choices</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90</span><span class="si">% c</span><span class="s1">onfidence &#39;</span>
+      <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;interval from </span><span class="si">{means[1]:.1f}</span><span class="s1"> to </span><span class="si">{means[-2]:.1f}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests">resampling permutation test</a>
+to determine the statistical significance or <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value">p-value</a> of an observed difference
+between the effects of a drug versus a placebo:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Example from &quot;Statistics is Easy&quot; by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">statistics</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">mean</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">random</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">shuffle</span>
+
+<span class="n">drug</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">54</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">73</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">53</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">70</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">73</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">68</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">52</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">65</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">65</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">placebo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">54</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">51</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">58</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">44</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">55</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">52</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">47</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">58</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">46</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">observed_diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">drug</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">placebo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10000</span>
+<span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">combined</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">drug</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">placebo</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">shuffle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combined</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">new_diff</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combined</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">drug</span><span class="p">)])</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">combined</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">drug</span><span class="p">):])</span>
+    <span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_diff</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="n">observed_diff</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{n}</span><span class="s1"> label reshufflings produced only </span><span class="si">{count}</span><span class="s1"> instances with a difference&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;at least as extreme as the observed difference of </span><span class="si">{observed_diff:.1f}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Simulation of arrival times and service deliveries in a single server queue:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">random</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">expovariate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">gauss</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">statistics</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">median</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdev</span>
+
+<span class="n">average_arrival_interval</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">5.6</span>
+<span class="n">average_service_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">5.0</span>
+<span class="n">stdev_service_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span>
+
+<span class="n">num_waiting</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">arrivals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="n">starts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="n">arrival</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">service_end</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.0</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20000</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">arrival</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">service_end</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">num_waiting</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="n">arrival</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">expovariate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">average_arrival_interval</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">arrivals</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arrival</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">num_waiting</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="n">service_start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">service_end</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">num_waiting</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">arrival</span>
+        <span class="n">service_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gauss</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">average_service_time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdev_service_time</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">service_end</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">service_start</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">service_time</span>
+        <span class="n">starts</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">service_start</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">waits</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">arrival</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">arrival</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arrivals</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">starts</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}.  Stdev wait: {stdev(waits):.1f}.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Median wait: {median(waits):.1f}.  Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA">Statistics for Hackers</a>
+a video tutorial by
+<a class="reference external" href="https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/">Jake Vanderplas</a>
+on statistical analysis using just a few fundamental concepts
+including simulation, sampling, shuffling, and cross-validation.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://nbviewer.jupyter.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb">Economics Simulation</a>
+a simulation of a marketplace by
+<a class="reference external" href="http://norvig.com/bio.html">Peter Norvig</a> that shows effective
+use of many of the tools and distributions provided by this module
+(gauss, uniform, sample, betavariate, choice, triangular, and randrange).</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://nbviewer.jupyter.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb">A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python)</a>
+a tutorial by <a class="reference external" href="http://norvig.com/bio.html">Peter Norvig</a> covering
+the basics of probability theory, how to write simulations, and
+how to perform data analysis using Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code> — Generate pseudo-random numbers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bookkeeping-functions">Bookkeeping functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions-for-integers">Functions for integers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions-for-sequences">Functions for sequences</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#real-valued-distributions">Real-valued distributions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternative-generator">Alternative Generator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes-on-reproducibility">Notes on Reproducibility</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples-and-recipes">Examples and Recipes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="fractions.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code> — Rational numbers</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="statistics.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code> — Mathematical statistics functions</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-re">
+<span id="re-regular-expression-operations"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> — Regular expression operations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-re" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/re.py">Lib/re.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides regular expression matching operations similar to
+those found in Perl.</p>
+<p>Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>)
+as well as 8-bit strings (<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>).
+However, Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed:
+that is, you cannot match a Unicode string with a byte pattern or
+vice-versa; similarly, when asking for a substitution, the replacement
+string must be of the same type as both the pattern and the search string.</p>
+<p>Regular expressions use the backslash character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code>) to indicate
+special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking
+their special meaning.  This collides with Python’s usage of the same
+character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match
+a literal backslash, one might have to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\\\\'</span></code> as the pattern
+string, because the regular expression must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\</span></code>, and each
+backslash must be expressed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\</span></code> inside a regular Python string
+literal.</p>
+<p>The solution is to use Python’s raw string notation for regular expression
+patterns; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string literal
+prefixed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>.  So <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\n&quot;</span></code> is a two-character string containing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code>, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\n&quot;</span></code> is a one-character string containing a
+newline.  Usually patterns will be expressed in Python code using this raw
+string notation.</p>
+<p>It is important to note that most regular expression operations are available as
+module-level functions and methods on
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">compiled regular expressions</span></a>.  The functions are shortcuts
+that don’t require you to compile a regex object first, but miss some
+fine-tuning parameters.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The third-party <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/regex/">regex</a> module,
+which has an API compatible with the standard library <a class="reference internal" href="#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module,
+but offers additional functionality and a more thorough Unicode support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="regular-expression-syntax">
+<span id="re-syntax"></span><h2>Regular Expression Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#regular-expression-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A regular expression (or RE) specifies a set of strings that matches it; the
+functions in this module let you check if a particular string matches a given
+regular expression (or if a given regular expression matches a particular
+string, which comes down to the same thing).</p>
+<p>Regular expressions can be concatenated to form new regular expressions; if <em>A</em>
+and <em>B</em> are both regular expressions, then <em>AB</em> is also a regular expression.
+In general, if a string <em>p</em> matches <em>A</em> and another string <em>q</em> matches <em>B</em>, the
+string <em>pq</em> will match AB.  This holds unless <em>A</em> or <em>B</em> contain low precedence
+operations; boundary conditions between <em>A</em> and <em>B</em>; or have numbered group
+references.  Thus, complex expressions can easily be constructed from simpler
+primitive expressions like the ones described here.  For details of the theory
+and implementation of regular expressions, consult the Friedl book <a class="reference internal" href="#frie09" id="id1"><span>[Frie09]</span></a>,
+or almost any textbook about compiler construction.</p>
+<p>A brief explanation of the format of regular expressions follows.  For further
+information and a gentler presentation, consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/regex.html#regex-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Regular Expression HOWTO</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Regular expressions can contain both special and ordinary characters. Most
+ordinary characters, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>, are the simplest regular
+expressions; they simply match themselves.  You can concatenate ordinary
+characters, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> matches the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'last'</span></code>.  (In the rest of this
+section, we’ll write RE’s in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">this</span> <span class="pre">special</span> <span class="pre">style</span></code>, usually without quotes, and
+strings to be matched <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'in</span> <span class="pre">single</span> <span class="pre">quotes'</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>Some characters, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'|'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'('</span></code>, are special. Special
+characters either stand for classes of ordinary characters, or affect
+how the regular expressions around them are interpreted.</p>
+<p>Repetition qualifiers (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{m,n}</span></code>, etc) cannot be
+directly nested. This avoids ambiguity with the non-greedy modifier suffix
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>, and with other modifiers in other implementations. To apply a second
+repetition to an inner repetition, parentheses may be used. For example,
+the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?:a{6})*</span></code> matches any multiple of six <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> characters.</p>
+<p>The special characters are:</p>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-0">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code></dt><dd><p>(Dot.)  In the default mode, this matches any character except a newline.  If
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.DOTALL" title="re.DOTALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOTALL</span></code></a> flag has been specified, this matches any character
+including a newline.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-1">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code></dt><dd><p>(Caret.)  Matches the start of the string, and in <a class="reference internal" href="#re.MULTILINE" title="re.MULTILINE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code></a> mode also
+matches immediately after each newline.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-2">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches the end of the string or just before the newline at the end of the
+string, and in <a class="reference internal" href="#re.MULTILINE" title="re.MULTILINE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code></a> mode also matches before a newline.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>
+matches both ‘foo’ and ‘foobar’, while the regular expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo$</span></code> matches
+only ‘foo’.  More interestingly, searching for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.$</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo1\nfoo2\n'</span></code>
+matches ‘foo2’ normally, but ‘foo1’ in <a class="reference internal" href="#re.MULTILINE" title="re.MULTILINE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code></a> mode; searching for
+a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo\n'</span></code> will find two (empty) matches: one just before
+the newline, and one at the end of the string.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-3">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code></dt><dd><p>Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or more repetitions of the preceding RE, as
+many repetitions as are possible.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ab*</span></code> will match ‘a’, ‘ab’, or ‘a’ followed
+by any number of ‘b’s.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-4">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code></dt><dd><p>Causes the resulting RE to match 1 or more repetitions of the preceding RE.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ab+</span></code> will match ‘a’ followed by any non-zero number of ‘b’s; it will not
+match just ‘a’.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-5">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code></dt><dd><p>Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or 1 repetitions of the preceding RE.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ab?</span></code> will match either ‘a’ or ‘ab’.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-6">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*?</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+?</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">??</span></code></dt><dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> qualifiers are all <em class="dfn">greedy</em>; they match
+as much text as possible.  Sometimes this behaviour isn’t desired; if the RE
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;.*&gt;</span></code> is matched against <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;a&gt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">&lt;c&gt;'</span></code>, it will match the entire
+string, and not just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;a&gt;'</span></code>.  Adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> after the qualifier makes it
+perform the match in <em class="dfn">non-greedy</em> or <em class="dfn">minimal</em> fashion; as <em>few</em>
+characters as possible will be matched.  Using the RE <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;.*?&gt;</span></code> will match
+only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;a&gt;'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-7">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{m}</span></code></dt><dd><p>Specifies that exactly <em>m</em> copies of the previous RE should be matched; fewer
+matches cause the entire RE not to match.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a{6}</span></code> will match
+exactly six <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> characters, but not five.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{m,n}</span></code></dt><dd><p>Causes the resulting RE to match from <em>m</em> to <em>n</em> repetitions of the preceding
+RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a{3,5}</span></code> will match from 3 to 5 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> characters.  Omitting <em>m</em> specifies a
+lower bound of zero,  and omitting <em>n</em> specifies an infinite upper bound.  As an
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a{4,}b</span></code> will match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'aaaab'</span></code> or a thousand <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> characters
+followed by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>, but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'aaab'</span></code>. The comma may not be omitted or the
+modifier would be confused with the previously described form.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{m,n}?</span></code></dt><dd><p>Causes the resulting RE to match from <em>m</em> to <em>n</em> repetitions of the preceding
+RE, attempting to match as <em>few</em> repetitions as possible.  This is the
+non-greedy version of the previous qualifier.  For example, on the
+6-character string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'aaaaaa'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a{3,5}</span></code> will match 5 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> characters,
+while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a{3,5}?</span></code> will only match 3 characters.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="index-8">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code></dt><dd><p>Either escapes special characters (permitting you to match characters like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>, and so forth), or signals a special sequence; special
+sequences are discussed below.</p>
+<p>If you’re not using a raw string to express the pattern, remember that Python
+also uses the backslash as an escape sequence in string literals; if the escape
+sequence isn’t recognized by Python’s parser, the backslash and subsequent
+character are included in the resulting string.  However, if Python would
+recognize the resulting sequence, the backslash should be repeated twice.  This
+is complicated and hard to understand, so it’s highly recommended that you use
+raw strings for all but the simplest expressions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="index-9">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code></dt><dd><p>Used to indicate a set of characters.  In a set:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Characters can be listed individually, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[amk]</span></code> will match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'m'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'k'</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-10">
+<li><p>Ranges of characters can be indicated by giving two characters and separating
+them by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-z]</span></code> will match any lowercase ASCII letter,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0-5][0-9]</span></code> will match all the two-digits numbers from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">00</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">59</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0-9A-Fa-f]</span></code> will match any hexadecimal digit.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> is escaped (e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a\-z]</span></code>) or if it’s placed as the first or last character
+(e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[-a]</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-]</span></code>), it will match a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Special characters lose their special meaning inside sets.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[(+*)]</span></code> will match any of the literal characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'('</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">')'</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-11">
+<li><p>Character classes such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\S</span></code> (defined below) are also accepted
+inside a set, although the characters they match depends on whether
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code></a> mode is in force.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-12">
+<li><p>Characters that are not within a range can be matched by <em class="dfn">complementing</em>
+the set.  If the first character of the set is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code>, all the characters
+that are <em>not</em> in the set will be matched.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^5]</span></code> will match
+any character except <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'5'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^^]</span></code> will match any character except
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> has no special meaning if it’s not the first character in
+the set.</p></li>
+<li><p>To match a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">']'</span></code> inside a set, precede it with a backslash, or
+place it at the beginning of the set.  For example, both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[()[\]{}]</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]()[{}]</span></code> will both match a parenthesis.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Support of nested sets and set operations as in <a class="reference external" href="https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/">Unicode Technical
+Standard #18</a> might be added in the future.  This would change the
+syntax, so to facilitate this change a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a> will be raised
+in ambiguous cases for the time being.
+That includes sets starting with a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'['</span></code> or containing literal
+character sequences <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'--'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;&amp;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'~~'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'||'</span></code>.  To
+avoid a warning escape them with a backslash.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a> is raised if a character set contains constructs
+that will change semantically in the future.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-13">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code></dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A|B</span></code>, where <em>A</em> and <em>B</em> can be arbitrary REs, creates a regular expression that
+will match either <em>A</em> or <em>B</em>.  An arbitrary number of REs can be separated by the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'|'</span></code> in this way.  This can be used inside groups (see below) as well.  As
+the target string is scanned, REs separated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'|'</span></code> are tried from left to
+right. When one pattern completely matches, that branch is accepted. This means
+that once <em>A</em> matches, <em>B</em> will not be tested further, even if it would
+produce a longer overall match.  In other words, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'|'</span></code> operator is never
+greedy.  To match a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'|'</span></code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\|</span></code>, or enclose it inside a
+character class, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[|]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-14">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches whatever regular expression is inside the parentheses, and indicates the
+start and end of a group; the contents of a group can be retrieved after a match
+has been performed, and can be matched later in the string with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\number</span></code>
+special sequence, described below.  To match the literals <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'('</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">')'</span></code>,
+use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\(</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\)</span></code>, or enclose them inside a character class: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[(]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[)]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-15">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>This is an extension notation (a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> following a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'('</span></code> is not meaningful
+otherwise).  The first character after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> determines what the meaning
+and further syntax of the construct is. Extensions usually do not create a new
+group; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;name&gt;...)</span></code> is the only exception to this rule. Following are the
+currently supported extensions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?aiLmsux)</span></code></dt><dd><p>(One or more letters from the set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'L'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'m'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>.)  The group matches the empty string; the
+letters set the corresponding flags: <a class="reference internal" href="#re.A" title="re.A"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.A</span></code></a> (ASCII-only matching),
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.I" title="re.I"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.I</span></code></a> (ignore case), <a class="reference internal" href="#re.L" title="re.L"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.L</span></code></a> (locale dependent),
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.M" title="re.M"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.M</span></code></a> (multi-line), <a class="reference internal" href="#re.S" title="re.S"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.S</span></code></a> (dot matches all),
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.U</span></code> (Unicode matching), and <a class="reference internal" href="#re.X" title="re.X"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.X</span></code></a> (verbose),
+for the entire regular expression.
+(The flags are described in <a class="reference internal" href="#contents-of-module-re"><span class="std std-ref">Module Contents</span></a>.)
+This is useful if you wish to include the flags as part of the
+regular expression, instead of passing a <em>flag</em> argument to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> function.  Flags should be used first in the
+expression string.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="index-16">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?:...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>A non-capturing version of regular parentheses.  Matches whatever regular
+expression is inside the parentheses, but the substring matched by the group
+<em>cannot</em> be retrieved after performing a match or referenced later in the
+pattern.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>(Zero or more letters from the set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'L'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'m'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>, optionally followed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> followed by
+one or more letters from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'m'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>.)
+The letters set or remove the corresponding flags:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.A" title="re.A"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.A</span></code></a> (ASCII-only matching), <a class="reference internal" href="#re.I" title="re.I"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.I</span></code></a> (ignore case),
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.L" title="re.L"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.L</span></code></a> (locale dependent), <a class="reference internal" href="#re.M" title="re.M"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.M</span></code></a> (multi-line),
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.S" title="re.S"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.S</span></code></a> (dot matches all), <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.U</span></code> (Unicode matching),
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#re.X" title="re.X"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.X</span></code></a> (verbose), for the part of the expression.
+(The flags are described in <a class="reference internal" href="#contents-of-module-re"><span class="std std-ref">Module Contents</span></a>.)</p>
+<p>The letters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'L'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> are mutually exclusive when used
+as inline flags, so they can’t be combined or follow <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>.  Instead,
+when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides the matching mode
+in the enclosing group.  In Unicode patterns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?a:...)</span></code> switches to
+ASCII-only matching, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?u:...)</span></code> switches to Unicode matching
+(default).  In byte pattern <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?L:...)</span></code> switches to locale depending
+matching, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?a:...)</span></code> switches to ASCII-only matching (default).
+This override is only in effect for the narrow inline group, and the
+original matching mode is restored outside of the group.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The letters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'L'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> also can be used in a group.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="index-17">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;name&gt;...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the group is
+accessible via the symbolic group name <em>name</em>.  Group names must be valid
+Python identifiers, and each group name must be defined only once within a
+regular expression.  A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if
+the group were not named.</p>
+<p>Named groups can be referenced in three contexts.  If the pattern is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;quote&gt;['&quot;]).*?(?P=quote)</span></code> (i.e. matching a string quoted with either
+single or double quotes):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 53%" />
+<col style="width: 47%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Context of reference to group “quote”</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Ways to reference it</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>in the same pattern itself</p></td>
+<td><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P=quote)</span></code> (as shown)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\1</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>when processing match object <em>m</em></p></td>
+<td><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.group('quote')</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.end('quote')</span></code> (etc.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>in a string passed to the <em>repl</em>
+argument of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;quote&gt;</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;1&gt;</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\1</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-18">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P=name)</span></code></dt><dd><p>A backreference to a named group; it matches whatever text was matched by the
+earlier group named <em>name</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-19">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?#...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>A comment; the contents of the parentheses are simply ignored.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-20">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?=...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code> matches next, but doesn’t consume any of the string.  This is
+called a <em class="dfn">lookahead assertion</em>.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Isaac</span> <span class="pre">(?=Asimov)</span></code> will match
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Isaac</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code> only if it’s followed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Asimov'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-21">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?!...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code> doesn’t match next.  This is a <em class="dfn">negative lookahead assertion</em>.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Isaac</span> <span class="pre">(?!Asimov)</span></code> will match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Isaac</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code> only if it’s <em>not</em>
+followed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Asimov'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="index-22">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?&lt;=...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches if the current position in the string is preceded by a match for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>
+that ends at the current position.  This is called a <em class="dfn">positive lookbehind
+assertion</em>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?&lt;=abc)def</span></code> will find a match in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abcdef'</span></code>, since the
+lookbehind will back up 3 characters and check if the contained pattern matches.
+The contained pattern must only match strings of some fixed length, meaning that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a|b</span></code> are allowed, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a{3,4}</span></code> are not.  Note that
+patterns which start with positive lookbehind assertions will not match at the
+beginning of the string being searched; you will most likely want to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> function rather than the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(?&lt;=abc)def&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abcdef&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;def&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example looks for a word following a hyphen:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(?&lt;=-)\w+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam-egg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;egg&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for group references of fixed length.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-23">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?&lt;!...)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches if the current position in the string is not preceded by a match for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>.  This is called a <em class="dfn">negative lookbehind assertion</em>.  Similar to
+positive lookbehind assertions, the contained pattern must only match strings of
+some fixed length.  Patterns which start with negative lookbehind assertions may
+match at the beginning of the string being searched.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Will try to match with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yes-pattern</span></code> if the group with given <em>id</em> or
+<em>name</em> exists, and with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no-pattern</span></code> if it doesn’t. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no-pattern</span></code> is
+optional and can be omitted. For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(&lt;)?(\w+&#64;\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)&gt;|$)</span></code> is a poor email matching pattern, which
+will match with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;user&#64;host.com&gt;'</span></code> as well as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'user&#64;host.com'</span></code>, but
+not with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;user&#64;host.com'</span></code> nor <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'user&#64;host.com&gt;'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The special sequences consist of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and a character from the list below.
+If the ordinary character is not an ASCII digit or an ASCII letter, then the
+resulting RE will match the second character.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\$</span></code> matches the
+character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-24">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\number</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches the contents of the group of the same number.  Groups are numbered
+starting from 1.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(.+)</span> <span class="pre">\1</span></code> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'the</span> <span class="pre">the'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'55</span> <span class="pre">55'</span></code>,
+but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'thethe'</span></code> (note the space after the group).  This special sequence
+can only be used to match one of the first 99 groups.  If the first digit of
+<em>number</em> is 0, or <em>number</em> is 3 octal digits long, it will not be interpreted as
+a group match, but as the character with octal value <em>number</em>. Inside the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'['</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">']'</span></code> of a character class, all numeric escapes are treated as
+characters.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-25">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\A</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches only at the start of the string.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="index-26">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a word.
+A word is defined as a sequence of word characters.  Note that formally,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> is defined as the boundary between a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\W</span></code> character
+(or vice versa), or between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code> and the beginning/end of the string.
+This means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\bfoo\b'</span></code> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo.'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(foo)'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'bar</span> <span class="pre">foo</span> <span class="pre">baz'</span></code> but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foobar'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'foo3'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>By default Unicode alphanumerics are the ones used in Unicode patterns, but
+this can be changed by using the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag.  Word boundaries are
+determined by the current locale if the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code></a> flag is used.
+Inside a character range, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> represents the backspace character, for
+compatibility with Python’s string literals.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-27">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\B</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches the empty string, but only when it is <em>not</em> at the beginning or end
+of a word.  This means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'py\B'</span></code> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'python'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'py3'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'py2'</span></code>, but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'py'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'py.'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'py!'</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\B</span></code> is just the opposite of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code>, so word characters in Unicode
+patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore, although this can
+be changed by using the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag.  Word boundaries are
+determined by the current locale if the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code></a> flag is used.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-28">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d</span></code></dt><dd><dl class="simple">
+<dt>For Unicode (str) patterns:</dt><dd><p>Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in
+Unicode character category [Nd]).  This includes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0-9]</span></code>, and
+also many other digit characters.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag is
+used only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0-9]</span></code> is matched.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:</dt><dd><p>Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0-9]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-29">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\D</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any character which is not a decimal digit. This is
+the opposite of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d</span></code>. If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag is used this
+becomes the equivalent of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^0-9]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-30">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\s</span></code></dt><dd><dl class="simple">
+<dt>For Unicode (str) patterns:</dt><dd><p>Matches Unicode whitespace characters (which includes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span> <span class="pre">\t\n\r\f\v]</span></code>, and also many other characters, for example the
+non-breaking spaces mandated by typography rules in many
+languages). If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag is used, only
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span> <span class="pre">\t\n\r\f\v]</span></code> is matched.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:</dt><dd><p>Matches characters considered whitespace in the ASCII character set;
+this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span> <span class="pre">\t\n\r\f\v]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-31">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\S</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any character which is not a whitespace character. This is
+the opposite of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\s</span></code>. If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag is used this
+becomes the equivalent of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^</span> <span class="pre">\t\n\r\f\v]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-32">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code></dt><dd><dl class="simple">
+<dt>For Unicode (str) patterns:</dt><dd><p>Matches Unicode word characters; this includes most characters
+that can be part of a word in any language, as well as numbers and
+the underscore. If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag is used, only
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-zA-Z0-9_]</span></code> is matched.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:</dt><dd><p>Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII character set;
+this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-zA-Z0-9_]</span></code>.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code></a> flag is
+used, matches characters considered alphanumeric in the current locale
+and the underscore.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-33">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\W</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches any character which is not a word character. This is
+the opposite of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code>. If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag is used this
+becomes the equivalent of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[^a-zA-Z0-9_]</span></code>.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code></a> flag is
+used, matches characters considered alphanumeric in the current locale
+and the underscore.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-34">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\Z</span></code></dt><dd><p>Matches only at the end of the string.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p id="index-35">Most of the standard escapes supported by Python string literals are also
+accepted by the regular expression parser:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>\<span class="n">a</span>      \<span class="n">b</span>      \<span class="n">f</span>      \<span class="n">n</span>
+\<span class="n">r</span>      \<span class="n">t</span>      \<span class="n">u</span>      \<span class="n">U</span>
+\<span class="n">v</span>      \<span class="n">x</span>      \\
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code> is used to represent word boundaries, and means “backspace”
+only inside character classes.)</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\u'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\U'</span></code> escape sequences are only recognized in Unicode
+patterns.  In bytes patterns they are errors.  Unknown escapes of ASCII
+letters are reserved for future use and treated as errors.</p>
+<p>Octal escapes are included in a limited form.  If the first digit is a 0, or if
+there are three octal digits, it is considered an octal escape. Otherwise, it is
+a group reference.  As for string literals, octal escapes are always at most
+three digits in length.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\u'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\U'</span></code> escape sequences have been added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Unknown escapes consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter now are errors.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-contents">
+<span id="contents-of-module-re"></span><h2>Module Contents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module defines several functions, constants, and an exception. Some of the
+functions are simplified versions of the full featured methods for compiled
+regular expressions.  Most non-trivial applications always use the compiled
+form.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Flag constants are now instances of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RegexFlag</span></code>, which is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntFlag</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.compile">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">compile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compile a regular expression pattern into a <a class="reference internal" href="#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">regular expression object</span></a>, which can be used for matching using its
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> and other methods, described
+below.</p>
+<p>The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a <em>flags</em> value.
+Values can be any of the following variables, combined using bitwise OR (the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code> operator).</p>
+<p>The sequence</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">prog</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>but using <a class="reference internal" href="#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> and saving the resulting regular expression
+object for reuse is more efficient when the expression will be used several
+times in a single program.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The compiled versions of the most recent patterns passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> and the module-level matching functions are cached, so
+programs that use only a few regular expressions at a time needn’t worry
+about compiling regular expressions.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="re.A">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">A</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.A" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="re.ASCII">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">ASCII</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.ASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\W</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\B</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\D</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\S</span></code>
+perform ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only
+meaningful for Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns.
+Corresponds to the inline flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?a)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that for backward compatibility, the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.U</span></code> flag still
+exists (as well as its synonym <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.UNICODE</span></code> and its embedded
+counterpart <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?u)</span></code>), but these are redundant in Python 3 since
+matches are Unicode by default for strings (and Unicode matching
+isn’t allowed for bytes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="re.DEBUG">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">DEBUG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.DEBUG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display debug information about compiled expression.
+No corresponding inline flag.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="re.I">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">I</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.I" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="re.IGNORECASE">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">IGNORECASE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.IGNORECASE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[A-Z]</span></code> will also
+match lowercase letters.  Full Unicode matching (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ü</span></code> matching
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ü</span></code>) also works unless the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.ASCII</span></code></a> flag is used to disable
+non-ASCII matches.  The current locale does not change the effect of this
+flag unless the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code></a> flag is also used.
+Corresponds to the inline flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?i)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that when the Unicode patterns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-z]</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[A-Z]</span></code> are used in
+combination with the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.IGNORECASE" title="re.IGNORECASE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORECASE</span></code></a> flag, they will match the 52 ASCII
+letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: ‘İ’ (U+0130, Latin capital
+letter I with dot above), ‘ı’ (U+0131, Latin small letter dotless i),
+‘ſ’ (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and ‘K’ (U+212A, Kelvin sign).
+If the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code></a> flag is used, only letters ‘a’ to ‘z’
+and ‘A’ to ‘Z’ are matched.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="re.L">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">L</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.L" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="re.LOCALE">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">LOCALE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.LOCALE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\w</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\W</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\B</span></code> and case-insensitive matching
+dependent on the current locale.  This flag can be used only with bytes
+patterns.  The use of this flag is discouraged as the locale mechanism
+is very unreliable, it only handles one “culture” at a time, and it only
+works with 8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is already enabled by default
+in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able to handle different
+locales/languages.
+Corresponds to the inline flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?L)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code></a> can be used only with bytes patterns and is
+not compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.ASCII</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Compiled regular expression objects with the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code></a> flag no
+longer depend on the locale at compile time.  Only the locale at
+matching time affects the result of matching.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="re.M">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">M</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.M" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="re.MULTILINE">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">MULTILINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.MULTILINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When specified, the pattern character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code> matches at the beginning of the
+string and at the beginning of each line (immediately following each newline);
+and the pattern character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code> matches at the end of the string and at the
+end of each line (immediately preceding each newline).  By default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code>
+matches only at the beginning of the string, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'$'</span></code> only at the end of the
+string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end of the string.
+Corresponds to the inline flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?m)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="re.S">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">S</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.S" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="re.DOTALL">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">DOTALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.DOTALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> special character match any character at all, including a
+newline; without this flag, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> will match anything <em>except</em> a newline.
+Corresponds to the inline flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?s)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="re.X">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">X</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.X" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="re.VERBOSE">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">VERBOSE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.VERBOSE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-36">This flag allows you to write regular expressions that look nicer and are
+more readable by allowing you to visually separate logical sections of the
+pattern and add comments. Whitespace within the pattern is ignored, except
+when in a character class, or when preceded by an unescaped backslash,
+or within tokens like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*?</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?:</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;...&gt;</span></code>.
+When a line contains a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code> that is not in a character class and is not
+preceded by an unescaped backslash, all characters from the leftmost such
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code> through the end of the line are ignored.</p>
+<p>This means that the two following regular expression objects that match a
+decimal number are functionally equal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;\d +  # the integral part</span>
+<span class="s2">                   \.    # the decimal point</span>
+<span class="s2">                   \d *  # some fractional digits&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">X</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\d+\.\d*&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Corresponds to the inline flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?x)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.search">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">search</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.search" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Scan through <em>string</em> looking for the first location where the regular expression
+<em>pattern</em> produces a match, and return a corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no position in the string matches the
+pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some
+point in the string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.match">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">match</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.match" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If zero or more characters at the beginning of <em>string</em> match the regular
+expression <em>pattern</em>, return a corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the string does not match the pattern;
+note that this is different from a zero-length match.</p>
+<p>Note that even in <a class="reference internal" href="#re.MULTILINE" title="re.MULTILINE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code></a> mode, <a class="reference internal" href="#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.match()</span></code></a> will only match
+at the beginning of the string and not at the beginning of each line.</p>
+<p>If you want to locate a match anywhere in <em>string</em>, use <a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a>
+instead (see also <a class="reference internal" href="#search-vs-match"><span class="std std-ref">search() vs. match()</span></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.fullmatch">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">fullmatch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.fullmatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the whole <em>string</em> matches the regular expression <em>pattern</em>, return a
+corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the
+string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a
+zero-length match.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.split">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>maxsplit=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split <em>string</em> by the occurrences of <em>pattern</em>.  If capturing parentheses are
+used in <em>pattern</em>, then the text of all groups in the pattern are also returned
+as part of the resulting list. If <em>maxsplit</em> is nonzero, at most <em>maxsplit</em>
+splits occur, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final element
+of the list.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\W+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Words, words, words.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Words&#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(\W+)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Words, words, words.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Words&#39;, &#39;, &#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;, &#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;.&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\W+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Words, words, words.&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Words&#39;, &#39;words, words.&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;[a-f]+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;0a3B9&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flags</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IGNORECASE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;0&#39;, &#39;3&#39;, &#39;9&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If there are capturing groups in the separator and it matches at the start of
+the string, the result will start with an empty string.  The same holds for
+the end of the string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(\W+)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;...words, words...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;&#39;, &#39;...&#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;, &#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;...&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That way, separator components are always found at the same relative
+indices within the result list.</p>
+<p>Empty matches for the pattern split the string only when not adjacent
+to a previous empty match.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Words, words, words.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;&#39;, &#39;Words&#39;, &#39;, &#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;, &#39;, &#39;words&#39;, &#39;.&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\W*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;...words...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;w&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;s&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(\W*)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;...words...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;&#39;, &#39;...&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;w&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;s&#39;, &#39;...&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added the optional flags argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added support of splitting on a pattern that could match an empty string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.findall">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">findall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.findall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return all non-overlapping matches of <em>pattern</em> in <em>string</em>, as a list of
+strings.  The <em>string</em> is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in
+the order found.  If one or more groups are present in the pattern, return a
+list of groups; this will be a list of tuples if the pattern has more than
+one group.  Empty matches are included in the result.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.finditer">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">finditer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.finditer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> yielding <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match objects</span></a> over
+all non-overlapping matches for the RE <em>pattern</em> in <em>string</em>.  The <em>string</em>
+is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in the order found.  Empty
+matches are included in the result.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.sub">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">sub</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>repl</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>count=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.sub" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the string obtained by replacing the leftmost non-overlapping occurrences
+of <em>pattern</em> in <em>string</em> by the replacement <em>repl</em>.  If the pattern isn’t found,
+<em>string</em> is returned unchanged.  <em>repl</em> can be a string or a function; if it is
+a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.  That is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> is
+converted to a single newline character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code> is converted to a carriage return, and
+so forth.  Unknown escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and
+treated as errors.  Other unknown escapes such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\&amp;</span></code> are left alone.
+Backreferences, such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\6</span></code>, are replaced with the substring matched by group 6 in the pattern.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>       <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>       <span class="s1">&#39;def myfunc():&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>repl</em> is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping occurrence of
+<em>pattern</em>.  The function takes a single <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>
+argument, and returns the replacement string.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dashrepl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">matchobj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">matchobj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-{1,2}&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dashrepl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pro----gram-files&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;pro--gram files&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\sAND\s&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39; &amp; &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Baked Beans And Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flags</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IGNORECASE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Baked Beans &amp; Spam&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The pattern may be a string or a <a class="reference internal" href="#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">pattern object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>count</em> is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be
+replaced; <em>count</em> must be a non-negative integer.  If omitted or zero, all
+occurrences will be replaced. Empty matches for the pattern are replaced only
+when not adjacent to a previous empty match, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub('x*',</span> <span class="pre">'-',</span> <span class="pre">'abxd')</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-a-b--d-'</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-37">In string-type <em>repl</em> arguments, in addition to the character escapes and
+backreferences described above,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;name&gt;</span></code> will use the substring matched by the group named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>, as
+defined by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;name&gt;...)</span></code> syntax. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;number&gt;</span></code> uses the corresponding
+group number; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;2&gt;</span></code> is therefore equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\2</span></code>, but isn’t ambiguous
+in a replacement such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;2&gt;0</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\20</span></code> would be interpreted as a
+reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the literal
+character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>.  The backreference <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;0&gt;</span></code> substitutes in the entire
+substring matched by the RE.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added the optional flags argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Unknown escapes in <em>pattern</em> consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter
+now are errors.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Unknown escapes in <em>repl</em> consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter
+now are errors.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Empty matches for the pattern are replaced when adjacent to a previous
+non-empty match.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.subn">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">subn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em>, <em>repl</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>count=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.subn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform the same operation as <a class="reference internal" href="#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a>, but return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(new_string,</span>
+<span class="pre">number_of_subs_made)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added the optional flags argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.escape">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">escape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.escape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Escape special characters in <em>pattern</em>.
+This is useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may
+have regular expression metacharacters in it.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">escape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python.exe&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">python\.exe</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">legal_chars</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ascii_lowercase</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digits</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot;!#$%&amp;&#39;*+-.^_`|~:&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;[</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">]+&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">escape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">legal_chars</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&amp;&#39;\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">operators</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">escape</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operators</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))))</span>
+<span class="go">/|\-|\+|\*\*|\*</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This functions must not be used for the replacement string in <a class="reference internal" href="#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#re.subn" title="re.subn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subn()</span></code></a>, only backslashes should be escaped.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">digits_re</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\d+&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sample</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">digits_re</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">digits_re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">/usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code> character is no longer escaped.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Only characters that can have special meaning in a regular expression
+are escaped.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="re.purge">
+<code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">purge</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.purge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the regular expression cache.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="re.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">re.</code><code class="descname">error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>pattern=None</em>, <em>pos=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here is not a
+valid regular expression (for example, it might contain unmatched parentheses)
+or when some other error occurs during compilation or matching.  It is never an
+error if a string contains no match for a pattern.  The error instance has
+the following additional attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.error.msg">
+<code class="descname">msg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.error.msg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The unformatted error message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.error.pattern">
+<code class="descname">pattern</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.error.pattern" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The regular expression pattern.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.error.pos">
+<code class="descname">pos</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.error.pos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The index in <em>pattern</em> where compilation failed (may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.error.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.error.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The line corresponding to <em>pos</em> (may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.error.colno">
+<code class="descname">colno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.error.colno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The column corresponding to <em>pos</em> (may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added additional attributes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="regular-expression-objects">
+<span id="re-objects"></span><h2>Regular Expression Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#regular-expression-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Compiled regular expression objects support the following methods and
+attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.search">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">search</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>pos</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>endpos</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Scan through <em>string</em> looking for the first location where this regular
+expression produces a match, and return a corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no position in the string matches the
+pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some
+point in the string.</p>
+<p>The optional second parameter <em>pos</em> gives an index in the string where the
+search is to start; it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  This is not completely equivalent to
+slicing the string; the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code> pattern character matches at the real beginning
+of the string and at positions just after a newline, but not necessarily at the
+index where the search is to start.</p>
+<p>The optional parameter <em>endpos</em> limits how far the string will be searched; it
+will be as if the string is <em>endpos</em> characters long, so only the characters
+from <em>pos</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endpos</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> will be searched for a match.  If <em>endpos</em> is less
+than <em>pos</em>, no match will be found; otherwise, if <em>rx</em> is a compiled regular
+expression object, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rx.search(string,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">50)</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rx.search(string[:50],</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;d&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;dog&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># Match at index 0</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match=&#39;d&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;dog&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># No match; search doesn&#39;t include the &quot;d&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.match">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">match</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>pos</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>endpos</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.match" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If zero or more characters at the <em>beginning</em> of <em>string</em> match this regular
+expression, return a corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>.
+Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is
+different from a zero-length match.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>pos</em> and <em>endpos</em> parameters have the same meaning as for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;o&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;dog&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># No match as &quot;o&quot; is not at the start of &quot;dog&quot;.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;dog&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Match as &quot;o&quot; is the 2nd character of &quot;dog&quot;.</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match=&#39;o&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to locate a match anywhere in <em>string</em>, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> instead (see also <a class="reference internal" href="#search-vs-match"><span class="std std-ref">search() vs. match()</span></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.fullmatch">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">fullmatch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>pos</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>endpos</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.fullmatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the whole <em>string</em> matches this regular expression, return a corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match object</span></a>.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the string does not
+match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>pos</em> and <em>endpos</em> parameters have the same meaning as for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;o[gh]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fullmatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;dog&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># No match as &quot;o&quot; is not at the start of &quot;dog&quot;.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fullmatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ogre&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># No match as not the full string matches.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fullmatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;doggie&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Matches within given limits.</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match=&#39;og&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.split">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>maxsplit=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled pattern.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.findall">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">findall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>pos</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>endpos</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.findall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.findall" title="re.findall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled pattern, but
+also accepts optional <em>pos</em> and <em>endpos</em> parameters that limit the search
+region like for <a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.finditer">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">finditer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>pos</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>endpos</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.finditer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.finditer" title="re.finditer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finditer()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled pattern, but
+also accepts optional <em>pos</em> and <em>endpos</em> parameters that limit the search
+region like for <a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.sub">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">sub</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>repl</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>count=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.sub" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled pattern.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.subn">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">subn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>repl</em>, <em>string</em>, <em>count=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.subn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.subn" title="re.subn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subn()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled pattern.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.flags">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">flags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The regex matching flags.  This is a combination of the flags given to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?...)</span></code> inline flags in the pattern, and implicit
+flags such as <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UNICODE</span></code> if the pattern is a Unicode string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.groups">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">groups</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.groups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of capturing groups in the pattern.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.groupindex">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">groupindex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.groupindex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary mapping any symbolic group names defined by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;id&gt;)</span></code> to group
+numbers.  The dictionary is empty if no symbolic groups were used in the
+pattern.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Pattern.pattern">
+<code class="descclassname">Pattern.</code><code class="descname">pattern</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Pattern.pattern" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The pattern string from which the pattern object was compiled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added support of <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#copy.copy" title="copy.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.copy()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.deepcopy()</span></code></a>.  Compiled
+regular expression objects are considered atomic.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="match-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Match Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#match-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Match objects always have a boolean value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+Since <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+when there is no match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">match</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">match</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Match objects support the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Match.expand">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">expand</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>template</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.expand" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the template
+string <em>template</em>, as done by the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.sub" title="re.Pattern.sub"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a> method.
+Escapes such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> are converted to the appropriate characters,
+and numeric backreferences (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\2</span></code>) and named backreferences
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;1&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\g&lt;name&gt;</span></code>) are replaced by the contents of the
+corresponding group.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Match.group">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">group</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>group1</em>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.group" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns one or more subgroups of the match.  If there is a single argument, the
+result is a single string; if there are multiple arguments, the result is a
+tuple with one item per argument. Without arguments, <em>group1</em> defaults to zero
+(the whole match is returned). If a <em>groupN</em> argument is zero, the corresponding
+return value is the entire matching string; if it is in the inclusive range
+[1..99], it is the string matching the corresponding parenthesized group.  If a
+group number is negative or larger than the number of groups defined in the
+pattern, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> exception is raised. If a group is contained in a
+part of the pattern that did not match, the corresponding result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+If a group is contained in a part of the pattern that matched multiple times,
+the last match is returned.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(\w+) (\w+)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Isaac Newton, physicist&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># The entire match</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Isaac Newton&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># The first parenthesized subgroup.</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Isaac&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># The second parenthesized subgroup.</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Newton&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># Multiple arguments give us a tuple.</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;Isaac&#39;, &#39;Newton&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the regular expression uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;name&gt;...)</span></code> syntax, the <em>groupN</em>
+arguments may also be strings identifying groups by their group name.  If a
+string argument is not used as a group name in the pattern, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a>
+exception is raised.</p>
+<p>A moderately complicated example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(?P&lt;first_name&gt;\w+) (?P&lt;last_name&gt;\w+)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Malcolm Reynolds&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;first_name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Malcolm&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;last_name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Reynolds&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Named groups can also be referred to by their index:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Malcolm&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Reynolds&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a group matches multiple times, only the last match is accessible:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(..)+&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;a1b2c3&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Matches 3 times.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>                        <span class="c1"># Returns only the last match.</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c3&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Match.__getitem__">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">__getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>g</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.group(g)</span></code>.  This allows easier access to
+an individual group from a match:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(\w+) (\w+)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Isaac Newton, physicist&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>       <span class="c1"># The entire match</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Isaac Newton&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>       <span class="c1"># The first parenthesized subgroup.</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Isaac&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>       <span class="c1"># The second parenthesized subgroup.</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Newton&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Match.groups">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">groups</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.groups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing all the subgroups of the match, from 1 up to however
+many groups are in the pattern.  The <em>default</em> argument is used for groups that
+did not participate in the match; it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(\d+)\.(\d+)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;24.1632&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;24&#39;, &#39;1632&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If we make the decimal place and everything after it optional, not all groups
+might participate in the match.  These groups will default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> unless
+the <em>default</em> argument is given:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(\d+)\.?(\d+)?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;24&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">()</span>      <span class="c1"># Second group defaults to None.</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;24&#39;, None)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Now, the second group defaults to &#39;0&#39;.</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;24&#39;, &#39;0&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Match.groupdict">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">groupdict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.groupdict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary containing all the <em>named</em> subgroups of the match, keyed by
+the subgroup name.  The <em>default</em> argument is used for groups that did not
+participate in the match; it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(?P&lt;first_name&gt;\w+) (?P&lt;last_name&gt;\w+)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Malcolm Reynolds&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groupdict</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;first_name&#39;: &#39;Malcolm&#39;, &#39;last_name&#39;: &#39;Reynolds&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Match.start">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>group</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="re.Match.end">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">end</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>group</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.end" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the indices of the start and end of the substring matched by <em>group</em>;
+<em>group</em> defaults to zero (meaning the whole matched substring). Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if
+<em>group</em> exists but did not contribute to the match.  For a match object <em>m</em>, and
+a group <em>g</em> that did contribute to the match, the substring matched by group <em>g</em>
+(equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.group(g)</span></code>) is</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">):</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.start(group)</span></code> will equal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.end(group)</span></code> if <em>group</em> matched a
+null string.  For example, after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">re.search('b(c?)',</span> <span class="pre">'cba')</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.start(0)</span></code> is 1, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.end(0)</span></code> is 2, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.start(1)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.end(1)</span></code> are both
+2, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.start(2)</span></code> raises an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>An example that will remove <em>remove_this</em> from email addresses:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">email</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;tony@tiremove_thisger.net&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;remove_this&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">email</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">():]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;tony@tiger.net&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="re.Match.span">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">span</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>group</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.span" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For a match <em>m</em>, return the 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(m.start(group),</span> <span class="pre">m.end(group))</span></code>. Note
+that if <em>group</em> did not contribute to the match, this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-1,</span> <span class="pre">-1)</span></code>.
+<em>group</em> defaults to zero, the entire match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Match.pos">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">pos</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.pos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of <em>pos</em> which was passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> method of a <a class="reference internal" href="#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">regex object</span></a>.  This is
+the index into the string at which the RE engine started looking for a match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Match.endpos">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">endpos</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.endpos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of <em>endpos</em> which was passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> method of a <a class="reference internal" href="#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">regex object</span></a>.  This is
+the index into the string beyond which the RE engine will not go.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Match.lastindex">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">lastindex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.lastindex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The integer index of the last matched capturing group, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no group
+was matched at all. For example, the expressions <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a)b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">((a)(b))</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">((ab))</span></code> will have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lastindex</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> if applied to the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ab'</span></code>, while
+the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a)(b)</span></code> will have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lastindex</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code>, if applied to the same
+string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Match.lastgroup">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">lastgroup</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.lastgroup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the last matched capturing group, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the group didn’t
+have a name, or if no group was matched at all.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Match.re">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">re</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.re" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">regular expression object</span></a> whose <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> method produced this match instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="re.Match.string">
+<code class="descclassname">Match.</code><code class="descname">string</code><a class="headerlink" href="#re.Match.string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.match" title="re.Pattern.match"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#re.Pattern.search" title="re.Pattern.search"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added support of <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#copy.copy" title="copy.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.copy()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.deepcopy()</span></code></a>.  Match objects
+are considered atomic.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="regular-expression-examples">
+<span id="re-examples"></span><h2>Regular Expression Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#regular-expression-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="checking-for-a-pair">
+<h3>Checking for a Pair<a class="headerlink" href="#checking-for-a-pair" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In this example, we’ll use the following helper function to display match
+objects a little more gracefully:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">match</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;Match: </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1">, groups=</span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s1">&gt;&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">match</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Suppose you are writing a poker program where a player’s hand is represented as
+a 5-character string with each character representing a card, “a” for ace, “k”
+for king, “q” for queen, “j” for jack, “t” for 10, and “2” through “9”
+representing the card with that value.</p>
+<p>To see if a given string is a valid hand, one could do the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">valid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;^[a2-9tjqk]</span><span class="si">{5}</span><span class="s2">$&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">valid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;akt5q&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># Valid.</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;&lt;Match: &#39;akt5q&#39;, groups=()&gt;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">valid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;akt5e&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># Invalid.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">valid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;akt&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>    <span class="c1"># Invalid.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">valid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;727ak&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># Valid.</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;&lt;Match: &#39;727ak&#39;, groups=()&gt;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That last hand, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;727ak&quot;</span></code>, contained a pair, or two of the same valued cards.
+To match this with a regular expression, one could use backreferences as such:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pair</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;.*(.).*\1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pair</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;717ak&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>     <span class="c1"># Pair of 7s.</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;&lt;Match: &#39;717&#39;, groups=(&#39;7&#39;,)&gt;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pair</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;718ak&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>     <span class="c1"># No pairs.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">displaymatch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pair</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;354aa&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>     <span class="c1"># Pair of aces.</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;&lt;Match: &#39;354aa&#39;, groups=(&#39;a&#39;,)&gt;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To find out what card the pair consists of, one could use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.Match.group" title="re.Match.group"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group()</span></code></a> method of the match object in the following manner:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pair</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;717ak&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;7&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="go"># Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn&#39;t have a group() method:</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pair</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;718ak&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;pyshell#23&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+    <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;.*(.).*\1&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;718ak&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;NoneType&#39; object has no attribute &#39;group&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pair</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;354aa&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;a&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="simulating-scanf">
+<h3>Simulating scanf()<a class="headerlink" href="#simulating-scanf" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-38">Python does not currently have an equivalent to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scanf()</span></code>.  Regular
+expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scanf()</span></code> format strings.  The table below offers some more-or-less
+equivalent mappings between <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scanf()</span></code> format tokens and regular
+expressions.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scanf()</span></code> Token</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Regular Expression</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%5c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.{5}</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[-+]?\d+</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%e</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%E</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%f</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%g</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%i</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%o</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[-+]?[0-7]+</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\S+</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%u</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\d+</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%X</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>To extract the filename and numbers from a string like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sbin</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sendmail</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="n">errors</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span> <span class="n">warnings</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>you would use a <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scanf()</span></code> format like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">%</span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="o">%</span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="n">errors</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">%</span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="n">warnings</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The equivalent regular expression would be</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span>\<span class="n">S</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="p">(</span>\<span class="n">d</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">errors</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span>\<span class="n">d</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">warnings</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="search-vs-match">
+<span id="id3"></span><h3>search() vs. match()<a class="headerlink" href="#search-vs-match" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python offers two different primitive operations based on regular expressions:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.match()</span></code></a> checks for a match only at the beginning of the string, while
+<a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a> checks for a match anywhere in the string (this is what Perl
+does by default).</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># No match</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Match</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match=&#39;c&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Regular expressions beginning with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code> can be used with <a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> to
+restrict the match at the beginning of the string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># No match</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;^c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># No match</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;^a&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Match</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match=&#39;a&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note however that in <a class="reference internal" href="#re.MULTILINE" title="re.MULTILINE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MULTILINE</span></code></a> mode <a class="reference internal" href="#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match()</span></code></a> only matches at the
+beginning of the string, whereas using <a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> with a regular expression
+beginning with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code> will match at the beginning of each line.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;A</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">B</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">X&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MULTILINE</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># No match</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;^X&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;A</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">B</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">X&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MULTILINE</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Match</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match=&#39;X&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="making-a-phonebook">
+<h3>Making a Phonebook<a class="headerlink" href="#making-a-phonebook" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> splits a string into a list delimited by the passed pattern.  The
+method is invaluable for converting textual data into data structures that can be
+easily read and modified by Python as demonstrated in the following example that
+creates a phonebook.</p>
+<p>First, here is the input.  Normally it may come from a file, here we are using
+triple-quoted string syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The entries are separated by one or more newlines. Now we convert the string
+into a list with each nonempty line having its own entry:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">entries</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">+&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">entries</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, split each entry into a list with first name, last name, telephone
+number, and address.  We use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxsplit</span></code> parameter of <a class="reference internal" href="#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a>
+because the address has spaces, our splitting pattern, in it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:? &quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">entry</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">entry</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">entries</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[[&#39;Ross&#39;, &#39;McFluff&#39;, &#39;834.345.1254&#39;, &#39;155 Elm Street&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Ronald&#39;, &#39;Heathmore&#39;, &#39;892.345.3428&#39;, &#39;436 Finley Avenue&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Frank&#39;, &#39;Burger&#39;, &#39;925.541.7625&#39;, &#39;662 South Dogwood Way&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Heather&#39;, &#39;Albrecht&#39;, &#39;548.326.4584&#39;, &#39;919 Park Place&#39;]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:?</span></code> pattern matches the colon after the last name, so that it does not
+occur in the result list.  With a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxsplit</span></code> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code>, we could separate the
+house number from the street name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:? &quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">entry</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">entry</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">entries</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[[&#39;Ross&#39;, &#39;McFluff&#39;, &#39;834.345.1254&#39;, &#39;155&#39;, &#39;Elm Street&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Ronald&#39;, &#39;Heathmore&#39;, &#39;892.345.3428&#39;, &#39;436&#39;, &#39;Finley Avenue&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Frank&#39;, &#39;Burger&#39;, &#39;925.541.7625&#39;, &#39;662&#39;, &#39;South Dogwood Way&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Heather&#39;, &#39;Albrecht&#39;, &#39;548.326.4584&#39;, &#39;919&#39;, &#39;Park Place&#39;]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-munging">
+<h3>Text Munging<a class="headerlink" href="#text-munging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a> replaces every occurrence of a pattern with a string or the
+result of a function.  This example demonstrates using <a class="reference internal" href="#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a> with
+a function to “munge” text, or randomize the order of all the characters
+in each word of a sentence except for the first and last characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">repl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">inner_word</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shuffle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inner_word</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inner_word</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly.&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(\w)(\w+)(\w)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">repl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;(\w)(\w+)(\w)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">repl</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finding-all-adverbs">
+<h3>Finding all Adverbs<a class="headerlink" href="#finding-all-adverbs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#re.findall" title="re.findall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></a> matches <em>all</em> occurrences of a pattern, not just the first
+one as <a class="reference internal" href="#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">search()</span></code></a> does.  For example, if a writer wanted to
+find all of the adverbs in some text, they might use <a class="reference internal" href="#re.findall" title="re.findall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></a> in
+the following manner:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police.&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\w+ly&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;carefully&#39;, &#39;quickly&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finding-all-adverbs-and-their-positions">
+<h3>Finding all Adverbs and their Positions<a class="headerlink" href="#finding-all-adverbs-and-their-positions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the matched
+text, <a class="reference internal" href="#re.finditer" title="re.finditer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finditer()</span></code></a> is useful as it provides <a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match objects</span></a> instead of strings.  Continuing with the previous example, if
+a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs <em>and their positions</em> in
+some text, they would use <a class="reference internal" href="#re.finditer" title="re.finditer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finditer()</span></code></a> in the following manner:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police.&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">m</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finditer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\w+ly&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%02d</span><span class="s1">-</span><span class="si">%02d</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="go">07-16: carefully</span>
+<span class="go">40-47: quickly</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raw-string-notation">
+<h3>Raw String Notation<a class="headerlink" href="#raw-string-notation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Raw string notation (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;text&quot;</span></code>) keeps regular expressions sane.  Without it,
+every backslash (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code>) in a regular expression would have to be prefixed with
+another one to escape it.  For example, the two following lines of code are
+functionally identical:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;\W(.)\1\W&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot; ff &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=&#39; ff &#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">W(.)</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">1</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">W&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot; ff &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=&#39; ff &#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When one wants to match a literal backslash, it must be escaped in the regular
+expression.  With raw string notation, this means <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\\&quot;</span></code>.  Without raw string
+notation, one must use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\\\\&quot;</span></code>, making the following lines of code
+functionally identical:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match=&#39;\\&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\\\\</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match=&#39;\\&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-a-tokenizer">
+<h3>Writing a Tokenizer<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-a-tokenizer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis">tokenizer or scanner</a>
+analyzes a string to categorize groups of characters.  This is a useful first
+step in writing a compiler or interpreter.</p>
+<p>The text categories are specified with regular expressions.  The technique is
+to combine those into a single master regular expression and to loop over
+successive matches:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">collections</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+
+<span class="n">Token</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Token&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;type&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;value&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;line&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;column&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tokenize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">keywords</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;IF&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;THEN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ENDIF&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FOR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;NEXT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;GOSUB&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;RETURN&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+    <span class="n">token_specification</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NUMBER&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>   <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\d+(\.\d*)?&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>  <span class="c1"># Integer or decimal number</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ASSIGN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>   <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;:=&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>           <span class="c1"># Assignment operator</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;END&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>      <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;;&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>            <span class="c1"># Statement terminator</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>       <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;[A-Za-z]+&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>    <span class="c1"># Identifiers</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;OP&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>       <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;[+\-*/]&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>      <span class="c1"># Arithmetic operators</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NEWLINE&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\n&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>           <span class="c1"># Line endings</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SKIP&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>     <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;[ \t]+&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>       <span class="c1"># Skip over spaces and tabs</span>
+        <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;MISMATCH&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>            <span class="c1"># Any other character</span>
+    <span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">tok_regex</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(?P&lt;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&gt;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">pair</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">pair</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">token_specification</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">line_num</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="n">line_start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">mo</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finditer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tok_regex</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastgroup</span>
+        <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">column</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">line_start</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;NUMBER&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;NEWLINE&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">line_start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">line_num</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+            <span class="k">continue</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;SKIP&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">continue</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;MISMATCH&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{value!r}</span><span class="s1"> unexpected on line </span><span class="si">{line_num}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kind</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line_num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">statements</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="s1">    IF quantity THEN</span>
+<span class="s1">        total := total + price * quantity;</span>
+<span class="s1">        tax := price * 0.05;</span>
+<span class="s1">    ENDIF;</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">token</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tokenize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">statements</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">token</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The tokenizer produces the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;IF&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;IF&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;quantity&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;THEN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;THEN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;total&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ASSIGN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;:=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;total&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;OP&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;price&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;OP&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">31</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;quantity&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">33</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;END&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">41</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;tax&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ASSIGN&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;:=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ID&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;price&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;OP&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">21</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;NUMBER&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.05</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;END&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">27</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ENDIF&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ENDIF&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Token</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;END&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">column</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="citation">
+<dt class="label" id="frie09"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">Frie09</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Friedl, Jeffrey. Mastering Regular Expressions. 3rd ed., O’Reilly
+Media, 2009. The third edition of the book no longer covers Python at all,
+but the first edition covered writing good regular expression patterns in
+great detail.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code> — Regular expression operations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#regular-expression-syntax">Regular Expression Syntax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#regular-expression-objects">Regular Expression Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#match-objects">Match Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#regular-expression-examples">Regular Expression Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#checking-for-a-pair">Checking for a Pair</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simulating-scanf">Simulating scanf()</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#search-vs-match">search() vs. match()</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#making-a-phonebook">Making a Phonebook</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-munging">Text Munging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finding-all-adverbs">Finding all Adverbs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finding-all-adverbs-and-their-positions">Finding all Adverbs and their Positions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raw-string-notation">Raw String Notation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-a-tokenizer">Writing a Tokenizer</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="string.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code> — Common string operations</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="difflib.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/readline.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/readline.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fea2def
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/readline.html
@@ -0,0 +1,556 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>readline — GNU readline interface &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-readline">
+<span id="readline-gnu-readline-interface"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> — GNU readline interface<a class="headerlink" href="#module-readline" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module defines a number of functions to facilitate
+completion and reading/writing of history files from the Python interpreter.
+This module can be used directly, or via the <a class="reference internal" href="rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> module, which
+supports completion of Python identifiers at the interactive prompt.  Settings
+made using  this module affect the behaviour of both the interpreter’s
+interactive prompt  and the prompts offered by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+<p>Readline keybindings may be configured via an initialization file, typically
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.inputrc</span></code> in your home directory.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#SEC9">Readline Init File</a>
+in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and
+allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the
+Readline library in general.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The underlying Readline library API may be implemented by
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libedit</span></code> library instead of GNU readline.
+On macOS the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module detects which library is being used
+at run time.</p>
+<p>The configuration file for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libedit</span></code> is different from that
+of GNU readline. If you programmatically load configuration strings
+you can check for the text “libedit” in <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline.__doc__</span></code>
+to differentiate between GNU readline and libedit.</p>
+<p>If you use <em>editline</em>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libedit</span></code> readline emulation on macOS, the
+initialization file located in your home directory is named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.editrc</span></code>. For example, the following content in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.editrc</span></code> will
+turn ON <em>vi</em> keybindings and TAB completion:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">bind</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span>
+<span class="n">python</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">bind</span> <span class="o">^</span><span class="n">I</span> <span class="n">rl_complete</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="init-file">
+<h2>Init file<a class="headerlink" href="#init-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions relate to the init file and user configuration:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.parse_and_bind">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">parse_and_bind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.parse_and_bind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the init line provided in the <em>string</em> argument. This calls
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_parse_and_bind()</span></code> in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.read_init_file">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">read_init_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>filename</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.read_init_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute a readline initialization file. The default filename is the last filename
+used. This calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_read_init_file()</span></code> in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="line-buffer">
+<h2>Line buffer<a class="headerlink" href="#line-buffer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions operate on the line buffer:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.get_line_buffer">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_line_buffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_line_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current contents of the line buffer (<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_line_buffer</span></code>
+in the underlying library).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.insert_text">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">insert_text</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.insert_text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position.  This calls
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_insert_text()</span></code> in the underlying library, but ignores
+the return value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.redisplay">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">redisplay</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.redisplay" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change what’s displayed on the screen to reflect the current contents of the
+line buffer.  This calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_redisplay()</span></code> in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="history-file">
+<h2>History file<a class="headerlink" href="#history-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions operate on a history file:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.read_history_file">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">read_history_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>filename</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.read_history_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list.
+The default filename is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.history</span></code>.  This calls
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_history()</span></code> in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.write_history_file">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">write_history_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>filename</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.write_history_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any
+existing file.  The default filename is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.history</span></code>.  This calls
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write_history()</span></code> in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.append_history_file">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">append_history_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nelements</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>filename</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.append_history_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append the last <em>nelements</em> items of history to a file.  The default filename is
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.history</span></code>.  The file must already exist.  This calls
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append_history()</span></code> in the underlying library.  This function
+only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library
+that supports it.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.get_history_length">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_history_length</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_history_length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="readline.set_history_length">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">set_history_length</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.set_history_length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history file.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#readline.write_history_file" title="readline.write_history_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write_history_file()</span></code></a> function uses this value to truncate
+the history file, by calling <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">history_truncate_file()</span></code> in
+the underlying library.  Negative values imply
+unlimited history file size.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="history-list">
+<h2>History list<a class="headerlink" href="#history-list" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions operate on a global history list:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.clear_history">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">clear_history</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.clear_history" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the current history.  This calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear_history()</span></code> in the
+underlying library.  The Python function only exists if Python was
+compiled for a version of the library that supports it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.get_current_history_length">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_current_history_length</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_current_history_length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of items currently in the history.  (This is different from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#readline.get_history_length" title="readline.get_history_length"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_history_length()</span></code></a>, which returns the maximum number of lines that will
+be written to a history file.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.get_history_item">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_history_item</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_history_item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current contents of history item at <em>index</em>.  The item index
+is one-based.  This calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">history_get()</span></code> in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.remove_history_item">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">remove_history_item</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.remove_history_item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove history item specified by its position from the history.
+The position is zero-based.  This calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove_history()</span></code> in
+the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.replace_history_item">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">replace_history_item</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em>, <em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.replace_history_item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace history item specified by its position with <em>line</em>.
+The position is zero-based.  This calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace_history_entry()</span></code>
+in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.add_history">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">add_history</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>line</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.add_history" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Append <em>line</em> to the history buffer, as if it was the last line typed.
+This calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_history()</span></code> in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.set_auto_history">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">set_auto_history</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>enabled</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.set_auto_history" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable or disable automatic calls to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_history()</span></code> when reading
+input via readline.  The <em>enabled</em> argument should be a Boolean value
+that when true, enables auto history, and that when false, disables
+auto history.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Auto history is enabled by default, and changes to this do not persist
+across multiple sessions.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="startup-hooks">
+<h2>Startup hooks<a class="headerlink" href="#startup-hooks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.set_startup_hook">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">set_startup_hook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>function</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.set_startup_hook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set or remove the function invoked by the <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_startup_hook</span></code>
+callback of the underlying library.  If <em>function</em> is specified, it will
+be used as the new hook function; if omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any function
+already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
+arguments just before readline prints the first prompt.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.set_pre_input_hook">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">set_pre_input_hook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>function</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.set_pre_input_hook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set or remove the function invoked by the <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_pre_input_hook</span></code>
+callback of the underlying library.  If <em>function</em> is specified, it will
+be used as the new hook function; if omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any
+function already installed is removed.  The hook is called
+with no arguments after the first prompt has been printed and just before
+readline starts reading input characters.  This function only exists
+if Python was compiled for a version of the library that supports it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="completion">
+<h2>Completion<a class="headerlink" href="#completion" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions relate to implementing a custom word completion
+function.  This is typically operated by the Tab key, and can suggest and
+automatically complete a word being typed.  By default, Readline is set up
+to be used by <a class="reference internal" href="rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> to complete Python identifiers for
+the interactive interpreter.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module is to be used
+with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.set_completer">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">set_completer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>function</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.set_completer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set or remove the completer function.  If <em>function</em> is specified, it will be
+used as the new completer function; if omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any completer
+function already installed is removed.  The completer function is called as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function(text,</span> <span class="pre">state)</span></code>, for <em>state</em> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, …, until it
+returns a non-string value.  It should return the next possible completion
+starting with <em>text</em>.</p>
+<p>The installed completer function is invoked by the <em>entry_func</em> callback
+passed to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_completion_matches()</span></code> in the underlying library.
+The <em>text</em> string comes from the first parameter to the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_attempted_completion_function</span></code> callback of the
+underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.get_completer">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_completer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_completer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the completer function, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no completer function has been set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.get_completion_type">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_completion_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_completion_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the type of completion being attempted.  This returns the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_completion_type</span></code> variable in the underlying library as
+an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.get_begidx">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_begidx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_begidx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="readline.get_endidx">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_endidx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_endidx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope.
+These indexes are the <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> arguments passed to the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_attempted_completion_function</span></code> callback of the
+underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.set_completer_delims">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">set_completer_delims</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.set_completer_delims" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="readline.get_completer_delims">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">get_completer_delims</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.get_completer_delims" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set or get the word delimiters for completion.  These determine the
+start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion scope).
+These functions access the <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_completer_word_break_characters</span></code>
+variable in the underlying library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook">
+<code class="descclassname">readline.</code><code class="descname">set_completion_display_matches_hook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>function</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set or remove the completion display function.  If <em>function</em> is
+specified, it will be used as the new completion display function;
+if omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any completion display function already
+installed is removed.  This sets or clears the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rl_completion_display_matches_hook</span></code> callback in the
+underlying library.  The completion display function is called as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function(substitution,</span> <span class="pre">[matches],</span> <span class="pre">longest_match_length)</span></code> once
+each time matches need to be displayed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="readline-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following example demonstrates how to use the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module’s
+history reading and writing functions to automatically load and save a history
+file named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.python_history</span></code> from the user’s home directory.  The code
+below would normally be executed automatically during interactive sessions
+from the user’s <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a> file.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">atexit</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">readline</span>
+
+<span class="n">histfile</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;~&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;.python_history&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_history_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># default history len is -1 (infinite), which may grow unruly</span>
+    <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_history_length</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">atexit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_history_file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This code is actually automatically run when Python is run in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/interpreter.html#tut-interactive"><span class="std std-ref">interactive mode</span></a> (see <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#rlcompleter-config"><span class="std std-ref">Readline configuration</span></a>).</p>
+<p>The following example achieves the same goal but supports concurrent interactive
+sessions, by only appending the new history.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">atexit</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">readline</span>
+<span class="n">histfile</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;~&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;.python_history&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_history_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">h_len</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_current_history_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">h_len</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">save</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prev_h_len</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">new_h_len</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_current_history_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_history_length</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append_history_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_h_len</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">prev_h_len</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">atexit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">save</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">h_len</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example extends the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#code.InteractiveConsole" title="code.InteractiveConsole"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code.InteractiveConsole</span></code></a> class to
+support history save/restore.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">atexit</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">code</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">readline</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">HistoryConsole</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">InteractiveConsole</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;console&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;~/.console-history&quot;</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+        <span class="n">code</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">InteractiveConsole</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">locals</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">init_history</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">init_history</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_and_bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;tab: complete&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;read_history_file&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_history_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">pass</span>
+            <span class="n">atexit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">save_history</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">save_history</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_history_length</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_history_file</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">histfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code> — GNU readline interface</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#init-file">Init file</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#line-buffer">Line buffer</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#history-file">History file</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#history-list">History list</a></li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-reprlib">
+<span id="reprlib-alternate-repr-implementation"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-reprlib" title="reprlib: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code></a> — Alternate <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> implementation<a class="headerlink" href="#module-reprlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/reprlib.py">Lib/reprlib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-reprlib" title="reprlib: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code></a> module provides a means for producing object representations
+with limits on the size of the resulting strings. This is used in the Python
+debugger and may be useful in other contexts as well.</p>
+<p>This module provides a class, an instance, and a function:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">reprlib.</code><code class="descname">Repr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class which provides formatting services useful in implementing functions
+similar to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>; size limits for  different object types
+are added to avoid the generation of representations which are excessively long.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="reprlib.aRepr">
+<code class="descclassname">reprlib.</code><code class="descname">aRepr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.aRepr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr" title="reprlib.Repr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Repr</span></code></a> which is used to provide the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.repr" title="reprlib.repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function described below.  Changing the attributes of this
+object will affect the size limits used by <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.repr" title="reprlib.repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> and the Python
+debugger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="reprlib.repr">
+<code class="descclassname">reprlib.</code><code class="descname">repr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.repr" title="reprlib.Repr.repr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> method of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aRepr</span></code>.  It returns a string
+similar to that returned by the built-in function of the same name, but with
+limits on most sizes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to size-limiting tools, the module also provides a decorator for
+detecting recursive calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> and substituting a placeholder
+string instead.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="reprlib.recursive_repr">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">reprlib.</code><code class="descname">recursive_repr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fillvalue=&quot;...&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.recursive_repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> methods to detect recursive calls within the
+same thread.  If a recursive call is made, the <em>fillvalue</em> is returned,
+otherwise, the usual <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> call is made.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">reprlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">recursive_repr</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@recursive_repr</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;&#39;a&#39;|&#39;b&#39;|&#39;c&#39;|...|&#39;x&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="repr-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Repr Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#repr-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr" title="reprlib.Repr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Repr</span></code></a> instances provide several attributes which can be used to provide
+size limits for the representations of different object types,  and methods
+which format specific object types.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxlevel">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxlevel</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxlevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Depth limit on the creation of recursive representations.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxdict">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxdict</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxdict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxlist">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxlist</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxtuple">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxtuple</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxtuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxset">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxfrozenset">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxfrozenset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxfrozenset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxdeque">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxdeque</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxdeque" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxarray">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxarray</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxarray" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Limits on the number of entries represented for the named object type.  The
+default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code> for <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxdict" title="reprlib.Repr.maxdict"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxdict</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code> for <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxarray" title="reprlib.Repr.maxarray"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxarray</span></code></a>, and  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code> for
+the others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxlong">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxlong</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxlong" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Maximum number of characters in the representation for an integer.  Digits
+are dropped from the middle.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">40</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxstring">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxstring</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxstring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Limit on the number of characters in the representation of the string.  Note
+that the “normal” representation of the string is used as the character source:
+if escape sequences are needed in the representation, these may be mangled when
+the representation is shortened.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">30</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.maxother">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">maxother</code><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxother" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This limit is used to control the size of object types for which no specific
+formatting method is available on the <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr" title="reprlib.Repr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Repr</span></code></a> object. It is applied in a
+similar manner as <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.maxstring" title="reprlib.Repr.maxstring"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxstring</span></code></a>.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">20</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.repr">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">repr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The equivalent to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> that uses the formatting imposed by
+the instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="reprlib.Repr.repr1">
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">repr1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib.Repr.repr1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Recursive implementation used by <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.repr" title="reprlib.Repr.repr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>.  This uses the type of <em>obj</em> to
+determine which formatting method to call, passing it <em>obj</em> and <em>level</em>.  The
+type-specific methods should call <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.repr1" title="reprlib.Repr.repr1"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr1()</span></code></a> to perform recursive formatting,
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> for the value of <em>level</em> in the recursive  call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">Repr.</code><code class="descname">repr_TYPE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Formatting methods for specific types are implemented as methods with a name
+based on the type name.  In the method name, <strong>TYPE</strong> is replaced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split())</span></code>. Dispatch to these methods is
+handled by <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.repr1" title="reprlib.Repr.repr1"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr1()</span></code></a>. Type-specific methods which need to recursively
+format a value should call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.repr1(subobj,</span> <span class="pre">level</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subclassing-repr-objects">
+<span id="subclassing-reprs"></span><h2>Subclassing Repr Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#subclassing-repr-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The use of dynamic dispatching by <a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr.repr1" title="reprlib.Repr.repr1"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Repr.repr1()</span></code></a> allows subclasses of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib.Repr" title="reprlib.Repr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Repr</span></code></a> to add support for additional built-in object types or to modify
+the handling of types already supported. This example shows how special support
+for file objects could be added:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">reprlib</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyRepr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">reprlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Repr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">repr_TextIOWrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;stdin&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;stdout&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;stderr&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">}:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">aRepr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyRepr</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">aRepr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">))</span>         <span class="c1"># prints &#39;&lt;stdin&gt;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code> — Alternate <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> implementation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#repr-objects">Repr Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subclassing-repr-objects">Subclassing Repr Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pprint.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code> — Data pretty printer</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/resource.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/resource.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1515d0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/resource.html
@@ -0,0 +1,592 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>resource — Resource usage information &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-resource">
+<span id="resource-resource-usage-information"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-resource" title="resource: An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code></a> — Resource usage information<a class="headerlink" href="#module-resource" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling system
+resources utilized by a program.</p>
+<p>Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and to
+request usage information about either the current process or its children.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised on syscall failure.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="resource.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A deprecated alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Following <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3151"><strong>PEP 3151</strong></a>, this class was made an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="resource-limits">
+<h2>Resource Limits<a class="headerlink" href="#resource-limits" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Resources usage can be limited using the <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.setrlimit" title="resource.setrlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setrlimit()</span></code></a> function described
+below. Each resource is controlled by a pair of limits: a soft limit and a hard
+limit. The soft limit is the current limit, and may be lowered or raised by a
+process over time. The soft limit can never exceed the hard limit. The hard
+limit can be lowered to any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised.
+(Only processes with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard
+limit.)</p>
+<p>The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent. They are
+described in the <em class="manpage">getrlimit(2)</em> man page.  The resources listed below
+are supported when the underlying operating system supports them; resources
+which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system are not defined in
+this module for those platforms.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIM_INFINITY">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIM_INFINITY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIM_INFINITY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="resource.getrlimit">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">getrlimit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.getrlimit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(soft,</span> <span class="pre">hard)</span></code> with the current soft and hard limits of
+<em>resource</em>. Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if an invalid resource is specified, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#resource.error" title="resource.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></a> if the underlying system call fails unexpectedly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="resource.setrlimit">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">setrlimit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource</em>, <em>limits</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.setrlimit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets new limits of consumption of <em>resource</em>. The <em>limits</em> argument must be a
+tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(soft,</span> <span class="pre">hard)</span></code> of two integers describing the new limits. A value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#resource.RLIM_INFINITY" title="resource.RLIM_INFINITY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIM_INFINITY</span></code></a> can be used to request a limit that is
+unlimited.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if an invalid resource is specified, if the new soft
+limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries to raise its hard limit.
+Specifying a limit of <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.RLIM_INFINITY" title="resource.RLIM_INFINITY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIM_INFINITY</span></code></a> when the hard or
+system limit for that resource is not unlimited will result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  A process with the effective UID of super-user can
+request any valid limit value, including unlimited, but <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+will still be raised if the requested limit exceeds the system imposed
+limit.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setrlimit</span></code> may also raise <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.error" title="resource.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></a> if the underlying system call
+fails.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="resource.prlimit">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">prlimit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pid</em>, <em>resource</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>limits</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.prlimit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Combines <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.setrlimit" title="resource.setrlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setrlimit()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.getrlimit" title="resource.getrlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrlimit()</span></code></a> in one function and
+supports to get and set the resources limits of an arbitrary process. If
+<em>pid</em> is 0, then the call applies to the current process. <em>resource</em> and
+<em>limits</em> have the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.setrlimit" title="resource.setrlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setrlimit()</span></code></a>, except that
+<em>limits</em> is optional.</p>
+<p>When <em>limits</em> is not given the function returns the <em>resource</em> limit of the
+process <em>pid</em>. When <em>limits</em> is given the <em>resource</em> limit of the process is
+set and the former resource limit is returned.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ProcessLookupError" title="ProcessLookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessLookupError</span></code></a> when <em>pid</em> can’t be found and
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a> when the user doesn’t have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAP_SYS_RESOURCE</span></code> for
+the process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.36 or later with glibc 2.13 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#resource.setrlimit" title="resource.setrlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setrlimit()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.getrlimit" title="resource.getrlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrlimit()</span></code></a> functions described below. The values of
+these symbols are exactly the constants used by C programs.</p>
+<p>The Unix man page for <em class="manpage">getrlimit(2)</em> lists the available resources.
+Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote the same
+resource.  This module does not attempt to mask platform differences — symbols
+not defined for a platform will not be available from this module on that
+platform.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_CORE">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_CORE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_CORE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process can create.
+This may result in the creation of a partial core file if a larger core would be
+required to contain the entire process image.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_CPU">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_CPU</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_CPU" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process can use. If
+this limit is exceeded, a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGXCPU</span></code> signal is sent to the process. (See
+the <a class="reference internal" href="signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module documentation for information about how to catch this
+signal and do something useful, e.g. flush open files to disk.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_FSIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum size of a file which the process may create.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_DATA">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_DATA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum size (in bytes) of the process’s heap.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_STACK">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_STACK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_STACK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current process.  This only
+affects the stack of the main thread in a multi-threaded process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_RSS">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_RSS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_RSS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_NPROC">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_NPROC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_NPROC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum number of processes the current process may create.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_NOFILE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_OFILE">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_OFILE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_OFILE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The BSD name for <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE" title="resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_NOFILE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_MEMLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum address space which may be locked in memory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_VMEM">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_VMEM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_VMEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_AS">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_AS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_AS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by the process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.8 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_NICE">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_NICE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_NICE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The ceiling for the process’s nice level (calculated as 20 - rlim_cur).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.12 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_RTPRIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The ceiling of the real-time priority.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.12 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_RTTIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can spend
+under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.25 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_SIGPENDING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of signals which the process may queue.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.8 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_SBSIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user.
+This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of mbufs,
+that this user may hold at any time.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: FreeBSD 9 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_SWAP">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_SWAP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_SWAP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved or
+used by all of this user id’s processes.
+This limit is enforced only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set.
+Please see <em class="manpage">tuning(7)</em> for a complete description of this sysctl.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: FreeBSD 9 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RLIMIT_NPTS">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RLIMIT_NPTS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RLIMIT_NPTS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: FreeBSD 9 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="resource-usage">
+<h2>Resource Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#resource-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="resource.getrusage">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">getrusage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>who</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.getrusage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function returns an object that describes the resources consumed by either
+the current process or its children, as specified by the <em>who</em> parameter.  The
+<em>who</em> parameter should be specified using one of the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RUSAGE_*</span></code>
+constants described below.</p>
+<p>The fields of the return value each describe how a particular system resource
+has been used, e.g. amount of time spent running is user mode or number of times
+the process was swapped out of main memory. Some values are dependent on the
+clock tick internal, e.g. the amount of memory the process is using.</p>
+<p>For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as a tuple of 16
+elements.</p>
+<p>The fields <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_utime</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_stime</span></code> of the return value are
+floating point values representing the amount of time spent executing in user
+mode and the amount of time spent executing in system mode, respectively. The
+remaining values are integers. Consult the <em class="manpage">getrusage(2)</em> man page for
+detailed information about these values. A brief summary is presented here:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 52%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Resource</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_utime</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>time in user mode (float)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_stime</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>time in system mode (float)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_maxrss</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>maximum resident set size</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_ixrss</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>shared memory size</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_idrss</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unshared memory size</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_isrss</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unshared stack size</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_minflt</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>page faults not requiring I/O</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_majflt</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>page faults requiring I/O</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_nswap</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>number of swap outs</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_inblock</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>block input operations</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_oublock</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>block output operations</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">11</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_msgsnd</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>messages sent</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">12</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_msgrcv</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>messages received</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">13</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_nsignals</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>signals received</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">14</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_nvcsw</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>voluntary context switches</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">15</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ru_nivcsw</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>involuntary context switches</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>This function will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if an invalid <em>who</em> parameter is
+specified. It may also raise <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.error" title="resource.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></a> exception in unusual circumstances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="resource.getpagesize">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">getpagesize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.getpagesize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the number of bytes in a system page. (This need not be the same as the
+hardware page size.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RUSAGE_*</span></code> symbols are passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrusage()</span></code></a>
+function to specify which processes information should be provided for.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RUSAGE_SELF">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RUSAGE_SELF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RUSAGE_SELF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pass to <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrusage()</span></code></a> to request resources consumed by the calling
+process, which is the sum of resources used by all threads in the process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RUSAGE_CHILDREN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pass to <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrusage()</span></code></a> to request resources consumed by child processes
+of the calling process which have been terminated and waited for.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RUSAGE_BOTH">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RUSAGE_BOTH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RUSAGE_BOTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pass to <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrusage()</span></code></a> to request resources consumed by both the current
+process and child processes.  May not be available on all systems.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="resource.RUSAGE_THREAD">
+<code class="descclassname">resource.</code><code class="descname">RUSAGE_THREAD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#resource.RUSAGE_THREAD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pass to <a class="reference internal" href="#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrusage()</span></code></a> to request resources consumed by the current
+thread.  May not be available on all systems.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code> — Resource usage information</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#resource-limits">Resource Limits</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#resource-usage">Resource Usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pipes.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code> — Interface to shell pipelines</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code> — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/rlcompleter.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/rlcompleter.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ff1b46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/rlcompleter.html
@@ -0,0 +1,233 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-rlcompleter">
+<span id="rlcompleter-completion-function-for-gnu-readline"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> — Completion function for GNU readline<a class="headerlink" href="#module-rlcompleter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/rlcompleter.py">Lib/rlcompleter.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> module defines a completion function suitable for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module by completing valid Python identifiers and keywords.</p>
+<p>When this module is imported on a Unix platform with the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module
+available, an instance of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Completer</span></code> class is automatically created
+and its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complete()</span></code> method is set as the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> completer.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">rlcompleter</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">readline</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_and_bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;tab: complete&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">TAB</span> <span class="n">PRESSED</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(</span>
+<span class="go">readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(</span>
+<span class="go">readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="o">.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> module is designed for use with Python’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/interpreter.html#tut-interactive"><span class="std std-ref">interactive mode</span></a>.  Unless Python is run with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> option, the module is automatically imported and configured
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#rlcompleter-config"><span class="std std-ref">Readline configuration</span></a>).</p>
+<p>On platforms without <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Completer</span></code> class defined by
+this module can still be used for custom purposes.</p>
+<div class="section" id="completer-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Completer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#completer-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Completer objects have the following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="rlcompleter.Completer.complete">
+<code class="descclassname">Completer.</code><code class="descname">complete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>state</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#rlcompleter.Completer.complete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <em>state</em>th completion for <em>text</em>.</p>
+<p>If called for <em>text</em> that doesn’t include a period character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>), it will
+complete from names currently defined in <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> and
+keywords (as defined by the <a class="reference internal" href="keyword.html#module-keyword" title="keyword: Test whether a string is a keyword in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword</span></code></a> module).</p>
+<p>If called for a dotted name, it will try to evaluate anything without obvious
+side-effects (functions will not be evaluated, but it can generate calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a>) up to the last part, and find matches for the rest via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> function.  Any exception raised during the evaluation of the
+expression is caught, silenced and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code> — Completion function for GNU readline</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#completer-objects">Completer Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="readline.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code> — GNU readline interface</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="binary.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Binary Data Services</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/runpy.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/runpy.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bba354c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/runpy.html
@@ -0,0 +1,331 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>runpy — Locating and executing Python modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-runpy">
+<span id="runpy-locating-and-executing-python-modules"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> — Locating and executing Python modules<a class="headerlink" href="#module-runpy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/runpy.py">Lib/runpy.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> module is used to locate and run Python modules without
+importing them first. Its main use is to implement the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> command
+line switch that allows scripts to be located using the Python module
+namespace rather than the filesystem.</p>
+<p>Note that this is <em>not</em> a sandbox module - all code is executed in the
+current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other
+modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned.</p>
+<p>Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are not
+guaranteed to work correctly after a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> function has returned.
+If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case, <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>
+is likely to be a more suitable choice than this module.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> module provides two functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="runpy.run_module">
+<code class="descclassname">runpy.</code><code class="descname">run_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mod_name</em>, <em>init_globals=None</em>, <em>run_name=None</em>, <em>alter_sys=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#runpy.run_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting module
+globals dictionary. The module’s code is first located using the standard
+import mechanism (refer to <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> for details) and then executed in a
+fresh module namespace.</p>
+<p>The <em>mod_name</em> argument should be an absolute module name.
+If the module name refers to a package rather than a normal
+module, then that package is imported and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> submodule within
+that package is then executed and the resulting module globals dictionary
+returned.</p>
+<p>The optional dictionary argument <em>init_globals</em> may be used to pre-populate
+the module’s globals dictionary before the code is executed. The supplied
+dictionary will not be modified. If any of the special global variables
+below are defined in the supplied dictionary, those definitions are
+overridden by <a class="reference internal" href="#runpy.run_module" title="runpy.run_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The special global variables <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> are set in the globals
+dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
+minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an
+interpreter implementation detail).</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> is set to <em>run_name</em> if this optional argument is not
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mod_name</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">'.__main__'</span></code> if the named module is a
+package and to the <em>mod_name</em> argument otherwise.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> will be set appropriately for the <em>actually</em> imported
+module (that is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.name</span></code> will always be <em>mod_name</em> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mod_name</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">'.__main__</span></code>, never <em>run_name</em>).</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> are
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#import-mod-attrs"><span class="std std-ref">set as normal</span></a> based on the module spec.</p>
+<p>If the argument <em>alter_sys</em> is supplied and evaluates to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>,
+then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is updated with the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules[__name__]</span></code> is updated with a temporary module object for the
+module being executed. Both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules[__name__]</span></code>
+are restored to their original values before the function returns.</p>
+<p>Note that this manipulation of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> is not thread-safe. Other threads
+may see the partially initialised module, as well as the altered list of
+arguments. It is recommended that the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module be left alone when
+invoking this function from threaded code.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> option offering equivalent functionality from the
+command line.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added ability to execute packages by looking for a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> submodule.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code> global variable (see <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a>. This allows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code> to be set correctly for modules
+run this way, as well as ensuring the real module name is always
+accessible as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.name</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="runpy.run_path">
+<code class="descclassname">runpy.</code><code class="descname">run_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file_path</em>, <em>init_globals=None</em>, <em>run_name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#runpy.run_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-4">Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the resulting
+module globals dictionary. As with a script name supplied to the CPython
+command line, the supplied path may refer to a Python source file, a
+compiled bytecode file or a valid sys.path entry containing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>
+module (e.g. a zipfile containing a top-level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file).</p>
+<p>For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a fresh
+module namespace. For a valid sys.path entry (typically a zipfile or
+directory), the entry is first added to the beginning of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>. The
+function then looks for and executes a <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module using the
+updated path. Note that there is no special protection against invoking
+an existing <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> entry located elsewhere on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> if
+there is no such module at the specified location.</p>
+<p>The optional dictionary argument <em>init_globals</em> may be used to pre-populate
+the module’s globals dictionary before the code is executed. The supplied
+dictionary will not be modified. If any of the special global variables
+below are defined in the supplied dictionary, those definitions are
+overridden by <a class="reference internal" href="#runpy.run_path" title="runpy.run_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_path()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The special global variables <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> are set in the globals
+dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
+minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an
+interpreter implementation detail).</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> is set to <em>run_name</em> if this optional argument is not
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> and to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;run_path&gt;'</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>If the supplied path directly references a script file (whether as source
+or as precompiled byte code), then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> will be set to the
+supplied path, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> will all be set to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the supplied path is a reference to a valid sys.path entry, then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> will be set appropriately for the imported <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>
+module (that is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.name</span></code> will always be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>).
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> will be
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#import-mod-attrs"><span class="std std-ref">set as normal</span></a> based on the module spec.</p>
+<p>A number of alterations are also made to the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module. Firstly,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> may be altered as described above. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is updated
+with the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file_path</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules[__name__]</span></code> is updated
+with a temporary module object for the module being executed. All
+modifications to items in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> are reverted before the function
+returns.</p>
+<p>Note that, unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#runpy.run_module" title="runpy.run_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_module()</span></code></a>, the alterations made to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>
+are not optional in this function as these adjustments are essential to
+allowing the execution of sys.path entries. As the thread-safety
+limitations still apply, use of this function in threaded code should be
+either serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-interface-options"><span class="std std-ref">Interface options</span></a> for equivalent functionality on the
+command line (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">path/to/script</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a>. This allows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code> to be set correctly in the
+case where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> is imported from a valid sys.path entry rather
+than being executed directly.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0338"><strong>PEP 338</strong></a> – Executing modules as scripts</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0366"><strong>PEP 366</strong></a> – Main module explicit relative imports</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a> – A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-general"><span class="std std-ref">Command line and environment</span></a> - CPython command line details</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> function</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="modulefinder.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulefinder</span></code> — Find modules used by a script</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="importlib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> — The implementation of <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sched.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sched.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..916f709
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sched.html
@@ -0,0 +1,318 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>sched — Event scheduler &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="queue — A synchronized queue class" href="queue.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="subprocess — Subprocess management" href="subprocess.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/sched.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="queue.html" title="queue — A synchronized queue class"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="concurrency.html" accesskey="U">Concurrent Execution</a> &#187;</li>
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+        
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-sched">
+<span id="sched-event-scheduler"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sched" title="sched: General purpose event scheduler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code></a> — Event scheduler<a class="headerlink" href="#module-sched" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/sched.py">Lib/sched.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sched" title="sched: General purpose event scheduler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code></a> module defines a class which implements a general purpose event
+scheduler:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="sched.scheduler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">sched.</code><code class="descname">scheduler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timefunc=time.monotonic</em>, <em>delayfunc=time.sleep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sched.scheduler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#sched.scheduler" title="sched.scheduler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheduler</span></code></a> class defines a generic interface to scheduling events.
+It needs two functions to actually deal with the “outside world” — <em>timefunc</em>
+should be callable without arguments, and return  a number (the “time”, in any
+units whatsoever).  The <em>delayfunc</em> function should be callable with one
+argument, compatible with the output of <em>timefunc</em>, and should delay that many
+time units. <em>delayfunc</em> will also be called with the argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> after each
+event is run to allow other threads an opportunity to run in multi-threaded
+applications.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>timefunc</em> and <em>delayfunc</em> parameters are optional.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#sched.scheduler" title="sched.scheduler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheduler</span></code></a> class can be safely used in multi-threaded
+environments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sched</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sched</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">scheduler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_time</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;default&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;From print_time&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_some_times</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">print_time</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">print_time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">argument</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;positional&#39;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">print_time</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;keyword&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">print_some_times</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">930343690.257</span>
+<span class="go">From print_time 930343695.274 positional</span>
+<span class="go">From print_time 930343695.275 keyword</span>
+<span class="go">From print_time 930343700.273 default</span>
+<span class="go">930343700.276</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="scheduler-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Scheduler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#scheduler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#sched.scheduler" title="sched.scheduler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheduler</span></code></a> instances have the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sched.scheduler.enterabs">
+<code class="descclassname">scheduler.</code><code class="descname">enterabs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>time</em>, <em>priority</em>, <em>action</em>, <em>argument=()</em>, <em>kwargs={}</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sched.scheduler.enterabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedule a new event. The <em>time</em> argument should be a numeric type compatible
+with the return value of the <em>timefunc</em> function passed  to the constructor.
+Events scheduled for the same <em>time</em> will be executed in the order of their
+<em>priority</em>. A lower number represents a higher priority.</p>
+<p>Executing the event means executing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action(*argument,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code>.
+<em>argument</em> is a sequence holding the positional arguments for <em>action</em>.
+<em>kwargs</em> is a dictionary holding the keyword arguments for <em>action</em>.</p>
+<p>Return value is an event which may be used for later cancellation of the event
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="#sched.scheduler.cancel" title="sched.scheduler.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancel()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>argument</em> parameter is optional.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span><em>kwargs</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sched.scheduler.enter">
+<code class="descclassname">scheduler.</code><code class="descname">enter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delay</em>, <em>priority</em>, <em>action</em>, <em>argument=()</em>, <em>kwargs={}</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sched.scheduler.enter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Schedule an event for <em>delay</em> more time units. Other than the relative time, the
+other arguments, the effect and the return value are the same as those for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sched.scheduler.enterabs" title="sched.scheduler.enterabs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enterabs()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>argument</em> parameter is optional.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span><em>kwargs</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sched.scheduler.cancel">
+<code class="descclassname">scheduler.</code><code class="descname">cancel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>event</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sched.scheduler.cancel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the event from the queue. If <em>event</em> is not an event currently in the
+queue, this method will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sched.scheduler.empty">
+<code class="descclassname">scheduler.</code><code class="descname">empty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sched.scheduler.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the event queue is empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sched.scheduler.run">
+<code class="descclassname">scheduler.</code><code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blocking=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sched.scheduler.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run all scheduled events. This method will wait  (using the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delayfunc()</span></code>
+function passed to the constructor) for the next event, then execute it and so
+on until there are no more scheduled events.</p>
+<p>If <em>blocking</em> is false executes the scheduled events due to expire soonest
+(if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled call in the
+scheduler (if any).</p>
+<p>Either <em>action</em> or <em>delayfunc</em> can raise an exception.  In either case, the
+scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate the exception.  If an
+exception is raised by <em>action</em>, the event will not be attempted in future calls
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#sched.scheduler.run" title="sched.scheduler.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If a sequence of events takes longer to run than the time available before the
+next event, the scheduler will simply fall behind.  No events will be dropped;
+the calling code is responsible for canceling  events which are no longer
+pertinent.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span><em>blocking</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sched.scheduler.queue">
+<code class="descclassname">scheduler.</code><code class="descname">queue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sched.scheduler.queue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read-only attribute returning a list of upcoming events in the order they
+will be run.  Each event is shown as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> with the
+following fields:  time, priority, action, argument, kwargs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code> — Event scheduler</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#scheduler-objects">Scheduler Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="subprocess.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> — Subprocess management</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="queue.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/secrets.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/secrets.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..defcf17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/secrets.html
@@ -0,0 +1,363 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-secrets">
+<span id="secrets-generate-secure-random-numbers-for-managing-secrets"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets<a class="headerlink" href="#module-secrets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/secrets.py">Lib/secrets.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module is used for generating cryptographically strong
+random numbers suitable for managing data such as passwords, account
+authentication, security tokens, and related secrets.</p>
+<p>In particularly, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> should be used in preference to the
+default pseudo-random number generator in the <a class="reference internal" href="random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module, which
+is designed for modelling and simulation, not security or cryptography.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0506"><strong>PEP 506</strong></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="random-numbers">
+<h2>Random numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#random-numbers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module provides access to the most secure source of
+randomness that your operating system provides.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="secrets.SystemRandom">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">SystemRandom</code><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.SystemRandom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class for generating random numbers using the highest-quality
+sources provided by the operating system.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="random.html#random.SystemRandom" title="random.SystemRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.SystemRandom</span></code></a> for additional details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="secrets.choice">
+<code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">choice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.choice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a randomly-chosen element from a non-empty sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="secrets.randbelow">
+<code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">randbelow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.randbelow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random int in the range [0, <em>n</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="secrets.randbits">
+<code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">randbits</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>k</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.randbits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an int with <em>k</em> random bits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generating-tokens">
+<h2>Generating tokens<a class="headerlink" href="#generating-tokens" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module provides functions for generating secure
+tokens, suitable for applications such as password resets,
+hard-to-guess URLs, and similar.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="secrets.token_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">token_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>nbytes=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.token_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random byte string containing <em>nbytes</em> number of bytes.
+If <em>nbytes</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not supplied, a reasonable default is
+used.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">token_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">b&#39;\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="secrets.token_hex">
+<code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">token_hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>nbytes=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.token_hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random text string, in hexadecimal.  The string has <em>nbytes</em>
+random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits.  If <em>nbytes</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not supplied, a reasonable default is used.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">token_hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">&#39;f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="secrets.token_urlsafe">
+<code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">token_urlsafe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>nbytes=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.token_urlsafe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a random URL-safe text string, containing <em>nbytes</em> random
+bytes.  The text is Base64 encoded, so on average each byte results
+in approximately 1.3 characters.  If <em>nbytes</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not
+supplied, a reasonable default is used.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">token_urlsafe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">&#39;Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use">
+<h3>How many bytes should tokens use?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To be secure against
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack">brute-force attacks</a>,
+tokens need to have sufficient randomness.  Unfortunately, what is
+considered sufficient will necessarily increase as computers get more
+powerful and able to make more guesses in a shorter period.  As of 2015,
+it is believed that 32 bytes (256 bits) of randomness is sufficient for
+the typical use-case expected for the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>For those who want to manage their own token length, you can explicitly
+specify how much randomness is used for tokens by giving an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>
+argument to the various <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token_*</span></code> functions.  That argument is taken
+as the number of bytes of randomness to use.</p>
+<p>Otherwise, if no argument is provided, or if the argument is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token_*</span></code> functions will use a reasonable default instead.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>That default is subject to change at any time, including during
+maintenance releases.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-functions">
+<h2>Other functions<a class="headerlink" href="#other-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="secrets.compare_digest">
+<code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">compare_digest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.compare_digest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if strings <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> are equal, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,
+in such a way as to reduce the risk of
+<a class="reference external" href="https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/">timing attacks</a>.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#hmac.compare_digest" title="hmac.compare_digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.compare_digest()</span></code></a> for additional details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="recipes-and-best-practices">
+<h2>Recipes and best practices<a class="headerlink" href="#recipes-and-best-practices" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section shows recipes and best practices for using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a>
+to manage a basic level of security.</p>
+<p>Generate an eight-character alphanumeric password:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">string</span>
+<span class="n">alphabet</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ascii_letters</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digits</span>
+<span class="n">password</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alphabet</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Applications should not
+<a class="reference external" href="http://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html">store passwords in a recoverable format</a>,
+whether plain text or encrypted.  They should be salted and hashed
+using a cryptographically-strong one-way (irreversible) hash function.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Generate a ten-character alphanumeric password with at least one
+lowercase character, at least one uppercase character, and at least
+three digits:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">string</span>
+<span class="n">alphabet</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ascii_letters</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digits</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">password</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alphabet</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islower</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isupper</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdigit</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Generate an <a class="reference external" href="https://xkcd.com/936/">XKCD-style passphrase</a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/share/dict/words&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">words</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">word</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">word</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">password</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">words</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Generate a hard-to-guess temporary URL containing a security token
+suitable for password recovery applications:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;https://mydomain.com/reset=&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">token_urlsafe</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code> — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#random-numbers">Random numbers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generating-tokens">Generating tokens</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use">How many bytes should tokens use?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-functions">Other functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#recipes-and-best-practices">Recipes and best practices</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="hmac.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code> — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="allos.html"
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-select">
+<span id="select-waiting-for-i-o-completion"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> — Waiting for I/O completion<a class="headerlink" href="#module-select" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code> functions
+available in most operating systems, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">devpoll()</span></code> available on
+Solaris and derivatives, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epoll()</span></code> available on Linux 2.5+ and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kqueue()</span></code> available on most BSD.
+Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets; on other operating systems,
+it also works for other file types (in particular, on Unix, it works on pipes).
+It cannot be used on regular files to determine whether a file has grown since
+it was last read.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> module allows high-level and efficient I/O
+multiplexing, built upon the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module primitives. Users are
+encouraged to use the <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> module instead, unless they want
+precise control over the OS-level primitives used.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The module defines the following:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="select.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A deprecated alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Following <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3151"><strong>PEP 3151</strong></a>, this class was made an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="select.devpoll">
+<code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">devpoll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.)  Returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code>
+polling object; see section <a class="reference internal" href="#devpoll-objects"><span class="std std-ref">/dev/poll Polling Objects</span></a> below for the
+methods supported by devpoll objects.</p>
+<p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">devpoll()</span></code> objects are linked to the number of file
+descriptors allowed at the time of instantiation. If your program
+reduces this value, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">devpoll()</span></code> will fail. If your program
+increases this value, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">devpoll()</span></code> may return an
+incomplete list of active file descriptors.</p>
+<p>The new file descriptor is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="select.epoll">
+<code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">epoll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sizehint=-1</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.) Return an edge polling object,
+which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for I/O
+events.</p>
+<p><em>sizehint</em> informs epoll about the expected number of events to be
+registered.  It must be positive, or <cite>-1</cite> to use the default. It is only
+used on older systems where <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epoll_create1()</span></code> is not available;
+otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still checked).</p>
+<p><em>flags</em> is deprecated and completely ignored.  However, when supplied, its
+value must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC</span></code>, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code> is
+raised.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="#epoll-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects</span></a> section below for the methods supported by
+epolling objects.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epoll</span></code> objects support the context management protocol: when used in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, the new file descriptor is automatically closed
+at the end of the block.</p>
+<p>The new file descriptor is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>flags</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added.
+The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The <em>flags</em> parameter.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC</span></code> is used by default now.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.set_inheritable" title="os.set_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.set_inheritable()</span></code></a> to make the file descriptor inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="select.poll">
+<code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">poll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.poll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(Not supported by all operating systems.)  Returns a polling object, which
+supports registering and unregistering file descriptors, and then polling them
+for I/O events; see section <a class="reference internal" href="#poll-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Polling Objects</span></a> below for the methods supported
+by polling objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="select.kqueue">
+<code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">kqueue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kqueue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(Only supported on BSD.)  Returns a kernel queue object; see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#kqueue-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Kqueue Objects</span></a> below for the methods supported by kqueue objects.</p>
+<p>The new file descriptor is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="select.kevent">
+<code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">kevent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ident</em>, <em>filter=KQ_FILTER_READ</em>, <em>flags=KQ_EV_ADD</em>, <em>fflags=0</em>, <em>data=0</em>, <em>udata=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kevent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(Only supported on BSD.)  Returns a kernel event object; see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#kevent-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Kevent Objects</span></a> below for the methods supported by kevent objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="select.select">
+<code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">select</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rlist</em>, <em>wlist</em>, <em>xlist</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.select" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a straightforward interface to the Unix <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> system call.
+The first three arguments are sequences of ‘waitable objects’: either
+integers representing file descriptors or objects with a parameterless method
+named <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> returning such an integer:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>rlist</em>: wait until ready for reading</p></li>
+<li><p><em>wlist</em>: wait until ready for writing</p></li>
+<li><p><em>xlist</em>: wait for an “exceptional condition” (see the manual page for what
+your system considers such a condition)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Empty sequences are allowed, but acceptance of three empty sequences is
+platform-dependent. (It is known to work on Unix but not on Windows.)  The
+optional <em>timeout</em> argument specifies a time-out as a floating point number
+in seconds.  When the <em>timeout</em> argument is omitted the function blocks until
+at least one file descriptor is ready.  A time-out value of zero specifies a
+poll and never blocks.</p>
+<p>The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready: subsets of the
+first three arguments.  When the time-out is reached without a file descriptor
+becoming ready, three empty lists are returned.</p>
+<p id="index-1">Among the acceptable object types in the sequences are Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file
+objects</span></a> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>, or objects returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a>), socket objects returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket()</span></code></a>.  You may also define a <em class="dfn">wrapper</em> class yourself,
+as long as it has an appropriate <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method (that
+really returns a file descriptor, not just a random integer).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p id="index-2">File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are.  On Windows,
+the underlying <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> function is provided by the WinSock
+library, and does not handle file descriptors that don’t originate from
+WinSock.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale), instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.PIPE_BUF">
+<code class="descclassname">select.</code><code class="descname">PIPE_BUF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.PIPE_BUF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking to a pipe
+when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by <a class="reference internal" href="#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a> or another interface in this module.  This doesn’t apply
+to other kind of file-like objects such as sockets.</p>
+<p>This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="dev-poll-polling-objects">
+<span id="devpoll-objects"></span><h2><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code> Polling Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#dev-poll-polling-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Solaris and derivatives have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code>. While <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> is
+O(highest file descriptor) and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code> is O(number of file
+descriptors), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code> is O(active file descriptors).</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code> behaviour is very close to the standard <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code>
+object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.devpoll.close">
+<code class="descclassname">devpoll.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the file descriptor of the polling object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.devpoll.closed">
+<code class="descclassname">devpoll.</code><code class="descname">closed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll.closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the polling object is closed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.devpoll.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">devpoll.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file descriptor number of the polling object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.devpoll.register">
+<code class="descclassname">devpoll.</code><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>eventmask</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a> method will then check whether the file descriptor has any
+pending I/O events.  <em>fd</em> can be either an integer, or an object with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method that returns an integer.  File objects
+implement <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code>, so they can also be used as the argument.</p>
+<p><em>eventmask</em> is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to
+check for. The constants are the same that with <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code>
+object. The default value is a combination of the constants <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLIN</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLPRI</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLOUT</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Registering a file descriptor that’s already registered is not an
+error, but the result is undefined. The appropriate action is to
+unregister or modify it first. This is an important difference
+compared with <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.devpoll.modify">
+<code class="descclassname">devpoll.</code><code class="descname">modify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>eventmask</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll.modify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method does an <a class="reference internal" href="#select.devpoll.unregister" title="select.devpoll.unregister"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unregister()</span></code></a> followed by a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#select.devpoll.register" title="select.devpoll.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a>. It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same
+explicitly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.devpoll.unregister">
+<code class="descclassname">devpoll.</code><code class="descname">unregister</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll.unregister" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just like the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#select.devpoll.register" title="select.devpoll.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a> method, <em>fd</em> can be an integer or an object with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method that returns an integer.</p>
+<p>Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is
+safely ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.devpoll.poll">
+<code class="descclassname">devpoll.</code><code class="descname">poll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.devpoll.poll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly-empty list
+containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(fd,</span> <span class="pre">event)</span></code> 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or
+errors to report. <em>fd</em> is the file descriptor, and <em>event</em> is a bitmask with
+bits set for the reported events for that descriptor — <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLIN</span></code> for
+waiting input, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLOUT</span></code> to indicate that the descriptor can be written
+to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
+descriptors had any events to report. If <em>timeout</em> is given, it specifies the
+length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before
+returning. If <em>timeout</em> is omitted, -1, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the call will
+block until there is an event for this poll object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale), instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects">
+<span id="epoll-objects"></span><h2>Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><a class="reference external" href="https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll">https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll</a></p>
+<p><em>eventmask</em></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLIN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Available for read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLOUT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Available for write</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLPRI</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Urgent data for read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Error condition happened on the assoc. fd</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLHUP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hang up happened on the assoc. fd</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLET</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is
+Level Trigger behavior</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLONESHOT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Set one-shot behavior. After one event is
+pulled out, the fd is internally disabled</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLEXCLUSIVE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Wake only one epoll object when the
+associated fd has an event. The default (if
+this flag is not set) is to wake all epoll
+objects polling on a fd.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLRDHUP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Stream socket peer closed connection or shut
+down writing half of connection.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLRDNORM</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLIN</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLRDBAND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Priority data band can be read.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLWRNORM</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Equivalent to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLOUT</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLWRBAND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Priority data may be written.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLMSG</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Ignored.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EPOLLEXCLUSIVE</span></code> was added.  It’s only supported by Linux Kernel 4.5
+or later.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.epoll.close">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.epoll.closed">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">closed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the epoll object is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.epoll.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.epoll.fromfd">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">fromfd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.fromfd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.epoll.register">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>eventmask</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.epoll.modify">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">modify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>eventmask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.modify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Modify a registered file descriptor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.epoll.unregister">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">unregister</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.unregister" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.epoll.poll">
+<code class="descclassname">epoll.</code><code class="descname">poll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=-1</em>, <em>maxevents=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.epoll.poll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for events. timeout in seconds (float)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale), instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="polling-objects">
+<span id="poll-objects"></span><h2>Polling Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#polling-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code> system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides better
+scalability for network servers that service many, many clients at the same
+time. <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code> scales better because the system call only requires listing
+the file descriptors of interest, while <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> builds a bitmap, turns
+on bits for the fds of interest, and then afterward the whole bitmap has to be
+linearly scanned again. <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> is O(highest file descriptor), while
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code> is O(number of file descriptors).</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.poll.register">
+<code class="descclassname">poll.</code><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>eventmask</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.poll.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a> method will then check whether the file descriptor has any
+pending I/O events.  <em>fd</em> can be either an integer, or an object with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method that returns an integer.  File objects
+implement <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code>, so they can also be used as the argument.</p>
+<p><em>eventmask</em> is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to
+check for, and can be a combination of the constants <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLIN</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLPRI</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLOUT</span></code>, described in the table below.  If not
+specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types of events.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+<col style="width: 69%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLIN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>There is data to read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLPRI</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>There is urgent data to read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLOUT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Ready for output: writing will not block</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Error condition of some sort</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLHUP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hung up</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLRDHUP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Stream socket peer closed connection, or
+shut down writing half of connection</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLNVAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Invalid request: descriptor not open</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Registering a file descriptor that’s already registered is not an error, and has
+the same effect as registering the descriptor exactly once.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.poll.modify">
+<code class="descclassname">poll.</code><code class="descname">modify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>eventmask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.poll.modify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Modifies an already registered fd. This has the same effect as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register(fd,</span> <span class="pre">eventmask)</span></code>.  Attempting to modify a file descriptor
+that was never registered causes an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception with errno
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENOENT</span></code> to be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.poll.unregister">
+<code class="descclassname">poll.</code><code class="descname">unregister</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.poll.unregister" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just like the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#select.poll.register" title="select.poll.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a> method, <em>fd</em> can be an integer or an object with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method that returns an integer.</p>
+<p>Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered causes a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception to be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.poll.poll">
+<code class="descclassname">poll.</code><code class="descname">poll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.poll.poll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly-empty list
+containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(fd,</span> <span class="pre">event)</span></code> 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or
+errors to report. <em>fd</em> is the file descriptor, and <em>event</em> is a bitmask with
+bits set for the reported events for that descriptor — <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLIN</span></code> for
+waiting input, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POLLOUT</span></code> to indicate that the descriptor can be written
+to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
+descriptors had any events to report. If <em>timeout</em> is given, it specifies the
+length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before
+returning. If <em>timeout</em> is omitted, negative, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the call will
+block until there is an event for this poll object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale), instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="kqueue-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Kqueue Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#kqueue-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.kqueue.close">
+<code class="descclassname">kqueue.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kqueue.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.kqueue.closed">
+<code class="descclassname">kqueue.</code><code class="descname">closed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kqueue.closed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the kqueue object is closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.kqueue.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">kqueue.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kqueue.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.kqueue.fromfd">
+<code class="descclassname">kqueue.</code><code class="descname">fromfd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kqueue.fromfd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="select.kqueue.control">
+<code class="descclassname">kqueue.</code><code class="descname">control</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>changelist</em>, <em>max_events</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; eventlist<a class="headerlink" href="#select.kqueue.control" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Low level interface to kevent</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>max_events must be 0 or a positive integer</p></li>
+<li><p>timeout in seconds (floats possible); the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+to wait forever</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by
+a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale), instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="kevent-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Kevent Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#kevent-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&amp;sektion=2">https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&amp;sektion=2</a></p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.kevent.ident">
+<code class="descclassname">kevent.</code><code class="descname">ident</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kevent.ident" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Value used to identify the event. The interpretation depends on the filter
+but it’s usually the file descriptor. In the constructor ident can either
+be an int or an object with a <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method. kevent
+stores the integer internally.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.kevent.filter">
+<code class="descclassname">kevent.</code><code class="descname">filter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kevent.filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the kernel filter.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_READ</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Takes a descriptor and returns whenever
+there is data available to read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_WRITE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Takes a descriptor and returns whenever
+there is data available to write</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_AIO</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>AIO requests</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_VNODE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns when one or more of the requested
+events watched in <em>fflag</em> occurs</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_PROC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Watch for events on a process id</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_NETDEV</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Watch for events on a network device
+[not available on Mac OS X]</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns whenever the watched signal is
+delivered to the process</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_TIMER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Establishes an arbitrary timer</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.kevent.flags">
+<code class="descclassname">kevent.</code><code class="descname">flags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kevent.flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filter action.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_ADD</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Adds or modifies an event</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_DELETE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Removes an event from the queue</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_ENABLE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Permitscontrol() to returns the event</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_DISABLE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Disablesevent</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_ONESHOT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Removes event after first occurrence</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_CLEAR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Reset the state after an event is retrieved</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>internal event</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_FLAG1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>internal event</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_EOF</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Filter specific EOF condition</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_EV_ERROR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>See return values</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.kevent.fflags">
+<code class="descclassname">kevent.</code><code class="descname">fflags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kevent.fflags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filter specific flags.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_READ</span></code> and  <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_WRITE</span></code> filter flags:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 61%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_LOWAT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>low water mark of a socket buffer</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_VNODE</span></code> filter flags:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 61%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_DELETE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>unlink()</em> was called</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_WRITE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a write occurred</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_EXTEND</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the file was extended</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>an attribute was changed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_LINK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the link count has changed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_RENAME</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the file was renamed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_REVOKE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>access to the file was revoked</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_PROC</span></code> filter flags:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 61%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_EXIT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the process has exited</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_FORK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the process has called <em>fork()</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_EXEC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the process has executed a new process</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>internal filter flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>internal filter flag</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_TRACK</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>follow a process across <em>fork()</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_CHILD</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>returned on the child process for
+<em>NOTE_TRACK</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>unable to attach to a child</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_FILTER_NETDEV</span></code> filter flags (not available on Mac OS X):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 61%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_LINKUP</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>link is up</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>link is down</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KQ_NOTE_LINKINV</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>link state is invalid</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.kevent.data">
+<code class="descclassname">kevent.</code><code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kevent.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filter specific data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="select.kevent.udata">
+<code class="descclassname">kevent.</code><code class="descname">udata</code><a class="headerlink" href="#select.kevent.udata" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>User defined value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> — Waiting for I/O completion</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dev-poll-polling-objects"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code> Polling Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects">Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#polling-objects">Polling Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#kqueue-objects">Kqueue Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#kevent-objects">Kevent Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ssl.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="selectors.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code> — High-level I/O multiplexing</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-selectors">
+<span id="selectors-high-level-i-o-multiplexing"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> — High-level I/O multiplexing<a class="headerlink" href="#module-selectors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/selectors.py">Lib/selectors.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module primitives. Users are encouraged to use this module
+instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level primitives used.</p>
+<p>It defines a <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.BaseSelector" title="selectors.BaseSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseSelector</span></code></a> abstract base class, along with several
+concrete implementations (<a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.KqueueSelector" title="selectors.KqueueSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KqueueSelector</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.EpollSelector" title="selectors.EpollSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EpollSelector</span></code></a>…),
+that can be used to wait for I/O readiness notification on multiple file
+objects. In the following, “file object” refers to any object with a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method, or a raw file descriptor. See <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.DefaultSelector" title="selectors.DefaultSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultSelector</span></code></a> is an alias to the most efficient implementation
+available on the current platform: this should be the default choice for most
+users.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The type of file objects supported depends on the platform: on Windows,
+sockets are supported, but not pipes, whereas on Unix, both are supported
+(some other types may be supported as well, such as fifos or special file
+devices).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Low-level I/O multiplexing module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="classes">
+<h2>Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Classes hierarchy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">BaseSelector</span>
+<span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">SelectSelector</span>
+<span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">PollSelector</span>
+<span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">EpollSelector</span>
+<span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">DevpollSelector</span>
+<span class="o">+--</span> <span class="n">KqueueSelector</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the following, <em>events</em> is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events should
+be waited for on a given file object. It can be a combination of the modules
+constants below:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+<col style="width: 67%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EVENT_READ</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Available for read</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EVENT_WRITE</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Available for write</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.SelectorKey">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">SelectorKey</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="selectors.SelectorKey"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorKey</span></code></a> is a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple</span></code></a> used to
+associate a file object to its underlying file descriptor, selected event
+mask and attached data. It is returned by several <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.BaseSelector" title="selectors.BaseSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseSelector</span></code></a>
+methods.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="selectors.SelectorKey.fileobj">
+<code class="descname">fileobj</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.SelectorKey.fileobj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File object registered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="selectors.SelectorKey.fd">
+<code class="descname">fd</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.SelectorKey.fd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Underlying file descriptor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="selectors.SelectorKey.events">
+<code class="descname">events</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.SelectorKey.events" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Events that must be waited for on this file object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="selectors.SelectorKey.data">
+<code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.SelectorKey.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Optional opaque data associated to this file object: for example, this
+could be used to store a per-client session ID.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">BaseSelector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.BaseSelector" title="selectors.BaseSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseSelector</span></code></a> is used to wait for I/O event readiness on multiple
+file objects. It supports file stream registration, unregistration, and a
+method to wait for I/O events on those streams, with an optional timeout.
+It’s an abstract base class, so cannot be instantiated. Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.DefaultSelector" title="selectors.DefaultSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultSelector</span></code></a> instead, or one of <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectSelector" title="selectors.SelectSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectSelector</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.KqueueSelector" title="selectors.KqueueSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KqueueSelector</span></code></a> etc. if you want to specifically use an
+implementation, and your platform supports it.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.BaseSelector" title="selectors.BaseSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseSelector</span></code></a> and its concrete implementations support the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector.register">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fileobj</em>, <em>events</em>, <em>data=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O events.</p>
+<p><em>fileobj</em> is the file object to monitor.  It may either be an integer
+file descriptor or an object with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method.
+<em>events</em> is a bitwise mask of events to monitor.
+<em>data</em> is an opaque object.</p>
+<p>This returns a new <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="selectors.SelectorKey"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorKey</span></code></a> instance, or raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the file object is already registered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector.unregister">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">unregister</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fileobj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector.unregister" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from monitoring. A
+file object shall be unregistered prior to being closed.</p>
+<p><em>fileobj</em> must be a file object previously registered.</p>
+<p>This returns the associated <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="selectors.SelectorKey"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorKey</span></code></a> instance, or raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if <em>fileobj</em> is not registered.  It will raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>fileobj</em> is invalid (e.g. it has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code>
+method or its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method has an invalid return value).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector.modify">
+<code class="descname">modify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fileobj</em>, <em>events</em>, <em>data=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector.modify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change a registered file object’s monitored events or attached data.</p>
+<p>This is equivalent to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj)()</span></code> followed
+by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseSelector.register(fileobj,</span> <span class="pre">events,</span> <span class="pre">data)()</span></code>, except that it
+can be implemented more efficiently.</p>
+<p>This returns a new <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="selectors.SelectorKey"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorKey</span></code></a> instance, or raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the file object is not registered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector.select">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">select</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector.select" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the timeout
+expires.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, this specifies the maximum wait time, in seconds.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, the call won’t block, and will report the currently
+ready file objects.
+If <em>timeout</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the call will block until a monitored file object
+becomes ready.</p>
+<p>This returns a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">events)</span></code> tuples, one for each ready file
+object.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="selectors.SelectorKey"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorKey</span></code></a> instance corresponding to a ready file
+object.
+<em>events</em> is a bitmask of events ready on this file object.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This method can return before any file object becomes ready or the
+timeout has elapsed if the current process receives a signal: in this
+case, an empty list will be returned.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The selector is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted
+by a signal if the signal handler did not raise an exception (see
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale), instead of returning an empty list
+of events before the timeout.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the selector.</p>
+<p>This must be called to make sure that any underlying resource is freed.
+The selector shall not be used once it has been closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector.get_key">
+<code class="descname">get_key</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fileobj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector.get_key" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the key associated with a registered file object.</p>
+<p>This returns the <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="selectors.SelectorKey"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorKey</span></code></a> instance associated to this file
+object, or raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the file object is not registered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.BaseSelector.get_map">
+<em class="property">abstractmethod </em><code class="descname">get_map</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.BaseSelector.get_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.</p>
+<p>This returns a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code></a> instance mapping
+registered file objects to their associated <a class="reference internal" href="#selectors.SelectorKey" title="selectors.SelectorKey"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SelectorKey</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.DefaultSelector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">DefaultSelector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.DefaultSelector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default selector class, using the most efficient implementation
+available on the current platform. This should be the default choice for
+most users.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.SelectSelector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">SelectSelector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.SelectSelector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a>-based selector.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.PollSelector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">PollSelector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.PollSelector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.poll()</span></code></a>-based selector.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.EpollSelector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">EpollSelector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.EpollSelector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.epoll" title="select.epoll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.epoll()</span></code></a>-based selector.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.EpollSelector.fileno">
+<code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.EpollSelector.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.epoll" title="select.epoll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.epoll()</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.DevpollSelector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">DevpollSelector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.DevpollSelector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.devpoll" title="select.devpoll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.devpoll()</span></code></a>-based selector.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.DevpollSelector.fileno">
+<code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.DevpollSelector.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.devpoll" title="select.devpoll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.devpoll()</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="selectors.KqueueSelector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">selectors.</code><code class="descname">KqueueSelector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.KqueueSelector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.kqueue" title="select.kqueue"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.kqueue()</span></code></a>-based selector.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="selectors.KqueueSelector.fileno">
+<code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#selectors.KqueueSelector.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.kqueue" title="select.kqueue"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.kqueue()</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is a simple echo server implementation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">selectors</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+
+<span class="n">sel</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DefaultSelector</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">accept</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mask</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># Should be ready</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;accepted&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setblocking</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">sel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">EVENT_READ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">read</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mask</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Should be ready</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;echoing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Hope it won&#39;t block</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;closing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">sel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unregister</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1234</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setblocking</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">sel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">EVENT_READ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">events</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mask</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">events</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">callback</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span>
+        <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileobj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mask</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code> — High-level I/O multiplexing</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes">Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="select.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> — Waiting for I/O completion</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asyncore.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code> — Asynchronous socket handler</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-shelve">
+<span id="shelve-python-object-persistence"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a> — Python object persistence<a class="headerlink" href="#module-shelve" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/shelve.py">Lib/shelve.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>A “shelf” is a persistent, dictionary-like object.  The difference with “dbm”
+databases is that the values (not the keys!) in a shelf can be essentially
+arbitrary Python objects — anything that the <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module can handle.
+This includes most class instances, recursive data types, and objects containing
+lots of shared  sub-objects.  The keys are ordinary strings.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shelve.open">
+<code class="descclassname">shelve.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>flag='c'</em>, <em>protocol=None</em>, <em>writeback=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shelve.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a persistent dictionary.  The filename specified is the base filename for
+the underlying database.  As a side-effect, an extension may be added to the
+filename and more than one file may be created.  By default, the underlying
+database file is opened for reading and writing.  The optional <em>flag</em> parameter
+has the same interpretation as the <em>flag</em> parameter of <a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#dbm.open" title="dbm.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>By default, version 3 pickles are used to serialize values.  The version of the
+pickle protocol can be specified with the <em>protocol</em> parameter.</p>
+<p>Because of Python semantics, a shelf cannot know when a mutable
+persistent-dictionary entry is modified.  By default modified objects are
+written <em>only</em> when assigned to the shelf (see <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve-example"><span class="std std-ref">Example</span></a>).  If the
+optional <em>writeback</em> parameter is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, all entries accessed are also
+cached in memory, and written back on <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf.sync" title="shelve.Shelf.sync"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sync()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf.close" title="shelve.Shelf.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>; this can make it handier to mutate mutable entries in
+the persistent dictionary, but, if many entries are accessed, it can consume
+vast amounts of memory for the cache, and it can make the close operation
+very slow since all accessed entries are written back (there is no way to
+determine which accessed entries are mutable, nor which ones were actually
+mutated).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Do not rely on the shelf being closed automatically; always call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf.close" title="shelve.Shelf.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> explicitly when you don’t need it any more, or
+use <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.open" title="shelve.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve.open()</span></code></a> as a context manager:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">shelve</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">db</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Because the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a> module is backed by <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a>, it is insecure
+to load a shelf from an untrusted source.  Like with pickle, loading a shelf
+can execute arbitrary code.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Shelf objects support all methods supported by dictionaries.  This eases the
+transition from dictionary based scripts to those requiring persistent storage.</p>
+<p>Two additional methods are supported:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shelve.Shelf.sync">
+<code class="descclassname">Shelf.</code><code class="descname">sync</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shelve.Shelf.sync" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write back all entries in the cache if the shelf was opened with <em>writeback</em>
+set to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.  Also empty the cache and synchronize the persistent
+dictionary on disk, if feasible.  This is called automatically when the shelf
+is closed with <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf.close" title="shelve.Shelf.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shelve.Shelf.close">
+<code class="descclassname">Shelf.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shelve.Shelf.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Synchronize and close the persistent <em>dict</em> object.  Operations on a closed
+shelf will fail with a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642/">Persistent dictionary recipe</a>
+with widely supported storage formats and having the speed of native
+dictionaries.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="restrictions">
+<h2>Restrictions<a class="headerlink" href="#restrictions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<blockquote>
+<div></div></blockquote>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-1">
+<li><p>The choice of which database package will be used (such as <a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a>) depends on which interface is available.  Therefore it is not
+safe to open the database directly using <a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a>.  The database is also
+(unfortunately) subject to the limitations of <a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a>, if it is used —
+this means that (the pickled representation of) the objects stored in the
+database should be fairly small, and in rare cases key collisions may cause
+the database to refuse updates.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a> module does not support <em>concurrent</em> read/write access to
+shelved objects.  (Multiple simultaneous read accesses are safe.)  When a
+program has a shelf open for writing, no other program should have it open for
+reading or writing.  Unix file locking can be used to solve this, but this
+differs across Unix versions and requires knowledge about the database
+implementation used.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="shelve.Shelf">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">shelve.</code><code class="descname">Shelf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dict</em>, <em>protocol=None</em>, <em>writeback=False</em>, <em>keyencoding='utf-8'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shelve.Shelf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.MutableMapping</span></code></a> which stores pickled
+values in the <em>dict</em> object.</p>
+<p>By default, version 3 pickles are used to serialize values.  The version of the
+pickle protocol can be specified with the <em>protocol</em> parameter. See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> documentation for a discussion of the pickle protocols.</p>
+<p>If the <em>writeback</em> parameter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the object will hold a cache of all
+entries accessed and write them back to the <em>dict</em> at sync and close times.
+This allows natural operations on mutable entries, but can consume much more
+memory and make sync and close take a long time.</p>
+<p>The <em>keyencoding</em> parameter is the encoding used to encode keys before they
+are used with the underlying dict.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a> object can also be used as a context manager, in which
+case it will be automatically closed when the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> block ends.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>keyencoding</em> parameter; previously, keys were always encoded in
+UTF-8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added context manager support.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="shelve.BsdDbShelf">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">shelve.</code><code class="descname">BsdDbShelf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dict</em>, <em>protocol=None</em>, <em>writeback=False</em>, <em>keyencoding='utf-8'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shelve.BsdDbShelf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a> which exposes <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">previous()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_location()</span></code> which are available
+in the third-party <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code> module from <a class="reference external" href="https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm">pybsddb</a> but not in other database
+modules.  The <em>dict</em> object passed to the constructor must support those
+methods.  This is generally accomplished by calling one of
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb.hashopen()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb.btopen()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb.rnopen()</span></code>.  The
+optional <em>protocol</em>, <em>writeback</em>, and <em>keyencoding</em> parameters have the same
+interpretation as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="shelve.DbfilenameShelf">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">shelve.</code><code class="descname">DbfilenameShelf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>flag='c'</em>, <em>protocol=None</em>, <em>writeback=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shelve.DbfilenameShelf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a> which accepts a <em>filename</em> instead of a dict-like
+object.  The underlying file will be opened using <a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#dbm.open" title="dbm.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.open()</span></code></a>.  By
+default, the file will be created and opened for both read and write.  The
+optional <em>flag</em> parameter has the same interpretation as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.open" title="shelve.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>
+function.  The optional <em>protocol</em> and <em>writeback</em> parameters have the same
+interpretation as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="shelve-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To summarize the interface (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code> is a string, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code> is an arbitrary
+object):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shelve</span>
+
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shelve</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># open -- file may get suffix added by low-level</span>
+                           <span class="c1"># library</span>
+
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span>              <span class="c1"># store data at key (overwrites old data if</span>
+                           <span class="c1"># using an existing key)</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>              <span class="c1"># retrieve a COPY of data at key (raise KeyError</span>
+                           <span class="c1"># if no such key)</span>
+<span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>                 <span class="c1"># delete data stored at key (raises KeyError</span>
+                           <span class="c1"># if no such key)</span>
+
+<span class="n">flag</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">d</span>            <span class="c1"># true if the key exists</span>
+<span class="n">klist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">())</span>     <span class="c1"># a list of all existing keys (slow!)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:</span>
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;xx&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>        <span class="c1"># this works as expected, but...</span>
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;xx&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>          <span class="c1"># *this doesn&#39;t!* -- d[&#39;xx&#39;] is STILL [0, 1, 2]!</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:</span>
+<span class="n">temp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;xx&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>             <span class="c1"># extracts the copy</span>
+<span class="n">temp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>             <span class="c1"># mutates the copy</span>
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;xx&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">temp</span>             <span class="c1"># stores the copy right back, to persist it</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># or, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True) would let you just code</span>
+<span class="c1"># d[&#39;xx&#39;].append(5) and have it work as expected, BUT it would also</span>
+<span class="c1"># consume more memory and make the d.close() operation slower.</span>
+
+<span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>                  <span class="c1"># close it</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Generic interface to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code>-style databases.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Object serialization used by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code> — Python object persistence</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#restrictions">Restrictions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="copyreg.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg</span></code> — Register <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code> support functions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="marshal.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code> — Internal Python object serialization</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-shlex">
+<span id="shlex-simple-lexical-analysis"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> — Simple lexical analysis<a class="headerlink" href="#module-shlex" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/shlex.py">Lib/shlex.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers for
+simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell.  This will often be useful
+for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files for Python
+applications) or for parsing quoted strings.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shlex.split">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>comments=False</em>, <em>posix=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the string <em>s</em> using shell-like syntax. If <em>comments</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>
+(the default), the parsing of comments in the given string will be disabled
+(setting the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.commenters" title="shlex.shlex.commenters"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commenters</span></code></a> attribute of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> instance to the empty string).  This function operates
+in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX mode if the <em>posix</em> argument is
+false.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.split" title="shlex.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> function instantiates a <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a>
+instance, passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for <em>s</em> will read the string to split from
+standard input.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shlex.quote">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">quote</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.quote" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shell-escaped version of the string <em>s</em>.  The returned value is a
+string that can safely be used as one token in a shell command line, for
+cases where you cannot use a list.</p>
+<p>This idiom would be unsafe:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;somefile; rm -rf ~&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">command</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ls -l </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># executed by a shell: boom!</span>
+<span class="go">ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.quote" title="shlex.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote()</span></code></a> lets you plug the security hole:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">shlex</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">quote</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">command</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ls -l </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">quote</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">ls -l &#39;somefile; rm -rf ~&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">remote_command</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ssh home </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">quote</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">remote_command</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">ssh home &#39;ls -l &#39;&quot;&#39;&quot;&#39;somefile; rm -rf ~&#39;&quot;&#39;&quot;&#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.split" title="shlex.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">shlex</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">split</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">remote_command</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">remote_command</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">remote_command</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;ssh&#39;, &#39;home&#39;, &quot;ls -l &#39;somefile; rm -rf ~&#39;&quot;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">command</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">remote_command</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">command</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;ls&#39;, &#39;-l&#39;, &#39;somefile; rm -rf ~&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> module defines the following class:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">shlex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>instream=None</em>, <em>infile=None</em>, <em>posix=False</em>, <em>punctuation_chars=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> instance or subclass instance is a lexical analyzer
+object.  The initialization argument, if present, specifies where to read
+characters from.  It must be a file-/stream-like object with
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.read" title="io.TextIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="io.TextIOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> methods, or
+a string.  If no argument is given, input will be taken from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>.
+The second optional argument is a filename string, which sets the initial
+value of the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.infile" title="shlex.shlex.infile"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">infile</span></code></a> attribute.  If the <em>instream</em>
+argument is omitted or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>, this second argument
+defaults to “stdin”.  The <em>posix</em> argument defines the operational mode:
+when <em>posix</em> is not true (default), the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> instance will
+operate in compatibility mode.  When operating in POSIX mode,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> will try to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell
+parsing rules.  The <em>punctuation_chars</em> argument provides a way to make the
+behaviour even closer to how real shells parse.  This can take a number of
+values: the default value, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, preserves the behaviour seen under
+Python 3.5 and earlier.  If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then parsing of the characters
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">();&lt;&gt;|&amp;</span></code> is changed: any run of these characters (considered punctuation
+characters) is returned as a single token.  If set to a non-empty string of
+characters, those characters will be used as the punctuation characters.  Any
+characters in the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.wordchars" title="shlex.shlex.wordchars"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wordchars</span></code></a> attribute that appear in
+<em>punctuation_chars</em> will be removed from <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.wordchars" title="shlex.shlex.wordchars"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wordchars</span></code></a>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#improved-shell-compatibility"><span class="std std-ref">Improved Compatibility with Shells</span></a> for more information.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>punctuation_chars</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.ini</span></code> files.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shlex-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>shlex Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#shlex-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> instance has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.get_token">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">get_token</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.get_token" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a token.  If tokens have been stacked using <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.push_token" title="shlex.shlex.push_token"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">push_token()</span></code></a>, pop a
+token off the stack.  Otherwise, read one from the input stream.  If reading
+encounters an immediate end-of-file, <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.eof" title="shlex.shlex.eof"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eof</span></code></a> is returned (the empty
+string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>) in non-POSIX mode, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in POSIX mode).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.push_token">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">push_token</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.push_token" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push the argument onto the token stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.read_token">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">read_token</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.read_token" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a raw token.  Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret source
+requests.  (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and is documented here
+only for the sake of completeness.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.sourcehook">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">sourcehook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.sourcehook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> detects a source request (see <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.source" title="shlex.shlex.source"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source</span></code></a>
+below) this method is given the following token as argument, and expected
+to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open file-like object.</p>
+<p>Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument.  If the result
+is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source request in effect, or
+the previous source was a stream (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>), the result is left
+alone.  Otherwise, if the result is a relative pathname, the directory part of
+the name of the file immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is
+prepended (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#include</span>
+<span class="pre">&quot;file.h&quot;</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and returned as the
+first component of the tuple, with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> called on it to yield the second
+component. (Note: this is the reverse of the order of arguments in instance
+initialization!)</p>
+<p>This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory search paths,
+addition of file extensions, and other namespace hacks. There is no
+corresponding ‘close’ hook, but a shlex instance will call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method of the sourced input stream when it returns
+EOF.</p>
+<p>For more explicit control of source stacking, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.push_source" title="shlex.shlex.push_source"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">push_source()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.pop_source" title="shlex.shlex.pop_source"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop_source()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.push_source">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">push_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newstream</em>, <em>newfile=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.push_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Push an input source stream onto the input stack.  If the filename argument is
+specified it will later be available for use in error messages.  This is the
+same method used internally by the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.sourcehook" title="shlex.shlex.sourcehook"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sourcehook()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.pop_source">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">pop_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.pop_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack. This is the same method
+used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked input stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.error_leader">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">error_leader</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>infile=None</em>, <em>lineno=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.error_leader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method generates an error message leader in the format of a Unix C compiler
+error label; the format is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&quot;%s&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">line</span> <span class="pre">%d:</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code>, where the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> is replaced
+with the name of the current source file and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code> with the current input
+line number (the optional arguments can be used to override these).</p>
+<p>This convenience is provided to encourage <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> users to generate error
+messages in the standard, parseable format understood by Emacs and other Unix
+tools.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> subclasses have some public instance
+variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for debugging:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.commenters">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">commenters</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.commenters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners. All
+characters from the comment beginner to end of line are ignored. Includes just
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code> by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.wordchars">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">wordchars</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.wordchars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character tokens.  By
+default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and underscore.  In POSIX mode, the
+accented characters in the Latin-1 set are also included.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars" title="shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation_chars</span></code></a> is not empty, the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~-./*?=</span></code>, which can
+appear in filename specifications and command line parameters, will also be
+included in this attribute, and any characters which appear in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation_chars</span></code> will be removed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wordchars</span></code> if they are present
+there.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.whitespace">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">whitespace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.whitespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped.  Whitespace bounds
+tokens.  By default, includes space, tab, linefeed and carriage-return.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.escape">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">escape</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.escape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Characters that will be considered as escape. This will be only used in POSIX
+mode, and includes just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.quotes">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">quotes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.quotes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Characters that will be considered string quotes.  The token accumulates until
+the same quote is encountered again (thus, different quote types protect each
+other as in the shell.)  By default, includes ASCII single and double quotes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.escapedquotes">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">escapedquotes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.escapedquotes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Characters in <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.quotes" title="shlex.shlex.quotes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quotes</span></code></a> that will interpret escape characters defined in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.escape" title="shlex.shlex.escape"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escape</span></code></a>.  This is only used in POSIX mode, and includes just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&quot;'</span></code> by
+default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.whitespace_split">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">whitespace_split</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.whitespace_split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, tokens will only be split in whitespaces.  This is useful, for
+example, for parsing command lines with <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a>, getting
+tokens in a similar way to shell arguments.  If this attribute is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars" title="shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation_chars</span></code></a> will have no effect, and splitting will happen
+only on whitespaces.  When using <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars" title="shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation_chars</span></code></a>, which is
+intended to provide parsing closer to that implemented by shells, it is
+advisable to leave <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whitespace_split</span></code> as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default value).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.infile">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">infile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.infile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the current input file, as initially set at class instantiation time
+or stacked by later source requests.  It may be useful to examine this when
+constructing error messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.instream">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">instream</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.instream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The input stream from which this <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> instance is reading
+characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.source">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">source</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> by default.  If you assign a string to it, that
+string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request similar to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source</span></code> keyword in various shells.  That is, the immediately following token
+will be opened as a filename and input will be taken from that stream until
+EOF, at which point the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method of that stream will be
+called and the input source will again become the original input stream.  Source
+requests may be stacked any number of levels deep.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.debug">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">debug</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this attribute is numeric and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or more, a <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a>
+instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior.  If you need
+to use this, you can read the module source code to learn the details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.lineno">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.token">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">token</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.token" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The token buffer.  It may be useful to examine this when catching exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.eof">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">eof</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Token used to determine end of file. This will be set to the empty string
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>), in non-POSIX mode, and to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in POSIX mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars">
+<code class="descclassname">shlex.</code><code class="descname">punctuation_chars</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Characters that will be considered punctuation. Runs of punctuation
+characters will be returned as a single token. However, note that no
+semantic validity checking will be performed: for example, ‘&gt;&gt;&gt;’ could be
+returned as a token, even though it may not be recognised as such by shells.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parsing-rules">
+<span id="shlex-parsing-rules"></span><h2>Parsing Rules<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-rules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When operating in non-POSIX mode, <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> will try to obey to the
+following rules.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Quote characters are not recognized within words (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Do&quot;Not&quot;Separate</span></code> is
+parsed as the single word <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Do&quot;Not&quot;Separate</span></code>);</p></li>
+<li><p>Escape characters are not recognized;</p></li>
+<li><p>Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all characters
+within the quotes;</p></li>
+<li><p>Closing quotes separate words (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Do&quot;Separate</span></code> is parsed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Do&quot;</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Separate</span></code>);</p></li>
+<li><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.whitespace_split" title="shlex.shlex.whitespace_split"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whitespace_split</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, any character not
+declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be returned as
+a single-character token. If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> will only
+split words in whitespaces;</p></li>
+<li><p>EOF is signaled with an empty string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>);</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When operating in POSIX mode, <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> will try to obey to the
+following parsing rules.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Do&quot;Not&quot;Separate&quot;</span></code> is
+parsed as the single word <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DoNotSeparate</span></code>);</p></li>
+<li><p>Non-quoted escape characters (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code>) preserve the literal value of the
+next character that follows;</p></li>
+<li><p>Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.escapedquotes" title="shlex.shlex.escapedquotes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escapedquotes</span></code></a> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;'&quot;</span></code>) preserve the literal value
+of all characters within the quotes;</p></li>
+<li><p>Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.escapedquotes" title="shlex.shlex.escapedquotes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escapedquotes</span></code></a> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&quot;'</span></code>) preserves the literal value
+of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the characters
+mentioned in <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.escape" title="shlex.shlex.escape"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escape</span></code></a>.  The escape characters retain its
+special meaning only when followed by the quote in use, or the escape
+character itself. Otherwise the escape character will be considered a
+normal character.</p></li>
+<li><p>EOF is signaled with a <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> value;</p></li>
+<li><p>Quoted empty strings (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>) are allowed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improved-compatibility-with-shells">
+<span id="improved-shell-compatibility"></span><h2>Improved Compatibility with Shells<a class="headerlink" href="#improved-compatibility-with-shells" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> class provides compatibility with the parsing performed by
+common Unix shells like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bash</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dash</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sh</span></code>.  To take advantage of
+this compatibility, specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation_chars</span></code> argument in the
+constructor.  This defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, which preserves pre-3.6 behaviour.
+However, if it is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then parsing of the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">();&lt;&gt;|&amp;</span></code>
+is changed: any run of these characters is returned as a single token.  While
+this is short of a full parser for shells (which would be out of scope for the
+standard library, given the multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow
+you to perform processing of command lines more easily than you could
+otherwise.  To illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; import shlex</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; text = &quot;a &amp;&amp; b; c &amp;&amp; d || e; f &gt;&#39;abc&#39;; (def \&quot;ghi\&quot;)&quot;</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; list(shlex.shlex(text))</span>
+<span class="go"> [&#39;a&#39;, &#39;&amp;&#39;, &#39;&amp;&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;;&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;&amp;&#39;, &#39;&amp;&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;|&#39;, &#39;|&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;;&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;&gt;&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &quot;&#39;abc&#39;&quot;, &#39;;&#39;, &#39;(&#39;, &#39;def&#39;, &#39;&quot;ghi&quot;&#39;, &#39;)&#39;]</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; list(shlex.shlex(text, punctuation_chars=True))</span>
+<span class="go"> [&#39;a&#39;, &#39;&amp;&amp;&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;;&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;&amp;&amp;&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;||&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;;&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;&gt;&#39;, &quot;&#39;abc&#39;&quot;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;;&#39;, &#39;(&#39;, &#39;def&#39;, &#39;&quot;ghi&quot;&#39;, &#39;)&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and you’ll
+need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens.</p>
+<p>Instead of passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> as the value for the punctuation_chars parameter,
+you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be used to determine
+which characters constitute punctuation. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shlex</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shlex</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shlex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a &amp;&amp; b || c&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">punctuation_chars</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;|&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;&amp;&#39;, &#39;&amp;&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;||&#39;, &#39;c&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation_chars</span></code> is specified, the <a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex.wordchars" title="shlex.shlex.wordchars"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wordchars</span></code></a>
+attribute is augmented with the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~-./*?=</span></code>.  That is because these
+characters can appear in file names (including wildcards) and command-line
+arguments (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--color=auto</span></code>). Hence:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shlex</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shlex</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shlex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/a &amp;&amp; b-c --color=auto || d *.py?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="n">punctuation_chars</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;~/a&#39;, &#39;&amp;&amp;&#39;, &#39;b-c&#39;, &#39;--color=auto&#39;, &#39;||&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;*.py?&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>For best effect, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation_chars</span></code> should be set in conjunction with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix=True</span></code>. (Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix=False</span></code> is the default for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code> — Simple lexical analysis</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shlex-objects">shlex Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parsing-rules">Parsing Rules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improved-compatibility-with-shells">Improved Compatibility with Shells</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cmd.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmd</span></code> — Support for line-oriented command interpreters</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tk.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Graphical User Interfaces with Tk</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/shlex.rst"
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+  </div>
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+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-shutil">
+<span id="shutil-high-level-file-operations"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> — High-level file operations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-shutil" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/shutil.py">Lib/shutil.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module offers a number of high-level operations on files and
+collections of files.  In particular, functions are provided  which support file
+copying and removal. For operations on individual files, see also the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Even the higher-level file copying functions (<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy" title="shutil.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy2()</span></code></a>) cannot copy all file metadata.</p>
+<p>On POSIX platforms, this means that file owner and group are lost as well
+as ACLs.  On Mac OS, the resource fork and other metadata are not used.
+This means that resources will be lost and file type and creator codes will
+not be correct. On Windows, file owners, ACLs and alternate data streams
+are not copied.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="directory-and-files-operations">
+<span id="file-operations"></span><h2>Directory and files operations<a class="headerlink" href="#directory-and-files-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.copyfileobj">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">copyfileobj</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fsrc</em>, <em>fdst</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>length</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.copyfileobj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the contents of the file-like object <em>fsrc</em> to the file-like object <em>fdst</em>.
+The integer <em>length</em>, if given, is the buffer size. In particular, a negative
+<em>length</em> value means to copy the data without looping over the source data in
+chunks; by default the data is read in chunks to avoid uncontrolled memory
+consumption. Note that if the current file position of the <em>fsrc</em> object is not
+0, only the contents from the current file position to the end of the file will
+be copied.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.copyfile">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">copyfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.copyfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named <em>src</em> to a file named
+<em>dst</em> and return <em>dst</em>.  <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em> are path names given as strings.
+<em>dst</em> must be the complete target file name; look at <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy" title="shutil.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy()</span></code></a>
+for a copy that accepts a target directory path.  If <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>
+specify the same file, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.SameFileError" title="shutil.SameFileError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SameFileError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>The destination location must be writable; otherwise, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>
+exception will be raised. If <em>dst</em> already exists, it will be replaced.
+Special files such as character or block devices and pipes cannot be
+copied with this function.</p>
+<p>If <em>follow_symlinks</em> is false and <em>src</em> is a symbolic link,
+a new symbolic link will be created instead of copying the
+file <em>src</em> points to.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> used to be raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.
+Added <em>follow_symlinks</em> argument.
+Now returns <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.SameFileError" title="shutil.SameFileError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SameFileError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.Error" title="shutil.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a>.  Since the former is
+a subclass of the latter, this change is backward compatible.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="shutil.SameFileError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">SameFileError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.SameFileError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised if source and destination in <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copyfile" title="shutil.copyfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyfile()</span></code></a>
+are the same file.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.copymode">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">copymode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.copymode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the permission bits from <em>src</em> to <em>dst</em>.  The file contents, owner, and
+group are unaffected.  <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em> are path names given as strings.
+If <em>follow_symlinks</em> is false, and both <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em> are symbolic links,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copymode" title="shutil.copymode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copymode()</span></code></a> will attempt to modify the mode of <em>dst</em> itself (rather
+than the file it points to).  This functionality is not available on every
+platform; please see <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> for more information.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copymode" title="shutil.copymode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copymode()</span></code></a> cannot modify symbolic links on the local platform, and it
+is asked to do so, it will do nothing and return.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added <em>follow_symlinks</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.copystat">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">copystat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.copystat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time, and
+flags from <em>src</em> to <em>dst</em>.  On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> also copies the
+“extended attributes” where possible.  The file contents, owner, and
+group are unaffected.  <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em> are path names given as strings.</p>
+<p>If <em>follow_symlinks</em> is false, and <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em> both
+refer to symbolic links, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> will operate on
+the symbolic links themselves rather than the files the
+symbolic links refer to—reading the information from the
+<em>src</em> symbolic link, and writing the information to the
+<em>dst</em> symbolic link.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Not all platforms provide the ability to examine and
+modify symbolic links.  Python itself can tell you what
+functionality is locally available.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">os.supports_follow_symlinks</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> can modify the permission
+bits of a symbolic link.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.utime</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">os.supports_follow_symlinks</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> can modify the last access
+and modification times of a symbolic link.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chflags</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">os.supports_follow_symlinks</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> can modify the flags of
+a symbolic link.  (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chflags</span></code> is not available on
+all platforms.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>On platforms where some or all of this functionality
+is unavailable, when asked to modify a symbolic link,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> will copy everything it can.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> never returns failure.</p>
+<p>Please see <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.supports_follow_symlinks" title="os.supports_follow_symlinks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_follow_symlinks</span></code></a>
+for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added <em>follow_symlinks</em> argument and support for Linux extended attributes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copies the file <em>src</em> to the file or directory <em>dst</em>.  <em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>
+should be strings.  If <em>dst</em> specifies a directory, the file will be
+copied into <em>dst</em> using the base filename from <em>src</em>.  Returns the
+path to the newly created file.</p>
+<p>If <em>follow_symlinks</em> is false, and <em>src</em> is a symbolic link,
+<em>dst</em> will be created as a symbolic link.  If <em>follow_symlinks</em>
+is true and <em>src</em> is a symbolic link, <em>dst</em> will be a copy of
+the file <em>src</em> refers to.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy" title="shutil.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> copies the file data and the file’s permission
+mode (see <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod()</span></code></a>).  Other metadata, like the
+file’s creation and modification times, is not preserved.
+To preserve all file metadata from the original, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added <em>follow_symlinks</em> argument.
+Now returns path to the newly created file.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.copy2">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">copy2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>follow_symlinks=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.copy2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy" title="shutil.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> except that <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a>
+also attempts to preserve file metadata.</p>
+<p>When <em>follow_symlinks</em> is false, and <em>src</em> is a symbolic
+link, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a> attempts to copy all metadata from the
+<em>src</em> symbolic link to the newly-created <em>dst</em> symbolic link.
+However, this functionality is not available on all platforms.
+On platforms where some or all of this functionality is
+unavailable, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a> will preserve all the metadata
+it can; <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a> never returns failure.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a> uses <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> to copy the file metadata.
+Please see <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> for more information
+about platform support for modifying symbolic link metadata.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added <em>follow_symlinks</em> argument, try to copy extended
+file system attributes too (currently Linux only).
+Now returns path to the newly created file.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.ignore_patterns">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">ignore_patterns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*patterns</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.ignore_patterns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This factory function creates a function that can be used as a callable for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a>’s <em>ignore</em> argument, ignoring files and directories that
+match one of the glob-style <em>patterns</em> provided.  See the example below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.copytree">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">copytree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>symlinks=False</em>, <em>ignore=None</em>, <em>copy_function=copy2</em>, <em>ignore_dangling_symlinks=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.copytree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at <em>src</em>, returning the
+destination directory.  The destination
+directory, named by <em>dst</em>, must not already exist; it will be created as
+well as missing parent directories.  Permissions and times of directories
+are copied with <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a>, individual files are copied using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy2()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>symlinks</em> is true, symbolic links in the source tree are represented as
+symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of the original links will
+be copied as far as the platform allows; if false or omitted, the contents
+and metadata of the linked files are copied to the new tree.</p>
+<p>When <em>symlinks</em> is false, if the file pointed by the symlink doesn’t
+exist, an exception will be added in the list of errors raised in
+an <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.Error" title="shutil.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> exception at the end of the copy process.
+You can set the optional <em>ignore_dangling_symlinks</em> flag to true if you
+want to silence this exception. Notice that this option has no effect
+on platforms that don’t support <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.symlink" title="os.symlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.symlink()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>ignore</em> is given, it must be a callable that will receive as its
+arguments the directory being visited by <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a>, and a list of its
+contents, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a>.  Since <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a> is
+called recursively, the <em>ignore</em> callable will be called once for each
+directory that is copied.  The callable must return a sequence of directory
+and file names relative to the current directory (i.e. a subset of the items
+in its second argument); these names will then be ignored in the copy
+process.  <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.ignore_patterns" title="shutil.ignore_patterns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore_patterns()</span></code></a> can be used to create such a callable that
+ignores names based on glob-style patterns.</p>
+<p>If exception(s) occur, an <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.Error" title="shutil.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> is raised with a list of reasons.</p>
+<p>If <em>copy_function</em> is given, it must be a callable that will be used to copy
+each file. It will be called with the source path and the destination path
+as arguments. By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy2()</span></code></a> is used, but any function
+that supports the same signature (like <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy" title="shutil.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy()</span></code></a>) can be used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Copy metadata when <em>symlinks</em> is false.
+Now returns <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>copy_function</em> argument to be able to provide a custom copy
+function.
+Added the <em>ignore_dangling_symlinks</em> argument to silent dangling symlinks
+errors when <em>symlinks</em> is false.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.rmtree">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">rmtree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>ignore_errors=False</em>, <em>onerror=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.rmtree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Delete an entire directory tree; <em>path</em> must point to a directory (but not a
+symbolic link to a directory).  If <em>ignore_errors</em> is true, errors resulting
+from failed removals will be ignored; if false or omitted, such errors are
+handled by calling a handler specified by <em>onerror</em> or, if that is omitted,
+they raise an exception.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On platforms that support the necessary fd-based functions a symlink
+attack resistant version of <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmtree()</span></code></a> is used by default.  On other
+platforms, the <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmtree()</span></code></a> implementation is susceptible to a symlink
+attack: given proper timing and circumstances, attackers can manipulate
+symlinks on the filesystem to delete files they wouldn’t be able to access
+otherwise.  Applications can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks" title="shutil.rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks</span></code></a>
+function attribute to determine which case applies.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>onerror</em> is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three
+parameters: <em>function</em>, <em>path</em>, and <em>excinfo</em>.</p>
+<p>The first parameter, <em>function</em>, is the function which raised the exception;
+it depends on the platform and implementation.  The second parameter,
+<em>path</em>, will be the path name passed to <em>function</em>.  The third parameter,
+<em>excinfo</em>, will be the exception information returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.  Exceptions raised by <em>onerror</em> will not be caught.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added a symlink attack resistant version that is used automatically
+if platform supports fd-based functions.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="shutil.rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks">
+<code class="descclassname">rmtree.</code><code class="descname">avoids_symlink_attacks</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates whether the current platform and implementation provides a
+symlink attack resistant version of <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmtree()</span></code></a>.  Currently this is
+only true for platforms supporting fd-based directory access functions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.move">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">move</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>src</em>, <em>dst</em>, <em>copy_function=copy2</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.move" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Recursively move a file or directory (<em>src</em>) to another location (<em>dst</em>)
+and return the destination.</p>
+<p>If the destination is an existing directory, then <em>src</em> is moved inside that
+directory. If the destination already exists but is not a directory, it may
+be overwritten depending on <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rename()</span></code></a> semantics.</p>
+<p>If the destination is on the current filesystem, then <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rename()</span></code></a> is
+used. Otherwise, <em>src</em> is copied to <em>dst</em> using <em>copy_function</em> and then
+removed.  In case of symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of <em>src</em>
+will be created in or as <em>dst</em> and <em>src</em> will be removed.</p>
+<p>If <em>copy_function</em> is given, it must be a callable that takes two arguments
+<em>src</em> and <em>dst</em>, and will be used to copy <em>src</em> to <em>dest</em> if
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rename()</span></code></a> cannot be used.  If the source is a directory,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a> is called, passing it the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy_function()</span></code>. The
+default <em>copy_function</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a>.  Using <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copy" title="shutil.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> as the
+<em>copy_function</em> allows the move to succeed when it is not possible to also
+copy the metadata, at the expense of not copying any of the metadata.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added explicit symlink handling for foreign filesystems, thus adapting
+it to the behavior of GNU’s <strong class="program">mv</strong>.
+Now returns <em>dst</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>copy_function</em> keyword argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.disk_usage">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">disk_usage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.disk_usage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>
+with the attributes <em>total</em>, <em>used</em> and <em>free</em>, which are the amount of
+total, used and free space, in bytes.  On Windows, <em>path</em> must be a
+directory; on Unix, it can be a file or directory.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix, Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.chown">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">chown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>user=None</em>, <em>group=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.chown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change owner <em>user</em> and/or <em>group</em> of the given <em>path</em>.</p>
+<p><em>user</em> can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to <em>group</em>. At
+least one argument is required.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.chown" title="os.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chown()</span></code></a>, the underlying function.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.which">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">which</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK</em>, <em>path=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.which" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given <em>cmd</em> was
+called.  If no <em>cmd</em> would be called, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>mode</em> is a permission mask passed to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.access()</span></code></a>, by default
+determining if the file exists and executable.</p>
+<p>When no <em>path</em> is specified, the results of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ()</span></code></a> are used,
+returning either the “PATH” value or a fallback of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.defpath" title="os.defpath"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.defpath</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>On Windows, the current directory is always prepended to the <em>path</em> whether
+or not you use the default or provide your own, which is the behavior the
+command shell uses when finding executables.  Additionally, when finding the
+<em>cmd</em> in the <em>path</em>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATHEXT</span></code> environment variable is checked.  For
+example, if you call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.which(&quot;python&quot;)</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.which" title="shutil.which"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">which()</span></code></a> will search
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATHEXT</span></code> to know that it should look for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> within the <em>path</em>
+directories.  For example, on Windows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">which</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;python&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C:\\Python33\\python.EXE&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="shutil.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception collects exceptions that are raised during a multi-file
+operation. For <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a>, the exception argument is a list of 3-tuples
+(<em>srcname</em>, <em>dstname</em>, <em>exception</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="copytree-example">
+<span id="shutil-copytree-example"></span><h3>copytree example<a class="headerlink" href="#copytree-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This example is the implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a> function, described
+above, with the docstring omitted.  It demonstrates many of the other functions
+provided by this module.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">copytree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">symlinks</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">names</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">makedirs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">errors</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">names</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">srcname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">dstname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">symlinks</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islink</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">srcname</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="n">linkto</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readlink</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">srcname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">symlink</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">linkto</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">srcname</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="n">copytree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">srcname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">symlinks</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">copy2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">srcname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="c1"># XXX What about devices, sockets etc.?</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">why</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">errors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">srcname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dstname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">why</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+        <span class="c1"># catch the Error from the recursive copytree so that we can</span>
+        <span class="c1"># continue with other files</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">Error</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">errors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">copystat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">why</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># can&#39;t copy file access times on Windows</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">why</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">winerror</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">errors</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">why</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">errors</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">Error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">errors</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another example that uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.ignore_patterns" title="shutil.ignore_patterns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore_patterns()</span></code></a> helper:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">copytree</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ignore_patterns</span>
+
+<span class="n">copytree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">destination</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ignore</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ignore_patterns</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.pyc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;tmp*&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will copy everything except <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files and files or directories whose
+name starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tmp</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Another example that uses the <em>ignore</em> argument to add a logging call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">copytree</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_logpath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">names</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Working in </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[]</span>   <span class="c1"># nothing will be ignored</span>
+
+<span class="n">copytree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">destination</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ignore</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">_logpath</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="rmtree-example">
+<span id="shutil-rmtree-example"></span><h3>rmtree example<a class="headerlink" href="#rmtree-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This example shows how to remove a directory tree on Windows where some
+of the files have their read-only bit set. It uses the onerror callback
+to clear the readonly bit and reattempt the remove. Any subsequent failure
+will propagate.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">stat</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remove_readonly</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Clear the readonly bit and reattempt the removal&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chmod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">S_IWRITE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rmtree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">directory</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">onerror</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">remove_readonly</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="archiving-operations">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Archiving operations<a class="headerlink" href="#archiving-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for the <em>xztar</em> format.</p>
+</div>
+<p>High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files are also
+provided.  They rely on the <a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.make_archive">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">make_archive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base_name</em>, <em>format</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>root_dir</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>base_dir</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>verbose</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>dry_run</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>owner</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>group</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>logger</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.make_archive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an archive file (such as zip or tar) and return its name.</p>
+<p><em>base_name</em> is the name of the file to create, including the path, minus
+any format-specific extension. <em>format</em> is the archive format: one of
+“zip” (if the <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module is available), “tar”, “gztar” (if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module is available), “bztar” (if the <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module is
+available), or “xztar” (if the <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> module is available).</p>
+<p><em>root_dir</em> is a directory that will be the root directory of the
+archive; for example, we typically chdir into <em>root_dir</em> before creating the
+archive.</p>
+<p><em>base_dir</em> is the directory where we start archiving from;
+i.e. <em>base_dir</em> will be the common prefix of all files and
+directories in the archive.</p>
+<p><em>root_dir</em> and <em>base_dir</em> both default to the current directory.</p>
+<p>If <em>dry_run</em> is true, no archive is created, but the operations that would be
+executed are logged to <em>logger</em>.</p>
+<p><em>owner</em> and <em>group</em> are used when creating a tar archive. By default,
+uses the current owner and group.</p>
+<p><em>logger</em> must be an object compatible with <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0282"><strong>PEP 282</strong></a>, usually an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.Logger</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>verbose</em> argument is unused and deprecated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.get_archive_formats">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">get_archive_formats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.get_archive_formats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of supported formats for archiving.
+Each element of the returned sequence is a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">description)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>By default <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> provides these formats:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>zip</em>: ZIP file (if the <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module is available).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>tar</em>: uncompressed tar file.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>gztar</em>: gzip’ed tar-file (if the <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module is available).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>bztar</em>: bzip2’ed tar-file (if the <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module is available).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>xztar</em>: xz’ed tar-file (if the <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> module is available).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any existing
+formats, by using <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.register_archive_format" title="shutil.register_archive_format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_archive_format()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.register_archive_format">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">register_archive_format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>function</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>extra_args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>description</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.register_archive_format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register an archiver for the format <em>name</em>.</p>
+<p><em>function</em> is the callable that will be used to unpack archives. The callable
+will receive the <em>base_name</em> of the file to create, followed by the
+<em>base_dir</em> (which defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.curdir" title="os.curdir"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.curdir</span></code></a>) to start archiving from.
+Further arguments are passed as keyword arguments: <em>owner</em>, <em>group</em>,
+<em>dry_run</em> and <em>logger</em> (as passed in <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.make_archive" title="shutil.make_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_archive()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>If given, <em>extra_args</em> is a sequence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs that will be
+used as extra keywords arguments when the archiver callable is used.</p>
+<p><em>description</em> is used by <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.get_archive_formats" title="shutil.get_archive_formats"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_archive_formats()</span></code></a> which returns the
+list of archivers.  Defaults to an empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.unregister_archive_format">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">unregister_archive_format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.unregister_archive_format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the archive format <em>name</em> from the list of supported formats.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.unpack_archive">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">unpack_archive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>extract_dir</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>format</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.unpack_archive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpack an archive. <em>filename</em> is the full path of the archive.</p>
+<p><em>extract_dir</em> is the name of the target directory where the archive is
+unpacked. If not provided, the current working directory is used.</p>
+<p><em>format</em> is the archive format: one of “zip”, “tar”, “gztar”, “bztar”, or
+“xztar”.  Or any other format registered with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.register_unpack_format" title="shutil.register_unpack_format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_unpack_format()</span></code></a>.  If not provided, <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.unpack_archive" title="shutil.unpack_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_archive()</span></code></a>
+will use the archive file name extension and see if an unpacker was
+registered for that extension.  In case none is found,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> for <em>filename</em> and <em>extract_dir</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.register_unpack_format">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">register_unpack_format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>extensions</em>, <em>function</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>extra_args</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>description</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.register_unpack_format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers an unpack format. <em>name</em> is the name of the format and
+<em>extensions</em> is a list of extensions corresponding to the format, like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.zip</span></code> for Zip files.</p>
+<p><em>function</em> is the callable that will be used to unpack archives. The
+callable will receive the path of the archive, followed by the directory
+the archive must be extracted to.</p>
+<p>When provided, <em>extra_args</em> is a sequence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> tuples that
+will be passed as keywords arguments to the callable.</p>
+<p><em>description</em> can be provided to describe the format, and will be returned
+by the <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.get_unpack_formats" title="shutil.get_unpack_formats"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_unpack_formats()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.unregister_unpack_format">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">unregister_unpack_format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.unregister_unpack_format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unregister an unpack format. <em>name</em> is the name of the format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.get_unpack_formats">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">get_unpack_formats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.get_unpack_formats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all registered formats for unpacking.
+Each element of the returned sequence is a tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">extensions,</span> <span class="pre">description)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>By default <a class="reference internal" href="#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> provides these formats:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>zip</em>: ZIP file (unpacking compressed files works only if the corresponding
+module is available).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>tar</em>: uncompressed tar file.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>gztar</em>: gzip’ed tar-file (if the <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module is available).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>bztar</em>: bzip2’ed tar-file (if the <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module is available).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>xztar</em>: xz’ed tar-file (if the <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> module is available).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any existing
+formats, by using <a class="reference internal" href="#shutil.register_unpack_format" title="shutil.register_unpack_format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_unpack_format()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="archiving-example">
+<span id="shutil-archiving-example"></span><h3>Archiving example<a class="headerlink" href="#archiving-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In this example, we create a gzip’ed tar-file archive containing all files
+found in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.ssh</span></code> directory of the user:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">make_archive</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">archive_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;myarchive&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">root_dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.ssh&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">make_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">archive_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;gztar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">root_dir</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The resulting archive contains:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
+<span class="go">drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys</span>
+<span class="go">-rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config</span>
+<span class="go">-rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa</span>
+<span class="go">-rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub</span>
+<span class="go">-rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal">
+<h2>Querying the size of the output terminal<a class="headerlink" href="#querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="shutil.get_terminal_size">
+<code class="descclassname">shutil.</code><code class="descname">get_terminal_size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fallback=(columns</em>, <em>lines)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#shutil.get_terminal_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the size of the terminal window.</p>
+<p>For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLUMNS</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINES</span></code> respectively, is checked. If the variable is defined and
+the value is a positive integer, it is used.</p>
+<p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLUMNS</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINES</span></code> is not defined, which is the common case,
+the terminal connected to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.__stdout__" title="sys.__stdout__"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__stdout__</span></code></a> is queried
+by invoking <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.get_terminal_size" title="os.get_terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.get_terminal_size()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because
+the system doesn’t support querying, or because we are not
+connected to a terminal, the value given in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fallback</span></code> parameter
+is used. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fallback</span></code> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(80,</span> <span class="pre">24)</span></code> which is the default
+size used by many terminal emulators.</p>
+<p>The value returned is a named tuple of type <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.terminal_size" title="os.terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.terminal_size</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2,
+<a class="reference external" href="http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003">Other Environment Variables</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-signal">
+<span id="signal-set-handlers-for-asynchronous-events"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> — Set handlers for asynchronous events<a class="headerlink" href="#module-signal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides mechanisms to use signal handlers in Python.</p>
+<div class="section" id="general-rules">
+<h2>General rules<a class="headerlink" href="#general-rules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.signal" title="signal.signal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.signal()</span></code></a> function allows defining custom handlers to be
+executed when a signal is received.  A small number of default handlers are
+installed: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGPIPE</span></code> is ignored (so write errors on pipes and sockets
+can be reported as ordinary Python exceptions) and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code> is
+translated into a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exception if the parent process
+has not changed it.</p>
+<p>A handler for a particular signal, once set, remains installed until it is
+explicitly reset (Python emulates the BSD style interface regardless of the
+underlying implementation), with the exception of the handler for
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGCHLD</span></code>, which follows the underlying implementation.</p>
+<div class="section" id="execution-of-python-signal-handlers">
+<h3>Execution of Python signal handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#execution-of-python-signal-handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C) signal
+handler.  Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which tells the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-virtual-machine"><span class="xref std std-term">virtual machine</span></a> to execute the corresponding Python signal handler
+at a later point(for example at the next <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> instruction).
+This has consequences:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGFPE</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGSEGV</span></code> that are caused by an invalid operation in C code.  Python
+will return from the signal handler to the C code, which is likely to raise
+the same signal again, causing Python to apparently hang.  From Python 3.3
+onwards, you can use the <a class="reference internal" href="faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> module to report on synchronous
+errors.</p></li>
+<li><p>A long-running calculation implemented purely in C (such as regular
+expression matching on a large body of text) may run uninterrupted for an
+arbitrary amount of time, regardless of any signals received.  The Python
+signal handlers will be called when the calculation finishes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="signals-and-threads">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>Signals and threads<a class="headerlink" href="#signals-and-threads" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python signal handlers are always executed in the main Python thread,
+even if the signal was received in another thread.  This means that signals
+can’t be used as a means of inter-thread communication.  You can use
+the synchronization primitives from the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module instead.</p>
+<p>Besides, only the main thread is allowed to set a new signal handler.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-contents">
+<h2>Module contents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>signal (SIG*), handler (<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_DFL" title="signal.SIG_DFL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_DFL</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_IGN" title="signal.SIG_IGN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_IGN</span></code></a>) and sigmask
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_BLOCK" title="signal.SIG_BLOCK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_BLOCK</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_UNBLOCK" title="signal.SIG_UNBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_UNBLOCK</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_SETMASK" title="signal.SIG_SETMASK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_SETMASK</span></code></a>)
+related constants listed below were turned into
+<a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enums</span></code></a>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.getsignal" title="signal.getsignal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsignal()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="signal.pthread_sigmask"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_sigmask()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigpending" title="signal.sigpending"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigpending()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwait" title="signal.sigwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwait()</span></code></a> functions return human-readable
+<a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enums</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The variables defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module are:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.SIG_DFL">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">SIG_DFL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.SIG_DFL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is one of two standard signal handling options; it will simply perform
+the default function for the signal.  For example, on most systems the
+default action for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGQUIT</span></code> is to dump core and exit, while the
+default action for <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGCHLD</span></code> is to simply ignore it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.SIG_IGN">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">SIG_IGN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.SIG_IGN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is another standard signal handler, which will simply ignore the given
+signal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">SIG*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>All the signal numbers are defined symbolically.  For example, the hangup signal
+is defined as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGHUP</span></code>; the variable names are identical to the
+names used in C programs, as found in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;signal.h&gt;</span></code>. The Unix man page for
+‘<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal()</span></code>’ lists the existing signals (on some systems this is
+<em class="manpage">signal(2)</em>, on others the list is in <em class="manpage">signal(7)</em>). Note that
+not all systems define the same set of signal names; only those names defined by
+the system are defined by this module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.CTRL_C_EVENT">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">CTRL_C_EVENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.CTRL_C_EVENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The signal corresponding to the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl+C</kbd> keystroke event. This signal can
+only be used with <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.kill" title="os.kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.kill()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">CTRL_BREAK_EVENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The signal corresponding to the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl+Break</kbd> keystroke event. This signal can
+only be used with <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.kill" title="os.kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.kill()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.NSIG">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">NSIG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.NSIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>One more than the number of the highest signal number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.ITIMER_REAL">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">ITIMER_REAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.ITIMER_REAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decrements interval timer in real time, and delivers <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGALRM</span></code> upon
+expiration.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">ITIMER_VIRTUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decrements interval timer only when the process is executing, and delivers
+SIGVTALRM upon expiration.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.ITIMER_PROF">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">ITIMER_PROF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.ITIMER_PROF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decrements interval timer both when the process executes and when the
+system is executing on behalf of the process. Coupled with ITIMER_VIRTUAL,
+this timer is usually used to profile the time spent by the application
+in user and kernel space. SIGPROF is delivered upon expiration.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.SIG_BLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">SIG_BLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.SIG_BLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A possible value for the <em>how</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="signal.pthread_sigmask"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_sigmask()</span></code></a>
+indicating that signals are to be blocked.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.SIG_UNBLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">SIG_UNBLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.SIG_UNBLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A possible value for the <em>how</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="signal.pthread_sigmask"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_sigmask()</span></code></a>
+indicating that signals are to be unblocked.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="signal.SIG_SETMASK">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">SIG_SETMASK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.SIG_SETMASK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A possible value for the <em>how</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="signal.pthread_sigmask"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_sigmask()</span></code></a>
+indicating that the signal mask is to be replaced.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module defines one exception:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="signal.ItimerError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">ItimerError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.ItimerError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised to signal an error from the underlying <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.setitimer" title="signal.setitimer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setitimer()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.getitimer" title="signal.getitimer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getitimer()</span></code></a> implementation. Expect this error if an invalid
+interval timer or a negative time is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.setitimer" title="signal.setitimer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setitimer()</span></code></a>.
+This error is a subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>This error used to be a subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>, which is now an
+alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.alarm">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">alarm</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>time</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.alarm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>time</em> is non-zero, this function requests that a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGALRM</span></code> signal be
+sent to the process in <em>time</em> seconds. Any previously scheduled alarm is
+canceled (only one alarm can be scheduled at any time).  The returned value is
+then the number of seconds before any previously set alarm was to have been
+delivered. If <em>time</em> is zero, no alarm is scheduled, and any scheduled alarm is
+canceled.  If the return value is zero, no alarm is currently scheduled.  (See
+the Unix man page <em class="manpage">alarm(2)</em>.)</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.getsignal">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">getsignal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signalnum</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.getsignal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current signal handler for the signal <em>signalnum</em>. The returned value
+may be a callable Python object, or one of the special values
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_IGN" title="signal.SIG_IGN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_IGN</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_DFL" title="signal.SIG_DFL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_DFL</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.  Here,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_IGN" title="signal.SIG_IGN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_IGN</span></code></a> means that the signal was previously ignored,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_DFL" title="signal.SIG_DFL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_DFL</span></code></a> means that the default way of handling the signal was
+previously in use, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> means that the previous signal handler was not
+installed from Python.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.pause">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">pause</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.pause" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cause the process to sleep until a signal is received; the appropriate handler
+will then be called.  Returns nothing.  Not on Windows. (See the Unix man page
+<em class="manpage">signal(2)</em>.)</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwait" title="signal.sigwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwait()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigtimedwait" title="signal.sigtimedwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigtimedwait()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigpending" title="signal.sigpending"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigpending()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.pthread_kill">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">pthread_kill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>thread_id</em>, <em>signalnum</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.pthread_kill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send the signal <em>signalnum</em> to the thread <em>thread_id</em>, another thread in the
+same process as the caller.  The target thread can be executing any code
+(Python or not).  However, if the target thread is executing the Python
+interpreter, the Python signal handlers will be <a class="reference internal" href="#signals-and-threads"><span class="std std-ref">executed by the main
+thread</span></a>.  Therefore, the only point of sending a
+signal to a particular Python thread would be to force a running system call
+to fail with <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.get_ident" title="threading.get_ident"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.get_ident()</span></code></a> or the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread.ident" title="threading.Thread.ident"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ident</span></code></a>
+attribute of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a> objects to get a suitable value
+for <em>thread_id</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>signalnum</em> is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is still
+performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is still running.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (see the man page <em class="manpage">pthread_kill(3)</em> for further
+information).</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.kill" title="os.kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.kill()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.pthread_sigmask">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">pthread_sigmask</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>how</em>, <em>mask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread.  The signal mask
+is the set of signals whose delivery is currently blocked for the caller.
+Return the old signal mask as a set of signals.</p>
+<p>The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of <em>how</em>, as follows.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_BLOCK" title="signal.SIG_BLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_BLOCK</span></code></a>: The set of blocked signals is the union of the current
+set and the <em>mask</em> argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_UNBLOCK" title="signal.SIG_UNBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_UNBLOCK</span></code></a>: The signals in <em>mask</em> are removed from the current
+set of blocked signals.  It is permissible to attempt to unblock a
+signal which is not blocked.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_SETMASK" title="signal.SIG_SETMASK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_SETMASK</span></code></a>: The set of blocked signals is set to the <em>mask</em>
+argument.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><em>mask</em> is a set of signal numbers (e.g. {<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGINT</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGTERM</span></code>}). Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(1,</span> <span class="pre">signal.NSIG)</span></code> for a full mask
+including all signals.</p>
+<p>For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK,</span> <span class="pre">[])</span></code> reads the
+signal mask of the calling thread.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix. See the man page <em class="manpage">sigprocmask(3)</em> and
+<em class="manpage">pthread_sigmask(3)</em> for further information.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pause" title="signal.pause"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigpending" title="signal.sigpending"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigpending()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwait" title="signal.sigwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwait()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.setitimer">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">setitimer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which</em>, <em>seconds</em>, <em>interval=0.0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.setitimer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets given interval timer (one of <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.ITIMER_REAL" title="signal.ITIMER_REAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.ITIMER_REAL</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL" title="signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.ITIMER_PROF" title="signal.ITIMER_PROF"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.ITIMER_PROF</span></code></a>) specified
+by <em>which</em> to fire after <em>seconds</em> (float is accepted, different from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.alarm" title="signal.alarm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alarm()</span></code></a>) and after that every <em>interval</em> seconds (if <em>interval</em>
+is non-zero). The interval timer specified by <em>which</em> can be cleared by
+setting <em>seconds</em> to zero.</p>
+<p>When an interval timer fires, a signal is sent to the process.
+The signal sent is dependent on the timer being used;
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.ITIMER_REAL" title="signal.ITIMER_REAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.ITIMER_REAL</span></code></a> will deliver <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGALRM</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL" title="signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL</span></code></a> sends <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGVTALRM</span></code>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.ITIMER_PROF" title="signal.ITIMER_PROF"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.ITIMER_PROF</span></code></a> will deliver <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGPROF</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The old values are returned as a tuple: (delay, interval).</p>
+<p>Attempting to pass an invalid interval timer will cause an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.ItimerError" title="signal.ItimerError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ItimerError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.getitimer">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">getitimer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>which</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.getitimer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns current value of a given interval timer specified by <em>which</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.set_wakeup_fd">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">set_wakeup_fd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>warn_on_full_buffer=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.set_wakeup_fd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the wakeup file descriptor to <em>fd</em>.  When a signal is received, the
+signal number is written as a single byte into the fd.  This can be used by
+a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the signal to be fully
+processed.</p>
+<p>The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was not
+enabled).  If <em>fd</em> is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled.
+If not -1, <em>fd</em> must be non-blocking.  It is up to the library to remove
+any bytes from <em>fd</em> before calling poll or select again.</p>
+<p>When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from the main thread;
+attempting to call it from other threads will cause a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+exception to be raised.</p>
+<p>There are two common ways to use this function. In both approaches,
+you use the fd to wake up when a signal arrives, but then they
+differ in how they determine <em>which</em> signal or signals have
+arrived.</p>
+<p>In the first approach, we read the data out of the fd’s buffer, and
+the byte values give you the signal numbers. This is simple, but in
+rare cases it can run into a problem: generally the fd will have a
+limited amount of buffer space, and if too many signals arrive too
+quickly, then the buffer may become full, and some signals may be
+lost. If you use this approach, then you should set
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn_on_full_buffer=True</span></code>, which will at least cause a warning
+to be printed to stderr when signals are lost.</p>
+<p>In the second approach, we use the wakeup fd <em>only</em> for wakeups,
+and ignore the actual byte values. In this case, all we care about
+is whether the fd’s buffer is empty or non-empty; a full buffer
+doesn’t indicate a problem at all. If you use this approach, then
+you should set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn_on_full_buffer=False</span></code>, so that your users
+are not confused by spurious warning messages.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>On Windows, the function now also supports socket handles.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn_on_full_buffer</span></code> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.siginterrupt">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">siginterrupt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signalnum</em>, <em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.siginterrupt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change system call restart behaviour: if <em>flag</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, system
+calls will be restarted when interrupted by signal <em>signalnum</em>, otherwise
+system calls will be interrupted.  Returns nothing.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (see the man page <em class="manpage">siginterrupt(3)</em>
+for further information).</p>
+<p>Note that installing a signal handler with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal()</span></code></a> will reset the
+restart behaviour to interruptible by implicitly calling
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">siginterrupt()</span></code> with a true <em>flag</em> value for the given signal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.signal">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">signal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signalnum</em>, <em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.signal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the handler for signal <em>signalnum</em> to the function <em>handler</em>.  <em>handler</em> can
+be a callable Python object taking two arguments (see below), or one of the
+special values <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_IGN" title="signal.SIG_IGN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_IGN</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_DFL" title="signal.SIG_DFL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIG_DFL</span></code></a>.  The previous
+signal handler will be returned (see the description of <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.getsignal" title="signal.getsignal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsignal()</span></code></a>
+above).  (See the Unix man page <em class="manpage">signal(2)</em>.)</p>
+<p>When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from the main thread;
+attempting to call it from other threads will cause a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+exception to be raised.</p>
+<p>The <em>handler</em> is called with two arguments: the signal number and the current
+stack frame (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a frame object; for a description of frame objects,
+see the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#frame-objects"><span class="std std-ref">description in the type hierarchy</span></a> or see the
+attribute descriptions in the <a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module).</p>
+<p>On Windows, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal()</span></code></a> can only be called with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGABRT</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGFPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGILL</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGSEGV</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGTERM</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGBREAK</span></code>.
+A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised in any other case.
+Note that not all systems define the same set of signal names; an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> will be raised if a signal name is not defined as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG*</span></code> module level constant.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.sigpending">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">sigpending</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.sigpending" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the calling
+thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while blocked).  Return the
+set of the pending signals.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (see the man page <em class="manpage">sigpending(2)</em> for further
+information).</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pause" title="signal.pause"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="signal.pthread_sigmask"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_sigmask()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwait" title="signal.sigwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwait()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.sigwait">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">sigwait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sigset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.sigwait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the
+signals specified in the signal set <em>sigset</em>.  The function accepts the signal
+(removes it from the pending list of signals), and returns the signal number.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (see the man page <em class="manpage">sigwait(3)</em> for further
+information).</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pause" title="signal.pause"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="signal.pthread_sigmask"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_sigmask()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigpending" title="signal.sigpending"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigpending()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigtimedwait" title="signal.sigtimedwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigtimedwait()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.sigwaitinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">sigwaitinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sigset</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the
+signals specified in the signal set <em>sigset</em>.  The function accepts the
+signal and removes it from the pending list of signals. If one of the
+signals in <em>sigset</em> is already pending for the calling thread, the function
+will return immediately with information about that signal. The signal
+handler is not called for the delivered signal. The function raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> if it is interrupted by a signal that is not in
+<em>sigset</em>.</p>
+<p>The return value is an object representing the data contained in the
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">siginfo_t</span></code> structure, namely: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_signo</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_code</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_errno</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_pid</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_uid</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_status</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">si_band</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (see the man page <em class="manpage">sigwaitinfo(2)</em> for further
+information).</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pause" title="signal.pause"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwait" title="signal.sigwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwait()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigtimedwait" title="signal.sigtimedwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigtimedwait()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now retried if interrupted by a signal not in <em>sigset</em>
+and the signal handler does not raise an exception (see <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for
+the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="signal.sigtimedwait">
+<code class="descclassname">signal.</code><code class="descname">sigtimedwait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sigset</em>, <em>timeout</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#signal.sigtimedwait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a>, but takes an additional <em>timeout</em> argument
+specifying a timeout. If <em>timeout</em> is specified as <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, a poll is
+performed. Returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if a timeout occurs.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (see the man page <em class="manpage">sigtimedwait(2)</em> for further
+information).</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.pause" title="signal.pause"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pause()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwait" title="signal.sigwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwait()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now retried with the recomputed <em>timeout</em> if interrupted
+by a signal not in <em>sigset</em> and the signal handler does not raise an
+exception (see <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="signal-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is a minimal example program. It uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.alarm" title="signal.alarm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alarm()</span></code></a> function to limit
+the time spent waiting to open a file; this is useful if the file is for a
+serial device that may not be turned on, which would normally cause the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> to hang indefinitely.  The solution is to set a 5-second alarm
+before opening the file; if the operation takes too long, the alarm signal will
+be sent, and the handler raises an exception.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">signal</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">signum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frame</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Signal handler called with signal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">signum</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Couldn&#39;t open device!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm</span>
+<span class="n">signal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">signal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">signal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SIGALRM</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">signal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alarm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This open() may hang indefinitely</span>
+<span class="n">fd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/dev/ttyS0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">O_RDWR</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">signal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alarm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>          <span class="c1"># Disable the alarm</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="note-on-sigpipe">
+<h2>Note on SIGPIPE<a class="headerlink" href="#note-on-sigpipe" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Piping output of your program to tools like <em class="manpage">head(1)</em> will
+cause a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGPIPE</span></code> signal to be sent to your process when the receiver
+of its standard output closes early.  This results in an exception
+like <code class="code docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenPipeError:</span> <span class="pre">[Errno</span> <span class="pre">32]</span> <span class="pre">Broken</span> <span class="pre">pipe</span></code>.  To handle this
+case, wrap your entry point to catch this exception as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># simulate large output (your code replaces this loop)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># flush output here to force SIGPIPE to be triggered</span>
+        <span class="c1"># while inside this try block.</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">BrokenPipeError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Python flushes standard streams on exit; redirect remaining output</span>
+        <span class="c1"># to devnull to avoid another BrokenPipeError at shutdown</span>
+        <span class="n">devnull</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">devnull</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">O_WRONLY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dup2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">devnull</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Python exits with error code 1 on EPIPE</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Do not set <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGPIPE</span></code>’s disposition to <a class="reference internal" href="#signal.SIG_DFL" title="signal.SIG_DFL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG_DFL</span></code></a>
+in order to avoid <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BrokenPipeError" title="BrokenPipeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenPipeError</span></code></a>.  Doing that would cause
+your program to exit unexpectedly also whenever any socket connection
+is interrupted while your program is still writing to it.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code> — Set handlers for asynchronous events</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-rules">General rules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#execution-of-python-signal-handlers">Execution of Python signal handlers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#signals-and-threads">Signals and threads</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contents">Module contents</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#note-on-sigpipe">Note on SIGPIPE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="asynchat.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code> — Asynchronous socket command/response handler</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mmap.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code> — Memory-mapped file support</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/site.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/site.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a50c2c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/site.html
@@ -0,0 +1,420 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>site — Site-specific configuration hook &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+         |
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-site">
+<span id="site-site-specific-configuration-hook"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> — Site-specific configuration hook<a class="headerlink" href="#module-site" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/site.py">Lib/site.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><strong>This module is automatically imported during initialization.</strong> The automatic
+import can be suppressed using the interpreter’s <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> option.</p>
+<p id="index-0">Importing this module will append site-specific paths to the module search path
+and add a few builtins, unless <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> was used.  In that case, this module
+can be safely imported with no automatic modifications to the module search path
+or additions to the builtins.  To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific
+additions, call the <a class="reference internal" href="#site.main" title="site.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.main()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Importing the module used to trigger paths manipulation even when using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-1">It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail part.
+For the head part, it uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code>; empty heads
+are skipped.  For the tail part, it uses the empty string and then
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/site-packages</span></code> (on Windows) or
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code> (on Unix and Macintosh).  For each
+of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing
+directory, and if so, adds it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> and also inspects the newly
+added path for configuration files.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Support for the “site-python” directory has been removed.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If a file named “pyvenv.cfg” exists one directory above sys.executable,
+sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and
+it is also checked for site-packages (sys.base_prefix and
+sys.base_exec_prefix will always be the “real” prefixes of the Python
+installation). If “pyvenv.cfg” (a bootstrap configuration file) contains
+the key “include-system-site-packages” set to anything other than “false”
+(case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will still also be
+searched for site-packages; otherwise they won’t.</p>
+<p id="index-2">A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">name</span></em><span class="pre">.pth</span></code>
+and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents are
+additional items (one per line) to be added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.  Non-existing items
+are never added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, and no check is made that the item refers to a
+directory rather than a file.  No item is added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> more than
+once.  Blank lines and lines beginning with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code> are skipped.  Lines starting
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> (followed by space or tab) are executed.</p>
+<p id="index-3">For example, suppose <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code> are set to
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local</span></code>.  The Python X.Y library is then installed in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em></code>.  Suppose this has
+a subdirectory <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code> with three
+subsubdirectories, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code>, and two path
+configuration files, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.pth</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar.pth</span></code>.  Assume
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.pth</span></code> contains the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span># foo package configuration
+
+foo
+bar
+bletch
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar.pth</span></code> contains:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span># bar package configuration
+
+bar
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then the following version-specific directories are added to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, in this order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
+/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bletch</span></code> is omitted because it doesn’t exist; the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code>
+directory precedes the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> directory because <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar.pth</span></code> comes
+alphabetically before <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.pth</span></code>; and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> is omitted because it is
+not mentioned in either path configuration file.</p>
+<p id="index-4">After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module named
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code>, which can perform arbitrary site-specific customizations.
+It is typically created by a system administrator in the site-packages
+directory.  If this import fails with an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> or its subclass
+exception, and the exception’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute equals to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sitecustomize'</span></code>,
+it is silently ignored.  If Python is started without output streams available, as
+with <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonw.exe</span></code> on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE),
+attempted output from <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> is ignored.  Any other exception
+causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.</p>
+<p id="index-5">After this, an attempt is made to import a module named <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize</span></code>,
+which can perform arbitrary user-specific customizations, if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#site.ENABLE_USER_SITE" title="site.ENABLE_USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENABLE_USER_SITE</span></code></a> is true.  This file is intended to be created in the
+user site-packages directory (see below), which is part of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> unless
+disabled by <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a>.  If this import fails with an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> or
+its subclass exception, and the exception’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute equals to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'usercustomize'</span></code>, it is silently ignored.</p>
+<p>Note that for some non-Unix systems, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code> are
+empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize</span></code> is still attempted.</p>
+<div class="section" id="readline-configuration">
+<span id="rlcompleter-config"></span><h2>Readline configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#readline-configuration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>On systems that support <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>, this module will also import and
+configure the <a class="reference internal" href="rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> module, if Python is started in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/interpreter.html#tut-interactive"><span class="std std-ref">interactive mode</span></a> and without the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> option.
+The default behavior is enable tab-completion and to use
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.python_history</span></code> as the history save file.  To disable it, delete (or
+override) the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.__interactivehook__" title="sys.__interactivehook__"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__interactivehook__</span></code></a> attribute in your
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize</span></code> module or your
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a> file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Activation of rlcompleter and history was made automatic.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-contents">
+<h2>Module contents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="site.PREFIXES">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">PREFIXES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#site.PREFIXES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of prefixes for site-packages directories.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="site.ENABLE_USER_SITE">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">ENABLE_USER_SITE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#site.ENABLE_USER_SITE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> means
+that it is enabled and was added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> means that it
+was disabled by user request (with <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a> or
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONNOUSERSITE</span></code></a>).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> means it was disabled for security
+reasons (mismatch between user or group id and effective id) or by an
+administrator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="site.USER_SITE">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">USER_SITE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#site.USER_SITE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Path to the user site-packages for the running Python.  Can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#site.getusersitepackages" title="site.getusersitepackages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getusersitepackages()</span></code></a> hasn’t been called yet.  Default value is
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.local/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/site-packages</span></code> for UNIX and non-framework Mac
+OS X builds, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/Library/Python/</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python/site-packages</span></code> for Mac
+framework builds, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">%APPDATA%</span></em><span class="pre">\Python\Python</span><em><span class="pre">XY</span></em><span class="pre">\site-packages</span></code>
+on Windows.  This directory is a site directory, which means that
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pth</span></code> files in it will be processed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="site.USER_BASE">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">USER_BASE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#site.USER_BASE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Path to the base directory for the user site-packages.  Can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#site.getuserbase" title="site.getuserbase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getuserbase()</span></code></a> hasn’t been called yet.  Default value is
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.local</span></code> for UNIX and Mac OS X non-framework builds,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/Library/Python/</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em></code> for Mac framework builds, and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">%APPDATA%</span></em><span class="pre">\Python</span></code> for Windows.  This value is used by Distutils to
+compute the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python modules,
+etc. for the <a class="reference internal" href="../install/index.html#inst-alt-install-user"><span class="std std-ref">user installation scheme</span></a>.
+See also <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUSERBASE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="site.main">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">main</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#site.main" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module search
+path.  This function is called automatically when this module is imported,
+unless the Python interpreter was started with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a> flag.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This function used to be called unconditionally.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="site.addsitedir">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">addsitedir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sitedir</em>, <em>known_paths=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#site.addsitedir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a directory to sys.path and process its <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pth</span></code> files.  Typically
+used in <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize</span></code> (see above).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="site.getsitepackages">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">getsitepackages</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#site.getsitepackages" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="site.getuserbase">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">getuserbase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#site.getuserbase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the path of the user base directory, <a class="reference internal" href="#site.USER_BASE" title="site.USER_BASE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USER_BASE</span></code></a>.  If it is not
+initialized yet, this function will also set it, respecting
+<span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUSERBASE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="site.getusersitepackages">
+<code class="descclassname">site.</code><code class="descname">getusersitepackages</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#site.getusersitepackages" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#site.USER_SITE" title="site.USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USER_SITE</span></code></a>.  If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set
+it, respecting <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONNOUSERSITE</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#site.USER_BASE" title="site.USER_BASE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USER_BASE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module also provides a way to get the user directories from the
+command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 -m site --user-site
+<span class="go">/home/user/.local/lib/python3.3/site-packages</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> on the standard output, followed by the value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#site.USER_BASE" title="site.USER_BASE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USER_BASE</span></code></a> and whether the directory exists, then the same thing for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#site.USER_SITE" title="site.USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USER_SITE</span></code></a>, and finally the value of <a class="reference internal" href="#site.ENABLE_USER_SITE" title="site.ENABLE_USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENABLE_USER_SITE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-site-user-base">
+<code class="descname">--user-base</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-site-user-base" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the path to the user base directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-site-user-site">
+<code class="descname">--user-site</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-site-user-site" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the path to the user site-packages directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed (always in
+this order), separated by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.pathsep" title="os.pathsep"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pathsep</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if
+the user site-packages directory is enabled, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if it was disabled by the
+user, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> if it is disabled for security reasons or by an administrator, and a
+value greater than 2 if there is an error.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0370"><strong>PEP 370</strong></a> – Per user site-packages directory</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> — Site-specific configuration hook</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#readline-configuration">Readline configuration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contents">Module contents</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="inspect.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code> — Inspect live objects</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="custominterp.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Custom Python Interpreters</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-smtpd">
+<span id="smtpd-smtp-server"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-smtpd" title="smtpd: A SMTP server implementation in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code></a> — SMTP Server<a class="headerlink" href="#module-smtpd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/smtpd.py">Lib/smtpd.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module offers several classes to implement SMTP (email) servers.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://aiosmtpd.readthedocs.io/">aiosmtpd</a> package is a recommended
+replacement for this module.  It is based on <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> and provides a
+more straightforward API.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-smtpd" title="smtpd: A SMTP server implementation in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code></a> should be considered deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Several server implementations are present; one is a generic
+do-nothing implementation, which can be overridden, while the other two offer
+specific mail-sending strategies.</p>
+<p>Additionally the SMTPChannel may be extended to implement very specific
+interaction behaviour with SMTP clients.</p>
+<p>The code supports <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5321.html"><strong>RFC 5321</strong></a>, plus the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1870.html"><strong>RFC 1870</strong></a> SIZE and <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>
+SMTPUTF8 extensions.</p>
+<div class="section" id="smtpserver-objects">
+<h2>SMTPServer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#smtpserver-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtpd.</code><code class="descname">SMTPServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>localaddr</em>, <em>remoteaddr</em>, <em>data_size_limit=33554432</em>, <em>map=None</em>, <em>enable_SMTPUTF8=False</em>, <em>decode_data=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a> object, which binds to local address
+<em>localaddr</em>.  It will treat <em>remoteaddr</em> as an upstream SMTP relayer.  Both
+<em>localaddr</em> and <em>remoteaddr</em> should be a <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#host-port"><span class="std std-ref">(host, port)</span></a>
+tuple.  The object inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a>, and so will
+insert itself into <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a>’s event loop on instantiation.</p>
+<p><em>data_size_limit</em> specifies the maximum number of bytes that will be
+accepted in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DATA</span></code> command.  A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> means no
+limit.</p>
+<p><em>map</em> is the socket map to use for connections (an initially empty
+dictionary is a suitable value).  If not specified the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a>
+global socket map is used.</p>
+<p><em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em> determines whether the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> extension (as defined
+in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>) should be enabled.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> is accepted as a parameter to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAIL</span></code>
+command and when present is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message()</span></code></a> in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs['mail_options']</span></code> list.  <em>decode_data</em> and <em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em>
+cannot be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> at the same time.</p>
+<p><em>decode_data</em> specifies whether the data portion of the SMTP transaction
+should be decoded using UTF-8.  When <em>decode_data</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the
+default), the server advertises the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8BITMIME</span></code>
+extension (<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6152.html"><strong>RFC 6152</strong></a>), accepts the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BODY=8BITMIME</span></code> parameter to
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAIL</span></code> command, and when present passes it to <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message()</span></code></a>
+in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs['mail_options']</span></code> list. <em>decode_data</em> and <em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em>
+cannot be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> at the same time.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message">
+<code class="descname">process_message</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>peer</em>, <em>mailfrom</em>, <em>rcpttos</em>, <em>data</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> exception. Override this in subclasses to
+do something useful with this message. Whatever was passed in the
+constructor as <em>remoteaddr</em> will be available as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_remoteaddr</span></code>
+attribute. <em>peer</em> is the remote host’s address, <em>mailfrom</em> is the envelope
+originator, <em>rcpttos</em> are the envelope recipients and <em>data</em> is a string
+containing the contents of the e-mail (which should be in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5321.html"><strong>RFC 5321</strong></a>
+format).</p>
+<p>If the <em>decode_data</em> constructor keyword is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the <em>data</em>
+argument will be a unicode string.  If it is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, it
+will be a bytes object.</p>
+<p><em>kwargs</em> is a dictionary containing additional information. It is empty
+if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_data=True</span></code> was given as an init argument, otherwise
+it contains the following keys:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="simple">
+<dt><em>mail_options</em>:</dt><dd><p>a list of all received parameters to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAIL</span></code>
+command (the elements are uppercase strings; example:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['BODY=8BITMIME',</span> <span class="pre">'SMTPUTF8']</span></code>).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><em>rcpt_options</em>:</dt><dd><p>same as <em>mail_options</em> but for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RCPT</span></code> command.
+Currently no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RCPT</span> <span class="pre">TO</span></code> options are supported, so for now
+this will always be an empty list.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Implementations of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message</span></code> should use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>
+signature to accept arbitrary keyword arguments, since future feature
+enhancements may add keys to the kwargs dictionary.</p>
+<p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to request a normal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">250</span> <span class="pre">Ok</span></code> response; otherwise
+return the desired response string in <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5321.html"><strong>RFC 5321</strong></a> format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPServer.channel_class">
+<code class="descname">channel_class</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer.channel_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Override this in subclasses to use a custom <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPChannel</span></code></a> for
+managing SMTP clients.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>map</em> constructor argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>localaddr</em> and <em>remoteaddr</em> may now contain IPv6 addresses.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The <em>decode_data</em> and <em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em> constructor parameters, and the
+<em>kwargs</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message()</span></code></a> when <em>decode_data</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>decode_data</em> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> by default.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="debuggingserver-objects">
+<h2>DebuggingServer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#debuggingserver-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtpd.DebuggingServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtpd.</code><code class="descname">DebuggingServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>localaddr</em>, <em>remoteaddr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.DebuggingServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new debugging server.  Arguments are as per <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a>.
+Messages will be discarded, and printed on stdout.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pureproxy-objects">
+<h2>PureProxy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#pureproxy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtpd.PureProxy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtpd.</code><code class="descname">PureProxy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>localaddr</em>, <em>remoteaddr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.PureProxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new pure proxy server. Arguments are as per <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a>.
+Everything will be relayed to <em>remoteaddr</em>.  Note that running this has a good
+chance to make you into an open relay, so please be careful.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mailmanproxy-objects">
+<h2>MailmanProxy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#mailmanproxy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtpd.MailmanProxy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtpd.</code><code class="descname">MailmanProxy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>localaddr</em>, <em>remoteaddr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.MailmanProxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new pure proxy server. Arguments are as per <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a>.
+Everything will be relayed to <em>remoteaddr</em>, unless local mailman configurations
+knows about an address, in which case it will be handled via mailman.  Note that
+running this has a good chance to make you into an open relay, so please be
+careful.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtpchannel-objects">
+<h2>SMTPChannel Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#smtpchannel-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtpd.</code><code class="descname">SMTPChannel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server</em>, <em>conn</em>, <em>addr</em>, <em>data_size_limit=33554432</em>, <em>map=None</em>, <em>enable_SMTPUTF8=False</em>, <em>decode_data=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPChannel</span></code></a> object which manages the communication
+between the server and a single SMTP client.</p>
+<p><em>conn</em> and <em>addr</em> are as per the instance variables described below.</p>
+<p><em>data_size_limit</em> specifies the maximum number of bytes that will be
+accepted in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DATA</span></code> command.  A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> means no
+limit.</p>
+<p><em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em> determines whether the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> extension (as defined
+in <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>) should be enabled.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+<em>decode_data</em> and <em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em> cannot be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> at the same
+time.</p>
+<p>A dictionary can be specified in <em>map</em> to avoid using a global socket map.</p>
+<p><em>decode_data</em> specifies whether the data portion of the SMTP transaction
+should be decoded using UTF-8.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+<em>decode_data</em> and <em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em> cannot be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> at the same
+time.</p>
+<p>To use a custom SMTPChannel implementation you need to override the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer.channel_class" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.channel_class"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer.channel_class</span></code></a> of your <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>decode_data</em> and <em>enable_SMTPUTF8</em> parameters were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>decode_data</em> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> by default.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPChannel</span></code></a> has the following instance variables:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_server">
+<code class="descname">smtp_server</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a> that spawned this channel.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.conn">
+<code class="descname">conn</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.conn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds the socket object connecting to the client.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.addr">
+<code class="descname">addr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.addr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds the address of the client, the second value returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.accept</span></code></a></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_lines">
+<code class="descname">received_lines</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_lines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds a list of the line strings (decoded using UTF-8) received from
+the client. The lines have their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\r\n&quot;</span></code> line ending translated to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\n&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_state">
+<code class="descname">smtp_state</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.smtp_state" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds the current state of the channel. This will be either
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMMAND</span></code> initially and then <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DATA</span></code> after the client sends
+a “DATA” line.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting">
+<code class="descname">seen_greeting</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds a string containing the greeting sent by the client in its “HELO”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom">
+<code class="descname">mailfrom</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds a string containing the address identified in the “MAIL FROM:” line
+from the client.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos">
+<code class="descname">rcpttos</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds a list of strings containing the addresses identified in the
+“RCPT TO:” lines from the client.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data">
+<code class="descname">received_data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds a string containing all of the data sent by the client during the
+DATA state, up to but not including the terminating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\r\n.\r\n&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.fqdn">
+<code class="descname">fqdn</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.fqdn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds the fully-qualified domain name of the server as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.getfqdn" title="socket.getfqdn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getfqdn()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="smtpd.SMTPChannel.peer">
+<code class="descname">peer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.peer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Holds the name of the client peer as returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conn.getpeername()</span></code>
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conn</span></code> is <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.conn" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.conn"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conn</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPChannel</span></code></a> operates by invoking methods named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtp_&lt;command&gt;</span></code>
+upon reception of a command line from the client. Built into the base
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPChannel</span></code></a> class are methods for handling the following commands
+(and responding to them appropriately):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 89%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Command</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Action taken</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>HELO</p></td>
+<td><p>Accepts the greeting from the client and stores it in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seen_greeting</span></code></a>.  Sets server to base command mode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>EHLO</p></td>
+<td><p>Accepts the greeting from the client and stores it in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.seen_greeting"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seen_greeting</span></code></a>.  Sets server to extended command mode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>NOOP</p></td>
+<td><p>Takes no action.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>QUIT</p></td>
+<td><p>Closes the connection cleanly.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>MAIL</p></td>
+<td><p>Accepts the “MAIL FROM:” syntax and stores the supplied address as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailfrom</span></code></a>.  In extended command mode, accepts the
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1870.html"><strong>RFC 1870</strong></a> SIZE attribute and responds appropriately based on the
+value of <em>data_size_limit</em>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>RCPT</p></td>
+<td><p>Accepts the “RCPT TO:” syntax and stores the supplied addresses in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rcpttos</span></code></a> list.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>RSET</p></td>
+<td><p>Resets the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.mailfrom"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailfrom</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.rcpttos"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rcpttos</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">received_data</span></code></a>, but not the greeting.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>DATA</p></td>
+<td><p>Sets the internal state to <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DATA</span></code> and stores remaining lines
+from the client in <a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel.received_data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">received_data</span></code></a> until the terminator
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\r\n.\r\n&quot;</span></code> is received.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>HELP</p></td>
+<td><p>Returns minimal information on command syntax</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>VRFY</p></td>
+<td><p>Returns code 252 (the server doesn’t know if the address is valid)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>EXPN</p></td>
+<td><p>Reports that the command is not implemented.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code> — SMTP Server</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtpserver-objects">SMTPServer Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debuggingserver-objects">DebuggingServer Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pureproxy-objects">PureProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mailmanproxy-objects">MailmanProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtpchannel-objects">SMTPChannel Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="smtplib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code> — SMTP protocol client</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/smtplib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/smtplib.html
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/smtplib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,750 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>smtplib — SMTP protocol client &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-smtplib">
+<span id="smtplib-smtp-protocol-client"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> — SMTP protocol client<a class="headerlink" href="#module-smtplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/smtplib.py">Lib/smtplib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> module defines an SMTP client session object that can be used
+to send mail to any Internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon.  For
+details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc821.html"><strong>RFC 821</strong></a> (Simple Mail Transfer
+Protocol) and <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1869.html"><strong>RFC 1869</strong></a> (SMTP Service Extensions).</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>port=0</em>, <em>local_hostname=None</em>, <span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>source_address=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> instance encapsulates an SMTP connection.  It has methods
+that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP operations. If the optional
+host and port parameters are given, the SMTP <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.connect" title="smtplib.SMTP.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> method is
+called with those parameters during initialization.  If specified,
+<em>local_hostname</em> is used as the FQDN of the local host in the HELO/EHLO
+command.  Otherwise, the local hostname is found using
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.getfqdn" title="socket.getfqdn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getfqdn()</span></code></a>.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.connect" title="smtplib.SMTP.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> call returns anything other
+than a success code, an <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPConnectError" title="smtplib.SMTPConnectError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPConnectError</span></code></a> is raised. The optional
+<em>timeout</em> parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations
+like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout
+setting will be used).  If the timeout expires, <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.timeout" title="socket.timeout"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.timeout</span></code></a> is
+raised.  The optional source_address parameter allows binding
+to some specific source address in a machine with multiple network
+interfaces, and/or to some specific source TCP port. It takes a 2-tuple
+(host, port), for the socket to bind to as its source address before
+connecting. If omitted (or if host or port are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> and/or 0 respectively)
+the OS default behavior will be used.</p>
+<p>For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.quit" title="smtplib.SMTP.quit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.quit()</span></code></a> methods.
+An example is included below.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> class supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  When used
+like this, the SMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUIT</span></code> command is issued automatically when the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement exits.  E.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SMTP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;domain.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">smtp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">smtp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">noop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">(250, b&#39;Ok&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>source_address argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The SMTPUTF8 extension (<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>) is now supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP_SSL">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTP_SSL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>port=0</em>, <em>local_hostname=None</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>certfile=None</em>, <span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>context=None</em>, <em>source_address=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP_SSL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP_SSL" title="smtplib.SMTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP_SSL</span></code></a> instance behaves exactly the same as instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP_SSL" title="smtplib.SMTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP_SSL</span></code></a> should be used for situations where SSL is
+required from the beginning of the connection and using <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starttls()</span></code> is
+not appropriate. If <em>host</em> is not specified, the local host is used. If
+<em>port</em> is zero, the standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used.  The optional
+arguments <em>local_hostname</em>, <em>timeout</em> and <em>source_address</em> have the same
+meaning as they do in the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> class.  <em>context</em>, also optional,
+can contain a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> and allows configuring various
+aspects of the secure connection.  Please read <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> for
+best practices.</p>
+<p><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are a legacy alternative to <em>context</em>, and can
+point to a PEM formatted private key and certificate chain file for the
+SSL connection.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>context</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>source_address argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The class now supports hostname check with
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> and <em>Server Name Indication</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are deprecated in favor of <em>context</em>.
+Please use <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> instead, or let
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> select the system’s trusted CA
+certificates for you.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="smtplib.LMTP">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">LMTP</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=''</em>, <em>port=LMTP_PORT</em>, <em>local_hostname=None</em>, <em>source_address=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.LMTP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based on the
+standard SMTP client. It’s common to use Unix sockets for LMTP, so our
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code> method must support that as well as a regular host:port
+server. The optional arguments local_hostname and source_address have the
+same meaning as they do in the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> class. To specify a Unix
+socket, you must use an absolute path for <em>host</em>, starting with a ‘/’.</p>
+<p>Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism. When using a
+Unix socket, LMTP generally don’t support or require any authentication, but
+your mileage might vary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPException</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> that is the base exception class for all
+the other exceptions provided by this module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>SMTPException became subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPServerDisconnected</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when the server unexpectedly disconnects, or when an
+attempt is made to use the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> instance before connecting it to a
+server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPResponseException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPResponseException</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPResponseException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code. These exceptions
+are generated in some instances when the SMTP server returns an error code.  The
+error code is stored in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtp_code</span></code> attribute of the error, and the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtp_error</span></code> attribute is set to the error message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPSenderRefused</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sender address refused.  In addition to the attributes set by on all
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPResponseException" title="smtplib.SMTPResponseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPResponseException</span></code></a> exceptions, this sets ‘sender’ to the string that
+the SMTP server refused.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPRecipientsRefused</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All recipient addresses refused.  The errors for each recipient are accessible
+through the attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recipients</span></code>, which is a dictionary of exactly the
+same sort as <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.sendmail()</span></code></a> returns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPDataError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPDataError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPDataError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The SMTP server refused to accept the message data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPConnectError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPConnectError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPConnectError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Error occurred during establishment of a connection  with the server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPHeloError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPHeloError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPHeloError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The server refused our <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPNotSupportedError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The command or option attempted is not supported by the server.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">smtplib.</code><code class="descname">SMTPAuthenticationError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>SMTP authentication went wrong.  Most probably the server didn’t accept the
+username/password combination provided.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc821.html"><strong>RFC 821</strong></a> - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</dt><dd><p>Protocol definition for SMTP.  This document covers the model, operating
+procedure, and protocol details for SMTP.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1869.html"><strong>RFC 1869</strong></a> - SMTP Service Extensions</dt><dd><p>Definition of the ESMTP extensions for SMTP.  This describes a framework for
+extending SMTP with new commands, supporting dynamic discovery of the commands
+provided by the server, and defines a few additional commands.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtp-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>SMTP Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#smtp-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> instance has the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.set_debuglevel">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">set_debuglevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.set_debuglevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the debug output level.  A value of 1 or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for <em>level</em> results in
+debug messages for connection and for all messages sent to and received from
+the server.  A value of 2 for <em>level</em> results in these messages being
+timestamped.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added debuglevel 2.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.docmd">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">docmd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>args=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.docmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a command <em>cmd</em> to the server.  The optional argument <em>args</em> is simply
+concatenated to the command, separated by a space.</p>
+<p>This returns a 2-tuple composed of a numeric response code and the actual
+response line (multiline responses are joined into one long line.)</p>
+<p>In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.
+It is used to implement other methods and may be useful for testing private
+extensions.</p>
+<p>If the connection to the server is lost while waiting for the reply,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected" title="smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServerDisconnected</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.connect">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host='localhost'</em>, <em>port=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect to a host on a given port.  The defaults are to connect to the local
+host at the standard SMTP port (25). If the hostname ends with a colon (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>)
+followed by a number, that suffix will be stripped off and the number
+interpreted as the port number to use. This method is automatically invoked by
+the constructor if a host is specified during instantiation.  Returns a
+2-tuple of the response code and message sent by the server in its
+connection response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.helo">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">helo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.helo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identify yourself to the SMTP server using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code>.  The hostname argument
+defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local host.
+The message returned by the server is stored as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">helo_resp</span></code> attribute
+of the object.</p>
+<p>In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.
+It will be implicitly called by the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a> when necessary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.ehlo">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">ehlo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identify yourself to an ESMTP server using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code>.  The hostname argument
+defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local host.  Examine the
+response for ESMTP option and store them for use by <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.has_extn" title="smtplib.SMTP.has_extn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">has_extn()</span></code></a>.
+Also sets several informational attributes: the message returned by
+the server is stored as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ehlo_resp</span></code> attribute, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">does_esmtp</span></code>
+is set to true or false depending on whether the server supports ESMTP, and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">esmtp_features</span></code> will be a dictionary containing the names of the
+SMTP service extensions this server supports, and their parameters (if any).</p>
+<p>Unless you wish to use <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.has_extn" title="smtplib.SMTP.has_extn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">has_extn()</span></code></a> before sending mail, it should not be
+necessary to call this method explicitly.  It will be implicitly called by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a> when necessary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">ehlo_or_helo_if_needed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method calls <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo" title="smtplib.SMTP.ehlo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ehlo()</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.helo" title="smtplib.SMTP.helo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">helo()</span></code></a> if there has been no
+previous <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> command this session.  It tries ESMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code>
+first.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPHeloError" title="smtplib.SMTPHeloError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHeloError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server didn’t reply properly to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> greeting.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.has_extn">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">has_extn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.has_extn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if <em>name</em> is in the set of SMTP service extensions returned
+by the server, <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise. Case is ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.verify">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">verify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.verify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check the validity of an address on this server using SMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VRFY</span></code>. Returns a
+tuple consisting of code 250 and a full <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> address (including human
+name) if the user address is valid. Otherwise returns an SMTP error code of 400
+or greater and an error string.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Many sites disable SMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VRFY</span></code> in order to foil spammers.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.login">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">login</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>user</em>, <em>password</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>initial_response_ok=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.login" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Log in on an SMTP server that requires authentication. The arguments are the
+username and the password to authenticate with. If there has been no previous
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> command this session, this method tries ESMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code>
+first. This method will return normally if the authentication was successful, or
+may raise the following exceptions:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPHeloError" title="smtplib.SMTPHeloError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHeloError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server didn’t reply properly to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> greeting.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError" title="smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPAuthenticationError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server didn’t accept the username/password combination.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError" title="smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPNotSupportedError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTH</span></code> command is not supported by the server.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPException" title="smtplib.SMTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPException</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>No suitable authentication method was found.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Each of the authentication methods supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> are tried in
+turn if they are advertised as supported by the server.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.auth" title="smtplib.SMTP.auth"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auth()</span></code></a>
+for a list of supported authentication methods.  <em>initial_response_ok</em> is
+passed through to <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.auth" title="smtplib.SMTP.auth"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auth()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional keyword argument <em>initial_response_ok</em> specifies whether, for
+authentication methods that support it, an “initial response” as specified
+in <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4954.html"><strong>RFC 4954</strong></a> can be sent along with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTH</span></code> command, rather than
+requiring a challenge/response.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError" title="smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPNotSupportedError</span></code></a> may be raised, and the
+<em>initial_response_ok</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.auth">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">auth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mechanism</em>, <em>authobject</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>initial_response_ok=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.auth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Issue an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTH</span></code> command for the specified authentication
+<em>mechanism</em>, and handle the challenge response via <em>authobject</em>.</p>
+<p><em>mechanism</em> specifies which authentication mechanism is to
+be used as argument to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTH</span></code> command; the valid values are
+those listed in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auth</span></code> element of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">esmtp_features</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>authobject</em> must be a callable object taking an optional single argument:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>data = authobject(challenge=None)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If optional keyword argument <em>initial_response_ok</em> is true,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">authobject()</span></code> will be called first with no argument.  It can return the
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4954.html"><strong>RFC 4954</strong></a> “initial response” ASCII <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> which will be encoded and sent with
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AUTH</span></code> command as below.  If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">authobject()</span></code> does not support an
+initial response (e.g. because it requires a challenge), it should return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when called with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">challenge=None</span></code>.  If <em>initial_response_ok</em> is
+false, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">authobject()</span></code> will not be called first with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If the initial response check returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or if <em>initial_response_ok</em> is
+false, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">authobject()</span></code> will be called to process the server’s challenge
+response; the <em>challenge</em> argument it is passed will be a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>.  It
+should return ASCII <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> <em>data</em> that will be base64 encoded and sent to the
+server.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code> class provides <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">authobjects</span></code> for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRAM-MD5</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PLAIN</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOGIN</span></code> mechanisms; they are named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.auth_cram_md5</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.auth_plain</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.auth_login</span></code> respectively.  They all require
+that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">password</span></code> properties of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code> instance are
+set to appropriate values.</p>
+<p>User code does not normally need to call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auth</span></code> directly, but can instead
+call the <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.login" title="smtplib.SMTP.login"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">login()</span></code></a> method, which will try each of the above mechanisms
+in turn, in the order listed.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">auth</span></code> is exposed to facilitate the
+implementation of authentication methods not (or not yet) supported
+directly by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.starttls">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">starttls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>certfile=None</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.starttls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode.  All SMTP
+commands that follow will be encrypted.  You should then call <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.ehlo" title="smtplib.SMTP.ehlo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ehlo()</span></code></a>
+again.</p>
+<p>If <em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are provided, they are used to create an
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Optional <em>context</em> parameter is an <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object; This is
+an alternative to using a keyfile and a certfile and if specified both
+<em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If there has been no previous <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> command this session,
+this method tries ESMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> first.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><em>keyfile</em> and <em>certfile</em> are deprecated in favor of <em>context</em>.
+Please use <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> instead, or let
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> select the system’s trusted CA
+certificates for you.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPHeloError" title="smtplib.SMTPHeloError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHeloError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server didn’t reply properly to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> greeting.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError" title="smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPNotSupportedError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server does not support the STARTTLS extension.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>context</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The method now supports hostname check with
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code> and <em>Server Name Indicator</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAS_SNI</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The error raised for lack of STARTTLS support is now the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError" title="smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPNotSupportedError</span></code></a> subclass instead of the base
+<a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPException" title="smtplib.SMTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPException</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">sendmail</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>from_addr</em>, <em>to_addrs</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>mail_options=()</em>, <em>rcpt_options=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send mail.  The required arguments are an <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> from-address string, a list
+of <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> to-address strings (a bare string will be treated as a list with 1
+address), and a message string.  The caller may pass a list of ESMTP options
+(such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bitmime</span></code>) to be used in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAIL</span> <span class="pre">FROM</span></code> commands as <em>mail_options</em>.
+ESMTP options (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DSN</span></code> commands) that should be used with all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RCPT</span></code>
+commands can be passed as <em>rcpt_options</em>.  (If you need to use different ESMTP
+options to different recipients you have to use the low-level methods such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mail()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rcpt()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data()</span></code> to send the message.)</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <em>from_addr</em> and <em>to_addrs</em> parameters are used to construct the message
+envelope used by the transport agents.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail</span></code> does not modify the
+message headers in any way.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>msg</em> may be a string containing characters in the ASCII range, or a byte
+string.  A string is encoded to bytes using the ascii codec, and lone <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> characters are converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code> characters.  A byte string is
+not modified.</p>
+<p>If there has been no previous <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> command this session, this
+method tries ESMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> first. If the server does ESMTP, message size and
+each of the specified options will be passed to it (if the option is in the
+feature set the server advertises).  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> fails, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> will be tried
+and ESMTP options suppressed.</p>
+<p>This method will return normally if the mail is accepted for at least one
+recipient. Otherwise it will raise an exception.  That is, if this method does
+not raise an exception, then someone should get your mail. If this method does
+not raise an exception, it returns a dictionary, with one entry for each
+recipient that was refused.  Each entry contains a tuple of the SMTP error code
+and the accompanying error message sent by the server.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> is included in <em>mail_options</em>, and the server supports it,
+<em>from_addr</em> and <em>to_addrs</em> may contain non-ASCII characters.</p>
+<p>This method may raise the following exceptions:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused" title="smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPRecipientsRefused</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>All recipients were refused.  Nobody got the mail.  The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recipients</span></code>
+attribute of the exception object is a dictionary with information about the
+refused recipients (like the one returned when at least one recipient was
+accepted).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPHeloError" title="smtplib.SMTPHeloError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPHeloError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server didn’t reply properly to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELO</span></code> greeting.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused" title="smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPSenderRefused</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server didn’t accept the <em>from_addr</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPDataError" title="smtplib.SMTPDataError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPDataError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The server replied with an unexpected error code (other than a refusal of a
+recipient).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError" title="smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPNotSupportedError</span></code></a></dt><dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> was given in the <em>mail_options</em> but is not supported by the
+server.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an exception is
+raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>msg</em> may be a byte string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> support added, and <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError" title="smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPNotSupportedError</span></code></a> may be
+raised if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> is specified but the server does not support it.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.send_message">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">send_message</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>from_addr=None</em>, <em>to_addrs=None</em>, <em>mail_options=()</em>, <em>rcpt_options=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.send_message" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a convenience method for calling <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a> with the message
+represented by an <a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> object.  The arguments have
+the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a>, except that <em>msg</em> is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code>
+object.</p>
+<p>If <em>from_addr</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <em>to_addrs</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_message</span></code> fills
+those arguments with addresses extracted from the headers of <em>msg</em> as
+specified in <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5322.html"><strong>RFC 5322</strong></a>: <em>from_addr</em> is set to the <em class="mailheader">Sender</em>
+field if it is present, and otherwise to the <em class="mailheader">From</em> field.
+<em>to_addrs</em> combines the values (if any) of the <em class="mailheader">To</em>,
+<em class="mailheader">Cc</em>, and <em class="mailheader">Bcc</em> fields from <em>msg</em>.  If exactly one
+set of <em class="mailheader">Resent-*</em> headers appear in the message, the regular
+headers are ignored and the <em class="mailheader">Resent-*</em> headers are used instead.
+If the message contains more than one set of <em class="mailheader">Resent-*</em> headers,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised, since there is no way to unambiguously detect
+the most recent set of <em class="mailheader">Resent-</em> headers.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_message</span></code> serializes <em>msg</em> using
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code> as the <em>linesep</em>, and
+calls <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a> to transmit the resulting message.  Regardless of the
+values of <em>from_addr</em> and <em>to_addrs</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_message</span></code> does not transmit any
+<em class="mailheader">Bcc</em> or <em class="mailheader">Resent-Bcc</em> headers that may appear
+in <em>msg</em>.  If any of the addresses in <em>from_addr</em> and <em>to_addrs</em> contain
+non-ASCII characters and the server does not advertise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> support,
+an <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPNotSupported</span></code> error is raised.  Otherwise the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> is
+serialized with a clone of its <a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code></a> attribute set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BODY=8BITMIME</span></code> are added to <em>mail_options</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Support for internationalized addresses (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="smtplib.SMTP.quit">
+<code class="descclassname">SMTP.</code><code class="descname">quit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib.SMTP.quit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Terminate the SMTP session and close the connection.  Return the result of
+the SMTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUIT</span></code> command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HELP</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RSET</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOOP</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAIL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RCPT</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DATA</span></code> are also supported.
+Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not documented
+here.  For details, consult the module code.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtp-example">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>SMTP Example<a class="headerlink" href="#smtp-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message envelope (‘To’
+and ‘From’ addresses), and the message to be delivered.  Note that the headers
+to be included with the message must be included in the message as entered; this
+example doesn’t do any processing of the <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> headers.  In particular, the
+‘To’ and ‘From’ addresses must be included in the message headers explicitly.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">prompt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">fromaddr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;From: &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">toaddrs</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;To: &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Add the From: and To: headers at the start!</span>
+<span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;From: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">To: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\r\n\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+       <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromaddr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;, &quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">toaddrs</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">EOFError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Message length is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_debuglevel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendmail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fromaddr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">toaddrs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In general, you will want to use the <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package’s features to
+construct an email message, which you can then send
+via <a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib.SMTP.send_message" title="smtplib.SMTP.send_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_message()</span></code></a>; see <a class="reference internal" href="email.examples.html#email-examples"><span class="std std-ref">email: Examples</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code> — SMTP protocol client</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtp-objects">SMTP Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtp-example">SMTP Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="nntplib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code> — NNTP protocol client</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="smtpd.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code> — SMTP Server</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/smtplib.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sndhdr.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sndhdr.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>sndhdr — Determine type of sound file &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-sndhdr">
+<span id="sndhdr-determine-type-of-sound-file"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sndhdr" title="sndhdr: Determine type of a sound file."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code></a> — Determine type of sound file<a class="headerlink" href="#module-sndhdr" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/sndhdr.py">Lib/sndhdr.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sndhdr" title="sndhdr: Determine type of a sound file."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sndhdr</span></code></a> provides utility functions which attempt to determine the type
+of sound data which is in a file.  When these functions are able to determine
+what type of sound data is stored in a file, they return a
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a>, containing five attributes: (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filetype</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">framerate</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nchannels</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nframes</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sampwidth</span></code>). The value for <em>type</em>
+indicates the data type and will be one of the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'aifc'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'aiff'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'au'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hcom'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sndr'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sndt'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'voc'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wav'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'8svx'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sb'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ub'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ul'</span></code>.  The <em>sampling_rate</em> will be either the actual
+value or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if unknown or difficult to decode.  Similarly, <em>channels</em> will be
+either the number of channels or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if it cannot be determined or if the
+value is difficult to decode.  The value for <em>frames</em> will be either the number
+of frames or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.  The last item in the tuple, <em>bits_per_sample</em>, will either
+be the sample size in bits or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'A'</span></code> for A-LAW or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code> for u-LAW.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sndhdr.what">
+<code class="descclassname">sndhdr.</code><code class="descname">what</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sndhdr.what" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determines the type of sound data stored in the file <em>filename</em> using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sndhdr.whathdr" title="sndhdr.whathdr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whathdr()</span></code></a>.  If it succeeds, returns a namedtuple as described above, otherwise
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sndhdr.whathdr">
+<code class="descclassname">sndhdr.</code><code class="descname">whathdr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sndhdr.whathdr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determines the type of sound data stored in a file based on the file  header.
+The name of the file is given by <em>filename</em>.  This function returns a namedtuple as
+described above on success, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="imghdr.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imghdr</span></code> — Determine the type of an image</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ossaudiodev.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code> — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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+      </li>
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+             >index</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/socket.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/socket.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c9010b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/socket.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2170 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>socket — Low-level networking interface &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-socket">
+<span id="socket-low-level-networking-interface"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> — Low-level networking interface<a class="headerlink" href="#module-socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/socket.py">Lib/socket.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to the BSD <em>socket</em> interface. It is available on
+all modern Unix systems, Windows, MacOS, and probably additional platforms.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the operating
+system socket APIs.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-0">The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix system
+call and library interface for sockets to Python’s object-oriented style: the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a> function returns a <em class="dfn">socket object</em> whose methods implement
+the various socket system calls.  Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than
+in the C interface: as with <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> operations on Python
+files, buffer allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length
+is implicit on send operations.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Classes that simplify writing network servers.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket-families">
+<h2>Socket families<a class="headerlink" href="#socket-families" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families
+are supported by this module.</p>
+<p>The address format required by a particular socket object is automatically
+selected based on the address family specified when the socket object was
+created.  Socket addresses are represented as follows:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The address of an <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a> socket bound to a file system node
+is represented as a string, using the file system encoding and the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler (see <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0383"><strong>PEP 383</strong></a>).  An address in
+Linux’s abstract namespace is returned as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> with
+an initial null byte; note that sockets in this namespace can
+communicate with normal file system sockets, so programs intended to
+run on Linux may need to deal with both types of address.  A string or
+bytes-like object can be used for either type of address when
+passing it as an argument.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a> socket paths were assumed to use UTF-8
+encoding.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="host-port">
+<li><p>A pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> is used for the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a> address family,
+where <em>host</em> is a string representing either a hostname in Internet domain
+notation like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'daring.cwi.nl'</span></code> or an IPv4 address like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'100.50.200.5'</span></code>,
+and <em>port</em> is an integer.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>For IPv4 addresses, two special forms are accepted instead of a host
+address: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> represents <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INADDR_ANY</span></code>, which is used to bind to all
+interfaces, and the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;broadcast&gt;'</span></code> represents
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INADDR_BROADCAST</span></code>.  This behavior is not compatible with IPv6,
+therefore, you may want to avoid these if you intend to support IPv6 with your
+Python programs.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a> address family, a four-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port,</span> <span class="pre">flowinfo,</span>
+<span class="pre">scopeid)</span></code> is used, where <em>flowinfo</em> and <em>scopeid</em> represent the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sin6_flowinfo</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sin6_scope_id</span></code> members in <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">sockaddr_in6</span></code> in C.  For
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module methods, <em>flowinfo</em> and <em>scopeid</em> can be omitted just for
+backward compatibility.  Note, however, omission of <em>scopeid</em> can cause problems
+in manipulating scoped IPv6 addresses.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>For multicast addresses (with <em>scopeid</em> meaningful) <em>address</em> may not contain
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%scope</span></code> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zone</span> <span class="pre">id</span></code>) part. This information is superfluous and may
+be safely omitted (recommended).</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_NETLINK</span></code> sockets are represented as pairs <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(pid,</span> <span class="pre">groups)</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Linux-only support for TIPC is available using the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_TIPC</span></code>
+address family.  TIPC is an open, non-IP based networked protocol designed
+for use in clustered computer environments.  Addresses are represented by a
+tuple, and the fields depend on the address type. The general tuple form is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(addr_type,</span> <span class="pre">v1,</span> <span class="pre">v2,</span> <span class="pre">v3</span> <span class="pre">[,</span> <span class="pre">scope])</span></code>, where:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>addr_type</em> is one of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_ADDR_NAME</span></code>,
+or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_ADDR_ID</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>scope</em> is one of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_NODE_SCOPE</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>addr_type</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_ADDR_NAME</span></code>, then <em>v1</em> is the server type, <em>v2</em> is
+the port identifier, and <em>v3</em> should be 0.</p>
+<p>If <em>addr_type</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ</span></code>, then <em>v1</em> is the server type, <em>v2</em>
+is the lower port number, and <em>v3</em> is the upper port number.</p>
+<p>If <em>addr_type</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIPC_ADDR_ID</span></code>, then <em>v1</em> is the node, <em>v2</em> is the
+reference, and <em>v3</em> should be set to 0.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>A tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(interface,</span> <span class="pre">)</span></code> is used for the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_CAN" title="socket.AF_CAN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_CAN</span></code></a> address family,
+where <em>interface</em> is a string representing a network interface name like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'can0'</span></code>. The network interface name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> can be used to receive packets
+from all network interfaces of this family.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CAN_ISOTP" title="socket.CAN_ISOTP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_ISOTP</span></code></a> protocol require a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(interface,</span> <span class="pre">rx_addr,</span> <span class="pre">tx_addr)</span></code>
+where both additional parameters are unsigned long integer that represent a
+CAN identifier (standard or extended).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>A string or a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(id,</span> <span class="pre">unit)</span></code> is used for the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SYSPROTO_CONTROL</span></code>
+protocol of the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PF_SYSTEM</span></code> family. The string is the name of a
+kernel control using a dynamically-assigned ID. The tuple can be used if ID
+and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a registered ID is
+used.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_BLUETOOTH</span></code> supports the following protocols and address
+formats:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BTPROTO_L2CAP</span></code> accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(bdaddr,</span> <span class="pre">psm)</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdaddr</span></code> is
+the Bluetooth address as a string and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">psm</span></code> is an integer.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BTPROTO_RFCOMM</span></code> accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(bdaddr,</span> <span class="pre">channel)</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdaddr</span></code>
+is the Bluetooth address as a string and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">channel</span></code> is an integer.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BTPROTO_HCI</span></code> accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(device_id,)</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">device_id</span></code> is
+either an integer or a string with the Bluetooth address of the
+interface. (This depends on your OS; NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD expect
+a Bluetooth address while everything else expects an integer.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD support added.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BTPROTO_SCO</span></code> accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdaddr</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdaddr</span></code> is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object containing the Bluetooth address in a
+string format. (ex. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'12:23:34:45:56:67'</span></code>) This protocol is not
+supported under FreeBSD.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_ALG" title="socket.AF_ALG"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_ALG</span></code></a> is a Linux-only socket based interface to Kernel
+cryptography. An algorithm socket is configured with a tuple of two to four
+elements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">name</span> <span class="pre">[,</span> <span class="pre">feat</span> <span class="pre">[,</span> <span class="pre">mask]])</span></code>, where:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>type</em> is the algorithm type as string, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aead</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">skcipher</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rng</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>name</em> is the algorithm name and operation mode as string, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha256</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac(sha256)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cbc(aes)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>feat</em> and <em>mask</em> are unsigned 32bit integers.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.38, some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_VSOCK" title="socket.AF_VSOCK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_VSOCK</span></code></a> allows communication between virtual machines and
+their hosts. The sockets are represented as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(CID,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> tuple
+where the context ID or CID and port are integers.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 4.8 QEMU &gt;= 2.8 ESX &gt;= 4.0 ESX Workstation &gt;= 6.5.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_PACKET" title="socket.AF_PACKET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_PACKET</span></code></a> is a low-level interface directly to network devices.
+The packets are represented by the tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(ifname,</span> <span class="pre">proto[,</span> <span class="pre">pkttype[,</span> <span class="pre">hatype[,</span> <span class="pre">addr]]])</span></code> where:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>ifname</em> - String specifying the device name.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>proto</em> - An in network-byte-order integer specifying the Ethernet
+protocol number.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>pkttype</em> - Optional integer specifying the packet type:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PACKET_HOST</span></code> (the default) - Packet addressed to the local host.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PACKET_BROADCAST</span></code> - Physical-layer broadcast packet.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PACKET_MULTIHOST</span></code> - Packet sent to a physical-layer multicast address.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PACKET_OTHERHOST</span></code> - Packet to some other host that has been caught by
+a device driver in promiscuous mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PACKET_OUTGOING</span></code> - Packet originating from the local host that is
+looped back to a packet socket.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>hatype</em> - Optional integer specifying the ARP hardware address type.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>addr</em> - Optional bytes-like object specifying the hardware physical
+address, whose interpretation depends on the device.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>If you use a hostname in the <em>host</em> portion of IPv4/v6 socket address, the
+program may show a nondeterministic behavior, as Python uses the first address
+returned from the DNS resolution.  The socket address will be resolved
+differently into an actual IPv4/v6 address, depending on the results from DNS
+resolution and/or the host configuration.  For deterministic behavior use a
+numeric address in <em>host</em> portion.</p>
+<p>All errors raise exceptions.  The normal exceptions for invalid argument types
+and out-of-memory conditions can be raised; starting from Python 3.3, errors
+related to socket or address semantics raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> or one of its
+subclasses (they used to raise <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Non-blocking mode is supported through <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.setblocking" title="socket.socket.setblocking"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setblocking()</span></code></a>.  A
+generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.settimeout" title="socket.socket.settimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-contents">
+<h2>Module contents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> exports the following elements.</p>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h3>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="socket.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A deprecated alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Following <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3151"><strong>PEP 3151</strong></a>, this class was made an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="socket.herror">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">herror</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.herror" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, this exception is raised for
+address-related errors, i.e. for functions that use <em>h_errno</em> in the POSIX
+C API, including <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostbyname_ex" title="socket.gethostbyname_ex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostbyname_ex()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostbyaddr" title="socket.gethostbyaddr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostbyaddr()</span></code></a>.
+The accompanying value is a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(h_errno,</span> <span class="pre">string)</span></code> representing an
+error returned by a library call.  <em>h_errno</em> is a numeric value, while
+<em>string</em> represents the description of <em>h_errno</em>, as returned by the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hstrerror()</span></code> C function.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This class was made a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="socket.gaierror">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">gaierror</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.gaierror" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, this exception is raised for
+address-related errors by <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getaddrinfo" title="socket.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getnameinfo" title="socket.getnameinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getnameinfo()</span></code></a>.
+The accompanying value is a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(error,</span> <span class="pre">string)</span></code> representing an error
+returned by a library call.  <em>string</em> represents the description of
+<em>error</em>, as returned by the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gai_strerror()</span></code> C function.  The
+numeric <em>error</em> value will match one of the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EAI_*</span></code> constants
+defined in this module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This class was made a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="socket.timeout">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">timeout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.timeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, this exception is raised when a timeout
+occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a prior call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.settimeout" title="socket.socket.settimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout()</span></code></a> (or implicitly through
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.setdefaulttimeout" title="socket.setdefaulttimeout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefaulttimeout()</span></code></a>).  The accompanying value is a string
+whose value is currently always “timed out”.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This class was made a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<h3>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AddressFamily</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketKind</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> collections.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.AF_UNIX">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_UNIX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.AF_INET">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_INET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.AF_INET6">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_INET6</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_INET6" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used for the
+first argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a>.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a> constant is not
+defined then this protocol is unsupported.  More constants may be available
+depending on the system.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.SOCK_STREAM">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_STREAM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOCK_DGRAM">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_DGRAM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOCK_RAW">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_RAW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOCK_RAW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOCK_RDM">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_RDM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOCK_RDM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_SEQPACKET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These constants represent the socket types, used for the second argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a>.  More constants may be available depending on the system.
+(Only <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="socket.SOCK_DGRAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_DGRAM</span></code></a> appear to be generally
+useful.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_CLOEXEC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_NONBLOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These two constants, if defined, can be combined with the socket types and
+allow you to set some flags atomically (thus avoiding possible race
+conditions and the need for separate calls).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html">Secure File Descriptor Handling</a>
+for a more thorough explanation.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.6.27.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">SO_*</code></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOMAXCONN">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOMAXCONN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOMAXCONN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">MSG_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">SOL_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">SCM_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">IPPROTO_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">IPPORT_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">INADDR_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">IP_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">IPV6_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">EAI_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">AI_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">NI_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">TCP_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation on sockets
+and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket module. They are
+generally used in arguments to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setsockopt()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsockopt()</span></code>
+methods of socket objects.  In most cases, only those symbols that are defined
+in the Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values are
+provided.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_DOMAIN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_PROTOCOL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_PEERSEC</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_PASSSEC</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_USER_TIMEOUT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_CONGESTION</span></code> were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.5: </span>On Windows, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_FASTOPEN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_KEEPCNT</span></code> appear if run-time Windows
+supports.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT</span></code> was added.</p>
+<p>On Windows, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_KEEPIDLE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_KEEPINTVL</span></code> appear if run-time Windows
+supports.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.AF_CAN">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_CAN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_CAN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.PF_CAN">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">PF_CAN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.PF_CAN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">SOL_CAN_*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">CAN_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are
+also defined in the socket module.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.6.25.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.CAN_BCM">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">CAN_BCM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.CAN_BCM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">CAN_BCM_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>CAN_BCM, in the CAN protocol family, is the broadcast manager (BCM) protocol.
+Broadcast manager constants, documented in the Linux documentation, are also
+defined in the socket module.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.6.25.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enables CAN FD support in a CAN_RAW socket. This is disabled by default.
+This allows your application to send both CAN and CAN FD frames; however,
+you must accept both CAN and CAN FD frames when reading from the socket.</p>
+<p>This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 3.6.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.CAN_ISOTP">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">CAN_ISOTP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.CAN_ISOTP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>CAN_ISOTP, in the CAN protocol family, is the ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2) protocol.
+ISO-TP constants, documented in the Linux documentation.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.6.25.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.AF_PACKET">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_PACKET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_PACKET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.PF_PACKET">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">PF_PACKET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.PF_PACKET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">PACKET_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are
+also defined in the socket module.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.2.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.AF_RDS">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_RDS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_RDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.PF_RDS">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">PF_RDS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.PF_RDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOL_RDS">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOL_RDS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOL_RDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">RDS_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are
+also defined in the socket module.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.6.30.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.SIO_RCVALL">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SIO_RCVALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SIO_RCVALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">RCVALL_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Constants for Windows’ WSAIoctl(). The constants are used as arguments to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.ioctl" title="socket.socket.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code></a> method of socket objects.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH</span></code> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">TIPC_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>TIPC related constants, matching the ones exported by the C socket API. See
+the TIPC documentation for more information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.AF_ALG">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_ALG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_ALG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.SOL_ALG">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SOL_ALG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SOL_ALG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">ALG_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Constants for Linux Kernel cryptography.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.6.38.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.AF_VSOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_VSOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_VSOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">VMADDR*</code></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">SO_VM*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Constants for Linux host/guest communication.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 4.8.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.AF_LINK">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">AF_LINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.AF_LINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: BSD, OSX.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.has_ipv6">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">has_ipv6</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.has_ipv6" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This constant contains a boolean value which indicates if IPv6 is supported on
+this platform.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.BDADDR_ANY">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">BDADDR_ANY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.BDADDR_ANY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.BDADDR_LOCAL">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">BDADDR_LOCAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.BDADDR_LOCAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These are string constants containing Bluetooth addresses with special
+meanings. For example, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.BDADDR_ANY" title="socket.BDADDR_ANY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BDADDR_ANY</span></code></a> can be used to indicate
+any address when specifying the binding socket with
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BTPROTO_RFCOMM</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.HCI_FILTER">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">HCI_FILTER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.HCI_FILTER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">HCI_TIME_STAMP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socket.HCI_DATA_DIR">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">HCI_DATA_DIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.HCI_DATA_DIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For use with <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BTPROTO_HCI</span></code>. <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.HCI_FILTER" title="socket.HCI_FILTER"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HCI_FILTER</span></code></a> is not
+available for NetBSD or DragonFlyBSD. <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP" title="socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HCI_TIME_STAMP</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.HCI_DATA_DIR" title="socket.HCI_DATA_DIR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HCI_DATA_DIR</span></code></a> are not available for FreeBSD, NetBSD, or
+DragonFlyBSD.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<h3>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="creating-sockets">
+<h4>Creating sockets<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-sockets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The following functions all create <a class="reference internal" href="#socket-objects"><span class="std std-ref">socket objects</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.socket">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>family=AF_INET</em>, <em>type=SOCK_STREAM</em>, <em>proto=0</em>, <em>fileno=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and protocol
+number.  The address family should be <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a> (the default),
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_CAN" title="socket.AF_CAN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_CAN</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_PACKET" title="socket.AF_PACKET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_PACKET</span></code></a>,
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_RDS" title="socket.AF_RDS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_RDS</span></code></a>. The socket type should be <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> (the
+default), <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="socket.SOCK_DGRAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_DGRAM</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_RAW" title="socket.SOCK_RAW"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_RAW</span></code></a> or perhaps one of the other
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_</span></code> constants. The protocol number is usually zero and may be omitted
+or in the case where the address family is <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_CAN" title="socket.AF_CAN"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_CAN</span></code></a> the protocol
+should be one of <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_RAW</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CAN_BCM" title="socket.CAN_BCM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_BCM</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CAN_ISOTP" title="socket.CAN_ISOTP"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_ISOTP</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>fileno</em> is specified, the values for <em>family</em>, <em>type</em>, and <em>proto</em> are
+auto-detected from the specified file descriptor.  Auto-detection can be
+overruled by calling the function with explicit <em>family</em>, <em>type</em>, or <em>proto</em>
+arguments.  This only affects how Python represents e.g. the return value
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.getpeername" title="socket.socket.getpeername"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getpeername()</span></code></a> but not the actual OS resource.  Unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.fromfd" title="socket.fromfd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.fromfd()</span></code></a>, <em>fileno</em> will return the same socket and not a
+duplicate. This may help close a detached socket using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.close" title="socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The newly created socket is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The AF_CAN family was added.
+The AF_RDS family was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The CAN_BCM protocol was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The returned socket is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>When <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK" title="socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC" title="socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_CLOEXEC</span></code></a>
+bit flags are applied to <em>type</em> they are cleared, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.type" title="socket.socket.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.type</span></code></a> will not reflect them.  They are still passed
+to the underlying system <cite>socket()</cite> call.  Therefore::</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="simple">
+<dt>sock = socket.socket(</dt><dd><p>socket.AF_INET,
+socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_NONBLOCK</span></code>, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock.type</span></code> will be set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_STREAM</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.socketpair">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">socketpair</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>family</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>type</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>proto</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socketpair" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address family, socket
+type, and protocol number.  Address family, socket type, and protocol number are
+as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a> function above. The default family is <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a>
+if defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The newly created sockets are <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The returned socket objects now support the whole socket API, rather
+than a subset.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The returned sockets are now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Windows support added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.create_connection">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">create_connection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>source_address</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.create_connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect to a TCP service listening on the Internet <em>address</em> (a 2-tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code>), and return the socket object.  This is a higher-level
+function than <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.connect()</span></code></a>: if <em>host</em> is a non-numeric hostname,
+it will try to resolve it for both <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a>,
+and then try to connect to all possible addresses in turn until a
+connection succeeds.  This makes it easy to write clients that are
+compatible to both IPv4 and IPv6.</p>
+<p>Passing the optional <em>timeout</em> parameter will set the timeout on the
+socket instance before attempting to connect.  If no <em>timeout</em> is
+supplied, the global default timeout setting returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getdefaulttimeout" title="socket.getdefaulttimeout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getdefaulttimeout()</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<p>If supplied, <em>source_address</em> must be a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> for the
+socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.  If host or port
+are ‘’ or 0 respectively the OS default behavior will be used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>source_address</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.fromfd">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">fromfd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>family</em>, <em>type</em>, <em>proto=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.fromfd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Duplicate the file descriptor <em>fd</em> (an integer as returned by a file object’s
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method) and build a socket object from the result.  Address
+family, socket type and protocol number are as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a> function
+above. The file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked —
+subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file descriptor is invalid.
+This function is rarely needed, but can be used to get or set socket options on
+a socket passed to a program as standard input or output (such as a server
+started by the Unix inet daemon).  The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.</p>
+<p>The newly created socket is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The returned socket is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.fromshare">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">fromshare</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.fromshare" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instantiate a socket from data obtained from the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.share" title="socket.socket.share"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.share()</span></code></a>
+method.  The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="socket.SocketType">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">SocketType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.SocketType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a Python type object that represents the socket object type. It is the
+same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(socket(...))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-functions">
+<h4>Other functions<a class="headerlink" href="#other-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module also offers various network-related services:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.close">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close a socket file descriptor. This is like <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.close" title="os.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.close()</span></code></a>, but for
+sockets. On some platforms (most noticeable Windows) <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.close" title="os.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.close()</span></code></a>
+does not work for socket file descriptors.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.getaddrinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getaddrinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port</em>, <em>family=0</em>, <em>type=0</em>, <em>proto=0</em>, <em>flags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.getaddrinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate the <em>host</em>/<em>port</em> argument into a sequence of 5-tuples that contain
+all the necessary arguments for creating a socket connected to that service.
+<em>host</em> is a domain name, a string representation of an IPv4/v6 address
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. <em>port</em> is a string service name such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'http'</span></code>, a numeric
+port number or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  By passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as the value of <em>host</em>
+and <em>port</em>, you can pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> to the underlying C API.</p>
+<p>The <em>family</em>, <em>type</em> and <em>proto</em> arguments can be optionally specified
+in order to narrow the list of addresses returned.  Passing zero as a
+value for each of these arguments selects the full range of results.
+The <em>flags</em> argument can be one or several of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AI_*</span></code> constants,
+and will influence how results are computed and returned.
+For example, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AI_NUMERICHOST</span></code> will disable domain name resolution
+and will raise an error if <em>host</em> is a domain name.</p>
+<p>The function returns a list of 5-tuples with the following structure:</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(family,</span> <span class="pre">type,</span> <span class="pre">proto,</span> <span class="pre">canonname,</span> <span class="pre">sockaddr)</span></code></p>
+<p>In these tuples, <em>family</em>, <em>type</em>, <em>proto</em> are all integers and are
+meant to be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a> function.  <em>canonname</em> will be
+a string representing the canonical name of the <em>host</em> if
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AI_CANONNAME</span></code> is part of the <em>flags</em> argument; else <em>canonname</em>
+will be empty.  <em>sockaddr</em> is a tuple describing a socket address, whose
+format depends on the returned <em>family</em> (a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(address,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> 2-tuple for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a>, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(address,</span> <span class="pre">port,</span> <span class="pre">flow</span> <span class="pre">info,</span> <span class="pre">scope</span> <span class="pre">id)</span></code> 4-tuple for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a>), and is meant to be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.connect()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<p>The following example fetches address information for a hypothetical TCP
+connection to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.org</span></code> on port 80 (results may differ on your
+system if IPv6 isn’t enabled):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getaddrinfo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;example.org&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">proto</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPPROTO_TCP</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(&lt;AddressFamily.AF_INET6: 10&gt;, &lt;SocketType.SOCK_STREAM: 1&gt;,</span>
+<span class="go"> 6, &#39;&#39;, (&#39;2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946&#39;, 80, 0, 0)),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&lt;AddressFamily.AF_INET: 2&gt;, &lt;SocketType.SOCK_STREAM: 1&gt;,</span>
+<span class="go"> 6, &#39;&#39;, (&#39;93.184.216.34&#39;, 80))]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>parameters can now be passed using keyword arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>for IPv6 multicast addresses, string representing an address will not
+contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%scope</span></code> part.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.getfqdn">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getfqdn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.getfqdn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a fully qualified domain name for <em>name</em>. If <em>name</em> is omitted or empty,
+it is interpreted as the local host.  To find the fully qualified name, the
+hostname returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostbyaddr" title="socket.gethostbyaddr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostbyaddr()</span></code></a> is checked, followed by aliases for the
+host, if available.  The first name which includes a period is selected.  In
+case no fully qualified domain name is available, the hostname as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostname" title="socket.gethostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostname()</span></code></a> is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.gethostbyname">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">gethostbyname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hostname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.gethostbyname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate a host name to IPv4 address format.  The IPv4 address is returned as a
+string, such as  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'100.50.200.5'</span></code>.  If the host name is an IPv4 address itself
+it is returned unchanged.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostbyname_ex" title="socket.gethostbyname_ex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostbyname_ex()</span></code></a> for a more complete
+interface. <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostbyname" title="socket.gethostbyname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostbyname()</span></code></a> does not support IPv6 name resolution, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getaddrinfo" title="socket.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code></a> should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.gethostbyname_ex">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">gethostbyname_ex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hostname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.gethostbyname_ex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface. Return a
+triple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(hostname,</span> <span class="pre">aliaslist,</span> <span class="pre">ipaddrlist)</span></code> where <em>hostname</em> is the primary
+host name responding to the given <em>ip_address</em>, <em>aliaslist</em> is a (possibly
+empty) list of alternative host names for the same address, and <em>ipaddrlist</em> is
+a list of IPv4 addresses for the same interface on the same host (often but not
+always a single address). <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostbyname_ex" title="socket.gethostbyname_ex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostbyname_ex()</span></code></a> does not support IPv6 name
+resolution, and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getaddrinfo" title="socket.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code></a> should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
+stack support.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.gethostname">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">gethostname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.gethostname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string containing the hostname of the machine where  the Python
+interpreter is currently executing.</p>
+<p>Note: <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostname" title="socket.gethostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostname()</span></code></a> doesn’t always return the fully qualified domain
+name; use <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getfqdn" title="socket.getfqdn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfqdn()</span></code></a> for that.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.gethostbyaddr">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">gethostbyaddr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ip_address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.gethostbyaddr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a triple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(hostname,</span> <span class="pre">aliaslist,</span> <span class="pre">ipaddrlist)</span></code> where <em>hostname</em> is the
+primary host name responding to the given <em>ip_address</em>, <em>aliaslist</em> is a
+(possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same address, and
+<em>ipaddrlist</em> is a list of IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same
+host (most likely containing only a single address). To find the fully qualified
+domain name, use the function <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getfqdn" title="socket.getfqdn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfqdn()</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.gethostbyaddr" title="socket.gethostbyaddr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gethostbyaddr()</span></code></a> supports
+both IPv4 and IPv6.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.getnameinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getnameinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sockaddr</em>, <em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.getnameinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate a socket address <em>sockaddr</em> into a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code>. Depending
+on the settings of <em>flags</em>, the result can contain a fully-qualified domain name
+or numeric address representation in <em>host</em>.  Similarly, <em>port</em> can contain a
+string port name or a numeric port number.</p>
+<p>For IPv6 addresses, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%scope</span></code> is appended to the host part if <em>sockaddr</em>
+contains meaningful <em>scopeid</em>. Usually this happens for multicast addresses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.getprotobyname">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getprotobyname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocolname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.getprotobyname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate an Internet protocol name (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'icmp'</span></code>) to a constant
+suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a>
+function.  This is usually only needed for sockets opened in “raw” mode
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_RAW" title="socket.SOCK_RAW"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_RAW</span></code></a>); for the normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen
+automatically if the protocol is omitted or zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.getservbyname">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getservbyname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>servicename</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>protocolname</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.getservbyname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate an Internet service name and protocol name to a port number for that
+service.  The optional protocol name, if given, should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'tcp'</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'udp'</span></code>, otherwise any protocol will match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.getservbyport">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getservbyport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>port</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>protocolname</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.getservbyport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Translate an Internet port number and protocol name to a service name for that
+service.  The optional protocol name, if given, should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'tcp'</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'udp'</span></code>, otherwise any protocol will match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.ntohl">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">ntohl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.ntohl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert 32-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.  On machines
+where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap operation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.ntohs">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">ntohs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.ntohs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert 16-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.  On machines
+where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap operation.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>In case <em>x</em> does not fit in 16-bit unsigned integer, but does fit in a
+positive C int, it is silently truncated to 16-bit unsigned integer.
+This silent truncation feature is deprecated, and will raise an
+exception in future versions of Python.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.htonl">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">htonl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.htonl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert 32-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.  On machines
+where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap operation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.htons">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">htons</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.htons" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert 16-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.  On machines
+where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op;
+otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap operation.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>In case <em>x</em> does not fit in 16-bit unsigned integer, but does fit in a
+positive C int, it is silently truncated to 16-bit unsigned integer.
+This silent truncation feature is deprecated, and will raise an
+exception in future versions of Python.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.inet_aton">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">inet_aton</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ip_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.inet_aton" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for example,
+‘123.45.67.89’) to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes object four characters in
+length.  This is useful when conversing with a program that uses the standard C
+library and needs objects of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">in_addr</span></code>, which is the C type
+for the 32-bit packed binary this function returns.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_aton" title="socket.inet_aton"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_aton()</span></code></a> also accepts strings with less than three dots; see the
+Unix manual page <em class="manpage">inet(3)</em> for details.</p>
+<p>If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on
+the underlying C implementation of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_aton()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_aton" title="socket.inet_aton"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_aton()</span></code></a> does not support IPv6, and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_pton" title="socket.inet_pton"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_pton()</span></code></a> should be used
+instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.inet_ntoa">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">inet_ntoa</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>packed_ip</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.inet_ntoa" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> four
+bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string representation (for example,
+‘123.45.67.89’).  This is useful when conversing with a program that uses the
+standard C library and needs objects of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">in_addr</span></code>, which
+is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary data this function takes as an
+argument.</p>
+<p>If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes in
+length, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> will be raised. <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_ntoa" title="socket.inet_ntoa"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_ntoa()</span></code></a> does not
+support IPv6, and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_ntop" title="socket.inet_ntop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_ntop()</span></code></a> should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
+stack support.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.inet_pton">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">inet_pton</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address_family</em>, <em>ip_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.inet_pton" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a packed,
+binary format. <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_pton" title="socket.inet_pton"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_pton()</span></code></a> is useful when a library or network protocol
+calls for an object of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">in_addr</span></code> (similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_aton" title="socket.inet_aton"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_aton()</span></code></a>) or <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">in6_addr</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Supported values for <em>address_family</em> are currently <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a>. If the IP address string <em>ip_string</em> is invalid,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on
+both the value of <em>address_family</em> and the underlying implementation of
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_pton()</span></code>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (maybe not all platforms), Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Windows support added</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.inet_ntop">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">inet_ntop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address_family</em>, <em>packed_ip</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.inet_ntop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a packed IP address (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> of some number of
+bytes) to its standard, family-specific string representation (for
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'7.10.0.5'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'5aef:2b::8'</span></code>).
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_ntop" title="socket.inet_ntop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_ntop()</span></code></a> is useful when a library or network protocol returns an
+object of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">in_addr</span></code> (similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_ntoa" title="socket.inet_ntoa"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_ntoa()</span></code></a>) or
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">in6_addr</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Supported values for <em>address_family</em> are currently <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_INET6" title="socket.AF_INET6"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET6</span></code></a>. If the bytes object <em>packed_ip</em> is not the correct
+length for the specified address family, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised for errors from the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.inet_ntop" title="socket.inet_ntop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_ntop()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (maybe not all platforms), Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Windows support added</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.CMSG_LEN">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">CMSG_LEN</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.CMSG_LEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary
+data item with associated data of the given <em>length</em>.  This value
+can often be used as the buffer size for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a> to
+receive a single item of ancillary data, but <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3542.html"><strong>RFC 3542</strong></a> requires
+portable applications to use <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CMSG_SPACE" title="socket.CMSG_SPACE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CMSG_SPACE()</span></code></a> and thus include
+space for padding, even when the item will be the last in the
+buffer.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if <em>length</em> is outside the
+permissible range of values.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most Unix platforms, possibly others.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.CMSG_SPACE">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">CMSG_SPACE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.CMSG_SPACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the buffer size needed for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a> to
+receive an ancillary data item with associated data of the given
+<em>length</em>, along with any trailing padding.  The buffer space needed
+to receive multiple items is the sum of the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CMSG_SPACE" title="socket.CMSG_SPACE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CMSG_SPACE()</span></code></a>
+values for their associated data lengths.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> if <em>length</em> is outside the permissible range
+of values.</p>
+<p>Note that some systems might support ancillary data without
+providing this function.  Also note that setting the buffer size
+using the results of this function may not precisely limit the
+amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional
+data may be able to fit into the padding area.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most Unix platforms, possibly others.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.getdefaulttimeout">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getdefaulttimeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.getdefaulttimeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects. A value
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> indicates that new socket objects have no timeout. When the socket
+module is first imported, the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.setdefaulttimeout">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">setdefaulttimeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.setdefaulttimeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects.  When
+the socket module is first imported, the default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.settimeout" title="socket.socket.settimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout()</span></code></a> for possible values and their respective
+meanings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.sethostname">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">sethostname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.sethostname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the machine’s hostname to <em>name</em>.  This will raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if you don’t have enough rights.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.if_nameindex">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">if_nameindex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.if_nameindex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of network interface information
+(index int, name string) tuples.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the system call fails.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.if_nametoindex">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">if_nametoindex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>if_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.if_nametoindex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a network interface index number corresponding to an
+interface name.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if no interface with the given name exists.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="socket.if_indextoname">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">if_indextoname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>if_index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.if_indextoname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a network interface name corresponding to an
+interface index number.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if no interface with the given index exists.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Socket Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#socket-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Socket objects have the following methods.  Except for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makefile()</span></code></a>, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable
+to sockets.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol was added.  Exiting the
+context manager is equivalent to calling <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.close" title="socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.accept">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">accept</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.accept" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accept a connection. The socket must be bound to an address and listening for
+connections. The return value is a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(conn,</span> <span class="pre">address)</span></code> where <em>conn</em> is a
+<em>new</em> socket object usable to send and receive data on the connection, and
+<em>address</em> is the address bound to the socket on the other end of the connection.</p>
+<p>The newly created socket is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The socket is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.bind">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">bind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.bind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind the socket to <em>address</em>.  The socket must not already be bound. (The format
+of <em>address</em> depends on the address family — see above.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.close">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark the socket closed.  The underlying system resource (e.g. a file
+descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makefile()</span></code></a>
+are closed.  Once that happens, all future operations on the socket
+object will fail. The remote end will receive no more data (after
+queued data is flushed).</p>
+<p>Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected, but
+it is recommended to <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.close" title="socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> them explicitly, or to use a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement around them.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is now raised if an error occurs when the underlying
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> call is made.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#socket.close" title="socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> releases the resource associated with a connection but
+does not necessarily close the connection immediately.  If you want
+to close the connection in a timely fashion, call <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.shutdown" title="socket.socket.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a>
+before <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.close" title="socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.connect">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect to a remote socket at <em>address</em>. (The format of <em>address</em> depends on the
+address family — see above.)</p>
+<p>If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits until the
+connection completes, or raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.timeout" title="socket.timeout"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.timeout</span></code></a> on timeout, if the
+signal handler doesn’t raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has
+a timeout. For non-blocking sockets, the method raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception if the connection is interrupted by a
+signal (or the exception raised by the signal handler).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The method now waits until the connection completes instead of raising an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception if the connection is interrupted by a
+signal, the signal handler doesn’t raise an exception and the socket is
+blocking or has a timeout (see the <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.connect_ex">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">connect_ex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.connect_ex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect(address)</span></code>, but return an error indicator instead of raising an
+exception for errors returned by the C-level <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code> call (other
+problems, such as “host not found,” can still raise exceptions).  The error
+indicator is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the operation succeeded, otherwise the value of the
+<code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> variable.  This is useful to support, for example, asynchronous
+connects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.detach">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">detach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.detach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing the
+underlying file descriptor.  The file descriptor is returned, and can
+be reused for other purposes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.dup">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">dup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.dup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Duplicate the socket.</p>
+<p>The newly created socket is <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The socket is now non-inheritable.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the socket’s file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on failure. This
+is useful with <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be used where a
+file descriptor can be used (such as <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fdopen()</span></code></a>).  Unix does not have
+this limitation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.get_inheritable">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">get_inheritable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.get_inheritable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">inheritable flag</span></a> of the socket’s file
+descriptor or socket’s handle: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the socket can be inherited in
+child processes, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it cannot.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.getpeername">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getpeername</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.getpeername" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the remote address to which the socket is connected.  This is useful to
+find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. (The format
+of the address returned depends on the address family — see above.)  On some
+systems this function is not supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.getsockname">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getsockname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.getsockname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the socket’s own address.  This is useful to find out the port number of
+an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. (The format of the address returned depends on
+the address family — see above.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.getsockopt">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getsockopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em>, <em>optname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>buflen</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.getsockopt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
+<em class="manpage">getsockopt(2)</em>).  The needed symbolic constants (<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_*</span></code> etc.)
+are defined in this module.  If <em>buflen</em> is absent, an integer option is assumed
+and its integer value is returned by the function.  If <em>buflen</em> is present, it
+specifies the maximum length of the buffer used to receive the option in, and
+this buffer is returned as a bytes object.  It is up to the caller to decode the
+contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> for a way
+to decode C structures encoded as byte strings).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.getblocking">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">getblocking</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.getblocking" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if socket is in blocking mode, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if in
+non-blocking.</p>
+<p>This is equivalent to checking <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.gettimeout()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.gettimeout">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">gettimeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.gettimeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket operations,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no timeout is set.  This reflects the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.setblocking" title="socket.socket.setblocking"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setblocking()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.settimeout" title="socket.socket.settimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.ioctl">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">ioctl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>control</em>, <em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.ioctl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Platform</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Windows</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.ioctl" title="socket.socket.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code></a> method is a limited interface to the WSAIoctl system
+interface.  Please refer to the <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx">Win32 documentation</a> for more
+information.</p>
+<p>On other platforms, the generic <a class="reference internal" href="fcntl.html#fcntl.fcntl" title="fcntl.fcntl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl.fcntl()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="fcntl.html#fcntl.ioctl" title="fcntl.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl.ioctl()</span></code></a>
+functions may be used; they accept a socket object as their first argument.</p>
+<p>Currently only the following control codes are supported:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIO_RCVALL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH</span></code> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.listen">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">listen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>backlog</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.listen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable a server to accept connections.  If <em>backlog</em> is specified, it must
+be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it specifies the number of
+unaccepted connections that the system will allow before refusing new
+connections. If not specified, a default reasonable value is chosen.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>backlog</em> parameter is now optional.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.makefile">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">makefile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode='r'</em>, <em>buffering=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.makefile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-6">Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> associated with the socket.  The exact returned
+type depends on the arguments given to <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makefile()</span></code></a>.  These arguments are
+interpreted the same way as by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function, except
+the only supported <em>mode</em> values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> (default), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the file
+object’s internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state if a timeout
+occurs.</p>
+<p>Closing the file object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makefile()</span></code></a> won’t close the
+original socket unless all other file objects have been closed and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.close" title="socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.close()</span></code></a> has been called on the socket object.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Windows, the file-like object created by <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makefile()</span></code></a> cannot be
+used where a file object with a file descriptor is expected, such as the
+stream arguments of <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.recv">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">recv</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bufsize</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a bytes object representing the
+data received.  The maximum amount of data to be received at once is specified
+by <em>bufsize</em>.  See the Unix manual page <em class="manpage">recv(2)</em> for the meaning of
+the optional argument <em>flags</em>; it defaults to zero.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For best match with hardware and network realities, the value of  <em>bufsize</em>
+should be a relatively small power of 2, for example, 4096.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.recvfrom">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">recvfrom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bufsize</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.recvfrom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(bytes,</span> <span class="pre">address)</span></code>
+where <em>bytes</em> is a bytes object representing the data received and <em>address</em> is the
+address of the socket sending the data.  See the Unix manual page
+<em class="manpage">recv(2)</em> for the meaning of the optional argument <em>flags</em>; it defaults
+to zero. (The format of <em>address</em> depends on the address family — see above.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>For multicast IPv6 address, first item of <em>address</em> does not contain
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%scope</span></code> part anymore. In order to get full IPv6 address use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getnameinfo" title="socket.getnameinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getnameinfo()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.recvmsg">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">recvmsg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bufsize</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>ancbufsize</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive normal data (up to <em>bufsize</em> bytes) and ancillary data from
+the socket.  The <em>ancbufsize</em> argument sets the size in bytes of
+the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
+to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received.  Appropriate
+buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CMSG_SPACE" title="socket.CMSG_SPACE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CMSG_SPACE()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CMSG_LEN" title="socket.CMSG_LEN"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CMSG_LEN()</span></code></a>, and items which do not fit
+into the buffer might be truncated or discarded.  The <em>flags</em>
+argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The return value is a 4-tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(data,</span> <span class="pre">ancdata,</span> <span class="pre">msg_flags,</span>
+<span class="pre">address)</span></code>.  The <em>data</em> item is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object holding the
+non-ancillary data received.  The <em>ancdata</em> item is a list of zero
+or more tuples <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(cmsg_level,</span> <span class="pre">cmsg_type,</span> <span class="pre">cmsg_data)</span></code> representing
+the ancillary data (control messages) received: <em>cmsg_level</em> and
+<em>cmsg_type</em> are integers specifying the protocol level and
+protocol-specific type respectively, and <em>cmsg_data</em> is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object holding the associated data.  The <em>msg_flags</em>
+item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating conditions on
+the received message; see your system documentation for details.
+If the receiving socket is unconnected, <em>address</em> is the address of
+the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its value is
+unspecified.</p>
+<p>On some systems, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.sendmsg" title="socket.socket.sendmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmsg()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a> can be used to
+pass file descriptors between processes over an <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a>
+socket.  When this facility is used (it is often restricted to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> sockets), <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a> will return, in its
+ancillary data, items of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(socket.SOL_SOCKET,</span>
+<span class="pre">socket.SCM_RIGHTS,</span> <span class="pre">fds)</span></code>, where <em>fds</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object
+representing the new file descriptors as a binary array of the
+native C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> type.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a> raises an
+exception after the system call returns, it will first attempt to
+close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.</p>
+<p>Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
+items which have been only partially received.  If an item appears
+to extend beyond the end of the buffer, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a> will issue
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning" title="RuntimeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeWarning</span></code></a>, and will return the part of it which is
+inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated before the
+start of its associated data.</p>
+<p>On systems which support the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCM_RIGHTS</span></code> mechanism, the
+following function will receive up to <em>maxfds</em> file descriptors,
+returning the message data and a list containing the descriptors
+(while ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control
+messages being received).  See also <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.sendmsg" title="socket.socket.sendmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmsg()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">recv_fds</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msglen</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxfds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">fds</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;i&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Array of ints</span>
+    <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ancdata</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">flags</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recvmsg</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msglen</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CMSG_LEN</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxfds</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">fds</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">cmsg_level</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cmsg_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cmsg_data</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ancdata</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmsg_level</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOL_SOCKET</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">cmsg_type</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SCM_RIGHTS</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.</span>
+            <span class="n">fds</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromstring</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmsg_data</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmsg_data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmsg_data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">fds</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most Unix platforms, possibly others.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.recvmsg_into">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">recvmsg_into</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffers</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>ancbufsize</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg_into" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a> would, but scatter the non-ancillary data into a
+series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object.  The
+<em>buffers</em> argument must be an iterable of objects that export
+writable buffers (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects); these will be
+filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
+has all been written or there are no more buffers.  The operating
+system may set a limit (<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.sysconf" title="os.sysconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf()</span></code></a> value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SC_IOV_MAX</span></code>)
+on the number of buffers that can be used.  The <em>ancbufsize</em> and
+<em>flags</em> arguments have the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The return value is a 4-tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(nbytes,</span> <span class="pre">ancdata,</span> <span class="pre">msg_flags,</span>
+<span class="pre">address)</span></code>, where <em>nbytes</em> is the total number of bytes of
+non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and <em>ancdata</em>,
+<em>msg_flags</em> and <em>address</em> are the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socketpair</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;----&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;0123456789&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;--------------&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Mary had a little lamb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">22</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recvmsg_into</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">b1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b2</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">b3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">(22, [], 0, None)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">b1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[bytearray(b&#39;Mary&#39;), bytearray(b&#39;01 had a 9&#39;), bytearray(b&#39;little lamb---&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most Unix platforms, possibly others.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.recvfrom_into">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">recvfrom_into</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>nbytes</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.recvfrom_into" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive data from the socket, writing it into <em>buffer</em> instead of creating a
+new bytestring.  The return value is a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(nbytes,</span> <span class="pre">address)</span></code> where <em>nbytes</em> is
+the number of bytes received and <em>address</em> is the address of the socket sending
+the data.  See the Unix manual page <em class="manpage">recv(2)</em> for the meaning of the
+optional argument <em>flags</em>; it defaults to zero.  (The format of <em>address</em>
+depends on the address family — see above.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.recv_into">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">recv_into</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>nbytes</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.recv_into" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive up to <em>nbytes</em> bytes from the socket, storing the data into a buffer
+rather than creating a new bytestring.  If <em>nbytes</em> is not specified (or 0),
+receive up to the size available in the given buffer.  Returns the number of
+bytes received.  See the Unix manual page <em class="manpage">recv(2)</em> for the meaning
+of the optional argument <em>flags</em>; it defaults to zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.send">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote socket.  The
+optional <em>flags</em> argument has the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> above.
+Returns the number of bytes sent. Applications are responsible for checking that
+all data has been sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the
+application needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data. For further
+information on this topic, consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/sockets.html#socket-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Socket Programming HOWTO</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.sendall">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">sendall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.sendall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote socket.  The
+optional <em>flags</em> argument has the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> above.
+Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>, this method continues to send data from <em>bytes</em> until
+either all data has been sent or an error occurs.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned on
+success.  On error, an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how
+much data, if any, was successfully sent.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The socket timeout is no more reset each time data is sent successfully.
+The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.sendto">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">sendto</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em>, <em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.sendto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">sendto</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em>, <em>flags</em>, <em>address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Send data to the socket.  The socket should not be connected to a remote socket,
+since the destination socket is specified by <em>address</em>.  The optional <em>flags</em>
+argument has the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> above.  Return the number of
+bytes sent. (The format of <em>address</em> depends on the address family — see
+above.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.sendmsg">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">sendmsg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffers</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>ancdata</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>address</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.sendmsg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
+non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
+into a single message.  The <em>buffers</em> argument specifies the
+non-ancillary data as an iterable of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>
+(e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects); the operating system may set a limit
+(<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.sysconf" title="os.sysconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconf()</span></code></a> value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SC_IOV_MAX</span></code>) on the number of buffers
+that can be used.  The <em>ancdata</em> argument specifies the ancillary
+data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more tuples
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(cmsg_level,</span> <span class="pre">cmsg_type,</span> <span class="pre">cmsg_data)</span></code>, where <em>cmsg_level</em> and
+<em>cmsg_type</em> are integers specifying the protocol level and
+protocol-specific type respectively, and <em>cmsg_data</em> is a
+bytes-like object holding the associated data.  Note that
+some systems (in particular, systems without <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CMSG_SPACE" title="socket.CMSG_SPACE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CMSG_SPACE()</span></code></a>)
+might support sending only one control message per call.  The
+<em>flags</em> argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>.  If <em>address</em> is supplied and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it sets a
+destination address for the message.  The return value is the
+number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.</p>
+<p>The following function sends the list of file descriptors <em>fds</em>
+over an <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_UNIX</span></code></a> socket, on systems which support the
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCM_RIGHTS</span></code> mechanism.  See also <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">send_fds</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendmsg</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOL_SOCKET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SCM_RIGHTS</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;i&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fds</span><span class="p">))])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: most Unix platforms, possibly others.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> exception (see <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.sendmsg_afalg">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">sendmsg_afalg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>msg</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>*</em>, <em>op</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>iv</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>assoclen</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>flags</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.sendmsg_afalg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specialized version of <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.sendmsg" title="socket.socket.sendmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmsg()</span></code></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_ALG" title="socket.AF_ALG"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_ALG</span></code></a> socket.
+Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.AF_ALG" title="socket.AF_ALG"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_ALG</span></code></a> socket.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux &gt;= 2.6.38.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.sendfile">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">sendfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>offset=0</em>, <em>count=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.sendfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile</span></code></a> and return the total number of bytes which were sent.
+<em>file</em> must be a regular file object opened in binary mode. If
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile</span></code></a> is not available (e.g. Windows) or <em>file</em> is not a
+regular file <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> will be used instead. <em>offset</em> tells from where to
+start reading the file. If specified, <em>count</em> is the total number of bytes
+to transmit as opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached. File
+position is updated on return or also in case of error in which case
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.tell" title="io.IOBase.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.tell()</span></code></a> can be used to figure out the number of
+bytes which were sent. The socket must be of <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> type.
+Non-blocking sockets are not supported.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.set_inheritable">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">set_inheritable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>inheritable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.set_inheritable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">inheritable flag</span></a> of the socket’s file
+descriptor or socket’s handle.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.setblocking">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">setblocking</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.setblocking" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if <em>flag</em> is false, the
+socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.</p>
+<p>This method is a shorthand for certain <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.settimeout" title="socket.socket.settimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout()</span></code></a> calls:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock.setblocking(True)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock.settimeout(None)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock.setblocking(False)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock.settimeout(0.0)</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The method no longer applies <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK" title="socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> flag on
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.type" title="socket.socket.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.type</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.settimeout">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">settimeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.settimeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set a timeout on blocking socket operations.  The <em>value</em> argument can be a
+nonnegative floating point number expressing seconds, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.timeout" title="socket.timeout"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code></a> exception if the timeout period <em>value</em> has elapsed before
+the operation has completed.  If zero is given, the socket is put in
+non-blocking mode. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is given, the socket is put in blocking mode.</p>
+<p>For further information, please consult the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket-timeouts"><span class="std std-ref">notes on socket timeouts</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The method no longer toggles <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK" title="socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> flag on
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.type" title="socket.socket.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.type</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.setsockopt">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">setsockopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em>, <em>optname</em>, <em>value: int</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.setsockopt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">setsockopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em>, <em>optname</em>, <em>value: buffer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">setsockopt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level</em>, <em>optname</em>, <em>None</em>, <em>optlen: int</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-14">Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
+<em class="manpage">setsockopt(2)</em>).  The needed symbolic constants are defined in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module (<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_*</span></code> etc.).  The value can be an integer,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> representing a buffer. In the later
+case it is up to the caller to ensure that the bytestring contains the
+proper bits (see the optional built-in module <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> for a way to
+encode C structures as bytestrings). When value is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+optlen argument is required. It’s equivalent to call setsockopt C
+function with optval=NULL and optlen=optlen.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) form added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.shutdown">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">shutdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>how</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.shutdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Shut down one or both halves of the connection.  If <em>how</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHUT_RD</span></code>,
+further receives are disallowed.  If <em>how</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHUT_WR</span></code>, further sends
+are disallowed.  If <em>how</em> is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHUT_RDWR</span></code>, further sends and receives are
+disallowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socket.socket.share">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">share</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>process_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.share" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target process.  The
+target process must be provided with <em>process_id</em>.  The resulting bytes object
+can then be passed to the target process using some form of interprocess
+communication and the socket can be recreated there using <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.fromshare" title="socket.fromshare"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromshare()</span></code></a>.
+Once this method has been called, it is safe to close the socket since
+the operating system has already duplicated it for the target process.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that there are no methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>; use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> without <em>flags</em> argument instead.</p>
+<p>Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to the
+values given to the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socket.socket.family">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">family</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.family" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The socket family.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socket.socket.type">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The socket type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socket.socket.proto">
+<code class="descclassname">socket.</code><code class="descname">proto</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socket.socket.proto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The socket protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notes-on-socket-timeouts">
+<span id="socket-timeouts"></span><h2>Notes on socket timeouts<a class="headerlink" href="#notes-on-socket-timeouts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A socket object can be in one of three modes: blocking, non-blocking, or
+timeout.  Sockets are by default always created in blocking mode, but this
+can be changed by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.setdefaulttimeout" title="socket.setdefaulttimeout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefaulttimeout()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>In <em>blocking mode</em>, operations block until complete or the system returns
+an error (such as connection timed out).</p></li>
+<li><p>In <em>non-blocking mode</em>, operations fail (with an error that is unfortunately
+system-dependent) if they cannot be completed immediately: functions from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> can be used to know when and whether a socket is available for
+reading or writing.</p></li>
+<li><p>In <em>timeout mode</em>, operations fail if they cannot be completed within the
+timeout specified for the socket (they raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.timeout" title="socket.timeout"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code></a> exception)
+or if the system returns an error.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>At the operating system level, sockets in <em>timeout mode</em> are internally set
+in non-blocking mode.  Also, the blocking and timeout modes are shared between
+file descriptors and socket objects that refer to the same network endpoint.
+This implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g. you decide
+to use the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.fileno" title="socket.socket.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> of a socket.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timeouts-and-the-connect-method">
+<h3>Timeouts and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect</span></code> method<a class="headerlink" href="#timeouts-and-the-connect-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> operation is also subject to the timeout
+setting, and in general it is recommended to call <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.settimeout" title="socket.socket.settimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout()</span></code></a>
+before calling <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> or pass a timeout parameter to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.create_connection" title="socket.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_connection()</span></code></a>.  However, the system network stack may also
+return a connection timeout error of its own regardless of any Python socket
+timeout setting.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timeouts-and-the-accept-method">
+<h3>Timeouts and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept</span></code> method<a class="headerlink" href="#timeouts-and-the-accept-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.getdefaulttimeout" title="socket.getdefaulttimeout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getdefaulttimeout()</span></code></a> is not <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, sockets returned by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a> method inherit that timeout.  Otherwise, the
+behaviour depends on settings of the listening socket:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>if the listening socket is in <em>blocking mode</em> or in <em>timeout mode</em>,
+the socket returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a> is in <em>blocking mode</em>;</p></li>
+<li><p>if the listening socket is in <em>non-blocking mode</em>, whether the socket
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a> is in blocking or non-blocking mode
+is operating system-dependent.  If you want to ensure cross-platform
+behaviour, it is recommended you manually override this setting.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="socket-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a server that
+echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one client), and a client
+using it.  Note that a server must perform the sequence <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.bind" title="socket.socket.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.listen" title="socket.socket.listen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a> (possibly
+repeating the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a> to service more than one client), while a
+client only needs the sequence <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a>.  Also
+note that the server does not <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.sendall" title="socket.socket.sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendall()</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> on
+the socket it is listening on but on the new socket returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The first two examples support IPv4 only.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Echo server program</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>                 <span class="c1"># Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces</span>
+<span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">50007</span>              <span class="c1"># Arbitrary non-privileged port</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Connected by&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">break</span>
+            <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Echo client program</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;daring.cwi.nl&#39;</span>    <span class="c1"># The remote host</span>
+<span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">50007</span>              <span class="c1"># The same port as used by the server</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello, world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Received&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both IPv4 and
+IPv6. The server side will listen to the first address family available (it
+should listen to both instead). On most of IPv6-ready systems, IPv6 will take
+precedence and the server may not accept IPv4 traffic. The client side will try
+to connect to the all addresses returned as a result of the name resolution, and
+sends traffic to the first one connected successfully.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Echo server program</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>               <span class="c1"># Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces</span>
+<span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">50007</span>              <span class="c1"># Arbitrary non-privileged port</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">res</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getaddrinfo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_UNSPEC</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                              <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AI_PASSIVE</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">af</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socktype</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">proto</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">canonname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sa</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">res</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">af</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socktype</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">proto</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sa</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>
+    <span class="k">break</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;could not open socket&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Connected by&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Echo client program</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;daring.cwi.nl&#39;</span>    <span class="c1"># The remote host</span>
+<span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">50007</span>              <span class="c1"># The same port as used by the server</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">res</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getaddrinfo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_UNSPEC</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">af</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socktype</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">proto</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">canonname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sa</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">res</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">af</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socktype</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">proto</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sa</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>
+    <span class="k">break</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;could not open socket&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello, world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Received&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with raw
+sockets on Windows. The example requires administrator privileges to modify
+the interface:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># the public network interface</span>
+<span class="n">HOST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gethostbyname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gethostname</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_RAW</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPPROTO_IP</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Include IP headers</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setsockopt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPPROTO_IP</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IP_HDRINCL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># receive all packages</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ioctl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SIO_RCVALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RCVALL_ON</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># receive a package</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recvfrom</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">65565</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># disabled promiscuous mode</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ioctl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SIO_RCVALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RCVALL_OFF</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The next example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to a CAN
+network using the raw socket protocol. To use CAN with the broadcast
+manager protocol instead, open a socket with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_CAN</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_DGRAM</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CAN_BCM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After binding (<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_RAW</span></code>) or connecting (<a class="reference internal" href="#socket.CAN_BCM" title="socket.CAN_BCM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_BCM</span></code></a>) the socket, you
+can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.send()</span></code></a>, and the <a class="reference internal" href="#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.recv()</span></code></a> operations (and
+their counterparts) on the socket object as usual.</p>
+<p>This last example might require special privileges:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+
+
+<span class="c1"># CAN frame packing/unpacking (see &#39;struct can_frame&#39; in &lt;linux/can.h&gt;)</span>
+
+<span class="n">can_frame_fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;=IB3x8s&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">can_frame_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">calcsize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">can_frame_fmt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">build_can_frame</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">can_id</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">can_dlc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ljust</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x00</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">can_frame_fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">can_id</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">can_dlc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dissect_can_frame</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">frame</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">can_id</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">can_dlc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">can_frame_fmt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frame</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">can_id</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">can_dlc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">can_dlc</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+
+<span class="c1"># create a raw socket and bind it to the &#39;vcan0&#39; interface</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_CAN</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_RAW</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CAN_RAW</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;vcan0&#39;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cf</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recvfrom</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">can_frame_size</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Received: can_id=</span><span class="si">%x</span><span class="s1">, can_dlc=</span><span class="si">%x</span><span class="s1">, data=</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">dissect_can_frame</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cf</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cf</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error sending CAN frame&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">build_can_frame</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mh">0x01</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x01\x02\x03</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error sending CAN frame&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Running an example several times with too small delay between executions, could
+lead to this error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ne">OSError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Errno</span> <span class="mi">98</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">Address</span> <span class="n">already</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">use</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIME_WAIT</span></code>
+state, and can’t be immediately reused.</p>
+<p>There is a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> flag to set, in order to prevent this,
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SO_REUSEADDR</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setsockopt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOL_SOCKET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SO_REUSEADDR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_REUSEADDR</span></code> flag tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TIME_WAIT</span></code> state, without waiting for its natural timeout to expire.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>For an introduction to socket programming (in C), see the following papers:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial</em>, by Stuart Sechrest</p></li>
+<li><p><em>An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial</em>, by Samuel J.  Leffler et
+al,</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>both in the UNIX Programmer’s Manual, Supplementary Documents 1 (sections
+PS1:7 and PS1:8).  The platform-specific reference material for the various
+socket-related system calls are also a valuable source of information on the
+details of socket semantics.  For Unix, refer to the manual pages; for Windows,
+see the WinSock (or Winsock 2) specification.  For IPv6-ready APIs, readers may
+want to refer to <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3493.html"><strong>RFC 3493</strong></a> titled Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code> — Low-level networking interface</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket-families">Socket families</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contents">Module contents</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-sockets">Creating sockets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-functions">Other functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket-objects">Socket Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes-on-socket-timeouts">Notes on socket timeouts</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timeouts-and-the-connect-method">Timeouts and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect</span></code> method</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timeouts-and-the-accept-method">Timeouts and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept</span></code> method</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/socketserver.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/socketserver.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26974bb
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/socketserver.html
@@ -0,0 +1,838 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>socketserver — A framework for network servers &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-socketserver">
+<span id="socketserver-a-framework-for-network-servers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a> — A framework for network servers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-socketserver" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/socketserver.py">Lib/socketserver.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a> module simplifies the task of writing network servers.</p>
+<p>There are four basic concrete server classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.TCPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">TCPServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em>, <em>bind_and_activate=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.TCPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This uses the Internet TCP protocol, which provides for
+continuous streams of data between the client and server.
+If <em>bind_and_activate</em> is true, the constructor automatically attempts to
+invoke <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_bind" title="socketserver.BaseServer.server_bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_bind()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_activate" title="socketserver.BaseServer.server_activate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_activate()</span></code></a>.  The other parameters are passed to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer" title="socketserver.BaseServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseServer</span></code></a> base class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.UDPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">UDPServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em>, <em>bind_and_activate=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.UDPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This uses datagrams, which are discrete packets of information that may
+arrive out of order or be lost while in transit.  The parameters are
+the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCPServer</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.UnixStreamServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">UnixStreamServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em>, <em>bind_and_activate=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.UnixStreamServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socketserver.UnixDatagramServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">UnixDatagramServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em>, <em>bind_and_activate=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.UnixDatagramServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These more infrequently used classes are similar to the TCP and
+UDP classes, but use Unix domain sockets; they’re not available on
+non-Unix platforms.  The parameters are the same as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCPServer</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>These four classes process requests <em class="dfn">synchronously</em>; each request must be
+completed before the next request can be started.  This isn’t suitable if each
+request takes a long time to complete, because it requires a lot of computation,
+or because it returns a lot of data which the client is slow to process.  The
+solution is to create a separate process or thread to handle each request; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a> mix-in classes can be used to
+support asynchronous behaviour.</p>
+<p>Creating a server requires several steps.  First, you must create a request
+handler class by subclassing the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseRequestHandler</span></code></a> class and
+overriding its <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method;
+this method will process incoming
+requests.  Second, you must instantiate one of the server classes, passing it
+the server’s address and the request handler class. It is recommended to use
+the server in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement. Then call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request" title="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_request()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever" title="socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever()</span></code></a> method of the server object to
+process one or many requests.  Finally, call <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_close" title="socketserver.BaseServer.server_close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_close()</span></code></a>
+to close the socket (unless you used a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement).</p>
+<p>When inheriting from <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a> for threaded connection behavior,
+you should explicitly declare how you want your threads to behave on an abrupt
+shutdown.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a> class defines an attribute
+<em>daemon_threads</em>, which indicates whether or not the server should wait for
+thread termination.  You should set the flag explicitly if you would like
+threads to behave autonomously; the default is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, meaning that
+Python will not exit until all threads created by <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a> have
+exited.</p>
+<p>Server classes have the same external methods and attributes, no matter what
+network protocol they use.</p>
+<div class="section" id="server-creation-notes">
+<h2>Server Creation Notes<a class="headerlink" href="#server-creation-notes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are five classes in an inheritance diagram, four of which represent
+synchronous servers of four types:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">+------------+</span>
+<span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">BaseServer</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+<span class="o">+------------+</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>
+      <span class="n">v</span>
+<span class="o">+-----------+</span>        <span class="o">+------------------+</span>
+<span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">TCPServer</span> <span class="o">|-------&gt;|</span> <span class="n">UnixStreamServer</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+<span class="o">+-----------+</span>        <span class="o">+------------------+</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span>
+      <span class="n">v</span>
+<span class="o">+-----------+</span>        <span class="o">+--------------------+</span>
+<span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">UDPServer</span> <span class="o">|-------&gt;|</span> <span class="n">UnixDatagramServer</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+<span class="o">+-----------+</span>        <span class="o">+--------------------+</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.UnixDatagramServer" title="socketserver.UnixDatagramServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnixDatagramServer</span></code></a> derives from <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.UDPServer" title="socketserver.UDPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UDPServer</span></code></a>, not from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.UnixStreamServer" title="socketserver.UnixStreamServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnixStreamServer</span></code></a> — the only difference between an IP and a Unix
+stream server is the address family, which is simply repeated in both Unix
+server classes.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.ForkingMixIn">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">ForkingMixIn</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">ThreadingMixIn</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Forking and threading versions of each type of server can be created
+using these mix-in classes.  For instance, <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer" title="socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingUDPServer</span></code></a>
+is created as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ThreadingUDPServer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ThreadingMixIn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">UDPServer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The mix-in class comes first, since it overrides a method defined in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.UDPServer" title="socketserver.UDPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UDPServer</span></code></a>.  Setting the various attributes also changes the
+behavior of the underlying server mechanism.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> and the Forking classes mentioned below are
+only available on POSIX platforms that support <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> waits until all child
+processes complete, except if
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close</span></code> attribute is false.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> waits until all non-daemon
+threads complete, except if
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close</span></code> attribute is false. Use
+daemonic threads by setting
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> to not wait until threads
+complete.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> now waits until all
+child processes and non-daemonic threads complete.
+Add a new <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close</span></code> class
+attribute to opt-in for the pre-3.7 behaviour.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.ForkingTCPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">ForkingTCPServer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.ForkingTCPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socketserver.ForkingUDPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">ForkingUDPServer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.ForkingUDPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">ThreadingTCPServer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">ThreadingUDPServer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These classes are pre-defined using the mix-in classes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To implement a service, you must derive a class from <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseRequestHandler</span></code></a>
+and redefine its <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method.
+You can then run various versions of
+the service by combining one of the server classes with your request handler
+class.  The request handler class must be different for datagram or stream
+services.  This can be hidden by using the handler subclasses
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.StreamRequestHandler" title="socketserver.StreamRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRequestHandler</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler" title="socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramRequestHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Of course, you still have to use your head!  For instance, it makes no sense to
+use a forking server if the service contains state in memory that can be
+modified by different requests, since the modifications in the child process
+would never reach the initial state kept in the parent process and passed to
+each child.  In this case, you can use a threading server, but you will probably
+have to use locks to protect the integrity of the shared data.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, if you are building an HTTP server where all data is stored
+externally (for instance, in the file system), a synchronous class will
+essentially render the service “deaf” while one request is being handled –
+which may be for a very long time if a client is slow to receive all the data it
+has requested.  Here a threading or forking server is appropriate.</p>
+<p>In some cases, it may be appropriate to process part of a request synchronously,
+but to finish processing in a forked child depending on the request data.  This
+can be implemented by using a synchronous server and doing an explicit fork in
+the request handler class <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an environment
+that supports neither threads nor <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a> (or where these are too
+expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to maintain an explicit table of
+partially finished requests and to use <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> to decide which
+request to work on next (or whether to handle a new incoming request).  This is
+particularly important for stream services where each client can potentially be
+connected for a long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> for another way to manage this.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="server-objects">
+<h2>Server Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#server-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">BaseServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the superclass of all Server objects in the module.  It defines the
+interface, given below, but does not implement most of the methods, which is
+done in subclasses.  The two parameters are stored in the respective
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_address" title="socketserver.BaseServer.server_address"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_address</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass" title="socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RequestHandlerClass</span></code></a> attributes.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.fileno">
+<code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an integer file descriptor for the socket on which the server is
+listening.  This function is most commonly passed to <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a>, to
+allow monitoring multiple servers in the same process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request">
+<code class="descname">handle_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process a single request.  This function calls the following methods in
+order: <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.get_request" title="socketserver.BaseServer.get_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_request()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.verify_request" title="socketserver.BaseServer.verify_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_request()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.process_request" title="socketserver.BaseServer.process_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_request()</span></code></a>.  If the user-provided
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method of the
+handler class raises an exception, the server’s <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error" title="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_error()</span></code></a> method
+will be called.  If no request is received within <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.timeout" title="socketserver.BaseServer.timeout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code></a>
+seconds, <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout" title="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_timeout()</span></code></a> will be called and <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request" title="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_request()</span></code></a>
+will return.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever">
+<code class="descname">serve_forever</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>poll_interval=0.5</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle requests until an explicit <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown" title="socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a> request.  Poll for
+shutdown every <em>poll_interval</em> seconds.
+Ignores the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.timeout" title="socketserver.BaseServer.timeout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code></a> attribute.  It
+also calls <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions" title="socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">service_actions()</span></code></a>, which may be used by a subclass or mixin
+to provide actions specific to a given service.  For example, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> class uses <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions" title="socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">service_actions()</span></code></a> to clean up zombie
+child processes.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">service_actions</span></code> call to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions">
+<code class="descname">service_actions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is called in the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever" title="socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever()</span></code></a> loop. This method can be
+overridden by subclasses or mixin classes to perform actions specific to
+a given service, such as cleanup actions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown">
+<code class="descname">shutdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tell the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever" title="socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever()</span></code></a> loop to stop and wait until it does.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.server_close">
+<code class="descname">server_close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clean up the server. May be overridden.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.address_family">
+<code class="descname">address_family</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.address_family" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The family of protocols to which the server’s socket belongs.
+Common examples are <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.AF_INET</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_UNIX" title="socket.AF_UNIX"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.AF_UNIX</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass">
+<code class="descname">RequestHandlerClass</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The user-provided request handler class; an instance of this class is created
+for each request.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.server_address">
+<code class="descname">server_address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The address on which the server is listening.  The format of addresses varies
+depending on the protocol family;
+see the documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module
+for details.  For Internet protocols, this is a tuple containing a string giving
+the address, and an integer port number: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('127.0.0.1',</span> <span class="pre">80)</span></code>, for example.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.socket">
+<code class="descname">socket</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The socket object on which the server will listen for incoming requests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The server classes support the following class variables:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.allow_reuse_address">
+<code class="descname">allow_reuse_address</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.allow_reuse_address" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the server will allow the reuse of an address.  This defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, and can be set in subclasses to change the policy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.request_queue_size">
+<code class="descname">request_queue_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.request_queue_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The size of the request queue.  If it takes a long time to process a single
+request, any requests that arrive while the server is busy are placed into a
+queue, up to <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.request_queue_size" title="socketserver.BaseServer.request_queue_size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request_queue_size</span></code></a> requests.  Once the queue is full,
+further requests from clients will get a “Connection denied” error.  The default
+value is usually 5, but this can be overridden by subclasses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.socket_type">
+<code class="descname">socket_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.socket_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of socket used by the server; <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="socket.SOCK_DGRAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_DGRAM</span></code></a> are two common values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.timeout">
+<code class="descname">timeout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.timeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Timeout duration, measured in seconds, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if no timeout is
+desired.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request" title="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_request()</span></code></a> receives no incoming requests within the
+timeout period, the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout" title="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_timeout()</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There are various server methods that can be overridden by subclasses of base
+server classes like <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCPServer</span></code></a>; these methods aren’t useful to external
+users of the server object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.finish_request">
+<code class="descname">finish_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.finish_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Actually processes the request by instantiating <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass" title="socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RequestHandlerClass</span></code></a> and
+calling its <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.get_request">
+<code class="descname">get_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.get_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must accept a request from the socket, and return a 2-tuple containing the <em>new</em>
+socket object to be used to communicate with the client, and the client’s
+address.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error">
+<code class="descname">handle_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is called if the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a>
+method of a <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass" title="socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RequestHandlerClass</span></code></a> instance raises
+an exception.  The default action is to print the traceback to
+standard error and continue handling further requests.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Now only called for exceptions derived from the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>
+class.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout">
+<code class="descname">handle_timeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_timeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is called when the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.timeout" title="socketserver.BaseServer.timeout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code></a> attribute has been set to a
+value other than <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> and the timeout period has passed with no
+requests being received.  The default action for forking servers is
+to collect the status of any child processes that have exited, while
+in threading servers this method does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.process_request">
+<code class="descname">process_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.process_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calls <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.finish_request" title="socketserver.BaseServer.finish_request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finish_request()</span></code></a> to create an instance of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass" title="socketserver.BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RequestHandlerClass</span></code></a>.  If desired, this function can create a new process
+or thread to handle the request; the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a> classes do this.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.server_activate">
+<code class="descname">server_activate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_activate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called by the server’s constructor to activate the server.  The default behavior
+for a TCP server just invokes <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.listen" title="socket.socket.listen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a>
+on the server’s socket.  May be overridden.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.server_bind">
+<code class="descname">server_bind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_bind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called by the server’s constructor to bind the socket to the desired address.
+May be overridden.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseServer.verify_request">
+<code class="descname">verify_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.verify_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must return a Boolean value; if the value is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, the request will
+be processed, and if it’s <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, the request will be denied.  This
+function can be overridden to implement access controls for a server. The
+default implementation always returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol was added.  Exiting the
+context manager is equivalent to calling <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseServer.server_close" title="socketserver.BaseServer.server_close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_close()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="request-handler-objects">
+<h2>Request Handler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#request-handler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">BaseRequestHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the superclass of all request handler objects.  It defines
+the interface, given below.  A concrete request handler subclass must
+define a new <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method, and can override any of
+the other methods.  A new instance of the subclass is created for each
+request.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup">
+<code class="descname">setup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called before the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method to perform any initialization actions
+required.  The default implementation does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle">
+<code class="descname">handle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function must do all the work required to service a request.  The
+default implementation does nothing.  Several instance attributes are
+available to it; the request is available as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.request</span></code>; the client
+address as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.client_address</span></code>; and the server instance as
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.server</span></code>, in case it needs access to per-server information.</p>
+<p>The type of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.request</span></code> is different for datagram or stream
+services.  For stream services, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.request</span></code> is a socket object; for
+datagram services, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.request</span></code> is a pair of string and socket.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.finish">
+<code class="descname">finish</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.finish" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called after the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.handle"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle()</span></code></a> method to perform any clean-up actions
+required.  The default implementation does nothing.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a>
+raises an exception, this function will not be called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="socketserver.StreamRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">StreamRequestHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.StreamRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">socketserver.</code><code class="descname">DatagramRequestHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseRequestHandler</span></code></a> subclasses override the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.setup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.finish" title="socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.finish"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finish()</span></code></a>
+methods, and provide <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.rfile</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.wfile</span></code> attributes.
+The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.rfile</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.wfile</span></code> attributes can be
+read or written, respectively, to get the request data or return data
+to the client.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfile</span></code> attributes of both classes support the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> readable interface, and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramRequestHandler.wfile</span></code> supports the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> writable interface.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRequestHandler.wfile</span></code> also supports the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> writable interface.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="socketserver-tcpserver-example">
+<h3><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.TCPServer</span></code></a> Example<a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver-tcpserver-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This is the server side:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socketserver</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTCPHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BaseRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    The request handler class for our server.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must</span>
+<span class="sd">    override the handle() method to implement communication to the</span>
+<span class="sd">    client.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> wrote:&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client_address</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># just send back the same data, but upper-cased</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9999</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TCPServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">MyTCPHandler</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Activate the server; this will keep running until you</span>
+        <span class="c1"># interrupt the program with Ctrl-C</span>
+        <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An alternative request handler class that makes use of streams (file-like
+objects that simplify communication by providing the standard file interface):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTCPHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StreamRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler;</span>
+        <span class="c1"># we can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> wrote:&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client_address</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back</span>
+        <span class="c1"># to the client</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The difference is that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code> call in the second handler will call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code> multiple times until it encounters a newline character, while the
+single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code> call in the first handler will just return what has been sent
+from the client in one <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendall()</span></code> call.</p>
+<p>This is the client side:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9999</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:])</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Connect to server and send data</span>
+    <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Receive data from the server and shut down</span>
+    <span class="n">received</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Sent:     </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">received</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output of the example should look something like this:</p>
+<p>Server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python TCPServer.py
+<span class="go">127.0.0.1 wrote:</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;hello world with TCP&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">127.0.0.1 wrote:</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;python is nice&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Client:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
+<span class="go">Sent:     hello world with TCP</span>
+<span class="go">Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python TCPClient.py python is nice
+<span class="go">Sent:     python is nice</span>
+<span class="go">Received: PYTHON IS NICE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socketserver-udpserver-example">
+<h3><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.UDPServer" title="socketserver.UDPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.UDPServer</span></code></a> Example<a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver-udpserver-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This is the server side:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socketserver</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyUDPHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BaseRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that</span>
+<span class="sd">    self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since</span>
+<span class="sd">    there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly</span>
+<span class="sd">    when sending data back via sendto().</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">socket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> wrote:&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client_address</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client_address</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9999</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UDPServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">MyUDPHandler</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is the client side:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9999</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:])</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets</span>
+<span class="n">sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_DGRAM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto().</span>
+<span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">received</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Sent:     </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">received</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output of the example should look exactly like for the TCP server example.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asynchronous-mixins">
+<h3>Asynchronous Mixins<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchronous-mixins" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To build asynchronous handlers, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> classes.</p>
+<p>An example for the <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a> class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socketserver</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ThreadedTCPRequestHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BaseRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">cur_thread</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">current_thread</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur_thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ThreadedTCPServer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ThreadingMixIn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socketserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TCPServer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">ip</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Received: </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port</span>
+    <span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+    <span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ThreadedTCPServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PORT</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">ThreadedTCPRequestHandler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">ip</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server_address</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one</span>
+        <span class="c1"># more thread for each request</span>
+        <span class="n">server_thread</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates</span>
+        <span class="n">server_thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">daemon</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="n">server_thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Server loop running in thread:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">server_thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="n">client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello World 1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello World 2&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ip</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello World 3&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shutdown</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output of the example should look something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python ThreadedTCPServer.py
+<span class="go">Server loop running in thread: Thread-1</span>
+<span class="go">Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1</span>
+<span class="go">Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2</span>
+<span class="go">Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> class is used in the same way, except that the server
+will spawn a new process for each request.
+Available only on POSIX platforms that support <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code> — A framework for network servers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#server-creation-notes">Server Creation Notes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#server-objects">Server Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#request-handler-objects">Request Handler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver-tcpserver-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.TCPServer</span></code> Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver-udpserver-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.UDPServer</span></code> Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-mixins">Asynchronous Mixins</a></li>
+</ul>
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code> — HTTP servers</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/spwd.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/spwd.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/spwd.html
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>spwd — The shadow password database &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-spwd">
+<span id="spwd-the-shadow-password-database"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-spwd" title="spwd: The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code></a> — The shadow password database<a class="headerlink" href="#module-spwd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to the Unix shadow password database. It is
+available on various Unix versions.</p>
+<p>You must have enough privileges to access the shadow password database (this
+usually means you have to be root).</p>
+<p>Shadow password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
+attributes correspond to the members of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code> structure (Attribute field
+below, see <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;shadow.h&gt;</span></code>):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+<col style="width: 60%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_namp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Login name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_pwdp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Encrypted password</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_lstchg</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Date of last change</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_min</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Minimal number of days between
+changes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_max</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Maximum number of days between
+changes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>5</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_warn</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number of days before password
+expires to warn user about it</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>6</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_inact</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number of days after password
+expires until account is
+disabled</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>7</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_expire</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number of days since 1970-01-01
+when account expires</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sp_flag</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Reserved</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The sp_namp and sp_pwdp items are strings, all others are integers.
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.</p>
+<p>The following functions are defined:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="spwd.getspnam">
+<code class="descclassname">spwd.</code><code class="descname">getspnam</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#spwd.getspnam" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the shadow password database entry for the given user name.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the user
+doesn’t have privileges.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="spwd.getspall">
+<code class="descclassname">spwd.</code><code class="descname">getspall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#spwd.getspall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all available shadow password database entries, in arbitrary
+order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="grp.html#module-grp" title="grp: The group database (getgrnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>An interface to the group database, similar to this.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="pwd.html#module-pwd" title="pwd: The password database (getpwnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>An interface to the normal password database, similar to this.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pwd.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code> — The password database</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="grp.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code> — The group database</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/spwd.rst"
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,1729 @@
+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-sqlite3">
+<span id="sqlite3-db-api-2-0-interface-for-sqlite-databases"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases<a class="headerlink" href="#module-sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/sqlite3/">Lib/sqlite3/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database that
+doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the database
+using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language. Some applications can use
+SQLite for internal data storage.  It’s also possible to prototype an
+application using SQLite and then port the code to a larger database such as
+PostgreSQL or Oracle.</p>
+<p>The sqlite3 module was written by Gerhard Häring.  It provides a SQL interface
+compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0249"><strong>PEP 249</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>To use the module, you must first create a <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> object that
+represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.db</span></code> file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.db&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also supply the special name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:memory:</span></code> to create a database in RAM.</p>
+<p>Once you have a <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a>, you can create a <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a>  object
+and call its <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.execute" title="sqlite3.Cursor.execute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code></a> method to perform SQL commands:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create table</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;CREATE TABLE stocks</span>
+<span class="s1">             (date text, trans text, symbol text, qty real, price real)&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Insert a row of data</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;INSERT INTO stocks VALUES (&#39;2006-01-05&#39;,&#39;BUY&#39;,&#39;RHAT&#39;,100,35.14)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Save (commit) the changes</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># We can also close the connection if we are done with it.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Just be sure any changes have been committed or they will be lost.</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The data you’ve saved is persistent and is available in subsequent sessions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.db&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python variables.  You
+shouldn’t assemble your query using Python’s string operations because doing so
+is insecure; it makes your program vulnerable to an SQL injection attack
+(see <a class="reference external" href="https://xkcd.com/327/">https://xkcd.com/327/</a> for humorous example of what can go wrong).</p>
+<p>Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  Put <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> as a placeholder
+wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple of values as the
+second argument to the cursor’s <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.execute" title="sqlite3.Cursor.execute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code></a> method.  (Other database
+modules may use a different placeholder, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:1</span></code>.) For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Never do this -- insecure!</span>
+<span class="n">symbol</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;RHAT&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = &#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&#39;&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">symbol</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Do this instead</span>
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;RHAT&#39;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol=?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Larger example that inserts many records at a time</span>
+<span class="n">purchases</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2006-03-28&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BUY&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;IBM&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">45.00</span><span class="p">),</span>
+             <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2006-04-05&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BUY&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;MSFT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">72.00</span><span class="p">),</span>
+             <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2006-04-06&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;SELL&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;IBM&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">53.00</span><span class="p">),</span>
+            <span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executemany</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;INSERT INTO stocks VALUES (?,?,?,?,?)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">purchases</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either treat the
+cursor as an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>, call the cursor’s <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchone" title="sqlite3.Cursor.fetchone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fetchone()</span></code></a> method to
+retrieve a single matching row, or call <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchall" title="sqlite3.Cursor.fetchall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fetchall()</span></code></a> to get a list of the
+matching rows.</p>
+<p>This example uses the iterator form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SELECT * FROM stocks ORDER BY price&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="go">        print(row)</span>
+
+<span class="go">(&#39;2006-01-05&#39;, &#39;BUY&#39;, &#39;RHAT&#39;, 100, 35.14)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;2006-03-28&#39;, &#39;BUY&#39;, &#39;IBM&#39;, 1000, 45.0)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;2006-04-06&#39;, &#39;SELL&#39;, &#39;IBM&#39;, 500, 53.0)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;2006-04-05&#39;, &#39;BUY&#39;, &#39;MSFT&#39;, 1000, 72.0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite">https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite</a></dt><dd><p>The pysqlite web page – sqlite3 is developed externally under the name
+“pysqlite”.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.sqlite.org">https://www.sqlite.org</a></dt><dd><p>The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
+available data types for the supported SQL dialect.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3schools.com/sql/">https://www.w3schools.com/sql/</a></dt><dd><p>Tutorial, reference and examples for learning SQL syntax.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0249"><strong>PEP 249</strong></a> - Database API Specification 2.0</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-functions-and-constants">
+<span id="sqlite3-module-contents"></span><h2>Module functions and constants<a class="headerlink" href="#module-functions-and-constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sqlite3.version">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version number of this module, as a string. This is not the version of
+the SQLite library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sqlite3.version_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">version_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.version_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version number of this module, as a tuple of integers. This is not the
+version of the SQLite library.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sqlite3.sqlite_version">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">sqlite_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.sqlite_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version number of the run-time SQLite library, as a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sqlite3.sqlite_version_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">sqlite_version_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.sqlite_version_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version number of the run-time SQLite library, as a tuple of integers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">PARSE_DECLTYPES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This constant is meant to be used with the <em>detect_types</em> parameter of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.connect" title="sqlite3.connect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>Setting it makes the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module parse the declared type for each
+column it returns.  It will parse out the first word of the declared type,
+i. e.  for “integer primary key”, it will parse out “integer”, or for
+“number(10)” it will parse out “number”. Then for that column, it will look
+into the converters dictionary and use the converter function registered for
+that type there.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">PARSE_COLNAMES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This constant is meant to be used with the <em>detect_types</em> parameter of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.connect" title="sqlite3.connect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>Setting this makes the SQLite interface parse the column name for each column it
+returns.  It will look for a string formed [mytype] in there, and then decide
+that ‘mytype’ is the type of the column. It will try to find an entry of
+‘mytype’ in the converters dictionary and then use the converter function found
+there to return the value. The column name found in <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.description" title="sqlite3.Cursor.description"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor.description</span></code></a>
+is only the first word of the column name, i.  e. if you use something like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'as</span> <span class="pre">&quot;x</span> <span class="pre">[datetime]&quot;'</span></code> in your SQL, then we will parse out everything until the
+first blank for the column name: the column name would simply be “x”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sqlite3.connect">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">connect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>database</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em>, <em>detect_types</em>, <em>isolation_level</em>, <em>check_same_thread</em>, <em>factory</em>, <em>cached_statements</em>, <em>uri</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.connect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Opens a connection to the SQLite database file <em>database</em>. By default returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> object, unless a custom <em>factory</em> is given.</p>
+<p><em>database</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> giving the pathname (absolute or
+relative to the current  working directory) of the database file to be opened.
+You can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span></code> to open a database connection to a database that
+resides in RAM instead of on disk.</p>
+<p>When a database is accessed by multiple connections, and one of the processes
+modifies the database, the SQLite database is locked until that transaction is
+committed. The <em>timeout</em> parameter specifies how long the connection should wait
+for the lock to go away until raising an exception. The default for the timeout
+parameter is 5.0 (five seconds).</p>
+<p>For the <em>isolation_level</em> parameter, please see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level" title="sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isolation_level</span></code></a> property of <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<p>SQLite natively supports only the types TEXT, INTEGER, REAL, BLOB and NULL. If
+you want to use other types you must add support for them yourself. The
+<em>detect_types</em> parameter and the using custom <strong>converters</strong> registered with the
+module-level <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.register_converter" title="sqlite3.register_converter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_converter()</span></code></a> function allow you to easily do that.</p>
+<p><em>detect_types</em> defaults to 0 (i. e. off, no type detection), you can set it to
+any combination of <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES" title="sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PARSE_DECLTYPES</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES" title="sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PARSE_COLNAMES</span></code></a> to turn
+type detection on.</p>
+<p>By default, <em>check_same_thread</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> and only the creating thread may
+use the connection. If set <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, the returned connection may be shared
+across multiple threads. When using multiple threads with the same connection
+writing operations should be serialized by the user to avoid data corruption.</p>
+<p>By default, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module uses its <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> class for the
+connect call.  You can, however, subclass the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> class and make
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.connect" title="sqlite3.connect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> use your class instead by providing your class for the <em>factory</em>
+parameter.</p>
+<p>Consult the section <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3-types"><span class="std std-ref">SQLite and Python types</span></a> of this manual for details.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module internally uses a statement cache to avoid SQL parsing
+overhead. If you want to explicitly set the number of statements that are cached
+for the connection, you can set the <em>cached_statements</em> parameter. The currently
+implemented default is to cache 100 statements.</p>
+<p>If <em>uri</em> is true, <em>database</em> is interpreted as a URI. This allows you
+to specify options. For example, to open a database in read-only mode
+you can use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">db</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;file:path/to/database?mode=ro&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">uri</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>More information about this feature, including a list of recognized options, can
+be found in the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html">SQLite URI documentation</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the <em>uri</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>database</em> can now also be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>, not only a string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sqlite3.register_converter">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">register_converter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typename</em>, <em>callable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.register_converter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers a callable to convert a bytestring from the database into a custom
+Python type. The callable will be invoked for all database values that are of
+the type <em>typename</em>. Confer the parameter <em>detect_types</em> of the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.connect" title="sqlite3.connect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a>
+function for how the type detection works. Note that <em>typename</em> and the name of
+the type in your query are matched in case-insensitive manner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sqlite3.register_adapter">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">register_adapter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>callable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.register_adapter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers a callable to convert the custom Python type <em>type</em> into one of
+SQLite’s supported types. The callable <em>callable</em> accepts as single parameter
+the Python value, and must return a value of the following types: int,
+float, str or bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sqlite3.complete_statement">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">complete_statement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.complete_statement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the string <em>sql</em> contains one or more complete SQL
+statements terminated by semicolons. It does not verify that the SQL is
+syntactically correct, only that there are no unclosed string literals and the
+statement is terminated by a semicolon.</p>
+<p>This can be used to build a shell for SQLite, as in the following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># A minimal SQLite shell for experiments</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isolation_level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Enter your SQL commands to execute in sqlite3.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Enter a blank line to exit.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">complete_statement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">buffer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">buffer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lstrip</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;SELECT&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchall</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Error</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;An error occurred:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+        <span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks">
+<code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">enable_callback_tracebacks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>flag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>By default you will not get any tracebacks in user-defined functions,
+aggregates, converters, authorizer callbacks etc. If you want to debug them,
+you can call this function with <em>flag</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>. Afterwards, you will
+get tracebacks from callbacks on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>. Use <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> to
+disable the feature again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="connection-objects">
+<span id="sqlite3-connection-objects"></span><h2>Connection Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#connection-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">Connection</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A SQLite database connection has the following attributes and methods:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level">
+<code class="descname">isolation_level</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get or set the current default isolation level. <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> for autocommit mode or
+one of “DEFERRED”, “IMMEDIATE” or “EXCLUSIVE”. See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3-controlling-transactions"><span class="std std-ref">Controlling Transactions</span></a> for a more detailed explanation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.in_transaction">
+<code class="descname">in_transaction</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.in_transaction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted changes),
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.  Read-only attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.cursor">
+<code class="descname">cursor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>factory=Cursor</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.cursor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The cursor method accepts a single optional parameter <em>factory</em>. If
+supplied, this must be a callable returning an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a>
+or its subclasses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.commit">
+<code class="descname">commit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.commit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method commits the current transaction. If you don’t call this method,
+anything you did since the last call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commit()</span></code> is not visible from
+other database connections. If you wonder why you don’t see the data you’ve
+written to the database, please check you didn’t forget to call this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.rollback">
+<code class="descname">rollback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.rollback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method rolls back any changes to the database since the last call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.commit" title="sqlite3.Connection.commit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This closes the database connection. Note that this does not automatically
+call <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.commit" title="sqlite3.Connection.commit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commit()</span></code></a>. If you just close your database connection without
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.commit" title="sqlite3.Connection.commit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commit()</span></code></a> first, your changes will be lost!</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.execute">
+<code class="descname">execute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>parameters</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.execute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a nonstandard shortcut that creates a cursor object by calling
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.cursor" title="sqlite3.Connection.cursor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cursor()</span></code></a> method, calls the cursor’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.execute" title="sqlite3.Cursor.execute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code></a> method with the <em>parameters</em> given, and returns
+the cursor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.executemany">
+<code class="descname">executemany</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>parameters</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.executemany" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a nonstandard shortcut that creates a cursor object by
+calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.cursor" title="sqlite3.Connection.cursor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cursor()</span></code></a> method, calls the cursor’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.executemany" title="sqlite3.Cursor.executemany"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executemany()</span></code></a> method with the <em>parameters</em> given, and
+returns the cursor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.executescript">
+<code class="descname">executescript</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql_script</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.executescript" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a nonstandard shortcut that creates a cursor object by
+calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.cursor" title="sqlite3.Connection.cursor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cursor()</span></code></a> method, calls the cursor’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.executescript" title="sqlite3.Cursor.executescript"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executescript()</span></code></a> method with the given <em>sql_script</em>, and
+returns the cursor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.create_function">
+<code class="descname">create_function</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>num_params</em>, <em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.create_function" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a user-defined function that you can later use from within SQL
+statements under the function name <em>name</em>. <em>num_params</em> is the number of
+parameters the function accepts (if <em>num_params</em> is -1, the function may
+take any number of arguments), and <em>func</em> is a Python callable that is
+called as the SQL function.</p>
+<p>The function can return any of the types supported by SQLite: bytes, str, int,
+float and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">md5sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">md5</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexdigest</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;md5&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">md5sum</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select md5(?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate">
+<code class="descname">create_aggregate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>num_params</em>, <em>aggregate_class</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a user-defined aggregate function.</p>
+<p>The aggregate class must implement a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code> method, which accepts the number
+of parameters <em>num_params</em> (if <em>num_params</em> is -1, the function may take
+any number of arguments), and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize</span></code> method which will return the
+final result of the aggregate.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize</span></code> method can return any of the types supported by SQLite:
+bytes, str, int, float and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MySum</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">step</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_aggregate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;mysum&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MySum</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table test(i)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into test(i) values (1)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into test(i) values (2)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select mysum(i) from test&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.create_collation">
+<code class="descname">create_collation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>callable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.create_collation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a collation with the specified <em>name</em> and <em>callable</em>. The callable will
+be passed two string arguments. It should return -1 if the first is ordered
+lower than the second, 0 if they are ordered equal and 1 if the first is ordered
+higher than the second.  Note that this controls sorting (ORDER BY in SQL) so
+your comparisons don’t affect other SQL operations.</p>
+<p>Note that the callable will get its parameters as Python bytestrings, which will
+normally be encoded in UTF-8.</p>
+<p>The following example shows a custom collation that sorts “the wrong way”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">collate_reverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">string1</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">string1</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_collation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;reverse&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">collate_reverse</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table test(x)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executemany</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into test(x) values (?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">,),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;b&quot;</span><span class="p">,)])</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select x from test order by x collate reverse&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To remove a collation, call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_collation</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as callable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_collation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;reverse&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.interrupt">
+<code class="descname">interrupt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.interrupt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>You can call this method from a different thread to abort any queries that might
+be executing on the connection. The query will then abort and the caller will
+get an exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer">
+<code class="descname">set_authorizer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>authorizer_callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This routine registers a callback. The callback is invoked for each attempt to
+access a column of a table in the database. The callback should return
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SQLITE_OK</span></code> if access is allowed, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SQLITE_DENY</span></code> if the entire SQL
+statement should be aborted with an error and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SQLITE_IGNORE</span></code> if the
+column should be treated as a NULL value. These constants are available in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of operation is to be
+authorized. The second and third argument will be arguments or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>
+depending on the first argument. The 4th argument is the name of the database
+(“main”, “temp”, etc.) if applicable. The 5th argument is the name of the
+inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access attempt or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if this access attempt is directly from input SQL code.</p>
+<p>Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible values for the first
+argument and the meaning of the second and third argument depending on the first
+one. All necessary constants are available in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler">
+<code class="descname">set_progress_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handler</em>, <em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This routine registers a callback. The callback is invoked for every <em>n</em>
+instructions of the SQLite virtual machine. This is useful if you want to
+get called from SQLite during long-running operations, for example to update
+a GUI.</p>
+<p>If you want to clear any previously installed progress handler, call the
+method with <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> for <em>handler</em>.</p>
+<p>Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will terminate the
+currently executing query and cause it to raise an <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.OperationalError" title="sqlite3.OperationalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OperationalError</span></code></a>
+exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback">
+<code class="descname">set_trace_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>trace_callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers <em>trace_callback</em> to be called for each SQL statement that is
+actually executed by the SQLite backend.</p>
+<p>The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as string) that
+is being executed. The return value of the callback is ignored. Note that
+the backend does not only run statements passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.execute" title="sqlite3.Cursor.execute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor.execute()</span></code></a>
+methods.  Other sources include the transaction management of the Python
+module and the execution of triggers defined in the current database.</p>
+<p>Passing <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> as <em>trace_callback</em> will disable the trace callback.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension">
+<code class="descname">enable_load_extension</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>enabled</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This routine allows/disallows the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions
+from shared libraries.  SQLite extensions can define new functions,
+aggregates or whole new virtual table implementations.  One well-known
+extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.</p>
+<p>Loadable extensions are disabled by default. See <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#f1" id="id1">1</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># enable extension loading</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enable_load_extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Load the fulltext search extension</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select load_extension(&#39;./fts3.so&#39;)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># alternatively you can load the extension using an API call:</span>
+<span class="c1"># con.load_extension(&quot;./fts3.so&quot;)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># disable extension loading again</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enable_load_extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># example from SQLite wiki</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create virtual table recipe using fts3(name, ingredients)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executescript</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">    insert into recipe (name, ingredients) values (&#39;broccoli stew&#39;, &#39;broccoli peppers cheese tomatoes&#39;);</span>
+<span class="s2">    insert into recipe (name, ingredients) values (&#39;pumpkin stew&#39;, &#39;pumpkin onions garlic celery&#39;);</span>
+<span class="s2">    insert into recipe (name, ingredients) values (&#39;broccoli pie&#39;, &#39;broccoli cheese onions flour&#39;);</span>
+<span class="s2">    insert into recipe (name, ingredients) values (&#39;pumpkin pie&#39;, &#39;pumpkin sugar flour butter&#39;);</span>
+<span class="s2">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select rowid, name, ingredients from recipe where name match &#39;pie&#39;&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.load_extension">
+<code class="descname">load_extension</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.load_extension" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This routine loads a SQLite extension from a shared library.  You have to
+enable extension loading with <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension" title="sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable_load_extension()</span></code></a> before you can
+use this routine.</p>
+<p>Loadable extensions are disabled by default. See <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#f1" id="id2">1</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.row_factory">
+<code class="descname">row_factory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.row_factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>You can change this attribute to a callable that accepts the cursor and the
+original row as a tuple and will return the real result row.  This way, you can
+implement more advanced ways of returning results, such  as returning an object
+that can also access columns by name.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">dict_factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">idx</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">col</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">col</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">idx</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">d</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">row_factory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dict_factory</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select 1 as a&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If returning a tuple doesn’t suffice and you want name-based access to
+columns, you should consider setting <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.row_factory" title="sqlite3.Connection.row_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">row_factory</span></code></a> to the
+highly-optimized <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Row" title="sqlite3.Row"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Row</span></code></a> type. <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Row" title="sqlite3.Row"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Row</span></code></a> provides both
+index-based and case-insensitive name-based access to columns with almost no
+memory overhead. It will probably be better than your own custom
+dictionary-based approach or even a db_row based solution.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.text_factory">
+<code class="descname">text_factory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.text_factory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Using this attribute you can control what objects are returned for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEXT</span></code>
+data type. By default, this attribute is set to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module will return Unicode objects for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEXT</span></code>. If you want to
+return bytestrings instead, you can set it to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>You can also set it to any other callable that accepts a single bytestring
+parameter and returns the resulting object.</p>
+<p>See the following example code for illustration:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">AUSTRIA</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\xd6</span><span class="s2">sterreich&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># by default, rows are returned as Unicode</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select ?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">AUSTRIA</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="n">row</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">AUSTRIA</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># but we can make sqlite3 always return bytestrings ...</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text_factory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select ?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">AUSTRIA</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="n">row</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span>
+<span class="c1"># the bytestrings will be encoded in UTF-8, unless you stored garbage in the</span>
+<span class="c1"># database ...</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">AUSTRIA</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># we can also implement a custom text_factory ...</span>
+<span class="c1"># here we implement one that appends &quot;foo&quot; to all strings</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text_factory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select ?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="n">row</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;barfoo&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.total_changes">
+<code class="descname">total_changes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.total_changes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the total number of database rows that have been modified, inserted, or
+deleted since the database connection was opened.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.iterdump">
+<code class="descname">iterdump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.iterdump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an iterator to dump the database in an SQL text format.  Useful when
+saving an in-memory database for later restoration.  This function provides
+the same capabilities as the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">.dump</kbd> command in the <strong class="program">sqlite3</strong>
+shell.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Convert file existing_db.db to SQL dump file dump.sql</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;existing_db.db&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;dump.sql&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iterdump</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Connection.backup">
+<code class="descname">backup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>pages=0</em>, <em>progress=None</em>, <em>name=&quot;main&quot;</em>, <em>sleep=0.250</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Connection.backup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method makes a backup of a SQLite database even while it’s being accessed
+by other clients, or concurrently by the same connection.  The copy will be
+written into the mandatory argument <em>target</em>, that must be another
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>By default, or when <em>pages</em> is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or a negative integer, the entire
+database is copied in a single step; otherwise the method performs a loop
+copying up to <em>pages</em> pages at a time.</p>
+<p>If <em>progress</em> is specified, it must either be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a callable object that
+will be executed at each iteration with three integer arguments, respectively
+the <em>status</em> of the last iteration, the <em>remaining</em> number of pages still to be
+copied and the <em>total</em> number of pages.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> argument specifies the database name that will be copied: it must be
+a string containing either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;main&quot;</span></code>, the default, to indicate the main
+database, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;temp&quot;</span></code> to indicate the temporary database or the name specified
+after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AS</span></code> keyword in an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ATTACH</span> <span class="pre">DATABASE</span></code> statement for an attached
+database.</p>
+<p>The <em>sleep</em> argument specifies the number of seconds to sleep by between
+successive attempts to backup remaining pages, can be specified either as an
+integer or a floating point value.</p>
+<p>Example 1, copy an existing database into another:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">progress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">remaining</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">total</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Copied {total-remaining} of </span><span class="si">{total}</span><span class="s1"> pages...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;existing_db.db&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">bck</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;backup.db&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">bck</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">backup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bck</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">progress</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">progress</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">bck</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">source</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;existing_db.db&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">dest</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;:memory:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">source</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">backup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Availability: SQLite 3.6.11 or higher</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cursor-objects">
+<span id="sqlite3-cursor-objects"></span><h2>Cursor Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cursor-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">Cursor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a> instance has the following attributes and methods.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.execute">
+<code class="descname">execute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>parameters</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.execute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Executes an SQL statement. The SQL statement may be parameterized (i. e.
+placeholders instead of SQL literals). The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module supports two
+kinds of placeholders: question marks (qmark style) and named placeholders
+(named style).</p>
+<p>Here’s an example of both styles:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table people (name_last, age)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">who</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Yeltsin&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">age</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">72</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This is the qmark style:</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into people values (?, ?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">who</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">age</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># And this is the named style:</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select * from people where name_last=:who and age=:age&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;who&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">who</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;age&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">age</span><span class="p">})</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.execute" title="sqlite3.Cursor.execute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code></a> will only execute a single SQL statement. If you try to execute
+more than one statement with it, it will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Warning" title="sqlite3.Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a>. Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.executescript" title="sqlite3.Cursor.executescript"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executescript()</span></code></a> if you want to execute multiple SQL statements with one
+call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.executemany">
+<code class="descname">executemany</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql</em>, <em>seq_of_parameters</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.executemany" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Executes an SQL command against all parameter sequences or mappings found in
+the sequence <em>seq_of_parameters</em>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module also allows
+using an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> yielding parameters instead of a sequence.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">IterChars</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__next__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),)</span> <span class="c1"># this is a 1-tuple</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table characters(c)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">theIter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IterChars</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executemany</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into characters(c) values (?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">theIter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select c from characters&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchall</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here’s a shorter example using a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">string</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">char_generator</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ascii_lowercase</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table characters(c)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executemany</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into characters(c) values (?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">char_generator</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select c from characters&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchall</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.executescript">
+<code class="descname">executescript</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sql_script</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.executescript" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a nonstandard convenience method for executing multiple SQL statements
+at once. It issues a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMMIT</span></code> statement first, then executes the SQL script it
+gets as a parameter.</p>
+<p><em>sql_script</em> can be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executescript</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">    create table person(</span>
+<span class="s2">        firstname,</span>
+<span class="s2">        lastname,</span>
+<span class="s2">        age</span>
+<span class="s2">    );</span>
+
+<span class="s2">    create table book(</span>
+<span class="s2">        title,</span>
+<span class="s2">        author,</span>
+<span class="s2">        published</span>
+<span class="s2">    );</span>
+
+<span class="s2">    insert into book(title, author, published)</span>
+<span class="s2">    values (</span>
+<span class="s2">        &#39;Dirk Gently&#39;&#39;s Holistic Detective Agency&#39;,</span>
+<span class="s2">        &#39;Douglas Adams&#39;,</span>
+<span class="s2">        1987</span>
+<span class="s2">    );</span>
+<span class="s2">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.fetchone">
+<code class="descname">fetchone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fetches the next row of a query result set, returning a single sequence,
+or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> when no more data is available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany">
+<code class="descname">fetchmany</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=cursor.arraysize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fetches the next set of rows of a query result, returning a list.  An empty
+list is returned when no more rows are available.</p>
+<p>The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the <em>size</em> parameter.
+If it is not given, the cursor’s arraysize determines the number of rows
+to be fetched. The method should try to fetch as many rows as indicated by
+the size parameter. If this is not possible due to the specified number of
+rows not being available, fewer rows may be returned.</p>
+<p>Note there are performance considerations involved with the <em>size</em> parameter.
+For optimal performance, it is usually best to use the arraysize attribute.
+If the <em>size</em> parameter is used, then it is best for it to retain the same
+value from one <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany" title="sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fetchmany()</span></code></a> call to the next.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.fetchall">
+<code class="descname">fetchall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fetches all (remaining) rows of a query result, returning a list.  Note that
+the cursor’s arraysize attribute can affect the performance of this operation.
+An empty list is returned when no rows are available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the cursor now (rather than whenever <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__</span></code> is called).</p>
+<p>The cursor will be unusable from this point forward; a <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.ProgrammingError" title="sqlite3.ProgrammingError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProgrammingError</span></code></a>
+exception will be raised if any operation is attempted with the cursor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount">
+<code class="descname">rowcount</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Although the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a> class of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module implements this
+attribute, the database engine’s own support for the determination of “rows
+affected”/”rows selected” is quirky.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.executemany" title="sqlite3.Cursor.executemany"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executemany()</span></code></a> statements, the number of modifications are summed up
+into <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount" title="sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rowcount</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>As required by the Python DB API Spec, the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount" title="sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rowcount</span></code></a> attribute “is -1 in
+case no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executeXX()</span></code> has been performed on the cursor or the rowcount of the
+last operation is not determinable by the interface”. This includes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SELECT</span></code>
+statements because we cannot determine the number of rows a query produced
+until all rows were fetched.</p>
+<p>With SQLite versions before 3.6.5, <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount" title="sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rowcount</span></code></a> is set to 0 if
+you make a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DELETE</span> <span class="pre">FROM</span> <span class="pre">table</span></code> without any condition.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid">
+<code class="descname">lastrowid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This read-only attribute provides the rowid of the last modified row. It is
+only set if you issued an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INSERT</span></code> or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPLACE</span></code> statement using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.execute" title="sqlite3.Cursor.execute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code></a> method.  For operations other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INSERT</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPLACE</span></code> or when <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.executemany" title="sqlite3.Cursor.executemany"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executemany()</span></code></a> is called, <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid" title="sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lastrowid</span></code></a> is
+set to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INSERT</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPLACE</span></code> statement failed to insert the previous
+successful rowid is returned.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPLACE</span></code> statement.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.arraysize">
+<code class="descname">arraysize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.arraysize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany" title="sqlite3.Cursor.fetchmany"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fetchmany()</span></code></a>.
+The default value is 1 which means a single row would be fetched per call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.description">
+<code class="descname">description</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.description" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This read-only attribute provides the column names of the last query. To
+remain compatible with the Python DB API, it returns a 7-tuple for each
+column where the last six items of each tuple are <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>It is set for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SELECT</span></code> statements without any matching rows as well.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Cursor.connection">
+<code class="descname">connection</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.connection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This read-only attribute provides the SQLite database <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a>
+used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a> object.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a> object created by
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.cursor" title="sqlite3.Connection.cursor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">con.cursor()</span></code></a> will have a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.connection" title="sqlite3.Cursor.connection"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connection</span></code></a> attribute that refers to <em>con</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">con</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="row-objects">
+<span id="sqlite3-row-objects"></span><h2>Row Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#row-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Row">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">Row</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Row" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Row" title="sqlite3.Row"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Row</span></code></a> instance serves as a highly optimized
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.row_factory" title="sqlite3.Connection.row_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">row_factory</span></code></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> objects.
+It tries to mimic a tuple in most of its features.</p>
+<p>It supports mapping access by column name and index, iteration,
+representation, equality testing and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If two <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Row" title="sqlite3.Row"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Row</span></code></a> objects have exactly the same columns and their
+members are equal, they compare equal.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Row.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Row.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a list of column names. Immediately after a query,
+it is the first member of each tuple in <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor.description" title="sqlite3.Cursor.description"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor.description</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support of slicing.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Let’s assume we initialize a table as in the example given above:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;create table stocks</span>
+<span class="s1">(date text, trans text, symbol text,</span>
+<span class="s1"> qty real, price real)&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;insert into stocks</span>
+<span class="s2">          values (&#39;2006-01-05&#39;,&#39;BUY&#39;,&#39;RHAT&#39;,100,35.14)&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now we plug <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Row" title="sqlite3.Row"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Row</span></code></a> in:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">row_factory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Row</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;select * from stocks&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;sqlite3.Cursor object at 0x7f4e7dd8fa80&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;class &#39;sqlite3.Row&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;2006-01-05&#39;, &#39;BUY&#39;, &#39;RHAT&#39;, 100.0, 35.14)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;RHAT&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;date&#39;, &#39;trans&#39;, &#39;symbol&#39;, &#39;qty&#39;, &#39;price&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;qty&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">100.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">member</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">member</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">2006-01-05</span>
+<span class="go">BUY</span>
+<span class="go">RHAT</span>
+<span class="go">100.0</span>
+<span class="go">35.14</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<span id="sqlite3-exceptions"></span><h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Warning">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">Warning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Warning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sqlite3.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  It is a subclass
+of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sqlite3.DatabaseError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">DatabaseError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.DatabaseError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised for errors that are related to the database.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sqlite3.IntegrityError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">IntegrityError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.IntegrityError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when the relational integrity of the database is affected,
+e.g. a foreign key check fails.  It is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.DatabaseError" title="sqlite3.DatabaseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatabaseError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sqlite3.ProgrammingError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">ProgrammingError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.ProgrammingError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised for programming errors, e.g. table not found or already
+exists, syntax error in the SQL statement, wrong number of parameters
+specified, etc.  It is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.DatabaseError" title="sqlite3.DatabaseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatabaseError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sqlite3.OperationalError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">OperationalError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.OperationalError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised for errors that are related to the database’s operation
+and not necessarily under the control of the programmer, e.g. an unexpected
+disconnect occurs, the data source name is not found, a transaction could
+not be processed, etc.  It is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.DatabaseError" title="sqlite3.DatabaseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatabaseError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sqlite3.NotSupportedError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sqlite3.</code><code class="descname">NotSupportedError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3.NotSupportedError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised in case a method or database API was used which is not
+supported by the database, e.g. calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.rollback" title="sqlite3.Connection.rollback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rollback()</span></code></a>
+method on a connection that does not support transaction or has
+transactions turned off.  It is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.DatabaseError" title="sqlite3.DatabaseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatabaseError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sqlite-and-python-types">
+<span id="sqlite3-types"></span><h2>SQLite and Python types<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite-and-python-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h3>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>SQLite natively supports the following types: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INTEGER</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REAL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEXT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BLOB</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The following Python types can thus be sent to SQLite without any problem:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Python type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>SQLite type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INTEGER</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REAL</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEXT</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BLOB</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>This is how SQLite types are converted to Python types by default:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 78%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>SQLite type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INTEGER</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REAL</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEXT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>depends on <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.text_factory" title="sqlite3.Connection.text_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text_factory</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> by default</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BLOB</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The type system of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module is extensible in two ways: you can
+store additional Python types in a SQLite database via object adaptation, and
+you can let the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module convert SQLite types to different Python
+types via converters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-adapters-to-store-additional-python-types-in-sqlite-databases">
+<h3>Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases<a class="headerlink" href="#using-adapters-to-store-additional-python-types-in-sqlite-databases" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As described before, SQLite supports only a limited set of types natively. To
+use other Python types with SQLite, you must <strong>adapt</strong> them to one of the
+sqlite3 module’s supported types for SQLite: one of NoneType, int, float,
+str, bytes.</p>
+<p>There are two ways to enable the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module to adapt a custom Python
+type to one of the supported ones.</p>
+<div class="section" id="letting-your-object-adapt-itself">
+<h4>Letting your object adapt itself<a class="headerlink" href="#letting-your-object-adapt-itself" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>This is a good approach if you write the class yourself. Let’s suppose you have
+a class like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now you want to store the point in a single SQLite column.  First you’ll have to
+choose one of the supported types first to be used for representing the point.
+Let’s just use str and separate the coordinates using a semicolon. Then you need
+to give your class a method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__conform__(self,</span> <span class="pre">protocol)</span></code> which must return
+the converted value. The parameter <em>protocol</em> will be <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrepareProtocol</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__conform__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">protocol</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PrepareProtocol</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">4.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select ?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="registering-an-adapter-callable">
+<h4>Registering an adapter callable<a class="headerlink" href="#registering-an-adapter-callable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The other possibility is to create a function that converts the type to the
+string representation and register the function with <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.register_adapter" title="sqlite3.register_adapter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_adapter()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">adapt_point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_adapter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">adapt_point</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">4.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select ?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module has two default adapters for Python’s built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> types.  Now let’s suppose
+we want to store <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> objects not in ISO representation,
+but as a Unix timestamp.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">adapt_datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ts</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mktime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ts</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timetuple</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_adapter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">adapt_datetime</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">now</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select ?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="converting-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types">
+<h3>Converting SQLite values to custom Python types<a class="headerlink" href="#converting-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Writing an adapter lets you send custom Python types to SQLite. But to make it
+really useful we need to make the Python to SQLite to Python roundtrip work.</p>
+<p>Enter converters.</p>
+<p>Let’s go back to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Point</span></code> class. We stored the x and y coordinates
+separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.</p>
+<p>First, we’ll define a converter function that accepts the string as a parameter
+and constructs a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Point</span></code> object from it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Converter functions <strong>always</strong> get called with a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object, no
+matter under which data type you sent the value to SQLite.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">convert_point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;;&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now you need to make the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module know that what you select from
+the database is actually a point. There are two ways of doing this:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Implicitly via the declared type</p></li>
+<li><p>Explicitly via the column name</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Both ways are described in section <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3-module-contents"><span class="std std-ref">Module functions and constants</span></a>, in the entries
+for the constants <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES" title="sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PARSE_DECLTYPES</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES" title="sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PARSE_COLNAMES</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The following example illustrates both approaches.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;(</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">)&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">adapt_point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">;</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">convert_point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;;&quot;</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Register the adapter</span>
+<span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_adapter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">adapt_point</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Register the converter</span>
+<span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_converter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;point&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">convert_point</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">4.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#########################</span>
+<span class="c1"># 1) Using declared types</span>
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">detect_types</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PARSE_DECLTYPES</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table test(p point)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into test(p) values (?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select p from test&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;with declared types:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#######################</span>
+<span class="c1"># 1) Using column names</span>
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">detect_types</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PARSE_COLNAMES</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table test(p)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into test(p) values (?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;select p as &quot;p [point]&quot; from test&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;with column names:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="default-adapters-and-converters">
+<h3>Default adapters and converters<a class="headerlink" href="#default-adapters-and-converters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are default adapters for the date and datetime types in the datetime
+module. They will be sent as ISO dates/ISO timestamps to SQLite.</p>
+<p>The default converters are registered under the name “date” for
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> and under the name “timestamp” for
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This way, you can use date/timestamps from Python without any additional
+fiddling in most cases. The format of the adapters is also compatible with the
+experimental SQLite date/time functions.</p>
+<p>The following example demonstrates this.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">detect_types</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PARSE_DECLTYPES</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PARSE_COLNAMES</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table test(d date, ts timestamp)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">today</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">now</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into test(d, ts) values (?, ?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">now</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select d, ts from test&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">row</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;=&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;=&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;select current_date as &quot;d [date]&quot;, current_timestamp as &quot;ts [timestamp]&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">row</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;current_date&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;current_timestamp&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a timestamp stored in SQLite has a fractional part longer than 6
+numbers, its value will be truncated to microsecond precision by the
+timestamp converter.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="controlling-transactions">
+<span id="sqlite3-controlling-transactions"></span><h2>Controlling Transactions<a class="headerlink" href="#controlling-transactions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The underlying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> library operates in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autocommit</span></code> mode by default,
+but the Python <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module by default does not.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autocommit</span></code> mode means that statements that modify the database take effect
+immediately.  A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BEGIN</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAVEPOINT</span></code> statement disables <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autocommit</span></code>
+mode, and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMMIT</span></code>, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROLLBACK</span></code>, or a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RELEASE</span></code> that ends the
+outermost transaction, turns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autocommit</span></code> mode back on.</p>
+<p>The Python <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module by default issues a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BEGIN</span></code> statement
+implicitly before a Data Modification Language (DML) statement (i.e.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INSERT</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UPDATE</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DELETE</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPLACE</span></code>).</p>
+<p>You can control which kind of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BEGIN</span></code> statements <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> implicitly
+executes via the <em>isolation_level</em> parameter to the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.connect" title="sqlite3.connect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a>
+call, or via the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isolation_level</span></code> property of connections.
+If you specify no <em>isolation_level</em>, a plain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BEGIN</span></code> is used, which is
+equivalent to specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFERRED</span></code>.  Other possible values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMMEDIATE</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXCLUSIVE</span></code>.</p>
+<p>You can disable the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module’s implicit transaction management by
+setting <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isolation_level</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  This will leave the underlying
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> library operating in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autocommit</span></code> mode.  You can then completely
+control the transaction state by explicitly issuing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BEGIN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROLLBACK</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAVEPOINT</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RELEASE</span></code> statements in your code.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> used to implicitly commit an open transaction before DDL
+statements.  This is no longer the case.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-sqlite3-efficiently">
+<h2>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> efficiently<a class="headerlink" href="#using-sqlite3-efficiently" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="using-shortcut-methods">
+<h3>Using shortcut methods<a class="headerlink" href="#using-shortcut-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Using the nonstandard <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executemany()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executescript()</span></code> methods of the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> object, your code can
+be written more concisely because you don’t have to create the (often
+superfluous) <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a> objects explicitly. Instead, the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Cursor" title="sqlite3.Cursor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code></a>
+objects are created implicitly and these shortcut methods return the cursor
+objects. This way, you can execute a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SELECT</span></code> statement and iterate over it
+directly using only a single call on the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">persons</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hugo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Boss&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Calvin&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Klein&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create the table</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table person(firstname, lastname)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Fill the table</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">executemany</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into person(firstname, lastname) values (?, ?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">persons</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Print the table contents</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select firstname, lastname from person&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;I just deleted&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;delete from person&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rowcount</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rows&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># close is not a shortcut method and it&#39;s not called automatically,</span>
+<span class="c1"># so the connection object should be closed manually</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="accessing-columns-by-name-instead-of-by-index">
+<h3>Accessing columns by name instead of by index<a class="headerlink" href="#accessing-columns-by-name-instead-of-by-index" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>One useful feature of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module is the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Row" title="sqlite3.Row"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Row</span></code></a> class designed to be used as a row factory.</p>
+<p>Rows wrapped with this class can be accessed both by index (like tuples) and
+case-insensitively by name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">row_factory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Row</span>
+
+<span class="n">cur</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">cur</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;select &#39;John&#39; as name, 42 as age&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">cur</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;name&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;nAmE&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;age&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;AgE&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-the-connection-as-a-context-manager">
+<h3>Using the connection as a context manager<a class="headerlink" href="#using-the-connection-as-a-context-manager" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Connection objects can be used as context managers
+that automatically commit or rollback transactions.  In the event of an
+exception, the transaction is rolled back; otherwise, the transaction is
+committed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sqlite3</span>
+
+<span class="n">con</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;:memory:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;create table person (id integer primary key, firstname varchar unique)&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Successful, con.commit() is called automatically afterwards</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into person(firstname) values (?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Joe&quot;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># con.rollback() is called after the with block finishes with an exception, the</span>
+<span class="c1"># exception is still raised and must be caught</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">con</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;insert into person(firstname) values (?)&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Joe&quot;</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IntegrityError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;couldn&#39;t add Joe twice&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Connection object used as context manager only commits or rollbacks transactions,</span>
+<span class="c1"># so the connection object should be closed manually</span>
+<span class="n">con</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="common-issues">
+<h2>Common issues<a class="headerlink" href="#common-issues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="multithreading">
+<h3>Multithreading<a class="headerlink" href="#multithreading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Older SQLite versions had issues with sharing connections between threads.
+That’s why the Python module disallows sharing connections and cursors between
+threads. If you still try to do so, you will get an exception at runtime.</p>
+<p>The only exception is calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3.Connection.interrupt" title="sqlite3.Connection.interrupt"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interrupt()</span></code></a> method, which
+only makes sense to call from a different thread.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="f1"><span class="brackets">1</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id1">1</a>,<a href="#id2">2</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>The sqlite3 module is not built with loadable extension support by
+default, because some platforms (notably Mac OS X) have SQLite
+libraries which are compiled without this feature. To get loadable
+extension support, you must pass –enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions to
+configure.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-functions-and-constants">Module functions and constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#connection-objects">Connection Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cursor-objects">Cursor Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#row-objects">Row Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite-and-python-types">SQLite and Python types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-adapters-to-store-additional-python-types-in-sqlite-databases">Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#letting-your-object-adapt-itself">Letting your object adapt itself</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#registering-an-adapter-callable">Registering an adapter callable</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#converting-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types">Converting SQLite values to custom Python types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default-adapters-and-converters">Default adapters and converters</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#controlling-transactions">Controlling Transactions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-sqlite3-efficiently">Using <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code> efficiently</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-shortcut-methods">Using shortcut methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#accessing-columns-by-name-instead-of-by-index">Accessing columns by name instead of by index</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-the-connection-as-a-context-manager">Using the connection as a context manager</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-issues">Common issues</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multithreading">Multithreading</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="dbm.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code> — Interfaces to Unix “databases”</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="archiving.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Data Compression and Archiving</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ssl.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ssl.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7bfb41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/ssl.html
@@ -0,0 +1,3252 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-ssl">
+<span id="ssl-tls-ssl-wrapper-for-socket-objects"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/ssl.py">Lib/ssl.py</a></p>
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><hr class="docutils" id="index-1" />
+<p>This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as “Secure
+Sockets Layer”) encryption and peer authentication facilities for network
+sockets, both client-side and server-side.  This module uses the OpenSSL
+library. It is available on all modern Unix systems, Windows, Mac OS X, and
+probably additional platforms, as long as OpenSSL is installed on that platform.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the
+operating system socket APIs.  The installed version of OpenSSL may also
+cause variations in behavior. For example, TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 come with
+openssl version 1.0.1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Don’t use this module without reading the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a>.  Doing so
+may lead to a false sense of security, as the default settings of the
+ssl module are not necessarily appropriate for your application.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This section documents the objects and functions in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> module; for more
+general information about TLS, SSL, and certificates, the reader is referred to
+the documents in the “See Also” section at the bottom.</p>
+<p>This module provides a class, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></code></a>, which is derived from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a> type, and provides a socket-like wrapper that also
+encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket with SSL.  It supports
+additional methods such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpeercert()</span></code>, which retrieves the
+certificate of the other side of the connection, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cipher()</span></code>,which
+retrieves the cipher being used for the secure connection.</p>
+<p>For more sophisticated applications, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> class
+helps manage settings and certificates, which can then be inherited
+by SSL sockets created through the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.3: </span>Updated to support linking with OpenSSL 1.1.0</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
+In the future the ssl module will require at least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or
+1.1.0.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions-constants-and-exceptions">
+<h2>Functions, Constants, and Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions-constants-and-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="socket-creation">
+<h3>Socket creation<a class="headerlink" href="#socket-creation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since Python 3.2 and 2.7.9, it is recommended to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> of an <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> instance to wrap
+sockets as <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> objects. The helper functions
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a> returns a new context with secure default
+settings. The old <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a> function is deprecated since it is
+both inefficient and has no support for server name indication (SNI) and
+hostname matching.</p>
+<p>Client socket example with default context and IPv4/IPv6 dual stack:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
+
+<span class="n">hostname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_connection</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">hostname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">443</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">server_hostname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">hostname</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ssock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Client socket example with custom context and IPv4:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">hostname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span>
+<span class="c1"># PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname</span>
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLContext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_verify_locations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;path/to/cabundle.pem&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">server_hostname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">hostname</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ssock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Server socket example listening on localhost IPv4:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLContext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_cert_chain</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/path/to/certchain.pem&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/path/to/private.key&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8443</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">server_side</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ssock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="context-creation">
+<h3>Context creation<a class="headerlink" href="#context-creation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A convenience function helps create <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> objects for common
+purposes.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.create_default_context">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">create_default_context</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH</em>, <em>cafile=None</em>, <em>capath=None</em>, <em>cadata=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.create_default_context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> object with default settings for
+the given <em>purpose</em>.  The settings are chosen by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module,
+and usually represent a higher security level than when calling the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> constructor directly.</p>
+<p><em>cafile</em>, <em>capath</em>, <em>cadata</em> represent optional CA certificates to
+trust for certificate verification, as in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_verify_locations()</span></code></a>.  If all three are
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, this function can choose to trust the system’s default
+CA certificates instead.</p>
+<p>The settings are: <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv2</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a> with high encryption cipher suites without RC4 and
+without unauthenticated cipher suites. Passing <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH" title="ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SERVER_AUTH</span></code></a>
+as <em>purpose</em> sets <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_mode</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>
+and either loads CA certificates (when at least one of <em>cafile</em>, <em>capath</em> or
+<em>cadata</em> is given) or uses <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_default_certs()</span></code></a> to load
+default CA certificates.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The protocol, options, cipher and other settings may change to more
+restrictive values anytime without prior deprecation.  The values
+represent a fair balance between compatibility and security.</p>
+<p>If your application needs specific settings, you should create a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> and apply the settings yourself.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you find that when certain older clients or servers attempt to connect
+with a <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> created by this function that they get an error
+stating “Protocol or cipher suite mismatch”, it may be that they only
+support SSL3.0 which this function excludes using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a>. SSL3.0 is widely considered to be <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE">completely broken</a>. If you still wish to continue to
+use this function but still allow SSL 3.0 connections you can re-enable
+them using:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Purpose</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CLIENT_AUTH</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">options</span> <span class="o">&amp;=</span> <span class="o">~</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OP_NO_SSLv3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.4: </span>RC4 was dropped from the default cipher string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>ChaCha20/Poly1305 was added to the default cipher string.</p>
+<p>3DES was dropped from the default cipher string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h3>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised to signal an error from the underlying SSL implementation
+(currently provided by the OpenSSL library).  This signifies some
+problem in the higher-level encryption and authentication layer that’s
+superimposed on the underlying network connection.  This error
+is a subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.  The error code and message of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> instances are provided by the OpenSSL library.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> used to be a subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLError.library">
+<code class="descname">library</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLError.library" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string mnemonic designating the OpenSSL submodule in which the error
+occurred, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PEM</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X509</span></code>.  The range of possible
+values depends on the OpenSSL version.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLError.reason">
+<code class="descname">reason</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLError.reason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred, for
+example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED</span></code>.  The range of possible
+values depends on the OpenSSL version.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLZeroReturnError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLZeroReturnError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLZeroReturnError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> raised when trying to read or write and
+the SSL connection has been closed cleanly.  Note that this doesn’t
+mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been closed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLWantReadError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLWantReadError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> raised by a <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">non-blocking SSL socket</span></a> when trying to read or write data, but more data needs
+to be received on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be
+fulfilled.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLWantWriteError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLWantWriteError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> raised by a <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">non-blocking SSL socket</span></a> when trying to read or write data, but more data needs
+to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be
+fulfilled.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSyscallError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLSyscallError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSyscallError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> raised when a system error was encountered
+while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket.  Unfortunately,
+there is no easy way to inspect the original errno number.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLEOFError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLEOFError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLEOFError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> raised when the SSL connection has been
+terminated abruptly.  Generally, you shouldn’t try to reuse the underlying
+transport when this error is encountered.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLCertVerificationError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLCertVerificationError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> raised when certificate validation has
+failed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_code">
+<code class="descname">verify_code</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A numeric error number that denotes the verification error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_message">
+<code class="descname">verify_message</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError.verify_message" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A human readable string of the verification error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="ssl.CertificateError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">CertificateError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CertificateError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError" title="ssl.SSLCertVerificationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLCertVerificationError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The exception is now an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError" title="ssl.SSLCertVerificationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLCertVerificationError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="random-generation">
+<h3>Random generation<a class="headerlink" href="#random-generation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.RAND_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">RAND_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <em>num</em> cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes. Raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> if the PRNG has not been seeded with enough data or if the
+operation is not supported by the current RAND method. <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_status" title="ssl.RAND_status"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RAND_status()</span></code></a>
+can be used to check the status of the PRNG and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_add" title="ssl.RAND_add"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RAND_add()</span></code></a> can be used
+to seed the PRNG.</p>
+<p>For almost all applications <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> is preferable.</p>
+<p>Read the Wikipedia article, <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator">Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number
+generator (CSPRNG)</a>,
+to get the requirements of a cryptographically generator.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">RAND_pseudo_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>num</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return (bytes, is_cryptographic): bytes are <em>num</em> pseudo-random bytes,
+is_cryptographic is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the bytes generated are cryptographically
+strong. Raises an <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> if the operation is not supported by the
+current RAND method.</p>
+<p>Generated pseudo-random byte sequences will be unique if they are of
+sufficient length, but are not necessarily unpredictable. They can be used
+for non-cryptographic purposes and for certain purposes in cryptographic
+protocols, but usually not for key generation etc.</p>
+<p>For almost all applications <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> is preferable.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>OpenSSL has deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes" title="ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()</span></code></a>, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_bytes" title="ssl.RAND_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.RAND_bytes()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.RAND_status">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">RAND_status</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_status" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been seeded
+with ‘enough’ randomness, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  You can use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_egd" title="ssl.RAND_egd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.RAND_egd()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_add" title="ssl.RAND_add"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.RAND_add()</span></code></a> to increase the randomness of
+the pseudo-random number generator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.RAND_egd">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">RAND_egd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_egd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If you are running an entropy-gathering daemon (EGD) somewhere, and <em>path</em>
+is the pathname of a socket connection open to it, this will read 256 bytes
+of randomness from the socket, and add it to the SSL pseudo-random number
+generator to increase the security of generated secret keys.  This is
+typically only necessary on systems without better sources of randomness.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="http://egd.sourceforge.net/">http://egd.sourceforge.net/</a> or <a class="reference external" href="http://prngd.sourceforge.net/">http://prngd.sourceforge.net/</a> for sources
+of entropy-gathering daemons.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: not available with LibreSSL and OpenSSL &gt; 1.1.0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.RAND_add">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">RAND_add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em>, <em>entropy</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mix the given <em>bytes</em> into the SSL pseudo-random number generator.  The
+parameter <em>entropy</em> (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy contained in
+string (so you can always use <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0</span></code>).  See <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1750.html"><strong>RFC 1750</strong></a> for more
+information on sources of entropy.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Writable <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="certificate-handling">
+<h3>Certificate handling<a class="headerlink" href="#certificate-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.match_hostname">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">match_hostname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cert</em>, <em>hostname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.match_hostname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Verify that <em>cert</em> (in decoded format as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a>) matches the given <em>hostname</em>.  The rules
+applied are those for checking the identity of HTTPS servers as outlined
+in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2818.html"><strong>RFC 2818</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5280.html"><strong>RFC 5280</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6125.html"><strong>RFC 6125</strong></a>.  In addition to HTTPS, this
+function should be suitable for checking the identity of servers in
+various SSL-based protocols such as FTPS, IMAPS, POPS and others.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CertificateError" title="ssl.CertificateError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CertificateError</span></code></a> is raised on failure. On success, the function
+returns nothing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cert</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(((</span><span class="s1">&#39;commonName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;example.com&#39;</span><span class="p">),),)}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match_hostname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cert</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;example.com&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match_hostname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cert</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;example.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;/home/py3k/Lib/ssl.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">130</span>, in <span class="n">match_hostname</span>
+<span class="gr">ssl.CertificateError</span>: <span class="n">hostname &#39;example.org&#39; doesn&#39;t match &#39;example.com&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3.3: </span>The function now follows <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6125.html"><strong>RFC 6125</strong></a>, section 6.4.3 and does neither
+match multiple wildcards (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.*.com</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*a*.example.org</span></code>) nor
+a wildcard inside an internationalized domain names (IDN) fragment.
+IDN A-labels such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www*.xn--pthon-kva.org</span></code> are still supported,
+but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x*.python.org</span></code> no longer matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xn--tda.python.org</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Matching of IP addresses, when present in the subjectAltName field
+of the certificate, is now supported.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The function is no longer used to TLS connections. Hostname matching
+is now performed by OpenSSL.</p>
+<p>Allow wildcard when it is the leftmost and the only character
+in that segment. Partial wildcards like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www*.example.com</span></code> are no
+longer supported.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.cert_time_to_seconds">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">cert_time_to_seconds</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cert_time</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.cert_time_to_seconds" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the time in seconds since the Epoch, given the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cert_time</span></code>
+string representing the “notBefore” or “notAfter” date from a
+certificate in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%b</span> <span class="pre">%d</span> <span class="pre">%H:%M:%S</span> <span class="pre">%Y</span> <span class="pre">%Z&quot;</span></code> strptime format (C
+locale).</p>
+<p>Here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timestamp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cert_time_to_seconds</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timestamp</span>  
+<span class="go">1515144883</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utcfromtimestamp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timestamp</span><span class="p">))</span>  
+<span class="go">2018-01-05 09:34:43</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>“notBefore” or “notAfter” dates must use GMT (<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5280.html"><strong>RFC 5280</strong></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Interpret the input time as a time in UTC as specified by ‘GMT’
+timezone in the input string. Local timezone was used
+previously. Return an integer (no fractions of a second in the
+input format)</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.get_server_certificate">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">get_server_certificate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>addr</em>, <em>ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS</em>, <em>ca_certs=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.get_server_certificate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given the address <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addr</span></code> of an SSL-protected server, as a (<em>hostname</em>,
+<em>port-number</em>) pair, fetches the server’s certificate, and returns it as a
+PEM-encoded string.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl_version</span></code> is specified, uses that version of
+the SSL protocol to attempt to connect to the server.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></code> is
+specified, it should be a file containing a list of root certificates, the
+same format as used for the same parameter in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.  The call will attempt to validate the
+server certificate against that set of root certificates, and will fail
+if the validation attempt fails.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This function is now IPv6-compatible.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The default <em>ssl_version</em> is changed from <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_SSLv3</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a> for maximum compatibility with modern servers.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">DER_cert_to_PEM_cert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>DER_cert_bytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a PEM-encoded
+string version of the same certificate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PEM_cert_to_DER_cert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>PEM_cert_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded sequence of
+bytes for that same certificate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.get_default_verify_paths">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">get_default_verify_paths</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.get_default_verify_paths" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a named tuple with paths to OpenSSL’s default cafile and capath.
+The paths are the same as used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()</span></code></a>. The return value is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultVerifyPaths</span></code>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cafile</span></code> - resolved path to cafile or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the file doesn’t exist,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capath</span></code> - resolved path to capath or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the directory doesn’t exist,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openssl_cafile_env</span></code> - OpenSSL’s environment key that points to a cafile,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openssl_cafile</span></code> - hard coded path to a cafile,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openssl_capath_env</span></code> - OpenSSL’s environment key that points to a capath,</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openssl_capath</span></code> - hard coded path to a capath directory</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: LibreSSL ignores the environment vars
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openssl_cafile_env</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openssl_capath_env</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.enum_certificates">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">enum_certificates</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>store_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.enum_certificates" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve certificates from Windows’ system cert store. <em>store_name</em> may be
+one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CA</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROOT</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MY</span></code>. Windows may provide additional cert
+stores, too.</p>
+<p>The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples.
+The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x509_asn</span></code> for X.509 ASN.1 data or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkcs_7_asn</span></code> for
+PKCS#7 ASN.1 data. Trust specifies the purpose of the certificate as a set
+of OIDS or exactly <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the certificate is trustworthy for all
+purposes.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">enum_certificates</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;CA&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(b&#39;data...&#39;, &#39;x509_asn&#39;, {&#39;1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1&#39;, &#39;1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2&#39;}),</span>
+<span class="go"> (b&#39;data...&#39;, &#39;x509_asn&#39;, True)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.enum_crls">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">enum_crls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>store_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.enum_crls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve CRLs from Windows’ system cert store. <em>store_name</em> may be
+one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CA</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROOT</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MY</span></code>. Windows may provide additional cert
+stores, too.</p>
+<p>The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples.
+The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x509_asn</span></code> for X.509 ASN.1 data or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkcs_7_asn</span></code> for
+PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="ssl.wrap_socket">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">wrap_socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>certfile=None</em>, <em>server_side=False</em>, <em>cert_reqs=CERT_NONE</em>, <em>ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS</em>, <em>ca_certs=None</em>, <em>do_handshake_on_connect=True</em>, <em>suppress_ragged_eofs=True</em>, <em>ciphers=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Takes an instance <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock</span></code> of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a>, and returns an instance
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></code></a>, a subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a>, which wraps
+the underlying socket in an SSL context.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock</span></code> must be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> socket; other socket types are unsupported.</p>
+<p>Internally, function creates a <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> with protocol
+<em>ssl_version</em> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.options" title="ssl.SSLContext.options"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.options</span></code></a> set to <em>cert_reqs</em>. If
+parameters <em>keyfile</em>, <em>certfile</em>, <em>ca_certs</em> or <em>ciphers</em> are set, then
+the values are passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_verify_locations()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_ciphers()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The arguments <em>server_side</em>, <em>do_handshake_on_connect</em>, and
+<em>suppress_ragged_eofs</em> have the same meaning as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>Since Python 3.2 and 2.7.9, it is recommended to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>. The
+top-level function is limited and creates an insecure client socket
+without server name indication or hostname matching.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<h3>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>All constants are now <a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntEnum</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntFlag</span></code></a> collections.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.CERT_NONE">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">CERT_NONE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_mode</span></code></a>, or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cert_reqs</span></code>
+parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.  Except for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</span></code></a>,
+it is the default mode.  With client-side sockets, just about any
+cert is accepted.  Validation errors, such as untrusted or expired cert,
+are ignored and do not abort the TLS/SSL handshake.</p>
+<p>In server mode, no certificate is requested from the client, so the client
+does not send any for client cert authentication.</p>
+<p>See the discussion of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">CERT_OPTIONAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_mode</span></code></a>, or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cert_reqs</span></code>
+parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.  In client mode, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" title="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_OPTIONAL</span></code></a>
+has the same meaning as <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>. It is recommended to
+use <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a> for client-side sockets instead.</p>
+<p>In server mode, a client certificate request is sent to the client.  The
+client may either ignore the request or send a certificate in order
+perform TLS client cert authentication.  If the client chooses to send
+a certificate, it is verified.  Any verification error immediately aborts
+the TLS handshake.</p>
+<p>Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to
+be passed, either to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_verify_locations()</span></code></a> or as a
+value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></code> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">CERT_REQUIRED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_mode</span></code></a>, or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cert_reqs</span></code>
+parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.  In this mode, certificates are
+required from the other side of the socket connection; an <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a>
+will be raised if no certificate is provided, or if its validation fails.
+This mode is <strong>not</strong> sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as
+it does not match hostnames.  <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_hostname</span></code></a> must be
+enabled as well to verify the authenticity of a cert.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</span></code></a> uses <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a> and
+enables <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_hostname</span></code></a> by default.</p>
+<p>With server socket, this mode provides mandatory TLS client cert
+authentication.  A client certificate request is sent to the client and
+the client must provide a valid and trusted certificate.</p>
+<p>Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to
+be passed, either to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_verify_locations()</span></code></a> or as a
+value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></code> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.VerifyMode">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">VerifyMode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.VerifyMode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntEnum</span></code></a> collection of CERT_* constants.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">VERIFY_DEFAULT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_flags</span></code></a>. In this mode, certificate
+revocation lists (CRLs) are not checked. By default OpenSSL does neither
+require nor verify CRLs.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_flags</span></code></a>. In this mode, only the
+peer cert is check but non of the intermediate CA certificates. The mode
+requires a valid CRL that is signed by the peer cert’s issuer (its direct
+ancestor CA). If no proper has been loaded
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_verify_locations</span></code></a>, validation will fail.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_flags</span></code></a>. In this mode, CRLs of
+all certificates in the peer cert chain are checked.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">VERIFY_X509_STRICT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_flags</span></code></a> to disable workarounds
+for broken X.509 certificates.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Possible value for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_flags</span></code></a>. It instructs OpenSSL to
+prefer trusted certificates when building the trust chain to validate a
+certificate. This flag is enabled by default.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.VerifyFlags">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">VerifyFlags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.VerifyFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntFlag</span></code></a> collection of VERIFY_* constants.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_TLS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Selects the highest protocol version that both the client and server support.
+Despite the name, this option can select both “SSL” and “TLS” protocols.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version like <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>,
+but only support client-side <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> connections. The protocol
+enables <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_hostname</span></code></a> by
+default.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version like <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>,
+but only support server-side <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> connections.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_SSLv23</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_SSLv2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Selects SSL version 2 as the channel encryption protocol.</p>
+<p>This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OPENSSL_NO_SSL2</span></code> flag.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>SSL version 2 is insecure.  Its use is highly discouraged.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>OpenSSL has removed support for SSLv2.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_SSLv3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol.</p>
+<p>This protocol is not be available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OPENSSL_NO_SSLv3</span></code> flag.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>SSL version 3 is insecure.  Its use is highly discouraged.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+protocol <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a> with flags like <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_TLSv1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Selects TLS version 1.0 as the channel encryption protocol.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+protocol <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a> with flags like <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Selects TLS version 1.1 as the channel encryption protocol.
+Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+protocol <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a> with flags like <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol. This is the
+most modern version, and probably the best choice for maximum protection,
+if both sides can speak it.  Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default
+protocol <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a> with flags like <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_ALL">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_ALL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_ALL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enables workarounds for various bugs present in other SSL implementations.
+This option is set by default.  It does not necessarily set the same
+flags as OpenSSL’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSL_OP_ALL</span></code> constant.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_SSLv2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents an SSLv2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
+conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>.  It prevents the peers from
+choosing SSLv2 as the protocol version.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>SSLv2 is deprecated</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_SSLv3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents an SSLv3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
+conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>.  It prevents the peers from
+choosing SSLv3 as the protocol version.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>SSLv3 is deprecated</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_TLSv1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents a TLSv1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
+conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>.  It prevents the peers from
+choosing TLSv1 as the protocol version.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0, use the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.minimum_version</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.maximum_version</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_TLSv1_1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents a TLSv1.1 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.1 as
+the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_TLSv1_2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents a TLSv1.2 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.2 as
+the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_TLSv1_3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents a TLSv1.3 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.3 as
+the protocol version. TLS 1.3 is available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 or later.
+When Python has been compiled against an older version of OpenSSL, the
+flag defaults to <em>0</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0. It was added to 2.7.15,
+3.6.3 and 3.7.0 for backwards compatibility with OpenSSL 1.0.2.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disable all renegotiation in TLSv1.2 and earlier. Do not send
+HelloRequest messages, and ignore renegotiation requests via ClientHello.</p>
+<p>This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h and later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use the server’s cipher ordering preference, rather than the client’s.
+This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2 server sockets.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_SINGLE_DH_USE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents re-use of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
+improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
+This option only applies to server sockets.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevents re-use of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
+improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
+This option only applies to server sockets.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send dummy Change Cipher Spec (CCS) messages in TLS 1.3 handshake to make
+a TLS 1.3 connection look more like a TLS 1.2 connection.</p>
+<p>This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.8.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_COMPRESSION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disable compression on the SSL channel.  This is useful if the application
+protocol supports its own compression scheme.</p>
+<p>This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.0.0 and later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.Options">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">Options</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.Options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntFlag" title="enum.IntFlag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntFlag</span></code></a> collection of OP_* constants.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OP_NO_TICKET">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OP_NO_TICKET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OP_NO_TICKET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prevent client side from requesting a session ticket.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_ALPN">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_ALPN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_ALPN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the <em>Application-Layer
+Protocol Negotiation</em> TLS extension as described in <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7301.html"><strong>RFC 7301</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support not checking subject
+common name and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name" title="ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name</span></code></a> is
+writeable.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_ECDH">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_ECDH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_ECDH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Elliptic Curve-based
+Diffie-Hellman key exchange.  This should be true unless the feature was
+explicitly disabled by the distributor.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_SNI">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_SNI</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the <em>Server Name
+Indication</em> extension (as defined in <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6066.html"><strong>RFC 6066</strong></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_NPN">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_NPN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_NPN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the <em>Next Protocol
+Negotiation</em> as described in the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation">Application Layer Protocol
+Negotiation</a>.
+When true, you can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_npn_protocols()</span></code></a> method to advertise
+which protocols you want to support.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_SSLv2">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_SSLv2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_SSLv2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 2.0 protocol.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_SSLv3">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_SSLv3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_SSLv3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 3.0 protocol.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_TLSv1">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_TLSv1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_TLSv1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.0 protocol.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_TLSv1_1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.1 protocol.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_TLSv1_2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.2 protocol.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">HAS_TLSv1_3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.3 protocol.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List of supported TLS channel binding types.  Strings in this list
+can be used as arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding" title="ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.get_channel_binding()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OPENSSL_VERSION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the interpreter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OPENSSL_VERSION</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of five integers representing version information about the
+OpenSSL library:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 0, 2, 11, 15)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The raw version number of the OpenSSL library, as a single integer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER</span>
+<span class="go">268443839</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x100020bf&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR">
+<code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Alert Descriptions from <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5246.html"><strong>RFC 5246</strong></a> and others. The <a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6">IANA TLS Alert Registry</a>
+contains this list and references to the RFCs where their meaning is defined.</p>
+<p>Used as the return value of the callback function in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_servername_callback()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.AlertDescription">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">AlertDescription</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.AlertDescription" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntEnum</span></code></a> collection of ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* constants.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH">
+<code class="descclassname">Purpose.</code><code class="descname">SERVER_AUTH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Option for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_default_certs()</span></code></a>.  This value indicates that the
+context may be used to authenticate Web servers (therefore, it will
+be used to create client-side sockets).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH">
+<code class="descclassname">Purpose.</code><code class="descname">CLIENT_AUTH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Option for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_default_certs()</span></code></a>.  This value indicates that the
+context may be used to authenticate Web clients (therefore, it will
+be used to create server-side sockets).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLErrorNumber">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLErrorNumber</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLErrorNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntEnum</span></code></a> collection of SSL_ERROR_* constants.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">TLSVersion</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.IntEnum</span></code></a> collection of SSL and TLS versions for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.maximum_version</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.minimum_version</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED">
+<code class="descclassname">TLSVersion.</code><code class="descname">MINIMUM_SUPPORTED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED">
+<code class="descclassname">TLSVersion.</code><code class="descname">MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The minimum or maximum supported SSL or TLS version. These are magic
+constants. Their values don’t reflect the lowest and highest available
+TLS/SSL versions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3">
+<code class="descclassname">TLSVersion.</code><code class="descname">SSLv3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1">
+<code class="descclassname">TLSVersion.</code><code class="descname">TLSv1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1">
+<code class="descclassname">TLSVersion.</code><code class="descname">TLSv1_1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2">
+<code class="descclassname">TLSVersion.</code><code class="descname">TLSv1_2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3">
+<code class="descclassname">TLSVersion.</code><code class="descname">TLSv1_3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>SSL 3.0 to TLS 1.3.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl-sockets">
+<h2>SSL Sockets<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl-sockets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLSocket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>socket.socket</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>SSL sockets provide the following methods of <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Socket Objects</span></a>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.bind" title="socket.socket.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.close" title="socket.socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.detach" title="socket.socket.detach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.fileno" title="socket.socket.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.getpeername" title="socket.socket.getpeername"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpeername()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.getsockname" title="socket.socket.getsockname"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsockname()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.getsockopt" title="socket.socket.getsockopt"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsockopt()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt" title="socket.socket.setsockopt"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setsockopt()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.gettimeout" title="socket.socket.gettimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettimeout()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.settimeout" title="socket.socket.settimeout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.setblocking" title="socket.socket.setblocking"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setblocking()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.listen" title="socket.socket.listen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makefile()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.recv_into" title="socket.socket.recv_into"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv_into()</span></code></a>
+(but passing a non-zero <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flags</span></code> argument is not allowed)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.sendall" title="socket.socket.sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendall()</span></code></a> (with
+the same limitation)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.sendfile" title="socket.socket.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code></a> (but <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile</span></code></a> will be used
+for plain-text sockets only, else <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> will be used)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.shutdown" title="socket.socket.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop
+of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects, diverge from
+the specification of normal, OS-level sockets.  See especially the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">notes on non-blocking sockets</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> must be created using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code> method was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code> does not reset the socket timeout each time bytes
+are received or sent. The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration
+of the shutdown.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>It is deprecated to create a <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> instance directly, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> to wrap a socket.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> instances must to created with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>. In earlier versions, it was possible
+to create instances directly. This was never documented or officially
+supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.read">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>len=1024</em>, <em>buffer=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read up to <em>len</em> bytes of data from the SSL socket and return the result as
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> instance. If <em>buffer</em> is specified, then read into the buffer
+instead, and return the number of bytes read.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a> if the socket is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">non-blocking</span></a> and the read would block.</p>
+<p>As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="ssl.SSLSocket.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> can also
+cause write operations.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The socket timeout is no more reset each time bytes are received or sent.
+The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration to read up to <em>len</em>
+bytes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="ssl.SSLSocket.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.write">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buf</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write <em>buf</em> to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes written. The
+<em>buf</em> argument must be an object supporting the buffer interface.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a> if the socket is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">non-blocking</span></a> and the write would block.</p>
+<p>As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.write" title="ssl.SSLSocket.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> can
+also cause read operations.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The socket timeout is no more reset each time bytes are received or sent.
+The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration to write <em>buf</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>Use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.write" title="ssl.SSLSocket.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="ssl.SSLSocket.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.write" title="ssl.SSLSocket.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> methods are the
+low-level methods that read and write unencrypted, application-level data
+and decrypt/encrypt it to encrypted, wire-level data. These methods
+require an active SSL connection, i.e. the handshake was completed and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap" title="ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.unwrap()</span></code></a> was not called.</p>
+<p>Normally you should use the socket API methods like
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> instead of these
+methods.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">do_handshake</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform the SSL setup handshake.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The handshake method also performs <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_hostname</span></code></a> attribute of the socket’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.context" title="ssl.SSLSocket.context"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code></a> is true.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The socket timeout is no more reset each time bytes are received or sent.
+The socket timeout is now to maximum total duration of the handshake.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Hostname or IP address is matched by OpenSSL during handshake. The
+function <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> is no longer used. In case OpenSSL
+refuses a hostname or IP address, the handshake is aborted early and
+a TLS alert message is send to the peer.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">getpeercert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>binary_form=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the connection,
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If the SSL handshake hasn’t been done yet, raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binary_form</span></code> parameter is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, and a certificate was
+received from the peer, this method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> instance.  If the
+certificate was not validated, the dict is empty.  If the certificate was
+validated, it returns a dict with several keys, amongst them <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subject</span></code>
+(the principal for which the certificate was issued) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issuer</span></code>
+(the principal issuing the certificate).  If a certificate contains an
+instance of the <em>Subject Alternative Name</em> extension (see <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3280.html"><strong>RFC 3280</strong></a>),
+there will also be a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subjectAltName</span></code> key in the dictionary.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subject</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issuer</span></code> fields are tuples containing the sequence
+of relative distinguished names (RDNs) given in the certificate’s data
+structure for the respective fields, and each RDN is a sequence of
+name-value pairs.  Here is a real-world example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;issuer&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(((</span><span class="s1">&#39;countryName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;IL&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+            <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;organizationName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;StartCom Ltd.&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+            <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;organizationalUnitName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="s1">&#39;Secure Digital Certificate Signing&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+            <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;commonName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="s1">&#39;StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA&#39;</span><span class="p">),)),</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;notAfter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;notBefore&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;serialNumber&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;95F0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(((</span><span class="s1">&#39;description&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;countryName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;US&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;stateOrProvinceName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;California&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;localityName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;San Francisco&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;organizationName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;commonName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*.eff.org&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
+             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;emailAddress&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hostmaster@eff.org&#39;</span><span class="p">),)),</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;subjectAltName&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;DNS&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*.eff.org&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;DNS&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eff.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>To validate a certificate for a particular service, you can use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binary_form</span></code> parameter is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, and a certificate was
+provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form of the entire certificate
+as a sequence of bytes, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if the peer did not provide a
+certificate.  Whether the peer provides a certificate depends on the SSL
+socket’s role:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>for a client SSL socket, the server will always provide a certificate,
+regardless of whether validation was required;</p></li>
+<li><p>for a server SSL socket, the client will only provide a certificate
+when requested by the server; therefore <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpeercert()</span></code></a> will return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if you used <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="ssl.CERT_NONE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></code></a> (rather than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" title="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_OPTIONAL</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The returned dictionary includes additional items such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issuer</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notBefore</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised when the handshake isn’t done.
+The returned dictionary includes additional X509v3 extension items
+  such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crlDistributionPoints</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">caIssuers</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OCSP</span></code> URIs.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.cipher">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">cipher</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being used, the
+version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number of secret
+bits being used.  If no connection has been established, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">shared_ciphers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the list of ciphers shared by the client during the handshake.  Each
+entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing the name of the
+cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number
+of secret bits the cipher uses.  <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shared_ciphers()</span></code></a> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no connection has been established or the socket is a client
+socket.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.compression">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">compression</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.compression" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the connection isn’t compressed.</p>
+<p>If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression mechanism,
+you can use <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION" title="ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_COMPRESSION</span></code></a> to disable SSL-level compression.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">get_channel_binding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cb_type=&quot;tls-unique&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object.  Returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if not connected or the handshake has not been completed.</p>
+<p>The <em>cb_type</em> parameter allow selection of the desired channel binding
+type. Valid channel binding types are listed in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES" title="ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES</span></code></a> list.  Currently only the ‘tls-unique’ channel
+binding, defined by <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5929.html"><strong>RFC 5929</strong></a>, is supported.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be
+raised if an unsupported channel binding type is requested.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">selected_alpn_protocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols()</span></code></a> was not called, if the other party does
+not support ALPN, if this socket does not support any of the client’s
+proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not happened yet, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is
+returned.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">selected_npn_protocol</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the TLS/SSL
+handshake. If <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_npn_protocols()</span></code></a> was not called, or
+if the other party does not support NPN, or if the handshake has not yet
+happened, this will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">unwrap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer from the
+underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket object.  This can be
+used to go from encrypted operation over a connection to unencrypted.  The
+returned socket should always be used for further communication with the
+other side of the connection, rather than the original socket.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">verify_client_post_handshake</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client. PHA
+can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a server-side socket,
+after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA enabled on both sides, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth" title="ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.post_handshake_auth</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately. The server-side
+sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event and expects the
+client to respond with a certificate on the next read event.</p>
+<p>If any precondition isn’t met (e.g. not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled), an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled. Without TLS 1.3
+support, the method raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.version">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection
+as a string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is no secure connection is established.
+As of this writing, possible return values include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;SSLv2&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;SSLv3&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;TLSv1&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;TLSv1.1&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;TLSv1.2&quot;</span></code>.
+Recent OpenSSL versions may define more return values.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.pending">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">pending</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.pending" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read, pending on
+the connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.context">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">context</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.context" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> object this SSL socket is tied to.  If the SSL
+socket was created using the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a> function
+(rather than <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>), this is a custom context
+object created for this SSL socket.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.server_side">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">server_side</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.server_side" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A boolean which is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for server-side sockets and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for
+client-side sockets.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">server_hostname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hostname of the server: <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for server-side
+socket or if the hostname was not specified in the constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The attribute is now always ASCII text. When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_hostname</span></code> is
+an internationalized domain name (IDN), this attribute now stores the
+A-label form (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xn--pythn-mua.org&quot;</span></code>), rather than the U-label form
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;pythön.org&quot;</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.session">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">session</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.session" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSession" title="ssl.SSLSession"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSession</span></code></a> for this SSL connection. The session is available
+for client and server side sockets after the TLS handshake has been
+performed. For client sockets the session can be set before
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_handshake()</span></code></a> has been called to reuse a session.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.session_reused">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</code><code class="descname">session_reused</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.session_reused" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl-contexts">
+<h2>SSL Contexts<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl-contexts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL connections,
+such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and private key(s).
+It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side sockets, in order
+to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLContext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocol=PROTOCOL_TLS</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new SSL context.  You may pass <em>protocol</em> which must be one
+of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_*</span></code> constants defined in this module.  The parameter
+specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use.  Typically, the
+server chooses a particular protocol version, and the client must adapt
+to the server’s choice.  Most of the versions are not interoperable
+with the other versions.  If not specified, the default is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>; it provides the most compatibility with other
+versions.</p>
+<p>Here’s a table showing which versions in a client (down the side) can connect
+to which versions in a server (along the top):</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 26%" />
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>client</em> / <strong>server</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>SSLv2</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>SSLv3</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>TLS</strong> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id1">3</a></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>TLSv1</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>TLSv1.1</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>TLSv1.2</strong></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>SSLv2</em></p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id7" id="id2">1</a></p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>SSLv3</em></p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>no <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id3">2</a></p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>TLS</em> (<em>SSLv23</em>) <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id4">3</a></p></td>
+<td><p>no <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id7" id="id5">1</a></p></td>
+<td><p>no <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id6">2</a></p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>TLSv1</em></p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><em>TLSv1.1</em></p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><em>TLSv1.2</em></p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id7"><span class="brackets">1</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id2">1</a>,<a href="#id5">2</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> disables SSLv2 with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv2</span></code></a> by default.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets">2</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id3">1</a>,<a href="#id6">2</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> disables SSLv3 with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a> by default.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id9"><span class="brackets">3</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id1">1</a>,<a href="#id4">2</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a> in
+OpenSSL &gt;= 1.1.1. There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
+TLS 1.3.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a> lets the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module choose
+security settings for a given purpose.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The context is created with secure default values. The options
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION" title="ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_COMPRESSION</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE" title="ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE" title="ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_SINGLE_DH_USE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE" title="ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv2</span></code></a> (except for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_SSLv2</span></code></a>),
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv3</span></code></a> (except for <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_SSLv3</span></code></a>) are
+set by default. The initial cipher suite list contains only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIGH</span></code>
+ciphers, no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> ciphers and no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MD5</span></code> ciphers (except for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_SSLv2</span></code></a>).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> objects have the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">cert_store_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count of
+X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate revocation
+lists as dictionary.</p>
+<p>Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cert_store_stats</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;crl&#39;: 0, &#39;x509_ca&#39;: 1, &#39;x509&#39;: 2}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">load_cert_chain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>certfile</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>password=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a private key and the corresponding certificate.  The <em>certfile</em>
+string must be the path to a single file in PEM format containing the
+certificate as well as any number of CA certificates needed to establish
+the certificate’s authenticity.  The <em>keyfile</em> string, if present, must
+point to a file containing the private key in.  Otherwise the private
+key will be taken from <em>certfile</em> as well.  See the discussion of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-certificates"><span class="std std-ref">Certificates</span></a> for more information on how the certificate
+is stored in the <em>certfile</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>password</em> argument may be a function to call to get the password for
+decrypting the private key.  It will only be called if the private key is
+encrypted and a password is necessary.  It will be called with no arguments,
+and it should return a string, bytes, or bytearray.  If the return value is
+a string it will be encoded as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key.
+Alternatively a string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly
+as the <em>password</em> argument.  It will be ignored if the private key is not
+encrypted and no password is needed.</p>
+<p>If the <em>password</em> argument is not specified and a password is required,
+OpenSSL’s built-in password prompting mechanism will be used to
+interactively prompt the user for a password.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> is raised if the private key doesn’t
+match with the certificate.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>New optional argument <em>password</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">load_default_certs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a set of default “certification authority” (CA) certificates from
+default locations. On Windows it loads CA certs from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CA</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROOT</span></code> system stores. On other systems it calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()</span></code></a>. In the future the method may
+load CA certificates from other locations, too.</p>
+<p>The <em>purpose</em> flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are loaded. The
+default settings <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH" title="ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Purpose.SERVER_AUTH</span></code></a> loads certificates, that are
+flagged and trusted for TLS web server authentication (client side
+sockets). <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH" title="ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH</span></code></a> loads CA certificates for client
+certificate verification on the server side.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">load_verify_locations</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cafile=None</em>, <em>capath=None</em>, <em>cadata=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a set of “certification authority” (CA) certificates used to validate
+other peers’ certificates when <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_mode</span></code></a> is other than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="ssl.CERT_NONE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></code></a>.  At least one of <em>cafile</em> or <em>capath</em> must be specified.</p>
+<p>This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in PEM or
+DER format. In order to make use of CRLs, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_flags</span></code></a>
+must be configured properly.</p>
+<p>The <em>cafile</em> string, if present, is the path to a file of concatenated
+CA certificates in PEM format. See the discussion of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-certificates"><span class="std std-ref">Certificates</span></a> for more information about how to arrange the
+certificates in this file.</p>
+<p>The <em>capath</em> string, if present, is
+the path to a directory containing several CA certificates in PEM format,
+following an <a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations.html">OpenSSL specific layout</a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>cadata</em> object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one or more
+PEM-encoded certificates or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> of DER-encoded
+certificates. Like with <em>capath</em> extra lines around PEM-encoded
+certificates are ignored but at least one certificate must be present.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>New optional argument <em>cadata</em></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">get_ca_certs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>binary_form=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a list of loaded “certification authority” (CA) certificates. If the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binary_form</span></code> parameter is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> each list
+entry is a dict like the output of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a>. Otherwise
+the method returns a list of DER-encoded certificates. The returned list
+does not contain certificates from <em>capath</em> unless a certificate was
+requested and loaded by a SSL connection.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Certificates in a capath directory aren’t loaded unless they have
+been used at least once.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">get_ciphers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get a list of enabled ciphers. The list is in order of cipher priority.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_ciphers()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ctx</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLContext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PROTOCOL_SSLv23</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_ciphers</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_ciphers</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># OpenSSL 1.0.x</span>
+<span class="go">[{&#39;alg_bits&#39;: 256,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;description&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;id&#39;: 50380848,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;name&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;protocol&#39;: &#39;TLSv1/SSLv3&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;strength_bits&#39;: 256},</span>
+<span class="go"> {&#39;alg_bits&#39;: 128,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;description&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;id&#39;: 50380847,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;name&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;protocol&#39;: &#39;TLSv1/SSLv3&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;strength_bits&#39;: 128}]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On OpenSSL 1.1 and newer the cipher dict contains additional fields:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_ciphers</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># OpenSSL 1.1+</span>
+<span class="go">[{&#39;aead&#39;: True,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;alg_bits&#39;: 256,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;auth&#39;: &#39;auth-rsa&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;description&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;digest&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;id&#39;: 50380848,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;kea&#39;: &#39;kx-ecdhe&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;name&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;protocol&#39;: &#39;TLSv1.2&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;strength_bits&#39;: 256,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;symmetric&#39;: &#39;aes-256-gcm&#39;},</span>
+<span class="go"> {&#39;aead&#39;: True,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;alg_bits&#39;: 128,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;auth&#39;: &#39;auth-rsa&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;description&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">                 &#39;Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;digest&#39;: None,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;id&#39;: 50380847,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;kea&#39;: &#39;kx-ecdhe&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;name&#39;: &#39;ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;protocol&#39;: &#39;TLSv1.2&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;strength_bits&#39;: 128,</span>
+<span class="go">  &#39;symmetric&#39;: &#39;aes-128-gcm&#39;}]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: OpenSSL 1.0.2+.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">set_default_verify_paths</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a set of default “certification authority” (CA) certificates from
+a filesystem path defined when building the OpenSSL library.  Unfortunately,
+there’s no easy way to know whether this method succeeds: no error is
+returned if no certificates are to be found.  When the OpenSSL library is
+provided as part of the operating system, though, it is likely to be
+configured properly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">set_ciphers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ciphers</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
+It should be a string in the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html">OpenSSL cipher list format</a>.
+If no cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
+configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>when connected, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher" title="ssl.SSLSocket.cipher"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.cipher()</span></code></a> method of SSL sockets will
+give the currently selected cipher.</p>
+<p>OpenSSL 1.1.1 has TLS 1.3 cipher suites enabled by default. The suites
+cannot be disabled with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_ciphers()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">set_alpn_protocols</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS
+handshake. It should be a list of ASCII strings, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['http/1.1',</span>
+<span class="pre">'spdy/2']</span></code>, ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen
+during the handshake, and will play out according to <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7301.html"><strong>RFC 7301</strong></a>. After a
+successful handshake, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol" title="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol()</span></code></a> method will
+return the agreed-upon protocol.</p>
+<p>This method will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.HAS_ALPN" title="ssl.HAS_ALPN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAS_ALPN</span></code></a> is
+False.</p>
+<p>OpenSSL 1.1.0 to 1.1.0e will abort the handshake and raise <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a>
+when both sides support ALPN but cannot agree on a protocol. 1.1.0f+
+behaves like 1.0.2, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol" title="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol()</span></code></a> returns None.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">set_npn_protocols</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>protocols</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS
+handshake. It should be a list of strings, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['http/1.1',</span> <span class="pre">'spdy/2']</span></code>,
+ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen during the
+handshake, and will play out according to the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation">Application Layer Protocol Negotiation</a>. After a
+successful handshake, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol" title="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol()</span></code></a> method will
+return the agreed-upon protocol.</p>
+<p>This method will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.HAS_NPN" title="ssl.HAS_NPN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAS_NPN</span></code></a> is
+False.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">sni_callback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a callback function that will be called after the TLS Client Hello
+handshake message has been received by the SSL/TLS server when the TLS client
+specifies a server name indication. The server name indication mechanism
+is specified in <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6066.html"><strong>RFC 6066</strong></a> section 3 - Server Name Indication.</p>
+<p>Only one callback can be set per <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code>.  If <em>sni_callback</em>
+is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then the callback is disabled. Calling this function a
+subsequent time will disable the previously registered callback.</p>
+<p>The callback function will be called with three
+arguments; the first being the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></code></a>, the second is a string
+that represents the server name that the client is intending to communicate
+(or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if the TLS Client Hello does not contain a server name)
+and the third argument is the original <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>. The server name
+argument is text. For internationalized domain name, the server
+name is an IDN A-label (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xn--pythn-mua.org&quot;</span></code>).</p>
+<p>A typical use of this callback is to change the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></code></a>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.context" title="ssl.SSLSocket.context"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.context</span></code></a> attribute to a new object of type
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> representing a certificate chain that matches the server
+name.</p>
+<p>Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only limited
+methods and attributes are usable like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol" title="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.context" title="ssl.SSLSocket.context"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.context</span></code></a>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher" title="ssl.SSLSocket.cipher"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.cipher()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.compress()</span></code> methods require that
+the TLS connection has progressed beyond the TLS Client Hello and therefore
+will not contain return meaningful values nor can they be called safely.</p>
+<p>The <em>sni_callback</em> function must return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to allow the
+TLS negotiation to continue.  If a TLS failure is required, a constant
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR" title="ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*</span></code></a> can be
+returned.  Other return values will result in a TLS fatal error with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR" title="ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If an exception is raised from the <em>sni_callback</em> function the TLS
+connection will terminate with a fatal TLS alert message
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE" title="ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This method will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> if the OpenSSL library
+had OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT defined when it was built.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">set_servername_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_name_callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility. When possible,
+you should use <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback" title="ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sni_callback</span></code></a> instead. The given <em>server_name_callback</em>
+is similar to <em>sni_callback</em>, except that when the server hostname is an
+IDN-encoded internationalized domain name, the <em>server_name_callback</em>
+receives a decoded U-label (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;pythön.org&quot;</span></code>).</p>
+<p>If there is an decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection will
+terminate with an <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR" title="ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR</span></code></a> fatal TLS
+alert message to the client.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">load_dh_params</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dhfile</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange.
+Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the expense of
+computational resources (both on the server and on the client).
+The <em>dhfile</em> parameter should be the path to a file containing DH
+parameters in PEM format.</p>
+<p>This setting doesn’t apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE" title="ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_SINGLE_DH_USE</span></code></a> option to further improve security.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">set_ecdh_curve</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>curve_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key
+exchange.  ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while arguably
+as secure.  The <em>curve_name</em> parameter should be a string describing
+a well-known elliptic curve, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prime256v1</span></code> for a widely
+supported curve.</p>
+<p>This setting doesn’t apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE" title="ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE</span></code></a> option to further improve security.</p>
+<p>This method is not available if <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.HAS_ECDH" title="ssl.HAS_ECDH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAS_ECDH</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://vincent.bernat.im/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy">SSL/TLS &amp; Perfect Forward Secrecy</a></dt><dd><p>Vincent Bernat.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">wrap_socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>server_side=False</em>, <em>do_handshake_on_connect=True</em>, <em>suppress_ragged_eofs=True</em>, <em>server_hostname=None</em>, <em>session=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wrap an existing Python socket <em>sock</em> and return an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class" title="ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.sslsocket_class</span></code></a> (default <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>). The
+returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its settings and certificates.
+<em>sock</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> socket; other
+socket types are unsupported.</p>
+<p>The parameter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_side</span></code> is a boolean which identifies whether
+server-side or client-side behavior is desired from this socket.</p>
+<p>For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the
+underlying socket isn’t connected yet, the context construction will be
+performed after <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code> is called on the socket.  For
+server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is assumed
+to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping is
+automatically performed on client connections accepted via the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code> method. The method may raise <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>On client connections, the optional parameter <em>server_hostname</em> specifies
+the hostname of the service which we are connecting to.  This allows a
+single server to host multiple SSL-based services with distinct certificates,
+quite similarly to HTTP virtual hosts. Specifying <em>server_hostname</em> will
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>server_side</em> is true.</p>
+<p>The parameter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_handshake_on_connect</span></code> specifies whether to do the SSL
+handshake automatically after doing a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.connect()</span></code>, or whether the
+application program will call it explicitly, by invoking the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></code></a> method.  Calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></code></a> explicitly gives the program control over the
+blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in the handshake.</p>
+<p>The parameter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suppress_ragged_eofs</span></code> specifies how the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.recv()</span></code> method should signal unexpected EOF from the other end
+of the connection.  If specified as <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> (the default), it returns a
+normal EOF (an empty bytes object) in response to unexpected EOF errors
+raised from the underlying socket; if <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, it will raise the
+exceptions back to the caller.</p>
+<p><em>session</em>, see <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.session" title="ssl.SSLSocket.session"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">session</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Always allow a server_hostname to be passed, even if OpenSSL does not
+have SNI.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>session</em> argument was added.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The method returns on instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class" title="ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.sslsocket_class</span></code></a>
+instead of hard-coded <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">sslsocket_class</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sslsocket_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The return type of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>, defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>. The attribute can be overridden on instance of class
+in order to return a custom subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">wrap_bio</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>incoming</em>, <em>outgoing</em>, <em>server_side=False</em>, <em>server_hostname=None</em>, <em>session=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wrap the BIO objects <em>incoming</em> and <em>outgoing</em> and return an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class" title="ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.sslobject_class</span></code></a> (default <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a>). The SSL
+routines will read input data from the incoming BIO and write data to the
+outgoing BIO.</p>
+<p>The <em>server_side</em>, <em>server_hostname</em> and <em>session</em> parameters have the
+same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>session</em> argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The method returns on instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class" title="ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.sslobject_class</span></code></a>
+instead of hard-coded <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">sslobject_class</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.sslobject_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The return type of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_bio()</span></code></a>, defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a>. The attribute can be overridden on instance of class
+in order to return a custom subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.session_stats">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">session_stats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.session_stats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this context.
+A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each <a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_sess_number.html">piece of information</a> to their
+numeric values.  For example, here is the total number of hits and misses
+in the session cache since the context was created:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stats</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">session_stats</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stats</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;hits&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">stats</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;misses&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">check_hostname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether to match the peer cert’s hostname with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></code></a>. The context’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_mode</span></code></a> must be set to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" title="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_OPTIONAL</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>, and you must pass <em>server_hostname</em> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a> in order to match the hostname.  Enabling
+hostname checking automatically sets <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_mode</span></code></a> from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="ssl.CERT_NONE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>.  It cannot be set back to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="ssl.CERT_NONE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></code></a> as long as hostname checking is enabled.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
+
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLContext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verify_mode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CERT_REQUIRED</span>
+<span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_hostname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_default_certs</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">ssl_sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">server_hostname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.verisign.com&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.verisign.com&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">443</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_mode</span></code></a> is now automatically changed
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>  when hostname checking is enabled and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_mode</span></code></a> is <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="ssl.CERT_NONE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></code></a>. Previously
+the same operation would have failed with a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This features requires OpenSSL 0.9.8f or newer.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">maximum_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.TLSVersion" title="ssl.TLSVersion"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TLSVersion</span></code></a> enum member representing the highest supported
+TLS version. The value defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED" title="ssl.TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED</span></code></a>.
+The attribute is read-only for protocols other than <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The attributes <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maximum_version</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minimum_version</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.options" title="ssl.SSLContext.options"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.options</span></code></a> all affect the supported SSL
+and TLS versions of the context. The implementation does not prevent
+invalid combination. For example a context with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2" title="ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_TLSv1_2</span></code></a> in <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.options" title="ssl.SSLContext.options"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">options</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maximum_version</span></code></a> set to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2" title="ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TLSVersion.TLSv1_2</span></code></a>
+will not be able to establish a TLS 1.2 connection.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This attribute is not available unless the ssl module is compiled
+with OpenSSL 1.1.0g or newer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">minimum_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.maximum_version</span></code></a> except it is the lowest
+supported version or <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED" title="ssl.TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This attribute is not available unless the ssl module is compiled
+with OpenSSL 1.1.0g or newer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.options">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">options</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer representing the set of SSL options enabled on this context.
+The default value is <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_ALL" title="ssl.OP_ALL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_ALL</span></code></a>, but you can specify other options
+such as <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv2</span></code></a> by ORing them together.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>With versions of OpenSSL older than 0.9.8m, it is only possible
+to set options, not to clear them.  Attempting to clear an option
+(by resetting the corresponding bits) will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.options" title="ssl.SSLContext.options"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.options</span></code></a> returns <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.Options" title="ssl.Options"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Options</span></code></a> flags:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">options</span>  <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">post_handshake_auth</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable TLS 1.3 post-handshake client authentication. Post-handshake auth
+is disabled by default and a server can only request a TLS client
+certificate during the initial handshake. When enabled, a server may
+request a TLS client certificate at any time after the handshake.</p>
+<p>When enabled on client-side sockets, the client signals the server that
+it supports post-handshake authentication.</p>
+<p>When enabled on server-side sockets, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_mode</span></code></a> must
+be set to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" title="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_OPTIONAL</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>, too. The
+actual client cert exchange is delayed until
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake()</span></code></a> is called and some I/O is
+performed.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled. Without TLS 1.3
+support, the property value is None and can’t be modified</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.protocol">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">protocol</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.protocol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The protocol version chosen when constructing the context.  This attribute
+is read-only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">hostname_checks_common_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_hostname</span></code></a> falls back to verify the cert’s
+subject common name in the absence of a subject alternative name
+extension (default: true).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Only writeable with OpenSSL 1.1.0 or higher.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">verify_flags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The flags for certificate verification operations. You can set flags like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF" title="ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF</span></code></a> by ORing them together. By default OpenSSL
+does neither require nor verify certificate revocation lists (CRLs).
+Available only with openssl version 0.9.8+.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_flags</span></code></a> returns <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.VerifyFlags" title="ssl.VerifyFlags"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VerifyFlags</span></code></a> flags:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verify_flags</span>  <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode">
+<code class="descclassname">SSLContext.</code><code class="descname">verify_mode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whether to try to verify other peers’ certificates and how to behave
+if verification fails.  This attribute must be one of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="ssl.CERT_NONE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" title="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_OPTIONAL</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.verify_mode</span></code></a> returns <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.VerifyMode" title="ssl.VerifyMode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VerifyMode</span></code></a> enum:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verify_mode</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-15"></span></div>
+<div class="section" id="certificates">
+<span id="ssl-certificates"></span><span id="index-16"></span><h2>Certificates<a class="headerlink" href="#certificates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system.  In this
+system, each <em>principal</em>, (which may be a machine, or a person, or an
+organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key.  One part of the key
+is public, and is called the <em>public key</em>; the other part is kept secret, and is
+called the <em>private key</em>.  The two parts are related, in that if you encrypt a
+message with one of the parts, you can decrypt it with the other part, and
+<strong>only</strong> with the other part.</p>
+<p>A certificate contains information about two principals.  It contains the name
+of a <em>subject</em>, and the subject’s public key.  It also contains a statement by a
+second principal, the <em>issuer</em>, that the subject is who they claim to be, and
+that this is indeed the subject’s public key.  The issuer’s statement is signed
+with the issuer’s private key, which only the issuer knows.  However, anyone can
+verify the issuer’s statement by finding the issuer’s public key, decrypting the
+statement with it, and comparing it to the other information in the certificate.
+The certificate also contains information about the time period over which it is
+valid.  This is expressed as two fields, called “notBefore” and “notAfter”.</p>
+<p>In the Python use of certificates, a client or server can use a certificate to
+prove who they are.  The other side of a network connection can also be required
+to produce a certificate, and that certificate can be validated to the
+satisfaction of the client or server that requires such validation.  The
+connection attempt can be set to raise an exception if the validation fails.
+Validation is done automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the
+application need not concern itself with its mechanics.  But the application
+does usually need to provide sets of certificates to allow this process to take
+place.</p>
+<p>Python uses files to contain certificates.  They should be formatted as “PEM”
+(see <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1422.html"><strong>RFC 1422</strong></a>), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped with a header line
+and a footer line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">BEGIN</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">certificate</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">base64</span> <span class="n">PEM</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">END</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="certificate-chains">
+<h3>Certificate chains<a class="headerlink" href="#certificate-chains" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence of
+certificates, sometimes called a <em>certificate chain</em>.  This chain should start
+with the specific certificate for the principal who “is” the client or server,
+and then the certificate for the issuer of that certificate, and then the
+certificate for the issuer of <em>that</em> certificate, and so on up the chain till
+you get to a certificate which is <em>self-signed</em>, that is, a certificate which
+has the same subject and issuer, sometimes called a <em>root certificate</em>.  The
+certificates should just be concatenated together in the certificate file.  For
+example, suppose we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate
+to the certificate of the certification authority that signed our server
+certificate, to the root certificate of the agency which issued the
+certification authority’s certificate:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">BEGIN</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">certificate</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">your</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">END</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">BEGIN</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">certificate</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">CA</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">END</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">BEGIN</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">root</span> <span class="n">certificate</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">CA</span><span class="s1">&#39;s issuer)...</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">END</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ca-certificates">
+<h3>CA certificates<a class="headerlink" href="#ca-certificates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you are going to require validation of the other side of the connection’s
+certificate, you need to provide a “CA certs” file, filled with the certificate
+chains for each issuer you are willing to trust.  Again, this file just contains
+these chains concatenated together.  For validation, Python will use the first
+chain it finds in the file which matches.  The platform’s certificates file can
+be used by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_default_certs()</span></code></a>, this is done
+automatically with <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="combined-key-and-certificate">
+<h3>Combined key and certificate<a class="headerlink" href="#combined-key-and-certificate" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in this
+case, only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">certfile</span></code> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a> needs to be passed.  If the private key is stored
+with the certificate, it should come before the first certificate in
+the certificate chain:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">BEGIN</span> <span class="n">RSA</span> <span class="n">PRIVATE</span> <span class="n">KEY</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">private</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">base64</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">END</span> <span class="n">RSA</span> <span class="n">PRIVATE</span> <span class="n">KEY</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">BEGIN</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">certificate</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">base64</span> <span class="n">PEM</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span><span class="n">END</span> <span class="n">CERTIFICATE</span><span class="o">-----</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="self-signed-certificates">
+<h3>Self-signed certificates<a class="headerlink" href="#self-signed-certificates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted connection
+services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that service.  There are
+many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates, such as buying one from a
+certification authority.  Another common practice is to generate a self-signed
+certificate.  The simplest way to do this is with the OpenSSL package, using
+something like the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">openssl</span> <span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">new</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">x509</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">days</span> <span class="mi">365</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">nodes</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">out</span> <span class="n">cert</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pem</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">keyout</span> <span class="n">cert</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pem</span>
+<span class="n">Generating</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="mi">1024</span> <span class="n">bit</span> <span class="n">RSA</span> <span class="n">private</span> <span class="n">key</span>
+<span class="o">.......++++++</span>
+<span class="o">.............................++++++</span>
+<span class="n">writing</span> <span class="n">new</span> <span class="n">private</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cert.pem&#39;</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="n">You</span> <span class="n">are</span> <span class="n">about</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">asked</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">enter</span> <span class="n">information</span> <span class="n">that</span> <span class="n">will</span> <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">incorporated</span>
+<span class="n">into</span> <span class="n">your</span> <span class="n">certificate</span> <span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span>
+<span class="n">What</span> <span class="n">you</span> <span class="n">are</span> <span class="n">about</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">enter</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">what</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">called</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">Distinguished</span> <span class="n">Name</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">DN</span><span class="o">.</span>
+<span class="n">There</span> <span class="n">are</span> <span class="n">quite</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">few</span> <span class="n">fields</span> <span class="n">but</span> <span class="n">you</span> <span class="n">can</span> <span class="n">leave</span> <span class="n">some</span> <span class="n">blank</span>
+<span class="n">For</span> <span class="n">some</span> <span class="n">fields</span> <span class="n">there</span> <span class="n">will</span> <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">default</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="n">If</span> <span class="n">you</span> <span class="n">enter</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">field</span> <span class="n">will</span> <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">left</span> <span class="n">blank</span><span class="o">.</span>
+<span class="o">-----</span>
+<span class="n">Country</span> <span class="n">Name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="n">letter</span> <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">AU</span><span class="p">]:</span><span class="n">US</span>
+<span class="n">State</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">Province</span> <span class="n">Name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">full</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Some</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">State</span><span class="p">]:</span><span class="n">MyState</span>
+<span class="n">Locality</span> <span class="n">Name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">eg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">city</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">[]:</span><span class="n">Some</span> <span class="n">City</span>
+<span class="n">Organization</span> <span class="n">Name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">eg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">company</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Internet</span> <span class="n">Widgits</span> <span class="n">Pty</span> <span class="n">Ltd</span><span class="p">]:</span><span class="n">My</span> <span class="n">Organization</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Inc</span><span class="o">.</span>
+<span class="n">Organizational</span> <span class="n">Unit</span> <span class="n">Name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">eg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">section</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">[]:</span><span class="n">My</span> <span class="n">Group</span>
+<span class="n">Common</span> <span class="n">Name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">eg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">YOUR</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">[]:</span><span class="n">myserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mygroup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">myorganization</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">com</span>
+<span class="n">Email</span> <span class="n">Address</span> <span class="p">[]:</span><span class="n">ops</span><span class="nd">@myserver</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mygroup</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">myorganization</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">com</span>
+<span class="o">%</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its own root
+certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache of known (and trusted)
+root certificates.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="testing-for-ssl-support">
+<h3>Testing for SSL support<a class="headerlink" href="#testing-for-ssl-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user code
+should use the following idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># do something that requires SSL support</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="client-side-operation">
+<h3>Client-side operation<a class="headerlink" href="#client-side-operation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This example creates a SSL context with the recommended security settings
+for client sockets, including automatic certificate verification:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you prefer to tune security settings yourself, you might create
+a context from scratch (but beware that you might not get the settings
+right):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLContext</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verify_mode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CERT_REQUIRED</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_hostname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_verify_locations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(this snippet assumes your operating system places a bundle of all CA
+certificates in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt</span></code>; if not, you’ll get an
+error and have to adjust the location)</p>
+<p>When you use the context to connect to a server, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>
+validates the server certificate: it ensures that the server certificate
+was signed with one of the CA certificates, and checks the signature for
+correctness:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                           <span class="n">server_hostname</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;www.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;www.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">443</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You may then fetch the certificate:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cert</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpeercert</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Visual inspection shows that the certificate does identify the desired service
+(that is, the HTTPS host <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www.python.org</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cert</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;OCSP&#39;: (&#39;http://ocsp.digicert.com&#39;,),</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;caIssuers&#39;: (&#39;http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt&#39;,),</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;crlDistributionPoints&#39;: (&#39;http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                           &#39;http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;issuer&#39;: (((&#39;countryName&#39;, &#39;US&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">            ((&#39;organizationName&#39;, &#39;DigiCert Inc&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">            ((&#39;organizationalUnitName&#39;, &#39;www.digicert.com&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">            ((&#39;commonName&#39;, &#39;DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA&#39;),)),</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;notAfter&#39;: &#39;Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;notBefore&#39;: &#39;Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;serialNumber&#39;: &#39;01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;subject&#39;: (((&#39;businessCategory&#39;, &#39;Private Organization&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3&#39;, &#39;US&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2&#39;, &#39;Delaware&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;serialNumber&#39;, &#39;3359300&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;streetAddress&#39;, &#39;16 Allen Rd&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;postalCode&#39;, &#39;03894-4801&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;countryName&#39;, &#39;US&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;stateOrProvinceName&#39;, &#39;NH&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;localityName&#39;, &#39;Wolfeboro,&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;organizationName&#39;, &#39;Python Software Foundation&#39;),),</span>
+<span class="go">             ((&#39;commonName&#39;, &#39;www.python.org&#39;),)),</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;subjectAltName&#39;: ((&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;www.python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;pypi.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;docs.python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;testpypi.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;bugs.python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;wiki.python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;hg.python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;mail.python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;packaging.python.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;pythonhosted.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;www.pythonhosted.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;test.pythonhosted.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;us.pycon.org&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go">                    (&#39;DNS&#39;, &#39;id.python.org&#39;)),</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;version&#39;: 3}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now the SSL channel is established and the certificate verified, you can
+proceed to talk with the server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;HEAD / HTTP/1.0</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">Host: linuxfr.org</span><span class="se">\r\n\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;HTTP/1.1 200 OK&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Server: nginx&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Content-Length: 45679&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Accept-Ranges: bytes&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Via: 1.1 varnish&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Age: 2188&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;X-Cache: HIT&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;X-Cache-Hits: 11&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Vary: Cookie&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;Connection: close&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> b&#39;&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See the discussion of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-security"><span class="std std-ref">Security considerations</span></a> below.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="server-side-operation">
+<h3>Server-side operation<a class="headerlink" href="#server-side-operation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For server operation, typically you’ll need to have a server certificate, and
+private key, each in a file.  You’ll first create a context holding the key
+and the certificate, so that clients can check your authenticity.  Then
+you’ll open a socket, bind it to a port, call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code> on it, and start
+waiting for clients to connect:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
+
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Purpose</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CLIENT_AUTH</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_cert_chain</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">certfile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;mycertfile&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keyfile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;mykeyfile&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">bindsocket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">bindsocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;myaddr.mydomain.com&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10023</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">bindsocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When a client connects, you’ll call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code> on the socket to get the
+new socket from the other end, and use the context’s <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>
+method to create a server-side SSL socket for the connection:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">newsocket</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromaddr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bindsocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">connstream</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newsocket</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">server_side</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">deal_with_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connstream</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">connstream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shutdown</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SHUT_RDWR</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">connstream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then you’ll read data from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connstream</span></code> and do something with it till you
+are finished with the client (or the client is finished with you):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">deal_with_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connstream</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connstream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># empty data means the client is finished with us</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connstream</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="c1"># we&#39;ll assume do_something returns False</span>
+            <span class="c1"># when we&#39;re finished with client</span>
+            <span class="k">break</span>
+        <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connstream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">recv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># finished with client</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And go back to listening for new client connections (of course, a real server
+would probably handle each client connection in a separate thread, or put
+the sockets in <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">non-blocking mode</span></a> and use an event loop).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notes-on-non-blocking-sockets">
+<span id="ssl-nonblocking"></span><h2>Notes on non-blocking sockets<a class="headerlink" href="#notes-on-non-blocking-sockets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>SSL sockets behave slightly different than regular sockets in
+non-blocking mode. When working with non-blocking sockets, there are
+thus several things you need to be aware of:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Most <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> methods will raise either
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> if an I/O operation would
+block. <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> will be raised if a read operation on
+the underlying socket is necessary, and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a> for
+a write operation on the underlying socket. Note that attempts to
+<em>write</em> to an SSL socket may require <em>reading</em> from the underlying
+socket first, and attempts to <em>read</em> from the SSL socket may require
+a prior <em>write</em> to the underlying socket.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>In earlier Python versions, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.send()</span></code> method
+returned zero instead of raising <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantReadError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a> tells you that the OS-level socket can be
+read from (or written to), but it does not imply that there is sufficient
+data at the upper SSL layer.  For example, only part of an SSL frame might
+have arrived.  Therefore, you must be ready to handle <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.recv()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.send()</span></code> failures, and retry after another call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Conversely, since the SSL layer has its own framing, a SSL socket may
+still have data available for reading without <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a>
+being aware of it.  Therefore, you should first call
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.recv()</span></code> to drain any potentially available data, and then
+only block on a <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a> call if still necessary.</p>
+<p>(of course, similar provisions apply when using other primitives such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.poll" title="select.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a>, or those in the <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> module)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The SSL handshake itself will be non-blocking: the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></code></a> method has to be retried until it returns
+successfully.  Here is a synopsis using <a class="reference internal" href="select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a> to wait for
+the socket’s readiness:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">do_handshake</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLWantReadError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[],</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLWantWriteError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">([],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sock</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module supports <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">non-blocking SSL sockets</span></a> and provides a
+higher level API. It polls for events using the <a class="reference internal" href="selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> module and
+handles <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a> exceptions. It runs the SSL handshake asynchronously
+as well.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="memory-bio-support">
+<h2>Memory BIO Support<a class="headerlink" href="#memory-bio-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Ever since the SSL module was introduced in Python 2.6, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>
+class has provided two related but distinct areas of functionality:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>SSL protocol handling</p></li>
+<li><p>Network IO</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The network IO API is identical to that provided by <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a>,
+from which <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> also inherits. This allows an SSL socket to be
+used as a drop-in replacement for a regular socket, making it very easy to add
+SSL support to an existing application.</p>
+<p>Combining SSL protocol handling and network IO usually works well, but there
+are some cases where it doesn’t. An example is async IO frameworks that want to
+use a different IO multiplexing model than the “select/poll on a file
+descriptor” (readiness based) model that is assumed by <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a>
+and by the internal OpenSSL socket IO routines. This is mostly relevant for
+platforms like Windows where this model is not efficient. For this purpose, a
+reduced scope variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> called <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> is
+provided.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLObject">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLObject</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A reduced-scope variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> representing an SSL protocol
+instance that does not contain any network IO methods. This class is
+typically used by framework authors that want to implement asynchronous IO
+for SSL through memory buffers.</p>
+<p>This class implements an interface on top of a low-level SSL object as
+implemented by OpenSSL. This object captures the state of an SSL connection
+but does not provide any network IO itself. IO needs to be performed through
+separate “BIO” objects which are OpenSSL’s IO abstraction layer.</p>
+<p>This class has no public constructor.  An <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> instance
+must be created using the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_bio()</span></code></a> method. This
+method will create the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> instance and bind it to a
+pair of BIOs. The <em>incoming</em> BIO is used to pass data from Python to the
+SSL protocol instance, while the <em>outgoing</em> BIO is used to pass data the
+other way around.</p>
+<p>The following methods are available:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.context" title="ssl.SSLSocket.context"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.server_side" title="ssl.SSLSocket.server_side"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_side</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname" title="ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_hostname</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.session" title="ssl.SSLSocket.session"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">session</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.session_reused" title="ssl.SSLSocket.session_reused"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">session_reused</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="ssl.SSLSocket.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.write" title="ssl.SSLSocket.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpeercert()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol" title="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selected_npn_protocol()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher" title="ssl.SSLSocket.cipher"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cipher()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shared_ciphers()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.compression" title="ssl.SSLSocket.compression"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compression()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.pending" title="ssl.SSLSocket.pending"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pending()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_handshake()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap" title="ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unwrap()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding" title="ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_channel_binding()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When compared to <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>, this object lacks the following
+features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Any form of network IO; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code> read and write only to
+the underlying <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO" title="ssl.MemoryBIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryBIO</span></code></a> buffers.</p></li>
+<li><p>There is no <em>do_handshake_on_connect</em> machinery. You must always manually
+call <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_handshake()</span></code></a> to start the handshake.</p></li>
+<li><p>There is no handling of <em>suppress_ragged_eofs</em>. All end-of-file conditions
+that are in violation of the protocol are reported via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLEOFError" title="ssl.SSLEOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLEOFError</span></code></a> exception.</p></li>
+<li><p>The method <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap" title="ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unwrap()</span></code></a> call does not return anything,
+unlike for an SSL socket where it returns the underlying socket.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>server_name_callback</em> callback passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_servername_callback()</span></code></a> will get an <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a>
+instance instead of a <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> instance as its first parameter.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Some notes related to the use of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>All IO on an <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> is <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-nonblocking"><span class="std std-ref">non-blocking</span></a>.
+This means that for example <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="ssl.SSLSocket.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> will raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> if it needs more data than the incoming BIO has
+available.</p></li>
+<li><p>There is no module-level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_bio()</span></code> call like there is for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a>. An <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> is always created
+via an <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> instances must to created with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_bio()</span></code></a>. In earlier versions, it was possible to
+create instances directly. This was never documented or officially
+supported.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An SSLObject communicates with the outside world using memory buffers. The
+class <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO" title="ssl.MemoryBIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryBIO</span></code></a> provides a memory buffer that can be used for this
+purpose.  It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO) object:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.MemoryBIO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">MemoryBIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A memory buffer that can be used to pass data between Python and an SSL
+protocol instance.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.MemoryBIO.pending">
+<code class="descname">pending</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO.pending" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of bytes currently in the memory buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.MemoryBIO.eof">
+<code class="descname">eof</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO.eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the end-of-file
+position.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.MemoryBIO.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read up to <em>n</em> bytes from the memory buffer. If <em>n</em> is not specified or
+negative, all bytes are returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.MemoryBIO.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buf</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the bytes from <em>buf</em> to the memory BIO. The <em>buf</em> argument must be an
+object supporting the buffer protocol.</p>
+<p>The return value is the number of bytes written, which is always equal to
+the length of <em>buf</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="ssl.MemoryBIO.write_eof">
+<code class="descname">write_eof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO.write_eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write an EOF marker to the memory BIO. After this method has been called, it
+is illegal to call <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO.write" title="ssl.MemoryBIO.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>. The attribute <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.MemoryBIO.eof" title="ssl.MemoryBIO.eof"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eof</span></code></a> will
+become true after all data currently in the buffer has been read.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl-session">
+<h2>SSL session<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl-session" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSession">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">ssl.</code><code class="descname">SSLSession</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSession" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Session object used by <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.session" title="ssl.SSLSocket.session"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">session</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSession.id">
+<code class="descname">id</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSession.id" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSession.time">
+<code class="descname">time</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSession.time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSession.timeout">
+<code class="descname">timeout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSession.timeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSession.ticket_lifetime_hint">
+<code class="descname">ticket_lifetime_hint</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSession.ticket_lifetime_hint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="ssl.SSLSession.has_ticket">
+<code class="descname">has_ticket</code><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSession.has_ticket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="security-considerations">
+<span id="ssl-security"></span><h2>Security considerations<a class="headerlink" href="#security-considerations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="best-defaults">
+<h3>Best defaults<a class="headerlink" href="#best-defaults" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For <strong>client use</strong>, if you don’t have any special requirements for your
+security policy, it is highly recommended that you use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a> function to create your SSL context.
+It will load the system’s trusted CA certificates, enable certificate
+validation and hostname checking, and try to choose reasonably secure
+protocol and cipher settings.</p>
+<p>For example, here is how you would use the <a class="reference internal" href="smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib.SMTP</span></code></a> class to
+create a trusted, secure connection to a SMTP server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">smtp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;mail.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">587</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">smtp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">starttls</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(220, b&#39;2.0.0 Ready to start TLS&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a client certificate is needed for the connection, it can be added with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>By contrast, if you create the SSL context by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>
+constructor yourself, it will not have certificate validation nor hostname
+checking enabled by default.  If you do so, please read the paragraphs below
+to achieve a good security level.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="manual-settings">
+<h3>Manual settings<a class="headerlink" href="#manual-settings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="verifying-certificates">
+<h4>Verifying certificates<a class="headerlink" href="#verifying-certificates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>When calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> constructor directly,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="ssl.CERT_NONE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></code></a> is the default.  Since it does not authenticate the other
+peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of time you
+would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you’re talking to.
+Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a>.  However, it is in itself not sufficient; you also
+have to check that the server certificate, which can be obtained by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a>, matches the desired service.  For many
+protocols and applications, the service can be identified by the hostname;
+in this case, the <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> function can be used.  This common
+check is automatically performed when <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname" title="ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.check_hostname</span></code></a> is
+enabled.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Hostname matchings is now performed by OpenSSL. Python no longer uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL layer
+(rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism), you’ll also have
+to specify <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></code></a> and similarly check the client certificate.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="protocol-versions">
+<h4>Protocol versions<a class="headerlink" href="#protocol-versions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>SSL versions 2 and 3 are considered insecure and are therefore dangerous to
+use.  If you want maximum compatibility between clients and servers, it is
+recommended to use <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER</span></code></a> as the protocol version. SSLv2 and SSLv3 are
+disabled by default.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">client_context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLContext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">client_context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">options</span> <span class="o">|=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OP_NO_TLSv1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">client_context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">options</span> <span class="o">|=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">OP_NO_TLSv1_1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.2 and later (if
+supported by your system) connections to a server. <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT</span></code></a>
+implies certificate validation and hostname checks by default. You have to
+load certificates into the context.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cipher-selection">
+<h4>Cipher selection<a class="headerlink" href="#cipher-selection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers
+enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_ciphers()</span></code></a> method.  Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
+ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want
+to further restrict the cipher choice. Be sure to read OpenSSL’s documentation
+about the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT">cipher list format</a>.
+If you want to check which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.get_ciphers()</span></code></a> or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openssl</span> <span class="pre">ciphers</span></code> command on your
+system.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multi-processing">
+<h3>Multi-processing<a class="headerlink" href="#multi-processing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using,
+for example the <a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> modules),
+be aware that OpenSSL’s internal random number generator does not properly
+handle forked processes.  Applications must change the PRNG state of the
+parent process if they use any SSL feature with <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a>.  Any
+successful call of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_add" title="ssl.RAND_add"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RAND_add()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_bytes" title="ssl.RAND_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RAND_bytes()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes" title="ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RAND_pseudo_bytes()</span></code></a> is sufficient.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tls-1-3">
+<span id="ssl-tlsv1-3"></span><h2>TLS 1.3<a class="headerlink" href="#tls-1-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Python has provisional and experimental support for TLS 1.3 with OpenSSL
+1.1.1.  The new protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version
+of TLS/SSL.  Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>TLS 1.3 uses a disjunct set of cipher suites. All AES-GCM and
+ChaCha20 cipher suites are enabled by default.  The method
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_ciphers()</span></code></a> cannot enable or disable any TLS 1.3
+ciphers yet, but <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.get_ciphers()</span></code></a> returns them.</p></li>
+<li><p>Session tickets are no longer sent as part of the initial handshake and
+are handled differently.  <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.session" title="ssl.SSLSocket.session"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.session</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSession" title="ssl.SSLSession"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSession</span></code></a>
+are not compatible with TLS 1.3.</p></li>
+<li><p>Client-side certificates are also no longer verified during the initial
+handshake.  A server can request a certificate at any time.  Clients
+process certificate requests while they send or receive application data
+from the server.</p></li>
+<li><p>TLS 1.3 features like early data, deferred TLS client cert request,
+signature algorithm configuration, and rekeying are not supported yet.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="libressl-support">
+<span id="ssl-libressl"></span><h2>LibreSSL support<a class="headerlink" href="#libressl-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>LibreSSL is a fork of OpenSSL 1.0.1. The ssl module has limited support for
+LibreSSL. Some features are not available when the ssl module is compiled
+with LibreSSL.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>LibreSSL &gt;= 2.6.1 no longer supports NPN. The methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_npn_protocols()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol" title="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol()</span></code></a> are not available.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()</span></code></a> ignores the env vars
+<span class="target" id="index-18"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSL_CERT_FILE</span></code> and <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSL_CERT_PATH</span></code> although
+<a class="reference internal" href="#ssl.get_default_verify_paths" title="ssl.get_default_verify_paths"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_default_verify_paths()</span></code></a> still reports them.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Class <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Documentation of underlying <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> class</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html">SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction</a></dt><dd><p>Intro from the Apache HTTP Server documentation</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1422.html"><strong>RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Steve Kent</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4086.html"><strong>RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security</strong></a></dt><dd><p>Donald E., Jeffrey I. Schiller</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5280.html"><strong>RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile</strong></a></dt><dd><p>D. Cooper</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5246.html"><strong>RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2</strong></a></dt><dd><p>T. Dierks et. al.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6066.html"><strong>RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions</strong></a></dt><dd><p>D. Eastlake</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml">IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters</a></dt><dd><p>IANA</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7525.html"><strong>RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)</strong></a></dt><dd><p>IETF</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS">Mozilla’s Server Side TLS recommendations</a></dt><dd><p>Mozilla</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions-constants-and-exceptions">Functions, Constants, and Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket-creation">Socket creation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#context-creation">Context creation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#random-generation">Random generation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#certificate-handling">Certificate handling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-sockets">SSL Sockets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-contexts">SSL Contexts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#certificates">Certificates</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#certificate-chains">Certificate chains</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ca-certificates">CA certificates</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#combined-key-and-certificate">Combined key and certificate</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#self-signed-certificates">Self-signed certificates</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#testing-for-ssl-support">Testing for SSL support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#client-side-operation">Client-side operation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#server-side-operation">Server-side operation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes-on-non-blocking-sockets">Notes on non-blocking sockets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#memory-bio-support">Memory BIO Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-session">SSL session</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#security-considerations">Security considerations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#best-defaults">Best defaults</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#manual-settings">Manual settings</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#verifying-certificates">Verifying certificates</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#protocol-versions">Protocol versions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cipher-selection">Cipher selection</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multi-processing">Multi-processing</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tls-1-3">TLS 1.3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#libressl-support">LibreSSL support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="socket.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code> — Low-level networking interface</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="select.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/stat.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/stat.html
new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-stat">
+<span id="stat-interpreting-stat-results"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> — Interpreting <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a> results<a class="headerlink" href="#module-stat" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/stat.py">Lib/stat.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module defines constants and functions for interpreting the
+results of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fstat()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat()</span></code></a> (if they
+exist).  For complete details about the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstat()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstat()</span></code> calls, consult the documentation for your system.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The stat module is backed by a C implementation.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module defines the following functions to test for specific file
+types:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISDIR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISDIR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISDIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISCHR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISCHR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISCHR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a character special device file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISBLK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISBLK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISBLK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a block special device file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISREG">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISREG</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISREG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a regular file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISFIFO">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISFIFO</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISFIFO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a FIFO (named pipe).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISLNK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISLNK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISLNK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a symbolic link.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISSOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISSOCK</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISSOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a socket.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISDOOR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISDOOR</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISDOOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a door.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISPORT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISPORT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISPORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from an event port.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISWHT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISWHT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISWHT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return non-zero if the mode is from a whiteout.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Two additional functions are defined for more general manipulation of the file’s
+mode:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_IMODE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IMODE</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IMODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the portion of the file’s mode that can be set by
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod()</span></code></a>—that is, the file’s permission bits, plus the sticky
+bit, set-group-id, and set-user-id bits (on systems that support them).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFMT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFMT</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the portion of the file’s mode that describes the file type (used by the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IS*()</span></code> functions above).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Normally, you would use the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.is*()</span></code> functions for testing the type
+of a file; the functions here are useful when you are doing multiple tests of
+the same file and wish to avoid the overhead of the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> system call
+for each test.  These are also useful when checking for information about a file
+that isn’t handled by <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a>, like the tests for block and character
+devices.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">stat</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">walktree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&#39;&#39;&#39;recursively descend the directory tree rooted at top,</span>
+<span class="sd">       calling the callback function for each regular file&#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">pathname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">mode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pathname</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_mode</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">S_ISDIR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="c1"># It&#39;s a directory, recurse into it</span>
+            <span class="n">walktree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pathname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">S_ISREG</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="c1"># It&#39;s a file, call the callback function</span>
+            <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pathname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Unknown file type, print a message</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Skipping </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">pathname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">visitfile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;visiting&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">walktree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">visitfile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An additional utility function is provided to convert a file’s mode in a human
+readable string:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stat.filemode">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">filemode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.filemode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a file’s mode to a string of the form ‘-rwxrwxrwx’.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The function supports <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IFDOOR" title="stat.S_IFDOOR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFDOOR</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IFPORT" title="stat.S_IFPORT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFPORT</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IFWHT" title="stat.S_IFWHT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFWHT</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple returned
+by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fstat()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_MODE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_MODE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_MODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Inode protection mode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_INO">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_INO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_INO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Inode number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_DEV">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_DEV</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_DEV" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Device inode resides on.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_NLINK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_NLINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_NLINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of links to the inode.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_UID">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_UID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_UID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>User id of the owner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_GID">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_GID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_GID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Group id of the owner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Size in bytes of a plain file; amount of data waiting on some special files.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_ATIME">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_ATIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_ATIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of last access.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_MTIME">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_MTIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_MTIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of last modification.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.ST_CTIME">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">ST_CTIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.ST_CTIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The “ctime” as reported by the operating system.  On some systems (like Unix) is
+the time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is the
+creation time (see platform documentation for details).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The interpretation of “file size” changes according to the file type.  For plain
+files this is the size of the file in bytes.  For FIFOs and sockets under most
+flavors of Unix (including Linux in particular), the “size” is the number of
+bytes waiting to be read at the time of the call to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fstat()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat()</span></code></a>; this can sometimes be useful, especially
+for polling one of these special files after a non-blocking open.  The meaning
+of the size field for other character and block devices varies more, depending
+on the implementation of the underlying system call.</p>
+<p>The variables below define the flags used in the <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.ST_MODE" title="stat.ST_MODE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_MODE</span></code></a> field.</p>
+<p>Use of the functions above is more portable than use of the first set of flags:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFSOCK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFSOCK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFSOCK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Socket.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFLNK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFLNK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFLNK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Symbolic link.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFREG">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFREG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFREG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Regular file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFBLK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFBLK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFBLK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Block device.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFDIR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFDIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFDIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFCHR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFCHR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFCHR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Character device.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFIFO">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFIFO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFIFO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>FIFO.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFDOOR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFDOOR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFDOOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Door.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFPORT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFPORT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFPORT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Event port.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IFWHT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IFWHT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IFWHT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Whiteout.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IFDOOR" title="stat.S_IFDOOR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFDOOR</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IFPORT" title="stat.S_IFPORT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFPORT</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IFWHT" title="stat.S_IFWHT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFWHT</span></code></a> are defined as
+0 when the platform does not have support for the file types.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The following flags can also be used in the <em>mode</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISUID">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISUID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISUID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set UID bit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISGID">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISGID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISGID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set-group-ID bit.  This bit has several special uses.  For a directory
+it indicates that BSD semantics is to be used for that directory:
+files created there inherit their group ID from the directory, not
+from the effective group ID of the creating process, and directories
+created there will also get the <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_ISGID" title="stat.S_ISGID"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_ISGID</span></code></a> bit set.  For a
+file that does not have the group execution bit (<a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IXGRP" title="stat.S_IXGRP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IXGRP</span></code></a>)
+set, the set-group-ID bit indicates mandatory file/record locking
+(see also <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_ENFMT" title="stat.S_ENFMT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_ENFMT</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_ISVTX">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ISVTX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ISVTX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sticky bit.  When this bit is set on a directory it means that a file
+in that directory can be renamed or deleted only by the owner of the
+file, by the owner of the directory, or by a privileged process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IRWXU">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IRWXU</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IRWXU" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mask for file owner permissions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IRUSR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IRUSR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IRUSR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Owner has read permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IWUSR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IWUSR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IWUSR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Owner has write permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IXUSR">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IXUSR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IXUSR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Owner has execute permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IRWXG">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IRWXG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IRWXG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mask for group permissions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IRGRP">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IRGRP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IRGRP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Group has read permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IWGRP">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IWGRP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IWGRP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Group has write permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IXGRP">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IXGRP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IXGRP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Group has execute permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IRWXO">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IRWXO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IRWXO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mask for permissions for others (not in group).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IROTH">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IROTH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IROTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Others have read permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IWOTH">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IWOTH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IWOTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Others have write permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IXOTH">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IXOTH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IXOTH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Others have execute permission.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_ENFMT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_ENFMT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_ENFMT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>System V file locking enforcement.  This flag is shared with <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_ISGID" title="stat.S_ISGID"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_ISGID</span></code></a>:
+file/record locking is enforced on files that do not have the group
+execution bit (<a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IXGRP" title="stat.S_IXGRP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IXGRP</span></code></a>) set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IREAD">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IREAD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IREAD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unix V7 synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IRUSR" title="stat.S_IRUSR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IRUSR</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IWRITE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IWRITE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IWRITE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unix V7 synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IWUSR" title="stat.S_IWUSR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IWUSR</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.S_IEXEC">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">S_IEXEC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.S_IEXEC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unix V7 synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#stat.S_IXUSR" title="stat.S_IXUSR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IXUSR</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following flags can be used in the <em>flags</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.chflags" title="os.chflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chflags()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.UF_NODUMP">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">UF_NODUMP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.UF_NODUMP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do not dump the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.UF_IMMUTABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">UF_IMMUTABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.UF_IMMUTABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file may not be changed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.UF_APPEND">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">UF_APPEND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.UF_APPEND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file may only be appended to.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.UF_OPAQUE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">UF_OPAQUE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.UF_OPAQUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.UF_NOUNLINK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">UF_NOUNLINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.UF_NOUNLINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file may not be renamed or deleted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.UF_COMPRESSED">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">UF_COMPRESSED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.UF_COMPRESSED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file is stored compressed (Mac OS X 10.6+).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.UF_HIDDEN">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">UF_HIDDEN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.UF_HIDDEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file should not be displayed in a GUI (Mac OS X 10.5+).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.SF_ARCHIVED">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">SF_ARCHIVED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.SF_ARCHIVED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file may be archived.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.SF_IMMUTABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">SF_IMMUTABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.SF_IMMUTABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file may not be changed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.SF_APPEND">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">SF_APPEND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.SF_APPEND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file may only be appended to.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.SF_NOUNLINK">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">SF_NOUNLINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.SF_NOUNLINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file may not be renamed or deleted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.SF_SNAPSHOT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">SF_SNAPSHOT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.SF_SNAPSHOT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file is a snapshot file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See the *BSD or Mac OS systems man page <em class="manpage">chflags(2)</em> for more information.</p>
+<p>On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use when
+testing bits in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_file_attributes</span></code> member returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>.
+See the <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx">Windows API documentation</a>
+for more detail on the meaning of these constants.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">stat.</code><code class="descname">FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="fileinput.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code> — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-statistics">
+<span id="statistics-mathematical-statistics-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-statistics" title="statistics: mathematical statistics functions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code></a> — Mathematical statistics functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-statistics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/statistics.py">Lib/statistics.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides functions for calculating mathematical statistics of
+numeric (<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Real</span></code>-valued) data.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unless explicitly noted otherwise, these functions support <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a>.
+Behaviour with other types (whether in the numeric tower or not) is
+currently unsupported.  Mixed types are also undefined and
+implementation-dependent.  If your input data consists of mixed types,
+you may be able to use <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> to ensure a consistent result, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(float,</span> <span class="pre">input_data)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="averages-and-measures-of-central-location">
+<h2>Averages and measures of central location<a class="headerlink" href="#averages-and-measures-of-central-location" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions calculate an average or typical value from a population
+or sample.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 34%" />
+<col style="width: 66%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.mean" title="statistics.mean"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mean()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Arithmetic mean (“average”) of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.harmonic_mean" title="statistics.harmonic_mean"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">harmonic_mean()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Harmonic mean of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median" title="statistics.median"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Median (middle value) of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_low" title="statistics.median_low"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_low()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Low median of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_high" title="statistics.median_high"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_high()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>High median of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_grouped" title="statistics.median_grouped"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_grouped()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Median, or 50th percentile, of grouped data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.mode" title="statistics.mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Mode (most common value) of discrete data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="measures-of-spread">
+<h2>Measures of spread<a class="headerlink" href="#measures-of-spread" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These functions calculate a measure of how much the population or sample
+tends to deviate from the typical or average values.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 34%" />
+<col style="width: 66%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.pstdev" title="statistics.pstdev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstdev()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Population standard deviation of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.pvariance" title="statistics.pvariance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pvariance()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Population variance of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.stdev" title="statistics.stdev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdev()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Sample standard deviation of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.variance" title="statistics.variance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variance()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Sample variance of data.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="function-details">
+<h2>Function details<a class="headerlink" href="#function-details" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Note: The functions do not require the data given to them to be sorted.
+However, for reading convenience, most of the examples show sorted sequences.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.mean">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">mean</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.mean" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sample arithmetic mean of <em>data</em> which can be a sequence or iterator.</p>
+<p>The arithmetic mean is the sum of the data divided by the number of data
+points.  It is commonly called “the average”, although it is only one of many
+different mathematical averages.  It is a measure of the central location of
+the data.</p>
+<p>If <em>data</em> is empty, <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p>Some examples of use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">2.8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.75</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">2.625</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">F</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">21</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(13, 21)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">D</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;0.5&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;0.75&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;0.625&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;0.375&quot;</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.5625&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The mean is strongly affected by outliers and is not a robust estimator
+for central location: the mean is not necessarily a typical example of the
+data points.  For more robust, although less efficient, measures of
+central location, see <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median" title="statistics.median"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.mode" title="statistics.mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode()</span></code></a>.  (In this case,
+“efficient” refers to statistical efficiency rather than computational
+efficiency.)</p>
+<p>The sample mean gives an unbiased estimate of the true population mean,
+which means that, taken on average over all the possible samples,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mean(sample)</span></code> converges on the true mean of the entire population.  If
+<em>data</em> represents the entire population rather than a sample, then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mean(data)</span></code> is equivalent to calculating the true population mean μ.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.harmonic_mean">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">harmonic_mean</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.harmonic_mean" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the harmonic mean of <em>data</em>, a sequence or iterator of
+real-valued numbers.</p>
+<p>The harmonic mean, sometimes called the subcontrary mean, is the
+reciprocal of the arithmetic <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.mean" title="statistics.mean"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mean()</span></code></a> of the reciprocals of the
+data. For example, the harmonic mean of three values <em>a</em>, <em>b</em> and <em>c</em>
+will be equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3/(1/a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1/b</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1/c)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The harmonic mean is a type of average, a measure of the central
+location of the data.  It is often appropriate when averaging quantities
+which are rates or ratios, for example speeds. For example:</p>
+<p>Suppose an investor purchases an equal value of shares in each of
+three companies, with P/E (price/earning) ratios of 2.5, 3 and 10.
+What is the average P/E ratio for the investor’s portfolio?</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">harmonic_mean</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">])</span>  <span class="c1"># For an equal investment portfolio.</span>
+<span class="go">3.6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using the arithmetic mean would give an average of about 5.167, which
+is too high.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>data</em> is empty, or any element
+is less than zero.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.median">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">median</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.median" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the median (middle value) of numeric data, using the common “mean of
+middle two” method.  If <em>data</em> is empty, <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a> is raised.
+<em>data</em> can be a sequence or iterator.</p>
+<p>The median is a robust measure of central location, and is less affected by
+the presence of outliers in your data.  When the number of data points is
+odd, the middle data point is returned:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When the number of data points is even, the median is interpolated by taking
+the average of the two middle values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">4.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is suited for when your data is discrete, and you don’t mind that the
+median may not be an actual data point.</p>
+<p>If your data is ordinal (supports order operations) but not numeric (doesn’t
+support addition), you should use <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_low" title="statistics.median_low"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_low()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_high" title="statistics.median_high"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_high()</span></code></a>
+instead.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_low" title="statistics.median_low"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_low()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_high" title="statistics.median_high"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_high()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_grouped" title="statistics.median_grouped"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_grouped()</span></code></a></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.median_low">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">median_low</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.median_low" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the low median of numeric data.  If <em>data</em> is empty,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a> is raised.  <em>data</em> can be a sequence or iterator.</p>
+<p>The low median is always a member of the data set.  When the number of data
+points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When it is even, the smaller of
+the two middle values is returned.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_low</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_low</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Use the low median when your data are discrete and you prefer the median to
+be an actual data point rather than interpolated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.median_high">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">median_high</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.median_high" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the high median of data.  If <em>data</em> is empty, <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a>
+is raised.  <em>data</em> can be a sequence or iterator.</p>
+<p>The high median is always a member of the data set.  When the number of data
+points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When it is even, the larger of
+the two middle values is returned.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_high</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_high</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Use the high median when your data are discrete and you prefer the median to
+be an actual data point rather than interpolated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.median_grouped">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">median_grouped</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>interval=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.median_grouped" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the median of grouped continuous data, calculated as the 50th
+percentile, using interpolation.  If <em>data</em> is empty, <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a>
+is raised.  <em>data</em> can be a sequence or iterator.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_grouped</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">52</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">52</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">53</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">54</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">52.5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the following example, the data are rounded, so that each value represents
+the midpoint of data classes, e.g. 1 is the midpoint of the class 0.5–1.5, 2
+is the midpoint of 1.5–2.5, 3 is the midpoint of 2.5–3.5, etc.  With the data
+given, the middle value falls somewhere in the class 3.5–4.5, and
+interpolation is used to estimate it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_grouped</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">3.7</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Optional argument <em>interval</em> represents the class interval, and defaults
+to 1.  Changing the class interval naturally will change the interpolation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_grouped</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">interval</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3.25</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">median_grouped</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">interval</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3.5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function does not check whether the data points are at least
+<em>interval</em> apart.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Under some circumstances, <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.median_grouped" title="statistics.median_grouped"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">median_grouped()</span></code></a> may coerce data points to
+floats.  This behaviour is likely to change in the future.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>“Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences”, Frederick J Gravetter and
+Larry B Wallnau (8th Edition).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://help.gnome.org/users/gnumeric/stable/gnumeric.html#gnumeric-function-SSMEDIAN">SSMEDIAN</a>
+function in the Gnome Gnumeric spreadsheet, including <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnumeric-list/2011-April/msg00018.html">this discussion</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.mode">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">mode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the most common data point from discrete or nominal <em>data</em>.  The mode
+(when it exists) is the most typical value, and is a robust measure of
+central location.</p>
+<p>If <em>data</em> is empty, or if there is not exactly one most common value,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode</span></code> assumes discrete data, and returns a single value. This is the
+standard treatment of the mode as commonly taught in schools:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The mode is unique in that it is the only statistic which also applies
+to nominal (non-numeric) data:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;green&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;red&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.pstdev">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">pstdev</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>mu=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.pstdev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the population standard deviation (the square root of the population
+variance).  See <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.pvariance" title="statistics.pvariance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pvariance()</span></code></a> for arguments and other details.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pstdev</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">4.75</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">0.986893273527251</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.pvariance">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">pvariance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>mu=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.pvariance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the population variance of <em>data</em>, a non-empty iterable of real-valued
+numbers.  Variance, or second moment about the mean, is a measure of the
+variability (spread or dispersion) of data.  A large variance indicates that
+the data is spread out; a small variance indicates it is clustered closely
+around the mean.</p>
+<p>If the optional second argument <em>mu</em> is given, it should be the mean of
+<em>data</em>.  If it is missing or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), the mean is
+automatically calculated.</p>
+<p>Use this function to calculate the variance from the entire population.  To
+estimate the variance from a sample, the <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.variance" title="statistics.variance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variance()</span></code></a> function is usually
+a better choice.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a> if <em>data</em> is empty.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">0.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.25</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pvariance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.25</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have already calculated the mean of your data, you can pass it as the
+optional second argument <em>mu</em> to avoid recalculation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mu</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pvariance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mu</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.25</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function does not attempt to verify that you have passed the actual mean
+as <em>mu</em>.  Using arbitrary values for <em>mu</em> may lead to invalid or impossible
+results.</p>
+<p>Decimals and Fractions are supported:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">D</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pvariance</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;27.5&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;30.25&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;30.25&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;34.5&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;41.75&quot;</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;24.815&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">F</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pvariance</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(13, 72)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When called with the entire population, this gives the population variance
+σ².  When called on a sample instead, this is the biased sample variance
+s², also known as variance with N degrees of freedom.</p>
+<p>If you somehow know the true population mean μ, you may use this function
+to calculate the variance of a sample, giving the known population mean as
+the second argument.  Provided the data points are representative
+(e.g. independent and identically distributed), the result will be an
+unbiased estimate of the population variance.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.stdev">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">stdev</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>xbar=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.stdev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sample standard deviation (the square root of the sample
+variance).  See <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.variance" title="statistics.variance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variance()</span></code></a> for arguments and other details.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stdev</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">4.75</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">1.0810874155219827</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="statistics.variance">
+<code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">variance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>xbar=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.variance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the sample variance of <em>data</em>, an iterable of at least two real-valued
+numbers.  Variance, or second moment about the mean, is a measure of the
+variability (spread or dispersion) of data.  A large variance indicates that
+the data is spread out; a small variance indicates it is clustered closely
+around the mean.</p>
+<p>If the optional second argument <em>xbar</em> is given, it should be the mean of
+<em>data</em>.  If it is missing or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), the mean is
+automatically calculated.</p>
+<p>Use this function when your data is a sample from a population. To calculate
+the variance from the entire population, see <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.pvariance" title="statistics.pvariance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pvariance()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="statistics.StatisticsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticsError</span></code></a> if <em>data</em> has fewer than two values.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">2.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">variance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.3720238095238095</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have already calculated the mean of your data, you can pass it as the
+optional second argument <em>xbar</em> to avoid recalculation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">variance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.3720238095238095</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function does not attempt to verify that you have passed the actual mean
+as <em>xbar</em>.  Using arbitrary values for <em>xbar</em> can lead to invalid or
+impossible results.</p>
+<p>Decimal and Fraction values are supported:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">D</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">variance</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;27.5&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;30.25&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;30.25&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;34.5&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;41.75&quot;</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;31.01875&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">F</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">variance</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">F</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(67, 108)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This is the sample variance s² with Bessel’s correction, also known as
+variance with N-1 degrees of freedom.  Provided that the data points are
+representative (e.g. independent and identically distributed), the result
+should be an unbiased estimate of the true population variance.</p>
+<p>If you somehow know the actual population mean μ you should pass it to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#statistics.pvariance" title="statistics.pvariance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pvariance()</span></code></a> function as the <em>mu</em> parameter to get the variance of a
+sample.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A single exception is defined:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="statistics.StatisticsError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">statistics.</code><code class="descname">StatisticsError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#statistics.StatisticsError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> for statistics-related exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code> — Mathematical statistics functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#averages-and-measures-of-central-location">Averages and measures of central location</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#measures-of-spread">Measures of spread</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#function-details">Function details</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="random.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code> — Generate pseudo-random numbers</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="built-in-types">
+<span id="bltin-types"></span><h1>Built-in Types<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the
+interpreter.</p>
+<p id="index-0">The principal built-in types are numerics, sequences, mappings, classes,
+instances and exceptions.</p>
+<p>Some collection classes are mutable.  The methods that add, subtract, or
+rearrange their members in place, and don’t return a specific item, never return
+the collection instance itself but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Some operations are supported by several object types; in particular,
+practically all objects can be compared, tested for truth value, and converted
+to a string (with the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function or the slightly different
+<a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> function).  The latter function is implicitly used when an object is
+written by the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="section" id="truth-value-testing">
+<span id="truth"></span><h2>Truth Value Testing<a class="headerlink" href="#truth-value-testing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-1">Any object can be tested for truth value, for use in an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> condition or as operand of the Boolean operations below.</p>
+<p id="index-2">By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a> method that returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> or a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> method that
+returns zero, when called with the object. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id12" id="id1">1</a>  Here are most of the built-in
+objects considered false:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div></div></blockquote>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-3">
+<li><p>constants defined to be false: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>zero of any numeric type: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0j</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal(0)</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction(0,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>empty sequences and collections: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(0)</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p id="index-4">Operations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for false and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for true, unless otherwise stated.
+(Important exception: the Boolean operations <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code> always return
+one of their operands.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="boolean-operations-and-or-not">
+<span id="boolean"></span><h2>Boolean Operations — <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#boolean-operations-and-or-not" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-5">These are the Boolean operations, ordered by ascending priority:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 62%" />
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>if <em>x</em> is false, then <em>y</em>, else
+<em>x</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>if <em>x</em> is false, then <em>x</em>, else
+<em>y</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>if <em>x</em> is false, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p id="index-6">Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second
+argument if the first one is false.</p></li>
+<li><p>This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second
+argument if the first one is true.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code> has a lower priority than non-Boolean operators, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> is
+interpreted as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">(a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> is a syntax error.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparisons">
+<span id="stdcomparisons"></span><h2>Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#comparisons" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-7">There are eight comparison operations in Python.  They all have the same
+priority (which is higher than that of the Boolean operations).  Comparisons can
+be chained arbitrarily; for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">and</span>
+<span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code>, except that <em>y</em> is evaluated only once (but in both cases <em>z</em> is not
+evaluated at all when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is found to be false).</p>
+<p>This table summarizes the comparison operations:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 32%" />
+<col style="width: 68%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>strictly less than</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>less than or equal</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>strictly greater than</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>greater than or equal</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>equal</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>not equal</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>object identity</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>negated object identity</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p id="index-8">Objects of different types, except different numeric types, never compare equal.
+Furthermore, some types (for example, function objects) support only a degenerate
+notion of comparison where any two objects of that type are unequal.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> operators will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception when
+comparing a complex number with another built-in numeric type, when the objects
+are of different types that cannot be compared, or in other cases where there is
+no defined ordering.</p>
+<p id="index-9">Non-identical instances of a class normally compare as non-equal unless the
+class defines the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Instances of a class cannot be ordered with respect to other instances of the
+same class, or other types of object, unless the class defines enough of the
+methods <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a> (in
+general, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> are sufficient, if you want the
+conventional meanings of the comparison operators).</p>
+<p>The behavior of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#is-not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span></code></a> operators cannot be
+customized; also they can be applied to any two objects and never raise an
+exception.</p>
+<p id="index-10">Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#not-in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code></a>, are supported by types that are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> or
+implement the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="numeric-types-int-float-complex">
+<span id="typesnumeric"></span><h2>Numeric Types — <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#numeric-types-int-float-complex" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-11">There are three distinct numeric types: <em class="dfn">integers</em>, <em class="dfn">floating
+point numbers</em>, and <em class="dfn">complex numbers</em>.  In addition, Booleans are a
+subtype of integers.  Integers have unlimited precision.  Floating point
+numbers are usually implemented using <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> in C; information
+about the precision and internal representation of floating point
+numbers for the machine on which your program is running is available
+in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.float_info" title="sys.float_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.float_info</span></code></a>.  Complex numbers have a real and imaginary
+part, which are each a floating point number.  To extract these parts
+from a complex number <em>z</em>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z.real</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z.imag</span></code>. (The standard
+library includes additional numeric types, <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> that hold
+rationals, and <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> that hold floating-point numbers with
+user-definable precision.)</p>
+<p id="index-12">Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in functions
+and operators.  Unadorned integer literals (including hex, octal and binary
+numbers) yield integers.  Numeric literals containing a decimal point or an
+exponent sign yield floating point numbers.  Appending <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'j'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'J'</span></code> to a
+numeric literal yields an imaginary number (a complex number with a zero real
+part) which you can add to an integer or float to get a complex number with real
+and imaginary parts.</p>
+<p id="index-13">Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic operator has
+operands of different numeric types, the operand with the “narrower” type is
+widened to that of the other, where integer is narrower than floating point,
+which is narrower than complex.  Comparisons between numbers of mixed type use
+the same rule. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id13" id="id2">2</a> The constructors <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a> can be used to produce numbers of a specific type.</p>
+<p>All numeric types (except complex) support the following operations, sorted by
+ascending priority (all numeric operations have a higher priority than
+comparison operations):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Full documentation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>sum of <em>x</em> and <em>y</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>difference of <em>x</em> and <em>y</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>product of <em>x</em> and <em>y</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>quotient of <em>x</em> and <em>y</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>floored quotient of <em>x</em> and
+<em>y</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>remainder of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> negated</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> unchanged</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(x)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>absolute value or magnitude of
+<em>x</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(x)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> converted to integer</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)(6)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(x)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> converted to floating point</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)(6)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex(re,</span> <span class="pre">im)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>a complex number with real part
+<em>re</em>, imaginary part <em>im</em>.
+<em>im</em> defaults to zero.</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.conjugate()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>conjugate of the complex number
+<em>c</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">y,</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> to the power <em>y</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> to the power <em>y</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p id="index-14">Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>Also referred to as integer division.  The resultant value is a whole
+integer, though the result’s type is not necessarily int.  The result is
+always rounded towards minus infinity: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1//2</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-1)//2</span></code> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1//(-2)</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-1)//(-2)</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Not for complex numbers.  Instead convert to floats using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a> if
+appropriate.</p></li>
+<li><p id="index-15">Conversion from floating point to integer may round or truncate
+as in C; see functions <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.floor()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.ceil()</span></code></a> for
+well-defined conversions.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>float also accepts the strings “nan” and “inf” with an optional prefix “+”
+or “-” for Not a Number (NaN) and positive or negative infinity.</p></li>
+<li><p>Python defines <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(0,</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, as is common for
+programming languages.</p></li>
+<li><p>The numeric literals accepted include the digits <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> or any
+Unicode equivalent (code points with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Nd</span></code> property).</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/Public/10.0.0/ucd/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt">http://www.unicode.org/Public/10.0.0/ucd/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt</a>
+for a complete list of code points with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Nd</span></code> property.</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p>All <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Real</span></code></a> types (<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>) also include
+the following operations:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+<col style="width: 69%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.trunc" title="math.trunc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.trunc(x)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> truncated to <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(x[,</span>
+<span class="pre">n])</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> rounded to <em>n</em> digits,
+rounding half to even. If <em>n</em> is
+omitted, it defaults to 0.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.floor(x)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>the greatest <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a>
+&lt;= <em>x</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.ceil(x)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>the least <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a> &gt;= <em>x</em></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>For additional numeric operations see the <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a>
+modules.</p>
+<div class="section" id="bitwise-operations-on-integer-types">
+<span id="bitstring-ops"></span><h3>Bitwise Operations on Integer Types<a class="headerlink" href="#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-16">Bitwise operations only make sense for integers. The result of bitwise
+operations is calculated as though carried out in two’s complement with an
+infinite number of sign bits.</p>
+<p>The priorities of the binary bitwise operations are all lower than the numeric
+operations and higher than the comparisons; the unary operation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> has the
+same priority as the other unary numeric operations (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>).</p>
+<p>This table lists the bitwise operations sorted in ascending priority:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bitwise <em class="dfn">or</em> of <em>x</em> and
+<em>y</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">^</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bitwise <em class="dfn">exclusive or</em> of
+<em>x</em> and <em>y</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bitwise <em class="dfn">and</em> of <em>x</em> and
+<em>y</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> shifted left by <em>n</em> bits</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>x</em> shifted right by <em>n</em> bits</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the bits of <em>x</em> inverted</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Negative shift counts are illegal and cause a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> to be raised.</p></li>
+<li><p>A left shift by <em>n</em> bits is equivalent to multiplication by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(2,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code>
+without overflow check.</p></li>
+<li><p>A right shift by <em>n</em> bits is equivalent to division by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(2,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code> without
+overflow check.</p></li>
+<li><p>Performing these calculations with at least one extra sign extension bit in
+a finite two’s complement representation (a working bit-width of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">max(x.bit_length(),</span> <span class="pre">y.bit_length())</span></code> or more) is sufficient to get the
+same result as if there were an infinite number of sign bits.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="additional-methods-on-integer-types">
+<h3>Additional Methods on Integer Types<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-methods-on-integer-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The int type implements the <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Integral</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base
+class</span></a>. In addition, it provides a few more methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="int.bit_length">
+<code class="descclassname">int.</code><code class="descname">bit_length</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#int.bit_length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of bits necessary to represent an integer in binary,
+excluding the sign and leading zeros:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">37</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-0b100101&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>More precisely, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is nonzero, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.bit_length()</span></code> is the
+unique positive integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span></code> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**(k-1)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">abs(x)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">2**k</span></code>.
+Equivalently, when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(x)</span></code> is small enough to have a correctly
+rounded logarithm, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">int(log(abs(x),</span> <span class="pre">2))</span></code>.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is zero, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.bit_length()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bit_length</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># binary representation:  bin(-37) --&gt; &#39;-0b100101&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lstrip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-0b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># remove leading zeros and minus sign</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># len(&#39;100101&#39;) --&gt; 6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="int.to_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">int.</code><code class="descname">to_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>length</em>, <em>byteorder</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>signed=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#int.to_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an array of bytes representing an integer.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">to_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;big&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\x04\x00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">to_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;big&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">to_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;big&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">signed</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1000</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">to_bytes</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;little&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\xe8\x03&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The integer is represented using <em>length</em> bytes.  An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>
+is raised if the integer is not representable with the given number of
+bytes.</p>
+<p>The <em>byteorder</em> argument determines the byte order used to represent the
+integer.  If <em>byteorder</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;big&quot;</span></code>, the most significant byte is at the
+beginning of the byte array.  If <em>byteorder</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;little&quot;</span></code>, the most
+significant byte is at the end of the byte array.  To request the native
+byte order of the host system, use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.byteorder" title="sys.byteorder"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.byteorder</span></code></a> as the byte order
+value.</p>
+<p>The <em>signed</em> argument determines whether two’s complement is used to
+represent the integer.  If <em>signed</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and a negative integer is
+given, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> is raised. The default value for <em>signed</em>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="int.from_bytes">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">int.</code><code class="descname">from_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em>, <em>byteorder</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>signed=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#int.from_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the integer represented by the given array of bytes.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x00\x10</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;big&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x00\x10</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;little&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">4096</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\xfc\x00</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;big&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">signed</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-1024</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\xfc\x00</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;big&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">signed</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">64512</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_bytes</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">byteorder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;big&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">16711680</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The argument <em>bytes</em> must either be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or an
+iterable producing bytes.</p>
+<p>The <em>byteorder</em> argument determines the byte order used to represent the
+integer.  If <em>byteorder</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;big&quot;</span></code>, the most significant byte is at the
+beginning of the byte array.  If <em>byteorder</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;little&quot;</span></code>, the most
+significant byte is at the end of the byte array.  To request the native
+byte order of the host system, use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.byteorder" title="sys.byteorder"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.byteorder</span></code></a> as the byte order
+value.</p>
+<p>The <em>signed</em> argument indicates whether two’s complement is used to
+represent the integer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="additional-methods-on-float">
+<h3>Additional Methods on Float<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-methods-on-float" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The float type implements the <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Real</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base
+class</span></a>. float also has the following additional methods.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="float.as_integer_ratio">
+<code class="descclassname">float.</code><code class="descname">as_integer_ratio</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#float.as_integer_ratio" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the
+original float and with a positive denominator.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> on infinities and a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> on
+NaNs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="float.is_integer">
+<code class="descclassname">float.</code><code class="descname">is_integer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#float.is_integer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the float instance is finite with integral
+value, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_integer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_integer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Two methods support conversion to
+and from hexadecimal strings.  Since Python’s floats are stored
+internally as binary numbers, converting a float to or from a
+<em>decimal</em> string usually involves a small rounding error.  In
+contrast, hexadecimal strings allow exact representation and
+specification of floating-point numbers.  This can be useful when
+debugging, and in numerical work.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="float.hex">
+<code class="descclassname">float.</code><code class="descname">hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#float.hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a representation of a floating-point number as a hexadecimal
+string.  For finite floating-point numbers, this representation
+will always include a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x</span></code> and a trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code> and
+exponent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="float.fromhex">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">float.</code><code class="descname">fromhex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#float.fromhex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class method to return the float represented by a hexadecimal
+string <em>s</em>.  The string <em>s</em> may have leading and trailing
+whitespace.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#float.hex" title="float.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.hex()</span></code></a> is an instance method, while
+<a class="reference internal" href="#float.fromhex" title="float.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.fromhex()</span></code></a> is a class method.</p>
+<p>A hexadecimal string takes the form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sign</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;0x&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">integer</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="n">fraction</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;p&#39;</span> <span class="n">exponent</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where the optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sign</span></code> may by either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">integer</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fraction</span></code> are strings of hexadecimal digits, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exponent</span></code>
+is a decimal integer with an optional leading sign.  Case is not
+significant, and there must be at least one hexadecimal digit in
+either the integer or the fraction.  This syntax is similar to the
+syntax specified in section 6.4.4.2 of the C99 standard, and also to
+the syntax used in Java 1.5 onwards.  In particular, the output of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#float.hex" title="float.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.hex()</span></code></a> is usable as a hexadecimal floating-point literal in
+C or Java code, and hexadecimal strings produced by C’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%a</span></code> format
+character or Java’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Double.toHexString</span></code> are accepted by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#float.fromhex" title="float.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.fromhex()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note that the exponent is written in decimal rather than hexadecimal,
+and that it gives the power of 2 by which to multiply the coefficient.
+For example, the hexadecimal string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x3.a7p10</span></code> represents the
+floating-point number <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(3</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">10./16</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">7./16**2)</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">2.0**10</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3740.0</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromhex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0x3.a7p10&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3740.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Applying the reverse conversion to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3740.0</span></code> gives a different
+hexadecimal string representing the same number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3740.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x1.d380000000000p+11&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hashing-of-numeric-types">
+<span id="numeric-hash"></span><h3>Hashing of numeric types<a class="headerlink" href="#hashing-of-numeric-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For numbers <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>, possibly of different types, it’s a requirement
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(x)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">hash(y)</span></code> whenever <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> (see the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>
+method documentation for more details).  For ease of implementation and
+efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a>)
+Python’s hash for numeric types is based on a single mathematical function
+that’s defined for any rational number, and hence applies to all instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a>, and all finite instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>.  Essentially, this function is
+given by reduction modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code> for a fixed prime <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code>.  The value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code> is
+made available to Python as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulus</span></code> attribute of
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.hash_info" title="sys.hash_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hash_info</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Currently, the prime used is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">2**31</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> on machines with 32-bit C
+longs and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">2**61</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> on machines with 64-bit C longs.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Here are the rules in detail:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">m</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code> is a nonnegative rational number and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> is not divisible
+by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code>, define <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(x)</span></code> as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">invmod(n,</span> <span class="pre">P)</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">P</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">invmod(n,</span>
+<span class="pre">P)</span></code> gives the inverse of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">m</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code> is a nonnegative rational number and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> is
+divisible by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code> (but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span></code> is not) then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> has no inverse
+modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code> and the rule above doesn’t apply; in this case define
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(x)</span></code> to be the constant value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hash_info.inf</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">m</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code> is a negative rational number define <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(x)</span></code>
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-hash(-x)</span></code>.  If the resulting hash is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, replace it with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-2</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The particular values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hash_info.inf</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-sys.hash_info.inf</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hash_info.nan</span></code> are used as hash values for positive
+infinity, negative infinity, or nans (respectively).  (All hashable
+nans have the same hash value.)</p></li>
+<li><p>For a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a> number <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code>, the hash values of the real
+and imaginary parts are combined by computing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(z.real)</span> <span class="pre">+</span>
+<span class="pre">sys.hash_info.imag</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">hash(z.imag)</span></code>, reduced modulo
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**sys.hash_info.width</span></code> so that it lies in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1),</span> <span class="pre">2**(sys.hash_info.width</span> <span class="pre">-</span>
+<span class="pre">1))</span></code>.  Again, if the result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, it’s replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-2</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>To clarify the above rules, here’s some example Python code,
+equivalent to the built-in hash, for computing the hash of a rational
+number, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hash_fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.</span>
+<span class="sd">    Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">P</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modulus</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">P</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">P</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">P</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">P</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">P</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">inf</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Fermat&#39;s Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so</span>
+        <span class="c1"># pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.</span>
+        <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">abs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">P</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">P</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">P</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">P</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">hash_value</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">hash_value</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hash_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Compute the hash of a float x.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isnan</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nan</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isinf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">inf</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">inf</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">hash_fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hash_complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">z</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Compute the hash of a complex number z.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hash_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">real</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imag</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">hash_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">imag</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width</span>
+    <span class="n">M</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">M</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">M</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">hash_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">hash_value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="iterator-types">
+<span id="typeiter"></span><h2>Iterator Types<a class="headerlink" href="#iterator-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-17">Python supports a concept of iteration over containers.  This is implemented
+using two distinct methods; these are used to allow user-defined classes to
+support iteration.  Sequences, described below in more detail, always support
+the iteration methods.</p>
+<p>One method needs to be defined for container objects to provide iteration
+support:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="container.__iter__">
+<code class="descclassname">container.</code><code class="descname">__iter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#container.__iter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator object.  The object is required to support the iterator
+protocol described below.  If a container supports different types of
+iteration, additional methods can be provided to specifically request
+iterators for those iteration types.  (An example of an object supporting
+multiple forms of iteration would be a tree structure which supports both
+breadth-first and depth-first traversal.)  This method corresponds to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a> slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C
+API.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The iterator objects themselves are required to support the following two
+methods, which together form the <em class="dfn">iterator protocol</em>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="iterator.__iter__">
+<code class="descclassname">iterator.</code><code class="descname">__iter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#iterator.__iter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the iterator object itself.  This is required to allow both containers
+and iterators to be used with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> statements.
+This method corresponds to the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a> slot of the type structure for
+Python objects in the Python/C API.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="iterator.__next__">
+<code class="descclassname">iterator.</code><code class="descname">__next__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#iterator.__next__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the next item from the container.  If there are no further items, raise
+the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception.  This method corresponds to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a> slot of the type structure for Python objects in the
+Python/C API.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Python defines several iterator objects to support iteration over general and
+specific sequence types, dictionaries, and other more specialized forms.  The
+specific types are not important beyond their implementation of the iterator
+protocol.</p>
+<p>Once an iterator’s <a class="reference internal" href="#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>, it must continue to do so on subsequent calls.
+Implementations that do not obey this property are deemed broken.</p>
+<div class="section" id="generator-types">
+<span id="id3"></span><h3>Generator Types<a class="headerlink" href="#generator-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>s provide a convenient way to implement the iterator
+protocol.  If a container object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method is implemented as a
+generator, it will automatically return an iterator object (technically, a
+generator object) supplying the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a>
+methods.
+More information about generators can be found in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#yieldexpr"><span class="std std-ref">the documentation for
+the yield expression</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sequence-types-list-tuple-range">
+<span id="typesseq"></span><h2>Sequence Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#sequence-types-list-tuple-range" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are three basic sequence types: lists, tuples, and range objects.
+Additional sequence types tailored for processing of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#binaryseq"><span class="std std-ref">binary data</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">text strings</span></a> are
+described in dedicated sections.</p>
+<div class="section" id="common-sequence-operations">
+<span id="typesseq-common"></span><h3>Common Sequence Operations<a class="headerlink" href="#common-sequence-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-18">The operations in the following table are supported by most sequence types,
+both mutable and immutable. The <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Sequence</span></code></a> ABC is
+provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on
+custom sequence types.</p>
+<p>This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority.  In the
+table, <em>s</em> and <em>t</em> are sequences of the same type, <em>n</em>, <em>i</em>, <em>j</em> and <em>k</em> are
+integers and <em>x</em> is an arbitrary object that meets any type and value
+restrictions imposed by <em>s</em>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code> operations have the same priorities as the
+comparison operations. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> (concatenation) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> (repetition)
+operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id4">3</a></p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-19">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 47%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if an item of <em>s</em> is
+equal to <em>x</em>, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if an item of <em>s</em> is
+equal to <em>x</em>, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the concatenation of <em>s</em> and
+<em>t</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(6)(7)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>equivalent to adding <em>s</em> to
+itself <em>n</em> times</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)(7)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><em>i</em>th item of <em>s</em>, origin 0</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>slice of <em>s</em> from <em>i</em> to <em>j</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j:k]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>slice of <em>s</em> from <em>i</em> to <em>j</em>
+with step <em>k</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>length of <em>s</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min(s)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>smallest item of <em>s</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max(s)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>largest item of <em>s</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.index(x[,</span> <span class="pre">i[,</span> <span class="pre">j]])</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>index of the first occurrence
+of <em>x</em> in <em>s</em> (at or after
+index <em>i</em> and before index <em>j</em>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(8)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.count(x)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>total number of occurrences of
+<em>x</em> in <em>s</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Sequences of the same type also support comparisons.  In particular, tuples
+and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements.
+This means that to compare equal, every element must compare equal and the
+two sequences must be of the same type and have the same length.  (For full
+details see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#comparisons"><span class="std std-ref">Comparisons</span></a> in the language reference.)</p>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>While the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code> operations are used only for simple
+containment testing in the general case, some specialised sequences
+(such as <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>) also use
+them for subsequence testing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;gg&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s2">&quot;eggs&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Values of <em>n</em> less than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> are treated as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (which yields an empty
+sequence of the same type as <em>s</em>).  Note that items in the sequence <em>s</em>
+are not copied; they are referenced multiple times.  This often haunts
+new Python programmers; consider:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[[]]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span>
+<span class="go">[[], [], []]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span>
+<span class="go">[[3], [3], [3]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>What has happened is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[[]]</span></code> is a one-element list containing an empty
+list, so all three elements of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[[]]</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">3</span></code> are references to this single empty
+list.  Modifying any of the elements of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lists</span></code> modifies this single list.
+You can create a list of different lists this way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[[]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lists</span>
+<span class="go">[[3], [5], [7]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Further explanation is available in the FAQ entry
+<a class="reference internal" href="../faq/programming.html#faq-multidimensional-list"><span class="std std-ref">How do I create a multidimensional list?</span></a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>If <em>i</em> or <em>j</em> is negative, the index is relative to the end of sequence <em>s</em>:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">i</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">j</span></code> is substituted.  But note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0</span></code> is
+still <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The slice of <em>s</em> from <em>i</em> to <em>j</em> is defined as the sequence of items with index
+<em>k</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">k</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">j</span></code>.  If <em>i</em> or <em>j</em> is greater than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>, use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.  If <em>i</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  If <em>j</em> is omitted or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.  If <em>i</em> is greater than or equal to <em>j</em>, the slice is
+empty.</p></li>
+<li><p>The slice of <em>s</em> from <em>i</em> to <em>j</em> with step <em>k</em> is defined as the sequence of
+items with index  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">n*k</span></code> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">n</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">(j-i)/k</span></code>.  In other words,
+the indices are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i+k</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i+2*k</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i+3*k</span></code> and so on, stopping when
+<em>j</em> is reached (but never including <em>j</em>).  When <em>k</em> is positive,
+<em>i</em> and <em>j</em> are reduced to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code> if they are greater.
+When <em>k</em> is negative, <em>i</em> and <em>j</em> are reduced to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> if
+they are greater.  If <em>i</em> or <em>j</em> are omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, they become
+“end” values (which end depends on the sign of <em>k</em>).  Note, <em>k</em> cannot be zero.
+If <em>k</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it is treated like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Concatenating immutable sequences always results in a new object.  This
+means that building up a sequence by repeated concatenation will have a
+quadratic runtime cost in the total sequence length.  To get a linear
+runtime cost, you must switch to one of the alternatives below:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>if concatenating <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects, you can build a list and use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.join()</span></code></a> at the end or else write to an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a>
+instance and retrieve its value when complete</p></li>
+<li><p>if concatenating <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects, you can similarly use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.join" title="bytes.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.join()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a>, or you can do in-place
+concatenation with a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> object.  <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>
+objects are mutable and have an efficient overallocation mechanism</p></li>
+<li><p>if concatenating <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> objects, extend a <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> instead</p></li>
+<li><p>for other types, investigate the relevant class documentation</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>Some sequence types (such as <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a>) only support item sequences
+that follow specific patterns, and hence don’t support sequence
+concatenation or repetition.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index</span></code> raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when <em>x</em> is not found in <em>s</em>.
+Not all implementations support passing the additional arguments <em>i</em> and <em>j</em>.
+These arguments allow efficient searching of subsections of the sequence. Passing
+the extra arguments is roughly equivalent to using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j].index(x)</span></code>, only
+without copying any data and with the returned index being relative to
+the start of the sequence rather than the start of the slice.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="immutable-sequence-types">
+<span id="typesseq-immutable"></span><h3>Immutable Sequence Types<a class="headerlink" href="#immutable-sequence-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-20">The only operation that immutable sequence types generally implement that is
+not also implemented by mutable sequence types is support for the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a>
+built-in.</p>
+<p>This support allows immutable sequences, such as <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> instances, to
+be used as <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> keys and stored in <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>
+instances.</p>
+<p>Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values will
+result in <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mutable-sequence-types">
+<span id="typesseq-mutable"></span><h3>Mutable Sequence Types<a class="headerlink" href="#mutable-sequence-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-21">The operations in the following table are defined on mutable sequence types.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.MutableSequence</span></code></a> ABC is provided to make it
+easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types.</p>
+<p>In the table <em>s</em> is an instance of a mutable sequence type, <em>t</em> is any
+iterable object and <em>x</em> is an arbitrary object that meets any type
+and value restrictions imposed by <em>s</em> (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> only
+accepts integers that meet the value restriction <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">255</span></code>).</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-22">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>item <em>i</em> of <em>s</em> is replaced by
+<em>x</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>slice of <em>s</em> from <em>i</em> to <em>j</em>
+is replaced by the contents of
+the iterable <em>t</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">s[i:j]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">[]</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j:k]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the elements of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j:k]</span></code>
+are replaced by those of <em>t</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">s[i:j:k]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>removes the elements of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:j:k]</span></code> from the list</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.append(x)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>appends <em>x</em> to the end of the
+sequence (same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[len(s):len(s)]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">[x]</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.clear()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>removes all items from <em>s</em>
+(same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">s[:]</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.copy()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>creates a shallow copy of <em>s</em>
+(same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[:]</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.extend(t)</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>extends <em>s</em> with the
+contents of <em>t</em> (for the
+most part the same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[len(s):len(s)]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">t</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">*=</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>updates <em>s</em> with its contents
+repeated <em>n</em> times</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.insert(i,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>inserts <em>x</em> into <em>s</em> at the
+index given by <em>i</em>
+(same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i:i]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">[x]</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.pop([i])</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>retrieves the item at <em>i</em> and
+also removes it from <em>s</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.remove(x)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>remove the first item from <em>s</em>
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[i]</span></code> is equal to <em>x</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.reverse()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>reverses the items of <em>s</em> in
+place</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p><em>t</em> must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.</p></li>
+<li><p>The optional argument <em>i</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, so that by default the last
+item is removed and returned.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove</span></code> raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when <em>x</em> is not found in <em>s</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse()</span></code> method modifies the sequence in place for economy of
+space when reversing a large sequence.  To remind users that it operates by
+side effect, it does not return the reversed sequence.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code> are included for consistency with the
+interfaces of mutable containers that don’t support slicing operations
+(such as <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The value <em>n</em> is an integer, or an object implementing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a>.  Zero and negative values of <em>n</em> clear
+the sequence.  Items in the sequence are not copied; they are referenced
+multiple times, as explained for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code> under <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common"><span class="std std-ref">Common Sequence Operations</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lists">
+<span id="typesseq-list"></span><h3>Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-23">Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
+homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by
+application).</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="list">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Lists may be constructed in several ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Using a pair of square brackets to denote the empty list: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Using square brackets, separating items with commas: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c]</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Using a list comprehension: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">iterable]</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Using the type constructor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(iterable)</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The constructor builds a list whose items are the same and in the same
+order as <em>iterable</em>’s items.  <em>iterable</em> may be either a sequence, a
+container that supports iteration, or an iterator object.  If <em>iterable</em>
+is already a list, a copy is made and returned, similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterable[:]</span></code>.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list('abc')</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['a',</span> <span class="pre">'b',</span> <span class="pre">'c']</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(</span> <span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span> <span class="pre">)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3]</span></code>.
+If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty list, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Many other operations also produce lists, including the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>
+built-in.</p>
+<p>Lists implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common"><span class="std std-ref">common</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-mutable"><span class="std std-ref">mutable</span></a> sequence operations. Lists also provide the
+following additional method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="list.sort">
+<code class="descname">sort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>key=None</em>, <em>reverse=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#list.sort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method sorts the list in place, using only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> comparisons
+between items. Exceptions are not suppressed - if any comparison operations
+fail, the entire sort operation will fail (and the list will likely be left
+in a partially modified state).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code></a> accepts two arguments that can only be passed by keyword
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only arguments</span></a>):</p>
+<p><em>key</em> specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a
+comparison key from each list element (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=str.lower</span></code>).
+The key corresponding to each item in the list is calculated once and
+then used for the entire sorting process. The default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+means that list items are sorted directly without calculating a separate
+key value.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.cmp_to_key()</span></code></a> utility is available to convert a 2.x
+style <em>cmp</em> function to a <em>key</em> function.</p>
+<p><em>reverse</em> is a boolean value.  If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, then the list elements
+are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.</p>
+<p>This method modifies the sequence in place for economy of space when
+sorting a large sequence.  To remind users that it operates by side
+effect, it does not return the sorted sequence (use <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> to
+explicitly request a new sorted list instance).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code></a> method is guaranteed to be stable.  A sort is stable if it
+guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that compare equal
+— this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by
+department, then by salary grade).</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate, or even
+inspect, the list is undefined.  The C implementation of Python makes the
+list appear empty for the duration, and raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if it can
+detect that the list has been mutated during a sort.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tuples">
+<span id="typesseq-tuple"></span><h3>Tuples<a class="headerlink" href="#tuples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-24">Tuples are immutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
+heterogeneous data (such as the 2-tuples produced by the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a>
+built-in). Tuples are also used for cases where an immutable sequence of
+homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> instance).</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tuple">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">tuple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a,</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a,)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Separating items with commas: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Using the <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple()</span></code></a> built-in: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple(iterable)</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the same
+order as <em>iterable</em>’s items.  <em>iterable</em> may be either a sequence, a
+container that supports iteration, or an iterator object.  If <em>iterable</em>
+is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple('abc')</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('a',</span> <span class="pre">'b',</span> <span class="pre">'c')</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple(</span> <span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3]</span> <span class="pre">)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span></code>.
+If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the parentheses.
+The parentheses are optional, except in the empty tuple case, or
+when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity. For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code> is a function call with three arguments, while
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f((a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c))</span></code> is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole argument.</p>
+<p>Tuples implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common"><span class="std std-ref">common</span></a> sequence
+operations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer than
+access by index, <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> may be a more appropriate
+choice than a simple tuple object.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ranges">
+<span id="typesseq-range"></span><h3>Ranges<a class="headerlink" href="#ranges" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-25">The <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> type represents an immutable sequence of numbers and is
+commonly used for looping a specific number of times in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a>
+loops.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="range">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">range</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stop</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#range" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">range</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start</em>, <em>stop</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>step</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> or any object that implements the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__</span></code> special
+method).  If the <em>step</em> argument is omitted, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.
+If the <em>start</em> argument is omitted, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.
+If <em>step</em> is zero, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>For a positive <em>step</em>, the contents of a range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> are determined by the
+formula <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r[i]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">start</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">step*i</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r[i]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">stop</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For a negative <em>step</em>, the contents of the range are still determined by
+the formula <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r[i]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">start</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">step*i</span></code>, but the constraints are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r[i]</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">stop</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A range object will be empty if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r[0]</span></code> does not meet the value
+constraint. Ranges do support negative indices, but these are interpreted
+as indexing from the end of the sequence determined by the positive
+indices.</p>
+<p>Ranges containing absolute values larger than <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a> are
+permitted but some features (such as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a>) may raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Range examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 3, 6, 9]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Ranges implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common"><span class="std std-ref">common</span></a> sequence operations
+except concatenation and repetition (due to the fact that range objects can
+only represent sequences that follow a strict pattern and repetition and
+concatenation will usually violate that pattern).</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="range.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><a class="headerlink" href="#range.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of the <em>start</em> parameter (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the parameter was
+not supplied)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="range.stop">
+<code class="descname">stop</code><a class="headerlink" href="#range.stop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of the <em>stop</em> parameter</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="range.step">
+<code class="descname">step</code><a class="headerlink" href="#range.step" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value of the <em>step</em> parameter (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the parameter was
+not supplied)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The advantage of the <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> type over a regular <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> is that a <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> object will always take the same
+(small) amount of memory, no matter the size of the range it represents (as it
+only stores the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code> values, calculating individual
+items and subranges as needed).</p>
+<p>Range objects implement the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Sequence</span></code></a> ABC, and provide
+features such as containment tests, element index lookup, slicing and
+support for negative indices (see <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq"><span class="std std-ref">Sequence Types — list, tuple, range</span></a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span>
+<span class="go">range(0, 20, 2)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">11</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">r</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">10</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">r</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">range(0, 10, 2)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">18</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Testing range objects for equality with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code> compares
+them as sequences.  That is, two range objects are considered equal if
+they represent the same sequence of values.  (Note that two range
+objects that compare equal might have different <a class="reference internal" href="#range.start" title="range.start"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#range.stop" title="range.stop"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#range.step" title="range.step"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code></a> attributes, for example
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(0)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">range(2,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">3)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(0,</span> <span class="pre">3,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">range(0,</span> <span class="pre">4,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code>.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Implement the Sequence ABC.
+Support slicing and negative indices.
+Test <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> objects for membership in constant time instead of
+iterating through all items.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Define ‘==’ and ‘!=’ to compare range objects based on the
+sequence of values they define (instead of comparing based on
+object identity).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#range.start" title="range.start"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#range.stop" title="range.stop"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#range.step" title="range.step"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code></a>
+attributes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000/">linspace recipe</a>
+shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating
+point applications.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-sequence-type-str">
+<span id="textseq"></span><span id="index-26"></span><h2>Text Sequence Type — <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#text-sequence-type-str" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Textual data in Python is handled with <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects, or <em class="dfn">strings</em>.
+Strings are immutable
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq"><span class="std std-ref">sequences</span></a> of Unicode code points.  String literals are
+written in a variety of ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Single quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'allows</span> <span class="pre">embedded</span> <span class="pre">&quot;double&quot;</span> <span class="pre">quotes'</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Double quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;allows</span> <span class="pre">embedded</span> <span class="pre">'single'</span> <span class="pre">quotes&quot;</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Triple quoted: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'''Three</span> <span class="pre">single</span> <span class="pre">quotes'''</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;&quot;Three</span> <span class="pre">double</span> <span class="pre">quotes&quot;&quot;&quot;</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Triple quoted strings may span multiple lines - all associated whitespace will
+be included in the string literal.</p>
+<p>String literals that are part of a single expression and have only whitespace
+between them will be implicitly converted to a single string literal. That
+is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(&quot;spam</span> <span class="pre">&quot;</span> <span class="pre">&quot;eggs&quot;)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">&quot;spam</span> <span class="pre">eggs&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#strings"><span class="std std-ref">String and Bytes literals</span></a> for more about the various forms of string literal,
+including supported escape sequences, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> (“raw”) prefix that
+disables most escape sequence processing.</p>
+<p>Strings may also be created from other objects using the <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+constructor.</p>
+<p>Since there is no separate “character” type, indexing a string produces
+strings of length 1. That is, for a non-empty string <em>s</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[0]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">s[0:1]</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-27">There is also no mutable string type, but <a class="reference internal" href="#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.join()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> can be used to efficiently construct strings from
+multiple fragments.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>For backwards compatibility with the Python 2 series, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> prefix is
+once again permitted on string literals. It has no effect on the meaning
+of string literals and cannot be combined with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> prefix.</p>
+</div>
+<span class="target" id="index-28"></span><dl class="class">
+<dt id="str">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">str</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">str</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object=b''</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='strict'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">string</span></a> version of <em>object</em>.  If <em>object</em> is not
+provided, returns the empty string.  Otherwise, the behavior of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code>
+depends on whether <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> is given, as follows.</p>
+<p>If neither <em>encoding</em> nor <em>errors</em> is given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(object)</span></code> returns
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__str__()</span></code></a>, which is the “informal” or nicely
+printable string representation of <em>object</em>.  For string objects, this is
+the string itself.  If <em>object</em> does not have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a>
+method, then <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> falls back to returning
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(object)</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-29">If at least one of <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> is given, <em>object</em> should be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>).  In
+this case, if <em>object</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> (or <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>) object,
+then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(bytes,</span> <span class="pre">encoding,</span> <span class="pre">errors)</span></code> is equivalent to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode(encoding,</span> <span class="pre">errors)</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, the bytes
+object underlying the buffer object is obtained before calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a>.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#binaryseq"><span class="std std-ref">Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Protocol</span></a> for information on buffer objects.</p>
+<p>Passing a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object to <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> without the <em>encoding</em>
+or <em>errors</em> arguments falls under the first case of returning the informal
+string representation (see also the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a> command-line option to
+Python).  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Zoot!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;b&#39;Zoot!&#39;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> class and its methods, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">Text Sequence Type — str</span></a> and the <a class="reference internal" href="#string-methods"><span class="std std-ref">String Methods</span></a> section below.  To output
+formatted strings, see the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Formatted string literals</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a>
+sections.  In addition, see the <a class="reference internal" href="text.html#stringservices"><span class="std std-ref">Text Processing Services</span></a> section.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="string-methods">
+<span id="index-30"></span><span id="id5"></span><h3>String Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#string-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-31">Strings implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common"><span class="std std-ref">common</span></a> sequence
+operations, along with the additional methods described below.</p>
+<p>Strings also support two styles of string formatting, one providing a large
+degree of flexibility and customization (see <a class="reference internal" href="#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">Custom String Formatting</span></a>) and the other based on C
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code> style formatting that handles a narrower range of types and is
+slightly harder to use correctly, but is often faster for the cases it can
+handle (<a class="reference internal" href="#old-string-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">printf-style String Formatting</span></a>).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="text.html#textservices"><span class="std std-ref">Text Processing Services</span></a> section of the standard library covers a number of
+other modules that provide various text related utilities (including regular
+expression support in the <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module).</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.capitalize">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">capitalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.capitalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with its first character capitalized and the
+rest lowercased.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.casefold">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">casefold</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.casefold" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a casefolded copy of the string. Casefolded strings may be used for
+caseless matching.</p>
+<p>Casefolding is similar to lowercasing but more aggressive because it is
+intended to remove all case distinctions in a string. For example, the German
+lowercase letter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ß'</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ss&quot;</span></code>. Since it is already
+lowercase, <a class="reference internal" href="#str.lower" title="str.lower"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lower()</span></code></a> would do nothing to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ß'</span></code>; <a class="reference internal" href="#str.casefold" title="str.casefold"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">casefold()</span></code></a>
+converts it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ss&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode
+Standard.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.center">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">center</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillchar</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.center" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return centered in a string of length <em>width</em>. Padding is done using the
+specified <em>fillchar</em> (default is an ASCII space). The original string is
+returned if <em>width</em> is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.count">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring <em>sub</em> in the
+range [<em>start</em>, <em>end</em>].  Optional arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are
+interpreted as in slice notation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.encode">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding=&quot;utf-8&quot;</em>, <em>errors=&quot;strict&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an encoded version of the string as a bytes object. Default encoding
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>. <em>errors</em> may be given to set a different error handling scheme.
+The default for <em>errors</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>, meaning that encoding errors raise
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>. Other possible
+values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'xmlcharrefreplace'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> and any other name registered via
+<a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.register_error()</span></code></a>, see section <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a>. For a
+list of possible encodings, see section <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#standard-encodings"><span class="std std-ref">Standard Encodings</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Support for keyword arguments added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.endswith">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">endswith</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.endswith" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the string ends with the specified <em>suffix</em>, otherwise return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  <em>suffix</em> can also be a tuple of suffixes to look for.  With optional
+<em>start</em>, test beginning at that position.  With optional <em>end</em>, stop comparing
+at that position.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.expandtabs">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">expandtabs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tabsize=8</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.expandtabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced by one or
+more spaces, depending on the current column and the given tab size.  Tab
+positions occur every <em>tabsize</em> characters (default is 8, giving tab
+positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on).  To expand the string, the current
+column is set to zero and the string is examined character by character.  If
+the character is a tab (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\t</span></code>), one or more space characters are inserted
+in the result until the current column is equal to the next tab position.
+(The tab character itself is not copied.)  If the character is a newline
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>) or return (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code>), it is copied and the current column is reset to
+zero.  Any other character is copied unchanged and the current column is
+incremented by one regardless of how the character is represented when
+printed.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;01</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">012</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">0123</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">01234&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expandtabs</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;01      012     0123    01234&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;01</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">012</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">0123</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">01234&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expandtabs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;01  012 0123    01234&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.find">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the lowest index in the string where substring <em>sub</em> is found within
+the slice <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[start:end]</span></code>.  Optional arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are
+interpreted as in slice notation.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if <em>sub</em> is not found.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#str.find" title="str.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a> method should be used only if you need to know the
+position of <em>sub</em>.  To check if <em>sub</em> is a substring or not, use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Py&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.format">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform a string formatting operation.  The string on which this method is
+called can contain literal text or replacement fields delimited by braces
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>.  Each replacement field contains either the numeric index of a
+positional argument, or the name of a keyword argument.  Returns a copy of
+the string where each replacement field is replaced with the string value of
+the corresponding argument.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;The sum of 1 + 2 is </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;The sum of 1 + 2 is 3&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a> for a description of the various formatting options
+that can be specified in format strings.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When formatting a number (<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> and subclasses) with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> type
+(ex: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{:n}'.format(1234)</span></code>), the function temporarily sets the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale to decode
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal_point</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thousands_sep</span></code> fields of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localeconv()</span></code> if
+they are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale is
+different than the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale.  This temporary change affects
+other threads.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>When formatting a number with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> type, the function sets
+temporarily the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale in some
+cases.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.format_map">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">format_map</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapping</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.format_map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format(**mapping)</span></code>, except that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mapping</span></code> is
+used directly and not copied to a <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  This is useful
+if for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mapping</span></code> is a dict subclass:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__missing__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">key</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s1"> was born in </span><span class="si">{country}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Default</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Guido&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Guido was born in country&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.index">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#str.find" title="str.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a>, but raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when the substring is
+not found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isalnum">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isalnum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isalnum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at
+least one character, false otherwise.  A character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> is alphanumeric if one
+of the following returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.isalpha()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.isdecimal()</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.isdigit()</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c.isnumeric()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isalpha">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isalpha</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isalpha" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least
+one character, false otherwise.  Alphabetic characters are those characters defined
+in the Unicode character database as “Letter”, i.e., those with general category
+property being one of “Lm”, “Lt”, “Lu”, “Ll”, or “Lo”.  Note that this is different
+from the “Alphabetic” property defined in the Unicode Standard.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isascii">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isascii</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isascii" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the string is empty or all characters in the string are ASCII,
+false otherwise.
+ASCII characters have code points in the range U+0000-U+007F.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isdecimal">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isdecimal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isdecimal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all characters in the string are decimal
+characters and there is at least one character, false
+otherwise. Decimal characters are those that can be used to form
+numbers in base 10, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT
+ZERO.  Formally a decimal character is a character in the Unicode
+General Category “Nd”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isdigit">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isdigit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isdigit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one
+character, false otherwise.  Digits include decimal characters and digits that need
+special handling, such as the compatibility superscript digits.
+This covers digits which cannot be used to form numbers in base 10,
+like the Kharosthi numbers.  Formally, a digit is a character that has the
+property value Numeric_Type=Digit or Numeric_Type=Decimal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isidentifier">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isidentifier</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isidentifier" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the string is a valid identifier according to the language
+definition, section <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#identifiers"><span class="std std-ref">Identifiers and keywords</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="keyword.html#keyword.iskeyword" title="keyword.iskeyword"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword.iskeyword()</span></code></a> to test for reserved identifiers such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.islower">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">islower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.islower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id6">4</a> in the string are lowercase and
+there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isnumeric">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isnumeric</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isnumeric" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all characters in the string are numeric
+characters, and there is at least one character, false
+otherwise. Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters
+that have the Unicode numeric value property, e.g. U+2155,
+VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH.  Formally, numeric characters are those with the property
+value Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal or Numeric_Type=Numeric.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isprintable">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isprintable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isprintable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all characters in the string are printable or the string is
+empty, false otherwise.  Nonprintable characters are those characters defined
+in the Unicode character database as “Other” or “Separator”, excepting the
+ASCII space (0x20) which is considered printable.  (Note that printable
+characters in this context are those which should not be escaped when
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> is invoked on a string.  It has no bearing on the handling of
+strings written to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isspace">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isspace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isspace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is
+at least one character, false otherwise.  Whitespace characters  are those
+characters defined in the Unicode character database as “Other” or “Separator”
+and those with bidirectional property being one of “WS”, “B”, or “S”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.istitle">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">istitle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.istitle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the string is a titlecased string and there is at least one
+character, for example uppercase characters may only follow uncased characters
+and lowercase characters only cased ones.  Return false otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.isupper">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">isupper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.isupper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id7">4</a> in the string are uppercase and
+there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.join">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in <em>iterable</em>.
+A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised if there are any non-string values in
+<em>iterable</em>, including <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects.  The separator between
+elements is the string providing this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.ljust">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">ljust</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillchar</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.ljust" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the string left justified in a string of length <em>width</em>. Padding is
+done using the specified <em>fillchar</em> (default is an ASCII space). The
+original string is returned if <em>width</em> is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.lower">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">lower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.lower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id8">4</a> converted to
+lowercase.</p>
+<p>The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode
+Standard.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.lstrip">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">lstrip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.lstrip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed.  The <em>chars</em>
+argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.  If omitted
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <em>chars</em> argument defaults to removing whitespace.  The <em>chars</em>
+argument is not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;   spacious   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lstrip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;spacious   &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;www.example.com&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lstrip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cmowz.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;example.com&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="staticmethod">
+<dt id="str.maketrans">
+<em class="property">static </em><code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">maketrans</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>y</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>z</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.maketrans" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This static method returns a translation table usable for <a class="reference internal" href="#str.translate" title="str.translate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.translate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If there is only one argument, it must be a dictionary mapping Unicode
+ordinals (integers) or characters (strings of length 1) to Unicode ordinals,
+strings (of arbitrary lengths) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Character keys will then be
+converted to ordinals.</p>
+<p>If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length, and in the
+resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped to the character at
+the same position in y.  If there is a third argument, it must be a string,
+whose characters will be mapped to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in the result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.partition">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">partition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.partition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the string at the first occurrence of <em>sep</em>, and return a 3-tuple
+containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
+after the separator.  If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
+the string itself, followed by two empty strings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>old</em>, <em>new</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>count</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring <em>old</em> replaced by
+<em>new</em>.  If the optional argument <em>count</em> is given, only the first <em>count</em>
+occurrences are replaced.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.rfind">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">rfind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.rfind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the highest index in the string where substring <em>sub</em> is found, such
+that <em>sub</em> is contained within <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[start:end]</span></code>.  Optional arguments <em>start</em>
+and <em>end</em> are interpreted as in slice notation.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.rindex">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">rindex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.rindex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#str.rfind" title="str.rfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code></a> but raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when the substring <em>sub</em> is not
+found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.rjust">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">rjust</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillchar</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.rjust" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the string right justified in a string of length <em>width</em>. Padding is
+done using the specified <em>fillchar</em> (default is an ASCII space). The
+original string is returned if <em>width</em> is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.rpartition">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">rpartition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.rpartition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the string at the last occurrence of <em>sep</em>, and return a 3-tuple
+containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
+after the separator.  If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
+two empty strings, followed by the string itself.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.rsplit">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">rsplit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep=None</em>, <em>maxsplit=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.rsplit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the words in the string, using <em>sep</em> as the delimiter string.
+If <em>maxsplit</em> is given, at most <em>maxsplit</em> splits are done, the <em>rightmost</em>
+ones.  If <em>sep</em> is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any whitespace string is a
+separator.  Except for splitting from the right, <a class="reference internal" href="#str.rsplit" title="str.rsplit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code></a> behaves like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> which is described in detail below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.rstrip">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">rstrip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.rstrip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed.  The <em>chars</em>
+argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.  If omitted
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <em>chars</em> argument defaults to removing whitespace.  The <em>chars</em>
+argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;   spacious   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;   spacious&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;mississippi&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ipz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;mississ&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.split">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep=None</em>, <em>maxsplit=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the words in the string, using <em>sep</em> as the delimiter
+string.  If <em>maxsplit</em> is given, at most <em>maxsplit</em> splits are done (thus,
+the list will have at most <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxsplit+1</span></code> elements).  If <em>maxsplit</em> is not
+specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, then there is no limit on the number of splits
+(all possible splits are made).</p>
+<p>If <em>sep</em> is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
+deemed to delimit empty strings (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1,,2'.split(',')</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['1',</span> <span class="pre">'',</span> <span class="pre">'2']</span></code>).  The <em>sep</em> argument may consist of multiple characters
+(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1&lt;&gt;2&lt;&gt;3'.split('&lt;&gt;')</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['1',</span> <span class="pre">'2',</span> <span class="pre">'3']</span></code>).
+Splitting an empty string with a specified separator returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['']</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;1,2,3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;1,2,3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxsplit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2,3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;1,2,,3,&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;3&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>sep</em> is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a different splitting algorithm is
+applied: runs of consecutive whitespace are regarded as a single separator,
+and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or end if the
+string has leading or trailing whitespace.  Consequently, splitting an empty
+string or a string consisting of just whitespace with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> separator
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;1 2 3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;1 2 3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxsplit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2 3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;   1   2   3   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-32"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.splitlines">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">splitlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>keepends</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.splitlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the lines in the string, breaking at line boundaries.  Line
+breaks are not included in the resulting list unless <em>keepends</em> is given and
+true.</p>
+<p>This method splits on the following line boundaries.  In particular, the
+boundaries are a superset of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a>.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 44%" />
+<col style="width: 56%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Representation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Line Feed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Carriage Return</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Carriage Return + Line Feed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\v</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x0b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Line Tabulation</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x0c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Form Feed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x1c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>File Separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x1d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Group Separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x1e</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Record Separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x85</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Next Line (C1 Control Code)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u2028</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Line Separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u2029</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Paragraph Separator</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\v</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\f</span></code> added to list of line boundaries.</p>
+</div>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;ab c</span><span class="se">\n\n</span><span class="s1">de fg</span><span class="se">\r</span><span class="s1">kl</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;ab c&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;de fg&#39;, &#39;kl&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;ab c</span><span class="se">\n\n</span><span class="s1">de fg</span><span class="se">\r</span><span class="s1">kl</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;ab c\n&#39;, &#39;\n&#39;, &#39;de fg\r&#39;, &#39;kl\r\n&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> when a delimiter string <em>sep</em> is given, this
+method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a terminal line
+break does not result in an extra line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;One line</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;One line&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For comparison, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split('\n')</span></code> gives:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Two lines</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Two lines&#39;, &#39;&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.startswith">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">startswith</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.startswith" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if string starts with the <em>prefix</em>, otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+<em>prefix</em> can also be a tuple of prefixes to look for.  With optional <em>start</em>,
+test string beginning at that position.  With optional <em>end</em>, stop comparing
+string at that position.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.strip">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">strip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.strip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing characters removed.
+The <em>chars</em> argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.
+If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <em>chars</em> argument defaults to removing whitespace.
+The <em>chars</em> argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its
+values are stripped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;   spacious   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;spacious&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;www.example.com&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cmowz.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;example&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The outermost leading and trailing <em>chars</em> argument values are stripped
+from the string. Characters are removed from the leading end until
+reaching a string character that is not contained in the set of
+characters in <em>chars</em>. A similar action takes place on the trailing end.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">comment_string</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">comment_string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.#! &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Section 3.2.1 Issue #32&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.swapcase">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">swapcase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.swapcase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
+vice versa. Note that it is not necessarily true that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.swapcase().swapcase()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">s</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.title">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">title</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.title" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a titlecased version of the string where words start with an uppercase
+character and the remaining characters are lowercase.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello World&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a word as
+groups of consecutive letters.  The definition works in many contexts but
+it means that apostrophes in contractions and possessives form word
+boundaries, which may not be the desired result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends from the UK&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;They&#39;Re Bill&#39;S Friends From The Uk&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A workaround for apostrophes can be constructed using regular expressions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">titlecase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s2">&quot;[A-Za-z]+(&#39;[A-Za-z]+)?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                  <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">+</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                             <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                  <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">titlecase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;They&#39;re Bill&#39;s Friends.&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.translate">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">translate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>table</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.translate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped through
+the given translation table.  The table must be an object that implements
+indexing via <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, typically a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">sequence</span></a>.  When indexed by a Unicode ordinal (an integer), the
+table object can do any of the following: return a Unicode ordinal or a
+string, to map the character to one or more other characters; return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, to delete the character from the return string; or raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LookupError</span></code></a> exception, to map the character to itself.</p>
+<p>You can use <a class="reference internal" href="#str.maketrans" title="str.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.maketrans()</span></code></a> to create a translation map from
+character-to-character mappings in different formats.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module for a more flexible approach to custom
+character mappings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.upper">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">upper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.upper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id9">4</a> converted to
+uppercase.  Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.upper().isupper()</span></code> might be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code>
+contains uncased characters or if the Unicode category of the resulting
+character(s) is not “Lu” (Letter, uppercase), but e.g. “Lt” (Letter,
+titlecase).</p>
+<p>The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode
+Standard.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="str.zfill">
+<code class="descclassname">str.</code><code class="descname">zfill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#str.zfill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the string left filled with ASCII <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code> digits to
+make a string of length <em>width</em>. A leading sign prefix (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>)
+is handled by inserting the padding <em>after</em> the sign character rather
+than before. The original string is returned if <em>width</em> is less than
+or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;42&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;00042&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;-42&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-0042&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="printf-style-string-formatting">
+<span id="old-string-formatting"></span><h3><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code>-style String Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#printf-style-string-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="admonition note" id="index-33">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that
+lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and
+dictionaries correctly).  Using the newer <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literals</span></a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> interface, or <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#template-strings"><span class="std std-ref">template strings</span></a> may help avoid these errors.  Each of these
+alternatives provides their own trade-offs and benefits of simplicity,
+flexibility, and/or extensibility.</p>
+</div>
+<p>String objects have one unique built-in operation: the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator (modulo).
+This is also known as the string <em>formatting</em> or <em>interpolation</em> operator.
+Given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">values</span></code> (where <em>format</em> is a string), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> conversion
+specifications in <em>format</em> are replaced with zero or more elements of <em>values</em>.
+The effect is similar to using the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sprintf()</span></code> in the C language.</p>
+<p>If <em>format</em> requires a single argument, <em>values</em> may be a single non-tuple
+object. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id16" id="id10">5</a>  Otherwise, <em>values</em> must be a tuple with exactly the number of
+items specified by the format string, or a single mapping object (for example, a
+dictionary).</p>
+<p id="index-34">A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the following
+components, which must occur in this order:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> character, which marks the start of the specifier.</p></li>
+<li><p>Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of characters
+(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(somename)</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some conversion
+types.</p></li>
+<li><p>Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code> (asterisk), the
+actual width is read from the next element of the tuple in <em>values</em>, and the
+object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision.</p></li>
+<li><p>Precision (optional), given as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> (dot) followed by the precision.  If
+specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code> (an asterisk), the actual precision is read from the next
+element of the tuple in <em>values</em>, and the value to convert comes after the
+precision.</p></li>
+<li><p>Length modifier (optional).</p></li>
+<li><p>Conversion type.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then the
+formats in the string <em>must</em> include a parenthesised mapping key into that
+dictionary inserted immediately after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> character. The mapping key
+selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(language)s</span><span class="s1"> has </span><span class="si">%(number)03d</span><span class="s1"> quote types.&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>      <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;language&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Python&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">Python has 002 quote types.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> specifiers may occur in a format (since they require a
+sequential parameter list).</p>
+<p>The conversion flag characters are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-35">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 88%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Flag</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The value conversion will use the “alternate form” (where defined
+below).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>
+conversion if both are given).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
+string) produced by a signed conversion.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A sign character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>) will precede the conversion
+(overrides a “space” flag).</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>A length modifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code>) may be present, but is ignored as it
+is not necessary for Python – so e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%ld</span></code> is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The conversion types are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 74%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Conversion</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed integer decimal.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed integer decimal.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'o'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed octal value.</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Obsolete type – it is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code>.</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point exponential format (lowercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'E'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point exponential format (uppercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point decimal format.</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point decimal format.</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential
+format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
+precision, decimal format otherwise.</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'G'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential
+format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
+precision, decimal format otherwise.</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Single character (accepts integer or single
+character string).</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>String (converts any Python object using
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>).</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>String (converts any Python object using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>).</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>String (converts any Python object using
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a>).</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>No argument is converted, results in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code>
+character in the result.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0o'</span></code>) to be
+inserted before the first digit.</p></li>
+<li><p>The alternate form causes a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0X'</span></code> (depending on whether
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code> format was used) to be inserted before the first digit.</p></li>
+<li><p>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, even if
+no digits follow it.</p>
+<p>The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal point and
+defaults to 6.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, and
+trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise be.</p>
+<p>The precision determines the number of significant digits before and after the
+decimal point and defaults to 6.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>If precision is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code>, the output is truncated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> characters.</p></li>
+<li><p>See <span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0237"><strong>PEP 237</strong></a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Since Python strings have an explicit length, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> conversions do not assume
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\0'</span></code> is the end of the string.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%f</span></code> conversions for numbers whose absolute value is over 1e50 are no
+longer replaced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%g</span></code> conversions.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview">
+<span id="binaryseq"></span><span id="index-37"></span><h2>Binary Sequence Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-38">The core built-in types for manipulating binary data are <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>. They are supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> which uses
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer protocol</span></a> to access the memory of other
+binary objects without needing to make a copy.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module supports efficient storage of basic data types like
+32-bit integers and IEEE754 double-precision floating values.</p>
+<div class="section" id="bytes-objects">
+<span id="typebytes"></span><h3>Bytes Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-39">Bytes objects are immutable sequences of single bytes. Since many major
+binary protocols are based on the ASCII text encoding, bytes objects offer
+several methods that are only valid when working with ASCII compatible
+data and are closely related to string objects in a variety of other ways.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bytes">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>source</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>encoding</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Firstly, the syntax for bytes literals is largely the same as that for string
+literals, except that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> prefix is added:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Single quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'still</span> <span class="pre">allows</span> <span class="pre">embedded</span> <span class="pre">&quot;double&quot;</span> <span class="pre">quotes'</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Double quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;still</span> <span class="pre">allows</span> <span class="pre">embedded</span> <span class="pre">'single'</span> <span class="pre">quotes&quot;</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Triple quoted: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'''3</span> <span class="pre">single</span> <span class="pre">quotes'''</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;&quot;&quot;3</span> <span class="pre">double</span> <span class="pre">quotes&quot;&quot;&quot;</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Only ASCII characters are permitted in bytes literals (regardless of the
+declared source code encoding). Any binary values over 127 must be entered
+into bytes literals using the appropriate escape sequence.</p>
+<p>As with string literals, bytes literals may also use a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> prefix to disable
+processing of escape sequences. See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#strings"><span class="std std-ref">String and Bytes literals</span></a> for more about the various
+forms of bytes literal, including supported escape sequences.</p>
+<p>While bytes literals and representations are based on ASCII text, bytes
+objects actually behave like immutable sequences of integers, with each
+value in the sequence restricted such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">256</span></code> (attempts to
+violate this restriction will trigger <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>). This is done
+deliberately to emphasise that while many binary formats include ASCII based
+elements and can be usefully manipulated with some text-oriented algorithms,
+this is not generally the case for arbitrary binary data (blindly applying
+text processing algorithms to binary data formats that are not ASCII
+compatible will usually lead to data corruption).</p>
+<p>In addition to the literal forms, bytes objects can be created in a number of
+other ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A zero-filled bytes object of a specified length: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(10)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>From an iterable of integers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(range(20))</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(obj)</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Also see the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#func-bytes"><span class="std std-ref">bytes</span></a> built-in.</p>
+<p>Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte, hexadecimal
+numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
+the bytes type has an additional class method to read data in that format:</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="bytes.fromhex">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">fromhex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.fromhex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> class method returns a bytes object, decoding the
+given string object.  The string must contain two hexadecimal digits per
+byte, with ASCII whitespace being ignored.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromhex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2Ef0 F1f2  &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;.\xf0\xf1\xf2&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.fromhex" title="bytes.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.fromhex()</span></code></a> now skips all ASCII whitespace in the string,
+not just spaces.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytes object into its
+hexadecimal representation.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.hex">
+<code class="descname">hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
+byte in the instance.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\xf0\xf1\xf2</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;f0f1f2&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Since bytes objects are sequences of integers (akin to a tuple), for a bytes
+object <em>b</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[0]</span></code> will be an integer, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[0:1]</span></code> will be a bytes
+object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings, where both indexing
+and slicing will produce a string of length 1)</p>
+<p>The representation of bytes objects uses the literal format (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'...'</span></code>)
+since it is often more useful than e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes([46,</span> <span class="pre">46,</span> <span class="pre">46])</span></code>.  You can
+always convert a bytes object into a list of integers using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(b)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For Python 2.x users: In the Python 2.x series, a variety of implicit
+conversions between 8-bit strings (the closest thing 2.x offers to a
+built-in binary data type) and Unicode strings were permitted. This was a
+backwards compatibility workaround to account for the fact that Python
+originally only supported 8-bit text, and Unicode text was a later
+addition. In Python 3.x, those implicit conversions are gone - conversions
+between 8-bit binary data and Unicode text must be explicit, and bytes and
+string objects will always compare unequal.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bytearray-objects">
+<span id="typebytearray"></span><h3>Bytearray Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-40"><a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects are a mutable counterpart to <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+objects.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="bytearray">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">bytearray</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>source</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>encoding</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>There is no dedicated literal syntax for bytearray objects, instead
+they are always created by calling the constructor:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Creating an empty instance: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray()</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Creating a zero-filled instance with a given length: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray(10)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>From an iterable of integers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray(range(20))</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray(b'Hi!')</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>As bytearray objects are mutable, they support the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-mutable"><span class="std std-ref">mutable</span></a> sequence operations in addition to the
+common bytes and bytearray operations described in <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-methods"><span class="std std-ref">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Also see the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#func-bytearray"><span class="std std-ref">bytearray</span></a> built-in.</p>
+<p>Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte, hexadecimal
+numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
+the bytearray type has an additional class method to read data in that format:</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="bytearray.fromhex">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">fromhex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.fromhex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> class method returns bytearray object, decoding
+the given string object.  The string must contain two hexadecimal digits
+per byte, with ASCII whitespace being ignored.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromhex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2Ef0 F1f2  &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;.\xf0\xf1\xf2&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray.fromhex" title="bytearray.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.fromhex()</span></code></a> now skips all ASCII whitespace in the string,
+not just spaces.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytearray object into its
+hexadecimal representation.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytearray.hex">
+<code class="descname">hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
+byte in the instance.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\xf0\xf1\xf2</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;f0f1f2&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Since bytearray objects are sequences of integers (akin to a list), for a
+bytearray object <em>b</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[0]</span></code> will be an integer, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b[0:1]</span></code> will be
+a bytearray object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings, where
+both indexing and slicing will produce a string of length 1)</p>
+<p>The representation of bytearray objects uses the bytes literal format
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray(b'...')</span></code>) since it is often more useful than e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray([46,</span> <span class="pre">46,</span> <span class="pre">46])</span></code>.  You can always convert a bytearray object into
+a list of integers using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(b)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bytes-and-bytearray-operations">
+<span id="bytes-methods"></span><h3>Bytes and Bytearray Operations<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes-and-bytearray-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-41">Both bytes and bytearray objects support the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common"><span class="std std-ref">common</span></a>
+sequence operations. They interoperate not just with operands of the same
+type, but with any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>. Due to this flexibility, they can be
+freely mixed in operations without causing errors. However, the return type
+of the result may depend on the order of operands.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The methods on bytes and bytearray objects don’t accept strings as their
+arguments, just as the methods on strings don’t accept bytes as their
+arguments.  For example, you have to write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;abc&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;f&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abc&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;f&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Some bytes and bytearray operations assume the use of ASCII compatible
+binary formats, and hence should be avoided when working with arbitrary
+binary data. These restrictions are covered below.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Using these ASCII based operations to manipulate binary data that is not
+stored in an ASCII based format may lead to data corruption.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects can be used with
+arbitrary binary data.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.count">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.count">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of subsequence <em>sub</em> in
+the range [<em>start</em>, <em>end</em>].  Optional arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are
+interpreted as in slice notation.</p>
+<p>The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or an
+integer in the range 0 to 255.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.decode">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding=&quot;utf-8&quot;</em>, <em>errors=&quot;strict&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.decode">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding=&quot;utf-8&quot;</em>, <em>errors=&quot;strict&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string decoded from the given bytes.  Default encoding is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>. <em>errors</em> may be given to set a different
+error handling scheme.  The default for <em>errors</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>, meaning
+that encoding errors raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>.  Other possible values are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> and any other name registered via
+<a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.register_error()</span></code></a>, see section <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a>. For a
+list of possible encodings, see section <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#standard-encodings"><span class="std std-ref">Standard Encodings</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Passing the <em>encoding</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> allows decoding any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> directly, without needing to make a temporary
+bytes or bytearray object.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added support for keyword arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.endswith">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">endswith</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.endswith" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.endswith">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">endswith</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.endswith" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the binary data ends with the specified <em>suffix</em>,
+otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  <em>suffix</em> can also be a tuple of suffixes to
+look for.  With optional <em>start</em>, test beginning at that position.  With
+optional <em>end</em>, stop comparing at that position.</p>
+<p>The suffix(es) to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.find">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.find">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the lowest index in the data where the subsequence <em>sub</em> is found,
+such that <em>sub</em> is contained in the slice <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[start:end]</span></code>.  Optional
+arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are interpreted as in slice notation.  Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> if <em>sub</em> is not found.</p>
+<p>The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or an
+integer in the range 0 to 255.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.find" title="bytes.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a> method should be used only if you need to know the
+position of <em>sub</em>.  To check if <em>sub</em> is a substring or not, use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Py&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.index">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.index">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.find" title="bytes.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a>, but raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when the
+subsequence is not found.</p>
+<p>The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or an
+integer in the range 0 to 255.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.join">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.join">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytes or bytearray object which is the concatenation of the
+binary data sequences in <em>iterable</em>.  A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised
+if there are any values in <em>iterable</em> that are not <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+objects</span></a>, including <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects.  The
+separator between elements is the contents of the bytes or
+bytearray object providing this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="staticmethod">
+<dt id="bytes.maketrans">
+<em class="property">static </em><code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">maketrans</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>from</em>, <em>to</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.maketrans" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.maketrans">
+<em class="property">static </em><code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">maketrans</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>from</em>, <em>to</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.maketrans" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This static method returns a translation table usable for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.translate" title="bytes.translate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.translate()</span></code></a> that will map each character in <em>from</em> into the
+character at the same position in <em>to</em>; <em>from</em> and <em>to</em> must both be
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a> and have the same length.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.partition">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">partition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.partition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.partition">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">partition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.partition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the sequence at the first occurrence of <em>sep</em>, and return a 3-tuple
+containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
+bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.
+If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple
+containing a copy of the original sequence, followed by two empty bytes or
+bytearray objects.</p>
+<p>The separator to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>old</em>, <em>new</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>count</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.replace">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">replace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>old</em>, <em>new</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>count</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with all occurrences of subsequence <em>old</em>
+replaced by <em>new</em>.  If the optional argument <em>count</em> is given, only the
+first <em>count</em> occurrences are replaced.</p>
+<p>The subsequence to search for and its replacement may be any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.rfind">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">rfind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rfind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.rfind">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">rfind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rfind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the highest index in the sequence where the subsequence <em>sub</em> is
+found, such that <em>sub</em> is contained within <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[start:end]</span></code>.  Optional
+arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are interpreted as in slice notation. Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p>
+<p>The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or an
+integer in the range 0 to 255.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.rindex">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">rindex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rindex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.rindex">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">rindex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sub</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rindex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.rfind" title="bytes.rfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code></a> but raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when the
+subsequence <em>sub</em> is not found.</p>
+<p>The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> or an
+integer in the range 0 to 255.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.rpartition">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">rpartition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rpartition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.rpartition">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">rpartition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rpartition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the sequence at the last occurrence of <em>sep</em>, and return a 3-tuple
+containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
+bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.
+If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple
+containing two empty bytes or bytearray objects, followed by a copy of the
+original sequence.</p>
+<p>The separator to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.startswith">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">startswith</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.startswith" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.startswith">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">startswith</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.startswith" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the binary data starts with the specified <em>prefix</em>,
+otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  <em>prefix</em> can also be a tuple of prefixes to
+look for.  With optional <em>start</em>, test beginning at that position.  With
+optional <em>end</em>, stop comparing at that position.</p>
+<p>The prefix(es) to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.translate">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">translate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>table</em>, <em>delete=b''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.translate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.translate">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">translate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>table</em>, <em>delete=b''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.translate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the bytes or bytearray object where all bytes occurring in
+the optional argument <em>delete</em> are removed, and the remaining bytes have
+been mapped through the given translation table, which must be a bytes
+object of length 256.</p>
+<p>You can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.maketrans" title="bytes.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.maketrans()</span></code></a> method to create a translation
+table.</p>
+<p>Set the <em>table</em> argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for translations that only delete
+characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;read this short text&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">translate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;aeiou&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;rd ths shrt txt&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>delete</em> is now supported as a keyword argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects have default behaviours
+that assume the use of ASCII compatible binary formats, but can still be used
+with arbitrary binary data by passing appropriate arguments. Note that all of
+the bytearray methods in this section do <em>not</em> operate in place, and instead
+produce new objects.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.center">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">center</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillbyte</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.center" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.center">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">center</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillbyte</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.center" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the object centered in a sequence of length <em>width</em>.
+Padding is done using the specified <em>fillbyte</em> (default is an ASCII
+space). For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects, the original sequence is returned if
+<em>width</em> is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place -
+it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.ljust">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">ljust</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillbyte</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.ljust" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.ljust">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">ljust</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillbyte</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.ljust" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the object left justified in a sequence of length <em>width</em>.
+Padding is done using the specified <em>fillbyte</em> (default is an ASCII
+space). For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects, the original sequence is returned if
+<em>width</em> is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place -
+it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.lstrip">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">lstrip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.lstrip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.lstrip">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">lstrip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.lstrip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed.  The
+<em>chars</em> argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
+be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
+ASCII characters.  If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <em>chars</em> argument defaults
+to removing ASCII whitespace.  The <em>chars</em> argument is not a prefix;
+rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;   spacious   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lstrip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;spacious   &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.example.com&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lstrip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;cmowz.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;example.com&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place -
+it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.rjust">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">rjust</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillbyte</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rjust" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.rjust">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">rjust</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>fillbyte</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rjust" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the object right justified in a sequence of length <em>width</em>.
+Padding is done using the specified <em>fillbyte</em> (default is an ASCII
+space). For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects, the original sequence is returned if
+<em>width</em> is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(s)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place -
+it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.rsplit">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">rsplit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep=None</em>, <em>maxsplit=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rsplit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.rsplit">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">rsplit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep=None</em>, <em>maxsplit=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rsplit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using <em>sep</em>
+as the delimiter string. If <em>maxsplit</em> is given, at most <em>maxsplit</em> splits
+are done, the <em>rightmost</em> ones.  If <em>sep</em> is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+any subsequence consisting solely of ASCII whitespace is a separator.
+Except for splitting from the right, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray.rsplit" title="bytearray.rsplit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code></a> behaves like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray.split" title="bytearray.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> which is described in detail below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.rstrip">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">rstrip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rstrip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.rstrip">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">rstrip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rstrip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes removed.  The
+<em>chars</em> argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
+be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
+ASCII characters.  If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <em>chars</em> argument defaults to
+removing ASCII whitespace.  The <em>chars</em> argument is not a suffix; rather,
+all combinations of its values are stripped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;   spacious   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;   spacious&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;mississippi&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rstrip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ipz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;mississ&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place -
+it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.split">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep=None</em>, <em>maxsplit=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.split">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">split</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sep=None</em>, <em>maxsplit=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.split" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using <em>sep</em>
+as the delimiter string. If <em>maxsplit</em> is given and non-negative, at most
+<em>maxsplit</em> splits are done (thus, the list will have at most <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxsplit+1</span></code>
+elements).  If <em>maxsplit</em> is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, then there is no
+limit on the number of splits (all possible splits are made).</p>
+<p>If <em>sep</em> is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
+deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'1,,2'.split(b',')</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[b'1',</span> <span class="pre">b'',</span> <span class="pre">b'2']</span></code>).  The <em>sep</em> argument may consist of a
+multibyte sequence (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'1&lt;&gt;2&lt;&gt;3'.split(b'&lt;&gt;')</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[b'1',</span> <span class="pre">b'2',</span> <span class="pre">b'3']</span></code>). Splitting an empty sequence with a specified
+separator returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[b'']</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[bytearray(b'')]</span></code> depending on the type
+of object being split.  The <em>sep</em> argument may be any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;1,2,3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;1,2,3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxsplit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2,3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;1,2,,3,&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;, b&#39;&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>sep</em> is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a different splitting algorithm
+is applied: runs of consecutive ASCII whitespace are regarded as a single
+separator, and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or
+end if the sequence has leading or trailing whitespace.  Consequently,
+splitting an empty sequence or a sequence consisting solely of ASCII
+whitespace without a specified separator returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;1 2 3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;1 2 3&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxsplit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2 3&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;   1   2   3   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.strip">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">strip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.strip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.strip">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">strip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>chars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.strip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing bytes
+removed. The <em>chars</em> argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
+byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is
+usually used with ASCII characters.  If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <em>chars</em>
+argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace. The <em>chars</em> argument is
+not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are
+stripped:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;   spacious   &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;spacious&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.example.com&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;cmowz.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;example&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place -
+it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects assume the use of ASCII
+compatible binary formats and should not be applied to arbitrary binary data.
+Note that all of the bytearray methods in this section do <em>not</em> operate in
+place, and instead produce new objects.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.capitalize">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">capitalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.capitalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.capitalize">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">capitalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.capitalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with each byte interpreted as an ASCII
+character, and the first byte capitalized and the rest lowercased.
+Non-ASCII byte values are passed through unchanged.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.expandtabs">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">expandtabs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tabsize=8</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.expandtabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.expandtabs">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">expandtabs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tabsize=8</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.expandtabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence where all ASCII tab characters are replaced
+by one or more ASCII spaces, depending on the current column and the given
+tab size.  Tab positions occur every <em>tabsize</em> bytes (default is 8,
+giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on).  To expand the
+sequence, the current column is set to zero and the sequence is examined
+byte by byte.  If the byte is an ASCII tab character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\t'</span></code>), one or
+more space characters are inserted in the result until the current column
+is equal to the next tab position. (The tab character itself is not
+copied.)  If the current byte is an ASCII newline (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\n'</span></code>) or
+carriage return (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\r'</span></code>), it is copied and the current column is reset
+to zero.  Any other byte value is copied unchanged and the current column
+is incremented by one regardless of how the byte value is represented when
+printed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;01</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">012</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">0123</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">01234&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expandtabs</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;01      012     0123    01234&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;01</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">012</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">0123</span><span class="se">\t</span><span class="s1">01234&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expandtabs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;01  012 0123    01234&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.isalnum">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">isalnum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isalnum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.isalnum">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">isalnum</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isalnum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetical ASCII characters
+or ASCII decimal digits and the sequence is not empty, false otherwise.
+Alphabetic ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>. ASCII decimal
+digits are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'0123456789'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABCabc1&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isalnum</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABC abc1&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isalnum</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.isalpha">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">isalpha</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isalpha" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.isalpha">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">isalpha</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isalpha" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetic ASCII characters
+and the sequence is not empty, false otherwise.  Alphabetic ASCII
+characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABCabc&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isalpha</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABCabc1&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isalpha</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.isascii">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">isascii</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isascii" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.isascii">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">isascii</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isascii" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the sequence is empty or all bytes in the sequence are ASCII,
+false otherwise.
+ASCII bytes are in the range 0-0x7F.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.isdigit">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">isdigit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isdigit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.isdigit">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">isdigit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isdigit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII decimal digits
+and the sequence is not empty, false otherwise. ASCII decimal digits are
+those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'0123456789'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;1234&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdigit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.23&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdigit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.islower">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">islower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.islower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.islower">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">islower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.islower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if there is at least one lowercase ASCII character
+in the sequence and no uppercase ASCII characters, false otherwise.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islower</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islower</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</span></code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
+are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.isspace">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">isspace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isspace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.isspace">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">isspace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isspace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII whitespace and the
+sequence is not empty, false otherwise.  ASCII whitespace characters are
+those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'</span> <span class="pre">\t\n\r\x0b\f'</span></code> (space, tab, newline,
+carriage return, vertical tab, form feed).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.istitle">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">istitle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.istitle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.istitle">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">istitle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.istitle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the sequence is ASCII titlecase and the sequence is not
+empty, false otherwise. See <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.title" title="bytes.title"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.title()</span></code></a> for more details on the
+definition of “titlecase”.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello World&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">istitle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">istitle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.isupper">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">isupper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isupper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.isupper">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">isupper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isupper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if there is at least one uppercase alphabetic ASCII character
+in the sequence and no lowercase ASCII characters, false otherwise.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;HELLO WORLD&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isupper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isupper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</span></code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
+are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.lower">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">lower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.lower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.lower">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">lower</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.lower" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with all the uppercase ASCII characters
+converted to their corresponding lowercase counterpart.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello World&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;hello world&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</span></code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
+are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-42"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.splitlines">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">splitlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>keepends=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.splitlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.splitlines">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">splitlines</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>keepends=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.splitlines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the lines in the binary sequence, breaking at ASCII
+line boundaries. This method uses the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> approach
+to splitting lines. Line breaks are not included in the resulting list
+unless <em>keepends</em> is given and true.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ab c</span><span class="se">\n\n</span><span class="s1">de fg</span><span class="se">\r</span><span class="s1">kl</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;ab c&#39;, b&#39;&#39;, b&#39;de fg&#39;, b&#39;kl&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ab c</span><span class="se">\n\n</span><span class="s1">de fg</span><span class="se">\r</span><span class="s1">kl</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keepends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[b&#39;ab c\n&#39;, b&#39;\n&#39;, b&#39;de fg\r&#39;, b&#39;kl\r\n&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.split" title="bytes.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a> when a delimiter string <em>sep</em> is given, this
+method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a terminal line
+break does not result in an extra line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Two lines</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">([b&#39;&#39;], [b&#39;Two lines&#39;, b&#39;&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;One line</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">([], [b&#39;One line&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.swapcase">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">swapcase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.swapcase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.swapcase">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">swapcase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.swapcase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII characters
+converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart and vice-versa.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello World&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">swapcase</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;hELLO wORLD&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</span></code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
+are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#str.swapcase" title="str.swapcase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.swapcase()</span></code></a>, it is always the case that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin.swapcase().swapcase()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">bin</span></code> for the binary versions. Case
+conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not generally
+true for arbitrary Unicode code points.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.title">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">title</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.title" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.title">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">title</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.title" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a titlecased version of the binary sequence where words start with
+an uppercase ASCII character and the remaining characters are lowercase.
+Uncased byte values are left unmodified.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Hello World&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</span></code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
+are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.
+All other byte values are uncased.</p>
+<p>The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a word as
+groups of consecutive letters.  The definition works in many contexts but
+it means that apostrophes in contractions and possessives form word
+boundaries, which may not be the desired result:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends from the UK&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&quot;They&#39;Re Bill&#39;S Friends From The Uk&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A workaround for apostrophes can be constructed using regular expressions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">titlecase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">rb</span><span class="s2">&quot;[A-Za-z]+(&#39;[A-Za-z]+)?&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                  <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">+</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                             <span class="n">mo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                  <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">titlecase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&quot;They&#39;re Bill&#39;s Friends.&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.upper">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">upper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.upper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.upper">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">upper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.upper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII characters
+converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello World&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;HELLO WORLD&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</span></code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
+are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="bytes.zfill">
+<code class="descclassname">bytes.</code><code class="descname">zfill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.zfill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="bytearray.zfill">
+<code class="descclassname">bytearray.</code><code class="descname">zfill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.zfill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of the sequence left filled with ASCII <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'0'</span></code> digits to
+make a sequence of length <em>width</em>. A leading sign prefix (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'+'</span></code>/
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'-'</span></code>) is handled by inserting the padding <em>after</em> the sign character
+rather than before. For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects, the original sequence is
+returned if <em>width</em> is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(seq)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;42&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;00042&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;-42&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;-0042&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="printf-style-bytes-formatting">
+<span id="bytes-formatting"></span><h3><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code>-style Bytes Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#printf-style-bytes-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="admonition note" id="index-43">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that
+lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and
+dictionaries correctly).  If the value being printed may be a tuple or
+dictionary, wrap it in a tuple.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Bytes objects (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code>) have one unique built-in operation:
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator (modulo).
+This is also known as the bytes <em>formatting</em> or <em>interpolation</em> operator.
+Given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">values</span></code> (where <em>format</em> is a bytes object), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> conversion
+specifications in <em>format</em> are replaced with zero or more elements of <em>values</em>.
+The effect is similar to using the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sprintf()</span></code> in the C language.</p>
+<p>If <em>format</em> requires a single argument, <em>values</em> may be a single non-tuple
+object. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id16" id="id11">5</a>  Otherwise, <em>values</em> must be a tuple with exactly the number of
+items specified by the format bytes object, or a single mapping object (for
+example, a dictionary).</p>
+<p id="index-44">A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the following
+components, which must occur in this order:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> character, which marks the start of the specifier.</p></li>
+<li><p>Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of characters
+(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(somename)</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some conversion
+types.</p></li>
+<li><p>Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code> (asterisk), the
+actual width is read from the next element of the tuple in <em>values</em>, and the
+object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision.</p></li>
+<li><p>Precision (optional), given as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> (dot) followed by the precision.  If
+specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code> (an asterisk), the actual precision is read from the next
+element of the tuple in <em>values</em>, and the value to convert comes after the
+precision.</p></li>
+<li><p>Length modifier (optional).</p></li>
+<li><p>Conversion type.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then the
+formats in the bytes object <em>must</em> include a parenthesised mapping key into that
+dictionary inserted immediately after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> character. The mapping key
+selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(language)s</span><span class="s1"> has </span><span class="si">%(number)03d</span><span class="s1"> quote types.&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>      <span class="p">{</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;language&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Python&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;number&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Python has 002 quote types.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> specifiers may occur in a format (since they require a
+sequential parameter list).</p>
+<p>The conversion flag characters are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-45">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 88%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Flag</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The value conversion will use the “alternate form” (where defined
+below).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>
+conversion if both are given).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
+string) produced by a signed conversion.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A sign character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>) will precede the conversion
+(overrides a “space” flag).</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>A length modifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code>) may be present, but is ignored as it
+is not necessary for Python – so e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%ld</span></code> is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The conversion types are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 74%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Conversion</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed integer decimal.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed integer decimal.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'o'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed octal value.</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Obsolete type – it is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code>.</p></td>
+<td><p>(8)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point exponential format (lowercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'E'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point exponential format (uppercase).</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point decimal format.</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point decimal format.</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential
+format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
+precision, decimal format otherwise.</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'G'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential
+format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
+precision, decimal format otherwise.</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Single byte (accepts integer or single
+byte objects).</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bytes (any object that follows the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer protocol</span></a> or has
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bytes__" title="object.__bytes__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bytes__()</span></code></a>).</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code> is an alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> and should only
+be used for Python2/3 code bases.</p></td>
+<td><p>(6)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bytes (converts any Python object using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(obj).encode('ascii','backslashreplace)</span></code>).</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> is an alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> and should only
+be used for Python2/3 code bases.</p></td>
+<td><p>(7)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>No argument is converted, results in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code>
+character in the result.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0o'</span></code>) to be
+inserted before the first digit.</p></li>
+<li><p>The alternate form causes a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0X'</span></code> (depending on whether
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code> format was used) to be inserted before the first digit.</p></li>
+<li><p>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, even if
+no digits follow it.</p>
+<p>The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal point and
+defaults to 6.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, and
+trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise be.</p>
+<p>The precision determines the number of significant digits before and after the
+decimal point and defaults to 6.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>If precision is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code>, the output is truncated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'%s'</span></code> is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x series.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'%r'</span></code> is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x series.</p></li>
+<li><p>See <span class="target" id="index-46"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0237"><strong>PEP 237</strong></a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The bytearray version of this method does <em>not</em> operate in place - it
+always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-47"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0461"><strong>PEP 461</strong></a> - Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="memory-views">
+<span id="typememoryview"></span><h3>Memory Views<a class="headerlink" href="#memory-views" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> objects allow Python code to access the internal data
+of an object that supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">buffer protocol</span></a> without
+copying.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="memoryview">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">memoryview</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> that references <em>obj</em>.  <em>obj</em> must support the
+buffer protocol.  Built-in objects that support the buffer protocol include
+<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> has the notion of an <em>element</em>, which is the
+atomic memory unit handled by the originating object <em>obj</em>.  For many
+simple types such as <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>, an element
+is a single byte, but other types such as <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a> may have
+bigger elements.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(view)</span></code> is equal to the length of <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tolist</span></code></a>.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view.ndim</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>, the length is 1. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">view.ndim</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>, the length
+is equal to the number of elements in the view. For higher dimensions,
+the length is equal to the length of the nested list representation of
+the view. The <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.itemsize" title="memoryview.itemsize"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemsize</span></code></a> attribute will give you the
+number of bytes in a single element.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> supports slicing and indexing to expose its data.
+One-dimensional slicing will result in a subview:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcefg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">98</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">103</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;bce&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.format" title="memoryview.format"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code></a> is one of the native format specifiers
+from the <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module, indexing with an integer or a tuple of
+integers is also supported and returns a single <em>element</em> with
+the correct type.  One-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed
+with an integer or a one-integer tuple.  Multi-dimensional memoryviews
+can be indexed with tuples of exactly <em>ndim</em> integers where <em>ndim</em> is
+the number of dimensions.  Zero-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed
+with the empty tuple.</p>
+<p>Here is an example with a non-byte format:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">11111111</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">22222222</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">33333333</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">44444444</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">-11111111</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">44444444</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[-11111111, -33333333]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the underlying object is writable, the memoryview supports
+one-dimensional slice assignment. Resizing is not allowed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcefg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readonly</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;zbcefg&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;123&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;z123fg&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;z1spam&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats
+‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ are also hashable. The hash is defined as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(m)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">hash(m.tobytes())</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcefg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcefg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;ce&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcefg&#39;</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>One-dimensional memoryviews can now be sliced.
+One-dimensional memoryviews with formats ‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ are now hashable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>memoryview is now registered automatically with
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Sequence</span></code></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>memoryviews can now be indexed with tuple of integers.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> has several methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="memoryview.__eq__">
+<code class="descname">__eq__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exporter</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.__eq__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A memoryview and a <span class="target" id="index-48"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3118"><strong>PEP 3118</strong></a> exporter are equal if their shapes are
+equivalent and if all corresponding values are equal when the operands’
+respective format codes are interpreted using <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> syntax.</p>
+<p>For the subset of <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> format strings currently supported by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tolist()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">v</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">w</span></code> are equal if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">v.tolist()</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">w.tolist()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;I&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">4.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">c</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If either format string is not supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module,
+then the objects will always compare as unequal (even if the format
+strings and buffer contents are identical):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BigEndianStructure</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_long</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">BEPoint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BigEndianStructure</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">_fields_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_long</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;y&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c_long</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">point</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BEPoint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">point</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that, as with floating point numbers, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">v</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">w</span></code> does <em>not</em> imply
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">v</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">w</span></code> for memoryview objects.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Previous versions compared the raw memory disregarding the item format
+and the logical array structure.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="memoryview.tobytes">
+<code class="descname">tobytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.tobytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the data in the buffer as a bytestring.  This is equivalent to
+calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> constructor on the memoryview.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abc&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tobytes</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For non-contiguous arrays the result is equal to the flattened list
+representation with all elements converted to bytes. <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tobytes" title="memoryview.tobytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tobytes()</span></code></a>
+supports all format strings, including those that are not in
+<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module syntax.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="memoryview.hex">
+<code class="descname">hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
+byte in the buffer.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abc&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;616263&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="memoryview.tolist">
+<code class="descname">tolist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the data in the buffer as a list of elements.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[97, 98, 99]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[1.1, 2.2, 3.3]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tolist()</span></code></a> now supports all single character native formats in
+<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module syntax as well as multi-dimensional
+representations.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="memoryview.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the underlying buffer exposed by the memoryview object.  Many
+objects take special actions when a view is held on them (for example,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> would temporarily forbid resizing); therefore,
+calling release() is handy to remove these restrictions (and free any
+dangling resources) as soon as possible.</p>
+<p>After this method has been called, any further operation on the view
+raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> (except <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.release" title="memoryview.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> itself which can
+be called multiple times):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">operation forbidden on released memoryview object</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The context management protocol can be used for a similar effect,
+using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">97</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">operation forbidden on released memoryview object</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="memoryview.cast">
+<code class="descname">cast</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>shape</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.cast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cast a memoryview to a new format or shape. <em>shape</em> defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[byte_length//new_itemsize]</span></code>, which means that the result view
+will be one-dimensional. The return value is a new memoryview, but
+the buffer itself is not copied. Supported casts are 1D -&gt; C-<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a>
+and C-contiguous -&gt; 1D.</p>
+<p>The destination format is restricted to a single element native format in
+<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> syntax. One of the formats must be a byte format
+(‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’). The byte length of the result must be the same
+as the original length.</p>
+<p>Cast 1D/long to 1D/unsigned bytes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;l&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">24</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;B&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;B&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">24</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">24</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Cast 1D/unsigned bytes to 1D/char:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;zyz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">memoryview: invalid value for format &quot;B&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;ayz&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Cast 1D/bytes to 3D/ints to 1D/signed char:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;i&quot;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shape</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;i&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">48</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;b&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">z</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">48</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">48</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Cast 1D/unsigned long to 2D/unsigned long:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;L&quot;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;L&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shape</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">48</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The source format is no longer restricted when casting to a byte view.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There are also several readonly attributes available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.obj">
+<code class="descname">obj</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.obj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The underlying object of the memoryview:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span>  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;xyz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.nbytes">
+<code class="descname">nbytes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.nbytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nbytes</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">product(shape)</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">itemsize</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">len(m.tobytes())</span></code>. This is
+the amount of space in bytes that the array would use in a contiguous
+representation. It is not necessarily equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(m)</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">12</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tobytes</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">12</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Multi-dimensional arrays:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;d&quot;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shape</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nbytes</span>
+<span class="go">96</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.readonly">
+<code class="descname">readonly</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.readonly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bool indicating whether the memory is read only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string containing the format (in <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module style) for each
+element in the view. A memoryview can be created from exporters with
+arbitrary format strings, but some methods (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tolist()</span></code></a>) are
+restricted to native single element formats.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>format <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'B'</span></code> is now handled according to the struct module syntax.
+This means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview(b'abc')[0]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b'abc'[0]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">97</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.itemsize">
+<code class="descname">itemsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.itemsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The size in bytes of each element of the memoryview:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">array</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;H&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">32000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">32001</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">32002</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">32000</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">calcsize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;H&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemsize</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.ndim">
+<code class="descname">ndim</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.ndim" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer indicating how many dimensions of a multi-dimensional array the
+memory represents.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.shape">
+<code class="descname">shape</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.shape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of integers the length of <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.ndim" title="memoryview.ndim"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span></code></a> giving the shape of the
+memory as an N-dimensional array.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>An empty tuple instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when ndim = 0.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.strides">
+<code class="descname">strides</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.strides" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of integers the length of <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.ndim" title="memoryview.ndim"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndim</span></code></a> giving the size in bytes to
+access each element for each dimension of the array.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>An empty tuple instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when ndim = 0.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.suboffsets">
+<code class="descname">suboffsets</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.suboffsets" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Used internally for PIL-style arrays. The value is informational only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.c_contiguous">
+<code class="descname">c_contiguous</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.c_contiguous" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bool indicating whether the memory is C-<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.f_contiguous">
+<code class="descname">f_contiguous</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.f_contiguous" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bool indicating whether the memory is Fortran <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="memoryview.contiguous">
+<code class="descname">contiguous</code><a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.contiguous" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bool indicating whether the memory is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous"><span class="xref std std-term">contiguous</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="set-types-set-frozenset">
+<span id="types-set"></span><h2>Set Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#set-types-set-frozenset" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-49">A <em class="dfn">set</em> object is an unordered collection of distinct <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> objects.
+Common uses include membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and
+computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union, difference, and
+symmetric difference.
+(For other containers see the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> classes, and the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.)</p>
+<p>Like other collections, sets support <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">set</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(set)</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">set</span></code>.  Being an unordered collection, sets do not record element position or
+order of insertion.  Accordingly, sets do not support indexing, slicing, or
+other sequence-like behavior.</p>
+<p>There are currently two built-in set types, <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> type is mutable — the contents can be changed using methods
+like <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code>.  Since it is mutable, it has no
+hash value and cannot be used as either a dictionary key or as an element of
+another set.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> type is immutable and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> —
+its contents cannot be altered after it is created; it can therefore be used as
+a dictionary key or as an element of another set.</p>
+<p>Non-empty sets (not frozensets) can be created by placing a comma-separated list
+of elements within braces, for example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{'jack',</span> <span class="pre">'sjoerd'}</span></code>, in addition to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<p>The constructors for both classes work the same:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="set">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="frozenset">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">frozenset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new set or frozenset object whose elements are taken from
+<em>iterable</em>.  The elements of a set must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>.  To
+represent sets of sets, the inner sets must be <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>
+objects.  If <em>iterable</em> is not specified, a new empty set is
+returned.</p>
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> provide the following
+operations:</p>
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">len(s)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of elements in set <em>s</em> (cardinality of <em>s</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">x in s</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Test <em>x</em> for membership in <em>s</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">x not in s</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Test <em>x</em> for non-membership in <em>s</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.isdisjoint">
+<code class="descname">isdisjoint</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.isdisjoint" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the set has no elements in common with <em>other</em>.  Sets are
+disjoint if and only if their intersection is the empty set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.issubset">
+<code class="descname">issubset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.issubset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set &lt;= other</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether every element in the set is in <em>other</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set &lt; other</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether the set is a proper subset of <em>other</em>, that is,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">other</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">set</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">other</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.issuperset">
+<code class="descname">issuperset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.issuperset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set &gt;= other</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether every element in <em>other</em> is in the set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set &gt; other</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether the set is a proper superset of <em>other</em>, that is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span>
+<span class="pre">other</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">set</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">other</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.union">
+<code class="descname">union</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*others</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.union" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set | other | ...</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new set with elements from the set and all others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.intersection">
+<code class="descname">intersection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*others</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.intersection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set &amp; other &amp; ...</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new set with elements common to the set and all others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.difference">
+<code class="descname">difference</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*others</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.difference" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set - other - ...</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new set with elements in the set that are not in the others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.symmetric_difference">
+<code class="descname">symmetric_difference</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set ^ other</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new set with elements in either the set or <em>other</em> but not both.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.copy">
+<code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shallow copy of the set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note, the non-operator versions of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.union" title="frozenset.union"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">union()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.intersection" title="frozenset.intersection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intersection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.difference" title="frozenset.difference"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difference()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference" title="frozenset.symmetric_difference"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symmetric_difference()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.issubset" title="frozenset.issubset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubset()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.issuperset" title="frozenset.issuperset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issuperset()</span></code></a> methods will accept any iterable as an argument.  In
+contrast, their operator based counterparts require their arguments to be
+sets.  This precludes error-prone constructions like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set('abc')</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">'cbs'</span></code>
+in favor of the more readable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set('abc').intersection('cbs')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Both <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> support set to set comparisons. Two
+sets are equal if and only if every element of each set is contained in the
+other (each is a subset of the other). A set is less than another set if and
+only if the first set is a proper subset of the second set (is a subset, but
+is not equal). A set is greater than another set if and only if the first set
+is a proper superset of the second set (is a superset, but is not equal).</p>
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> are compared to instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>
+based on their members.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set('abc')</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">frozenset('abc')</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> and so does <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set('abc')</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">set([frozenset('abc')])</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The subset and equality comparisons do not generalize to a total ordering
+function.  For example, any two nonempty disjoint sets are not equal and are not
+subsets of each other, so <em>all</em> of the following return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a&lt;b</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a==b</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a&gt;b</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Since sets only define partial ordering (subset relationships), the output of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> method is undefined for lists of sets.</p>
+<p>Set elements, like dictionary keys, must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Binary operations that mix <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> instances with <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>
+return the type of the first operand.  For example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset('ab')</span> <span class="pre">|</span>
+<span class="pre">set('bc')</span></code> returns an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The following table lists operations available for <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> that do not
+apply to immutable instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.update">
+<code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*others</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set |= other | ...</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the set, adding elements from all others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.intersection_update">
+<code class="descname">intersection_update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*others</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.intersection_update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set &amp;= other &amp; ...</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the set, keeping only elements found in it and all others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.difference_update">
+<code class="descname">difference_update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*others</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.difference_update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set -= other | ...</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the set, removing elements found in others.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.symmetric_difference_update">
+<code class="descname">symmetric_difference_update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference_update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">set ^= other</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the set, keeping only elements found in either set, but not in both.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.add">
+<code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>elem</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add element <em>elem</em> to the set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.remove">
+<code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>elem</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove element <em>elem</em> from the set.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if <em>elem</em> is
+not contained in the set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.discard">
+<code class="descname">discard</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>elem</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.discard" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove element <em>elem</em> from the set if it is present.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.pop">
+<code class="descname">pop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.pop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return an arbitrary element from the set.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the set is empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frozenset.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove all elements from the set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note, the non-operator versions of the <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.update" title="frozenset.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.intersection_update" title="frozenset.intersection_update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intersection_update()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.difference_update" title="frozenset.difference_update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difference_update()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference_update" title="frozenset.symmetric_difference_update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symmetric_difference_update()</span></code></a> methods will accept any iterable as an
+argument.</p>
+<p>Note, the <em>elem</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.remove" title="frozenset.remove"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.discard" title="frozenset.discard"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discard()</span></code></a> methods may be a set.  To support searching for an equivalent
+frozenset, a temporary one is created from <em>elem</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mapping-types-dict">
+<span id="typesmapping"></span><h2>Mapping Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-types-dict" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-50">A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a> object maps <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> values to arbitrary objects.
+Mappings are mutable objects.  There is currently only one standard mapping
+type, the <em class="dfn">dictionary</em>.  (For other containers see the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> classes, and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.)</p>
+<p>A dictionary’s keys are <em>almost</em> arbitrary values.  Values that are not
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>, that is, values containing lists, dictionaries or other
+mutable types (that are compared by value rather than by object identity) may
+not be used as keys.  Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for
+numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code>)
+then they can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.  (Note
+however, that since computers store floating-point numbers as approximations it
+is usually unwise to use them as dictionary keys.)</p>
+<p>Dictionaries can be created by placing a comma-separated list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key:</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code>
+pairs within braces, for example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{'jack':</span> <span class="pre">4098,</span> <span class="pre">'sjoerd':</span> <span class="pre">4127}</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{4098:</span>
+<span class="pre">'jack',</span> <span class="pre">4127:</span> <span class="pre">'sjoerd'}</span></code>, or by the <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="dict">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kwarg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapping</em>, <em>**kwarg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em>, <em>**kwarg</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new dictionary initialized from an optional positional argument
+and a possibly empty set of keyword arguments.</p>
+<p>If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
+If a positional argument is given and it is a mapping object, a dictionary
+is created with the same key-value pairs as the mapping object.  Otherwise,
+the positional argument must be an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> object.  Each item in
+the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two objects.  The
+first object of each item becomes a key in the new dictionary, and the
+second object the corresponding value.  If a key occurs more than once, the
+last value for that key becomes the corresponding value in the new
+dictionary.</p>
+<p>If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are
+added to the dictionary created from the positional argument.  If a key
+being added is already present, the value from the keyword argument
+replaces the value from the positional argument.</p>
+<p>To illustrate, the following examples all return a dictionary equal to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{&quot;one&quot;:</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;two&quot;:</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;three&quot;:</span> <span class="pre">3}</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">one</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">two</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">three</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;three&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;three&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;three&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">e</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;three&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">e</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Providing keyword arguments as in the first example only works for keys that
+are valid Python identifiers.  Otherwise, any valid keys can be used.</p>
+<p>These are the operations that dictionaries support (and therefore, custom
+mapping types should support too):</p>
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">len(d)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of items in the dictionary <em>d</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">d[key]</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the item of <em>d</em> with key <em>key</em>.  Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if <em>key</em> is
+not in the map.</p>
+<p id="index-51">If a subclass of dict defines a method <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__" title="object.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a> and <em>key</em>
+is not present, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d[key]</span></code> operation calls that method with the key <em>key</em>
+as argument.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d[key]</span></code> operation then returns or raises whatever is
+returned or raised by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__(key)</span></code> call.
+No other operations or methods invoke <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__" title="object.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a>. If
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__" title="object.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a> is not defined, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__" title="object.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a> must be a method; it cannot be an instance variable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__missing__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The example above shows part of the implementation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Counter</span></code></a>.  A different <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__</span></code> method is used
+by <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.defaultdict</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">d[key] = value</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d[key]</span></code> to <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">del d[key]</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d[key]</span></code> from <em>d</em>.  Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if <em>key</em> is not in the
+map.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">key in d</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>d</em> has a key <em>key</em>, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">key not in d</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">key</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">d</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">iter(d)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over the keys of the dictionary.  This is a shortcut
+for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(d.keys())</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove all items from the dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.copy">
+<code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shallow copy of the dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="dict.fromkeys">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">fromkeys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.fromkeys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new dictionary with keys from <em>iterable</em> and values set to <em>value</em>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#dict.fromkeys" title="dict.fromkeys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromkeys()</span></code></a> is a class method that returns a new dictionary. <em>value</em>
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value for <em>key</em> if <em>key</em> is in the dictionary, else <em>default</em>.
+If <em>default</em> is not given, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, so that this method
+never raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new view of the dictionary’s items (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs).
+See the <a class="reference internal" href="#dict-views"><span class="std std-ref">documentation of view objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new view of the dictionary’s keys.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="#dict-views"><span class="std std-ref">documentation
+of view objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.pop">
+<code class="descname">pop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.pop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>key</em> is in the dictionary, remove it and return its value, else return
+<em>default</em>.  If <em>default</em> is not given and <em>key</em> is not in the dictionary,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.popitem">
+<code class="descname">popitem</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.popitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pair from the dictionary.
+Pairs are returned in <abbr title="last-in, first-out">LIFO</abbr> order.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#dict.popitem" title="dict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code></a> is useful to destructively iterate over a dictionary, as
+often used in set algorithms.  If the dictionary is empty, calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dict.popitem" title="dict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code></a> raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>LIFO order is now guaranteed. In prior versions, <a class="reference internal" href="#dict.popitem" title="dict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code></a> would
+return an arbitrary key/value pair.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.setdefault">
+<code class="descname">setdefault</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.setdefault" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>key</em> is in the dictionary, return its value.  If not, insert <em>key</em>
+with a value of <em>default</em> and return <em>default</em>.  <em>default</em> defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.update">
+<code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>other</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from <em>other</em>, overwriting
+existing keys.  Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a> accepts either another dictionary object or an iterable of
+key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length two).  If keyword
+arguments are specified, the dictionary is then updated with those
+key/value pairs: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d.update(red=1,</span> <span class="pre">blue=2)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="dict.values">
+<code class="descname">values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#dict.values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new view of the dictionary’s values.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dict-views"><span class="std std-ref">documentation of view objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span>
+<span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs. Order comparisons (‘&lt;’, ‘&lt;=’, ‘&gt;=’, ‘&gt;’) raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Dictionaries preserve insertion order.  Note that updating a key does not
+affect the order.  Keys added after deletion are inserted at the end.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;one&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;two&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;three&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;four&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;one&#39;: 1, &#39;two&#39;: 2, &#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;four&#39;: 4}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;one&#39;, &#39;two&#39;, &#39;three&#39;, &#39;four&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;one&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;one&#39;: 42, &#39;two&#39;: 2, &#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;four&#39;: 4}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;two&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;two&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;one&#39;: 42, &#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;four&#39;: 4, &#39;two&#39;: None}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order.  This behavior was
+an implementation detail of CPython from 3.6.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.MappingProxyType</span></code></a> can be used to create a read-only view
+of a <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dictionary-view-objects">
+<span id="dict-views"></span><h3>Dictionary view objects<a class="headerlink" href="#dictionary-view-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.keys()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.values()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.items()</span></code></a> are <em>view objects</em>.  They provide a dynamic view on the
+dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view
+reflects these changes.</p>
+<p>Dictionary views can be iterated over to yield their respective data, and
+support membership tests:</p>
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">len(dictview)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of entries in the dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">iter(dictview)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over the keys, values or items (represented as tuples of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code>) in the dictionary.</p>
+<p>Keys and values are iterated over in insertion order.
+This allows the creation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(value,</span> <span class="pre">key)</span></code> pairs
+using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pairs</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">zip(d.values(),</span> <span class="pre">d.keys())</span></code>.  Another way to
+create the same list is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pairs</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">[(v,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">(k,</span> <span class="pre">v)</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">d.items()]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Iterating views while adding or deleting entries in the dictionary may raise
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> or fail to iterate over all entries.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">x in dictview</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is in the underlying dictionary’s keys, values or
+items (in the latter case, <em>x</em> should be a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> tuple).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and hashable.  If all
+values are hashable, so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs are unique and hashable,
+then the items view is also set-like.  (Values views are not treated as set-like
+since the entries are generally not unique.)  For set-like views, all of the
+operations defined for the abstract base class <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Set</span></code></a> are
+available (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code>).</p>
+<p>An example of dictionary view usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dishes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;sausage&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bacon&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">keys</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dishes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dishes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># iteration</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">val</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">val</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">504</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;sausage&#39;, &#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[2, 1, 1, 500]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">dishes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">dishes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;sausage&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># set operations</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">keys</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bacon&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;salad&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;bacon&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">keys</span> <span class="o">^</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;sausage&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;juice&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;juice&#39;, &#39;sausage&#39;, &#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="context-manager-types">
+<span id="typecontextmanager"></span><h2>Context Manager Types<a class="headerlink" href="#context-manager-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-52">Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement supports the concept of a runtime context
+defined by a context manager.  This is implemented using a pair of methods
+that allow user-defined classes to define a runtime context that is entered
+before the statement body is executed and exited when the statement ends:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextmanager.__enter__">
+<code class="descclassname">contextmanager.</code><code class="descname">__enter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextmanager.__enter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter the runtime context and return either this object or another object
+related to the runtime context. The value returned by this method is bound to
+the identifier in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> clause of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements using
+this context manager.</p>
+<p>An example of a context manager that returns itself is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.
+File objects return themselves from __enter__() to allow <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> to be
+used as the context expression in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<p>An example of a context manager that returns a related object is the one
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.localcontext" title="decimal.localcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.localcontext()</span></code></a>. These managers set the active
+decimal context to a copy of the original decimal context and then return the
+copy. This allows changes to be made to the current decimal context in the body
+of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement without affecting code outside the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="contextmanager.__exit__">
+<code class="descclassname">contextmanager.</code><code class="descname">__exit__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc_type</em>, <em>exc_val</em>, <em>exc_tb</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#contextmanager.__exit__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit the runtime context and return a Boolean flag indicating if any exception
+that occurred should be suppressed. If an exception occurred while executing the
+body of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, the arguments contain the exception type,
+value and traceback information. Otherwise, all three arguments are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Returning a true value from this method will cause the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement
+to suppress the exception and continue execution with the statement immediately
+following the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement. Otherwise the exception continues
+propagating after this method has finished executing. Exceptions that occur
+during execution of this method will replace any exception that occurred in the
+body of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p>The exception passed in should never be reraised explicitly - instead, this
+method should return a false value to indicate that the method completed
+successfully and does not want to suppress the raised exception. This allows
+context management code to easily detect whether or not an <a class="reference internal" href="#contextmanager.__exit__" title="contextmanager.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>
+method has actually failed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Python defines several context managers to support easy thread synchronisation,
+prompt closure of files or other objects, and simpler manipulation of the active
+decimal arithmetic context. The specific types are not treated specially beyond
+their implementation of the context management protocol. See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module for some examples.</p>
+<p>Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>s and the <a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.contextmanager</span></code></a> decorator
+provide a convenient way to implement these protocols.  If a generator function is
+decorated with the <a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.contextmanager</span></code></a> decorator, it will return a
+context manager implementing the necessary <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> methods, rather than the iterator produced by an undecorated
+generator function.</p>
+<p>Note that there is no specific slot for any of these methods in the type
+structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. Extension types wanting to
+define these methods must provide them as a normal Python accessible method.
+Compared to the overhead of setting up the runtime context, the overhead of a
+single class dictionary lookup is negligible.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-built-in-types">
+<span id="typesother"></span><h2>Other Built-in Types<a class="headerlink" href="#other-built-in-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The interpreter supports several other kinds of objects. Most of these support
+only one or two operations.</p>
+<div class="section" id="modules">
+<span id="typesmodules"></span><h3>Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The only special operation on a module is attribute access: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.name</span></code>, where
+<em>m</em> is a module and <em>name</em> accesses a name defined in <em>m</em>’s symbol table.
+Module attributes can be assigned to.  (Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a>
+statement is not, strictly speaking, an operation on a module object; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span>
+<span class="pre">foo</span></code> does not require a module object named <em>foo</em> to exist, rather it requires
+an (external) <em>definition</em> for a module named <em>foo</em> somewhere.)</p>
+<p>A special attribute of every module is <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>. This is the
+dictionary containing the module’s symbol table. Modifying this dictionary will
+actually change the module’s symbol table, but direct assignment to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute is not possible (you can write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__dict__['a']</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>, which defines <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.a</span></code> to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, but you can’t write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__dict__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">{}</span></code>).  Modifying <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> directly is
+not recommended.</p>
+<p>Modules built into the interpreter are written like this: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;module</span> <span class="pre">'sys'</span>
+<span class="pre">(built-in)&gt;</span></code>.  If loaded from a file, they are written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;module</span> <span class="pre">'os'</span> <span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">'/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="classes-and-class-instances">
+<span id="typesobjects"></span><h3>Classes and Class Instances<a class="headerlink" href="#classes-and-class-instances" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#objects"><span class="std std-ref">Objects, values and types</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><span class="std std-ref">Class definitions</span></a> for these.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<span id="typesfunctions"></span><h3>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Function objects are created by function definitions.  The only operation on a
+function object is to call it: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(argument-list)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There are really two flavors of function objects: built-in functions and
+user-defined functions.  Both support the same operation (to call the function),
+but the implementation is different, hence the different object types.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods">
+<span id="typesmethods"></span><h3>Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-53">Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation. There are
+two flavors: built-in methods (such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> on lists) and class
+instance methods.  Built-in methods are described with the types that support
+them.</p>
+<p>If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through an
+instance, you get a special object: a <em class="dfn">bound method</em> (also called
+<em class="dfn">instance method</em>) object. When called, it will add the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> argument
+to the argument list.  Bound methods have two special read-only attributes:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__self__</span></code> is the object on which the method operates, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__func__</span></code> is
+the function implementing the method.  Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m(arg-1,</span> <span class="pre">arg-2,</span> <span class="pre">...,</span> <span class="pre">arg-n)</span></code>
+is completely equivalent to calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__func__(m.__self__,</span> <span class="pre">arg-1,</span> <span class="pre">arg-2,</span> <span class="pre">...,</span>
+<span class="pre">arg-n)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Like function objects, bound method objects support getting arbitrary
+attributes.  However, since method attributes are actually stored on the
+underlying function object (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meth.__func__</span></code>), setting method attributes on
+bound methods is disallowed.  Attempting to set an attribute on a method
+results in an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> being raised.  In order to set a method
+attribute, you need to explicitly set it on the underlying function object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">whoami</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;my name is method&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># can&#39;t set on the method</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;method&#39; object has no attribute &#39;whoami&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__func__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">whoami</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;my name is method&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">whoami</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;my name is method&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="code-objects">
+<span id="bltin-code-objects"></span><span id="index-54"></span><h3>Code Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#code-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-55">Code objects are used by the implementation to represent “pseudo-compiled”
+executable Python code such as a function body. They differ from function
+objects because they don’t contain a reference to their global execution
+environment.  Code objects are returned by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> function
+and can be extracted from function objects through their <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__code__</span></code>
+attribute. See also the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p id="index-56">A code object can be executed or evaluated by passing it (instead of a source
+string) to the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a>  built-in functions.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="type-objects">
+<span id="bltin-type-objects"></span><h3>Type Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#type-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-57">Type objects represent the various object types.  An object’s type is accessed
+by the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a>.  There are no special operations on
+types.  The standard module <a class="reference internal" href="types.html#module-types" title="types: Names for built-in types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code></a> defines names for all standard built-in
+types.</p>
+<p>Types are written like this: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;class</span> <span class="pre">'int'&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-null-object">
+<span id="bltin-null-object"></span><h3>The Null Object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-null-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This object is returned by functions that don’t explicitly return a value.  It
+supports no special operations.  There is exactly one null object, named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (a built-in name).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(None)()</span></code> produces the same singleton.</p>
+<p>It is written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-ellipsis-object">
+<span id="bltin-ellipsis-object"></span><span id="index-58"></span><h3>The Ellipsis Object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-ellipsis-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This object is commonly used by slicing (see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#slicings"><span class="std std-ref">Slicings</span></a>).  It supports no
+special operations.  There is exactly one ellipsis object, named
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code></a> (a built-in name).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(Ellipsis)()</span></code> produces the
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code></a> singleton.</p>
+<p>It is written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-notimplemented-object">
+<span id="bltin-notimplemented-object"></span><h3>The NotImplemented Object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-notimplemented-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This object is returned from comparisons and binary operations when they are
+asked to operate on types they don’t support. See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#comparisons"><span class="std std-ref">Comparisons</span></a> for more
+information.  There is exactly one <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> object.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(NotImplemented)()</span></code> produces the singleton instance.</p>
+<p>It is written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="boolean-values">
+<span id="bltin-boolean-values"></span><h3>Boolean Values<a class="headerlink" href="#boolean-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Boolean values are the two constant objects <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  They are
+used to represent truth values (although other values can also be considered
+false or true).  In numeric contexts (for example when used as the argument to
+an arithmetic operator), they behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively.
+The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool()</span></code></a> can be used to convert any value to a
+Boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#truth"><span class="std std-ref">Truth Value Testing</span></a> above).</p>
+<p id="index-59">They are written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, respectively.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="internal-objects">
+<span id="typesinternal"></span><h3>Internal Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#internal-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a> for this information.  It describes stack frame objects,
+traceback objects, and slice objects.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="special-attributes">
+<span id="specialattrs"></span><h2>Special Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#special-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The implementation adds a few special read-only attributes to several object
+types, where they are relevant.  Some of these are not reported by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> built-in function.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="object.__dict__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__dict__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__dict__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object’s (writable)
+attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="instance.__class__">
+<code class="descclassname">instance.</code><code class="descname">__class__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#instance.__class__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The class to which a class instance belongs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="class.__bases__">
+<code class="descclassname">class.</code><code class="descname">__bases__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#class.__bases__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The tuple of base classes of a class object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="definition.__name__">
+<code class="descclassname">definition.</code><code class="descname">__name__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#definition.__name__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the class, function, method, descriptor, or
+generator instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="definition.__qualname__">
+<code class="descclassname">definition.</code><code class="descname">__qualname__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#definition.__qualname__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-qualified-name"><span class="xref std std-term">qualified name</span></a> of the class, function, method, descriptor,
+or generator instance.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="class.__mro__">
+<code class="descclassname">class.</code><code class="descname">__mro__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#class.__mro__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute is a tuple of classes that are considered when looking for
+base classes during method resolution.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="class.mro">
+<code class="descclassname">class.</code><code class="descname">mro</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#class.mro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method
+resolution order for its instances.  It is called at class instantiation, and
+its result is stored in <a class="reference internal" href="#class.__mro__" title="class.__mro__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro__</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="class.__subclasses__">
+<code class="descclassname">class.</code><code class="descname">__subclasses__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#class.__subclasses__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate subclasses.  This
+method returns a list of all those references still alive.
+Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__subclasses__</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;class &#39;bool&#39;&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id12"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Additional information on these special methods may be found in the Python
+Reference Manual (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#customization"><span class="std std-ref">Basic customization</span></a>).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id13"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>As a consequence, the list <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2]</span></code> is considered equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1.0,</span> <span class="pre">2.0]</span></code>, and
+similarly for tuples.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id14"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>They must have since the parser can’t tell the type of the operands.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id15"><span class="brackets">4</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id6">1</a>,<a href="#id7">2</a>,<a href="#id8">3</a>,<a href="#id9">4</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Cased characters are those with general category property being one of
+“Lu” (Letter, uppercase), “Ll” (Letter, lowercase), or “Lt” (Letter, titlecase).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id16"><span class="brackets">5</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id10">1</a>,<a href="#id11">2</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>To format only a tuple you should therefore provide a singleton tuple whose only
+element is the tuple to be formatted.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Built-in Types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#truth-value-testing">Truth Value Testing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-operations-and-or-not">Boolean Operations — <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numeric-types-int-float-complex">Numeric Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types">Bitwise Operations on Integer Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-methods-on-integer-types">Additional Methods on Integer Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-methods-on-float">Additional Methods on Float</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashing-of-numeric-types">Hashing of numeric types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iterator-types">Iterator Types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-types">Generator Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequence-types-list-tuple-range">Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-sequence-operations">Common Sequence Operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#immutable-sequence-types">Immutable Sequence Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mutable-sequence-types">Mutable Sequence Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lists">Lists</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tuples">Tuples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ranges">Ranges</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-sequence-type-str">Text Sequence Type — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-methods">String Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printf-style-string-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code>-style String Formatting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview">Binary Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-objects">Bytes Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray-objects">Bytearray Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-and-bytearray-operations">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printf-style-bytes-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">printf</span></code>-style Bytes Formatting</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#memory-views">Memory Views</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#set-types-set-frozenset">Set Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-types-dict">Mapping Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dictionary-view-objects">Dictionary view objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#context-manager-types">Context Manager Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-built-in-types">Other Built-in Types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modules">Modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes-and-class-instances">Classes and Class Instances</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods">Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#code-objects">Code Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-objects">Type Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-null-object">The Null Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-ellipsis-object">The Ellipsis Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-notimplemented-object">The NotImplemented Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-values">Boolean Values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#internal-objects">Internal Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-attributes">Special Attributes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="constants.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Built-in Constants</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="exceptions.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Built-in Exceptions</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/stdtypes.rst"
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\ No newline at end of file
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new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/string.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1054 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
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+    <title>string — Common string operations &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-string">
+<span id="string-common-string-operations"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> — Common string operations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-string" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/string.py">Lib/string.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">Text Sequence Type — str</span></a></p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#string-methods"><span class="std std-ref">String Methods</span></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="string-constants">
+<h2>String constants<a class="headerlink" href="#string-constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The constants defined in this module are:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.ascii_letters">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">ascii_letters</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.ascii_letters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The concatenation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#string.ascii_lowercase" title="string.ascii_lowercase"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii_lowercase</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#string.ascii_uppercase" title="string.ascii_uppercase"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii_uppercase</span></code></a>
+constants described below.  This value is not locale-dependent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.ascii_lowercase">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">ascii_lowercase</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.ascii_lowercase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The lowercase letters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</span></code>.  This value is not
+locale-dependent and will not change.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.ascii_uppercase">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">ascii_uppercase</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.ascii_uppercase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The uppercase letters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</span></code>.  This value is not
+locale-dependent and will not change.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.digits">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">digits</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.digits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0123456789'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.hexdigits">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">hexdigits</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.hexdigits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0123456789abcdefABCDEF'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.octdigits">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">octdigits</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.octdigits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'01234567'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.punctuation">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">punctuation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.punctuation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>String of ASCII characters which are considered punctuation characters
+in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> locale.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.printable">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">printable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.printable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>String of ASCII characters which are considered printable.  This is a
+combination of <a class="reference internal" href="#string.digits" title="string.digits"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digits</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#string.ascii_letters" title="string.ascii_letters"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii_letters</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#string.punctuation" title="string.punctuation"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punctuation</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#string.whitespace" title="string.whitespace"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whitespace</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="string.whitespace">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">whitespace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.whitespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string containing all ASCII characters that are considered whitespace.
+This includes the characters space, tab, linefeed, return, formfeed, and
+vertical tab.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="custom-string-formatting">
+<span id="string-formatting"></span><h2>Custom String Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#custom-string-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The built-in string class provides the ability to do complex variable
+substitutions and value formatting via the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method described in
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101"><strong>PEP 3101</strong></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter" title="string.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module allows
+you to create and customize your own string formatting behaviors using the same
+implementation as the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="string.Formatter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">Formatter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter" title="string.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> class has the following public methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format_string</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The primary API method.  It takes a format string and
+an arbitrary set of positional and keyword arguments.
+It is just a wrapper that calls <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.vformat" title="string.Formatter.vformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vformat()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>A format string argument is now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#positional-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">positional-only</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.vformat">
+<code class="descname">vformat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format_string</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.vformat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function does the actual work of formatting.  It is exposed as a
+separate function for cases where you want to pass in a predefined
+dictionary of arguments, rather than unpacking and repacking the
+dictionary as individual arguments using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>
+syntax.  <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.vformat" title="string.Formatter.vformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vformat()</span></code></a> does the work of breaking up the format string
+into character data and replacement fields.  It calls the various
+methods described below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, the <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter" title="string.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> defines a number of methods that are
+intended to be replaced by subclasses:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.parse">
+<code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format_string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Loop over the format_string and return an iterable of tuples
+(<em>literal_text</em>, <em>field_name</em>, <em>format_spec</em>, <em>conversion</em>).  This is used
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.vformat" title="string.Formatter.vformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vformat()</span></code></a> to break the string into either literal text, or
+replacement fields.</p>
+<p>The values in the tuple conceptually represent a span of literal text
+followed by a single replacement field.  If there is no literal text
+(which can happen if two replacement fields occur consecutively), then
+<em>literal_text</em> will be a zero-length string.  If there is no replacement
+field, then the values of <em>field_name</em>, <em>format_spec</em> and <em>conversion</em>
+will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.get_field">
+<code class="descname">get_field</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>field_name</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.get_field" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given <em>field_name</em> as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.parse" title="string.Formatter.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> (see above), convert it to
+an object to be formatted.  Returns a tuple (obj, used_key).  The default
+version takes strings of the form defined in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101"><strong>PEP 3101</strong></a>, such as
+“0[name]” or “label.title”.  <em>args</em> and <em>kwargs</em> are as passed in to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.vformat" title="string.Formatter.vformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vformat()</span></code></a>.  The return value <em>used_key</em> has the same meaning as the
+<em>key</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.get_value" title="string.Formatter.get_value"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_value()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.get_value">
+<code class="descname">get_value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.get_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieve a given field value.  The <em>key</em> argument will be either an
+integer or a string.  If it is an integer, it represents the index of the
+positional argument in <em>args</em>; if it is a string, then it represents a
+named argument in <em>kwargs</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>args</em> parameter is set to the list of positional arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.vformat" title="string.Formatter.vformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vformat()</span></code></a>, and the <em>kwargs</em> parameter is set to the dictionary of
+keyword arguments.</p>
+<p>For compound field names, these functions are only called for the first
+component of the field name; Subsequent components are handled through
+normal attribute and indexing operations.</p>
+<p>So for example, the field expression ‘0.name’ would cause
+<a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.get_value" title="string.Formatter.get_value"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_value()</span></code></a> to be called with a <em>key</em> argument of 0.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>
+attribute will be looked up after <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.get_value" title="string.Formatter.get_value"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_value()</span></code></a> returns by calling the
+built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>If the index or keyword refers to an item that does not exist, then an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> should be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.check_unused_args">
+<code class="descname">check_unused_args</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>used_args</em>, <em>args</em>, <em>kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.check_unused_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Implement checking for unused arguments if desired.  The arguments to this
+function is the set of all argument keys that were actually referred to in
+the format string (integers for positional arguments, and strings for
+named arguments), and a reference to the <em>args</em> and <em>kwargs</em> that was
+passed to vformat.  The set of unused args can be calculated from these
+parameters.  <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.check_unused_args" title="string.Formatter.check_unused_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_unused_args()</span></code></a> is assumed to raise an exception if
+the check fails.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.format_field">
+<code class="descname">format_field</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em>, <em>format_spec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.format_field" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.format_field" title="string.Formatter.format_field"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_field()</span></code></a> simply calls the global <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> built-in.  The
+method is provided so that subclasses can override it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Formatter.convert_field">
+<code class="descname">convert_field</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em>, <em>conversion</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Formatter.convert_field" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts the value (returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.get_field" title="string.Formatter.get_field"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_field()</span></code></a>) given a conversion type
+(as in the tuple returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter.parse" title="string.Formatter.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> method).  The default
+version understands ‘s’ (str), ‘r’ (repr) and ‘a’ (ascii) conversion
+types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="format-string-syntax">
+<span id="formatstrings"></span><h2>Format String Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#format-string-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method and the <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter" title="string.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a> class share the same
+syntax for format strings (although in the case of <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter" title="string.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a>,
+subclasses can define their own format string syntax).  The syntax is
+related to that of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literals</span></a>, but
+there are differences.</p>
+<p id="index-2">Format strings contain “replacement fields” surrounded by curly braces <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>.
+Anything that is not contained in braces is considered literal text, which is
+copied unchanged to the output.  If you need to include a brace character in the
+literal text, it can be escaped by doubling: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{{</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">}}</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The grammar for a replacement field is as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-replacement-field">replacement_field</strong> ::=  &quot;{&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-field-name"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">field_name</span></code></a>] [&quot;!&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-conversion"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conversion</span></code></a>] [&quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-format-spec"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_spec</span></code></a>] &quot;}&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-field-name">field_name       </strong> ::=  arg_name (&quot;.&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-attribute-name"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attribute_name</span></code></a> | &quot;[&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-element-index"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">element_index</span></code></a> &quot;]&quot;)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-arg-name">arg_name         </strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a>+]
+<strong id="grammar-token-attribute-name">attribute_name   </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-element-index">element_index    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a>+ | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-index-string"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index_string</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-index-string">index_string     </strong> ::=  &lt;any source character except &quot;]&quot;&gt; +
+<strong id="grammar-token-conversion">conversion       </strong> ::=  &quot;r&quot; | &quot;s&quot; | &quot;a&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-format-spec">format_spec      </strong> ::=  &lt;described in the next section&gt;
+</pre>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>In less formal terms, the replacement field can start with a <em>field_name</em> that specifies
+the object whose value is to be formatted and inserted
+into the output instead of the replacement field.
+The <em>field_name</em> is optionally followed by a  <em>conversion</em> field, which is
+preceded by an exclamation point <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code>, and a <em>format_spec</em>, which is preceded
+by a colon <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>.  These specify a non-default format for the replacement value.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#formatspec"><span class="std std-ref">Format Specification Mini-Language</span></a> section.</p>
+<p>The <em>field_name</em> itself begins with an <em>arg_name</em> that is either a number or a
+keyword.  If it’s a number, it refers to a positional argument, and if it’s a keyword,
+it refers to a named keyword argument.  If the numerical arg_names in a format string
+are 0, 1, 2, … in sequence, they can all be omitted (not just some)
+and the numbers 0, 1, 2, … will be automatically inserted in that order.
+Because <em>arg_name</em> is not quote-delimited, it is not possible to specify arbitrary
+dictionary keys (e.g., the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'10'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':-]'</span></code>) within a format string.
+The <em>arg_name</em> can be followed by any number of index or
+attribute expressions. An expression of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.name'</span></code> selects the named
+attribute using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a>, while an expression of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'[index]'</span></code>
+does an index lookup using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>The positional argument specifiers can be omitted for <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>,
+so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{}</span> <span class="pre">{}'.format(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{0}</span> <span class="pre">{1}'.format(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The positional argument specifiers can be omitted for <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Formatter" title="string.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Some simple format string examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;First, thou shalt count to </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># References first positional argument</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;Bring me a </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>                   <span class="c1"># Implicitly references the first positional argument</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;From </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"> to </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>                   <span class="c1"># Same as &quot;From {0} to {1}&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;My quest is </span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>              <span class="c1"># References keyword argument &#39;name&#39;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;Weight in tons </span><span class="si">{0.weight}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>       <span class="c1"># &#39;weight&#39; attribute of first positional arg</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;Units destroyed: </span><span class="si">{players[0]}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>   <span class="c1"># First element of keyword argument &#39;players&#39;.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>conversion</em> field causes a type coercion before formatting.  Normally, the
+job of formatting a value is done by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a> method of the value
+itself.  However, in some cases it is desirable to force a type to be formatted
+as a string, overriding its own definition of formatting.  By converting the
+value to a string before calling <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a>, the normal formatting logic
+is bypassed.</p>
+<p>Three conversion flags are currently supported: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!s'</span></code> which calls <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>
+on the value, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!r'</span></code> which calls <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!a'</span></code> which calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;Harold&#39;s a clever </span><span class="si">{0!s}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>        <span class="c1"># Calls str() on the argument first</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;Bring out the holy </span><span class="si">{name!r}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>    <span class="c1"># Calls repr() on the argument first</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;More </span><span class="si">{!a}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>                      <span class="c1"># Calls ascii() on the argument first</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>format_spec</em> field contains a specification of how the value should be
+presented, including such details as field width, alignment, padding, decimal
+precision and so on.  Each value type can define its own “formatting
+mini-language” or interpretation of the <em>format_spec</em>.</p>
+<p>Most built-in types support a common formatting mini-language, which is
+described in the next section.</p>
+<p>A <em>format_spec</em> field can also include nested replacement fields within it.
+These nested replacement fields may contain a field name, conversion flag
+and format specification, but deeper nesting is
+not allowed.  The replacement fields within the
+format_spec are substituted before the <em>format_spec</em> string is interpreted.
+This allows the formatting of a value to be dynamically specified.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="#formatexamples"><span class="std std-ref">Format examples</span></a> section for some examples.</p>
+<div class="section" id="format-specification-mini-language">
+<span id="formatspec"></span><h3>Format Specification Mini-Language<a class="headerlink" href="#format-specification-mini-language" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>“Format specifications” are used within replacement fields contained within a
+format string to define how individual values are presented (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Formatted string literals</span></a>).
+They can also be passed directly to the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> function.  Each formattable type may define how the format
+specification is to be interpreted.</p>
+<p>Most built-in types implement the following options for format specifications,
+although some of the formatting options are only supported by the numeric types.</p>
+<p>A general convention is that an empty format string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code>) produces
+the same result as if you had called <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> on the value. A
+non-empty format string typically modifies the result.</p>
+<p>The general form of a <em>standard format specifier</em> is:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="id1">format_spec    </strong> ::=  [[<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-fill"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill</span></code></a>]<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-align"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">align</span></code></a>][<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-sign"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sign</span></code></a>][#][0][<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-width"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a>][<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-grouping-option"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grouping_option</span></code></a>][.<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-precision"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">precision</span></code></a>][<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-type"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>]
+<strong id="grammar-token-fill">fill           </strong> ::=  &lt;any character&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-align">align          </strong> ::=  &quot;&lt;&quot; | &quot;&gt;&quot; | &quot;=&quot; | &quot;^&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-sign">sign           </strong> ::=  &quot;+&quot; | &quot;-&quot; | &quot; &quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-width">width          </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a>+
+<strong id="grammar-token-grouping-option">grouping_option</strong> ::=  &quot;_&quot; | &quot;,&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-precision">precision      </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a>+
+<strong id="grammar-token-type">type           </strong> ::=  &quot;b&quot; | &quot;c&quot; | &quot;d&quot; | &quot;e&quot; | &quot;E&quot; | &quot;f&quot; | &quot;F&quot; | &quot;g&quot; | &quot;G&quot; | &quot;n&quot; | &quot;o&quot; | &quot;s&quot; | &quot;x&quot; | &quot;X&quot; | &quot;%&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>If a valid <em>align</em> value is specified, it can be preceded by a <em>fill</em>
+character that can be any character and defaults to a space if omitted.
+It is not possible to use a literal curly brace (“<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{</span></code>” or “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">}</span></code>”) as
+the <em>fill</em> character in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literal</span></a> or when using the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>
+method.  However, it is possible to insert a curly brace
+with a nested replacement field.  This limitation doesn’t
+affect the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>The meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center" id="index-3">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 87%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Forces the field to be left-aligned within the available
+space (this is the default for most objects).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Forces the field to be right-aligned within the
+available space (this is the default for numbers).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any)
+but before the digits.  This is used for printing fields
+in the form ‘+000000120’. This alignment option is only
+valid for numeric types.  It becomes the default when ‘0’
+immediately precedes the field width.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Forces the field to be centered within the available
+space.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Note that unless a minimum field width is defined, the field width will always
+be the same size as the data to fill it, so that the alignment option has no
+meaning in this case.</p>
+<p>The <em>sign</em> option is only valid for number types, and can be one of the
+following:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center" id="index-4">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 87%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>indicates that a sign should be used for both
+positive as well as negative numbers.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>indicates that a sign should be used only for negative
+numbers (this is the default behavior).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>space</p></td>
+<td><p>indicates that a leading space should be used on
+positive numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p id="index-5">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code> option causes the “alternate form” to be used for the
+conversion.  The alternate form is defined differently for different
+types.  This option is only valid for integer, float, complex and
+Decimal types. For integers, when binary, octal, or hexadecimal output
+is used, this option adds the prefix respective <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0b'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0o'</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0x'</span></code> to the output value. For floats, complex and Decimal the
+alternate form causes the result of the conversion to always contain a
+decimal-point character, even if no digits follow it. Normally, a
+decimal-point character appears in the result of these conversions
+only if a digit follows it. In addition, for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'G'</span></code>
+conversions, trailing zeros are not removed from the result.</p>
+<p id="index-6">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">','</span></code> option signals the use of a comma for a thousands separator.
+For a locale aware separator, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code> integer presentation type
+instead.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">','</span></code> option (see also <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0378"><strong>PEP 378</strong></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-8">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code> option signals the use of an underscore for a thousands
+separator for floating point presentation types and for integer
+presentation type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code>.  For integer presentation types <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'o'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code>, underscores will be inserted every 4
+digits.  For other presentation types, specifying this option is an
+error.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code> option (see also <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0515"><strong>PEP 515</strong></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>width</em> is a decimal integer defining the minimum field width.  If not
+specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.</p>
+<p>When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the <em>width</em> field by a zero
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>) character enables
+sign-aware zero-padding for numeric types.  This is equivalent to a <em>fill</em>
+character of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code> with an <em>alignment</em> type of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>precision</em> is a decimal number indicating how many digits should be
+displayed after the decimal point for a floating point value formatted with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>, or before and after the decimal point for a floating point
+value formatted with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'G'</span></code>.  For non-number types the field
+indicates the maximum field size - in other words, how many characters will be
+used from the field content. The <em>precision</em> is not allowed for integer values.</p>
+<p>Finally, the <em>type</em> determines how the data should be presented.</p>
+<p>The available string presentation types are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 87%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>String format. This is the default type for strings and
+may be omitted.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>None</p></td>
+<td><p>The same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The available integer presentation types are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 87%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Binary format. Outputs the number in base 2.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character. Converts the integer to the corresponding
+unicode character before printing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Decimal Integer. Outputs the number in base 10.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'o'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Octal format. Outputs the number in base 8.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using
+lower-case letters for the digits above 9.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using
+upper-case letters for the digits above 9.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number. This is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code>, except that it uses
+the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
+number separator characters.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>None</p></td>
+<td><p>The same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted
+with the floating point presentation types listed below (except
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>). When doing so, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a> is used to convert the
+integer to a floating point number before formatting.</p>
+<p>The available presentation types for floating point and decimal values are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 87%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific
+notation using the letter ‘e’ to indicate the exponent.
+The default precision is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'E'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exponent notation. Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code> except it uses an
+upper case ‘E’ as the separator character.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Fixed-point notation. Displays the number as a
+fixed-point number.  The default precision is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Fixed-point notation. Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code>, but converts
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nan</span></code> to  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NAN</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INF</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>General format.  For a given precision <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>,
+this rounds the number to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code> significant digits and
+then formats the result in either fixed-point format
+or in scientific notation, depending on its magnitude.</p>
+<p>The precise rules are as follows: suppose that the
+result formatted with presentation type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code> and
+precision <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p-1</span></code> would have exponent <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exp</span></code>.  Then
+if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-4</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">exp</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">p</span></code>, the number is formatted
+with presentation type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> and precision
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p-1-exp</span></code>.  Otherwise, the number is formatted
+with presentation type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code> and precision <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p-1</span></code>.
+In both cases insignificant trailing zeros are removed
+from the significand, and the decimal point is also
+removed if there are no remaining digits following it.</p>
+<p>Positive and negative infinity, positive and negative
+zero, and nans, are formatted as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-inf</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nan</span></code> respectively, regardless of
+the precision.</p>
+<p>A precision of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is treated as equivalent to a
+precision of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.  The default precision is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6</span></code>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'G'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>General format. Same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code> except switches to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'E'</span></code> if the number gets too large. The
+representations of infinity and NaN are uppercased, too.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number. This is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code>, except that it uses
+the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
+number separator characters.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays
+in fixed (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code>) format, followed by a percent sign.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>None</p></td>
+<td><p>Similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'g'</span></code>, except that fixed-point notation,
+when used, has at least one digit past the decimal point.
+The default precision is as high as needed to represent
+the particular value. The overall effect is to match the
+output of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> as altered by the other format
+modifiers.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="format-examples">
+<span id="formatexamples"></span><h3>Format examples<a class="headerlink" href="#format-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This section contains examples of the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> syntax and
+comparison with the old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>-formatting.</p>
+<p>In most of the cases the syntax is similar to the old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>-formatting, with the
+addition of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code> and with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code> used instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%03.2f'</span></code> can be translated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{:03.2f}'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The new format syntax also supports new and different options, shown in the
+following examples.</p>
+<p>Accessing arguments by position:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{2}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;a, b, c&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># 3.1+ only</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;a, b, c&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{2}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c, b, a&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{2}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># unpacking argument sequence</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c, b, a&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0}{1}{0}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abra&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cad&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># arguments&#39; indices can be repeated</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Accessing arguments by name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Coordinates: </span><span class="si">{latitude}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{longitude}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">latitude</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;37.24N&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">longitude</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;-115.81W&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">coord</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;latitude&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;37.24N&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;longitude&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-115.81W&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Coordinates: </span><span class="si">{latitude}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{longitude}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">coord</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Accessing arguments’ attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="n">j</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The complex number </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1"> is formed from the real part </span><span class="si">{0.real}</span><span class="s1"> &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span> <span class="s1">&#39;and the imaginary part </span><span class="si">{0.imag}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Point(</span><span class="si">{self.x}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{self.y}</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Point(4, 2)&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Accessing arguments’ items:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">coord</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;X: </span><span class="si">{0[0]}</span><span class="s1">;  Y: </span><span class="si">{0[1]}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coord</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;X: 3;  Y: 5&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Replacing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%r</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;repr() shows quotes: </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s2">; str() doesn&#39;t: </span><span class="si">{!s}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;test2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;repr() shows quotes: &#39;test1&#39;; str() doesn&#39;t: test2&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Aligning the text and specifying a width:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:&lt;30}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;left aligned&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;left aligned                  &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:&gt;30}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;right aligned&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;                 right aligned&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:^30}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;centered&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;           centered           &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:*^30}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;centered&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># use &#39;*&#39; as a fill char</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;***********centered***********&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Replacing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%+f</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%-f</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">f</span></code> and specifying a sign:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:+f}</span><span class="s1">; </span><span class="si">{:+f}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># show it always</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;+3.140000; -3.140000&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{: f}</span><span class="s1">; </span><span class="si">{: f}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># show a space for positive numbers</span>
+<span class="go">&#39; 3.140000; -3.140000&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:-f}</span><span class="s1">; </span><span class="si">{:-f}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># show only the minus -- same as &#39;{:f}; {:f}&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.140000; -3.140000&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Replacing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%o</span></code> and converting the value to different bases:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># format also supports binary numbers</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;int: </span><span class="si">{0:d}</span><span class="s2">;  hex: </span><span class="si">{0:x}</span><span class="s2">;  oct: </span><span class="si">{0:o}</span><span class="s2">;  bin: </span><span class="si">{0:b}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;int: </span><span class="si">{0:d}</span><span class="s2">;  hex: </span><span class="si">{0:#x}</span><span class="s2">;  oct: </span><span class="si">{0:#o}</span><span class="s2">;  bin: </span><span class="si">{0:#b}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using the comma as a thousands separator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:,}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1234567890</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1,234,567,890&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Expressing a percentage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">points</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">19</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">22</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Correct answers: </span><span class="si">{:.2%}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">points</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">total</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Correct answers: 86.36%&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using type-specific formatting:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2010</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">58</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;{:%Y-%m-</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> %H:%M:%S}&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2010-07-04 12:15:58&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Nesting arguments and more complex examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">align</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;^&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;left&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;center&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;right&#39;</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s1">&#39;{0:</span><span class="si">{fill}{align}</span><span class="s1">16}&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fill</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">align</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">align</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">align</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;left&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;^^^^^center^^^^^&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;right&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">octets</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">192</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">168</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">octets</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C0A80001&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3232235521</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">):</span> 
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">base</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dXob&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{0:</span><span class="si">{width}{base}</span><span class="s1">}&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">num</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">base</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">base</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">width</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">    5     5     5   101</span>
+<span class="go">    6     6     6   110</span>
+<span class="go">    7     7     7   111</span>
+<span class="go">    8     8    10  1000</span>
+<span class="go">    9     9    11  1001</span>
+<span class="go">   10     A    12  1010</span>
+<span class="go">   11     B    13  1011</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="template-strings">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Template strings<a class="headerlink" href="#template-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Template strings provide simpler string substitutions as described in
+<span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0292"><strong>PEP 292</strong></a>.  A primary use case for template strings is for
+internationalization (i18n) since in that context, the simpler syntax and
+functionality makes it easier to translate than other built-in string
+formatting facilities in Python.  As an example of a library built on template
+strings for i18n, see the
+<a class="reference external" href="http://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/">flufl.i18n</a> package.</p>
+<p id="index-11">Template strings support <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code>-based substitutions, using the following rules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$$</span></code> is an escape; it is replaced with a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$identifier</span></code> names a substitution placeholder matching a mapping key of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;identifier&quot;</span></code>.  By default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;identifier&quot;</span></code> is restricted to any
+case-insensitive ASCII alphanumeric string (including underscores) that
+starts with an underscore or ASCII letter.  The first non-identifier
+character after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> character terminates this placeholder
+specification.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">${identifier}</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$identifier</span></code>.  It is required when
+valid identifier characters follow the placeholder but are not part of the
+placeholder, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;${noun}ification&quot;</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Any other appearance of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> in the string will result in a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>
+being raised.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Template</span></code></a> class that implements
+these rules.  The methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Template</span></code></a> are:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="string.Template">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">Template</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>template</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Template" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The constructor takes a single argument which is the template string.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Template.substitute">
+<code class="descname">substitute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapping</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Template.substitute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Performs the template substitution, returning a new string.  <em>mapping</em> is
+any dictionary-like object with keys that match the placeholders in the
+template.  Alternatively, you can provide keyword arguments, where the
+keywords are the placeholders.  When both <em>mapping</em> and <em>kwds</em> are given
+and there are duplicates, the placeholders from <em>kwds</em> take precedence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="string.Template.safe_substitute">
+<code class="descname">safe_substitute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapping</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Template.safe_substitute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Template.substitute" title="string.Template.substitute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">substitute()</span></code></a>, except that if placeholders are missing from
+<em>mapping</em> and <em>kwds</em>, instead of raising a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> exception, the
+original placeholder will appear in the resulting string intact.  Also,
+unlike with <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Template.substitute" title="string.Template.substitute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">substitute()</span></code></a>, any other appearances of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> will
+simply return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> instead of raising <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>While other exceptions may still occur, this method is called “safe”
+because it always tries to return a usable string instead of
+raising an exception.  In another sense, <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Template.safe_substitute" title="string.Template.safe_substitute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">safe_substitute()</span></code></a> may be
+anything other than safe, since it will silently ignore malformed
+templates containing dangling delimiters, unmatched braces, or
+placeholders that are not valid Python identifiers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Template</span></code></a> instances also provide one public data attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="string.Template.template">
+<code class="descname">template</code><a class="headerlink" href="#string.Template.template" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the object passed to the constructor’s <em>template</em> argument.  In
+general, you shouldn’t change it, but read-only access is not enforced.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here is an example of how to use a Template:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">string</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Template</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;$who likes $what&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">who</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;tim&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">what</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;kung pao&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;tim likes kung pao&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">who</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;tim&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Give $who $100&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;$who likes $what&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;what&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;$who likes $what&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">safe_substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;tim likes $what&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Advanced usage: you can derive subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Template</span></code></a> to customize
+the placeholder syntax, delimiter character, or the entire regular expression
+used to parse template strings.  To do this, you can override these class
+attributes:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>delimiter</em> – This is the literal string describing a placeholder
+introducing delimiter.  The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code>.  Note that this should
+<em>not</em> be a regular expression, as the implementation will call
+<a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.escape" title="re.escape"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.escape()</span></code></a> on this string as needed.  Note further that you cannot
+change the delimiter after class creation (i.e. a different delimiter must
+be set in the subclass’s class namespace).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>idpattern</em> – This is the regular expression describing the pattern for
+non-braced placeholders.  The default value is the regular expression
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*)</span></code>.  If this is given and <em>braceidpattern</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> this pattern will also apply to braced placeholders.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Since default <em>flags</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.IGNORECASE</span></code>, pattern <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[a-z]</span></code> can match
+with some non-ASCII characters. That’s why we use the local <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> flag
+here.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>braceidpattern</em> can be used to define separate patterns used inside and
+outside the braces.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>braceidpattern</em> – This is like <em>idpattern</em> but describes the pattern for
+braced placeholders.  Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> which means to fall back to
+<em>idpattern</em> (i.e. the same pattern is used both inside and outside braces).
+If given, this allows you to define different patterns for braced and
+unbraced placeholders.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>flags</em> – The regular expression flags that will be applied when compiling
+the regular expression used for recognizing substitutions.  The default value
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.IGNORECASE</span></code>.  Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.VERBOSE</span></code> will always be added to the
+flags, so custom <em>idpattern</em>s must follow conventions for verbose regular
+expressions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Alternatively, you can provide the entire regular expression pattern by
+overriding the class attribute <em>pattern</em>.  If you do this, the value must be a
+regular expression object with four named capturing groups.  The capturing
+groups correspond to the rules given above, along with the invalid placeholder
+rule:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>escaped</em> – This group matches the escape sequence, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$$</span></code>, in the
+default pattern.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>named</em> – This group matches the unbraced placeholder name; it should not
+include the delimiter in capturing group.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>braced</em> – This group matches the brace enclosed placeholder name; it should
+not include either the delimiter or braces in the capturing group.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>invalid</em> – This group matches any other delimiter pattern (usually a single
+delimiter), and it should appear last in the regular expression.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="helper-functions">
+<h2>Helper functions<a class="headerlink" href="#helper-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="string.capwords">
+<code class="descclassname">string.</code><code class="descname">capwords</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em>, <em>sep=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#string.capwords" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Split the argument into words using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.split()</span></code></a>, capitalize each word
+using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.capitalize" title="str.capitalize"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.capitalize()</span></code></a>, and join the capitalized words using
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.join()</span></code></a>.  If the optional second argument <em>sep</em> is absent
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, runs of whitespace characters are replaced by a single space
+and leading and trailing whitespace are removed, otherwise <em>sep</em> is used to
+split and join the words.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code> — Common string operations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-constants">String constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#custom-string-formatting">Custom String Formatting</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#format-string-syntax">Format String Syntax</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#format-specification-mini-language">Format Specification Mini-Language</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#format-examples">Format examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#template-strings">Template strings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#helper-functions">Helper functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="text.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Text Processing Services</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="re.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code> — Regular expression operations</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/stringprep.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/stringprep.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..042e53c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/stringprep.html
@@ -0,0 +1,330 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
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+    <title>stringprep — Internet String Preparation &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-stringprep">
+<span id="stringprep-internet-string-preparation"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-stringprep" title="stringprep: String preparation, as per RFC 3453"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code></a> — Internet String Preparation<a class="headerlink" href="#module-stringprep" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/stringprep.py">Lib/stringprep.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>When identifying things (such as host names) in the internet, it is often
+necessary to compare such identifications for “equality”. Exactly how this
+comparison is executed may depend on the application domain, e.g. whether it
+should be case-insensitive or not. It may be also necessary to restrict the
+possible identifications, to allow only identifications consisting of
+“printable” characters.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3454.html"><strong>RFC 3454</strong></a> defines a procedure for “preparing” Unicode strings in internet
+protocols. Before passing strings onto the wire, they are processed with the
+preparation procedure, after which they have a certain normalized form. The RFC
+defines a set of tables, which can be combined into profiles. Each profile must
+define which tables it uses, and what other optional parts of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code>
+procedure are part of the profile. One example of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code> profile is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nameprep</span></code>, which is used for internationalized domain names.</p>
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-stringprep" title="stringprep: String preparation, as per RFC 3453"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code></a> only exposes the tables from <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3454.html"><strong>RFC 3454</strong></a>. As these
+tables would be very large to represent them as dictionaries or lists, the
+module uses the Unicode character database internally. The module source code
+itself was generated using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstringprep.py</span></code> utility.</p>
+<p>As a result, these tables are exposed as functions, not as data structures.
+There are two kinds of tables in the RFC: sets and mappings. For a set,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-stringprep" title="stringprep: String preparation, as per RFC 3453"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code></a> provides the “characteristic function”, i.e. a function that
+returns true if the parameter is part of the set. For mappings, it provides the
+mapping function: given the key, it returns the associated value. Below is a
+list of all functions available in the module.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_a1">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_a1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_a1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableA.1 (Unassigned code points in Unicode 3.2).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_b1">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_b1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_b1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableB.1 (Commonly mapped to nothing).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.map_table_b2">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">map_table_b2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.map_table_b2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the mapped value for <em>code</em> according to tableB.2 (Mapping for
+case-folding used with NFKC).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.map_table_b3">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">map_table_b3</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.map_table_b3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the mapped value for <em>code</em> according to tableB.3 (Mapping for
+case-folding used with no normalization).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c11">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c11</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c11" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.1.1  (ASCII space characters).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c12">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c12</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c12" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.1.2  (Non-ASCII space characters).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c11_c12">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c11_c12</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c11_c12" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.1  (Space characters, union of C.1.1 and
+C.1.2).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c21">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c21</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c21" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.2.1  (ASCII control characters).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c22">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c22</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c22" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.2.2  (Non-ASCII control characters).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c21_c22">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c21_c22</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c21_c22" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.2  (Control characters, union of C.2.1 and
+C.2.2).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c3">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c3</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.3  (Private use).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c4">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c4</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.4  (Non-character code points).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c5">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c5</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c5" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.5  (Surrogate codes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c6">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c6</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c6" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.6  (Inappropriate for plain text).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c7">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c7</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c7" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.7  (Inappropriate for canonical
+representation).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c8">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c8</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.8  (Change display properties or are
+deprecated).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_c9">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_c9</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_c9" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableC.9  (Tagging characters).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_d1">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_d1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_d1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableD.1  (Characters with bidirectional property
+“R” or “AL”).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="stringprep.in_table_d2">
+<code class="descclassname">stringprep.</code><code class="descname">in_table_d2</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#stringprep.in_table_d2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determine whether <em>code</em> is in tableD.2  (Characters with bidirectional property
+“L”).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
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+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-struct">
+<span id="struct-interpret-bytes-as-packed-binary-data"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> — Interpret bytes as packed binary data<a class="headerlink" href="#module-struct" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/struct.py">Lib/struct.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module performs conversions between Python values and C structs represented
+as Python <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects.  This can be used in handling binary data
+stored in files or from network connections, among other sources.  It uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="#struct-format-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Format Strings</span></a> as compact descriptions of the layout of the C
+structs and the intended conversion to/from Python values.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>By default, the result of packing a given C struct includes pad bytes in
+order to maintain proper alignment for the C types involved; similarly,
+alignment is taken into account when unpacking.  This behavior is chosen so
+that the bytes of a packed struct correspond exactly to the layout in memory
+of the corresponding C struct.  To handle platform-independent data formats
+or omit implicit pad bytes, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">standard</span></code> size and alignment instead of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">native</span></code> size and alignment: see <a class="reference internal" href="#struct-alignment"><span class="std std-ref">Byte Order, Size, and Alignment</span></a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Several <a class="reference internal" href="#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> functions (and methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.Struct" title="struct.Struct"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct</span></code></a>) take a <em>buffer</em>
+argument.  This refers to objects that implement the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects"><span class="std std-ref">Buffer Protocol</span></a> and
+provide either a readable or read-writable buffer.  The most common types used
+for that purpose are <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>, but many other types
+that can be viewed as an array of bytes implement the buffer protocol, so that
+they can be read/filled without additional copying from a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<div class="section" id="functions-and-exceptions">
+<h2>Functions and Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions-and-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module defines the following exception and functions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="struct.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised on various occasions; argument is a string describing what
+is wrong.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="struct.pack">
+<code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">pack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>v1</em>, <em>v2</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.pack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a bytes object containing the values <em>v1</em>, <em>v2</em>, … packed according
+to the format string <em>format</em>.  The arguments must match the values required by
+the format exactly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="struct.pack_into">
+<code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">pack_into</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>buffer</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>v1</em>, <em>v2</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.pack_into" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pack the values <em>v1</em>, <em>v2</em>, … according to the format string <em>format</em> and
+write the packed bytes into the writable buffer <em>buffer</em> starting at
+position <em>offset</em>.  Note that <em>offset</em> is a required argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="struct.unpack">
+<code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">unpack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>buffer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.unpack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpack from the buffer <em>buffer</em> (presumably packed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack(format,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>)
+according to the format string <em>format</em>.  The result is a tuple even if it
+contains exactly one item.  The buffer’s size in bytes must match the
+size required by the format, as reflected by <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.calcsize" title="struct.calcsize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calcsize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="struct.unpack_from">
+<code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">unpack_from</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>buffer</em>, <em>offset=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.unpack_from" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpack from <em>buffer</em> starting at position <em>offset</em>, according to the format
+string <em>format</em>.  The result is a tuple even if it contains exactly one
+item.  The buffer’s size in bytes, minus <em>offset</em>, must be at least
+the size required by the format, as reflected by <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.calcsize" title="struct.calcsize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calcsize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="struct.iter_unpack">
+<code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">iter_unpack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em>, <em>buffer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.iter_unpack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Iteratively unpack from the buffer <em>buffer</em> according to the format
+string <em>format</em>.  This function returns an iterator which will read
+equally-sized chunks from the buffer until all its contents have been
+consumed.  The buffer’s size in bytes must be a multiple of the size
+required by the format, as reflected by <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.calcsize" title="struct.calcsize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calcsize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Each iteration yields a tuple as specified by the format string.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="struct.calcsize">
+<code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">calcsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.calcsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of the struct (and hence of the bytes object produced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack(format,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>) corresponding to the format string <em>format</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="format-strings">
+<span id="struct-format-strings"></span><h2>Format Strings<a class="headerlink" href="#format-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Format strings are the mechanism used to specify the expected layout when
+packing and unpacking data.  They are built up from <a class="reference internal" href="#format-characters"><span class="std std-ref">Format Characters</span></a>,
+which specify the type of data being packed/unpacked.  In addition, there are
+special characters for controlling the <a class="reference internal" href="#struct-alignment"><span class="std std-ref">Byte Order, Size, and Alignment</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="byte-order-size-and-alignment">
+<span id="struct-alignment"></span><h3>Byte Order, Size, and Alignment<a class="headerlink" href="#byte-order-size-and-alignment" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, C types are represented in the machine’s native format and byte
+order, and properly aligned by skipping pad bytes if necessary (according to the
+rules used by the C compiler).</p>
+<p id="index-1">Alternatively, the first character of the format string can be used to indicate
+the byte order, size and alignment of the packed data, according to the
+following table:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Character</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Byte order</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Size</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Alignment</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>native</p></td>
+<td><p>native</p></td>
+<td><p>native</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>native</p></td>
+<td><p>standard</p></td>
+<td><p>none</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>little-endian</p></td>
+<td><p>standard</p></td>
+<td><p>none</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>big-endian</p></td>
+<td><p>standard</p></td>
+<td><p>none</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>network (= big-endian)</p></td>
+<td><p>standard</p></td>
+<td><p>none</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>If the first character is not one of these, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&#64;'</span></code> is assumed.</p>
+<p>Native byte order is big-endian or little-endian, depending on the host
+system. For example, Intel x86 and AMD64 (x86-64) are little-endian;
+Motorola 68000 and PowerPC G5 are big-endian; ARM and Intel Itanium feature
+switchable endianness (bi-endian). Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.byteorder</span></code> to check the
+endianness of your system.</p>
+<p>Native size and alignment are determined using the C compiler’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof</span></code> expression.  This is always combined with native byte order.</p>
+<p>Standard size depends only on the format character;  see the table in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#format-characters"><span class="std std-ref">Format Characters</span></a> section.</p>
+<p>Note the difference between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&#64;'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code>: both use native byte order, but
+the size and alignment of the latter is standardized.</p>
+<p>The form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code> is available for those poor souls who claim they can’t remember
+whether network byte order is big-endian or little-endian.</p>
+<p>There is no way to indicate non-native byte order (force byte-swapping); use the
+appropriate choice of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Padding is only automatically added between successive structure members.
+No padding is added at the beginning or the end of the encoded struct.</p></li>
+<li><p>No padding is added when using non-native size and alignment, e.g.
+with ‘&lt;’, ‘&gt;’, ‘=’, and ‘!’.</p></li>
+<li><p>To align the end of a structure to the alignment requirement of a
+particular type, end the format with the code for that type with a repeat
+count of zero.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#struct-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="format-characters">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>Format Characters<a class="headerlink" href="#format-characters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Format characters have the following meaning; the conversion between C and
+Python values should be obvious given their types.  The ‘Standard size’ column
+refers to the size of the packed value in bytes when using standard size; that
+is, when the format string starts with one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code>.  When using native size, the size of the packed value is
+platform-dependent.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+<col style="width: 32%" />
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Format</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>C Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Standard size</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>pad byte</p></td>
+<td><p>no value</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bytes of length 1</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signed</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>(1),(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Bool</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bool</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">H</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">short</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">q</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p>(2), (3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Q</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span>
+<span class="pre">long</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p>(2), (3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size_t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(7)</p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>float</p></td>
+<td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char[]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bytes</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char[]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>bytes</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>integer</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>(6)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'N'</span></code> formats.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code> format.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p id="index-2">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> conversion code corresponds to the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Bool</span></code> type defined by
+C99. If this type is not available, it is simulated using a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code>. In
+standard mode, it is always represented by one byte.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'q'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Q'</span></code> conversion codes are available in native mode only if
+the platform C compiler supports C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>, or, on Windows,
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int64</span></code>.  They are always available in standard modes.</p></li>
+<li><p>When attempting to pack a non-integer using any of the integer conversion
+codes, if the non-integer has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> method then that method is
+called to convert the argument to an integer before packing.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Use of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> method for non-integers is new in 3.2.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'n'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'N'</span></code> conversion codes are only available for the native
+size (selected as the default or with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&#64;'</span></code> byte order character).
+For the standard size, you can use whichever of the other integer formats
+fits your application.</p></li>
+<li><p>For the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code> conversion codes, the packed
+representation uses the IEEE 754 binary32, binary64 or binary16 format (for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code> respectively), regardless of the floating-point
+format used by the platform.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'P'</span></code> format character is only available for the native byte ordering
+(selected as the default or with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&#64;'</span></code> byte order character). The byte
+order character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'='</span></code> chooses to use little- or big-endian ordering based
+on the host system. The struct module does not interpret this as native
+ordering, so the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'P'</span></code> format is not available.</p></li>
+<li><p>The IEEE 754 binary16 “half precision” type was introduced in the 2008
+revision of the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_floating_point#IEEE_754-2008">IEEE 754 standard</a>. It has a sign
+bit, a 5-bit exponent and 11-bit precision (with 10 bits explicitly stored),
+and can represent numbers between approximately <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6.1e-05</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">6.5e+04</span></code>
+at full precision. This type is not widely supported by C compilers: on a
+typical machine, an unsigned short can be used for storage, but not for math
+operations. See the Wikipedia page on the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format">half-precision floating-point
+format</a> for more information.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>A format character may be preceded by an integral repeat count.  For example,
+the format string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'4h'</span></code> means exactly the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hhhh'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Whitespace characters between formats are ignored; a count and its format must
+not contain whitespace though.</p>
+<p>For the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code> format character, the count is interpreted as the length of the
+bytes, not a repeat count like for the other format characters; for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'10s'</span></code> means a single 10-byte string, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'10c'</span></code> means 10 characters.
+If a count is not given, it defaults to 1.  For packing, the string is
+truncated or padded with null bytes as appropriate to make it fit. For
+unpacking, the resulting bytes object always has exactly the specified number
+of bytes.  As a special case, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0s'</span></code> means a single, empty string (while
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0c'</span></code> means 0 characters).</p>
+<p>When packing a value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> using one of the integer formats (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'B'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'h'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'H'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'i'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'I'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'l'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'L'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'q'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Q'</span></code>), if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is outside the valid range for that format
+then <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.error" title="struct.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.error</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>In 3.0, some of the integer formats wrapped out-of-range values and
+raised <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.error" title="struct.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.error</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'p'</span></code> format character encodes a “Pascal string”, meaning a short
+variable-length string stored in a <em>fixed number of bytes</em>, given by the count.
+The first byte stored is the length of the string, or 255, whichever is
+smaller.  The bytes of the string follow.  If the string passed in to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code></a> is too long (longer than the count minus 1), only the leading
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count-1</span></code> bytes of the string are stored.  If the string is shorter than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count-1</span></code>, it is padded with null bytes so that exactly count bytes in all
+are used.  Note that for <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.unpack" title="struct.unpack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack()</span></code></a>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'p'</span></code> format character consumes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count</span></code> bytes, but that the string returned can never contain more than 255
+bytes.</p>
+<p id="index-3">For the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code> format character, the return value is either <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>. When packing, the truth value of the argument object is used.
+Either 0 or 1 in the native or standard bool representation will be packed, and
+any non-zero value will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when unpacking.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="struct-examples"></span><h3>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>All examples assume a native byte order, size, and alignment with a
+big-endian machine.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A basic example of packing/unpacking three integers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">struct</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hhl&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hhl&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 2, 3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">calcsize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hhl&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unpacked fields can be named by assigning them to variables or by wrapping
+the result in a named tuple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">record</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;raymond   </span><span class="se">\x32\x12\x08\x01\x08</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">serialnum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">school</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">gradelevel</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;10sHHb&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Student</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Student&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;name serialnum school gradelevel&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Student</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_make</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;10sHHb&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Student(name=b&#39;raymond   &#39;, serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The ordering of format characters may have an impact on size since the padding
+needed to satisfy alignment requirements is different:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ci&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x12131415</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;*\x00\x00\x00\x12\x13\x14\x15&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ic&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x12131415</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\x12\x13\x14\x15*&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">calcsize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ci&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">calcsize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ic&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following format <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'llh0l'</span></code> specifies two pad bytes at the end, assuming
+longs are aligned on 4-byte boundaries:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;llh0l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This only works when native size and alignment are in effect; standard size and
+alignment does not enforce any alignment.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Packed binary storage of homogeneous data.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="xdrlib.html#module-xdrlib" title="xdrlib: Encoders and decoders for the External Data Representation (XDR)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Packing and unpacking of XDR data.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="classes">
+<span id="struct-objects"></span><h2>Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module also defines the following type:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="struct.Struct">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">struct.</code><code class="descname">Struct</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new Struct object which writes and reads binary data according to
+the format string <em>format</em>.  Creating a Struct object once and calling its
+methods is more efficient than calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> functions with the
+same format since the format string only needs to be compiled once.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The compiled versions of the most recent format strings passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#struct.Struct" title="struct.Struct"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct</span></code></a> and the module-level functions are cached, so programs
+that use only a few format strings needn’t worry about reusing a single
+<a class="reference internal" href="#struct.Struct" title="struct.Struct"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Compiled Struct objects support the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="struct.Struct.pack">
+<code class="descname">pack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>v1</em>, <em>v2</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct.pack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled format.
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(result)</span></code> will equal <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.Struct.size" title="struct.Struct.size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="struct.Struct.pack_into">
+<code class="descname">pack_into</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em>, <em>offset</em>, <em>v1</em>, <em>v2</em>, <em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct.pack_into" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.pack_into" title="struct.pack_into"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_into()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="struct.Struct.unpack">
+<code class="descname">unpack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct.unpack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.unpack" title="struct.unpack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled format.
+The buffer’s size in bytes must equal <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.Struct.size" title="struct.Struct.size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="struct.Struct.unpack_from">
+<code class="descname">unpack_from</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em>, <em>offset=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct.unpack_from" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.unpack_from" title="struct.unpack_from"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_from()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled format.
+The buffer’s size in bytes, minus <em>offset</em>, must be at least
+<a class="reference internal" href="#struct.Struct.size" title="struct.Struct.size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="struct.Struct.iter_unpack">
+<code class="descname">iter_unpack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct.iter_unpack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.iter_unpack" title="struct.iter_unpack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_unpack()</span></code></a> function, using the compiled format.
+The buffer’s size in bytes must be a multiple of <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.Struct.size" title="struct.Struct.size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="struct.Struct.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The format string used to construct this Struct object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The format string type is now <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="struct.Struct.size">
+<code class="descname">size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#struct.Struct.size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The calculated size of the struct (and hence of the bytes object produced
+by the <a class="reference internal" href="#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code></a> method) corresponding to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code> — Interpret bytes as packed binary data</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions-and-exceptions">Functions and Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#format-strings">Format Strings</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#byte-order-size-and-alignment">Byte Order, Size, and Alignment</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#format-characters">Format Characters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes">Classes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="binary.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Binary Data Services</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="codecs.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code> — Codec registry and base classes</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/struct.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-subprocess">
+<span id="subprocess-subprocess-management"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> — Subprocess management<a class="headerlink" href="#module-subprocess" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/subprocess.py">Lib/subprocess.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module allows you to spawn new processes, connect to their
+input/output/error pipes, and obtain their return codes.  This module intends to
+replace several older modules and functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">system</span>
+<span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawn</span><span class="o">*</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Information about how the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module can be used to replace these
+modules and functions can be found in the following sections.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0324"><strong>PEP 324</strong></a> – PEP proposing the subprocess module</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-the-subprocess-module">
+<h2>Using the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> Module<a class="headerlink" href="#using-the-subprocess-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The recommended approach to invoking subprocesses is to use the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>
+function for all use cases it can handle. For more advanced use cases, the
+underlying <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> interface can be used directly.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> function was added in Python 3.5; if you need to retain
+compatibility with older versions, see the <a class="reference internal" href="#call-function-trio"><span class="std std-ref">Older high-level API</span></a> section.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="subprocess.run">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>input=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em>, <em>stderr=None</em>, <em>capture_output=False</em>, <em>shell=False</em>, <em>cwd=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>check=False</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>text=None</em>, <em>env=None</em>, <em>universal_newlines=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the command described by <em>args</em>.  Wait for command to complete, then
+return a <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess" title="subprocess.CompletedProcess"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CompletedProcess</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones, described below
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#frequently-used-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">Frequently Used Arguments</span></a> (hence the use of keyword-only notation
+in the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is largely the
+same as that of the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> constructor - most of the arguments to
+this function are passed through to that interface. (<em>timeout</em>,  <em>input</em>,
+<em>check</em>, and <em>capture_output</em> are not.)</p>
+<p>If <em>capture_output</em> is true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
+When used, the internal <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> object is automatically created with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code>. The <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> arguments may
+not be supplied at the same time as <em>capture_output</em>.  If you wish to capture
+and combine both streams into one, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=STDOUT</span></code>
+instead of <em>capture_output</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>timeout</em> argument is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.communicate()</span></code></a>. If the timeout
+expires, the child process will be killed and waited for.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired" title="subprocess.TimeoutExpired"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutExpired</span></code></a> exception will be re-raised after the child process
+has terminated.</p>
+<p>The <em>input</em> argument is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.communicate()</span></code></a> and thus to the
+subprocess’s stdin.  If used it must be a byte sequence, or a string if
+<em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> is specified or <em>text</em> is true.  When
+used, the internal <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> object is automatically created with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin=PIPE</span></code>, and the <em>stdin</em> argument may not be used as well.</p>
+<p>If <em>check</em> is true, and the process exits with a non-zero exit code, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a> exception will be raised. Attributes of that
+exception hold the arguments, the exit code, and stdout and stderr if they
+were captured.</p>
+<p>If <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> are specified, or <em>text</em> is true,
+file objects for stdin, stdout and stderr are opened in text mode using the
+specified <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> or the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> default.
+The <em>universal_newlines</em> argument is equivalent  to <em>text</em> and is provided
+for backwards compatibility. By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.</p>
+<p>If <em>env</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it must be a mapping that defines the environment
+variables for the new process; these are used instead of the default
+behavior of inheriting the current process’ environment. It is passed directly
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;ls&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;-l&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>  <span class="c1"># doesn&#39;t capture output</span>
+<span class="go">CompletedProcess(args=[&#39;ls&#39;, &#39;-l&#39;], returncode=0)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;exit 1&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">check</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">subprocess.CalledProcessError</span>: <span class="n">Command &#39;exit 1&#39; returned non-zero exit status 1</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;ls&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;-l&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/dev/null&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">capture_output</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">CompletedProcess(args=[&#39;ls&#39;, &#39;-l&#39;, &#39;/dev/null&#39;], returncode=0,</span>
+<span class="go">stdout=b&#39;crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n&#39;, stderr=b&#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>text</em> parameter, as a more understandable alias of <em>universal_newlines</em>.
+Added the <em>capture_output</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="subprocess.CompletedProcess">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">CompletedProcess</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The return value from <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>, representing a process that has finished.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CompletedProcess.args">
+<code class="descname">args</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess.args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The arguments used to launch the process. This may be a list or a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CompletedProcess.returncode">
+<code class="descname">returncode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess.returncode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit status of the child process. Typically, an exit status of 0 indicates
+that it ran successfully.</p>
+<p>A negative value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-N</span></code> indicates that the child was terminated by signal
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> (POSIX only).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CompletedProcess.stdout">
+<code class="descname">stdout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess.stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Captured stdout from the child process. A bytes sequence, or a string if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> was called with an encoding, errors, or text=True.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if stdout was not captured.</p>
+<p>If you ran the process with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=subprocess.STDOUT</span></code>, stdout and
+stderr will be combined in this attribute, and <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess.stderr" title="subprocess.CompletedProcess.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code></a> will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CompletedProcess.stderr">
+<code class="descname">stderr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess.stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Captured stderr from the child process. A bytes sequence, or a string if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> was called with an encoding, errors, or text=True.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if stderr was not captured.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="subprocess.CompletedProcess.check_returncode">
+<code class="descname">check_returncode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess.check_returncode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CompletedProcess.returncode" title="subprocess.CompletedProcess.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a> is non-zero, raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.DEVNULL">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">DEVNULL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special value that can be used as the <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> or <em>stderr</em> argument
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> and indicates that the special file <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.devnull" title="os.devnull"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.devnull</span></code></a>
+will be used.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.PIPE">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">PIPE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special value that can be used as the <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> or <em>stderr</em> argument
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> and indicates that a pipe to the standard stream should be
+opened.  Most useful with <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.communicate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.STDOUT">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STDOUT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STDOUT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special value that can be used as the <em>stderr</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> and
+indicates that standard error should go into the same handle as standard
+output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="subprocess.SubprocessError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">SubprocessError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.SubprocessError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for all other exceptions from this module.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="subprocess.TimeoutExpired">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">TimeoutExpired</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.SubprocessError" title="subprocess.SubprocessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessError</span></code></a>, raised when a timeout expires
+while waiting for a child process.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.TimeoutExpired.cmd">
+<code class="descname">cmd</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.cmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Command that was used to spawn the child process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.TimeoutExpired.timeout">
+<code class="descname">timeout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.timeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Timeout in seconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.TimeoutExpired.output">
+<code class="descname">output</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Output of the child process if it was captured by <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.check_output" title="subprocess.check_output"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stdout">
+<code class="descname">stdout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alias for output, for symmetry with <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stderr" title="subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stderr">
+<code class="descname">stderr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired.stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.
+Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> attributes added</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="subprocess.CalledProcessError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">CalledProcessError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.SubprocessError" title="subprocess.SubprocessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessError</span></code></a>, raised when a process run by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.check_call" title="subprocess.check_call"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_call()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.check_output" title="subprocess.check_output"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a> returns a non-zero exit status.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode">
+<code class="descname">returncode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit status of the child process.  If the process exited due to a
+signal, this will be the negative signal number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CalledProcessError.cmd">
+<code class="descname">cmd</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.cmd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Command that was used to spawn the child process.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CalledProcessError.output">
+<code class="descname">output</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Output of the child process if it was captured by <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.check_output" title="subprocess.check_output"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CalledProcessError.stdout">
+<code class="descname">stdout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alias for output, for symmetry with <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.stderr" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.CalledProcessError.stderr">
+<code class="descname">stderr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.
+Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> attributes added</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="frequently-used-arguments">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>Frequently Used Arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#frequently-used-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To support a wide variety of use cases, the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> constructor (and
+the convenience functions) accept a large number of optional arguments. For
+most typical use cases, many of these arguments can be safely left at their
+default values. The arguments that are most commonly needed are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><em>args</em> is required for all calls and should be a string, or a sequence of
+program arguments. Providing a sequence of arguments is generally
+preferred, as it allows the module to take care of any required escaping
+and quoting of arguments (e.g. to permit spaces in file names). If passing
+a single string, either <em>shell</em> must be <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> (see below) or else
+the string must simply name the program to be executed without specifying
+any arguments.</p>
+<p><em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> specify the executed program’s standard input,
+standard output and standard error file handles, respectively.  Valid values
+are <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="subprocess.DEVNULL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVNULL</span></code></a>, an existing file descriptor (a positive
+integer), an existing file object, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a> indicates
+that a new pipe to the child should be created.  <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="subprocess.DEVNULL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVNULL</span></code></a> indicates
+that the special file <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.devnull" title="os.devnull"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.devnull</span></code></a> will be used.  With the default
+settings of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, no redirection will occur; the child’s file handles
+will be inherited from the parent.  Additionally, <em>stderr</em> can be
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STDOUT" title="subprocess.STDOUT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STDOUT</span></code></a>, which indicates that the stderr data from the child
+process should be captured into the same file handle as for <em>stdout</em>.</p>
+<p id="index-1">If <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> are specified, or <em>text</em> (also known as
+<em>universal_newlines</em>) is true,
+the file objects <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> will be opened in text
+mode using the <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> specified in the call or the
+defaults for <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For <em>stdin</em>, line ending characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> in the input will be converted
+to the default line separator <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.linesep" title="os.linesep"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.linesep</span></code></a>. For <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em>,
+all line endings in the output will be converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>.  For more
+information see the documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> class
+when the <em>newline</em> argument to its constructor is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If text mode is not used, <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> will be opened as
+binary streams. No encoding or line ending conversion is performed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>text</em> parameter as an alias for <em>universal_newlines</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The newlines attribute of the file objects <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.stdin" title="subprocess.Popen.stdin"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.stdin</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.stdout" title="subprocess.Popen.stdout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.stdout</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.stderr" title="subprocess.Popen.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.stderr</span></code></a> are not updated by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.communicate()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>shell</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the specified command will be executed through
+the shell.  This can be useful if you are using Python primarily for the
+enhanced control flow it offers over most system shells and still want
+convenient access to other shell features such as shell pipes, filename
+wildcards, environment variable expansion, and expansion of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> to a
+user’s home directory.  However, note that Python itself offers
+implementations of many shell-like features (in particular, <a class="reference internal" href="glob.html#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html#module-fnmatch" title="fnmatch: Unix shell style filename pattern matching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.walk()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expandvars" title="os.path.expandvars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expandvars()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>When <em>universal_newlines</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the class uses the encoding
+<a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding(False)</span></code></a>
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code>.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> class for more information on this change.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Read the <a class="reference internal" href="#security-considerations">Security Considerations</a> section before using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>These options, along with all of the other options, are described in more
+detail in the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> constructor documentation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="popen-constructor">
+<h3>Popen Constructor<a class="headerlink" href="#popen-constructor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The underlying process creation and management in this module is handled by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> class. It offers a lot of flexibility so that developers
+are able to handle the less common cases not covered by the convenience
+functions.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">Popen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em>, <em>bufsize=-1</em>, <em>executable=None</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em>, <em>stderr=None</em>, <em>preexec_fn=None</em>, <em>close_fds=True</em>, <em>shell=False</em>, <em>cwd=None</em>, <em>env=None</em>, <em>universal_newlines=None</em>, <em>startupinfo=None</em>, <em>creationflags=0</em>, <em>restore_signals=True</em>, <em>start_new_session=False</em>, <em>pass_fds=()</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>text=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute a child program in a new process.  On POSIX, the class uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.execvp" title="os.execvp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.execvp()</span></code></a>-like behavior to execute the child program.  On Windows,
+the class uses the Windows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CreateProcess()</span></code> function.  The arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> are as follows.</p>
+<p><em>args</em> should be a sequence of program arguments or else a single string.
+By default, the program to execute is the first item in <em>args</em> if <em>args</em> is
+a sequence.  If <em>args</em> is a string, the interpretation is
+platform-dependent and described below.  See the <em>shell</em> and <em>executable</em>
+arguments for additional differences from the default behavior.  Unless
+otherwise stated, it is recommended to pass <em>args</em> as a sequence.</p>
+<p>On POSIX, if <em>args</em> is a string, the string is interpreted as the name or
+path of the program to execute.  However, this can only be done if not
+passing arguments to the program.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html#shlex.split" title="shlex.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex.split()</span></code></a> can be useful when determining the correct
+tokenization for <em>args</em>, especially in complex cases:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shlex</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">subprocess</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">command_line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">/bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output &quot;spam spam.txt&quot; -cmd &quot;echo &#39;$MONEY&#39;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shlex</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">command_line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;/bin/vikings&#39;, &#39;-input&#39;, &#39;eggs.txt&#39;, &#39;-output&#39;, &#39;spam spam.txt&#39;, &#39;-cmd&#39;, &quot;echo &#39;$MONEY&#39;&quot;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># Success!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note in particular that options (such as <em>-input</em>) and arguments (such
+as <em>eggs.txt</em>) that are separated by whitespace in the shell go in separate
+list elements, while arguments that need quoting or backslash escaping when
+used in the shell (such as filenames containing spaces or the <em>echo</em> command
+shown above) are single list elements.</p>
+</div>
+<p>On Windows, if <em>args</em> is a sequence, it will be converted to a string in a
+manner described in <a class="reference internal" href="#converting-argument-sequence"><span class="std std-ref">Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows</span></a>.  This is because
+the underlying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CreateProcess()</span></code> operates on strings.</p>
+<p>The <em>shell</em> argument (which defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>) specifies whether to use
+the shell as the program to execute.  If <em>shell</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, it is
+recommended to pass <em>args</em> as a string rather than as a sequence.</p>
+<p>On POSIX with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>, the shell defaults to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/bin/sh</span></code>.  If
+<em>args</em> is a string, the string specifies the command
+to execute through the shell.  This means that the string must be
+formatted exactly as it would be when typed at the shell prompt.  This
+includes, for example, quoting or backslash escaping filenames with spaces in
+them.  If <em>args</em> is a sequence, the first item specifies the command string, and
+any additional items will be treated as additional arguments to the shell
+itself.  That is to say, <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> does the equivalent of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;/bin/sh&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On Windows with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>, the <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMSPEC</span></code> environment variable
+specifies the default shell.  The only time you need to specify
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code> on Windows is when the command you wish to execute is built
+into the shell (e.g. <strong class="command">dir</strong> or <strong class="command">copy</strong>).  You do not need
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code> to run a batch file or console-based executable.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Read the <a class="reference internal" href="#security-considerations">Security Considerations</a> section before using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>bufsize</em> will be supplied as the corresponding argument to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function when creating the stdin/stdout/stderr pipe
+file objects:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> means unbuffered (read and write are one
+system call and can return short)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> means line buffered
+(only usable if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">universal_newlines=True</span></code> i.e., in a text mode)</p></li>
+<li><p>any other positive value means use a buffer of approximately that
+size</p></li>
+<li><p>negative bufsize (the default) means the system default of
+io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE will be used.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3.1: </span><em>bufsize</em> now defaults to -1 to enable buffering by default to match the
+behavior that most code expects.  In versions prior to Python 3.2.4 and
+3.3.1 it incorrectly defaulted to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> which was unbuffered
+and allowed short reads.  This was unintentional and did not match the
+behavior of Python 2 as most code expected.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>executable</em> argument specifies a replacement program to execute.   It
+is very seldom needed.  When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=False</span></code>, <em>executable</em> replaces the
+program to execute specified by <em>args</em>.  However, the original <em>args</em> is
+still passed to the program.  Most programs treat the program specified
+by <em>args</em> as the command name, which can then be different from the program
+actually executed.  On POSIX, the <em>args</em> name
+becomes the display name for the executable in utilities such as
+<strong class="program">ps</strong>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>, on POSIX the <em>executable</em> argument
+specifies a replacement shell for the default <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/bin/sh</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> specify the executed program’s standard input,
+standard output and standard error file handles, respectively.  Valid values
+are <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="subprocess.DEVNULL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVNULL</span></code></a>, an existing file descriptor (a positive
+integer), an existing <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>
+indicates that a new pipe to the child should be created.  <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="subprocess.DEVNULL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVNULL</span></code></a>
+indicates that the special file <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.devnull" title="os.devnull"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.devnull</span></code></a> will be used. With the
+default settings of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, no redirection will occur; the child’s file
+handles will be inherited from the parent.  Additionally, <em>stderr</em> can be
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STDOUT" title="subprocess.STDOUT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STDOUT</span></code></a>, which indicates that the stderr data from the applications
+should be captured into the same file handle as for stdout.</p>
+<p>If <em>preexec_fn</em> is set to a callable object, this object will be called in the
+child process just before the child is executed.
+(POSIX only)</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <em>preexec_fn</em> parameter is not safe to use in the presence of threads
+in your application.  The child process could deadlock before exec is
+called.
+If you must use it, keep it trivial!  Minimize the number of libraries
+you call into.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you need to modify the environment for the child use the <em>env</em>
+parameter rather than doing it in a <em>preexec_fn</em>.
+The <em>start_new_session</em> parameter can take the place of a previously
+common use of <em>preexec_fn</em> to call os.setsid() in the child.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>close_fds</em> is true, all file descriptors except <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> will be closed before the child process is executed.  Otherwise
+when <em>close_fds</em> is false, file descriptors obey their inheritable flag
+as described in <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">Inheritance of File Descriptors</span></a>.</p>
+<p>On Windows, if <em>close_fds</em> is true then no handles will be inherited by the
+child process unless explicitly passed in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_list</span></code> element of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList</span></code></a>, or by standard handle redirection.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The default for <em>close_fds</em> was changed from <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> to
+what is described above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>On Windows the default for <em>close_fds</em> was changed from <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> when redirecting the standard handles. It’s now possible to
+set <em>close_fds</em> to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> when redirecting the standard handles.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>pass_fds</em> is an optional sequence of file descriptors to keep open
+between the parent and child.  Providing any <em>pass_fds</em> forces
+<em>close_fds</em> to be <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.  (POSIX only)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>pass_fds</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>cwd</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the function changes the working directory to
+<em>cwd</em> before executing the child.  <em>cwd</em> can be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like</span></a> object.  In particular, the function
+looks for <em>executable</em> (or for the first item in <em>args</em>) relative to <em>cwd</em>
+if the executable path is a relative path.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>cwd</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>restore_signals</em> is true (the default) all signals that Python has set to
+SIG_IGN are restored to SIG_DFL in the child process before the exec.
+Currently this includes the SIGPIPE, SIGXFZ and SIGXFSZ signals.
+(POSIX only)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>restore_signals</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>start_new_session</em> is true the setsid() system call will be made in the
+child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  (POSIX only)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>start_new_session</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>env</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it must be a mapping that defines the environment
+variables for the new process; these are used instead of the default
+behavior of inheriting the current process’ environment.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If specified, <em>env</em> must provide any variables required for the program to
+execute.  On Windows, in order to run a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly">side-by-side assembly</a> the
+specified <em>env</em> <strong>must</strong> include a valid <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemRoot</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> are specified, or <em>text</em> is true, the file objects
+<em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> are opened in text mode with the specified
+encoding and <em>errors</em>, as described above in <a class="reference internal" href="#frequently-used-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">Frequently Used Arguments</span></a>.
+The <em>universal_newlines</em> argument is equivalent  to <em>text</em> and is provided
+for backwards compatibility. By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span><em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><em>text</em> was added as a more readable alias for <em>universal_newlines</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If given, <em>startupinfo</em> will be a <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO</span></code></a> object, which is
+passed to the underlying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CreateProcess</span></code> function.
+<em>creationflags</em>, if given, can be one or more of the following flags:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE" title="subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP" title="subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW" title="subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATE_NO_WINDOW</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS" title="subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DETACHED_PROCESS</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE" title="subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB" title="subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Popen objects are supported as context managers via the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement:
+on exit, standard file descriptors are closed, and the process is waited for.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;ifconfig&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">proc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">log</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added context manager support.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Popen destructor now emits a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> warning if the child
+process is still running.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h3>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Exceptions raised in the child process, before the new program has started to
+execute, will be re-raised in the parent.</p>
+<p>The most common exception raised is <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.  This occurs, for example,
+when trying to execute a non-existent file.  Applications should prepare for
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exceptions.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised if <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> is called with invalid
+arguments.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.check_call" title="subprocess.check_call"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_call()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.check_output" title="subprocess.check_output"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a> will raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a> if the called process returns a non-zero return
+code.</p>
+<p>All of the functions and methods that accept a <em>timeout</em> parameter, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.call" title="subprocess.call"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.communicate()</span></code></a> will raise <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired" title="subprocess.TimeoutExpired"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutExpired</span></code></a> if
+the timeout expires before the process exits.</p>
+<p>Exceptions defined in this module all inherit from <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.SubprocessError" title="subprocess.SubprocessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.SubprocessError" title="subprocess.SubprocessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubprocessError</span></code></a> base class was added.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="security-considerations">
+<h2>Security Considerations<a class="headerlink" href="#security-considerations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Unlike some other popen functions, this implementation will never
+implicitly call a system shell.  This means that all characters,
+including shell metacharacters, can safely be passed to child processes.
+If the shell is invoked explicitly, via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>, it is the application’s
+responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and metacharacters are
+quoted appropriately to avoid
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection">shell injection</a>
+vulnerabilities.</p>
+<p>When using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>, the <a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html#shlex.quote" title="shlex.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex.quote()</span></code></a> function can be
+used to properly escape whitespace and shell metacharacters in strings
+that are going to be used to construct shell commands.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="popen-objects">
+<h2>Popen Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#popen-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> class have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.poll">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">poll</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.poll" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check if child process has terminated.  Set and return
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.returncode" title="subprocess.Popen.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a> attribute. Otherwise, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.wait">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait for child process to terminate.  Set and return
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.returncode" title="subprocess.Popen.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>If the process does not terminate after <em>timeout</em> seconds, raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired" title="subprocess.TimeoutExpired"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutExpired</span></code></a> exception.  It is safe to catch this exception and
+retry the wait.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This will deadlock when using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code>
+and the child process generates enough output to a pipe such that
+it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to accept more data.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.communicate()</span></code></a> when using pipes to avoid that.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The function is implemented using a busy loop (non-blocking call and
+short sleeps). Use the <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module for an asynchronous wait:
+see <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-subprocess.html#asyncio.create_subprocess_exec" title="asyncio.create_subprocess_exec"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_subprocess_exec</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>timeout</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.communicate">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">communicate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>input=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interact with process: Send data to stdin.  Read data from stdout and stderr,
+until end-of-file is reached.  Wait for process to terminate.  The optional
+<em>input</em> argument should be data to be sent to the child process, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, if no data should be sent to the child.  If streams were opened in
+text mode, <em>input</em> must be a string.  Otherwise, it must be bytes.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate()</span></code></a> returns a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(stdout_data,</span> <span class="pre">stderr_data)</span></code>.
+The data will be strings if streams were opened in text mode; otherwise,
+bytes.</p>
+<p>Note that if you want to send data to the process’s stdin, you need to create
+the Popen object with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin=PIPE</span></code>.  Similarly, to get anything other than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in the result tuple, you need to give <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> and/or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code> too.</p>
+<p>If the process does not terminate after <em>timeout</em> seconds, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.TimeoutExpired" title="subprocess.TimeoutExpired"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutExpired</span></code></a> exception will be raised.  Catching this exception and
+retrying communication will not lose any output.</p>
+<p>The child process is not killed if the timeout expires, so in order to
+cleanup properly a well-behaved application should kill the child process and
+finish communication:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">proc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">outs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">errs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">proc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">communicate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">TimeoutExpired</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">proc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kill</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">outs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">errs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">proc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">communicate</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The data read is buffered in memory, so do not use this method if the data
+size is large or unlimited.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>timeout</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.send_signal">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">send_signal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>signal</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.send_signal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sends the signal <em>signal</em> to the child.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.terminate" title="subprocess.Popen.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a>. CTRL_C_EVENT and
+CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be sent to processes started with a <em>creationflags</em>
+parameter which includes <cite>CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP</cite>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.terminate">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">terminate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.terminate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop the child. On Posix OSs the method sends SIGTERM to the
+child. On Windows the Win32 API function <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TerminateProcess()</span></code> is called
+to stop the child.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.kill">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">kill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.kill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Kills the child. On Posix OSs the function sends SIGKILL to the child.
+On Windows <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.kill" title="subprocess.Popen.kill"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kill()</span></code></a> is an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.terminate" title="subprocess.Popen.terminate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attributes are also available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.args">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">args</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>args</em> argument as it was passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> – a
+sequence of program arguments or else a single string.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.stdin">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">stdin</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.stdin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <em>stdin</em> argument was <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, this attribute is a writeable
+stream object as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>. If the <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em>
+arguments were specified or the <em>universal_newlines</em> argument was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+the stream is a text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the <em>stdin</em>
+argument was not <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, this attribute is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.stdout">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">stdout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <em>stdout</em> argument was <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, this attribute is a readable
+stream object as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>. Reading from the stream provides
+output from the child process. If the <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> arguments were
+specified or the <em>universal_newlines</em> argument was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the stream is a
+text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the <em>stdout</em> argument was not
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, this attribute is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.stderr">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">stderr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <em>stderr</em> argument was <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, this attribute is a readable
+stream object as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>. Reading from the stream provides
+error output from the child process. If the <em>encoding</em> or <em>errors</em> arguments
+were specified or the <em>universal_newlines</em> argument was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the stream
+is a text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the <em>stderr</em> argument was
+not <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE</span></code></a>, this attribute is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate()</span></code></a> rather than <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.stdin" title="subprocess.Popen.stdin"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.stdin.write</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.stdout" title="subprocess.Popen.stdout"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.stdout.read</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.stderr" title="subprocess.Popen.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.stderr.read</span></code></a> to avoid
+deadlocks due to any of the other OS pipe buffers filling up and blocking the
+child process.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.pid">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">pid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.pid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The process ID of the child process.</p>
+<p>Note that if you set the <em>shell</em> argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, this is the process ID
+of the spawned shell.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.Popen.returncode">
+<code class="descclassname">Popen.</code><code class="descname">returncode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.Popen.returncode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The child return code, set by <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.poll" title="subprocess.Popen.poll"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.wait" title="subprocess.Popen.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> (and indirectly
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate()</span></code></a>).  A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> value indicates that the process
+hasn’t terminated yet.</p>
+<p>A negative value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-N</span></code> indicates that the child was terminated by signal
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code> (POSIX only).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="windows-popen-helpers">
+<h2>Windows Popen Helpers<a class="headerlink" href="#windows-popen-helpers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO</span></code></a> class and following constants are only available
+on Windows.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTUPINFO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STARTUPINFO</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>dwFlags=0</em>, <em>hStdInput=None</em>, <em>hStdOutput=None</em>, <em>hStdError=None</em>, <em>wShowWindow=0</em>, <em>lpAttributeList=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Partial support of the Windows
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx">STARTUPINFO</a>
+structure is used for <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> creation.  The following attributes can
+be set by passing them as keyword-only arguments.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Keyword-only argument support was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags">
+<code class="descname">dwFlags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bit field that determines whether certain <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO</span></code></a>
+attributes are used when the process creates a window.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">si</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">STARTUPINFO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">si</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dwFlags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdInput">
+<code class="descname">hStdInput</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdInput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dwFlags</span></code></a> specifies <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES" title="subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES</span></code></a>, this attribute
+is the standard input handle for the process. If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES" title="subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES</span></code></a> is not specified, the default for standard
+input is the keyboard buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput">
+<code class="descname">hStdOutput</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dwFlags</span></code></a> specifies <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES" title="subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES</span></code></a>, this attribute
+is the standard output handle for the process. Otherwise, this attribute
+is ignored and the default for standard output is the console window’s
+buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdError">
+<code class="descname">hStdError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dwFlags</span></code></a> specifies <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES" title="subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES</span></code></a>, this attribute
+is the standard error handle for the process. Otherwise, this attribute is
+ignored and the default for standard error is the console window’s buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow">
+<code class="descname">wShowWindow</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.dwFlags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dwFlags</span></code></a> specifies <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW" title="subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW</span></code></a>, this attribute
+can be any of the values that can be specified in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nCmdShow</span></code>
+parameter for the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx">ShowWindow</a>
+function, except for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SW_SHOWDEFAULT</span></code>. Otherwise, this attribute is
+ignored.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.SW_HIDE" title="subprocess.SW_HIDE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SW_HIDE</span></code></a> is provided for this attribute. It is used when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> is called with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList">
+<code class="descname">lpAttributeList</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary of additional attributes for process creation as given in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFOEX</span></code>, see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx">UpdateProcThreadAttribute</a>.</p>
+<p>Supported attributes:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><strong>handle_list</strong></dt><dd><p>Sequence of handles that will be inherited. <em>close_fds</em> must be true if
+non-empty.</p>
+<p>The handles must be temporarily made inheritable by
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.set_handle_inheritable" title="os.set_handle_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.set_handle_inheritable()</span></code></a> when passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a>
+constructor, else <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> will be raised with Windows error
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER</span></code> (87).</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>In a multithreaded process, use caution to avoid leaking handles
+that are marked inheritable when combining this feature with
+concurrent calls to other process creation functions that inherit
+all handles such as <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a>.  This also applies to
+standard handle redirection, which temporarily creates inheritable
+handles.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="windows-constants">
+<h3>Windows Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#windows-constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module exposes the following constants.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STD_INPUT_HANDLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The standard input device. Initially, this is the console input buffer,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONIN$</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The standard output device. Initially, this is the active console screen
+buffer, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONOUT$</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STD_ERROR_HANDLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The standard error device. Initially, this is the active console screen
+buffer, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONOUT$</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.SW_HIDE">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">SW_HIDE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.SW_HIDE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hides the window. Another window will be activated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STARTF_USESTDHANDLES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies that the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdInput" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdInput"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO.hStdInput</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdError" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.hStdError"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO.hStdError</span></code></a> attributes
+contain additional information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies that the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow</span></code></a> attribute contains
+additional information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The new process has a new console, instead of inheriting its parent’s
+console (the default).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+group will be created. This flag is necessary for using <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.kill" title="os.kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.kill()</span></code></a>
+on the subprocess.</p>
+<p>This flag is ignored if <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE" title="subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE</span></code></a> is specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will have an above average priority.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will have a below average priority.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will have a high priority.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will have an idle (lowest) priority.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will have an normal priority. (default)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will have realtime priority.
+You should almost never use REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS, because this interrupts
+system threads that manage mouse input, keyboard input, and background disk
+flushing. This class can be appropriate for applications that “talk” directly
+to hardware or that perform brief tasks that should have limited interruptions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">CREATE_NO_WINDOW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will not create a window.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">DETACHED_PROCESS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+will not inherit its parent’s console.
+This value cannot be used with CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+does not inherit the error mode of the calling process. Instead, the new
+process gets the default error mode.
+This feature is particularly useful for multithreaded shell applications
+that run with hard errors disabled.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB</code><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">creationflags</span></code> parameter to specify that a new process
+is not associated with the job.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="older-high-level-api">
+<span id="call-function-trio"></span><h2>Older high-level API<a class="headerlink" href="#older-high-level-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Prior to Python 3.5, these three functions comprised the high level API to
+subprocess. You can now use <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> in many cases, but lots of existing code
+calls these functions.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="subprocess.call">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">call</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em>, <em>stderr=None</em>, <em>shell=False</em>, <em>cwd=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the command described by <em>args</em>.  Wait for command to complete, then
+return the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.returncode" title="subprocess.Popen.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> instead:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>run(…).returncode</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="subprocess.DEVNULL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVNULL</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.
+The full function signature is the
+same as that of the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> constructor - this function passes all
+supplied arguments other than <em>timeout</em> directly through to that interface.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Do not use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code> with this
+function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
+output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes are
+not being read from.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>timeout</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="subprocess.check_call">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">check_call</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stdout=None</em>, <em>stderr=None</em>, <em>shell=False</em>, <em>cwd=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.check_call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run command with arguments.  Wait for command to complete. If the return
+code was zero then return, otherwise raise <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a>. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a> object will have the return code in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> instead:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>run(…, check=True)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="subprocess.DEVNULL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVNULL</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.
+The full function signature is the
+same as that of the <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> constructor - this function passes all
+supplied arguments other than <em>timeout</em> directly through to that interface.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Do not use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=PIPE</span></code> with this
+function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
+output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes are
+not being read from.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>timeout</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="subprocess.check_output">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">check_output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>args</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>stdin=None</em>, <em>stderr=None</em>, <em>shell=False</em>, <em>cwd=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>universal_newlines=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em>, <em>text=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.check_output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run command with arguments and return its output.</p>
+<p>If the return code was non-zero it raises a <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a>. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a> object will have the return code in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a> attribute and any output in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.output" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError.output"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>This is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">check</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.
+The full function signature is largely the same as that of <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> -
+most arguments are passed directly through to that interface.
+However, explicitly passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input=None</span></code> to inherit the parent’s
+standard input file handle is not supported.</p>
+<p>By default, this function will return the data as encoded bytes. The actual
+encoding of the output data may depend on the command being invoked, so the
+decoding to text will often need to be handled at the application level.</p>
+<p>This behaviour may be overridden by setting <em>text</em>, <em>encoding</em>, <em>errors</em>,
+or <em>universal_newlines</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> as described in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#frequently-used-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">Frequently Used Arguments</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>To also capture standard error in the result, use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr=subprocess.STDOUT</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_output</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s2">&quot;ls non_existent_file; exit 0&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">STDOUT</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>timeout</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Support for the <em>input</em> keyword argument was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> were added.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><em>text</em> was added as a more readable alias for <em>universal_newlines</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module">
+<span id="subprocess-replacements"></span><h2>Replacing Older Functions with the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> Module<a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In this section, “a becomes b” means that b can be used as a replacement for a.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>All “a” functions in this section fail (more or less) silently if the
+executed program cannot be found; the “b” replacements raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>
+instead.</p>
+<p>In addition, the replacements using <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.check_output" title="subprocess.check_output"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a> will fail with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a> if the requested operation produces a non-zero
+return code. The output is still available as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.CalledProcessError.output" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError.output"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output</span></code></a> attribute of the raised exception.</p>
+</div>
+<p>In the following examples, we assume that the relevant functions have already
+been imported from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-bin-sh-shell-backquote">
+<h3>Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote<a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-bin-sh-shell-backquote" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nv">output</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sb">`</span>mycmd myarg<span class="sb">`</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>becomes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">check_output</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-shell-pipeline">
+<h3>Replacing shell pipeline<a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-shell-pipeline" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nv">output</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sb">`</span>dmesg <span class="p">|</span> grep hda<span class="sb">`</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>becomes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;dmesg&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;grep&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hda&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">p1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">p1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># Allow p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits.</span>
+<span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">communicate</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The p1.stdout.close() call after starting the p2 is important in order for p1
+to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits before p1.</p>
+<p>Alternatively, for trusted input, the shell’s own pipeline support may still
+be used directly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nv">output</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sb">`</span>dmesg <span class="p">|</span> grep hda<span class="sb">`</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>becomes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">output</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">check_output</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;dmesg | grep hda&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-os-system">
+<h3>Replacing <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-os-system" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot; myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># becomes</span>
+<span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot; myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Calling the program through the shell is usually not required.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A more realistic example would look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">retcode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s2">&quot; myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">retcode</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Child was terminated by signal&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">retcode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Child returned&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">retcode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Execution failed:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-the-os-spawn-family">
+<h3>Replacing the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.spawnl" title="os.spawnl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.spawn</span></code></a> family<a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-the-os-spawn-family" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>P_NOWAIT example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawnlp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">P_NOWAIT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/bin/mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;/bin/mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pid</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>P_WAIT example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">retcode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawnlp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">P_WAIT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/bin/mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">retcode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;/bin/mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Vector example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawnvp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">P_NOWAIT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Environment example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">spawnlpe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">P_NOWAIT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/bin/mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">env</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;/bin/mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">env</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;PATH&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/bin&quot;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen3">
+<h3>Replacing <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen2()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen3()</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popen2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close_fds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="n">child_stderr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popen3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close_fds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="n">child_stderr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdout_and_stderr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popen4</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">STDOUT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close_fds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdout_and_stderr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Return code handling translates as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pipe</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pipe</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">rc</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;There were some errors&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">process</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">process</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">process</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;There were some errors&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module">
+<h3>Replacing functions from the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2</span></code> module<a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If the cmd argument to popen2 functions is a string, the command is executed
+through /bin/sh.  If it is a list, the command is directly executed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">popen2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popen2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;somestring&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;somestring&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close_fds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">popen2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popen2</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">==&gt;</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;mycmd&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myarg&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="p">,</span>
+          <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close_fds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child_stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child_stdin</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2.Popen3</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2.Popen4</span></code> basically work as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>, except that:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> raises an exception if the execution fails.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>capturestderr</em> argument is replaced with the <em>stderr</em> argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin=PIPE</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout=PIPE</span></code> must be specified.</p></li>
+<li><p>popen2 closes all file descriptors by default, but you have to specify
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close_fds=True</span></code> with <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a> to guarantee this behavior on
+all platforms or past Python versions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="legacy-shell-invocation-functions">
+<h2>Legacy Shell Invocation Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#legacy-shell-invocation-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module also provides the following legacy functions from the 2.x
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commands</span></code> module. These operations implicitly invoke the system shell and
+none of the guarantees described above regarding security and exception
+handling consistency are valid for these functions.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="subprocess.getstatusoutput">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">getstatusoutput</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.getstatusoutput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(exitcode,</span> <span class="pre">output)</span></code> of executing <em>cmd</em> in a shell.</p>
+<p>Execute the string <em>cmd</em> in a shell with <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen.check_output()</span></code> and
+return a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(exitcode,</span> <span class="pre">output)</span></code>. The locale encoding is used;
+see the notes on <a class="reference internal" href="#frequently-used-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">Frequently Used Arguments</span></a> for more details.</p>
+<p>A trailing newline is stripped from the output.
+The exit code for the command can be interpreted as the return code
+of subprocess.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getstatusoutput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ls /bin/ls&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(0, &#39;/bin/ls&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getstatusoutput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cat /bin/junk&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(1, &#39;cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getstatusoutput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/bin/junk&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(127, &#39;sh: /bin/junk: not found&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getstatusoutput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/bin/kill $$&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(-15, &#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: POSIX &amp; Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3.4: </span>Windows support was added.</p>
+<p>The function now returns (exitcode, output) instead of (status, output)
+as it did in Python 3.3.3 and earlier.  exitcode has the same value as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.Popen.returncode" title="subprocess.Popen.returncode"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">returncode</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="subprocess.getoutput">
+<code class="descclassname">subprocess.</code><code class="descname">getoutput</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess.getoutput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return output (stdout and stderr) of executing <em>cmd</em> in a shell.</p>
+<p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess.getstatusoutput" title="subprocess.getstatusoutput"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstatusoutput()</span></code></a>, except the exit code is ignored and the return
+value is a string containing the command’s output.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getoutput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ls /bin/ls&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/bin/ls&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: POSIX &amp; Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3.4: </span>Windows support added</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notes">
+<h2>Notes<a class="headerlink" href="#notes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows">
+<span id="converting-argument-sequence"></span><h3>Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On Windows, an <em>args</em> sequence is converted to a string that can be parsed
+using the following rules (which correspond to the rules used by the MS C
+runtime):</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Arguments are delimited by white space, which is either a
+space or a tab.</p></li>
+<li><p>A string surrounded by double quotation marks is
+interpreted as a single argument, regardless of white space
+contained within.  A quoted string can be embedded in an
+argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>A double quotation mark preceded by a backslash is
+interpreted as a literal double quotation mark.</p></li>
+<li><p>Backslashes are interpreted literally, unless they
+immediately precede a double quotation mark.</p></li>
+<li><p>If backslashes immediately precede a double quotation mark,
+every pair of backslashes is interpreted as a literal
+backslash.  If the number of backslashes is odd, the last
+backslash escapes the next double quotation mark as
+described in rule 3.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="shlex.html#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Module which provides function to parse and escape command lines.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> — Subprocess management</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-the-subprocess-module">Using the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> Module</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#frequently-used-arguments">Frequently Used Arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#popen-constructor">Popen Constructor</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#security-considerations">Security Considerations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#popen-objects">Popen Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-popen-helpers">Windows Popen Helpers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-constants">Windows Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#older-high-level-api">Older high-level API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module">Replacing Older Functions with the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code> Module</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-bin-sh-shell-backquote">Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-shell-pipeline">Replacing shell pipeline</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-os-system">Replacing <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-the-os-spawn-family">Replacing the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.spawn</span></code> family</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen3">Replacing <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen2()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen3()</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module">Replacing functions from the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2</span></code> module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#legacy-shell-invocation-functions">Legacy Shell Invocation Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes">Notes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows">Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="concurrent.futures.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> — Launching parallel tasks</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sched.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code> — Event scheduler</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sunau.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sunau.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b43d72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sunau.html
@@ -0,0 +1,495 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>sunau — Read and write Sun AU files &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="mm.html" accesskey="U">Multimedia Services</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-sunau">
+<span id="sunau-read-and-write-sun-au-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sunau" title="sunau: Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code></a> — Read and write Sun AU files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-sunau" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/sunau.py">Lib/sunau.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sunau" title="sunau: Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code></a> module provides a convenient interface to the Sun AU sound
+format.  Note that this module is interface-compatible with the modules
+<a class="reference internal" href="aifc.html#module-aifc" title="aifc: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="wave.html#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>An audio file consists of a header followed by the data.  The fields of the
+header are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 76%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Contents</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>magic word</p></td>
+<td><p>The four bytes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.snd</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>header size</p></td>
+<td><p>Size of the header, including info, in bytes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>data size</p></td>
+<td><p>Physical size of the data, in bytes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>encoding</p></td>
+<td><p>Indicates how the audio samples are encoded.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>sample rate</p></td>
+<td><p>The sampling rate.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p># of channels</p></td>
+<td><p>The number of channels in the samples.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>info</p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII string giving a description of the
+audio file (padded with null bytes).</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Apart from the info field, all header fields are 4 bytes in size. They are all
+32-bit unsigned integers encoded in big-endian byte order.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sunau" title="sunau: Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sunau.open">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>file</em> is a string, open the file by that name, otherwise treat it as a
+seekable file-like object. <em>mode</em> can be any of</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code></dt><dd><p>Read only mode.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code></dt><dd><p>Write only mode.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Note that it does not allow read/write files.</p>
+<p>A <em>mode</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> returns an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AU_read</span></code> object, while a <em>mode</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code> returns an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AU_write</span></code> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sunau.openfp">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">openfp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.openfp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#sunau.open" title="sunau.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, maintained for backwards compatibility.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.7, will be removed in version 3.9.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sunau" title="sunau: Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code></a> module defines the following exception:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="sunau.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An error raised when something is impossible because of Sun AU specs or
+implementation deficiency.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sunau" title="sunau: Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code></a> module defines the following data items:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer every valid Sun AU file begins with, stored in big-endian form.  This
+is the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.snd</span></code> interpreted as an integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Values of the encoding field from the AU header which are supported by this
+module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5">
+<code class="descclassname">sunau.</code><code class="descname">AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Additional known values of the encoding field from the AU header, but which are
+not supported by this module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="au-read-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>AU_read Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#au-read-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>AU_read objects, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#sunau.open" title="sunau.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> above, have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.close">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the stream, and make the instance unusable. (This is  called automatically
+on deletion.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getnchannels">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getnchannels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getnchannels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns number of audio channels (1 for mono, 2 for stereo).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getsampwidth">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getsampwidth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getsampwidth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns sample width in bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getframerate">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getframerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getframerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns sampling frequency.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getnframes">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getnframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getnframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns number of audio frames.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getcomptype">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getcomptype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getcomptype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns compression type. Supported compression types are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ULAW'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ALAW'</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NONE'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getcompname">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getcompname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getcompname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Human-readable version of <a class="reference internal" href="#sunau.AU_read.getcomptype" title="sunau.AU_read.getcomptype"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcomptype()</span></code></a>.  The supported types have the
+respective names <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'CCITT</span> <span class="pre">G.711</span> <span class="pre">u-law'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'CCITT</span> <span class="pre">G.711</span> <span class="pre">A-law'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'not</span>
+<span class="pre">compressed'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getparams">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getparams</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getparams" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(nchannels,</span> <span class="pre">sampwidth,</span>
+<span class="pre">framerate,</span> <span class="pre">nframes,</span> <span class="pre">comptype,</span> <span class="pre">compname)</span></code>, equivalent to output of the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.readframes">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">readframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.readframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads and returns at most <em>n</em> frames of audio, as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.  The data
+will be returned in linear format.  If the original data is in u-LAW format, it
+will be converted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.rewind">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">rewind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.rewind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following two methods define a term “position” which is compatible between
+them, and is otherwise implementation dependent.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.setpos">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">setpos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.setpos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the file pointer to the specified position.  Only values returned from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sunau.AU_read.tell" title="sunau.AU_read.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code></a> should be used for <em>pos</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.tell">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return current file pointer position.  Note that the returned value has nothing
+to do with the actual position in the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following two functions are defined for compatibility with the  <a class="reference internal" href="aifc.html#module-aifc" title="aifc: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code></a>,
+and don’t do anything interesting.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getmarkers">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getmarkers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getmarkers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_read.getmark">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_read.</code><code class="descname">getmark</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_read.getmark" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="au-write-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>AU_write Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#au-write-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>AU_write objects, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#sunau.open" title="sunau.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> above, have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.setnchannels">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">setnchannels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.setnchannels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the number of channels.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.setsampwidth">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">setsampwidth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.setsampwidth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the sample width (in bytes.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for 24-bit samples.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.setframerate">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">setframerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.setframerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the frame rate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.setnframes">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">setnframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.setnframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the number of frames. This can be later changed, when and if more  frames
+are written.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.setcomptype">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">setcomptype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.setcomptype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the compression type and description. Only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NONE'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ULAW'</span></code> are
+supported on output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.setparams">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">setparams</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tuple</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.setparams" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>tuple</em> should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(nchannels,</span> <span class="pre">sampwidth,</span> <span class="pre">framerate,</span> <span class="pre">nframes,</span> <span class="pre">comptype,</span>
+<span class="pre">compname)</span></code>, with values valid for the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set*()</span></code> methods.  Set all
+parameters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.tell">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sunau.AU_read.tell" title="sunau.AU_read.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AU_read.tell()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#sunau.AU_read.setpos" title="sunau.AU_read.setpos"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AU_read.setpos()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.writeframesraw">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">writeframesraw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.writeframesraw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write audio frames, without correcting <em>nframes</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.writeframes">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">writeframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.writeframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write audio frames and make sure <em>nframes</em> is correct.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="sunau.AU_write.close">
+<code class="descclassname">AU_write.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sunau.AU_write.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make sure <em>nframes</em> is correct, and close the file.</p>
+<p>This method is called upon deletion.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code>
+or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code> — Read and write Sun AU files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#au-read-objects">AU_read Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#au-write-objects">AU_write Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="aifc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code> — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="wave.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code> — Read and write WAV files</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/superseded.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/superseded.html
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/superseded.html
@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <title>Superseded Modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="superseded-modules">
+<span id="superseded"></span><h1>Superseded Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#superseded-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter are deprecated and only kept for
+backwards compatibility. They have been superseded by other modules.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> — Parser for command line options</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#background">Background</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#terminology">Terminology</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#what-are-options-for">What are options for?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#what-are-positional-arguments-for">What are positional arguments for?</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#tutorial">Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#understanding-option-actions">Understanding option actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#the-store-action">The store action</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#handling-boolean-flag-options">Handling boolean (flag) options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#other-actions">Other actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#default-values">Default values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#generating-help">Generating help</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#grouping-options">Grouping Options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#printing-a-version-string">Printing a version string</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#how-optparse-handles-errors">How <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code> handles errors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#putting-it-all-together">Putting it all together</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#reference-guide">Reference Guide</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#creating-the-parser">Creating the parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#populating-the-parser">Populating the parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#defining-options">Defining options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#option-attributes">Option attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#standard-option-actions">Standard option actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#standard-option-types">Standard option types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser">Querying and manipulating your option parser</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#conflicts-between-options">Conflicts between options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#cleanup">Cleanup</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#other-methods">Other methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#option-callbacks">Option Callbacks</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#defining-a-callback-option">Defining a callback option</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#how-callbacks-are-called">How callbacks are called</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#raising-errors-in-a-callback">Raising errors in a callback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-1-trivial-callback">Callback example 1: trivial callback</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-2-check-option-order">Callback example 2: check option order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized">Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition">Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-5-fixed-arguments">Callback example 5: fixed arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-6-variable-arguments">Callback example 6: variable arguments</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#extending-optparse">Extending <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#adding-new-types">Adding new types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#adding-new-actions">Adding new actions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="imp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code> — Access the <span class="xref std std-ref">import</span> internals</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="imp.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/symbol.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/symbol.html
new file mode 100644
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+
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+
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+    <title>symbol — Constants used with Python parse trees &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+  <div class="section" id="module-symbol">
+<span id="symbol-constants-used-with-python-parse-trees"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-symbol" title="symbol: Constants representing internal nodes of the parse tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symbol</span></code></a> — Constants used with Python parse trees<a class="headerlink" href="#module-symbol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/symbol.py">Lib/symbol.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of internal
+nodes of the parse tree.  Unlike most Python constants, these use lower-case
+names.  Refer to the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Grammar/Grammar</span></code> in the Python distribution for
+the definitions of the names in the context of the language grammar.  The
+specific numeric values which the names map to may change between Python
+versions.</p>
+<p>This module also provides one additional data object:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="symbol.sym_name">
+<code class="descclassname">symbol.</code><code class="descname">sym_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#symbol.sym_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in this module
+back to name strings, allowing more human-readable representation of parse trees
+to be generated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="token.html"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-symtable">
+<span id="symtable-access-to-the-compiler-s-symbol-tables"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-symtable" title="symtable: Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symtable</span></code></a> — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables<a class="headerlink" href="#module-symtable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/symtable.py">Lib/symtable.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Symbol tables are generated by the compiler from AST just before bytecode is
+generated.  The symbol table is responsible for calculating the scope of every
+identifier in the code.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-symtable" title="symtable: Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symtable</span></code></a> provides an interface to examine these
+tables.</p>
+<div class="section" id="generating-symbol-tables">
+<h2>Generating Symbol Tables<a class="headerlink" href="#generating-symbol-tables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="symtable.symtable">
+<code class="descclassname">symtable.</code><code class="descname">symtable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>compile_type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.symtable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the toplevel <a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.SymbolTable" title="symtable.SymbolTable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SymbolTable</span></code></a> for the Python source <em>code</em>.
+<em>filename</em> is the name of the file containing the code.  <em>compile_type</em> is
+like the <em>mode</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examining-symbol-tables">
+<h2>Examining Symbol Tables<a class="headerlink" href="#examining-symbol-tables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">symtable.</code><code class="descname">SymbolTable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A namespace table for a block.  The constructor is not public.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.get_type">
+<code class="descname">get_type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the type of the symbol table.  Possible values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'class'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'module'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'function'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.get_id">
+<code class="descname">get_id</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_id" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the table’s identifier.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.get_name">
+<code class="descname">get_name</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the table’s name.  This is the name of the class if the table is
+for a class, the name of the function if the table is for a function, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'top'</span></code> if the table is global (<a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_type" title="symtable.SymbolTable.get_type"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_type()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'module'</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.get_lineno">
+<code class="descname">get_lineno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of the first line in the block this table represents.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.is_optimized">
+<code class="descname">is_optimized</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.is_optimized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the locals in this table can be optimized.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.is_nested">
+<code class="descname">is_nested</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.is_nested" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the block is a nested class or function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.has_children">
+<code class="descname">has_children</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.has_children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the block has nested namespaces within it.  These can
+be obtained with <a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_children" title="symtable.SymbolTable.get_children"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_children()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec">
+<code class="descname">has_exec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the block uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.get_identifiers">
+<code class="descname">get_identifiers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_identifiers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of names of symbols in this table.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.lookup">
+<code class="descname">lookup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.lookup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Lookup <em>name</em> in the table and return a <a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.Symbol" title="symtable.Symbol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Symbol</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.get_symbols">
+<code class="descname">get_symbols</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_symbols" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.Symbol" title="symtable.Symbol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Symbol</span></code></a> instances for names in the table.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.SymbolTable.get_children">
+<code class="descname">get_children</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.SymbolTable.get_children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of the nested symbol tables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="symtable.Function">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">symtable.</code><code class="descname">Function</code><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Function" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A namespace for a function or method.  This class inherits
+<a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.SymbolTable" title="symtable.SymbolTable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SymbolTable</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Function.get_parameters">
+<code class="descname">get_parameters</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Function.get_parameters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing names of parameters to this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Function.get_locals">
+<code class="descname">get_locals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Function.get_locals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing names of locals in this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Function.get_globals">
+<code class="descname">get_globals</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Function.get_globals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing names of globals in this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Function.get_frees">
+<code class="descname">get_frees</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Function.get_frees" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing names of free variables in this function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="symtable.Class">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">symtable.</code><code class="descname">Class</code><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A namespace of a class.  This class inherits <a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.SymbolTable" title="symtable.SymbolTable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SymbolTable</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Class.get_methods">
+<code class="descname">get_methods</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Class.get_methods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing the names of methods declared in the class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">symtable.</code><code class="descname">Symbol</code><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An entry in a <a class="reference internal" href="#symtable.SymbolTable" title="symtable.SymbolTable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SymbolTable</span></code></a> corresponding to an identifier in the
+source.  The constructor is not public.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.get_name">
+<code class="descname">get_name</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.get_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the symbol’s name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_referenced">
+<code class="descname">is_referenced</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_referenced" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is used in its block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_imported">
+<code class="descname">is_imported</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_imported" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is created from an import statement.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_parameter">
+<code class="descname">is_parameter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_parameter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is a parameter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_global">
+<code class="descname">is_global</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_global" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is global.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_declared_global">
+<code class="descname">is_declared_global</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_declared_global" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is declared global with a global statement.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_local">
+<code class="descname">is_local</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is local to its block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_free">
+<code class="descname">is_free</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_free" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is referenced in its block, but not assigned
+to.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_assigned">
+<code class="descname">is_assigned</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_assigned" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the symbol is assigned to in its block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.is_namespace">
+<code class="descname">is_namespace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.is_namespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if name binding introduces new namespace.</p>
+<p>If the name is used as the target of a function or class statement, this
+will be true.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">symtable</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">symtable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;def some_func(): pass&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;string&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;exec&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">table</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lookup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;some_func&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_namespace</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that a single name can be bound to multiple objects.  If the result
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the name may also be bound to other objects, like an int or
+list, that does not introduce a new namespace.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.get_namespaces">
+<code class="descname">get_namespaces</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.get_namespaces" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of namespaces bound to this name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="symtable.Symbol.get_namespace">
+<code class="descname">get_namespace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#symtable.Symbol.get_namespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the namespace bound to this name.  If more than one namespace is
+bound, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symtable</span></code> — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables</a><ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-sys">
+<span id="sys-system-specific-parameters-and-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> — System-specific parameters and functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-sys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
+interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter. It is
+always available.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.abiflags">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">abiflags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.abiflags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>On POSIX systems where Python was built with the standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure</span></code>
+script, this contains the ABI flags as specified by <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3149"><strong>PEP 3149</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.argv">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">argv</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.argv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The list of command line arguments passed to a Python script. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[0]</span></code> is the
+script name (it is operating system dependent whether this is a full pathname or
+not).  If the command was executed using the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> command line option to
+the interpreter, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[0]</span></code> is set to the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-c'</span></code>.  If no script name
+was passed to the Python interpreter, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv[0]</span></code> is the empty string.</p>
+<p>To loop over the standard input, or the list of files given on the
+command line, see the <a class="reference internal" href="fileinput.html#module-fileinput" title="fileinput: Loop over standard input or a list of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On Unix, command line arguments are passed by bytes from OS.  Python decodes
+them with filesystem encoding and “surrogateescape” error handler.
+When you need original bytes, you can get it by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[os.fsencode(arg)</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">arg</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">sys.argv]</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.base_exec_prefix">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">base_exec_prefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.base_exec_prefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set during Python startup, before <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> is run, to the same value as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.exec_prefix" title="sys.exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></code></a>. If not running in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#venv-def"><span class="std std-ref">virtual environment</span></a>, the values will stay the same; if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.prefix" title="sys.prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.exec_prefix" title="sys.exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></code></a> will be changed to point to the
+virtual environment, whereas <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.base_prefix" title="sys.base_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_prefix</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.base_exec_prefix" title="sys.base_exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_exec_prefix</span></code></a> will remain pointing to the base Python
+installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.base_prefix">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">base_prefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.base_prefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set during Python startup, before <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> is run, to the same value as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.prefix" title="sys.prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code></a>. If not running in a <a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#venv-def"><span class="std std-ref">virtual environment</span></a>, the values
+will stay the same; if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> finds that a virtual environment is in
+use, the values of <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.prefix" title="sys.prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.exec_prefix" title="sys.exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></code></a> will be changed to
+point to the virtual environment, whereas <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.base_prefix" title="sys.base_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_prefix</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.base_exec_prefix" title="sys.base_exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_exec_prefix</span></code></a> will remain pointing to the base Python
+installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.byteorder">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">byteorder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.byteorder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An indicator of the native byte order.  This will have the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'big'</span></code> on
+big-endian (most-significant byte first) platforms, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'little'</span></code> on
+little-endian (least-significant byte first) platforms.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.builtin_module_names">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">builtin_module_names</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.builtin_module_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of strings giving the names of all modules that are compiled into this
+Python interpreter.  (This information is not available in any other way —
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modules.keys()</span></code> only lists the imported modules.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.call_tracing">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">call_tracing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.call_tracing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(*args)</span></code>, while tracing is enabled.  The tracing state is saved,
+and restored afterwards.  This is intended to be called from a debugger from
+a checkpoint, to recursively debug some other code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.copyright">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">copyright</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.copyright" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string containing the copyright pertaining to the Python interpreter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys._clear_type_cache">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">_clear_type_cache</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys._clear_type_cache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear the internal type cache. The type cache is used to speed up attribute
+and method lookups. Use the function <em>only</em> to drop unnecessary references
+during reference leak debugging.</p>
+<p>This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys._current_frames">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">_current_frames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys._current_frames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost stack frame
+currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. Note that
+functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#module-traceback" title="traceback: Print or retrieve a stack traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code></a> module can build the call stack given such a
+frame.</p>
+<p>This is most useful for debugging deadlock:  this function does not require the
+deadlocked threads’ cooperation, and such threads’ call stacks are frozen for as
+long as they remain deadlocked.  The frame returned for a non-deadlocked thread
+may bear no relationship to that thread’s current activity by the time calling
+code examines the frame.</p>
+<p>This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.breakpointhook">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">breakpointhook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.breakpointhook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This hook function is called by built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a>.  By default,
+it drops you into the <a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> debugger, but it can be set to any other
+function so that you can choose which debugger gets used.</p>
+<p>The signature of this function is dependent on what it calls.  For example,
+the default binding (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code>) expects no arguments, but
+you might bind it to a function that expects additional arguments
+(positional and/or keyword).  The built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code> function passes
+its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kws</span></code> straight through.  Whatever
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpointhooks()</span></code> returns is returned from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default implementation first consults the environment variable
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</span></code></a>.  If that is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;0&quot;</span></code> then this function
+returns immediately; i.e. it is a no-op.  If the environment variable is
+not set, or is set to the empty string, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code> is called.
+Otherwise this variable should name a function to run, using Python’s
+dotted-import nomenclature, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.subpackage.module.function</span></code>.
+In this case, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.subpackage.module</span></code> would be imported and the
+resulting module must have a callable named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function()</span></code>.  This is run,
+passing in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kws</span></code>, and whatever <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function()</span></code> returns,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code> returns to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+<p>Note that if anything goes wrong while importing the callable named by
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</span></code></a>, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning" title="RuntimeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeWarning</span></code></a> is reported and the
+breakpoint is ignored.</p>
+<p>Also note that if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code> is overridden programmatically,
+<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</span></code></a> is <em>not</em> consulted.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys._debugmallocstats">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">_debugmallocstats</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys._debugmallocstats" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print low-level information to stderr about the state of CPython’s memory
+allocator.</p>
+<p>If Python is configured –with-pydebug, it also performs some expensive
+internal consistency checks.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> This function is specific to CPython.  The exact output format is not
+defined here, and may change.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.dllhandle">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">dllhandle</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.dllhandle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Integer specifying the handle of the Python DLL.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.displayhook">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">displayhook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.displayhook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>value</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, this function prints <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(value)</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>, and saves <em>value</em> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins._</span></code>. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(value)</span></code> is
+not encodable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.encoding</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.errors</span></code> error
+handler (which is probably <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>), encode it to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.encoding</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> error handler.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.displayhook</span></code> is called on the result of evaluating an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-expression"><span class="xref std std-term">expression</span></a>
+entered in an interactive Python session.  The display of these values can be
+customized by assigning another one-argument function to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.displayhook</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Pseudo-code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">displayhook</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Set &#39;_&#39; to None to avoid recursion</span>
+    <span class="n">builtins</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">UnicodeEncodeError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">bytes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encoding</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;backslashreplace&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;buffer&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encoding</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;strict&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">builtins</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code> error handler on <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.dont_write_bytecode">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">dont_write_bytecode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.dont_write_bytecode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is true, Python won’t try to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files on the
+import of source modules.  This value is initially set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> depending on the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id1"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-B</span></code></a> command line option and the
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</span></code></a> environment variable, but you can set it
+yourself to control bytecode file generation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.excepthook">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">excepthook</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>traceback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.excepthook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function prints out a given traceback and exception to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When an exception is raised and uncaught, the interpreter calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.excepthook</span></code> with three arguments, the exception class, exception
+instance, and a traceback object.  In an interactive session this happens just
+before control is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just
+before the program exits.  The handling of such top-level exceptions can be
+customized by assigning another three-argument function to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.excepthook</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.__breakpointhook__">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">__breakpointhook__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.__breakpointhook__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.__displayhook__">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">__displayhook__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.__displayhook__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.__excepthook__">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">__excepthook__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.__excepthook__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These objects contain the original values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpointhook</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">displayhook</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">excepthook</span></code> at the start of the program.  They are
+saved so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpointhook</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">displayhook</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">excepthook</span></code> can be
+restored in case they happen to get replaced with broken or alternative
+objects.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>__breakpointhook__</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.exc_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">exc_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.exc_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function returns a tuple of three values that give information about the
+exception that is currently being handled.  The information returned is specific
+both to the current thread and to the current stack frame.  If the current stack
+frame is not handling an exception, the information is taken from the calling
+stack frame, or its caller, and so on until a stack frame is found that is
+handling an exception.  Here, “handling an exception” is defined as “executing
+an except clause.”  For any stack frame, only information about the exception
+being currently handled is accessible.</p>
+<p id="index-5">If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, a tuple containing
+three <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> values is returned.  Otherwise, the values returned are
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span> <span class="pre">traceback)</span></code>.  Their meaning is: <em>type</em> gets the type of the
+exception being handled (a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a>); <em>value</em> gets
+the exception instance (an instance of the exception type); <em>traceback</em> gets
+a traceback object (see the Reference Manual) which encapsulates the call
+stack at the point where the exception originally occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.exec_prefix">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">exec_prefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.exec_prefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the platform-dependent
+Python files are installed; by default, this is also <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/usr/local'</span></code>.  This can
+be set at build time with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--exec-prefix</span></code> argument to the
+<strong class="program">configure</strong> script.  Specifically, all configuration files (e.g. the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyconfig.h</span></code> header file) are installed in the directory
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/config</span></code>, and shared library modules are
+installed in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em><span class="pre">/lib-dynload</span></code>, where <em>X.Y</em>
+is the version number of Python, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.2</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#venv-def"><span class="std std-ref">virtual environment</span></a> is in effect, this
+value will be changed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> to point to the virtual environment.
+The value for the Python installation will still be available, via
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.base_exec_prefix" title="sys.base_exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_exec_prefix</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.executable">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">executable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.executable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string giving the absolute path of the executable binary for the Python
+interpreter, on systems where this makes sense. If Python is unable to retrieve
+the real path to its executable, <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.executable" title="sys.executable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code></a> will be an empty string
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.exit">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>arg</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit from Python.  This is implemented by raising the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a>
+exception, so cleanup actions specified by finally clauses of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>
+statements are honored, and it is possible to intercept the exit attempt at
+an outer level.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>arg</em> can be an integer giving the exit status
+(defaulting to zero), or another type of object.  If it is an integer, zero
+is considered “successful termination” and any nonzero value is considered
+“abnormal termination” by shells and the like.  Most systems require it to be
+in the range 0–127, and produce undefined results otherwise.  Some systems
+have a convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes, but
+these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use 2 for command
+line syntax errors and 1 for all other kind of errors.  If another type of
+object is passed, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is equivalent to passing zero, and any other
+object is printed to <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code></a> and results in an exit code of 1.  In
+particular, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit(&quot;some</span> <span class="pre">error</span> <span class="pre">message&quot;)</span></code> is a quick way to exit a
+program when an error occurs.</p>
+<p>Since <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#exit" title="exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit()</span></code></a> ultimately “only” raises an exception, it will only exit
+the process when called from the main thread, and the exception is not
+intercepted.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>If an error occurs in the cleanup after the Python interpreter
+has caught <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> (such as an error flushing buffered data
+in the standard streams), the exit status is changed to 120.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.flags">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">flags</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">struct sequence</span></a> <em>flags</em> exposes the status of command line
+flags. The attributes are read only.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>flag</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-d"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-d</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interactive</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isolated</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optimize</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#sys.dont_write_bytecode" title="sys.dont_write_bytecode"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dont_write_bytecode</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id1"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-B</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no_user_site</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no_site</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore_environment</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-E</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id4"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes_warning</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quiet</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-q"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash_randomization</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-r"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-R</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev_mode</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8_mode</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quiet</span></code> attribute for the new <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-q"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code></a> flag.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash_randomization</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Removed obsolete <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">division_warning</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isolated</span></code> attribute for <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isolated</span></code> flag.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev_mode</span></code> attribute for the new <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev</span></code> flag
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8_mode</span></code> attribute for the new  <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> flag.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.float_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">float_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.float_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">struct sequence</span></a> holding information about the float type. It
+contains low level information about the precision and internal
+representation.  The values correspond to the various floating-point
+constants defined in the standard header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.h</span></code> for the ‘C’
+programming language; see section 5.2.4.2.2 of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard
+<a class="reference internal" href="#c99" id="id1"><span>[C99]</span></a>, ‘Characteristics of floating types’, for details.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>float.h macro</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epsilon</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_EPSILON</p></td>
+<td><p>difference between 1 and the least value greater
+than 1 that is representable as a float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dig</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_DIG</p></td>
+<td><p>maximum number of decimal digits that can be
+faithfully represented in a float;  see below</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mant_dig</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_MANT_DIG</p></td>
+<td><p>float precision: the number of base-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radix</span></code>
+digits in the significand of a float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_MAX</p></td>
+<td><p>maximum representable finite float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_exp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_MAX_EXP</p></td>
+<td><p>maximum integer e such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radix**(e-1)</span></code> is
+a representable finite float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_10_exp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_MAX_10_EXP</p></td>
+<td><p>maximum integer e such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10**e</span></code> is in the
+range of representable finite floats</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_MIN</p></td>
+<td><p>minimum positive normalized float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min_exp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_MIN_EXP</p></td>
+<td><p>minimum integer e such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radix**(e-1)</span></code> is
+a normalized float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min_10_exp</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>DBL_MIN_10_EXP</p></td>
+<td><p>minimum integer e such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10**e</span></code> is a
+normalized float</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radix</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>FLT_RADIX</p></td>
+<td><p>radix of exponent representation</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rounds</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>FLT_ROUNDS</p></td>
+<td><p>integer constant representing the rounding mode
+used for arithmetic operations.  This reflects
+the value of the system FLT_ROUNDS macro at
+interpreter startup time.  See section 5.2.4.2.2
+of the C99 standard for an explanation of the
+possible values and their meanings.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>The attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.float_info.dig</span></code> needs further explanation.  If
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> is any string representing a decimal number with at most
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.float_info.dig</span></code> significant digits, then converting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> to a
+float and back again will recover a string representing the same decimal
+value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">float_info</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dig</span>
+<span class="go">15</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;3.14159265358979&#39;</span>    <span class="c1"># decimal string with 15 significant digits</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.15g&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># convert to float and back -&gt; same value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.14159265358979&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>But for strings with more than <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.float_info.dig</span></code> significant digits,
+this isn’t always true:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;9876543211234567&#39;</span>    <span class="c1"># 16 significant digits is too many!</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.16g&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># conversion changes value</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;9876543211234568&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.float_repr_style">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">float_repr_style</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.float_repr_style" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string indicating how the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function behaves for
+floats.  If the string has value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'short'</span></code> then for a finite
+float <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(x)</span></code> aims to produce a short string with the
+property that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(repr(x))</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code>.  This is the usual behaviour
+in Python 3.1 and later.  Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float_repr_style</span></code> has value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'legacy'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(x)</span></code> behaves in the same way as it did in
+versions of Python prior to 3.1.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getallocatedblocks">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getallocatedblocks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getallocatedblocks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the interpreter,
+regardless of their size.  This function is mainly useful for tracking
+and debugging memory leaks.  Because of the interpreter’s internal
+caches, the result can vary from call to call; you may have to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys._clear_type_cache" title="sys._clear_type_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_clear_type_cache()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="gc.html#gc.collect" title="gc.collect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.collect()</span></code></a> to get more
+predictable results.</p>
+<p>If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
+information, <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.getallocatedblocks" title="sys.getallocatedblocks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getallocatedblocks()</span></code></a> is allowed to return 0 instead.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getandroidapilevel">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getandroidapilevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getandroidapilevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the build time API version of Android as an integer.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Android.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getcheckinterval">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getcheckinterval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getcheckinterval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the interpreter’s “check interval”; see <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.setcheckinterval" title="sys.setcheckinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setcheckinterval()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.getswitchinterval" title="sys.getswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getswitchinterval()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getdefaultencoding">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getdefaultencoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getdefaultencoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the current default string encoding used by the Unicode
+implementation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getdlopenflags">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getdlopenflags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getdlopenflags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current value of the flags that are used for
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dlopen()</span></code> calls.  Symbolic names for the flag values can be
+found in the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_xxx</span></code> constants, e.g.
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.RTLD_LAZY" title="os.RTLD_LAZY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.RTLD_LAZY</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getfilesystemencoding">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getfilesystemencoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the encoding used to convert between Unicode
+filenames and bytes filenames. For best compatibility, str should be
+used for filenames in all cases, although representing filenames as bytes
+is also supported. Functions accepting or returning filenames should support
+either str or bytes and internally convert to the system’s preferred
+representation.</p>
+<p>This encoding is always ASCII-compatible.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a> should be used to ensure that
+the correct encoding and errors mode are used.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>In the UTF-8 mode, the encoding is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> on any platform.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Mac OS X, the encoding is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Unix, the encoding is the locale encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Windows, the encoding may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mbcs'</span></code>, depending
+on user configuration.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a> result cannot be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> anymore.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Windows is no longer guaranteed to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mbcs'</span></code>. See <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0529"><strong>PEP 529</strong></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding" title="sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Return ‘utf-8’ in the UTF-8 mode.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getfilesystemencodeerrors</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames
+and bytes filenames. The encoding name is returned from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a> should be used to ensure that
+the correct encoding and errors mode are used.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getrefcount">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getrefcount</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getrefcount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the reference count of the <em>object</em>.  The count returned is generally one
+higher than you might expect, because it includes the (temporary) reference as
+an argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.getrefcount" title="sys.getrefcount"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrefcount()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getrecursionlimit">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getrecursionlimit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getrecursionlimit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current value of the recursion limit, the maximum depth of the Python
+interpreter stack.  This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an
+overflow of the C stack and crashing Python.  It can be set by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.setrecursionlimit" title="sys.setrecursionlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setrecursionlimit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getsizeof">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getsizeof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getsizeof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the size of an object in bytes. The object can be any type of
+object. All built-in objects will return correct results, but this
+does not have to hold true for third-party extensions as it is implementation
+specific.</p>
+<p>Only the memory consumption directly attributed to the object is
+accounted for, not the memory consumption of objects it refers to.</p>
+<p>If given, <em>default</em> will be returned if the object does not provide means to
+retrieve the size.  Otherwise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#sys.getsizeof" title="sys.getsizeof"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsizeof()</span></code></a> calls the object’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__sizeof__</span></code> method and adds an
+additional garbage collector overhead if the object is managed by the garbage
+collector.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504">recursive sizeof recipe</a>
+for an example of using <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.getsizeof" title="sys.getsizeof"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsizeof()</span></code></a> recursively to find the size of
+containers and all their contents.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getswitchinterval">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getswitchinterval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getswitchinterval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the interpreter’s “thread switch interval”; see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.setswitchinterval" title="sys.setswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setswitchinterval()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys._getframe">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">_getframe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>depth</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys._getframe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a frame object from the call stack.  If optional integer <em>depth</em> is
+given, return the frame object that many calls below the top of the stack.  If
+that is deeper than the call stack, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  The default
+for <em>depth</em> is zero, returning the frame at the top of the call stack.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only.
+It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getprofile">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getprofile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getprofile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-7">Get the profiler function as set by <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.setprofile" title="sys.setprofile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setprofile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.gettrace">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">gettrace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.gettrace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-8">Get the trace function as set by <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.settrace" title="sys.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settrace()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> The <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.gettrace" title="sys.gettrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettrace()</span></code></a> function is intended only for implementing debuggers,
+profilers, coverage tools and the like.  Its behavior is part of the
+implementation platform, rather than part of the language definition, and
+thus may not be available in all Python implementations.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.getwindowsversion">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">getwindowsversion</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.getwindowsversion" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a named tuple describing the Windows version
+currently running.  The named elements are <em>major</em>, <em>minor</em>,
+<em>build</em>, <em>platform</em>, <em>service_pack</em>, <em>service_pack_minor</em>,
+<em>service_pack_major</em>, <em>suite_mask</em>, <em>product_type</em> and
+<em>platform_version</em>. <em>service_pack</em> contains a string,
+<em>platform_version</em> a 3-tuple and all other values are
+integers. The components can also be accessed by name, so
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getwindowsversion()[0]</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getwindowsversion().major</span></code>. For compatibility with prior
+versions, only the first 5 elements are retrievable by indexing.</p>
+<p><em>platform</em> will be <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">(VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT)</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>product_type</em> may be one of the following values:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 54%" />
+<col style="width: 46%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">(VER_NT_WORKSTATION)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The system is a workstation.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">(VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The system is a domain
+controller.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span> <span class="pre">(VER_NT_SERVER)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The system is a server, but not
+a domain controller.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>This function wraps the Win32 <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetVersionEx()</span></code> function; see the
+Microsoft documentation on <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSVERSIONINFOEX()</span></code> for more information
+about these fields.</p>
+<p><em>platform_version</em> returns the accurate major version, minor version and
+build number of the current operating system, rather than the version that
+is being emulated for the process. It is intended for use in logging rather
+than for feature detection.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Changed to a named tuple and added <em>service_pack_minor</em>,
+<em>service_pack_major</em>, <em>suite_mask</em>, and <em>product_type</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>platform_version</em></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.get_asyncgen_hooks">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">get_asyncgen_hooks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.get_asyncgen_hooks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an <em>asyncgen_hooks</em> object, which is similar to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple</span></code></a> of the form <cite>(firstiter, finalizer)</cite>,
+where <em>firstiter</em> and <em>finalizer</em> are expected to be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or
+functions which take an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator iterator</span></a> as an
+argument, and are used to schedule finalization of an asynchronous
+generator by an event loop.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525"><strong>PEP 525</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function has been added on a provisional basis (see <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0411"><strong>PEP 411</strong></a>
+for details.)</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth" title="sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function has been added on a provisional basis (see <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0411"><strong>PEP 411</strong></a>
+for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.get_coroutine_wrapper">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">get_coroutine_wrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.get_coroutine_wrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or a wrapper set by <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.set_coroutine_wrapper" title="sys.set_coroutine_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_coroutine_wrapper()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function has been added on a provisional basis (see <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0411"><strong>PEP 411</strong></a>
+for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>The coroutine wrapper functionality has been deprecated, and
+will be removed in 3.8. See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32591">bpo-32591</a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.hash_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">hash_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.hash_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">struct sequence</span></a> giving parameters of the numeric hash
+implementation.  For more details about hashing of numeric types, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#numeric-hash"><span class="std std-ref">Hashing of numeric types</span></a>.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>width in bits used for hash values</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modulus</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>hash value returned for a positive infinity</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nan</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>hash value returned for a nan</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imag</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>multiplier used for the imaginary part of a
+complex number</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">algorithm</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes,
+and memoryview</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash_bits</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>internal output size of the hash algorithm</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seed_bits</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>size of the seed key of the hash algorithm</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added <em>algorithm</em>, <em>hash_bits</em> and <em>seed_bits</em></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.hexversion">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">hexversion</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.hexversion" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version number encoded as a single integer.  This is guaranteed to increase
+with each version, including proper support for non-production releases.  For
+example, to test that the Python interpreter is at least version 1.5.2, use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hexversion</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mh">0x010502F0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># use some advanced feature</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># use an alternative implementation or warn the user</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexversion</span></code> since it only really looks meaningful when viewed
+as the result of passing it to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hex()</span></code></a> function.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">struct sequence</span></a>  <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a> may be used for a more
+human-friendly encoding of the same information.</p>
+<p>More details of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexversion</span></code> can be found at <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/apiabiversion.html#apiabiversion"><span class="std std-ref">API and ABI Versioning</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.implementation">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">implementation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.implementation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An object containing information about the implementation of the
+currently running Python interpreter.  The following attributes are
+required to exist in all Python implementations.</p>
+<p><em>name</em> is the implementation’s identifier, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cpython'</span></code>.  The actual
+string is defined by the Python implementation, but it is guaranteed to be
+lower case.</p>
+<p><em>version</em> is a named tuple, in the same format as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a>.  It represents the version of the Python
+<em>implementation</em>.  This has a distinct meaning from the specific
+version of the Python <em>language</em> to which the currently running
+interpreter conforms, which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code> represents.  For
+example, for PyPy 1.8 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.version</span></code> might be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info(1,</span> <span class="pre">8,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">'final',</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>, whereas <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code>
+would be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info(2,</span> <span class="pre">7,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">'final',</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.  For CPython they
+are the same value, since it is the reference implementation.</p>
+<p><em>hexversion</em> is the implementation version in hexadecimal format, like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.hexversion" title="sys.hexversion"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hexversion</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>cache_tag</em> is the tag used by the import machinery in the filenames of
+cached modules.  By convention, it would be a composite of the
+implementation’s name and version, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cpython-33'</span></code>.  However, a
+Python implementation may use some other value if appropriate.  If
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cache_tag</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it indicates that module caching should
+be disabled.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#sys.implementation" title="sys.implementation"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation</span></code></a> may contain additional attributes specific to
+the Python implementation.  These non-standard attributes must start with
+an underscore, and are not described here.  Regardless of its contents,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.implementation" title="sys.implementation"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation</span></code></a> will not change during a run of the interpreter,
+nor between implementation versions.  (It may change between Python
+language versions, however.)  See <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0421"><strong>PEP 421</strong></a> for more information.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.int_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">int_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.int_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">struct sequence</span></a> that holds information about Python’s internal
+representation of integers.  The attributes are read only.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 65%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bits_per_digit</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>number of bits held in each digit.  Python
+integers are stored internally in base
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**int_info.bits_per_digit</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof_digit</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>size in bytes of the C type used to
+represent a digit</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.__interactivehook__">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">__interactivehook__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.__interactivehook__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When this attribute exists, its value is automatically called (with no
+arguments) when the interpreter is launched in <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/interpreter.html#tut-interactive"><span class="std std-ref">interactive mode</span></a>.  This is done after the <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a> file is
+read, so that you can set this hook there.  The <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module
+<a class="reference internal" href="site.html#rlcompleter-config"><span class="std std-ref">sets this</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.intern">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">intern</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.intern" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter <em>string</em> in the table of “interned” strings and return the interned string
+– which is <em>string</em> itself or a copy. Interning strings is useful to gain a
+little performance on dictionary lookup – if the keys in a dictionary are
+interned, and the lookup key is interned, the key comparisons (after hashing)
+can be done by a pointer compare instead of a string compare.  Normally, the
+names used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the dictionaries
+used to hold module, class or instance attributes have interned keys.</p>
+<p>Interned strings are not immortal; you must keep a reference to the return
+value of <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.intern" title="sys.intern"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intern()</span></code></a> around to benefit from it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.is_finalizing">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">is_finalizing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.is_finalizing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the Python interpreter is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><span class="xref std std-term">shutting down</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.last_type">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">last_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.last_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.last_value">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">last_value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.last_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.last_traceback">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">last_traceback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.last_traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These three variables are not always defined; they are set when an exception is
+not handled and the interpreter prints an error message and a stack traceback.
+Their intended use is to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module
+and engage in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command
+that caused the error.  (Typical use is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">pdb;</span> <span class="pre">pdb.pm()</span></code> to enter the
+post-mortem debugger; see <a class="reference internal" href="pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> module for
+more information.)</p>
+<p>The meaning of the variables is the same as that of the return values from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc_info()</span></code></a> above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.maxsize">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">maxsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.maxsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer giving the maximum value a variable of type <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> can
+take.  It’s usually <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**31</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> on a 32-bit platform and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**63</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> on a
+64-bit platform.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.maxunicode">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">maxunicode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.maxunicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer giving the value of the largest Unicode code point,
+i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1114111</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x10FFFF</span></code> in hexadecimal).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Before <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxunicode</span></code> used to be either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFFFF</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x10FFFF</span></code>, depending on the configuration option that specified
+whether Unicode characters were stored as UCS-2 or UCS-4.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.meta_path">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">meta_path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.meta_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finder</span></a> objects that have their
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> methods called to see if one
+of the objects can find the module to be imported. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method is called with at
+least the absolute name of the module being imported. If the module to be
+imported is contained in a package, then the parent package’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a>
+attribute is passed in as a second argument. The method returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module-spec"><span class="xref std std-term">module spec</span></a>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the module cannot be found.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The abstract base class defining the interface of finder objects on
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meta_path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec" title="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>The concrete class which
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> should return
+instances of.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module-spec"><span class="xref std std-term">Module specs</span></a> were introduced in Python 3.4, by
+<span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a>. Earlier versions of Python looked for a method called
+<a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a>.
+This is still called as a fallback if a <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meta_path</span></code></a> entry doesn’t
+have a <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.modules">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">modules</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.modules" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have already been
+loaded.  This can be manipulated to force reloading of modules and other tricks.
+However, replacing the dictionary will not necessarily work as expected and
+deleting essential items from the dictionary may cause Python to fail.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.path">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">path</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-18">A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules. Initialized from
+the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>, plus an installation-dependent
+default.</p>
+<p>As initialized upon program startup, the first item of this list, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path[0]</span></code>,
+is the directory containing the script that was used to invoke the Python
+interpreter.  If the script directory is not available (e.g.  if the interpreter
+is invoked interactively or if the script is read from standard input),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path[0]</span></code> is the empty string, which directs Python to search modules in the
+current directory first.  Notice that the script directory is inserted <em>before</em>
+the entries inserted as a result of <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes.  Only strings
+and bytes should be added to <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>; all other data types are
+ignored during import.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>Module <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> This describes how to use .pth files to extend
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.path_hooks">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">path_hooks</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.path_hooks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of callables that take a path argument to try to create a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> for the path. If a finder can be created, it is to be
+returned by the callable, else raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Originally specified in <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.path_importer_cache">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">path_importer_cache</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.path_importer_cache" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary acting as a cache for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finder</span></a> objects. The keys are
+paths that have been passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> and the values are
+the finders that are found. If a path is a valid file system path but no
+finder is found on <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is
+stored.</p>
+<p>Originally specified in <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is stored instead of <a class="reference internal" href="imp.html#imp.NullImporter" title="imp.NullImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.NullImporter</span></code></a> when no finder
+is found.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.platform">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">platform</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.platform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This string contains a platform identifier that can be used to append
+platform-specific components to <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, for instance.</p>
+<p>For Unix systems, except on Linux, this is the lowercased OS name as
+returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uname</span> <span class="pre">-s</span></code> with the first part of the version as returned by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uname</span> <span class="pre">-r</span></code> appended, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sunos5'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'freebsd8'</span></code>, <em>at the time
+when Python was built</em>.  Unless you want to test for a specific system
+version, it is therefore recommended to use the following idiom:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">platform</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;freebsd&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># FreeBSD-specific code here...</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">platform</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;linux&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Linux-specific code here...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For other systems, the values are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+<col style="width: 63%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>System</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code> value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Linux</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'linux'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Windows</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'win32'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Windows/Cygwin</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'cygwin'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Mac OS X</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'darwin'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.platform" title="sys.platform"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code></a> doesn’t contain the major version anymore.
+It is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'linux'</span></code>, instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'linux2'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'linux3'</span></code>.  Since
+older Python versions include the version number, it is recommended to
+always use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startswith</span></code> idiom presented above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.name" title="os.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.name</span></code></a> has a coarser granularity.  <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.uname" title="os.uname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.uname()</span></code></a> gives
+system-dependent version information.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#module-platform" title="platform: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code></a> module provides detailed checks for the
+system’s identity.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.prefix">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">prefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.prefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the platform
+independent Python files are installed; by default, this is the string
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/usr/local'</span></code>.  This can be set at build time with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prefix</span></code>
+argument to the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script.  The main collection of Python
+library modules is installed in the directory <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em></code>
+while the platform independent header files (all except <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyconfig.h</span></code>) are
+stored in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/include/python</span><em><span class="pre">X.Y</span></em></code>, where <em>X.Y</em> is the version
+number of Python, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.2</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#venv-def"><span class="std std-ref">virtual environment</span></a> is in effect, this
+value will be changed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> to point to the virtual
+environment. The value for the Python installation will still be
+available, via <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.base_prefix" title="sys.base_prefix"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_prefix</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.ps1">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">ps1</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.ps1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.ps2">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">ps2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.ps2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-23">Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the interpreter.  These
+are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.  Their initial
+values in this case are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'...</span> <span class="pre">'</span></code>.  If a non-string object is
+assigned to either variable, its <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> is re-evaluated each time the
+interpreter prepares to read a new interactive command; this can be used to
+implement a dynamic prompt.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.setcheckinterval">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">setcheckinterval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>interval</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.setcheckinterval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the interpreter’s “check interval”.  This integer value determines how often
+the interpreter checks for periodic things such as thread switches and signal
+handlers.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">100</span></code>, meaning the check is performed every 100
+Python virtual instructions. Setting it to a larger value may increase
+performance for programs using threads.  Setting it to a value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code> 0 checks
+every virtual instruction, maximizing responsiveness as well as overhead.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>This function doesn’t have an effect anymore, as the internal logic for
+thread switching and asynchronous tasks has been rewritten.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.setswitchinterval" title="sys.setswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setswitchinterval()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.setdlopenflags">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">setdlopenflags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.setdlopenflags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the flags used by the interpreter for <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dlopen()</span></code> calls, such as when
+the interpreter loads extension modules.  Among other things, this will enable a
+lazy resolving of symbols when importing a module, if called as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setdlopenflags(0)</span></code>.  To share symbols across extension modules, call as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)</span></code>.  Symbolic names for the flag values
+can be found in the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_xxx</span></code> constants, e.g.
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.RTLD_LAZY" title="os.RTLD_LAZY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.RTLD_LAZY</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.setprofile">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">setprofile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>profilefunc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.setprofile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-24">Set the system’s profile function, which allows you to implement a Python source
+code profiler in Python.  See chapter <a class="reference internal" href="profile.html#profile"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Profilers</span></a> for more information on the
+Python profiler.  The system’s profile function is called similarly to the
+system’s trace function (see <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.settrace" title="sys.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settrace()</span></code></a>), but it is called with different events,
+for example it isn’t called for each executed line of code (only on call and return,
+but the return event is reported even when an exception has been set). The function is
+thread-specific, but there is no way for the profiler to know about context switches between
+threads, so it does not make sense to use this in the presence of multiple threads. Also,
+its return value is not used, so it can simply return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Error in the profile
+function will cause itself unset.</p>
+<p>Profile functions should have three arguments: <em>frame</em>, <em>event</em>, and
+<em>arg</em>. <em>frame</em> is the current stack frame.  <em>event</em> is a string: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'call'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'return'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c_call'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c_return'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c_exception'</span></code>. <em>arg</em> depends
+on the event type.</p>
+<p>The events have the following meaning:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'call'</span></code></dt><dd><p>A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
+profile function is called; <em>arg</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'return'</span></code></dt><dd><p>A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The profile
+function is called; <em>arg</em> is the value that will be returned, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the event is caused by an exception being raised.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c_call'</span></code></dt><dd><p>A C function is about to be called.  This may be an extension function or
+a built-in.  <em>arg</em> is the C function object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c_return'</span></code></dt><dd><p>A C function has returned. <em>arg</em> is the C function object.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c_exception'</span></code></dt><dd><p>A C function has raised an exception.  <em>arg</em> is the C function object.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.setrecursionlimit">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">setrecursionlimit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>limit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.setrecursionlimit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack to <em>limit</em>.  This limit
+prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing
+Python.</p>
+<p>The highest possible limit is platform-dependent.  A user may need to set the
+limit higher when they have a program that requires deep recursion and a platform
+that supports a higher limit.  This should be done with care, because a too-high
+limit can lead to a crash.</p>
+<p>If the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RecursionError" title="RecursionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.1: </span>A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RecursionError" title="RecursionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code></a> exception is now raised if the new limit is too
+low at the current recursion depth.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.setswitchinterval">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">setswitchinterval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>interval</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.setswitchinterval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the interpreter’s thread switch interval (in seconds).  This floating-point
+value determines the ideal duration of the “timeslices” allocated to
+concurrently running Python threads.  Please note that the actual value
+can be higher, especially if long-running internal functions or methods
+are used.  Also, which thread becomes scheduled at the end of the interval
+is the operating system’s decision.  The interpreter doesn’t have its
+own scheduler.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.settrace">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">settrace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tracefunc</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.settrace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-25">Set the system’s trace function, which allows you to implement a Python
+source code debugger in Python.  The function is thread-specific; for a
+debugger to support multiple threads, it must register a trace function using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sys.settrace" title="sys.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settrace()</span></code></a> for each thread being debugged or use <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.settrace" title="threading.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.settrace()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Trace functions should have three arguments: <em>frame</em>, <em>event</em>, and
+<em>arg</em>. <em>frame</em> is the current stack frame.  <em>event</em> is a string: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'call'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'line'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'return'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exception'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'opcode'</span></code>.  <em>arg</em> depends on
+the event type.</p>
+<p>The trace function is invoked (with <em>event</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'call'</span></code>) whenever a new
+local scope is entered; it should return a reference to a local trace
+function to be used that scope, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the scope shouldn’t be traced.</p>
+<p>The local trace function should return a reference to itself (or to another
+function for further tracing in that scope), or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to turn off tracing
+in that scope.</p>
+<p>If there is any error occurred in the trace function, it will be unset, just
+like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settrace(None)</span></code> is called.</p>
+<p>The events have the following meaning:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'call'</span></code></dt><dd><p>A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
+global trace function is called; <em>arg</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; the return value
+specifies the local trace function.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'line'</span></code></dt><dd><p>The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or re-execute the
+condition of a loop.  The local trace function is called; <em>arg</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; the return value specifies the new local trace function.  See
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/lnotab_notes.txt</span></code> for a detailed explanation of how this
+works.
+Per-line events may be disabled for a frame by setting
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_lines</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> on that frame.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'return'</span></code></dt><dd><p>A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The local trace
+function is called; <em>arg</em> is the value that will be returned, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if the event is caused by an exception being raised.  The trace function’s
+return value is ignored.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exception'</span></code></dt><dd><p>An exception has occurred.  The local trace function is called; <em>arg</em> is a
+tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(exception,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span> <span class="pre">traceback)</span></code>; the return value specifies the
+new local trace function.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'opcode'</span></code></dt><dd><p>The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see <a class="reference internal" href="dis.html#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> for
+opcode details).  The local trace function is called; <em>arg</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; the return value specifies the new local trace function.
+Per-opcode events are not emitted by default: they must be explicitly
+requested by setting <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_opcodes</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> on the
+frame.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Note that as an exception is propagated down the chain of callers, an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'exception'</span></code> event is generated at each level.</p>
+<p>For more information on code and frame objects, refer to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> The <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.settrace" title="sys.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settrace()</span></code></a> function is intended only for implementing debuggers,
+profilers, coverage tools and the like.  Its behavior is part of the
+implementation platform, rather than part of the language definition, and
+thus may not be available in all Python implementations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'opcode'</span></code> event type added; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_lines</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_opcodes</span></code> attributes added to frames</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.set_asyncgen_hooks">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">set_asyncgen_hooks</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>firstiter</em>, <em>finalizer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.set_asyncgen_hooks" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accepts two optional keyword arguments which are callables that accept an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator iterator</span></a> as an argument. The <em>firstiter</em>
+callable will be called when an asynchronous generator is iterated for the
+first time. The <em>finalizer</em> will be called when an asynchronous generator
+is about to be garbage collected.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525"><strong>PEP 525</strong></a> for more details, and for a reference example of a
+<em>finalizer</em> method see the implementation of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens</span></code> in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py">Lib/asyncio/base_events.py</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function has been added on a provisional basis (see <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0411"><strong>PEP 411</strong></a>
+for details.)</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>depth</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking. When
+enabled, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cr_origin</span></code> attribute on coroutine objects will
+contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
+describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
+with the most recent call first. When disabled, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cr_origin</span></code> will
+be None.</p>
+<p>To enable, pass a <em>depth</em> value greater than zero; this sets the
+number of frames whose information will be captured. To disable,
+pass set <em>depth</em> to zero.</p>
+<p>This setting is thread-specific.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function has been added on a provisional basis (see <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0411"><strong>PEP 411</strong></a>
+for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys.set_coroutine_wrapper">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">set_coroutine_wrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>wrapper</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.set_coroutine_wrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allows intercepting creation of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> objects (only ones that
+are created by an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> function; generators decorated with
+<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.coroutine" title="types.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.coroutine()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="asyncio-task.html#asyncio.coroutine" title="asyncio.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.coroutine()</span></code></a> will not be
+intercepted).</p>
+<p>The <em>wrapper</em> argument must be either:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>a callable that accepts one argument (a coroutine object);</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, to reset the wrapper.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If called twice, the new wrapper replaces the previous one.  The function
+is thread-specific.</p>
+<p>The <em>wrapper</em> callable cannot define new coroutines directly or indirectly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wrap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">coro</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">wrap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_coroutine_wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wrapper</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The following line will fail with a RuntimeError, because</span>
+<span class="c1"># ``wrapper`` creates a ``wrap(coro)`` coroutine:</span>
+<span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.get_coroutine_wrapper" title="sys.get_coroutine_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_coroutine_wrapper()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This function has been added on a provisional basis (see <span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0411"><strong>PEP 411</strong></a>
+for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>The coroutine wrapper functionality has been deprecated, and
+will be removed in 3.8. See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32591">bpo-32591</a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">_enablelegacywindowsfsencoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Changes the default filesystem encoding and errors mode to ‘mbcs’ and
+‘replace’ respectively, for consistency with versions of Python prior to 3.6.</p>
+<p>This is equivalent to defining the <span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING</span></code></a>
+environment variable before launching Python.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0529"><strong>PEP 529</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.stdin">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">stdin</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.stdin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.stdout">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">stdout</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.stderr">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">stderr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">File objects</span></a> used by the interpreter for standard
+input, output and errors:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code> is used for all interactive input (including calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a>);</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> is used for the output of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-expression"><span class="xref std std-term">expression</span></a>
+statements and for the prompts of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>The interpreter’s own prompts and its error messages go to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>These streams are regular <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text files</span></a> like those
+returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function.  Their parameters are chosen as
+follows:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The character encoding is platform-dependent.  Non-Windows
+platforms use the locale encoding (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device.  Non-character
+devices such as disk files and pipes use the system locale
+encoding (i.e. the ANSI codepage).  Non-console character
+devices such as NUL (i.e. where isatty() returns True) use the
+value of the console input and output codepages at startup,
+respectively for stdin and stdout/stderr. This defaults to the
+system locale encoding if the process is not initially attached
+to a console.</p>
+<p>The special behaviour of the console can be overridden
+by setting the environment variable PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO
+before starting Python. In that case, the console codepages are
+used as for any other character device.</p>
+<p>Under all platforms, you can override the character encoding by
+setting the <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONIOENCODING</span></code></a> environment variable before
+starting Python or by using the new <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> command
+line option and <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUTF8"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUTF8</span></code></a> environment variable.  However,
+for the Windows console, this only applies when
+<span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</span></code></a> is also set.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>When interactive, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> streams are line-buffered.
+Otherwise, they are block-buffered like regular text files.  You can
+override this value with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-u"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-u</span></code></a> command-line option.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>To write or read binary data from/to the standard streams, use the
+underlying binary <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.buffer" title="io.TextIOBase.buffer"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code></a> object.  For example, to
+write bytes to <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code></a>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in which
+context its code will be executed), be aware that the standard streams
+may be replaced with file-like objects like <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> which
+do not support the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.__stdin__">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">__stdin__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.__stdin__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.__stdout__">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">__stdout__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.__stdout__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="sys.__stderr__">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">__stderr__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.__stderr__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These objects contain the original values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> at the start of the program.  They are used during finalization,
+and could be useful to print to the actual standard stream no matter if the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.std*</span></code> object has been redirected.</p>
+<p>It can also be used to restore the actual files to known working file objects
+in case they have been overwritten with a broken object.  However, the
+preferred way to do this is to explicitly save the previous stream before
+replacing it, and restore the saved object.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Under some conditions <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> as well as the
+original values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__stdin__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__stdout__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__stderr__</span></code> can be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. It is usually the case for Windows GUI apps that aren’t connected
+to a console and Python apps started with <strong class="program">pythonw</strong>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.thread_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">thread_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.thread_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">struct sequence</span></a> holding information about the thread
+implementation.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 76%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Explanation</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Name of the thread implementation:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'nt'</span></code>: Windows threads</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'pthread'</span></code>: POSIX threads</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'solaris'</span></code>: Solaris threads</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lock</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Name of the lock implementation:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'semaphore'</span></code>: a lock uses a semaphore</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mutex+cond'</span></code>: a lock uses a mutex
+and a condition variable</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if this information is unknown</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#sys.version" title="sys.version"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Name and version of the thread library. It is a string,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if this information is unknown.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.tracebacklimit">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">tracebacklimit</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.tracebacklimit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When this variable is set to an integer value, it determines the maximum number
+of levels of traceback information printed when an unhandled exception occurs.
+The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1000</span></code>.  When set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or less, all traceback information
+is suppressed and only the exception type and value are printed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.version">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string containing the version number of the Python interpreter plus additional
+information on the build number and compiler used.  This string is displayed
+when the interactive interpreter is started.  Do not extract version information
+out of it, rather, use <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version_info</span></code></a> and the functions provided by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="platform.html#module-platform" title="platform: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.api_version">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">api_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.api_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The C API version for this interpreter.  Programmers may find this useful when
+debugging version conflicts between Python and extension modules.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.version_info">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">version_info</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.version_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple containing the five components of the version number: <em>major</em>, <em>minor</em>,
+<em>micro</em>, <em>releaselevel</em>, and <em>serial</em>.  All values except <em>releaselevel</em> are
+integers; the release level is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'alpha'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'beta'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'candidate'</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'final'</span></code>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version_info</span></code> value corresponding to the Python version 2.0
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(2,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">'final',</span> <span class="pre">0)</span></code>.  The components can also be accessed by name,
+so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info[0]</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info.major</span></code>
+and so on.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added named component attributes.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.warnoptions">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">warnoptions</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.warnoptions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an implementation detail of the warnings framework; do not modify this
+value.  Refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module for more information on the warnings
+framework.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys.winver">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">winver</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys.winver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms. This is
+stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL.  The value is normally the
+first three characters of <a class="reference internal" href="#sys.version" title="sys.version"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></a>.  It is provided in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>
+module for informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the
+registry keys used by Python.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="sys._xoptions">
+<code class="descclassname">sys.</code><code class="descname">_xoptions</code><a class="headerlink" href="#sys._xoptions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary of the various implementation-specific flags passed through
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> command-line option.  Option names are either mapped to
+their values, if given explicitly, or to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> ./python -Xa<span class="o">=</span>b -Xc
+<span class="go">Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)</span>
+<span class="go">[GCC 4.4.3] on linux2</span>
+<span class="go">Type &quot;help&quot;, &quot;copyright&quot;, &quot;credits&quot; or &quot;license&quot; for more information.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; import sys
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; sys._xoptions
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;: &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;: True}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> This is a CPython-specific way of accessing options passed through
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a>.  Other implementations may export them through other
+means, or not at all.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Citations</p>
+<dl class="citation">
+<dt class="label" id="c99"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">C99</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>ISO/IEC 9899:1999.  “Programming languages – C.”  A public draft of this standard is available at <a class="reference external" href="http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf">http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="python.html"
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+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sysconfig.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> — Provide access to Python’s configuration information</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sysconfig.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sysconfig.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..429c6ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/sysconfig.html
@@ -0,0 +1,426 @@
+
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+    <title>sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-sysconfig">
+<span id="sysconfig-provide-access-to-python-s-configuration-information"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> — Provide access to Python’s configuration information<a class="headerlink" href="#module-sysconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/sysconfig.py">Lib/sysconfig.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> module provides access to Python’s configuration
+information like the list of installation paths and the configuration variables
+relevant for the current platform.</p>
+<div class="section" id="configuration-variables">
+<h2>Configuration variables<a class="headerlink" href="#configuration-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A Python distribution contains a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code> and a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyconfig.h</span></code>
+header file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and
+third-party C extensions compiled using <a class="reference internal" href="distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> puts all variables found in these files in a dictionary that
+can be accessed using <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_config_var" title="sysconfig.get_config_var"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_var()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Notice that on Windows, it’s a much smaller set.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_config_vars">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_config_vars</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration variables
+relevant for the current platform.</p>
+<p>With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up each
+argument in the configuration variable dictionary.</p>
+<p>For each argument, if the value is not found, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_config_var">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_config_var</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_config_var" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of a single variable <em>name</em>. Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars().get(name)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>name</em> is not found, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example of usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sysconfig</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Py_ENABLE_SHARED&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;LIBDIR&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/local/lib&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_vars</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;AR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;CXX&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;ar&#39;, &#39;g++&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installation-paths">
+<h2>Installation paths<a class="headerlink" href="#installation-paths" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the platform and on
+the installation options.  These schemes are stored in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> under
+unique identifiers based on the value returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.name" title="os.name"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.name</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Every new component that is installed using <a class="reference internal" href="distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> or a
+Distutils-based system will follow the same scheme to copy its file in the right
+places.</p>
+<p>Python currently supports seven schemes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>posix_prefix</em>: scheme for Posix platforms like Linux or Mac OS X.  This is
+the default scheme used when Python or a component is installed.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>posix_home</em>: scheme for Posix platforms used when a <em>home</em> option is used
+upon installation.  This scheme is used when a component is installed through
+Distutils with a specific home prefix.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>posix_user</em>: scheme for Posix platforms used when a component is installed
+through Distutils and the <em>user</em> option is used.  This scheme defines paths
+located under the user home directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>nt</em>: scheme for NT platforms like Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>nt_user</em>: scheme for NT platforms, when the <em>user</em> option is used.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a unique
+identifier.  Python currently uses eight paths:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>stdlib</em>: directory containing the standard Python library files that are not
+platform-specific.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>platstdlib</em>: directory containing the standard Python library files that are
+platform-specific.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>platlib</em>: directory for site-specific, platform-specific files.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>purelib</em>: directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>include</em>: directory for non-platform-specific header files.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>platinclude</em>: directory for platform-specific header files.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>scripts</em>: directory for script files.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>data</em>: directory for data files.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> provides some functions to determine these paths.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_scheme_names">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_scheme_names</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_scheme_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_path_names">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_path_names</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_path_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_path">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_path</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>scheme</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>vars</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>expand</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_path" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an installation path corresponding to the path <em>name</em>, from the
+install scheme named <em>scheme</em>.</p>
+<p><em>name</em> has to be a value from the list returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_path_names" title="sysconfig.get_path_names"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_path_names()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> stores installation paths corresponding to each path name,
+for each platform, with variables to be expanded.  For instance the <em>stdlib</em>
+path for the <em>nt</em> scheme is: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{base}/Lib</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_path" title="sysconfig.get_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_path()</span></code></a> will use the variables returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars()</span></code></a>
+to expand the path.  All variables have default values for each platform so
+one may call this function and get the default value.</p>
+<p>If <em>scheme</em> is provided, it must be a value from the list returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_scheme_names" title="sysconfig.get_scheme_names"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_scheme_names()</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, the default scheme for the current
+platform is used.</p>
+<p>If <em>vars</em> is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will update
+the dictionary return by <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>expand</em> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the path will not be expanded using the
+variables.</p>
+<p>If <em>name</em> is not found, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_paths">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_paths</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>scheme</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>vars</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>expand</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_paths" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding to an
+installation scheme. See <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_path" title="sysconfig.get_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_path()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+<p>If <em>scheme</em> is not provided, will use the default scheme for the current
+platform.</p>
+<p>If <em>vars</em> is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will
+update the dictionary used to expand the paths.</p>
+<p>If <em>expand</em> is set to false, the paths will not be expanded.</p>
+<p>If <em>scheme</em> is not an existing scheme, <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_paths" title="sysconfig.get_paths"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_paths()</span></code></a> will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-functions">
+<h2>Other functions<a class="headerlink" href="#other-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_python_version">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_python_version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_python_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAJOR.MINOR</span></code> Python version number as a string.  Similar to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%d.%d'</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">sys.version_info[:2]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_platform">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_platform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_platform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string that identifies the current platform.</p>
+<p>This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build directories and
+platform-specific built distributions.  Typically includes the OS name and
+version and the architecture (as supplied by ‘os.uname()’), although the
+exact information included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel
+version isn’t particularly important.</p>
+<p>Examples of returned values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>linux-i586</p></li>
+<li><p>linux-alpha (?)</p></li>
+<li><p>solaris-2.6-sun4u</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Windows will return one of:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>win-amd64 (64bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and EM64T)</p></li>
+<li><p>win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Mac OS X can return:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>macosx-10.6-ppc</p></li>
+<li><p>macosx-10.4-ppc64</p></li>
+<li><p>macosx-10.3-i386</p></li>
+<li><p>macosx-10.4-fat</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.platform" title="sys.platform"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.is_python_build">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">is_python_build</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.is_python_build" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the running Python interpreter was built from source and
+is being run from its built location, and not from a location resulting from
+e.g. running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> or installing via a binary installer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.parse_config_h">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">parse_config_h</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fp</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>vars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.parse_config_h" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config.h</span></code>-style file.</p>
+<p><em>fp</em> is a file-like object pointing to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config.h</span></code>-like file.</p>
+<p>A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned.  If an optional
+dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used instead of a new
+dictionary, and updated with the values read in the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_config_h_filename">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_config_h_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_config_h_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the path of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyconfig.h</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="sysconfig.get_makefile_filename">
+<code class="descclassname">sysconfig.</code><code class="descname">get_makefile_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig.get_makefile_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the path of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Makefile</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-sysconfig-as-a-script">
+<h2>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> as a script<a class="headerlink" href="#using-sysconfig-as-a-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can use <a class="reference internal" href="#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> as a script with Python’s <em>-m</em> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m sysconfig
+<span class="go">Platform: &quot;macosx-10.4-i386&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">Python version: &quot;3.2&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">Current installation scheme: &quot;posix_prefix&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="go">Paths:</span>
+<span class="go">        data = &quot;/usr/local&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        include = &quot;/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        platinclude = &quot;.&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        platlib = &quot;/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        platstdlib = &quot;/usr/local/lib/python3.2&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        purelib = &quot;/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        scripts = &quot;/usr/local/bin&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        stdlib = &quot;/usr/local/lib/python3.2&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="go">Variables:</span>
+<span class="go">        AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = &quot;0&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = &quot;0&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        AR = &quot;ar&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        ARFLAGS = &quot;rc&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This call will print in the standard output the information returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_platform" title="sysconfig.get_platform"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_platform()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_python_version" title="sysconfig.get_python_version"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_python_version()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_path" title="sysconfig.get_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_path()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> — Provide access to Python’s configuration information</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuration-variables">Configuration variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installation-paths">Installation paths</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-functions">Other functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-sysconfig-as-a-script">Using <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> as a script</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sys.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code> — System-specific parameters and functions</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code> — Built-in objects</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/syslog.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/syslog.html
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/syslog.html
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-syslog">
+<span id="syslog-unix-syslog-library-routines"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code></a> — Unix syslog library routines<a class="headerlink" href="#module-syslog" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides an interface to the Unix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code> library routines.
+Refer to the Unix manual pages for a detailed description of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code>
+facility.</p>
+<p>This module wraps the system <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code> family of routines.  A pure Python
+library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers" title="logging.handlers: Handlers for the logging module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.handlers</span></code></a> module as <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="syslog.syslog">
+<code class="descclassname">syslog.</code><code class="descname">syslog</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#syslog.syslog" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">syslog.</code><code class="descname">syslog</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>priority</em>, <em>message</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Send the string <em>message</em> to the system logger.  A trailing newline is added
+if necessary.  Each message is tagged with a priority composed of a
+<em>facility</em> and a <em>level</em>.  The optional <em>priority</em> argument, which defaults
+to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_INFO</span></code>, determines the message priority.  If the facility is
+not encoded in <em>priority</em> using logical-or (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_INFO</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">LOG_USER</span></code>), the
+value given in the <a class="reference internal" href="#syslog.openlog" title="syslog.openlog"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code></a> call is used.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#syslog.openlog" title="syslog.openlog"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code></a> has not been called prior to the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog()</span></code></a>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code> will be called with no arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="syslog.openlog">
+<code class="descclassname">syslog.</code><code class="descname">openlog</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>ident</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>logoption</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>facility</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#syslog.openlog" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Logging options of subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog()</span></code></a> calls can be set by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#syslog.openlog" title="syslog.openlog"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog()</span></code></a> will call <a class="reference internal" href="#syslog.openlog" title="syslog.openlog"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code></a> with no arguments
+if the log is not currently open.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>ident</em> keyword argument is a string which is prepended to every
+message, and defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> with leading path components
+stripped.  The optional <em>logoption</em> keyword argument (default is 0) is a bit
+field – see below for possible values to combine.  The optional <em>facility</em>
+keyword argument (default is <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_USER</span></code>) sets the default facility for
+messages which do not have a facility explicitly encoded.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>In previous versions, keyword arguments were not allowed, and <em>ident</em> was
+required.  The default for <em>ident</em> was dependent on the system libraries,
+and often was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> instead of the name of the Python program file.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="syslog.closelog">
+<code class="descclassname">syslog.</code><code class="descname">closelog</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#syslog.closelog" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the syslog module values and call the system library <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closelog()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This causes the module to behave as it does when initially imported.  For
+example, <a class="reference internal" href="#syslog.openlog" title="syslog.openlog"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code></a> will be called on the first <a class="reference internal" href="#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog()</span></code></a> call (if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#syslog.openlog" title="syslog.openlog"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code></a> hasn’t already been called), and <em>ident</em> and other
+<a class="reference internal" href="#syslog.openlog" title="syslog.openlog"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">openlog()</span></code></a> parameters are reset to defaults.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="syslog.setlogmask">
+<code class="descclassname">syslog.</code><code class="descname">setlogmask</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>maskpri</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#syslog.setlogmask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the priority mask to <em>maskpri</em> and return the previous mask value.  Calls
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog()</span></code></a> with a priority level not set in <em>maskpri</em> are ignored.
+The default is to log all priorities.  The function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_MASK(pri)</span></code>
+calculates the mask for the individual priority <em>pri</em>.  The function
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_UPTO(pri)</span></code> calculates the mask for all priorities up to and including
+<em>pri</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The module defines the following constants:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Priority levels (high to low):</dt><dd><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_EMERG</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_ALERT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_CRIT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_ERR</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_WARNING</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_NOTICE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_INFO</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_DEBUG</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Facilities:</dt><dd><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_KERN</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_USER</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_MAIL</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_DAEMON</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_AUTH</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_LPR</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_NEWS</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_UUCP</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_CRON</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_SYSLOG</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_LOCAL0</span></code> to
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_LOCAL7</span></code>, and, if defined in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;syslog.h&gt;</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_AUTHPRIV</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Log options:</dt><dd><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_PID</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_CONS</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_NDELAY</span></code>, and, if defined
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;syslog.h&gt;</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_ODELAY</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_NOWAIT</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOG_PERROR</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="simple-example">
+<h3>Simple example<a class="headerlink" href="#simple-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A simple set of examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">syslog</span>
+
+<span class="n">syslog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">syslog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Processing started&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">error</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">syslog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">syslog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">syslog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LOG_ERR</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Processing started&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An example of setting some log options, these would include the process ID in
+logged messages, and write the messages to the destination facility used for
+mail logging:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">syslog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">openlog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">logoption</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">syslog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LOG_PID</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">facility</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">syslog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LOG_MAIL</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">syslog</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">syslog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;E-mail processing initiated...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code> — Unix syslog library routines</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simple-example">Simple example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tabnanny.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tabnanny.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,239 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tabnanny">
+<span id="tabnanny-detection-of-ambiguous-indentation"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tabnanny" title="tabnanny: Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabnanny</span></code></a> — Detection of ambiguous indentation<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tabnanny" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tabnanny.py">Lib/tabnanny.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>For the time being this module is intended to be called as a script. However it
+is possible to import it into an IDE and use the function <a class="reference internal" href="#tabnanny.check" title="tabnanny.check"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check()</span></code></a>
+described below.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The API provided by this module is likely to change in future releases; such
+changes may not be backward compatible.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tabnanny.check">
+<code class="descclassname">tabnanny.</code><code class="descname">check</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file_or_dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tabnanny.check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>file_or_dir</em> is a directory and not a symbolic link, then recursively
+descend the directory tree named by <em>file_or_dir</em>, checking all <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code>
+files along the way.  If <em>file_or_dir</em> is an ordinary Python source file, it
+is checked for whitespace related problems.  The diagnostic messages are
+written to standard output using the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tabnanny.verbose">
+<code class="descclassname">tabnanny.</code><code class="descname">verbose</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tabnanny.verbose" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flag indicating whether to print verbose messages. This is incremented by the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> option if called as a script.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tabnanny.filename_only">
+<code class="descclassname">tabnanny.</code><code class="descname">filename_only</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tabnanny.filename_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flag indicating whether to print only the filenames of files containing
+whitespace related problems.  This is set to true by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code> option if called
+as a script.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tabnanny.NannyNag">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tabnanny.</code><code class="descname">NannyNag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tabnanny.NannyNag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#tabnanny.process_tokens" title="tabnanny.process_tokens"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_tokens()</span></code></a> if detecting an ambiguous indent. Captured and
+handled in <a class="reference internal" href="#tabnanny.check" title="tabnanny.check"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tabnanny.process_tokens">
+<code class="descclassname">tabnanny.</code><code class="descname">process_tokens</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tokens</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tabnanny.process_tokens" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is used by <a class="reference internal" href="#tabnanny.check" title="tabnanny.check"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check()</span></code></a> to process tokens generated by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Lexical scanner for Python source code.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="tokenize.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code> — Tokenizer for Python source</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pyclbr.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr</span></code> — Python class browser support</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tarfile.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tarfile.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e11fd19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tarfile.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1100 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>tarfile — Read and write tar archive files &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tarfile">
+<span id="tarfile-read-and-write-tar-archive-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> — Read and write tar archive files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tarfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tarfile.py">Lib/tarfile.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module makes it possible to read and write tar
+archives, including those using gzip, bz2 and lzma compression.
+Use the <a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module to read or write <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.zip</span></code> files, or the
+higher-level functions in <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#archiving-operations"><span class="std std-ref">shutil</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Some facts and figures:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>reads and writes <a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> compressed archives
+if the respective modules are available.</p></li>
+<li><p>read/write support for the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.</p></li>
+<li><p>read/write support for the GNU tar format including <em>longname</em> and <em>longlink</em>
+extensions, read-only support for all variants of the <em>sparse</em> extension
+including restoration of sparse files.</p></li>
+<li><p>read/write support for the POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.</p></li>
+<li><p>handles directories, regular files, hardlinks, symbolic links, fifos,
+character devices and block devices and is able to acquire and restore file
+information like timestamp, access permissions and owner.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added support for <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> compression.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tarfile.open">
+<code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>fileobj=None</em>, <em>bufsize=10240</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> object for the pathname <em>name</em>. For detailed
+information on <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> objects and the keyword arguments that are
+allowed, see <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile-objects"><span class="std std-ref">TarFile Objects</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>mode</em> has to be a string of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'filemode[:compression]'</span></code>, it defaults
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>. Here is a full list of mode combinations:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 71%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>mode</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>action</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">'r:*'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for reading with transparent
+compression (recommended).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r:'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for reading exclusively without
+compression.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r:gz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for reading with gzip compression.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r:bz2'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for reading with bzip2 compression.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r:xz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for reading with lzma compression.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x:'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a tarfile exclusively without
+compression.
+Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> exception
+if it already exists.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x:gz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a tarfile with gzip compression.
+Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> exception
+if it already exists.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x:bz2'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a tarfile with bzip2 compression.
+Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> exception
+if it already exists.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x:xz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Create a tarfile with lzma compression.
+Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> exception
+if it already exists.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">'a:'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for appending with no compression. The
+file is created if it does not exist.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">'w:'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for uncompressed writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w:gz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for gzip compressed writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w:bz2'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for bzip2 compressed writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w:xz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open for lzma compressed writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a:gz'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a:bz2'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a:xz'</span></code> is not possible. If <em>mode</em>
+is not suitable to open a certain (compressed) file for reading,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.ReadError" title="tarfile.ReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadError</span></code></a> is raised. Use <em>mode</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> to avoid this.  If a
+compression method is not supported, <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.CompressionError" title="tarfile.CompressionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CompressionError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>If <em>fileobj</em> is specified, it is used as an alternative to a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>
+opened in binary mode for <em>name</em>. It is supposed to be at position 0.</p>
+<p>For modes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w:gz'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r:gz'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w:bz2'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r:bz2'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x:gz'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x:bz2'</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.open" title="tarfile.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile.open()</span></code></a> accepts the keyword argument
+<em>compresslevel</em> (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>) to specify the compression level of the file.</p>
+<p>For special purposes, there is a second format for <em>mode</em>:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'filemode|[compression]'</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.open" title="tarfile.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile.open()</span></code></a> will return a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a>
+object that processes its data as a stream of blocks.  No random seeking will
+be done on the file. If given, <em>fileobj</em> may be any object that has a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method (depending on the <em>mode</em>). <em>bufsize</em>
+specifies the blocksize and defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">20</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">512</span></code> bytes. Use this variant
+in combination with e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>, a socket <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> or a tape
+device. However, such a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> object is limited in that it does
+not allow random access, see <a class="reference internal" href="#tar-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a>.  The currently
+possible modes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 77%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Mode</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Action</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r|*'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a <em>stream</em> of tar blocks for reading
+with transparent compression.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r|'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a <em>stream</em> of uncompressed tar blocks
+for reading.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r|gz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a gzip compressed <em>stream</em> for
+reading.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r|bz2'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a bzip2 compressed <em>stream</em> for
+reading.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r|xz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open an lzma compressed <em>stream</em> for
+reading.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w|'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open an uncompressed <em>stream</em> for writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w|gz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a gzip compressed <em>stream</em> for
+writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w|bz2'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open a bzip2 compressed <em>stream</em> for
+writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w|xz'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Open an lzma compressed <em>stream</em> for
+writing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> (exclusive creation) mode was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>name</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">TarFile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class for reading and writing tar archives. Do not use this class directly:
+use <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.open" title="tarfile.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile.open()</span></code></a> instead. See <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile-objects"><span class="std std-ref">TarFile Objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tarfile.is_tarfile">
+<code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">is_tarfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.is_tarfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if <em>name</em> is a tar archive file, that the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a>
+module can read.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module defines the following exceptions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">TarError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class for all <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tarfile.ReadError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">ReadError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.ReadError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is raised when a tar archive is opened, that either cannot be handled by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module or is somehow invalid.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tarfile.CompressionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">CompressionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.CompressionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is raised when a compression method is not supported or when the data cannot be
+decoded properly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tarfile.StreamError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">StreamError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.StreamError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is raised for the limitations that are typical for stream-like <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a>
+objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tarfile.ExtractError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">ExtractError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.ExtractError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is raised for <em>non-fatal</em> errors when using <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extract" title="tarfile.TarFile.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.extract()</span></code></a>, but only if
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.errorlevel</span></code><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tarfile.HeaderError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">HeaderError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.HeaderError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Is raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.frombuf" title="tarfile.TarInfo.frombuf"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo.frombuf()</span></code></a> if the buffer it gets is invalid.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following constants are available at the module level:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tarfile.ENCODING">
+<code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">ENCODING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.ENCODING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default character encoding: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> on Windows, the value returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Each of the following constants defines a tar archive format that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module is able to create. See section <a class="reference internal" href="#tar-formats"><span class="std std-ref">Supported tar formats</span></a> for
+details.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT">
+<code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">USTAR_FORMAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tarfile.GNU_FORMAT">
+<code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">GNU_FORMAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.GNU_FORMAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>GNU tar format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tarfile.PAX_FORMAT">
+<code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">PAX_FORMAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.PAX_FORMAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT">
+<code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">DEFAULT_FORMAT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default format for creating archives. This is currently <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.GNU_FORMAT" title="tarfile.GNU_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNU_FORMAT</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> standard module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#archiving-operations"><span class="std std-ref">Archiving operations</span></a></dt><dd><p>Documentation of the higher-level archiving facilities provided by the
+standard <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html">GNU tar manual, Basic Tar Format</a></dt><dd><p>Documentation for tar archive files, including GNU tar extensions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tarfile-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>TarFile Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> object provides an interface to a tar archive. A tar
+archive is a sequence of blocks. An archive member (a stored file) is made up of
+a header block followed by data blocks. It is possible to store a file in a tar
+archive several times. Each archive member is represented by a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a>
+object, see <a class="reference internal" href="#tarinfo-objects"><span class="std std-ref">TarInfo Objects</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> object can be used as a context manager in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement. It will automatically be closed when the block is completed. Please
+note that in the event of an exception an archive opened for writing will not
+be finalized; only the internally used file object will be closed. See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tar-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a> section for a use case.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Added support for the context management protocol.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">TarFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>fileobj=None</em>, <em>format=DEFAULT_FORMAT</em>, <em>tarinfo=TarInfo</em>, <em>dereference=False</em>, <em>ignore_zeros=False</em>, <em>encoding=ENCODING</em>, <em>errors='surrogateescape'</em>, <em>pax_headers=None</em>, <em>debug=0</em>, <em>errorlevel=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>All following arguments are optional and can be accessed as instance attributes
+as well.</p>
+<p><em>name</em> is the pathname of the archive. <em>name</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.
+It can be omitted if <em>fileobj</em> is given.
+In this case, the file object’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute is used if it exists.</p>
+<p><em>mode</em> is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> to read from an existing archive, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> to append
+data to an existing file, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> to create a new file overwriting an existing
+one, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> to create a new file only if it does not already exist.</p>
+<p>If <em>fileobj</em> is given, it is used for reading or writing data. If it can be
+determined, <em>mode</em> is overridden by <em>fileobj</em>’s mode. <em>fileobj</em> will be used
+from position 0.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><em>fileobj</em> is not closed, when <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> is closed.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>format</em> controls the archive format. It must be one of the constants
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT" title="tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USTAR_FORMAT</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.GNU_FORMAT" title="tarfile.GNU_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNU_FORMAT</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.PAX_FORMAT" title="tarfile.PAX_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAX_FORMAT</span></code></a> that are
+defined at module level.</p>
+<p>The <em>tarinfo</em> argument can be used to replace the default <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> class
+with a different one.</p>
+<p>If <em>dereference</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, add symbolic and hard links to the archive. If it
+is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, add the content of the target files to the archive. This has no
+effect on systems that do not support symbolic links.</p>
+<p>If <em>ignore_zeros</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, treat an empty block as the end of the archive.
+If it is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, skip empty (and invalid) blocks and try to get as many members
+as possible. This is only useful for reading concatenated or damaged archives.</p>
+<p><em>debug</em> can be set from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (no debug messages) up to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code> (all debug
+messages). The messages are written to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>errorlevel</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, all errors are ignored when using <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extract" title="tarfile.TarFile.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.extract()</span></code></a>.
+Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output, when debugging
+is enabled.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, all <em>fatal</em> errors are raised as <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>
+exceptions. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, all <em>non-fatal</em> errors are raised as <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarError" title="tarfile.TarError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarError</span></code></a>
+exceptions as well.</p>
+<p>The <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> arguments define the character encoding to be
+used for reading or writing the archive and how conversion errors are going
+to be handled. The default settings will work for most users.
+See section <a class="reference internal" href="#tar-unicode"><span class="std std-ref">Unicode issues</span></a> for in-depth information.</p>
+<p>The <em>pax_headers</em> argument is an optional dictionary of strings which
+will be added as a pax global header if <em>format</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.PAX_FORMAT" title="tarfile.PAX_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAX_FORMAT</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> as the default for the <em>errors</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> (exclusive creation) mode was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>name</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.open">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alternative constructor. The <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.open" title="tarfile.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile.open()</span></code></a> function is actually a
+shortcut to this classmethod.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.getmember">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">getmember</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.getmember" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object for member <em>name</em>. If <em>name</em> can not be found
+in the archive, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If a member occurs more than once in the archive, its last occurrence is assumed
+to be the most up-to-date version.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.getmembers">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">getmembers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.getmembers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the members of the archive as a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> objects. The
+list has the same order as the members in the archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.getnames">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">getnames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.getnames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the members as a list of their names. It has the same order as the list
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.getmembers" title="tarfile.TarFile.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmembers()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.list">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>verbose=True</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>members=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a table of contents to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>. If <em>verbose</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>,
+only the names of the members are printed. If it is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, output
+similar to that of <strong class="program">ls -l</strong> is produced. If optional <em>members</em> is
+given, it must be a subset of the list returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.getmembers" title="tarfile.TarFile.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmembers()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>members</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.next">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the next member of the archive as a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object, when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> is opened for reading. Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if there is no more
+available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.extractall">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">extractall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=&quot;.&quot;</em>, <em>members=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>numeric_owner=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extractall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract all members from the archive to the current working directory or
+directory <em>path</em>. If optional <em>members</em> is given, it must be a subset of the
+list returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.getmembers" title="tarfile.TarFile.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmembers()</span></code></a>. Directory information like owner,
+modification time and permissions are set after all members have been extracted.
+This is done to work around two problems: A directory’s modification time is
+reset each time a file is created in it. And, if a directory’s permissions do
+not allow writing, extracting files to it will fail.</p>
+<p>If <em>numeric_owner</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, the uid and gid numbers from the tarfile
+are used to set the owner/group for the extracted files. Otherwise, the named
+values from the tarfile are used.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection.
+It is possible that files are created outside of <em>path</em>, e.g. members
+that have absolute filenames starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;/&quot;</span></code> or filenames with two
+dots <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;..&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>numeric_owner</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.extract">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">extract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>member</em>, <em>path=&quot;&quot;</em>, <em>set_attrs=True</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>numeric_owner=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory, using its
+full name. Its file information is extracted as accurately as possible. <em>member</em>
+may be a filename or a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object. You can specify a different
+directory using <em>path</em>. <em>path</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.
+File attributes (owner, mtime, mode) are set unless <em>set_attrs</em> is false.</p>
+<p>If <em>numeric_owner</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, the uid and gid numbers from the tarfile
+are used to set the owner/group for the extracted files. Otherwise, the named
+values from the tarfile are used.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extract" title="tarfile.TarFile.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract()</span></code></a> method does not take care of several extraction issues.
+In most cases you should consider using the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extractall" title="tarfile.TarFile.extractall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extractall()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>See the warning for <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extractall" title="tarfile.TarFile.extractall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extractall()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>set_attrs</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>numeric_owner</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.extractfile">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">extractfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>member</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extractfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract a member from the archive as a file object. <em>member</em> may be a filename
+or a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object. If <em>member</em> is a regular file or a link, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedReader</span></code></a> object is returned. Otherwise, <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> is
+returned.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedReader</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.add">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>arcname=None</em>, <em>recursive=True</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>filter=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add the file <em>name</em> to the archive. <em>name</em> may be any type of file
+(directory, fifo, symbolic link, etc.). If given, <em>arcname</em> specifies an
+alternative name for the file in the archive. Directories are added
+recursively by default. This can be avoided by setting <em>recursive</em> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>. Recursion adds entries in sorted order.
+If <em>filter</em> is given, it
+should be a function that takes a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object argument and
+returns the changed <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object. If it instead returns
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object will be excluded from the
+archive. See <a class="reference internal" href="#tar-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a> for an example.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <em>filter</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Recursion adds entries in sorted order.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.addfile">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">addfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tarinfo</em>, <em>fileobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.addfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object <em>tarinfo</em> to the archive. If <em>fileobj</em> is given,
+it should be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarinfo.size</span></code> bytes are read from it and added to the archive.  You can
+create <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> objects directly, or by using <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.gettarinfo" title="tarfile.TarFile.gettarinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettarinfo()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.gettarinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">gettarinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em>, <em>arcname=None</em>, <em>fileobj=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.gettarinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object from the result of <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> or
+equivalent on an existing file.  The file is either named by <em>name</em>, or
+specified as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> <em>fileobj</em> with a file descriptor.
+<em>name</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.  If
+given, <em>arcname</em> specifies an alternative name for the file in the
+archive, otherwise, the name is taken from <em>fileobj</em>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.FileIO.name" title="io.FileIO.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> attribute, or the <em>name</em> argument.  The name
+should be a text string.</p>
+<p>You can modify
+some of the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a>’s attributes before you add it using <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.addfile" title="tarfile.TarFile.addfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addfile()</span></code></a>.
+If the file object is not an ordinary file object positioned at the
+beginning of the file, attributes such as <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.size" title="tarfile.TarInfo.size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code></a> may need
+modifying.  This is the case for objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a>.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.name" title="tarfile.TarInfo.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> may also be modified, in which case <em>arcname</em>
+could be a dummy string.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <em>name</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.close">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a>. In write mode, two finishing zero blocks are
+appended to the archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarFile.pax_headers">
+<code class="descclassname">TarFile.</code><code class="descname">pax_headers</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarFile.pax_headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary containing key-value pairs of pax global headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tarinfo-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>TarInfo Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#tarinfo-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object represents one member in a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a>. Aside
+from storing all required attributes of a file (like file type, size, time,
+permissions, owner etc.), it provides some useful methods to determine its type.
+It does <em>not</em> contain the file’s data itself.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> objects are returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a>’s methods
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmember()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmembers()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettarinfo()</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tarfile.</code><code class="descname">TarInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=&quot;&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.frombuf">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">frombuf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buf</em>, <em>encoding</em>, <em>errors</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.frombuf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object from string buffer <em>buf</em>.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.HeaderError" title="tarfile.HeaderError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderError</span></code></a> if the buffer is invalid.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.fromtarfile">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">fromtarfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tarfile</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.fromtarfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read the next member from the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> object <em>tarfile</em> and return it as
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.tobuf">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">tobuf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format=DEFAULT_FORMAT</em>, <em>encoding=ENCODING</em>, <em>errors='surrogateescape'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.tobuf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a string buffer from a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object. For information on the
+arguments see the constructor of the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> as the default for the <em>errors</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code> object has the following public data attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.name">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the archive member.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.size">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Size in bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.mtime">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">mtime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.mtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time of last modification.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.mode">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">mode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Permission bits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.type">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>File type.  <em>type</em> is usually one of these constants: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REGTYPE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AREGTYPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LNKTYPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SYMTYPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DIRTYPE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIFOTYPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONTTYPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHRTYPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BLKTYPE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNUTYPE_SPARSE</span></code>.  To determine the type of a <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object
+more conveniently, use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is*()</span></code> methods below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.linkname">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">linkname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.linkname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the target file name, which is only present in <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> objects
+of type <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LNKTYPE</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SYMTYPE</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.uid">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">uid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.uid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>User ID of the user who originally stored this member.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.gid">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">gid</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.gid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Group ID of the user who originally stored this member.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.uname">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">uname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.uname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>User name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.gname">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">gname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.gname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Group name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.pax_headers">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">pax_headers</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.pax_headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary containing key-value pairs of an associated pax extended header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object also provides some convenient query methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.isfile">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">isfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.isfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tarinfo</span></code> object is a regular file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.isreg">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">isreg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.isreg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.isfile" title="tarfile.TarInfo.isfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.isdir">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">isdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.isdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if it is a directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.issym">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">issym</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.issym" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if it is a symbolic link.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.islnk">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">islnk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.islnk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if it is a hard link.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.ischr">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">ischr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.ischr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if it is a character device.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.isblk">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">isblk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.isblk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if it is a block device.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.isfifo">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">isfifo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.isfifo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if it is a FIFO.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tarfile.TarInfo.isdev">
+<code class="descclassname">TarInfo.</code><code class="descname">isdev</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile.TarInfo.isdev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if it is one of character device, block device or FIFO.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-interface">
+<span id="tarfile-commandline"></span><h2>Command-Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module provides a simple command-line interface to interact
+with tar archives.</p>
+<p>If you want to create a new tar archive, specify its name after the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a>
+option and then list the filename(s) that should be included:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Passing a directory is also acceptable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to extract a tar archive into the current directory, use
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-e"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-e</span></code></a> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m tarfile -e monty.tar
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also extract a tar archive into a different directory by passing the
+directory’s name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a list of the files in a tar archive, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-l"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code></a> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m tarfile -l monty.tar
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-options">
+<h3>Command-line options<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-l">
+<code class="descname">-l</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-l" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-list">
+<code class="descname">--list</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List files in a tarfile.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-c">
+<code class="descname">-c</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-c" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-create">
+<code class="descname">--create</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create tarfile from source files.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-e">
+<code class="descname">-e</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-e" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-extract">
+<code class="descname">--extract</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt; [&lt;output_dir&gt;]</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-extract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract tarfile into the current directory if <em>output_dir</em> is not specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-t">
+<code class="descname">-t</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-test">
+<code class="descname">--test</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;tarfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-test" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether the tarfile is valid or not.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-tarfile-v">
+<code class="descname">-v</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--verbose</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tarfile-v" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Verbose output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="tar-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>How to extract an entire tar archive to the current working directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample.tar.gz&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extractall</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>How to extract a subset of a tar archive with <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.extractall" title="tarfile.TarFile.extractall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.extractall()</span></code></a> using
+a generator function instead of a list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">py_files</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">members</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">members</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;.py&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span>
+
+<span class="n">tar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample.tar.gz&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extractall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">members</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">py_files</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tar</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>How to create an uncompressed tar archive from a list of filenames:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample.tar&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;quux&quot;</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same example using the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample.tar&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tar</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;quux&quot;</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+        <span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>How to read a gzip compressed tar archive and display some member information:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample.tar.gz&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;r:gz&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tar</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bytes in size and is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isreg</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a regular file.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdir</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a directory.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;something else.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>How to create an archive and reset the user information using the <em>filter</em>
+parameter in <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile.add" title="tarfile.TarFile.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.add()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;root&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample.tar.gz&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w:gz&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="supported-tar-formats">
+<span id="tar-formats"></span><h2>Supported tar formats<a class="headerlink" href="#supported-tar-formats" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are three tar formats that can be created with the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The POSIX.1-1988 ustar format (<a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT" title="tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USTAR_FORMAT</span></code></a>). It supports filenames
+up to a length of at best 256 characters and linknames up to 100 characters. The
+maximum file size is 8 GiB. This is an old and limited but widely
+supported format.</p></li>
+<li><p>The GNU tar format (<a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.GNU_FORMAT" title="tarfile.GNU_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GNU_FORMAT</span></code></a>). It supports long filenames and
+linknames, files bigger than 8 GiB and sparse files. It is the de facto
+standard on GNU/Linux systems. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> fully supports the GNU tar
+extensions for long names, sparse file support is read-only.</p></li>
+<li><p>The POSIX.1-2001 pax format (<a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.PAX_FORMAT" title="tarfile.PAX_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAX_FORMAT</span></code></a>). It is the most flexible
+format with virtually no limits. It supports long filenames and linknames, large
+files and stores pathnames in a portable way. However, not all tar
+implementations today are able to handle pax archives properly.</p>
+<p>The <em>pax</em> format is an extension to the existing <em>ustar</em> format. It uses extra
+headers for information that cannot be stored otherwise. There are two flavours
+of pax headers: Extended headers only affect the subsequent file header, global
+headers are valid for the complete archive and affect all following files. All
+the data in a pax header is encoded in <em>UTF-8</em> for portability reasons.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>There are some more variants of the tar format which can be read, but not
+created:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The ancient V7 format. This is the first tar format from Unix Seventh Edition,
+storing only regular files and directories. Names must not be longer than 100
+characters, there is no user/group name information. Some archives have
+miscalculated header checksums in case of fields with non-ASCII characters.</p></li>
+<li><p>The SunOS tar extended format. This format is a variant of the POSIX.1-2001
+pax format, but is not compatible.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-issues">
+<span id="tar-unicode"></span><h2>Unicode issues<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-issues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The tar format was originally conceived to make backups on tape drives with the
+main focus on preserving file system information. Nowadays tar archives are
+commonly used for file distribution and exchanging archives over networks. One
+problem of the original format (which is the basis of all other formats) is
+that there is no concept of supporting different character encodings. For
+example, an ordinary tar archive created on a <em>UTF-8</em> system cannot be read
+correctly on a <em>Latin-1</em> system if it contains non-<em>ASCII</em> characters. Textual
+metadata (like filenames, linknames, user/group names) will appear damaged.
+Unfortunately, there is no way to autodetect the encoding of an archive. The
+pax format was designed to solve this problem. It stores non-ASCII metadata
+using the universal character encoding <em>UTF-8</em>.</p>
+<p>The details of character conversion in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> are controlled by the
+<em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> keyword arguments of the <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p><em>encoding</em> defines the character encoding to use for the metadata in the
+archive. The default value is <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ascii'</span></code>
+as a fallback. Depending on whether the archive is read or written, the
+metadata must be either decoded or encoded. If <em>encoding</em> is not set
+appropriately, this conversion may fail.</p>
+<p>The <em>errors</em> argument defines how characters are treated that cannot be
+converted. Possible values are listed in section <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">Error Handlers</span></a>.
+The default scheme is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> which Python also uses for its
+file system calls, see <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os-filenames"><span class="std std-ref">File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables</span></a>.</p>
+<p>In case of <a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile.PAX_FORMAT" title="tarfile.PAX_FORMAT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PAX_FORMAT</span></code></a> archives, <em>encoding</em> is generally not needed
+because all the metadata is stored using <em>UTF-8</em>. <em>encoding</em> is only used in
+the rare cases when binary pax headers are decoded or when strings with
+surrogate characters are stored.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code> — Read and write tar archive files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile-objects">TarFile Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tarinfo-objects">TarInfo Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-options">Command-line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supported-tar-formats">Supported tar formats</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-issues">Unicode issues</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="zipfile.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/telnetlib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/telnetlib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87d2c75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/telnetlib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,430 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>telnetlib — Telnet client &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-telnetlib">
+<span id="telnetlib-telnet-client"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-telnetlib" title="telnetlib: Telnet client class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnetlib</span></code></a> — Telnet client<a class="headerlink" href="#module-telnetlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/telnetlib.py">Lib/telnetlib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-telnetlib" title="telnetlib: Telnet client class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnetlib</span></code></a> module provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#telnetlib.Telnet" title="telnetlib.Telnet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Telnet</span></code></a> class that implements the
+Telnet protocol.  See <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc854.html"><strong>RFC 854</strong></a> for details about the protocol. In addition, it
+provides symbolic constants for the protocol characters (see below), and for the
+telnet options. The symbolic names of the telnet options follow the definitions
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arpa/telnet.h</span></code>, with the leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TELOPT_</span></code> removed. For symbolic names
+of options which are traditionally not included in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arpa/telnet.h</span></code>, see the
+module source itself.</p>
+<p>The symbolic constants for the telnet commands are: IAC, DONT, DO, WONT, WILL,
+SE (Subnegotiation End), NOP (No Operation), DM (Data Mark), BRK (Break), IP
+(Interrupt process), AO (Abort output), AYT (Are You There), EC (Erase
+Character), EL (Erase Line), GA (Go Ahead), SB (Subnegotiation Begin).</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">telnetlib.</code><code class="descname">Telnet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host=None</em>, <em>port=0</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#telnetlib.Telnet" title="telnetlib.Telnet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Telnet</span></code></a> represents a connection to a Telnet server. The instance is
+initially not connected by default; the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> method must be used to
+establish a connection.  Alternatively, the host name and optional port
+number can be passed to the constructor too, in which case the connection to
+the server will be established before the constructor returns.  The optional
+<em>timeout</em> parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations
+like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout
+setting will be used).</p>
+<p>Do not reopen an already connected instance.</p>
+<p>This class has many <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_*()</span></code> methods.  Note that some of them  raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> when the end of the connection is read, because they can return
+an empty string for other reasons.  See the individual descriptions below.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#telnetlib.Telnet" title="telnetlib.Telnet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Telnet</span></code></a> object is a context manager and can be used in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  When the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block ends, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.close" title="telnetlib.Telnet.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method is called:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">telnetlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Telnet</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">Telnet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">interact</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Context manager support added</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc854.html"><strong>RFC 854</strong></a> - Telnet Protocol Specification</dt><dd><p>Definition of the Telnet protocol.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="telnet-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Telnet Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#telnet-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#telnetlib.Telnet" title="telnetlib.Telnet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Telnet</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_until">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_until</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expected</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_until" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read until a given byte string, <em>expected</em>, is encountered or until <em>timeout</em>
+seconds have passed.</p>
+<p>When no match is found, return whatever is available instead, possibly empty
+bytes.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if the connection is closed and no cooked data
+is available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_all">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read all data until EOF as bytes; block until connection closed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_some">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_some</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_some" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read at least one byte of cooked data unless EOF is hit. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> if
+EOF is hit.  Block if no data is immediately available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_eager">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_very_eager</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_eager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read everything that can be without blocking in I/O (eager).</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if connection closed and no cooked data available.
+Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> if no cooked data available otherwise. Do not block unless in
+the midst of an IAC sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_eager">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_eager</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_eager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read readily available data.</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if connection closed and no cooked data available.
+Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> if no cooked data available otherwise. Do not block unless in
+the midst of an IAC sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_lazy">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_lazy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_lazy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process and return data already in the queues (lazy).</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if connection closed and no data available. Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do not block unless in the
+midst of an IAC sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_lazy">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_very_lazy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_very_lazy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return any data available in the cooked queue (very lazy).</p>
+<p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if connection closed and no data available. Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> if no cooked data available otherwise.  This method never blocks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.read_sb_data">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">read_sb_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.read_sb_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the data collected between a SB/SE pair (suboption begin/end). The
+callback should access these data when it was invoked with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SE</span></code> command.
+This method never blocks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.open">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port=0</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Connect to a host. The optional second argument is the port number, which
+defaults to the standard Telnet port (23). The optional <em>timeout</em> parameter
+specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection
+attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used).</p>
+<p>Do not try to reopen an already connected instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.msg">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">msg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.msg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a debug message when the debug level is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> 0. If extra arguments are
+present, they are substituted in the message using the standard string
+formatting operator.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.set_debuglevel">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">set_debuglevel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>debuglevel</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.set_debuglevel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the debug level.  The higher the value of <em>debuglevel</em>, the more debug
+output you get (on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.close">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the connection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.get_socket">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">get_socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.get_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the socket object used internally.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.fileno">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">fileno</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.fileno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the file descriptor of the socket object used internally.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.write">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>buffer</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a byte string to the socket, doubling any IAC characters. This can
+block if the connection is blocked.  May raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the
+connection is closed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This method used to raise <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a>, which is now an alias
+of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.interact">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">interact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.interact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interaction function, emulates a very dumb Telnet client.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.mt_interact">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">mt_interact</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.mt_interact" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Multithreaded version of <a class="reference internal" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.interact" title="telnetlib.Telnet.interact"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interact()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.expect">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">expect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.expect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read until one from a list of a regular expressions matches.</p>
+<p>The first argument is a list of regular expressions, either compiled
+(<a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">regex objects</span></a>) or uncompiled (byte strings). The
+optional second argument is a timeout, in seconds; the default is to block
+indefinitely.</p>
+<p>Return a tuple of three items: the index in the list of the first regular
+expression that matches; the match object returned; and the bytes read up
+till and including the match.</p>
+<p>If end of file is found and no bytes were read, raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a>.
+Otherwise, when nothing matches, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-1,</span> <span class="pre">None,</span> <span class="pre">data)</span></code> where <em>data</em> is
+the bytes received so far (may be empty bytes if a timeout happened).</p>
+<p>If a regular expression ends with a greedy match (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.*</span></code>) or if more
+than one expression can match the same input, the results are
+non-deterministic, and may depend on the I/O timing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="telnetlib.Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback">
+<code class="descclassname">Telnet.</code><code class="descname">set_option_negotiation_callback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib.Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Each time a telnet option is read on the input flow, this <em>callback</em> (if set) is
+called with the following parameters: callback(telnet socket, command
+(DO/DONT/WILL/WONT), option).  No other action is done afterwards by telnetlib.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="telnet-example">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Telnet Example<a class="headerlink" href="#telnet-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A simple example illustrating typical use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">getpass</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">telnetlib</span>
+
+<span class="n">HOST</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">user</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Enter your remote account: &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">password</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getpass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">tn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">telnetlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Telnet</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HOST</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_until</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;login: &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">user</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_until</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Password: &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">password</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;ls</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;exit</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_all</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnetlib</span></code> — Telnet client</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#telnet-objects">Telnet Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#telnet-example">Telnet Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="smtpd.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code> — SMTP Server</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="uuid.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code> — UUID objects according to <strong>RFC 4122</strong></a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tempfile">
+<span id="tempfile-generate-temporary-files-and-directories"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a> — Generate temporary files and directories<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tempfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tempfile.py">Lib/tempfile.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module creates temporary files and directories.  It works on all
+supported platforms. <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.TemporaryFile" title="tempfile.TemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryFile</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile" title="tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedTemporaryFile</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.TemporaryDirectory" title="tempfile.TemporaryDirectory"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryDirectory</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile" title="tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SpooledTemporaryFile</span></code></a> are high-level
+interfaces which provide automatic cleanup and can be used as
+context managers. <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="tempfile.mkdtemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdtemp()</span></code></a> are lower-level functions which require manual cleanup.</p>
+<p>All the user-callable functions and constructors take additional arguments which
+allow direct control over the location and name of temporary files and
+directories. Files names used by this module include a string of
+random characters which allows those files to be securely created in
+shared temporary directories.
+To maintain backward compatibility, the argument order is somewhat odd; it
+is recommended to use keyword arguments for clarity.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following user-callable items:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.TemporaryFile">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">TemporaryFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode='w+b'</em>, <em>buffering=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em>, <em>suffix=None</em>, <em>prefix=None</em>, <em>dir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.TemporaryFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file-like object</span></a> that can be used as a temporary storage area.
+The file is created securely, using the same rules as <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a>. It will be destroyed as soon
+as it is closed (including an implicit close when the object is garbage
+collected).  Under Unix, the directory entry for the file is either not created at all or is removed
+immediately after the file is created.  Other platforms do not support
+this; your code should not rely on a temporary file created using this
+function having or not having a visible name in the file system.</p>
+<p>The resulting object can be used as a context manager (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a>).  On completion of the context or
+destruction of the file object the temporary file will be removed
+from the filesystem.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> parameter defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w+b'</span></code> so that the file created can
+be read and written without being closed.  Binary mode is used so that it
+behaves consistently on all platforms without regard for the data that is
+stored.  <em>buffering</em>, <em>encoding</em> and <em>newline</em> are interpreted as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>dir</em>, <em>prefix</em> and <em>suffix</em> parameters have the same meaning and
+defaults as with <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The returned object is a true file object on POSIX platforms.  On other
+platforms, it is a file-like object whose <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> attribute is the
+underlying true file object.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_TMPFILE" title="os.O_TMPFILE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_TMPFILE</span></code></a> flag is used if it is available and works
+(Linux-specific, requires Linux kernel 3.11 or later).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_TMPFILE" title="os.O_TMPFILE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_TMPFILE</span></code></a> flag is now used if available.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">NamedTemporaryFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode='w+b'</em>, <em>buffering=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em>, <em>suffix=None</em>, <em>prefix=None</em>, <em>dir=None</em>, <em>delete=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function operates exactly as <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.TemporaryFile" title="tempfile.TemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryFile()</span></code></a> does, except that
+the file is guaranteed to have a visible name in the file system (on
+Unix, the directory entry is not unlinked).  That name can be retrieved
+from the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute of the returned
+file-like object.  Whether the name can be
+used to open the file a second time, while the named temporary file is
+still open, varies across platforms (it can be so used on Unix; it cannot
+on Windows NT or later).  If <em>delete</em> is true (the default), the file is
+deleted as soon as it is closed.
+The returned object is always a file-like object whose <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>
+attribute is the underlying true file object. This file-like object can
+be used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, just like a normal file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">SpooledTemporaryFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>max_size=0</em>, <em>mode='w+b'</em>, <em>buffering=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>newline=None</em>, <em>suffix=None</em>, <em>prefix=None</em>, <em>dir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function operates exactly as <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.TemporaryFile" title="tempfile.TemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryFile()</span></code></a> does, except that
+data is spooled in memory until the file size exceeds <em>max_size</em>, or
+until the file’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> method is called, at which point the
+contents are written to disk and operation proceeds as with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.TemporaryFile" title="tempfile.TemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryFile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The resulting file has one additional method, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rollover()</span></code>, which
+causes the file to roll over to an on-disk file regardless of its size.</p>
+<p>The returned object is a file-like object whose <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_file</span></code> attribute
+is either an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> object (depending on
+whether binary or text <em>mode</em> was specified) or a true file
+object, depending on whether <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rollover()</span></code> has been called.  This
+file-like object can be used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, just like
+a normal file.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>the truncate method now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.TemporaryDirectory">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">TemporaryDirectory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix=None</em>, <em>prefix=None</em>, <em>dir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.TemporaryDirectory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function securely creates a temporary directory using the same rules as <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="tempfile.mkdtemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdtemp()</span></code></a>.
+The resulting object can be used as a context manager (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a>).  On completion of the context or destruction
+of the temporary directory object the newly created temporary directory
+and all its contents are removed from the filesystem.</p>
+<p>The directory name can be retrieved from the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute of the
+returned object.  When the returned object is used as a context manager, the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> will be assigned to the target of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> clause in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, if there is one.</p>
+<p>The directory can be explicitly cleaned up by calling the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cleanup()</span></code> method.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.mkstemp">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">mkstemp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix=None</em>, <em>prefix=None</em>, <em>dir=None</em>, <em>text=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a temporary file in the most secure manner possible.  There are
+no race conditions in the file’s creation, assuming that the platform
+properly implements the <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.O_EXCL" title="os.O_EXCL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_EXCL</span></code></a> flag for <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a>.  The
+file is readable and writable only by the creating user ID.  If the
+platform uses permission bits to indicate whether a file is executable,
+the file is executable by no one.  The file descriptor is not inherited
+by child processes.</p>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.TemporaryFile" title="tempfile.TemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryFile()</span></code></a>, the user of <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a> is responsible
+for deleting the temporary file when done with it.</p>
+<p>If <em>suffix</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the file name will end with that suffix,
+otherwise there will be no suffix.  <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a> does not put a dot
+between the file name and the suffix; if you need one, put it at the
+beginning of <em>suffix</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>prefix</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the file name will begin with that prefix;
+otherwise, a default prefix is used.  The default is the return value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.gettempprefix" title="tempfile.gettempprefix"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettempprefix()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.gettempprefixb" title="tempfile.gettempprefixb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettempprefixb()</span></code></a>, as appropriate.</p>
+<p>If <em>dir</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the file will be created in that directory;
+otherwise, a default directory is used.  The default directory is chosen
+from a platform-dependent list, but the user of the application can
+control the directory location by setting the <em>TMPDIR</em>, <em>TEMP</em> or <em>TMP</em>
+environment variables.  There is thus no guarantee that the generated
+filename will have any nice properties, such as not requiring quoting
+when passed to external commands via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If any of <em>suffix</em>, <em>prefix</em>, and <em>dir</em> are not
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, they must be the same type.
+If they are bytes, the returned name will be bytes instead of str.
+If you want to force a bytes return value with otherwise default behavior,
+pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suffix=b''</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>text</em> is specified, it indicates whether to open the file in binary
+mode (the default) or text mode.  On some platforms, this makes no
+difference.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a> returns a tuple containing an OS-level handle to an open
+file (as would be returned by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a>) and the absolute pathname
+of that file, in that order.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>suffix</em>, <em>prefix</em>, and <em>dir</em> may now be supplied in bytes in order to
+obtain a bytes return value.  Prior to this, only str was allowed.
+<em>suffix</em> and <em>prefix</em> now accept and default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to cause
+an appropriate default value to be used.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.mkdtemp">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">mkdtemp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix=None</em>, <em>prefix=None</em>, <em>dir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a temporary directory in the most secure manner possible. There
+are no race conditions in the directory’s creation.  The directory is
+readable, writable, and searchable only by the creating user ID.</p>
+<p>The user of <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="tempfile.mkdtemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdtemp()</span></code></a> is responsible for deleting the temporary
+directory and its contents when done with it.</p>
+<p>The <em>prefix</em>, <em>suffix</em>, and <em>dir</em> arguments are the same as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="tempfile.mkdtemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdtemp()</span></code></a> returns the absolute pathname of the new directory.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>suffix</em>, <em>prefix</em>, and <em>dir</em> may now be supplied in bytes in order to
+obtain a bytes return value.  Prior to this, only str was allowed.
+<em>suffix</em> and <em>prefix</em> now accept and default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to cause
+an appropriate default value to be used.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.gettempdir">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">gettempdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.gettempdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the name of the directory used for temporary files. This
+defines the default value for the <em>dir</em> argument to all functions
+in this module.</p>
+<p>Python searches a standard list of directories to find one which
+the calling user can create files in.  The list is:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>The directory named by the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TMPDIR</span></code> environment variable.</p></li>
+<li><p>The directory named by the <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEMP</span></code> environment variable.</p></li>
+<li><p>The directory named by the <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TMP</span></code> environment variable.</p></li>
+<li><p>A platform-specific location:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>On Windows, the directories <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\TEMP</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\TMP</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\TEMP</span></code>, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\TMP</span></code>, in that order.</p></li>
+<li><p>On all other platforms, the directories <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/tmp</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/var/tmp</span></code>, and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/tmp</span></code>, in that order.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>As a last resort, the current working directory.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The result of this search is cached, see the description of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.tempdir" title="tempfile.tempdir"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempdir</span></code></a> below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.gettempdirb">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">gettempdirb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.gettempdirb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.gettempdir" title="tempfile.gettempdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettempdir()</span></code></a> but the return value is in bytes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.gettempprefix">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">gettempprefix</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.gettempprefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the filename prefix used to create temporary files.  This does not
+contain the directory component.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.gettempprefixb">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">gettempprefixb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.gettempprefixb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.gettempprefix" title="tempfile.gettempprefix"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettempprefix()</span></code></a> but the return value is in bytes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The module uses a global variable to store the name of the directory
+used for temporary files returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.gettempdir" title="tempfile.gettempdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettempdir()</span></code></a>.  It can be
+set directly to override the selection process, but this is discouraged.
+All functions in this module take a <em>dir</em> argument which can be used
+to specify the directory and this is the recommended approach.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tempfile.tempdir">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">tempdir</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.tempdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When set to a value other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, this variable defines the
+default value for the <em>dir</em> argument to the functions defined in this
+module.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempdir</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) at any call to any of the above
+functions except <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.gettempprefix" title="tempfile.gettempprefix"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettempprefix()</span></code></a> it is initialized following the
+algorithm described in <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.gettempdir" title="tempfile.gettempdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettempdir()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="tempfile-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are some examples of typical usage of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tempfile</span>
+
+<span class="go"># create a temporary file and write some data to it</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TemporaryFile</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go"># read data from file</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Hello world!&#39;</span>
+<span class="go"># close the file, it will be removed</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="go"># create a temporary file using a context manager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TemporaryFile</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Hello world!&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="go"># file is now closed and removed</span>
+
+<span class="go"># create a temporary directory using the context manager</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TemporaryDirectory</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tmpdirname</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;created temporary directory&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tmpdirname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="go"># directory and contents have been removed</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-functions-and-variables">
+<h2>Deprecated functions and variables<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-functions-and-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A historical way to create temporary files was to first generate a
+file name with the <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mktemp" title="tempfile.mktemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktemp()</span></code></a> function and then create a file
+using this name. Unfortunately this is not secure, because a different
+process may create a file with this name in the time between the call
+to <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mktemp" title="tempfile.mktemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktemp()</span></code></a> and the subsequent attempt to create the file by the
+first process. The solution is to combine the two steps and create the
+file immediately. This approach is used by <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a> and the
+other functions described above.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tempfile.mktemp">
+<code class="descclassname">tempfile.</code><code class="descname">mktemp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>suffix=''</em>, <em>prefix='tmp'</em>, <em>dir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile.mktemp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 2.3: </span>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Return an absolute pathname of a file that did not exist at the time the
+call is made.  The <em>prefix</em>, <em>suffix</em>, and <em>dir</em> arguments are similar
+to those of <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mkstemp" title="tempfile.mkstemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstemp()</span></code></a>, except that bytes file names, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suffix=None</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix=None</span></code> are not supported.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Use of this function may introduce a security hole in your program.  By
+the time you get around to doing anything with the file name it returns,
+someone else may have beaten you to the punch.  <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.mktemp" title="tempfile.mktemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktemp()</span></code></a> usage can
+be replaced easily with <a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile" title="tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedTemporaryFile()</span></code></a>, passing it the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delete=False</span></code> parameter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NamedTemporaryFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">delete</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/tmp/tmptjujjt&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello World!</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">13</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unlink</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exists</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code> — Generate temporary files and directories</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-functions-and-variables">Deprecated functions and variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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+
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code> — File and Directory Comparisons</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="glob.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code> — Unix style pathname pattern expansion</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/termios.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/termios.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..57a9096
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/termios.html
@@ -0,0 +1,284 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>termios — POSIX style tty control &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-termios">
+<span id="termios-posix-style-tty-control"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-termios" title="termios: POSIX style tty control. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code></a> — POSIX style tty control<a class="headerlink" href="#module-termios" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides an interface to the POSIX calls for tty I/O control. For a
+complete description of these calls, see <em class="manpage">termios(3)</em> Unix manual
+page.  It is only available for those Unix versions that support POSIX
+<em>termios</em> style tty I/O control configured during installation.</p>
+<p>All functions in this module take a file descriptor <em>fd</em> as their first
+argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin.fileno()</span></code>, or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code> itself.</p>
+<p>This module also defines all the constants needed to work with the functions
+provided here; these have the same name as their counterparts in C.  Please
+refer to your system documentation for more information on using these terminal
+control interfaces.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="termios.tcgetattr">
+<code class="descclassname">termios.</code><code class="descname">tcgetattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#termios.tcgetattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list containing the tty attributes for file descriptor <em>fd</em>, as
+follows: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[iflag,</span> <span class="pre">oflag,</span> <span class="pre">cflag,</span> <span class="pre">lflag,</span> <span class="pre">ispeed,</span> <span class="pre">ospeed,</span> <span class="pre">cc]</span></code> where <em>cc</em> is a
+list of the tty special characters (each a string of length 1, except the
+items with indices <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VMIN</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VTIME</span></code>, which are integers when
+these fields are defined).  The interpretation of the flags and the speeds as
+well as the indexing in the <em>cc</em> array must be done using the symbolic
+constants defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-termios" title="termios: POSIX style tty control. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="termios.tcsetattr">
+<code class="descclassname">termios.</code><code class="descname">tcsetattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>when</em>, <em>attributes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#termios.tcsetattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the tty attributes for file descriptor <em>fd</em> from the <em>attributes</em>, which is
+a list like the one returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#termios.tcgetattr" title="termios.tcgetattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tcgetattr()</span></code></a>.  The <em>when</em> argument
+determines when the attributes are changed: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCSANOW</span></code> to change
+immediately, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCSADRAIN</span></code> to change after transmitting all queued output,
+or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCSAFLUSH</span></code> to change after transmitting all queued output and
+discarding all queued input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="termios.tcsendbreak">
+<code class="descclassname">termios.</code><code class="descname">tcsendbreak</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>duration</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#termios.tcsendbreak" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send a break on file descriptor <em>fd</em>.  A zero <em>duration</em> sends a break for
+0.25–0.5 seconds; a nonzero <em>duration</em> has a system dependent meaning.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="termios.tcdrain">
+<code class="descclassname">termios.</code><code class="descname">tcdrain</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#termios.tcdrain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until all output written to file descriptor <em>fd</em> has been transmitted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="termios.tcflush">
+<code class="descclassname">termios.</code><code class="descname">tcflush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>queue</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#termios.tcflush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Discard queued data on file descriptor <em>fd</em>.  The <em>queue</em> selector specifies
+which queue: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCIFLUSH</span></code> for the input queue, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCOFLUSH</span></code> for the
+output queue, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCIOFLUSH</span></code> for both queues.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="termios.tcflow">
+<code class="descclassname">termios.</code><code class="descname">tcflow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>action</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#termios.tcflow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Suspend or resume input or output on file descriptor <em>fd</em>.  The <em>action</em>
+argument can be <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCOOFF</span></code> to suspend output, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCOON</span></code> to restart
+output, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCIOFF</span></code> to suspend input, or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCION</span></code> to restart input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="tty.html#module-tty" title="tty: Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Convenience functions for common terminal control operations.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="termios-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here’s a function that prompts for a password with echoing turned off.  Note the
+technique using a separate <a class="reference internal" href="#termios.tcgetattr" title="termios.tcgetattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tcgetattr()</span></code></a> call and a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> …
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> statement to ensure that the old tty attributes are restored
+exactly no matter what happens:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getpass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prompt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Password: &quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">termios</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+    <span class="n">fd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">old</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tcgetattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tcgetattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">new</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">new</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="o">~</span><span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ECHO</span>          <span class="c1"># lflags</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tcsetattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TCSADRAIN</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">new</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">passwd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tcsetattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">termios</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TCSADRAIN</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">old</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">passwd</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code> — POSIX style tty control</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="crypt.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code> — Function to check Unix passwords</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tty.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code> — Terminal control functions</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-test">
+<span id="test-regression-tests-package-for-python"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> — Regression tests package for Python<a class="headerlink" href="#module-test" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> package is meant for internal use by Python only. It is
+documented for the benefit of the core developers of Python. Any use of
+this package outside of Python’s standard library is discouraged as code
+mentioned here can change or be removed without notice between releases of
+Python.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> package contains all regression tests for Python as well as the
+modules <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.regrtest</span></code>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> is used to enhance your tests while
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.regrtest</span></code> drives the testing suite.</p>
+<p>Each module in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> package whose name starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_</span></code> is a
+testing suite for a specific module or feature. All new tests should be written
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module.  Some older tests are
+written using a “traditional” testing style that compares output printed to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>; this style of test is considered deprecated.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Writing PyUnit regression tests.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Tests embedded in documentation strings.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package">
+<span id="writing-tests"></span><h2>Writing Unit Tests for the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> package<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is preferred that tests that use the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module follow a few
+guidelines. One is to name the test module by starting it with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_</span></code> and end
+it with the name of the module being tested. The test methods in the test module
+should start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_</span></code> and end with a description of what the method is
+testing. This is needed so that the methods are recognized by the test driver as
+test methods. Also, no documentation string for the method should be included. A
+comment (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span> <span class="pre">Tests</span> <span class="pre">function</span> <span class="pre">returns</span> <span class="pre">only</span> <span class="pre">True</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">False</span></code>) should be used
+to provide documentation for test methods. This is done because documentation
+strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test is being run is not
+stated.</p>
+<p>A basic boilerplate is often used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">test</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">support</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTestCase1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">execute</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">preparation</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tearDown</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">execute</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">clean</span> <span class="n">up</span> <span class="n">after</span> <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_feature_one</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Test feature one.</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">testing</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_feature_two</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Test feature two.</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">testing</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">more</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="n">methods</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTestCase2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">same</span> <span class="n">structure</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">MyTestCase1</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">more</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="n">classes</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.regrtest</span></code>,
+on its own as a script that supports the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> CLI, or via the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">unittest</span></code> CLI.</p>
+<p>The goal for regression testing is to try to break code. This leads to a few
+guidelines to be followed:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and constants. This
+includes not just the external API that is to be presented to the outside
+world but also “private” code.</p></li>
+<li><p>Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests are being
+written) is preferred. Blackbox testing (testing only the published user
+interface) is not complete enough to make sure all boundary and edge cases
+are tested.</p></li>
+<li><p>Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones. This makes
+sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but also that improper
+values are handled correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p>Exhaust as many code paths as possible. Test where branching occurs and thus
+tailor input to make sure as many different paths through the code are taken.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code. This will
+make sure that the error does not crop up again if the code is changed in the
+future.</p></li>
+<li><p>Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove all temporary
+files).</p></li>
+<li><p>If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating system then
+verify the condition already exists before attempting the test.</p></li>
+<li><p>Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible. This
+minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes possible anomalous
+behavior from side-effects of importing a module.</p></li>
+<li><p>Try to maximize code reuse. On occasion, tests will vary by something as small
+as what type of input is used. Minimize code duplication by subclassing a
+basic test class with a class that specifies the input:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="n">func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mySuperWhammyFunction</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AcceptLists</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AcceptStrings</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AcceptTuples</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit from
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a> are run as tests.  The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mixin</span></code> class in the example above
+does not have any data and so can’t be run by itself, thus it does not
+inherit from <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Test Driven Development</dt><dd><p>A book by Kent Beck on writing tests before code.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-tests-using-the-command-line-interface">
+<span id="regrtest"></span><h2>Running tests using the command-line interface<a class="headerlink" href="#running-tests-using-the-command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> package can be run as a script to drive Python’s regression
+test suite, thanks to the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> option: <strong class="program">python -m test</strong>. Under
+the hood, it uses <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.regrtest</span></code>; the call <strong class="program">python -m
+test.regrtest</strong> used in previous Python versions still works.  Running the
+script by itself automatically starts running all regression tests in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> package. It does this by finding all modules in the package whose
+name starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_</span></code>, importing them, and executing the function
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_main()</span></code> if present or loading the tests via
+unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_main</span></code> does not exist.  The
+names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script. Specifying a single
+regression test (<strong class="program">python -m test test_spam</strong>) will minimize output and
+only print whether the test passed or failed.</p>
+<p>Running <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> directly allows what resources are available for
+tests to use to be set. You do this by using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-u</span></code> command-line
+option. Specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all</span></code> as the value for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-u</span></code> option enables all
+possible resources: <strong class="program">python -m test -uall</strong>.
+If all but one resource is desired (a more common case), a
+comma-separated list of resources that are not desired may be listed after
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all</span></code>. The command <strong class="program">python -m test -uall,-audio,-largefile</strong>
+will run <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code></a> with all resources except the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audio</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">largefile</span></code> resources. For a list of all resources and more command-line
+options, run <strong class="program">python -m test -h</strong>.</p>
+<p>Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform the
+tests are being executed on. On Unix, you can run <strong class="program">make test</strong> at the
+top-level directory where Python was built. On Windows,
+executing <strong class="program">rt.bat</strong> from your <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild</span></code> directory will run all
+regression tests.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-test.support">
+<span id="test-support-utilities-for-the-python-test-suite"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> — Utilities for the Python test suite<a class="headerlink" href="#module-test.support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> module provides support for Python’s regression
+test suite.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> is not a public module.  It is documented here to help
+Python developers write tests.  The API of this module is subject to change
+without backwards compatibility concerns between releases.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This module defines the following exceptions:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="test.support.TestFailed">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TestFailed</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TestFailed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception to be raised when a test fails. This is deprecated in favor of
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>-based tests and <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a>’s assertion
+methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="test.support.ResourceDenied">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">ResourceDenied</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.ResourceDenied" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a>. Raised when a resource (such as a
+network connection) is not available. Raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.requires" title="test.support.requires"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">requires()</span></code></a>
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> module defines the following constants:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.verbose">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">verbose</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.verbose" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when verbose output is enabled. Should be checked when more
+detailed information is desired about a running test. <em>verbose</em> is set by
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.regrtest</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.is_jython">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">is_jython</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.is_jython" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the running interpreter is Jython.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.is_android">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">is_android</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.is_android" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the system is Android.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.unix_shell">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">unix_shell</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.unix_shell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.FS_NONASCII">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">FS_NONASCII</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.FS_NONASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A non-ASCII character encodable by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TESTFN">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TESTFN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TESTFN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file.  Any
+temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked (removed).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TESTFN_UNICODE">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TESTFN_UNICODE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TESTFN_UNICODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TESTFN_ENCODING">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TESTFN_ENCODING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TESTFN_ENCODING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TESTFN_UNENCODABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded by file
+system encoding in strict mode.  It may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if it’s not possible to
+generate such a filename.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TESTFN_UNDECODABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be decoded by
+file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if it’s not
+possible to generate such a filename.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TESTFN_NONASCII">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TESTFN_NONASCII</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TESTFN_NONASCII" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to a filename containing the <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.FS_NONASCII" title="test.support.FS_NONASCII"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FS_NONASCII</span></code></a> character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.IPV6_ENABLED">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">IPV6_ENABLED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.IPV6_ENABLED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if IPV6 is enabled on this host, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.SAVEDCWD">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">SAVEDCWD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.SAVEDCWD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.getcwd" title="os.getcwd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwd()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.PGO">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">PGO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.PGO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">PIPE_MAX_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer size,
+to make writes blocking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">SOCK_MAX_SIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket buffer size,
+to make writes blocking.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TEST_SUPPORT_DIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to the top level directory that contains <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TEST_HOME_DIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to the top level directory for the test package.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TEST_DATA_DIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code> directory within the test package.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">MAX_Py_ssize_t</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a> for big memory tests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.max_memuse">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">max_memuse</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.max_memuse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set by <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.set_memlimit" title="test.support.set_memlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_memlimit()</span></code></a> as the memory limit for big memory tests.
+Limited by <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t" title="test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAX_Py_ssize_t</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.real_max_memuse">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">real_max_memuse</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.real_max_memuse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set by <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.set_memlimit" title="test.support.set_memlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_memlimit()</span></code></a> as the memory limit for big memory tests.  Not
+limited by <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t" title="test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAX_Py_ssize_t</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if running on CPython, not on Windows, and configuration
+not set with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WITH_DOC_STRINGS</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">HAVE_DOCSTRINGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check for presence of docstrings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TEST_HTTP_URL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.forget">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">forget</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.forget" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the module named <em>module_name</em> from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> and delete any
+byte-compiled files of the module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.unload">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">unload</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.unload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete <em>name</em> from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.unlink">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">unlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.unlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.unlink()</span></code></a> on <em>filename</em>.  On Windows platforms, this is
+wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence fo the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.rmdir">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">rmdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.rmdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rmdir()</span></code></a> on <em>filename</em>.  On Windows platforms, this is
+wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.rmtree">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">rmtree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.rmtree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call <a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.rmtree()</span></code></a> on <em>path</em> or call <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rmdir()</span></code></a> to remove a path and its contents.  On Windows platforms,
+this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the files.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.make_legacy_pyc">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">make_legacy_pyc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.make_legacy_pyc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move a PEP 3147/488 pyc file to its legacy pyc location and return the file
+system path to the legacy pyc file.  The <em>source</em> value is the file system
+path to the source file.  It does not need to exist, however the PEP
+3147/488 pyc file must exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.is_resource_enabled">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">is_resource_enabled</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.is_resource_enabled" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>resource</em> is enabled and available. The list of
+available resources is only set when <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.regrtest</span></code> is executing the
+tests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.python_is_optimized">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">python_is_optimized</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.python_is_optimized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if Python was not built with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O0</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Og</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.with_pymalloc">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">with_pymalloc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.with_pymalloc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.ResourceDenied" title="test.support.ResourceDenied"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceDenied</span></code></a> if <em>resource</em> is not available. <em>msg</em> is the
+argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.ResourceDenied" title="test.support.ResourceDenied"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceDenied</span></code></a> if it is raised. Always returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if called by a function whose <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__main__'</span></code>.
+Used when tests are executed by <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.regrtest</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.system_must_validate_cert">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">system_must_validate_cert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.system_must_validate_cert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a> on TLS certification validation failures.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.sortdict">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">sortdict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.sortdict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a repr of <em>dict</em> with keys sorted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.findfile">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">findfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>subdir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.findfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the path to the file named <em>filename</em>. If no match is found
+<em>filename</em> is returned. This does not equal a failure since it could be the
+path to the file.</p>
+<p>Setting <em>subdir</em> indicates a relative path to use to find the file
+rather than looking directly in the path directories.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.create_empty_file">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">create_empty_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.create_empty_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an empty file with <em>filename</em>.  If it already exists, truncate it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.fd_count">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">fd_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.fd_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Count the number of open file descriptors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.match_test">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">match_test</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.match_test" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Match <em>test</em> to patterns set in <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.set_match_tests" title="test.support.set_match_tests"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_match_tests()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.set_match_tests">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">set_match_tests</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>patterns</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.set_match_tests" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Define match test with regular expression <em>patterns</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.run_unittest">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">run_unittest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*classes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.run_unittest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a> subclasses passed to the function. The
+function scans the classes for methods starting with the prefix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_</span></code>
+and executes the tests individually.</p>
+<p>It is also legal to pass strings as parameters; these should be keys in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>. Each associated module will be scanned by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()</span></code>. This is usually seen in the
+following <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_main()</span></code> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_main</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">support</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_unittest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will run all tests defined in the named module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.run_doctest">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">run_doctest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em>, <em>verbosity=None</em>, <em>optionflags=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.run_doctest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.testmod()</span></code></a> on the given <em>module</em>.  Return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(failure_count,</span> <span class="pre">test_count)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <em>verbosity</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.testmod()</span></code></a> is run with verbosity
+set to <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.verbose" title="test.support.verbose"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, it is run with verbosity set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <em>optionflags</em> is passed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optionflags</span></code> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.testmod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.setswitchinterval">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">setswitchinterval</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>interval</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.setswitchinterval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.setswitchinterval" title="sys.setswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setswitchinterval()</span></code></a> to the given <em>interval</em>.  Defines
+a minimum interval for Android systems to prevent the system from hanging.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.check_impl_detail">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">check_impl_detail</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**guards</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.check_impl_detail" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use this check to guard CPython’s implementation-specific tests or to
+run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">check_impl_detail</span><span class="p">()</span>               <span class="c1"># Only on CPython (default).</span>
+<span class="n">check_impl_detail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">jython</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># Only on Jython.</span>
+<span class="n">check_impl_detail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cpython</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Everywhere except CPython.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.check_warnings">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">check_warnings</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*filters</em>, <em>quiet=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.check_warnings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A convenience wrapper for <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#warnings.catch_warnings" title="warnings.catch_warnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.catch_warnings()</span></code></a> that makes it
+easier to test that a warning was correctly raised.  It is approximately
+equivalent to calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)</span></code> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#warnings.simplefilter" title="warnings.simplefilter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.simplefilter()</span></code></a> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">always</span></code> and with the option to
+automatically validate the results that are recorded.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_warnings</span></code> accepts 2-tuples of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(&quot;message</span> <span class="pre">regexp&quot;,</span>
+<span class="pre">WarningCategory)</span></code> as positional arguments. If one or more <em>filters</em> are
+provided, or if the optional keyword argument <em>quiet</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>,
+it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected:  each specified filter
+must match at least one of the warnings raised by the enclosed code or the
+test fails, and if any warnings are raised that do not match any of the
+specified filters the test fails.  To disable the first of these checks,
+set <em>quiet</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If no arguments are specified, it defaults to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">check_warnings</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">Warning</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">quiet</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised.</p>
+<p>On entry to the context manager, a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WarningRecorder</span></code> instance is
+returned. The underlying warnings list from
+<a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#warnings.catch_warnings" title="warnings.catch_warnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catch_warnings()</span></code></a> is available via the recorder object’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> attribute.  As a convenience, the attributes of the object
+representing the most recent warning can also be accessed directly through
+the recorder object (see example below).  If no warning has been raised,
+then any of the attributes that would otherwise be expected on an object
+representing a warning will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The recorder object also has a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset()</span></code> method, which clears the
+warnings list.</p>
+<p>The context manager is designed to be used like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">check_warnings</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;assertion is always true&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">SyntaxWarning</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">UserWarning</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+    <span class="n">exec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;assert(False, &quot;Hey!&quot;)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">UserWarning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hide me!&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other warning was
+raised, <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.check_warnings" title="test.support.check_warnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_warnings()</span></code></a> would raise an error.</p>
+<p>When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather than
+just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can be used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">check_warnings</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">quiet</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">w</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warnings</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warnings</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warnings</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the captured
+warnings directly.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>New optional arguments <em>filters</em> and <em>quiet</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.check_no_resource_warning">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">check_no_resource_warning</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>testcase</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.check_no_resource_warning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Context manager to check that no <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> was raised.  You
+must remove the object which may emit <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> before the
+end of the context manager.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.set_memlimit">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">set_memlimit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>limit</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.set_memlimit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the values for <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.max_memuse" title="test.support.max_memuse"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_memuse</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.real_max_memuse" title="test.support.real_max_memuse"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real_max_memuse</span></code></a> for big
+memory tests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.record_original_stdout">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">record_original_stdout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stdout</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.record_original_stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Store the value from <em>stdout</em>.  It is meant to hold the stdout at the
+time the regrtest began.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.get_original_stdout">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">get_original_stdout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.get_original_stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the original stdout set by <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.record_original_stdout" title="test.support.record_original_stdout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">record_original_stdout()</span></code></a> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> if it’s not set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.strip_python_strerr">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">strip_python_strerr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stderr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.strip_python_strerr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Strip the <em>stderr</em> of a Python process from potential debug output
+emitted by the interpreter.  This will typically be run on the result of
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.communicate" title="subprocess.Popen.communicate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen.communicate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">args_from_interpreter_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current settings
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">optim_args_from_interpreter_flags</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
+optimization settings in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.captured_stdin">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">captured_stdin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.captured_stdin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="test.support.captured_stdout">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">captured_stdout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.captured_stdout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="test.support.captured_stderr">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">captured_stderr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.captured_stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Example use with output streams:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">captured_stdout</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">captured_stderr</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;error&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hello</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;error</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example use with input stream:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">captured_stdin</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># call test code that consumes from sys.stdin</span>
+    <span class="n">captured</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">captured</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hello&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.temp_dir">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">temp_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=None</em>, <em>quiet=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.temp_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that creates a temporary directory at <em>path</em> and
+yields the directory.</p>
+<p>If <em>path</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the temporary directory is created using
+<a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="tempfile.mkdtemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.mkdtemp()</span></code></a>.  If <em>quiet</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the context manager
+raises an exception on error.  Otherwise, if <em>path</em> is specified and
+cannot be created, only a warning is issued.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.change_cwd">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">change_cwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em>, <em>quiet=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.change_cwd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that temporarily changes the current working
+directory to <em>path</em> and yields the directory.</p>
+<p>If <em>quiet</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the context manager raises an exception
+on error.  Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current
+working directory the same.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.temp_cwd">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">temp_cwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name='tempcwd'</em>, <em>quiet=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.temp_cwd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and
+changes the current working directory (CWD).</p>
+<p>The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current
+directory with name <em>name</em> before temporarily changing the current
+working directory.  If <em>name</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the temporary directory is
+created using <a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#tempfile.mkdtemp" title="tempfile.mkdtemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.mkdtemp()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>quiet</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and it is not possible to create or change
+the CWD, an error is raised.  Otherwise, only a warning is raised
+and the original CWD is used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.temp_umask">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">temp_umask</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>umask</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.temp_umask" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.transient_internet">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">transient_internet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource_name</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>timeout=30.0</em>, <em>errnos=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.transient_internet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that raises <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.ResourceDenied" title="test.support.ResourceDenied"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceDenied</span></code></a> when various issues
+with the internet connection manifest themselves as exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.disable_faulthandler">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">disable_faulthandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.disable_faulthandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that replaces <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__stderr__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.gc_collect">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">gc_collect</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.gc_collect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force as many objects as possible to be collected.  This is needed because
+timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage collector.  This means
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__</span></code> methods may be called later than expected and weakrefs
+may remain alive for longer than expected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.disable_gc">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">disable_gc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.disable_gc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that disables the garbage collector upon entry and
+reenables it upon exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.swap_attr">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">swap_attr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>attr</em>, <em>new_val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.swap_attr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object.</p>
+<p>Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">swap_attr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;attr&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.attr</span></code> to 5 for the duration of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block,
+restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attr</span></code> doesn’t
+exist on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code>, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the
+block.</p>
+<p>The old value (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to the
+target of the “as” clause, if there is one.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.swap_item">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">swap_item</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>attr</em>, <em>new_val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.swap_item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Context manager to swap out an item with a new object.</p>
+<p>Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">swap_item</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;item&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[&quot;item&quot;]</span></code> to 5 for the duration of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block,
+restoring the old value at the end of the block. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">item</span></code> doesn’t
+exist on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code>, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the
+block.</p>
+<p>The old value (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to the
+target of the “as” clause, if there is one.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.wait_threads_exit">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">wait_threads_exit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=60.0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.wait_threads_exit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Context manager to wait until all threads created in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement
+exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.start_threads">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">start_threads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>threads</em>, <em>unlock=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.start_threads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Context manager to start <em>threads</em>.  It attempts to join the threads upon
+exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.calcobjsize">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">calcobjsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fmt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.calcobjsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#struct.calcsize" title="struct.calcsize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.calcsize()</span></code></a> for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nP{fmt}0n</span></code> or, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettotalrefcount</span></code>
+exists, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2PnP{fmt}0P</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.calcvobjsize">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">calcvobjsize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fmt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.calcvobjsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#struct.calcsize" title="struct.calcsize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.calcsize()</span></code></a> for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nPn{fmt}0n</span></code> or, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettotalrefcount</span></code>
+exists, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2PnPn{fmt}0P</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.checksizeof">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">checksizeof</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>o</em>, <em>size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.checksizeof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For testcase <em>test</em>, assert that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getsizeof</span></code> for <em>o</em> plus the GC
+header size equals <em>size</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.can_symlink">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">can_symlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.can_symlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the OS supports symbolic links, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.can_xattr">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">can_xattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.can_xattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the OS supports xattr, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.skip_unless_symlink">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">skip_unless_symlink</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.skip_unless_symlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic links.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.skip_unless_xattr">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">skip_unless_xattr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.skip_unless_xattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">skip_unless_bind_unix_socket</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A decorator for running tests that require a functional bind() for Unix
+sockets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.anticipate_failure">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">anticipate_failure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>condition</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.anticipate_failure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A decorator to conditionally mark tests with
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.expectedFailure" title="unittest.expectedFailure"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.expectedFailure()</span></code></a>. Any use of this decorator should
+have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.run_with_locale">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">run_with_locale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>catstr</em>, <em>*locales</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.run_with_locale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly
+resetting it after it has finished.  <em>catstr</em> is the locale category as
+a string (for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;LC_ALL&quot;</span></code>).  The <em>locales</em> passed will be tried
+sequentially, and the first valid locale will be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.run_with_tz">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">run_with_tz</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tz</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.run_with_tz" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone, correctly
+resetting it after it has finished.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_freebsd_version">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_freebsd_version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*min_version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_freebsd_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD.  If the
+FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, raise <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_linux_version">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_linux_version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*min_version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_linux_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux.  If the
+Linux version is less than the minimum, raise <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_mac_version">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_mac_version</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*min_version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_mac_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Mac OS X.  If the
+MAC OS X version is less than the minimum, raise <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_IEEE_754">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_IEEE_754</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_IEEE_754" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_zlib">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_zlib</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_zlib" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for skipping tests if <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> doesn’t exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_gzip">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_gzip</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_gzip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for skipping tests if <a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> doesn’t exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_bz2">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_bz2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_bz2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for skipping tests if <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> doesn’t exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_lzma">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_lzma</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_lzma" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for skipping tests if <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> doesn’t exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_resource">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_resource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>resource</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_resource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for skipping tests if <em>resource</em> is not available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.requires_docstrings">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">requires_docstrings</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.requires_docstrings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for only running the test if <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS" title="test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAVE_DOCSTRINGS</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.cpython_only">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">cpython_only</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.cpython_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.impl_detail">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">impl_detail</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg=None</em>, <em>**guards</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.impl_detail" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for invoking <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.check_impl_detail" title="test.support.check_impl_detail"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_impl_detail()</span></code></a> on <em>guards</em>.  If that
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, then uses <em>msg</em> as the reason for skipping the test.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.no_tracing">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">no_tracing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.no_tracing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the test.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.refcount_test">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">refcount_test</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.refcount_test" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for tests which involve reference counting.  The decorator does
+not run the test if it is not run by CPython.  Any trace function is unset
+for the duration of the test to prevent unexpected refcounts caused by
+the trace function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.reap_threads">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">reap_threads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.reap_threads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test fails.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.bigmemtest">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">bigmemtest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size</em>, <em>memuse</em>, <em>dry_run=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.bigmemtest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for bigmem tests.</p>
+<p><em>size</em> is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary, test-interpreted
+units.)  <em>memuse</em> is the number of bytes per unit for the test, or a good
+estimate of it.  For example, a test that needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB
+each, could be decorated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;bigmemtest(size=_4G,</span> <span class="pre">memuse=2)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>size</em> argument is normally passed to the decorated test method as an
+extra argument.  If <em>dry_run</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the value passed to the test
+method may be less than the requested value.  If <em>dry_run</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, it
+means the test doesn’t support dummy runs when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-M</span></code> is not specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.bigaddrspacetest">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">bigaddrspacetest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.bigaddrspacetest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator for tests that fill the address space.  <em>f</em> is the function to
+wrap.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.make_bad_fd">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">make_bad_fd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.make_bad_fd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a temporary file,
+and returning its descriptor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.check_syntax_error">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">check_syntax_error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>testcase</em>, <em>statement</em>, <em>errtext=''</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>lineno=None</em>, <em>offset=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.check_syntax_error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test for syntax errors in <em>statement</em> by attempting to compile <em>statement</em>.
+<em>testcase</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> instance for the test.  <em>errtext</em> is the
+text of the error raised by <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.  If <em>lineno</em> is not None,
+compares to the line of the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.  If <em>offset</em> is not None,
+compares to the offset of the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.open_urlresource">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">open_urlresource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.open_urlresource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open <em>url</em>.  If open fails, raises <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.TestFailed" title="test.support.TestFailed"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestFailed</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.import_module">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">import_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>deprecated=False</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>required_on()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.import_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function imports and returns the named module. Unlike a normal
+import, this function raises <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a> if the module
+cannot be imported.</p>
+<p>Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import
+if <em>deprecated</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  If a module is required on a platform but
+optional for others, set <em>required_on</em> to an iterable of platform prefixes
+which will be compared against <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.platform" title="sys.platform"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.import_fresh_module">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">import_fresh_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>fresh=()</em>, <em>blocked=()</em>, <em>deprecated=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.import_fresh_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python module
+by removing the named module from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> before doing the import.
+Note that unlike <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code>, the original module is not affected by
+this operation.</p>
+<p><em>fresh</em> is an iterable of additional module names that are also removed
+from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> cache before doing the import.</p>
+<p><em>blocked</em> is an iterable of module names that are replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+in the module cache during the import to ensure that attempts to import
+them raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The named module and any modules named in the <em>fresh</em> and <em>blocked</em>
+parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted into
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> when the fresh import is complete.</p>
+<p>Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import
+if <em>deprecated</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This function will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> if the named module cannot be
+imported.</p>
+<p>Example use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the</span>
+<span class="c1"># version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the</span>
+<span class="c1"># C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback</span>
+<span class="c1"># implementation</span>
+<span class="n">py_warnings</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">import_fresh_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;warnings&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blocked</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;_warnings&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">c_warnings</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">import_fresh_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;warnings&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fresh</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;_warnings&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.modules_setup">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">modules_setup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.modules_setup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a copy of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.modules_cleanup">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">modules_cleanup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>oldmodules</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.modules_cleanup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove modules except for <em>oldmodules</em> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings</span></code> in order to
+preserve internal cache.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.threading_setup">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">threading_setup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.threading_setup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.threading_cleanup">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">threading_cleanup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*original_values</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.threading_cleanup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cleanup up threads not specified in <em>original_values</em>.  Designed to emit
+a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.join_thread">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">join_thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>thread</em>, <em>timeout=30.0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.join_thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Join a <em>thread</em> within <em>timeout</em>.  Raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> if thread
+is still alive after <em>timeout</em> seconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.reap_children">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">reap_children</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.reap_children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Use this at the end of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_main</span></code> whenever sub-processes are started.
+This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies) stick around to
+hog resources and create problems when looking for refleaks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.get_attribute">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">get_attribute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.get_attribute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get an attribute, raising <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>
+is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.bind_port">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">bind_port</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>host=HOST</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.bind_port" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number.  Relies on
+ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port.  This is
+important as many tests may be running simultaneously, especially in a
+buildbot environment.  This method raises an exception if the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock.family</span></code> is <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock.type</span></code> is
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>, and the socket has
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_REUSEADDR</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_REUSEPORT</span></code> set on it.
+Tests should never set these socket options for TCP/IP sockets.
+The only case for setting these options is testing multicasting via
+multiple UDP sockets.</p>
+<p>Additionally, if the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE</span></code> socket option is
+available (i.e. on Windows), it will be set on the socket.  This will
+prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the duration of the
+test.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.bind_unix_socket">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">bind_unix_socket</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sock</em>, <em>addr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.bind_unix_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind a unix socket, raising <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a> if
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.find_unused_port">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">find_unused_port</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>family=socket.AF_INET</em>, <em>socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.find_unused_port" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding.  This is
+achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and type as
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sock</span></code> parameter (default is <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.AF_INET" title="socket.AF_INET"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_INET</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a>),
+and binding it to the specified host address (defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0.0.0</span></code>)
+with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused ephemeral port from the OS.
+The temporary socket is then closed and deleted, and the ephemeral port is
+returned.</p>
+<p>Either this method or <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.bind_port" title="test.support.bind_port"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind_port()</span></code></a> should be used for any tests
+where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular port for the
+duration of the test.
+Which one to use depends on whether the calling code is creating a Python
+socket, or if an unused port needs to be provided in a constructor
+or passed to an external program (i.e. the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-accept</span></code> argument to
+openssl’s s_server mode).  Always prefer <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.bind_port" title="test.support.bind_port"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind_port()</span></code></a> over
+<a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.find_unused_port" title="test.support.find_unused_port"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_unused_port()</span></code></a> where possible.  Using a hard coded port is
+discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test impossible to
+run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.load_package_tests">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">load_package_tests</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pkg_dir</em>, <em>loader</em>, <em>standard_tests</em>, <em>pattern</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.load_package_tests" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generic implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> protocol for
+use in test packages.  <em>pkg_dir</em> is the root directory of the package;
+<em>loader</em>, <em>standard_tests</em>, and <em>pattern</em> are the arguments expected by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code>.  In simple cases, the test package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>
+can be the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">test.support</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">load_package_tests</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load_tests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">load_package_tests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dirname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.fs_is_case_insensitive">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">fs_is_case_insensitive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>directory</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.fs_is_case_insensitive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the file system for <em>directory</em> is case-insensitive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.detect_api_mismatch">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">detect_api_mismatch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>ref_api</em>, <em>other_api</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>ignore=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.detect_api_mismatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of <em>ref_api</em> not
+found on <em>other_api</em>, except for a defined list of items to be
+ignored in this check specified in <em>ignore</em>.</p>
+<p>By default this skips private attributes beginning with ‘_’ but
+includes all magic methods, i.e. those starting and ending in ‘__’.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.patch">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">patch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test_instance</em>, <em>object_to_patch</em>, <em>attr_name</em>, <em>new_value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.patch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Override <em>object_to_patch.attr_name</em> with <em>new_value</em>.  Also add
+cleanup procedure to <em>test_instance</em> to restore <em>object_to_patch</em> for
+<em>attr_name</em>.  The <em>attr_name</em> should be a valid attribute for
+<em>object_to_patch</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.run_in_subinterp">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">run_in_subinterp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>code</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.run_in_subinterp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run <em>code</em> in subinterpreter.  Raise <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.SkipTest</span></code></a> if
+<a class="reference internal" href="tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> is enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.check_free_after_iterating">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">check_free_after_iterating</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>iter</em>, <em>cls</em>, <em>args=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.check_free_after_iterating" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert that <em>iter</em> is deallocated after iterating.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.missing_compiler_executable">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">missing_compiler_executable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd_names=[]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.missing_compiler_executable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are listed
+in <em>cmd_names</em> or all the compiler executables when <em>cmd_names</em> is empty
+and return the first missing executable or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when none is found
+missing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.check__all__">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">check__all__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test_case</em>, <em>module</em>, <em>name_of_module=None</em>, <em>extra=()</em>, <em>blacklist=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.check__all__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> variable of <em>module</em> contains all public names.</p>
+<p>The module’s public names (its API) are detected automatically
+based on whether they match the public name convention and were defined in
+<em>module</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>name_of_module</em> argument can specify (as a string or tuple thereof) what
+module(s) an API could be defined in order to be detected as a public
+API. One case for this is when <em>module</em> imports part of its public API from
+other modules, possibly a C backend (like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code> and its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_csv</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <em>extra</em> argument can be a set of names that wouldn’t otherwise be automatically
+detected as “public”, like objects without a proper <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code>
+attribute. If provided, it will be added to the automatically detected ones.</p>
+<p>The <em>blacklist</em> argument can be a set of names that must not be treated as part of
+the public API even though their names indicate otherwise.</p>
+<p>Example use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">bar</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">foo</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">test</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">support</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MiscTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test__all__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">support</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check__all__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">OtherTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test__all__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">extra</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;BAR_CONST&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FOO_CONST&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+        <span class="n">blacklist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>  <span class="c1"># Undocumented name.</span>
+        <span class="c1"># bar imports part of its API from _bar.</span>
+        <span class="n">support</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check__all__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;_bar&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                             <span class="n">extra</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">extra</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blacklist</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">blacklist</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> module defines the following classes:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.TransientResource">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TransientResource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TransientResource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances are a context manager that raises <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.ResourceDenied" title="test.support.ResourceDenied"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceDenied</span></code></a> if the
+specified exception type is raised.  Any keyword arguments are treated as
+attribute/value pairs to be compared against any exception raised within the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  Only if all pairs match properly against
+attributes on the exception is <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.ResourceDenied" title="test.support.ResourceDenied"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceDenied</span></code></a> raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">EnvironmentVarGuard</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables.  Instances can
+be used as a context manager and have a complete dictionary interface for
+querying/modifying the underlying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>. After exit from the
+context manager all changes to environment variables done through this
+instance will be rolled back.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added dictionary interface.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.set">
+<code class="descclassname">EnvironmentVarGuard.</code><code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>envvar</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Temporarily set the environment variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">envvar</span></code> to the value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.unset">
+<code class="descclassname">EnvironmentVarGuard.</code><code class="descname">unset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>envvar</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.EnvironmentVarGuard.unset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Temporarily unset the environment variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">envvar</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.SuppressCrashReport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">SuppressCrashReport</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.SuppressCrashReport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on tests that
+are expected to crash a subprocess.</p>
+<p>On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx">SetErrorMode</a>.</p>
+<p>On UNIX, <a class="reference internal" href="resource.html#resource.setrlimit" title="resource.setrlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource.setrlimit()</span></code></a> is used to set
+<a class="reference internal" href="resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_CORE" title="resource.RLIMIT_CORE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource.RLIMIT_CORE</span></code></a>’s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump file
+creation.</p>
+<p>On both platforms, the old value is restored by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.CleanImport">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">CleanImport</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*module_names</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.CleanImport" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager to force import to return a new module reference.  This
+is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the emission of a
+DeprecationWarning on import.  Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">CleanImport</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">import_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># New reference.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.DirsOnSysPath">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">DirsOnSysPath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*paths</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.DirsOnSysPath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager to temporarily add directories to sys.path.</p>
+<p>This makes a copy of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, appends any directories given
+as positional arguments, then reverts <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> to the copied
+settings when the context ends.</p>
+<p>Note that <em>all</em> <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> modifications in the body of the
+context manager, including replacement of the object,
+will be reverted at the end of the block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.SaveSignals">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">SaveSignals</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.SaveSignals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python signal
+handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.Matcher">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">Matcher</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.Matcher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="test.support.Matcher.matches">
+<code class="descname">matches</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>d</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.Matcher.matches" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="test.support.Matcher.match_value">
+<code class="descname">match_value</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>k</em>, <em>dv</em>, <em>v</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.Matcher.match_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Try to match a single stored value (<em>dv</em>) with a supplied value (<em>v</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.WarningsRecorder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">WarningsRecorder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.WarningsRecorder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class used to record warnings for unit tests. See documentation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.check_warnings" title="test.support.check_warnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_warnings()</span></code></a> above for more details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.BasicTestRunner">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">BasicTestRunner</code><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.BasicTestRunner" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="test.support.BasicTestRunner.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.BasicTestRunner.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run <em>test</em> and return the result.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.TestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">TestHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>logging.handlers.BufferingHandler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.TestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class for logging support.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="test.support.FakePath">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">test.support.</code><code class="descname">FakePath</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.FakePath" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Simple <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.  It implements the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__fspath__()</span></code>
+method which just returns the <em>path</em> argument.  If <em>path</em> is an exception,
+it will be raised in <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__fspath__()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-test.support.script_helper">
+<span id="test-support-script-helper-utilities-for-the-python-execution-tests"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support.script_helper" title="test.support.script_helper: Support for Python's script execution tests."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support.script_helper</span></code></a> — Utilities for the Python execution tests<a class="headerlink" href="#module-test.support.script_helper" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support.script_helper" title="test.support.script_helper: Support for Python's script execution tests."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support.script_helper</span></code></a> module provides support for Python’s
+script execution tests.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">interpreter_requires_environment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span> <span class="pre">interpreter</span></code> requires environment
+variables in order to be able to run at all.</p>
+<p>This is designed to be used with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;unittest.skipIf()</span></code> to annotate tests
+that need to use an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_python*()</span></code> function to launch an isolated
+mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code>) or no environment mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-E</span></code>) sub-interpreter process.</p>
+<p>A normal build &amp; test does not run into this situation but it can happen
+when trying to run the standard library test suite from an interpreter that
+doesn’t have an obvious home with Python’s current home finding logic.</p>
+<p>Setting <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> is one way to get most of the testsuite to run
+in that situation.  <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> or <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUSERSITE</span></code> are
+other common environment variables that might impact whether or not the
+interpreter can start.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">run_python_until_end</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**env_vars</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set up the environment based on <em>env_vars</em> for running the interpreter
+in a subprocess.  The values can include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__isolated</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cleanenv</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cwd</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TERM</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">assert_python_ok</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**env_vars</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert that running the interpreter with <em>args</em> and optional environment
+variables <em>env_vars</em> succeeds (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>) and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(return</span> <span class="pre">code,</span>
+<span class="pre">stdout,</span> <span class="pre">stderr)</span></code> tuple.</p>
+<p>If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cleanenv</span></code> keyword is set, <em>env_vars</em> is used as a fresh
+environment.</p>
+<p>Python is started in isolated mode (command line option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code>),
+except if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__isolated</span></code> keyword is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">assert_python_failure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**env_vars</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert that running the interpreter with <em>args</em> and optional environment
+variables <em>env_vars</em> fails (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rc</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>) and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(return</span> <span class="pre">code,</span>
+<span class="pre">stdout,</span> <span class="pre">stderr)</span></code> tuple.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok" title="test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_python_ok()</span></code></a> for more options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.spawn_python">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">spawn_python</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>stdout=subprocess.PIPE</em>, <em>stderr=subprocess.STDOUT</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.spawn_python" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments.</p>
+<p><em>kw</em> is extra keyword args to pass to <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen()</span></code></a>. Returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.kill_python">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">kill_python</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>p</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.kill_python" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the given <a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> process until completion and return
+stdout.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.make_script">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">make_script</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>script_dir</em>, <em>script_basename</em>, <em>source</em>, <em>omit_suffix=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.make_script" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create script containing <em>source</em> in path <em>script_dir</em> and <em>script_basename</em>.
+If <em>omit_suffix</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, append <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> to the name.  Return the full
+script path.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">make_zip_script</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>zip_dir</em>, <em>zip_basename</em>, <em>script_name</em>, <em>name_in_zip=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create zip file at <em>zip_dir</em> and <em>zip_basename</em> with extension <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip</span></code> which
+contains the files in <em>script_name</em>. <em>name_in_zip</em> is the archive name.
+Return a tuple containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(full</span> <span class="pre">path,</span> <span class="pre">full</span> <span class="pre">path</span> <span class="pre">of</span> <span class="pre">archive</span> <span class="pre">name)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.make_pkg">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">make_pkg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pkg_dir</em>, <em>init_source=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.make_pkg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a directory named <em>pkg_dir</em> containing an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> file with
+<em>init_source</em> as its contents.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg">
+<code class="descclassname">test.support.script_helper.</code><code class="descname">make_zip_pkg</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>zip_dir</em>, <em>zip_basename</em>, <em>pkg_name</em>, <em>script_basename</em>, <em>source</em>, <em>depth=1</em>, <em>compiled=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a zip package directory with a path of <em>zip_dir</em> and <em>zip_basename</em>
+containing an empty <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> file and a file <em>script_basename</em>
+containing the <em>source</em>.  If <em>compiled</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, both source files will
+be compiled and added to the zip package.  Return a tuple of the full zip
+path and the archive name for the zip file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> — Regression tests package for Python</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package">Writing Unit Tests for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-tests-using-the-command-line-interface">Running tests using the command-line interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code> — Utilities for the Python test suite</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-test.support.script_helper"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support.script_helper</span></code> — Utilities for the Python execution tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/text.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/text.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea89c91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/text.html
@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Text Processing Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="string — Common string operations" href="string.html" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="text-processing-services">
+<span id="textservices"></span><span id="stringservices"></span><h1>Text Processing Services<a class="headerlink" href="#text-processing-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of string
+manipulation operations and other text processing services.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module described under <a class="reference internal" href="binary.html#binaryservices"><span class="std std-ref">Binary Data Services</span></a> is also
+highly relevant to text processing. In addition, see the documentation for
+Python’s built-in string type in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">Text Sequence Type — str</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code> — Common string operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string-constants">String constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#custom-string-formatting">Custom String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#format-string-syntax">Format String Syntax</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#format-specification-mini-language">Format Specification Mini-Language</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#format-examples">Format examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#template-strings">Template strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#helper-functions">Helper functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code> — Regular expression operations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#regular-expression-syntax">Regular Expression Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#regular-expression-objects">Regular Expression Objects</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#regular-expression-examples">Regular Expression Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#checking-for-a-pair">Checking for a Pair</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#simulating-scanf">Simulating scanf()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#search-vs-match">search() vs. match()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#making-a-phonebook">Making a Phonebook</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#text-munging">Text Munging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#finding-all-adverbs">Finding all Adverbs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#finding-all-adverbs-and-their-positions">Finding all Adverbs and their Positions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#raw-string-notation">Raw String Notation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#writing-a-tokenizer">Writing a Tokenizer</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code> — Helpers for computing deltas</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html#sequencematcher-objects">SequenceMatcher Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html#sequencematcher-examples">SequenceMatcher Examples</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html#differ-objects">Differ Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html#differ-example">Differ Example</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="difflib.html#a-command-line-interface-to-difflib">A command-line interface to difflib</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="textwrap.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code> — Text wrapping and filling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="unicodedata.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code> — Unicode Database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stringprep.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code> — Internet String Preparation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="readline.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code> — GNU readline interface</a><ul>
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+</ul>
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+</ul>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-textwrap">
+<span id="textwrap-text-wrapping-and-filling"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-textwrap" title="textwrap: Text wrapping and filling"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code></a> — Text wrapping and filling<a class="headerlink" href="#module-textwrap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/textwrap.py">Lib/textwrap.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-textwrap" title="textwrap: Text wrapping and filling"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code></a> module provides some convenience functions,
+as well as <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a>, the class that does all the work.
+If you’re just wrapping or filling one or two text strings, the convenience
+functions should be good enough; otherwise, you should use an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> for efficiency.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="textwrap.wrap">
+<code class="descclassname">textwrap.</code><code class="descname">wrap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>width=70</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.wrap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps the single paragraph in <em>text</em> (a string) so every line is at most
+<em>width</em> characters long.  Returns a list of output lines, without final
+newlines.</p>
+<p>Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a>, documented below.  <em>width</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">70</span></code>.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.wrap" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.wrap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper.wrap()</span></code></a> method for additional details on how
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.wrap" title="textwrap.wrap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap()</span></code></a> behaves.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="textwrap.fill">
+<code class="descclassname">textwrap.</code><code class="descname">fill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>width=70</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.fill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps the single paragraph in <em>text</em>, and returns a single string containing the
+wrapped paragraph.  <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.fill" title="textwrap.fill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code></a> is shorthand for</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wrap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In particular, <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.fill" title="textwrap.fill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code></a> accepts exactly the same keyword arguments as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.wrap" title="textwrap.wrap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="textwrap.shorten">
+<code class="descclassname">textwrap.</code><code class="descname">shorten</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>width</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.shorten" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Collapse and truncate the given <em>text</em> to fit in the given <em>width</em>.</p>
+<p>First the whitespace in <em>text</em> is collapsed (all whitespace is replaced by
+single spaces).  If the result fits in the <em>width</em>, it is returned.
+Otherwise, enough words are dropped from the end so that the remaining words
+plus the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">placeholder</span></code> fit within <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shorten</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello  world!&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello world!&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shorten</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello  world!&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello [...]&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shorten</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello world&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">placeholder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello...&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a>, documented below.  Note that the whitespace is
+collapsed before the text is passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.fill" title="textwrap.fill"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code></a>
+function, so changing the value of <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.tabsize" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.tabsize"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabsize</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expand_tabs</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.drop_whitespace" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.drop_whitespace"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drop_whitespace</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace_whitespace</span></code></a> will have no effect.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="textwrap.dedent">
+<code class="descclassname">textwrap.</code><code class="descname">dedent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.dedent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove any common leading whitespace from every line in <em>text</em>.</p>
+<p>This can be used to make triple-quoted strings line up with the left edge of the
+display, while still presenting them in the source code in indented form.</p>
+<p>Note that tabs and spaces are both treated as whitespace, but they are not
+equal: the lines <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span>&#160; <span class="pre">hello&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\thello&quot;</span></code> are considered to have no
+common leading whitespace.</p>
+<p>Lines containing only whitespace are ignored in the input and normalized to a
+single newline character in the output.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># end first line with \ to avoid the empty line!</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s1">    hello</span>
+<span class="s1">      world</span>
+<span class="s1">    &#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">))</span>          <span class="c1"># prints &#39;    hello\n      world\n    &#39;</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dedent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)))</span>  <span class="c1"># prints &#39;hello\n  world\n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="textwrap.indent">
+<code class="descclassname">textwrap.</code><code class="descname">indent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>prefix</em>, <em>predicate=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.indent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>prefix</em> to the beginning of selected lines in <em>text</em>.</p>
+<p>Lines are separated by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text.splitlines(True)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>By default, <em>prefix</em> is added to all lines that do not consist
+solely of whitespace (including any line endings).</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello</span><span class="se">\n\n</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">world&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">indent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;  &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;  hello\n\n \n  world&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The optional <em>predicate</em> argument can be used to control which lines
+are indented. For example, it is easy to add <em>prefix</em> to even empty
+and whitespace-only lines:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">indent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;+ &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">+ hello</span>
+<span class="go">+</span>
+<span class="go">+</span>
+<span class="go">+ world</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.wrap" title="textwrap.wrap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.fill" title="textwrap.fill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.shorten" title="textwrap.shorten"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shorten()</span></code></a> work by creating a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> instance and calling a single method on it.  That
+instance is not reused, so for applications that process many text
+strings using <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.wrap" title="textwrap.wrap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap()</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.fill" title="textwrap.fill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code></a>, it may be more efficient to
+create your own <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Text is preferably wrapped on whitespaces and right after the hyphens in
+hyphenated words; only then will long words be broken if necessary, unless
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper.break_long_words</span></code></a> is set to false.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">textwrap.</code><code class="descname">TextWrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> constructor accepts a number of optional keyword
+arguments.  Each keyword argument corresponds to an instance attribute, so
+for example</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">wrapper</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TextWrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initial_indent</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;* &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is the same as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">wrapper</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TextWrapper</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">wrapper</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">initial_indent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;* &quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can re-use the same <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> object many times, and you can
+change any of its options through direct assignment to instance attributes
+between uses.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> instance attributes (and keyword arguments to the
+constructor) are as follows:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.width">
+<code class="descname">width</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">70</span></code>) The maximum length of wrapped lines.  As long as there
+are no individual words in the input text longer than <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.width"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> guarantees that no output line will be longer than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.width"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a> characters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs">
+<code class="descname">expand_tabs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>) If true, then all tab characters in <em>text</em> will be
+expanded to spaces using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expandtabs()</span></code> method of <em>text</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.tabsize">
+<code class="descname">tabsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.tabsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8</span></code>) If <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expand_tabs</span></code></a> is true, then all tab characters
+in <em>text</em> will be expanded to zero or more spaces, depending on the
+current column and the given tab size.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace">
+<code class="descname">replace_whitespace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>) If true, after tab expansion but before wrapping,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.wrap" title="textwrap.wrap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap()</span></code></a> method will replace each whitespace character
+with a single space.  The whitespace characters replaced are
+as follows: tab, newline, vertical tab, formfeed, and carriage
+return (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\t\n\v\f\r'</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.expand_tabs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expand_tabs</span></code></a> is false and <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace_whitespace</span></code></a> is true,
+each tab character will be replaced by a single space, which is <em>not</em>
+the same as tab expansion.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.replace_whitespace"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace_whitespace</span></code></a> is false, newlines may appear in the
+middle of a line and cause strange output. For this reason, text should
+be split into paragraphs (using <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.splitlines" title="str.splitlines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.splitlines()</span></code></a> or similar)
+which are wrapped separately.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.drop_whitespace">
+<code class="descname">drop_whitespace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.drop_whitespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>) If true, whitespace at the beginning and ending of
+every line (after wrapping but before indenting) is dropped.
+Whitespace at the beginning of the paragraph, however, is not dropped
+if non-whitespace follows it.  If whitespace being dropped takes up an
+entire line, the whole line is dropped.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.initial_indent">
+<code class="descname">initial_indent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.initial_indent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>) String that will be prepended to the first line of
+wrapped output.  Counts towards the length of the first line.  The empty
+string is not indented.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.subsequent_indent">
+<code class="descname">subsequent_indent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.subsequent_indent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>) String that will be prepended to all lines of wrapped
+output except the first.  Counts towards the length of each line except
+the first.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.fix_sentence_endings">
+<code class="descname">fix_sentence_endings</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.fix_sentence_endings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>) If true, <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> attempts to detect
+sentence endings and ensure that sentences are always separated by exactly
+two spaces.  This is generally desired for text in a monospaced font.
+However, the sentence detection algorithm is imperfect: it assumes that a
+sentence ending consists of a lowercase letter followed by one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>, possibly followed by one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&quot;'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;'&quot;</span></code>,
+followed by a space.  One problem with this is algorithm is that it is
+unable to detect the difference between “Dr.” in</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">Dr</span><span class="o">.</span> <span class="n">Frankenstein</span><span class="s1">&#39;s monster [...]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and “Spot.” in</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">See</span> <span class="n">Spot</span><span class="o">.</span> <span class="n">See</span> <span class="n">Spot</span> <span class="n">run</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.fix_sentence_endings" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.fix_sentence_endings"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fix_sentence_endings</span></code></a> is false by default.</p>
+<p>Since the sentence detection algorithm relies on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.lowercase</span></code> for
+the definition of “lowercase letter,” and a convention of using two spaces
+after a period to separate sentences on the same line, it is specific to
+English-language texts.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words">
+<code class="descname">break_long_words</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>) If true, then words longer than <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.width"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a> will be
+broken in order to ensure that no lines are longer than <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.width"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a>.  If
+it is false, long words will not be broken, and some lines may be longer
+than <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.width"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a>.  (Long words will be put on a line by themselves, in
+order to minimize the amount by which <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.width"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a> is exceeded.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.break_on_hyphens">
+<code class="descname">break_on_hyphens</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_on_hyphens" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>) If true, wrapping will occur preferably on whitespaces
+and right after hyphens in compound words, as it is customary in English.
+If false, only whitespaces will be considered as potentially good places
+for line breaks, but you need to set <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.break_long_words"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break_long_words</span></code></a> to false if
+you want truly insecable words.  Default behaviour in previous versions
+was to always allow breaking hyphenated words.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.max_lines">
+<code class="descname">max_lines</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.max_lines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) If not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then the output will contain at most
+<em>max_lines</em> lines, with <em>placeholder</em> appearing at the end of the output.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.placeholder">
+<code class="descname">placeholder</code><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.placeholder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>(default: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span> <span class="pre">[...]'</span></code>) String that will appear at the end of the output
+text if it has been truncated.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> also provides some public methods, analogous to the
+module-level convenience functions:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.wrap">
+<code class="descname">wrap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.wrap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps the single paragraph in <em>text</em> (a string) so every line is at most
+<a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.width" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.width"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width</span></code></a> characters long.  All wrapping options are taken from
+instance attributes of the <a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> instance.  Returns a list
+of output lines, without final newlines.  If the wrapped output has no
+content, the returned list is empty.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="textwrap.TextWrapper.fill">
+<code class="descname">fill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap.TextWrapper.fill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wraps the single paragraph in <em>text</em>, and returns a single string
+containing the wrapped paragraph.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/threading.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/threading.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..032db24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/threading.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1151 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>threading — Thread-based parallelism &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-threading">
+<span id="threading-thread-based-parallelism"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> — Thread-based parallelism<a class="headerlink" href="#module-threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/threading.py">Lib/threading.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the lower
+level <a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a> module.  See also the <a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>This module used to be optional, it is now always available.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While they are not listed below, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">camelCase</span></code> names used for some
+methods and functions in this module in the Python 2.x series are still
+supported by this module.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.active_count">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">active_count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.active_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> objects currently alive.  The returned
+count is equal to the length of the list returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.enumerate" title="threading.enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.current_thread">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">current_thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.current_thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> object, corresponding to the caller’s thread
+of control.  If the caller’s thread of control was not created through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module, a dummy thread object with limited functionality is
+returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.get_ident">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">get_ident</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.get_ident" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the ‘thread identifier’ of the current thread.  This is a nonzero
+integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended as a magic cookie
+to be used e.g. to index a dictionary of thread-specific data.  Thread
+identifiers may be recycled when a thread exits and another thread is
+created.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.enumerate">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">enumerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.enumerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> objects currently alive.  The list
+includes daemonic threads, dummy thread objects created by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.current_thread" title="threading.current_thread"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">current_thread()</span></code></a>, and the main thread.  It excludes terminated threads
+and threads that have not yet been started.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.main_thread">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">main_thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.main_thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the main <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> object.  In normal conditions, the
+main thread is the thread from which the Python interpreter was
+started.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.settrace">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">settrace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.settrace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Set a trace function for all threads started from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.
+The <em>func</em> will be passed to  <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.settrace" title="sys.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.settrace()</span></code></a> for each thread, before its
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.setprofile">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">setprofile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.setprofile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-1">Set a profile function for all threads started from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.
+The <em>func</em> will be passed to  <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.setprofile" title="sys.setprofile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setprofile()</span></code></a> for each thread, before its
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="threading.stack_size">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">stack_size</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>size</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.stack_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The optional
+<em>size</em> argument specifies the stack size to be used for subsequently created
+threads, and must be 0 (use platform or configured default) or a positive
+integer value of at least 32,768 (32 KiB). If <em>size</em> is not specified,
+0 is used.  If changing the thread stack size is
+unsupported, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.  If the specified stack size is
+invalid, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32 KiB
+is currently the minimum supported stack size value to guarantee sufficient
+stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note that some platforms may have
+particular restrictions on values for the stack size, such as requiring a
+minimum stack size &gt; 32 KiB or requiring allocation in multiples of the system
+memory page size - platform documentation should be referred to for more
+information (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size is
+the suggested approach in the absence of more specific information).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows, systems with POSIX threads.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This module also defines the following constant:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="threading.TIMEOUT_MAX">
+<code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">TIMEOUT_MAX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.TIMEOUT_MAX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum value allowed for the <em>timeout</em> parameter of blocking functions
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock.acquire()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.RLock.acquire" title="threading.RLock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock.acquire()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Condition.wait()</span></code></a>, etc.).
+Specifying a timeout greater than this value will raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This module defines a number of classes, which are detailed in the sections
+below.</p>
+<p>The design of this module is loosely based on Java’s threading model. However,
+where Java makes locks and condition variables basic behavior of every object,
+they are separate objects in Python.  Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> class supports a
+subset of the behavior of Java’s Thread class; currently, there are no
+priorities, no thread groups, and threads cannot be destroyed, stopped,
+suspended, resumed, or interrupted.  The static methods of Java’s Thread class,
+when implemented, are mapped to module-level functions.</p>
+<p>All of the methods described below are executed atomically.</p>
+<div class="section" id="thread-local-data">
+<h2>Thread-Local Data<a class="headerlink" href="#thread-local-data" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific.  To manage
+thread-local data, just create an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.local" title="threading.local"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local</span></code></a> (or a
+subclass) and store attributes on it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mydata</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">local</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">mydata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The instance’s values will be different for separate threads.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.local">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">local</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.local" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class that represents thread-local data.</p>
+<p>For more details and extensive examples, see the documentation string of the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_threading_local</span></code> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="thread-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Thread Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#thread-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> class represents an activity that is run in a separate
+thread of control.  There are two ways to specify the activity: by passing a
+callable object to the constructor, or by overriding the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>
+method in a subclass.  No other methods (except for the constructor) should be
+overridden in a subclass.  In other words, <em>only</em>  override the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> methods of this class.</p>
+<p>Once a thread object is created, its activity must be started by calling the
+thread’s <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.start" title="threading.Thread.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> method.  This invokes the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>
+method in a separate thread of control.</p>
+<p>Once the thread’s activity is started, the thread is considered ‘alive’. It
+stops being alive when its <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method terminates – either
+normally, or by raising an unhandled exception.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.is_alive" title="threading.Thread.is_alive"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_alive()</span></code></a>
+method tests whether the thread is alive.</p>
+<p>Other threads can call a thread’s <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> method.  This blocks
+the calling thread until the thread whose <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> method is
+called is terminated.</p>
+<p>A thread has a name.  The name can be passed to the constructor, and read or
+changed through the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.name" title="threading.Thread.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>A thread can be flagged as a “daemon thread”.  The significance of this flag is
+that the entire Python program exits when only daemon threads are left.  The
+initial value is inherited from the creating thread.  The flag can be set
+through the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.daemon" title="threading.Thread.daemon"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code></a> property or the <em>daemon</em> constructor
+argument.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Daemon threads are abruptly stopped at shutdown.  Their resources (such
+as open files, database transactions, etc.) may not be released properly.
+If you want your threads to stop gracefully, make them non-daemonic and
+use a suitable signalling mechanism such as an <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event" title="threading.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Event</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>There is a “main thread” object; this corresponds to the initial thread of
+control in the Python program.  It is not a daemon thread.</p>
+<p>There is the possibility that “dummy thread objects” are created. These are
+thread objects corresponding to “alien threads”, which are threads of control
+started outside the threading module, such as directly from C code.  Dummy
+thread objects have limited functionality; they are always considered alive and
+daemonic, and cannot be <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a>ed.  They are never deleted,
+since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.Thread">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">Thread</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>group=None</em>, <em>target=None</em>, <em>name=None</em>, <em>args=()</em>, <em>kwargs={}</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>daemon=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.  Arguments
+are:</p>
+<p><em>group</em> should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>; reserved for future extension when a
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadGroup</span></code> class is implemented.</p>
+<p><em>target</em> is the callable object to be invoked by the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method.
+Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, meaning nothing is called.</p>
+<p><em>name</em> is the thread name.  By default, a unique name is constructed of the
+form “Thread-<em>N</em>” where <em>N</em> is a small decimal number.</p>
+<p><em>args</em> is the argument tuple for the target invocation.  Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>kwargs</em> is a dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation.
+Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <em>daemon</em> explicitly sets whether the thread is daemonic.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), the daemonic property is inherited from the
+current thread.</p>
+<p>If the subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure to invoke the
+base class constructor (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread.__init__()</span></code>) before doing anything else to
+the thread.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>daemon</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start the thread’s activity.</p>
+<p>It must be called at most once per thread object.  It arranges for the
+object’s <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method to be invoked in a separate thread
+of control.</p>
+<p>This method will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> if called more than once
+on the same thread object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method representing the thread’s activity.</p>
+<p>You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>
+method invokes the callable object passed to the object’s constructor as
+the <em>target</em> argument, if any, with positional and keyword arguments taken
+from the <em>args</em> and <em>kwargs</em> arguments, respectively.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.join">
+<code class="descname">join</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until the thread terminates. This blocks the calling thread until
+the thread whose <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> method is called terminates – either
+normally or through an unhandled exception – or until the optional
+timeout occurs.</p>
+<p>When the <em>timeout</em> argument is present and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it should be a
+floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+(or fractions thereof). As <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> always returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+you must call <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.is_alive" title="threading.Thread.is_alive"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_alive()</span></code></a> after <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> to
+decide whether a timeout happened – if the thread is still alive, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> call timed out.</p>
+<p>When the <em>timeout</em> argument is not present or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the operation will
+block until the thread terminates.</p>
+<p>A thread can be <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a>ed many times.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> if an attempt is made
+to join the current thread as that would cause a deadlock. It is also
+an error to <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code></a> a thread before it has been started
+and attempts to do so raise the same exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.name">
+<code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string used for identification purposes only. It has no semantics.
+Multiple threads may be given the same name.  The initial name is set by
+the constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.getName">
+<code class="descname">getName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.getName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="threading.Thread.setName">
+<code class="descname">setName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.setName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Old getter/setter API for <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.name" title="threading.Thread.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a>; use it directly as a
+property instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.ident">
+<code class="descname">ident</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.ident" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The ‘thread identifier’ of this thread or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the thread has not
+been started.  This is a nonzero integer.  See the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.get_ident" title="threading.get_ident"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_ident()</span></code></a>
+function.  Thread identifiers may be recycled when a thread exits and
+another thread is created.  The identifier is available even after the
+thread has exited.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.is_alive">
+<code class="descname">is_alive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.is_alive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether the thread is alive.</p>
+<p>This method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> just before the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method
+starts until just after the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.run" title="threading.Thread.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method terminates.  The
+module function <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.enumerate" title="threading.enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a> returns a list of all alive threads.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.daemon">
+<code class="descname">daemon</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.daemon" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A boolean value indicating whether this thread is a daemon thread (True)
+or not (False).  This must be set before <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.start" title="threading.Thread.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> is called,
+otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.  Its initial value is inherited
+from the creating thread; the main thread is not a daemon thread and
+therefore all threads created in the main thread default to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.daemon" title="threading.Thread.daemon"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code></a> = <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The entire Python program exits when no alive non-daemon threads are left.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Thread.isDaemon">
+<code class="descname">isDaemon</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.isDaemon" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="threading.Thread.setDaemon">
+<code class="descname">setDaemon</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Thread.setDaemon" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Old getter/setter API for <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread.daemon" title="threading.Thread.daemon"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code></a>; use it directly as a
+property instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> In CPython, due to the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">Global Interpreter Lock</span></a>, only one thread
+can execute Python code at once (even though certain performance-oriented
+libraries might overcome this limitation).
+If you want your application to make better use of the computational
+resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a>.
+However, threading is still an appropriate model if you want to run
+multiple I/O-bound tasks simultaneously.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lock-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Lock Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#lock-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A primitive lock is a synchronization primitive that is not owned by a
+particular thread when locked.  In Python, it is currently the lowest level
+synchronization primitive available, implemented directly by the <a class="reference internal" href="_thread.html#module-_thread" title="_thread: Low-level threading API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code></a>
+extension module.</p>
+<p>A primitive lock is in one of two states, “locked” or “unlocked”. It is created
+in the unlocked state.  It has two basic methods, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>.  When the state is unlocked, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a>
+changes the state to locked and returns immediately.  When the state is locked,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> blocks until a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> in another
+thread changes it to unlocked, then the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> call resets it
+to locked and returns.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> method should only be
+called in the locked state; it changes the state to unlocked and returns
+immediately. If an attempt is made to release an unlocked lock, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+<p>Locks also support the <a class="reference internal" href="#with-locks"><span class="std std-ref">context management protocol</span></a>.</p>
+<p>When more than one thread is blocked in <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> waiting for the
+state to turn to unlocked, only one thread proceeds when a <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>
+call resets the state to unlocked; which one of the waiting threads proceeds
+is not defined, and may vary across implementations.</p>
+<p>All methods are executed atomically.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.Lock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">Lock</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Lock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The class implementing primitive lock objects.  Once a thread has acquired a
+lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it block, until it is released; any
+thread may release it.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code> is actually a factory function which returns an instance
+of the most efficient version of the concrete Lock class that is supported
+by the platform.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Lock.acquire">
+<code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blocking=True</em>, <em>timeout=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the <em>blocking</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default),
+block until the lock is unlocked, then set it to locked and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the <em>blocking</em> argument set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, do not block.
+If a call with <em>blocking</em> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> would block, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+immediately; otherwise, set the lock to locked and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the floating-point <em>timeout</em> argument set to a positive
+value, block for at most the number of seconds specified by <em>timeout</em>
+and as long as the lock cannot be acquired.  A <em>timeout</em> argument of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+specifies an unbounded wait.  It is forbidden to specify a <em>timeout</em>
+when <em>blocking</em> is false.</p>
+<p>The return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the lock is acquired successfully,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if not (for example if the <em>timeout</em> expired).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>timeout</em> parameter is new.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Lock acquisition can now be interrupted by signals on POSIX if the
+underlying threading implementation supports it.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Lock.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release a lock.  This can be called from any thread, not only the thread
+which has acquired the lock.</p>
+<p>When the lock is locked, reset it to unlocked, and return.  If any other threads
+are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of them
+to proceed.</p>
+<p>When invoked on an unlocked lock, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>There is no return value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="rlock-objects">
+<span id="id3"></span><h2>RLock Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#rlock-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired multiple
+times by the same thread.  Internally, it uses the concepts of “owning thread”
+and “recursion level” in addition to the locked/unlocked state used by primitive
+locks.  In the locked state, some thread owns the lock; in the unlocked state,
+no thread owns it.</p>
+<p>To lock the lock, a thread calls its <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.RLock.acquire" title="threading.RLock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> method; this
+returns once the thread owns the lock.  To unlock the lock, a thread calls
+its <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> method. <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>
+call pairs may be nested; only the final <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> (the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.release" title="threading.Lock.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> of the outermost pair) resets the lock to unlocked and
+allows another thread blocked in <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> to proceed.</p>
+<p>Reentrant locks also support the <a class="reference internal" href="#with-locks"><span class="std std-ref">context management protocol</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.RLock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">RLock</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.RLock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements reentrant lock objects.  A reentrant lock must be
+released by the thread that acquired it.  Once a thread has acquired a
+reentrant lock, the same thread may acquire it again without blocking; the
+thread must release it once for each time it has acquired it.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code> is actually a factory function which returns an instance
+of the most efficient version of the concrete RLock class that is supported
+by the platform.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.RLock.acquire">
+<code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blocking=True</em>, <em>timeout=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.RLock.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.</p>
+<p>When invoked without arguments: if this thread already owns the lock, increment
+the recursion level by one, and return immediately.  Otherwise, if another
+thread owns the lock, block until the lock is unlocked.  Once the lock is
+unlocked (not owned by any thread), then grab ownership, set the recursion level
+to one, and return.  If more than one thread is blocked waiting until the lock
+is unlocked, only one at a time will be able to grab ownership of the lock.
+There is no return value in this case.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the <em>blocking</em> argument set to true, do the same thing as when
+called without arguments, and return true.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the <em>blocking</em> argument set to false, do not block.  If a call
+without an argument would block, return false immediately; otherwise, do the
+same thing as when called without arguments, and return true.</p>
+<p>When invoked with the floating-point <em>timeout</em> argument set to a positive
+value, block for at most the number of seconds specified by <em>timeout</em>
+and as long as the lock cannot be acquired.  Return true if the lock has
+been acquired, false if the timeout has elapsed.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>timeout</em> parameter is new.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.RLock.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.RLock.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after the decrement it is
+zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not owned by any thread), and if any other
+threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one
+of them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level is still
+nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the calling thread.</p>
+<p>Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock. A
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised if this method is called when the lock is
+unlocked.</p>
+<p>There is no return value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="condition-objects">
+<span id="id4"></span><h2>Condition Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#condition-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this can be
+passed in or one will be created by default.  Passing one in is useful when
+several condition variables must share the same lock.  The lock is part of
+the condition object: you don’t have to track it separately.</p>
+<p>A condition variable obeys the <a class="reference internal" href="#with-locks"><span class="std std-ref">context management protocol</span></a>:
+using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement acquires the associated lock for the duration of
+the enclosed block.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.acquire" title="threading.Condition.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.release" title="threading.Condition.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> methods also call the corresponding methods of
+the associated lock.</p>
+<p>Other methods must be called with the associated lock held.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method releases the lock, and then blocks until
+another thread awakens it by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="threading.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a>.  Once awakened, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>
+re-acquires the lock and returns.  It is also possible to specify a timeout.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> method wakes up one of the threads waiting for
+the condition variable, if any are waiting.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="threading.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a>
+method wakes up all threads waiting for the condition variable.</p>
+<p>Note: the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="threading.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a> methods
+don’t release the lock; this means that the thread or threads awakened will
+not return from their <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> call immediately, but only when
+the thread that called <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="threading.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a>
+finally relinquishes ownership of the lock.</p>
+<p>The typical programming style using condition variables uses the lock to
+synchronize access to some shared state; threads that are interested in a
+particular change of state call <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> repeatedly until they
+see the desired state, while threads that modify the state call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="threading.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a> when they change
+the state in such a way that it could possibly be a desired state for one
+of the waiters.  For example, the following code is a generic
+producer-consumer situation with unlimited buffer capacity:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Consume one item</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cv</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">an_item_is_available</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="n">cv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">get_an_available_item</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Produce one item</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cv</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">make_an_item_available</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">cv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">notify</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code> loop checking for the application’s condition is necessary
+because <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> can return after an arbitrary long time,
+and the condition which prompted the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> call may
+no longer hold true.  This is inherent to multi-threaded programming.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait_for" title="threading.Condition.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait_for()</span></code></a> method can be used to automate the condition
+checking, and eases the computation of timeouts:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Consume an item</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">cv</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait_for</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">an_item_is_available</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">get_an_available_item</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To choose between <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="threading.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a>,
+consider whether one state change can be interesting for only one or several
+waiting threads.  E.g. in a typical producer-consumer situation, adding one
+item to the buffer only needs to wake up one consumer thread.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.Condition">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">Condition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lock=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Condition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements condition variable objects.  A condition variable
+allows one or more threads to wait until they are notified by another thread.</p>
+<p>If the <em>lock</em> argument is given and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it must be a <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock" title="threading.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> object, and it is used as the underlying lock.  Otherwise,
+a new <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> object is created and used as the underlying lock.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>changed from a factory function to a class.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Condition.acquire">
+<code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Condition.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire the underlying lock. This method calls the corresponding method on
+the underlying lock; the return value is whatever that method returns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Condition.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Condition.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release the underlying lock. This method calls the corresponding method on
+the underlying lock; there is no return value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Condition.wait">
+<code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until notified or until a timeout occurs. If the calling thread has
+not acquired the lock when this method is called, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+<p>This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks until it is
+awakened by a <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="threading.Condition.notify_all"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify_all()</span></code></a> call for the same
+condition variable in another thread, or until the optional timeout
+occurs.  Once awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.</p>
+<p>When the <em>timeout</em> argument is present and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it should be a
+floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+(or fractions thereof).</p>
+<p>When the underlying lock is an <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a>, it is not released using
+its <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.release" title="threading.Condition.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> method, since this may not actually unlock the lock
+when it was acquired multiple times recursively.  Instead, an internal
+interface of the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a> class is used, which really unlocks it
+even when it has been recursively acquired several times. Another internal
+interface is then used to restore the recursion level when the lock is
+reacquired.</p>
+<p>The return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> unless a given <em>timeout</em> expired, in which
+case it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Previously, the method always returned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Condition.wait_for">
+<code class="descname">wait_for</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>predicate</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Condition.wait_for" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wait until a condition evaluates to true.  <em>predicate</em> should be a
+callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean value.
+A <em>timeout</em> may be provided giving the maximum time to wait.</p>
+<p>This utility method may call <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> repeatedly until the predicate
+is satisfied, or until a timeout occurs. The return value is
+the last return value of the predicate and will evaluate to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if the method timed out.</p>
+<p>Ignoring the timeout feature, calling this method is roughly equivalent to
+writing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">predicate</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">cv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Therefore, the same rules apply as with <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>: The lock must be
+held when called and is re-acquired on return.  The predicate is evaluated
+with the lock held.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Condition.notify">
+<code class="descname">notify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>By default, wake up one thread waiting on this condition, if any.  If the
+calling thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>This method wakes up at most <em>n</em> of the threads waiting for the condition
+variable; it is a no-op if no threads are waiting.</p>
+<p>The current implementation wakes up exactly <em>n</em> threads, if at least <em>n</em>
+threads are waiting.  However, it’s not safe to rely on this behavior.
+A future, optimized implementation may occasionally wake up more than
+<em>n</em> threads.</p>
+<p>Note: an awakened thread does not actually return from its <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.wait" title="threading.Condition.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>
+call until it can reacquire the lock.  Since <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a> does not
+release the lock, its caller should.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Condition.notify_all">
+<code class="descname">notify_all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Condition.notify_all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wake up all threads waiting on this condition.  This method acts like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition.notify" title="threading.Condition.notify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">notify()</span></code></a>, but wakes up all waiting threads instead of one. If the
+calling thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="semaphore-objects">
+<span id="id5"></span><h2>Semaphore Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#semaphore-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of computer
+science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra (he
+used the names <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">V()</span></code> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="threading.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.release" title="threading.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="threading.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> call and incremented by each <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.release" title="threading.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>
+call.  The counter can never go below zero; when <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="threading.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a>
+finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other thread calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.release" title="threading.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Semaphores also support the <a class="reference internal" href="#with-locks"><span class="std std-ref">context management protocol</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.Semaphore">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">Semaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Semaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements semaphore objects.  A semaphore manages an atomic
+counter representing the number of <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.release" title="threading.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> calls minus the number of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="threading.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> calls, plus an initial value.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="threading.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> method
+blocks if necessary until it can return without making the counter negative.
+If not given, <em>value</em> defaults to 1.</p>
+<p>The optional argument gives the initial <em>value</em> for the internal counter; it
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>. If the <em>value</em> given is less than 0, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>changed from a factory function to a class.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Semaphore.acquire">
+<code class="descname">acquire</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>blocking=True</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Acquire a semaphore.</p>
+<p>When invoked without arguments:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the internal counter is larger than zero on entry, decrement it by
+one and return true immediately.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the internal counter is zero on entry, block until awoken by a call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.release" title="threading.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>.  Once awoken (and the counter is greater
+than 0), decrement the counter by 1 and return true.  Exactly one
+thread will be awoken by each call to <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore.release" title="threading.Semaphore.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a>.  The
+order in which threads are awoken should not be relied on.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When invoked with <em>blocking</em> set to false, do not block.  If a call
+without an argument would block, return false immediately; otherwise, do
+the same thing as when called without arguments, and return true.</p>
+<p>When invoked with a <em>timeout</em> other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it will block for at
+most <em>timeout</em> seconds.  If acquire does not complete successfully in
+that interval, return false.  Return true otherwise.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>timeout</em> parameter is new.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Semaphore.release">
+<code class="descname">release</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Semaphore.release" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by one.  When it
+was zero on entry and another thread is waiting for it to become larger
+than zero again, wake up that thread.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.BoundedSemaphore">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">BoundedSemaphore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.BoundedSemaphore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class implementing bounded semaphore objects.  A bounded semaphore checks to
+make sure its current value doesn’t exceed its initial value.  If it does,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised. In most situations semaphores are used to guard
+resources with limited capacity.  If the semaphore is released too many times
+it’s a sign of a bug.  If not given, <em>value</em> defaults to 1.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>changed from a factory function to a class.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="semaphore-example">
+<span id="semaphore-examples"></span><h3><a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore" title="threading.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a> Example<a class="headerlink" href="#semaphore-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for example,
+a database server.  In any situation where the size of the resource is fixed,
+you should use a bounded semaphore.  Before spawning any worker threads, your
+main thread would initialize the semaphore:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">maxconnections</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="c1"># ...</span>
+<span class="n">pool_sema</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BoundedSemaphore</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">maxconnections</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once spawned, worker threads call the semaphore’s acquire and release methods
+when they need to connect to the server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">pool_sema</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connectdb</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># ... use connection ...</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The use of a bounded semaphore reduces the chance that a programming error which
+causes the semaphore to be released more than it’s acquired will go undetected.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="event-objects">
+<span id="id6"></span><h2>Event Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#event-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between threads: one
+thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.</p>
+<p>An event object manages an internal flag that can be set to true with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.set" title="threading.Event.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> method and reset to false with the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.clear" title="threading.Event.clear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code></a>
+method.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.wait" title="threading.Event.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method blocks until the flag is true.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.Event">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">Event</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Event" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class implementing event objects.  An event manages a flag that can be set to
+true with the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.set" title="threading.Event.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> method and reset to false with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.clear" title="threading.Event.clear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code></a> method.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.wait" title="threading.Event.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method blocks until the flag is true.
+The flag is initially false.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>changed from a factory function to a class.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Event.is_set">
+<code class="descname">is_set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Event.is_set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if and only if the internal flag is true.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Event.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Event.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the internal flag to true. All threads waiting for it to become true
+are awakened. Threads that call <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.wait" title="threading.Event.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> once the flag is true will
+not block at all.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Event.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Event.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the internal flag to false. Subsequently, threads calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.wait" title="threading.Event.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> will block until <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.set" title="threading.Event.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> is called to set the internal
+flag to true again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Event.wait">
+<code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Event.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Block until the internal flag is true.  If the internal flag is true on
+entry, return immediately.  Otherwise, block until another thread calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Event.set" title="threading.Event.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> to set the flag to true, or until the optional timeout occurs.</p>
+<p>When the timeout argument is present and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it should be a
+floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+(or fractions thereof).</p>
+<p>This method returns true if and only if the internal flag has been set to
+true, either before the wait call or after the wait starts, so it will
+always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> except if a timeout is given and the operation
+times out.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Previously, the method always returned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timer-objects">
+<span id="id7"></span><h2>Timer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#timer-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain amount
+of time has passed — a timer.  <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Timer" title="threading.Timer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a>
+and as such also functions as an example of creating custom threads.</p>
+<p>Timers are started, as with threads, by calling their <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code>
+method.  The timer can be stopped (before its action has begun) by calling the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Timer.cancel" title="threading.Timer.cancel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancel()</span></code></a> method.  The interval the timer will wait before
+executing its action may not be exactly the same as the interval specified by
+the user.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hello</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello, world&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">30.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">hello</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># after 30 seconds, &quot;hello, world&quot; will be printed</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.Timer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">Timer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>interval</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>args=None</em>, <em>kwargs=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Timer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a timer that will run <em>function</em> with arguments <em>args</em> and  keyword
+arguments <em>kwargs</em>, after <em>interval</em> seconds have passed.
+If <em>args</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) then an empty list will be used.
+If <em>kwargs</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) then an empty dict will be used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>changed from a factory function to a class.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Timer.cancel">
+<code class="descname">cancel</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Timer.cancel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop the timer, and cancel the execution of the timer’s action.  This will
+only work if the timer is still in its waiting stage.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="barrier-objects">
+<h2>Barrier Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#barrier-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>This class provides a simple synchronization primitive for use by a fixed number
+of threads that need to wait for each other.  Each of the threads tries to pass
+the barrier by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Barrier.wait" title="threading.Barrier.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method and will block until
+all of the threads have made their <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Barrier.wait" title="threading.Barrier.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> calls. At this point,
+the threads are released simultaneously.</p>
+<p>The barrier can be reused any number of times for the same number of threads.</p>
+<p>As an example, here is a simple way to synchronize a client and server thread:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Barrier</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">server</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">start_server</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">accept_connection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">process_server_connection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">client</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">make_connection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">process_client_connection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="threading.Barrier">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">Barrier</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parties</em>, <em>action=None</em>, <em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Barrier" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a barrier object for <em>parties</em> number of threads.  An <em>action</em>, when
+provided, is a callable to be called by one of the threads when they are
+released.  <em>timeout</em> is the default timeout value if none is specified for
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Barrier.wait" title="threading.Barrier.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Barrier.wait">
+<code class="descname">wait</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>timeout=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Barrier.wait" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pass the barrier.  When all the threads party to the barrier have called
+this function, they are all released simultaneously.  If a <em>timeout</em> is
+provided, it is used in preference to any that was supplied to the class
+constructor.</p>
+<p>The return value is an integer in the range 0 to <em>parties</em> – 1, different
+for each thread.  This can be used to select a thread to do some special
+housekeeping, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">barrier</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Only one thread needs to print this</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;passed the barrier&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If an <em>action</em> was provided to the constructor, one of the threads will
+have called it prior to being released.  Should this call raise an error,
+the barrier is put into the broken state.</p>
+<p>If the call times out, the barrier is put into the broken state.</p>
+<p>This method may raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.BrokenBarrierError" title="threading.BrokenBarrierError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenBarrierError</span></code></a> exception if the
+barrier is broken or reset while a thread is waiting.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Barrier.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Barrier.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any threads waiting on it
+will receive the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.BrokenBarrierError" title="threading.BrokenBarrierError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenBarrierError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>Note that using this function may can require some external
+synchronization if there are other threads whose state is unknown.  If a
+barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and create a new one.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="threading.Barrier.abort">
+<code class="descname">abort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Barrier.abort" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active or future
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Barrier.wait" title="threading.Barrier.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> to fail with the <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.BrokenBarrierError" title="threading.BrokenBarrierError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenBarrierError</span></code></a>.  Use
+this for example if one of the needs to abort, to avoid deadlocking the
+application.</p>
+<p>It may be preferable to simply create the barrier with a sensible
+<em>timeout</em> value to automatically guard against one of the threads going
+awry.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="threading.Barrier.parties">
+<code class="descname">parties</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Barrier.parties" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of threads required to pass the barrier.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="threading.Barrier.n_waiting">
+<code class="descname">n_waiting</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Barrier.n_waiting" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of threads currently waiting in the barrier.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="threading.Barrier.broken">
+<code class="descname">broken</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.Barrier.broken" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A boolean that is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the barrier is in the broken state.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="threading.BrokenBarrierError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">threading.</code><code class="descname">BrokenBarrierError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#threading.BrokenBarrierError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception, a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>, is raised when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Barrier" title="threading.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Barrier</span></code></a> object is reset or broken.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement">
+<span id="with-locks"></span><h2>Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All of the objects provided by this module that have <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code> methods can be used as context managers for a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code> method will be called when the block is
+entered, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code> will be called when the block is exited.  Hence,
+the following snippet:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">some_lock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># do something...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">some_lock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">acquire</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># do something...</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">some_lock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">release</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Currently, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Lock" title="threading.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Condition" title="threading.Condition"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Condition</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#threading.Semaphore" title="threading.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#threading.BoundedSemaphore" title="threading.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a> objects may be used as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement context managers.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code> — Thread-based parallelism</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thread-local-data">Thread-Local Data</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thread-objects">Thread Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lock-objects">Lock Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#rlock-objects">RLock Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#condition-objects">Condition Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#semaphore-objects">Semaphore Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#semaphore-example"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore</span></code> Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#event-objects">Event Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timer-objects">Timer Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#barrier-objects">Barrier Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement">Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="concurrency.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Concurrent Execution</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> — Process-based parallelism</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-time">
+<span id="time-time-access-and-conversions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> — Time access and conversions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides various time-related functions. For related
+functionality, see also the <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>Although this module is always available,
+not all functions are available on all platforms.  Most of the functions
+defined in this module call platform C library functions with the same name.  It
+may sometimes be helpful to consult the platform documentation, because the
+semantics of these functions varies among platforms.</p>
+<p>An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order.</p>
+<span class="target" id="epoch"></span><ul class="simple" id="index-0">
+<li><p>The <em class="dfn">epoch</em> is the point where the time starts, and is platform
+dependent.  For Unix, the epoch is January 1, 1970, 00:00:00 (UTC).
+To find out what the epoch is on a given platform, look at
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime(0)</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-1">
+<li><p>The term <em class="dfn">seconds since the epoch</em> refers to the total number
+of elapsed seconds since the epoch, typically excluding
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second">leap seconds</a>.  Leap seconds are excluded from this total on all
+POSIX-compliant platforms.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-2">
+<li><p>The functions in this module may not handle dates and times before the epoch or
+far in the future.  The cut-off point in the future is determined by the C
+library; for 32-bit systems, it is typically in 2038.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<span id="index-3"></span><ul class="simple" id="time-y2kissues">
+<li><p><strong>Year 2000 (Y2K) issues</strong>: Python depends on the platform’s C library, which
+generally doesn’t have year 2000 issues, since all dates and times are
+represented internally as seconds since the epoch.  Function <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code></a>
+can parse 2-digit years when given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%y</span></code> format code.  When 2-digit years are
+parsed, they are converted according to the POSIX and ISO C standards: values
+69–99 are mapped to 1969–1999, and values 0–68 are mapped to 2000–2068.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-4">
+<li><p>UTC is Coordinated Universal Time (formerly known as Greenwich Mean Time, or
+GMT).  The acronym UTC is not a mistake but a compromise between English and
+French.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul id="index-5">
+<li><p>DST is Daylight Saving Time, an adjustment of the timezone by (usually) one
+hour during part of the year.  DST rules are magic (determined by local law) and
+can change from year to year.  The C library has a table containing the local
+rules (often it is read from a system file for flexibility) and is the only
+source of True Wisdom in this respect.</p></li>
+<li><p>The precision of the various real-time functions may be less than suggested by
+the units in which their value or argument is expressed. E.g. on most Unix
+systems, the clock “ticks” only 50 or 100 times a second.</p></li>
+<li><p>On the other hand, the precision of <a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sleep()</span></code></a> is better
+than their Unix equivalents: times are expressed as floating point numbers,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a> returns the most accurate time available (using Unix
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettimeofday()</span></code> where available), and <a class="reference internal" href="#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sleep()</span></code></a> will accept a time
+with a nonzero fraction (Unix <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> is used to implement this, where
+available).</p></li>
+<li><p>The time value as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code></a>, and accepted by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.asctime" title="time.asctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asctime()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#time.mktime" title="time.mktime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktime()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code></a>, is a sequence of 9 integers.  The return values of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code></a> also offer attribute
+names for individual fields.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> for a description of these objects.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> type was extended to provide the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_gmtoff</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_zone</span></code> attributes when platform supports corresponding
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span> <span class="pre">tm</span></code> members.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_gmtoff</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_zone</span></code>
+are now available on all platforms.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Use the following functions to convert between time representations:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>From</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>To</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Use</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>seconds since the epoch</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> in
+UTC</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>seconds since the epoch</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> in
+local time</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> in
+UTC</p></td>
+<td><p>seconds since the epoch</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html#calendar.timegm" title="calendar.timegm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar.timegm()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> in
+local time</p></td>
+<td><p>seconds since the epoch</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#time.mktime" title="time.mktime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktime()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<span id="time-functions"></span><h2>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.asctime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">asctime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>t</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.asctime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a tuple or <a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> representing a time as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> to a string of the following
+form: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Sun</span> <span class="pre">Jun</span> <span class="pre">20</span> <span class="pre">23:21:05</span> <span class="pre">1993'</span></code>.  If <em>t</em> is not provided, the current time
+as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> is used. Locale information is not used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.asctime" title="time.asctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asctime()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Unlike the C function of the same name, <a class="reference internal" href="#time.asctime" title="time.asctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asctime()</span></code></a> does not add a
+trailing newline.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.clock">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">clock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.clock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-6">On Unix, return the current processor time as a floating point number expressed
+in seconds.  The precision, and in fact the very definition of the meaning of
+“processor time”, depends on that of the C function of the same name.</p>
+<p>On Windows, this function returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first
+call to this function, as a floating point number, based on the Win32 function
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueryPerformanceCounter()</span></code>. The resolution is typically better than one
+microsecond.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>The behaviour of this function depends on the platform: use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">perf_counter()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#time.process_time" title="time.process_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_time()</span></code></a> instead, depending on your
+requirements, to have a well defined behaviour.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.pthread_getcpuclockid">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">pthread_getcpuclockid</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>thread_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.pthread_getcpuclockid" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <em>clk_id</em> of the thread-specific CPU-time clock for the specified <em>thread_id</em>.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.get_ident" title="threading.get_ident"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.get_ident()</span></code></a> or the <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread.ident" title="threading.Thread.ident"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ident</span></code></a>
+attribute of <a class="reference internal" href="threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a> objects to get a suitable value
+for <em>thread_id</em>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Passing an invalid or expired <em>thread_id</em> may result in
+undefined behavior, such as segmentation fault.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix (see the man page for <em class="manpage">pthread_getcpuclockid(3)</em> for
+further information).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.clock_getres">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">clock_getres</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>clk_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.clock_getres" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the resolution (precision) of the specified clock <em>clk_id</em>.  Refer to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time-clock-id-constants"><span class="std std-ref">Clock ID Constants</span></a> for a list of accepted values for <em>clk_id</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.clock_gettime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">clock_gettime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>clk_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; float<a class="headerlink" href="#time.clock_gettime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the time of the specified clock <em>clk_id</em>.  Refer to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time-clock-id-constants"><span class="std std-ref">Clock ID Constants</span></a> for a list of accepted values for <em>clk_id</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.clock_gettime_ns">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">clock_gettime_ns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>clk_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; int<a class="headerlink" href="#time.clock_gettime_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.clock_gettime" title="time.clock_gettime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_gettime()</span></code></a> but return time as nanoseconds.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.clock_settime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">clock_settime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>clk_id</em>, <em>time: float</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.clock_settime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the time of the specified clock <em>clk_id</em>.  Currently,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.CLOCK_REALTIME" title="time.CLOCK_REALTIME"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_REALTIME</span></code></a> is the only accepted value for <em>clk_id</em>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.clock_settime_ns">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">clock_settime_ns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>clk_id</em>, <em>time: int</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.clock_settime_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.clock_settime" title="time.clock_settime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_settime()</span></code></a> but set time with nanoseconds.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.ctime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">ctime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>secs</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.ctime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a string representing
+local time. If <em>secs</em> is not provided or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the current time as
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a> is used.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctime(secs)</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asctime(localtime(secs))</span></code>. Locale information is not used by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.ctime" title="time.ctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctime()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.get_clock_info">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">get_clock_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.get_clock_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get information on the specified clock as a namespace object.
+Supported clock names and the corresponding functions to read their value
+are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'clock'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#time.clock" title="time.clock"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.clock()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'monotonic'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#time.monotonic" title="time.monotonic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.monotonic()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'perf_counter'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'process_time'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#time.process_time" title="time.process_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.process_time()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'thread_time'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#time.thread_time" title="time.thread_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.thread_time()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'time'</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The result has the following attributes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>adjustable</em>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the clock can be changed automatically (e.g. by
+a NTP daemon) or manually by the system administrator, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise</p></li>
+<li><p><em>implementation</em>: The name of the underlying C function used to get
+the clock value.  Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="#time-clock-id-constants"><span class="std std-ref">Clock ID Constants</span></a> for possible values.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>monotonic</em>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the clock cannot go backward,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise</p></li>
+<li><p><em>resolution</em>: The resolution of the clock in seconds (<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.gmtime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">gmtime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>secs</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.gmtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a <a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> in
+UTC in which the dst flag is always zero.  If <em>secs</em> is not provided or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the current time as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a> is used.  Fractions
+of a second are ignored.  See above for a description of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> object. See <a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html#calendar.timegm" title="calendar.timegm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar.timegm()</span></code></a> for the inverse of this
+function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.localtime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">localtime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>secs</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.localtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a> but converts to local time.  If <em>secs</em> is not provided or
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the current time as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a> is used.  The dst
+flag is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> when DST applies to the given time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.mktime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">mktime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>t</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.mktime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the inverse function of <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a>.  Its argument is the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> or full 9-tuple (since the dst flag is needed; use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>
+as the dst flag if it is unknown) which expresses the time in <em>local</em> time, not
+UTC.  It returns a floating point number, for compatibility with <a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a>.
+If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> will be raised (which depends on
+whether the invalid value is caught by Python or the underlying C libraries).
+The earliest date for which it can generate a time is platform-dependent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.monotonic">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">monotonic</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; float<a class="headerlink" href="#time.monotonic" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a monotonic clock, i.e. a clock
+that cannot go backwards.  The clock is not affected by system clock updates.
+The reference point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the
+difference between the results of consecutive calls is valid.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function is now always available and always system-wide.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.monotonic_ns">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">monotonic_ns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; int<a class="headerlink" href="#time.monotonic_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.monotonic" title="time.monotonic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">monotonic()</span></code></a>, but return time as nanoseconds.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.perf_counter">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">perf_counter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; float<a class="headerlink" href="#time.perf_counter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-7">Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a performance counter, i.e. a
+clock with the highest available resolution to measure a short duration.  It
+does include time elapsed during sleep and is system-wide.  The reference
+point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between
+the results of consecutive calls is valid.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.perf_counter_ns">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">perf_counter_ns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; int<a class="headerlink" href="#time.perf_counter_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">perf_counter()</span></code></a>, but return time as nanoseconds.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.process_time">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">process_time</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; float<a class="headerlink" href="#time.process_time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-8">Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system and user
+CPU time of the current process.  It does not include time elapsed during
+sleep.  It is process-wide by definition.  The reference point of the
+returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between the results
+of consecutive calls is valid.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.process_time_ns">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">process_time_ns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; int<a class="headerlink" href="#time.process_time_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.process_time" title="time.process_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_time()</span></code></a> but return time as nanoseconds.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.sleep">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">sleep</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>secs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.sleep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of seconds.
+The argument may be a floating point number to indicate a more precise sleep
+time. The actual suspension time may be less than that requested because any
+caught signal will terminate the <a class="reference internal" href="#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sleep()</span></code></a> following execution of that
+signal’s catching routine.  Also, the suspension time may be longer than
+requested by an arbitrary amount because of the scheduling of other activity
+in the system.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The function now sleeps at least <em>secs</em> even if the sleep is interrupted
+by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
+<span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> for the rationale).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-10"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.strftime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">strftime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>format</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>t</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.strftime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a tuple or <a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> representing a time as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> to a string as specified by the <em>format</em>
+argument.  If <em>t</em> is not provided, the current time as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> is used.  <em>format</em> must be a string.  <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is
+raised if any field in <em>t</em> is outside of the allowed range.</p>
+<p>0 is a legal argument for any position in the time tuple; if it is normally
+illegal the value is forced to a correct one.</p>
+<p>The following directives can be embedded in the <em>format</em> string. They are shown
+without the optional field width and precision specification, and are replaced
+by the indicated characters in the <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code></a> result:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 73%" />
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Directive</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s abbreviated weekday name.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%A</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s full weekday name.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s abbreviated month name.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%B</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s full month name.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s appropriate date and time
+representation.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Day of the month as a decimal number [01,31].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%H</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number
+[00,23].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%I</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number
+[01,12].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%j</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Day of the year as a decimal number [001,366].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%m</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Month as a decimal number [01,12].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%M</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Minute as a decimal number [00,59].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%p</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s equivalent of either AM or PM.</p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%S</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Second as a decimal number [00,61].</p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Week number of the year (Sunday as the first
+day of the week) as a decimal number [00,53].
+All days in a new year preceding the first
+Sunday are considered to be in week 0.</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%w</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Weekday as a decimal number [0(Sunday),6].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%W</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Week number of the year (Monday as the first
+day of the week) as a decimal number [00,53].
+All days in a new year preceding the first
+Monday are considered to be in week 0.</p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s appropriate date representation.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%X</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Locale’s appropriate time representation.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Year without century as a decimal number
+[00,99].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Y</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Year with century as a decimal number.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Time zone offset indicating a positive or
+negative time difference from UTC/GMT of the
+form +HHMM or -HHMM, where H represents decimal
+hour digits and M represents decimal minute
+digits [-23:59, +23:59].</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Time zone name (no characters if no time zone
+exists).</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%%</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> character.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>When used with the <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code></a> function, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%p</span></code> directive only affects
+the output hour field if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%I</span></code> directive is used to parse the hour.</p></li>
+<li><p>The range really is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">61</span></code>; value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">60</span></code> is valid in
+timestamps representing <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second">leap seconds</a> and value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">61</span></code> is supported
+for historical reasons.</p></li>
+<li><p>When used with the <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code></a> function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%W</span></code> are only used in
+calculations when the day of the week and the year are specified.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Here is an example, a format for dates compatible with that specified  in the
+<span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a> Internet email standard.  <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">time</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">gmtime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">strftime</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%a</span><span class="s2">, </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">gmtime</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Additional directives may be supported on certain platforms, but only the
+ones listed here have a meaning standardized by ANSI C.  To see the full set
+of format codes supported on your platform, consult the <em class="manpage">strftime(3)</em>
+documentation.</p>
+<p>On some platforms, an optional field width and precision specification can
+immediately follow the initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%'</span></code> of a directive in the following order;
+this is also not portable. The field width is normally 2 except for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%j</span></code> where
+it is 3.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.strptime">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">strptime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>format</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.strptime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse a string representing a time according to a format.  The return value
+is a <a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>format</em> parameter uses the same directives as those used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code></a>; it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%a</span> <span class="pre">%b</span> <span class="pre">%d</span> <span class="pre">%H:%M:%S</span> <span class="pre">%Y&quot;</span></code> which matches the
+formatting returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.ctime" title="time.ctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctime()</span></code></a>. If <em>string</em> cannot be parsed according
+to <em>format</em>, or if it has excess data after parsing, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is
+raised. The default values used to fill in any missing data when more
+accurate values cannot be inferred are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1900,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">-1)</span></code>.
+Both <em>string</em> and <em>format</em> must be strings.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strptime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;30 Nov 00&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> %b %y&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,</span>
+<span class="go">                 tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code> directive is based on the values contained in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzname</span></code>
+and whether <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daylight</span></code> is true.  Because of this, it is platform-specific
+except for recognizing UTC and GMT which are always known (and are considered to
+be non-daylight savings timezones).</p>
+<p>Only the directives specified in the documentation are supported.  Because
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> is implemented per platform it can sometimes offer more
+directives than those listed.  But <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> is independent of any platform
+and thus does not necessarily support all directives available that are not
+documented as supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="time.struct_time">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">struct_time</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.struct_time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of the time value sequence returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code></a>.  It is an object with a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named
+tuple</span></a> interface: values can be accessed by index and by attribute name.  The
+following values are present:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 32%" />
+<col style="width: 56%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Values</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_year</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(for example, 1993)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_mon</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>range [1, 12]</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_mday</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>range [1, 31]</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_hour</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>range [0, 23]</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_min</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>range [0, 59]</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>5</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_sec</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>range [0, 61]; see <strong>(2)</strong> in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code></a> description</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>6</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_wday</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>range [0, 6], Monday is 0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>7</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_yday</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>range [1, 366]</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>8</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0, 1 or -1; see below</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>N/A</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_zone</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>abbreviation of timezone name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>N/A</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_gmtoff</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>offset east of UTC in seconds</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Note that unlike the C structure, the month value is a range of [1, 12], not
+[0, 11].</p>
+<p>In calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.mktime" title="time.mktime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktime()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_isdst</span></code> may be set to 1 when daylight
+savings time is in effect, and 0 when it is not.  A value of -1 indicates that
+this is not known, and will usually result in the correct state being filled in.</p>
+<p>When a tuple with an incorrect length is passed to a function expecting a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a>, or having elements of the wrong type, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.time">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">time</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; float<a class="headerlink" href="#time.time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the time in seconds since the <a class="reference internal" href="#epoch">epoch</a> as a floating point
+number. The specific date of the epoch and the handling of
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second">leap seconds</a> is platform dependent.
+On Windows and most Unix systems, the epoch is January 1, 1970,
+00:00:00 (UTC) and leap seconds are not counted towards the time
+in seconds since the epoch. This is commonly referred to as
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time">Unix time</a>.
+To find out what the epoch is on a given platform, look at
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime(0)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that even though the time is always returned as a floating point
+number, not all systems provide time with a better precision than 1 second.
+While this function normally returns non-decreasing values, it can return a
+lower value than a previous call if the system clock has been set back
+between the two calls.</p>
+<p>The number returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a> may be converted into a more common
+time format (i.e. year, month, day, hour, etc…) in UTC by passing it to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a> function or in local time by passing it to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> function. In both cases a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> object is returned, from which the components
+of the calendar date may be accessed as attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.thread_time">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">thread_time</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; float<a class="headerlink" href="#time.thread_time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-13">Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system and user
+CPU time of the current thread.  It does not include time elapsed during
+sleep.  It is thread-specific by definition.  The reference point of the
+returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between the results
+of consecutive calls in the same thread is valid.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows, Linux, Unix systems supporting
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.thread_time_ns">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">thread_time_ns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; int<a class="headerlink" href="#time.thread_time_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.thread_time" title="time.thread_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread_time()</span></code></a> but return time as nanoseconds.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.time_ns">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">time_ns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span> &#x2192; int<a class="headerlink" href="#time.time_ns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time()</span></code></a> but returns time as an integer number of nanoseconds
+since the <a class="reference internal" href="#epoch">epoch</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="time.tzset">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">tzset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#time.tzset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment
+variable <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TZ</span></code> specifies how this is done. It will also set the variables
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzname</span></code> (from the <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TZ</span></code> environment variable), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code> (non-DST
+seconds West of UTC), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">altzone</span></code> (DST seconds west of UTC) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daylight</span></code>
+(to 0 if this timezone does not have any daylight saving time rules, or to
+nonzero if there is a time, past, present or future when daylight saving time
+applies).</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Although in many cases, changing the <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TZ</span></code> environment variable may
+affect the output of functions like <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> without calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.tzset" title="time.tzset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzset()</span></code></a>, this behavior should not be relied on.</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TZ</span></code> environment variable should contain no whitespace.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The standard format of the <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TZ</span></code> environment variable is (whitespace
+added for clarity):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">std</span> <span class="n">offset</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">dst</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">offset</span> <span class="p">[,</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">]]]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Where the components are:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">std</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst</span></code></dt><dd><p>Three or more alphanumerics giving the timezone abbreviations. These will be
+propagated into time.tzname</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset</span></code></dt><dd><p>The offset has the form: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">±</span> <span class="pre">hh[:mm[:ss]]</span></code>. This indicates the value
+added the local time to arrive at UTC.  If preceded by a ‘-‘, the timezone
+is east of the Prime Meridian; otherwise, it is west. If no offset follows
+dst, summer time is assumed to be one hour ahead of standard time.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start[/time],</span> <span class="pre">end[/time]</span></code></dt><dd><p>Indicates when to change to and back from DST. The format of the
+start and end dates are one of the following:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">J</span><em><span class="pre">n</span></em></code></dt><dd><p>The Julian day <em>n</em> (1 &lt;= <em>n</em> &lt;= 365). Leap days are not counted, so in
+all years February 28 is day 59 and March 1 is day 60.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">n</span></em></code></dt><dd><p>The zero-based Julian day (0 &lt;= <em>n</em> &lt;= 365). Leap days are counted, and
+it is possible to refer to February 29.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span><em><span class="pre">m</span></em><span class="pre">.</span><em><span class="pre">n</span></em><span class="pre">.</span><em><span class="pre">d</span></em></code></dt><dd><p>The <em>d</em>’th day (0 &lt;= <em>d</em> &lt;= 6) of week <em>n</em> of month <em>m</em> of the year (1
+&lt;= <em>n</em> &lt;= 5, 1 &lt;= <em>m</em> &lt;= 12, where week 5 means “the last <em>d</em> day in
+month <em>m</em>” which may occur in either the fourth or the fifth
+week). Week 1 is the first week in which the <em>d</em>’th day occurs. Day
+zero is a Sunday.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> has the same format as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offset</span></code> except that no leading sign
+(‘-‘ or ‘+’) is allowed. The default, if time is not given, is 02:00:00.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;TZ&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%X</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%x</span><span class="s1"> %Z&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;TZ&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%X</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%x</span><span class="s1"> %Z&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On many Unix systems (including *BSD, Linux, Solaris, and Darwin), it is more
+convenient to use the system’s zoneinfo (<em class="manpage">tzfile(5)</em>)  database to
+specify the timezone rules. To do this, set the  <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TZ</span></code> environment
+variable to the path of the required timezone  datafile, relative to the root of
+the systems ‘zoneinfo’ timezone database, usually located at
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/share/zoneinfo</span></code>. For example,  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'US/Eastern'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Australia/Melbourne'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Egypt'</span></code> or  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Europe/Amsterdam'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;TZ&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;US/Eastern&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzname</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;EST&#39;, &#39;EDT&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;TZ&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Egypt&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzname</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;EET&#39;, &#39;EEST&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="clock-id-constants">
+<span id="time-clock-id-constants"></span><h2>Clock ID Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#clock-id-constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These constants are used as parameters for <a class="reference internal" href="#time.clock_getres" title="time.clock_getres"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_getres()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.clock_gettime" title="time.clock_gettime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_gettime()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_BOOTTIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Identical to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC" title="time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_MONOTONIC</span></code></a>, except it also includes any time that
+the system is suspended.</p>
+<p>This allows applications to get a suspend-aware monotonic  clock  without
+having to deal with the complications of <a class="reference internal" href="#time.CLOCK_REALTIME" title="time.CLOCK_REALTIME"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_REALTIME</span></code></a>, which may
+have  discontinuities if the time is changed using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeofday()</span></code> or
+similar.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.39 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_HIGHRES">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_HIGHRES</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_HIGHRES" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The Solaris OS has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_HIGHRES</span></code> timer that attempts to use an optimal
+hardware source, and may give close to nanosecond resolution.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_HIGHRES</span></code> is the nonadjustable, high-resolution clock.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Solaris.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_MONOTONIC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clock that cannot be set and represents monotonic time since some unspecified
+starting point.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC" title="time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_MONOTONIC</span></code></a>, but provides access to a raw
+hardware-based time that is not subject to NTP adjustments.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Linux 2.6.28 and newer, macOS 10.12 and newer.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>High-resolution per-process timer from the CPU.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_PROF">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_PROF</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_PROF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>High-resolution per-process timer from the CPU.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: FreeBSD, NetBSD 7 or later, OpenBSD.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Thread-specific CPU-time clock.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_UPTIME">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_UPTIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_UPTIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time whose absolute value is the time the system has been running and not
+suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement, both absolute and
+interval.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: FreeBSD, OpenBSD 5.5 or later.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following constant is the only parameter that can be sent to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#time.clock_settime" title="time.clock_settime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_settime()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.CLOCK_REALTIME">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">CLOCK_REALTIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.CLOCK_REALTIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>System-wide real-time clock.  Setting this clock requires appropriate
+privileges.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Unix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timezone-constants">
+<span id="time-timezone-constants"></span><h2>Timezone Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#timezone-constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.altzone">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">altzone</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.altzone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined.
+This is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe,
+including the UK).  Only use this if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daylight</span></code> is nonzero.  See note below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.daylight">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">daylight</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.daylight" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Nonzero if a DST timezone is defined.  See note below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.timezone">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">timezone</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.timezone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The offset of the local (non-DST) timezone, in seconds west of UTC (negative in
+most of Western Europe, positive in the US, zero in the UK).  See note below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="time.tzname">
+<code class="descclassname">time.</code><code class="descname">tzname</code><a class="headerlink" href="#time.tzname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of two strings: the first is the name of the local non-DST timezone, the
+second is the name of the local DST timezone.  If no DST timezone is defined,
+the second string should not be used.  See note below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For the above Timezone constants (<a class="reference internal" href="#time.altzone" title="time.altzone"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">altzone</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#time.daylight" title="time.daylight"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daylight</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#time.timezone" title="time.timezone"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#time.tzname" title="time.tzname"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzname</span></code></a>), the value is determined by the timezone rules in effect
+at module load time or the last time <a class="reference internal" href="#time.tzset" title="time.tzset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzset()</span></code></a> is called and may be incorrect
+for times in the past.  It is recommended to use the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_gmtoff</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_zone</span></code> results from <a class="reference internal" href="#time.localtime" title="time.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a> to obtain timezone information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>More object-oriented interface to dates and times.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Internationalization services.  The locale setting affects the interpretation
+of many format specifiers in <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>General calendar-related functions.   <a class="reference internal" href="calendar.html#calendar.timegm" title="calendar.timegm"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timegm()</span></code></a> is the
+inverse of <a class="reference internal" href="#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code></a> from this module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%Z</span></code> is now deprecated, but the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%z</span></code> escape that expands to the
+preferred  hour/minute offset is not supported by all ANSI C libraries. Also, a
+strict reading of the original 1982 <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> standard calls for a two-digit
+year (%y rather than %Y), but practice moved to 4-digit years long before the
+year 2000.  After that, <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> became obsolete and the 4-digit year has
+been first recommended by <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1123.html"><strong>RFC 1123</strong></a> and then mandated by <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code> — Time access and conversions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#clock-id-constants">Clock ID Constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timezone-constants">Timezone Constants</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="io.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code> — Core tools for working with streams</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-timeit">
+<span id="timeit-measure-execution-time-of-small-code-snippets"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> — Measure execution time of small code snippets<a class="headerlink" href="#module-timeit" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/timeit.py">Lib/timeit.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides a simple way to time small bits of Python code. It has both
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit-command-line-interface"><span class="std std-ref">Command-Line Interface</span></a> as well as a <a class="reference internal" href="#python-interface"><span class="std std-ref">callable</span></a>
+one.  It avoids a number of common traps for measuring execution times.
+See also Tim Peters’ introduction to the “Algorithms” chapter in the <em>Python
+Cookbook</em>, published by O’Reilly.</p>
+<div class="section" id="basic-examples">
+<h2>Basic Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following example shows how the <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit-command-line-interface"><span class="std std-ref">Command-Line Interface</span></a>
+can be used to compare three different expressions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3 -m timeit <span class="s1">&#39;&quot;-&quot;.join(str(n) for n in range(100))&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 -m timeit <span class="s1">&#39;&quot;-&quot;.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python3 -m timeit <span class="s1">&#39;&quot;-&quot;.join(map(str, range(100)))&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This can be achieved from the <a class="reference internal" href="#python-interface"><span class="std std-ref">Python Interface</span></a> with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;-&quot;.join(str(n) for n in range(100))&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.3018611848820001</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;-&quot;.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.2727368790656328</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;-&quot;.join(map(str, range(100)))&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.23702679807320237</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A callable can also be passed from the <a class="reference internal" href="#python-interface"><span class="std std-ref">Python Interface</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;-&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">))),</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.19665591977536678</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note however that <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.timeit" title="timeit.timeit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> will automatically determine the number of
+repetitions only when the command-line interface is used.  In the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#timeit-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Examples</span></a> section you can find more advanced examples.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-interface">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Python Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#python-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module defines three convenience functions and a public class:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="timeit.timeit">
+<code class="descclassname">timeit.</code><code class="descname">timeit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stmt='pass'</em>, <em>setup='pass'</em>, <em>timer=&lt;default timer&gt;</em>, <em>number=1000000</em>, <em>globals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.timeit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer" title="timeit.Timer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer</span></code></a> instance with the given statement, <em>setup</em> code and
+<em>timer</em> function and run its <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> method with <em>number</em> executions.
+The optional <em>globals</em> argument specifies a namespace in which to execute the
+code.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The optional <em>globals</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="timeit.repeat">
+<code class="descclassname">timeit.</code><code class="descname">repeat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stmt='pass'</em>, <em>setup='pass'</em>, <em>timer=&lt;default timer&gt;</em>, <em>repeat=5</em>, <em>number=1000000</em>, <em>globals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.repeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer" title="timeit.Timer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer</span></code></a> instance with the given statement, <em>setup</em> code and
+<em>timer</em> function and run its <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.repeat" title="timeit.Timer.repeat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repeat()</span></code></a> method with the given <em>repeat</em>
+count and <em>number</em> executions.  The optional <em>globals</em> argument specifies a
+namespace in which to execute the code.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The optional <em>globals</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Default value of <em>repeat</em> changed from 3 to 5.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="timeit.default_timer">
+<code class="descclassname">timeit.</code><code class="descname">default_timer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.default_timer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default timer, which is always <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a> is now the default timer.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="timeit.Timer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">timeit.</code><code class="descname">Timer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stmt='pass'</em>, <em>setup='pass'</em>, <em>timer=&lt;timer function&gt;</em>, <em>globals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.Timer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class for timing execution speed of small code snippets.</p>
+<p>The constructor takes a statement to be timed, an additional statement used
+for setup, and a timer function.  Both statements default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'pass'</span></code>;
+the timer function is platform-dependent (see the module doc string).
+<em>stmt</em> and <em>setup</em> may also contain multiple statements separated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">;</span></code>
+or newlines, as long as they don’t contain multi-line string literals.  The
+statement will by default be executed within timeit’s namespace; this behavior
+can be controlled by passing a namespace to <em>globals</em>.</p>
+<p>To measure the execution time of the first statement, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a>
+method.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.repeat" title="timeit.Timer.repeat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repeat()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.autorange" title="timeit.Timer.autorange"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autorange()</span></code></a> methods are convenience
+methods to call <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> multiple times.</p>
+<p>The execution time of <em>setup</em> is excluded from the overall timed execution run.</p>
+<p>The <em>stmt</em> and <em>setup</em> parameters can also take objects that are callable
+without arguments.  This will embed calls to them in a timer function that
+will then be executed by <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a>.  Note that the timing overhead is a
+little larger in this case because of the extra function calls.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The optional <em>globals</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="timeit.Timer.timeit">
+<code class="descname">timeit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>number=1000000</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Time <em>number</em> executions of the main statement.  This executes the setup
+statement once, and then returns the time it takes to execute the main
+statement a number of times, measured in seconds as a float.
+The argument is the number of times through the loop, defaulting to one
+million.  The main statement, the setup statement and the timer function
+to be used are passed to the constructor.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> temporarily turns off <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><span class="xref std std-term">garbage
+collection</span></a> during the timing.  The advantage of this approach is that
+it makes independent timings more comparable.  The disadvantage is
+that GC may be an important component of the performance of the
+function being measured.  If so, GC can be re-enabled as the first
+statement in the <em>setup</em> string.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;for i in range(10): oct(i)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;gc.enable()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="timeit.Timer.autorange">
+<code class="descname">autorange</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>callback=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.Timer.autorange" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Automatically determine how many times to call <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This is a convenience function that calls <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> repeatedly
+so that the total time &gt;= 0.2 second, returning the eventual
+(number of loops, time taken for that number of loops). It calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> with increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5,
+10, 20, 50, … until the time taken is at least 0.2 second.</p>
+<p>If <em>callback</em> is given and is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it will be called after
+each trial with two arguments: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callback(number,</span> <span class="pre">time_taken)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="timeit.Timer.repeat">
+<code class="descname">repeat</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>repeat=5</em>, <em>number=1000000</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.Timer.repeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> a few times.</p>
+<p>This is a convenience function that calls the <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> repeatedly,
+returning a list of results.  The first argument specifies how many times
+to call <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a>.  The second argument specifies the <em>number</em>
+argument for <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>It’s tempting to calculate mean and standard deviation from the result
+vector and report these.  However, this is not very useful.
+In a typical case, the lowest value gives a lower bound for how fast
+your machine can run the given code snippet; higher values in the
+result vector are typically not caused by variability in Python’s
+speed, but by other processes interfering with your timing accuracy.
+So the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> of the result is probably the only number you
+should be interested in.  After that, you should look at the entire
+vector and apply common sense rather than statistics.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Default value of <em>repeat</em> changed from 3 to 5.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="timeit.Timer.print_exc">
+<code class="descname">print_exc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#timeit.Timer.print_exc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Helper to print a traceback from the timed code.</p>
+<p>Typical use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># outside the try/except</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># or t.repeat(...)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_exc</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The advantage over the standard traceback is that source lines in the
+compiled template will be displayed.  The optional <em>file</em> argument directs
+where the traceback is sent; it defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-interface">
+<span id="timeit-command-line-interface"></span><h2>Command-Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When called as a program from the command line, the following form is used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">timeit</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="n">U</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="n">S</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">statement</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Where the following options are understood:</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-timeit-n">
+<code class="descname">-n</code><code class="descclassname"> N</code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--number</code><code class="descclassname">=N</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-timeit-n" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>how many times to execute ‘statement’</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-timeit-r">
+<code class="descname">-r</code><code class="descclassname"> N</code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--repeat</code><code class="descclassname">=N</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-timeit-r" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>how many times to repeat the timer (default 5)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-timeit-s">
+<code class="descname">-s</code><code class="descclassname"> S</code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--setup</code><code class="descclassname">=S</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-timeit-s" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>statement to be executed once initially (default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code>)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-timeit-p">
+<code class="descname">-p</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--process</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-timeit-p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>measure process time, not wallclock time, using <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.process_time" title="time.process_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.process_time()</span></code></a>
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a>, which is the default</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-timeit-u">
+<code class="descname">-u</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--unit</code><code class="descclassname">=U</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-timeit-u" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><blockquote>
+<div><p>specify a time unit for timer output; can select nsec, usec, msec, or sec</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-timeit-v">
+<code class="descname">-v</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--verbose</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-timeit-v" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>print raw timing results; repeat for more digits precision</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-timeit-h">
+<code class="descname">-h</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--help</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-timeit-h" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>print a short usage message and exit</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A multi-line statement may be given by specifying each line as a separate
+statement argument; indented lines are possible by enclosing an argument in
+quotes and using leading spaces.  Multiple <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-timeit-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a> options are treated
+similarly.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-timeit-n"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code></a> is not given, a suitable number of loops is calculated by trying
+successive powers of 10 until the total time is at least 0.2 seconds.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.default_timer" title="timeit.default_timer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_timer()</span></code></a> measurements can be affected by other programs running on
+the same machine, so the best thing to do when accurate timing is necessary is
+to repeat the timing a few times and use the best time.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-timeit-r"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-r</span></code></a>
+option is good for this; the default of 5 repetitions is probably enough in
+most cases.  You can use <a class="reference internal" href="time.html#time.process_time" title="time.process_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.process_time()</span></code></a> to measure CPU time.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>There is a certain baseline overhead associated with executing a pass statement.
+The code here doesn’t try to hide it, but you should be aware of it.  The
+baseline overhead can be measured by invoking the program without arguments,
+and it might differ between Python versions.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="timeit-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is possible to provide a setup statement that is executed only once at the beginning:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m timeit -s <span class="s1">&#39;text = &quot;sample string&quot;; char = &quot;g&quot;&#39;</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;char in text&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python -m timeit -s <span class="s1">&#39;text = &quot;sample string&quot;; char = &quot;g&quot;&#39;</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;text.find(char)&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;char in text&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;text = &quot;sample string&quot;; char = &quot;g&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.41440500499993504</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;text.find(char)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;text = &quot;sample string&quot;; char = &quot;g&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.7246671520006203</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same can be done using the <a class="reference internal" href="#timeit.Timer" title="timeit.Timer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer</span></code></a> class and its methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;char in text&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;text = &quot;sample string&quot;; char = &quot;g&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.3955516149999312</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following examples show how to time expressions that contain multiple lines.
+Here we compare the cost of using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> vs. <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>
+to test for missing and present object attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m timeit <span class="s1">&#39;try:&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;  str.__bool__&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;except AttributeError:&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;  pass&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python -m timeit <span class="s1">&#39;if hasattr(str, &quot;__bool__&quot;): pass&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop</span>
+
+<span class="gp">$</span> python -m timeit <span class="s1">&#39;try:&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;  int.__bool__&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;except AttributeError:&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;  pass&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python -m timeit <span class="s1">&#39;if hasattr(int, &quot;__bool__&quot;): pass&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># attribute is missing</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">try:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    str.__bool__</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">except AttributeError:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    pass</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stmt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">100000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.9138244460009446</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;if hasattr(str, &#39;__bool__&#39;): pass&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stmt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">100000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.5829014980008651</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># attribute is present</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">try:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    int.__bool__</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">except AttributeError:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    pass</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stmt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">100000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.04215312199994514</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;if hasattr(int, &#39;__bool__&#39;): pass&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stmt</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">100000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.08588060699912603</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To give the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> module access to functions you define, you can pass a
+<em>setup</em> parameter which contains an import statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Stupid test function&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;test()&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;from __main__ import test&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another option is to pass <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#globals" title="globals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globals()</span></code></a> to the  <em>globals</em> parameter, which will cause the code
+to be executed within your current global namespace.  This can be more convenient
+than individually specifying imports:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">h</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">8</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">globals</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">globals</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code> — Measure execution time of small code snippets</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-examples">Basic Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-interface">Python Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code> — Trace or track Python statement execution</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+
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+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Graphical User Interfaces with Tk &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="graphical-user-interfaces-with-tk">
+<span id="tkinter"></span><h1>Graphical User Interfaces with Tk<a class="headerlink" href="#graphical-user-interfaces-with-tk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">Tk/Tcl has long been an integral part of Python.  It provides a robust and
+platform independent windowing toolkit, that is available to Python programmers
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> package, and its extension, the <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.tix.html#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> and
+the <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> modules.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> package is a thin object-oriented layer on top of Tcl/Tk. To
+use <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>, you don’t need to write Tcl code, but you will need to
+consult the Tk documentation, and occasionally the Tcl documentation.
+<a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> is a set of wrappers that implement the Tk widgets as Python
+classes.  In addition, the internal module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code> provides a threadsafe
+mechanism which allows Python and Tcl to interact.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>’s chief virtues are that it is fast, and that it usually comes
+bundled with Python. Although its standard documentation is weak, good
+material is available, which includes: references, tutorials, a book and
+others. <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> is also famous for having an outdated look and feel,
+which has been vastly improved in Tk 8.5. Nevertheless, there are many other
+GUI libraries that you could be interested in. For more information about
+alternatives, see the <a class="reference internal" href="othergui.html#other-gui-packages"><span class="std std-ref">Other Graphical User Interface Packages</span></a> section.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code> — Python interface to Tcl/Tk</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#tkinter-modules">Tkinter Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#tkinter-life-preserver">Tkinter Life Preserver</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#how-to-use-this-section">How To Use This Section</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#a-simple-hello-world-program">A Simple Hello World Program</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#a-very-quick-look-at-tcl-tk">A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#mapping-basic-tk-into-tkinter">Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#how-tk-and-tkinter-are-related">How Tk and Tkinter are Related</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#handy-reference">Handy Reference</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#setting-options">Setting Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#the-packer">The Packer</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#packer-options">Packer Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#coupling-widget-variables">Coupling Widget Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#the-window-manager">The Window Manager</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#tk-option-data-types">Tk Option Data Types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#bindings-and-events">Bindings and Events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#the-index-parameter">The index Parameter</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#images">Images</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#file-handlers">File Handlers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code> — Tk themed widgets</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#using-ttk">Using Ttk</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#ttk-widgets">Ttk Widgets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#widget">Widget</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#standard-options">Standard Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#scrollable-widget-options">Scrollable Widget Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#label-options">Label Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#compatibility-options">Compatibility Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#widget-states">Widget States</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#ttk-widget">ttk.Widget</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#combobox">Combobox</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#options">Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#virtual-events">Virtual events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#ttk-combobox">ttk.Combobox</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#spinbox">Spinbox</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#id1">Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#id2">Virtual events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#ttk-spinbox">ttk.Spinbox</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#notebook">Notebook</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#id3">Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#tab-options">Tab Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#tab-identifiers">Tab Identifiers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#id4">Virtual Events</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#ttk-notebook">ttk.Notebook</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#progressbar">Progressbar</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#id5">Options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#ttk-progressbar">ttk.Progressbar</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-tkinter">
+<span id="tkinter-python-interface-to-tcl-tk"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> — Python interface to Tcl/Tk<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tkinter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py">Lib/tkinter/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> package (“Tk interface”) is the standard Python interface to
+the Tk GUI toolkit.  Both Tk and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> are available on most Unix
+platforms, as well as on Windows systems.  (Tk itself is not part of Python; it
+is maintained at ActiveState.)</p>
+<p>Running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">tkinter</span></code> from the command line should open a window
+demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> is
+properly installed on your system, and also showing what version of Tcl/Tk is
+installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation specific to that version.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>Tkinter documentation:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/TkInter">Python Tkinter Resources</a></dt><dd><p>The Python Tkinter Topic Guide provides a great deal of information on using Tk
+from Python and links to other sources of information on Tk.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.tkdocs.com/">TKDocs</a></dt><dd><p>Extensive tutorial plus friendlier widget pages for some of the widgets.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190524140835/https://infohost.nmt.edu/tcc/help/pubs/tkinter/web/index.html">Tkinter 8.5 reference: a GUI for Python</a></dt><dd><p>On-line reference material.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/tkinterbook/">Tkinter docs from effbot</a></dt><dd><p>Online reference for tkinter supported by effbot.org.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html">Programming Python</a></dt><dd><p>Book by Mark Lutz, has excellent coverage of Tkinter.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.amazon.com/Modern-Tkinter-Python-Developers-ebook/dp/B0071QDNLO/">Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers</a></dt><dd><p>Book by Mark Roseman about building attractive and modern graphical user interfaces with Python and Tkinter.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.manning.com/books/python-and-tkinter-programming">Python and Tkinter Programming</a></dt><dd><p>Book by John Grayson (ISBN 1-884777-81-3).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Tcl/Tk documentation:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm">Tk commands</a></dt><dd><p>Most commands are available as <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> classes.
+Change ‘8.6’ to match the version of your Tcl/Tk installation.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.tcl.tk/doc/">Tcl/Tk recent man pages</a></dt><dd><p>Recent Tcl/Tk manuals on www.tcl.tk.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://tcl.tk">ActiveState Tcl Home Page</a></dt><dd><p>The Tk/Tcl development is largely taking place at ActiveState.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/020163337X">Tcl and the Tk Toolkit</a></dt><dd><p>Book by John Ousterhout, the inventor of Tcl.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.beedub.com/book/">Practical Programming in Tcl and Tk</a></dt><dd><p>Brent Welch’s encyclopedic book.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tkinter-modules">
+<h2>Tkinter Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Most of the time, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> is all you really need, but a number of
+additional modules are available as well.  The Tk interface is located in a
+binary module named <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code>. This module contains the low-level
+interface to Tk, and should never be used directly by application programmers.
+It is usually a shared library (or DLL), but might in some cases be statically
+linked with the Python interpreter.</p>
+<p>In addition to the Tk interface module, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> includes a number of
+Python modules, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.constants</span></code> being one of the most important.
+Importing <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> will automatically import <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.constants</span></code>,
+so, usually, to use Tkinter all you need is a simple import statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or, more often:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.Tk">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.</code><code class="descname">Tk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>screenName=None</em>, <em>baseName=None</em>, <em>className='Tk'</em>, <em>useTk=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.Tk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.Tk" title="tkinter.Tk"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tk</span></code></a> class is instantiated without arguments. This creates a toplevel
+widget of Tk which usually is the main window of an application. Each instance
+has its own associated Tcl interpreter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tkinter.Tcl">
+<code class="descclassname">tkinter.</code><code class="descname">Tcl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>screenName=None</em>, <em>baseName=None</em>, <em>className='Tk'</em>, <em>useTk=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.Tcl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.Tcl" title="tkinter.Tcl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tcl()</span></code></a> function is a factory function which creates an object much like
+that created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.Tk" title="tkinter.Tk"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tk</span></code></a> class, except that it does not initialize the Tk
+subsystem.  This is most often useful when driving the Tcl interpreter in an
+environment where one doesn’t want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or
+where one cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server).  An object
+created by the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.Tcl" title="tkinter.Tcl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tcl()</span></code></a> object can have a Toplevel window created (and the Tk
+subsystem initialized) by calling its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadtk()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Other modules that provide Tk support include:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.scrolledtext.html#module-tkinter.scrolledtext" title="tkinter.scrolledtext: Text widget with a vertical scroll bar. (Tk)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.scrolledtext</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Text widget with a vertical scroll bar built in.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.colorchooser</span></code></dt><dd><p>Dialog to let the user choose a color.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.commondialog</span></code></dt><dd><p>Base class for the dialogs defined in the other modules listed here.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.filedialog</span></code></dt><dd><p>Common dialogs to allow the user to specify a file to open or save.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.font</span></code></dt><dd><p>Utilities to help work with fonts.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.messagebox</span></code></dt><dd><p>Access to standard Tk dialog boxes.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.simpledialog</span></code></dt><dd><p>Basic dialogs and convenience functions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.dnd</span></code></dt><dd><p>Drag-and-drop support for <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>. This is experimental and should
+become deprecated when it is replaced  with the Tk DND.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Turtle graphics in a Tk window.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tkinter-life-preserver">
+<h2>Tkinter Life Preserver<a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter-life-preserver" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk or
+Tkinter.  Rather, it is intended as a stop gap, providing some introductory
+orientation on the system.</p>
+<p>Credits:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Tk was written by John Ousterhout while at Berkeley.</p></li>
+<li><p>Tkinter was written by Steen Lumholt and Guido van Rossum.</p></li>
+<li><p>This Life Preserver was written by Matt Conway at the University of Virginia.</p></li>
+<li><p>The HTML rendering, and some liberal editing, was produced from a FrameMaker
+version by Ken Manheimer.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fredrik Lundh elaborated and revised the class interface descriptions, to get
+them current with Tk 4.2.</p></li>
+<li><p>Mike Clarkson converted the documentation to LaTeX, and compiled the  User
+Interface chapter of the reference manual.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="how-to-use-this-section">
+<h3>How To Use This Section<a class="headerlink" href="#how-to-use-this-section" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This section is designed in two parts: the first half (roughly) covers
+background material, while the second half can be taken to the keyboard as a
+handy reference.</p>
+<p>When trying to answer questions of the form “how do I do blah”, it is often best
+to find out how to do “blah” in straight Tk, and then convert this back into the
+corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> call. Python programmers can often guess at the
+correct Python command by looking at the Tk documentation. This means that in
+order to use Tkinter, you will have to know a little bit about Tk. This document
+can’t fulfill that role, so the best we can do is point you to the best
+documentation that exists. Here are some hints:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The authors strongly suggest getting a copy of the Tk man pages.
+Specifically, the man pages in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">manN</span></code> directory are most useful.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">man3</span></code> man pages describe the C interface to the Tk library and thus
+are not especially helpful for script writers.</p></li>
+<li><p>Addison-Wesley publishes a book called Tcl and the Tk Toolkit by John
+Ousterhout (ISBN 0-201-63337-X) which is a good introduction to Tcl and Tk for
+the novice.  The book is not exhaustive, and for many details it defers to the
+man pages.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter/__init__.py</span></code> is a last resort for most, but can be a good
+place to go when nothing else makes sense.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-simple-hello-world-program">
+<h3>A Simple Hello World Program<a class="headerlink" href="#a-simple-hello-world-program" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">tk</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Application</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Frame</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">master</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">master</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">master</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">master</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_widgets</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">create_widgets</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hi_there</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hi_there</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;text&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Hello World</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">(click me)&quot;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hi_there</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;command&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">say_hi</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hi_there</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;top&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;QUIT&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                              <span class="n">command</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">master</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">destroy</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;bottom&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">say_hi</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hi there, everyone!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">app</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Application</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">master</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">app</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mainloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-very-quick-look-at-tcl-tk">
+<h2>A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk<a class="headerlink" href="#a-very-quick-look-at-tcl-tk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The class hierarchy looks complicated, but in actual practice, application
+programmers almost always refer to the classes at the very bottom of the
+hierarchy.</p>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>These classes are provided for the purposes of organizing certain functions
+under one namespace. They aren’t meant to be instantiated independently.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.Tk" title="tkinter.Tk"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tk</span></code></a> class is meant to be instantiated only once in an application.
+Application programmers need not instantiate one explicitly, the system creates
+one whenever any of the other classes are instantiated.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget</span></code> class is not meant to be instantiated, it is meant only
+for subclassing to make “real” widgets (in C++, this is called an ‘abstract
+class’).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>To make use of this reference material, there will be times when you will need
+to know how to read short passages of Tk and how to identify the various parts
+of a Tk command.   (See section <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter-basic-mapping"><span class="std std-ref">Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter</span></a> for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> equivalents of what’s below.)</p>
+<p>Tk scripts are Tcl programs.  Like all Tcl programs, Tk scripts are just lists
+of tokens separated by spaces.  A Tk widget is just its <em>class</em>, the <em>options</em>
+that help configure it, and the <em>actions</em> that make it do useful things.</p>
+<p>To make a widget in Tk, the command is always of the form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">classCommand</span> <span class="n">newPathname</span> <span class="n">options</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><em>classCommand</em></dt><dd><p>denotes which kind of widget to make (a button, a label, a menu…)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl class="simple" id="index-0">
+<dt><em>newPathname</em></dt><dd><p>is the new name for this widget.  All names in Tk must be unique.  To help
+enforce this, widgets in Tk are named with <em>pathnames</em>, just like files in a
+file system.  The top level widget, the <em>root</em>, is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> (period) and
+children are delimited by more periods.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.myApp.controlPanel.okButton</span></code> might be the name of a widget.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><em>options</em></dt><dd><p>configure the widget’s appearance and in some cases, its behavior.  The options
+come in the form of a list of flags and values. Flags are preceded by a ‘-‘,
+like Unix shell command flags, and values are put in quotes if they are more
+than one word.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">button</span>   <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span>   <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">fg</span> <span class="n">red</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">text</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hi there&quot;</span>
+   <span class="o">^</span>       <span class="o">^</span>     \<span class="n">______________________</span><span class="o">/</span>
+   <span class="o">|</span>       <span class="o">|</span>                <span class="o">|</span>
+ <span class="k">class</span>    <span class="nc">new</span>            <span class="n">options</span>
+<span class="n">command</span>  <span class="n">widget</span>  <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">opt</span> <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">opt</span> <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once created, the pathname to the widget becomes a new command.  This new
+<em>widget command</em> is the programmer’s handle for getting the new widget to
+perform some <em>action</em>.  In C, you’d express this as someAction(fred,
+someOptions), in C++, you would express this as fred.someAction(someOptions),
+and in Tk, you say:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span> <span class="n">someAction</span> <span class="n">someOptions</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the object name, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.fred</span></code>, starts with a dot.</p>
+<p>As you’d expect, the legal values for <em>someAction</em> will depend on the widget’s
+class: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.fred</span> <span class="pre">disable</span></code> works if fred is a button (fred gets greyed out), but
+does not work if fred is a label (disabling of labels is not supported in Tk).</p>
+<p>The legal values of <em>someOptions</em> is action dependent.  Some actions, like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disable</span></code>, require no arguments, others, like a text-entry box’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delete</span></code>
+command, would need arguments to specify what range of text to delete.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mapping-basic-tk-into-tkinter">
+<span id="tkinter-basic-mapping"></span><h2>Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter<a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-basic-tk-into-tkinter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Class commands in Tk correspond to class constructors in Tkinter.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">button</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span>                <span class="o">=====&gt;</span>  <span class="n">fred</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The master of an object is implicit in the new name given to it at creation
+time.  In Tkinter, masters are specified explicitly.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">button</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">panel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span>          <span class="o">=====&gt;</span>  <span class="n">fred</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">panel</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The configuration options in Tk are given in lists of hyphened tags followed by
+values.  In Tkinter, options are specified as keyword-arguments in the instance
+constructor, and keyword-args for configure calls or as instance indices, in
+dictionary style, for established instances.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter-setting-options"><span class="std std-ref">Setting Options</span></a> on setting options.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">button</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">fg</span> <span class="n">red</span>        <span class="o">=====&gt;</span>  <span class="n">fred</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">panel</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span> <span class="n">configure</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">fg</span> <span class="n">red</span>     <span class="o">=====&gt;</span>  <span class="n">fred</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;fg&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">red</span>
+                            <span class="n">OR</span> <span class="o">==&gt;</span>  <span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Tk, to perform an action on a widget, use the widget name as a command, and
+follow it with an action name, possibly with arguments (options).  In Tkinter,
+you call methods on the class instance to invoke actions on the widget.  The
+actions (methods) that a given widget can perform are listed in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter/__init__.py</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span> <span class="n">invoke</span>                <span class="o">=====&gt;</span>  <span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">invoke</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To give a widget to the packer (geometry manager), you call pack with optional
+arguments.  In Tkinter, the Pack class holds all this functionality, and the
+various forms of the pack command are implemented as methods.  All widgets in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> are subclassed from the Packer, and so inherit all the packing
+methods. See the <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.tix.html#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> module documentation for additional
+information on the Form geometry manager.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pack</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fred</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">side</span> <span class="n">left</span>       <span class="o">=====&gt;</span>  <span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;left&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-tk-and-tkinter-are-related">
+<h2>How Tk and Tkinter are Related<a class="headerlink" href="#how-tk-and-tkinter-are-related" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>From the top down:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Your App Here (Python)</dt><dd><p>A Python application makes a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> call.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>tkinter (Python Package)</dt><dd><p>This call (say, for example, creating a button widget), is implemented in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> package, which is written in Python.  This Python
+function will parse the commands and the arguments and convert them into a
+form that makes them look as if they had come from a Tk script instead of
+a Python script.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>_tkinter (C)</dt><dd><p>These commands and their arguments will be passed to a C function in the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code> - note the underscore - extension module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Tk Widgets (C and Tcl)</dt><dd><p>This C function is able to make calls into other C modules, including the C
+functions that make up the Tk library.  Tk is implemented in C and some Tcl.
+The Tcl part of the Tk widgets is used to bind certain default behaviors to
+widgets, and is executed once at the point where the Python <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>
+package is imported. (The user never sees this stage).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Tk (C)</dt><dd><p>The Tk part of the Tk Widgets implement the final mapping to …</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Xlib (C)</dt><dd><p>the Xlib library to draw graphics on the screen.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="handy-reference">
+<h2>Handy Reference<a class="headerlink" href="#handy-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="setting-options">
+<span id="tkinter-setting-options"></span><h3>Setting Options<a class="headerlink" href="#setting-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Options control things like the color and border width of a widget. Options can
+be set in three ways:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>At object creation time, using keyword arguments</dt><dd><div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">fred</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>After object creation, treating the option name like a dictionary index</dt><dd><div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">fred</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;fg&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">fred</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;bg&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Use the config() method to update multiple attrs subsequent to object creation</dt><dd><div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>For a complete explanation of a given option and its behavior, see the Tk man
+pages for the widget in question.</p>
+<p>Note that the man pages list “STANDARD OPTIONS” and “WIDGET SPECIFIC OPTIONS”
+for each widget.  The former is a list of options that are common to many
+widgets, the latter are the options that are idiosyncratic to that particular
+widget.  The Standard Options are documented on the <em class="manpage">options(3)</em> man
+page.</p>
+<p>No distinction between standard and widget-specific options is made in this
+document.  Some options don’t apply to some kinds of widgets. Whether a given
+widget responds to a particular option depends on the class of the widget;
+buttons have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command</span></code> option, labels do not.</p>
+<p>The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget’s man page, or
+can be queried at runtime by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config()</span></code> method without
+arguments, or by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code> method on that widget.  The return
+value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of the option as a
+string (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'relief'</span></code>) and whose values are 5-tuples.</p>
+<p>Some options, like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bg</span></code> are synonyms for common options with long names
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bg</span></code> is shorthand for “background”). Passing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">config()</span></code> method the name
+of a shorthand option will return a 2-tuple, not 5-tuple. The 2-tuple passed
+back will contain the name of the synonym and the “real” option (such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('bg',</span> <span class="pre">'background')</span></code>).</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 61%" />
+<col style="width: 26%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Example</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>option name</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'relief'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>option name for database lookup</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'relief'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>option class for database
+lookup</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Relief'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p>default value</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'raised'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>current value</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'groove'</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;relief&#39;: (&#39;relief&#39;, &#39;relief&#39;, &#39;Relief&#39;, &#39;raised&#39;, &#39;groove&#39;)}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Of course, the dictionary printed will include all the options available and
+their values.  This is meant only as an example.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-packer">
+<h3>The Packer<a class="headerlink" href="#the-packer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-1">The packer is one of Tk’s geometry-management mechanisms.    Geometry managers
+are used to specify the relative positioning of the positioning of widgets
+within their container - their mutual <em>master</em>.  In contrast to the more
+cumbersome <em>placer</em> (which is used less commonly, and we do not cover here), the
+packer takes qualitative relationship specification - <em>above</em>, <em>to the left of</em>,
+<em>filling</em>, etc - and works everything out to determine the exact placement
+coordinates for you.</p>
+<p>The size of any <em>master</em> widget is determined by the size of the “slave widgets”
+inside.  The packer is used to control where slave widgets appear inside the
+master into which they are packed.  You can pack widgets into frames, and frames
+into other frames, in order to achieve the kind of layout you desire.
+Additionally, the arrangement is dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental
+changes to the configuration, once it is packed.</p>
+<p>Note that widgets do not appear until they have had their geometry specified
+with a geometry manager.  It’s a common early mistake to leave out the geometry
+specification, and then be surprised when the widget is created but nothing
+appears.  A widget will appear only after it has had, for example, the packer’s
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code> method applied to it.</p>
+<p>The pack() method can be called with keyword-option/value pairs that control
+where the widget is to appear within its container, and how it is to behave when
+the main application window is resized.  Here are some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>                     <span class="c1"># defaults to side = &quot;top&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;left&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">fred</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expand</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="packer-options">
+<h3>Packer Options<a class="headerlink" href="#packer-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For more extensive information on the packer and the options that it can take,
+see the man pages and page 183 of John Ousterhout’s book.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>anchor</dt><dd><p>Anchor type.  Denotes where the packer is to place each slave in its parcel.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>expand</dt><dd><p>Boolean, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>fill</dt><dd><p>Legal values: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'y'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'both'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'none'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>ipadx and ipady</dt><dd><p>A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the slave widget.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>padx and pady</dt><dd><p>A distance - designating external padding on each side of the slave widget.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>side</dt><dd><p>Legal values are: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'left'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'right'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'top'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'bottom'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coupling-widget-variables">
+<h3>Coupling Widget Variables<a class="headerlink" href="#coupling-widget-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The current-value setting of some widgets (like text entry widgets) can be
+connected directly to application variables by using special options.  These
+options are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variable</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textvariable</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onvalue</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">offvalue</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>.  This connection works both ways: if the variable changes for any
+reason, the widget it’s connected to will be updated to reflect the new value.</p>
+<p>Unfortunately, in the current implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> it is not
+possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget through a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variable</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textvariable</span></code> option.  The only kinds of variables for which
+this works are variables that are subclassed from a class called Variable,
+defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>There are many useful subclasses of Variable already defined:
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringVar</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntVar</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DoubleVar</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BooleanVar</span></code>.  To read the current value of such a variable, call the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> method on it, and to change its value you call the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code>
+method.  If you follow this protocol, the widget will always track the value of
+the variable, with no further intervention on your part.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">App</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Frame</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">master</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">master</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">entrythingy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Entry</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">entrythingy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># here is the application variable</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StringVar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># set it to some value</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;this is a variable&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># tell the entry widget to watch this variable</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">entrythingy</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;textvariable&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span>
+
+        <span class="c1"># and here we get a callback when the user hits return.</span>
+        <span class="c1"># we will have the program print out the value of the</span>
+        <span class="c1"># application variable when the user hits return</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">entrythingy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;Key-Return&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                              <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_contents</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_contents</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">event</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hi. contents of entry is now ----&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">contents</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-window-manager">
+<h3>The Window Manager<a class="headerlink" href="#the-window-manager" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-2">In Tk, there is a utility command, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wm</span></code>, for interacting with the window
+manager.  Options to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wm</span></code> command allow you to control things like titles,
+placement, icon bitmaps, and the like.  In <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>, these commands have
+been implemented as methods on the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wm</span></code> class.  Toplevel widgets are
+subclassed from the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wm</span></code> class, and so can call the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wm</span></code> methods
+directly.</p>
+<p>To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can often just
+refer to the widget’s master.  Of course if the widget has been packed inside of
+a frame, the master won’t represent a toplevel window.  To get at the toplevel
+window that contains an arbitrary widget, you can call the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_root()</span></code> method.
+This method begins with an underscore to denote the fact that this function is
+part of the implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality.</p>
+<p>Here are some examples of typical usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">tk</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">App</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Frame</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">master</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">master</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create the application</span>
+<span class="n">myapp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">App</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="c1"># here are method calls to the window manager class</span>
+<span class="c1">#</span>
+<span class="n">myapp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">master</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;My Do-Nothing Application&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">myapp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">master</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">400</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># start the program</span>
+<span class="n">myapp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mainloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tk-option-data-types">
+<h3>Tk Option Data Types<a class="headerlink" href="#tk-option-data-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl id="index-3">
+<dt>anchor</dt><dd><p>Legal values are points of the compass: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;n&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ne&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;e&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;se&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;s&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;sw&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;w&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;nw&quot;</span></code>, and also <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;center&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>bitmap</dt><dd><p>There are eight built-in, named bitmaps: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'error'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gray25'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gray50'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hourglass'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'info'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'questhead'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'question'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'warning'</span></code>.  To specify an X bitmap filename, give the full path to the file,
+preceded with an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&#64;/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>boolean</dt><dd><p>You can pass integers 0 or 1 or the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;yes&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;no&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>callback</dt><dd><p>This is any Python function that takes no arguments.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_it</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hi there&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">fred</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;command&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">print_it</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>color</dt><dd><p>Colors can be given as the names of X colors in the rgb.txt file, or as strings
+representing RGB values in 4 bit: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;#RGB&quot;</span></code>, 8 bit: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;#RRGGBB&quot;</span></code>, 12 bit”
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;#RRRGGGBBB&quot;</span></code>, or 16 bit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;#RRRRGGGGBBBB&quot;</span></code> ranges, where R,G,B here
+represent any legal hex digit.  See page 160 of Ousterhout’s book for details.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>cursor</dt><dd><p>The standard X cursor names from <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cursorfont.h</span></code> can be used, without the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XC_</span></code> prefix.  For example to get a hand cursor (<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XC_hand2</span></code>), use the
+string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;hand2&quot;</span></code>.  You can also specify a bitmap and mask file of your own.
+See page 179 of Ousterhout’s book.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>distance</dt><dd><p>Screen distances can be specified in either pixels or absolute distances.
+Pixels are given as numbers and absolute distances as strings, with the trailing
+character denoting units: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> for centimetres, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> for inches, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m</span></code> for
+millimetres, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code> for printer’s points.  For example, 3.5 inches is expressed
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;3.5i&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>font</dt><dd><p>Tk uses a list font name format, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{courier</span> <span class="pre">10</span> <span class="pre">bold}</span></code>. Font sizes with
+positive numbers are measured in points; sizes with negative numbers are
+measured in pixels.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>geometry</dt><dd><p>This is a string of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">widthxheight</span></code>, where width and height are
+measured in pixels for most widgets (in characters for widgets displaying text).
+For example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fred[&quot;geometry&quot;]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">&quot;200x100&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>justify</dt><dd><p>Legal values are the strings: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;left&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;center&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;right&quot;</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;fill&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>region</dt><dd><p>This is a string with four space-delimited elements, each of which is a legal
+distance (see above).  For example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;2</span> <span class="pre">3</span> <span class="pre">4</span> <span class="pre">5&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;3i</span> <span class="pre">2i</span> <span class="pre">4.5i</span> <span class="pre">2i&quot;</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;3c</span> <span class="pre">2c</span> <span class="pre">4c</span> <span class="pre">10.43c&quot;</span></code>  are all legal regions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>relief</dt><dd><p>Determines what the border style of a widget will be.  Legal values are:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;raised&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;sunken&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;flat&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;groove&quot;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ridge&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>scrollcommand</dt><dd><p>This is almost always the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code> method of some scrollbar widget, but can
+be any widget method that takes a single argument.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>wrap:</dt><dd><p>Must be one of: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;none&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;char&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;word&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bindings-and-events">
+<h3>Bindings and Events<a class="headerlink" href="#bindings-and-events" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-4">The bind method from the widget command allows you to watch for certain events
+and to have a callback function trigger when that event type occurs.  The form
+of the bind method is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sequence</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">add</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>sequence</dt><dd><p>is a string that denotes the target kind of event.  (See the bind man page and
+page 201 of John Ousterhout’s book for details).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>func</dt><dd><p>is a Python function, taking one argument, to be invoked when the event occurs.
+An Event instance will be passed as the argument. (Functions deployed this way
+are commonly known as <em>callbacks</em>.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>add</dt><dd><p>is optional, either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>.  Passing an empty string denotes that
+this binding is to replace any other bindings that this event is associated
+with.  Passing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code> means that this function is to be added to the list
+of functions bound to this event type.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">turn_red</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">event</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">event</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">widget</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;activeforeground&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">button</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;Enter&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">turn_red</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice how the widget field of the event is being accessed in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turn_red()</span></code> callback.  This field contains the widget that caught the X
+event.  The following table lists the other event fields you can access, and how
+they are denoted in Tk, which can be useful when referring to the Tk man pages.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 8%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 8%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Tk</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Tkinter Event Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Tk</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Tkinter Event Field</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>%f</p></td>
+<td><p>focus</p></td>
+<td><p>%A</p></td>
+<td><p>char</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>%h</p></td>
+<td><p>height</p></td>
+<td><p>%E</p></td>
+<td><p>send_event</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>%k</p></td>
+<td><p>keycode</p></td>
+<td><p>%K</p></td>
+<td><p>keysym</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>%s</p></td>
+<td><p>state</p></td>
+<td><p>%N</p></td>
+<td><p>keysym_num</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>%t</p></td>
+<td><p>time</p></td>
+<td><p>%T</p></td>
+<td><p>type</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>%w</p></td>
+<td><p>width</p></td>
+<td><p>%W</p></td>
+<td><p>widget</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>%x</p></td>
+<td><p>x</p></td>
+<td><p>%X</p></td>
+<td><p>x_root</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>%y</p></td>
+<td><p>y</p></td>
+<td><p>%Y</p></td>
+<td><p>y_root</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-index-parameter">
+<h3>The index Parameter<a class="headerlink" href="#the-index-parameter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A number of widgets require “index” parameters to be passed.  These are used to
+point at a specific place in a Text widget, or to particular characters in an
+Entry widget, or to particular menu items in a Menu widget.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.)</dt><dd><p>Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the text being
+displayed.  You can use these <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> functions to access these special
+points in text widgets:</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Text widget indexes</dt><dd><p>The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best described in the Tk
+man pages.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Menu indexes (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.)</dt><dd><p>Some options and methods for menus manipulate specific menu entries. Anytime a
+menu index is needed for an option or a parameter, you may pass in:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>an integer which refers to the numeric position of the entry in the widget,
+counted from the top, starting with 0;</p></li>
+<li><p>the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;active&quot;</span></code>, which refers to the menu position that is currently
+under the cursor;</p></li>
+<li><p>the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;last&quot;</span></code> which refers to the last menu item;</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer preceded by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;6</span></code>, where the integer is interpreted
+as a y pixel coordinate in the menu’s coordinate system;</p></li>
+<li><p>the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;none&quot;</span></code>, which indicates no menu entry at all, most often used
+with menu.activate() to deactivate all entries, and finally,</p></li>
+<li><p>a text string that is pattern matched against the label of the menu entry, as
+scanned from the top of the menu to the bottom.  Note that this index type is
+considered after all the others, which means that matches for menu items
+labelled <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">active</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">none</span></code> may be interpreted as the above
+literals, instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="images">
+<h3>Images<a class="headerlink" href="#images" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Images of different formats can be created through the corresponding subclass
+of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Image</span></code>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BitmapImage</span></code> for images in XBM format.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PhotoImage</span></code> for images in PGM, PPM, GIF and PNG formats. The latter
+is supported starting with Tk 8.6.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Either type of image is created through either the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code>
+option (other options are available as well).</p>
+<p>The image object can then be used wherever an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">image</span></code> option is supported by
+some widget (e.g. labels, buttons, menus). In these cases, Tk will not keep a
+reference to the image. When the last Python reference to the image object is
+deleted, the image data is deleted as well, and Tk will display an empty box
+wherever the image was used.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://python-pillow.org/">Pillow</a> package adds support for
+formats such as BMP, JPEG, TIFF, and WebP, among others.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-handlers">
+<span id="tkinter-file-handlers"></span><h2>File Handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#file-handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will be
+called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file descriptor.
+Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor. Example code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span>
+<span class="n">widget</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">mask</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">READABLE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WRITABLE</span>
+<span class="n">widget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">createfilehandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mask</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">widget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deletefilehandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This feature is not available on Windows.</p>
+<p>Since you don’t know how many bytes are available for reading, you may not
+want to use the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> methods,
+since these will insist on reading a predefined number of bytes.
+For sockets, the <a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="socket.html#socket.socket.recvfrom" title="socket.socket.recvfrom"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvfrom()</span></code></a> methods will work fine; for other files,
+use raw reads or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.read(file.fileno(),</span> <span class="pre">maxbytecount)</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.Widget.tk.createfilehandler">
+<code class="descclassname">Widget.tk.</code><code class="descname">createfilehandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mask</em>, <em>func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.Widget.tk.createfilehandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers the file handler callback function <em>func</em>. The <em>file</em> argument
+may either be an object with a <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.fileno" title="io.IOBase.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> method (such as
+a file or socket object), or an integer file descriptor. The <em>mask</em>
+argument is an ORed combination of any of the three constants below.
+The callback is called as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mask</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.Widget.tk.deletefilehandler">
+<code class="descclassname">Widget.tk.</code><code class="descname">deletefilehandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.Widget.tk.deletefilehandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unregisters a file handler.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="tkinter.READABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">tkinter.</code><code class="descname">READABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.READABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="tkinter.WRITABLE">
+<code class="descclassname">tkinter.</code><code class="descname">WRITABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.WRITABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="tkinter.EXCEPTION">
+<code class="descclassname">tkinter.</code><code class="descname">EXCEPTION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.EXCEPTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Constants used in the <em>mask</em> arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code> — Python interface to Tcl/Tk</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter-modules">Tkinter Modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter-life-preserver">Tkinter Life Preserver</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-to-use-this-section">How To Use This Section</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-simple-hello-world-program">A Simple Hello World Program</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-very-quick-look-at-tcl-tk">A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-basic-tk-into-tkinter">Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-tk-and-tkinter-are-related">How Tk and Tkinter are Related</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#handy-reference">Handy Reference</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#setting-options">Setting Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-packer">The Packer</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#packer-options">Packer Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coupling-widget-variables">Coupling Widget Variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-window-manager">The Window Manager</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tk-option-data-types">Tk Option Data Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bindings-and-events">Bindings and Events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-index-parameter">The index Parameter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#images">Images</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-handlers">File Handlers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tk.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Graphical User Interfaces with Tk</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tkinter.ttk.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code> — Tk themed widgets</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6fbec8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html
@@ -0,0 +1,208 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tkinter.scrolledtext">
+<span id="tkinter-scrolledtext-scrolled-text-widget"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.scrolledtext" title="tkinter.scrolledtext: Text widget with a vertical scroll bar. (Tk)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.scrolledtext</span></code></a> — Scrolled Text Widget<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tkinter.scrolledtext" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py">Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.scrolledtext" title="tkinter.scrolledtext: Text widget with a vertical scroll bar. (Tk)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.scrolledtext</span></code></a> module provides a class of the same name which
+implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll bar configured to do
+the “right thing.”  Using the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ScrolledText</span></code> class is a lot easier than
+setting up a text widget and scroll bar directly.  The constructor is the same
+as that of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Text</span></code> class.</p>
+<p>The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Frame</span></code>, and the
+methods of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Grid</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pack</span></code> geometry managers are acquired
+from the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Frame</span></code> object.  This allows the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ScrolledText</span></code> widget to
+be used directly to achieve most normal geometry management behavior.</p>
+<p>Should more specific control be necessary, the following attributes are
+available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.frame">
+<code class="descclassname">ScrolledText.</code><code class="descname">frame</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.frame" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The frame which surrounds the text and scroll bar widgets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.vbar">
+<code class="descclassname">ScrolledText.</code><code class="descname">vbar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText.vbar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The scroll bar widget.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tkinter.tix.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tkinter.tix.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15800bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tkinter.tix.html
@@ -0,0 +1,655 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tkinter.tix">
+<span id="tkinter-tix-extension-widgets-for-tk"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> — Extension widgets for Tk<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tkinter/tix.py">Lib/tkinter/tix.py</a></p>
+<div class="deprecated" id="index-0">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span>This Tk extension is unmaintained and should not be used in new code.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> (Tk Interface Extension) module provides an additional
+rich set of widgets. Although the standard Tk library has many useful widgets,
+they are far from complete. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> library provides most of the
+commonly needed widgets that are missing from standard Tk: <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.HList" title="tkinter.tix.HList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HList</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.ComboBox" title="tkinter.tix.ComboBox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ComboBox</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.Control" title="tkinter.tix.Control"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Control</span></code></a> (a.k.a. SpinBox) and an assortment of
+scrollable widgets.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> also includes many more widgets that are generally useful in
+a wide range of applications: <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.NoteBook" title="tkinter.tix.NoteBook"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoteBook</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.FileEntry" title="tkinter.tix.FileEntry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileEntry</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.PanedWindow" title="tkinter.tix.PanedWindow"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PanedWindow</span></code></a>, etc; there are more than 40 of them.</p>
+<p>With all these new widgets, you can introduce new interaction techniques into
+applications, creating more useful and more intuitive user interfaces. You can
+design your application by choosing the most appropriate widgets to match the
+special needs of your application and users.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/">Tix Homepage</a></dt><dd><p>The home page for <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tix</span></code>.  This includes links to additional documentation
+and downloads.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/">Tix Man Pages</a></dt><dd><p>On-line version of the man pages and reference material.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/docs/tix-book/tix.book.html">Tix Programming Guide</a></dt><dd><p>On-line version of the programmer’s reference material.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/Tixapps/src/Tide.html">Tix Development Applications</a></dt><dd><p>Tix applications for development of Tix and Tkinter programs. Tide applications
+work under Tk or Tkinter, and include <strong class="program">TixInspect</strong>, an inspector to
+remotely modify and debug Tix/Tk/Tkinter applications.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-tix">
+<h2>Using Tix<a class="headerlink" href="#using-tix" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.Tk">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">Tk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>screenName=None</em>, <em>baseName=None</em>, <em>className='Tix'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.Tk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Toplevel widget of Tix which represents mostly the main window of an
+application. It has an associated Tcl interpreter.</p>
+<p>Classes in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> module subclasses the classes in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>. The former imports the latter, so to use <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a>
+with Tkinter, all you need to do is to import one module. In general, you
+can just import <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a>, and replace the toplevel call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#tkinter.Tk" title="tkinter.Tk"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Tk</span></code></a> with <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix.Tk</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">tix</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter.constants</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tix</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>To use <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a>, you must have the Tix widgets installed, usually
+alongside your installation of the Tk widgets. To test your installation, try
+the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">tix</span>
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tix</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package require Tix&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tix-widgets">
+<h2>Tix Widgets<a class="headerlink" href="#tix-widgets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/TixIntro.htm">Tix</a>
+introduces over 40 widget classes to the <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> repertoire.</p>
+<div class="section" id="basic-widgets">
+<h3>Basic Widgets<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-widgets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.Balloon">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">Balloon</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.Balloon" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixBalloon.htm">Balloon</a> that
+pops up over a widget to provide help.  When the user moves the cursor inside a
+widget to which a Balloon widget has been bound, a small pop-up window with a
+descriptive message will be shown on the screen.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.ButtonBox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">ButtonBox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.ButtonBox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixButtonBox.htm">ButtonBox</a>
+widget creates a box of buttons, such as is commonly used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ok</span> <span class="pre">Cancel</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.ComboBox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">ComboBox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.ComboBox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixComboBox.htm">ComboBox</a>
+widget is similar to the combo box control in MS Windows. The user can select a
+choice by either typing in the entry subwidget or selecting from the listbox
+subwidget.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.Control">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">Control</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.Control" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixControl.htm">Control</a>
+widget is also known as the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SpinBox</span></code> widget. The user can adjust the
+value by pressing the two arrow buttons or by entering the value directly into
+the entry. The new value will be checked against the user-defined upper and
+lower limits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.LabelEntry">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">LabelEntry</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.LabelEntry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelEntry.htm">LabelEntry</a>
+widget packages an entry widget and a label into one mega widget. It can
+be used to simplify the creation of “entry-form” type of interface.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.LabelFrame">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">LabelFrame</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.LabelFrame" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelFrame.htm">LabelFrame</a>
+widget packages a frame widget and a label into one mega widget.  To create
+widgets inside a LabelFrame widget, one creates the new widgets relative to the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frame</span></code> subwidget and manage them inside the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frame</span></code> subwidget.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.Meter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">Meter</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.Meter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixMeter.htm">Meter</a> widget
+can be used to show the progress of a background job which may take a long time
+to execute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.OptionMenu">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">OptionMenu</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.OptionMenu" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixOptionMenu.htm">OptionMenu</a>
+creates a menu button of options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.PopupMenu">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">PopupMenu</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.PopupMenu" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPopupMenu.htm">PopupMenu</a>
+widget can be used as a replacement of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tk_popup</span></code> command. The advantage
+of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tix</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.PopupMenu" title="tkinter.tix.PopupMenu"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PopupMenu</span></code></a> widget is it requires less application code
+to manipulate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.Select">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">Select</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.Select" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixSelect.htm">Select</a> widget
+is a container of button subwidgets. It can be used to provide radio-box or
+check-box style of selection options for the user.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.StdButtonBox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">StdButtonBox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.StdButtonBox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixStdButtonBox.htm">StdButtonBox</a>
+widget is a group of standard buttons for Motif-like dialog boxes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-selectors">
+<h3>File Selectors<a class="headerlink" href="#file-selectors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.DirList">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">DirList</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.DirList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirList.htm">DirList</a>
+widget displays a list view of a directory, its previous directories and its
+sub-directories. The user can choose one of the directories displayed in the
+list or change to another directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.DirTree">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">DirTree</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.DirTree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirTree.htm">DirTree</a>
+widget displays a tree view of a directory, its previous directories and its
+sub-directories. The user can choose one of the directories displayed in the
+list or change to another directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.DirSelectDialog">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">DirSelectDialog</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.DirSelectDialog" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirSelectDialog.htm">DirSelectDialog</a>
+widget presents the directories in the file system in a dialog window.  The user
+can use this dialog window to navigate through the file system to select the
+desired directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">DirSelectBox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox" title="tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DirSelectBox</span></code></a> is similar to the standard Motif(TM)
+directory-selection box. It is generally used for the user to choose a
+directory.  DirSelectBox stores the directories mostly recently selected into
+a ComboBox widget so that they can be quickly selected again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">ExFileSelectBox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixExFileSelectBox.htm">ExFileSelectBox</a>
+widget is usually embedded in a tixExFileSelectDialog widget. It provides a
+convenient method for the user to select files. The style of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox" title="tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExFileSelectBox</span></code></a> widget is very similar to the standard file dialog on
+MS Windows 3.1.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.FileSelectBox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">FileSelectBox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.FileSelectBox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileSelectBox.htm">FileSelectBox</a>
+is similar to the standard Motif(TM) file-selection box. It is generally used
+for the user to choose a file. FileSelectBox stores the files mostly recently
+selected into a <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.ComboBox" title="tkinter.tix.ComboBox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ComboBox</span></code></a> widget so that they can be quickly selected
+again.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.FileEntry">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">FileEntry</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.FileEntry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileEntry.htm">FileEntry</a>
+widget can be used to input a filename. The user can type in the filename
+manually. Alternatively, the user can press the button widget that sits next to
+the entry, which will bring up a file selection dialog.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hierarchical-listbox">
+<h3>Hierarchical ListBox<a class="headerlink" href="#hierarchical-listbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.HList">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">HList</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.HList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixHList.htm">HList</a> widget
+can be used to display any data that have a hierarchical structure, for example,
+file system directory trees. The list entries are indented and connected by
+branch lines according to their places in the hierarchy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.CheckList">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">CheckList</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.CheckList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixCheckList.htm">CheckList</a>
+widget displays a list of items to be selected by the user. CheckList acts
+similarly to the Tk checkbutton or radiobutton widgets, except it is capable of
+handling many more items than checkbuttons or radiobuttons.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.Tree">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">Tree</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.Tree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTree.htm">Tree</a> widget
+can be used to display hierarchical data in a tree form. The user can adjust the
+view of the tree by opening or closing parts of the tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tabular-listbox">
+<h3>Tabular ListBox<a class="headerlink" href="#tabular-listbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.TList">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">TList</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.TList" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTList.htm">TList</a> widget
+can be used to display data in a tabular format. The list entries of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.TList" title="tkinter.tix.TList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TList</span></code></a> widget are similar to the entries in the Tk listbox widget.  The
+main differences are (1) the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.TList" title="tkinter.tix.TList"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TList</span></code></a> widget can display the list entries
+in a two dimensional format and (2) you can use graphical images as well as
+multiple colors and fonts for the list entries.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="manager-widgets">
+<h3>Manager Widgets<a class="headerlink" href="#manager-widgets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.PanedWindow">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">PanedWindow</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.PanedWindow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPanedWindow.htm">PanedWindow</a>
+widget allows the user to interactively manipulate the sizes of several panes.
+The panes can be arranged either vertically or horizontally.  The user changes
+the sizes of the panes by dragging the resize handle between two panes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.ListNoteBook">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">ListNoteBook</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.ListNoteBook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixListNoteBook.htm">ListNoteBook</a>
+widget is very similar to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TixNoteBook</span></code> widget: it can be used to
+display many windows in a limited space using a notebook metaphor. The notebook
+is divided into a stack of pages (windows). At one time only one of these pages
+can be shown. The user can navigate through these pages by choosing the name of
+the desired page in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hlist</span></code> subwidget.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.NoteBook">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">NoteBook</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.NoteBook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixNoteBook.htm">NoteBook</a>
+widget can be used to display many windows in a limited space using a notebook
+metaphor. The notebook is divided into a stack of pages. At one time only one of
+these pages can be shown. The user can navigate through these pages by choosing
+the visual “tabs” at the top of the NoteBook widget.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="image-types">
+<h3>Image Types<a class="headerlink" href="#image-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> module adds:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/pixmap.htm">pixmap</a>
+capabilities to all <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> widgets to create
+color images from XPM files.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/compound.htm">Compound</a> image
+types can be used to create images that consists of multiple horizontal lines;
+each line is composed of a series of items (texts, bitmaps, images or spaces)
+arranged from left to right. For example, a compound image can be used to
+display a bitmap and a text string simultaneously in a Tk <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Button</span></code>
+widget.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="miscellaneous-widgets">
+<h3>Miscellaneous Widgets<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous-widgets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.InputOnly">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">InputOnly</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.InputOnly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixInputOnly.htm">InputOnly</a>
+widgets are to accept inputs from the user, which can be done with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind</span></code>
+command (Unix only).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="form-geometry-manager">
+<h3>Form Geometry Manager<a class="headerlink" href="#form-geometry-manager" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In addition, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> augments <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> by providing:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.Form">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">Form</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.Form" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixForm.htm">Form</a> geometry
+manager based on attachment rules for all Tk widgets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tix-commands">
+<h2>Tix Commands<a class="headerlink" href="#tix-commands" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.tix.</code><code class="descname">tixCommand</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tix.htm">tix commands</a> provide
+access to miscellaneous elements of <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tix</span></code>’s internal state and the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tix</span></code> application context.  Most of the information manipulated by these
+methods pertains to the application as a whole, or to a screen or display,
+rather than to a particular window.</p>
+<p>To view the current settings, the common usage is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">tix</span>
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tix</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tix_configure</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_configure">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_configure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cnf=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_configure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify the configuration options of the Tix application context. If no
+option is specified, returns a dictionary all of the available options.  If
+option is specified with no value, then the method returns a list describing the
+one named option (this list will be identical to the corresponding sublist of
+the value returned if no option is specified).  If one or more option-value
+pairs are specified, then the method modifies the given option(s) to have the
+given value(s); in this case the method returns an empty string. Option may be
+any of the configuration options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_cget">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_cget</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>option</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_cget" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current value of the configuration option given by <em>option</em>. Option
+may be any of the configuration options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_getbitmap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locates a bitmap file of the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name.xpm</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> in one of the bitmap
+directories (see the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_addbitmapdir()</span></code></a> method).  By using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_getbitmap()</span></code></a>, you can avoid hard coding the pathnames of the bitmap
+files in your application. When successful, it returns the complete pathname of
+the bitmap file, prefixed with the character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>.  The returned value can be
+used to configure the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bitmap</span></code> option of the Tk and Tix widgets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_addbitmapdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>directory</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tix maintains a list of directories under which the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_getimage()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_getbitmap()</span></code></a> methods will search for image files.  The standard bitmap
+directory is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$TIX_LIBRARY/bitmaps</span></code>. The <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_addbitmapdir()</span></code></a> method
+adds <em>directory</em> into this list. By using this method, the image files of an
+applications can also be located using the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_getimage()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getbitmap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_getbitmap()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_filedialog">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_filedialog</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>dlgclass</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_filedialog" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the file selection dialog that may be shared among different calls from
+this application.  This method will create a file selection dialog widget when
+it is called the first time. This dialog will be returned by all subsequent
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_filedialog" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_filedialog"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_filedialog()</span></code></a>.  An optional dlgclass parameter can be passed
+as a string to specified what type of file selection dialog widget is desired.
+Possible options are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileSelectDialog</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tixExFileSelectDialog</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_getimage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Locates an image file of the name <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name.xpm</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name.xbm</span></code> or
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name.ppm</span></code> in one of the bitmap directories (see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_addbitmapdir()</span></code></a> method above). If more than one file with the same name
+(but different extensions) exist, then the image type is chosen according to the
+depth of the X display: xbm images are chosen on monochrome displays and color
+images are chosen on color displays. By using <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_getimage"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_getimage()</span></code></a>, you can
+avoid hard coding the pathnames of the image files in your application. When
+successful, this method returns the name of the newly created image, which can
+be used to configure the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">image</span></code> option of the Tk and Tix widgets.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_option_get">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_option_get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_option_get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Gets the options maintained by the Tix scheme mechanism.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_resetoptions">
+<code class="descclassname">tixCommand.</code><code class="descname">tix_resetoptions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newScheme</em>, <em>newFontSet</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>newScmPrio</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_resetoptions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resets the scheme and fontset of the Tix application to <em>newScheme</em> and
+<em>newFontSet</em>, respectively.  This affects only those widgets created after this
+call.  Therefore, it is best to call the resetoptions method before the creation
+of any widgets in a Tix application.</p>
+<p>The optional parameter <em>newScmPrio</em> can be given to reset the priority level of
+the Tk options set by the Tix schemes.</p>
+<p>Because of the way Tk handles the X option database, after Tix has been has
+imported and inited, it is not possible to reset the color schemes and font sets
+using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_config()</span></code> method. Instead, the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_resetoptions" title="tkinter.tix.tixCommand.tix_resetoptions"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tix_resetoptions()</span></code></a>
+method must be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code> — Extension widgets for Tk</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-tix">Using Tix</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tix-widgets">Tix Widgets</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-widgets">Basic Widgets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-selectors">File Selectors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hierarchical-listbox">Hierarchical ListBox</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tabular-listbox">Tabular ListBox</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#manager-widgets">Manager Widgets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#image-types">Image Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#miscellaneous-widgets">Miscellaneous Widgets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#form-geometry-manager">Form Geometry Manager</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tix-commands">Tix Commands</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tkinter.ttk.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code> — Tk themed widgets</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tkinter.scrolledtext.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.scrolledtext</span></code> — Scrolled Text Widget</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tkinter.ttk">
+<span id="tkinter-ttk-tk-themed-widgets"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> — Tk themed widgets<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tkinter.ttk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py">Lib/tkinter/ttk.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> module provides access to the Tk themed widget set,
+introduced in Tk 8.5. If Python has not been compiled against Tk 8.5, this
+module can still be accessed if <em>Tile</em> has been installed.  The former
+method using Tk 8.5 provides additional benefits including anti-aliased font
+rendering under X11 and window transparency (requiring a composition
+window manager on X11).</p>
+<p>The basic idea for <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> is to separate, to the extent possible,
+the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the code implementing its
+appearance.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md">Tk Widget Styling Support</a></dt><dd><p>A document introducing theming support for Tk</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-ttk">
+<h2>Using Ttk<a class="headerlink" href="#using-ttk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To start using Ttk, import its module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ttk</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To override the basic Tk widgets, the import should follow the Tk import:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter.ttk</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That code causes several <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> widgets (<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Button</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Checkbutton</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Frame</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Label</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LabelFrame</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Menubutton</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PanedWindow</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Radiobutton</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scale</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scrollbar</span></code>) to
+automatically replace the Tk widgets.</p>
+<p>This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a better
+look and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets are not
+completely compatible. The main difference is that widget options such as
+“fg”, “bg” and others related to widget styling are no
+longer present in Ttk widgets.  Instead, use  the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Style</span></code> class
+for improved styling effects.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt">Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets</a></dt><dd><p>A monograph (using Tcl terminology) about differences typically
+encountered when moving applications to use the new widgets.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-widgets">
+<h2>Ttk Widgets<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-widgets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter:
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Button</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Checkbutton</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Frame</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Label</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LabelFrame</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Menubutton</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PanedWindow</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Radiobutton</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scale</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scrollbar</span></code>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox" title="tkinter.ttk.Spinbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Spinbox</span></code></a>.
+The other six are new: <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Combobox" title="tkinter.ttk.Combobox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Combobox</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook" title="tkinter.ttk.Notebook"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Notebook</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar" title="tkinter.ttk.Progressbar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Progressbar</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Separator</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sizegrip</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview" title="tkinter.ttk.Treeview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Treeview</span></code></a>. And all them are subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Using the Ttk widgets gives the application an improved look and feel.
+As discussed above, there are differences in how the styling is coded.</p>
+<p>Tk code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">l1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Label</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Test&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;black&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;white&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">l2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Label</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Test&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;black&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;white&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Ttk code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">style</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Style</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">style</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">configure</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;BW.TLabel&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">foreground</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;black&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">background</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;white&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">l1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Label</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Test&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;BW.TLabel&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">l2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Label</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Test&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;BW.TLabel&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information about <a class="reference internal" href="#ttkstyling">TtkStyling</a>, see the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style" title="tkinter.ttk.Style"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Style</span></code></a> class
+documentation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="widget">
+<h2>Widget<a class="headerlink" href="#widget" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Widget</span></code> defines standard options and methods supported by Tk
+themed widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated.</p>
+<div class="section" id="standard-options">
+<h3>Standard Options<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk</span></code> Widgets accepts the following options:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 85%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>class</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the window class. The class is used when querying
+the option database for the window’s other options, to
+determine the default bindtags for the window, and to select
+the widget’s default layout and style. This option is
+read-only, and may only be specified when the window is
+created.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cursor</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget. If set
+to the empty string (the default), the cursor is inherited
+for the parent widget.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>takefocus</p></td>
+<td><p>Determines whether the window accepts the focus during
+keyboard traversal. 0, 1 or an empty string is returned.
+If 0 is returned, it means that the window should be skipped
+entirely during keyboard traversal. If 1, it means that the
+window should receive the input focus as long as it is
+viewable. And an empty string means that the traversal
+scripts make the decision about whether or not to focus
+on the window.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>style</p></td>
+<td><p>May be used to specify a custom widget style.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="scrollable-widget-options">
+<h3>Scrollable Widget Options<a class="headerlink" href="#scrollable-widget-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following options are supported by widgets that are controlled by a
+scrollbar.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 78%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>xscrollcommand</p></td>
+<td><p>Used to communicate with horizontal scrollbars.</p>
+<p>When the view in the widget’s window change, the widget
+will generate a Tcl command based on the scrollcommand.</p>
+<p>Usually this option consists of the method
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scrollbar.set()</span></code> of some scrollbar. This will cause
+the scrollbar to be updated whenever the view in the
+window changes.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>yscrollcommand</p></td>
+<td><p>Used to communicate with vertical scrollbars.
+For some more information, see above.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="label-options">
+<h3>Label Options<a class="headerlink" href="#label-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following options are supported by labels, buttons and other button-like
+widgets.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 19%" />
+<col style="width: 81%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>text</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies a text string to be displayed inside the widget.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>textvariable</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies a name whose value will be used in place of the
+text option resource.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>underline</p></td>
+<td><p>If set, specifies the index (0-based) of a character to
+underline in the text string. The underline character is
+used for mnemonic activation.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>image</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies an image to display. This is a list of 1 or more
+elements. The first element is the default image name. The
+rest of the list if a sequence of statespec/value pairs as
+defined by <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.map" title="tkinter.ttk.Style.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Style.map()</span></code></a>, specifying different images
+to use when the widget is in a particular state or a
+combination of states. All images in the list should have
+the same size.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>compound</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies how to display the image relative to the text,
+in the case both text and images options are present.
+Valid values are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>text: display text only</p></li>
+<li><p>image: display image only</p></li>
+<li><p>top, bottom, left, right: display image above, below,
+left of, or right of the text, respectively.</p></li>
+<li><p>none: the default. display the image if present,
+otherwise the text.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>width</p></td>
+<td><p>If greater than zero, specifies how much space, in
+character widths, to allocate for the text label, if less
+than zero, specifies a minimum width. If zero or
+unspecified, the natural width of the text label is used.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compatibility-options">
+<h3>Compatibility Options<a class="headerlink" href="#compatibility-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 89%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>state</p></td>
+<td><p>May be set to “normal” or “disabled” to control the “disabled”
+state bit. This is a write-only option: setting it changes the
+widget state, but the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.state" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.state"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.state()</span></code></a> method does not
+affect this option.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="widget-states">
+<h3>Widget States<a class="headerlink" href="#widget-states" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The widget state is a bitmap of independent state flags.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 84%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Flag</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>active</p></td>
+<td><p>The mouse cursor is over the widget and pressing a mouse
+button will cause some action to occur</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>disabled</p></td>
+<td><p>Widget is disabled under program control</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>focus</p></td>
+<td><p>Widget has keyboard focus</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>pressed</p></td>
+<td><p>Widget is being pressed</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>selected</p></td>
+<td><p>“On”, “true”, or “current” for things like Checkbuttons and
+radiobuttons</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>background</p></td>
+<td><p>Windows and Mac have a notion of an “active” or foreground
+window. The <em>background</em> state is set for widgets in a
+background window, and cleared for those in the foreground
+window</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>readonly</p></td>
+<td><p>Widget should not allow user modification</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>alternate</p></td>
+<td><p>A widget-specific alternate display format</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>invalid</p></td>
+<td><p>The widget’s value is invalid</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>A state specification is a sequence of state names, optionally prefixed with
+an exclamation point indicating that the bit is off.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-widget">
+<h3>ttk.Widget<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-widget" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Besides the methods described below, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Widget</span></code> supports the
+methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Widget.cget()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Widget.configure()</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Widget">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.ttk.</code><code class="descname">Widget</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify">
+<code class="descname">identify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the name of the element at position <em>x</em> <em>y</em>, or the empty string
+if the point does not lie within any element.</p>
+<p><em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are pixel coordinates relative to the widget.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate">
+<code class="descname">instate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>statespec</em>, <em>callback=None</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test the widget’s state. If a callback is not specified, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>
+if the widget state matches <em>statespec</em> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise. If callback
+is specified then it is called with args if widget state matches
+<em>statespec</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Widget.state">
+<code class="descname">state</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>statespec=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.state" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Modify or inquire widget state. If <em>statespec</em> is specified, sets the
+widget state according to it and return a new <em>statespec</em> indicating
+which flags were changed. If <em>statespec</em> is not specified, returns
+the currently-enabled state flags.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><em>statespec</em> will usually be a list or a tuple.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="combobox">
+<h2>Combobox<a class="headerlink" href="#combobox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Combobox</span></code> widget combines a text field with a pop-down list of
+values. This widget is a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Besides the methods inherited from <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget</span></code></a>: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.cget()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.configure()</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.identify()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.instate()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.state" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.state"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.state()</span></code></a>, and the following inherited from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry</span></code>:
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.bbox()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.delete()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.icursor()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.index()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.insert()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.selection()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.xview()</span></code>, it has some other methods, described at
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Combobox</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="options">
+<h3>Options<a class="headerlink" href="#options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This widget accepts the following specific options:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 77%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>exportselection</p></td>
+<td><p>Boolean value. If set, the widget selection is linked
+to the Window Manager selection (which can be returned
+by invoking Misc.selection_get, for example).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>justify</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies how the text is aligned within the widget.
+One of “left”, “center”, or “right”.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>height</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the height of the pop-down listbox, in rows.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>postcommand</p></td>
+<td><p>A script (possibly registered with Misc.register) that
+is called immediately before displaying the values. It
+may specify which values to display.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>state</p></td>
+<td><p>One of “normal”, “readonly”, or “disabled”. In the
+“readonly” state, the value may not be edited directly,
+and the user can only selection of the values from the
+dropdown list. In the “normal” state, the text field is
+directly editable. In the “disabled” state, no
+interaction is possible.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>textvariable</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies a name whose value is linked to the widget
+value. Whenever the value associated with that name
+changes, the widget value is updated, and vice versa.
+See <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.StringVar</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>values</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the list of values to display in the
+drop-down listbox.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>width</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies an integer value indicating the desired width
+of the entry window, in average-size characters of the
+widget’s font.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="virtual-events">
+<h3>Virtual events<a class="headerlink" href="#virtual-events" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The combobox widgets generates a <strong>&lt;&lt;ComboboxSelected&gt;&gt;</strong> virtual event
+when the user selects an element from the list of values.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-combobox">
+<h3>ttk.Combobox<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-combobox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Combobox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.ttk.</code><code class="descname">Combobox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Combobox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Combobox.current">
+<code class="descname">current</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newindex=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.current" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>newindex</em> is specified, sets the combobox value to the element
+position <em>newindex</em>. Otherwise, returns the index of the current value or
+-1 if the current value is not in the values list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Combobox.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current value of the combobox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Combobox.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Combobox.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the value of the combobox to <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="spinbox">
+<h2>Spinbox<a class="headerlink" href="#spinbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Spinbox</span></code> widget is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Entry</span></code> enhanced with increment
+and decrement arrows.  It can be used for numbers or lists of string values.
+This widget is a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Besides the methods inherited from <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget</span></code></a>: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.cget()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.configure()</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.identify()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.instate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.instate()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.state" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.state"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.state()</span></code></a>, and the following inherited from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry</span></code>:
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.bbox()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.delete()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.icursor()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.index()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.insert()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Entry.xview()</span></code>,
+it has some other methods, described at <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Spinbox</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="id1">
+<h3>Options<a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This widget accepts the following specific options:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div></div></blockquote>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 71%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>from</p></td>
+<td><p>Float value.  If set, this is the minimum value to
+which the decrement button will decrement.  Must be
+spelled as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_</span></code> when used as an argument, since
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code> is a Python keyword.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>to</p></td>
+<td><p>Float value.  If set, this is the maximum value to
+which the increment button will increment.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>increment</p></td>
+<td><p>Float value.  Specifies the amount which the
+increment/decrement buttons change the
+value. Defaults to 1.0.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>values</p></td>
+<td><p>Sequence of string or float values.  If specified,
+the increment/decrement buttons will cycle through
+the items in this sequence rather than incrementing
+or decrementing numbers.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>wrap</p></td>
+<td><p>Boolean value.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, increment and decrement
+buttons will cycle from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">to</span></code> value to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code> value or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code> value to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">to</span></code>
+value, respectively.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>format</p></td>
+<td><p>String value.  This specifies the format of numbers
+set by the increment/decrement buttons.  It must be
+in the form “%W.Pf”, where W is the padded width of
+the value, P is the precision, and ‘%’ and ‘f’ are
+literal.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>command</p></td>
+<td><p>Python callable.  Will be called with no arguments
+whenever either of the increment or decrement buttons
+are pressed.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id2">
+<h3>Virtual events<a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The spinbox widget generates an <strong>&lt;&lt;Increment&gt;&gt;</strong> virtual event when the
+user presses &lt;Up&gt;, and a <strong>&lt;&lt;Decrement&gt;&gt;</strong> virtual event when the user
+presses &lt;Down&gt;.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-spinbox">
+<h3>ttk.Spinbox<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-spinbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Spinbox">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.ttk.</code><code class="descname">Spinbox</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current value of the spinbox.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the value of the spinbox to <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notebook">
+<h2>Notebook<a class="headerlink" href="#notebook" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Ttk Notebook widget manages a collection of windows and displays a single
+one at a time. Each child window is associated with a tab, which the user
+may select to change the currently-displayed window.</p>
+<div class="section" id="id3">
+<h3>Options<a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This widget accepts the following specific options:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+<col style="width: 88%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>height</p></td>
+<td><p>If present and greater than zero, specifies the desired height
+of the pane area (not including internal padding or tabs).
+Otherwise, the maximum height of all panes is used.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>padding</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the amount of extra space to add around the outside
+of the notebook. The padding is a list up to four length
+specifications left top right bottom. If fewer than four
+elements are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults
+to left, and top defaults to left.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>width</p></td>
+<td><p>If present and greater than zero, specified the desired width
+of the pane area (not including internal padding). Otherwise,
+the maximum width of all panes is used.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tab-options">
+<h3>Tab Options<a class="headerlink" href="#tab-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are also specific options for tabs:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 85%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>state</p></td>
+<td><p>Either “normal”, “disabled” or “hidden”. If “disabled”, then
+the tab is not selectable. If “hidden”, then the tab is not
+shown.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>sticky</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies how the child window is positioned within the pane
+area. Value is a string containing zero or more of the
+characters “n”, “s”, “e” or “w”. Each letter refers to a
+side (north, south, east or west) that the child window will
+stick to, as per the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grid()</span></code> geometry manager.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>padding</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the amount of extra space to add between the
+notebook and this pane. Syntax is the same as for the option
+padding used by this widget.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>text</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies a text to be displayed in the tab.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>image</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies an image to display in the tab. See the option
+image described in <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>compound</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in
+the case both options text and image are present. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#label-options">Label Options</a> for legal values.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>underline</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the index (0-based) of a character to underline in
+the text string. The underlined character is used for
+mnemonic activation if <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.enable_traversal" title="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.enable_traversal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Notebook.enable_traversal()</span></code></a> is
+called.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tab-identifiers">
+<h3>Tab Identifiers<a class="headerlink" href="#tab-identifiers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The tab_id present in several methods of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Notebook</span></code> may take any
+of the following forms:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>An integer between zero and the number of tabs</p></li>
+<li><p>The name of a child window</p></li>
+<li><p>A positional specification of the form “&#64;x,y”, which identifies the tab</p></li>
+<li><p>The literal string “current”, which identifies the currently-selected tab</p></li>
+<li><p>The literal string “end”, which returns the number of tabs (only valid for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.index" title="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.index"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Notebook.index()</span></code></a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id4">
+<h3>Virtual Events<a class="headerlink" href="#id4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This widget generates a <strong>&lt;&lt;NotebookTabChanged&gt;&gt;</strong> virtual event after a new
+tab is selected.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-notebook">
+<h3>ttk.Notebook<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-notebook" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.ttk.</code><code class="descname">Notebook</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.add">
+<code class="descname">add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>child</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds a new tab to the notebook.</p>
+<p>If window is currently managed by the notebook but hidden, it is
+restored to its previous position.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#tab-options">Tab Options</a> for the list of available options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.forget">
+<code class="descname">forget</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tab_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.forget" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes the tab specified by <em>tab_id</em>, unmaps and unmanages the
+associated window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.hide">
+<code class="descname">hide</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tab_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.hide" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Hides the tab specified by <em>tab_id</em>.</p>
+<p>The tab will not be displayed, but the associated window remains
+managed by the notebook and its configuration remembered. Hidden tabs
+may be restored with the <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.add" title="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> command.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.identify">
+<code class="descname">identify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.identify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the name of the tab element at position <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>, or the empty
+string if none.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.index">
+<code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tab_id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the numeric index of the tab specified by <em>tab_id</em>, or the total
+number of tabs if <em>tab_id</em> is the string “end”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.insert">
+<code class="descname">insert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em>, <em>child</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.insert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Inserts a pane at the specified position.</p>
+<p><em>pos</em> is either the string “end”, an integer index, or the name of a
+managed child. If <em>child</em> is already managed by the notebook, moves it to
+the specified position.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#tab-options">Tab Options</a> for the list of available options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.select">
+<code class="descname">select</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tab_id=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.select" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Selects the specified <em>tab_id</em>.</p>
+<p>The associated child window will be displayed, and the
+previously-selected window (if different) is unmapped. If <em>tab_id</em> is
+omitted, returns the widget name of the currently selected pane.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tab">
+<code class="descname">tab</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tab_id</em>, <em>option=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tab" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify the options of the specific <em>tab_id</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>kw</em> is not given, returns a dictionary of the tab option values. If
+<em>option</em> is specified, returns the value of that <em>option</em>. Otherwise,
+sets the options to the corresponding values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tabs">
+<code class="descname">tabs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.tabs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a list of windows managed by the notebook.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Notebook.enable_traversal">
+<code class="descname">enable_traversal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Notebook.enable_traversal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enable keyboard traversal for a toplevel window containing this notebook.</p>
+<p>This will extend the bindings for the toplevel window containing the
+notebook as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-Tab</kbd>: selects the tab following the currently selected one.</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Shift-Control-Tab</kbd>: selects the tab preceding the currently selected one.</p></li>
+<li><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Alt-K</kbd>: where <em>K</em> is the mnemonic (underlined) character of any tab, will
+select that tab.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for traversal,
+including nested notebooks. However, notebook traversal only works
+properly if all panes have the notebook they are in as master.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="progressbar">
+<h2>Progressbar<a class="headerlink" href="#progressbar" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Progressbar</span></code> widget shows the status of a long-running
+operation. It can operate in two modes:  1) the determinate mode which shows the
+amount completed relative to the total amount of work to be done and 2) the
+indeterminate mode which provides an animated display to let the user know that
+work is progressing.</p>
+<div class="section" id="id5">
+<h3>Options<a class="headerlink" href="#id5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This widget accepts the following specific options:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 86%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>orient</p></td>
+<td><p>One of “horizontal” or “vertical”. Specifies the orientation
+of the progress bar.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>length</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the length of the long axis of the progress bar
+(width if horizontal, height if vertical).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>mode</p></td>
+<td><p>One of “determinate” or “indeterminate”.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>maximum</p></td>
+<td><p>A number specifying the maximum value. Defaults to 100.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>value</p></td>
+<td><p>The current value of the progress bar. In “determinate” mode,
+this represents the amount of work completed. In
+“indeterminate” mode, it is interpreted as modulo <em>maximum</em>;
+that is, the progress bar completes one “cycle” when its value
+increases by <em>maximum</em>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>variable</p></td>
+<td><p>A name which is linked to the option value. If specified, the
+value of the progress bar is automatically set to the value of
+this name whenever the latter is modified.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>phase</p></td>
+<td><p>Read-only option. The widget periodically increments the value
+of this option whenever its value is greater than 0 and, in
+determinate mode, less than maximum. This option may be used
+by the current theme to provide additional animation effects.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-progressbar">
+<h3>ttk.Progressbar<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-progressbar" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Progressbar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.ttk.</code><code class="descname">Progressbar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>interval=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer event that calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.step" title="tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.step"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Progressbar.step()</span></code></a> every <em>interval</em> milliseconds. If omitted,
+<em>interval</em> defaults to 50 milliseconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.step">
+<code class="descname">step</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>amount=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.step" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Increments the progress bar’s value by <em>amount</em>.</p>
+<p><em>amount</em> defaults to 1.0 if omitted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.stop">
+<code class="descname">stop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.stop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop autoincrement mode: cancels any recurring timer event initiated by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.start" title="tkinter.ttk.Progressbar.start"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Progressbar.start()</span></code></a> for this progress bar.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="separator">
+<h2>Separator<a class="headerlink" href="#separator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Separator</span></code> widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator
+bar.</p>
+<p>It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Widget</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="id6">
+<h3>Options<a class="headerlink" href="#id6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This widget accepts the following specific option:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 89%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>orient</p></td>
+<td><p>One of “horizontal” or “vertical”. Specifies the orientation of
+the separator.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sizegrip">
+<h2>Sizegrip<a class="headerlink" href="#sizegrip" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Sizegrip</span></code> widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to
+resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip.</p>
+<p>This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides the
+ones inherited from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Widget</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="platform-specific-notes">
+<h3>Platform-specific notes<a class="headerlink" href="#platform-specific-notes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>On MacOS X, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size grip
+by default. Adding a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sizegrip</span></code> is harmless, since the built-in
+grip will just mask the widget.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bugs">
+<h3>Bugs<a class="headerlink" href="#bugs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the containing toplevel’s position was specified relative to the right
+or bottom of the screen (e.g. ….), the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sizegrip</span></code> widget will
+not resize the window.</p></li>
+<li><p>This widget supports only “southeast” resizing.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="treeview">
+<h2>Treeview<a class="headerlink" href="#treeview" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.Treeview</span></code> widget displays a hierarchical collection of items.
+Each item has a textual label, an optional image, and an optional list of data
+values. The data values are displayed in successive columns after the tree
+label.</p>
+<p>The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by setting
+the widget option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">displaycolumns</span></code>. The tree widget can also display column
+headings. Columns may be accessed by number or symbolic names listed in the
+widget option columns. See <a class="reference internal" href="#column-identifiers">Column Identifiers</a>.</p>
+<p>Each item is identified by a unique name. The widget will generate item IDs
+if they are not supplied by the caller. There is a distinguished root item,
+named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>. The root item itself is not displayed; its children appear at the
+top level of the hierarchy.</p>
+<p>Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate event bindings
+with individual items and control the appearance of the item.</p>
+<p>The Treeview widget supports horizontal and vertical scrolling, according to
+the options described in <a class="reference internal" href="#scrollable-widget-options">Scrollable Widget Options</a> and the methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.xview" title="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.xview"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Treeview.xview()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.yview" title="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.yview"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Treeview.yview()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="id7">
+<h3>Options<a class="headerlink" href="#id7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This widget accepts the following specific options:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 78%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>columns</p></td>
+<td><p>A list of column identifiers, specifying the number of
+columns and their names.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>displaycolumns</p></td>
+<td><p>A list of column identifiers (either symbolic or
+integer indices) specifying which data columns are
+displayed and the order in which they appear, or the
+string “#all”.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>height</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the number of rows which should be visible.
+Note: the requested width is determined from the sum
+of the column widths.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>padding</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the internal padding for the widget. The
+padding is a list of up to four length specifications.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>selectmode</p></td>
+<td><p>Controls how the built-in class bindings manage the
+selection. One of “extended”, “browse” or “none”.
+If set to “extended” (the default), multiple items may
+be selected. If “browse”, only a single item will be
+selected at a time. If “none”, the selection will not
+be changed.</p>
+<p>Note that the application code and tag bindings can set
+the selection however they wish, regardless of the
+value  of this option.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>show</p></td>
+<td><p>A list containing zero or more of the following values,
+specifying which elements of the tree to display.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>tree: display tree labels in column #0.</p></li>
+<li><p>headings: display the heading row.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The default is “tree headings”, i.e., show all
+elements.</p>
+<p><strong>Note</strong>: Column #0 always refers to the tree column,
+even if show=”tree” is not specified.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="item-options">
+<h3>Item Options<a class="headerlink" href="#item-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following item options may be specified for items in the insert and item
+widget commands.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+<col style="width: 89%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>text</p></td>
+<td><p>The textual label to display for the item.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>image</p></td>
+<td><p>A Tk Image, displayed to the left of the label.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>values</p></td>
+<td><p>The list of values associated with the item.</p>
+<p>Each item should have the same number of values as the widget
+option columns. If there are fewer values than columns, the
+remaining values are assumed empty. If there are more values
+than columns, the extra values are ignored.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>open</p></td>
+<td><p>True/False value indicating whether the item’s children should
+be displayed or hidden.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>tags</p></td>
+<td><p>A list of tags associated with this item.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tag-options">
+<h3>Tag Options<a class="headerlink" href="#tag-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following options may be specified on tags:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 83%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Option</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>foreground</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the text foreground color.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>background</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the cell or item background color.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>font</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the font to use when drawing text.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>image</p></td>
+<td><p>Specifies the item image, in case the item’s image option
+is empty.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="column-identifiers">
+<h3>Column Identifiers<a class="headerlink" href="#column-identifiers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Column identifiers take any of the following forms:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A symbolic name from the list of columns option.</p></li>
+<li><p>An integer n, specifying the nth data column.</p></li>
+<li><p>A string of the form #n, where n is an integer, specifying the nth display
+column.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Item’s option values may be displayed in a different order than the order
+in which they are stored.</p></li>
+<li><p>Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even if show=”tree” is not
+specified.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A data column number is an index into an item’s option values list; a display
+column number is the column number in the tree where the values are displayed.
+Tree labels are displayed in column #0. If option displaycolumns is not set,
+then data column n is displayed in column #n+1. Again, <strong>column #0 always
+refers to the tree column</strong>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id8">
+<h3>Virtual Events<a class="headerlink" href="#id8" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Treeview widget generates the following virtual events.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 71%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Event</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>&lt;&lt;TreeviewSelect&gt;&gt;</p></td>
+<td><p>Generated whenever the selection changes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>&lt;&lt;TreeviewOpen&gt;&gt;</p></td>
+<td><p>Generated just before settings the focus item to
+open=True.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>&lt;&lt;TreeviewClose&gt;&gt;</p></td>
+<td><p>Generated just after setting the focus item to
+open=False.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.focus" title="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.focus"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Treeview.focus()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection" title="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Treeview.selection()</span></code></a> methods can be used
+to determine the affected item or items.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-treeview">
+<h3>ttk.Treeview<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-treeview" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.ttk.</code><code class="descname">Treeview</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.bbox">
+<code class="descname">bbox</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>column=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.bbox" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the bounding box (relative to the treeview widget’s window) of
+the specified <em>item</em> in the form (x, y, width, height).</p>
+<p>If <em>column</em> is specified, returns the bounding box of that cell. If the
+<em>item</em> is not visible (i.e., if it is a descendant of a closed item or is
+scrolled offscreen), returns an empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.get_children">
+<code class="descname">get_children</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.get_children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the list of children belonging to <em>item</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>item</em> is not specified, returns root children.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set_children">
+<code class="descname">set_children</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>*newchildren</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set_children" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replaces <em>item</em>’s child with <em>newchildren</em>.</p>
+<p>Children present in <em>item</em> that are not present in <em>newchildren</em> are
+detached from the tree. No items in <em>newchildren</em> may be an ancestor of
+<em>item</em>. Note that not specifying <em>newchildren</em> results in detaching
+<em>item</em>’s children.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.column">
+<code class="descname">column</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>column</em>, <em>option=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.column" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify the options for the specified <em>column</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>kw</em> is not given, returns a dict of the column option values. If
+<em>option</em> is specified then the value for that <em>option</em> is returned.
+Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values.</p>
+<p>The valid options/values are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>id</dt><dd><p>Returns the column name. This is a read-only option.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>anchor: One of the standard Tk anchor values.</dt><dd><p>Specifies how the text in this column should be aligned with respect
+to the cell.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>minwidth: width</dt><dd><p>The minimum width of the column in pixels. The treeview widget will
+not make the column any smaller than specified by this option when
+the widget is resized or the user drags a column.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>stretch: True/False</dt><dd><p>Specifies whether the column’s width should be adjusted when
+the widget is resized.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>width: width</dt><dd><p>The width of the column in pixels.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>To configure the tree column, call this with column = “#0”</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.delete">
+<code class="descname">delete</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*items</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.delete" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete all specified <em>items</em> and all their descendants.</p>
+<p>The root item may not be deleted.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.detach">
+<code class="descname">detach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*items</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.detach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unlinks all of the specified <em>items</em> from the tree.</p>
+<p>The items and all of their descendants are still present, and may be
+reinserted at another point in the tree, but will not be displayed.</p>
+<p>The root item may not be detached.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.exists">
+<code class="descname">exists</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.exists" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the specified <em>item</em> is present in the tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.focus">
+<code class="descname">focus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.focus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>item</em> is specified, sets the focus item to <em>item</em>. Otherwise, returns
+the current focus item, or ‘’ if there is none.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.heading">
+<code class="descname">heading</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>column</em>, <em>option=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.heading" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify the heading options for the specified <em>column</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>kw</em> is not given, returns a dict of the heading option values. If
+<em>option</em> is specified then the value for that <em>option</em> is returned.
+Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values.</p>
+<p>The valid options/values are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>text: text</dt><dd><p>The text to display in the column heading.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>image: imageName</dt><dd><p>Specifies an image to display to the right of the column heading.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>anchor: anchor</dt><dd><p>Specifies how the heading text should be aligned. One of the standard
+Tk anchor values.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>command: callback</dt><dd><p>A callback to be invoked when the heading label is pressed.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>To configure the tree column heading, call this with column = “#0”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify">
+<code class="descname">identify</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>component</em>, <em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a description of the specified <em>component</em> under the point given
+by <em>x</em> and <em>y</em>, or the empty string if no such <em>component</em> is present at
+that position.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_row">
+<code class="descname">identify_row</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_row" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the item ID of the item at position <em>y</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_column">
+<code class="descname">identify_column</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_column" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the data column identifier of the cell at position <em>x</em>.</p>
+<p>The tree column has ID #0.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_region">
+<code class="descname">identify_region</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_region" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns one of:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 22%" />
+<col style="width: 78%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>region</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>heading</p></td>
+<td><p>Tree heading area.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>separator</p></td>
+<td><p>Space between two columns headings.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>tree</p></td>
+<td><p>The tree area.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cell</p></td>
+<td><p>A data cell.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Availability: Tk 8.6.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_element">
+<code class="descname">identify_element</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.identify_element" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the element at position <em>x</em>, <em>y</em>.</p>
+<p>Availability: Tk 8.6.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.index">
+<code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the integer index of <em>item</em> within its parent’s list of children.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.insert">
+<code class="descname">insert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parent</em>, <em>index</em>, <em>iid=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.insert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new item and returns the item identifier of the newly created
+item.</p>
+<p><em>parent</em> is the item ID of the parent item, or the empty string to create
+a new top-level item. <em>index</em> is an integer, or the value “end”,
+specifying where in the list of parent’s children to insert the new item.
+If <em>index</em> is less than or equal to zero, the new node is inserted at
+the beginning; if <em>index</em> is greater than or equal to the current number
+of children, it is inserted at the end. If <em>iid</em> is specified, it is used
+as the item identifier; <em>iid</em> must not already exist in the tree.
+Otherwise, a new unique identifier is generated.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#item-options">Item Options</a> for the list of available points.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.item">
+<code class="descname">item</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>option=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify the options for the specified <em>item</em>.</p>
+<p>If no options are given, a dict with options/values for the item is
+returned.
+If <em>option</em> is specified then the value for that option is returned.
+Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values as given by <em>kw</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.move">
+<code class="descname">move</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>parent</em>, <em>index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.move" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Moves <em>item</em> to position <em>index</em> in <em>parent</em>’s list of children.</p>
+<p>It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants. If <em>index</em> is
+less than or equal to zero, <em>item</em> is moved to the beginning; if greater
+than or equal to the number of children, it is moved to the end. If <em>item</em>
+was detached it is reattached.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.next">
+<code class="descname">next</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the identifier of <em>item</em>’s next sibling, or ‘’ if <em>item</em> is the
+last child of its parent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.parent">
+<code class="descname">parent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the ID of the parent of <em>item</em>, or ‘’ if <em>item</em> is at the top
+level of the hierarchy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.prev">
+<code class="descname">prev</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.prev" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the identifier of <em>item</em>’s previous sibling, or ‘’ if <em>item</em> is
+the first child of its parent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.reattach">
+<code class="descname">reattach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>parent</em>, <em>index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.reattach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.move" title="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.move"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Treeview.move()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.see">
+<code class="descname">see</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.see" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ensure that <em>item</em> is visible.</p>
+<p>Sets all of <em>item</em>’s ancestors open option to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, and scrolls the
+widget if necessary so that <em>item</em> is within the visible portion of
+the tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection">
+<code class="descname">selection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>selop=None</em>, <em>items=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>selop</em> is not specified, returns selected items. Otherwise, it will
+act according to the following selection methods.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.8: </span>Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selection()</span></code> for changing the selection state is deprecated.
+Use the following selection methods instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_set">
+<code class="descname">selection_set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*items</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>items</em> becomes the new selection.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>items</em> can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_add">
+<code class="descname">selection_add</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*items</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add <em>items</em> to the selection.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>items</em> can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_remove">
+<code class="descname">selection_remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*items</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove <em>items</em> from the selection.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>items</em> can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_toggle">
+<code class="descname">selection_toggle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*items</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection_toggle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Toggle the selection state of each item in <em>items</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>items</em> can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>item</em>, <em>column=None</em>, <em>value=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>With one argument, returns a dictionary of column/value pairs for the
+specified <em>item</em>. With two arguments, returns the current value of the
+specified <em>column</em>. With three arguments, sets the value of given
+<em>column</em> in given <em>item</em> to the specified <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_bind">
+<code class="descname">tag_bind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tagname</em>, <em>sequence=None</em>, <em>callback=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_bind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind a callback for the given event <em>sequence</em> to the tag <em>tagname</em>.
+When an event is delivered to an item, the callbacks for each of the
+item’s tags option are called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_configure">
+<code class="descname">tag_configure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tagname</em>, <em>option=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_configure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify the options for the specified <em>tagname</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>kw</em> is not given, returns a dict of the option settings for
+<em>tagname</em>. If <em>option</em> is specified, returns the value for that <em>option</em>
+for the specified <em>tagname</em>. Otherwise, sets the options to the
+corresponding values for the given <em>tagname</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_has">
+<code class="descname">tag_has</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tagname</em>, <em>item=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.tag_has" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>item</em> is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether the specified
+<em>item</em> has the given <em>tagname</em>. Otherwise, returns a list of all items
+that have the specified tag.</p>
+<p>Availability: Tk 8.6</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.xview">
+<code class="descname">xview</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.xview" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify horizontal position of the treeview.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Treeview.yview">
+<code class="descname">yview</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Treeview.yview" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or modify vertical position of the treeview.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-styling">
+<span id="ttkstyling"></span><h2>Ttk Styling<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-styling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Each widget in <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk</span></code> is assigned a style, which specifies the set of
+elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with dynamic
+and default settings for element options. By default the style name is the
+same as the widget’s class name, but it may be overridden by the widget’s style
+option. If you don’t know the class name of a widget, use the method
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc.winfo_class()</span></code> (somewidget.winfo_class()).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf">Tcl‘2004 conference presentation</a></dt><dd><p>This document explains how the theme engine works</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tkinter.ttk.</code><code class="descname">Style</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is used to manipulate the style database.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.configure">
+<code class="descname">configure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>style</em>, <em>query_opt=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.configure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or set the default value of the specified option(s) in <em>style</em>.</p>
+<p>Each key in <em>kw</em> is an option and each value is a string identifying
+the value for that option.</p>
+<p>For example, to change every default button to be a flat button with
+some padding and a different background color:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ttk</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Style</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">configure</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;TButton&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">padding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">relief</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;flat&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+   <span class="n">background</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;#ccc&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">btn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Sample&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">btn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mainloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.map">
+<code class="descname">map</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>style</em>, <em>query_opt=None</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Query or sets dynamic values of the specified option(s) in <em>style</em>.</p>
+<p>Each key in <em>kw</em> is an option and each value should be a list or a
+tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples, lists, or
+some other preference. A statespec is a compound of one
+or more states and then a value.</p>
+<p>An example may make it more understandable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ttk</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">style</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Style</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">style</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;C.TButton&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">foreground</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pressed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;active&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+    <span class="n">background</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pressed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;!disabled&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;black&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;active&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;white&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+    <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">colored_btn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Button</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Test&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;C.TButton&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mainloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the order of the (states, value) sequences for an option does
+matter, if the order is changed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[('active',</span> <span class="pre">'blue'),</span> <span class="pre">('pressed',</span>
+<span class="pre">'red')]</span></code> in the foreground option, for example, the result would be a
+blue foreground when the widget were in active or pressed states.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.lookup">
+<code class="descname">lookup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>style</em>, <em>option</em>, <em>state=None</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.lookup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the value specified for <em>option</em> in <em>style</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>state</em> is specified, it is expected to be a sequence of one or more
+states. If the <em>default</em> argument is set, it is used as a fallback value
+in case no specification for option is found.</p>
+<p>To check what font a Button uses by default:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ttk</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Style</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lookup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;TButton&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;font&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.layout">
+<code class="descname">layout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>style</em>, <em>layoutspec=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.layout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Define the widget layout for given <em>style</em>. If <em>layoutspec</em> is omitted,
+return the layout specification for given style.</p>
+<p><em>layoutspec</em>, if specified, is expected to be a list or some other
+sequence type (excluding strings), where each item should be a tuple and
+the first item is the layout name and the second item should have the
+format described in <a class="reference internal" href="#layouts">Layouts</a>.</p>
+<p>To understand the format, see the following example (it is not
+intended to do anything useful):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ttk</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">style</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Style</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">style</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">layout</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;TMenubutton&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+   <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Menubutton.background&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">),</span>
+   <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Menubutton.button&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;children&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+       <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Menubutton.focus&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;children&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+           <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Menubutton.padding&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;children&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+               <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Menubutton.label&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;side&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;left&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;expand&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">})]</span>
+           <span class="p">})]</span>
+       <span class="p">})]</span>
+   <span class="p">}),</span>
+<span class="p">])</span>
+
+<span class="n">mbtn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Menubutton</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Text&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">mbtn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mainloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create">
+<code class="descname">element_create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>elementname</em>, <em>etype</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new element in the current theme, of the given <em>etype</em> which is
+expected to be either “image”, “from” or “vsapi”. The latter is only
+available in Tk 8.6a for Windows XP and Vista and is not described here.</p>
+<p>If “image” is used, <em>args</em> should contain the default image name followed
+by statespec/value pairs (this is the imagespec), and <em>kw</em> may have the
+following options:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>border=padding</dt><dd><p>padding is a list of up to four integers, specifying the left, top,
+right, and bottom borders, respectively.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>height=height</dt><dd><p>Specifies a minimum height for the element. If less than zero, the
+base image’s height is used as a default.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>padding=padding</dt><dd><p>Specifies the element’s interior padding. Defaults to border’s value
+if not specified.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>sticky=spec</dt><dd><p>Specifies how the image is placed within the final parcel. spec
+contains zero or more characters “n”, “s”, “w”, or “e”.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>width=width</dt><dd><p>Specifies a minimum width for the element. If less than zero, the
+base image’s width is used as a default.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If “from” is used as the value of <em>etype</em>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create" title="tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">element_create()</span></code></a> will clone an existing
+element. <em>args</em> is expected to contain a themename, from which
+the element will be cloned, and optionally an element to clone from.
+If this element to clone from is not specified, an empty element will
+be used. <em>kw</em> is discarded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.element_names">
+<code class="descname">element_names</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the list of elements defined in the current theme.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.element_options">
+<code class="descname">element_options</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>elementname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_options" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the list of <em>elementname</em>’s options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_create">
+<code class="descname">theme_create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>themename</em>, <em>parent=None</em>, <em>settings=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new theme.</p>
+<p>It is an error if <em>themename</em> already exists. If <em>parent</em> is specified,
+the new theme will inherit styles, elements and layouts from the parent
+theme. If <em>settings</em> are present they are expected to have the same
+syntax used for <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_settings" title="tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_settings"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">theme_settings()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_settings">
+<code class="descname">theme_settings</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>themename</em>, <em>settings</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_settings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Temporarily sets the current theme to <em>themename</em>, apply specified
+<em>settings</em> and then restore the previous theme.</p>
+<p>Each key in <em>settings</em> is a style and each value may contain the keys
+‘configure’, ‘map’, ‘layout’ and ‘element create’ and they are expected
+to have the same format as specified by the methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.configure" title="tkinter.ttk.Style.configure"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Style.configure()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.map" title="tkinter.ttk.Style.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Style.map()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.layout" title="tkinter.ttk.Style.layout"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Style.layout()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create" title="tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Style.element_create()</span></code></a> respectively.</p>
+<p>As an example, let’s change the Combobox for the default theme a bit:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ttk</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tkinter</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Tk</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">style</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Style</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">style</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">theme_settings</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;default&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+   <span class="s2">&quot;TCombobox&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+       <span class="s2">&quot;configure&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;padding&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">},</span>
+       <span class="s2">&quot;map&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+           <span class="s2">&quot;background&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;active&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;green2&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                          <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;!disabled&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;green4&quot;</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+           <span class="s2">&quot;fieldbackground&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;!disabled&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;green3&quot;</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+           <span class="s2">&quot;foreground&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;focus&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;OliveDrab1&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                          <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;!disabled&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;OliveDrab2&quot;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+       <span class="p">}</span>
+   <span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="p">})</span>
+
+<span class="n">combo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ttk</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Combobox</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mainloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_names">
+<code class="descname">theme_names</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_names" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a list of all known themes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_use">
+<code class="descname">theme_use</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>themename=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter.ttk.Style.theme_use" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>themename</em> is not given, returns the theme in use.  Otherwise, sets
+the current theme to <em>themename</em>, refreshes all widgets and emits a
+&lt;&lt;ThemeChanged&gt;&gt; event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="layouts">
+<h3>Layouts<a class="headerlink" href="#layouts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A layout can be just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, if it takes no options, or a dict of
+options specifying how to arrange the element. The layout mechanism
+uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an
+initial cavity, each element is allocated a parcel. Valid
+options/values are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>side: whichside</dt><dd><p>Specifies which side of the cavity to place the element; one of
+top, right, bottom or left. If omitted, the element occupies the
+entire cavity.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>sticky: nswe</dt><dd><p>Specifies where the element is placed inside its allocated parcel.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>unit: 0 or 1</dt><dd><p>If set to 1, causes the element and all of its descendants to be treated as
+a single element for the purposes of <a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify" title="tkinter.ttk.Widget.identify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Widget.identify()</span></code></a> et al. It’s
+used for things like scrollbar thumbs with grips.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>children: [sublayout… ]</dt><dd><p>Specifies a list of elements to place inside the element. Each
+element is a tuple (or other sequence type) where the first item is
+the layout name, and the other is a <a class="reference internal" href="#layouts">Layout</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code> — Tk themed widgets</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-ttk">Using Ttk</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-widgets">Ttk Widgets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#widget">Widget</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-options">Standard Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#scrollable-widget-options">Scrollable Widget Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#label-options">Label Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compatibility-options">Compatibility Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#widget-states">Widget States</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-widget">ttk.Widget</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#combobox">Combobox</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#options">Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#virtual-events">Virtual events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-combobox">ttk.Combobox</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#spinbox">Spinbox</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id1">Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2">Virtual events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-spinbox">ttk.Spinbox</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notebook">Notebook</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3">Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tab-options">Tab Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tab-identifiers">Tab Identifiers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id4">Virtual Events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-notebook">ttk.Notebook</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#progressbar">Progressbar</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id5">Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-progressbar">ttk.Progressbar</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#separator">Separator</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id6">Options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sizegrip">Sizegrip</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#platform-specific-notes">Platform-specific notes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bugs">Bugs</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#treeview">Treeview</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id7">Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#item-options">Item Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tag-options">Tag Options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#column-identifiers">Column Identifiers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id8">Virtual Events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-treeview">ttk.Treeview</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-styling">Ttk Styling</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#layouts">Layouts</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tkinter.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code> — Python interface to Tcl/Tk</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tkinter.tix.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code> — Extension widgets for Tk</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/token.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/token.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15d477d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/token.html
@@ -0,0 +1,371 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>token — Constants used with Python parse trees &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+  <div class="section" id="module-token">
+<span id="token-constants-used-with-python-parse-trees"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-token" title="token: Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code></a> — Constants used with Python parse trees<a class="headerlink" href="#module-token" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/token.py">Lib/token.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of leaf nodes
+of the parse tree (terminal tokens).  Refer to the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Grammar/Grammar</span></code>
+in the Python distribution for the definitions of the names in the context of
+the language grammar.  The specific numeric values which the names map to may
+change between Python versions.</p>
+<p>The module also provides a mapping from numeric codes to names and some
+functions.  The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header files.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="token.tok_name">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">tok_name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.tok_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in this module
+back to name strings, allowing more human-readable representation of parse trees
+to be generated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="token.ISTERMINAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ISTERMINAL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ISTERMINAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true for terminal token values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="token.ISNONTERMINAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ISNONTERMINAL</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ISNONTERMINAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true for non-terminal token values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="token.ISEOF">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ISEOF</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ISEOF" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>x</em> is the marker indicating the end of input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The token constants are:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="token.ENDMARKER">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ENDMARKER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ENDMARKER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.NAME">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">NAME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.NAME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.NUMBER">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">NUMBER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.NUMBER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.STRING">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">STRING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.STRING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.NEWLINE">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">NEWLINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.NEWLINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.INDENT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">INDENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.INDENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.DEDENT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">DEDENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.DEDENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.LPAR">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">LPAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.LPAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.RPAR">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">RPAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.RPAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.LSQB">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">LSQB</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.LSQB" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.RSQB">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">RSQB</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.RSQB" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.COLON">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">COLON</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.COLON" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.COMMA">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">COMMA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.COMMA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.SEMI">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">SEMI</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.SEMI" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.PLUS">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">PLUS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.PLUS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.MINUS">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">MINUS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.MINUS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.STAR">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">STAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.STAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.SLASH">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">SLASH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.SLASH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.VBAR">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">VBAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.VBAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.AMPER">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">AMPER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.AMPER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.LESS">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">LESS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.LESS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.GREATER">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">GREATER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.GREATER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.EQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">EQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.EQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.DOT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">DOT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.DOT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.PERCENT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">PERCENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.PERCENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.LBRACE">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">LBRACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.LBRACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.RBRACE">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">RBRACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.RBRACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.EQEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">EQEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.EQEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.NOTEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">NOTEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.NOTEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.LESSEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">LESSEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.LESSEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.GREATEREQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">GREATEREQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.GREATEREQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.TILDE">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">TILDE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.TILDE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.CIRCUMFLEX">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">CIRCUMFLEX</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.CIRCUMFLEX" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.LEFTSHIFT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">LEFTSHIFT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.LEFTSHIFT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.RIGHTSHIFT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">RIGHTSHIFT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.RIGHTSHIFT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.DOUBLESTAR">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">DOUBLESTAR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.DOUBLESTAR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.PLUSEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">PLUSEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.PLUSEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.MINEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">MINEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.MINEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.STAREQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">STAREQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.STAREQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.SLASHEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">SLASHEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.SLASHEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.PERCENTEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">PERCENTEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.PERCENTEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.AMPEREQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">AMPEREQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.AMPEREQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.VBAREQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">VBAREQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.VBAREQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">LEFTSHIFTEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">DOUBLESTAREQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.DOUBLESLASH">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">DOUBLESLASH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.DOUBLESLASH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">DOUBLESLASHEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.AT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">AT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.AT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.ATEQUAL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ATEQUAL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ATEQUAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.RARROW">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">RARROW</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.RARROW" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.ELLIPSIS">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ELLIPSIS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ELLIPSIS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.OP">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">OP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.OP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.ERRORTOKEN">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ERRORTOKEN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ERRORTOKEN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.N_TOKENS">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">N_TOKENS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.N_TOKENS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="token.NT_OFFSET">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">NT_OFFSET</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.NT_OFFSET" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following token type values aren’t used by the C tokenizer but are needed for
+the <a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="token.COMMENT">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">COMMENT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.COMMENT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Token value used to indicate a comment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="token.NL">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">NL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.NL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#token.NEWLINE" title="token.NEWLINE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NEWLINE</span></code></a> token indicates the end of a logical line of Python code;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NL</span></code> tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued over
+multiple physical lines.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="token.ENCODING">
+<code class="descclassname">token.</code><code class="descname">ENCODING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#token.ENCODING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Token value that indicates the encoding used to decode the source bytes
+into text. The first token returned by <a class="reference internal" href="tokenize.html#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize.tokenize()</span></code></a> will
+always be an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENCODING</span></code> token.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AWAIT</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASYNC</span></code> tokens.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added <a class="reference internal" href="#token.COMMENT" title="token.COMMENT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMMENT</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#token.NL" title="token.NL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NL</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#token.ENCODING" title="token.ENCODING"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENCODING</span></code></a> tokens.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Removed <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AWAIT</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASYNC</span></code> tokens. “async” and “await” are
+now tokenized as <a class="reference internal" href="#token.NAME" title="token.NAME"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NAME</span></code></a> tokens.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tokenize">
+<span id="tokenize-tokenizer-for-python-source"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> — Tokenizer for Python source<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tokenize" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tokenize.py">Lib/tokenize.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> module provides a lexical scanner for Python source code,
+implemented in Python.  The scanner in this module returns comments as tokens
+as well, making it useful for implementing “pretty-printers,” including
+colorizers for on-screen displays.</p>
+<p>To simplify token stream handling, all <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#operators"><span class="std std-ref">operator</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#delimiters"><span class="std std-ref">delimiter</span></a> tokens and <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code></a> are returned using
+the generic <a class="reference internal" href="token.html#token.OP" title="token.OP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP</span></code></a> token type.  The exact
+type can be determined by checking the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exact_type</span></code> property on the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> returned from <a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize.tokenize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="tokenizing-input">
+<h2>Tokenizing Input<a class="headerlink" href="#tokenizing-input" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The primary entry point is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tokenize.tokenize">
+<code class="descclassname">tokenize.</code><code class="descname">tokenize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>readline</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tokenize.tokenize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize()</span></code></a> generator requires one argument, <em>readline</em>, which
+must be a callable object which provides the same interface as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.readline()</span></code></a> method of file objects.  Each call to the
+function should return one line of input as bytes.</p>
+<p>The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type; the
+token string; a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(srow,</span> <span class="pre">scol)</span></code> of ints specifying the row and
+column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(erow,</span> <span class="pre">ecol)</span></code> of
+ints specifying the row and column where the token ends in the source; and
+the line on which the token was found. The line passed (the last tuple item)
+is the <em>logical</em> line; continuation lines are included.  The 5 tuple is
+returned as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> with the field names:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span> <span class="pre">string</span> <span class="pre">start</span> <span class="pre">end</span> <span class="pre">line</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The returned <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> has an additional property named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exact_type</span></code> that contains the exact operator type for
+<a class="reference internal" href="token.html#token.OP" title="token.OP"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP</span></code></a> tokens.  For all other token types <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exact_type</span></code>
+equals the named tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> field.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added support for named tuples.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exact_type</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize()</span></code></a> determines the source encoding of the file by looking for a
+UTF-8 BOM or encoding cookie, according to <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0263"><strong>PEP 263</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>All constants from the <a class="reference internal" href="token.html#module-token" title="token: Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token</span></code></a> module are also exported from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Another function is provided to reverse the tokenization process. This is
+useful for creating tools that tokenize a script, modify the token stream, and
+write back the modified script.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tokenize.untokenize">
+<code class="descclassname">tokenize.</code><code class="descname">untokenize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tokenize.untokenize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Converts tokens back into Python source code.  The <em>iterable</em> must return
+sequences with at least two elements, the token type and the token string.
+Any additional sequence elements are ignored.</p>
+<p>The reconstructed script is returned as a single string.  The result is
+guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so that the conversion is
+lossless and round-trips are assured.  The guarantee applies only to the
+token type and token string as the spacing between tokens (column
+positions) may change.</p>
+<p>It returns bytes, encoded using the <a class="reference internal" href="token.html#token.ENCODING" title="token.ENCODING"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENCODING</span></code></a> token, which
+is the first token sequence output by <a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize()</span></code></a> needs to detect the encoding of source files it tokenizes. The
+function it uses to do this is available:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tokenize.detect_encoding">
+<code class="descclassname">tokenize.</code><code class="descname">detect_encoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>readline</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tokenize.detect_encoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.detect_encoding" title="tokenize.detect_encoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detect_encoding()</span></code></a> function is used to detect the encoding that
+should be used to decode a Python source file. It requires one argument,
+readline, in the same way as the <a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize()</span></code></a> generator.</p>
+<p>It will call readline a maximum of twice, and return the encoding used
+(as a string) and a list of any lines (not decoded from bytes) it has read
+in.</p>
+<p>It detects the encoding from the presence of a UTF-8 BOM or an encoding
+cookie as specified in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0263"><strong>PEP 263</strong></a>. If both a BOM and a cookie are present,
+but disagree, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> will be raised. Note that if the BOM is found,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8-sig'</span></code> will be returned as an encoding.</p>
+<p>If no encoding is specified, then the default of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> will be
+returned.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.open" title="tokenize.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> to open Python source files: it uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.detect_encoding" title="tokenize.detect_encoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detect_encoding()</span></code></a> to detect the file encoding.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tokenize.open">
+<code class="descclassname">tokenize.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tokenize.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a file in read only mode using the encoding detected by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tokenize.detect_encoding" title="tokenize.detect_encoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detect_encoding()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="tokenize.TokenError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">tokenize.</code><code class="descname">TokenError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tokenize.TokenError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when either a docstring or expression that may be split over several
+lines is not completed anywhere in the file, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;Beginning of</span>
+<span class="s2">docstring</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="mi">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that unclosed single-quoted strings do not cause an error to be
+raised. They are tokenized as <a class="reference internal" href="token.html#token.ERRORTOKEN" title="token.ERRORTOKEN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERRORTOKEN</span></code></a>, followed by the
+tokenization of their contents.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-usage">
+<span id="tokenize-cli"></span><h2>Command-Line Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> module can be executed as a script from the command line.
+It is as simple as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python -m tokenize <span class="o">[</span>-e<span class="o">]</span> <span class="o">[</span>filename.py<span class="o">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following options are accepted:</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-tokenize-h">
+<code class="descname">-h</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--help</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tokenize-h" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>show this help message and exit</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-tokenize-e">
+<code class="descname">-e</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--exact</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-tokenize-e" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>display token names using the exact type</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename.py</span></code> is specified its contents are tokenized to stdout.
+Otherwise, tokenization is performed on stdin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Example of a script rewriter that transforms float literals into Decimal
+objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">tokenize</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">tokenize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">untokenize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">NUMBER</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">STRING</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">OP</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">BytesIO</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">decistmt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; from decimal import Decimal</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; s = &#39;print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)&#39;</span>
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; decistmt(s)</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;print (+Decimal (&#39;21.3e-5&#39;)*-Decimal (&#39;.1234&#39;)/Decimal (&#39;81.7&#39;))&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library.</span>
+<span class="sd">    Known cases are &quot;e-007&quot; (Windows) and &quot;e-07&quot; (not Windows).  Since</span>
+<span class="sd">    we&#39;re only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn&#39;t close to 5, the</span>
+<span class="sd">    rest of the output should be platform-independent.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS</span>
+<span class="sd">    -3.21716034272e-0...7</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all</span>
+<span class="sd">    platforms.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; exec(decistmt(s))</span>
+<span class="sd">    -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tokenize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># tokenize the string</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">toknum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tokval</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">g</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">toknum</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">NUMBER</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tokval</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># replace NUMBER tokens</span>
+            <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">([</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Decimal&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OP</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">STRING</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tokval</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">OP</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="p">])</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">toknum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tokval</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">untokenize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of tokenizing from the command line.  The script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">say_hello</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello, World!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">say_hello</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will be tokenized to the following output where the first column is the range
+of the line/column coordinates where the token is found, the second column is
+the name of the token, and the final column is the value of the token (if any)</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m tokenize hello.py
+<span class="go">0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       &#39;utf-8&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,0-1,3:            NAME           &#39;def&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,4-1,13:           NAME           &#39;say_hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,13-1,14:          OP             &#39;(&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,14-1,15:          OP             &#39;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,15-1,16:          OP             &#39;:&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,0-2,4:            INDENT         &#39;    &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,4-2,9:            NAME           &#39;print&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,9-2,10:           OP             &#39;(&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,10-2,25:          STRING         &#39;&quot;Hello, World!&quot;&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,25-2,26:          OP             &#39;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">3,0-3,1:            NL             &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         &#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,0-4,9:            NAME           &#39;say_hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,9-4,10:           OP             &#39;(&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,10-4,11:          OP             &#39;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      &#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The exact token type names can be displayed using the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-tokenize-e"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-e</span></code></a> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m tokenize -e hello.py
+<span class="go">0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       &#39;utf-8&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,0-1,3:            NAME           &#39;def&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,4-1,13:           NAME           &#39;say_hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,13-1,14:          LPAR           &#39;(&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,14-1,15:          RPAR           &#39;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,15-1,16:          COLON          &#39;:&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,0-2,4:            INDENT         &#39;    &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,4-2,9:            NAME           &#39;print&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,9-2,10:           LPAR           &#39;(&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,10-2,25:          STRING         &#39;&quot;Hello, World!&quot;&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,25-2,26:          RPAR           &#39;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">3,0-3,1:            NL             &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         &#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,0-4,9:            NAME           &#39;say_hello&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,9-4,10:           LPAR           &#39;(&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,10-4,11:          RPAR           &#39;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        &#39;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      &#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code> — Tokenizer for Python source</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tokenizing-input">Tokenizing Input</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-usage">Command-Line Usage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-trace">
+<span id="trace-trace-or-track-python-statement-execution"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-trace" title="trace: Trace or track Python statement execution."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code></a> — Trace or track Python statement execution<a class="headerlink" href="#module-trace" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/trace.py">Lib/trace.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-trace" title="trace: Trace or track Python statement execution."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code></a> module allows you to trace program execution, generate
+annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee relationships and
+list functions executed during a program run.  It can be used in another program
+or from the command line.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://coverage.readthedocs.io/">Coverage.py</a></dt><dd><p>A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML
+output along with advanced features such as branch coverage.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-usage">
+<span id="trace-cli"></span><h2>Command-Line Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-trace" title="trace: Trace or track Python statement execution."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code></a> module can be invoked from the command line.  It can be as
+simple as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">trace</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="o">.</span> <span class="n">somefile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above will execute <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">somefile.py</span></code> and generate annotated listings of
+all Python modules imported during the execution into the current directory.</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-help">
+<code class="descname">--help</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display usage and exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-version">
+<code class="descname">--version</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the version of the module and exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="main-options">
+<h3>Main options<a class="headerlink" href="#main-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-trace" title="trace: Trace or track Python statement execution."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-l"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--listfuncs</span></code></a> option is mutually exclusive with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-t"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--trace</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--count</span></code></a> options. When
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-l"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--listfuncs</span></code></a> is provided, neither <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--count</span></code></a> nor
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-t"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--trace</span></code></a> are accepted, and vice versa.</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-c">
+<code class="descname">-c</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--count</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-c" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion that shows
+how many times each statement was executed.  See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-coverdir"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--coverdir</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-f"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--file</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-no-report"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--no-report</span></code></a> below.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-t">
+<code class="descname">-t</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--trace</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display lines as they are executed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-l">
+<code class="descname">-l</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--listfuncs</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-l" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the functions executed by running the program.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-r">
+<code class="descname">-r</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--report</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-r" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--count</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-f"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--file</span></code></a> option.  This does not
+execute any code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-trackcalls">
+<code class="descname">-T</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--trackcalls</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-trackcalls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="modifiers">
+<h3>Modifiers<a class="headerlink" href="#modifiers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-f">
+<code class="descname">-f</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--file</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;file&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-f" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs.  Should be
+used with the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--count</span></code></a> option.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-coverdir">
+<code class="descname">-C</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--coverdir</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;dir&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-coverdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Directory where the report files go.  The coverage report for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.module</span></code> is written to file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">dir</span></em><span class="pre">/</span><em><span class="pre">package</span></em><span class="pre">/</span><em><span class="pre">module</span></em><span class="pre">.cover</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-m">
+<code class="descname">-m</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--missing</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-m" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not executed with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-s">
+<code class="descname">-s</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--summary</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-s" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When using <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--count</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-r"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--report</span></code></a>, write a brief
+summary to stdout for each file processed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-no-report">
+<code class="descname">-R</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--no-report</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-no-report" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do not generate annotated listings.  This is useful if you intend to make
+several runs with <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-trace-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--count</span></code></a>, and then produce a single set of
+annotated listings at the end.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-g">
+<code class="descname">-g</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--timing</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-g" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prefix each line with the time since the program started.  Only used while
+tracing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filters">
+<h3>Filters<a class="headerlink" href="#filters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These options may be repeated multiple times.</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-ignore-module">
+<code class="descname">--ignore-module</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;mod&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-ignore-module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is a
+package).  The argument can be a list of names separated by a comma.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir">
+<code class="descname">--ignore-dir</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;dir&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and subdirectories.
+The argument can be a list of directories separated by <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.pathsep" title="os.pathsep"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pathsep</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="programmatic-interface">
+<span id="trace-api"></span><h2>Programmatic Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#programmatic-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="trace.Trace">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">trace.</code><code class="descname">Trace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>count=1</em>, <em>trace=1</em>, <em>countfuncs=0</em>, <em>countcallers=0</em>, <em>ignoremods=()</em>, <em>ignoredirs=()</em>, <em>infile=None</em>, <em>outfile=None</em>, <em>timing=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.Trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or expression.  All
+parameters are optional.  <em>count</em> enables counting of line numbers.  <em>trace</em>
+enables line execution tracing.  <em>countfuncs</em> enables listing of the
+functions called during the run.  <em>countcallers</em> enables call relationship
+tracking.  <em>ignoremods</em> is a list of modules or packages to ignore.
+<em>ignoredirs</em> is a list of directories whose modules or packages should be
+ignored.  <em>infile</em> is the name of the file from which to read stored count
+information.  <em>outfile</em> is the name of the file in which to write updated
+count information.  <em>timing</em> enables a timestamp relative to when tracing was
+started to be displayed.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="method">
+<dt id="trace.Trace.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.Trace.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with
+the current tracing parameters.  <em>cmd</em> must be a string or code object,
+suitable for passing into <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="trace.Trace.runctx">
+<code class="descname">runctx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmd</em>, <em>globals=None</em>, <em>locals=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.Trace.runctx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the
+current tracing parameters, in the defined global and local
+environments.  If not defined, <em>globals</em> and <em>locals</em> default to empty
+dictionaries.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="trace.Trace.runfunc">
+<code class="descname">runfunc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.Trace.runfunc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call <em>func</em> with the given arguments under control of the <a class="reference internal" href="#trace.Trace" title="trace.Trace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Trace</span></code></a>
+object with the current tracing parameters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="trace.Trace.results">
+<code class="descname">results</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.Trace.results" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#trace.CoverageResults" title="trace.CoverageResults"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CoverageResults</span></code></a> object that contains the cumulative
+results of all previous calls to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runctx</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runfunc</span></code>
+for the given <a class="reference internal" href="#trace.Trace" title="trace.Trace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Trace</span></code></a> instance.  Does not reset the accumulated
+trace results.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="trace.CoverageResults">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">trace.</code><code class="descname">CoverageResults</code><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.CoverageResults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A container for coverage results, created by <a class="reference internal" href="#trace.Trace.results" title="trace.Trace.results"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Trace.results()</span></code></a>.  Should
+not be created directly by the user.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><dl class="method">
+<dt id="trace.CoverageResults.update">
+<code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.CoverageResults.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Merge in data from another <a class="reference internal" href="#trace.CoverageResults" title="trace.CoverageResults"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CoverageResults</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="trace.CoverageResults.write_results">
+<code class="descname">write_results</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>show_missing=True</em>, <em>summary=False</em>, <em>coverdir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#trace.CoverageResults.write_results" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write coverage results.  Set <em>show_missing</em> to show lines that had no
+hits.  Set <em>summary</em> to include in the output the coverage summary per
+module.  <em>coverdir</em> specifies the directory into which the coverage
+result files will be output.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the results for each source
+file are placed in its directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">trace</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to</span>
+<span class="c1"># do tracing or line-counting or both.</span>
+<span class="n">tracer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">trace</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Trace</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">ignoredirs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prefix</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exec_prefix</span><span class="p">],</span>
+    <span class="n">trace</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># run the new command using the given tracer</span>
+<span class="n">tracer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;main()&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># make a report, placing output in the current directory</span>
+<span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tracer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">results</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_results</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">show_missing</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">coverdir</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code> — Trace or track Python statement execution</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-usage">Command-Line Usage</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#main-options">Main options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modifiers">Modifiers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filters">Filters</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#programmatic-interface">Programmatic Interface</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="timeit.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code> — Measure execution time of small code snippets</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="tracemalloc.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> — Trace memory allocations</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/traceback.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/traceback.html
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/traceback.html
@@ -0,0 +1,701 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-traceback">
+<span id="traceback-print-or-retrieve-a-stack-traceback"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-traceback" title="traceback: Print or retrieve a stack traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code></a> — Print or retrieve a stack traceback<a class="headerlink" href="#module-traceback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/traceback.py">Lib/traceback.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print stack
+traces of Python programs.  It exactly mimics the behavior of the Python
+interpreter when it prints a stack trace.  This is useful when you want to print
+stack traces under program control, such as in a “wrapper” around the
+interpreter.</p>
+<p id="index-0">The module uses traceback objects — this is the object type that is stored in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.last_traceback" title="sys.last_traceback"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_traceback</span></code></a> variable and returned as the third item from
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.print_tb">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">print_tb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.print_tb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print up to <em>limit</em> stack trace entries from traceback object <em>tb</em> (starting
+from the caller’s frame) if <em>limit</em> is positive.  Otherwise, print the last
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(limit)</span></code> entries.  If <em>limit</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, all entries are
+printed.  If <em>file</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the output goes to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>; otherwise it should be an open file or file-like object to
+receive the output.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added negative <em>limit</em> support.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.print_exception">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">print_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>etype</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>tb</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>file=None</em>, <em>chain=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.print_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print exception information and stack trace entries from traceback object
+<em>tb</em> to <em>file</em>. This differs from <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_tb" title="traceback.print_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_tb()</span></code></a> in the following
+ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>if <em>tb</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it prints a header <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span> <span class="pre">(most</span> <span class="pre">recent</span>
+<span class="pre">call</span> <span class="pre">last):</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>it prints the exception <em>etype</em> and <em>value</em> after the stack trace</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-1">
+<li><p>if <em>type(value)</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> and <em>value</em> has the appropriate
+format, it prints the line where the syntax error occurred with a caret
+indicating the approximate position of the error.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The optional <em>limit</em> argument has the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_tb" title="traceback.print_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_tb()</span></code></a>.
+If <em>chain</em> is true (the default), then chained exceptions (the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> attributes of the exception) will be
+printed as well, like the interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled
+exception.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>etype</em> argument is ignored and inferred from the type of <em>value</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.print_exc">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">print_exc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>limit=None</em>, <em>file=None</em>, <em>chain=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.print_exc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_exception(*sys.exc_info(),</span> <span class="pre">limit,</span> <span class="pre">file,</span>
+<span class="pre">chain)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.print_last">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">print_last</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>limit=None</em>, <em>file=None</em>, <em>chain=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.print_last" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_exception(sys.last_type,</span> <span class="pre">sys.last_value,</span>
+<span class="pre">sys.last_traceback,</span> <span class="pre">limit,</span> <span class="pre">file,</span> <span class="pre">chain)</span></code>.  In general it will work only
+after an exception has reached an interactive prompt (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.last_type" title="sys.last_type"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_type</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.print_stack">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">print_stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.print_stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print up to <em>limit</em> stack trace entries (starting from the invocation
+point) if <em>limit</em> is positive.  Otherwise, print the last <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(limit)</span></code>
+entries.  If <em>limit</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, all entries are printed.
+The optional <em>f</em> argument can be used to specify an alternate stack frame
+to start.  The optional <em>file</em> argument has the same meaning as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_tb" title="traceback.print_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_tb()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added negative <em>limit</em> support.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.extract_tb">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">extract_tb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb</em>, <em>limit=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.extract_tb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> object representing a list of “pre-processed”
+stack trace entries extracted from the traceback object <em>tb</em>.  It is useful
+for alternate formatting of stack traces.  The optional <em>limit</em> argument has
+the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_tb" title="traceback.print_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_tb()</span></code></a>.  A “pre-processed” stack trace
+entry is a <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a> object containing attributes
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line</span></code> representing the
+information that is usually printed for a stack trace.  The
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line</span></code> is a string with leading and trailing
+whitespace stripped; if the source is not available it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.extract_stack">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">extract_stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.extract_stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract the raw traceback from the current stack frame.  The return value has
+the same format as for <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.extract_tb" title="traceback.extract_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract_tb()</span></code></a>.  The optional <em>f</em> and <em>limit</em>
+arguments have the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_stack" title="traceback.print_stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_stack()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.format_list">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">format_list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>extracted_list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.format_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Given a list of tuples or <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a> objects as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.extract_tb" title="traceback.extract_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract_tb()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.extract_stack" title="traceback.extract_stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract_stack()</span></code></a>, return a list of strings ready
+for printing.  Each string in the resulting list corresponds to the item with
+the same index in the argument list.  Each string ends in a newline; the
+strings may contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source
+text line is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.format_exception_only">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">format_exception_only</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>etype</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.format_exception_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format the exception part of a traceback.  The arguments are the exception
+type and value such as given by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_type</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_value</span></code>.
+The return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline.  Normally,
+the list contains a single string; however, for <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>
+exceptions, it contains several lines that (when printed) display detailed
+information about where the syntax error occurred.  The message indicating
+which exception occurred is the always last string in the list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.format_exception">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">format_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>etype</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>tb</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>chain=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.format_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format a stack trace and the exception information.  The arguments  have the
+same meaning as the corresponding arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_exception" title="traceback.print_exception"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_exception()</span></code></a>.  The
+return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline and some
+containing internal newlines.  When these lines are concatenated and printed,
+exactly the same text is printed as does <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_exception" title="traceback.print_exception"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_exception()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <em>etype</em> argument is ignored and inferred from the type of <em>value</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.format_exc">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">format_exc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>limit=None</em>, <em>chain=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.format_exc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_exc(limit)</span></code> but returns a string instead of printing to
+a file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.format_tb">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">format_tb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb</em>, <em>limit=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.format_tb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_list(extract_tb(tb,</span> <span class="pre">limit))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.format_stack">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">format_stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f=None</em>, <em>limit=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.format_stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_list(extract_stack(f,</span> <span class="pre">limit))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.clear_frames">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">clear_frames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.clear_frames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a traceback <em>tb</em>
+by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code> method of each frame object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.walk_stack">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">walk_stack</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>f</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.walk_stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Walk a stack following <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.f_back</span></code> from the given frame, yielding the frame
+and line number for each frame. If <em>f</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the current stack is
+used. This helper is used with <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary.extract" title="traceback.StackSummary.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary.extract()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="traceback.walk_tb">
+<code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">walk_tb</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.walk_tb" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Walk a traceback following <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_next</span></code> yielding the frame and line number
+for each frame. This helper is used with <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary.extract" title="traceback.StackSummary.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary.extract()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The module also defines the following classes:</p>
+<div class="section" id="tracebackexception-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.TracebackException" title="traceback.TracebackException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#tracebackexception-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.TracebackException" title="traceback.TracebackException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code></a> objects are created from actual exceptions to
+capture data for later printing in a lightweight fashion.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">TracebackException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc_type</em>, <em>exc_value</em>, <em>exc_traceback</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>lookup_lines=True</em>, <em>capture_locals=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Capture an exception for later rendering. <em>limit</em>, <em>lookup_lines</em> and
+<em>capture_locals</em> are as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.__cause__">
+<code class="descname">__cause__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.__cause__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.TracebackException" title="traceback.TracebackException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code></a> of the original <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.__context__">
+<code class="descname">__context__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.__context__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.TracebackException" title="traceback.TracebackException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code></a> of the original <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.__suppress_context__">
+<code class="descname">__suppress_context__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.__suppress_context__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__suppress_context__</span></code> value from the original exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.stack">
+<code class="descname">stack</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> representing the traceback.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.exc_type">
+<code class="descname">exc_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.exc_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The class of the original traceback.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.filename">
+<code class="descname">filename</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.text">
+<code class="descname">text</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.offset">
+<code class="descname">offset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.offset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.msg">
+<code class="descname">msg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.msg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For syntax errors - the compiler error message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.from_exception">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">from_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>lookup_lines=True</em>, <em>capture_locals=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.from_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Capture an exception for later rendering. <em>limit</em>, <em>lookup_lines</em> and
+<em>capture_locals</em> are as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>chain=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format the exception.</p>
+<p>If <em>chain</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> will not
+be formatted.</p>
+<p>The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline and
+some containing internal newlines. <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.print_exception" title="traceback.print_exception"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_exception()</span></code></a>
+is a wrapper around this method which just prints the lines to a file.</p>
+<p>The message indicating which exception occurred is always the last
+string in the output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="traceback.TracebackException.format_exception_only">
+<code class="descname">format_exception_only</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.TracebackException.format_exception_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format the exception part of the traceback.</p>
+<p>The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline.</p>
+<p>Normally, the generator emits a single string; however, for
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> exceptions, it emits several lines that (when
+printed) display detailed information about where the syntax
+error occurred.</p>
+<p>The message indicating which exception occurred is always the last
+string in the output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="stacksummary-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#stacksummary-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> objects represent a call stack ready for formatting.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="traceback.StackSummary">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">StackSummary</code><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="traceback.StackSummary.extract">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">extract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frame_gen</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>limit=None</em>, <em>lookup_lines=True</em>, <em>capture_locals=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.StackSummary.extract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> object from a frame generator (such as
+is returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.walk_stack" title="traceback.walk_stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk_stack()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.walk_tb" title="traceback.walk_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk_tb()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>If <em>limit</em> is supplied, only this many frames are taken from <em>frame_gen</em>.
+If <em>lookup_lines</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the returned <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a>
+objects will not have read their lines in yet, making the cost of
+creating the <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> cheaper (which may be valuable if it
+may not actually get formatted). If <em>capture_locals</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> the
+local variables in each <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a> are captured as object
+representations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="traceback.StackSummary.from_list">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">from_list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a_list</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.StackSummary.from_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a> object from a supplied list of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a> objects or old-style list of tuples.  Each tuple
+should be a 4-tuple with filename, lineno, name, line as the elements.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="traceback.StackSummary.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.StackSummary.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in the
+resulting list corresponds to a single frame from the stack.
+Each string ends in a newline; the strings may contain internal
+newlines as well, for those items with source text lines.</p>
+<p>For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few
+repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the exact
+number of further repetitions.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Long sequences of repeated frames are now abbreviated.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="framesummary-objects">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a> Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#framesummary-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a> objects represent a single frame in a traceback.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="traceback.FrameSummary">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">traceback.</code><code class="descname">FrameSummary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>lookup_line=True</em>, <em>locals=None</em>, <em>line=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Represent a single frame in the traceback or stack that is being formatted
+or printed. It may optionally have a stringified version of the frames
+locals included in it. If <em>lookup_line</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the source code is not
+looked up until the <a class="reference internal" href="#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a> has the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line</span></code>
+attribute accessed (which also happens when casting it to a tuple).
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line</span></code> may be directly provided, and will prevent line
+lookups happening at all. <em>locals</em> is an optional local variable
+dictionary, and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the
+summary for later display.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="traceback-examples">
+<span id="traceback-example"></span><h2>Traceback Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#traceback-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to (but
+less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop.  For a more
+complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">traceback</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">run_user_code</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">envdir</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">source</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">exec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">source</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">envdir</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Exception in user code:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-&quot;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_exc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-&quot;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">envdir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">run_user_code</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">envdir</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and format the
+exception and traceback:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">traceback</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">lumberjack</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">bright_side_of_death</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bright_side_of_death</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">lumberjack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">IndexError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">exc_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_traceback</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exc_info</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** print_tb:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_tb</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc_traceback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">limit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** print_exception:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># exc_type below is ignored on 3.5 and later</span>
+    <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_traceback</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                              <span class="n">limit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** print_exc:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_exc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">limit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** format_exc, first and last line:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">formatted_lines</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_exc</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatted_lines</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">formatted_lines</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** format_exception:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># exc_type below is ignored on 3.5 and later</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_value</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                          <span class="n">exc_traceback</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** extract_tb:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extract_tb</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc_traceback</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** format_tb:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_tb</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc_traceback</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*** tb_lineno:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tb_lineno</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output for the example would look similar to this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>*** print_tb:
+  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 10, in &lt;module&gt;
+    lumberjack()
+*** print_exception:
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 10, in &lt;module&gt;
+    lumberjack()
+  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 4, in lumberjack
+    bright_side_of_death()
+IndexError: tuple index out of range
+*** print_exc:
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 10, in &lt;module&gt;
+    lumberjack()
+  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 4, in lumberjack
+    bright_side_of_death()
+IndexError: tuple index out of range
+*** format_exc, first and last line:
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+IndexError: tuple index out of range
+*** format_exception:
+[&#39;Traceback (most recent call last):\n&#39;,
+ &#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 10, in &lt;module&gt;\n    lumberjack()\n&#39;,
+ &#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_death()\n&#39;,
+ &#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 7, in bright_side_of_death\n    return tuple()[0]\n&#39;,
+ &#39;IndexError: tuple index out of range\n&#39;]
+*** extract_tb:
+[&lt;FrameSummary file &lt;doctest...&gt;, line 10 in &lt;module&gt;&gt;,
+ &lt;FrameSummary file &lt;doctest...&gt;, line 4 in lumberjack&gt;,
+ &lt;FrameSummary file &lt;doctest...&gt;, line 7 in bright_side_of_death&gt;]
+*** format_tb:
+[&#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 10, in &lt;module&gt;\n    lumberjack()\n&#39;,
+ &#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_death()\n&#39;,
+ &#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest...&gt;&quot;, line 7, in bright_side_of_death\n    return tuple()[0]\n&#39;]
+*** tb_lineno: 10
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example shows the different ways to print and format the stack:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">traceback</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">another_function</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">lumberstack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">lumberstack</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">print_stack</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extract_stack</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_stack</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">another_function</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;&lt;doctest&gt;&quot;, line 10, in &lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">    another_function()</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;&lt;doctest&gt;&quot;, line 3, in another_function</span>
+<span class="go">    lumberstack()</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;&lt;doctest&gt;&quot;, line 6, in lumberstack</span>
+<span class="go">    traceback.print_stack()</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;&lt;doctest&gt;&#39;, 10, &#39;&lt;module&gt;&#39;, &#39;another_function()&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;&lt;doctest&gt;&#39;, 3, &#39;another_function&#39;, &#39;lumberstack()&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;&lt;doctest&gt;&#39;, 7, &#39;lumberstack&#39;, &#39;print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest&gt;&quot;, line 10, in &lt;module&gt;\n    another_function()\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest&gt;&quot;, line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;  File &quot;&lt;doctest&gt;&quot;, line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">traceback</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_list</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.py&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;module&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam.eggs()&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                       <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs.py&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;return &quot;bacon&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;  File &quot;spam.py&quot;, line 3, in &lt;module&gt;\n    spam.eggs()\n&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;  File &quot;eggs.py&quot;, line 42, in eggs\n    return &quot;bacon&quot;\n&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">an_error</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="ne">IndexError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tuple index out of range&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_exception_only</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">an_error</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">an_error</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;IndexError: tuple index out of range\n&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code> — Print or retrieve a stack traceback</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tracebackexception-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#stacksummary-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#framesummary-objects"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code> Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback-examples">Traceback Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="atexit.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code> — Exit handlers</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="__future__.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> — Future statement definitions</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-tracemalloc">
+<span id="tracemalloc-trace-memory-allocations"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> — Trace memory allocations<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tracemalloc.py">Lib/tracemalloc.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by
+Python. It provides the following information:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Traceback where an object was allocated</p></li>
+<li><p>Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number:
+total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks</p></li>
+<li><p>Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be started
+as early as possible by setting the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC</span></code></a> environment
+variable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, or by using <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> command line
+option. The <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc.start()</span></code></a> function can be called at runtime to
+start tracing Python memory allocations.</p>
+<p>By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most recent
+frame (1 frame). To store 25 frames at startup: set the
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">25</span></code>, or use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc=25</span></code> command line option.</p>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="display-the-top-10">
+<h3>Display the top 10<a class="headerlink" href="#display-the-top-10" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Display the 10 files allocating the most memory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tracemalloc</span>
+
+<span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... run your application ...</span>
+
+<span class="n">snapshot</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">take_snapshot</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">top_stats</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">snapshot</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">statistics</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;lineno&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;[ Top 10 ]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">stat</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">top_stats</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of output of the Python test suite:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span> <span class="n">Top</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">frozen</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_bootstrap</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">716</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4855</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">39328</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">126</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">frozen</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_bootstrap</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">284</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">521</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3199</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">167</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">368</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">244</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2315</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">108</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">case</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">381</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">185</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">779</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">243</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">case</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">402</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">154</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">378</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">416</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">133</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">88.7</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">347</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">262</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">frozen</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_bootstrap</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">1446</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">70.4</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">911</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">79</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">frozen</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_bootstrap</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">1454</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">52.0</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2131</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">49.7</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">148</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">344</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">411</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">48.0</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">48.0</span> <span class="n">KiB</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We can see that Python loaded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4855</span> <span class="pre">KiB</span></code> data (bytecode and constants) from
+modules and that the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module allocated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">244</span> <span class="pre">KiB</span></code> to build
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple</span></code></a> types.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.statistics()</span></code></a> for more options.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compute-differences">
+<h3>Compute differences<a class="headerlink" href="#compute-differences" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Take two snapshots and display the differences:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tracemalloc</span>
+<span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1"># ... start your application ...</span>
+
+<span class="n">snapshot1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">take_snapshot</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1"># ... call the function leaking memory ...</span>
+<span class="n">snapshot2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">take_snapshot</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">top_stats</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">snapshot2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare_to</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">snapshot1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lineno&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;[ Top 10 differences ]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">stat</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">top_stats</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test suite:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span> <span class="n">Top</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="n">differences</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">frozen</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_bootstrap</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">716</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8173</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">4428</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">71332</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">39369</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">117</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">linecache</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">127</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">940</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">940</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8106</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">8106</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">119</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">case</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">571</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">298</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">298</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">589</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">589</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">519</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">frozen</span> <span class="n">importlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_bootstrap</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">284</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1005</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">166</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">7423</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1526</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">139</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">217</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">112</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">112</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1334</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1334</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">86</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">http</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">848</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">96.0</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mf">96.0</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">96.0</span> <span class="n">KiB</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">1465</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">83.5</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mf">83.5</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">109</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">109</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">784</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">491</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">77.7</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mf">77.7</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">143</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">143</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">557</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">476</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">71.8</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mf">71.8</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">969</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">969</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">76</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">contextlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">38</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">67.2</span> <span class="n">KiB</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mf">67.2</span> <span class="n">KiB</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">126</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">126</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">average</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">546</span> <span class="n">B</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We can see that Python has loaded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8173</span> <span class="pre">KiB</span></code> of module data (bytecode and
+constants), and that this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4428</span> <span class="pre">KiB</span></code> more than had been loaded before the
+tests, when the previous snapshot was taken. Similarly, the <a class="reference internal" href="linecache.html#module-linecache" title="linecache: This module provides random access to individual lines from text files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code></a>
+module has cached <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">940</span> <span class="pre">KiB</span></code> of Python source code to format tracebacks, all
+of it since the previous snapshot.</p>
+<p>If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.dump()</span></code></a> method to analyze the snapshot offline. Then use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.load" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.load()</span></code></a> method reload the snapshot.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="get-the-traceback-of-a-memory-block">
+<h3>Get the traceback of a memory block<a class="headerlink" href="#get-the-traceback-of-a-memory-block" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tracemalloc</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Store 25 frames</span>
+<span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... run your application ...</span>
+
+<span class="n">snapshot</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">take_snapshot</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">top_stats</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">snapshot</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">statistics</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;traceback&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># pick the biggest memory block</span>
+<span class="n">stat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">top_stats</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> memory blocks: </span><span class="si">%.1f</span><span class="s2"> KiB&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25 frames):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">903</span> <span class="n">memory</span> <span class="n">blocks</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mf">870.1</span> <span class="n">KiB</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">716</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1036</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">934</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1068</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">619</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1581</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1614</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">101</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pdb</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">284</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">938</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1068</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">619</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1581</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1614</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1728</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">21</span>
+    <span class="n">support</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_doctest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pickletools</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1276</span>
+    <span class="n">test_runner</span><span class="p">()</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">976</span>
+    <span class="n">display_failure</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">761</span>
+    <span class="n">match_tests</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ns</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match_tests</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">1563</span>
+    <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+    <span class="n">regrtest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">main_in_temp_cwd</span><span class="p">()</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">73</span>
+    <span class="n">exec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">code</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">run_globals</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">160</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pkg_name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We can see that the most memory was allocated in the <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> module to
+load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">870.1</span> <span class="pre">KiB</span></code>. The traceback is
+where the <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> loaded data most recently: on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">pdb</span></code>
+line of the <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module. The traceback may change if a new module is
+loaded.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pretty-top">
+<h3>Pretty top<a class="headerlink" href="#pretty-top" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty output,
+ignoring <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;frozen</span> <span class="pre">importlib._bootstrap&gt;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;unknown&gt;</span></code> files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">linecache</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tracemalloc</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">display_top</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">snapshot</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key_type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;lineno&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">limit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">snapshot</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">snapshot</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filter_traces</span><span class="p">((</span>
+        <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;frozen importlib._bootstrap&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;unknown&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+    <span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">top_stats</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">snapshot</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">statistics</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key_type</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Top </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> lines&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">limit</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">index</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stat</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">top_stats</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">limit</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">frame</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traceback</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="c1"># replace &quot;/path/to/module/file.py&quot; with &quot;module/file.py&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sep</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">frame</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sep</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:])</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;#</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">:</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%.1f</span><span class="s2"> KiB&quot;</span>
+              <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frame</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">linecache</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getline</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">frame</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frame</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;    </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">other</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">top_stats</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">limit</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">stat</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> other: </span><span class="si">%.1f</span><span class="s2"> KiB&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">stat</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">top_stats</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Total allocated size: </span><span class="si">%.1f</span><span class="s2"> KiB&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">total</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># ... run your application ...</span>
+
+<span class="n">snapshot</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">take_snapshot</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">display_top</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">snapshot</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of output of the Python test suite:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Top</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="n">lines</span>
+<span class="c1">#1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB</span>
+    <span class="n">_b85chars2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_b85chars</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_b85chars</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="c1">#2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB</span>
+    <span class="n">_a85chars2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_a85chars</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_a85chars</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="c1">#3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB</span>
+    <span class="n">exec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">class_definition</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">namespace</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1">#4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB</span>
+    <span class="bp">cls</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__new__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mcls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bases</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">namespace</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1">#5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB</span>
+    <span class="n">testMethod</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1">#6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB</span>
+    <span class="n">lines</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readlines</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1">#7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_hexdig</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_hexdig</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="c1">#8: &lt;string&gt;:5: 62.0 KiB</span>
+<span class="c1">#9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1">#10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB</span>
+    <span class="n">_b32tab2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_b32tab</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">_b32tab</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="mi">6220</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mf">3602.8</span> <span class="n">KiB</span>
+<span class="n">Total</span> <span class="n">allocated</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mf">5303.1</span> <span class="n">KiB</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.statistics()</span></code></a> for more options.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="api">
+<h2>API<a class="headerlink" href="#api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<h3>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.clear_traces">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">clear_traces</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.clear_traces" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.stop" title="tracemalloc.stop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.get_object_traceback">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">get_object_traceback</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.get_object_traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the traceback where the Python object <em>obj</em> was allocated.
+Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span></code></a> instance, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a>
+module is not tracing memory allocations or did not trace the allocation of
+the object.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="gc.html#gc.get_referrers" title="gc.get_referrers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.get_referrers()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getsizeof" title="sys.getsizeof"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getsizeof()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">get_traceback_limit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a trace.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module must be tracing memory allocations to
+get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised.</p>
+<p>The limit is set by the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.get_traced_memory">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">get_traced_memory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.get_traced_memory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module as a tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(current:</span> <span class="pre">int,</span> <span class="pre">peak:</span> <span class="pre">int)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">get_tracemalloc_memory</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the memory usage in bytes of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module used to store
+traces of memory blocks.
+Return an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.is_tracing">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">is_tracing</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.is_tracing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module is tracing Python memory
+allocations, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.stop" title="tracemalloc.stop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.start">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>nframe: int=1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python memory
+allocators. Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited to <em>nframe</em>
+frames. By default, a trace of a memory block only stores the most recent
+frame: the limit is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>. <em>nframe</em> must be greater or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Storing more than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> frame is only useful to compute statistics grouped
+by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'traceback'</span></code> or to compute cumulative statistics: see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.compare_to()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.statistics()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+<p>Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module. Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory" title="tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_tracemalloc_memory()</span></code></a> function
+to measure how much memory is used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME</span></code>) and the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc=NFRAME</span></code>
+command line option can be used to start tracing at startup.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.stop" title="tracemalloc.stop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.is_tracing" title="tracemalloc.is_tracing"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_tracing()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit" title="tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_traceback_limit()</span></code></a>
+functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.stop">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">stop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.stop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python memory
+allocators. Also clears all previously collected traces of memory blocks
+allocated by Python.</p>
+<p>Call <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.take_snapshot" title="tracemalloc.take_snapshot"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">take_snapshot()</span></code></a> function to take a snapshot of traces before
+clearing them.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.is_tracing" title="tracemalloc.is_tracing"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_tracing()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.clear_traces" title="tracemalloc.clear_traces"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear_traces()</span></code></a>
+functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.take_snapshot">
+<code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">take_snapshot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.take_snapshot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Return a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p>The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module started to trace memory allocations.</p>
+<p>Tracebacks of traces are limited to <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit" title="tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_traceback_limit()</span></code></a> frames. Use
+the <em>nframe</em> parameter of the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> function to store more frames.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module must be tracing memory allocations to take a
+snapshot, see the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.get_object_traceback" title="tracemalloc.get_object_traceback"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_object_traceback()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="domainfilter">
+<h3>DomainFilter<a class="headerlink" href="#domainfilter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.DomainFilter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">DomainFilter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>inclusive: bool</em>, <em>domain: int</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.DomainFilter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.DomainFilter.inclusive">
+<code class="descname">inclusive</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.inclusive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>inclusive</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (include), match memory blocks allocated
+in the address space <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain" title="tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>inclusive</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (exclude), match memory blocks not allocated
+in the address space <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain" title="tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain">
+<code class="descname">domain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Address space of a memory block (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>). Read-only property.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filter">
+<h3>Filter<a class="headerlink" href="#filter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Filter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">Filter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>inclusive: bool</em>, <em>filename_pattern: str</em>, <em>lineno: int=None</em>, <em>all_frames: bool=False</em>, <em>domain: int=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filter on traces of memory blocks.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatch" title="fnmatch.fnmatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch.fnmatch()</span></code></a> function for the syntax of
+<em>filename_pattern</em>. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.pyc'</span></code> file extension is
+replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.py'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter(True,</span> <span class="pre">subprocess.__file__)</span></code> only includes traces of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter(False,</span> <span class="pre">tracemalloc.__file__)</span></code> excludes traces of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter(False,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;&lt;unknown&gt;&quot;)</span></code> excludes empty tracebacks</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.pyo'</span></code> file extension is no longer replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.py'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.domain" title="tracemalloc.Filter.domain"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Filter.domain">
+<code class="descname">domain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.domain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Address space of a memory block (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p>
+<p>tracemalloc uses the domain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to trace memory allocations made by
+Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Filter.inclusive">
+<code class="descname">inclusive</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.inclusive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>inclusive</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (include), only match memory blocks allocated
+in a file with a name matching <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern" title="tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename_pattern</span></code></a> at line number
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.lineno" title="tracemalloc.Filter.lineno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>inclusive</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (exclude), ignore memory blocks allocated in
+a file with a name matching <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern" title="tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename_pattern</span></code></a> at line number
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.lineno" title="tracemalloc.Filter.lineno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Filter.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Line number (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>) of the filter. If <em>lineno</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the filter
+matches any line number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern">
+<code class="descname">filename_pattern</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filename pattern of the filter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>). Read-only property.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Filter.all_frames">
+<code class="descname">all_frames</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Filter.all_frames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>all_frames</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, all frames of the traceback are checked. If
+<em>all_frames</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, only the most recent frame is checked.</p>
+<p>This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit" title="tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_traceback_limit()</span></code></a> function and <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traceback_limit" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.traceback_limit"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.traceback_limit</span></code></a>
+attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="frame">
+<h3>Frame<a class="headerlink" href="#frame" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Frame">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">Frame</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Frame" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Frame of a traceback.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span></code></a> class is a sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Frame" title="tracemalloc.Frame"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Frame</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Frame.filename">
+<code class="descname">filename</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Frame.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Filename (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Frame.lineno">
+<code class="descname">lineno</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Frame.lineno" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Line number (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="snapshot">
+<h3>Snapshot<a class="headerlink" href="#snapshot" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">Snapshot</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.take_snapshot" title="tracemalloc.take_snapshot"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">take_snapshot()</span></code></a> function creates a snapshot instance.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to">
+<code class="descname">compare_to</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>old_snapshot: Snapshot</em>, <em>key_type: str</em>, <em>cumulative: bool=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compute the differences with an old snapshot. Get statistics as a sorted
+list of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff" title="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticDiff</span></code></a> instances grouped by <em>key_type</em>.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.statistics()</span></code></a> method for <em>key_type</em> and <em>cumulative</em>
+parameters.</p>
+<p>The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: absolute value
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size_diff" title="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size_diff"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticDiff.size_diff</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size" title="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticDiff.size</span></code></a>, absolute
+value of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count_diff" title="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count_diff"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticDiff.count_diff</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic.count" title="tracemalloc.Statistic.count"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Statistic.count</span></code></a> and
+then by <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.traceback" title="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.traceback"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticDiff.traceback</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump">
+<code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the snapshot into a file.</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.load" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.load"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> to reload the snapshot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot.filter_traces">
+<code class="descname">filter_traces</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filters</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.filter_traces" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot</span></code></a> instance with a filtered <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traces</span></code></a>
+sequence, <em>filters</em> is a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.DomainFilter" title="tracemalloc.DomainFilter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DomainFilter</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Filter" title="tracemalloc.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> instances.  If <em>filters</em> is an empty list, return a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot</span></code></a> instance with a copy of the traces.</p>
+<p>All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored if no
+inclusive filters match it. A trace is ignored if at least one exclusive
+filter matches it.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.DomainFilter" title="tracemalloc.DomainFilter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DomainFilter</span></code></a> instances are now also accepted in <em>filters</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot.load">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descname">load</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load a snapshot from a file.</p>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics">
+<code class="descname">statistics</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key_type: str</em>, <em>cumulative: bool=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get statistics as a sorted list of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic" title="tracemalloc.Statistic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Statistic</span></code></a> instances grouped
+by <em>key_type</em>:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 47%" />
+<col style="width: 53%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>key_type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'filename'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>filename</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'lineno'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>filename and line number</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'traceback'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>traceback</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>If <em>cumulative</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of
+all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame.
+The cumulative mode can only be used with <em>key_type</em> equals to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'filename'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'lineno'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic.size" title="tracemalloc.Statistic.size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Statistic.size</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic.count" title="tracemalloc.Statistic.count"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Statistic.count</span></code></a> and then by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic.traceback" title="tracemalloc.Statistic.traceback"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Statistic.traceback</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot.traceback_limit">
+<code class="descname">traceback_limit</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traceback_limit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traces</span></code></a>:
+result of the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit" title="tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_traceback_limit()</span></code></a> when the snapshot was taken.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces">
+<code class="descname">traces</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Trace" title="tracemalloc.Trace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Trace</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+<p>The sequence has an undefined order. Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.statistics()</span></code></a>
+method to get a sorted list of statistics.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="statistic">
+<h3>Statistic<a class="headerlink" href="#statistic" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Statistic">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">Statistic</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Statistic on memory allocations.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.statistics()</span></code></a> returns a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic" title="tracemalloc.Statistic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Statistic</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+<p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff" title="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticDiff</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Statistic.count">
+<code class="descname">count</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of memory blocks (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Statistic.size">
+<code class="descname">size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic.size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Total size of memory blocks in bytes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Statistic.traceback">
+<code class="descname">traceback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic.traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Traceback where the memory block was allocated, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="statisticdiff">
+<h3>StatisticDiff<a class="headerlink" href="#statisticdiff" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">StatisticDiff</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.compare_to()</span></code></a> returns a list of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff" title="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StatisticDiff</span></code></a>
+instances. See also the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Statistic" title="tracemalloc.Statistic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Statistic</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count">
+<code class="descname">count</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>): <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if
+the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count_diff">
+<code class="descname">count_diff</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count_diff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the new
+snapshots (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>): <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the memory blocks have been allocated in
+the new snapshot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size">
+<code class="descname">size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>):
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size_diff">
+<code class="descname">size_diff</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size_diff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the old and
+the new snapshots (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>): <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if the memory blocks have been
+allocated in the new snapshot.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.traceback">
+<code class="descname">traceback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="trace">
+<h3>Trace<a class="headerlink" href="#trace" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Trace">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">Trace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Trace of a memory block.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces" title="tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Snapshot.traces</span></code></a> attribute is a sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Trace" title="tracemalloc.Trace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Trace</span></code></a>
+instances.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Trace.domain" title="tracemalloc.Trace.domain"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">domain</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Trace.domain">
+<code class="descname">domain</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Trace.domain" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Address space of a memory block (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>). Read-only property.</p>
+<p>tracemalloc uses the domain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to trace memory allocations made by
+Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Trace.size">
+<code class="descname">size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Trace.size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Size of the memory block in bytes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Trace.traceback">
+<code class="descname">traceback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Trace.traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Traceback where the memory block was allocated, <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="traceback">
+<h3>Traceback<a class="headerlink" href="#traceback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Traceback">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">tracemalloc.</code><code class="descname">Traceback</code><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Frame" title="tracemalloc.Frame"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Frame</span></code></a> instances sorted from the oldest frame to the
+most recent frame.</p>
+<p>A traceback contains at least <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> frame. If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> module
+failed to get a frame, the filename <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;unknown&gt;&quot;</span></code> at line number <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is
+used.</p>
+<p>When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit" title="tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_traceback_limit()</span></code></a> frames. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.take_snapshot" title="tracemalloc.take_snapshot"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">take_snapshot()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Trace.traceback" title="tracemalloc.Trace.traceback"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Trace.traceback</span></code></a> attribute is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="tracemalloc.Traceback.format">
+<code class="descname">format</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>limit=None</em>, <em>most_recent_first=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback.format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format the traceback as a list of lines with newlines. Use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="linecache.html#module-linecache" title="linecache: This module provides random access to individual lines from text files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache</span></code></a> module to retrieve lines from the source code.
+If <em>limit</em> is set, format the <em>limit</em> most recent frames if <em>limit</em>
+is positive. Otherwise, format the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(limit)</span></code> oldest frames.
+If <em>most_recent_first</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the order of the formatted frames
+is reversed, returning the most recent frame first instead of last.</p>
+<p>Similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="traceback.html#traceback.format_tb" title="traceback.format_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.format_tb()</span></code></a> function, except that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc.Traceback.format" title="tracemalloc.Traceback.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> does not include newlines.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Traceback (most recent call first):&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">traceback</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;test.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+    <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;test.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">12</span>
+    <span class="n">tb</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tracemalloc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_object_traceback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> — Trace memory allocations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#display-the-top-10">Display the top 10</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compute-differences">Compute differences</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#get-the-traceback-of-a-memory-block">Get the traceback of a memory block</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pretty-top">Pretty top</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api">API</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#domainfilter">DomainFilter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filter">Filter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#frame">Frame</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#snapshot">Snapshot</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#statistic">Statistic</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#statisticdiff">StatisticDiff</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#trace">Trace</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback">Traceback</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="trace.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code> — Trace or track Python statement execution</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="distribution.html"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tty.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tty.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b07d3ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/tty.html
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>tty — Terminal control functions &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-tty">
+<span id="tty-terminal-control-functions"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-tty" title="tty: Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code></a> — Terminal control functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-tty" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/tty.py">Lib/tty.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tty" title="tty: Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code></a> module defines functions for putting the tty into cbreak and raw
+modes.</p>
+<p>Because it requires the <a class="reference internal" href="termios.html#module-termios" title="termios: POSIX style tty control. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code></a> module, it will work only on Unix.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-tty" title="tty: Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tty.setraw">
+<code class="descclassname">tty.</code><code class="descname">setraw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>when=termios.TCSAFLUSH</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tty.setraw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the mode of the file descriptor <em>fd</em> to raw. If <em>when</em> is omitted, it
+defaults to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios.TCSAFLUSH</span></code>, and is passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="termios.html#termios.tcsetattr" title="termios.tcsetattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios.tcsetattr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="tty.setcbreak">
+<code class="descclassname">tty.</code><code class="descname">setcbreak</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fd</em>, <em>when=termios.TCSAFLUSH</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#tty.setcbreak" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the mode of file descriptor <em>fd</em> to cbreak. If <em>when</em> is omitted, it
+defaults to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios.TCSAFLUSH</span></code>, and is passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="termios.html#termios.tcsetattr" title="termios.tcsetattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios.tcsetattr()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="termios.html#module-termios" title="termios: POSIX style tty control. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Low-level terminal control interface.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code> — POSIX style tty control</a></p>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="pty.html"
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+  <div class="section" id="module-turtle">
+<span id="turtle-turtle-graphics"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> — Turtle graphics<a class="headerlink" href="#module-turtle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/turtle.py">Lib/turtle.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Turtle graphics is a popular way for introducing programming to kids.  It was
+part of the original Logo programming language developed by Wally Feurzeig,
+Seymour Papert and Cynthia Solomon in 1967.</p>
+<p>Imagine a robotic turtle starting at (0, 0) in the x-y plane.  After an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">turtle</span></code>, give it the
+command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.forward(15)</span></code>, and it moves (on-screen!) 15 pixels in the
+direction it is facing, drawing a line as it moves.  Give it the command
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.right(25)</span></code>, and it rotates in-place 25 degrees clockwise.</p>
+<div class="sidebar">
+<p class="sidebar-title">Turtle star</p>
+<p>Turtle can draw intricate shapes using programs that repeat simple
+moves.</p>
+<img alt="../_images/turtle-star.png" class="align-center" src="../_images/turtle-star.png" />
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">turtle</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;yellow&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">begin_fill</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">170</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">abs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+<span class="n">end_fill</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">done</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>By combining together these and similar commands, intricate shapes and pictures
+can easily be drawn.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> module is an extended reimplementation of the same-named
+module from the Python standard distribution up to version Python 2.5.</p>
+<p>It tries to keep the merits of the old turtle module and to be (nearly) 100%
+compatible with it.  This means in the first place to enable the learning
+programmer to use all the commands, classes and methods interactively when using
+the module from within IDLE run with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> switch.</p>
+<p>The turtle module provides turtle graphics primitives, in both object-oriented
+and procedure-oriented ways.  Because it uses <a class="reference internal" href="tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> for the underlying
+graphics, it needs a version of Python installed with Tk support.</p>
+<p>The object-oriented interface uses essentially two+two classes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.TurtleScreen" title="turtle.TurtleScreen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TurtleScreen</span></code></a> class defines graphics windows as a playground for
+the drawing turtles.  Its constructor needs a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Canvas</span></code> or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.ScrolledCanvas" title="turtle.ScrolledCanvas"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ScrolledCanvas</span></code></a> as argument.  It should be used when <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> is
+used as part of some application.</p>
+<p>The function <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Screen" title="turtle.Screen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen()</span></code></a> returns a singleton object of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.TurtleScreen" title="turtle.TurtleScreen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TurtleScreen</span></code></a> subclass. This function should be used when
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> is used as a standalone tool for doing graphics.
+As a singleton object, inheriting from its class is not possible.</p>
+<p>All methods of TurtleScreen/Screen also exist as functions, i.e. as part of
+the procedure-oriented interface.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.RawTurtle" title="turtle.RawTurtle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawTurtle</span></code></a> (alias: <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.RawPen" title="turtle.RawPen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawPen</span></code></a>) defines Turtle objects which draw
+on a <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.TurtleScreen" title="turtle.TurtleScreen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TurtleScreen</span></code></a>.  Its constructor needs a Canvas, ScrolledCanvas
+or TurtleScreen as argument, so the RawTurtle objects know where to draw.</p>
+<p>Derived from RawTurtle is the subclass <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Turtle" title="turtle.Turtle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle</span></code></a> (alias: <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pen</span></code>),
+which draws on “the” <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Screen" title="turtle.Screen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen</span></code></a> instance which is automatically
+created, if not already present.</p>
+<p>All methods of RawTurtle/Turtle also exist as functions, i.e. part of the
+procedure-oriented interface.</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p>The procedural interface provides functions which are derived from the methods
+of the classes <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Screen" title="turtle.Screen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Turtle" title="turtle.Turtle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle</span></code></a>.  They have the same names as
+the corresponding methods.  A screen object is automatically created whenever a
+function derived from a Screen method is called.  An (unnamed) turtle object is
+automatically created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method
+is called.</p>
+<p>To use multiple turtles on a screen one has to use the object-oriented interface.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In the following documentation the argument list for functions is given.
+Methods, of course, have the additional first argument <em>self</em> which is
+omitted here.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="overview-of-available-turtle-and-screen-methods">
+<h2>Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods<a class="headerlink" href="#overview-of-available-turtle-and-screen-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="turtle-methods">
+<h3>Turtle methods<a class="headerlink" href="#turtle-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl>
+<dt>Turtle motion</dt><dd><dl>
+<dt>Move and draw</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.forward" title="turtle.forward"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">forward()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.fd" title="turtle.fd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fd()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.backward" title="turtle.backward"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backward()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.bk" title="turtle.bk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bk()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.back" title="turtle.back"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">back()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.right" title="turtle.right"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">right()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.rt" title="turtle.rt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rt()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.left" title="turtle.left"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">left()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.lt" title="turtle.lt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lt()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.goto" title="turtle.goto"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">goto()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.setpos" title="turtle.setpos"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpos()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.setposition" title="turtle.setposition"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setposition()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.setx" title="turtle.setx"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setx()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.sety" title="turtle.sety"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sety()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.setheading" title="turtle.setheading"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setheading()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.seth" title="turtle.seth"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seth()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.home" title="turtle.home"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">home()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.circle" title="turtle.circle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">circle()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.dot" title="turtle.dot"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dot()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.stamp" title="turtle.stamp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stamp()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.clearstamp" title="turtle.clearstamp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clearstamp()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.clearstamps" title="turtle.clearstamps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clearstamps()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.undo" title="turtle.undo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undo()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.speed" title="turtle.speed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">speed()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Tell Turtle’s state</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.position" title="turtle.position"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">position()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pos" title="turtle.pos"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pos()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.towards" title="turtle.towards"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">towards()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.xcor" title="turtle.xcor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xcor()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.ycor" title="turtle.ycor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ycor()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.heading" title="turtle.heading"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heading()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.distance" title="turtle.distance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distance()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Setting and measurement</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.degrees" title="turtle.degrees"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">degrees()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.radians" title="turtle.radians"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radians()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Pen control</dt><dd><dl>
+<dt>Drawing state</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pendown" title="turtle.pendown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pendown()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pd" title="turtle.pd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pd()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.down" title="turtle.down"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">down()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.penup" title="turtle.penup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">penup()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pu" title="turtle.pu"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pu()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.up" title="turtle.up"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">up()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pensize" title="turtle.pensize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pensize()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.width" title="turtle.width"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">width()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pen" title="turtle.pen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pen()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.isdown" title="turtle.isdown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isdown()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Color control</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.color" title="turtle.color"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pencolor" title="turtle.pencolor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.fillcolor" title="turtle.fillcolor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Filling</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.filling" title="turtle.filling"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filling()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.begin_fill" title="turtle.begin_fill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">begin_fill()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.end_fill" title="turtle.end_fill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_fill()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>More drawing control</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.reset" title="turtle.reset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.clear" title="turtle.clear"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.write" title="turtle.write"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Turtle state</dt><dd><dl>
+<dt>Visibility</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.showturtle" title="turtle.showturtle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showturtle()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.st" title="turtle.st"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.hideturtle" title="turtle.hideturtle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hideturtle()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.ht" title="turtle.ht"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ht()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.isvisible" title="turtle.isvisible"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isvisible()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Appearance</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.shape" title="turtle.shape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.resizemode" title="turtle.resizemode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resizemode()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.shapesize" title="turtle.shapesize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shapesize()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.turtlesize" title="turtle.turtlesize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtlesize()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.shearfactor" title="turtle.shearfactor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shearfactor()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.settiltangle" title="turtle.settiltangle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settiltangle()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.tiltangle" title="turtle.tiltangle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tiltangle()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.tilt" title="turtle.tilt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tilt()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.shapetransform" title="turtle.shapetransform"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shapetransform()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.get_shapepoly" title="turtle.get_shapepoly"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_shapepoly()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Using events</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.onclick" title="turtle.onclick"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onclick()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.onrelease" title="turtle.onrelease"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onrelease()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.ondrag" title="turtle.ondrag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ondrag()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Special Turtle methods</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.begin_poly" title="turtle.begin_poly"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">begin_poly()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.end_poly" title="turtle.end_poly"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_poly()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.get_poly" title="turtle.get_poly"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_poly()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.clone" title="turtle.clone"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clone()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.getturtle" title="turtle.getturtle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getturtle()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.getpen" title="turtle.getpen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpen()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.getscreen" title="turtle.getscreen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getscreen()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.setundobuffer" title="turtle.setundobuffer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setundobuffer()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.undobufferentries" title="turtle.undobufferentries"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undobufferentries()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-of-turtlescreen-screen">
+<h3>Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-of-turtlescreen-screen" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl>
+<dt>Window control</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.bgcolor" title="turtle.bgcolor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bgcolor()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.bgpic" title="turtle.bgpic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bgpic()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.clear" title="turtle.clear"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.clearscreen" title="turtle.clearscreen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clearscreen()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.reset" title="turtle.reset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.resetscreen" title="turtle.resetscreen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resetscreen()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.screensize" title="turtle.screensize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">screensize()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.setworldcoordinates" title="turtle.setworldcoordinates"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setworldcoordinates()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Animation control</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.delay" title="turtle.delay"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delay()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.tracer" title="turtle.tracer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracer()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.update" title="turtle.update"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Using screen events</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.listen" title="turtle.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.onkey" title="turtle.onkey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onkey()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.onkeyrelease" title="turtle.onkeyrelease"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onkeyrelease()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.onkeypress" title="turtle.onkeypress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onkeypress()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.onclick" title="turtle.onclick"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onclick()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.onscreenclick" title="turtle.onscreenclick"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onscreenclick()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.ontimer" title="turtle.ontimer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ontimer()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.mainloop" title="turtle.mainloop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mainloop()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.done" title="turtle.done"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">done()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Settings and special methods</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.mode" title="turtle.mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.colormode" title="turtle.colormode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colormode()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.getcanvas" title="turtle.getcanvas"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcanvas()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.getshapes" title="turtle.getshapes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getshapes()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.register_shape" title="turtle.register_shape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_shape()</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.addshape" title="turtle.addshape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addshape()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.turtles" title="turtle.turtles"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtles()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.window_height" title="turtle.window_height"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">window_height()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.window_width" title="turtle.window_width"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">window_width()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Input methods</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.textinput" title="turtle.textinput"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textinput()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.numinput" title="turtle.numinput"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numinput()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Methods specific to Screen</dt><dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.bye" title="turtle.bye"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bye()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.exitonclick" title="turtle.exitonclick"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exitonclick()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.setup" title="turtle.setup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code></a></div>
+<div class="line"><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.title" title="turtle.title"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">title()</span></code></a></div>
+</div>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-of-rawturtle-turtle-and-corresponding-functions">
+<h2>Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-of-rawturtle-turtle-and-corresponding-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Most of the examples in this section refer to a Turtle instance called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="turtle-motion">
+<h3>Turtle motion<a class="headerlink" href="#turtle-motion" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.forward">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">forward</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>distance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.forward" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.fd">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">fd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>distance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.fd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>distance</strong> – a number (integer or float)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Move the turtle forward by the specified <em>distance</em>, in the direction the
+turtle is headed.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(25.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">75</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(-50.00,0.00)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.back">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">back</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>distance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.back" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.bk">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">bk</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>distance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.bk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.backward">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">backward</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>distance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.backward" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>distance</strong> – a number</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Move the turtle backward by <em>distance</em>, opposite to the direction the
+turtle is headed.  Do not change the turtle’s heading.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">backward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(-30.00,0.00)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.right">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">right</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.right" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.rt">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">rt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.rt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>angle</strong> – a number (integer or float)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Turn turtle right by <em>angle</em> units.  (Units are by default degrees, but
+can be set via the <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.degrees" title="turtle.degrees"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">degrees()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.radians" title="turtle.radians"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radians()</span></code></a> functions.)  Angle
+orientation depends on the turtle mode, see <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.mode" title="turtle.mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">22.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">right</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">337.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.left">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">left</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.left" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.lt">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">lt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.lt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>angle</strong> – a number (integer or float)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Turn turtle left by <em>angle</em> units.  (Units are by default degrees, but
+can be set via the <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.degrees" title="turtle.degrees"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">degrees()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.radians" title="turtle.radians"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radians()</span></code></a> functions.)  Angle
+orientation depends on the turtle mode, see <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.mode" title="turtle.mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">22.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">67.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.goto">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">goto</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.goto" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.setpos">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">setpos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.setpos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.setposition">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">setposition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.setposition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>x</strong> – a number or a pair/vector of numbers</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>y</strong> – a number or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>If <em>y</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <em>x</em> must be a pair of coordinates or a <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Vec2D" title="turtle.Vec2D"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Vec2D</span></code></a>
+(e.g. as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pos" title="turtle.pos"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pos()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Move turtle to an absolute position.  If the pen is down, draw line.  Do
+not change the turtle’s orientation.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tp</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setpos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(60.00,30.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setpos</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(20.00,80.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setpos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,0.00)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.setx">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">setx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.setx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>x</strong> – a number (integer or float)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set the turtle’s first coordinate to <em>x</em>, leave second coordinate
+unchanged.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,240.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setx</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(10.00,240.00)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.sety">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">sety</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.sety" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>y</strong> – a number (integer or float)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set the turtle’s second coordinate to <em>y</em>, leave first coordinate unchanged.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,40.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sety</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,-10.00)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.setheading">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">setheading</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>to_angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.setheading" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.seth">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">seth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>to_angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.seth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>to_angle</strong> – a number (integer or float)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set the orientation of the turtle to <em>to_angle</em>.  Here are some common
+directions in degrees:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 51%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>standard mode</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>logo mode</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0 - east</p></td>
+<td><p>0 - north</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>90 - north</p></td>
+<td><p>90 - east</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>180 - west</p></td>
+<td><p>180 - south</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>270 - south</p></td>
+<td><p>270 - west</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setheading</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">90.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.home">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">home</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.home" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Move turtle to the origin – coordinates (0,0) – and set its heading to
+its start-orientation (which depends on the mode, see <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.mode" title="turtle.mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">90.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,-10.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.circle">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">circle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>radius</em>, <em>extent=None</em>, <em>steps=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.circle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>radius</strong> – a number</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>extent</strong> – a number (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>steps</strong> – an integer (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Draw a circle with given <em>radius</em>.  The center is <em>radius</em> units left of
+the turtle; <em>extent</em> – an angle – determines which part of the circle
+is drawn.  If <em>extent</em> is not given, draw the entire circle.  If <em>extent</em>
+is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc is the current pen
+position.  Draw the arc in counterclockwise direction if <em>radius</em> is
+positive, otherwise in clockwise direction.  Finally the direction of the
+turtle is changed by the amount of <em>extent</em>.</p>
+<p>As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon, <em>steps</em>
+determines the number of steps to use.  If not given, it will be
+calculated automatically.  May be used to draw regular polygons.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">circle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(-0.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">circle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">120</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">180</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># draw a semicircle</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,240.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">180.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.dot">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">dot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size=None</em>, <em>*color</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.dot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>size</strong> – an integer &gt;= 1 (if given)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>color</strong> – a colorstring or a numeric color tuple</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Draw a circular dot with diameter <em>size</em>, using <em>color</em>.  If <em>size</em> is
+not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(100.00,-0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.stamp">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">stamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.stamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stamp a copy of the turtle shape onto the canvas at the current turtle
+position.  Return a stamp_id for that stamp, which can be used to delete
+it by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clearstamp(stamp_id)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stamp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">11</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.clearstamp">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">clearstamp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stampid</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.clearstamp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>stampid</strong> – an integer, must be return value of previous
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.stamp" title="turtle.stamp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stamp()</span></code></a> call</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Delete stamp with given <em>stampid</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(150.00,-0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">astamp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stamp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(200.00,-0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clearstamp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">astamp</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(200.00,-0.00)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.clearstamps">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">clearstamps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.clearstamps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>n</strong> – an integer (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Delete all or first/last <em>n</em> of turtle’s stamps.  If <em>n</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, delete
+all stamps, if <em>n</em> &gt; 0 delete first <em>n</em> stamps, else if <em>n</em> &lt; 0 delete
+last <em>n</em> stamps.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stamp</span><span class="p">();</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">13</span>
+<span class="go">14</span>
+<span class="go">15</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="go">17</span>
+<span class="go">18</span>
+<span class="go">19</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clearstamps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clearstamps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clearstamps</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.undo">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">undo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.undo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s).  Number of available
+undo actions is determined by the size of the undobuffer.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">undo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.speed">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">speed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>speed=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.speed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>speed</strong> – an integer in the range 0..10 or a speedstring (see below)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set the turtle’s speed to an integer value in the range 0..10.  If no
+argument is given, return current speed.</p>
+<p>If input is a number greater than 10 or smaller than 0.5, speed is set
+to 0.  Speedstrings are mapped to speedvalues as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>“fastest”:  0</p></li>
+<li><p>“fast”:  10</p></li>
+<li><p>“normal”:  6</p></li>
+<li><p>“slow”:  3</p></li>
+<li><p>“slowest”:  1</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Speeds from 1 to 10 enforce increasingly faster animation of line drawing
+and turtle turning.</p>
+<p>Attention: <em>speed</em> = 0 means that <em>no</em> animation takes
+place. forward/back makes turtle jump and likewise left/right make the
+turtle turn instantly.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">speed</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">speed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;normal&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">speed</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">speed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">speed</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">9</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tell-turtle-s-state">
+<h3>Tell Turtle’s state<a class="headerlink" href="#tell-turtle-s-state" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.position">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">position</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.position" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.pos">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">pos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.pos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the turtle’s current location (x,y) (as a <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Vec2D" title="turtle.Vec2D"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Vec2D</span></code></a> vector).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(440.00,-0.00)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.towards">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">towards</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.towards" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>x</strong> – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>y</strong> – a number if <em>x</em> is a number, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Return the angle between the line from turtle position to position specified
+by (x,y), the vector or the other turtle.  This depends on the turtle’s start
+orientation which depends on the mode - “standard”/”world” or “logo”).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">goto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">towards</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">225.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.xcor">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">xcor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.xcor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the turtle’s x coordinate.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(64.28,76.60)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">xcor</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">64.27876</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.ycor">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">ycor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.ycor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the turtle’s y coordinate.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">(50.00,86.60)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ycor</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">86.60254</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.heading">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">heading</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.heading" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the turtle’s current heading (value depends on the turtle mode, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.mode" title="turtle.mode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">67</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">67.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.distance">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">distance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.distance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>x</strong> – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>y</strong> – a number if <em>x</em> is a number, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or the given
+other turtle, in turtle step units.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">distance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">50.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">distance</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">50.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">joe</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Turtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">joe</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">forward</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">77</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">distance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">joe</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">77.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="settings-for-measurement">
+<h3>Settings for measurement<a class="headerlink" href="#settings-for-measurement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.degrees">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">degrees</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullcircle=360.0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.degrees" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>fullcircle</strong> – a number</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set angle measurement units, i.e. set number of “degrees” for a full circle.
+Default value is 360 degrees.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">90.0</span>
+
+<span class="go">Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,</span>
+<span class="go">grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">degrees</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">400.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">100.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">degrees</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">360</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">90.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.radians">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">radians</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.radians" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the angle measurement units to radians.  Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">degrees(2*math.pi)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">90.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">radians</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1.5707963267948966</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pen-control">
+<h3>Pen control<a class="headerlink" href="#pen-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="drawing-state">
+<h4>Drawing state<a class="headerlink" href="#drawing-state" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.pendown">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">pendown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.pendown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.pd">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">pd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.pd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.down">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">down</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.down" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pull the pen down – drawing when moving.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.penup">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">penup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.penup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.pu">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">pu</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.pu" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.up">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">up</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.up" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pull the pen up – no drawing when moving.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.pensize">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">pensize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.pensize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.width">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">width</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.width" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>width</strong> – a positive number</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set the line thickness to <em>width</em> or return it.  If resizemode is set to
+“auto” and turtleshape is a polygon, that polygon is drawn with the same line
+thickness.  If no argument is given, the current pensize is returned.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pensize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pensize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># from here on lines of width 10 are drawn</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.pen">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">pen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pen=None</em>, <em>**pendict</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.pen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>pen</strong> – a dictionary with some or all of the below listed keys</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>pendict</strong> – one or more keyword-arguments with the below listed keys as keywords</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Return or set the pen’s attributes in a “pen-dictionary” with the following
+key/value pairs:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>“shown”: True/False</p></li>
+<li><p>“pendown”: True/False</p></li>
+<li><p>“pencolor”: color-string or color-tuple</p></li>
+<li><p>“fillcolor”: color-string or color-tuple</p></li>
+<li><p>“pensize”: positive number</p></li>
+<li><p>“speed”: number in range 0..10</p></li>
+<li><p>“resizemode”: “auto” or “user” or “noresize”</p></li>
+<li><p>“stretchfactor”: (positive number, positive number)</p></li>
+<li><p>“outline”: positive number</p></li>
+<li><p>“tilt”: number</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This dictionary can be used as argument for a subsequent call to <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pen" title="turtle.pen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pen()</span></code></a>
+to restore the former pen-state.  Moreover one or more of these attributes
+can be provided as keyword-arguments.  This can be used to set several pen
+attributes in one statement.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;black&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pensize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pen</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;fillcolor&#39;, &#39;black&#39;), (&#39;outline&#39;, 1), (&#39;pencolor&#39;, &#39;red&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;pendown&#39;, True), (&#39;pensize&#39;, 10), (&#39;resizemode&#39;, &#39;noresize&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;shearfactor&#39;, 0.0), (&#39;shown&#39;, True), (&#39;speed&#39;, 9),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;stretchfactor&#39;, (1.0, 1.0)), (&#39;tilt&#39;, 0.0)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">penstate</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pen</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;yellow&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">penup</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pen</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">())[:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;fillcolor&#39;, &#39;&#39;), (&#39;outline&#39;, 1), (&#39;pencolor&#39;, &#39;yellow&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">penstate</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;green&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pen</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">())[:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;fillcolor&#39;, &#39;green&#39;), (&#39;outline&#39;, 1), (&#39;pencolor&#39;, &#39;red&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.isdown">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">isdown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.isdown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if pen is down, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it’s up.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">penup</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdown</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pendown</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdown</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="color-control">
+<h4>Color control<a class="headerlink" href="#color-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.pencolor">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">pencolor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.pencolor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return or set the pencolor.</p>
+<p>Four input formats are allowed:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor()</span></code></dt><dd><p>Return the current pencolor as color specification string or
+as a tuple (see example).  May be used as input to another
+color/pencolor/fillcolor call.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor(colorstring)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Set pencolor to <em>colorstring</em>, which is a Tk color specification string,
+such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;red&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;yellow&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;#33cc8c&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor((r,</span> <span class="pre">g,</span> <span class="pre">b))</span></code></dt><dd><p>Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and
+<em>b</em>.  Each of <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and <em>b</em> must be in the range 0..colormode, where
+colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.colormode" title="turtle.colormode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colormode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor(r,</span> <span class="pre">g,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></dt><dd><blockquote>
+<div><p>Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and <em>b</em>.  Each of
+<em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and <em>b</em> must be in the range 0..colormode.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If turtleshape is a polygon, the outline of that polygon is drawn with the
+newly set pencolor.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">colormode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;red&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;brown&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;brown&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tup</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.55</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tup</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">colormode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(51.0, 204.0, 140.0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;#32c18f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.fillcolor">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">fillcolor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.fillcolor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return or set the fillcolor.</p>
+<p>Four input formats are allowed:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor()</span></code></dt><dd><p>Return the current fillcolor as color specification string, possibly
+in tuple format (see example).  May be used as input to another
+color/pencolor/fillcolor call.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor(colorstring)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Set fillcolor to <em>colorstring</em>, which is a Tk color specification string,
+such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;red&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;yellow&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;#33cc8c&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor((r,</span> <span class="pre">g,</span> <span class="pre">b))</span></code></dt><dd><p>Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and
+<em>b</em>.  Each of <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and <em>b</em> must be in the range 0..colormode, where
+colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.colormode" title="turtle.colormode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colormode()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor(r,</span> <span class="pre">g,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></dt><dd><blockquote>
+<div><p>Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and <em>b</em>.  Each of
+<em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, and <em>b</em> must be in the range 0..colormode.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn
+with the newly set fillcolor.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;violet&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;violet&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">193</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">143</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># Integers, not floats</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;#ffffff&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(255.0, 255.0, 255.0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.color">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">color</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.color" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return or set pencolor and fillcolor.</p>
+<p>Several input formats are allowed.  They use 0 to 3 arguments as
+follows:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color()</span></code></dt><dd><p>Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a pair of color
+specification strings or tuples as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pencolor" title="turtle.pencolor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.fillcolor" title="turtle.fillcolor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color(colorstring)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color((r,g,b))</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color(r,g,b)</span></code></dt><dd><p>Inputs as in <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.pencolor" title="turtle.pencolor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor()</span></code></a>, set both, fillcolor and pencolor, to the
+given value.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color(colorstring1,</span> <span class="pre">colorstring2)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">color((r1,g1,b1),</span> <span class="pre">(r2,g2,b2))</span></code></dt><dd><blockquote>
+<div><p>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pencolor(colorstring1)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor(colorstring2)</span></code>
+and analogously if the other input format is used.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon is drawn
+with the newly set colors.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;green&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;red&#39;, &#39;green&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;#285078&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;#a0c8f0&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See also: Screen method <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.colormode" title="turtle.colormode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colormode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filling">
+<h4>Filling<a class="headerlink" href="#filling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.filling">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">filling</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.filling" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return fillstate (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if filling, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> else).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">begin_fill</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filling</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pensize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pensize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.begin_fill">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">begin_fill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.begin_fill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.end_fill">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">end_fill</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.end_fill" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Fill the shape drawn after the last call to <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.begin_fill" title="turtle.begin_fill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">begin_fill()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;black&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">begin_fill</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">circle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">end_fill</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="more-drawing-control">
+<h4>More drawing control<a class="headerlink" href="#more-drawing-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.reset">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen, re-center the turtle and set
+variables to the default values.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">goto</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,-22.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">100.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">position</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(0.00,0.00)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heading</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.clear">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen.  Do not move turtle.  State and
+position of the turtle as well as drawings of other turtles are not affected.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.write">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>arg</em>, <em>move=False</em>, <em>align=&quot;left&quot;</em>, <em>font=(&quot;Arial&quot;</em>, <em>8</em>, <em>&quot;normal&quot;)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>arg</strong> – object to be written to the TurtleScreen</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>move</strong> – True/False</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>align</strong> – one of the strings “left”, “center” or right”</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>font</strong> – a triple (fontname, fontsize, fonttype)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Write text - the string representation of <em>arg</em> - at the current turtle
+position according to <em>align</em> (“left”, “center” or right”) and with the given
+font.  If <em>move</em> is true, the pen is moved to the bottom-right corner of the
+text.  By default, <em>move</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Home = &quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">align</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;center&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="turtle-state">
+<h3>Turtle state<a class="headerlink" href="#turtle-state" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="visibility">
+<h4>Visibility<a class="headerlink" href="#visibility" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.hideturtle">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">hideturtle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.hideturtle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.ht">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">ht</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.ht" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make the turtle invisible.  It’s a good idea to do this while you’re in the
+middle of doing some complex drawing, because hiding the turtle speeds up the
+drawing observably.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hideturtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.showturtle">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">showturtle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.showturtle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.st">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">st</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.st" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make the turtle visible.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">showturtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.isvisible">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">isvisible</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.isvisible" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the Turtle is shown, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if it’s hidden.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hideturtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isvisible</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">showturtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isvisible</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="appearance">
+<h4>Appearance<a class="headerlink" href="#appearance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.shape">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">shape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.shape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>name</strong> – a string which is a valid shapename</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set turtle shape to shape with given <em>name</em> or, if name is not given, return
+name of current shape.  Shape with <em>name</em> must exist in the TurtleScreen’s
+shape dictionary.  Initially there are the following polygon shapes: “arrow”,
+“turtle”, “circle”, “square”, “triangle”, “classic”.  To learn about how to
+deal with shapes see Screen method <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.register_shape" title="turtle.register_shape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_shape()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;classic&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;turtle&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;turtle&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.resizemode">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">resizemode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>rmode=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.resizemode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>rmode</strong> – one of the strings “auto”, “user”, “noresize”</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set resizemode to one of the values: “auto”, “user”, “noresize”.  If <em>rmode</em>
+is not given, return current resizemode.  Different resizemodes have the
+following effects:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>“auto”: adapts the appearance of the turtle corresponding to the value of pensize.</p></li>
+<li><p>“user”: adapts the appearance of the turtle according to the values of
+stretchfactor and outlinewidth (outline), which are set by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.shapesize" title="turtle.shapesize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shapesize()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>“noresize”: no adaption of the turtle’s appearance takes place.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>resizemode(“user”) is called by <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.shapesize" title="turtle.shapesize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shapesize()</span></code></a> when used with arguments.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resizemode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;noresize&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resizemode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;auto&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resizemode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;auto&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.shapesize">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">shapesize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stretch_wid=None</em>, <em>stretch_len=None</em>, <em>outline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.shapesize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.turtlesize">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">turtlesize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stretch_wid=None</em>, <em>stretch_len=None</em>, <em>outline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.turtlesize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>stretch_wid</strong> – positive number</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>stretch_len</strong> – positive number</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>outline</strong> – positive number</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Return or set the pen’s attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or outline.  Set
+resizemode to “user”.  If and only if resizemode is set to “user”, the turtle
+will be displayed stretched according to its stretchfactors: <em>stretch_wid</em> is
+stretchfactor perpendicular to its orientation, <em>stretch_len</em> is
+stretchfactor in direction of its orientation, <em>outline</em> determines the width
+of the shapes’s outline.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(1.0, 1.0, 1)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resizemode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;user&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(5, 5, 12)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">outline</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(5, 5, 8)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.shearfactor">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">shearfactor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>shear=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.shearfactor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>shear</strong> – number (optional)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set or return the current shearfactor. Shear the turtleshape according to
+the given shearfactor shear, which is the tangent of the shear angle.
+Do <em>not</em> change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement).
+If shear is not given: return the current shearfactor, i. e. the
+tangent of the shear angle, by which lines parallel to the
+heading of the turtle are sheared.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;circle&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shearfactor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shearfactor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.tilt">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">tilt</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.tilt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>angle</strong> – a number</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Rotate the turtleshape by <em>angle</em> from its current tilt-angle, but do <em>not</em>
+change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;circle&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tilt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tilt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.settiltangle">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">settiltangle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>angle</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.settiltangle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>angle</strong> – a number</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Rotate the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by <em>angle</em>,
+regardless of its current tilt-angle.  <em>Do not</em> change the turtle’s heading
+(direction of movement).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;circle&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">settiltangle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">settiltangle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.tiltangle">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">tiltangle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>angle=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.tiltangle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>angle</strong> – a number (optional)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set or return the current tilt-angle. If angle is given, rotate the
+turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle,
+regardless of its current tilt-angle. Do <em>not</em> change the turtle’s
+heading (direction of movement).
+If angle is not given: return the current tilt-angle, i. e. the angle
+between the orientation of the turtleshape and the heading of the
+turtle (its direction of movement).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;circle&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tilt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tiltangle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">45.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.shapetransform">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">shapetransform</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>t11=None</em>, <em>t12=None</em>, <em>t21=None</em>, <em>t22=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.shapetransform" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>t11</strong> – a number (optional)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>t12</strong> – a number (optional)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>t21</strong> – a number (optional)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>t12</strong> – a number (optional)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set or return the current transformation matrix of the turtle shape.</p>
+<p>If none of the matrix elements are given, return the transformation
+matrix as a tuple of 4 elements.
+Otherwise set the given elements and transform the turtleshape
+according to the matrix consisting of first row t11, t12 and
+second row t21, 22. The determinant t11 * t22 - t12 * t21 must not be
+zero, otherwise an error is raised.
+Modify stretchfactor, shearfactor and tiltangle according to the
+given matrix.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Turtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapesize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shearfactor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapetransform</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.get_shapepoly">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">get_shapepoly</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.get_shapepoly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current shape polygon as tuple of coordinate pairs. This
+can be used to define a new shape or components of a compound shape.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;square&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">shapetransform</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_shapepoly</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-events">
+<h3>Using events<a class="headerlink" href="#using-events" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.onclick">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">onclick</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>btn=1</em>, <em>add=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.onclick" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fun</strong> – a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>btn</strong> – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>add</strong> – <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> – if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, a new binding will be
+added, otherwise it will replace a former binding</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Bind <em>fun</em> to mouse-click events on this turtle.  If <em>fun</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+existing bindings are removed.  Example for the anonymous turtle, i.e. the
+procedural way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">turn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">180</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">onclick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turn</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">onclick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># event-binding will be removed</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.onrelease">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">onrelease</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>btn=1</em>, <em>add=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.onrelease" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fun</strong> – a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>btn</strong> – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>add</strong> – <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> – if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, a new binding will be
+added, otherwise it will replace a former binding</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Bind <em>fun</em> to mouse-button-release events on this turtle.  If <em>fun</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, existing bindings are removed.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTurtle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Turtle</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">glow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">unglow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fillcolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyTurtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">onclick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glow</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">onrelease</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unglow</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># releasing turns it to transparent.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.ondrag">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">ondrag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>btn=1</em>, <em>add=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.ondrag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fun</strong> – a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>btn</strong> – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>add</strong> – <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> – if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, a new binding will be
+added, otherwise it will replace a former binding</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Bind <em>fun</em> to mouse-move events on this turtle.  If <em>fun</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+existing bindings are removed.</p>
+<p>Remark: Every sequence of mouse-move-events on a turtle is preceded by a
+mouse-click event on that turtle.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ondrag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">goto</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Subsequently, clicking and dragging the Turtle will move it across
+the screen thereby producing handdrawings (if pen is down).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="special-turtle-methods">
+<h3>Special Turtle methods<a class="headerlink" href="#special-turtle-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.begin_poly">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">begin_poly</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.begin_poly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Start recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position is first
+vertex of polygon.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.end_poly">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">end_poly</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.end_poly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position is last
+vertex of polygon.  This will be connected with the first vertex.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.get_poly">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">get_poly</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.get_poly" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the last recorded polygon.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">home</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">begin_poly</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">end_poly</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_poly</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">register_shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myFavouriteShape&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.clone">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">clone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.clone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading and
+turtle properties.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mick</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Turtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">joe</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mick</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.getturtle">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">getturtle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.getturtle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.getpen">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">getpen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.getpen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the Turtle object itself.  Only reasonable use: as a function to
+return the “anonymous turtle”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pet</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getturtle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pet</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pet</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;turtle.Turtle object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.getscreen">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">getscreen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.getscreen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.TurtleScreen" title="turtle.TurtleScreen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TurtleScreen</span></code></a> object the turtle is drawing on.
+TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getscreen</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ts</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;turtle._Screen object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ts</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgcolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;pink&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.setundobuffer">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">setundobuffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>size</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.setundobuffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>size</strong> – an integer or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set or disable undobuffer.  If <em>size</em> is an integer an empty undobuffer of
+given size is installed.  <em>size</em> gives the maximum number of turtle actions
+that can be undone by the <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.undo" title="turtle.undo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undo()</span></code></a> method/function.  If <em>size</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the undobuffer is disabled.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setundobuffer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.undobufferentries">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">undobufferentries</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.undobufferentries" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return number of entries in the undobuffer.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">undobufferentries</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">undo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compound-shapes">
+<span id="compoundshapes"></span><h3>Compound shapes<a class="headerlink" href="#compound-shapes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To use compound turtle shapes, which consist of several polygons of different
+color, you must use the helper class <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Shape" title="turtle.Shape"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shape</span></code></a> explicitly as described
+below:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>Create an empty Shape object of type “compound”.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add as many components to this object as desired, using the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addcomponent()</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;compound&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">poly1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addcomponent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">poly1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">poly2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addcomponent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">poly2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Now add the Shape to the Screen’s shapelist and use it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">register_shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myshape&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myshape&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Shape" title="turtle.Shape"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shape</span></code></a> class is used internally by the <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.register_shape" title="turtle.register_shape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_shape()</span></code></a>
+method in different ways.  The application programmer has to deal with the
+Shape class <em>only</em> when using compound shapes like shown above!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-of-turtlescreen-screen-and-corresponding-functions">
+<h2>Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-of-turtlescreen-screen-and-corresponding-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">screen</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="window-control">
+<h3>Window control<a class="headerlink" href="#window-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.bgcolor">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">bgcolor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.bgcolor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>args</strong> – a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a
+3-tuple of such numbers</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgcolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;orange&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgcolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;orange&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgcolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;#800080&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgcolor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(128.0, 0.0, 128.0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.bgpic">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">bgpic</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>picname=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.bgpic" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>picname</strong> – a string, name of a gif-file or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;nopic&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage.  If <em>picname</em>
+is a filename, set the corresponding image as background.  If <em>picname</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;nopic&quot;</span></code>, delete background image, if present.  If <em>picname</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+return the filename of the current backgroundimage.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgpic</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;nopic&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgpic</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;landscape.gif&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgpic</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;landscape.gif&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.clearscreen">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">clearscreen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.clearscreen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen.  Reset the now
+empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background, no background
+image, no event bindings and tracing on.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the
+name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clearscreen</span></code>.  The global function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code> is a different one
+derived from the Turtle method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.resetscreen">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">resetscreen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.resetscreen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset all Turtles on the Screen to their initial state.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the
+name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resetscreen</span></code>.  The global function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset</span></code> is another one
+derived from the Turtle method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.screensize">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">screensize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>canvwidth=None</em>, <em>canvheight=None</em>, <em>bg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.screensize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>canvwidth</strong> – positive integer, new width of canvas in pixels</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>canvheight</strong> – positive integer, new height of canvas in pixels</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>bg</strong> – colorstring or color-tuple, new background color</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>If no arguments are given, return current (canvaswidth, canvasheight).  Else
+resize the canvas the turtles are drawing on.  Do not alter the drawing
+window.  To observe hidden parts of the canvas, use the scrollbars. With this
+method, one can make visible those parts of a drawing which were outside the
+canvas before.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">screensize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(400, 300)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">screensize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2000</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1500</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">screensize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(2000, 1500)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>e.g. to search for an erroneously escaped turtle ;-)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.setworldcoordinates">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">setworldcoordinates</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>llx</em>, <em>lly</em>, <em>urx</em>, <em>ury</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.setworldcoordinates" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>llx</strong> – a number, x-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>lly</strong> – a number, y-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>urx</strong> – a number, x-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>ury</strong> – a number, y-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set up user-defined coordinate system and switch to mode “world” if
+necessary.  This performs a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">screen.reset()</span></code>.  If mode “world” is already
+active, all drawings are redrawn according to the new coordinates.</p>
+<p><strong>ATTENTION</strong>: in user-defined coordinate systems angles may appear
+distorted.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setworldcoordinates</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">7.5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">7.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">72</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">left</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># a regular octagon</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="animation-control">
+<h3>Animation control<a class="headerlink" href="#animation-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.delay">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">delay</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>delay=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.delay" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>delay</strong> – positive integer</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set or return the drawing <em>delay</em> in milliseconds.  (This is approximately
+the time interval between two consecutive canvas updates.)  The longer the
+drawing delay, the slower the animation.</p>
+<p>Optional argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.tracer">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">tracer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n=None</em>, <em>delay=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.tracer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>n</strong> – nonnegative integer</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>delay</strong> – nonnegative integer</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Turn turtle animation on/off and set delay for update drawings.  If
+<em>n</em> is given, only each n-th regular screen update is really
+performed.  (Can be used to accelerate the drawing of complex
+graphics.)  When called without arguments, returns the currently
+stored value of n. Second argument sets delay value (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.delay" title="turtle.delay"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delay()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tracer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dist</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">rt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">dist</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.update">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">update</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.update" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform a TurtleScreen update. To be used when tracer is turned off.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See also the RawTurtle/Turtle method <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.speed" title="turtle.speed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">speed()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-screen-events">
+<h3>Using screen events<a class="headerlink" href="#using-screen-events" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.listen">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">listen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>xdummy=None</em>, <em>ydummy=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.listen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set focus on TurtleScreen (in order to collect key-events).  Dummy arguments
+are provided in order to be able to pass <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.listen" title="turtle.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a> to the onclick method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.onkey">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">onkey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.onkey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.onkeyrelease">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">onkeyrelease</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.onkeyrelease" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fun</strong> – a function with no arguments or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><strong>key</strong> – a string: key (e.g. “a”) or key-symbol (e.g. “space”)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Bind <em>fun</em> to key-release event of key.  If <em>fun</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, event bindings
+are removed. Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen
+must have the focus. (See method <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.listen" title="turtle.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">lt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">onkey</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Up&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.onkeypress">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">onkeypress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>key=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.onkeypress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fun</strong> – a function with no arguments or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><strong>key</strong> – a string: key (e.g. “a”) or key-symbol (e.g. “space”)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Bind <em>fun</em> to key-press event of key if key is given,
+or to any key-press-event if no key is given.
+Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen
+must have focus. (See method <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.listen" title="turtle.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listen()</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">onkey</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Up&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">onclick</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>btn=1</em>, <em>add=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.onscreenclick">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">onscreenclick</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>btn=1</em>, <em>add=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.onscreenclick" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fun</strong> – a function with two arguments which will be called with the
+coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>btn</strong> – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>add</strong> – <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> – if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, a new binding will be
+added, otherwise it will replace a former binding</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Bind <em>fun</em> to mouse-click events on this screen.  If <em>fun</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+existing bindings are removed.</p>
+<p>Example for a TurtleScreen instance named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">screen</span></code> and a Turtle instance
+named turtle:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">onclick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">goto</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>                            <span class="c1"># make the turtle move to the clicked point.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">onclick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>        <span class="c1"># remove event binding again</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the
+name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onscreenclick</span></code>.  The global function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onclick</span></code> is another one
+derived from the Turtle method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onclick</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.ontimer">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">ontimer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fun</em>, <em>t=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.ontimer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>fun</strong> – a function with no arguments</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>t</strong> – a number &gt;= 0</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Install a timer that calls <em>fun</em> after <em>t</em> milliseconds.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">running</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">running</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">fd</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">lt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ontimer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">250</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>   <span class="c1">### makes the turtle march around</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">running</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.mainloop">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">mainloop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.mainloop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.done">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Starts event loop - calling Tkinter’s mainloop function.
+Must be the last statement in a turtle graphics program.
+Must <em>not</em> be used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode
+(No subprocess) - for interactive use of turtle graphics.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mainloop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="input-methods">
+<h3>Input methods<a class="headerlink" href="#input-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.textinput">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">textinput</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>title</em>, <em>prompt</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.textinput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>title</strong> – string</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>prompt</strong> – string</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Pop up a dialog window for input of a string. Parameter title is
+the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing
+what information to input.
+Return the string input. If the dialog is canceled, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">textinput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;NIM&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Name of first player:&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.numinput">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">numinput</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>title</em>, <em>prompt</em>, <em>default=None</em>, <em>minval=None</em>, <em>maxval=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.numinput" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>title</strong> – string</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>prompt</strong> – string</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>default</strong> – number (optional)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>minval</strong> – number (optional)</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>maxval</strong> – number (optional)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Pop up a dialog window for input of a number. title is the title of the
+dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what numerical information
+to input. default: default value, minval: minimum value for input,
+maxval: maximum value for input
+The number input must be in the range minval .. maxval if these are
+given. If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for
+correction.
+Return the number input. If the dialog is canceled,  return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">numinput</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Poker&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Your stakes:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">minval</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">maxval</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="settings-and-special-methods">
+<h3>Settings and special methods<a class="headerlink" href="#settings-and-special-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.mode">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">mode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mode=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.mode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>mode</strong> – one of the strings “standard”, “logo” or “world”</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set turtle mode (“standard”, “logo” or “world”) and perform reset.  If mode
+is not given, current mode is returned.</p>
+<p>Mode “standard” is compatible with old <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a>.  Mode “logo” is
+compatible with most Logo turtle graphics.  Mode “world” uses user-defined
+“world coordinates”. <strong>Attention</strong>: in this mode angles appear distorted if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x/y</span></code> unit-ratio doesn’t equal 1.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 45%" />
+<col style="width: 34%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Mode</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Initial turtle heading</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>positive angles</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“standard”</p></td>
+<td><p>to the right (east)</p></td>
+<td><p>counterclockwise</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“logo”</p></td>
+<td><p>upward    (north)</p></td>
+<td><p>clockwise</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;logo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># resets turtle heading to north</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;logo&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.colormode">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">colormode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cmode=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.colormode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>cmode</strong> – one of the values 1.0 or 255</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255.  Subsequently <em>r</em>, <em>g</em>, <em>b</em>
+values of color triples have to be in the range 0..<em>cmode</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">colormode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">240</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">160</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+     <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TurtleGraphicsError</span>: <span class="n">bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">colormode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">colormode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">255</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">colormode</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">255</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pencolor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">240</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">160</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.getcanvas">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">getcanvas</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.getcanvas" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen.  Useful for insiders who know what to
+do with a Tkinter Canvas.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getcanvas</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cv</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.getshapes">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">getshapes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.getshapes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getshapes</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;arrow&#39;, &#39;blank&#39;, &#39;circle&#39;, ..., &#39;turtle&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.register_shape">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">register_shape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>shape=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.register_shape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.addshape">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">addshape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>shape=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.addshape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>There are three different ways to call this function:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p><em>name</em> is the name of a gif-file and <em>shape</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>: Install the
+corresponding image shape.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;turtle.gif&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Image shapes <em>do not</em> rotate when turning the turtle, so they do not
+display the heading of the turtle!</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>name</em> is an arbitrary string and <em>shape</em> is a tuple of pairs of
+coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;triangle&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>name</em> is an arbitrary string and shape is a (compound) <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Shape" title="turtle.Shape"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shape</span></code></a>
+object: Install the corresponding compound shape.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen’s shapelist.  Only thusly registered
+shapes can be used by issuing the command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shape(shapename)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.turtles">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">turtles</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.turtles" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the list of turtles on the screen.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">turtle</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">turtles</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.window_height">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">window_height</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.window_height" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the height of the turtle window.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">window_height</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">480</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.window_width">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">window_width</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.window_width" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the width of the turtle window.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">window_width</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">640</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-specific-to-screen-not-inherited-from-turtlescreen">
+<span id="screenspecific"></span><h3>Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-specific-to-screen-not-inherited-from-turtlescreen" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.bye">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">bye</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.bye" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Shut the turtlegraphics window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.exitonclick">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">exitonclick</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.exitonclick" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Bind bye() method to mouse clicks on the Screen.</p>
+<p>If the value “using_IDLE” in the configuration dictionary is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+(default value), also enter mainloop.  Remark: If IDLE with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> switch
+(no subprocess) is used, this value should be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code>.  In this case IDLE’s own mainloop is active also for the
+client script.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.setup">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">setup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>width=_CFG[&quot;width&quot;], height=_CFG[&quot;height&quot;], startx=_CFG[&quot;leftright&quot;], starty=_CFG[&quot;topbottom&quot;]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.setup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the size and position of the main window.  Default values of arguments
+are stored in the configuration dictionary and can be changed via a
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code> file.</p>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>width</strong> – if an integer, a size in pixels, if a float, a fraction of the
+screen; default is 50% of screen</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>height</strong> – if an integer, the height in pixels, if a float, a fraction of
+the screen; default is 75% of screen</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>startx</strong> – if positive, starting position in pixels from the left
+edge of the screen, if negative from the right edge, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+center window horizontally</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>starty</strong> – if positive, starting position in pixels from the top
+edge of the screen, if negative from the bottom edge, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+center window vertically</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setup</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">height</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">startx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">starty</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>             <span class="c1"># sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=.</span><span class="mi">75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">height</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">startx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">starty</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>             <span class="c1"># sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.title">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">title</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>titlestring</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.title" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>titlestring</strong> – a string that is shown in the titlebar of the turtle
+graphics window</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Set title of turtle window to <em>titlestring</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Welcome to the turtle zoo!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="public-classes">
+<h2>Public classes<a class="headerlink" href="#public-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="turtle.RawTurtle">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">RawTurtle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>canvas</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.RawTurtle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="turtle.RawPen">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">RawPen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>canvas</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.RawPen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>canvas</strong> – a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Canvas</span></code>, a <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.ScrolledCanvas" title="turtle.ScrolledCanvas"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ScrolledCanvas</span></code></a> or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.TurtleScreen" title="turtle.TurtleScreen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TurtleScreen</span></code></a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Create a turtle.  The turtle has all methods described above as “methods of
+Turtle/RawTurtle”.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="turtle.Turtle">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">Turtle</code><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.Turtle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of RawTurtle, has the same interface but draws on a default
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Screen" title="turtle.Screen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen</span></code></a> object created automatically when needed for the first time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="turtle.TurtleScreen">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">TurtleScreen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cv</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.TurtleScreen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>cv</strong> – a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Canvas</span></code></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Provides screen oriented methods like <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setbg()</span></code> etc. that are described
+above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="turtle.Screen">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">Screen</code><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.Screen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of TurtleScreen, with <a class="reference internal" href="#screenspecific"><span class="std std-ref">four methods added</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="turtle.ScrolledCanvas">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">ScrolledCanvas</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>master</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.ScrolledCanvas" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>master</strong> – some Tkinter widget to contain the ScrolledCanvas, i.e.
+a Tkinter-canvas with scrollbars added</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Used by class Screen, which thus automatically provides a ScrolledCanvas as
+playground for the turtles.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="turtle.Shape">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">Shape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type_</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.Shape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>type_</strong> – one of the strings “polygon”, “image”, “compound”</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Data structure modeling shapes.  The pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type_,</span> <span class="pre">data)</span></code> must follow this
+specification:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 84%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p><em>type_</em></p></th>
+<th class="head"><p><em>data</em></p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“polygon”</p></td>
+<td><p>a polygon-tuple, i.e. a tuple of pairs of coordinates</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>“image”</p></td>
+<td><p>an image  (in this form only used internally!)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>“compound”</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (a compound shape has to be constructed using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.Shape.addcomponent" title="turtle.Shape.addcomponent"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addcomponent()</span></code></a> method)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="turtle.Shape.addcomponent">
+<code class="descname">addcomponent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>poly</em>, <em>fill</em>, <em>outline=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.Shape.addcomponent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><strong>poly</strong> – a polygon, i.e. a tuple of pairs of numbers</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>fill</strong> – a color the <em>poly</em> will be filled with</p></li>
+<li><p><strong>outline</strong> – a color for the poly’s outline (if given)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">poly</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Shape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;compound&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addcomponent</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">poly</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;red&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blue&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># ... add more components and then use register_shape()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#compoundshapes"><span class="std std-ref">Compound shapes</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="turtle.Vec2D">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">Vec2D</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em>, <em>y</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.Vec2D" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A two-dimensional vector class, used as a helper class for implementing
+turtle graphics.  May be useful for turtle graphics programs too.  Derived
+from tuple, so a vector is a tuple!</p>
+<p>Provides (for <em>a</em>, <em>b</em> vectors, <em>k</em> number):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> vector addition</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> vector subtraction</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code> inner product</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">k</span></code> multiplication with scalar</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(a)</span></code> absolute value of a</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.rotate(angle)</span></code> rotation</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="help-and-configuration">
+<h2>Help and configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#help-and-configuration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="how-to-use-help">
+<h3>How to use help<a class="headerlink" href="#how-to-use-help" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The public methods of the Screen and Turtle classes are documented extensively
+via docstrings.  So these can be used as online-help via the Python help
+facilities:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>When using IDLE, tooltips show the signatures and first lines of the
+docstrings of typed in function-/method calls.</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> on methods or functions displays the docstrings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Screen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bgcolor</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:</span>
+
+<span class="go">bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method</span>
+<span class="go">    Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.</span>
+
+<span class="go">    Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers</span>
+<span class="go">    in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.</span>
+
+
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; screen.bgcolor(&quot;orange&quot;)</span>
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; screen.bgcolor()</span>
+<span class="go">      &quot;orange&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)</span>
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; screen.bgcolor()</span>
+<span class="go">      &quot;#800080&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Turtle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">penup</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Help on method penup in module turtle:</span>
+
+<span class="go">penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method</span>
+<span class="go">    Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.</span>
+
+<span class="go">    Aliases: penup | pu | up</span>
+
+<span class="go">    No argument</span>
+
+<span class="go">    &gt;&gt;&gt; turtle.penup()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The docstrings of the functions which are derived from methods have a modified
+form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bgcolor</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:</span>
+
+<span class="go">bgcolor(*args)</span>
+<span class="go">    Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.</span>
+
+<span class="go">    Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers</span>
+<span class="go">    in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.</span>
+
+<span class="go">    Example::</span>
+
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; bgcolor(&quot;orange&quot;)</span>
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; bgcolor()</span>
+<span class="go">      &quot;orange&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)</span>
+<span class="go">      &gt;&gt;&gt; bgcolor()</span>
+<span class="go">      &quot;#800080&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">penup</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Help on function penup in module turtle:</span>
+
+<span class="go">penup()</span>
+<span class="go">    Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.</span>
+
+<span class="go">    Aliases: penup | pu | up</span>
+
+<span class="go">    No argument</span>
+
+<span class="go">    Example:</span>
+<span class="go">    &gt;&gt;&gt; penup()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>These modified docstrings are created automatically together with the function
+definitions that are derived from the methods at import time.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="translation-of-docstrings-into-different-languages">
+<h3>Translation of docstrings into different languages<a class="headerlink" href="#translation-of-docstrings-into-different-languages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There is a utility to create a dictionary the keys of which are the method names
+and the values of which are the docstrings of the public methods of the classes
+Screen and Turtle.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="turtle.write_docstringdict">
+<code class="descclassname">turtle.</code><code class="descname">write_docstringdict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename=&quot;turtle_docstringdict&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#turtle.write_docstringdict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Parameters</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p><strong>filename</strong> – a string, used as filename</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Create and write docstring-dictionary to a Python script with the given
+filename.  This function has to be called explicitly (it is not used by the
+turtle graphics classes).  The docstring dictionary will be written to the
+Python script <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">filename</span></em><span class="pre">.py</span></code>.  It is intended to serve as a template
+for translation of the docstrings into different languages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If you (or your students) want to use <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> with online help in your
+native language, you have to translate the docstrings and save the resulting
+file as e.g. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle_docstringdict_german.py</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If you have an appropriate entry in your <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code> file this dictionary
+will be read in at import time and will replace the original English docstrings.</p>
+<p>At the time of this writing there are docstring dictionaries in German and in
+Italian.  (Requests please to <a class="reference external" href="mailto:glingl&#37;&#52;&#48;aon&#46;at">glingl<span>&#64;</span>aon<span>&#46;</span>at</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="how-to-configure-screen-and-turtles">
+<h3>How to configure Screen and Turtles<a class="headerlink" href="#how-to-configure-screen-and-turtles" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The built-in default configuration mimics the appearance and behaviour of the
+old turtle module in order to retain best possible compatibility with it.</p>
+<p>If you want to use a different configuration which better reflects the features
+of this module or which better fits to your needs, e.g. for use in a classroom,
+you can prepare a configuration file <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code> which will be read at import
+time and modify the configuration according to its settings.</p>
+<p>The built in configuration would correspond to the following turtle.cfg:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span>
+<span class="n">height</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.75</span>
+<span class="n">leftright</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="n">topbottom</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="n">canvwidth</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">400</span>
+<span class="n">canvheight</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">300</span>
+<span class="n">mode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">standard</span>
+<span class="n">colormode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span>
+<span class="n">delay</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="n">undobuffersize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1000</span>
+<span class="n">shape</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">classic</span>
+<span class="n">pencolor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">black</span>
+<span class="n">fillcolor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">black</span>
+<span class="n">resizemode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">noresize</span>
+<span class="n">visible</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="n">language</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">english</span>
+<span class="n">exampleturtle</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">turtle</span>
+<span class="n">examplescreen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">screen</span>
+<span class="n">title</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Python</span> <span class="n">Turtle</span> <span class="n">Graphics</span>
+<span class="n">using_IDLE</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Short explanation of selected entries:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.setup()</span></code>
+method.</p></li>
+<li><p>Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.screensize()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>shape</em> can be any of the built-in shapes, e.g: arrow, turtle, etc.  For more
+info try <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help(shape)</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If you want to use no fillcolor (i.e. make the turtle transparent), you have
+to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fillcolor</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code> (but all nonempty strings must not have quotes in
+the cfg-file).</p></li>
+<li><p>If you want to reflect the turtle its state, you have to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resizemode</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">auto</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>If you set e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">language</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">italian</span></code> the docstringdict
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle_docstringdict_italian.py</span></code> will be loaded at import time (if
+present on the import path, e.g. in the same directory as <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The entries <em>exampleturtle</em> and <em>examplescreen</em> define the names of these
+objects as they occur in the docstrings.  The transformation of
+method-docstrings to function-docstrings will delete these names from the
+docstrings.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>using_IDLE</em>: Set this to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if you regularly work with IDLE and its -n
+switch (“no subprocess”).  This will prevent <a class="reference internal" href="#turtle.exitonclick" title="turtle.exitonclick"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exitonclick()</span></code></a> to enter the
+mainloop.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There can be a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code> file in the directory where <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> is
+stored and an additional one in the current working directory.  The latter will
+override the settings of the first one.</p>
+<p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/turtledemo</span></code> directory contains a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code> file.  You can
+study it as an example and see its effects when running the demos (preferably
+not from within the demo-viewer).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-turtledemo">
+<span id="turtledemo-demo-scripts"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtledemo" title="turtledemo: A viewer for example turtle scripts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtledemo</span></code></a> — Demo scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#module-turtledemo" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtledemo" title="turtledemo: A viewer for example turtle scripts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtledemo</span></code></a> package includes a set of demo scripts.  These
+scripts can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">turtledemo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternatively, you can run the demo scripts individually.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">turtledemo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bytedesign</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtledemo" title="turtledemo: A viewer for example turtle scripts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtledemo</span></code></a> package directory contains:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A demo viewer <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> which can be used to view the sourcecode
+of the scripts and run them at the same time.</p></li>
+<li><p>Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a>
+module.  Examples can be accessed via the Examples menu.  They can also
+be run standalone.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code> file which serves as an example of how to write
+and use such files.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The demo scripts are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Features</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>bytedesign</p></td>
+<td><p>complex classical
+turtle graphics pattern</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracer()</span></code>, delay,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>chaos</p></td>
+<td><p>graphs Verhulst dynamics,
+shows that computer’s
+computations can generate
+results sometimes against the
+common sense expectations</p></td>
+<td><p>world coordinates</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>clock</p></td>
+<td><p>analog clock showing time
+of your computer</p></td>
+<td><p>turtles as clock’s
+hands, ontimer</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>colormixer</p></td>
+<td><p>experiment with r, g, b</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ondrag()</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>forest</p></td>
+<td><p>3 breadth-first trees</p></td>
+<td><p>randomization</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>fractalcurves</p></td>
+<td><p>Hilbert &amp; Koch curves</p></td>
+<td><p>recursion</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>lindenmayer</p></td>
+<td><p>ethnomathematics
+(indian kolams)</p></td>
+<td><p>L-System</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>minimal_hanoi</p></td>
+<td><p>Towers of Hanoi</p></td>
+<td><p>Rectangular Turtles
+as Hanoi discs
+(shape, shapesize)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>nim</p></td>
+<td><p>play the classical nim game
+with three heaps of sticks
+against the computer.</p></td>
+<td><p>turtles as nimsticks,
+event driven (mouse,
+keyboard)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>paint</p></td>
+<td><p>super minimalistic
+drawing program</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">onclick()</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>peace</p></td>
+<td><p>elementary</p></td>
+<td><p>turtle: appearance
+and animation</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>penrose</p></td>
+<td><p>aperiodic tiling with
+kites and darts</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stamp()</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>planet_and_moon</p></td>
+<td><p>simulation of
+gravitational system</p></td>
+<td><p>compound shapes,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Vec2D</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>round_dance</p></td>
+<td><p>dancing turtles rotating
+pairwise in opposite
+direction</p></td>
+<td><p>compound shapes, clone
+shapesize, tilt,
+get_shapepoly, update</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>sorting_animate</p></td>
+<td><p>visual demonstration of
+different sorting methods</p></td>
+<td><p>simple alignment,
+randomization</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>tree</p></td>
+<td><p>a (graphical) breadth
+first tree (using generators)</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clone()</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>two_canvases</p></td>
+<td><p>simple design</p></td>
+<td><p>turtles on two
+canvases</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>wikipedia</p></td>
+<td><p>a pattern from the wikipedia
+article on turtle graphics</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clone()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undo()</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>yinyang</p></td>
+<td><p>another elementary example</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">circle()</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Have fun!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-since-python-2-6">
+<h2>Changes since Python 2.6<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-since-python-2-6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.tracer()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.window_width()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.window_height()</span></code> have been eliminated.
+Methods with these names and functionality are now available only
+as methods of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen</span></code>. The functions derived from these remain
+available. (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods were merely
+duplications of the corresponding
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TurtleScreen</span></code>/<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen</span></code>-methods.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.fill()</span></code> has been eliminated.
+The behaviour of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">begin_fill()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_fill()</span></code>
+have changed slightly: now  every filling-process must be completed with an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_fill()</span></code> call.</p></li>
+<li><p>A method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.filling()</span></code> has been added. It returns a boolean
+value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if a filling process is under way, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.
+This behaviour corresponds to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code> call without arguments in
+Python 2.6.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-since-python-3-0">
+<h2>Changes since Python 3.0<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-since-python-3-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.shearfactor()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.shapetransform()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.get_shapepoly()</span></code> have been added. Thus the full range of
+regular linear transforms is now available for transforming turtle shapes.
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.tiltangle()</span></code> has been enhanced in functionality: it now can
+be used to get or set the tiltangle. <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Turtle.settiltangle()</span></code> has been
+deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p>The method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.onkeypress()</span></code> has been added as a complement to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.onkey()</span></code> which in fact binds actions to the keyrelease event.
+Accordingly the latter has got an alias: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.onkeyrelease()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The method  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.mainloop()</span></code> has been added. So when working only
+with Screen and Turtle objects one must not additionally import
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mainloop()</span></code> anymore.</p></li>
+<li><p>Two input methods has been added <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.textinput()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Screen.numinput()</span></code>. These popup input dialogs and return
+strings and numbers respectively.</p></li>
+<li><p>Two example scripts <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tdemo_nim.py</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tdemo_round_dance.py</span></code>
+have been added to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/turtledemo</span></code> directory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code> — Turtle graphics</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#overview-of-available-turtle-and-screen-methods">Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle-methods">Turtle methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-of-turtlescreen-screen">Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-of-rawturtle-turtle-and-corresponding-functions">Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle-motion">Turtle motion</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tell-turtle-s-state">Tell Turtle’s state</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#settings-for-measurement">Settings for measurement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pen-control">Pen control</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#drawing-state">Drawing state</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#color-control">Color control</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filling">Filling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-drawing-control">More drawing control</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#turtle-state">Turtle state</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#visibility">Visibility</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#appearance">Appearance</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-events">Using events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-turtle-methods">Special Turtle methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compound-shapes">Compound shapes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-of-turtlescreen-screen-and-corresponding-functions">Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#window-control">Window control</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#animation-control">Animation control</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-screen-events">Using screen events</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#input-methods">Input methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#settings-and-special-methods">Settings and special methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-specific-to-screen-not-inherited-from-turtlescreen">Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#public-classes">Public classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#help-and-configuration">Help and configuration</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-to-use-help">How to use help</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#translation-of-docstrings-into-different-languages">Translation of docstrings into different languages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-to-configure-screen-and-turtles">How to configure Screen and Turtles</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-turtledemo"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtledemo</span></code> — Demo scripts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-since-python-2-6">Changes since Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-since-python-3-0">Changes since Python 3.0</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="frameworks.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Program Frameworks</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/types.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/types.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..291faab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/types.html
@@ -0,0 +1,606 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-types">
+<span id="types-dynamic-type-creation-and-names-for-built-in-types"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-types" title="types: Names for built-in types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code></a> — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types<a class="headerlink" href="#module-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/types.py">Lib/types.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module defines utility functions to assist in dynamic creation of
+new types.</p>
+<p>It also defines names for some object types that are used by the standard
+Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> are.</p>
+<p>Finally, it provides some additional type-related utility classes and functions
+that are not fundamental enough to be builtins.</p>
+<div class="section" id="dynamic-type-creation">
+<h2>Dynamic Type Creation<a class="headerlink" href="#dynamic-type-creation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="types.new_class">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">new_class</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>bases=()</em>, <em>kwds=None</em>, <em>exec_body=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.new_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass.</p>
+<p>The first three arguments are the components that make up a class
+definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the
+keyword arguments (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <em>exec_body</em> argument is a callback that is used to populate the
+freshly created class namespace. It should accept the class namespace
+as its sole argument and update the namespace directly with the class
+contents. If no callback is provided, it has the same effect as passing
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span> <span class="pre">ns:</span> <span class="pre">ns</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="types.prepare_class">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">prepare_class</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>bases=()</em>, <em>kwds=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.prepare_class" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class namespace.</p>
+<p>The arguments are the components that make up a class definition header:
+the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword arguments
+(such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The return value is a 3-tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass,</span> <span class="pre">namespace,</span> <span class="pre">kwds</span></code></p>
+<p><em>metaclass</em> is the appropriate metaclass, <em>namespace</em> is the
+prepared class namespace and <em>kwds</em> is an updated copy of the passed
+in <em>kwds</em> argument with any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'metaclass'</span></code> entry removed. If no <em>kwds</em>
+argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The default value for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespace</span></code> element of the returned
+tuple has changed.  Now an insertion-order-preserving mapping is
+used when the metaclass does not have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#metaclasses"><span class="std std-ref">Metaclasses</span></a></dt><dd><p>Full details of the class creation process supported by these functions</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3115"><strong>PEP 3115</strong></a> - Metaclasses in Python 3000</dt><dd><p>Introduced the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__</span></code> namespace hook</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="types.resolve_bases">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">resolve_bases</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bases</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.resolve_bases" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resolve MRO entries dynamically as specified by <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560"><strong>PEP 560</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>This function looks for items in <em>bases</em> that are not instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, and returns a tuple where each such object that has
+an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro_entries__</span></code> method is replaced with an unpacked result of
+calling this method.  If a <em>bases</em> item is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>,
+or it doesn’t have an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro_entries__</span></code> method, then it is included in
+the return tuple unchanged.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560"><strong>PEP 560</strong></a> - Core support for typing module and generic types</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-interpreter-types">
+<h2>Standard Interpreter Types<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-interpreter-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides names for many of the types that are required to
+implement a Python interpreter. It deliberately avoids including some of
+the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listiterator</span></code> type.</p>
+<p>Typical use of these names is for <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> checks.</p>
+<p>Standard names are defined for the following types:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.FunctionType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">FunctionType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.FunctionType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="types.LambdaType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">LambdaType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.LambdaType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of user-defined functions and functions created by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a>  expressions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.GeneratorType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">GeneratorType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.GeneratorType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>-iterator objects, created by
+generator functions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.CoroutineType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">CoroutineType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.CoroutineType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> objects, created by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.AsyncGeneratorType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">AsyncGeneratorType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.AsyncGeneratorType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator</span></a>-iterator objects, created by
+asynchronous generator functions.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.CodeType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">CodeType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.CodeType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-3">The type for code objects such as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.MethodType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">MethodType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MethodType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of methods of user-defined class instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.BuiltinFunctionType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">BuiltinFunctionType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.BuiltinFunctionType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="types.BuiltinMethodType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">BuiltinMethodType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.BuiltinMethodType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of built-in functions like <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a>, and
+methods of built-in classes.  (Here, the term “built-in” means “written in
+C”.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.WrapperDescriptorType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">WrapperDescriptorType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.WrapperDescriptorType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__init__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__lt__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.MethodWrapperType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">MethodWrapperType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MethodWrapperType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of <em>bound</em> methods of some built-in data types and base classes.
+For example it is the type of <code class="code docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object().__str__</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.MethodDescriptorType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">MethodDescriptorType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MethodDescriptorType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of methods of some built-in data types such as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.join()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.ClassMethodDescriptorType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">ClassMethodDescriptorType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.ClassMethodDescriptorType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of <em>unbound</em> class methods of some built-in data types such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.__dict__['fromkeys']</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="types.ModuleType">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">ModuleType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>doc=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.ModuleType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module"><span class="xref std std-term">modules</span></a>. Constructor takes the name of the
+module to be created and optionally its <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-docstring"><span class="xref std std-term">docstring</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.util.module_from_spec" title="importlib.util.module_from_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_from_spec()</span></code></a> to create a new module if you
+wish to set the various import-controlled attributes.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="types.ModuleType.__doc__">
+<code class="descname">__doc__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.ModuleType.__doc__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-docstring"><span class="xref std std-term">docstring</span></a> of the module. Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="types.ModuleType.__loader__">
+<code class="descname">__loader__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.ModuleType.__loader__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loader</span></a> which loaded the module. Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. Previously the attribute was optional.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="types.ModuleType.__name__">
+<code class="descname">__name__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.ModuleType.__name__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="types.ModuleType.__package__">
+<code class="descname">__package__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.ModuleType.__package__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Which <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-package"><span class="xref std std-term">package</span></a> a module belongs to. If the module is top-level
+(i.e. not a part of any specific package) then the attribute should be set
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, else it should be set to the name of the package (which can be
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> if the module is a package itself). Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. Previously the attribute was optional.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="types.TracebackType">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">TracebackType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tb_next</em>, <em>tb_frame</em>, <em>tb_lasti</em>, <em>tb_lineno</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.TracebackType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of traceback objects such as found in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()[2]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#traceback-objects"><span class="std std-ref">the language reference</span></a> for details of the
+available attributes and operations, and guidance on creating tracebacks
+dynamically.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.FrameType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">FrameType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.FrameType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of frame objects such as found in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb.tb_frame</span></code> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb</span></code> is a
+traceback object.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#frame-objects"><span class="std std-ref">the language reference</span></a> for details of the
+available attributes and operations.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.GetSetDescriptorType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">GetSetDescriptorType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.GetSetDescriptorType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of objects defined in extension modules with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code>, such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameType.f_locals</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array.typecode</span></code>.  This type is used as
+descriptor for object attributes; it has the same purpose as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a> type, but for classes defined in extension modules.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="types.MemberDescriptorType">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">MemberDescriptorType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MemberDescriptorType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type of objects defined in extension modules with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemberDef</span></code>, such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timedelta.days</span></code>.  This type is used as descriptor for simple C
+data members which use standard conversion functions; it has the same purpose
+as the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a> type, but for classes defined in extension modules.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> In other implementations of Python, this type may be identical to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetSetDescriptorType</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="types.MappingProxyType">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">MappingProxyType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mapping</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MappingProxyType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read-only proxy of a mapping. It provides a dynamic view on the mapping’s
+entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the view reflects these
+changes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">key in proxy</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the underlying mapping has a key <em>key</em>, else
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">proxy[key]</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the item of the underlying mapping with key <em>key</em>.  Raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if <em>key</em> is not in the underlying mapping.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">iter(proxy)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping.  This is a
+shortcut for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(proxy.keys())</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">len(proxy)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of items in the underlying mapping.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="types.MappingProxyType.copy">
+<code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MappingProxyType.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="types.MappingProxyType.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MappingProxyType.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value for <em>key</em> if <em>key</em> is in the underlying mapping, else
+<em>default</em>.  If <em>default</em> is not given, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, so that
+this method never raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="types.MappingProxyType.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MappingProxyType.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new view of the underlying mapping’s items (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code>
+pairs).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="types.MappingProxyType.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MappingProxyType.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new view of the underlying mapping’s keys.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="types.MappingProxyType.values">
+<code class="descname">values</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.MappingProxyType.values" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new view of the underlying mapping’s values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="additional-utility-classes-and-functions">
+<h2>Additional Utility Classes and Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-utility-classes-and-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="types.SimpleNamespace">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">SimpleNamespace</code><a class="headerlink" href="#types.SimpleNamespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A simple <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> subclass that provides attribute access to its
+namespace, as well as a meaningful repr.</p>
+<p>Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleNamespace</span></code> you can add and remove
+attributes.  If a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleNamespace</span></code> object is initialized with keyword
+arguments, those are directly added to the underlying namespace.</p>
+<p>The type is roughly equivalent to the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">SimpleNamespace</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">keys</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">items</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">=</span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">(</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2">)&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;, &quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__eq__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleNamespace</span></code> may be useful as a replacement for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span> <span class="pre">NS:</span> <span class="pre">pass</span></code>.
+However, for a structured record type use <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a>
+instead.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="types.DynamicClassAttribute">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">DynamicClassAttribute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fget=None</em>, <em>fset=None</em>, <em>fdel=None</em>, <em>doc=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.DynamicClassAttribute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Route attribute access on a class to __getattr__.</p>
+<p>This is a descriptor, used to define attributes that act differently when
+accessed through an instance and through a class.  Instance access remains
+normal, but access to an attribute through a class will be routed to the
+class’s __getattr__ method; this is done by raising AttributeError.</p>
+<p>This allows one to have properties active on an instance, and have virtual
+attributes on the class with the same name (see Enum for an example).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coroutine-utility-functions">
+<h2>Coroutine Utility Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#coroutine-utility-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="types.coroutine">
+<code class="descclassname">types.</code><code class="descname">coroutine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>gen_func</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#types.coroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function transforms a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> function into a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine-function"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine function</span></a> which returns a generator-based coroutine.
+The generator-based coroutine is still a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator iterator</span></a>,
+but is also considered to be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> object and is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a>.  However, it may not necessarily implement
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>If <em>gen_func</em> is a generator function, it will be modified in-place.</p>
+<p>If <em>gen_func</em> is not a generator function, it will be wrapped. If it
+returns an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Generator" title="collections.abc.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Generator</span></code></a>, the instance
+will be wrapped in an <em>awaitable</em> proxy object.  All other types
+of objects will be returned as is.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code> — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dynamic-type-creation">Dynamic Type Creation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-interpreter-types">Standard Interpreter Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-utility-classes-and-functions">Additional Utility Classes and Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine-utility-functions">Coroutine Utility Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="weakref.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code> — Weak references</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="copy.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code> — Shallow and deep copy operations</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/typing.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/typing.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..151e640
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/typing.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1453 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>typing — Support for type hints &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-typing">
+<span id="typing-support-for-type-hints"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> — Support for type hints<a class="headerlink" href="#module-typing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/typing.py">Lib/typing.py</a></p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The typing module has been included in the standard library on a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional basis</span></a>. New features might
+be added and API may change even between minor releases if deemed
+necessary by the core developers.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module supports type hints as specified by <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a>.
+The most fundamental support consists of the types <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Union" title="typing.Union"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Tuple" title="typing.Tuple"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tuple</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Callable" title="typing.Callable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.TypeVar" title="typing.TypeVar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeVar</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generic" title="typing.Generic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic</span></code></a>.  For full specification please see <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>.  For
+a simplified introduction to type hints see <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0483"><strong>PEP 483</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>The function below takes and returns a string and is annotated as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">greeting</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Hello &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">greeting</span></code>, the argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is expected to be of type
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and the return type <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>. Subtypes are accepted as
+arguments.</p>
+<div class="section" id="type-aliases">
+<h2>Type aliases<a class="headerlink" href="#type-aliases" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A type alias is defined by assigning the type to the alias. In this example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Vector</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">List[float]</span></code> will be treated as interchangeable synonyms:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">List</span>
+<span class="n">Vector</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">scale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">scalar</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">vector</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Vector</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Vector</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">scalar</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">vector</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># typechecks; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.</span>
+<span class="n">new_vector</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">scale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">4.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Type aliases are useful for simplifying complex type signatures. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span>
+
+<span class="n">ConnectionOptions</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">Address</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">Server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Address</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ConnectionOptions</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">broadcast_message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">servers</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Server</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as</span>
+<span class="c1"># being exactly equivalent to this one.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">broadcast_message</span><span class="p">(</span>
+        <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">servers</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]]])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as a type hint is a special case and is replaced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(None)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="newtype">
+<span id="distinct"></span><h2>NewType<a class="headerlink" href="#newtype" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.NewType" title="typing.NewType"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NewType()</span></code></a> helper function to create distinct types:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">NewType</span>
+
+<span class="n">UserId</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NewType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;UserId&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">some_id</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">524313</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
+of the original type. This is useful in helping catch logical errors:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_user_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">user_id</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># typechecks</span>
+<span class="n">user_a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">get_user_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42351</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># does not typecheck; an int is not a UserId</span>
+<span class="n">user_b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">get_user_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You may still perform all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> operations on a variable of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserId</span></code>,
+but the result will always be of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>. This lets you pass in a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserId</span></code> wherever an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> might be expected, but will prevent you from
+accidentally creating a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserId</span></code> in an invalid way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># &#39;output&#39; is of type &#39;int&#39;, not &#39;UserId&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">23413</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">54341</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that these checks are enforced only by the static type checker. At runtime
+the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Derived</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">NewType('Derived',</span> <span class="pre">Base)</span></code> will make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Derived</span></code> a
+function that immediately returns whatever parameter you pass it. That means
+the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Derived(some_value)</span></code> does not create a new class or introduce
+any overhead beyond that of a regular function call.</p>
+<p>More precisely, the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_value</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">Derived(some_value)</span></code> is always
+true at runtime.</p>
+<p>This also means that it is not possible to create a subtype of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Derived</span></code>
+since it is an identity function at runtime, not an actual type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">NewType</span>
+
+<span class="n">UserId</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NewType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;UserId&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Fails at runtime and does not typecheck</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AdminUserId</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, it is possible to create a <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.NewType" title="typing.NewType"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NewType()</span></code></a> based on a ‘derived’ <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NewType</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">NewType</span>
+
+<span class="n">UserId</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NewType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;UserId&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">ProUserId</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NewType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ProUserId&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and typechecking for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProUserId</span></code> will work as expected.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to be <em>equivalent</em> to
+one another. Doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Alias</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">Original</span></code> will make the static type checker
+treat <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Alias</span></code> as being <em>exactly equivalent</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Original</span></code> in all cases.
+This is useful when you want to simplify complex type signatures.</p>
+<p>In contrast, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NewType</span></code> declares one type to be a <em>subtype</em> of another.
+Doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Derived</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">NewType('Derived',</span> <span class="pre">Original)</span></code> will make the static type
+checker treat <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Derived</span></code> as a <em>subclass</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Original</span></code>, which means a
+value of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Original</span></code> cannot be used in places where a value of type
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Derived</span></code> is expected. This is useful when you want to prevent logic
+errors with minimal runtime cost.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="callable">
+<h2>Callable<a class="headerlink" href="#callable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Frameworks expecting callback functions of specific signatures might be
+type hinted using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable[[Arg1Type,</span> <span class="pre">Arg2Type],</span> <span class="pre">ReturnType]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Callable</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">feeder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">get_next_item</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Callable</span><span class="p">[[],</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Body</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">async_query</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">on_success</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Callable</span><span class="p">[[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                <span class="n">on_error</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Callable</span><span class="p">[[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Body</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is possible to declare the return type of a callable without specifying
+the call signature by substituting a literal ellipsis
+for the list of arguments in the type hint: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable[...,</span> <span class="pre">ReturnType]</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generics">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Generics<a class="headerlink" href="#generics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be statically
+inferred in a generic way, abstract base classes have been extended to support
+subscription to denote expected types for container elements.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Mapping</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">notify_by_email</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">employees</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Employee</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                    <span class="n">overrides</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Mapping</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Generics can be parameterized by using a new factory available in typing
+called <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.TypeVar" title="typing.TypeVar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeVar</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span>
+
+<span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># Declare type variable</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">first</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">:</span>   <span class="c1"># Generic function</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="user-defined-generic-types">
+<h2>User-defined generic types<a class="headerlink" href="#user-defined-generic-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A user-defined class can be defined as a generic class.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Generic</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">logging</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Logger</span>
+
+<span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LoggedVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Generic</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">logger</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Logger</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logger</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">new</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Set &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">new</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Get &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic[T]</span></code> as a base class defines that the class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggedVar</span></code> takes a
+single type parameter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T</span></code> . This also makes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T</span></code> valid as a type within the
+class body.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generic" title="typing.Generic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic</span></code></a> base class uses a metaclass that defines
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggedVar[t]</span></code> is valid as a type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Iterable</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">zero_all_vars</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">vars</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Iterable</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">LoggedVar</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">var</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">vars</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A generic type can have any number of type variables, and type variables may
+be constrained:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Generic</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">S</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;S&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">StrangePair</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Generic</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">S</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each type variable argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generic" title="typing.Generic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic</span></code></a> must be distinct.
+This is thus invalid:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Generic</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Pair</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Generic</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]):</span>   <span class="c1"># INVALID</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can use multiple inheritance with <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generic" title="typing.Generic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Generic</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Sized</span>
+
+<span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LinkedList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Sized</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Generic</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When inheriting from generic classes, some type variables could be fixed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Mapping</span>
+
+<span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Mapping</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyDict</span></code> has a single parameter, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> for each position. In the following example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyIterable</span></code> is
+not generic but implicitly inherits from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable[Any]</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Iterable</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyIterable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Iterable</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c1"># Same as Iterable[Any]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>User defined generic type aliases are also supported. Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Union</span>
+<span class="n">S</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;S&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Iterable</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">S</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Return type here is same as Union[Iterable[str], int]</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">response</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">query</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Response</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Vec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Iterable</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">inproduct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Vec</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="c1"># Same as Iterable[Tuple[T, T]]</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The metaclass used by <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generic" title="typing.Generic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="abc.html#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.ABCMeta</span></code></a>.
+A generic class can be an ABC by including abstract methods or properties,
+and generic classes can also have ABCs as base classes without a metaclass
+conflict. Generic metaclasses are not supported. The outcome of parameterizing
+generics is cached, and most types in the typing module are hashable and
+comparable for equality.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-any-type">
+<h2>The <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> type<a class="headerlink" href="#the-any-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A special kind of type is <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a>. A static type checker will treat
+every type as being compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> as being
+compatible with every type.</p>
+<p>This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call on a
+value of type on <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> and assign it to any variable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Any</span>
+
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>    <span class="c1"># type: Any</span>
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>      <span class="c1"># OK</span>
+<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>       <span class="c1"># OK</span>
+
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>      <span class="c1"># type: str</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span>       <span class="c1"># OK</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Any</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Typechecks; &#39;item&#39; could be any type,</span>
+    <span class="c1"># and that type might have a &#39;bar&#39; method</span>
+    <span class="n">item</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Notice that no typechecking is performed when assigning a value of type
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> to a more precise type. For example, the static type checker did
+not report an error when assigning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> even though <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> was
+declared to be of type <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and receives an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> value at
+runtime!</p>
+<p>Furthermore, all functions without a return type or parameter types will
+implicitly default to using <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">legacy_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">data</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># A static type checker will treat the above</span>
+<span class="c1"># as having the same signature as:</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">legacy_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Any</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Any</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">data</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This behavior allows <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> to be used as an <em>escape hatch</em> when you
+need to mix dynamically and statically typed code.</p>
+<p>Contrast the behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> with the behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.
+Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a>, every type is a subtype of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>. However,
+unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a>, the reverse is not true: <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> is <em>not</em> a
+subtype of every other type.</p>
+<p>That means when the type of a value is <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, a type checker will
+reject almost all operations on it, and assigning it to a variable (or using
+it as a return value) of a more specialized type is a type error. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hash_a</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Fails; an object does not have a &#39;magic&#39; method.</span>
+    <span class="n">item</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">magic</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hash_b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Any</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Typechecks</span>
+    <span class="n">item</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">magic</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Typechecks, since ints and strs are subclasses of object</span>
+<span class="n">hash_a</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">hash_a</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Typechecks, since Any is compatible with all types</span>
+<span class="n">hash_b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">hash_b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> to indicate that a value could be any type in a typesafe
+manner. Use <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> to indicate that a value is dynamically typed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="classes-functions-and-decorators">
+<h2>Classes, functions, and decorators<a class="headerlink" href="#classes-functions-and-decorators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module defines the following classes, functions and decorators:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.TypeVar">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">TypeVar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.TypeVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type variable.</p>
+<p>Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Can be anything</span>
+<span class="n">A</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Must be str or bytes</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
+checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
+as for generic function definitions.  See class Generic for more
+information on generic types.  Generic functions work as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return a list containing n references to x.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">n</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">longest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return the longest of two strings.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The latter example’s signature is essentially the overloading
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(str,</span> <span class="pre">str)</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">str</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(bytes,</span> <span class="pre">bytes)</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">bytes</span></code>.  Also note
+that if the arguments are instances of some subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>,
+the return type is still plain <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>At runtime, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">T)</span></code> will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  In general,
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> should not be used with types.</p>
+<p>Type variables may be marked covariant or contravariant by passing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">covariant=True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contravariant=True</span></code>.  See <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> for more
+details.  By default type variables are invariant.  Alternatively,
+a type variable may specify an upper bound using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bound=&lt;type&gt;</span></code>.
+This means that an actual type substituted (explicitly or implicitly)
+for the type variable must be a subclass of the boundary type,
+see <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Generic">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Generic</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Generic" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Abstract base class for generic types.</p>
+<p>A generic type is typically declared by inheriting from an
+instantiation of this class with one or more type variables.
+For example, a generic mapping type might be defined as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Mapping</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Generic</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">KT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">VT</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">KT</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">VT</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Etc.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This class can then be used as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">X</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">Y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Y&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">lookup_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mapping</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Mapping</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">X</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Y</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">X</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Y</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mapping</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">default</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Type">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Type</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Generic[CT_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A variable annotated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> may accept a value of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>. In
+contrast, a variable annotated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Type[C]</span></code> may accept values that are
+classes themselves – specifically, it will accept the <em>class object</em> of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>         <span class="c1"># Has type &#39;int&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span>       <span class="c1"># Has type &#39;Type[int]&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Also has type &#39;Type[int]&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Type[C]</span></code> is covariant:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">User</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">BasicUser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">User</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ProUser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">User</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TeamUser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">User</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Accepts User, BasicUser, ProUser, TeamUser, ...</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">make_new_user</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">user_class</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Type</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">User</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">User</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ...</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">user_class</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The fact that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Type[C]</span></code> is covariant implies that all subclasses of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> should implement the same constructor signature and class method
+signatures as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>. The type checker should flag violations of this,
+but should also allow constructor calls in subclasses that match the
+constructor calls in the indicated base class. How the type checker is
+required to handle this particular case may change in future revisions of
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>The only legal parameters for <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Type" title="typing.Type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Type</span></code></a> are classes, <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generics"><span class="std std-ref">type variables</span></a>, and unions of any of these types.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">new_non_team_user</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">user_class</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Type</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">BaseUser</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ProUser</span><span class="p">]]):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Type[Any]</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Type</span></code> which in turn is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code>, which is the root of Python’s metaclass hierarchy.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Iterable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Iterable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Generic[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Iterable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Iterable</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Iterator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Iterator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Iterable[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Iterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterator" title="collections.abc.Iterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Iterator</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Reversible">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Reversible</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Iterable[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Reversible" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Reversible" title="collections.abc.Reversible"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Reversible</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.SupportsInt">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">SupportsInt</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.SupportsInt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ABC with one abstract method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.SupportsFloat">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">SupportsFloat</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.SupportsFloat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ABC with one abstract method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__float__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.SupportsComplex">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">SupportsComplex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.SupportsComplex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ABC with one abstract method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.SupportsBytes">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">SupportsBytes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.SupportsBytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ABC with one abstract method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bytes__</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.SupportsAbs">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">SupportsAbs</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.SupportsAbs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ABC with one abstract method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__abs__</span></code> that is covariant
+in its return type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.SupportsRound">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">SupportsRound</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.SupportsRound" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An ABC with one abstract method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__round__</span></code>
+that is covariant in its return type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Container">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Container</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Generic[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Container" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Container" title="collections.abc.Container"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Container</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Hashable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Hashable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Hashable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alias to <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Hashable" title="collections.abc.Hashable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Hashable</span></code></a></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Sized">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Sized</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Sized" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An alias to <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sized" title="collections.abc.Sized"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Sized</span></code></a></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Collection">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Collection</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Collection" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Collection</span></code></a></p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.0.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.AbstractSet">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">AbstractSet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Sized, Collection[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.AbstractSet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Set</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.MutableSet">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">MutableSet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>AbstractSet[T]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.MutableSet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSet" title="collections.abc.MutableSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.MutableSet</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Mapping">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Mapping</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Sized, Collection[KT], Generic[VT_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Mapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Mapping</span></code></a>.
+This type can be used as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_position_in_index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">word_list</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Mapping</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">word</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">word_list</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.MutableMapping">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">MutableMapping</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Mapping[KT, VT]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.MutableMapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.MutableMapping</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Sequence">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Sequence</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Sequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Sequence</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.MutableSequence">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">MutableSequence</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Sequence[T]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.MutableSequence" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.MutableSequence</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.ByteString">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">ByteString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Sequence[int]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.ByteString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ByteString" title="collections.abc.ByteString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.ByteString</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This type represents the types <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>As a shorthand for this type, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> can be used to
+annotate arguments of any of the types mentioned above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Deque">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Deque</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>deque, MutableSequence[T]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Deque" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.List">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">List</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list, MutableSequence[T]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.List" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>.
+Useful for annotating return types. To annotate arguments it is preferred
+to use an abstract collection type such as <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Sequence" title="typing.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Iterable" title="typing.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This type may be used as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TypeVar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">vec2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">keep_positives</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vector</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Sequence</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">item</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">vector</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Set">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>set, MutableSet[T]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins.set</span></code></a>.
+Useful for annotating return types. To annotate arguments it is preferred
+to use an abstract collection type such as <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.AbstractSet" title="typing.AbstractSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractSet</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.FrozenSet">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">FrozenSet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.FrozenSet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins.frozenset</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.MappingView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">MappingView</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Sized, Iterable[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.MappingView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MappingView" title="collections.abc.MappingView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.MappingView</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.KeysView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">KeysView</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>MappingView[KT_co], AbstractSet[KT_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.KeysView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.KeysView" title="collections.abc.KeysView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.KeysView</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.ItemsView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">ItemsView</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>MappingView, Generic[KT_co, VT_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.ItemsView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ItemsView" title="collections.abc.ItemsView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.ItemsView</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.ValuesView">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">ValuesView</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>MappingView[VT_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.ValuesView" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ValuesView" title="collections.abc.ValuesView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.ValuesView</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Awaitable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Awaitable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Generic[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Awaitable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Awaitable" title="collections.abc.Awaitable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Awaitable</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Coroutine">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Coroutine</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Awaitable[V_co], Generic[T_co T_contra, V_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Coroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Coroutine" title="collections.abc.Coroutine"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Coroutine</span></code></a>.
+The variance and order of type variables
+correspond to those of <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generator" title="typing.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a>, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Coroutine</span>
+<span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="c1"># type: Coroutine[List[str], str, int]</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hi&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># type: List[str]</span>
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">bar</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="c1"># type: int</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.AsyncIterable">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">AsyncIterable</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Generic[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.AsyncIterable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterable" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.AsyncIterable</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.AsyncIterator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">AsyncIterator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>AsyncIterable[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.AsyncIterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterator" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.AsyncIterator</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.ContextManager">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">ContextManager</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Generic[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.ContextManager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractContextManager" title="contextlib.AbstractContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.AbstractContextManager</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.0.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.AsyncContextManager">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">AsyncContextManager</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Generic[T_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.AsyncContextManager" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager" title="contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Dict">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Dict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.
+Useful for annotating return types. To annotate arguments it is preferred
+to use an abstract collection type such as <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Mapping" title="typing.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This type can be used as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">count_words</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.DefaultDict">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">DefaultDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>collections.defaultdict, MutableMapping[KT, VT]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.DefaultDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.defaultdict</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.OrderedDict">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">OrderedDict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>collections.OrderedDict, MutableMapping[KT, VT]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.OrderedDict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Counter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Counter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>collections.Counter, Dict[T, int]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Counter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Counter</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.ChainMap">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">ChainMap</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT, VT]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.ChainMap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generic version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.ChainMap</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Generator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Generator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>Iterator[T_co], Generic[T_co, T_contra, V_co]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Generator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A generator can be annotated by the generic type
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator[YieldType,</span> <span class="pre">SendType,</span> <span class="pre">ReturnType]</span></code>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">echo_round</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Generator</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sent</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Done&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that unlike many other generics in the typing module, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SendType</span></code>
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generator" title="typing.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> behaves contravariantly, not covariantly or
+invariantly.</p>
+<p>If your generator will only yield values, set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SendType</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReturnType</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">infinite_stream</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Generator</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">start</span>
+        <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of
+either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable[YieldType]</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterator[YieldType]</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">infinite_stream</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Iterator</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">start</span>
+        <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.AsyncGenerator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">AsyncGenerator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>AsyncIterator[T_co], Generic[T_co, T_contra]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.AsyncGenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An async generator can be annotated by the generic type
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncGenerator[YieldType,</span> <span class="pre">SendType]</span></code>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">echo_round</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">AsyncGenerator</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mf">0.0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">rounded</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sent</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">sent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">rounded</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unlike normal generators, async generators cannot return a value, so there
+is no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReturnType</span></code> type parameter. As with <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Generator" title="typing.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a>, the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SendType</span></code> behaves contravariantly.</p>
+<p>If your generator will only yield values, set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SendType</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">infinite_stream</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">AsyncGenerator</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">start</span>
+        <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of
+either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterable[YieldType]</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterator[YieldType]</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">infinite_stream</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">AsyncIterator</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">start</span>
+        <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Text">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Text</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code> is an alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>. It is provided to supply a forward
+compatible path for Python 2 code: in Python 2, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code> is an alias for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code> to indicate that a value must contain a unicode string in
+a manner that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add_unicode_checkmark</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Text</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Text</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="sa">u</span><span class="s1">&#39; </span><span class="se">\u2713</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.IO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">IO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.IO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="typing.TextIO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">TextIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.TextIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="typing.BinaryIO">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">BinaryIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.BinaryIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generic type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IO[AnyStr]</span></code> and its subclasses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIO(IO[str])</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BinaryIO(IO[bytes])</span></code>
+represent the types of I/O streams such as returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.Pattern">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Pattern</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Pattern" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="typing.Match">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Match</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Match" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These type aliases
+correspond to the return types from <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.match()</span></code></a>.  These types (and the corresponding functions)
+are generic in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AnyStr</span></code> and can be made specific by writing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pattern[str]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pattern[bytes]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Match[str]</span></code>, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Match[bytes]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.NamedTuple">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">NamedTuple</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.NamedTuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Typed version of <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Employee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NamedTuple</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span>
+    <span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Employee</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Employee&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;id&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To give a field a default value, you can assign to it in the class body:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Employee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NamedTuple</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span>
+    <span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+
+<span class="n">employee</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Employee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Guido&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">employee</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">id</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a default.</p>
+<p>The resulting class has two extra attributes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_field_types</span></code>,
+giving a dict mapping field names to types, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_field_defaults</span></code>, a dict
+mapping field names to default values.  (The field names are in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields</span></code> attribute, which is part of the namedtuple API.)</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedTuple</span></code> subclasses can also have docstrings and methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Employee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NamedTuple</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Represents an employee.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span>
+    <span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;Employee </span><span class="si">{self.name}</span><span class="s1">, id=</span><span class="si">{self.id}</span><span class="s1">&gt;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Backward-compatible usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Employee</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NamedTuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Employee&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;id&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added support for <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a> variable annotation syntax.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.1: </span>Added support for default values, methods, and docstrings.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="typing.ForwardRef">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">ForwardRef</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.ForwardRef" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class used for internal typing representation of string forward references.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">List[&quot;SomeClass&quot;]</span></code> is implicitly transformed into
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">List[ForwardRef(&quot;SomeClass&quot;)]</span></code>.  This class should not be instantiated by
+a user, but may be used by introspection tools.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="typing.NewType">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">NewType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typ</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.NewType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A helper function to indicate a distinct types to a typechecker,
+see <a class="reference internal" href="#distinct"><span class="std std-ref">NewType</span></a>. At runtime it returns a function that returns
+its argument. Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">UserId</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NewType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;UserId&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">first_user</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="typing.cast">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">cast</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typ</em>, <em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.cast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cast a value to a type.</p>
+<p>This returns the value unchanged.  To the type checker this
+signals that the return value has the designated type, but at
+runtime we intentionally don’t check anything (we want this
+to be as fast as possible).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="typing.get_type_hints">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">get_type_hints</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>globals</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>locals</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.get_type_hints" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method, module
+or class object.</p>
+<p>This is often the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.__annotations__</span></code>. In addition,
+forward references encoded as string literals are handled by evaluating
+them in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globals</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals</span></code> namespaces. If necessary,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Optional[t]</span></code> is added for function and method annotations if a default
+value equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is set. For a class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>, return
+a dictionary constructed by merging all the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> along
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.__mro__</span></code> in reverse order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="typing.overload">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">overload</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.overload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;overload</span></code> decorator allows describing functions and methods
+that support multiple different combinations of argument types. A series
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;overload</span></code>-decorated definitions must be followed by exactly one
+non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;overload</span></code>-decorated definition (for the same function/method).
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;overload</span></code>-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the
+type checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
+non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;overload</span></code>-decorated definition, while the latter is used at
+runtime but should be ignored by a type checker.  At runtime, calling
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;overload</span></code>-decorated function directly will raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>. An example of overload that gives a more
+precise type than can be expressed using a union or a type variable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@overload</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="nd">@overload</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="nd">@overload</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">actual</span> <span class="n">implementation</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> for details and comparison with other typing semantics.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="typing.no_type_check">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">no_type_check</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.no_type_check" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator to indicate that annotations are not type hints.</p>
+<p>This works as class or function <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a>.  With a class, it
+applies recursively to all methods defined in that class (but not
+to methods defined in its superclasses or subclasses).</p>
+<p>This mutates the function(s) in place.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="typing.no_type_check_decorator">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">no_type_check_decorator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.no_type_check_decorator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator to give another decorator the <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.no_type_check" title="typing.no_type_check"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no_type_check()</span></code></a> effect.</p>
+<p>This wraps the decorator with something that wraps the decorated
+function in <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.no_type_check" title="typing.no_type_check"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no_type_check()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="typing.type_check_only">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">type_check_only</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.type_check_only" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decorator to mark a class or function to be unavailable at runtime.</p>
+<p>This decorator is itself not available at runtime. It is mainly
+intended to mark classes that are defined in type stub files if
+an implementation returns an instance of a private class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@type_check_only</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Response</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># private or not available at runtime</span>
+    <span class="n">code</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fetch_response</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Response</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that returning instances of private classes is not recommended.
+It is usually preferable to make such classes public.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.Any">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Any</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Any" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special type indicating an unconstrained type.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Every type is compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> is compatible with every type.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.NoReturn">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">NoReturn</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.NoReturn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special type indicating that a function never returns.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">NoReturn</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">stop</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">NoReturn</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;no way&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.Union">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Union</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Union" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Union type; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[X,</span> <span class="pre">Y]</span></code> means either X or Y.</p>
+<p>To define a union, use e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[int,</span> <span class="pre">str]</span></code>.  Details:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The arguments must be types and there must be at least one.</p></li>
+<li><p>Unions of unions are flattened, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Unions of a single argument vanish, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">int</span>  <span class="c1"># The constructor actually returns int</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>When comparing unions, the argument order is ignored, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Union</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>You cannot subclass or instantiate a union.</p></li>
+<li><p>You cannot write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[X][Y]</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>You can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Optional[X]</span></code> as a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[X,</span> <span class="pre">None]</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Don’t remove explicit subclasses from unions at runtime.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.Optional">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Optional</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Optional" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Optional type.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Optional[X]</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[X,</span> <span class="pre">None]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that this is not the same concept as an optional argument,
+which is one that has a default.  An optional argument with a
+default does not require the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Optional</span></code> qualifier on its type
+annotation just because it is optional. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On the other hand, if an explicit value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is allowed, the
+use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Optional</span></code> is appropriate, whether the argument is optional
+or not. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Optional</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.Tuple">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Tuple</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tuple type; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tuple[X,</span> <span class="pre">Y]</span></code> is the type of a tuple of two items
+with the first item of type X and the second of type Y.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tuple[T1,</span> <span class="pre">T2]</span></code> is a tuple of two elements corresponding
+to type variables T1 and T2.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tuple[int,</span> <span class="pre">float,</span> <span class="pre">str]</span></code> is a tuple
+of an int, a float and a string.</p>
+<p>To specify a variable-length tuple of homogeneous type,
+use literal ellipsis, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tuple[int,</span> <span class="pre">...]</span></code>. A plain <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Tuple" title="typing.Tuple"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tuple</span></code></a>
+is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tuple[Any,</span> <span class="pre">...]</span></code>, and in turn to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.Callable">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">Callable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.Callable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Callable type; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable[[int],</span> <span class="pre">str]</span></code> is a function of (int) -&gt; str.</p>
+<p>The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two
+values: the argument list and the return type.  The argument list
+must be a list of types or an ellipsis; the return type must be
+a single type.</p>
+<p>There is no syntax to indicate optional or keyword arguments;
+such function types are rarely used as callback types.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable[...,</span> <span class="pre">ReturnType]</span></code> (literal ellipsis) can be used to
+type hint a callable taking any number of arguments and returning
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReturnType</span></code>.  A plain <a class="reference internal" href="#typing.Callable" title="typing.Callable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable</span></code></a> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Callable[...,</span> <span class="pre">Any]</span></code>, and in turn to
+<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Callable" title="collections.abc.Callable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Callable</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.ClassVar">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">ClassVar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.ClassVar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Special type construct to mark class variables.</p>
+<p>As introduced in <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a>, a variable annotation wrapped in ClassVar
+indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as a class variable
+and should not be set on instances of that class. Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Starship</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">stats</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">ClassVar</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span> <span class="c1"># class variable</span>
+    <span class="n">damage</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>                     <span class="c1"># instance variable</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#typing.ClassVar" title="typing.ClassVar"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassVar</span></code></a> accepts only types and cannot be further subscribed.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#typing.ClassVar" title="typing.ClassVar"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassVar</span></code></a> is not a class itself, and should not
+be used with <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#typing.ClassVar" title="typing.ClassVar"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassVar</span></code></a> does not change Python runtime behavior, but
+it can be used by third-party type checkers. For example, a type checker
+might flag the following code as an error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">enterprise_d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Starship</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">enterprise_d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stats</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span> <span class="c1"># Error, setting class variable on instance</span>
+<span class="n">Starship</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stats</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>     <span class="c1"># This is OK</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.AnyStr">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">AnyStr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.AnyStr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AnyStr</span></code> is a type variable defined as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AnyStr</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">TypeVar('AnyStr',</span> <span class="pre">str,</span> <span class="pre">bytes)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>It is meant to be used for functions that may accept any kind of string
+without allowing different kinds of strings to mix. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">concat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">AnyStr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">AnyStr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">AnyStr</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+
+<span class="n">concat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">u</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">u</span><span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Ok, output has type &#39;unicode&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">concat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Ok, output has type &#39;bytes&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">concat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">u</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;bar&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Error, cannot mix unicode and bytes</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="typing.TYPE_CHECKING">
+<code class="descclassname">typing.</code><code class="descname">TYPE_CHECKING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#typing.TYPE_CHECKING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A special constant that is assumed to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> by 3rd party static
+type checkers. It is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> at runtime. Usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">TYPE_CHECKING</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">expensive_mod</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;expensive_mod.SomeType&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">local_var</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">expensive_mod</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AnotherType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">other_fun</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the first type annotation must be enclosed in quotes, making it a
+“forward reference”, to hide the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expensive_mod</span></code> reference from the
+interpreter runtime.  Type annotations for local variables are not
+evaluated, so the second annotation does not need to be enclosed in quotes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> — Support for type hints</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-aliases">Type aliases</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#newtype">NewType</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#callable">Callable</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generics">Generics</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#user-defined-generic-types">User-defined generic types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-any-type">The <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code> type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes-functions-and-decorators">Classes, functions, and decorators</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/undoc.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/undoc.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e102943
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/undoc.html
@@ -0,0 +1,206 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Undocumented Modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="undocumented-modules">
+<span id="undoc"></span><h1>Undocumented Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#undocumented-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Here’s a quick listing of modules that are currently undocumented, but that
+should be documented.  Feel free to contribute documentation for them!  (Send
+via email to <a class="reference external" href="mailto:docs&#37;&#52;&#48;python&#46;org">docs<span>&#64;</span>python<span>&#46;</span>org</a>.)</p>
+<p>The idea and original contents for this chapter were taken from a posting by
+Fredrik Lundh; the specific contents of this chapter have been substantially
+revised.</p>
+<div class="section" id="platform-specific-modules">
+<h2>Platform specific modules<a class="headerlink" href="#platform-specific-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These modules are used to implement the <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> module, and are not
+documented beyond this mention.  There’s little need to document these.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntpath</span></code></dt><dd><p>— Implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> on Win32 and Win64 platforms.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixpath</span></code></dt><dd><p>— Implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> on POSIX.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
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+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Undocumented Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#platform-specific-modules">Platform specific modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code> — Access the <span class="xref std std-ref">import</span> internals</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../extending/index.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-unicodedata">
+<span id="unicodedata-unicode-database"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> — Unicode Database<a class="headerlink" href="#module-unicodedata" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD) which
+defines character properties for all Unicode characters. The data contained in
+this database is compiled from the <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd">UCD version 11.0.0</a>.</p>
+<p>The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode
+Standard Annex #44, <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-6.html">“Unicode Character Database”</a>.  It defines the
+following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.lookup">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">lookup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.lookup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Look up character by name.  If a character with the given name is found, return
+the corresponding character.  If not found, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support for name aliases <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a> and named sequences <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id4" id="id2">2</a> has been added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.name">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">name</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the name assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as a string. If no
+name is defined, <em>default</em> is returned, or, if not given, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.decimal">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">decimal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.decimal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the decimal value assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as integer.
+If no such value is defined, <em>default</em> is returned, or, if not given,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.digit">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">digit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.digit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the digit value assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as integer.
+If no such value is defined, <em>default</em> is returned, or, if not given,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.numeric">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">numeric</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>default</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.numeric" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the numeric value assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as float.
+If no such value is defined, <em>default</em> is returned, or, if not given,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.category">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">category</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.category" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the general category assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as
+string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.bidirectional">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">bidirectional</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.bidirectional" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as
+string. If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.combining">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">combining</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.combining" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character <em>chr</em>
+as integer. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> if no combining class is defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.east_asian_width">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">east_asian_width</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.east_asian_width" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the east asian width assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as
+string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.mirrored">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">mirrored</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.mirrored" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character <em>chr</em> as
+integer. Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> if the character has been identified as a “mirrored”
+character in bidirectional text, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.decomposition">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">decomposition</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>chr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.decomposition" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the character
+<em>chr</em> as string. An empty string is returned in case no such mapping is
+defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unicodedata.normalize">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">normalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>form</em>, <em>unistr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.normalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the normal form <em>form</em> for the Unicode string <em>unistr</em>. Valid values for
+<em>form</em> are ‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’, and ‘NFKD’.</p>
+<p>The Unicode standard defines various normalization forms of a Unicode string,
+based on the definition of canonical equivalence and compatibility equivalence.
+In Unicode, several characters can be expressed in various way. For example, the
+character U+00C7 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA) can also be expressed as
+the sequence U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) U+0327 (COMBINING CEDILLA).</p>
+<p>For each character, there are two normal forms: normal form C and normal form D.
+Normal form D (NFD) is also known as canonical decomposition, and translates
+each character into its decomposed form. Normal form C (NFC) first applies a
+canonical decomposition, then composes pre-combined characters again.</p>
+<p>In addition to these two forms, there are two additional normal forms based on
+compatibility equivalence. In Unicode, certain characters are supported which
+normally would be unified with other characters. For example, U+2160 (ROMAN
+NUMERAL ONE) is really the same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I).
+However, it is supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character
+sets (e.g. gb2312).</p>
+<p>The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility decomposition, i.e.
+replace all compatibility characters with their equivalents. The normal form KC
+(NFKC) first applies the compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical
+composition.</p>
+<p>Even if two unicode strings are normalized and look the same to
+a human reader, if one has combining characters and the other
+doesn’t, they may not compare equal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, the module exposes the following constant:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="unicodedata.unidata_version">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">unidata_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.unidata_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version of the Unicode database used in this module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0">
+<code class="descclassname">unicodedata.</code><code class="descname">ucd_3_2_0</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an object that has the same methods as the entire module, but uses the
+Unicode database version 3.2 instead, for applications that require this
+specific version of the Unicode database (such as IDNA).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unicodedata</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lookup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;LEFT CURLY BRACKET&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;{&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;SOLIDUS&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;9&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">9</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">not a decimal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">category</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># &#39;L&#39;etter, &#39;u&#39;ppercase</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Lu&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unicodedata</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bidirectional</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u0660</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># &#39;A&#39;rabic, &#39;N&#39;umber</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;AN&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt">http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt</a></p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id4"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt">http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-unittest">
+<span id="unittest-unit-testing-framework"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> — Unit testing framework<a class="headerlink" href="#module-unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/unittest/__init__.py">Lib/unittest/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>(If you are already familiar with the basic concepts of testing, you might want
+to skip to <a class="reference internal" href="#assert-methods"><span class="std std-ref">the list of assert methods</span></a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> unit testing framework was originally inspired by JUnit
+and has a similar flavor as major unit testing frameworks in other
+languages.  It supports test automation, sharing of setup and shutdown code
+for tests, aggregation of tests into collections, and independence of the
+tests from the reporting framework.</p>
+<p>To achieve this, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> supports some important concepts in an
+object-oriented way:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>test fixture</dt><dd><p>A <em class="dfn">test fixture</em> represents the preparation needed to perform one or more
+tests, and any associate cleanup actions.  This may involve, for example,
+creating temporary or proxy databases, directories, or starting a server
+process.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>test case</dt><dd><p>A <em class="dfn">test case</em> is the individual unit of testing.  It checks for a specific
+response to a particular set of inputs.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> provides a base class,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>, which may be used to create new test cases.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>test suite</dt><dd><p>A <em class="dfn">test suite</em> is a collection of test cases, test suites, or both.  It is
+used to aggregate tests that should be executed together.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>test runner</dt><dd><p>A <em class="dfn">test runner</em> is a component which orchestrates the execution of tests
+and provides the outcome to the user.  The runner may use a graphical interface,
+a textual interface, or return a special value to indicate the results of
+executing the tests.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Another test-support module with a very different flavor.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm">Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns</a></dt><dd><p>Kent Beck’s original paper on testing frameworks using the pattern shared
+by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://nose.readthedocs.io/">Nose</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.pytest.org/">pytest</a></dt><dd><p>Third-party unittest frameworks with a lighter-weight syntax for writing
+tests.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span> <span class="pre">func(10)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">42</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy">The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy</a></dt><dd><p>An extensive list of Python testing tools including functional testing
+frameworks and mock object libraries.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python">Testing in Python Mailing List</a></dt><dd><p>A special-interest-group for discussion of testing, and testing tools,
+in Python.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The script <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py</span></code> in the Python source distribution is
+a GUI tool for test discovery and execution.  This is intended largely for ease of use
+for those new to unit testing.  For production environments it is
+recommended that tests be driven by a continuous integration system such as
+<a class="reference external" href="https://buildbot.net/">Buildbot</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://jenkins.io/">Jenkins</a>
+or  <a class="reference external" href="http://hudson-ci.org/">Hudson</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="basic-example">
+<span id="unittest-minimal-example"></span><h2>Basic example<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module provides a rich set of tools for constructing and
+running tests.  This section demonstrates that a small subset of the tools
+suffice to meet the needs of most users.</p>
+<p>Here is a short script to test three string methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TestStringMethods</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_upper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upper</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_isupper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertTrue</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;FOO&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isupper</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertFalse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Foo&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isupper</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;world&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+        <span class="c1"># check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaises</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A testcase is created by subclassing <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a>.  The three
+individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with the letters
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code>.  This naming convention informs the test runner about which methods
+represent tests.</p>
+<p>The crux of each test is a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a> to check for an
+expected result; <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse" title="unittest.TestCase.assertFalse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertFalse()</span></code></a>
+to verify a condition; or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a> to verify that a
+specific exception gets raised.  These methods are used instead of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#assert"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code></a> statement so the test runner can accumulate all test results
+and produce a report.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a> methods allow you
+to define instructions that will be executed before and after each test method.
+They are covered in more detail in the section <a class="reference internal" href="#organizing-tests"><span class="std std-ref">Organizing test code</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The final block shows a simple way to run the tests. <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.main()</span></code></a>
+provides a command-line interface to the test script.  When run from the command
+line, the above script produces an output that looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="o">----------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Ran</span> <span class="mi">3</span> <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="mf">0.000</span><span class="n">s</span>
+
+<span class="n">OK</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Passing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> option to your test script will instruct <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.main()</span></code></a>
+to enable a higher level of verbosity, and produce the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">test_isupper</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestStringMethods</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">ok</span>
+<span class="n">test_split</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestStringMethods</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">ok</span>
+<span class="n">test_upper</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestStringMethods</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">ok</span>
+
+<span class="o">----------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Ran</span> <span class="mi">3</span> <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="mf">0.001</span><span class="n">s</span>
+
+<span class="n">OK</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above examples show the most commonly used <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> features which
+are sufficient to meet many everyday testing needs.  The remainder of the
+documentation explores the full feature set from first principles.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-interface">
+<span id="unittest-command-line-interface"></span><h2>Command-Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The unittest module can be used from the command line to run tests from
+modules, classes or even individual test methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">test_module1</span> <span class="n">test_module2</span>
+<span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">test_module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestClass</span>
+<span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">test_module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test_method</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can pass in a list with any combination of module names, and fully
+qualified class or method names.</p>
+<p>Test modules can be specified by file path as well:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">tests</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">test_something</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This allows you to use the shell filename completion to specify the test module.
+The file specified must still be importable as a module. The path is converted
+to a module name by removing the ‘.py’ and converting path separators into ‘.’.
+If you want to execute a test file that isn’t importable as a module you should
+execute the file directly instead.</p>
+<p>You can run tests with more detail (higher verbosity) by passing in the -v flag:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="n">test_module</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When executed without arguments <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest-test-discovery"><span class="std std-ref">Test Discovery</span></a> is started:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a list of all the command-line options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">h</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>In earlier versions it was only possible to run individual test methods and
+not modules or classes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-options">
+<h3>Command-line options<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><strong class="program">unittest</strong> supports these command-line options:</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-b">
+<code class="descname">-b</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--buffer</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-b" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The standard output and standard error streams are buffered during the test
+run. Output during a passing test is discarded. Output is echoed normally
+on test fail or error and is added to the failure messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-c">
+<code class="descname">-c</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--catch</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-c" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> during the test run waits for the current test to end and then
+reports all the results so far. A second <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> raises the normal
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#signal-handling">Signal Handling</a> for the functions that provide this functionality.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-f">
+<code class="descname">-f</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--failfast</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-f" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop the test run on the first error or failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-k">
+<code class="descname">-k</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-k" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or substring.
+This option may be used multiple times, in which case all test cases that
+match of the given patterns are included.</p>
+<p>Patterns that contain a wildcard character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>) are matched against the
+test name using <a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatchcase" title="fnmatch.fnmatchcase"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch.fnmatchcase()</span></code></a>; otherwise simple case-sensitive
+substring matching is used.</p>
+<p>Patterns are matched against the fully qualified test method name as
+imported by the test loader.</p>
+<p>For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-k</span> <span class="pre">foo</span></code> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo</span></code>, but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar_tests.FooTest.test_something</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-locals">
+<code class="descname">--locals</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-locals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Show local variables in tracebacks.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The command-line options <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The command-line option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--locals</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The command-line option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-k</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The command line can also be used for test discovery, for running all of the
+tests in a project or just a subset.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="test-discovery">
+<span id="unittest-test-discovery"></span><h2>Test Discovery<a class="headerlink" href="#test-discovery" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Unittest supports simple test discovery. In order to be compatible with test
+discovery, all of the test files must be <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/modules.html#tut-modules"><span class="std std-ref">modules</span></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/modules.html#tut-packages"><span class="std std-ref">packages</span></a> (including <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace packages</span></a>) importable from the top-level directory of
+the project (this means that their filenames must be valid <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#identifiers"><span class="std std-ref">identifiers</span></a>).</p>
+<p>Test discovery is implemented in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.discover" title="unittest.TestLoader.discover"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader.discover()</span></code></a>, but can also be
+used from the command line. The basic command-line usage is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cd</span> <span class="n">project_directory</span>
+<span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">discover</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>As a shortcut, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">unittest</span></code> is the equivalent of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">unittest</span> <span class="pre">discover</span></code>. If you want to pass arguments to test
+discovery the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discover</span></code> sub-command must be used explicitly.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discover</span></code> sub-command has the following options:</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-discover-v">
+<code class="descname">-v</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--verbose</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-discover-v" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Verbose output</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-discover-s">
+<code class="descname">-s</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--start-directory</code><code class="descclassname"> directory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-discover-s" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Directory to start discovery (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> default)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-discover-p">
+<code class="descname">-p</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--pattern</code><code class="descclassname"> pattern</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-discover-p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Pattern to match test files (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test*.py</span></code> default)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-unittest-discover-t">
+<code class="descname">-t</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--top-level-directory</code><code class="descclassname"> directory</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-unittest-discover-t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Top level directory of project (defaults to start directory)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-unittest-discover-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-unittest-discover-p"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-p</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-unittest-discover-t"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-t</span></code></a> options can be passed in
+as positional arguments in that order. The following two command lines
+are equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">discover</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="n">project_directory</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="s2">&quot;*_test.py&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">discover</span> <span class="n">project_directory</span> <span class="s2">&quot;*_test.py&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As well as being a path it is possible to pass a package name, for example
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myproject.subpackage.test</span></code>, as the start directory. The package name you
+supply will then be imported and its location on the filesystem will be used
+as the start directory.</p>
+<div class="admonition caution">
+<p class="admonition-title">Caution</p>
+<p>Test discovery loads tests by importing them. Once test discovery has found
+all the test files from the start directory you specify it turns the paths
+into package names to import. For example <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo/bar/baz.py</span></code> will be
+imported as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If you have a package installed globally and attempt test discovery on
+a different copy of the package then the import <em>could</em> happen from the
+wrong place. If this happens test discovery will warn you and exit.</p>
+<p>If you supply the start directory as a package name rather than a
+path to a directory then discover assumes that whichever location it
+imports from is the location you intended, so you will not get the
+warning.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Test modules and packages can customize test loading and discovery by through
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#load-tests-protocol">load_tests protocol</a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Test discovery supports <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace packages</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="organizing-test-code">
+<span id="organizing-tests"></span><h2>Organizing test code<a class="headerlink" href="#organizing-test-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The basic building blocks of unit testing are <em class="dfn">test cases</em> — single
+scenarios that must be set up and checked for correctness.  In <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>,
+test cases are represented by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase</span></code></a> instances.
+To make your own test cases you must write subclasses of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> or use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.FunctionTestCase" title="unittest.FunctionTestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FunctionTestCase</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The testing code of a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instance should be entirely self
+contained, such that it can be run either in isolation or in arbitrary
+combination with any number of other test cases.</p>
+<p>The simplest <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> subclass will simply implement a test method
+(i.e. a method whose name starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code>) in order to perform specific
+testing code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_default_widget_size</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">widget</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Widget</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The widget&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">widget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that in order to test something, we use one of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert*()</span></code>
+methods provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> base class.  If the test fails, an
+exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>
+will identify the test case as a <em class="dfn">failure</em>.  Any other exceptions will be
+treated as <em class="dfn">errors</em>.</p>
+<p>Tests can be numerous, and their set-up can be repetitive.  Luckily, we
+can factor out set-up code by implementing a method called
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a>, which the testing framework will automatically
+call for every single test we run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">WidgetTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">widget</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Widget</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The widget&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_default_widget_size</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">widget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                         <span class="s1">&#39;incorrect default size&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_widget_resize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">widget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">150</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">widget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">size</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">150</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                         <span class="s1">&#39;wrong size after resize&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The order in which the various tests will be run is determined
+by sorting the test method names with respect to the built-in
+ordering for strings.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> method raises an exception while the test is
+running, the framework will consider the test to have suffered an error, and
+the test method will not be executed.</p>
+<p>Similarly, we can provide a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a> method that tidies up
+after the test method has been run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">WidgetTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">widget</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Widget</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The widget&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tearDown</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">widget</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dispose</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> succeeded, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a> will be
+run whether the test method succeeded or not.</p>
+<p>Such a working environment for the testing code is called a
+<em class="dfn">test fixture</em>.  A new TestCase instance is created as a unique
+test fixture used to execute each individual test method.  Thus
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code>
+will be called once per test.</p>
+<p>It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests together
+according to the features they test.  <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> provides a mechanism for
+this: the <em class="dfn">test suite</em>, represented by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> class.  In most cases, calling <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.main()</span></code></a> will do
+the right thing and collect all the module’s test cases for you and execute
+them.</p>
+<p>However, should you want to customize the building of your test suite,
+you can do it yourself:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">suite</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">suite</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestSuite</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">suite</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">WidgetTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_default_widget_size&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">suite</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">WidgetTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_widget_resize&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">suite</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">runner</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TextTestRunner</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">runner</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can place the definitions of test cases and test suites in the same modules
+as the code they are to test (such as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">widget.py</span></code>), but there are several
+advantages to placing the test code in a separate module, such as
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_widget.py</span></code>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The test module can be run standalone from the command line.</p></li>
+<li><p>The test code can more easily be separated from shipped code.</p></li>
+<li><p>There is less temptation to change test code to fit the code it tests without
+a good reason.</p></li>
+<li><p>Test code should be modified much less frequently than the code it tests.</p></li>
+<li><p>Tested code can be refactored more easily.</p></li>
+<li><p>Tests for modules written in C must be in separate modules anyway, so why not
+be consistent?</p></li>
+<li><p>If the testing strategy changes, there is no need to change the source code.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="re-using-old-test-code">
+<span id="legacy-unit-tests"></span><h2>Re-using old test code<a class="headerlink" href="#re-using-old-test-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some users will find that they have existing test code that they would like to
+run from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>, without converting every old test function to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> subclass.</p>
+<p>For this reason, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.FunctionTestCase" title="unittest.FunctionTestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FunctionTestCase</span></code></a> class.
+This subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> can be used to wrap an existing test
+function.  Set-up and tear-down functions can also be provided.</p>
+<p>Given the following test function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">testSomething</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">something</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">makeSomething</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">something</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>one can create an equivalent test case instance as follows, with optional
+set-up and tear-down methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">testcase</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FunctionTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">testSomething</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="n">setUp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">makeSomethingDB</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                     <span class="n">tearDown</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">deleteSomethingDB</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Even though <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.FunctionTestCase" title="unittest.FunctionTestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FunctionTestCase</span></code></a> can be used to quickly convert an
+existing test base over to a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>-based system, this approach is
+not recommended.  Taking the time to set up proper <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>
+subclasses will make future test refactorings infinitely easier.</p>
+</div>
+<p>In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>
+module.  If so, <a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> provides a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestSuite</span></code> class that can
+automatically build <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> instances from the existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a>-based tests.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="skipping-tests-and-expected-failures">
+<span id="unittest-skipping"></span><h2>Skipping tests and expected failures<a class="headerlink" href="#skipping-tests-and-expected-failures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Unittest supports skipping individual test methods and even whole classes of
+tests.  In addition, it supports marking a test as an “expected failure,” a test
+that is broken and will fail, but shouldn’t be counted as a failure on a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.skip" title="unittest.skip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">skip()</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a>
+or one of its conditional variants, calling <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.skipTest" title="unittest.TestCase.skipTest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase.skipTest()</span></code></a> within a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> or test method, or raising <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a> directly.</p>
+<p>Basic skipping looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">skip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;demonstrating skipping&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_nothing</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;shouldn&#39;t happen&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">skipIf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mylib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__version__</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                     <span class="s2">&quot;not supported in this library version&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Tests that work for only a certain version of the library.</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">skipUnless</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">platform</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;win&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;requires Windows&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_windows_support</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># windows specific testing code</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_maybe_skipped</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">external_resource_available</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">skipTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;external resource not available&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># test code that depends on the external resource</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is the output of running the example above in verbose mode:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">test_format</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MyTestCase</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">skipped</span> <span class="s1">&#39;not supported in this library version&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">test_nothing</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MyTestCase</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">skipped</span> <span class="s1">&#39;demonstrating skipping&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">test_maybe_skipped</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MyTestCase</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">skipped</span> <span class="s1">&#39;external resource not available&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">test_windows_support</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MyTestCase</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">skipped</span> <span class="s1">&#39;requires Windows&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="o">----------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Ran</span> <span class="mi">4</span> <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="mf">0.005</span><span class="n">s</span>
+
+<span class="n">OK</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">skipped</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Classes can be skipped just like methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">skip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;showing class skipping&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MySkippedTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_not_run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase.setUp()</span></code></a> can also skip the test.  This is useful when a resource
+that needs to be set up is not available.</p>
+<p>Expected failures use the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.expectedFailure" title="unittest.expectedFailure"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expectedFailure()</span></code></a> decorator.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ExpectedFailureTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expectedFailure</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_fail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;broken&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s easy to roll your own skipping decorators by making a decorator that calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.skip" title="unittest.skip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">skip()</span></code></a> on the test when it wants it to be skipped.  This decorator skips
+the test unless the passed object has a certain attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">skipUnlessHasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">func</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">skip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s2"> doesn&#39;t have </span><span class="si">{!r}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following decorators and exception implement test skipping and expected failures:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.skip">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">skip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.skip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unconditionally skip the decorated test.  <em>reason</em> should describe why the
+test is being skipped.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.skipIf">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">skipIf</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>condition</em>, <em>reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.skipIf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Skip the decorated test if <em>condition</em> is true.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.skipUnless">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">skipUnless</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>condition</em>, <em>reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.skipUnless" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Skip the decorated test unless <em>condition</em> is true.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.expectedFailure">
+<code class="descclassname">&#64;</code><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">expectedFailure</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.expectedFailure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mark the test as an expected failure.  If the test fails it will be
+considered a success.  If the test passes, it will be considered a failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="unittest.SkipTest">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">SkipTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised to skip a test.</p>
+<p>Usually you can use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.skipTest" title="unittest.TestCase.skipTest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase.skipTest()</span></code></a> or one of the skipping
+decorators instead of raising this directly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Skipped tests will not have <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a> run around them.
+Skipped classes will not have <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUpClass" title="unittest.TestCase.setUpClass"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass()</span></code></a> run.
+Skipped modules will not have <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpModule()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownModule()</span></code> run.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distinguishing-test-iterations-using-subtests">
+<span id="subtests"></span><h2>Distinguishing test iterations using subtests<a class="headerlink" href="#distinguishing-test-iterations-using-subtests" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>When there are very small differences among your tests, for
+instance some parameters, unittest allows you to distinguish them inside
+the body of a test method using the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.subTest" title="unittest.TestCase.subTest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subTest()</span></code></a> context manager.</p>
+<p>For example, the following test:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">NumbersTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_even</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">        Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will produce the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">======================================================================</span>
+<span class="n">FAIL</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">test_even</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NumbersTest</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">----------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;subtests.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">test_even</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="o">======================================================================</span>
+<span class="n">FAIL</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">test_even</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NumbersTest</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">----------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;subtests.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">test_even</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="o">======================================================================</span>
+<span class="n">FAIL</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">test_even</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NumbersTest</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">----------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;subtests.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">test_even</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without using a subtest, execution would stop after the first failure,
+and the error would be less easy to diagnose because the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code>
+wouldn’t be displayed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">======================================================================</span>
+<span class="n">FAIL</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">test_even</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__main__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NumbersTest</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">----------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;subtests.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">test_even</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="classes-and-functions">
+<span id="unittest-contents"></span><h2>Classes and functions<a class="headerlink" href="#classes-and-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section describes in depth the API of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="test-cases">
+<span id="testcase-objects"></span><h3>Test cases<a class="headerlink" href="#test-cases" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">TestCase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>methodName='runTest'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> class represent the logical test units
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> universe.  This class is intended to be used as a base
+class, with specific tests being implemented by concrete subclasses.  This class
+implements the interface needed by the test runner to allow it to drive the
+tests, and methods that the test code can use to check for and report various
+kinds of failure.</p>
+<p>Each instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> will run a single base method: the method
+named <em>methodName</em>.
+In most uses of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>, you will neither change
+the <em>methodName</em> nor reimplement the default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runTest()</span></code> method.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> can be instantiated successfully without providing a
+<em>methodName</em>. This makes it easier to experiment with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>
+from the interactive interpreter.</p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances provide three groups of methods: one group used
+to run the test, another used by the test implementation to check conditions
+and report failures, and some inquiry methods allowing information about the
+test itself to be gathered.</p>
+<p>Methods in the first group (running the test) are:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.setUp">
+<code class="descname">setUp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called immediately
+before calling the test method; other than <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a>,
+any exception raised by this method will be considered an error rather than
+a test failure. The default implementation does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.tearDown">
+<code class="descname">tearDown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Method called immediately after the test method has been called and the
+result recorded.  This is called even if the test method raised an
+exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need to be particularly
+careful about checking internal state.  Any exception, other than
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a>, raised by this method will be
+considered an additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing
+the total number of reported errors). This method will only be called if
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test method.
+The default implementation does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.setUpClass">
+<code class="descname">setUpClass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUpClass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class method called before tests in an individual class are run.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass</span></code> is called with the class as the only argument
+and must be decorated as a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUpClass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#class-and-module-fixtures">Class and Module Fixtures</a> for more details.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass">
+<code class="descname">tearDownClass</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class method called after tests in an individual class have run.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass</span></code> is called with the class as the only argument
+and must be decorated as a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tearDownClass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#class-and-module-fixtures">Class and Module Fixtures</a> for more details.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>result=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the test, collecting the result into the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> object
+passed as <em>result</em>.  If <em>result</em> is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, a temporary
+result object is created (by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.defaultTestResult" title="unittest.TestCase.defaultTestResult"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultTestResult()</span></code></a>
+method) and used. The result object is returned to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.run" title="unittest.TestCase.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>’s
+caller.</p>
+<p>The same effect may be had by simply calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Previous versions of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run</span></code> did not return the result. Neither did
+calling an instance.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.skipTest">
+<code class="descname">skipTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.skipTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Calling this during a test method or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> skips the current
+test.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest-skipping"><span class="std std-ref">Skipping tests and expected failures</span></a> for more information.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.subTest">
+<code class="descname">subTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg=None</em>, <em>**params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.subTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a context manager which executes the enclosed code block as a
+subtest.  <em>msg</em> and <em>params</em> are optional, arbitrary values which are
+displayed whenever a subtest fails, allowing you to identify them
+clearly.</p>
+<p>A test case can contain any number of subtest declarations, and
+they can be arbitrarily nested.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#subtests"><span class="std std-ref">Distinguishing test iterations using subtests</span></a> for more information.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.debug">
+<code class="descname">debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the test without collecting the result.  This allows exceptions raised
+by the test to be propagated to the caller, and can be used to support
+running tests under a debugger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p id="assert-methods">The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> class provides several assert methods to check for and
+report failures.  The following table lists the most commonly used methods
+(see the tables below for more assert methods):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 48%" />
+<col style="width: 34%" />
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Checks that</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>New in</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue(x)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool(x)</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">True</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse" title="unittest.TestCase.assertFalse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertFalse(x)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool(x)</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">False</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIs" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIs(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNot(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNone(x)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNotNone(x)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIn" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIn(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotIn(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsInstance(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotIsInstance(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">isinstance(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>All the assert methods accept a <em>msg</em> argument that, if specified, is used
+as the error message on failure (see also <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.longMessage" title="unittest.TestCase.longMessage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longMessage</span></code></a>).
+Note that the <em>msg</em> keyword argument can be passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegex()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarnsRegex()</span></code></a>
+only when they are used as a context manager.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>first</em> and <em>second</em> are equal.  If the values do not
+compare equal, the test will fail.</p>
+<p>In addition, if <em>first</em> and <em>second</em> are the exact same type and one of
+list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset or str or any type that a subclass
+registers with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc" title="unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addTypeEqualityFunc()</span></code></a> the type-specific equality
+function will be called in order to generate a more useful default
+error message (see also the <a class="reference internal" href="#type-specific-methods"><span class="std std-ref">list of type-specific methods</span></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added the automatic calling of type-specific equality function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertMultiLineEqual()</span></code></a> added as the default type equality
+function for comparing strings.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertNotEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>first</em> and <em>second</em> are not equal.  If the values do
+compare equal, the test will fail.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue">
+<code class="descname">assertTrue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expr</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertFalse">
+<code class="descname">assertFalse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expr</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>expr</em> is true (or false).</p>
+<p>Note that this is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool(expr)</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">True</span></code> and not to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expr</span>
+<span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">True</span></code> (use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIs(expr,</span> <span class="pre">True)</span></code> for the latter).  This method
+should also be avoided when more specific methods are available (e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue(a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>), because they
+provide a better error message in case of failure.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertIs">
+<code class="descname">assertIs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot">
+<code class="descname">assertIsNot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>first</em> and <em>second</em> evaluate (or don’t evaluate) to the
+same object.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone">
+<code class="descname">assertIsNone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expr</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone">
+<code class="descname">assertIsNotNone</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>expr</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>expr</em> is (or is not) <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertIn">
+<code class="descname">assertIn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn">
+<code class="descname">assertNotIn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>first</em> is (or is not) in <em>second</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance">
+<code class="descname">assertIsInstance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>cls</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance">
+<code class="descname">assertNotIsInstance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>cls</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>obj</em> is (or is not) an instance of <em>cls</em> (which can be a
+class or a tuple of classes, as supported by <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a>).
+To check for the exact type, use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertIs" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIs(type(obj),</span> <span class="pre">cls)</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>It is also possible to check the production of exceptions, warnings, and
+log messages using the following methods:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 53%" />
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 11%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Checks that</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>New in</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises(exc,</span> <span class="pre">fun,</span> <span class="pre">*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fun(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code> raises <em>exc</em></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegex(exc,</span> <span class="pre">r,</span> <span class="pre">fun,</span> <span class="pre">*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fun(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code> raises <em>exc</em>
+and the message matches regex <em>r</em></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns(warn,</span> <span class="pre">fun,</span> <span class="pre">*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fun(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code> raises <em>warn</em></p></td>
+<td><p>3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarnsRegex(warn,</span> <span class="pre">r,</span> <span class="pre">fun,</span> <span class="pre">*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fun(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code> raises <em>warn</em>
+and the message matches regex <em>r</em></p></td>
+<td><p>3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertLogs" title="unittest.TestCase.assertLogs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertLogs(logger,</span> <span class="pre">level)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block logs on <em>logger</em>
+with minimum <em>level</em></p></td>
+<td><p>3.4</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises">
+<code class="descname">assertRaises</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em>, <em>callable</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">assertRaises</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that an exception is raised when <em>callable</em> is called with any
+positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a>.  The test passes if <em>exception</em> is raised, is an
+error if another exception is raised, or fails if no exception is raised.
+To catch any of a group of exceptions, a tuple containing the exception
+classes may be passed as <em>exception</em>.</p>
+<p>If only the <em>exception</em> and possibly the <em>msg</em> arguments are given,
+return a context manager so that the code under test can be written
+inline rather than as a function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaises</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeException</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When used as a context manager, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a> accepts the
+additional keyword argument <em>msg</em>.</p>
+<p>The context manager will store the caught exception object in its
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exception</span></code> attribute.  This can be useful if the intention
+is to perform additional checks on the exception raised:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaises</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeException</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">the_exception</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exception</span>
+<span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">the_exception</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error_code</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Added the ability to use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a> as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exception</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>msg</em> keyword argument when used as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex">
+<code class="descname">assertRaisesRegex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em>, <em>regex</em>, <em>callable</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">assertRaisesRegex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em>, <em>regex</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a> but also tests that <em>regex</em> matches
+on the string representation of the raised exception.  <em>regex</em> may be
+a regular expression object or a string containing a regular expression
+suitable for use by <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a>.  Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaisesRegex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;invalid literal for.*XYZ&#39;$&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                       <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;XYZ&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaisesRegex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;literal&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+   <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;XYZ&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>Added under the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegexp</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Renamed to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegex()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>msg</em> keyword argument when used as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns">
+<code class="descname">assertWarns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>warning</em>, <em>callable</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">assertWarns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>warning</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that a warning is triggered when <em>callable</em> is called with any
+positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns()</span></code></a>.  The test passes if <em>warning</em> is triggered and
+fails if it isn’t.  Any exception is an error.
+To catch any of a group of warnings, a tuple containing the warning
+classes may be passed as <em>warnings</em>.</p>
+<p>If only the <em>warning</em> and possibly the <em>msg</em> arguments are given,
+return a context manager so that the code under test can be written
+inline rather than as a function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertWarns</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeWarning</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When used as a context manager, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns()</span></code></a> accepts the
+additional keyword argument <em>msg</em>.</p>
+<p>The context manager will store the caught warning object in its
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning</span></code> attribute, and the source line which triggered the
+warnings in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code> attributes.
+This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks
+on the warning caught:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertWarns</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeWarning</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertIn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myfile.py&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">320</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lineno</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This method works regardless of the warning filters in place when it
+is called.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>msg</em> keyword argument when used as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex">
+<code class="descname">assertWarnsRegex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>warning</em>, <em>regex</em>, <em>callable</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwds</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">assertWarnsRegex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>warning</em>, <em>regex</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns()</span></code></a> but also tests that <em>regex</em> matches on the
+message of the triggered warning.  <em>regex</em> may be a regular expression
+object or a string containing a regular expression suitable for use
+by <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a>.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertWarnsRegex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                      <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;legacy_function\(\) is deprecated&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                      <span class="n">legacy_function</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;XYZ&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertWarnsRegex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">RuntimeWarning</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;unsafe frobnicating&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">frobnicate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>msg</em> keyword argument when used as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertLogs">
+<code class="descname">assertLogs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>logger=None</em>, <em>level=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertLogs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager to test that at least one message is logged on
+the <em>logger</em> or one of its children, with at least the given
+<em>level</em>.</p>
+<p>If given, <em>logger</em> should be a <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.Logger</span></code></a> object or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> giving the name of a logger.  The default is the root
+logger, which will catch all messages.</p>
+<p>If given, <em>level</em> should be either a numeric logging level or
+its string equivalent (for example either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ERROR&quot;</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.ERROR</span></code>).  The default is <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.INFO</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The test passes if at least one message emitted inside the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>
+block matches the <em>logger</em> and <em>level</em> conditions, otherwise it fails.</p>
+<p>The object returned by the context manager is a recording helper
+which keeps tracks of the matching log messages.  It has two
+attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.records">
+<code class="descname">records</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.records" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.LogRecord</span></code></a> objects of the matching
+log messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.output">
+<code class="descname">output</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects with the formatted output of
+matching messages.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertLogs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cm</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;first message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+   <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;second message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cm</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;INFO:foo:first message&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                             <span class="s1">&#39;ERROR:foo.bar:second message&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There are also other methods used to perform more specific checks, such as:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 46%" />
+<col style="width: 38%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Checks that</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>New in</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(a-b,</span> <span class="pre">7)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(a-b,</span> <span class="pre">7)</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertGreater" title="unittest.TestCase.assertGreater"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertGreater(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertGreaterEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertLess" title="unittest.TestCase.assertLess"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertLess(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertLessEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegex(s,</span> <span class="pre">r)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r.search(s)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegex(s,</span> <span class="pre">r)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">r.search(s)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertCountEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p><em>a</em> and <em>b</em> have the same
+elements in the same number,
+regardless of their order.</p></td>
+<td><p>3.2</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertAlmostEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>places=7</em>, <em>msg=None</em>, <em>delta=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertNotAlmostEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>places=7</em>, <em>msg=None</em>, <em>delta=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>first</em> and <em>second</em> are approximately (or not approximately)
+equal by computing the difference, rounding to the given number of
+decimal <em>places</em> (default 7), and comparing to zero.  Note that these
+methods round the values to the given number of <em>decimal places</em> (i.e.
+like the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> function) and not <em>significant digits</em>.</p>
+<p>If <em>delta</em> is supplied instead of <em>places</em> then the difference
+between <em>first</em> and <em>second</em> must be less or equal to (or greater than) <em>delta</em>.</p>
+<p>Supplying both <em>delta</em> and <em>places</em> raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual()</span></code></a> automatically considers almost equal objects
+that compare equal.  <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual()</span></code></a> automatically fails
+if the objects compare equal.  Added the <em>delta</em> keyword argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertGreater">
+<code class="descname">assertGreater</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertGreater" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertGreaterEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertLess">
+<code class="descname">assertLess</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertLess" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertLessEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that <em>first</em> is respectively &gt;, &gt;=, &lt; or &lt;= than <em>second</em> depending
+on the method name.  If not, the test will fail:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertGreaterEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">AssertionError: &quot;3&quot; unexpectedly not greater than or equal to &quot;4&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertRegex">
+<code class="descname">assertRegex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>regex</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex">
+<code class="descname">assertNotRegex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>regex</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that a <em>regex</em> search matches (or does not match) <em>text</em>.  In case
+of failure, the error message will include the pattern and the <em>text</em> (or
+the pattern and the part of <em>text</em> that unexpectedly matched).  <em>regex</em>
+may be a regular expression object or a string containing a regular
+expression suitable for use by <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1: </span>Added under the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegexpMatches</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegexpMatches()</span></code> has been renamed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegex()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegex()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>The name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegexpMatches</span></code> is a deprecated alias
+for <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegex()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertCountEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that sequence <em>first</em> contains the same elements as <em>second</em>,
+regardless of their order. When they don’t, an error message listing the
+differences between the sequences will be generated.</p>
+<p>Duplicate elements are <em>not</em> ignored when comparing <em>first</em> and
+<em>second</em>. It verifies whether each element has the same count in both
+sequences. Equivalent to:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual(Counter(list(first)),</span> <span class="pre">Counter(list(second)))</span></code>
+but works with sequences of unhashable objects as well.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p id="type-specific-methods">The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a> method dispatches the equality check for objects of
+the same type to different type-specific methods.  These methods are already
+implemented for most of the built-in types, but it’s also possible to
+register new methods using <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc" title="unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addTypeEqualityFunc()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc">
+<code class="descname">addTypeEqualityFunc</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>typeobj</em>, <em>function</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers a type-specific method called by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a> to check
+if two objects of exactly the same <em>typeobj</em> (not subclasses) compare
+equal.  <em>function</em> must take two positional arguments and a third msg=None
+keyword argument just as <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a> does.  It must raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.failureException" title="unittest.TestCase.failureException"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.failureException(msg)</span></code></a> when inequality
+between the first two parameters is detected – possibly providing useful
+information and explaining the inequalities in details in the error
+message.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The list of type-specific methods automatically used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a> are summarized in the following table.  Note
+that it’s usually not necessary to invoke these methods directly.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Used to compare</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>New in</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertMultiLineEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>strings</p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertSequenceEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>sequences</p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertListEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>lists</p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTupleEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>tuples</p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertSetEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>sets or frozensets</p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictEqual(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>dicts</p></td>
+<td><p>3.1</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertMultiLineEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that the multiline string <em>first</em> is equal to the string <em>second</em>.
+When not equal a diff of the two strings highlighting the differences
+will be included in the error message. This method is used by default
+when comparing strings with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertSequenceEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em>, <em>seq_type=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tests that two sequences are equal.  If a <em>seq_type</em> is supplied, both
+<em>first</em> and <em>second</em> must be instances of <em>seq_type</em> or a failure will
+be raised.  If the sequences are different an error message is
+constructed that shows the difference between the two.</p>
+<p>This method is not called directly by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>, but
+it’s used to implement <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertListEqual()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTupleEqual()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertListEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertTupleEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tests that two lists or tuples are equal.  If not, an error message is
+constructed that shows only the differences between the two.  An error
+is also raised if either of the parameters are of the wrong type.
+These methods are used by default when comparing lists or tuples with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertSetEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tests that two sets are equal.  If not, an error message is constructed
+that lists the differences between the sets.  This method is used by
+default when comparing sets or frozensets with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Fails if either of <em>first</em> or <em>second</em> does not have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set.difference()</span></code>
+method.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual">
+<code class="descname">assertDictEqual</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>first</em>, <em>second</em>, <em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test that two dictionaries are equal.  If not, an error message is
+constructed that shows the differences in the dictionaries. This
+method will be used by default to compare dictionaries in
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p id="other-methods-and-attrs">Finally the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> provides the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.fail">
+<code class="descname">fail</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.fail" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signals a test failure unconditionally, with <em>msg</em> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for
+the error message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.failureException">
+<code class="descname">failureException</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.failureException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class attribute gives the exception raised by the test method.  If a
+test framework needs to use a specialized exception, possibly to carry
+additional information, it must subclass this exception in order to “play
+fair” with the framework.  The initial value of this attribute is
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.longMessage">
+<code class="descname">longMessage</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.longMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class attribute determines what happens when a custom failure message
+is passed as the msg argument to an assertXYY call that fails.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> is the default value. In this case, the custom message is appended
+to the end of the standard failure message.
+When set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the custom message replaces the standard message.</p>
+<p>The class setting can be overridden in individual test methods by assigning
+an instance attribute, self.longMessage, to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> before
+calling the assert methods.</p>
+<p>The class setting gets reset before each test call.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.maxDiff">
+<code class="descname">maxDiff</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.maxDiff" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute controls the maximum length of diffs output by assert
+methods that report diffs on failure. It defaults to 80*8 characters.
+Assert methods affected by this attribute are
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertSequenceEqual()</span></code></a> (including all the sequence comparison
+methods that delegate to it), <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictEqual()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertMultiLineEqual()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxDiff</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> means that there is no maximum length of
+diffs.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Testing frameworks can use the following methods to collect information on
+the test:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.countTestCases">
+<code class="descname">countTestCases</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.countTestCases" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of tests represented by this test object.  For
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances, this will always be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.defaultTestResult">
+<code class="descname">defaultTestResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.defaultTestResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an instance of the test result class that should be used for this
+test case class (if no other result instance is provided to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.run" title="unittest.TestCase.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method).</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances, this will always be an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a>; subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> should override this
+as necessary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.id">
+<code class="descname">id</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.id" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string identifying the specific test case.  This is usually the
+full name of the test method, including the module and class name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.shortDescription">
+<code class="descname">shortDescription</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.shortDescription" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a description of the test, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no description
+has been provided.  The default implementation of this method
+returns the first line of the test method’s docstring, if available,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>In 3.1 this was changed to add the test name to the short description
+even in the presence of a docstring.  This caused compatibility issues
+with unittest extensions and adding the test name was moved to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TextTestResult" title="unittest.TextTestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextTestResult</span></code></a> in Python 3.2.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.addCleanup">
+<code class="descname">addCleanup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a function to be called after <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a> to cleanup resources
+used during the test. Functions will be called in reverse order to the
+order they are added (<abbr title="last-in, first-out">LIFO</abbr>).  They
+are called with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup" title="unittest.TestCase.addCleanup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addCleanup()</span></code></a> when they are added.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> fails, meaning that <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a> is not called,
+then any cleanup functions added will still be called.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestCase.doCleanups">
+<code class="descname">doCleanups</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestCase.doCleanups" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called unconditionally after <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a>, or
+after <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> raises an exception.</p>
+<p>It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup" title="unittest.TestCase.addCleanup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addCleanup()</span></code></a>. If you need cleanup functions to be called
+<em>prior</em> to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a> then you can call <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.doCleanups" title="unittest.TestCase.doCleanups"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doCleanups()</span></code></a>
+yourself.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.doCleanups" title="unittest.TestCase.doCleanups"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doCleanups()</span></code></a> pops methods off the stack of cleanup
+functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.FunctionTestCase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">FunctionTestCase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>testFunc</em>, <em>setUp=None</em>, <em>tearDown=None</em>, <em>description=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.FunctionTestCase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements the portion of the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> interface which
+allows the test runner to drive the test, but does not provide the methods
+which test code can use to check and report errors.  This is used to create
+test cases using legacy test code, allowing it to be integrated into a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>-based test framework.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-aliases">
+<span id="id1"></span><h4>Deprecated aliases<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-aliases" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>For historical reasons, some of the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> methods had one or more
+aliases that are now deprecated.  The following table lists the correct names
+along with their deprecated aliases:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 40%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Method Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Deprecated alias</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Deprecated alias</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>failUnlessEqual</p></td>
+<td><p>assertEquals</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>failIfEqual</p></td>
+<td><p>assertNotEquals</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>failUnless</p></td>
+<td><p>assert_</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse" title="unittest.TestCase.assertFalse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertFalse()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>failIf</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>failUnlessRaises</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>failUnlessAlmostEqual</p></td>
+<td><p>assertAlmostEquals</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>failIfAlmostEqual</p></td>
+<td><p>assertNotAlmostEquals</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegex()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>assertRegexpMatches</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegex()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>assertNotRegexpMatches</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegex()</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>assertRaisesRegexp</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.1: </span>The fail* aliases listed in the second column have been deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>The assert* aliases listed in the third column have been deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegexpMatches</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegexp</span></code> have been renamed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegex()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegex()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.5: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegexpMatches</span></code> name is deprecated in favor of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegex()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="grouping-tests">
+<span id="testsuite-objects"></span><h3>Grouping tests<a class="headerlink" href="#grouping-tests" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.TestSuite">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">TestSuite</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tests=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class represents an aggregation of individual test cases and test suites.
+The class presents the interface needed by the test runner to allow it to be run
+as any other test case.  Running a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> instance is the same as
+iterating over the suite, running each test individually.</p>
+<p>If <em>tests</em> is given, it must be an iterable of individual test cases or other
+test suites that will be used to build the suite initially. Additional methods
+are provided to add test cases and suites to the collection later on.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> objects behave much like <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> objects, except
+they do not actually implement a test.  Instead, they are used to aggregate
+tests into groups of tests that should be run together. Some additional
+methods are available to add tests to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> instances:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestSuite.addTest">
+<code class="descname">addTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestSuite.addTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> to the suite.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestSuite.addTests">
+<code class="descname">addTests</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tests</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestSuite.addTests" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add all the tests from an iterable of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a>
+instances to this test suite.</p>
+<p>This is equivalent to iterating over <em>tests</em>, calling <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.addTest" title="unittest.TestSuite.addTest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addTest()</span></code></a> for
+each element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> shares the following methods with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestSuite.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>result</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestSuite.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the tests associated with this suite, collecting the result into the
+test result object passed as <em>result</em>.  Note that unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase.run" title="unittest.TestCase.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase.run()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.run" title="unittest.TestSuite.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite.run()</span></code></a> requires the result object to
+be passed in.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestSuite.debug">
+<code class="descname">debug</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestSuite.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the tests associated with this suite without collecting the
+result. This allows exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the
+caller and can be used to support running tests under a debugger.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestSuite.countTestCases">
+<code class="descname">countTestCases</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestSuite.countTestCases" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of tests represented by this test object, including all
+individual tests and sub-suites.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestSuite.__iter__">
+<code class="descname">__iter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestSuite.__iter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Tests grouped by a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> are always accessed by iteration.
+Subclasses can lazily provide tests by overriding <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.__iter__" title="unittest.TestSuite.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>. Note
+that this method may be called several times on a single suite (for
+example when counting tests or comparing for equality) so the tests
+returned by repeated iterations before <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.run" title="unittest.TestSuite.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite.run()</span></code></a> must be the
+same for each call iteration. After <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.run" title="unittest.TestSuite.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite.run()</span></code></a>, callers should
+not rely on the tests returned by this method unless the caller uses a
+subclass that overrides <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()</span></code> to preserve
+test references.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>In earlier versions the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> accessed tests directly rather
+than through iteration, so overriding <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.__iter__" title="unittest.TestSuite.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> wasn’t sufficient
+for providing tests.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>In earlier versions the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> held references to each
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> after <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.run" title="unittest.TestSuite.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite.run()</span></code></a>. Subclasses can restore
+that behavior by overriding <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In the typical usage of a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> object, the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite.run" title="unittest.TestSuite.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> method
+is invoked by a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestRunner</span></code> rather than by the end-user test harness.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="loading-and-running-tests">
+<h3>Loading and running tests<a class="headerlink" href="#loading-and-running-tests" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">TestLoader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> class is used to create test suites from classes and
+modules.  Normally, there is no need to create an instance of this class; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module provides an instance that can be shared as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.defaultTestLoader" title="unittest.defaultTestLoader"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.defaultTestLoader</span></code></a>.  Using a subclass or instance, however,
+allows customization of some configurable properties.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> objects have the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.errors">
+<code class="descname">errors</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading tests. Not reset
+by the loader at any point. Fatal errors are signalled by the relevant
+a method raising an exception to the caller. Non-fatal errors are also
+indicated by a synthetic test that will raise the original error when
+run.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> objects have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase">
+<code class="descname">loadTestsFromTestCase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>testCaseClass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a suite of all test cases contained in the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>-derived
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testCaseClass</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A test case instance is created for each method named by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames" title="unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getTestCaseNames()</span></code></a>. By default these are the method names
+beginning with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code>. If <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames" title="unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getTestCaseNames()</span></code></a> returns no
+methods, but the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runTest()</span></code> method is implemented, a single test
+case is created for that method instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule">
+<code class="descname">loadTestsFromModule</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module</em>, <em>pattern=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a suite of all test cases contained in the given module. This
+method searches <em>module</em> for classes derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> and
+creates an instance of the class for each test method defined for the
+class.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While using a hierarchy of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>-derived classes can be
+convenient in sharing fixtures and helper functions, defining test
+methods on base classes that are not intended to be instantiated
+directly does not play well with this method.  Doing so, however, can
+be useful when the fixtures are different and defined in subclasses.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If a module provides a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> function it will be called to
+load the tests. This allows modules to customize test loading.
+This is the <a class="reference internal" href="#load-tests-protocol">load_tests protocol</a>.  The <em>pattern</em> argument is passed as
+the third argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The undocumented and unofficial <em>use_load_tests</em> default argument is
+deprecated and ignored, although it is still accepted for backward
+compatibility.  The method also now accepts a keyword-only argument
+<em>pattern</em> which is passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> as the third argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName">
+<code class="descname">loadTestsFromName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>module=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a suite of all test cases given a string specifier.</p>
+<p>The specifier <em>name</em> is a “dotted name” that may resolve either to a
+module, a test case class, a test method within a test case class, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> instance, or a callable object which returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> instance.  These checks are
+applied in the order listed here; that is, a method on a possible test
+case class will be picked up as “a test method within a test case class”,
+rather than “a callable object”.</p>
+<p>For example, if you have a module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SampleTests</span></code> containing a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>-derived class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SampleTestCase</span></code> with three test
+methods (<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_one()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_two()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_three()</span></code>), the
+specifier <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'</span></code> would cause this method to
+return a suite which will run all three test methods. Using the specifier
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'</span></code> would cause it to return a test
+suite which will run only the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_two()</span></code> test method. The specifier
+can refer to modules and packages which have not been imported; they will
+be imported as a side-effect.</p>
+<p>The method optionally resolves <em>name</em> relative to the given <em>module</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> occurs while traversing
+<em>name</em> then a synthetic test that raises that error when run will be
+returned. These errors are included in the errors accumulated by
+self.errors.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromNames">
+<code class="descname">loadTestsFromNames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>names</em>, <em>module=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromNames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName" title="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadTestsFromName()</span></code></a>, but takes a sequence of names rather
+than a single name.  The return value is a test suite which supports all
+the tests defined for each name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames">
+<code class="descname">getTestCaseNames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>testCaseClass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a sorted sequence of method names found within <em>testCaseClass</em>;
+this should be a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.discover">
+<code class="descname">discover</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>start_dir</em>, <em>pattern='test*.py'</em>, <em>top_level_dir=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.discover" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Find all the test modules by recursing into subdirectories from the
+specified start directory, and return a TestSuite object containing them.
+Only test files that match <em>pattern</em> will be loaded. (Using shell style
+pattern matching.) Only module names that are importable (i.e. are valid
+Python identifiers) will be loaded.</p>
+<p>All test modules must be importable from the top level of the project. If
+the start directory is not the top level directory then the top level
+directory must be specified separately.</p>
+<p>If importing a module fails, for example due to a syntax error, then
+this will be recorded as a single error and discovery will continue.  If
+the import failure is due to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a> being raised, it will be
+recorded as a skip instead of an error.</p>
+<p>If a package (a directory containing a file named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>) is
+found, the package will be checked for a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> function. If this
+exists then it will be called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.load_tests(loader,</span> <span class="pre">tests,</span> <span class="pre">pattern)</span></code>. Test discovery takes care
+to ensure that a package is only checked for tests once during an
+invocation, even if the load_tests function itself calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loader.discover</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> exists then discovery does <em>not</em> recurse into the
+package, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> is responsible for loading all tests in the
+package.</p>
+<p>The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute so that
+packages can continue discovery themselves. <em>top_level_dir</em> is stored so
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> does not need to pass this argument in to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loader.discover()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>start_dir</em> can be a dotted module name as well as a directory.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Modules that raise <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a> on import are recorded as skips,
+  not errors.
+Discovery works for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace packages</span></a>.
+Paths are sorted before being imported so that execution order is
+  the same even if the underlying file system’s ordering is not
+  dependent on file name.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Found packages are now checked for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> regardless of
+whether their path matches <em>pattern</em>, because it is impossible for
+a package name to match the default pattern.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attributes of a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> can be configured either by
+subclassing or assignment on an instance:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.testMethodPrefix">
+<code class="descname">testMethodPrefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.testMethodPrefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>String giving the prefix of method names which will be interpreted as test
+methods.  The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'test'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This affects <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames" title="unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getTestCaseNames()</span></code></a> and all the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadTestsFrom*()</span></code>
+methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.sortTestMethodsUsing">
+<code class="descname">sortTestMethodsUsing</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.sortTestMethodsUsing" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames" title="unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getTestCaseNames()</span></code></a> and all the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadTestsFrom*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.suiteClass">
+<code class="descname">suiteClass</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.suiteClass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Callable object that constructs a test suite from a list of tests. No
+methods on the resulting object are needed.  The default value is the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>This affects all the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadTestsFrom*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestLoader.testNamePatterns">
+<code class="descname">testNamePatterns</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestLoader.testNamePatterns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test methods
+have to match to be included in test suites (see <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> option).</p>
+<p>If this attribute is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), all test methods to be
+included in test suites must match one of the patterns in this list.
+Note that matches are always performed using <a class="reference internal" href="fnmatch.html#fnmatch.fnmatchcase" title="fnmatch.fnmatchcase"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch.fnmatchcase()</span></code></a>,
+so unlike patterns passed to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> option, simple substring patterns
+will have to be converted using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> wildcards.</p>
+<p>This affects all the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadTestsFrom*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">TestResult</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is used to compile information about which tests have succeeded
+and which have failed.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> object stores the results of a set of tests.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> classes ensure that results are
+properly recorded; test authors do not need to worry about recording the
+outcome of tests.</p>
+<p>Testing frameworks built on top of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> may want access to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> object generated by running a set of tests for reporting
+purposes; a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> instance is returned by the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestRunner.run()</span></code> method for this purpose.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> instances have the following attributes that will be of
+interest when inspecting the results of running a set of tests:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.errors">
+<code class="descname">errors</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.errors" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list containing 2-tuples of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances and strings
+holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents a test which raised an
+unexpected exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.failures">
+<code class="descname">failures</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.failures" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list containing 2-tuples of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances and strings
+holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents a test where a failure
+was explicitly signalled using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase.assert*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.skipped">
+<code class="descname">skipped</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.skipped" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list containing 2-tuples of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances and strings
+holding the reason for skipping the test.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.expectedFailures">
+<code class="descname">expectedFailures</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.expectedFailures" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list containing 2-tuples of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances and strings
+holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple represents an expected failure
+of the test case.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses">
+<code class="descname">unexpectedSuccesses</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list containing <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instances that were marked as expected
+failures, but succeeded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.shouldStop">
+<code class="descname">shouldStop</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.shouldStop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when the execution of tests should stop by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.stop" title="unittest.TestResult.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.testsRun">
+<code class="descname">testsRun</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.testsRun" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The total number of tests run so far.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.buffer">
+<code class="descname">buffer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to true, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> will be buffered in between
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.startTest" title="unittest.TestResult.startTest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startTest()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.stopTest" title="unittest.TestResult.stopTest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stopTest()</span></code></a> being called. Collected output will
+only be echoed onto the real <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> if the test
+fails or errors. Any output is also attached to the failure / error message.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.failfast">
+<code class="descname">failfast</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.failfast" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to true <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.stop" title="unittest.TestResult.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a> will be called on the first failure or error,
+halting the test run.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.tb_locals">
+<code class="descname">tb_locals</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.tb_locals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to true then local variables will be shown in tracebacks.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.wasSuccessful">
+<code class="descname">wasSuccessful</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.wasSuccessful" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if all tests run so far have passed, otherwise returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> if there were any <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses" title="unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unexpectedSuccesses</span></code></a>
+from tests marked with the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.expectedFailure" title="unittest.expectedFailure"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expectedFailure()</span></code></a> decorator.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.stop">
+<code class="descname">stop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.stop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method can be called to signal that the set of tests being run should
+be aborted by setting the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.shouldStop" title="unittest.TestResult.shouldStop"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shouldStop</span></code></a> attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestRunner</span></code> objects should respect this flag and return without
+running any additional tests.</p>
+<p>For example, this feature is used by the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TextTestRunner" title="unittest.TextTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextTestRunner</span></code></a> class to
+stop the test framework when the user signals an interrupt from the
+keyboard.  Interactive tools which provide <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestRunner</span></code>
+implementations can use this in a similar manner.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods of the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> class are used to maintain
+the internal data structures, and may be extended in subclasses to support
+additional reporting requirements.  This is particularly useful in building
+tools which support interactive reporting while tests are being run.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.startTest">
+<code class="descname">startTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.startTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the test case <em>test</em> is about to be run.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.stopTest">
+<code class="descname">stopTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.stopTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called after the test case <em>test</em> has been executed, regardless of the
+outcome.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.startTestRun">
+<code class="descname">startTestRun</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.startTestRun" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called once before any tests are executed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.stopTestRun">
+<code class="descname">stopTestRun</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.stopTestRun" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called once after all tests are executed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.addError">
+<code class="descname">addError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>err</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.addError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the test case <em>test</em> raises an unexpected exception. <em>err</em> is a
+tuple of the form returned by <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span>
+<span class="pre">traceback)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default implementation appends a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(test,</span> <span class="pre">formatted_err)</span></code> to
+the instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.errors" title="unittest.TestResult.errors"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code></a> attribute, where <em>formatted_err</em> is a
+formatted traceback derived from <em>err</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.addFailure">
+<code class="descname">addFailure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>err</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.addFailure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the test case <em>test</em> signals a failure. <em>err</em> is a tuple of
+the form returned by <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span> <span class="pre">traceback)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default implementation appends a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(test,</span> <span class="pre">formatted_err)</span></code> to
+the instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.failures" title="unittest.TestResult.failures"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">failures</span></code></a> attribute, where <em>formatted_err</em> is a
+formatted traceback derived from <em>err</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.addSuccess">
+<code class="descname">addSuccess</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.addSuccess" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the test case <em>test</em> succeeds.</p>
+<p>The default implementation does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.addSkip">
+<code class="descname">addSkip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>reason</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.addSkip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the test case <em>test</em> is skipped.  <em>reason</em> is the reason the
+test gave for skipping.</p>
+<p>The default implementation appends a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(test,</span> <span class="pre">reason)</span></code> to the
+instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.skipped" title="unittest.TestResult.skipped"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">skipped</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.addExpectedFailure">
+<code class="descname">addExpectedFailure</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>err</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.addExpectedFailure" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the test case <em>test</em> fails, but was marked with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.expectedFailure" title="unittest.expectedFailure"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expectedFailure()</span></code></a> decorator.</p>
+<p>The default implementation appends a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(test,</span> <span class="pre">formatted_err)</span></code> to
+the instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.expectedFailures" title="unittest.TestResult.expectedFailures"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expectedFailures</span></code></a> attribute, where <em>formatted_err</em>
+is a formatted traceback derived from <em>err</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.addUnexpectedSuccess">
+<code class="descname">addUnexpectedSuccess</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.addUnexpectedSuccess" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the test case <em>test</em> was marked with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.expectedFailure" title="unittest.expectedFailure"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expectedFailure()</span></code></a> decorator, but succeeded.</p>
+<p>The default implementation appends the test to the instance’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses" title="unittest.TestResult.unexpectedSuccesses"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unexpectedSuccesses</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TestResult.addSubTest">
+<code class="descname">addSubTest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em>, <em>subtest</em>, <em>outcome</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TestResult.addSubTest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when a subtest finishes.  <em>test</em> is the test case
+corresponding to the test method.  <em>subtest</em> is a custom
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instance describing the subtest.</p>
+<p>If <em>outcome</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the subtest succeeded.  Otherwise,
+it failed with an exception where <em>outcome</em> is a tuple of the form
+returned by <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span> <span class="pre">traceback)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default implementation does nothing when the outcome is a
+success, and records subtest failures as normal failures.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.TextTestResult">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">TextTestResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream</em>, <em>descriptions</em>, <em>verbosity</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TextTestResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A concrete implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> used by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TextTestRunner" title="unittest.TextTestRunner"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextTestRunner</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>This class was previously named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_TextTestResult</span></code>. The old name still
+exists as an alias but is deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="unittest.defaultTestLoader">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">defaultTestLoader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.defaultTestLoader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> class intended to be shared.  If no
+customization of the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> is needed, this instance can be used
+instead of repeatedly creating new instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.TextTestRunner">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">TextTestRunner</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream=None</em>, <em>descriptions=True</em>, <em>verbosity=1</em>, <em>failfast=False</em>, <em>buffer=False</em>, <em>resultclass=None</em>, <em>warnings=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>tb_locals=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TextTestRunner" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A basic test runner implementation that outputs results to a stream. If <em>stream</em>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the default, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> is used as the output stream. This class
+has a few configurable parameters, but is essentially very simple.  Graphical
+applications which run test suites should provide alternate implementations. Such
+implementations should accept <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> as the interface to construct runners
+changes when features are added to unittest.</p>
+<p>By default this runner shows <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportWarning" title="ImportWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportWarning</span></code></a> even if they are <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#warning-ignored"><span class="std std-ref">ignored by default</span></a>. Deprecation warnings caused by <a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-aliases"><span class="std std-ref">deprecated unittest
+methods</span></a> are also special-cased and, when the warning
+filters are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'default'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'always'</span></code>, they will appear only once
+per-module, in order to avoid too many warning messages.  This behavior can
+be overridden using Python’s <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wd</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wa</span></code> options
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-warnings"><span class="std std-ref">Warning control</span></a>) and leaving
+<em>warnings</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The default stream is set to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> at instantiation time rather
+than import time.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the tb_locals parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TextTestRunner._makeResult">
+<code class="descname">_makeResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TextTestRunner._makeResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns the instance of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code> used by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TextTestRunner.run" title="unittest.TextTestRunner.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a>.
+It is not intended to be called directly, but can be overridden in
+subclasses to provide a custom <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_makeResult()</span></code> instantiates the class or callable passed in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextTestRunner</span></code> constructor as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resultclass</span></code> argument. It
+defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TextTestResult" title="unittest.TextTestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextTestResult</span></code></a> if no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resultclass</span></code> is provided.
+The result class is instantiated with the following arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">stream</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">descriptions</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">verbosity</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.TextTestRunner.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>test</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.TextTestRunner.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is the main public interface to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextTestRunner</span></code>. This
+method takes a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> instance. A
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> is created by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TextTestRunner._makeResult" title="unittest.TextTestRunner._makeResult"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_makeResult()</span></code></a> and the test(s) are run and the
+results printed to stdout.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.main">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">main</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>module='__main__'</em>, <em>defaultTest=None</em>, <em>argv=None</em>, <em>testRunner=None</em>, <em>testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader</em>, <em>exit=True</em>, <em>verbosity=1</em>, <em>failfast=None</em>, <em>catchbreak=None</em>, <em>buffer=None</em>, <em>warnings=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.main" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A command-line program that loads a set of tests from <em>module</em> and runs them;
+this is primarily for making test modules conveniently executable.
+The simplest use for this function is to include the following line at the
+end of a test script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can run tests with more detailed information by passing in the verbosity
+argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">verbosity</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>defaultTest</em> argument is either the name of a single test or an
+iterable of test names to run if no test names are specified via <em>argv</em>.  If
+not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and no test names are provided via <em>argv</em>, all
+tests found in <em>module</em> are run.</p>
+<p>The <em>argv</em> argument can be a list of options passed to the program, with the
+first element being the program name.  If not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+the values of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> are used.</p>
+<p>The <em>testRunner</em> argument can either be a test runner class or an already
+created instance of it. By default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main</span></code> calls <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a> with
+an exit code indicating success or failure of the tests run.</p>
+<p>The <em>testLoader</em> argument has to be a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> instance,
+and defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.defaultTestLoader" title="unittest.defaultTestLoader"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultTestLoader</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main</span></code> supports being used from the interactive interpreter by passing in the
+argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit=False</span></code>. This displays the result on standard output without
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">main</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_module&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exit</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>failfast</em>, <em>catchbreak</em> and <em>buffer</em> parameters have the same
+effect as the same-name <a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-options">command-line options</a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>warnings</em> argument specifies the <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#warning-filter"><span class="std std-ref">warning filter</span></a>
+that should be used while running the tests.  If it’s not specified, it will
+remain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if a <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code> option is passed to <strong class="program">python</strong>
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-warnings"><span class="std std-ref">Warning control</span></a>),
+otherwise it will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'default'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main</span></code> actually returns an instance of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestProgram</span></code> class.
+This stores the result of the tests run as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">result</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>The <em>exit</em> parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>verbosity</em>, <em>failfast</em>, <em>catchbreak</em>, <em>buffer</em>
+and <em>warnings</em> parameters were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <em>defaultTest</em> parameter was changed to also accept an iterable of
+test names.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="load-tests-protocol">
+<h4>load_tests Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#load-tests-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Modules or packages can customize how tests are loaded from them during normal
+test runs or test discovery by implementing a function called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If a test module defines <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> it will be called by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule" title="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()</span></code></a> with the following arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">load_tests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">standard_tests</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <em>pattern</em> is passed straight through from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadTestsFromModule</span></code>.  It
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>It should return a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>loader</em> is the instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> doing the loading.
+<em>standard_tests</em> are the tests that would be loaded by default from the
+module. It is common for test modules to only want to add or remove tests
+from the standard set of tests.
+The third argument is used when loading packages as part of test discovery.</p>
+<p>A typical <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> function that loads tests from a specific set of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> classes may look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">test_cases</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TestCase2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">TestCase3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load_tests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tests</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">suite</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">TestSuite</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">test_class</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">test_cases</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loadTestsFromTestCase</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test_class</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">suite</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addTests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tests</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">suite</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If discovery is started in a directory containing a package, either from the
+command line or by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestLoader.discover" title="unittest.TestLoader.discover"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader.discover()</span></code></a>, then the package
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> will be checked for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code>.  If that function does
+not exist, discovery will recurse into the package as though it were just
+another directory.  Otherwise, discovery of the package’s tests will be left up
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> which is called with the following arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">load_tests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">standard_tests</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This should return a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> representing all the tests
+from the package. (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">standard_tests</span></code> will only contain tests
+collected from <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>Because the pattern is passed into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> the package is free to
+continue (and potentially modify) test discovery. A ‘do nothing’
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> function for a test package would look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">load_tests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">standard_tests</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># top level directory cached on loader instance</span>
+    <span class="n">this_dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dirname</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">package_tests</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">discover</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start_dir</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">this_dir</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pattern</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">pattern</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">standard_tests</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addTests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">package_tests</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">standard_tests</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Discovery no longer checks package names for matching <em>pattern</em> due to the
+impossibility of package names matching the default pattern.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-and-module-fixtures">
+<h2>Class and Module Fixtures<a class="headerlink" href="#class-and-module-fixtures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Class and module level fixtures are implemented in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a>. When
+the test suite encounters a test from a new class then <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass()</span></code>
+from the previous class (if there is one) is called, followed by
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass()</span></code> from the new class.</p>
+<p>Similarly if a test is from a different module from the previous test then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownModule</span></code> from the previous module is run, followed by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpModule</span></code> from the new module.</p>
+<p>After all the tests have run the final <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownModule</span></code> are run.</p>
+<p>Note that shared fixtures do not play well with [potential] features like test
+parallelization and they break test isolation. They should be used with care.</p>
+<p>The default ordering of tests created by the unittest test loaders is to group
+all tests from the same modules and classes together. This will lead to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass</span></code> / <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpModule</span></code> (etc) being called exactly once per class and
+module. If you randomize the order, so that tests from different modules and
+classes are adjacent to each other, then these shared fixture functions may be
+called multiple times in a single test run.</p>
+<p>Shared fixtures are not intended to work with suites with non-standard
+ordering. A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseTestSuite</span></code> still exists for frameworks that don’t want to
+support shared fixtures.</p>
+<p>If there are any exceptions raised during one of the shared fixture functions
+the test is reported as an error. Because there is no corresponding test
+instance an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ErrorHolder</span></code> object (that has the same interface as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a>) is created to represent the error. If you are just using
+the standard unittest test runner then this detail doesn’t matter, but if you
+are a framework author it may be relevant.</p>
+<div class="section" id="setupclass-and-teardownclass">
+<h3>setUpClass and tearDownClass<a class="headerlink" href="#setupclass-and-teardownclass" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These must be implemented as class methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUpClass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">createExpensiveConnectionObject</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tearDownClass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">destroy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass</span></code> on base classes called
+then you must call up to them yourself. The implementations in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> are empty.</p>
+<p>If an exception is raised during a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass</span></code> then the tests in the class
+are not run and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass</span></code> is not run. Skipped classes will not
+have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass</span></code> run. If the exception is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a> exception then the class will be reported as having been skipped
+instead of as an error.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="setupmodule-and-teardownmodule">
+<h3>setUpModule and tearDownModule<a class="headerlink" href="#setupmodule-and-teardownmodule" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>These should be implemented as functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUpModule</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">createConnection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tearDownModule</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">closeConnection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If an exception is raised in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpModule</span></code> then none of the tests in the
+module will be run and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownModule</span></code> will not be run. If the exception is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a> exception then the module will be reported as having been skipped
+instead of as an error.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="signal-handling">
+<h2>Signal Handling<a class="headerlink" href="#signal-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-unittest-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c/--catch</span></code></a> command-line option to unittest,
+along with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catchbreak</span></code> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.main()</span></code></a>, provide
+more friendly handling of control-C during a test run. With catch break
+behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to complete,
+and the test run will then end and report all the results so far. A second
+control-c will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> in the usual way.</p>
+<p>The control-c handling signal handler attempts to remain compatible with code or
+tests that install their own <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGINT</span></code> handler. If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code>
+handler is called but <em>isn’t</em> the installed <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGINT</span></code> handler,
+i.e. it has been replaced by the system under test and delegated to, then it
+calls the default handler. This will normally be the expected behavior by code
+that replaces an installed handler and delegates to it. For individual tests
+that need <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code> control-c handling disabled the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.removeHandler" title="unittest.removeHandler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">removeHandler()</span></code></a>
+decorator can be used.</p>
+<p>There are a few utility functions for framework authors to enable control-c
+handling functionality within test frameworks.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.installHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">installHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.installHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Install the control-c handler. When a <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.SIGINT</span></code> is received
+(usually in response to the user pressing control-c) all registered results
+have <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.stop" title="unittest.TestResult.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a> called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.registerResult">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">registerResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>result</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.registerResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> object for control-c handling. Registering a
+result stores a weak reference to it, so it doesn’t prevent the result from
+being garbage collected.</p>
+<p>Registering a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> object has no side-effects if control-c
+handling is not enabled, so test frameworks can unconditionally register
+all results they create independently of whether or not handling is enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.removeResult">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">removeResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>result</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.removeResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove a registered result. Once a result has been removed then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.TestResult.stop" title="unittest.TestResult.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code></a> will no longer be called on that result object in
+response to a control-c.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.removeHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.</code><code class="descname">removeHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.removeHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When called without arguments this function removes the control-c handler
+if it has been installed. This function can also be used as a test decorator
+to temporarily remove the handler while the test is being executed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">removeHandler</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_signal_handling</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code> — Unit testing framework</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-example">Basic example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-options">Command-line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#test-discovery">Test Discovery</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#organizing-test-code">Organizing test code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#re-using-old-test-code">Re-using old test code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#skipping-tests-and-expected-failures">Skipping tests and expected failures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distinguishing-test-iterations-using-subtests">Distinguishing test iterations using subtests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes-and-functions">Classes and functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#test-cases">Test cases</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-aliases">Deprecated aliases</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#grouping-tests">Grouping tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#loading-and-running-tests">Loading and running tests</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#load-tests-protocol">load_tests Protocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-and-module-fixtures">Class and Module Fixtures</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#setupclass-and-teardownclass">setUpClass and tearDownClass</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#setupmodule-and-teardownmodule">setUpModule and tearDownModule</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#signal-handling">Signal Handling</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code> — Test interactive Python examples</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="unittest-mock-getting-started">
+<h1><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#module-unittest.mock" title="unittest.mock: Mock object library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code></a> — getting started<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest-mock-getting-started" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-mock">
+<span id="getting-started"></span><h2>Using Mock<a class="headerlink" href="#using-mock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="mock-patching-methods">
+<h3>Mock Patching Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#mock-patching-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Common uses for <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> objects include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Patching methods</p></li>
+<li><p>Recording method calls on objects</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>You might want to replace a method on an object to check that
+it is called with the correct arguments by another part of the system:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;method&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;value&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once our mock has been used (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real.method</span></code> in this example) it has methods
+and attributes that allow you to make assertions about how it has been used.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In most of these examples the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> classes
+are interchangeable. As the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> is the more capable class it makes
+a sensible one to use by default.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Once the mock has been called its <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.called" title="unittest.mock.Mock.called"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">called</span></code></a> attribute is set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>. More importantly we can use the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with()</span></code></a> method to check that it was called with
+the correct arguments.</p>
+<p>This example tests that calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProductionClass().method</span></code> results in a call to
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">something</span></code> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">something</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">something</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mock-for-method-calls-on-an-object">
+<h3>Mock for Method Calls on an Object<a class="headerlink" href="#mock-for-method-calls-on-an-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In the last example we patched a method directly on an object to check that it
+was called correctly. Another common use case is to pass an object into a
+method (or some part of the system under test) and then check that it is used
+in the correct way.</p>
+<p>The simple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProductionClass</span></code> below has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closer</span></code> method. If it is called with
+an object then it calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> on it.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">closer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">something</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">something</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>So to test it we need to pass in an object with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> method and check
+that it was called correctly.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">closer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We don’t have to do any work to provide the ‘close’ method on our mock.
+Accessing close creates it. So, if ‘close’ hasn’t already been called then
+accessing it in the test will create it, but <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with()</span></code></a>
+will raise a failure exception.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mocking-classes">
+<h3>Mocking Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#mocking-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A common use case is to mock out classes instantiated by your code under test.
+When you patch a class, then that class is replaced with a mock. Instances
+are created by <em>calling the class</em>. This means you access the “mock instance”
+by looking at the return value of the mocked class.</p>
+<p>In the example below we have a function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_function</span></code> that instantiates <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Foo</span></code>
+and calls a method on it. The call to <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> replaces the class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Foo</span></code> with a
+mock. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Foo</span></code> instance is the result of calling the mock, so it is configured
+by modifying the mock <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">some_function</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">instance</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;module.Foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">instance</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;the result&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">some_function</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;the result&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="naming-your-mocks">
+<h3>Naming your mocks<a class="headerlink" href="#naming-your-mocks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It can be useful to give your mocks a name. The name is shown in the repr of
+the mock and can be helpful when the mock appears in test failure messages. The
+name is also propagated to attributes or methods of the mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;foo&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;foo.method&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tracking-all-calls">
+<h3>Tracking all Calls<a class="headerlink" href="#tracking-all-calls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Often you want to track more than a single call to a method. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> attribute records all calls
+to child attributes of the mock - and also to their children.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">53</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.attribute.method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you make an assertion about <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code> and any unexpected methods
+have been called, then the assertion will fail. This is useful because as well
+as asserting that the calls you expected have been made, you are also checking
+that they were made in the right order and with no additional calls:</p>
+<p>You use the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> object to construct lists for comparing with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expected</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">53</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">expected</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, parameters to calls that return mocks are not recorded, which means it is not
+possible to track nested calls where the parameters used to create ancestors are important:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">important</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deliver</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.factory().deliver()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">factory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">important</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deliver</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="setting-return-values-and-attributes">
+<h3>Setting Return Values and Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#setting-return-values-and-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Of course you can do the same for methods on the mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The return value can also be set in the constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you need an attribute setting on your mock, just do it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sometimes you want to mock up a more complex situation, like for example
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock.connection.cursor().execute(&quot;SELECT</span> <span class="pre">1&quot;)</span></code>. If we wanted this call to
+return a list, then we have to configure the result of the nested call.</p>
+<p>We can use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> to construct the set of calls in a “chained call” like
+this for easy assertion afterwards:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;SELECT 1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;foo&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expected</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;SELECT 1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute(&#39;SELECT 1&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">expected</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is the call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.call_list()</span></code> that turns our call object into a list of
+calls representing the chained calls.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raising-exceptions-with-mocks">
+<h3>Raising exceptions with mocks<a class="headerlink" href="#raising-exceptions-with-mocks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A useful attribute is <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a>. If you set this to an
+exception class or instance then the exception will be raised when the mock
+is called.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Boom!&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">Exception</span>: <span class="n">Boom!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="side-effect-functions-and-iterables">
+<h3>Side effect functions and iterables<a class="headerlink" href="#side-effect-functions-and-iterables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> can also be set to a function or an iterable. The use case for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> as an iterable is where your mock is going to be called several
+times, and you want each call to return a different value. When you set
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> to an iterable every call to the mock returns the next value
+from the iterable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more advanced use cases, like dynamically varying the return values
+depending on what the mock is called with, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> can be a function.
+The function will be called with the same arguments as the mock. Whatever the
+function returns is what the call returns:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">vals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">vals</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-a-mock-from-an-existing-object">
+<h3>Creating a Mock from an Existing Object<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-a-mock-from-an-existing-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to the
+implementation of your mocks rather than your real code. Suppose you have a
+class that implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_method</span></code>. In a test for another class, you
+provide a mock of this object that <em>also</em> provides <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_method</span></code>. If later
+you refactor the first class, so that it no longer has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_method</span></code> - then
+your tests will continue to pass even though your code is now broken!</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> allows you to provide an object as a specification for the mock,
+using the <em>spec</em> keyword argument. Accessing methods / attributes on the
+mock that don’t exist on your specification object will immediately raise an
+attribute error. If you change the implementation of your specification, then
+tests that use that class will start failing immediately without you having to
+instantiate the class in those tests.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">old_method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+   <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">object has no attribute &#39;old_method&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using a specification also enables a smarter matching of calls made to the
+mock, regardless of whether some parameters were passed as positional or
+named arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock()&#39; id=&#39;140161580456576&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want this smarter matching to also work with method calls on the mock,
+you can use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#auto-speccing"><span class="std std-ref">auto-speccing</span></a>.</p>
+<p>If you want a stronger form of specification that prevents the setting
+of arbitrary attributes as well as the getting of them then you can use
+<em>spec_set</em> instead of <em>spec</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="patch-decorators">
+<h2>Patch Decorators<a class="headerlink" href="#patch-decorators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>With <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where
+they are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide
+read <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#where-to-patch"><span class="std std-ref">where to patch</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A common need in tests is to patch a class attribute or a module attribute,
+for example patching a builtin or patching a class in a module to test that it
+is instantiated. Modules and classes are effectively global, so patching on
+them has to be undone after the test or the patch will persist into other
+tests and cause hard to diagnose problems.</p>
+<p>mock provides three convenient decorators for this: <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch</span></code> takes a single string, of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.module.Class.attribute</span></code> to specify the attribute you are patching. It
+also optionally takes a value that you want the attribute (or class or
+whatever) to be replaced with. ‘patch.object’ takes an object and the name of
+the attribute you would like patched, plus optionally the value to patch it
+with.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;attribute&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.attribute&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">package.module</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">attribute</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you are patching a module (including <a class="reference internal" href="builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>) then use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file_handle</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;builtins.open&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">handle</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">handle</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">file_handle</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;incorrect file handle returned&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module name can be ‘dotted’, in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.module</span></code> if needed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.ClassName.attribute&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">package.module</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ClassName</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">ClassName</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A nice pattern is to actually decorate test methods themselves:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;attribute&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to patch with a Mock, you can use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> with only one argument
+(or <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> with two arguments). The mock will be created for you and
+passed into the test function / method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;static_method&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">static_method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.ClassName1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.ClassName2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockClass2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockClass1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertIs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">package</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockClass1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertIs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">package</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockClass2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test_something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated
+function in the same order they applied (the normal <em>Python</em> order that
+decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example
+above the mock for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_module.ClassName2</span></code> is passed in first.</p>
+<p>There is also <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> for setting values in a dictionary just
+during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test
+ends:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;key&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;value&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newvalue&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="n">clear</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newvalue&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict</span></code> can all be used as context managers.</p>
+<p>Where you use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> to create a mock for you, you can get a reference to the
+mock using the “as” form of the with statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;method&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">real</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As an alternative <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict</span></code> can be used as
+class decorators. When used in this way it is the same as applying the
+decorator individually to every method whose name starts with “test”.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="further-examples">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Further Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#further-examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are some more examples for some slightly more advanced scenarios.</p>
+<div class="section" id="mocking-chained-calls">
+<h3>Mocking chained calls<a class="headerlink" href="#mocking-chained-calls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Mocking chained calls is actually straightforward with mock once you
+understand the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a> attribute. When a mock is called for
+the first time, or you fetch its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code> before it has been called, a
+new <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> is created.</p>
+<p>This means that you can see how the object returned from a call to a mocked
+object has been used by interrogating the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code> mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock().foo()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>From here it is a simple step to configure and then make assertions about
+chained calls. Of course another alternative is writing your code in a more
+testable way in the first place…</p>
+<p>So, suppose we have some code that looks a little bit like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Something</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">backend</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BackendProvider</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">backend</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_endpoint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start_call</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># more code</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Assuming that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BackendProvider</span></code> is already well tested, how do we test
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method()</span></code>? Specifically, we want to test that the code section <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span> <span class="pre">more</span>
+<span class="pre">code</span></code> uses the response object in the correct way.</p>
+<p>As this chain of calls is made from an instance attribute we can monkey patch
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backend</span></code> attribute on a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Something</span></code> instance. In this particular case
+we are only interested in the return value from the final call to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_call</span></code> so we don’t have much configuration to do. Let’s assume the
+object it returns is ‘file-like’, so we’ll ensure that our response object
+uses the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> as its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To do this we create a mock instance as our mock backend and create a mock
+response object for it. To set the response as the return value for that final
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_call</span></code> we could do this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mock_backend</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_endpoint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start_call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mock_response</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We can do that in a slightly nicer way using the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure_mock()</span></code></a>
+method to directly set the return value for us:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">something</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_response</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_backend</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mock_response</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_backend</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">configure_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With these we monkey patch the “mock backend” in place and can make the real
+call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">something</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">backend</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mock_backend</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">something</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> we can check the chained call with a single
+assert. A chained call is several calls in one line of code, so there will be
+several entries in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code>. We can use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call.call_list" title="unittest.mock.call.call_list"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call.call_list()</span></code></a> to create
+this list of calls for us:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">chained</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_endpoint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foobar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start_call</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">call_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">chained</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mock_backend</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">call_list</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="partial-mocking">
+<h3>Partial mocking<a class="headerlink" href="#partial-mocking" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In some tests I wanted to mock out a call to <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date.today" title="datetime.date.today"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date.today()</span></code></a>
+to return a known date, but I didn’t want to prevent the code under test from
+creating new date objects. Unfortunately <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> is written in C, and
+so I couldn’t just monkey-patch out the static <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.today()</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>I found a simple way of doing this that involved effectively wrapping the date
+class with a mock, but passing through calls to the constructor to the real
+class (and returning real instances).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch</span> <span class="pre">decorator</span></code></a> is used here to
+mock out the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> class in the module under test. The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code>
+attribute on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns
+a real date. When the mock date class is called a real date will be
+constructed and returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">date</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.date&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_date</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mock_date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2010</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mock_date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2010</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2009</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2009</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that we don’t patch <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> globally, we patch <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> in the
+module that <em>uses</em> it. See <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#where-to-patch"><span class="std std-ref">where to patch</span></a>.</p>
+<p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.today()</span></code> is called a known date is returned, but calls to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date(...)</span></code> constructor still return normal dates. Without this you can find
+yourself having to calculate an expected result using exactly the same
+algorithm as the code under test, which is a classic testing anti-pattern.</p>
+<p>Calls to the date constructor are recorded in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_date</span></code> attributes
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_count</span></code> and friends) which may also be useful for your tests.</p>
+<p>An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin classes,
+is discussed in <a class="reference external" href="https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/">this blog entry</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mocking-a-generator-method">
+<h3>Mocking a Generator Method<a class="headerlink" href="#mocking-a-generator-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A Python generator is a function or method that uses the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement
+to return a series of values when iterated over <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id2">1</a>.</p>
+<p>A generator method / function is called to return the generator object. It is
+the generator object that is then iterated over. The protocol method for
+iteration is <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#container.__iter__" title="container.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, so we can
+mock this using a <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example class with an “iter” method implemented as a generator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iter</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>How would we mock this class, and in particular its “iter” method?</p>
+<p>To configure the values returned from the iteration (implicit in the call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>), we need to configure the object returned by the call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.iter()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iter</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>There are also generator expressions and more <a class="reference external" href="http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html">advanced uses</a> of generators, but we aren’t
+concerned about them here. A very good introduction to generators and how
+powerful they are is: <a class="reference external" href="http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/">Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="applying-the-same-patch-to-every-test-method">
+<h3>Applying the same patch to every test method<a class="headerlink" href="#applying-the-same-patch-to-every-test-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you want several patches in place for multiple test methods the obvious way
+is to apply the patch decorators to every method. This can feel like unnecessary
+repetition. For Python 2.6 or more recent you can use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> (in all its
+various forms) as a class decorator. This applies the patches to all test
+methods on the class. A test method is identified by methods whose names start
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.SomeClass&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_one</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockSomeClass</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertIs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockSomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_two</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockSomeClass</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertIs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockSomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">not_a_test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;something&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_one&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test_one</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_two&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test_two</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_two&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">not_a_test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;something&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An alternative way of managing patches is to use the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#start-and-stop"><span class="std std-ref">patch methods: start and stop</span></a>.
+These allow you to move the patching into your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown</span></code> methods.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertIs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tearDown</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is “undone” by
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code>. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an
+exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called.
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup" title="unittest.TestCase.addCleanup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase.addCleanup()</span></code></a> makes this easier:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addCleanup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertIs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mocking-unbound-methods">
+<h3>Mocking Unbound Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#mocking-unbound-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Whilst writing tests today I needed to patch an <em>unbound method</em> (patching the
+method on the class rather than on the instance). I needed self to be passed
+in as the first argument because I want to make asserts about which objects
+were calling this particular method. The issue is that you can’t patch with a
+mock for this, because if you replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn’t
+become a bound method when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn’t get
+self passed in. The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real
+function instead. The <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> decorator makes it so simple to
+patch out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a
+nuisance.</p>
+<p>If you pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=True</span></code> to patch then it does the patching with a
+<em>real</em> function object. This function object has the same signature as the one
+it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood. You still get your
+mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before. What it means though, is
+that if you use it to patch out an unbound method on a class the mocked
+function will be turned into a bound method if it is fetched from an instance.
+It will have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> passed in as the first argument, which is exactly what I
+wanted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">autospec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If we don’t use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=True</span></code> then the unbound method is patched out
+with a Mock instance instead, and isn’t called with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="checking-multiple-calls-with-mock">
+<h3>Checking multiple calls with mock<a class="headerlink" href="#checking-multiple-calls-with-mock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>mock has a nice API for making assertions about how your mock objects are used.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_bar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If your mock is only being called once you can use the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with()</span></code> method that also asserts that the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_count</span></code> is one.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_bar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected to be called once. Called 2 times.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with</span></code> make assertions about
+the <em>most recent</em> call. If your mock is going to be called several times, and
+you want to make assertions about <em>all</em> those calls you can use
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args_list</span>
+<span class="go">[call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> helper makes it easy to make assertions about these calls. You
+can build up a list of expected calls and compare it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code>. This
+looks remarkably similar to the repr of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expected</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">()]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args_list</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">expected</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coping-with-mutable-arguments">
+<h3>Coping with mutable arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#coping-with-mutable-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Another situation is rare, but can bite you, is when your mock is called with
+mutable arguments. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code> store <em>references</em> to the
+arguments. If the arguments are mutated by the code under test then you can no
+longer make assertions about what the values were when the mock was called.</p>
+<p>Here’s some example code that shows the problem. Imagine the following functions
+defined in ‘mymodule’:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">frob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">grob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;First frob and then clear val&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">frob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">val</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clear</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When we try to test that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grob</span></code> calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frob</span></code> with the correct argument look
+what happens:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.frob&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_frob</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">grob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">val</span>
+<span class="go">set()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_frob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected: (({6},), {})</span>
+<span class="go">Called with: ((set(),), {})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One possibility would be for mock to copy the arguments you pass in. This
+could then cause problems if you do assertions that rely on object identity
+for equality.</p>
+<p>Here’s one solution that uses the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code>
+functionality. If you provide a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> function for a mock then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> will be called with the same args as the mock. This gives us an
+opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later assertions. In this
+example I’m using <em>another</em> mock to store the arguments so that I can use the
+mock methods for doing the assertion. Again a helper function sets this up for
+me.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">copy</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deepcopy</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest.mock</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">DEFAULT</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">copy_call_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">new_mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deepcopy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deepcopy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">new_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">DEFAULT</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">side_effect</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">new_mock</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.frob&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_frob</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">new_mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">copy_call_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_frob</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">grob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">val</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">new_mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">new_mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span>
+<span class="go">call({6})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy_call_args</span></code> is called with the mock that will be called. It returns a new
+mock that we do the assertion on. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> function makes a copy of
+the args and calls our <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new_mock</span></code> with the copy.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If your mock is only going to be used once there is an easier way of
+checking arguments at the point they are called. You can simply do the
+checking inside a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> function.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>An alternative approach is to create a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> that copies (using <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.deepcopy()</span></code></a>) the arguments.
+Here’s an example implementation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">copy</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deepcopy</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">CopyingMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__call__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deepcopy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deepcopy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CopyingMock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__call__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CopyingMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">arg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected call: mock({1})</span>
+<span class="go">Actual call: mock(set())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;CopyingMock name=&#39;mock.foo&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When you subclass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> all dynamically created attributes,
+and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code> will use your subclass automatically. That means all
+children of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CopyingMock</span></code> will also have the type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CopyingMock</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nesting-patches">
+<h3>Nesting Patches<a class="headerlink" href="#nesting-patches" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches you
+can end up with nested with statements indenting further and further to the
+right:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_bar</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_spam</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_foo</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Bar</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_bar</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Spam</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_spam</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">test_foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With unittest <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cleanup</span></code> functions and the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#start-and-stop"><span class="std std-ref">patch methods: start and stop</span></a> we can
+achieve the same effect without the nested indentation. A simple helper
+method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_patch</span></code>, puts the patch in place and returns the created mock
+for us:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">create_patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addCleanup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">thing</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">mock_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">mock_bar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">mock_spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_foo</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Bar</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_bar</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Spam</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_spam</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock">
+<h3>Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock<a class="headerlink" href="#mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You may want to mock a dictionary, or other container object, recording all
+access to it whilst having it still behave like a dictionary.</p>
+<p>We can do this with <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a>, which will behave like a dictionary,
+and using <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> to delegate dictionary access to a real
+underlying dictionary that is under our control.</p>
+<p>When the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a> methods of our <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> are called
+(normal dictionary access) then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> is called with the key (and in
+the case of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__</span></code> the value too). We can also control what is returned.</p>
+<p>After the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> has been used we can use attributes like
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code></a> to assert about how the dictionary was used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">my_dict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getitem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>     <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">my_dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setitem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">val</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">my_dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">val</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getitem</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">setitem</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>An alternative to using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> is to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code> and <em>only</em> provide
+the magic methods you specifically want:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">getitem</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setitem__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">setitem</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A <em>third</em> option is to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> but passing in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code> as the <em>spec</em>
+(or <em>spec_set</em>) argument so that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> created only has
+dictionary magic methods available:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec_set</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getitem</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">setitem</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>With these side effect functions in place, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock</span></code> will behave like a normal
+dictionary but recording the access. It even raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if you try
+to access a key that doesn’t exist.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;d&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;eggs&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After it has been used you can make assertions about the access using the normal
+mock methods and attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args_list</span>
+<span class="go">[call(&#39;a&#39;), call(&#39;c&#39;), call(&#39;d&#39;), call(&#39;b&#39;), call(&#39;d&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args_list</span>
+<span class="go">[call(&#39;b&#39;, &#39;fish&#39;), call(&#39;d&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">my_dict</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;: 1, &#39;c&#39;: 3, &#39;b&#39;: &#39;fish&#39;, &#39;d&#39;: &#39;eggs&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes">
+<h3>Mock subclasses and their attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are various reasons why you might want to subclass <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a>. One
+reason might be to add helper methods. Here’s a silly example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">has_been_called</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">called</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MyMock id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_been_called</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_been_called</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The standard behaviour for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code> instances is that attributes and the return
+value mocks are of the same type as the mock they are accessed on. This ensures
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code> attributes are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mocks</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> attributes are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMocks</span></code>
+<a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id4">2</a>. So if you’re subclassing to add helper methods then they’ll also be
+available on the attributes and return value mock of instances of your
+subclass.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MyMock name=&#39;mock.foo&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_been_called</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MyMock name=&#39;mock.foo()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_been_called</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Sometimes this is inconvenient. For example, <a class="reference external" href="https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105">one user</a> is subclassing mock to
+created a <a class="reference external" href="https://twistedmatrix.com/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html">Twisted adaptor</a>.
+Having this applied to attributes too actually causes errors.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code> (in all its flavours) uses a method called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_get_child_mock</span></code> to create
+these “sub-mocks” for attributes and return values. You can prevent your
+subclass being used for attributes by overriding this method. The signature is
+that it takes arbitrary keyword arguments (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>) which are then passed
+onto the mock constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Subclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_get_child_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Subclass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.foo&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Subclass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Subclass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mymock</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">Subclass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id5"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>An exception to this rule are the non-callable mocks. Attributes use the
+callable variant because otherwise non-callable mocks couldn’t have callable
+methods.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mocking-imports-with-patch-dict">
+<h3>Mocking imports with patch.dict<a class="headerlink" href="#mocking-imports-with-patch-dict" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>One situation where mocking can be hard is where you have a local import inside
+a function. These are harder to mock because they aren’t using an object from
+the module namespace that we can patch out.</p>
+<p>Generally local imports are to be avoided. They are sometimes done to prevent
+circular dependencies, for which there is <em>usually</em> a much better way to solve
+the problem (refactor the code) or to prevent “up front costs” by delaying the
+import. This can also be solved in better ways than an unconditional local
+import (store the module as a class or module attribute and only do the import
+on first use).</p>
+<p>That aside there is a way to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock</span></code> to affect the results of an import.
+Importing fetches an <em>object</em> from the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> dictionary. Note that it
+fetches an <em>object</em>, which need not be a module. Importing a module for the
+first time results in a module object being put in <cite>sys.modules</cite>, so usually
+when you import something you get a module back. This need not be the case
+however.</p>
+<p>This means you can use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> to <em>temporarily</em> put a mock in place
+in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>. Any imports whilst this patch is active will fetch the mock.
+When the patch is complete (the decorated function exits, the with statement
+body is complete or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patcher.stop()</span></code> is called) then whatever was there
+previously will be restored safely.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example that mocks out the ‘fooble’ module.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.modules&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;fooble&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">}):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fooble</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">fooble</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">blob</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.blob()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fooble&#39;</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">blob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you can see the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">fooble</span></code> succeeds, but on exit there is no ‘fooble’
+left in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This also works for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code> form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.modules&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;fooble&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">}):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fooble</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">blob</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">blob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">blip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.blob.blip()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">blob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">blip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With slightly more work you can also mock package imports:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">modules</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;package&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;package.module&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.modules&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">package.module</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">fooble</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">fooble</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.module.fooble()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fooble</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions">
+<h3>Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions<a class="headerlink" href="#tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> class allows you to track the <em>order</em> of method calls on
+your mock objects through the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_calls</span></code></a> attribute. This
+doesn’t allow you to track the order of calls between separate mock objects,
+however we can use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> to achieve the same effect.</p>
+<p>Because mocks track calls to child mocks in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code>, and accessing an
+arbitrary attribute of a mock creates a child mock, we can create our separate
+mocks from a parent one. Calls to those child mock will then all be recorded,
+in order, in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code> of the parent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_bar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bar</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.foo.something()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.bar.other.thing()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We can then assert about the calls, including the order, by comparing with
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code> attribute on the manager mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expected_calls</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">something</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">()]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">expected_calls</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch</span></code> is creating, and putting in place, your mocks then you can attach
+them to a manager mock using the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach_mock()</span></code></a> method. After
+attaching calls will be recorded in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code> of the manager.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Class1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">MockClass1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mymodule.Class2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">MockClass2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attach_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MockClass1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;MockClass1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attach_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MockClass2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;MockClass2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">MockClass1</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">MockClass2</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.MockClass1().foo()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.MockClass2().bar()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">manager</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.MockClass1(),</span>
+<span class="go"> call.MockClass1().foo(),</span>
+<span class="go"> call.MockClass2(),</span>
+<span class="go"> call.MockClass2().bar()]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If many calls have been made, but you’re only interested in a particular
+sequence of them then an alternative is to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_has_calls()</span></code></a> method. This takes a list of calls (constructed
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> object). If that sequence of calls are in
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> then the assert succeeds.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">baz</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock().foo().bar().baz()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">one</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">two</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">three</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.one().two().three()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">calls</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">one</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">two</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">three</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_has_calls</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calls</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Even though the chained call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.one().two().three()</span></code> aren’t the only calls that
+have been made to the mock, the assert still succeeds.</p>
+<p>Sometimes a mock may have several calls made to it, and you are only interested
+in asserting about <em>some</em> of those calls. You may not even care about the
+order. In this case you can pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">any_order=True</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_has_calls</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">two</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seven</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fifty</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;50&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(...)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">calls</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fifty</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;50&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seven</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_has_calls</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">any_order</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="more-complex-argument-matching">
+<h3>More complex argument matching<a class="headerlink" href="#more-complex-argument-matching" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Using the same basic concept as <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.ANY" title="unittest.mock.ANY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ANY</span></code></a> we can implement matchers to do more
+complex assertions on objects used as arguments to mocks.</p>
+<p>Suppose we expect some object to be passed to a mock that by default
+compares equal based on object identity (which is the Python default for user
+defined classes). To use <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with()</span></code></a> we would need to pass
+in the exact same object. If we are only interested in some of the attributes
+of this object then we can create a matcher that will check these attributes
+for us.</p>
+<p>You can see in this example how a ‘standard’ call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with</span></code> isn’t
+sufficient:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected: call(&lt;__main__.Foo object at 0x...&gt;)</span>
+<span class="go">Actual call: call(&lt;__main__.Foo object at 0x...&gt;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A comparison function for our <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Foo</span></code> class might look something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">compare</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And a matcher object that can use comparison functions like this for its
+equality operation would look something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Matcher</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">compare</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">some_obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">compare</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">some_obj</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__eq__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compare</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Putting all this together:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">match_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Matcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compare</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match_foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Matcher</span></code> is instantiated with our compare function and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Foo</span></code> object
+we want to compare against. In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with</span></code> the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Matcher</span></code> equality
+method will be called, which compares the object the mock was called with
+against the one we created our matcher with. If they match then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with</span></code> passes, and if they don’t an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> is raised:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">match_wrong</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Matcher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compare</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">match_wrong</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected: ((&lt;Matcher object at 0x...&gt;,), {})</span>
+<span class="go">Called with: ((&lt;Foo object at 0x...&gt;,), {})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With a bit of tweaking you could have the comparison function raise the
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> directly and provide a more useful failure message.</p>
+<p>As of version 1.5, the Python testing library <a class="reference external" href="https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/">PyHamcrest</a> provides similar functionality,
+that may be useful here, in the form of its equality matcher
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality">hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality</a>).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code> — getting started</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-mock">Using Mock</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mock-patching-methods">Mock Patching Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mock-for-method-calls-on-an-object">Mock for Method Calls on an Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mocking-classes">Mocking Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#naming-your-mocks">Naming your mocks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tracking-all-calls">Tracking all Calls</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#setting-return-values-and-attributes">Setting Return Values and Attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raising-exceptions-with-mocks">Raising exceptions with mocks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#side-effect-functions-and-iterables">Side effect functions and iterables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-a-mock-from-an-existing-object">Creating a Mock from an Existing Object</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patch-decorators">Patch Decorators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#further-examples">Further Examples</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mocking-chained-calls">Mocking chained calls</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#partial-mocking">Partial mocking</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mocking-a-generator-method">Mocking a Generator Method</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#applying-the-same-patch-to-every-test-method">Applying the same patch to every test method</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mocking-unbound-methods">Mocking Unbound Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#checking-multiple-calls-with-mock">Checking multiple calls with mock</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coping-with-mutable-arguments">Coping with mutable arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nesting-patches">Nesting Patches</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock">Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes">Mock subclasses and their attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mocking-imports-with-patch-dict">Mocking imports with patch.dict</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions">Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-complex-argument-matching">More complex argument matching</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unittest.mock.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code> — mock object library</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-unittest.mock">
+<span id="unittest-mock-mock-object-library"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest.mock" title="unittest.mock: Mock object library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code></a> — mock object library<a class="headerlink" href="#module-unittest.mock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/unittest/mock.py">Lib/unittest/mock.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest.mock" title="unittest.mock: Mock object library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code></a> is a library for testing in Python. It allows you to
+replace parts of your system under test with mock objects and make assertions
+about how they have been used.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest.mock" title="unittest.mock: Mock object library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code></a> provides a core <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> class removing the need to
+create a host of stubs throughout your test suite. After performing an
+action, you can make assertions about which methods / attributes were used
+and arguments they were called with. You can also specify return values and
+set needed attributes in the normal way.</p>
+<p>Additionally, mock provides a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> decorator that handles patching
+module and class level attributes within the scope of a test, along with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.sentinel" title="unittest.mock.sentinel"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel</span></code></a> for creating unique objects. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#quick-guide">quick guide</a> for
+some examples of how to use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Mock is very easy to use and is designed for use with <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>. Mock
+is based on the ‘action -&gt; assertion’ pattern instead of ‘record -&gt; replay’
+used by many mocking frameworks.</p>
+<p>There is a backport of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-unittest.mock" title="unittest.mock: Mock object library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code></a> for earlier versions of Python,
+available as <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/mock">mock on PyPI</a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="quick-guide">
+<h2>Quick Guide<a class="headerlink" href="#quick-guide" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> objects create all attributes and
+methods as you access them and store details of how they have been used. You
+can configure them, to specify return values or limit what attributes are
+available, and then make assertions about how they have been used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest.mock</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;value&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;value&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> allows you to perform side effects, including raising an
+exception when a mock is called:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">side_effect</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 2, 3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(5, 4, 3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Mock has many other ways you can configure it and control its behaviour. For
+example the <em>spec</em> argument configures the mock to take its specification
+from another object. Attempting to access attributes or methods on the mock
+that don’t exist on the spec will fail with an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> decorator / context manager makes it easy to mock classes or
+objects in a module under test. The object you specify will be replaced with a
+mock (or other object) during the test and restored when the test ends:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest.mock</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">patch</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;module.ClassName2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;module.ClassName1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MockClass1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MockClass2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName1</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName2</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">MockClass1</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">MockClass2</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">MockClass1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">called</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">MockClass2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">called</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated
+function in the same order they applied (the normal <em>Python</em> order that
+decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example
+above the mock for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.ClassName1</span></code> is passed in first.</p>
+<p>With <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where they
+are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide
+read <a class="reference internal" href="#where-to-patch"><span class="std std-ref">where to patch</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>As well as a decorator <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> can be used as a context manager in a with
+statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;method&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There is also <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> for setting values in a dictionary just
+during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test
+ends:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;key&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;value&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newvalue&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="n">clear</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newvalue&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Mock supports the mocking of Python <a class="reference internal" href="#magic-methods"><span class="std std-ref">magic methods</span></a>. The
+easiest way of using magic methods is with the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> class. It
+allows you to do things like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__str__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foobarbaz&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;foobarbaz&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__str__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Mock allows you to assign functions (or other Mock instances) to magic methods
+and they will be called appropriately. The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> class is just a Mock
+variant that has all of the magic methods pre-created for you (well, all the
+useful ones anyway).</p>
+<p>The following is an example of using magic methods with the ordinary Mock
+class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__str__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;wheeeeee&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;wheeeeee&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For ensuring that the mock objects in your tests have the same api as the
+objects they are replacing, you can use <a class="reference internal" href="#auto-speccing"><span class="std std-ref">auto-speccing</span></a>.
+Auto-speccing can be done through the <em>autospec</em> argument to patch, or the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_autospec()</span></code></a> function. Auto-speccing creates mock objects that
+have the same attributes and methods as the objects they are replacing, and
+any functions and methods (including constructors) have the same call
+signature as the real object.</p>
+<p>This ensures that your mocks will fail in the same way as your production
+code if they are used incorrectly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest.mock</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">create_autospec</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_function</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">create_autospec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;fishy&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fishy&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_function</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;wrong arguments&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&lt;lambda&gt;() takes exactly 3 arguments (1 given)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_autospec()</span></code></a> can also be used on classes, where it copies the signature of
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> method, and on callable objects where it copies the signature of
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-mock-class">
+<h2>The Mock Class<a class="headerlink" href="#the-mock-class" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> is a flexible mock object intended to replace the use of stubs and
+test doubles throughout your code. Mocks are callable and create attributes as
+new mocks when you access them <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a>. Accessing the same attribute will always
+return the same mock. Mocks record how you use them, allowing you to make
+assertions about what your code has done to them.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> with all the magic methods
+pre-created and ready to use. There are also non-callable variants, useful
+when you are mocking out objects that aren’t callable:
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.NonCallableMock" title="unittest.mock.NonCallableMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NonCallableMock</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock" title="unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NonCallableMagicMock</span></code></a></p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> decorators makes it easy to temporarily replace classes
+in a particular module with a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> object. By default <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> will create
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> for you. You can specify an alternative class of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> using
+the <em>new_callable</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">Mock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spec=None</em>, <em>side_effect=None</em>, <em>return_value=DEFAULT</em>, <em>wraps=None</em>, <em>name=None</em>, <em>spec_set=None</em>, <em>unsafe=False</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> object. <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> takes several optional arguments
+that specify the behaviour of the Mock object:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>spec</em>: This can be either a list of strings or an existing object (a
+class or instance) that acts as the specification for the mock object. If
+you pass in an object then a list of strings is formed by calling dir on
+the object (excluding unsupported magic attributes and methods).
+Accessing any attribute not in this list will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>spec</em> is an object (rather than a list of strings) then
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#instance.__class__" title="instance.__class__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code></a> returns the class of the spec object. This
+allows mocks to pass <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> tests.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>spec_set</em>: A stricter variant of <em>spec</em>. If used, attempting to <em>set</em>
+or get an attribute on the mock that isn’t on the object passed as
+<em>spec_set</em> will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>side_effect</em>: A function to be called whenever the Mock is called. See
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> attribute. Useful for raising exceptions or
+dynamically changing return values. The function is called with the same
+arguments as the mock, and unless it returns <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a>, the return
+value of this function is used as the return value.</p>
+<p>Alternatively <em>side_effect</em> can be an exception class or instance. In
+this case the exception will be raised when the mock is called.</p>
+<p>If <em>side_effect</em> is an iterable then each call to the mock will return
+the next value from the iterable.</p>
+<p>A <em>side_effect</em> can be cleared by setting it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>return_value</em>: The value returned when the mock is called. By default
+this is a new Mock (created on first access). See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a> attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>unsafe</em>: By default if any attribute starts with <em>assert</em> or
+<em>assret</em> will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>. Passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsafe=True</span></code>
+will allow access to these attributes.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>wraps</em>: Item for the mock object to wrap. If <em>wraps</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> then
+calling the Mock will pass the call through to the wrapped object
+(returning the real result). Attribute access on the mock will return a
+Mock object that wraps the corresponding attribute of the wrapped
+object (so attempting to access an attribute that doesn’t exist will
+raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>If the mock has an explicit <em>return_value</em> set then calls are not passed
+to the wrapped object and the <em>return_value</em> is returned instead.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>name</em>: If the mock has a name then it will be used in the repr of the
+mock. This can be useful for debugging. The name is propagated to child
+mocks.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Mocks can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be
+used to set attributes on the mock after it is created. See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure_mock()</span></code></a> method for details.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called">
+<code class="descname">assert_called</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert that the mock was called at least once.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once">
+<code class="descname">assert_called_once</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert that the mock was called exactly once.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected &#39;method&#39; to have been called once. Called 2 times.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with">
+<code class="descname">assert_called_with</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is a convenient way of asserting that calls are made in a
+particular way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;wow&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;wow&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with">
+<code class="descname">assert_called_once_with</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert that the mock was called exactly once and that that call was
+with the specified arguments.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;baz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;other&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;values&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;other&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;values&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected &#39;mock&#39; to be called once. Called 2 times.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_any_call">
+<code class="descname">assert_any_call</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_any_call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>assert the mock has been called with the specified arguments.</p>
+<p>The assert passes if the mock has <em>ever</em> been called, unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with()</span></code></a> that
+only pass if the call is the most recent one, and in the case of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with()</span></code></a> it must also be the only call.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;thing&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;thing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;else&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_any_call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;thing&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls">
+<code class="descname">assert_has_calls</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>calls</em>, <em>any_order=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>assert the mock has been called with the specified calls.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> list is checked for the calls.</p>
+<p>If <em>any_order</em> is false (the default) then the calls must be
+sequential. There can be extra calls before or after the
+specified calls.</p>
+<p>If <em>any_order</em> is true then the calls can be in any order, but
+they must all appear in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">calls</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_has_calls</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calls</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">calls</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_has_calls</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">calls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">any_order</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_not_called">
+<code class="descname">assert_not_called</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_not_called" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assert the mock was never called.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hello</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_not_called</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hello</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hello</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_not_called</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected &#39;hello&#39; to not have been called. Called 1 times.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock">
+<code class="descname">reset_mock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>return_value=False</em>, <em>side_effect=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The reset_mock method resets all the call attributes on a mock object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">called</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reset_mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">called</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added two keyword only argument to the reset_mock function.</p>
+</div>
+<p>This can be useful where you want to make a series of assertions that
+reuse the same object. Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset_mock()</span></code></a> <em>doesn’t</em> clear the
+return value, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> or any child attributes you have
+set using normal assignment by default. In case you want to reset
+<em>return_value</em> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a>, then pass the corresponding
+parameter as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>. Child mocks and the return value mock
+(if any) are reset as well.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><em>return_value</em>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> are keyword only
+argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_add_spec">
+<code class="descname">mock_add_spec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spec</em>, <em>spec_set=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_add_spec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a spec to a mock. <em>spec</em> can either be an object or a
+list of strings. Only attributes on the <em>spec</em> can be fetched as
+attributes from the mock.</p>
+<p>If <em>spec_set</em> is true then only attributes on the spec can be set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock">
+<code class="descname">attach_mock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mock</em>, <em>attribute</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Attach a mock as an attribute of this one, replacing its name and
+parent. Calls to the attached mock will be recorded in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_calls</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> attributes of this one.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock">
+<code class="descname">configure_mock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set attributes on the mock through keyword arguments.</p>
+<p>Attributes plus return values and side effects can be set on child
+mocks using standard dot notation and unpacking a dictionary in the
+method call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">attrs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;method.return_value&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;other.side_effect&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">configure_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same thing can be achieved in the constructor call to mocks:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">attrs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;method.return_value&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;other.side_effect&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_attribute</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_attribute</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;eggs&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure_mock()</span></code></a> exists to make it easier to do configuration
+after the mock has been created.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.__dir__">
+<code class="descname">__dir__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.__dir__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> objects limit the results of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir(some_mock)</span></code> to useful results.
+For mocks with a <em>spec</em> this includes all the permitted attributes
+for the mock.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR" title="unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_DIR</span></code></a> for what this filtering does, and how to
+switch it off.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock._get_child_mock">
+<code class="descname">_get_child_mock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock._get_child_mock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create the child mocks for attributes and return value.
+By default child mocks will be the same type as the parent.
+Subclasses of Mock may want to override this to customize the way
+child mocks are made.</p>
+<p>For non-callable mocks the callable variant will be used (rather than
+any custom subclass).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.called">
+<code class="descname">called</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.called" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A boolean representing whether or not the mock object has been called:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">called</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">called</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.call_count">
+<code class="descname">call_count</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_count" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer telling you how many times the mock object has been called:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_count</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_count</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value">
+<code class="descname">return_value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set this to configure the value returned by calling the mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The default return value is a mock object and you can configure it in
+the normal way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Attribute</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock()()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a> can also be set in the constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect">
+<code class="descname">side_effect</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This can either be a function to be called when the mock is called,
+an iterable or an exception (class or instance) to be raised.</p>
+<p>If you pass in a function it will be called with same arguments as the
+mock and unless the function returns the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a> singleton the
+call to the mock will then return whatever the function returns. If the
+function returns <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a> then the mock will return its normal
+value (from the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>If you pass in an iterable, it is used to retrieve an iterator which
+must yield a value on every call.  This value can either be an exception
+instance to be raised, or a value to be returned from the call to the
+mock (<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a> handling is identical to the function case).</p>
+<p>An example of a mock that raises an exception (to test exception
+handling of an API):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Boom!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">Exception</span>: <span class="n">Boom!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> to return a sequence of values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(3, 2, 1)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using a callable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">DEFAULT</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">side_effect</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> can be set in the constructor. Here’s an example that
+adds one to the value the mock is called with and returns it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-7</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Setting <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> clears it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args">
+<code class="descname">call_args</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (if the mock hasn’t been called), or the
+arguments that the mock was last called with. This will be in the
+form of a tuple: the first member is any ordered arguments the mock
+was called with (or an empty tuple) and the second member is any
+keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary).</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span>
+<span class="go">call()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span>
+<span class="go">call(3, 4)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;w00t!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span>
+<span class="go">call(3, 4, 5, key=&#39;fish&#39;, next=&#39;w00t!&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args</span></code></a>, along with members of the lists <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_calls</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> are <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> objects.
+These are tuples, so they can be unpacked to get at the individual
+arguments and make more complex assertions. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calls-as-tuples"><span class="std std-ref">calls as tuples</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list">
+<code class="descname">call_args_list</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in sequence
+(so the length of the list is the number of times it has been
+called). Before any calls have been made it is an empty list. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> object can be used for conveniently constructing lists of
+calls to compare with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;w00t!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args_list</span>
+<span class="go">[call(), call(3, 4), call(key=&#39;fish&#39;, next=&#39;w00t!&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expected</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(),</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),),</span> <span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;key&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;next&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w00t!&#39;</span><span class="p">},)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args_list</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">expected</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Members of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code></a> are <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> objects. These can be
+unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calls-as-tuples"><span class="std std-ref">calls as tuples</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls">
+<code class="descname">method_calls</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track calls to
+methods and attributes, and <em>their</em> methods and attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.method()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">property</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock.property.method.attribute()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Members of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_calls</span></code></a> are <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> objects. These can be
+unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calls-as-tuples"><span class="std std-ref">calls as tuples</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls">
+<code class="descname">mock_calls</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> records <em>all</em> calls to the mock object, its methods,
+magic methods <em>and</em> return value mocks.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.first()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">second</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.second()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock()()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expected</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">second</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__int__</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">()(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">expected</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Members of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> are <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a> objects. These can be
+unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calls-as-tuples"><span class="std std-ref">calls as tuples</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The way <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> are recorded means that where nested
+calls are made, the parameters of ancestor calls are not recorded
+and so will always compare equal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bottom</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.top().bottom()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">top</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bottom</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.Mock.__class__">
+<code class="descname">__class__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.__class__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Normally the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.__class__" title="unittest.mock.Mock.__class__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code></a> attribute of an object will return its type.
+For a mock object with a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> returns the spec class
+instead. This allows mock objects to pass <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> tests for the
+object they are replacing / masquerading as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.__class__" title="unittest.mock.Mock.__class__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code></a> is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> check without forcing you to use a spec:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.NonCallableMock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">NonCallableMock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spec=None</em>, <em>wraps=None</em>, <em>name=None</em>, <em>spec_set=None</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.NonCallableMock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A non-callable version of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a>. The constructor parameters have the same
+meaning of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a>, with the exception of <em>return_value</em> and <em>side_effect</em>
+which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec_set</span></code> are able to pass <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> tests:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec_set</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> classes have support for mocking magic methods. See <a class="reference internal" href="#magic-methods"><span class="std std-ref">magic
+methods</span></a> for the full details.</p>
+<p>The mock classes and the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> decorators all take arbitrary keyword
+arguments for configuration. For the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> decorators the keywords are
+passed to the constructor of the mock being created. The keyword arguments
+are for configuring attributes of the mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same way,
+using dotted notation. As you can’t use dotted names directly in a call you
+have to create a dictionary and unpack it using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">attrs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;method.return_value&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;other.side_effect&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">some_attribute</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_attribute</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;eggs&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A callable mock which was created with a <em>spec</em> (or a <em>spec_set</em>) will
+introspect the specification object’s signature when matching calls to
+the mock.  Therefore, it can match the actual call’s arguments regardless
+of whether they were passed positionally or by name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Mock name=&#39;mock()&#39; id=&#39;140161580456576&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This applies to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_has_calls()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_any_call" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_any_call"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_any_call()</span></code></a>.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#auto-speccing"><span class="std std-ref">Autospeccing</span></a>, it will also
+apply to method calls on the mock object.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added signature introspection on specced and autospecced mock objects.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.PropertyMock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">PropertyMock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.PropertyMock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A mock intended to be used as a property, or other descriptor, on a class.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.PropertyMock" title="unittest.mock.PropertyMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PropertyMock</span></code></a> provides <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a> methods
+so you can specify a return value when it is fetched.</p>
+<p>Fetching a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.PropertyMock" title="unittest.mock.PropertyMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PropertyMock</span></code></a> instance from an object calls the mock, with
+no args. Setting it calls the mock with the value being set.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;something&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setter</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.Foo.foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">new_callable</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PropertyMock</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mockity-mock&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">this_foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">this_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">this_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">mockity-mock</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call(), call(6)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can’t directly attach a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.PropertyMock" title="unittest.mock.PropertyMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PropertyMock</span></code></a> to a mock object. Instead you can attach it to the mock type
+object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PropertyMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calling">
+<h3>Calling<a class="headerlink" href="#calling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Mock objects are callable. The call will return the value set as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a> attribute. The default return value is a new Mock
+object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed (either
+explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the same one
+returned each time.</p>
+<p>Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes
+like <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> is set then it will be called after the call has
+been recorded, so if <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> raises an exception the call is still
+recorded.</p>
+<p>The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to make
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> an exception class or instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">IndexError</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">IndexError</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call(1, 2, 3)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Bang!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;three&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;four&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;Bang!&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call(1, 2, 3), call(&#39;two&#39;, &#39;three&#39;, &#39;four&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> is a function then whatever that function returns is what
+calls to the mock return. The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> function is called with the
+same arguments as the mock. This allows you to vary the return value of the
+call dynamically, based on the input:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call(1), call(2)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new mock), or
+any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this. Either return
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock.return_value</span></code> from inside <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code>, or return <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">side_effect</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">DEFAULT</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">side_effect</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To remove a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code>, and return to the default behaviour, set the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">side_effect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">side_effect</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">side_effect</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> can also be any iterable object. Repeated calls to the mock
+will return values from the iterable (until the iterable is exhausted and
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> is raised):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised instead of
+returned:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">iterable</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">33</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">66</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">side_effect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">33</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">66</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deleting-attributes">
+<span id="id2"></span><h3>Deleting Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#deleting-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Mock objects create attributes on demand. This allows them to pretend to be
+objects of any type.</p>
+<p>You may want a mock object to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> to a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> call, or raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> when an attribute is fetched. You can do this by providing
+an object as a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec</span></code> for a mock, but that isn’t always convenient.</p>
+<p>You “block” attributes by deleting them. Once deleted, accessing an attribute
+will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;m&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">m</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;m&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">f</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mock-names-and-the-name-attribute">
+<h3>Mock names and the name attribute<a class="headerlink" href="#mock-names-and-the-name-attribute" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since “name” is an argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> constructor, if you want your
+mock object to have a “name” attribute you can’t just pass it in at creation
+time. There are two alternatives. One option is to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.configure_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure_mock()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">configure_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;my_name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;my_name&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A simpler option is to simply set the “name” attribute after mock creation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="attaching-mocks-as-attributes">
+<h3>Attaching Mocks as Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#attaching-mocks-as-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return
+value) it becomes a “child” of that mock. Calls to the child are recorded in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_calls</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> attributes of the
+parent. This is useful for configuring child mocks and then attaching them to
+the parent, or for attaching mocks to a parent that records all calls to the
+children and allows you to make assertions about the order of calls between
+mocks:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">child1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">child2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">child1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">child1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">child2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">child2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">child1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">child2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The exception to this is if the mock has a name. This allows you to prevent
+the “parenting” if for some reason you don’t want it to happen.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">not_a_child</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;not-a-child&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">not_a_child</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;not-a-child()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Mocks created for you by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> are automatically given names. To
+attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach_mock()</span></code></a>
+method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.thing1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">child1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.thing2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">child2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">parent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attach_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;child1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">parent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attach_mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;child2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">child1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">child2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call.child1(&#39;one&#39;), call.child2(&#39;two&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that have
+leading and trailing double underscores). Mock doesn’t create these but
+instead raises an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>. This is because the interpreter
+will often implicitly request these methods, and gets <em>very</em> confused to
+get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method. If you need magic
+method support see <a class="reference internal" href="#magic-methods"><span class="std std-ref">magic methods</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-patchers">
+<h2>The patchers<a class="headerlink" href="#the-patchers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope of
+the function they decorate. They automatically handle the unpatching for you,
+even if exceptions are raised. All of these functions can also be used in with
+statements or as class decorators.</p>
+<div class="section" id="patch">
+<h3>patch<a class="headerlink" href="#patch" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> is straightforward to use. The key is to do the patching in the
+right namespace. See the section <a class="reference internal" href="#id5">where to patch</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.patch">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">patch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>new=DEFAULT</em>, <em>spec=None</em>, <em>create=False</em>, <em>spec_set=None</em>, <em>autospec=None</em>, <em>new_callable=None</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> acts as a function decorator, class decorator or a context
+manager. Inside the body of the function or with statement, the <em>target</em>
+is patched with a <em>new</em> object. When the function/with statement exits
+the patch is undone.</p>
+<p>If <em>new</em> is omitted, then the target is replaced with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a>. If <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> is used as a decorator and <em>new</em> is
+omitted, the created mock is passed in as an extra argument to the
+decorated function. If <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> is used as a context manager the created
+mock is returned by the context manager.</p>
+<p><em>target</em> should be a string in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'package.module.ClassName'</span></code>. The
+<em>target</em> is imported and the specified object replaced with the <em>new</em>
+object, so the <em>target</em> must be importable from the environment you are
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> from. The target is imported when the decorated function
+is executed, not at decoration time.</p>
+<p>The <em>spec</em> and <em>spec_set</em> keyword arguments are passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a>
+if patch is creating one for you.</p>
+<p>In addition you can pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec=True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec_set=True</span></code>, which causes
+patch to pass in the object being mocked as the spec/spec_set object.</p>
+<p><em>new_callable</em> allows you to specify a different class, or callable object,
+that will be called to create the <em>new</em> object. By default <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> is
+used.</p>
+<p>A more powerful form of <em>spec</em> is <em>autospec</em>. If you set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=True</span></code>
+then the mock will be created with a spec from the object being replaced.
+All attributes of the mock will also have the spec of the corresponding
+attribute of the object being replaced. Methods and functions being mocked
+will have their arguments checked and will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if they are
+called with the wrong signature. For mocks
+replacing a class, their return value (the ‘instance’) will have the same
+spec as the class. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_autospec()</span></code></a> function and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#auto-speccing"><span class="std std-ref">Autospeccing</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=True</span></code> you can pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=some_object</span></code> to use an
+arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being replaced.</p>
+<p>By default <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> will fail to replace attributes that don’t exist.
+If you pass in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create=True</span></code>, and the attribute doesn’t exist, patch will
+create the attribute for you when the patched function is called, and delete
+it again after the patched function has exited. This is useful for writing
+tests against attributes that your production code creates at runtime. It is
+off by default because it can be dangerous. With it switched on you can
+write passing tests against APIs that don’t actually exist!</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>If you are patching builtins in a module then you don’t
+need to pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create=True</span></code>, it will be added by default.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Patch can be used as a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code> class decorator. It works by
+decorating each test method in the class. This reduces the boilerplate
+code when your test methods share a common patchings set. <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> finds
+tests by looking for method names that start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.TEST_PREFIX</span></code>.
+By default this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'test'</span></code>, which matches the way <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> finds tests.
+You can specify an alternative prefix by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.TEST_PREFIX</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement. Here the
+patching applies to the indented block after the with statement. If you
+use “as” then the patched object will be bound to the name after the
+“as”; very useful if <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> is creating a mock object for you.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> takes arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be passed to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> (or <em>new_callable</em>) on construction.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict(...)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple(...)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object(...)</span></code> are
+available for alternate use-cases.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> as function decorator, creating the mock for you and passing it into
+the decorated function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.SomeClass&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">normal_argument</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mock_class</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_class</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Patching a class replaces the class with a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> <em>instance</em>. If the
+class is instantiated in the code under test then it will be the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a> of the mock that will be used.</p>
+<p>If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> to return a new mock each time. Alternatively you
+can set the <em>return_value</em> to be anything you want.</p>
+<p>To configure return values on methods of <em>instances</em> on the patched class
+you must do this on the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Class</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.Class&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">MockClass</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MockClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">instance</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">Class</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">instance</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">Class</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you use <em>spec</em> or <em>spec_set</em> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> is replacing a <em>class</em>, then the
+return value of the created mock will have the same spec.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Class</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.Class&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MockClass</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MockClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Original</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>new_callable</em> argument is useful where you want to use an alternative
+class to the default <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> for the created mock. For example, if
+you wanted a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.NonCallableMock" title="unittest.mock.NonCallableMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NonCallableMock</span></code></a> to be used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.thing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">new_callable</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">NonCallableMock</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">mock_thing</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">thing</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_thing</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;NonCallableMock&#39; object is not callable</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another use case might be to replace an object with an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.stdout&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">new_callable</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_stdout</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">mock_stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Something</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> is creating a mock for you, it is common that the first thing
+you need to do is to configure the mock. Some of that configuration can be done
+in the call to patch. Any arbitrary keywords you pass into the call will be
+used to set attributes on the created mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.thing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">second</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">first</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;one&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">second</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;two&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.return_value" title="unittest.mock.Mock.return_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_value</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a>, of child mocks can
+also be configured. These aren’t syntactically valid to pass in directly as
+keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be expanded
+into a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> call using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;method.return_value&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;other.side_effect&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.thing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>By default, attempting to patch a function in a module (or a method or an
+attribute in a class) that does not exist will fail with <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.non_existing_attribute&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">non_existing_attribute</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">&lt;module &#39;sys&#39; (built-in)&gt; does not have the attribute &#39;non_existing&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>but adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create=True</span></code> in the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> will make the previous example
+work as expected:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.non_existing_attribute&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">create</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_stdout</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">non_existing_attribute</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="patch-object">
+<h3>patch.object<a class="headerlink" href="#patch-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.patch.object">
+<code class="descclassname">patch.</code><code class="descname">object</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>attribute</em>, <em>new=DEFAULT</em>, <em>spec=None</em>, <em>create=False</em>, <em>spec_set=None</em>, <em>autospec=None</em>, <em>new_callable=None</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>patch the named member (<em>attribute</em>) on an object (<em>target</em>) with a mock
+object.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context
+manager. Arguments <em>new</em>, <em>spec</em>, <em>create</em>, <em>spec_set</em>, <em>autospec</em> and
+<em>new_callable</em> have the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>. Like <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> takes arbitrary keyword arguments for configuring the mock
+object it creates.</p>
+<p>When used as a class decorator <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> honours <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.TEST_PREFIX</span></code>
+for choosing which methods to wrap.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>You can either call <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> with three arguments or two arguments. The
+three argument form takes the object to be patched, the attribute name and the
+object to replace the attribute with.</p>
+<p>When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object, and a
+mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the decorated
+function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;class_method&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">class_method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mock_method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>spec</em>, <em>create</em> and the other arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> have the same
+meaning as they do for <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="patch-dict">
+<h3>patch.dict<a class="headerlink" href="#patch-dict" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.patch.dict">
+<code class="descclassname">patch.</code><code class="descname">dict</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>in_dict</em>, <em>values=()</em>, <em>clear=False</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the dictionary
+to its original state after the test.</p>
+<p><em>in_dict</em> can be a dictionary or a mapping like container. If it is a
+mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and deleting items
+plus iterating over keys.</p>
+<p><em>in_dict</em> can also be a string specifying the name of the dictionary, which
+will then be fetched by importing it.</p>
+<p><em>values</em> can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary. <em>values</em>
+can also be an iterable of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pairs.</p>
+<p>If <em>clear</em> is true then the dictionary will be cleared before the new
+values are set.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments to set
+values in the dictionary.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> can be used as a context manager, decorator or class
+decorator. When used as a class decorator <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> honours
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.TEST_PREFIX</span></code> for choosing which methods to wrap.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> can be used to add members to a dictionary, or simply let a test
+change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is restored when the test
+ends.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newvalue&#39;</span><span class="p">}):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newvalue&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;os.environ&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newvalue&#39;</span><span class="p">}):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">newvalue</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s1">&#39;newkey&#39;</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Keywords can be used in the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> call to set values in the dictionary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.modules&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mymodule</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;args&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> can be used with dictionary like objects that aren’t actually
+dictionaries. At the very minimum they must support item getting, setting,
+deleting and either iteration or membership test. This corresponds to the
+magic methods <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__" title="object.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a> and either
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Container</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__delitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">del</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Container</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">one</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">two</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="patch-multiple">
+<h3>patch.multiple<a class="headerlink" href="#patch-multiple" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.patch.multiple">
+<code class="descclassname">patch.</code><code class="descname">multiple</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>spec=None</em>, <em>create=False</em>, <em>spec_set=None</em>, <em>autospec=None</em>, <em>new_callable=None</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Perform multiple patches in a single call. It takes the object to be
+patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by importing)
+and keyword arguments for the patches:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">multiple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">settings</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">FIRST_PATCH</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">SECOND_PATCH</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a> as the value if you want <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> to create
+mocks for you. In this case the created mocks are passed into a decorated
+function by keyword, and a dictionary is returned when <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> is
+used as a context manager.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context
+manager. The arguments <em>spec</em>, <em>spec_set</em>, <em>create</em>, <em>autospec</em> and
+<em>new_callable</em> have the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>. These arguments will
+be applied to <em>all</em> patches done by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When used as a class decorator <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> honours <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.TEST_PREFIX</span></code>
+for choosing which methods to wrap.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If you want <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> to create mocks for you, then you can use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a> as the value. If you use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> as a decorator
+then the created mocks are passed into the decorated function by keyword.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">other</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">multiple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEFAULT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test_function</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> can be nested with other <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch</span></code> decorators, but put arguments
+passed by keyword <em>after</em> any of the standard arguments created by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sys.exit&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">multiple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEFAULT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_exit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s1">&#39;other&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s1">&#39;thing&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">thing</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s1">&#39;exit&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_exit</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test_function</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.multiple" title="unittest.mock.patch.multiple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.multiple()</span></code></a> is used as a context manager, the value returned by the
+context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are keyed by name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">multiple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DEFAULT</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s1">&#39;other&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;other&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s1">&#39;thing&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;thing&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;thing&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">thing</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;other&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">other</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="patch-methods-start-and-stop">
+<span id="start-and-stop"></span><h3>patch methods: start and stop<a class="headerlink" href="#patch-methods-start-and-stop" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All the patchers have <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code> methods. These make it simpler to do
+patching in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp</span></code> methods or where you want to do multiple patches without
+nesting decorators or with statements.</p>
+<p>To use them call <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.dict()</span></code></a> as
+normal and keep a reference to the returned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patcher</span></code> object. You can then
+call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code> to put the patch in place and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop()</span></code> to undo it.</p>
+<p>If you are using <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> to create a mock for you then it will be returned by
+the call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patcher.start</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.ClassName&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">package</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">module</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">original</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">new_mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">new_mock</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">original</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ClassName</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">new_mock</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp</span></code>
+method of a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.Class1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.Class2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MockClass1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MockClass2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">tearDown</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">patcher2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">package</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Class1</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MockClass1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">package</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Class2</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MockClass2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition caution">
+<p class="admonition-title">Caution</p>
+<p>If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is “undone” by
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code>. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an
+exception is raised in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp</span></code> then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown</span></code> is not called.
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup" title="unittest.TestCase.addCleanup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase.addCleanup()</span></code></a> makes this easier:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">setUp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;package.module.Class&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MockClass</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addCleanup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">package</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Class</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MockClass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patcher</span></code>
+object.</p>
+</div>
+<p>It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.stopall" title="unittest.mock.patch.stopall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.stopall()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.patch.stopall">
+<code class="descclassname">patch.</code><code class="descname">stopall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.patch.stopall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop all active patches. Only stops patches started with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="patch-builtins">
+<span id="id4"></span><h3>patch builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#patch-builtins" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can patch any builtins within a module. The following example patches
+builtin <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.ord&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock_ord</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">mock_ord</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">101</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">101</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="test-prefix">
+<h3>TEST_PREFIX<a class="headerlink" href="#test-prefix" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All of the patchers can be used as class decorators. When used in this way
+they wrap every test method on the class. The patchers recognise methods that
+start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'test'</span></code> as being test methods. This is the same way that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestLoader</span></code></a> finds test methods by default.</p>
+<p>It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests. You can
+inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.TEST_PREFIX</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TEST_PREFIX</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.value&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;not three&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Thing</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo_one</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo_two</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Thing</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_one</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">not three</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Thing</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo_two</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">not three</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nesting-patch-decorators">
+<h3>Nesting Patch Decorators<a class="headerlink" href="#nesting-patch-decorators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the
+decorators.</p>
+<p>You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;class_method&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;static_method&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mock2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">static_method</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">class_method</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock2</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">static_method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">class_method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">mock1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mock2</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mock2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards. This is the
+standard way that Python applies decorators. The order of the created mocks
+passed into your test function matches this order.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="where-to-patch">
+<span id="id5"></span><h3>Where to patch<a class="headerlink" href="#where-to-patch" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> works by (temporarily) changing the object that a <em>name</em> points to with
+another one. There can be many names pointing to any individual object, so
+for patching to work you must ensure that you patch the name used by the system
+under test.</p>
+<p>The basic principle is that you patch where an object is <em>looked up</em>, which
+is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined. A couple of
+examples will help to clarify this.</p>
+<p>Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">Defines</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span>
+
+<span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">a</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span>
+    <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">some_function</span> <span class="n">instantiates</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now we want to test <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_function</span></code> but we want to mock out <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>. The problem is that when we import module b, which we will have to
+do then it imports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> from module a. If we use <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> to mock out
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.SomeClass</span></code> then it will have no effect on our test; module b already has a
+reference to the <em>real</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> and it looks like our patching had no
+effect.</p>
+<p>The key is to patch out <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> where it is used (or where it is looked up).
+In this case <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_function</span></code> will actually look up <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> in module b,
+where we have imported it. The patching should look like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b.SomeClass&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">import</span>
+<span class="pre">SomeClass</span></code> module b does <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">some_function</span></code> uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.SomeClass</span></code>. Both
+of these import forms are common. In this case the class we want to patch is
+being looked up in the module and so we have to patch <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.SomeClass</span></code> instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a.SomeClass&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="patching-descriptors-and-proxy-objects">
+<h3>Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#patching-descriptors-and-proxy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both <a class="reference internal" href="#patch">patch</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#patch-object">patch.object</a> correctly patch and restore descriptors: class
+methods, static methods and properties. You should patch these on the <em>class</em>
+rather than an instance. They also work with <em>some</em> objects
+that proxy attribute access, like the <a class="reference external" href="http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198">django settings object</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="magicmock-and-magic-method-support">
+<h2>MagicMock and magic method support<a class="headerlink" href="#magicmock-and-magic-method-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="mocking-magic-methods">
+<span id="magic-methods"></span><h3>Mocking Magic Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#mocking-magic-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also known as
+“magic methods”. This allows mock objects to replace containers or other
+objects that implement Python protocols.</p>
+<p>Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id6">2</a>, this
+support has been specially implemented. This means that only specific magic
+methods are supported. The supported list includes <em>almost</em> all of them. If
+there are any missing that you need please let us know.</p>
+<p>You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a function
+or a mock instance. If you are using a function then it <em>must</em> take <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> as
+the first argument <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id7">3</a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__str__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fooble&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__str__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="fm">__str__</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fooble&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__str__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__str__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fooble&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fooble&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__iter__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">([]))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__enter__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__exit__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">mock</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__enter__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__exit__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Calls to magic methods do not appear in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_calls</span></code></a>, but they
+are recorded in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you use the <em>spec</em> keyword argument to create a mock then attempting to
+set a magic method that isn’t in the spec will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The full list of supported magic methods is:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__sizeof__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasses__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__floor__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__trunc__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ceil__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Comparisons: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Container methods: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Context manager: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Unary numeric methods: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__neg__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pos__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__invert__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants):
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__sub__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mul__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__matmul__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__div__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__truediv__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__floordiv__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mod__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__divmod__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lshift__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rshift__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__and__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__xor__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__or__</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pow__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Numeric conversion methods: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__float__</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Descriptor methods: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Pickling: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce_ex__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getinitargs__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The following methods exist but are <em>not</em> supported as they are either in use
+by mock, can’t be set dynamically, or can cause problems:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__instancecheck__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasscheck__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="magic-mock">
+<h3>Magic Mock<a class="headerlink" href="#magic-mock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are two <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> variants: <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock" title="unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NonCallableMagicMock</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.MagicMock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">MagicMock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> with default implementations
+of most of the magic methods. You can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> without having to
+configure the magic methods yourself.</p>
+<p>The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If you use the <em>spec</em> or <em>spec_set</em> arguments then <em>only</em> magic methods
+that exist in the spec will be created.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">NonCallableMagicMock</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kw</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A non-callable version of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a>, with the exception of <em>return_value</em> and
+<em>side_effect</em> which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The magic methods are setup with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> objects, so you can configure them
+and use them in the usual way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;fish&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;result&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;result&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects of a
+specific type. These methods are preconfigured with a default return value, so
+that they can be used without you having to do anything if you aren’t interested
+in the return value. You can still <em>set</em> the return value manually if you want
+to change the default.</p>
+<p>Methods and their defaults:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__</span></code>: NotImplemented</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__</span></code>: NotImplemented</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__</span></code>: NotImplemented</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__</span></code>: NotImplemented</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__</span></code>: 1</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__</span></code>: False</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__</span></code>: 0</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__</span></code>: iter([])</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__</span></code>: False</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__</span></code>: 1j</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__float__</span></code>: 1.0</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__</span></code>: True</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__</span></code>: 1</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span></code>: default hash for the mock</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__</span></code>: default str for the mock</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__sizeof__</span></code>: default sizeof for the mock</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">mock</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The two equality methods, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ne__" title="object.__ne__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__()</span></code></a>, are special.
+They do the default equality comparison on identity, using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a> attribute, unless you change their return value to
+return something else:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__eq__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The return value of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock.__iter__()</span></code> can be any iterable object and isn’t
+required to be an iterator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__iter__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the return value <em>is</em> an iterator, then iterating over it once will consume
+it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__iter__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> has all of the supported magic methods configured except for some
+of the obscure and obsolete ones. You can still set these up if you want.</p>
+<p>Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code> are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasses__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce_ex__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getinitargs__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getformat__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setformat__</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id6">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Magic methods <em>should</em> be looked up on the class rather than the
+instance. Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying this
+rule. The supported protocol methods should work with all supported versions
+of Python.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id9"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id7">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code>
+instance is kept isolated from the others.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="helpers">
+<h2>Helpers<a class="headerlink" href="#helpers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="sentinel">
+<h3>sentinel<a class="headerlink" href="#sentinel" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.sentinel">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">sentinel</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.sentinel" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel</span></code> object provides a convenient way of providing unique
+objects for your tests.</p>
+<p>Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name. Accessing
+the same attribute will always return the same object. The objects
+returned have a sensible repr so that test failure messages are readable.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel</span></code> attributes now preserve their identity when they are
+<a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copied</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickled</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed as an
+argument to another method, or returned. It can be common to create named
+sentinel objects to test this. <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.sentinel" title="unittest.mock.sentinel"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel</span></code></a> provides a convenient way of
+creating and testing the identity of objects like this.</p>
+<p>In this example we monkey patch <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method</span></code> to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel.some_object</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ProductionClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;method&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">return_value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_object</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">real</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">result</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_object</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sentinel</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_object</span>
+<span class="go">sentinel.some_object</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="default">
+<h3>DEFAULT<a class="headerlink" href="#default" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.DEFAULT">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">DEFAULT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.DEFAULT" title="unittest.mock.DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT</span></code></a> object is a pre-created sentinel (actually
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel.DEFAULT</span></code>). It can be used by <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect" title="unittest.mock.Mock.side_effect"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code></a>
+functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="call">
+<h3>call<a class="headerlink" href="#call" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.call">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">call</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call()</span></code></a> is a helper object for making simpler assertions, for comparing with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args_list</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.method_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_calls</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call()</span></code></a> can also be
+used with <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_has_calls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_has_calls()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args_list</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">()]</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.call.call_list">
+<code class="descclassname">call.</code><code class="descname">call_list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.call.call_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>For a call object that represents multiple calls, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call.call_list" title="unittest.mock.call.call_list"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_list()</span></code></a>
+returns a list of all the intermediate calls as well as the
+final call.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_list</span></code> is particularly useful for making assertions on “chained calls”. A
+chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code. This results in
+multiple entries in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a> on a mock. Manually constructing
+the sequence of calls can be tedious.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.call.call_list" title="unittest.mock.call.call_list"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_list()</span></code></a> can construct the sequence of calls from the same
+chained call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock().method().other()()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kall</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[call(1),</span>
+<span class="go"> call().method(arg=&#39;foo&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> call().method().other(&#39;bar&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> call().method().other()(2.0)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">kall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="calls-as-tuples">A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code> object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or
+(name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was constructed. When
+you construct them yourself this isn’t particularly interesting, but the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code>
+objects that are in the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.call_args</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.call_args_list</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.mock_calls</span></code></a> attributes can be introspected to get at the individual
+arguments they contain.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code> objects in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.call_args</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args_list"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.call_args_list</span></code></a>
+are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword args) whereas the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code> objects
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.mock_calls</span></code></a>, along with ones you construct yourself, are
+three-tuples of (name, positional args, keyword args).</p>
+<p>You can use their “tupleness” to pull out the individual arguments for more
+complex introspection and assertions. The positional arguments are a tuple
+(an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the keyword
+arguments are a dictionary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kall</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call_args</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kall</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 2, 3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kwargs</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;arg2&#39;: &#39;two&#39;, &#39;arg&#39;: &#39;one&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">kall</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">kall</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;three&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.foo()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kall</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kall</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span>
+<span class="go">(4, 5, 6)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kwargs</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;arg2&#39;: &#39;three&#39;, &#39;arg&#39;: &#39;two&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="create-autospec">
+<h3>create_autospec<a class="headerlink" href="#create-autospec" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.create_autospec">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">create_autospec</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>spec</em>, <em>spec_set=False</em>, <em>instance=False</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a mock object using another object as a spec. Attributes on the
+mock will use the corresponding attribute on the <em>spec</em> object as their
+spec.</p>
+<p>Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked to
+ensure that they are called with the correct signature.</p>
+<p>If <em>spec_set</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> then attempting to set attributes that don’t exist
+on the spec object will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the
+instance of the class) will have the same spec. You can use a class as the
+spec for an instance object by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance=True</span></code>. The returned mock
+will only be callable if instances of the mock are callable.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_autospec()</span></code></a> also takes arbitrary keyword arguments that are passed to
+the constructor of the created mock.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#auto-speccing"><span class="std std-ref">Autospeccing</span></a> for examples of how to use auto-speccing with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_autospec()</span></code></a> and the <em>autospec</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="any">
+<h3>ANY<a class="headerlink" href="#any" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.ANY">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">ANY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.ANY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p>Sometimes you may need to make assertions about <em>some</em> of the arguments in a
+call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or want to pull
+them individually out of <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.call_args" title="unittest.mock.Mock.call_args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call_args</span></code></a> and make more complex
+assertions on them.</p>
+<p>To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal to
+<em>everything</em>. Calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with()</span></code></a> will then succeed no matter what was
+passed in.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ANY</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.ANY" title="unittest.mock.ANY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ANY</span></code></a> can also be used in comparisons with call lists like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls" title="unittest.mock.Mock.mock_calls"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MagicMock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">ANY</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filter-dir">
+<h3>FILTER_DIR<a class="headerlink" href="#filter-dir" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">FILTER_DIR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR" title="unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_DIR</span></code></a> is a module level variable that controls the way mock objects
+respond to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> (only for Python 2.6 or more recent). The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+which uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members. If you
+dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic purposes, then
+set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock.FILTER_DIR</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>With filtering on, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir(some_mock)</span></code> shows only useful attributes and will
+include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn’t normally be shown.
+If the mock was created with a <em>spec</em> (or <em>autospec</em> of course) then all the
+attributes from the original are shown, even if they haven’t been accessed
+yet:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;assert_any_call&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;assert_called_once_with&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;assert_called_with&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;assert_has_calls&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;attach_mock&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> ...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;AbstractBasicAuthHandler&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;AbstractDigestAuthHandler&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;AbstractHTTPHandler&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;BaseHandler&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Many of the not-very-useful (private to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> rather than the thing being
+mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes have been
+filtered from the result of calling <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> on a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a>. If you dislike this
+behaviour you can switch it off by setting the module level switch
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR" title="unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILTER_DIR</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">mock</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FILTER_DIR</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;_NonCallableMock__get_return_value&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;_NonCallableMock__set_return_value&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;__call__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;__class__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternatively you can just use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vars(my_mock)</span></code> (instance members) and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir(type(my_mock))</span></code> (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective of
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock.FILTER_DIR</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mock-open">
+<h3>mock_open<a class="headerlink" href="#mock-open" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.mock_open">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">mock_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mock=None</em>, <em>read_data=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.mock_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>. It works
+for <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> called directly or used as a context manager.</p>
+<p>The <em>mock</em> argument is the mock object to configure. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the
+default) then a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> will be created for you, with the API limited
+to methods or attributes available on standard file handles.</p>
+<p><em>read_data</em> is a string for the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readlines" title="io.IOBase.readlines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code></a> methods
+of the file handle to return.  Calls to those methods will take data from
+<em>read_data</em> until it is depleted.  The mock of these methods is pretty
+simplistic: every time the <em>mock</em> is called, the <em>read_data</em> is rewound to
+the start.  If you need more control over the data that you are feeding to
+the tested code you will need to customize this mock for yourself.  When that
+is insufficient, one of the in-memory filesystem packages on <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">PyPI</a> can offer a realistic filesystem for testing.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readlines" title="io.IOBase.readlines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code></a> support.
+The mock of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> changed to consume <em>read_data</em> rather
+than returning it on each call.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>read_data</em> is now reset on each call to the <em>mock</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.1: </span>Added <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> to implementation so that iteration (such as in for
+loops) correctly consumes <em>read_data</em>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> as a context manager is a great way to ensure your file handles
+are closed properly and is becoming common:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/some/path&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;something&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The issue is that even if you mock out the call to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> it is the
+<em>returned object</em> that is used as a context manager (and has <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> called).</p>
+<p>Mocking context managers with a <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> is common enough and fiddly
+enough that a helper function is useful.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mock_open</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.open&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">h</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some stuff&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mock_calls</span>
+<span class="go">[call(&#39;foo&#39;, &#39;w&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> call().__enter__(),</span>
+<span class="go"> call().write(&#39;some stuff&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> call().__exit__(None, None, None)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">handle</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">handle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;some stuff&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And for reading files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.open&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mock_open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">read_data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bibble&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">h</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bibble&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="autospeccing">
+<span id="auto-speccing"></span><h3>Autospeccing<a class="headerlink" href="#autospeccing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Autospeccing is based on the existing <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec</span></code> feature of mock. It limits the
+api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is recursive
+(implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the same api as
+the attributes of the spec. In addition mocked functions / methods have the
+same call signature as the original so they raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if they are
+called incorrectly.</p>
+<p>Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here’s why it is needed.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers from two flaws
+when used to mock out objects from a system under test. One of these flaws is
+specific to the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> api and the other is a more general problem with using
+mock objects.</p>
+<p>First the problem specific to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> has two assert methods that are
+extremely handy: <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_with()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once_with"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_called_once_with()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Thing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AssertionError</span>: <span class="n">Expected &#39;mock&#39; to be called once. Called 2 times.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because mocks auto-create attributes on demand, and allow you to call them
+with arbitrary arguments, if you misspell one of these assert methods then
+your assertion is gone:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Thing&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">return_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assret_called_once_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Your tests can pass silently and incorrectly because of the typo.</p>
+<p>The second issue is more general to mocking. If you refactor some of your
+code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using the
+<em>old api</em> but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still pass. This
+means your tests can all pass even though your code is broken.</p>
+<p>Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well as
+unit tests. Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy, but if you
+don’t test how your units are “wired together” there is still lots of room
+for bugs that tests might have caught.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock</span></code> already provides a feature to help with this, called speccing. If you
+use a class or instance as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spec</span></code> for a mock then you can only access
+attributes on the mock that exist on the real class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assret_called_with</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">Mock object has no attribute &#39;assret_called_with&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same issue
+with any methods on the mock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_data</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;mock.Mock object at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assret_called_with</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Auto-speccing solves this problem. You can either pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=True</span></code> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> / <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch.object" title="unittest.mock.patch.object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch.object()</span></code></a> or use the <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_autospec()</span></code></a> function to create a
+mock with a spec. If you use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=True</span></code> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> then the
+object that is being replaced will be used as the spec object. Because the
+speccing is done “lazily” (the spec is created as attributes on the mock are
+accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects (like
+modules that import modules that import modules) without a big performance
+hit.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example of it in use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">patcher</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.request&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">autospec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_request</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patcher</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">request</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">mock_request</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;request.Request&#39; spec=&#39;Request&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can see that <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request.Request</span></code> has a spec. <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request.Request</span></code> takes two
+arguments in the constructor (one of which is <em>self</em>). Here’s what happens if
+we try to call it incorrectly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&lt;lambda&gt;() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e. the return value of
+specced mocks):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;NonCallableMagicMock name=&#39;request.Request()&#39; spec=&#39;Request&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code> objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating our
+mocked out <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request.Request</span></code> is a non-callable mock. With the spec in place
+any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;request.Request().add_header()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assret_called_with</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">Mock object has no attribute &#39;assret_called_with&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assert_called_with</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In many cases you will just be able to add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autospec=True</span></code> to your existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> calls and then be protected against bugs due to typos and api
+changes.</p>
+<p>As well as using <em>autospec</em> through <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> there is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_autospec()</span></code></a> for creating autospecced mocks directly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_request</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">create_autospec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock_request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bar&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;NonCallableMagicMock name=&#39;mock.Request()&#39; spec=&#39;Request&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This isn’t without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is not
+the default behaviour. In order to know what attributes are available on the
+spec object, autospec has to introspect (access attributes) the spec. As you
+traverse attributes on the mock a corresponding traversal of the original
+object is happening under the hood. If any of your specced objects have
+properties or descriptors that can trigger code execution then you may not be
+able to use autospec. On the other hand it is much better to design your
+objects so that introspection is safe <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id11" id="id10">4</a>.</p>
+<p>A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to be
+created in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method and not to exist on the class at all.
+<em>autospec</em> can’t know about any dynamically created attributes and restricts
+the api to visible attributes.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Something</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">33</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.Something&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">autospec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">Mock object has no attribute &#39;a&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are a few different ways of resolving this problem. The easiest, but
+not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the required
+attributes on the mock after creation. Just because <em>autospec</em> doesn’t allow
+you to fetch attributes that don’t exist on the spec it doesn’t prevent you
+setting them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.Something&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">autospec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">33</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There is a more aggressive version of both <em>spec</em> and <em>autospec</em> that <em>does</em>
+prevent you setting non-existent attributes. This is useful if you want to
+ensure your code only <em>sets</em> valid attributes too, but obviously it prevents
+this particular scenario:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.Something&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">autospec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spec_set</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">thing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Something</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">thing</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">33</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+ <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">Mock object has no attribute &#39;a&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes as
+default values for instance members initialised in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>. Note that if
+you are only setting default attributes in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> then providing them via
+class attributes (shared between instances of course) is faster too. e.g.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Something</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">33</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This brings up another issue. It is relatively common to provide a default
+value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for members that will later be an object of a different type.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> would be useless as a spec because it wouldn’t let you access <em>any</em>
+attributes or methods on it. As <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is <em>never</em> going to be useful as a
+spec, and probably indicates a member that will normally of some other type,
+autospec doesn’t use a spec for members that are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. These will
+just be ordinary mocks (well - MagicMocks):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Something</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">member</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">create_autospec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Something</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">member</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">baz</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;MagicMock name=&#39;mock.member.foo.bar.baz()&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn’t to your liking
+then there are more options. One of these is simply to use an instance as the
+spec rather than the class. The other is to create a subclass of the
+production class and add the defaults to the subclass without affecting the
+production class. Both of these require you to use an alternative object as
+the spec. Thankfully <a class="reference internal" href="#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> supports this - you can simply pass the
+alternative object as the <em>autospec</em> argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Something</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">33</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">SomethingForTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Something</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">33</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">patch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;__main__.Something&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">autospec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SomethingForTest</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;NonCallableMagicMock name=&#39;Something.a&#39; spec=&#39;int&#39; id=&#39;...&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id11"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id10">4</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects. Calling
+a mocked class to create a mock instance <em>does not</em> create a real instance.
+It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> - that are done.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sealing-mocks">
+<h3>Sealing mocks<a class="headerlink" href="#sealing-mocks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="unittest.mock.seal">
+<code class="descclassname">unittest.mock.</code><code class="descname">seal</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>mock</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#unittest.mock.seal" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Seal will disable the automatic creation of mocks when accessing an attribute of
+the mock being sealed or any of its attributes that are already mocks recursively.</p>
+<p>If a mock instance with a name or a spec is assigned to an attribute
+it won’t be considered in the sealing chain. This allows one to prevent seal from
+fixing part of the mock object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">not_submock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Mock</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample_name&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">seal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new_attribute</span>  <span class="c1"># This will raise AttributeError.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute2</span>  <span class="c1"># This will raise AttributeError.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">not_submock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attribute2</span>  <span class="c1"># This won&#39;t raise.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code> — mock object library</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#quick-guide">Quick Guide</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-mock-class">The Mock Class</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calling">Calling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deleting-attributes">Deleting Attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mock-names-and-the-name-attribute">Mock names and the name attribute</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#attaching-mocks-as-attributes">Attaching Mocks as Attributes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-patchers">The patchers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patch">patch</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patch-object">patch.object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patch-dict">patch.dict</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patch-multiple">patch.multiple</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patch-methods-start-and-stop">patch methods: start and stop</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patch-builtins">patch builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#test-prefix">TEST_PREFIX</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nesting-patch-decorators">Nesting Patch Decorators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#where-to-patch">Where to patch</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#patching-descriptors-and-proxy-objects">Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#magicmock-and-magic-method-support">MagicMock and magic method support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mocking-magic-methods">Mocking Magic Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#magic-mock">Magic Mock</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#helpers">Helpers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sentinel">sentinel</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default">DEFAULT</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#call">call</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#create-autospec">create_autospec</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#any">ANY</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filter-dir">FILTER_DIR</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mock-open">mock_open</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#autospeccing">Autospeccing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sealing-mocks">Sealing mocks</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unittest.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code> — Unit testing framework</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unittest.mock-examples.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code> — getting started</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/unix.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/unix.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6976db3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/unix.html
@@ -0,0 +1,230 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Unix Specific Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
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+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="posix — The most common POSIX system calls" href="posix.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows" href="winsound.html" />
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="unix-specific-services">
+<span id="unix"></span><h1>Unix Specific Services<a class="headerlink" href="#unix-specific-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to features that are
+unique to the Unix operating system, or in some cases to some or many variants
+of it.  Here’s an overview:</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="posix.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code> — The most common POSIX system calls</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="posix.html#large-file-support">Large File Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="posix.html#notable-module-contents">Notable Module Contents</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pwd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code> — The password database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="spwd.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code> — The shadow password database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="grp.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code> — The group database</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code> — Function to check Unix passwords</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html#hashing-methods">Hashing Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html#module-attributes">Module Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html#module-functions">Module Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="crypt.html#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="termios.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code> — POSIX style tty control</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="termios.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="tty.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tty</span></code> — Terminal control functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pty.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty</span></code> — Pseudo-terminal utilities</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pty.html#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="fcntl.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> — The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl</span></code> system calls</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pipes.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code> — Interface to shell pipelines</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="pipes.html#template-objects">Template Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="resource.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code> — Resource usage information</a><ul>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="resource.html#resource-usage">Resource Usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="nis.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code> — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="syslog.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code> — Unix syslog library routines</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="syslog.html#examples">Examples</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="syslog.html#simple-example">Simple example</a></li>
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+</li>
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+</div>
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+
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+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="winsound.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winsound</span></code> — Sound-playing interface for Windows</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="posix.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code> — The most common POSIX system calls</a></p>
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+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.error.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.error.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56e30e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.error.html
@@ -0,0 +1,250 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt" href="urllib.robotparser.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components" href="urllib.parse.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/urllib.error.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="urllib.robotparser.html" title="urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="urllib.parse.html" title="urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="internet.html" accesskey="U">Internet Protocols and Support</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-urllib.error">
+<span id="urllib-error-exception-classes-raised-by-urllib-request"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.error" title="urllib.error: Exception classes raised by urllib.request."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code></a> — Exception classes raised by urllib.request<a class="headerlink" href="#module-urllib.error" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/error.py">Lib/urllib/error.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.error" title="urllib.error: Exception classes raised by urllib.request."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code></a> module defines the exception classes for exceptions
+raised by <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a>.  The base exception class is <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The following exceptions are raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.error" title="urllib.error: Exception classes raised by urllib.request."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code></a> as appropriate:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="urllib.error.URLError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.error.</code><code class="descname">URLError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.error.URLError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they run into
+a problem.  It is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.error.URLError.reason">
+<code class="descname">reason</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.error.URLError.reason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The reason for this error.  It can be a message string or another
+exception instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a> has been made a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> instead
+of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="urllib.error.HTTPError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.error.</code><code class="descname">HTTPError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Though being an exception (a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a>), an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="urllib.error.HTTPError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code></a> can also function as a non-exceptional file-like return
+value (the same thing that <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a> returns).  This
+is useful when handling exotic HTTP errors, such as requests for
+authentication.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.error.HTTPError.code">
+<code class="descname">code</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.error.HTTPError.code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An HTTP status code as defined in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a>.  This numeric value corresponds
+to a value found in the dictionary of codes as found in
+<a class="reference internal" href="http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.error.HTTPError.reason">
+<code class="descname">reason</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.error.HTTPError.reason" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.error.HTTPError.headers">
+<code class="descname">headers</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.error.HTTPError.headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="urllib.error.HTTPError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="urllib.error.ContentTooShortError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.error.</code><code class="descname">ContentTooShortError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>content</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.error.ContentTooShortError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when the <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlretrieve" title="urllib.request.urlretrieve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlretrieve()</span></code></a>
+function detects that
+the amount of the downloaded data is less than the expected amount (given by
+the <em>Content-Length</em> header).  The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content</span></code> attribute stores the
+downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.parse.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code> — Parse URLs into components</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.robotparser.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.robotparser</span></code> —  Parser for robots.txt</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst"
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+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="urllib.robotparser.html" title="urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt"
+             >next</a> |</li>
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+        <li>
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
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+
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+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13e06a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,192 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>urllib — URL handling modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs" href="urllib.request.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation" href="wsgiref.html" />
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+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/urllib.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="urllib.request.html" title="urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="wsgiref.html" title="wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="internet.html" accesskey="U">Internet Protocols and Support</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-urllib">
+<span id="urllib-url-handling-modules"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> — URL handling modules<a class="headerlink" href="#module-urllib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/">Lib/urllib/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code> is a package that collects several modules for working with URLs:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> for opening and reading URLs</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#module-urllib.error" title="urllib.error: Exception classes raised by urllib.request."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code></a> containing the exceptions raised by <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a> for parsing URLs</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="urllib.robotparser.html#module-urllib.robotparser" title="urllib.robotparser: Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about fetchability of other URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.robotparser</span></code></a> for parsing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> files</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="wsgiref.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code> — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.request.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> — Extensible library for opening URLs</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.parse.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.parse.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03b4743
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.parse.html
@@ -0,0 +1,906 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-urllib.parse">
+<span id="urllib-parse-parse-urls-into-components"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a> — Parse URLs into components<a class="headerlink" href="#module-urllib.parse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/parse.py">Lib/urllib/parse.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
+strings up in components (addressing scheme, network location, path etc.), to
+combine the components back into a URL string, and to convert a “relative URL”
+to an absolute URL given a “base URL.”</p>
+<p>The module has been designed to match the Internet RFC on Relative Uniform
+Resource Locators. It supports the following URL schemes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftp</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gopher</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hdl</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">https</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imap</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailto</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mms</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">news</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntp</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prospero</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsync</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rtsp</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rtspu</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sftp</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shttp</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sip</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sips</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">snews</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn+ssh</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnet</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wais</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ws</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wss</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a> module defines functions that fall into two broad
+categories: URL parsing and URL quoting. These are covered in detail in
+the following sections.</p>
+<div class="section" id="url-parsing">
+<h2>URL Parsing<a class="headerlink" href="#url-parsing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its components,
+or on combining URL components into a URL string.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urlparse">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">urlparse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>urlstring</em>, <em>scheme=''</em>, <em>allow_fragments=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>.  This
+corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment</span></code>.
+Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty. The components are not broken up in
+smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single string), and %
+escapes are not expanded. The delimiters as shown above are not part of the
+result, except for a leading slash in the <em>path</em> component, which is retained if
+present.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">urlparse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.cwi.nl:80/</span><span class="si">%7E</span><span class="s1">guido/Python.html&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o</span>   <span class="c1"># doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">ParseResult(scheme=&#39;http&#39;, netloc=&#39;www.cwi.nl:80&#39;, path=&#39;/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            params=&#39;&#39;, query=&#39;&#39;, fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">scheme</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;http&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">port</span>
+<span class="go">80</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">geturl</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;http://www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Following the syntax specifications in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1808.html"><strong>RFC 1808</strong></a>, urlparse recognizes
+a netloc only if it is properly introduced by ‘//’.  Otherwise the
+input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to start with
+a path component.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; from urllib.parse import urlparse</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; urlparse(&#39;//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> ParseResult(scheme=&#39;&#39;, netloc=&#39;www.cwi.nl:80&#39;, path=&#39;/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            params=&#39;&#39;, query=&#39;&#39;, fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; urlparse(&#39;www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> ParseResult(scheme=&#39;&#39;, netloc=&#39;&#39;, path=&#39;www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            params=&#39;&#39;, query=&#39;&#39;, fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; urlparse(&#39;help/Python.html&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> ParseResult(scheme=&#39;&#39;, netloc=&#39;&#39;, path=&#39;help/Python.html&#39;, params=&#39;&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            query=&#39;&#39;, fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>scheme</em> argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
+used only if the URL does not specify one.  It should be the same type
+(text or bytes) as <em>urlstring</em>, except that the default value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code> is
+always allowed, and is automatically converted to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> if appropriate.</p>
+<p>If the <em>allow_fragments</em> argument is false, fragment identifiers are not
+recognized.  Instead, they are parsed as part of the path, parameters
+or query component, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fragment</span></code> is set to the empty string in
+the return value.</p>
+<p>The return value is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>, which means that its items can
+be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+<col style="width: 36%" />
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value if not present</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheme</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>URL scheme specifier</p></td>
+<td><p><em>scheme</em> parameter</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netloc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>Network location part</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>Hierarchical path</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">params</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p>Parameters for last path
+element</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">query</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>Query component</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fragment</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>5</p></td>
+<td><p>Fragment identifier</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">username</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>User name</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">password</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Password</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hostname</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Host name (lower case)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Port number as integer,
+if present</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Reading the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code> attribute will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if
+an invalid port is specified in the URL.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urlparse-result-object"><span class="std std-ref">Structured Parse Results</span></a> for more information on the result object.</p>
+<p>Unmatched square brackets in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netloc</span></code> attribute will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Characters in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netloc</span></code> attribute that decompose under NFKC
+normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code> will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>. If the URL is
+decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.</p>
+<p>As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few additional methods
+and attributes that are particularly useful. One such method is <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_replace()</span></code>.
+The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_replace()</span></code> method will return a new ParseResult object replacing specified
+fields with new values.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; from urllib.parse import urlparse</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; u = urlparse(&#39;//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; u</span>
+<span class="go"> ParseResult(scheme=&#39;&#39;, netloc=&#39;www.cwi.nl:80&#39;, path=&#39;/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">             params=&#39;&#39;, query=&#39;&#39;, fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> &gt;&gt;&gt; u._replace(scheme=&#39;http&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go"> ParseResult(scheme=&#39;http&#39;, netloc=&#39;www.cwi.nl:80&#39;, path=&#39;/%7Eguido/Python.html&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">             params=&#39;&#39;, query=&#39;&#39;, fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes (unless <em>allow_fragment</em> is
+false), in accordance with <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a>.  Previously, a whitelist of
+schemes that support fragments existed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Out-of-range port numbers now raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>, instead of
+returning <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.3: </span>Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will
+now raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.parse_qs">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">parse_qs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>qs</em>, <em>keep_blank_values=False</em>, <em>strict_parsing=False</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='replace'</em>, <em>max_num_fields=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.parse_qs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
+<em class="mimetype">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</em>).  Data are returned as a
+dictionary.  The dictionary keys are the unique query variable names and the
+values are lists of values for each name.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>keep_blank_values</em> is a flag indicating whether blank
+values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value
+indicates that blanks should be retained as  blank strings.  The default false
+value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were
+not included.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>strict_parsing</em> is a flag indicating what to do with
+parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are silently ignored.  If true,
+errors raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters specify how to decode
+percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>max_num_fields</em> is the maximum number of fields to
+read. If set, then throws a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if there are more than
+<em>max_num_fields</em> fields read.</p>
+<p>Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlencode()</span></code></a> function (with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doseq</span></code>
+parameter set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>) to convert such dictionaries into query
+strings.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Add <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.2: </span>Added <em>max_num_fields</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.parse_qsl">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">parse_qsl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>qs</em>, <em>keep_blank_values=False</em>, <em>strict_parsing=False</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='replace'</em>, <em>max_num_fields=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.parse_qsl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
+<em class="mimetype">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</em>).  Data are returned as a list of
+name, value pairs.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>keep_blank_values</em> is a flag indicating whether blank
+values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value
+indicates that blanks should be retained as  blank strings.  The default false
+value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were
+not included.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>strict_parsing</em> is a flag indicating what to do with
+parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are silently ignored.  If true,
+errors raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters specify how to decode
+percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>The optional argument <em>max_num_fields</em> is the maximum number of fields to
+read. If set, then throws a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if there are more than
+<em>max_num_fields</em> fields read.</p>
+<p>Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlencode()</span></code></a> function to convert such lists of pairs into
+query strings.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Add <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.2: </span>Added <em>max_num_fields</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urlunparse">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">urlunparse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parts</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urlunparse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code>. The <em>parts</em>
+argument can be any six-item iterable. This may result in a slightly
+different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had
+unnecessary delimiters (for example, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> with an empty query; the RFC
+states that these are equivalent).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urlsplit">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">urlsplit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>urlstring</em>, <em>scheme=''</em>, <em>allow_fragments=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a>, but does not split the params from the URL.
+This should generally be used instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a> if the more recent URL
+syntax allowing parameters to be applied to each segment of the <em>path</em> portion
+of the URL (see <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2396.html"><strong>RFC 2396</strong></a>) is wanted.  A separate function is needed to
+separate the path segments and parameters.  This function returns a 5-item
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">addressing</span> <span class="n">scheme</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">network</span> <span class="n">location</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">query</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fragment</span> <span class="n">identifier</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The return value is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>, its items can be accessed by index
+or as named attributes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value if not present</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheme</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>URL scheme specifier</p></td>
+<td><p><em>scheme</em> parameter</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netloc</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>Network location part</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>2</p></td>
+<td><p>Hierarchical path</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">query</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>3</p></td>
+<td><p>Query component</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fragment</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>4</p></td>
+<td><p>Fragment identifier</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">username</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>User name</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">password</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Password</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hostname</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Host name (lower case)</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Port number as integer,
+if present</p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Reading the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code> attribute will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if
+an invalid port is specified in the URL.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urlparse-result-object"><span class="std std-ref">Structured Parse Results</span></a> for more information on the result object.</p>
+<p>Unmatched square brackets in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netloc</span></code> attribute will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Characters in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netloc</span></code> attribute that decompose under NFKC
+normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code> will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>. If the URL is
+decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Out-of-range port numbers now raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>, instead of
+returning <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.3: </span>Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will
+now raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urlunsplit">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">urlunsplit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parts</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urlunsplit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code></a> into a
+complete URL as a string. The <em>parts</em> argument can be any five-item
+iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the
+URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ?
+with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urljoin">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">urljoin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base</em>, <em>url</em>, <em>allow_fragments=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urljoin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a full (“absolute”) URL by combining a “base URL” (<em>base</em>) with
+another URL (<em>url</em>).  Informally, this uses components of the base URL, in
+particular the addressing scheme, the network location and (part of) the
+path, to provide missing components in the relative URL.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">urljoin</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urljoin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.cwi.nl/</span><span class="si">%7E</span><span class="s1">guido/Python.html&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;FAQ.html&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <em>allow_fragments</em> argument has the same meaning and default as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <em>url</em> is an absolute URL (that is, starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheme://</span></code>),
+the <em>url</em>’s host name and/or scheme will be present in the result.  For example:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urljoin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.cwi.nl/</span><span class="si">%7E</span><span class="s1">guido/Python.html&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="s1">&#39;//www.python.org/</span><span class="si">%7E</span><span class="s1">guido&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;http://www.python.org/%7Eguido&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the <em>url</em> with <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlunsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlunsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlunsplit()</span></code></a>, removing possible <em>scheme</em> and <em>netloc</em> parts.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Behaviour updated to match the semantics defined in <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urldefrag">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">urldefrag</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urldefrag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>url</em> contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version of <em>url</em>
+with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier as a separate
+string.  If there is no fragment identifier in <em>url</em>, return <em>url</em> unmodified
+and an empty string.</p>
+<p>The return value is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>, its items can be accessed by index
+or as named attributes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 31%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value if not present</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">url</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+<td><p>URL with no fragment</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fragment</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+<td><p>Fragment identifier</p></td>
+<td><p>empty string</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>See section <a class="reference internal" href="#urlparse-result-object"><span class="std std-ref">Structured Parse Results</span></a> for more information on the result
+object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Result is a structured object rather than a simple 2-tuple.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on character
+strings only. In practice, it is useful to be able to manipulate properly
+quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes. Accordingly, the
+URL parsing functions in this module all operate on <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects in addition to <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> data is passed in, the result will also contain only
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> data. If <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> data is
+passed in, the result will contain only <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> data.</p>
+<p>Attempting to mix <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> data with <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> in a single function call will result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII
+byte values will trigger <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>To support easier conversion of result objects between <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, all return values from URL parsing functions provide
+either an <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code> method (when the result contains <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+data) or a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code> method (when the result contains <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+data). The signatures of these methods match those of the corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> methods (except that the default encoding
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ascii'</span></code> rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>). Each produces a value of a
+corresponding type that contains either <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> data (for
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code> methods) or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> data (for
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code> methods).</p>
+<p>Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs
+that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from
+bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods.</p>
+<p>The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing
+functions. The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing
+or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the
+individual URL quoting functions.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded byte sequences</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="structured-parse-results">
+<span id="urlparse-result-object"></span><h2>Structured Parse Results<a class="headerlink" href="#structured-parse-results" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The result objects from the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code></a>  and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urldefrag" title="urllib.parse.urldefrag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urldefrag()</span></code></a> functions are subclasses of the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> type.
+These subclasses add the attributes listed in the documentation for
+those functions, the encoding and decoding support described in the
+previous section, as well as an additional method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.SplitResult.</code><code class="descname">geturl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string. This may
+differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be normalized to lower
+case and empty components may be dropped. Specifically, empty parameters,
+queries, and fragment identifiers will be removed.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urldefrag" title="urllib.parse.urldefrag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urldefrag()</span></code></a> results, only empty fragment identifiers will be removed.
+For <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a> results, all noted changes will be
+made to the URL returned by this method.</p>
+<p>The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through the original
+parsing function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">urlsplit</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urlsplit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">geturl</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;http://www.Python.org/doc/&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urlsplit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">geturl</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">geturl</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;http://www.Python.org/doc/&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following classes provide the implementations of the structured parse
+results when operating on <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.DefragResult">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">DefragResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>fragment</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.DefragResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete class for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urldefrag" title="urllib.parse.urldefrag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urldefrag()</span></code></a> results containing <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+data. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code> method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes" title="urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefragResultBytes</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.ParseResult">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">ParseResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>scheme</em>, <em>netloc</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>params</em>, <em>query</em>, <em>fragment</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.ParseResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete class for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a> results containing <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+data. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code> method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes" title="urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParseResultBytes</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.SplitResult">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">SplitResult</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>scheme</em>, <em>netloc</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>query</em>, <em>fragment</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.SplitResult" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete class for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code></a> results containing <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+data. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code> method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes" title="urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SplitResultBytes</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results when
+operating on <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">DefragResultBytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>fragment</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete class for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urldefrag" title="urllib.parse.urldefrag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urldefrag()</span></code></a> results containing <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+data. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code> method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.DefragResult" title="urllib.parse.DefragResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefragResult</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">ParseResultBytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>scheme</em>, <em>netloc</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>params</em>, <em>query</em>, <em>fragment</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete class for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a> results containing <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+data. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code> method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.ParseResult" title="urllib.parse.ParseResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParseResult</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">SplitResultBytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>scheme</em>, <em>netloc</em>, <em>path</em>, <em>query</em>, <em>fragment</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Concrete class for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code></a> results containing <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+data. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code> method returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.SplitResult" title="urllib.parse.SplitResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SplitResult</span></code></a>
+instance.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="url-quoting">
+<h2>URL Quoting<a class="headerlink" href="#url-quoting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it safe
+for use as URL components by quoting special characters and appropriately
+encoding non-ASCII text. They also support reversing these operations to
+recreate the original data from the contents of a URL component if that
+task isn’t already covered by the URL parsing functions above.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.quote">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">quote</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>safe='/'</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.quote" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace special characters in <em>string</em> using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%xx</span></code> escape. Letters,
+digits, and the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_.-~'</span></code> are never quoted. By default, this
+function is intended for quoting the path section of URL. The optional <em>safe</em>
+parameter specifies additional ASCII characters that should not be quoted
+— its default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>string</em> may be either a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Moved from <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2396.html"><strong>RFC 2396</strong></a> to <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a> for quoting URL strings. “~” is now
+included in the set of reserved characters.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The optional <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters specify how to deal with
+non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a> method.
+<em>encoding</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>.
+<em>errors</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>, meaning unsupported characters raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a>.
+<em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> must not be supplied if <em>string</em> is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, or a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote(string,</span> <span class="pre">safe,</span> <span class="pre">encoding,</span> <span class="pre">errors)</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding,</span> <span class="pre">errors),</span> <span class="pre">safe)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote('/El</span> <span class="pre">Niño/')</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.quote_plus">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">quote_plus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>safe=''</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.quote_plus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.quote" title="urllib.parse.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote()</span></code></a>, but also replace spaces by plus signs, as required for
+quoting HTML form values when building up a query string to go into a URL.
+Plus signs in the original string are escaped unless they are included in
+<em>safe</em>.  It also does not have <em>safe</em> default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote_plus('/El</span> <span class="pre">Niño/')</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">quote_from_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em>, <em>safe='/'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.quote" title="urllib.parse.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote()</span></code></a>, but accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object rather than a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, and does not perform string-to-bytes encoding.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote_from_bytes(b'a&amp;\xef')</span></code> yields
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a%26%EF'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.unquote">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">unquote</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='replace'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.unquote" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%xx</span></code> escapes by their single-character equivalent.
+The optional <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters specify how to decode
+percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p><em>string</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>encoding</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>.
+<em>errors</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code>, meaning invalid sequences are replaced
+by a placeholder character.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/El</span> <span class="pre">Niño/'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.unquote_plus">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">unquote_plus</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>encoding='utf-8'</em>, <em>errors='replace'</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.unquote_plus" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.unquote" title="urllib.parse.unquote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unquote()</span></code></a>, but also replace plus signs by spaces, as required for
+unquoting HTML form values.</p>
+<p><em>string</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/El</span> <span class="pre">Niño/'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">unquote_to_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%xx</span></code> escapes by their single-octet equivalent, and return a
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p><em>string</em> may be either a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If it is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, unescaped non-ASCII characters in <em>string</em>
+are encoded into UTF-8 bytes.</p>
+<p>Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')</span></code> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'a&amp;\xef'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.parse.urlencode">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.parse.</code><code class="descname">urlencode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>query</em>, <em>doseq=False</em>, <em>safe=''</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>errors=None</em>, <em>quote_via=quote_plus</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which may
+contain <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects, to a percent-encoded ASCII
+text string.  If the resultant string is to be used as a <em>data</em> for POST
+operation with the <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a> function, then
+it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it would result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The resulting string is a series of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=value</span></code> pairs separated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;'</span></code>
+characters, where both <em>key</em> and <em>value</em> are quoted using the <em>quote_via</em>
+function.  By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.quote_plus" title="urllib.parse.quote_plus"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote_plus()</span></code></a> is used to quote the values, which
+means spaces are quoted as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code> character and ‘/’ characters are
+encoded as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%2F</span></code>, which follows the standard for GET requests
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</span></code>).  An alternate function that can be
+passed as <em>quote_via</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.quote" title="urllib.parse.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote()</span></code></a>, which will encode spaces as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%20</span></code>
+and not encode ‘/’ characters.  For maximum control of what is quoted, use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote</span></code> and specify a value for <em>safe</em>.</p>
+<p>When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the <em>query</em>
+argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second is a
+value. The value element in itself can be a sequence and in that case, if
+the optional parameter <em>doseq</em> is evaluates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, individual
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key=value</span></code> pairs separated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;'</span></code> are generated for each element of
+the value sequence for the key.  The order of parameters in the encoded
+string will match the order of parameter tuples in the sequence.</p>
+<p>The <em>safe</em>, <em>encoding</em>, and <em>errors</em> parameters are passed down to
+<em>quote_via</em> (the <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> parameters are only passed
+when a query element is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>To reverse this encoding process, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.parse_qs" title="urllib.parse.parse_qs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_qs()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.parse.parse_qsl" title="urllib.parse.parse_qsl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_qsl()</span></code></a> are
+provided in this module to parse query strings into Python data structures.</p>
+<p>Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.request.html#urllib-examples"><span class="std std-ref">urllib examples</span></a> to find out how urlencode
+method can be used for generating query string for a URL or data for POST.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Query parameter supports bytes and string objects.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span><em>quote_via</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a> - Uniform Resource Identifiers</dt><dd><p>This is the current standard (STD66). Any changes to urllib.parse module
+should conform to this. Certain deviations could be observed, which are
+mostly for backward compatibility purposes and for certain de-facto
+parsing requirements as commonly observed in major browsers.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2732.html"><strong>RFC 2732</strong></a> - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL’s.</dt><dd><p>This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2396.html"><strong>RFC 2396</strong></a> - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax</dt><dd><p>Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both Uniform Resource
+Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2368.html"><strong>RFC 2368</strong></a> - The mailto URL scheme.</dt><dd><p>Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1808.html"><strong>RFC 1808</strong></a> - Relative Uniform Resource Locators</dt><dd><p>This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an absolute and a
+relative URL, including a fair number of “Abnormal Examples” which govern the
+treatment of border cases.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1738.html"><strong>RFC 1738</strong></a> - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)</dt><dd><p>This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code> — Parse URLs into components</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#url-parsing">URL Parsing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes">Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#structured-parse-results">Structured Parse Results</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#url-quoting">URL Quoting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.request.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> — Extensible library for opening URLs</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.error.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code> — Exception classes raised by urllib.request</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.request.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.request.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d83dc6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.request.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1729 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="urllib.parse.html" title="urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components"
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+    <li class="right">
+        
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-urllib.request">
+<span id="urllib-request-extensible-library-for-opening-urls"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> — Extensible library for opening URLs<a class="headerlink" href="#module-urllib.request" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/request.py">Lib/urllib/request.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> module defines functions and classes which help in
+opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world — basic and digest
+authentication, redirections, cookies and more.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="http://docs.python-requests.org/">Requests package</a>
+is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.urlopen">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">urlopen</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>data=None</em>, <span class="optional">[</span><em>timeout</em>, <span class="optional">]</span><em>*</em>, <em>cafile=None</em>, <em>capath=None</em>, <em>cadefault=False</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the URL <em>url</em>, which can be either a string or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p><em>data</em> must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to the
+server, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no such data is needed.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a>
+for details.</p>
+<p>urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection:close</span></code> header
+in its HTTP requests.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>timeout</em> parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
+blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified,
+the global default timeout setting will be used).  This actually
+only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.</p>
+<p>If <em>context</em> is specified, it must be a <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> instance
+describing the various SSL options. See <a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>
+for more details.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>cafile</em> and <em>capath</em> parameters specify a set of trusted
+CA certificates for HTTPS requests.  <em>cafile</em> should point to a single
+file containing a bundle of CA certificates, whereas <em>capath</em> should
+point to a directory of hashed certificate files.  More information can
+be found in <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>cadefault</em> parameter is ignored.</p>
+<p>This function always returns an object which can work as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> and has methods such as</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">geturl()</span></code> — return the URL of the resource retrieved,
+commonly used to determine if a redirect was followed</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code> — return the meta-information of the page, such as headers,
+in the form of an <a class="reference internal" href="email.parser.html#email.message_from_string" title="email.message_from_string"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message_from_string()</span></code></a> instance (see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://jkorpela.fi/http.html">Quick Reference to HTTP Headers</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcode()</span></code> – return the HTTP status code of the response.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse" title="http.client.HTTPResponse"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPResponse</span></code></a> object slightly modified. In addition
+to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains the
+same information as the <a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.reason" title="http.client.HTTPResponse.reason"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reason</span></code></a>
+attribute — the reason phrase returned by server — instead of
+the response headers as it is specified in the documentation for
+<a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse" title="http.client.HTTPResponse"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPResponse</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by legacy
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener" title="urllib.request.URLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyURLopener</span></code></a> classes, this function
+returns a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response.addinfourl</span></code> object.</p>
+<p>Raises <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a> on protocol errors.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> may be returned if no handler handles the request (though
+the default installed global <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.UnknownHandler" title="urllib.request.UnknownHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnknownHandler</span></code></a> to ensure this never happens).</p>
+<p>In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*_proxy</span></code>
+environment variable like <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_proxy</span></code> is set),
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code></a> is default installed and makes sure the requests are
+handled through the proxy.</p>
+<p>The legacy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.urlopen</span></code> function from Python 2.6 and earlier has been
+discontinued; <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.urlopen()</span></code></a> corresponds to the old
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib2.urlopen</span></code>.  Proxy handling, which was done by passing a dictionary
+parameter to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.urlopen</span></code>, can be obtained by using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>cafile</em> and <em>capath</em> were added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.HAS_SNI" title="ssl.HAS_SNI"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.HAS_SNI</span></code></a> is true).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span><em>data</em> can be an iterable object.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><em>cadefault</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.3: </span><em>context</em> was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><em>cafile</em>, <em>capath</em> and <em>cadefault</em> are deprecated in favor of <em>context</em>.
+Please use <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> instead, or let
+<a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.create_default_context()</span></code></a> select the system’s trusted CA
+certificates for you.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.install_opener">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">install_opener</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>opener</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.install_opener" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Install an <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> instance as the default global opener.
+Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that
+opener; otherwise, simply call <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector.open()</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>.  The code does not check for a real
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>, and any class with the appropriate interface will
+work.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.build_opener">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">build_opener</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>handler</em>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.build_opener" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> instance, which chains the handlers in the
+order given. <em>handler</em>s can be either instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, or
+subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a> (in which case it must be possible to call
+the constructor without any parameters).  Instances of the following classes
+will be in front of the <em>handler</em>s, unless the <em>handler</em>s contain them,
+instances of them or subclasses of them: <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code></a> (if proxy
+settings are detected), <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.UnknownHandler" title="urllib.request.UnknownHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnknownHandler</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPDefaultErrorHandler</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPRedirectHandler</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FTPHandler" title="urllib.request.FTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTPHandler</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FileHandler" title="urllib.request.FileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor" title="urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPErrorProcessor</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module
+can be imported), <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPSHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSHandler</span></code></a> will also be added.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a> subclass may also change its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handler_order</span></code>
+attribute to modify its position in the handlers list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.pathname2url">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">pathname2url</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.pathname2url" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the pathname <em>path</em> from the local syntax for a path to the form used in
+the path component of a URL.  This does not produce a complete URL.  The return
+value will already be quoted using the <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote" title="urllib.parse.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.url2pathname">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">url2pathname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.url2pathname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert the path component <em>path</em> from a percent-encoded URL to the local syntax for a
+path.  This does not accept a complete URL.  This function uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.unquote" title="urllib.parse.unquote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unquote()</span></code></a> to decode <em>path</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.getproxies">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">getproxies</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.getproxies" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL
+mappings. It scans the environment for variables named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;scheme&gt;_proxy</span></code>,
+in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it
+cannot find it, looks for proxy information from Mac OSX System
+Configuration for Mac OS X and Windows Systems Registry for Windows.
+If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree),
+lowercase is preferred.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If the environment variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_METHOD</span></code> is set, which usually
+indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment
+variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP_PROXY</span></code> (uppercase <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PROXY</span></code>) will be ignored. This is
+because that variable can be injected by a client using the “Proxy:” HTTP
+header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code> explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in
+lowercase (or at least the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_proxy</span></code> suffix).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following classes are provided:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">Request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>data=None</em>, <em>headers={}</em>, <em>origin_req_host=None</em>, <em>unverifiable=False</em>, <em>method=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is an abstraction of a URL request.</p>
+<p><em>url</em> should be a string containing a valid URL.</p>
+<p><em>data</em> must be an object specifying additional data to send to the
+server, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no such data is needed.  Currently HTTP
+requests are the only ones that use <em>data</em>.  The supported object
+types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables.  If no
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length</span></code> nor <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Transfer-Encoding</span></code> header field
+has been provided, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPHandler</span></code></a> will set these headers according
+to the type of <em>data</em>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length</span></code> will be used to send
+bytes objects, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Transfer-Encoding:</span> <span class="pre">chunked</span></code> as specified in
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7230.html"><strong>RFC 7230</strong></a>, Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files and other iterables.</p>
+<p>For an HTTP POST request method, <em>data</em> should be a buffer in the
+standard <em class="mimetype">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</em> format.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlencode()</span></code></a> function takes a mapping or sequence
+of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format. It should
+be encoded to bytes before being used as the <em>data</em> parameter.</p>
+<p><em>headers</em> should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.add_header" title="urllib.request.Request.add_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_header()</span></code></a> was called with each key and value as arguments.
+This is often used to “spoof” the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">User-Agent</span></code> header value, which is
+used by a browser to identify itself – some HTTP servers only
+allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed to scripts.
+For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Mozilla/5.0</span>
+<span class="pre">(X11;</span> <span class="pre">U;</span> <span class="pre">Linux</span> <span class="pre">i686)</span> <span class="pre">Gecko/20071127</span> <span class="pre">Firefox/2.0.0.11&quot;</span></code>, while
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a>’s default user agent string is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;Python-urllib/2.6&quot;</span></code> (on Python 2.6).</p>
+<p>An appropriate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Type</span></code> header should be included if the <em>data</em>
+argument is present.  If this header has not been provided and <em>data</em>
+is not None, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Type:</span> <span class="pre">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</span></code> will
+be added as a default.</p>
+<p>The final two arguments are only of interest for correct handling
+of third-party HTTP cookies:</p>
+<p><em>origin_req_host</em> should be the request-host of the origin
+transaction, as defined by <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a>.  It defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar.request_host(self)</span></code>.  This is the host name or IP
+address of the original request that was initiated by the user.
+For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document,
+this should be the request-host of the request for the page
+containing the image.</p>
+<p><em>unverifiable</em> should indicate whether the request is unverifiable,
+as defined by <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a>.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  An unverifiable
+request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to
+approve.  For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML
+document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic
+fetching of the image, this should be true.</p>
+<p><em>method</em> should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that
+will be used (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'HEAD'</span></code>).  If provided, its value is stored in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.method" title="urllib.request.Request.method"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method</span></code></a> attribute and is used by <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.get_method" title="urllib.request.Request.get_method"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_method()</span></code></a>.
+The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'GET'</span></code> if <em>data</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'POST'</span></code> otherwise.
+Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.method" title="urllib.request.Request.method"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method</span></code></a> attribute in the class itself.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The request will not work as expected if the data object is unable
+to deliver its content more than once (e.g. a file or an iterable
+that can produce the content only once) and the request is retried
+for HTTP redirects or authentication.  The <em>data</em> is sent to the
+HTTP server right away after the headers.  There is no support for
+a 100-continue expectation in the library.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.method" title="urllib.request.Request.method"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request.method</span></code></a> argument is added to the Request class.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Default <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.method" title="urllib.request.Request.method"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request.method</span></code></a> may be indicated at the class level.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Do not raise an error if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length</span></code> has not been
+provided and <em>data</em> is neither <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> nor a bytes object.
+Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.OpenerDirector">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">OpenerDirector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> class opens URLs via <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>s chained
+together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.BaseHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">BaseHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the base class for all registered handlers — and handles only the
+simple mechanics of registration.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPDefaultErrorHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses
+are turned into <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="urllib.error.HTTPError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code></a> exceptions.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPRedirectHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class to handle redirections.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPCookieProcessor</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cookiejar=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class to handle HTTP Cookies.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.ProxyHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">ProxyHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>proxies=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cause requests to go through a proxy. If <em>proxies</em> is given, it must be a
+dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read
+the list of proxies from the environment variables
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_proxy</span></code>.  If no proxy environment variables are set, then
+in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained from the registry’s
+Internet Settings section, and in a Mac OS X environment proxy information
+is retrieved from the OS X System Configuration Framework.</p>
+<p>To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">no_proxy</span></code> environment variable can be used to specify hosts
+which shouldn’t be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated
+list of hostname suffixes, optionally with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:port</span></code> appended, for example
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080</span></code>.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP_PROXY</span></code> will be ignored if a variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_METHOD</span></code> is set;
+see the documentation on <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.getproxies" title="urllib.request.getproxies"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getproxies()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPPasswordMgr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Keep a database of  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(realm,</span> <span class="pre">uri)</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">(user,</span> <span class="pre">password)</span></code> mappings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Keep a database of  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(realm,</span> <span class="pre">uri)</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">(user,</span> <span class="pre">password)</span></code> mappings. A realm of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm
+fits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</span></code></a> that also has a
+database of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uri</span> <span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> mappings.  Can be used by a
+BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials
+immediately instead of waiting for a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">401</span></code> response first.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">AbstractBasicAuthHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password_mgr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote
+host and to a proxy. <em>password_mgr</em>, if given, should be something that is
+compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code></a>; refer to section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http-password-mgr"><span class="std std-ref">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</span></a> for information on the interface that must be
+supported.  If <em>passwd_mgr</em> also provides <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update_authenticated</span></code> methods (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth"><span class="std std-ref">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects</span></a>), then the handler will use the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> result for a given URI to determine whether or not to
+send authentication credentials with the request.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for the URI, credentials are sent.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, credentials are not sent, and then if a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">401</span></code> response is
+received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials.  If
+authentication succeeds, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update_authenticated</span></code> is called to set
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for the URI, so that subsequent requests to
+the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the
+authentication credentials.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> support.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPBasicAuthHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password_mgr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle authentication with the remote host. <em>password_mgr</em>, if given, should
+be something that is compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code></a>; refer to
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#http-password-mgr"><span class="std std-ref">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</span></a> for information on the interface that must
+be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when
+presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">ProxyBasicAuthHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password_mgr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle authentication with the proxy. <em>password_mgr</em>, if given, should be
+something that is compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code></a>; refer to section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http-password-mgr"><span class="std std-ref">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</span></a> for information on the interface that must be
+supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">AbstractDigestAuthHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password_mgr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote
+host and to a proxy. <em>password_mgr</em>, if given, should be something that is
+compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code></a>; refer to section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http-password-mgr"><span class="std std-ref">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</span></a> for information on the interface that must be
+supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPDigestAuthHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password_mgr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle authentication with the remote host. <em>password_mgr</em>, if given, should
+be something that is compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code></a>; refer to
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#http-password-mgr"><span class="std std-ref">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</span></a> for information on the interface that must
+be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic
+Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried
+first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent
+to Basic Authentication handler to Handle.  This Handler method will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when presented with an authentication scheme other than
+Digest or Basic.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> on unsupported Authentication Scheme.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">ProxyDigestAuthHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>password_mgr=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle authentication with the proxy. <em>password_mgr</em>, if given, should be
+something that is compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code></a>; refer to section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#http-password-mgr"><span class="std std-ref">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</span></a> for information on the interface that must be
+supported.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPSHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPSHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>debuglevel=0</em>, <em>context=None</em>, <em>check_hostname=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs.  <em>context</em> and <em>check_hostname</em>
+have the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><em>context</em> and <em>check_hostname</em> were added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.FileHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">FileHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.FileHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open local files.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.DataHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">DataHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.DataHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open data URLs.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.FTPHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">FTPHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.FTPHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open FTP URLs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">CacheFTPHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.UnknownHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">UnknownHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.UnknownHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">HTTPErrorProcessor</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process HTTP error responses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="request-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Request Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#request-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following methods describe <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a>’s public interface,
+and so all may be overridden in subclasses.  It also defines several
+public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed
+request.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.full_url">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">full_url</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.full_url" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The original URL passed to the constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter. Getting
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.full_url" title="urllib.request.Request.full_url"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">full_url</span></code></a> returns the original request URL with the
+fragment, if it was present.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.type">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The URI scheme.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.host">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">host</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.host" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port
+separated by a colon.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">origin_req_host</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The original host for the request, without port.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.selector">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">selector</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.selector" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The URI path.  If the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> uses a proxy, then selector
+will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.data">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The entity body for the request, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if not specified.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Changing value of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.data" title="urllib.request.Request.data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request.data</span></code></a> now deletes “Content-Length”
+header if it was previously set or calculated.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.unverifiable">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">unverifiable</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.unverifiable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined
+by <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html"><strong>RFC 2965</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.method">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">method</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.method" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The HTTP request method to use.  By default its value is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>,
+which means that <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.get_method" title="urllib.request.Request.get_method"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_method()</span></code></a> will do its normal computation
+of the method to be used.  Its value can be set (thus overriding the default
+computation in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.get_method" title="urllib.request.Request.get_method"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_method()</span></code></a>) either by providing a default
+value by setting it at the class level in a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> subclass, or by
+passing a value in to the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> constructor via the <em>method</em>
+argument.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>A default value can now be set in subclasses; previously it could only
+be set via the constructor argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.get_method">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">get_method</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.get_method" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string indicating the HTTP request method.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.method" title="urllib.request.Request.method"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request.method</span></code></a> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, return its value, otherwise return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'GET'</span></code> if <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.data" title="urllib.request.Request.data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request.data</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'POST'</span></code> if it’s not.
+This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>get_method now looks at the value of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.method" title="urllib.request.Request.method"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request.method</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.add_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">add_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>val</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.add_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add another header to the request.  Headers are currently ignored by all
+handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the list of headers sent
+to the server.  Note that there cannot be more than one header with the same
+name, and later calls will overwrite previous calls in case the <em>key</em> collides.
+Currently, this is no loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have
+meaning when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining the
+same functionality using only one header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.add_unredirected_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">add_unredirected_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>header</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.add_unredirected_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.has_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">has_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.has_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both regular and
+unredirected).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.remove_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">remove_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.remove_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular and
+unredirected headers).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.get_full_url">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">get_full_url</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.get_full_url" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the URL given in the constructor.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Returns <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request.full_url" title="urllib.request.Request.full_url"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request.full_url</span></code></a></p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.set_proxy">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">set_proxy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>type</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.set_proxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The <em>host</em> and <em>type</em> will
+replace those of the instance, and the instance’s selector will be the original
+URL given in the constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.get_header">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">get_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header_name</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.get_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the given header. If the header is not present, return
+the default value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.Request.header_items">
+<code class="descclassname">Request.</code><code class="descname">header_items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.Request.header_items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The request methods add_data, has_data, get_data, get_type, get_host,
+get_selector, get_origin_req_host and is_unverifiable that were deprecated
+since 3.3 have been removed.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="openerdirector-objects">
+<span id="opener-director-objects"></span><h2>OpenerDirector Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#openerdirector-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.add_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">OpenerDirector.</code><code class="descname">add_handler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.add_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>handler</em> should be an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>.  The following methods
+are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a
+special case).  Note that, in the following, <em>protocol</em> should be replaced
+with the actual protocol to handle, for example <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_response()</span></code> would
+be the HTTP protocol response handler.  Also <em>type</em> should be replaced with
+the actual HTTP code, for example <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_404()</span></code> would handle HTTP
+404 errors.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_open()</span></code> — signal that the handler knows how to open <em>protocol</em>
+URLs.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#protocol-open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler.&lt;protocol&gt;_open()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_&lt;type&gt;()</span></code> — signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP
+errors with HTTP error code <em>type</em>.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#http-error-nnn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler.http_error_&lt;nnn&gt;()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_error()</span></code> — signal that the handler knows how to handle errors
+from (non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code>) <em>protocol</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_request()</span></code> — signal that the handler knows how to pre-process
+<em>protocol</em> requests.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#protocol-request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler.&lt;protocol&gt;_request()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_response()</span></code> — signal that the handler knows how to
+post-process <em>protocol</em> responses.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#protocol-response"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler.&lt;protocol&gt;_response()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open">
+<code class="descclassname">OpenerDirector.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>data=None</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>timeout</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the given <em>url</em> (which can be a request object or a string), optionally
+passing the given <em>data</em>. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised are
+the same as those of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a> (which simply calls the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>
+method on the currently installed global <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>).  The
+optional <em>timeout</em> parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking
+operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default
+timeout setting will be used). The timeout feature actually works only for
+HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error">
+<code class="descclassname">OpenerDirector.</code><code class="descname">error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>proto</em>, <em>*args</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle an error of the given protocol.  This will call the registered error
+handlers for the given protocol with the given arguments (which are protocol
+specific).  The HTTP protocol is a special case which uses the HTTP response
+code to determine the specific error handler; refer to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_&lt;type&gt;()</span></code>
+methods of the handler classes.</p>
+<p>Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:</p>
+<p>The order in which these methods are called within each stage is determined by
+sorting the handler instances.</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>Every handler with a method named like <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_request()</span></code> has that
+method called to pre-process the request.</p></li>
+<li><p>Handlers with a method named like <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_open()</span></code> are called to handle
+the request. This stage ends when a handler either returns a non-<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>
+value (ie. a response), or raises an exception (usually
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a>).  Exceptions are allowed to propagate.</p>
+<p>In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_open()</span></code>.  If all such methods return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the algorithm
+is repeated for methods named like <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_open()</span></code>.  If all such methods
+return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, the algorithm is repeated for methods named
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unknown_open()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of the parent
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Every handler with a method named like <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_response()</span></code> has that
+method called to post-process the response.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="basehandler-objects">
+<span id="base-handler-objects"></span><h2>BaseHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#basehandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a> objects provide a couple of methods that are directly
+useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived classes.  These are
+intended for direct use:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.BaseHandler.add_parent">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseHandler.</code><code class="descname">add_parent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>director</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.add_parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a director as parent.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.BaseHandler.close">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseHandler.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove any parents.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_request()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_response()</span></code> methods are named
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*Processor</span></code>; all others are named <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*Handler</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseHandler.</code><code class="descname">parent</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A valid <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>, which can be used to open using a different
+protocol, or handle errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseHandler.</code><code class="descname">default_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is <em>not</em> defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but subclasses should
+define it if they want to catch all URLs.</p>
+<p>This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>.  It should return a file-like object as described in
+the return value of the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+It should raise <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a>, unless a truly exceptional
+thing happens (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> should not be mapped to
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code>).</p>
+<p>This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="protocol-open"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">BaseHandler.&lt;protocol&gt;_open(req)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is <em>not</em> defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but subclasses should
+define it if they want to handle URLs with the given protocol.</p>
+<p>This method, if defined, will be called by the parent <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>.
+Return values should be the same as for  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_open()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.BaseHandler.unknown_open">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseHandler.</code><code class="descname">unknown_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.unknown_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is <em>not</em> defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but subclasses should
+define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to
+open it.</p>
+<p>This method, if implemented, will be called by the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent</span></code></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>.  Return values should be the same as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_open()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.BaseHandler.http_error_default">
+<code class="descclassname">BaseHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_default</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler.http_error_default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is <em>not</em> defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but subclasses should
+override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP
+errors.  It will be called automatically by the  <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> getting
+the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances.</p>
+<p><em>req</em> will be a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object, <em>fp</em> will be a file-like object with
+the HTTP error body, <em>code</em> will be the three-digit code of the error, <em>msg</em>
+will be the user-visible explanation of the code and <em>hdrs</em> will be a mapping
+object with the headers of the error.</p>
+<p>Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="http-error-nnn"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">BaseHandler.http_error_&lt;nnn&gt;(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)</code></dt>
+<dd><p><em>nnn</em> should be a three-digit HTTP error code.  This method is also not defined
+in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but will be called, if it exists, on an instance of a
+subclass, when an HTTP error with code <em>nnn</em> occurs.</p>
+<p>Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP errors.</p>
+<p>Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same as for
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_default()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="protocol-request"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">BaseHandler.&lt;protocol&gt;_request(req)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is <em>not</em> defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but subclasses should
+define it if they want to pre-process requests of the given protocol.</p>
+<p>This method, if defined, will be called by the parent <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>.
+<em>req</em> will be a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object. The return value should be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="protocol-response"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">BaseHandler.&lt;protocol&gt;_response(req, response)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is <em>not</em> defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.BaseHandler" title="urllib.request.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but subclasses should
+define it if they want to post-process responses of the given protocol.</p>
+<p>This method, if defined, will be called by the parent <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a>.
+<em>req</em> will be a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object. <em>response</em> will be an object
+implementing the same interface as the return value of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>.  The
+return value should implement the same interface as the return value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httpredirecthandler-objects">
+<span id="http-redirect-handler"></span><h2>HTTPRedirectHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpredirecthandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Some HTTP redirections require action from this module’s client code.  If this
+is the case, <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="urllib.error.HTTPError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code></a> is raised.  See <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a> for
+details of the precise meanings of the various redirection codes.</p>
+<p>An <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code> exception raised as a security consideration if the
+HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a redirected URL which is not an HTTP,
+HTTPS or FTP URL.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPRedirectHandler.</code><code class="descname">redirect_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em>, <em>newurl</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in response to a redirect. This is called
+by the default implementations of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_30*()</span></code> methods when a
+redirection is received from the server.  If a redirection should take place,
+return a new <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> to allow <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_30*()</span></code> to perform the
+redirect to <em>newurl</em>.  Otherwise, raise <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="urllib.error.HTTPError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code></a> if
+no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if you
+can’t but another handler might.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a>,
+which says that 301 and 302 responses to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> requests must not be
+automatically redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality, browsers
+do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code>, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPRedirectHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_301</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Redirect to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Location:</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URI:</span></code> URL.  This method is called by the
+parent <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> when getting an HTTP ‘moved permanently’ response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPRedirectHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_302</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301" title="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_301()</span></code></a>, but called for the ‘found’ response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPRedirectHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_303</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301" title="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_301()</span></code></a>, but called for the ‘see other’ response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPRedirectHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_307</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The same as <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301" title="urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_301()</span></code></a>, but called for the ‘temporary redirect’
+response.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httpcookieprocessor-objects">
+<span id="http-cookie-processor"></span><h2>HTTPCookieProcessor Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpcookieprocessor-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor" title="urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPCookieProcessor</span></code></a> instances have one attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPCookieProcessor.</code><code class="descname">cookiejar</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.CookieJar" title="http.cookiejar.CookieJar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar.CookieJar</span></code></a> in which cookies are stored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="proxyhandler-objects">
+<span id="proxy-handler"></span><h2>ProxyHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#proxyhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">ProxyHandler.&lt;protocol&gt;_open(request)</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code></a> will have a method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;protocol&gt;_open()</span></code> for every
+<em>protocol</em> which has a proxy in the <em>proxies</em> dictionary given in the
+constructor.  The method will modify requests to go through the proxy, by
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request.set_proxy()</span></code>, and call the next handler in the chain to
+actually execute the protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httppasswordmgr-objects">
+<span id="http-password-mgr"></span><h2>HTTPPasswordMgr Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httppasswordmgr-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These methods are available on <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPPasswordMgr.</code><code class="descname">add_password</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>realm</em>, <em>uri</em>, <em>user</em>, <em>passwd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>uri</em> can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. <em>realm</em>, <em>user</em> and
+<em>passwd</em> must be strings. This causes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(user,</span> <span class="pre">passwd)</span></code> to be used as
+authentication tokens when authentication for <em>realm</em> and a super-URI of any of
+the given URIs is given.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPPasswordMgr.</code><code class="descname">find_user_password</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>realm</em>, <em>authuri</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any.  This method will return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(None,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code> if there is no matching user/password.</p>
+<p>For <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</span></code></a> objects, the realm <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> will be
+searched if the given <em>realm</em> has no matching user/password.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects">
+<span id="http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth"></span><h2>HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This password manager extends <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</span></code></a> to support
+tracking URIs for which authentication credentials should always be sent.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.</code><code class="descname">add_password</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>realm</em>, <em>uri</em>, <em>user</em>, <em>passwd</em>, <em>is_authenticated=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>realm</em>, <em>uri</em>, <em>user</em>, <em>passwd</em> are as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password()</span></code></a>.  <em>is_authenticated</em> sets the initial
+value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> flag for the given URI or list of URIs.
+If <em>is_authenticated</em> is specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <em>realm</em> is ignored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPPasswordMgr.</code><code class="descname">find_user_password</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>realm</em>, <em>authuri</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm</span></code></a> objects</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.</code><code class="descname">update_authenticated</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>uri</em>, <em>is_authenticated=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> flag for the given <em>uri</em> or list
+of URIs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.</code><code class="descname">is_authenticated</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>authuri</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current state of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_authenticated</span></code> flag for
+the given URI.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="abstractbasicauthhandler-objects">
+<span id="abstract-basic-auth-handler"></span><h2>AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#abstractbasicauthhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed">
+<code class="descclassname">AbstractBasicAuthHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_auth_reqed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>authreq</em>, <em>host</em>, <em>req</em>, <em>headers</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying
+the request.  <em>authreq</em> should be the name of the header where the information
+about the realm is included in the request, <em>host</em> specifies the URL and path to
+authenticate for, <em>req</em> should be the (failed) <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object, and
+<em>headers</em> should be the error headers.</p>
+<p><em>host</em> is either an authority (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;python.org&quot;</span></code>) or a URL containing an
+authority component (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://python.org/&quot;</span></code>). In either case, the
+authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;python.org&quot;</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;python.org:80&quot;</span></code> are fine, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;joe:password&#64;python.org&quot;</span></code> is not).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httpbasicauthhandler-objects">
+<span id="http-basic-auth-handler"></span><h2>HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpbasicauthhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPBasicAuthHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_401</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retry the request with authentication information, if available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="proxybasicauthhandler-objects">
+<span id="proxy-basic-auth-handler"></span><h2>ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#proxybasicauthhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407">
+<code class="descclassname">ProxyBasicAuthHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_407</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retry the request with authentication information, if available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="abstractdigestauthhandler-objects">
+<span id="abstract-digest-auth-handler"></span><h2>AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#abstractdigestauthhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed">
+<code class="descclassname">AbstractDigestAuthHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_auth_reqed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>authreq</em>, <em>host</em>, <em>req</em>, <em>headers</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>authreq</em> should be the name of the header where the information about the realm
+is included in the request, <em>host</em> should be the host to authenticate to, <em>req</em>
+should be the (failed) <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object, and <em>headers</em> should be the
+error headers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httpdigestauthhandler-objects">
+<span id="http-digest-auth-handler"></span><h2>HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpdigestauthhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPDigestAuthHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_401</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retry the request with authentication information, if available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="proxydigestauthhandler-objects">
+<span id="proxy-digest-auth-handler"></span><h2>ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#proxydigestauthhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407">
+<code class="descclassname">ProxyDigestAuthHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_error_407</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em>, <em>fp</em>, <em>code</em>, <em>msg</em>, <em>hdrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retry the request with authentication information, if available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httphandler-objects">
+<span id="http-handler-objects"></span><h2>HTTPHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httphandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPHandler.http_open">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPHandler.</code><code class="descname">http_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPHandler.http_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">req.has_data()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httpshandler-objects">
+<span id="https-handler-objects"></span><h2>HTTPSHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httpshandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPSHandler.https_open">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPSHandler.</code><code class="descname">https_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler.https_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">req.has_data()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filehandler-objects">
+<span id="file-handler-objects"></span><h2>FileHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#filehandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.FileHandler.file_open">
+<code class="descclassname">FileHandler.</code><code class="descname">file_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.FileHandler.file_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'localhost'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>This method is applicable only for local hostnames.  When a remote
+hostname is given, an <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datahandler-objects">
+<span id="data-handler-objects"></span><h2>DataHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#datahandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.DataHandler.data_open">
+<code class="descclassname">DataHandler.</code><code class="descname">data_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.DataHandler.data_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL
+itself. The data URL syntax is specified in <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2397.html"><strong>RFC 2397</strong></a>. This implementation
+ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped
+in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don’t
+mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this
+implementation will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> in that case.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ftphandler-objects">
+<span id="ftp-handler-objects"></span><h2>FTPHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#ftphandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.FTPHandler.ftp_open">
+<code class="descclassname">FTPHandler.</code><code class="descname">ftp_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>req</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.FTPHandler.ftp_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open the FTP file indicated by <em>req</em>. The login is always done with empty
+username and password.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cacheftphandler-objects">
+<span id="cacheftp-handler-objects"></span><h2>CacheFTPHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#cacheftphandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler" title="urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CacheFTPHandler</span></code></a> objects are <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FTPHandler" title="urllib.request.FTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTPHandler</span></code></a> objects with the
+following additional methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout">
+<code class="descclassname">CacheFTPHandler.</code><code class="descname">setTimeout</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>t</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set timeout of connections to <em>t</em> seconds.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns">
+<code class="descclassname">CacheFTPHandler.</code><code class="descname">setMaxConns</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>m</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set maximum number of cached connections to <em>m</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unknownhandler-objects">
+<span id="unknown-handler-objects"></span><h2>UnknownHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#unknownhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.UnknownHandler.unknown_open">
+<code class="descclassname">UnknownHandler.</code><code class="descname">unknown_open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.UnknownHandler.unknown_open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.URLError" title="urllib.error.URLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="httperrorprocessor-objects">
+<span id="http-error-processor-objects"></span><h2>HTTPErrorProcessor Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#httperrorprocessor-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPErrorProcessor.</code><code class="descname">http_response</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>response</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process HTTP error responses.</p>
+<p>For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.</p>
+<p>For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_&lt;type&gt;()</span></code> handler methods, via <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector.error()</span></code></a>.
+Eventually, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPDefaultErrorHandler</span></code></a> will raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="urllib.error.HTTPError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code></a> if no other handler handles the error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response">
+<code class="descclassname">HTTPErrorProcessor.</code><code class="descname">https_response</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>response</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process HTTPS error responses.</p>
+<p>The behavior is same as <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response" title="urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_response()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="urllib-request-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../howto/urllib2.html#urllib-howto"><span class="std std-ref">HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package</span></a>.</p>
+<p>This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of
+it.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">300</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd&quot;&gt;\n\n\n&lt;html</span>
+<span class="go">xmlns=&quot;http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml&quot; xml:lang=&quot;en&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;\n\n&lt;head&gt;\n</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;meta http-equiv=&quot;content-type&quot; content=&quot;text/html; charset=utf-8&quot; /&gt;\n</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;title&gt;Python Programming &#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that urlopen returns a bytes object.  This is because there is no way
+for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte stream
+it receives from the HTTP server. In general, a program will decode
+the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses
+the appropriate encoding.</p>
+<p>The following W3C document, <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset">https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset</a>, lists
+the various ways in which an (X)HTML or an XML document could have specified its
+encoding information.</p>
+<p>As the python.org website uses <em>utf-8</em> encoding as specified in its meta tag, we
+will use the same for decoding the bytes object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> approach.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a CGI
+and reading the data it returns to us. Note that this example will only work
+when the Python installation supports SSL.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                      <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;This data is passed to stdin of the CGI&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Got Data: &quot;This data is passed to stdin of the CGI&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-type: text/plain</span><span class="se">\n\n</span><span class="s1">Got Data: &quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&quot;&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is an example of doing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PUT</span></code> request using <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="n">DATA</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;some data&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://localhost:8080&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">DATA</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PUT&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reason</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="c1"># Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...</span>
+<span class="n">auth_handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPBasicAuthHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">auth_handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_password</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">realm</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PDQ Application&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                          <span class="n">uri</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                          <span class="n">user</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;klem&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                          <span class="n">passwd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;kadidd!ehopper&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">auth_handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.</span>
+<span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">opener</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.example.com/login.html&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.build_opener" title="urllib.request.build_opener"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build_opener()</span></code></a> provides many handlers by default, including a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code></a>.  By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code></a> uses the environment
+variables named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;scheme&gt;_proxy</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;scheme&gt;</span></code> is the URL scheme
+involved.  For example, the <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_proxy</span></code> environment variable is read to
+obtain the HTTP proxy’s URL.</p>
+<p>This example replaces the default <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyHandler</span></code></a> with one that uses
+programmatically-supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy authorization support with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler" title="urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyBasicAuthHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">proxy_handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProxyHandler</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;http&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.example.com:3128/&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="n">proxy_auth_handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProxyBasicAuthHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">proxy_auth_handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_password</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;realm&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;host&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;username&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;password&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy_handler</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">proxy_auth_handler</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.example.com/login.html&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Adding HTTP headers:</p>
+<p>Use the <em>headers</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> constructor, or:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="n">req</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.example.com/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">req</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Referer&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># Customize the default User-Agent header value:</span>
+<span class="n">req</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;User-Agent&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">req</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector</span></code></a> automatically adds a <em class="mailheader">User-Agent</em> header to
+every <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a>.  To change this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">build_opener</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addheaders</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;User-agent&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Mozilla/5.0&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.example.com/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Also, remember that a few standard headers (<em class="mailheader">Content-Length</em>,
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em> and <em class="mailheader">Host</em>)
+are added when the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a> (or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector.open()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p id="urllib-examples">Here is an example session that uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code> method to retrieve a URL
+containing parameters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">params</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bacon&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">params</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> method instead. Note that params output
+from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen as data:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bacon&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ascii&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy, overriding
+environment settings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">proxies</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;http&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://proxy.example.com:8080/&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FancyURLopener</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxies</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://www.python.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">opener</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">FancyURLopener</span><span class="p">({})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">opener</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://www.python.org/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="legacy-interface">
+<h2>Legacy interface<a class="headerlink" href="#legacy-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code> (as opposed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib2</span></code>).  They might become deprecated at
+some point in the future.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.urlretrieve">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">urlretrieve</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>filename=None</em>, <em>reporthook=None</em>, <em>data=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.urlretrieve" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file. If the URL
+points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless filename is supplied.
+Return a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(filename,</span> <span class="pre">headers)</span></code> where <em>filename</em> is the
+local file name under which the object can be found, and <em>headers</em> is whatever
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code> method of the object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a> returned (for
+a remote object). Exceptions are the same as for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if
+absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third
+argument, if present, is a callable that will be called once on
+establishment of the network connection and once after each block read
+thereafter.  The callable will be passed three arguments; a count of blocks
+transferred so far, a block size in bytes, and the total size of the file.  The
+third argument may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on older FTP servers which do not return a file
+size in response to a retrieval request.</p>
+<p>The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">local_filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlretrieve</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://python.org/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">html</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">local_filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">html</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the <em>url</em> uses the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http:</span></code> scheme identifier, the optional <em>data</em>
+argument may be given to specify a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> request (normally the request
+type is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code>).  The <em>data</em> argument must be a bytes object in standard
+<em class="mimetype">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</em> format; see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlencode()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlretrieve" title="urllib.request.urlretrieve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlretrieve()</span></code></a> will raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContentTooShortError</span></code> when it detects that
+the amount of data available  was less than the expected amount (which is the
+size reported by a  <em>Content-Length</em> header). This can occur, for example, when
+the  download is interrupted.</p>
+<p>The <em>Content-Length</em> is treated as a lower bound: if there’s more data  to read,
+urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is available,  it raises the
+exception.</p>
+<p>You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored  in the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content</span></code> attribute of the exception instance.</p>
+<p>If no <em>Content-Length</em> header was supplied, urlretrieve can not check the size
+of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it.  In this case you just have
+to assume that the download was successful.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="urllib.request.urlcleanup">
+<code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">urlcleanup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.urlcleanup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous
+calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlretrieve" title="urllib.request.urlretrieve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlretrieve()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.URLopener">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">URLopener</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>proxies=None</em>, <em>**x509</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.URLopener" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Base class for opening and reading URLs.  Unless you need to support opening
+objects using schemes other than <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http:</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftp:</span></code>, or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file:</span></code>,
+you probably want to use <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyURLopener</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>By default, the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener" title="urllib.request.URLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener</span></code></a> class sends a <em class="mailheader">User-Agent</em> header
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib/VVV</span></code>, where <em>VVV</em> is the <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> version number.
+Applications can define their own <em class="mailheader">User-Agent</em> header by subclassing
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener" title="urllib.request.URLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyURLopener</span></code></a> and setting the class attribute
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener.version" title="urllib.request.URLopener.version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code></a> to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>proxies</em> parameter should be a dictionary mapping scheme names to
+proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies off completely.  Its default
+value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, in which case environmental proxy settings will be used if
+present, as discussed in the definition of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>, above.</p>
+<p>Additional keyword parameters, collected in <em>x509</em>, may be used for
+authentication of the client when using the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">https:</span></code> scheme.  The keywords
+<em>key_file</em> and <em>cert_file</em> are supported to provide an  SSL key and certificate;
+both are needed to support client authentication.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener" title="urllib.request.URLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener</span></code></a> objects will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception if the server
+returns an error code.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.URLopener.open">
+<code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullurl</em>, <em>data=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.URLopener.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open <em>fullurl</em> using the appropriate protocol.  This method sets up cache and
+proxy information, then calls the appropriate open method with its input
+arguments.  If the scheme is not recognized, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown" title="urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_unknown()</span></code></a> is called.
+The <em>data</em> argument has the same meaning as the <em>data</em> argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This method always quotes <em>fullurl</em> using <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote" title="urllib.parse.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown">
+<code class="descname">open_unknown</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullurl</em>, <em>data=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve">
+<code class="descname">retrieve</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>filename=None</em>, <em>reporthook=None</em>, <em>data=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieves the contents of <em>url</em> and places it in <em>filename</em>.  The return value
+is a tuple consisting of a local filename and either an
+<a class="reference internal" href="email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message</span></code></a> object containing the response headers (for remote
+URLs) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (for local URLs).  The caller must then open and read the
+contents of <em>filename</em>.  If <em>filename</em> is not given and the URL refers to a
+local file, the input filename is returned.  If the URL is non-local and
+<em>filename</em> is not given, the filename is the output of <a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#tempfile.mktemp" title="tempfile.mktemp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.mktemp()</span></code></a>
+with a suffix that matches the suffix of the last path component of the input
+URL.  If <em>reporthook</em> is given, it must be a function accepting three numeric
+parameters: A chunk number, the maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the download
+(-1 if unknown).  It will be called once at the start and after each chunk of data is read from the
+network.  <em>reporthook</em> is ignored for local URLs.</p>
+<p>If the <em>url</em> uses the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http:</span></code> scheme identifier, the optional <em>data</em>
+argument may be given to specify a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code> request (normally the request type
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code>).  The <em>data</em> argument must in standard
+<em class="mimetype">application/x-www-form-urlencoded</em> format; see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlencode()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="urllib.request.URLopener.version">
+<code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.URLopener.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object.  To get
+<a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> to tell servers that it is a particular user agent, set this in a
+subclass as a class variable or in the constructor before calling the base
+constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.request.FancyURLopener">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.request.</code><code class="descname">FancyURLopener</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>...</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyURLopener</span></code></a> subclasses <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener" title="urllib.request.URLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener</span></code></a> providing default handling
+for the following HTTP response codes: 301, 302, 303, 307 and 401.  For the 30x
+response codes listed above, the <em class="mailheader">Location</em> header is used to fetch
+the actual URL.  For 401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP
+authentication is performed.  For the 30x response codes, recursion is bounded
+by the value of the <em>maxtries</em> attribute, which defaults to 10.</p>
+<p>For all other response codes, the method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http_error_default()</span></code> is called
+which you can override in subclasses to handle the error appropriately.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>According to the letter of <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a>, 301 and 302 responses to POST requests
+must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user.  In
+reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing
+the POST to a GET, and <a class="reference internal" href="urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> reproduces this behaviour.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.URLopener" title="urllib.request.URLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When performing basic authentication, a <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyURLopener</span></code></a> instance calls
+its <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prompt_user_passwd()</span></code></a> method.  The default implementation asks the
+users for the required information on the controlling terminal.  A subclass may
+override this method to support more appropriate behavior if needed.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyURLopener</span></code></a> class offers one additional method that should be
+overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd">
+<code class="descname">prompt_user_passwd</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>realm</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the
+specified security realm.  The return value should be a tuple, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(user,</span>
+<span class="pre">password)</span></code>, which can be used for basic authentication.</p>
+<p>The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application
+should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local
+environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib-request-restrictions">
+<h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> Restrictions<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib-request-restrictions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<blockquote>
+<div></div></blockquote>
+<ul id="index-11">
+<li><p>Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP (versions 0.9 and
+1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for data URLs.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The caching feature of <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlretrieve" title="urllib.request.urlretrieve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlretrieve()</span></code></a> has been disabled until someone
+finds the time to hack proper processing of Expiration time headers.</p></li>
+<li><p>There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in the cache.</p></li>
+<li><p>For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local file but the
+file can’t be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using the FTP protocol.  This
+can sometimes cause confusing error messages.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlretrieve" title="urllib.request.urlretrieve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlretrieve()</span></code></a> functions can cause arbitrarily
+long delays while waiting for a network connection to be set up.  This means
+that it is difficult to build an interactive Web client using these functions
+without using threads.</p>
+</li>
+<li id="index-12"><p>The data returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlopen()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.urlretrieve" title="urllib.request.urlretrieve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlretrieve()</span></code></a> is the raw data
+returned by the server.  This may be binary data (such as an image), plain text
+or (for example) HTML.  The HTTP protocol provides type information in the reply
+header, which can be inspected by looking at the <em class="mailheader">Content-Type</em>
+header.  If the returned data is HTML, you can use the module
+<a class="reference internal" href="html.parser.html#module-html.parser" title="html.parser: A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser</span></code></a> to parse it.</p>
+</li>
+<li id="index-13"><p>The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a file and a
+directory.  This can lead to unexpected behavior when attempting to read a URL
+that points to a file that is not accessible.  If the URL ends in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, it is
+assumed to refer to a directory and will be handled accordingly.  But if an
+attempt to read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found or
+is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path is treated as a
+directory in order to handle the case when a directory is specified by a URL but
+the trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> has been left off.  This can cause misleading results when
+you try to fetch a file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP
+code will try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory
+listing for the unreadable file. If fine-grained control is needed, consider
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> module, subclassing <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.request.FancyURLopener" title="urllib.request.FancyURLopener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FancyURLopener</span></code></a>, or changing
+<em>_urlopener</em> to meet your needs.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-urllib.response">
+<span id="urllib-response-response-classes-used-by-urllib"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.response" title="urllib.response: Response classes used by urllib."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code></a> — Response classes used by urllib<a class="headerlink" href="#module-urllib.response" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.response" title="urllib.response: Response classes used by urllib."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code></a> module defines functions and classes which define a
+minimal file like interface, including <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code>. The
+typical response object is an addinfourl instance, which defines an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">info()</span></code>
+method and that returns headers and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">geturl()</span></code> method that returns the url.
+Functions defined by this module are used internally by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> — Extensible library for opening URLs</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#request-objects">Request Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#openerdirector-objects">OpenerDirector Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basehandler-objects">BaseHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpredirecthandler-objects">HTTPRedirectHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpcookieprocessor-objects">HTTPCookieProcessor Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#proxyhandler-objects">ProxyHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httppasswordmgr-objects">HTTPPasswordMgr Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects">HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abstractbasicauthhandler-objects">AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpbasicauthhandler-objects">HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#proxybasicauthhandler-objects">ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abstractdigestauthhandler-objects">AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpdigestauthhandler-objects">HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#proxydigestauthhandler-objects">ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httphandler-objects">HTTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httpshandler-objects">HTTPSHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filehandler-objects">FileHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datahandler-objects">DataHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ftphandler-objects">FTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cacheftphandler-objects">CacheFTPHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unknownhandler-objects">UnknownHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#httperrorprocessor-objects">HTTPErrorProcessor Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#legacy-interface">Legacy interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib-request-restrictions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code> Restrictions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.response"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.response</span></code> — Response classes used by urllib</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code> — URL handling modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.parse.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code> — Parse URLs into components</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst"
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+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.robotparser.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.robotparser.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a3ec7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/urllib.robotparser.html
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="http — HTTP modules" href="http.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request" href="urllib.error.html" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="internet.html" accesskey="U">Internet Protocols and Support</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-urllib.robotparser">
+<span id="urllib-robotparser-parser-for-robots-txt"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-urllib.robotparser" title="urllib.robotparser: Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about fetchability of other URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.robotparser</span></code></a> —  Parser for robots.txt<a class="headerlink" href="#module-urllib.robotparser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/robotparser.py">Lib/urllib/robotparser.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides a single class, <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser" title="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RobotFileParser</span></code></a>, which answers
+questions about whether or not a particular user agent can fetch a URL on the
+Web site that published the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> file.  For more details on the
+structure of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> files, see <a class="reference external" href="http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html">http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html</a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">urllib.robotparser.</code><code class="descname">RobotFileParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class provides methods to read, parse and answer questions about the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> file at <em>url</em>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.set_url">
+<code class="descname">set_url</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.set_url" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the URL referring to a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.read">
+<code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> URL and feeds it to the parser.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse">
+<code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>lines</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses the lines argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.can_fetch">
+<code class="descname">can_fetch</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>useragent</em>, <em>url</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.can_fetch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the <em>useragent</em> is allowed to fetch the <em>url</em>
+according to the rules contained in the parsed <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code>
+file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.mtime">
+<code class="descname">mtime</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.mtime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the time the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> file was last fetched.  This is
+useful for long-running web spiders that need to check for new
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> files periodically.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.modified">
+<code class="descname">modified</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.modified" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the time the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> file was last fetched to the current
+time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.crawl_delay">
+<code class="descname">crawl_delay</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>useragent</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.crawl_delay" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Crawl-delay</span></code> parameter from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code>
+for the <em>useragent</em> in question.  If there is no such parameter or it
+doesn’t apply to the <em>useragent</em> specified or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> entry
+for this parameter has invalid syntax, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.request_rate">
+<code class="descname">request_rate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>useragent</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.request_rate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the contents of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request-rate</span></code> parameter from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RequestRate(requests,</span> <span class="pre">seconds)</span></code>.
+If there is no such parameter or it doesn’t apply to the <em>useragent</em>
+specified or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> entry for this parameter has invalid
+syntax, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following example demonstrates basic use of the <a class="reference internal" href="#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser" title="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RobotFileParser</span></code></a>
+class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.robotparser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">robotparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RobotFileParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_url</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://www.musi-cal.com/robots.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rrate</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">rp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request_rate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rrate</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">requests</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rrate</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seconds</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crawl_delay</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">can_fetch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/search?city=San+Francisco&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">can_fetch</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;http://www.musi-cal.com/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.error.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.error</span></code> — Exception classes raised by urllib.request</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="http.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code> — HTTP modules</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/urllib.robotparser.rst"
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+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/uu.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/uu.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..634a3a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/uu.html
@@ -0,0 +1,236 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>uu — Encode and decode uuencode files &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Structured Markup Processing Tools" href="markup.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data" href="quopri.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/uu.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="markup.html" title="Structured Markup Processing Tools"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="netdata.html" accesskey="U">Internet Data Handling</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-uu">
+<span id="uu-encode-and-decode-uuencode-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-uu" title="uu: Encode and decode files in uuencode format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code></a> — Encode and decode uuencode files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-uu" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/uu.py">Lib/uu.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module encodes and decodes files in uuencode format, allowing arbitrary
+binary data to be transferred over ASCII-only connections. Wherever a file
+argument is expected, the methods accept a file-like object.  For backwards
+compatibility, a string containing a pathname is also accepted, and the
+corresponding file will be opened for reading and writing; the pathname <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>
+is understood to mean the standard input or output.  However, this interface is
+deprecated; it’s better for the caller to open the file itself, and be sure
+that, when required, the mode is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code> on Windows.</p>
+<p id="index-0">This code was contributed by Lance Ellinghouse, and modified by Jack Jansen.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-uu" title="uu: Encode and decode files in uuencode format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="uu.encode">
+<code class="descclassname">uu.</code><code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>in_file</em>, <em>out_file</em>, <em>name=None</em>, <em>mode=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>backtick=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uu.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Uuencode file <em>in_file</em> into file <em>out_file</em>.  The uuencoded file will have
+the header specifying <em>name</em> and <em>mode</em> as the defaults for the results of
+decoding the file. The default defaults are taken from <em>in_file</em>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o666</span></code> respectively.  If <em>backtick</em> is true, zeros are represented by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'`'</span></code> instead of spaces.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>backtick</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="uu.decode">
+<code class="descclassname">uu.</code><code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>in_file</em>, <em>out_file=None</em>, <em>mode=None</em>, <em>quiet=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uu.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This call decodes uuencoded file <em>in_file</em> placing the result on file
+<em>out_file</em>. If <em>out_file</em> is a pathname, <em>mode</em> is used to set the permission
+bits if the file must be created. Defaults for <em>out_file</em> and <em>mode</em> are taken
+from the uuencode header.  However, if the file specified in the header already
+exists, a <a class="reference internal" href="#uu.Error" title="uu.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu.Error</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#uu.decode" title="uu.decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> may print a warning to standard error if the input was produced
+by an incorrect uuencoder and Python could recover from that error.  Setting
+<em>quiet</em> to a true value silences this warning.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="uu.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">uu.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uu.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>, this can be raised by <a class="reference internal" href="#uu.decode" title="uu.decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu.decode()</span></code></a> under
+various situations, such as described above, but also including a badly
+formatted header, or truncated input file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="binascii.html#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII conversions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="quopri.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quopri</span></code> — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="markup.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-uuid">
+<span id="uuid-uuid-objects-according-to-rfc-4122"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-uuid" title="uuid: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code></a> — UUID objects according to <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a><a class="headerlink" href="#module-uuid" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/uuid.py">Lib/uuid.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module provides immutable <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.UUID" title="uuid.UUID"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UUID</span></code></a> objects (the <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.UUID" title="uuid.UUID"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UUID</span></code></a> class)
+and the functions <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid1" title="uuid.uuid1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid1()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid3" title="uuid.uuid3"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid3()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid4" title="uuid.uuid4"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid4()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid5" title="uuid.uuid5"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid5()</span></code></a> for
+generating version 1, 3, 4, and 5 UUIDs as specified in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>If all you want is a unique ID, you should probably call <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid1" title="uuid.uuid1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid1()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid4" title="uuid.uuid4"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid4()</span></code></a>.  Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid1" title="uuid.uuid1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid1()</span></code></a> may compromise privacy since it creates
+a UUID containing the computer’s network address.  <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid4" title="uuid.uuid4"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid4()</span></code></a> creates a
+random UUID.</p>
+<p>Depending on support from the underlying platform, <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid1" title="uuid.uuid1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid1()</span></code></a> may or may
+not return a “safe” UUID.  A safe UUID is one which is generated using
+synchronization methods that ensure no two processes can obtain the same
+UUID.  All instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.UUID" title="uuid.UUID"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UUID</span></code></a> have an <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_safe</span></code> attribute
+which relays any information about the UUID’s safety, using this enumeration:</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="uuid.SafeUUID">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">SafeUUID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.SafeUUID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.SafeUUID.safe">
+<code class="descname">safe</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.SafeUUID.safe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID was generated by the platform in a multiprocessing-safe way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.SafeUUID.unsafe">
+<code class="descname">unsafe</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.SafeUUID.unsafe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID was not generated in a multiprocessing-safe way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.SafeUUID.unknown">
+<code class="descname">unknown</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.SafeUUID.unknown" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The platform does not provide information on whether the UUID was
+generated safely or not.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">UUID</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hex=None</em>, <em>bytes=None</em>, <em>bytes_le=None</em>, <em>fields=None</em>, <em>int=None</em>, <em>version=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a UUID from either a string of 32 hexadecimal digits, a string of 16
+bytes in big-endian order as the <em>bytes</em> argument, a string of 16 bytes in
+little-endian order as the <em>bytes_le</em> argument, a tuple of six integers
+(32-bit <em>time_low</em>, 16-bit <em>time_mid</em>, 16-bit <em>time_hi_version</em>,
+8-bit <em>clock_seq_hi_variant</em>, 8-bit <em>clock_seq_low</em>, 48-bit <em>node</em>) as the
+<em>fields</em> argument, or a single 128-bit integer as the <em>int</em> argument.
+When a string of hex digits is given, curly braces, hyphens,
+and a URN prefix are all optional.  For example, these
+expressions all yield the same UUID:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;12345678123456781234567812345678&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x12\x34\x56\x78</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bytes_le</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span>
+              <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fields</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mh">0x12345678</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x1234</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x5678</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x567812345678</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mh">0x12345678123456781234567812345678</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Exactly one of <em>hex</em>, <em>bytes</em>, <em>bytes_le</em>, <em>fields</em>, or <em>int</em> must be given.
+The <em>version</em> argument is optional; if given, the resulting UUID will have its
+variant and version number set according to <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a>, overriding bits in the
+given <em>hex</em>, <em>bytes</em>, <em>bytes_le</em>, <em>fields</em>, or <em>int</em>.</p>
+<p>Comparison of UUID objects are made by way of comparing their
+<a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.UUID.int" title="uuid.UUID.int"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UUID.int</span></code></a> attributes.  Comparison with a non-UUID object
+raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(uuid)</span></code> returns a string in the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678</span></code> where the 32 hexadecimal digits
+represent the UUID.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.UUID" title="uuid.UUID"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UUID</span></code></a> instances have these read-only attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">bytes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID as a 16-byte string (containing the six integer fields in big-endian
+byte order).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.bytes_le">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">bytes_le</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.bytes_le" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID as a 16-byte string (with <em>time_low</em>, <em>time_mid</em>, and <em>time_hi_version</em>
+in little-endian byte order).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.fields">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">fields</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.fields" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of the six integer fields of the UUID, which are also available as six
+individual attributes and two derived attributes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+<col style="width: 51%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Field</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time_low</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the first 32 bits of the UUID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time_mid</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the next 16 bits of the UUID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time_hi_version</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the next 16 bits of the UUID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_seq_hi_variant</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the next 8 bits of the UUID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_seq_low</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the next 8 bits of the UUID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">node</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the last 48 bits of the UUID</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>the 60-bit timestamp</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_seq</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>the 14-bit sequence number</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.hex">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">hex</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID as a 32-character hexadecimal string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.int">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">int</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.int" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID as a 128-bit integer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.urn">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">urn</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.urn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID as a URN as specified in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.variant">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">variant</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.variant" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID variant, which determines the internal layout of the UUID. This will be
+one of the constants <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.RESERVED_NCS" title="uuid.RESERVED_NCS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RESERVED_NCS</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.RFC_4122" title="uuid.RFC_4122"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RFC_4122</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT" title="uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RESERVED_MICROSOFT</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE" title="uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RESERVED_FUTURE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.version">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The UUID version number (1 through 5, meaningful only when the variant is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.RFC_4122" title="uuid.RFC_4122"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RFC_4122</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="uuid.UUID.is_safe">
+<code class="descclassname">UUID.</code><code class="descname">is_safe</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.UUID.is_safe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An enumeration of <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.SafeUUID" title="uuid.SafeUUID"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SafeUUID</span></code></a> which indicates whether the platform
+generated the UUID in a multiprocessing-safe way.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-uuid" title="uuid: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code></a> module defines the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="uuid.getnode">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">getnode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.getnode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer.  The first time this
+runs, it may launch a separate program, which could be quite slow.  If all
+attempts to obtain the hardware address fail, we choose a random 48-bit
+number with the multicast bit (least significant bit of the first octet)
+set to 1 as recommended in <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a>.  “Hardware address” means the MAC
+address of a network interface.  On a machine with multiple network
+interfaces, universally administered MAC addresses (i.e. where the second
+least significant bit of the first octet is <em>unset</em>) will be preferred over
+locally administered MAC addresses, but with no other ordering guarantees.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Universally administered MAC addresses are preferred over locally
+administered MAC addresses, since the former are guaranteed to be
+globally unique, while the latter are not.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="uuid.uuid1">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">uuid1</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node=None</em>, <em>clock_seq=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.uuid1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate a UUID from a host ID, sequence number, and the current time. If <em>node</em>
+is not given, <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.getnode" title="uuid.getnode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getnode()</span></code></a> is used to obtain the hardware address. If
+<em>clock_seq</em> is given, it is used as the sequence number; otherwise a random
+14-bit sequence number is chosen.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="uuid.uuid3">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">uuid3</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespace</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.uuid3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate a UUID based on the MD5 hash of a namespace identifier (which is a
+UUID) and a name (which is a string).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="uuid.uuid4">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">uuid4</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.uuid4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate a random UUID.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="uuid.uuid5">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">uuid5</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespace</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.uuid5" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generate a UUID based on the SHA-1 hash of a namespace identifier (which is a
+UUID) and a name (which is a string).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p id="index-9">The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-uuid" title="uuid: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code></a> module defines the following namespace identifiers for use with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid3" title="uuid.uuid3"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid3()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#uuid.uuid5" title="uuid.uuid5"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid5()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">NAMESPACE_DNS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When this namespace is specified, the <em>name</em> string is a fully-qualified domain
+name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.NAMESPACE_URL">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">NAMESPACE_URL</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.NAMESPACE_URL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When this namespace is specified, the <em>name</em> string is a URL.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.NAMESPACE_OID">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">NAMESPACE_OID</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.NAMESPACE_OID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When this namespace is specified, the <em>name</em> string is an ISO OID.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.NAMESPACE_X500">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">NAMESPACE_X500</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.NAMESPACE_X500" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When this namespace is specified, the <em>name</em> string is an X.500 DN in DER or a
+text output format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-uuid" title="uuid: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code></a> module defines the following constants for the possible values
+of the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variant</span></code> attribute:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.RESERVED_NCS">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">RESERVED_NCS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.RESERVED_NCS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reserved for NCS compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.RFC_4122">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">RFC_4122</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.RFC_4122" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Specifies the UUID layout given in <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">RESERVED_MICROSOFT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reserved for Microsoft compatibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE">
+<code class="descclassname">uuid.</code><code class="descname">RESERVED_FUTURE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reserved for future definition.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a> - A Universally Unique IDentifier (UUID) URN Namespace</dt><dd><p>This specification defines a Uniform Resource Name namespace for UUIDs, the
+internal format of UUIDs, and methods of generating UUIDs.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="uuid-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are some examples of typical usage of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-uuid" title="uuid: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">uuid</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID based on the host ID and current time</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid1</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NAMESPACE_DNS</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a random UUID</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid4</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid5</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NAMESPACE_DNS</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID from a string of hex digits (braces and hyphens ignored)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># convert a UUID to a string of hex digits in standard form</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># get the raw 16 bytes of the UUID</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bytes</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID from a 16-byte string</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UUID</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">bytes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bytes</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-venv">
+<span id="venv-creation-of-virtual-environments"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> — Creation of virtual environments<a class="headerlink" href="#module-venv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/venv/">Lib/venv/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> module provides support for creating lightweight “virtual
+environments” with their own site directories, optionally isolated from system
+site directories.  Each virtual environment has its own Python binary (which
+matches the version of the binary that was used to create this environment) and
+can have its own independent set of installed Python packages in its site
+directories.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0405"><strong>PEP 405</strong></a> for more information about Python virtual environments.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments">Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> script has been deprecated as of Python 3.6 in favor of using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">venv</span></code> to help prevent any potential confusion as to which
+Python interpreter a virtual environment will be based on.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-virtual-environments">
+<h2>Creating virtual environments<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-virtual-environments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Creation of <a class="reference internal" href="#venv-def"><span class="std std-ref">virtual environments</span></a> is done by executing the
+command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python3</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">venv</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">to</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">new</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">virtual</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">environment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Running this command creates the target directory (creating any parent
+directories that don’t exist already) and places a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv.cfg</span></code> file in it
+with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">home</span></code> key pointing to the Python installation from which the command
+was run.  It also creates a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin</span></code> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scripts</span></code> on Windows) subdirectory
+containing a copy/symlink of the Python binary/binaries (as appropriate for the
+platform or arguments used at environment creation time). It also creates an
+(initially empty) <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages</span></code> subdirectory
+(on Windows, this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib\site-packages</span></code>). If an existing
+directory is specified, it will be re-used.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> was the recommended tool for creating virtual environments for
+Python 3.3 and 3.4, and is <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/dev/whatsnew/3.6.html#deprecated-features">deprecated in Python 3.6</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>The use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> is now recommended for creating virtual environments.</p>
+</div>
+<p>On Windows, invoke the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> command as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>c:\&gt;c:\Python35\python -m venv c:\path\to\myenv
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternatively, if you configured the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATHEXT</span></code> variables for
+your <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#using-on-windows"><span class="std std-ref">Python installation</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>c:\&gt;python -m venv c:\path\to\myenv
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The command, if run with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code>, will show the available options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
+            [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT]
+            ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]
+
+Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.
+
+positional arguments:
+  ENV_DIR               A directory to create the environment in.
+
+optional arguments:
+  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
+  --system-site-packages
+                        Give the virtual environment access to the system
+                        site-packages dir.
+  --symlinks            Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when symlinks
+                        are not the default for the platform.
+  --copies              Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when
+                        symlinks are the default for the platform.
+  --clear               Delete the contents of the environment directory if it
+                        already exists, before environment creation.
+  --upgrade             Upgrade the environment directory to use this version
+                        of Python, assuming Python has been upgraded in-place.
+  --without-pip         Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual
+                        environment (pip is bootstrapped by default)
+  --prompt PROMPT       Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this
+                        environment.
+
+Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
+sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Installs pip by default, added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-pip</span></code>  and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--copies</span></code>
+options</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>In earlier versions, if the target directory already existed, an error was
+raised, unless the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--clear</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--upgrade</span></code> option was provided.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>While symlinks are supported on Windows, they are not recommended. Of
+particular note is that double-clicking <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> in File Explorer
+will resolve the symlink eagerly and ignore the virtual environment.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The created <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv.cfg</span></code> file also includes the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">include-system-site-packages</span></code> key, set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">true</span></code> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> is
+run with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--system-site-packages</span></code> option, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">false</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>Unless the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-pip</span></code> option is given, <a class="reference internal" href="ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> will be
+invoked to bootstrap <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> into the virtual environment.</p>
+<p>Multiple paths can be given to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code>, in which case an identical virtual
+environment will be created, according to the given options, at each provided
+path.</p>
+<p>Once a virtual environment has been created, it can be “activated” using a
+script in the virtual environment’s binary directory. The invocation of the
+script is platform-specific (<cite>&lt;venv&gt;</cite> must be replaced by the path of the
+directory containing the virtual environment):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Platform</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Shell</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Command to activate virtual environment</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Posix</p></td>
+<td><p>bash/zsh</p></td>
+<td><p>$ source &lt;venv&gt;/bin/activate</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
+<td><p>fish</p></td>
+<td><p>$ . &lt;venv&gt;/bin/activate.fish</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>csh/tcsh</p></td>
+<td><p>$ source &lt;venv&gt;/bin/activate.csh</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Windows</p></td>
+<td><p>cmd.exe</p></td>
+<td><p>C:\&gt; &lt;venv&gt;\Scripts\activate.bat</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
+<td><p>PowerShell</p></td>
+<td><p>PS C:\&gt; &lt;venv&gt;\Scripts\Activate.ps1</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>You don’t specifically <em>need</em> to activate an environment; activation just
+prepends the virtual environment’s binary directory to your path, so that
+“python” invokes the virtual environment’s Python interpreter and you can run
+installed scripts without having to use their full path. However, all scripts
+installed in a virtual environment should be runnable without activating it,
+and run with the virtual environment’s Python automatically.</p>
+<p>You can deactivate a virtual environment by typing “deactivate” in your shell.
+The exact mechanism is platform-specific: for example, the Bash activation
+script defines a “deactivate” function, whereas on Windows there are separate
+scripts called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deactivate.bat</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Deactivate.ps1</span></code> which are installed
+when the virtual environment is created.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fish</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csh</span></code> activation scripts.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note" id="venv-def">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>A virtual environment is a Python environment such that the Python
+interpreter, libraries and scripts installed into it are isolated from those
+installed in other virtual environments, and (by default) any libraries
+installed in a “system” Python, i.e., one which is installed as part of your
+operating system.</p>
+<p>A virtual environment is a directory tree which contains Python executable
+files and other files which indicate that it is a virtual environment.</p>
+<p>Common installation tools such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Setuptools</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> work as
+expected with virtual environments. In other words, when a virtual
+environment is active, they install Python packages into the virtual
+environment without needing to be told to do so explicitly.</p>
+<p>When a virtual environment is active (i.e., the virtual environment’s Python
+interpreter is running), the attributes <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.prefix" title="sys.prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exec_prefix" title="sys.exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code></a> point to the base directory of the virtual
+environment, whereas <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.base_prefix" title="sys.base_prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.base_prefix</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.base_exec_prefix" title="sys.base_exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.base_exec_prefix</span></code></a> point to the non-virtual environment Python
+installation which was used to create the virtual environment. If a virtual
+environment is not active, then <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.prefix" title="sys.prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.prefix</span></code></a> is the same as
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.base_prefix" title="sys.base_prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.base_prefix</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.exec_prefix" title="sys.exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exec_prefix</span></code></a> is the same as
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.base_exec_prefix" title="sys.base_exec_prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.base_exec_prefix</span></code></a> (they all point to a non-virtual environment
+Python installation).</p>
+<p>When a virtual environment is active, any options that change the
+installation path will be ignored from all distutils configuration files to
+prevent projects being inadvertently installed outside of the virtual
+environment.</p>
+<p>When working in a command shell, users can make a virtual environment active
+by running an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">activate</span></code> script in the virtual environment’s executables
+directory (the precise filename is shell-dependent), which prepends the
+virtual environment’s directory for executables to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment
+variable for the running shell. There should be no need in other
+circumstances to activate a virtual environment—scripts installed into
+virtual environments have a “shebang” line which points to the virtual
+environment’s Python interpreter. This means that the script will run with
+that interpreter regardless of the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>. On Windows, “shebang”
+line processing is supported if you have the Python Launcher for Windows
+installed (this was added to Python in 3.3 - see <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0397"><strong>PEP 397</strong></a> for more
+details). Thus, double-clicking an installed script in a Windows Explorer
+window should run the script with the correct interpreter without there
+needing to be any reference to its virtual environment in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="api">
+<span id="venv-api"></span><h2>API<a class="headerlink" href="#api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The high-level method described above makes use of a simple API which provides
+mechanisms for third-party virtual environment creators to customize environment
+creation according to their needs, the <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder" title="venv.EnvBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">venv.</code><code class="descname">EnvBuilder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>system_site_packages=False</em>, <em>clear=False</em>, <em>symlinks=False</em>, <em>upgrade=False</em>, <em>with_pip=False</em>, <em>prompt=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder" title="venv.EnvBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a> class accepts the following keyword arguments on
+instantiation:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system_site_packages</span></code> – a Boolean value indicating that the system Python
+site-packages should be available to the environment (defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code> – a Boolean value which, if true, will delete the contents of
+any existing target directory, before creating the environment.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symlinks</span></code> – a Boolean value indicating whether to attempt to symlink the
+Python binary rather than copying.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">upgrade</span></code> – a Boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an existing
+environment with the running Python - for use when that Python has been
+upgraded in-place (defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_pip</span></code> – a Boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
+installed in the virtual environment. This uses <a class="reference internal" href="ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> with
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--default-pip</span></code> option.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prompt</span></code> – a String to be used after virtual environment is activated
+(defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> which means directory name of the environment would
+be used).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_pip</span></code> parameter</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prompt</span></code> parameter</p>
+</div>
+<p>Creators of third-party virtual environment tools will be free to use the
+provided <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code> class as a base class.</p>
+<p>The returned env-builder is an object which has a method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create</span></code>:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder.create">
+<code class="descname">create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>env_dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method takes as required argument the path (absolute or relative to
+the current directory) of the target directory which is to contain the
+virtual environment.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create</span></code> method will either create the
+environment in the specified directory, or raise an appropriate
+exception.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create</span></code> method of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code> class illustrates the hooks
+available for subclass customization:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">env_dir</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory.</span>
+<span class="sd">    env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">env_dir</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abspath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">env_dir</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ensure_directories</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">env_dir</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_configuration</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setup_python</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setup_scripts</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">post_setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each of the methods <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.ensure_directories" title="venv.EnvBuilder.ensure_directories"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_directories()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.create_configuration" title="venv.EnvBuilder.create_configuration"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_configuration()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python" title="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup_python()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts" title="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup_scripts()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup" title="venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">post_setup()</span></code></a> can be overridden.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder.ensure_directories">
+<code class="descname">ensure_directories</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>env_dir</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.ensure_directories" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates the environment directory and all necessary directories, and
+returns a context object.  This is just a holder for attributes (such as
+paths), for use by the other methods. The directories are allowed to
+exist already, as long as either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">upgrade</span></code> were
+specified to allow operating on an existing environment directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder.create_configuration">
+<code class="descname">create_configuration</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.create_configuration" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv.cfg</span></code> configuration file in the environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python">
+<code class="descname">setup_python</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a copy or symlink to the Python executable in the environment.
+On POSIX systems, if a specific executable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.x</span></code> was used,
+symlinks to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span></code> will be created pointing to that
+executable, unless files with those names already exist.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts">
+<code class="descname">setup_scripts</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Installs activation scripts appropriate to the platform into the virtual
+environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup">
+<code class="descname">post_setup</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A placeholder method which can be overridden in third party
+implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual environment or
+perform other post-creation steps.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.2: </span>Windows now uses redirector scripts for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python[w].exe</span></code> instead of
+copying the actual binaries. In 3.7.2 only <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python" title="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup_python()</span></code></a> does
+nothing unless running from a build in the source tree.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.3: </span>Windows copies the redirector scripts as part of <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python" title="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_python"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup_python()</span></code></a>
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts" title="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup_scripts()</span></code></a>. This was not the case in 3.7.2.
+When using symlinks, the original executables will be linked.</p>
+</div>
+<p>In addition, <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder" title="venv.EnvBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a> provides this utility method that can be
+called from <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts" title="venv.EnvBuilder.setup_scripts"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup_scripts()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup" title="venv.EnvBuilder.post_setup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">post_setup()</span></code></a> in subclasses to
+assist in installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="venv.EnvBuilder.install_scripts">
+<code class="descname">install_scripts</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>context</em>, <em>path</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.install_scripts" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><em>path</em> is the path to a directory that should contain subdirectories
+“common”, “posix”, “nt”, each containing scripts destined for the bin
+directory in the environment.  The contents of “common” and the
+directory corresponding to <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.name" title="os.name"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.name</span></code></a> are copied after some text
+replacement of placeholders:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__VENV_DIR__</span></code> is replaced with the absolute path of the environment
+directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__VENV_NAME__</span></code> is replaced with the environment name (final path
+segment of environment directory).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__VENV_PROMPT__</span></code> is replaced with the prompt (the environment
+name surrounded by parentheses and with a following space)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__VENV_BIN_NAME__</span></code> is replaced with the name of the bin directory
+(either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scripts</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__VENV_PYTHON__</span></code> is replaced with the absolute path of the
+environment’s executable.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The directories are allowed to exist (for when an existing environment
+is being upgraded).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There is also a module-level convenience function:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="venv.create">
+<code class="descclassname">venv.</code><code class="descname">create</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>env_dir</em>, <em>system_site_packages=False</em>, <em>clear=False</em>, <em>symlinks=False</em>, <em>with_pip=False</em>, <em>prompt=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#venv.create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder" title="venv.EnvBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a> with the given keyword arguments, and call its
+<a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder.create" title="venv.EnvBuilder.create"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create()</span></code></a> method with the <em>env_dir</em> argument.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_pip</span></code> parameter</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prompt</span></code> parameter</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="an-example-of-extending-envbuilder">
+<h2>An example of extending <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#an-example-of-extending-envbuilder" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following script shows how to extend <a class="reference internal" href="#venv.EnvBuilder" title="venv.EnvBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a> by implementing a
+subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created virtual environment:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os.path</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">subprocess</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PIPE</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">threading</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">Thread</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">urlparse</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">urlretrieve</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">venv</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ExtendedEnvBuilder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">venv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">EnvBuilder</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">    This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or</span>
+<span class="sd">    easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    :param nodist: If True, setuptools and pip are not installed into the</span>
+<span class="sd">                   created virtual environment.</span>
+<span class="sd">    :param nopip: If True, pip is not installed into the created</span>
+<span class="sd">                  virtual environment.</span>
+<span class="sd">    :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the</span>
+<span class="sd">                     installation can be monitored by passing a progress</span>
+<span class="sd">                     callable. If specified, it is called with two</span>
+<span class="sd">                     arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a</span>
+<span class="sd">                     context indicating where the string is coming from.</span>
+<span class="sd">                     The context argument can have one of three values:</span>
+<span class="sd">                     &#39;main&#39;, indicating that it is called from virtualize()</span>
+<span class="sd">                     itself, and &#39;stdout&#39; and &#39;stderr&#39;, which are obtained</span>
+<span class="sd">                     by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess</span>
+<span class="sd">                     which is used to install the app.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">                     If a callable is not specified, default progress</span>
+<span class="sd">                     information is output to sys.stderr.</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nodist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;nodist&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nopip</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;nopip&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">progress</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;progress&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">post_setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">        Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the</span>
+<span class="sd">        virtual environment being created.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">        :param context: The information for the virtual environment</span>
+<span class="sd">                        creation request being processed.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;VIRTUAL_ENV&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">env_dir</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nodist</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install_setuptools</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Can&#39;t install pip without setuptools</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nopip</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nodist</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install_pip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stream</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">        Read lines from a subprocess&#39; output stream and either pass to a progress</span>
+<span class="sd">        callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">progress</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">progress</span>
+        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="bp">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">stream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">break</span>
+            <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">progress</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">progress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+                <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">stream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">install_script</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">url</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">fn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="n">binpath</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bin_path</span>
+        <span class="n">distpath</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">binpath</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Download script into the virtual environment&#39;s binaries folder</span>
+        <span class="n">urlretrieve</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">distpath</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">progress</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">progress</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">term</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">term</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">progress</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">progress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Installing </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> ...</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">term</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;main&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Installing </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> ...</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">term</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Install in the virtual environment</span>
+        <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">env_exe</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cwd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">binpath</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">t1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;stdout&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">t1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">t2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;stderr&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="n">t2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">t1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">t2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">progress</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">progress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;done.&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;main&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;done.</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Clean up - no longer needed</span>
+        <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unlink</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">distpath</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">install_setuptools</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">        Install setuptools in the virtual environment.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">        :param context: The information for the virtual environment</span>
+<span class="sd">                        creation request being processed.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;https://bitbucket.org/pypa/setuptools/downloads/ez_setup.py&#39;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install_script</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;setuptools&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded</span>
+        <span class="n">pred</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;setuptools-&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">endswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.tar.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">files</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pred</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bin_path</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">files</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bin_path</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unlink</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">install_pip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="sd">        Install pip in the virtual environment.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">        :param context: The information for the virtual environment</span>
+<span class="sd">                        creation request being processed.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;https://raw.github.com/pypa/pip/master/contrib/get-pip.py&#39;</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">install_script</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pip&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">compatible</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">True</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">compatible</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">False</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;base_prefix&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">compatible</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">False</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">compatible</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This script is only for use with &#39;</span>
+                         <span class="s1">&#39;Python 3.3 or later&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+
+        <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                         <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Creates virtual Python &#39;</span>
+                                                     <span class="s1">&#39;environments in one or &#39;</span>
+                                                     <span class="s1">&#39;more target &#39;</span>
+                                                     <span class="s1">&#39;directories.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;dirs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ENV_DIR&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;A directory in which to create the</span>
+                                 <span class="s1">&#39;virtual environment.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--no-setuptools&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;nodist&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Don&#39;t install setuptools or pip in the &quot;</span>
+                                 <span class="s2">&quot;virtual environment.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--no-pip&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;nopip&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Don&#39;t install pip in the virtual &quot;</span>
+                                 <span class="s2">&quot;environment.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--system-site-packages&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;system_site&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Give the virtual environment access to the &#39;</span>
+                                 <span class="s1">&#39;system site-packages dir.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nt&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">use_symlinks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">False</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">use_symlinks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">True</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--symlinks&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">use_symlinks</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;symlinks&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Try to use symlinks rather than copies, &#39;</span>
+                                 <span class="s1">&#39;when symlinks are not the default for &#39;</span>
+                                 <span class="s1">&#39;the platform.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--clear&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;clear&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Delete the contents of the &#39;</span>
+                                               <span class="s1">&#39;virtual environment &#39;</span>
+                                               <span class="s1">&#39;directory if it already &#39;</span>
+                                               <span class="s1">&#39;exists, before virtual &#39;</span>
+                                               <span class="s1">&#39;environment creation.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--upgrade&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;upgrade&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Upgrade the virtual &#39;</span>
+                                                 <span class="s1">&#39;environment directory to &#39;</span>
+                                                 <span class="s1">&#39;use this version of &#39;</span>
+                                                 <span class="s1">&#39;Python, assuming Python &#39;</span>
+                                                 <span class="s1">&#39;has been upgraded &#39;</span>
+                                                 <span class="s1">&#39;in-place.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;--verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                            <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Display the output &#39;</span>
+                                               <span class="s1">&#39;from the scripts which &#39;</span>
+                                               <span class="s1">&#39;install setuptools and pip.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">options</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upgrade</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clear</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">builder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ExtendedEnvBuilder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">system_site_packages</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">system_site</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">clear</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clear</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">symlinks</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">symlinks</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">upgrade</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">upgrade</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">nodist</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nodist</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">nopip</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nopip</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                       <span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dirs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">builder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This script is also available for download <a class="reference external" href="https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395">online</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> — Creation of virtual environments</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-virtual-environments">Creating virtual environments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api">API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#an-example-of-extending-envbuilder">An example of extending <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ensurepip.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code> — Bootstrapping the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> installer</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="zipapp.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code> — Manage executable Python zip archives</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/venv.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="zipapp.html" title="zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives"
+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="ensurepip.html" title="ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer"
+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="distribution.html" >Software Packaging and Distribution</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
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+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/warnings.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/warnings.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c54aab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/warnings.html
@@ -0,0 +1,689 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>warnings — Warning control &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="dataclasses — Data Classes" href="dataclasses.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="__main__ — Top-level script environment" href="__main__.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/warnings.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="dataclasses.html" title="dataclasses — Data Classes"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="__main__.html" title="__main__ — Top-level script environment"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="python.html" accesskey="U">Python Runtime Services</a> &#187;</li>
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+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-warnings">
+<span id="warnings-warning-control"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> — Warning control<a class="headerlink" href="#module-warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/warnings.py">Lib/warnings.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>Warning messages are typically issued in situations where it is useful to alert
+the user of some condition in a program, where that condition (normally) doesn’t
+warrant raising an exception and terminating the program.  For example, one
+might want to issue a warning when a program uses an obsolete module.</p>
+<p>Python programmers issue warnings by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.warn" title="warnings.warn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn()</span></code></a> function defined
+in this module.  (C programmers use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnEx" title="PyErr_WarnEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WarnEx()</span></code></a>; see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#exceptionhandling"><span class="std std-ref">Exception Handling</span></a> for details).</p>
+<p>Warning messages are normally written to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>, but their disposition
+can be changed flexibly, from ignoring all warnings to turning them into
+exceptions.  The disposition of warnings can vary based on the warning category
+(see below), the text of the warning message, and the source location where it
+is issued.  Repetitions of a particular warning for the same source location are
+typically suppressed.</p>
+<p>There are two stages in warning control: first, each time a warning is issued, a
+determination is made whether a message should be issued or not; next, if a
+message is to be issued, it is formatted and printed using a user-settable hook.</p>
+<p>The determination whether to issue a warning message is controlled by the
+warning filter, which is a sequence of matching rules and actions. Rules can be
+added to the filter by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.filterwarnings" title="warnings.filterwarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filterwarnings()</span></code></a> and reset to its default
+state by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.resetwarnings" title="warnings.resetwarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resetwarnings()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The printing of warning messages is done by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="warnings.showwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code></a>, which
+may be overridden; the default implementation of this function formats the
+message by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.formatwarning" title="warnings.formatwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatwarning()</span></code></a>, which is also available for use by
+custom implementations.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logging.captureWarnings" title="logging.captureWarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.captureWarnings()</span></code></a> allows you to handle all warnings with
+the standard logging infrastructure.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="warning-categories">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Warning Categories<a class="headerlink" href="#warning-categories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are a number of built-in exceptions that represent warning categories.
+This categorization is useful to be able to filter out groups of warnings.</p>
+<p>While these are technically
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#warning-categories-as-exceptions"><span class="std std-ref">built-in exceptions</span></a>, they are
+documented here, because conceptually they belong to the warnings mechanism.</p>
+<p>User code can define additional warning categories by subclassing one of the
+standard warning categories.  A warning category must always be a subclass of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<p>The following warnings category classes are currently defined:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Class</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>This is the base class of all warning
+category classes.  It is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UserWarning" title="UserWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>The default category for <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.warn" title="warnings.warn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn()</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings about deprecated
+features when those warnings are intended for
+other Python developers (ignored by default,
+unless triggered by code in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#SyntaxWarning" title="SyntaxWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings about dubious
+syntactic features.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeWarning" title="RuntimeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings about dubious
+runtime features.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings about deprecated
+features when those warnings are intended for
+end users of applications that are written in
+Python.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings about features
+that will be deprecated in the future
+(ignored by default).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportWarning" title="ImportWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings triggered during
+the process of importing a module (ignored by
+default).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeWarning" title="UnicodeWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings related to
+Unicode.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BytesWarning" title="BytesWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings related to
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base category for warnings related to
+resource usage.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Previously <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a> were
+distinguished based on whether a feature was being removed entirely or
+changing its behaviour. They are now distinguished based on their
+intended audience and the way they’re handled by the default warnings
+filters.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-warnings-filter">
+<span id="warning-filter"></span><h2>The Warnings Filter<a class="headerlink" href="#the-warnings-filter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The warnings filter controls whether warnings are ignored, displayed, or turned
+into errors (raising an exception).</p>
+<p>Conceptually, the warnings filter maintains an ordered list of filter
+specifications; any specific warning is matched against each filter
+specification in the list in turn until a match is found; the filter determines
+the disposition of the match.  Each entry is a tuple of the form (<em>action</em>,
+<em>message</em>, <em>category</em>, <em>module</em>, <em>lineno</em>), where:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><em>action</em> is one of the following strings:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 25%" />
+<col style="width: 75%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Disposition</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;default&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>print the first occurrence of matching
+warnings for each location (module +
+line number) where the warning is issued</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;error&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>turn matching warnings into exceptions</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ignore&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>never print matching warnings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;always&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>always print matching warnings</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;module&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>print the first occurrence of matching
+warnings for each module where the warning
+is issued (regardless of line number)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;once&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>print only the first occurrence of matching
+warnings, regardless of location</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</li>
+<li><p><em>message</em> is a string containing a regular expression that the start of
+the warning message must match.  The expression is compiled to always be
+case-insensitive.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>category</em> is a class (a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a>) of which the warning
+category must be a subclass in order to match.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>module</em> is a string containing a regular expression that the module name must
+match.  The expression is compiled to be case-sensitive.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>lineno</em> is an integer that the line number where the warning occurred must
+match, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to match all line numbers.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Since the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a> class is derived from the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>
+class, to turn a warning into an error we simply raise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">category(message)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If a warning is reported and doesn’t match any registered filter then the
+“default” action is applied (hence its name).</p>
+<div class="section" id="describing-warning-filters">
+<span id="id2"></span><h3>Describing Warning Filters<a class="headerlink" href="#describing-warning-filters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The warnings filter is initialized by <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> options passed to the Python
+interpreter command line and the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a> environment variable.
+The interpreter saves the arguments for all supplied entries without
+interpretation in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code>; the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module parses these
+when it is first imported (invalid options are ignored, after printing a
+message to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Individual warnings filters are specified as a sequence of fields separated by
+colons:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">action</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">category</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">line</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The meaning of each of these fields is as described in <a class="reference internal" href="#warning-filter"><span class="std std-ref">The Warnings Filter</span></a>.
+When listing multiple filters on a single line (as for
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a>), the individual filters are separated by commas,and
+the filters listed later take precedence over those listed before them (as
+they’re applied left-to-right, and the most recently applied filters take
+precedence over earlier ones).</p>
+<p>Commonly used warning filters apply to either all warnings, warnings in a
+particular category, or warnings raised by particular modules or packages.
+Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">default</span>                      <span class="c1"># Show all warnings (even those ignored by default)</span>
+<span class="n">ignore</span>                       <span class="c1"># Ignore all warnings</span>
+<span class="n">error</span>                        <span class="c1"># Convert all warnings to errors</span>
+<span class="n">error</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="ne">ResourceWarning</span>       <span class="c1"># Treat ResourceWarning messages as errors</span>
+<span class="n">default</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span>  <span class="c1"># Show DeprecationWarning messages</span>
+<span class="n">ignore</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">:::</span><span class="n">mymodule</span>    <span class="c1"># Only report warnings triggered by &quot;mymodule&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">error</span><span class="p">:::</span><span class="n">mymodule</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">.*</span><span class="p">]</span>         <span class="c1"># Convert warnings to errors in &quot;mymodule&quot;</span>
+                             <span class="c1"># and any subpackages of &quot;mymodule&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="default-warning-filter">
+<span id="id3"></span><h3>Default Warning Filter<a class="headerlink" href="#default-warning-filter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, Python installs several warning filters, which can be overridden by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> command-line option, the <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a> environment
+variable and calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.filterwarnings" title="warnings.filterwarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filterwarnings()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>In regular release builds, the default warning filter has the following entries
+(in order of precedence):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">default</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">__main__</span>
+<span class="n">ignore</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span>
+<span class="n">ignore</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="ne">PendingDeprecationWarning</span>
+<span class="n">ignore</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="ne">ImportWarning</span>
+<span class="n">ignore</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="ne">ResourceWarning</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In debug builds, the list of default warning filters is empty.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> is now ignored by default in addition to
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> is once again shown by default when triggered
+directly by code in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#BytesWarning" title="BytesWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesWarning</span></code></a> no longer appears in the default filter list and is
+instead configured via <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.warnoptions" title="sys.warnoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code></a> when <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a> is specified
+twice.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="overriding-the-default-filter">
+<span id="warning-disable"></span><h3>Overriding the default filter<a class="headerlink" href="#overriding-the-default-filter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Developers of applications written in Python may wish to hide <em>all</em> Python level
+warnings from their users by default, and only display them when running tests
+or otherwise working on the application. The <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.warnoptions" title="sys.warnoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code></a> attribute
+used to pass filter configurations to the interpreter can be used as a marker to
+indicate whether or not warnings should be disabled:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warnoptions</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">simplefilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ignore&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Developers of test runners for Python code are advised to instead ensure that
+<em>all</em> warnings are displayed by default for the code under test, using code
+like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warnoptions</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">simplefilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;default&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># Change the filter in this process</span>
+    <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;PYTHONWARNINGS&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;default&quot;</span> <span class="c1"># Also affect subprocesses</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, developers of interactive shells that run user code in a namespace
+other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> are advised to ensure that <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>
+messages are made visible by default, using code like the following (where
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user_ns</span></code> is the module used to execute code entered interactively):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+<span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filterwarnings</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;default&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">category</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                   <span class="n">module</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">user_ns</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;__name__&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="temporarily-suppressing-warnings">
+<span id="warning-suppress"></span><h2>Temporarily Suppressing Warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#temporarily-suppressing-warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you are using code that you know will raise a warning, such as a deprecated
+function, but do not want to see the warning (even when warnings have been
+explicitly configured via the command line), then it is possible to suppress
+the warning using the <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.catch_warnings" title="warnings.catch_warnings"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catch_warnings</span></code></a> context manager:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fxn</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;deprecated&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">catch_warnings</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">simplefilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ignore&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">fxn</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>While within the context manager all warnings will simply be ignored. This
+allows you to use known-deprecated code without having to see the warning while
+not suppressing the warning for other code that might not be aware of its use
+of deprecated code.  Note: this can only be guaranteed in a single-threaded
+application. If two or more threads use the <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.catch_warnings" title="warnings.catch_warnings"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catch_warnings</span></code></a> context
+manager at the same time, the behavior is undefined.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="testing-warnings">
+<span id="warning-testing"></span><h2>Testing Warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#testing-warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To test warnings raised by code, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.catch_warnings" title="warnings.catch_warnings"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catch_warnings</span></code></a> context
+manager. With it you can temporarily mutate the warnings filter to facilitate
+your testing. For instance, do the following to capture all raised warnings to
+check:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fxn</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;deprecated&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">catch_warnings</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">record</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">w</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Cause all warnings to always be triggered.</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">simplefilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;always&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Trigger a warning.</span>
+    <span class="n">fxn</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Verify some things</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">issubclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">category</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="s2">&quot;deprecated&quot;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One can also cause all warnings to be exceptions by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code> instead of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">always</span></code>. One thing to be aware of is that if a warning has already been
+raised because of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">once</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> rule, then no matter what filters are
+set the warning will not be seen again unless the warnings registry related to
+the warning has been cleared.</p>
+<p>Once the context manager exits, the warnings filter is restored to its state
+when the context was entered. This prevents tests from changing the warnings
+filter in unexpected ways between tests and leading to indeterminate test
+results. The <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="warnings.showwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code></a> function in the module is also restored to
+its original value.  Note: this can only be guaranteed in a single-threaded
+application. If two or more threads use the <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.catch_warnings" title="warnings.catch_warnings"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catch_warnings</span></code></a> context
+manager at the same time, the behavior is undefined.</p>
+<p>When testing multiple operations that raise the same kind of warning, it
+is important to test them in a manner that confirms each operation is raising
+a new warning (e.g. set warnings to be raised as exceptions and check the
+operations raise exceptions, check that the length of the warning list
+continues to increase after each operation, or else delete the previous
+entries from the warnings list before each new operation).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies">
+<span id="warning-ignored"></span><h2>Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies<a class="headerlink" href="#updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Warning categories that are primarily of interest to Python developers (rather
+than end users of applications written in Python) are ignored by default.</p>
+<p>Notably, this “ignored by default” list includes <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>
+(for every module except <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>), which means developers should make sure
+to test their code with typically ignored warnings made visible in order to
+receive timely notifications of future breaking API changes (whether in the
+standard library or third party packages).</p>
+<p>In the ideal case, the code will have a suitable test suite, and the test runner
+will take care of implicitly enabling all warnings when running tests
+(the test runner provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module does this).</p>
+<p>In less ideal cases, applications can be checked for use of deprecated
+interfaces by passing <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wd</span></code></a> to the Python interpreter (this is
+shorthand for <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span> <span class="pre">default</span></code>) or setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS=default</span></code> in
+the environment. This enables default handling for all warnings, including those
+that are ignored by default. To change what action is taken for encountered
+warnings you can change what argument is passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> (e.g.
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span> <span class="pre">error</span></code>). See the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> flag for more details on what is
+possible.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="available-functions">
+<span id="warning-functions"></span><h2>Available Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#available-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="warnings.warn">
+<code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">warn</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em>, <em>category=None</em>, <em>stacklevel=1</em>, <em>source=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.warn" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Issue a warning, or maybe ignore it or raise an exception.  The <em>category</em>
+argument, if given, must be a warning category class (see above); it defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UserWarning" title="UserWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserWarning</span></code></a>.  Alternatively <em>message</em> can be a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a> instance,
+in which case <em>category</em> will be ignored and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message.__class__</span></code> will be used.
+In this case the message text will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(message)</span></code>. This function raises an
+exception if the particular warning issued is changed into an error by the
+warnings filter see above.  The <em>stacklevel</em> argument can be used by wrapper
+functions written in Python, like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">deprecation</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stacklevel</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This makes the warning refer to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deprecation()</span></code>’s caller, rather than to the
+source of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deprecation()</span></code> itself (since the latter would defeat the purpose
+of the warning message).</p>
+<p><em>source</em>, if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added <em>source</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="warnings.warn_explicit">
+<code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">warn_explicit</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em>, <em>category</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>module=None</em>, <em>registry=None</em>, <em>module_globals=None</em>, <em>source=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.warn_explicit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a low-level interface to the functionality of <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.warn" title="warnings.warn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warn()</span></code></a>, passing in
+explicitly the message, category, filename and line number, and optionally the
+module name and the registry (which should be the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__warningregistry__</span></code>
+dictionary of the module).  The module name defaults to the filename with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> stripped; if no registry is passed, the warning is never suppressed.
+<em>message</em> must be a string and <em>category</em> a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a> or
+<em>message</em> may be a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#Warning" title="Warning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Warning</span></code></a> instance, in which case <em>category</em> will be
+ignored.</p>
+<p><em>module_globals</em>, if supplied, should be the global namespace in use by the code
+for which the warning is issued.  (This argument is used to support displaying
+source for modules found in zipfiles or other non-filesystem import
+sources).</p>
+<p><em>source</em>, if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Add the <em>source</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="warnings.showwarning">
+<code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">showwarning</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em>, <em>category</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>file=None</em>, <em>line=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a warning to a file.  The default implementation calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatwarning(message,</span> <span class="pre">category,</span> <span class="pre">filename,</span> <span class="pre">lineno,</span> <span class="pre">line)</span></code> and writes the
+resulting string to <em>file</em>, which defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>.  You may replace
+this function with any callable by assigning to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.showwarning</span></code>.
+<em>line</em> is a line of source code to be included in the warning
+message; if <em>line</em> is not supplied, <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="warnings.showwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code></a> will
+try to read the line specified by <em>filename</em> and <em>lineno</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="warnings.formatwarning">
+<code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">formatwarning</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>message</em>, <em>category</em>, <em>filename</em>, <em>lineno</em>, <em>line=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.formatwarning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Format a warning the standard way.  This returns a string which may contain
+embedded newlines and ends in a newline.  <em>line</em> is a line of source code to
+be included in the warning message; if <em>line</em> is not supplied,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.formatwarning" title="warnings.formatwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatwarning()</span></code></a> will try to read the line specified by <em>filename</em> and
+<em>lineno</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="warnings.filterwarnings">
+<code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">filterwarnings</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>action</em>, <em>message=''</em>, <em>category=Warning</em>, <em>module=''</em>, <em>lineno=0</em>, <em>append=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.filterwarnings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert an entry into the list of <a class="reference internal" href="#warning-filter"><span class="std std-ref">warnings filter specifications</span></a>.  The entry is inserted at the front by default; if
+<em>append</em> is true, it is inserted at the end.  This checks the types of the
+arguments, compiles the <em>message</em> and <em>module</em> regular expressions, and
+inserts them as a tuple in the list of warnings filters.  Entries closer to
+the front of the list override entries later in the list, if both match a
+particular warning.  Omitted arguments default to a value that matches
+everything.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="warnings.simplefilter">
+<code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">simplefilter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>action</em>, <em>category=Warning</em>, <em>lineno=0</em>, <em>append=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.simplefilter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a simple entry into the list of <a class="reference internal" href="#warning-filter"><span class="std std-ref">warnings filter specifications</span></a>.  The meaning of the function parameters is as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.filterwarnings" title="warnings.filterwarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filterwarnings()</span></code></a>, but regular expressions are not needed as the filter
+inserted always matches any message in any module as long as the category and
+line number match.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="warnings.resetwarnings">
+<code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">resetwarnings</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.resetwarnings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reset the warnings filter.  This discards the effect of all previous calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.filterwarnings" title="warnings.filterwarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filterwarnings()</span></code></a>, including that of the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> command line options
+and calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.simplefilter" title="warnings.simplefilter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">simplefilter()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="available-context-managers">
+<h2>Available Context Managers<a class="headerlink" href="#available-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="warnings.catch_warnings">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">warnings.</code><code class="descname">catch_warnings</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*</em>, <em>record=False</em>, <em>module=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#warnings.catch_warnings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A context manager that copies and, upon exit, restores the warnings filter
+and the <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="warnings.showwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code></a> function.
+If the <em>record</em> argument is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> (the default) the context manager
+returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> on entry. If <em>record</em> is <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, a list is
+returned that is progressively populated with objects as seen by a custom
+<a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="warnings.showwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code></a> function (which also suppresses output to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>).
+Each object in the list has attributes with the same names as the arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="warnings.showwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>module</em> argument takes a module that will be used instead of the
+module returned when you import <a class="reference internal" href="#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> whose filter will be
+protected. This argument exists primarily for testing the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a>
+module itself.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.catch_warnings" title="warnings.catch_warnings"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catch_warnings</span></code></a> manager works by replacing and
+then later restoring the module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#warnings.showwarning" title="warnings.showwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code></a> function and internal list of filter
+specifications.  This means the context manager is modifying
+global state and therefore is not thread-safe.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code> — Warning control</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#warning-categories">Warning Categories</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-warnings-filter">The Warnings Filter</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#describing-warning-filters">Describing Warning Filters</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default-warning-filter">Default Warning Filter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#overriding-the-default-filter">Overriding the default filter</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#temporarily-suppressing-warnings">Temporarily Suppressing Warnings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#testing-warnings">Testing Warnings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies">Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#available-functions">Available Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#available-context-managers">Available Context Managers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-wave">
+<span id="wave-read-and-write-wav-files"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a> — Read and write WAV files<a class="headerlink" href="#module-wave" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/wave.py">Lib/wave.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a> module provides a convenient interface to the WAV sound format.
+It does not support compression/decompression, but it does support mono/stereo.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a> module defines the following function and exception:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wave.open">
+<code class="descclassname">wave.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>file</em> is a string, open the file by that name, otherwise treat it as a
+file-like object.  <em>mode</em> can be:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code></dt><dd><p>Read only mode.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code></dt><dd><p>Write only mode.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Note that it does not allow read/write WAV files.</p>
+<p>A <em>mode</em> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code> returns a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wave_read</span></code> object, while a <em>mode</em> of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'wb'</span></code> returns a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wave_write</span></code> object.  If <em>mode</em> is omitted and a
+file-like object is passed as <em>file</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.mode</span></code> is used as the default
+value for <em>mode</em>.</p>
+<p>If you pass in a file-like object, the wave object will not close it when its
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method is called; it is the caller’s responsibility to close
+the file object.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.open" title="wave.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function may be used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  When
+the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block completes, the <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_read.close" title="wave.Wave_read.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wave_read.close()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_write.close" title="wave.Wave_write.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wave_write.close()</span></code></a> method is called.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for unseekable files.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wave.openfp">
+<code class="descclassname">wave.</code><code class="descname">openfp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.openfp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.open" title="wave.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, maintained for backwards compatibility.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 3.7, will be removed in version 3.9.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="wave.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">wave.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An error raised when something is impossible because it violates the WAV
+specification or hits an implementation deficiency.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="wave-read-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Wave_read Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#wave-read-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Wave_read objects, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.open" title="wave.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.close">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the stream if it was opened by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a>, and make the instance
+unusable.  This is called automatically on object collection.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getnchannels">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getnchannels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getnchannels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns number of audio channels (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> for mono, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> for stereo).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getsampwidth">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getsampwidth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getsampwidth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns sample width in bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getframerate">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getframerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getframerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns sampling frequency.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getnframes">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getnframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getnframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns number of audio frames.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getcomptype">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getcomptype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getcomptype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns compression type (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NONE'</span></code> is the only supported type).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getcompname">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getcompname</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getcompname" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Human-readable version of <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_read.getcomptype" title="wave.Wave_read.getcomptype"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcomptype()</span></code></a>. Usually <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'not</span> <span class="pre">compressed'</span></code>
+parallels <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'NONE'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getparams">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getparams</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getparams" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(nchannels,</span> <span class="pre">sampwidth,</span>
+<span class="pre">framerate,</span> <span class="pre">nframes,</span> <span class="pre">comptype,</span> <span class="pre">compname)</span></code>, equivalent to output of the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get*()</span></code> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.readframes">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">readframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.readframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reads and returns at most <em>n</em> frames of audio, as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.rewind">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">rewind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.rewind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following two methods are defined for compatibility with the <a class="reference internal" href="aifc.html#module-aifc" title="aifc: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code></a>
+module, and don’t do anything interesting.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getmarkers">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getmarkers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getmarkers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.getmark">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">getmark</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.getmark" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raise an error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following two methods define a term “position” which is compatible between
+them, and is otherwise implementation dependent.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.setpos">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">setpos</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pos</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.setpos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the file pointer to the specified position.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_read.tell">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_read.</code><code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_read.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return current file pointer position.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wave-write-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Wave_write Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#wave-write-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For seekable output streams, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code> header will automatically be updated
+to reflect the number of frames actually written.  For unseekable streams, the
+<em>nframes</em> value must be accurate when the first frame data is written.  An
+accurate <em>nframes</em> value can be achieved either by calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_write.setnframes" title="wave.Wave_write.setnframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setnframes()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_write.setparams" title="wave.Wave_write.setparams"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setparams()</span></code></a> with the number
+of frames that will be written before <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_write.close" title="wave.Wave_write.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> is called and
+then using <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw" title="wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code></a> to write the frame data, or by
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_write.writeframes" title="wave.Wave_write.writeframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code></a> with all of the frame data to be
+written.  In the latter case <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_write.writeframes" title="wave.Wave_write.writeframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code></a> will calculate
+the number of frames in the data and set <em>nframes</em> accordingly before writing
+the frame data.</p>
+<p>Wave_write objects, as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.open" title="wave.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, have the following methods:</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added support for unseekable files.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.close">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Make sure <em>nframes</em> is correct, and close the file if it was opened by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a>.  This method is called upon object collection.  It will raise
+an exception if the output stream is not seekable and <em>nframes</em> does not
+match the number of frames actually written.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.setnchannels">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">setnchannels</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.setnchannels" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the number of channels.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.setsampwidth">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">setsampwidth</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.setsampwidth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the sample width to <em>n</em> bytes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.setframerate">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">setframerate</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.setframerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the frame rate to <em>n</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>A non-integral input to this method is rounded to the nearest
+integer.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.setnframes">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">setnframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.setnframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the number of frames to <em>n</em>.  This will be changed later if the number
+of frames actually written is different (this update attempt will
+raise an error if the output stream is not seekable).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.setcomptype">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">setcomptype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.setcomptype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the compression type and description. At the moment, only compression type
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NONE</span></code> is supported, meaning no compression.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.setparams">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">setparams</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tuple</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.setparams" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>tuple</em> should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(nchannels,</span> <span class="pre">sampwidth,</span> <span class="pre">framerate,</span> <span class="pre">nframes,</span> <span class="pre">comptype,</span>
+<span class="pre">compname)</span></code>, with values valid for the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set*()</span></code> methods.  Sets all
+parameters.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.tell">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">tell</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.tell" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_read.tell" title="wave.Wave_read.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wave_read.tell()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Wave_read.setpos" title="wave.Wave_read.setpos"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Wave_read.setpos()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">writeframesraw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write audio frames, without correcting <em>nframes</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wave.Wave_write.writeframes">
+<code class="descclassname">Wave_write.</code><code class="descname">writeframes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wave.Wave_write.writeframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write audio frames and make sure <em>nframes</em> is correct.  It will raise an
+error if the output stream is not seekable and the total number of frames
+that have been written after <em>data</em> has been written does not match the
+previously set value for <em>nframes</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is now accepted.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code>
+or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code>, and any attempt to do so will raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wave.Error" title="wave.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave.Error</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code> — Read and write WAV files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wave-read-objects">Wave_read Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wave-write-objects">Wave_write Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="sunau.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code> — Read and write Sun AU files</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="chunk.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chunk</span></code> — Read IFF chunked data</a></p>
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+
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+    <title>weakref — Weak references &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-weakref">
+<span id="weakref-weak-references"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> — Weak references<a class="headerlink" href="#module-weakref" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/weakref.py">Lib/weakref.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module allows the Python programmer to create <em class="dfn">weak
+references</em> to objects.</p>
+<p>In the following, the term <em class="dfn">referent</em> means the object which is referred to
+by a weak reference.</p>
+<p>A weak reference to an object is not enough to keep the object alive: when the
+only remaining references to a referent are weak references,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><span class="xref std std-term">garbage collection</span></a> is free to destroy the referent and reuse its memory
+for something else.  However, until the object is actually destroyed the weak
+reference may return the object even if there are no strong references to it.</p>
+<p>A primary use for weak references is to implement caches or
+mappings holding large objects, where it’s desired that a large object not be
+kept alive solely because it appears in a cache or mapping.</p>
+<p>For example, if you have a number of large binary image objects, you may wish to
+associate a name with each.  If you used a Python dictionary to map names to
+images, or images to names, the image objects would remain alive just because
+they appeared as values or keys in the dictionaries.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code></a> classes supplied by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module are an alternative, using weak references to construct
+mappings that don’t keep objects alive solely because they appear in the mapping
+objects.  If, for example, an image object is a value in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code></a>, then when the last remaining references to that
+image object are the weak references held by weak mappings, garbage collection
+can reclaim the object, and its corresponding entries in weak mappings are
+simply deleted.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code></a> use weak references
+in their implementation, setting up callback functions on the weak references
+that notify the weak dictionaries when a key or value has been reclaimed by
+garbage collection.  <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakSet" title="weakref.WeakSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakSet</span></code></a> implements the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> interface,
+but keeps weak references to its elements, just like a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code></a> does.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.finalize" title="weakref.finalize"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize</span></code></a> provides a straight forward way to register a
+cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.
+This is simpler to use than setting up a callback function on a raw
+weak reference, since the module automatically ensures that the finalizer
+remains alive until the object is collected.</p>
+<p>Most programs should find that using one of these weak container types
+or <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.finalize" title="weakref.finalize"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize</span></code></a> is all they need – it’s not usually necessary to
+create your own weak references directly.  The low-level machinery is
+exposed by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module for the benefit of advanced uses.</p>
+<p>Not all objects can be weakly referenced; those objects which can include class
+instances, functions written in Python (but not in C), instance methods, sets,
+frozensets, some <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file objects</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generators</span></a>,
+type objects, sockets, arrays, deques, regular expression pattern objects, and code
+objects.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Added support for thread.lock, threading.Lock, and code objects.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Several built-in types such as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> do not directly
+support weak references but can add support through subclassing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">red</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">green</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># this object is weak referenceable</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Other built-in types such as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> do not support weak
+references even when subclassed.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Extension types can easily be made to support weak references; see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../extending/newtypes.html#weakref-support"><span class="std std-ref">Weak Reference Support</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="weakref.ref">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">ref</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>callback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.ref" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a weak reference to <em>object</em>.  The original object can be retrieved by
+calling the reference object if the referent is still alive; if the referent is
+no longer alive, calling the reference object will cause <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> to be
+returned.  If <em>callback</em> is provided and not <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, and the returned
+weakref object is still alive, the callback will be called when the object is
+about to be finalized; the weak reference object will be passed as the only
+parameter to the callback; the referent will no longer be available.</p>
+<p>It is allowable for many weak references to be constructed for the same object.
+Callbacks registered for each weak reference will be called from the most
+recently registered callback to the oldest registered callback.</p>
+<p>Exceptions raised by the callback will be noted on the standard error output,
+but cannot be propagated; they are handled in exactly the same way as exceptions
+raised from an object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>Weak references are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> if the <em>object</em> is hashable.  They will
+maintain their hash value even after the <em>object</em> was deleted.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a> is called the first time only after the <em>object</em> was deleted,
+the call will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Weak references support tests for equality, but not ordering.  If the referents
+are still alive, two references have the same equality relationship as their
+referents (regardless of the <em>callback</em>).  If either referent has been deleted,
+the references are equal only if the reference objects are the same object.</p>
+<p>This is a subclassable type rather than a factory function.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="weakref.ref.__callback__">
+<code class="descname">__callback__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.ref.__callback__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This read-only attribute returns the callback currently associated to the
+weakref.  If there is no callback or if the referent of the weakref is
+no longer alive then this attribute will have value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Added the <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.ref.__callback__" title="weakref.ref.__callback__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__callback__</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="weakref.proxy">
+<code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">proxy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>callback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.proxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a proxy to <em>object</em> which uses a weak reference.  This supports use of
+the proxy in most contexts instead of requiring the explicit dereferencing used
+with weak reference objects.  The returned object will have a type of either
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProxyType</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CallableProxyType</span></code>, depending on whether <em>object</em> is
+callable.  Proxy objects are not <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> regardless of the referent; this
+avoids a number of problems related to their fundamentally mutable nature, and
+prevent their use as dictionary keys.  <em>callback</em> is the same as the parameter
+of the same name to the <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.ref" title="weakref.ref"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ref()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="weakref.getweakrefcount">
+<code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">getweakrefcount</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.getweakrefcount" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of weak references and proxies which refer to <em>object</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="weakref.getweakrefs">
+<code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">getweakrefs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>object</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.getweakrefs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all weak reference and proxy objects which refer to <em>object</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">WeakKeyDictionary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>dict</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mapping class that references keys weakly.  Entries in the dictionary will be
+discarded when there is no longer a strong reference to the key.  This can be
+used to associate additional data with an object owned by other parts of an
+application without adding attributes to those objects.  This can be especially
+useful with objects that override attribute accesses.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Caution: Because a <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code></a> is built on top of a Python
+dictionary, it must not change size when iterating over it.  This can be
+difficult to ensure for a <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code></a> because actions
+performed by the program during iteration may cause items in the
+dictionary to vanish “by magic” (as a side effect of garbage collection).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code></a> objects have an additional method that
+exposes the internal references directly.  The references are not guaranteed to
+be “live” at the time they are used, so the result of calling the references
+needs to be checked before being used.  This can be used to avoid creating
+references that will cause the garbage collector to keep the keys around longer
+than needed.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs">
+<code class="descclassname">WeakKeyDictionary.</code><code class="descname">keyrefs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterable of the weak references to the keys.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="weakref.WeakValueDictionary">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">WeakValueDictionary</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>dict</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Mapping class that references values weakly.  Entries in the dictionary will be
+discarded when no strong reference to the value exists any more.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Caution:  Because a <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code></a> is built on top of a Python
+dictionary, it must not change size when iterating over it.  This can be
+difficult to ensure for a <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code></a> because actions performed
+by the program during iteration may cause items in the dictionary to vanish “by
+magic” (as a side effect of garbage collection).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code></a> objects have an additional method that has the
+same issues as the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyrefs()</span></code> method of <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code></a>
+objects.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="weakref.WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs">
+<code class="descclassname">WeakValueDictionary.</code><code class="descname">valuerefs</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterable of the weak references to the values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="weakref.WeakSet">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">WeakSet</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>elements</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.WeakSet" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set class that keeps weak references to its elements.  An element will be
+discarded when no strong reference to it exists any more.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="weakref.WeakMethod">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">WeakMethod</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>method</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.WeakMethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A custom <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.ref" title="weakref.ref"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ref</span></code></a> subclass which simulates a weak reference to a bound
+method (i.e., a method defined on a class and looked up on an instance).
+Since a bound method is ephemeral, a standard weak reference cannot keep
+hold of it.  <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakMethod" title="weakref.WeakMethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakMethod</span></code></a> has special code to recreate the bound
+method until either the object or the original function dies:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">method</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;method called!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WeakMethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;bound method C.method of &lt;__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">()()</span>
+<span class="go">method called!</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">c</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">collect</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="weakref.finalize">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">finalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>obj</em>, <em>func</em>, <em>*args</em>, <em>**kwargs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.finalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a callable finalizer object which will be called when <em>obj</em>
+is garbage collected. Unlike an ordinary weak reference, a finalizer
+will always survive until the reference object is collected, greatly
+simplifying lifecycle management.</p>
+<p>A finalizer is considered <em>alive</em> until it is called (either explicitly
+or at garbage collection), and after that it is <em>dead</em>.  Calling a live
+finalizer returns the result of evaluating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(*arg,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code>,
+whereas calling a dead finalizer returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Exceptions raised by finalizer callbacks during garbage collection
+will be shown on the standard error output, but cannot be
+propagated.  They are handled in the same way as exceptions raised
+from an object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method or a weak reference’s
+callback.</p>
+<p>When the program exits, each remaining live finalizer is called
+unless its <a class="reference internal" href="atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> attribute has been set to false.  They
+are called in reverse order of creation.</p>
+<p>A finalizer will never invoke its callback during the later part of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><span class="xref std std-term">interpreter shutdown</span></a> when module globals are liable to have
+been replaced by <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="weakref.finalize.__call__">
+<code class="descname">__call__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.finalize.__call__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>self</em> is alive then mark it as dead and return the result of
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kwargs)</span></code>.  If <em>self</em> is dead then return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="weakref.finalize.detach">
+<code class="descname">detach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.finalize.detach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>self</em> is alive then mark it as dead and return the tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(obj,</span> <span class="pre">func,</span> <span class="pre">args,</span> <span class="pre">kwargs)</span></code>.  If <em>self</em> is dead then return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="weakref.finalize.peek">
+<code class="descname">peek</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.finalize.peek" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <em>self</em> is alive then return the tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(obj,</span> <span class="pre">func,</span> <span class="pre">args,</span>
+<span class="pre">kwargs)</span></code>.  If <em>self</em> is dead then return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="weakref.finalize.alive">
+<code class="descname">alive</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.finalize.alive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Property which is true if the finalizer is alive, false otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="weakref.finalize.atexit">
+<code class="descname">atexit</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.finalize.atexit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A writable boolean property which by default is true.  When the
+program exits, it calls all remaining live finalizers for which
+<a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.finalize.atexit" title="weakref.finalize.atexit"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> is true.  They are called in reverse order of
+creation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>It is important to ensure that <em>func</em>, <em>args</em> and <em>kwargs</em> do
+not own any references to <em>obj</em>, either directly or indirectly,
+since otherwise <em>obj</em> will never be garbage collected.  In
+particular, <em>func</em> should not be a bound method of <em>obj</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="weakref.ReferenceType">
+<code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">ReferenceType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.ReferenceType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object for weak references objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="weakref.ProxyType">
+<code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">ProxyType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.ProxyType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object for proxies of objects which are not callable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="weakref.CallableProxyType">
+<code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">CallableProxyType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.CallableProxyType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The type object for proxies of callable objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="weakref.ProxyTypes">
+<code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">ProxyTypes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.ProxyTypes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sequence containing all the type objects for proxies.  This can make it simpler
+to test if an object is a proxy without being dependent on naming both proxy
+types.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="weakref.ReferenceError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">weakref.</code><code class="descname">ReferenceError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#weakref.ReferenceError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a proxy object is used but the underlying object has been
+collected.  This is the same as the standard <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ReferenceError" title="ReferenceError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReferenceError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0205"><strong>PEP 205</strong></a> - Weak References</dt><dd><p>The proposal and rationale for this feature, including links to earlier
+implementations and information about similar features in other languages.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="weak-reference-objects">
+<span id="weakref-objects"></span><h2>Weak Reference Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#weak-reference-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Weak reference objects have no methods and no attributes besides
+<a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.ref.__callback__" title="weakref.ref.__callback__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ref.__callback__</span></code></a>. A weak reference object allows the referent to be
+obtained, if it still exists, by calling it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">weakref</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Object</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">o</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">o2</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the referent no longer exists, calling the reference object returns
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">o</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">o2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Testing that a weak reference object is still live should be done using the
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ref()</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Normally, application code that needs to use
+a reference object should follow this pattern:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># r is a weak reference object</span>
+<span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">o</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># referent has been garbage collected</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Object has been deallocated; can&#39;t frobnicate.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Object is still live!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">o</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">do_something_useful</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Using a separate test for “liveness” creates race conditions in threaded
+applications; another thread can cause a weak reference to become invalidated
+before the weak reference is called; the idiom shown above is safe in threaded
+applications as well as single-threaded applications.</p>
+<p>Specialized versions of <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.ref" title="weakref.ref"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ref</span></code></a> objects can be created through subclassing.
+This is used in the implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code></a> to reduce
+the memory overhead for each entry in the mapping.  This may be most useful to
+associate additional information with a reference, but could also be used to
+insert additional processing on calls to retrieve the referent.</p>
+<p>This example shows how a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.ref" title="weakref.ref"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ref</span></code></a> can be used to store
+additional information about an object and affect the value that’s returned when
+the referent is accessed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">weakref</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ExtendedRef</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ref</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ob</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">annotations</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ExtendedRef</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ob</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__counter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">annotations</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="nb">setattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__call__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return a pair containing the referent and the number of</span>
+<span class="sd">        times the reference has been called.</span>
+<span class="sd">        &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+        <span class="n">ob</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ExtendedRef</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__call__</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">ob</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__counter</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+            <span class="n">ob</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ob</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__counter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ob</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<span id="weakref-example"></span><h2>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This simple example shows how an application can use object IDs to retrieve
+objects that it has seen before.  The IDs of the objects can then be used in
+other data structures without forcing the objects to remain alive, but the
+objects can still be retrieved by ID if they do.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">weakref</span>
+
+<span class="n">_id2obj_dict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WeakValueDictionary</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remember</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">oid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">id</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">_id2obj_dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">oid</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">oid</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">id2obj</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">oid</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">_id2obj_dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">oid</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finalizer-objects">
+<span id="finalize-examples"></span><h2>Finalizer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#finalizer-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The main benefit of using <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.finalize" title="weakref.finalize"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize</span></code></a> is that it makes it simple
+to register a callback without needing to preserve the returned finalizer
+object.  For instance</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">weakref</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Object</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">kenny</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kenny</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;You killed Kenny!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1">#doctest:+ELLIPSIS</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;finalize object at ...; for &#39;Object&#39; at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">kenny</span>
+<span class="go">You killed Kenny!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The finalizer can be called directly as well.  However the finalizer
+will invoke the callback at most once.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">callback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;CALLBACK&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">z</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alive</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="go">CALLBACK</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alive</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>                     <span class="c1"># callback not called because finalizer dead</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">obj</span>                 <span class="c1"># callback not called because finalizer dead</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can unregister a finalizer using its <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.finalize.detach" title="weakref.finalize.detach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code></a>
+method.  This kills the finalizer and returns the arguments passed to
+the constructor when it was created.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">callback</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">detach</span><span class="p">()</span>                                           <span class="c1">#doctest:+ELLIPSIS</span>
+<span class="go">(&lt;...Object object ...&gt;, &lt;function callback ...&gt;, (1, 2), {&#39;z&#39;: 3})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">newobj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alive</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">newobj</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="go">CALLBACK</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unless you set the <a class="reference internal" href="#weakref.finalize.atexit" title="weakref.finalize.atexit"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> attribute to
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>, a finalizer will be called when the program exits if it
+is still alive.  For instance</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Object</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;obj dead or exiting&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;finalize object at ...; for &#39;Object&#39; at ...&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">obj dead or exiting</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparing-finalizers-with-del-methods">
+<h2>Comparing finalizers with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods<a class="headerlink" href="#comparing-finalizers-with-del-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Suppose we want to create a class whose instances represent temporary
+directories.  The directories should be deleted with their contents
+when the first of the following events occurs:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the object is garbage collected,</p></li>
+<li><p>the object’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code> method is called, or</p></li>
+<li><p>the program exits.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>We might try to implement the class using a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method as
+follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TempDir</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mkdtemp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rmtree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">removed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__del__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Starting with Python 3.4, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods no longer prevent
+reference cycles from being garbage collected, and module globals are
+no longer forced to <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> during <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><span class="xref std std-term">interpreter shutdown</span></a>.
+So this code should work without any issues on CPython.</p>
+<p>However, handling of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods is notoriously implementation
+specific, since it depends on internal details of the interpreter’s garbage
+collector implementation.</p>
+<p>A more robust alternative can be to define a finalizer which only references
+the specific functions and objects that it needs, rather than having access
+to the full state of the object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TempDir</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mkdtemp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_finalizer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rmtree</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_finalizer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">removed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_finalizer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">alive</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Defined like this, our finalizer only receives a reference to the details
+it needs to clean up the directory appropriately. If the object never gets
+garbage collected the finalizer will still be called at exit.</p>
+<p>The other advantage of weakref based finalizers is that they can be used to
+register finalizers for classes where the definition is controlled by a
+third party, such as running code when a module is unloaded:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">weakref</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">unloading_module</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># implicit reference to the module globals from the function body</span>
+<span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">finalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">unloading_module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you create a finalizer object in a daemonic thread just as the program
+exits then there is the possibility that the finalizer
+does not get called at exit.  However, in a daemonic thread
+<a class="reference internal" href="atexit.html#atexit.register" title="atexit.register"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit.register()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try:</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">finally:</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with:</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>
+do not guarantee that cleanup occurs either.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code> — Weak references</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#weak-reference-objects">Weak Reference Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finalizer-objects">Finalizer Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparing-finalizers-with-del-methods">Comparing finalizers with <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code> methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="array.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code> — Efficient arrays of numeric values</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="types.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code> — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/weakref.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/webbrowser.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/webbrowser.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,449 @@
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+
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-webbrowser">
+<span id="webbrowser-convenient-web-browser-controller"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-webbrowser" title="webbrowser: Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code></a> — Convenient Web-browser controller<a class="headerlink" href="#module-webbrowser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/webbrowser.py">Lib/webbrowser.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-webbrowser" title="webbrowser: Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code></a> module provides a high-level interface to allow displaying
+Web-based documents to users. Under most circumstances, simply calling the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.open" title="webbrowser.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function from this module will do the right thing.</p>
+<p>Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode browsers
+will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11 display isn’t
+available.  If text-mode browsers are used, the calling process will block until
+the user exits the browser.</p>
+<p>If the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BROWSER</span></code> exists, it is interpreted as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.pathsep" title="os.pathsep"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pathsep</span></code></a>-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the platform
+defaults.  When the value of a list part contains the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code>, then it is
+interpreted as a literal browser command line to be used with the argument URL
+substituted for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code>; if the part does not contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code>, it is simply
+interpreted as the name of the browser to launch. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p>For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix, the
+controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the browser, but
+allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the display.  If remote
+browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling process will launch a new
+browser and wait.</p>
+<p>The script <strong class="program">webbrowser</strong> can be used as a command-line interface for the
+module. It accepts a URL as the argument. It accepts the following optional
+parameters: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-t</span></code> opens the URL in a new browser page (“tab”). The options are,
+naturally, mutually exclusive.  Usage example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">webbrowser</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="s2">&quot;http://www.python.org&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following exception is defined:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="webbrowser.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">webbrowser.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised when a browser control error occurs.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following functions are defined:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="webbrowser.open">
+<code class="descclassname">webbrowser.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>new=0</em>, <em>autoraise=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display <em>url</em> using the default browser. If <em>new</em> is 0, the <em>url</em> is opened
+in the same browser window if possible.  If <em>new</em> is 1, a new browser window
+is opened if possible.  If <em>new</em> is 2, a new browser page (“tab”) is opened
+if possible.  If <em>autoraise</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the window is raised if possible
+(note that under many window managers this will occur regardless of the
+setting of this variable).</p>
+<p>Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this function,
+may work and start the operating system’s associated program.  However, this
+is neither supported nor portable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="webbrowser.open_new">
+<code class="descclassname">webbrowser.</code><code class="descname">open_new</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.open_new" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open <em>url</em> in a new window of the default browser, if possible, otherwise, open
+<em>url</em> in the only browser window.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="webbrowser.open_new_tab">
+<code class="descclassname">webbrowser.</code><code class="descname">open_new_tab</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.open_new_tab" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open <em>url</em> in a new page (“tab”) of the default browser, if possible, otherwise
+equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.open_new" title="webbrowser.open_new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_new()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="webbrowser.get">
+<code class="descclassname">webbrowser.</code><code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>using=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a controller object for the browser type <em>using</em>.  If <em>using</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, return a controller for a default browser appropriate to the
+caller’s environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="webbrowser.register">
+<code class="descclassname">webbrowser.</code><code class="descname">register</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>constructor</em>, <em>instance=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>preferred=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.register" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the browser type <em>name</em>.  Once a browser type is registered, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.get" title="webbrowser.get"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> function can return a controller for that browser type.  If
+<em>instance</em> is not provided, or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <em>constructor</em> will be called without
+parameters to create an instance when needed.  If <em>instance</em> is provided,
+<em>constructor</em> will never be called, and may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Setting <em>preferred</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> makes this browser a preferred result for
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.get" title="webbrowser.get"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> call with no argument.  Otherwise, this entry point is only
+useful if you plan to either set the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BROWSER</span></code> variable or call
+<a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.get" title="webbrowser.get"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> with a nonempty argument matching the name of a handler you
+declare.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><em>preferred</em> keyword-only parameter was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A number of browser types are predefined.  This table gives the type names that
+may be passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.get" title="webbrowser.get"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> function and the corresponding instantiations
+for the controller classes, all defined in this module.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+<col style="width: 57%" />
+<col style="width: 10%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Type Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Class Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mozilla'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mozilla('mozilla')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'firefox'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mozilla('mozilla')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'netscape'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mozilla('netscape')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'galeon'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Galeon('galeon')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'epiphany'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Galeon('epiphany')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'skipstone'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BackgroundBrowser('skipstone')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'kfmclient'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Konqueror()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'konqueror'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Konqueror()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'kfm'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Konqueror()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(1)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mosaic'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BackgroundBrowser('mosaic')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'opera'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Opera()</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'grail'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Grail()</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'links'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GenericBrowser('links')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'elinks'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Elinks('elinks')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'lynx'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GenericBrowser('lynx')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w3m'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GenericBrowser('w3m')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'windows-default'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsDefault</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(2)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'macosx'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MacOSX('default')</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'safari'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MacOSX('safari')</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>(3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'google-chrome'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Chrome('google-chrome')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'chrome'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Chrome('chrome')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'chromium'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Chromium('chromium')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'chromium-browser'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Chromium('chromium-browser')</span></code></p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>“Konqueror” is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for Unix, and
+only makes sense to use if KDE is running.  Some way of reliably detecting KDE
+would be nice; the <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KDEDIR</span></code> variable is not sufficient.  Note also that
+the name “kfm” is used even when using the <strong class="program">konqueror</strong> command with KDE
+2 — the implementation selects the best strategy for running Konqueror.</p></li>
+<li><p>Only on Windows platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p>Only on Mac OS X platform.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Here are some simple examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://docs.python.org/&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open.</span>
+<span class="n">webbrowser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_new_tab</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible.</span>
+<span class="n">webbrowser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="browser-controller-objects">
+<span id="browser-controllers"></span><h2>Browser Controller Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#browser-controller-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Browser controllers provide these methods which parallel three of the
+module-level convenience functions:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="webbrowser.controller.open">
+<code class="descclassname">controller.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em>, <em>new=0</em>, <em>autoraise=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.controller.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display <em>url</em> using the browser handled by this controller. If <em>new</em> is 1, a new
+browser window is opened if possible. If <em>new</em> is 2, a new browser page (“tab”)
+is opened if possible.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="webbrowser.controller.open_new">
+<code class="descclassname">controller.</code><code class="descname">open_new</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.controller.open_new" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open <em>url</em> in a new window of the browser handled by this controller, if
+possible, otherwise, open <em>url</em> in the only browser window.  Alias
+<a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.open_new" title="webbrowser.open_new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_new()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="webbrowser.controller.open_new_tab">
+<code class="descclassname">controller.</code><code class="descname">open_new_tab</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>url</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser.controller.open_new_tab" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open <em>url</em> in a new page (“tab”) of the browser handled by this controller, if
+possible, otherwise equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser.open_new" title="webbrowser.open_new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_new()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Executables named here without a full path will be searched in the
+directories given in the <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code> — Convenient Web-browser controller</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#browser-controller-objects">Browser Controller Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="internet.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Internet Protocols and Support</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cgi.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code> — Common Gateway Interface support</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
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+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/windows.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/windows.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..532d9c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/windows.html
@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>MS Windows Specific Services &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files" href="msilib.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="formatter — Generic output formatting" href="formatter.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/windows.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+ 
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="msilib.html" title="msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files"
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="ms-windows-specific-services">
+<span id="mswin-specific-services"></span><h1>MS Windows Specific Services<a class="headerlink" href="#ms-windows-specific-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This chapter describes modules that are only available on MS Windows platforms.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code> — Read and write Microsoft Installer files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#database-objects">Database Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#view-objects">View Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#summary-information-objects">Summary Information Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#record-objects">Record Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#errors">Errors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#cab-objects">CAB Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#directory-objects">Directory Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#features">Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#gui-classes">GUI classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msilib.html#precomputed-tables">Precomputed tables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="msvcrt.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msvcrt.html#file-operations">File Operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msvcrt.html#console-i-o">Console I/O</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="msvcrt.html#other-functions">Other Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code> — Windows registry access</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html#constants">Constants</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html#hkey-constants">HKEY_* Constants</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html#access-rights">Access Rights</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html#bit-specific">64-bit Specific</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html#value-types">Value Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="winreg.html#registry-handle-objects">Registry Handle Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="winsound.html"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winsound</span></code> — Sound-playing interface for Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="formatter.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code> — Generic output formatting</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="msilib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code> — Read and write Microsoft Installer files</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/windows.rst"
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winreg.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winreg.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0a2ea9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winreg.html
@@ -0,0 +1,947 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>winreg — Windows registry access &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
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+    
+    
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+    <style>
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+
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+    <li class="right">
+        
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+        </form>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-winreg">
+<span id="winreg-windows-registry-access"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-winreg" title="winreg: Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code></a> — Windows registry access<a class="headerlink" href="#module-winreg" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python.  Instead of using an
+integer as the registry handle, a <a class="reference internal" href="#handle-object"><span class="std std-ref">handle object</span></a> is used
+to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the programmer neglects
+to explicitly close them.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged" id="exception-changed">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Several functions in this module used to raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#WindowsError" title="WindowsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsError</span></code></a>, which is now an alias of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module offers the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.CloseKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">CloseKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>hkey</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.CloseKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closes a previously opened registry key.  The <em>hkey</em> argument specifies a
+previously opened key.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <em>hkey</em> is not closed using this method (or via <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.PyHKEY.Close" title="winreg.PyHKEY.Close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hkey.Close()</span></code></a>), it is closed when the <em>hkey</em> object is destroyed by
+Python.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.ConnectRegistry">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">ConnectRegistry</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>computer_name</em>, <em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.ConnectRegistry" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another computer,
+and returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#handle-object"><span class="std std-ref">handle object</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>computer_name</em> is the name of the remote computer, of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\\computername&quot;</span></code>.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the local computer is used.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is the predefined handle to connect to.</p>
+<p>The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.CreateKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">CreateKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.CreateKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates or opens the specified key, returning a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#handle-object"><span class="std std-ref">handle object</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that names the key this method opens or creates.</p>
+<p>If <em>key</em> is one of the predefined keys, <em>sub_key</em> may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. In that
+case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function.</p>
+<p>If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.</p>
+<p>The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.CreateKeyEx">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">CreateKeyEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em>, <em>reserved=0</em>, <em>access=KEY_WRITE</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.CreateKeyEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates or opens the specified key, returning a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#handle-object"><span class="std std-ref">handle object</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that names the key this method opens or creates.</p>
+<p><em>reserved</em> is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero.</p>
+<p><em>access</em> is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired
+security access for the key.  Default is <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_WRITE" title="winreg.KEY_WRITE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_WRITE</span></code></a>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#access-rights"><span class="std std-ref">Access Rights</span></a> for other allowed values.</p>
+<p>If <em>key</em> is one of the predefined keys, <em>sub_key</em> may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. In that
+case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function.</p>
+<p>If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.</p>
+<p>The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.DeleteKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">DeleteKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.DeleteKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deletes the specified key.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the <em>key</em>
+parameter.  This value must not be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, and the key may not have subkeys.</p>
+<p><em>This method can not delete keys with subkeys.</em></p>
+<p>If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed.
+If the method fails, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.DeleteKeyEx">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">DeleteKeyEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em>, <em>access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY</em>, <em>reserved=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.DeleteKeyEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Deletes the specified key.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.DeleteKeyEx" title="winreg.DeleteKeyEx"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeleteKeyEx()</span></code></a> function is implemented with the RegDeleteKeyEx
+Windows API function, which is specific to 64-bit versions of Windows.
+See the <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724847%28VS.85%29.aspx">RegDeleteKeyEx documentation</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the
+<em>key</em> parameter. This value must not be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, and the key may not have
+subkeys.</p>
+<p><em>reserved</em> is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero.</p>
+<p><em>access</em> is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired
+security access for the key.  Default is <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY" title="winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_WOW64_64KEY</span></code></a>.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#access-rights"><span class="std std-ref">Access Rights</span></a> for other allowed values.</p>
+<p><em>This method can not delete keys with subkeys.</em></p>
+<p>If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is
+removed. If the method fails, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<p>On unsupported Windows versions, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.DeleteValue">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">DeleteValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.DeleteValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes a named value from a registry key.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>value</em> is a string that identifies the value to remove.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.EnumKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">EnumKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.EnumKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>index</em> is an integer that identifies the index of the key to retrieve.</p>
+<p>The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called.  It is
+typically called repeatedly until an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is
+raised, indicating, no more values are available.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.EnumValue">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">EnumValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.EnumValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>index</em> is an integer that identifies the index of the value to retrieve.</p>
+<p>The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is
+typically called repeatedly, until an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> exception is
+raised, indicating no more values.</p>
+<p>The result is a tuple of 3 items:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 14%" />
+<col style="width: 86%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A string that identifies the value name</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An object that holds the value data, and
+whose type depends on the underlying
+registry type</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An integer that identifies the type of the
+value data (see table in docs for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.SetValueEx" title="winreg.SetValueEx"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetValueEx()</span></code></a>)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">ExpandEnvironmentStrings</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>str</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Expands environment variable placeholders <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%NAME%</span></code> in strings like
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ" title="winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REG_EXPAND_SZ</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ExpandEnvironmentStrings</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;%windir%&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C:\\Windows&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.FlushKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">FlushKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.FlushKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p>It is not necessary to call <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.FlushKey" title="winreg.FlushKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FlushKey()</span></code></a> to change a key. Registry changes are
+flushed to disk by the registry using its lazy flusher.  Registry changes are
+also flushed to disk at system shutdown.  Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.CloseKey" title="winreg.CloseKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CloseKey()</span></code></a>, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.FlushKey" title="winreg.FlushKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FlushKey()</span></code></a> method returns only when all the data has been written to the
+registry. An application should only call <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.FlushKey" title="winreg.FlushKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FlushKey()</span></code></a> if it requires
+absolute certainty that registry changes are on disk.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If you don’t know whether a <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.FlushKey" title="winreg.FlushKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FlushKey()</span></code></a> call is required, it probably
+isn’t.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.LoadKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">LoadKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em>, <em>file_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.LoadKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration information
+from a specified file into that subkey.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is a handle returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.ConnectRegistry" title="winreg.ConnectRegistry"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectRegistry()</span></code></a> or one of the constants
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.HKEY_USERS" title="winreg.HKEY_USERS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HKEY_USERS</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE" title="winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that identifies the subkey to load.</p>
+<p><em>file_name</em> is the name of the file to load registry data from. This file must
+have been created with the <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.SaveKey" title="winreg.SaveKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SaveKey()</span></code></a> function. Under the file allocation
+table (FAT) file system, the filename may not have an extension.</p>
+<p>A call to <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.LoadKey" title="winreg.LoadKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadKey()</span></code></a> fails if the calling process does not have the
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE</span></code> privilege.  Note that privileges are different
+from permissions – see the <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx">RegLoadKey documentation</a> for
+more details.</p>
+<p>If <em>key</em> is a handle returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.ConnectRegistry" title="winreg.ConnectRegistry"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectRegistry()</span></code></a>, then the path
+specified in <em>file_name</em> is relative to the remote computer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.OpenKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">OpenKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em>, <em>reserved=0</em>, <em>access=KEY_READ</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.OpenKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="winreg.OpenKeyEx">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">OpenKeyEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em>, <em>reserved=0</em>, <em>access=KEY_READ</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.OpenKeyEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Opens the specified key, returning a <a class="reference internal" href="#handle-object"><span class="std std-ref">handle object</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that identifies the sub_key to open.</p>
+<p><em>reserved</em> is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is zero.</p>
+<p><em>access</em> is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired
+security access for the key.  Default is <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_READ" title="winreg.KEY_READ"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_READ</span></code></a>.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#access-rights"><span class="std std-ref">Access
+Rights</span></a> for other allowed values.</p>
+<p>The result is a new handle to the specified key.</p>
+<p>If the function fails, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Allow the use of named arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>See <a class="reference internal" href="#exception-changed"><span class="std std-ref">above</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.QueryInfoKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">QueryInfoKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.QueryInfoKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns information about a key, as a tuple.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The result is a tuple of 3 items:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 13%" />
+<col style="width: 87%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An integer giving the number of sub keys
+this key has.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An integer giving the number of values this
+key has.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An integer giving when the key was last
+modified (if available) as 100’s of
+nanoseconds since Jan 1, 1601.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.QueryValue">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">QueryValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.QueryValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which the value is
+associated.  If this parameter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or empty, the function retrieves the
+value set by the <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.SetValue" title="winreg.SetValue"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetValue()</span></code></a> method for the key identified by <em>key</em>.</p>
+<p>Values in the registry have name, type, and data components. This method
+retrieves the data for a key’s first value that has a NULL name. But the
+underlying API call doesn’t return the type, so always use
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.QueryValueEx" title="winreg.QueryValueEx"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueryValueEx()</span></code></a> if possible.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.QueryValueEx">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">QueryValueEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>value_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.QueryValueEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated with
+an open registry key.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>value_name</em> is a string indicating the value to query.</p>
+<p>The result is a tuple of 2 items:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 85%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The value of the registry item.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>An integer giving the registry type for
+this value (see table in docs for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.SetValueEx" title="winreg.SetValueEx"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetValueEx()</span></code></a>)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.SaveKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">SaveKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>file_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.SaveKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>file_name</em> is the name of the file to save registry data to.  This file
+cannot already exist. If this filename includes an extension, it cannot be
+used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by the <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.LoadKey" title="winreg.LoadKey"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoadKey()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<p>If <em>key</em> represents a key on a remote computer, the path described by
+<em>file_name</em> is relative to the remote computer. The caller of this method must
+possess the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SeBackupPrivilege</span></code> security privilege.  Note that
+privileges are different than permissions – see the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx">Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions documentation</a>
+for more details.</p>
+<p>This function passes NULL for <em>security_attributes</em> to the API.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.SetValue">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">SetValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>sub_key</em>, <em>type</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.SetValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Associates a value with a specified key.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>sub_key</em> is a string that names the subkey with which the value is associated.</p>
+<p><em>type</em> is an integer that specifies the type of the data. Currently this must be
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.REG_SZ" title="winreg.REG_SZ"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REG_SZ</span></code></a>, meaning only strings are supported.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.SetValueEx" title="winreg.SetValueEx"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SetValueEx()</span></code></a>
+function for support for other data types.</p>
+<p><em>value</em> is a string that specifies the new value.</p>
+<p>If the key specified by the <em>sub_key</em> parameter does not exist, the SetValue
+function creates it.</p>
+<p>Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048
+bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration
+registry.  This helps the registry perform efficiently.</p>
+<p>The key identified by the <em>key</em> parameter must have been opened with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE" title="winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SET_VALUE</span></code></a> access.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.SetValueEx">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">SetValueEx</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>value_name</em>, <em>reserved</em>, <em>type</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.SetValueEx" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stores data in the value field of an open registry key.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p><em>value_name</em> is a string that names the subkey with which the value is
+associated.</p>
+<p><em>reserved</em> can be anything – zero is always passed to the API.</p>
+<p><em>type</em> is an integer that specifies the type of the data. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#value-types"><span class="std std-ref">Value Types</span></a> for the available types.</p>
+<p><em>value</em> is a string that specifies the new value.</p>
+<p>This method can also set additional value and type information for the specified
+key.  The key identified by the key parameter must have been opened with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE" title="winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SET_VALUE</span></code></a> access.</p>
+<p>To open the key, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.CreateKey" title="winreg.CreateKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CreateKey()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.OpenKey" title="winreg.OpenKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenKey()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+<p>Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048
+bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration
+registry.  This helps the registry perform efficiently.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.DisableReflectionKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">DisableReflectionKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.DisableReflectionKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a 64-bit
+operating system.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined <a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Will generally raise <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a> if executed on a 32-bit operating
+system.</p>
+<p>If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but has no
+effect.  Disabling reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any
+subkeys.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.EnableReflectionKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">EnableReflectionKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.EnableReflectionKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined <a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Will generally raise <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a> if executed on a 32-bit operating
+system.</p>
+<p>Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any subkeys.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winreg.QueryReflectionKey">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">QueryReflectionKey</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.QueryReflectionKey" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Determines the reflection state for the specified key.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> is an already open key, or one of the predefined
+<a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants"><span class="std std-ref">HKEY_* constants</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if reflection is disabled.</p>
+<p>Will generally raise <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a> if executed on a 32-bit
+operating system.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="constants">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following constants are defined for use in many <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_winreg</span></code> functions.</p>
+<div class="section" id="hkey-constants">
+<span id="id3"></span><h3>HKEY_* Constants<a class="headerlink" href="#hkey-constants" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes) of
+documents and the properties associated with those types. Shell and
+COM applications use the information stored under this key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">HKEY_CURRENT_USER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of
+the current user. These preferences include the settings of
+environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers,
+network connections, and application preferences.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state
+of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory,
+and installed hardware and software.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.HKEY_USERS">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">HKEY_USERS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.HKEY_USERS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user
+configuration for new users on the local computer and the user
+configuration for the current user.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access
+performance data. The data is not actually stored in the registry;
+the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from
+its source.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Contains information about the current hardware profile of the
+local computer system.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">HKEY_DYN_DATA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="access-rights">
+<span id="id4"></span><h3>Access Rights<a class="headerlink" href="#access-rights" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For more information, see <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx">Registry Key Security and Access</a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_ALL_ACCESS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE" title="winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_QUERY_VALUE</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE" title="winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SET_VALUE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY" title="winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS" title="winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_NOTIFY" title="winreg.KEY_NOTIFY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_NOTIFY</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK" title="winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CREATE_LINK</span></code></a> access rights.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_WRITE">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_WRITE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_WRITE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE" title="winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_SET_VALUE</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY" title="winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY</span></code></a> access rights.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_READ">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_READ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_READ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE" title="winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_QUERY_VALUE</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS" title="winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_NOTIFY" title="winreg.KEY_NOTIFY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_NOTIFY</span></code></a> values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_EXECUTE">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_EXECUTE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_EXECUTE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.KEY_READ" title="winreg.KEY_READ"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KEY_READ</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_QUERY_VALUE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Required to query the values of a registry key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_SET_VALUE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Required to create, delete, or set a registry value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Required to create a subkey of a registry key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_NOTIFY">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_NOTIFY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_NOTIFY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for
+subkeys of a registry key.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_CREATE_LINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reserved for system use.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="bit-specific">
+<span id="bit-access-rights"></span><h4>64-bit Specific<a class="headerlink" href="#bit-specific" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>For more information, see <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx">Accessing an Alternate Registry View</a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_WOW64_64KEY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
+the 64-bit registry view.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">KEY_WOW64_32KEY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
+the 32-bit registry view.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="value-types">
+<span id="id5"></span><h3>Value Types<a class="headerlink" href="#value-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For more information, see <a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx">Registry Value Types</a>.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_BINARY">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_BINARY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_BINARY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Binary data in any form.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_DWORD">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_DWORD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_DWORD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>32-bit number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A 32-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.REG_DWORD" title="winreg.REG_DWORD"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REG_DWORD</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A 32-bit number in big-endian format.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_EXPAND_SZ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Null-terminated string containing references to environment
+variables (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%PATH%</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_LINK">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_LINK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_LINK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A Unicode symbolic link.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_MULTI_SZ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null characters.
+(Python handles this termination automatically.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_NONE">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_NONE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_NONE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>No defined value type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_QWORD">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_QWORD</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_QWORD" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A 64-bit number.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A 64-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.REG_QWORD" title="winreg.REG_QWORD"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REG_QWORD</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_RESOURCE_LIST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A device-driver resource list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A hardware setting.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A hardware resource list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winreg.REG_SZ">
+<code class="descclassname">winreg.</code><code class="descname">REG_SZ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.REG_SZ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A null-terminated string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="registry-handle-objects">
+<span id="handle-object"></span><h2>Registry Handle Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#registry-handle-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when the
+object is destroyed.  To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.PyHKEY.Close" title="winreg.PyHKEY.Close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Close()</span></code></a> method on the object, or the <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.CloseKey" title="winreg.CloseKey"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CloseKey()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>All registry functions in this module return one of these objects.</p>
+<p>All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also accept
+an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged.</p>
+<p>Handle objects provide semantics for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a> – thus</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Yes&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will print <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Yes</span></code> if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed or
+detached).</p>
+<p>The object also support comparison semantics, so handle objects will compare
+true if they both reference the same underlying Windows handle value.</p>
+<p>Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> function), in which case the underlying Windows handle value is
+returned.  You can also use the <a class="reference internal" href="#winreg.PyHKEY.Detach" title="winreg.PyHKEY.Detach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Detach()</span></code></a> method to return the
+integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from the handle object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="winreg.PyHKEY.Close">
+<code class="descclassname">PyHKEY.</code><code class="descname">Close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.PyHKEY.Close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closes the underlying Windows handle.</p>
+<p>If the handle is already closed, no error is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="winreg.PyHKEY.Detach">
+<code class="descclassname">PyHKEY.</code><code class="descname">Detach</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.PyHKEY.Detach" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object.</p>
+<p>The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before it is
+detached.  If the handle is already detached or closed, this will return
+zero.</p>
+<p>After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated, but the
+handle is not closed.  You would call this function when you need the
+underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime of the handle object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="winreg.PyHKEY.__enter__">
+<code class="descclassname">PyHKEY.</code><code class="descname">__enter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.PyHKEY.__enter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="winreg.PyHKEY.__exit__">
+<code class="descclassname">PyHKEY.</code><code class="descname">__exit__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>*exc_info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winreg.PyHKEY.__exit__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The HKEY object implements <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> and thus supports the context protocol for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">OpenKey</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>  <span class="c1"># work with key</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will automatically close <em>key</em> when control leaves the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> block.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code> — Windows registry access</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constants">Constants</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hkey-constants">HKEY_* Constants</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#access-rights">Access Rights</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bit-specific">64-bit Specific</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#value-types">Value Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#registry-handle-objects">Registry Handle Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="msvcrt.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code> — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="winsound.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winsound</span></code> — Sound-playing interface for Windows</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winsound.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winsound.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67a720a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/winsound.html
@@ -0,0 +1,362 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-winsound">
+<span id="winsound-sound-playing-interface-for-windows"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-winsound" title="winsound: Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winsound</span></code></a> — Sound-playing interface for Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#module-winsound" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-winsound" title="winsound: Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winsound</span></code></a> module provides access to the basic sound-playing machinery
+provided by Windows platforms.  It includes functions and several constants.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winsound.Beep">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">Beep</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>frequency</em>, <em>duration</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.Beep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Beep the PC’s speaker. The <em>frequency</em> parameter specifies frequency, in hertz,
+of the sound, and must be in the range 37 through 32,767. The <em>duration</em>
+parameter specifies the number of milliseconds the sound should last.  If the
+system is not able to beep the speaker, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winsound.PlaySound">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">PlaySound</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sound</em>, <em>flags</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.PlaySound" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the underlying <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PlaySound()</span></code> function from the Platform API.  The
+<em>sound</em> parameter may be a filename, a system sound alias, audio data as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Its
+interpretation depends on the value of <em>flags</em>, which can be a bitwise ORed
+combination of the constants described below. If the <em>sound</em> parameter is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, any currently playing waveform sound is stopped. If the system
+indicates an error, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="winsound.MessageBeep">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">MessageBeep</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type=MB_OK</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.MessageBeep" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Call the underlying <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageBeep()</span></code> function from the Platform API.  This
+plays a sound as specified in the registry.  The <em>type</em> argument specifies which
+sound to play; possible values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MB_ICONASTERISK</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MB_ICONEXCLAMATION</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MB_ICONHAND</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MB_ICONQUESTION</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MB_OK</span></code>, all
+described below.  The value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> produces a “simple beep”; this is the final
+fallback if a sound cannot be played otherwise.  If the system indicates an
+error, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_FILENAME">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_FILENAME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_FILENAME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>sound</em> parameter is the name of a WAV file. Do not use with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.SND_ALIAS" title="winsound.SND_ALIAS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SND_ALIAS</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_ALIAS">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_ALIAS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_ALIAS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>sound</em> parameter is a sound association name from the registry.  If the
+registry contains no such name, play the system default sound unless
+<a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.SND_NODEFAULT" title="winsound.SND_NODEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SND_NODEFAULT</span></code></a> is also specified. If no default sound is registered,
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>. Do not use with <a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.SND_FILENAME" title="winsound.SND_FILENAME"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SND_FILENAME</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>All Win32 systems support at least the following; most systems support many
+more:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 39%" />
+<col style="width: 61%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p><a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.PlaySound" title="winsound.PlaySound"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PlaySound()</span></code></a> <em>name</em></p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Corresponding Control Panel Sound name</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SystemAsterisk'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Asterisk</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SystemExclamation'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exclamation</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SystemExit'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exit Windows</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SystemHand'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Critical Stop</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'SystemQuestion'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Question</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">winsound</span>
+<span class="c1"># Play Windows exit sound.</span>
+<span class="n">winsound</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PlaySound</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;SystemExit&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">winsound</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SND_ALIAS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because</span>
+<span class="c1"># &quot;*&quot; probably isn&#39;t the registered name of any sound).</span>
+<span class="n">winsound</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PlaySound</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;*&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">winsound</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SND_ALIAS</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_LOOP">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_LOOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_LOOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Play the sound repeatedly.  The <a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.SND_ASYNC" title="winsound.SND_ASYNC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SND_ASYNC</span></code></a> flag must also be used to
+avoid blocking.  Cannot be used with <a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.SND_MEMORY" title="winsound.SND_MEMORY"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SND_MEMORY</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_MEMORY">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_MEMORY</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_MEMORY" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <em>sound</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.PlaySound" title="winsound.PlaySound"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PlaySound()</span></code></a> is a memory image of a WAV file, as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This module does not support playing from a memory image asynchronously, so a
+combination of this flag and <a class="reference internal" href="#winsound.SND_ASYNC" title="winsound.SND_ASYNC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SND_ASYNC</span></code></a> will raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_PURGE">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_PURGE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_PURGE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Stop playing all instances of the specified sound.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_ASYNC">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_ASYNC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_ASYNC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return immediately, allowing sounds to play asynchronously.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_NODEFAULT">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_NODEFAULT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_NODEFAULT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the specified sound cannot be found, do not play the system default sound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_NOSTOP">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_NOSTOP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_NOSTOP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do not interrupt sounds currently playing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.SND_NOWAIT">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">SND_NOWAIT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.SND_NOWAIT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return immediately if the sound driver is busy.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">MB_ICONASTERISK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Play the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemDefault</span></code> sound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">MB_ICONEXCLAMATION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Play the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExclamation</span></code> sound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.MB_ICONHAND">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">MB_ICONHAND</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.MB_ICONHAND" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Play the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemHand</span></code> sound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">MB_ICONQUESTION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Play the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemQuestion</span></code> sound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="winsound.MB_OK">
+<code class="descclassname">winsound.</code><code class="descname">MB_OK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#winsound.MB_OK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Play the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemDefault</span></code> sound.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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@@ -0,0 +1,938 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-wsgiref">
+<span id="wsgiref-wsgi-utilities-and-reference-implementation"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref" title="wsgiref: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code></a> — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation<a class="headerlink" href="#module-wsgiref" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a standard interface between web
+server software and web applications written in Python. Having a standard
+interface makes it easy to use an application that supports WSGI with a number
+of different web servers.</p>
+<p>Only authors of web servers and programming frameworks need to know every detail
+and corner case of the WSGI design.  You don’t need to understand every detail
+of WSGI just to install a WSGI application or to write a web application using
+an existing framework.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref" title="wsgiref: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code></a> is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification that can
+be used to add WSGI support to a web server or framework.  It provides utilities
+for manipulating WSGI environment variables and response headers, base classes
+for implementing WSGI servers, a demo HTTP server that serves WSGI applications,
+and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and applications for conformance
+to the WSGI specification (<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>).</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/">wsgi.readthedocs.io</a> for more information about WSGI, and links
+to tutorials and other resources.</p>
+<div class="section" id="module-wsgiref.util">
+<span id="wsgiref-util-wsgi-environment-utilities"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.util" title="wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util</span></code></a> – WSGI environment utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#module-wsgiref.util" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with WSGI
+environments.  A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP request
+variables as described in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>.  All of the functions taking an <em>environ</em>
+parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be supplied; please see
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a> for a detailed specification.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.util.guess_scheme">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.util.</code><code class="descname">guess_scheme</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>environ</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.util.guess_scheme" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a guess for whether <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.url_scheme</span></code> should be “http” or “https”, by
+checking for a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPS</span></code> environment variable in the <em>environ</em> dictionary.  The
+return value is a string.</p>
+<p>This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a CGI-like
+protocol such as FastCGI.  Typically, servers providing such protocols will
+include a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPS</span></code> variable with a value of “1” “yes”, or “on” when a request
+is received via SSL.  So, this function returns “https” if such a value is
+found, and “http” otherwise.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.util.request_uri">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.util.</code><code class="descname">request_uri</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>environ</em>, <em>include_query=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.util.request_uri" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string, using the
+algorithm found in the “URL Reconstruction” section of <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>.  If
+<em>include_query</em> is false, the query string is not included in the resulting URI.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.util.application_uri">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.util.</code><code class="descname">application_uri</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>environ</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.util.application_uri" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.util.request_uri" title="wsgiref.util.request_uri"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request_uri()</span></code></a>, except that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QUERY_STRING</span></code> variables are ignored.  The result is the base URI of the
+application object addressed by the request.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.util.shift_path_info">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.util.</code><code class="descname">shift_path_info</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>environ</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.util.shift_path_info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Shift a single name from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCRIPT_NAME</span></code> and return the name.
+The <em>environ</em> dictionary is <em>modified</em> in-place; use a copy if you need to keep
+the original <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCRIPT_NAME</span></code> intact.</p>
+<p>If there are no remaining path segments in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is returned.</p>
+<p>Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a request URI path,
+for example to treat the path as a series of dictionary keys. This routine
+modifies the passed-in environment to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI
+application that is located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI
+application at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo</span></code>, and the request URI path is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar/baz</span></code>, and the
+WSGI application at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo</span></code> calls <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.util.shift_path_info" title="wsgiref.util.shift_path_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shift_path_info()</span></code></a>, it will receive the
+string “bar”, and the environment will be updated to be suitable for passing to
+a WSGI application at <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar</span></code>.  That is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCRIPT_NAME</span></code> will change from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/foo/bar</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code> will change from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/bar/baz</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/baz</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code> is just a “/”, this routine returns an empty string and
+appends a trailing slash to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCRIPT_NAME</span></code>, even though empty path segments are
+normally ignored, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCRIPT_NAME</span></code> doesn’t normally end in a slash.  This is
+intentional behavior, to ensure that an application can tell the difference
+between URIs ending in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/x</span></code> from ones ending in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/x/</span></code> when using this
+routine to do object traversal.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.util.</code><code class="descname">setup_testing_defaults</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>environ</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Update <em>environ</em> with trivial defaults for testing purposes.</p>
+<p>This routine adds various parameters required for WSGI, including <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTP_HOST</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SERVER_NAME</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SERVER_PORT</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REQUEST_METHOD</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCRIPT_NAME</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code>, and all of the <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>-defined <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.*</span></code> variables.  It
+only supplies default values, and does not replace any existing settings for
+these variables.</p>
+<p>This routine is intended to make it easier for unit tests of WSGI servers and
+applications to set up dummy environments.  It should NOT be used by actual WSGI
+servers or applications, since the data is fake!</p>
+<p>Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref.util</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup_testing_defaults</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref.simple_server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">make_server</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># A relatively simple WSGI application. It&#39;s going to print out the</span>
+<span class="c1"># environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">simple_app</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start_response</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">setup_testing_defaults</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;200 OK&#39;</span>
+    <span class="n">headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-type&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;text/plain; charset=utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+
+    <span class="n">start_response</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">ret</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+           <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">environ</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()]</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ret</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">make_server</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">simple_app</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Serving on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to the environment functions above, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.util" title="wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util</span></code></a> module
+also provides these miscellaneous utilities:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.util.</code><code class="descname">is_hop_by_hop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if ‘header_name’ is an HTTP/1.1 “Hop-by-Hop” header, as defined by
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.util.FileWrapper">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.util.</code><code class="descname">FileWrapper</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filelike</em>, <em>blksize=8192</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.util.FileWrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A wrapper to convert a file-like object to an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>.  The resulting objects
+support both <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> iteration styles, for
+compatibility with Python 2.1 and Jython. As the object is iterated over, the
+optional <em>blksize</em> parameter will be repeatedly passed to the <em>filelike</em>
+object’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> method to obtain bytestrings to yield.  When <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>
+returns an empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable.</p>
+<p>If <em>filelike</em> has a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method, the returned object will also have a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method, and it will invoke the <em>filelike</em> object’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code>
+method when called.</p>
+<p>Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref.util</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">FileWrapper</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># We&#39;re using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object</span>
+<span class="n">filelike</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;This is an example file-like object&quot;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">wrapper</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">FileWrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filelike</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blksize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">chunk</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">wrapper</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">chunk</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-wsgiref.headers">
+<span id="wsgiref-headers-wsgi-response-header-tools"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.headers" title="wsgiref.headers: WSGI response header tools."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.headers</span></code></a> – WSGI response header tools<a class="headerlink" href="#module-wsgiref.headers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides a single class, <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Headers</span></code></a>, for convenient
+manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.headers.Headers">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.headers.</code><code class="descname">Headers</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>headers</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a mapping-like object wrapping <em>headers</em>, which must be a list of header
+name/value tuples as described in <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>. The default value of <em>headers</em> is
+an empty list.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Headers</span></code></a> objects support typical mapping operations including
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault()</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__" title="object.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>.  For each of
+these methods, the key is the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the
+value is the first value associated with that header name.  Setting a header
+deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a new value at the end of
+the wrapped header list.  Headers’ existing order is generally maintained, with
+new headers added to the end of the wrapped list.</p>
+<p>Unlike a dictionary, <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Headers</span></code></a> objects do not raise an error when you try
+to get or delete a key that isn’t in the wrapped header list. Getting a
+nonexistent header just returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, and deleting a nonexistent header does
+nothing.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Headers</span></code></a> objects also support <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> methods.  The lists returned by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> can
+include the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued header.  The
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code> of a <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Headers</span></code></a> object is the same as the length of its
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code>, which is the same as the length of the wrapped header list.  In
+fact, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> method just returns a copy of the wrapped header list.</p>
+<p>Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code> on a <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Headers</span></code></a> object returns a formatted bytestring
+suitable for transmission as HTTP response headers.  Each header is placed on a
+line with its value, separated by a colon and a space. Each line is terminated
+by a carriage return and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a
+blank line.</p>
+<p>In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features, <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Headers</span></code></a>
+objects also have the following methods for querying and adding multi-valued
+headers, and for adding headers with MIME parameters:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.headers.Headers.get_all">
+<code class="descname">get_all</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers.get_all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of all the values for the named header.</p>
+<p>The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in the original
+header list or were added to this instance, and may contain duplicates.  Any
+fields deleted and re-inserted are always appended to the header list.  If no
+fields exist with the given name, returns an empty list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.headers.Headers.add_header">
+<code class="descname">add_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em>, <em>**_params</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.headers.Headers.add_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME parameters specified
+via keyword arguments.</p>
+<p><em>name</em> is the header field to add.  Keyword arguments can be used to set MIME
+parameters for the header field.  Each parameter must be a string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+Underscores in parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are illegal
+in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names include dashes.  If the
+parameter value is a string, it is added to the header value parameters in the
+form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name=&quot;value&quot;</span></code>. If it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, only the parameter name is added.
+(This is used for MIME parameters without a value.)  Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">h</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;content-disposition&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;attachment&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bud.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above will add a header that looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Content</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">Disposition</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">attachment</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;bud.gif&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><em>headers</em> parameter is optional.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-wsgiref.simple_server">
+<span id="wsgiref-simple-server-a-simple-wsgi-http-server"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.simple_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code></a> – a simple WSGI HTTP server<a class="headerlink" href="#module-wsgiref.simple_server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on <a class="reference internal" href="http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>)
+that serves WSGI applications.  Each server instance serves a single WSGI
+application on a given host and port.  If you want to serve multiple
+applications on a single host and port, you should create a WSGI application
+that parses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code> to select which application to invoke for each
+request.  (E.g., using the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shift_path_info()</span></code> function from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.util" title="wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.make_server">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.simple_server.</code><code class="descname">make_server</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>host</em>, <em>port</em>, <em>app</em>, <em>server_class=WSGIServer</em>, <em>handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new WSGI server listening on <em>host</em> and <em>port</em>, accepting connections
+for <em>app</em>.  The return value is an instance of the supplied <em>server_class</em>, and
+will process requests using the specified <em>handler_class</em>.  <em>app</em> must be a WSGI
+application object, as defined by <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref.simple_server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">make_server</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">demo_app</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">make_server</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">demo_app</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Serving HTTP on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Respond to requests until process is killed</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Alternative: serve one request, then exit</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle_request</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.simple_server.</code><code class="descname">demo_app</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>environ</em>, <em>start_response</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns a text page
+containing the message “Hello world!” and a list of the key/value pairs provided
+in the <em>environ</em> parameter.  It’s useful for verifying that a WSGI server (such
+as <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.simple_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code></a>) is able to run a simple WSGI application
+correctly.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.simple_server.</code><code class="descname">WSGIServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_address</em>, <em>RequestHandlerClass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSGIServer</span></code></a> instance.  <em>server_address</em> should be a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,port)</span></code> tuple, and <em>RequestHandlerClass</em> should be the subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> that will be used to process
+requests.</p>
+<p>You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server.make_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_server()</span></code></a>
+function can handle all the details for you.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSGIServer</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="http.server.html#http.server.HTTPServer" title="http.server.HTTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server.HTTPServer</span></code></a>, so all
+of its methods (such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_request()</span></code>) are
+available. <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSGIServer</span></code></a> also provides these WSGI-specific methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app">
+<code class="descname">set_app</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>application</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the callable <em>application</em> as the WSGI application that will receive
+requests.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app">
+<code class="descname">get_app</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the currently-set application callable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods, as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_app()</span></code></a> is normally called by <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server.make_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_server()</span></code></a>, and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_app()</span></code></a> exists mainly for the benefit of request handler instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.simple_server.</code><code class="descname">WSGIRequestHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request</em>, <em>client_address</em>, <em>server</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an HTTP handler for the given <em>request</em> (i.e. a socket), <em>client_address</em>
+(a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,port)</span></code> tuple), and <em>server</em> (<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSGIServer</span></code></a> instance).</p>
+<p>You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they are
+automatically created as needed by <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSGIServer</span></code></a> objects.  You can,
+however, subclass this class and supply it as a <em>handler_class</em> to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server.make_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_server()</span></code></a> function.  Some possibly relevant methods for overriding in
+subclasses:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_environ">
+<code class="descname">get_environ</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a dictionary containing the WSGI environment for a request.  The default
+implementation copies the contents of the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer" title="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSGIServer</span></code></a> object’s
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base_environ</span></code> dictionary attribute and then adds various headers derived
+from the HTTP request.  Each call to this method should return a new dictionary
+containing all of the relevant CGI environment variables as specified in
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_stderr">
+<code class="descname">get_stderr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.get_stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the object that should be used as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.errors</span></code> stream. The default
+implementation just returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.handle">
+<code class="descname">handle</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler.handle" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process the HTTP request.  The default implementation creates a handler instance
+using a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.handlers" title="wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers</span></code></a> class to implement the actual WSGI application
+interface.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-wsgiref.validate">
+<span id="wsgiref-validate-wsgi-conformance-checker"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.validate" title="wsgiref.validate: WSGI conformance checker."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.validate</span></code></a> — WSGI conformance checker<a class="headerlink" href="#module-wsgiref.validate" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or middleware,
+it can be useful to validate the new code’s conformance using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.validate" title="wsgiref.validate: WSGI conformance checker."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.validate</span></code></a>.  This module provides a function that creates WSGI
+application objects that validate communications between a WSGI server or
+gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both sides for protocol
+conformance.</p>
+<p>Note that this utility does not guarantee complete <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a> compliance; an
+absence of errors from this module does not necessarily mean that errors do not
+exist.  However, if this module does produce an error, then it is virtually
+certain that either the server or application is not 100% compliant.</p>
+<p>This module is based on the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">paste.lint</span></code> module from Ian Bicking’s “Python
+Paste” library.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.validate.validator">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.validate.</code><code class="descname">validator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>application</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.validate.validator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Wrap <em>application</em> and return a new WSGI application object.  The returned
+application will forward all requests to the original <em>application</em>, and will
+check that both the <em>application</em> and the server invoking it are conforming to
+the WSGI specification and to <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>Any detected nonconformance results in an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> being raised;
+note, however, that how these errors are handled is server-dependent.  For
+example, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.simple_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code></a> and other servers based on
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.handlers" title="wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers</span></code></a> (that don’t override the error handling methods to do
+something else) will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and
+dump the traceback to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> or some other error stream.</p>
+<p>This wrapper may also generate output using the <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module to
+indicate behaviors that are questionable but which may not actually be
+prohibited by <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>.  Unless they are suppressed using Python command-line
+options or the <a class="reference internal" href="warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> API, any such warnings will be written to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> (<em>not</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.errors</span></code>, unless they happen to be the same
+object).</p>
+<p>Example usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref.validate</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">validator</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref.simple_server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">make_server</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the</span>
+<span class="c1"># standard, so the validator is going to break</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">simple_app</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start_response</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;200 OK&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># HTTP Status</span>
+    <span class="n">headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-type&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;text/plain&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>  <span class="c1"># HTTP Headers</span>
+    <span class="n">start_response</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># This is going to break because we need to return a list, and</span>
+    <span class="c1"># the validator is going to inform us</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello World&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This is the application wrapped in a validator</span>
+<span class="n">validator_app</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">validator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">simple_app</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">make_server</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">validator_app</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Listening on port 8000....&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-wsgiref.handlers">
+<span id="wsgiref-handlers-server-gateway-base-classes"></span><h2><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.handlers" title="wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers</span></code></a> – server/gateway base classes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-wsgiref.handlers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers and
+gateways.  These base classes handle most of the work of communicating with a
+WSGI application, as long as they are given a CGI-like environment, along with
+input, output, and error streams.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.handlers.</code><code class="descname">CGIHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>CGI-based invocation via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>.  This is useful when you have a WSGI application and want to run
+it as a CGI script.  Simply invoke <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler().run(app)</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app</span></code> is
+the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.</p>
+<p>This class is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCGIHandler</span></code></a> that sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.run_once</span></code>
+to true, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.multithread</span></code> to false, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.multiprocess</span></code> to true, and
+always uses <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> to obtain the necessary CGI streams and
+environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.handlers.</code><code class="descname">IISCGIHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A specialized alternative to <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler</span></code></a>, for use when deploying on
+Microsoft’s IIS web server, without having set the config allowPathInfo
+option (IIS&gt;=7) or metabase allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS&lt;7).</p>
+<p>By default, IIS gives a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code> that duplicates the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SCRIPT_NAME</span></code> at
+the front, causing problems for WSGI applications that wish to implement
+routing. This handler strips any such duplicated path.</p>
+<p>IIS can be configured to pass the correct <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_INFO</span></code>, but this causes
+another bug where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_TRANSLATED</span></code> is wrong. Luckily this variable is
+rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS&lt;7, though, the
+setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting all other script
+mappings, many of which break when exposed to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH_TRANSLATED</span></code> bug.
+For this reason IIS&lt;7 is almost never deployed with the fix. (Even IIS7
+rarely uses it because there is still no UI for it.)</p>
+<p>There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so a
+separate handler class is provided.  It is used in the same way as
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler</span></code></a>, i.e., by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IISCGIHandler().run(app)</span></code>, where
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">app</span></code> is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.handlers.</code><code class="descname">BaseCGIHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em>, <em>stderr</em>, <em>environ</em>, <em>multithread=True</em>, <em>multiprocess=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler</span></code></a>, but instead of using the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> modules, the CGI environment and I/O streams are specified explicitly.
+The <em>multithread</em> and <em>multiprocess</em> values are used to set the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.multithread</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.multiprocess</span></code> flags for any applications run by
+the handler instance.</p>
+<p>This class is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHandler</span></code></a> intended for use with
+software other than HTTP “origin servers”.  If you are writing a gateway
+protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI, SCGI, etc.) that uses a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Status:</span></code> header to send an HTTP status, you probably want to subclass this
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.handlers.</code><code class="descname">SimpleHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em>, <em>stderr</em>, <em>environ</em>, <em>multithread=True</em>, <em>multiprocess=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCGIHandler</span></code></a>, but designed for use with HTTP origin
+servers.  If you are writing an HTTP server implementation, you will probably
+want to subclass this instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCGIHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>This class is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>.  It overrides the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_stdin()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_stderr()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_cgi_vars()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_write()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_flush()</span></code> methods to support explicitly setting the
+environment and streams via the constructor.  The supplied environment and
+streams are stored in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code> attributes.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.write" title="io.BufferedIOBase.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method of <em>stdout</em> should write
+each chunk in full, like <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">wsgiref.handlers.</code><code class="descname">BaseHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications.  Each instance
+will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle you could create a
+subclass that was reusable for multiple requests.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a> instances have only one method intended for external use:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.run">
+<code class="descname">run</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>app</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.run" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run the specified WSGI application, <em>app</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>All of the other <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a> methods are invoked by this method in the
+process of running the application, and thus exist primarily to allow
+customizing the process.</p>
+<p>The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write">
+<code class="descname">_write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Buffer the bytes <em>data</em> for transmission to the client.  It’s okay if this
+method actually transmits the data; <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a> just separates write
+and flush operations for greater efficiency when the underlying system actually
+has such a distinction.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush">
+<code class="descname">_flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client.  It’s okay if this method
+is a no-op (i.e., if <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_write()</span></code></a> actually sends the data).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin">
+<code class="descname">get_stdin</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an input stream object suitable for use as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.input</span></code> of the
+request currently being processed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr">
+<code class="descname">get_stderr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an output stream object suitable for use as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.errors</span></code> of the
+request currently being processed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars">
+<code class="descname">add_cgi_vars</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert CGI variables for the current request into the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to override. This list
+is only a summary, however, and does not include every method that can be
+overridden.  You should consult the docstrings and source code for additional
+information before attempting to create a customized <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>
+subclass.</p>
+<p>Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multithread">
+<code class="descname">wsgi_multithread</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multithread" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value to be used for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.multithread</span></code> environment variable.  It
+defaults to true in <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but may have a different default (or
+be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multiprocess">
+<code class="descname">wsgi_multiprocess</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_multiprocess" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value to be used for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.multiprocess</span></code> environment variable.  It
+defaults to true in <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but may have a different default (or
+be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_run_once">
+<code class="descname">wsgi_run_once</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_run_once" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value to be used for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.run_once</span></code> environment variable.  It
+defaults to false in <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler</span></code></a> sets it to
+true by default.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.os_environ">
+<code class="descname">os_environ</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.os_environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The default environment variables to be included in every request’s WSGI
+environment.  By default, this is a copy of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> at the time that
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.handlers" title="wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers</span></code></a> was imported, but subclasses can either create their own
+at the class or instance level.  Note that the dictionary should be considered
+read-only, since the default value is shared between multiple classes and
+instances.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software">
+<code class="descname">server_software</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">origin_server</span></code></a> attribute is set, this attribute’s value is used to
+set the default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SERVER_SOFTWARE</span></code> WSGI environment variable, and also to set a
+default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server:</span></code> header in HTTP responses.  It is ignored for handlers (such
+as <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCGIHandler</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler</span></code></a>) that are not HTTP origin
+servers.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The term “Python” is replaced with implementation specific term like
+“CPython”, “Jython” etc.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_scheme">
+<code class="descname">get_scheme</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_scheme" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the URL scheme being used for the current request.  The default
+implementation uses the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">guess_scheme()</span></code> function from <a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.util" title="wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util</span></code></a>
+to guess whether the scheme should be “http” or “https”, based on the current
+request’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code> variables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.setup_environ">
+<code class="descname">setup_environ</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.setup_environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">environ</span></code> attribute to a fully-populated WSGI environment.  The
+default implementation uses all of the above methods and attributes, plus the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_stdin()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_stderr()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_cgi_vars()</span></code></a> methods and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi_file_wrapper</span></code></a> attribute.  It also inserts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SERVER_SOFTWARE</span></code> key
+if not present, as long as the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">origin_server</span></code></a> attribute is a true value
+and the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_software</span></code></a> attribute is set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception">
+<code class="descname">log_exception</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exc_info</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Log the <em>exc_info</em> tuple in the server log.  <em>exc_info</em> is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(type,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span>
+<span class="pre">traceback)</span></code> tuple.  The default implementation simply writes the traceback to
+the request’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.errors</span></code> stream and flushes it.  Subclasses can override
+this method to change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback to
+an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed suitable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.traceback_limit">
+<code class="descname">traceback_limit</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.traceback_limit" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output by the default
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log_exception()</span></code></a> method.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, all frames are included.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_output">
+<code class="descname">error_output</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>environ</em>, <em>start_response</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_output" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page for the user.  It is
+only invoked if an error occurs before headers are sent to the client.</p>
+<p>This method can access the current error information using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code>,
+and should pass that information to <em>start_response</em> when calling it (as
+described in the “Error Handling” section of <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>).</p>
+<p>The default implementation just uses the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_status</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_headers</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_body</span></code></a> attributes to generate an output
+page.  Subclasses can override this to produce more dynamic error output.</p>
+<p>Note, however, that it’s not recommended from a security perspective to spit out
+diagnostics to any old user; ideally, you should have to do something special to
+enable diagnostic output, which is why the default implementation doesn’t
+include any.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status">
+<code class="descname">error_status</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The HTTP status used for error responses.  This should be a status string as
+defined in <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>; it defaults to a 500 code and message.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers">
+<code class="descname">error_headers</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The HTTP headers used for error responses.  This should be a list of WSGI
+response headers (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> tuples), as described in <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>.  The
+default list just sets the content type to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text/plain</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body">
+<code class="descname">error_body</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The error response body.  This should be an HTTP response body bytestring. It
+defaults to the plain text, “A server error occurred.  Please contact the
+administrator.”</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Methods and attributes for <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a>’s “Optional Platform-Specific File
+Handling” feature:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper">
+<code class="descname">wsgi_file_wrapper</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi.file_wrapper</span></code> factory, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  The default value of this
+attribute is the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.util.FileWrapper" title="wsgiref.util.FileWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util.FileWrapper</span></code></a> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.sendfile">
+<code class="descname">sendfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.sendfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Override to implement platform-specific file transmission.  This method is
+called only if the application’s return value is an instance of the class
+specified by the <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgi_file_wrapper</span></code></a> attribute.  It should return a true
+value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so that the default
+transmission code will not be executed. The default implementation of this
+method just returns a false value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Miscellaneous methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server">
+<code class="descname">origin_server</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler’s <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_write()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_flush()</span></code></a> are being used to communicate directly to the client, rather than
+via a CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a special
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Status:</span></code> header.</p>
+<p>This attribute’s default value is true in <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHandler</span></code></a>, but false in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseCGIHandler</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.http_version">
+<code class="descname">http_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.http_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">origin_server</span></code></a> is true, this string attribute is used to set the HTTP
+version of the response set to the client.  It defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;1.0&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="wsgiref.handlers.read_environ">
+<code class="descclassname">wsgiref.handlers.</code><code class="descname">read_environ</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref.handlers.read_environ" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Transcode CGI variables from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> to PEP 3333 “bytes in unicode”
+strings, returning a new dictionary.  This function is used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHandler</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IISCGIHandler</span></code></a> in place of directly using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>, which is not necessarily WSGI-compliant on all platforms
+and web servers using Python 3 – specifically, ones where the OS’s
+actual environment is Unicode (i.e. Windows), or ones where the environment
+is bytes, but the system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything
+other than ISO-8859-1 (e.g. Unix systems using UTF-8).</p>
+<p>If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you probably want
+to use this routine instead of just copying values out of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code>
+directly.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This is a working “Hello World” WSGI application:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref.simple_server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">make_server</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable</span>
+<span class="c1"># object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we&#39;re going to</span>
+<span class="c1"># use a function (note that you&#39;re not limited to a function, you can</span>
+<span class="c1"># use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function</span>
+<span class="c1"># is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the</span>
+<span class="c1"># second variable is the callable object (see PEP 333).</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">hello_world_app</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start_response</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;200 OK&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># HTTP Status</span>
+    <span class="n">headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-type&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;text/plain; charset=utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>  <span class="c1"># HTTP Headers</span>
+    <span class="n">start_response</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># The returned object is going to be printed</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello World&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">make_server</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">hello_world_app</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Serving on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Serve until process is killed</span>
+    <span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code> — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.util"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.util</span></code> – WSGI environment utilities</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.headers</span></code> – WSGI response header tools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.simple_server"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code> – a simple WSGI HTTP server</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.validate"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.validate</span></code> — WSGI conformance checker</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-wsgiref.handlers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers</span></code> – server/gateway base classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cgitb.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb</span></code> — Traceback manager for CGI scripts</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="urllib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code> — URL handling modules</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xdrlib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xdrlib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c4bc92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xdrlib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,470 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xdrlib">
+<span id="xdrlib-encode-and-decode-xdr-data"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xdrlib" title="xdrlib: Encoders and decoders for the External Data Representation (XDR)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code></a> — Encode and decode XDR data<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xdrlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xdrlib.py">Lib/xdrlib.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xdrlib" title="xdrlib: Encoders and decoders for the External Data Representation (XDR)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code></a> module supports the External Data Representation Standard as
+described in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1014.html"><strong>RFC 1014</strong></a>, written by Sun Microsystems, Inc. June 1987.  It
+supports most of the data types described in the RFC.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xdrlib" title="xdrlib: Encoders and decoders for the External Data Representation (XDR)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code></a> module defines two classes, one for packing variables into XDR
+representation, and another for unpacking from XDR representation.  There are
+also two exception classes.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xdrlib.</code><code class="descname">Packer</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer" title="xdrlib.Packer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Packer</span></code></a> is the class for packing data into XDR representation. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer" title="xdrlib.Packer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Packer</span></code></a> class is instantiated with no arguments.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xdrlib.</code><code class="descname">Unpacker</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpacker</span></code> is the complementary class which unpacks XDR data values from a
+string buffer.  The input buffer is given as <em>data</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1014.html"><strong>RFC 1014</strong></a> - XDR: External Data Representation Standard</dt><dd><p>This RFC defined the encoding of data which was XDR at the time this module was
+originally written.  It has apparently been obsoleted by <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1832.html"><strong>RFC 1832</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1832.html"><strong>RFC 1832</strong></a> - XDR: External Data Representation Standard</dt><dd><p>Newer RFC that provides a revised definition of XDR.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="packer-objects">
+<span id="xdr-packer-objects"></span><h2>Packer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#packer-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer" title="xdrlib.Packer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Packer</span></code></a> instances have the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.get_buffer">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">get_buffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.get_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current pack buffer as a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.reset">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resets the pack buffer to the empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In general, you can pack any of the most common XDR data types by calling the
+appropriate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_type()</span></code> method.  Each method takes a single argument, the
+value to pack.  The following simple data type packing methods are supported:
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_uint()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_int()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_enum()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_bool()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_uhyper()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_hyper()</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_float">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_float</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs the single-precision floating point number <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_double">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_double</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_double" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs the double-precision floating point number <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods support packing strings, bytes, and opaque data:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_fstring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em>, <em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a fixed length string, <em>s</em>.  <em>n</em> is the length of the string but it is
+<em>not</em> packed into the data buffer.  The string is padded with null bytes if
+necessary to guaranteed 4 byte alignment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_fopaque">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_fopaque</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fopaque" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring" title="xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_fstring()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_string">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a variable length string, <em>s</em>.  The length of the string is first packed
+as an unsigned integer, then the string data is packed with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring" title="xdrlib.Packer.pack_fstring"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_fstring()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_opaque">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_opaque</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_opaque" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a variable length opaque data string, similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_string" title="xdrlib.Packer.pack_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_string()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a variable length byte stream, similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_string" title="xdrlib.Packer.pack_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_string()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods support packing arrays and lists:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_list">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list</em>, <em>pack_item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a <em>list</em> of homogeneous items.  This method is useful for lists with an
+indeterminate size; i.e. the size is not available until the entire list has
+been walked.  For each item in the list, an unsigned integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> is packed
+first, followed by the data value from the list.  <em>pack_item</em> is the function
+that is called to pack the individual item.  At the end of the list, an unsigned
+integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> is packed.</p>
+<p>For example, to pack a list of integers, the code might appear like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xdrlib</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xdrlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Packer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack_list</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack_int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_farray">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_farray</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em>, <em>array</em>, <em>pack_item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_farray" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a fixed length list (<em>array</em>) of homogeneous items.  <em>n</em> is the length of
+the list; it is <em>not</em> packed into the buffer, but a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception
+is raised if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(array)</span></code> is not equal to <em>n</em>.  As above, <em>pack_item</em> is the
+function used to pack each element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Packer.pack_array">
+<code class="descclassname">Packer.</code><code class="descname">pack_array</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>list</em>, <em>pack_item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_array" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Packs a variable length <em>list</em> of homogeneous items.  First, the length of the
+list is packed as an unsigned integer, then each element is packed as in
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer.pack_farray" title="xdrlib.Packer.pack_farray"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_farray()</span></code></a> above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unpacker-objects">
+<span id="xdr-unpacker-objects"></span><h2>Unpacker Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#unpacker-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker" title="xdrlib.Unpacker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpacker</span></code></a> class offers the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.reset">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resets the string buffer with the given <em>data</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.get_position">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">get_position</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.get_position" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current unpack position in the data buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.set_position">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">set_position</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>position</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.set_position" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the data buffer unpack position to <em>position</em>.  You should be careful about
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.get_position" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.get_position"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_position()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.set_position" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.set_position"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_position()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.get_buffer">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">get_buffer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.get_buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the current unpack data buffer as a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.done">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">done</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.done" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Indicates unpack completion.  Raises an <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Error" title="xdrlib.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> exception if all of the
+data has not been unpacked.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, every data type that can be packed with a <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Packer" title="xdrlib.Packer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Packer</span></code></a>, can be
+unpacked with an <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker" title="xdrlib.Unpacker"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unpacker</span></code></a>.  Unpacking methods are of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_type()</span></code>, and take no arguments.  They return the unpacked object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_float">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_float</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks a single-precision floating point number.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_double">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_double</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_double" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks a double-precision floating point number, similarly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_float" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_float()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, the following methods unpack strings, bytes, and opaque data:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_fstring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns a fixed length string.  <em>n</em> is the number of characters
+expected.  Padding with null bytes to guaranteed 4 byte alignment is assumed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fopaque">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_fopaque</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fopaque" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_fstring()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_string</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns a variable length string.  The length of the string is first
+unpacked as an unsigned integer, then the string data is unpacked with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_fstring"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_fstring()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_opaque">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_opaque</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_opaque" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns a variable length opaque data string, similarly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_string()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_bytes">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns a variable length byte stream, similarly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_string()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods support unpacking arrays and lists:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_list">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_list</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unpack_item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns a list of homogeneous items.  The list is unpacked one
+element at a time by first unpacking an unsigned integer flag.  If the flag is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, then the item is unpacked and appended to the list.  A flag of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>
+indicates the end of the list.  <em>unpack_item</em> is the function that is called to
+unpack the items.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_farray">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_farray</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em>, <em>unpack_item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_farray" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns (as a list) a fixed length array of homogeneous items.  <em>n</em>
+is number of list elements to expect in the buffer. As above, <em>unpack_item</em> is
+the function used to unpack each element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_array">
+<code class="descclassname">Unpacker.</code><code class="descname">unpack_array</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>unpack_item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_array" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unpacks and returns a variable length <em>list</em> of homogeneous items. First, the
+length of the list is unpacked as an unsigned integer, then each element is
+unpacked as in <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_farray" title="xdrlib.Unpacker.unpack_farray"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_farray()</span></code></a> above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<span id="xdr-exceptions"></span><h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Exceptions in this module are coded as class instances:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xdrlib.Error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xdrlib.</code><code class="descname">Error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.Error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The base exception class.  <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Error" title="xdrlib.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> has a single public attribute
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span></code> containing the description of the error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xdrlib.ConversionError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xdrlib.</code><code class="descname">ConversionError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xdrlib.ConversionError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#xdrlib.Error" title="xdrlib.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a>.  Contains no additional instance variables.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Here is an example of how you would catch one of these exceptions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xdrlib</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xdrlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Packer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack_double</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">8.01</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">xdrlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConversionError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;packing the double failed:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">instance</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xdrlib</span></code> — Encode and decode XDR data</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#packer-objects">Packer Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unpacker-objects">Unpacker Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="netrc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc</span></code> — netrc file processing</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="plistlib.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code> — Generate and parse Mac OS X <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.plist</span></code> files</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/xdrlib.rst"
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+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.dom">
+<span id="xml-dom-the-document-object-model-api"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a> — The Document Object Model API<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.dom" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py">Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The Document Object Model, or “DOM,” is a cross-language API from the World Wide
+Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML documents.  A DOM
+implementation presents an XML document as a tree structure, or allows client
+code to build such a structure from scratch.  It then gives access to the
+structure through a set of objects which provided well-known interfaces.</p>
+<p>The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications.  SAX only allows you
+a view of one bit of the document at a time.  If you are looking at one SAX
+element, you have no access to another.  If you are looking at a text node, you
+have no access to a containing element. When you write a SAX application, you
+need to keep track of your program’s position in the document somewhere in your
+own code.  SAX does not do it for you.  Also, if you need to look ahead in the
+XML document, you are just out of luck.</p>
+<p>Some applications are simply impossible in an event driven model with no access
+to a tree.  Of course you could build some sort of tree yourself in SAX events,
+but the DOM allows you to avoid writing that code.  The DOM is a standard tree
+representation for XML data.</p>
+<p>The Document Object Model is being defined by the W3C in stages, or “levels” in
+their terminology.  The Python mapping of the API is substantially based on the
+DOM Level 2 recommendation.</p>
+<p>DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM.  How this is
+accomplished is not covered at all by DOM Level 1, and Level 2 provides only
+limited improvements: There is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMImplementation</span></code> object class which
+provides access to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> creation methods, but no way to access an
+XML reader/parser/Document builder in an implementation-independent way. There
+is also no well-defined way to access these methods without an existing
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> object.  In Python, each DOM implementation will provide a
+function <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.getDOMImplementation" title="xml.dom.getDOMImplementation"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getDOMImplementation()</span></code></a>. DOM Level 3 adds a Load/Store
+specification, which defines an interface to the reader, but this is not yet
+available in the Python standard library.</p>
+<p>Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your XML
+document through its properties and methods.  These properties are defined in
+the DOM specification; this portion of the reference manual describes the
+interpretation of the specification in Python.</p>
+<p>The specification provided by the W3C defines the DOM API for Java, ECMAScript,
+and OMG IDL.  The Python mapping defined here is based in large part on the IDL
+version of the specification, but strict compliance is not required (though
+implementations are free to support the strict mapping from IDL).  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#dom-conformance"><span class="std std-ref">Conformance</span></a> for a detailed discussion of mapping requirements.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/">Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification</a></dt><dd><p>The W3C recommendation upon which the Python DOM API is based.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/">Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification</a></dt><dd><p>The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by <a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.omg.org/cgi-bin/doc?formal/02-11-05.pdf">Python Language Mapping Specification</a></dt><dd><p>This specifies the mapping from OMG IDL to Python.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-contents">
+<h2>Module Contents<a class="headerlink" href="#module-contents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a> contains the following functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">registerDOMImplementation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>factory</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the <em>factory</em> function with the name <em>name</em>.  The factory function
+should return an object which implements the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMImplementation</span></code>
+interface.  The factory function can return the same object every time, or a new
+one for each call, as appropriate for the specific implementation (e.g. if that
+implementation supports some customization).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.dom.getDOMImplementation">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">getDOMImplementation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name=None</em>, <em>features=()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.getDOMImplementation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a suitable DOM implementation. The <em>name</em> is either well-known, the
+module name of a DOM implementation, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. If it is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, imports
+the corresponding module and returns a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMImplementation</span></code> object if the
+import succeeds.  If no name is given, and if the environment variable
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON_DOM</span></code> is set, this variable is used to find the implementation.</p>
+<p>If name is not given, this examines the available implementations to find one
+with the required feature set.  If no implementation can be found, raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.  The features list must be a sequence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(feature,</span>
+<span class="pre">version)</span></code> pairs which are passed to the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasFeature()</span></code> method on available
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMImplementation</span></code> objects.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Some convenience constants are also provided:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">EMPTY_NAMESPACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The value used to indicate that no namespace is associated with a node in the
+DOM.  This is typically found as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespaceURI</span></code> of a node, or used as
+the <em>namespaceURI</em> parameter to a namespaces-specific method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">XML_NAMESPACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The namespace URI associated with the reserved prefix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code>, as defined by
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/">Namespaces in XML</a> (section 4).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">XMLNS_NAMESPACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The namespace URI for namespace declarations, as defined by <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html">Document Object
+Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification</a> (section 1.1.8).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">XHTML_NAMESPACE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The URI of the XHTML namespace as defined by <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/">XHTML 1.0: The Extensible
+HyperText Markup Language</a> (section 3.1.1).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a> contains a base <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> class and the DOM
+exception classes.  The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> class provided by this module does not
+implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM specification;
+concrete DOM implementations must provide those.  The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> class
+provided as part of this module does provide the constants used for the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodeType</span></code> attribute on concrete <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> objects; they are located
+within the class rather than at the module level to conform with the DOM
+specifications.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="objects-in-the-dom">
+<span id="dom-objects"></span><h2>Objects in the DOM<a class="headerlink" href="#objects-in-the-dom" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from the W3C.</p>
+<p>Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as simple
+strings.  It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so this usage is not
+yet documented.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 32%" />
+<col style="width: 35%" />
+<col style="width: 33%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Interface</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Section</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Purpose</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMImplementation</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-implementation-objects"><span class="std std-ref">DOMImplementation Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Interface to the underlying
+implementation.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-node-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Node Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Base interface for most objects
+in a document.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-nodelist-objects"><span class="std std-ref">NodeList Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Interface for a sequence of
+nodes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocumentType</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-documenttype-objects"><span class="std std-ref">DocumentType Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Information about the
+declarations needed to process
+a document.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-document-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Document Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Object which represents an
+entire document.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-element-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Element Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Element nodes in the document
+hierarchy.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attr</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-attr-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Attr Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Attribute value nodes on
+element nodes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Comment</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-comment-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Comment Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Representation of comments in
+the source document.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-text-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Text and CDATASection Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Nodes containing textual
+content from the document.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessingInstruction</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-pi-objects"><span class="std std-ref">ProcessingInstruction Objects</span></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Processing instruction
+representation.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>An additional section describes the exceptions defined for working with the DOM
+in Python.</p>
+<div class="section" id="domimplementation-objects">
+<span id="dom-implementation-objects"></span><h3>DOMImplementation Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#domimplementation-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMImplementation</span></code> interface provides a way for applications to
+determine the availability of particular features in the DOM they are using.
+DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocumentType</span></code> objects using the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMImplementation</span></code> as well.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DOMImplementation.hasFeature">
+<code class="descclassname">DOMImplementation.</code><code class="descname">hasFeature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>feature</em>, <em>version</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.hasFeature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if the feature identified by the pair of strings <em>feature</em> and
+<em>version</em> is implemented.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocument">
+<code class="descclassname">DOMImplementation.</code><code class="descname">createDocument</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceUri</em>, <em>qualifiedName</em>, <em>doctype</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocument" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> object (the root of the DOM), with a child
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> object having the given <em>namespaceUri</em> and <em>qualifiedName</em>. The
+<em>doctype</em> must be a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocumentType</span></code> object created by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocumentType" title="xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocumentType"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">createDocumentType()</span></code></a>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. In the Python DOM API, the first two
+arguments can also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in order to indicate that no <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code>
+child is to be created.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocumentType">
+<code class="descclassname">DOMImplementation.</code><code class="descname">createDocumentType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>qualifiedName</em>, <em>publicId</em>, <em>systemId</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DOMImplementation.createDocumentType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocumentType</span></code> object that encapsulates the given
+<em>qualifiedName</em>, <em>publicId</em>, and <em>systemId</em> strings, representing the
+information contained in an XML document type declaration.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="node-objects">
+<span id="dom-node-objects"></span><h3>Node Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#node-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.nodeType">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">nodeType</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.nodeType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An integer representing the node type.  Symbolic constants for the types are on
+the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> object: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ELEMENT_NODE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ATTRIBUTE_NODE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEXT_NODE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDATA_SECTION_NODE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENTITY_NODE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMMENT_NODE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOCUMENT_NODE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOTATION_NODE</span></code>.
+This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.parentNode">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">parentNode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.parentNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The parent of the current node, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for the document node. The value is
+always a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> object or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  For <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> nodes, this
+will be the parent element, except for the root element, in which case it will
+be the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> object. For <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attr</span></code> nodes, this is always
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.attributes">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">attributes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.attributes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedNodeMap</span></code> of attribute objects.  Only elements have actual values
+for this; others provide <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for this attribute. This is a read-only
+attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.previousSibling">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">previousSibling</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.previousSibling" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The node that immediately precedes this one with the same parent.  For
+instance the element with an end-tag that comes just before the <em>self</em>
+element’s start-tag.  Of course, XML documents are made up of more than just
+elements so the previous sibling could be text, a comment, or something else.
+If this node is the first child of the parent, this attribute will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.nextSibling">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">nextSibling</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.nextSibling" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The node that immediately follows this one with the same parent.  See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.Node.previousSibling" title="xml.dom.Node.previousSibling"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">previousSibling</span></code></a>.  If this is the last child of the parent, this
+attribute will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.childNodes">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">childNodes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.childNodes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A list of nodes contained within this node. This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.firstChild">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">firstChild</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.firstChild" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The first child of the node, if there are any, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This is a read-only
+attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.lastChild">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">lastChild</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.lastChild" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The last child of the node, if there are any, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. This is a read-only
+attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.localName">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">localName</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.localName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The part of the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tagName</span></code> following the colon if there is one, else the
+entire <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tagName</span></code>.  The value is a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.prefix">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">prefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.prefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The part of the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tagName</span></code> preceding the colon if there is one, else the
+empty string.  The value is a string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.namespaceURI">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">namespaceURI</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.namespaceURI" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The namespace associated with the element name.  This will be a string or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.nodeName">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">nodeName</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.nodeName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for
+details.  You can always get the information you would get here from another
+property such as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tagName</span></code> property for elements or the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>
+property for attributes. For all node types, the value of this attribute will be
+either a string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.nodeValue">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">nodeValue</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.nodeValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for
+details.  The situation is similar to that with <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.Node.nodeName" title="xml.dom.Node.nodeName"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodeName</span></code></a>.  The value is
+a string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.hasAttributes">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">hasAttributes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.hasAttributes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the node has any attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.hasChildNodes">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">hasChildNodes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.hasChildNodes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the node has any child nodes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.isSameNode">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">isSameNode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.isSameNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if <em>other</em> refers to the same node as this node. This is especially
+useful for DOM implementations which use any sort of proxy architecture (because
+more than one object can refer to the same node).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This is based on a proposed DOM Level 3 API which is still in the “working
+draft” stage, but this particular interface appears uncontroversial.  Changes
+from the W3C will not necessarily affect this method in the Python DOM interface
+(though any new W3C API for this would also be supported).</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.appendChild">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">appendChild</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newChild</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.appendChild" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a new child node to this node at the end of the list of
+children, returning <em>newChild</em>. If the node was already in
+the tree, it is removed first.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.insertBefore">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">insertBefore</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newChild</em>, <em>refChild</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.insertBefore" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert a new child node before an existing child.  It must be the case that
+<em>refChild</em> is a child of this node; if not, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.
+<em>newChild</em> is returned. If <em>refChild</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it inserts <em>newChild</em> at the
+end of the children’s list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.removeChild">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">removeChild</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>oldChild</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.removeChild" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove a child node.  <em>oldChild</em> must be a child of this node; if not,
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.  <em>oldChild</em> is returned on success.  If <em>oldChild</em>
+will not be used further, its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlink()</span></code> method should be called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.replaceChild">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">replaceChild</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newChild</em>, <em>oldChild</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.replaceChild" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replace an existing node with a new node. It must be the case that  <em>oldChild</em>
+is a child of this node; if not, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.normalize">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">normalize</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.normalize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Join adjacent text nodes so that all stretches of text are stored as single
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code> instances.  This simplifies processing text from a DOM tree for
+many applications.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Node.cloneNode">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">cloneNode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>deep</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Node.cloneNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Clone this node.  Setting <em>deep</em> means to clone all child nodes as well.  This
+returns the clone.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nodelist-objects">
+<span id="dom-nodelist-objects"></span><h3>NodeList Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#nodelist-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code> represents a sequence of nodes.  These objects are used in
+two ways in the DOM Core recommendation:  an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> object provides
+one as its list of child nodes, and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getElementsByTagName()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getElementsByTagNameNS()</span></code> methods of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> return objects with this
+interface to represent query results.</p>
+<p>The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines one method and one attribute for these
+objects:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NodeList.item">
+<code class="descclassname">NodeList.</code><code class="descname">item</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NodeList.item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <em>i</em>’th item from the sequence, if there is one, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  The
+index <em>i</em> is not allowed to be less than zero or greater than or equal to the
+length of the sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NodeList.length">
+<code class="descclassname">NodeList.</code><code class="descname">length</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NodeList.length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The number of nodes in the sequence.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, the Python DOM interface requires that some additional support is
+provided to allow <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code> objects to be used as Python sequences.  All
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code> implementations must include support for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>; this allows iteration over the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code> in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statements and proper support for the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> built-in
+function.</p>
+<p>If a DOM implementation supports modification of the document, the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code> implementation must also support the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__" title="object.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="documenttype-objects">
+<span id="dom-documenttype-objects"></span><h3>DocumentType Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#documenttype-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Information about the notations and entities declared by a document (including
+the external subset if the parser uses it and can provide the information) is
+available from a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocumentType</span></code> object.  The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocumentType</span></code> for a
+document is available from the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> object’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctype</span></code>
+attribute; if there is no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOCTYPE</span></code> declaration for the document, the
+document’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctype</span></code> attribute will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> instead of an
+instance of this interface.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocumentType</span></code> is a specialization of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code>, and adds the
+following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DocumentType.publicId">
+<code class="descclassname">DocumentType.</code><code class="descname">publicId</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DocumentType.publicId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The public identifier for the external subset of the document type definition.
+This will be a string or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DocumentType.systemId">
+<code class="descclassname">DocumentType.</code><code class="descname">systemId</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DocumentType.systemId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The system identifier for the external subset of the document type definition.
+This will be a URI as a string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DocumentType.internalSubset">
+<code class="descclassname">DocumentType.</code><code class="descname">internalSubset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DocumentType.internalSubset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string giving the complete internal subset from the document. This does not
+include the brackets which enclose the subset.  If the document has no internal
+subset, this should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DocumentType.name">
+<code class="descclassname">DocumentType.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DocumentType.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The name of the root element as given in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOCTYPE</span></code> declaration, if
+present.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DocumentType.entities">
+<code class="descclassname">DocumentType.</code><code class="descname">entities</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DocumentType.entities" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedNodeMap</span></code> giving the definitions of external entities.
+For entity names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided
+(others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation).  This may be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no entities are
+defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DocumentType.notations">
+<code class="descclassname">DocumentType.</code><code class="descname">notations</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DocumentType.notations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedNodeMap</span></code> giving the definitions of notations. For
+notation names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided
+(others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation).  This may be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no notations
+are defined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="document-objects">
+<span id="dom-document-objects"></span><h3>Document Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#document-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> represents an entire XML document, including its constituent
+elements, attributes, processing instructions, comments etc.  Remember that it
+inherits properties from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.documentElement">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">documentElement</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.documentElement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The one and only root element of the document.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.createElement">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">createElement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tagName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.createElement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a new element node.  The element is not inserted into the
+document when it is created.  You need to explicitly insert it with one of the
+other methods such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insertBefore()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">appendChild()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.createElementNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">createElementNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>tagName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.createElementNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a new element with a namespace.  The <em>tagName</em> may have a
+prefix.  The element is not inserted into the document when it is created.  You
+need to explicitly insert it with one of the other methods such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insertBefore()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">appendChild()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.createTextNode">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">createTextNode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.createTextNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a text node containing the data passed as a parameter.  As
+with the other creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the
+tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.createComment">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">createComment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.createComment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a comment node containing the data passed as a parameter.  As
+with the other creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the
+tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.createProcessingInstruction">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">createProcessingInstruction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.createProcessingInstruction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a processing instruction node containing the <em>target</em> and
+<em>data</em> passed as parameters.  As with the other creation methods, this one does
+not insert the node into the tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.createAttribute">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">createAttribute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.createAttribute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return an attribute node.  This method does not associate the
+attribute node with any particular element.  You must use
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setAttributeNode()</span></code> on the appropriate <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> object to use the
+newly created attribute instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.createAttributeNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">createAttributeNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>qualifiedName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.createAttributeNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return an attribute node with a namespace.  The <em>tagName</em> may have a
+prefix.  This method does not associate the attribute node with any particular
+element.  You must use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setAttributeNode()</span></code> on the appropriate
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> object to use the newly created attribute instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagName">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">getElementsByTagName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tagName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children, etc.) with a
+particular element type name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagNameNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Document.</code><code class="descname">getElementsByTagNameNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>localName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Document.getElementsByTagNameNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children, etc.) with a
+particular namespace URI and localname.  The localname is the part of the
+namespace after the prefix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="element-objects">
+<span id="dom-element-objects"></span><h3>Element Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#element-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> is a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code>, so inherits all the attributes
+of that class.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.tagName">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">tagName</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.tagName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The element type name.  In a namespace-using document it may have colons in it.
+The value is a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagName">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">getElementsByTagName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tagName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as equivalent method in the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagNameNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">getElementsByTagNameNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>localName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.getElementsByTagNameNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as equivalent method in the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.hasAttribute">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">hasAttribute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.hasAttribute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the element has an attribute named by <em>name</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.hasAttributeNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">hasAttributeNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>localName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.hasAttributeNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns true if the element has an attribute named by <em>namespaceURI</em> and
+<em>localName</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.getAttribute">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">getAttribute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.getAttribute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the attribute named by <em>name</em> as a string. If no such
+attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the attribute had no value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNode">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">getAttributeNode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attr</span></code> node for the attribute named by <em>attrname</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">getAttributeNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>localName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of the attribute named by <em>namespaceURI</em> and <em>localName</em> as a
+string. If no such attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the
+attribute had no value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNodeNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">getAttributeNodeNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>localName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.getAttributeNodeNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an attribute value as a node, given a <em>namespaceURI</em> and <em>localName</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.removeAttribute">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">removeAttribute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.removeAttribute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove an attribute by name.  If there is no matching attribute, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.NotFoundErr" title="xml.dom.NotFoundErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotFoundErr</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNode">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">removeAttributeNode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>oldAttr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove and return <em>oldAttr</em> from the attribute list, if present. If <em>oldAttr</em> is
+not present, <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.NotFoundErr" title="xml.dom.NotFoundErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotFoundErr</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">removeAttributeNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>localName</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove an attribute by name.  Note that it uses a localName, not a qname.  No
+exception is raised if there is no matching attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.setAttribute">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">setAttribute</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.setAttribute" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set an attribute value from a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNode">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">setAttributeNode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newAttr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if
+necessary if the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute matches.  If a replacement occurs, the
+old attribute node will be returned.  If <em>newAttr</em> is already in use,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr" title="xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InuseAttributeErr</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNodeNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">setAttributeNodeNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>newAttr</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNodeNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if
+necessary if the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespaceURI</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localName</span></code> attributes match.
+If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned.  If <em>newAttr</em>
+is already in use, <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr" title="xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InuseAttributeErr</span></code></a> will be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNS">
+<code class="descclassname">Element.</code><code class="descname">setAttributeNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>namespaceURI</em>, <em>qname</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Element.setAttributeNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set an attribute value from a string, given a <em>namespaceURI</em> and a <em>qname</em>.
+Note that a qname is the whole attribute name.  This is different than above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="attr-objects">
+<span id="dom-attr-objects"></span><h3>Attr Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#attr-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attr</span></code> inherits from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code>, so inherits all its attributes.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Attr.name">
+<code class="descclassname">Attr.</code><code class="descname">name</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Attr.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The attribute name.
+In a namespace-using document it may include a colon.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Attr.localName">
+<code class="descclassname">Attr.</code><code class="descname">localName</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Attr.localName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The part of the name following the colon if there is one, else the
+entire name.
+This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Attr.prefix">
+<code class="descclassname">Attr.</code><code class="descname">prefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Attr.prefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The part of the name preceding the colon if there is one, else the
+empty string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Attr.value">
+<code class="descclassname">Attr.</code><code class="descname">value</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Attr.value" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The text value of the attribute.  This is a synonym for the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodeValue</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="namednodemap-objects">
+<span id="dom-attributelist-objects"></span><h3>NamedNodeMap Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#namednodemap-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedNodeMap</span></code> does <em>not</em> inherit from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code>.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.length">
+<code class="descclassname">NamedNodeMap.</code><code class="descname">length</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.length" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The length of the attribute list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.item">
+<code class="descclassname">NamedNodeMap.</code><code class="descname">item</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>index</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NamedNodeMap.item" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an attribute with a particular index.  The order you get the attributes
+in is arbitrary but will be consistent for the life of a DOM.  Each item is an
+attribute node.  Get its value with the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping behavior.
+You can use them or you can use the standardized <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getAttribute*()</span></code> family
+of methods on the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> objects.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comment-objects">
+<span id="dom-comment-objects"></span><h3>Comment Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#comment-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Comment</span></code> represents a comment in the XML document.  It is a subclass of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code>, but cannot have child nodes.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Comment.data">
+<code class="descclassname">Comment.</code><code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Comment.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The content of the comment as a string.  The attribute contains all characters
+between the leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!-</span></code><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> and trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-&gt;</span></code>, but does not
+include them.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-and-cdatasection-objects">
+<span id="dom-text-objects"></span><h3>Text and CDATASection Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#text-and-cdatasection-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code> interface represents text in the XML document.  If the parser
+and DOM implementation support the DOM’s XML extension, portions of the text
+enclosed in CDATA marked sections are stored in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDATASection</span></code> objects.
+These two interfaces are identical, but provide different values for the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodeType</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p>These interfaces extend the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> interface.  They cannot have child
+nodes.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.Text.data">
+<code class="descclassname">Text.</code><code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.Text.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The content of the text node as a string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The use of a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDATASection</span></code> node does not indicate that the node
+represents a complete CDATA marked section, only that the content of the node
+was part of a CDATA section.  A single CDATA section may be represented by more
+than one node in the document tree.  There is no way to determine whether two
+adjacent <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDATASection</span></code> nodes represent different CDATA marked sections.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="processinginstruction-objects">
+<span id="dom-pi-objects"></span><h3>ProcessingInstruction Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#processinginstruction-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits from the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> interface and cannot have child nodes.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.target">
+<code class="descclassname">ProcessingInstruction.</code><code class="descname">target</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.target" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The content of the processing instruction up to the first whitespace character.
+This is a read-only attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.data">
+<code class="descclassname">ProcessingInstruction.</code><code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The content of the processing instruction following the first whitespace
+character.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<span id="dom-exceptions"></span><h3>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines a single exception, <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.DOMException" title="xml.dom.DOMException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMException</span></code></a>,
+and a number of constants that allow applications to determine what sort of
+error occurred. <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.DOMException" title="xml.dom.DOMException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMException</span></code></a> instances carry a <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a> attribute
+that provides the appropriate value for the specific exception.</p>
+<p>The Python DOM interface provides the constants, but also expands the set of
+exceptions so that a specific exception exists for each of the exception codes
+defined by the DOM.  The implementations must raise the appropriate specific
+exception, each of which carries the appropriate value for the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code></a>
+attribute.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DOMException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">DOMException</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DOMException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base exception class used for all specific DOM exceptions.  This exception class
+cannot be directly instantiated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">DomstringSizeErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a specified range of text does not fit into a string. This is not
+known to be used in the Python DOM implementations, but may be received from DOM
+implementations not written in Python.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">HierarchyRequestErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an attempt is made to insert a node where the node type is not
+allowed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.IndexSizeErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">IndexSizeErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.IndexSizeErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an index or size parameter to a method is negative or exceeds the
+allowed values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">InuseAttributeErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an attempt is made to insert an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attr</span></code> node that is already
+present elsewhere in the document.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">InvalidAccessErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised if a parameter or an operation is not supported on the underlying object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">InvalidCharacterErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This exception is raised when a string parameter contains a character that is
+not permitted in the context it’s being used in by the XML 1.0 recommendation.
+For example, attempting to create an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> node with a space in the
+element type name will cause this error to be raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">InvalidModificationErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an attempt is made to modify the type of a node.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.InvalidStateErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">InvalidStateErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.InvalidStateErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an attempt is made to use an object that is not defined or is no
+longer usable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NamespaceErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">NamespaceErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NamespaceErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If an attempt is made to change any object in a way that is not permitted with
+regard to the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/">Namespaces in XML</a>
+recommendation, this exception is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NotFoundErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">NotFoundErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NotFoundErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception when a node does not exist in the referenced context.  For example,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem()</span></code> will raise this if the node passed in does
+not exist in the map.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NotSupportedErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">NotSupportedErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NotSupportedErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when the implementation does not support the requested type of object or
+operation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">NoDataAllowedErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is raised if data is specified for a node which does not support data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">NoModificationAllowedErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised on attempts to modify an object where modifications are not allowed (such
+as for read-only nodes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.SyntaxErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">SyntaxErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.SyntaxErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when an invalid or illegal string is specified.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.</code><code class="descname">WrongDocumentErr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raised when a node is inserted in a different document than it currently belongs
+to, and the implementation does not support migrating the node from one document
+to the other.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The exception codes defined in the DOM recommendation map to the exceptions
+described above according to this table:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 54%" />
+<col style="width: 46%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Constant</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Exception</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr" title="xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DomstringSizeErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr" title="xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HierarchyRequestErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INDEX_SIZE_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.IndexSizeErr" title="xml.dom.IndexSizeErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexSizeErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr" title="xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InuseAttributeErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INVALID_ACCESS_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr" title="xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidAccessErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr" title="xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidCharacterErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr" title="xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidModificationErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INVALID_STATE_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.InvalidStateErr" title="xml.dom.InvalidStateErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidStateErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NAMESPACE_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.NamespaceErr" title="xml.dom.NamespaceErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamespaceErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOT_FOUND_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.NotFoundErr" title="xml.dom.NotFoundErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotFoundErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.NotSupportedErr" title="xml.dom.NotSupportedErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotSupportedErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr" title="xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoDataAllowedErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr" title="xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoModificationAllowedErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SYNTAX_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.SyntaxErr" title="xml.dom.SyntaxErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr" title="xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WrongDocumentErr</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conformance">
+<span id="dom-conformance"></span><h2>Conformance<a class="headerlink" href="#conformance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section describes the conformance requirements and relationships between
+the Python DOM API, the W3C DOM recommendations, and the OMG IDL mapping for
+Python.</p>
+<div class="section" id="type-mapping">
+<span id="dom-type-mapping"></span><h3>Type Mapping<a class="headerlink" href="#type-mapping" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The IDL types used in the DOM specification are mapped to Python types
+according to the following table.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>IDL Type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python Type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boolean</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMString</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">null</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="accessor-methods">
+<span id="dom-accessor-methods"></span><h3>Accessor Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#accessor-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The mapping from OMG IDL to Python defines accessor functions for IDL
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attribute</span></code> declarations in much the way the Java mapping does.
+Mapping the IDL declarations</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">readonly</span> <span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="n">string</span> <span class="n">someValue</span><span class="p">;</span>
+         <span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="n">string</span> <span class="n">anotherValue</span><span class="p">;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>yields three accessor functions:  a “get” method for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">someValue</span></code>
+(<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_get_someValue()</span></code>), and “get” and “set” methods for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">anotherValue</span></code>
+(<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_get_anotherValue()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_set_anotherValue()</span></code>).  The mapping, in
+particular, does not require that the IDL attributes are accessible as normal
+Python attributes:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.someValue</span></code> is <em>not</em> required to work, and may
+raise an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The Python DOM API, however, <em>does</em> require that normal attribute access work.
+This means that the typical surrogates generated by Python IDL compilers are not
+likely to work, and wrapper objects may be needed on the client if the DOM
+objects are accessed via CORBA. While this does require some additional
+consideration for CORBA DOM clients, the implementers with experience using DOM
+over CORBA from Python do not consider this a problem.  Attributes that are
+declared <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readonly</span></code> may not restrict write access in all DOM
+implementations.</p>
+<p>In the Python DOM API, accessor functions are not required.  If provided, they
+should take the form defined by the Python IDL mapping, but these methods are
+considered unnecessary since the attributes are accessible directly from Python.
+“Set” accessors should never be provided for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readonly</span></code> attributes.</p>
+<p>The IDL definitions do not fully embody the requirements of the W3C DOM API,
+such as the notion of certain objects, such as the return value of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getElementsByTagName()</span></code>, being “live”.  The Python DOM API does not require
+implementations to enforce such requirements.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code> — The Document Object Model API</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-contents">Module Contents</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#objects-in-the-dom">Objects in the DOM</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#domimplementation-objects">DOMImplementation Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#node-objects">Node Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nodelist-objects">NodeList Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documenttype-objects">DocumentType Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#document-objects">Document Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#element-objects">Element Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#attr-objects">Attr Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#namednodemap-objects">NamedNodeMap Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comment-objects">Comment Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-and-cdatasection-objects">Text and CDATASection Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#processinginstruction-objects">ProcessingInstruction Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conformance">Conformance</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-mapping">Type Mapping</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#accessor-methods">Accessor Methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.etree.elementtree.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code> — The ElementTree XML API</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.dom.minidom.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code> — Minimal DOM implementation</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.dom.minidom.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.dom.minidom.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87aa6cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.dom.minidom.html
@@ -0,0 +1,468 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
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+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.dom.minidom">
+<span id="xml-dom-minidom-minimal-dom-implementation"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> — Minimal DOM implementation<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py">Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> is a minimal implementation of the Document Object
+Model interface, with an API similar to that in other languages.  It is intended
+to be simpler than the full DOM and also significantly smaller.  Users who are
+not already proficient with the DOM should consider using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> module for their XML processing instead.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> module is not secure against
+maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+unauthenticated data see <a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM.  With
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>, this is done through the parse functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.dom.minidom</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parseString</span>
+
+<span class="n">dom1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">temp</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">mydata.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># parse an XML file by name</span>
+
+<span class="n">datasource</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">temp</span><span class="se">\\</span><span class="s1">mydata.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">dom2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datasource</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># parse an open file</span>
+
+<span class="n">dom3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parseString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;myxml&gt;Some data&lt;empty/&gt; some more data&lt;/myxml&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.minidom.parse" title="xml.dom.minidom.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> function can take either a filename or an open file object.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.dom.minidom.parse">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.minidom.</code><code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename_or_file</em>, <em>parser=None</em>, <em>bufsize=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.minidom.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> from the given input. <em>filename_or_file</em> may be
+either a file name, or a file-like object. <em>parser</em>, if given, must be a SAX2
+parser object. This function will change the document handler of the parser and
+activate namespace support; other parser configuration (like setting an entity
+resolver) must have been done in advance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If you have XML in a string, you can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.minidom.parseString" title="xml.dom.minidom.parseString"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parseString()</span></code></a> function
+instead:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.dom.minidom.parseString">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.minidom.</code><code class="descname">parseString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.minidom.parseString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> that represents the <em>string</em>. This method creates an
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> object for the string and passes that on to <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.minidom.parse" title="xml.dom.minidom.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Both functions return a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> object representing the content of the
+document.</p>
+<p>What the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.minidom.parse" title="xml.dom.minidom.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.minidom.parseString" title="xml.dom.minidom.parseString"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parseString()</span></code></a> functions do is connect an XML
+parser with a “DOM builder” that can accept parse events from any SAX parser and
+convert them into a DOM tree.  The name of the functions are perhaps misleading,
+but are easy to grasp when learning the interfaces.  The parsing of the document
+will be completed before these functions return; it’s simply that these
+functions do not provide a parser implementation themselves.</p>
+<p>You can also create a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> by calling a method on a “DOM
+Implementation” object.  You can get this object either by calling the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getDOMImplementation()</span></code> function in the <a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a> package or the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> module.  Once you have a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code>, you
+can add child nodes to it to populate the DOM:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.dom.minidom</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">getDOMImplementation</span>
+
+<span class="n">impl</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">getDOMImplementation</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">newdoc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">impl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">createDocument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;some_tag&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">top_element</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">newdoc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">documentElement</span>
+<span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">newdoc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">createTextNode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Some textual content.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">top_element</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">appendChild</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your XML
+document through its properties and methods.  These properties are defined in
+the DOM specification.  The main property of the document object is the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">documentElement</span></code> property.  It gives you the main element in the XML
+document: the one that holds all others.  Here is an example program:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">dom3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parseString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;myxml&gt;Some data&lt;/myxml&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">assert</span> <span class="n">dom3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">documentElement</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tagName</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;myxml&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When you are finished with a DOM tree, you may optionally call the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlink()</span></code> method to encourage early cleanup of the now-unneeded
+objects.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlink()</span></code> is an <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>-specific
+extension to the DOM API that renders the node and its descendants are
+essentially useless.  Otherwise, Python’s garbage collector will
+eventually take care of the objects in the tree.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/">Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification</a></dt><dd><p>The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dom-objects">
+<span id="minidom-objects"></span><h2>DOM Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#dom-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The definition of the DOM API for Python is given as part of the <a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a>
+module documentation.  This section lists the differences between the API and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.minidom.Node.unlink">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">unlink</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.minidom.Node.unlink" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Break internal references within the DOM so that it will be garbage collected on
+versions of Python without cyclic GC.  Even when cyclic GC is available, using
+this can make large amounts of memory available sooner, so calling this on DOM
+objects as soon as they are no longer needed is good practice.  This only needs
+to be called on the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> object, but may be called on child nodes
+to discard children of that node.</p>
+<p>You can avoid calling this method explicitly by using the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement. The following code will automatically unlink <em>dom</em> when the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block is exited:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">xml</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">minidom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datasource</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">dom</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="c1"># Work with dom.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.minidom.Node.writexml">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">writexml</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>writer</em>, <em>indent=&quot;&quot;</em>, <em>addindent=&quot;&quot;</em>, <em>newl=&quot;&quot;</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.minidom.Node.writexml" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write XML to the writer object.  The writer receives texts but not bytes as input,
+it should have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method which matches that of the file object
+interface.  The <em>indent</em> parameter is the indentation of the current node.
+The <em>addindent</em> parameter is the incremental indentation to use for subnodes
+of the current one.  The <em>newl</em> parameter specifies the string to use to
+terminate newlines.</p>
+<p>For the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> node, an additional keyword argument <em>encoding</em> can
+be used to specify the encoding field of the XML header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.minidom.Node.toxml">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">toxml</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.minidom.Node.toxml" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a string or byte string containing the XML represented by
+the DOM node.</p>
+<p>With an explicit <em>encoding</em> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a> argument, the result is a byte
+string in the specified encoding.
+With no <em>encoding</em> argument, the result is a Unicode string, and the
+XML declaration in the resulting string does not specify an
+encoding. Encoding this string in an encoding other than UTF-8 is
+likely incorrect, since UTF-8 is the default encoding of XML.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.minidom.Node.toprettyxml">
+<code class="descclassname">Node.</code><code class="descname">toprettyxml</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>indent=&quot;\t&quot;</em>, <em>newl=&quot;\n&quot;</em>, <em>encoding=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.minidom.Node.toprettyxml" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a pretty-printed version of the document. <em>indent</em> specifies the
+indentation string and defaults to a tabulator; <em>newl</em> specifies the string
+emitted at the end of each line and defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>encoding</em> argument behaves like the corresponding argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.minidom.Node.toxml" title="xml.dom.minidom.Node.toxml"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">toxml()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dom-example">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>DOM Example<a class="headerlink" href="#dom-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This example program is a fairly realistic example of a simple program. In this
+particular case, we do not take much advantage of the flexibility of the DOM.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xml.dom.minidom</span>
+
+<span class="n">document</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;slideshow&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;title&gt;Demo slideshow&lt;/title&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;slide&gt;&lt;title&gt;Slide title&lt;/title&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;point&gt;This is a demo&lt;/point&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;point&gt;Of a program for processing slides&lt;/point&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;/slide&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="s2">&lt;slide&gt;&lt;title&gt;Another demo slide&lt;/title&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;point&gt;It is important&lt;/point&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;point&gt;To have more than&lt;/point&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;point&gt;one slide&lt;/point&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;/slide&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;/slideshow&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="n">dom</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xml</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">minidom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parseString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">document</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getText</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">nodelist</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">rc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">node</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">nodelist</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nodeType</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TEXT_NODE</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">rc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handleSlideshow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slideshow</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;html&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">handleSlideshowTitle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slideshow</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getElementsByTagName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;title&quot;</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="n">slides</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">slideshow</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getElementsByTagName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;slide&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">handleToc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slides</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">handleSlides</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slides</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;/html&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handleSlides</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slides</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">slide</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">slides</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">handleSlide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slide</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handleSlide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slide</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">handleSlideTitle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slide</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getElementsByTagName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;title&quot;</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="n">handlePoints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slide</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getElementsByTagName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;point&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handleSlideshowTitle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;title&gt;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&lt;/title&gt;&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">getText</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handleSlideTitle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;h2&gt;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&lt;/h2&gt;&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">getText</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handlePoints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">points</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;ul&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">point</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">points</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">handlePoint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;/ul&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handlePoint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;li&gt;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&lt;/li&gt;&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">getText</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">handleToc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">slides</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">slide</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">slides</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">title</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">slide</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getElementsByTagName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;title&quot;</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;p&gt;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&lt;/p&gt;&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">getText</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="n">handleSlideshow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dom</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="minidom-and-the-dom-standard">
+<span id="minidom-and-dom"></span><h2>minidom and the DOM standard<a class="headerlink" href="#minidom-and-the-dom-standard" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> module is essentially a DOM 1.0-compatible DOM with
+some DOM 2 features (primarily namespace features).</p>
+<p>Usage of the DOM interface in Python is straight-forward.  The following mapping
+rules apply:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Interfaces are accessed through instance objects. Applications should not
+instantiate the classes themselves; they should use the creator functions
+available on the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> object. Derived interfaces support all
+operations (and attributes) from the base interfaces, plus any new operations.</p></li>
+<li><p>Operations are used as methods. Since the DOM uses only <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a>
+parameters, the arguments are passed in normal order (from left to right).
+There are no optional arguments. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span></code> operations return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>IDL attributes map to instance attributes. For compatibility with the OMG IDL
+language mapping for Python, an attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> can also be accessed through
+accessor methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_get_foo()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_set_foo()</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readonly</span></code>
+attributes must not be changed; this is not enforced at runtime.</p></li>
+<li><p>The types <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boolean</span></code> all map to Python integer objects.</p></li>
+<li><p>The type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMString</span></code> maps to Python strings. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> supports
+either bytes or strings, but will normally produce strings.
+Values of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMString</span></code> may also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> where allowed to have the IDL
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">null</span></code> value by the DOM specification from the W3C.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span></code> declarations map to variables in their respective scope (e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE</span></code>); they must not be changed.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMException</span></code> is currently not supported in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>.
+Instead, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> uses standard Python exceptions such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code> objects are implemented using Python’s built-in list type.
+These objects provide the interface defined in the DOM specification, but with
+earlier versions of Python they do not support the official API.  They are,
+however, much more “Pythonic” than the interface defined in the W3C
+recommendations.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The following interfaces have no implementation in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMTimeStamp</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EntityReference</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Most of these reflect information in the XML document that is not of general
+utility to most DOM users.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The encoding name included in the XML output should conform to
+the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but
+“UTF8” is not valid in an XML document’s declaration, even though
+Python accepts it as an encoding name.
+See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl">https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl</a>
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml">https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code> — Minimal DOM implementation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-objects">DOM Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-example">DOM Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#minidom-and-the-dom-standard">minidom and the DOM standard</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.dom.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code> — The Document Object Model API</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.dom.pulldom.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code> — Support for building partial DOM trees</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.dom.pulldom.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.dom.pulldom.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..093c07d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.dom.pulldom.html
@@ -0,0 +1,334 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+ 
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+
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+    <li class="right">
+        
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
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+
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.dom.pulldom">
+<span id="xml-dom-pulldom-support-for-building-partial-dom-trees"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.pulldom" title="xml.dom.pulldom: Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code></a> — Support for building partial DOM trees<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.dom.pulldom" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py">Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.pulldom" title="xml.dom.pulldom: Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code></a> module provides a “pull parser” which can also be
+asked to produce DOM-accessible fragments of the document where necessary. The
+basic concept involves pulling “events” from a stream of incoming XML and
+processing them. In contrast to SAX which also employs an event-driven
+processing model together with callbacks, the user of a pull parser is
+responsible for explicitly pulling events from the stream, looping over those
+events until either processing is finished or an error condition occurs.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.dom.pulldom" title="xml.dom.pulldom: Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code></a> module is not secure against
+maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+unauthenticated data see <a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.1: </span>The SAX parser no longer processes general external entities by default to
+increase security by default. To enable processing of external entities,
+pass a custom parser instance in:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.dom.pulldom</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">parse</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.sax</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">make_parser</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.sax.handler</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">feature_external_ges</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">make_parser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setFeature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">feature_external_ges</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.dom</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">pulldom</span>
+
+<span class="n">doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pulldom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sales_items.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">event</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">node</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">doc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">event</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">pulldom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">START_ELEMENT</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tagName</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;item&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getAttribute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;price&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">doc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expandNode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">toxml</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">event</span></code> is a constant and can be one of:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">START_ELEMENT</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">END_ELEMENT</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMMENT</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">START_DOCUMENT</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">END_DOCUMENT</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARACTERS</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">node</span></code> is an object of type <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom.Document</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom.Element</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom.Text</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Since the document is treated as a “flat” stream of events, the document “tree”
+is implicitly traversed and the desired elements are found regardless of their
+depth in the tree. In other words, one does not need to consider hierarchical
+issues such as recursive searching of the document nodes, although if the
+context of elements were important, one would either need to maintain some
+context-related state (i.e. remembering where one is in the document at any
+given point) or to make use of the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode" title="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMEventStream.expandNode()</span></code></a> method
+and switch to DOM-related processing.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.pulldom.</code><code class="descname">PullDom</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>documentFactory=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.pulldom.</code><code class="descname">SAX2DOM</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>documentFactory=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.parse">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.pulldom.</code><code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream_or_string</em>, <em>parser=None</em>, <em>bufsize=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream" title="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMEventStream</span></code></a> from the given input. <em>stream_or_string</em> may be
+either a file name, or a file-like object. <em>parser</em>, if given, must be an
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> object. This function will change the
+document handler of the
+parser and activate namespace support; other parser configuration (like
+setting an entity resolver) must have been done in advance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If you have XML in a string, you can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.parseString" title="xml.dom.pulldom.parseString"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parseString()</span></code></a> function instead:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.parseString">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.pulldom.</code><code class="descname">parseString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.parseString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream" title="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DOMEventStream</span></code></a> that represents the (Unicode) <em>string</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.dom.pulldom.</code><code class="descname">default_bufsize</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Default value for the <em>bufsize</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.parse" title="xml.dom.pulldom.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The value of this variable can be changed before calling <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.parse" title="xml.dom.pulldom.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> and
+the new value will take effect.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="domeventstream-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>DOMEventStream Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#domeventstream-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.dom.pulldom.</code><code class="descname">DOMEventStream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>stream</em>, <em>parser</em>, <em>bufsize</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.getEvent">
+<code class="descname">getEvent</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.getEvent" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a tuple containing <em>event</em> and the current <em>node</em> as
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom.Document</span></code> if event equals <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">START_DOCUMENT</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom.Element</span></code> if event equals <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">START_ELEMENT</span></code> or
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">END_ELEMENT</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom.Text</span></code> if event equals
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CHARACTERS</span></code>.
+The current node does not contain information about its children, unless
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode" title="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expandNode()</span></code></a> is called.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode">
+<code class="descname">expandNode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>node</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.expandNode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Expands all children of <em>node</em> into <em>node</em>. Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.dom</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">pulldom</span>
+
+<span class="n">xml</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;html&gt;&lt;title&gt;Foo&lt;/title&gt; &lt;p&gt;Some text &lt;div&gt;and more&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/html&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pulldom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parseString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xml</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">event</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">node</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">doc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">event</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">pulldom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">START_ELEMENT</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tagName</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;p&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Following statement only prints &#39;&lt;p/&gt;&#39;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">toxml</span><span class="p">())</span>
+        <span class="n">doc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expandNode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Following statement prints node with all its children &#39;&lt;p&gt;Some text &lt;div&gt;and more&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#39;</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">toxml</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.reset">
+<code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code> — Support for building partial DOM trees</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#domeventstream-objects">DOMEventStream Objects</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.dom.minidom.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code> — Minimal DOM implementation</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.sax.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code> — Support for SAX2 parsers</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.etree.elementtree.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.etree.elementtree.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9178ece
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.etree.elementtree.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1446 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.etree.ElementTree">
+<span id="xml-etree-elementtree-the-elementtree-xml-api"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> — The ElementTree XML API<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py">Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> module implements a simple and efficient API
+for parsing and creating XML data.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>This module will use a fast implementation whenever available.
+The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.cElementTree</span></code> module is deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> module is not secure against
+maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+unauthenticated data see <a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tutorial">
+<h2>Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This is a short tutorial for using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ET</span></code> in
+short).  The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks and basic
+concepts of the module.</p>
+<div class="section" id="xml-tree-and-elements">
+<h3>XML tree and elements<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-tree-and-elements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>XML is an inherently hierarchical data format, and the most natural way to
+represent it is with a tree.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ET</span></code> has two classes for this purpose -
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a> represents the whole XML document as a tree, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> represents a single node in this tree.  Interactions with
+the whole document (reading and writing to/from files) are usually done
+on the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a> level.  Interactions with a single XML element
+and its sub-elements are done on the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> level.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parsing-xml">
+<span id="elementtree-parsing-xml"></span><h3>Parsing XML<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-xml" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>We’ll be using the following XML document as the sample data for this section:</p>
+<div class="highlight-xml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot;?&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;data&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Liechtenstein&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank&gt;</span>1<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2008<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>141100<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Austria&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;E&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Switzerland&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;W&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Singapore&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank&gt;</span>4<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2011<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>59900<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Malaysia&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;N&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Panama&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank&gt;</span>68<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2011<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>13600<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Costa Rica&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;W&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Colombia&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;E&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;/data&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We can import this data by reading from a file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xml.etree.ElementTree</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">ET</span>
+<span class="n">tree</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;country_data.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getroot</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or directly from a string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromstring</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">country_data_as_string</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromstring()</span></code></a> parses XML from a string directly into an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a>,
+which is the root element of the parsed tree.  Other parsing functions may
+create an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a>.  Check the documentation to be sure.</p>
+<p>As an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root</span></code> has a tag and a dictionary of attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tag</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;data&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attrib</span>
+<span class="go">{}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It also has children nodes over which we can iterate:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">child</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">child</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">child</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attrib</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">country {&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Liechtenstein&#39;}</span>
+<span class="go">country {&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Singapore&#39;}</span>
+<span class="go">country {&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Panama&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Children are nested, and we can access specific child nodes by index:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2008&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Not all elements of the XML input will end up as elements of the
+parsed tree. Currently, this module skips over any XML comments,
+processing instructions, and document type declarations in the
+input. Nevertheless, trees built using this module’s API rather
+than parsing from XML text can have comments and processing
+instructions in them; they will be included when generating XML
+output. A document type declaration may be accessed by passing a
+custom <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TreeBuilder</span></code></a> instance to the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a>
+constructor.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing">
+<span id="elementtree-pull-parsing"></span><h3>Pull API for non-blocking parsing<a class="headerlink" href="#pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Most parsing functions provided by this module require the whole document
+to be read at once before returning any result.  It is possible to use an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> and feed data into it incrementally, but it is a push API that
+calls methods on a callback target, which is too low-level and inconvenient for
+most needs.  Sometimes what the user really wants is to be able to parse XML
+incrementally, without blocking operations, while enjoying the convenience of
+fully constructed <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+<p>The most powerful tool for doing this is <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser</span></code></a>.  It does not
+require a blocking read to obtain the XML data, and is instead fed with data
+incrementally with <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.feed" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.feed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser.feed()</span></code></a> calls.  To get the parsed XML
+elements, call <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser.read_events()</span></code></a>.  Here is an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">XMLPullParser</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;start&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;end&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;mytag&gt;sometext&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_events</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;start&#39;, &lt;Element &#39;mytag&#39; at 0x7fa66db2be58&gt;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39; more text&lt;/mytag&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">event</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_events</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">event</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">elem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;text=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">elem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">end</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The obvious use case is applications that operate in a non-blocking fashion
+where the XML data is being received from a socket or read incrementally from
+some storage device.  In such cases, blocking reads are unacceptable.</p>
+<p>Because it’s so flexible, <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser</span></code></a> can be inconvenient to use for
+simpler use-cases.  If you don’t mind your application blocking on reading XML
+data but would still like to have incremental parsing capabilities, take a look
+at <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterparse()</span></code></a>.  It can be useful when you’re reading a large XML document
+and don’t want to hold it wholly in memory.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finding-interesting-elements">
+<h3>Finding interesting elements<a class="headerlink" href="#finding-interesting-elements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> has some useful methods that help iterate recursively over all
+the sub-tree below it (its children, their children, and so on).  For example,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.iter()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">neighbor</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;neighbor&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">neighbor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attrib</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Austria&#39;, &#39;direction&#39;: &#39;E&#39;}</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Switzerland&#39;, &#39;direction&#39;: &#39;W&#39;}</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Malaysia&#39;, &#39;direction&#39;: &#39;N&#39;}</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Costa Rica&#39;, &#39;direction&#39;: &#39;W&#39;}</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;name&#39;: &#39;Colombia&#39;, &#39;direction&#39;: &#39;E&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.findall()</span></code></a> finds only elements with a tag which are direct
+children of the current element.  <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.find()</span></code></a> finds the <em>first</em> child
+with a particular tag, and <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.text</span></code></a> accesses the element’s text
+content.  <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.get" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.get()</span></code></a> accesses the element’s attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">country</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;country&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">rank</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">country</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rank&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">country</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rank</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Liechtenstein 1</span>
+<span class="go">Singapore 4</span>
+<span class="go">Panama 68</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>More sophisticated specification of which elements to look for is possible by
+using <a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree-xpath"><span class="std std-ref">XPath</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="modifying-an-xml-file">
+<h3>Modifying an XML File<a class="headerlink" href="#modifying-an-xml-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a> provides a simple way to build XML documents and write them to files.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree.write()</span></code></a> method serves this purpose.</p>
+<p>Once created, an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> object may be manipulated by directly changing
+its fields (such as <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.text</span></code></a>), adding and modifying attributes
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.set" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.set()</span></code></a> method), as well as adding new children (for example
+with <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.append" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.append()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Let’s say we want to add one to each country’s rank, and add an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">updated</span></code>
+attribute to the rank element:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">rank</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rank&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">new_rank</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rank</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">rank</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new_rank</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">rank</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;updated&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;yes&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;output.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Our XML now looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-xml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot;?&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;data&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Liechtenstein&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank</span> <span class="na">updated=</span><span class="s">&quot;yes&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>2<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2008<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>141100<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Austria&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;E&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Switzerland&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;W&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Singapore&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank</span> <span class="na">updated=</span><span class="s">&quot;yes&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>5<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2011<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>59900<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Malaysia&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;N&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Panama&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank</span> <span class="na">updated=</span><span class="s">&quot;yes&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>69<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2011<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>13600<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Costa Rica&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;W&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Colombia&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;E&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;/data&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>We can remove elements using <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.remove" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.remove"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.remove()</span></code></a>.  Let’s say we want to
+remove all countries with a rank higher than 50:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">country</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;country&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">rank</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">country</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rank&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">rank</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">country</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;output.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Our XML now looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-xml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot;?&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;data&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Liechtenstein&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank</span> <span class="na">updated=</span><span class="s">&quot;yes&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>2<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2008<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>141100<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Austria&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;E&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Switzerland&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;W&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;country</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Singapore&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;rank</span> <span class="na">updated=</span><span class="s">&quot;yes&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>5<span class="nt">&lt;/rank&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;year&gt;</span>2011<span class="nt">&lt;/year&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;gdppc&gt;</span>59900<span class="nt">&lt;/gdppc&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;neighbor</span> <span class="na">name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Malaysia&quot;</span> <span class="na">direction=</span><span class="s">&quot;N&quot;</span><span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/country&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;/data&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="building-xml-documents">
+<h3>Building XML documents<a class="headerlink" href="#building-xml-documents" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubElement()</span></code></a> function also provides a convenient way to create new
+sub-elements for a given element:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Element</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SubElement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SubElement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SubElement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dump</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;a&gt;&lt;b /&gt;&lt;c&gt;&lt;d /&gt;&lt;/c&gt;&lt;/a&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parsing-xml-with-namespaces">
+<h3>Parsing XML with Namespaces<a class="headerlink" href="#parsing-xml-with-namespaces" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If the XML input has <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_namespace">namespaces</a>, tags and attributes
+with prefixes in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix:sometag</span></code> get expanded to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{uri}sometag</span></code> where the <em>prefix</em> is replaced by the full <em>URI</em>.
+Also, if there is a <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting">default namespace</a>,
+that full URI gets prepended to all of the non-prefixed tags.</p>
+<p>Here is an XML example that incorporates two namespaces, one with the
+prefix “fictional” and the other serving as the default namespace:</p>
+<div class="highlight-xml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot;?&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;actors</span> <span class="na">xmlns:fictional=</span><span class="s">&quot;http://characters.example.com&quot;</span>
+        <span class="na">xmlns=</span><span class="s">&quot;http://people.example.com&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;actor&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;name&gt;</span>John Cleese<span class="nt">&lt;/name&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;fictional:character&gt;</span>Lancelot<span class="nt">&lt;/fictional:character&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;fictional:character&gt;</span>Archie Leach<span class="nt">&lt;/fictional:character&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/actor&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;actor&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;name&gt;</span>Eric Idle<span class="nt">&lt;/name&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;fictional:character&gt;</span>Sir Robin<span class="nt">&lt;/fictional:character&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;fictional:character&gt;</span>Gunther<span class="nt">&lt;/fictional:character&gt;</span>
+        <span class="nt">&lt;fictional:character&gt;</span>Commander Clement<span class="nt">&lt;/fictional:character&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;/actor&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;/actors&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One way to search and explore this XML example is to manually add the
+URI to every tag or attribute in the xpath of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fromstring</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xml_text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">actor</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{http://people.example.com}actor&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">actor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{http://people.example.com}name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">char</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">actor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;{http://characters.example.com}character&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39; |--&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">char</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A better way to search the namespaced XML example is to create a
+dictionary with your own prefixes and use those in the search functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ns</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;real_person&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://people.example.com&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="s1">&#39;role&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;http://characters.example.com&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">actor</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;real_person:actor&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ns</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">actor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;real_person:name&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ns</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">char</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">actor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;role:character&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ns</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39; |--&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">char</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">text</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These two approaches both output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">John</span> <span class="n">Cleese</span>
+ <span class="o">|--&gt;</span> <span class="n">Lancelot</span>
+ <span class="o">|--&gt;</span> <span class="n">Archie</span> <span class="n">Leach</span>
+<span class="n">Eric</span> <span class="n">Idle</span>
+ <span class="o">|--&gt;</span> <span class="n">Sir</span> <span class="n">Robin</span>
+ <span class="o">|--&gt;</span> <span class="n">Gunther</span>
+ <span class="o">|--&gt;</span> <span class="n">Commander</span> <span class="n">Clement</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="additional-resources">
+<h3>Additional resources<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-resources" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm">http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm</a> for tutorials and links to other
+docs.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xpath-support">
+<span id="elementtree-xpath"></span><h2>XPath support<a class="headerlink" href="#xpath-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This module provides limited support for
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath">XPath expressions</a> for locating elements in a
+tree.  The goal is to support a small subset of the abbreviated syntax; a full
+XPath engine is outside the scope of the module.</p>
+<div class="section" id="example">
+<h3>Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Here’s an example that demonstrates some of the XPath capabilities of the
+module.  We’ll be using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">countrydata</span></code> XML document from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree-parsing-xml"><span class="std std-ref">Parsing XML</span></a> section:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xml.etree.ElementTree</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">ET</span>
+
+<span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromstring</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">countrydata</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Top-level elements</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># All &#39;neighbor&#39; grand-children of &#39;country&#39; children of the top-level</span>
+<span class="c1"># elements</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;./country/neighbor&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Nodes with name=&#39;Singapore&#39; that have a &#39;year&#39; child</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;.//year/..[@name=&#39;Singapore&#39;]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># &#39;year&#39; nodes that are children of nodes with name=&#39;Singapore&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;.//*[@name=&#39;Singapore&#39;]/year&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># All &#39;neighbor&#39; nodes that are the second child of their parent</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;.//neighbor[2]&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="supported-xpath-syntax">
+<h3>Supported XPath syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#supported-xpath-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 70%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Syntax</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tag</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all child elements with the given tag.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> selects all child elements
+named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam/egg</span></code> selects all
+grandchildren named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">egg</span></code> in all children named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all child elements.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*/egg</span></code>
+selects all grandchildren named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">egg</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects the current node.  This is mostly useful
+at the beginning of the path, to indicate that it’s
+a relative path.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all subelements, on all levels beneath the
+current  element.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.//egg</span></code> selects
+all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">egg</span></code> elements in the entire tree.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">..</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects the parent element.  Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the
+path attempts to reach the ancestors of the start
+element (the element <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find</span></code> was called on).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[&#64;attrib]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all elements that have the given attribute.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[&#64;attrib='value']</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all elements for which the given attribute
+has the given value.  The value cannot contain
+quotes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[tag]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all elements that have a child named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tag</span></code>.  Only immediate children are supported.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[.='text']</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all elements whose complete text content,
+including descendants, equals the given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[tag='text']</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all elements that have a child named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tag</span></code> whose complete text content, including
+descendants, equals the given <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[position]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Selects all elements that are located at the given
+position.  The position can be either an integer
+(1 is the first position), the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last()</span></code>
+(for the last position), or a position relative to
+the last position (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last()-1</span></code>).</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Predicates (expressions within square brackets) must be preceded by a tag
+name, an asterisk, or another predicate.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">position</span></code> predicates must be
+preceded by a tag name.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reference">
+<h2>Reference<a class="headerlink" href="#reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="functions">
+<span id="elementtree-functions"></span><h3>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">Comment</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Comment element factory.  This factory function creates a special element
+that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard serializer.  The
+comment string can be either a bytestring or a Unicode string.  <em>text</em> is a
+string containing the comment string.  Returns an element instance
+representing a comment.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> skips over comments in the input
+instead of creating comment objects for them. An <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a> will
+only contain comment nodes if they have been inserted into to
+the tree using one of the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.dump">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">dump</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>elem</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Writes an element tree or element structure to sys.stdout.  This function
+should be used for debugging only.</p>
+<p>The exact output format is implementation dependent.  In this version, it’s
+written as an ordinary XML file.</p>
+<p><em>elem</em> is an element tree or an individual element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">fromstring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses an XML section from a string constant.  Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XML" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XML"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML()</span></code></a>.  <em>text</em>
+is a string containing XML data.  <em>parser</em> is an optional parser instance.
+If not given, the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> parser is used.
+Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">fromstringlist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses an XML document from a sequence of string fragments.  <em>sequence</em> is a
+list or other sequence containing XML data fragments.  <em>parser</em> is an
+optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a>
+parser is used.  Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">iselement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>element</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Checks if an object appears to be a valid element object.  <em>element</em> is an
+element instance.  Returns a true value if this is an element object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">iterparse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>events=None</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and reports what’s
+going on to the user.  <em>source</em> is a filename or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>
+containing XML data.  <em>events</em> is a sequence of events to report back.  The
+supported events are the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;start&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;end&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;start-ns&quot;</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;end-ns&quot;</span></code> (the “ns” events are used to get detailed namespace
+information).  If <em>events</em> is omitted, only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;end&quot;</span></code> events are reported.
+<em>parser</em> is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> parser is used.  <em>parser</em> must be a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> and can only use the default <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TreeBuilder</span></code></a> as a
+target.  Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> providing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(event,</span> <span class="pre">elem)</span></code> pairs.</p>
+<p>Note that while <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterparse()</span></code></a> builds the tree incrementally, it issues
+blocking reads on <em>source</em> (or the file it names).  As such, it’s unsuitable
+for applications where blocking reads can’t be made.  For fully non-blocking
+parsing, see <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterparse()</span></code></a> only guarantees that it has seen the “&gt;” character of a
+starting tag when it emits a “start” event, so the attributes are defined,
+but the contents of the text and tail attributes are undefined at that
+point.  The same applies to the element children; they may or may not be
+present.</p>
+<p>If you need a fully populated element, look for “end” events instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The <em>parser</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.parse">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses an XML section into an element tree.  <em>source</em> is a filename or file
+object containing XML data.  <em>parser</em> is an optional parser instance.  If
+not given, the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> parser is used.  Returns an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">ProcessingInstruction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>text=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>PI element factory.  This factory function creates a special element that
+will be serialized as an XML processing instruction.  <em>target</em> is a string
+containing the PI target.  <em>text</em> is a string containing the PI contents, if
+given.  Returns an element instance, representing a processing instruction.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> skips over processing instructions
+in the input instead of creating comment objects for them. An
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a> will only contain processing instruction nodes if
+they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">register_namespace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em>, <em>uri</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers a namespace prefix.  The registry is global, and any existing
+mapping for either the given prefix or the namespace URI will be removed.
+<em>prefix</em> is a namespace prefix.  <em>uri</em> is a namespace uri.  Tags and
+attributes in this namespace will be serialized with the given prefix, if at
+all possible.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">SubElement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parent</em>, <em>tag</em>, <em>attrib={}</em>, <em>**extra</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subelement factory.  This function creates an element instance, and appends
+it to an existing element.</p>
+<p>The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either
+bytestrings or Unicode strings.  <em>parent</em> is the parent element.  <em>tag</em> is
+the subelement name.  <em>attrib</em> is an optional dictionary, containing element
+attributes.  <em>extra</em> contains additional attributes, given as keyword
+arguments.  Returns an element instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">tostring</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>element</em>, <em>encoding=&quot;us-ascii&quot;</em>, <em>method=&quot;xml&quot;</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>short_empty_elements=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
+subelements.  <em>element</em> is an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> instance.  <em>encoding</em> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id1">1</a> is
+the output encoding (default is US-ASCII).  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding=&quot;unicode&quot;</span></code> to
+generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a bytestring is generated).  <em>method</em>
+is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xml&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;html&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;text&quot;</span></code> (default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xml&quot;</span></code>).
+<em>short_empty_elements</em> has the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree.write()</span></code></a>.
+Returns an (optionally) encoded string containing the XML data.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>short_empty_elements</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">tostringlist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>element</em>, <em>encoding=&quot;us-ascii&quot;</em>, <em>method=&quot;xml&quot;</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>short_empty_elements=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
+subelements.  <em>element</em> is an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> instance.  <em>encoding</em> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id2">1</a> is
+the output encoding (default is US-ASCII).  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding=&quot;unicode&quot;</span></code> to
+generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a bytestring is generated).  <em>method</em>
+is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xml&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;html&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;text&quot;</span></code> (default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xml&quot;</span></code>).
+<em>short_empty_elements</em> has the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree.write()</span></code></a>.
+Returns a list of (optionally) encoded strings containing the XML data.
+It does not guarantee any specific sequence, except that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;&quot;.join(tostringlist(element))</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">tostring(element)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>short_empty_elements</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XML">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">XML</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XML" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses an XML section from a string constant.  This function can be used to
+embed “XML literals” in Python code.  <em>text</em> is a string containing XML
+data.  <em>parser</em> is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> parser is used.  Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">XMLID</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Parses an XML section from a string constant, and also returns a dictionary
+which maps from element id:s to elements.  <em>text</em> is a string containing XML
+data.  <em>parser</em> is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> parser is used.  Returns a tuple containing an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> instance and a dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="element-objects">
+<span id="elementtree-element-objects"></span><h3>Element Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#element-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">Element</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag</em>, <em>attrib={}</em>, <em>**extra</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Element class.  This class defines the Element interface, and provides a
+reference implementation of this interface.</p>
+<p>The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either
+bytestrings or Unicode strings.  <em>tag</em> is the element name.  <em>attrib</em> is
+an optional dictionary, containing element attributes.  <em>extra</em> contains
+additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tag">
+<code class="descname">tag</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tag" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string identifying what kind of data this element represents (the
+element type, in other words).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text">
+<code class="descname">text</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tail">
+<code class="descname">tail</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tail" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These attributes can be used to hold additional data associated with
+the element.  Their values are usually strings but may be any
+application-specific object.  If the element is created from
+an XML file, the <em>text</em> attribute holds either the text between
+the element’s start tag and its first child or end tag, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, and
+the <em>tail</em> attribute holds either the text between the element’s
+end tag and the next tag, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  For the XML data</p>
+<div class="highlight-xml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">&lt;a&gt;&lt;b&gt;</span>1<span class="nt">&lt;c&gt;</span>2<span class="nt">&lt;d/&gt;</span>3<span class="nt">&lt;/c&gt;&lt;/b&gt;</span>4<span class="nt">&lt;/a&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>the <em>a</em> element has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for both <em>text</em> and <em>tail</em> attributes,
+the <em>b</em> element has <em>text</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;1&quot;</span></code> and <em>tail</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;4&quot;</span></code>,
+the <em>c</em> element has <em>text</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;2&quot;</span></code> and <em>tail</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+and the <em>d</em> element has <em>text</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and <em>tail</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;3&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To collect the inner text of an element, see <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertext()</span></code></a>, for
+example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;.join(element.itertext())</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Applications may store arbitrary objects in these attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.attrib">
+<code class="descname">attrib</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.attrib" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dictionary containing the element’s attributes.  Note that while the
+<em>attrib</em> value is always a real mutable Python dictionary, an ElementTree
+implementation may choose to use another internal representation, and
+create the dictionary only if someone asks for it.  To take advantage of
+such implementations, use the dictionary methods below whenever possible.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following dictionary-like methods work on the element attributes.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.clear">
+<code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resets an element.  This function removes all subelements, clears all
+attributes, and sets the text and tail attributes to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.get">
+<code class="descname">get</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>default=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.get" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Gets the element attribute named <em>key</em>.</p>
+<p>Returns the attribute value, or <em>default</em> if the attribute was not found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.items">
+<code class="descname">items</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.items" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the element attributes as a sequence of (name, value) pairs.  The
+attributes are returned in an arbitrary order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.keys">
+<code class="descname">keys</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.keys" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the elements attribute names as a list.  The names are returned
+in an arbitrary order.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.set">
+<code class="descname">set</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.set" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the attribute <em>key</em> on the element to <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following methods work on the element’s children (subelements).</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.append">
+<code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>subelement</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds the element <em>subelement</em> to the end of this element’s internal list
+of subelements.  Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if <em>subelement</em> is not an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend">
+<code class="descname">extend</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>subelements</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Appends <em>subelements</em> from a sequence object with zero or more elements.
+Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if a subelement is not an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find">
+<code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finds the first subelement matching <em>match</em>.  <em>match</em> may be a tag name
+or a <a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree-xpath"><span class="std std-ref">path</span></a>.  Returns an element instance
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <em>namespaces</em> is an optional mapping from namespace prefix
+to full name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall">
+<code class="descname">findall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree-xpath"><span class="std std-ref">path</span></a>.  Returns a list containing all matching
+elements in document order.  <em>namespaces</em> is an optional mapping from
+namespace prefix to full name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findtext">
+<code class="descname">findtext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>default=None</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findtext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finds text for the first subelement matching <em>match</em>.  <em>match</em> may be
+a tag name or a <a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree-xpath"><span class="std std-ref">path</span></a>.  Returns the text content
+of the first matching element, or <em>default</em> if no element was found.
+Note that if the matching element has no text content an empty string
+is returned. <em>namespaces</em> is an optional mapping from namespace prefix
+to full name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getchildren">
+<code class="descname">getchildren</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getchildren" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(elem)</span></code> or iteration.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getiterator">
+<code class="descname">getiterator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.getiterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>Use method <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.iter()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.insert">
+<code class="descname">insert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>index</em>, <em>subelement</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.insert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Inserts <em>subelement</em> at the given position in this element.  Raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if <em>subelement</em> is not an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter">
+<code class="descname">iter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a tree <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a> with the current element as the root.
+The iterator iterates over this element and all elements below it, in
+document (depth first) order.  If <em>tag</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>, only
+elements whose tag equals <em>tag</em> are returned from the iterator.  If the
+tree structure is modified during iteration, the result is undefined.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind">
+<code class="descname">iterfind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree-xpath"><span class="std std-ref">path</span></a>.  Returns an iterable yielding all
+matching elements in document order. <em>namespaces</em> is an optional mapping
+from namespace prefix to full name.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext">
+<code class="descname">itertext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a text iterator.  The iterator loops over this element and all
+subelements, in document order, and returns all inner text.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.makeelement">
+<code class="descname">makeelement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag</em>, <em>attrib</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.makeelement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates a new element object of the same type as this element.  Do not
+call this method, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubElement()</span></code></a> factory function instead.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.remove">
+<code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>subelement</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.remove" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Removes <em>subelement</em> from the element.  Unlike the find* methods this
+method compares elements based on the instance identity, not on tag value
+or contents.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> objects also support the following sequence type methods
+for working with subelements: <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__" title="object.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  This behavior
+will change in future versions.  Use specific <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(elem)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem</span> <span class="pre">is</span>
+<span class="pre">None</span></code> test instead.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">element</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">element</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># careful!</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;element not found, or element has no subelements&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;element not found&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="elementtree-objects">
+<span id="elementtree-elementtree-objects"></span><h3>ElementTree Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#elementtree-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">ElementTree</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>element=None</em>, <em>file=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ElementTree wrapper class.  This class represents an entire element
+hierarchy, and adds some extra support for serialization to and from
+standard XML.</p>
+<p><em>element</em> is the root element.  The tree is initialized with the contents
+of the XML <em>file</em> if given.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree._setroot">
+<code class="descname">_setroot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>element</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree._setroot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Replaces the root element for this tree.  This discards the current
+contents of the tree, and replaces it with the given element.  Use with
+care.  <em>element</em> is an element instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.find">
+<code class="descname">find</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.find" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.find()</span></code></a>, starting at the root of the tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findall">
+<code class="descname">findall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.findall()</span></code></a>, starting at the root of the tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findtext">
+<code class="descname">findtext</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>default=None</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.findtext" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findtext" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.findtext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.findtext()</span></code></a>, starting at the root of the tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getiterator">
+<code class="descname">getiterator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getiterator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>Use method <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iter" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree.iter()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getroot">
+<code class="descname">getroot</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getroot" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the root element for this tree.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iter">
+<code class="descname">iter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Creates and returns a tree iterator for the root element.  The iterator
+loops over all elements in this tree, in section order.  <em>tag</em> is the tag
+to look for (default is to return all elements).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iterfind">
+<code class="descname">iterfind</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>match</em>, <em>namespaces=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.iterfind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Same as <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.iterfind()</span></code></a>, starting at the root of the tree.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.parse">
+<code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>parser=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Loads an external XML section into this element tree.  <em>source</em> is a file
+name or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>.  <em>parser</em> is an optional parser instance.
+If not given, the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> parser is used.  Returns the
+section root element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write">
+<code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>encoding=&quot;us-ascii&quot;</em>, <em>xml_declaration=None</em>, <em>default_namespace=None</em>, <em>method=&quot;xml&quot;</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>short_empty_elements=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Writes the element tree to a file, as XML.  <em>file</em> is a file name, or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> opened for writing.  <em>encoding</em> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id3">1</a> is the output
+encoding (default is US-ASCII).
+<em>xml_declaration</em> controls if an XML declaration should be added to the
+file.  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for never, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for always, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).
+<em>default_namespace</em> sets the default XML namespace (for “xmlns”).
+<em>method</em> is either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xml&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;html&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;text&quot;</span></code> (default is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xml&quot;</span></code>).
+The keyword-only <em>short_empty_elements</em> parameter controls the formatting
+of elements that contain no content.  If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default), they are
+emitted as a single self-closed tag, otherwise they are emitted as a pair
+of start/end tags.</p>
+<p>The output is either a string (<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) or binary (<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>).
+This is controlled by the <em>encoding</em> argument.  If <em>encoding</em> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;unicode&quot;</span></code>, the output is a string; otherwise, it’s binary.  Note that
+this may conflict with the type of <em>file</em> if it’s an open
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>; make sure you do not try to write a string to a
+binary stream and vice versa.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>short_empty_elements</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This is the XML file that is going to be manipulated:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">html</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">head</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="n">Example</span> <span class="n">page</span><span class="o">&lt;/</span><span class="n">title</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;/</span><span class="n">head</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">body</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="n">Moved</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">href</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://example.org/&quot;</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">org</span><span class="o">&lt;/</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+        <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">href</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://example.com/&quot;</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">com</span><span class="o">&lt;/</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">&gt;.&lt;/</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;/</span><span class="n">body</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;/</span><span class="n">html</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of changing the attribute “target” of every link in first paragraph:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.etree.ElementTree</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ElementTree</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tree</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ElementTree</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;index.xhtml&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Element &#39;html&#39; at 0xb77e6fac&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;body/p&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># Finds first occurrence of tag p in body</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Element &#39;p&#39; at 0xb77ec26c&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">links</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;a&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>   <span class="c1"># Returns list of all links</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">links</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Element &#39;a&#39; at 0xb77ec2ac&gt;, &lt;Element &#39;a&#39; at 0xb77ec1cc&gt;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">links</span><span class="p">:</span>             <span class="c1"># Iterates through all found links</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attrib</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;target&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;blank&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;output.xhtml&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="qname-objects">
+<span id="elementtree-qname-objects"></span><h3>QName Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#qname-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.QName">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">QName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>text_or_uri</em>, <em>tag=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.QName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>QName wrapper.  This can be used to wrap a QName attribute value, in order
+to get proper namespace handling on output.  <em>text_or_uri</em> is a string
+containing the QName value, in the form {uri}local, or, if the tag argument
+is given, the URI part of a QName.  If <em>tag</em> is given, the first argument is
+interpreted as a URI, and this argument is interpreted as a local name.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.QName" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.QName"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QName</span></code></a> instances are opaque.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="treebuilder-objects">
+<span id="elementtree-treebuilder-objects"></span><h3>TreeBuilder Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#treebuilder-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">TreeBuilder</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>element_factory=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Generic element structure builder.  This builder converts a sequence of
+start, data, and end method calls to a well-formed element structure.  You
+can use this class to build an element structure using a custom XML parser,
+or a parser for some other XML-like format.  <em>element_factory</em>, when given,
+must be a callable accepting two positional arguments: a tag and
+a dict of attributes.  It is expected to return a new element instance.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Flushes the builder buffers, and returns the toplevel document
+element.  Returns an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.data">
+<code class="descname">data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Adds text to the current element.  <em>data</em> is a string.  This should be
+either a bytestring, or a Unicode string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end">
+<code class="descname">end</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Closes the current element.  <em>tag</em> is the element name.  Returns the
+closed element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start">
+<code class="descname">start</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>tag</em>, <em>attrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Opens a new element.  <em>tag</em> is the element name.  <em>attrs</em> is a dictionary
+containing element attributes.  Returns the opened element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition, a custom <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TreeBuilder</span></code></a> object can provide the
+following method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype">
+<code class="descname">doctype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>pubid</em>, <em>system</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handles a doctype declaration.  <em>name</em> is the doctype name.  <em>pubid</em> is
+the public identifier.  <em>system</em> is the system identifier.  This method
+does not exist on the default <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TreeBuilder</span></code></a> class.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xmlparser-objects">
+<span id="elementtree-xmlparser-objects"></span><h3>XMLParser Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#xmlparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">XMLParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>html=0</em>, <em>target=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is the low-level building block of the module.  It uses
+<a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> for efficient, event-based parsing of XML.  It can
+be fed XML data incrementally with the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feed()</span></code></a> method, and parsing
+events are translated to a push API - by invoking callbacks on the <em>target</em>
+object.  If <em>target</em> is omitted, the standard <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TreeBuilder</span></code></a> is used.
+The <em>html</em> argument was historically used for backwards compatibility and is
+now deprecated.  If <em>encoding</em> <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id4">1</a> is given, the value overrides the
+encoding specified in the XML file.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.4: </span>The <em>html</em> argument.  The remaining arguments should be passed via
+keyword to prepare for the removal of the <em>html</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Finishes feeding data to the parser.  Returns the result of calling the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method of the <em>target</em> passed during construction; by default,
+this is the toplevel document element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.doctype">
+<code class="descname">doctype</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>pubid</em>, <em>system</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.doctype" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2: </span>Define the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TreeBuilder.doctype()</span></code></a> method on a custom TreeBuilder
+target.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed">
+<code class="descname">feed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Feeds data to the parser.  <em>data</em> is encoded data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.feed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser.feed()</span></code></a> calls <em>target</em>’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start(tag,</span> <span class="pre">attrs_dict)</span></code> method
+for each opening tag, its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end(tag)</span></code> method for each closing tag, and data
+is processed by method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data(data)</span></code>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser.close()</span></code></a> calls
+<em>target</em>’s method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code>. <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> can be used not only for
+building a tree structure. This is an example of counting the maximum depth
+of an XML file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.etree.ElementTree</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">XMLParser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MaxDepth</span><span class="p">:</span>                     <span class="c1"># The target object of the parser</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">maxDepth</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">depth</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">start</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrib</span><span class="p">):</span>   <span class="c1"># Called for each opening tag.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">depth</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">depth</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxDepth</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxDepth</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">depth</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tag</span><span class="p">):</span>             <span class="c1"># Called for each closing tag.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">depth</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">data</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>            <span class="c1"># We do not need to do anything with data.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">close</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>    <span class="c1"># Called when all data has been parsed.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">maxDepth</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">target</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MaxDepth</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">XMLParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">exampleXml</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&lt;a&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  &lt;b&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  &lt;/b&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  &lt;b&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    &lt;c&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">      &lt;d&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">      &lt;/d&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    &lt;/c&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  &lt;/b&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exampleXml</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xmlpullparser-objects">
+<span id="elementtree-xmlpullparser-objects"></span><h3>XMLPullParser Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#xmlpullparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">XMLPullParser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>events=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A pull parser suitable for non-blocking applications.  Its input-side API is
+similar to that of <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a>, but instead of pushing calls to a
+callback target, <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser</span></code></a> collects an internal list of parsing
+events and lets the user read from it. <em>events</em> is a sequence of events to
+report back.  The supported events are the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;start&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;end&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;start-ns&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;end-ns&quot;</span></code> (the “ns” events are used to get detailed
+namespace information).  If <em>events</em> is omitted, only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;end&quot;</span></code> events are
+reported.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.feed">
+<code class="descname">feed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.feed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Feed the given bytes data to the parser.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.close">
+<code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signal the parser that the data stream is terminated. Unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser.close()</span></code></a>, this method always returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.
+Any events not yet retrieved when the parser is closed can still be
+read with <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_events()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events">
+<code class="descname">read_events</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an iterator over the events which have been encountered in the
+data fed to the
+parser.  The iterator yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(event,</span> <span class="pre">elem)</span></code> pairs, where <em>event</em> is a
+string representing the type of event (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;end&quot;</span></code>) and <em>elem</em> is the
+encountered <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<p>Events provided in a previous call to <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_events()</span></code></a> will not be
+yielded again.  Events are consumed from the internal queue only when
+they are retrieved from the iterator, so multiple readers iterating in
+parallel over iterators obtained from <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.read_events"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_events()</span></code></a> will have
+unpredictable results.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser</span></code></a> only guarantees that it has seen the “&gt;”
+character of a starting tag when it emits a “start” event, so the
+attributes are defined, but the contents of the text and tail attributes
+are undefined at that point.  The same applies to the element children;
+they may or may not be present.</p>
+<p>If you need a fully populated element, look for “end” events instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<h3>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.etree.ElementTree.</code><code class="descname">ParseError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>XML parse error, raised by the various parsing methods in this module when
+parsing fails.  The string representation of an instance of this exception
+will contain a user-friendly error message.  In addition, it will have
+the following attributes available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.code">
+<code class="descname">code</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A numeric error code from the expat parser. See the documentation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> for the list of error codes and their meanings.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.position">
+<code class="descname">position</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError.position" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A tuple of <em>line</em>, <em>column</em> numbers, specifying where the error occurred.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id5"><span class="brackets">1</span><span class="fn-backref">(<a href="#id1">1</a>,<a href="#id2">2</a>,<a href="#id3">3</a>,<a href="#id4">4</a>)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
+appropriate standards.  For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
+not.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl">https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl</a>
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml">https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code> — The ElementTree XML API</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tutorial">Tutorial</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-tree-and-elements">XML tree and elements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parsing-xml">Parsing XML</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing">Pull API for non-blocking parsing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finding-interesting-elements">Finding interesting elements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modifying-an-xml-file">Modifying an XML File</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#building-xml-documents">Building XML documents</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parsing-xml-with-namespaces">Parsing XML with Namespaces</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-resources">Additional resources</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xpath-support">XPath support</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supported-xpath-syntax">Supported XPath syntax</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference">Reference</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#element-objects">Element Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree-objects">ElementTree Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#qname-objects">QName Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#treebuilder-objects">TreeBuilder Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlparser-objects">XMLParser Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlpullparser-objects">XMLPullParser Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">XML Processing Modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.dom.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code> — The Document Object Model API</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..537e9db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.html
@@ -0,0 +1,340 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>XML Processing Modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="xml.etree.elementtree.html" title="xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="markup.html" accesskey="U">Structured Markup Processing Tools</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xml">
+<span id="xml-processing-modules"></span><span id="xml"></span><h1>XML Processing Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/">Lib/xml/</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>Python’s interfaces for processing XML are grouped in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code> package.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The XML modules are not secure against erroneous or maliciously
+constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
+unauthenticated data see the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#defused-packages"><span class="std std-ref">The defusedxml and defusedexpat Packages</span></a> sections.</p>
+</div>
+<p>It is important to note that modules in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml" title="xml: Package containing XML processing modules"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code></a> package require that
+there be at least one SAX-compliant XML parser available. The Expat parser is
+included with Python, so the <a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a> module will always be
+available.</p>
+<p>The documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> packages are the
+definition of the Python bindings for the DOM and SAX interfaces.</p>
+<p>The XML handling submodules are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a>: the ElementTree API, a simple and lightweight
+XML processor</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a>: the DOM API definition</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>: a minimal DOM implementation</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.pulldom.html#module-xml.dom.pulldom" title="xml.dom.pulldom: Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code></a>: support for building partial DOM trees</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a>: SAX2 base classes and convenience functions</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat" title="xml.parsers.expat: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat</span></code></a>: the Expat parser binding</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="xml-vulnerabilities">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>XML vulnerabilities<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-vulnerabilities" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The XML processing modules are not secure against maliciously constructed data.
+An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out denial of service attacks,
+access local files, generate network connections to other machines, or
+circumvent firewalls.</p>
+<p>The following table gives an overview of the known attacks and whether
+the various modules are vulnerable to them.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 26%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+<col style="width: 15%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>kind</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>sax</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>etree</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>minidom</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>pulldom</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>xmlrpc</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>billion laughs</p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>quadratic blowup</p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>external entity expansion</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe (4)</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe    (1)</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe    (2)</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe (4)</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe    (3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition">DTD</a> retrieval</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe (4)</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe (4)</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>decompression bomb</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe</p></td>
+<td><p>Safe</p></td>
+<td><p><strong>Vulnerable</strong></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> doesn’t expand external entities and raises a
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParserError</span></code> when an entity occurs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> doesn’t expand external entities and simply returns
+the unexpanded entity verbatim.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> doesn’t expand external entities and omits them.</p></li>
+<li><p>Since Python 3.7.1, external general entities are no longer processed by
+default.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>billion laughs / exponential entity expansion</dt><dd><p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs">Billion Laughs</a> attack – also known as exponential entity expansion –
+uses multiple levels of nested entities. Each entity refers to another entity
+several times, and the final entity definition contains a small string.
+The exponential expansion results in several gigabytes of text and
+consumes lots of memory and CPU time.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>quadratic blowup entity expansion</dt><dd><p>A quadratic blowup attack is similar to a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs">Billion Laughs</a> attack; it abuses
+entity expansion, too. Instead of nested entities it repeats one large entity
+with a couple of thousand chars over and over again. The attack isn’t as
+efficient as the exponential case but it avoids triggering parser countermeasures
+that forbid deeply-nested entities.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>external entity expansion</dt><dd><p>Entity declarations can contain more than just text for replacement. They can
+also point to external resources or local files. The XML
+parser accesses the resource and embeds the content into the XML document.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition">DTD</a> retrieval</dt><dd><p>Some XML libraries like Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="xml.dom.pulldom.html#module-xml.dom.pulldom" title="xml.dom.pulldom: Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code></a> retrieve document type
+definitions from remote or local locations. The feature has similar
+implications as the external entity expansion issue.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>decompression bomb</dt><dd><p>Decompression bombs (aka <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb">ZIP bomb</a>) apply to all XML libraries
+that can parse compressed XML streams such as gzipped HTTP streams or
+LZMA-compressed
+files. For an attacker it can reduce the amount of transmitted data by three
+magnitudes or more.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The documentation for <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/">defusedxml</a> on PyPI has further information about
+all known attack vectors with examples and references.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-defusedxml-and-defusedexpat-packages">
+<span id="defused-packages"></span><h2>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedxml</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedexpat</span></code> Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#the-defusedxml-and-defusedexpat-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/">defusedxml</a> is a pure Python package with modified subclasses of all stdlib
+XML parsers that prevent any potentially malicious operation. Use of this
+package is recommended for any server code that parses untrusted XML data. The
+package also ships with example exploits and extended documentation on more
+XML exploits such as XPath injection.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/defusedexpat/">defusedexpat</a> provides a modified libexpat and a patched
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module that have countermeasures against entity expansion
+DoS attacks. The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedexpat</span></code> module still allows a sane and configurable amount of entity
+expansions. The modifications may be included in some future release of Python,
+but will not be included in any bugfix releases of
+Python because they break backward compatibility.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">XML Processing Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-vulnerabilities">XML vulnerabilities</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-defusedxml-and-defusedexpat-packages">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedxml</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defusedexpat</span></code> Packages</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="html.entities.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code> — Definitions of HTML general entities</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xml.etree.elementtree.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code> — The ElementTree XML API</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.sax.handler">
+<span id="xml-sax-handler-base-classes-for-sax-handlers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax.handler" title="xml.sax.handler: Base classes for SAX event handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code></a> — Base classes for SAX handlers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.sax.handler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py">Lib/xml/sax/handler.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The SAX API defines four kinds of handlers: content handlers, DTD handlers,
+error handlers, and entity resolvers. Applications normally only need to
+implement those interfaces whose events they are interested in; they can
+implement the interfaces in a single object or in multiple objects. Handler
+implementations should inherit from the base classes provided in the module
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax.handler" title="xml.sax.handler: Base classes for SAX event handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code></a>, so that all methods get default implementations.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">ContentHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is the main callback interface in SAX, and the one most important to
+applications. The order of events in this interface mirrors the order of the
+information in the document.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">DTDHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle DTD events.</p>
+<p>This interface specifies only those DTD events required for basic parsing
+(unparsed entities and attributes).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">EntityResolver</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Basic interface for resolving entities. If you create an object implementing
+this interface, then register the object with your Parser, the parser will call
+the method in your object to resolve all external entities.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">ErrorHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interface used by the parser to present error and warning messages to the
+application.  The methods of this object control whether errors are immediately
+converted to exceptions or are handled in some other way.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In addition to these classes, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax.handler" title="xml.sax.handler: Base classes for SAX event handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code></a> provides symbolic constants
+for the feature and property names.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">feature_namespaces</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">true: Perform Namespace processing.</div>
+<div class="line">false: Optionally do not perform Namespace processing (implies
+namespace-prefixes; default).</div>
+<div class="line">access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">feature_namespace_prefixes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">true: Report the original prefixed names and attributes used for Namespace
+declarations.</div>
+<div class="line">false: Do not report attributes used for Namespace declarations, and
+optionally do not report original prefixed names (default).</div>
+<div class="line">access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">feature_string_interning</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">true: All element names, prefixes, attribute names, Namespace URIs, and
+local names are interned using the built-in intern function.</div>
+<div class="line">false: Names are not necessarily interned, although they may be (default).</div>
+<div class="line">access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.feature_validation">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">feature_validation</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.feature_validation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/features/validation&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">true: Report all validation errors (implies external-general-entities and
+external-parameter-entities).</div>
+<div class="line">false: Do not report validation errors.</div>
+<div class="line">access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">feature_external_ges</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">true: Include all external general (text) entities.</div>
+<div class="line">false: Do not include external general entities.</div>
+<div class="line">access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">feature_external_pes</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">true: Include all external parameter entities, including the external DTD
+subset.</div>
+<div class="line">false: Do not include any external parameter entities, even the external
+DTD subset.</div>
+<div class="line">access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.all_features">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">all_features</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.all_features" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List of all features.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">property_lexical_handler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.LexicalHandler (not supported in Python 2)</div>
+<div class="line">description: An optional extension handler for lexical events like
+comments.</div>
+<div class="line">access: read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">property_declaration_handler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (not supported in Python 2)</div>
+<div class="line">description: An optional extension handler for DTD-related events other
+than notations and unparsed entities.</div>
+<div class="line">access: read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">property_dom_node</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">data type: org.w3c.dom.Node (not supported in Python 2)</div>
+<div class="line">description: When parsing, the current DOM node being visited if this is
+a DOM iterator; when not parsing, the root DOM node for iteration.</div>
+<div class="line">access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">property_xml_string</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="line-block">
+<div class="line">value: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string&quot;</span></code></div>
+<div class="line">data type: String</div>
+<div class="line">description: The literal string of characters that was the source for the
+current event.</div>
+<div class="line">access: read-only</div>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.all_properties">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.handler.</code><code class="descname">all_properties</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.all_properties" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List of all known property names.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="contenthandler-objects">
+<span id="content-handler-objects"></span><h2>ContentHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#contenthandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Users are expected to subclass <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContentHandler</span></code></a> to support their
+application.  The following methods are called by the parser on the appropriate
+events in the input document:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">setDocumentLocator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>locator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called by the parser to give the application a locator for locating the origin
+of document events.</p>
+<p>SAX parsers are strongly encouraged (though not absolutely required) to supply a
+locator: if it does so, it must supply the locator to the application by
+invoking this method before invoking any of the other methods in the
+DocumentHandler interface.</p>
+<p>The locator allows the application to determine the end position of any
+document-related event, even if the parser is not reporting an error. Typically,
+the application will use this information for reporting its own errors (such as
+character content that does not match an application’s business rules). The
+information returned by the locator is probably not sufficient for use with a
+search engine.</p>
+<p>Note that the locator will return correct information only during the invocation
+of the events in this interface. The application should not attempt to use it at
+any other time.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startDocument">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">startDocument</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startDocument" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive notification of the beginning of a document.</p>
+<p>The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, before any other methods in
+this interface or in DTDHandler (except for <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setDocumentLocator()</span></code></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endDocument">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">endDocument</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endDocument" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive notification of the end of a document.</p>
+<p>The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, and it will be the last method
+invoked during the parse. The parser shall not invoke this method until it has
+either abandoned parsing (because of an unrecoverable error) or reached the end
+of input.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">startPrefixMapping</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em>, <em>uri</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Begin the scope of a prefix-URI Namespace mapping.</p>
+<p>The information from this event is not necessary for normal Namespace
+processing: the SAX XML reader will automatically replace prefixes for element
+and attribute names when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature_namespaces</span></code> feature is enabled (the
+default).</p>
+<p>There are cases, however, when applications need to use prefixes in character
+data or in attribute values, where they cannot safely be expanded automatically;
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> events supply the
+information to the application to expand prefixes in those contexts itself, if
+necessary.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> events are not
+guaranteed to be properly nested relative to each-other: all
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> events will occur before the corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startElement()</span></code></a> event, and all <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> events will occur
+after the corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endElement()</span></code></a> event, but their order is not
+guaranteed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">endPrefixMapping</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>prefix</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>End the scope of a prefix-URI mapping.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> for details. This event will always occur after
+the corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endElement()</span></code></a> event, but the order of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endPrefixMapping()</span></code></a> events is not otherwise guaranteed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">startElement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>attrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signals the start of an element in non-namespace mode.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name of the element type as a
+string and the <em>attrs</em> parameter holds an object of the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code>
+interface (see <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#attributes-objects"><span class="std std-ref">The Attributes Interface</span></a>) containing the attributes of
+the element.  The object passed as <em>attrs</em> may be re-used by the parser; holding
+on to a reference to it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.
+To keep a copy of the attributes, use the <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> method of the <em>attrs</em>
+object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">endElement</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElement" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signals the end of an element in non-namespace mode.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> parameter contains the name of the element type, just as with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElement"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startElement()</span></code></a> event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElementNS">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">startElementNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>qname</em>, <em>attrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElementNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signals the start of an element in namespace mode.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> parameter contains the name of the element type as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(uri,</span>
+<span class="pre">localname)</span></code> tuple, the <em>qname</em> parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name used in
+the source document, and the <em>attrs</em> parameter holds an instance of the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code> interface (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#attributes-ns-objects"><span class="std std-ref">The AttributesNS Interface</span></a>)
+containing the attributes of the element.  If no namespace is associated with
+the element, the <em>uri</em> component of <em>name</em> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  The object passed
+as <em>attrs</em> may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is not
+a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.  To keep a copy of the
+attributes, use the <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> method of the <em>attrs</em> object.</p>
+<p>Parsers may set the <em>qname</em> parameter to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, unless the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature_namespace_prefixes</span></code> feature is activated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElementNS">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">endElementNS</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>qname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.endElementNS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Signals the end of an element in namespace mode.</p>
+<p>The <em>name</em> parameter contains the name of the element type, just as with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElementNS" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.startElementNS"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startElementNS()</span></code></a> method, likewise the <em>qname</em> parameter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.characters">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">characters</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>content</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.characters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive notification of character data.</p>
+<p>The Parser will call this method to report each chunk of character data. SAX
+parsers may return all contiguous character data in a single chunk, or they may
+split it into several chunks; however, all of the characters in any single event
+must come from the same external entity so that the Locator provides useful
+information.</p>
+<p><em>content</em> may be a string or bytes instance; the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expat</span></code> reader module
+always produces strings.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The earlier SAX 1 interface provided by the Python XML Special Interest Group
+used a more Java-like interface for this method.  Since most parsers used from
+Python did not take advantage of the older interface, the simpler signature was
+chosen to replace it.  To convert old code to the new interface, use <em>content</em>
+instead of slicing content with the old <em>offset</em> and <em>length</em> parameters.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">ignorableWhitespace</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>whitespace</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive notification of ignorable whitespace in element content.</p>
+<p>Validating Parsers must use this method to report each chunk of ignorable
+whitespace (see the W3C XML 1.0 recommendation, section 2.10): non-validating
+parsers may also use this method if they are capable of parsing and using
+content models.</p>
+<p>SAX parsers may return all contiguous whitespace in a single chunk, or they may
+split it into several chunks; however, all of the characters in any single event
+must come from the same external entity, so that the Locator provides useful
+information.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.processingInstruction">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">processingInstruction</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>target</em>, <em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.processingInstruction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive notification of a processing instruction.</p>
+<p>The Parser will invoke this method once for each processing instruction found:
+note that processing instructions may occur before or after the main document
+element.</p>
+<p>A SAX parser should never report an XML declaration (XML 1.0, section 2.8) or a
+text declaration (XML 1.0, section 4.3.1) using this method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.skippedEntity">
+<code class="descclassname">ContentHandler.</code><code class="descname">skippedEntity</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.skippedEntity" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Receive notification of a skipped entity.</p>
+<p>The Parser will invoke this method once for each entity skipped. Non-validating
+processors may skip entities if they have not seen the declarations (because,
+for example, the entity was declared in an external DTD subset). All processors
+may skip external entities, depending on the values of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature_external_ges</span></code> and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature_external_pes</span></code> properties.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dtdhandler-objects">
+<span id="dtd-handler-objects"></span><h2>DTDHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#dtdhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DTDHandler</span></code></a> instances provide the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.notationDecl">
+<code class="descclassname">DTDHandler.</code><code class="descname">notationDecl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>publicId</em>, <em>systemId</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.notationDecl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle a notation declaration event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl">
+<code class="descclassname">DTDHandler.</code><code class="descname">unparsedEntityDecl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>publicId</em>, <em>systemId</em>, <em>ndata</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle an unparsed entity declaration event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="entityresolver-objects">
+<span id="entity-resolver-objects"></span><h2>EntityResolver Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#entityresolver-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver.resolveEntity">
+<code class="descclassname">EntityResolver.</code><code class="descname">resolveEntity</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>publicId</em>, <em>systemId</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver.resolveEntity" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resolve the system identifier of an entity and return either the system
+identifier to read from as a string, or an InputSource to read from. The default
+implementation returns <em>systemId</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="errorhandler-objects">
+<span id="sax-error-handler"></span><h2>ErrorHandler Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#errorhandler-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Objects with this interface are used to receive error and warning information
+from the <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a>.  If you create an object that
+implements this interface, then register the object with your
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a>, the parser
+will call the methods in your object to report all warnings and errors. There
+are three levels of errors available: warnings, (possibly) recoverable errors,
+and unrecoverable errors.  All methods take a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXParseException</span></code> as the
+only parameter.  Errors and warnings may be converted to an exception by raising
+the passed-in exception object.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.error">
+<code class="descclassname">ErrorHandler.</code><code class="descname">error</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the parser encounters a recoverable error.  If this method does not
+raise an exception, parsing may continue, but further document information
+should not be expected by the application.  Allowing the parser to continue may
+allow additional errors to be discovered in the input document.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.fatalError">
+<code class="descclassname">ErrorHandler.</code><code class="descname">fatalError</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.fatalError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the parser encounters an error it cannot recover from; parsing is
+expected to terminate when this method returns.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.warning">
+<code class="descclassname">ErrorHandler.</code><code class="descname">warning</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>exception</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler.warning" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the parser presents minor warning information to the application.
+Parsing is expected to continue when this method returns, and document
+information will continue to be passed to the application. Raising an exception
+in this method will cause parsing to end.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code> — Base classes for SAX handlers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contenthandler-objects">ContentHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dtdhandler-objects">DTDHandler Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#entityresolver-objects">EntityResolver Objects</a></li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.sax">
+<span id="xml-sax-support-for-sax2-parsers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> — Support for SAX2 parsers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.sax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py">Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> package provides a number of modules which implement the
+Simple API for XML (SAX) interface for Python.  The package itself provides the
+SAX exceptions and the convenience functions which will be most used by users of
+the SAX API.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> module is not secure against maliciously
+constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7.1: </span>The SAX parser no longer processes general external entities by default
+to increase security. Before, the parser created network connections
+to fetch remote files or loaded local files from the file
+system for DTD and entities. The feature can be enabled again with method
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setFeature()</span></code></a> on the parser object
+and argument <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges" title="xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature_external_ges</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The convenience functions are:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.sax.make_parser">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.</code><code class="descname">make_parser</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>parser_list=[]</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.make_parser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create and return a SAX <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> object.  The
+first parser found will
+be used.  If <em>parser_list</em> is provided, it must be a list of strings which
+name modules that have a function named <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_parser()</span></code>.  Modules listed
+in <em>parser_list</em> will be used before modules in the default list of parsers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.sax.parse">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.</code><code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename_or_stream</em>, <em>handler</em>, <em>error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a SAX parser and use it to parse a document.  The document, passed in as
+<em>filename_or_stream</em>, can be a filename or a file object.  The <em>handler</em>
+parameter needs to be a SAX <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContentHandler</span></code></a> instance.  If
+<em>error_handler</em> is given, it must be a SAX <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ErrorHandler</span></code></a>
+instance; if
+omitted,  <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.SAXParseException" title="xml.sax.SAXParseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXParseException</span></code></a> will be raised on all errors.  There is no
+return value; all work must be done by the <em>handler</em> passed in.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.sax.parseString">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.</code><code class="descname">parseString</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em>, <em>handler</em>, <em>error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler()</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.parseString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.parse" title="xml.sax.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a>, but parses from a buffer <em>string</em> received as a
+parameter.  <em>string</em> must be a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instance or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support of <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instances.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A typical SAX application uses three kinds of objects: readers, handlers and
+input sources.  “Reader” in this context is another term for parser, i.e. some
+piece of code that reads the bytes or characters from the input source, and
+produces a sequence of events. The events then get distributed to the handler
+objects, i.e. the reader invokes a method on the handler.  A SAX application
+must therefore obtain a reader object, create or open the input sources, create
+the handlers, and connect these objects all together.  As the final step of
+preparation, the reader is called to parse the input. During parsing, methods on
+the handler objects are called based on structural and syntactic events from the
+input data.</p>
+<p>For these objects, only the interfaces are relevant; they are normally not
+instantiated by the application itself.  Since Python does not have an explicit
+notion of interface, they are formally introduced as classes, but applications
+may use implementations which do not inherit from the provided classes.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Locator</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> interfaces are defined in the
+module <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#module-xml.sax.xmlreader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader: Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must implement."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code></a>.  The handler interfaces are defined in
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#module-xml.sax.handler" title="xml.sax.handler: Base classes for SAX event handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code></a>.  For convenience,
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> (which is often
+instantiated directly) and the handler classes are also available from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a>.  These interfaces are described below.</p>
+<p>In addition to these classes, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> provides the following exception
+classes.</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.sax.SAXException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.</code><code class="descname">SAXException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>exception=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.SAXException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encapsulate an XML error or warning.  This class can contain basic error or
+warning information from either the XML parser or the application: it can be
+subclassed to provide additional functionality or to add localization.  Note
+that although the handlers defined in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ErrorHandler</span></code></a> interface
+receive instances of this exception, it is not required to actually raise the
+exception — it is also useful as a container for information.</p>
+<p>When instantiated, <em>msg</em> should be a human-readable description of the error.
+The optional <em>exception</em> parameter, if given, should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or an exception
+that was caught by the parsing code and is being passed along as information.</p>
+<p>This is the base class for the other SAX exception classes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.sax.SAXParseException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.</code><code class="descname">SAXParseException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>exception</em>, <em>locator</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.SAXParseException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.SAXException" title="xml.sax.SAXException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXException</span></code></a> raised on parse errors. Instances of this
+class are passed to the methods of the SAX
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ErrorHandler</span></code></a> interface to provide information
+about the parse error.  This class supports the SAX
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Locator</span></code></a> interface as well as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.SAXException" title="xml.sax.SAXException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXException</span></code></a> interface.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.</code><code class="descname">SAXNotRecognizedException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>exception=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.SAXException" title="xml.sax.SAXException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXException</span></code></a> raised when a SAX
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> is
+confronted with an unrecognized feature or property.  SAX applications and
+extensions may use this class for similar purposes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.</code><code class="descname">SAXNotSupportedException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>msg</em>, <em>exception=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.SAXException" title="xml.sax.SAXException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXException</span></code></a> raised when a SAX
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> is asked to
+enable a feature that is not supported, or to set a property to a value that the
+implementation does not support.  SAX applications and extensions may use this
+class for similar purposes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.saxproject.org/">SAX: The Simple API for XML</a></dt><dd><p>This site is the focal point for the definition of the SAX API.  It provides a
+Java implementation and online documentation.  Links to implementations and
+historical information are also available.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#module-xml.sax.handler" title="xml.sax.handler: Base classes for SAX event handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Definitions of the interfaces for application-provided objects.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.utils.html#module-xml.sax.saxutils" title="xml.sax.saxutils: Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.saxutils</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Convenience functions for use in SAX applications.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#module-xml.sax.xmlreader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader: Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must implement."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Definitions of the interfaces for parser-provided objects.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="saxexception-objects">
+<span id="sax-exception-objects"></span><h2>SAXException Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#saxexception-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.SAXException" title="xml.sax.SAXException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXException</span></code></a> exception class supports the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.SAXException.getMessage">
+<code class="descclassname">SAXException.</code><code class="descname">getMessage</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.SAXException.getMessage" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a human-readable message describing the error condition.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.SAXException.getException">
+<code class="descclassname">SAXException.</code><code class="descname">getException</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.SAXException.getException" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an encapsulated exception object, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
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+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#saxexception-objects">SAXException Objects</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.sax.xmlreader">
+<span id="xml-sax-xmlreader-interface-for-xml-parsers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax.xmlreader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader: Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must implement."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code></a> — Interface for XML parsers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.sax.xmlreader" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py">Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>SAX parsers implement the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> interface. They are implemented in
+a Python module, which must provide a function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_parser()</span></code>. This
+function is invoked by  <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.html#xml.sax.make_parser" title="xml.sax.make_parser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.make_parser()</span></code></a> with no arguments to create
+a new  parser object.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.xmlreader.</code><code class="descname">XMLReader</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Base class which can be inherited by SAX parsers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.xmlreader.</code><code class="descname">IncrementalParser</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>In some cases, it is desirable not to parse an input source at once, but to feed
+chunks of the document as they get available. Note that the reader will normally
+not read the entire file, but read it in chunks as well; still <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code>
+won’t return until the entire document is processed. So these interfaces should
+be used if the blocking behaviour of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code> is not desirable.</p>
+<p>When the parser is instantiated it is ready to begin accepting data from the
+feed method immediately. After parsing has been finished with a call to close
+the reset method must be called to make the parser ready to accept new data,
+either from feed or using the parse method.</p>
+<p>Note that these methods must <em>not</em> be called during parsing, that is, after
+parse has been called and before it returns.</p>
+<p>By default, the class also implements the parse method of the XMLReader
+interface using the feed, close and reset methods of the IncrementalParser
+interface as a convenience to SAX 2.0 driver writers.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.xmlreader.</code><code class="descname">Locator</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Interface for associating a SAX event with a document location. A locator object
+will return valid results only during calls to DocumentHandler methods; at any
+other time, the results are unpredictable. If information is not available,
+methods may return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.xmlreader.</code><code class="descname">InputSource</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>system_id=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Encapsulation of the information needed by the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> to read
+entities.</p>
+<p>This class may include information about the public identifier, system
+identifier, byte stream (possibly with character encoding information) and/or
+the character stream of an entity.</p>
+<p>Applications will create objects of this class for use in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader.parse()</span></code></a> method and for returning from
+EntityResolver.resolveEntity.</p>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> belongs to the application, the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> is
+not allowed to modify <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> objects passed to it from the
+application, although it may make copies and modify those.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.xmlreader.</code><code class="descname">AttributesImpl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrs</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is an implementation of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code> interface (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#attributes-objects"><span class="std std-ref">The Attributes Interface</span></a>).  This is a dictionary-like object which
+represents the element attributes in a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startElement()</span></code> call. In addition
+to the most useful dictionary operations, it supports a number of other
+methods as described by the interface. Objects of this class should be
+instantiated by readers; <em>attrs</em> must be a dictionary-like object containing
+a mapping from attribute names to attribute values.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.xmlreader.</code><code class="descname">AttributesNSImpl</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>attrs</em>, <em>qnames</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Namespace-aware variant of <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesImpl</span></code></a>, which will be passed to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startElementNS()</span></code>. It is derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesImpl</span></code></a>, but
+understands attribute names as two-tuples of <em>namespaceURI</em> and
+<em>localname</em>. In addition, it provides a number of methods expecting qualified
+names as they appear in the original document.  This class implements the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code> interface (see section <a class="reference internal" href="#attributes-ns-objects"><span class="std std-ref">The AttributesNS Interface</span></a>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="xmlreader-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>XMLReader Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#xmlreader-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> interface supports the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">parse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process an input source, producing SAX events. The <em>source</em> object can be a
+system identifier (a string identifying the input source – typically a file
+name or a URL), a file-like object, or an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> object. When
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code></a> returns, the input is completely processed, and the parser object
+can be discarded or reset.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support of character streams.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getContentHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">getContentHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getContentHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContentHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setContentHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">setContentHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setContentHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContentHandler</span></code></a>.  If no
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContentHandler</span></code></a> is set, content events will be
+discarded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getDTDHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">getDTDHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getDTDHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DTDHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setDTDHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">setDTDHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setDTDHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DTDHandler</span></code></a>.  If no
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DTDHandler</span></code></a> is set, DTD
+events will be discarded.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getEntityResolver">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">getEntityResolver</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getEntityResolver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver" title="xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EntityResolver</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setEntityResolver">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">setEntityResolver</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setEntityResolver" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver" title="xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EntityResolver</span></code></a>.  If no
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver" title="xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EntityResolver</span></code></a> is set,
+attempts to resolve an external entity will result in opening the system
+identifier for the entity, and fail if it is not available.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getErrorHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">getErrorHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getErrorHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ErrorHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setErrorHandler">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">setErrorHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>handler</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setErrorHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the current error handler.  If no <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ErrorHandler</span></code></a>
+is set, errors will be raised as exceptions, and warnings will be printed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setLocale">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">setLocale</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>locale</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setLocale" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Allow an application to set the locale for errors and warnings.</p>
+<p>SAX parsers are not required to provide localization for errors and warnings; if
+they cannot support the requested locale, however, they must raise a SAX
+exception.  Applications may request a locale change in the middle of a parse.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getFeature">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">getFeature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>featurename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getFeature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current setting for feature <em>featurename</em>.  If the feature is not
+recognized, <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXNotRecognizedException</span></code> is raised. The well-known
+featurenames are listed in the module <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#module-xml.sax.handler" title="xml.sax.handler: Base classes for SAX event handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">setFeature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>featurename</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <em>featurename</em> to <em>value</em>. If the feature is not recognized,
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXNotRecognizedException</span></code> is raised. If the feature or its setting is not
+supported by the parser, <em>SAXNotSupportedException</em> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getProperty">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">getProperty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>propertyname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.getProperty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the current setting for property <em>propertyname</em>. If the property is not
+recognized, a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXNotRecognizedException</span></code> is raised. The well-known
+propertynames are listed in the module <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#module-xml.sax.handler" title="xml.sax.handler: Base classes for SAX event handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setProperty">
+<code class="descclassname">XMLReader.</code><code class="descname">setProperty</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>propertyname</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setProperty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the <em>propertyname</em> to <em>value</em>. If the property is not recognized,
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SAXNotRecognizedException</span></code> is raised. If the property or its setting is
+not supported by the parser, <em>SAXNotSupportedException</em> is raised.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="incrementalparser-objects">
+<span id="incremental-parser-objects"></span><h2>IncrementalParser Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#incrementalparser-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IncrementalParser</span></code></a> offer the following additional methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.feed">
+<code class="descclassname">IncrementalParser.</code><code class="descname">feed</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.feed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Process a chunk of <em>data</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.close">
+<code class="descclassname">IncrementalParser.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Assume the end of the document. That will check well-formedness conditions that
+can be checked only at the end, invoke handlers, and may clean up resources
+allocated during parsing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.reset">
+<code class="descclassname">IncrementalParser.</code><code class="descname">reset</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser.reset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called after close has been called to reset the parser so that it
+is ready to parse new documents. The results of calling parse or feed after
+close without calling reset are undefined.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="locator-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>Locator Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#locator-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Locator</span></code></a> provide these methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getColumnNumber">
+<code class="descclassname">Locator.</code><code class="descname">getColumnNumber</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getColumnNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the column number where the current event begins.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getLineNumber">
+<code class="descclassname">Locator.</code><code class="descname">getLineNumber</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getLineNumber" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the line number where the current event begins.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getPublicId">
+<code class="descclassname">Locator.</code><code class="descname">getPublicId</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getPublicId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the public identifier for the current event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getSystemId">
+<code class="descclassname">Locator.</code><code class="descname">getSystemId</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator.getSystemId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the system identifier for the current event.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inputsource-objects">
+<span id="input-source-objects"></span><h2>InputSource Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#inputsource-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setPublicId">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">setPublicId</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setPublicId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the public identifier of this <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getPublicId">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">getPublicId</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getPublicId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the public identifier of this <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setSystemId">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">setSystemId</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>id</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setSystemId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the system identifier of this <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getSystemId">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">getSystemId</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getSystemId" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the system identifier of this <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setEncoding">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">setEncoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>encoding</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Sets the character encoding of this <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The encoding must be a string acceptable for an XML encoding declaration (see
+section 4.3.3 of the XML recommendation).</p>
+<p>The encoding attribute of the <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> is ignored if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> also contains a character stream.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getEncoding">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">getEncoding</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getEncoding" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the character encoding of this InputSource.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setByteStream">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">setByteStream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytefile</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setByteStream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the byte stream (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-binary-file"><span class="xref std std-term">binary file</span></a>) for this input source.</p>
+<p>The SAX parser will ignore this if there is also a character stream specified,
+but it will use a byte stream in preference to opening a URI connection itself.</p>
+<p>If the application knows the character encoding of the byte stream, it should
+set it with the setEncoding method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getByteStream">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">getByteStream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getByteStream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the byte stream for this input source.</p>
+<p>The getEncoding method will return the character encoding for this byte stream,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if unknown.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setCharacterStream">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">setCharacterStream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>charfile</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.setCharacterStream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the character stream (a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text file</span></a>) for this input source.</p>
+<p>If there is a character stream specified, the SAX parser will ignore any byte
+stream and will not attempt to open a URI connection to the system identifier.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getCharacterStream">
+<code class="descclassname">InputSource.</code><code class="descname">getCharacterStream</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource.getCharacterStream" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Get the character stream for this input source.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-attributes-interface">
+<span id="attributes-objects"></span><h2>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code> Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#the-attributes-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code> objects implement a portion of the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping protocol</span></a>, including the methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code>.  The following methods
+are also provided:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getLength">
+<code class="descclassname">Attributes.</code><code class="descname">getLength</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getLength" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getNames">
+<code class="descclassname">Attributes.</code><code class="descname">getNames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getNames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the names of the attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getType">
+<code class="descclassname">Attributes.</code><code class="descname">getType</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns the type of the attribute <em>name</em>, which is normally <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'CDATA'</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getValue">
+<code class="descclassname">Attributes.</code><code class="descname">getValue</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes.getValue" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value of attribute <em>name</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-attributesns-interface">
+<span id="attributes-ns-objects"></span><h2>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code> Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#the-attributesns-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This interface is a subtype of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code> interface (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#attributes-objects"><span class="std std-ref">The Attributes Interface</span></a>).  All methods supported by that interface are also
+available on <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code> objects.</p>
+<p>The following methods are also available:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getValueByQName">
+<code class="descclassname">AttributesNS.</code><code class="descname">getValueByQName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getValueByQName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value for a qualified name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getNameByQName">
+<code class="descclassname">AttributesNS.</code><code class="descname">getNameByQName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getNameByQName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(namespace,</span> <span class="pre">localname)</span></code> pair for a qualified <em>name</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNameByName">
+<code class="descclassname">AttributesNS.</code><code class="descname">getQNameByName</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNameByName" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the qualified name for a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(namespace,</span> <span class="pre">localname)</span></code> pair.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNames">
+<code class="descclassname">AttributesNS.</code><code class="descname">getQNames</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS.getQNames" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the qualified names of all attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code> — Interface for XML parsers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlreader-objects">XMLReader Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#incrementalparser-objects">IncrementalParser Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#locator-objects">Locator Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inputsource-objects">InputSource Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-attributes-interface">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Attributes</span></code> Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-attributesns-interface">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributesNS</span></code> Interface</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbbe84e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xml.sax.utils.html
@@ -0,0 +1,266 @@
+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xml.sax.saxutils">
+<span id="xml-sax-saxutils-sax-utilities"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax.saxutils" title="xml.sax.saxutils: Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.saxutils</span></code></a> — SAX Utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xml.sax.saxutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py">Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xml.sax.saxutils" title="xml.sax.saxutils: Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.saxutils</span></code></a> contains a number of classes and functions
+that are commonly useful when creating SAX applications, either in direct use,
+or as base classes.</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.sax.saxutils.escape">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.saxutils.</code><code class="descname">escape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>entities={}</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.escape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Escape <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code> in a string of data.</p>
+<p>You can escape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional
+<em>entities</em> parameter.  The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be
+replaced with its corresponding value.  The characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&lt;'</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code> are always escaped, even if <em>entities</em> is provided.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.sax.saxutils.unescape">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.saxutils.</code><code class="descname">unescape</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>entities={}</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.unescape" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Unescape <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;amp;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;lt;'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;gt;'</span></code> in a string of data.</p>
+<p>You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional
+<em>entities</em> parameter.  The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be
+replaced with its corresponding value.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;amp'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;lt;'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;gt;'</span></code>
+are always unescaped, even if <em>entities</em> is provided.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.saxutils.</code><code class="descname">quoteattr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>entities={}</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.escape" title="xml.sax.saxutils.escape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escape()</span></code></a>, but also prepares <em>data</em> to be used as an
+attribute value.  The return value is a quoted version of <em>data</em> with any
+additional required replacements. <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr" title="xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quoteattr()</span></code></a> will select a quote
+character based on the content of <em>data</em>, attempting to avoid encoding any
+quote characters in the string.  If both single- and double-quote characters
+are already in <em>data</em>, the double-quote characters will be encoded and <em>data</em>
+will be wrapped in double-quotes.  The resulting string can be used directly
+as an attribute value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;element attr=</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&gt;&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">quoteattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ab &#39; cd </span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s2"> ef&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;element attr=&quot;ab &#39; cd &amp;quot; ef&quot;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function is useful when generating attribute values for HTML or any SGML
+using the reference concrete syntax.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.saxutils.</code><code class="descname">XMLGenerator</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out=None</em>, <em>encoding='iso-8859-1'</em>, <em>short_empty_elements=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class implements the <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.handler.html#xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler" title="xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContentHandler</span></code></a> interface
+by writing SAX
+events back into an XML document. In other words, using an <a class="reference internal" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator" title="xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLGenerator</span></code></a>
+as the content handler will reproduce the original document being parsed. <em>out</em>
+should be a file-like object which will default to <em>sys.stdout</em>. <em>encoding</em> is
+the encoding of the output stream which defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'iso-8859-1'</span></code>.
+<em>short_empty_elements</em> controls the formatting of elements that contain no
+content:  if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default) they are emitted as a pair of start/end
+tags, if set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> they are emitted as a single self-closed tag.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>short_empty_elements</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xml.sax.saxutils.</code><code class="descname">XMLFilterBase</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>base</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class is designed to sit between an
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLReader</span></code></a> and the client
+application’s event handlers.  By default, it does nothing but pass requests up
+to the reader and events on to the handlers unmodified, but subclasses can
+override specific methods to modify the event stream or the configuration
+requests as they pass through.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source">
+<code class="descclassname">xml.sax.saxutils.</code><code class="descname">prepare_input_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>base=''</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and returns a
+fully resolved <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> object ready for
+reading.  The input source can be given as a string, a file-like object, or
+an <a class="reference internal" href="xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InputSource</span></code></a> object; parsers will use this
+function to implement the polymorphic <em>source</em> argument to their
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax.handler</span></code> — Base classes for SAX handlers</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xmlrpc.client.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xmlrpc.client.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44d3bc4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xmlrpc.client.html
@@ -0,0 +1,788 @@
+
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+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-xmlrpc.client">
+<span id="xmlrpc-client-xml-rpc-client-access"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> — XML-RPC client access<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xmlrpc.client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py">Lib/xmlrpc/client.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP(S) as a
+transport.  With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a remote
+server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured data.  This module
+supports writing XML-RPC client code; it handles all the details of translating
+between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> module is not secure against maliciously
+constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>For HTTPS URIs, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> now performs all the necessary
+certificate and hostname checks by default.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">ServerProxy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>uri</em>, <em>transport=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>verbose=False</em>, <em>allow_none=False</em>, <em>use_datetime=False</em>, <em>use_builtin_types=False</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>context=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag was added.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ServerProxy</span></code></a> instance is an object that manages communication with a
+remote XML-RPC server.  The required first argument is a URI (Uniform Resource
+Indicator), and will normally be the URL of the server.  The optional second
+argument is a transport factory instance; by default it is an internal
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SafeTransport</span></code> instance for https: URLs and an internal HTTP
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Transport</span></code> instance otherwise.  The optional third argument is an
+encoding, by default UTF-8. The optional fourth argument is a debugging flag.</p>
+<p>The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy instance.
+If <em>allow_none</em> is true,  the Python constant <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> will be translated into
+XML; the default behaviour is for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>. This is
+a commonly-used extension to the XML-RPC specification, but isn’t supported by
+all clients and servers; see <a class="reference external" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php">http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php</a>
+for a description.
+The <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag can be used to cause date/time values
+to be presented as <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> objects and binary data to be
+presented as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects; this flag is false by default.
+<a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects
+may be passed to calls.
+The obsolete <em>use_datetime</em> flag is similar to <em>use_builtin_types</em> but it
+applies only to date/time values.</p>
+<p>Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension for HTTP
+Basic Authentication: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http://user:pass&#64;host:port/path</span></code>.  The  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user:pass</span></code>
+portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP ‘Authorization’ header, and sent to
+the remote server as part of the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC
+method.  You only need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic
+Authentication user and password. If an HTTPS URL is provided, <em>context</em> may
+be <a class="reference internal" href="ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> and configures the SSL settings of the underlying
+HTTPS connection.</p>
+<p>The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be used to invoke
+corresponding RPC calls on the remote server.  If the remote server supports the
+introspection API, the proxy can also be used to query the remote server for the
+methods it supports (service discovery) and fetch other server-associated
+metadata.</p>
+<p>Types that are conformable (e.g. that can be marshalled through XML),
+include the following (and except where noted, they are unmarshalled
+as the same Python type):</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 71%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>XML-RPC type</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Python type</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">boolean</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i1</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i2</span></code>,  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i4</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i8</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">biginteger</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
+Values get the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;int&gt;</span></code> tag.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.  Values get the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;double&gt;</span></code> tag.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a> containing
+conformable elements.  Arrays are returned as
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lists</span></code></a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  Keys must be strings, values may be
+any conformable type.  Objects of user-defined
+classes can be passed in; only their
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute is transmitted.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dateTime.iso8601</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.DateTime" title="xmlrpc.client.DateTime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DateTime</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a>.
+Returned type depends on values of
+<em>use_builtin_types</em> and <em>use_datetime</em> flags.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary" title="xmlrpc.client.Binary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Binary</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.  Returned type depends on the
+value of the <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nil</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> constant.  Passing is allowed only if
+<em>allow_none</em> is true.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bigdecimal</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>.  Returned type only.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC.  Method calls may also
+raise a special <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="xmlrpc.client.Fault"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fault</span></code></a> instance, used to signal XML-RPC server errors, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError" title="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProtocolError</span></code></a> used to signal an error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer.
+Both <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="xmlrpc.client.Fault"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fault</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError" title="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProtocolError</span></code></a> derive from a base class called
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code>.  Note that the xmlrpc client module currently does not marshal
+instances of subclasses of built-in types.</p>
+<p>When passing strings, characters special to XML such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code>
+will be automatically escaped.  However, it’s the caller’s responsibility to
+ensure that the string is free of characters that aren’t allowed in XML, such as
+the control characters with ASCII values between 0 and 31 (except, of course,
+tab, newline and carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC
+request that isn’t well-formed XML.  If you have to pass arbitrary bytes
+via XML-RPC, use <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> classes or the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary" title="xmlrpc.client.Binary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Binary</span></code></a> wrapper class described below.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server</span></code> is retained as an alias for <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ServerProxy</span></code></a> for backwards
+compatibility.  New code should use <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ServerProxy</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added the <em>context</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Added support of type tags with prefixes (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ex:nil</span></code>).
+Added support of unmarshalling additional types used by Apache XML-RPC
+implementation for numerics: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i2</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i8</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">biginteger</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bigdecimal</span></code>.
+See <a class="reference external" href="http://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html">http://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html</a> for a description.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html">XML-RPC HOWTO</a></dt><dd><p>A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in several languages.
+Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC client developer needs to know.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.net/introspection.html">XML-RPC Introspection</a></dt><dd><p>Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html">XML-RPC Specification</a></dt><dd><p>The official specification.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/xmlrpc-errata.htm">Unofficial XML-RPC Errata</a></dt><dd><p>Fredrik Lundh’s “unofficial errata, intended to clarify certain
+details in the XML-RPC specification, as well as hint at
+‘best practices’ to use when designing your own XML-RPC
+implementations.”</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="serverproxy-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>ServerProxy Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#serverproxy-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ServerProxy</span></code></a> instance has a method corresponding to each remote
+procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server.  Calling the method performs an
+RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature (e.g. the same method name
+can be overloaded with multiple argument signatures).  The RPC finishes by
+returning a value, which may be either returned data in a conformant type or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="xmlrpc.client.Fault"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fault</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError" title="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProtocolError</span></code></a> object indicating an error.</p>
+<p>Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common methods
+grouped under the reserved <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system</span></code> attribute:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.listMethods">
+<code class="descclassname">ServerProxy.system.</code><code class="descname">listMethods</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.listMethods" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system) method
+supported by the XML-RPC server.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodSignature">
+<code class="descclassname">ServerProxy.system.</code><code class="descname">methodSignature</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodSignature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC
+server. It returns an array of possible signatures for this method. A signature
+is an array of types. The first of these types is the return type of the method,
+the rest are parameters.</p>
+<p>Because multiple signatures (ie. overloading) is permitted, this method returns
+a list of signatures rather than a singleton.</p>
+<p>Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters expected by a
+method. For instance if a method expects one array of structs as a parameter,
+and it returns a string, its signature is simply “string, array”. If it expects
+three integers and returns a string, its signature is “string, int, int, int”.</p>
+<p>If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is returned. In
+Python this means that the type of the returned  value will be something other
+than list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodHelp">
+<code class="descclassname">ServerProxy.system.</code><code class="descname">methodHelp</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system.methodHelp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC
+server.  It returns a documentation string describing the use of that method. If
+no such string is available, an empty string is returned. The documentation
+string may contain HTML markup.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ServerProxy</span></code></a> support the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol
+for closing the underlying transport.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A working example follows. The server code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">is_even</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Listening on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;is_even&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The client code for the preceding server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://localhost:8000/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">proxy</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;3 is even: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;100 is even: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_even</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datetime-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>DateTime Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.DateTime">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">DateTime</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.DateTime" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time
+tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a>
+instance.  It has the following methods, supported mainly for internal
+use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.DateTime.decode">
+<code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>string</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.DateTime.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accept a string as the instance’s new time value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.DateTime.encode">
+<code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.DateTime.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the XML-RPC encoding of this <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.DateTime" title="xmlrpc.client.DateTime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DateTime</span></code></a> item to the <em>out</em> stream
+object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through rich comparison
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A working example follows. The server code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">today</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">today</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DateTime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Listening on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;today&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The client code for the preceding server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="n">proxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://localhost:8000/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">today</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1"># convert the ISO8601 string to a datetime object</span>
+<span class="n">converted</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strptime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;%Y%m</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">T%H:%M:%S&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Today: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">converted</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">.%m.%Y, %H:%M&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binary-objects">
+<span id="id3"></span><h2>Binary Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#binary-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.Binary">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">Binary</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include NULs). The
+primary access to the content of a <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary" title="xmlrpc.client.Binary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Binary</span></code></a> object is provided by an
+attribute:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.Binary.data">
+<code class="descname">data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary.data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The binary data encapsulated by the <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary" title="xmlrpc.client.Binary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Binary</span></code></a> instance.  The data is
+provided as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary" title="xmlrpc.client.Binary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Binary</span></code></a> objects have the following methods, supported mainly for
+internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.Binary.decode">
+<code class="descname">decode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>bytes</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary.decode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Accept a base64 <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object and decode it as the instance’s new data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.Binary.encode">
+<code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>out</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.Binary.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the <em>out</em> stream object.</p>
+<p>The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8"><strong>RFC 2045 section 6.8</strong></a>,
+which was the de facto standard base64 specification when the
+XML-RPC spec was written.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ne__" title="object.__ne__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example usage of the binary objects.  We’re going to transfer an image over
+XMLRPC:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">python_logo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;python_logo.jpg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;rb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Binary</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">handle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Listening on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">python_logo</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python_logo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The client gets the image and saves it to a file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="n">proxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://localhost:8000/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;fetched_python_logo.jpg&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">handle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">python_logo</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fault-objects">
+<span id="id4"></span><h2>Fault Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#fault-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.Fault">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">Fault</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="xmlrpc.client.Fault"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fault</span></code></a> object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC fault tag. Fault
+objects have the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultCode">
+<code class="descname">faultCode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultCode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string indicating the fault type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultString">
+<code class="descname">faultString</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault.faultString" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the fault.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="xmlrpc.client.Fault"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fault</span></code></a> by
+returning a complex type object.  The server code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># A marshalling error is going to occur because we&#39;re returning a</span>
+<span class="c1"># complex number</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="n">j</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Listening on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;add&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The client code for the preceding server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="n">proxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://localhost:8000/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Fault</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;A fault occurred&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Fault code: </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">faultCode</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Fault string: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">faultString</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="protocolerror-objects">
+<span id="protocol-error-objects"></span><h2>ProtocolError Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#protocolerror-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">ProtocolError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError" title="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProtocolError</span></code></a> object describes a protocol error in the underlying
+transport layer (such as a 404 ‘not found’ error if the server named by the URI
+does not exist).  It has the following attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.url">
+<code class="descname">url</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.url" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The URI or URL that triggered the error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errcode">
+<code class="descname">errcode</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errcode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The error code.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errmsg">
+<code class="descname">errmsg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.errmsg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The error message or diagnostic string.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.headers">
+<code class="descname">headers</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError.headers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that triggered the
+error.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError" title="xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProtocolError</span></code></a>
+by providing an invalid URI:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn&#39;t respond to XMLRPC requests</span>
+<span class="n">proxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://google.com/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_method</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProtocolError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;A protocol error occurred&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;URL: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">url</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;HTTP/HTTPS headers: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">headers</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Error code: </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">errcode</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Error message: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">errmsg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multicall-objects">
+<h2>MultiCall Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#multicall-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.MultiCall" title="xmlrpc.client.MultiCall"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MultiCall</span></code></a> object provides a way to encapsulate multiple calls to a
+remote server into a single request <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id6" id="id5">1</a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.MultiCall">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">MultiCall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.MultiCall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an object used to boxcar method calls. <em>server</em> is the eventual target of
+the call. Calls can be made to the result object, but they will immediately
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, and only store the call name and parameters in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.MultiCall" title="xmlrpc.client.MultiCall"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MultiCall</span></code></a> object. Calling the object itself causes all stored calls to
+be transmitted as a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.multicall</span></code> request. The result of this call
+is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>; iterating over this generator yields the individual
+results.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>A usage example of this class follows.  The server code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">subtract</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">multiply</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">divide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># A simple server with simple arithmetic functions</span>
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Listening on port 8000...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_multicall_functions</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;add&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">subtract</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;subtract&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">multiply</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;multiply&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">divide</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;divide&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The client code for the preceding server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="n">proxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://localhost:8000/&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">multicall</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MultiCall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">multicall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">multicall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subtract</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">multicall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">multiply</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">multicall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">divide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">multicall</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;7+3=</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">, 7-3=</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">, 7*3=</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">, 7//3=</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="convenience-functions">
+<h2>Convenience Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#convenience-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.dumps">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">dumps</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>params</em>, <em>methodname=None</em>, <em>methodresponse=None</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>allow_none=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.dumps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert <em>params</em> into an XML-RPC request. or into a response if <em>methodresponse</em>
+is true. <em>params</em> can be either a tuple of arguments or an instance of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="xmlrpc.client.Fault"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fault</span></code></a> exception class.  If <em>methodresponse</em> is true, only a single value
+can be returned, meaning that <em>params</em> must be of length 1. <em>encoding</em>, if
+supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default is UTF-8.
+Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> value cannot be used in standard XML-RPC; to allow using
+it via an extension,  provide a true value for <em>allow_none</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.client.loads">
+<code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.client.</code><code class="descname">loads</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>use_datetime=False</em>, <em>use_builtin_types=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.client.loads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(params,</span>
+<span class="pre">methodname)</span></code>.  <em>params</em> is a tuple of argument; <em>methodname</em> is a string, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no method name is present in the packet. If the XML-RPC packet
+represents a fault condition, this function will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.client.Fault" title="xmlrpc.client.Fault"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fault</span></code></a> exception.
+The <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag can be used to cause date/time values to be
+presented as <a class="reference internal" href="datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> objects and binary data to be
+presented as <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects; this flag is false by default.</p>
+<p>The obsolete <em>use_datetime</em> flag is similar to <em>use_builtin_types</em> but it
+applies only to date/time values.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example-of-client-usage">
+<span id="xmlrpc-client-example"></span><h2>Example of Client Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#example-of-client-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification)</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Error</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># server = ServerProxy(&quot;http://localhost:8000&quot;) # local server</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://betty.userland.com&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">proxy</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">examples</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getStateName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">41</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">Error</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ERROR&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a custom
+transport.  The following example shows how:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.client</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ProxiedTransport</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Transport</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">set_proxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">proxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">proxy_headers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">headers</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">make_connection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_tunnel</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">headers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">proxy_headers</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">connection</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">connection</span>
+
+<span class="n">transport</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ProxiedTransport</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set_proxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;proxy-server&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8080</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://betty.userland.com&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">transport</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">transport</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">examples</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getStateName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">41</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="example-of-client-and-server-usage">
+<h2>Example of Client and Server Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#example-of-client-and-server-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#simplexmlrpcserver-example"><span class="std std-ref">SimpleXMLRPCServer Example</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id6"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id5">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This approach has been first presented in <a class="reference external" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic">a discussion on xmlrpc.com</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code> — XML-RPC client access</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#serverproxy-objects">ServerProxy Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime-objects">DateTime Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-objects">Binary Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fault-objects">Fault Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#protocolerror-objects">ProtocolError Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multicall-objects">MultiCall Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#convenience-functions">Convenience Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example-of-client-usage">Example of Client Usage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#example-of-client-and-server-usage">Example of Client and Server Usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xmlrpc.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc</span></code> — XMLRPC server and client modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xmlrpc.server.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code> — Basic XML-RPC servers</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xmlrpc.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xmlrpc.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcc1cd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/xmlrpc.html
@@ -0,0 +1,192 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+<p>XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP as a
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+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc</span></code> is a package that collects server and client modules implementing
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+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.server.html#module-xmlrpc.server" title="xmlrpc.server: Basic XML-RPC server implementations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code></a></p></li>
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new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44f5f74
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+  <div class="section" id="module-xmlrpc.server">
+<span id="xmlrpc-server-basic-xml-rpc-servers"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-xmlrpc.server" title="xmlrpc.server: Basic XML-RPC server implementations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code></a> — Basic XML-RPC servers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-xmlrpc.server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py">Lib/xmlrpc/server.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xmlrpc.server" title="xmlrpc.server: Basic XML-RPC server implementations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code></a> module provides a basic server framework for XML-RPC
+servers written in Python.  Servers can either be free standing, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code></a>, or embedded in a CGI environment, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-xmlrpc.server" title="xmlrpc.server: Basic XML-RPC server implementations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code></a> module is not secure against maliciously
+constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
+<a class="reference internal" href="xml.html#xml-vulnerabilities"><span class="std std-ref">XML vulnerabilities</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.server.</code><code class="descname">SimpleXMLRPCServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>addr</em>, <em>requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</em>, <em>logRequests=True</em>, <em>allow_none=False</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>bind_and_activate=True</em>, <em>use_builtin_types=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new server instance.  This class provides methods for registration of
+functions that can be called by the XML-RPC protocol.  The <em>requestHandler</em>
+parameter should be a factory for request handler instances; it defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code></a>.  The <em>addr</em> and <em>requestHandler</em> parameters
+are passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.TCPServer</span></code></a> constructor.  If <em>logRequests</em>
+is true (the default), requests will be logged; setting this parameter to false
+will turn off logging.   The <em>allow_none</em> and <em>encoding</em> parameters are passed
+on to <a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned
+from the server. The <em>bind_and_activate</em> parameter controls whether
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_bind()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_activate()</span></code> are called immediately by the
+constructor; it defaults to true. Setting it to false allows code to manipulate
+the <em>allow_reuse_address</em> class variable before the address is bound.
+The <em>use_builtin_types</em> parameter is passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.loads" title="xmlrpc.client.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a> function and controls which types are processed
+when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.server.</code><code class="descname">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>allow_none=False</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>use_builtin_types=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI environment.  The
+<em>allow_none</em> and <em>encoding</em> parameters are passed on to <a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a>
+and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned from the server.
+The <em>use_builtin_types</em> parameter is passed to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.loads" title="xmlrpc.client.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a> function and controls which types are processed
+when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.server.</code><code class="descname">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POST</span></code>
+requests and modifies logging so that the <em>logRequests</em> parameter to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code></a> constructor parameter is honored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="simplexmlrpcserver-objects">
+<span id="simple-xmlrpc-servers"></span><h2>SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#simplexmlrpcserver-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code></a> class is based on
+<a class="reference internal" href="socketserver.html#socketserver.TCPServer" title="socketserver.TCPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.TCPServer</span></code></a> and provides a means of creating simple, stand
+alone XML-RPC servers.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleXMLRPCServer.</code><code class="descname">register_function</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function=None</em>, <em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If <em>name</em> is given,
+it will be the method name associated with <em>function</em>, otherwise
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function.__name__</span></code> will be used.  <em>name</em> is a string, and may contain
+characters not legal in Python identifiers, including the period character.</p>
+<p>This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a decorator,
+<em>name</em> can only be given as a keyword argument to register <em>function</em> under
+<em>name</em>.  If no <em>name</em> is given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function.__name__</span></code> will be used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_function()</span></code></a> can be used as a decorator.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleXMLRPCServer.</code><code class="descname">register_instance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>instance</em>, <em>allow_dotted_names=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register an object which is used to expose method names which have not been
+registered using <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_function()</span></code></a>.  If <em>instance</em> contains a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dispatch()</span></code> method, it is called with the requested method name and the
+parameters from the request.  Its API is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">_dispatch(self,</span> <span class="pre">method,</span> <span class="pre">params)</span></code>
+(note that <em>params</em> does not represent a variable argument list).  If it calls
+an underlying function to perform its task, that function is called as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(*params)</span></code>, expanding the parameter list. The return value from
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dispatch()</span></code> is returned to the client as the result.  If <em>instance</em> does
+not have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dispatch()</span></code> method, it is searched for an attribute matching
+the name of the requested method.</p>
+<p>If the optional <em>allow_dotted_names</em> argument is true and the instance does not
+have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dispatch()</span></code> method, then if the requested method name contains
+periods, each component of the method name is searched for individually, with
+the effect that a simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from
+this search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the return
+value is passed back to the client.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Enabling the <em>allow_dotted_names</em> option allows intruders to access your
+module’s global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on
+your machine.  Only use this option on a secure, closed network.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleXMLRPCServer.</code><code class="descname">register_introspection_functions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers the XML-RPC introspection functions <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.listMethods</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.methodHelp</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.methodSignature</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleXMLRPCServer.</code><code class="descname">register_multicall_functions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Registers the XML-RPC multicall function system.multicall.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths">
+<code class="descclassname">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">rpc_paths</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>An attribute value that must be a tuple listing valid path portions of the URL
+for receiving XML-RPC requests.  Requests posted to other paths will result in a
+404 “no such page” HTTP error.  If this tuple is empty, all paths will be
+considered valid. The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('/',</span> <span class="pre">'/RPC2')</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="simplexmlrpcserver-example">
+<span id="id1"></span><h3>SimpleXMLRPCServer Example<a class="headerlink" href="#simplexmlrpcserver-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Server code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Restrict to a particular path.</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">RequestHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">rpc_paths</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/RPC2&#39;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create server</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                        <span class="n">requestHandler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">RequestHandler</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_introspection_functions</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register pow() function; this will use the value of</span>
+    <span class="c1"># pow.__name__ as the name, which is just &#39;pow&#39;.</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register a function under a different name</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">adder_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">adder_function</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;add&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are</span>
+    <span class="c1"># published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just &#39;mul&#39;).</span>
+    <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyFuncs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_instance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MyFuncs</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Run the server&#39;s main loop</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following client code will call the methods made available by the preceding
+server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.client</span>
+
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://localhost:8000&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># Returns 2**3 = 8</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># Returns 5</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># Returns 5*2 = 10</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Print list of available methods</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">system</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listMethods</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_function()</span></code> can also be used as a decorator. The previous server
+example can register functions in a decorator way:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpc.server</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">RequestHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">rpc_paths</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/RPC2&#39;</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">),</span>
+                        <span class="n">requestHandler</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">RequestHandler</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_introspection_functions</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register pow() function; this will use the value of</span>
+    <span class="c1"># pow.__name__ as the name, which is just &#39;pow&#39;.</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register a function under a different name, using</span>
+    <span class="c1"># register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given</span>
+    <span class="c1"># as a keyword argument.</span>
+    <span class="nd">@server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;add&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">adder_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Register a function under function.__name__.</span>
+    <span class="nd">@server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example included in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/xmlrpc/server.py</span></code> module shows
+a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall function.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Enabling the <em>allow_dotted_names</em> option allows intruders to access your
+module’s global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on
+your machine.  Only use this example only within a secure, closed network.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ExampleService</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getData</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;42&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">currentTime</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nd">@staticmethod</span>
+        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">getCurrentTime</span><span class="p">():</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s2">&quot;localhost&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8000</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;add&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_instance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ExampleService</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">allow_dotted_names</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_multicall_functions</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyboardInterrupt</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">Keyboard interrupt received, exiting.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This ExampleService demo can be invoked from the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">server</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The client that interacts with the above server is included in
+<cite>Lib/xmlrpc/client.py</cite>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ServerProxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://localhost:8000&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">currentTime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getCurrentTime</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">Error</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ERROR&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">multi</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MultiCall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">server</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">multi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getData</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">multi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">multi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">response</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">multi</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">response</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">Error</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ERROR&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This client which interacts with the demo XMLRPC server can be invoked as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">xmlrpc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cgixmlrpcrequesthandler">
+<h2>CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#cgixmlrpcrequesthandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code></a> class can be used to handle XML-RPC
+requests sent to Python CGI scripts.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function">
+<code class="descclassname">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">register_function</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>function=None</em>, <em>name=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If <em>name</em> is given,
+it will be the method name associated with <em>function</em>, otherwise
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function.__name__</span></code> will be used.  <em>name</em> is a string, and may contain
+characters not legal in Python identifiers, including the period character.</p>
+<p>This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a decorator,
+<em>name</em> can only be given as a keyword argument to register <em>function</em> under
+<em>name</em>.  If no <em>name</em> is given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">function.__name__</span></code> will be used.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function" title="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_function()</span></code></a> can be used as a decorator.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance">
+<code class="descclassname">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">register_instance</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>instance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register an object which is used to expose method names  which have not been
+registered using <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function" title="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_function()</span></code></a>. If  instance contains a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dispatch()</span></code> method, it is called with the  requested method name and the
+parameters from the  request; the return value is returned to the client as the
+result. If instance does not have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dispatch()</span></code> method, it is searched
+for an attribute matching the name of the requested method; if  the requested
+method name contains periods, each  component of the method name is searched for
+individually,  with the effect that a simple hierarchical search is performed.
+The value found from this search is then called with the  parameters from the
+request, and the return value is passed  back to the client.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions">
+<code class="descclassname">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">register_introspection_functions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the XML-RPC introspection functions  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.listMethods</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.methodHelp</span></code> and  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.methodSignature</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions">
+<code class="descclassname">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">register_multicall_functions</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Register the XML-RPC multicall function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">system.multicall</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request">
+<code class="descclassname">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">handle_request</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>request_text=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Handle an XML-RPC request. If <em>request_text</em> is given, it should be the POST
+data provided by the HTTP server,  otherwise the contents of stdin will be used.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyFuncs</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">mul</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+
+
+<span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;add&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_introspection_functions</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_instance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MyFuncs</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">handle_request</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="documenting-xmlrpc-server">
+<h2>Documenting XMLRPC server<a class="headerlink" href="#documenting-xmlrpc-server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These classes extend the above classes to serve HTML documentation in response
+to HTTP GET requests.  Servers can either be free standing, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code></a>, or embedded in a CGI environment, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.server.</code><code class="descname">DocXMLRPCServer</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>addr</em>, <em>requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler</em>, <em>logRequests=True</em>, <em>allow_none=False</em>, <em>encoding=None</em>, <em>bind_and_activate=True</em>, <em>use_builtin_types=True</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new server instance. All parameters have the same meaning as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code></a>; <em>requestHandler</em> defaults to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The <em>use_builtin_types</em> flag was added.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.server.</code><code class="descname">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI environment.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">xmlrpc.server.</code><code class="descname">DocXMLRPCRequestHandler</code><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new request handler instance. This request handler supports XML-RPC
+POST requests, documentation GET requests, and modifies logging so that the
+<em>logRequests</em> parameter to the <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code></a> constructor parameter is
+honored.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="docxmlrpcserver-objects">
+<span id="doc-xmlrpc-servers"></span><h2>DocXMLRPCServer Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#docxmlrpcserver-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code></a> class is derived from <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer" title="xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code></a>
+and provides a means of creating self-documenting, stand alone XML-RPC
+servers. HTTP POST requests are handled as XML-RPC method calls. HTTP GET
+requests are handled by generating pydoc-style HTML documentation. This allows a
+server to provide its own web-based documentation.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title">
+<code class="descclassname">DocXMLRPCServer.</code><code class="descname">set_server_title</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_title</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation. This title will be used
+inside the HTML “title” element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name">
+<code class="descclassname">DocXMLRPCServer.</code><code class="descname">set_server_name</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation. This name will appear at
+the top of the generated documentation inside a “h1” element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation">
+<code class="descclassname">DocXMLRPCServer.</code><code class="descname">set_server_documentation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_documentation</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation. This description
+will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in the documentation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doccgixmlrpcrequesthandler">
+<h2>DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler<a class="headerlink" href="#doccgixmlrpcrequesthandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code></a> class is derived from
+<a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler" title="xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code></a> and provides a means of creating
+self-documenting, XML-RPC CGI scripts. HTTP POST requests are handled as XML-RPC
+method calls. HTTP GET requests are handled by generating pydoc-style HTML
+documentation. This allows a server to provide its own web-based documentation.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title">
+<code class="descclassname">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">set_server_title</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_title</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation. This title will be used
+inside the HTML “title” element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name">
+<code class="descclassname">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">set_server_name</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation. This name will appear at
+the top of the generated documentation inside a “h1” element.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation">
+<code class="descclassname">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.</code><code class="descname">set_server_documentation</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>server_documentation</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation. This description
+will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in the documentation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code> — Basic XML-RPC servers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simplexmlrpcserver-objects">SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simplexmlrpcserver-example">SimpleXMLRPCServer Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cgixmlrpcrequesthandler">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documenting-xmlrpc-server">Documenting XMLRPC server</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#docxmlrpcserver-objects">DocXMLRPCServer Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doccgixmlrpcrequesthandler">DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="xmlrpc.client.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code> — XML-RPC client access</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="ipaddress.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code> — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst"
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+    </ul>
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+    <div class="footer">
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipapp.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipapp.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f7b070
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipapp.html
@@ -0,0 +1,597 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
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+    <link rel="next" title="Python Runtime Services" href="python.html" />
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+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/zipapp.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="distribution.html" accesskey="U">Software Packaging and Distribution</a> &#187;</li>
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+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-zipapp">
+<span id="zipapp-manage-executable-python-zip-archives"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipapp" title="zipapp: Manage executable Python zip archives"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code></a> — Manage executable Python zip archives<a class="headerlink" href="#module-zipapp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/zipapp.py">Lib/zipapp.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" id="index-0" />
+<p>This module provides tools to manage the creation of zip files containing
+Python code, which can be  <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-interface-options"><span class="std std-ref">executed directly by the Python interpreter</span></a>.  The module provides both a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp-command-line-interface"><span class="std std-ref">Command-Line Interface</span></a> and a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp-python-api"><span class="std std-ref">Python API</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="basic-example">
+<h2>Basic Example<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following example shows how the <a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp-command-line-interface"><span class="std std-ref">Command-Line Interface</span></a>
+can be used to create an executable archive from a directory containing
+Python code.  When run, the archive will execute the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main</span></code> function from
+the module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myapp</span></code> in the archive.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipapp myapp -m <span class="s2">&quot;myapp:main&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python myapp.pyz
+<span class="go">&lt;output from myapp&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-interface">
+<span id="zipapp-command-line-interface"></span><h2>Command-Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When called as a program from the command line, the following form is used:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipapp <span class="nb">source</span> <span class="o">[</span>options<span class="o">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If <em>source</em> is a directory, this will create an archive from the contents of
+<em>source</em>.  If <em>source</em> is a file, it should be an archive, and it will be
+copied to the target archive (or the contents of its shebang line will be
+displayed if the –info option is specified).</p>
+<p>The following options are understood:</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipapp-o">
+<code class="descname">-o</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;output&gt;</code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--output</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;output&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-o" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the output to a file named <em>output</em>.  If this option is not specified,
+the output filename will be the same as the input <em>source</em>, with the
+extension <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> added.  If an explicit filename is given, it is used as
+is (so a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> extension should be included if required).</p>
+<p>An output filename must be specified if the <em>source</em> is an archive (and in
+that case, <em>output</em> must not be the same as <em>source</em>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipapp-p">
+<code class="descname">-p</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;interpreter&gt;</code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--python</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;interpreter&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-p" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> line to the archive specifying <em>interpreter</em> as the command
+to run.  Also, on POSIX, make the archive executable.  The default is to
+write no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> line, and not make the file executable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipapp-m">
+<code class="descname">-m</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;mainfn&gt;</code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--main</code><code class="descclassname">=&lt;mainfn&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-m" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file to the archive that executes <em>mainfn</em>.  The
+<em>mainfn</em> argument should have the form “pkg.mod:fn”, where “pkg.mod” is a
+package/module in the archive, and “fn” is a callable in the given module.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file will execute that callable.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--main</span></code></a> cannot be specified when copying an archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipapp-c">
+<code class="descname">-c</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--compress</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-c" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compress files with the deflate method, reducing the size of the output
+file. By default, files are stored uncompressed in the archive.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--compress</span></code></a> has no effect when copying an archive.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipapp-info">
+<code class="descname">--info</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-info" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Display the interpreter embedded in the archive, for diagnostic purposes.  In
+this case, any other options are ignored and SOURCE must be an archive, not a
+directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipapp-h">
+<code class="descname">-h</code><code class="descclassname"></code><code class="descclassname">, </code><code class="descname">--help</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipapp-h" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a short usage message and exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-api">
+<span id="zipapp-python-api"></span><h2>Python API<a class="headerlink" href="#python-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module defines two convenience functions:</p>
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zipapp.create_archive">
+<code class="descclassname">zipapp.</code><code class="descname">create_archive</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>source</em>, <em>target=None</em>, <em>interpreter=None</em>, <em>main=None</em>, <em>filter=None</em>, <em>compressed=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipapp.create_archive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create an application archive from <em>source</em>.  The source can be any
+of the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The name of a directory, or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> referring
+to a directory, in which case a new application archive will be
+created from the content of that directory.</p></li>
+<li><p>The name of an existing application archive file, or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>
+referring to such a file, in which case the file is copied to
+the target (modifying it to reflect the value given for the <em>interpreter</em>
+argument).  The file name should include the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> extension, if required.</p></li>
+<li><p>A file object open for reading in bytes mode.  The content of the
+file should be an application archive, and the file object is
+assumed to be positioned at the start of the archive.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <em>target</em> argument determines where the resulting archive will be
+written:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If it is the name of a file, or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>,
+the archive will be written to that file.</p></li>
+<li><p>If it is an open file object, the archive will be written to that
+file object, which must be open for writing in bytes mode.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the target is omitted (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>), the source must be a directory
+and the target will be a file with the same name as the source, with
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> extension added.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <em>interpreter</em> argument specifies the name of the Python
+interpreter with which the archive will be executed.  It is written as
+a “shebang” line at the start of the archive.  On POSIX, this will be
+interpreted by the OS, and on Windows it will be handled by the Python
+launcher.  Omitting the <em>interpreter</em> results in no shebang line being
+written.  If an interpreter is specified, and the target is a
+filename, the executable bit of the target file will be set.</p>
+<p>The <em>main</em> argument specifies the name of a callable which will be
+used as the main program for the archive.  It can only be specified if
+the source is a directory, and the source does not already contain a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file.  The <em>main</em> argument should take the form
+“pkg.module:callable” and the archive will be run by importing
+“pkg.module” and executing the given callable with no arguments.  It
+is an error to omit <em>main</em> if the source is a directory and does not
+contain a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file, as otherwise the resulting archive
+would not be executable.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>filter</em> argument specifies a callback function that
+is passed a Path object representing the path to the file being added
+(relative to the source directory).  It should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the
+file is to be added.</p>
+<p>The optional <em>compressed</em> argument determines whether files are
+compressed.  If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, files in the archive are compressed
+with the deflate method; otherwise, files are stored uncompressed.
+This argument has no effect when copying an existing archive.</p>
+<p>If a file object is specified for <em>source</em> or <em>target</em>, it is the
+caller’s responsibility to close it after calling create_archive.</p>
+<p>When copying an existing archive, file objects supplied only need
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code> methods.  When creating an
+archive from a directory, if the target is a file object it will be
+passed to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile.ZipFile</span></code> class, and must supply the methods
+needed by that class.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Added the <em>filter</em> and <em>compressed</em> arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zipapp.get_interpreter">
+<code class="descclassname">zipapp.</code><code class="descname">get_interpreter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>archive</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipapp.get_interpreter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the interpreter specified in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> line at the start of the
+archive.  If there is no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> line, return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.
+The <em>archive</em> argument can be a filename or a file-like object open
+for reading in bytes mode.  It is assumed to be at the start of the archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="zipapp-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Pack up a directory into an archive, and run it.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipapp myapp
+<span class="gp">$</span> python myapp.pyz
+<span class="go">&lt;output from myapp&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The same can be done using the <a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp.create_archive" title="zipapp.create_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_archive()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">zipapp</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zipapp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.pyz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;myapp&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To make the application directly executable on POSIX, specify an interpreter
+to use.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipapp myapp -p <span class="s2">&quot;/usr/bin/env python&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ./myapp.pyz
+<span class="go">&lt;output from myapp&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To replace the shebang line on an existing archive, create a modified archive
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp.create_archive" title="zipapp.create_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_archive()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">zipapp</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zipapp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;old_archive.pyz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;new_archive.pyz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/bin/python3&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To update the file in place, do the replacement in memory using a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code>
+object, and then overwrite the source afterwards.  Note that there is a risk
+when overwriting a file in place that an error will result in the loss of
+the original file.  This code does not protect against such errors, but
+production code should do so.  Also, this method will only work if the archive
+fits in memory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">zipapp</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">temp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zipapp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.pyz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">temp</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/bin/python2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myapp.pyz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">temp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="specifying-the-interpreter">
+<span id="zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter"></span><h2>Specifying the Interpreter<a class="headerlink" href="#specifying-the-interpreter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Note that if you specify an interpreter and then distribute your application
+archive, you need to ensure that the interpreter used is portable.  The Python
+launcher for Windows supports most common forms of POSIX <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> line, but there
+are other issues to consider:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If you use “/usr/bin/env python” (or other forms of the “python” command,
+such as “/usr/bin/python”), you need to consider that your users may have
+either Python 2 or Python 3 as their default, and write your code to work
+under both versions.</p></li>
+<li><p>If you use an explicit version, for example “/usr/bin/env python3” your
+application will not work for users who do not have that version.  (This
+may be what you want if you have not made your code Python 2 compatible).</p></li>
+<li><p>There is no way to say “python X.Y or later”, so be careful of using an
+exact version like “/usr/bin/env python3.4” as you will need to change your
+shebang line for users of Python 3.5, for example.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Typically, you should use an “/usr/bin/env python2” or “/usr/bin/env python3”,
+depending on whether your code is written for Python 2 or 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-standalone-applications-with-zipapp">
+<h2>Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-standalone-applications-with-zipapp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Using the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipapp" title="zipapp: Manage executable Python zip archives"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code></a> module, it is possible to create self-contained Python
+programs, which can be distributed to end users who only need to have a
+suitable version of Python installed on their system.  The key to doing this
+is to bundle all of the application’s dependencies into the archive, along
+with the application code.</p>
+<p>The steps to create a standalone archive are as follows:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>Create your application in a directory as normal, so you have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myapp</span></code>
+directory containing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file, and any supporting application
+code.</p></li>
+<li><p>Install all of your application’s dependencies into the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myapp</span></code> directory,
+using pip:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(this assumes you have your project requirements in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">requirements.txt</span></code>
+file - if not, you can just list the dependencies manually on the pip command
+line).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Optionally, delete the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dist-info</span></code> directories created by pip in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myapp</span></code> directory. These hold metadata for pip to manage the packages, and
+as you won’t be making any further use of pip they aren’t required -
+although it won’t do any harm if you leave them.</p></li>
+<li><p>Package the application using:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipapp -p <span class="s2">&quot;interpreter&quot;</span> myapp
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p>This will produce a standalone executable, which can be run on any machine with
+the appropriate interpreter available. See <a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter"><span class="std std-ref">Specifying the Interpreter</span></a>
+for details. It can be shipped to users as a single file.</p>
+<p>On Unix, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myapp.pyz</span></code> file is executable as it stands.  You can rename the
+file to remove the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> extension if you prefer a “plain” command name.  On
+Windows, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myapp.pyz[w]</span></code> file is executable by virtue of the fact that
+the Python interpreter registers the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyzw</span></code> file extensions
+when installed.</p>
+<div class="section" id="making-a-windows-executable">
+<h3>Making a Windows executable<a class="headerlink" href="#making-a-windows-executable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On Windows, registration of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> extension is optional, and
+furthermore, there are certain places that don’t recognise registered
+extensions “transparently” (the simplest example is that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.run(['myapp'])</span></code> won’t find your application - you need to
+explicitly specify the extension).</p>
+<p>On Windows, therefore, it is often preferable to create an executable from the
+zipapp.  This is relatively easy, although it does require a C compiler.  The
+basic approach relies on the fact that zipfiles can have arbitrary data
+prepended, and Windows exe files can have arbitrary data appended.  So by
+creating a suitable launcher and tacking the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyz</span></code> file onto the end of it,
+you end up with a single-file executable that runs your application.</p>
+<p>A suitable launcher can be as simple as the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">#define Py_LIMITED_API 1</span>
+<span class="c1">#include &quot;Python.h&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#define WIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN</span>
+<span class="c1">#include &lt;windows.h&gt;</span>
+
+<span class="c1">#ifdef WINDOWS</span>
+<span class="nb">int</span> <span class="n">WINAPI</span> <span class="n">wWinMain</span><span class="p">(</span>
+    <span class="n">HINSTANCE</span> <span class="n">hInstance</span><span class="p">,</span>      <span class="o">/*</span> <span class="n">handle</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">current</span> <span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">*/</span>
+    <span class="n">HINSTANCE</span> <span class="n">hPrevInstance</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="o">/*</span> <span class="n">handle</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">previous</span> <span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">*/</span>
+    <span class="n">LPWSTR</span> <span class="n">lpCmdLine</span><span class="p">,</span>         <span class="o">/*</span> <span class="n">pointer</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">command</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">*/</span>
+    <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="n">nCmdShow</span>              <span class="o">/*</span> <span class="n">show</span> <span class="n">state</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">window</span> <span class="o">*/</span>
+<span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1">#else</span>
+<span class="nb">int</span> <span class="n">wmain</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1">#endif</span>
+<span class="p">{</span>
+    <span class="n">wchar_t</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">myargv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_alloca</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">__argc</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wchar_t</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">));</span>
+    <span class="n">myargv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">__wargv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">];</span>
+    <span class="n">memcpy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myargv</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">__wargv</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">__argc</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wchar_t</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">));</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Py_Main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">__argc</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">myargv</span><span class="p">);</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you define the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WINDOWS</span></code> preprocessor symbol, this will generate a
+GUI executable, and without it, a console executable.</p>
+<p>To compile the executable, you can either just use the standard MSVC
+command line tools, or you can take advantage of the fact that distutils
+knows how to compile Python source:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.ccompiler</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">new_compiler</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">distutils.sysconfig</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">pathlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Path</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">src</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">cc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">new_compiler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">exe</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">src</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stem</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">cc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_include_dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">distutils</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_python_inc</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">cc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_library_dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">base_exec_prefix</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;libs&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="c1"># First the CLI executable</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">objs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">cc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">link_executable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">objs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exe</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="c1"># Now the GUI executable</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">cc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">define_macro</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;WINDOWS&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">objs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">src</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="n">cc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">link_executable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">objs</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exe</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>    <span class="nb">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;zastub.c&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The resulting launcher uses the “Limited ABI”, so it will run unchanged with
+any version of Python 3.x.  All it needs is for Python (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.dll</span></code>) to be
+on the user’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For a fully standalone distribution, you can distribute the launcher with your
+application appended, bundled with the Python “embedded” distribution.  This
+will run on any PC with the appropriate architecture (32 bit or 64 bit).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="caveats">
+<h3>Caveats<a class="headerlink" href="#caveats" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are some limitations to the process of bundling your application into
+a single file.  In most, if not all, cases they can be addressed without
+needing major changes to your application.</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>If your application depends on a package that includes a C extension, that
+package cannot be run from a zip file (this is an OS limitation, as executable
+code must be present in the filesystem for the OS loader to load it). In this
+case, you can exclude that dependency from the zipfile, and either require
+your users to have it installed, or ship it alongside your zipfile and add code
+to your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> to include the directory containing the unzipped
+module in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>. In this case, you will need to make sure to ship
+appropriate binaries for your target architecture(s) (and potentially pick the
+correct version to add to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> at runtime, based on the user’s machine).</p></li>
+<li><p>If you are shipping a Windows executable as described above, you either need to
+ensure that your users have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.dll</span></code> on their PATH (which is not the
+default behaviour of the installer) or you should bundle your application with
+the embedded distribution.</p></li>
+<li><p>The suggested launcher above uses the Python embedding API.  This means that in
+your application, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code> will be your application, and <em>not</em> a
+conventional Python interpreter.  Your code and its dependencies need to be
+prepared for this possibility.  For example, if your application uses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module, it will need to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.set_executable" title="multiprocessing.set_executable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.set_executable()</span></code></a> to let the module know where to find the
+standard Python interpreter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-python-zip-application-archive-format">
+<h2>The Python Zip Application Archive Format<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-zip-application-archive-format" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has been able to execute zip files which contain a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file
+since version 2.6.  In order to be executed by Python, an application archive
+simply has to be a standard zip file containing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file which
+will be run as the entry point for the application.  As usual for any Python
+script, the parent of the script (in this case the zip file) will be placed on
+<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> and thus further modules can be imported from the zip file.</p>
+<p>The zip file format allows arbitrary data to be prepended to a zip file.  The
+zip application format uses this ability to prepend a standard POSIX “shebang”
+line to the file (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!/path/to/interpreter</span></code>).</p>
+<p>Formally, the Python zip application format is therefore:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>An optional shebang line, containing the characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'#!'</span></code> followed by an
+interpreter name, and then a newline (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\n'</span></code>) character.  The interpreter
+name can be anything acceptable to the OS “shebang” processing, or the Python
+launcher on Windows.  The interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows,
+and in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a> on POSIX.</p></li>
+<li><p>Standard zipfile data, as generated by the <a class="reference internal" href="zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module.  The
+zipfile content <em>must</em> include a file called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> (which must be
+in the “root” of the zipfile - i.e., it cannot be in a subdirectory).  The
+zipfile data can be compressed or uncompressed.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>If an application archive has a shebang line, it may have the executable bit set
+on POSIX systems, to allow it to be executed directly.</p>
+<p>There is no requirement that the tools in this module are used to create
+application archives - the module is a convenience, but archives in the above
+format created by any means are acceptable to Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code> — Manage executable Python zip archives</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-example">Basic Example</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-api">Python API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#specifying-the-interpreter">Specifying the Interpreter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-standalone-applications-with-zipapp">Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#making-a-windows-executable">Making a Windows executable</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#caveats">Caveats</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-python-zip-application-archive-format">The Python Zip Application Archive Format</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="venv.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code> — Creation of virtual environments</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="python.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Python Runtime Services</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/zipapp.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
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+    <br />
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipfile.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipfile.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..730f8ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipfile.html
@@ -0,0 +1,953 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>zipfile — Work with ZIP archives &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
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+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="tarfile — Read and write tar archive files" href="tarfile.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm" href="lzma.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/zipfile.html" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> &#187;</li>
+          <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="archiving.html" accesskey="U">Data Compression and Archiving</a> &#187;</li>
+    <li class="right">
+        
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+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
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+
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+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-zipfile">
+<span id="zipfile-work-with-zip-archives"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> — Work with ZIP archives<a class="headerlink" href="#module-zipfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/zipfile.py">Lib/zipfile.py</a></p>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>The ZIP file format is a common archive and compression standard. This module
+provides tools to create, read, write, append, and list a ZIP file.  Any
+advanced use of this module will require an understanding of the format, as
+defined in <a class="reference external" href="https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT">PKZIP Application Note</a>.</p>
+<p>This module does not currently handle multi-disk ZIP files.
+It can handle ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions
+(that is ZIP files that are more than 4 GiB in size).  It supports
+decryption of encrypted files in ZIP archives, but it currently cannot
+create an encrypted file.  Decryption is extremely slow as it is
+implemented in native Python rather than C.</p>
+<p>The module defines the following items:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="zipfile.BadZipFile">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">BadZipFile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.BadZipFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The error raised for bad ZIP files.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="zipfile.BadZipfile">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">BadZipfile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.BadZipfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Alias of <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.BadZipFile" title="zipfile.BadZipFile"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BadZipFile</span></code></a>, for compatibility with older Python versions.</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="zipfile.LargeZipFile">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">LargeZipFile</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.LargeZipFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The error raised when a ZIP file would require ZIP64 functionality but that has
+not been enabled.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">ZipFile</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The class for reading and writing ZIP files.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile-objects"><span class="std std-ref">ZipFile Objects</span></a> for constructor details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt>
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">PyZipFile</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Class for creating ZIP archives containing Python libraries.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">ZipInfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename='NoName'</em>, <em>date_time=(1980</em>, <em>1</em>, <em>1</em>, <em>0</em>, <em>0</em>, <em>0)</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Class used to represent information about a member of an archive. Instances
+of this class are returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo" title="zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getinfo()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.infolist" title="zipfile.ZipFile.infolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">infolist()</span></code></a>
+methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> objects.  Most users of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module
+will not need to create these, but only use those created by this
+module. <em>filename</em> should be the full name of the archive member, and
+<em>date_time</em> should be a tuple containing six fields which describe the time
+of the last modification to the file; the fields are described in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipinfo-objects"><span class="std std-ref">ZipInfo Objects</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zipfile.is_zipfile">
+<code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">is_zipfile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.is_zipfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>filename</em> is a valid ZIP file based on its magic number,
+otherwise returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  <em>filename</em> may be a file or file-like object too.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Support for file and file-like objects.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZIP_STORED">
+<code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">ZIP_STORED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZIP_STORED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The numeric constant for an uncompressed archive member.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED">
+<code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">ZIP_DEFLATED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The numeric constant for the usual ZIP compression method.  This requires the
+<a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2">
+<code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">ZIP_BZIP2</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The numeric constant for the BZIP2 compression method.  This requires the
+<a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZIP_LZMA">
+<code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">ZIP_LZMA</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZIP_LZMA" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The numeric constant for the LZMA compression method.  This requires the
+<a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The ZIP file format specification has included support for bzip2 compression
+since 2001, and for LZMA compression since 2006. However, some tools
+(including older Python releases) do not support these compression
+methods, and may either refuse to process the ZIP file altogether,
+or fail to extract individual files.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT">PKZIP Application Note</a></dt><dd><p>Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of the format and
+algorithms used.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.info-zip.org/">Info-ZIP Home Page</a></dt><dd><p>Information about the Info-ZIP project’s ZIP archive programs and development
+libraries.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipfile-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>ZipFile Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">ZipFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>compression=ZIP_STORED</em>, <em>allowZip64=True</em>, <em>compresslevel=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Open a ZIP file, where <em>file</em> can be a path to a file (a string), a
+file-like object or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> parameter should be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> to read an existing
+file, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code> to truncate and write a new file, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> to append to an
+existing file, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> to exclusively create and write a new file.
+If <em>mode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> and <em>file</em> refers to an existing file,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> will be raised.
+If <em>mode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> and <em>file</em> refers to an existing ZIP
+file, then additional files are added to it.  If <em>file</em> does not refer to a
+ZIP file, then a new ZIP archive is appended to the file.  This is meant for
+adding a ZIP archive to another file (such as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code>).  If
+<em>mode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> and the file does not exist at all, it is created.
+If <em>mode</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>, the file should be seekable.</p>
+<p><em>compression</em> is the ZIP compression method to use when writing the archive,
+and should be <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_STORED" title="zipfile.ZIP_STORED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_STORED</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED" title="zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_DEFLATED</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2" title="zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_BZIP2</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_LZMA" title="zipfile.ZIP_LZMA"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_LZMA</span></code></a>; unrecognized
+values will cause <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> to be raised.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED" title="zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_DEFLATED</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2" title="zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_BZIP2</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_LZMA" title="zipfile.ZIP_LZMA"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_LZMA</span></code></a> is specified
+but the corresponding module (<a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a>) is not
+available, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised. The default is <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_STORED" title="zipfile.ZIP_STORED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_STORED</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <em>allowZip64</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> (the default) zipfile will create ZIP files that
+use the ZIP64 extensions when the zipfile is larger than 4 GiB. If it is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">false</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> will raise an exception when the ZIP file would
+require ZIP64 extensions.</p>
+<p>The <em>compresslevel</em> parameter controls the compression level to use when
+writing files to the archive.
+When using <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_STORED" title="zipfile.ZIP_STORED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_STORED</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_LZMA" title="zipfile.ZIP_LZMA"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_LZMA</span></code></a> it has no effect.
+When using <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED" title="zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_DEFLATED</span></code></a> integers <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> are accepted
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="zlib.html#zlib.compressobj" title="zlib.compressobj"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> for more information).
+When using <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2" title="zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_BZIP2</span></code></a> integers <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> are accepted
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> for more information).</p>
+<p>If the file is created with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> and then
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.close" title="zipfile.ZipFile.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closed</span></code></a> without adding any files to the archive, the appropriate
+ZIP structures for an empty archive will be written to the file.</p>
+<p>ZipFile is also a context manager and therefore supports the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.  In the example, <em>myzip</em> is closed after the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement’s suite is finished—even if an exception occurs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ZipFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.zip&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">myzip</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">myzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>Added the ability to use <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> as a context manager.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added support for <a class="reference internal" href="bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bzip2</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> compression.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Added support for writing to unseekable streams.
+Added support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> mode.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Previously, a plain <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised for unrecognized
+compression values.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.2: </span>The <em>file</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Add the <em>compresslevel</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.close">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Close the archive file.  You must call <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.close" title="zipfile.ZipFile.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> before exiting your program
+or essential records will not be written.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">getinfo</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> object with information about the archive member
+<em>name</em>.  Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo" title="zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getinfo()</span></code></a> for a name not currently contained in the
+archive will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.infolist">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">infolist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.infolist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list containing a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> object for each member of the
+archive.  The objects are in the same order as their entries in the actual ZIP
+file on disk if an existing archive was opened.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.namelist">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">namelist</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.namelist" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a list of archive members by name.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.open">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">open</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>pwd=None</em>, <em>*</em>, <em>force_zip64=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Access a member of the archive as a binary file-like object.  <em>name</em>
+can be either the name of a file within the archive or a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a>
+object.  The <em>mode</em> parameter, if included, must be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> (the default)
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>.  <em>pwd</em> is the password used to decrypt encrypted ZIP files.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.open" title="zipfile.ZipFile.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> is also a context manager and therefore supports the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">ZipFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam.zip&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">myzip</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">myzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;eggs.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">myfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">myfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With <em>mode</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> the file-like object
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipExtFile</span></code>) is read-only and provides the following methods:
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.read" title="io.BufferedIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readline" title="io.IOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.readlines" title="io.IOBase.readlines"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.seek" title="io.IOBase.seek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.IOBase.tell" title="io.IOBase.tell"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a>.
+These objects can operate independently of the ZipFile.</p>
+<p>With <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode='w'</span></code>, a writable file handle is returned, which supports the
+<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.write" title="io.BufferedIOBase.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method.  While a writable file handle is open,
+attempting to read or write other files in the ZIP file will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>When writing a file, if the file size is not known in advance but may exceed
+2 GiB, pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">force_zip64=True</span></code> to ensure that the header format is
+capable of supporting large files.  If the file size is known in advance,
+construct a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> object with <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.file_size" title="zipfile.ZipInfo.file_size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file_size</span></code></a> set, and
+use that as the <em>name</em> parameter.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.open" title="zipfile.ZipFile.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.read" title="zipfile.ZipFile.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.extract" title="zipfile.ZipFile.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract()</span></code></a> methods can take a filename
+or a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> object.  You will appreciate this when trying to read a
+ZIP file that contains members with duplicate names.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Removed support of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode='U'</span></code>.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> for reading
+compressed text files in <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> mode.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> can now be used to write files into the archive with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mode='w'</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.open" title="zipfile.ZipFile.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> on a closed ZipFile will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.
+Previously, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.extract">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">extract</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>member</em>, <em>path=None</em>, <em>pwd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.extract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory; <em>member</em>
+must be its full name or a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> object.  Its file information is
+extracted as accurately as possible.  <em>path</em> specifies a different directory
+to extract to.  <em>member</em> can be a filename or a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> object.
+<em>pwd</em> is the password used for encrypted files.</p>
+<p>Returns the normalized path created (a directory or new file).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If a member filename is an absolute path, a drive/UNC sharepoint and
+leading (back)slashes will be stripped, e.g.: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">///foo/bar</span></code> becomes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo/bar</span></code> on Unix, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\foo\bar</span></code> becomes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo\bar</span></code> on Windows.
+And all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;..&quot;</span></code> components in a member filename will be removed, e.g.:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">../../foo../../ba..r</span></code> becomes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo../ba..r</span></code>.  On Windows illegal
+characters (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>)
+replaced by underscore (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.extract" title="zipfile.ZipFile.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract()</span></code></a> on a closed ZipFile will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  Previously, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.2: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.extractall">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">extractall</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>path=None</em>, <em>members=None</em>, <em>pwd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.extractall" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract all members from the archive to the current working directory.  <em>path</em>
+specifies a different directory to extract to.  <em>members</em> is optional and must
+be a subset of the list returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.namelist" title="zipfile.ZipFile.namelist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namelist()</span></code></a>.  <em>pwd</em> is the password
+used for encrypted files.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection.
+It is possible that files are created outside of <em>path</em>, e.g. members
+that have absolute filenames starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;/&quot;</span></code> or filenames with two
+dots <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;..&quot;</span></code>.  This module attempts to prevent that.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.extract" title="zipfile.ZipFile.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract()</span></code></a> note.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.extractall" title="zipfile.ZipFile.extractall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extractall()</span></code></a> on a closed ZipFile will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  Previously, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.2: </span>The <em>path</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.printdir">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">printdir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.printdir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a table of contents for the archive to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.setpassword">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">setpassword</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pwd</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.setpassword" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set <em>pwd</em> as default password to extract encrypted files.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.read">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">read</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>name</em>, <em>pwd=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the bytes of the file <em>name</em> in the archive.  <em>name</em> is the name of the
+file in the archive, or a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> object.  The archive must be open for
+read or append. <em>pwd</em> is the password used for encrypted  files and, if specified,
+it will override the default password set with <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.setpassword" title="zipfile.ZipFile.setpassword"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpassword()</span></code></a>.  Calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.read" title="zipfile.ZipFile.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> on a ZipFile that uses a compression method other than
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_STORED" title="zipfile.ZIP_STORED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_STORED</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED" title="zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_DEFLATED</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2" title="zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_BZIP2</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_LZMA" title="zipfile.ZIP_LZMA"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_LZMA</span></code></a> will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a>. An error will also
+be raised if the corresponding compression module is not available.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.read" title="zipfile.ZipFile.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> on a closed ZipFile will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.
+Previously, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.testzip">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">testzip</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.testzip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Read all the files in the archive and check their CRC’s and file headers.
+Return the name of the first bad file, or else return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.testzip" title="zipfile.ZipFile.testzip"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testzip()</span></code></a> on a closed ZipFile will raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  Previously, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.write">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">write</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>arcname=None</em>, <em>compress_type=None</em>, <em>compresslevel=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write the file named <em>filename</em> to the archive, giving it the archive name
+<em>arcname</em> (by default, this will be the same as <em>filename</em>, but without a drive
+letter and with leading path separators removed).  If given, <em>compress_type</em>
+overrides the value given for the <em>compression</em> parameter to the constructor for
+the new entry. Similarly, <em>compresslevel</em> will override the constructor if
+given.
+The archive must be open with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Archive names should be relative to the archive root, that is, they should not
+start with a path separator.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arcname</span></code> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code>, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">arcname</span></code> is  not given) contains a null
+byte, the name of the file in the archive will be truncated at the null byte.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.write" title="zipfile.ZipFile.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> on a ZipFile created with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> or
+a closed ZipFile will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  Previously,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.writestr">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">writestr</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>zinfo_or_arcname</em>, <em>data</em>, <em>compress_type=None</em>, <em>compresslevel=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.writestr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Write a file into the archive.  The contents is <em>data</em>, which may be either
+a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> instance; if it is a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>,
+it is encoded as UTF-8 first.  <em>zinfo_or_arcname</em> is either the file
+name it will be given in the archive, or a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance.  If it’s
+an instance, at least the filename, date, and time must be given.  If it’s a
+name, the date and time is set to the current date and time.
+The archive must be opened with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If given, <em>compress_type</em> overrides the value given for the <em>compression</em>
+parameter to the constructor for the new entry, or in the <em>zinfo_or_arcname</em>
+(if that is a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance). Similarly, <em>compresslevel</em> will
+override the constructor if given.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>When passing a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance as the <em>zinfo_or_arcname</em> parameter,
+the compression method used will be that specified in the <em>compress_type</em>
+member of the given <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance.  By default, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> constructor sets this member to <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZIP_STORED" title="zipfile.ZIP_STORED"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZIP_STORED</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <em>compress_type</em> argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.writestr" title="zipfile.ZipFile.writestr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writestr()</span></code></a> on a ZipFile created with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> or
+a closed ZipFile will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  Previously,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The following data attributes are also available:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.filename">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">filename</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the ZIP file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.debug">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">debug</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.debug" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The level of debug output to use.  This may be set from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (the default, no
+output) to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code> (the most output).  Debugging information is written to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipFile.comment">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipFile.</code><code class="descname">comment</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.comment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The comment associated with the ZIP file as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.
+If assigning a comment to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> instance created with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code>,
+it should be no longer than 65535 bytes.  Comments longer than this will be
+truncated.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pyzipfile-objects">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>PyZipFile Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#pyzipfile-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.PyZipFile" title="zipfile.PyZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyZipFile</span></code></a> constructor takes the same parameters as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> constructor, and one additional parameter, <em>optimize</em>.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="zipfile.PyZipFile">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">zipfile.</code><code class="descname">PyZipFile</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>file</em>, <em>mode='r'</em>, <em>compression=ZIP_STORED</em>, <em>allowZip64=True</em>, <em>optimize=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.PyZipFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2: </span>The <em>optimize</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Instances have one method in addition to those of <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy">
+<code class="descname">writepy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em>, <em>basename=''</em>, <em>filterfunc=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search for files <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.py</span></code> and add the corresponding file to the
+archive.</p>
+<p>If the <em>optimize</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.PyZipFile" title="zipfile.PyZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyZipFile</span></code></a> was not given or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>,
+the corresponding file is a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code> file, compiling if necessary.</p>
+<p>If the <em>optimize</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.PyZipFile" title="zipfile.PyZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyZipFile</span></code></a> was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, only files with that optimization level (see <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>) are
+added to the archive, compiling if necessary.</p>
+<p>If <em>pathname</em> is a file, the filename must end with <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code>, and
+just the (corresponding <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code>) file is added at the top level
+(no path information).  If <em>pathname</em> is a file that does not end with
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code>, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> will be raised.  If it is a directory,
+and the directory is not a package directory, then all the files
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code> are added at the top level.  If the directory is a
+package directory, then all <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code> are added under the package
+name as a file path, and if any subdirectories are package directories,
+all of these are added recursively in sorted order.</p>
+<p><em>basename</em> is intended for internal use only.</p>
+<p><em>filterfunc</em>, if given, must be a function taking a single string
+argument.  It will be passed each path (including each individual full
+file path) before it is added to the archive.  If <em>filterfunc</em> returns a
+false value, the path will not be added, and if it is a directory its
+contents will be ignored.  For example, if our test files are all either
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test</span></code> directories or start with the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_</span></code>, we can use a
+<em>filterfunc</em> to exclude them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyZipFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myprog.zip&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">notests</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">fn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basename</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="ow">not</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fn</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;test&#39;</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">fn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test_&#39;</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writepy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myprog&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filterfunc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">notests</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy" title="zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writepy()</span></code></a> method makes archives with file names like
+this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pyc</span>                   <span class="c1"># Top level name</span>
+<span class="n">test</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pyc</span>            <span class="c1"># Package directory</span>
+<span class="n">test</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">testall</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pyc</span>             <span class="c1"># Module test.testall</span>
+<span class="n">test</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">bogus</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pyc</span>      <span class="c1"># Subpackage directory</span>
+<span class="n">test</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">bogus</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">myfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pyc</span>        <span class="c1"># Submodule test.bogus.myfile</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <em>filterfunc</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.2: </span>The <em>pathname</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Recursion sorts directory entries.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipinfo-objects">
+<span id="id3"></span><h2>ZipInfo Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#zipinfo-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> class are returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo" title="zipfile.ZipFile.getinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getinfo()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile.infolist" title="zipfile.ZipFile.infolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">infolist()</span></code></a> methods of <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> objects.  Each object stores
+information about a single member of the ZIP archive.</p>
+<p>There is one classmethod to make a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance for a filesystem
+file:</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">from_file</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>filename</em>, <em>arcname=None</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Construct a <a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance for a file on the filesystem, in
+preparation for adding it to a zip file.</p>
+<p><em>filename</em> should be the path to a file or directory on the filesystem.</p>
+<p>If <em>arcname</em> is specified, it is used as the name within the archive.
+If <em>arcname</em> is not specified, the name will be the same as <em>filename</em>, but
+with any drive letter and leading path separators removed.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.2: </span>The <em>filename</em> parameter accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Instances have the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.is_dir">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">is_dir</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.is_dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if this archive member is a directory.</p>
+<p>This uses the entry’s name: directories should always end with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.filename">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">filename</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Name of the file in the archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.date_time">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">date_time</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.date_time" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The time and date of the last modification to the archive member.  This is a
+tuple of six values:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 79%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Index</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Value</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Year (&gt;= 1980)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Month (one-based)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Day of month (one-based)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hours (zero-based)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Minutes (zero-based)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Seconds (zero-based)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The ZIP file format does not support timestamps before 1980.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_type">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">compress_type</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Type of compression for the archive member.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.comment">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">comment</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.comment" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Comment for the individual archive member as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.extra">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">extra</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.extra" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Expansion field data.  The <a class="reference external" href="https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT">PKZIP Application Note</a> contains
+some comments on the internal structure of the data contained in this
+<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.create_system">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">create_system</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.create_system" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>System which created ZIP archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.create_version">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">create_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.create_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>PKZIP version which created ZIP archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.extract_version">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">extract_version</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.extract_version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>PKZIP version needed to extract archive.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.reserved">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">reserved</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.reserved" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must be zero.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.flag_bits">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">flag_bits</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.flag_bits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>ZIP flag bits.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.volume">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">volume</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.volume" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Volume number of file header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.internal_attr">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">internal_attr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.internal_attr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Internal attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.external_attr">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">external_attr</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.external_attr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>External file attributes.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.header_offset">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">header_offset</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.header_offset" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Byte offset to the file header.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.CRC">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">CRC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.CRC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>CRC-32 of the uncompressed file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_size">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">compress_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.compress_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Size of the compressed data.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipfile.ZipInfo.file_size">
+<code class="descclassname">ZipInfo.</code><code class="descname">file_size</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile.ZipInfo.file_size" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Size of the uncompressed file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-interface">
+<span id="zipfile-commandline"></span><h2>Command-Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module provides a simple command-line interface to interact
+with ZIP archives.</p>
+<p>If you want to create a new ZIP archive, specify its name after the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a>
+option and then list the filename(s) that should be included:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Passing a directory is also acceptable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to extract a ZIP archive into the specified directory, use
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-e"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-e</span></code></a> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a list of the files in a ZIP archive, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-l"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-l</span></code></a> option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipfile -l monty.zip
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-options">
+<h3>Command-line options<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-l">
+<code class="descname">-l</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-l" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-list">
+<code class="descname">--list</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-list" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>List files in a zipfile.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-c">
+<code class="descname">-c</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-c" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-create">
+<code class="descname">--create</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;source1&gt; ... &lt;sourceN&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-create" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create zipfile from source files.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-e">
+<code class="descname">-e</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-e" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-extract">
+<code class="descname">--extract</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt; &lt;output_dir&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-extract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Extract zipfile into target directory.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-t">
+<code class="descname">-t</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-t" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-zipfile-test">
+<code class="descname">--test</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;zipfile&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-zipfile-test" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Test whether the zipfile is valid or not.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code> — Work with ZIP archives</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile-objects">ZipFile Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pyzipfile-objects">PyZipFile Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipinfo-objects">ZipInfo Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-options">Command-line options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="lzma.html"
+                        title="previous chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code> — Compression using the LZMA algorithm</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="tarfile.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code> — Read and write tar archive files</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipimport.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/library/zipimport.html
new file mode 100644
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+    <title>zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="module-zipimport">
+<span id="zipimport-import-modules-from-zip-archives"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipimport" title="zipimport: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code></a> — Import modules from Zip archives<a class="headerlink" href="#module-zipimport" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>This module adds the ability to import Python modules (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.py</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code>) and packages from ZIP-format archives. It is usually not
+needed to use the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipimport" title="zipimport: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code></a> module explicitly; it is automatically used
+by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> mechanism for <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> items that are paths
+to ZIP archives.</p>
+<p>Typically, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is a list of directory names as strings.  This module
+also allows an item of <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> to be a string naming a ZIP file archive.
+The ZIP archive can contain a subdirectory structure to support package imports,
+and a path within the archive can be specified to only import from a
+subdirectory.  For example, the path <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.zip/lib/</span></code> would only
+import from the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/</span></code> subdirectory within the archive.</p>
+<p>Any files may be present in the ZIP archive, but only files <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> are available for import.  ZIP import of dynamic modules
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyd</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code>) is disallowed. Note that if an archive only contains
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
+corresponding <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file, meaning that if a ZIP archive
+doesn’t contain <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files, importing may be rather slow.</p>
+<p>ZIP archives with an archive comment are currently not supported.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT">PKZIP Application Note</a></dt><dd><p>Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of the format and
+algorithms used.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0273"><strong>PEP 273</strong></a> - Import Modules from Zip Archives</dt><dd><p>Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation. Python 2.3
+follows the specification in PEP 273, but uses an implementation written by Just
+van Rossum that uses the import hooks described in PEP 302.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> - New Import Hooks</dt><dd><p>The PEP to add the import hooks that help this module work.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p>This module defines an exception:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="zipimport.ZipImportError">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">zipimport.</code><code class="descname">ZipImportError</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.ZipImportError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised by zipimporter objects. It’s a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>,
+so it can be caught as <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>, too.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="zipimporter-objects">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>zipimporter Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#zipimporter-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.zipimporter" title="zipimport.zipimporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimporter</span></code></a> is the class for importing ZIP files.</p>
+<dl class="class">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter">
+<em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">zipimport.</code><code class="descname">zipimporter</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>archivepath</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Create a new zipimporter instance. <em>archivepath</em> must be a path to a ZIP
+file, or to a specific path within a ZIP file.  For example, an <em>archivepath</em>
+of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo/bar.zip/lib</span></code> will look for modules in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib</span></code> directory
+inside the ZIP file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo/bar.zip</span></code> (provided that it exists).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.ZipImportError" title="zipimport.ZipImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipImportError</span></code></a> is raised if <em>archivepath</em> doesn’t point to a valid ZIP
+archive.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.find_module">
+<code class="descname">find_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>path</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.find_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search for a module specified by <em>fullname</em>. <em>fullname</em> must be the fully
+qualified (dotted) module name. It returns the zipimporter instance itself
+if the module was found, or <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if it wasn’t. The optional
+<em>path</em> argument is ignored—it’s there for compatibility with the
+importer protocol.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.get_code">
+<code class="descname">get_code</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.get_code" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the code object for the specified module. Raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.ZipImportError" title="zipimport.ZipImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipImportError</span></code></a> if the module couldn’t be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.get_data">
+<code class="descname">get_data</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>pathname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.get_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the data associated with <em>pathname</em>. Raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> if the
+file wasn’t found.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> used to be raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.get_filename">
+<code class="descname">get_filename</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.get_filename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> would be set to if the specified module
+was imported. Raise <a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.ZipImportError" title="zipimport.ZipImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipImportError</span></code></a> if the module couldn’t be
+found.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.1.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.get_source">
+<code class="descname">get_source</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.get_source" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the source code for the specified module. Raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.ZipImportError" title="zipimport.ZipImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipImportError</span></code></a> if the module couldn’t be found, return
+<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> if the archive does contain the module, but has no source
+for it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.is_package">
+<code class="descname">is_package</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.is_package" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the module specified by <em>fullname</em> is a package. Raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.ZipImportError" title="zipimport.ZipImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipImportError</span></code></a> if the module couldn’t be found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.load_module">
+<code class="descname">load_module</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>fullname</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.load_module" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Load the module specified by <em>fullname</em>. <em>fullname</em> must be the fully
+qualified (dotted) module name. It returns the imported module, or raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.ZipImportError" title="zipimport.ZipImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipImportError</span></code></a> if it wasn’t found.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.archive">
+<code class="descname">archive</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.archive" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The file name of the importer’s associated ZIP file, without a possible
+subpath.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zipimport.zipimporter.prefix">
+<code class="descname">prefix</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.prefix" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The subpath within the ZIP file where modules are searched.  This is the
+empty string for zipimporter objects which point to the root of the ZIP
+file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.archive" title="zipimport.zipimporter.archive"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">archive</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.zipimporter.prefix" title="zipimport.zipimporter.prefix"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code></a> attributes, when combined with a
+slash, equal the original <em>archivepath</em> argument given to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zipimport.zipimporter" title="zipimport.zipimporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimporter</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="zipimport-examples"></span><h2>Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#module-zipimport" title="zipimport: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code></a> module is not explicitly used.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> unzip -l example.zip
+<span class="go">Archive:  example.zip</span>
+<span class="go">  Length     Date   Time    Name</span>
+<span class="go"> --------    ----   ----    ----</span>
+<span class="go">     8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py</span>
+<span class="go"> --------                   -------</span>
+<span class="go">     8467                   1 file</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ./python
+<span class="go">Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; import sys
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; sys.path.insert<span class="o">(</span><span class="m">0</span>, <span class="s1">&#39;example.zip&#39;</span><span class="o">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Add .zip file to front of path</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; import jwzthreading
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; jwzthreading.__file__
+<span class="go">&#39;example.zip/jwzthreading.py&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code> — Import modules from Zip archives</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipimporter-objects">zipimporter Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="modules.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Importing Modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="pkgutil.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code> — Package extension utility</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="module-zlib">
+<span id="zlib-compression-compatible-with-gzip"></span><h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> — Compression compatible with <strong class="program">gzip</strong><a class="headerlink" href="#module-zlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<hr class="docutils" />
+<p>For applications that require data compression, the functions in this module
+allow compression and decompression, using the zlib library. The zlib library
+has its own home page at <a class="reference external" href="http://www.zlib.net">http://www.zlib.net</a>.   There are known
+incompatibilities between the Python module and versions of the zlib library
+earlier than 1.1.3; 1.1.3 has a security vulnerability, so we recommend using
+1.1.4 or later.</p>
+<p>zlib’s functions have many options and often need to be used in a particular
+order.  This documentation doesn’t attempt to cover all of the permutations;
+consult the zlib manual at <a class="reference external" href="http://www.zlib.net/manual.html">http://www.zlib.net/manual.html</a> for authoritative
+information.</p>
+<p>For reading and writing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.gz</span></code> files see the <a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The available exception and functions in this module are:</p>
+<dl class="exception">
+<dt id="zlib.error">
+<em class="property">exception </em><code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">error</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.error" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exception raised on compression and decompression errors.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zlib.adler32">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">adler32</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.adler32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Computes an Adler-32 checksum of <em>data</em>.  (An Adler-32 checksum is almost as
+reliable as a CRC32 but can be computed much more quickly.)  The result
+is an unsigned 32-bit integer.  If <em>value</em> is present, it is used as
+the starting value of the checksum; otherwise, a default value of 1
+is used.  Passing in <em>value</em> allows computing a running checksum over the
+concatenation of several inputs.  The algorithm is not cryptographically
+strong, and should not be used for authentication or digital signatures.  Since
+the algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable
+for use as a general hash algorithm.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.0: </span>Always returns an unsigned value.
+To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and
+platforms, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">adler32(data)</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0xffffffff</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zlib.compress">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>level=-1</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compresses the bytes in <em>data</em>, returning a bytes object containing compressed data.
+<em>level</em> is an integer from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> controlling the level of compression;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest and produces the least compression, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION)
+is slowest and produces the most.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no compression.
+The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).  Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default
+compromise between speed and compression (currently equivalent to level 6).
+Raises the <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.error" title="zlib.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></a> exception if any error occurs.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>level</em> can now be used as a keyword parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zlib.compressobj">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">compressobj</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>level=-1</em>, <em>method=DEFLATED</em>, <em>wbits=MAX_WBITS</em>, <em>memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL</em>, <em>strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>zdict</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.compressobj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a compression object, to be used for compressing data streams that won’t
+fit into memory at once.</p>
+<p><em>level</em> is the compression level – an integer from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.
+A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest and produces the least compression,
+while a value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code> (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) is slowest and produces the most.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no compression.  The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).
+Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default compromise between speed and compression
+(currently equivalent to level 6).</p>
+<p><em>method</em> is the compression algorithm. Currently, the only supported value is
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFLATED</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <em>wbits</em> argument controls the size of the history buffer (or the
+“window size”) used when compressing data, and whether a header and
+trailer is included in the output.  It can take several ranges of values,
+defaulting to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">15</span></code> (MAX_WBITS):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>+9 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size, which
+therefore ranges between 512 and 32768.  Larger values produce
+better compression at the expense of greater memory usage.  The
+resulting output will include a zlib-specific header and trailer.</p></li>
+<li><p>−9 to −15: Uses the absolute value of <em>wbits</em> as the
+window size logarithm, while producing a raw output stream with no
+header or trailing checksum.</p></li>
+<li><p>+25 to +31 = 16 + (9 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value as the
+window size logarithm, while including a basic <strong class="program">gzip</strong> header
+and trailing checksum in the output.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <em>memLevel</em> argument controls the amount of memory used for the
+internal compression state. Valid values range from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>.
+Higher values use more memory, but are faster and produce smaller output.</p>
+<p><em>strategy</em> is used to tune the compression algorithm. Possible values are
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FILTERED</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_RLE</span></code> (zlib 1.2.0.1) and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FIXED</span></code> (zlib 1.2.2.2).</p>
+<p><em>zdict</em> is a predefined compression dictionary. This is a sequence of bytes
+(such as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object) containing subsequences that are expected
+to occur frequently in the data that is to be compressed. Those subsequences
+that are expected to be most common should come at the end of the dictionary.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>zdict</em> parameter and keyword argument support.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zlib.crc32">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">crc32</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.crc32" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-0">Computes a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) checksum of <em>data</em>. The
+result is an unsigned 32-bit integer. If <em>value</em> is present, it is used
+as the starting value of the checksum; otherwise, a default value of 0
+is used.  Passing in <em>value</em> allows computing a running checksum over the
+concatenation of several inputs.  The algorithm is not cryptographically
+strong, and should not be used for authentication or digital signatures.  Since
+the algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable
+for use as a general hash algorithm.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.0: </span>Always returns an unsigned value.
+To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and
+platforms, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crc32(data)</span> <span class="pre">&amp;</span> <span class="pre">0xffffffff</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zlib.decompress">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">decompress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>wbits=MAX_WBITS</em>, <em>bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.decompress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decompresses the bytes in <em>data</em>, returning a bytes object containing the
+uncompressed data.  The <em>wbits</em> parameter depends on
+the format of <em>data</em>, and is discussed further below.
+If <em>bufsize</em> is given, it is used as the initial size of the output
+buffer.  Raises the <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.error" title="zlib.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></a> exception if any error occurs.</p>
+<p id="decompress-wbits">The <em>wbits</em> parameter controls the size of the history buffer
+(or “window size”), and what header and trailer format is expected.
+It is similar to the parameter for <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.compressobj" title="zlib.compressobj"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compressobj()</span></code></a>, but accepts
+more ranges of values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>+8 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size.  The input
+must include a zlib header and trailer.</p></li>
+<li><p>0: Automatically determine the window size from the zlib header.
+Only supported since zlib 1.2.3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p>−8 to −15: Uses the absolute value of <em>wbits</em> as the window size
+logarithm.  The input must be a raw stream with no header or trailer.</p></li>
+<li><p>+24 to +31 = 16 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value as
+the window size logarithm.  The input must include a gzip header and
+trailer.</p></li>
+<li><p>+40 to +47 = 32 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value as
+the window size logarithm, and automatically accepts either
+the zlib or gzip format.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When decompressing a stream, the window size must not be smaller
+than the size originally used to compress the stream; using a too-small
+value may result in an <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.error" title="zlib.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span></code></a> exception. The default <em>wbits</em> value
+corresponds to the largest window size and requires a zlib header and
+trailer to be included.</p>
+<p><em>bufsize</em> is the initial size of the buffer used to hold decompressed data.  If
+more space is required, the buffer size will be increased as needed, so you
+don’t have to get this value exactly right; tuning it will only save a few calls
+to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>wbits</em> and <em>bufsize</em> can be used as keyword arguments.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="function">
+<dt id="zlib.decompressobj">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">decompressobj</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>wbits=MAX_WBITS</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>zdict</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.decompressobj" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a decompression object, to be used for decompressing data streams that
+won’t fit into memory at once.</p>
+<p>The <em>wbits</em> parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or the
+“window size”), and what header and trailer format is expected.  It has
+the same meaning as <a class="reference external" href="#decompress-wbits">described for decompress()</a>.</p>
+<p>The <em>zdict</em> parameter specifies a predefined compression dictionary. If
+provided, this must be the same dictionary as was used by the compressor that
+produced the data that is to be decompressed.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If <em>zdict</em> is a mutable object (such as a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>), you must not
+modify its contents between the call to <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.decompressobj" title="zlib.decompressobj"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompressobj()</span></code></a> and the first
+call to the decompressor’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added the <em>zdict</em> parameter.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Compression objects support the following methods:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zlib.Compress.compress">
+<code class="descclassname">Compress.</code><code class="descname">compress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Compress.compress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Compress <em>data</em>, returning a bytes object containing compressed data for at least
+part of the data in <em>data</em>.  This data should be concatenated to the output
+produced by any preceding calls to the <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.compress" title="zlib.compress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> method.  Some input may
+be kept in internal buffers for later processing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zlib.Compress.flush">
+<code class="descclassname">Compress.</code><code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>mode</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Compress.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the remaining compressed
+output is returned.  <em>mode</em> can be selected from the constants
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_NO_FLUSH</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_SYNC_FLUSH</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FULL_FLUSH</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_BLOCK</span></code> (zlib 1.2.3.4), or <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FINISH</span></code>,
+defaulting to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FINISH</span></code>.  Except <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FINISH</span></code>, all constants
+allow compressing further bytestrings of data, while <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FINISH</span></code> finishes the
+compressed stream and prevents compressing any more data.  After calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.Compress.flush" title="zlib.Compress.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a>
+with <em>mode</em> set to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z_FINISH</span></code>, the <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.compress" title="zlib.compress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> method cannot be called again;
+the only realistic action is to delete the object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zlib.Compress.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">Compress.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Compress.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a copy of the compression object.  This can be used to efficiently
+compress a set of data that share a common initial prefix.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes:</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zlib.Decompress.unused_data">
+<code class="descclassname">Decompress.</code><code class="descname">unused_data</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Decompress.unused_data" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bytes object which contains any bytes past the end of the compressed data. That is,
+this remains <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;&quot;</span></code> until the last byte that contains compression data is
+available.  If the whole bytestring turned out to contain compressed data, this is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;&quot;</span></code>, an empty bytes object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail">
+<code class="descclassname">Decompress.</code><code class="descname">unconsumed_tail</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A bytes object that contains any data that was not consumed by the last
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> call because it exceeded the limit for the uncompressed data
+buffer.  This data has not yet been seen by the zlib machinery, so you must feed
+it (possibly with further data concatenated to it) back to a subsequent
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> method call in order to get correct output.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="zlib.Decompress.eof">
+<code class="descclassname">Decompress.</code><code class="descname">eof</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Decompress.eof" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>A boolean indicating whether the end of the compressed data stream has been
+reached.</p>
+<p>This makes it possible to distinguish between a properly-formed compressed
+stream, and an incomplete or truncated one.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zlib.Decompress.decompress">
+<code class="descclassname">Decompress.</code><code class="descname">decompress</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>data</em>, <em>max_length=0</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Decompress.decompress" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Decompress <em>data</em>, returning a bytes object containing the uncompressed data
+corresponding to at least part of the data in <em>string</em>.  This data should be
+concatenated to the output produced by any preceding calls to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> method.  Some of the input data may be preserved in internal
+buffers for later processing.</p>
+<p>If the optional parameter <em>max_length</em> is non-zero then the return value will be
+no longer than <em>max_length</em>. This may mean that not all of the compressed input
+can be processed; and unconsumed data will be stored in the attribute
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail" title="zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unconsumed_tail</span></code></a>. This bytestring must be passed to a subsequent call to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> if decompression is to continue.  If <em>max_length</em> is zero
+then the whole input is decompressed, and <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail" title="zlib.Decompress.unconsumed_tail"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unconsumed_tail</span></code></a> is empty.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><em>max_length</em> can be used as a keyword argument.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zlib.Decompress.flush">
+<code class="descclassname">Decompress.</code><code class="descname">flush</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>length</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Decompress.flush" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the remaining
+uncompressed output is returned.  After calling <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.Decompress.flush" title="zlib.Decompress.flush"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush()</span></code></a>, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> method cannot be called again; the only realistic action is
+to delete the object.</p>
+<p>The optional parameter <em>length</em> sets the initial size of the output buffer.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="zlib.Decompress.copy">
+<code class="descclassname">Decompress.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.Decompress.copy" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns a copy of the decompression object.  This can be used to save the state
+of the decompressor midway through the data stream in order to speed up random
+seeks into the stream at a future point.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Information about the version of the zlib library in use is available through
+the following constants:</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="zlib.ZLIB_VERSION">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">ZLIB_VERSION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.ZLIB_VERSION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version string of the zlib library that was used for building the module.
+This may be different from the zlib library actually used at runtime, which
+is available as <a class="reference internal" href="#zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION" title="zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION">
+<code class="descclassname">zlib.</code><code class="descname">ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION</code><a class="headerlink" href="#zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The version string of the zlib library actually loaded by the interpreter.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Reading and writing <strong class="program">gzip</strong>-format files.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.zlib.net">http://www.zlib.net</a></dt><dd><p>The zlib library home page.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.zlib.net/manual.html">http://www.zlib.net/manual.html</a></dt><dd><p>The zlib manual explains  the semantics and usage of the library’s many
+functions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="archiving.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Data Compression and Archiving</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="gzip.html"
+                        title="next chapter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code> — Support for <strong class="program">gzip</strong> files</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/library/zlib.rst"
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+      </li>
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+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/license.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/license.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..038f9d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/license.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1144 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>History and License &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)" href="distutils/index.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="Copyright" href="copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="_static/py.png" />
+    <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/license.html" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/copybutton.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="_static/switchers.js"></script>
+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
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+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="history-and-license">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>History and License<a class="headerlink" href="#history-and-license" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="history-of-the-software">
+<h2>History of the software<a class="headerlink" href="#history-of-the-software" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting
+Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see <a class="reference external" href="https://www.cwi.nl/">https://www.cwi.nl/</a>) in the Netherlands as a
+successor of a language called ABC.  Guido remains Python’s principal author,
+although it includes many contributions from others.</p>
+<p>In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National
+Research Initiatives (CNRI, see <a class="reference external" href="https://www.cnri.reston.va.us/">https://www.cnri.reston.va.us/</a>) in Reston,
+Virginia where he released several versions of the software.</p>
+<p>In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to
+form the BeOpen PythonLabs team.  In October of the same year, the PythonLabs
+team moved to Digital Creations (now Zope Corporation; see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.zope.com/">http://www.zope.com/</a>).  In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/psf/">https://www.python.org/psf/</a>) was formed, a non-profit organization created
+specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property.  Zope Corporation is a
+sponsoring member of the PSF.</p>
+<p>All Python releases are Open Source (see <a class="reference external" href="https://opensource.org/">https://opensource.org/</a> for the Open
+Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also
+been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 23%" />
+<col style="width: 20%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 17%" />
+<col style="width: 24%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Release</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Derived from</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Year</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Owner</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>GPL compatible?</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0.9.0 thru 1.2</p></td>
+<td><p>n/a</p></td>
+<td><p>1991-1995</p></td>
+<td><p>CWI</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1.3 thru 1.5.2</p></td>
+<td><p>1.2</p></td>
+<td><p>1995-1999</p></td>
+<td><p>CNRI</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>1.6</p></td>
+<td><p>1.5.2</p></td>
+<td><p>2000</p></td>
+<td><p>CNRI</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>2.0</p></td>
+<td><p>1.6</p></td>
+<td><p>2000</p></td>
+<td><p>BeOpen.com</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>1.6.1</p></td>
+<td><p>1.6</p></td>
+<td><p>2001</p></td>
+<td><p>CNRI</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>2.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2.0+1.6.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2001</p></td>
+<td><p>PSF</p></td>
+<td><p>no</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2.0.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2.0+1.6.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2001</p></td>
+<td><p>PSF</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>2.1.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2.1+2.0.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2001</p></td>
+<td><p>PSF</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2.1.2</p></td>
+<td><p>2.1.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2002</p></td>
+<td><p>PSF</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>2.1.3</p></td>
+<td><p>2.1.2</p></td>
+<td><p>2002</p></td>
+<td><p>PSF</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>2.2 and above</p></td>
+<td><p>2.1.1</p></td>
+<td><p>2001-now</p></td>
+<td><p>PSF</p></td>
+<td><p>yes</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL.  All
+Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without
+making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to
+combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others
+don’t.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to
+make these releases possible.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="terms-and-conditions-for-accessing-or-otherwise-using-python">
+<h2>Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python<a class="headerlink" href="#terms-and-conditions-for-accessing-or-otherwise-using-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="psf-license-agreement-for-python-release">
+<h3>PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 3.7.4<a class="headerlink" href="#psf-license-agreement-for-python-release" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<pre class="literal-block">1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation (&quot;PSF&quot;), and
+   the Individual or Organization (&quot;Licensee&quot;) accessing and otherwise using Python
+   3.7.4 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation.
+
+2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
+   grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
+   analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
+   distribute, and otherwise use Python 3.7.4 alone or in any derivative
+   version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
+   copyright, i.e., &quot;Copyright © 2001-2019 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
+   Reserved&quot; are retained in Python 3.7.4 alone or in any derivative version
+   prepared by Licensee.
+
+3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
+   incorporates Python 3.7.4 or any part thereof, and wants to make the
+   derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
+   agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python
+   3.7.4.
+
+4. PSF is making Python 3.7.4 available to Licensee on an &quot;AS IS&quot; basis.
+   PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
+   EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
+   WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
+   USE OF PYTHON 3.7.4 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 3.7.4
+   FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
+   MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 3.7.4, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
+   THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.
+
+6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
+   its terms and conditions.
+
+7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
+   of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
+   Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
+   trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
+   third party.
+
+8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python 3.7.4, Licensee agrees
+   to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="beopen-com-license-agreement-for-python-2-0">
+<h3>BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0<a class="headerlink" href="#beopen-com-license-agreement-for-python-2-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com (&quot;BeOpen&quot;), having an office at
+   160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
+   (&quot;Licensee&quot;) accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
+   form and its associated documentation (&quot;the Software&quot;).
+
+2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
+   BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
+   to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
+   works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
+   version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
+   Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.
+
+3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an &quot;AS IS&quot; basis.
+   BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
+   EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
+   WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
+   USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
+   ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
+   MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
+   ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.
+
+5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
+   its terms and conditions.
+
+6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
+   by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
+   Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
+   agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
+   Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
+   trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
+   third party.  As an exception, the &quot;BeOpen Python&quot; logos available at
+   http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions
+   granted on that web page.
+
+7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
+   bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cnri-license-agreement-for-python-1-6-1">
+<h3>CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1<a class="headerlink" href="#cnri-license-agreement-for-python-1-6-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
+   Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
+   (&quot;CNRI&quot;), and the Individual or Organization (&quot;Licensee&quot;) accessing and
+   otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
+   associated documentation.
+
+2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
+   grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
+   analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
+   distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
+   provided, however, that CNRI&#39;s License Agreement and CNRI&#39;s notice of copyright,
+   i.e., &quot;Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
+   Rights Reserved&quot; are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
+   prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI&#39;s License Agreement,
+   Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): &quot;Python 1.6.1
+   is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI&#39;s License
+   Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
+   Internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
+   1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
+   Internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013.&quot;
+
+3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
+   incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
+   work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
+   include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.
+
+4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an &quot;AS IS&quot; basis.  CNRI
+   MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
+   BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
+   OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
+   PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
+   ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
+   MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
+   THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.
+
+6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
+   its terms and conditions.
+
+7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
+   law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
+   law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
+   Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia&#39;s conflict of law provisions.
+   Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
+   1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
+   under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
+   Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
+   with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
+   this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
+   partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
+   does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
+   sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
+   party.
+
+8. By clicking on the &quot;ACCEPT&quot; button where indicated, or by copying, installing
+   or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
+   conditions of this License Agreement.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cwi-license-agreement-for-python-0-9-0-through-1-2">
+<h3>CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2<a class="headerlink" href="#cwi-license-agreement-for-python-0-9-0-through-1-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
+Netherlands.  All rights reserved.
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
+documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
+the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
+notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
+the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
+publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
+prior permission.
+
+STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
+SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
+EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
+OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
+DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
+ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="licenses-and-acknowledgements-for-incorporated-software">
+<h2>Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software<a class="headerlink" href="#licenses-and-acknowledgements-for-incorporated-software" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements
+for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution.</p>
+<div class="section" id="mersenne-twister">
+<h3>Mersenne Twister<a class="headerlink" href="#mersenne-twister" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_random</span></code> module includes code based on a download from
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html">http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html</a>. The following are
+the verbatim comments from the original code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
+Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.
+
+Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
+or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).
+
+Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+ 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+ 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+ 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
+    products derived from this software without specific prior written
+    permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+&quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
+CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
+EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
+PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
+PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+
+Any feedback is very welcome.
+http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
+email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sockets">
+<h3>Sockets<a class="headerlink" href="#sockets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module uses the functions, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getnameinfo()</span></code>, which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE
+Project, <a class="reference external" href="http://www.wide.ad.jp/">http://www.wide.ad.jp/</a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
+   may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+   without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS&#39;&#39; AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asynchronous-socket-services">
+<h3>Asynchronous socket services<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchronous-socket-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/asynchat.html#module-asynchat" title="asynchat: Support for asynchronous command/response protocols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> modules contain the following notice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing
+
+                        All Rights Reserved
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
+its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
+granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
+copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
+notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
+Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
+distribution of the software without specific, written prior
+permission.
+
+SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
+INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
+NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
+CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
+OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cookie-management">
+<h3>Cookie management<a class="headerlink" href="#cookie-management" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies" title="http.cookies: Support for HTTP state management (cookies)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies</span></code></a> module contains the following notice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright 2000 by Timothy O&#39;Malley &lt;timo@alum.mit.edu&gt;
+
+               All Rights Reserved
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
+and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
+granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
+copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
+notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
+Timothy O&#39;Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
+pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
+prior permission.
+
+Timothy O&#39;Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
+SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
+AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O&#39;Malley BE LIABLE FOR
+ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
+ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
+PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="execution-tracing">
+<h3>Execution tracing<a class="headerlink" href="#execution-tracing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/trace.html#module-trace" title="trace: Trace or track Python statement execution."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code></a> module contains the following notice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
+err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
+Python 2.2 license.
+Author: Zooko O&#39;Whielacronx
+http://zooko.com/
+mailto:zooko@zooko.com
+
+Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
+Author: Skip Montanaro
+
+Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
+Author: Andrew Dalke
+
+Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
+Author: Skip Montanaro
+
+Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.
+
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
+its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
+granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
+and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
+supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
+Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
+distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="uuencode-and-uudecode-functions">
+<h3>UUencode and UUdecode functions<a class="headerlink" href="#uuencode-and-uudecode-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/uu.html#module-uu" title="uu: Encode and decode files in uuencode format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu</span></code></a> module contains the following notice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
+Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
+                       All Rights Reserved
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
+documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
+provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
+both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
+supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
+not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
+of the software without specific, written prior permission.
+LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
+THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
+FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
+WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
+ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
+OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+
+Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
+- Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
+  between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
+  version is still 5 times faster, though.
+- Arguments more compliant with Python standard
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xml-remote-procedure-calls">
+<h3>XML Remote Procedure Calls<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-remote-procedure-calls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> module contains the following notice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>    The XML-RPC client interface is
+
+Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
+Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh
+
+By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
+associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
+and will comply with the following terms and conditions:
+
+Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
+its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
+hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
+all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
+notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
+Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
+pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
+prior permission.
+
+SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
+TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
+ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
+BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
+DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
+ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
+OF THIS SOFTWARE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="test-epoll">
+<h3>test_epoll<a class="headerlink" href="#test-epoll" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_epoll</span></code> module contains the following notice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="select-kqueue">
+<h3>Select kqueue<a class="headerlink" href="#select-kqueue" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module contains the following notice for the kqueue
+interface:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS&#39;&#39; AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="siphash24">
+<h3>SipHash24<a class="headerlink" href="#siphash24" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python/pyhash.c</span></code> contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of
+Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>&lt;MIT License&gt;
+Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski &lt;marek@popcount.org&gt;
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the &quot;Software&quot;), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
+all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+&lt;/MIT License&gt;
+
+Original location:
+   https://github.com/majek/csiphash/
+
+Solution inspired by code from:
+   Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
+   djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
+   Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="strtod-and-dtoa">
+<h3>strtod and dtoa<a class="headerlink" href="#strtod-and-dtoa" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python/dtoa.c</span></code>, which supplies C functions dtoa and
+strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived
+from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available
+from <a class="reference external" href="http://www.netlib.org/fp/">http://www.netlib.org/fp/</a>.  The original file, as retrieved on
+March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing
+notice:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>/****************************************************************
+ *
+ * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
+ *
+ * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
+ *
+ * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
+ * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
+ * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
+ * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
+ * documentation for such software.
+ *
+ * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
+ * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
+ * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
+ * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
+ *
+ ***************************************************************/
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="openssl">
+<h3>OpenSSL<a class="headerlink" href="#openssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The modules <a class="reference internal" href="library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/posix.html#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="library/crypt.html#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> use
+the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the
+operating system. Additionally, the Windows and Mac OS X installers for
+Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy
+of the OpenSSL license here:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span> LICENSE ISSUES
+ ==============
+
+ The OpenSSL toolkit stays under a dual license, i.e. both the conditions of
+ the OpenSSL License and the original SSLeay license apply to the toolkit.
+ See below for the actual license texts. Actually both licenses are BSD-style
+ Open Source licenses. In case of any license issues related to OpenSSL
+ please contact openssl-core@openssl.org.
+
+ OpenSSL License
+ ---------------
+
+   /* ====================================================================
+    * Copyright (c) 1998-2008 The OpenSSL Project.  All rights reserved.
+    *
+    * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+    * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+    * are met:
+    *
+    * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+    *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+    *
+    * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+    *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in
+    *    the documentation and/or other materials provided with the
+    *    distribution.
+    *
+    * 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this
+    *    software must display the following acknowledgment:
+    *    &quot;This product includes software developed by the OpenSSL Project
+    *    for use in the OpenSSL Toolkit. (http://www.openssl.org/)&quot;
+    *
+    * 4. The names &quot;OpenSSL Toolkit&quot; and &quot;OpenSSL Project&quot; must not be used to
+    *    endorse or promote products derived from this software without
+    *    prior written permission. For written permission, please contact
+    *    openssl-core@openssl.org.
+    *
+    * 5. Products derived from this software may not be called &quot;OpenSSL&quot;
+    *    nor may &quot;OpenSSL&quot; appear in their names without prior written
+    *    permission of the OpenSSL Project.
+    *
+    * 6. Redistributions of any form whatsoever must retain the following
+    *    acknowledgment:
+    *    &quot;This product includes software developed by the OpenSSL Project
+    *    for use in the OpenSSL Toolkit (http://www.openssl.org/)&quot;
+    *
+    * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE OpenSSL PROJECT ``AS IS&#39;&#39; AND ANY
+    * EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+    * IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
+    * PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE OpenSSL PROJECT OR
+    * ITS CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
+    * SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT
+    * NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
+    * LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+    * HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
+    * STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
+    * ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
+    * OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+    * ====================================================================
+    *
+    * This product includes cryptographic software written by Eric Young
+    * (eay@cryptsoft.com).  This product includes software written by Tim
+    * Hudson (tjh@cryptsoft.com).
+    *
+    */
+
+Original SSLeay License
+-----------------------
+
+   /* Copyright (C) 1995-1998 Eric Young (eay@cryptsoft.com)
+    * All rights reserved.
+    *
+    * This package is an SSL implementation written
+    * by Eric Young (eay@cryptsoft.com).
+    * The implementation was written so as to conform with Netscapes SSL.
+    *
+    * This library is free for commercial and non-commercial use as long as
+    * the following conditions are aheared to.  The following conditions
+    * apply to all code found in this distribution, be it the RC4, RSA,
+    * lhash, DES, etc., code; not just the SSL code.  The SSL documentation
+    * included with this distribution is covered by the same copyright terms
+    * except that the holder is Tim Hudson (tjh@cryptsoft.com).
+    *
+    * Copyright remains Eric Young&#39;s, and as such any Copyright notices in
+    * the code are not to be removed.
+    * If this package is used in a product, Eric Young should be given attribution
+    * as the author of the parts of the library used.
+    * This can be in the form of a textual message at program startup or
+    * in documentation (online or textual) provided with the package.
+    *
+    * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+    * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+    * are met:
+    * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the copyright
+    *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+    * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+    *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+    *    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+    * 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
+    *    must display the following acknowledgement:
+    *    &quot;This product includes cryptographic software written by
+    *     Eric Young (eay@cryptsoft.com)&quot;
+    *    The word &#39;cryptographic&#39; can be left out if the rouines from the library
+    *    being used are not cryptographic related :-).
+    * 4. If you include any Windows specific code (or a derivative thereof) from
+    *    the apps directory (application code) you must include an acknowledgement:
+    *    &quot;This product includes software written by Tim Hudson (tjh@cryptsoft.com)&quot;
+    *
+    * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY ERIC YOUNG ``AS IS&#39;&#39; AND
+    * ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+    * IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+    * ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+    * FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+    * DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+    * OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+    * HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+    * LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+    * OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+    * SUCH DAMAGE.
+    *
+    * The licence and distribution terms for any publically available version or
+    * derivative of this code cannot be changed.  i.e. this code cannot simply be
+    * copied and put under another distribution licence
+    * [including the GNU Public Licence.]
+    */
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="expat">
+<h3>expat<a class="headerlink" href="#expat" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> extension is built using an included copy of the expat
+sources unless the build is configured <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-system-expat</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd
+                               and Clark Cooper
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+&quot;Software&quot;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED &quot;AS IS&quot;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
+TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
+SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="libffi">
+<h3>libffi<a class="headerlink" href="#libffi" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ctypes</span></code> extension is built using an included copy of the libffi
+sources unless the build is configured <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-system-libffi</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+``Software&#39;&#39;), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED ``AS IS&#39;&#39;, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
+HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
+WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zlib">
+<h3>zlib<a class="headerlink" href="#zlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> extension is built using an included copy of the zlib
+sources if the zlib version found on the system is too old to be
+used for the build:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler
+
+This software is provided &#39;as-is&#39;, without any express or implied
+warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
+arising from the use of this software.
+
+Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
+including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
+freely, subject to the following restrictions:
+
+1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
+   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
+   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
+   appreciated but is not required.
+
+2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
+   misrepresented as being the original software.
+
+3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.
+
+Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
+jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cfuhash">
+<h3>cfuhash<a class="headerlink" href="#cfuhash" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The implementation of the hash table used by the <a class="reference internal" href="library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> is based
+on the cfuhash project:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
+All rights reserved.
+
+This code is released under the BSD license:
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+  * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+  * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
+    copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
+    disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
+    with the distribution.
+
+  * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
+    contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
+    from this software without specific prior written permission.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+&quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
+INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
+(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
+SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
+STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
+ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
+OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="libmpdec">
+<h3>libmpdec<a class="headerlink" href="#libmpdec" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_decimal</span></code> module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec
+library unless the build is configured <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-system-libmpdec</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Copyright (c) 2008-2016 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND
+ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+SUCH DAMAGE.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">History and License</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#history-of-the-software">History of the software</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#terms-and-conditions-for-accessing-or-otherwise-using-python">Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#psf-license-agreement-for-python-release">PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 3.7.4</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#beopen-com-license-agreement-for-python-2-0">BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cnri-license-agreement-for-python-1-6-1">CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cwi-license-agreement-for-python-0-9-0-through-1-2">CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#licenses-and-acknowledgements-for-incorporated-software">Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mersenne-twister">Mersenne Twister</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sockets">Sockets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-socket-services">Asynchronous socket services</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cookie-management">Cookie management</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#execution-tracing">Execution tracing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#uuencode-and-uudecode-functions">UUencode and UUdecode functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-remote-procedure-calls">XML Remote Procedure Calls</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#test-epoll">test_epoll</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#select-kqueue">Select kqueue</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#siphash24">SipHash24</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#strtod-and-dtoa">strtod and dtoa</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#openssl">OpenSSL</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#expat">expat</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#libffi">libffi</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zlib">zlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cfuhash">cfuhash</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#libmpdec">libmpdec</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="copyright.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Copyright</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="distutils/index.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/license.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="distutils/index.html" title="Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)"
+             >next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="copyright.html" title="Copyright"
+             >previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
+          <a href="index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
+        </li>
+
+    <li class="right">
+        
+
+    <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search">
+        <form class="inline-search" action="search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="footer">
+    &copy; <a href="copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
+    <br />
+    The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
+    <a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
+    <br />
+    Last updated on Jul 13, 2019.
+    <a href="bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
+    <br />
+    Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 2.0.1.
+    </div>
+
+  </body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/py-modindex.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/py-modindex.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..30beee0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/py-modindex.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2052 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Python Module Index &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+            
+
+   <h1>Python Module Index</h1>
+
+   <div class="modindex-jumpbox">
+   <a href="#cap-_"><strong>_</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-a"><strong>a</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-b"><strong>b</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-c"><strong>c</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-d"><strong>d</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-e"><strong>e</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-f"><strong>f</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-g"><strong>g</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-h"><strong>h</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-i"><strong>i</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-j"><strong>j</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-k"><strong>k</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-l"><strong>l</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-m"><strong>m</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-n"><strong>n</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-o"><strong>o</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-p"><strong>p</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-q"><strong>q</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-r"><strong>r</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-s"><strong>s</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-t"><strong>t</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-u"><strong>u</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-v"><strong>v</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-w"><strong>w</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-x"><strong>x</strong></a> | 
+   <a href="#cap-z"><strong>z</strong></a>
+   </div>
+
+   <table class="indextable modindextable">
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-_"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>_</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/__future__.html#module-__future__"><code class="xref">__future__</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Future statement definitions</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/__main__.html#module-__main__"><code class="xref">__main__</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The environment where the top-level script is run.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/_dummy_thread.html#module-_dummy_thread"><code class="xref">_dummy_thread</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Drop-in replacement for the _thread module.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/_thread.html#module-_thread"><code class="xref">_thread</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Low-level threading API.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-a"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>a</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/abc.html#module-abc"><code class="xref">abc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/aifc.html#module-aifc"><code class="xref">aifc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/argparse.html#module-argparse"><code class="xref">argparse</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Command-line option and argument parsing library.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/array.html#module-array"><code class="xref">array</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/ast.html#module-ast"><code class="xref">ast</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/asynchat.html#module-asynchat"><code class="xref">asynchat</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for asynchronous command/response protocols.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio"><code class="xref">asyncio</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Asynchronous I/O.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore"><code class="xref">asyncore</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling
+services.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/atexit.html#module-atexit"><code class="xref">atexit</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Register and execute cleanup functions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/audioop.html#module-audioop"><code class="xref">audioop</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Manipulate raw audio data.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-b"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>b</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/base64.html#module-base64"><code class="xref">base64</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings;
+Base85 and Ascii85</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/bdb.html#module-bdb"><code class="xref">bdb</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Debugger framework.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/binascii.html#module-binascii"><code class="xref">binascii</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary
+representations.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/binhex.html#module-binhex"><code class="xref">binhex</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Encode and decode files in binhex4 format.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/bisect.html#module-bisect"><code class="xref">bisect</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/builtins.html#module-builtins"><code class="xref">builtins</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The module that provides the built-in namespace.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/bz2.html#module-bz2"><code class="xref">bz2</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-c"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>c</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/calendar.html#module-calendar"><code class="xref">calendar</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation
+of the Unix cal program.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/cgi.html#module-cgi"><code class="xref">cgi</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/cgitb.html#module-cgitb"><code class="xref">cgitb</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/chunk.html#module-chunk"><code class="xref">chunk</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Module to read IFF chunks.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/cmath.html#module-cmath"><code class="xref">cmath</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Mathematical functions for complex numbers.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/cmd.html#module-cmd"><code class="xref">cmd</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build line-oriented command interpreters.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/code.html#module-code"><code class="xref">code</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/codecs.html#module-codecs"><code class="xref">codecs</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Encode and decode data and streams.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/codeop.html#module-codeop"><code class="xref">codeop</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-1" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/collections.html#module-collections"><code class="xref">collections</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Container datatypes</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-2" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">collections</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-2">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc"><code class="xref">collections.abc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Abstract base classes for containers</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/colorsys.html#module-colorsys"><code class="xref">colorsys</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/compileall.html#module-compileall"><code class="xref">compileall</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-3" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">concurrent</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-3">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures"><code class="xref">concurrent.futures</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/configparser.html#module-configparser"><code class="xref">configparser</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Configuration file parser.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib"><code class="xref">contextlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utilities for with-statement contexts.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars"><code class="xref">contextvars</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Context Variables</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/copy.html#module-copy"><code class="xref">copy</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Shallow and deep copy operations.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/copyreg.html#module-copyreg"><code class="xref">copyreg</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Register pickle support functions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/profile.html#module-cProfile"><code class="xref">cProfile</code></a></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/crypt.html#module-crypt"><code class="xref">crypt</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/csv.html#module-csv"><code class="xref">csv</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes"><code class="xref">ctypes</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A foreign function library for Python.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-4" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/curses.html#module-curses"><code class="xref">curses</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>An interface to the curses library, providing portable
+terminal handling.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-5" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">curses</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-5">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/curses.ascii.html#module-curses.ascii"><code class="xref">curses.ascii</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-5">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/curses.panel.html#module-curses.panel"><code class="xref">curses.panel</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-5">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/curses.html#module-curses.textpad"><code class="xref">curses.textpad</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-d"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>d</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/dataclasses.html#module-dataclasses"><code class="xref">dataclasses</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Generate special methods on user-defined classes.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/datetime.html#module-datetime"><code class="xref">datetime</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Basic date and time types.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-6" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm"><code class="xref">dbm</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interfaces to various Unix &#34;database&#34; formats.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-7" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">dbm</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-7">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb"><code class="xref">dbm.dumb</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-7">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu"><code class="xref">dbm.gnu</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>GNU&#39;s reinterpretation of dbm.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-7">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm"><code class="xref">dbm.ndbm</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>The standard &#34;database&#34; interface, based on ndbm.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/decimal.html#module-decimal"><code class="xref">decimal</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/difflib.html#module-difflib"><code class="xref">difflib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Helpers for computing differences between objects.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/dis.html#module-dis"><code class="xref">dis</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Disassembler for Python bytecode.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-8" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/distutils.html#module-distutils"><code class="xref">distutils</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for building and installing Python modules into an
+existing Python installation.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-9" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">distutils</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.archive_util"><code class="xref">distutils.archive_util</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utility functions for creating archive files (tarballs, zip files, ...)</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.bcppcompiler"><code class="xref">distutils.bcppcompiler</code></a></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.ccompiler"><code class="xref">distutils.ccompiler</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Abstract CCompiler class</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.cmd"><code class="xref">distutils.cmd</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>This module provides the abstract base class Command. This class
+is subclassed by the modules in the distutils.command subpackage.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command"><code class="xref">distutils.command</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>This subpackage contains one module for each standard Distutils command.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist"><code class="xref">distutils.command.bdist</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build a binary installer for a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_dumb"><code class="xref">distutils.command.bdist_dumb</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build a &#34;dumb&#34; installer - a simple archive of files</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_msi"><code class="xref">distutils.command.bdist_msi</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build a binary distribution as a Windows MSI file</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_packager"><code class="xref">distutils.command.bdist_packager</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Abstract base class for packagers</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_rpm"><code class="xref">distutils.command.bdist_rpm</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.bdist_wininst"><code class="xref">distutils.command.bdist_wininst</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build a Windows installer</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build"><code class="xref">distutils.command.build</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build all files of a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_clib"><code class="xref">distutils.command.build_clib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build any C libraries in a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_ext"><code class="xref">distutils.command.build_ext</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build any extensions in a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_py"><code class="xref">distutils.command.build_py</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build the .py/.pyc files of a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.build_scripts"><code class="xref">distutils.command.build_scripts</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build the scripts of a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.check"><code class="xref">distutils.command.check</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Check the metadata of a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.clean"><code class="xref">distutils.command.clean</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Clean a package build area</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.config"><code class="xref">distutils.command.config</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Perform package configuration</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install"><code class="xref">distutils.command.install</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Install a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_data"><code class="xref">distutils.command.install_data</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Install data files from a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_headers"><code class="xref">distutils.command.install_headers</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Install C/C++ header files from a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_lib"><code class="xref">distutils.command.install_lib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Install library files from a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.install_scripts"><code class="xref">distutils.command.install_scripts</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Install script files from a package</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.register"><code class="xref">distutils.command.register</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Register a module with the Python Package Index</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.command.sdist"><code class="xref">distutils.command.sdist</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build a source distribution</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.core"><code class="xref">distutils.core</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The core Distutils functionality</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.cygwinccompiler"><code class="xref">distutils.cygwinccompiler</code></a></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.debug"><code class="xref">distutils.debug</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Provides the debug flag for distutils</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dep_util"><code class="xref">distutils.dep_util</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utility functions for simple dependency checking</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dir_util"><code class="xref">distutils.dir_util</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utility functions for operating on directories and directory trees</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.dist"><code class="xref">distutils.dist</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Provides the Distribution class, which represents the module distribution being
+built/installed/distributed</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.errors"><code class="xref">distutils.errors</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Provides standard distutils exceptions</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.extension"><code class="xref">distutils.extension</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Provides the Extension class, used to describe C/C++ extension modules in setup
+scripts</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.fancy_getopt"><code class="xref">distutils.fancy_getopt</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Additional getopt functionality</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.file_util"><code class="xref">distutils.file_util</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utility functions for operating on single files</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.filelist"><code class="xref">distutils.filelist</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The FileList class, used for poking about the file system and
+building lists of files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.log"><code class="xref">distutils.log</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A simple logging mechanism, 282-style</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.msvccompiler"><code class="xref">distutils.msvccompiler</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Microsoft Compiler</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.spawn"><code class="xref">distutils.spawn</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Provides the spawn() function</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.sysconfig"><code class="xref">distutils.sysconfig</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Low-level access to configuration information of the Python interpreter.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.text_file"><code class="xref">distutils.text_file</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>provides the TextFile class, a simple interface to text files</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.unixccompiler"><code class="xref">distutils.unixccompiler</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>UNIX C Compiler</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.util"><code class="xref">distutils.util</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Miscellaneous other utility functions</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-9">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.version"><code class="xref">distutils.version</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>implements classes that represent module version numbers.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/doctest.html#module-doctest"><code class="xref">doctest</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Test pieces of code within docstrings.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/dummy_threading.html#module-dummy_threading"><code class="xref">dummy_threading</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Drop-in replacement for the threading module.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-e"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>e</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-10" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/email.html#module-email"><code class="xref">email</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating
+email messages.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-11" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">email</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.charset.html#module-email.charset"><code class="xref">email.charset</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Character Sets</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager"><code class="xref">email.contentmanager</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.encoders.html#module-email.encoders"><code class="xref">email.encoders</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Encoders for email message payloads.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.errors.html#module-email.errors"><code class="xref">email.errors</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The exception classes used by the email package.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.generator.html#module-email.generator"><code class="xref">email.generator</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Generate flat text email messages from a message structure.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.header.html#module-email.header"><code class="xref">email.header</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Representing non-ASCII headers</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.headerregistry.html#module-email.headerregistry"><code class="xref">email.headerregistry</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.iterators.html#module-email.iterators"><code class="xref">email.iterators</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Iterate over a  message object tree.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.message.html#module-email.message"><code class="xref">email.message</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The base class representing email messages.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.mime.html#module-email.mime"><code class="xref">email.mime</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Build MIME messages.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.parser.html#module-email.parser"><code class="xref">email.parser</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.policy.html#module-email.policy"><code class="xref">email.policy</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Controlling the parsing and generating of messages</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-11">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/email.utils.html#module-email.utils"><code class="xref">email.utils</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Miscellaneous email package utilities.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-12" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">encodings</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-12">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.idna"><code class="xref">encodings.idna</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Internationalized Domain Names implementation</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-12">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.mbcs"><code class="xref">encodings.mbcs</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Windows ANSI codepage</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-12">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/codecs.html#module-encodings.utf_8_sig"><code class="xref">encodings.utf_8_sig</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>UTF-8 codec with BOM signature</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip"><code class="xref">ensurepip</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Bootstrapping the &#34;pip&#34; installer into an existing Python
+installation or virtual environment.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/enum.html#module-enum"><code class="xref">enum</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Implementation of an enumeration class.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/errno.html#module-errno"><code class="xref">errno</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Standard errno system symbols.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-f"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>f</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler"><code class="xref">faulthandler</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Dump the Python traceback.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/fcntl.html#module-fcntl"><code class="xref">fcntl</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/filecmp.html#module-filecmp"><code class="xref">filecmp</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Compare files efficiently.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/fileinput.html#module-fileinput"><code class="xref">fileinput</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Loop over standard input or a list of files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/fnmatch.html#module-fnmatch"><code class="xref">fnmatch</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Unix shell style filename pattern matching.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/formatter.html#module-formatter"><code class="xref">formatter</code></a></td><td><strong>Deprecated:</strong>
+       <em>Generic output formatter and device interface.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/fractions.html#module-fractions"><code class="xref">fractions</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Rational numbers.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib"><code class="xref">ftplib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>FTP protocol client (requires sockets).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/functools.html#module-functools"><code class="xref">functools</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-g"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>g</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/gc.html#module-gc"><code class="xref">gc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/getopt.html#module-getopt"><code class="xref">getopt</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Portable parser for command line options; support both short and
+long option names.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/getpass.html#module-getpass"><code class="xref">getpass</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/gettext.html#module-gettext"><code class="xref">gettext</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Multilingual internationalization services.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/glob.html#module-glob"><code class="xref">glob</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/grp.html#module-grp"><code class="xref">grp</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>The group database (getgrnam() and friends).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/gzip.html#module-gzip"><code class="xref">gzip</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-h"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>h</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib"><code class="xref">hashlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Secure hash and message digest algorithms.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/heapq.html#module-heapq"><code class="xref">heapq</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/hmac.html#module-hmac"><code class="xref">hmac</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-13" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/html.html#module-html"><code class="xref">html</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Helpers for manipulating HTML.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-14" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">html</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-14">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/html.entities.html#module-html.entities"><code class="xref">html.entities</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Definitions of HTML general entities.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-14">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/html.parser.html#module-html.parser"><code class="xref">html.parser</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-15" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/http.html#module-http"><code class="xref">http</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>HTTP status codes and messages</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-16" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">http</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-16">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/http.client.html#module-http.client"><code class="xref">http.client</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-16">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/http.cookiejar.html#module-http.cookiejar"><code class="xref">http.cookiejar</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-16">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies"><code class="xref">http.cookies</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for HTTP state management (cookies).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-16">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/http.server.html#module-http.server"><code class="xref">http.server</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>HTTP server and request handlers.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-i"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>i</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib"><code class="xref">imaplib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/imghdr.html#module-imghdr"><code class="xref">imghdr</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Determine the type of image contained in a file or byte stream.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/imp.html#module-imp"><code class="xref">imp</code></a></td><td><strong>Deprecated:</strong>
+       <em>Access the implementation of the import statement.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-17" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib"><code class="xref">importlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The implementation of the import machinery.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-18" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">importlib</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-18">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc"><code class="xref">importlib.abc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Abstract base classes related to import</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-18">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.machinery"><code class="xref">importlib.machinery</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Importers and path hooks</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-18">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.resources"><code class="xref">importlib.resources</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Package resource reading, opening, and access</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-18">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/importlib.html#module-importlib.util"><code class="xref">importlib.util</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utility code for importers</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/inspect.html#module-inspect"><code class="xref">inspect</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Extract information and source code from live objects.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/io.html#module-io"><code class="xref">io</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Core tools for working with streams.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress"><code class="xref">ipaddress</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/itertools.html#module-itertools"><code class="xref">itertools</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-j"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>j</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-19" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/json.html#module-json"><code class="xref">json</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Encode and decode the JSON format.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-20" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">json</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-20">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/json.html#module-json.tool"><code class="xref">json.tool</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-k"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>k</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/keyword.html#module-keyword"><code class="xref">keyword</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-l"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>l</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/2to3.html#module-lib2to3"><code class="xref">lib2to3</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>the 2to3 library</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/linecache.html#module-linecache"><code class="xref">linecache</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>This module provides random access to individual lines from text files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/locale.html#module-locale"><code class="xref">locale</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Internationalization services.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-21" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/logging.html#module-logging"><code class="xref">logging</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Flexible event logging system for applications.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-22" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">logging</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-22">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/logging.config.html#module-logging.config"><code class="xref">logging.config</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Configuration of the logging module.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-22">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/logging.handlers.html#module-logging.handlers"><code class="xref">logging.handlers</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Handlers for the logging module.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/lzma.html#module-lzma"><code class="xref">lzma</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-m"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>m</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/macpath.html#module-macpath"><code class="xref">macpath</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox"><code class="xref">mailbox</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Manipulate mailboxes in various formats</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/mailcap.html#module-mailcap"><code class="xref">mailcap</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Mailcap file handling.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/marshal.html#module-marshal"><code class="xref">marshal</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different
+constraints).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/math.html#module-math"><code class="xref">math</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/mimetypes.html#module-mimetypes"><code class="xref">mimetypes</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/mmap.html#module-mmap"><code class="xref">mmap</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/modulefinder.html#module-modulefinder"><code class="xref">modulefinder</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Find modules used by a script.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/msilib.html#module-msilib"><code class="xref">msilib</code></a> <em>(Windows)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/msvcrt.html#module-msvcrt"><code class="xref">msvcrt</code></a> <em>(Windows)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-23" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing"><code class="xref">multiprocessing</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Process-based parallelism.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-24" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">multiprocessing</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-24">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.connection"><code class="xref">multiprocessing.connection</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>API for dealing with sockets.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-24">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.dummy"><code class="xref">multiprocessing.dummy</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Dumb wrapper around threading.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-24">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.managers"><code class="xref">multiprocessing.managers</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Share data between process with shared objects.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-24">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.pool"><code class="xref">multiprocessing.pool</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Create pools of processes.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-24">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing.sharedctypes"><code class="xref">multiprocessing.sharedctypes</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-n"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>n</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/netrc.html#module-netrc"><code class="xref">netrc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Loading of .netrc files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/nis.html#module-nis"><code class="xref">nis</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Interface to Sun&#39;s NIS (Yellow Pages) library.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib"><code class="xref">nntplib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>NNTP protocol client (requires sockets).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/numbers.html#module-numbers"><code class="xref">numbers</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-o"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>o</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/operator.html#module-operator"><code class="xref">operator</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Functions corresponding to the standard operators.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/optparse.html#module-optparse"><code class="xref">optparse</code></a></td><td><strong>Deprecated:</strong>
+       <em>Command-line option parsing library.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-25" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/os.html#module-os"><code class="xref">os</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-26" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">os</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-26">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/os.path.html#module-os.path"><code class="xref">os.path</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Operations on pathnames.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/ossaudiodev.html#module-ossaudiodev"><code class="xref">ossaudiodev</code></a> <em>(Linux, FreeBSD)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-p"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>p</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/parser.html#module-parser"><code class="xref">parser</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Access parse trees for Python source code.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib"><code class="xref">pathlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Object-oriented filesystem paths</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pdb.html#module-pdb"><code class="xref">pdb</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pickle.html#module-pickle"><code class="xref">pickle</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pickletools.html#module-pickletools"><code class="xref">pickletools</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and
+pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pipes.html#module-pipes"><code class="xref">pipes</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pkgutil.html#module-pkgutil"><code class="xref">pkgutil</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utilities for the import system.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/platform.html#module-platform"><code class="xref">platform</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib"><code class="xref">plistlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/poplib.html#module-poplib"><code class="xref">poplib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/posix.html#module-posix"><code class="xref">posix</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pprint.html#module-pprint"><code class="xref">pprint</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Data pretty printer.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/profile.html#module-profile"><code class="xref">profile</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Python source profiler.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/profile.html#module-pstats"><code class="xref">pstats</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Statistics object for use with the profiler.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pty.html#module-pty"><code class="xref">pty</code></a> <em>(Linux)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Linux.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pwd.html#module-pwd"><code class="xref">pwd</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>The password database (getpwnam() and friends).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile"><code class="xref">py_compile</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Generate byte-code files from Python source files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pyclbr.html#module-pyclbr"><code class="xref">pyclbr</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Supports information extraction for a Python class browser.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc"><code class="xref">pydoc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Documentation generator and online help system.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-q"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>q</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/queue.html#module-queue"><code class="xref">queue</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A synchronized queue class.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/quopri.html#module-quopri"><code class="xref">quopri</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-printable encoding.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-r"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>r</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/random.html#module-random"><code class="xref">random</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/re.html#module-re"><code class="xref">re</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Regular expression operations.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/readline.html#module-readline"><code class="xref">readline</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>GNU readline support for Python.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/reprlib.html#module-reprlib"><code class="xref">reprlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/resource.html#module-resource"><code class="xref">resource</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter"><code class="xref">rlcompleter</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/runpy.html#module-runpy"><code class="xref">runpy</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Locate and run Python modules without importing them first.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-s"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>s</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/sched.html#module-sched"><code class="xref">sched</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>General purpose event scheduler.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/secrets.html#module-secrets"><code class="xref">secrets</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/select.html#module-select"><code class="xref">select</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/selectors.html#module-selectors"><code class="xref">selectors</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>High-level I/O multiplexing.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/shelve.html#module-shelve"><code class="xref">shelve</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Python object persistence.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/shlex.html#module-shlex"><code class="xref">shlex</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/shutil.html#module-shutil"><code class="xref">shutil</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>High-level file operations, including copying.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/signal.html#module-signal"><code class="xref">signal</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Set handlers for asynchronous events.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/site.html#module-site"><code class="xref">site</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Module responsible for site-specific configuration.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/smtpd.html#module-smtpd"><code class="xref">smtpd</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A SMTP server implementation in Python.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib"><code class="xref">smtplib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/sndhdr.html#module-sndhdr"><code class="xref">sndhdr</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Determine type of a sound file.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/socket.html#module-socket"><code class="xref">socket</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Low-level networking interface.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/socketserver.html#module-socketserver"><code class="xref">socketserver</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A framework for network servers.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/spwd.html#module-spwd"><code class="xref">spwd</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3"><code class="xref">sqlite3</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/ssl.html#module-ssl"><code class="xref">ssl</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/stat.html#module-stat"><code class="xref">stat</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(),
+os.lstat() and os.fstat().</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/statistics.html#module-statistics"><code class="xref">statistics</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>mathematical statistics functions</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/string.html#module-string"><code class="xref">string</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Common string operations.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/stringprep.html#module-stringprep"><code class="xref">stringprep</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>String preparation, as per RFC 3453</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/struct.html#module-struct"><code class="xref">struct</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interpret bytes as packed binary data.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess"><code class="xref">subprocess</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Subprocess management.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/sunau.html#module-sunau"><code class="xref">sunau</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/symbol.html#module-symbol"><code class="xref">symbol</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Constants representing internal nodes of the parse tree.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/symtable.html#module-symtable"><code class="xref">symtable</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interface to the compiler&#39;s internal symbol tables.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/sys.html#module-sys"><code class="xref">sys</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Access system-specific parameters and functions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig"><code class="xref">sysconfig</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Python&#39;s configuration information</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/syslog.html#module-syslog"><code class="xref">syslog</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-t"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>t</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/tabnanny.html#module-tabnanny"><code class="xref">tabnanny</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python
+source files in a directory tree.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile"><code class="xref">tarfile</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Read and write tar-format archive files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/telnetlib.html#module-telnetlib"><code class="xref">telnetlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Telnet client class.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/tempfile.html#module-tempfile"><code class="xref">tempfile</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Generate temporary files and directories.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/termios.html#module-termios"><code class="xref">termios</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>POSIX style tty control.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-27" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/test.html#module-test"><code class="xref">test</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-28" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">test</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-28">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/test.html#module-test.support"><code class="xref">test.support</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for Python&#39;s regression test suite.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-28">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/test.html#module-test.support.script_helper"><code class="xref">test.support.script_helper</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for Python&#39;s script execution tests.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/textwrap.html#module-textwrap"><code class="xref">textwrap</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Text wrapping and filling</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/threading.html#module-threading"><code class="xref">threading</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Thread-based parallelism.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/time.html#module-time"><code class="xref">time</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Time access and conversions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/timeit.html#module-timeit"><code class="xref">timeit</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Measure the execution time of small code snippets.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-29" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter"><code class="xref">tkinter</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-30" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">tkinter</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-30">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/tkinter.scrolledtext.html#module-tkinter.scrolledtext"><code class="xref">tkinter.scrolledtext</code></a> <em>(Tk)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-30">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/tkinter.tix.html#module-tkinter.tix"><code class="xref">tkinter.tix</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-30">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk"><code class="xref">tkinter.ttk</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Tk themed widget set</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/token.html#module-token"><code class="xref">token</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/tokenize.html#module-tokenize"><code class="xref">tokenize</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Lexical scanner for Python source code.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/trace.html#module-trace"><code class="xref">trace</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Trace or track Python statement execution.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/traceback.html#module-traceback"><code class="xref">traceback</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Print or retrieve a stack traceback.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc"><code class="xref">tracemalloc</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Trace memory allocations.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/tty.html#module-tty"><code class="xref">tty</code></a> <em>(Unix)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/turtle.html#module-turtle"><code class="xref">turtle</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>An educational framework for simple graphics applications</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/turtle.html#module-turtledemo"><code class="xref">turtledemo</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A viewer for example turtle scripts</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/types.html#module-types"><code class="xref">types</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Names for built-in types.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/typing.html#module-typing"><code class="xref">typing</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for type hints (see PEP 484).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-u"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>u</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata"><code class="xref">unicodedata</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Access the Unicode Database.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-31" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/unittest.html#module-unittest"><code class="xref">unittest</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Unit testing framework for Python.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-32" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">unittest</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-32">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/unittest.mock.html#module-unittest.mock"><code class="xref">unittest.mock</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Mock object library.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-33" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/urllib.html#module-urllib"><code class="xref">urllib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-34" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">urllib</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-34">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/urllib.error.html#module-urllib.error"><code class="xref">urllib.error</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Exception classes raised by urllib.request.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-34">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse"><code class="xref">urllib.parse</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-34">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request"><code class="xref">urllib.request</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Extensible library for opening URLs.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-34">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.response"><code class="xref">urllib.response</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Response classes used by urllib.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-34">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/urllib.robotparser.html#module-urllib.robotparser"><code class="xref">urllib.robotparser</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
+fetchability of other URLs.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/uu.html#module-uu"><code class="xref">uu</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Encode and decode files in uuencode format.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/uuid.html#module-uuid"><code class="xref">uuid</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-v"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>v</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/venv.html#module-venv"><code class="xref">venv</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Creation of virtual environments.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-w"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>w</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/warnings.html#module-warnings"><code class="xref">warnings</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Issue warning messages and control their disposition.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/wave.html#module-wave"><code class="xref">wave</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/weakref.html#module-weakref"><code class="xref">weakref</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/webbrowser.html#module-webbrowser"><code class="xref">webbrowser</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/winreg.html#module-winreg"><code class="xref">winreg</code></a> <em>(Windows)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/winsound.html#module-winsound"><code class="xref">winsound</code></a> <em>(Windows)</em></td><td>
+       <em>Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-35" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref"><code class="xref">wsgiref</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-36" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">wsgiref</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-36">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.handlers"><code class="xref">wsgiref.handlers</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>WSGI server/gateway base classes.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-36">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.headers"><code class="xref">wsgiref.headers</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>WSGI response header tools.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-36">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.simple_server"><code class="xref">wsgiref.simple_server</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>A simple WSGI HTTP server.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-36">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.util"><code class="xref">wsgiref.util</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>WSGI environment utilities.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-36">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.validate"><code class="xref">wsgiref.validate</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>WSGI conformance checker.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-x"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>x</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/xdrlib.html#module-xdrlib"><code class="xref">xdrlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Encoders and decoders for the External Data Representation (XDR).</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-37" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/xml.html#module-xml"><code class="xref">xml</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Package containing XML processing modules</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-38" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">xml</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom"><code class="xref">xml.dom</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Document Object Model API for Python.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom"><code class="xref">xml.dom.minidom</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xml.dom.pulldom.html#module-xml.dom.pulldom"><code class="xref">xml.dom.pulldom</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree"><code class="xref">xml.etree.ElementTree</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Implementation of the ElementTree API.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat"><code class="xref">xml.parsers.expat</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.errors"><code class="xref">xml.parsers.expat.errors</code></a></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat.model"><code class="xref">xml.parsers.expat.model</code></a></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax"><code class="xref">xml.sax</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-38">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xml.sax.handler.html#module-xml.sax.handler"><code class="xref">xml.sax.handler</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Base classes for SAX event handlers.</em></td></tr>
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+     <tr>
+       <td><img src="_static/minus.png" class="toggler"
+              id="toggle-39" style="display: none" alt="-" /></td>
+       <td>
+       <code class="xref">xmlrpc</code></td><td>
+       <em></em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-39">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client"><code class="xref">xmlrpc.client</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>XML-RPC client access.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cg-39">
+       <td></td>
+       <td>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+       <a href="library/xmlrpc.server.html#module-xmlrpc.server"><code class="xref">xmlrpc.server</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Basic XML-RPC server implementations.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr class="pcap"><td></td><td>&#160;</td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr class="cap" id="cap-z"><td></td><td>
+       <strong>z</strong></td><td></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/zipapp.html#module-zipapp"><code class="xref">zipapp</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Manage executable Python zip archives</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile"><code class="xref">zipfile</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Read and write ZIP-format archive files.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/zipimport.html#module-zipimport"><code class="xref">zipimport</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives.</em></td></tr>
+     <tr>
+       <td></td>
+       <td>
+       <a href="library/zlib.html#module-zlib"><code class="xref">zlib</code></a></td><td>
+       <em>Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines
+compatible with gzip.</em></td></tr>
+   </table>
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+
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+  <div class="section" id="compound-statements">
+<span id="compound"></span><h1>8. Compound statements<a class="headerlink" href="#compound-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">Compound statements contain (groups of) other statements; they affect or control
+the execution of those other statements in some way.  In general, compound
+statements span multiple lines, although in simple incarnations a whole compound
+statement may be contained in one line.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statements implement
+traditional control flow constructs.  <a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> specifies exception
+handlers and/or cleanup code for a group of statements, while the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement allows the execution of initialization and
+finalization code around a block of code.  Function and class definitions are
+also syntactically compound statements.</p>
+<p id="index-1">A compound statement consists of one or more ‘clauses.’  A clause consists of a
+header and a ‘suite.’  The clause headers of a particular compound statement are
+all at the same indentation level. Each clause header begins with a uniquely
+identifying keyword and ends with a colon.  A suite is a group of statements
+controlled by a clause.  A suite can be one or more semicolon-separated simple
+statements on the same line as the header, following the header’s colon, or it
+can be one or more indented statements on subsequent lines.  Only the latter
+form of a suite can contain nested compound statements; the following is illegal,
+mostly because it wouldn’t be clear to which <a class="reference internal" href="#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> clause a following
+<a class="reference internal" href="#else"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code></a> clause would belong:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">test1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">test2</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Also note that the semicolon binds tighter than the colon in this context, so
+that in the following example, either all or none of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> calls are
+executed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">z</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Summarizing:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-compound-stmt">compound_stmt</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-if-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if_stmt</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-while-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while_stmt</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-for-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for_stmt</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-try-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try_stmt</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-with-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_stmt</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-funcdef"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">funcdef</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-classdef"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classdef</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-async-with-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_with_stmt</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-async-for-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_for_stmt</span></code></a>
+                   | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-async-funcdef"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async_funcdef</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-suite">suite        </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-stmt-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stmt_list</span></code></a> NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-statement"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statement</span></code></a>+ DEDENT
+<strong id="grammar-token-statement">statement    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-stmt-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stmt_list</span></code></a> NEWLINE | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-compound-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compound_stmt</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-stmt-list">stmt_list    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#grammar-token-simple-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">simple_stmt</span></code></a> (&quot;;&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#grammar-token-simple-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">simple_stmt</span></code></a>)* [&quot;;&quot;]
+</pre>
+<p id="index-2">Note that statements always end in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NEWLINE</span></code> possibly followed by a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEDENT</span></code>.  Also note that optional continuation clauses always begin with a
+keyword that cannot start a statement, thus there are no ambiguities (the
+‘dangling <a class="reference internal" href="#else"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code></a>’ problem is solved in Python by requiring nested
+<a class="reference internal" href="#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statements to be indented).</p>
+<p>The formatting of the grammar rules in the following sections places each clause
+on a separate line for clarity.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-if-statement">
+<span id="else"></span><span id="elif"></span><span id="if"></span><h2>8.1. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-if-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-3">The <a class="reference internal" href="#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement is used for conditional execution:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-if-stmt">if_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;if&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+             (&quot;elif&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>)*
+             [&quot;else&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>It selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one by one
+until one is found to be true (see section <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#booleans"><span class="std std-ref">Boolean operations</span></a> for the definition of
+true and false); then that suite is executed (and no other part of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement is executed or evaluated).  If all expressions are
+false, the suite of the <a class="reference internal" href="#else"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code></a> clause, if present, is executed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-while-statement">
+<span id="while"></span><h2>8.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-while-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-4">The <a class="reference internal" href="#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> statement is used for repeated execution as long as an
+expression is true:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-while-stmt">while_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;while&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+                [&quot;else&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>This repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the first
+suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time it is tested) the
+suite of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause, if present, is executed and the loop
+terminates.</p>
+<p id="index-5">A <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop
+without executing the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause’s suite.  A <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a>
+statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and goes back
+to testing the expression.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-for-statement">
+<span id="for"></span><h2>8.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-for-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-6">The <a class="reference internal" href="#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement is used to iterate over the elements of a sequence
+(such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-for-stmt">for_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;for&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#grammar-token-target-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target_list</span></code></a> &quot;in&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+              [&quot;else&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>The expression list is evaluated once; it should yield an iterable object.  An
+iterator is created for the result of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code>.  The suite is
+then executed once for each item provided by the iterator, in the order returned
+by the iterator.  Each item in turn is assigned to the target list using the
+standard rules for assignments (see <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#assignment"><span class="std std-ref">Assignment statements</span></a>), and then the suite is
+executed.  When the items are exhausted (which is immediately when the sequence
+is empty or an iterator raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception), the suite in
+the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause, if present, is executed, and the loop terminates.</p>
+<p id="index-7">A <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop
+without executing the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause’s suite.  A <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a>
+statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and continues
+with the next item, or with the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause if there is no next
+item.</p>
+<p>The for-loop makes assignments to the variables(s) in the target list.
+This overwrites all previous assignments to those variables including
+those made in the suite of the for-loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>             <span class="c1"># this will not affect the for-loop</span>
+                      <span class="c1"># because i will be overwritten with the next</span>
+                      <span class="c1"># index in the range</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-8">Names in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished, but if the
+sequence is empty, they will not have been assigned to at all by the loop.  Hint:
+the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> returns an iterator of integers suitable to
+emulate the effect of Pascal’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">:=</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">to</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">do</span></code>; e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(range(3))</span></code>
+returns the list <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">2]</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p id="index-9">There is a subtlety when the sequence is being modified by the loop (this can
+only occur for mutable sequences, e.g. lists).  An internal counter is used
+to keep track of which item is used next, and this is incremented on each
+iteration.  When this counter has reached the length of the sequence the loop
+terminates.  This means that if the suite deletes the current (or a previous)
+item from the sequence, the next item will be skipped (since it gets the
+index of the current item which has already been treated).  Likewise, if the
+suite inserts an item in the sequence before the current item, the current
+item will be treated again the next time through the loop. This can lead to
+nasty bugs that can be avoided by making a temporary copy using a slice of
+the whole sequence, e.g.,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[:]:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-try-statement">
+<span id="finally"></span><span id="except"></span><span id="try"></span><h2>8.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-try-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-10">The <a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code
+for a group of statements:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-try-stmt">try_stmt </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-try1-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try1_stmt</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-try2-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try2_stmt</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-try1-stmt">try1_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;try&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+               (&quot;except&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>]] &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>)+
+               [&quot;else&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>]
+               [&quot;finally&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>]
+<strong id="grammar-token-try2-stmt">try2_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;try&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+               &quot;finally&quot; &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers. When no
+exception occurs in the <a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> clause, no exception handler is executed.
+When an exception occurs in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> suite, a search for an exception
+handler is started.  This search inspects the except clauses in turn until one
+is found that matches the exception.  An expression-less except clause, if
+present, must be last; it matches any exception.  For an except clause with an
+expression, that expression is evaluated, and the clause matches the exception
+if the resulting object is “compatible” with the exception.  An object is
+compatible with an exception if it is the class or a base class of the exception
+object or a tuple containing an item compatible with the exception.</p>
+<p>If no except clause matches the exception, the search for an exception handler
+continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.  <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id4" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p>If the evaluation of an expression in the header of an except clause raises an
+exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and a search starts for
+the new exception in the surrounding code and on the call stack (it is treated
+as if the entire <a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement raised the exception).</p>
+<p id="index-11">When a matching except clause is found, the exception is assigned to the target
+specified after the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> keyword in that except clause, if present, and
+the except clause’s suite is executed.  All except clauses must have an
+executable block.  When the end of this block is reached, execution continues
+normally after the entire try statement.  (This means that if two nested
+handlers exist for the same exception, and the exception occurs in the try
+clause of the inner handler, the outer handler will not handle the exception.)</p>
+<p>When an exception has been assigned using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">target</span></code>, it is cleared at the
+end of the except clause.  This is as if</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">E</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>was translated to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">E</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">foo</span>
+    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">N</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This means the exception must be assigned to a different name to be able to
+refer to it after the except clause.  Exceptions are cleared because with the
+traceback attached to them, they form a reference cycle with the stack frame,
+keeping all locals in that frame alive until the next garbage collection occurs.</p>
+<p id="index-12">Before an except clause’s suite is executed, details about the exception are
+stored in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module and can be accessed via <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a> returns a 3-tuple consisting of the exception class, the
+exception instance and a traceback object (see section <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>) identifying
+the point in the program where the exception occurred.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>
+values are restored to their previous values (before the call) when returning
+from a function that handled an exception.</p>
+<p id="index-13">The optional <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause is executed if the control flow leaves the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> suite, no exception was raised, and no <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> statement was executed.  Exceptions in
+the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause are not handled by the preceding <a class="reference internal" href="#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>
+clauses.</p>
+<p id="index-14">If <a class="reference internal" href="#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> is present, it specifies a ‘cleanup’ handler.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> clause is executed, including any <a class="reference internal" href="#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clauses.  If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is
+not handled, the exception is temporarily saved. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause
+is executed.  If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at the end of the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause.  If the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause raises another
+exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new exception.
+If the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause executes a <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a>
+statement, the saved exception is discarded:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">42</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The exception information is not available to the program during execution of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause.</p>
+<p id="index-15">When a <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> statement is
+executed in the <a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> suite of a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code>…<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code>
+statement, the <a class="reference internal" href="#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause is also executed ‘on the way out.’ A
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> statement is illegal in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause. (The
+reason is a problem with the current implementation — this restriction may be
+lifted in the future).</p>
+<p>The return value of a function is determined by the last <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a>
+statement executed.  Since the <a class="reference internal" href="#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause always executes, a
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement executed in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause will
+always be the last one executed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;try&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;finally&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;finally&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Additional information on exceptions can be found in section <a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#exceptions"><span class="std std-ref">Exceptions</span></a>,
+and information on using the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> statement to generate exceptions
+may be found in section <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#raise"><span class="std std-ref">The raise statement</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-with-statement">
+<span id="as"></span><span id="with"></span><h2>8.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-with-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-16">The <a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement is used to wrap the execution of a block with
+methods defined by a context manager (see section <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#context-managers"><span class="std std-ref">With Statement Context Managers</span></a>).
+This allows common <a class="reference internal" href="#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a>
+usage patterns to be encapsulated for convenient reuse.</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-with-stmt">with_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;with&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-with-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_item</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-with-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_item</span></code></a>)* &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-with-item">with_item</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#grammar-token-target"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>The execution of the <a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement with one “item” proceeds as follows:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>The context expression (the expression given in the <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-with-item"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_item</span></code></a>) is
+evaluated to obtain a context manager.</p></li>
+<li><p>The context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> is loaded for later use.</p></li>
+<li><p>The context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method is invoked.</p></li>
+<li><p>If a target was included in the <a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, the return value
+from <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> is assigned to it.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement guarantees that if the <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a>
+method returns without an error, then <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> will always be
+called. Thus, if an error occurs during the assignment to the target list,
+it will be treated the same as an error occurring within the suite would
+be. See step 6 below.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The suite is executed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method is invoked.  If an exception
+caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and traceback are passed as
+arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>. Otherwise, three <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> arguments are
+supplied.</p>
+<p>If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method was false, the exception is reraised.  If the return
+value was true, the exception is suppressed, and execution continues with the
+statement following the <a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<p>If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the return
+value from <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> is ignored, and execution proceeds at the normal
+location for the kind of exit that was taken.</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p>With more than one item, the context managers are processed as if multiple
+<a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements were nested:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">suite</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">suite</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Support for multiple context expressions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a> - The “with” statement</dt><dd><p>The specification, background, and examples for the Python <a class="reference internal" href="#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="function-definitions">
+<span id="def"></span><span id="function"></span><span id="index-18"></span><h2>8.6. Function definitions<a class="headerlink" href="#function-definitions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-19">A function definition defines a user-defined function object (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>):</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-funcdef">funcdef                </strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-decorators"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decorators</span></code></a>] &quot;def&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-funcname"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">funcname</span></code></a> &quot;(&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter_list</span></code></a>] &quot;)&quot;
+                             [&quot;-&gt;&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>] &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-decorators">decorators             </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-decorator"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decorator</span></code></a>+
+<strong id="grammar-token-decorator">decorator              </strong> ::=  &quot;&#64;&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-dotted-name"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dotted_name</span></code></a> [&quot;(&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-argument-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argument_list</span></code></a> [&quot;,&quot;]] &quot;)&quot;] NEWLINE
+<strong id="grammar-token-dotted-name">dotted_name            </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> (&quot;.&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-parameter-list">parameter_list         </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-defparameter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defparameter</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-defparameter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defparameter</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter-list-starargs"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter_list_starargs</span></code></a>]]
+                             | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter-list-starargs"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter_list_starargs</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-parameter-list-starargs">parameter_list_starargs</strong> ::=  &quot;*&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter</span></code></a>] (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-defparameter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defparameter</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot; [&quot;**&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter</span></code></a> [&quot;,&quot;]]]
+                             | &quot;**&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter</span></code></a> [&quot;,&quot;]
+<strong id="grammar-token-parameter">parameter              </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> [&quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>]
+<strong id="grammar-token-defparameter">defparameter           </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter</span></code></a> [&quot;=&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>]
+<strong id="grammar-token-funcname">funcname               </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>A function definition is an executable statement.  Its execution binds the
+function name in the current local namespace to a function object (a wrapper
+around the executable code for the function).  This function object contains a
+reference to the current global namespace as the global namespace to be used
+when the function is called.</p>
+<p>The function definition does not execute the function body; this gets executed
+only when the function is called. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id2">2</a></p>
+<p id="index-20">A function definition may be wrapped by one or more <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator"><span class="xref std std-term">decorator</span></a> expressions.
+Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function is defined, in the scope
+that contains the function definition.  The result must be a callable, which is
+invoked with the function object as the only argument. The returned value is
+bound to the function name instead of the function object.  Multiple decorators
+are applied in nested fashion. For example, the following code</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nd">@f2</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is roughly equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="n">func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">f2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>except that the original function is not temporarily bound to the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-21">When one or more <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-parameter"><span class="xref std std-term">parameters</span></a> have the form <em>parameter</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code>
+<em>expression</em>, the function is said to have “default parameter values.”  For a
+parameter with a default value, the corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">argument</span></a> may be
+omitted from a call, in which
+case the parameter’s default value is substituted.  If a parameter has a default
+value, all following parameters up until the “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>” must also have a default
+value — this is a syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.</p>
+<p><strong>Default parameter values are evaluated from left to right when the function
+definition is executed.</strong> This means that the expression is evaluated once, when
+the function is defined, and that the same “pre-computed” value is used for each
+call.  This is especially important to understand when a default parameter is a
+mutable object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the
+object (e.g. by appending an item to a list), the default value is in effect
+modified.  This is generally not what was intended.  A way around this is to use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as the default, and explicitly test for it in the body of the function,
+e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">whats_on_the_telly</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">penguin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">penguin</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">penguin</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="n">penguin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;property of the zoo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">penguin</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-22">Function call semantics are described in more detail in section <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#calls"><span class="std std-ref">Calls</span></a>. A
+function call always assigns values to all parameters mentioned in the parameter
+list, either from position arguments, from keyword arguments, or from default
+values.  If the form “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*identifier</span></code>” is present, it is initialized to a tuple
+receiving any excess positional parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple.
+If the form “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**identifier</span></code>” is present, it is initialized to a new
+ordered mapping receiving any excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a
+new empty mapping of the same type.  Parameters after “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>” or
+“<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*identifier</span></code>” are keyword-only parameters and may only be passed
+used keyword arguments.</p>
+<p id="index-23">Parameters may have an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-function-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">annotation</span></a> of the form “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:</span> <span class="pre">expression</span></code>”
+following the parameter name.  Any parameter may have an annotation, even those of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*identifier</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**identifier</span></code>.  Functions may have “return” annotation of
+the form “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-&gt;</span> <span class="pre">expression</span></code>” after the parameter list.  These annotations can be
+any valid Python expression.  The presence of annotations does not change the
+semantics of a function.  The annotation values are available as values of
+a dictionary keyed by the parameters’ names in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code>
+attribute of the function object.  If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">annotations</span></code> import from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> is used, annotations are preserved as strings at runtime which
+enables postponed evaluation.  Otherwise, they are evaluated when the function
+definition is executed.  In this case annotations may be evaluated in
+a different order than they appear in the source code.</p>
+<p id="index-24">It is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound to a
+name), for immediate use in expressions.  This uses lambda expressions, described in
+section <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#lambda"><span class="std std-ref">Lambdas</span></a>.  Note that the lambda expression is merely a shorthand for a
+simplified function definition; a function defined in a “<a class="reference internal" href="#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a>”
+statement can be passed around or assigned to another name just like a function
+defined by a lambda expression.  The “<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code>” form is actually more powerful
+since it allows the execution of multiple statements and annotations.</p>
+<p><strong>Programmer’s note:</strong> Functions are first-class objects.  A “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code>” statement
+executed inside a function definition defines a local function that can be
+returned or passed around.  Free variables used in the nested function can
+access the local variables of the function containing the def.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#naming"><span class="std std-ref">Naming and binding</span></a> for details.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107"><strong>PEP 3107</strong></a> - Function Annotations</dt><dd><p>The original specification for function annotations.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> - Type Hints</dt><dd><p>Definition of a standard meaning for annotations: type hints.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a> - Syntax for Variable Annotations</dt><dd><p>Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class
+variables and instance variables</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0563"><strong>PEP 563</strong></a> - Postponed Evaluation of Annotations</dt><dd><p>Support for forward references within annotations by preserving
+annotations in a string form at runtime instead of eager evaluation.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-definitions">
+<span id="class"></span><h2>8.7. Class definitions<a class="headerlink" href="#class-definitions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-29">A class definition defines a class object (see section <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>):</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-classdef">classdef   </strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-decorators"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decorators</span></code></a>] &quot;class&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-classname"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classname</span></code></a> [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-inheritance"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inheritance</span></code></a>] &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-inheritance">inheritance</strong> ::=  &quot;(&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-argument-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argument_list</span></code></a>] &quot;)&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-classname">classname  </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>A class definition is an executable statement.  The inheritance list usually
+gives a list of base classes (see <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#metaclasses"><span class="std std-ref">Metaclasses</span></a> for more advanced uses), so
+each item in the list should evaluate to a class object which allows
+subclassing.  Classes without an inheritance list inherit, by default, from the
+base class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>; hence,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The class’s suite is then executed in a new execution frame (see <a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#naming"><span class="std std-ref">Naming and binding</span></a>),
+using a newly created local namespace and the original global namespace.
+(Usually, the suite contains mostly function definitions.)  When the class’s
+suite finishes execution, its execution frame is discarded but its local
+namespace is saved. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id6" id="id3">3</a> A class object is then created using the inheritance
+list for the base classes and the saved local namespace for the attribute
+dictionary.  The class name is bound to this class object in the original local
+namespace.</p>
+<p>The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
+in the new class’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code>.  Note that this is reliable only right
+after the class is created and only for classes that were defined using
+the definition syntax.</p>
+<p>Class creation can be customized heavily using <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#metaclasses"><span class="std std-ref">metaclasses</span></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-30">Classes can also be decorated: just like when decorating functions,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nd">@f2</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is roughly equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="n">f2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The evaluation rules for the decorator expressions are the same as for function
+decorators.  The result is then bound to the class name.</p>
+<p><strong>Programmer’s note:</strong> Variables defined in the class definition are class
+attributes; they are shared by instances.  Instance attributes can be set in a
+method with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.name</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code>.  Both class and instance attributes are
+accessible through the notation “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.name</span></code>”, and an instance attribute hides
+a class attribute with the same name when accessed in this way.  Class
+attributes can be used as defaults for instance attributes, but using mutable
+values there can lead to unexpected results.  <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#descriptors"><span class="std std-ref">Descriptors</span></a>
+can be used to create instance variables with different implementation details.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3115"><strong>PEP 3115</strong></a> - Metaclasses in Python 3000</dt><dd><p>The proposal that changed the declaration of metaclasses to the current
+syntax, and the semantics for how classes with metaclasses are
+constructed.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3129"><strong>PEP 3129</strong></a> - Class Decorators</dt><dd><p>The proposal that added class decorators.  Function and method decorators
+were introduced in <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0318"><strong>PEP 318</strong></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coroutines">
+<span id="async"></span><h2>8.8. Coroutines<a class="headerlink" href="#coroutines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coroutine-function-definition">
+<span id="async-def"></span><span id="index-34"></span><h3>8.8.1. Coroutine function definition<a class="headerlink" href="#coroutine-function-definition" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-async-funcdef">async_funcdef</strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-decorators"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decorators</span></code></a>] &quot;async&quot; &quot;def&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-funcname"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">funcname</span></code></a> &quot;(&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parameter-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter_list</span></code></a>] &quot;)&quot;
+                   [&quot;-&gt;&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>] &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-suite"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p id="index-35">Execution of Python coroutines can be suspended and resumed at many points
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a>).  Inside the body of a coroutine function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> identifiers become reserved keywords; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expressions,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a> can only be used in
+coroutine function bodies.</p>
+<p>Functions defined with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code> syntax are always coroutine functions,
+even if they do not contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> keywords.</p>
+<p>It is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> to use a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> expression inside the body
+of a coroutine function.</p>
+<p>An example of a coroutine function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">param1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">param2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">do_stuff</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">some_coroutine</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-async-for-statement">
+<span id="async-for"></span><span id="index-36"></span><h3>8.8.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-async-for-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-async-for-stmt">async_for_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;async&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-for-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for_stmt</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterable</span></a> is able to call asynchronous code in its
+<em>iter</em> implementation, and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a> can call asynchronous
+code in its <em>next</em> method.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> statement allows convenient iteration over asynchronous
+iterators.</p>
+<p>The following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">TARGET</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">ITER</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">BLOCK</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">BLOCK2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Is semantically equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">iter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ITER</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">iter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__aiter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">running</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">running</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">TARGET</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__anext__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">StopAsyncIteration</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">running</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">BLOCK</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">BLOCK2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__aiter__" title="object.__aiter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__anext__" title="object.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<p>It is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> to use an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> statement outside the
+body of a coroutine function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-async-with-statement">
+<span id="async-with"></span><span id="index-37"></span><h3>8.8.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-async-with-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-async-with-stmt">async_with_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;async&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-with-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_stmt</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous context manager</span></a> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> that is
+able to suspend execution in its <em>enter</em> and <em>exit</em> methods.</p>
+<p>The following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">EXPR</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">VAR</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">BLOCK</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Is semantically equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mgr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">EXPR</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">aexit</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mgr</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__aexit__</span>
+<span class="n">aenter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mgr</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__aenter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mgr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">VAR</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">aenter</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">BLOCK</span>
+<span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">aexit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mgr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exc_info</span><span class="p">()):</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">aexit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mgr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__aenter__" title="object.__aenter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__aexit__" title="object.__aexit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__()</span></code></a> for details.</p>
+<p>It is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> to use an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code> statement outside the
+body of a coroutine function.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-38"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> - Coroutines with async and await syntax</dt><dd><p>The proposal that made coroutines a proper standalone concept in Python,
+and added supporting syntax.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id4"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The exception is propagated to the invocation stack unless
+there is a <a class="reference internal" href="#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause which happens to raise another
+exception. That new exception causes the old one to be lost.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id5"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function body is
+transformed into the function’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attribute and therefore the
+function’s <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-docstring"><span class="xref std std-term">docstring</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id6"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class body is
+transformed into the namespace’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> item and therefore the class’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-docstring"><span class="xref std std-term">docstring</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">8. Compound statements</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-if-statement">8.1. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-while-statement">8.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-for-statement">8.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-try-statement">8.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-with-statement">8.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#function-definitions">8.6. Function definitions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-definitions">8.7. Class definitions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coroutines">8.8. Coroutines</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine-function-definition">8.8.1. Coroutine function definition</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-async-for-statement">8.8.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-async-with-statement">8.8.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="simple_stmts.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">7. Simple statements</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="toplevel_components.html"
+                        title="next chapter">9. Top-level components</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/reference/compound_stmts.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/datamodel.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/datamodel.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..283f239
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/datamodel.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2440 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>3. Data model &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="data-model">
+<span id="datamodel"></span><h1>3. Data model<a class="headerlink" href="#data-model" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="objects-values-and-types">
+<span id="objects"></span><h2>3.1. Objects, values and types<a class="headerlink" href="#objects-values-and-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-0"><em class="dfn">Objects</em> are Python’s abstraction for data.  All data in a Python program
+is represented by objects or by relations between objects. (In a sense, and in
+conformance to Von Neumann’s model of a “stored program computer,” code is also
+represented by objects.)</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><p>Every object has an identity, a type and a value.  An object’s <em>identity</em> never
+changes once it has been created; you may think of it as the object’s address in
+memory.  The ‘<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></a>’ operator compares the identity of two objects; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a> function returns an integer representing its identity.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> For CPython, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id(x)</span></code> is the memory address where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is stored.</p>
+</div>
+<p>An object’s type determines the operations that the object supports (e.g., “does
+it have a length?”) and also defines the possible values for objects of that
+type.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a> function returns an object’s type (which is an object
+itself).  Like its identity, an object’s <em class="dfn">type</em> is also unchangeable.
+<a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p>The <em>value</em> of some objects can change.  Objects whose value can
+change are said to be <em>mutable</em>; objects whose value is unchangeable once they
+are created are called <em>immutable</em>. (The value of an immutable container object
+that contains a reference to a mutable object can change when the latter’s value
+is changed; however the container is still considered immutable, because the
+collection of objects it contains cannot be changed.  So, immutability is not
+strictly the same as having an unchangeable value, it is more subtle.) An
+object’s mutability is determined by its type; for instance, numbers, strings
+and tuples are immutable, while dictionaries and lists are mutable.</p>
+<p id="index-2">Objects are never explicitly destroyed; however, when they become unreachable
+they may be garbage-collected.  An implementation is allowed to postpone garbage
+collection or omit it altogether — it is a matter of implementation quality
+how garbage collection is implemented, as long as no objects are collected that
+are still reachable.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> CPython currently uses a reference-counting scheme with (optional) delayed
+detection of cyclically linked garbage, which collects most objects as soon
+as they become unreachable, but is not guaranteed to collect garbage
+containing circular references.  See the documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a>
+module for information on controlling the collection of cyclic garbage.
+Other implementations act differently and CPython may change.
+Do not depend on immediate finalization of objects when they become
+unreachable (so you should always close files explicitly).</p>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the use of the implementation’s tracing or debugging facilities may
+keep objects alive that would normally be collectable. Also note that catching
+an exception with a ‘<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>’ statement may keep
+objects alive.</p>
+<p>Some objects contain references to “external” resources such as open files or
+windows.  It is understood that these resources are freed when the object is
+garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not guaranteed to happen,
+such objects also provide an explicit way to release the external resource,
+usually a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method. Programs are strongly recommended to explicitly
+close such objects.  The ‘<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a>’ statement
+and the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement provide convenient ways to do this.</p>
+<p id="index-3">Some objects contain references to other objects; these are called <em>containers</em>.
+Examples of containers are tuples, lists and dictionaries.  The references are
+part of a container’s value.  In most cases, when we talk about the value of a
+container, we imply the values, not the identities of the contained objects;
+however, when we talk about the mutability of a container, only the identities
+of the immediately contained objects are implied.  So, if an immutable container
+(like a tuple) contains a reference to a mutable object, its value changes if
+that mutable object is changed.</p>
+<p>Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior.  Even the importance of
+object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types, operations that
+compute new values may actually return a reference to any existing object with
+the same type and value, while for mutable objects this is not allowed.  E.g.,
+after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">1;</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> may or may not refer to the same object
+with the value one, depending on the implementation, but after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">[];</span> <span class="pre">d</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">[]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code> are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly
+created empty lists. (Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">d</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">[]</span></code> assigns the same object to both
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-standard-type-hierarchy">
+<span id="types"></span><h2>3.2. The standard type hierarchy<a class="headerlink" href="#the-standard-type-hierarchy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-4">Below is a list of the types that are built into Python.  Extension modules
+(written in C, Java, or other languages, depending on the implementation) can
+define additional types.  Future versions of Python may add types to the type
+hierarchy (e.g., rational numbers, efficiently stored arrays of integers, etc.),
+although such additions will often be provided via the standard library instead.</p>
+<p id="index-5">Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing ‘special
+attributes.’  These are attributes that provide access to the implementation and
+are not intended for general use.  Their definition may change in the future.</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>None</dt><dd><p id="index-6">This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value. This
+object is accessed through the built-in name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. It is used to signify the
+absence of a value in many situations, e.g., it is returned from functions that
+don’t explicitly return anything. Its truth value is false.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>NotImplemented</dt><dd><p id="index-7">This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value. This
+object is accessed through the built-in name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>. Numeric methods
+and rich comparison methods should return this value if they do not implement the
+operation for the operands provided.  (The interpreter will then try the
+reflected operation, or some other fallback, depending on the operator.)  Its
+truth value is true.</p>
+<p>See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#implementing-the-arithmetic-operations"><span class="std std-ref">Implementing the arithmetic operations</span></a>
+for more details.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Ellipsis</dt><dd><p id="index-8">This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value. This
+object is accessed through the literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code> or the built-in name
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ellipsis</span></code>.  Its truth value is true.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#numbers.Number" title="numbers.Number"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Number</span></code></a></dt><dd><p id="index-9">These are created by numeric literals and returned as results by arithmetic
+operators and arithmetic built-in functions.  Numeric objects are immutable;
+once created their value never changes.  Python numbers are of course strongly
+related to mathematical numbers, but subject to the limitations of numerical
+representation in computers.</p>
+<p>Python distinguishes between integers, floating point numbers, and complex
+numbers:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Integral</span></code></a></dt><dd><p id="index-10">These represent elements from the mathematical set of integers (positive and
+negative).</p>
+<p>There are two types of integers:</p>
+<p>Integers (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>)</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>These represent numbers in an unlimited range, subject to available (virtual)
+memory only.  For the purpose of shift and mask operations, a binary
+representation is assumed, and negative numbers are represented in a variant of
+2’s complement which gives the illusion of an infinite string of sign bits
+extending to the left.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<dl>
+<dt>Booleans (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a>)</dt><dd><p id="index-11">These represent the truth values False and True.  The two objects representing
+the values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> are the only Boolean objects. The Boolean type is a
+subtype of the integer type, and Boolean values behave like the values 0 and 1,
+respectively, in almost all contexts, the exception being that when converted to
+a string, the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;False&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;True&quot;</span></code> are returned, respectively.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p id="index-12">The rules for integer representation are intended to give the most meaningful
+interpretation of shift and mask operations involving negative integers.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Real</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>)</dt><dd><p id="index-13">These represent machine-level double precision floating point numbers. You are
+at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or Java
+implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow. Python does not
+support single-precision floating point numbers; the savings in processor and
+memory usage that are usually the reason for using these are dwarfed by the
+overhead of using objects in Python, so there is no reason to complicate the
+language with two kinds of floating point numbers.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex" title="numbers.Complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Complex</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>)</dt><dd><p id="index-14">These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double precision
+floating point numbers.  The same caveats apply as for floating point numbers.
+The real and imaginary parts of a complex number <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> can be retrieved through
+the read-only attributes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z.real</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z.imag</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Sequences</dt><dd><p id="index-15">These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers. The
+built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> returns the number of items of a sequence. When
+the length of a sequence is <em>n</em>, the index set contains the numbers 0, 1,
+…, <em>n</em>-1.  Item <em>i</em> of sequence <em>a</em> is selected by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i]</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-16">Sequences also support slicing: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i:j]</span></code> selects all items with index <em>k</em> such
+that <em>i</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code> <em>k</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> <em>j</em>.  When used as an expression, a slice is a
+sequence of the same type.  This implies that the index set is renumbered so
+that it starts at 0.</p>
+<p>Some sequences also support “extended slicing” with a third “step” parameter:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i:j:k]</span></code> selects all items of <em>a</em> with index <em>x</em> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">n*k</span></code>, <em>n</em>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> and <em>i</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code> <em>x</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> <em>j</em>.</p>
+<p>Sequences are distinguished according to their mutability:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>Immutable sequences</dt><dd><p id="index-17">An object of an immutable sequence type cannot change once it is created.  (If
+the object contains references to other objects, these other objects may be
+mutable and may be changed; however, the collection of objects directly
+referenced by an immutable object cannot change.)</p>
+<p>The following types are immutable sequences:</p>
+<dl id="index-18">
+<dt>Strings</dt><dd><p id="index-19">A string is a sequence of values that represent Unicode code points.
+All the code points in the range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+0000</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">U+10FFFF</span></code> can be
+represented in a string.  Python doesn’t have a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span></code> type;
+instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string
+object with length <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.  The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord()</span></code></a>
+converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the
+range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">10FFFF</span></code>; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr()</span></code></a> converts an integer in the range
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">10FFFF</span></code> to the corresponding length <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> string object.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a> can be used to convert a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> using the given text encoding, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a> can be used to achieve the opposite.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Tuples</dt><dd><p id="index-20">The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects. Tuples of two or
+more items are formed by comma-separated lists of expressions.  A tuple
+of one item (a ‘singleton’) can be formed by affixing a comma to an
+expression (an expression by itself does not create a tuple, since
+parentheses must be usable for grouping of expressions).  An empty
+tuple can be formed by an empty pair of parentheses.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Bytes</dt><dd><p id="index-21">A bytes object is an immutable array.  The items are 8-bit bytes,
+represented by integers in the range 0 &lt;= x &lt; 256.  Bytes literals
+(like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abc'</span></code>) and the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code></a> constructor
+can be used to create bytes objects.  Also, bytes objects can be
+decoded to strings via the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Mutable sequences</dt><dd><p id="index-22">Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created.  The subscription and
+slicing notations can be used as the target of assignment and <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a>
+(delete) statements.</p>
+<p>There are currently two intrinsic mutable sequence types:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>Lists</dt><dd><p id="index-23">The items of a list are arbitrary Python objects.  Lists are formed by
+placing a comma-separated list of expressions in square brackets. (Note
+that there are no special cases needed to form lists of length 0 or 1.)</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Byte Arrays</dt><dd><p id="index-24">A bytearray object is a mutable array. They are created by the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray()</span></code></a> constructor.  Aside from being mutable
+(and hence unhashable), byte arrays otherwise provide the same interface
+and functionality as immutable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p id="index-25">The extension module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> provides an additional example of a
+mutable sequence type, as does the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Set types</dt><dd><p id="index-26">These represent unordered, finite sets of unique, immutable objects. As such,
+they cannot be indexed by any subscript. However, they can be iterated over, and
+the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> returns the number of items in a set. Common
+uses for sets are fast membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence,
+and computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union, difference,
+and symmetric difference.</p>
+<p>For set elements, the same immutability rules apply as for dictionary keys. Note
+that numeric types obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers
+compare equal (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code>), only one of them can be contained in a
+set.</p>
+<p>There are currently two intrinsic set types:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>Sets</dt><dd><p id="index-27">These represent a mutable set. They are created by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a>
+constructor and can be modified afterwards by several methods, such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Frozen sets</dt><dd><p id="index-28">These represent an immutable set.  They are created by the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset()</span></code></a> constructor.  As a frozenset is immutable and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>, it can be used again as an element of another set, or as
+a dictionary key.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Mappings</dt><dd><p id="index-29">These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets. The
+subscript notation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[k]</span></code> selects the item indexed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span></code> from the mapping
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code>; this can be used in expressions and as the target of assignments or
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statements. The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> returns the number
+of items in a mapping.</p>
+<p>There is currently a single intrinsic mapping type:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>Dictionaries</dt><dd><p id="index-30">These represent finite sets of objects indexed by nearly arbitrary values.  The
+only types of values not acceptable as keys are values containing lists or
+dictionaries or other mutable types that are compared by value rather than by
+object identity, the reason being that the efficient implementation of
+dictionaries requires a key’s hash value to remain constant. Numeric types used
+for keys obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare
+equal (e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code>) then they can be used interchangeably to index
+the same dictionary entry.</p>
+<p>Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{...}</span></code> notation (see
+section <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#dict"><span class="std std-ref">Dictionary displays</span></a>).</p>
+<p id="index-31">The extension modules <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.gnu" title="dbm.gnu: GNU's reinterpretation of dbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.gnu</span></code></a> provide
+additional examples of mapping types, as does the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Callable types</dt><dd><p id="index-32">These are the types to which the function call operation (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#calls"><span class="std std-ref">Calls</span></a>) can be applied:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>User-defined functions</dt><dd><p id="index-33">A user-defined function object is created by a function definition (see
+section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a>).  It should be called with an argument list
+containing the same number of items as the function’s formal parameter
+list.</p>
+<p>Special attributes:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center" id="index-34">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 37%" />
+<col style="width: 46%" />
+<col style="width: 16%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Attribute</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The function’s documentation
+string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+unavailable; not inherited by
+subclasses.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>The function’s name.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__qualname__" title="definition.__qualname__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>The function’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-qualified-name"><span class="xref std std-term">qualified name</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The name of the module the
+function was defined in, or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if unavailable.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__defaults__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A tuple containing default
+argument values for those
+arguments that have defaults,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if no arguments
+have a default value.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__code__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>The code object representing
+the compiled function body.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__globals__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A reference to the dictionary
+that holds the function’s
+global variables — the
+global namespace of the
+module in which the function
+was defined.</p></td>
+<td><p>Read-only</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>The namespace supporting
+arbitrary function
+attributes.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__closure__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or a tuple of cells
+that contain bindings for the
+function’s free variables.
+See below for information on
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cell_contents</span></code>
+attribute.</p></td>
+<td><p>Read-only</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A dict containing annotations
+of parameters.  The keys of
+the dict are the parameter
+names, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'return'</span></code> for
+the return annotation, if
+provided.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__kwdefaults__</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>A dict containing defaults
+for keyword-only parameters.</p></td>
+<td><p>Writable</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Most of the attributes labelled “Writable” check the type of the assigned value.</p>
+<p>Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes, which
+can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions.  Regular attribute
+dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes. <em>Note that the current
+implementation only supports function attributes on user-defined functions.
+Function attributes on built-in functions may be supported in the future.</em></p>
+<p>A cell object has the attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cell_contents</span></code>. This can be used to get
+the value of the cell, as well as set the value.</p>
+<p>Additional information about a function’s definition can be retrieved from its
+code object; see the description of internal types below.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Instance methods</dt><dd><p id="index-35">An instance method object combines a class, a class instance and any
+callable object (normally a user-defined function).</p>
+<p id="index-36">Special read-only attributes: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> is the class instance object,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code> is the function object; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> is the method’s
+documentation (same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__.__doc__</span></code>); <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> is the
+method name (same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__.__name__</span></code>); <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> is the
+name of the module the method was defined in, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if unavailable.</p>
+<p>Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function
+attributes on the underlying function object.</p>
+<p>User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of a
+class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a
+user-defined function object or a class method object.</p>
+<p>When an instance method object is created by retrieving a user-defined
+function object from a class via one of its instances, its
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> attribute is the instance, and the method object is said
+to be bound.  The new method’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code> attribute is the original
+function object.</p>
+<p>When a user-defined method object is created by retrieving another method
+object from a class or instance, the behaviour is the same as for a
+function object, except that the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code> attribute of the new
+instance is not the original method object but its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code>
+attribute.</p>
+<p>When an instance method object is created by retrieving a class method
+object from a class or instance, its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> attribute is the
+class itself, and its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code> attribute is the function object
+underlying the class method.</p>
+<p>When an instance method object is called, the underlying function
+(<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code>) is called, inserting the class instance
+(<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code>) in front of the argument list.  For instance, when
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> is a class which contains a definition for a function
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is an instance of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>, calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.f(1)</span></code> is
+equivalent to calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.f(x,</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When an instance method object is derived from a class method object, the
+“class instance” stored in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> will actually be the class
+itself, so that calling either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.f(1)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.f(1)</span></code> is equivalent to
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(C,1)</span></code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> is the underlying function.</p>
+<p>Note that the transformation from function object to instance method
+object happens each time the attribute is retrieved from the instance.  In
+some cases, a fruitful optimization is to assign the attribute to a local
+variable and call that local variable. Also notice that this
+transformation only happens for user-defined functions; other callable
+objects (and all non-callable objects) are retrieved without
+transformation.  It is also important to note that user-defined functions
+which are attributes of a class instance are not converted to bound
+methods; this <em>only</em> happens when the function is an attribute of the
+class.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Generator functions</dt><dd><p id="index-37">A function or method which uses the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#yield"><span class="std std-ref">The yield statement</span></a>) is called a <em class="dfn">generator function</em>.  Such a function, when
+called, always returns an iterator object which can be used to execute the
+body of the function:  calling the iterator’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterator.__next__()</span></code></a>
+method will cause the function to execute until it provides a value
+using the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement.  When the function executes a
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement or falls off the end, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>
+exception is raised and the iterator will have reached the end of the set of
+values to be returned.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Coroutine functions</dt><dd><p id="index-38">A function or method which is defined using <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> is called
+a <em class="dfn">coroutine function</em>.  Such a function, when called, returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> object.  It may contain <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expressions,
+as well as <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statements. See
+also the <a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Coroutine Objects</span></a> section.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Asynchronous generator functions</dt><dd><p id="index-39">A function or method which is defined using <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> and
+which uses the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement is called a
+<em class="dfn">asynchronous generator function</em>.  Such a function, when called,
+returns an asynchronous iterator object which can be used in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement to execute the body of the function.</p>
+<p>Calling the asynchronous iterator’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aiterator.__anext__()</span></code> method
+will return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> which when awaited
+will execute until it provides a value using the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a>
+expression.  When the function executes an empty <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a>
+statement or falls off the end, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> exception
+is raised and the asynchronous iterator will have reached the end of
+the set of values to be yielded.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Built-in functions</dt><dd><p id="index-40">A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function.  Examples of
+built-in functions are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.sin" title="math.sin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.sin()</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> is a
+standard built-in module). The number and type of the arguments are
+determined by the C function. Special read-only attributes:
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> is the function’s documentation string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+unavailable; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> is the function’s name; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> is
+set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (but see the next item); <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> is the name of
+the module the function was defined in or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if unavailable.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Built-in methods</dt><dd><p id="index-41">This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time containing
+an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra argument.  An example of
+a built-in method is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">alist.append()</span></code>, assuming <em>alist</em> is a list object. In
+this case, the special read-only attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> is set to the object
+denoted by <em>alist</em>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Classes</dt><dd><p>Classes are callable.  These objects normally act as factories for new
+instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types that
+override <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>.  The arguments of the call are passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> and, in the typical case, to <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> to
+initialize the new instance.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Class Instances</dt><dd><p>Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a> method in their class.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+<dt>Modules</dt><dd><p id="index-42">Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#importsystem"><span class="std std-ref">import system</span></a> as invoked either by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement, or by calling
+functions such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> and built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a>.  A module object has a namespace implemented by a
+dictionary object (this is the dictionary referenced by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__globals__</span></code>
+attribute of functions defined in the module).  Attribute references are
+translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.x</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__dict__[&quot;x&quot;]</span></code>. A module object does not contain the code object used
+to initialize the module (since it isn’t needed once the initialization is
+done).</p>
+<p>Attribute assignment updates the module’s namespace dictionary, e.g.,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__dict__[&quot;x&quot;]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-43">Predefined (writable) attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> is the module’s name;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> is the module’s documentation string, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+unavailable; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> (optional) is a dictionary containing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">variable annotations</span></a> collected during module
+body execution; <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a> is the pathname of the file from which the
+module was loaded, if it was loaded from a file. The <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#__file__" title="__file__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code></a>
+attribute may be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules
+that are statically linked into the interpreter; for extension modules
+loaded dynamically from a shared library, it is the pathname of the shared
+library file.</p>
+<p id="index-44">Special read-only attribute: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> is the module’s
+namespace as a dictionary object.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Because of the way CPython clears module dictionaries, the module
+dictionary will be cleared when the module falls out of scope even if the
+dictionary still has live references.  To avoid this, copy the dictionary
+or keep the module around while using its dictionary directly.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Custom classes</dt><dd><p>Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#class"><span class="std std-ref">Class definitions</span></a>).  A class has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object.
+Class attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g.,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.x</span></code> is translated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.__dict__[&quot;x&quot;]</span></code> (although there are a number of
+hooks which allow for other means of locating attributes). When the attribute
+name is not found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes.
+This search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which
+behaves correctly even in the presence of ‘diamond’ inheritance structures
+where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a common ancestor.
+Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be found in the
+documentation accompanying the 2.3 release at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/">https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/</a>.</p>
+<p id="index-45">When a class attribute reference (for class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>, say) would yield a
+class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object whose
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> attribute is <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>.  When it would yield a static
+method object, it is transformed into the object wrapped by the static method
+object. See section <a class="reference internal" href="#descriptors"><span class="std std-ref">Implementing Descriptors</span></a> for another way in which attributes
+retrieved from a class may differ from those actually contained in its
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-46">Class attribute assignments update the class’s dictionary, never the dictionary
+of a base class.</p>
+<p id="index-47">A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see below).</p>
+<p id="index-48">Special attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> is the class name; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> is
+the module name in which the class was defined; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> is the
+dictionary containing the class’s namespace; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code></a> is a
+tuple containing the base classes, in the order of their occurrence in the
+base class list; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> is the class’s documentation string,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if undefined; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> (optional) is a dictionary
+containing <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">variable annotations</span></a> collected during
+class body execution.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Class instances</dt><dd><p id="index-49">A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).  A class
+instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the first place
+in which attribute references are searched.  When an attribute is not found
+there, and the instance’s class has an attribute by that name, the search
+continues with the class attributes.  If a class attribute is found that is a
+user-defined function object, it is transformed into an instance method
+object whose <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code> attribute is the instance.  Static method and
+class method objects are also transformed; see above under “Classes”.  See
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#descriptors"><span class="std std-ref">Implementing Descriptors</span></a> for another way in which attributes of a class
+retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually stored in
+the class’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>.  If no class attribute is found, and the
+object’s class has a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> method, that is called to satisfy
+the lookup.</p>
+<p id="index-50">Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance’s dictionary, never a
+class’s dictionary.  If the class has a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__delattr__" title="object.__delattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delattr__()</span></code></a> method, this is called instead of updating the instance
+dictionary directly.</p>
+<p id="index-51">Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if they have
+methods with certain special names.  See section <a class="reference internal" href="#specialnames"><span class="std std-ref">Special method names</span></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-52">Special attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> is the attribute dictionary;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#instance.__class__" title="instance.__class__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code></a> is the instance’s class.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>I/O objects (also known as file objects)</dt><dd><p id="index-53">A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> represents an open file.  Various shortcuts are
+available to create file objects: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> built-in function, and
+also <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fdopen" title="os.fdopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fdopen()</span></code></a>, and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makefile()</span></code></a> method of socket objects (and perhaps by
+other functions or methods provided by extension modules).</p>
+<p>The objects <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> are
+initialized to file objects corresponding to the interpreter’s standard
+input, output and error streams; they are all open in text mode and
+therefore follow the interface defined by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOBase</span></code></a>
+abstract class.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Internal types</dt><dd><p id="index-54">A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the user. Their
+definitions may change with future versions of the interpreter, but they are
+mentioned here for completeness.</p>
+<dl id="index-55">
+<dt>Code objects</dt><dd><p>Code objects represent <em>byte-compiled</em> executable Python code, or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a>.
+The difference between a code object and a function object is that the function
+object contains an explicit reference to the function’s globals (the module in
+which it was defined), while a code object contains no context; also the default
+argument values are stored in the function object, not in the code object
+(because they represent values calculated at run-time).  Unlike function
+objects, code objects are immutable and contain no references (directly or
+indirectly) to mutable objects.</p>
+<p id="index-56">Special read-only attributes: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_name</span></code> gives the function name;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_argcount</span></code> is the number of positional arguments (including arguments
+with default values); <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_nlocals</span></code> is the number of local variables used
+by the function (including arguments); <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_varnames</span></code> is a tuple containing
+the names of the local variables (starting with the argument names);
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_cellvars</span></code> is a tuple containing the names of local variables that are
+referenced by nested functions; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_freevars</span></code> is a tuple containing the
+names of free variables; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_code</span></code> is a string representing the sequence
+of bytecode instructions; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_consts</span></code> is a tuple containing the literals
+used by the bytecode; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_names</span></code> is a tuple containing the names used by
+the bytecode; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_filename</span></code> is the filename from which the code was
+compiled; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_firstlineno</span></code> is the first line number of the function;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code> is a string encoding the mapping from bytecode offsets to
+line numbers (for details see the source code of the interpreter);
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_stacksize</span></code> is the required stack size (including local variables);
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_flags</span></code> is an integer encoding a number of flags for the interpreter.</p>
+<p id="index-57">The following flag bits are defined for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_flags</span></code>: bit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x04</span></code> is set if
+the function uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*arguments</span></code> syntax to accept an arbitrary number of
+positional arguments; bit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x08</span></code> is set if the function uses the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**keywords</span></code> syntax to accept arbitrary keyword arguments; bit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x20</span></code> is set
+if the function is a generator.</p>
+<p>Future feature declarations (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">division</span></code>) also use bits
+in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_flags</span></code> to indicate whether a code object was compiled with a
+particular feature enabled: bit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x2000</span></code> is set if the function was compiled
+with future division enabled; bits <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x10</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x1000</span></code> were used in earlier
+versions of Python.</p>
+<p>Other bits in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_flags</span></code> are reserved for internal use.</p>
+<p id="index-58">If a code object represents a function, the first item in <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_consts</span></code> is
+the documentation string of the function, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if undefined.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="frame-objects">
+<dt>Frame objects</dt><dd><p id="index-59">Frame objects represent execution frames.  They may occur in traceback objects
+(see below), and are also passed to registered trace functions.</p>
+<p id="index-60">Special read-only attributes: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_back</span></code> is to the previous stack frame
+(towards the caller), or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if this is the bottom stack frame;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_code</span></code> is the code object being executed in this frame; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_locals</span></code>
+is the dictionary used to look up local variables; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_globals</span></code> is used for
+global variables; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_builtins</span></code> is used for built-in (intrinsic) names;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_lasti</span></code> gives the precise instruction (this is an index into the
+bytecode string of the code object).</p>
+<p id="index-61">Special writable attributes: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace</span></code>, if not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, is a function
+called for various events during code execution (this is used by the debugger).
+Normally an event is triggered for each new source line - this can be
+disabled by setting <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_lines</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Implementations <em>may</em> allow per-opcode events to be requested by setting
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_opcodes</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>. Note that this may lead to
+undefined interpreter behaviour if exceptions raised by the trace
+function escape to the function being traced.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_lineno</span></code> is the current line number of the frame — writing to this
+from within a trace function jumps to the given line (only for the bottom-most
+frame).  A debugger can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next Statement)
+by writing to f_lineno.</p>
+<p>Frame objects support one method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="frame.clear">
+<code class="descclassname">frame.</code><code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#frame.clear" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method clears all references to local variables held by the
+frame.  Also, if the frame belonged to a generator, the generator
+is finalized.  This helps break reference cycles involving frame
+objects (for example when catching an exception and storing its
+traceback for later use).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised if the frame is currently executing.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<dl id="traceback-objects">
+<dt>Traceback objects</dt><dd><p id="index-62">Traceback objects represent a stack trace of an exception.  A traceback object
+is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and may also be explicitly
+created by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.TracebackType" title="types.TracebackType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.TracebackType</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception handler
+unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback object is
+inserted in front of the current traceback.  When an exception handler is
+entered, the stack trace is made available to the program. (See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><span class="std std-ref">The try statement</span></a>.) It is accessible as the third item of the
+tuple returned by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code>, and as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__traceback__</span></code> attribute
+of the caught exception.</p>
+<p>When the program contains no suitable
+handler, the stack trace is written (nicely formatted) to the standard error
+stream; if the interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_traceback</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the traceback
+to determine how the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_next</span></code> attributes should be linked to form a
+full stack trace.</p>
+<p id="index-63">Special read-only attributes:
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_frame</span></code> points to the execution frame of the current level;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_lineno</span></code> gives the line number where the exception occurred;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_lasti</span></code> indicates the precise instruction.
+The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from the
+line number of its frame object if the exception occurred in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement with no matching except clause or with a
+finally clause.</p>
+<p id="index-64">Special writable attribute: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_next</span></code> is the next level in the stack
+trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if
+there is no next level.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Traceback objects can now be explicitly instantiated from Python code,
+and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_next</span></code> attribute of existing instances can be updated.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt>Slice objects</dt><dd><p id="index-65">Slice objects are used to represent slices for <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+methods.  They are also created by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#slice" title="slice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p id="index-66">Special read-only attributes: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code> is the lower bound;
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code> is the upper bound; <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code> is the step
+value; each is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if omitted.  These attributes can have any type.</p>
+<p>Slice objects support one method:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="slice.indices">
+<code class="descclassname">slice.</code><code class="descname">indices</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>length</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#slice.indices" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method takes a single integer argument <em>length</em> and computes
+information about the slice that the slice object would describe if
+applied to a sequence of <em>length</em> items.  It returns a tuple of three
+integers; respectively these are the <em>start</em> and <em>stop</em> indices and the
+<em>step</em> or stride length of the slice. Missing or out-of-bounds indices
+are handled in a manner consistent with regular slices.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</dd>
+<dt>Static method objects</dt><dd><p>Static method objects provide a way of defeating the transformation of function
+objects to method objects described above. A static method object is a wrapper
+around any other object, usually a user-defined method object. When a static
+method object is retrieved from a class or a class instance, the object actually
+returned is the wrapped object, which is not subject to any further
+transformation. Static method objects are not themselves callable, although the
+objects they wrap usually are. Static method objects are created by the built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Class method objects</dt><dd><p>A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around another
+object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved from classes and
+class instances. The behaviour of class method objects upon such retrieval is
+described above, under “User-defined methods”. Class method objects are created
+by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> constructor.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="special-method-names">
+<span id="specialnames"></span><h2>3.3. Special method names<a class="headerlink" href="#special-method-names" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-67">A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special syntax
+(such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by defining methods
+with special names. This is Python’s approach to <em class="dfn">operator overloading</em>,
+allowing classes to define their own behavior with respect to language
+operators.  For instance, if a class defines a method named <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is an instance of this class, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x[i]</span></code> is roughly equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(x).__getitem__(x,</span> <span class="pre">i)</span></code>.  Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an
+operation raise an exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Setting a special method to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> indicates that the corresponding
+operation is not available.  For example, if a class sets
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the class is not iterable, so calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> on its instances will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> (without
+falling back to <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>). <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id9" id="id2">2</a></p>
+<p>When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is important that
+the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it makes sense for the
+object being modelled.  For example, some sequences may work well with retrieval
+of individual elements, but extracting a slice may not make sense.  (One example
+of this is the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeList</span></code> interface in the W3C’s Document
+Object Model.)</p>
+<div class="section" id="basic-customization">
+<span id="customization"></span><h3>3.3.1. Basic customization<a class="headerlink" href="#basic-customization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__new__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__new__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cls</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__new__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-68">Called to create a new instance of class <em>cls</em>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> is a static
+method (special-cased so you need not declare it as such) that takes the class
+of which an instance was requested as its first argument.  The remaining
+arguments are those passed to the object constructor expression (the call to the
+class).  The return value of <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> should be the new object instance
+(usually an instance of <em>cls</em>).</p>
+<p>Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by invoking the
+superclass’s <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super().__new__(cls[,</span> <span class="pre">...])</span></code>
+with appropriate arguments and then modifying the newly-created instance
+as necessary before returning it.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> returns an instance of <em>cls</em>, then the new instance’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method will be invoked like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__(self[,</span> <span class="pre">...])</span></code>, where
+<em>self</em> is the new instance and the remaining arguments are the same as were
+passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> does not return an instance of <em>cls</em>, then the new instance’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method will not be invoked.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> is intended mainly to allow subclasses of immutable types (like
+int, str, or tuple) to customize instance creation.  It is also commonly
+overridden in custom metaclasses in order to customize class creation.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__init__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__init__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__init__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-69">Called after the instance has been created (by <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>), but before
+it is returned to the caller.  The arguments are those passed to the
+class constructor expression.  If a base class has an <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>
+method, the derived class’s <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method, if any, must explicitly
+call it to ensure proper initialization of the base class part of the
+instance; for example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super().__init__([args...])</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Because <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> work together in constructing
+objects (<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> to create it, and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> to customize it),
+no non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> value may be returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>; doing so will
+cause a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> to be raised at runtime.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__del__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__del__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__del__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-70">Called when the instance is about to be destroyed.  This is also called a
+finalizer or (improperly) a destructor.  If a base class has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method, the derived class’s <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method,
+if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper deletion of the base
+class part of the instance.</p>
+<p>It is possible (though not recommended!) for the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method
+to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a new reference to
+it.  This is called object <em>resurrection</em>.  It is implementation-dependent
+whether <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> is called a second time when a resurrected object
+is about to be destroyed; the current <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a> implementation
+only calls it once.</p>
+<p>It is not guaranteed that <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods are called for objects
+that still exist when the interpreter exits.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code> doesn’t directly call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__del__()</span></code> — the former decrements
+the reference count for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> by one, and the latter is only called when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>’s reference count reaches zero.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p class="compound-first"><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> It is possible for a reference cycle to prevent the reference count
+of an object from going to zero.  In this case, the cycle will be
+later detected and deleted by the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><span class="xref std std-term">cyclic garbage collector</span></a>.  A common cause of reference cycles is when
+an exception has been caught in a local variable.  The frame’s
+locals then reference the exception, which references its own
+traceback, which references the locals of all frames caught in the
+traceback.</p>
+<div class="compound-last admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>Documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Due to the precarious circumstances under which <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods are
+invoked, exceptions that occur during their execution are ignored, and a warning
+is printed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> instead.  In particular:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> can be invoked when arbitrary code is being executed,
+including from any arbitrary thread.  If <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> needs to take
+a lock or invoke any other blocking resource, it may deadlock as
+the resource may already be taken by the code that gets interrupted
+to execute <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> can be executed during interpreter shutdown.  As a
+consequence, the global variables it needs to access (including other
+modules) may already have been deleted or set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. Python
+guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single underscore
+are deleted from their module before other globals are deleted; if
+no other references to such globals exist, this may help in assuring
+that imported modules are still available at the time when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> method is called.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<span class="target" id="index-71"></span></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__repr__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__repr__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__repr__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> built-in function to compute the “official” string
+representation of an object.  If at all possible, this should look like a
+valid Python expression that could be used to recreate an object with the
+same value (given an appropriate environment).  If this is not possible, a
+string of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;...some</span> <span class="pre">useful</span> <span class="pre">description...&gt;</span></code> should be returned.
+The return value must be a string object. If a class defines <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a>
+but not <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a>, then <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> is also used when an
+“informal” string representation of instances of that class is required.</p>
+<p>This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the representation
+is information-rich and unambiguous.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-72"></span></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__str__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(object)</span></code></a> and the built-in functions
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> to compute the “informal” or nicely
+printable string representation of an object.  The return value must be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">string</span></a> object.</p>
+<p>This method differs from <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__repr__()</span></code></a> in that there is no
+expectation that <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a> return a valid Python expression: a more
+convenient or concise representation can be used.</p>
+<p>The default implementation defined by the built-in type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>
+calls <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__repr__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__bytes__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__bytes__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__bytes__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-73">Called by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#func-bytes"><span class="std std-ref">bytes</span></a> to compute a byte-string representation
+of an object. This should return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-74"></span></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__format__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__format__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>format_spec</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__format__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> built-in function,
+and by extension, evaluation of <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literals</span></a> and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method, to produce a “formatted”
+string representation of an object. The <em>format_spec</em> argument is
+a string that contains a description of the formatting options desired.
+The interpretation of the <em>format_spec</em> argument is up to the type
+implementing <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a>, however most classes will either
+delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or use a similar
+formatting option syntax.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatspec"><span class="std std-ref">Format Specification Mini-Language</span></a> for a description of the standard formatting syntax.</p>
+<p>The return value must be a string object.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The __format__ method of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code> itself raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+if passed any non-empty string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__format__(x,</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code> is now equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(x)</span></code> rather
+than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format(str(self),</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="richcmpfuncs"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__lt__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__lt__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__lt__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__le__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__le__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__le__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__eq__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__eq__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__eq__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ne__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ne__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ne__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__gt__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__gt__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__gt__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ge__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ge__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ge__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-75">These are the so-called “rich comparison” methods. The correspondence between
+operator symbols and method names is as follows: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x&lt;y</span></code> calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__lt__(y)</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x&lt;=y</span></code> calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__le__(y)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x==y</span></code> calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__eq__(y)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x!=y</span></code> calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__ne__(y)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x&gt;y</span></code> calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__gt__(y)</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x&gt;=y</span></code> calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__ge__(y)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A rich comparison method may return the singleton <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code> if it does
+not implement the operation for a given pair of arguments. By convention,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> are returned for a successful comparison. However, these
+methods can return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a Boolean
+context (e.g., in the condition of an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statement), Python will call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool()</span></code></a> on the value to determine if the result is true or false.</p>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__ne__" title="object.__ne__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__()</span></code></a> delegates to <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> and
+inverts the result unless it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>.  There are no other
+implied relationships among the comparison operators, for example,
+the truth of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x&lt;y</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">x==y)</span></code> does not imply <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x&lt;=y</span></code>.
+To automatically generate ordering operations from a single root operation,
+see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.total_ordering()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See the paragraph on <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> for
+some important notes on creating <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a> objects which support
+custom comparison operations and are usable as dictionary keys.</p>
+<p>There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used when the
+left argument does not support the operation but the right argument does);
+rather, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a> are each other’s reflection,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a> are each other’s reflection, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__ne__" title="object.__ne__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__()</span></code></a> are their own reflection.
+If the operands are of different types, and right operand’s type is
+a direct or indirect subclass of the left operand’s type,
+the reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise
+the left operand’s method has priority.  Virtual subclassing is
+not considered.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__hash__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__hash__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__hash__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-76">Called by built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a> and for operations on members of
+hashed collections including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> should return an integer. The only required
+property is that objects which compare equal have the same hash value; it is
+advised to mix together the hash values of the components of the object that
+also play a part in comparison of objects by packing them into a tuple and
+hashing the tuple. Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__hash__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nick</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">color</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a> truncates the value returned from an object’s custom
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method to the size of a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>.  This is
+typically 8 bytes on 64-bit builds and 4 bytes on 32-bit builds.  If an
+object’s   <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> must interoperate on builds of different bit
+sizes, be sure to check the width on all supported builds.  An easy way
+to do this is with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-c</span> <span class="pre">&quot;import</span> <span class="pre">sys;</span> <span class="pre">print(sys.hash_info.width)&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If a class does not define an <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method it should not define a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> operation either; if it defines <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> but not
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>, its instances will not be usable as items in hashable
+collections.  If a class defines mutable objects and implements an
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method, it should not implement <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>, since the
+implementation of hashable collections requires that a key’s hash value is
+immutable (if the object’s hash value changes, it will be in the wrong hash
+bucket).</p>
+<p>User-defined classes have <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> methods
+by default; with them, all objects compare unequal (except with themselves)
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__hash__()</span></code> returns an appropriate value such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>
+implies both that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(x)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">hash(y)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A class that overrides <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> and does not define <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>
+will have its <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> implicitly set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  When the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method of a class is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, instances of the class will
+raise an appropriate <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> when a program attempts to retrieve
+their hash value, and will also be correctly identified as unhashable when
+checking <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">collections.abc.Hashable)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If a class that overrides <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> needs to retain the implementation
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> from a parent class, the interpreter must be told this
+explicitly by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">&lt;ParentClass&gt;.__hash__</span></code>.</p>
+<p>If a class that does not override <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> wishes to suppress hash
+support, it should include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> in the class definition.
+A class which defines its own <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> that explicitly raises
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> would be incorrectly identified as hashable by
+an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">collections.abc.Hashable)</span></code> call.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>By default, the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> values of str, bytes and datetime
+objects are “salted” with an unpredictable random value.  Although they
+remain constant within an individual Python process, they are not
+predictable between repeated invocations of Python.</p>
+<p>This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused
+by carefully-chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a
+dict insertion, O(n^2) complexity.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html">http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html</a> for details.</p>
+<p>Changing hash values affects the iteration order of sets.
+Python has never made guarantees about this ordering
+(and it typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds).</p>
+<p>See also <span class="target" id="index-77"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Hash randomization is enabled by default.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__bool__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__bool__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__bool__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-78">Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool()</span></code>; should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  When this method is not
+defined, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> is called, if it is defined, and the object is
+considered true if its result is nonzero.  If a class defines neither
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> nor <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a>, all its instances are considered
+true.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-attribute-access">
+<span id="attribute-access"></span><h3>3.3.2. Customizing attribute access<a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-attribute-access" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following methods can be defined to customize the meaning of attribute
+access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.name</span></code>) for class instances.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__getattr__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__getattr__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getattr__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when the default attribute access fails with an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>
+(either <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> raises an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> because
+<em>name</em> is not an instance attribute or an attribute in the class tree
+for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>; or <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> of a <em>name</em> property raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>).  This method should either return the (computed)
+attribute value or raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> is not called.  (This is an intentional asymmetry between
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a>.) This is done both for efficiency
+reasons and because otherwise <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> would have no way to access
+other attributes of the instance.  Note that at least for instance variables,
+you can fake total control by not inserting any values in the instance attribute
+dictionary (but instead inserting them in another object).  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> method below for a way to actually get total control
+over attribute access.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__getattribute__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__getattribute__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getattribute__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called unconditionally to implement attribute accesses for instances of the
+class. If the class also defines <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a>, the latter will not be
+called unless <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> either calls it explicitly or raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>. This method should return the (computed) attribute value
+or raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> exception. In order to avoid infinite
+recursion in this method, its implementation should always call the base class
+method with the same name to access any attributes it needs, for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__(self,</span> <span class="pre">name)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This method may still be bypassed when looking up special methods as the
+result of implicit invocation via language syntax or built-in functions.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#special-lookup"><span class="std std-ref">Special method lookup</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__setattr__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__setattr__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>name</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__setattr__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when an attribute assignment is attempted.  This is called instead of
+the normal mechanism (i.e. store the value in the instance dictionary).
+<em>name</em> is the attribute name, <em>value</em> is the value to be assigned to it.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> wants to assign to an instance attribute, it should
+call the base class method with the same name, for example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__setattr__(self,</span> <span class="pre">name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__delattr__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__delattr__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__delattr__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> but for attribute deletion instead of assignment.  This
+should only be implemented if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">obj.name</span></code> is meaningful for the object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__dir__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__dir__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__dir__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called when <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> is called on the object. A sequence must be
+returned. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> converts the returned sequence to a list and sorts it.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="customizing-module-attribute-access">
+<h4>3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access<a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-module-attribute-access" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p id="index-79">Special names <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code> can be also used to customize
+access to module attributes. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> function at the module level
+should accept one argument which is the name of an attribute and return the
+computed value or raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>. If an attribute is
+not found on a module object through the normal lookup, i.e.
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__()</span></code></a>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> is searched in
+the module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code> before raising an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>. If found,
+it is called with the attribute name and the result is returned.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code> function should accept no arguments, and return a list of
+strings that represents the names accessible on module. If present, this
+function overrides the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> search on a module.</p>
+<p>For a more fine grained customization of the module behavior (setting
+attributes, properties, etc.), one can set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> attribute of
+a module object to a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.ModuleType" title="types.ModuleType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.ModuleType</span></code></a>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">types</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ModuleType</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">VerboseModule</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ModuleType</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Verbose </span><span class="si">{self.__name__}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setattr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Setting </span><span class="si">{attr}</span><span class="s1">...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__setattr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="vm">__name__</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">VerboseModule</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Defining module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> and setting module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> only
+affect lookups made using the attribute access syntax – directly accessing
+the module globals (whether by code within the module, or via a reference
+to the module’s globals dictionary) is unaffected.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> module attribute is now writable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code> module attributes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-80"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0562"><strong>PEP 562</strong></a> - Module __getattr__ and __dir__</dt><dd><p>Describes the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code> functions on modules.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="implementing-descriptors">
+<span id="descriptors"></span><h4>3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors<a class="headerlink" href="#implementing-descriptors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The following methods only apply when an instance of the class containing the
+method (a so-called <em>descriptor</em> class) appears in an <em>owner</em> class (the
+descriptor must be in either the owner’s class dictionary or in the class
+dictionary for one of its parents).  In the examples below, “the attribute”
+refers to the attribute whose name is the key of the property in the owner
+class’ <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__get__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__get__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>instance</em>, <em>owner</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__get__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to get the attribute of the owner class (class attribute access) or of an
+instance of that class (instance attribute access). <em>owner</em> is always the owner
+class, while <em>instance</em> is the instance that the attribute was accessed through,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when the attribute is accessed through the <em>owner</em>.  This method
+should return the (computed) attribute value or raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>
+exception.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__set__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__set__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>instance</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__set__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to set the attribute on an instance <em>instance</em> of the owner class to a
+new value, <em>value</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__delete__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__delete__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>instance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__delete__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to delete the attribute on an instance <em>instance</em> of the owner class.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__set_name__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__set_name__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>owner</em>, <em>name</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__set_name__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called at the time the owning class <em>owner</em> is created. The
+descriptor has been assigned to <em>name</em>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__objclass__</span></code> is interpreted by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module
+as specifying the class where this object was defined (setting this
+appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of dynamic class attributes).
+For callables, it may indicate that an instance of the given type (or a
+subclass) is expected or required as the first positional argument (for example,
+CPython sets this attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="invoking-descriptors">
+<span id="descriptor-invocation"></span><h4>3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors<a class="headerlink" href="#invoking-descriptors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with “binding behavior”, one
+whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the descriptor
+protocol:  <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__delete__" title="object.__delete__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__()</span></code></a>. If any of
+those methods are defined for an object, it is said to be a descriptor.</p>
+<p>The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
+attribute from an object’s dictionary. For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.x</span></code> has a lookup chain
+starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.__dict__['x']</span></code>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(a).__dict__['x']</span></code>, and
+continuing through the base classes of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(a)</span></code> excluding metaclasses.</p>
+<p>However, if the looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor
+methods, then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor
+method instead.  Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which
+descriptor methods were defined and how they were called.</p>
+<p>The starting point for descriptor invocation is a binding, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.x</span></code>. How the
+arguments are assembled depends on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code>:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>Direct Call</dt><dd><p>The simplest and least common call is when user code directly invokes a
+descriptor method:    <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__get__(a)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Instance Binding</dt><dd><p>If binding to an object instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.x</span></code> is transformed into the call:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a,</span> <span class="pre">type(a))</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Class Binding</dt><dd><p>If binding to a class, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.x</span></code> is transformed into the call:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None,</span> <span class="pre">A)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Super Binding</dt><dd><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super</span></code></a>, then the binding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super(B,</span> <span class="pre">obj).m()</span></code>
+searches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.__class__.__mro__</span></code> for the base class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>
+immediately preceding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> and then invokes the descriptor with the call:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj,</span> <span class="pre">obj.__class__)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends on the
+which descriptor methods are defined.  A descriptor can define any combination
+of <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__delete__" title="object.__delete__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__()</span></code></a>.  If it does not
+define <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a>, then accessing the attribute will return the descriptor
+object itself unless there is a value in the object’s instance dictionary.  If
+the descriptor defines <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__delete__" title="object.__delete__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__()</span></code></a>, it is a data
+descriptor; if it defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor.  Normally, data
+descriptors define both <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a>, while non-data
+descriptors have just the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> method.  Data descriptors with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></code></a> defined always override a redefinition in an
+instance dictionary.  In contrast, non-data descriptors can be overridden by
+instances.</p>
+<p>Python methods (including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a>) are
+implemented as non-data descriptors.  Accordingly, instances can redefine and
+override methods.  This allows individual instances to acquire behaviors that
+differ from other instances of the same class.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a> function is implemented as a data descriptor. Accordingly,
+instances cannot override the behavior of a property.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="slots">
+<span id="id3"></span><h4>3.3.2.4. __slots__<a class="headerlink" href="#slots" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p><em>__slots__</em> allow us to explicitly declare data members (like
+properties) and deny the creation of <em>__dict__</em> and <em>__weakref__</em>
+(unless explicitly declared in <em>__slots__</em> or available in a parent.)</p>
+<p>The space saved over using <em>__dict__</em> can be significant.
+Attribute lookup speed can be significantly improved as well.</p>
+<dl class="data">
+<dt id="object.__slots__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__slots__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__slots__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence of
+strings with variable names used by instances.  <em>__slots__</em> reserves space
+for the declared variables and prevents the automatic creation of <em>__dict__</em>
+and <em>__weakref__</em> for each instance.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="notes-on-using-slots">
+<h5>3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using <em>__slots__</em><a class="headerlink" href="#notes-on-using-slots" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h5>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When inheriting from a class without <em>__slots__</em>, the <em>__dict__</em> and
+<em>__weakref__</em> attribute of the instances will always be accessible.</p></li>
+<li><p>Without a <em>__dict__</em> variable, instances cannot be assigned new variables not
+listed in the <em>__slots__</em> definition.  Attempts to assign to an unlisted
+variable name raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>. If dynamic assignment of new
+variables is desired, then add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__dict__'</span></code> to the sequence of strings in
+the <em>__slots__</em> declaration.</p></li>
+<li><p>Without a <em>__weakref__</em> variable for each instance, classes defining
+<em>__slots__</em> do not support weak references to its instances. If weak reference
+support is needed, then add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__weakref__'</span></code> to the sequence of strings in the
+<em>__slots__</em> declaration.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>__slots__</em> are implemented at the class level by creating descriptors
+(<a class="reference internal" href="#descriptors"><span class="std std-ref">Implementing Descriptors</span></a>) for each variable name.  As a result, class attributes
+cannot be used to set default values for instance variables defined by
+<em>__slots__</em>; otherwise, the class attribute would overwrite the descriptor
+assignment.</p></li>
+<li><p>The action of a <em>__slots__</em> declaration is not limited to the class
+where it is defined.  <em>__slots__</em> declared in parents are available in
+child classes. However, child subclasses will get a <em>__dict__</em>  and
+<em>__weakref__</em> unless they also define <em>__slots__</em> (which should only
+contain names of any <em>additional</em> slots).</p></li>
+<li><p>If a class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the instance variable
+defined by the base class slot is inaccessible (except by retrieving its
+descriptor directly from the base class). This renders the meaning of the
+program undefined.  In the future, a check may be added to prevent this.</p></li>
+<li><p>Nonempty <em>__slots__</em> does not work for classes derived from “variable-length”
+built-in types such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Any non-string iterable may be assigned to <em>__slots__</em>. Mappings may also be
+used; however, in the future, special meaning may be assigned to the values
+corresponding to each key.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>__class__</em> assignment works only if both classes have the same <em>__slots__</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Multiple inheritance with multiple slotted parent classes can be used,
+but only one parent is allowed to have attributes created by slots
+(the other bases must have empty slot layouts) - violations raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-class-creation">
+<span id="class-customization"></span><h3>3.3.3. Customizing class creation<a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-class-creation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Whenever a class inherits from another class, <em>__init_subclass__</em> is
+called on that class. This way, it is possible to write classes which
+change the behavior of subclasses. This is closely related to class
+decorators, but where class decorators only affect the specific class they’re
+applied to, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__</span></code> solely applies to future subclasses of the
+class defining the method.</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="object.__init_subclass__">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__init_subclass__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cls</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__init_subclass__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called whenever the containing class is subclassed.
+<em>cls</em> is then the new subclass. If defined as a normal instance method,
+this method is implicitly converted to a class method.</p>
+<p>Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to
+the parent’s class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__</span></code>. For compatibility with
+other classes using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__</span></code>, one should take out the
+needed keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base
+class, as in:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Philosopher</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init_subclass__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__init_subclass__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">default_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">default_name</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AustralianPhilosopher</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Philosopher</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default_name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Bruce&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The default implementation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__init_subclass__</span></code> does
+nothing, but raises an error if it is called with any arguments.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The metaclass hint <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass</span></code> is consumed by the rest of the type
+machinery, and is never passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__</span></code> implementations.
+The actual metaclass (rather than the explicit hint) can be accessed as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(cls)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="metaclasses">
+<span id="id4"></span><h4>3.3.3.1. Metaclasses<a class="headerlink" href="#metaclasses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p id="index-81">By default, classes are constructed using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a>. The class body is
+executed in a new namespace and the class name is bound locally to the
+result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(name,</span> <span class="pre">bases,</span> <span class="pre">namespace)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The class creation process can be customized by passing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass</span></code>
+keyword argument in the class definition line, or by inheriting from an
+existing class that included such an argument. In the following example,
+both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MySubclass</span></code> are instances of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Meta</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Meta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyClass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">metaclass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Meta</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MySubclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">MyClass</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Any other keyword arguments that are specified in the class definition are
+passed through to all metaclass operations described below.</p>
+<p>When a class definition is executed, the following steps occur:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>MRO entries are resolved;</p></li>
+<li><p>the appropriate metaclass is determined;</p></li>
+<li><p>the class namespace is prepared;</p></li>
+<li><p>the class body is executed;</p></li>
+<li><p>the class object is created.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="resolving-mro-entries">
+<h4>3.3.3.2. Resolving MRO entries<a class="headerlink" href="#resolving-mro-entries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>If a base that appears in class definition is not an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>,
+then an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro_entries__</span></code> method is searched on it. If found, it is called
+with the original bases tuple. This method must return a tuple of classes that
+will be used instead of this base. The tuple may be empty, in such case
+the original base is ignored.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-82"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560"><strong>PEP 560</strong></a> - Core support for typing module and generic types</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="determining-the-appropriate-metaclass">
+<h4>3.3.3.3. Determining the appropriate metaclass<a class="headerlink" href="#determining-the-appropriate-metaclass" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p id="index-83">The appropriate metaclass for a class definition is determined as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>if no bases and no explicit metaclass are given, then <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a> is used;</p></li>
+<li><p>if an explicit metaclass is given and it is <em>not</em> an instance of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a>, then it is used directly as the metaclass;</p></li>
+<li><p>if an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a> is given as the explicit metaclass, or
+bases are defined, then the most derived metaclass is used.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The most derived metaclass is selected from the explicitly specified
+metaclass (if any) and the metaclasses (i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type(cls)</span></code>) of all specified
+base classes. The most derived metaclass is one which is a subtype of <em>all</em>
+of these candidate metaclasses. If none of the candidate metaclasses meets
+that criterion, then the class definition will fail with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="preparing-the-class-namespace">
+<span id="prepare"></span><h4>3.3.3.4. Preparing the class namespace<a class="headerlink" href="#preparing-the-class-namespace" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p id="index-84">Once the appropriate metaclass has been identified, then the class namespace
+is prepared. If the metaclass has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__</span></code> attribute, it is called
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namespace</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">metaclass.__prepare__(name,</span> <span class="pre">bases,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code> (where the
+additional keyword arguments, if any, come from the class definition).</p>
+<p>If the metaclass has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__</span></code> attribute, then the class namespace
+is initialised as an empty ordered mapping.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-85"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3115"><strong>PEP 3115</strong></a> - Metaclasses in Python 3000</dt><dd><p>Introduced the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__</span></code> namespace hook</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="executing-the-class-body">
+<h4>3.3.3.5. Executing the class body<a class="headerlink" href="#executing-the-class-body" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p id="index-86">The class body is executed (approximately) as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec(body,</span> <span class="pre">globals(),</span> <span class="pre">namespace)</span></code>. The key difference from a normal
+call to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> is that lexical scoping allows the class body (including
+any methods) to reference names from the current and outer scopes when the
+class definition occurs inside a function.</p>
+<p>However, even when the class definition occurs inside the function, methods
+defined inside the class still cannot see names defined at the class scope.
+Class variables must be accessed through the first parameter of instance or
+class methods, or through the implicit lexically scoped <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> reference
+described in the next section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-the-class-object">
+<span id="class-object-creation"></span><h4>3.3.3.6. Creating the class object<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-the-class-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p id="index-87">Once the class namespace has been populated by executing the class body,
+the class object is created by calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass(name,</span> <span class="pre">bases,</span> <span class="pre">namespace,</span> <span class="pre">**kwds)</span></code> (the additional keywords
+passed here are the same as those passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__</span></code>).</p>
+<p>This class object is the one that will be referenced by the zero-argument
+form of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> is an implicit closure reference
+created by the compiler if any methods in a class body refer to either
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super</span></code>. This allows the zero argument form of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> to correctly identify the class being defined based on
+lexical scoping, while the class or instance that was used to make the
+current call is identified based on the first argument passed to the method.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> In CPython 3.6 and later, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> cell is passed to the metaclass
+as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__classcell__</span></code> entry in the class namespace. If present, this must
+be propagated up to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> call in order for the class to be
+initialised correctly.
+Failing to do so will result in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> in Python 3.6,
+and a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> in Python 3.8.</p>
+</div>
+<p>When using the default metaclass <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>, or any metaclass that ultimately
+calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code>, the following additional customisation steps are
+invoked after creating the class object:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>first, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> collects all of the descriptors in the class
+namespace that define a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__set_name__" title="object.__set_name__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set_name__()</span></code></a> method;</p></li>
+<li><p>second, all of these <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set_name__</span></code> methods are called with the class
+being defined and the assigned name of that particular descriptor;</p></li>
+<li><p>finally, the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__init_subclass__" title="object.__init_subclass__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__()</span></code></a> hook is called on the
+immediate parent of the new class in its method resolution order.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>After the class object is created, it is passed to the class decorators
+included in the class definition (if any) and the resulting object is bound
+in the local namespace as the defined class.</p>
+<p>When a new class is created by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code>, the object provided as the
+namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the original
+object is discarded. The new copy is wrapped in a read-only proxy, which
+becomes the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute of the class object.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-88"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3135"><strong>PEP 3135</strong></a> - New super</dt><dd><p>Describes the implicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> closure reference</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="uses-for-metaclasses">
+<h4>3.3.3.7. Uses for metaclasses<a class="headerlink" href="#uses-for-metaclasses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The potential uses for metaclasses are boundless. Some ideas that have been
+explored include enum, logging, interface checking, automatic delegation,
+automatic property creation, proxies, frameworks, and automatic resource
+locking/synchronization.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-instance-and-subclass-checks">
+<h3>3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks<a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-instance-and-subclass-checks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following methods are used to override the default behavior of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> built-in functions.</p>
+<p>In particular, the metaclass <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.ABCMeta</span></code></a> implements these methods in
+order to allow the addition of Abstract Base Classes (ABCs) as “virtual base
+classes” to any class or type (including built-in types), including other
+ABCs.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="class.__instancecheck__">
+<code class="descclassname">class.</code><code class="descname">__instancecheck__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>instance</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#class.__instancecheck__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>instance</em> should be considered a (direct or indirect)
+instance of <em>class</em>. If defined, called to implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(instance,</span>
+<span class="pre">class)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="class.__subclasscheck__">
+<code class="descclassname">class.</code><code class="descname">__subclasscheck__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>subclass</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#class.__subclasscheck__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return true if <em>subclass</em> should be considered a (direct or indirect)
+subclass of <em>class</em>.  If defined, called to implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass(subclass,</span>
+<span class="pre">class)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>Note that these methods are looked up on the type (metaclass) of a class.  They
+cannot be defined as class methods in the actual class.  This is consistent with
+the lookup of special methods that are called on instances, only in this
+case the instance is itself a class.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-89"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3119"><strong>PEP 3119</strong></a> - Introducing Abstract Base Classes</dt><dd><p>Includes the specification for customizing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> behavior through <a class="reference internal" href="#class.__instancecheck__" title="class.__instancecheck__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__instancecheck__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#class.__subclasscheck__" title="class.__subclasscheck__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasscheck__()</span></code></a>, with motivation for this functionality
+in the context of adding Abstract Base Classes (see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a>
+module) to the language.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="emulating-generic-types">
+<h3>3.3.5. Emulating generic types<a class="headerlink" href="#emulating-generic-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>One can implement the generic class syntax as specified by <span class="target" id="index-90"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a>
+(for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">List[int]</span></code>) by defining a special method:</p>
+<dl class="classmethod">
+<dt id="object.__class_getitem__">
+<em class="property">classmethod </em><code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__class_getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>cls</em>, <em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__class_getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Return an object representing the specialization of a generic class
+by type arguments found in <em>key</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>This method is looked up on the class object itself, and when defined in
+the class body, this method is implicitly a class method.  Note, this
+mechanism is primarily reserved for use with static type hints, other usage
+is discouraged.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-91"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560"><strong>PEP 560</strong></a> - Core support for typing module and generic types</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="emulating-callable-objects">
+<span id="callable-types"></span><h3>3.3.6. Emulating callable objects<a class="headerlink" href="#emulating-callable-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__call__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__call__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args...</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__call__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-92">Called when the instance is “called” as a function; if this method is defined,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x(arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code> is a shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__call__(arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="emulating-container-types">
+<span id="sequence-types"></span><h3>3.3.7. Emulating container types<a class="headerlink" href="#emulating-container-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following methods can be defined to implement container objects.  Containers
+usually are sequences (such as lists or tuples) or mappings (like dictionaries),
+but can represent other containers as well.  The first set of methods is used
+either to emulate a sequence or to emulate a mapping; the difference is that for
+a sequence, the allowable keys should be the integers <em>k</em> for which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">k</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span>
+<span class="pre">N</span></code> where <em>N</em> is the length of the sequence, or slice objects, which define a
+range of items.  It is also recommended that mappings provide the methods
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code> behaving similar to those for Python’s standard dictionary
+objects.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> module provides a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code></a>
+abstract base class to help create those methods from a base set of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__delitem__" title="object.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>.
+Mutable sequences should provide methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insert()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code>, like Python standard list objects.  Finally,
+sequence types should implement addition (meaning concatenation) and
+multiplication (meaning repetition) by defining the methods <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__radd__" title="object.__radd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__radd__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__iadd__" title="object.__iadd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__mul__" title="object.__mul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mul__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__rmul__" title="object.__rmul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rmul__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__imul__" title="object.__imul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__imul__()</span></code></a> described below; they should not define other numerical
+operators.  It is recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> method to allow efficient use of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> operator; for
+mappings, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> should search the mapping’s keys; for sequences, it should
+search through the values.  It is further recommended that both mappings and
+sequences implement the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method to allow efficient iteration
+through the container; for mappings, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> should be the same as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__len__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__len__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__len__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-93">Called to implement the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a>.  Should return the length
+of the object, an integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> 0.  Also, an object that doesn’t define a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a> method and whose <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> method returns zero is
+considered to be false in a Boolean context.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> In CPython, the length is required to be at most <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a>.
+If the length is larger than <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code> some features (such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a>) may raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.  To prevent raising
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code> by truth value testing, an object must define a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__length_hint__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__length_hint__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__length_hint__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to implement <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.length_hint" title="operator.length_hint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.length_hint()</span></code></a>. Should return an estimated
+length for the object (which may be greater or less than the actual length).
+The length must be an integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> 0. This method is purely an
+optimization and is never required for correctness.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition note" id="index-94">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Slicing is done exclusively with the following three methods.  A call like</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is translated to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and so forth.  Missing slice items are always filled in with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__getitem__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__getitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to implement evaluation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self[key]</span></code>. For sequence types, the
+accepted keys should be integers and slice objects.  Note that the special
+interpretation of negative indexes (if the class wishes to emulate a sequence
+type) is up to the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method. If <em>key</em> is of an inappropriate
+type, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> may be raised; if of a value outside the set of indexes
+for the sequence (after any special interpretation of negative values),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> should be raised. For mapping types, if <em>key</em> is missing (not
+in the container), <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> should be raised.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loops expect that an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> will be raised for illegal
+indexes to allow proper detection of the end of the sequence.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__setitem__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__setitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>key</em>, <em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__setitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to implement assignment to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self[key]</span></code>.  Same note as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>.  This should only be implemented for mappings if the
+objects support changes to the values for keys, or if new keys can be added, or
+for sequences if elements can be replaced.  The same exceptions should be raised
+for improper <em>key</em> values as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__delitem__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__delitem__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__delitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to implement deletion of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self[key]</span></code>.  Same note as for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>.  This should only be implemented for mappings if the
+objects support removal of keys, or for sequences if elements can be removed
+from the sequence.  The same exceptions should be raised for improper <em>key</em>
+values as for the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__missing__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__missing__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>key</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__missing__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>.<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> to implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self[key]</span></code> for dict subclasses
+when key is not in the dictionary.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__iter__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__iter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__iter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is called when an iterator is required for a container. This method
+should return a new iterator object that can iterate over all the objects in the
+container.  For mappings, it should iterate over the keys of the container.</p>
+<p>Iterator objects also need to implement this method; they are required to return
+themselves.  For more information on iterator objects, see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typeiter"><span class="std std-ref">Iterator Types</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__reversed__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__reversed__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__reversed__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called (if present) by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> built-in to implement
+reverse iteration.  It should return a new iterator object that iterates
+over all the objects in the container in reverse order.</p>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a> method is not provided, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a>
+built-in will fall back to using the sequence protocol (<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>).  Objects that support the sequence protocol should
+only provide <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a> if they can provide an implementation
+that is more efficient than the one provided by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>The membership test operators (<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#not-in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code></a>) are normally
+implemented as an iteration through a sequence.  However, container objects can
+supply the following special method with a more efficient implementation, which
+also does not require the object be a sequence.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__contains__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__contains__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>item</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__contains__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to implement membership test operators.  Should return true if <em>item</em>
+is in <em>self</em>, false otherwise.  For mapping objects, this should consider the
+keys of the mapping rather than the values or the key-item pairs.</p>
+<p>For objects that don’t define <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>, the membership test first
+tries iteration via <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, then the old sequence iteration
+protocol via <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, see <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#membership-test-details"><span class="std std-ref">this section in the language
+reference</span></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="emulating-numeric-types">
+<span id="numeric-types"></span><h3>3.3.8. Emulating numeric types<a class="headerlink" href="#emulating-numeric-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects. Methods
+corresponding to operations that are not supported by the particular kind of
+number implemented (e.g., bitwise operations for non-integral numbers) should be
+left undefined.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__add__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__add__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__add__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__sub__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__sub__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__sub__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__mul__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__mul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__mul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__matmul__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__matmul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__matmul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__truediv__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__truediv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__truediv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__floordiv__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__floordiv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__floordiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__mod__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__mod__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__mod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__divmod__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__divmod__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__divmod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__pow__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__pow__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>modulo</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__pow__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__lshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__lshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__lshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__and__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__and__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__and__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__xor__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__xor__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__xor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__or__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__or__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__or__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-95">These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>).  For instance, to
+evaluate the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>, where <em>x</em> is an instance of a class that
+has an <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a> method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__add__(y)</span></code> is called.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__divmod__" title="object.__divmod__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__divmod__()</span></code></a> method should be the equivalent to using
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__floordiv__" title="object.__floordiv__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__floordiv__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__mod__" title="object.__mod__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mod__()</span></code></a>; it should not be related to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__truediv__" title="object.__truediv__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__truediv__()</span></code></a>.  Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__pow__" title="object.__pow__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pow__()</span></code></a> should be defined to accept
+an optional third argument if the ternary version of the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a>
+function is to be supported.</p>
+<p>If one of those methods does not support the operation with the supplied
+arguments, it should return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__radd__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__radd__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__radd__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rsub__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rsub__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rsub__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rmul__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rmul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rmul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rmatmul__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rmatmul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rmatmul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rtruediv__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rtruediv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rtruediv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rfloordiv__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rfloordiv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rfloordiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rmod__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rmod__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rmod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rdivmod__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rdivmod__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rdivmod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rpow__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rpow__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rpow__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rlshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rlshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rlshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rrshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rrshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rrshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rand__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rand__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rand__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__rxor__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__rxor__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__rxor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ror__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ror__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ror__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-96">These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>) with reflected
+(swapped) operands.  These functions are only called if the left operand does
+not support the corresponding operation <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id10" id="id5">3</a> and the operands are of different
+types. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id11" id="id6">4</a> For instance, to evaluate the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>, where <em>y</em> is
+an instance of a class that has an <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__rsub__" title="object.__rsub__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rsub__()</span></code></a> method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y.__rsub__(x)</span></code>
+is called if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__sub__(y)</span></code> returns <em>NotImplemented</em>.</p>
+<p id="index-97">Note that ternary <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a> will not try calling <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__rpow__" title="object.__rpow__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rpow__()</span></code></a> (the
+coercion rules would become too complicated).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>If the right operand’s type is a subclass of the left operand’s type and that
+subclass provides the reflected method for the operation, this method will be
+called before the left operand’s non-reflected method.  This behavior allows
+subclasses to override their ancestors’ operations.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__iadd__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__iadd__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__iadd__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__isub__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__isub__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__isub__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__imul__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__imul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__imul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__imatmul__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__imatmul__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__imatmul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__itruediv__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__itruediv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__itruediv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ifloordiv__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ifloordiv__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ifloordiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__imod__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__imod__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__imod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ipow__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ipow__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>modulo</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ipow__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ilshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ilshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ilshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__irshift__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__irshift__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__irshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__iand__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__iand__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__iand__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ixor__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ixor__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ixor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ior__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ior__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ior__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic assignments
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&lt;=</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|=</span></code>).  These methods should attempt to do the
+operation in-place (modifying <em>self</em>) and return the result (which could be,
+but does not have to be, <em>self</em>).  If a specific method is not defined, the
+augmented assignment falls back to the normal methods.  For instance, if <em>x</em>
+is an instance of a class with an <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__iadd__" title="object.__iadd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__()</span></code></a> method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">x.__iadd__(y)</span></code> . Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__add__(y)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y.__radd__(x)</span></code> are considered, as with the evaluation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>. In
+certain situations, augmented assignment can result in unexpected errors (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../faq/programming.html#faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error"><span class="std std-ref">Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?</span></a>), but this behavior is in fact
+part of the data model.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__neg__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__neg__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__neg__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__pos__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__pos__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__pos__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__abs__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__abs__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__abs__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__invert__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__invert__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__invert__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-98">Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code>).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__complex__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__complex__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__complex__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__int__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__int__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__int__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__float__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__float__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__float__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-99">Called to implement the built-in functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a>.  Should return a value
+of the appropriate type.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__index__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__index__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__index__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Called to implement <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.index" title="operator.index"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.index()</span></code></a>, and whenever Python needs to
+losslessly convert the numeric object to an integer object (such as in
+slicing, or in the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bin" title="bin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hex()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">oct()</span></code></a>
+functions). Presence of this method indicates that the numeric object is
+an integer type.  Must return an integer.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In order to have a coherent integer type class, when <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> is
+defined <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> should also be defined, and both should return
+the same value.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__round__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__round__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>ndigits</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__round__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__trunc__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__trunc__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__trunc__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__floor__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__floor__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__floor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="object.__ceil__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__ceil__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__ceil__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p id="index-100">Called to implement the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a>
+functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.trunc" title="math.trunc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trunc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floor()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ceil()</span></code></a>.
+Unless <em>ndigits</em> is passed to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__round__()</span></code> all these methods should
+return the value of the object truncated to an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code></a>
+(typically an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> is not defined then the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a>
+falls back to <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__trunc__" title="object.__trunc__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__trunc__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="with-statement-context-managers">
+<span id="context-managers"></span><h3>3.3.9. With Statement Context Managers<a class="headerlink" href="#with-statement-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A <em class="dfn">context manager</em> is an object that defines the runtime context to be
+established when executing a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement. The context manager
+handles the entry into, and the exit from, the desired runtime context for the
+execution of the block of code.  Context managers are normally invoked using the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement (described in section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#with"><span class="std std-ref">The with statement</span></a>), but can also be
+used by directly invoking their methods.</p>
+<p id="index-101">Typical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various kinds of
+global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened files, etc.</p>
+<p>For more information on context managers, see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typecontextmanager"><span class="std std-ref">Context Manager Types</span></a>.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__enter__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__enter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__enter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Enter the runtime context related to this object. The <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement
+will bind this method’s return value to the target(s) specified in the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> clause of the statement, if any.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__exit__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__exit__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>exc_type</em>, <em>exc_value</em>, <em>traceback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__exit__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Exit the runtime context related to this object. The parameters describe the
+exception that caused the context to be exited. If the context was exited
+without an exception, all three arguments will be <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If an exception is supplied, and the method wishes to suppress the exception
+(i.e., prevent it from being propagated), it should return a true value.
+Otherwise, the exception will be processed normally upon exit from this method.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> methods should not reraise the passed-in exception;
+this is the caller’s responsibility.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-102"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a> - The “with” statement</dt><dd><p>The specification, background, and examples for the Python <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="special-method-lookup">
+<span id="special-lookup"></span><h3>3.3.10. Special method lookup<a class="headerlink" href="#special-method-lookup" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For custom classes, implicit invocations of special methods are only guaranteed
+to work correctly if defined on an object’s type, not in the object’s instance
+dictionary.  That behaviour is the reason why the following code raises an
+exception:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__len__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">object of type &#39;C&#39; has no len()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The rationale behind this behaviour lies with a number of special methods such
+as <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> that are implemented by all objects,
+including type objects. If the implicit lookup of these methods used the
+conventional lookup process, they would fail when invoked on the type object
+itself:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__hash__</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__hash__</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">descriptor &#39;__hash__&#39; of &#39;int&#39; object needs an argument</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Incorrectly attempting to invoke an unbound method of a class in this way is
+sometimes referred to as ‘metaclass confusion’, and is avoided by bypassing
+the instance when looking up special methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__hash__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__hash__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to bypassing any instance attributes in the interest of
+correctness, implicit special method lookup generally also bypasses the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> method even of the object’s metaclass:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Meta</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getattribute__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Metaclass getattribute invoked&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getattribute__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metaclass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Meta</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__len__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getattribute__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Class getattribute invoked&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">object</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getattribute__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__len__</span><span class="p">()</span>                 <span class="c1"># Explicit lookup via instance</span>
+<span class="go">Class getattribute invoked</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__len__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>          <span class="c1"># Explicit lookup via type</span>
+<span class="go">Metaclass getattribute invoked</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>                      <span class="c1"># Implicit lookup</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Bypassing the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> machinery in this fashion
+provides significant scope for speed optimisations within the
+interpreter, at the cost of some flexibility in the handling of
+special methods (the special method <em>must</em> be set on the class
+object itself in order to be consistently invoked by the interpreter).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coroutines">
+<span id="index-103"></span><h2>3.4. Coroutines<a class="headerlink" href="#coroutines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="awaitable-objects">
+<h3>3.4.1. Awaitable Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#awaitable-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object generally implements an <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> method.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">Coroutine</span></a> objects returned from <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> functions
+are awaitable.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator iterator</span></a> objects returned from generators
+decorated with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.coroutine" title="types.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.coroutine()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.coroutine" title="asyncio.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.coroutine()</span></code></a>
+are also awaitable, but they do not implement <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__await__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__await__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__await__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>.  Should be used to implement
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> objects.  For instance, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> implements
+this method to be compatible with the <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expression.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-104"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> for additional information about awaitable objects.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="coroutine-objects">
+<span id="id7"></span><h3>3.4.2. Coroutine Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#coroutine-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">Coroutine</span></a> objects are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> objects.
+A coroutine’s execution can be controlled by calling <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> and
+iterating over the result.  When the coroutine has finished executing and
+returns, the iterator raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>, and the exception’s
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute holds the return value.  If the
+coroutine raises an exception, it is propagated by the iterator.  Coroutines
+should not directly raise unhandled <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exceptions.</p>
+<p>Coroutines also have the methods listed below, which are analogous to
+those of generators (see <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#generator-methods"><span class="std std-ref">Generator-iterator methods</span></a>).  However, unlike
+generators, coroutines do not directly support iteration.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.2: </span>It is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> to await on a coroutine more than once.</p>
+</div>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="coroutine.send">
+<code class="descclassname">coroutine.</code><code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#coroutine.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine.  If <em>value</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a>.  If <em>value</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, this method delegates
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> method of the iterator that caused
+the coroutine to suspend.  The result (return value,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>, or other exception) is the same as when
+iterating over the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> return value, described above.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="coroutine.throw">
+<code class="descclassname">coroutine.</code><code class="descname">throw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>traceback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#coroutine.throw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raises the specified exception in the coroutine.  This method delegates
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#generator.throw" title="generator.throw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw()</span></code></a> method of the iterator that caused
+the coroutine to suspend, if it has such a method.  Otherwise,
+the exception is raised at the suspension point.  The result
+(return value, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>, or other exception) is the same as
+when iterating over the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> return value, described
+above.  If the exception is not caught in the coroutine, it propagates
+back to the caller.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="coroutine.close">
+<code class="descclassname">coroutine.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#coroutine.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Causes the coroutine to clean itself up and exit.  If the coroutine
+is suspended, this method first delegates to the <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#generator.close" title="generator.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>
+method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend, if it
+has such a method.  Then it raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> at the
+suspension point, causing the coroutine to immediately clean itself up.
+Finally, the coroutine is marked as having finished executing, even if
+it was never started.</p>
+<p>Coroutine objects are automatically closed using the above process when
+they are about to be destroyed.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asynchronous-iterators">
+<span id="async-iterators"></span><h3>3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchronous-iterators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An <em>asynchronous iterator</em> can call asynchronous code in
+its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>Asynchronous iterators can be used in an <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__aiter__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__aiter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__aiter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must return an <em>asynchronous iterator</em> object.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__anext__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__anext__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__anext__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Must return an <em>awaitable</em> resulting in a next value of the iterator.  Should
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> error when the iteration is over.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example of an asynchronous iterable object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">readline</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__aiter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__anext__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">StopAsyncIteration</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">val</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Prior to Python 3.7, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code> could return an <em>awaitable</em>
+that would resolve to an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Starting with Python 3.7, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code> must return an
+asynchronous iterator object.  Returning anything else
+will result in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> error.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asynchronous-context-managers">
+<span id="async-context-managers"></span><h3>3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchronous-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An <em>asynchronous context manager</em> is a <em>context manager</em> that is able to
+suspend execution in its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__</span></code> methods.</p>
+<p>Asynchronous context managers can be used in an <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__aenter__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__aenter__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__aenter__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is semantically similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a>, with only
+difference that it must return an <em>awaitable</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="object.__aexit__">
+<code class="descclassname">object.</code><code class="descname">__aexit__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>self</em>, <em>exc_type</em>, <em>exc_value</em>, <em>traceback</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__aexit__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This method is semantically similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>, with only
+difference that it must return an <em>awaitable</em>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example of an asynchronous context manager class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AsyncContextManager</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__aenter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;entering context&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__aexit__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tb</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;exiting context&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>It <em>is</em> possible in some cases to change an object’s type, under certain
+controlled conditions. It generally isn’t a good idea though, since it can
+lead to some very strange behaviour if it is handled incorrectly.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id9"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> methods have special handling for this; others
+will still raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>, but may do so by relying on
+the behavior that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is not callable.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id10"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id5">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>“Does not support” here means that the class has no such method, or
+the method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code>.  Do not set the method to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if you want to force fallback to the right operand’s reflected
+method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly
+<em>blocking</em> such fallback.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id11"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id6">4</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the non-reflected method
+(such as <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__add__" title="object.__add__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__add__()</span></code></a>) fails the operation is not supported, which is why the
+reflected method is not called.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">3. Data model</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#objects-values-and-types">3.1. Objects, values and types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-standard-type-hierarchy">3.2. The standard type hierarchy</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-method-names">3.3. Special method names</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basic-customization">3.3.1. Basic customization</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-attribute-access">3.3.2. Customizing attribute access</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-module-attribute-access">3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#implementing-descriptors">3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#invoking-descriptors">3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#slots">3.3.2.4. __slots__</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notes-on-using-slots">3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using <em>__slots__</em></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-class-creation">3.3.3. Customizing class creation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#metaclasses">3.3.3.1. Metaclasses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#resolving-mro-entries">3.3.3.2. Resolving MRO entries</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#determining-the-appropriate-metaclass">3.3.3.3. Determining the appropriate metaclass</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#preparing-the-class-namespace">3.3.3.4. Preparing the class namespace</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#executing-the-class-body">3.3.3.5. Executing the class body</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-the-class-object">3.3.3.6. Creating the class object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#uses-for-metaclasses">3.3.3.7. Uses for metaclasses</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-instance-and-subclass-checks">3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#emulating-generic-types">3.3.5. Emulating generic types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#emulating-callable-objects">3.3.6. Emulating callable objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#emulating-container-types">3.3.7. Emulating container types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#emulating-numeric-types">3.3.8. Emulating numeric types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#with-statement-context-managers">3.3.9. With Statement Context Managers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-method-lookup">3.3.10. Special method lookup</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coroutines">3.4. Coroutines</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#awaitable-objects">3.4.1. Awaitable Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coroutine-objects">3.4.2. Coroutine Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-iterators">3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-context-managers">3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="lexical_analysis.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">2. Lexical analysis</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="executionmodel.html"
+                        title="next chapter">4. Execution model</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst"
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+    <title>4. Execution model &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="execution-model">
+<span id="execmodel"></span><h1>4. Execution model<a class="headerlink" href="#execution-model" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="structure-of-a-program">
+<span id="prog-structure"></span><span id="index-0"></span><h2>4.1. Structure of a program<a class="headerlink" href="#structure-of-a-program" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-1">A Python program is constructed from code blocks.
+A <em class="dfn">block</em> is a piece of Python program text that is executed as a unit.
+The following are blocks: a module, a function body, and a class definition.
+Each command typed interactively is a block.  A script file (a file given as
+standard input to the interpreter or specified as a command line argument to the
+interpreter) is a code block.  A script command (a command specified on the
+interpreter command line with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> option) is a code block.  The string
+argument passed to the built-in functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> is a
+code block.</p>
+<p id="index-2">A code block is executed in an <em class="dfn">execution frame</em>.  A frame contains some
+administrative information (used for debugging) and determines where and how
+execution continues after the code block’s execution has completed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="naming-and-binding">
+<span id="naming"></span><h2>4.2. Naming and binding<a class="headerlink" href="#naming-and-binding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="binding-of-names">
+<span id="bind-names"></span><span id="index-3"></span><h3>4.2.1. Binding of names<a class="headerlink" href="#binding-of-names" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-4"><em class="dfn">Names</em> refer to objects.  Names are introduced by name binding operations.</p>
+<p id="index-5">The following constructs bind names: formal parameters to functions,
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements, class and function definitions (these bind the
+class or function name in the defining block), and targets that are identifiers
+if occurring in an assignment, <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop header, or after
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement or <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause.
+The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement
+of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> binds all names defined in the imported
+module, except those beginning with an underscore.  This form may only be used
+at the module level.</p>
+<p>A target occurring in a <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statement is also considered bound for
+this purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the name).</p>
+<p>Each assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a class or
+function definition or at the module level (the top-level code block).</p>
+<p id="index-6">If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block, unless
+declared as <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a>.  If a name is bound at
+the module level, it is a global variable.  (The variables of the module code
+block are local and global.)  If a variable is used in a code block but not
+defined there, it is a <em class="dfn">free variable</em>.</p>
+<p>Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to the <em class="dfn">binding</em> of
+that name established by the following name resolution rules.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="resolution-of-names">
+<span id="resolve-names"></span><h3>4.2.2. Resolution of names<a class="headerlink" href="#resolution-of-names" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-7">A <em class="dfn">scope</em> defines the visibility of a name within a block.  If a local
+variable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block.  If the
+definition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks contained
+within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces a different binding
+for the name.</p>
+<p id="index-8">When a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest enclosing
+scope.  The set of all such scopes visible to a code block is called the block’s
+<em class="dfn">environment</em>.</p>
+<p id="index-9">When a name is not found at all, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exception is raised.
+If the current scope is a function scope, and the name refers to a local
+variable that has not yet been bound to a value at the point where the name is
+used, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError" title="UnboundLocalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnboundLocalError</span></code></a> exception is raised.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError" title="UnboundLocalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnboundLocalError</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all uses of the
+name within the block are treated as references to the current block.  This can
+lead to errors when a name is used within a block before it is bound.  This rule
+is subtle.  Python lacks declarations and allows name binding operations to
+occur anywhere within a code block.  The local variables of a code block can be
+determined by scanning the entire text of the block for name binding operations.</p>
+<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement occurs within a block, all uses of the name
+specified in the statement refer to the binding of that name in the top-level
+namespace.  Names are resolved in the top-level namespace by searching the
+global namespace, i.e. the namespace of the module containing the code block,
+and the builtins namespace, the namespace of the module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>.  The
+global namespace is searched first.  If the name is not found there, the
+builtins namespace is searched.  The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement must precede
+all uses of the name.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement has the same scope as a name binding operation
+in the same block.  If the nearest enclosing scope for a free variable contains
+a global statement, the free variable is treated as a global.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement causes corresponding names to refer
+to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> is raised at compile time if the given name does not
+exist in any enclosing function scope.</p>
+<p id="index-10">The namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a module is
+imported.  The main module for a script is always called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Class definition blocks and arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> are
+special in the context of name resolution.
+A class definition is an executable statement that may use and define names.
+These references follow the normal rules for name resolution with an exception
+that unbound local variables are looked up in the global namespace.
+The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary of
+the class. The scope of names defined in a class block is limited to the
+class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of methods – this includes
+comprehensions and generator expressions since they are implemented using a
+function scope.  This means that the following will fail:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+    <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="builtins-and-restricted-execution">
+<span id="restrict-exec"></span><h3>4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution<a class="headerlink" href="#builtins-and-restricted-execution" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="impl-detail compound" id="index-11">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Users should not touch <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code>; it is strictly an implementation
+detail.  Users wanting to override values in the builtins namespace should
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module and modify its
+attributes appropriately.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The builtins namespace associated with the execution of a code block
+is actually found by looking up the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> in its
+global namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the
+latter case the module’s dictionary is used).  By default, when in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> is the built-in module
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>; when in any other module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> is an
+alias for the dictionary of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module itself.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interaction-with-dynamic-features">
+<span id="dynamic-features"></span><h3>4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features<a class="headerlink" href="#interaction-with-dynamic-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Name resolution of free variables occurs at runtime, not at compile time.
+This means that the following code will print 42:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> functions do not have access to the full
+environment for resolving names.  Names may be resolved in the local and global
+namespaces of the caller.  Free variables are not resolved in the nearest
+enclosing namespace, but in the global namespace.  <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a> The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> functions have optional arguments to override the global and local
+namespace.  If only one namespace is specified, it is used for both.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>4.3. Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><p id="index-13">Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of a code
+block in order to handle errors or other exceptional conditions.  An exception
+is <em>raised</em> at the point where the error is detected; it may be <em>handled</em> by the
+surrounding code block or by any code block that directly or indirectly invoked
+the code block where the error occurred.</p>
+<p>The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time error
+(such as division by zero).  A Python program can also explicitly raise an
+exception with the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> statement. Exception handlers are specified
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> … <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> statement.  The <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a>
+clause of such a statement can be used to specify cleanup code which does not
+handle the exception, but is executed whether an exception occurred or not in
+the preceding code.</p>
+<p id="index-14">Python uses the “termination” model of error handling: an exception handler can
+find out what happened and continue execution at an outer level, but it cannot
+repair the cause of the error and retry the failing operation (except by
+re-entering the offending piece of code from the top).</p>
+<p id="index-15">When an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates execution of
+the program, or returns to its interactive main loop.  In either case, it prints
+a stack traceback, except when the exception is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Exceptions are identified by class instances.  The <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause is
+selected depending on the class of the instance: it must reference the class of
+the instance or a base class thereof.  The instance can be received by the
+handler and can carry additional information about the exceptional condition.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Exception messages are not part of the Python API.  Their contents may change
+from one version of Python to the next without warning and should not be
+relied on by code which will run under multiple versions of the interpreter.</p>
+</div>
+<p>See also the description of the <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement in section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><span class="std std-ref">The try statement</span></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> statement in section <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#raise"><span class="std std-ref">The raise statement</span></a>.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these operations
+is not available at the time the module is compiled.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">4. Execution model</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#structure-of-a-program">4.1. Structure of a program</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#naming-and-binding">4.2. Naming and binding</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binding-of-names">4.2.1. Binding of names</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#resolution-of-names">4.2.2. Resolution of names</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#builtins-and-restricted-execution">4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interaction-with-dynamic-features">4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">4.3. Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="datamodel.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">3. Data model</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="import.html"
+                        title="next chapter">5. The import system</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/reference/executionmodel.rst"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="expressions">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>6. Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">This chapter explains the meaning of the elements of expressions in Python.</p>
+<p><strong>Syntax Notes:</strong> In this and the following chapters, extended BNF notation will
+be used to describe syntax, not lexical analysis.  When (one alternative of) a
+syntax rule has the form</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-name">name</strong> ::=  <code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">othername</span></code>
+</pre>
+<p>and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> are the same
+as for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">othername</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="arithmetic-conversions">
+<span id="conversions"></span><h2>6.1. Arithmetic conversions<a class="headerlink" href="#arithmetic-conversions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-1">When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase “the numeric
+arguments are converted to a common type,” this means that the operator
+implementation for built-in types works as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If either argument is a complex number, the other is converted to complex;</p></li>
+<li><p>otherwise, if either argument is a floating point number, the other is
+converted to floating point;</p></li>
+<li><p>otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Some additional rules apply for certain operators (e.g., a string as a left
+argument to the ‘%’ operator).  Extensions must define their own conversion
+behavior.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="atoms">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>6.2. Atoms<a class="headerlink" href="#atoms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-2">Atoms are the most basic elements of expressions.  The simplest atoms are
+identifiers or literals.  Forms enclosed in parentheses, brackets or braces are
+also categorized syntactically as atoms.  The syntax for atoms is:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-atom">atom     </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-literal"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">literal</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-enclosure"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enclosure</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-enclosure">enclosure</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-parenth-form"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parenth_form</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-list-display"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list_display</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-dict-display"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict_display</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-set-display"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_display</span></code></a>
+               | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-generator-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator_expression</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-yield-atom"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_atom</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<div class="section" id="atom-identifiers">
+<span id="identifiers-names"></span><h3>6.2.1. Identifiers (Names)<a class="headerlink" href="#atom-identifiers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-3">An identifier occurring as an atom is a name.  See section <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#identifiers"><span class="std std-ref">Identifiers and keywords</span></a>
+for lexical definition and section <a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#naming"><span class="std std-ref">Naming and binding</span></a> for documentation of naming and
+binding.</p>
+<p id="index-4">When the name is bound to an object, evaluation of the atom yields that object.
+When a name is not bound, an attempt to evaluate it raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>
+exception.</p>
+<p id="index-5"><strong>Private name mangling:</strong> When an identifier that textually occurs in a class
+definition begins with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two
+or more underscores, it is considered a <em class="dfn">private name</em> of that class.
+Private names are transformed to a longer form before code is generated for
+them.  The transformation inserts the class name, with leading underscores
+removed and a single underscore inserted, in front of the name.  For example,
+the identifier <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spam</span></code> occurring in a class named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ham</span></code> will be transformed
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Ham__spam</span></code>.  This transformation is independent of the syntactical
+context in which the identifier is used.  If the transformed name is extremely
+long (longer than 255 characters), implementation defined truncation may happen.
+If the class name consists only of underscores, no transformation is done.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="literals">
+<span id="atom-literals"></span><h3>6.2.2. Literals<a class="headerlink" href="#literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-6">Python supports string and bytes literals and various numeric literals:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-literal">literal</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-stringliteral"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringliteral</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-bytesliteral"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytesliteral</span></code></a>
+             | <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-integer"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">integer</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-floatnumber"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floatnumber</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-imagnumber"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imagnumber</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (string, bytes,
+integer, floating point number, complex number) with the given value.  The value
+may be approximated in the case of floating point and imaginary (complex)
+literals.  See section <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#literals"><span class="std std-ref">Literals</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p id="index-7">All literals correspond to immutable data types, and hence the object’s identity
+is less important than its value.  Multiple evaluations of literals with the
+same value (either the same occurrence in the program text or a different
+occurrence) may obtain the same object or a different object with the same
+value.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="parenthesized-forms">
+<span id="parenthesized"></span><h3>6.2.3. Parenthesized forms<a class="headerlink" href="#parenthesized-forms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-8">A parenthesized form is an optional expression list enclosed in parentheses:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-parenth-form">parenth_form</strong> ::=  &quot;(&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_expression</span></code></a>] &quot;)&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>A parenthesized expression list yields whatever that expression list yields: if
+the list contains at least one comma, it yields a tuple; otherwise, it yields
+the single expression that makes up the expression list.</p>
+<p id="index-9">An empty pair of parentheses yields an empty tuple object.  Since tuples are
+immutable, the same rules as for literals apply (i.e., two occurrences of the empty
+tuple may or may not yield the same object).</p>
+<p id="index-10">Note that tuples are not formed by the parentheses, but rather by use of the
+comma operator.  The exception is the empty tuple, for which parentheses <em>are</em>
+required — allowing unparenthesized “nothing” in expressions would cause
+ambiguities and allow common typos to pass uncaught.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="displays-for-lists-sets-and-dictionaries">
+<span id="comprehensions"></span><h3>6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries<a class="headerlink" href="#displays-for-lists-sets-and-dictionaries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For constructing a list, a set or a dictionary Python provides special syntax
+called “displays”, each of them in two flavors:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>either the container contents are listed explicitly, or</p></li>
+<li><p>they are computed via a set of looping and filtering instructions, called a
+<em class="dfn">comprehension</em>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p id="index-11">Common syntax elements for comprehensions are:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-comprehension">comprehension</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-for"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_for</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-comp-for">comp_for     </strong> ::=  [&quot;async&quot;] &quot;for&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#grammar-token-target-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target_list</span></code></a> &quot;in&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_test</span></code></a> [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-iter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_iter</span></code></a>]
+<strong id="grammar-token-comp-iter">comp_iter    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-for"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_for</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-if"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_if</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-comp-if">comp_if      </strong> ::=  &quot;if&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-nocond"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_nocond</span></code></a> [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-iter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_iter</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>The comprehension consists of a single expression followed by at least one
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause and zero or more <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> clauses.
+In this case, the elements of the new container are those that would be produced
+by considering each of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> clauses a block,
+nesting from left to right, and evaluating the expression to produce an element
+each time the innermost block is reached.</p>
+<p>However, aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause,
+the comprehension is executed in a separate implicitly nested scope. This ensures
+that names assigned to in the target list don’t “leak” into the enclosing scope.</p>
+<p>The iterable expression in the leftmost <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause is evaluated
+directly in the enclosing scope and then passed as an argument to the implictly
+nested scope. Subsequent <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clauses and any filter condition in the
+leftmost <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause cannot be evaluated in the enclosing scope as
+they may depend on the values obtained from the leftmost iterable. For example:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[x*y</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">range(10)</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">range(x,</span> <span class="pre">x+10)]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To ensure the comprehension always results in a container of the appropriate
+type, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> expressions are prohibited in the implicitly
+nested scope (in Python 3.7, such expressions emit <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>
+when compiled, in Python 3.8+ they will emit <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p id="index-12">Since Python 3.6, in an <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> function, an <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code>
+clause may be used to iterate over a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterator</span></a>.
+A comprehension in an <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code> function may consist of either a
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> clause following the leading
+expression, may contain additional <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code>
+clauses, and may also use <a class="reference internal" href="#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expressions.
+If a comprehension contains either <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> clauses
+or <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> expressions it is called an
+<em class="dfn">asynchronous comprehension</em>.  An asynchronous comprehension may
+suspend the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.
+See also <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0530"><strong>PEP 530</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Asynchronous comprehensions were introduced.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> deprecated in the implicitly nested scope.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="list-displays">
+<span id="lists"></span><h3>6.2.5. List displays<a class="headerlink" href="#list-displays" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-14">A list display is a possibly empty series of expressions enclosed in square
+brackets:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-list-display">list_display</strong> ::=  &quot;[&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_list</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comprehension"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comprehension</span></code></a>] &quot;]&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>A list display yields a new list object, the contents being specified by either
+a list of expressions or a comprehension.  When a comma-separated list of
+expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated from left to right and
+placed into the list object in that order.  When a comprehension is supplied,
+the list is constructed from the elements resulting from the comprehension.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="set-displays">
+<span id="set"></span><h3>6.2.6. Set displays<a class="headerlink" href="#set-displays" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-15">A set display is denoted by curly braces and distinguishable from dictionary
+displays by the lack of colons separating keys and values:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-set-display">set_display</strong> ::=  &quot;{&quot; (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_list</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comprehension"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comprehension</span></code></a>) &quot;}&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>A set display yields a new mutable set object, the contents being specified by
+either a sequence of expressions or a comprehension.  When a comma-separated
+list of expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated from left to right
+and added to the set object.  When a comprehension is supplied, the set is
+constructed from the elements resulting from the comprehension.</p>
+<p>An empty set cannot be constructed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>; this literal constructs an empty
+dictionary.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dictionary-displays">
+<span id="dict"></span><h3>6.2.7. Dictionary displays<a class="headerlink" href="#dictionary-displays" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-16">A dictionary display is a possibly empty series of key/datum pairs enclosed in
+curly braces:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-dict-display">dict_display      </strong> ::=  &quot;{&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-key-datum-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key_datum_list</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-dict-comprehension"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict_comprehension</span></code></a>] &quot;}&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-key-datum-list">key_datum_list    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-key-datum"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key_datum</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-key-datum"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key_datum</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot;]
+<strong id="grammar-token-key-datum">key_datum         </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> | &quot;**&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_expr</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-dict-comprehension">dict_comprehension</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-for"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_for</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>A dictionary display yields a new dictionary object.</p>
+<p>If a comma-separated sequence of key/datum pairs is given, they are evaluated
+from left to right to define the entries of the dictionary: each key object is
+used as a key into the dictionary to store the corresponding datum.  This means
+that you can specify the same key multiple times in the key/datum list, and the
+final dictionary’s value for that key will be the last one given.</p>
+<p id="index-17">A double asterisk <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> denotes <em class="dfn">dictionary unpacking</em>.
+Its operand must be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a>.  Each mapping item is added
+to the new dictionary.  Later values replace values already set by
+earlier key/datum pairs and earlier dictionary unpackings.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Unpacking into dictionary displays, originally proposed by <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0448"><strong>PEP 448</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A dict comprehension, in contrast to list and set comprehensions, needs two
+expressions separated with a colon followed by the usual “for” and “if” clauses.
+When the comprehension is run, the resulting key and value elements are inserted
+in the new dictionary in the order they are produced.</p>
+<p id="index-19">Restrictions on the types of the key values are listed earlier in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>.  (To summarize, the key type should be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable"><span class="xref std std-term">hashable</span></a>, which excludes
+all mutable objects.)  Clashes between duplicate keys are not detected; the last
+datum (textually rightmost in the display) stored for a given key value
+prevails.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generator-expressions">
+<span id="genexpr"></span><h3>6.2.8. Generator expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#generator-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-20">A generator expression is a compact generator notation in parentheses:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-generator-expression">generator_expression</strong> ::=  &quot;(&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-for"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_for</span></code></a> &quot;)&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>A generator expression yields a new generator object.  Its syntax is the same as
+for comprehensions, except that it is enclosed in parentheses instead of
+brackets or curly braces.</p>
+<p>Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method is called for the generator object (in the same
+fashion as normal generators).  However, the iterable expression in the
+leftmost <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause is immediately evaluated, so that an error
+produced by it will be emitted at the point where the generator expression
+is defined, rather than at the point where the first value is retrieved.
+Subsequent <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clauses and any filter condition in the leftmost
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause cannot be evaluated in the enclosing scope as they may
+depend on the values obtained from the leftmost iterable. For example:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x*y</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">range(10)</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">range(x,</span> <span class="pre">x+10))</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The parentheses can be omitted on calls with only one argument.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#calls"><span class="std std-ref">Calls</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>To avoid interfering with the expected operation of the generator expression
+itself, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> expressions are prohibited in the
+implicitly defined generator (in Python 3.7, such expressions emit
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> when compiled, in Python 3.8+ they will emit
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>If a generator expression contains either <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code>
+clauses or <a class="reference internal" href="#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expressions it is called an
+<em class="dfn">asynchronous generator expression</em>.  An asynchronous generator
+expression returns a new asynchronous generator object,
+which is an asynchronous iterator (see <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#async-iterators"><span class="std std-ref">Asynchronous Iterators</span></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>Asynchronous generator expressions were introduced.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Prior to Python 3.7, asynchronous generator expressions could
+only appear in <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> coroutines.  Starting
+with 3.7, any function can use asynchronous generator expressions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> deprecated in the implicitly nested scope.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="yield-expressions">
+<span id="yieldexpr"></span><h3>6.2.9. Yield expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#yield-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<pre id="index-21">
+<strong id="grammar-token-yield-atom">yield_atom      </strong> ::=  &quot;(&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-yield-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_expression</span></code></a> &quot;)&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-yield-expression">yield_expression</strong> ::=  &quot;yield&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> | &quot;from&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>The yield expression is used when defining a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> function
+or an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator</span></a> function and
+thus can only be used in the body of a function definition.  Using a yield
+expression in a function’s body causes that function to be a generator,
+and using it in an <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> function’s body causes that
+coroutine function to be an asynchronous generator. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen</span><span class="p">():</span>  <span class="c1"># defines a generator function</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="mi">123</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">agen</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="c1"># defines an asynchronous generator function</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="mi">123</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Due to their side effects on the containing scope, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> expressions
+are not permitted as part of the implicitly defined scopes used to
+implement comprehensions and generator expressions (in Python 3.7, such
+expressions emit <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> when compiled, in Python 3.8+
+they will emit <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>)..</p>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<p><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.7: </span>Yield expressions deprecated in the implicitly nested scopes used to
+implement comprehensions and generator expressions.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Generator functions are described below, while asynchronous generator
+functions are described separately in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-generator-functions"><span class="std std-ref">Asynchronous generator functions</span></a>.</p>
+<p>When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
+generator.  That generator then controls the execution of the generator function.
+The execution starts when one of the generator’s methods is called.  At that
+time, the execution proceeds to the first yield expression, where it is
+suspended again, returning the value of <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> to the generator’s
+caller.  By suspended, we mean that all local state is retained, including the
+current bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
+evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the execution
+is resumed by calling one of the
+generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the yield expression
+were just another external call.  The value of the yield expression after
+resuming depends on the method which resumed the execution.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> is used (typically via either a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> or
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> builtin) then the result is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.  Otherwise, if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> is used, then the result will be the value passed in to
+that method.</p>
+<p id="index-22">All of this makes generator functions quite similar to coroutines; they yield
+multiple times, they have more than one entry point and their execution can be
+suspended.  The only difference is that a generator function cannot control
+where the execution should continue after it yields; the control is always
+transferred to the generator’s caller.</p>
+<p>Yield expressions are allowed anywhere in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> construct.  If the
+generator is not resumed before it is
+finalized (by reaching a zero reference count or by being garbage collected),
+the generator-iterator’s <a class="reference internal" href="#generator.close" title="generator.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method will be called,
+allowing any pending <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clauses to execute.</p>
+<p id="index-23">When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">&lt;expr&gt;</span></code> is used, it treats the supplied expression as
+a subiterator. All values produced by that subiterator are passed directly
+to the caller of the current generator’s methods. Any values passed in with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> and any exceptions passed in with
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.throw" title="generator.throw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw()</span></code></a> are passed to the underlying iterator if it has the
+appropriate methods.  If this is not the case, then <a class="reference internal" href="#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>
+will raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>, while
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.throw" title="generator.throw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw()</span></code></a> will just raise the passed in exception immediately.</p>
+<p>When the underlying iterator is complete, the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code>
+attribute of the raised <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> instance becomes the value of
+the yield expression. It can be either set explicitly when raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>, or automatically when the subiterator is a generator
+(by returning a value from the subgenerator).</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">&lt;expr&gt;</span></code> to delegate control flow to a subiterator.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The parentheses may be omitted when the yield expression is the sole expression
+on the right hand side of an assignment statement.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255"><strong>PEP 255</strong></a> - Simple Generators</dt><dd><p>The proposal for adding generators and the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement to Python.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0342"><strong>PEP 342</strong></a> - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators</dt><dd><p>The proposal to enhance the API and syntax of generators, making them
+usable as simple coroutines.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0380"><strong>PEP 380</strong></a> - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator</dt><dd><p>The proposal to introduce the <code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_from</span></code> syntax, making delegation
+to subgenerators easy.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525"><strong>PEP 525</strong></a> - Asynchronous Generators</dt><dd><p>The proposal that expanded on <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> by adding generator capabilities to
+coroutine functions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generator-iterator-methods">
+<span id="generator-methods"></span><span id="index-29"></span><h4>6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods<a class="headerlink" href="#generator-iterator-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>This subsection describes the methods of a generator iterator.  They can
+be used to control the execution of a generator function.</p>
+<p>Note that calling any of the generator methods below when the generator
+is already executing raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-30"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="generator.__next__">
+<code class="descclassname">generator.</code><code class="descname">__next__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#generator.__next__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the last
+executed yield expression.  When a generator function is resumed with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method, the current yield expression always
+evaluates to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.  The execution then continues to the next yield
+expression, where the generator is suspended again, and the value of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> is returned to <a class="reference internal" href="#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a>’s caller.  If the
+generator exits without yielding another value, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>
+exception is raised.</p>
+<p>This method is normally called implicitly, e.g. by a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop, or
+by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="generator.send">
+<code class="descclassname">generator.</code><code class="descname">send</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#generator.send" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Resumes the execution and “sends” a value into the generator function.  The
+<em>value</em> argument becomes the result of the current yield expression.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> method returns the next value yielded by the generator, or
+raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> if the generator exits without yielding another
+value.  When <a class="reference internal" href="#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> is called to start the generator, it must be called
+with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> as the argument, because there is no yield expression that
+could receive the value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="generator.throw">
+<code class="descclassname">generator.</code><code class="descname">throw</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>traceback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#generator.throw" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raises an exception of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> at the point where the generator was paused,
+and returns the next value yielded by the generator function.  If the generator
+exits without yielding another value, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception is
+raised.  If the generator function does not catch the passed-in exception, or
+raises a different exception, then that exception propagates to the caller.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-31"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="generator.close">
+<code class="descclassname">generator.</code><code class="descname">close</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#generator.close" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> at the point where the generator function was
+paused.  If the generator function then exits gracefully, is already closed,
+or raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> (by not catching the exception), close
+returns to its caller.  If the generator yields a value, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised.  If the generator raises any other exception,
+it is propagated to the caller.  <a class="reference internal" href="#generator.close" title="generator.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> does nothing if the generator
+has already exited due to an exception or normal exit.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="examples">
+<span id="index-32"></span><h4>6.2.9.2. Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Here is a simple example that demonstrates the behavior of generators and
+generator functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">echo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Execution starts when &#39;next()&#39; is called for the first time.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">e</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Don&#39;t forget to clean up when &#39;close()&#39; is called.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">generator</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">echo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">generator</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Execution starts when &#39;next()&#39; is called for the first time.</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">generator</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">generator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">generator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">throw</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;spam&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">TypeError(&#39;spam&#39;,)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">generator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Don&#39;t forget to clean up when &#39;close()&#39; is called.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For examples using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code>, see <a class="reference internal" href="../whatsnew/3.3.html#pep-380"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator</span></a> in “What’s New in
+Python.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asynchronous-generator-functions">
+<span id="id3"></span><h4>6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchronous-generator-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The presence of a yield expression in a function or method defined using
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> further defines the function as an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous generator</span></a> function.</p>
+<p>When an asynchronous generator function is called, it returns an
+asynchronous iterator known as an asynchronous generator object.
+That object then controls the execution of the generator function.
+An asynchronous generator object is typically used in an
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement in a coroutine function analogously to
+how a generator object would be used in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<p>Calling one of the asynchronous generator’s methods returns an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object, and the execution starts when this object
+is awaited on. At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
+expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> to the awaiting coroutine. As with a generator,
+suspension means that all local state is retained, including the
+current bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
+evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the execution
+is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the asynchronous
+generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the yield
+expression were just another external call. The value of the yield expression
+after resuming depends on the method which resumed the execution.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="#agen.__anext__" title="agen.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a> is used then the result is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>. Otherwise, if
+<a class="reference internal" href="#agen.asend" title="agen.asend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asend()</span></code></a> is used, then the result will be the value passed in to
+that method.</p>
+<p>In an asynchronous generator function, yield expressions are allowed anywhere
+in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> construct. However, if an asynchronous generator is not
+resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a zero reference count or by
+being garbage collected), then a yield expression within a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code>
+construct could result in a failure to execute pending <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a>
+clauses.  In this case, it is the responsibility of the event loop or
+scheduler running the asynchronous generator to call the asynchronous
+generator-iterator’s <a class="reference internal" href="#agen.aclose" title="agen.aclose"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aclose()</span></code></a> method and run the resulting
+coroutine object, thus allowing any pending <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clauses
+to execute.</p>
+<p>To take care of finalization, an event loop should define
+a <em>finalizer</em> function which takes an asynchronous generator-iterator
+and presumably calls <a class="reference internal" href="#agen.aclose" title="agen.aclose"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aclose()</span></code></a> and executes the coroutine.
+This  <em>finalizer</em> may be registered by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.set_asyncgen_hooks" title="sys.set_asyncgen_hooks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.set_asyncgen_hooks()</span></code></a>.
+When first iterated over, an asynchronous generator-iterator will store the
+registered <em>finalizer</em> to be called upon finalization. For a reference example
+of a <em>finalizer</em> method see the implementation of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens</span></code> in <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py">Lib/asyncio/base_events.py</a>.</p>
+<p>The expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">&lt;expr&gt;</span></code> is a syntax error when used in an
+asynchronous generator function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asynchronous-generator-iterator-methods">
+<span id="asynchronous-generator-methods"></span><span id="index-33"></span><h4>6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchronous-generator-iterator-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>This subsection describes the methods of an asynchronous generator iterator,
+which are used to control the execution of a generator function.</p>
+<span class="target" id="index-34"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="agen.__anext__">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">agen.</code><code class="descname">__anext__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#agen.__anext__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the asynchronous
+generator or resumes it at the last executed yield expression.  When an
+asynchronous generator function is resumed with an <a class="reference internal" href="#agen.__anext__" title="agen.__anext__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__anext__()</span></code></a>
+method, the current yield expression always evaluates to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> in
+the returned awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield
+expression. The value of the <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> of the yield
+expression is the value of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception raised by
+the completing coroutine.  If the asynchronous generator exits without
+yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> exception, signalling that the asynchronous
+iteration has completed.</p>
+<p>This method is normally called implicitly by a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="agen.asend">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">agen.</code><code class="descname">asend</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>value</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#agen.asend" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
+asynchronous generator. As with the <a class="reference internal" href="#generator.send" title="generator.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a> method for a
+generator, this “sends” a value into the asynchronous generator function,
+and the <em>value</em> argument becomes the result of the current yield expression.
+The awaitable returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="#agen.asend" title="agen.asend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asend()</span></code></a> method will return the next
+value yielded by the generator as the value of the raised
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>, or raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> if the
+asynchronous generator exits without yielding another value.  When
+<a class="reference internal" href="#agen.asend" title="agen.asend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asend()</span></code></a> is called to start the asynchronous
+generator, it must be called with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> as the argument,
+because there is no yield expression that could receive the value.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt id="agen.athrow">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">agen.</code><code class="descname">athrow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>type</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>value</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>traceback</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#agen.athrow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an awaitable that raises an exception of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code> at the point
+where the asynchronous generator was paused, and returns the next value
+yielded by the generator function as the value of the raised
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception.  If the asynchronous generator exits
+without yielding another value, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> exception is
+raised by the awaitable.
+If the generator function does not catch the passed-in exception, or
+raises a different exception, then when the awaitable is run that exception
+propagates to the caller of the awaitable.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="index-35"></span><dl class="method">
+<dt id="agen.aclose">
+<em class="property">coroutine </em><code class="descclassname">agen.</code><code class="descname">aclose</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#agen.aclose" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Returns an awaitable that when run will throw a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> into
+the asynchronous generator function at the point where it was paused.
+If the asynchronous generator function then exits gracefully, is already
+closed, or raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> (by not catching the exception),
+then the returned awaitable will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception.
+Any further awaitables returned by subsequent calls to the asynchronous
+generator will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> exception.  If the
+asynchronous generator yields a value, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> is raised
+by the awaitable.  If the asynchronous generator raises any other exception,
+it is propagated to the caller of the awaitable.  If the asynchronous
+generator has already exited due to an exception or normal exit, then
+further calls to <a class="reference internal" href="#agen.aclose" title="agen.aclose"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aclose()</span></code></a> will return an awaitable that does nothing.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="primaries">
+<span id="id4"></span><h2>6.3. Primaries<a class="headerlink" href="#primaries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-36">Primaries represent the most tightly bound operations of the language. Their
+syntax is:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-primary">primary</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-atom"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atom</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-attributeref"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attributeref</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-subscription"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subscription</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-slicing"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slicing</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-call"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<div class="section" id="attribute-references">
+<span id="id5"></span><h3>6.3.1. Attribute references<a class="headerlink" href="#attribute-references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-37">An attribute reference is a primary followed by a period and a name:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-attributeref">attributeref</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-primary"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">primary</span></code></a> &quot;.&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p id="index-38">The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute
+references, which most objects do.  This object is then asked to produce the
+attribute whose name is the identifier.  This production can be customized by
+overriding the <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> method.  If this attribute is not available,
+the exception <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> is raised.  Otherwise, the type and value of
+the object produced is determined by the object.  Multiple evaluations of the
+same attribute reference may yield different objects.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subscriptions">
+<span id="id6"></span><h3>6.3.2. Subscriptions<a class="headerlink" href="#subscriptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<span class="target" id="index-39"></span><p id="index-40">A subscription selects an item of a sequence (string, tuple or list) or mapping
+(dictionary) object:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-subscription">subscription</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-primary"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">primary</span></code></a> &quot;[&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> &quot;]&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>The primary must evaluate to an object that supports subscription (lists or
+dictionaries for example).  User-defined objects can support subscription by
+defining a <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>For built-in objects, there are two types of objects that support subscription:</p>
+<p>If the primary is a mapping, the expression list must evaluate to an object
+whose value is one of the keys of the mapping, and the subscription selects the
+value in the mapping that corresponds to that key.  (The expression list is a
+tuple except if it has exactly one item.)</p>
+<p>If the primary is a sequence, the expression list must evaluate to an integer
+or a slice (as discussed in the following section).</p>
+<p>The formal syntax makes no special provision for negative indices in
+sequences; however, built-in sequences all provide a <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+method that interprets negative indices by adding the length of the sequence
+to the index (so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x[-1]</span></code> selects the last item of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>).  The
+resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the number of items in
+the sequence, and the subscription selects the item whose index is that value
+(counting from zero). Since the support for negative indices and slicing
+occurs in the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method, subclasses overriding
+this method will need to explicitly add that support.</p>
+<p id="index-41">A string’s items are characters.  A character is not a separate data type but a
+string of exactly one character.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="slicings">
+<span id="id7"></span><h3>6.3.3. Slicings<a class="headerlink" href="#slicings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<span class="target" id="index-42"></span><p id="index-43">A slicing selects a range of items in a sequence object (e.g., a string, tuple
+or list).  Slicings may be used as expressions or as targets in assignment or
+<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statements.  The syntax for a slicing:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-slicing">slicing     </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-primary"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">primary</span></code></a> &quot;[&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-slice-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice_list</span></code></a> &quot;]&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-slice-list">slice_list  </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-slice-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice_item</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-slice-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice_item</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot;]
+<strong id="grammar-token-slice-item">slice_item  </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-proper-slice"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">proper_slice</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-proper-slice">proper_slice</strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-lower-bound"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lower_bound</span></code></a>] &quot;:&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-upper-bound"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">upper_bound</span></code></a>] [ &quot;:&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-stride"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stride</span></code></a>] ]
+<strong id="grammar-token-lower-bound">lower_bound </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-upper-bound">upper_bound </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-stride">stride      </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>There is ambiguity in the formal syntax here: anything that looks like an
+expression list also looks like a slice list, so any subscription can be
+interpreted as a slicing.  Rather than further complicating the syntax, this is
+disambiguated by defining that in this case the interpretation as a subscription
+takes priority over the interpretation as a slicing (this is the case if the
+slice list contains no proper slice).</p>
+<p id="index-44">The semantics for a slicing are as follows.  The primary is indexed (using the
+same <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method as
+normal subscription) with a key that is constructed from the slice list, as
+follows.  If the slice list contains at least one comma, the key is a tuple
+containing the conversion of the slice items; otherwise, the conversion of the
+lone slice item is the key.  The conversion of a slice item that is an
+expression is that expression.  The conversion of a proper slice is a slice
+object (see section <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>) whose <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code> attributes are the values of the
+expressions given as lower bound, upper bound and stride, respectively,
+substituting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for missing expressions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calls">
+<span id="index-45"></span><span id="id8"></span><h3>6.3.4. Calls<a class="headerlink" href="#calls" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A call calls a callable object (e.g., a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-function"><span class="xref std std-term">function</span></a>) with a possibly empty
+series of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">arguments</span></a>:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-call">call                </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-primary"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">primary</span></code></a> &quot;(&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-argument-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argument_list</span></code></a> [&quot;,&quot;] | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comprehension"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comprehension</span></code></a>] &quot;)&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-argument-list">argument_list       </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-positional-arguments"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">positional_arguments</span></code></a> [&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-and-keywords"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_and_keywords</span></code></a>]
+                            [&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-keywords-arguments"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords_arguments</span></code></a>]
+                          | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-and-keywords"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_and_keywords</span></code></a> [&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-keywords-arguments"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords_arguments</span></code></a>]
+                          | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-keywords-arguments"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords_arguments</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-positional-arguments">positional_arguments</strong> ::=  [&quot;*&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; [&quot;*&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-starred-and-keywords">starred_and_keywords</strong> ::=  (&quot;*&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-keyword-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword_item</span></code></a>)
+                          (&quot;,&quot; &quot;*&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> | &quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-keyword-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword_item</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-keywords-arguments">keywords_arguments  </strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-keyword-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword_item</span></code></a> | &quot;**&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>)
+                          (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-keyword-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyword_item</span></code></a> | &quot;,&quot; &quot;**&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-keyword-item">keyword_item        </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> &quot;=&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>An optional trailing comma may be present after the positional and keyword arguments
+but does not affect the semantics.</p>
+<p id="index-46">The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions, built-in
+functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods of class
+instances, and all objects having a <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a> method are callable).  All
+argument expressions are evaluated before the call is attempted.  Please refer
+to section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a> for the syntax of formal <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-parameter"><span class="xref std std-term">parameter</span></a> lists.</p>
+<p>If keyword arguments are present, they are first converted to positional
+arguments, as follows.  First, a list of unfilled slots is created for the
+formal parameters.  If there are N positional arguments, they are placed in the
+first N slots.  Next, for each keyword argument, the identifier is used to
+determine the corresponding slot (if the identifier is the same as the first
+formal parameter name, the first slot is used, and so on).  If the slot is
+already filled, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised. Otherwise, the value of
+the argument is placed in the slot, filling it (even if the expression is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it fills the slot).  When all arguments have been processed, the slots
+that are still unfilled are filled with the corresponding default value from the
+function definition.  (Default values are calculated, once, when the function is
+defined; thus, a mutable object such as a list or dictionary used as default
+value will be shared by all calls that don’t specify an argument value for the
+corresponding slot; this should usually be avoided.)  If there are any unfilled
+slots for which no default value is specified, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is
+raised.  Otherwise, the list of filled slots is used as the argument list for
+the call.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> An implementation may provide built-in functions whose positional parameters
+do not have names, even if they are ‘named’ for the purpose of documentation,
+and which therefore cannot be supplied by keyword.  In CPython, this is the
+case for functions implemented in C that use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> to
+parse their arguments.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If there are more positional arguments than there are formal parameter slots, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised, unless a formal parameter using the syntax
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*identifier</span></code> is present; in this case, that formal parameter receives a tuple
+containing the excess positional arguments (or an empty tuple if there were no
+excess positional arguments).</p>
+<p>If any keyword argument does not correspond to a formal parameter name, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised, unless a formal parameter using the syntax
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**identifier</span></code> is present; in this case, that formal parameter receives a
+dictionary containing the excess keyword arguments (using the keywords as keys
+and the argument values as corresponding values), or a (new) empty dictionary if
+there were no excess keyword arguments.</p>
+<p id="index-47">If the syntax <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*expression</span></code> appears in the function call, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code> must
+evaluate to an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a>.  Elements from these iterables are
+treated as if they were additional positional arguments.  For the call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(x1,</span> <span class="pre">x2,</span> <span class="pre">*y,</span> <span class="pre">x3,</span> <span class="pre">x4)</span></code>, if <em>y</em> evaluates to a sequence <em>y1</em>, …, <em>yM</em>,
+this is equivalent to a call with M+4 positional arguments <em>x1</em>, <em>x2</em>,
+<em>y1</em>, …, <em>yM</em>, <em>x3</em>, <em>x4</em>.</p>
+<p>A consequence of this is that although the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*expression</span></code> syntax may appear
+<em>after</em> explicit keyword arguments, it is processed <em>before</em> the
+keyword arguments (and any <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**expression</span></code> arguments – see below).  So:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="go">2 1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">f() got multiple values for keyword argument &#39;a&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="go">1 2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is unusual for both keyword arguments and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*expression</span></code> syntax to be
+used in the same call, so in practice this confusion does not arise.</p>
+<p id="index-48">If the syntax <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**expression</span></code> appears in the function call, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code> must
+evaluate to a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a>, the contents of which are treated as
+additional keyword arguments.  If a keyword is already present
+(as an explicit keyword argument, or from another unpacking),
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+<p>Formal parameters using the syntax <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*identifier</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**identifier</span></code> cannot be
+used as positional argument slots or as keyword argument names.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Function calls accept any number of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> unpackings,
+positional arguments may follow iterable unpackings (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>),
+and keyword arguments may follow dictionary unpackings (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>).
+Originally proposed by <span class="target" id="index-49"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0448"><strong>PEP 448</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A call always returns some value, possibly <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, unless it raises an
+exception.  How this value is computed depends on the type of the callable
+object.</p>
+<p>If it is—</p>
+<dl>
+<dt>a user-defined function:</dt><dd><p id="index-50">The code block for the function is executed, passing it the argument list.  The
+first thing the code block will do is bind the formal parameters to the
+arguments; this is described in section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a>.  When the code block
+executes a <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement, this specifies the return value of the
+function call.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>a built-in function or method:</dt><dd><p id="index-51">The result is up to the interpreter; see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#built-in-funcs"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Functions</span></a> for the
+descriptions of built-in functions and methods.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>a class object:</dt><dd><p id="index-52">A new instance of that class is returned.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>a class instance method:</dt><dd><p id="index-53">The corresponding user-defined function is called, with an argument list that is
+one longer than the argument list of the call: the instance becomes the first
+argument.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>a class instance:</dt><dd><p id="index-54">The class must define a <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__call__" title="object.__call__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></code></a> method; the effect is then the same as
+if that method was called.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="await-expression">
+<span id="await"></span><span id="index-55"></span><h2>6.4. Await expression<a class="headerlink" href="#await-expression" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Suspend the execution of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> on an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object.
+Can only be used inside a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine-function"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine function</span></a>.</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-await-expr">await_expr</strong> ::=  &quot;await&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-primary"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">primary</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-power-operator">
+<span id="power"></span><h2>6.5. The power operator<a class="headerlink" href="#the-power-operator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-56">The power operator binds more tightly than unary operators on its left; it binds
+less tightly than unary operators on its right.  The syntax is:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-power">power</strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-await-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-primary"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">primary</span></code></a>) [&quot;**&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>Thus, in an unparenthesized sequence of power and unary operators, the operators
+are evaluated from right to left (this does not constrain the evaluation order
+for the operands): <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1**2</span></code> results in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The power operator has the same semantics as the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a> function,
+when called with two arguments: it yields its left argument raised to the power
+of its right argument.  The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
+type, and the result is of that type.</p>
+<p>For int operands, the result has the same type as the operands unless the second
+argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a
+float result is delivered. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10**2</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">100</span></code>, but
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10**-2</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.01</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Raising <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.0</span></code> to a negative power results in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a>.
+Raising a negative number to a fractional power results in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>
+number. (In earlier versions it raised a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations">
+<span id="unary"></span><h2>6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations<a class="headerlink" href="#unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-57">All unary arithmetic and bitwise operations have the same priority:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-u-expr">u_expr</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-power"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">power</span></code></a> | &quot;-&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a> | &quot;+&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a> | &quot;~&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p id="index-58">The unary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric argument.</p>
+<p id="index-59">The unary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged.</p>
+<p id="index-60">The unary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its integer
+argument.  The bitwise inversion of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is defined as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-(x+1)</span></code>.  It only
+applies to integral numbers.</p>
+<p id="index-61">In all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type, a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception is raised.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binary-arithmetic-operations">
+<span id="binary"></span><h2>6.7. Binary arithmetic operations<a class="headerlink" href="#binary-arithmetic-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-62">The binary arithmetic operations have the conventional priority levels.  Note
+that some of these operations also apply to certain non-numeric types.  Apart
+from the power operator, there are only two levels, one for multiplicative
+operators and one for additive operators:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-m-expr">m_expr</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> &quot;*&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> &quot;&#64;&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> |
+            <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> &quot;//&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> &quot;/&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a> |
+            <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> &quot;%&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-u-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u_expr</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-a-expr">a_expr</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-a-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_expr</span></code></a> &quot;+&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-a-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_expr</span></code></a> &quot;-&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-m-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_expr</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p id="index-63">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> (multiplication) operator yields the product of its arguments.  The
+arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument must be an integer and
+the other must be a sequence. In the former case, the numbers are converted to a
+common type and then multiplied together.  In the latter case, sequence
+repetition is performed; a negative repetition factor yields an empty sequence.</p>
+<p id="index-64">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code> (at) operator is intended to be used for matrix multiplication.  No
+builtin Python types implement this operator.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-65">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> (division) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> (floor division) operators yield the quotient of
+their arguments.  The numeric arguments are first converted to a common type.
+Division of integers yields a float, while floor division of integers results in an
+integer; the result is that of mathematical division with the ‘floor’ function
+applied to the result.  Division by zero raises the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a>
+exception.</p>
+<p id="index-66">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the first
+argument by the second.  The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
+type.  A zero right argument raises the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a> exception.  The
+arguments may be floating point numbers, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.14%0.7</span></code> equals <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.34</span></code>
+(since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.14</span></code> equals <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4*0.7</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">0.34</span></code>.)  The modulo operator always yields a
+result with the same sign as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of
+the result is strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand
+<a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id17" id="id9">1</a>.</p>
+<p>The floor division and modulo operators are connected by the following
+identity: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">(x//y)*y</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">(x%y)</span></code>.  Floor division and modulo are also
+connected with the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">(x//y,</span>
+<span class="pre">x%y)</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id18" id="id10">2</a>.</p>
+<p>In addition to performing the modulo operation on numbers, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator is
+also overloaded by string objects to perform old-style string formatting (also
+known as interpolation).  The syntax for string formatting is described in the
+Python Library Reference, section <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#old-string-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">printf-style String Formatting</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod()</span></code></a>
+function are not defined for complex numbers.  Instead, convert to a floating
+point number using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a> function if appropriate.</p>
+<p id="index-67">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.  The arguments
+must either both be numbers or both be sequences of the same type.  In the
+former case, the numbers are converted to a common type and then added together.
+In the latter case, the sequences are concatenated.</p>
+<p id="index-68">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code> (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its arguments.  The
+numeric arguments are first converted to a common type.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shifting-operations">
+<span id="shifting"></span><h2>6.8. Shifting operations<a class="headerlink" href="#shifting-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-69">The shifting operations have lower priority than the arithmetic operations:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-shift-expr">shift_expr</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-a-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shift-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shift_expr</span></code></a> (&quot;&lt;&lt;&quot; | &quot;&gt;&gt;&quot;) <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-a-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a_expr</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>These operators accept integers as arguments.  They shift the first argument to
+the left or right by the number of bits given by the second argument.</p>
+<p id="index-70">A right shift by <em>n</em> bits is defined as floor division by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(2,n)</span></code>.  A left
+shift by <em>n</em> bits is defined as multiplication with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(2,n)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binary-bitwise-operations">
+<span id="bitwise"></span><h2>6.9. Binary bitwise operations<a class="headerlink" href="#binary-bitwise-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-71">Each of the three bitwise operations has a different priority level:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-and-expr">and_expr</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shift-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shift_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-and-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_expr</span></code></a> &quot;&amp;&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shift-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shift_expr</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-xor-expr">xor_expr</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-and-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-xor-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xor_expr</span></code></a> &quot;^&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-and-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_expr</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-or-expr">or_expr </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-xor-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xor_expr</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_expr</span></code></a> &quot;|&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-xor-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xor_expr</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p id="index-72">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be
+integers.</p>
+<p id="index-73">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code> operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments, which
+must be integers.</p>
+<p id="index-74">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code> operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments, which
+must be integers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparisons">
+<span id="id11"></span><h2>6.10. Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#comparisons" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-75">Unlike C, all comparison operations in Python have the same priority, which is
+lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or bitwise operation.  Also unlike
+C, expressions like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">c</span></code> have the interpretation that is conventional
+in mathematics:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-comparison">comparison   </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_expr</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comp-operator"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comp_operator</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_expr</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-comp-operator">comp_operator</strong> ::=  &quot;&lt;&quot; | &quot;&gt;&quot; | &quot;==&quot; | &quot;&gt;=&quot; | &quot;&lt;=&quot; | &quot;!=&quot;
+                   | &quot;is&quot; [&quot;not&quot;] | [&quot;not&quot;] &quot;in&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>Comparisons yield boolean values: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p id="index-76">Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code>, except that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> is evaluated only once (but in both
+cases <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> is not evaluated at all when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is found to be false).</p>
+<p>Formally, if <em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em>, …, <em>y</em>, <em>z</em> are expressions and <em>op1</em>, <em>op2</em>, …,
+<em>opN</em> are comparison operators, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">op1</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">op2</span> <span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">opN</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code> is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">op1</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">op2</span> <span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">opN</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code>, except that each expression is
+evaluated at most once.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">op1</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">op2</span> <span class="pre">c</span></code> doesn’t imply any kind of comparison between <em>a</em> and
+<em>c</em>, so that, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code> is perfectly legal (though perhaps not
+pretty).</p>
+<div class="section" id="value-comparisons">
+<h3>6.10.1. Value comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#value-comparisons" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code> compare the
+values of two objects.  The objects do not need to have the same type.</p>
+<p>Chapter <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#objects"><span class="std std-ref">Objects, values and types</span></a> states that objects have a value (in addition to type
+and identity).  The value of an object is a rather abstract notion in Python:
+For example, there is no canonical access method for an object’s value.  Also,
+there is no requirement that the value of an object should be constructed in a
+particular way, e.g. comprised of all its data attributes. Comparison operators
+implement a particular notion of what the value of an object is.  One can think
+of them as defining the value of an object indirectly, by means of their
+comparison implementation.</p>
+<p>Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, they
+inherit the default comparison behavior from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.  Types can
+customize their comparison behavior by implementing
+<em class="dfn">rich comparison methods</em> like <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>, described in
+<a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#customization"><span class="std std-ref">Basic customization</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The default behavior for equality comparison (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>) is based on
+the identity of the objects.  Hence, equality comparison of instances with the
+same identity results in equality, and equality comparison of instances with
+different identities results in inequality.  A motivation for this default
+behavior is the desire that all objects should be reflexive (i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>
+implies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>).</p>
+<p>A default order comparison (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>) is not provided;
+an attempt raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  A motivation for this default behavior is
+the lack of a similar invariant as for equality.</p>
+<p>The behavior of the default equality comparison, that instances with different
+identities are always unequal, may be in contrast to what types will need that
+have a sensible definition of object value and value-based equality.  Such
+types will need to customize their comparison behavior, and in fact, a number
+of built-in types have done that.</p>
+<p>The following list describes the comparison behavior of the most important
+built-in types.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Numbers of built-in numeric types (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesnumeric"><span class="std std-ref">Numeric Types — int, float, complex</span></a>) and of the standard
+library types <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> can be
+compared within and across their types, with the restriction that complex
+numbers do not support order comparison.  Within the limits of the types
+involved, they compare mathematically (algorithmically) correct without loss
+of precision.</p>
+<p>The not-a-number values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float('NaN')</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal('NaN')</span></code> are
+special.  Any ordered comparison of a number to a not-a-number value is false.
+A counter-intuitive implication is that not-a-number values are not equal to
+themselves.  For example, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">float('NaN')</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">3</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span>
+<span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code> are all false.  This behavior is compliant with IEEE 754.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Binary sequences (instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>) can be
+compared within and across their types.  They compare lexicographically using
+the numeric values of their elements.</p></li>
+<li><p>Strings (instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>) compare lexicographically using the
+numerical Unicode code points (the result of the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord()</span></code></a>) of their characters. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id19" id="id12">3</a></p>
+<p>Strings and binary sequences cannot be directly compared.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Sequences (instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a>) can
+be compared only within each of their types, with the restriction that ranges
+do not support order comparison.  Equality comparison across these types
+results in inequality, and ordering comparison across these types raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Sequences compare lexicographically using comparison of corresponding
+elements, whereby reflexivity of the elements is enforced.</p>
+<p>In enforcing reflexivity of elements, the comparison of collections assumes
+that for a collection element <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code> is always true.  Based on
+that assumption, element identity is compared first, and element comparison
+is performed only for distinct elements.  This approach yields the same
+result as a strict element comparison would, if the compared elements are
+reflexive.  For non-reflexive elements, the result is different than for
+strict element comparison, and may be surprising:  The non-reflexive
+not-a-number values for example result in the following comparison behavior
+when used in a list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">nan</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NaN&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">nan</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">nan</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">nan</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">nan</span>
+<span class="go">False                 &lt;-- the defined non-reflexive behavior of NaN</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">nan</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">nan</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">True                  &lt;-- list enforces reflexivity and tests identity first</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lexicographical comparison between built-in collections works as follows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>For two collections to compare equal, they must be of the same type, have
+the same length, and each pair of corresponding elements must compare
+equal (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,2]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">(1,2)</span></code> is false because the type is not the
+same).</p></li>
+<li><p>Collections that support order comparison are ordered the same as their
+first unequal elements (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,2,x]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">[1,2,y]</span></code> has the same
+value as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>).  If a corresponding element does not exist, the
+shorter collection is ordered first (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,2]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">[1,2,3]</span></code> is
+true).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>Mappings (instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>) compare equal if and only if they have
+equal <cite>(key, value)</cite> pairs. Equality comparison of the keys and values
+enforces reflexivity.</p>
+<p>Order comparisons (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>) raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Sets (instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a>) can be compared within
+and across their types.</p>
+<p>They define order
+comparison operators to mean subset and superset tests.  Those relations do
+not define total orderings (for example, the two sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{1,2}</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{2,3}</span></code>
+are not equal, nor subsets of one another, nor supersets of one
+another).  Accordingly, sets are not appropriate arguments for functions
+which depend on total ordering (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> produce undefined results given a list of sets as inputs).</p>
+<p>Comparison of sets enforces reflexivity of its elements.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Most other built-in types have no comparison methods implemented, so they
+inherit the default comparison behavior.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>User-defined classes that customize their comparison behavior should follow
+some consistency rules, if possible:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Equality comparison should be reflexive.
+In other words, identical objects should compare equal:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> implies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+<li><p>Comparison should be symmetric.
+In other words, the following expressions should have the same result:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code></p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code></p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code></p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+<li><p>Comparison should be transitive.
+The following (non-exhaustive) examples illustrate that:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code> implies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code></p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code> implies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code></p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+<li><p>Inverse comparison should result in the boolean negation.
+In other words, the following expressions should have the same result:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code></p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> (for total ordering)</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> (for total ordering)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The last two expressions apply to totally ordered collections (e.g. to
+sequences, but not to sets or mappings). See also the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">total_ordering()</span></code></a> decorator.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a> result should be consistent with equality.
+Objects that are equal should either have the same hash value,
+or be marked as unhashable.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Python does not enforce these consistency rules. In fact, the not-a-number
+values are an example for not following these rules.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="membership-test-operations">
+<span id="membership-test-details"></span><span id="not-in"></span><span id="in"></span><h3>6.10.2. Membership test operations<a class="headerlink" href="#membership-test-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The operators <a class="reference internal" href="#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#not-in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code></a> test for membership.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">s</span></code> evaluates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <em>x</em> is a member of <em>s</em>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">s</span></code> returns the negation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">s</span></code>.  All built-in sequences and
+set types support this as well as dictionary, for which <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> tests
+whether the dictionary has a given key. For container types such as list, tuple,
+set, frozenset, dict, or collections.deque, the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">any(x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">e</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">e</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">e</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For the string and bytes types, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if and only if <em>x</em> is a
+substring of <em>y</em>.  An equivalent test is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y.find(x)</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">-1</span></code>.  Empty strings are
+always considered to be a substring of any other string, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">&quot;abc&quot;</span></code> will
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For user-defined classes which define the <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">y</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y.__contains__(x)</span></code> returns a true value, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.</p>
+<p>For user-defined classes which do not define <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> but do define
+<a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if some value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code>, for which the
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">z</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code> is true, is produced while iterating over <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>.
+If an exception is raised during the iteration, it is as if <a class="reference internal" href="#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> raised
+that exception.</p>
+<p>Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines
+<a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if and only if there is a non-negative
+integer index <em>i</em> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">y[i]</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">y[i]</span></code>, and no lower integer index
+raises the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> exception.  (If any other exception is raised, it is as
+if <a class="reference internal" href="#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> raised that exception).</p>
+<p id="index-77">The operator <a class="reference internal" href="#not-in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code></a> is defined to have the inverse truth value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="is-not">
+<span id="is"></span><span id="index-78"></span><span id="identity-comparisons"></span><h3>6.10.3. Identity comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#is-not" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The operators <a class="reference internal" href="#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#is-not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span></code></a> test for an object’s identity: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span>
+<span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> is true if and only if <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are the same object.  An Object’s identity
+is determined using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a> function.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> yields the inverse
+truth value. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id20" id="id13">4</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="boolean-operations">
+<span id="not"></span><span id="or"></span><span id="and"></span><span id="booleans"></span><h2>6.11. Boolean operations<a class="headerlink" href="#boolean-operations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-79">
+<strong id="grammar-token-or-test">or_test </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-and-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_test</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_test</span></code></a> &quot;or&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-and-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_test</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-and-test">and_test</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-not-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not_test</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-and-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and_test</span></code></a> &quot;and&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-not-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not_test</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-not-test">not_test</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-comparison"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">comparison</span></code></a> | &quot;not&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-not-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not_test</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used by
+control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as false:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and containers
+(including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and frozensets).  All
+other values are interpreted as true.  User-defined objects can customize their
+truth value by providing a <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p id="index-80">The operator <a class="reference internal" href="#not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code></a> yields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if its argument is false, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+otherwise.</p>
+<p id="index-81">The expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> first evaluates <em>x</em>; if <em>x</em> is false, its value is
+returned; otherwise, <em>y</em> is evaluated and the resulting value is returned.</p>
+<p id="index-82">The expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> first evaluates <em>x</em>; if <em>x</em> is true, its value is
+returned; otherwise, <em>y</em> is evaluated and the resulting value is returned.</p>
+<p>Note that neither <a class="reference internal" href="#and"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code></a> nor <a class="reference internal" href="#or"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code></a> restrict the value and type
+they return to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, but rather return the last evaluated
+argument.  This is sometimes useful, e.g., if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> is a string that should be
+replaced by a default value if it is empty, the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">'foo'</span></code> yields
+the desired value.  Because <a class="reference internal" href="#not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code></a> has to create a new value, it
+returns a boolean value regardless of the type of its argument
+(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">'foo'</span></code> produces <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="conditional-expressions">
+<span id="if-expr"></span><h2>6.12. Conditional expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#conditional-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-83">
+<strong id="grammar-token-conditional-expression">conditional_expression</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_test</span></code></a> [&quot;if&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_test</span></code></a> &quot;else&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>]
+<strong id="grammar-token-expression">expression            </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-conditional-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conditional_expression</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-lambda-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda_expr</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-expression-nocond">expression_nocond     </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-test"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_test</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-lambda-expr-nocond"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda_expr_nocond</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>Conditional expressions (sometimes called a “ternary operator”) have the lowest
+priority of all Python operations.</p>
+<p>The expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">C</span> <span class="pre">else</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> first evaluates the condition, <em>C</em> rather than <em>x</em>.
+If <em>C</em> is true, <em>x</em> is evaluated and its value is returned; otherwise, <em>y</em> is
+evaluated and its value is returned.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-84"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0308"><strong>PEP 308</strong></a> for more details about conditional expressions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lambda">
+<span id="lambdas"></span><span id="id14"></span><h2>6.13. Lambdas<a class="headerlink" href="#lambda" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-85">
+<strong id="grammar-token-lambda-expr">lambda_expr       </strong> ::=  &quot;lambda&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-parameter-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter_list</span></code></a>] &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-lambda-expr-nocond">lambda_expr_nocond</strong> ::=  &quot;lambda&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-parameter-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parameter_list</span></code></a>] &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-nocond"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_nocond</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>Lambda expressions (sometimes called lambda forms) are used to create anonymous
+functions. The expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span> <span class="pre">parameters:</span> <span class="pre">expression</span></code> yields a function
+object.  The unnamed object behaves like a function object defined with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>def &lt;lambda&gt;(parameters):
+    return expression
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function definitions</span></a> for the syntax of parameter lists.  Note that
+functions created with lambda expressions cannot contain statements or
+annotations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="expression-lists">
+<span id="exprlists"></span><h2>6.14. Expression lists<a class="headerlink" href="#expression-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-86">
+<strong id="grammar-token-expression-list">expression_list   </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot;]
+<strong id="grammar-token-starred-list">starred_list      </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_item</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_item</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot;]
+<strong id="grammar-token-starred-expression">starred_expression</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> | (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_item</span></code></a> &quot;,&quot;)* [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-starred-item"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_item</span></code></a>]
+<strong id="grammar-token-starred-item">starred_item      </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> | &quot;*&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-or-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_expr</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p id="index-87">Except when part of a list or set display, an expression list
+containing at least one comma yields a tuple.  The length of
+the tuple is the number of expressions in the list.  The expressions are
+evaluated from left to right.</p>
+<p id="index-88">An asterisk <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> denotes <em class="dfn">iterable unpacking</em>.  Its operand must be
+an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a>.  The iterable is expanded into a sequence of items,
+which are included in the new tuple, list, or set, at the site of
+the unpacking.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5: </span>Iterable unpacking in expression lists, originally proposed by <span class="target" id="index-89"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0448"><strong>PEP 448</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-90">The trailing comma is required only to create a single tuple (a.k.a. a
+<em>singleton</em>); it is optional in all other cases.  A single expression without a
+trailing comma doesn’t create a tuple, but rather yields the value of that
+expression. (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of parentheses:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="evaluation-order">
+<span id="evalorder"></span><h2>6.15. Evaluation order<a class="headerlink" href="#evaluation-order" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-91">Python evaluates expressions from left to right.  Notice that while evaluating
+an assignment, the right-hand side is evaluated before the left-hand side.</p>
+<p>In the following lines, expressions will be evaluated in the arithmetic order of
+their suffixes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">expr1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr4</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expr1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">{</span><span class="n">expr1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">expr2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr3</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">expr4</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="n">expr1</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">expr2</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expr3</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">expr4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">expr1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expr2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">expr4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">expr5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">expr3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr4</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">expr1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expr2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="operator-precedence">
+<span id="operator-summary"></span><h2>6.16. Operator precedence<a class="headerlink" href="#operator-precedence" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-92">The following table summarizes the operator precedence in Python, from lowest
+precedence (least binding) to highest precedence (most binding).  Operators in
+the same box have the same precedence.  Unless the syntax is explicitly given,
+operators are binary.  Operators in the same box group left to right (except for
+exponentiation, which groups from right to left).</p>
+<p>Note that comparisons, membership tests, and identity tests, all have the same
+precedence and have a left-to-right chaining feature as described in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#comparisons"><span class="std std-ref">Comparisons</span></a> section.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 56%" />
+<col style="width: 44%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operator</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Lambda expression</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#if-expr"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> – <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Conditional expression</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#or"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Boolean OR</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#and"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code></a></p></td>
+<td><p>Boolean AND</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Boolean NOT</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#not-in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#is-not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Comparisons, including membership
+tests and identity tests</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bitwise OR</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bitwise XOR</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Bitwise AND</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Shifts</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Addition and subtraction</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Multiplication, matrix
+multiplication, division, floor
+division, remainder <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id21" id="id15">5</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Positive, negative, bitwise NOT</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exponentiation <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id22" id="id16">6</a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><a class="reference internal" href="#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Await expression</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x[index]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x[index:index]</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x(arguments...)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.attribute</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Subscription, slicing,
+call, attribute reference</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(expressions...)</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[expressions...]</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{key:</span> <span class="pre">value...}</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{expressions...}</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Binding or tuple display,
+list display,
+dictionary display,
+set display</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id17"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id9">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>While <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(x%y)</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">abs(y)</span></code> is true mathematically, for floats it may not be
+true numerically due to roundoff.  For example, and assuming a platform on which
+a Python float is an IEEE 754 double-precision number, in order that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1e-100</span> <span class="pre">%</span>
+<span class="pre">1e100</span></code> have the same sign as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1e100</span></code>, the computed result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1e-100</span> <span class="pre">+</span>
+<span class="pre">1e100</span></code>, which is numerically exactly equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1e100</span></code>.  The function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.fmod" title="math.fmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.fmod()</span></code></a> returns a result whose sign matches the sign of the
+first argument instead, and so returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1e-100</span></code> in this case. Which approach
+is more appropriate depends on the application.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id18"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id10">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>If x is very close to an exact integer multiple of y, it’s possible for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x//y</span></code> to be one larger than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x-x%y)//y</span></code> due to rounding.  In such
+cases, Python returns the latter result, in order to preserve that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">divmod(x,y)[0]</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">y</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> be very close to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id19"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id12">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The Unicode standard distinguishes between <em class="dfn">code points</em>
+(e.g. U+0041) and <em class="dfn">abstract characters</em> (e.g. “LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A”).
+While most abstract characters in Unicode are only represented using one
+code point, there is a number of abstract characters that can in addition be
+represented using a sequence of more than one code point.  For example, the
+abstract character “LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA” can be represented
+as a single <em class="dfn">precomposed character</em> at code position U+00C7, or as a
+sequence of a <em class="dfn">base character</em> at code position U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL
+LETTER C), followed by a <em class="dfn">combining character</em> at code position U+0327
+(COMBINING CEDILLA).</p>
+<p>The comparison operators on strings compare at the level of Unicode code
+points. This may be counter-intuitive to humans.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\u00C7&quot;</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">&quot;\u0043\u0327&quot;</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, even though both strings
+represent the same abstract character “LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA”.</p>
+<p>To compare strings at the level of abstract characters (that is, in a way
+intuitive to humans), use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.normalize" title="unicodedata.normalize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.normalize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id20"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id13">4</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Due to automatic garbage-collection, free lists, and the dynamic nature of
+descriptors, you may notice seemingly unusual behaviour in certain uses of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code></a> operator, like those involving comparisons between instance
+methods, or constants.  Check their documentation for more info.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id21"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id15">5</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator is also used for string formatting; the same
+precedence applies.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id22"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id16">6</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The power operator <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> binds less tightly than an arithmetic or
+bitwise unary operator on its right, that is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**-1</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.5</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">6. Expressions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#arithmetic-conversions">6.1. Arithmetic conversions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#atoms">6.2. Atoms</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#atom-identifiers">6.2.1. Identifiers (Names)</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#literals">6.2.2. Literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#parenthesized-forms">6.2.3. Parenthesized forms</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#displays-for-lists-sets-and-dictionaries">6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#list-displays">6.2.5. List displays</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#set-displays">6.2.6. Set displays</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dictionary-displays">6.2.7. Dictionary displays</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-expressions">6.2.8. Generator expressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#yield-expressions">6.2.9. Yield expressions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-iterator-methods">6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">6.2.9.2. Examples</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-generator-functions">6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchronous-generator-iterator-methods">6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#primaries">6.3. Primaries</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#attribute-references">6.3.1. Attribute references</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subscriptions">6.3.2. Subscriptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#slicings">6.3.3. Slicings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calls">6.3.4. Calls</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#await-expression">6.4. Await expression</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-power-operator">6.5. The power operator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations">6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-arithmetic-operations">6.7. Binary arithmetic operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shifting-operations">6.8. Shifting operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-bitwise-operations">6.9. Binary bitwise operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparisons">6.10. Comparisons</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#value-comparisons">6.10.1. Value comparisons</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#membership-test-operations">6.10.2. Membership test operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#is-not">6.10.3. Identity comparisons</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-operations">6.11. Boolean operations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conditional-expressions">6.12. Conditional expressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lambda">6.13. Lambdas</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#expression-lists">6.14. Expression lists</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#evaluation-order">6.15. Evaluation order</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operator-precedence">6.16. Operator precedence</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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+                        title="previous chapter">5. The import system</a></p>
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+  <div class="section" id="full-grammar-specification">
+<h1>10. Full Grammar specification<a class="headerlink" href="#full-grammar-specification" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This is the full Python grammar, as it is read by the parser generator and used
+to parse Python source files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Grammar for Python</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># NOTE WELL: You should also follow all the steps listed at</span>
+<span class="c1"># https://devguide.python.org/grammar/</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Start symbols for the grammar:</span>
+<span class="c1">#       single_input is a single interactive statement;</span>
+<span class="c1">#       file_input is a module or sequence of commands read from an input file;</span>
+<span class="c1">#       eval_input is the input for the eval() functions.</span>
+<span class="c1"># NB: compound_stmt in single_input is followed by extra NEWLINE!</span>
+<span class="n">single_input</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">NEWLINE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">simple_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">compound_stmt</span> <span class="n">NEWLINE</span>
+<span class="n">file_input</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">NEWLINE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">stmt</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">ENDMARKER</span>
+<span class="n">eval_input</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">testlist</span> <span class="n">NEWLINE</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">ENDMARKER</span>
+
+<span class="n">decorator</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;@&#39;</span> <span class="n">dotted_name</span> <span class="p">[</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;)&#39;</span> <span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">NEWLINE</span>
+<span class="n">decorators</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">decorator</span><span class="o">+</span>
+<span class="n">decorated</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">decorators</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">classdef</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">funcdef</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">async_funcdef</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">async_funcdef</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;async&#39;</span> <span class="n">funcdef</span>
+<span class="n">funcdef</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;def&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="n">parameters</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&gt;&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span>
+
+<span class="n">parameters</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">typedargslist</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;)&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">typedargslist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">tfpdef</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]]]</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]]]</span>
+  <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">tfpdef</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]]]</span>
+  <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">tfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">tfpdef</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">varargslist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">vfpdef</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]]]</span>
+      <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]]]</span>
+  <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">vfpdef</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">])</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]]]</span>
+  <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">vfpdef</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">vfpdef</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">NAME</span>
+
+<span class="n">stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">simple_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">compound_stmt</span>
+<span class="n">simple_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">small_stmt</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;;&#39;</span> <span class="n">small_stmt</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;;&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">NEWLINE</span>
+<span class="n">small_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expr_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">del_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">pass_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">flow_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+             <span class="n">import_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">global_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">nonlocal_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">assert_stmt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">expr_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">testlist_star_expr</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">annassign</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">augassign</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">yield_expr</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">testlist</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+                     <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">yield_expr</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">testlist_star_expr</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">annassign</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">testlist_star_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">augassign</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;+=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;@=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;%=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&amp;=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;|=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;^=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&lt;=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&gt;=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**=&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;//=&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># For normal and annotated assignments, additional restrictions enforced by the interpreter</span>
+<span class="n">del_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;del&#39;</span> <span class="n">exprlist</span>
+<span class="n">pass_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pass&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">flow_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">break_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">continue_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">return_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">raise_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">yield_stmt</span>
+<span class="n">break_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;break&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">continue_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;continue&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">return_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;return&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">testlist</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">yield_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">yield_expr</span>
+<span class="n">raise_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;raise&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+<span class="n">import_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">import_name</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">import_from</span>
+<span class="n">import_name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;import&#39;</span> <span class="n">dotted_as_names</span>
+<span class="c1"># note below: the (&#39;.&#39; | &#39;...&#39;) is necessary because &#39;...&#39; is tokenized as ELLIPSIS</span>
+<span class="n">import_from</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">dotted_name</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="p">)</span>
+              <span class="s1">&#39;import&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(&#39;</span> <span class="n">import_as_names</span> <span class="s1">&#39;)&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">import_as_names</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">import_as_name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;as&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">dotted_as_name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">dotted_name</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;as&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">import_as_names</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">import_as_name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">import_as_name</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">dotted_as_names</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">dotted_as_name</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">dotted_as_name</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">dotted_name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">global_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;global&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">nonlocal_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nonlocal&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">assert_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;assert&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="n">compound_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">if_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">while_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">for_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">try_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">with_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">funcdef</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">classdef</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">decorated</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">async_stmt</span>
+<span class="n">async_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;async&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">funcdef</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">with_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">for_stmt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">if_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;if&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;elif&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;else&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">while_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;while&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;else&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">for_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;for&#39;</span> <span class="n">exprlist</span> <span class="s1">&#39;in&#39;</span> <span class="n">testlist</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;else&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">try_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;try&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span>
+           <span class="p">((</span><span class="n">except_clause</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">+</span>
+            <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;else&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">]</span>
+            <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;finally&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+           <span class="s1">&#39;finally&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">with_stmt</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;with&#39;</span> <span class="n">with_item</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">with_item</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>  <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span>
+<span class="n">with_item</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;as&#39;</span> <span class="n">expr</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="c1"># NB compile.c makes sure that the default except clause is last</span>
+<span class="n">except_clause</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;except&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;as&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+<span class="n">suite</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">simple_stmt</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">NEWLINE</span> <span class="n">INDENT</span> <span class="n">stmt</span><span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">DEDENT</span>
+
+<span class="n">test</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">or_test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;if&#39;</span> <span class="n">or_test</span> <span class="s1">&#39;else&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">lambdef</span>
+<span class="n">test_nocond</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">or_test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">lambdef_nocond</span>
+<span class="n">lambdef</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lambda&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">varargslist</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span>
+<span class="n">lambdef_nocond</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lambda&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">varargslist</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">test_nocond</span>
+<span class="n">or_test</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">and_test</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;or&#39;</span> <span class="n">and_test</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">and_test</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">not_test</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;and&#39;</span> <span class="n">not_test</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">not_test</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;not&#39;</span> <span class="n">not_test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">comparison</span>
+<span class="n">comparison</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">expr</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">comp_op</span> <span class="n">expr</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="c1"># &lt;&gt; isn&#39;t actually a valid comparison operator in Python. It&#39;s here for the</span>
+<span class="c1"># sake of a __future__ import described in PEP 401 (which really works :-)</span>
+<span class="n">comp_op</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;==&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;=&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;=&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;!=&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;in&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;not&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;in&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;is&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;is&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;not&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span> <span class="n">expr</span>
+<span class="n">expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">xor_expr</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span> <span class="n">xor_expr</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">xor_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">and_expr</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;^&#39;</span> <span class="n">and_expr</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">and_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">shift_expr</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&amp;&#39;</span> <span class="n">shift_expr</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">shift_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">arith_expr</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&lt;&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">arith_expr</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">arith_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">term</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">term</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">term</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">factor</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;@&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;%&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;//&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">factor</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">factor</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;-&#39;</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="s1">&#39;~&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">factor</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">power</span>
+<span class="n">power</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">atom_expr</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">factor</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">atom_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;await&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">atom</span> <span class="n">trailer</span><span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="n">atom</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;(&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">yield_expr</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">testlist_comp</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;)&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+       <span class="s1">&#39;[&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">testlist_comp</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;]&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+       <span class="s1">&#39;{&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">dictorsetmaker</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;}&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+       <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">NUMBER</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">STRING</span><span class="o">+</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;...&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;None&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;True&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;False&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">testlist_comp</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">comp_for</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">trailer</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;)&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;[&#39;</span> <span class="n">subscriptlist</span> <span class="s1">&#39;]&#39;</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span>
+<span class="n">subscriptlist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">subscript</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">subscript</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">subscript</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">sliceop</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">sliceop</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">test</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">exprlist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="o">|</span><span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">testlist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">dictorsetmaker</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="n">test</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">expr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                   <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">comp_for</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">expr</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+                  <span class="p">((</span><span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                   <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">comp_for</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">star_expr</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]))</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">classdef</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span> <span class="n">NAME</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;(&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;)&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span> <span class="n">suite</span>
+
+<span class="n">arglist</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">argument</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span> <span class="n">argument</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">*</span>  <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># The reason that keywords are test nodes instead of NAME is that using NAME</span>
+<span class="c1"># results in an ambiguity. ast.c makes sure it&#39;s a NAME.</span>
+<span class="c1"># &quot;test &#39;=&#39; test&quot; is really &quot;keyword &#39;=&#39; test&quot;, but we have no such token.</span>
+<span class="c1"># These need to be in a single rule to avoid grammar that is ambiguous</span>
+<span class="c1"># to our LL(1) parser. Even though &#39;test&#39; includes &#39;*expr&#39; in star_expr,</span>
+<span class="c1"># we explicitly match &#39;*&#39; here, too, to give it proper precedence.</span>
+<span class="c1"># Illegal combinations and orderings are blocked in ast.c:</span>
+<span class="c1"># multiple (test comp_for) arguments are blocked; keyword unpackings</span>
+<span class="c1"># that precede iterable unpackings are blocked; etc.</span>
+<span class="n">argument</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">comp_for</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+            <span class="n">test</span> <span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;**&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+            <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">comp_iter</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">comp_for</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">comp_if</span>
+<span class="n">sync_comp_for</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;for&#39;</span> <span class="n">exprlist</span> <span class="s1">&#39;in&#39;</span> <span class="n">or_test</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">comp_iter</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">comp_for</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;async&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">sync_comp_for</span>
+<span class="n">comp_if</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;if&#39;</span> <span class="n">test_nocond</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">comp_iter</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># not used in grammar, but may appear in &quot;node&quot; passed from Parser to Compiler</span>
+<span class="n">encoding_decl</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">NAME</span>
+
+<span class="n">yield_expr</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;yield&#39;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">yield_arg</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">yield_arg</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;from&#39;</span> <span class="n">test</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">testlist</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
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+  <p class="topless"><a href="toplevel_components.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">9. Top-level components</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="the-import-system">
+<span id="importsystem"></span><h1>5. The import system<a class="headerlink" href="#the-import-system" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">Python code in one <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-module"><span class="xref std std-term">module</span></a> gains access to the code in another module
+by the process of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importing"><span class="xref std std-term">importing</span></a> it.  The <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement is
+the most common way of invoking the import machinery, but it is not the only
+way.  Functions such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> and built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> can also be used to invoke the import machinery.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement combines two operations; it searches for the
+named module, then it binds the results of that search to a name in the local
+scope.  The search operation of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement is defined as
+a call to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function, with the appropriate arguments.
+The return value of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> is used to perform the name
+binding operation of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement.  See the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement for the exact details of that name binding
+operation.</p>
+<p>A direct call to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> performs only the module search and, if
+found, the module creation operation.  While certain side-effects may occur,
+such as the importing of parent packages, and the updating of various caches
+(including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>), only the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement performs
+a name binding operation.</p>
+<p>When an <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement is executed, the standard builtin
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function is called. Other mechanisms for invoking the
+import system (such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a>) may choose to bypass
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> and use their own solutions to implement import semantics.</p>
+<p>When a module is first imported, Python searches for the module and if found,
+it creates a module object <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#fnmo" id="id1">1</a>, initializing it.  If the named module
+cannot be found, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> is raised.  Python implements various
+strategies to search for the named module when the import machinery is
+invoked.  These strategies can be modified and extended by using various hooks
+described in the sections below.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>The import system has been updated to fully implement the second phase
+of <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>. There is no longer any implicit import machinery - the full
+import system is exposed through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>. In addition,
+native namespace package support has been implemented (see <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="importlib">
+<h2>5.1. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#importlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> module provides a rich API for interacting with the
+import system.  For example <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> provides a
+recommended, simpler API than built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> for invoking the
+import machinery.  Refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> library documentation for
+additional detail.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="packages">
+<h2>5.2. Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-3">Python has only one type of module object, and all modules are of this type,
+regardless of whether the module is implemented in Python, C, or something
+else.  To help organize modules and provide a naming hierarchy, Python has a
+concept of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-package"><span class="xref std std-term">packages</span></a>.</p>
+<p>You can think of packages as the directories on a file system and modules as
+files within directories, but don’t take this analogy too literally since
+packages and modules need not originate from the file system.  For the
+purposes of this documentation, we’ll use this convenient analogy of
+directories and files.  Like file system directories, packages are organized
+hierarchically, and packages may themselves contain subpackages, as well as
+regular modules.</p>
+<p>It’s important to keep in mind that all packages are modules, but not all
+modules are packages.  Or put another way, packages are just a special kind of
+module.  Specifically, any module that contains a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute is
+considered a package.</p>
+<p>All modules have a name.  Subpackage names are separated from their parent
+package name by dots, akin to Python’s standard attribute access syntax.  Thus
+you might have a module called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> and a package called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a>,
+which in turn has a subpackage called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.mime.html#module-email.mime" title="email.mime: Build MIME messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code></a> and a module within
+that subpackage called <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime.text</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="regular-packages">
+<h3>5.2.1. Regular packages<a class="headerlink" href="#regular-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-4">Python defines two types of packages, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-regular-package"><span class="xref std std-term">regular packages</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace packages</span></a>.  Regular
+packages are traditional packages as they existed in Python 3.2 and earlier.
+A regular package is typically implemented as a directory containing an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file.  When a regular package is imported, this
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file is implicitly executed, and the objects it defines are
+bound to names in the package’s namespace.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file can
+contain the same Python code that any other module can contain, and Python
+will add some additional attributes to the module when it is imported.</p>
+<p>For example, the following file system layout defines a top level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent</span></code>
+package with three subpackages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parent</span><span class="o">/</span>
+    <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">one</span><span class="o">/</span>
+        <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">two</span><span class="o">/</span>
+        <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">three</span><span class="o">/</span>
+        <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Importing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent.one</span></code> will implicitly execute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent/__init__.py</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent/one/__init__.py</span></code>.  Subsequent imports of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent.two</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent.three</span></code> will execute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent/two/__init__.py</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent/three/__init__.py</span></code> respectively.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="namespace-packages">
+<h3>5.2.2. Namespace packages<a class="headerlink" href="#namespace-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-5">A namespace package is a composite of various <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-portion"><span class="xref std std-term">portions</span></a>,
+where each portion contributes a subpackage to the parent package.  Portions
+may reside in different locations on the file system.  Portions may also be
+found in zip files, on the network, or anywhere else that Python searches
+during import.  Namespace packages may or may not correspond directly to
+objects on the file system; they may be virtual modules that have no concrete
+representation.</p>
+<p>Namespace packages do not use an ordinary list for their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>
+attribute. They instead use a custom iterable type which will automatically
+perform a new search for package portions on the next import attempt within
+that package if the path of their parent package (or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> for a
+top level package) changes.</p>
+<p>With namespace packages, there is no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent/__init__.py</span></code> file.  In fact,
+there may be multiple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent</span></code> directories found during import search, where
+each one is provided by a different portion.  Thus <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent/one</span></code> may not be
+physically located next to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent/two</span></code>.  In this case, Python will create a
+namespace package for the top-level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parent</span></code> package whenever it or one of
+its subpackages is imported.</p>
+<p>See also <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a> for the namespace package specification.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="searching">
+<h2>5.3. Searching<a class="headerlink" href="#searching" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To begin the search, Python needs the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-qualified-name"><span class="xref std std-term">fully qualified</span></a>
+name of the module (or package, but for the purposes of this discussion, the
+difference is immaterial) being imported.  This name may come from various
+arguments to the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement, or from the parameters to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<p>This name will be used in various phases of the import search, and it may be
+the dotted path to a submodule, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>.  In this case, Python
+first tries to import <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code>, and finally <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>.
+If any of the intermediate imports fail, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> is raised.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-module-cache">
+<h3>5.3.1. The module cache<a class="headerlink" href="#the-module-cache" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-7">The first place checked during import search is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.  This
+mapping serves as a cache of all modules that have been previously imported,
+including the intermediate paths.  So if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code> was previously
+imported, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> will contain entries for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code>,
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>.  Each key will have as its value the corresponding module
+object.</p>
+<p>During import, the module name is looked up in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> and if
+present, the associated value is the module satisfying the import, and the
+process completes.  However, if the value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> is raised.  If the module name is missing, Python will
+continue searching for the module.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> is writable.  Deleting a key may not destroy the
+associated module (as other modules may hold references to it),
+but it will invalidate the cache entry for the named module, causing
+Python to search anew for the named module upon its next
+import. The key can also be assigned to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, forcing the next import
+of the module to result in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Beware though, as if you keep a reference to the module object,
+invalidate its cache entry in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, and then re-import the
+named module, the two module objects will <em>not</em> be the same. By contrast,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a> will reuse the <em>same</em> module object, and simply
+reinitialise the module contents by rerunning the module’s code.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finders-and-loaders">
+<h3>5.3.2. Finders and loaders<a class="headerlink" href="#finders-and-loaders" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-8">If the named module is not found in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, then Python’s import
+protocol is invoked to find and load the module.  This protocol consists of
+two conceptual objects, <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">finders</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loaders</span></a>.
+A finder’s job is to determine whether it can find the named module using
+whatever strategy it knows about. Objects that implement both of these
+interfaces are referred to as <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importer"><span class="xref std std-term">importers</span></a> - they return
+themselves when they find that they can load the requested module.</p>
+<p>Python includes a number of default finders and importers.  The first one
+knows how to locate built-in modules, and the second knows how to locate
+frozen modules.  A third default finder searches an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a>
+for modules.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a> is a list of locations that may
+name file system paths or zip files.  It can also be extended to search
+for any locatable resource, such as those identified by URLs.</p>
+<p>The import machinery is extensible, so new finders can be added to extend the
+range and scope of module searching.</p>
+<p>Finders do not actually load modules.  If they can find the named module, they
+return a <em class="dfn">module spec</em>, an encapsulation of the module’s import-related
+information, which the import machinery then uses when loading the module.</p>
+<p>The following sections describe the protocol for finders and loaders in more
+detail, including how you can create and register new ones to extend the
+import machinery.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>In previous versions of Python, finders returned <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-loader"><span class="xref std std-term">loaders</span></a>
+directly, whereas now they return module specs which <em>contain</em> loaders.
+Loaders are still used during import but have fewer responsibilities.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="import-hooks">
+<h3>5.3.3. Import hooks<a class="headerlink" href="#import-hooks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-9">The import machinery is designed to be extensible; the primary mechanism for
+this are the <em>import hooks</em>.  There are two types of import hooks: <em>meta
+hooks</em> and <em>import path hooks</em>.</p>
+<p>Meta hooks are called at the start of import processing, before any other
+import processing has occurred, other than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> cache look up.
+This allows meta hooks to override <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> processing, frozen
+modules, or even built-in modules.  Meta hooks are registered by adding new
+finder objects to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>, as described below.</p>
+<p>Import path hooks are called as part of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> (or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">package.__path__</span></code>) processing, at the point where their associated path
+item is encountered.  Import path hooks are registered by adding new callables
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> as described below.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-meta-path">
+<h3>5.3.4. The meta path<a class="headerlink" href="#the-meta-path" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-10">When the named module is not found in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, Python next
+searches <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>, which contains a list of meta path finder
+objects.  These finders are queried in order to see if they know how to handle
+the named module.  Meta path finders must implement a method called
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> which takes three arguments:
+a name, an import path, and (optionally) a target module.  The meta path
+finder can use any strategy it wants to determine whether it can handle
+the named module or not.</p>
+<p>If the meta path finder knows how to handle the named module, it returns a
+spec object.  If it cannot handle the named module, it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  If
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> processing reaches the end of its list without returning
+a spec, then a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> is raised.  Any other exceptions
+raised are simply propagated up, aborting the import process.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method of meta path
+finders is called with two or three arguments.  The first is the fully
+qualified name of the module being imported, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code>.
+The second argument is the path entries to use for the module search.  For
+top-level modules, the second argument is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, but for submodules or
+subpackages, the second argument is the value of the parent package’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute. If the appropriate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute cannot
+be accessed, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> is raised.  The third argument
+is an existing module object that will be the target of loading later.
+The import system passes in a target module only during reload.</p>
+<p>The meta path may be traversed multiple times for a single import request.
+For example, assuming none of the modules involved has already been cached,
+importing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar.baz</span></code> will first perform a top level import, calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mpf.find_spec(&quot;foo&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">None,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code> on each meta path finder (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mpf</span></code>). After
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> has been imported, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code> will be imported by traversing the
+meta path a second time, calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mpf.find_spec(&quot;foo.bar&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">foo.__path__,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code>. Once <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo.bar</span></code> has been
+imported, the final traversal will call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mpf.find_spec(&quot;foo.bar.baz&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">foo.bar.__path__,</span> <span class="pre">None)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Some meta path finders only support top level imports. These importers will
+always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when anything other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is passed as the
+second argument.</p>
+<p>Python’s default <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> has three meta path finders, one that
+knows how to import built-in modules, one that knows how to import frozen
+modules, and one that knows how to import modules from an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a>
+(i.e. the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method of meta path
+finders replaced <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a>, which
+is now deprecated.  While it will continue to work without change, the
+import machinery will try it only if the finder does not implement
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="loading">
+<h2>5.4. Loading<a class="headerlink" href="#loading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If and when a module spec is found, the import machinery will use it (and
+the loader it contains) when loading the module.  Here is an approximation
+of what happens during the loading portion of import:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;create_module&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># It is assumed &#39;exec_module&#39; will also be defined on the loader.</span>
+    <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">module</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ModuleType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># The import-related module attributes get set here:</span>
+<span class="n">_init_module_attrs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submodule_search_locations</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># namespace package</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">module</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="c1"># unsupported</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;exec_module&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Set __loader__ and __package__ if missing.</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">module</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exec_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">BaseException</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">pass</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span>
+<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">spec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note the following details:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If there is an existing module object with the given name in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, import will have already returned it.</p></li>
+<li><p>The module will exist in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> before the loader
+executes the module code.  This is crucial because the module code may
+(directly or indirectly) import itself; adding it to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>
+beforehand prevents unbounded recursion in the worst case and multiple
+loading in the best.</p></li>
+<li><p>If loading fails, the failing module – and only the failing module –
+gets removed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.  Any module already in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> cache, and any module that was successfully loaded
+as a side-effect, must remain in the cache.  This contrasts with
+reloading where even the failing module is left in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>After the module is created but before execution, the import machinery
+sets the import-related module attributes (“_init_module_attrs” in
+the pseudo-code example above), as summarized in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#import-mod-attrs"><span class="std std-ref">later section</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Module execution is the key moment of loading in which the module’s
+namespace gets populated.  Execution is entirely delegated to the
+loader, which gets to decide what gets populated and how.</p></li>
+<li><p>The module created during loading and passed to exec_module() may
+not be the one returned at the end of import <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#fnlo" id="id2">2</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The import system has taken over the boilerplate responsibilities of
+loaders.  These were previously performed by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="loaders">
+<h3>5.4.1. Loaders<a class="headerlink" href="#loaders" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Module loaders provide the critical function of loading: module execution.
+The import machinery calls the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a>
+method with a single argument, the module object to execute.  Any value
+returned from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> is ignored.</p>
+<p>Loaders must satisfy the following requirements:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the module is a Python module (as opposed to a built-in module or a
+dynamically loaded extension), the loader should execute the module’s code
+in the module’s global name space (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.__dict__</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>If the loader cannot execute the module, it should raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>, although any other exception raised during
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> will be propagated.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>In many cases, the finder and loader can be the same object; in such cases the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method would just return a
+spec with the loader set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Module loaders may opt in to creating the module object during loading
+by implementing a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a> method.
+It takes one argument, the module spec, and returns the new module object
+to use during loading.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code> does not need to set any attributes
+on the module object.  If the method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the
+import machinery will create the new module itself.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a> method of loaders.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code></a> method was replaced by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code></a> and the import
+machinery assumed all the boilerplate responsibilities of loading.</p>
+<p>For compatibility with existing loaders, the import machinery will use
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code> method of loaders if it exists and the loader does
+not also implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code>.  However, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code> has been
+deprecated and loaders should implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code> instead.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></code> method must implement all the boilerplate loading
+functionality described above in addition to executing the module.  All
+the same constraints apply, with some additional clarification:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If there is an existing module object with the given name in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, the loader must use that existing module.
+(Otherwise, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a> will not work correctly.)  If the
+named module does not exist in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, the loader
+must create a new module object and add it to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The module <em>must</em> exist in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a> before the loader
+executes the module code, to prevent unbounded recursion or multiple
+loading.</p></li>
+<li><p>If loading fails, the loader must remove any modules it has inserted
+into <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>, but it must remove <strong>only</strong> the failing
+module(s), and only if the loader itself has loaded the module(s)
+explicitly.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> is raised when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code> is defined but
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code> is not.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>An <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is raised when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module()</span></code> is defined but
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code> is not.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="submodules">
+<h3>5.4.2. Submodules<a class="headerlink" href="#submodules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When a submodule is loaded using any mechanism (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> APIs, the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import-from</span></code> statements, or built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code>) a
+binding is placed in the parent module’s namespace to the submodule object.
+For example, if package <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> has a submodule <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code>, after importing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.foo</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> will have an attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> which is bound to the
+submodule.  Let’s say you have the following directory structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">/</span>
+    <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam/__init__.py</span></code> has the following lines in it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.foo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Foo</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.bar</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Bar</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then executing the following puts a name binding to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar</span></code> in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">spam</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">foo</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;module &#39;spam.foo&#39; from &#39;/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bar</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;module &#39;spam.bar&#39; from &#39;/tmp/imports/spam/bar.py&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Given Python’s familiar name binding rules this might seem surprising, but
+it’s actually a fundamental feature of the import system.  The invariant
+holding is that if you have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules['spam']</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules['spam.foo']</span></code> (as you would after the above import), the latter
+must appear as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> attribute of the former.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-spec">
+<h3>5.4.3. Module spec<a class="headerlink" href="#module-spec" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The import machinery uses a variety of information about each module
+during import, especially before loading.  Most of the information is
+common to all modules.  The purpose of a module’s spec is to encapsulate
+this import-related information on a per-module basis.</p>
+<p>Using a spec during import allows state to be transferred between import
+system components, e.g. between the finder that creates the module spec
+and the loader that executes it.  Most importantly, it allows the
+import machinery to perform the boilerplate operations of loading,
+whereas without a module spec the loader had that responsibility.</p>
+<p>The module’s spec is exposed as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> attribute on a module object.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec" title="importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleSpec</span></code></a> for details on the contents of
+the module spec.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="import-related-module-attributes">
+<span id="import-mod-attrs"></span><h3>5.4.4. Import-related module attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#import-related-module-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The import machinery fills in these attributes on each module object
+during loading, based on the module’s spec, before the loader executes
+the module.</p>
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="__name__">
+<code class="descname">__name__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__name__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> attribute must be set to the fully-qualified name of
+the module.  This name is used to uniquely identify the module in
+the import system.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="__loader__">
+<code class="descname">__loader__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__loader__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> attribute must be set to the loader object that
+the import machinery used when loading the module.  This is mostly
+for introspection, but can be used for additional loader-specific
+functionality, for example getting data associated with a loader.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="__package__">
+<code class="descname">__package__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__package__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> attribute must be set.  Its value must
+be a string, but it can be the same value as its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>.  When
+the module is a package, its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> value should be set to
+its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>.  When the module is not a package, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code>
+should be set to the empty string for top-level modules, or for
+submodules, to the parent package’s name.  See <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0366"><strong>PEP 366</strong></a> for further
+details.</p>
+<p>This attribute is used instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> to calculate explicit
+relative imports for main modules, as defined in <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0366"><strong>PEP 366</strong></a>. It is
+expected to have the same value as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.parent</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>The value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> is expected to be the same as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.parent</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="__spec__">
+<code class="descname">__spec__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__spec__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> attribute must be set to the module spec that was
+used when importing the module. Setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code>
+appropriately applies equally to <a class="reference internal" href="toplevel_components.html#programs"><span class="std std-ref">modules initialized during
+interpreter startup</span></a>.  The one exception is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>,
+where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> is <a class="reference internal" href="#main-spec"><span class="std std-ref">set to None in some cases</span></a>.</p>
+<p>When <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> is not defined, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.parent</span></code> is used as
+a fallback.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.parent</span></code> is used as a fallback when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> is
+not defined.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="__path__">
+<code class="descname">__path__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__path__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If the module is a package (either regular or namespace), the module
+object’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute must be set.  The value must be
+iterable, but may be empty if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> has no further significance.
+If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> is not empty, it must produce strings when iterated
+over. More details on the semantics of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> are given
+<a class="reference internal" href="#package-path-rules"><span class="std std-ref">below</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Non-package modules should not have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="__file__">
+<code class="descname">__file__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__file__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd></dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="attribute">
+<dt id="__cached__">
+<code class="descname">__cached__</code><a class="headerlink" href="#__cached__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> is optional. If set, this attribute’s value must be a
+string.  The import system may opt to leave <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> unset if it
+has no semantic meaning (e.g. a module loaded from a database).</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> is set, it may also be appropriate to set the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code> attribute which is the path to any compiled version of
+the code (e.g. byte-compiled file). The file does not need to exist
+to set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the
+compiled file would exist (see <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a>).</p>
+<p>It is also appropriate to set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> is not
+set.  However, that scenario is quite atypical.  Ultimately, the
+loader is what makes use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> and/or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>.  So
+if a loader can load from a cached module but otherwise does not load
+from a file, that atypical scenario may be appropriate.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-path">
+<span id="package-path-rules"></span><h3>5.4.5. module.__path__<a class="headerlink" href="#module-path" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By definition, if a module has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute, it is a package.</p>
+<p>A package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute is used during imports of its subpackages.
+Within the import machinery, it functions much the same as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>,
+i.e. providing a list of locations to search for modules during import.
+However, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> is typically much more constrained than
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> must be an iterable of strings, but it may be empty.
+The same rules used for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> also apply to a package’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> (described below) are
+consulted when traversing a package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> file may set or alter the package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>
+attribute, and this was typically the way namespace packages were implemented
+prior to <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a>.  With the adoption of <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a>, namespace packages no
+longer need to supply <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> files containing only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>
+manipulation code; the import machinery automatically sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>
+correctly for the namespace package.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-reprs">
+<h3>5.4.6. Module reprs<a class="headerlink" href="#module-reprs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, all modules have a usable repr, however depending on the
+attributes set above, and in the module’s spec, you can more explicitly
+control the repr of module objects.</p>
+<p>If the module has a spec (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code>), the import machinery will try
+to generate a repr from it.  If that fails or there is no spec, the import
+system will craft a default repr using whatever information is available
+on the module.  It will try to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.__name__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.__file__</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.__loader__</span></code> as input into the repr,
+with defaults for whatever information is missing.</p>
+<p>Here are the exact rules used:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the module has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> attribute, the information in the spec
+is used to generate the repr.  The “name”, “loader”, “origin”, and
+“has_location” attributes are consulted.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the module has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> attribute, this is used as part of the
+module’s repr.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the module has no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> but does have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> that is not
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, then the loader’s repr is used as part of the module’s repr.</p></li>
+<li><p>Otherwise, just use the module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> in the repr.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Use of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr" title="importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loader.module_repr()</span></code></a>
+has been deprecated and the module spec is now used by the import
+machinery to generate a module repr.</p>
+<p>For backward compatibility with Python 3.3, the module repr will be
+generated by calling the loader’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr" title="importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module_repr()</span></code></a> method, if defined, before
+trying either approach described above.  However, the method is deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cached-bytecode-invalidation">
+<span id="pyc-invalidation"></span><h3>5.4.7. Cached bytecode invalidation<a class="headerlink" href="#cached-bytecode-invalidation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Before Python loads cached bytecode from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file, it checks whether the
+cache is up-to-date with the source <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> file. By default, Python does this
+by storing the source’s last-modified timestamp and size in the cache file when
+writing it. At runtime, the import system then validates the cache file by
+checking the stored metadata in the cache file against at source’s
+metadata.</p>
+<p>Python also supports “hash-based” cache files, which store a hash of the source
+file’s contents rather than its metadata. There are two variants of hash-based
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files: checked and unchecked. For checked hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files,
+Python validates the cache file by hashing the source file and comparing the
+resulting hash with the hash in the cache file. If a checked hash-based cache
+file is found to be invalid, Python regenerates it and writes a new checked
+hash-based cache file. For unchecked hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files, Python simply
+assumes the cache file is valid if it exists. Hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files
+validation behavior may be overridden with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--check-hash-based-pycs</span></code></a>
+flag.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files. Previously, Python only supported
+timestamp-based invalidation of bytecode caches.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-path-based-finder">
+<h2>5.5. The Path Based Finder<a class="headerlink" href="#the-path-based-finder" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-16">As mentioned previously, Python comes with several default meta path finders.
+One of these, called the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a>
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathFinder</span></code></a>), searches an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a>,
+which contains a list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path entries</span></a>.  Each path
+entry names a location to search for modules.</p>
+<p>The path based finder itself doesn’t know how to import anything. Instead, it
+traverses the individual path entries, associating each of them with a
+path entry finder that knows how to handle that particular kind of path.</p>
+<p>The default set of path entry finders implement all the semantics for finding
+modules on the file system, handling special file types such as Python source
+code (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files), Python byte code (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files) and
+shared libraries (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code> files). When supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipimport.html#module-zipimport" title="zipimport: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code></a>
+module in the standard library, the default path entry finders also handle
+loading all of these file types (other than shared libraries) from zipfiles.</p>
+<p>Path entries need not be limited to file system locations.  They can refer to
+URLs, database queries, or any other location that can be specified as a
+string.</p>
+<p>The path based finder provides additional hooks and protocols so that you
+can extend and customize the types of searchable path entries.  For example,
+if you wanted to support path entries as network URLs, you could write a hook
+that implements HTTP semantics to find modules on the web.  This hook (a
+callable) would return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a> supporting the protocol
+described below, which was then used to get a loader for the module from the
+web.</p>
+<p>A word of warning: this section and the previous both use the term <em>finder</em>,
+distinguishing between them by using the terms <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finder</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a>.  These two types of finders are very similar,
+support similar protocols, and function in similar ways during the import
+process, but it’s important to keep in mind that they are subtly different.
+In particular, meta path finders operate at the beginning of the import
+process, as keyed off the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> traversal.</p>
+<p>By contrast, path entry finders are in a sense an implementation detail
+of the path based finder, and in fact, if the path based finder were to be
+removed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>, none of the path entry finder semantics
+would be invoked.</p>
+<div class="section" id="path-entry-finders">
+<h3>5.5.1. Path entry finders<a class="headerlink" href="#path-entry-finders" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-17">The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a> is responsible for finding and loading
+Python modules and packages whose location is specified with a string
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry</span></a>.  Most path entries name locations in the file system,
+but they need not be limited to this.</p>
+<p>As a meta path finder, the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a> implements the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> protocol previously
+described, however it exposes additional hooks that can be used to
+customize how modules are found and loaded from the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Three variables are used by the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>
+attributes on package objects are also used.  These provide additional ways
+that the import machinery can be customized.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> contains a list of strings providing search locations for
+modules and packages.  It is initialized from the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code>
+environment variable and various other installation- and
+implementation-specific defaults.  Entries in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> can name
+directories on the file system, zip files, and potentially other “locations”
+(see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module) that should be searched for modules, such as
+URLs, or database queries.  Only strings and bytes should be present on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>; all other data types are ignored.  The encoding of bytes
+entries is determined by the individual <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finders</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-based-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path based finder</span></a> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finder</span></a>, so the import
+machinery begins the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a> search by calling the path
+based finder’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method as
+described previously.  When the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> is given, it will be a
+list of string paths to traverse - typically a package’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code>
+attribute for an import within that package.  If the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> argument is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, this indicates a top level import and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is used.</p>
+<p>The path based finder iterates over every entry in the search path, and
+for each of these, looks for an appropriate <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a>
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathEntryFinder</span></code></a>) for the
+path entry.  Because this can be an expensive operation (e.g. there may be
+<cite>stat()</cite> call overheads for this search), the path based finder maintains
+a cache mapping path entries to path entry finders.  This cache is maintained
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> (despite the name, this cache actually
+stores finder objects rather than being limited to <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-importer"><span class="xref std std-term">importer</span></a> objects).
+In this way, the expensive search for a particular <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry</span></a>
+location’s <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a> need only be done once.  User code is
+free to remove cache entries from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> forcing
+the path based finder to perform the path entry search again <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#fnpic" id="id3">3</a>.</p>
+<p>If the path entry is not present in the cache, the path based finder iterates
+over every callable in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a>.  Each of the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-hook"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry
+hooks</span></a> in this list is called with a single argument, the
+path entry to be searched.  This callable may either return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path
+entry finder</span></a> that can handle the path entry, or it may raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.  An <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is used by the path based finder to
+signal that the hook cannot find a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a>
+for that <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry</span></a>.  The
+exception is ignored and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-import-path"><span class="xref std std-term">import path</span></a> iteration continues.  The hook
+should expect either a string or bytes object; the encoding of bytes objects
+is up to the hook (e.g. it may be a file system encoding, UTF-8, or something
+else), and if the hook cannot decode the argument, it should raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> iteration ends with no <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a>
+being returned, then the path based finder’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method will store <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> (to indicate that there is no finder for
+this path entry) and return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, indicating that this
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finder</span></a> could not find the module.</p>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finder</span></a> <em>is</em> returned by one of the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-hook"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry
+hook</span></a> callables on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a>, then the following protocol is used
+to ask the finder for a module spec, which is then used when loading the
+module.</p>
+<p>The current working directory – denoted by an empty string – is handled
+slightly differently from other entries on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>. First, if the
+current working directory is found to not exist, no value is stored in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>. Second, the value for the current working
+directory is looked up fresh for each module lookup. Third, the path used for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> and returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec()</span></code></a> will be the actual current
+working directory and not the empty string.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="path-entry-finder-protocol">
+<h3>5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#path-entry-finder-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In order to support imports of modules and initialized packages and also to
+contribute portions to namespace packages, path entry finders must implement
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> takes two argument, the
+fully qualified name of the module being imported, and the (optional) target
+module.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code> returns a fully populated spec for the module.
+This spec will always have “loader” set (with one exception).</p>
+<p>To indicate to the import machinery that the spec represents a namespace
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-portion"><span class="xref std std-term">portion</span></a>. the path entry finder sets “loader” on the spec to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> and “submodule_search_locations” to a list containing the
+portion.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> replaced
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_loader()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a>, both of which
+are now deprecated, but will be used if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code> is not defined.</p>
+<p>Older path entry finders may implement one of these two deprecated methods
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code>.  The methods are still respected for the
+sake of backward compatibility.  However, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code> is
+implemented on the path entry finder, the legacy methods are ignored.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_loader()</span></code></a> takes one argument, the
+fully qualified name of the module being imported.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_loader()</span></code>
+returns a 2-tuple where the first item is the loader and the second item
+is a namespace <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-portion"><span class="xref std std-term">portion</span></a>.  When the first item (i.e. the loader) is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, this means that while the path entry finder does not have a
+loader for the named module, it knows that the path entry contributes to
+a namespace portion for the named module.  This will almost always be the
+case where Python is asked to import a namespace package that has no
+physical presence on the file system.  When a path entry finder returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for the loader, the second item of the 2-tuple return value must
+be a sequence, although it can be empty.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_loader()</span></code> returns a non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> loader value, the portion is
+ignored and the loader is returned from the path based finder, terminating
+the search through the path entries.</p>
+<p>For backwards compatibility with other implementations of the import
+protocol, many path entry finders also support the same,
+traditional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code> method that meta path finders support.
+However path entry finder <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code> methods are never called
+with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> argument (they are expected to record the appropriate
+path information from the initial call to the path hook).</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code> method on path entry finders is deprecated,
+as it does not allow the path entry finder to contribute portions to
+namespace packages.  If both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_loader()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code>
+exist on a path entry finder, the import system will always call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_loader()</span></code> in preference to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="replacing-the-standard-import-system">
+<h2>5.6. Replacing the standard import system<a class="headerlink" href="#replacing-the-standard-import-system" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The most reliable mechanism for replacing the entire import system is to
+delete the default contents of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a>, replacing them
+entirely with a custom meta path hook.</p>
+<p>If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements
+without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then replacing
+the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function may be sufficient. This technique
+may also be employed at the module level to only alter the behaviour of
+import statements within that module.</p>
+<p>To selectively prevent import of some modules from a hook early on the
+meta path (rather than disabling the standard import system entirely),
+it is sufficient to raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> directly from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> instead of returning
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. The latter indicates that the meta path search should continue,
+while raising an exception terminates it immediately.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="package-relative-imports">
+<span id="relativeimports"></span><h2>5.7. Package Relative Imports<a class="headerlink" href="#package-relative-imports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Relative imports use leading dots. A single leading dot indicates a relative
+import, starting with the current package. Two or more leading dots indicate a
+relative import to the parent(s) of the current package, one level per dot
+after the first. For example, given the following package layout:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">package</span><span class="o">/</span>
+    <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">subpackage1</span><span class="o">/</span>
+        <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">moduleX</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">moduleY</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">subpackage2</span><span class="o">/</span>
+        <span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+        <span class="n">moduleZ</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+    <span class="n">moduleA</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subpackage1/moduleX.py</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subpackage1/__init__.py</span></code>,
+the following are valid relative imports:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.moduleY</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">spam</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.moduleY</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">spam</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ham</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">moduleY</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..subpackage1</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">moduleY</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..subpackage2.moduleZ</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">eggs</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..moduleA</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">foo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Absolute imports may use either the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&gt;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&gt;</span></code>
+syntax, but relative imports may only use the second form; the reason
+for this is that:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">XXX.YYY.ZZZ</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>should expose <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XXX.YYY.ZZZ</span></code> as a usable expression, but .moduleY is
+not a valid expression.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="special-considerations-for-main">
+<h2>5.8. Special considerations for __main__<a class="headerlink" href="#special-considerations-for-main" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module is a special case relative to Python’s import
+system.  As noted <a class="reference internal" href="toplevel_components.html#programs"><span class="std std-ref">elsewhere</span></a>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> module
+is directly initialized at interpreter startup, much like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>.  However, unlike those two, it doesn’t strictly
+qualify as a built-in module.  This is because the manner in which
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> is initialized depends on the flags and other options with
+which the interpreter is invoked.</p>
+<div class="section" id="main-spec">
+<span id="id4"></span><h3>5.8.1. __main__.__spec__<a class="headerlink" href="#main-spec" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Depending on how <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> is initialized, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.__spec__</span></code>
+gets set appropriately or to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When Python is started with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> option, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> is set
+to the module spec of the corresponding module or package. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> is
+also populated when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> module is loaded as part of executing a
+directory, zipfile or other <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> entry.</p>
+<p>In <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-interface-options"><span class="std std-ref">the remaining cases</span></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.__spec__</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, as the code used to populate the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> does not correspond directly with an importable module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>interactive prompt</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> option</p></li>
+<li><p>running from stdin</p></li>
+<li><p>running directly from a source or bytecode file</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.__spec__</span></code> is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in the last case,
+<em>even if</em> the file could technically be imported directly as a module
+instead. Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> switch if valid module metadata is desired
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Note also that even when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> corresponds with an importable module
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.__spec__</span></code> is set accordingly, they’re still considered
+<em>distinct</em> modules. This is due to the fact that blocks guarded by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">&quot;__main__&quot;:</span></code> checks only execute when the module is used
+to populate the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> namespace, and not during normal import.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="open-issues">
+<h2>5.9. Open issues<a class="headerlink" href="#open-issues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>XXX It would be really nice to have a diagram.</p>
+<p>XXX * (import_machinery.rst) how about a section devoted just to the
+attributes of modules and packages, perhaps expanding upon or supplanting the
+related entries in the data model reference page?</p>
+<p>XXX runpy, pkgutil, et al in the library manual should all get “See Also”
+links at the top pointing to the new import system section.</p>
+<p>XXX Add more explanation regarding the different ways in which
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> is initialized?</p>
+<p>XXX Add more info on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> quirks/pitfalls (i.e. copy from
+<span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0395"><strong>PEP 395</strong></a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="references">
+<h2>5.10. References<a class="headerlink" href="#references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The import machinery has evolved considerably since Python’s early days.  The
+original <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/">specification for packages</a> is still available to read,
+although some details have changed since the writing of that document.</p>
+<p>The original specification for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> was <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>, with
+subsequent extension in <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a>.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a> introduced <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-namespace-package"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace packages</span></a> for
+Python 3.3.  <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a> also introduced the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_loader()</span></code> protocol as an
+alternative to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0366"><strong>PEP 366</strong></a> describes the addition of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> attribute for
+explicit relative imports in main modules.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a> introduced absolute and explicit relative imports and initially
+proposed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> for semantics <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0366"><strong>PEP 366</strong></a> would eventually specify for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code>.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0338"><strong>PEP 338</strong></a> defines executing modules as scripts.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a> adds the encapsulation of per-module import state in spec
+objects.  It also off-loads most of the boilerplate responsibilities of
+loaders back onto the import machinery.  These changes allow the
+deprecation of several APIs in the import system and also addition of new
+methods to finders and loaders.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="fnmo"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.ModuleType" title="types.ModuleType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.ModuleType</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="fnlo"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>The importlib implementation avoids using the return value
+directly. Instead, it gets the module object by looking the module name up
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.  The indirect effect of this is that an imported
+module may replace itself in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.modules" title="sys.modules"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code></a>.  This is
+implementation-specific behavior that is not guaranteed to work in other
+Python implementations.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="fnpic"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>In legacy code, it is possible to find instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.NullImporter" title="imp.NullImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.NullImporter</span></code></a> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>.  It
+is recommended that code be changed to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> instead.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../whatsnew/3.3.html#portingpythoncode"><span class="std std-ref">Porting Python code</span></a> for more details.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">5. The import system</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib">5.1. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages">5.2. Packages</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#regular-packages">5.2.1. Regular packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#namespace-packages">5.2.2. Namespace packages</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#searching">5.3. Searching</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-module-cache">5.3.1. The module cache</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finders-and-loaders">5.3.2. Finders and loaders</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#import-hooks">5.3.3. Import hooks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-meta-path">5.3.4. The meta path</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#loading">5.4. Loading</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#loaders">5.4.1. Loaders</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#submodules">5.4.2. Submodules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-spec">5.4.3. Module spec</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#import-related-module-attributes">5.4.4. Import-related module attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-path">5.4.5. module.__path__</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-reprs">5.4.6. Module reprs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cached-bytecode-invalidation">5.4.7. Cached bytecode invalidation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-path-based-finder">5.5. The Path Based Finder</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#path-entry-finders">5.5.1. Path entry finders</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#path-entry-finder-protocol">5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#replacing-the-standard-import-system">5.6. Replacing the standard import system</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#package-relative-imports">5.7. Package Relative Imports</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-considerations-for-main">5.8. Special considerations for __main__</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#main-spec">5.8.1. __main__.__spec__</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#open-issues">5.9. Open issues</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#references">5.10. References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="executionmodel.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">4. Execution model</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="expressions.html"
+                        title="next chapter">6. Expressions</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/reference/import.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
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+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
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+    &copy; <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 2001-2019, Python Software Foundation.
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+</html>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/index.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e1cea9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,285 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>The Python Language Reference &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script>
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script>
+    
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script>
+    
+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
+          title="Search within Python 3.7.4 documentation"
+          href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/>
+    <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" />
+    <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" />
+    <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" />
+    <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" />
+    <link rel="next" title="1. Introduction" href="introduction.html" />
+    <link rel="prev" title="4. Using Python on a Macintosh" href="../using/mac.html" />
+    <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" />
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+    <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script>
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+    
+    
+    
+    <style>
+      @media only screen {
+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
+        }
+      }
+    </style>
+ 
+
+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="introduction.html" title="1. Introduction"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../using/mac.html" title="4. Using Python on a Macintosh"
+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
+        <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt=""
+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
+          <span class="version_switcher_placeholder">3.7.4</span>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="the-python-language-reference">
+<span id="reference-index"></span><h1>The Python Language Reference<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-language-reference" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This reference manual describes the syntax and “core semantics” of the
+language. It is terse, but attempts to be exact and complete. The semantics of
+non-essential built-in object types and of the built-in functions and modules
+are described in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>. For an informal introduction to the
+language, see <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/index.html#tutorial-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Tutorial</span></a>. For C or C++ programmers, two additional
+manuals exist: <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</span></a> describes the high-level picture of how to
+write a Python extension module, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/index.html#c-api-index"><span class="std std-ref">Python/C API Reference Manual</span></a> describes the
+interfaces available to C/C++ programmers in detail.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html">1. Introduction</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#alternate-implementations">1.1. Alternate Implementations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#notation">1.2. Notation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html">2. Lexical analysis</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#line-structure">2.1. Line structure</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#other-tokens">2.2. Other tokens</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#identifiers">2.3. Identifiers and keywords</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#literals">2.4. Literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#operators">2.5. Operators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#delimiters">2.6. Delimiters</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html">3. Data model</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#objects-values-and-types">3.1. Objects, values and types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#the-standard-type-hierarchy">3.2. The standard type hierarchy</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#special-method-names">3.3. Special method names</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#coroutines">3.4. Coroutines</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html">4. Execution model</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#structure-of-a-program">4.1. Structure of a program</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#naming-and-binding">4.2. Naming and binding</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#exceptions">4.3. Exceptions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html">5. The import system</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#importlib">5.1. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#packages">5.2. Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#searching">5.3. Searching</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#loading">5.4. Loading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#the-path-based-finder">5.5. The Path Based Finder</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#replacing-the-standard-import-system">5.6. Replacing the standard import system</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#package-relative-imports">5.7. Package Relative Imports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#special-considerations-for-main">5.8. Special considerations for __main__</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#open-issues">5.9. Open issues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="import.html#references">5.10. References</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html">6. Expressions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#arithmetic-conversions">6.1. Arithmetic conversions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#atoms">6.2. Atoms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#primaries">6.3. Primaries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#await-expression">6.4. Await expression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#the-power-operator">6.5. The power operator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations">6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#binary-arithmetic-operations">6.7. Binary arithmetic operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#shifting-operations">6.8. Shifting operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#binary-bitwise-operations">6.9. Binary bitwise operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#comparisons">6.10. Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#boolean-operations">6.11. Boolean operations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#conditional-expressions">6.12. Conditional expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#lambda">6.13. Lambdas</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#expression-lists">6.14. Expression lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#evaluation-order">6.15. Evaluation order</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#operator-precedence">6.16. Operator precedence</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html">7. Simple statements</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#expression-statements">7.1. Expression statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#assignment-statements">7.2. Assignment statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-assert-statement">7.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-pass-statement">7.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-del-statement">7.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-return-statement">7.6. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-yield-statement">7.7. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-raise-statement">7.8. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-break-statement">7.9. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-continue-statement">7.10. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-import-statement">7.11. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-global-statement">7.12. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#the-nonlocal-statement">7.13. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html">8. Compound statements</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#the-if-statement">8.1. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#the-while-statement">8.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#the-for-statement">8.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#the-try-statement">8.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#the-with-statement">8.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#function-definitions">8.6. Function definitions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#class-definitions">8.7. Class definitions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#coroutines">8.8. Coroutines</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="toplevel_components.html">9. Top-level components</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="toplevel_components.html#complete-python-programs">9.1. Complete Python programs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="toplevel_components.html#file-input">9.2. File input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="toplevel_components.html#interactive-input">9.3. Interactive input</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="toplevel_components.html#expression-input">9.4. Expression input</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="grammar.html">10. Full Grammar specification</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>1. Introduction &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="introduction">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>1. Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This reference manual describes the Python programming language. It is not
+intended as a tutorial.</p>
+<p>While I am trying to be as precise as possible, I chose to use English rather
+than formal specifications for everything except syntax and lexical analysis.
+This should make the document more understandable to the average reader, but
+will leave room for ambiguities. Consequently, if you were coming from Mars and
+tried to re-implement Python from this document alone, you might have to guess
+things and in fact you would probably end up implementing quite a different
+language. On the other hand, if you are using Python and wonder what the precise
+rules about a particular area of the language are, you should definitely be able
+to find them here. If you would like to see a more formal definition of the
+language, maybe you could volunteer your time — or invent a cloning machine
+:-).</p>
+<p>It is dangerous to add too many implementation details to a language reference
+document — the implementation may change, and other implementations of the
+same language may work differently.  On the other hand, CPython is the one
+Python implementation in widespread use (although alternate implementations
+continue to gain support), and its particular quirks are sometimes worth being
+mentioned, especially where the implementation imposes additional limitations.
+Therefore, you’ll find short “implementation notes” sprinkled throughout the
+text.</p>
+<p>Every Python implementation comes with a number of built-in and standard
+modules.  These are documented in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>.  A few built-in modules
+are mentioned when they interact in a significant way with the language
+definition.</p>
+<div class="section" id="alternate-implementations">
+<span id="implementations"></span><h2>1.1. Alternate Implementations<a class="headerlink" href="#alternate-implementations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Though there is one Python implementation which is by far the most popular,
+there are some alternate implementations which are of particular interest to
+different audiences.</p>
+<p>Known implementations include:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt>CPython</dt><dd><p>This is the original and most-maintained implementation of Python, written in C.
+New language features generally appear here first.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Jython</dt><dd><p>Python implemented in Java.  This implementation can be used as a scripting
+language for Java applications, or can be used to create applications using the
+Java class libraries.  It is also often used to create tests for Java libraries.
+More information can be found at <a class="reference external" href="http://www.jython.org/">the Jython website</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>Python for .NET</dt><dd><p>This implementation actually uses the CPython implementation, but is a managed
+.NET application and makes .NET libraries available.  It was created by Brian
+Lloyd.  For more information, see the <a class="reference external" href="https://pythonnet.github.io/">Python for .NET home page</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>IronPython</dt><dd><p>An alternate Python for .NET.  Unlike Python.NET, this is a complete Python
+implementation that generates IL, and compiles Python code directly to .NET
+assemblies.  It was created by Jim Hugunin, the original creator of Jython.  For
+more information, see <a class="reference external" href="http://ironpython.net/">the IronPython website</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt>PyPy</dt><dd><p>An implementation of Python written completely in Python. It supports several
+advanced features not found in other implementations like stackless support
+and a Just in Time compiler. One of the goals of the project is to encourage
+experimentation with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
+interpreter (since it is written in Python).  Additional information is
+available on <a class="reference external" href="http://pypy.org/">the PyPy project’s home page</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Each of these implementations varies in some way from the language as documented
+in this manual, or introduces specific information beyond what’s covered in the
+standard Python documentation.  Please refer to the implementation-specific
+documentation to determine what else you need to know about the specific
+implementation you’re using.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notation">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>1.2. Notation<a class="headerlink" href="#notation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-0">The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a modified BNF grammar
+notation.  This uses the following style of definition:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-name">name     </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-lc-letter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-lc-letter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code></a> | &quot;_&quot;)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-lc-letter">lc_letter</strong> ::=  &quot;a&quot;...&quot;z&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>The first line says that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code> followed by a sequence
+of zero or more <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code>s and underscores.  An <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code> in turn is
+any of the single characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'z'</span></code>.  (This rule is actually
+adhered to for the names defined in lexical and grammar rules in this document.)</p>
+<p>Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule) and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">::=</span></code>.  A vertical bar (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>) is used to separate alternatives; it is the
+least binding operator in this notation.  A star (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>) means zero or more
+repetitions of the preceding item; likewise, a plus (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>) means one or more
+repetitions, and a phrase enclosed in square brackets (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[</span> <span class="pre">]</span></code>) means zero or
+one occurrences (in other words, the enclosed phrase is optional).  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> operators bind as tightly as possible; parentheses are used for
+grouping.  Literal strings are enclosed in quotes.  White space is only
+meaningful to separate tokens. Rules are normally contained on a single line;
+rules with many alternatives may be formatted alternatively with each line after
+the first beginning with a vertical bar.</p>
+<p id="index-1">In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions are used:
+Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice of any single
+character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII characters.  A phrase between
+angular brackets (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;...&gt;</span></code>) gives an informal description of the symbol
+defined; e.g., this could be used to describe the notion of ‘control character’
+if needed.</p>
+<p>Even though the notation used is almost the same, there is a big difference
+between the meaning of lexical and syntactic definitions: a lexical definition
+operates on the individual characters of the input source, while a syntax
+definition operates on the stream of tokens generated by the lexical analysis.
+All uses of BNF in the next chapter (“Lexical Analysis”) are lexical
+definitions; uses in subsequent chapters are syntactic definitions.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">1. Introduction</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternate-implementations">1.1. Alternate Implementations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notation">1.2. Notation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">The Python Language Reference</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="lexical_analysis.html"
+                        title="next chapter">2. Lexical analysis</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="lexical-analysis">
+<span id="lexical"></span><h1>2. Lexical analysis<a class="headerlink" href="#lexical-analysis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">A Python program is read by a <em>parser</em>.  Input to the parser is a stream of
+<em>tokens</em>, generated by the <em>lexical analyzer</em>.  This chapter describes how the
+lexical analyzer breaks a file into tokens.</p>
+<p>Python reads program text as Unicode code points; the encoding of a source file
+can be given by an encoding declaration and defaults to UTF-8, see <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3120"><strong>PEP 3120</strong></a>
+for details.  If the source file cannot be decoded, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> is
+raised.</p>
+<div class="section" id="line-structure">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>2.1. Line structure<a class="headerlink" href="#line-structure" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-2">A Python program is divided into a number of <em>logical lines</em>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="logical-lines">
+<span id="id2"></span><h3>2.1.1. Logical lines<a class="headerlink" href="#logical-lines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-3">The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE.  Statements
+cannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is allowed by the
+syntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements). A logical line is
+constructed from one or more <em>physical lines</em> by following the explicit or
+implicit <em>line joining</em> rules.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="physical-lines">
+<span id="id3"></span><h3>2.1.2. Physical lines<a class="headerlink" href="#physical-lines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by an end-of-line
+sequence.  In source files and strings, any of the standard platform line
+termination sequences can be used - the Unix form using ASCII LF (linefeed),
+the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return followed by linefeed),
+or the old Macintosh form using the ASCII CR (return) character.  All of these
+forms can be used equally, regardless of platform. The end of input also serves
+as an implicit terminator for the final physical line.</p>
+<p>When embedding Python, source code strings should be passed to Python APIs using
+the standard C conventions for newline characters (the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> character,
+representing ASCII LF, is the line terminator).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comments">
+<span id="id4"></span><h3>2.1.3. Comments<a class="headerlink" href="#comments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-4">A comment starts with a hash character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code>) that is not part of a string
+literal, and ends at the end of the physical line.  A comment signifies the end
+of the logical line unless the implicit line joining rules are invoked. Comments
+are ignored by the syntax.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="encoding-declarations">
+<span id="encodings"></span><h3>2.1.4. Encoding declarations<a class="headerlink" href="#encoding-declarations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-5">If a comment in the first or second line of the Python script matches the
+regular expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+)</span></code>, this comment is processed as an
+encoding declaration; the first group of this expression names the encoding of
+the source code file. The encoding declaration must appear on a line of its
+own. If it is the second line, the first line must also be a comment-only line.
+The recommended forms of an encoding expression are</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># -*- coding: &lt;encoding-name&gt; -*-</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is recognized also by GNU Emacs, and</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># vim:fileencoding=&lt;encoding-name&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar’s VIM.</p>
+<p>If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8.  In
+addition, if the first bytes of the file are the UTF-8 byte-order mark
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\xef\xbb\xbf'</span></code>), the declared file encoding is UTF-8 (this is supported,
+among others, by Microsoft’s <strong class="program">notepad</strong>).</p>
+<p>If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by Python. The
+encoding is used for all lexical analysis, including string literals, comments
+and identifiers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="explicit-line-joining">
+<span id="explicit-joining"></span><h3>2.1.5. Explicit line joining<a class="headerlink" href="#explicit-line-joining" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-6">Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using backslash
+characters (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code>), as follows: when a physical line ends in a backslash that is
+not part of a string literal or comment, it is joined with the following forming
+a single logical line, deleting the backslash and the following end-of-line
+character.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="mi">1900</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">2100</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">month</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="mi">12</span> \
+   <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">day</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="mi">31</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">hour</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">24</span> \
+   <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">minute</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">60</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="n">second</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">:</span>   <span class="c1"># Looks like a valid date</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment.  A backslash does not
+continue a comment.  A backslash does not continue a token except for string
+literals (i.e., tokens other than string literals cannot be split across
+physical lines using a backslash).  A backslash is illegal elsewhere on a line
+outside a string literal.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="implicit-line-joining">
+<span id="implicit-joining"></span><h3>2.1.6. Implicit line joining<a class="headerlink" href="#implicit-line-joining" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be split over
+more than one physical line without using backslashes. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">month_names</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Januari&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Februari&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Maart&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>      <span class="c1"># These are the</span>
+               <span class="s1">&#39;April&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>   <span class="s1">&#39;Mei&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>      <span class="s1">&#39;Juni&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>       <span class="c1"># Dutch names</span>
+               <span class="s1">&#39;Juli&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>    <span class="s1">&#39;Augustus&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;September&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="c1"># for the months</span>
+               <span class="s1">&#39;Oktober&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;November&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;December&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>   <span class="c1"># of the year</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Implicitly continued lines can carry comments.  The indentation of the
+continuation lines is not important.  Blank continuation lines are allowed.
+There is no NEWLINE token between implicit continuation lines.  Implicitly
+continued lines can also occur within triple-quoted strings (see below); in that
+case they cannot carry comments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="blank-lines">
+<span id="id5"></span><h3>2.1.7. Blank lines<a class="headerlink" href="#blank-lines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-7">A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly a
+comment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated).  During interactive
+input of statements, handling of a blank line may differ depending on the
+implementation of the read-eval-print loop.  In the standard interactive
+interpreter, an entirely blank logical line (i.e. one containing not even
+whitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line statement.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="indentation">
+<span id="id6"></span><h3>2.1.8. Indentation<a class="headerlink" href="#indentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-8">Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a logical line is used
+to compute the indentation level of the line, which in turn is used to determine
+the grouping of statements.</p>
+<p>Tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces such that the
+total number of characters up to and including the replacement is a multiple of
+eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by Unix).  The total number
+of spaces preceding the first non-blank character then determines the line’s
+indentation.  Indentation cannot be split over multiple physical lines using
+backslashes; the whitespace up to the first backslash determines the
+indentation.</p>
+<p>Indentation is rejected as inconsistent if a source file mixes tabs and spaces
+in a way that makes the meaning dependent on the worth of a tab in spaces; a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TabError" title="TabError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TabError</span></code></a> is raised in that case.</p>
+<p><strong>Cross-platform compatibility note:</strong> because of the nature of text editors on
+non-UNIX platforms, it is unwise to use a mixture of spaces and tabs for the
+indentation in a single source file.  It should also be noted that different
+platforms may explicitly limit the maximum indentation level.</p>
+<p>A formfeed character may be present at the start of the line; it will be ignored
+for the indentation calculations above.  Formfeed characters occurring elsewhere
+in the leading whitespace have an undefined effect (for instance, they may reset
+the space count to zero).</p>
+<p id="index-9">The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT and
+DEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows.</p>
+<p>Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on the stack;
+this will never be popped off again.  The numbers pushed on the stack will
+always be strictly increasing from bottom to top.  At the beginning of each
+logical line, the line’s indentation level is compared to the top of the stack.
+If it is equal, nothing happens. If it is larger, it is pushed on the stack, and
+one INDENT token is generated.  If it is smaller, it <em>must</em> be one of the
+numbers occurring on the stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger are
+popped off, and for each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated.  At the
+end of the file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on the
+stack that is larger than zero.</p>
+<p>Here is an example of a correctly (though confusingly) indented piece of Python
+code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">perm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Compute the list of all permutations of l</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                  <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+             <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+             <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">perm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+             <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="p">:</span>
+              <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">r</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following example shows various indentation errors:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">perm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">):</span>                       <span class="c1"># error: first line indented</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)):</span>             <span class="c1"># error: not indented</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">perm</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:])</span>   <span class="c1"># error: unexpected indent</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                <span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">r</span>                <span class="c1"># error: inconsistent dedent</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the last
+error is found by the lexical analyzer — the indentation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">r</span></code> does
+not match a level popped off the stack.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="whitespace-between-tokens">
+<span id="whitespace"></span><h3>2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens<a class="headerlink" href="#whitespace-between-tokens" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the whitespace
+characters space, tab and formfeed can be used interchangeably to separate
+tokens.  Whitespace is needed between two tokens only if their concatenation
+could otherwise be interpreted as a different token (e.g., ab is one token, but
+a b is two tokens).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-tokens">
+<span id="id7"></span><h2>2.2. Other tokens<a class="headerlink" href="#other-tokens" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Besides NEWLINE, INDENT and DEDENT, the following categories of tokens exist:
+<em>identifiers</em>, <em>keywords</em>, <em>literals</em>, <em>operators</em>, and <em>delimiters</em>. Whitespace
+characters (other than line terminators, discussed earlier) are not tokens, but
+serve to delimit tokens. Where ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longest
+possible string that forms a legal token, when read from left to right.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="identifiers">
+<span id="identifiers-and-keywords"></span><h2>2.3. Identifiers and keywords<a class="headerlink" href="#identifiers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-10">Identifiers (also referred to as <em>names</em>) are described by the following lexical
+definitions.</p>
+<p>The syntax of identifiers in Python is based on the Unicode standard annex
+UAX-31, with elaboration and changes as defined below; see also <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3131"><strong>PEP 3131</strong></a> for
+further details.</p>
+<p>Within the ASCII range (U+0001..U+007F), the valid characters for identifiers
+are the same as in Python 2.x: the uppercase and lowercase letters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> through
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Z</span></code>, the underscore <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> and, except for the first character, the digits
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Python 3.0 introduces additional characters from outside the ASCII range (see
+<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3131"><strong>PEP 3131</strong></a>).  For these characters, the classification uses the version of the
+Unicode Character Database as included in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Identifiers are unlimited in length.  Case is significant.</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-identifier">identifier  </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-xid-start"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xid_start</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-xid-continue"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xid_continue</span></code></a>*
+<strong id="grammar-token-id-start">id_start    </strong> ::=  &lt;all characters in general categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, Nl, the underscore, and characters with the Other_ID_Start property&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-id-continue">id_continue </strong> ::=  &lt;all characters in <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-id-start"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id_start</span></code></a>, plus characters in the categories Mn, Mc, Nd, Pc and others with the Other_ID_Continue property&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-xid-start">xid_start   </strong> ::=  &lt;all characters in <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-id-start"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id_start</span></code></a> whose NFKC normalization is in &quot;id_start xid_continue*&quot;&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-xid-continue">xid_continue</strong> ::=  &lt;all characters in <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-id-continue"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id_continue</span></code></a> whose NFKC normalization is in &quot;id_continue*&quot;&gt;
+</pre>
+<p>The Unicode category codes mentioned above stand for:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>Lu</em> - uppercase letters</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Ll</em> - lowercase letters</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Lt</em> - titlecase letters</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Lm</em> - modifier letters</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Lo</em> - other letters</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Nl</em> - letter numbers</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Mn</em> - nonspacing marks</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Mc</em> - spacing combining marks</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Nd</em> - decimal numbers</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Pc</em> - connector punctuations</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Other_ID_Start</em> - explicit list of characters in <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt">PropList.txt</a> to support backwards
+compatibility</p></li>
+<li><p><em>Other_ID_Continue</em> - likewise</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>All identifiers are converted into the normal form NFKC while parsing; comparison
+of identifiers is based on NFKC.</p>
+<p>A non-normative HTML file listing all valid identifier characters for Unicode
+4.1 can be found at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.dcl.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/home/loewis/table-3131.html">https://www.dcl.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/home/loewis/table-3131.html</a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="keywords">
+<span id="id8"></span><h3>2.3.1. Keywords<a class="headerlink" href="#keywords" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-13">The following identifiers are used as reserved words, or <em>keywords</em> of the
+language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers.  They must be spelled
+exactly as written here:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>False      await      else       import     pass
+None       break      except     in         raise
+True       class      finally    is         return
+and        continue   for        lambda     try
+as         def        from       nonlocal   while
+assert     del        global     not        with
+async      elif       if         or         yield
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reserved-classes-of-identifiers">
+<span id="id-classes"></span><span id="index-14"></span><h3>2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers<a class="headerlink" href="#reserved-classes-of-identifiers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Certain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special meanings.  These
+classes are identified by the patterns of leading and trailing underscore
+characters:</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_*</span></code></dt><dd><p>Not imported by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.  The special identifier <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> is used
+in the interactive interpreter to store the result of the last evaluation; it is
+stored in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module.  When not in interactive mode, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code>
+has no special meaning and is not defined. See section <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><span class="std std-ref">The import statement</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code> is often used in conjunction with internationalization;
+refer to the documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gettext.html#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> module for more
+information on this convention.</p>
+</div>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__*__</span></code></dt><dd><p>System-defined names. These names are defined by the interpreter and its
+implementation (including the standard library).  Current system names are
+discussed in the <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#specialnames"><span class="std std-ref">Special method names</span></a> section and elsewhere.  More will likely
+be defined in future versions of Python.  <em>Any</em> use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__*__</span></code> names, in
+any context, that does not follow explicitly documented use, is subject to
+breakage without warning.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__*</span></code></dt><dd><p>Class-private names.  Names in this category, when used within the context of a
+class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form to help avoid name
+clashes between “private” attributes of base and derived classes. See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#atom-identifiers"><span class="std std-ref">Identifiers (Names)</span></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="literals">
+<span id="id9"></span><h2>2.4. Literals<a class="headerlink" href="#literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-15">Literals are notations for constant values of some built-in types.</p>
+<div class="section" id="string-and-bytes-literals">
+<span id="strings"></span><span id="index-16"></span><h3>2.4.1. String and Bytes literals<a class="headerlink" href="#string-and-bytes-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-stringliteral">stringliteral  </strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-stringprefix"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprefix</span></code></a>](<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortstring"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortstring</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longstring"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longstring</span></code></a>)
+<strong id="grammar-token-stringprefix">stringprefix   </strong> ::=  &quot;r&quot; | &quot;u&quot; | &quot;R&quot; | &quot;U&quot; | &quot;f&quot; | &quot;F&quot;
+                     | &quot;fr&quot; | &quot;Fr&quot; | &quot;fR&quot; | &quot;FR&quot; | &quot;rf&quot; | &quot;rF&quot; | &quot;Rf&quot; | &quot;RF&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-shortstring">shortstring    </strong> ::=  &quot;'&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortstringitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortstringitem</span></code></a>* &quot;'&quot; | '&quot;' <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortstringitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortstringitem</span></code></a>* '&quot;'
+<strong id="grammar-token-longstring">longstring     </strong> ::=  &quot;'''&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longstringitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longstringitem</span></code></a>* &quot;'''&quot; | '&quot;&quot;&quot;' <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longstringitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longstringitem</span></code></a>* '&quot;&quot;&quot;'
+<strong id="grammar-token-shortstringitem">shortstringitem</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortstringchar"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortstringchar</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-stringescapeseq"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringescapeseq</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-longstringitem">longstringitem </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longstringchar"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longstringchar</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-stringescapeseq"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringescapeseq</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-shortstringchar">shortstringchar</strong> ::=  &lt;any source character except &quot;\&quot; or newline or the quote&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-longstringchar">longstringchar </strong> ::=  &lt;any source character except &quot;\&quot;&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-stringescapeseq">stringescapeseq</strong> ::=  &quot;\&quot; &lt;any source character&gt;
+</pre>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-bytesliteral">bytesliteral  </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-bytesprefix"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytesprefix</span></code></a>(<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortbytes"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortbytes</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longbytes"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longbytes</span></code></a>)
+<strong id="grammar-token-bytesprefix">bytesprefix   </strong> ::=  &quot;b&quot; | &quot;B&quot; | &quot;br&quot; | &quot;Br&quot; | &quot;bR&quot; | &quot;BR&quot; | &quot;rb&quot; | &quot;rB&quot; | &quot;Rb&quot; | &quot;RB&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-shortbytes">shortbytes    </strong> ::=  &quot;'&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortbytesitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortbytesitem</span></code></a>* &quot;'&quot; | '&quot;' <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortbytesitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortbytesitem</span></code></a>* '&quot;'
+<strong id="grammar-token-longbytes">longbytes     </strong> ::=  &quot;'''&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longbytesitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longbytesitem</span></code></a>* &quot;'''&quot; | '&quot;&quot;&quot;' <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longbytesitem"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longbytesitem</span></code></a>* '&quot;&quot;&quot;'
+<strong id="grammar-token-shortbytesitem">shortbytesitem</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-shortbyteschar"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shortbyteschar</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-bytesescapeseq"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytesescapeseq</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-longbytesitem">longbytesitem </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-longbyteschar"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longbyteschar</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-bytesescapeseq"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytesescapeseq</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-shortbyteschar">shortbyteschar</strong> ::=  &lt;any ASCII character except &quot;\&quot; or newline or the quote&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-longbyteschar">longbyteschar </strong> ::=  &lt;any ASCII character except &quot;\&quot;&gt;
+<strong id="grammar-token-bytesescapeseq">bytesescapeseq</strong> ::=  &quot;\&quot; &lt;any ASCII character&gt;
+</pre>
+<p>One syntactic restriction not indicated by these productions is that whitespace
+is not allowed between the <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-stringprefix"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprefix</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-bytesprefix"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytesprefix</span></code></a> and the
+rest of the literal. The source character set is defined by the encoding
+declaration; it is UTF-8 if no encoding declaration is given in the source file;
+see section <a class="reference internal" href="#encodings"><span class="std std-ref">Encoding declarations</span></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-17">In plain English: Both types of literals can be enclosed in matching single quotes
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span></code>) or double quotes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>).  They can also be enclosed in matching groups
+of three single or double quotes (these are generally referred to as
+<em>triple-quoted strings</em>).  The backslash (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code>) character is used to escape
+characters that otherwise have a special meaning, such as newline, backslash
+itself, or the quote character.</p>
+<p id="index-18">Bytes literals are always prefixed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'B'</span></code>; they produce an
+instance of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> type instead of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type.  They
+may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of 128 or greater
+must be expressed with escapes.</p>
+<p id="index-19">Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'R'</span></code>; such strings are called <em class="dfn">raw strings</em> and treat backslashes as
+literal characters.  As a result, in string literals, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\U'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\u'</span></code>
+escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. Given that Python 2.x’s raw
+unicode literals behave differently than Python 3.x’s the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ur'</span></code> syntax
+is not supported.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code> prefix of raw bytes literals has been added as a synonym
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'br'</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>Support for the unicode legacy literal (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u'value'</span></code>) was reintroduced
+to simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases.
+See <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0414"><strong>PEP 414</strong></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-21">A string literal with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code> in its prefix is a
+<em class="dfn">formatted string literal</em>; see <a class="reference internal" href="#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Formatted string literals</span></a>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> may be
+combined with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code>, but not with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code>, therefore raw
+formatted strings are possible, but formatted bytes literals are not.</p>
+<p>In triple-quoted literals, unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed (and are
+retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the literal.  (A
+“quote” is the character used to open the literal, i.e. either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>.)</p>
+<p id="index-22">Unless an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'R'</span></code> prefix is present, escape sequences in string and
+bytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those used by
+Standard C.  The recognized escape sequences are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Escape Sequence</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\newline</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Backslash and newline ignored</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\\</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Backslash (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\'</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Single quote (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\&quot;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Double quote (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\a</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII Bell (BEL)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII Backspace (BS)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\f</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII Formfeed (FF)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII Linefeed (LF)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII Carriage Return (CR)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\t</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\v</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>ASCII Vertical Tab (VT)</p></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\ooo</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character with octal value
+<em>ooo</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(1,3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\xhh</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character with hex value <em>hh</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(2,3)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Escape sequences only recognized in string literals are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 58%" />
+<col style="width: 12%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Escape Sequence</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{name}</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character named <em>name</em> in the
+Unicode database</p></td>
+<td><p>(4)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\uxxxx</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character with 16-bit hex value
+<em>xxxx</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(5)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\Uxxxxxxxx</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character with 32-bit hex value
+<em>xxxxxxxx</em></p></td>
+<td><p>(6)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Notes:</p>
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li><p>As in Standard C, up to three octal digits are accepted.</p></li>
+<li><p>Unlike in Standard C, exactly two hex digits are required.</p></li>
+<li><p>In a bytes literal, hexadecimal and octal escapes denote the byte with the
+given value. In a string literal, these escapes denote a Unicode character
+with the given value.</p></li>
+<li><div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span>Support for name aliases <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id13" id="id10">1</a> has been added.</p>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Exactly four hex digits are required.</p></li>
+<li><p>Any Unicode character can be encoded this way.  Exactly eight hex digits
+are required.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p id="index-23">Unlike Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the string
+unchanged, i.e., <em>the backslash is left in the result</em>.  (This behavior is
+useful when debugging: if an escape sequence is mistyped, the resulting output
+is more easily recognized as broken.)  It is also important to note that the
+escape sequences only recognized in string literals fall into the category of
+unrecognized escapes for bytes literals.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Unrecognized escape sequences produce a DeprecationWarning.  In
+some future version of Python they will be a SyntaxError.</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Even in a raw literal, quotes can be escaped with a backslash, but the
+backslash remains in the result; for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\&quot;&quot;</span></code> is a valid string
+literal consisting of two characters: a backslash and a double quote; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r&quot;\&quot;</span></code>
+is not a valid string literal (even a raw string cannot end in an odd number of
+backslashes).  Specifically, <em>a raw literal cannot end in a single backslash</em>
+(since the backslash would escape the following quote character).  Note also
+that a single backslash followed by a newline is interpreted as those two
+characters as part of the literal, <em>not</em> as a line continuation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="string-literal-concatenation">
+<span id="string-concatenation"></span><h3>2.4.2. String literal concatenation<a class="headerlink" href="#string-literal-concatenation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Multiple adjacent string or bytes literals (delimited by whitespace), possibly
+using different quoting conventions, are allowed, and their meaning is the same
+as their concatenation.  Thus, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;hello&quot;</span> <span class="pre">'world'</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;helloworld&quot;</span></code>.  This feature can be used to reduce the number of backslashes
+needed, to split long strings conveniently across long lines, or even to add
+comments to parts of strings, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;[A-Za-z_]&quot;</span>       <span class="c1"># letter or underscore</span>
+           <span class="s2">&quot;[A-Za-z0-9_]*&quot;</span>   <span class="c1"># letter, digit or underscore</span>
+          <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that this feature is defined at the syntactical level, but implemented at
+compile time.  The ‘+’ operator must be used to concatenate string expressions
+at run time.  Also note that literal concatenation can use different quoting
+styles for each component (even mixing raw strings and triple quoted strings),
+and formatted string literals may be concatenated with plain string literals.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="formatted-string-literals">
+<span id="f-strings"></span><span id="index-24"></span><h3>2.4.3. Formatted string literals<a class="headerlink" href="#formatted-string-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>A <em class="dfn">formatted string literal</em> or <em class="dfn">f-string</em> is a string literal
+that is prefixed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'F'</span></code>.  These strings may contain
+replacement fields, which are expressions delimited by curly braces <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>.
+While other string literals always have a constant value, formatted strings
+are really expressions evaluated at run time.</p>
+<p>Escape sequences are decoded like in ordinary string literals (except when
+a literal is also marked as a raw string).  After decoding, the grammar
+for the contents of the string is:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-f-string">f_string         </strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-literal-char"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">literal_char</span></code></a> | &quot;{{&quot; | &quot;}}&quot; | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-replacement-field"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replacement_field</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-replacement-field">replacement_field</strong> ::=  &quot;{&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-f-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_expression</span></code></a> [&quot;!&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-conversion"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conversion</span></code></a>] [&quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-format-spec"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_spec</span></code></a>] &quot;}&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-f-expression">f_expression     </strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-conditional-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conditional_expression</span></code></a> | &quot;*&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-or-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_expr</span></code></a>)
+                         (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-conditional-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conditional_expression</span></code></a> | &quot;,&quot; &quot;*&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-or-expr"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or_expr</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot;]
+                       | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-yield-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_expression</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-conversion">conversion       </strong> ::=  &quot;s&quot; | &quot;r&quot; | &quot;a&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-format-spec">format_spec      </strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-literal-char"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">literal_char</span></code></a> | NULL | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-replacement-field"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replacement_field</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-literal-char">literal_char     </strong> ::=  &lt;any code point except &quot;{&quot;, &quot;}&quot; or NULL&gt;
+</pre>
+<p>The parts of the string outside curly braces are treated literally,
+except that any doubled curly braces <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{{'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'}}'</span></code> are replaced
+with the corresponding single curly brace.  A single opening curly
+bracket <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{'</span></code> marks a replacement field, which starts with a
+Python expression.  After the expression, there may be a conversion field,
+introduced by an exclamation point <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!'</span></code>.  A format specifier may also
+be appended, introduced by a colon <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>.  A replacement field ends
+with a closing curly bracket <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'}'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular
+Python expressions surrounded by parentheses, with a few exceptions.
+An empty expression is not allowed, and a <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expression
+must be surrounded by explicit parentheses.  Replacement expressions
+can contain line breaks (e.g. in triple-quoted strings), but they
+cannot contain comments.  Each expression is evaluated in the context
+where the formatted string literal appears, in order from left to right.</p>
+<p>If a conversion is specified, the result of evaluating the expression
+is converted before formatting.  Conversion <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!s'</span></code> calls <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> on
+the result, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!r'</span></code> calls <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!a'</span></code> calls <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The result is then formatted using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> protocol.  The
+format specifier is passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a> method of the
+expression or conversion result.  An empty string is passed when the
+format specifier is omitted.  The formatted result is then included in
+the final value of the whole string.</p>
+<p>Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields. These nested
+fields may include their own conversion fields and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatspec"><span class="std std-ref">format specifiers</span></a>, but may not include more deeply-nested replacement fields. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatspec"><span class="std std-ref">format specifier mini-language</span></a> is the same as that used by
+the string .format() method.</p>
+<p>Formatted string literals may be concatenated, but replacement fields
+cannot be split across literals.</p>
+<p>Some examples of formatted string literals:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Fred&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;He said his name is </span><span class="si">{name!r}</span><span class="s2">.&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;He said his name is &#39;Fred&#39;.&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;He said his name is {repr(name)}.&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># repr() is equivalent to !r</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;He said his name is &#39;Fred&#39;.&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">precision</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;12.34567&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;result: {value:</span><span class="si">{width}</span><span class="s2">.</span><span class="si">{precision}</span><span class="s2">}&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># nested fields</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;result:      12.35&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">today</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2017</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">month</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">day</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">27</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;{today:%B </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">, %Y}&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># using date format specifier</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;January 27, 2017&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1024</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{number:#0x}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># using integer format specifier</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x400&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A consequence of sharing the same syntax as regular string literals is
+that characters in the replacement fields must not conflict with the
+quoting used in the outer formatted string literal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;abc </span><span class="si">{a[&quot;x&quot;]}</span><span class="s2"> def&quot;</span>    <span class="c1"># error: outer string literal ended prematurely</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;abc </span><span class="si">{a[&#39;x&#39;]}</span><span class="s2"> def&quot;</span>    <span class="c1"># workaround: use different quoting</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Backslashes are not allowed in format expressions and will raise
+an error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;newline: {ord(&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&#39;)}&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># raises SyntaxError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To include a value in which a backslash escape is required, create
+a temporary variable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">newline</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;newline: </span><span class="si">{newline}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;newline: 10&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings, even if they do not
+include expressions.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;Not a docstring&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See also <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498"><strong>PEP 498</strong></a> for the proposal that added formatted string literals,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>, which uses a related format string mechanism.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="numeric-literals">
+<span id="numbers"></span><h3>2.4.4. Numeric literals<a class="headerlink" href="#numeric-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-26">There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating point numbers, and
+imaginary numbers.  There are no complex literals (complex numbers can be formed
+by adding a real number and an imaginary number).</p>
+<p>Note that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> is
+actually an expression composed of the unary operator ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>‘ and the literal
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="integer-literals">
+<span id="integers"></span><span id="index-27"></span><h3>2.4.5. Integer literals<a class="headerlink" href="#integer-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-integer">integer     </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-decinteger"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decinteger</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-bininteger"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bininteger</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-octinteger"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">octinteger</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-hexinteger"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexinteger</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-decinteger">decinteger  </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-nonzerodigit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonzerodigit</span></code></a> ([&quot;_&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a>)* | &quot;0&quot;+ ([&quot;_&quot;] &quot;0&quot;)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-bininteger">bininteger  </strong> ::=  &quot;0&quot; (&quot;b&quot; | &quot;B&quot;) ([&quot;_&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-bindigit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bindigit</span></code></a>)+
+<strong id="grammar-token-octinteger">octinteger  </strong> ::=  &quot;0&quot; (&quot;o&quot; | &quot;O&quot;) ([&quot;_&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-octdigit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">octdigit</span></code></a>)+
+<strong id="grammar-token-hexinteger">hexinteger  </strong> ::=  &quot;0&quot; (&quot;x&quot; | &quot;X&quot;) ([&quot;_&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-hexdigit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexdigit</span></code></a>)+
+<strong id="grammar-token-nonzerodigit">nonzerodigit</strong> ::=  &quot;1&quot;...&quot;9&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-digit">digit       </strong> ::=  &quot;0&quot;...&quot;9&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-bindigit">bindigit    </strong> ::=  &quot;0&quot; | &quot;1&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-octdigit">octdigit    </strong> ::=  &quot;0&quot;...&quot;7&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-hexdigit">hexdigit    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a> | &quot;a&quot;...&quot;f&quot; | &quot;A&quot;...&quot;F&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can be
+stored in available memory.</p>
+<p>Underscores are ignored for determining the numeric value of the literal.  They
+can be used to group digits for enhanced readability.  One underscore can occur
+between digits, and after base specifiers like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed. This is
+for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python used before version
+3.0.</p>
+<p>Some examples of integer literals:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">7</span>     <span class="mi">2147483647</span>                        <span class="mo">0o177</span>    <span class="mb">0b100110111</span>
+<span class="mi">3</span>     <span class="mi">79228162514264337593543950336</span>     <span class="mo">0o377</span>    <span class="mh">0xdeadbeef</span>
+      <span class="mi">100_000_000_000</span>                   <span class="mb">0b_1110_0101</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="floating-point-literals">
+<span id="floating"></span><span id="index-28"></span><h3>2.4.6. Floating point literals<a class="headerlink" href="#floating-point-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Floating point literals are described by the following lexical definitions:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-floatnumber">floatnumber  </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-pointfloat"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointfloat</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-exponentfloat"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exponentfloat</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-pointfloat">pointfloat   </strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digitpart"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digitpart</span></code></a>] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-fraction"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fraction</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digitpart"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digitpart</span></code></a> &quot;.&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-exponentfloat">exponentfloat</strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digitpart"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digitpart</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-pointfloat"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pointfloat</span></code></a>) <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-exponent"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exponent</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-digitpart">digitpart    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a> ([&quot;_&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digit"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digit</span></code></a>)*
+<strong id="grammar-token-fraction">fraction     </strong> ::=  &quot;.&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digitpart"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digitpart</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-exponent">exponent     </strong> ::=  (&quot;e&quot; | &quot;E&quot;) [&quot;+&quot; | &quot;-&quot;] <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digitpart"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digitpart</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>Note that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using radix 10.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">077e010</span></code> is legal, and denotes the same number as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">77e10</span></code>. The
+allowed range of floating point literals is implementation-dependent.  As in
+integer literals, underscores are supported for digit grouping.</p>
+<p>Some examples of floating point literals:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">3.14</span>    <span class="mf">10.</span>    <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">001</span>    <span class="mf">1e100</span>    <span class="mf">3.14e-10</span>    <span class="mf">0e0</span>    <span class="mf">3.14_15_93</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="imaginary-literals">
+<span id="imaginary"></span><span id="index-29"></span><h3>2.4.7. Imaginary literals<a class="headerlink" href="#imaginary-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definitions:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-imagnumber">imagnumber</strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-floatnumber"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floatnumber</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-digitpart"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digitpart</span></code></a>) (&quot;j&quot; | &quot;J&quot;)
+</pre>
+<p>An imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0.  Complex
+numbers are represented as a pair of floating point numbers and have the same
+restrictions on their range.  To create a complex number with a nonzero real
+part, add a floating point number to it, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(3+4j)</span></code>.  Some examples of
+imaginary literals:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">3.14</span><span class="n">j</span>   <span class="mf">10.</span><span class="n">j</span>    <span class="mi">10</span><span class="n">j</span>     <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">001</span><span class="n">j</span>   <span class="mf">1e100j</span>   <span class="mf">3.14e-10</span><span class="n">j</span>   <span class="mf">3.14_15_93</span><span class="n">j</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="operators">
+<span id="id11"></span><h2>2.5. Operators<a class="headerlink" href="#operators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-30">The following tokens are operators:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>+       -       *       **      /       //      %      @
+&lt;&lt;      &gt;&gt;      &amp;       |       ^       ~
+&lt;       &gt;       &lt;=      &gt;=      ==      !=
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="delimiters">
+<span id="id12"></span><h2>2.6. Delimiters<a class="headerlink" href="#delimiters" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-31">The following tokens serve as delimiters in the grammar:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>(       )       [       ]       {       }
+,       :       .       ;       @       =       -&gt;
++=      -=      *=      /=      //=     %=      @=
+&amp;=      |=      ^=      &gt;&gt;=     &lt;&lt;=     **=
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The period can also occur in floating-point and imaginary literals.  A sequence
+of three periods has a special meaning as an ellipsis literal. The second half
+of the list, the augmented assignment operators, serve lexically as delimiters,
+but also perform an operation.</p>
+<p>The following printing ASCII characters have special meaning as part of other
+tokens or are otherwise significant to the lexical analyzer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>&#39;       &quot;       #       \
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following printing ASCII characters are not used in Python.  Their
+occurrence outside string literals and comments is an unconditional error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>$       ?       `
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id13"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id10">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt">http://www.unicode.org/Public/11.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt</a></p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">2. Lexical analysis</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#line-structure">2.1. Line structure</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logical-lines">2.1.1. Logical lines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#physical-lines">2.1.2. Physical lines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comments">2.1.3. Comments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#encoding-declarations">2.1.4. Encoding declarations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#explicit-line-joining">2.1.5. Explicit line joining</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#implicit-line-joining">2.1.6. Implicit line joining</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#blank-lines">2.1.7. Blank lines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#indentation">2.1.8. Indentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#whitespace-between-tokens">2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-tokens">2.2. Other tokens</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#identifiers">2.3. Identifiers and keywords</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#keywords">2.3.1. Keywords</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reserved-classes-of-identifiers">2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#literals">2.4. Literals</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-and-bytes-literals">2.4.1. String and Bytes literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-literal-concatenation">2.4.2. String literal concatenation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formatted-string-literals">2.4.3. Formatted string literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numeric-literals">2.4.4. Numeric literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#integer-literals">2.4.5. Integer literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#floating-point-literals">2.4.6. Floating point literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#imaginary-literals">2.4.7. Imaginary literals</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operators">2.5. Operators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#delimiters">2.6. Delimiters</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="introduction.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">1. Introduction</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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@@ -0,0 +1,903 @@
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+
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="simple-statements">
+<span id="simple"></span><h1>7. Simple statements<a class="headerlink" href="#simple-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">A simple statement is comprised within a single logical line. Several simple
+statements may occur on a single line separated by semicolons.  The syntax for
+simple statements is:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-simple-stmt">simple_stmt</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-expression-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-assert-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-assignment-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assignment_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-augmented-assignment-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">augmented_assignment_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-annotated-assignment-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">annotated_assignment_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-pass-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-del-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-return-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-yield-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-raise-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-break-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-continue-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-import-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-future-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">future_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-global-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global_stmt</span></code></a>
+                 | <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-nonlocal-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal_stmt</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<div class="section" id="expression-statements">
+<span id="exprstmts"></span><h2>7.1. Expression statements<a class="headerlink" href="#expression-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><p id="index-2">Expression statements are used (mostly interactively) to compute and write a
+value, or (usually) to call a procedure (a function that returns no meaningful
+result; in Python, procedures return the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).  Other uses of
+expression statements are allowed and occasionally useful.  The syntax for an
+expression statement is:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-expression-stmt">expression_stmt</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-starred-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_expression</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>An expression statement evaluates the expression list (which may be a single
+expression).</p>
+<p id="index-3">In interactive mode, if the value is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it is converted to a string
+using the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function and the resulting string is written to
+standard output on a line by itself (except if the result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, so that
+procedure calls do not cause any output.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="assignment-statements">
+<span id="assignment"></span><h2>7.2. Assignment statements<a class="headerlink" href="#assignment-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-4">Assignment statements are used to (re)bind names to values and to modify
+attributes or items of mutable objects:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-assignment-stmt">assignment_stmt</strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-target-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target_list</span></code></a> &quot;=&quot;)+ (<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-starred-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starred_expression</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-yield-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_expression</span></code></a>)
+<strong id="grammar-token-target-list">target_list    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-target"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-target"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code></a>)* [&quot;,&quot;]
+<strong id="grammar-token-target">target         </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>
+                     | &quot;(&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-target-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target_list</span></code></a>] &quot;)&quot;
+                     | &quot;[&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-target-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target_list</span></code></a>] &quot;]&quot;
+                     | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-attributeref"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attributeref</span></code></a>
+                     | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-subscription"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subscription</span></code></a>
+                     | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-slicing"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slicing</span></code></a>
+                     | &quot;*&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-target"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>(See section <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#primaries"><span class="std std-ref">Primaries</span></a> for the syntax definitions for <em>attributeref</em>,
+<em>subscription</em>, and <em>slicing</em>.)</p>
+<p>An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that this can be
+a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter yielding a tuple) and
+assigns the single resulting object to each of the target lists, from left to
+right.</p>
+<p id="index-5">Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target (list).
+When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute reference, subscription
+or slicing), the mutable object must ultimately perform the assignment and
+decide about its validity, and may raise an exception if the assignment is
+unacceptable.  The rules observed by various types and the exceptions raised are
+given with the definition of the object types (see section <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#types"><span class="std std-ref">The standard type hierarchy</span></a>).</p>
+<p id="index-6">Assignment of an object to a target list, optionally enclosed in parentheses or
+square brackets, is recursively defined as follows.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the target list is a single target with no trailing comma,
+optionally in parentheses, the object is assigned to that target.</p></li>
+<li><p>Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of
+items as there are targets in the target list, and the items are assigned,
+from left to right, to the corresponding targets.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>If the target list contains one target prefixed with an asterisk, called a
+“starred” target: The object must be an iterable with at least as many items
+as there are targets in the target list, minus one.  The first items of the
+iterable are assigned, from left to right, to the targets before the starred
+target.  The final items of the iterable are assigned to the targets after
+the starred target.  A list of the remaining items in the iterable is then
+assigned to the starred target (the list can be empty).</p></li>
+<li><p>Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of items as there
+are targets in the target list, and the items are assigned, from left to
+right, to the corresponding targets.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Assignment of an object to a single target is recursively defined as follows.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>If the target is an identifier (name):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the name does not occur in a <a class="reference internal" href="#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a>
+statement in the current code block: the name is bound to the object in the
+current local namespace.</p></li>
+<li><p>Otherwise: the name is bound to the object in the global namespace or the
+outer namespace determined by <a class="reference internal" href="#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a>, respectively.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p id="index-7">The name is rebound if it was already bound.  This may cause the reference
+count for the object previously bound to the name to reach zero, causing the
+object to be deallocated and its destructor (if it has one) to be called.</p>
+</li>
+<li id="index-8"><p>If the target is an attribute reference: The primary expression in the
+reference is evaluated.  It should yield an object with assignable attributes;
+if this is not the case, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> is raised.  That object is then
+asked to assign the assigned object to the given attribute; if it cannot
+perform the assignment, it raises an exception (usually but not necessarily
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p id="attr-target-note">Note: If the object is a class instance and the attribute reference occurs on
+both sides of the assignment operator, the RHS expression, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.x</span></code> can access
+either an instance attribute or (if no instance attribute exists) a class
+attribute.  The LHS target <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.x</span></code> is always set as an instance attribute,
+creating it if necessary.  Thus, the two occurrences of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.x</span></code> do not
+necessarily refer to the same attribute: if the RHS expression refers to a
+class attribute, the LHS creates a new instance attribute as the target of the
+assignment:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Cls</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>             <span class="c1"># class variable</span>
+<span class="n">inst</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Cls</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">inst</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">inst</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>   <span class="c1"># writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This description does not necessarily apply to descriptor attributes, such as
+properties created with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li id="index-9"><p>If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the reference is
+evaluated.  It should yield either a mutable sequence object (such as a list)
+or a mapping object (such as a dictionary).  Next, the subscript expression is
+evaluated.</p>
+<p id="index-10">If the primary is a mutable sequence object (such as a list), the subscript
+must yield an integer.  If it is negative, the sequence’s length is added to
+it.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the
+sequence’s length, and the sequence is asked to assign the assigned object to
+its item with that index.  If the index is out of range, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> is
+raised (assignment to a subscripted sequence cannot add new items to a list).</p>
+<p id="index-11">If the primary is a mapping object (such as a dictionary), the subscript must
+have a type compatible with the mapping’s key type, and the mapping is then
+asked to create a key/datum pair which maps the subscript to the assigned
+object.  This can either replace an existing key/value pair with the same key
+value, or insert a new key/value pair (if no key with the same value existed).</p>
+<p>For user-defined objects, the <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a> method is called with
+appropriate arguments.</p>
+</li>
+<li id="index-12"><p>If the target is a slicing: The primary expression in the reference is
+evaluated.  It should yield a mutable sequence object (such as a list).  The
+assigned object should be a sequence object of the same type.  Next, the lower
+and upper bound expressions are evaluated, insofar they are present; defaults
+are zero and the sequence’s length.  The bounds should evaluate to integers.
+If either bound is negative, the sequence’s length is added to it.  The
+resulting bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence’s length,
+inclusive.  Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the slice with
+the items of the assigned sequence.  The length of the slice may be different
+from the length of the assigned sequence, thus changing the length of the
+target sequence, if the target sequence allows it.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> In the current implementation, the syntax for targets is taken to be the same
+as for expressions, and invalid syntax is rejected during the code generation
+phase, causing less detailed error messages.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Although the definition of assignment implies that overlaps between the
+left-hand side and the right-hand side are ‘simultaneous’ (for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">a</span></code> swaps two variables), overlaps <em>within</em> the collection of assigned-to
+variables occur left-to-right, sometimes resulting in confusion.  For instance,
+the following program prints <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[0,</span> <span class="pre">2]</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span>         <span class="c1"># i is updated, then x[i] is updated</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3132"><strong>PEP 3132</strong></a> - Extended Iterable Unpacking</dt><dd><p>The specification for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*target</span></code> feature.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="augmented-assignment-statements">
+<span id="augassign"></span><h3>7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements<a class="headerlink" href="#augmented-assignment-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-14">Augmented assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a binary
+operation and an assignment statement:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-augmented-assignment-stmt">augmented_assignment_stmt</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-augtarget"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">augtarget</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-augop"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">augop</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-yield-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_expression</span></code></a>)
+<strong id="grammar-token-augtarget">augtarget                </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-attributeref"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attributeref</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-subscription"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subscription</span></code></a> | <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-slicing"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slicing</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-augop">augop                    </strong> ::=  &quot;+=&quot; | &quot;-=&quot; | &quot;*=&quot; | &quot;&#64;=&quot; | &quot;/=&quot; | &quot;//=&quot; | &quot;%=&quot; | &quot;**=&quot;
+                               | &quot;&gt;&gt;=&quot; | &quot;&lt;&lt;=&quot; | &quot;&amp;=&quot; | &quot;^=&quot; | &quot;|=&quot;
+</pre>
+<p>(See section <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#primaries"><span class="std std-ref">Primaries</span></a> for the syntax definitions of the last three
+symbols.)</p>
+<p>An augmented assignment evaluates the target (which, unlike normal assignment
+statements, cannot be an unpacking) and the expression list, performs the binary
+operation specific to the type of assignment on the two operands, and assigns
+the result to the original target.  The target is only evaluated once.</p>
+<p>An augmented assignment expression like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> can be rewritten as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+</span>
+<span class="pre">1</span></code> to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect. In the augmented
+version, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is only evaluated once. Also, when possible, the actual operation
+is performed <em>in-place</em>, meaning that rather than creating a new object and
+assigning that to the target, the old object is modified instead.</p>
+<p>Unlike normal assignments, augmented assignments evaluate the left-hand side
+<em>before</em> evaluating the right-hand side.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i]</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">f(x)</span></code> first
+looks-up <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i]</span></code>, then it evaluates <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(x)</span></code> and performs the addition, and
+lastly, it writes the result back to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i]</span></code>.</p>
+<p>With the exception of assigning to tuples and multiple targets in a single
+statement, the assignment done by augmented assignment statements is handled the
+same way as normal assignments. Similarly, with the exception of the possible
+<em>in-place</em> behavior, the binary operation performed by augmented assignment is
+the same as the normal binary operations.</p>
+<p>For targets which are attribute references, the same <a class="reference internal" href="#attr-target-note"><span class="std std-ref">caveat about class
+and instance attributes</span></a> applies as for regular assignments.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="annotated-assignment-statements">
+<span id="annassign"></span><h3>7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements<a class="headerlink" href="#annotated-assignment-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-15"><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">Annotation</span></a> assignment is the combination, in a single
+statement, of a variable or attribute annotation and an optional assignment statement:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-annotated-assignment-stmt">annotated_assignment_stmt</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-augtarget"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">augtarget</span></code></a> &quot;:&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> [&quot;=&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>The difference from normal <a class="reference internal" href="#assignment"><span class="std std-ref">Assignment statements</span></a> is that only single target and
+only single right hand side value is allowed.</p>
+<p>For simple names as assignment targets, if in class or module scope,
+the annotations are evaluated and stored in a special class or module
+attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code>
+that is a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to
+evaluated annotations. This attribute is writable and is automatically
+created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations
+are found statically.</p>
+<p>For expressions as assignment targets, the annotations are evaluated if
+in class or module scope, but not stored.</p>
+<p>If a name is annotated in a function scope, then this name is local for
+that scope. Annotations are never evaluated and stored in function scopes.</p>
+<p>If the right hand side is present, an annotated
+assignment performs the actual assignment before evaluating annotations
+(where applicable). If the right hand side is not present for an expression
+target, then the interpreter evaluates the target except for the last
+<a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> call.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a> - Syntax for Variable Annotations</dt><dd><p>The proposal that added syntax for annotating the types of variables
+(including class variables and instance variables), instead of expressing
+them through comments.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> - Type hints</dt><dd><p>The proposal that added the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module to provide a standard
+syntax for type annotations that can be used in static analysis tools and
+IDEs.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-assert-statement">
+<span id="assert"></span><h2>7.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-assert-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-18">Assert statements are a convenient way to insert debugging assertions into a
+program:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-assert-stmt">assert_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;assert&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> [&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p>The simple form, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span> <span class="pre">expression</span></code>, is equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">__debug__</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">expression</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AssertionError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The extended form, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span> <span class="pre">expression1,</span> <span class="pre">expression2</span></code>, is equivalent to</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">__debug__</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">expression1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AssertionError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expression2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-19">These equivalences assume that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#__debug__" title="__debug__"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AssertionError" title="AssertionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AssertionError</span></code></a> refer to
+the built-in variables with those names.  In the current implementation, the
+built-in variable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#__debug__" title="__debug__"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code></a> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> under normal circumstances,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> when optimization is requested (command line option <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a>).  The current
+code generator emits no code for an assert statement when optimization is
+requested at compile time.  Note that it is unnecessary to include the source
+code for the expression that failed in the error message; it will be displayed
+as part of the stack trace.</p>
+<p>Assignments to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#__debug__" title="__debug__"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code></a> are illegal.  The value for the built-in variable
+is determined when the interpreter starts.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-pass-statement">
+<span id="pass"></span><h2>7.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-pass-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-20">
+<strong id="grammar-token-pass-stmt">pass_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;pass&quot;
+</pre>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#pass"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code></a> is a null operation — when it is executed, nothing happens.
+It is useful as a placeholder when a statement is required syntactically, but no
+code needs to be executed, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>    <span class="c1"># a function that does nothing (yet)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">pass</span>       <span class="c1"># a class with no methods (yet)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-del-statement">
+<span id="del"></span><h2>7.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-del-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-21">
+<strong id="grammar-token-del-stmt">del_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;del&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-target-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target_list</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>Deletion is recursively defined very similar to the way assignment is defined.
+Rather than spelling it out in full details, here are some hints.</p>
+<p>Deletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left to right.</p>
+<p id="index-22">Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or global
+namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a <a class="reference internal" href="#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement
+in the same code block.  If the name is unbound, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exception
+will be raised.</p>
+<p id="index-23">Deletion of attribute references, subscriptions and slicings is passed to the
+primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general equivalent to
+assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even this is determined by
+the sliced object).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it
+occurs as a free variable in a nested block.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-return-statement">
+<span id="return"></span><h2>7.6. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-return-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-24">
+<strong id="grammar-token-return-stmt">return_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;return&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a>]
+</pre>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> may only occur syntactically nested in a function definition,
+not within a nested class definition.</p>
+<p>If an expression list is present, it is evaluated, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is substituted.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> leaves the current function call with the expression list (or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) as return value.</p>
+<p id="index-25">When <a class="reference internal" href="#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> passes control out of a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause, that <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause is executed before
+really leaving the function.</p>
+<p>In a generator function, the <a class="reference internal" href="#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement indicates that the
+generator is done and will cause <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> to be raised. The returned
+value (if any) is used as an argument to construct <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> and
+becomes the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration.value</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<p>In an asynchronous generator function, an empty <a class="reference internal" href="#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement
+indicates that the asynchronous generator is done and will cause
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopAsyncIteration" title="StopAsyncIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopAsyncIteration</span></code></a> to be raised.  A non-empty <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code>
+statement is a syntax error in an asynchronous generator function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-yield-statement">
+<span id="yield"></span><h2>7.7. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-yield-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-26">
+<strong id="grammar-token-yield-stmt">yield_stmt</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-yield-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield_expression</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement is semantically equivalent to a <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#yieldexpr"><span class="std std-ref">yield
+expression</span></a>. The yield statement can be used to omit the parentheses
+that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield expression
+statement. For example, the yield statements</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">yield</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+<span class="k">yield from</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>are equivalent to the yield expression statements</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">yield</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="k">yield from</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">expr</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a>
+function, and are only used in the body of the generator function.  Using yield
+in a function definition is sufficient to cause that definition to create a
+generator function instead of a normal function.</p>
+<p>For full details of <a class="reference internal" href="#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> semantics, refer to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#yieldexpr"><span class="std std-ref">Yield expressions</span></a> section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-raise-statement">
+<span id="raise"></span><h2>7.8. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-raise-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-27">
+<strong id="grammar-token-raise-stmt">raise_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;raise&quot; [<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a> [&quot;from&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>]]
+</pre>
+<p>If no expressions are present, <a class="reference internal" href="#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> re-raises the last exception
+that was active in the current scope.  If no exception is active in the current
+scope, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> exception is raised indicating that this is an
+error.</p>
+<p>Otherwise, <a class="reference internal" href="#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> evaluates the first expression as the exception
+object.  It must be either a subclass or an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a>.
+If it is a class, the exception instance will be obtained when needed by
+instantiating the class with no arguments.</p>
+<p>The <em class="dfn">type</em> of the exception is the exception instance’s class, the
+<em class="dfn">value</em> is the instance itself.</p>
+<p id="index-28">A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception is raised
+and attached to it as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__traceback__</span></code> attribute, which is writable.
+You can create an exception and set your own traceback in one step using the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_traceback()</span></code> exception method (which returns the same exception
+instance, with its traceback set to its argument), like so:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo occurred&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_traceback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tracebackobj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-29">The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code> clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second
+<em>expression</em> must be another exception class or instance, which will then be
+attached to the raised exception as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> attribute (which is
+writable).  If the raised exception is not handled, both exceptions will be
+printed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Something bad happened&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">exc</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ZeroDivisionError</span>: <span class="n">division by zero</span>
+
+<span class="go">The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:</span>
+
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">4</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">RuntimeError</span>: <span class="n">Something bad happened</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A similar mechanism works implicitly if an exception is raised inside an
+exception handler or a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause: the previous exception is then
+attached as the new exception’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Something bad happened&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ZeroDivisionError</span>: <span class="n">division by zero</span>
+
+<span class="go">During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:</span>
+
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">4</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">RuntimeError</span>: <span class="n">Something bad happened</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> in
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code> clause:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Something bad happened&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">None</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">4</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">RuntimeError</span>: <span class="n">Something bad happened</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Additional information on exceptions can be found in section <a class="reference internal" href="executionmodel.html#exceptions"><span class="std std-ref">Exceptions</span></a>,
+and information about handling exceptions is in section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><span class="std std-ref">The try statement</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.3: </span><a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> is now permitted as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Y</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">X</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">Y</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__suppress_context__</span></code> attribute to suppress automatic display of the
+exception context.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-break-statement">
+<span id="break"></span><h2>7.9. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-break-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-30">
+<strong id="grammar-token-break-stmt">break_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;break&quot;
+</pre>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> may only occur syntactically nested in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> loop, but not nested in a function or class definition within
+that loop.</p>
+<p id="index-31">It terminates the nearest enclosing loop, skipping the optional <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code>
+clause if the loop has one.</p>
+<p>If a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop is terminated by <a class="reference internal" href="#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a>, the loop control
+target keeps its current value.</p>
+<p id="index-32">When <a class="reference internal" href="#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> passes control out of a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause, that <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause is executed before
+really leaving the loop.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-continue-statement">
+<span id="continue"></span><h2>7.10. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-continue-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-33">
+<strong id="grammar-token-continue-stmt">continue_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;continue&quot;
+</pre>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> may only occur syntactically nested in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> loop, but not nested in a function or class definition or
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause within that loop.  It continues with the next
+cycle of the nearest enclosing loop.</p>
+<p>When <a class="reference internal" href="#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> passes control out of a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause, that <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause is executed before
+really starting the next loop cycle.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-import-statement">
+<span id="from"></span><span id="import"></span><h2>7.11. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-import-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-34">
+<strong id="grammar-token-import-stmt">import_stmt    </strong> ::=  &quot;import&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-module"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>] (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-module"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>])*
+                     | &quot;from&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-relative-module"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">relative_module</span></code></a> &quot;import&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>]
+                     (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>])*
+                     | &quot;from&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-relative-module"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">relative_module</span></code></a> &quot;import&quot; &quot;(&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>]
+                     (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>])* [&quot;,&quot;] &quot;)&quot;
+                     | &quot;from&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-module"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module</span></code></a> &quot;import&quot; &quot;*&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-module">module         </strong> ::=  (<a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> &quot;.&quot;)* <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>
+<strong id="grammar-token-relative-module">relative_module</strong> ::=  &quot;.&quot;* <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-module"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module</span></code></a> | &quot;.&quot;+
+</pre>
+<p>The basic import statement (no <a class="reference internal" href="#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> clause) is executed in two
+steps:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary</p></li>
+<li><p>define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where
+the <a class="reference internal" href="#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement occurs.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by
+commas) the two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just
+as though the clauses had been separated out into individual import
+statements.</p>
+<p>The details of the first step, finding and loading modules are described in
+greater detail in the section on the <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#importsystem"><span class="std std-ref">import system</span></a>,
+which also describes the various types of packages and modules that can
+be imported, as well as all the hooks that can be used to customize
+the import system. Note that failures in this step may indicate either
+that the module could not be located, <em>or</em> that an error occurred while
+initializing the module, which includes execution of the module’s code.</p>
+<p>If the requested module is retrieved successfully, it will be made
+available in the local namespace in one of three ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple" id="index-35">
+<li><p>If the module name is followed by <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code>, then the name
+following <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> is bound directly to the imported module.</p></li>
+<li><p>If no other name is specified, and the module being imported is a top
+level module, the module’s name is bound in the local namespace as a
+reference to the imported module</p></li>
+<li><p>If the module being imported is <em>not</em> a top level module, then the name
+of the top level package that contains the module is bound in the local
+namespace as a reference to the top level package. The imported module
+must be accessed using its full qualified name rather than directly</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p id="index-36">The <a class="reference internal" href="#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> form uses a slightly more complex process:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>find the module specified in the <a class="reference internal" href="#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> clause, loading and
+initializing it if necessary;</p></li>
+<li><p>for each of the identifiers specified in the <a class="reference internal" href="#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> clauses:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>check if the imported module has an attribute by that name</p></li>
+<li><p>if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then
+check the imported module again for that attribute</p></li>
+<li><p>if the attribute is not found, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is raised.</p></li>
+<li><p>otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the local namespace,
+using the name in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> clause if it is present,
+otherwise using the attribute name</p></li>
+</ol>
+</li>
+</ol>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">foo</span>                 <span class="c1"># foo imported and bound locally</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">foo.bar.baz</span>         <span class="c1"># foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">foo.bar.baz</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">fbb</span>  <span class="c1"># foo.bar.baz imported and bound as fbb</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">foo.bar</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">baz</span>    <span class="c1"># foo.bar.baz imported and bound as baz</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">foo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">attr</span>       <span class="c1"># foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-37">If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>), all public
+names defined in the module are bound in the local namespace for the scope
+where the <a class="reference internal" href="#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement occurs.</p>
+<p id="index-38">The <em>public names</em> defined by a module are determined by checking the module’s
+namespace for a variable named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code>; if defined, it must be a sequence
+of strings which are names defined or imported by that module.  The names
+given in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> are all considered public and are required to exist.  If
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found
+in the module’s namespace which do not begin with an underscore character
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code>).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> should contain the entire public API. It is intended
+to avoid accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as
+library modules which were imported and used within the module).</p>
+<p>The wild card form of import — <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> — is only allowed at
+the module level.  Attempting to use it in class or function definitions will
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-39">When specifying what module to import you do not have to specify the absolute
+name of the module. When a module or package is contained within another
+package it is possible to make a relative import within the same top package
+without having to mention the package name. By using leading dots in the
+specified module or package after <a class="reference internal" href="#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> you can specify how high to
+traverse up the current package hierarchy without specifying exact names. One
+leading dot means the current package where the module making the import
+exists. Two dots means up one package level. Three dots is up two levels, etc.
+So if you execute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">.</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">mod</span></code> from a module in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg</span></code> package
+then you will end up importing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.mod</span></code>. If you execute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">..subpkg2</span>
+<span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">mod</span></code> from within <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.subpkg1</span></code> you will import <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.subpkg2.mod</span></code>.
+The specification for relative imports is contained in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="import.html#relativeimports"><span class="std std-ref">Package Relative Imports</span></a> section.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> is provided to support applications that
+determine dynamically the modules to be loaded.</p>
+<div class="section" id="future-statements">
+<span id="future"></span><h3>7.11.1. Future statements<a class="headerlink" href="#future-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-40">A <em class="dfn">future statement</em> is a directive to the compiler that a particular
+module should be compiled using syntax or semantics that will be available in a
+specified future release of Python where the feature becomes standard.</p>
+<p>The future statement is intended to ease migration to future versions of Python
+that introduce incompatible changes to the language.  It allows use of the new
+features on a per-module basis before the release in which the feature becomes
+standard.</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-future-stmt">future_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;from&quot; &quot;__future__&quot; &quot;import&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-feature"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>]
+                 (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-feature"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>])*
+                 | &quot;from&quot; &quot;__future__&quot; &quot;import&quot; &quot;(&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-feature"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>]
+                 (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-feature"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">feature</span></code></a> [&quot;as&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>])* [&quot;,&quot;] &quot;)&quot;
+<strong id="grammar-token-feature">feature    </strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>
+</pre>
+<p>A future statement must appear near the top of the module.  The only lines that
+can appear before a future statement are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the module docstring (if any),</p></li>
+<li><p>comments,</p></li>
+<li><p>blank lines, and</p></li>
+<li><p>other future statements.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The only feature in Python 3.7 that requires using the future statement is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">annotations</span></code>.</p>
+<p>All historical features enabled by the future statement are still recognized
+by Python 3.  The list includes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">absolute_import</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">division</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generators</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator_stop</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode_literals</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_function</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nested_scopes</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with_statement</span></code>.  They are
+all redundant because they are always enabled, and only kept for
+backwards compatibility.</p>
+<p>A future statement is recognized and treated specially at compile time: Changes
+to the semantics of core constructs are often implemented by generating
+different code.  It may even be the case that a new feature introduces new
+incompatible syntax (such as a new reserved word), in which case the compiler
+may need to parse the module differently.  Such decisions cannot be pushed off
+until runtime.</p>
+<p>For any given release, the compiler knows which feature names have been defined,
+and raises a compile-time error if a future statement contains a feature not
+known to it.</p>
+<p>The direct runtime semantics are the same as for any import statement: there is
+a standard module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a>, described later, and it will be imported in
+the usual way at the time the future statement is executed.</p>
+<p>The interesting runtime semantics depend on the specific feature enabled by the
+future statement.</p>
+<p>Note that there is nothing special about the statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That is not a future statement; it’s an ordinary import statement with no
+special semantics or syntax restrictions.</p>
+<p>Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>
+that occur in a module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">M</span></code> containing a future statement will, by default,
+use the new syntax or semantics associated with the future statement.  This can
+be controlled by optional arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> — see the documentation
+of that function for details.</p>
+<p>A future statement typed at an interactive interpreter prompt will take effect
+for the rest of the interpreter session.  If an interpreter is started with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a> option, is passed a script name to execute, and the script includes
+a future statement, it will be in effect in the interactive session started
+after the script is executed.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-41"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0236"><strong>PEP 236</strong></a> - Back to the __future__</dt><dd><p>The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-global-statement">
+<span id="global"></span><h2>7.12. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-global-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-42">
+<strong id="grammar-token-global-stmt">global_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;global&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>)*
+</pre>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement is a declaration which holds for the entire
+current code block.  It means that the listed identifiers are to be interpreted
+as globals.  It would be impossible to assign to a global variable without
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code>, although free variables may refer to globals without being
+declared global.</p>
+<p>Names listed in a <a class="reference internal" href="#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement must not be used in the same code
+block textually preceding that <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p>Names listed in a <a class="reference internal" href="#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement must not be defined as formal
+parameters or in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop control target, <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a>
+definition, function definition, <a class="reference internal" href="#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement, or variable
+annotation.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> The current implementation does not enforce some of these restrictions, but
+programs should not abuse this freedom, as future implementations may enforce
+them or silently change the meaning of the program.</p>
+</div>
+<p id="index-43"><strong>Programmer’s note:</strong> <a class="reference internal" href="#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> is a directive to the parser.  It
+applies only to code parsed at the same time as the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement.
+In particular, a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement contained in a string or code
+object supplied to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> function does not affect the code
+block <em>containing</em> the function call, and code contained in such a string is
+unaffected by <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statements in the code containing the function
+call.  The same applies to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-nonlocal-statement">
+<span id="nonlocal"></span><h2>7.13. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-nonlocal-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<pre id="index-44">
+<strong id="grammar-token-nonlocal-stmt">nonlocal_stmt</strong> ::=  &quot;nonlocal&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a> (&quot;,&quot; <a class="reference internal" href="lexical_analysis.html#grammar-token-identifier"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">identifier</span></code></a>)*
+</pre>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement causes the listed identifiers to refer to
+previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing scope excluding globals.
+This is important because the default behavior for binding is to search the
+local namespace first.  The statement allows encapsulated code to rebind
+variables outside of the local scope besides the global (module) scope.</p>
+<p>Names listed in a <a class="reference internal" href="#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement, unlike those listed in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement, must refer to pre-existing bindings in an
+enclosing scope (the scope in which a new binding should be created cannot
+be determined unambiguously).</p>
+<p>Names listed in a <a class="reference internal" href="#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement must not collide with
+pre-existing bindings in the local scope.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-45"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3104"><strong>PEP 3104</strong></a> - Access to Names in Outer Scopes</dt><dd><p>The specification for the <a class="reference internal" href="#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">7. Simple statements</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#expression-statements">7.1. Expression statements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#assignment-statements">7.2. Assignment statements</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#augmented-assignment-statements">7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#annotated-assignment-statements">7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-assert-statement">7.3. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-pass-statement">7.4. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-del-statement">7.5. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-return-statement">7.6. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-yield-statement">7.7. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-raise-statement">7.8. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-break-statement">7.9. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-continue-statement">7.10. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-import-statement">7.11. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#future-statements">7.11.1. Future statements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-global-statement">7.12. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-nonlocal-statement">7.13. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> statement</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="expressions.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">6. Expressions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="compound_stmts.html"
+                        title="next chapter">8. Compound statements</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/toplevel_components.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/toplevel_components.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ecfc4e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/reference/toplevel_components.html
@@ -0,0 +1,248 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+        <li class="right" >
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+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
+        <li>
+          <span class="language_switcher_placeholder">en</span>
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+          <a href="../index.html">Documentation </a> &#187;
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="top-level-components">
+<span id="top-level"></span><h1>9. Top-level components<a class="headerlink" href="#top-level-components" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p id="index-0">The Python interpreter can get its input from a number of sources: from a script
+passed to it as standard input or as program argument, typed in interactively,
+from a module source file, etc.  This chapter gives the syntax used in these
+cases.</p>
+<div class="section" id="complete-python-programs">
+<span id="programs"></span><h2>9.1. Complete Python programs<a class="headerlink" href="#complete-python-programs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><p id="index-2">While a language specification need not prescribe how the language interpreter
+is invoked, it is useful to have a notion of a complete Python program.  A
+complete Python program is executed in a minimally initialized environment: all
+built-in and standard modules are available, but none have been initialized,
+except for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> (various system services), <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> (built-in
+functions, exceptions and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>.  The latter is used to
+provide the local and global namespace for execution of the complete program.</p>
+<p>The syntax for a complete Python program is that for file input, described in
+the next section.</p>
+<p id="index-3">The interpreter may also be invoked in interactive mode; in this case, it does
+not read and execute a complete program but reads and executes one statement
+(possibly compound) at a time.  The initial environment is identical to that of
+a complete program; each statement is executed in the namespace of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p id="index-4">A complete program can be passed to the interpreter
+in three forms: with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> <em>string</em> command line option, as a file
+passed as the first command line argument, or as standard input.  If the file
+or standard input is a tty device, the interpreter enters interactive mode;
+otherwise, it executes the file as a complete program.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-input">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>9.2. File input<a class="headerlink" href="#file-input" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>All input read from non-interactive files has the same form:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-file-input">file_input</strong> ::=  (NEWLINE | <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-statement"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statement</span></code></a>)*
+</pre>
+<p>This syntax is used in the following situations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>when parsing a complete Python program (from a file or from a string);</p></li>
+<li><p>when parsing a module;</p></li>
+<li><p>when parsing a string passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> function;</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interactive-input">
+<span id="interactive"></span><h2>9.3. Interactive input<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-input" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Input in interactive mode is parsed using the following grammar:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-interactive-input">interactive_input</strong> ::=  [<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-stmt-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stmt_list</span></code></a>] NEWLINE | <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-compound-stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compound_stmt</span></code></a> NEWLINE
+</pre>
+<p>Note that a (top-level) compound statement must be followed by a blank line in
+interactive mode; this is needed to help the parser detect the end of the input.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="expression-input">
+<span id="id2"></span><h2>9.4. Expression input<a class="headerlink" href="#expression-input" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><p id="index-6"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> is used for expression input.  It ignores leading whitespace. The
+string argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> must have the following form:</p>
+<pre>
+<strong id="grammar-token-eval-input">eval_input</strong> ::=  <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-expression-list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> NEWLINE*
+</pre>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">9. Top-level components</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#complete-python-programs">9.1. Complete Python programs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-input">9.2. File input</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interactive-input">9.3. Interactive input</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#expression-input">9.4. Expression input</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="compound_stmts.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">8. Compound statements</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="grammar.html"
+                        title="next chapter">10. Full Grammar specification</a></p>
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322,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,348,349,350,354,355,356,358,359,361,363,365,366,367,373,374,376,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,394,396,397,399,400,402,404,407,409,410,412,414,416,417,418,419,420,423,424,426,427,431,432,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],"try":[30,31,38,41,45,53,57,58,62,65,66,69,74,77,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,90,92,93,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,117,122,124,129,130,135,139,140,142,143,147,153,161,167,168,169,176,177,178,184,189,190,193,201,212,213,214,225,227,228,230,232,237,246,248,251,252,254,257,260,261,268,271,280,284,289,291,292,293,295,297,299,301,304,307,310,316,317,321,322,325,332,333,334,337,339,342,343,350,355,359,360,362,363,366,368,370,372,377,380,382,386,387,392,396,397,399,400,404,405,410,416,417,419,424,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,434,435,437,439,440,442,445,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,472,473],"typeof":7,"v\u00e1clav":468,"var":[16,84,93,98,122,161,168,171,212,227,268,343,356,361,382,386,423,442,446,460,461,462,463,464,466,472],"void":[3,5,7,9,10,11,16,20,21,22,24,26,28,30,31,34,35,37,38,41,44,45,47,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,77,78,79,81,82,83,92,96,177,321,349,408,463],"while":[1,7,15,21,22,26,30,31,32,36,41,44,45,47,57,58,61,62,64,65,66,70,72,74,78,79,81,82,85,86,90,91,92,93,95,96,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,111,112,113,117,118,122,124,128,129,130,135,136,137,140,141,151,153,156,159,161,168,170,171,173,176,177,178,180,184,185,187,189,190,191,193,197,200,209,210,212,214,222,227,228,232,235,236,237,243,244,248,252,253,257,258,260,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,284,292,293,297,299,301,304,308,310,313,316,318,320,321,328,329,330,332,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,349,350,351,355,361,363,365,366,367,370,376,377,380,382,385,391,392,395,396,397,398,407,410,419,421,424,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,433,434,436,437,438,439,440,442,445,446,447,448,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],"ziad\u00e9":[462,463,466,469,472],ACE:[159,459],ACS:178,AES:[343,459],AND:[74,258,422,426],ARE:422,Added:[5,57,62,65,66,75,81,99,103,129,131,140,147,151,153,158,161,164,167,174,176,184,185,190,202,203,207,208,210,214,215,219,227,228,235,237,242,246,258,260,261,269,279,284,286,293,294,298,309,310,313,315,321,326,329,331,333,334,337,340,342,346,347,349,350,351,355,359,363,366,374,375,377,378,382,385,386,391,392,394,396,397,398,399,411,413,416,418,419,421,426,428,451,456,460,461,462,465,466,467,469,470,471,472,473],Adding:[57,62,71,80,106,120,252,290,321,346,352,373,392,456,459,460,462,468,469,472,473],AgE:342,Age:[343,459],Ames:470,And:[62,66,74,79,81,94,99,103,104,105,107,111,122,124,167,170,176,187,193,201,227,232,237,256,261,291,292,321,342,343,359,373,386,387,419,457,461,465,466,467,472],Are:[62,168,188,360],BEING:422,BUT:[331,422],Being:[1,106,160,346,466],Bos:472,But:[57,68,72,79,82,84,87,90,91,94,95,96,99,104,105,106,107,110,190,193,195,212,223,257,265,271,292,342,343,346,355,367,392,402,436,440,458,459,461,463,465,468,472],CCS:343,CVS:[75,293,456,457,458,459,460,461,472],Cls:432,DES:[174,312,422],DNS:[62,104,132,159,258,339,343,469],DOS:[65,84,92,178,288,292,451,456,458,466,468,472],Das:[469,470,472],DoS:[406,472],Doing:[91,103,159,334,343,382,385,470,472],EXE:[333,442,458,466],Ewing:[456,467],FDs:472,FOR:[62,321],For:[1,4,5,7,9,11,17,21,22,23,26,28,30,31,38,39,41,43,47,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,115,117,118,119,122,124,125,128,129,134,135,136,140,141,144,145,149,150,151,152,153,156,159,160,161,162,167,168,170,171,172,174,176,177,178,182,184,187,188,189,190,192,193,195,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,216,217,220,221,225,227,228,230,232,233,235,236,237,241,243,244,246,247,248,249,251,252,253,254,256,257,258,260,261,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,274,275,276,279,282,283,284,289,291,292,293,295,297,298,299,301,302,304,308,310,313,314,315,316,317,318,320,321,322,323,324,326,328,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,354,355,356,357,358,359,360,362,363,365,366,367,368,369,370,372,373,375,377,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,393,394,395,398,399,400,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,410,411,416,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],Going:79,HLS:163,Has:[31,227,237,284,295,382],IDE:[62,86,91,358,452,455,456,458],IDEs:[62,86,91,93,432,452],IDs:[269,284,301,373,399,460,472],IIS:404,INTO:[301,342],IPS:104,IPs:472,ITS:422,Ice:62,Ides:447,Iles:468,Its:[21,28,51,53,57,62,64,78,79,81,82,91,94,95,98,117,145,151,154,168,169,177,178,182,207,227,232,237,244,257,266,284,310,326,343,355,359,366,367,380,392,403,410,417,419,423,424,426,428,441,451,456,466,471],LHS:432,LTS:471,NCS:395,NFS:[65,213,472],NIS:[62,234,253,388],NOT:[7,57,110,244,404,422,426,470],Not:[31,52,57,65,72,81,83,86,91,94,95,110,111,124,131,139,140,168,185,187,213,214,215,228,229,243,244,246,252,269,271,274,298,320,329,332,333,334,346,363,385,399,410,431,459,460,461,462,464,472],ONE:[109,122,212,346,384],ORed:[57,193,216,227,293,370,403],ORing:[293,343],OSes:[90,257,339,456,471,472],One:[53,60,62,78,79,81,84,87,90,91,93,95,97,98,99,104,106,107,109,110,112,118,121,122,128,135,144,156,158,168,177,182,193,202,222,227,232,246,248,252,258,266,284,296,307,309,310,319,321,334,342,343,346,348,359,363,365,373,386,387,391,397,410,424,426,428,430,431,432,439,440,443,444,445,446,447,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,471,472],PRs:472,PVS:472,RCS:75,RDS:472,REs:[106,321],RFS:213,RHS:[432,467],SUCH:422,Such:[7,31,52,57,65,79,84,93,102,103,122,135,173,182,189,197,204,206,208,248,293,299,301,308,385,424,426,432,446,459,463,466,471,472],Sys:472,THAT:422,THE:[202,422],THEN:321,TIS:460,TLS:[62,132,225,243,253,259,268,307,337,339,363,458,462,463,466,468,469,470,471,472],TOS:190,TTS:104,That:[30,57,62,65,66,75,78,82,85,89,91,92,94,95,97,98,103,104,105,106,107,108,111,153,161,162,168,178,182,187,189,193,195,202,204,206,227,258,260,261,266,292,318,321,328,332,337,342,346,347,350,361,365,373,382,387,404,413,421,423,424,426,432,439,440,446,458,459,461,462,464,465,466,467,471,472],The:[1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,37,40,41,43,44,45,47,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,61,62,64,67,68,69,70,71,72,74,75,77,78,80,81,83,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,96,98,100,101,102,103,104,107,112,113,114,117,118,119,120,121,123,124,125,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,218,219,220,221,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,233,235,236,237,238,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,273,274,275,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,283,286,287,288,290,291,293,294,295,297,298,300,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,309,311,313,314,315,316,317,318,319,320,321,322,323,324,325,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,342,343,344,345,347,348,349,350,351,352,353,354,355,356,357,358,359,360,361,362,363,364,365,366,367,368,369,371,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,379,380,381,383,384,385,387,388,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,398,399,400,402,403,404,405,408,409,411,412,414,415,416,417,419,420,421,422,425,427,430,431,433,435,436,439,440,443,445,447,448,449,450,451,452,454,456,457,464,465,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],Their:[17,57,93,159,208,267,293,343,355,366,410,424,425,426,431,467,470,471,472],Then:[74,78,84,85,90,91,95,97,104,111,153,178,184,189,190,193,195,212,246,268,272,282,289,292,335,340,342,343,347,378,424,439,445,455,464,466],There:[5,6,7,22,25,30,31,32,37,41,42,45,53,57,58,61,65,66,70,74,75,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,122,124,128,134,135,140,141,144,148,153,155,156,157,159,160,161,164,168,177,180,182,184,185,187,189,193,197,204,208,209,210,212,227,228,232,236,244,248,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,265,266,267,271,274,282,284,288,289,292,293,296,297,298,301,310,316,329,332,334,339,340,342,343,346,348,349,350,359,360,361,366,368,370,373,380,382,383,385,386,387,392,396,397,404,405,407,408,411,412,418,419,421,423,424,426,428,431,436,437,438,439,441,442,445,446,447,450,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],These:[0,5,8,9,22,23,30,31,37,38,41,44,53,54,57,58,60,64,65,66,74,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,86,90,91,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,122,135,145,147,151,153,157,159,162,164,168,170,176,177,178,179,182,184,185,186,187,189,190,191,193,197,199,203,206,208,209,225,227,229,232,236,237,244,248,252,254,257,258,260,263,265,266,267,269,271,275,276,283,284,288,289,291,292,293,294,297,298,301,310,316,321,322,324,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,350,354,355,356,366,367,370,376,380,382,383,385,386,387,391,392,402,404,407,408,410,411,417,418,419,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,440,442,444,446,447,448,451,454,455,456,458,460,462,463,466,467,468,472],UCS:[5,58,355,458,467],USE:422,USING:422,Use:[22,28,30,31,35,49,54,56,58,62,79,84,85,90,91,92,93,95,97,107,110,113,118,123,129,135,137,138,139,140,147,152,153,159,161,162,164,168,169,170,177,178,190,193,197,201,206,223,227,239,244,245,248,251,252,254,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,275,284,289,292,293,301,305,306,307,308,310,315,329,330,334,340,342,343,344,345,346,349,350,355,359,361,363,366,367,369,372,373,375,378,381,382,386,391,392,402,406,410,419,422,428,436,437,439,451,453,455,457,458,461,462,463,464,465,467,469,470,471,472],Used:[62,136,165,178,184,187,189,190,197,206,209,228,252,260,268,284,318,320,321,343,346,363,373,380,385,461,463,472],Useful:[5,29,62,104,119,142,161,178,209,253,260,266,267,297,342,380,382,386,401],Uses:[28,62,65,129,134,159,244,252,346,421,472],Using:[7,26,53,62,72,79,80,82,84,86,90,91,92,98,99,100,109,118,127,128,129,132,151,159,161,162,165,175,177,182,183,184,186,188,193,202,206,224,225,230,233,252,255,261,266,267,268,271,288,292,293,298,300,301,309,317,321,333,343,345,346,347,363,369,371,382,385,386,392,399,418,426,428,432,441,442,446,449,452,456,457,458,459,460,463,464,465,468,469,471,472,473],VMS:[292,467,468],VMs:[190,467],WILL:[360,422],WITH:[109,159,340,384,422,426],Will:[65,78,113,125,177,182,249,254,284,321,373,402,471],With:[5,53,62,65,69,77,78,82,84,86,91,95,99,103,104,105,107,110,111,112,118,122,124,129,157,159,161,167,168,170,178,182,187,197,209,212,216,219,227,229,232,248,252,266,269,275,284,289,292,298,299,310,318,320,321,342,343,345,346,350,356,372,373,380,382,385,386,387,397,408,415,416,419,423,428,432,437,445,453,455,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,472],YES:442,Yes:[79,84,85,86,90,91,92,94,187,402,437,445,458],ZFS:472,_4g:363,___:91,______:91,__________:91,_________________:91,______________________:370,____________________________:91,__abs__:[291,382,424,472],__add__:[57,86,161,169,212,254,289,291,386,424,472],__aenter__:[93,170,190,423,424,472],__aexit__:[93,170,190,423,424,472],__aiter__:[93,162,190,423,424,469,470,471,472],__all__:[28,227,248,280,363,432,446,457,470,472],__and__:[162,291,386,424],__anext__:[57,93,162,190,214,423,424,426,472],__annotations__:[93,182,190,228,254,382,423,424,432,437,464,466,468,469,470],__argc:418,__await__:[93,162,190,381,424,469,472],__bases__:[45,82,204,227,346,424,459],__bool__:[113,212,291,346,368,386,402,424,426,464,472],__breakpointhook__:[355,472],__build_class__:[190,446,472],__builtin__:[459,464,465],__builtin_new:62,__builtins__:[28,85,150,227,425,446,464,472],__bytes__:[197,202,206,346,382,424,468,469,472],__cached__:[28,227,252,326,428,466,468],__call__:[91,122,160,162,204,227,284,386,387,399,424,426,470],__callback__:[399,468],__capsulethunk_h:96,__cause__:[22,190,214,377,432,464,472],__ceil__:[223,275,386,424],__class__:[45,86,91,93,98,184,212,227,252,301,346,386,397,424,436,458,459,462,470,472],__class_getitem__:[424,471,472],__classcell__:[424,470,472],__cleanenv:363,__closure__:[113,424,464,472],__cmp__:[108,456,457,459,462,463,464],__code__:[254,346,424,464],__coerce__:[458,463],__complex__:[14,156,261,382,386,424,462,468,471,472],__concat__:291,__conform__:342,__console__:158,__contains__:[50,53,86,93,101,162,197,206,212,260,271,291,346,386,404,413,424,426,456,459,460,462,472],__context__:[22,214,377,432,464,467],__copy__:[172,472],__counter:399,__cplusplu:79,__cwd:363,__debug__:[60,169,227,251,252,432,446,451,459,472],__declspec:92,__deepcopy__:172,__defaults__:[254,424,464],__del__:[22,30,47,62,79,90,183,229,257,318,342,363,386,424,468,472],__delattr__:[81,86,182,424,472],__delete__:[93,98,386,424,458],__delitem__:[86,161,162,197,206,271,291,386,404,407,410,424,459,464],__delslice__:464,__dict__:[41,45,57,91,98,104,118,145,150,193,227,228,252,254,266,268,299,301,310,346,381,416,423,424,428,436,457,458,463,464,469,470,472],__dir__:[86,212,227,254,386,424,462,468,471,472],__displayhook__:[355,446],__div__:386,__divmod__:[386,424,469],__doc__:[41,57,81,86,90,93,98,158,161,193,212,227,228,254,289,315,322,325,381,423,424,431,436,437,446,457,458,459,464,466,468,469,472],__dunder__:[62,183],__enter__:[62,93,104,190,257,284,317,346,386,402,423,424,461,462,463,467,470,472],__eq__:[21,84,86,93,108,162,169,182,196,203,228,245,291,346,381,386,387,416,424,457,462,463,464,466,471,472],__excepthook__:[355,446,472],__exit__:[93,104,170,190,257,284,346,363,386,402,423,424,461,462,463,470,472],__file__:[28,41,94,193,227,252,254,264,304,325,326,363,378,385,420,424,428,459,468,470,471,472],__float__:[24,156,227,382,386,424,471,472],__floor__:[223,275,386,424],__floordiv__:[105,291,386,424,458],__format__:[86,184,212,227,347,386,424,431,462,463,467,468,471,472],__fspath__:[54,293,363,470,472],__func__:[98,113,254,346,424,436,462,463],__future__:[60,62,93,104,105,113,160,214,227,253,262,317,423,424,427,432,458,459,461,462,464,468,469,471,472,473],__ge__:[86,108,162,182,212,228,291,346,386,424,457,463,466],__get__:[93,98,228,254,386,424,458,470],__getattr__:[45,81,91,98,177,217,227,254,301,325,381,386,424,426,443,458,462,466,467,468,471,472],__getattribute__:[45,86,93,98,227,254,301,424,458,462,466,471,472],__getformat__:386,__getinitargs__:386,__getitem__:[33,36,49,58,86,93,101,104,108,118,161,162,177,197,204,206,219,227,271,284,291,321,346,347,382,386,387,404,407,410,424,426,448,458,459,460,464,466,470,472],__getnewargs__:[161,212,301,386,459,469,472],__getnewargs_ex__:[301,472],__getslice__:464,__getstate__:[301,386,459,472],__globals__:[254,424,464],__gt__:[86,108,162,182,212,228,291,346,386,424,457,463,466],__hash__:[21,57,84,86,93,162,182,227,289,346,386,424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195,196,198,202,204,208,210,212,214,217,225,227,229,236,238,244,246,248,252,254,255,256,257,264,266,267,268,269,271,275,280,284,288,289,291,292,293,297,298,299,301,302,305,307,309,310,314,320,321,322,324,329,331,333,334,336,337,341,342,343,344,345,346,349,350,355,360,363,369,370,373,377,380,382,385,386,387,392,393,395,396,397,399,402,404,405,406,407,409,411,413,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,432,435,437,438,439,441,442,445,446,449,450,451,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],abov:[5,7,22,30,31,38,53,57,58,66,70,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,91,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,108,109,110,111,112,113,117,118,119,122,129,131,138,139,140,149,151,152,153,156,159,161,165,168,170,176,177,178,179,180,182,184,185,187,189,193,198,201,204,206,209,212,214,216,225,227,232,235,236,237,243,244,248,251,257,260,265,266,267,268,269,275,279,284,288,289,292,293,294,297,299,301,305,310,315,321,326,333,334,335,337,338,339,342,343,344,346,347,350,351,355,361,363,367,370,372,373,376,380,382,385,386,387,391,392,394,396,397,399,402,404,405,407,417,418,422,424,428,430,431,432,436,437,439,440,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],above_normal_priority_class:350,abra:347,abracadabra:[98,161,284,347,438,460],abraham:466,abridg:271,abrupt:[340,472],abruptli:[167,343,366],abs:[43,57,93,99,156,184,187,227,275,289,291,346,377,378,380,424,426,436,438,446,471,472],abs_tol:[156,275,469],abscissa:469,absenc:[103,110,117,169,254,264,266,321,343,366,404,424,445,472],absent:[122,161,178,267,299,301,339,347,392,466,472],absolut:[28,30,31,43,57,62,74,78,82,84,90,91,92,103,111,114,129,143,145,153,155,156,157,187,190,193,214,223,227,232,233,252,257,267,269,275,279,291,292,293,294,298,305,326,332,337,342,346,355,359,361,367,370,378,380,391,396,402,412,419,421,426,428,432,436,442,446,451,455,456,460,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472,473],absolute_import:[105,114,432,461],absolute_nam:252,abspath:[201,294,298,396,463,472],abstractasynccontextmanag:[170,382,471,472],abstractbasicauthhandl:[62,255,386],abstractchildwatch:134,abstractclassmethod:[118,466,467],abstractcontextmanag:[170,382,470,472],abstractdigestauthhandl:[62,255,386,472],abstracteventloop:[129,134,472],abstracteventlooppolici:[132,134],abstractformatt:222,abstracthttphandl:[386,470,472],abstractmethod:[118,228,252,289,293,330,462,467],abstractproperti:[118,462,467],abstractserv:472,abstractset:382,abstractstaticmethod:[118,466,467],abstractwrit:222,abus:[84,406,432,466],abxcd:189,abxd:[106,321,471],abycdf:189,ac_apple_universal_build:356,ac_in_buffer_s:125,ac_out_buffer_s:125,acc:467,acceler:[380,456,457,461,464,467,468,472],accent:[109,332],accept2dyear:[466,467],accept:[5,14,17,22,26,28,30,58,60,61,62,65,74,79,81,82,84,85,91,93,94,95,97,99,102,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,114,119,122,129,131,132,133,135,138,139,140,141,143,144,147,151,153,156,157,159,161,164,168,170,174,177,178,179,182,184,187,189,193,202,206,207,209,210,214,216,223,225,227,228,230,235,236,240,242,243,244,246,248,249,250,252,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,279,283,284,289,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,316,319,321,326,329,330,331,333,334,336,337,340,342,343,346,350,351,355,359,361,363,365,367,372,373,375,376,378,381,382,385,391,392,394,396,398,400,402,404,408,410,413,416,418,419,421,422,424,426,428,431,436,437,448,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],accept_connect:366,acceptlist:363,acceptstr:363,accepttupl:363,access:[3,5,7,10,11,15,19,22,23,25,28,30,31,41,43,47,49,50,53,54,55,56,57,62,65,71,72,78,79,81,82,83,86,91,92,93,98,101,102,103,104,105,106,108,109,110,111,112,118,120,123,128,132,137,139,147,150,151,153,156,159,161,162,170,171,176,183,184,187,190,193,195,197,201,204,206,208,211,213,214,218,219,223,227,228,229,232,234,236,237,243,244,245,246,247,248,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,260,263,266,268,271,275,276,278,279,282,283,284,286,291,292,293,294,296,299,300,301,304,306,308,312,314,316,317,321,322,324,326,328,329,331,333,337,339,340,341,343,344,346,347,350,352,355,359,360,363,366,368,370,372,373,377,380,381,384,385,386,387,391,392,396,399,401,403,404,406,407,408,409,410,412,417,419,423,425,426,428,432,436,438,441,442,444,445,446,448,450,453,455,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,472],access_copi:279,access_default:[279,472],access_read:279,access_writ:279,accesslog:447,accessor:[10,62,91,108,227,273,408,461],accessori:[72,111],accid:[82,84,436,462,463,464,472],accident:[30,84,105,130,187,189,193,214,382,432,436,439,446,457,459,462,469,472],accommod:[78,104,370,438,460,472],accompani:[31,271,337,339,424,457,466,472],accomplish:[30,31,91,95,105,122,178,249,308,331,407],accord:[7,17,30,35,58,60,62,65,74,91,98,104,109,129,153,156,159,176,182,184,187,197,202,204,206,209,210,212,217,233,234,236,244,248,249,252,253,255,260,265,266,267,275,282,284,292,293,310,320,343,344,346,348,349,367,372,373,375,380,385,391,392,393,396,407,422,424,431,438,451,455,458,459,460,461,466,467,468,469,470],accordingli:[58,82,94,97,99,102,170,219,227,228,320,346,380,391,392,398,424,426,428,451,458,462,466,467,468,470,471],account:[1,57,64,65,86,90,106,107,112,159,161,164,168,184,187,189,203,210,225,227,236,245,265,267,286,293,298,309,312,328,341,346,349,355,360,440,461,465,466,468,469,470,472],acct:225,accumul:[91,93,95,97,99,122,187,228,260,292,310,320,332,376,385,437,440,457,466,467,472],accur:[38,95,105,177,208,246,275,292,310,355,359,367,368,398,419,460,462,463,466,468,470,471,472],accuraci:[84,184,260,275,310,368,440,460],accustom:[105,187],acdeb:161,ace:[320,321],aces:321,achiev:[30,41,64,68,69,78,84,91,95,99,104,115,122,159,168,177,237,246,260,266,322,343,363,368,370,371,385,386,387,392,398,424,432,456,458,459,461,468,469],achim:462,acid:168,acidli:458,ack:[0,179,462],acknowledg:[62,168,179,247,473],acl:[249,333],aclos:[129,162,170,426,472],acm:[244,320],aco:[156,275],acosh:[156,275,462],acquaint:292,acquir:[7,30,31,44,79,94,117,139,170,209,216,251,266,271,284,293,343,359,366,371,424,461,462,463,464,466,467,469,471,472],acquire_db_connect:170,acquire_lock:[251,464],acquire_resourc:170,acquire_special_resourc:170,acquis:472,acquisit:[170,216,266,366,466],acronym:367,across:[30,38,56,59,62,64,65,68,74,75,84,94,95,101,105,111,122,147,168,170,177,184,190,192,193,210,227,254,259,260,265,266,267,268,284,301,302,320,322,329,331,342,346,355,361,366,373,375,380,421,426,431,440,459,460,462,463,466,470,471,472],acs_:97,acs_bbss:178,acs_block:178,acs_board:178,acs_bsb:178,acs_bssb:178,acs_bsss:178,acs_bte:178,acs_bullet:178,acs_ckboard:178,acs_darrow:178,acs_degre:178,acs_diamond:178,acs_gequ:178,acs_hlin:178,acs_lantern:178,acs_larrow:178,acs_lequ:178,acs_llcorn:178,acs_lrcorn:178,acs_lte:178,acs_nequ:178,acs_pi:178,acs_plminu:[97,178],acs_plu:178,acs_rarrow:178,acs_rte:178,acs_s1:178,acs_s3:178,acs_s7:178,acs_s9:178,acs_sbb:178,acs_sbsb:178,acs_sbss:178,acs_ssb:178,acs_ssbb:178,acs_sssb:178,acs_ssss:178,acs_sterl:178,acs_tte:178,acs_uarrow:178,acs_ulcorn:[97,178],acs_urcorn:178,acs_vlin:178,act:[44,57,61,74,81,86,91,96,99,103,105,118,139,145,161,177,182,184,190,197,202,206,209,227,228,245,249,252,257,258,266,293,311,313,355,366,372,373,381,386,424,445,455,456,457,462,467,468],action:[1,30,38,50,57,62,65,79,81,82,94,97,106,117,120,125,145,157,161,170,176,178,189,201,216,222,230,237,243,282,284,293,299,303,310,311,327,329,334,336,340,346,352,355,359,360,362,366,370,373,380,385,386,392,396,397,399,404,421,422,424,437,441,451,455,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,472],actiontext:282,activ:[31,45,57,60,64,74,78,84,86,87,91,92,97,105,106,107,111,112,129,140,141,145,153,154,161,170,178,187,211,214,219,225,244,248,262,272,284,288,292,295,299,307,310,316,329,335,340,342,343,346,350,355,366,367,370,373,380,381,386,387,396,408,409,412,432,449,451,455,456,458,459,461,462,463,466,468,469,470,471,472],active_children:284,active_count:[284,366,462],activecount:[248,462],activeforeground:370,activepython:[91,455],activest:[91,111,370,450,453,456,466],activetcl:472,actor:[410,437],actual:[5,7,14,22,30,31,35,45,50,53,56,57,60,64,65,66,69,74,79,81,82,83,84,90,91,93,94,95,96,97,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,111,119,123,124,129,140,141,151,153,159,161,168,170,174,177,178,179,182,193,198,199,201,204,207,208,210,212,214,225,227,229,232,233,235,237,246,249,252,254,257,260,264,266,267,268,269,271,279,282,284,291,292,293,295,297,298,299,305,306,307,310,320,322,326,327,331,334,337,338,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,350,351,355,359,366,367,370,377,382,385,386,387,392,396,398,399,402,404,407,411,419,421,422,423,424,425,427,428,430,431,432,436,437,440,447,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],acut:[86,109],acw:248,adam:[90,342,462,463,466,467],adapt:[38,62,104,113,143,177,227,232,299,300,333,343,380,456,457,461,463,465,470,472],adapt_datetim:342,adapt_point:342,adaptor:387,adat:306,add:[5,7,26,28,30,31,41,50,53,54,57,64,65,66,70,74,75,79,82,83,84,85,86,89,90,91,92,94,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,108,109,110,111,113,119,122,123,124,125,131,132,140,141,143,144,153,154,157,158,159,161,162,164,168,169,170,178,182,184,187,190,193,195,196,197,198,201,204,206,207,209,212,222,225,227,228,229,232,237,244,245,246,248,252,254,257,260,261,266,267,271,274,276,282,284,289,291,292,293,301,303,304,305,308,309,310,321,323,329,333,335,336,337,340,342,343,346,347,355,359,363,365,367,370,372,373,380,381,385,386,387,391,392,397,399,404,407,408,410,411,416,417,418,419,420,424,426,428,430,431,432,435,436,437,438,439,442,445,448,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],add_:[197,198],add_alia:196,add_altern:[201,206],add_argu:[62,94,120,161,189,201,230,311,396,463,466],add_argument_group:122,add_attach:[201,206],add_cgi_var:404,add_charset:196,add_child_handl:134,add_codec:196,add_cookie_head:244,add_data:[282,392,468],add_done_callback:[131,140,167,471,472],add_fallback:232,add_fil:282,add_flag:271,add_flowing_data:222,add_fold:271,add_get_handl:198,add_handl:[110,392],add_head:[197,206,207,386,392,404],add_help:[62,120],add_help_opt:292,add_histori:[85,322],add_hor_rul:222,add_include_dir:[65,418],add_label:271,add_label_data:222,add_librari:65,add_library_dir:[65,418],add_line_break:222,add_link_object:65,add_literal_data:222,add_mutually_exclusive_group:[94,122],add_object_typ:472,add_on:182,add_opt:[122,292,459],add_option_group:292,add_par:392,add_pars:[122,466],add_password:[110,392],add_payload:200,add_read:[129,132,133,135,137,472],add_rel:[201,206],add_runtime_library_dir:65,add_sect:[168,466],add_sequ:271,add_set_handl:198,add_signal_handl:[129,132,133,472],add_stream:282,add_subpars:[122,466,472],add_tabl:282,add_task:237,add_trick:436,add_typ:276,add_unicode_checkmark:382,add_unredirected_head:[244,392],add_writ:[129,132,133,472],addabl:260,addch:[95,97,178,472],addcleanup:[385,386,387,463,472],addcompon:380,added:[3,5,21,28,31,38,41,57,58,62,64,65,70,74,79,81,82,84,91,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,108,111,112,113,118,119,122,129,131,135,136,140,141,143,144,151,152,153,157,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,176,177,178,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,197,198,200,204,205,206,207,209,212,214,222,225,227,229,235,236,237,241,243,244,248,249,250,251,252,253,257,258,265,266,267,268,271,276,282,284,288,292,293,298,301,304,305,306,307,309,310,313,318,320,321,323,326,327,329,331,332,333,335,336,337,339,340,343,346,347,349,350,355,357,359,360,363,365,367,368,370,380,381,382,384,385,386,392,396,397,400,404,407,410,416,417,418,419,422,423,424,426,428,431,432,438,440,442,444,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],adder:99,adder_funct:417,adderror:385,adderrorinfo:472,addexpectedfailur:385,addfailur:385,addfil:359,addfilt:[103,104,266],addhandl:[103,104,266,465],addhead:392,addict:457,addin:472,addind:408,addinfourl:392,adding:[21,31,43,52,56,57,79,82,83,84,86,90,91,93,97,99,104,105,110,111,118,124,136,143,153,161,182,187,190,196,197,198,206,207,208,244,261,266,271,289,292,293,346,366,385,386,399,404,410,419,420,424,426,428,431,439,442,445,446,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472],addison:370,addit:[1,5,7,9,22,28,30,31,37,38,41,52,53,56,57,60,62,64,65,66,69,70,71,75,77,79,81,82,86,90,93,95,99,101,102,103,104,106,109,111,112,113,117,118,119,122,124,128,141,143,144,146,152,153,158,159,161,168,170,171,172,174,176,177,178,181,182,183,184,185,187,189,190,192,193,195,197,198,200,203,204,206,207,209,211,212,214,216,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,232,235,236,241,242,243,244,246,248,253,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,269,271,273,274,275,276,284,285,291,292,293,294,296,297,298,300,301,305,307,308,309,310,316,318,321,323,328,331,332,334,335,336,337,339,343,344,345,347,349,350,351,353,355,360,361,363,364,365,366,367,368,369,370,372,373,375,380,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,399,402,404,405,407,408,411,412,413,414,416,419,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,434,436,438,439,441,442,444,445,446,448,449,450,451,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],addition:[30,57,66,95,104,106,111,122,126,129,225,269,284,292,293,307,309,315,333,336,350,363,370,380,386,422,456,463,464,467,469,470,471],addlevelnam:266,addnstr:178,addpackagepath:280,addr4:102,addr6:[102,469],addr:[125,135,137,141,153,171,258,330,336,339,343,363,417,466,469],addr_spec:[204,467],addr_typ:339,address:[5,9,22,57,58,62,65,72,74,79,81,84,86,91,93,97,103,104,106,107,113,123,129,135,141,165,171,177,184,190,193,201,204,209,210,213,216,225,227,243,244,246,255,261,266,268,269,271,321,324,336,337,339,340,343,363,378,382,391,392,395,404,417,418,424,456,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],address_exclud:258,address_famili:[339,340],address_in_rang:472,address_str:246,addresse:268,addressfamili:339,addresshead:204,addressof:177,addresssanit:472,addressvalueerror:[102,258],addshap:380,addsitedir:[111,335],addskip:385,addstr:[97,178,472],addsubtest:385,addsuccess:385,addtest:[193,385],addtwic:436,addtypeequalityfunc:[385,463],addunexpectedsuccess:385,adequ:[57,82,91,214,440,463,467],adher:[74,159,168,246,261,268,284,430,437],adict:306,adjac:[65,84,106,184,189,269,283,321,385,407,431,437,455,468,471,472],adject:[142,442],adjunct:466,adjust:[5,11,41,49,51,58,64,74,95,105,112,122,128,161,178,184,187,202,209,309,326,343,346,367,370,372,373,456,463,468,470,471,472],adler32:[236,421],adler:[421,422],admin:248,adminemailhandl:104,adminexecutesequ:282,administ:[395,456,462,471,472],administr:[28,30,54,65,68,72,74,86,89,103,111,153,157,249,287,288,293,335,339,367,404,425,434,444,455,460,467,472],adminuisequ:282,adminuserid:382,admittedli:95,adnan:472,ado:156,adob:[144,468,472],adopt:[309,392,428,437,457,458,459,462],adpcm2lin:[143,472],adpcm:143,adpcmfrag:143,adrian:[471,472],ads:244,advanc:[29,62,82,84,85,86,91,93,97,104,106,107,111,151,168,170,176,177,178,187,188,195,227,235,237,254,257,260,266,267,268,269,279,292,318,339,342,343,347,350,355,368,376,387,399,408,409,419,423,424,430,435,436,443,447,448,455,459,464,466,472,473],advantag:[1,74,79,81,84,91,99,103,104,108,111,141,187,198,225,251,252,301,310,326,332,346,368,372,385,399,408,410,412,418,442,447,456,459,460,465,466,467,468,469],advent:471,adverb:[62,364],advers:471,advertis:[213,288,336,337,343,422,462,468,469],advic:[293,455,472],advis:[23,103,170,229,249,284,288,293,332,366,397,422,424,444,466],advisori:[107,271,424,451,456],advtexecutesequ:282,aead:[339,343],aealmlobdk:321,aeiou:346,aenter:423,aepack:462,aes128:343,aes256:343,aes:[339,343],aesgcm:343,aest:367,aetool:462,aetyp:462,aexit:423,af_:[339,468],af_alg:[339,470,472],af_bluetooth:[339,472],af_can:339,af_inet6:[129,339],af_inet:[41,104,107,129,141,284,339,340,343,363,462],af_link:[339,468],af_netlink:[339,461],af_packet:[339,472],af_pip:284,af_rd:339,af_tipc:339,af_unix:[129,133,284,339,340,472],af_unspec:[129,137,339],af_vsock:[339,471,472],afalsevalu:306,afanasyev:472,aff:466,affair:456,affect:[3,30,31,34,41,52,54,65,68,69,79,90,98,99,104,106,111,118,145,168,178,184,187,190,193,203,206,212,227,232,244,248,251,252,257,265,271,279,291,293,308,309,321,322,323,324,339,342,343,345,346,347,359,363,367,368,372,373,380,385,386,387,391,397,399,402,404,407,423,424,426,428,432,434,436,440,446,449,451,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],affin:187,affix:424,afford:[93,456],afloat:306,afmt_a_law:295,afmt_ima_adpcm:295,afmt_mu_law:295,afmt_queri:295,afmt_s16_b:295,afmt_s16_l:295,afmt_s8:295,afmt_u16_b:295,afmt_u16_l:295,afmt_u8:295,aforement:[30,81,467],afoul:[457,459],afresh:[103,170,266],africa:462,after:[3,5,7,8,17,22,26,30,31,35,38,41,52,53,54,56,57,58,62,65,66,68,74,75,77,78,79,82,84,86,91,92,93,95,96,97,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,110,111,113,114,117,119,120,122,125,129,132,135,137,139,140,141,142,144,145,147,149,151,152,153,154,155,157,158,161,167,168,170,171,177,178,180,182,184,186,187,189,190,193,196,197,206,207,208,210,211,212,213,214,216,217,219,225,227,229,230,235,243,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,260,264,265,266,268,269,271,279,280,283,284,288,291,292,293,294,295,299,302,304,305,307,310,311,316,320,321,322,326,327,329,334,335,336,337,339,340,341,342,343,344,346,347,348,350,351,355,359,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,377,378,380,382,385,386,387,392,396,397,398,399,402,404,407,412,413,418,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,448,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],after_cancel:472,after_in_child:293,after_in_par:293,after_par:472,afterward:[30,78,177,184,187,260,329,342,355,360,387,418,424,444,445,458,459],again:[26,30,41,57,65,66,69,74,75,79,81,82,84,89,90,91,92,93,97,99,104,106,107,108,109,110,112,129,135,137,139,147,153,161,168,171,177,178,184,201,212,213,215,223,244,248,251,260,266,268,275,279,283,284,292,293,295,299,301,310,315,329,332,334,337,342,343,346,355,363,366,372,373,380,384,386,387,392,397,406,410,411,421,423,424,426,428,431,432,436,437,439,440,442,443,445,446,450,455,456,458,459,462,464,466,467,471,472],against:[45,65,74,78,79,81,82,84,91,92,93,96,105,106,113,122,129,143,174,177,182,189,190,193,212,236,254,274,279,292,298,301,305,307,309,310,313,316,321,326,328,342,343,363,366,370,372,373,380,385,386,387,397,406,408,409,410,411,416,417,418,424,428,446,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,466,468,469,471,472],age:[65,105,108,161,244,245,342,343,447,458,460],agen:[254,426],agenc:[342,343,422],agent:[106,110,271,272,337,392,393,458,462],ages:463,agffno5wuhb77vbri6f9iv2qixu7whw:236,aggrav:466,aggreg:[140,227,260,342,385],aggregate_class:342,aggress:[37,84,346,386,461],aging:466,agl:177,agnost:102,ago:[91,93,458,472],agre:[343,422,472],agreement:[62,456],aguiar:472,agument:91,ahead:[119,260,360,367,400,407,446,460,472],ahear:422,ahi:189,ahlstrom:[420,456,459],ahoi:245,ai_:339,ai_canonnam:339,ai_numerichost:339,ai_pass:[129,137,339],aid:[57,93,447,455,459,460,463,466,467,468,472],aifc:[62,253,278,338,351,398,456,472],aifc_read:472,aiff:[62,155,253,278,338,446,472],aiffread:446,aiffwrit:446,ailmsux:321,aim:[38,64,78,81,84,87,102,105,109,110,111,269,282,355,455,458,460,461,468],aio:329,aiosmtpd:[336,472],aiter:[424,470],aivar:472,aix:[79,308,472],aix_genuine_cplusplu:356,aka:[62,124,183,193,356,406,424,455,471,472],akei:306,akin:[93,252,346,428],akira:[469,472],akm:106,akshit:469,akt5:321,akt5q:321,akt:321,akuchl:449,ala:92,alacazam:[438,460],alan:[461,462,471,472],alarm:[310,334,468,472],alaw2lin:143,alaw:[119,351],albatross:232,albeit:[232,437],albert:[469,471,472],alberto:[462,467],albrecht:321,alecsandru:[470,472],aleksi:472,alert:[97,107,241,268,343,397,471],alert_description_:343,alert_description_handshake_failur:343,alert_description_internal_error:343,alertdescript:343,alessandro:470,alex:[85,90,459,462,463,469,470,472],alexand:[109,462,463,465,466,469,470,471,472],alexandr:[236,462,463,465,466,468,472],alexandru:472,alexei:[462,468,469,472],alg_:[339,470],alg_bit:343,algebra:[260,450,462],algorithm:[30,38,62,84,90,91,93,106,108,109,121,135,143,144,147,151,153,159,161,174,175,183,184,187,189,193,203,209,232,238,249,253,257,258,265,268,275,278,282,304,310,312,320,339,343,346,355,361,365,368,387,392,404,419,420,421,422,426,436,456,458,459,461,463,465,466,467,470,472],algorithms_avail:[236,463,466],algorithms_guarante:[236,463,466],alia:[22,28,36,54,65,74,91,93,104,105,123,124,135,138,144,155,159,177,179,196,198,206,212,214,219,227,230,232,244,254,257,284,287,292,293,299,316,320,324,329,330,334,339,343,346,350,360,373,380,382,385,400,402,403,416,419,425,436,464,468,470,471,472],alias:[22,62,65,93,96,122,159,188,196,212,214,232,265,299,305,339,373,380,384,431,436,457,459,462,466,467,468,470,472],alias_for_squar:212,aliaslist:339,aliasmbc:472,alic:236,alien:366,align:[57,62,120,146,155,222,347,373,380,405,442,462,463,472],aliquam:151,alist:[190,306,424],aliv:[57,91,177,228,284,307,346,363,366,399,423,424,448,451,457,463,464,466,468,472],all:[1,2,4,5,7,9,13,16,21,22,26,28,30,31,34,35,38,41,43,47,50,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,62,63,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,86,87,90,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,118,119,120,122,123,124,125,127,128,129,130,132,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,149,150,151,152,153,155,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,167,168,169,170,171,174,176,177,178,179,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,195,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,219,221,222,223,224,225,227,228,229,230,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,260,261,262,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,274,275,276,277,279,282,286,287,288,289,291,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,302,304,305,307,310,311,312,313,314,315,316,318,320,324,326,327,329,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,352,355,356,357,358,359,360,361,362,363,364,365,366,367,370,372,373,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,447,448,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,465,466,467,468,471,472,473],all_complet:[140,167],all_equ:260,all_error:225,all_featur:412,all_fram:378,all_polls_clos:466,all_properti:412,all_recipi:210,all_suffix:[252,254],all_task:[127,140,471,472],all_thread:215,allen:[343,466,472],allevi:[252,456],alli:457,alliancefranais:[159,459],allison:472,alloc:[5,7,22,26,28,29,31,41,46,51,54,56,57,58,60,62,78,79,80,82,84,91,93,107,117,132,135,170,177,186,215,229,253,257,258,284,293,316,318,324,339,355,366,373,402,413,451,456,457,458,461,463,466,467,469,470,471,472,473],allocate_lock:117,allocationgranular:279,allocfunc:[57,81],allow:[1,3,5,7,9,15,22,25,30,31,37,39,41,45,54,56,57,58,62,64,65,66,69,70,74,77,78,79,81,82,85,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,112,113,115,117,118,122,124,125,129,131,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,144,148,152,153,155,156,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,174,176,177,178,181,182,183,184,186,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,203,204,206,209,211,214,215,219,222,225,227,228,229,230,232,235,236,243,244,245,246,248,249,252,254,257,260,261,262,264,265,266,267,268,271,275,276,279,280,284,286,287,288,292,293,295,297,298,299,301,304,307,309,310,313,315,316,320,321,322,323,326,327,329,330,331,332,333,334,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,348,350,351,353,355,357,359,361,363,365,366,367,369,370,371,372,373,374,376,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,394,396,397,398,399,400,402,403,404,406,407,408,412,413,416,417,418,420,421,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,435,436,437,438,439,442,445,446,447,448,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],allow_abbrev:[62,120,469,472],allow_broadcast:129,allow_dotted_nam:417,allow_exit_without_flush:284,allow_foo:267,allow_frag:391,allow_nan:261,allow_no_valu:[168,463],allow_non:[284,416,417,459],allow_reuse_address:[104,340,417,462],allowed_domain:244,allowpathinfo:404,allowpathinfoforscriptmap:404,allowunassign:159,allowzip64:[419,468,472],almost:[17,30,31,58,68,72,78,81,82,84,90,91,93,94,95,97,104,106,107,109,111,113,120,122,128,130,141,156,158,178,187,237,257,265,267,272,284,288,292,320,321,342,343,346,350,370,382,385,386,404,421,424,428,430,440,447,455,457,459,462,464,467,472],alo:189,alon:[7,58,81,87,104,106,111,252,299,321,326,332,417,422,430,458,461,468,472],along:[7,31,32,65,74,84,95,99,103,104,111,122,129,141,142,143,151,156,164,170,177,187,193,204,206,219,232,235,236,249,252,266,268,279,293,298,301,310,330,337,339,343,346,347,350,358,373,376,382,385,386,404,411,418,447,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,465,466,468,469,472],alongsid:[65,68,69,237,372,418,455],alpha:[4,62,65,74,86,93,114,288,309,320,355,356,456,457,462,465,473],alphabet:[58,91,94,144,174,179,187,197,200,222,227,261,266,271,305,310,328,335,346,459,460,461,462,463,468,469,470,471,472],alphanumer:[58,106,153,179,193,252,267,301,321,328,332,346,347,367,448,459],alpin:472,alpn:[343,469,472],alreadi:[1,5,7,9,22,23,28,30,34,45,49,55,58,60,62,64,65,66,72,79,81,82,83,84,86,90,91,92,93,94,97,99,102,105,106,107,108,109,111,112,113,122,124,129,130,131,135,141,147,149,153,161,164,167,168,170,172,177,182,184,185,189,197,200,201,206,209,211,212,213,214,219,222,225,227,229,237,243,244,248,249,251,252,254,257,260,266,267,269,271,276,282,283,284,292,293,298,301,304,307,309,310,321,322,323,329,330,333,334,339,342,343,345,346,350,355,357,359,360,363,366,370,373,380,385,386,387,391,392,394,396,397,400,402,407,408,414,418,423,424,426,428,432,436,437,438,442,446,449,450,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],already_report:242,also:[1,3,5,7,10,11,22,25,26,28,30,31,36,38,47,49,50,53,54,55,57,58,60,61,64,65,66,68,69,74,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,89,90,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,117,118,121,122,123,124,127,128,129,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,140,142,143,145,146,147,148,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,169,170,171,173,174,175,176,177,178,182,183,184,185,187,188,189,190,191,193,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,212,214,215,216,217,219,223,225,227,228,229,230,232,234,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,252,253,254,256,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,276,279,280,282,284,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,304,305,307,308,309,310,311,313,315,316,320,321,323,324,326,327,329,331,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,353,354,355,359,362,363,364,365,366,367,368,369,370,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,394,395,396,397,399,400,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],alt:[178,179,241,248,373,456,472],alt_digit:265,altchar:144,alter:[7,21,65,93,129,132,155,161,187,209,244,248,249,261,267,272,301,326,346,347,380,422,424,428,448,456,460,466,468,472],alter_si:326,altern:[0,17,22,41,45,62,64,65,66,71,79,84,90,91,93,95,98,99,106,109,110,112,113,118,122,124,129,131,134,138,144,148,150,156,159,161,162,168,176,177,178,179,182,183,187,192,193,197,200,201,206,211,212,215,216,219,225,227,230,232,243,246,249,253,254,260,266,267,268,275,284,290,292,293,295,297,299,301,305,307,308,316,318,333,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,349,350,355,359,360,369,372,373,377,380,382,385,386,387,391,396,397,399,402,404,422,426,428,429,441,442,444,446,448,449,451,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,469,470,471,472],although:[22,31,52,57,65,69,72,74,78,84,86,91,94,95,96,103,104,111,125,136,140,141,152,159,177,182,184,189,193,197,198,201,206,207,212,233,249,254,257,260,261,266,271,274,282,284,292,293,295,298,301,309,321,342,343,345,346,347,355,356,367,369,372,385,404,409,411,412,413,418,422,423,424,426,428,430,432,436,437,438,439,440,444,446,451,455,456,468,469,470,472],alti:459,altinstal:[211,454,463,466,468],altogeth:[103,104,153,419,424,466],altsep:293,altzon:[184,367],alum:422,alumni:422,alwai:[0,5,7,8,9,13,16,17,22,28,30,31,36,38,40,41,43,44,45,49,51,53,55,57,58,61,65,66,68,72,74,75,79,81,82,84,85,86,91,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,103,104,105,106,107,110,111,113,116,117,122,129,135,136,137,140,143,144,145,147,153,156,158,159,161,164,167,168,176,177,178,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,194,196,197,204,206,207,208,209,211,212,214,225,227,228,232,235,236,237,238,241,243,245,246,248,249,251,254,257,258,261,265,266,268,269,271,275,284,292,293,294,295,297,298,301,305,308,309,311,318,319,321,326,331,333,334,335,336,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,349,355,361,363,365,366,367,368,370,373,374,377,382,385,386,391,392,397,399,402,404,406,407,410,412,414,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,439,442,445,446,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],always_typed_act:292,am_ait:57,am_anext:57,am_await:57,amauri:[462,463,465,466,472],amaz:[193,458],amber:472,ambigu:[10,31,62,84,93,95,99,106,122,184,248,253,258,263,292,299,321,346,423,426,427,430,431,437,456,462,468,470,471,472],ambiti:460,ambv:466,amd64:[66,349,356],amd:[469,470],amdk6:305,ame:445,amend:467,america:[184,422,463],american:[97,184],amessag:202,amet:151,amit:[470,472],amk:[106,321,459,462,463],ammar:[470,471,472],amoeba:86,among:[57,108,143,177,182,189,193,229,271,284,302,329,349,355,367,370,372,385,424,431,446,453,455,466,472],amongst:[127,274,343],amort:[260,297],amount:[30,31,41,79,82,84,90,91,95,99,107,125,135,137,178,187,225,233,236,237,257,258,269,284,288,292,295,298,307,309,324,331,333,334,339,344,346,365,366,367,373,380,390,392,406,408,421,436,437,439,445,457,460,462,466,468,469,470,471,472],amp:[414,466],amper:374,amperequ:374,ampersand:463,amplifi:187,amplitud:462,amsterdam:[30,86,367,422],amt:243,an_error:377,an_int:168,an_item_is_avail:366,anaconda:455,analog:[26,34,58,65,66,81,91,104,187,254,266,267,275,284,301,365,380,424,426,428,444,458,460,461,463,466,468],analogu:[65,91,284],analys:190,analysi:[7,30,62,65,93,106,125,154,156,189,224,238,253,263,280,310,320,426,429,430,432,440,450,455,461,467,469,472],analyz:[105,114,176,186,280,301,302,321,332,378,422,431,461,462,463,466,472],anand:[463,466],anatoli:463,ancbufs:339,ancdata:339,ancestor:[65,103,104,178,266,267,284,298,343,373,386,387,410,424,459,472],ancestri:457,anchor:[252,298,370,373,463,468],anchorag:99,ancient:[359,461],ancillari:[339,467,472],and_:[99,291],and_expr:[426,427],and_test:[426,427],anded:179,ander:[463,471],andersen:472,anderson:470,andi:[462,465,472],andra:472,andrad:472,andrea:472,andress:466,andrew:[108,109,178,422,456,458,459,460,461,466,467,468,470,471,472],andrich:456,android:[54,58,87,265,355,363,470,471,472],android_api_level:472,anech:[469,472],anew:[428,472],angelico:[469,470,472],angl:[106,145,156,159,210,227,275,320,380,462,463],angular:[62,290,430],ani:[1,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,17,19,21,22,23,25,26,28,30,31,33,34,35,38,39,40,41,42,47,50,51,52,53,54,56,57,58,60,62,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,74,75,78,79,81,82,83,84,91,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,111,117,118,119,122,125,129,131,135,137,140,141,142,143,144,148,149,151,152,153,154,156,157,158,159,160,161,167,168,171,172,174,176,177,178,179,180,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,191,193,195,197,198,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,219,221,222,223,225,227,228,229,232,233,235,236,237,238,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,261,262,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,275,276,279,284,286,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,304,307,310,311,315,316,317,318,320,321,322,324,325,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,351,355,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,370,372,373,375,376,378,380,381,385,387,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,412,413,414,416,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,449,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],anim:[62,212,224,232,373,442,462,469],anint:306,anish:472,annassign:[124,427],annex:[275,384,431,462],anno:254,annoi:[97,153,176,237,266,386,456,462,472],annot:[25,62,84,91,93,95,114,124,182,190,228,249,254,265,302,363,376,382,399,423,424,426,427,441,464,466,467,469,472],annotate_field:124,annotated_assignment_stmt:432,announc:[65,86,109,222,293,450,467],annoy:[109,458,459,464,467],annual:260,anod:213,anomal:363,anomali:[84,187],anonym:[1,93,99,177,225,267,279,380,423,426,437,456,466,472],anoth:[7,22,28,30,31,38,53,57,58,62,65,66,68,69,74,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,89,90,92,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,116,117,122,123,127,128,129,134,135,139,140,141,145,153,157,159,161,164,167,168,170,174,177,178,184,187,193,194,195,197,204,212,214,223,225,228,232,236,237,244,246,251,252,254,257,260,261,266,267,269,271,284,287,288,291,292,293,297,298,299,303,305,310,311,313,316,318,321,329,333,334,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,366,368,372,373,375,376,380,382,385,386,387,390,391,392,399,402,404,405,406,407,408,410,411,419,422,423,424,426,428,432,436,437,438,439,440,442,443,446,448,449,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,470,472],another_extens:168,another_funct:377,another_year:184,anotherkei:168,anotherstr:306,anothertyp:382,anothervalu:407,anq:[],ans:201,ansi:[38,62,146,177,265,355,367,456,467,470,472],answer:[1,64,65,84,91,94,112,135,156,193,267,271,310,347,370,393,436,438,440,442,447,450,456,460,464,472],answer_challeng:284,ant:[151,212],anthon:472,anthoni:[71,91,458,460,461,472],anti:[373,387,472],anticip:[470,472],anticipate_failur:363,antigrav:472,antilink:225,antiviru:248,antoin:[298,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],anton:472,antoni:472,antonio:466,antti:461,any_ord:[386,387],anycast:258,anydbm:[463,464],anymor:[7,28,30,44,91,93,95,107,135,227,229,261,293,339,355,380,463,464,466,467,472],anyon:[82,105,111,343,363,422,457,463,468,473],anyset:50,anystr:382,anyth:[5,31,37,57,62,65,67,68,70,74,75,78,79,82,84,86,89,91,94,97,99,103,104,106,107,109,111,122,138,141,153,161,177,178,179,182,184,187,193,197,204,212,249,252,257,268,284,292,299,303,312,321,325,331,335,337,342,343,347,350,351,355,361,366,373,382,386,398,402,404,410,418,424,426,428,434,436,437,439,442,445,453,455,457,458,461,462,467,468,472],anytim:[153,343,370],anywai:[57,74,82,84,94,111,177,184,227,244,248,258,385,386,438,457,458,472],anywher:[7,67,75,91,106,145,153,161,187,189,260,267,292,298,321,355,375,425,426,428,464,472],aodlambelk:321,aon:380,apach:[284,343,416,449,456,470,472],apache2:298,apart:[65,72,82,99,103,106,124,168,189,275,284,292,304,345,351,426,431,459,463,465],ape:189,aperiod:380,apf:472,api:[7,10,14,15,16,19,22,23,31,34,35,41,42,44,50,52,53,54,56,57,59,62,71,74,78,80,81,82,85,90,92,93,97,103,104,105,107,109,110,113,122,123,126,128,130,131,134,135,137,138,140,142,160,162,165,170,171,176,177,178,183,186,188,190,191,192,195,196,198,199,202,2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trarili:[60,72,93,124,161,168,170,190,267,320,346,385,392,426,442,460],arc:[156,275,380,462,463,465,466,472],arch:462,archi:410,architectur:[65,123,133,214,272,274,280,305,356,407,418,424,446,454,455,459,460,462,467,469,472],archiv:[62,66,71,72,73,75,111,191,220,236,253,271,281,344,363,396,447,450,456,461,462,463,465,466,468,471,472,473],archive_nam:333,archive_util:71,archivepath:420,arcnam:[359,419],ardelean:472,arduou:456,area1:104,area2:104,area:[5,38,41,71,86,97,103,104,109,178,197,206,227,248,256,257,279,324,339,343,361,373,430,441,456,461,462,468,471],aregtyp:359,aren:[47,82,84,86,90,91,97,99,102,106,107,109,112,113,140,156,168,177,202,218,229,254,258,267,268,292,298,340,343,355,370,374,386,387,416,418,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,467,468,472],arena:[31,62,451,461],arepr:323,arflag:356,arfrev:[463,466,472],arg0:[101,293],arg1:[45,81,91,99,101,122,227,292,293,424,458,459,461],arg1typ:382,arg2:[45,81,91,99,101,227,292,386,424,458,459,461],arg2typ:382,arg3:[81,91,101],arg4:101,arg:[5,19,26,30,31,45,53,54,56,57,58,60,65,78,79,81,82,84,90,91,93,94,95,96,98,103,104,108,111,113,117,122,124,128,129,134,138,142,145,157,161,167,170,171,176,177,184,190,198,201,204,206,212,213,214,216,222,227,228,230,248,249,254,260,266,267,271,284,291,292,293,299,301,302,305,310,313,318,333,337,342,346,347,350,355,356,360,363,366,370,373,376,380,382,385,386,387,392,396,399,423,424,432,437,439,444,451,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,469,470,472],arg_format:85,arg_lin:122,arg_nam:347,argc:[30,31,60,78,79,85,190],argcount:[12,60],arginfo:254,arglist:[79,427],argpars:[62,100,120,161,189,201,230,253,292,311,396,447,472,473],argrepr:190,args_from_interpreter_flag:363,argspec:254,argtyp:177,argu:[456,458,463],arguabl:[91,343],argument:[7,9,10,13,14,17,18,19,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,33,35,38,43,44,45,47,51,53,54,55,57,58,59,60,62,65,66,72,74,77,78,79,81,82,84,85,90,92,93,97,98,99,100,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,114,117,119,120,123,124,129,131,135,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,148,149,151,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,164,165,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,176,178,179,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,193,196,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,215,216,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,234,235,236,237,238,241,243,244,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,276,279,280,282,284,286,287,288,289,291,294,295,297,298,299,301,302,303,304,305,306,309,310,313,315,316,319,320,321,322,324,326,327,328,329,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,352,354,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,373,375,376,377,380,381,382,385,386,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,399,400,402,403,404,405,407,408,410,411,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,432,433,435,436,438,439,441,442,445,446,448,451,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,471,472],argument_default:[62,120],argument_list:[145,423,426],argumentclin:472,argumentdefaultshelpformatt:122,argumenterror:[122,177],argumentpars:[62,94,120,161,189,201,230,311,396,463,466,469,471,472],argumenttypeerror:122,argv:[30,31,60,62,65,66,78,79,85,104,120,129,137,193,219,230,248,292,293,299,311,326,340,344,355,357,385,439,444,446,447,451,459,463,464,466,472],argval:190,argvemul:462,arial:380,ariel:468,aris:[31,72,93,108,187,257,266,267,274,301,381,422,426,448,458,460,466,472],arith_expr:427,arithmet:[62,169,184,214,223,227,253,255,275,290,291,320,321,345,346,355,416,424,429,436,437,441,447,459,460,461,466,467,469],arithmeticerror:[22,187,214,446],arizona:[458,459],arm:[349,469],armin:[460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,472],armor:[197,206],armstrong:472,armv7:472,arnaud:[460,467],arnon:[469,472],aros:99,around:[7,22,24,28,30,39,44,54,64,71,78,79,82,84,85,86,96,99,101,104,105,107,112,133,140,141,143,150,154,157,161,168,178,184,187,190,193,207,216,219,227,237,248,251,252,254,264,268,274,275,282,284,287,292,296,299,304,306,321,339,343,345,355,359,361,363,373,377,380,385,399,423,424,435,436,437,438,439,443,450,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],arp:[339,472],arpa:[258,360,469],arr1:284,arr2:284,arr:[177,284],arrai:[2,3,5,9,15,28,35,41,49,53,55,57,58,60,62,78,79,81,82,84,90,93,95,104,119,120,152,159,172,179,183,216,227,237,253,280,284,285,287,293,301,339,346,349,362,381,399,405,416,424,435,438,448,450,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,469,471,472],arrang:[74,90,92,99,103,104,129,134,135,140,193,227,237,254,267,284,343,366,370,372,373,472],array_buffer_getbuf:472,arraydesc:177,arrayobject:74,arrays:342,arriv:[22,117,193,244,246,284,320,334,340,343,367,438,456],arrow:[178,248,299,372,373,380,439],art:[74,155,156,161,193,237],art_num:288,arthur:[168,472],articl:[1,99,109,228,236,271,288,343,380,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471],article_numb:288,artifact:[252,295,467,472],artifici:[177,446,468],arvin:462,as_byt:[197,201,202,206,209,468],as_complet:[127,131,140,167,472],as_complex:261,as_data:58,as_i:222,as_integer_ratio:[187,346,440,462,470,472],as_posix:298,as_str:[197,202,203,206,468],as_tupl:[187,462],as_uri:298,ascend:[62,310,346],ascher:457,ascii85:[144,468,472],ascii:[15,22,28,45,54,62,77,97,104,106,107,109,110,120,135,138,141,144,146,148,153,159,177,178,190,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,215,225,227,232,238,249,253,255,261,265,283,285,286,288,301,316,319,321,332,337,340,342,343,346,347,348,351,355,359,360,363,392,394,410,416,422,430,431,437,442,444,446,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,464,466,467,469,470,471,472],ascii_lett:[245,328,347,458,464],ascii_lowercas:[321,342,347,458],ascii_uppercas:[347,458],ascrib:103,asctim:[103,104,266,267,311,367,457,463,466],asdict:[182,472],asdl:[124,461,472],asend:[162,426],ashlei:470,ashley_0:448,ashley_1:448,ashley_2:448,ashley_:448,asian:[159,384,460],asid:[1,107,184,227,248,310,359,387,424,426,466,471],asimov:321,asin:[156,275],asinh:[156,275,462],ask:[62,65,84,91,92,93,95,97,104,106,141,162,195,225,234,236,244,248,257,268,292,299,307,312,321,333,341,343,346,392,409,410,411,426,428,432,439,450,455,460,461,462,463,464,472],ask_exit:129,ask_ok:437,askar:[470,471,472],asn:343,asnam:124,asnebc:321,asparagu:201,asparagus_cid:201,aspect:[38,78,79,86,95,104,106,110,184,193,212,237,267,293,297,320,337,424,466,470],asperg:201,aspinal:471,aspn:[110,275],aspx:455,assch:470,assembl:[84,91,99,109,342,350,424,430,461],assert:[31,45,60,62,104,108,113,118,124,140,169,182,184,185,188,193,214,227,230,254,284,292,299,321,342,363,382,385,386,397,399,408,427,429,431,446,451,459,460,462,465,466,468,469,472],assert_:[113,385,466],assert_any_cal:386,assert_cal:[386,470,472],assert_called_onc:[386,470,472],assert_called_once_with:[386,387],assert_called_with:[386,387],assert_has_cal:[386,387],assert_line_data:222,assert_not_cal:[386,469,472],assert_python:363,assert_python_failur:363,assert_python_ok:363,assert_stmt:[427,432],assertalmostequ:[113,385,463,466,472],assertcountequ:[385,466],assertdictcontainssubset:[463,465,466],assertdictequ:[385,463,465],assertequ:[113,363,385,387,447,463,466,468],assertfals:[113,385,463],assertgreat:[385,463],assertgreaterequ:[385,463],asserti:[385,387,463],assertin:[385,463],assertionerror:[22,214,284,363,385,386,387,404,432,446,472],assertisinst:[385,463],assertisnon:[385,463,465],assertisnot:[385,463],assertisnotnon:[385,463,465],assertitemsequ:463,assertless:[385,463],assertlessequ:[385,463],assertlistequ:[385,463,465,472],assertlog:[385,468],assertmultilineequ:[385,463],assertnotalmostequ:[113,385,463,466,472],assertnotequ:[113,385,466],assertnotin:[385,463],assertnotisinst:[385,463],assertnotregex:385,assertnotregexpmatch:[385,463],assertrais:[113,385,447,463,465,467,472],assertraisesregex:[385,467,472],assertraisesregexp:[385,463,465],assertregex:[385,466,472],assertregexpmatch:[385,463,466],assertsameel:467,assertsequenceequ:[385,463,465,472],assertsetequ:[385,463,465],asserttru:[113,385,463,466],asserttupleequ:[385,463,465,472],assertwarn:[385,466,467,472],assertwarnsregex:[385,466,467,472],assertxyi:385,assign:[1,31,34,49,57,62,65,79,82,85,86,91,93,94,95,98,99,109,113,122,123,124,159,161,168,169,172,177,178,182,187,190,193,197,203,204,206,209,212,213,214,227,228,237,244,252,266,271,279,284,291,292,293,299,301,308,316,321,331,332,339,343,346,349,354,355,361,363,365,373,382,384,385,386,397,408,410,419,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,431,436,437,438,444,445,446,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,467,469,470,471,472,473],assignment_stmt:432,assist:[80,99,109,263,279,381,396,424,458,459,460,461,462,463,471,472],assoc:329,associ:[5,22,23,25,30,40,53,57,60,62,64,65,72,79,81,82,90,92,93,97,102,103,104,106,107,110,112,122,125,129,145,153,159,167,176,178,180,187,190,193,195,197,202,204,214,222,232,242,243,246,248,251,252,254,266,276,284,286,292,293,295,297,299,301,316,329,330,339,346,348,350,359,363,366,368,370,372,373,385,399,400,402,403,404,407,410,412,413,416,417,419,420,422,425,428,432,434,436,438,439,450,452,463,466,467,468,471,472],associatefil:455,assoclen:339,assort:[62,65,80,193,372,472],assret:[386,472],assret_called_once_with:386,assret_called_with:386,assum:[5,7,30,31,37,41,49,51,55,57,64,65,74,75,78,79,80,82,84,85,90,91,93,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,111,112,122,129,149,152,153,155,156,159,161,162,167,168,170,176,177,184,197,200,202,203,204,210,211,222,225,227,232,237,243,244,248,249,250,252,256,265,266,267,284,288,292,293,297,298,299,304,313,315,335,339,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,359,361,365,367,373,382,385,387,392,396,405,413,418,424,426,428,432,434,436,438,440,442,446,455,456,457,458,461,462,464,467,468,469,470,471,472],assumpt:[30,57,79,82,93,142,162,184,252,426,458,462,466,470,471,472],assur:[35,82,93,156,228,275,375,424,463,465,466],ast:[62,185,227,253,263,297,354,427,461,467,471,472],ast_unpars:472,astamp:380,asterisk:[124,249,312,346,403,410,426,432,438,471],astimezon:[184,189,467,470,472],astr:306,astral:472,astronomi:449,astroob:449,astupl:[182,472],astz:184,asymmetr:159,asymmetri:424,async:[18,29,46,62,93,126,127,128,129,131,135,136,137,138,139,140,170,171,254,343,355,374,381,382,424,426,427,431,470,471,472],async_chat:[125,141,468,472],async_for_stmt:423,async_funcdef:[423,427],async_queri:382,async_stmt:427,async_with_stmt:423,asynccontextmanag:[170,382,424,471,472],asyncexitstack:[170,471,472],asyncfor:[124,472],asyncfunctiondef:[124,472],asyncgen_hook:355,asyncgener:[162,382,470,472],asyncgeneratortyp:381,asynchat:[62,141,253,259,422,462,468,472],asynchron:[29,57,62,90,93,128,129,131,132,135,138,140,162,167,170,171,190,214,253,254,255,259,266,284,339,343,350,355,381,403,423,432,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],asyncio:[62,125,127,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,141,162,253,259,336,343,350,355,424,426,451,472],asynciomodul:472,asynciter:[162,382,469,472],asyncor:[62,90,125,253,259,336,340,422,460,462,472],asyncresult:284,asyncwith:[124,472],asynczip:448,at_end_lin:280,at_eof:137,atan2:[156,275],atan:[156,275,462],atanh:[156,275,462],atequ:374,atexit:[62,84,90,113,253,317,322,399,456,460,472],atheo:[459,472],athirdstr:306,athrow:[162,426,472],athukorala:472,atim:293,atime_n:293,atle:461,atof:[265,460,461],atoi:[78,265],atom:[26,62,90,229,284,293,318,321,339,346,366,427,429,463,464,467,472],atom_expr:427,atop:[343,461,462],atruevalu:306,atsuo:468,attach:[30,41,62,78,103,104,129,134,161,167,184,188,193,195,197,198,200,204,206,207,208,213,248,266,267,329,330,342,355,372,385,387,404,423,424,432,436,447,457,459,463,464,467,470,472],attach_loop:134,attach_mock:[386,387],attack:[84,109,129,174,236,238,267,328,333,342,406,442,461,463,467,468,469,472],attain:227,attempt:[5,10,28,30,31,43,54,57,91,92,93,95,97,100,101,102,104,106,109,110,112,118,122,135,151,157,161,167,168,169,170,174,176,178,184,185,187,189,193,195,197,200,204,206,208,210,212,213,214,225,227,228,237,243,244,248,252,254,257,261,264,265,267,268,269,271,283,284,293,295,301,307,313,315,316,321,322,324,327,329,333,334,335,337,338,339,340,342,343,345,346,349,355,360,361,363,365,366,367,385,386,391,392,395,396,398,404,407,410,412,413,414,419,420,421,424,426,428,429,432,436,437,439,441,442,445,446,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,467,469,470,471,472],atten:446,attent:[7,106,178,380,446,459,466,468],attim:[268,468],attitud:193,attlistdeclhandl:316,attnam:316,attr:[62,85,95,97,124,178,241,245,254,273,282,291,292,301,316,363,370,385,386,410,412,413,414,424,432,456,457,460,467],attr_nam:[45,57,363,458],attract:[84,271,370,462,464],attrdict:266,attrgett:[93,99,108,291,460,461,462,466,469,472],attrib:[410,461,472],attribut:[10,20,21,22,23,25,28,30,31,41,45,51,53,55,56,57,62,65,80,85,93,95,98,99,103,104,106,108,110,113,114,118,120,122,123,124,125,128,129,131,135,137,138,145,150,151,152,153,157,159,160,161,168,169,173,176,177,178,182,183,184,187,188,189,190,193,196,197,198,201,204,206,208,209,214,216,217,222,225,227,228,230,234,235,236,238,239,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,252,253,255,257,258,261,267,268,269,271,273,282,284,286,291,295,301,304,305,306,307,312,314,315,316,317,321,323,327,329,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,344,347,349,350,352,355,359,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,371,377,378,380,381,382,385,388,390,391,392,395,396,397,399,402,404,405,407,408,410,411,412,414,416,417,419,420,421,422,423,425,431,432,436,437,438,439,443,446,447,448,451,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,472,473],attribute1:386,attribute2:386,attribute_nam:347,attribute_nod:407,attributeerror:[22,45,53,98,153,177,214,227,228,252,254,267,284,301,321,334,346,363,368,381,385,386,387,407,408,424,426,432,446,456,458,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],attributenam:[10,79],attributeref:[426,432],attributesimpl:413,attributesn:[62,273,411,412],attributesnsimpl:413,attrnam:[85,266,407],attroff:178,attron:178,attrs_dict:410,attrset:178,atyp:428,au_read:[62,278],au_writ:[62,278,468],audibl:[104,178],audienc:[71,74,103,309,397,430,459,464],audio:[62,119,155,207,253,278,351,363,398,403,456,472],audio_file_encoding_adpcm_g721:351,audio_file_encoding_adpcm_g722:351,audio_file_encoding_adpcm_g723_3:351,audio_file_encoding_adpcm_g723_5:351,audio_file_encoding_alaw_8:351,audio_file_encoding_doubl:351,audio_file_encoding_float:351,audio_file_encoding_linear_16:351,audio_file_encoding_linear_24:351,audio_file_encoding_linear_32:351,audio_file_encoding_linear_8:351,audio_file_encoding_mulaw_8:351,audio_file_mag:351,audio_mac:462,audiodev:[295,462],audioop:[62,253,278,461,472],audit:459,aug:[30,99,111,184,420,458,459],augassign:[124,427],augload:124,augment:[57,62,65,81,91,193,267,276,332,372,424,431,451,466,472,473],augmented_assignment_stmt:432,augop:432,augstor:124,augtarget:432,augu:151,auguri:459,august:461,augustu:431,aumasson:[236,422],auread:446,austin:462,australia:[367,450],australianphilosoph:424,austria:[342,410],auth:[225,249,268,337,343,459,469,472],auth_cram_md5:337,auth_handl:392,auth_login:337,auth_plain:337,auth_siz:236,authent:[62,165,175,225,236,242,249,253,266,268,286,288,307,328,337,343,390,392,416,421,458,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],authenticationerror:284,authinfo:288,authkei:284,authobject:[249,337],author:[28,64,65,66,69,71,74,77,79,83,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,110,111,112,129,159,161,192,193,214,236,268,289,293,309,342,343,370,385,392,404,416,422,446,449,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,468,469,472],author_email:[65,66,69,74,77,309],authoris:249,authorit:[28,110,421],authorized_kei:333,authorizer_callback:342,authpriv:268,authreq:392,authuri:392,auto:[30,62,66,68,86,110,183,184,248,322,332,339,343,380,386,387,445,456,463,466,470,471,472],autocommit:342,autocomplet:[470,471,472],autocompletewindow:248,autoconf:[65,72,472],autodetect:[65,109,306,359,392,457,461],autoexec:106,autoexpand:472,autogil:462,autoincr:373,autojunk:189,autom:[31,62,82,90,93,95,105,188,225,253,288,366,385,435,457,463,464,468],automat:[7,11,22,30,31,41,50,54,57,62,64,66,68,69,74,75,77,79,81,82,90,91,92,93,95,96,97,98,99,102,105,106,107,109,111,112,113,122,129,134,135,137,139,140,141,142,153,157,159,161,162,168,169,170,176,177,178,182,183,185,187,188,189,190,192,193,197,202,206,207,209,210,214,227,228,229,235,241,243,244,249,252,266,267,269,271,272,279,282,284,288,292,293,294,299,301,308,310,315,322,325,329,331,333,335,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,351,355,359,361,363,366,367,368,369,370,373,380,385,386,387,391,392,396,398,399,402,404,408,412,416,420,421,422,424,425,426,428,432,434,436,437,442,443,445,446,447,448,450,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],automata:106,automatrix:422,automount:30,autonam:212,autonom:[340,422],autonumb:212,autorais:[400,461],autorang:[368,470,472],autosav:248,autospec:[62,188,387,472],autotool:[463,469,470],auwrit:446,auxiliari:[104,145,260,466],auxiliary_modul:104,avail:[5,6,7,10,22,30,31,38,40,41,50,52,54,58,60,62,64,65,66,68,70,71,72,75,77,78,79,80,81,83,84,86,87,90,91,92,93,95,97,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,113,117,118,120,122,123,125,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,140,141,150,157,159,161,164,167,168,171,174,175,177,178,183,185,187,190,192,196,208,211,212,213,214,215,216,219,222,224,225,227,232,234,236,237,242,243,246,248,252,253,254,257,258,261,265,266,267,268,270,271,275,276,277,278,279,283,284,286,287,288,292,293,294,295,296,297,299,301,304,305,306,308,310,312,315,316,317,318,319,320,321,323,324,325,327,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,341,342,343,344,346,347,348,349,350,355,357,359,360,361,362,363,366,367,369,370,371,372,373,375,377,381,382,385,386,387,392,395,396,399,400,401,402,404,405,406,407,408,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,429,430,431,432,433,435,437,441,443,444,446,449,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],availmask:178,avenu:[321,422,458],averag:[62,84,98,143,237,290,293,310,320,328,350,373,378,430,447,464,468,472],average_arrival_interv:320,average_service_tim:320,averi:471,avg:143,avgpp:143,aviv:[470,472],avoid:[17,30,38,40,57,58,64,74,78,79,81,82,84,91,93,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,114,118,122,123,128,129,134,135,138,140,159,167,168,170,172,177,184,187,211,216,227,229,232,237,238,243,246,249,254,258,264,267,271,275,279,284,289,292,293,301,316,320,321,323,333,334,336,339,342,344,345,346,350,355,359,365,366,368,372,381,385,387,399,403,406,407,408,414,423,424,426,427,428,431,432,436,437,438,439,445,448,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],avoids_symlink_attack:333,avraham:472,awai:[22,30,31,74,82,91,95,99,103,107,122,178,184,187,193,214,248,253,254,292,293,294,310,342,392,435,436,448,458,459,464,468,469,472],await:[57,62,93,124,126,127,129,130,131,132,135,136,137,138,139,162,170,171,190,254,355,374,381,382,423,427,429,431,456,459,470,471,472],await_expr:426,awaken:[139,366],awar:[58,62,64,83,86,89,93,102,106,107,108,112,168,180,184,195,197,201,203,204,206,207,210,227,228,232,249,265,272,293,297,343,347,355,367,368,397,413,440,447,451,453,455,456,458,459,460,464,465,466,467,470,471,472],awk:[435,456],awkward:149,awkwardli:463,awoken:366,awri:366,aws:140,ax_check_openssl:472,axi:[91,156,275,373],aycock:457,ayon:201,ayt:360,ayz:346,azur:472,b10:98,b16decod:144,b16encod:144,b1o:391,b2a_base64:[147,470,472],b2a_hex:[147,159],b2a_hqx:147,b2a_qp:[147,472],b2a_uu:[147,471,472],b2j:189,b32:468,b32decod:[144,468,472],b32encod:144,b64decod:[144,236,467],b64encod:[144,236,472],b85decod:[144,468],b85encod:[144,468],b_c:464,babel:232,babyl:[62,285],babylmessag:[62,285],bac:122,bacd:161,bach:161,back:[1,7,21,26,31,35,37,38,54,57,58,62,64,65,69,80,82,84,90,91,92,94,95,99,101,104,105,106,107,109,113,122,123,135,144,147,153,156,157,159,161,168,170,178,182,184,187,189,190,193,195,197,206,209,216,222,225,227,229,231,232,244,246,252,256,257,261,267,268,274,279,283,284,289,291,292,293,294,295,299,301,314,316,321,331,339,340,342,343,344,346,347,353,355,363,367,370,374,375,380,387,391,392,410,414,415,416,417,419,421,423,424,428,432,436,442,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,472],backend:[87,15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06,120,161,187,198,204,254,261,267,271,283,293,321,339,343,346,382,383,402,430,437,457,467,472],bf_getbuff:57,bf_releasebuff:[5,57],bfd:466,bfoo:321,bgcolor:380,bgenloc:462,bgpic:380,bhi:189,bia:[143,310,466],bias:[197,206,320,345,459],bibbl:386,bick:[99,404],bidirect:[109,129,135,163,257,284,346,348,384,456],bierenfeld:468,big5:[159,460],big5hksc:[159,460],big:[4,31,58,74,79,84,90,95,99,104,109,134,135,143,155,159,168,177,178,190,232,237,258,268,295,346,349,351,355,363,386,395,402,430,448,458,459,460,463,465,466,468,472],bigaddrspacetest:363,bigcharset:458,bigdecim:416,bigendian:155,bigendianstructur:[177,346,472],bigendianunion:177,bigger:[58,346,359,455],biggest:[86,97,105,378,464,466,467],biginteg:416,bigmem:363,bigmemtest:363,bignum:467,bigobject:261,biject:[30,109],bill:[346,442,456,462],billah:472,billi:457,billion:406,bin:[30,31,62,74,78,84,85,90,99,104,109,110,111,153,165,168,189,201,227,246,292,293,298,303,346,347,356,392,393,396,418,424,434,444,446,447,449,453,454,455,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,472],bin_path:396,binari:[5,7,29,37,38,43,57,60,62,66,69,71,72,74,77,80,81,84,86,87,93,96,101,104,109,111,117,120,123,129,143,144,148,151,169,177,183,187,190,195,197,198,199,201,202,204,206,208,209,216,223,225,227,232,235,236,237,238,246,249,251,252,253,254,255,258,260,261,265,267,268,269,271,274,275,282,283,284,285,288,292,293,298,301,304,305,306,319,339,347,350,355,356,359,361,364,370,392,394,396,399,402,410,413,417,418,419,422,424,429,432,435,440,441,442,447,451,453,454,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],binary16:349,binary32:349,binary64:349,binary_add:[190,466,468],binary_and:190,binary_floor_divid:[190,466],binary_form:343,binary_lshift:190,binary_matrix_multipli:190,binary_modulo:[190,466],binary_multipli:[190,466],binary_or:190,binary_pow:190,binary_rshift:190,binary_subscr:190,binary_subtract:190,binary_true_divid:190,binary_xor:190,binaryfunc:57,binaryio:[252,382],binascii:[62,144,148,159,236,253,285,394,422,463,468,472],binbytes8:472,bind:[12,40,53,62,84,91,93,98,104,107,129,141,170,172,178,193,225,227,232,242,246,254,265,267,294,296,322,330,336,337,339,340,343,354,355,363,369,372,373,380,406,423,424,426,428,429,430,432,436,453,456,457,458,460,461,462,467,468,469,471,472],bind_and_activ:[340,417,462],bind_parti:254,bind_port:363,bind_textdomain_codeset:[232,265,460],bind_unix_socket:363,bindigit:431,bindir:466,bindsocket:343,bindtag:373,bindtextdomain:[232,265],binhex4:[62,147,253,285],binhex:[62,147,253,285],binint1:302,bininteg:431,binlibdest:466,binop:[124,462],binpath:396,binput:[302,472],binunicode8:472,binutil:111,bio:[62,288,472],biondi:461,biopython:288,bioreason:422,birthdai:447,bisect:[62,183,253,448,460,472],bisect_cmd:472,bisect_left:149,bisect_right:149,bit:[4,5,7,31,37,53,56,57,58,60,62,65,66,74,79,81,82,84,87,91,92,94,95,96,97,99,102,104,106,107,109,119,120,123,135,143,147,154,155,156,159,168,170,178,179,187,190,193,196,201,202,203,206,209,212,216,217,227,229,232,236,244,245,258,265,269,274,275,287,289,292,293,295,301,305,308,317,320,321,324,328,329,333,338,339,343,344,346,349,350,351,355,357,359,361,367,368,370,373,387,394,395,401,407,418,419,421,424,426,431,436,437,440,442,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],bit_length:[275,346,463,465],bitand:124,bitbucket:[64,112,168,396],bitdanc:468,bite:[91,106,292,387],bitfield:[53,114,227],bitmap:[66,74,250,254,282,329,370,372,373],bitmapimag:370,bitmask:[57,129,193,295,329,330],bitor:124,bits_per_digit:[355,463,465],bits_per_sampl:338,bitstr:101,bitter:472,bitwis:[43,62,81,95,97,99,106,178,179,193,212,216,227,283,291,293,321,330,339,403,424,429,459,462,463,470],bitxor:124,bjoern:472,bjorn:461,bjunk:[189,468],bkfile:472,bkgd:178,bkgdset:178,black:[95,97,109,149,161,178,212,248,320,373,380,448,459,460,468],blackbox:363,blacklist:[244,363,471,472],blah:[69,109,269,292,370],blahai:472,blai:461,blake2:[62,175,470,472],blake2b:[236,470,472],blake:[99,236],blanch:[467,472],bland:[292,461,462],blank:[62,65,68,90,91,95,99,122,125,153,157,168,176,178,187,189,193,197,206,208,209,222,243,246,248,267,299,302,335,342,343,346,380,391,404,410,432,433,437,442,445,455,460,469,471,472],blanklin:[193,222,460],bleed:171,bleedin:437,bletch:335,blib:111,blindli:[105,346,468],blink:[97,178],blip:387,blksize:[257,404],blktype:359,blo:189,bloat:106,blob:[342,343,387],block2:423,block:[5,7,10,22,30,31,38,41,50,57,62,72,79,81,83,84,93,95,96,97,106,110,113,116,119,129,130,132,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,145,147,151,170,177,178,179,186,187,189,190,193,194,200,208,209,213,214,216,225,227,236,238,243,244,248,251,254,257,260,268,273,283,284,293,295,298,315,318,324,327,329,330,331,333,334,337,339,342,344,350,354,355,359,360,363,366,385,386,392,398,400,402,403,408,413,423,424,425,426,427,428,432,437,442,445,447,451,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],block_hash_person:236,block_on_clos:[340,471,472],block_siz:[236,238,468],blocked_domain:244,blocking_io:129,blockingioerror:[22,141,214,257,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396,397,398,399,400,402,403,404,405,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,415,416,417,418,419,421,423,424,425,428,431,432,435,436,437,438,439,442,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],call_arg:[386,387,472],call_args_list:[386,387],call_at:[128,129,132,471],call_count:[386,387],call_exception_handl:[129,132],call_funct:[190,470,472],call_function_ex:[190,470,472],call_function_kw:[190,470],call_function_var:470,call_function_var_kw:470,call_lat:[62,132,471],call_list:[386,387],call_method:[190,471,472],call_profil:472,call_soon:[62,128,131,132,135,137,471,472],call_soon_threadsaf:[128,129,132,471],call_stack:101,call_trac:[355,446],call_tzinfo_method:472,callabl:[30,33,40,45,53,57,61,62,78,79,91,93,97,99,104,113,118,122,129,134,137,139,162,167,168,171,173,177,178,182,188,189,190,207,208,209,212,225,226,227,249,252,253,257,266,267,268,271,284,291,292,293,300,301,315,316,317,327,333,334,337,350,355,361,366,368,373,375,385,386,387,392,396,397,399,404,410,418,423,426,428,441,446,451,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472],callable_iter:106,callableproxytyp:399,callback:[5,10,13,26,30,57,61,62,79,87,93,120,122,126,128,131,132,134,135,137,140,170,225,229,254,282,284,310,311,316,318,322,330,333,342,343,344,352,360,368,370,373,381,382,399,409,410,412,418,448,461,462,466,467,468,470,471,472,473],callback_:122,callback_arg:292,callback_kwarg:292,callbyref:91,calle:[91,376,437],calledprocess:472,calledprocesserror:[350,463,469,472],caller:[5,9,17,22,28,30,31,32,41,56,58,79,91,93,98,99,140,145,158,159,170,177,190,225,227,243,251,254,257,266,291,293,297,310,334,337,339,342,343,355,366,373,376,377,385,392,394,397,398,400,402,416,418,424,425,426,436,437,439,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,470,472],calloc:[38,469,472],callsomefunct:30,callstat:[446,471,472],calltip:[62,369,472],calltip_w:472,calltipwindow:472,calmett:467,caltech:422,calvin:342,cambridgeincolour:163,came:[89,95,99,103,105,193,203,252,284,434,439,457,458,459,460,461],camel:[462,466],camelcas:366,camelot:465,cameron:90,cammin:461,campbel:472,can0:339,can:[1,4,5,7,10,12,13,15,17,22,23,25,26,28,30,31,33,35,37,38,39,41,43,44,45,47,49,50,52,53,54,55,57,58,60,61,62,64,65,66,68,69,70,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,117,118,119,122,123,124,125,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,176,177,178,179,180,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,195,196,197,200,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,219,221,222,223,225,227,228,229,230,232,233,235,236,237,238,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,254,256,257,258,259,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,274,275,276,279,280,281,282,283,284,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,300,302,303,304,306,307,309,310,311,313,314,315,316,318,320,321,322,323,324,325,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,354,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,415,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],can_:339,can_bcm:[339,468],can_bcm_:339,can_change_color:[97,178],can_dlc:339,can_fetch:[393,472],can_fram:339,can_frame_fmt:339,can_frame_s:339,can_id:339,can_isotp:339,can_raw:339,can_raw_fd_fram:[339,469,472],can_symlink:363,can_values_be_as_wel:168,can_write_eof:[132,135,137],can_xattr:363,canadian:[97,159],cancel:[31,62,66,127,128,129,130,131,136,143,153,167,170,178,179,215,282,316,327,334,366,372,373,380,423,434,466,471,472],cancel_dump_traceback_lat:215,cancel_join_thread:284,cancel_m:140,cancellederror:[127,130,131,140,167],cancelsynchronousio:472,candid:[4,62,86,98,114,206,232,355,424,461,462,463,468,473],canin:436,caniusepython3:105,cannon:[105,459,460,461,462,463,465,467,468,469,470,471],cannot:[7,9,30,31,34,35,45,49,57,58,60,61,66,74,78,79,82,84,91,93,94,95,97,99,102,103,104,105,108,110,113,117,118,131,133,140,153,159,161,167,168,169,170,177,178,182,184,187,193,198,202,203,204,209,212,213,214,215,216,219,225,227,229,232,234,237,246,248,252,254,257,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,276,279,283,284,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,304,305,306,309,310,312,316,321,324,329,330,331,332,333,336,338,339,340,341,342,343,346,347,350,355,359,361,363,366,367,370,382,392,396,399,402,403,407,410,412,413,416,418,419,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,439,440,442,445,448,451,455,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],cannotsendhead:243,cannotsendrequest:243,canon:[58,65,91,93,145,168,184,187,196,236,238,292,294,298,339,348,384,426,463,469,472],canonnam:339,canopi:455,canva:[380,462,472],canvas:380,canvasheight:380,canvaswidth:380,canvheight:380,canvwidth:380,cap:[272,472],cap_sys_resourc:324,capa:[307,468],capabl:[58,66,82,93,97,99,104,106,110,111,112,124,129,133,141,161,170,178,187,193,237,249,254,257,258,272,283,284,288,292,307,308,309,322,342,372,387,391,410,412,419,426,447,451,455,458,459,460,461,466,467,468,469],capac:[104,178,268,293,366,461,463],capath:[343,392,468],capi:463,capit:[106,109,111,187,321,346,347,384,426,436,437,456,471,472],capnam:178,capsul:[15,62,79,99,464],capsulethunk:96,captain:[291,470],caption:177,captur:[62,97,99,170,184,193,264,266,293,320,321,343,347,350,355,358,363,377,397,460,467,468,469,471,472],capture_loc:377,capture_output:[350,471,472],captured_stderr:363,captured_stdin:363,captured_stdout:363,capturestderr:350,capturewarn:[266,397],capword:347,car:91,carbon:[462,466],card:[233,295,320,321,432],cardin:346,care:[30,31,57,60,62,65,72,74,75,79,81,82,90,91,95,98,103,104,105,106,109,110,116,122,124,140,145,161,170,177,184,187,193,194,197,209,212,222,227,229,232,252,255,257,266,267,271,284,289,292,301,310,316,334,336,350,355,359,385,386,387,397,405,408,410,418,426,436,442,444,455,456,460,461,462,463,464,466,468,472],carefulli:[15,22,47,60,82,91,153,182,301,310,321,331,424,451,460,461,462,463,468],carel:[458,472],caret:[106,178,179,193,321,377,472],carl:[462,463,466,467],carlson:[462,467],carmen:161,carneiro:460,carri:[65,97,103,159,185,187,190,264,266,275,284,292,297,320,346,385,406,407,425,431,432,438,461,462,463,469,472],carriag:[106,148,179,208,209,257,321,332,346,365,404,416,431,459,461],carrol:472,cartesian:[84,156,260,462,465,469],cascad:[152,472],casefold:[109,144,161,346,467,469,472],caseless:[109,346,467],cashflow:260,cast:[7,30,31,38,41,53,56,58,79,82,84,95,177,187,260,346,377,382,467,471,472],casual:440,cat:[91,104,106,161,212,232,287,350,437,447,449,466,469],catalin:467,catalog:[62,74,247,456,457,459,472],catalogu:457,catastroph:[215,466,472],catch_warn:[363,397,462,472],catchbreak:385,categor:[292,321,397,426],categori:[29,62,65,72,74,90,93,103,106,109,135,214,257,265,268,291,317,321,346,363,384,391,431,451,456,457,461,462,464,466,471,472],cater:[104,193,267,268],cathedr:422,cathi:471,catstr:363,catucci:[466,468],cauet:[469,472],caught:[22,117,130,154,158,214,293,304,307,325,333,339,342,355,363,367,370,385,386,411,420,424,457,462,464,468,472],caus:[5,9,15,17,22,30,31,38,43,47,57,58,60,70,74,79,81,82,83,84,87,91,92,95,99,103,104,106,110,113,117,122,124,125,129,135,140,145,153,154,157,159,160,161,164,168,170,172,176,177,178,185,187,189,190,193,206,209,210,213,214,227,229,230,241,243,246,248,249,252,254,257,261,265,266,268,271,275,276,283,284,293,297,299,301,304,305,309,310,315,316,321,329,331,334,335,339,342,343,346,347,355,357,361,363,365,366,368,373,375,385,386,387,390,392,397,399,402,404,407,412,416,419,422,423,424,425,426,428,432,434,436,437,439,442,444,446,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],causal:472,caution:[79,91,292,293,350,399,410,439,461],cautionari:460,cautiou:[122,271],caveat:[62,117,139,191,247,251,252,254,310,313,386,424,432,454],caviti:373,cazabon:463,cb_type:343,cba:321,cbc:[168,339],cbreak:[97,178,379],cbresult:81,cbs:346,cbuiltin:[301,465],cc0:236,cc4a5ce1b3df48aec5d22d1f16b894a0b894eccc:236,cc754250:455,cc755104:455,ccbench:463,ccc:[225,373,467],ccitt:[147,351],ccompil:[71,418],cconvert:95,ccp:461,ccs:210,cdata:[316,407,413],cdata_section_nod:407,cdatasect:[62,273],cddb:462,cdecl:177,cdefg:291,cdf246:462,cdio:[470,472],cdll:[177,461,472],cdplayer:462,cdr:91,cdrom:[470,472],cdt:184,ce46195b56a9:468,cea:[462,463,467,470,471],cedilla:[384,426],ceil:[223,275,289,324,346,424,462],cela:201,celebr:275,celementtre:[410,461,466,467],celeri:342,cell:[15,25,60,62,91,97,98,120,177,190,228,237,253,254,373,424,462,472],cell_cont:424,cellvar:[12,472],celtic:159,cent:448,center:[152,157,178,187,222,248,249,254,346,347,370,373,380,422,442,460,462,467],centimetr:370,cento:[225,466,471],centr:74,central:[62,159,184,195,206,227,287,290,456,457,458,459,461,466,472],centrum:[30,63,422],centuri:[152,184,367,466,472],cepl:[469,472],cern:392,cert:[343,463,468,472],cert_:343,cert_byt:343,cert_fil:[243,392,472],cert_non:[343,472],cert_opt:[343,472],cert_req:343,cert_requir:[343,472],cert_store_stat:[343,468],cert_tim:343,cert_time_to_second:[343,469,472],certain:[7,15,22,37,38,45,57,60,65,68,79,83,84,86,93,97,99,103,104,106,107,122,123,135,141,145,159,184,189,193,196,197,200,204,206,207,209,210,212,214,248,254,265,266,267,268,269,271,284,292,293,295,299,308,309,310,339,343,348,350,359,366,367,368,370,384,385,386,391,404,407,416,418,424,426,428,431,437,438,446,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,465,467,468,471,472],certainli:[84,91,97,106,107,177,272,284,456,457,458,459,463],certainti:[79,402],certchain:343,certfil:[225,249,307,337,343,456,470,472],certif:[62,129,135,225,243,249,268,307,337,363,392,416,462,471,472],certifi:472,certificate_verify_fail:343,certificateerror:343,certificaterequest:343,cervant:472,cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3:236,cf9:90,cf_flag:60,cffi:[79,80,187],cfg:[66,68,74,75,91,111,168,267,335,380,396,455,462,467,469,470,472],cfgparser:168,cfile:[91,313],cflag:[78,111,308,362,459,472],cflags_nodist:472,cfmfile:462,cfoo:230,cftuvsux:94,cfuhash:62,cfunctyp:177,cfutur:472,cget:373,cgi:[62,86,110,246,253,255,329,392,393,404,417,447,450,456,462,466,468,470,472],cgi_data:125,cgi_directori:246,cgihandl:404,cgihttprequesthandl:246,cgihttpserv:[464,472],cgirequesthandl:472,cgitb:[62,153,253,255,472],cgixmlrpcrequesthandl:[62,255,460],chacha20:[343,470,472],chacha:236,chad:[109,459,461,462,472],chain:[7,57,62,98,99,104,110,121,158,161,168,177,188,214,215,225,227,237,249,254,260,266,307,337,346,355,377,386,392,424,426,432,436,438,462,464,467,468,469,472],chainmap:[62,183,382,467,468,471,472],challeng:[237,284,337,448,466,471],chambon:463,chanc:[5,31,54,81,103,104,105,107,140,142,184,289,336,366,436,437,461,472],chandra:[471,472],chang:[5,9,12,16,21,22,23,28,30,31,35,36,38,41,45,49,50,51,52,54,56,57,58,60,62,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,92,93,94,97,98,99,101,104,105,106,109,110,111,112,113,114,117,118,119,122,123,124,129,131,134,135,137,140,141,142,143,144,147,151,152,153,157,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,171,172,174,176,177,178,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,197,198,202,203,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,215,216,217,219,222,223,224,225,227,228,229,233,235,236,237,238,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,276,279,282,283,284,286,288,293,294,295,298,299,301,304,305,306,307,308,309,310,311,313,315,316,320,321,322,323,324,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,353,355,357,358,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,374,375,377,378,379,381,382,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,407,408,409,410,411,413,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,435,436,437,438,442,445,446,447,449,451,453,455,472,473],change_cwd:363,change_loc:466,change_root:65,changeabl:91,changelist:329,changelog:[62,309,463,467,468,469,470,471,473],changes_class_v4:472,changeset:[466,468,472],changestest:472,channel:[109,119,125,135,141,143,177,202,213,225,267,284,295,336,338,339,343,351,398,458,467,472],channel_binding_typ:343,channel_class:336,chao:380,chaotic:260,chapman:[90,460],chappel:469,chapter:[2,15,22,31,38,46,59,60,69,72,78,79,81,82,83,84,90,99,120,121,146,165,175,181,183,188,218,220,224,226,247,248,255,256,259,277,278,281,285,290,300,317,352,355,364,368,370,383,388,401,426,430,431,433,435,438,439,442,472],chaput:[469,472],char_data:316,char_gener:342,char_max:265,charact:[5,9,13,15,17,30,31,35,44,45,54,62,65,67,68,74,79,84,90,91,92,93,95,97,104,107,109,112,120,122,123,125,129,133,138,144,146,147,152,153,157,159,168,174,176,177,184,185,187,189,193,195,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,206,207,209,210,214,215,221,222,225,227,230,233,236,239,240,241,245,248,249,252,253,257,264,265,267,271,283,284,285,286,288,293,294,298,301,309,316,319,321,322,323,325,328,332,333,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,347,348,350,355,359,360,361,362,363,365,367,370,372,373,384,385,391,395,402,405,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,426,430,431,432,434,437,438,442,444,445,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],character:93,characterdatahandl:316,characterist:[7,91,301,348,355,461,462],characters_written:214,charat:472,charfil:413,charg:[110,252,422,448],charjunk:189,charl:[456,463,467,468,469,470,471,472],charmap:159,charref:106,charset:[62,184,189,195,197,198,203,206,207,209,210,232,249,285,343,392,404,466,469,472],chart:[98,109,446],chartreus:212,chassi:466,chat:107,chaudhari:468,chcp:[467,472],chdir:[65,293,333,447,466,467,472],che:461,cheap:[68,84,91,177,436,472],cheaper:[377,471],cheat:105,cheatsheet:466,check:[5,7,9,11,15,16,19,20,22,24,28,30,31,32,34,38,39,40,45,49,50,53,54,55,56,57,58,61,62,64,66,71,78,79,81,82,84,86,87,90,94,95,96,97,99,101,103,106,107,109,111,115,118,122,128,129,131,140,144,145,151,153,157,161,162,164,168,170,177,178,179,182,184,187,188,190,198,201,206,209,212,214,215,216,225,227,228,231,234,241,243,244,246,248,249,253,254,258,261,264,266,267,268,269,272,275,281,284,286,287,288,289,293,294,295,297,298,304,305,307,322,324,329,332,333,334,335,337,339,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,350,352,355,358,363,364,366,372,373,375,378,381,382,385,386,388,392,393,397,399,404,410,413,416,419,421,426,428,432,435,436,438,443,444,446,450,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],check__all__:[363,472],check_cal:350,check_choic:292,check_circular:261,check_complex:292,check_crc32:269,check_crc64:269,check_environ:[65,472],check_free_after_iter:363,check_hostnam:[225,243,249,288,307,337,343,392,470,472],check_impl_detail:363,check_interrupted_writ:472,check_moon:292,check_mytyp:292,check_no_resource_warn:[363,472],check_non:269,check_ord:292,check_output:[193,350,463,468],check_resource_ok:170,check_returncod:350,check_same_thread:342,check_sha256:269,check_syntax_error:363,check_unknown:269,check_unused_arg:347,check_warn:[363,462],checkbox:[97,153,282,455],checkbutton:[372,373],checkcach:264,checked_hash:313,checker:[62,91,105,122,178,193,255,292,382,460,461,469,470],checkfuncnam:145,checkin:456,checklist:372,checkout:[95,122,455,463,472],checkpoint:[249,355],checksizeof:363,checksum:[95,147,359,421],chees:[342,437,450],cheeseshop:437,chem:455,chen:472,chenet:[463,466],chermsid:459,cherniavski:460,cherri:472,cheryl:[470,471,472],chess:[99,109,458,459],chessboard:[99,458,459],chestnykh:[236,470],chflag:[293,333,344,462,467],chgat:[178,462],chi:[471,472],chief:[369,440],chiefli:84,child1:[316,386],child2:[316,386],child:[30,54,91,103,104,122,124,132,133,134,135,138,161,213,214,229,249,279,284,293,297,298,311,316,324,329,339,340,350,361,373,386,387,407,408,410,424,456,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,470,471,472],child_conn:284,child_error:472,child_nam:252,child_stderr:350,child_stdin:350,child_stdout:350,child_stdout_and_stderr:350,childless:463,childnod:[407,408,456],childprocesserror:[22,214,446,467],children:[91,103,124,134,237,266,284,293,314,316,324,363,370,373,385,386,387,407,408,409,410,456,463,471,472],children_system:293,children_us:293,chines:[159,460,472],chip:[107,245,463],chiu:472,chjvymzdqg1ligrlig1hdhjpy2u:288,chm:472,chmod:[90,104,153,293,298,333,344,434,454,467,472],cho:[470,472],chocol:212,choic:[7,62,65,79,84,90,91,92,94,104,105,107,110,120,153,156,165,193,227,232,248,254,260,266,267,271,284,292,310,316,320,326,328,330,331,343,345,346,349,372,430,442,444,447,453,454,458,461,466,469,470,471,472],choos:[62,65,79,81,84,90,94,95,99,104,105,106,107,109,111,122,159,193,206,212,228,252,256,266,292,295,301,310,320,342,343,349,355,366,370,372,386,395,410,428,440,453,455,458,459,463,466,467,468,471,472],chop:[167,284,294,456,460,464],chore:[95,456],choru:168,chose:[106,246,251,252,430,461],chosen:[41,79,93,95,98,103,106,111,167,187,212,225,227,236,256,267,284,292,301,320,328,339,343,349,355,361,372,395,412,424,447,451,455,459,460,464,472],chowdhuri:472,chown:[104,293,333,467,472],chowntest:104,chr:[91,109,227,241,316,342,384,424,446,461,463],chri:[459,461,462,467,469,470,472],christi:472,christian:[236,422,456,460,462,467,468,470,471,472],christien:468,christma:86,christo:466,christoph:[459,469,472],chrome:[400,467,472],chromium:[400,467],chronic:470,chronolog:[109,129,470],chroot:293,chrtype:359,chtype:472,chu:[462,465],chuck:472,chunk:[5,12,39,62,91,95,104,107,109,125,135,151,167,181,225,227,236,241,243,253,257,260,261,269,278,284,293,305,316,333,339,349,392,404,412,413,456,459,461,463,470,472],chunksiz:[151,167,284,305,469,472],churn:470,cid:[198,201,339],cipher:[62,135,168,174,236,463,466,467,469,470,471,472],circl:[157,212,275,380,462],circu:[187,227,435],circuit:[238,346,438],circular:[26,30,31,79,82,84,91,251,261,380,387,424,457,469,471,472],circumfer:275,circumflex:[109,374],circumflexequ:374,circumst:[22,38,84,97,103,104,153,168,212,222,244,266,269,292,293,324,333,345,392,396,400,424,432,436,439,446,460,468,472],circumv:406,cisco:[258,472],citat:355,cite:86,citi:[343,393,422],city_list:99,city_st:99,civil:184,cjk:[467,472],cjkcodec:460,claim:[31,79,105,189,200,256,343,349,422,472],claird:90,clamp:[187,466,467],clang:[468,470,472],clara:422,clarendon:156,clarif:[58,428,472],clarifi:[105,106,346,386,416,436,445,461,462,466,468,472],clariti:[84,95,107,123,291,292,361,367,423,466,472],clark:[422,467],clarkson:370,clash:[79,177,248,266,267,271,426,431,436,446,462,469,472],class1:[91,386,387,458],class2:[91,386,387,458],class_:232,class_definit:378,class_method:386,class_or_inst:182,classcommand:370,classdef:[124,423,427,472],classic:[43,91,99,128,168,185,204,232,271,304,380,387,445,458,459,461,463,464,466,472],classif:[62,265,290,292,431],classifi:[65,74,105,229,309,459,463,472],classify_class_attr:472,classinfo:227,classinst:299,classmethod:[53,93,98,118,140,161,162,177,184,187,190,193,204,212,227,228,252,254,260,284,298,346,359,377,378,385,419,424,446,458,460,463,466,467,470,471,472],classmethoddescr_cal:472,classmethoddescriptortyp:[381,471,472],classnam:[22,91,124,162,370,372,386,387,423,436],classname1:[386,387],classname2:[386,387],classroom:[380,472],classvar:[182,382,470,472],claud:[469,472],claudiu:[456,468,469,472],claus:[31,62,93,99,104,117,140,170,190,214,254,284,299,316,346,355,361,363,423,424,425,426,427,432,434,438,439,441,456,461,462,466,468,471,472],cld_continu:293,cld_dump:293,cld_exit:293,cld_trap:293,clean:[22,31,62,71,79,81,84,93,107,122,124,134,140,142,159,167,190,193,202,206,209,213,214,248,252,254,271,283,284,287,317,340,361,363,392,396,399,413,424,426,441,442,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,472],cleanbyt:[38,472],cleandoc:[124,254],cleaner:[93,105,456,465,467,469,472],cleanest:310,cleanfutur:458,cleanimport:363,cleanli:[96,101,106,336,343,472],cleans:65,cleantest:472,cleanup:[30,31,54,62,95,99,104,117,142,165,170,215,293,340,350,352,355,361,363,385,387,399,402,408,423,425,451,456,458,461,463,464,466,467,472],cleanup_need:170,cleanup_resourc:170,clear:[16,21,24,29,30,31,34,40,41,43,50,55,56,57,58,62,75,79,81,82,84,85,86,91,93,95,97,101,106,107,109,110,129,139,157,161,162,168,170,178,187,193,206,217,225,228,229,244,248,252,254,264,266,268,271,276,292,293,299,304,321,322,333,334,339,342,343,346,355,363,366,373,377,378,380,386,387,396,397,410,423,424,436,438,445,455,456,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,470,471,472],clear_all_break:145,clear_all_file_break:145,clear_bpbynumb:145,clear_break:145,clear_cach:[217,468],clear_cont:[198,206],clear_flag:187,clear_fram:[377,468],clear_glob:193,clear_histori:322,clear_session_cooki:244,clear_trac:378,clear_trap:187,clearcach:264,cleardata:282,clearer:[95,99,105,193,292,346,456,457,458,459,460,462,471,472],clearest:[91,459],clearli:[99,105,106,122,237,254,385,448,456,458,461,467,471],clearok:178,clearscreen:380,clearstamp:380,cleartext:[174,268],clees:[176,410,437],clegg:[471,472],clement:[410,470,472],clen:125,clerk:450,clever:[74,84,95,109,153,237,301,347,458],cleverli:237,cli:[363,418,451,468,471,472],click:[87,107,153,178,248,293,370,380,396,422,434,453,455,467,470,471,472],client:[55,62,79,90,98,103,104,107,110,125,127,129,132,145,153,159,165,168,171,195,197,242,245,246,253,255,257,258,266,268,286,293,301,329,330,336,339,340,342,366,380,392,404,407,414,417,422,436,437,447,458,460,462,467,472],client_addr:171,client_addr_var:171,client_address:[246,340,404],client_auth:[343,468],client_connect:129,client_connected_cb:137,client_context:343,client_thread:107,clienthello:343,clientip:266,clientmodul:79,clientsocket:107,cliff:[459,463],clinic:[62,100,470,472],clinton:463,clip:[43,51,95,178,432],clipboard:[248,296,470,471],clk_id:367,clobber:[65,244,292,472],clock:[62,91,120,129,133,184,310,324,380,462,467,469,470,471,472],clock_boottim:[367,471,472],clock_getr:[367,467],clock_gettim:[367,467,472],clock_gettime_n:[367,471,472],clock_highr:367,clock_monoton:[367,471],clock_monotonic_raw:367,clock_process_cputime_id:367,clock_prof:[367,471,472],clock_realtim:[367,472],clock_seq:395,clock_seq_hi_vari:395,clock_seq_low:395,clock_settim:[367,467],clock_settime_n:[367,471,472],clock_thread_cputime_id:367,clock_uptim:[367,471,472],clock_xxx:467,clockspe:225,clockwis:380,clone:[54,62,202,206,209,232,236,238,284,293,303,337,373,380,407,430,454,467],clonenod:[407,472],close:[30,60,65,74,82,84,85,91,92,93,95,99,103,104,107,109,119,125,127,129,132,134,135,137,140,141,148,153,155,156,157,158,159,162,168,170,171,178,185,189,200,208,209,214,215,219,222,225,227,235,241,243,244,248,249,251,257,266,268,269,271,275,279,282,284,288,292,293,295,298,303,310,316,322,329,330,331,332,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,350,351,359,360,361,363,366,367,372,373,375,386,387,392,396,398,402,404,410,413,414,416,417,418,419,424,426,431,437,439,440,442,448,456,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],close_connect:246,close_fd:[293,350,460,466,471,472],close_fil:170,close_when_don:[125,472],closeboundarynotfounddefect:200,closeconnect:385,closefd:[23,227,257,284,464,472],closeit:60,closekei:402,closelog:357,closer:[31,212,332,387,397,436,440,463,464,469,472],closerang:[293,462],closest:[187,223,227,275,346,440,462,463],closur:[25,53,60,82,170,171,190,252,254,292,346,424,467,470,472],closurevar:254,cloth:208,clr:110,clrtobot:178,clrtoeol:178,cls:[45,91,118,162,204,212,227,254,261,298,301,363,378,385,424,439,458,460,466,470,471,472],cls_name:182,clue:292,clumsi:[84,93,467],clumsier:[457,458],cluster:[189,227,339,345,451,462],clutter:[91,104,466],cmath:[62,93,253,275,290,346,460,462,468,472],cmd1:122,cmd2:122,cmd:[62,70,71,92,104,122,129,138,145,178,216,224,225,253,293,299,303,305,310,333,337,350,376,396,451,466],cmd_name:363,cmdclass:[65,70],cmdloop:157,cmdqueue:157,cmode:380,cmowz:346,cmp:[62,217,227,346,456,457,460,464],cmp_func:177,cmp_op:190,cmp_to_kei:[108,227,228,346,463,466],cmpcach:456,cmpfile:217,cmpfunc:177,cmpop:124,cmsg_data:339,cmsg_len:[339,472],cmsg_level:339,cmsg_space:[339,472],cmsg_type:339,cnf:372,cnn:[167,185],cnri:[62,456],cnt:161,co_:254,co_argcount:[254,424],co_async_gener:254,co_cellvar:[190,254,424],co_cod:[254,424],co_const:[190,254,424],co_coroutin:254,co_extra_freefunc:472,co_filenam:[28,254,424,463],co_firstlineno:[190,254,424,472],co_flag:[254,424,472],co_freevar:[190,254,424],co_future_divis:60,co_gener:[254,472],co_iterable_coroutin:[190,254],co_kwonlyargcount:254,co_lnotab:[190,254,424,470,472],co_nam:[190,254,424,469,472],co_nest:254,co_newloc:254,co_nloc:[254,424],co_nofre:[254,472],co_optim:254,co_stacks:[254,424],co_vararg:254,co_varkeyword:254,co_varnam:[190,254,424],coalesc:310,coars:[65,471],coarser:355,cobalt:472,cobject:[62,463],coccioli:472,cocoa:[87,453,466,472],code:[5,7,9,10,11,15,17,22,23,25,28,29,32,34,37,38,41,44,47,50,51,54,55,57,58,59,60,62,65,66,72,74,78,79,81,82,83,85,86,87,90,92,93,94,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,106,107,108,111,114,115,116,118,119,120,123,124,125,126,127,131,132,134,135,136,138,140,141,143,144,145,147,148,149,151,152,153,154,155,157,159,161,162,163,164,165,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,176,177,178,181,182,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,215,216,217,219,221,223,225,227,228,230,231,232,233,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,243,244,245,246,249,250,251,253,255,256,257,258,260,261,262,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,274,276,279,280,281,282,284,286,287,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,309,310,311,313,314,315,316,317,318,319,320,321,322,323,325,326,327,328,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,342,343,344,345,347,348,349,350,351,353,354,355,356,358,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,369,370,371,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,379,380,381,382,386,387,389,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,398,399,400,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,435,436,438,439,440,441,442,443,445,446,447,448,450,451,455,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,470,471,472,473],code_context:254,code_info:[190,466],code_pag:[58,467],codebas:[431,468,469],codec:[15,29,59,62,93,105,109,146,196,202,203,214,227,253,257,337,346,364,444,447,451,456,458,460,461,464,469,470,472,473],codecinfo:[159,461],codecnam:196,codecontext:472,coded_valu:[245,469,471,472],codenam:305,codeobj:190,codeobject:472,codeop:[62,85,181,253],codepag:[62,146,355,472],codepoint2nam:240,codepoint:248,coder:[143,148],codereview:463,codeset:[54,159,232,265,458],codetool:161,codetyp:381,codewarrior:462,coeffici:[187,346,459,468],coerc:[58,102,168,187,196,197,206,261,345,451,456,464,471,472],coercion:[62,93,227,347,424,451,461,463,472,473],coexist:[164,446],coff2omf:[92,111],coff:111,cog:466,coghlan:[99,102,105,109,326,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],coher:[193,424],coin:[93,320],col:[97,178,248,342,347,469],col_info:[297,472],col_offset:[22,124,472],cole:[459,460,466,472],coleman:472,colin:[467,472],collabor:[62,112,459],collaps:[197,222,258,294,298,365,468,472],collapse_address:[258,469,472],collapse_join:65,collapse_rfc2231_valu:[197,210],collat:[93,265,342],collate_revers:342,colleagu:86,collect:[28,29,38,41,46,47,57,61,62,65,69,72,79,80,81,90,91,93,95,97,99,100,101,103,104,105,106,107,113,118,122,124,125,128,135,141,149,153,159,167,168,170,171,172,177,180,182,183,185,192,193,195,214,227,229,242,243,244,253,254,256,260,263,284,293,301,307,310,316,318,320,321,331,333,339,340,343,346,349,355,360,361,363,368,373,378,380,381,382,385,389,392,398,399,402,408,410,415,423,424,426,432,435,438,446,448,449,450,455,458,459,460,461,462,464,465,472,473],collect_incoming_data:125,collector:[26,57,62,79,82,84,91,93,99,253,292,317,355,363,399,408,424,442,456,458,461,462,463,465,467,468,471,472],colleg:89,collid:[95,284,321,392,432],collin:[99,462,463,469,472],collis:[106,236,289,331,455,468,472],colm:472,colno:[261,321,469],colombia:410,colon:[5,62,67,93,95,106,184,193,197,200,206,209,230,232,243,254,258,266,271,294,299,321,337,347,374,375,392,397,404,407,423,426,431,437,439,451,455,462,463,470,472],color:[62,91,93,157,161,178,212,224,241,253,278,332,369,370,372,373,375,402,424,438,466,470,471,472],color_black:[97,178],color_blu:178,color_cont:178,color_cyan:178,color_green:178,color_magenta:178,color_numb:178,color_pair:[97,178],color_r:[97,178],color_whit:[97,178],color_yellow:178,colorchoos:370,colordeleg:472,colored_btn:373,colorfaq:163,colormap:460,colormix:380,colormod:380,colorpick:462,colorsi:[62,253,278],colorstr:380,colorstring1:380,colorstring2:380,colour:[90,97,106,456,472],column:[62,91,95,101,109,124,152,153,176,178,189,190,193,222,248,261,282,293,300,302,310,316,321,333,346,349,365,369,375,385,410,413,438,442,456,463,469,472],com:[62,63,69,79,81,86,90,91,98,103,104,105,106,109,110,137,163,167,168,177,184,185,201,244,288,299,309,320,321,328,342,343,346,392,393,396,402,410,416,449,450,453,455,458,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,472],comb:438,combin:[7,22,30,45,51,53,57,58,62,65,74,78,81,82,86,91,93,95,97,99,104,106,107,109,110,112,118,119,122,139,140,159,161,170,177,178,182,183,184,187,193,204,206,209,222,229,237,244,245,246,248,251,252,257,260,265,266,284,292,293,294,295,298,310,320,321,324,329,330,335,337,339,340,342,346,347,348,349,350,357,359,361,370,373,380,382,384,385,391,402,403,420,422,424,426,427,428,431,432,436,437,438,442,456,460,461,462,463,468,469,470,471,472],combinations_with_replac:[99,161,260,463,465],combinator:[62,260,465],combo:[372,373],combobox:[62,369,372],comboboxselect:373,comboboxtest:472,come:[64,65,68,75,81,84,86,87,90,91,93,94,95,97,98,101,103,105,107,109,110,111,149,152,153,159,161,170,178,187,193,210,228,236,245,251,252,292,295,296,302,321,322,335,340,343,346,369,370,373,382,392,396,407,412,421,424,428,430,435,436,437,439,442,446,449,450,453,454,456,457,458,459,460,462,468,471,472],comedi:86,comfort:[109,193],comma:[5,62,65,70,74,95,113,153,161,176,187,193,212,243,249,265,266,267,271,292,321,346,347,363,374,376,392,397,424,426,432,437,438,445,447,451,460,461,462,463,464,468,471,472,473],command:[22,30,31,60,62,64,66,68,69,71,72,74,75,77,78,79,83,84,85,87,91,92,94,95,103,104,105,106,109,111,112,113,120,121,127,128,129,132,137,138,153,158,161,169,178,186,188,190,191,192,193,207,215,224,225,232,246,249,253,259,263,267,272,282,284,285,288,295,298,303,305,307,308,310,311,312,313,315,317,326,332,333,335,336,337,342,343,346,350,352,355,360,361,364,369,370,373,378,380,396,397,400,404,410,417,424,425,427,432,433,434,435,441,443,444,445,446,449,450,452,453,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,465,469,471,472,473],command_lin:350,command_line_arg:161,command_nam:65,command_packag:70,command_templ:65,commandcompil:160,commandlin:[65,74],comment:[1,9,58,62,65,68,75,79,95,99,104,106,109,113,168,177,193,204,241,244,245,248,254,273,286,293,301,302,312,315,316,321,332,363,374,375,391,409,410,412,419,420,422,432,434,437,444,445,456,458,459,461,463,464,466,472],comment_nod:407,comment_prefix:168,comment_str:346,comment_url:244,commenthandl:316,commerci:[86,87,91,97,295,422,462],commit:[122,282,288,307,342,449,461,462,463,468,470,472],committ:[288,467],committe:462,common:[7,22,29,30,31,45,46,62,64,65,70,72,77,79,82,84,86,87,91,93,94,97,98,99,103,104,107,108,109,110,115,117,122,128,140,149,159,161,168,170,176,177,182,184,189,193,196,201,202,204,206,208,209,212,217,220,223,225,227,236,237,238,244,246,248,253,255,257,258,260,261,264,266,271,272,275,284,292,293,295,300,301,305,320,332,333,334,337,340,343,345,349,350,362,363,364,365,366,367,368,370,372,380,385,386,387,388,392,396,405,416,418,419,421,423,424,426,428,437,438,439,440,445,446,447,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472,473],common_dir:217,common_fil:217,common_funni:217,common_typ:276,commondialog:370,commonli:[30,65,79,90,91,93,97,99,102,106,109,122,168,189,227,253,256,276,284,285,297,340,345,346,348,350,359,367,370,372,385,391,392,397,414,416,424,437,441,442,447,455,458,460,461,462,469,471,472],commonnam:343,commonpath:[294,469,472],commonplac:[105,466],commonprefix:[294,469],commonwealth:422,commun:[0,62,64,74,86,87,91,93,104,107,112,129,132,135,138,141,193,213,243,248,253,268,284,293,307,311,334,336,339,340,343,350,363,366,373,404,416,442,448,453,456,457,460,461,462,466,469,471,472],commut:209,comp:[86,90,91,103,151,288,450,457,458,461,467,468],comp_for:[426,427],comp_if:[426,427],comp_it:[426,427],comp_op:427,comp_oper:426,comp_siz:448,compact:[38,91,93,106,109,124,153,189,198,199,261,301,309,319,349,426,436,467,468,470,472],compactli:[123,435,448,459],compani:[86,87,343,345,455,461,462],companion:[29,141,459],companydata:161,compaq:89,compar:[10,22,30,45,57,58,62,75,81,84,85,90,93,94,97,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,111,112,124,167,177,182,183,184,187,189,190,193,196,197,198,203,212,215,217,227,228,237,238,258,261,265,266,268,271,274,284,292,296,297,298,310,313,316,318,320,329,342,343,346,348,355,363,368,382,384,385,386,387,395,402,410,424,426,428,431,436,440,441,443,448,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],comparand:184,compare_caseless:109,compare_digest:[174,236,238,328,463,467],compare_hash:174,compare_network:258,compare_op:[190,466],compare_sign:187,compare_str:109,compare_to:378,compare_tot:187,compare_total_mag:187,comparison:[17,22,45,57,58,62,74,80,84,99,105,108,109,113,149,156,161,162,174,177,182,183,184,187,189,193,220,221,227,228,237,253,255,265,275,284,291,294,297,300,342,347,348,355,382,385,386,387,395,402,416,424,427,429,431,438,445,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],comparison_flag:193,compass:370,compat32:[62,195,196,199,202,203,206,207,208,209,210,285,467,469,470,472],compat:[5,22,23,30,38,44,52,57,60,62,65,74,81,82,85,87,89,90,93,95,96,97,101,103,104,106,109,110,111,121,122,123,125,129,131,140,141,145,146,153,159,161,162,168,172,177,185,187,193,195,197,202,204,206,208,209,214,215,224,230,232,242,244,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,257,258,265,266,267,271,278,284,288,291,293,297,298,301,303,304,305,310,314,316,318,320,321,324,327,333,339,342,343,346,350,351,352,355,358,359,361,363,367,369,380,382,384,385,391,392,394,395,396,398,404,406,408,410,416,418,419,420,422,423,424,428,431,432,439,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],compat_smtp:209,compat_strict:209,compat_strict_smtp:209,compatbl:472,compel:[267,463],compens:[90,310,470,472],compet:[318,466],competit:107,compil:[5,28,30,31,38,41,53,54,57,60,62,68,71,72,74,77,80,82,83,86,90,91,92,93,95,99,109,112,113,114,123,124,158,168,177,181,185,187,190,193,215,221,227,232,243,248,249,251,252,253,254,256,263,267,269,274,305,308,310,316,321,322,326,332,342,343,346,347,349,355,356,360,363,368,370,373,377,381,382,384,385,397,407,418,419,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,435,436,441,451,452,454,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],compile_:472,compile_command:[158,160],compile_dir:[164,469,471,472],compile_fil:[164,469],compile_path:[164,469],compile_sourc:472,compile_typ:354,compileal:[62,91,253,263,313,446,455,466,470,472],compileerror:65,compileflag:193,compiler_flag:[114,227],compilerflag:114,compilest:297,complain:[57,82,84,94,95,104,170,248,457,472],complaint:[86,87,94,95,439,457],complement:[93,106,321,346,380,424,467,471],complementari:[227,275,320,405,463,466],complet:[22,30,31,38,54,57,58,60,62,63,65,75,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,92,93,95,96,97,99,100,104,106,107,111,119,122,127,129,130,132,135,136,137,138,140,142,147,152,153,156,157,158,159,160,164,167,168,170,178,184,187,189,193,195,197,203,204,206,207,208,209,212,214,216,225,227,232,234,236,237,241,246,251,253,254,258,259,261,267,268,271,272,276,282,284,292,293,295,296,299,301,310,318,320,321,324,332,333,335,339,340,342,343,344,346,350,359,361,362,363,364,366,369,370,372,373,375,376,377,380,385,387,391,392,398,404,405,407,408,410,413,424,425,426,428,429,430,436,437,438,440,441,442,444,445,446,447,449,450,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],complete_:157,complete_foo:157,complete_stat:342,completedefault:157,completedprocess:[350,469],completekei:[157,299],complex:[2,5,15,31,62,64,66,77,78,79,81,84,86,90,91,92,93,94,104,106,107,110,111,112,122,124,125,129,141,168,171,176,184,185,187,188,189,195,201,204,227,228,253,260,261,267,274,275,289,290,292,297,301,321,347,350,355,380,382,386,392,416,424,426,431,432,435,436,437,438,442,445,446,447,451,458,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,470,471,472],complexencod:261,compli:[161,187,261,271,316,422,462],complianc:[62,187,195,204,209,285,288,404,407,467,468,472],compliant:[104,113,129,147,184,195,196,197,199,202,203,204,208,209,210,216,236,246,261,271,304,313,342,367,404,406,422,426,458,461,463,467,470,471,472],complic:[30,57,74,79,84,93,95,97,99,105,106,107,109,110,111,143,159,170,177,182,189,193,216,228,244,292,301,321,367,370,424,426,435,439,442,445,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,472],compnam:[119,351,398],compon:[1,30,31,38,62,65,79,84,86,91,103,104,106,109,110,112,118,159,161,172,178,184,187,195,209,211,232,233,244,252,253,254,255,256,282,289,293,294,297,298,321,332,346,347,355,356,357,361,367,368,373,380,381,385,392,402,407,412,417,419,424,428,429,431,451,455,459,460,463,464,466,468,469,470,471,472],componentflag:282,compos:[57,62,93,118,174,201,202,203,204,209,272,293,337,356,357,372,384,431,467],composit:[271,355,373,384,428,438],compound:[2,31,62,172,224,291,347,365,372,373,429,431,433,445,462,467,472],compound_stmt:[423,427,433],comprehend:252,comprehens:[23,62,90,91,93,95,110,113,124,151,190,227,236,254,301,346,425,426,436,441,447,454,455,460,461,463,464,467,468,469,471,472,473],compress:[30,62,65,66,75,93,99,102,104,119,135,147,159,168,201,219,235,236,253,258,260,276,282,295,301,333,343,344,351,359,398,406,418,419,441,450,458,459,461,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],compress_s:419,compress_typ:[419,463],compressionerror:359,compressionlevel:168,compresslevel:[151,235,359,419,471],compressobj:421,compressor:[151,269,421,472],compris:[288,304,350,426,431,432,462],compromis:[367,395,421,437],comptyp:[119,351,398],compulsori:[457,458,459],comput:[30,31,45,57,58,62,65,77,78,81,82,84,86,87,88,91,92,93,95,97,98,99,101,102,103,106,109,111,123,135,140,143,147,152,156,161,162,163,167,179,182,184,186,187,190,193,217,222,225,227,228,236,237,238,253,254,258,260,266,268,275,284,291,293,294,298,305,309,310,313,320,328,335,339,340,343,345,346,355,364,366,380,385,392,395,402,421,423,424,426,431,432,434,435,436,438,440,442,447,448,450,451,453,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,465,466,468,471,472],computation:93,computer_nam:402,computernam:402,computerphil:109,comspec:[293,350,467,468],con:[91,342,472],concat:[8,58,99,291,382,437],concaten:[22,48,49,62,65,82,106,122,123,151,153,158,159,190,227,236,238,269,271,291,293,294,298,316,321,337,339,343,346,347,359,377,421,424,426,442,445,455,459,460,472],conceal:469,conceiv:[31,68,301,359,436],concentr:[66,72,79,86,106,110,236,320,448,462],concept:[62,71,86,93,97,99,102,103,105,109,111,118,140,168,187,195,245,252,257,284,303,311,320,346,359,366,382,385,387,409,410,423,428,435,441,458,459,464,467,468,469,472],conceptu:[98,99,103,122,143,195,197,201,206,252,347,397,428,471],concern:[72,84,102,103,111,135,159,168,268,301,316,343,363,387,422,457,458,463,472],concert:[233,466],concis:[86,93,99,102,168,292,342,424,436,437,438,456,460,466,470],conclud:[94,99,103,106],conclus:62,concret:[22,29,62,65,81,82,106,118,124,167,177,184,198,209,212,220,232,252,253,257,267,292,320,330,340,355,366,385,391,407,414,428,458,459,462,467,468,471,472],concurr:[30,62,90,93,104,126,127,129,131,132,135,136,138,171,253,271,284,301,313,322,331,342,343,350,355,366,463,472,473],cond:[139,145,355,461],conda:455,condcom:241,condens:[141,236,267,461,472],condit:[30,54,57,62,79,81,84,93,99,104,110,111,125,127,135,138,140,145,149,165,182,187,189,200,212,214,227,230,237,241,249,252,257,266,267,271,272,282,284,297,299,311,316,320,321,329,339,342,343,346,352,355,361,363,385,397,399,409,411,413,416,423,424,425,429,437,439,441,445,448,451,456,457,458,460,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,472,473],condition1:99,condition2:99,condition3:99,condition:[62,115,266,363,472],conditional_express:[426,431],conditionn:99,conduc:208,conduct:251,conduct_elect:466,coneybear:472,conf:[103,104,106,298,448,459,466,472],confer:[86,342,373,450,457,461],confid:[91,105,153,320],config:[62,68,71,74,75,78,85,91,103,104,120,168,248,253,265,266,268,292,333,355,356,370,386,387,404,448,459,463,466,468,470,471,472],config_dict:267,config_initi:104,config_kei:472,config_listen:104,config_work:104,configchang:472,configdialog:472,configdialog_tests_v1:472,configdict:463,configfil:168,confighandl:472,confighelpsourceedit:472,configpars:[62,218,253,267,332,456,460,463,464,465,468,471,472],configur:[29,31,38,58,62,66,70,71,72,74,78,79,91,92,95,97,99,101,106,117,120,128,129,133,134,137,171,173,177,185,192,218,224,225,236,246,248,249,252,253,256,266,268,271,272,292,293,307,308,309,316,317,322,325,332,336,337,339,342,343,355,362,363,366,370,371,372,373,385,386,387,392,396,397,402,404,406,408,409,414,416,422,443,446,448,451,452,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,465,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],configure_log:104,configure_mock:[386,387,472],confin:[178,193],confirm:[103,294,299,392,397,472],conflict:[62,66,79,84,93,106,108,110,118,122,161,232,242,352,355,382,402,410,422,431,436,444,449,451,455,466,468,471,472],conflict_handl:[62,120,292],confluenc:105,conform:[26,62,103,129,147,153,168,184,187,202,204,209,210,227,248,251,252,255,266,273,297,301,316,355,391,408,410,416,422,424,460,464,465,467,468,472],confound:465,confront:[31,411,459],confstr:[293,472],confstr_nam:293,confus:[31,57,74,78,84,90,91,97,104,105,106,108,110,114,118,140,158,177,187,189,193,268,292,293,301,305,321,334,386,392,396,424,426,432,436,437,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,465,466,468,470,471,472],confusingli:[106,110,431,456],congratul:95,conin:350,conio:455,conjug:[187,289,346,462],conjunct:[28,169,189,191,193,227,251,254,332,343,431,468],conn1:284,conn2:284,conn:[129,141,161,167,170,243,284,301,330,336,339,342,343,366,461,466,469],connect:[62,92,97,102,104,107,110,120,125,126,127,132,137,141,153,161,165,170,208,213,214,225,243,244,246,248,249,257,266,268,288,292,293,300,301,307,311,329,333,334,336,337,340,343,349,350,355,360,363,366,370,372,380,387,392,394,402,404,406,408,411,413,416,422,426,439,442,444,445,451,455,456,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],connect_accepted_socket:[129,132,135,470,472],connect_ex:[90,339,456],connect_read_pip:[129,132,133,135,138],connect_write_pip:[129,132,133,135,138],connectdb:366,connection_lost:[132,135],connection_mad:[129,132,135,472],connectionabortederror:[22,214,446,467],connectionerror:[22,214,243,446,467,469],connectionopt:382,connectionrefusederror:[22,214,446,467],connectionreseterror:[22,138,214,243,446,467],connector:431,connectregistri:402,connid:104,connor:[459,468,470,472],connstream:343,conout:350,consectetur:151,consecut:[5,21,58,65,99,144,159,260,275,346,347,367,380,431,451,460,468,472],consensu:[84,93,456],consequ:[38,52,68,79,84,91,162,168,237,254,284,334,339,346,424,426,430,431,436,440,451,461,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472],consequenti:422,conserv:[105,125,297,457,460],consid:[30,45,50,51,57,58,62,64,65,66,78,79,81,82,84,91,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,102,104,106,111,113,118,122,128,129,145,149,153,156,164,168,169,177,178,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,197,205,206,209,222,227,228,230,232,233,236,237,246,251,252,256,257,258,261,265,266,267,269,271,275,284,288,289,292,297,298,299,301,310,316,321,322,328,329,332,336,342,343,346,347,355,359,363,365,366,367,370,381,385,386,392,399,404,407,408,409,417,418,424,425,426,428,432,436,438,440,446,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,464,466,468,469,470,471,472],consider:[31,62,79,84,91,103,129,165,178,182,193,225,243,249,271,288,307,337,342,392,407,429,435,456,459,460,461,463,467,471],consist:[5,7,9,14,17,22,30,31,47,51,60,64,65,74,79,86,91,93,95,97,99,103,105,111,119,124,143,147,152,153,155,159,161,168,178,179,184,189,190,192,193,197,204,206,208,209,210,212,227,230,241,243,244,248,249,252,256,258,261,265,267,268,269,275,284,293,303,310,320,321,327,332,337,340,345,346,348,350,351,355,361,365,372,373,380,382,385,392,407,423,424,426,428,431,437,438,445,453,454,456,457,458,459,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],consol:[30,60,62,74,91,92,97,103,104,177,179,181,193,202,227,248,267,293,299,315,322,350,355,401,418,434,451,455,458,462,466,467,471,472],console1:104,console2:104,console_prior:466,consolehandl:103,consolelib:90,consolid:[459,467,470,472],consortium:[109,407],const_on:31,constant:[7,30,41,53,57,58,62,81,82,84,90,91,93,95,97,104,117,120,122,124,129,140,150,159,161,162,165,167,174,175,176,179,184,185,190,193,212,216,227,228,229,237,242,243,245,251,253,254,257,260,263,265,266,269,273,274,279,282,283,284,290,292,293,295,297,300,301,302,306,310,321,324,329,330,334,344,346,355,357,359,360,362,363,364,366,370,372,375,378,382,384,395,401,403,407,409,410,412,416,419,421,424,426,431,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],constant_factori:161,constant_nam:316,constantli:[442,469],consti:190,constitu:[210,407],constitut:[189,258,332,472],constrain:[60,102,123,124,209,309,382,426,428,458,461,466],constraint:[99,187,256,266,309,346,428,461,462,464,472],construct:[3,22,49,53,59,60,66,74,78,79,81,84,91,93,98,99,102,103,104,108,122,129,135,138,151,159,162,170,172,177,184,187,190,193,195,198,202,204,209,210,212,214,217,222,223,227,229,235,236,244,246,251,252,258,260,266,267,269,274,282,284,292,293,297,298,301,309,310,316,321,322,332,335,337,342,343,346,349,350,366,377,380,382,385,386,387,391,399,406,408,409,410,411,416,417,419,423,424,425,426,431,432,436,437,438,444,447,451,455,456,457,458,460,461,463,466,467,469,470,471,472],constructor:[5,17,22,26,48,50,57,58,62,65,74,79,81,85,93,98,99,102,103,104,105,113,122,124,129,141,151,152,158,159,161,162,165,168,173,176,177,182,184,187,189,193,199,202,203,204,207,208,209,214,219,223,227,228,235,236,238,243,244,247,249,257,258,260,261,266,267,269,271,279,284,291,292,301,307,309,310,318,327,329,331,332,336,337,339,340,343,346,347,354,359,360,361,363,365,366,368,370,371,380,381,382,385,386,387,392,399,400,404,410,417,419,420,424,438,439,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],constuctor:472,consult:[65,66,86,90,91,93,97,99,103,106,111,156,161,168,177,184,190,232,266,267,271,293,295,321,324,337,339,342,344,355,367,369,404,421,428,442,449,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,472],consum:[7,57,58,90,91,99,106,107,122,125,128,130,136,137,153,159,170,176,190,195,208,233,257,260,261,284,288,292,293,298,310,318,321,324,331,349,363,366,386,391,406,410,421,424,444,451,456,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,470,472],consumpt:[81,254,297,324,333,355,442,466,467,472],cont:193,contact:[86,98,392,404,422],contain:[5,7,9,11,13,21,22,24,25,26,28,29,30,31,34,36,37,38,44,45,49,50,53,54,55,56,57,58,62,65,66,70,72,74,77,78,79,81,82,83,85,86,90,91,92,93,95,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,119,120,124,125,129,135,137,140,143,144,145,147,148,151,152,153,154,158,159,160,164,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,176,177,178,179,182,183,184,185,188,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,212,214,215,217,222,225,227,228,229,232,233,235,236,237,238,239,241,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,261,262,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,274,276,279,280,282,284,286,287,288,290,291,292,293,294,295,297,299,301,302,304,305,306,307,309,310,312,313,314,315,316,320,321,324,326,328,329,331,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,342,343,346,347,349,350,354,355,356,358,359,361,362,363,365,367,368,370,372,373,375,376,377,378,380,382,384,385,386,387,389,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,399,400,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,448,449,450,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],content:[0,5,7,8,9,11,24,30,34,38,41,49,53,56,58,60,65,68,77,78,94,95,97,99,103,104,106,109,110,111,114,115,123,125,129,135,144,151,153,155,158,159,161,164,167,177,178,180,183,185,188,190,193,195,196,197,199,200,201,202,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,216,217,218,225,227,228,229,232,235,236,238,241,242,243,246,248,252,253,254,256,257,261,267,271,273,276,279,280,282,285,293,298,301,302,304,309,313,317,319,322,333,336,342,343,346,347,349,351,355,359,361,363,364,365,370,375,381,383,388,390,391,392,393,396,399,404,406,408,410,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,421,425,426,428,431,436,437,439,442,445,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],content_manag:[198,206,209,468],content_typ:[201,204],contentdispositionhead:204,contenthandl:[62,273,409,411,413,414,456],contentmanag:[62,195,207,285,468],contenttooshorterror:[390,392],contenttransferencod:204,contenttypehead:204,context:[10,15,22,30,38,41,45,49,58,60,62,64,66,72,79,85,91,93,95,96,99,107,109,122,124,125,129,131,134,140,153,154,161,165,167,168,184,185,188,189,190,214,219,225,227,237,243,252,253,254,257,261,266,267,268,269,271,279,288,290,293,295,296,299,300,307,309,316,317,318,321,323,324,329,330,331,337,339,340,347,350,353,355,359,360,361,363,366,369,372,374,385,386,387,392,396,399,402,407,409,411,412,416,419,423,425,426,431,432,434,438,439,456,463,464,465,466,468,469,470,471,472,473],context_diff:189,context_expr:124,context_use_ps1:472,contextbaseclass:170,contextdecor:[170,466],contextfilt:104,contextlib:[62,253,317,346,378,382,463,464,465,472],contextmanag:[170,346,382,461,462,466,470,472],contextu:[62,189,266],contextvar:[16,62,93,129,131,140,253,472],conti:463,contig:7,contigu:[2,5,39,62,84,93,189,249,271,346,412,462,467,472],continu:[5,22,31,32,54,58,62,68,79,85,86,91,93,98,99,103,109,110,114,117,118,120,124,125,129,140,141,156,157,159,161,170,178,182,190,193,197,200,201,203,208,242,243,246,248,249,251,252,260,266,271,283,292,293,294,299,316,320,321,333,339,340,343,345,346,374,375,385,387,392,397,412,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,436,439,441,443,444,445,448,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],continuation_w:203,continue_loop:190,continue_stmt:[427,432],contort:464,contract:[248,346,422],contractu:456,contradictori:292,contrari:[7,84,189,442],contrarili:446,contrast:[58,93,108,161,187,248,310,343,346,370,382,409,424,426,428,447,458,467,470,471],contravari:382,contravariantli:382,contravent:197,contrib:[370,396],contribut:[0,31,62,64,72,84,86,93,112,182,232,236,252,296,310,321,383,394,422,428,450,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],contributor:[62,64,112,422,464,472],contriv:193,control:[5,7,29,30,31,38,44,53,59,62,65,68,69,71,79,80,81,83,85,89,90,91,93,97,103,104,106,108,111,117,122,126,129,132,134,135,137,138,140,141,144,145,153,154,157,159,161,164,167,172,176,177,178,179,184,185,187,189,192,193,195,197,198,202,203,206,208,209,211,214,216,219,222,224,225,227,229,231,235,248,249,252,253,255,257,258,261,266,267,268,271,276,282,283,284,288,292,293,295,299,300,301,307,309,310,311,313,316,317,319,323,324,329,330,332,339,340,343,346,348,349,350,355,359,361,365,366,368,370,371,372,373,376,377,381,385,386,387,388,391,392,399,402,403,410,412,414,416,417,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,432,434,436,439,440,441,442,444,448,449,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],control_next:282,controlcondit:282,controlev:282,controlnam:179,controlpanel:370,controversi:[292,458],conttyp:359,conv:[448,469],conveni:[5,7,19,22,23,26,28,30,38,41,57,62,66,70,79,81,84,90,91,92,95,96,103,104,108,109,110,111,122,129,147,152,153,158,159,161,168,177,182,184,187,190,196,197,199,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,227,228,232,235,236,244,248,251,253,254,255,257,266,267,269,271,276,284,292,295,297,301,310,328,332,337,342,343,345,346,350,351,359,362,363,365,367,368,370,372,385,386,387,396,398,404,406,407,410,411,413,418,423,424,428,431,432,436,437,439,446,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,468,469,470,472],convent:[31,53,57,65,69,72,74,79,91,93,95,97,98,103,104,109,111,148,152,168,177,178,179,184,210,222,227,230,232,244,247,265,271,292,294,295,346,347,355,363,365,367,385,392,418,424,426,430,431,436,437,439,444,446,447,448,449,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,468,469,471,472],convention:[10,79,244,292,293],converg:[109,345],convers:[5,9,29,30,31,57,58,59,62,65,78,86,93,95,97,98,101,107,120,122,124,135,141,144,147,148,159,168,176,184,187,196,227,253,255,257,261,265,271,276,278,289,290,292,293,301,339,343,346,347,349,350,355,359,375,381,386,391,394,422,429,431,446,455,461,462,463,464,465,466,468,469,471,472,473],conversionerror:[405,472],conversionsyntax:462,convert:[5,13,14,17,24,30,31,35,43,50,51,53,54,58,60,62,65,74,75,78,79,81,82,84,90,92,93,97,98,99,103,104,106,107,108,111,113,119,122,123,143,145,148,150,153,156,157,159,161,163,165,168,176,177,179,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,206,207,209,210,214,216,221,225,227,228,232,239,241,245,249,253,258,260,261,263,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,276,284,285,289,291,292,293,294,300,301,303,304,306,309,320,321,328,337,339,344,346,347,349,351,355,359,367,370,373,375,385,391,392,395,397,402,404,408,410,412,416,424,426,431,432,439,440,442,445,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],convert_arg_line_to_arg:122,convert_charref:[241,468,469,472],convert_field:347,convert_path:65,convert_point:342,convert_to_error:472,converter_init:95,convinc:[103,265],conwai:[370,472],coodin:469,cook:[106,178,360,472],cookbook:[31,62,69,80,91,100,103,110,266,267,268,275,368,450,466],cooki:[62,110,117,212,236,242,253,255,343,366,375,392,460,462,463,464,469,471,472],cookie2:244,cookie3:244,cookie_spec:244,cookieerror:245,cookiejar:[62,242,245,253,255,392,472],cookielib:[62,463,464],cookiepolici:[62,255],cool:[66,91],coomb:468,cooper:[30,93,118,140,165,204,227,343,355,422,436,471,472],coord:347,coordin:[62,64,84,95,97,104,112,139,163,177,178,180,184,271,282,290,342,347,367,370,373,375,380,448,456,462],cope:[62,86,188,460,472],copi:[5,7,9,16,30,39,47,50,57,58,62,64,65,66,69,70,72,74,79,83,84,94,95,96,99,104,111,112,113,122,124,129,135,140,153,159,161,167,168,171,173,177,178,182,183,184,187,193,201,202,204,209,216,222,227,228,229,232,236,238,245,248,249,253,254,257,260,268,271,276,279,284,292,293,301,303,304,321,331,333,342,346,347,349,350,355,356,363,370,378,380,381,385,386,387,392,396,397,404,412,413,418,421,422,423,424,428,436,437,438,445,446,449,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],copied_list:172,coprim:346,copy2:[333,466,467,469],copy_ab:187,copy_call_arg:387,copy_context:171,copy_decim:187,copy_fil:65,copy_funct:[333,466,469],copy_loc:124,copy_neg:187,copy_nul:58,copy_reg:464,copy_sign:187,copy_str:472,copy_tre:65,copyfil:[90,333,447,463,468],copyfileobj:[110,235,333,472],copyingmock:387,copyinstr:101,copymod:333,copyreg:[62,172,253,280,300,301,464,472],copyright:[30,62,64,66,79,92,111,169,236,248,355,422,444,446,451,466],copysign:[275,462],copystat:[333,467,472],copytre:[62,90,220,462,463,466,472],corba:407,corchero:[471,472],corderoi:462,core:[1,22,26,47,54,62,64,69,70,71,72,74,77,79,82,93,103,105,106,120,129,168,206,236,252,253,256,260,265,268,291,292,293,302,310,315,320,324,334,346,363,366,381,382,386,407,422,424,429,432,446,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,473],coredump:363,corner:[17,97,178,380,404,458,461,462,472],coro:[128,129,140,355,469,472],coro_clos:254,coro_cr:254,coro_func:128,coro_run:254,coro_suspend:254,corollari:464,coroutin:[15,62,93,99,126,127,129,131,132,135,136,137,138,139,162,170,183,190,214,317,355,382,426,429,461,470,471,472],coroutinetyp:[381,469,472],corowrapp:472,corp:458,corpor:[63,64,112,422],correct:[1,7,30,57,58,66,77,79,83,91,95,99,102,109,110,113,135,170,177,193,197,198,200,209,212,217,241,244,248,249,252,275,279,284,289,292,293,295,297,301,316,333,339,342,343,345,346,347,350,351,355,367,370,380,385,386,387,392,396,398,404,412,418,421,424,426,436,437,439,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,470,471,472],correctli:[7,41,53,57,60,82,84,95,96,102,118,119,122,153,159,170,176,184,187,193,197,198,204,209,210,227,233,248,254,258,265,293,297,326,346,359,363,386,387,402,404,424,428,431,438,439,455,458,460,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],correl:252,correspond:[5,9,11,14,17,18,21,22,27,28,30,31,36,41,44,45,51,53,57,58,62,65,66,69,74,75,77,79,81,82,85,91,92,93,96,97,99,102,103,104,106,107,109,110,111,114,119,122,123,125,129,135,138,140,147,152,157,159,161,168,171,176,177,178,179,184,185,187,190,193,200,209,210,213,214,219,220,222,224,225,227,228,232,234,236,239,241,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,271,284,291,292,293,295,309,310,312,316,319,320,321,330,332,333,334,337,339,341,343,346,347,349,350,354,355,356,365,366,367,370,372,373,377,382,384,385,386,390,391,392,394,396,399,400,403,407,408,412,414,416,419,420,421,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,439,445,451,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],correspondingli:[271,456,472],correspondintli:472,corrupt:[38,54,109,147,178,213,216,244,269,271,284,301,318,342,346,442,455,471,472],cos:[156,187,223,275,301,447,459],cosbuc:472,cosh:[156,275],cosin:[156,187,275],cost:[78,84,91,95,161,184,189,228,236,244,252,297,346,368,377,382,387,424,456,459,462,463,468],costa:410,costli:472,costlier:93,could:[7,22,24,28,30,31,51,57,65,66,69,70,77,79,82,83,84,89,91,93,95,96,97,98,99,103,104,105,107,108,109,110,111,113,118,122,124,129,131,135,143,153,157,161,168,177,178,184,193,201,202,207,209,214,217,225,229,230,232,237,238,248,251,254,257,258,260,261,266,267,268,271,284,292,293,295,298,299,301,305,310,313,316,320,321,323,330,332,339,342,350,355,359,363,366,369,382,385,386,387,391,392,394,395,399,404,407,424,426,428,430,431,432,435,436,437,439,440,442,445,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],couldn:[79,106,110,257,293,334,342,387,420,457,458,461,463,470,472],count0:229,count1:229,count2:229,count:[3,5,6,7,9,11,22,29,30,41,42,45,49,51,53,54,57,58,62,80,81,82,84,86,90,91,93,94,95,99,106,122,123,129,136,141,145,147,150,153,161,162,177,178,184,189,190,193,197,209,212,219,227,229,237,248,249,251,252,254,257,260,266,271,279,282,284,288,292,293,299,301,307,310,318,320,321,329,332,339,342,343,346,347,349,355,363,365,366,367,368,370,376,378,385,392,410,424,426,431,432,438,445,448,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,472],count_alloc:[57,451,463,470,472],count_diff:378,count_word:382,countcal:376,counter:[57,62,79,82,91,93,99,139,142,183,189,190,201,222,237,284,292,320,346,366,367,382,385,423,426,436,458,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,472],counterclockwis:[156,380],counterfil:142,counterintuit:168,countermeasur:406,counterpart:[79,104,178,227,257,260,266,270,288,321,339,346,362,463,465,466,471,472],countfunc:376,countless:456,countof:291,countri:[244,265,343,346,410,460],country_data:410,country_data_as_str:410,countrydata:410,countrynam:343,counttestcas:385,coupl:[62,69,74,75,81,91,95,104,105,107,122,129,206,209,210,266,284,292,334,369,386,387,392,406,455,468,470,471,472],courier:[271,370,472],cournapeau:463,cours:[65,66,69,72,74,75,79,82,84,86,92,95,99,103,104,107,111,118,177,187,193,201,203,208,236,256,266,267,284,289,292,293,332,340,343,370,380,386,387,407,416,424,436,437,445,451,456,457,459,464,466,467,468],courtesi:472,cout:91,couzo:472,covari:382,covariantli:382,cover:[31,64,71,72,74,80,82,85,86,91,97,100,103,104,106,107,109,111,112,135,170,193,195,209,212,244,267,284,292,320,321,337,346,350,370,376,385,391,407,421,422,430,441,448,451,456,457,458,461,464,467,468,472],coverag:[30,62,91,355,370,376,464,468,472],coverageresult:376,coverdir:376,cow:468,cowl:201,cowlishaw:460,coyot:244,cp037:159,cp1006:159,cp1026:159,cp1125:[159,468],cp1140:159,cp1250:[159,168],cp1251:159,cp1252:[159,444],cp1253:159,cp1254:159,cp1255:159,cp1256:159,cp1257:159,cp1258:159,cp1361:159,cp154:159,cp273:[159,468],cp35:472,cp424:159,cp437:159,cp500:159,cp65001:[159,467,472],cp720:[159,463,466],cp737:159,cp775:159,cp819:159,cp850:159,cp852:159,cp855:159,cp856:159,cp857:159,cp858:[159,463],cp860:159,cp861:159,cp862:159,cp863:159,cp864:159,cp865:159,cp866:159,cp866u:159,cp869:159,cp874:159,cp875:159,cp932:[159,460],cp936:159,cp949:[159,460],cp950:[159,460],cp_acp:[58,159,467,470],cp_oemcp:[159,470],cp_utf7:472,cp_utf8:[159,467,472],cpanel:110,cpathnam:28,cpickl:[459,461,463,464],cplx:462,cpp:[74,459,472],cpparg:111,cppflag:[459,472],cprofil:[62,186,461,472],cpu:[90,107,109,128,129,132,159,165,167,236,237,269,284,293,324,367,368,378,406,453,459,467,468,469,471,472],cpu_bound:129,cpu_count:[164,284,293,468,472],cpython:[12,30,31,54,62,77,79,81,82,86,91,93,94,95,100,159,162,187,190,193,211,215,227,236,238,251,252,254,275,298,305,313,318,322,326,345,346,355,363,366,381,399,404,424,425,426,430,432,446,451,454,455,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,469,472,473],cpython_onli:363,cr_await:[254,472],cr_code:254,cr_frame:254,cr_origin:[254,355,472],cr_run:254,crabgrass:438,crack:174,craft:[202,301,428,442,466],craig:[459,472],cram:[249,337],crash:[31,39,79,81,96,124,153,177,185,215,227,248,271,284,292,299,301,355,363,451,456,461,462,467,468,470,472],crawl:[393,470,472],crawl_delai:[393,472],crazi:107,crc32:[147,236,421,447,448],crc:[147,419,421,472],crc_hqx:[147,472],creat:[0,1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,14,15,16,18,19,21,22,23,24,26,27,28,31,35,36,38,39,41,45,50,53,55,56,57,60,61,62,68,69,70,71,72,74,77,79,81,82,83,84,87,92,93,95,96,97,98,103,104,105,106,108,109,110,111,112,116,117,118,119,120,123,124,125,126,127,128,131,132,134,135,136,137,139,141,145,151,152,153,155,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,171,172,175,176,177,178,182,183,184,185,187,188,189,190,191,193,194,195,199,200,201,202,203,204,206,208,209,211,214,216,219,220,222,225,226,227,228,229,232,235,237,241,242,243,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,257,258,263,266,267,268,269,271,272,279,282,283,284,285,288,293,294,298,299,301,302,304,307,309,310,314,316,321,324,325,329,331,333,335,336,337,340,342,343,344,346,347,349,350,352,354,355,359,361,363,365,366,368,370,372,373,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,392,394,395,399,400,402,404,407,408,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,419,420,422,423,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,436,437,438,439,441,442,445,446,447,448,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,470,471,472],create_accepted_socket:471,create_aggreg:[342,472],create_arch:[418,471,472],create_autospec:[62,188,472],create_breakaway_from_job:350,create_cal:387,create_col:[342,472],create_configur:396,create_connect:[129,132,135,137,339,343,462,463,466,469,471,472],create_datagram_endpoint:[129,132,133,135,471,472],create_decim:[187,462,467],create_decimal_from_float:187,create_default_context:[129,225,243,249,307,337,343,392,463,468,472],create_default_error_mod:350,create_dynam:472,create_empty_fil:363,create_font_tab:472,create_funct:[342,472],create_futur:[129,131,132,135,469,470,472],create_lin:456,create_method:284,create_modul:[41,252,428,469,470],create_new_consol:350,create_new_process_group:[138,350],create_no_window:350,create_pars:[411,413],create_patch:387,create_polygon:456,create_serv:[129,132,135,137,469,470,471,472],create_shortcut:66,create_socket:141,create_stat:310,create_static_lib:65,create_string_buff:[177,461],create_subprocess_exec:[127,129,134,138,350],create_subprocess_shel:[127,129,138],create_system:419,create_task:[127,128,129,131,132,136,139,140,469,471,472],create_tre:65,create_unicode_buff:[177,472],create_unix_connect:[129,132,133,135,137,472],create_unix_serv:[129,132,133,135,137,471,472],create_vers:419,create_widget:370,createattribut:407,createattributen:407,createcom:407,createconnect:385,createdocu:[407,408],createdocumenttyp:407,createel:407,createelementn:407,createexpensiveconnectionobject:385,createfilehandl:[370,472],createkei:402,createkeyex:[402,463],createlock:[266,268],createprocess:350,createprocessinginstruct:407,createprocessw:472,createrecord:282,createsocket:268,createtextnod:[407,408],creation:[6,15,30,31,54,57,62,77,79,80,82,84,91,93,99,103,104,112,120,121,122,123,135,138,141,151,161,182,183,187,191,198,212,227,232,236,249,252,253,254,255,257,266,269,271,282,284,292,294,297,313,323,324,333,344,346,347,350,355,359,361,363,370,372,386,399,407,418,422,423,428,436,459,467,468,469,471,472],creationflag:[138,350,460],creativ:[90,236],creativecommon:236,creator:[0,65,80,93,104,284,293,333,396,408,419,420,424,430],credenti:[268,288,392,455,469,472],credit:[62,92,111,169,175,248,260,355,370,444,446,472],creturnconvert:95,crew:[458,459,461],crit:268,criteria:[103,249,266,310],criterion:[84,249,424,456],critic:[81,86,93,103,104,129,251,252,266,267,268,292,403,428,435,447,448,459,461,462,465,466,469],crl3:343,crl4:343,crl:[343,468,472],crldistributionpoint:[343,468],crle:472,crlf:[58,225,245,246,471,472],crncystr:265,cro:106,crompton:[470,472],cron:268,crop:363,cross:[62,64,65,71,78,82,86,87,107,111,120,143,184,192,21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,109,122,158,159,195,197,198,206,220,241,257,265,283,284,292,301,320,327,339,367,370,380,387,391,422,436,442,456,458,459,460,461,464,467,469,472],deal_with_cli:343,dealloc:[9,26,30,31,41,47,57,58,79,81,82,84,93,229,363,399,432,457,458,463,466,472],dealt:[81,107,158,292],death:467,deb:460,debian:[66,85,111,225,305,454,456,457,471,472],debnath:[471,472],debug:[16,29,30,38,45,57,60,62,71,81,82,84,91,93,97,101,103,104,105,106,111,124,132,140,145,154,167,171,177,187,188,197,205,206,214,222,225,229,243,249,253,255,266,267,268,280,288,292,299,303,305,307,321,332,336,337,342,346,355,359,360,363,369,372,378,385,386,397,410,416,419,424,425,431,432,442,447,448,452,454,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],debug_bytecode_suffix:252,debug_collect:229,debug_leak:229,debug_overrid:[251,252,469],debug_print:65,debug_saveal:229,debug_src:193,debug_stat:229,debug_uncollect:[229,466],debugg:[29,62,79,186,193,214,227,248,253,323,355,385,424,436,455,458,459,461,462,463,466,470,471,472],debuggingserv:[62,255],debuglevel:[243,337,360,392,469,472],debugrunn:193,dec:[91,92,99,107,184,223,225,447,458,459,472],decatur:99,decemb:[86,184,431,447,458,459,470],decent:[107,445],decept:[293,459],decid:[82,84,86,91,95,99,103,105,107,145,158,170,178,184,193,229,244,268,339,340,342,366,428,432,446,449,461,463,472],decim:[35,54,58,62,84,91,106,109,156,161,168,179,184,223,227,228,241,253,258,260,261,265,267,275,290,292,310,320,321,345,346,347,355,366,367,375,384,385,416,426,431,440,441,442,445,451,456,461,462,463,465,472,473],decimal_point:[265,346,472],decimalexcept:187,decimaltupl:187,decinteg:431,decis:[93,104,105,107,158,254,355,373,432,446,456,460,461,463,466,467,472],decistmt:375,deck:[161,320],decl:241,declar:[5,18,30,31,52,53,57,62,64,65,74,79,81,82,84,90,91,92,93,95,99,104,109,118,140,168,170,171,173,177,182,192,227,241,252,254,257,267,292,301,316,332,340,342,346,354,382,385,400,406,407,408,410,412,413,423,424,425,432,435,436,444,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],declassifi:106,declhandl:412,declin:468,deco:460,decod:[13,22,30,54,58,60,62,78,79,104,105,109,123,129,135,137,138,143,144,146,147,176,177,190,197,198,200,201,202,203,204,205,207,209,210,214,218,227,236,245,252,253,257,269,285,288,293,298,301,302,336,338,339,342,343,346,350,355,359,360,363,374,375,391,392,396,404,416,424,428,431,442,447,451,456,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,472],decode_data:[336,469,470,472],decode_func:456,decode_head:[203,288,467],decode_param:210,decode_rfc2231:210,decode_sourc:[252,468],decodebyt:[144,159],decoded_seq:203,decoded_str:203,decodedgener:[202,470,472],decodefsdefault:95,decodestr:[144,319],decompos:[5,86,99,384,391,472],decomposit:[86,384],decompress:[62,121,147,151,159,219,235,398,406,421,447,461,466,467,469,470,472],decompressobj:421,decompressor:[151,269,421,472],deconfigur:103,deconstruct:5,decor:[62,93,104,118,140,142,161,162,177,188,212,227,228,252,254,317,323,346,355,363,385,417,423,424,426,427,461,463,464,466,467,468,471,472,473],decorated_foo:104,decorator_list:124,decoupl:[448,469,471],decreas:[3,7,184,190,237,258,367,456,460,463,467,470,472],decref:[31,57,58,472],decrement:[5,7,9,31,47,57,58,79,82,84,91,139,284,299,334,366,373,424,472],decrib:472,decrypt:[267,343,419],dedent:[122,248,365,374,375,423,427,431,472],dedic:[30,62,81,104,168,193,236,343,346,363,472],deduc:[57,176,193,284,310,455,466],deed:106,deem:[54,93,96,208,232,266,268,346,382,404,422,456,457,461,463,466,467,468],deep:[62,66,74,93,104,161,183,252,253,301,309,332,355,407,447,472],deepchainmap:161,deepcopi:[91,161,172,321,387,463,470,471,472],deeper:[98,110,161,168,184,192,193,309,347,355],deepli:[103,172,363,386,406,431,448,456,462,472],def:[7,16,21,31,41,60,62,77,78,79,82,85,90,91,93,95,97,98,99,103,104,106,107,108,109,111,113,118,122,124,125,126,128,129,131,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,149,150,151,157,161,162,167,168,170,171,173,174,177,182,184,187,189,190,193,201,204,212,217,227,228,230,232,236,237,241,244,246,248,251,252,254,258,260,261,266,267,275,284,289,291,292,297,301,311,314,316,318,320,321,322,323,327,330,332,333,334,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,347,354,355,359,362,363,365,366,368,370,375,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,396,397,399,404,408,410,416,417,418,419,423,424,425,426,427,431,432,436,437,439,446,447,448,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],def_buf_s:421,def_mem_level:421,def_prog_mod:178,def_shell_mod:178,default_account:161,default_buffer_s:[227,257,350],default_bufs:409,default_charset:196,default_class:204,default_domain:287,default_exception_handl:[129,132],default_factori:[161,182,472],default_format:[359,470],default_ignor:[217,468],default_logging_config_port:267,default_mod:177,default_msec_format:266,default_nam:[268,424],default_namespac:[410,463],default_open:392,default_pip:211,default_protocol:301,default_sect:168,default_tcp_logging_port:[104,267],default_tim:368,default_time_format:266,default_udp_logging_port:267,default_valu:[16,95,96],defaultact:472,defaultalluserstargetdir:455,defaultcontext:[187,467],defaultcookiepolici:[62,255,472],defaultcustomtargetdir:455,defaultdict:[62,93,183,346,382,461,466,472],defaultdir:282,defaulteventlooppolici:134,defaulthandl:316,defaulthandlerexpand:316,defaultjustformetargetdir:455,defaultobj:21,defaultsect:168,defaultselector:330,defaulttest:[385,468],defaulttestload:385,defaulttestresult:385,defaultverifypath:343,defaultwidgetsizetestcas:385,defcount:60,defeat:[91,106,397,424,472],defect:[62,195,197,204,206,208,209,285,460,467,471,472],defend:472,defenestr:437,defer:[57,62,79,103,129,193,247,257,268,279,342,343,370,457,462,472],defghi:162,defi:459,defici:[1,351,398],defin:[3,4,5,7,10,13,14,22,23,26,28,30,31,38,39,40,41,46,52,53,54,57,58,62,64,65,68,69,74,77,78,79,80,83,84,85,86,90,92,93,95,96,97,98,99,103,104,105,106,108,109,110,111,117,118,119,120,122,123,124,125,128,129,134,135,142,143,144,145,147,148,152,153,155,156,157,159,161,162,163,167,168,169,170,172,173,174,176,177,178,180,182,184,185,187,188,190,193,195,197,200,204,206,209,212,213,214,216,217,222,225,227,228,229,232,234,235,236,237,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,261,262,264,265,266,268,271,274,275,276,284,287,288,289,290,291,293,295,297,299,301,303,304,305,306,307,308,309,311,312,314,316,318,319,320,321,322,324,325,326,327,329,330,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,352,353,355,356,357,359,361,362,363,366,367,368,370,372,373,374,376,377,379,380,381,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,405,407,408,410,411,412,416,418,419,420,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,435,436,441,443,445,446,448,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],define_macro:[65,74,77,418,456],definit:[12,28,30,31,35,41,52,53,54,57,62,65,67,74,79,80,81,82,91,93,95,97,102,106,118,122,144,145,152,159,162,170,177,178,182,184,212,222,227,228,232,239,248,251,252,253,254,255,266,268,273,282,284,289,292,301,310,314,315,317,326,337,346,347,353,355,360,365,367,374,380,381,382,384,385,392,395,399,405,406,407,408,411,422,424,425,426,428,429,430,431,432,437,441,446,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472],deflat:[418,421,472],defmacro:99,defparamet:423,defpath:[293,333,472],defragresult:[391,466,472],defragresultbyt:[391,472],defstat:458,defunct:30,defusedexpat:[62,273],defusedxml:[62,273],deg:459,dega:305,degener:346,degrad:[178,466,472],degre:[79,157,178,275,345,346,380,424,459],deiconifi:248,deili:[463,466,468],deiniti:178,del:[36,45,49,53,62,79,82,91,98,124,161,179,190,197,206,227,232,237,248,254,271,284,291,292,293,297,301,331,346,386,399,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,431,436,441,448,456,457,459,461,462,463,466,472],del_param:[197,206],del_stmt:[427,432],delai:[22,62,90,97,104,128,131,140,178,246,248,254,268,284,288,327,334,339,343,380,387,392,393,424,446,462,466,470,471,472],delattr:[227,436,446],delawar:343,delay_output:178,delayfunc:327,delayfunct:467,delayload:244,delch:178,dele:307,deleg:[38,62,103,104,141,190,227,228,266,267,268,275,289,301,326,385,387,424,426,428,464,466,470,472,473],delet:[6,34,45,47,49,53,54,57,58,62,79,81,82,84,93,95,98,101,104,106,110,114,118,124,141,145,161,168,176,178,179,180,182,185,188,189,190,197,201,206,207,214,219,225,227,237,248,249,252,268,271,284,291,293,299,307,331,333,335,342,344,346,351,355,361,363,366,370,373,380,392,396,397,399,402,404,418,421,423,424,428,431,432,434,436,438,453,455,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,468,471,472,473],delete_attr:190,delete_deref:190,delete_fast:190,delete_glob:190,delete_nam:190,delete_nth:161,delete_subscr:190,deleteacl:[249,460],deletefilehandl:370,deletekei:402,deletekeyex:[402,463],deleteln:178,deletem:145,deletesomethingdb:385,deletevalu:402,delfino:472,delhallt:472,deliber:[89,91,93,95,122,292,307,346,381,385,451,468],delic:[30,57],delici:212,delight:90,delimit:[30,54,62,65,84,91,93,95,106,107,153,168,176,193,202,239,248,249,271,288,292,301,321,322,346,347,350,370,375,391,429,448,455,459,466,472],delin:467,delitem:291,deliv:[103,110,135,184,227,329,334,337,373,387,392,426,437,462,472],deliver_challeng:284,deliveri:[197,201,206,208,271,293,320,334,339,472],deloc:[265,469,472],delphi:84,delta:[19,62,109,143,184,190,242,253,269,364,385,458,460,463,470,472],delx:[98,227],demain:462,demand:[38,58,168,284,292,386,455,469,472],demey:[470,472],demian:[469,470,472],demis:437,demo:[62,77,94,104,106,178,224,248,404,408,417,447,459,462,466],demo_app:404,demonstr:[72,77,79,81,94,96,97,104,106,107,118,122,142,151,177,187,212,222,243,245,248,279,284,292,309,321,322,333,342,370,376,377,380,385,393,410,426,436,437,438,445,447,455,457,466,472],demot:472,demur:[470,472],den:472,dengler:472,deni:[140,213,340,424,459,472],denial:[406,424,451,472],denmark:456,denni:320,denomin:[187,223,289,346,440,462,470],denorm:472,denot:[5,42,56,62,86,91,106,168,190,245,246,254,258,293,324,343,346,370,382,392,424,426,428,431,436,437,438,456,462,471],denver:472,dep_util:71,depart:[161,227,346],depend:[5,6,13,17,30,31,41,48,57,58,62,64,66,71,74,77,78,79,81,83,84,85,87,89,90,91,92,93,95,97,98,99,103,104,106,107,108,109,111,112,117,123,129,133,135,140,141,145,152,153,157,159,165,168,169,174,177,178,182,184,187,189,190,192,193,196,206,209,211,212,214,216,222,225,227,229,232,235,236,243,244,245,248,252,254,255,257,258,260,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,280,282,284,288,293,301,310,311,312,317,318,320,321,324,329,330,331,333,334,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,365,367,368,370,373,380,385,386,387,392,395,396,398,399,402,403,404,410,412,416,418,421,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,439,442,446,448,450,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],deplet:386,deploi:[203,241,370,404,453,466],deploy:[90,103,293],deposit:466,deprec:[5,15,26,28,30,35,38,41,44,45,49,51,52,54,57,62,74,75,94,96,112,113,116,118,123,125,129,139,140,141,144,151,153,159,168,177,185,188,194,199,200,206,208,214,219,220,222,223,225,227,232,234,238,243,244,248,249,251,252,254,258,261,265,266,270,288,292,301,304,305,306,307,316,324,329,333,336,337,339,343,346,348,351,352,355,363,367,370,372,373,380,392,394,396,397,398,410,419,426,428,455,457,458,461,464,472,473],deprecationwarn:[22,62,106,214,349,363,385,397,424,426,428,431,446,457,459,463,466,468,469,470,472],dept:[436,465,466],depth:[22,103,124,164,168,178,180,185,190,197,206,214,227,236,269,301,309,323,346,355,359,363,372,385,409,410,436,437,441,456,457,458,469,470,471,472],dequ:[62,183,260,318,382,399,426,438,448,460,461,462,463,466,469,470,472],deque_clear:472,dequeu:[104,268,472],der:[343,395,462,468,472],der_cert_byt:343,der_cert_to_pem_cert:343,deref:472,derefer:[284,359,472],dereferenc:[14,177,229,399,467,472],deregist:284,derek:[463,465],deriv:[22,30,45,56,62,66,70,82,84,93,98,111,118,122,124,145,158,159,161,167,175,177,178,179,182,183,184,198,200,202,203,204,214,222,227,228,232,241,245,249,251,252,254,257,261,266,267,272,288,292,293,294,310,312,314,315,316,329,340,343,347,380,382,385,390,392,395,397,404,405,408,413,416,417,422,424,431,436,439,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,467,468,470,471,472],derivedclassnam:436,derivednumerictyp:346,dershowitz:[152,184],derwin:178,desc:[55,69,282,288,465],descend:[62,103,118,124,164,197,206,254,266,284,310,344,358,373,407,408,410,436,461,463],descr:[20,96,98,177],descrgetfunc:[57,81],describ:[1,5,7,12,15,20,22,23,28,29,31,38,41,45,46,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,62,65,66,69,71,73,75,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,86,91,93,97,99,101,102,103,104,109,110,111,112,113,117,119,120,121,122,125,129,138,144,145,146,152,153,154,159,161,165,167,168,170,175,176,177,178,181,182,183,185,187,188,189,190,193,195,196,197,203,204,209,212,214,217,218,220,222,224,225,226,227,232,236,238,243,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,265,266,267,268,271,276,277,278,281,282,285,288,289,290,292,293,295,297,300,301,308,310,314,316,317,318,319,321,323,324,326,329,333,336,337,338,339,342,343,344,346,347,349,350,352,355,358,361,364,366,370,372,373,380,382,385,386,388,391,392,394,396,401,402,403,404,405,407,411,413,416,418,419,420,421,423,424,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,433,436,437,438,441,442,444,445,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],descript:[1,5,22,23,31,48,53,58,62,65,66,67,69,74,75,77,79,80,94,97,98,101,103,111,114,119,120,125,140,141,143,161,167,172,176,177,178,183,189,190,193,197,201,202,203,206,213,216,232,242,246,251,252,254,258,265,266,267,269,273,279,288,292,293,295,297,299,302,306,309,315,324,333,334,339,342,343,346,349,351,357,360,361,362,363,367,370,372,373,378,380,385,396,397,398,405,411,412,416,417,424,425,426,430,432,437,441,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,464,465,466,468,469,471,472],description_content_typ:309,description_unit:472,descriptor:[15,22,23,28,30,45,57,62,81,84,87,90,93,100,101,118,120,132,133,135,137,141,177,178,186,188,212,213,216,219,227,228,249,254,257,267,279,283,284,294,295,311,314,324,329,330,334,339,340,343,346,350,359,360,361,362,363,370,379,381,423,426,432,460,461,462,463,466,467,469,471,472],descriptor_typ:254,descriptortyp:472,descrobject:98,descrsetfunc:[57,81],deseri:[261,301,442,463,468,470,472],deserv:[271,446,456],design:[7,31,62,64,65,66,82,86,88,90,91,93,95,98,99,103,104,105,107,109,110,111,112,131,133,136,138,139,140,147,149,154,159,161,168,170,178,184,187,190,191,193,195,202,211,212,227,228,230,232,236,238,248,251,252,253,271,274,292,293,296,301,310,318,319,325,328,339,342,343,359,363,366,370,372,380,382,386,391,404,414,416,421,428,435,436,438,446,448,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,471,472],desir:[7,9,22,30,31,38,79,80,84,91,97,99,103,104,106,109,111,122,138,140,159,161,168,170,177,178,189,190,209,212,213,222,225,227,236,237,241,251,252,257,258,265,266,271,272,276,279,292,294,299,309,313,320,321,322,336,340,343,346,347,363,365,366,370,372,373,380,399,402,409,413,424,426,428,437,438,439,446,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,468,469,470],desk:[103,435,445],desktop:[66,74,87,92,109,400],despit:[78,91,93,107,236,261,343,428,447,462,472],dest1:[167,466],dest2:[167,466],dest3:[167,466],dest4:[167,466],dest:[62,94,104,120,201,230,268,279,292,311,333,342,396,459,461,462,463],dest_nam:65,destdir:164,destin:[62,65,95,103,109,178,209,213,266,267,268,271,279,292,293,333,339,346,357,396,460,462,467,468,472],destroi:[5,10,30,55,57,61,84,99,107,248,257,279,292,347,361,366,370,385,397,399,402,424,428,442,456,458,459,461,466,470,471,472],destruct:[30,79,81,157,178,254,257,346,361,424,457,466],destructor:[10,30,57,81,82,84,90,93,96,117,293,318,350,424,432,465,466,470,472],destwin:178,detach:[134,151,257,269,293,339,343,373,399,402,466,467,472],detached_process:350,detail:[1,12,16,17,29,30,41,50,52,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,70,74,77,78,79,80,82,83,84,85,86,90,91,92,93,94,97,98,99,100,101,103,104,106,109,110,111,113,120,122,124,128,129,131,132,135,137,138,140,143,145,148,150,153,154,159,169,170,171,173,174,176,177,178,184,186,187,189,190,192,193,195,197,202,206,208,212,214,216,227,232,235,238,242,246,247,248,251,252,254,257,258,261,264,266,268,269,271,272,274,275,282,284,290,292,293,297,301,302,318,320,321,322,324,326,328,332,337,339,340,342,344,346,347,349,350,355,357,359,360,363,365,366,370,377,381,382,385,386,391,392,393,396,397,399,402,404,407,410,412,416,418,419,423,424,425,426,428,429,430,431,432,434,435,436,438,439,440,442,445,446,448,450,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],detect:[22,26,31,38,54,57,62,65,69,79,81,82,84,91,93,95,99,106,107,110,113,118,135,141,142,159,162,176,177,178,182,184,187,190,195,204,214,227,248,252,253,263,271,275,292,293,294,295,298,301,309,316,322,323,332,337,339,342,346,355,363,365,366,375,378,385,390,392,400,404,424,425,426,431,433,439,451,455,456,457,458,459,462,463,466,468,469,470,471,472],detect_api_mismatch:363,detect_encod:[264,375],detect_languag:65,detect_modul:472,detect_typ:342,detector:[3,56,79,254,463],determin:[1,3,5,7,10,21,22,31,36,45,49,55,57,62,65,74,79,81,82,91,93,97,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,111,122,123,129,135,137,141,145,153,156,158,159,160,161,162,176,177,178,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,198,204,209,212,214,216,227,232,243,248,249,252,253,254,258,262,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,275,278,280,284,286,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,305,309,310,313,316,320,321,322,323,329,331,332,333,334,336,339,342,346,347,348,349,350,355,356,357,359,362,367,368,370,373,375,380,385,392,395,397,402,407,412,418,421,423,425,426,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,439,446,455,458,459,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],determinist:[62,106,186,252,254,320,339,360,466,471,472],detlef:[456,459],detract:469,detriment:91,dev:[62,85,86,101,104,128,129,188,228,231,268,271,272,293,295,309,334,350,355,356,434,451,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,469,472],dev_mod:[355,451,472],dev_stag:305,dev_t:472,dev_team:267,devel:[85,101,288],develop:[0,1,30,62,64,66,71,72,74,81,83,84,87,89,91,92,93,95,97,101,103,104,105,106,109,111,112,126,129,153,162,165,170,177,186,187,214,236,253,263,266,267,268,292,296,309,315,342,350,363,369,370,372,380,382,397,416,419,422,435,437,441,447,451,453,454,455,457,458,459,460,461,463,464,466,467,468,469,472,473],developerwork:99,devguid:[94,427,468],deviat:[58,105,320,345,368,391,466,467,468,472],devic:[60,62,65,87,93,102,133,159,178,179,213,222,227,237,248,253,257,268,278,293,294,296,298,329,330,333,334,339,344,350,355,359,402,410,433,444,451,456,462,472],device_encod:293,device_id:339,devin:[469,472],devis:320,devnul:[138,284,293,334,350,467],devop:472,devot:[91,106,428,452],devpol:[329,330,467,468,469,472],devpollselector:[330,469,471],dez:184,dezemb:184,df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670:101,dfa:472,dfballer:197,dfff:159,dfile:313,dfoo:65,dfunc:189,dgettext:[232,265],dhfile:343,dhiru:468,diaeresi:159,diagnos:[84,91,103,297,385,387],diagnosi:472,diagnost:[30,62,81,103,286,358,386,404,416,418,452,466,470],diagon:109,diagram:[69,103,193,227,237,340,428,458],dialect:[62,218,342,459,461,466],dialog:[83,97,248,282,292,363,370,372,380,455,468,469,470,471,472],diamant:472,diamet:380,diamond:[62,178,212,227,424,436],dice:207,dichotomi:105,dickinson:[462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],dict1:462,dict2:462,dict:[5,21,22,28,31,49,54,57,62,79,84,85,90,91,93,95,98,99,113,122,124,129,161,168,172,176,182,183,184,185,188,189,190,193,206,227,228,229,245,252,253,254,260,261,266,267,268,284,288,291,301,306,328,331,343,347,363,366,373,381,382,385,399,410,416,424,426,437,438,442,446,448,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],dict_comprehens:426,dict_displai:426,dict_factori:[182,342],dict_fromkei:98,dict_kei:[228,463],dict_siz:269,dict_typ:[168,306],dictat:[7,93,168,224,227,301,436,455,456,462],dictcomp:124,dictconfig:[62,103,267,463,466,472],dictconfigclass:267,dictconfigur:267,dictionari:[5,15,20,22,25,28,30,31,38,41,45,48,53,54,57,58,60,62,65,74,79,81,82,90,91,93,98,99,103,108,110,113,117,120,122,141,153,158,159,161,168,172,174,176,177,182,184,185,187,188,190,193,196,197,201,202,203,204,206,207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,263,302,355,470,472],disabl:[22,30,31,65,66,75,79,103,104,106,111,113,122,129,132,145,153,168,176,178,187,189,193,212,215,219,225,227,228,229,243,248,254,257,266,267,268,284,288,292,293,299,301,310,321,322,329,332,334,335,337,339,341,342,343,346,350,355,363,370,373,380,385,386,392,397,402,424,428,434,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],disable_existing_logg:[103,104,267],disable_faulthandl:363,disable_gc:363,disable_interspersed_arg:[122,292],disable_nagle_algorithm:463,disabled_by_com:168,disablereflectionkei:[402,462,463],disablesev:329,disadvantag:[79,82,90,91,106,159,187,343,368,458,465],disagr:84,disagre:[99,375,392,456],disallow:[5,84,122,168,212,293,339,342,346,420,455,462,468,471,472],disambigu:[10,35,62,184,426,431,472],disappear:[79,81,92,103,107,458,460,472],disassembl:[62,253,263,302,468,471,472],disc:380,discard:[9,31,34,45,50,58,60,79,95,99,107,125,129,144,153,158,159,161,162,184,187,244,257,266,267,271,284,286,292,298,336,339,346,362,373,385,397,399,408,410,413,423,424,445,451,458,461,462,463,468,470,472],discard_buff:125,discern:235,disciplin:[84,209],disclaim:[225,288,351,398,422],disco:190,disconnect:[62,307,337,342,402,472],discontinu:[367,392],discourag:[74,99,106,140,159,182,195,227,252,288,321,343,361,363,424,458,461],discov:[105,107,115,184,197,206,245,363,385,412,457,458,459,463,466,468,472],discover:[314,468,472],discoveri:[62,188,193,337,416,466,468,469,472],discret:[39,175,222,278,340,345],discuss:[15,30,31,78,79,80,86,91,99,106,109,110,111,172,182,189,204,209,232,257,266,267,275,288,293,321,331,343,345,373,385,387,392,407,416,421,426,428,431,436,438,442,456,457,458,461,462,463,465,468,470],disentangl:99,disguis:[308,321,424],dish:346,disjoint:346,disjunct:343,disk0s2:463,disk:[90,93,99,103,109,170,185,195,201,209,214,220,227,237,244,248,257,264,268,271,279,282,288,293,295,300,301,324,331,333,342,350,355,361,378,402,419,459,461,462,464,467,472],disk_usag:[333,467],dislik:[110,386],dismiss:248,disobei:464,dispar:209,dispatch:[62,84,90,91,93,103,104,107,122,125,141,145,157,178,198,228,246,300,310,323,336,385,416,465,466,468,472],dispatch_:145,dispatch_cal:145,dispatch_except:145,dispatch_lin:145,dispatch_return:145,dispatch_t:[173,301,467],dispatcher_with_send:141,dispers:345,displai:[30,38,62,66,69,86,91,94,101,104,106,109,120,122,124,128,140,153,154,157,158,161,169,180,186,187,190,193,201,204,214,215,222,239,248,253,254,258,265,266,271,282,288,293,299,309,315,321,322,344,346,347,348,350,355,359,365,368,370,372,373,375,376,377,380,385,392,396,397,400,418,422,424,432,437,439,440,442,444,445,448,449,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],display_d:[129,140],display_failur:378,display_nam:[201,204,467],display_top:378,displaycolumn:373,displayhook:[355,446,457],displaymatch:321,displaystyl:472,dispos:[31,79,385],disposit:[197,198,204,206,249,293,334,397,404,469],disqualifi:466,disregard:[7,30,346],disrupt:[86,134],dissect:[106,256,457,458],dissect_can_fram:339,dissent:[93,456],dist:[66,69,70,71,269,298,305,380,418,461,466,469,472],dist_fil:70,distanc:[156,157,269,370,380],distant:[93,442],distb:[190,468],distclass:65,distclean:472,distcmd:70,distinct:[14,30,31,38,41,65,84,93,97,105,106,107,109,143,161,170,184,187,193,228,260,267,269,275,292,297,310,335,343,346,355,370,382,404,426,428,439,442,456,458,462,466,467,470,471,472],distinguish:[35,57,62,65,72,74,79,93,96,124,156,178,188,193,198,227,244,254,267,275,316,343,356,373,397,421,424,426,428,439,445,455,457,458,463,467,468,472],distnam:[111,305],distort:380,distpath:396,distract:[97,292,472],distribut:[0,28,30,31,60,62,68,72,73,79,80,81,83,86,87,89,90,91,92,93,96,106,111,112,126,127,136,178,187,189,192,210,232,236,253,271,275,284,290,297,304,305,342,345,353,356,359,374,380,385,411,418,422,441,446,449,450,452,454,455,456,457,459,461,462,463,464,466,468,469,470,471,472],distribution_nam:66,distributionmetadata:69,distributor:[72,343,470],distro:[305,454,472],disturb:[301,472],distutil:[62,64,66,68,69,71,73,74,75,80,82,83,92,112,191,253,282,335,356,396,418,451,453,455,457,461,462,463,466,472,473],distutils2:463,distutils_debug:[74,472],distutils_use_sdk:65,distutilsexecerror:65,distutilsfileerror:65,distutilsplatformerror:472,ditch:448,ditto:472,div:[124,187,241,409],dive:[91,95],diverg:[343,458],divid:[43,90,97,106,143,168,184,187,190,193,195,223,227,248,275,298,310,320,345,372,416,431,439,440,462,466,467,468,472],divide_int:187,dividend:[14,187],divin:210,divis:[43,58,60,62,91,93,104,114,147,184,187,214,227,291,346,424,425,426,432,439,445,459,460,462,463,466,472,473],division_warn:[355,466,467],divisionbyzero:[187,460],divisor:[14,187,223,275,445],divmod:[43,184,187,227,289,346,424,426,440,446,472],dixon:201,django:[104,161,299,386,463,467],djb:422,djbdn:225,djgpp:472,dklen:236,dl_export:459,dl_import:459,dle:179,dlfcn:[467,470,472],dlg:282,dlgclass:372,dll:[30,52,62,72,80,90,111,120,268,355,370,418,455,456,461,462,468,472],dllcanunloadnow:177,dllexport:[83,92],dll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,101,103,129,146,167,204,209,210,213,232,236,244,245,249,256,265,267,268,284,287,336,337,339,340,343,348,355,378,395,435,451,459,461,467,468,469,470,471,472],domain_initial_dot:244,domain_return_ok:244,domain_specifi:244,domainfilt:[62,186,470],domainliber:244,domainrfc2965match:244,domainstrict:244,domainstrictnodot:244,domainstrictnondomain:244,dombrova:472,domeventstream:[62,273],domexcept:[407,408],domimplement:[62,273],domin:[149,244],domreg:472,domstr:[407,408],domstring_size_err:407,domstringsizeerr:407,domtimestamp:408,don:[1,5,6,8,9,17,22,26,30,31,44,45,53,54,57,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,77,79,81,82,84,85,86,87,89,93,94,95,96,97,99,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,111,112,122,124,129,135,136,138,145,153,154,155,156,160,164,168,170,172,177,180,184,189,190,193,201,210,212,217,222,227,229,232,243,244,248,252,256,257,258,261,266,267,268,275,284,288,292,293,295,298,299,301,309,310,320,321,329,331,333,337,339,342,343,345,346,351,366,368,369,370,373,382,385,386,387,392,396,398,399,402,404,410,418,421,422,424,426,428,435,436,437,439,440,442,445,446,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,467,468,469,470,472],donald:[161,343,463,468],donat:[86,460],done:[1,5,7,13,28,30,31,32,43,45,49,50,53,57,58,60,65,66,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,85,90,91,92,94,95,97,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,122,128,129,131,135,137,140,143,153,157,159,160,167,168,174,176,177,178,184,185,187,190,193,197,201,205,206,209,210,217,227,231,233,235,236,237,246,248,251,252,257,265,266,267,268,279,284,288,292,293,295,298,301,310,311,316,318,321,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,359,360,361,362,363,367,368,372,373,380,381,382,386,387,392,396,397,399,405,408,409,410,411,418,424,426,428,432,435,436,437,442,444,448,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,466,467,468,469,470,472],done_queu:284,donec:151,donegan:472,dong:[292,472],donnel:458,donnellan:472,donni:142,donotsepar:332,dont:360,dont_accept_blanklin:193,dont_accept_true_for_1:193,dont_inherit:[227,468],dont_write_bytecod:[355,446,462,466],doodah:306,doom:[284,461],door:[110,122,344],dorais:313,dorfman:460,dorian:472,dormant:104,dorollov:268,dos:84,dose:109,doseq:391,dot:[22,28,57,65,82,93,95,96,98,101,103,104,106,111,193,227,233,244,248,251,252,258,260,265,266,267,271,276,288,291,298,315,321,325,339,346,355,359,361,370,374,380,385,386,387,417,419,420,424,428,430,432,436,443,444,446,451,462,465,469,472],dotal:[106,321],dotless:[106,321],dotproduct:260,dotted_as_nam:427,dotted_nam:[423,427],dotterbart:291,dotview:94,doubl:[5,14,17,24,31,35,53,57,58,65,81,82,84,85,91,93,95,104,106,112,123,153,159,161,176,177,193,210,236,248,249,261,268,275,284,291,293,298,321,332,346,347,349,350,360,386,396,405,414,416,422,424,426,431,434,438,440,445,453,455,459,460,461,462,466,467,470,471,472],double_revers:108,doublequot:176,doubleslash:374,doubleslashequ:374,doublestar:374,doublestarequ:374,doublestuff:245,doublevar:370,doubli:[31,57,91,463],doubt:[57,90,97,168,184,461],doubtless:[99,457,458,459],doug:[422,472],dougla:342,doupdat:[97,178,180],dove:[103,104],dower:[469,470,471],down:[31,68,74,78,82,91,92,93,99,103,105,107,111,129,136,137,142,153,161,178,180,190,193,213,237,246,248,266,284,293,299,310,318,321,329,339,340,343,355,370,373,380,385,391,436,440,448,451,456,458,459,463,469,470,471,472],downcast:[5,31],downgrad:244,download:[62,65,66,69,72,74,81,86,91,111,298,309,372,390,392,396,422,424,436,449,450,452,453,454,461,462,463,466,467,471,472],download_url:[65,74,309,461],downright:168,downsid:[258,455,467,471],downstream:472,downward:93,dozen:[74,447,462,466],dpi:[470,471,472],dpkg:460,dpy_build_cor:472,draft:[99,109,153,271,355,407,435,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,470,471,472],drag:[296,370,372,373,380,453,472],dragonfli:472,dragonflybsd:339,drain:[132,135,137,343,466,472],drake:[0,456,457,458,459,461,462],drallensmith:472,draoui:[469,472],drastic:[7,113],draw:[62,97,157,178,224,248,296,320,370,373,462,472],draw_doubl:462,drawabl:462,drawback:[199,292,471],drawn:[157,178,293,380],drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256:339,drive:[65,107,111,233,237,292,294,298,359,363,370,385,419,422,455,467,468,469,472],driven:[65,66,91,165,170,276,363,380,385,407,409,456,466,472],driver:[77,178,193,213,232,293,295,339,363,402,403,413,459,472],drmhze6epcv0fn_81bj:328,drop:[5,26,57,62,64,65,82,90,91,93,103,109,114,135,136,161,165,193,213,227,251,252,253,254,260,268,284,296,307,318,323,327,343,355,365,370,373,391,456,457,458,460,461,462,464,466,468,469,472],drop_whitespac:[365,462],dropdown:373,dropwhil:[99,260],drug:320,drum:106,drummer:106,drwx:333,drwxr:[94,225],dry:[65,70,292],dry_run:[65,333,363],dsa:466,dsaencrypt:466,dsawithsha:466,dsl:468,dsn:337,dsp:295,dst:[65,177,184,293,333,367,467],dst_diff:184,dst_dir_fd:293,dst_time:184,dstdiff:184,dstend:184,dstend_1967_1986:184,dstend_1987_2006:184,dstend_2007:184,dstname:[184,333],dstoff:184,dstoffset:184,dston:184,dststart:184,dststart_1967_1986:184,dststart_1987_2006:184,dststart_2007:184,dsu:108,dt1:184,dt2:184,dt3:184,dt_unknown:293,dtd:[110,241,316,392,406,411,412,413,471,472],dtdhandler:[62,273,413],dtdst:184,dtl:343,dtoa:[62,463],dtoff:184,dtor:96,dtrace:[62,100,472],dtrace_function_entri:101,dtrace_function_return:101,dual:[339,343,422,431,472],duan:472,dubiou:[214,397],duck:[93,462,468],due:[5,22,30,41,57,58,60,81,82,84,90,91,103,105,110,124,133,138,140,170,178,185,189,190,209,222,223,227,229,232,243,248,252,257,266,267,271,284,293,297,301,305,316,327,342,343,346,350,366,385,386,423,424,426,428,437,455,456,457,460,462,463,464,466,467,469,470,471,472],duid:472,dum:85,dumb:[62,66,71,107,300,360,469,470,471,472],dumbdbm:[185,464],dumbwrit:222,dummi:[12,62,79,165,177,189,232,270,293,343,359,363,366,380,404,470,472],dummy_thread:[62,165,253,459,471],dump:[62,74,79,95,103,104,124,153,173,176,186,212,253,261,265,268,274,286,293,301,306,310,334,342,344,378,404,410,416,442,451,456,457,458,459,462,463,465,467,468,469,470,472],dump_stat:310,dump_traceback:[215,469,472],dump_traceback_lat:[215,469,472],duncan:462,dunder:[182,472],dup2:[215,293,334,469,471,472],dup3:472,dup:[141,161,293,339,472],dup_top:190,dup_top_two:190,duplex:[284,295],duplic:[21,62,65,99,113,116,141,161,167,168,170,183,187,189,190,194,197,206,209,254,258,266,271,293,304,339,346,347,363,380,385,404,419,424,426,437,438,443,458,460,461,462,466,469,471,472],duplicatefreeenum:[62,183],duplicateoptionerror:[168,466],duplicatesectionerror:[168,466],dupui:[468,472],durat:[30,31,65,93,104,128,184,271,284,310,339,340,343,346,355,362,363,366,367,403,463,466,467,469,472],dure:[16,17,21,22,30,41,47,57,58,62,65,83,86,91,93,95,98,105,124,135,140,141,142,149,153,159,168,169,172,177,178,182,184,187,193,199,202,203,204,209,212,214,219,227,228,229,236,238,252,257,261,266,267,268,269,271,282,288,293,297,301,310,315,316,321,322,325,328,333,335,336,337,342,343,346,355,362,363,367,368,373,376,381,385,386,387,397,399,410,411,412,413,423,424,426,428,431,432,435,436,439,440,443,447,451,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,465,467,468,469,470,471,472],dusti:[470,472],dustin:462,dutch:[366,431],duti:466,dvd:295,dvi:143,dwarf:424,dwayn:462,dwell:79,dwfileattribut:[293,469],dwflag:350,dword:177,dxob:347,dyck:460,dyer:463,dylan:459,dyld:[456,472],dylib:177,dynam:[10,21,28,38,41,47,57,60,62,65,72,74,78,79,80,83,84,85,86,90,91,93,103,104,107,114,118,120,143,183,189,204,227,228,248,251,252,253,254,293,323,337,339,346,347,355,370,373,380,382,386,387,404,420,424,426,428,432,436,441,449,456,458,459,461,462,466,467,468,471,472],dynamicclassattribut:[381,468],dynload:[111,355],dynload_:456,dysfunct:466,e000000000000p:462,e2big:213,e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142:236,e52df05b496a:468,e9buter_en_python:288,e_eof:85,eacc:[213,214,216,252,467,472],eacceler:225,eaccess:472,each:[1,5,7,11,12,21,22,26,28,30,31,33,36,38,41,54,57,58,65,66,68,72,74,75,77,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,90,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,114,119,122,124,125,129,134,135,136,139,140,141,143,144,149,151,152,153,154,155,156,159,160,161,164,167,168,170,176,177,178,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,196,197,198,201,203,204,205,206,209,212,213,215,217,219,222,225,227,228,229,230,232,236,237,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,275,276,282,284,288,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,302,307,309,310,311,314,315,316,318,320,321,322,324,327,328,330,332,333,335,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,355,356,357,359,360,362,363,365,366,368,370,372,373,375,376,377,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,399,402,404,405,406,407,408,410,412,414,416,417,419,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,433,436,438,442,445,446,447,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],eaddrinus:213,eaddrnotavail:213,eadv:213,eafnosupport:213,eafp:[93,293],eagain:[213,214,216,293],eager:[360,423,450],eagerli:[396,471],eai:422,eai_:339,ealreadi:[213,214],ear:299,earli:[5,31,81,86,254,268,292,334,343,366,370,378,408,422,428,456,460,462,466,472],earlier:[30,58,65,78,90,91,93,95,96,97,99,103,105,106,110,111,112,117,129,177,178,184,193,211,232,248,266,268,270,275,292,293,301,321,332,343,350,355,376,385,386,392,396,397,399,408,412,421,424,426,428,431,438,443,445,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,467,468,469,470,471,472],earliest:[140,152,184,189,367,439],earliest_result:140,earn:345,earth:[86,212,437],eas:[44,57,62,84,122,128,297,331,346,366,385,432,456,467,469,471],easi:[57,62,64,66,68,72,79,84,89,90,91,92,94,95,97,102,104,106,107,108,110,111,112,122,138,153,161,168,170,176,184,187,190,193,195,205,209,212,228,230,267,292,293,320,332,339,343,346,365,385,386,387,404,408,418,424,426,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,457,458,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],easier:[66,68,69,71,74,82,84,90,93,95,97,99,101,105,106,108,111,112,117,125,141,161,162,167,170,176,193,207,214,252,258,268,293,309,310,315,321,346,347,363,371,385,386,387,391,404,430,436,437,438,440,445,446,447,448,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,472],easiest:[81,82,85,87,90,91,96,107,122,193,244,248,257,292,293,386],easili:[7,22,66,68,69,71,78,79,82,84,86,90,91,92,94,95,102,103,104,105,106,128,153,159,168,170,176,177,201,212,227,232,237,254,299,321,332,342,346,361,380,385,399,431,441,442,447,454,455,456,459,461,465,466,467,469,470,472],east:[184,212,367,373,380,384,460],east_asian_width:384,eastern:[159,184,367,447,470],eastlak:343,easy_instal:396,easydialog:462,eat:[104,275],eax:101,eb6ec15daf9546254f0809:236,ebad:213,ebadf:[213,470],ebadfd:213,ebadmsg:213,ebadr:213,ebadrqc:213,ebadslt:213,ebcdic:[159,468],ebfont:213,ebi:[461,462,465,466],ebk:472,ebusi:213,ebx:101,ecdh:[343,472],ecdsa:[343,466,472],echild:[213,214],echo:[62,92,94,97,129,132,138,143,171,178,231,248,261,283,293,301,330,339,350,362,385,426,444,446,462],echo_round:382,echocancel:143,echochar:178,echoclientprotocol:135,echofilt:446,echohandl:141,echoserv:141,echoserverprotocol:135,echrng:213,eckhardt:466,ecma:261,ecmascript:[261,407],ecol:375,ecomm:213,econnabort:[213,214],econnrefus:[213,214],econnreset:[213,214,472],econom:320,economi:346,ecosystem:301,edeadlk:213,edeadlock:213,edestaddrreq:213,edet:472,edg:[62,105,177,178,193,202,363,365,380,445,467,468,472],edison:472,edit:[60,62,65,68,86,95,97,99,106,109,111,113,157,168,178,189,227,251,252,261,271,272,293,297,321,345,359,369,370,373,441,444,448,451,455,456,457,459,460,462,464,466,467,470,471,472],editlin:[322,472],editor:[62,78,84,93,95,106,109,251,252,369,431,444,445,446,452,453,455,456,462,468,469,470,471,472],editori:456,editorwindow:472,editrc:[322,472],editwin:97,edness:208,edom:[14,213],edotdot:213,edquot:213,eds:156,edsger:366,edt:[184,367,447,467,470],edu:[86,99,249,392,422,458,459],eduardo:472,educ:[86,252],edward:[457,458,460,461],ee8a:[395,461],ee8v4:458,eel:442,eest:367,eet:367,eexist:[213,214,293,472],efault:213,efbig:213,eff:343,effbot:[370,410,461,463],effect:[1,9,13,22,28,30,41,47,54,57,58,62,64,69,79,81,84,90,91,93,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,110,111,112,114,115,117,122,123,129,134,145,160,167,168,170,177,178,184,187,188,190,193,204,209,210,211,214,216,219,227,228,237,244,248,257,260,262,265,266,267,268,284,292,293,295,298,299,304,310,313,316,320,321,324,325,326,327,329,331,332,333,335,342,343,344,346,347,349,355,359,363,365,367,373,378,380,381,382,385,386,397,399,402,409,417,418,419,423,424,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,441,446,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],effective_id:[293,467],effici:[3,55,58,60,62,64,84,93,97,99,102,107,108,109,126,129,135,153,159,161,176,183,184,187,217,221,226,227,228,236,237,238,253,284,291,293,300,301,302,309,320,321,329,330,343,345,346,349,365,366,402,404,406,410,421,424,437,438,441,442,446,447,458,460,462,464,466,467,468,469,472],efford:99,effort:[0,85,93,95,100,104,106,108,228,275,309,436,442,456,458,459,460,462,463,465,466,471],effortless:447,effron:472,egd:343,egg:[69,104,161,176,189,219,227,228,257,298,309,321,331,346,350,359,377,386,387,392,410,419,428,437,439,442,445,456],eggi:189,egid:293,egypt:367,ehlo:[336,337,467],ehlo_or_helo_if_need:337,ehlo_resp:337,ehopp:392,ehostdown:213,ehostunreach:213,ehresman:[461,472],eidrm:213,eiffel:458,eiffelmethod:458,eight:[84,109,178,258,328,346,356,370,431,456,459,460],eik:472,eilseq:213,einat:[469,470,471,472],einprogress:[90,213,214],eintr:[22,62,213,214,284,463,472],einval:[213,293,472],eio:213,eisconn:[90,213],eisdir:[213,214],eisnam:213,either:[5,7,10,13,21,22,30,31,39,41,45,50,53,54,56,57,58,61,65,66,68,69,74,75,77,78,79,82,84,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,119,122,124,128,129,131,135,138,140,141,143,144,145,146,148,150,151,153,156,158,159,161,170,173,174,176,177,178,179,182,184,187,189,190,192,193,195,196,197,198,199,200,203,206,207,208,209,210,212,214,216,222,223,225,227,233,238,243,244,246,248,249,252,254,257,258,260,261,266,267,268,269,271,275,279,282,284,288,289,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,303,304,306,310,311,313,316,321,324,326,327,329,330,332,333,335,336,338,339,342,343,346,347,349,350,355,359,360,361,363,366,367,370,372,373,375,380,382,385,386,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,435,436,438,439,440,442,446,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],el2hlt:213,el2nsync:213,el3hlt:213,el3rst:213,elabor:[62,84,95,106,111,227,370,431,456,459],eland:460,elaps:[178,268,284,293,310,330,339,366,367,466,472],eldon:463,elect:[448,466],electron:[155,343],eleg:[84,93,98,161,168,441,449,466],elegantli:460,elem1:[316,461],elem2:[316,461],elem:[99,161,227,228,260,346,410,438,461,463,466],element:[5,7,30,36,38,45,49,50,52,58,62,64,84,90,91,93,106,108,109,119,123,125,135,141,143,153,157,161,162,173,176,177,179,182,187,189,190,193,196,197,204,206,208,210,214,222,225,227,228,230,237,241,243,246,251,254,260,261,266,272,273,284,292,293,294,297,298,306,316,318,320,321,324,328,333,336,337,339,345,346,347,350,355,367,370,372,373,375,377,380,381,382,385,391,399,405,408,409,412,413,414,416,417,423,424,426,436,437,438,445,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,472],element_cr:373,element_factori:410,element_index:347,element_nam:373,element_nod:407,element_opt:373,elementari:[156,178,380],elementdeclhandl:316,elementinclud:461,elementnam:373,elementpath:[461,471],elementtre:[62,253,273,406,408,447,468,470,472],elementum:151,elementwis:[456,457],eleph:161,elev:[66,455],elf:472,elho:467,eli:[468,470,472],elibacc:213,elibbad:213,elibexec:213,elibmax:213,elibscn:213,elicit:363,elid:288,elif:[84,91,94,97,99,104,110,125,184,189,201,230,289,321,333,342,344,346,355,359,396,423,427,428,431,437,461,467],elig:466,elimin:[62,93,103,105,108,161,187,189,252,260,261,271,294,298,302,380,436,438,448,460,467,472],elink:[400,461],elisa:466,elli:472,ellinghous:[394,422],ellington:472,elliot:[471,472],ellipsi:[15,57,62,99,124,169,193,274,309,374,375,382,399,424,427,431,446,460,464,472],ellipt:[343,467,472],elm:321,elnam:316,elnrng:213,eloop:213,elp:299,els:[7,21,31,32,37,38,48,57,58,62,65,74,78,79,81,82,84,85,90,91,92,94,95,96,99,104,105,106,107,110,111,114,123,124,125,129,136,137,140,153,167,170,174,177,184,187,189,190,193,197,201,208,222,228,230,232,237,241,243,248,249,251,252,260,261,266,268,271,276,284,289,291,292,293,301,311,318,320,321,330,333,339,342,343,344,346,350,355,359,361,363,366,370,375,380,381,382,386,396,397,399,404,407,418,419,423,424,426,427,428,430,431,432,439,441,448,451,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,472],elsewher:[11,65,106,158,168,284,326,407,428,431,468],elsiz:38,elson:472,elt:124,elvi:[469,470,471],elzen:472,em64t:356,emac:[86,92,97,109,157,178,248,271,332,431,453,462],email6:468,email:[1,62,64,65,71,72,74,93,103,104,105,112,144,147,236,238,243,244,246,253,267,268,271,272,285,293,321,336,337,343,367,383,392,422,428,447,448,449,458,460,461,462,463,472],email_address:210,emailaddress:343,emailmessag:[195,197,198,201,202,203,206,208,209,468,470,472],emailpolici:[195,198,204,209,467,469],emanuel:[470,472],emax:[187,467],emb:[28,29,30,31,60,62,78,80,91,164,193,247,252,368,406,410,458,463,471,472],emb_numarg:78,embed:[3,5,7,9,29,30,41,47,58,62,65,66,79,84,88,92,95,97,98,101,106,107,109,164,176,200,203,222,227,258,265,282,293,310,319,321,346,350,363,367,372,397,417,418,429,431,441,443,445,447,452,454,457,458,461,463,466,468,471,472,473],embedd:[31,62,245,284,452,472],embmethod:78,embmodul:78,embodi:[65,91,208,407],emerg:[125,268,437,456],emfil:213,emin:[187,467],emiss:[266,363,472],emit:[30,41,65,82,93,103,104,128,178,184,190,214,229,246,260,266,268,293,301,350,355,363,373,377,385,397,408,410,414,426,432,447,451,459,462,465,466,468,470,471,472],emlink:213,emoji:[109,466],emp:161,emperor:265,emphas:[93,99,193,472],emphasis:346,emploi:[93,153,284,409,428,467],employe:[93,161,382,436,472],employeerecord:161,empt:246,empti:[5,12,16,21,23,28,30,34,41,45,50,54,65,66,69,70,74,79,82,85,90,91,93,95,99,106,107,111,122,123,125,129,135,136,137,140,141,144,145,151,152,153,155,157,158,159,161,168,171,176,182,184,185,189,190,193,197,198,204,206,208,209,210,213,214,219,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235,237,241,243,246,248,251,252,254,257,258,260,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,276,279,284,288,292,293,294,298,301,305,311,316,318,320,321,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,339,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,359,360,363,365,366,370,372,373,376,378,380,381,384,385,386,391,392,396,397,402,404,405,407,408,410,416,417,419,420,421,423,424,426,428,431,432,436,438,442,444,445,446,451,455,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],emptiv:141,empty_lines_in_valu:168,empty_namespac:407,emptylin:157,emsgsiz:213,emt19937ar:422,emt:422,emu:189,emul:[23,30,62,82,85,91,98,111,141,158,160,178,182,193,216,251,260,263,265,271,284,292,304,311,322,333,334,355,360,423,436,458,459,462,466,467,470,472],emultihop:213,emx:459,en_u:[184,469],enabl:[10,30,31,45,54,57,62,66,81,82,86,87,93,97,106,110,111,113,114,116,127,128,131,132,135,140,145,153,154,157,168,170,177,178,186,187,193,194,198,212,214,215,225,227,228,229,232,243,246,248,249,252,254,257,265,267,268,284,288,298,299,301,307,308,310,313,316,320,321,322,334,335,336,339,342,343,347,350,355,359,363,368,373,376,380,385,387,397,404,409,411,412,417,419,423,424,432,435,443,448,451,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,465,466,467,469,470,471,472],enable_callback_traceback:342,enable_interspersed_arg:292,enable_load_extens:[342,463,466],enable_smtputf8:[336,472],enable_travers:373,enable_user_sit:335,enabled_extens:168,enablereflectionkei:[402,462,463],enametoolong:213,enavail:213,enc:[123,343],enc_kei:236,encapsul:[10,86,90,91,113,157,167,203,209,222,249,257,286,307,337,355,407,411,413,416,423,428,432,460,461,462,463,468],enclos:[79,93,95,106,112,161,178,227,243,249,254,261,288,299,321,332,347,363,366,368,382,385,407,425,426,430,431,432,436,437,438,445,457,458,461,466,472],enclosur:426,encod:[4,5,15,22,23,28,30,35,41,54,59,60,62,65,68,74,77,83,90,93,95,96,97,101,103,104,105,106,110,122,123,129,135,137,143,146,147,151,152,153,155,168,171,176,178,179,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,200,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,214,215,218,219,227,232,235,236,242,243,245,249,252,253,254,255,257,264,265,268,269,276,285,293,294,295,298,301,309,311,316,328,331,337,339,342,343,346,349,350,351,355,357,359,360,361,363,374,375,382,392,404,408,410,413,414,416,417,418,419,424,428,437,441,442,446,447,451,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472,473],encode_7or8bit:199,encode_base64:[199,207],encode_basestring_ascii:472,encode_chunk:243,encode_func:456,encode_noop:199,encode_object:96,encode_quopri:199,encode_rfc2231:210,encode_threshold:463,encodebyt:[144,159],encodedfil:159,encodeprior:268,encodestr:[144,319],encoding_decl:427,encoding_typ:343,encodingdecl:[316,408,410],encodingnam:451,encodings_map:276,encount:[5,9,13,31,50,84,93,106,109,110,122,153,155,161,176,187,193,200,206,209,213,214,227,230,241,245,254,261,266,267,272,286,292,294,298,299,301,313,316,332,340,343,360,373,385,397,410,412,428,436,438,439,442,446,456,459,460,461,462,466,467,472],encourag:[79,83,105,214,253,292,294,329,330,332,402,408,412,430,435,456,457,464],encrypt:[125,159,174,234,249,267,288,307,312,328,337,341,343,419,456,458,459,463,466,467,468,472],encycloped:370,end:[5,7,9,22,23,26,28,30,31,33,34,38,51,55,57,58,60,62,65,68,72,74,77,78,79,81,85,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,99,101,103,104,106,107,109,111,112,118,119,122,123,125,129,130,132,135,137,140,141,144,147,148,151,152,153,155,157,159,160,161,164,168,170,176,177,178,179,184,187,189,193,195,197,206,208,209,210,211,212,214,216,222,227,228,229,235,236,241,243,244,246,248,249,252,254,257,260,261,266,267,268,269,271,279,280,283,284,288,292,293,294,295,297,299,303,304,307,310,311,313,316,319,320,321,322,329,331,332,333,336,337,339,342,343,346,347,349,350,355,359,360,361,363,365,367,373,374,375,376,377,385,386,387,392,397,404,405,407,408,410,412,413,414,418,419,421,423,424,426,428,430,431,432,433,434,435,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,448,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],end_docu:409,end_el:[316,409],end_fil:380,end_fin:190,end_head:[246,467],end_paragraph:222,end_poli:380,end_tim:[129,140],endcdatasectionhandl:316,enddoctypedeclhandl:316,enddocu:412,endeavor:96,endel:[412,456],endelementhandl:316,endelementn:412,endhead:[243,470],endian:[4,28,58,90,109,143,155,159,177,232,258,295,349,351,355,395,402,448,468,472],endidx:157,endif:[79,95,96,241,321,418],endless:[456,458,461],endlessli:[99,260,460,472],endmark:[374,375,427],endnamespacedeclhandl:316,endors:[31,422,472],endpo:321,endpoint:[107,125,129,135,141,161,213,243,257,339,380,466],endprefixmap:412,endptr:17,endswith:[301,346,396,456,459,461,462,469,472],endtim:[468,472],endwin:[97,178],energet:143,energi:143,enetdown:213,enetreset:213,enetunreach:[213,472],enfil:213,enforc:[21,62,93,127,140,187,197,206,212,244,293,324,344,347,349,370,380,382,407,408,426,427,432,436,451,457,458,461,464,466,467,472],engag:[30,355],engin:[84,86,90,93,99,102,106,187,265,321,342,373,410,412,456,458,460,462,463,469,472],english:[84,104,106,109,159,242,292,365,367,380,430,431,463,464,469],english_unit:448,enhanc:[62,84,86,93,97,99,104,107,176,192,228,253,267,336,343,350,363,373,380,426,431,443,456,457,458,460,461,464,465,466,467,468,469,472,473],enjoi:[256,410],enlarg:[177,472],enlighten:156,enoano:213,enobuf:[135,213],enocsi:213,enodata:[213,293],enodev:213,enoent:[213,214,329,467],enoexec:213,enokei:472,enolck:213,enolink:213,enomem:[213,472],enomsg:213,enonet:213,enopkg:213,enoprotoopt:213,enorm:[99,443],enosi:213,enospc:213,enosr:213,enostr:213,enotblk:213,enotconn:[213,468],enotdir:[213,214],enotempti:213,enotnam:213,enotsock:213,enotti:[213,472],enotuniq:213,enough:[5,38,41,54,58,69,74,75,84,90,91,92,95,97,98,102,103,104,105,107,110,159,176,177,184,189,200,202,248,252,257,264,269,292,293,298,310,339,341,343,346,350,363,365,368,381,386,399,438,453,456,457,458,459,464,467,472],enq:179,enqueu:[104,136,268,284,318,472],enqueue_sentinel:268,enquiri:179,enrich:78,enriqu:472,ensu:[30,466],ensur:[5,17,30,38,41,45,57,58,60,62,65,67,68,79,82,85,90,92,95,97,102,103,104,106,111,114,122,125,129,134,135,138,144,159,167,170,182,183,184,187,193,197,206,211,237,251,254,261,266,269,279,284,292,293,301,326,339,343,345,350,355,362,363,365,373,385,386,387,392,395,396,397,399,402,404,416,418,419,424,426,439,446,451,455,456,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],ensure_ascii:[261,469,472],ensure_directori:396,ensure_dis:472,ensure_futur:[131,140,469,470,472],ensure_valu:292,ensurepip:[62,112,191,253,396,472],ent:241,entail:[30,451],enter:[1,30,31,84,85,86,90,91,92,93,95,97,99,101,106,107,109,141,145,153,157,158,160,170,178,190,227,248,257,283,292,293,299,314,327,337,342,343,346,355,360,366,370,372,380,397,423,424,425,433,436,437,439,440,444,445,446,448,450,451,458,459,461,466,467,468,471,472],enter_async_context:170,enter_context:170,enter_result:170,enterab:[327,467],enterpris:472,enterprise_d:382,entertain:153,enthought:161,entir:[0,5,31,57,65,68,74,75,79,81,90,91,93,95,97,102,105,106,107,108,109,111,113,149,152,153,161,167,170,172,178,185,197,201,206,208,217,222,232,236,237,241,243,248,253,257,258,260,265,266,268,269,271,288,292,293,295,321,324,333,342,343,345,346,347,359,365,366,368,373,380,384,385,397,402,405,407,410,413,422,423,425,428,431,432,437,438,442,445,451,455,457,459,460,461,462,463,465,467,468,471,472],entireti:444,entiti:[62,93,106,110,239,241,243,253,267,273,316,392,406,407,408,409,411,412,413,414,459,467,471,472],entity_nod:407,entitydeclhandl:316,entitydef:240,entitynam:316,entityrefer:408,entityresolv:[62,273,413],entranc:84,entrant:266,entri:[5,21,28,30,31,41,45,57,62,69,74,79,81,84,92,93,94,98,99,101,104,109,110,111,122,136,140,145,149,152,159,161,168,170,177,178,185,187,190,192,193,196,217,227,228,232,234,237,244,248,249,252,254,260,264,267,268,269,271,272,282,284,286,292,293,294,297,301,304,305,308,309,310,312,316,318,321,323,326,331,332,334,337,341,342,343,346,354,355,359,361,363,366,370,372,373,375,377,380,381,386,387,393,397,399,400,402,418,419,426,438,448,451,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,470,471,472],entropi:[293,343,470,472],entry_find:237,entry_func:322,entryconfig:370,entryconfigur:472,entrythingi:370,enum_certif:[343,468,472],enum_crl:[343,468,472],enumclass:212,enumer:[22,62,84,99,108,109,161,183,227,228,253,260,284,313,342,346,366,378,395,402,437,438,446,448,455,468,470,473],enumkei:402,enummeta:212,enumnam:212,enumvalu:402,env:[74,90,104,109,168,189,201,293,298,343,350,392,396,418,434,444,449,454,455,459,460,472],env_dir:396,env_ex:396,env_var:363,envbuild:[62,191,468,472],envdir:377,envelop:[197,202,206,208,249,271,336,337,472],environ:[28,30,31,38,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,74,86,87,90,91,92,93,98,103,109,110,111,112,120,128,129,153,159,161,164,177,178,187,188,191,211,215,227,228,230,231,232,236,238,248,251,253,255,265,267,292,294,295,297,299,301,308,310,311,313,315,317,326,327,333,339,340,343,346,350,355,359,361,363,367,370,376,378,385,386,392,397,400,402,407,417,424,425,428,433,434,437,441,443,446,452,453,454,456,457,458,459,460,462,464,465,466,468,471,472,473],environb:[293,466],environment:[293,392,451,472],environmenterror:[214,446,467],environmentvarguard:[363,462],envvar:[265,363],enxio:213,eof:[60,85,107,129,132,135,137,138,151,157,158,169,193,214,225,227,257,269,293,311,329,332,339,343,360,421,451,461,467,472],eof_receiv:[132,135],eoferror:[22,23,37,123,130,151,155,158,214,227,269,274,284,301,337,360,446,464],eopnotsupp:213,eot:[107,179],eoverflow:213,eperm:[213,214,467,472],epfnosupport:213,ephemer:[363,399],ephemeri:449,epicuri:201,epilog:[62,120,206,292,461,466],epilogu:[197,206],epip:[213,214,334],epiphani:400,epler:457,epoch:[152,177,210,244,249,271,288,294,343,367,416,457],epol:[62,330,462,468,469,472],epoll_cloexec:329,epoll_create1:329,epollerr:329,epollet:329,epollexclus:[329,472],epollhup:329,epollin:329,epollmsg:329,epolloneshot:329,epollout:329,epollpri:329,epollrdband:329,epollrdhup:[329,472],epollrdnorm:329,epollselecrtor:472,epollselector:[330,471],epollwrband:329,epollwrnorm:329,eproto:213,eprotonosupport:213,eprototyp:213,eprt:225,epsilon:[355,462],epsv:225,epydoc:90,eqequ:374,equal:[5,7,30,31,33,38,49,54,57,58,60,62,81,84,85,91,93,94,96,99,104,108,113,115,118,122,134,135,136,143,149,151,156,161,167,171,177,178,182,184,187,189,193,196,197,203,209,212,217,223,227,228,229,230,237,242,244,257,258,260,261,265,272,275,279,289,291,293,295,297,299,310,318,320,321,328,332,335,342,343,345,346,348,349,363,365,366,373,374,375,378,380,382,384,385,386,387,399,405,407,409,410,420,424,426,428,431,432,437,438,440,445,446,448,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,470,472],equat:320,equidistribut:320,equiv:392,equival:[5,7,9,21,22,23,30,31,34,36,38,41,43,45,49,50,53,55,57,58,65,74,79,82,84,87,92,93,94,95,96,98,99,101,105,106,111,113,117,118,119,122,123,124,135,138,139,140,149,151,156,159,161,164,167,168,170,177,178,179,182,184,187,189,197,205,206,208,212,214,222,227,228,230,232,235,236,237,238,240,241,244,245,246,248,252,254,258,260,261,265,267,268,269,271,275,284,286,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,301,302,303,304,308,310,318,320,321,323,326,329,330,339,340,342,345,346,347,350,351,355,356,359,363,366,367,370,380,381,382,384,385,391,398,400,402,407,421,423,424,426,431,432,435,436,437,438,442,445,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],era:[265,461],era_d_fmt:265,era_d_t_fmt:265,era_t_fmt:265,erang:213,eras:[91,97,104,178,360,442],erasechar:178,ered:241,eremchg:213,eremot:213,eremoteio:213,erestart:213,erf:[98,275,463,466,471,472],erfc:[275,463,466,471,472],erhard:460,eric:[91,97,176,178,298,326,410,422,438,456,457,460,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],erick:472,erik:[462,471,472],eriksson:[469,472],erof:213,erow:375,err:[97,178,214,230,268,316,333,350,385,416,422,439,467],err_traceback:81,err_typ:81,err_valu:81,errata:[244,261,416],errcheck:177,errcod:[60,85,416],errmsg:416,errno:[14,22,31,62,79,90,120,135,177,214,216,252,253,293,316,329,334,339,343,363,462,467,469,471,472],erron:[177,274,292,301,380,406,456,468,469,471,472],error:[5,7,9,16,17,20,21,23,24,28,29,30,31,32,34,35,36,37,38,40,41,44,45,49,50,51,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,66,71,74,78,80,81,82,84,85,86,90,93,94,95,96,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,117,122,123,130,131,132,135,138,139,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,151,153,156,157,158,160,164,167,168,169,170,172,176,177,178,182,184,185,193,195,197,198,202,203,204,206,208,209,210,212,213,214,215,217,219,225,227,228,230,231,235,238,245,246,248,249,252,253,255,257,258,261,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,273,275,279,284,285,286,287,288,290,293,295,298,301,304,307,308,310,311,313,318,320,321,324,329,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,349,350,351,352,355,357,359,360,363,366,370,373,375,377,380,382,385,386,387,389,391,392,394,396,397,398,399,400,401,402,403,404,405,407,409,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,421,423,424,425,426,431,432,435,438,441,445,446,448,451,455,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],error_access_deni:472,error_bodi:404,error_callback:284,error_cod:385,error_content_typ:246,error_handl:[159,411],error_head:404,error_invalid_paramet:350,error_lead:332,error_message_format:[246,468],error_no_more_item:472,error_out:96,error_output:404,error_perm:225,error_po:54,error_proto:[225,307,467],error_receiv:[132,135],error_repli:225,error_statu:404,error_temp:225,error_traceback:57,error_typ:57,error_valu:57,errorbyteindex:316,errorcod:[213,316],errorcolumnnumb:316,errorhandl:[62,273,411,413,451,462],errorlevel:359,errorlinenumb:316,errorn:472,errorstr:316,errortoken:[374,375],errtext:363,erupt:458,ervo:106,eryk:[109,472],eryksun:472,esc:179,escal:293,escap:[13,15,38,45,54,62,65,79,84,97,106,109,122,129,138,153,159,168,176,178,179,209,227,233,239,248,252,257,261,288,297,321,323,332,346,347,350,367,380,382,391,414,416,424,431,445,448,456,457,460,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],escape_decod:472,escape_encod:472,escapechar:176,escapedquot:332,eshutdown:[213,214],esmtp:337,esmtp_featur:337,esocktnosupport:213,esoter:[458,461],espeak:104,especi:[30,64,66,69,74,78,79,82,90,91,93,102,105,109,111,129,141,161,168,170,184,187,193,199,206,237,254,257,261,267,288,293,299,305,310,313,315,316,318,320,343,344,350,355,363,370,399,407,423,428,430,437,448,456,458,459,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,472],esperanto:159,espip:213,esrch:[213,214],esrmnt:213,essai:473,essenc:[99,139],essenti:[30,79,91,106,107,135,168,216,227,252,256,267,268,275,288,292,293,326,331,340,346,355,380,382,385,408,419,429,435,456,458,463,464,467,468],est:[184,367,447,466,470],establish:[1,95,103,127,129,137,141,193,225,237,248,249,268,284,301,304,307,329,337,343,360,370,392,402,424,425,463,466,472],estal:213,estim:[45,288,291,320,345,363,424,472],estonian:472,estrpip:213,esx:339,etb:179,etc:[5,58,64,65,66,74,77,85,87,93,99,103,104,107,109,110,111,122,124,126,132,135,143,153,157,169,186,207,212,227,241,244,245,248,254,258,265,266,268,272,276,282,284,292,293,298,304,305,309,312,313,321,330,333,335,339,342,343,345,359,366,367,370,372,380,382,385,391,404,407,422,424,427,432,433,436,437,438,443,446,447,449,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,472],etern:[106,140],ethan:[467,468,469,470,471,472],ethernet:339,ethnomathemat:380,etim:213,etimedout:[213,214,462],etini:187,etiquett:107,etoomanyref:213,etop:187,etr:65,etre:[62,253,273,406,408,447,461,463,466,470,472],etter:384,eturn:299,etx:179,etxtbsi:213,etyp:[373,377],euc:[159,196,460],euc_jis_2004:159,euc_jisx0213:159,euc_jp:159,euc_kr:159,euccn:159,eucgb2312:159,eucjis2004:159,eucjisx0213:159,eucjp:[159,184],euckr:159,euclean:213,euclidean:275,eudora:307,eugen:[471,472],euid:293,euismod:151,eunatch:213,euro:[159,227,463,464],europ:[159,167,367,450,463],european:[152,159,463],europython:109,euser:213,eval:[12,57,85,91,113,123,145,158,160,214,227,267,297,299,301,309,346,372,377,425,427,431,432,433,436,440,446,456,460,462,464,465,466,472],eval_input:427,evalu:[3,21,30,51,60,62,74,79,84,91,92,93,95,99,114,124,212,227,232,260,266,284,299,325,326,346,355,366,382,385,391,399,423,424,429,431,432,437,438,443,445,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,472],evan:461,even:[5,9,17,22,28,30,31,38,53,54,57,58,64,65,66,69,74,79,82,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,99,104,105,106,107,109,111,112,113,118,122,125,128,129,140,141,142,147,153,156,159,162,164,167,168,169,170,177,178,182,184,187,192,193,195,197,199,200,206,207,208,209,212,214,215,216,219,223,227,228,236,237,240,244,248,251,254,257,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,284,292,293,294,299,301,309,310,320,321,332,333,334,335,337,339,342,343,345,346,347,349,355,363,365,366,367,373,382,384,385,386,387,392,396,397,399,400,402,404,408,412,414,416,419,422,423,424,426,427,428,430,431,432,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,445,446,447,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],evenli:[99,260],event:[28,30,38,60,62,65,79,86,97,103,125,126,127,128,131,133,134,135,137,138,140,141,145,165,178,184,222,224,237,253,259,266,268,282,284,310,316,329,330,336,342,343,344,355,359,369,399,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,422,424,426,439,442,448,454,455,456,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],event_read:330,event_writ:330,eventcod:79,eventlist:329,eventloop:[134,472],eventmap:282,eventmask:[329,462],eventu:[5,30,31,79,82,85,90,95,106,107,131,135,139,140,193,214,243,248,284,311,368,392,408,416,428,435,442,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,468,470,472],ever:[65,79,91,107,114,124,178,200,202,212,252,257,260,283,284,296,343,386,458,459,461,462,463,464,468,472],everi:[30,31,38,45,52,53,62,65,66,68,72,74,79,81,83,84,86,91,93,95,98,99,103,104,106,109,110,111,113,118,124,129,134,136,140,144,147,159,168,177,178,184,185,187,188,189,190,193,195,197,206,215,225,227,232,237,244,246,248,258,260,261,266,268,284,292,293,295,304,316,318,321,333,334,340,342,346,347,350,351,354,355,356,357,365,366,373,380,382,385,386,392,397,404,405,407,410,416,424,428,430,434,437,440,441,446,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,468,469,470,472],everybodi:[153,245],everydai:[98,227,253,385],everyon:[70,72,370,468],everyth:[3,57,65,68,75,79,82,91,92,95,97,104,105,107,110,111,122,140,172,193,209,221,267,292,293,294,301,321,333,336,339,342,360,370,386,397,416,430,445,462,464,467,472],everywher:[91,107,363,472],evict:161,evid:469,evil:[168,463,472],evilzero:472,evolut:[52,64,112,456,457],evolv:[93,95,267,428,436,438],ewert:467,ewouldblock:[213,214],ewt:461,ex_cantcreat:293,ex_config:293,ex_dataerr:293,ex_ioerr:293,ex_nohost:293,ex_noinput:293,ex_noperm:293,ex_notfound:293,ex_nous:293,ex_ok:293,ex_oserr:293,ex_osfil:293,ex_protocol:293,ex_softwar:293,ex_tempfail:293,ex_unavail:293,ex_usag:293,exact:[7,17,31,65,66,74,75,86,90,95,99,106,107,109,112,113,129,135,151,177,178,184,187,190,193,202,212,214,223,227,252,253,269,271,275,290,292,293,339,346,355,356,370,375,377,385,387,396,410,418,426,428,429,432,440,448,455,456,457,461,462,463,464,465,467,468,472],exact_typ:375,exactli:[5,7,9,10,23,26,31,58,60,64,65,69,79,81,82,84,90,91,93,95,97,102,104,106,108,113,122,123,129,135,137,149,154,170,177,184,187,193,197,199,204,206,208,223,227,230,237,244,246,254,265,266,267,268,275,284,292,293,294,295,316,321,324,329,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,348,349,350,361,362,365,366,377,382,385,386,387,395,399,421,423,426,431,432,436,440,448,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,467,472],exam:149,examin:[57,62,78,91,98,103,109,111,114,182,188,229,254,263,293,299,302,310,332,333,334,337,346,355,363,407,435,457,459,461,462,467,472],exampl:[4,5,7,15,17,21,22,29,30,31,41,47,53,57,60,62,65,66,68,70,71,74,75,77,78,80,81,83,84,85,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,99,102,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,118,119,120,121,123,124,127,128,131,132,133,139,140,143,144,145,146,148,150,152,153,156,159,160,162,163,165,169,171,172,175,177,178,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,190,191,195,196,197,198,200,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,214,216,217,218,219,220,221,222,223,224,227,228,229,230,232,233,246,248,250,253,254,255,257,258,260,261,263,264,265,266,267,268,272,273,275,276,279,281,283,285,288,289,290,291,293,295,298,299,300,302,303,304,305,308,310,313,315,317,318,323,325,327,332,335,336,342,344,345,346,348,350,352,354,355,356,363,364,365,367,370,372,373,376,380,381,382,384,386,388,391,393,397,400,403,405,406,407,409,412,419,422,423,424,428,430,431,432,435,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],example_nt:472,examplescreen:380,exampleservic:417,exampleturtl:380,examplexml:410,exc:[13,22,30,43,85,113,124,135,140,167,170,363,377,385,424,432,462,464,467,472],exc_clear:[459,464],exc_detail:170,exc_info:[22,30,31,79,103,104,113,145,154,190,193,214,266,333,355,377,381,385,402,404,423,424,439,446,459,461,462,464,469,472],exc_msg:193,exc_tb:[170,346],exc_text:[104,266,472],exc_traceback:[113,377,464,472],exc_typ:[113,170,346,377,424,464],exc_val:346,exc_valu:[113,377,424,463,464],exce:[5,17,54,129,137,140,167,168,187,229,257,293,301,324,361,366,407,419,437,463,471],exceed:[130,187,213,214,268,309,324,365,421,459,460,462,470],excel:[91,109,176,193,201,370,453,459,460,464],excel_tab:176,except:[2,5,7,9,10,13,17,21,23,28,29,30,32,34,35,36,37,43,44,45,47,49,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,61,62,67,69,71,72,74,75,77,80,81,82,85,86,90,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,105,106,107,109,111,113,114,117,119,122,123,125,126,129,131,132,135,137,138,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,151,153,154,155,156,158,159,160,161,165,169,171,172,174,176,177,178,179,184,185,187,188,189,190,195,196,197,201,202,206,207,208,209,211,212,213,215,216,218,219,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,235,236,238,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,260,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,273,274,275,279,280,282,285,286,287,288,289,290,292,293,294,295,298,299,300,301,304,306,307,308,310,313,317,318,319,321,322,324,325,327,329,330,332,333,334,335,336,337,340,346,347,351,355,358,359,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,375,377,378,382,385,386,389,391,392,394,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,408,411,412,413,416,417,419,420,421,422,423,424,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,441,442,444,446,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,465,466,468,469,470,471,472,473],except_claus:427,excepthandl:124,excepthook:[154,355,446,457,472],exception1:461,exception2:461,exception:310,exception_hierarchi:462,excerpt:[154,187],excess:[91,111,113,135,177,187,243,323,367,423,426,437,472],exchang:[62,78,107,165,177,213,236,237,238,279,293,318,343,359,440,442,462,463,466,467,472],excinfo:333,excit:[98,435,456,458],exclam:[271,299,347,373,403,431],exclud:[5,17,54,58,67,75,93,98,106,161,164,182,184,193,229,236,260,271,275,280,282,293,298,310,316,320,343,346,359,366,367,368,373,378,386,418,419,422,424,426,432,438,445,451,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],exclude_empti:193,excludevers:455,exclus:[38,43,62,72,91,106,107,111,120,139,151,152,178,187,216,222,227,249,257,268,269,271,291,292,293,321,342,346,359,376,378,400,419,422,424,426,436,455,462,467,468,469,472],excursu:[62,444,452],exdev:213,exe:[65,66,72,92,106,248,268,284,293,321,333,335,396,418,419,434,444,455,463,466,470,471,472],exec:[12,30,65,79,90,111,113,124,145,193,213,214,227,252,293,297,299,310,346,350,354,355,363,375,376,377,378,424,425,432,433,434,436,446,456,457,458,460,461,464,468,469,472],exec_bodi:381,exec_builtin_or_dynam:472,exec_modul:[41,252,428,468,469,470],exec_prefix:[30,31,65,111,284,335,355,376,396,446,451,454,466],execfil:[113,459,460,464,472],execl:[292,293],execlp:293,execut:[12,22,30,31,41,45,47,48,54,60,62,65,66,72,74,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,91,93,94,95,99,101,105,106,109,111,114,115,117,122,126,127,128,135,138,140,142,145,153,157,158,159,161,164,167,170,171,177,186,188,191,192,202,214,227,228,237,246,249,251,252,253,254,257,265,266,267,268,272,281,282,284,292,293,294,297,299,301,302,303,305,310,311,315,322,324,327,329,331,332,333,335,339,342,344,346,348,350,355,361,366,367,369,370,372,375,385,386,387,392,396,397,400,402,404,417,423,426,428,429,432,433,436,437,439,441,442,443,444,445,447,451,452,453,454,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],executable_filenam:65,executemani:342,executescript:342,executexx:342,executionload:252,executor:[62,128,129,132,165,466,469,472],execv:[292,293,308,467,472],execvp:[293,350],exemplar:91,exemplari:422,exemplifi:[267,437],exempt:[86,463],exercis:[79,84,90,103,107,161,188,266,292,310,363,462],exfileselectbox:372,exful:213,exhaust:[5,57,84,93,99,125,159,161,190,227,243,260,293,363,370,386,423,426,437,438,458,460,461,462,464,469,470,472],exhibit:[90,248,257,346,436,451],exif:250,exist:[5,9,21,23,28,30,31,35,44,50,52,53,54,57,58,60,61,62,65,66,70,72,74,75,78,79,80,82,84,85,86,90,91,93,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,112,113,114,117,119,122,123,124,125,129,132,141,145,149,151,153,157,159,161,164,168,170,172,176,177,182,184,185,188,193,195,197,201,206,207,209,211,212,213,214,217,219,222,227,228,232,235,236,237,244,245,248,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,274,276,279,282,284,287,288,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,304,310,315,320,321,322,326,331,333,334,335,339,342,343,344,345,346,347,350,355,356,359,361,363,367,370,372,373,380,382,384,385,386,391,392,394,396,397,399,400,402,404,407,410,416,418,419,420,423,424,425,426,428,429,431,432,436,438,440,442,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],exist_ok:[293,298,469,472],existing_db:342,existing_fil:99,existing_funct:95,exists_ok:472,exit:[22,30,31,54,60,62,66,78,79,85,90,92,93,94,96,97,99,104,117,120,129,132,134,135,138,153,157,158,167,169,170,176,178,187,190,193,201,214,215,219,230,248,249,251,252,253,260,266,268,284,292,293,299,310,311,313,317,329,334,335,337,339,340,342,346,350,355,360,363,366,368,375,376,381,385,386,387,396,397,399,400,403,404,408,417,418,419,423,424,426,434,444,446,447,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,469,470,471,472],exit_futur:135,exitcod:[284,350,472],exitfunc:[113,456,460,464],exitmsg:158,exitonclick:380,exitstack:[170,467,471,472],exot:[261,390,458],exp:[14,156,187,275,320,347,462,463,467,472],expand:[30,53,57,81,92,93,94,106,109,111,168,187,193,232,248,254,258,267,284,292,294,298,316,321,346,356,365,367,370,373,386,391,402,406,407,409,410,412,417,426,428,455,458,459,462,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],expand_tab:365,expandenvironmentstr:[402,462],expandnod:409,expandtab:[346,365],expandus:[111,168,233,244,286,294,298,322,333,350,469,472],expandvar:[233,294,350,462,472],expans:[53,62,220,221,248,253,294,310,316,350,365,406,419,437,460,467,468],expat:[62,74,253,273,306,406,410,412,456,457,459,461,463,466,472],expat_extens:456,expaterror:[62,273,466],expect:[1,5,9,22,26,31,41,53,57,60,62,68,69,70,72,74,79,81,82,83,84,90,91,93,94,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,114,122,124,129,130,135,136,140,141,153,155,159,161,168,170,173,177,178,182,187,188,189,193,198,204,212,214,222,223,225,227,232,236,243,244,246,252,254,257,261,265,266,268,271,279,284,291,292,293,311,314,328,329,331,332,334,339,343,349,350,355,360,363,367,370,373,380,382,386,387,390,392,394,396,404,405,410,412,413,416,421,424,426,428,436,437,440,448,449,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],expectation_fail:242,expected_cal:387,expectedfailur:[363,385,465,472],expectedfailuretestcas:385,expens:[57,72,82,84,91,93,103,149,182,187,189,228,257,265,289,310,333,340,343,355,421,428,448,451,460,467,468,470,471],expensive_func1:103,expensive_func2:103,expensive_mod:382,experi:[86,90,95,99,103,106,177,232,310,342,380,385,407,435,441,455,456,457,458,462,463,465,469],experienc:84,experiment:[74,84,95,98,135,242,248,271,342,343,370,407,430,459,464,465,466,471,472],expert:[30,292,446,451],expir:[129,213,244,245,284,327,330,334,337,339,341,343,350,366,367,392,467],expiri:[244,472],explain:[31,38,41,57,74,77,79,81,82,83,85,91,93,94,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,128,153,172,177,193,214,227,244,246,248,260,292,299,346,373,385,386,390,421,426,435,436,440,450,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],explan:[62,74,84,86,106,110,168,184,189,246,265,271,284,286,299,303,306,321,339,342,346,355,367,370,380,392,428,438,439,442,450,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,466],explanatori:[83,193,297,316,385],explicit:[22,26,28,31,60,62,64,65,74,75,79,82,84,91,95,103,106,107,113,135,142,168,170,182,184,187,189,206,211,214,227,232,244,252,254,268,284,292,299,301,316,326,332,333,339,340,346,347,363,382,386,399,408,411,418,424,426,428,434,436,438,446,455,456,457,461,463,464,466,471,472,473],explicitli:[7,27,30,31,45,57,62,64,65,66,68,69,74,79,82,91,93,95,97,99,101,103,104,105,106,111,112,113,134,140,150,153,158,167,170,171,177,180,182,184,187,197,199,203,206,207,209,211,212,214,215,219,225,227,228,232,234,244,246,251,253,254,261,265,266,267,269,271,275,282,284,292,293,294,295,309,313,328,329,331,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,349,350,355,357,361,366,370,380,382,385,386,392,396,397,399,402,404,407,408,409,418,420,423,424,425,426,427,428,431,432,434,436,437,442,445,446,451,455,458,459,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],explod:[102,258,456,458],exploit:[153,269,293,406,424,451,468],explor:[94,103,108,110,111,168,190,241,248,293,385,396,410,424,443,455,462,466],explos:102,expm1:[275,463,466],expn:336,expon:[94,187,275,346,347,349,355,375,431,460,462,467,472],exponentfloat:431,exponenti:[14,91,187,268,291,320,346,406,426,459,460,462],export_symbol:[65,74],exportselect:373,expos:[7,14,25,34,39,40,41,42,44,50,53,57,58,65,78,79,82,93,94,103,110,131,140,177,182,187,211,251,252,254,258,261,265,266,282,284,293,309,331,332,337,346,347,348,350,355,376,381,384,399,402,404,417,424,428,459,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],expositori:193,exposur:[174,467],expovari:320,expr1:[99,426,456],expr2:[99,426,456],expr3:[99,426],expr4:426,expr5:426,expr:[99,124,145,297,385,423,426,427,432,456,460,464],expr_context:124,expr_stmt:427,express:[5,21,36,43,45,49,60,62,74,79,86,91,92,93,100,104,122,124,128,140,145,156,160,162,163,168,184,187,189,190,193,214,221,227,232,233,248,253,254,258,260,265,267,275,284,291,293,297,299,310,320,325,334,339,343,346,347,349,355,360,363,364,367,368,370,375,376,381,382,384,385,387,395,397,399,410,422,423,424,425,428,429,431,435,438,439,440,441,442,443,445,446,447,456,457,458,459,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],expression1:432,expression2:432,expression_list:[423,426,432,433],expression_nocond:426,expression_stmt:432,exprlist:427,exprn:[99,456],expung:249,exr:250,ext:[68,103,104,159,190,201,267,276,294,299,448,459,460,466],ext_modul:[65,69,74,75,77,82,456],ext_packag:74,ext_suffix:[466,468],extant:[197,206],extend:[5,28,29,30,31,38,41,52,57,62,69,71,77,81,82,84,86,88,90,91,93,97,104,106,110,111,120,122,123,135,141,152,156,157,159,161,162,168,169,170,177,178,184,189,191,193,197,206,208,212,227,228,232,246,248,250,251,257,260,261,271,275,276,279,283,301,304,310,316,322,329,333,336,337,339,343,346,352,355,359,367,373,375,380,382,385,392,406,407,410,417,424,425,426,428,429,432,436,438,441,445,446,455,457,460,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],extend_path:304,extended_arg:190,extendedcontext:[187,467],extendedenvbuild:396,extendedinterpol:[168,466],extendedref:399,extendleft:161,extens:[1,3,5,7,10,22,26,29,31,38,41,52,53,57,58,60,62,66,68,70,71,72,78,84,86,87,88,91,92,93,95,97,100,105,106,120,123,144,154,168,174,177,178,182,184,185,189,192,193,195,201,204,209,212,219,221,227,229,236,237,242,246,247,249,251,252,253,254,255,257,261,268,271,273,276,281,288,289,292,293,296,298,299,301,307,310,314,316,319,320,321,331,332,333,336,337,339,342,343,346,355,356,359,363,366,369,370,378,380,381,385,399,402,407,408,411,412,416,418,419,422,424,426,428,429,434,435,436,441,446,447,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,468,470,471,472],extension_nam:65,extension_suffix:252,extensionclass:456,extensionfileload:[252,467,468,470],extensions_map:246,extent:[31,135,157,172,236,257,279,373,380,422,465],extern:[31,62,65,66,74,75,79,84,85,90,91,95,104,108,120,123,124,153,159,168,177,185,198,217,238,248,251,252,254,266,272,274,293,300,313,316,340,342,346,361,363,366,370,385,404,405,406,407,409,410,411,412,413,419,424,426,439,455,462,464,465,466,469,470,471,472],external_attr:419,external_resource_avail:385,externalclasherror:271,externalentityparsercr:316,externalentityrefhandl:316,extra:[8,9,17,31,57,58,65,82,84,91,93,95,97,104,110,111,113,122,161,171,176,187,193,197,203,204,206,209,212,243,252,266,271,274,284,292,333,343,346,359,360,363,368,373,382,386,410,419,424,427,438,442,448,456,459,462,463,466,467,470,471,472],extra_arg:[333,466],extra_compile_arg:[65,74],extra_link_arg:[65,74],extra_object:[65,74],extra_path:[470,472],extra_postarg:65,extra_prearg:65,extra_s:448,extract:[13,19,31,51,62,66,78,80,81,99,102,178,184,189,193,198,199,201,227,232,237,243,244,252,254,260,293,297,314,315,321,331,333,337,346,355,359,377,419,424,437,438,439,447,455,459,460,461,462,463,466,468,469,470,472],extract_cooki:244,extract_dir:333,extract_stack:[377,472],extract_tb:377,extract_vers:419,extractal:[359,419,461,462,469,472],extracted_list:377,extracterror:359,extractfil:359,extractor:[291,460],extraglob:193,extralargefil:472,extran:[125,190,261,310,370,472],extrasact:176,extrem:[84,99,104,109,208,261,293,301,320,386,407,419,426,439,472],extsep:293,extslic:124,eye:[84,144,187,189,437,461,469],ez_setup:396,ezio:[109,463,466,467,468,469],f0f1f2:346,f100:437,f1f2:346,f3nde:466,f5d:458,f5r8f:458,f5r:458,f6stal:203,f86e:[395,461],f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da:328,f_back:[254,377,424],f_bavail:293,f_bfree:293,f_block:293,f_bsize:293,f_builtin:[254,424],f_code:[254,424,459],f_contigu:346,f_express:431,f_favail:293,f_ffree:293,f_file:293,f_flag:293,f_frsize:293,f_fsid:[293,472],f_getfd:472,f_global:[254,424],f_in:235,f_lasti:[254,424,459],f_lineno:[254,424,459,470,472],f_local:[254,381,424,472],f_lock:[293,472],f_namemax:293,f_ok:[293,333],f_out:235,f_restrict:472,f_setfd:472,f_setfl:216,f_setlkw:216,f_test:293,f_tlock:293,f_trace:[254,424,472],f_trace_lin:[30,355,424,471,472],f_trace_opcod:[30,355,424,471,472],f_tstate:468,f_ulock:293,f_wrlck:216,fab:275,fabian:462,fabrett:201,fabric:[469,472],face:[30,109,131,248,268,298,304,380,456,462,464,467,468,469,472],facil:[7,30,62,95,97,103,120,145,157,158,178,248,253,257,263,268,271,293,301,339,343,347,357,359,380,424,443,445,446,455,459,472],facilit:[22,222,227,248,267,321,322,337,397,468,471,472],facioni:472,fact:[28,31,58,66,68,69,72,74,79,84,86,91,92,96,99,103,106,107,110,111,129,152,168,172,177,187,193,207,211,225,227,252,266,280,292,301,310,346,359,367,370,380,382,392,404,418,424,426,428,430,436,437,440,445,446,455,456,457,462,467,468,469,472],facto:[144,178,244,359,391,416],factor:[91,109,143,162,193,236,292,346,385,426,427,437,458,463,467,471,472],factori:[13,57,62,65,93,102,122,129,132,135,140,159,170,173,177,183,193,204,208,209,228,252,255,266,267,268,271,275,284,292,317,333,342,366,370,382,387,399,404,407,410,416,417,424,458,461,462,465,466,467,469,471,472],facundo:[460,462],fail:[5,7,9,10,17,22,28,30,31,38,43,51,52,58,62,74,78,79,82,84,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,104,105,106,110,114,141,153,155,156,167,170,177,184,193,210,212,214,216,227,245,246,248,250,251,252,254,257,260,261,265,267,269,271,272,279,284,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,305,321,324,329,331,333,334,335,337,339,342,343,346,347,350,355,359,363,366,378,382,385,386,387,392,395,402,405,410,413,416,419,424,425,428,432,437,439,442,446,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],fail_fast:[193,468],failed_depend:242,failfast:[385,463,472],failif:[113,385],failifalmostequ:[113,385],failifequ:[113,385],failobj:[197,206],failunless:[113,385],failunlessalmostequ:[113,385],failunlessequ:[113,385],failunlessrais:[113,385],failur:[5,7,8,9,10,14,17,21,22,23,24,25,26,28,30,31,34,35,36,38,43,45,49,50,53,54,55,58,60,62,65,74,79,95,96,105,106,135,177,178,184,188,193,214,244,252,268,279,283,293,297,298,304,318,324,333,335,339,343,346,363,369,386,387,426,432,457,460,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],failure_count:[193,363],failureexcept:[193,385],fair:[139,343,385,391,458,470],fairli:[57,68,75,90,93,97,100,104,107,109,193,205,209,282,305,310,331,407,408,442,456,458,459,461,462],faithfulli:[209,297,355],fake:[66,90,292,404,424,472],fakepath:363,fakeseq:459,fall:[21,38,57,58,72,90,99,103,178,182,184,187,197,206,214,227,231,267,289,291,293,295,327,343,345,346,347,391,392,424,431,437,444,456,458,459,461,462,463,464,466,468,470,471,472],fallback:[31,62,129,164,169,185,218,232,333,355,359,363,373,403,424,428,466,472],fallback_charset:210,fallback_oper:289,fals:[5,6,7,10,20,21,30,31,43,45,56,57,58,60,65,79,90,91,93,94,95,97,99,102,103,104,105,109,110,117,118,122,124,125,129,131,134,135,136,137,139,140,141,144,147,151,152,153,155,156,157,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,169,170,171,176,177,178,180,182,184,187,189,190,193,197,200,201,202,204,205,206,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,216,217,219,221,222,227,228,229,230,232,233,236,237,243,244,246,249,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,276,284,288,291,292,293,294,295,297,298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,293,310,311,313,321,328,334,347,349,350,355,361,363,367,386,399,404,424,428,439,442,451,463,467,468,469,470,472],force_zip64:419,forcibl:[111,227,467,468],foreach:101,forego:[195,422],foreground:[97,178,248,373,448],foreign:[62,105,120,168,253,333,342],foreseen:111,forest:380,forev:[107,125,132,311,329,457,458,459,460,467],forewarn:182,forgeot:[462,463,465,466,472],forget:[30,31,65,68,78,79,95,187,342,363,373,426,436,460,461,462,466,472],forgiv:[93,456],forgot:84,forgotten:[79,109,128,438],fork:[30,54,74,79,90,104,148,214,229,279,284,293,311,329,333,340,343,459,463,468,471,472],forkingmixin:[340,467,471,472],forkingtcpserv:340,forkingudpserv:340,forkpti:293,forkserv:[62,165,468,472],form01:267,form02:267,form03:267,form04:267,form05:267,form06:267,form07:267,form08:267,form09:267,form:[1,5,7,9,22,28,30,33,34,49,50,57,58,62,65,66,70,74,78,79,84,85,86,87,91,93,94,95,97,99,102,103,104,106,107,109,110,111,114,122,129,136,145,153,159,162,168,170,176,177,178,179,184,187,189,190,193,197,198,199,201,204,206,207,209,210,214,222,223,227,228,230,232,241,242,243,245,246,249,251,254,256,258,260,265,266,267,268,271,273,274,276,284,288,293,294,297,298,300,304,306,307,309,318,321,335,339,342,343,344,346,347,348,349,351,355,359,363,365,366,367,368,369,370,373,380,384,385,386,387,391,392,395,397,402,404,405,407,410,416,418,421,422,423,424,425,428,431,432,433,435,436,437,439,440,441,442,446,448,451,455,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],formal:[62,65,80,95,193,236,292,297,321,346,347,391,411,418,424,425,426,430,432,437,441,456,458,465,468,469,472],format:[2,5,9,22,28,29,31,37,44,45,54,57,58,59,62,64,65,66,72,74,75,79,81,85,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,98,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,113,119,120,121,122,124,135,141,143,144,145,146,147,148,152,153,154,155,161,165,168,170,174,177,184,185,187,189,190,191,193,195,197,201,202,203,204,206,208,209,210,212,213,214,225,227,230,232,235,236,241,244,246,249,250,251,252,253,254,258,260,261,264,265,266,268,269,272,274,276,277,282,285,286,291,292,293,294,295,296,298,300,302,304,305,306,307,309,310,316,319,321,322,323,328,331,332,333,336,337,339,340,342,343,350,351,355,360,364,367,369,370,372,373,375,377,378,380,381,385,391,392,394,395,397,398,402,404,410,414,419,420,421,423,424,426,430,436,437,438,439,440,441,445,446,447,449,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,466,467,468,471,472,473],format_alon:269,format_auto:269,format_cod:17,format_datetim:[204,210,467],format_exc:377,format_except:377,format_exception_onli:[193,377],format_field:347,format_help:122,format_list:[377,472],format_map:[161,346,466,469,472],format_raw:269,format_spec:[124,227,347,424,431,462,472],format_stack:[377,472],format_stack_entri:145,format_str:[265,347,448,461,469,471,472],format_tb:[377,378],format_usag:122,format_valu:[190,470,472],format_xz:269,formataddr:[210,467],formatannot:254,formatarg:254,formatargspec:[254,469,472],formatargvalu:[254,469],formatd:[210,460,472],formaterror:[177,271],formatexcept:[104,266],formatmessag:[22,177,214],formatmonth:152,formatmonthnam:152,formatparagraph:472,formatreturn:254,formatstack:266,formatt:[58,62,120,122,253,267,268,277,292,347,459,463,466,468,469,471,472],formatted_err:385,formatted_lin:377,formattedvalu:124,formatter_class:[62,120],formatter_form01:267,formatter_simpleformatt:103,formattim:266,formatvalu:254,formatvararg:254,formatvarkw:254,formatwarn:[266,397,462,472],formatweekdai:152,formatyear:152,formatyearpag:152,formed:413,former:[22,28,40,65,66,122,145,160,172,177,178,184,187,251,252,254,266,288,310,324,333,370,372,373,380,395,424,426,428,466,467,470,471,472],formerli:[57,81,136,162,167,245,284,296,318,320,367,465,466,467,470,471],formfe:[347,365,431],formula:[84,184,232,346,472],forth:[22,66,72,74,91,97,106,107,111,161,293,321,329,424,456,458,459,461],fortran:[7,84,93,346,440,457,460,462],fortun:[79,82,84,97,153,464],forum:103,forward:[58,65,84,95,96,99,106,124,149,155,157,177,178,184,201,228,232,248,257,271,289,294,297,298,299,342,343,380,382,399,404,408,423,438,443,450,456,457,458,460,462,465,466,471,472],forwardref:[382,472],forwardx11:168,fos:472,foster:[100,472],found:[4,5,13,16,20,21,28,30,31,41,45,50,54,57,58,64,65,69,72,73,74,76,77,78,79,82,83,84,85,86,91,93,95,98,99,101,103,104,106,109,110,112,114,122,124,125,137,151,153,159,161,163,164,168,171,172,176,177,178,190,193,197,198,200,204,206,208,209,212,214,216,217,225,227,228,229,230,232,234,237,241,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,256,260,264,265,266,267,269,271,272,274,276,279,280,283,284,286,293,295,297,298,299,304,312,316,320,321,324,333,334,337,339,341,342,343,346,350,355,356,359,360,363,373,375,381,384,385,387,390,392,397,403,404,407,409,410,411,412,416,417,420,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,439,442,443,444,446,447,448,449,453,455,456,457,458,459,461,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],found_termin:125,foundat:[63,64,74,87,99,112,126,170,343,422,453,455,459,460,462,467],four:[28,38,53,58,84,86,94,97,106,107,109,122,159,178,189,190,208,212,225,240,243,248,254,258,267,271,279,282,292,316,320,335,339,340,346,347,351,370,373,380,386,412,431,437,448,455,462,465,466,472],fourfold:456,fourier:450,fourth:[53,95,99,114,178,190,195,294,309,367,416,458],fourthought:456,foutfil:292,foxnew:167,fp1:294,fp2:294,fpathconf:293,fpectl:[471,472],fpformat:462,fpic:77,fprintf:[78,79],fpu:472,fqdn:[336,337],frac_digit:[265,448],fractalcurv:380,fraction:[62,79,86,109,161,184,187,193,227,253,260,265,275,289,290,310,320,321,342,343,345,346,366,367,380,426,431,440,445,458,459,460,461,463,464,465,469,470,472],fragil:472,fragment1:143,fragment2:143,fragment:[60,84,85,99,143,147,297,316,343,346,391,392,409,410,461,463,466,467,472],frame:[11,12,18,22,27,30,31,45,48,60,62,84,90,91,101,119,140,143,144,145,172,178,186,190,212,215,248,254,261,266,299,334,338,339,343,346,351,355,370,371,372,373,377,381,398,404,423,424,425,451,457,459,460,461,463,467,468,469,471,472],frame_gen:377,frame_lineno:145,frameinfo:254,framemak:[178,370],frameptr:101,framer:[119,338,351,398],framesummari:[62,317,469,472],frametyp:381,framework:[62,65,84,90,118,125,126,129,135,157,168,171,177,186,188,193,195,242,248,253,255,296,335,337,343,355,382,386,392,404,417,424,453,458,459,462,463,464,466,468,469,471,472,473],franc:99,francesco:459,francisco:[343,393,472],francoi:463,francoton:225,frank:[321,472],frankenstein:365,franklin:463,franz:472,fraser:459,frechet:463,fred:[0,104,316,370,431,456,457,458,459,461,462,470],frederick:345,fredrik:[0,91,97,99,370,383,416,422,456,457,458,460,461,463,465,466],free:[5,7,10,12,16,17,21,24,30,31,34,38,40,47,50,54,55,57,58,64,79,81,82,84,85,86,87,90,91,93,94,96,99,105,107,111,136,159,167,177,189,190,227,229,231,232,254,284,292,293,305,318,333,346,354,355,363,378,383,385,396,399,407,416,417,422,423,424,425,426,428,432,441,442,455,457,458,459,461,462,464,466,467,468,472],free_list:462,freebsd8:355,freebsd:[62,97,135,293,295,324,329,339,355,363,367,452,461,468,471,472],freed:[7,16,21,24,30,34,38,40,41,50,55,58,62,79,81,167,229,237,284,330,424,448,457,459,461,470,472],freedbsd:472,freedesktop:467,freedom:[345,432],freefunc:[41,57,81],freeli:[64,86,105,125,141,193,346,422,441],freevar:[12,472],freewar:87,freez:[28,91,167,228,229,248,288,449,471,472],freeze_support:284,freht:[463,466,472],french:[106,109,110,367,469,471],frequenc:[104,119,229,351,398,403,462],frequent:[7,31,62,79,81,90,91,101,106,107,109,110,161,165,169,184,189,248,265,268,284,288,292,307,385,421,434,437,438,442,447,450,459,460,462,463],fresh:[57,93,95,99,159,170,284,309,326,363,428,454,455,458,459,472],freshfruit:438,freshli:[22,91,95,381],freshmeat:458,frexp:275,fri:[152,210,466,467,472],fridai:152,frie09:321,friedl:[106,321],friend:[31,57,79,111,346,387,460,464,472],friendli:[1,57,97,104,122,195,229,292,355,385,410,436,456,468,471,472],friendlier:[296,370],frob:[230,387],frobbl:122,frobnic:[385,399],from:[0,1,3,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,14,15,19,21,22,23,24,25,26,28,31,32,34,35,36,37,38,39,41,42,43,45,47,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,64,66,68,69,70,71,72,74,75,77,78,80,81,82,83,84,86,87,89,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,118,119,120,122,123,124,125,127,128,129,130,131,132,135,136,137,138,139,141,142,143,144,145,148,151,152,153,154,155,157,158,159,161,162,163,164,165,167,168,171,172,174,176,178,179,180,182,184,187,188,189,190,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,217,220,222,223,224,225,227,228,229,231,232,235,236,237,241,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,256,257,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,274,275,276,279,280,281,282,284,285,286,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,300,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,308,309,310,311,313,314,315,316,317,318,320,321,322,323,324,325,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,351,354,355,356,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,371,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,382,383,384,385,386,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,399,400,401,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,433,434,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,444,445,447,448,449,450,451,452,453,454,456,457,458,460,461,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],from_:[197,271,373],from_addr:[337,466],from_address:177,from_buff:[177,462,472],from_buffer_copi:[177,462,472],from_builtin:[95,469,472],from_byt:[346,472],from_cal:[254,469,472],from_celsiu:466,from_decim:[223,466],from_except:377,from_fahrenheit:466,from_fil:[419,470,472],from_float:[187,223,440,463,465,466,472],from_funct:[469,472],from_iter:[260,462,472],from_kal:472,from_list:377,from_param:177,from_start:58,from_str:471,from_traceback:[190,468],from_what:442,fromaddr:[90,267,268,337,343],fromag:106,frombuf:359,frombyt:[123,466],fromdat:189,fromdesc:189,fromfd:[329,339],fromfil:[123,189,464],fromfile_prefix_char:[62,120],fromfiled:189,fromhex:[147,346,440,462,470,471,472],fromisoformat:[184,471,472],fromkei:[98,161,346,381,459,466],fromlin:189,fromlist:[28,123,190,227,251,252,472],fromnam:225,fromordin:[184,471],fromshar:[339,471],fromstr:[123,339,410,466],fromstringlist:[410,466],fromtarfil:359,fromtimestamp:[19,184,189,306,471,472],fromunicod:123,fromutc:[184,472],front:[31,34,65,91,95,106,161,170,189,202,209,248,256,260,298,304,387,392,397,404,420,424,426,438,451,456,459,461,463,472],frontend:159,frontier:343,frown:[86,446],frozen:[28,62,86,177,227,251,252,284,304,317,355,378,424,428,455,459,468,471,472],frozenimport:[252,468],frozeninstanceerror:182,frozenmain:30,frozenset:[50,62,93,183,227,253,274,301,382,385,399,424,426,446,460,461,462,466,472],frozent:177,fruit:[212,309,424,438],fs_is_case_insensit:363,fs_nonascii:363,fsdecod:[22,60,93,293,355,451,466,470,472],fsencod:[93,293,298,355,363,451,466,470,472],fset:[98,227,381],fspath:[93,293,298,470,472],fsrc:333,fstat:[293,294,344,458,467,469,472],fstatvf:[293,458,469],fsum:[227,275,440,462],fsync:[293,469,472],ftp1:[225,466],ftp:[62,86,110,253,255,268,286,343,391,392,454,456,457,462,463,467,472],ftp_open:392,ftp_tl:[62,255,463,466,467],ftpd:225,ftphandler:[62,110,255],ftplib:[62,159,253,255,392,457,459,462,463,466,468,469,470,472],ftpmirror:458,ftpwrapper:[462,472],ftruncat:[90,293,469,472],fts3:342,fuch:467,fudg:245,fugu:225,fuhrer:472,fulfil:[94,110,242,246,343,370,457,459,466],full:[10,30,31,57,58,62,65,66,74,79,82,84,86,90,91,93,94,95,97,98,99,103,104,105,106,110,126,127,136,141,149,150,152,158,159,161,162,164,168,169,174,176,177,181,184,187,189,193,198,201,202,213,214,220,222,224,227,229,244,248,251,257,258,260,266,268,275,281,282,284,292,293,295,297,299,304,305,316,318,321,332,333,334,337,339,340,343,346,349,350,355,359,363,367,370,380,381,382,385,386,391,392,396,399,400,404,408,410,416,419,424,425,428,429,432,436,438,440,442,444,445,446,448,451,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],full_distribution_nam:305,full_url:[110,392,468],fullargspec:254,fullcircl:380,fuller:[84,457],fulli:[7,30,41,57,65,68,75,77,87,91,93,105,109,122,130,133,136,187,193,198,204,208,209,222,252,256,267,268,284,301,304,305,318,334,336,337,339,346,359,385,395,404,407,410,414,418,420,428,436,455,458,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,472],fullmatch:[321,468,472],fullmodnam:470,fullnam:[164,251,252,304,420,459],fulltext:[342,466],fullurl:392,fullwidth:187,fulton:[456,460,470,472],fum:84,fun:[90,168,228,380,382,385,470],fun_num:228,func1:91,func2:91,func3:91,func4:91,func:[30,31,40,48,54,60,65,84,91,93,99,122,124,129,140,142,145,167,177,178,213,228,254,260,266,284,292,310,316,333,342,346,355,363,366,368,370,376,385,399,417,423,460,462,464,466,467,470,472],func_closur:[113,464],func_cod:464,func_default:464,func_descr_get:98,func_dict:464,func_doc:464,func_glob:464,func_nam:[460,464],func_spec:177,func_x:464,funcattr:113,funcdef:[423,427],funcnam:[12,65,78,101,145,266,423,436],funcobject:98,function_1:[84,101],function_2:[84,101],function_3:101,function_4:101,function_5:101,function__entri:101,function__return:101,function_that_returns_a_future_object:140,functional_program:99,functiondef:[124,472],functionnam:95,functiontestcas:385,functiontyp:[25,381],functool:[62,91,93,108,113,129,131,161,226,227,253,254,260,346,424,461,462,463,464,465,472],fund:[448,456,461],fundament:[29,30,31,57,62,72,84,86,93,107,120,195,258,284,292,301,309,310,320,381,382,399,428,455,456,462,470],funk:[232,456],funki:[168,212],funni:[97,143],funny_fil:217,furman:[467,468,469,470,471,472],furnish:422,furrer:472,furrfu:458,further:[7,30,37,57,62,79,81,82,84,85,86,91,93,95,96,99,102,103,104,107,109,110,118,123,125,141,145,151,153,155,159,170,174,177,182,188,190,193,214,219,227,230,232,241,248,257,265,266,269,275,283,292,293,295,299,301,321,333,334,339,340,343,346,347,355,367,370,377,382,406,407,412,418,421,424,426,428,431,436,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,467,471,472],furthermor:[30,84,90,111,122,159,254,267,268,271,326,346,382,418,455,468],fusc:151,fuse:187,fut:[128,131],futur:[5,31,62,65,75,83,90,93,95,103,104,105,106,111,113,126,128,130,132,135,140,141,157,160,165,166,168,176,184,193,198,204,206,208,209,211,214,227,229,232,237,252,253,254,267,286,292,297,310,317,321,327,329,336,339,343,345,358,363,366,367,382,385,392,395,397,406,410,421,423,424,431,436,442,446,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,467,468,472,473],future_builtin:[62,113],future_stmt:432,future_to_url:167,futurewarn:[22,214,321,397,446,459,460,463,471,472],fuzz:472,fuzzili:237,fwalk:[293,467,471,472],fwrapv:78,fxn:397,g3805:466,g722:119,g9gthfe1yluxy1zwplyk1:236,gabriel:463,gadget:472,gaedk:462,gai:[422,463,465],gai_strerror:339,gaierror:339,gaifax:[471,472],gailli:422,gain:[86,90,104,145,161,187,257,301,355,392,428,430,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471],galact:449,galeon:400,galindo:[471,472],gallagh:472,gallahad:[161,438,465],gallew:456,game:[107,122,380,435,461,462],gamma:[275,320,463,466],gamma_funct:466,gammavari:320,ganisin:472,ganssl:[471,472],gap:[184,268,271,370,466],gar:298,garbag:[3,29,38,41,46,47,57,61,62,79,80,81,90,91,93,99,101,104,107,128,141,153,160,170,171,177,180,193,214,253,274,284,292,293,317,339,342,355,361,363,368,385,399,408,423,424,426,442,448,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,470,471,472,473],gareth:472,gari:449,garlic:342,garshol:456,garvit:[471,472],gasc:472,gass:460,gatewai:[62,86,110,253,255,450,461,473],gateway_timeout:242,gather:[97,101,122,127,136,138,140,178,212,227,229,293,310,339,343,376,385,469,471,472],gather_t:467,gauss:320,gaussian:[90,320,466],gautier:472,gave:[91,109,385,463,466,472],gavin:469,gawain:[463,466],gay:[468,470,471,472],gaynor:[463,469,472],gb18030:[159,460,472],gb2312:[159,384,460,467],gbk:[159,460],gc__done:101,gc__start:101,gc_collect:363,gcc:[30,65,77,111,177,305,355,444,451,455,462,463,465,468,470,472],gcd:[223,275,469,472],gcm:343,gcov:468,gdb7:472,gdb:[85,463,472],gdbinit:[85,463,472],gdbm:[74,90,185,464,472],gdppc:410,ge29873:288,gecko:392,gedai:472,gedmina:109,geert:[459,469,472],gellekum:457,gen:[99,254,260,426,458,459,466,469,472],gen_clos:[254,466],gen_coro:254,gen_creat:[254,466],gen_data:151,gen_func:381,gen_lib_opt:65,gen_mov:448,gen_preprocess_opt:65,gen_rid:472,gen_run:254,gen_suspend:[254,466],gen_uuid:282,gencoro:162,genellina:463,gener:[0,1,5,7,11,13,15,22,28,29,30,31,33,36,45,49,53,56,57,60,62,65,66,68,69,71,74,75,77,78,79,82,83,84,85,88,92,93,98,101,102,103,104,106,107,109,111,113,114,118,122,124,125,129,132,135,136,138,143,144,145,147,153,154,157,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,172,174,175,176,177,178,182,183,184,185,187,188,189,190,192,193,195,197,201,204,206,209,210,214,218,220,225,226,227,228,229,231,232,236,237,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,257,260,263,265,266,267,268,269,271,273,274,275,277,282,284,285,288,289,290,291,293,296,297,301,307,309,311,313,316,317,321,322,323,325,327,331,332,336,337,339,342,344,347,348,350,352,353,355,358,359,363,365,366,367,372,373,374,375,376,377,380,381,384,385,386,391,392,395,399,402,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,414,416,417,418,421,422,423,425,427,428,430,431,432,435,437,438,439,440,441,442,446,450,452,455,456,457,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,472,473],general_quest:466,generalis:104,generate_help:65,generate_int:[99,458,459],generate_opcode_h:472,generate_token:464,generator:458,generator_express:426,generator_stop:[114,214,432,469,472],generatorexit:[22,99,214,424,426,446,461,462,472],generatorexp:124,generatorproxi:284,generatortyp:381,generic_visit:124,genericbrows:400,genexp:99,genop:302,genpag:472,gensuitemodul:462,gent0113:184,gentl:[82,94,102,122,458],gentler:[106,321],gentli:342,genuin:[79,193,216,463,466],geoff:[79,472],geograph:[184,450],geometri:[62,369,370,371,373,472],geometric_mean:472,georg:[109,260,442,461,462,463,465,466,467,469,470,472],georgiou:466,gerald:99,gerber:459,gerg:472,gerhard:[342,458,461,462,463],german:[109,159,265,346,380,468],gestalt:189,get:[5,7,13,16,21,22,28,30,31,35,36,38,41,44,45,49,52,53,57,58,60,62,65,68,69,74,77,78,79,81,82,83,85,92,93,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,119,122,128,129,131,132,135,136,138,139,140,141,143,145,152,153,159,161,162,168,170,171,177,178,184,185,186,187,188,189,193,197,201,206,207,209,210,212,214,217,227,229,230,232,234,236,237,243,244,246,248,249,253,254,256,257,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,271,280,282,284,288,289,292,293,295,299,301,304,305,307,310,311,315,318,320,322,324,328,331,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,350,351,355,356,359,360,361,363,367,370,372,373,377,380,381,382,385,386,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,400,404,407,408,410,411,412,413,415,416,417,421,423,424,428,433,434,435,436,439,440,444,445,446,448,449,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],get_ait:190,get_al:[197,206,210,404],get_algorithm_impl:472,get_all_break:145,get_all_link:460,get_all_start_method:[284,468],get_all_us:170,get_an_available_item:366,get_anext:190,get_app:404,get_archive_format:[333,466],get_asyncgen_hook:355,get_attribut:363,get_await:190,get_begidx:[322,472],get_block:[293,469,472],get_bodi:[201,206,208],get_body_encod:196,get_boundari:[197,206],get_bpbynumb:145,get_break:145,get_buff:[132,135,405],get_byt:[271,466],get_ca_cert:[343,468],get_cache_token:[118,468],get_channel_bind:[343,467],get_charset:[197,206],get_child_watch:[134,138],get_children:[354,373],get_ciph:[343,470,472],get_clock_info:[367,467,472],get_close_match:189,get_cod:[252,420,468],get_complet:322,get_completer_delim:322,get_completion_typ:322,get_config_h_filenam:[65,356],get_config_var:[65,78,293,356,463,466,468,472],get_connect:170,get_cont:[197,198,201,206,209],get_content_charset:[197,206],get_content_disposit:[197,206,469],get_content_maintyp:[197,201,206],get_content_subtyp:[197,206],get_content_typ:[197,201,206],get_context:[284,468],get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth:[355,471],get_coroutine_wrapp:[355,469,471],get_count:[229,461],get_current_history_length:[322,459],get_dat:[135,138,271],get_data:[252,304,392,420,462,468,472],get_debug:[129,132,229,469],get_default:122,get_default_compil:65,get_default_domain:287,get_default_typ:[197,206],get_default_verify_path:[343,468],get_dialect:176,get_distutil_opt:459,get_docstr:[124,472],get_doctest:193,get_endidx:[322,472],get_endpoint:387,get_environ:404,get_errno:[177,462],get_event_loop:[129,132,134,140,469,470,471,472],get_event_loop_polici:[132,134],get_exampl:193,get_exception_handl:[129,132,469,470,472],get_exec_path:293,get_extra_info:[132,135,137,171,472],get_field:347,get_fil:[271,466],get_file_break:145,get_filenam:[197,201,206,252,420,468],get_flag:271,get_fold:271,get_fre:354,get_freeze_count:[229,471],get_from:271,get_full_url:[244,392],get_glob:354,get_grouped_opcod:189,get_handle_inherit:[293,468],get_head:[244,382,392],get_history_item:[322,459],get_history_length:[322,472],get_host:[244,392,468],get_id:[117,334,354,366,367,467],get_identifi:354,get_import:304,get_info:271,get_inherit:[293,339,468],get_input:91,get_instruct:[190,468],get_interpret:418,get_it:190,get_item_point:7,get_iter:118,get_kei:[330,472],get_label:271,get_last_error:[177,462],get_line_buff:[322,325],get_lineno:354,get_load:[304,472],get_loc:354,get_lock:284,get_logg:284,get_loop:[129,131,471,472],get_mag:[251,468],get_makefile_filenam:[65,78,356],get_map:330,get_matching_block:[189,461,472],get_messag:271,get_method:[354,392,467],get_mixed_type_kei:258,get_nam:354,get_namespac:354,get_next_item:382,get_nod:472,get_nonstandard_attr:244,get_nowait:[136,260,284,318],get_obj:284,get_object:[229,472],get_object_traceback:[378,472],get_opcod:189,get_operator_modul:284,get_opt:292,get_option_group:292,get_option_ord:65,get_origin_req_host:[244,392,468],get_original_stdout:363,get_osfhandl:283,get_output_charset:196,get_par:458,get_param:[197,210,472],get_paramet:354,get_path:[356,463,466],get_path_nam:356,get_payload:[197,201,205,207,466],get_pep:228,get_phone_numb:466,get_pid:[132,135],get_pipe_transport:[132,135],get_platform:[65,356,466],get_poli:380,get_posit:405,get_position_in_index:382,get_protocol:[132,135,472],get_python_inc:[65,74,418],get_python_lib:65,get_python_vers:[356,466],get_queu:284,get_recsrc:295,get_refer:[57,229,459],get_referr:[229,378],get_request:340,get_resource_load:[],get_resource_read:[252,471,472],get_returncod:[132,135],get_running_loop:[129,131,132,135,137,140,471,472],get_schem:404,get_scheme_nam:356,get_selector:[392,468],get_sequ:271,get_serv:284,get_server_certif:[343,467,472],get_shapepoli:380,get_siz:458,get_socket:360,get_sourc:[252,420,468,472],get_special_folder_path:66,get_stack:[140,145,472],get_start_method:[284,468],get_starttag_text:241,get_stat:[99,229,468],get_stderr:404,get_stdin:404,get_str:[271,466],get_subdir:271,get_suffix:251,get_symbol:354,get_tag:[251,252,466],get_task_factori:[129,132,469,472],get_temp_dir:472,get_termin:125,get_terminal_s:[293,333,467,472],get_threshold:229,get_token:332,get_traceback_limit:378,get_traced_memori:378,get_tracemalloc_memori:378,get_typ:[244,354,392,468],get_type_hint:[93,382,471,472],get_unixfrom:[197,206],get_unpack_format:333,get_usag:292,get_user_nam:382,get_valu:347,get_vers:292,get_vis:271,get_vot:466,get_wch:[178,467],get_write_buffer_limit:[135,469],get_write_buffer_s:[132,135],get_yield_from_it:[190,472],getacl:[249,458],getaddress:210,getaddrinfo:[110,129,132,339,422,469,470,471,472],getallocatedblock:[355,468],getandroidapilevel:[355,471,472],getannot:249,getarg:462,getargspec:[254,468,469,470,472],getargvalu:[254,469],getatim:294,getattr:[84,91,103,118,129,161,177,190,227,254,284,291,292,301,347,436,446,456,466,468,471,472],getattr_stat:[254,466],getattrfunc:[57,81],getattribut:[407,409,424],getattributen:407,getattributenod:407,getattributenoden:407,getattrofunc:[57,81],getbas:316,getbegyx:178,getbkgd:178,getblock:[339,471,472],getboolean:[168,472],getbuff:[257,466],getbufferproc:[7,57,467],getbytestream:413,getc:457,getcallarg:[254,463,469,472],getcanva:380,getcap:[272,288],getch:[92,97,178,283],getchannel:458,getcharacterstream:413,getcheckinterv:[355,446,459],getchild:[266,463],getchildren:[410,463,466],getclasstre:254,getclosurevar:[254,467],getcod:392,getcolumninfo:282,getcolumnnumb:413,getcom:[254,315],getcompnam:[119,351,398],getcomptyp:[119,351,398],getconf:308,getcontenthandl:413,getcontext:[187,448,460],getcoroutineloc:[254,469,472],getcoroutinest:[254,469,472],getcount:[91,291],getctim:294,getcurrenttim:417,getcwd:[113,293,294,298,363,447,471,472],getcwdb:[293,464],getcwdu:[113,459],getdata:417,getdecim:168,getdecod:[109,159],getdefaultencod:[355,446],getdefaultlocal:[265,451],getdefaulttimeout:339,getdlopenflag:[293,355,446,458],getdoc:[254,469,472],getdomimplement:[407,408],getdoubl:472,getdtdhandl:413,geteffectivelevel:266,getegid:293,getelementsbytagnam:[407,408,456],getelementsbytagnamen:407,getencod:[109,159,413],getentityresolv:413,getentropi:[293,469,472],getenv:[31,293,308],getenvb:[293,466],geterrorhandl:413,geteuid:293,getev:409,geteventcategori:268,geteventtyp:268,getexcept:411,getfamili:461,getfeatur:413,getfieldcount:282,getfil:[254,472],getfileinformationbyhandl:[293,469],getfilesystemencod:[60,109,293,355,359,363,418,446,451,470],getfilesystemencodeerror:[355,470],getfirst:153,getfloat:168,getfmt:295,getfqdn:[336,337,339],getframeinfo:[254,472],getframer:[119,351,398],getfullargspec:[254,315,468,469,470,472],getgeneratorloc:[254,467],getgeneratorst:[254,466],getgid:293,getgral:[234,472],getgrgid:[234,470,472],getgrnam:[234,459,472],getgroup:[293,472],getgrouplist:[293,467,472],gethead:[125,243],gethighlight:472,gethostbyaddr:[293,339,472],gethostbynam:339,gethostbyname_ex:[339,472],gethostnam:[107,293,339],getincrementaldecod:159,getincrementalencod:[159,467],getinfo:419,getinnerfram:[254,469],getinputcontext:316,getint:[168,472],getinteg:[282,462],getitem:[291,387,458],getiter:[410,463,466,472],getiterfunc:[57,81],getitim:[334,462],getkei:[97,178,472],getlasterror:[22,177,472],getlength:413,getlevelnam:[104,266],getlin:[264,378,469,472],getlinenumb:413,getlist:[153,469],getloadavg:293,getlocal:[184,265,472],getlogg:[103,104,128,266,385,459,463,465],getloggerclass:266,getlogin:[231,293],getlogrecordfactori:[104,266],getmandatoryreleas:114,getmark:[119,351,398],getmaxyx:178,getmemb:[254,359,469],getmessag:[104,266,411],getmessageid:268,getmodul:254,getmodulehandl:177,getmodulehandlea:177,getmodulehandlew:177,getmoduleinfo:[462,470,472],getmodulenam:[252,254,470],getmous:178,getmro:254,getmtim:294,getnam:[155,359,366,413],getnamebyqnam:413,getnameinfo:[129,132,339,422,471,472],getnchannel:[119,351,398],getnfram:[119,351,398],getnod:[395,471,472],getobject:446,getopt:[62,71,91,94,120,253,292,447,459,463],getopterror:230,getoptionalreleas:114,getouterfram:[254,469],getoutput:350,getpages:324,getparam:[119,351,398,468],getparyx:178,getpass:[62,120,174,249,253,283,293,307,360,362,462,472],getpasswarn:231,getpath:[31,472],getpathp:472,getpeerc:472,getpeercert:[135,343,462,468,472],getpeernam:[135,171,336,339,343],getpen:380,getpgid:[293,459],getpgrp:[216,293],getpid:[129,284,293],getpo:241,getppid:[284,293],getpreferredencod:[97,176,178,227,257,265,350,355,451,471,472],getprior:[293,467],getprocaddress:92,getprofil:[355,446,462],getproperti:[282,413,472],getpropertycount:282,getproto:461,getprotobynam:339,getproxi:[110,392],getpublicid:413,getpwal:312,getpwnam:[174,312,472],getpwuid:[111,293,312,472],getqnam:413,getqnamebynam:413,getquota:249,getquotaroot:249,getrandbit:[320,460,468,472],getrandom:[293,469,470,472],getread:[109,159],getrecursionlimit:[214,248,355,446,456,472],getrefcount:[93,355,446],getresgid:[293,463],getrespons:[243,469,472],getresuid:[293,463],getrlimit:[324,472],getroot:[410,461],getrusag:[293,324,461],getsampl:143,getsampwidth:[119,351,398],getscreen:380,getservbynam:[339,472],getservbyport:[339,460,472],getset:[20,57,254],getset_descriptor:254,getsetdescriptortyp:381,getshap:380,getsid:[293,460],getsign:334,getsitepackag:[335,463,466],getsiz:[155,293,294,472],getsizeof:[355,363,378,446,462,472],getsocknam:[135,137,339,343,472],getsockopt:[135,339,343,463,470],getsourc:[254,472],getsourcefil:254,getsourcelin:[254,472],getspal:341,getspnam:[341,470,472],getstat:[96,159,320],getstatenam:416,getstatu:468,getstatusoutput:[350,468],getstr:[97,178,282,462,472],getsubject:268,getsummaryinform:282,getswitchinterv:[355,446],getsystemid:413,getsyx:178,gettarinfo:359,gettempdir:[361,472],gettempdirb:361,gettempprefix:361,gettempprefixb:361,getter:[45,53,82,98,118,168,227,366,392,462,468,469,472],gettestcasenam:385,gettext:[62,104,247,253,265,408,431,447,456,460,472],gettimeofdai:[184,367],gettimeout:[339,343],gettotalrefcount:[363,446,472],gettrac:[355,446,462],getturtl:380,gettyp:[413,461],getuid:293,geturl:[62,391,392],getus:[231,249,293,307],getuserbas:[335,463,466],getusercfgdir:472,getusersitepackag:[335,434,463,466],getvalu:[84,85,91,98,153,170,197,235,257,261,310,363,386,413,418,466,469],getvaluebyqnam:413,getversionex:355,getvolumepathnam:294,getwch:[283,462],getweakref:399,getweakrefcount:399,getwelcom:[225,288,307],getwin:178,getwindowrect:177,getwindowsvers:[355,463,470],getwrit:[109,159],getx:[98,227],getxattr:[293,467],getyx:178,ghaer:342,ghi:[161,177,266,332,460],ghost:472,gi_:472,gi_cod:[254,462,469,472],gi_fram:[254,461],gi_run:254,gi_yieldfrom:[254,469,472],giampaolo:[463,466,467,469,471,472],giant:193,gib:[109,269,308,359,363,419,456,459,461,472],gid:[234,293,298,312,359,462,463,467,469,472],gif87a:466,gif:[74,197,206,207,233,250,370,380,404,461],gigabyt:[109,406],gil:[38,57,62,82,90,93,177,236,462,463,466,468,470,472],gilfix:459,gill:470,gilstat:30,gindi:[469,472],girdhar:[469,470,472],git:[75,86,144,468,472],github:[64,81,86,112,309,342,396,422,453,470,471,472],giuca:463,give:[5,7,13,22,28,31,44,57,58,65,66,74,78,79,80,81,83,84,85,86,90,91,92,94,95,97,98,99,105,106,107,108,109,119,122,123,124,139,143,153,155,156,157,159,161,177,178,182,184,186,187,189,190,193,209,212,214,217,225,227,230,232,238,252,257,267,268,275,276,279,280,284,286,287,292,293,294,298,299,301,309,316,320,321,328,334,340,342,343,345,346,347,350,351,355,366,367,368,370,373,380,382,385,387,391,396,400,402,404,406,407,408,412,419,423,424,427,430,433,434,437,440,441,442,445,447,448,449,450,451,455,456,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,472],given:[3,4,5,7,9,13,19,22,23,28,30,31,38,39,41,45,51,53,56,57,58,60,65,66,69,70,72,74,78,79,84,87,90,93,94,95,97,99,101,102,103,104,106,107,108,110,111,113,118,119,122,123,124,129,130,132,135,139,140,145,151,152,155,156,157,158,159,161,164,167,168,169,170,171,174,176,177,178,179,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,196,197,201,203,204,206,207,209,210,211,212,214,217,219,223,225,227,228,230,232,234,235,236,238,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,258,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,275,276,279,282,284,286,288,289,291,292,293,295,297,298,299,301,302,303,304,305,308,310,312,314,315,316,320,321,324,326,329,330,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,345,346,347,348,349,350,355,357,359,360,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,376,377,380,381,382,384,385,386,390,391,392,395,396,397,400,404,405,407,408,409,410,411,414,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,436,437,438,440,442,444,445,446,448,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],gla:455,glanc:[104,436,459],glare:471,glb:85,gleen:472,glenn:469,glib:460,glibc:[293,324,468,472],glingl:380,glitch:248,glob:[62,67,74,104,145,193,220,221,253,282,294,298,299,333,350,447,462,463,466,470,472],global:[22,25,28,29,31,41,47,48,54,57,60,62,67,70,79,82,84,85,93,96,99,101,110,111,117,122,124,134,141,142,145,150,161,167,170,177,178,190,193,196,211,212,214,219,225,227,232,243,248,251,252,254,260,264,268,276,284,292,293,298,299,300,307,310,322,326,335,336,337,339,346,347,354,355,359,360,361,366,368,376,380,382,385,387,392,395,397,399,410,417,423,424,425,427,428,429,431,433,434,436,437,446,451,453,455,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],global_stmt:[427,432],globaln:472,globalnam:280,globe:184,glori:31,glossari:[62,72,109,441,472],glow:380,glu:445,glue:[78,95,458,460],glw:462,glyph:[109,209,248],gmail:[249,472],gmane:[288,467],gmt1:[],gmt2:[],gmt:[62,103,184,210,246,266,343,367],gmtime:[103,104,152,184,210,266,271,306,367,458,466,467,472],gname:359,gnome:[232,296,345,460,467],gnosi:99,gnu32:469,gnu:[62,65,85,91,101,230,235,247,253,265,292,293,300,331,333,359,364,422,424,431,434,443,451,454,456,459,460,462,463,469,471,472],gnu_format:359,gnu_getopt:[230,459],gnumer:345,gnutransl:[62,247],gnutype_spars:359,goal:[57,62,74,81,99,202,212,227,236,322,363,410,430,457,459,461,462,466,468,469,470],gobject:[87,296],god:310,goderbau:467,goe:[1,31,74,83,93,94,95,105,106,132,135,136,168,170,178,179,193,232,244,267,284,292,316,318,355,377,423,446,458,466,467],gogh:161,gohlk:472,going:[65,81,82,85,90,94,95,99,101,105,106,107,111,119,129,138,145,153,184,187,197,201,237,280,292,293,310,343,350,359,366,386,387,404,410,416,424,436,441,449,455,456,458,462,472],golden:[455,468],golf:436,gollahon:472,gon:380,gone:[91,93,94,102,110,242,346,386,456,457,459,462,464,466],gonzalez:[470,471],good:[0,1,15,31,47,57,62,69,72,81,84,85,90,91,92,93,94,98,103,104,106,107,109,110,111,122,124,140,153,156,157,161,168,171,177,178,184,189,193,199,208,212,227,236,237,284,292,293,295,297,301,309,321,336,342,343,363,365,368,369,370,380,385,387,408,416,422,424,436,437,441,442,453,454,456,457,459,460,462,463,472],good_sig:236,goodby:[104,142,301,439],goodger:[457,458,460],goodi:[111,153],goofi:459,googl:[86,89,90,103,110,400,416,461,462,463,467],googlegroup:309,gopher:391,gopherlib:[462,464],gordon:[91,107,456,459],gorokhovski:[471,472],gosub:321,got:[0,79,94,110,114,129,137,139,193,266,284,337,380,392,426,437,451,461,465,472],gotcha:168,gotten:[22,49,89,153,184,187,284,318,456,472],gov:[236,244,459],govern:[93,104,182,187,195,391,416,422,466],gpa:436,gpf:456,gpg:461,gpl:[271,422,458],gpled:458,gprof:460,gr_gid:[234,459],gr_mem:234,gr_name:[234,459],gr_passwd:234,grab:[31,66,91,103,104,366,454,455,472],grace:[471,472],gracefulli:[321,366,426,445,463,466,472],grad:380,grade:[108,149,212,227,346,380,459],gradelevel:349,gradian:380,gradual:[86,93,457,458],graduat:[436,469],graem:457,graft:67,graham:[109,438,462,472],grai:472,grail:[261,400,438],grain:[62,90,103,178,193,266,293,392,424,473],gram:321,graminit:297,grammar:[60,62,85,99,113,158,227,263,297,347,353,374,423,429,430,431,433,456,457,461,464,472],grand:[320,410],grandchildren:[410,472],granni:212,grant:[64,98,106,293,294,422,456,457,461],granular:[65,93,104,252,293,355,447],grape:438,graph:[267,292,380,458,468],graphic:[62,66,88,91,97,109,111,159,174,178,224,250,253,319,370,372,385,400,435,462],grasp:408,gratuit:93,grave:457,gravett:345,gravi:295,gravida:151,gravit:[212,380,449],gray25:370,gray50:370,graymap:250,grayson:370,great:[30,74,78,103,237,244,321,370,386,438,461,472],greater:[23,30,34,35,51,57,58,82,96,97,103,104,108,109,117,135,136,139,145,147,149,156,161,178,184,187,189,197,209,222,228,232,243,249,258,268,275,293,297,299,320,324,335,337,346,355,366,373,374,378,380,385,404,407,421,424,431,432,436,437,442,444,445,456,458,459,460,461,469,470,471,472],greaterequ:374,greatest:[223,275,346],greatli:[92,161,399,447,456,457,458,459,462,463,464,467,469],greedi:[62,159,321,360],greek8:159,greek:[109,159],green2:373,green3:373,green4:373,green:[97,124,161,163,178,212,241,320,345,380,399,448,459,460,465,466,470,472],greenish:178,greenwich:[210,367],greet:[113,307,336,337,382,469],greg:[68,71,74,90,111,456,458,459,460,461,467,469,472],gregg:456,gregor:462,gregori:[461,462,463,465,468,470,471,472],gregorian:[152,184],grei:370,grene:212,grep:[95,101,248,350,456,472],grew:[465,466],grid:[371,373],griffin:472,grin:109,grip:[266,373],gripe:86,grisbi:462,grisel:472,grnd_nonblock:[293,472],grnd_random:293,grob:387,grok_environment_error:472,groner:472,groov:370,gross:461,ground:[68,178],group1:[122,321],group2:122,group:[62,64,65,66,75,86,90,93,94,102,103,104,109,111,112,120,153,159,161,170,176,179,187,188,189,193,204,212,227,249,253,256,258,260,265,271,282,284,288,293,298,301,312,316,321,333,335,339,341,343,344,345,346,347,350,352,359,366,372,373,378,388,397,402,406,412,416,423,424,426,430,431,435,445,448,450,455,456,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],group_:95,group_mask:461,group_pattern:288,groupbi:[93,99,228,260,291,460,465,472],groupdict:321,grouper:260,groupindex:[321,472],groupinfo:288,grouping_opt:347,groupn:321,grouppattern:288,groupref_exist:472,grow:[50,55,69,94,104,107,161,193,228,237,253,268,296,320,322,373,422,446,456,460,462,463,466,472],grown:[84,193,329],growth:[467,472],grp:[62,253,312,341,388,459,472],grumbl:438,grungi:92,grunt:458,grzegorz:472,grzybowski:472,grzywacz:472,gstate:30,gte:124,gtk:[296,460,462],guarante:[7,9,10,17,30,31,49,52,56,57,58,61,65,78,79,82,86,91,93,95,97,99,101,108,117,123,129,139,140,142,161,177,184,187,190,193,197,206,225,227,236,244,252,254,257,261,274,275,276,279,284,288,292,293,301,310,318,320,326,329,346,350,355,361,363,365,366,375,395,397,399,402,404,405,410,412,423,424,428,437,455,460,461,463,465,466,467,470,471,472],guard:[57,315,363,366,428,472],guess:[31,90,94,159,168,185,193,201,207,210,246,252,254,265,276,310,328,370,392,404,430,436,445,459,466,472],guess_all_extens:276,guess_extens:[201,276],guess_schem:404,guess_typ:[201,246,276],guesswork:466,guest:[161,339],gui:[62,66,89,90,91,92,99,109,248,292,296,342,344,355,369,370,385,401,418,435,452,462,467,472],guid:[1,62,71,73,76,80,82,86,89,92,97,100,105,109,111,112,126,187,188,189,192,211,227,295,352,370,372,387,396,437,442,449,450,454,462,463,466,468,472],guidanc:[92,381,463],guidelin:[1,31,62,81,165,248,363,456,457,461],guido:[84,86,91,93,98,189,280,346,370,382,422,438,446,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,468,469,470,471,472],guil:462,guilherm:[462,463,465,468,470,471,472],gullibl:153,gumbi:370,gunk:306,gunther:410,gunzip:[111,235],guo:472,guru:444,gusi:456,gustavo:[232,458,459,460,461,472],gut:[74,109,153,472],gutteridg:472,gvf:467,gvim:453,gvr:[456,458,459,460,463,470],gward:[68,74],gxx:260,gzip:[62,65,66,75,86,93,104,121,159,201,219,253,276,333,359,363,406,422,447,456,459,463,465,468,470,472],gzip_decod:472,gzipfil:[93,235,359,463,465,466,469,472],gztar:[65,66,75,333,466,470,472],h00:236,h01:236,h10:236,h2py:[470,472],h_errno:339,h_len:322,haag:471,habit:[107,232,271,437],hack:[84,90,99,193,332,392,451,456,457,458,472],hacker:[153,320],hackeri:85,hackish:461,hackman:[470,472],had:[5,30,38,65,66,78,82,86,91,94,95,99,104,107,113,122,123,136,142,157,159,170,171,178,184,187,190,200,237,244,254,284,293,299,316,318,329,339,342,343,347,370,376,378,385,386,391,392,407,428,432,437,440,444,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],hadn:472,hagemeist:472,hagen:[463,472],hagino:458,hairi:292,halanta:109,half:[97,135,178,184,223,228,275,295,329,346,349,370,431,440,463,470,472],halfdelai:[97,178],halfwai:[275,464],hall:472,halt:[187,213,292,298,385,437,468],halv:[149,339,460,463],ham:[104,161,171,189,227,254,280,426,428,437,469],hamcrest:387,hamish:460,hamlet:[161,456],hammer:[438,456],hammond:[87,268,305,455,456,458,459,467,472],hamper:95,hamster:189,hamt:472,han:[459,472],hand01:267,hand02:267,hand03:267,hand04:267,hand05:267,hand06:267,hand07:267,hand08:267,hand09:267,hand2:370,hand:[57,74,79,81,84,86,90,91,95,99,105,106,107,111,124,131,177,178,187,197,202,207,212,227,232,248,256,257,268,301,307,321,340,367,370,380,382,386,426,430,432,435,436,438,441,442,445,446,447,448,456,457,458,459,461,462,464,465,467],handdraw:380,handi:[62,65,91,97,98,105,106,107,111,152,168,177,189,212,292,346,369,386,434,435,437,441,446,456,460],handier:331,handl:[7,13,28,29,30,31,38,42,45,51,53,57,58,60,62,65,66,72,74,79,81,82,84,85,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,111,113,114,117,120,122,125,126,127,128,132,133,134,141,142,145,147,148,151,154,156,158,159,161,168,170,171,176,177,182,184,187,188,189,190,193,197,201,202,203,204,208,209,213,214,216,222,225,227,228,232,235,241,243,245,246,249,251,252,253,254,255,257,258,261,263,266,267,268,269,271,275,279,283,284,289,291,293,294,295,298,299,300,310,311,318,320,321,323,329,331,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,344,346,347,349,350,352,355,358,359,361,363,367,370,372,375,382,386,387,390,392,397,399,400,401,404,406,410,412,416,417,418,419,422,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,437,441,442,444,445,446,447,448,451,453,455,456,457,458,460,461,464,465,466,467,470,471,472,473],handle_accept:[141,466],handle_charref:241,handle_clos:141,handle_com:241,handle_connect:141,handle_data:241,handle_decl:241,handle_defect:209,handle_echo:137,handle_endtag:241,handle_entityref:241,handle_error:[141,340,470,472],handle_expect_100:246,handle_expt:141,handle_list:350,handle_one_request:246,handle_pi:241,handle_read:[141,472],handle_request:[104,125,171,340,404,417,463],handle_stackframe_without_leak:254,handle_startendtag:241,handle_starttag:241,handle_timeout:[340,462,463],handle_writ:[125,141],handleerror:[103,266,268],handlelogrecord:104,handlepoint:408,handler:[3,22,26,30,54,56,57,58,59,62,79,81,82,87,109,120,124,132,134,146,153,154,168,178,186,190,197,198,202,203,214,227,231,241,246,253,255,257,259,267,273,284,292,293,299,310,316,317,329,330,333,339,342,346,355,357,359,363,367,369,385,390,392,400,408,409,411,413,414,417,423,424,425,432,439,451,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],handler_class:[246,404],handler_consolehandl:103,handler_hand01:267,handler_hand02:267,handler_hand03:267,handler_hand04:267,handler_hand05:267,handler_hand06:267,handler_hand07:267,handler_hand08:267,handler_hand09:267,handler_ord:392,handlernam:316,handleslid:408,handleslideshow:408,handleslideshowtitl:408,handleslidetitl:408,handletoc:408,handshak:[129,343,468,469,470,471,472],hang:[104,107,110,284,305,329,334,363,459,466,472],hangul:472,hangup:334,hanoi:380,hansen:458,hao:468,happen:[1,17,22,30,31,54,58,62,66,79,82,84,90,92,94,95,96,97,99,104,105,107,110,111,117,139,140,141,158,177,178,182,184,189,208,225,228,237,248,252,254,257,265,267,268,292,293,295,301,316,329,332,339,343,346,347,355,360,362,363,366,377,385,386,387,392,404,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,437,439,444,446,456,458,460,461,462,463,464,468,469,472],happi:[85,86,212,459],har:[157,385,466,468],harbor:[458,459],hard:[62,65,70,78,79,82,84,95,97,99,104,105,106,107,111,168,176,178,189,193,203,222,266,267,292,293,299,310,321,324,328,343,350,359,363,372,387,436,455,456,466,468,471,472],hardcod:[74,177,266,268,454,468,472],hardcov:161,harden:472,harder:[84,91,193,292,346,387,472],hardlink:359,hardwar:[1,30,65,84,109,111,133,143,156,178,187,256,293,295,324,339,350,367,395,402,440,463,469,472],hardwir:[170,310],harel:472,harm:[168,292,418,466],harmless:[79,95,193,373],harmon:345,harmonic_mean:[345,470,472],harold:[99,347],harradin:472,harri:[193,461],hart:275,harvei:472,has:[0,1,2,5,6,7,8,9,10,14,15,16,21,22,24,25,28,30,31,36,38,39,40,41,42,43,45,47,51,52,53,54,57,58,64,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,90,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,116,117,118,119,122,123,124,125,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,138,139,140,141,143,145,151,152,153,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,167,168,170,171,176,177,178,179,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,194,195,197,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,217,219,222,223,225,227,229,230,232,235,236,237,238,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,276,282,284,286,288,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,305,306,307,310,314,315,316,318,320,321,322,324,326,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,350,351,354,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,369,370,371,372,373,375,377,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,393,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,405,406,407,410,412,413,416,418,419,420,421,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,433,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],has_alpn:[343,469],has_been_cal:387,has_children:354,has_color:[97,178],has_data:[386,392,468],has_ecdh:343,has_exec:354,has_extn:337,has_funct:65,has_head:[176,244,392],has_ic:178,has_il:178,has_internal_subset:316,has_ipv6:339,has_kei:[113,178,456,457,458,459,464,472],has_loc:[252,428],has_never_check_common_nam:343,has_nonstandard_attr:244,has_npn:343,has_opt:[168,292],has_sect:168,has_sni:[225,243,249,288,307,337,343,392],has_sslv2:343,has_sslv3:343,has_ticket:343,has_tlsv1:343,has_tlsv1_1:[343,471],has_tlsv1_2:343,has_tlsv1_3:343,hasattr:[45,93,98,110,227,228,254,284,322,355,368,385,386,396,428,446,459,462,466,468,471,472],hasattribut:407,hasattributen:407,haschildnod:407,hascompar:190,hasconst:190,hasfeatur:407,hasfre:190,hash:[21,30,45,57,58,62,81,84,90,93,147,162,164,168,175,182,184,185,225,227,252,253,269,289,300,313,328,339,355,386,388,392,395,399,421,422,424,426,428,431,434,445,446,451,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,470,472],hash_a:382,hash_b:382,hash_bit:355,hash_complex:346,hash_float:346,hash_fract:346,hash_info:[346,355,424,446,466,468],hash_nam:236,hash_random:[355,472],hash_valu:346,hashabl:[21,45,57,91,93,118,161,162,184,189,212,223,228,254,258,291,298,320,346,382,399,424,426,459,460,462,463,467,469,472],hashandl:266,hashcollis:453,hashfunc:[57,81],hashlib:[30,62,90,175,238,253,342,422,462,463,464,472],hashopen:331,hashtable_s:472,hasjab:190,hasjrel:190,haskel:[99,260,456,459],hasloc:190,hasn:[12,31,65,85,86,90,95,111,135,167,189,299,311,316,335,343,350,357,386,387,456,457,461,462,464,469,471,472],hasnam:190,hast:[95,463,465,467,468],hat:[66,72,85,86,111,422,447],hatch:[65,382,463],hatyp:339,haubenwalln:472,haunt:346,hauser:456,have:[0,1,2,5,7,10,17,21,22,23,26,28,30,31,38,45,53,54,55,57,58,62,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,85,89,90,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,102,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,117,118,119,122,123,124,125,126,129,131,133,134,136,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,149,150,151,152,153,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,164,167,168,169,170,171,176,177,178,179,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,200,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,212,214,216,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,232,233,236,237,238,241,243,244,245,248,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,276,279,282,283,284,286,288,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,304,307,309,310,313,314,316,318,320,321,324,325,326,327,328,329,331,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,352,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,369,370,372,373,377,378,380,381,382,383,385,386,387,391,392,394,395,396,397,398,399,402,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,416,417,418,419,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,448,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],have_argu:190,have_bar:74,have_docstr:363,have_foo:74,have_functionnam:95,have_linux_vm_sockets_h:472,have_long_long:472,have_round:472,have_sockaddr_alg:472,have_strftim:74,have_thread:[187,467],haven:[30,75,87,94,106,109,153,187,386,439,462,463,472],haxx:244,hci_data_dir:339,hci_filt:339,hci_time_stamp:339,hcom:338,hda:350,hdl:[391,422],hdlr:266,hdr:[90,288,392],head:[30,57,84,106,137,152,153,157,179,201,241,243,246,288,294,310,320,334,335,340,343,373,380,392,410,456,458,467,472],headach:436,header:[3,19,24,31,57,62,68,71,74,79,81,90,96,103,106,111,119,125,147,152,153,155,157,168,170,176,177,185,189,193,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,205,206,207,208,209,210,216,232,235,243,244,245,246,248,249,252,255,266,268,271,276,285,288,293,297,299,307,313,319,337,338,339,343,351,355,356,359,363,374,377,381,390,392,394,398,408,416,419,421,423,425,436,447,448,455,457,459,461,462,463,465,466,468,469,470,471,472],header_enc:196,header_encod:196,header_encode_lin:196,header_exist:472,header_factori:[204,209,467],header_fetch_pars:209,header_item:[244,392],header_max_count:209,header_nam:[203,392,404],header_offset:419,header_source_pars:209,header_store_pars:209,header_str:288,header_valu:392,headerdefect:204,headererror:359,headernam:198,headerpars:[208,467],headerparseerror:[197,200,206],headerregistri:[62,195,200,201,206,209,285,472],headersonli:208,headervalu:198,headlin:458,healthi:107,heanei:[468,469],heap:[29,31,38,46,56,57,62,79,82,183,215,253,283,324,380,448,459,460,462,463,472],heapifi:[237,448,472],heapmin:283,heappop:[237,260,448,459,462],heappush:[237,448,459,462],heappushpop:[237,462],heapq:[62,93,183,227,228,253,318,448,459,460,461,462,472],heapreplac:237,heapsort:237,heaqp:472,heard:[87,436],hearn:236,heart:[84,459],heather:321,heathmor:321,heavi:[79,110,168,440,450,463,467,471],heavili:[65,111,112,185,252,337,423,457,470,471],heblikar:472,hebrew:[109,159],heck:99,hector:460,hedstrom:462,hee:472,hei:363,height:[97,178,248,282,293,370,373,380,445,461,472],heiko:467,heim:[236,422,462,467,468,470,471,472],hel:299,held:[28,30,38,90,125,168,248,251,257,267,268,284,346,355,366,385,399,422,424,456,461,462,463,470],hell:79,heller:[91,461,462,463],hellman:[343,467],hello:[62,79,81,85,91,92,96,104,113,123,131,135,137,138,140,147,153,177,185,228,232,236,241,279,284,288,291,301,303,306,339,340,343,346,361,363,365,366,369,375,382,385,386,404,431,436,438,439,442,455,466,468,469],hello_world:129,hello_world_app:404,hellohellohello:92,hellorequest:343,helloworld:431,helm:466,helo:[336,337],helo_resp:337,help:[22,41,45,53,59,60,62,65,68,69,72,74,81,84,86,92,93,94,95,98,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,120,124,153,154,157,159,161,170,177,178,186,188,189,191,193,201,212,224,225,227,228,230,232,236,239,247,251,252,253,254,256,257,260,261,282,288,293,296,298,299,310,336,337,339,343,346,352,355,363,367,368,369,370,372,375,376,382,386,387,391,392,396,402,410,418,420,424,428,431,433,435,436,437,440,441,444,446,447,448,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],help_:157,help_bar:157,help_str:65,helpdialog:472,helper:[5,30,62,92,118,165,170,177,188,197,206,212,219,238,252,253,257,263,289,301,321,333,343,364,368,377,380,382,385,387,392,461,462,467,469,470,472],helpformatt:[122,292],helpfulli:94,helpsourc:472,helt:472,henc:[30,65,68,79,84,94,104,170,173,193,229,248,252,268,284,292,294,298,303,310,324,332,346,349,350,366,397,423,424,426,460,468,471,472],henri:472,henstridg:[87,232,456,463],henzen:236,herald:458,herath:467,here:[5,7,22,26,30,31,38,57,64,65,67,68,72,74,78,79,81,82,84,85,86,90,91,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,103,104,106,107,108,110,111,113,118,120,122,124,131,137,138,140,141,143,145,152,153,155,157,159,161,165,168,170,171,175,176,177,178,182,184,187,189,190,193,197,199,200,201,203,206,207,208,209,210,212,217,223,224,225,227,232,235,236,243,248,249,254,255,256,266,267,268,269,275,277,278,284,288,292,293,299,301,307,309,316,317,321,324,330,332,334,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,347,355,359,361,362,363,366,367,368,370,373,380,381,382,383,385,386,387,388,392,395,397,400,404,405,407,408,410,420,422,424,426,427,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,439,442,443,445,446,450,451,453,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,469,470,471,472],hereaft:[103,111,310,438,446],herebi:422,herein:422,hergenroed:472,hermion:193,herror:339,hertz:403,heterogen:[104,123,346,438,464,472],hetland:[458,459],hetting:[98,99,108,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],heurist:[189,198,204,227,465,466,472],hewlett:[89,456],hex:[9,58,91,93,106,107,109,147,159,177,227,236,328,343,346,347,355,370,395,424,431,440,446,448,456,457,459,461,462,464,465,468,469,472],hex_codec:[159,468],hex_decod:468,hexadecim:[106,147,159,179,227,236,238,241,258,292,321,328,346,347,355,395,431,440,456,460,462,466,467,468,472],hexbin4:147,hexbin:148,hexdigest:[236,238,342,461,472],hexdigit:[179,282,347,431],hexinteg:431,hexlifi:[147,236],hexrepl:106,hexstr:147,hexvers:[4,86,355,446,467],hhhh:[349,456],hhl:[90,349],hhllhh:216,hhmm:[184,249,367],hi_ther:370,hidden:[30,52,84,91,92,180,248,299,310,320,340,373,380,467,471,472],hide:[97,101,109,176,180,193,195,212,217,248,257,292,297,350,363,368,373,380,382,397,423,436,446,455,459,463,466,472],hide_cookie2:244,hideturtl:380,hidpi:472,hiem:468,hierarch:[62,103,246,251,266,267,369,373,391,409,410,417,428,446],hierarchi:[31,41,62,72,74,91,101,103,104,118,120,145,187,227,252,253,254,261,266,267,289,290,301,330,334,346,355,370,372,373,382,385,407,410,423,426,428,429,432,436,442,459,461,464,472,473],hierarchy_request_err:407,hierarchyrequesterr:407,high:[29,34,55,58,62,79,80,84,85,86,89,90,92,103,104,107,110,120,126,129,131,132,135,137,138,140,141,151,165,167,178,187,190,195,202,220,233,242,253,258,259,260,265,269,284,289,293,294,295,301,310,320,329,339,343,345,347,355,357,361,367,396,400,429,432,435,440,441,447,448,458,460,461,462,466,467,468,469,471,472],high_priority_class:350,higher:[28,30,51,62,90,99,101,103,104,107,117,129,141,142,145,147,167,170,178,187,190,203,205,225,226,232,243,253,255,257,260,266,267,268,269,280,282,283,288,293,296,301,307,327,333,339,342,343,346,355,359,360,366,368,385,392,410,421,445,447,451,457,458,461,462,466,467,468,471,472],highest:[54,85,103,135,229,266,279,301,302,328,329,334,343,346,355,367,426,438,462,467,472],highest_protocol:[301,459],highli:[30,38,91,92,105,106,190,249,256,301,311,321,342,343,364,459,460,472],highlight:[62,84,86,97,178,189,248,385,454,456,463,466,472,473],highpag:472,hilbert:380,hill:472,hilliard:472,him:456,himanshu:472,hindl:459,hindranc:90,hinstanc:418,hint:[62,85,91,93,95,105,107,159,161,168,188,203,227,232,244,247,248,253,257,261,302,305,370,380,416,423,424,432,470,471,472],hirokazu:[463,467,472],hiroshima:422,his:[0,79,90,232,422,431,456,458,462,463,468,470],hisao:459,histfil:322,histor:[37,57,79,81,99,168,178,184,214,249,271,274,295,361,367,385,410,411,422,432,440,455,463,468,470],histori:[62,63,86,88,104,109,142,157,184,227,237,248,271,299,335,364,366,421,441,444,451,468,469,470,472],history_get:322,history_truncate_fil:322,historyconsol:322,hit:[58,92,97,145,155,177,214,228,248,299,343,360,370,376,386,398,461,466,472],hither:439,hive:455,hkcu:455,hkei:402,hkey_:[62,401],hkey_classes_root:402,hkey_current_config:402,hkey_current_us:[402,455],hkey_dyn_data:402,hkey_local_machin:[402,455],hkey_performance_data:402,hkey_us:402,hklm:455,hkn:453,hks:79,hksc:159,hline:178,hlinuxtnam:456,hlist:[372,472],hls_to_rgb:163,hmac:[62,174,175,236,253,268,284,328,339,458,463,472],hmodul:177,hodgson:459,hog:363,hohe:472,hoho:472,hold:[7,9,13,22,30,31,41,50,53,57,58,60,69,72,79,84,86,91,92,93,103,107,111,122,123,125,168,170,171,177,183,187,190,204,216,237,243,246,251,254,267,268,271,284,293,297,304,321,324,327,331,336,339,343,346,350,355,363,366,370,385,399,402,408,410,412,418,421,424,428,432,440,446,456,457,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],holden:[470,472],holder:[396,422,437,463],hole:[153,293,332,361,463,472],holger:461,holi:[261,347,438],holidai:86,holist:342,holmquist:472,holtermann:472,home:[30,65,74,86,87,91,92,97,106,153,157,168,178,215,235,248,271,272,286,293,294,298,299,308,312,316,322,332,335,343,350,356,363,370,372,380,396,419,421,430,431,434,449,455,462,466,467,469,472],home_dir:168,home_pag:309,homebrew:106,homedir:472,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sx:321,imul:[113,291],in6_addr:339,in_addr:339,in_dict:386,in_dll:177,in_error:107,in_fil:394,in_json:462,in_table_a1:348,in_table_b1:348,in_table_c11:348,in_table_c11_c12:348,in_table_c12:348,in_table_c21:348,in_table_c21_c22:348,in_table_c22:348,in_table_c3:348,in_table_c4:348,in_table_c5:348,in_table_c6:348,in_table_c7:348,in_table_c8:348,in_table_c9:348,in_table_d1:348,in_table_d2:348,in_test:143,in_transact:342,in_transit:466,inabl:[267,293],inaccess:[84,253,293,294,392,424,456,459,468,472],inaccur:[62,227,458,460],inaccuraci:[460,463],inact:[462,472],inada:[469,470,471,472],inaddr_:339,inaddr_ani:339,inaddr_broadcast:339,inadequ:459,inadvert:[111,170,254,396,462,468,469,472],inappropri:[111,214,252,340,348,424,472],inbox:[249,271],inc:[91,343,405,422,456,462],incarn:423,incas:472,incdir:74,incept:236,inch:[178,370],incident:[31,91,111,214,381,422,436],inclhead:155,includ:[1,4,5,7,9,17,19,26,28,29,30,45,48,50,51,53,56,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,67,68,70,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,102,103,104,106,108,109,110,111,112,115,119,122,124,131,135,137,138,141,144,147,152,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,164,168,174,177,178,179,182,184,187,189,190,192,193,197,201,203,204,206,207,208,209,211,212,213,214,220,222,225,227,229,230,232,233,235,236,237,238,240,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,269,271,273,275,276,282,284,286,288,289,291,292,293,294,296,297,299,301,305,307,308,309,310,313,314,316,320,321,324,325,328,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,350,351,355,356,357,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,369,370,372,373,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,394,396,397,399,402,403,404,406,407,408,410,412,413,416,417,418,419,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,440,441,442,444,445,446,448,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],include_attribut:124,include_debug:455,include_default:205,include_dev:455,include_dir:[65,74,77,456],include_doc:455,include_ex:455,include_fil:472,include_launch:455,include_lib:455,include_pip:455,include_queri:404,include_symbol:455,include_tcltk:455,include_test:455,include_tool:455,includepi:466,includesubdomain:343,inclus:[31,35,65,70,86,93,95,122,153,167,184,213,239,258,264,266,269,293,310,320,321,332,378,426,430,432,463,466,471],incom:[125,129,135,141,214,237,246,261,284,340,343,409,466,472],incompar:464,incompat:[60,74,93,95,96,105,114,177,185,254,258,266,271,274,288,421,432,456,459,461,464,466,467,469,471,472],incomplet:[28,58,62,84,120,147,158,159,181,184,227,241,248,251,267,316,329,421,422,448,459,460,463,464,467,468,472],incompleteread:243,incompletereaderror:[130,137,472],inconsist:[189,214,339,386,431,434,457,470,472],inconveni:[91,95,96,244,254,387,410],incorpor:[62,79,86,103,106,161,187,266,343,410,459,461,462,463,466,472],incorrect:[104,106,113,158,185,193,214,227,245,271,292,293,367,385,387,394,408,457,458,459,461,464,467,468,472],incorrectli:[101,104,144,169,254,271,292,293,350,386,424,466,467,468,472],incr_item:31,incrcount:142,increas:[5,62,82,84,86,93,94,95,102,103,109,122,139,159,189,190,212,222,254,258,266,269,290,293,328,329,343,355,368,373,378,385,397,409,411,421,431,436,456,458,459,463,467,470,471,472],increasingli:[84,380,440,462,463],incref:[31,57,472],increment:[5,6,22,30,31,42,45,47,54,57,58,62,74,79,82,86,91,95,99,104,111,120,121,124,139,146,161,190,208,269,284,292,293,346,358,366,370,373,382,408,410,423,437,456,458,459,460,461,463,466,467,472],increment_lineno:124,incrementaldecod:[13,62,146,257,461],incrementalencod:[13,62,146,461],incrementalnewlinedecod:[257,472],incrementalpars:[62,273],incremented_item:31,incur:[81,161,187,260,466],inde:[38,82,84,92,107,138,196,343],indefinit:[107,152,178,184,246,260,264,268,271,334,360,463,468,469,472],indent:[62,68,86,92,93,95,101,106,113,122,124,168,170,193,205,214,222,253,254,261,263,302,309,365,368,369,372,374,375,386,387,408,423,427,435,437,443,445,448,456,466,467,468,472],indentationerror:[22,92,214,446,456],indentedhelpformatt:292,indentlevel:302,independ:[2,17,21,30,31,41,62,65,66,69,74,79,81,84,86,90,92,97,99,104,141,161,184,193,202,211,212,227,228,247,257,260,265,266,271,274,345,346,349,355,367,368,369,370,373,375,385,396,407,419,426,440,445,446,456,463,467,472,473],indetermin:[187,373,397,405,439],index:[7,31,34,43,49,54,55,57,58,62,64,66,71,85,86,90,93,99,102,105,106,108,112,117,118,123,124,126,143,145,149,153,157,161,162,177,190,191,197,206,210,214,227,232,234,237,243,246,253,254,256,260,261,267,279,282,284,291,293,298,300,301,312,315,316,321,322,324,339,341,344,346,347,355,360,362,366,367,369,373,377,378,391,402,407,410,419,423,424,426,432,436,438,445,446,449,450,453,456,458,460,462,463,464,466,467,469,470,471,472,473],index_size_err:407,index_str:347,indexbyt:105,indexerror:[22,33,34,43,55,159,161,177,197,214,237,260,284,301,320,321,347,377,386,424,426,432,445,446,456,466,472],indexof:291,indexsizeerr:407,indian:380,indic:[3,5,7,29,30,31,34,37,45,49,51,53,54,56,57,58,62,65,74,75,79,81,82,86,90,91,93,95,101,102,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,118,119,122,124,125,136,138,140,141,145,147,157,158,159,167,168,169,170,174,176,177,178,184,187,190,197,203,204,206,209,210,211,214,222,225,227,228,230,236,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,257,260,265,266,267,269,271,274,276,279,284,288,292,293,295,297,299,302,305,307,309,310,313,316,318,321,329,330,333,334,337,338,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,350,351,355,358,361,362,363,366,367,370,373,374,377,382,385,386,391,392,395,396,397,402,403,404,405,407,410,416,421,422,424,426,428,431,432,436,437,439,445,446,448,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,468,469,470,471,472],indiffer:456,indifferenti:236,indirect:[45,65,79,91,227,309,422,424,426,428,472],indirectli:[53,58,65,70,105,172,177,214,252,293,294,316,350,355,399,424,425,426,428,438,439,464,468,471,472],indistinguish:[107,284,310],individu:[5,38,41,53,56,57,62,66,69,71,97,98,102,103,104,106,111,113,119,159,176,185,187,189,190,193,197,199,204,207,212,220,232,249,250,253,254,260,266,271,282,283,284,293,294,315,321,333,346,347,357,360,363,365,367,368,373,380,385,386,387,391,395,397,405,410,416,417,419,422,424,428,430,432,436,438,445,446,451,457,460,461,463,465,467,468,472],induc:310,industri:422,ineffect:468,ineffici:[58,91,149,257,293,343,469],inequ:[109,187,196,203,385,426,462,466],inet:[107,339],inet_aton:[339,472],inet_ntoa:339,inet_ntop:[339,468],inet_pton:[129,339,468,472],inevit:105,inexact:[187,293,440,467],inf:[156,187,227,261,275,346,347,355,462,463,466,469,470,472],infer:[65,95,122,193,228,267,284,367,377,382,448,470],inferior:111,infil:[122,142,261,303,332,376,448,465,466],infin:[106,156,187,227,261,275,320,346,347,355,460,462,466,472],infinit:[17,41,62,84,91,99,106,136,187,237,249,260,275,284,285,293,298,301,318,321,322,346,355,385,424,437,440,456,460,462,467,472],infinite_stream:382,infinitesim:284,infix:[62,84],infj:[156,470,472],inflex:[468,469],influenc:[7,65,301,339,451,462],info:[22,62,65,69,74,79,86,87,90,94,103,104,128,154,159,170,184,190,227,229,232,244,254,266,267,268,271,284,288,304,309,333,339,351,370,380,382,385,392,418,419,426,428,448,451,453,457,459,461,462,463,466,468,472],infolist:419,inform:[0,1,3,4,5,7,10,13,22,24,30,31,38,41,53,55,57,60,62,63,64,66,68,69,70,71,72,74,77,78,79,80,81,83,91,92,93,94,95,99,101,102,103,106,109,110,111,112,113,117,120,122,123,129,132,135,137,141,142,145,153,154,156,159,161,163,164,170,172,173,176,177,178,182,184,187,189,190,192,193,196,197,198,202,204,206,208,210,212,214,216,217,222,225,227,229,230,234,236,238,241,243,244,246,248,249,252,253,254,258,260,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,276,279,284,286,288,291,292,297,298,301,304,305,307,309,310,313,314,315,316,317,318,321,322,329,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,349,350,355,359,362,363,366,367,369,370,372,373,376,377,378,380,382,385,386,388,391,392,395,396,399,401,402,404,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,419,421,423,424,425,428,429,430,431,432,435,437,439,441,442,444,446,448,449,451,452,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],infozip:65,infrastructur:[64,86,104,112,118,125,141,159,343,397,462,463,468,471],infrequ:340,infring:422,ing:[31,58,85,106,107,193,204,244,463,467,471,472],ingebretson:472,inglesbi:472,ingredi:342,ingrid:472,inher:[122,123,232,366,410],inherit:[5,56,57,62,70,81,82,84,91,93,95,98,118,120,124,140,157,159,161,162,170,177,178,184,200,214,222,223,224,225,227,236,248,252,254,257,258,268,271,284,292,298,301,317,329,336,339,340,343,344,350,354,361,363,366,370,373,375,382,407,411,412,413,423,424,426,440,441,455,456,459,461,462,464,467,469,471,472],inhibit:[252,316],ini:[62,218,332,452,466],init:[30,62,65,79,92,204,251,252,276,293,298,310,317,336,364,372,461,462,472],init_by_arrai:422,init_color:178,init_databas:282,init_frozen:472,init_genrand:422,init_glob:326,init_histori:322,init_kei:422,init_lett:461,init_or_s:177,init_pair:[97,178],init_sourc:363,initarg:[167,284,471],initerror:96,initfp:472,initfunc:28,initfunc_nam:77,initgroup:[293,463],initi:[2,3,5,15,17,21,22,26,28,29,31,38,45,53,54,55,56,57,58,62,63,65,74,75,77,78,80,82,85,91,92,95,97,99,103,104,108,109,117,122,123,125,129,136,139,141,142,143,147,157,159,161,167,168,176,177,178,182,187,189,193,196,203,204,207,210,214,222,225,227,228,229,232,235,236,237,238,248,249,251,252,257,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,276,279,282,284,286,288,292,293,294,297,301,303,307,310,316,320,322,332,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,346,350,355,357,360,361,366,367,368,370,373,380,381,385,392,396,397,410,416,421,422,423,424,428,432,433,436,438,445,446,451,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],initial_byt:257,initial_ind:365,initial_response_ok:337,initial_valu:[99,257],initialdata:161,initialis:[19,104,244,268,326,386,424,451,468,470],initialize_opt:65,initleo:92,initleoc:92,initlog:437,initmodul:[30,74],initmyappc:92,initmyextens:96,initproc:[57,81,82],initscr:[97,178],initsig:30,initspam:83,initv:98,initvar:[182,472],inject:[104,129,131,138,266,342,350,392,406,451,461,469,472],inlin:[93,95,168,189,197,198,204,206,236,238,310,321,385,459,461,466,470,472],inline_comment_prefix:168,inner:[161,170,190,236,254,321,342,346,380,410,423,460,463,466,467,472],inner_s:236,inner_stack:170,inner_word:321,innermost:[93,118,170,193,316,426,436,437,468,472],innoc:31,innocu:459,innodb:168,inod:[268,293,344,472],inoffens:301,inord:[99,458,459],inordin:[233,298],inplac:[68,219,472],inplace_add:190,inplace_and:190,inplace_floor_divid:190,inplace_lshift:190,inplace_matrix_multipli:190,inplace_modulo:190,inplace_multipli:190,inplace_or:190,inplace_pow:190,inplace_rshift:190,inplace_subtract:190,inplace_true_divid:190,inplace_xor:190,inproduct:382,input:[0,5,9,13,14,31,44,57,58,60,62,65,79,81,84,91,93,94,95,99,102,103,108,109,110,111,113,115,120,122,125,129,135,138,143,144,145,147,148,151,153,157,158,159,160,161,168,170,174,176,177,184,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,201,202,204,208,209,210,214,220,223,224,227,236,237,241,245,246,248,253,257,260,261,263,266,268,269,271,274,275,284,291,292,293,294,295,297,299,303,304,309,311,313,316,319,321,322,324,329,332,337,339,342,343,345,350,355,360,362,363,365,367,372,373,374,377,385,386,391,392,394,398,404,405,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,418,421,424,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,434,437,438,439,440,441,444,445,446,448,451,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],input_charset:[196,197],input_codec:196,input_data:345,inputdata:143,inputerror:439,inputonli:372,inputrc:322,inputsourc:[62,273,411,412,414,469,472],inquir:[373,469],inquiri:[26,41,57,81,82,257,385],inrat:143,ins:[57,91,99,212,456,458,459,460],insch:178,inscrib:380,insdelln:178,insec:365,insecur:[286,331,342,343,442,461,466],insensit:[13,17,62,93,106,108,109,145,159,161,168,197,206,245,246,252,276,321,335,342,347,348,363,392,397,404,455,460,462,471,472,473],insert:[21,28,30,31,34,55,62,65,78,79,84,86,95,99,109,113,122,123,144,149,153,161,162,172,178,182,189,193,209,222,227,228,237,248,251,252,257,261,266,269,282,292,299,301,309,318,322,336,342,346,347,355,373,381,397,399,404,407,410,420,423,424,426,428,432,436,437,438,445,451,454,456,459,461,462,463,465,467,468,469,470,471,472],insert_mod:462,insert_text:[322,325],insertbefor:[407,456],insertln:178,insid:[5,10,30,38,62,65,74,79,80,82,84,87,91,92,93,95,97,99,106,107,114,145,170,176,178,187,197,200,206,211,227,229,241,252,256,257,261,282,284,298,299,318,321,333,334,339,343,347,370,372,373,380,385,386,387,417,420,423,424,426,432,436,437,438,439,442,445,449,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,466,468,470,471,472],insignific:347,insist:[90,311,370],insnstr:178,insofar:[241,271,432],insort:[149,448],insort_left:149,insort_right:149,inspect:[62,79,82,93,95,101,105,114,122,124,131,140,162,182,193,227,229,236,252,253,258,266,271,297,299,309,315,317,334,335,343,346,355,359,378,385,392,419,423,424,451,456,457,458,462,463,472],inspectload:[252,468,469,472],inspector:[91,372],inspir:[85,109,168,201,260,261,385,422,456,457,459,462,466,467],insstr:178,inst:[45,432,439],inst_nam:462,instabl:464,instal:[28,30,31,38,62,68,69,70,71,72,75,77,78,82,85,86,87,88,90,91,92,93,97,101,105,110,113,134,145,164,175,185,191,213,215,232,248,252,253,255,256,266,268,276,278,305,313,317,322,334,335,342,343,355,362,370,372,373,378,380,385,392,396,397,401,402,404,418,422,428,434,444,446,449,450,451,452,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,469,470,471,472,473],install_data:71,install_head:[71,74],install_lib:[67,71],install_misc:[471,472],install_open:[110,392],install_pip:396,install_script:[71,396],install_setuptool:396,installallus:455,installdir:447,installermast:458,installexecutesequ:282,installhandl:385,installlauncherallus:455,installuisequ:282,instanc:[8,9,12,13,14,15,19,21,22,24,25,26,28,30,31,34,35,39,41,45,47,48,50,53,55,56,57,58,62,65,66,72,74,77,79,81,82,84,93,94,95,97,98,99,103,104,105,106,108,110,114,118,119,122,124,125,129,131,132,134,135,137,138,140,141,142,145,151,152,153,155,157,158,159,160,161,162,167,168,170,172,173,176,177,178,183,184,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,200,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,213,214,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,232,235,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,260,261,266,267,268,269,271,274,282,284,285,286,288,289,291,292,293,298,299,300,302,306,307,309,310,314,316,317,320,321,323,325,327,330,331,332,333,336,337,339,340,342,343,347,349,350,351,354,355,356,359,360,363,365,366,368,370,376,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,390,391,392,395,397,398,399,400,403,404,405,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,420,423,425,426,428,431,432,437,438,439,441,442,445,446,447,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],instani:199,instant:[62,186],instanti:[22,65,69,82,90,103,104,110,118,129,135,137,138,140,153,155,157,161,177,178,182,184,189,195,197,204,212,222,232,241,243,246,249,251,252,266,267,268,271,284,289,292,298,299,320,329,330,332,336,337,339,340,346,370,373,382,385,386,387,396,400,405,407,408,411,413,424,432,436,439,461,462,466,469,471,472],instantli:[97,293,380],instat:373,instead:[5,7,11,12,15,16,21,22,23,28,30,36,38,41,44,45,53,54,57,60,62,65,74,78,79,80,81,82,83,85,90,91,92,93,94,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,106,108,109,110,111,116,122,125,128,129,130,131,133,135,137,139,140,141,144,147,149,151,153,154,158,159,160,161,167,168,170,171,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,189,190,192,193,194,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,206,208,209,210,211,212,214,223,225,227,228,230,232,237,238,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,260,261,265,266,268,269,271,274,275,284,288,292,293,297,298,299,300,301,302,306,307,308,309,310,313,314,315,316,320,321,322,323,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,337,339,340,341,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,356,357,359,360,361,366,367,368,370,372,373,377,378,381,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,394,396,397,399,402,404,406,407,408,409,410,412,420,423,424,426,427,428,431,432,435,436,437,438,440,441,442,445,446,447,448,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],institut:[64,112],instr:[178,190,468,472],instream:332,instruct:[7,62,64,65,74,75,83,84,90,92,93,99,101,111,153,176,187,193,241,254,263,292,310,316,334,342,343,355,385,407,410,412,424,426,451,456,461,463,466,468,472],instrument:[62,100,129,228,310,466,470,472],insuffici:[28,187,193,284,293,386,470],insufficient_storag:242,insul:30,insuper:106,int2ap:249,int_curr_symbol:265,int_field:470,int_frac_digit:265,int_info:[355,446,465],int_max:472,intabl:472,intact:[96,104,168,184,204,206,209,219,268,347,404,460],intargfunc:57,intarray5:177,integ:[4,5,6,7,9,13,15,17,22,23,31,37,38,41,43,45,51,57,58,60,62,65,78,79,81,82,84,90,93,94,95,96,97,99,102,104,105,106,107,109,110,117,119,122,123,125,129,135,136,141,143,151,152,156,159,161,167,168,174,177,178,179,184,187,193,204,212,213,214,216,219,222,223,225,227,229,234,235,244,246,249,251,252,255,257,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,274,275,279,282,284,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,297,301,306,307,310,312,316,318,321,322,323,324,329,330,333,339,340,341,342,343,347,349,350,351,355,362,366,367,370,373,380,384,386,391,395,397,398,402,405,407,408,410,416,419,421,423,424,426,432,436,437,439,440,442,445,447,451,456,457,459,461,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],integr:[60,62,71,79,87,91,92,93,101,107,120,187,192,193,248,269,275,289,321,340,342,346,349,369,385,386,387,398,424,426,453,454,455,456,459,460,462,464,466,467,471,472],integrityerror:342,intel64:356,intel:[30,65,92,107,143,295,310,349,453,461,463,469,470,472],intellectu:422,intellig:[289,292,294,295,299],intend:[22,28,30,58,65,70,74,78,79,80,81,84,90,93,94,95,99,103,104,106,110,111,117,129,153,159,161,170,172,184,185,190,193,202,209,214,227,228,241,245,246,248,254,257,258,266,268,269,271,274,288,293,301,304,305,309,332,335,339,343,346,347,349,350,355,358,366,370,373,376,380,382,385,386,391,392,397,404,408,416,419,423,424,426,430,431,432,437,438,439,440,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,468,469,470,471,472],intens:[93,128,178,269,293,467],intent:[22,28,78,79,95,104,182,184,197,206,275,293,385,404,424,459,460,462,464,467,468],intention:[248,288,382,404,416,464],intenum:[62,183,242,339,343,470,472],inter:[189,259,334,448,466],interact:[2,22,30,31,38,54,57,60,62,65,78,85,86,90,91,92,93,104,106,111,115,117,122,124,129,137,145,157,167,169,178,181,187,188,190,195,208,214,219,222,227,244,248,251,253,254,257,284,292,293,295,299,309,310,315,317,322,325,335,336,343,350,355,359,360,369,370,372,373,377,380,385,392,397,410,417,419,424,427,428,429,430,431,432,435,436,437,441,445,446,447,451,455,458,459,460,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],interactiveconsol:[158,322],interactiveinterpret:[158,469,472],intercept:[140,355,470],interchang:[62,96,104,119,155,169,184,187,214,236,261,266,346,382,387,424,431,442,447,456,462,466,467],interdum:151,interest:[21,57,62,66,70,74,78,79,81,83,84,86,90,91,95,99,101,103,104,106,107,109,111,139,141,153,155,156,161,168,183,184,189,193,195,201,208,216,217,227,237,248,260,266,271,273,276,286,292,299,310,316,329,351,366,368,369,385,386,387,392,397,398,412,424,430,432,447,450,456,457,458,459,461,463],interestingli:[108,321,440],interf:[93,187,284,368,426,468],interfac:[5,7,28,29,30,31,39,44,54,57,58,60,62,65,66,69,72,74,78,79,81,86,88,91,93,97,98,99,103,105,106,109,110,111,116,118,120,121,122,123,129,134,135,144,148,151,152,155,157,159,161,162,167,168,170,171,172,173,174,176,177,178,181,186,188,191,193,194,195,197,198,204,205,206,207,208,216,219,220,224,227,230,232,234,235,236,243,244,246,248,251,252,253,255,256,259,260,263,265,266,269,271,273,276,277,278,282,285,292,294,295,297,298,299,300,304,305,306,307,308,310,312,316,317,326,327,329,331,334,337,340,341,343,346,350,351,354,355,357,361,362,364,366,367,372,375,377,379,380,388,391,394,395,397,398,399,400,401,404,406,407,408,410,411,412,414,422,424,428,429,435,441,446,449,452,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],interfer:[103,112,168,265,472],interior:[373,380,457,458],interleav:[193,284,463,466,471],interlin:189,intermedi:[7,85,90,93,99,187,190,207,252,260,275,292,293,297,343,386,428,461,465,466,471,472],intermediari:[65,66,72],intermezzo:[62,80,441],intermitt:469,intermix:[62,120,230,471,472],intern:[7,8,9,10,21,22,23,28,30,31,37,38,50,54,56,57,58,62,65,79,81,82,84,86,90,93,95,97,98,99,103,104,105,106,109,110,113,120,122,123,124,129,130,137,139,142,151,156,157,158,159,161,162,168,177,182,184,185,187,193,200,205,208,209,211,214,236,238,244,246,248,252,253,254,257,260,264,265,266,268,269,275,276,279,293,297,299,300,301,304,309,310,316,318,320,324,329,332,336,339,342,343,348,350,352,353,355,359,360,363,366,367,369,370,372,373,377,380,382,385,392,395,397,399,407,408,410,412,416,419,421,423,424,426,434,437,446,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],internal_attr:419,internal_server_error:242,internald:[106,249],internaldate2tupl:249,internalsubset:407,internation:[62,109,146,195,253,283,285,337,343,347,348,367,431,447,456,459,460,469,471,472],internet:[62,86,100,102,105,107,144,195,211,225,236,241,244,248,253,272,319,337,339,340,343,363,364,367,391,392,422,441,455,456,459,466,468,472],interoper:[62,104,118,129,131,143,209,212,246,258,285,301,320,343,346,424,442,465,466,468],interp:30,interpol:[62,65,218,345,346,426,466,469,470,472],interpolationdeptherror:168,interpolationerror:168,interpolationmissingoptionerror:[168,472],interpolationsyntaxerror:168,interpret:[5,7,15,17,22,23,28,29,31,35,38,41,43,45,47,48,52,53,54,57,58,60,62,65,74,78,79,81,82,85,86,91,92,93,95,96,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,109,111,112,113,117,122,123,124,129,139,142,146,152,153,154,164,167,168,169,176,177,178,183,184,185,187,190,191,193,198,204,208,210,211,214,220,222,224,227,229,236,246,248,249,251,252,253,256,257,258,260,261,262,266,267,279,282,284,291,292,293,297,299,301,305,308,309,310,311,312,313,315,316,317,321,322,326,329,331,332,334,335,337,339,342,343,346,347,350,351,355,356,361,362,363,366,367,370,372,373,377,382,385,386,392,396,397,399,400,403,407,410,421,422,424,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,441,442,445,446,448,449,451,452,454,455,456,457,459,460,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],interpreter_requires_environ:363,interprocess:[62,135,253,284,339],interpt:252,interrog:[104,206,387],interrupt:[22,30,117,129,153,178,179,187,213,214,227,248,271,284,293,318,329,330,334,339,340,342,350,360,366,367,385,392,403,417,422,424,434,437,439,462,463,466,469,472],interrupt_main:[117,472],interruptederror:[22,213,214,227,293,329,334,339,446,467,469,472],intersect:[161,346,424,438,459,460,462,463],intersection_upd:[346,459,462],interspers:[95,104,292],interstiti:468,interv:[84,99,103,178,184,268,293,310,320,334,345,355,363,366,367,373,380,460,462,466,470,472],interven:[79,104,189,193,205,448,467],intervent:[98,370],intfield:470,intflag:[62,183,321,343,470,472],intim:[302,305],intintargfunc:57,intintobjargproc:57,intobjargproc:57,intoler:109,intr:178,intr_flag:472,intra:[62,189,441],intraclass:436,intralin:189,intransact:472,intric:380,intricaci:292,intrins:[15,168,291,424,465],intro:[157,343,453,463],introduc:[22,30,62,79,84,86,91,92,93,95,96,98,99,103,104,105,106,114,129,214,222,236,244,246,252,271,275,284,292,293,301,307,310,343,347,349,354,355,361,372,373,380,381,382,391,411,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,435,436,437,441,445,446,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],introduct:[29,62,71,80,82,94,97,100,112,114,122,135,165,186,193,224,253,255,258,281,300,320,339,343,368,370,382,387,429,441,444,453,460,468,470,472,473],introductori:[86,89,94,106,109,339,370,461],introspect:[16,62,81,87,91,93,95,98,161,171,190,214,228,296,301,317,382,386,416,417,424,428,464,466,467,468,469,472],intrud:417,inttyp:[280,472],intuit:[84,102,103,106,153,187,189,372,426,456,457,458,468],intvar:[370,472],inu:299,inuse_attribute_err:407,inuseattributeerr:407,inv:[291,469],invalid:[22,26,31,54,56,62,79,84,86,93,94,102,103,106,109,110,117,120,129,130,158,160,161,164,177,184,185,187,193,197,200,202,204,206,209,212,213,214,217,227,228,229,232,239,241,243,245,248,251,252,261,267,271,275,284,292,293,294,295,301,311,313,321,324,329,330,334,339,343,345,346,347,350,351,359,363,366,367,373,382,385,391,393,397,398,399,402,407,416,432,437,438,439,445,451,456,462,463,464,465,467,468,469,470,471,472],invalid_access_err:407,invalid_character_err:407,invalid_modification_err:407,invalid_state_err:407,invalidaccesserr:407,invalidate_cach:[252,467,471,472],invalidation_mod:[164,313,471,472],invalidbase64charactersdefect:[197,200],invalidbase64lengthdefect:200,invalidbase64paddingdefect:[197,200],invalidcharactererr:407,invalidfileexcept:[306,472],invalidmodificationerr:407,invalidoper:[187,460,462,463,467],invalidstateerr:407,invalidstateerror:[130,131,140],invalidurl:[243,472],invalu:[141,193,321],invari:[84,99,187,197,212,237,260,301,382,426,428,436,440,472],invariantli:382,invent:[84,107,159,271,366,430,459,463],inventor:[271,370],inventori:[161,182,291],inventoryitem:182,invers:[147,152,156,184,187,202,210,227,245,258,275,291,301,346,367,426,462,472],invert:[99,124,159,187,291,346,424,426,472],invest:[103,345],investig:[103,346,472],investor:345,invis:[97,159,178,180,380,463,465,472],invit:[435,453,468],invmod:346,invoc:[22,51,62,65,77,79,93,95,98,101,165,170,177,211,246,274,284,310,366,377,385,396,404,412,423,424,434,436,451,452,453,454,460,466,468,472],invoic:462,invok:[5,19,22,28,31,47,53,54,57,58,62,64,65,81,90,91,99,101,102,104,106,109,111,122,129,132,139,145,153,157,168,170,182,184,193,211,227,228,229,233,244,246,254,265,266,284,292,293,294,297,299,301,302,304,310,313,315,321,322,326,333,336,337,340,342,343,346,350,355,360,363,366,368,370,373,376,385,391,396,399,404,410,411,412,413,416,417,423,425,428,431,433,436,441,443,445,447,451,455,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,467,468,469,471,472],involuntari:324,involv:[1,26,38,64,65,74,79,80,82,84,93,95,124,156,168,170,178,187,193,214,228,229,244,284,289,292,310,342,343,346,349,363,385,387,392,409,424,426,428,432,436,446,456,463,468,469,471,472],inward:187,iobas:[189,214,216,257,375,472],iobench:463,iobind:472,iocp:129,iocpproactor:472,ioctl:[62,123,253,295,339,388,460,462,470,472],ioctl_vm_sockets_get_local_cid:339,ioerror:[155,214,216,219,227,232,244,254,257,283,284,295,333,334,390,420,446,462,463,464,467],ior:291,ip6:[258,469],ip_:339,ip_address:[102,258,339],ip_hdrincl:339,ip_interfac:[102,258,472],ip_network:[102,258],ip_str:339,ipaddr:258,ipaddress:[62,100,253,255,472],ipaddrlist:339,ipadi:370,ipadx:370,ipc:[62,126,132,135],ipconfig:472,ipd266:[458,459],ipo:143,ipow:291,ippolito:[461,462,463,465],ipport_:339,ipproto_:339,ipproto_ip:339,ipproto_tcp:339,ipv4:[62,102,107,129,253,255,339,343,462,467,472],ipv4_map:258,ipv4address:[102,258,469,472],ipv4interfac:[102,258,472],ipv4network:[102,258,469,471,472],ipv6:[62,102,129,253,255,336,339,343,363,391,458,462,463,465,466,467,469,472],ipv6_:339,ipv6_en:363,ipv6address:[102,258,469,472],ipv6interfac:[102,258,472],ipv6network:[102,258,469,471,472],ipv:[102,472],ipython:[443,462],ipz:346,irepeat:113,irix:[62,308,464,472],irmen:471,ironpython:[93,212,305,430,462],irregular:458,irrelev:[193,292,463,472],irrespect:386,irrevers:[129,328],irrit:459,irshift:291,irv:438,is_64bit:305,is_:[99,291],is_absolut:298,is_al:[284,366,462,472],is_android:[363,472],is_assign:354,is_async:124,is_attach:[206,472],is_authent:392,is_block:244,is_block_devic:298,is_canon:[187,463],is_char_devic:298,is_character_junk:189,is_check_support:269,is_clos:[129,132,135,137,469,470,471,472],is_cryptograph:343,is_dataclass:[182,472],is_dataclass_inst:182,is_declared_glob:[354,463],is_dir:[293,298,419,470,472],is_en:215,is_even:[99,416],is_expir:244,is_fifo:298,is_fil:[293,298,469,472],is_fin:[30,355,469,472],is_finit:187,is_fre:354,is_frozen:468,is_glob:[258,354,468,472],is_goal:448,is_hop_by_hop:404,is_image_fil:461,is_import:354,is_infinit:187,is_integ:346,is_jump_target:190,is_jython:363,is_line_junk:189,is_linetouch:178,is_link_loc:258,is_loc:354,is_loopback:258,is_moon_ful:292,is_mount:[298,471,472],is_multicast:[258,472],is_multipart:[197,200,206,208,472],is_namespac:354,is_nan:187,is_nest:354,is_norm:187,is_not:[99,291],is_not_allow:244,is_odd:260,is_optim:354,is_packag:[252,420],is_paramet:354,is_parameter_ent:316,is_prim:167,is_priv:[258,472],is_py3k:96,is_python_build:[356,463],is_qnan:187,is_read:[132,135,471,472],is_referenc:354,is_reserv:[258,298],is_resourc:252,is_resource_en:363,is_run:[129,132],is_saf:[395,471,472],is_serv:[129,471,472],is_set:[139,366],is_sign:187,is_site_loc:258,is_snan:187,is_socket:298,is_subnorm:187,is_symlink:[293,298],is_tarfil:359,is_term_res:178,is_trac:378,is_track:[229,463],is_unspecifi:258,is_unverifi:[392,468],is_verbos:463,is_wintouch:178,is_zero:187,is_zipfil:[419,463],isaac:321,isab:[270,294,298],isabstract:[254,462,472],isadirectoryerror:[22,214,293,446,467],isal:472,isalnum:[179,346],isalpha:[179,346],isascii:[179,346,471,472],isasyncgen:254,isasyncgenfunct:254,isatti:[54,155,227,257,293,355,442],isawait:[131,162,254,469,472],isbadstringptr:472,isbjunk:468,isblank:[179,472],isblk:359,isbn:[161,370,450],isbpopular:468,isbuiltin:254,iscal:[113,463,464,472],ischr:359,isclass:254,isclos:[156,275,469,472],iscntrl:[179,472],iscod:254,iscoroutin:[131,140,254,469,472],iscoroutinefunct:[140,254,469,472],isctrl:179,isdaemon:[366,462],isdatadescriptor:254,isdecim:[105,346],isdev:359,isdigit:[179,328,346],isdir:[270,294,298,304,333,359],isdisjoint:[162,346],isdown:380,isdst:210,isel:410,isen:229,isenabledfor:[103,104,266,463],isendwin:178,iseof:374,iserl:156,isexpr:297,isfifo:359,isfil:[201,270,294,298,359,434,466],isfin:316,isfinit:[156,275,466],isfirstlin:219,isfram:254,isfunct:254,isfutur:[131,472],isgener:[254,462],isgeneratorfunct:[254,462],isgetsetdescriptor:254,isgraph:179,ish:[65,434],ishelllink:66,ishimoto:468,isidentifi:346,isindex:153,isinf:[156,275,346,462],isinst:[57,84,91,93,103,104,113,118,153,162,170,182,184,212,227,254,261,289,291,301,381,382,385,386,387,424,436,446,456,459,460,462,464,466,470,471,472],isjunk:189,iskeyword:[262,346],isleap:152,islic:[93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,459,461,462,463,472],ned:[109,463,466,468,472],need:[1,5,6,7,10,12,17,22,26,28,30,31,38,41,42,45,51,52,53,54,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,68,69,70,72,74,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,118,119,122,124,125,128,129,134,138,140,141,143,145,150,151,153,155,156,157,158,159,161,162,168,170,172,174,177,178,180,182,184,187,192,193,195,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,222,225,227,228,231,232,235,236,237,239,241,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,279,282,284,288,292,293,294,295,297,298,301,304,305,307,308,309,310,313,316,320,322,323,324,327,328,331,332,336,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,349,350,355,359,361,362,363,365,366,367,369,370,372,374,375,380,382,383,385,386,387,391,392,393,396,397,399,400,402,404,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,420,421,424,426,427,428,430,431,432,433,434,436,437,439,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,449,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],need_special_resourc:170,needforspe:461,needn:[30,321,349,471],needs_input:[151,269],neg:[7,17,22,28,34,35,41,43,49,57,58,60,65,95,99,106,108,117,122,123,135,138,151,152,155,156,159,161,163,177,178,179,184,187,210,223,227,228,257,258,260,261,265,269,275,279,284,291,293,301,310,320,321,322,329,333,334,342,343,346,347,350,366,367,370,377,380,407,424,426,432,437,438,442,445,456,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],negat:[14,43,187,291,293,346,426,438,472],negative_opt:65,negative_sign:265,neglect:[107,402],neglig:[346,422],negoti:[62,141,242,343,462,467,472],neighbor:[236,410,458,459],neighbour:91,neil:[456,457,458,459,461,463,466,469,470,471,472],neither:[30,65,75,82,95,102,106,131,135,144,159,182,187,193,197,206,210,227,243,261,266,269,271,275,286,292,293,297,301,320,340,343,346,373,376,385,392,400,422,424,426,451,468,470,471,472],nel:461,nelem:38,nelement:322,nelson:468,nemec:471,nemu:189,neophyt:91,nephew:456,neptun:212,nest:[5,62,79,84,91,93,99,103,106,114,140,161,170,177,188,189,190,193,200,212,254,260,261,271,284,297,299,309,314,316,321,346,347,354,366,373,385,406,410,412,423,424,426,431,432,436,437,441,442,445,448,451,456,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],nested_scop:[114,432,457,458],nester:472,net4:102,net6:102,net:[62,65,68,74,87,90,91,110,111,184,195,236,244,255,321,329,343,421,422,430,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,467,472],netbsd:[305,339,367,471,472],netherland:422,netlib:422,netlink:461,netloc:[391,463,466],netlog:463,netlogg:463,netmask:[102,258,469,472],netmaskvalueerror:[102,258],netrc:[62,218,225,253,288,458,468,469,472],netrcparseerror:286,netscap:[178,244,271,400,422,457,460,462,472],netstat:472,network:[62,89,103,107,109,110,111,125,126,127,132,135,137,141,143,146,185,213,248,250,253,255,268,284,288,293,301,305,324,329,337,343,349,359,363,391,392,395,402,406,411,417,428,439,442,457,458,459,462,467,469,471,472],network_address:258,network_authentication_requir:242,netzer:459,neufeld:472,neumann:424,neut:472,neutral:[58,74,79,102,253,468],neval:301,neve:[236,422,470],never:[5,17,26,30,31,38,54,55,57,62,70,79,81,82,91,93,94,95,97,99,103,105,106,110,111,122,129,131,134,135,136,139,140,141,143,145,153,159,164,167,168,170,171,176,177,178,182,184,187,189,197,200,206,212,214,227,232,237,241,243,244,246,248,252,254,257,258,261,264,265,266,268,274,279,284,292,293,294,298,299,301,311,316,318,320,321,324,326,329,333,335,340,342,343,346,349,350,359,360,363,366,370,381,382,386,391,392,397,399,400,404,407,410,412,419,424,428,431,432,436,437,440,446,451,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,466,468,469,470,471,472],nevertheless:[72,82,159,198,214,257,292,359,369,410,446,464],new_align:222,new_arch:418,new_attr:458,new_attribut:386,new_cal:386,new_child:[161,468],new_class:[381,467],new_compil:[65,418],new_diff:320,new_event_loop:[129,132,134],new_exc:214,new_f:109,new_featur:113,new_font:222,new_fram:143,new_funct:95,new_h_len:322,new_i:178,new_items:346,new_l:91,new_limit:[176,461],new_mailbox:249,new_margin:222,new_mock:[386,387],new_modul:251,new_nod:124,new_non_team_us:382,new_panel:180,new_path:90,new_prefix:258,new_rank:410,new_read:301,new_root:65,new_sig:254,new_siz:38,new_spac:222,new_str:321,new_struct:462,new_styl:222,new_target:170,new_val:363,new_valu:363,new_vector:382,new_x:178,newattr:[407,458],newbi:[92,461,463],newchild:407,newchildren:373,newcom:84,newdatatyp:81,newdatatype_cal:81,newdatatype_dealloc:81,newdatatype_getattr:81,newdatatype_hash:81,newdatatype_repr:81,newdatatype_richcmp:81,newdatatype_setattr:81,newdatatype_str:81,newdatatypeobject:81,newdict:91,newdoc:408,newenumnam:212,newer:[52,65,81,82,86,93,96,103,105,119,193,244,248,252,267,268,288,293,296,299,301,314,316,329,343,346,367,405,453,455,468,469,470,471,472],newer_group:65,newer_pairwis:65,newest:140,newfil:332,newfontset:372,newfrag:143,newfunc:[57,81,98,228],newgrad:108,newgroup:288,newindex:373,newkei:[386,387],newkeyword:228,newl:408,newli:[3,5,30,31,38,54,62,79,91,103,158,182,199,227,244,257,284,293,304,333,335,339,361,372,373,380,407,423,424,436,460,462,467,470,471,472],newlin:[23,62,65,85,93,106,122,144,147,148,151,158,160,176,178,189,193,197,208,219,222,227,235,248,252,257,261,264,266,268,269,271,279,288,298,301,309,321,332,339,340,346,350,357,361,365,367,368,374,375,377,378,397,408,416,418,419,423,427,431,433,442,445,448,451,457,460,461,462,463,464,468,470,471,472,473],newloc:466,newmailbox:249,newnam:[280,448],newnew:288,newobj:[399,472],newobj_ex:472,newpad:[97,178],newpart:9,newpath:280,newpathnam:370,newpric:161,newschem:372,newscmprio:372,newsgroup:[288,450,460],newsiz:[9,26,55,279],newsocket:343,newsread:271,newstat:143,newstream:332,newsyslog:268,newtab:28,newterm:178,newton:[245,321],newtyp:[62,188,470,472],newurl:392,newval:260,newvalu:[386,387],newwidth:143,newwin:[97,178],next:[1,7,22,30,32,33,38,57,62,74,78,79,81,82,84,86,91,93,95,97,99,102,104,105,106,109,111,113,119,125,128,129,140,143,145,151,153,155,157,158,160,161,168,176,177,178,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,206,212,214,219,222,223,227,228,229,232,237,243,244,248,252,254,256,260,266,268,269,271,279,283,284,288,292,293,299,309,310,316,320,321,322,327,331,332,334,339,340,342,343,346,347,350,359,372,373,386,387,392,395,397,410,423,424,425,426,428,430,432,433,435,436,437,438,439,443,444,445,446,448,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,473],next_control:282,next_minu:187,next_plu:187,next_toward:187,nextfil:219,nexti:260,nextkei:185,nextsibl:407,nfc:[109,384],nfd:[109,384],nfkc:[109,348,384,391,431,472],nfkd:[109,384],nfl:310,nfoo2:321,nframe:[119,338,351,378,398,451],nfs:65,ngettext:232,nginx:343,ngot:392,ngroups_max:472,nhost:[141,343],ni_:339,nibh:151,nice:[66,84,92,94,95,107,142,145,153,170,177,193,237,269,293,324,337,340,346,361,387,400,424,428,436,437,442,443,445,456,466,467],nice_len:269,nicer:[321,387],niceti:462,nich:97,nichola:[109,459],nick:[99,102,105,109,326,424,458,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],nicknam:[93,168,450],nicola:472,niehof:467,niemey:[232,458,459,460,461],nifti:459,nigetspamdata:83,night:168,nikhil:470,nikla:472,nikola:472,nikolai:[470,472],nikolau:[469,472],nil:[416,459],nim:380,nimstick:380,nine:[109,187,468],nine_year:184,ninth:457,nir:[463,466,467,471,472],nirina:463,nis:[62,253,388,461,472],nishimura:[320,422],nist:[236,459],nitem:[56,57],nitish:[471,472],nix:[451,471],nkeyboard:417,nl1l:465,nl_langinfo:[54,178,265,458],nlargest:[93,227,228,237,460,461,472],nline:178,nlocal:12,nlst:[225,467],nmh:271,nmsmallest:472,nnn:[227,241,392],nnnn:[469,472],nntp:[62,195,253,255,391,460,467,472],nntp_implement:288,nntp_ssl:[288,466],nntp_version:288,nntpdataerror:288,nntperror:[288,472],nntplib:[62,195,202,253,255,456,460,463,465,466,472],nntppermanenterror:288,nntpprotocolerror:288,nntpreplyerror:288,nntptemporaryerror:288,no_block:[10,96],no_bug:79,no_cont:242,no_data_allowed_err:407,no_modification_allowed_err:407,no_proxi:[392,472],no_sit:[355,466],no_strict_list_append:456,no_trac:363,no_type_check:382,no_type_check_decor:382,no_user_sit:[355,466],no_vot:442,noarch:72,nobodi:[79,153,236,246,337],noboundaryinmultipartdefect:200,nocbreak:[97,178],nodataallowederr:407,noddi:26,node:[62,85,236,237,241,263,273,293,294,297,298,305,339,343,353,373,374,395,408,409,410,412,427,448,456,459,461,462,463,466,470,471,472],node_depth:236,node_offset:[236,472],node_or_str:124,nodefaultroot:472,nodelai:[97,178],nodelist:[62,273,408,424],nodenam:[293,305,407],nodetransform:[124,462],nodetyp:[407,408],nodevalu:407,nodevisitor:[124,462],nodist:396,noecho:[97,178],noexpr:265,nofar:472,nofre:466,nois:[189,292,293],noisi:[96,292],nokia:296,noller:[462,465],nome:99,nomenclatur:[212,355],nomin:345,nomodificationallowederr:407,non:[2,5,7,9,10,11,17,21,22,26,28,31,34,35,38,41,45,55,57,58,62,65,66,68,72,74,77,79,81,82,85,86,90,91,93,95,97,98,99,101,103,109,110,118,128,129,135,141,144,145,148,151,153,157,159,167,168,176,177,178,179,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,222,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,234,235,236,237,238,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,257,258,260,264,265,266,267,268,273,275,276,279,284,285,286,288,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,304,305,308,310,313,316,318,319,320,321,322,328,329,332,334,335,337,339,340,342,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,355,356,359,360,363,365,366,367,374,382,385,386,387,390,391,392,395,396,397,398,400,412,416,421,422,424,426,428,429,431,432,433,436,437,438,445,446,450,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,470,471,472],non_authoritative_inform:242,non_exist:386,non_existent_fil:350,non_existing_attribut:386,non_nul:438,non_release_vers:305,nonadjust:367,nonam:[193,419],nonblock:[295,472],noncallablemagicmock:386,noncallablemock:386,noncod:103,noncompli:307,nonconform:404,nondeterminist:339,none:[3,5,15,22,28,30,41,50,51,52,53,57,58,61,62,65,66,74,79,86,91,93,94,95,98,99,103,104,106,107,108,110,113,114,118,119,122,124,125,129,131,134,13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295,343,408,416,424,453,455,456,457,458,461,463,466,467,469,471,472],offlin:[288,378,455],offload:284,offscreen:373,offset:[7,13,19,21,22,53,57,81,82,90,101,124,129,143,155,177,184,187,190,204,210,214,216,225,236,241,257,271,279,284,293,308,316,339,349,363,367,377,412,419,424,442,456,461,462,466,467,471,472],offsetof:[81,82],offvalu:370,oflag:362,ofs:177,often:[10,12,30,31,53,58,68,70,72,74,79,81,82,84,86,87,90,91,93,95,97,99,102,106,108,109,110,111,112,116,122,126,141,147,153,157,161,167,172,176,177,184,185,187,189,193,194,195,199,214,227,229,232,234,237,253,254,260,282,292,301,310,311,313,332,339,342,343,345,346,348,350,355,357,363,366,367,370,382,386,387,392,411,418,421,424,430,431,432,436,438,439,440,442,444,446,447,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,469,472],ogr:321,ohioe:90,oid:[343,395,399,472],okai:[30,122,168,265,404,446],okbutton:370,oktob:431,old:[2,5,9,29,35,38,41,54,55,58,62,79,84,91,93,95,96,103,106,113,118,122,124,148,153,161,178,188,197,206,214,227,228,244,249,251,252,261,267,268,270,271,276,284,292,293,294,301,306,310,331,334,343,346,347,359,362,363,366,377,378,380,386,392,404,407,412,422,423,424,426,431,432,438,441,445,454,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],old_arch:418,old_factori:[104,266],old_level:104,old_method:387,old_nod:124,old_password:168,old_path:90,old_snapshot:378,old_style_coroutin:140,old_valu:171,old_width:143,oldattr:407,oldchild:407,olddict:91,older:[52,62,64,65,79,81,86,87,97,122,133,165,178,187,189,203,229,232,236,248,267,288,293,295,296,297,299,301,305,316,320,329,342,343,355,363,392,412,419,428,440,453,456,459,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],oldest:[105,140,161,229,268,366,378,399,463,466,471,472],oldmailbox:249,oldmask:178,oldmodul:363,oldnam:280,oldpackag:461,oldpath:280,oledl:[177,462],oleg:[461,472],oliph:[461,462,463],oliv:[456,472],oliva:472,olivedrab1:373,olivedrab2:373,oliveira:472,olivi:472,olsen:[90,462,463],olson:[184,472],omar:[470,471,472],omf:[92,111],omg:[407,408],omiss:[254,316,339,472],omit:[22,53,55,62,65,81,84,93,95,104,106,119,122,123,129,141,155,161,168,176,178,183,184,189,193,202,203,205,222,225,227,232,235,246,249,251,257,258,264,265,271,276,279,284,288,292,297,299,301,307,316,320,321,322,329,332,333,335,337,339,346,347,349,359,373,377,379,380,385,386,397,398,406,410,411,418,422,423,424,426,431,432,439,442,445,455,459,460,461,463,464,467,468,470,471,472],omit_suffix:363,on_con_lost:135,on_error:382,on_fals:91,on_or_off:193,on_success:382,on_tru:91,onc:[5,7,21,22,26,30,31,51,54,57,58,75,78,79,81,82,84,90,91,92,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,108,109,111,118,119,122,125,129,131,135,139,140,141,142,151,153,157,159,160,161,164,167,168,170,187,189,193,197,206,212,219,222,225,232,237,241,246,248,251,252,254,257,260,266,267,268,269,271,284,288,292,293,295,301,308,310,316,318,321,322,329,330,333,334,335,339,340,342,343,346,349,359,366,368,370,378,385,386,387,392,396,397,399,400,404,407,408,410,412,413,421,423,424,426,428,432,435,436,437,446,449,450,451,455,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,469,471,472],onceregistri:472,onclick:380,ondrag:380,ondrej:459,one:[1,3,5,7,9,10,12,14,17,22,23,24,28,30,31,33,38,39,41,43,45,51,52,53,54,55,57,58,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,90,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,113,117,118,119,122,123,124,125,129,132,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,143,144,145,147,151,152,153,155,156,157,158,159,161,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,174,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,216,217,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,235,236,237,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,274,275,276,279,282,283,284,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,302,303,304,306,309,310,313,316,318,320,321,322,324,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,350,353,354,355,356,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,375,376,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,395,396,397,399,402,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,412,416,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,433,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],onecmd:157,onelineexceptionformatt:104,onerror:[293,304,333,471],ones:[58,64,65,79,81,91,93,94,96,104,106,111,113,159,161,168,189,201,212,232,241,244,276,292,321,331,339,342,346,350,355,363,367,373,386,392,397,404,428,445,455,456,457,458,459,460,463,465,467,468,469,470,472],oneself:124,ongo:[455,471],onion:342,onkei:380,onkeypress:380,onkeyreleas:380,onli:[0,3,5,6,7,9,21,22,23,26,28,30,31,34,35,37,38,39,41,44,45,47,49,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,69,70,71,72,74,75,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,90,91,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,115,117,118,119,122,123,124,125,129,131,133,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,148,153,155,156,157,159,161,162,164,166,167,168,170,171,172,176,177,178,180,184,185,187,189,190,192,193,195,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,215,216,217,219,222,225,227,228,229,230,232,233,235,236,237,238,243,244,245,246,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,276,279,282,283,284,287,288,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,303,304,305,306,307,309,310,311,312,313,315,316,317,318,320,321,322,324,327,329,331,332,333,334,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,352,355,358,359,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,369,370,372,373,375,376,377,378,379,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,401,402,404,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,472,473],onlin:[62,86,105,188,253,296,370,380,396,411,422,437,458,462],onreleas:380,onscreenclick:380,ont:299,ontim:380,onto:[65,107,111,170,176,178,190,222,237,249,301,309,332,348,380,385,387,418,428,440,456,462],ontosi:416,onvalu:370,onward:[99,104,187,223,254,297,334,346],oob:141,ooi:82,ooo:431,oop:[193,439],oor:177,op1:426,op2:426,op_:343,op_al:343,op_cipher_server_prefer:[343,467,472],op_enable_middlebox_compat:[343,472],op_no_compress:[343,467,472],op_no_renegoti:[343,472],op_no_sslv2:[343,466,472],op_no_sslv3:[343,472],op_no_ticket:343,op_no_tlsv1:343,op_no_tlsv1_1:343,op_no_tlsv1_2:343,op_no_tlsv1_3:[343,472],op_single_dh_us:[343,472],op_single_ecdh_us:[343,472],opaqu:[10,30,31,68,118,257,316,330,344,405,410,442,457,466,468,471],oparg:190,opcod:[30,62,189,263,301,302,355,424,459,460,462,463,468,470,471,472],opcodeinfo:302,open:[1,23,30,37,60,62,65,66,69,72,79,84,86,87,90,92,93,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,109,111,112,113,119,122,132,135,141,142,150,151,153,157,159,161,168,170,176,178,184,185,189,201,208,209,213,214,215,216,219,220,222,225,227,232,235,241,242,243,244,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,257,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,276,279,282,284,288,293,294,295,296,298,301,303,304,306,307,311,315,316,320,322,324,328,329,331,332,334,336,337,339,342,343,344,346,350,351,355,357,359,360,361,363,366,370,372,373,375,377,380,382,386,387,389,394,398,400,402,408,410,411,413,416,418,419,422,424,429,431,434,436,437,439,442,446,447,448,451,453,455,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],open_binari:252,open_connect:[127,129,135,137,469,471,472],open_flag:185,open_func:461,open_item:461,open_new:[400,461],open_new_tab:[400,461],open_osfhandl:283,open_resourc:252,open_text:252,open_unix_connect:[127,137],open_unknown:392,open_urlresourc:363,openbsd:[62,225,293,367,452,469,471,472],opencsw:454,opendatabas:[282,472],opendir:293,openerdirector:[62,110,255,468],openexr:[250,469,472],openfp:[351,398,471,472],openhook:[219,461],openid:1,openkei:402,openkeyex:402,openlinux:472,openlog:357,openmix:295,openmp:472,openpti:[293,311],opensolari:[62,452],opensourc:422,openssl:[62,236,238,343,363,456,461,462,463,466,468,469,470,471,472],openssl_add_all_algorithms_noconf:472,openssl_cafil:343,openssl_cafile_env:343,openssl_capath:343,openssl_capath_env:343,openssl_no_ssl2:343,openssl_no_sslv3:343,openssl_no_tlsext:343,openssl_vers:[343,463,466],openssl_version_info:[343,463,466],openssl_version_numb:[343,463,466],opensus:454,openview:282,openvm:[279,459],oper:[5,7,15,22,23,29,30,31,33,37,38,43,45,49,57,58,59,60,62,66,70,71,72,74,75,78,79,80,81,82,83,86,87,89,90,93,95,97,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,113,114,121,122,123,124,128,129,130,131,132,135,136,137,139,140,141,143,145,146,149,153,156,161,162,167,168,169,170,174,176,177,178,183,184,185,187,190,195,196,197,201,202,203,206,208,209,211,212,213,214,216,217,220,221,222,223,225,226,227,229,232,237,238,243,246,248,252,253,255,256,257,260,265,266,268,269,271,274,275,276,284,290,294,295,297,301,308,310,311,315,316,318,320,322,324,328,329,331,332,334,336,337,339,342,344,345,349,350,355,359,360,361,362,363,364,366,373,375,381,382,387,388,391,392,396,397,400,401,402,404,406,407,408,410,413,416,419,422,423,424,425,427,428,429,430,432,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,451,455,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,466,470,471,472,473],opera:[161,400,461,472],operand:[57,62,94,124,159,184,214,227,266,290,291,346,424,426,432,439,445,458,463,464,466,467],operation:466,operationalerror:342,opid:45,opinion:[93,456,461],opmap:190,opn:426,opnam:[91,190,468],oppon:237,opportun:[135,159,327,387,455,472],oppos:[31,65,82,93,95,97,106,129,158,202,209,225,339,392,428,462,469],opposit:[94,99,106,109,161,210,321,380,424,456,462,464,472],ops:[30,103,124,343],opt:[68,74,78,111,168,230,252,292,308,340,370,428,446,451,459,462,463,466,468,469,471,472],opt_flag:177,opt_str:292,optcr:168,optic:466,optik:[459,460,461],optim:[31,38,53,60,62,65,66,82,91,95,106,131,135,143,159,161,164,178,190,227,229,236,238,244,251,252,254,260,264,293,301,302,310,313,342,354,355,363,366,367,419,424,432,446,447,455,456,458,472,473],optim_args_from_interpreter_flag:363,optimi:472,optimis:424,optimized_bytecode_suffix:252,option:[5,16,22,30,43,45,53,54,57,60,62,64,65,66,68,69,70,71,72,78,79,81,84,87,92,93,97,99,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,117,120,121,123,124,128,129,131,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,147,152,153,154,155,157,158,159,161,164,167,168,169,170,171,173,174,176,177,178,182,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,196,197,198,201,202,203,205,206,207,208,210,211,212,214,215,217,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,232,235,236,237,239,243,246,249,250,252,253,254,256,257,258,260,263,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,276,279,282,284,285,288,293,294,295,298,299,301,307,309,310,311,312,313,314,315,316,318,319,320,321,324,325,326,327,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,342,343,345,346,347,348,350,352,355,356,357,358,360,363,365,366,367,368,369,372,375,377,378,380,381,382,386,387,391,392,395,396,397,400,404,408,410,411,412,414,416,417,418,420,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,433,434,437,438,439,442,444,445,446,448,449,450,452,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],option_class:292,option_list:292,option_str:122,option_t:65,optional_var:124,optionalreleas:114,optionconflicterror:292,optioncontain:292,optiondummi:65,optionerror:[122,292],optionflag:[193,363],optiongroup:292,optionmenu:[372,472],optionpars:[122,292,459,461],optionvalu:292,optionvalueerror:[122,292],optionxform:168,optlen:[339,470],optlist:230,optnam:[339,470],optpars:[62,94,120,253,352,460,461,463,466,470,472],optparse_pars:292,optval:339,or_:[99,291],or_expr:[426,431],or_test:[426,427],oracl:[185,342,461,467],oran:472,orang:[161,291,380,438,472],orchestr:[104,385],ord:[97,109,177,179,227,342,346,386,424,426,431,446,456,462],order:[1,4,7,23,26,28,30,39,41,54,57,58,62,65,68,70,74,75,78,79,81,82,84,92,93,94,95,97,99,101,102,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,118,120,122,123,124,128,129,135,136,140,142,146,149,151,153,155,157,159,161,167,168,170,172,176,178,179,180,182,184,185,187,188,190,193,197,201,203,204,206,209,212,215,219,222,226,227,229,230,231,232,233,234,237,242,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,256,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,271,282,284,288,291,293,295,297,298,301,304,306,310,311,312,315,316,318,320,321,327,332,334,335,337,339,340,341,342,343,345,346,347,350,351,352,355,359,361,363,365,366,367,370,373,378,380,381,382,385,386,391,392,395,397,399,404,407,408,410,412,418,419,421,423,424,425,427,428,429,431,436,437,438,439,440,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,466,467,468,469,471,472,473],ordered_attribut:316,ordereddict:[62,93,168,176,183,212,254,382,463,465,466,469,470,472],orderedenum:[62,183],orderedset:162,orderli:266,ordin:[58,109,159,177,178,179,184,212,345,346,467,469],ordinari:[97,103,106,123,153,170,193,227,235,302,321,331,334,358,359,386,399,410,428,431,432,436,456,467],ordinarili:[207,332],ore:189,ored:179,oreillynet:458,orels:[124,462],oren:[459,467,471,472],orendorff:[459,462],oreo:245,org:[1,62,64,66,69,71,74,77,81,84,85,87,90,91,93,99,104,107,109,110,111,112,123,141,161,168,170,185,225,228,236,240,241,243,244,248,249,260,284,288,309,315,316,329,337,339,342,343,346,355,356,370,383,384,391,392,393,395,396,400,408,410,412,416,422,424,427,431,436,440,441,447,449,450,451,452,453,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,469,471,472],organ:[62,86,90,99,103,104,106,188,193,256,257,343,370,422,428,459,472],organis:[64,103,112,237,266],organiz:[93,343,424],organizationalunitnam:343,organizationnam:343,orgnam:103,orient:[7,38,62,82,86,87,91,93,98,99,109,135,152,202,220,224,253,284,296,310,339,346,366,367,369,370,373,380,385,436,441,457,462,466,468],orig:[204,393],orig_kei:236,origin:[0,5,7,9,13,38,39,55,57,61,64,65,66,79,86,91,95,97,103,106,108,109,112,113,122,124,141,143,145,151,154,156,159,161,167,168,170,172,174,176,177,178,182,187,189,190,193,196,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,206,209,211,214,227,228,232,235,237,244,248,251,252,254,260,261,265,266,268,271,275,284,292,293,298,299,301,310,320,321,326,329,332,333,336,339,342,343,346,347,350,351,355,359,363,367,377,380,382,383,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,399,404,405,412,413,414,418,420,421,422,423,424,426,428,430,432,436,440,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],origin_req_host:[244,392],origin_serv:404,original_exc:214,original_list:172,original_valu:363,origni:472,ornar:151,orphan:[147,284,472],orr:472,orthogon:104,ortran:39,os2:466,os2_hom:466,os_arch:305,os_environ:404,os_nam:305,os_vers:305,osa:458,osaterminolog:462,osborn:468,oscon2001:90,oscura:461,oserror:[22,65,66,109,132,135,155,177,184,214,216,219,225,227,232,244,246,252,254,257,283,284,288,293,294,295,298,308,311,324,329,333,334,337,339,343,350,359,360,390,392,402,420,439,446,463,467,468,472],osf:467,oshmyan:472,osi:[74,309],osinfo:305,osnam:65,ospe:362,oss:[62,253,278,350,459,467,472],oss_audio_devic:295,oss_mixer_devic:295,ossaudiodev:[62,253,278,459,469,472],ossaudioerror:295,oststrom:472,osversioninfoex:355,osx:[177,339,392,468,471,472],other:[3,6,7,9,10,14,17,22,25,26,29,30,31,35,38,39,41,42,50,51,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,62,64,66,68,69,71,72,73,75,78,79,80,81,83,86,87,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,117,118,120,123,128,129,132,134,135,138,141,143,145,146,147,152,153,154,155,156,159,160,161,162,163,164,168,169,170,171,172,175,176,177,178,180,182,183,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,202,203,204,206,207,208,210,211,214,217,222,225,227,228,229,232,235,236,237,238,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,259,260,261,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,274,275,279,281,284,286,287,288,289,291,293,294,297,298,299,300,304,305,309,310,311,312,315,316,317,320,321,323,326,327,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,340,341,342,343,344,345,347,348,349,350,352,354,355,357,359,360,361,363,364,366,367,368,369,370,373,375,376,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,392,395,396,397,399,401,402,404,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,422,423,424,425,426,428,429,430,432,435,436,437,439,440,441,442,443,444,445,446,447,448,450,451,452,454,472,473],other_api:363,other_fract:223,other_fun:382,other_id_continu:431,other_id_start:431,other_path:298,otherexcept:214,othernam:[426,456],othertestcas:363,othertypeiknowabout:289,otherwis:[5,7,10,17,21,22,28,30,31,35,36,38,39,41,43,44,45,47,49,54,57,58,60,62,65,74,79,82,84,85,92,94,95,99,103,104,105,106,107,110,113,118,119,122,123,124,129,131,135,136,137,139,141,143,147,151,152,156,157,158,159,161,164,167,168,170,171,177,178,180,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,196,197,198,200,201,203,206,207,209,210,211,212,215,217,219,223,225,227,229,231,232,235,243,244,245,246,248,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,266,267,268,271,275,276,279,284,286,291,292,293,294,297,298,299,301,303,304,305,306,307,309,313,316,318,321,323,326,328,329,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,342,343,345,346,347,350,351,355,356,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,373,375,377,378,380,384,385,387,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,400,403,404,408,410,412,416,417,418,419,421,423,424,426,428,431,432,433,434,436,438,442,445,451,455,457,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],otkidach:459,otten:472,ouch:470,oudkerk:[462,467,468,472],ought:467,ouput:472,our:[28,31,75,79,82,91,94,95,104,106,107,109,110,136,168,170,177,197,201,206,237,258,292,301,321,337,340,343,363,386,387,399,404,410,419,427,436,458,461,462,472],ourselv:[82,472],oussoren:[461,462,463,466,468],ousterhout:370,out1:269,out2:269,out3:269,out4:269,out:[17,22,28,31,34,35,51,54,55,58,64,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,78,79,82,84,85,86,87,89,91,93,94,95,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,122,124,125,135,136,141,142,143,145,151,159,162,164,168,176,177,178,179,184,185,187,189,193,196,197,201,204,206,212,213,214,216,222,232,236,241,244,248,251,252,256,257,258,261,265,266,275,284,292,293,295,299,302,306,310,313,315,316,321,324,329,332,334,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,363,366,367,370,377,385,386,387,391,397,404,406,407,414,416,421,422,423,424,425,432,434,435,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],out_fil:394,out_test:143,outbound:107,outcom:[65,160,168,291,382,385,438],outdat:[86,105,177,252,369,462,466,471,472],outdent:95,outer:[11,91,93,170,187,190,208,241,254,355,423,424,425,431,432,436,439,464,466,467,472],outer_stack:170,outermost:[254,342,346,366,436,472],outfil:[91,122,142,261,292,303,376,448,465,466],outfp:202,outgo:[135,201,343,466,467],outlier:345,outlin:[45,65,103,118,140,168,245,343,380,472],outlinewidth:380,outliv:10,outlookmailbox:91,output:[5,9,14,17,30,54,57,58,60,62,65,66,79,81,82,84,93,94,97,99,101,103,106,107,109,111,113,119,122,125,128,129,135,138,140,141,143,144,145,147,148,150,151,152,153,154,157,158,159,161,164,168,170,176,177,178,184,188,189,190,193,196,201,202,203,205,209,210,211,219,220,225,227,230,236,237,238,241,243,245,246,247,249,253,254,257,260,261,266,268,269,275,277,280,284,288,292,293,295,297,301,302,303,304,305,307,309,310,311,315,316,319,321,324,327,329,332,334,335,337,339,340,343,346,347,350,351,355,356,358,359,360,362,363,365,367,368,369,375,376,377,378,382,385,392,394,395,396,397,398,399,404,408,410,414,418,419,421,424,431,432,434,436,438,440,441,445,446,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],output_charset:[196,197,232,463],output_codec:196,output_differ:193,output_dir:[65,359,419],output_fil:[65,310],output_filenam:65,output_libnam:65,output_prognam:65,outputcheck:[62,188,460],outputdata:143,outputdirectori:455,outputstr:245,outrat:143,outright:196,outset:462,outsid:[54,65,68,91,95,99,103,104,106,107,111,128,129,152,159,167,171,177,178,184,187,197,200,206,209,214,227,261,301,315,316,321,327,339,343,346,347,349,359,363,366,367,368,373,380,396,410,419,422,423,424,431,432,436,459,460,463,466,470,471,472],outsiz:472,outstand:284,outward:187,outweigh:91,outwin:472,over:[7,21,22,23,27,30,31,32,38,44,45,53,58,62,64,69,79,80,81,84,86,90,93,95,97,98,99,103,104,105,106,107,109,112,122,123,125,126,129,132,135,143,145,149,153,154,161,162,167,168,171,176,177,178,184,185,187,189,190,193,197,202,203,205,206,212,220,225,227,231,232,237,244,248,249,252,253,257,258,260,266,267,268,271,276,284,288,293,301,302,307,308,310,320,321,324,329,330,333,337,339,342,343,345,346,347,350,355,359,361,363,368,370,372,373,374,375,376,381,385,386,387,394,395,397,399,404,406,407,409,410,416,421,423,424,426,428,431,435,436,437,438,442,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],overal:[105,176,184,195,237,267,292,310,321,347,368,440,463,468,469],overalloc:346,overcom:[93,366,466],overcommit:324,overfil:472,overflow:[5,22,31,35,38,84,143,177,184,187,213,215,275,284,346,355,424,460,462,463,470,471,472],overflow_except:17,overflowerror:[22,35,43,117,158,160,184,187,193,214,227,261,275,297,306,339,346,366,367,424,446,458,459,462,463,465,467,468,472],overflowwarn:460,overhaul:472,overhead:[30,31,71,81,92,104,107,134,252,260,269,293,310,342,344,346,355,368,378,382,399,424,428,456,457,458,459,461,465,466,467,470,471,472],overkil:292,overlai:178,overlap:[58,97,106,162,167,178,189,227,258,283,292,298,321,346,432,436,457,458,472],overli:[99,130,458,472],overload:[57,129,228,382,392,416,424,426,457,458,468,472],overread:472,overrid:[21,30,31,45,57,60,62,65,68,74,95,98,103,104,110,111,118,122,129,134,145,152,157,158,161,162,168,172,176,177,182,184,193,197,203,204,206,209,210,214,219,227,228,232,241,244,245,246,249,251,252,254,257,261,266,268,272,284,287,292,301,313,316,317,320,321,332,335,336,339,340,346,347,355,361,363,366,373,380,382,385,386,387,392,395,399,404,410,414,419,424,425,426,428,436,451,455,456,459,462,463,464,465,467,468,470,471,472],overridden:[65,70,74,84,91,98,104,111,118,122,125,141,145,157,161,162,168,184,209,212,227,232,241,244,245,246,252,254,266,268,292,299,315,326,336,340,343,346,350,355,359,366,373,385,392,396,397,404,424,428,439,451,462,463,467,468,472],overriden:472,overrod:456,overrul:339,overrun:[458,463,472],oversight:[463,467,469,471,472],overview:[29,62,80,84,107,109,120,165,175,224,227,255,256,258,277,278,288,292,309,310,317,388,406,442,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,469,471,473],overwhelm:[94,292],overwrit:[31,79,84,95,103,104,113,151,161,164,178,197,201,206,266,269,293,322,331,346,359,392,418,423,424,437,438,454,455,459,462,463,465,466,467,468,472],overwritten:[75,95,104,111,244,271,298,310,333,355,382,423,463,467],owen:422,own:[5,7,9,22,23,26,30,31,54,57,58,62,64,65,66,68,72,74,75,78,79,80,82,83,84,86,90,91,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,105,109,110,111,112,113,115,120,122,125,129,131,135,141,153,161,168,170,172,176,182,187,193,197,201,204,206,208,211,212,227,229,232,244,248,252,257,266,267,268,271,284,286,292,293,298,299,310,320,321,328,332,333,339,342,343,346,347,350,355,363,365,366,370,380,385,391,392,396,399,400,404,407,410,412,416,417,421,422,424,426,428,431,432,436,437,439,443,446,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,469,471,472],owned_file_handl:104,owner:[31,75,79,101,104,161,284,293,298,333,344,359,422,424,448,470,472],ownership:[31,62,104,284,286,366,462,467],p_all:293,p_cs_preced:265,p_detach:293,p_nowait:[293,350],p_nowaito:293,p_overlai:293,p_pgid:293,p_pid:293,p_sep_by_spac:265,p_sign_posn:265,p_wait:[293,350],paalasma:458,pablo:[463,469,471,472],pace:[86,457,462],pach:472,pacif:184,pack:[62,104,123,143,146,177,190,216,227,235,248,253,258,267,268,271,305,339,346,370,371,373,405,418,424,436,438,447,448,461,463,466],pack_arrai:405,pack_bool:405,pack_byt:405,pack_doubl:405,pack_enum:405,pack_farrai:405,pack_float:405,pack_fopaqu:405,pack_fstr:405,pack_hyp:405,pack_int:405,pack_into:[227,349,461,472],pack_item:405,pack_list:405,pack_opaqu:405,pack_str:405,pack_typ:405,pack_uhyp:405,pack_uint:405,packag:[13,28,30,57,58,62,68,70,71,72,75,77,80,82,83,85,86,91,93,98,100,103,104,111,113,115,144,161,165,177,188,192,193,196,197,198,199,200,201,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,211,213,227,232,239,242,243,251,252,253,254,266,267,268,273,276,280,281,282,284,285,297,305,309,314,315,326,331,335,336,337,339,343,347,355,356,369,370,372,376,380,381,385,386,387,389,392,396,397,408,411,415,418,419,420,422,429,432,434,440,441,447,450,451,452,454,456,458,460,463,464,465,466,468,469,470,471,472,473],package_data:[74,75],package_dir:[65,69,74],package_test:385,package_url:309,packagenam:77,packard:[89,456],packed_ip:339,packer:[62,218,369],packet:[135,143,258,268,339,340,416,463,472],packet_:339,packet_broadcast:339,packet_host:339,packet_multihost:339,packet_otherhost:339,packet_outgo:339,packmail:456,pad:[62,90,144,155,178,184,187,197,200,235,236,339,346,347,349,351,370,373,392,405,442,456,459,462,463,466,470,472],padi:370,padnon:260,padx:370,pag:185,page:[0,1,17,58,62,65,74,86,87,90,91,97,99,104,107,110,111,117,122,127,128,129,132,135,137,152,159,167,170,174,178,189,216,227,229,248,253,256,257,266,267,268,271,279,293,296,306,315,316,324,329,334,339,342,344,349,357,362,366,367,370,372,388,392,400,404,410,417,419,421,422,428,430,436,447,449,450,451,455,456,458,460,461,462,463,466,467,470,471,472],pager:[169,315,472],pages:279,pagin:315,pai:[104,106,193,455,468],paid:456,pain:[106,265,456,461],painless:111,paint:[97,178,380,458],painter:178,pair:[5,7,21,26,30,36,58,62,65,70,74,79,81,91,93,97,99,102,106,109,122,129,132,135,137,141,143,145,153,156,161,168,178,182,185,187,189,190,193,197,198,203,210,212,223,227,230,232,237,241,245,254,258,261,271,275,284,288,293,294,299,301,311,324,333,339,340,343,346,350,356,359,360,363,364,366,370,372,373,380,381,382,386,391,392,399,404,407,410,413,414,424,426,431,432,437,438,457,458,459,460,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,472],pair_cont:178,pair_numb:178,pairwis:[260,380],pal:467,palard:471,palat:104,palin:437,palivoda:[470,472],palkovski:459,palmo:159,palomar:232,palumbo:472,pam:472,pan:[241,472],panama:410,panda:455,pane:[248,372,373,472],paneconfigur:472,panedwindow:[372,373,472],panel:[62,66,89,120,178,253,370,403,457,472],panelpars:462,panic:[268,459],panter:[469,470,472],pao:347,paolini:472,paper:[109,122,339,385,459],papert:380,paradigm:[83,99],paradox:[91,459],paragraph:[95,103,198,222,248,261,292,293,343,346,365,410,417,422,424,437,448,456,459,472],parallel:[62,65,90,93,99,127,131,136,138,161,164,165,166,208,227,236,253,260,380,385,398,400,410,448,456,463,466,467,468,469,472],param1:423,param2:423,param:[104,124,197,198,204,206,210,243,254,282,293,307,385,391,392,396,416,417,463,466,472],paramet:[5,7,9,10,11,13,14,16,21,22,25,26,29,31,33,40,41,45,51,53,56,57,58,60,61,62,65,80,81,84,85,93,96,99,103,104,106,109,113,117,119,120,122,129,131,136,137,138,141,143,145,147,148,149,151,152,153,158,159,161,164,168,170,171,173,174,178,182,184,187,189,190,193,197,198,199,200,202,204,206,207,209,210,212,214,215,216,217,218,219,221,225,227,228,230,232,235,236,237,238,241,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,275,276,279,282,283,284,288,292,294,295,297,298,299,305,307,309,313,314,316,317,319,320,321,322,324,327,329,331,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,348,350,351,354,357,359,360,361,363,366,367,368,369,372,376,378,380,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,394,396,397,398,399,400,402,403,404,407,408,409,410,411,412,414,415,416,417,419,421,423,424,425,426,427,428,432,437,438,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],parameter:[178,193,342,382],parameter_list:[423,426],parameter_list_stararg:423,parameter_nam:95,parameteris:104,parameterizedmimehead:204,parameterless:[329,436],paramflag:177,paramount:[95,187],paranoid:82,parcel:[370,373],pardir:[217,293],paren:[91,113,124,176,248,461,472],parenmatch:472,parent:[31,54,57,62,65,91,93,102,103,104,120,124,135,161,178,227,237,249,252,254,257,266,279,282,284,293,294,297,298,304,307,311,314,316,333,334,340,343,350,355,373,386,387,392,396,407,410,418,424,428,436,446,458,459,460,461,462,467,468,470,471,472],parent_conn:284,parent_modul:252,parent_nam:252,parent_pars:122,parentclass:424,parenth_form:426,parenthes:[5,62,74,79,85,93,95,99,104,106,158,190,249,251,252,265,305,310,321,346,396,424,430,431,432,436,437,438,439,443,445,456,460,461,462,463,469,471,472],parenthesi:[106,113,248,321,460,472],parenthesis:346,parentnod:407,pareto:320,paretovari:320,parg:78,pari:[99,106],pariti:105,park:321,parnassu:457,paroz:[469,472],parrot:[79,227,243,309,437,462],pars:[29,31,54,58,59,60,62,65,69,79,84,85,86,90,91,93,94,95,102,104,106,110,111,113,120,124,125,135,137,153,157,158,160,168,176,184,193,195,197,200,201,202,204,206,207,209,210,218,224,227,230,232,239,241,243,244,245,246,249,252,253,255,261,263,267,268,271,273,276,285,286,293,342,347,350,352,356,367,370,378,389,392,393,396,397,404,406,407,408,409,411,412,413,414,416,417,426,427,431,432,433,439,442,446,447,450,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,467,468,469,470,472,473],parsabl:467,parse_and_bind:[322,325],parse_arg:[62,94,120,161,189,201,230,292,311,396,459,463,466],parse_by_refer:95,parse_colnam:342,parse_config_h:356,parse_const:261,parse_decltyp:342,parse_envlist:472,parse_float:261,parse_head:[125,153,246],parse_int:261,parse_intermixed_arg:[122,471,472],parse_known_arg:122,parse_known_intermixed_arg:122,parse_multipart:[153,471,472],parse_q:[153,391,462],parse_qsl:[153,391,462],parseabl:[104,305,332],parseaddr:210,parsebyt:208,parsed:210,parsedate_to_datetim:[210,467],parsedate_tz:210,parseerror:[410,463,466],parsefil:316,parseflag:249,parser:[30,31,62,65,69,74,79,84,85,94,99,106,109,120,124,158,160,161,176,189,193,195,197,200,201,202,204,206,207,209,214,218,225,227,239,253,255,261,263,267,273,285,299,306,311,321,332,346,352,392,396,406,407,408,409,410,412,414,427,431,432,433,437,439,443,445,451,456,457,459,460,461,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],parser_a:122,parser_b:122,parser_bar:122,parser_class:122,parser_definit:95,parser_foo:122,parser_inst:168,parser_l:466,parser_list:411,parser_m:466,parser_prototyp:95,parsercr:316,parsererror:[297,406,472],parseresult:[391,463,466,472],parseresultbyt:[391,466,472],parsermodul:472,parsestr:[201,208,408,409,411,456,469,472],parsetok:[85,472],parsetupl:58,parsingerror:168,part:[5,7,9,14,19,22,30,35,44,52,53,55,56,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,71,74,75,78,79,80,81,84,86,87,91,93,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,114,118,124,125,144,145,150,153,156,158,159,160,162,168,170,177,178,184,187,193,195,196,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,209,210,211,212,220,227,232,236,248,249,251,252,256,257,258,260,265,266,267,268,269,275,276,282,283,284,293,294,297,301,304,309,310,316,319,320,321,325,332,335,339,340,342,343,346,347,348,355,363,366,367,369,370,372,377,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,396,399,400,407,408,410,416,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,439,440,441,443,445,446,449,450,451,452,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],part_info:202,part_numb:161,partak:436,partfil:201,parti:[7,23,28,30,31,62,65,70,71,72,84,86,89,90,91,93,104,111,112,129,134,135,177,182,185,227,236,266,284,293,301,321,331,343,355,356,366,376,382,385,392,396,397,399,422,441,453,455,456,457,459,460,462,463,465,466,467,468,470,472],partial:[0,23,62,95,99,109,110,120,125,129,130,131,137,161,178,182,188,198,207,208,226,227,249,252,253,254,260,268,269,273,275,324,326,339,340,343,346,350,406,456,459,460,462,463,464,465,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],partial_cont:242,partialmethod:[228,468,472],particip:[3,57,81,82,184,237,244,252,266,321,456,458,461,463,465],particular:[30,31,41,54,57,58,60,62,65,68,69,70,72,79,81,84,91,92,93,98,99,102,103,109,110,111,112,117,118,122,139,153,159,162,168,170,176,178,183,184,192,193,204,209,214,229,241,244,248,249,251,254,256,258,261,262,266,267,268,271,274,275,276,284,288,292,293,304,318,321,324,329,333,334,337,339,343,344,346,347,349,350,355,363,365,366,370,372,373,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,396,397,399,407,408,410,417,421,422,423,424,426,428,430,432,436,438,442,446,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],particularli:[64,65,78,84,102,106,110,111,122,284,292,293,299,310,328,340,350,356,385,386,391,442,445,450,456,457,459,460,463,464,466,468,469,471],partit:[149,260,320,346,461,469,472],partli:[236,258,466,470,471,472],partner:141,partnership:422,partnum:161,pascal:[84,86,91,99,349,423,436,437,438,445,459,463],pasechnik:472,pass:[5,7,9,10,13,15,16,19,22,26,30,31,32,38,39,41,43,45,47,53,56,57,58,60,62,65,66,74,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,90,93,95,96,97,102,103,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,113,114,118,120,122,123,124,128,129,131,135,137,138,140,141,142,143,145,147,151,152,153,156,157,158,159,161,164,167,168,169,170,171,172,174,176,178,179,182,184,189,190,193,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,216,219,222,225,227,228,232,235,236,237,238,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,275,279,280,282,284,286,288,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,307,308,309,310,311,313,316,320,321,322,323,324,327,331,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,348,349,350,354,355,356,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,375,376,379,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,415,416,417,418,419,421,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,431,433,436,439,441,442,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],pass_:307,pass_fd:[350,472],pass_stmt:[427,432],passag:370,passion:438,passiv:[141,225,254,455,457],passphras:328,passwd:[176,225,298,312,362,385,392,460,461,462],passwd_mgr:392,password:[62,86,110,120,234,236,249,253,268,284,286,288,293,294,307,328,337,343,360,362,388,391,392,416,419,461,462,463,467,468,469,470,472],password_mgr:[110,392],past:[86,93,95,104,111,122,184,193,217,248,293,298,301,316,347,350,367,404,421,447,455,466,468,469,472],pasv:225,pat1:67,pat2:67,pat:[106,469],patch:[1,62,74,84,90,94,97,101,106,122,188,243,288,363,406,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,469,470,472],patchcheck:[462,472],patcher1:386,patcher2:386,patcher:[62,188,387],patchlevel:[4,305],patel:471,path1:294,path2:294,path:[5,22,28,30,31,54,58,62,64,65,66,69,70,72,74,78,79,82,86,90,91,92,93,95,99,101,103,104,109,112,122,129,137,141,145,150,151,153,164,168,177,189,193,201,211,214,220,221,225,227,232,233,235,244,245,246,248,250,251,253,254,257,264,265,267,268,269,271,280,281,282,284,286,288,292,293,299,304,310,313,314,315,317,322,326,332,333,335,337,339,342,343,344,350,355,357,359,361,363,367,370,378,380,382,383,385,386,391,392,396,400,402,404,410,416,417,418,419,420,424,429,434,436,441,444,448,449,451,452,453,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],path_convert:472,path_hook:[28,93,252,304,355,428,446,459,467,468,472],path_importer_cach:[28,251,252,304,355,428,446,459,467,468,469,471,472],path_info:404,path_item:304,path_max:472,path_mtim:[252,467],path_return_ok:244,path_stat:[252,467],path_str:251,path_transl:404,pathbrows:472,pathconf:[293,467],pathconf_nam:293,pathentryfind:[93,252,428,467,468,471],pathext:[92,333,396,455,468],pathfind:[252,428,468,471,472],pathfix:472,pathlib:[62,164,220,233,252,253,293,294,418,472],pathlik:[54,58,93,227,252,293,294,298,470,472],pathnam:[28,62,65,74,84,90,153,177,220,221,225,227,251,253,266,268,270,280,282,293,308,332,342,343,344,355,359,361,370,372,392,394,419,420,424,451,466,469,472],pathname2url:392,patholog:[91,440],pathorfil:306,pathseg:298,pathsep:[293,335,376,400,451],pathwai:[466,472],patienc:284,patrascu:[470,472],patrick:462,pattern:[31,38,62,67,74,82,91,98,103,104,108,109,127,130,145,161,170,179,189,220,228,249,253,260,266,275,282,284,288,292,293,298,299,310,318,320,321,333,346,347,363,370,378,380,382,385,386,387,399,423,431,441,446,457,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],paugh:[469,472],paul:[90,316,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,467,468,469,471,472],pauliu:472,paulo:[467,472],paus:[97,99,132,135,138,178,295,299,334,426,460,461,472],pause_read:[132,135,471,472],pause_writ:[132,135],pawn:109,pax:[359,462],pax_format:[359,462],pax_head:359,paygrad:161,payload:[159,195,197,198,199,200,201,202,205,206,207,208,463,472],payment:[110,260],payment_requir:242,pbkdf2_hmac:[236,463,468],pbm:250,pbzip2:467,pcall:310,pcbuild:[66,363,455,462,472],pcm:295,pctp:460,pdb:[62,91,145,186,193,227,253,355,378,451,455,459,461,462,465,472],pdbrc:[299,466,470,472],pdf:[86,103,109,236,320,355,472],pdict:153,pdq:392,pdt:184,peac:380,peach:189,peak:[143,378,461],pear:[291,438,447],peculiar:[38,68,91,254,293,436],pedant:472,pedro:462,pedroni:[459,461],peek:[151,161,235,257,269,399,466,472],peeknamedpip:472,peel:201,peel_banana:65,peephol:[460,461,466,471,472],peer:[107,132,135,213,214,288,329,336,343,472],peercert:135,peernam:[135,137],peeter:470,peksag:[468,469,470,471,472],pellentesqu:151,pelleti:458,pem:[225,249,307,337,343,468,472],pem_cert_str:343,pem_cert_to_der_cert:343,pen:[62,224],penalti:[104,182,217,308,456,466],pencolor:380,pend:[30,35,75,81,93,129,135,140,167,222,237,251,257,271,282,307,329,334,343,421,426,466,467,468,470,472],pendict:380,pendingdeprecationwarn:[22,214,385,397,446,459,462,463,469,470,471,472],pendown:380,penelop:201,penguin:[232,423],penros:[380,472],pensiz:380,penstat:380,penteado:472,pentium:460,penultim:91,penup:380,peopl:[0,1,31,84,92,93,95,99,102,105,109,111,178,187,189,193,232,236,292,342,410,437,440,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,467,470],pep495:184,pep8:472,pep:[22,28,30,31,41,45,52,57,58,60,62,64,71,77,79,81,84,86,91,92,93,95,96,99,109,114,118,129,131,156,159,161,162,164,167,170,171,176,182,211,214,227,228,229,251,252,254,264,266,275,289,293,298,301,304,313,324,326,328,329,330,333,334,335,339,342,346,347,350,355,363,367,375,381,382,396,399,404,420,423,424,426,427,428,431,432,437,446,451,454,455,456,472,473],pepe:201,pepper:342,per:[7,22,28,30,31,41,58,62,65,75,79,84,86,90,91,95,104,111,112,119,122,129,134,135,143,144,145,147,152,159,161,178,182,184,190,197,198,204,206,209,210,225,229,251,261,266,271,282,284,288,293,295,307,310,319,321,330,335,336,339,340,342,343,346,355,363,366,367,368,370,373,376,378,385,416,424,428,432,440,446,448,451,455,459,460,461,463,464,465,467,468,469,471,472,473],percal:310,perceiv:[84,271],percent:[62,90,347,374,391,392,448,455,462,464,466,472],percentag:[310,347,442,462],percentequ:374,percentil:345,percol:[237,472],pereira:[471,472],perez:472,perf_count:[310,367,368,467,472],perf_counter_n:[367,471,472],perfect:[30,122,126,244,343,472],perfect_squar:122,perfectli:[65,95,99,107,153,197,292,426,455],perform:[15,19,22,30,31,38,54,55,57,58,59,62,70,71,77,78,81,84,87,93,94,95,96,97,99,103,104,107,109,111,113,120,122,125,126,128,129,130,135,139,140,141,147,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,176,178,182,184,187,190,193,200,207,210,214,216,221,222,225,227,228,236,237,243,244,246,249,250,252,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,272,274,284,288,291,293,297,300,302,307,308,310,316,319,320,321,323,332,334,335,339,340,342,343,346,347,349,350,355,366,367,368,370,375,380,382,385,386,391,392,396,399,402,412,416,417,422,424,426,428,431,432,435,436,438,440,441,442,446,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,469,470,471,472,473],perform_oper:170,perhap:[30,57,78,79,82,85,86,89,90,95,103,104,106,107,110,111,153,156,178,182,193,219,244,257,265,267,284,293,301,305,320,335,339,408,424,426,428,435,436,437,439,444,456,457,458,460,461,462],peril:440,perimet:227,period:[30,66,84,93,95,103,153,178,184,187,212,221,228,266,268,284,294,320,325,328,339,340,343,355,365,370,373,393,417,426,431,437,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,466],perl:[65,84,87,93,99,106,108,244,321,435,440,448,456,460,461,472],perm:[212,225,431,471],perman:[79,110,111,225,229,242,249,392,448,455,469,472],permanent_redirect:242,permiss:[57,63,64,65,74,86,87,91,93,103,104,110,111,164,213,214,217,225,249,286,293,294,298,313,333,334,339,344,359,361,392,394,402,422,434,463,471,472],permissionerror:[22,214,252,293,324,341,363,446,467,470,472],permit:[10,54,79,95,96,102,187,211,213,227,246,254,258,261,264,271,284,293,301,310,321,346,350,386,407,416,422,426,432,451,455,461,462,467,468,469,472],permitscontrol:329,permut:[90,99,260,320,421,431,456,462,465,472],pernici:469,perpendicular:380,perpetu:468,perrdetail:85,perrin:460,perror:214,persist:[62,185,242,246,248,253,267,274,282,322,342,387,422,447,466,468,472],persistent_id:[301,472],persistent_load:[301,472],perslist:456,person:[62,66,99,111,175,248,342,343,422,455,456,458,462],person_s:236,persona:456,perspect:[95,252,404],pertain:[1,30,31,57,79,293,355,372,422,464,472],pertin:[1,266,327],perturb:174,pervad:436,pessimist:472,pet:380,petazzoni:472,peter:[102,232,320,368,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,467,468,469,470,472],peterson:[96,109,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471],petr:[469,471,472],petri:[467,472],petrosyan:462,petrov:472,petter:472,pew:201,pexport:111,pf_can:[339,467],pf_packet:339,pf_rd:[339,467],pf_system:[339,467],pformat:[309,468],pfunc:78,pgen2:472,pgen3:472,pgen:472,pgid:293,pgm:[250,370],pgo:[363,462,470,472],pgrp:293,pha:343,phan:236,pharetra:151,phase:[15,62,64,77,79,93,112,156,229,252,343,373,428,432,462,466,467,472],phaseit:90,phenomenon:84,phi:[156,275],phil:[419,420,462,472],philbrick:79,philip:[463,466,470],philipp:[236,422,461,472],phillip:[461,462,465,466,470,472],philosoph:424,philosophi:[93,197,447,464],phoenix:99,phone:[442,448,466],phonebook:[62,364],phonelist:466,phonenumb:466,photo:[435,448],photofil:448,photoimag:370,php:[225,416,456,458],phpaudit:225,phpbench:225,phrase:[242,243,249,272,292,392,426,430,431,459,462,467,469],physic:[7,62,65,93,97,178,193,222,248,252,279,282,294,339,351,374,402,428,445,461,471],physicist:321,pick:[82,91,93,110,111,143,161,246,275,292,378,385,418,456,461],pickl:[57,62,82,90,95,103,104,159,161,172,177,183,184,187,228,253,261,263,266,267,268,274,284,297,300,331,386,442,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,471,472,473],picklabl:[167,212,254,284,301,469,472],pickle2db:459,pickle_c:173,pickleabl:472,pickleerror:301,pickler:[95,173,301,302,465,467,472],pickler_dump:95,pickler_dumper_impl:95,pickler_method:95,pickler_typ:95,picklerobject:95,picklerobject_convert:95,picklestr:[301,302],pickletool:[62,253,263,301,378,462,472],picklingerror:[95,301],picnam:380,pictur:[79,168,201,380,429,458,460],pid:[101,129,134,138,168,279,284,293,301,311,324,339,350,461,463,472],pid_appnam:282,pid_author:282,pid_charcount:282,pid_codepag:282,pid_com:282,pid_create_dtm:282,pid_keyword:282,pid_lastauthor:282,pid_lastprint:282,pid_lastsave_dtm:282,pid_pagecount:282,pid_revnumb:282,pid_secur:282,pid_subject:282,pid_templ:282,pid_titl:282,pid_wordcount:282,pie:[275,342],piec:[65,78,86,93,99,106,107,135,143,147,153,170,180,189,190,193,203,244,269,292,343,411,425,431,436,437,458,461,468,472],pier:[458,459],pierci:472,pierr:[471,472],pieter:472,pietraszek:463,pietri:472,pil:[2,62,91,346],pillai:[463,466],pillow:[72,370,446],pimp:462,pinard:232,pincast:225,pineappl:189,ping:[225,456,457,458,461],pink:[212,380],piotr:463,pip3:468,pip:[62,64,105,191,192,253,396,418,441,453,455,472],pipe2:[293,467],pipe:[62,93,104,106,107,132,133,135,138,165,209,213,214,253,257,293,329,330,333,334,344,350,355,363,388,396,451,460,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],pipe_buf:[329,466],pipe_connection_lost:[132,135],pipe_data_receiv:[132,135],pipe_max_s:363,pipefil:303,pipelin:[62,165,253,388,456,472],pipenam:284,pipepag:472,piper:106,pipermail:[84,450,457,459],pipx:[211,463,468],piraeu:468,pitch:472,pitfal:[31,106,128,428],piti:84,pitrou:[462,463,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],pixel:[161,370,373,380,472],pixmap:[250,372],pixmapwrapp:462,pkc:[236,343,468],pkcs_7_asn:343,pkei:21,pkg:[28,65,68,69,74,252,304,418,432,451,454,456,457,461,463,472],pkg_add:454,pkg_dir:363,pkg_directori:251,pkg_info_path:69,pkg_name:[280,363,378],pkg_prog_pkg_config:472,pkg_resourc:252,pkgtool:[66,72],pkgutil:[62,253,281,428,454,461,462,467,470,471,472],pkttype:339,pkunzip:111,pkzip:[419,420,456],place:[1,22,30,31,34,41,43,49,53,55,57,58,62,65,66,68,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,89,90,93,95,96,99,101,103,104,108,110,111,113,122,124,136,140,141,153,154,159,161,168,169,170,177,178,182,184,187,189,190,193,197,206,209,212,219,222,226,227,228,229,232,236,237,244,248,251,252,256,257,261,266,267,268,271,275,279,284,293,297,299,301,304,310,313,316,318,320,321,326,340,343,346,347,350,356,365,370,372,373,376,380,381,382,385,386,387,392,394,396,404,418,423,424,426,428,432,436,437,438,442,444,445,446,448,449,450,451,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,470,471,472],placebo:320,placehold:[98,104,111,190,232,237,266,268,323,342,347,365,391,396,402,432,442,448,461,466,468,471,472],placeholderdict:466,placement:[79,304,370],placer:370,placerat:151,plagu:[62,468],plai:[28,31,62,82,93,94,107,177,187,253,295,320,343,380,385,401,424,435,436,464],plain:[5,74,77,79,86,91,104,110,129,137,152,153,154,161,174,184,197,198,201,205,206,207,214,243,254,266,328,337,342,343,344,348,382,392,404,418,419,431,437,448,458,464,466,468,469,470,472],plainli:422,plaintext:[174,225,249,467],plan:[74,95,105,107,114,135,301,400,449,456,460,461,462,463,464,466,468,472],plane:[248,275,380,472],planet:[62,183,461],planet_and_moon:380,plase:321,plast:260,plat:[30,65,66,111,455,470,472],plat_specif:[65,74],platbas:[111,466],platform:[1,5,9,17,30,31,54,58,59,62,64,65,66,67,70,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,84,86,9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,93,95,97,99,102,106,137,143,147,180,184,187,204,210,228,236,252,266,267,268,297,336,339,344,373,385,391,404,407,413,416,417,422,428,456,466,467,469,472],portugues:159,pos:[21,55,119,143,155,187,254,261,279,291,293,302,321,322,351,373,380,398,459,463,469],pose:[105,456,460],posit:[5,7,14,19,22,24,34,43,53,55,57,58,62,79,82,90,91,93,95,97,99,101,104,106,107,108,109,117,119,122,123,124,129,135,142,145,151,155,156,157,159,161,163,164,167,177,178,182,184,187,189,190,193,210,214,216,227,228,235,236,237,251,252,254,257,260,261,265,266,269,275,279,283,284,291,293,301,302,316,318,320,322,327,329,333,339,343,346,347,349,350,351,352,355,359,363,364,366,367,370,373,375,377,378,380,382,385,386,387,392,395,396,398,405,407,410,412,418,423,424,426,436,437,438,442,445,448,456,459,460,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],position:[93,386,468],positional_argu:426,positional_onli:254,positional_or_keyword:254,positive_sign:265,posix:[22,62,64,65,74,90,104,107,111,112,117,135,138,152,177,184,210,214,229,253,265,286,292,293,294,298,303,318,324,329,332,333,339,340,350,355,356,359,361,366,367,383,388,396,418,422,451,456,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],posix_fadv_dontne:293,posix_fadv_noreus:293,posix_fadv_norm:293,posix_fadv_random:293,posix_fadv_sequenti:293,posix_fadv_willne:293,posix_fadvis:[293,467,469,472],posix_falloc:[293,467,469,472],posix_hom:[356,466],posix_prefix:[356,466],posix_spawn:472,posix_us:[356,466],posixfil:[458,462],posixly_correct:230,posixmodul:[95,472],posixpath:[294,298,383,472],posixuidgidtest:472,possess:[346,402],possibl:[1,2,5,7,17,22,28,30,31,35,38,43,45,52,53,57,58,60,65,66,68,70,72,74,77,78,79,82,84,85,86,87,89,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,111,112,113,117,118,119,122,124,125,129,134,139,142,143,145,147,151,153,159,160,167,168,170,171,172,174,176,177,178,181,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,195,197,198,202,203,204,206,207,209,211,212,214,219,222,227,228,232,233,236,237,243,246,248,252,254,257,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,275,276,282,283,284,288,289,292,293,295,296,297,298,299,301,305,306,310,311,313,314,316,320,321,322,329,332,333,334,339,342,343,345,346,347,348,350,354,355,357,358,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,378,380,382,385,386,387,391,392,395,397,399,400,402,403,404,410,412,413,416,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,426,428,430,431,432,433,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,448,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],post:[62,86,99,103,110,125,144,153,177,193,195,212,243,246,268,288,295,299,317,343,355,383,391,392,396,417,436,440,450,455,456,458,462,466,467,471,472],post_f:458,post_handshake_auth:[243,343,471,472],post_mortem:[193,299,462],post_setup:396,postalcod:343,postcmd:157,postcommand:373,postcondit:458,poster:288,postfil:143,postfix:84,postgresql:[342,461],postloop:157,posto:225,postpon:[62,114,178,252,423,424,472],pot:[469,472],potenti:[30,31,64,65,91,99,103,104,105,112,129,168,184,225,227,249,252,254,260,266,267,268,284,294,301,307,318,340,343,363,365,385,391,396,406,418,424,428,455,457,458,462,466,467,468,469,471,472],potential_err:107,potential_read:107,potential_writ:107,potlmrpi:321,potsdam:431,pott:[470,472],pound:[178,189,434],pour:201,pow3:284,pow:[43,91,94,124,167,170,227,260,275,284,291,346,417,424,426,446,458,466,472],powel:[156,472],power8:472,power:[62,66,86,87,91,93,94,98,143,148,168,174,177,187,212,227,228,236,290,292,293,299,301,321,328,339,346,368,386,387,410,423,427,429,436,440,441,445,447,448,459,460,462,463,464,466,467,472],powerpc:[295,349,460,461,462,472],powerset:260,powershel:[396,455],poynton:163,pp165:156,ppc64:[356,472],ppc64le:472,ppc:[65,356,453,462,466],ppercas:384,ppm:[250,370,372],ppo:21,pprint:[62,183,189,253,299,301,343,448,457,465,466,472],ppt:[197,206],pr1:74,pr2:74,practic:[1,31,62,66,80,82,86,90,96,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,110,122,125,141,175,178,179,187,193,195,200,225,227,236,243,249,254,284,288,307,320,337,343,346,367,370,391,408,416,426,436,437,439,442,445,446,457,458,459,464,466,468,471],pragma:177,pragmat:109,pragu:[],pranskevichu:[469,470,471],prc:460,prcal:152,pre6:472,pre:[31,65,72,74,77,79,93,103,104,106,112,141,187,190,204,209,228,237,246,252,257,260,266,267,292,298,326,332,340,377,384,386,392,396,423,432,440,451,453,455,456,459,460,463,466,468,469,470,471,472],pre_f:458,pread:[293,467,469,471],preadv:[293,471,472],prealloc:38,preambl:[66,197,201,206,302,472],prebuild:192,prebuilt:455,prec:[187,448,460,461,462],precari:424,precaut:[104,118],preced:[17,62,65,86,93,98,103,104,106,107,108,155,161,168,176,179,184,189,193,195,203,208,222,227,254,265,266,267,276,310,321,335,339,346,347,349,350,367,370,373,380,397,407,410,416,417,421,423,424,425,427,429,430,431,432,436,439,445,451,455,457,458,467,471,472],precis:[9,12,17,24,58,62,78,84,103,176,184,214,227,232,258,261,267,268,275,284,290,293,310,315,320,329,330,339,342,346,347,349,355,367,368,373,382,392,396,405,424,426,430,431,437,440,448,456,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,470,471,472],preclud:[53,161,289,346],precmd:157,precompil:[60,326,451,472],precompos:426,precomput:[62,149,401,472],precondit:[110,343,458,466],precondition_fail:242,precondition_requir:242,preconfigur:386,precursor:268,pred:[260,396],predat:[105,140,179,189],predecessor:[65,112,459,466],predeclar:79,predefin:[62,79,91,103,106,113,157,159,177,178,248,266,282,347,370,400,402,421,424,441,472],predetermin:268,predic:[65,99,139,254,260,365,366,410,459,462,466,471,472],predict:[114,143,227,257,355,424,451,455,466,472],predictor:228,preemptiv:165,preexec_fn:[350,460,472],preexist:129,prefabr:177,prefac:[129,135,445],prefer:[5,28,31,39,45,62,74,75,84,91,95,96,99,104,110,111,112,122,129,131,132,139,140,141,165,168,176,178,187,203,206,214,222,227,231,232,236,252,257,260,265,271,275,291,292,293,301,305,315,328,343,345,350,355,363,365,366,367,369,373,380,382,392,395,400,402,413,418,428,438,447,448,453,455,461,463,466,467,469,470,471,472],preferencelist:[201,206],preferenti:472,prefil:143,prefix:[30,31,43,58,62,65,66,74,79,84,93,95,102,105,106,107,120,157,160,168,174,176,177,178,187,189,190,204,227,230,232,236,244,246,248,255,267,268,294,299,304,316,321,333,335,346,347,355,356,361,363,365,370,372,373,376,385,386,395,396,407,410,412,416,420,421,431,432,436,442,445,446,451,454,455,459,462,463,466,467,469,470,472],prefix_char:[62,120],prefixlen:258,prefixlen_diff:258,pregener:[463,469,470],preinstal:454,prejudic:187,preliminari:[457,471,472],preload:[95,472],preloop:157,prematur:[79,103,243,271,431,464,472],premium:161,prepar:[22,54,60,62,84,109,110,111,152,158,184,232,236,245,253,257,268,301,339,350,355,363,364,380,381,385,392,410,411,414,418,419,422,445,446,462,464,468,469,471,472],preparatori:266,prepare_class:[381,467],prepare_input_sourc:414,prepare_ssl:472,prepareprotocol:342,prepend:[30,58,65,93,95,98,104,159,164,179,203,228,260,268,271,288,292,303,314,332,333,357,365,396,410,418,472],prependpath:455,preprocess:[65,95,168,176,391],preprocesserror:65,preprocessor:[22,38,65,68,77,95,111,332,418,456,463,472],prerequisit:464,prerog:103,prescod:[456,457,458,461],prescrib:[152,433],presenc:[30,31,57,72,79,81,93,113,159,187,219,227,244,251,252,255,286,292,310,343,345,350,355,363,375,385,423,424,426,428,439,445,458,459,464,470,472],present:[7,21,28,35,41,45,57,62,68,74,79,80,83,85,86,90,91,92,96,97,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,117,122,124,125,144,147,149,153,154,155,157,159,161,168,177,178,182,185,187,189,193,197,198,206,211,214,216,223,227,228,229,236,237,238,240,242,244,248,261,266,267,268,271,276,286,288,292,293,297,299,301,305,309,310,315,316,319,321,324,332,336,337,339,343,346,347,355,359,360,363,365,366,367,368,372,373,375,380,385,391,392,404,407,410,412,416,418,420,421,423,424,426,428,431,432,437,439,442,446,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],preserv:[31,38,62,74,79,86,95,99,104,107,108,113,122,168,176,184,187,189,193,197,202,204,206,209,222,227,233,241,242,254,260,267,268,292,293,299,302,332,333,346,359,363,369,381,385,386,399,421,423,426,436,440,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],preserve_mod:65,preserve_symlink:65,preserve_tim:65,preset:[95,269,305],preset_default:269,preset_extrem:269,press:[85,87,97,104,129,156,178,248,283,299,325,372,373,380,385,463,466],preston:[422,471],presum:[57,103,162,176,184,210,271,284,349,391,426,458,463,464,472],pretend:[65,79,105,107,178,386,424,436,458],pretend_serv:110,pretium:151,pretti:[62,82,94,97,109,111,168,183,186,189,213,253,254,261,268,292,299,310,375,386,408,416,426,448,456,457,458,461,462,464],prettyprint:[62,183,468],prev:[178,373],prev_h_len:322,prevail:[185,426],prevent:[21,22,30,31,38,62,79,82,90,93,97,98,103,109,110,111,140,159,161,168,170,171,177,187,189,190,193,207,214,227,238,248,251,252,261,267,271,276,284,292,313,339,343,355,363,377,380,382,385,386,387,396,397,399,406,419,421,424,428,434,445,446,451,455,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,472],preview:201,previou:[7,10,15,16,22,30,34,38,58,65,74,75,78,79,81,82,84,85,90,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,106,109,122,132,134,135,145,149,151,152,153,159,168,171,174,177,178,182,184,187,189,190,193,209,214,215,222,227,232,243,246,248,260,268,269,284,292,293,294,298,299,313,316,320,321,331,332,334,337,339,342,343,346,355,357,363,365,367,372,373,376,378,380,382,385,386,391,392,397,407,410,417,418,423,424,428,432,436,438,439,442,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],previous:[5,9,22,30,36,57,58,65,75,86,91,95,122,134,140,142,159,167,168,170,178,190,208,214,227,228,243,246,251,252,254,264,266,268,271,276,283,292,293,299,301,321,330,331,334,339,342,343,350,366,373,378,381,385,387,391,392,397,398,402,419,422,425,428,432,450,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],previouss:407,pri:357,price:[161,321,342,345,409,445,460,461,469,472],primari:[62,82,84,91,93,95,108,158,170,193,195,197,206,207,219,229,266,276,282,297,301,310,339,342,343,347,355,375,399,416,428,429,432,434,444,445,446,448,456,457,459,460,462,463,464,466,467,468,472],primarili:[52,56,80,84,91,102,103,111,143,159,161,176,184,195,207,227,228,254,266,301,350,382,385,397,404,408,424,455,457,458,460,462,463,467,469,471,472],primary_except:464,prime256v1:[343,472],prime:[91,167,193,209,284,346,355,367,437,447,466,470],primit:[62,81,90,91,117,126,127,137,165,177,178,257,291,301,310,321,329,330,334,343,366,380,446,448,467,468,471,472],princip:[244,343,346,422,448,465,466],principl:[29,31,79,91,93,187,385,386,404,438,453,467],print:[29,30,31,38,45,54,57,62,65,74,78,79,81,82,84,90,91,92,93,94,95,98,99,101,102,103,104,106,109,110,111,113,114,117,120,123,126,128,129,131,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,145,147,152,153,157,158,160,161,164,167,168,169,170,171,173,176,177,178,184,185,187,189,190,193,197,201,202,205,206,212,214,217,221,222,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,236,241,243,245,246,248,249,252,253,254,256,257,261,266,268,271,279,280,283,284,288,293,296,299,301,302,303,306,307,309,310,311,315,316,317,320,321,322,323,327,330,332,334,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,347,350,352,355,356,358,359,360,361,363,365,366,368,370,372,373,375,376,378,380,385,386,392,394,396,397,399,402,404,405,408,409,410,413,414,416,417,418,419,423,424,425,426,431,432,434,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],print_assign:99,print_cal:310,print_calle:310,print_cont:370,print_diff_fil:217,print_directori:153,print_environ:153,print_environ_usag:153,print_error:[85,466],print_exc:[104,368,377],print_except:[266,268,377,472],print_expr:190,print_form:153,print_funct:[105,113,114,432,462],print_help:[122,292],print_http_head:137,print_it:370,print_last:377,print_some_tim:327,print_stack:[140,266,377,469,472],print_stat:310,print_tb:[377,469],print_tim:327,print_usag:[122,292],print_vers:292,printabl:[58,62,144,147,159,178,179,196,197,198,199,203,204,209,225,227,253,283,285,286,346,347,348,424,457,464,466],printabletyp:462,printdir:419,printdocu:97,printer:[62,106,183,248,253,370,375,402,448],printf:[9,58,62,78,79,101,177,246,266,426,442,445,461,472],printfunc:[57,81],printnameoffset:472,printout:[310,472],prio_pgrp:293,prio_process:293,prio_us:293,prion:466,prior:[21,30,41,54,62,84,91,93,103,104,108,114,129,140,144,176,187,193,227,246,254,266,318,330,339,343,346,350,355,357,359,361,366,385,419,422,424,426,428,468,469,470,471,472],priori:[68,252],priorit:472,prioriti:[54,62,98,127,183,252,256,260,261,268,293,318,324,327,329,343,346,350,357,366,372,424,426,438,448,458,459,462,466,467,468,470,472],prioritizeditem:[237,318],priority_numb:[136,318],priorityqu:459,priorityqueu:[127,136,318,462,472],pristin:111,privaci:[91,343,395],privat:[30,38,39,62,91,99,177,182,189,225,227,248,249,258,279,284,301,307,337,343,348,363,382,386,426,431,432,441,446,455,457,458,459,462,466,467,468,469,470,472],privileg:[111,153,288,293,339,341,344,367,402,436,467,470,472],prize:320,prlimit:[324,468,472],prmonth:[152,472],prn:74,prng:343,prngd:343,pro:321,proactor:[469,472],proactoreventloop:[129,133,134,138,472],proactorsockettransport:472,prob_dist:466,probabilist:310,probabl:[28,30,31,51,65,66,68,69,72,74,79,81,84,85,86,87,91,94,95,97,102,104,105,106,107,111,141,144,159,160,177,184,193,201,214,232,237,284,293,299,302,305,310,311,320,337,339,340,342,343,355,368,386,392,395,402,403,404,412,430,436,439,450,456,457,458,459,461,462,464,466,467],probe:[62,468,472],probenam:101,probepoint:101,problem:[1,22,30,31,54,57,62,64,74,79,82,84,86,90,91,92,93,95,96,97,99,103,104,105,107,109,112,128,129,141,143,154,159,160,168,170,172,176,184,187,193,197,200,204,206,208,225,232,237,246,248,251,252,253,255,261,265,266,267,284,292,293,297,301,310,316,334,339,342,343,358,359,363,365,386,387,390,399,404,407,423,434,435,438,439,440,442,447,448,449,450,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,471,472],problemat:[13,93,96,168,267,284,460,465,466,471,472],proc:[138,241,350,470,472],proce:[68,78,139,161,187,196,206,260,271,284,310,343,361,366,423,426,436],procedur:[38,62,65,78,86,99,123,153,159,177,227,310,337,348,363,380,415,416,432,437,447,457,458,461,466],proceed:[82,86,94,110,293],process:[1,5,7,22,29,31,41,53,57,59,60,62,64,66,68,69,71,74,75,78,79,81,83,84,85,86,90,92,93,95,97,99,101,102,103,106,107,109,110,111,112,113,117,120,122,124,125,128,132,133,135,136,137,138,141,146,151,152,153,157,159,165,167,170,176,177,178,184,193,201,204,211,213,214,215,218,219,227,228,229,230,232,236,241,242,246,248,249,252,253,254,259,260,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,279,281,292,295,297,298,301,310,311,316,317,318,321,324,326,329,330,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,344,346,348,350,355,357,358,359,360,361,363,365,367,368,375,376,377,380,381,382,385,391,392,395,396,397,399,400,402,404,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,421,423,424,426,428,431,432,437,439,442,444,446,447,451,454,455,457,458,459,460,461,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],process_block:227,process_client_connect:366,process_exit:[132,135],process_fil:170,process_id:339,process_messag:[336,469,470],process_request:340,process_server_connect:366,process_tim:[310,367,368,467],process_time_n:[367,471,472],process_token:358,processerror:284,processing_instruct:409,processing_instruction_nod:[407,408],processinginstruct:[62,273,410,412,461],processinginstructionhandl:316,processlookuperror:[22,214,324,446,467],processnam:[104,266,284],processor:[0,31,65,74,79,84,93,109,141,167,284,288,292,295,305,316,324,367,392,406,412,424,456,460,461,472],processpoolexecutor:[62,90,129,165,366,466,469,471,472],procur:422,prod:260,produc:[5,7,21,22,23,31,35,45,54,64,77,82,83,86,90,91,93,95,97,99,103,104,106,107,109,111,122,125,140,151,153,159,161,162,164,168,176,177,178,184,187,188,189,193,195,197,198,202,203,204,206,209,214,215,222,225,227,230,232,233,235,236,237,249,257,260,261,266,269,276,284,288,293,297,301,304,307,310,315,318,320,321,323,342,343,346,347,349,350,355,359,366,370,375,376,380,385,391,392,394,403,404,408,409,411,412,413,418,421,424,426,428,431,437,440,442,445,448,449,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],product:[7,14,68,86,87,90,96,99,103,124,128,187,193,237,246,248,260,268,297,346,355,380,385,386,418,422,426,431,436,446,453,456,457,461,462,463,465,467,470,472],product_typ:[355,463],productcod:282,productionclass:[386,387],productnam:282,productvers:282,profdata:472,profession:[89,435,448,455,465],professor:321,profici:408,profil:[29,31,62,86,91,101,159,253,334,343,348,355,366,402,434,447,453,457,458,460,461,462,464,470,472],profilefunc:355,profit:[86,422],proftpd:[225,466],prog:[62,94,120,292,321,396,466],program:[1,5,14,15,28,30,40,41,60,62,65,66,74,75,78,79,83,84,87,88,89,93,94,98,100,103,104,105,106,110,111,112,113,120,122,127,128,129,135,138,141,142,144,147,152,153,157,158,159,160,161,165,167,168,169,170,176,177,184,186,187,193,201,202,204,209,212,214,217,225,227,228,229,230,235,247,248,249,252,253,254,262,268,271,272,276,283,286,292,293,294,296,298,299,301,308,309,310,311,315,316,318,321,324,329,331,334,339,340,342,343,346,349,350,355,357,361,363,366,368,369,372,373,376,377,380,385,391,392,395,397,399,400,402,404,407,408,416,418,419,422,423,424,426,429,430,431,432,434,435,436,437,438,439,441,442,446,448,449,450,451,452,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],programacion:[462,464],programfil:455,programm:[7,25,29,31,57,74,79,83,84,91,92,93,97,98,103,107,108,111,118,125,176,178,182,184,187,193,195,214,253,265,271,275,284,292,293,295,339,342,346,355,369,370,372,380,387,397,399,402,423,429,432,436,438,439,442,446,457,458,460,461,462,466],programmat:[62,78,84,114,124,168,170,183,186,209,211,263,265,267,281,292,297,311,322,355,392,463,467,468,472],programmingerror:342,progress:[90,106,153,193,213,225,237,284,289,332,342,343,372,373,396,397,437,455,456,458,463,472],progressbar:[62,369],prohibit:[134,193,257,261,404,426,471,472],project:[0,1,62,65,66,69,72,74,81,83,87,90,91,92,100,104,105,111,112,113,168,184,192,193,211,225,232,236,252,292,309,316,385,386,396,418,419,422,430,437,440,447,450,453,455,456,459,462,463,464,466,467,468,470,472],project_bas:472,project_directori:385,project_info:309,project_nam:466,project_url:309,projectbas:466,prolept:[152,184],promin:[111,464],promis:[74,79,212,254,466],promiscu:339,promot:[195,237,422,437,462],prompt:[60,66,72,85,91,92,93,111,113,115,122,157,158,174,177,190,193,201,208,225,227,231,248,249,299,315,322,337,343,346,350,355,362,366,377,380,392,396,428,432,434,437,440,444,445,446,449,451,455,459,462,466,468,470,471,472],prompt_last_lin:472,prompt_user_passwd:392,promptli:[167,284,321,439],prone:[66,82,84,153,184,193,301,310,346,469],pronounc:[105,161,466],proof:[91,99,204,284,456,472],prop:455,propag:[22,30,31,32,47,95,99,103,104,128,140,158,161,171,214,227,252,266,267,284,298,299,304,327,333,346,355,367,385,386,387,392,399,423,424,426,428,459,461,470,472],proper:[5,62,78,81,84,91,95,111,156,178,190,214,236,246,248,252,333,339,343,346,349,355,363,385,392,407,410,423,424,426,427,443,456,469,470,471,472],proper_slic:426,properli:[2,6,22,30,31,41,42,45,57,79,82,84,95,104,106,107,129,138,148,170,171,203,204,208,210,214,232,252,265,274,293,310,316,337,343,349,350,359,361,363,366,370,373,385,386,391,412,421,442,444,455,457,458,459,463,464,467,468,470,472],properti:[15,53,57,62,84,93,99,102,103,106,108,118,152,161,171,176,177,178,182,187,193,196,197,204,206,209,212,220,222,223,227,228,232,236,237,254,256,257,258,261,265,271,282,284,289,306,337,342,343,346,348,355,361,366,375,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,392,399,402,407,408,411,412,413,422,423,424,431,432,436,438,446,447,455,456,458,459,460,461,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],property_declaration_handl:412,property_dom_nod:412,property_lexical_handl:412,property_xml_str:412,propertymock:386,propertynam:413,proplist:431,proport:[143,168,320,472],propos:[1,31,84,91,93,155,167,176,228,266,343,350,399,407,423,426,428,431,432,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,466,470],proposit:95,proprietari:[87,97],prose:193,prospero:391,prot:279,prot_c:225,prot_p:225,prot_read:279,prot_writ:279,protect: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460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],read_:360,read_al:360,read_binari:252,read_byt:[279,298,469,472],read_data:[386,442,472],read_dict:[168,466,471,472],read_eag:360,read_environ:[404,466],read_ev:410,read_fil:[168,267],read_histori:322,read_history_fil:322,read_init_fil:[322,325],read_lazi:360,read_mime_typ:276,read_multi:472,read_pkg_fil:69,read_restrict:81,read_sb_data:360,read_som:360,read_str:[168,466,469],read_text:[252,298,469,472],read_token:332,read_until:360,read_var:472,read_very_eag:360,read_very_lazi:360,read_windows_registri:276,readabl:[5,44,68,81,84,91,93,95,97,103,104,106,107,119,122,135,140,141,151,153,161,168,177,189,190,199,206,212,232,244,246,257,266,267,274,284,288,293,301,305,306,309,312,321,334,340,343,344,346,349,350,351,353,361,370,374,386,398,411,431,435,436,437,438,442,445,446,448,451,457,458,460,462,463,464,465,466,468,469,470,471,472],readal:[257,468,472],readcd:462,readconsol:472,readdir:[293,469],readelf:101,reader:[31,62,84,86,102,106,107,109,129,137,159,161,171,197,201,203,206,218,227,243,252,257,271,272,284,288,292,301,339,343,384,396,407,410,411,412,413,414,424,430,436,441,451,459,461,464,469,472],readermod:288,readerror:[359,472],readexactli:[137,470,472],readfil:472,readfp:[168,276,463],readfram:[119,351,398],readfunc:158,readi:[30,58,86,97,103,105,135,137,141,145,152,171,177,187,189,243,246,268,284,329,330,339,343,377,386,413,414,441,456,459,466,467,469,472],readili:[104,257,297,360,468,472],reading_head:125,readinto1:[257,469],readinto:[7,151,243,257,462,467,469],readlin:[23,60,62,65,74,84,85,90,99,109,129,137,138,142,144,153,157,159,168,171,189,205,208,214,219,225,227,249,253,257,267,279,293,298,299,301,317,332,340,364,370,375,378,386,392,396,418,419,424,434,436,439,442,443,444,451,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,468,471,472],readline_gener:168,readlink:[293,333,467,472],readm:[68,75,111,225,298,454,455,456,466,470,471,472],readmodul:[314,472],readmodule_ex:[314,472],readonli:[2,53,62,81,249,333,346,373,407,408,462,472],readplist:[306,462,468,471,472],readplistfrombyt:[306,468,471,472],readplistfromstr:462,readrc:[299,470,472],readthedoc:[404,461],readtransport:[129,135,471,472],readuntil:[137,469,470,472],readv:[293,467,469,471,472],ready_to_read:107,ready_to_writ:107,reak:299,real:[14,31,34,43,54,57,62,65,78,82,91,93,96,104,110,111,114,123,155,156,158,161,170,177,193,201,206,214,227,228,237,249,261,275,288,289,290,293,305,310,321,324,326,332,334,335,342,343,345,346,347,355,367,370,385,386,387,392,410,424,431,435,436,438,439,440,450,461,462,463,466,467,470,472],real_max_memus:363,real_person:410,real_quick_ratio:189,real_valu:245,realis:456,realist:[86,90,99,350,386,408,421,460,461],realiti:[65,79,184,292,339,392],realiz:[31,85,86,92,105,107,187,209,436,440,461,462],realli:[45,58,70,72,77,78,81,83,84,86,91,95,97,99,106,107,109,111,124,141,184,190,201,204,206,271,284,288,293,329,342,346,355,366,367,370,380,384,410,424,427,428,431,432,435,437,438,440,442,456,457,458,459,460,461,464,470,472],realloc:[9,38,49,79,85,91,178,460,470,472],realm:[110,209,392],realnam:210,realpart:436,realpath:294,realtim:350,realtime_priority_class:350,ream:462,reap:[134,472],reap_children:363,reap_thread:363,rearrang:[95,161,346,435,448,456,459,461,463,472],reason:[22,30,31,38,42,43,45,52,57,64,66,70,79,80,82,84,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,117,143,153,156,157,167,168,178,182,184,187,193,195,197,212,214,217,225,232,237,242,243,246,248,249,252,256,257,266,268,269,271,275,292,297,298,301,305,307,310,316,328,333,335,339,343,355,359,360,363,365,367,370,380,385,386,387,390,392,404,423,424,427,428,435,436,440,446,458,459,461,464,466,467,468,469,472],reassembl:135,reassign:[38,82,169,309],reassur:83,reattach:373,reattempt:333,rebas:472,rebind:[91,229,432,436,460],reboot:[284,298,468],rebound:[251,252,432,436],rebuild:[65,74,79,111,164,466,472],rebuilt:[276,467,469],rec:[316,408,410],rec_len:466,recal:[104,190,248,382,440],recalc:98,recalcul:[98,266,345],recap:98,recast:[260,466],reccontrol:295,receiv:[1,5,15,22,30,31,41,45,61,62,78,79,82,85,86,90,95,99,103,105,107,110,117,125,127,129,132,134,135,136,137,141,153,157,159,168,177,189,214,222,225,227,236,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,258,266,267,268,274,275,284,288,295,301,307,316,318,324,330,333,334,336,337,339,340,343,350,360,366,373,377,382,385,392,397,399,404,407,408,410,411,412,417,423,425,426,437,447,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],received_data:336,received_lin:336,recent:[64,65,79,82,90,91,92,94,99,102,104,109,122,128,136,153,161,168,170,177,187,193,211,212,215,228,235,241,248,249,254,258,266,268,284,293,295,297,298,299,301,308,309,316,318,321,337,339,343,346,347,349,350,355,363,370,372,377,378,380,384,385,386,387,391,397,399,424,426,432,436,437,438,439,442,445,448,449,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],recept:[129,135,137,336],recip:[62,69,91,104,110,149,162,175,183,189,201,212,226,251,252,275,290,293,317,331,342,346,355,450,466,472],recipi:[135,201,209,210,336,337,340],reciproc:345,recit:106,reclaim:[79,81,251,252,399],reclam:57,recod:5,recogn:[62,65,74,79,84,91,92,93,102,106,122,125,157,159,168,178,188,190,197,204,219,222,225,230,236,250,251,252,257,261,265,276,283,292,297,299,301,321,332,342,347,363,367,391,392,413,431,432,437,444,446,455,456,464,466,467,468,469,472],recognis:[92,176,267,332,386,418],recognit:276,recogniz:[84,187,227,472],recombin:[143,467],recommend:[5,30,31,38,41,44,57,58,62,64,65,71,72,74,77,78,79,81,82,86,89,91,92,94,95,96,99,103,105,109,111,112,122,125,131,134,135,137,140,141,159,168,174,177,182,184,187,192,193,197,212,227,232,236,238,243,246,248,249,252,254,261,266,275,288,295,298,301,308,310,316,321,326,336,339,340,343,346,350,355,359,361,367,382,385,392,395,396,404,406,407,408,412,413,421,424,428,431,437,446,454,455,456,458,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],recompil:[52,65,78,85,93,164,251,252,446,456,459,463,466,469,470],recomput:[103,329,330,334,468,472],reconfigur:[95,257,471,472],reconnect:[243,469,472],reconstitut:[266,301],reconstruct:[173,257,301,309,375,404,440,442],record:[28,62,81,84,97,99,103,104,108,109,111,114,124,145,149,157,161,176,177,178,179,185,187,198,204,212,213,237,254,258,260,266,268,271,280,291,292,293,295,301,310,311,342,344,346,349,363,380,381,385,386,387,397,401,419,428,436,441,456,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,472],record_attr_dict:268,record_factori:[104,266],record_foo_seen:292,record_numb:466,record_original_stdout:363,recount:187,recov:[159,214,223,355,394,412,463,466],recover:[328,412],recoveri:[202,249,328,392],recreat:[159,300,339,391,399,424,440,467,471,472],rect:[156,177,462],rectangl:[79,97,178],rectangular:[97,156,380],recur:373,recurr:260,recurs:[29,30,62,65,67,74,75,79,91,93,99,113,124,153,164,168,171,172,182,189,190,193,197,201,206,214,217,227,233,251,252,261,274,284,293,298,299,301,304,309,310,315,323,331,333,344,355,358,359,366,380,382,385,386,392,409,410,419,424,428,432,436,438,456,457,458,459,460,462,466,468,469,470,471,472],recursionerror:[22,214,301,355,469,470,472],recursive_repr:[22,323,466,472],recv:[104,107,129,141,284,330,339,340,343,370,463,469,472],recv_byt:284,recv_bytes_into:284,recv_fd:339,recv_into:[129,339,343,461,463],recv_json:104,recvfd:472,recvfrom:[339,370,469,472],recvfrom_into:[339,461,463],recvmsg:[339,467,469],recvmsg_into:[339,467],recycl:[107,117,366],red:[66,72,85,86,97,103,104,106,108,111,149,152,161,163,178,212,241,320,345,346,370,373,380,399,422,448,459,460,465,470,472],redact:466,reddi:471,redefin:[65,91,111,145,162,241,251,252,340,424,436,459,462],redefinit:[65,251,252,424,472],redemo:[106,472],redesign:[84,462,463,468],redhat:[71,232,305],redic:5,redirect:[7,57,62,66,92,103,110,135,138,170,242,243,244,246,252,266,334,350,355,392,441,451,456,468,469,470,471,472],redirect_request:392,redirect_stderr:[170,469,472],redirect_stdout:[170,468,469],redirector:[396,471,472],redisplai:[178,322,459],redistribut:[64,422],redistributor:463,redo:[178,248,472],redraw:97,redrawln:178,redrawn:[97,178,380],redrawwin:178,reduc:[31,38,51,81,91,99,113,135,178,187,228,236,238,248,257,260,293,297,301,310,320,328,329,343,346,366,386,399,406,418,431,440,446,455,456,458,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],reduce_someclass:301,reduct:[35,84,91,173,301,346,467,472],reductionist:106,redund:[75,79,95,118,269,294,321,382,421,432,458,463,472],ree:472,reedi:[109,459,469,470,471,472],reenabl:[363,463],reentranc:[62,120,170,318,472],reentrant:[62,257,317,318,366,468,472],reexecut:[66,251],ref:[5,61,84,178,399,457,463,468,472],ref_api:363,refactor:[93,99,113,385,386,387,460,468,469,470,471,472],refchild:407,refcount:[9,30,57,58,363,461,472],refcount_test:363,refer:[0,3,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,30,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,45,48,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,62,64,66,69,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,80,82,83,84,90,92,93,95,98,100,102,103,104,106,110,111,112,117,120,122,126,129,131,135,137,138,141,143,145,156,159,161,165,168,171,172,178,183,184,186,190,192,206,211,213,214,216,227,228,229,230,232,234,236,239,240,241,244,246,248,251,252,253,254,255,257,258,261,266,267,268,271,273,279,288,289,293,294,297,299,301,304,305,308,309,315,316,321,326,330,333,335,339,342,343,345,346,347,349,352,353,355,357,362,363,366,367,369,372,373,374,377,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,396,397,402,406,407,408,412,414,418,419,423,424,425,430,431,432,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,450,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],referenc:[5,7,11,31,55,57,61,79,81,84,91,93,103,106,122,168,180,190,228,248,254,284,293,301,321,346,354,399,407,424,436,437,438,442,446,455,457,458,459,462,463,464,467,472],referenceerror:[22,214,399,446,457,458],referencetyp:399,referendum:442,referenti:[84,301],referr:229,refin:[91,471,472],refleak:[363,472],reflect:[29,59,62,65,66,91,93,94,101,104,119,122,161,169,176,178,184,193,211,216,228,248,252,254,292,293,310,322,339,343,346,349,355,370,380,381,398,402,408,418,424,451,462,466,467,469,472],reflex:426,reflow:222,refold:[202,209,467],refold_head:209,refold_sourc:[202,209,467],reformat:[248,271,292,459,472],refresh:[97,178,288,373,461],refus:[31,107,213,214,288,331,337,339,343,419,472],reg_binari:[402,472],reg_dword:402,reg_dword_big_endian:402,reg_dword_little_endian:402,reg_expand_sz:402,reg_full_resource_descriptor:402,reg_link:402,reg_multi_sz:402,reg_non:402,reg_qword:[402,470,472],reg_qword_little_endian:402,reg_resource_list:402,reg_resource_requirements_list:402,reg_sz:402,regard:[31,95,96,103,112,118,170,206,236,293,346,350,361,407,422,428,436,455,472],regardless:[2,9,23,30,31,37,54,58,64,65,66,74,84,105,111,122,140,167,170,176,178,184,187,193,209,221,227,248,252,256,257,260,261,297,298,304,316,334,337,339,343,346,347,349,350,355,361,373,380,385,386,387,396,397,399,400,409,426,428,431,439,451,455,466,467,468,469,471,472],regdeletekeyex:402,regebro:[463,472],regen:[62,472],regener:[75,202,313,428,463,469,470,472],regex:[106,164,221,265,321,360,385,457,461,462,466,468,471,472],regexflag:[321,471,472],regexp:[363,466,472],region:[178,248,283,293,321,370,373,436,462,465,472],regist:[1,13,30,54,62,66,71,79,82,87,90,93,95,109,110,118,122,129,131,134,135,142,159,162,168,170,172,176,193,198,204,209,215,227,228,242,252,253,257,266,276,284,289,293,300,304,322,329,330,333,339,343,346,355,363,370,373,380,385,392,397,399,400,403,407,410,412,417,418,424,426,428,450,456,457,459,460,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],register_adapt:342,register_archive_format:[333,466],register_at_fork:[54,293,471,472],register_convert:342,register_defect:209,register_dialect:176,register_error:[159,227,257,346,459],register_funct:[416,417,471,472],register_inst:417,register_introspection_funct:417,register_multicall_funct:[416,417],register_namespac:[410,463,466],register_optionflag:193,register_shap:380,register_unpack_format:333,registerdomimplement:407,registerresult:385,registr:[30,54,159,170,293,301,330,392,402,417,418,462,472],registri:[22,29,58,59,62,146,168,176,196,198,204,228,251,252,253,258,268,276,301,305,343,355,392,397,401,403,410,455,456,462,463,470,472],regloadkei:402,regress:[62,84,91,95,188,193,253,261,463,468,469,472],regroup:298,regrtest:[363,378,459,463,472],regsub:461,regtyp:359,regular:[7,10,57,62,65,67,72,75,82,84,86,90,91,93,98,99,100,104,111,118,122,129,135,161,168,170,176,187,193,201,211,221,227,235,237,244,253,254,260,265,267,293,294,298,301,310,313,329,334,337,339,343,344,346,347,355,359,360,363,364,380,382,385,392,397,399,424,431,432,436,447,448,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],regularli:[30,38,64,105,112,214,380,455],regulatori:448,rei:460,reid:[463,466],reifschneid:[457,459,460,461,463],reign:265,reilli:[106,321,368,450,458,469,472],reimplement:[82,380,385,458,468,469,470,471,472],reimport:472,reinforc:450,reingold:[152,184],reinhardt:458,reiniti:[57,472],reinitialis:428,reinsert:[363,373,463,465],reinstal:[38,89,111,455],reinstat:[266,436],reinterpret:[62,300],reintroduc:431,reiter:95,reitz:449,rejeb:460,reject:[7,102,106,168,244,320,382,431,432,456,463,468,470,472],rejoin:209,rekei:343,rel:[30,31,62,64,65,66,74,85,92,95,103,106,111,113,114,123,129,155,156,159,170,178,184,189,190,193,210,211,216,222,227,233,246,252,257,265,266,269,275,279,282,293,294,298,301,304,310,316,319,320,321,326,327,332,333,339,342,343,346,350,363,367,370,372,373,376,385,386,391,396,402,404,410,412,418,419,429,432,438,442,446,447,451,455,456,457,458,460,463,464,467,468,469,470,472,473],rel_tol:[156,275,469],relai:[336,395,471,472],relat:[1,2,30,38,41,57,62,71,74,84,86,90,91,93,98,99,104,109,111,135,140,146,155,161,168,178,183,184,193,195,197,201,206,208,209,214,218,225,230,232,236,237,251,253,255,256,258,260,271,281,284,290,297,300,302,316,317,322,328,334,339,342,343,345,346,347,358,367,369,373,381,397,399,409,412,422,424,426,431,436,448,449,450,452,455,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,470,471,472],relationship:[62,71,135,184,193,237,300,346,355,370,376,399,407,422,424,436,461,472],relative_modul:432,relative_to:298,relativecr:[104,266],relax:[95,99,184,245,466,472],relay:336,releas:[1,3,4,5,7,11,26,31,32,38,44,52,53,56,57,58,62,66,68,71,72,74,78,79,81,82,83,86,87,90,93,97,99,105,108,109,110,111,114,117,124,129,139,170,177,178,190,192,193,211,227,236,237,251,254,257,266,271,284,293,301,305,328,339,342,346,355,358,363,366,378,380,382,397,406,419,422,424,432,436,439,446,450,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,466,473],release_db_connect:170,release_lock:[251,464],release_resourc:170,release_special_resourc:170,release_url:309,releasebufferproc:57,releaselevel:[355,463,465],relev:[57,65,79,81,90,94,95,97,99,102,103,104,125,146,168,172,187,193,195,209,216,225,227,243,246,261,267,268,288,292,293,302,304,308,343,346,350,356,363,364,385,404,411,455,456,458,460,467,468,469,470,472],reli:[23,62,79,82,91,93,96,104,105,107,112,135,142,153,161,176,177,182,184,212,222,251,252,254,266,276,292,293,301,304,305,320,331,333,361,363,365,366,367,385,387,418,424,425,436,446,456,459,460,461,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],reliabl:[54,107,129,135,159,162,187,284,294,305,400,412,421,423,428,436,440,448,455,459,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],reliable_datagram_socket:467,relicens:460,relief:[370,373],relink:85,relinquish:[293,366],reload:[28,91,113,159,244,248,251,252,355,363,378,428,446,459,464,468,471,472],reloc:[49,462],relpath:[294,298,462,472],remahl:462,remain:[5,32,38,57,64,65,69,79,82,84,86,99,104,106,112,122,129,140,147,155,161,162,170,176,177,178,184,187,189,190,192,193,195,196,199,203,204,206,209,210,212,219,229,237,248,249,251,252,267,271,275,284,292,293,295,299,301,314,324,326,334,336,339,342,346,347,355,363,365,366,373,380,381,385,391,399,404,410,421,422,424,428,431,432,437,438,445,447,451,458,459,460,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],remaind:[31,43,81,101,106,122,157,184,187,209,227,256,267,275,292,298,321,346,385,426,440,445,462,471,472],remainder_near:187,remap:465,remark:[62,86,271,380,387,441,456,460],rembrandt:161,remedi:86,rememb:[68,79,84,86,89,91,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,103,104,106,111,149,160,161,193,227,248,252,260,284,321,349,363,373,392,399,407,409,432,436,437,440,445,446,453,455,456,457,461,462,463,465,466,467],remi:472,remind:[31,84,91,346,437,464,472],remot:[62,86,103,104,111,123,125,129,132,135,141,165,171,213,243,249,266,267,268,336,339,343,360,372,392,400,402,406,411,415,416,447,458,466,469,472],remote_addr:[129,135],remote_command:332,remote_host:129,remote_port:129,remoteaddr:336,remotedisconnect:[243,469,472],remoteerror:284,remov:[5,21,26,28,31,35,36,41,45,50,52,58,60,62,65,66,75,79,81,82,84,86,89,90,93,95,96,99,103,104,106,108,110,111,113,122,123,124,125,129,131,132,134,135,136,137,140,142,144,145,153,157,158,161,162,168,170,176,177,178,180,184,185,187,190,193,195,197,201,204,206,208,209,211,212,213,214,219,225,227,237,238,241,243,244,248,249,252,254,258,260,261,265,266,268,270,271,282,284,286,291,292,293,298,299,301,305,307,310,315,316,318,321,322,327,329,330,332,333,334,335,342,343,346,347,351,355,360,361,363,365,367,373,374,380,381,382,385,386,391,392,397,398,399,402,407,410,418,419,422,423,424,426,428,432,436,438,444,445,446,448,449,451,452,453,456,457,458,459,460,466,467,472,473],remove_child_handl:134,remove_done_callback:[131,140,472],remove_expon:187,remove_flag:271,remove_fold:271,remove_gray_shad:93,remove_head:[392,468],remove_histori:322,remove_history_item:322,remove_label:271,remove_mem_hook:472,remove_opt:[168,292],remove_pyc:282,remove_read:[129,132],remove_readonli:333,remove_sect:168,remove_sequ:271,remove_signal_handl:[129,132,133],remove_task:237,remove_thi:321,remove_tre:65,remove_var_callback:472,remove_writ:[129,132],removeattribut:407,removeattributen:407,removeattributenod:407,removechild:[407,456],removedir:[90,293],removefilt:[103,266],removehandl:[103,104,266,385,463],removenameditem:407,removeresult:385,removexattr:[293,467],renam:[38,57,62,65,74,82,90,104,111,113,123,161,168,214,225,248,249,268,271,293,298,313,329,333,344,385,386,418,435,436,437,448,456,458,459,460,462,463,464,465,466,467,469,470,472],renaud:[467,472],render:[104,109,129,199,202,225,308,340,370,373,377,408,424,459,462,463,472],render_goodby:171,rendezv:[293,466],rendit:178,renegoti:[343,463],renew:466,renumb:[212,249,424],reobj:221,reopen:[95,103,225,268,301,360,463,470,472],reopenifneed:[268,470],reoprt:321,reorder:[84,91,161,212,286,305,472],reorgan:[185,195,457,462,465,470,472],reorganis:456,reorpt:321,repack:347,repaint:178,repair:[425,455],repars:472,reparse_data_buff:472,repeat:[49,53,57,62,85,93,95,99,107,113,122,147,157,161,162,177,178,184,198,215,227,236,237,238,248,260,285,292,295,299,310,320,321,339,340,343,346,347,349,368,376,377,380,382,385,386,392,406,423,424,439,440,445,451,458,459,460,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,472],repeat_on:280,repeatedli:[30,84,106,110,157,177,189,260,265,276,366,368,380,385,402,403,404,423,448,458,466,470],repeatfunc:260,repertoir:[316,337,372,462],repetit:[106,122,151,236,260,269,321,346,368,377,385,387,397,424,426,430,458,472],repl:[321,472],replac:[13,21,31,34,38,40,51,55,57,58,62,64,65,70,74,77,79,84,90,91,92,94,95,97,99,104,109,110,111,113,122,124,134,152,153,158,159,161,165,168,177,178,180,182,184,189,190,193,197,198,203,206,207,210,212,214,215,219,227,231,236,237,240,241,248,251,252,253,254,257,260,265,266,267,271,272,276,280,284,292,293,294,298,299,305,309,310,317,320,321,322,323,332,333,334,336,342,343,346,347,355,359,361,363,365,367,370,372,373,375,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,399,404,406,407,410,412,414,418,419,424,426,429,431,432,435,436,442,445,446,447,451,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],replace_error:159,replace_head:[197,206],replace_history_entri:322,replace_history_item:322,replace_path:280,replace_paths_in_cod:472,replace_whitespac:365,replacechild:407,replacement_field:431,replacepackag:280,replai:386,repli:[107,184,204,225,246,271,284,288,337,392,472],replic:[91,99,209,284,455,460,463],replstr:58,repo:472,report:[1,7,21,23,30,31,36,41,44,45,65,78,79,91,92,101,102,103,106,109,122,135,141,153,154,167,176,177,178,190,193,197,204,206,214,217,227,234,254,258,260,280,284,292,293,297,305,308,310,312,316,321,329,330,334,336,341,343,344,346,355,363,368,376,382,385,392,397,410,412,439,448,450,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,470,472],report_:193,report_cdiff:[193,460],report_failur:193,report_full_closur:217,report_ndiff:[193,460],report_only_first_failur:193,report_partial_closur:217,report_start:193,report_success:193,report_udiff:[193,460],report_unexpected_except:193,reporthook:392,reporting_flag:193,reposit:[159,161],repositori:[62,64,86,112,252,454,456,457,461,463,473],repr1:323,repr:[17,22,23,45,57,58,62,81,104,108,109,113,141,177,182,183,184,190,193,212,227,248,252,253,284,316,330,339,346,347,355,363,365,375,377,381,382,386,387,424,431,432,440,442,446,448,456,457,459,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],repr_textiowrapp:323,repr_typ:323,repres:[5,7,8,9,10,12,14,16,17,19,21,24,25,30,31,34,35,40,41,43,50,53,55,57,58,60,62,65,70,74,79,83,84,90,91,93,95,97,99,102,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,122,123,124,129,131,135,137,140,145,147,152,153,155,156,159,161,167,168,169,177,178,184,187,190,195,198,200,202,204,207,209,210,214,216,222,223,225,227,243,244,245,249,252,254,257,258,261,265,266,267,269,271,272,275,276,282,283,284,285,286,288,292,293,294,297,298,301,306,307,308,309,310,316,321,323,324,327,329,333,334,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,348,349,350,353,354,355,359,360,363,366,367,370,372,373,374,377,380,382,385,386,387,394,395,397,399,402,407,408,409,410,413,416,417,418,419,421,424,426,428,431,436,440,442,448,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],represent:[7,9,14,17,24,35,37,45,53,54,57,58,62,65,74,75,81,82,91,93,95,103,105,107,109,122,123,147,148,156,159,161,168,177,178,179,184,187,197,198,202,205,206,208,212,213,214,222,227,237,243,245,246,249,252,258,261,265,266,271,272,282,284,290,293,294,297,298,301,309,316,323,331,339,342,346,347,348,349,353,355,367,374,377,380,382,385,405,407,410,422,424,428,441,442,448,456,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,469,470,472,473],reprfunc:[57,81],reprlib:[22,62,183,253,448,464,472],reprnam:184,reproduc:[62,91,110,124,202,290,363,392,414,422,448,466,471,472],reptil:435,republ:422,reput:1,req:[90,110,343,386,392,466],request:[1,2,28,30,38,41,57,62,82,90,91,99,102,104,107,109,110,112,122,125,127,130,132,135,140,144,153,159,161,167,170,177,178,187,198,209,211,212,213,214,216,225,228,232,235,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,255,257,271,284,288,291,292,293,294,295,297,301,307,309,316,324,329,332,334,335,336,343,346,350,355,363,367,373,380,386,389,391,393,396,402,404,407,413,414,416,417,424,428,432,436,445,447,448,449,455,456,457,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],request_entity_too_larg:242,request_header_fields_too_larg:242,request_host:392,request_method:[110,392,404,472],request_queue_s:340,request_r:[393,472],request_text:417,request_timeout:242,request_uri:404,request_uri_too_long:242,request_vers:246,requestb:392,requested_range_not_satisfi:242,requestedexecutionlevel:472,requesthandl:417,requesthandlerclass:[246,340,404],requestlin:246,requestr:393,requir:[5,7,11,17,22,26,30,31,38,41,53,57,58,62,64,65,66,68,69,70,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,85,86,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,112,113,117,118,120,123,129,140,151,152,158,159,161,162,168,170,171,176,178,182,184,185,187,190,193,195,196,197,201,202,203,204,208,209,211,212,213,214,222,223,225,227,229,230,235,236,237,241,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,255,256,257,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,282,284,288,292,293,295,297,301,302,303,307,309,310,312,316,318,321,324,329,331,333,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,357,359,361,363,366,367,370,372,373,375,379,381,382,384,385,386,391,392,394,396,399,402,404,406,407,410,411,412,413,414,416,418,419,421,422,423,424,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,440,442,443,446,448,449,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],require_int:460,required_on:363,requires_android_level:472,requires_bz2:363,requires_dist:309,requires_docstr:363,requires_freebsd_vers:363,requires_gzip:363,requires_ieee_754:363,requires_linux_vers:363,requires_lzma:363,requires_mac_vers:363,requires_multiprocessing_queu:472,requires_python:309,requires_resourc:363,requires_zlib:363,requot:[197,206],rerais:[170,284,346,423,424,472],rerun:[95,428,464],res:[38,74,85,140,243,284,339,472],resampl:320,rescan:[159,304],reschedul:129,rescu:214,research:[63,99,422,472],resembl:[82,111,178,212,227,244,299,332,451,458,462,463],resent:[204,210,271,337],resent_cc:210,resent_to:210,resequenc:466,reserv:[31,57,62,63,93,98,107,212,254,258,274,298,301,320,321,324,341,346,366,391,395,402,407,416,419,422,423,424,432,439,451,457,462,464,466,471],reserved_futur:395,reserved_microsoft:395,reserved_nc:395,reset:[16,30,54,86,91,99,110,137,139,145,157,158,159,161,171,178,187,189,199,207,213,214,215,219,241,246,248,252,266,284,293,294,295,303,328,329,334,336,339,343,346,355,357,359,363,366,367,372,376,380,385,386,397,405,409,410,413,431,458,462,466,467,468,469,472],reset_cont:242,reset_mock:[386,470,472],reset_prog_mod:178,reset_shell_mod:178,resetbuff:158,resetlocal:265,resetopt:372,resetscreen:380,resetti:178,resetwarn:[397,466],reshuffl:320,resid:[84,104,111,201,232,271,293,315,324,342,344,428,455,456],resign:97,resist:[106,236,333,457,463,467],resiz:[5,8,9,26,38,49,51,55,58,84,177,178,257,279,346,370,372,373,380,385,469,471,472],resize_term:178,resizemod:380,resizeterm:178,resolut:[57,62,81,82,84,93,118,120,129,133,184,215,217,227,228,246,254,293,295,298,301,310,339,346,367,424,436,459,461,467,468,469,470,472],resolv:[62,81,84,91,93,103,104,122,129,140,168,184,190,193,222,252,254,258,267,292,293,298,310,316,339,343,355,381,385,386,396,408,409,412,413,414,425,436,449,451,455,458,467,468,469,470,471,472],resolve_attr:291,resolve_bas:[381,471],resolve_dotted_attribut:460,resolve_nam:[252,472],resolveent:[412,413],resort:[93,103,185,265,266,361,370,458],resourc:[7,22,30,44,57,62,65,72,74,86,90,91,93,100,104,107,108,112,124,134,135,139,167,170,193,213,214,228,243,249,253,266,273,281,284,293,296,304,330,333,339,343,346,355,363,366,370,373,378,385,388,391,392,395,397,402,404,406,413,416,424,428,439,442,448,450,451,452,459,461,462,463,466,470,472],resource_nam:363,resource_path:252,resourcedeni:363,resourceload:[252,471,472],resourcemanag:170,resourceread:[252,471,472],resourcewarn:[22,128,214,229,293,350,363,385,397,446,466,470,472],resp:[159,265,288,309,469],respect:[5,6,7,17,21,22,28,30,35,42,43,45,47,51,58,65,74,78,79,81,82,84,90,91,92,93,98,103,104,106,113,122,143,151,152,153,156,159,162,168,169,177,178,184,187,190,193,195,197,209,210,212,214,222,225,227,232,244,246,251,252,254,257,261,266,267,268,269,275,279,284,293,298,301,307,310,311,324,333,335,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,349,350,351,355,359,366,367,372,373,380,385,394,408,422,424,426,428,432,436,445,448,451,453,456,458,460,462,464,466,467,468,470,471,472],respect_handler_level:[104,268,469,472],respond:[110,225,243,246,248,268,315,336,339,343,370,386,404,416,417,463,472],respons:[5,17,22,31,41,56,57,58,62,64,72,79,82,84,85,93,95,99,103,107,109,110,111,112,129,135,138,157,170,176,178,180,184,190,197,212,222,225,243,244,246,249,251,252,253,255,259,265,266,288,307,316,327,336,337,339,340,342,343,350,354,355,361,382,385,387,390,398,409,416,417,418,424,426,428,437,447,448,455,456,459,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],responseerror:472,responsenotreadi:243,ressembl:201,rest:[9,17,58,83,85,86,91,94,95,99,103,106,107,113,122,123,137,178,187,193,225,228,251,266,276,292,293,321,325,346,363,373,375,416,423,424,431,432,435,437,439,442,456,458,459,461,462,463,464,467,468,471,472],restart:[30,178,213,225,248,267,299,334,362,446,462,463,469,472],restat:310,restkei:176,reston:422,restor:[16,22,30,31,57,81,95,97,104,134,159,171,172,178,187,189,190,222,244,248,254,265,292,301,303,320,321,322,326,342,350,355,359,362,363,366,373,380,385,386,387,397,402,423,424,456,458,459,461,462,468,471,472],restore_sign:350,restrict:[7,62,79,81,82,84,94,95,106,117,122,123,152,159,161,177,178,183,184,187,189,206,222,225,227,248,255,261,284,293,297,300,310,314,321,339,343,346,347,348,366,386,407,416,417,422,423,426,427,431,432,436,437,451,455,457,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],restricted_load:301,restrictedunpickl:301,restructur:[87,91,107,309,456,457,462],restructuredtext:[0,62,69,74,86,193,472],restval:176,restyp:[177,461],result:[5,7,8,9,12,14,19,22,28,30,31,35,38,41,43,45,48,49,55,56,57,58,60,62,65,66,72,74,77,78,79,81,82,90,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,109,111,119,124,128,129,130,131,135,138,139,140,141,143,144,145,147,148,153,154,156,159,160,161,164,167,169,170,171,174,177,178,179,182,184,187,189,190,193,197,198,200,202,204,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,216,217,220,222,225,227,228,229,232,233,235,236,238,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,255,257,258,260,261,266,267,268,269,271,272,275,276,279,282,283,284,288,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,305,306,307,309,310,311,313,319,320,321,323,324,326,328,329,332,333,334,337,338,339,342,343,345,346,347,348,349,350,354,355,356,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,368,373,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,392,394,395,397,399,400,402,404,406,407,408,410,413,414,416,417,418,421,422,423,424,426,427,428,431,432,437,438,439,440,442,443,445,446,447,448,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],resultclass:385,resum:[13,93,99,132,135,136,137,140,170,178,179,190,254,284,293,299,301,316,318,362,366,404,423,424,426,436,458,459,460,461,472],resume_read:[132,135,471,472],resume_writ:[132,135],resumpt:[293,470,472],resurrect:[424,466],resynchron:[109,467],ret:404,retain:[65,79,108,122,161,170,178,197,206,209,214,248,251,252,254,260,266,271,297,332,342,343,350,380,391,416,422,424,426,431,467,468,470,472],retarget:404,retcod:350,retr:[225,307],retrain:464,retrbinari:225,retri:[62,95,106,110,214,227,268,293,329,330,334,339,343,350,392,425,437,458,459,463,472],retriev:[5,10,22,25,30,32,35,41,45,51,62,66,78,79,81,84,90,91,93,97,98,99,106,110,136,140,153,161,167,168,172,177,178,185,197,204,208,209,225,227,228,235,244,248,249,253,257,264,265,267,271,284,289,291,293,297,301,304,306,307,317,318,321,324,329,331,342,343,346,347,355,361,378,386,392,399,402,406,410,422,424,426,432,438,447,450,451,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,467,468,469,470,471,472],retrlin:225,retryabl:293,retryfactor:268,retrymax:268,retrystart:268,return_annot:254,return_except:[136,140,472],return_ok:244,return_stmt:[427,432],return_typ:95,return_valu:[96,145,190,386,387,466,468,470,472],return_when:[140,167],returncod:[134,135,138,350,469,472],returnfram:145,returntyp:382,retval:[190,457],reunion:201,reus:[79,82,86,95,107,129,159,170,177,185,193,212,215,228,237,252,293,321,339,340,343,349,363,365,366,386,399,423,428,435,461,466,472],reusabl:[62,72,317,404,468],reuse_address:[129,137],reuse_port:[129,137],reuseaddr:472,reuseport:472,rev:436,revamp:[96,463,466],reveal:[86,184,238,448,462,466,472],revealaccess:98,revers:[34,62,79,86,97,99,107,108,109,123,142,143,149,159,161,162,170,176,178,182,184,187,215,222,227,237,254,258,260,274,284,289,291,293,298,310,316,321,332,342,346,375,378,382,385,391,399,424,436,437,438,439,446,456,459,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],reverse_numer:108,reverse_ord:310,reverse_point:[258,469,472],revert:[98,104,171,225,243,244,326,363,451,463,467,470,472],review:[110,170,236,459,464,466,470,472],revis:[30,62,109,110,222,237,297,305,349,370,382,383,405,456,461,464,465,467,470,471,472,473],revisit:472,revoc:[343,468,472],revok:329,revolv:[193,237],rewind:[119,237,351,398],rework:[62,214,288,457,458,459,461,463,466,470,472,473],rewound:386,rewrap:[202,228],rewrit:[84,95,105,124,201,219,293,375,440,456,459,461,463,464,469,472],rewritenam:124,rewritten:[38,95,193,195,236,284,355,432,456,457,458,459,462,463,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],rewrot:[456,459],rexec:459,rexx:460,reykjavik:461,reynold:321,rezinski:90,rfactor:143,rfc2047:472,rfc2087:249,rfc2109:244,rfc2109_as_netscap:244,rfc2231:472,rfc2822:458,rfc2898:236,rfc2965:244,rfc4122:472,rfc822:[197,198,205,206,207,208,249,458,460],rfc822_escap:65,rfc:[62,65,103,104,106,110,144,147,159,176,195,196,197,198,200,201,202,203,204,206,208,209,210,225,232,236,238,242,243,244,245,246,249,253,255,258,261,265,268,271,272,288,307,319,336,337,339,343,348,360,367,390,391,392,404,405,416,447,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,469,471,472],rfc_4122:395,rfile:[246,340],rfind:[279,346,462,466,467,469,472],rgb:[97,163,178,250,292,370,380,468],rgb_to_hl:163,rgb_to_hsv:163,rgb_to_yiq:163,rgbimg:462,rgid:293,rglob:298,rgs:299,rhat:[342,461],rhel8:472,rhel:[471,472],rhoncu:151,rhythm:458,rica:410,riccardo:472,ricciardi:459,rich:[57,58,62,81,90,108,113,198,228,291,370,372,385,416,424,426,428,464,466,471,472,473],richard:[459,461,462,467,468,472],richcmpfunc:[57,81],richer:[93,470],richest:201,richi:459,richter:462,rid:[83,107,457,472],riddanc:107,ridg:370,ridicul:193,right:[7,14,15,38,43,58,62,63,65,66,68,69,74,77,78,79,84,91,93,95,97,99,104,106,107,109,111,113,123,124,125,143,145,149,153,156,157,159,161,170,177,178,184,187,189,190,193,197,214,217,222,227,228,236,248,249,254,266,274,288,289,291,292,295,298,301,310,321,331,339,343,346,347,356,365,370,371,372,373,380,385,386,387,392,397,400,401,408,421,422,423,424,426,431,432,436,438,442,445,448,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,468,470,471,472],right_list:217,right_onli:217,right_volum:295,rightarrow:248,righter:107,rightli:292,rightmost:[149,159,161,178,187,260,293,346,426,460],rightshift:374,rightshiftequ:374,rigo:[460,461,462,472],rigor:[99,227],rigour:472,riku:462,rindex:[346,463,466,467],rip:459,ripemd160:[236,466],risc:472,risco:[457,464],riscv:472,risk:[5,38,39,79,84,91,93,99,129,214,267,271,284,292,301,328,418,442,462,466,471,472],riski:[82,193,472],risu:151,riti:468,ritrovai:461,ritual:456,ritvanen:472,riverbank:87,riverbankcomput:453,rizvi:472,rjust:[346,442,460,467],rk1048:159,rkl:346,rl_attempted_completion_funct:322,rl_complet:322,rl_completer_word_break_charact:322,rl_completion_display_matches_hook:322,rl_completion_match:322,rl_completion_typ:322,rl_insert_text:322,rl_line_buff:322,rl_parse_and_bind:322,rl_pre_input_hook:322,rl_read_init_fil:322,rl_redisplai:322,rl_startup_hook:322,rlcomplet:[62,253,322,335,364,461,462,472],rle:147,rlecode_hqx:147,rledecode_hqx:147,rlim_cur:324,rlim_infin:324,rlimit_a:324,rlimit_cor:[324,363],rlimit_cpu:324,rlimit_data:324,rlimit_fs:324,rlimit_memlock:324,rlimit_msgqueu:[324,468],rlimit_nic:[324,468],rlimit_nofil:324,rlimit_nproc:324,rlimit_npt:[324,468],rlimit_ofil:324,rlimit_rss:324,rlimit_rtprio:[324,468],rlimit_rttim:[324,468],rlimit_sbs:[324,468],rlimit_sigpend:[324,468],rlimit_stack:324,rlimit_swap:[324,468],rlimit_vmem:324,rlist:329,rlock:[62,165,170,284,462,466,469,472],rm5epjai72qck3rgbpw3vpnfzy5ozothi:236,rmail:271,rmd:225,rmdir:[90,293,298,363,467],rmff:155,rmode:380,rms:143,rmtree:[62,90,220,293,363,399,467,471,472],rng:339,rnopen:331,roach:[470,472],road:245,roast:201,robert:[459,461,462,463,469,471,472],robin:[161,293,410,438,472],robla:472,robot:[62,253,255,380,389,456,472],robotfilepars:[393,470,472],robotpars:[62,253,255,389,456,464,472],robotstxt:393,robuff:95,robust:[82,84,153,185,254,310,345,369,399,447,453,463,466,468,469,472],robustli:463,roc:460,rocco:472,rock:[109,122],rocket_launch:244,rocki:[245,462],roddi:463,rodman:472,rodola:[463,466,469,471,472],rodolpho:466,rodrigu:472,roger:[465,472],roi:[463,472],role:[31,72,93,159,343,370,410,464,466,472],rolf:[470,472],roll:[75,161,184,268,342,361,363,385,436,461,462],rollback:[342,461,462],rollov:[268,361,468],roman8:460,roman:[109,222,384,459],romberg:458,rome:99,ron:466,ronach:[462,463,465,466,467,468],ronald:[321,461,462,463,466,468],ronni:470,roolz:[197,206],room:[38,50,386,430,464,472],root:[57,65,66,69,72,74,75,93,103,104,111,112,113,143,156,161,177,187,202,206,207,208,211,236,237,248,249,266,267,275,284,289,293,294,298,304,306,316,333,341,343,344,345,350,359,363,367,370,372,373,382,385,407,410,412,418,419,420,424,448,454,456,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,472],root_dir:[65,333],rootfd:293,rootlogg:104,rootobject:306,rose:[157,470,472],roseman:[370,472],rosemari:212,rosen:310,rosenberg:[469,472],rosett:472,roskind:[91,310],ross:[321,463,465,467],rossi:472,rossum:[84,86,91,93,370,420,422,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,468,469,470,471],rot13:[159,468,472],rot:[161,458],rot_13:159,rot_thre:190,rot_two:190,rotat:[62,103,161,187,268,380,460,462,463],rotatingfilehandl:[62,103,104,120,267,460,462,463],rotation_filenam:268,rotor:[459,460],rouault:[470,472],rough:[203,304,456],roughli:[86,91,107,109,228,244,252,260,282,284,292,293,346,366,370,381,423,424,456,462,463,471],rouin:422,roulett:320,roumen:472,round:[5,57,58,62,93,151,161,174,184,189,193,223,227,244,275,289,290,293,320,345,346,347,355,375,380,382,385,398,424,426,438,440,442,445,446,447,448,456,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,467,468,471,472],round_05up:187,round_ceil:[187,460],round_danc:380,round_down:[187,460],round_floor:[187,472],round_half_down:187,round_half_even:[187,460,472],round_half_up:187,round_up:187,round_up_to_power_2:472,roundoff:426,roundrobin:[161,260],roundtrip:342,roundup:[62,86],rout:[99,107,110,213,381,404,448,458,459,463,468],routeabl:468,router:[102,258],routin:[30,37,57,62,78,79,81,92,98,108,109,143,147,174,178,185,196,216,238,253,257,265,282,293,310,342,343,367,388,401,404,459,460,471,472],rovner:461,row:[62,79,91,152,176,248,300,373,375,380,431,438,445,461,465,466,469,470,472],row_factori:342,rowcount:342,rowid:342,royalti:422,rozerman:[],rpar:[374,375],rpartit:[252,346,461,463,466,472],rpath:111,rpc2:[417,461],rpc:[62,86,248,253,255,261,274,415,422,458,459,460,461,462,463,470,472],rpc_path:[417,461],rpm:[68,71,72,85,111,454,456,459],rpm_guid:454,rpop:307,rrate:393,rrggbb:370,rrrgggbbb:370,rrrrggggbbbb:370,rsa:[236,343,422,472],rsampl:143,rset:[307,336,337,472],rshift:[124,291],rsock:[129,135,137],rsplit:[346,460,463,466],rsqb:374,rss10:461,rss:[86,458],rst:[75,298,428,454,471,472],rstrip:[91,135,137,138,248,346,459,472],rstrip_w:65,rstripextens:472,rsync:391,rsyslog:268,rtld_:472,rtld_deepbind:[293,467],rtld_global:[177,293,355,467],rtld_lazi:[293,355,467],rtld_local:[177,293,467],rtld_nodelet:[293,467],rtld_noload:[293,467],rtld_now:[177,293,467],rtld_xxx:355,rtsp:391,rtspu:391,ru_idrss:324,ru_inblock:324,ru_isrss:324,ru_ixrss:324,ru_majflt:324,ru_maxrss:324,ru_minflt:324,ru_msgrcv:324,ru_msgsnd:324,ru_nivcsw:324,ru_nsign:324,ru_nswap:324,ru_nvcsw:324,ru_oublock:324,ru_stim:324,ru_utim:324,rubi:[87,99,448],rudiment:109,rudimentari:469,ruid:293,rule:[17,22,26,30,31,57,62,65,69,84,86,93,95,98,99,104,105,106,107,109,122,124,131,153,156,177,179,182,184,187,189,195,197,203,204,206,208,209,210,212,222,224,227,229,233,237,239,241,244,245,258,265,275,292,321,343,346,347,349,350,361,366,367,372,386,387,391,393,397,408,412,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,436,444,456,457,459,461,462,463,464,466,467,472],ruler:157,rume:[470,472],run:[1,22,26,30,31,41,54,57,58,62,65,66,67,68,69,70,72,74,77,78,79,80,82,83,84,85,86,87,89,91,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,109,111,112,113,114,115,117,122,126,127,131,132,133,135,136,137,138,139,142,145,153,154,158,161,167,168,171,174,177,178,182,186,187,188,192,193,201,204,209,214,215,228,229,230,232,236,237,243,244,245,246,252,254,260,265,267,268,271,280,284,286,288,292,293,294,298,299,305,310,313,315,320,322,324,325,326,327,332,333,334,335,336,339,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,356,365,366,367,368,369,370,373,376,378,380,386,387,390,392,393,395,396,397,399,400,402,404,417,418,421,423,424,425,426,428,431,434,436,437,439,440,444,446,447,448,449,451,452,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],run_coroutine_threadsaf:[127,128,140,469,470,472],run_docstring_exampl:193,run_doctest:[363,378],run_forev:[129,132,472],run_glob:378,run_in_executor:[128,129,132,140,472],run_in_subinterp:363,run_modul:[326,451,472],run_nam:326,run_onc:404,run_path:[326,451,463],run_python_until_end:363,run_script:280,run_setup:[65,472],run_test:472,run_unittest:[363,472],run_until_complet:[129,132,469,470,472],run_user_cod:377,run_with_local:363,run_with_tz:363,runawai:456,runcal:[145,299,310,472],runcod:158,runctx:[145,310,376],runev:[145,299],runfunc:376,runmainfromimport:472,runnabl:[129,396,472],runner:[193,385,397,460,463,472],runni:437,runpi:[62,253,281,378,428,451,461,462,463,465,468,472],runsourc:158,runtest:[193,385],runtim:[30,31,38,47,54,60,62,65,79,81,82,83,84,91,93,95,103,109,111,114,164,168,177,214,227,252,253,267,268,292,294,297,313,342,346,350,370,378,382,386,397,401,408,418,421,423,424,425,428,432,436,451,455,457,459,463,464,467,468,469,470,472],runtime_library_dir:[65,74],runtime_library_dir_opt:65,runtimeerror:[22,65,99,107,117,123,129,130,139,140,167,170,171,214,219,257,284,298,321,337,346,355,366,382,403,419,424,426,432,439,446,459,460,461,463,467,469,470,471,472],runtimewarn:[22,41,128,214,339,355,385,397,446,466],rupprecht:472,rusage_:324,rusage_both:324,rusage_children:324,rusage_self:324,rusage_thread:324,ruscii:159,rush:[422,456],russ:456,russel:460,russian:[109,159],ruthlessli:65,rutrum:151,rvalu:346,rwbuffer:95,rwf_dsync:293,rwf_hipri:293,rwf_nowait:293,rwf_sync:293,rwx:[212,333],rwxr:[94,333],rwxrwxrwx:[344,467],rx_addr:339,ryan:[463,467,468,470,471,472],ryosuk:472,s150:104,s390x:472,s92p:458,s_enfmt:[293,344],s_i:[143,344],s_iexec:[293,344],s_ifblk:[293,344],s_ifchr:[293,344],s_ifdir:344,s_ifdoor:[344,468],s_ififo:[293,344],s_iflnk:344,s_ifmt:344,s_ifport:[344,468],s_ifreg:[293,344],s_ifsock:344,s_ifwht:[344,468],s_imod:344,s_in:235,s_iread:[293,344],s_irgrp:[293,344],s_iroth:[293,344],s_irusr:[293,344],s_irwxg:[293,344],s_irwxo:[293,344],s_irwxu:[293,344],s_isblk:344,s_ischr:344,s_isdir:[293,344],s_isdoor:344,s_isfifo:344,s_isgid:[293,344],s_islnk:344,s_isport:344,s_isreg:344,s_issock:344,s_isuid:[293,344],s_isvtx:[293,344],s_iswht:344,s_iwgrp:[293,344],s_iwoth:[293,344],s_iwrit:[293,333,344],s_iwusr:[293,344],s_ixgrp:[293,344],s_ixoth:[293,344],s_ixusr:[293,344],s_ji:159,s_jisx0213:159,s_out:235,s_server:363,sabella:[470,471,472],sad:[212,464],sadli:[84,94],sadruddin:460,safari:400,safe:[21,22,30,31,38,41,51,57,58,62,65,66,78,79,81,82,91,93,104,124,128,129,131,132,134,135,136,138,139,140,144,151,152,153,161,170,176,177,178,182,193,201,215,227,236,238,239,248,252,257,265,266,267,269,271,284,293,297,301,314,318,326,327,328,329,331,332,335,339,343,347,350,363,366,386,387,391,395,397,399,406,412,436,455,456,457,459,462,463,466,467,471,472],safe_builtin:301,safe_substitut:[347,448,460],safechildwatch:134,safeconfigpars:466,safeguard:458,safer:[193,302,438,459,460,472],saferepr:309,safest:[97,271],safethread:90,safeti:[8,11,62,79,93,120,201,251,284,292,326,395,463,465,466,472],safetransport:416,safeuuid:[395,472],saha:[470,472],sai:[68,69,72,74,78,79,81,83,84,91,92,94,102,104,106,107,109,111,118,135,140,149,176,184,193,203,228,232,237,244,248,265,266,267,268,271,284,291,350,370,392,410,418,424,428,430,437,440,442,450,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,468,472],said:[31,84,91,93,97,98,168,284,423,424,431,444,445,457,458,470],saihadhav:472,saimadhav:472,sajip:[103,104,459,460,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471],sake:[65,94,95,97,104,206,237,293,332,427,428,459],sakki:[260,463],salad:346,salari:[227,346,436],sale:[86,465,466],sales_item:409,salesl:466,salgado:[469,472],salient:466,salli:467,salmela:99,salt1:236,salt2:236,salt:[174,236,328,424,451,466,467,472],salt_siz:236,salut:201,sam:[87,422,456,472],same:[3,5,7,8,9,14,19,21,22,24,25,30,31,34,35,37,38,41,42,45,47,49,51,53,55,56,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,68,69,70,72,74,78,79,81,82,84,85,86,90,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,114,115,117,118,122,123,124,125,128,129,134,135,138,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,150,152,153,156,158,159,161,164,167,168,169,170,171,172,174,176,177,178,179,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,193,195,196,197,202,203,204,206,208,209,210,212,214,216,217,219,221,223,225,227,228,230,232,233,235,236,237,238,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,258,259,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,276,279,282,283,284,288,289,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,302,305,307,309,310,311,314,315,316,318,320,321,322,323,324,327,329,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,347,349,350,351,355,356,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,371,372,373,375,377,380,381,382,384,385,386,390,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,407,410,412,416,417,418,419,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,433,434,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,445,446,447,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],same_fil:217,same_quantum:187,samefil:[294,298,468,469,472],samefileerror:[333,468,472],sameopenfil:294,sameorigin:343,samestat:[294,298,468],samp:459,sampl:[65,75,79,81,85,90,95,98,99,104,106,111,113,119,143,157,176,177,193,212,225,248,260,280,295,301,309,310,320,321,338,345,351,359,368,373,392,398,410,447,455,457,458,459,462,463,466,468,470,471,472],sample_config:[168,463],sample_nam:386,sampleproject:309,sampler:295,samples:119,sampletest:385,sampletestcas:385,sampling_r:338,sampmodul:459,sampwidth:[119,338,351,398],samson:472,samstag:184,samuel:[236,339,422,459,461,470],samwys:469,san:[343,393],sanad:472,sand:321,sandbox:326,sandler:466,sandov:[470,471,472],sandro:467,sane:[57,178,184,321,406],saner:31,sanit:[201,472],saniti:[31,58,468,472],sanjai:472,santa:422,santoso:472,sanyam:[471,472],sape:438,sapien:151,sapin:472,saratoga:422,sarcast:458,sarnowski:472,sat:[104,152,184,343],satisfact:[86,343],satisfactorili:79,satisfi:[79,91,110,182,235,257,275,349,366,424,428,438,466],satur:[163,466],saturdai:[152,184],saturn:212,sau:227,sausag:[161,227,346],sauvag:455,savag:453,save:[1,22,30,31,38,57,58,62,78,79,81,84,85,91,93,95,99,103,104,106,111,122,142,149,151,153,154,157,168,170,178,184,201,210,228,229,244,248,260,265,268,269,271,292,293,301,310,315,320,321,322,335,342,355,363,367,370,380,397,402,416,421,423,424,435,436,437,441,443,446,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,468,471,472],save_histori:322,savecount:142,savedcwd:363,savekei:402,savepoint:342,savesign:363,savetti:178,saw:[74,79,438],saw_foo:292,sawyer:472,sax2:[62,253,273,406,408],sax2dom:409,sax2lib:412,sax:[62,253,273,406,407,408,409,447,456,457,471,472],saxexcept:[62,273],saxnotrecognizedexcept:[411,413],saxnotsupportedexcept:[411,413],saxparseexcept:[411,412],saxutil:[62,253,273,411],say_aft:140,say_hello:[96,375],say_hi:370,sayan:472,sbardella:472,sbin:[90,177,321],sc22:355,sc_iov_max:[293,339],scalabl:[329,456],scalar:[7,143,197,200,380,382,472],scale:[320,329,373,382,456,459,462,470,471,472],scaleb:187,scalet:472,scan:[69,74,91,92,95,99,101,103,106,107,159,161,178,230,232,246,293,305,321,329,363,370,392,425,447,451,458,459,461,463,466,469,472],scandir:[62,233,293,470,471,472],scandir_path:293,scanf:[62,364],scanner:[92,321,358,375,468,472],scardin:467,scari:472,scatter:[339,458,459,463],scelerisqu:151,scenario:[95,103,104,266,267,385,386,387,392,428,468,470],scene:[177,436,442],scgi:404,schaaf:[466,467],sched:[62,165,253,462,472],sched_:472,sched_batch:293,sched_fifo:293,sched_get_priority_max:[293,467],sched_get_priority_min:[293,467],sched_getaffin:[284,293,467],sched_getparam:[293,467],sched_getschedul:[293,467],sched_idl:293,sched_oth:293,sched_param:293,sched_prior:293,sched_reset_on_fork:293,sched_rr:293,sched_rr_get_interv:[293,467],sched_setaffin:[293,467,472],sched_setparam:[293,467],sched_setschedul:[293,467],sched_sporad:293,sched_yield:[293,467],schedul:[30,62,86,90,120,127,128,131,132,137,141,161,165,167,237,253,254,324,334,355,367,373,426,458,461,462,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],schema:[62,120,282,463,472],scheme:[7,28,57,62,81,99,104,107,110,125,137,143,159,177,184,211,248,251,271,296,319,320,335,343,346,355,356,359,372,391,392,404,424,451,456,457,459,462,463,466,467,468,469,472],schemenau:[456,457,458,459,461,463,466,469],schiller:343,schlawack:[467,468],schmidt:456,schmitt:462,schneider:456,schnell:462,schnider:472,schoentgen:472,school:[89,187,345,349,459],schoolbook:187,schouten:472,schroeder:461,schuppeni:462,schwab:472,schwartz:[91,108,462],schwartzian:108,schwertberg:457,sci:422,scienc:[99,106,184,345,366,469],scientif:[62,187,347,450,455,462],scientist:366,scintilla:91,scipi:[72,440,447,450,455],scissor:122,scm:305,scm_:339,scm_right:339,scol:375,scoop:[437,464],scope:[11,31,62,82,84,91,93,95,102,103,104,114,115,145,161,190,212,227,254,299,309,316,322,332,339,343,354,355,386,387,408,410,412,423,424,425,426,428,432,437,441,456,462,464,466,467,470,471,472,473],scope_test:436,scopeid:[339,472],score:[149,189,448],scott:[109,459,461],scram:467,scraper:456,scratch:[62,94,195,199,202,208,285,343,407,467,468],screen:[62,84,91,97,99,101,109,157,169,178,180,224,248,322,350,370,372,373,375,439,448,456,458,459,462,466,469,472],screennam:[370,372],screenshot:463,screensiz:380,screw:107,script:[30,31,60,62,67,68,69,70,71,72,75,77,78,79,81,84,85,86,87,89,93,94,95,101,103,104,110,111,113,122,164,170,185,189,192,193,211,214,224,230,232,241,245,246,252,253,255,281,292,299,310,311,313,315,317,326,331,335,342,355,358,363,370,373,375,385,392,396,400,404,417,418,425,428,430,431,432,433,435,436,439,441,444,447,448,449,450,451,452,454,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],script_arg:65,script_basenam:363,script_dir:363,script_from_exampl:193,script_help:[62,188,253,472],script_nam:[65,363,404],scriptfil:90,scroll:[62,97,157,178,248,253,369,370,373,472],scrollabl:[62,248,369,372],scrollbar:[248,370,371,373,380,472],scrollcommand:[370,373],scrolledcanva:380,scrolledlist:472,scrolledtext:[62,253,369,370],scroller:472,scrollok:178,scrypt:[236,470,472],sdeedfish:106,sdev:90,sdist:[66,71,72,75,77,456,457,461,463,470,471,472],sdk:[65,472],sdt:101,sdux:66,se_restore_privileg:402,sea_green:212,seabra:472,seal:[62,188,466,471,472],seal_ballot:466,seamlessli:98,sean:[457,459,460,461,463,472],search:[1,13,22,28,30,31,54,58,62,64,65,68,70,74,81,84,86,90,91,92,93,98,103,109,143,153,159,161,164,177,183,193,197,212,217,227,232,248,249,251,252,264,265,266,267,269,279,280,288,293,299,301,304,310,313,314,315,332,333,335,342,346,355,361,364,372,380,385,392,393,400,407,409,410,412,417,419,420,423,424,425,429,432,435,436,437,438,441,444,445,447,448,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,469,470,471,472],search_criterion:249,search_funct:[13,159],searchabl:[361,428],searchdialogbas:472,season:227,sebackupprivileg:402,sebastian:472,sec:[106,284,367,368,469],seccomp:472,sechrest:339,secker:463,second:[5,19,21,22,30,31,33,53,58,61,74,75,79,81,82,83,84,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,117,119,127,128,129,131,136,137,139,140,141,143,153,159,167,168,170,172,177,178,184,187,189,190,193,196,201,204,209,210,212,214,215,216,219,223,225,227,230,232,236,237,243,244,248,249,251,252,254,257,266,267,268,271,272,275,276,283,284,291,292,293,294,295,299,303,307,309,310,318,320,321,324,329,330,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,350,355,356,359,360,361,362,363,366,367,368,370,373,375,380,382,385,386,391,392,393,395,404,410,416,419,424,426,428,431,432,437,438,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,469,470,471,472],second_16:177,second_patch:386,secondari:[108,161,248,310,355,434,444,445,446,463,464,472],secondaryexcept:464,secondli:104,secp:472,secreatesymboliclinkprivileg:293,secreci:[343,472],secret:[30,62,135,175,236,238,253,284,292,293,307,320,343,422,436,451,456,472],secret_kei:236,sectcr:168,section1:168,section2:168,section3:168,section:[7,15,16,31,38,47,50,53,57,58,62,65,66,68,69,70,71,72,74,75,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,86,91,93,95,97,99,101,102,103,104,106,109,110,111,122,129,132,134,135,136,137,138,140,144,146,153,157,159,161,168,170,176,177,182,185,187,193,195,196,199,203,204,212,213,227,232,236,242,243,244,248,249,251,256,257,260,261,266,267,271,292,293,301,305,307,309,310,316,321,328,329,339,342,343,346,347,349,350,355,359,366,368,369,380,385,386,387,391,392,404,406,407,408,410,412,413,416,419,422,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,433,436,437,438,440,442,446,447,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],section_nam:168,section_proxi:168,sectionnam:472,sector:142,secur:[62,71,91,104,111,129,144,165,175,225,238,243,244,245,246,249,253,255,267,268,269,274,284,286,288,293,301,307,316,320,332,335,337,339,361,392,402,404,406,408,409,410,411,416,417,421,456,457,458,459,461,462,466,467,469,470,471],security_attribut:402,see:[0,5,7,10,13,16,17,22,28,30,31,36,41,43,52,53,54,57,58,60,63,64,65,66,72,74,75,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,118,121,122,123,127,128,129,131,132,134,135,136,137,138,140,143,145,146,148,150,152,153,157,159,161,162,164,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,176,177,178,182,184,187,188,189,190,193,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,212,214,215,216,217,219,221,223,225,227,228,229,232,234,235,236,237,240,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,272,274,275,279,280,282,284,288,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,299,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,310,312,313,315,316,318,320,321,322,324,325,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,350,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,364,365,366,367,368,369,370,372,373,376,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,396,397,399,402,404,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,429,430,431,432,434,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,444,445,446,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],see_oth:242,seed:[30,84,93,293,320,343,355,422,451,463,466,472],seed_bit:355,seeder:320,seek:[85,90,91,109,119,155,176,192,213,216,219,227,237,257,279,301,359,361,363,419,421,442,456,462,465,472],seek_:257,seek_cur:[216,257,279,293,461,465],seek_data:[257,293,467],seek_end:[216,257,279,293,461,465],seek_hol:[257,293,467],seek_set:[216,257,279,293,461,465],seekabl:[119,151,257,351,398,419,462,472],seem:[74,79,82,83,84,85,86,92,95,99,103,106,122,141,217,271,280,293,310,428,438,456,457,458,459,461],seemingli:[79,193,426,456],seen:[79,81,90,93,94,95,99,104,157,232,236,254,260,268,271,292,307,320,332,363,397,399,410,412,421,436,437,439,447,451,459,462,465,468,471,472],seen_add:260,seen_greet:336,segev:[471,472],segfault:[95,460,461,470,471,472],segment:[17,38,44,156,177,193,215,216,221,293,298,343,367,391,396,404,461,463,466,467,472],segreg:467,segv:472,sehensw:466,seifert:472,seilnacht:463,sekera:472,sektion:329,sel:330,seldom:350,select:[1,7,58,60,62,64,65,66,74,90,92,93,103,106,107,109,112,122,125,141,143,156,161,170,177,178,211,212,214,225,227,232,243,247,248,249,252,253,257,259,260,261,265,267,269,282,284,288,301,307,310,311,313,315,320,330,334,337,339,340,342,346,347,349,361,365,366,367,368,372,373,380,387,392,400,404,410,414,421,423,424,425,426,428,437,439,442,447,448,449,453,455,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,469,470,471,472],selected_alpn_protocol:[343,469],selected_npn_protocol:343,selection_add:[373,472],selection_el:472,selection_get:373,selection_remov:[373,472],selection_set:[373,472],selection_toggl:[373,472],selectmod:373,selector:[62,99,128,129,133,243,253,259,260,329,340,343,362,369,392,463,465,471,472],selectoreventloop:[129,133,134,472],selectorkei:330,selectorloop:472,selectselector:[129,133,330],self:[5,21,26,40,53,57,62,65,66,70,78,79,81,82,85,90,93,96,98,99,101,104,107,108,118,122,124,125,134,135,141,145,150,157,161,162,170,173,177,182,184,187,190,204,206,212,223,227,228,232,241,244,252,254,258,260,261,274,284,289,292,298,299,301,322,323,340,342,346,347,363,370,372,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,392,396,399,407,410,414,416,417,418,423,424,428,436,437,439,441,447,448,449,451,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],self_convert:95,self_test:90,selfsigned_pythontestdotnet:472,selftest:451,selik:472,selinux:472,selivanov:[466,467,468,469,470,471,472],sell:[86,342,422,461],selm:90,selma:99,selop:373,selva:461,sem:139,sem_getvalu:[284,472],sem_open:472,sem_timedwait:[284,472],semant:[5,7,10,31,57,58,65,86,93,95,103,104,105,135,162,185,187,193,197,203,206,208,209,212,227,249,251,252,253,256,266,267,268,271,284,292,293,295,298,301,313,318,321,331,332,333,339,344,366,367,382,391,402,421,423,424,425,426,428,429,432,436,437,450,451,456,458,459,461,462,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],semaphor:[62,90,101,117,127,165,213,284,355,448,462,466,467,472],semaphore_not:466,semi:[95,112,284,292,320,374,472],semicircl:380,semicolon:[5,30,82,106,240,342,423,432,451,455],seminumer:187,semper:151,send:[7,62,85,86,93,97,99,103,105,106,107,110,125,127,129,132,135,137,138,141,143,153,154,159,162,170,178,195,201,202,213,222,225,232,243,246,248,249,266,267,268,284,288,293,301,307,319,330,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,350,357,362,382,383,392,404,424,426,447,448,450,456,459,460,461,463,466,467,469,470,471,472],send_byt:284,send_error:[246,468,472],send_ev:370,send_fd:339,send_flowing_data:222,send_formatted_data:222,send_head:246,send_hor_rul:222,send_json:104,send_label_data:222,send_line_break:222,send_literal_data:222,send_messag:[201,209,337,466,469,472],send_paragraph:222,send_respons:246,send_response_onli:246,send_sign:[132,135,138,350,462,472],sendal:[129,339,340,343,469,472],sendcmd:225,sender:[90,201,204,209,271,337],sendfil:[129,130,132,135,293,339,343,404,467,469,471,472],sendfilenotavailableerror:[129,130],sendmail:[90,106,202,209,321,337,447,466,469],sendmsg:[339,467,469],sendmsg_afalg:[339,470],sendto:[132,135,339,340,469,472],sendtyp:382,sens:[57,65,81,84,91,94,95,102,103,111,113,122,123,125,149,184,187,189,206,207,212,228,258,271,292,310,334,340,342,343,346,347,355,368,370,380,400,422,424,428,436,440,464,466,468,469,471],sensibl:[74,107,110,168,184,236,254,292,366,386,387,426,460,463,470,471,472],sensit:[30,58,161,168,221,249,268,276,296,298,385,397,457,459,460,461,462,468,472],sent:[1,22,62,95,97,99,103,107,109,110,125,129,135,138,141,144,170,178,201,225,236,241,243,245,246,248,249,258,266,267,268,284,288,293,299,307,324,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,350,367,368,382,392,404,416,417,442,448,455,456,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,472],sentenc:[99,106,321,365,458,459,462,472],senthil:[463,466,468,469],sentinel:[28,33,62,79,81,82,95,104,182,188,227,260,268,284,387,458,467,471,472],seo:[460,467],sep:[58,91,99,184,187,227,233,245,248,293,294,343,346,347,378,437,444,451,458,461,462,463,464],separ:[22,30,50,54,57,58,62,65,66,68,70,74,75,80,83,85,90,91,95,96,97,103,104,105,106,108,109,111,113,118,122,130,134,137,152,153,156,157,159,161,167,168,170,176,177,179,184,187,189,193,197,202,203,206,209,212,221,222,227,228,232,237,246,248,249,252,256,257,258,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,276,284,288,291,292,293,294,299,304,309,315,316,321,326,332,335,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,350,362,363,365,366,368,369,370,376,385,387,391,392,395,396,397,399,400,404,419,422,423,424,426,428,430,431,432,437,438,442,445,446,447,448,451,455,456,458,460,461,462,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],septemb:[431,456,467,469],seq1:[99,291,456],seq2:[21,99,291,456],seq:[33,58,91,161,221,227,260,291,320,346,456,460,466],seq_of_paramet:342,seq_typ:385,seqdict:459,seqnum:448,sequenc:[2,5,7,13,21,29,30,31,33,35,38,45,46,51,54,58,60,62,65,67,74,81,84,85,90,93,95,97,99,104,106,109,113,123,124,129,137,140,144,146,153,158,159,161,162,165,176,177,178,189,190,193,197,203,206,207,210,212,213,214,219,222,227,228,232,237,239,244,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,262,265,267,269,271,276,282,284,290,291,292,293,294,297,298,301,302,303,304,309,314,316,321,323,327,328,329,333,339,342,343,345,347,355,359,360,364,367,368,370,373,375,377,378,380,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,395,397,399,402,407,410,411,421,423,424,426,427,428,430,431,432,436,437,441,445,448,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],sequence1:[99,456],sequence2:[99,456],sequence2st:297,sequence3:99,sequenceinclud:[113,463,464],sequencemanag:472,sequencematch:[62,364,457,461,462,468],sequencen:[99,456],sequenti:[90,107,128,164,219,236,257,284,310,346,363,386,448,472],serbian:159,sergei:472,serhii:[109,467,468,469,470,471,472],seri:[7,30,86,93,99,106,108,113,122,157,161,176,177,187,190,227,292,316,339,346,356,366,372,382,386,387,391,404,426,437,445,446,458,460,461,462,463,468,471,473],serial:[30,37,62,104,168,195,197,198,202,204,206,207,208,209,253,261,266,268,300,306,331,334,337,342,355,410,442,456,462,463,465,466,467,468,472],serialis:[104,159,326],serializ:[245,261],serialnum:349,serialnumb:343,seriou:[84,93,103,129,193,214,284,386],serious:236,serna:467,serra:472,serv:[5,79,82,84,86,93,103,104,114,129,135,137,187,193,203,204,227,228,237,241,246,267,284,297,301,315,342,343,380,382,404,410,417,428,431,436,437,439,460,464,466,467,469,471],serve_forev:[129,135,137,171,246,284,340,404,416,417,461,462,467,471,472],serve_until_quit:472,serve_until_stop:104,server:[62,86,89,90,91,97,99,103,107,110,111,125,126,127,132,153,168,171,177,191,195,199,201,209,225,228,236,242,243,244,245,248,249,253,255,258,266,267,268,284,288,293,307,315,320,329,330,337,339,342,355,357,360,363,366,370,378,382,385,390,392,406,422,447,448,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,467,468,469,470,472,473],server_activ:[340,417,462],server_address:[246,340,404],server_auth:[343,468],server_bind:[340,417,462],server_class:[246,404],server_clos:[340,471,472],server_document:417,server_hostnam:[129,137,343,466,471,472],server_log:[99,461],server_nam:[246,404,417],server_name_callback:343,server_port:[246,404],server_sid:[129,343],server_softwar:404,server_thread:340,server_titl:417,server_vers:246,serveraliveinterv:168,serverhandl:472,servernam:284,serverproxi:[62,255,417,469,472],serversocket:107,serverthread:472,servic:[62,104,107,110,141,165,247,253,254,266,268,283,284,293,305,320,323,329,337,339,340,343,346,367,406,416,424,433,451,455,456,460,463,467,472],service_act:[340,467],service_end:320,service_pack:[355,463],service_pack_major:[355,463],service_pack_minor:[355,463],service_start:320,service_tim:320,service_unavail:242,servicenam:339,servo:106,serwi:[465,472],session:[62,91,92,103,104,125,157,193,214,225,243,244,284,307,311,322,330,337,342,355,392,432,434,443,446,451,455,460,467,468,470,472],session_reus:343,session_stat:343,set:[2,3,4,5,7,9,10,11,13,14,15,16,17,18,21,22,23,25,26,27,28,30,31,32,34,35,37,38,41,44,45,47,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,62,65,66,68,70,74,75,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,113,115,117,119,122,124,125,126,128,130,131,132,135,137,138,139,140,141,145,149,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,171,172,174,176,177,178,179,180,182,183,184,186,187,188,189,190,193,195,197,198,199,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,216,222,224,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,236,237,241,242,243,244,245,246,249,251,253,254,257,258,259,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,274,275,276,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,288,291,292,293,294,295,296,298,299,301,303,305,307,309,310,313,315,316,318,320,321,322,324,325,326,329,331,332,333,335,336,337,339,340,342,344,345,347,348,350,351,355,356,357,358,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,369,371,372,373,376,378,381,382,384,385,386,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,405,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,421,423,424,425,428,431,432,434,436,441,442,444,446,447,448,450,451,452,453,456,457,458,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],set_add:190,set_aft:131,set_al:[31,228],set_allowed_domain:244,set_alpn_protocol:[343,469],set_app:404,set_asyncgen_hook:[355,426],set_attr:359,set_author:[342,472],set_auto_histori:[322,470,472],set_block:[293,469,472],set_blocked_domain:244,set_boundari:[197,200,206],set_break:145,set_callback:79,set_charset:197,set_child_watch:[133,134],set_children:373,set_ciph:343,set_complet:[322,325],set_completer_delim:[322,472],set_completion_display_matches_hook:322,set_conflict_handl:292,set_cont:[197,198,199,201,206,208,209],set_continu:145,set_cooki:244,set_cookie_if_ok:244,set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth:[254,355,471,472],set_coroutine_wrapp:[355,469,471,472],set_curr:282,set_dat:271,set_data:252,set_dead:228,set_debug:[128,129,132,229,469],set_debuglevel:[225,243,288,307,337,360,469],set_default:[122,292,472],set_default_executor:[129,132],set_default_typ:[197,206],set_default_verify_path:[343,468],set_displai:426,set_ecdh_curv:[343,467],set_errno:[177,462],set_event_loop:[129,132,133,134],set_event_loop_polici:[132,133,134,135,138],set_except:[128,131,140,167,470,472],set_exception_handl:[129,132],set_execut:[65,284,418],set_flag:271,set_forkserver_preload:472,set_from:271,set_handle_inherit:[293,350,468],set_history_length:322,set_include_dir:65,set_info:271,set_inherit:[293,329,339,468,472],set_label:271,set_last_error:[177,462],set_librari:65,set_library_dir:65,set_lineno:459,set_link_object:65,set_liter:113,set_load:[252,468],set_loc:331,set_match_test:363,set_memlimit:363,set_merg:472,set_next:145,set_nomemori:472,set_nonstandard_attr:244,set_npn_protocol:[343,467],set_ok:244,set_option_negotiation_callback:360,set_output_charset:232,set_packag:[252,468],set_param:[197,206,468],set_pasv:[225,457],set_payload:[197,207,472],set_polici:244,set_posit:405,set_pre_input_hook:322,set_progress_handl:[342,472],set_protocol:[132,135,472],set_proxi:[392,416,468],set_python_build:65,set_quit:145,set_recsrc:295,set_result:[131,135,140,167,472],set_return:145,set_reuse_addr:141,set_running_or_notify_cancel:167,set_runtime_library_dir:65,set_sampl:472,set_seq1:189,set_seq2:189,set_seq:189,set_sequ:271,set_server_document:417,set_server_nam:417,set_server_titl:417,set_servername_callback:[343,468],set_siz:458,set_spac:222,set_start_method:[284,468],set_startup_hook:322,set_stat:228,set_step:145,set_subdir:271,set_symmetric_differ:472,set_sys_last_var:22,set_task_factori:[129,132,469,472],set_termin:[125,472],set_threshold:229,set_trac:[145,193,227,299,355,451,471,472],set_trace_callback:[342,467],set_tunnel:[243,416,466,472],set_typ:197,set_unittest_reportflag:193,set_unixfrom:[197,206],set_until:145,set_url:393,set_usag:292,set_userptr:180,set_valu:104,set_vis:271,set_wakeup_fd:[22,334,462,469,471,472],set_write_buffer_limit:[132,135],setacl:[249,458],setannot:249,setattr:[91,122,227,252,292,399,436,446,456,472],setattrfunc:[57,81],setattribut:407,setattributen:407,setattributenod:407,setattributenoden:407,setattrofunc:[57,81],setbas:316,setbg:380,setblock:[107,293,330,339,343,472],setbytestream:413,setcbreak:379,setcharacterstream:413,setcheckinterv:[355,446,459],setcomp:124,setcomptyp:[119,351,398],setcontenthandl:[413,456],setcontext:187,setdaemon:[366,462],setdefault:[21,84,161,162,185,245,346,404,424,456,459,466,467,472],setdefaultencod:456,setdefaulttimeout:[110,339],setdlopenflag:[293,355,446,458,467],setdocumentloc:412,setdtdhandl:413,setegid:293,setencod:413,setentityresolv:413,setenv:65,seterrorhandl:413,seterrormod:363,seteuid:293,setfeatur:[409,411,413],setfilesystemencod:466,setfirstweekdai:152,setfmt:295,setformatt:[103,104,266,268],setframer:[119,351,398],setgid:293,setgroup:293,seth:[380,472],sethead:380,sethostnam:[339,467],seti:380,setinteg:282,setitem:[190,291,387],setitim:[334,462,472],setlasterror:177,setlevel:[103,104,128,266,284,459],setlocal:[58,178,257,265,413,448,469],setloggerclass:[104,266],setlogmask:357,setlogrecordfactori:[104,266],setmark:119,setmaxconn:392,setmod:283,setnam:366,setnchannel:[119,351,398],setnfram:[119,351,398],setparam:[119,351,398],setparamentitypars:316,setparamet:295,setpassword:419,setpgid:293,setpgrp:293,setpo:[119,351,380,398],setposit:380,setprior:[293,467],setprofil:[284,355,366,446,458,472],setproperti:[282,413],setpublicid:413,setquota:249,setraw:379,setrecsrc:295,setrecursionlimit:[248,301,355,446,456,472],setregid:293,setresgid:[293,463],setresuid:[293,463],setreuid:293,setrlimit:[324,363,472],setsampwidth:[119,351,398,468],setscrreg:178,setsid:[293,350,472],setsockopt:[339,343,463,470],setsockopt_str:104,setstat:[159,320,472],setstr:282,setstream:[268,282,471,472],setswitchinterv:[30,90,355,363,446,466,472],setsystemid:413,setsyx:178,settabl:[209,248,397,456,458,472],settarget:268,setter:[45,53,82,98,118,227,366,386,392,462,468],settiltangl:380,settimeofdai:367,settimeout:[339,343,392,459,472],settl:[320,462],settrac:[145,284,355,366,446,458,472],setuid:293,setundobuff:380,setup:[38,62,65,66,69,70,71,72,75,77,79,82,97,104,110,111,170,192,193,298,340,343,363,368,380,385,386,387,449,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,470,472],setup_annot:[190,470],setup_async_with:190,setup_environ:404,setup_except:190,setup_fin:190,setup_keyword:459,setup_loop:190,setup_python:396,setup_script:396,setup_testing_default:404,setup_with:190,setupclass:[62,188,463],setupmodul:[62,188,463],setupterm:178,setuptool:[64,82,192,309,396,449,453,455,463,470,472],setvalu:402,setvalueex:[402,472],setworldcoordin:380,setx:[98,227,380,455],setxattr:[293,467,472],seven:[95,152,187,245,254,356,387,466],seventh:359,sever:[7,23,26,30,31,38,60,65,66,68,74,75,78,79,80,81,83,84,86,87,89,90,91,93,95,98,99,103,104,106,107,109,110,111,113,122,127,128,129,136,138,152,158,159,161,162,167,169,177,178,184,185,187,190,193,196,200,212,213,214,222,225,237,242,252,253,254,256,258,266,267,268,271,273,282,284,287,292,293,294,295,298,301,308,309,310,313,321,323,330,336,337,339,340,343,344,346,349,350,359,366,372,373,375,376,377,380,384,385,386,387,389,392,397,399,402,403,406,412,416,421,422,424,428,430,432,435,437,439,441,442,445,446,453,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],sewel:472,seymour:380,sf_append:[293,344],sf_archiv:[293,344],sf_immut:[293,344],sf_mnowait:293,sf_nodiskio:293,sf_nounlink:[293,344],sf_snapshot:[293,344],sf_sync:293,sftp:391,sgi:250,sgid:293,sgml:[241,273,414,462],sgmlop:456,sha1:[236,461,463,466,472],sha224:[236,461,463,466],sha256:[236,339,343,461,463,466,472],sha2:343,sha384:[236,343,461,463,466],sha3:236,sha3_224:[236,470],sha3_256:[236,470],sha3_384:[236,47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,266,267,292,299,310,315,321,327,347,350,367,372,373,377,380,385,386,387,391,397,399,435,437,439,455,462,469,470,471,472],showparti:272,showrefcount:[451,468],showroom:466,showsyntaxerror:158,showtop:472,showtraceback:[158,469,472],showturtl:380,showwarn:[397,462,472],showwindow:350,shrink:[55,185,460,472],shrt:346,shrug:107,shrunk:[457,472],shtml:463,shttp:391,shtull:458,shuffl:[90,320,321,466],shut:[78,93,107,129,142,246,329,339,340,355,380,448,451,459,463,469,472],shut_rd:339,shut_rdwr:[339,343,472],shut_wr:339,shutdown:[38,93,107,142,167,213,214,229,249,266,284,334,339,340,343,366,385,399,402,424,451,462,466,468,469,471,472],shutdown_asyncgen:[129,132,355,426,470],shutil:[62,90,104,110,121,167,220,227,235,253,293,350,359,363,399,447,459,462,463,471,472],si_band:[334,472],si_cod:[293,334],si_errno:334,si_pid:[293,334],si_signo:[293,334],si_statu:[293,334],si_uid:[293,334],sibl:[7,91,113,122,227,373,407,446],sicp:99,siddharth:472,side:[7,13,28,30,55,62,79,81,84,90,91,95,99,104,106,107,109,110,124,129,135,149,153,156,161,167,170,178,188,189,197,211,225,228,243,244,252,265,284,288,304,313,320,325,326,331,339,340,346,350,363,370,373,385,386,399,404,410,426,428,432,437,438,445,446,448,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],side_effect:[386,387,470,472],sidebar:[1,472],sidestep:460,sidh:461,sig:[64,71,74,86,109,112,129,159,236,254,293,334,375,453,456,457,459,463,469],sig_block:334,sig_dfl:[22,117,334,350,472],sig_ign:[22,117,334,350],sig_setmask:334,sig_unblock:334,sigabrt:[215,293,334,451,467,472],sigact:54,sigalrm:[334,472],sigaltstack:[215,472],sigbreak:334,sigbu:[215,451,467],sigchld:[134,334],sigfp:[215,334,451,467,472],sight:[79,143],sighup:334,sigil:[215,334,451,467],siginfo_t:[293,334,472],sigint:[22,62,85,117,284,299,318,334,385,466,472],siginterrupt:[334,462,467],sigiot:472,sigkil:[135,138,284,293,350,460,471,472],sigma:320,sigmask:334,sign:[17,45,57,62,81,91,106,123,143,156,159,161,177,178,184,187,197,210,223,227,230,236,265,267,268,272,275,284,292,293,295,299,321,346,347,349,366,367,391,424,426,431,438,442,444,445,448,455,457,458,460,461,462,463,466,468,470,472],signal:[29,30,45,54,57,62,97,99,104,106,117,126,128,132,134,135,138,142,143,167,177,178,186,188,193,214,227,243,253,257,259,266,267,275,284,290,292,293,299,311,321,324,329,330,332,339,343,347,350,355,363,366,367,382,392,410,412,416,426,428,439,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,470,472],signalnum:334,signam:129,signatur:[16,41,53,57,62,77,91,95,98,103,104,129,146,160,161,162,170,182,212,217,227,228,236,248,252,257,266,267,292,301,315,317,333,336,343,350,355,380,382,386,387,391,412,416,421,436,438,462,465,466,468,469,470,472,473],signer:236,signifi:[17,105,212,225,246,252,342,343,424,431],signific:[5,31,37,62,99,104,106,109,134,159,179,187,193,198,227,258,260,268,275,301,310,320,346,347,355,366,385,395,424,428,430,431,440,448,451,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,469,470,471,472],significand:[347,355],significantli:[91,102,135,167,257,293,297,343,408,424,457,459,460,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],signoff:307,signon:107,signum:[90,129,215,334],sigpend:[334,467],sigpip:[62,350],sigprocmask:334,sigprof:334,sigquit:334,sigsegv:[215,334,451,467,472],sigset:[334,472],sigsgv:472,sigterm:[62,135,138,284,334,350,462],sigtimedwait:[334,467,469,472],sigvtalrm:334,sigwait:[334,467],sigwaitinfo:[334,467,469,472],sigwinch:[178,472],sigxcpu:324,sigxfsz:350,sigxfz:350,sijin:467,sila:472,silenc:[31,122,325,333,394,463,466,468,472],silent:[5,45,51,60,65,96,103,104,109,117,135,142,170,187,214,219,229,249,251,266,268,271,293,295,298,299,310,333,335,339,347,350,386,391,432,437,451,455,456,460,461,463,464,466,468,469,471,472],silentghost:[469,470,472],silli:[177,292,387],sillier:292,similar:[5,7,21,22,26,28,30,41,45,53,54,57,58,60,61,65,66,74,78,79,81,84,85,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,98,99,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,113,118,129,135,136,137,138,139,140,147,149,152,153,156,158,159,161,167,168,169,170,172,176,177,178,181,182,184,185,187,189,190,196,197,206,208,212,214,227,230,232,234,236,237,241,243,244,246,248,252,254,257,258,260,265,267,269,276,283,284,289,292,293,298,299,301,304,307,310,312,315,321,323,328,332,337,339,340,341,343,346,347,355,356,359,361,365,367,372,377,378,380,382,385,387,391,399,404,406,407,408,410,411,414,416,421,424,426,428,431,432,434,436,438,439,442,443,446,449,451,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],similarli:[26,54,65,84,91,95,99,106,109,111,113,122,129,138,153,159,182,184,193,221,229,243,267,271,284,293,298,301,303,310,318,321,338,339,343,346,349,350,355,368,372,378,385,405,419,432,438,456,460,461,462,463,466,468,469,471,472],simionato:459,simon04:472,simon:[459,472],simpkin:467,simpl:[7,30,31,39,57,58,61,62,66,68,69,71,74,75,77,80,81,86,87,90,91,92,94,95,96,97,98,99,102,104,108,109,110,111,114,117,122,124,137,141,142,143,152,153,157,159,168,170,171,174,175,177,182,184,185,188,189,195,197,201,206,208,209,210,212,222,224,225,229,232,235,243,245,249,253,255,261,267,268,271,273,279,284,289,292,293,295,297,299,301,306,309,310,318,320,321,326,330,334,337,339,346,347,359,360,363,366,368,369,375,376,377,380,381,385,387,388,391,392,396,397,399,400,403,405,406,407,408,410,411,416,417,418,419,423,426,429,435,436,437,438,439,441,442,445,447,451,455,456,457,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,472,473],simple_app:404,simple_exampl:[103,104],simple_logging_config:103,simple_logging_modul:103,simple_serv:[62,255,461,470,472],simple_stmt:[423,427],simplecooki:[245,472],simpledialog:370,simpleexampl:[103,104],simplefilt:[363,397,462,463,472],simpleformatt:103,simplehandl:[404,456],simplehttp:246,simplehttprequesthandl:[246,471,472],simplehttpserv:[464,472],simpleinstal:455,simpleinstalldescript:455,simplejson:[462,463],simplenamespac:[62,161,381,472],simplequeu:[62,165,268,284,471,472],simpler:[5,62,66,80,84,94,95,97,104,106,108,111,122,153,161,227,236,284,321,346,347,386,399,408,410,412,428,435,438,439,455,456,457,458,459,461,463,467,468,471,472,473],simplest:[30,69,74,75,78,79,82,95,99,102,103,106,107,110,122,141,159,170,176,187,193,201,211,237,297,301,321,343,366,385,386,418,424,426,436,446,447,448,451,456,458,459],simplexmlrpcdispatch:[471,472],simplexmlrpcrequesthandl:[417,460,463],simplexmlrpcserv:[62,255,416,458,460,461,462,463,464],simpli:[7,31,47,57,65,68,69,70,74,78,79,81,82,84,85,90,91,93,94,95,96,99,102,104,105,106,109,111,118,122,140,141,152,154,157,159,161,168,177,178,184,187,193,222,225,227,232,241,248,252,254,261,267,268,272,284,292,293,298,299,301,305,306,316,321,326,327,334,337,340,342,344,347,350,355,366,385,386,387,392,397,399,400,404,406,407,408,416,418,422,428,436,440,442,445,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,469,472],simplic:[58,81,261,346,456,458],simplif:[216,472],simplifi:[26,28,30,60,80,84,92,93,98,99,106,108,110,125,159,161,170,184,185,198,202,217,228,252,254,284,321,339,340,372,373,375,382,399,407,423,431,447,448,455,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],simplist:[104,386],simsalabim:466,simul:[22,62,95,96,97,98,108,117,129,135,137,161,178,235,237,297,320,328,334,349,364,380,399,457,458,468],simultan:[30,57,104,105,138,233,248,257,271,282,331,340,363,366,372,432,444,445,455,462,469,472],sin6_flowinfo:339,sin6_scope_id:339,sin:[156,187,275,424,436,459],sinc:[5,7,12,21,22,23,26,30,31,35,36,41,42,44,49,51,52,53,54,57,58,62,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,84,85,86,87,90,91,93,95,96,97,98,101,102,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,112,113,114,116,118,123,125,129,135,139,141,144,145,147,150,153,158,159,161,162,168,170,174,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,189,193,194,195,197,199,200,202,204,206,208,209,210,212,214,219,222,223,224,225,227,228,229,232,234,235,236,237,238,243,244,245,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,258,261,265,267,268,270,271,272,275,279,284,288,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,304,305,306,307,309,310,316,321,329,331,332,333,336,337,339,340,341,342,343,346,347,349,351,355,361,363,365,366,367,370,372,373,375,376,378,382,385,386,392,395,396,397,398,399,402,404,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,416,418,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,435,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],sinclair:469,sine:[156,187,275],sine_t:436,sinfo:266,singapor:410,singaravelan:472,singh:[471,472],singl:[4,5,7,9,13,15,22,28,30,31,35,44,53,56,57,58,60,61,62,67,71,72,74,77,79,82,84,85,86,92,93,95,97,99,100,102,105,106,108,109,110,111,122,123,124,129,141,145,147,152,153,158,159,160,161,164,167,168,176,177,178,179,182,184,187,189,190,193,196,197,203,204,208,209,212,214,219,221,222,225,227,228,232,235,236,237,238,243,244,248,249,254,257,258,260,264,266,267,268,269,271,275,279,282,284,288,292,293,297,298,299,301,304,305,307,309,310,316,317,320,321,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,354,355,356,363,365,370,373,375,376,377,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,395,397,399,404,405,407,410,412,414,416,418,419,424,426,427,428,430,431,432,435,436,437,438,441,442,444,445,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],single_char:109,single_input:427,singleaddresshead:204,singledispatch:[93,228,468,471,472],singleton:[15,19,41,42,45,51,57,79,91,93,124,212,274,301,346,380,386,416,424,426,438,457,470,471,472],singleus:170,singular:[152,232],sinh:[156,275],sinpi:472,sio:91,sio_keepalive_v:339,sio_loopback_fast_path:[339,470,472],sio_rcval:339,sionneau:[469,470],sip:[85,296,391],siphash24:[62,472],siphash:[422,468,472],sir:[410,437,465],sit:[151,372,414],site:[30,62,64,74,86,91,99,109,110,111,168,211,227,244,245,252,253,258,266,293,304,317,337,355,356,392,393,396,411,426,428,434,441,449,450,451,455,456,461,463,464,467,468,469,472,473],sitecustom:[111,335,434,463,468,472],sitedir:335,situat:[7,31,38,57,58,64,65,69,79,81,84,91,95,99,103,104,105,107,108,110,111,122,130,153,159,170,208,212,214,232,236,248,252,257,266,271,284,292,337,363,366,387,394,397,407,424,433,436,437,438,458,463,464,468,469,470,472],sivaraam:472,six:[105,184,228,254,305,320,321,342,373,391,395,419,462,466,468,471],sixth:[305,458],sixtofour:258,sizabl:[450,457,458],size1:81,size2:81,size:[3,5,7,8,9,17,26,28,31,35,37,38,39,45,49,50,53,54,55,57,58,62,79,81,82,84,92,97,101,103,104,107,109,117,119,120,122,123,125,130,135,136,137,138,143,145,146,155,159,161,162,164,167,174,175,176,178,187,189,190,212,220,222,225,227,228,237,238,243,246,248,249,252,257,261,265,268,269,279,284,294,295,301,305,307,308,310,313,316,318,320,322,323,324,336,337,338,339,340,342,344,346,347,350,351,355,359,361,363,365,366,370,372,373,378,380,382,385,392,399,405,407,418,419,421,424,428,442,445,446,448,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],size_diff:378,size_or_initi:284,size_t:[9,17,35,38,54,58,95,96,177,349,467],sizeabl:472,sizegrip:[62,369],sizehint:[135,159,329,472],sizeof:[31,38,57,82,96,177,305,349,355,386,418,472],sizeof_digit:[355,463,465],sji:[159,184],sjis2004:159,sjis_2004:159,sjisx0213:159,sjoerd:[346,442,456,462],skcipher:339,skein:[225,236],sketch:[193,244,437,450,461,462],skill:[86,91,442],skim:450,skimp:193,skip:[7,13,30,31,53,62,65,90,91,95,99,105,106,107,108,109,145,155,159,161,164,168,170,173,184,188,193,205,206,211,219,225,227,251,252,254,256,260,261,271,272,288,299,306,321,332,335,343,344,346,349,359,363,373,382,396,410,412,422,423,432,439,448,451,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,472],skip_accept_encod:243,skip_blank:65,skip_curdir:164,skip_host:243,skip_unless_bind_unix_socket:[363,472],skip_unless_symlink:363,skip_unless_xattr:363,skipif:[363,385],skipinitialspac:176,skipkei:[261,306],skippedent:412,skipston:400,skiptest:[363,385,463,468],skipunless:[385,465],skipunlesshasattr:385,skit:[79,193,435],skrobov:472,skycach:225,skycaptain:466,skyfield:449,slackbook:454,slackwar:454,slant:456,slash:[65,67,74,75,84,106,111,227,254,258,292,293,294,298,315,374,391,404,419,420,472],slashequ:374,slate:[193,468,469],slave:[288,293,311,370],sle257ohy9fvq07z:343,sle:471,sleep:[62,90,99,104,126,127,128,129,131,135,136,138,139,167,168,178,284,327,334,342,350,367,462,467,469,470,471,472],sleep_for:136,sleeper:472,sleepi:466,slen:104,slept:136,slew:203,slice:[7,15,34,36,49,55,62,91,93,99,105,123,124,143,161,169,172,177,190,207,214,227,230,260,279,284,291,293,301,320,321,342,346,412,423,424,432,437,438,442,445,446,456,458,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472,473],slice_item:426,slice_list:426,slice_richcompar:472,slicelength:51,sliceop:427,slide:[90,109,408],slider:472,slideshow:408,slight:[65,94,104,216,244,456,459,466],slightest:437,slightli:[31,74,81,84,85,86,87,91,95,96,99,103,104,108,110,111,170,176,197,232,237,257,292,293,296,299,309,310,320,343,346,380,387,391,392,428,432,436,447,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,468,469,471,472],slimmer:268,sln:66,sloppi:84,slot:[15,41,43,45,53,56,57,62,81,82,136,190,213,229,252,254,282,284,318,346,424,426,456,457,458,460,461,462,464,467,468,469,472],slot_descriptor:254,slotdef:472,slow:[86,97,104,107,128,149,161,185,236,248,257,268,284,331,340,380,395,419,420,435,438,456,457,459,460,462,472],slow_callback_dur:128,slower:[90,91,106,159,228,236,257,269,284,331,380,448,459,460,462,464,471,472],slowest:[235,380,421,472],slowli:[79,93,104],sluggish:104,small:[5,30,38,50,53,57,62,72,74,79,84,86,90,91,95,97,102,104,106,107,109,159,169,170,177,186,187,189,193,244,248,253,257,260,271,275,284,288,293,310,320,321,331,334,339,345,346,363,366,372,385,404,406,410,421,435,436,437,438,448,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,470,472],small_stmt:427,smaller:[38,58,97,106,107,135,177,184,187,189,190,237,258,269,293,310,318,345,349,356,373,380,391,408,421,426,431,438,440,446,457,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,472],smallest:[99,109,123,184,187,227,237,275,346,378,448,459,460,461,462,472],smalltabl:467,smalltalk:[90,99,161,385,436,457],smarrita:461,smart:[66,95,248,458,472],smarter:[387,465,466,472],smaxcol:178,smaxrow:178,smincol:178,sminrow:178,smith:[212,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],sml:260,smtp:[62,86,90,103,195,201,202,204,209,253,255,268,343,447,456,458,462,466,467,468,469,472],smtp_:336,smtp_code:337,smtp_error:337,smtp_server:336,smtp_ssl:[337,462,467],smtp_state:336,smtpauthenticationerror:337,smtpchannel:[62,255,468,469,470,472],smtpconnecterror:337,smtpd:[62,195,253,255,470,472],smtpdataerror:337,smtpexcept:[337,468],smtphandler:[62,103,104,120,267,472],smtpheloerror:337,smtplib:[62,90,195,201,202,209,253,255,268,343,447,458,462,466,470,472],smtpnotsupport:337,smtpnotsupportederror:337,smtprecipientsrefus:337,smtpresponseexcept:337,smtpsenderrefus:337,smtpserver:[62,255,468,469,470,472],smtpserverdisconnect:[337,472],smtputf8:[209,336,337,469,472],smtputf8simtest:472,snake:[124,161],snan:[187,463],snap:141,snapshot1:378,snapshot2:378,snapshot:[62,186,344,468,472],snd:351,snd_alia:403,snd_async:403,snd_filenam:403,snd_loop:403,snd_memori:[403,472],snd_nodefault:403,snd_nostop:403,snd_nowait:403,snd_purg:403,sndctl_dsp_setfmt:295,sndctl_dsp_sync:295,sndhdr:[62,207,253,278,472],sndr:338,sndt:338,sneakili:458,sneezi:466,snew:391,sni:[343,468,471,472],sni_callback:343,snider:[470,472],snif:110,sniff:[176,472],sniffer:[176,339,472],snippet:[22,62,68,84,94,104,128,140,171,186,245,253,267,332,343,366,438,455,458,459,461,469,472],snmp:107,snow:[326,467,468,469,470,471],snowman:104,snprintf:[17,458],so_:339,so_domain:[339,470],so_exclusiveaddrus:363,so_passsec:[339,470],so_peersec:[339,470],so_protocol:[339,470],so_reuseaddr:[141,339,363],so_reuseport:[129,363,472],so_setfib:463,so_vm:339,soabi:466,soapbox:[62,188],soar:472,sock:[104,106,107,125,129,135,137,141,243,310,330,339,340,343,363,466,469,471,472],sock_:[339,468],sock_accept:[129,132,471,472],sock_cloexec:[339,471,472],sock_connect:[129,132,469,472],sock_dgram:[129,268,339,340,463],sock_max_s:363,sock_nonblock:[339,471,472],sock_raw:339,sock_rdm:339,sock_recv:[129,132,471,472],sock_recv_into:[129,132,471,472],sock_sendal:[129,132,471,472],sock_sendfil:[129,132,471,472],sock_seqpacket:339,sock_stream:[104,107,129,141,268,339,340,343,363,463,471],sockaddr:[129,339],sockaddr_in6:339,socket:[22,62,86,93,99,100,102,103,104,106,109,127,130,132,133,159,171,172,208,213,214,225,243,246,248,249,253,255,257,258,259,266,267,268,284,288,293,298,307,309,324,329,330,333,334,336,337,340,344,359,360,363,370,399,404,410,424,435,448,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,472],socket_typ:340,socketcan:467,sockethandl:[62,103,104,120,267,468],socketkind:339,socketmodul:472,socketpair:[129,135,137,339,460,471,472],socketserv:[62,104,242,246,253,255,339,417,462,463,464,472],sockettyp:339,socknam:[135,472],socktyp:[104,268,339,363,463],soffer:[471,472],soft:[178,324,363,472],softspac:464,softwar:[1,30,62,63,64,65,66,74,83,87,89,91,92,93,99,103,109,111,112,153,159,178,188,193,195,211,213,230,236,246,247,248,253,265,288,293,309,320,343,402,404,416,435,447,453,454,455,456,457,459,460,462,463,472,473],soh:179,sokolovskii:236,sol_:339,sol_alg:[339,470],sol_can_:339,sol_rd:339,sol_socket:339,solari:[30,62,65,66,72,247,293,305,308,329,355,356,367,456,463,466,467,469,471,472],soldier:291,sole:[31,65,69,84,91,94,95,105,169,187,254,284,346,365,381,399,424,426,439,463,467,468,469,471],solicit:[68,157],solid:[72,178,467,468],solidu:384,solitari:284,solomon:380,solut:[31,62,64,66,79,84,85,87,90,91,93,95,98,99,104,105,106,107,109,111,112,134,182,187,212,237,248,253,255,301,321,334,340,342,361,387,422,428,446,447,449,450,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,472],solv:[30,84,90,91,93,95,96,99,106,141,248,284,331,359,386,387,423,450,458,459,461,465,466,468],solver:450,somaxconn:[339,469],some:[1,2,5,7,20,22,30,31,38,52,53,54,55,57,58,62,64,65,66,68,69,72,74,77,78,79,80,81,82,86,87,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,117,118,122,123,129,132,133,135,138,139,140,143,146,151,153,156,157,158,159,161,162,164,165,167,168,169,170,176,177,178,181,182,183,184,185,187,189,193,195,196,197,199,200,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,212,214,216,217,219,220,222,223,227,228,229,232,235,236,237,240,241,244,245,248,249,251,252,253,254,256,257,258,259,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,274,275,276,283,284,288,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,301,302,305,308,310,313,316,320,321,324,329,330,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,349,350,355,356,357,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,370,373,374,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,388,392,395,396,397,399,400,404,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,416,418,419,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,442,443,444,445,446,447,450,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],some_attribut:[82,386],some_behavior:212,some_conn_id:104,some_coroutin:423,some_enum_var:212,some_fil:470,some_func:354,some_funct:[104,386,387],some_handler_inst:110,some_id:[382,470],some_int:91,some_iter:113,some_lock:366,some_method:[387,416],some_mock:386,some_numb:81,some_obj:387,some_object:[81,91,254,386],some_python_coroutin:140,some_s:81,some_sequ:464,some_tag:408,some_tupl:91,some_typ:177,some_valu:382,some_vari:299,some_xml_docu:316,someact:370,somebodi:110,someclass:[113,301,382,386,387,456],somedata:[212,306],somedir:227,someexcept:[214,385,464],somefil:[170,205,232,293,332,376],somehow:[79,84,284,345,359,446,462,463],someiter:176,somelogg:104,somemoredata:306,somenam:346,somenamedtupl:161,someon:[66,79,89,91,95,107,111,337,361,392,410,463],someone_els:201,someopt:370,someotherfil:170,somepackag:112,somepolici:209,someserv:110,somestr:350,sometag:410,sometest:[385,471],sometext:410,someth:[17,21,30,32,65,69,72,79,81,84,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,111,123,134,140,145,148,153,170,176,177,190,202,212,214,227,230,237,248,252,254,260,261,266,267,284,292,293,301,308,310,316,324,336,340,342,343,351,359,363,366,382,385,386,387,392,398,399,404,407,416,428,432,436,437,445,448,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466],somethingfortest:386,sometim:[1,31,62,64,72,74,75,79,80,84,85,90,91,93,97,99,102,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,113,118,122,125,140,153,159,170,172,177,178,187,189,193,204,212,214,225,236,241,248,254,258,260,267,271,288,292,308,310,320,321,343,344,345,367,380,386,387,392,410,424,426,430,432,436,437,438,444,445,448,449,456,459,460,461,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,472],sometyp:[382,469],someurl:110,somevalu:407,somevar:91,somewarn:385,somewhat:[10,22,65,93,95,177,184,205,248,265,292,293,297,339,361,444,445,446,456,461,464,471,472],somewher:[66,79,90,91,95,104,145,246,292,316,343,345,346,407,462],somewidget:373,son:456,sonntag:184,soon:[31,90,95,97,105,106,107,109,110,132,140,193,230,284,293,299,346,361,363,408,424,438,439,459,461,468,472],sooner:[177,408,462],soonest:[327,467],soothsay:447,sophist:[80,91,95,135,141,157,170,266,320,343,410,447,448,458,461],sornai:472,sorri:[95,96,437],sort:[34,62,74,82,83,86,90,92,93,94,99,100,110,113,122,153,161,168,174,177,183,185,187,189,193,209,222,227,228,237,249,254,258,260,261,265,271,284,291,292,298,306,309,310,318,320,321,329,337,342,345,346,359,363,378,380,381,385,392,404,407,419,424,426,436,437,438,446,448,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,468,469,471,472],sort_criteria:249,sort_kei:[261,306,466],sort_ord:310,sort_stat:310,sortabl:258,sortbi:310,sortdict:363,sortedcollect:149,sorting_anim:380,sortkei:310,sorttestmethodsus:385,sottil:472,soul:349,soumya:472,sound:[62,78,90,111,119,143,178,225,253,278,295,351,398,401,446,459,462],sound_mixer_:295,sound_mixer_m:295,sound_mixer_pcm:295,sound_mixer_synth:295,sound_mixer_volum:295,soundcard:295,soup:241,sourc:[0,5,19,22,28,30,31,52,60,62,66,68,69,70,71,72,77,78,79,81,82,84,85,87,93,94,95,96,97,99,104,105,111,112,113,114,116,118,119,122,124,125,141,144,145,148,149,151,152,153,154,155,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,167,168,170,172,173,174,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,192,193,194,195,196,198,199,200,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,212,214,215,217,219,221,223,225,227,228,230,231,232,233,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,249,250,251,253,256,257,258,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,274,276,280,281,282,284,286,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,309,310,311,314,315,317,318,319,320,321,323,325,326,327,328,330,331,332,333,335,336,337,338,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,353,354,355,356,358,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,368,369,370,371,372,373,374,376,377,378,379,380,381,382,385,386,389,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,422,423,424,427,428,430,431,432,433,434,438,439,441,442,446,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],source1:[359,419],source_address:[225,243,337,339,463,466,467],source_byt:252,source_date_epoch:[164,313,471,472],source_filenam:65,source_from_cach:[28,251,252,466,468,470],source_hash:[252,471],source_str:297,source_suffix:252,source_to_cod:[252,468,469,472],source_traceback:128,sourcecod:380,sourcefil:111,sourcefileload:[28,252,467,470],sourceforg:[74,86,87,90,91,111,184,343,456,457,459,462,472],sourcehook:332,sourceless:[252,467,469],sourcelessfileload:[252,467,470],sourcelin:209,sourceload:[252,467,468],sourcen:[359,419],sourcewar:111,south:[159,212,321,373,380,462,465],southeast:373,sovers:472,sp3:471,sp4:462,sp_expir:341,sp_flag:341,sp_inact:341,sp_lstchg:341,sp_max:341,sp_min:341,sp_namp:341,sp_pwdp:341,sp_warn:341,space:[5,30,35,38,54,57,58,65,78,79,84,91,92,93,97,99,103,106,107,109,117,122,144,147,152,159,161,162,163,168,179,185,187,189,193,199,200,202,203,213,214,222,227,243,248,249,254,258,260,261,265,267,284,292,293,297,299,302,316,319,320,321,324,332,333,334,335,337,339,346,347,348,350,363,365,366,368,370,372,373,375,378,380,391,392,394,396,404,407,421,422,424,428,430,431,437,442,444,445,448,456,460,461,462,463,464,465,467,468,470,471,472],space_around_delimit:168,spaciou:346,spam42:469,spam:[79,83,104,106,110,122,171,176,177,219,227,228,232,243,244,246,252,254,257,267,298,299,309,315,321,331,335,346,350,359,377,386,387,392,410,419,426,428,436,437,439,442,445,446,456,462,469],spam_appl:104,spam_doc:79,spam_modul:79,spam_system:79,spamerror:79,spammer:337,spammetapathfind:252,spammethod:79,spammifi:79,spammish:236,spammodul:79,spampathentryfind:252,spamread:176,spamspam:227,spamwrit:176,span:[65,93,106,152,168,176,190,193,221,222,241,321,346,347,423,445,461,462,467,469,470,472],sparc:[30,295],spare:457,sparingli:84,spark:[457,472],sparrow:459,spars:[21,359,472],spawn:[62,71,104,127,132,134,138,139,165,293,311,336,340,366,468,472],spawn_python:363,spawnl:293,spawnlp:[293,350],spawnv:[293,472],spawnvp:[293,350],spdy:343,speak:[30,62,79,91,107,111,123,184,227,274,343,346,357,436,437],speaker:403,spec:[28,41,56,62,66,68,93,237,245,252,254,261,326,342,343,351,355,373,386,387,416,459,468,469,470,471,472],spec_from_file_loc:[251,252,470],spec_from_load:252,spec_set:[386,387],speci:66,special:[7,13,22,28,30,31,45,55,57,58,62,65,66,70,74,79,81,84,90,91,93,95,97,99,103,104,105,106,109,111,112,118,122,124,129,138,140,144,145,153,154,156,157,161,168,169,170,172,176,177,178,181,182,183,184,190,193,197,204,206,209,212,214,221,224,230,232,233,246,248,251,253,254,258,260,261,265,266,267,271,282,283,284,290,291,292,293,297,298,301,304,321,323,326,330,332,333,334,339,342,343,344,349,350,355,359,362,366,370,372,382,385,386,391,392,399,404,407,410,412,416,422,425,426,429,431,432,435,436,438,444,445,446,453,455,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],specialbuild:31,specialfileerror:463,specialfilt:104,specialis:[104,110,346],specialti:66,specif:[0,1,15,22,25,31,32,38,41,52,53,55,57,60,61,62,64,65,66,67,70,71,74,77,79,82,83,86,91,92,93,94,95,96,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,112,113,117,120,122,124,127,133,134,135,136,146,153,155,156,157,168,170,172,173,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,193,195,196,197,201,203,204,206,207,209,211,212,213,214,216,222,224,225,227,228,229,230,232,233,236,241,243,244,245,246,248,251,252,253,254,256,257,258,261,265,266,267,268,271,274,275,282,284,288,291,293,294,295,296,297,299,301,310,316,317,318,320,323,324,329,330,332,333,336,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,353,356,360,361,363,364,365,366,367,369,370,371,374,381,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,404,407,408,410,414,416,419,420,421,422,423,424,428,429,430,431,432,433,435,436,439,442,448,449,451,454,455,456,457,458,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],specifi:[3,5,7,9,10,12,13,16,17,19,21,22,28,30,31,35,38,41,45,51,57,58,60,62,65,66,68,69,70,71,72,74,77,79,81,82,83,85,93,94,97,99,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,117,119,120,121,122,123,124,129,131,134,135,140,141,143,144,145,147,149,151,152,153,156,157,158,159,161,164,167,168,169,170,174,176,178,182,184,185,187,189,190,191,193,195,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,219,222,225,227,228,229,230,232,233,235,236,237,243,244,245,246,249,252,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,271,272,276,279,280,282,283,284,286,288,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,302,304,306,307,309,310,313,315,316,319,320,321,322,324,326,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,336,337,339,342,343,346,347,349,350,351,355,359,360,361,362,363,366,367,368,370,372,373,375,376,377,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,398,402,403,404,407,408,410,412,413,419,420,421,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,439,440,442,446,448,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],specific_submodul:446,specified_attribut:316,specifii:455,spectacular:237,sped:[466,469,472],speech:[104,295],speed:[8,38,58,79,84,95,103,106,111,147,161,162,178,185,187,189,217,228,229,237,252,257,260,295,299,301,320,331,343,345,355,362,368,380,421,424,435,446,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],speedi:237,speedstr:380,speedup:[95,422,457,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,472],speedvalu:380,speleotrov:460,spell:[68,74,84,97,159,184,204,227,256,310,373,431,432,444,459,464,467,472],spend:[64,324,456,472],spent:[79,310,324,334,461,462],spew:472,sphinx:[0,62,86,90,104,472],spider:[393,456],spil:472,spill:184,spin:320,spinbox:[62,369,372,471,472],spiral:157,spirit:[74,94],spit:404,splice:213,split:[41,58,62,65,68,74,84,90,91,108,122,143,157,159,168,187,189,197,201,203,209,230,232,249,260,270,282,291,292,293,294,299,309,320,321,323,332,337,342,343,346,347,350,365,375,378,385,391,396,412,431,435,436,442,446,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,471,472],split_quot:65,splitchar:203,splitdriv:[294,471],splitext:[95,201,294,298,359,448,462,470],splithost:472,splitlin:[93,157,189,201,209,346,365,377,462,466,468,472],splitlist:472,splitresult:[391,472],splitresultbyt:[391,472],splitunc:[471,472],spoerri:461,spoken:[66,104],spolski:109,sponsor:422,spoof:392,spool:361,spooledtemporaryfil:[361,462,467],spoon:74,sporad:293,sport:237,spot:[91,295,309,365],spread:[62,84,107,290,462],spreadsheet:[98,176,345,447,459],spring:[66,106,184,227,436],sprinkl:[91,430],sprint:[461,462],sprintf:[346,442,456,458],sprocket:466,spuriou:[187,298,334,465,472],spwd:[62,234,253,312,388,461,470,472],spytz:472,sq_ass_item:57,sq_concat:57,sq_contain:[53,57],sq_inplace_concat:57,sq_inplace_repeat:57,sq_item:57,sq_length:57,sq_repeat:57,sql:[99,109,176,260,282,292,342,447,461,465,467,472],sql_script:342,sqlite3:[62,90,161,253,300,301,447,462,463,472],sqlite3_get_autocommit:472,sqlite3_prepare_v2:472,sqlite:[62,253,300,447,461,463,466,467,468,471,472],sqlite_deni:342,sqlite_ignor:342,sqlite_ok:342,sqlite_vers:342,sqlite_version_info:342,sqrt:[122,143,156,167,187,275,460,461,462,466],sqrt_n:167,squar:[5,30,91,93,94,99,109,122,143,156,178,187,212,275,299,310,345,346,380,391,410,424,426,430,431,432,436,438,442,445,458,459,462,472],squeez:[248,470,471,472],squeezer:472,squirrel:[30,310],src1:[167,466],src2:[167,466],src3:[167,466],src4:167,src:[7,65,69,74,85,94,177,193,201,233,241,279,282,293,333,418,459,461],src_dir_fd:293,srcdir:466,srcname:333,sre:[456,458],sre_compil:[280,310],sre_const:[280,469],sre_flag_unicod:280,sre_match:469,sre_pars:280,sre_pattern:472,sriniva:471,srmount:213,srow:375,srpm:[66,71],srv:[129,171,471],sscanf:177,sse2:472,sse4:472,ssh:[288,332,333,391,472],ssize_t:[62,95,177,349,466,467,473],ssize_t_convert:95,ssizeargfunc:57,ssizeobjargproc:57,ssl3:343,ssl:[62,110,129,135,137,225,243,249,253,259,268,288,293,307,337,339,392,404,416,422,456,459,460,463,472],ssl_cert_dir:472,ssl_cert_fil:[343,472],ssl_cert_path:343,ssl_context:[249,288],ssl_ctx_set_min_proto_vers:472,ssl_error_:343,ssl_handshake_timeout:[129,137,471],ssl_mode_auto_retri:463,ssl_mode_release_buff:472,ssl_object:135,ssl_op_al:343,ssl_sock:343,ssl_verify_post_handshak:472,ssl_version:[225,343],sslcertverificationerror:[343,471,472],sslcontext:[129,135,225,243,249,268,288,307,337,343,392,416,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],ssleai:422,ssleoferror:343,sslerror:[343,466],sslerrornumb:343,sslfakefil:467,sslobject:[135,343,469,471,472],sslobject_class:343,sslproto:472,sslprotocol:472,sslsession:[343,470],sslsocket:[135,343,463,468,469,471,472],sslsocket_class:343,sslsyscallerror:343,ssltransport:472,sslv23:343,sslv23_method:472,sslv2:[343,466],sslv3:[343,467,469,472],sslwantreaderror:[343,469,472],sslwantwriteerror:[343,469,472],sslzeroreturnerror:343,ssmedian:345,ssnd:472,ssock:343,sss:[79,81,184],ssse3:472,st2list:297,st2tupl:297,st_append:293,st_atim:[293,344],st_atime_n:293,st_birthtim:[293,461],st_blksize:293,st_block:[293,472],st_creator:293,st_ctime:[293,344],st_ctime_n:293,st_dev:[293,344],st_file_attribut:[293,344,469,472],st_flag:[293,461],st_fstype:[293,471,472],st_gen:[293,461],st_gid:[293,344],st_immut:293,st_ino:[268,293,344,472],st_mandlock:293,st_mode:[293,298,344,468],st_mtime:[189,235,293,298,344,459],st_mtime_n:293,st_nlink:[293,344],st_noatim:293,st_nodev:293,st_nodiratim:293,st_noexec:293,st_nosuid:293,st_rdev:293,st_rdonli:293,st_relatim:293,st_rsize:293,st_size:[293,298,344,458],st_synchron:293,st_type:293,st_uid:[293,344],st_write:293,stab:292,stabil:[1,62,86,227,237,472],stabl:[29,56,62,87,93,108,211,227,237,252,276,292,346,455,459,460,463,468,469,470,472,473],stack:[11,22,30,31,54,62,79,81,84,95,103,117,120,124,140,145,158,161,170,172,178,185,186,190,193,212,214,215,222,227,228,248,253,256,266,299,317,318,324,332,334,339,343,344,346,355,366,372,385,386,387,423,424,425,426,431,432,434,439,441,451,456,457,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],stack_effect:[190,468,472],stack_glob:472,stack_info:266,stack_level:22,stack_siz:[117,366,461,472],stack_t:472,stackbrows:472,stackless:[84,430],stacklevel:[397,461,472],stacksiz:12,stacksummari:[62,317,469,472],stackview:472,staff:[103,184,333],stage:[65,106,297,366,370,392,397,407,456],stai:[58,62,355,422,442,466,467,470,473],stake:380,stale:[213,252,468,472],stall:472,stamp:[184,380,436,459,460,472],stamp_id:380,stampid:380,stand:[7,69,74,87,109,111,170,187,211,292,321,417,418,431,456,461,462,463,466,468,471],standalon:[62,65,72,84,93,170,191,193,252,316,380,385,423,453,462,472],standard:[0,5,7,17,23,28,29,30,38,54,56,57,58,60,62,64,66,68,71,72,74,75,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,90,92,93,94,99,103,104,105,106,108,109,110,112,113,115,117,118,120,122,129,135,136,138,143,144,145,146,147,149,152,153,155,158,161,164,167,176,177,178,179,183,184,187,193,195,196,197,198,200,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,212,214,219,220,221,222,225,226,227,232,236,239,240,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,260,265,266,267,268,271,272,273,275,276,279,280,282,284,285,288,293,294,295,297,301,303,304,307,308,310,311,313,314,316,320,321,326,328,329,332,334,335,337,339,340,345,346,347,349,350,352,355,356,358,359,360,361,363,366,367,368,369,370,372,377,380,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,394,395,397,399,404,405,407,410,416,418,419,422,423,425,426,429,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,438,439,441,442,444,445,449,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],standard_b64decod:144,standard_b64encod:144,standard_lib:65,standard_option_list:292,standard_rights_read:402,standard_rights_requir:402,standard_rights_writ:402,standard_test:[363,385],standard_wai:108,standarderror:[113,462,464],standend:178,standout:178,standpoint:92,stap:101,stapsdt:101,star:[124,190,374,430,432,472],star_expr:427,stararg:462,stare:84,starequ:374,starmap:[99,227,260,284,467],starmap_async:[284,467],starostin:472,starred_and_keyword:426,starred_express:[426,432],starred_item:426,starred_list:426,starship:[382,461,470],start:[7,9,10,21,22,30,31,38,51,57,58,60,62,65,66,69,72,74,75,78,81,82,84,85,86,89,90,91,93,94,95,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,117,119,122,124,125,127,129,132,135,137,138,139,140,143,145,147,152,153,155,158,159,161,162,165,167,169,170,177,178,179,182,184,185,188,189,190,193,195,200,202,204,206,209,212,214,216,218,221,225,227,229,232,233,234,237,241,244,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,256,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,268,271,272,275,279,282,288,290,292,293,294,298,299,302,304,307,308,310,311,314,315,316,318,320,321,322,333,335,337,339,340,343,346,347,349,350,355,357,359,363,366,367,370,373,375,376,377,378,380,382,385,391,392,396,397,399,400,407,408,410,412,414,418,419,421,423,424,426,427,428,431,432,434,435,436,437,438,440,444,445,447,448,451,452,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],start_cal:387,start_color:[97,178],start_compon:[282,472],start_dir:[385,472],start_docu:409,start_el:[316,409],start_method:167,start_new_sess:[350,472],start_new_thread:117,start_offset:269,start_respons:[404,466,472],start_serv:[127,129,135,137,171,366,471,472],start_thread:[363,472],start_tl:[129,132,471,472],start_unix_serv:[127,129,137],startboundarynotfounddefect:200,startcdatasectionhandl:316,startcom:343,startdoctypedeclhandl:316,startdocu:412,startdtd:460,started_at:136,startel:[412,413,456],startelementhandl:316,startelementn:[412,413],startf_useshowwindow:350,startf_usestdhandl:350,startfil:[293,472],starti:380,starting_nod:448,startnamespacedeclhandl:316,startprefixmap:412,starts_lin:190,startswith:[241,293,342,346,355,385,396,419,456,459,461,462,465,467,469,472],starttest:385,starttestrun:[385,463],starttl:[249,268,288,337,343,462,466,467,472],startup:[30,58,62,92,128,169,177,215,252,265,267,293,355,364,369,378,422,428,441,443,451,453,461,462,467,468,469,471,472],startup_fil:434,startupinfo:[350,460,471,472],startupinfoex:350,startx:380,stash:111,stasiak:[470,472],stat1:294,stat2:294,stat:[62,65,93,109,186,189,217,220,235,252,253,257,268,288,293,294,298,307,333,343,359,378,382,428,458,459,461,462,466,469,470,471,472],stat_float_tim:[459,461,467,471,472],stat_result:[293,459,469,472],statcach:461,state:[5,16,22,28,29,31,41,47,48,54,57,58,62,79,81,82,90,91,93,95,97,99,101,103,105,106,110,129,130,131,135,139,141,143,145,153,156,158,159,161,165,167,168,170,171,172,178,186,190,213,219,224,228,229,242,244,252,253,255,257,258,267,269,271,293,295,299,300,303,305,310,316,317,318,320,322,325,327,329,336,339,340,342,343,346,350,355,363,366,367,369,370,372,377,385,386,387,391,392,397,399,402,409,418,421,422,424,426,428,436,437,439,444,448,449,456,458,459,461,466,467,468,471,472],stateless:[62,143,146],statement:[22,31,36,43,45,49,53,57,60,62,78,79,86,91,92,93,94,95,99,104,111,113,117,119,124,129,139,140,145,151,153,160,165,167,169,172,177,185,186,187,190,193,202,214,219,225,227,235,243,248,249,251,252,253,256,257,262,269,271,279,282,284,288,291,292,293,295,297,299,308,314,317,321,329,337,339,340,342,343,346,350,354,355,359,360,361,362,363,368,370,375,380,382,385,386,387,398,402,407,408,409,419,425,426,427,428,429,431,433,434,435,436,439,441,442,443,444,445,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,472,473],stateorprovincenam:343,statespec:373,static_method:[386,387],staticmethod:[53,91,93,98,118,193,227,228,267,417,424,446,458,460,463,466,467,472],statinfo:293,statist:[38,62,84,86,98,186,229,253,275,288,290,310,320,333,343,368,376,440,447,450,451,456,457,461,463,466,467,472],statisticdiff:[62,186],statisticserror:345,statu:[5,30,45,54,57,62,65,74,79,84,90,97,103,104,110,117,118,122,178,197,206,208,214,215,243,246,248,249,255,271,288,292,293,307,309,311,313,335,340,342,343,350,355,373,390,392,404,434,444,456,460,461,463,464,466,468,469,470,471,472],status:466,status_control_c_exit:472,statvf:[293,458,462,467,472],std66:391,std:[355,367,461],std_error_handl:350,std_input_handl:350,std_output_handl:350,std_time:184,stdatom:472,stdbuttonbox:372,stdcall:177,stderr:[22,30,54,58,62,65,66,78,79,91,103,104,129,132,135,138,140,153,158,170,193,215,229,231,246,248,257,266,267,268,284,292,293,313,323,334,342,346,350,355,359,363,368,377,385,396,397,404,424,446,447,448,451,455,456,460,462,463,464,466,468,469,470,471,472],stderr_data:[138,350,460],stderrprint:472,stdev:[320,345],stdev_service_tim:320,stdin:[30,54,60,82,84,85,91,93,99,122,129,132,135,138,153,157,158,164,177,187,193,209,212,215,216,219,231,248,249,257,258,261,284,293,298,299,323,329,332,343,346,350,355,359,362,363,375,384,392,404,417,424,426,428,432,436,437,438,439,442,445,446,447,448,451,457,458,459,460,462,463,464,467,468,469,470,471,472],stdin_read:311,stdint:472,stdio:[31,78,79,85,293,462],stdlib:[31,62,79,96,104,236,248,356,406,466,467,469,472],stdname:[184,310],stdoffset:184,stdout:[30,54,58,60,62,65,66,79,93,94,95,103,104,122,129,132,135,138,153,157,170,177,178,189,190,193,211,217,225,227,243,248,249,257,261,267,268,284,292,293,299,302,309,310,323,334,336,346,350,355,359,360,363,375,376,377,385,386,396,397,404,410,414,419,424,442,446,447,451,455,456,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],stdout_data:[138,350,460],stdout_fileno:293,stdoutcatch:85,stdprinter:472,stdscr:[97,178,462],stdsuit:462,stdtype:472,stdwin:456,stdxxx:472,steadi:456,steal:[22,30,31,34,41,49,55],steel:[90,472],steen:370,steer:[31,457,460,466],stefan:[422,463,467,468,469,470,471,472],steffen:466,stein:[90,456],stellenbosch:462,stem:[274,298,418,463],step:[1,51,57,62,64,65,66,75,78,83,90,92,95,99,105,106,107,108,110,111,113,122,124,143,145,149,153,157,159,161,167,170,177,186,187,193,227,232,237,243,248,252,260,266,282,284,291,292,293,299,320,321,340,342,346,361,373,380,387,396,411,418,423,424,426,427,432,437,441,443,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,472],stephan:472,stephen:[458,472],stereo:[119,143,295,351,398,446],stereocontrol:295,stereophon:295,sterl:178,steve:[343,457,462,469,470,471,472],steven:[457,461,463,466,468,469,470,472],stew:342,sticht:[30,63,422],stick:[69,97,109,269,284,363,373,380,458,459,462],sticki:[187,344,373],stiff:[79,437],still:[7,9,22,26,28,30,31,44,57,61,64,65,69,70,74,78,79,81,82,83,84,86,87,90,91,93,95,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,110,111,112,118,122,123,135,140,144,148,153,159,161,164,168,170,171,176,177,178,182,187,190,193,195,203,207,209,212,214,222,227,228,229,232,244,248,252,254,257,267,268,271,275,279,284,292,293,295,297,301,310,316,321,324,325,326,329,331,334,335,339,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,361,363,365,366,373,381,382,385,386,387,392,399,404,406,407,410,413,422,424,426,428,432,436,438,439,440,442,446,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],stinner:[463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],stippl:178,stitch:208,stl:[307,468],stmt:[124,368,427,462,472],stmt_list:[423,433],stock:[111,342,461,466],stoke:[470,472],stolen:[9,18,27,31,78,472],stolk:458,stone:468,stop:[22,51,62,65,85,91,99,101,103,104,105,132,135,138,145,157,160,161,162,184,188,189,193,198,208,212,214,227,229,230,236,248,254,260,266,267,268,271,284,292,293,295,299,302,310,316,318,320,340,346,350,366,370,373,378,380,382,385,387,403,424,426,437,438,439,440,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,466,469,470,471,472],stop_aft:65,stop_ev:104,stop_her:145,stop_serv:472,stopal:[386,472],stopasynciter:[22,93,214,423,424,426,432,472],stopfram:145,stopiter:[22,57,62,81,93,99,114,161,214,227,260,274,284,342,346,386,423,424,426,432,436,446,458,459,461,462,470,471,472],stoplisten:[104,267],stoptest:385,stoptestrun:[385,463],stor:225,storag:[5,29,31,38,50,62,84,93,109,159,168,178,190,252,257,260,293,302,331,342,346,349,361,410,458,461,462,463,467,468,472],storbinari:[225,462,463],storchacha:468,storchaka:[109,467,468,469,470,471,472],store:[5,7,10,11,17,26,30,37,38,45,51,53,56,57,58,62,65,73,79,81,82,84,85,90,91,93,94,95,96,98,99,103,104,106,108,109,110,111,114,119,122,123,124,135,136,143,156,159,161,168,171,174,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,190,193,197,198,201,202,204,206,209,225,233,237,244,246,248,249,252,254,257,260,266,269,271,272,276,279,284,288,293,297,300,301,302,306,312,316,328,329,330,331,336,337,338,339,340,343,344,346,349,351,352,355,356,359,361,363,366,372,373,376,377,378,380,385,386,387,390,392,399,402,404,407,410,416,418,419,421,423,424,426,428,431,432,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,446,447,448,451,452,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471,472],store_act:292,store_annot:[470,471,472],store_attr:190,store_const:[122,292],store_deref:[190,472],store_fals:[122,292],store_fast:190,store_glob:190,store_nam:[190,343],store_subscr:190,store_tru:[94,122,189,230,292,311,396,463,466],store_valu:292,storeroom:466,stori:[30,79,86,237,442],storlin:[225,462],storm:458,stormi:456,stp:101,str:[5,17,23,24,30,35,45,54,57,58,60,62,81,82,84,90,91,93,94,95,97,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,108,109,113,122,124,129,151,157,159,161,168,170,176,178,182,183,184,187,189,190,196,197,198,202,203,204,206,209,210,212,214,227,235,237,238,241,243,245,248,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,267,269,284,288,291,292,293,294,298,301,308,320,321,332,333,337,340,342,343,347,349,350,355,361,363,364,365,368,378,381,382,385,386,391,395,397,402,407,410,411,416,418,419,424,426,431,437,438,439,440,442,445,446,448,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],str_:472,straddl:184,straight:[149,203,207,227,284,355,370,385,399,408,456,464],straightforward:[22,31,64,79,90,91,92,104,109,110,159,161,168,177,258,267,292,329,336,339,386,387,436,445,458,459,462,466,467],strandmark:472,strang:[62,91,95,117,141,237,365,424,437,455,457,461,462],strangepair:382,strateg:101,strategi:[30,57,79,82,85,122,141,159,268,336,385,400,421,428,459,464,466,471,472],strchr:[96,177],strcmp:[10,17,81,85],strcoll:[108,228,265,466],strcpy:109,stream:[13,23,30,37,62,93,99,103,104,107,109,120,125,126,129,130,132,138,140,146,147,151,158,170,178,195,201,202,207,208,213,214,220,227,231,235,237,243,246,248,250,252,253,260,261,266,267,268,269,276,282,293,300,302,309,310,316,329,330,332,333,334,335,339,340,350,351,355,359,363,375,382,385,392,396,398,404,405,406,409,410,413,414,416,419,421,424,430,431,434,446,451,456,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],stream_or_str:409,stream_read:456,stream_writ:456,streamerror:359,streamhandl:[62,103,104,120,266,267,466,471,472],streamlin:[1,469],streamread:[13,62,127,129,138,146,460,461,469,470,472],streamreaderwrit:[62,146],streamrecod:[62,109,146,472],streamrequesthandl:[104,340,470,472],streamwrit:[13,62,127,129,138,146,461,471,472],street:[109,321],streetaddress:343,strength:228,strength_bit:343,strengthen:[210,472],strenum:212,strerror:[22,213,214,265,293,462,472],stretch:[236,248,373,380,407,471],stretch_len:380,stretch_wid:380,stretchfactor:380,strfry:461,strftime:[62,103,140,183,265,266,267,268,271,367,416,447,448,459,461,462,466,467,470,472],strict:[13,58,99,102,109,159,168,176,177,187,203,208,209,227,241,243,244,245,249,252,254,257,258,261,276,293,295,298,301,343,346,355,363,367,391,407,422,426,451,456,457,459,462,463,466,467,468,469,471,472],strict_domain:244,strict_error:159,strict_ns_domain:244,strict_ns_set_initial_dollar:244,strict_ns_set_path:244,strict_ns_unverifi:244,strict_pars:[153,391],strict_rfc2965_unverifi:244,stricter:[187,386,456,457,461,467,469,471,472],strictli:[57,79,104,107,108,109,111,123,135,182,184,187,212,219,245,261,274,346,392,424,425,426,428,431,436,461],stride:[2,57,62,346,424,426,459,467],strigl:472,string1:[265,342,438],string2:[265,342,438],string3:438,string:[7,8,9,10,13,15,21,22,23,24,25,26,28,29,30,31,35,36,37,38,41,43,45,48,54,57,59,60,62,65,66,68,69,70,74,78,79,81,82,85,86,93,94,95,96,97,99,102,103,104,105,107,108,110,111,113,114,119,122,123,124,125,129,130,135,138,143,144,145,146,147,151,152,153,154,155,157,158,159,160,161,165,168,170,173,174,176,177,178,179,182,183,184,185,187,189,190,193,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,213,214,215,221,222,223,225,227,228,230,231,232,233,234,235,236,238,239,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,257,261,262,265,266,267,268,271,272,274,276,279,282,283,284,286,287,288,289,291,293,294,295,297,298,299,300,301,302,304,305,306,307,308,309,310,311,312,313,314,315,316,320,322,323,328,331,332,333,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,344,351,352,353,354,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,364,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,380,382,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,394,395,396,397,398,400,402,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,430,432,433,436,438,439,440,441,443,444,446,448,451,455,457,458,461,463,465,466,468,469,472,473],string_at:[177,215,467],stringent:468,stringescapeseq:431,stringifi:[176,377,472],stringified_newdatatyp:81,stringio:[85,91,93,170,197,208,257,261,310,346,355,361,363,386,404,408,462,463,464,466,468,469],stringlib:466,stringliter:426,stringprefix:431,stringprep:[62,159,253,364,459],stringtranslatepseudomap:472,stringtyp:472,stringvar:[370,373],strip:[65,91,95,99,106,122,145,159,168,171,178,179,184,187,189,193,201,209,210,225,227,230,246,248,267,268,294,310,328,332,337,340,342,346,350,357,363,377,378,397,404,419,436,437,438,439,456,459,464,465,466,469,472],strip_blank:65,strip_com:65,strip_dir:[65,310],strip_python_strerr:363,stripped_it:99,stripped_lin:99,stripped_list:99,stripspac:178,strive:[440,463],strk1048_2002:159,strlen:[58,85,96,107,109],strncat:85,strncmp:17,stroke:[86,109,458],strong:[84,111,171,184,241,328,343,399,421,457,462,467,470,472],stronger:[387,472],strongest:[92,174,463],strongli:[79,103,212,227,345,355,370,412,424,457,458,461],strop:456,stropt:[470,472],strptime:[62,183,266,343,367,416,458,459,461,466,472],strtobool:65,strtod:62,struck:97,struct:[7,14,15,20,28,41,52,53,57,60,62,79,81,82,84,90,92,93,95,96,104,123,143,146,177,216,227,253,267,268,339,346,355,363,367,416,436,448,458,461,462,463,466,471,472],struct_frozen:177,struct_tim:[93,184,249,271,367,470],structmemb:[81,82],structseq:[24,463],structsequ:466,structur:[2,3,5,11,12,15,16,18,19,21,25,27,28,29,30,31,38,39,41,43,46,47,50,54,56,60,62,64,77,79,81,82,84,85,91,92,93,95,96,97,99,103,106,111,120,124,126,145,155,159,178,195,197,202,204,205,206,207,208,213,216,218,222,224,225,232,234,237,241,246,248,249,253,254,255,257,260,261,271,276,282,284,293,294,297,301,307,309,312,313,321,334,339,341,343,346,348,349,350,363,367,372,380,381,385,386,393,399,407,410,411,415,416,419,420,424,428,429,435,441,446,447,448,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],structuredmessag:104,strxfrm:[93,108,265],sts:[79,90,350,460],sttype:297,stuart:339,stub:[84,157,257,382,386,472],student:[86,108,228,349,380,436,455,466],student_object:108,student_tupl:108,studi:[83,91,99,193,237,380,459,462],studio:[65,66,83,455,462,469,472],stuf:158,stuff:[57,65,81,85,95,170,177,193,309,386,464],stufft:[463,468],stumbl:[62,107,473],stupid:368,stutzbach:[462,463,466],stx:179,style1:463,style:[2,5,9,35,45,58,62,67,71,72,79,82,84,92,93,98,99,103,106,118,120,122,135,144,145,147,152,161,165,168,189,197,206,208,212,220,221,222,226,227,228,232,241,243,246,253,260,266,270,271,275,276,292,294,298,299,301,310,315,320,321,328,331,333,334,339,342,356,363,366,369,370,372,377,385,388,404,417,422,426,430,431,434,436,441,442,443,445,447,448,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,464,466,467,468,471,472,473],styleadapt:104,stylesheet:463,stype:209,sub:[29,41,62,66,69,71,74,75,95,99,103,104,106,120,124,127,135,176,177,178,179,184,189,195,197,202,206,208,215,233,249,252,253,260,267,271,279,291,294,310,316,320,321,331,346,363,372,385,387,402,410,438,445,446,447,455,456,458,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],sub_command:65,sub_dcmp:217,sub_kei:402,subcal:310,subcategori:109,subclass:[6,19,22,39,45,49,57,62,65,70,80,81,84,93,95,102,103,106,110,118,122,124,125,129,130,134,135,141,145,152,157,158,159,161,167,168,173,176,177,183,184,187,188,193,200,204,206,207,209,214,219,222,225,227,231,241,242,243,246,249,252,254,255,257,258,261,266,267,268,271,284,286,289,292,293,298,301,307,309,320,321,331,332,333,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,350,355,363,366,370,372,373,380,381,382,385,386,390,391,392,394,396,397,399,404,406,407,409,410,411,412,414,416,420,423,425,426,432,436,439,448,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],subclass_of:95,subclaus:99,subcommand:[65,67,95,122,449,463,466],subcompon:195,subcontext:161,subcontrari:345,subdir:[74,122,217,271,363],subdirectori:[65,69,74,75,77,79,82,90,91,111,164,201,217,233,252,271,293,298,304,335,376,385,396,418,419,420,446,455,456,457,459,462,463,469,471,472],subel:[410,466],subexpress:106,subfoo:69,subfunct:[310,467],subgener:[62,426,473],subgroup:[106,321,466],subinterpret:[142,363,472],subitem:446,subiter:[190,426,467],subject:[12,41,50,60,81,90,99,103,110,137,168,184,193,197,201,203,204,206,244,256,261,267,268,271,288,310,320,328,331,339,343,363,367,422,424,431,436,454,461,468,472],subjectaltnam:343,subkei:[402,455],sublayout:373,sublicens:422,sublist:[82,372,456,466],sublist_incr:82,sublist_init:82,sublist_method:82,sublistmodul:82,sublistobject:82,sublisttyp:82,submiss:[1,110,153,316,456],submit:[1,97,110,140,153,167,284,456,463,466,467,469,470,471,472],submitt:456,submock:386,submodul:[28,57,62,93,118,159,185,193,227,239,251,252,304,326,343,376,406,419,432,446,451,461,464,465,468,471,472],submodule_search_loc:[252,428],subn:[106,321,463,465,469,472],subnegoti:360,subnet:[258,467,469,472],subnet_of:[258,471,472],subnod:408,subnorm:[187,472],subobj:323,subobject:[82,91],suboffset:[2,57,62,346,467],subopt:360,suboptim:469,subordin:[402,463],subpackag:[28,57,77,93,252,282,355,385,397,419,428,446,456],subpackage1:428,subpackage2:428,subpad:178,subpars:[122,466,472],subparser1:122,subparser2:122,subparser_nam:122,subpart:[197,199,200,202,205,206,207,208],subpath:420,subpkg1:432,subpkg2:432,subpkg:[74,252],subproces:133,subprocess:[62,104,126,128,132,134,165,167,170,209,211,249,253,284,293,305,339,340,363,369,378,380,396,397,418,451,454,459,462,463,466,472,473],subprocess_exec:[62,129,132,133,134,138,472],subprocess_shel:[129,132,133,135,138],subprocesserror:[350,472],subprocessprotocol:[62,129],subprocessstreamprotocol:472,subprocesstransport:[129,135],subrang:346,subroutin:[65,78,93,99,461],subscrib:[86,104,249,382],subscript:[33,57,62,93,124,161,177,214,248,382,424,427,432,436,445,451,459,462,472],subscriptlist:427,subsect:[95,97,106,111,129,138,248,346,426,437,472],subsequ:[5,22,30,52,55,58,65,91,98,103,106,117,136,160,161,178,189,190,203,207,209,225,244,252,254,257,260,267,268,271,279,284,291,292,293,318,321,333,339,342,343,346,347,357,359,361,366,370,372,380,386,392,421,423,426,428,430,437,438,459,460,461,462,463,465,469,472],subsequent_ind:365,subsequenti:472,subset:[52,77,86,99,105,107,149,159,168,178,221,236,248,249,261,268,271,286,295,297,301,308,316,329,333,339,346,359,366,385,407,410,412,419,426,459,461,463,469,471,472],subshel:[233,293],subslic:320,subst_var:65,substanti:[79,244,274,316,383,407,422,458,460,465,466,467,468,470,472],substitut:[62,65,84,93,103,104,106,113,144,159,161,168,179,184,187,193,252,260,267,272,274,292,310,321,322,323,342,346,347,360,375,382,400,422,423,426,432,437,441,442,444,448,455,459,461,462,463,466,468,469,472,473],substr:[58,84,95,99,106,109,168,193,236,238,292,294,321,346,385,426,445,456,458,459,460,461,462,467,469,471,472],subsubdirectori:335,subsubitem:446,subsubsect:472,subsystem:[22,99,104,252,370,459,461,463,472],subtest:[62,188,468,472],subtl:[22,57,79,84,133,176,193,216,289,292,295,310,424,425,468,472],subtlest:456,subtleti:[106,184,244,423],subtli:[93,97,107,197,206,428],subtract:[43,143,161,184,187,258,269,275,291,310,346,380,416,426,456,459,462,463,466,471,472],subtre:[30,456],subtupl:22,subtyp:[8,9,10,14,19,21,24,34,35,41,45,50,55,56,57,58,197,198,201,202,204,205,206,207,248,276,289,292,334,343,346,382,413,424,426,458,472],subvers:[461,462,463,466,471,472],subview:346,subwidget:372,subwin:178,subwindow:178,succe:[5,7,10,13,16,17,36,43,44,45,49,91,106,141,193,210,227,288,293,297,298,318,333,338,339,343,363,385,386,387,392,402,407,451,458,459,472],succeed:[177,250,339,385,439,460,472],success:[5,7,9,10,11,13,16,17,21,22,23,28,30,31,34,36,41,43,44,45,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,58,60,65,79,81,82,85,86,91,93,95,97,99,103,106,110,129,135,137,140,141,149,160,161,177,178,210,216,222,225,243,246,249,251,260,265,279,284,293,295,298,301,302,307,316,321,337,338,339,342,343,349,350,355,368,372,373,385,392,407,424,437,439,456,459,460,463,466,468,470,472],successfulli:[30,60,77,80,83,95,101,106,107,117,129,134,140,164,167,168,170,193,229,249,251,252,284,288,292,293,333,339,343,346,350,366,385,404,428,432,449,460,466,469,470,472],successor:422,succinct:[98,447],succinctli:[260,436],suck:107,suddenli:92,sudo:[101,104],suexec:153,suffer:[93,385,386,440,457,458,459],suffic:[295,342,385,440],suffici:[42,57,74,79,85,101,102,103,117,124,141,159,184,185,187,193,222,227,275,293,314,328,343,346,366,385,387,400,412,428,432,438,455,466,467,470,471],suffix:[58,77,86,93,95,104,111,113,177,201,246,249,251,252,266,267,268,276,298,321,331,337,346,361,392,426,445,446,455,456,458,466,467,472],suffix_map:276,sugalski:461,sugar:[93,104,170,245,252,342,437,464],suggest:[1,62,65,80,84,86,90,91,99,104,106,109,117,135,187,227,232,236,252,301,309,322,366,367,370,418,443,450,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,468,470,472],suid:293,suit:[0,57,62,81,84,90,91,93,95,99,103,105,124,162,188,193,227,232,253,257,284,292,297,343,345,378,385,386,397,419,423,427,435,442,446,448,455,461,462,463,464,466,468,470,471,472],suitabl:[19,30,57,58,65,79,95,99,103,104,109,112,144,147,149,159,161,170,174,176,184,189,197,205,209,210,222,236,237,238,245,258,260,265,266,267,268,271,276,284,288,293,294,301,310,320,325,326,328,334,336,337,339,340,343,346,359,363,366,367,368,376,385,397,404,407,410,418,421,423,424,437,440,441,448,451,455,458,459,460,462,463,466,470,471,472],suite_mask:[355,463],suiteclass:[385,463],sum:[7,14,31,93,99,122,124,129,143,161,184,187,193,209,227,260,269,275,293,310,320,324,328,339,342,345,346,367,373,378,382,426,436,437,440,445,446,447,448,459,460,462,465,467,472],sum_list:31,sum_sequ:31,sum_two_numb:93,summar:[92,98,105,109,187,193,257,258,331,346,385,422,423,426,428,460,466],summari:[62,65,66,74,86,90,95,172,193,292,304,309,324,376,377,401,404,422,437,449,455,457,458,459,460,466,472,473],summarili:236,summarize_address_rang:[258,469,472],summaryinfo:472,summaryinform:[282,472],summat:[275,440],summer:[210,227,367,461,462],sun4u:[65,356],sun:[62,66,109,143,152,184,246,250,253,274,278,295,367,388,405,472],sunau:[62,253,278,472],sunaudiodev:[456,462],suncc:463,sundai:[152,184,265,268,367,463],sundaresan:472,sundri:459,sunken:370,suno:[30,305,359,472],sunos5:[30,355],sunpro:465,super_getattro:98,supercalifragilisticexpialidoci:[445,448],superclass:[157,182,227,261,267,314,340,382,424,458,459,461],supercop:422,superfici:91,superflu:[301,339,342,472],superimpos:343,superior:260,supernet:[258,469],supernet_of:[258,471],superscript:346,supersed:[30,54,62,253,288,295,456,463,467,471,472],superset:[103,308,346,426,456,459,472],superset_of:472,superstit:106,superus:293,supervis:461,supplant:[161,428],supplement:[204,214,229,293,462,468,472],supplementari:[110,339],suppli:[5,17,19,30,57,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,81,91,93,95,97,99,106,108,109,110,111,122,124,153,154,161,162,177,178,179,182,184,187,190,193,212,216,225,227,228,236,238,244,248,249,254,258,260,266,268,284,288,292,293,295,297,299,304,310,316,320,326,328,329,336,339,342,343,346,350,356,361,363,366,373,377,380,382,385,391,392,396,397,399,404,412,416,418,422,423,424,426,428,432,437,440,447,448,449,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,470,472],support:[5,7,11,15,21,22,23,29,31,32,33,34,36,39,43,44,45,49,52,53,54,56,57,59,61,62,64,65,66,68,70,74,75,77,79,80,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,101,102,103,104,106,108,110,111,112,113,117,118,119,121,122,123,124,126,129,131,132,134,135,137,138,140,141,143,144,147,148,149,155,156,159,161,162,164,165,172,174,176,177,178,181,183,184,185,187,188,189,190,192,193,195,196,197,202,203,204,205,208,209,211,213,214,215,216,218,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,233,234,236,238,242,243,244,245,246,247,249,252,253,254,256,257,258,259,260,261,263,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,273,274,275,276,282,284,285,288,290,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,300,301,304,305,306,307,309,313,316,317,318,321,322,323,324,329,330,331,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,342,344,345,346,347,349,350,351,355,356,360,361,362,366,367,370,373,375,377,378,380,381,384,385,388,391,392,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,412,413,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,426,428,430,431,432,435,436,438,439,440,443,444,445,446,447,448,449,451,453,454,455,457,458,460,461,463,464,465,466,467,472,473],support_team:267,supported_dist:305,supports_bytes_environ:[293,466],supports_dir_fd:[293,467],supports_effective_id:[293,467],supports_fd:[293,467],supports_follow_symlink:[293,333],supports_follows_symlink:467,supports_unicode_filenam:[294,459],supportsab:382,supportsbyt:382,supportscomplex:382,supportsfloat:382,supportsint:382,supportsround:382,suppos:[22,55,57,58,74,79,83,91,102,107,111,182,187,193,197,200,249,311,321,335,342,343,345,347,359,373,387,399,446,461,462,463,466,471,472],supposedli:[390,472],suppress:[21,30,36,44,45,62,95,97,103,111,122,130,140,154,158,164,170,193,229,288,292,317,335,337,346,350,355,363,404,423,424,432,434,437,448,455,457,459,461,462,463,464,465,468,469,472,473],suppress_help:292,suppress_ragged_eof:343,suppress_usag:292,suppresscrashreport:363,sure:[1,13,15,22,41,47,58,62,72,74,78,81,82,84,85,90,91,92,95,97,99,103,104,106,111,122,153,157,159,168,177,187,214,227,229,236,252,265,284,292,293,298,330,342,343,351,363,366,392,394,397,398,410,418,424,427,436,445,447,450,453,458,459,461,462,464,466,467,472],surfac:94,surface_grav:212,surpris:[62,84,90,91,95,104,107,120,184,187,193,227,237,248,266,275,284,310,370,426,428,436,440,457,458,461,465,469,471],surprisingli:90,surrog:[54,58,159,261,348,359,407,467,468,472],surrogateescap:[54,58,109,159,202,209,219,227,293,339,355,359,451,466,469,470,471,472],surrogatepass:[159,451,468,470,472],surround:[38,85,99,106,145,168,176,189,227,245,248,265,347,350,371,396,423,425,431,438,446,448,456,461,462,463,464,465,470],surviv:[117,177,229,399],survivor:463,susan:466,suscept:[333,455,472],suse:[66,72,111,305,472],susp:178,suspect:[35,153,456],suspend:[93,99,128,140,178,254,316,334,362,366,367,423,424,426,458,459,461,469,471,472],suspens:[367,424,426],suspici:472,sussman:99,susumu:472,suzi:459,suzuki:459,sv1:110,svensson:460,svetlov:[468,471],svg:461,svn:[75,122,164,356,391,459,461,462,463,466,472],svneol:472,svr4:216,sw_hide:350,sw_showdefault:350,swallow:[103,104,448,456,463,466,472],swamp:104,swap:[30,78,107,159,161,177,190,284,324,339,349,363,424,432,447,471,472],swap_attr:[363,472],swap_item:[363,472],swapcas:[346,472],swart:468,swati:472,swear:97,sweep:[229,461],sweet32:472,sweet:106,sweigart:472,swiegart:470,swig:[65,68,74,80,85,92,455],swig_opt:74,swinstal:[66,72],switchabl:349,switchboard:107,switcher:472,switching_protocol:242,switzerland:410,swordfish:106,syllabl:109,sym:65,sym_nam:353,symbol:[52,60,62,65,74,77,79,83,91,92,97,109,111,120,124,158,160,177,178,187,190,193,212,227,253,263,265,268,291,293,294,297,298,302,305,321,324,333,334,339,342,344,346,355,358,359,360,362,363,373,380,384,402,407,412,418,424,427,430,432,437,443,446,455,456,458,460,461,463,465,466,470,472],symbolt:354,symlink:[41,65,75,233,292,293,298,313,333,396,446,453,460,462,466,467,468,472],symlink_to:298,symmetr:[236,320,343,346,424,426,438,456,458,459,460,467],symmetri:[350,456],symmetric_differ:[346,459],symmetric_difference_upd:[346,459],symtabl:[62,253,263,463],symtyp:359,syn:179,sync:[178,185,212,284,293,295,331,467,472],sync_comp_for:427,syncdown:178,synch:189,synchron:[62,117,126,165,170,179,183,185,187,213,252,253,257,279,293,331,334,340,366,395,424,448,462,466,469,471,472],synchronis:[346,467],syncmanag:[284,472],syncok:178,syncup:178,synonym:[93,97,104,109,117,178,227,292,301,321,344,351,370,382,398,407,431,462,472],synopsi:[129,315,343,472],syntact:[84,91,93,170,203,241,252,256,286,297,316,342,346,386,391,397,411,423,426,430,431,432,436,437,439,460,461,464],syntax:[5,7,62,65,68,69,79,84,85,86,91,93,95,99,102,103,104,106,109,110,113,120,126,129,140,153,158,160,168,169,177,182,187,190,193,204,212,214,227,232,240,248,253,254,261,263,265,267,273,284,291,292,295,297,299,316,332,336,342,346,355,363,364,373,377,378,382,385,391,392,393,414,416,423,424,426,428,429,430,431,432,433,438,440,441,442,444,445,446,447,448,450,451,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,465,466,468,471,472,473],syntax_err:407,syntaxerr:407,syntaxerror:[22,60,85,106,158,160,169,193,214,227,248,297,363,375,377,423,425,426,431,432,438,439,442,445,446,456,457,458,466,468,469,470,471,472],syntaxwarn:[22,214,363,397,446,459,470,472],synthes:[99,193],synthet:385,sys:[22,28,30,31,41,54,58,60,62,65,66,72,74,79,84,85,86,91,93,95,103,104,105,109,111,113,114,117,120,129,135,137,138,140,142,145,153,154,157,158,164,170,176,177,178,189,190,193,201,211,214,215,216,217,219,225,227,229,230,231,232,246,248,251,252,253,254,257,260,261,264,266,267,268,280,284,292,293,295,299,301,302,304,305,309,310,311,313,314,315,317,323,326,329,332,333,334,335,339,340,342,344,346,349,350,356,357,359,360,362,363,366,368,376,377,378,381,385,386,387,392,396,397,399,404,410,414,417,418,419,420,423,424,426,428,433,434,439,442,444,446,447,448,449,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,472,473],sys_exc:113,sys_vers:246,syscal:[129,130,214,293,324,469,470,472],sysconf:[293,339],sysconf_nam:293,sysconfig:[62,71,74,78,253,293,317,378,418,468,472],sysctl:324,syslog:[62,103,104,253,268,388,463,467],syslog_udp_port:[267,268],sysloghandl:[62,103,120,267,357,463,467,472],sysmacro:472,sysmodul:462,sysnam:[293,305],sysproto_control:339,sysroot:472,system32:455,system:[7,15,22,23,29,30,31,38,57,59,62,64,66,68,70,71,72,74,75,77,79,80,83,84,86,87,89,90,91,92,93,96,97,99,101,103,104,105,106,109,110,111,117,123,129,135,138,141,145,152,156,157,165,168,170,174,175,176,177,178,184,187,188,192,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,220,221,225,227,230,231,232,243,246,248,249,251,252,253,255,256,257,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,276,278,279,283,284,286,287,294,295,296,298,301,303,304,305,307,310,311,312,313,316,317,318,320,324,326,328,329,333,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,344,346,349,356,357,359,361,362,363,366,367,370,372,378,380,385,386,387,388,392,396,400,402,403,404,407,410,411,412,413,416,417,418,419,422,424,429,431,432,433,434,435,439,440,441,442,444,446,448,449,451,453,454,455,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,471,472,473],system_alia:305,system_dir:168,system_id:413,system_must_validate_cert:363,system_sit:396,system_site_packag:396,systemasterisk:403,systemat:193,systemconfigur:472,systemdefault:403,systemerror:[5,22,25,41,45,50,55,58,214,297,446,470,472],systemev:462,systemexclam:403,systemexit:[22,60,65,103,117,142,158,169,214,248,355,403,425,446,461,462,464,470,472],systemhand:403,systemid:[316,407,412],systemquest:403,systemrandom:[293,320,328],systemroot:350,systemtap:[62,100,472],sysv:[90,456,457],szakmeist:472,szmek:[467,472],szulik:469,t01234:346,t0123:346,t012:346,t11:380,t12:380,t21:380,t22:380,t_bool:53,t_byte:53,t_char:53,t_co:382,t_contra:382,t_doubl:53,t_float:53,t_fmt:265,t_fmt_ampm:265,t_int:[53,82],t_long:53,t_longlong:53,t_object:53,t_object_ex:[53,82],t_pyssizet:53,t_short:53,t_string:53,t_string_inplac:463,t_ubyt:53,t_uint:53,t_ulong:53,t_ulonglong:53,t_ushort:53,tab:[5,60,62,83,147,157,176,178,179,189,193,199,203,214,222,243,248,254,261,299,319,321,322,325,332,335,346,347,350,365,369,372,400,416,431,437,441,445,451,456,461,463,467,468,470,471,472],tab_id:373,tabbedpag:472,tabbedpageset:472,taberror:[22,92,214,431,446,456],tabifi:248,tabl:[5,7,28,30,31,41,53,58,62,65,74,80,81,83,84,86,95,99,103,105,106,109,110,149,152,159,177,178,187,189,196,204,213,227,236,248,251,252,253,256,257,260,261,263,265,266,276,284,291,298,300,321,329,340,342,343,346,348,349,355,359,367,370,385,400,401,402,406,407,419,422,426,431,437,442,443,446,448,458,459,460,461,462,463,465,466,467,468,472],tablea:348,tableb:348,tablec:348,tabnanni:[62,92,253,263,456],tabpag:472,tabsiz:[189,346,365],tabul:[260,346,408],tabular:[62,176,369],tac:438,tack:[103,418],tackl:[301,456],tad:5,taddei:[470,472],tadek:463,tag1:456,tag:[28,56,57,62,65,81,101,106,153,189,222,241,249,251,252,268,279,301,316,348,355,357,369,370,392,407,410,414,416,446,456,461,463,468,469,472,473],tag_bind:373,tag_configur:373,tag_ha:[373,472],tagbanwa:109,tagnam:[279,373,407,408,409],tai:466,taifersar:[463,466,472],tail:[58,153,161,189,260,294,335,410,461,467,470,472],tailor:[78,95,247,346,363],tajik:[159,469],takayuki:472,take:[0,1,5,9,22,30,31,45,53,55,57,58,60,62,64,65,68,69,70,72,74,75,77,79,81,82,84,85,90,91,93,95,97,98,99,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,112,122,124,125,128,129,140,141,143,145,152,153,154,159,161,168,170,176,177,178,179,187,188,189,190,193,195,199,202,203,204,207,208,209,210,216,219,223,225,227,229,232,236,244,245,246,248,250,252,257,260,261,265,266,267,269,271,275,276,284,288,292,293,297,298,301,302,309,310,320,321,326,327,329,331,332,333,334,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,359,361,362,365,368,370,372,373,378,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,404,405,407,408,409,410,412,414,416,418,419,421,424,426,428,432,435,437,440,442,444,445,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,471,472,473],take_act:292,take_snapshot:378,takefocu:[87,373],taken:[1,5,41,50,57,60,66,72,79,81,99,104,122,141,143,145,161,164,168,184,187,190,193,197,203,206,207,212,217,222,227,229,232,249,265,267,276,279,284,293,294,298,305,310,313,316,324,328,332,336,343,345,346,349,355,359,363,365,366,368,370,377,378,383,394,397,423,424,428,432,436,446,456,458,459,461,466,467,468,472],takeuchi:472,takewhil:[99,260],takuji:422,tal:[469,470,471,472],talbot:466,talent:97,talin:462,talk:[58,86,91,97,107,109,343,350,424,436,437,453,461,469],talli:[161,463,466,467],talo:472,tamil:109,tamper:236,tan:[156,275,472],tangent:[156,275,380],tangerin:438,tanh:[156,275],tape:[237,359],tapset:62,tar:[62,65,66,72,75,86,111,121,253,276,292,298,333,396,449,456,459,460,461,462,463,466,472],tara:468,tarbal:[65,66,72,75,456],tarek:[69,333,356,462,463,466,469,472],tarerror:359,tarfil:[62,121,253,333,447,459,460,461,462,463,470,471,472],target:[7,30,31,58,62,65,66,68,74,87,90,101,103,104,105,111,124,129,135,161,170,172,184,187,190,243,252,254,267,268,284,291,292,293,297,298,316,318,321,333,334,339,340,342,354,359,361,363,366,370,386,396,404,407,410,412,416,418,419,423,424,425,426,428,432,437,451,455,459,461,462,464,466,467,468,471,472],target_desc:65,target_handl:104,target_is_directori:[293,298,467],target_lang:65,target_list:[423,426,432],targetdir:[455,472],tarinfo:[62,121,463,466],tashrif:472,task1:[140,448],task2:[140,448],task3:448,task4:448,task:[31,59,62,64,72,79,91,93,94,99,103,106,109,111,112,117,126,128,130,131,132,136,137,139,141,149,165,166,168,170,171,202,208,237,248,251,253,258,268,271,284,293,298,301,310,318,340,350,355,366,391,417,435,440,445,447,448,450,456,458,462,463,465,466,469,470,471,472],task_don:[136,284,318,461,469,472],task_queu:284,taskaya:472,tasks1:284,tasks2:284,tast:91,tau:[156,275,470,472],taught:[248,345],tautolog:472,tavar:468,tax:[86,91,321,445,448,459],taxonomi:385,taylor:[187,462,472],tb_frame:[254,381,424],tb_lasti:[254,381,424],tb_lineno:[254,377,381,424],tb_local:385,tb_next:[254,377,381,424,471,472],tbreak:299,tbs:472,tbutton:373,tcdrain:362,tcflow:362,tcflush:362,tcgetattr:362,tcgetpgrp:293,tciflush:362,tcioff:362,tcioflush:362,tcion:362,tck:463,tcl83:77,tcl8:463,tcl:[62,87,248,253,369,372,373,448,453,455,456,459,462,463,466,469,470,472],tcl_librari:87,tcl_obj:[459,472],tclerror:472,tclsam_init:87,tcltk:466,tcoflush:362,tcombobox:373,tcooff:362,tcoon:362,tcp:[62,86,90,103,104,107,127,129,132,268,284,337,339,340,343,363,462,463,470,471,472],tcp_:339,tcp_congest:[339,470,471,472],tcp_echo_cli:137,tcp_fastopen:[339,472],tcp_keepcnt:[339,472],tcp_keepidl:[339,472],tcp_keepintvl:[339,472],tcp_nodelai:[107,129,463,470,471,472],tcp_notsent_lowat:[339,471,472],tcp_user_timeout:[339,470,471,472],tcpclient:340,tcpserver:[62,104,246,255,266,417,463,472],tcsadrain:362,tcsaflush:[362,379],tcsanow:362,tcsendbreak:362,tcsetattr:[362,379],tcsetpgrp:293,tcsh:[396,460],tda:343,tdemo_nim:380,tdemo_round_d:380,tea:447,teach:[86,232,458],team:[64,86,422,455,456,457,458,463,466,468,472],teamus:382,tear:[193,385],teardown:[193,363,385,386,387,463,472],teardownclass:[62,188,463],teardownmodul:[62,188,463],tearoff:472,tebeka:[463,466],tech:472,technet:455,technic:[86,93,99,110,113,168,184,214,227,261,292,321,346,397,428,453,456,463,471],techniqu:[31,62,84,91,93,99,104,108,109,141,153,161,193,202,228,293,310,321,362,372,386,387,428,437,441,442,448,466],technolog:[86,90,97,107,255,422],techtonik:463,ted:310,tediou:[66,68,74,109,111,124,153,386,435,456,461],tee:[99,178,260,460],teichmann:[470,472],tel:438,telco:467,telenovela:466,telephon:321,teleprint:179,telescop:449,teletyp:222,tell:[5,28,30,62,65,69,74,79,81,84,86,91,94,95,97,99,104,105,106,107,111,113,119,122,129,136,141,153,155,160,193,209,224,225,236,257,266,268,279,284,292,295,301,318,333,334,339,340,343,346,351,370,376,386,392,398,404,419,436,442,456,458,459,460,462,469,470,471,472],tellabl:472,telnet:[62,171,253,255,391,462,470,472],telnetlib:[62,253,255,462,472],telopt_:360,temp0:177,temp1:177,temp:[68,77,79,104,111,122,284,331,342,361,408,418,455,472],temp_cwd:363,temp_dir:363,temp_umask:363,tempcwd:363,tempdir:[361,399,472],temperatur:466,tempfil:[62,110,201,220,227,253,284,293,363,392,399,462,464,472],templ:472,templat:[62,65,67,74,75,79,91,93,95,103,104,161,202,266,321,346,364,368,380,388,441,442,458,460,462,463,466,467,470,471,472],tempnam:464,tempo:106,temporari:[7,21,36,45,47,50,62,65,66,68,93,104,110,111,113,145,177,193,220,225,248,252,253,257,260,265,271,272,284,293,299,326,328,342,346,355,363,385,392,399,423,431,458,460,462,466,467,468,472],temporarili:[22,31,62,66,79,93,95,104,110,111,152,170,187,193,229,232,265,266,317,318,346,350,363,368,373,385,386,387,423,455,462,470,471,472],temporary_redirect:242,temporarydirectori:[361,466,472],temporaryfil:[361,472],tempt:[31,82,104,105,106,368,438,447],temptat:[106,385,457],ten:[1,86,104,161,178,187,310,320,328,459],ten_year:184,tend:[31,84,91,151,189,228,307,310,345,436,465],tenfold:460,teninteg:177,tenpointsarraytyp:177,tenth:[97,143,178,210],tenuous:141,teo:472,tep:299,teredo:258,term:[31,62,66,72,79,86,93,94,95,98,99,105,111,118,125,140,178,187,210,214,223,236,244,252,256,257,261,266,274,289,292,301,310,347,351,363,367,381,396,398,399,404,411,427,428,436,446,460,462,463,465,467,468,470,472],termattr:178,termin:[5,7,9,15,28,30,33,41,55,57,58,60,62,65,72,74,79,90,91,92,97,99,103,104,109,111,117,120,122,125,132,134,135,138,140,141,142,157,167,176,177,179,189,190,193,208,209,215,220,227,231,243,246,248,253,254,257,260,264,265,268,271,284,286,288,292,297,299,304,310,321,324,336,337,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,362,366,367,374,388,392,397,402,404,408,410,412,422,423,425,428,431,432,436,437,441,451,453,455,456,460,461,462,464,466,467,469,471,472],terminal_s:[293,333],terminalcommand:462,terminateprocess:[135,138,284,293,350,462,463],terminfo:178,terminolog:[62,71,95,102,202,274,352,367,373,407,436,457,458,461,462],termio:[62,216,253,379,388,472],termnam:178,ternari:[57,424,426],ternaryfunc:[57,81],terrenc:466,terri:[109,438,469,470,471,472],terribl:[106,237],terron:472,ters:[90,305,429,450,455],test1:[347,423],test2:[299,347,423],test:[5,22,31,42,56,57,62,65,72,74,75,79,84,85,91,93,94,95,97,101,102,103,104,106,108,109,110,111,118,122,124,128,131,156,157,159,161,162,167,171,177,178,179,182,187,188,195,201,212,214,221,227,228,230,237,241,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,258,261,263,265,268,272,275,284,291,293,297,299,307,311,317,320,321,337,342,344,355,359,365,366,368,372,373,378,386,392,399,404,410,416,419,422,423,424,427,430,435,436,437,438,442,445,446,447,448,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,471],test_:[363,419,472],test__all__:363,test_anagram:466,test_api:472,test_argpars:472,test_ast:472,test_asyncio:472,test_asyncor:472,test_autocomplet:472,test_averag:447,test_bdb:472,test_both:472,test_brows:472,test_bufio:459,test_byt:470,test_c_api:31,test_capi:472,test_cas:[363,385],test_chown:472,test_chown_gid:472,test_class:385,test_cmath:472,test_cmd_lin:472,test_cod:472,test_code_modul:472,test_codec:472,test_collect:472,test_compileal:472,test_config:472,test_configdialog:472,test_count:[193,363],test_ctyp:472,test_curs:472,test_data_dir:363,test_datetim:472,test_dbm_gnu:472,test_default_widget_s:385,test_deleg:472,test_division_by_zero:465,test_doctest:193,test_eintr:472,te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9,111,170,225,246,271,333,361,428,456,459,460,461,462,463,466],tmp_file:110,tmpdir:361,tmpdirnam:[361,466],tmpf:472,tmpfile:464,tmpnam:464,tmptjujjt:361,to_addr:[337,466],to_angl:380,to_byt:346,to_eng_str:[187,460],to_integr:187,to_integral_exact:187,to_integral_valu:187,to_sci_str:[187,460],to_start:58,toaddr:[90,267,268,337],toaiff:462,toascii:159,tobi:[456,472],tobia:456,tobuf:359,tobyt:[123,346,463,466],toc:[248,472],tocknel:[471,472],todai:[31,78,105,109,168,184,288,295,342,359,387,416,431,440,447,457,459,460,462],todat:189,toder:[471,472],todesc:189,toe:438,tofil:[123,189,464],tofiled:189,togeth:[17,31,57,62,65,66,72,78,84,95,96,97,99,102,103,104,105,106,122,123,129,135,159,161,176,177,193,203,208,209,219,227,236,244,245,258,260,266,271,293,343,346,352,371,380,385,386,387,392,396,409,411,422,424,426,436,438,441,445,447,460,466,467,472],toggl:[248,339,373,472],tohexstr:346,toi:81,toijala:472,tok_nam:[374,472],tok_nextc:472,tok_regex:321,token:[16,60,62,90,118,124,171,175,252,253,263,264,282,286,297,316,332,350,358,364,370,392,427,429,430,439,443,463,464,466,470,471,472],token_:328,token_byt:328,token_hex:328,token_specif:321,token_urlsaf:328,tokenerror:375,toknum:375,tokval:375,told:[103,396,424,459],toler:[143,156,258,275,469,471,472],tolin:189,tolist:[123,297,346,458,463,466],tom:[109,458,461,466,468,472],tomato:[212,342],tomono:143,ton:347,tonam:225,toni:[321,462,472],too:[5,17,31,57,60,69,81,84,90,95,97,99,103,104,106,109,110,111,118,128,135,140,148,153,156,159,168,170,172,177,185,187,190,193,195,205,212,213,214,227,229,232,244,257,258,284,291,292,307,309,333,334,339,340,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,360,366,380,385,386,387,406,410,419,420,421,422,424,427,428,430,435,436,437,442,445,447,451,456,457,458,459,460,462,463,464,467,469,471,472],too_many_request:242,toogl:248,took:[108,140,456,472],tool:[28,30,31,62,65,66,71,73,78,84,85,86,87,89,92,93,95,97,98,99,101,102,103,105,106,109,111,112,113,114,120,138,157,161,165,170,178,189,192,193,195,205,220,225,227,228,232,233,253,254,255,260,261,263,291,296,301,309,320,323,332,334,355,375,376,378,380,382,385,396,410,418,419,432,436,440,441,447,449,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,461,462,464,465,466,467,468,469,470],toolbox:[111,457,458,459],toolchain:[0,462,470,472],toolkit:[62,109,248,260,296,369,370,422,435,453,456],toolset:[0,98,260,292,447,462],tooltip:[380,472],toordin:184,top:[1,28,30,31,38,62,65,72,74,79,84,90,91,93,95,97,99,101,103,104,105,106,110,111,117,122,137,140,153,154,159,168,171,177,178,180,186,189,190,193,208,212,227,232,237,244,248,249,252,253,254,257,265,276,285,293,301,304,306,307,310,314,315,316,317,326,343,344,354,355,363,366,369,370,372,373,380,381,385,386,399,410,416,417,419,425,428,429,431,432,436,438,446,451,454,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,470,471,472],top_el:408,top_level_dir:385,top_level_url:110,top_panel:180,top_stat:378,topbottom:380,topdown:293,topic:[62,64,74,78,80,82,85,86,90,94,97,100,106,157,193,227,266,292,309,315,339,370,456,459,465,472],toplevel:[79,161,187,227,354,370,372,373,410],topmost:[161,355,461,472],topolog:459,toprettyxml:[408,459],topsecret:168,tor:288,torgb:462,torhamo:472,torpedo:466,torr:[469,472],torsten:[466,467,472],tort:422,tortiou:422,tos1:190,tos2:190,tos3:190,tos:210,toshio:468,tosi:467,toss:459,tostereo:143,tostr:[123,410,463,466,468],tostringlist:[410,466,468],total:[16,21,30,31,34,40,50,53,54,55,58,79,84,91,94,95,99,119,129,130,135,136,140,161,184,187,189,190,193,197,206,227,228,229,232,237,257,258,260,272,293,310,320,321,333,339,342,343,346,347,367,368,373,378,385,392,398,424,426,431,440,451,463,466,467,468,469,470,472],total_chang:342,total_cost:182,total_ord:[228,424,426,463,466,468,472],total_second:[184,463],total_sleep_tim:136,total_slept_for:136,totals:107,tottim:310,totupl:297,touch:[5,62,91,94,178,248,298,299,425,435,446,462,472],touchlin:178,touchwin:178,tough:91,tounicod:[91,123,159],tour:[62,99,441,458,459,473],tournament:237,toward:[62,91,147,187,193,197,206,219,223,224,227,266,346,365,367,380,424,436,441,457,459,461,462,468,472],tower:[62,223,290,345,380,462,464],town:107,townshend:467,tox:105,toxml:[408,409,456,459],tp_:81,tp_alloc:[56,57,81,82],tp_as_async:[57,81,469],tp_as_buff:[57,81],tp_as_map:[57,81],tp_as_numb:[43,57,81],tp_as_sequ:[57,81],tp_base:[57,81,82],tp_basics:[3,57,81,82],tp_cach:[57,81],tp_call:[57,81],tp_clear:[26,57,81,82],tp_compar:[57,81],tp_dealloc:[3,26,57,81,82,472],tp_del:[57,81,229],tp_descr_get:[57,81],tp_descr_set:[57,81],tp_dict:[57,81,462],tp_dictoffset:[57,81],tp_doc:[57,81,82],tp_final:[57,81,469,472],tp_flag:[26,56,57,81,82,462],tp_free:[57,81,82],tp_getattr:[57,81],tp_getattro:[45,57,81],tp_getset:[53,57,81,82],tp_hash:[45,57,81,462],tp_init:[57,62,81,82],tp_is_gc:[57,81],tp_items:[3,57,81,82],tp_iter:[57,81,346,458],tp_iternext:[57,81,346,458],tp_maxalloc:57,tp_member:[57,81,82],tp_method:[57,81,82],tp_mro:[57,81],tp_name:[57,81,82,95,472],tp_new:[56,57,62,81,82],tp_next:57,tp_print:[57,81],tp_repr:[22,57,81],tp_reserv:[57,81,469],tp_richcmp:457,tp_richcompar:[57,81,472],tp_setattr:[57,81],tp_setattro:[45,57,81],tp_str:[57,81],tp_subclass:[57,81],tp_travers:[26,57,81,82,229,472],tp_version_tag:[57,81],tp_weaklist:[57,81],tp_weaklistoffset:[57,81],tparm:178,tpip:99,tput:178,trac:462,trace:[29,31,38,62,75,79,96,101,103,117,145,158,172,186,228,237,249,253,254,256,299,342,355,363,366,377,380,424,432,434,436,451,457,458,459,463,467,468,469,470,471,472],trace_add:[470,472],trace_callback:342,trace_dispatch:145,trace_info:[470,472],trace_remov:[470,472],trace_vari:[470,472],trace_vdelet:[470,472],trace_vinfo:[470,472],traceback:[22,31,38,60,62,74,79,82,85,91,94,97,99,102,103,104,109,122,128,140,141,142,153,158,161,164,168,170,177,178,186,187,190,193,212,214,248,253,254,255,258,264,266,267,268,284,298,299,301,317,321,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,368,380,381,384,385,386,387,404,423,424,425,426,432,436,437,438,439,442,445,448,451,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,471,472],traceback_limit:[378,404],tracebackexcept:[62,317,469],tracebacklimit:[355,472],tracebackobj:432,tracebackobject:460,tracebacktyp:[381,424,471,472],tracefunc:355,tracemalloc:[29,62,186,253,363,422,451,472],tracer:[376,380,462,472],track:[22,26,31,57,62,65,74,84,91,93,103,105,106,129,153,159,161,168,170,182,186,187,188,193,222,229,237,253,268,275,284,292,293,301,318,329,355,366,370,385,386,392,407,423,440,448,456,457,460,463,465,466,468,469,470,471,472],track_entry_and_exit:[170,466],trackcal:376,tracker:[62,64,112,284,363,461,463,472],tractabl:90,trad:472,trade:[8,217,292,346,422,448],trademark:[86,422],tradeoff:38,tradit:[62,65,79,82,93,111,159,174,265,271,275,292,293,312,363,423,428,447,462,466],tradition:[52,111,310,360,459,471],traffic:[86,209,339,458,466,472],trail:[5,17,30,58,65,74,84,95,97,99,106,144,147,158,159,160,168,178,187,189,197,206,209,223,225,227,230,240,241,248,271,294,316,339,346,347,350,357,367,370,377,386,392,404,407,421,426,431,432,436,438,448,456,460,462,463,464,465,466,468,469,470,471,472],trailer:[103,293,421,427,472],trailneg:187,tran:[342,461],transact:[62,99,161,243,244,282,300,320,336,366,392,459,461,462,466,469,470,472],transaction_count:161,transcod:[159,404,466],transcript:193,transfer:[30,31,62,78,79,97,107,110,144,170,196,197,198,199,202,203,204,207,208,209,225,236,242,243,245,271,274,276,284,288,293,337,392,394,416,426,428,462,463,466,467,470,472],transfer_encod:202,transfercmd:225,transform:[62,65,93,98,99,104,105,107,108,109,113,124,146,149,168,176,184,187,193,197,198,202,206,209,212,214,222,227,228,237,254,265,266,271,301,346,375,380,381,382,423,424,426,445,450,456,457,462,464,468,469,471,472],transient_internet:363,transientresourc:[363,462],transit:[58,62,102,110,184,212,228,267,331,340,392,426,439,458,460,461,463,467],transitionerror:439,translat:[58,62,65,79,93,96,105,106,109,110,147,153,159,177,178,188,213,214,221,224,227,239,241,246,247,252,253,257,261,283,293,334,336,339,346,347,350,384,410,416,423,424,456,459,460,462,463,464,465,466,469,472],transliter:339,transmiss:[109,125,179,209,268,302,404],transmit:[110,125,129,135,143,288,337,339,362,404,406,416,460],transpar:[84,92,109,122,151,159,177,178,203,204,219,242,248,257,269,301,359,373,380,418,455,457,459,460,467,468,470,471,472],transport:[62,126,129,131,137,138,171,195,199,202,207,213,274,297,319,337,343,415,416,458,469,470,471,472],transpos:[438,460],transposed_row:438,trap:[128,170,187,368,458,460,467,472],trash:[57,271,472],trashcan:456,traur:458,travers:[26,28,41,47,57,82,93,99,113,124,164,185,197,206,266,346,373,385,386,404,409,428,432,456,458,459,461,462,463,469,472],traverseproc:[26,41,57,81,82],travi:[461,462,463,472],trb:85,treat:[4,6,31,42,51,53,58,60,65,90,94,99,102,105,106,114,122,123,140,141,143,159,161,168,172,178,182,184,187,189,193,195,204,206,212,223,228,233,244,246,258,260,266,267,275,292,321,332,336,337,342,346,347,350,351,359,363,365,368,370,373,382,385,391,392,397,398,404,409,423,425,426,431,432,436,444,445,446,455,456,458,461,462,463,464,467,470,472],treatment:[45,65,104,195,222,284,297,345,391,456,464],tree:[15,30,57,62,66,67,69,71,72,74,75,84,90,91,92,93,95,99,111,113,153,164,175,189,195,197,205,206,208,217,233,237,248,253,263,273,293,298,313,314,333,344,346,358,372,373,380,396,406,407,408,424,448,449,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,467,469,470,472,473],treebuild:[62,273,466,472],treesync:472,treeview:[62,369,472],treeviewclos:373,treeviewopen:373,treeviewselect:373,tremend:[90,437],trent:[456,459,461,468],trevino:467,trevor:460,tri:[13,30,44,79,81,82,84,91,93,99,102,106,111,113,143,160,177,190,193,204,210,227,251,257,265,268,276,283,284,289,293,305,315,321,324,337,342,347,363,366,380,392,424,426,428,430,439,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,471,472],trial:[193,320,368,459],triangl:380,triangular:[320,462],trick:[28,62,84,91,177,355,387,436,458],tricki:[65,93,95,96,149,158,212,292,456,457,464],trickier:[91,292],trifl:111,trigger:[30,38,57,62,82,93,95,98,99,101,105,129,170,187,197,206,211,214,228,252,254,284,292,293,318,334,335,342,346,370,385,386,391,397,406,416,424,439,448,451,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],trigonometr:[62,290,460],trip:[104,151,244,375,462,464,465,472],tripathi:[469,472],tripl:[85,93,106,109,189,251,288,293,302,321,329,339,346,365,380,431,442,445],triplet:472,tristan:472,tristiqu:151,trivia:461,trivial:[57,62,66,74,78,79,81,84,90,99,110,138,153,195,209,235,284,321,350,352,387,404,436,447,459,467,468],trivial_dealloc:81,trivialobject:81,trivialtyp:81,troeger:472,trojan:463,trondheim:438,troubl:[78,102,107,110,214,455,460],trove:[74,105,459],tru64:464,true_v:461,true_valu:461,truediv:291,truli:[79,87,90,91,182,271,365,392,463,464,472],trunc:[275,289,346,424,462],truncat:[5,17,54,58,90,91,143,151,178,184,187,214,227,235,249,257,260,269,275,293,322,339,342,346,349,361,363,365,390,394,419,421,424,426,442,456,458,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472],trunk:[95,461,462],trust:[77,153,225,243,249,267,284,304,307,337,343,350,392,462,463,468],trusti:471,trustworthi:343,truth:[5,6,62,65,94,99,107,169,177,227,253,291,349,424,426,459,472],try1_stmt:423,try2_stmt:423,try_stmt:[423,427],tsc:460,tshepang:94,tss:[62,471,472],tstate:30,ttk:[62,253,369,370,372,465,470,471,472],ttk_intro:463,ttkstyle:373,ttshandler:104,tty:[62,178,231,253,257,293,388,433,434,444,451,462],ttynam:293,ttys0:334,tucson:99,tue:[152,184],tuesdai:[152,184,268,447],tuininga:[91,472],tunabl:[236,293,466],tune:[84,228,229,244,292,321,324,343,421,456,459],tunnel:[243,466],tup:[309,380],tupl:[3,5,13,15,19,22,25,31,34,36,38,45,49,50,53,56,57,60,62,65,74,78,79,81,82,93,95,99,103,104,106,108,110,113,114,117,118,119,122,123,124,129,135,136,138,141,143,145,152,154,157,159,167,171,173,177,178,182,183,184,185,187,189,190,193,197,204,206,209,210,212,214,222,225,227,228,229,234,237,243,244,245,246,249,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,265,266,268,271,272,274,276,280,282,284,286,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,301,302,305,306,307,310,312,316,318,321,324,327,329,330,332,333,334,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,344,347,349,350,351,354,355,356,360,361,363,366,367,370,373,375,377,378,380,381,382,385,386,391,392,393,395,397,398,399,402,404,409,410,412,413,416,417,419,423,424,426,428,432,436,437,439,441,442,446,447,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],tuple2:302,tuple2st:297,tuple_factori:182,tuple_param:113,turbo:455,turkish:159,turn:[5,22,30,31,53,57,66,75,79,84,91,94,95,97,98,99,103,105,106,109,110,111,113,122,157,159,161,168,177,178,189,193,195,209,210,227,237,244,246,248,254,265,266,284,292,298,300,303,313,322,329,334,337,339,342,355,362,363,366,368,380,382,385,387,392,397,417,421,423,428,430,431,438,444,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,470,472],turn_r:370,turnbul:472,turner:472,turtl:[62,157,224,248,253,370,462,464,466,472],turtle_docstringdict:380,turtle_docstringdict_german:380,turtle_docstringdict_italian:380,turtledemo:[62,224,248,472],turtlegraph:380,turtlegraphicserror:380,turtles:380,turtlescreen:[62,224],turtleshap:380,turtleshel:157,tutor:99,tutori:[62,80,84,87,90,97,98,100,104,106,107,110,120,126,161,163,178,193,214,227,228,248,266,267,268,273,290,296,297,320,339,342,352,369,370,404,429,430,435,445,449,450,453,458,460,461,462,466,472],tutt:456,tuur:472,tweak:[292,387,457,460,470,472],twelv:[178,373],twice:[30,83,91,99,104,105,108,109,111,147,164,168,184,215,237,238,275,321,342,355,375,397,436,442,451,456,458,459,460,462,463,470,472],twin:456,twine:64,twinsun:184,twist:[90,387,422,437,472],twister:[62,320,459],twisti:97,twix:245,two:[5,6,7,9,13,14,22,26,30,31,32,33,37,38,41,43,53,57,58,61,62,65,66,69,72,74,75,78,79,81,82,83,84,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,114,119,122,125,129,134,135,137,139,140,141,143,144,145,147,149,152,153,156,158,159,160,161,168,172,173,174,176,177,178,179,182,184,187,189,190,193,195,196,197,201,203,208,209,210,211,212,214,217,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,236,237,244,246,248,249,250,252,254,256,257,258,259,260,265,266,267,271,275,276,279,282,284,288,289,291,292,293,295,297,299,301,303,305,307,310,314,316,318,319,320,321,324,326,327,328,331,333,334,335,336,339,340,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,351,355,359,361,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,375,378,380,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,402,404,405,407,410,413,418,419,421,423,424,426,428,429,430,431,432,434,436,437,438,439,440,442,445,446,447,448,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],two_canvas:380,twoplac:187,twosh:168,tx_addr:339,txt:[31,62,68,75,84,99,104,109,111,122,161,167,170,190,193,209,219,221,227,232,233,235,236,244,253,255,257,279,288,292,293,298,301,346,350,355,359,370,384,389,418,419,431,436,439,448,449,455,456,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,472],tycho:[447,472],tyler:[470,472],typ:[198,249,382],type2:227,type:[1,2,3,5,6,9,10,11,12,14,15,16,18,19,20,21,22,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,43,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,55,60,61,62,65,66,71,72,79,80,83,85,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,102,103,104,107,110,111,113,117,118,119,120,123,124,125,129,130,140,141,145,146,153,154,155,157,159,161,162,168,169,170,172,173,174,176,178,179,182,185,187,188,189,190,193,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,213,214,217,225,227,228,229,232,236,237,238,241,243,245,246,248,249,251,252,253,256,257,260,261,265,266,267,268,269,272,273,274,275,278,279,280,282,284,285,290,291,293,294,297,299,300,301,305,306,308,309,315,316,317,318,320,321,322,323,326,327,329,330,331,332,333,334,339,340,343,344,345,347,349,350,351,352,354,355,359,361,363,364,367,369,373,374,375,377,378,380,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,398,399,400,401,403,404,405,406,408,409,410,412,413,416,417,419,423,425,426,428,429,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,439,441,442,444,445,446,448,450,451,455,456,457,463,464,465,466,472,473],type_:380,type_check:[292,382,470,472],type_check_onli:[382,472],type_getattro:[98,472],type_int64:[468,472],type_new:57,type_tag:301,typeahead:178,typecheck:[177,382],typecod:[123,284,381,448,464,472],typecode_or_typ:284,typed_act:292,typed_subpart_iter:205,typedargslist:427,typedef:[10,14,53,54,57,58,81,82,95,472],typedesc:177,typeerror:[5,9,21,22,35,37,43,44,45,49,50,54,57,58,61,79,81,82,91,93,94,99,102,109,110,123,131,168,173,177,182,184,185,187,193,197,198,199,200,206,207,212,214,227,252,254,257,258,261,267,274,279,291,292,293,294,298,306,320,346,355,367,382,385,386,391,395,399,408,410,416,424,426,432,437,438,439,445,446,447,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,467,468,469,470,471,472],typeid:284,typekei:198,typemap:[92,268],typenam:[161,309,342,462,472],typeobj:385,typeobject:[5,98,458],types_map:[276,462,472],types_map_inv:276,typesaf:382,typescript:311,typesystem:124,typetyp:280,typevar:382,typewrit:213,typic:[22,30,31,41,52,53,56,57,58,65,66,69,72,75,77,79,83,84,91,92,93,95,98,103,104,105,110,111,112,122,125,128,129,131,136,151,153,159,168,174,187,189,193,197,204,206,212,219,222,225,227,228,230,232,246,252,254,257,265,266,267,268,271,275,276,282,284,292,293,297,299,301,308,309,310,318,320,322,326,328,333,335,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,356,359,360,361,363,366,367,368,370,373,381,382,385,386,392,395,397,402,404,407,408,411,412,413,418,420,424,426,428,434,435,439,447,448,451,455,459,460,463,464,466,468,469,471,472],typifi:267,typist:111,typo:[84,99,153,386,426,458,472],typographi:321,tz1:184,tzdata:[184,472],tzfile:367,tzinfo:[62,183,210,459,466,467,470,471,472],tzinfo_exampl:184,tzname:[19,184,367,470,472],tzpars:461,tzset:[367,472],tzvf:333,u00000394:109,u00008000:109,u0010ffff:467,u0043:426,u00c7:426,u0327:426,u0394:109,u0660:[384,456],u07b4:109,u0e55:109,u0e57:109,u1176:472,u11a7:472,u11c3:472,u1234:[109,159,261],u16:159,u2000ab:456,u2028:346,u2029:346,u20ac:[109,464,469],u21ef:462,u2603:104,u2641:123,u2713:382,u3000:462,u3002:467,u304:462,u3054:462,u305f:462,u307:462,u3080:462,u3081:462,u31ef:462,u3244:462,u32:159,u4000:459,u4001abc:459,u4500:109,u4500abc:109,u4eba:467,u52ff:467,u65bc:467,u65bd:467,u751f:462,u_expr:426,ua000:109,ua000abcd:109,uac:[71,472],uadd:124,uall:[363,459],uapi:468,uat:267,uax:431,ubsan:472,ubuntu:[471,472],ucarp:225,ucd:[346,384,431,467,468],ucd_3_2_0:[384,461],ucnhash_capi:463,ucrt:472,ucrtbas:[455,472],ucs1:[58,472],ucs2:[58,472],ucs4:[58,458,472],udata:329,udbff:467,udf:225,udfff:467,udp:[62,103,129,132,268,339,340,363,463,472],udpserv:[62,255],ue000:109,uf_append:[293,344,462],uf_compress:[293,344],uf_hidden:[293,344],uf_immut:[293,344,462],uf_nodump:[293,344],uf_nounlink:[293,344],uf_opaqu:[293,344],ufeff:58,ufeffunicod:104,uff10:187,uff19:187,ufff:58,ufffd:159,ufffdabc:109,ufs:446,ugli:[84,85,189,438,456,459],uhc:159,uhhhh:456,uid:[153,246,249,293,298,307,312,324,333,344,359,462,463,467,469,472],uidl:307,uint:177,uint_max:472,uit:299,uitext:282,uiuc:392,uji:159,ukrainian:[159,468,471],ulaw2lin:143,ulaw:[119,351],ulf:91,uli:178,ullamcorp:151,ulong_max:35,ulp:[462,472],ulrich:472,ultim:[53,72,93,193,236,292,355,424,428,432,458,460],ultrasound:295,ultric:151,ulx:178,umask:[185,293,298,363,471,472],umber:384,umer:472,umlaut:265,ump:299,una:461,unabl:[65,97,99,103,110,254,271,329,355,365,392,449,461,472],unaccept:[84,301,339,410,432],unadorn:346,unaffect:[65,187,333,424,432,451,459,462,470],unalia:299,unalign:472,unalt:[75,438],unam:[65,293,305,355,356,359,466,467],unambigu:[7,84,122,184,267,310,337,424,432,442,462,466],unari:[62,161,187,190,346,386,424,429,431,467],unary_invert:190,unary_neg:190,unary_not:190,unary_posit:190,unaryfunc:57,unaryop:124,unassign:[30,348],unattend:455,unauthent:[274,301,316,343,406,408,409,410,411,416,417],unauthor:[110,242],unavail:[84,90,96,110,193,231,254,269,284,293,333,382,424,472],unavoid:[99,184,460,463,465],unawar:460,unbalanc:472,unbeliev:107,unbias:345,unbidden:248,unbind:[425,472],unblock:[136,284,318,334],unbound:[40,62,91,104,117,161,187,188,190,227,254,318,363,366,380,381,424,425,428,432,458,460,464,469,471,472],unboundlocalerror:[22,214,425,446,456,472],unbrac:347,unbreak:472,unbuff:[23,30,257,350,451,472],unc:[233,293,294,298,419,472],uncach:[293,466,472],uncas:346,uncatch:129,uncaught:[97,154,355,426,457,472],unchain:472,unchang:[38,84,95,98,104,106,113,123,153,157,161,168,172,177,178,187,209,222,232,260,265,268,271,293,294,304,320,321,339,346,347,380,381,382,391,418,424,426,431,436,442,448,455,458,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,470,471,472],uncheck:[164,428,451,471,472],unchecked_hash:313,unclean:[461,472],unclear:106,unclos:[248,342,375,466,470,472],uncollect:[229,466,472],uncolor:248,uncom:[201,248,458],uncomfort:84,uncommit:[342,466],uncommon:[201,461,472],uncomp_s:448,uncompil:360,uncomplet:[],uncompress:[119,151,235,269,333,359,418,419,421,466],uncondit:[299,387,431,472],uncondition:[117,248,252,284,288,293,298,335,385,424,434,439,451,463,464,466,467,468,469,471,472],unconnect:[339,462],unconstrain:382,unconsum:421,unconsumed_tail:421,uncontrol:333,uncontroversi:407,unconvert:17,uncov:[93,471],unctrl:[178,179],uncustom:267,undeclar:316,undecod:[13,54,109,159,197,293,466,472],undecor:[62,104,228,346],undef:[68,74],undef_macro:[65,74],undefin:[7,17,30,35,38,57,58,62,65,68,74,91,95,96,129,159,167,197,206,208,214,227,257,275,292,329,345,346,355,367,378,397,410,413,424,426,431,442,445,453,469,471,472],undefine_macro:65,undefinit:65,undeliver:135,under:[13,22,31,38,41,60,62,64,65,66,67,69,74,75,80,84,87,91,97,99,103,104,105,106,111,112,114,122,146,153,157,159,177,178,184,189,193,197,200,204,209,212,214,216,227,229,232,236,248,257,261,266,267,268,271,282,284,292,293,298,299,310,324,332,339,342,344,345,346,355,356,361,363,364,370,372,373,376,377,380,385,386,387,391,392,394,397,400,402,416,417,418,419,422,424,425,432,439,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,469,471,472],underdevelop:355,underestim:[457,458,459,460,461,462],underflow:[38,187,470,472],undergo:462,undergon:466,underli:[4,5,7,17,30,39,49,62,74,80,84,90,91,93,97,98,99,103,104,106,118,120,129,133,134,135,137,139,151,155,159,161,162,170,176,177,178,189,213,214,216,217,227,228,235,243,248,253,254,256,257,260,266,267,268,269,271,275,279,284,293,294,295,299,301,307,310,316,318,320,322,324,329,330,331,333,334,339,340,342,343,344,346,350,355,361,363,366,367,380,381,385,387,395,399,402,403,404,407,416,417,424,426,446,447,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],underlin:[69,97,178,373],underneath:65,underscor:[35,62,65,69,77,91,93,95,104,147,153,159,161,177,187,197,206,212,227,271,291,319,321,332,347,355,370,386,404,419,424,425,426,430,431,432,436,446,448,455,462,464,465,472],understand:[22,38,62,79,81,82,90,93,95,98,103,105,106,107,109,110,122,141,156,184,192,193,208,232,243,244,261,275,288,297,309,310,321,347,350,352,373,387,404,413,419,423,430,436,440,442,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,470,472],understood:[31,74,78,107,153,176,244,267,274,293,299,332,368,394,418,422,424,436],undertaken:439,underw:[459,460,461,462],underwai:465,undesir:[457,461],undetect:[79,271,366],undetermin:293,undisplai:[299,466],undistinguish:459,undo:[30,157,178,248,266,380,386,462,472],undobuff:380,undobufferentri:380,undobuffers:380,undoc_head:157,undocu:[62,92,157,253,266,274,299,363,385,467,468,469,470,471,472],undon:[248,380,386,387],unduli:440,uneasi:84,unencod:[13,41,109,159,319,459,464,466],unencrypt:343,unequ:[93,187,227,298,346,424,426,460,461,464,467],unescap:[93,106,239,240,288,321,391,414,431,468],uneven:[260,320],unexcit:98,unexist:472,unexpand:406,unexpect:[23,26,85,86,103,193,206,209,225,232,266,275,288,320,321,337,339,342,343,363,385,387,392,397,423,424,431,439,455,463,467,471,472],unexpectedexcept:193,unexpectedli:[112,171,324,334,337,385,436,458,469,472],unexpectedsuccess:385,unfamiliar:[93,230,266,292,461,462],unfil:[81,426],unfinish:[136,244,284,318,472],unfold:209,unformat:[104,261,321],unfortun:[28,52,84,90,97,99,104,105,106,110,153,159,284,294,307,310,328,331,339,343,359,361,370,387,440,448,457,460,462,465,470],unfreez:[229,471],ungainli:459,unget_wch:[178,467],ungetch:[178,283],ungetmous:[178,472],ungetwch:283,unglow:380,unguard:469,unhandl:[31,60,117,128,153,158,170,193,230,248,355,366,377,392,424,439,464,472],unhash:[50,84,182,346,385,424,426,472],unhelp:[456,472],unhexlifi:147,uni:[58,431],unic:[79,295,312,454],unichr:[456,458,461],unicod:[5,15,25,28,29,35,41,54,57,59,62,86,91,93,95,97,100,104,105,106,113,121,123,124,144,146,147,152,168,176,177,178,183,184,187,193,195,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,209,210,214,223,227,232,239,240,241,248,253,257,261,265,283,293,294,298,301,304,321,336,342,346,347,348,355,364,382,391,397,402,404,408,409,410,424,426,431,438,451,457,461,462,463,465,468,469,470,471,472,473],unicode_char:283,unicode_escap:[104,159],unicode_intern:[159,467],unicode_liter:[104,114,432,462],unicodedata:[62,106,109,253,364,426,431,456,461,462,463,466,467,472],unicodedecodeerror:[13,22,109,159,214,293,391,446,461,464,466,468,472],unicodeencodeerror:[13,22,41,77,109,159,214,355,391,446,466,472],unicodeerror:[5,22,159,184,203,214,293,346,446,459,464],unicodestr:123,unicodetranslateerror:[13,22,159,214,446,472],unicodewarn:[22,214,397,446,461,466],unicurs:97,unidata_vers:384,unidirect:[135,257,284],unif:[62,460],unifi:[62,108,159,189,193,301,384,436,468,472,473],unified_diff:189,uniform:[90,110,136,320,391,395,416,446,466,472],uniformli:[189,254,320,472],unihan:463,unilater:225,unimpl:[232,244],unimplementedfilemod:243,unimport:212,uninform:472,uniniti:[9,30,31,79,91,95,301,472],uninstal:[66,69,89,211,215,282,378,449,453,455,468,472],unintend:[79,91,187,284,298,472],unintent:[350,472],unintention:[104,266,446,466,472],uninterest:[82,189],uninterrupt:[318,334],union:[62,120,161,252,334,344,346,348,382,424,438,459,460,462,463,469,472],union_upd:459,uniprocessor:305,uniq:[260,460],uniqu:[30,62,64,79,81,86,98,99,101,105,109,122,161,177,183,184,185,189,204,206,210,213,227,230,237,254,258,260,261,271,282,293,301,307,316,320,342,343,345,346,356,366,370,373,385,386,388,391,395,422,423,424,428,436,438,455,460,461,463,465,466,471,472],unique_everseen:260,unique_justseen:260,unique_word:436,uniqueaddresshead:204,uniquedatehead:204,uniquekei:260,uniquesingleaddresshead:204,uniqueunstructuredhead:204,unistr:[384,456],unit:[5,58,62,72,79,86,91,93,95,99,102,103,109,159,161,167,179,184,188,193,228,253,310,327,339,343,346,347,367,368,370,373,380,386,404,422,424,425,449,457,462,467,469,472],unit_pric:182,unittest2:463,unittest:[62,84,90,113,188,253,363,378,397,447,459,465,472],unittestgui:385,univers:[62,65,68,93,176,184,212,227,236,249,252,257,305,346,359,367,370,385,395,419,436,453,460,461,462,468,470,471,472,473],universal_newlin:[129,138,350,460,471],universalsdk:461,unix:[17,22,30,31,52,54,60,62,66,67,68,71,72,74,75,77,79,80,86,87,89,93,97,99,103,107,109,120,122,127,132,133,134,135,137,141,147,152,161,168,175,176,177,178,197,200,202,209,216,220,227,230,231,232,234,244,248,253,255,256,257,260,268,271,272,279,284,286,287,288,292,293,294,295,296,298,300,307,308,311,312,315,324,325,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,337,339,340,341,342,343,344,355,359,361,362,363,367,370,372,379,385,400,404,418,419,431,434,435,442,444,447,449,450,451,452,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],unix_dialect:[176,466],unix_shel:[363,472],unixccompil:71,unixdatagramserv:340,unixfrom:[197,202,206,468],unixi:464,unixpwd:176,unixstreamserv:340,unixwar:457,unknow:[457,458],unknown:[28,30,58,62,106,124,143,189,193,197,200,202,203,209,227,246,276,288,292,293,306,309,321,338,344,355,366,367,378,392,395,413,437,446,458,459,463,466,470,471,472],unknown_decl:241,unknown_open:392,unknownhandl:[62,110,255],unknownprotocol:243,unknowntransferencod:243,unladen10:466,unladen:[448,466],unless:[5,7,9,22,28,30,31,38,49,51,54,57,65,79,82,84,91,92,94,95,99,103,105,106,107,111,113,118,119,124,128,129,131,142,143,147,148,151,152,168,176,182,184,187,190,193,197,201,206,207,210,212,227,241,243,244,245,248,251,252,254,257,258,260,266,267,269,271,275,282,284,288,292,293,294,299,311,316,321,325,329,330,335,336,337,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,350,355,359,360,365,366,385,386,391,392,396,397,399,403,404,409,412,422,423,424,425,426,431,434,436,437,446,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,467,468,470,472],unlik:[5,30,34,37,41,45,50,72,74,79,82,84,90,91,98,99,103,104,109,118,125,129,131,136,138,139,140,149,151,164,170,176,178,184,185,187,206,212,222,227,230,233,237,244,249,257,260,261,269,271,275,293,294,295,299,301,305,307,326,339,343,346,347,350,353,361,363,367,381,382,385,386,399,402,404,410,422,424,426,428,430,431,432,436,438,445,447,455,457,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],unlimit:[138,203,204,209,236,248,284,322,324,346,350,366,424,431,472],unlink:[90,214,284,293,298,329,361,363,373,396,407,408,467,472],unlist:424,unload:[30,363,399,472],unloading_modul:399,unlock:[117,139,216,271,283,284,307,363,366,424,461,472],unlucki:[460,472],unmaintain:[372,466,468,470],unmanag:373,unmap:[58,373],unmarsh:274,unmarshal:[37,274,416,459,461,470,472],unmatch:[84,227,321,347,391,469,472],unmodifi:[5,7,64,86,95,117,209,210,309,346,366,391,414,472],unnam:[19,55,79,93,177,380,402,426,468],unnatur:86,unnecessari:[79,86,91,103,122,135,149,271,284,288,346,355,387,391,407,432,457,458,460,463,469,472],unnecessarili:[161,293,472],unneed:[82,408,463,468,472],unnnn:109,unnorm:[22,472],unnormalis:472,unnot:463,unobtain:293,unoffici:[385,416,469],unoptim:[257,469],unord:[284,346,424,438],unown:[284,472],unpack:[62,66,72,79,90,95,99,104,111,113,123,161,190,201,216,218,227,284,306,333,339,347,349,381,386,426,427,432,438,439,441,447,448,456,460,461,462,464,466,468,472],unpack_arch:[333,466,472],unpack_arrai:405,unpack_byt:405,unpack_doubl:405,unpack_ex:190,unpack_farrai:405,unpack_float:405,unpack_fopaqu:405,unpack_from:[227,349,461],unpack_fstr:405,unpack_item:405,unpack_list:405,unpack_opaqu:405,unpack_sequ:190,unpack_str:405,unpack_typ:405,unpair:[84,261],unparenthes:426,unpars:[122,316,412,472],unparsedentitydecl:412,unparsedentitydeclhandl:316,unpatch:386,unpickl:[62,82,104,184,212,266,268,284,300,302,459,462,463,465,472],unpicklingerror:[301,472],unpredict:[271,293,343,410,413,424,451,458],unprint:199,unprivileg:293,unprocess:241,unprocessable_ent:242,unqualifi:[84,214,436,468],unquot:[176,197,206,210,241,391,392,472],unquote_plu:391,unquote_to_byt:[391,472],unrais:22,unravel:468,unreach:[213,229,424,471,472],unread:[65,98,185,301,392,465,469,472],unreadlin:65,unreason:[95,461],unrecogn:[9,58,94,122,230,241,411,419,431,469,470],unrecognis:[228,267,467],unrecover:412,unredirect:392,unregist:[129,142,215,293,329,330,333,370,399],unregister_archive_format:333,unregister_dialect:176,unregister_unpack_format:333,unregistr:330,unrel:[57,79,91,118,127,152,212,271,339,472],unreleas:86,unreli:[106,178,321,472],unresolv:472,unrespons:472,unrestrict:54,unround:187,unruli:322,unsaf:[81,91,123,153,168,332,385,386,395,459,469,471,472],unsafe_hash:[182,472],unsav:248,unscath:472,unsearch:448,unseek:[235,398,419,466,468,469,472],unseen:271,unseri:466,unset:[54,139,271,293,295,355,363,395,428,462,463,471,472],unsetenv:[293,462],unshar:324,unsign:[5,7,9,28,30,31,35,53,56,57,58,81,95,123,143,147,177,295,339,346,349,351,405,407,408,421,448,458,459,461,467,471,472],unsigned_char:95,unsigned_int:95,unsigned_long:95,unsigned_long_long:95,unsigned_short:95,unsort:84,unspecifi:[95,99,105,151,177,193,227,252,257,258,269,275,287,293,301,316,339,367,373],unsqueez:472,unstabl:[81,113,187,455,472],unstructur:204,unstructuredhead:204,unsubscrib:[249,472],unsuccess:[30,34,251],unsuit:[168,320,410,448,457,463],unsupport:[30,62,94,95,110,117,122,129,168,227,232,257,274,284,293,295,301,306,339,343,345,366,386,391,392,402,428,439,455,456,460,462,466,470,472],unsupported_media_typ:242,unsupportedoper:257,unt:299,untabifi:248,untermin:84,untest:[85,472],unthread:[31,456],until:[28,30,31,54,57,60,68,78,79,82,85,90,93,95,97,99,103,104,106,107,117,129,131,132,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,144,153,155,161,167,178,184,187,208,215,219,225,227,232,236,237,241,243,244,248,251,252,257,260,264,266,268,269,284,292,293,295,299,301,307,310,318,322,327,329,330,332,334,336,339,340,341,342,343,346,349,350,355,360,361,362,363,366,368,370,377,386,392,397,399,400,402,404,405,409,412,413,421,423,424,432,436,437,438,439,448,451,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],untitl:472,untoken:[375,472],untouch:[5,58,65,182],untouchwin:178,untrack:[82,465],untrain:460,untransl:[227,257],untrust:[84,109,124,267,274,284,301,302,314,316,331,343,359,406,408,409,410,411,416,417,419,442,459,462],untyp:458,unununium:445,unus:[31,57,82,94,95,96,151,178,232,257,258,283,284,302,315,333,340,342,347,351,363,398,458,462,468,471,472],unused_data:[151,269,421],unusu:[79,97,104,111,184,214,295,310,324,426,472],unvarnish:60,unverifi:[243,244,392],unvers:468,unwant:[30,31,91,446,471,472],unwieldi:104,unwind:[30,81,170,424],unwis:[346,431],unwound:[81,266,424],unwrap:[254,343,468,472],unwrit:472,unwritten:185,unzip:[111,227,418,420,459,472],upadhyai:471,upcom:[214,228,327,472],updat:[1,21,30,47,54,62,64,65,81,82,86,90,91,95,97,98,99,109,118,119,122,129,132,135,142,161,162,170,178,180,184,185,193,197,206,208,227,228,236,237,238,245,248,249,251,252,254,257,264,271,279,282,284,288,291,292,293,298,301,304,308,317,320,326,331,339,342,343,346,350,356,367,370,373,376,380,381,391,392,398,404,410,418,424,428,432,436,447,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],update_authent:392,update_idletask:472,update_lines_col:[178,469,472],update_panel:180,update_vis:271,update_wrapp:[228,461,468],updatepath:[30,31,463],updateprocthreadattribut:350,upendra:472,upfront:462,upgrad:[62,69,86,93,110,111,112,120,132,211,396,449,455,458,459,463,466,468,470,471,472],upgrade_requir:242,upload:[64,70,110,153,457,461,463,469,471,472],uploadreleas:472,upon:[14,17,24,28,30,31,37,58,60,78,79,86,91,93,98,103,142,153,157,159,160,170,174,176,177,178,187,193,236,243,245,248,249,252,271,299,301,329,330,334,336,343,351,355,356,363,376,397,398,407,422,424,426,428,435,436,446,449,457,462,467,468,470,472],upper:[58,65,91,97,99,103,104,106,124,125,147,150,153,161,178,189,222,249,282,284,321,339,340,342,343,346,347,372,380,382,385,424,426,432,459,466,472],upper_bound:426,upper_cas:472,upperbound:318,uppercamelcas:437,uppercas:[58,91,95,109,122,150,179,212,227,292,328,336,346,347,392,431,456,463,464,468,470,472],upperleft:177,upperout:91,ups:[466,472],upstream:[236,336,472],uptim:[367,471],upward:[87,106,178,298,301,380,386],urandom:[129,236,284,293,320,343,460,463,468,469,470,472],uranu:212,urban:[466,468,472],urdu:159,urgent:329,uri:[104,110,244,298,316,342,343,380,391,392,404,407,410,412,413,415,416,467,468,472],url2pathnam:392,url:[62,65,66,69,72,74,77,137,144,153,167,168,225,242,243,244,246,248,253,255,268,276,315,328,363,393,395,396,400,404,413,414,416,417,422,428,447,456,459,460,461,462,463,466,468,469,472],url_schem:404,url_valu:110,urlcleanup:392,urldefrag:[391,466],urlencod:[90,110,153,243,268,391,392,466,469,472],urlerror:[62,390,392,462],urlich:91,urljoin:[391,469,472],urllib2:[110,113,392,460,462,463,464],urllib:[62,90,100,113,137,153,167,170,225,228,242,2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08,472],usenet:[86,90,103],usenetrc:288,user1:267,user2:267,user32:177,user:[22,26,30,31,38,40,58,60,62,65,68,71,72,73,74,76,77,78,79,80,82,84,85,86,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,98,101,102,103,104,105,106,108,109,110,120,122,128,129,131,135,145,153,156,157,158,159,160,161,164,167,168,169,170,172,174,176,178,180,182,184,186,187,188,192,193,201,211,212,213,214,217,225,229,230,231,232,234,236,241,243,244,246,249,252,253,254,257,261,265,266,268,271,272,275,282,284,286,288,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,302,307,312,313,314,321,322,324,329,330,332,333,334,335,337,340,341,342,343,344,346,350,355,356,359,360,361,363,366,367,370,372,373,376,377,380,381,385,387,391,392,393,396,397,400,402,404,408,409,410,411,412,416,418,419,422,423,424,425,426,428,432,434,435,436,437,440,441,442,443,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],user_a:382,user_ag:110,user_b:382,user_bas:[74,111,335,463],user_cal:145,user_class:382,user_except:145,user_id:382,user_lin:145,user_n:397,user_request:466,user_return:145,user_sit:[111,335],user_str:101,userag:393,userbas:[111,466],usercustom:[335,434,468,472],userdict:[62,183,457,459,462,472],userfil:153,userid:[153,268,382,470],userinfo:[110,392],userland:416,userlist:[62,183,458,472],usernam:[104,110,153,174,201,204,231,249,268,293,307,337,391,392,466,467,469,472],userprofil:[111,294],userptr:[180,472],userqueri:465,userspac:467,userstr:[62,183,456,469,472],userwarn:[22,214,231,363,397,446],uses:[5,7,10,22,26,27,28,30,37,38,41,47,53,54,57,58,60,65,66,72,77,79,81,82,83,84,85,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,118,119,122,124,125,128,129,132,133,134,135,137,141,143,144,147,149,151,153,157,158,159,167,170,171,172,174,177,178,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,203,204,206,209,210,211,215,217,221,227,230,232,236,237,238,239,241,243,244,246,248,252,254,257,258,260,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,276,282,283,284,289,292,293,294,295,299,301,303,304,305,307,309,315,316,320,321,322,323,332,333,334,335,339,340,342,343,344,346,347,348,349,350,354,355,356,359,361,363,365,366,367,370,373,375,377,378,380,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,399,404,406,407,408,410,411,415,416,418,419,420,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,442,444,445,446,448,449,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],usestd3asciirul:159,usetk:370,using:[1,3,5,9,10,13,14,17,19,21,22,26,28,30,31,35,37,38,39,41,42,45,49,50,51,53,54,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,64,65,66,68,69,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,87,89,92,93,94,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,117,118,121,122,123,124,125,126,128,129,131,134,135,138,139,141,143,144,147,148,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,172,174,176,177,178,179,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,193,195,196,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,216,217,219,221,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,235,236,237,241,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,271,273,275,276,279,282,284,285,288,290,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,299,301,304,305,306,307,308,309,310,311,313,318,320,321,322,324,326,327,328,330,331,332,333,335,336,337,338,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,348,349,350,355,356,357,358,359,360,361,362,365,366,367,368,369,370,372,373,375,376,378,380,381,382,386,387,391,392,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,405,407,408,410,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,421,423,425,426,427,428,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,442,443,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],using_idl:380,usno:447,usr:[30,31,74,77,85,90,99,101,104,109,111,153,168,177,189,201,232,233,272,292,294,298,321,328,335,346,350,355,356,361,367,370,378,392,418,434,444,449,451,453,454,455,457,459,461,466,468,469,472],ustar:[359,462,472],ustar_format:359,ustimezon:184,ustr:456,usuabl:472,usual:[5,7,19,22,26,30,31,35,41,43,57,58,65,66,72,74,75,79,81,84,86,87,90,91,92,93,95,97,98,99,102,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,117,118,122,124,128,129,131,133,135,141,147,151,153,155,161,174,176,177,187,189,193,195,197,199,203,206,212,214,223,225,227,232,237,244,246,248,249,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,266,268,272,275,284,288,291,292,293,295,299,301,305,306,308,312,321,323,329,333,334,335,339,340,341,342,343,345,346,347,350,355,359,363,367,369,370,372,373,377,382,385,386,387,390,392,398,399,410,418,419,420,423,424,426,432,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,448,449,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,468,469,470,472],usub:124,utc:[19,62,184,189,204,210,268,343,367,462,466,469,470,471,472],utc_move_d:184,utcformatt:104,utcfromtimestamp:[184,343,472],utcnow:[184,472],utcoffset:[184,472],utctimetupl:184,utf16:159,utf32:159,utf8:[124,159,204,206,208,209,249,265,307,316,337,355,408,410,451,469,471,472],utf8_decod:456,utf8_en:[249,469],utf8_encod:456,utf8_mod:355,utf8_streamread:456,utf8_streamwrit:456,utf:[5,15,22,28,30,41,53,54,62,104,109,122,124,146,153,168,176,184,189,197,198,206,207,209,210,219,227,236,249,252,257,261,264,265,288,301,307,309,316,331,336,339,340,342,343,346,355,359,375,391,392,396,404,408,410,416,418,419,428,431,437,444,447,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,472],utf_16:159,utf_16_b:159,utf_16_l:159,utf_32:159,utf_32_b:159,utf_32_l:159,utf_7:159,utf_8:159,utf_8_sig:[62,146],util:[22,28,29,30,31,62,66,71,74,75,91,99,104,111,120,124,127,135,153,157,159,160,164,178,183,187,188,189,193,195,197,201,204,206,208,209,212,232,239,242,249,251,253,255,269,273,281,285,292,313,317,324,333,338,344,346,348,350,366,370,380,385,388,396,408,447,448,455,456,458,460,461,463,466,467,468,469,470,472],utilis:446,utim:[293,333,467,472],utkarsh:471,utterli:[193,464],utyp:177,uu_codec:[159,472],uucp:268,uudecod:62,uuencod:[62,144,147,159,253,285],uui:82,uuid1:[395,461,471,472],uuid3:[395,461],uuid4:[395,461,472],uuid5:[395,461],uuid:[62,253,255,282,461,472],uuid_creat:472,uuid_enc_b:472,uuidcreat:282,uuidtostr:282,uuu:266,uuuuuu:184,uvloop:[469,470],uxxxx:[159,431],uxxxxxxxx:[159,431],v140:472,v141:472,v142:472,v39:472,v4_int_to_pack:258,v6_int_to_pack:258,v_co:382,va_copi:466,va_list:[5,9,17,22,58,460,469,472],vadi:233,vagu:462,vajda:465,vajraski:[468,469,472],val:[17,21,22,65,79,85,98,99,118,149,168,197,206,225,245,265,346,370,382,387,392,424,461,472],val_a:57,val_b:57,valedictorian:436,valeri:468,valgrind:[463,466,470,472],valid:[3,5,7,10,15,17,22,26,38,57,60,62,65,66,74,78,79,91,93,95,96,97,102,106,109,111,113,122,123,124,140,144,153,158,159,160,161,164,168,170,173,174,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,188,195,196,198,204,208,210,227,239,245,246,252,254,255,257,258,261,264,265,267,269,274,279,282,284,287,288,293,294,297,303,306,310,313,316,320,321,324,325,326,332,336,337,339,343,346,347,349,350,351,355,359,363,367,373,380,382,384,385,386,392,398,402,408,410,412,413,417,419,420,421,423,424,427,428,431,432,436,437,439,442,444,446,447,448,451,456,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],validate_b:471,validate_ucrtbas:472,validator_app:404,validhandl:177,valu:[2,3,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,45,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,65,66,68,69,74,78,80,81,82,84,93,94,96,97,98,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,113,117,119,120,124,125,129,130,131,135,138,139,140,141,142,143,145,147,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,167,169,170,171,174,176,178,179,183,184,185,188,189,190,193,196,197,198,199,201,202,203,204,206,207,209,210,213,214,216,217,218,222,223,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,235,236,237,238,239,241,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,257,258,260,265,266,267,268,269,271,272,274,275,276,279,280,282,283,284,285,287,288,289,290,291,293,294,295,297,298,299,300,301,302,304,305,306,307,308,309,310,311,313,314,315,316,317,318,319,321,322,323,324,326,327,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,343,345,347,348,349,350,351,352,353,354,355,356,357,359,360,361,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,374,375,377,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,401,403,404,405,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,421,423,425,428,429,431,432,436,438,439,440,441,442,445,446,447,448,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],valuabl:[70,84,97,232,339,377,467],value1:[99,168,461],value2:[99,168,461],value3:168,value_decod:245,value_encod:245,value_nam:402,valuea:168,valueb:168,valuec:168,valueerror:[5,9,17,22,35,37,58,65,91,102,103,110,117,122,123,129,136,139,145,149,158,159,160,161,164,167,168,174,176,177,182,184,187,193,197,198,204,206,209,211,212,214,227,229,244,249,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,266,267,274,275,279,284,292,293,294,298,316,318,320,324,327,330,331,333,334,337,339,343,345,346,347,350,354,355,366,367,384,385,386,391,392,396,405,407,419,426,437,438,439,442,446,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],valuelist:459,valueref:[399,461],valuesview:[162,382,472],valur:[463,466,468],valv:292,van:[84,86,91,93,161,370,420,422,456,457,458,459,461,462,463,464,468,469,470,471,472],vandenberg:472,vander:[471,472],vanderbeek:463,vanderpla:320,vanilla:[212,456],vanish:[91,159,237,382,399],vant:466,var_changed_font:472,var_keyword:254,var_num:190,var_posit:254,var_typ:462,vararg:[124,254],vararg_attr:292,vararg_callback:292,varargslist:427,varchar:342,varg:[5,9,22,58],vari:[5,7,53,65,81,84,90,91,93,99,105,106,109,111,143,153,159,176,184,190,193,227,248,251,254,257,265,271,280,297,307,337,340,343,344,346,355,361,363,366,367,386,387,397,424,430,456,457,458,460,462,463,466,467,468],variabl:[3,5,9,11,12,15,17,19,21,22,25,28,29,31,38,41,45,47,48,50,57,58,60,62,64,65,74,77,78,79,81,82,84,85,87,90,92,93,94,97,98,99,104,106,109,110,111,112,113,120,125,128,129,143,153,154,156,157,161,164,175,178,188,190,193,210,212,214,215,216,220,225,227,229,230,231,232,233,246,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,260,265,266,282,284,286,291,294,295,297,299,301,303,308,313,315,317,320,321,322,326,332,333,334,336,339,340,342,344,345,346,347,349,350,352,354,355,359,363,366,367,368,369,373,377,378,380,382,385,386,391,392,396,397,400,402,404,405,407,408,409,417,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,434,435,437,438,439,441,442,443,444,445,446,448,452,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,464,466,467,468,469,471,472],variable_nam:93,variad:437,varianc:[345,382,447,468,470,472],variant:[5,21,28,37,43,57,79,86,90,98,99,104,106,109,122,129,132,136,159,161,168,178,184,185,187,204,227,228,246,249,283,284,291,293,294,298,342,343,359,385,386,387,388,392,395,413,424,428,442,446,461,462,463,464,468,471,472],variant_also_negoti:242,variat:[98,106,161,184,193,212,271,293,307,343,424,446,455,461],varieti:[31,58,64,79,81,84,86,99,109,110,112,122,159,183,187,195,225,227,232,273,292,310,346,350,404,428,460,461,462,463,468],variou:[7,19,23,31,38,53,57,59,62,64,65,66,70,74,79,80,81,85,86,91,93,95,97,99,105,106,107,108,109,111,113,119,122,135,147,153,159,161,170,175,177,179,182,187,189,193,195,198,204,209,212,214,217,218,222,229,232,237,243,244,251,252,253,257,258,263,267,273,278,282,285,290,292,293,297,298,300,302,305,310,316,320,328,332,337,339,340,341,343,346,347,349,355,363,367,370,381,384,385,387,392,394,404,406,410,422,424,426,428,431,432,433,435,441,443,446,449,450,451,453,454,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],various:92,variu:151,varkw:254,varnam:[12,472],varnish:343,vartrac:472,vartyp:177,vasiliev:460,vassalotti:[463,465,466,468,472],vast:[72,212,331],vastli:369,vault:457,vaultah:472,vawda:[467,468],vbar:[371,374],vbarequ:374,vc_assembly_publickeytoken:463,vcan0:339,vcruntime140:472,vcvarsal:472,vcxproj:472,vec1:260,vec2:[260,382],vec2d:380,vec:[382,438],vector1:260,vector2:260,vector:[260,275,350,368,380,382,406,472],vectorcal:53,vehicula:151,vel:151,velankar:472,ven:104,vendor:[66,97,236,305,435,455,472],ventur:422,venu:[212,437],venv:[62,93,112,191,253,449,455,467,471,472],ver:111,ver_nt_domain_control:355,ver_nt_serv:355,ver_nt_workst:355,ver_platform_win32_nt:355,verb:[99,107,293,436,437],verbatim:[193,406,422],verbos:[62,65,94,102,103,104,111,122,161,178,188,193,211,228,230,267,292,303,321,332,333,347,355,358,359,363,368,378,385,396,416,424,451,455,458,459,460,462,463,466,468,470,471,472],verbosemodul:424,verdon:462,verhulst:380,veri:[1,7,29,30,31,54,57,62,68,71,74,79,80,81,84,86,90,91,92,93,94,95,97,99,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,111,123,141,151,153,159,161,167,168,170,178,184,187,189,193,197,203,204,207,208,212,227,232,237,243,246,251,252,253,254,265,269,271,284,288,289,292,293,301,310,321,329,331,336,337,339,340,343,348,350,360,367,368,369,372,385,386,387,422,424,426,428,432,435,437,438,440,442,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,472],verif:[62,238,267,343,466],verifi:[7,62,65,69,81,91,99,101,105,188,193,236,244,252,267,268,337,342,345,363,385,397,404,455,462,463,466,467,468,472],verify_:343,verify_client_post_handshak:[343,471,472],verify_cod:343,verify_crl_check_chain:[343,468],verify_crl_check_leaf:[343,468],verify_default:[343,468],verify_flag:[343,468],verify_messag:343,verify_mod:[343,472],verify_request:[340,472],verify_structur:7,verify_x509_strict:[343,468],verify_x509_trusted_first:343,verifyflag:343,verifymod:343,verisign:343,versa:[66,78,90,143,177,293,294,298,321,346,373,376,410,445,462,468,472],versatil:[93,436,445,448],version2:461,version:[1,5,8,9,10,12,13,16,17,18,19,21,22,23,25,26,28,29,30,31,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,43,44,45,47,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,62,64,66,69,70,72,74,75,77,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,113,116,117,118,119,122,123,124,125,129,131,132,133,134,135,137,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,151,152,153,156,158,159,161,162,164,167,168,170,171,174,176,177,178,182,184,185,187,189,190,192,193,194,195,197,198,200,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,216,217,219,222,223,225,227,228,229,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,274,275,276,277,279,282,283,284,286,288,291,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,302,304,305,306,307,308,309,310,311,312,313,314,315,316,317,318,320,321,322,323,324,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,344,345,346,347,349,350,351,352,353,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,365,366,367,368,370,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,384,385,386,387,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,398,399,400,402,404,407,408,409,410,411,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,428,431,432,440,443,444,446,448,449,451,452,453,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,467,468,469,470,471,472,473],version_info:[31,86,105,114,342,355,356,396,446,456,463,465,466,467],version_str:246,versionad:472,versionhelp:472,versioninfo:305,versu:[62,84,184,193,252,320,466],vertch:178,vertex:380,vertic:[178,179,222,299,346,347,365,370,371,372,373,380,430,431],very_long_list_of_fil:84,vessel:466,vestibulum:151,vestigi:[457,472],vewwi:292,vex:[104,457],vfat:472,vformat:347,vfpdef:427,vhost:404,via:[1,7,38,41,57,58,62,65,79,82,86,87,90,91,93,94,99,101,103,110,113,114,117,118,122,125,126,128,132,142,145,153,161,168,171,184,189,193,197,201,202,203,206,207,208,209,214,217,219,222,230,234,237,243,248,251,254,260,264,265,266,267,268,279,284,292,293,297,299,301,304,307,310,316,319,321,322,325,336,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,356,361,363,380,383,385,386,392,397,402,404,407,410,415,416,423,424,426,436,438,439,450,451,452,453,456,461,462,463,465,467,468,469,470,471,472],vice:[66,78,90,143,177,293,294,298,321,346,373,376,410,445,462,468,472],victim:267,victor:[463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],victorin:471,video:[97,178,272,275,320,450,462],videoread:462,viehland:470,vienna:245,vietnames:159,view:[7,14,21,39,44,57,62,71,90,91,93,97,101,111,122,135,140,161,162,184,187,190,197,201,206,209,227,237,248,257,272,296,310,315,342,344,349,355,370,372,373,380,381,401,402,407,442,456,461,462,466,467,469,472,473],viewabl:373,viewer:[97,248,268,380,472],viewitem:[113,463],viewkei:[113,463],viewvalu:[113,463],vignali:469,vike:350,viktorin:[469,472],vill:472,villag:448,vim:[431,453,468],vinai:[103,104,459,460,462,463,465,466,467,468,469,470,471],vinay_sajip:[103,104],vincent:[343,469,470,472],vindic:464,violat:[15,22,38,57,177,184,204,209,212,216,249,301,307,343,346,382,398,424,436,470,472],violet:380,virginia:[370,422],virtu:[369,418],virtual:[31,62,64,79,91,93,111,112,118,177,178,180,191,211,227,243,253,254,334,339,342,343,355,359,369,381,392,404,424,428,436,441,452,456,462,466,468,470,471,472,473],virtual_env:[396,469],virtualalloc:[38,468],virtualbox:472,virtualenv:[112,455,467],virtualfre:38,viru:92,visibl:[3,31,55,62,79,91,93,95,97,99,104,107,159,161,168,178,180,189,197,206,224,248,254,260,271,339,342,361,373,386,392,397,425,447,455,457,460,461,466,471,472],visit:[26,57,82,93,96,99,124,184,229,293,315,333,344,412,455,456,458,459,462,467],visit_:[84,124],visit_a:84,visit_nam:124,visitfil:344,visitor:[26,124],visitproc:[26,57,82,96],vista:[71,293,373,455,472],visual:[54,65,66,74,83,84,91,97,105,111,321,343,372,380,437,455,456,459,462,469,472],visualstudio:472,vita:461,vitor:[471,472],vixen:104,vlad:472,vladimir:[456,457,459,472],vline:178,vm_name:305,vm_releas:305,vm_vendor:305,vmaddr:339,vmin:362,vminfo:305,voc:[84,338],vocod:446,vogt:[469,472],voic:[104,458],voicila:472,voidcmd:225,voidspac:[110,463],vol:320,volatil:189,volt:[79,437],voltag:[79,227,437],volum:[84,86,161,260,295,419,460,468],volumin:466,volunt:[0,1,66,422,430,462],voluntari:324,voluntarili:[261,293],von:[109,232,320,424,456,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468],vonmisesvari:320,voom:[79,437],vooooom:437,vote:[442,456,461,466],voter:461,vpa:178,vranken:472,vret:82,vrfy:[336,337],vsapi:373,vsnprintf:[17,458],vsprintf:458,vswhere:472,vt100:[97,178],vt_co:382,vt_empti:472,vt_ptr:177,vtabl:463,vtbl_index:177,vtime:362,vulgar:346,vulner:[62,109,129,138,193,238,273,316,342,350,408,409,410,411,416,417,421,461,472],vvv:[94,122,392],vvvv:94,vwait:472,w00t:386,w3c:[110,241,243,392,407,408,412,424,457,472],w3m:400,w3school:342,w_char:30,w_ok:293,wabbit:292,waddstr:[97,467],waddwstr:467,wafer:245,wagner:472,wai:[5,7,9,22,28,30,31,38,40,41,53,57,58,60,62,64,65,66,68,69,70,72,74,75,77,78,79,80,81,82,84,85,86,89,90,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,114,122,123,125,128,129,131,135,139,140,141,143,145,153,156,158,159,160,161,162,164,168,170,172,173,174,176,177,178,182,184,187,189,193,195,196,197,201,202,206,208,209,210,212,220,225,227,230,232,236,237,244,249,251,252,254,256,257,258,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,279,281,284,286,291,292,293,295,297,298,299,301,309,310,320,321,326,328,331,332,334,335,337,339,340,342,343,346,349,355,358,359,361,363,366,368,370,372,375,377,380,382,384,385,386,387,391,392,395,397,399,400,404,407,410,412,416,417,418,422,423,424,426,428,430,431,432,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],wait3:[293,461,469],wait4:[293,461,469],wait:[60,62,70,79,85,91,92,97,104,107,110,116,117,127,128,129,131,133,134,135,136,138,139,167,178,194,208,209,246,253,254,259,268,283,284,293,295,318,320,324,327,330,334,337,339,340,342,343,344,350,362,363,366,385,392,396,400,437,445,448,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],wait_clos:[129,137,471,472],wait_for:[127,136,138,139,140,284,366,472],wait_for_data:137,wait_on_a:167,wait_on_b:167,wait_on_futur:167,wait_threads_exit:363,waitabl:[284,293,329],waiter:[139,366,472],waiter_task:139,waitflag:117,waitformultipleobject:[284,472],waitforsingleobject:284,waitid:[293,467,469],waitpid:[134,293,311,461,468,469,472],wake:[139,248,329,334,366,462,472],wakeup:[334,467,471,472],walczak:472,waldman:456,walk:[65,122,124,197,201,205,206,208,270,292,293,298,350,377,405,458,462,464,467,469,472],walk_packag:[304,467,470,471,472],walk_stack:[377,469],walk_tb:[377,469],walker:463,walkthrough:95,walktre:344,wall:[77,78,184,310,367,462],wallclock:368,walli:380,wallnau:345,walter:[459,460,461,462],walwai:[451,459],walzer:[463,466,472],wang:[471,472],want:[0,5,7,22,29,30,31,51,52,57,62,65,66,68,69,70,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,86,87,89,90,92,94,95,96,97,98,99,102,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,118,122,124,129,134,137,143,144,145,150,153,154,157,158,160,168,170,177,178,181,184,189,192,193,197,201,202,203,206,209,212,216,219,227,228,230,232,233,236,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,265,266,267,268,272,275,276,279,284,289,292,293,294,298,299,301,302,304,310,315,320,321,328,329,330,333,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,350,355,359,361,365,366,370,377,380,382,385,386,387,391,392,395,397,399,404,410,418,419,422,424,425,428,434,435,436,437,438,440,442,445,446,448,449,451,453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,470,472],wantobject:[459,472],ward:[68,71,74,111,456,458,459,460,461,469,472],wardil:468,ware:[463,468,469,471,472],warehous:466,warhawk:470,wari:[82,440],warkentin:467,warm:472,warmup:472,warn:[29,30,31,47,54,62,65,69,74,82,84,91,93,95,101,103,104,105,107,113,120,128,129,182,188,231,232,252,253,267,268,284,310,313,317,321,334,341,342,350,355,359,363,370,385,394,404,411,412,413,424,425,428,431,437,446,447,448,451,456,458,459,460,461,462,464,465,466,468,469,472,473],warn_explicit:[22,397,470,472],warn_on_full_buff:[334,471,472],warner:462,warningcategori:363,warningmessag:[22,470,472],warningrecord:363,warningsrecord:363,warnopt:[54,355,363,397,446,471,472],warrant:[298,397,464],warranti:[236,422],warsaw:[232,456,457,458,460,461,462,466,467,468,469,471,472],wart:[456,464],washington:[99,249],wasn:[21,28,41,65,82,84,86,122,227,268,292,385,420,439,456,458,459,461,462,470,472],wassuccess:385,wast:[84,104,109,464,472],watch:[54,62,103,105,109,132,133,135,137,138,141,187,237,268,329,370,447],watchdog:215,watchedfilehandl:[62,103,120,462,470],watcher:[62,138,472],watchexp:[467,472],water:[132,329,469,472],watermark:[135,137],watson:467,wav:[62,143,253,278,338,403,446],wave:[62,155,253,278,351,456,470,472],wave_read:[62,278],wave_writ:[62,278],waveform:403,wavread:446,wavwrit:446,wbit:421,wchar:[30,472],wchar_:30,wchar_t:[5,15,30,54,60,62,78,79,123,177,418,471,472],wconio:[62,452],wcontinu:293,wcoredump:293,wcslen:58,wcstomb:54,wctype:466,wdefault:[451,463,466,472],wdsi:455,wdv4758h:472,weak:[5,15,57,62,79,80,91,183,214,228,236,253,343,346,369,385,424,441,458,461,463,468,472,473],weaken:472,weaker:[187,457],weakest:174,weakkeydictionari:[399,461,472],weakli:[57,61,81,399],weaklink:459,weakmethod:[399,468],weakref:[22,57,62,81,91,93,183,214,253,284,318,363,448,457,458,460,461,463,472],weakref_ref:5,weakreflist:81,weakset:[399,463],weakvaluedictionari:[399,448,461,472],wealth:464,weapon:438,weav:85,web:[1,62,64,74,90,91,99,104,105,107,109,110,111,125,126,153,222,228,236,245,246,248,253,255,256,268,272,315,342,343,392,393,404,407,417,422,428,441,448,449,450,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,468,472,473],web_python:90,webbrows:[62,201,253,255,456,461,472],webdav:[225,242],weber:[459,469,472],webm:472,webp:[250,370,469,472],webpag:309,webprogram:90,webserv:246,websit:[110,185,236,392,430,453,466],websocket:472,webster:472,wed:[152,184],wednesdai:[152,184],weed:75,week:[152,184,265,367,456,472],weekdai:[152,184,268,367,472],weekhead:152,weel:[471,472],wei:[469,472],weibul:320,weibullvari:320,weight:[117,161,177,203,320,347,385,470,472],weighta:143,weightb:[143,472],weikart:461,weinberg:468,weird:[95,122],weird_json:261,welborn:469,welbourn:458,welch:370,welcom:[0,1,78,95,97,141,157,225,284,288,380,422,444,461,466,472],well:[1,5,31,45,47,58,64,65,72,73,74,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,99,103,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,112,120,135,138,143,144,145,147,153,154,158,159,161,167,168,170,176,177,178,185,187,193,195,196,198,201,204,205,209,212,216,219,222,225,227,228,229,230,232,235,236,244,248,251,253,257,258,260,262,266,267,268,269,271,274,276,280,288,289,291,292,293,301,309,321,323,326,330,333,337,342,343,346,347,350,355,359,362,363,365,367,368,370,372,375,377,380,381,382,385,386,387,391,399,407,410,411,413,416,424,426,427,428,432,435,436,437,438,439,441,446,448,451,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],wellner:472,welter:459,wena:94,went:[79,94,145,214,295,337,456,458,461,462],were:[1,5,7,9,15,16,17,22,30,31,44,45,57,58,60,65,75,79,81,82,84,89,93,95,96,98,99,103,104,106,107,111,113,114,122,123,124,128,129,135,136,142,145,151,153,159,161,167,168,170,177,178,182,184,187,189,190,193,197,200,201,202,204,206,208,209,212,214,225,227,229,230,236,237,241,243,248,250,252,254,261,266,267,275,276,279,284,289,293,295,297,301,310,316,318,321,331,334,336,337,339,342,346,347,350,355,357,360,363,373,376,378,380,382,383,385,386,387,391,392,396,397,404,409,423,424,426,428,430,432,436,437,439,440,443,446,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],weren:[99,106,236,457,458,459,460,461,463],werneck:462,werror:[105,451,472],weslei:370,west:[159,184,212,367,373,380,465],western:[159,367],westlei:472,weston:472,wexit:293,wexitstatu:293,wfile:[246,340,470,472],wg14:355,wgh:472,what:[1,5,9,18,22,27,28,30,31,36,45,49,53,57,58,62,64,65,66,68,70,72,74,75,78,81,82,84,85,92,93,94,95,99,101,104,105,106,107,109,110,111,113,122,124,135,140,141,153,156,164,168,171,176,177,178,184,186,187,188,200,201,202,204,208,209,212,214,216,225,227,232,236,237,244,245,248,249,250,251,252,260,265,266,267,268,269,272,280,289,293,295,298,300,309,313,316,320,321,322,328,329,333,338,339,340,342,343,345,346,347,348,349,350,352,355,362,363,367,370,372,373,376,380,385,386,387,391,397,407,408,410,418,421,423,425,426,428,430,431,432,436,437,438,439,440,441,446,449,453,455,472],whatev:[5,28,65,70,74,75,79,84,89,90,91,103,104,106,111,122,153,161,177,196,201,209,212,227,252,266,267,292,293,299,313,321,336,346,355,360,366,382,386,387,392,404,426,428,439,446,450,456,457,458,459,460,463,472],whathdr:[338,469,472],whati:299,whats_on_the_telli:423,whatsnew:461,whatsoev:[292,327,422],whatsound:456,wheeeeee:386,wheel:[64,74,112,189,248,320,472],when:[2,5,7,9,10,11,13,14,17,22,28,30,31,32,33,34,35,38,40,41,43,44,45,46,47,49,52,53,54,57,58,60,61,62,64,65,66,69,70,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,85,86,87,90,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,104,105,106,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,122,123,124,125,127,128,129,130,131,132,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,148,151,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,161,167,168,169,170,171,173,174,176,177,178,179,182,184,185,187,189,190,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,214,215,216,219,222,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,235,236,237,238,241,243,244,245,246,248,249,250,251,252,254,256,257,258,260,261,262,265,266,267,268,269,271,275,276,279,282,284,286,287,288,291,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,308,310,311,313,315,316,318,319,320,321,322,323,324,325,326,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,355,356,357,359,360,361,362,363,366,367,368,370,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,379,380,381,382,385,386,387,390,391,392,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,402,404,406,407,408,410,411,412,413,414,416,417,418,419,420,421,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,433,434,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,445,446,447,448,449,451,453,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],whenc:[155,216,257,279,458],whenev:[22,47,60,79,84,91,98,99,103,104,111,122,135,136,137,178,187,189,208,227,229,248,254,257,266,268,271,284,292,301,316,318,329,334,342,346,355,363,370,373,380,385,386,410,424,428,436,458,459,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],where:[5,22,30,31,34,36,38,41,43,45,49,51,52,53,54,57,58,60,62,65,68,69,72,74,75,79,81,82,83,84,85,89,91,93,94,95,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,106,107,109,110,111,113,114,116,122,124,128,129,135,137,140,141,143,152,153,154,155,156,159,161,164,168,170,177,178,182,184,187,188,189,190,193,194,197,200,202,203,204,206,209,211,212,214,216,222,223,225,227,228,232,236,237,241,243,244,246,248,249,251,252,254,257,258,260,261,264,265,266,267,268,269,271,274,275,276,279,282,283,284,288,289,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,301,302,304,305,308,310,312,314,315,316,319,321,326,329,332,333,336,337,339,340,342,343,346,347,355,360,362,363,366,367,368,370,373,375,376,377,378,380,381,382,385,387,391,392,395,396,397,399,404,407,408,409,410,412,413,416,418,419,420,422,423,424,425,426,428,430,431,432,434,436,437,438,439,440,442,444,446,448,449,450,451,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],wherea:[79,91,92,104,124,138,168,241,261,266,284,297,321,330,355,386,392,396,399,428,437,455,464,472],wherebi:[143,153,267,301,426],wherev:[79,85,95,97,104,106,109,123,161,178,212,342,370,382,394,437,458,461],whet:[62,441,458],whether:[1,7,9,10,13,16,22,31,53,54,57,58,64,65,66,68,79,84,85,91,92,95,97,98,99,102,103,105,106,107,109,111,115,117,118,122,135,140,141,144,145,153,154,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,168,170,177,178,184,187,190,193,197,203,208,209,210,211,221,222,227,232,235,236,244,245,248,252,254,257,258,265,267,268,271,272,275,276,284,292,293,294,295,297,298,299,301,304,309,310,312,313,316,318,319,321,326,328,329,333,334,335,336,337,339,340,343,345,346,348,349,350,355,358,359,361,363,366,367,370,373,376,382,385,386,387,391,392,393,395,396,397,399,402,404,406,407,412,417,418,419,421,422,424,425,426,428,432,436,437,438,439,444,446,451,455,458,459,460,461,462,463,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],which:[0,1,2,3,5,7,9,11,13,14,15,17,21,22,23,24,26,28,29,30,31,32,35,36,38,39,40,41,44,45,47,48,49,51,53,54,55,56,57,58,60,61,62,65,66,68,69,70,72,74,75,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,101,102,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,117,119,122,123,124,125,126,128,129,131,133,134,135,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,164,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,176,177,178,179,180,182,184,185,187,188,189,190,192,195,196,197,198,201,202,203,204,206,207,208,209,210,212,213,214,215,216,217,219,221,222,223,225,227,228,229,230,231,232,233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these documents","Dealing with Bugs","Abstract Objects Layer","Allocating Objects on the Heap","API and ABI Versioning","Parsing arguments and building values","Boolean Objects","Buffer Protocol","Byte Array Objects","Bytes Objects","Capsules","Cell Objects","Code Objects","Codec registry and support functions","Complex Number Objects","Concrete Objects Layer","Context Variables Objects","String conversion and formatting","Coroutine Objects","DateTime Objects","Descriptor Objects","Dictionary Objects","Exception Handling","File Objects","Floating Point Objects","Function Objects","Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection","Generator Objects","Importing Modules","Python/C API Reference Manual","Initialization, Finalization, and Threads","Introduction","Iterator Protocol","Iterator Objects","List Objects","Integer Objects","Mapping Protocol","Data marshalling support","Memory Management","MemoryView objects","Instance Method Objects","Module Objects","The <code class=\"docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">None</span></code> Object","Number Protocol","Old Buffer Protocol","Object Protocol","Object Implementation Support","Reference Counting","Reflection","Sequence Protocol","Set Objects","Slice Objects","Stable Application Binary Interface","Common Object Structures","Operating System Utilities","Tuple Objects","Type Objects","Type Objects","Unicode Objects and Codecs","Utilities","The Very High Level Layer","Weak Reference Objects","Python Documentation contents","Copyright","Distributing Python Modules","9. API Reference","5. Creating Built Distributions","8. Command Reference","3. Writing the Setup Configuration File","6. Examples","7. Extending Distutils","Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)","1. An Introduction to Distutils","The Python Package Index (PyPI)","2. Writing the Setup Script","4. Creating a Source Distribution","Uploading Packages to the Package Index","4. Building C and C++ Extensions","1. Embedding Python in Another Application","1. Extending Python with C or C++","Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter","3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics","2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial","5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows","Design and History FAQ","Extending/Embedding FAQ","General Python FAQ","Graphic User Interface FAQ","Python Frequently Asked Questions","\u201cWhy is Python Installed on my Computer?\u201d FAQ","Library and Extension FAQ","Programming FAQ","Python on Windows FAQ","Glossary","Argparse Tutorial","Argument Clinic How-To","Porting Extension Modules to Python 3","Curses Programming with Python","Descriptor HowTo Guide","Functional Programming HOWTO","Python HOWTOs","Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap","An introduction to the ipaddress module","Logging HOWTO","Logging Cookbook","Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3","Regular Expression HOWTO","Socket Programming HOWTO","Sorting HOW TO","Unicode HOWTO","HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package","Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)","Installing Python Modules","2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">__future__</span></code> \u2014 Future statement definitions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">__main__</span></code> \u2014 Top-level script environment","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">_dummy_thread</span></code> \u2014 Drop-in replacement for the <code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">_thread</span></code> module","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">_thread</span></code> \u2014 Low-level threading API","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">abc</span></code> \u2014 Abstract Base Classes","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">aifc</span></code> \u2014 Read and write AIFF and AIFC files","Generic Operating System Services","Data Compression and Archiving","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">argparse</span></code> \u2014 Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">array</span></code> \u2014 Efficient arrays of numeric values","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ast</span></code> \u2014 Abstract Syntax Trees","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">asynchat</span></code> \u2014 Asynchronous socket command/response handler","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">asyncio</span></code> \u2014 Asynchronous I/O","High-level API Index","Developing with asyncio","Event Loop","Exceptions","Futures","Low-level API Index","Platform Support","Policies","Transports and Protocols","Queues","Streams","Subprocesses","Synchronization Primitives","Coroutines and Tasks","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">asyncore</span></code> \u2014 Asynchronous socket handler","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">atexit</span></code> \u2014 Exit handlers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">audioop</span></code> \u2014 Manipulate raw audio data","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">base64</span></code> \u2014 Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">bdb</span></code> \u2014 Debugger framework","Binary Data Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">binascii</span></code> \u2014 Convert between binary and ASCII","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">binhex</span></code> \u2014 Encode and decode binhex4 files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">bisect</span></code> \u2014 Array bisection algorithm","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">builtins</span></code> \u2014 Built-in objects","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">bz2</span></code> \u2014 Support for <strong class=\"program\">bzip2</strong> compression","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">calendar</span></code> \u2014 General calendar-related functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">cgi</span></code> \u2014 Common Gateway Interface support","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">cgitb</span></code> \u2014 Traceback manager for CGI scripts","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">chunk</span></code> \u2014 Read IFF chunked data","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">cmath</span></code> \u2014 Mathematical functions for complex numbers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">cmd</span></code> \u2014 Support for line-oriented command interpreters","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">code</span></code> \u2014 Interpreter base classes","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">codecs</span></code> \u2014 Codec registry and base classes","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">codeop</span></code> \u2014 Compile Python code","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">collections</span></code> \u2014 Container datatypes","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">collections.abc</span></code> \u2014 Abstract Base Classes for Containers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">colorsys</span></code> \u2014 Conversions between color systems","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">compileall</span></code> \u2014 Byte-compile Python libraries","Concurrent Execution","The <code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">concurrent</span></code> package","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">concurrent.futures</span></code> \u2014 Launching parallel tasks","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">configparser</span></code> \u2014 Configuration file parser","Built-in Constants","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">contextlib</span></code> \u2014 Utilities for <code class=\"xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">with</span></code>-statement contexts","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">contextvars</span></code> \u2014 Context Variables","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">copy</span></code> \u2014 Shallow and deep copy operations","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">copyreg</span></code> \u2014 Register <code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pickle</span></code> support functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">crypt</span></code> \u2014 Function to check Unix passwords","Cryptographic Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">csv</span></code> \u2014 CSV File Reading and Writing","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ctypes</span></code> \u2014 A foreign function library for Python","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">curses</span></code> \u2014 Terminal handling for character-cell displays","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">curses.ascii</span></code> \u2014 Utilities for ASCII characters","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">curses.panel</span></code> \u2014 A panel stack extension for curses","Custom Python Interpreters","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">dataclasses</span></code> \u2014 Data Classes","Data Types","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">datetime</span></code> \u2014 Basic date and time types","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">dbm</span></code> \u2014 Interfaces to Unix \u201cdatabases\u201d","Debugging and Profiling","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">decimal</span></code> \u2014 Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic","Development Tools","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">difflib</span></code> \u2014 Helpers for computing deltas","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">dis</span></code> \u2014 Disassembler for Python bytecode","Software Packaging and Distribution","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">distutils</span></code> \u2014 Building and installing Python modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">doctest</span></code> \u2014 Test interactive Python examples","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">dummy_threading</span></code> \u2014 Drop-in replacement for the <code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">threading</span></code> module","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email</span></code> \u2014 An email and MIME handling package","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.charset</span></code>: Representing character sets","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.message.Message</span></code>: Representing an email message using the <code class=\"xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">compat32</span></code> API","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.contentmanager</span></code>: Managing MIME Content","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.encoders</span></code>: Encoders","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.errors</span></code>: Exception and Defect classes","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email</span></code>: Examples","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.generator</span></code>: Generating MIME documents","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.header</span></code>: Internationalized headers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.headerregistry</span></code>: Custom Header Objects","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.iterators</span></code>: Iterators","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.message</span></code>: Representing an email message","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.mime</span></code>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.parser</span></code>: Parsing email messages","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.policy</span></code>: Policy Objects","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">email.utils</span></code>: Miscellaneous utilities","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ensurepip</span></code> \u2014 Bootstrapping the <code class=\"docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pip</span></code> installer","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">enum</span></code> \u2014 Support for enumerations","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">errno</span></code> \u2014 Standard errno system symbols","Built-in Exceptions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">faulthandler</span></code> \u2014 Dump the Python traceback","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">fcntl</span></code> \u2014 The <code class=\"docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">fcntl</span></code> and <code class=\"docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ioctl</span></code> system calls","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">filecmp</span></code> \u2014 File and Directory Comparisons","File Formats","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">fileinput</span></code> \u2014 Iterate over lines from multiple input streams","File and Directory Access","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">fnmatch</span></code> \u2014 Unix filename pattern matching","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">formatter</span></code> \u2014 Generic output formatting","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">fractions</span></code> \u2014 Rational numbers","Program Frameworks","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ftplib</span></code> \u2014 FTP protocol client","Functional Programming Modules","Built-in Functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">functools</span></code> \u2014 Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">gc</span></code> \u2014 Garbage Collector interface","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">getopt</span></code> \u2014 C-style parser for command line options","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">getpass</span></code> \u2014 Portable password input","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">gettext</span></code> \u2014 Multilingual internationalization services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">glob</span></code> \u2014 Unix style pathname pattern expansion","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">grp</span></code> \u2014 The group database","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">gzip</span></code> \u2014 Support for <strong class=\"program\">gzip</strong> files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">hashlib</span></code> \u2014 Secure hashes and message digests","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">heapq</span></code> \u2014 Heap queue algorithm","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">hmac</span></code> \u2014 Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">html</span></code> \u2014 HyperText Markup Language support","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">html.entities</span></code> \u2014 Definitions of HTML general entities","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">html.parser</span></code> \u2014 Simple HTML and XHTML parser","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">http</span></code> \u2014 HTTP modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">http.client</span></code> \u2014 HTTP protocol client","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">http.cookiejar</span></code> \u2014 Cookie handling for HTTP clients","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">http.cookies</span></code> \u2014 HTTP state management","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">http.server</span></code> \u2014 HTTP servers","Internationalization","IDLE","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">imaplib</span></code> \u2014 IMAP4 protocol client","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">imghdr</span></code> \u2014 Determine the type of an image","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">imp</span></code> \u2014 Access the <span class=\"xref std std-ref\">import</span> internals","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">importlib</span></code> \u2014 The implementation of <code class=\"xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">import</span></code>","The Python Standard Library","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">inspect</span></code> \u2014 Inspect live objects","Internet Protocols and Support","Introduction","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">io</span></code> \u2014 Core tools for working with streams","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ipaddress</span></code> \u2014 IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library","Networking and Interprocess Communication","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">itertools</span></code> \u2014 Functions creating iterators for efficient looping","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">json</span></code> \u2014 JSON encoder and decoder","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">keyword</span></code> \u2014 Testing for Python keywords","Python Language Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">linecache</span></code> \u2014 Random access to text lines","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">locale</span></code> \u2014 Internationalization services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">logging</span></code> \u2014 Logging facility for Python","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">logging.config</span></code> \u2014 Logging configuration","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">logging.handlers</span></code> \u2014 Logging handlers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">lzma</span></code> \u2014 Compression using the LZMA algorithm","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">macpath</span></code> \u2014 Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">mailbox</span></code> \u2014 Manipulate mailboxes in various formats","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">mailcap</span></code> \u2014 Mailcap file handling","Structured Markup Processing Tools","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">marshal</span></code> \u2014 Internal Python object serialization","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">math</span></code> \u2014 Mathematical functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">mimetypes</span></code> \u2014 Map filenames to MIME types","Miscellaneous Services","Multimedia Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">mmap</span></code> \u2014 Memory-mapped file support","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">modulefinder</span></code> \u2014 Find modules used by a script","Importing Modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">msilib</span></code> \u2014 Read and write Microsoft Installer files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">msvcrt</span></code> \u2014 Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">multiprocessing</span></code> \u2014 Process-based parallelism","Internet Data Handling","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">netrc</span></code> \u2014 netrc file processing","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">nis</span></code> \u2014 Interface to Sun\u2019s NIS (Yellow Pages)","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">nntplib</span></code> \u2014 NNTP protocol client","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">numbers</span></code> \u2014 Numeric abstract base classes","Numeric and Mathematical Modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">operator</span></code> \u2014 Standard operators as functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">optparse</span></code> \u2014 Parser for command line options","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">os</span></code> \u2014 Miscellaneous operating system interfaces","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">os.path</span></code> \u2014 Common pathname manipulations","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ossaudiodev</span></code> \u2014 Access to OSS-compatible audio devices","Other Graphical User Interface Packages","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">parser</span></code> \u2014 Access Python parse trees","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pathlib</span></code> \u2014 Object-oriented filesystem paths","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pdb</span></code> \u2014 The Python Debugger","Data Persistence","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pickle</span></code> \u2014 Python object serialization","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pickletools</span></code> \u2014 Tools for pickle developers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pipes</span></code> \u2014 Interface to shell pipelines","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pkgutil</span></code> \u2014 Package extension utility","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">platform</span></code> \u2014  Access to underlying platform\u2019s identifying data","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">plistlib</span></code> \u2014 Generate and parse Mac OS X <code class=\"docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">.plist</span></code> files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">poplib</span></code> \u2014 POP3 protocol client","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">posix</span></code> \u2014 The most common POSIX system calls","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pprint</span></code> \u2014 Data pretty printer","The Python Profilers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pty</span></code> \u2014 Pseudo-terminal utilities","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pwd</span></code> \u2014 The password database","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">py_compile</span></code> \u2014 Compile Python source files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pyclbr</span></code> \u2014 Python class browser support","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">pydoc</span></code> \u2014 Documentation generator and online help system","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.parsers.expat</span></code> \u2014 Fast XML parsing using Expat","Python Runtime Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">queue</span></code> \u2014 A synchronized queue class","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">quopri</span></code> \u2014 Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">random</span></code> \u2014 Generate pseudo-random numbers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">re</span></code> \u2014 Regular expression operations","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">readline</span></code> \u2014 GNU readline interface","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">reprlib</span></code> \u2014 Alternate <code class=\"xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">repr()</span></code> implementation","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">resource</span></code> \u2014 Resource usage information","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">rlcompleter</span></code> \u2014 Completion function for GNU readline","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">runpy</span></code> \u2014 Locating and executing Python modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">sched</span></code> \u2014 Event scheduler","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">secrets</span></code> \u2014 Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">select</span></code> \u2014 Waiting for I/O completion","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">selectors</span></code> \u2014 High-level I/O multiplexing","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">shelve</span></code> \u2014 Python object persistence","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">shlex</span></code> \u2014 Simple lexical analysis","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">shutil</span></code> \u2014 High-level file operations","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">signal</span></code> \u2014 Set handlers for asynchronous events","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">site</span></code> \u2014 Site-specific configuration hook","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">smtpd</span></code> \u2014 SMTP Server","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">smtplib</span></code> \u2014 SMTP protocol client","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">sndhdr</span></code> \u2014 Determine type of sound file","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">socket</span></code> \u2014 Low-level networking interface","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">socketserver</span></code> \u2014 A framework for network servers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">spwd</span></code> \u2014 The shadow password database","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">sqlite3</span></code> \u2014 DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">ssl</span></code> \u2014 TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">stat</span></code> \u2014 Interpreting <code class=\"xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">stat()</span></code> results","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">statistics</span></code> \u2014 Mathematical statistics functions","Built-in Types","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">string</span></code> \u2014 Common string operations","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">stringprep</span></code> \u2014 Internet String Preparation","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">struct</span></code> \u2014 Interpret bytes as packed binary data","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">subprocess</span></code> \u2014 Subprocess management","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">sunau</span></code> \u2014 Read and write Sun AU files","Superseded Modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">symbol</span></code> \u2014 Constants used with Python parse trees","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">symtable</span></code> \u2014 Access to the compiler\u2019s symbol tables","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">sys</span></code> \u2014 System-specific parameters and functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">sysconfig</span></code> \u2014 Provide access to Python\u2019s configuration information","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">syslog</span></code> \u2014 Unix syslog library routines","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tabnanny</span></code> \u2014 Detection of ambiguous indentation","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tarfile</span></code> \u2014 Read and write tar archive files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">telnetlib</span></code> \u2014 Telnet client","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tempfile</span></code> \u2014 Generate temporary files and directories","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">termios</span></code> \u2014 POSIX style tty control","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">test</span></code> \u2014 Regression tests package for Python","Text Processing Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">textwrap</span></code> \u2014 Text wrapping and filling","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">threading</span></code> \u2014 Thread-based parallelism","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">time</span></code> \u2014 Time access and conversions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">timeit</span></code> \u2014 Measure execution time of small code snippets","Graphical User Interfaces with Tk","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tkinter</span></code> \u2014 Python interface to Tcl/Tk","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tkinter.scrolledtext</span></code> \u2014 Scrolled Text Widget","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tkinter.tix</span></code> \u2014 Extension widgets for Tk","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tkinter.ttk</span></code> \u2014 Tk themed widgets","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">token</span></code> \u2014 Constants used with Python parse trees","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tokenize</span></code> \u2014 Tokenizer for Python source","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">trace</span></code> \u2014 Trace or track Python statement execution","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">traceback</span></code> \u2014 Print or retrieve a stack traceback","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tracemalloc</span></code> \u2014 Trace memory allocations","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">tty</span></code> \u2014 Terminal control functions","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">turtle</span></code> \u2014 Turtle graphics","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">types</span></code> \u2014 Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">typing</span></code> \u2014 Support for type hints","Undocumented Modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">unicodedata</span></code> \u2014 Unicode Database","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">unittest</span></code> \u2014 Unit testing framework","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">unittest.mock</span></code> \u2014 mock object library","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">unittest.mock</span></code> \u2014 getting started","Unix Specific Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">urllib</span></code> \u2014 URL handling modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">urllib.error</span></code> \u2014 Exception classes raised by urllib.request","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">urllib.parse</span></code> \u2014 Parse URLs into components","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">urllib.request</span></code> \u2014 Extensible library for opening URLs","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">urllib.robotparser</span></code> \u2014  Parser for robots.txt","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">uu</span></code> \u2014 Encode and decode uuencode files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">uuid</span></code> \u2014 UUID objects according to <strong>RFC 4122</strong>","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">venv</span></code> \u2014 Creation of virtual environments","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">warnings</span></code> \u2014 Warning control","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">wave</span></code> \u2014 Read and write WAV files","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">weakref</span></code> \u2014 Weak references","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">webbrowser</span></code> \u2014 Convenient Web-browser controller","MS Windows Specific Services","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">winreg</span></code> \u2014 Windows registry access","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">winsound</span></code> \u2014 Sound-playing interface for Windows","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">wsgiref</span></code> \u2014 WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xdrlib</span></code> \u2014 Encode and decode XDR data","XML Processing Modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.dom</span></code> \u2014 The Document Object Model API","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.dom.minidom</span></code> \u2014 Minimal DOM implementation","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.dom.pulldom</span></code> \u2014 Support for building partial DOM trees","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code> \u2014 The ElementTree XML API","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.sax</span></code> \u2014 Support for SAX2 parsers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.sax.handler</span></code> \u2014 Base classes for SAX handlers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.sax.xmlreader</span></code> \u2014 Interface for XML parsers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xml.sax.saxutils</span></code> \u2014 SAX Utilities","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xmlrpc</span></code> \u2014 XMLRPC server and client modules","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xmlrpc.client</span></code> \u2014 XML-RPC client access","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">xmlrpc.server</span></code> \u2014 Basic XML-RPC servers","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">zipapp</span></code> \u2014 Manage executable Python zip archives","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">zipfile</span></code> \u2014 Work with ZIP archives","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">zipimport</span></code> \u2014 Import modules from Zip archives","<code class=\"xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate\"><span class=\"pre\">zlib</span></code> \u2014 Compression compatible with <strong class=\"program\">gzip</strong>","History and License","8. Compound statements","3. Data model","4. Execution model","6. Expressions","10. Full Grammar specification","5. The import system","The Python Language Reference","1. Introduction","2. Lexical analysis","7. Simple statements","9. Top-level components","16. Appendix","1. Whetting Your Appetite","9. Classes","4. More Control Flow Tools","5. Data Structures","8. Errors and Exceptions","15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations","The Python Tutorial","7. Input and Output","14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution","2. Using the Python Interpreter","3. An Informal Introduction to Python","6. Modules","10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library","11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library \u2014 Part II","12. Virtual Environments and Packages","13. What Now?","1. Command line and environment","Python Setup and Usage","4. Using Python on a Macintosh","2. Using Python on Unix platforms","3. Using Python on Windows","What\u2019s New in Python 2.0","What\u2019s New in Python 2.1","What\u2019s New in Python 2.2","What\u2019s New in Python 2.3","What\u2019s New in Python 2.4","What\u2019s New in Python 2.5","What\u2019s New in Python 2.6","What\u2019s New in Python 2.7","What\u2019s New In Python 3.0","What\u2019s New In Python 3.1","What\u2019s New In Python 3.2","What\u2019s New In Python 3.3","What\u2019s New In Python 3.4","What\u2019s New In Python 3.5","What\u2019s New In Python 3.6","What\u2019s New In Python 3.7","Changelog","What\u2019s New in Python"],titleterms:{"2to3":113,"4rc1":[],"4rc2":[],"abstract":[2,65,81,95,96,97,98,105,106,107,118,124,162,252,289,462],"boolean":[6,212,292,346,426,459],"break":[432,437],"byte":[8,9,109,164,177,328,346,349,391,431,462,469],"case":[84,111,385,457],"catch":[85,170],"class":[22,65,84,85,91,98,118,122,124,158,159,162,167,182,200,212,214,217,232,252,254,257,282,284,289,301,310,314,318,330,346,349,380,381,382,385,386,387,390,392,404,412,423,424,431,436,458,461,462,467,470],"const":122,"default":[38,91,95,122,182,292,342,343,386,397,437,455,463,468],"enum":[212,468,469,470,471],"export":177,"final":[30,81,170,399,461,468,472],"float":[24,84,187,346,431,440,448,460],"function":[5,7,8,13,15,25,41,54,58,65,79,84,85,91,95,98,99,106,108,131,152,153,156,161,164,167,170,173,174,177,178,180,182,190,212,226,227,228,252,254,258,260,266,267,270,275,283,288,291,314,320,325,328,339,342,343,345,346,347,349,350,355,356,361,367,378,379,380,381,382,385,387,397,402,410,416,422,423,426,437,446,456,457,460,461,462,464,467,469,470,471],"goto":84,"import":[28,91,251,252,266,267,268,281,387,420,428,432,446,457,459,460,461,462,467,468],"int":[96,346],"long":[92,96,458,460],"new":[65,70,86,99,111,292,397,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,473],"null":[79,95,346],"public":[164,380],"return":[84,91,95,177,387,432],"short":[94,105],"static":[91,98,101,105,254],"switch":[84,467],"try":[91,170,423,461],"while":[84,87,423],Added:463,Adding:[70,82,104,122,289,292,463,467,470],And:[90,95,464],Are:[86,90,91,193,468],DNS:129,FOR:422,For:[97,265,397,463],IDE:453,IDEs:454,Ice:79,Its:444,NIS:287,One:151,TLS:[30,129,343],That:99,The:[38,42,60,65,66,73,79,82,94,95,97,99,105,106,108,109,110,111,122,166,216,217,222,232,234,252,253,254,284,289,292,299,308,310,312,341,346,370,382,386,397,406,407,410,413,418,423,424,426,428,429,432,434,437,438,441,442,444,446,453,455,458,459,460,461,462,463,466],Use:[104,105,106,370],Used:350,Useful:[31,103,283],Uses:424,Using:[1,83,95,102,103,104,106,107,108,110,111,113,153,170,212,236,284,310,342,350,356,366,372,373,380,387,438,444,445,453,454,455,461,462,467],With:[424,471],__builtin_new:85,__del__:[91,399],__dunder__:212,__enter__:170,__future__:[114,457],__import__:91,__index__:461,__main__:[115,428,471],__new__:212,__path__:428,__pure_virtu:85,__slots__:424,__spam:91,__spec__:428,_dummy_thread:116,_someclassname__spam:91,_sunder_:212,_thread:[116,117],a_tupl:91,abbrevi:122,abc:[118,162,252,289,466,467,468,469],abi:[4,466],about:[0,86,91,153,193,436,456],absolut:461,abstractbasicauthhandl:392,abstractdigestauthhandl:392,accept:339,access:[58,66,85,90,168,177,212,220,251,264,265,267,295,297,298,305,342,354,356,367,402,416,422,424,447,458,471],accessor:407,accord:395,acknowledg:[99,109,232,422,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463],across:[91,104],action:[122,292,439],adapt:342,add_argu:122,add_help:122,added:[85,169],addit:[74,91,208,342,346,381,410,453,455,469],address:[102,258,284],advanc:[30,94,95,103,193,462],adverb:321,after:215,agreement:422,aifc:[119,468,471],aiff:119,aka:212,algorithm:[149,236,237,269,468],alias:[382,385],align:[177,349],all:[65,84,91,133,284,292,321,387,463,469,470],alloc:[3,30,38,81,378,459,468],allow:[84,212],allow_abbrev:122,alon:91,alpha:472,alreadi:464,also:91,altern:[85,104,111,320,323,430,443,455],ambigu:358,among:90,analysi:[91,190,332,431],angular:275,ani:[65,85,86,90,170,382,386],anim:380,annot:[432,437,470,471],anoth:[78,91],ansi:159,anyth:85,api:[4,5,8,13,29,30,38,58,65,79,96,117,127,129,132,168,193,197,208,211,212,232,342,350,378,396,407,410,418,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472],appear:[91,380],appendix:434,appetit:435,appli:[91,387],applic:[52,78,80,87,90,92,97,104,159,232,241,248,418,453,455,461,469],approach:[83,464],appropri:424,approxim:[252,469],arbitrari:[79,85,103,292,437],archiv:[65,121,333,359,418,419,420,459],archive_util:65,area:65,arena:38,argpars:[94,122,463,466,468,469,471],argument:[5,91,94,95,122,177,292,293,350,387,437,444,447,455,468,470],argument_default:122,argumentpars:122,argv:122,arithmet:[84,187,258,289,426,440,448],around:65,arrai:[7,8,91,123,149,177,261,467,470],articl:[86,110],ascend:108,ascii:[58,147,179,391],ask:88,assert:[106,387,432],assign:[84,432,456],associ:455,assort:81,ast:[124,462,466,470],async:[57,423,469],asynchat:[125,470],asynchron:[30,125,126,141,334,340,422,424,426,470],asyncio:[126,128,140,171,468,469,470,471],asyncor:[141,466,470],atexit:142,atom:426,attach:386,attr:407,attribut:[81,82,84,91,97,174,212,254,266,288,292,293,346,386,387,413,424,426,428,457,458,470,471],attributesn:413,au_read:351,au_writ:351,audio:[143,295],audioop:[143,468],augment:[432,456],authent:[110,238,284],auto:212,autom:113,automat:[212,248],autospec:386,avail:[101,184,256,380,397],averag:345,avoid:90,await:[128,140,424,426,469],awar:[109,469],babyl:271,babylmessag:271,back:79,background:[265,292],backport:463,backquot:350,backslash:[84,106],barrier:366,base16:144,base32:144,base64:[144,467,468],base85:144,base:[65,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+
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+  <div class="section" id="appendix">
+<span id="tut-appendix"></span><h1>16. Appendix<a class="headerlink" href="#appendix" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="interactive-mode">
+<span id="tut-interac"></span><h2>16.1. Interactive Mode<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-mode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="error-handling">
+<span id="tut-error"></span><h3>16.1.1. Error Handling<a class="headerlink" href="#error-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When an error occurs, the interpreter prints an error message and a stack trace.
+In interactive mode, it then returns to the primary prompt; when input came from
+a file, it exits with a nonzero exit status after printing the stack trace.
+(Exceptions handled by an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement
+are not errors in this context.)  Some errors are unconditionally fatal and
+cause an exit with a nonzero exit; this applies to internal inconsistencies and
+some cases of running out of memory.  All error messages are written to the
+standard error stream; normal output from executed commands is written to
+standard output.</p>
+<p>Typing the interrupt character (usually <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> or <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Delete</kbd>) to the primary or
+secondary prompt cancels the input and returns to the primary prompt. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>
+Typing an interrupt while a command is executing raises the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exception, which may be handled by a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>
+statement.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="executable-python-scripts">
+<span id="tut-scripts"></span><h3>16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#executable-python-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On BSD’ish Unix systems, Python scripts can be made directly executable, like
+shell scripts, by putting the line</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python3.5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(assuming that the interpreter is on the user’s <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>) at the beginning
+of the script and giving the file an executable mode.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> must be the
+first two characters of the file.  On some platforms, this first line must end
+with a Unix-style line ending (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>), not a Windows (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\r\n'</span></code>) line
+ending.  Note that the hash, or pound, character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'#'</span></code>, is used to start a
+comment in Python.</p>
+<p>The script can be given an executable mode, or permission, using the
+<strong class="program">chmod</strong> command.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> chmod +x myscript.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On Windows systems, there is no notion of an “executable mode”.  The Python
+installer automatically associates <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> so that
+a double-click on a Python file will run it as a script.  The extension can
+also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyw</span></code>, in that case, the console window that normally appears is
+suppressed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-interactive-startup-file">
+<span id="tut-startup"></span><h3>16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File<a class="headerlink" href="#the-interactive-startup-file" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When you use Python interactively, it is frequently handy to have some standard
+commands executed every time the interpreter is started.  You can do this by
+setting an environment variable named <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a> to the name of a
+file containing your start-up commands.  This is similar to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.profile</span></code>
+feature of the Unix shells.</p>
+<p>This file is only read in interactive sessions, not when Python reads commands
+from a script, and not when <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/tty</span></code> is given as the explicit source of
+commands (which otherwise behaves like an interactive session).  It is executed
+in the same namespace where interactive commands are executed, so that objects
+that it defines or imports can be used without qualification in the interactive
+session. You can also change the prompts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code> in this
+file.</p>
+<p>If you want to read an additional start-up file from the current directory, you
+can program this in the global start-up file using code like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span>
+<span class="pre">os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'):</span> <span class="pre">exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read())</span></code>.
+If you want to use the startup file in a script, you must do this explicitly
+in the script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">environ</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;PYTHONSTARTUP&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isfile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fobj</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">startup_file</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fobj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">exec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">startup_file</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-customization-modules">
+<span id="tut-customize"></span><h3>16.1.4. The Customization Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#the-customization-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python provides two hooks to let you customize it: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize</span></code>.  To see how it works, you need first to find the location
+of your user site-packages directory.  Start Python and run this code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">site</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">site</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getusersitepackages</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/home/user/.local/lib/python3.5/site-packages&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now you can create a file named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize.py</span></code> in that directory and
+put anything you want in it.  It will affect every invocation of Python, unless
+it is started with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a> option to disable the automatic import.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> works in the same way, but is typically created by an
+administrator of the computer in the global site-packages directory, and is
+imported before <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize</span></code>.  See the documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a>
+module for more details.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>A problem with the GNU Readline package may prevent this.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">16. Appendix</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interactive-mode">16.1. Interactive Mode</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#error-handling">16.1.1. Error Handling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#executable-python-scripts">16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-interactive-startup-file">16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-customization-modules">16.1.4. The Customization Modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="floatingpoint.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../using/index.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Python Setup and Usage</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/appendix.rst"
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+      </li>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/appetite.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/appetite.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e0e373
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/appetite.html
@@ -0,0 +1,247 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>1. Whetting Your Appetite &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+ 
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="whetting-your-appetite">
+<span id="tut-intro"></span><h1>1. Whetting Your Appetite<a class="headerlink" href="#whetting-your-appetite" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>If you do much work on computers, eventually you find that there’s some task
+you’d like to automate.  For example, you may wish to perform a
+search-and-replace over a large number of text files, or rename and rearrange a
+bunch of photo files in a complicated way. Perhaps you’d like to write a small
+custom database, or a specialized GUI application, or a simple game.</p>
+<p>If you’re a professional software developer, you may have to work with several
+C/C++/Java libraries but find the usual write/compile/test/re-compile cycle is
+too slow.  Perhaps you’re writing a test suite for such a library and find
+writing the testing code a tedious task.  Or maybe you’ve written a program that
+could use an extension language, and you don’t want to design and implement a
+whole new language for your application.</p>
+<p>Python is just the language for you.</p>
+<p>You could write a Unix shell script or Windows batch files for some of these
+tasks, but shell scripts are best at moving around files and changing text data,
+not well-suited for GUI applications or games. You could write a C/C++/Java
+program, but it can take a lot of development time to get even a first-draft
+program.  Python is simpler to use, available on Windows, Mac OS X, and Unix
+operating systems, and will help you get the job done more quickly.</p>
+<p>Python is simple to use, but it is a real programming language, offering much
+more structure and support for large programs than shell scripts or batch files
+can offer.  On the other hand, Python also offers much more error checking than
+C, and, being a <em>very-high-level language</em>, it has high-level data types built
+in, such as flexible arrays and dictionaries.  Because of its more general data
+types Python is applicable to a much larger problem domain than Awk or even
+Perl, yet many things are at least as easy in Python as in those languages.</p>
+<p>Python allows you to split your program into modules that can be reused in other
+Python programs.  It comes with a large collection of standard modules that you
+can use as the basis of your programs — or as examples to start learning to
+program in Python.  Some of these modules provide things like file I/O, system
+calls, sockets, and even interfaces to graphical user interface toolkits like
+Tk.</p>
+<p>Python is an interpreted language, which can save you considerable time during
+program development because no compilation and linking is necessary.  The
+interpreter can be used interactively, which makes it easy to experiment with
+features of the language, to write throw-away programs, or to test functions
+during bottom-up program development. It is also a handy desk calculator.</p>
+<p>Python enables programs to be written compactly and readably.  Programs written
+in Python are typically much shorter than equivalent C,  C++, or Java programs,
+for several reasons:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the high-level data types allow you to express complex operations in a single
+statement;</p></li>
+<li><p>statement grouping is done by indentation instead of beginning and ending
+brackets;</p></li>
+<li><p>no variable or argument declarations are necessary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Python is <em>extensible</em>: if you know how to program in C it is easy to add a new
+built-in function or module to the interpreter, either to perform critical
+operations at maximum speed, or to link Python programs to libraries that may
+only be available in binary form (such as a vendor-specific graphics library).
+Once you are really hooked, you can link the Python interpreter into an
+application written in C and use it as an extension or command language for that
+application.</p>
+<p>By the way, the language is named after the BBC show “Monty Python’s Flying
+Circus” and has nothing to do with reptiles.  Making references to Monty
+Python skits in documentation is not only allowed, it is encouraged!</p>
+<p>Now that you are all excited about Python, you’ll want to examine it in some
+more detail.  Since the best way to learn a language is to use it, the tutorial
+invites you to play with the Python interpreter as you read.</p>
+<p>In the next chapter, the mechanics of using the interpreter are explained.  This
+is rather mundane information, but essential for trying out the examples shown
+later.</p>
+<p>The rest of the tutorial introduces various features of the Python language and
+system through examples, beginning with simple expressions, statements and data
+types, through functions and modules, and finally touching upon advanced
+concepts like exceptions and user-defined classes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">The Python Tutorial</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="interpreter.html"
+                        title="next chapter">2. Using the Python Interpreter</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/appetite.rst"
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="classes">
+<span id="tut-classes"></span><h1>9. Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Classes provide a means of bundling data and functionality together.  Creating
+a new class creates a new <em>type</em> of object, allowing new <em>instances</em> of that
+type to be made.  Each class instance can have attributes attached to it for
+maintaining its state.  Class instances can also have methods (defined by its
+class) for modifying its state.</p>
+<p>Compared with other programming languages, Python’s class mechanism adds classes
+with a minimum of new syntax and semantics.  It is a mixture of the class
+mechanisms found in C++ and Modula-3.  Python classes provide all the standard
+features of Object Oriented Programming: the class inheritance mechanism allows
+multiple base classes, a derived class can override any methods of its base
+class or classes, and a method can call the method of a base class with the same
+name.  Objects can contain arbitrary amounts and kinds of data.  As is true for
+modules, classes partake of the dynamic nature of Python: they are created at
+runtime, and can be modified further after creation.</p>
+<p>In C++ terminology, normally class members (including the data members) are
+<em>public</em> (except see below <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-private"><span class="std std-ref">Private Variables</span></a>), and all member functions are
+<em>virtual</em>.  As in Modula-3, there are no shorthands for referencing the object’s
+members from its methods: the method function is declared with an explicit first
+argument representing the object, which is provided implicitly by the call.  As
+in Smalltalk, classes themselves are objects.  This provides semantics for
+importing and renaming.  Unlike C++ and Modula-3, built-in types can be used as
+base classes for extension by the user.  Also, like in C++, most built-in
+operators with special syntax (arithmetic operators, subscripting etc.) can be
+redefined for class instances.</p>
+<p>(Lacking universally accepted terminology to talk about classes, I will make
+occasional use of Smalltalk and C++ terms.  I would use Modula-3 terms, since
+its object-oriented semantics are closer to those of Python than C++, but I
+expect that few readers have heard of it.)</p>
+<div class="section" id="a-word-about-names-and-objects">
+<span id="tut-object"></span><h2>9.1. A Word About Names and Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#a-word-about-names-and-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Objects have individuality, and multiple names (in multiple scopes) can be bound
+to the same object.  This is known as aliasing in other languages.  This is
+usually not appreciated on a first glance at Python, and can be safely ignored
+when dealing with immutable basic types (numbers, strings, tuples).  However,
+aliasing has a possibly surprising effect on the semantics of Python code
+involving mutable objects such as lists, dictionaries, and most other types.
+This is usually used to the benefit of the program, since aliases behave like
+pointers in some respects.  For example, passing an object is cheap since only a
+pointer is passed by the implementation; and if a function modifies an object
+passed as an argument, the caller will see the change — this eliminates the
+need for two different argument passing mechanisms as in Pascal.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-scopes-and-namespaces">
+<span id="tut-scopes"></span><h2>9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces<a class="headerlink" href="#python-scopes-and-namespaces" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Before introducing classes, I first have to tell you something about Python’s
+scope rules.  Class definitions play some neat tricks with namespaces, and you
+need to know how scopes and namespaces work to fully understand what’s going on.
+Incidentally, knowledge about this subject is useful for any advanced Python
+programmer.</p>
+<p>Let’s begin with some definitions.</p>
+<p>A <em>namespace</em> is a mapping from names to objects.  Most namespaces are currently
+implemented as Python dictionaries, but that’s normally not noticeable in any
+way (except for performance), and it may change in the future.  Examples of
+namespaces are: the set of built-in names (containing functions such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs()</span></code></a>, and
+built-in exception names); the global names in a module; and the local names in
+a function invocation.  In a sense the set of attributes of an object also form
+a namespace.  The important thing to know about namespaces is that there is
+absolutely no relation between names in different namespaces; for instance, two
+different modules may both define a function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maximize</span></code> without confusion —
+users of the modules must prefix it with the module name.</p>
+<p>By the way, I use the word <em>attribute</em> for any name following a dot — for
+example, in the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z.real</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">real</span></code> is an attribute of the object
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code>.  Strictly speaking, references to names in modules are attribute
+references: in the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modname.funcname</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modname</span></code> is a module
+object and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">funcname</span></code> is an attribute of it.  In this case there happens to be
+a straightforward mapping between the module’s attributes and the global names
+defined in the module: they share the same namespace!  <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a></p>
+<p>Attributes may be read-only or writable.  In the latter case, assignment to
+attributes is possible.  Module attributes are writable: you can write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modname.the_answer</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">42</span></code>.  Writable attributes may also be deleted with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statement.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">modname.the_answer</span></code> will remove
+the attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">the_answer</span></code> from the object named by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modname</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Namespaces are created at different moments and have different lifetimes.  The
+namespace containing the built-in names is created when the Python interpreter
+starts up, and is never deleted.  The global namespace for a module is created
+when the module definition is read in; normally, module namespaces also last
+until the interpreter quits.  The statements executed by the top-level
+invocation of the interpreter, either read from a script file or interactively,
+are considered part of a module called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>, so they have their own
+global namespace.  (The built-in names actually also live in a module; this is
+called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<p>The local namespace for a function is created when the function is called, and
+deleted when the function returns or raises an exception that is not handled
+within the function.  (Actually, forgetting would be a better way to describe
+what actually happens.)  Of course, recursive invocations each have their own
+local namespace.</p>
+<p>A <em>scope</em> is a textual region of a Python program where a namespace is directly
+accessible.  “Directly accessible” here means that an unqualified reference to a
+name attempts to find the name in the namespace.</p>
+<p>Although scopes are determined statically, they are used dynamically. At any
+time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces
+are directly accessible:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains the local names</p></li>
+<li><p>the scopes of any enclosing functions, which are searched starting with the
+nearest enclosing scope, contains non-local, but also non-global names</p></li>
+<li><p>the next-to-last scope contains the current module’s global names</p></li>
+<li><p>the outermost scope (searched last) is the namespace containing built-in names</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If a name is declared global, then all references and assignments go directly to
+the middle scope containing the module’s global names.  To rebind variables
+found outside of the innermost scope, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement can be
+used; if not declared nonlocal, those variables are read-only (an attempt to
+write to such a variable will simply create a <em>new</em> local variable in the
+innermost scope, leaving the identically named outer variable unchanged).</p>
+<p>Usually, the local scope references the local names of the (textually) current
+function.  Outside functions, the local scope references the same namespace as
+the global scope: the module’s namespace. Class definitions place yet another
+namespace in the local scope.</p>
+<p>It is important to realize that scopes are determined textually: the global
+scope of a function defined in a module is that module’s namespace, no matter
+from where or by what alias the function is called.  On the other hand, the
+actual search for names is done dynamically, at run time — however, the
+language definition is evolving towards static name resolution, at “compile”
+time, so don’t rely on dynamic name resolution!  (In fact, local variables are
+already determined statically.)</p>
+<p>A special quirk of Python is that – if no <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement is in
+effect – assignments to names always go into the innermost scope.  Assignments
+do not copy data — they just bind names to objects.  The same is true for
+deletions: the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code> removes the binding of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> from the
+namespace referenced by the local scope.  In fact, all operations that introduce
+new names use the local scope: in particular, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements and
+function definitions bind the module or function name in the local scope.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement can be used to indicate that particular
+variables live in the global scope and should be rebound there; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement indicates that particular variables live in
+an enclosing scope and should be rebound there.</p>
+<div class="section" id="scopes-and-namespaces-example">
+<span id="tut-scopeexample"></span><h3>9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example<a class="headerlink" href="#scopes-and-namespaces-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This is an example demonstrating how to reference the different scopes and
+namespaces, and how <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> affect variable
+binding:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">scope_test</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_local</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="n">spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;local spam&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_nonlocal</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="k">nonlocal</span> <span class="n">spam</span>
+        <span class="n">spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;nonlocal spam&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">do_global</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="k">global</span> <span class="n">spam</span>
+        <span class="n">spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;global spam&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;test spam&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">do_local</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;After local assignment:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">do_nonlocal</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;After nonlocal assignment:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">do_global</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;After global assignment:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">scope_test</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;In global scope:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The output of the example code is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>After local assignment: test spam
+After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
+After global assignment: nonlocal spam
+In global scope: global spam
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note how the <em>local</em> assignment (which is default) didn’t change <em>scope_test</em>’s
+binding of <em>spam</em>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> assignment changed <em>scope_test</em>’s
+binding of <em>spam</em>, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> assignment changed the module-level
+binding.</p>
+<p>You can also see that there was no previous binding for <em>spam</em> before the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> assignment.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-first-look-at-classes">
+<span id="tut-firstclasses"></span><h2>9.3. A First Look at Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#a-first-look-at-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Classes introduce a little bit of new syntax, three new object types, and some
+new semantics.</p>
+<div class="section" id="class-definition-syntax">
+<span id="tut-classdefinition"></span><h3>9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#class-definition-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The simplest form of class definition looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">ClassName</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">statement</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">statement</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Class definitions, like function definitions (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a> statements) must be
+executed before they have any effect.  (You could conceivably place a class
+definition in a branch of an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement, or inside a function.)</p>
+<p>In practice, the statements inside a class definition will usually be function
+definitions, but other statements are allowed, and sometimes useful — we’ll
+come back to this later.  The function definitions inside a class normally have
+a peculiar form of argument list, dictated by the calling conventions for
+methods — again, this is explained later.</p>
+<p>When a class definition is entered, a new namespace is created, and used as the
+local scope — thus, all assignments to local variables go into this new
+namespace.  In particular, function definitions bind the name of the new
+function here.</p>
+<p>When a class definition is left normally (via the end), a <em>class object</em> is
+created.  This is basically a wrapper around the contents of the namespace
+created by the class definition; we’ll learn more about class objects in the
+next section.  The original local scope (the one in effect just before the class
+definition was entered) is reinstated, and the class object is bound here to the
+class name given in the class definition header (<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassName</span></code> in the
+example).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-objects">
+<span id="tut-classobjects"></span><h3>9.3.2. Class Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#class-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Class objects support two kinds of operations: attribute references and
+instantiation.</p>
+<p><em>Attribute references</em> use the standard syntax used for all attribute references
+in Python: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.name</span></code>.  Valid attribute names are all the names that were in
+the class’s namespace when the class object was created.  So, if the class
+definition looked like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyClass</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;A simple example class&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">12345</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>then <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass.i</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass.f</span></code> are valid attribute references, returning
+an integer and a function object, respectively. Class attributes can also be
+assigned to, so you can change the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass.i</span></code> by assignment.
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> is also a valid attribute, returning the docstring belonging to
+the class: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;A</span> <span class="pre">simple</span> <span class="pre">example</span> <span class="pre">class&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Class <em>instantiation</em> uses function notation.  Just pretend that the class
+object is a parameterless function that returns a new instance of the class.
+For example (assuming the above class):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>creates a new <em>instance</em> of the class and assigns this object to the local
+variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The instantiation operation (“calling” a class object) creates an empty object.
+Many classes like to create objects with instances customized to a specific
+initial state. Therefore a class may define a special method named
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>, like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When a class defines an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method, class instantiation
+automatically invokes <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> for the newly-created class instance.  So
+in this example, a new, initialized instance can be obtained by:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Of course, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method may have arguments for greater
+flexibility.  In that case, arguments given to the class instantiation operator
+are passed on to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a>.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Complex</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">realpart</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">imagpart</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">realpart</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">imagpart</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">4.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="go">(3.0, -4.5)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="instance-objects">
+<span id="tut-instanceobjects"></span><h3>9.3.3. Instance Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#instance-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Now what can we do with instance objects?  The only operations understood by
+instance objects are attribute references.  There are two kinds of valid
+attribute names, data attributes and methods.</p>
+<p><em>data attributes</em> correspond to “instance variables” in Smalltalk, and to “data
+members” in C++.  Data attributes need not be declared; like local variables,
+they spring into existence when they are first assigned to.  For example, if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is the instance of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass</span></code> created above, the following piece of
+code will print the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">16</span></code>, without leaving a trace:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The other kind of instance attribute reference is a <em>method</em>. A method is a
+function that “belongs to” an object.  (In Python, the term method is not unique
+to class instances: other object types can have methods as well.  For example,
+list objects have methods called append, insert, remove, sort, and so on.
+However, in the following discussion, we’ll use the term method exclusively to
+mean methods of class instance objects, unless explicitly stated otherwise.)</p>
+<p id="index-0">Valid method names of an instance object depend on its class.  By definition,
+all attributes of a class that are function  objects define corresponding
+methods of its instances.  So in our example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.f</span></code> is a valid method
+reference, since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass.f</span></code> is a function, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.i</span></code> is not, since
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass.i</span></code> is not.  But <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.f</span></code> is not the same thing as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass.f</span></code> — it
+is a <em>method object</em>, not a function object.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="method-objects">
+<span id="tut-methodobjects"></span><h3>9.3.4. Method Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#method-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Usually, a method is called right after it is bound:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass</span></code> example, this will return the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hello</span> <span class="pre">world'</span></code>.
+However, it is not necessary to call a method right away: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.f</span></code> is a method
+object, and can be stored away and called at a later time.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">xf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xf</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will continue to print <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hello</span> <span class="pre">world</span></code> until the end of time.</p>
+<p>What exactly happens when a method is called?  You may have noticed that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.f()</span></code> was called without an argument above, even though the function
+definition for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code> specified an argument.  What happened to the argument?
+Surely Python raises an exception when a function that requires an argument is
+called without any — even if the argument isn’t actually used…</p>
+<p>Actually, you may have guessed the answer: the special thing about methods is
+that the instance object is passed as the first argument of the function.  In our
+example, the call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.f()</span></code> is exactly equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MyClass.f(x)</span></code>.  In
+general, calling a method with a list of <em>n</em> arguments is equivalent to calling
+the corresponding function with an argument list that is created by inserting
+the method’s instance object before the first argument.</p>
+<p>If you still don’t understand how methods work, a look at the implementation can
+perhaps clarify matters.  When a non-data attribute of an instance is
+referenced, the instance’s class is searched.  If the name denotes a valid class
+attribute that is a function object, a method object is created by packing
+(pointers to) the instance object and the function object just found together in
+an abstract object: this is the method object.  When the method object is called
+with an argument list, a new argument list is constructed from the instance
+object and the argument list, and the function object is called with this new
+argument list.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="class-and-instance-variables">
+<span id="tut-class-and-instance-variables"></span><h3>9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables<a class="headerlink" href="#class-and-instance-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Generally speaking, instance variables are for data unique to each instance
+and class variables are for attributes and methods shared by all instances
+of the class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Dog</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="n">kind</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;canine&#39;</span>         <span class="c1"># class variable shared by all instances</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>    <span class="c1"># instance variable unique to each instance</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Fido&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Buddy&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kind</span>                  <span class="c1"># shared by all dogs</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;canine&#39;</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">kind</span>                  <span class="c1"># shared by all dogs</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;canine&#39;</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>                  <span class="c1"># unique to d</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;Fido&#39;</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span>                  <span class="c1"># unique to e</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;Buddy&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As discussed in <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-object"><span class="std std-ref">A Word About Names and Objects</span></a>, shared data can have possibly surprising
+effects with involving <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mutable"><span class="xref std std-term">mutable</span></a> objects such as lists and dictionaries.
+For example, the <em>tricks</em> list in the following code should not be used as a
+class variable because just a single list would be shared by all <em>Dog</em>
+instances:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Dog</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="n">tricks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>             <span class="c1"># mistaken use of a class variable</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add_trick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">trick</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tricks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trick</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Fido&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Buddy&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_trick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;roll over&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_trick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;play dead&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tricks</span>                <span class="c1"># unexpectedly shared by all dogs</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;roll over&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;play dead&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Correct design of the class should use an instance variable instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Dog</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tricks</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>    <span class="c1"># creates a new empty list for each dog</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add_trick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">trick</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tricks</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">trick</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Fido&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Dog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Buddy&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_trick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;roll over&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_trick</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;play dead&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tricks</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;roll over&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tricks</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;play dead&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="random-remarks">
+<span id="tut-remarks"></span><h2>9.4. Random Remarks<a class="headerlink" href="#random-remarks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Data attributes override method attributes with the same name; to avoid
+accidental name conflicts, which may cause hard-to-find bugs in large programs,
+it is wise to use some kind of convention that minimizes the chance of
+conflicts.  Possible conventions include capitalizing method names, prefixing
+data attribute names with a small unique string (perhaps just an underscore), or
+using verbs for methods and nouns for data attributes.</p>
+<p>Data attributes may be referenced by methods as well as by ordinary users
+(“clients”) of an object.  In other words, classes are not usable to implement
+pure abstract data types.  In fact, nothing in Python makes it possible to
+enforce data hiding — it is all based upon convention.  (On the other hand,
+the Python implementation, written in C, can completely hide implementation
+details and control access to an object if necessary; this can be used by
+extensions to Python written in C.)</p>
+<p>Clients should use data attributes with care — clients may mess up invariants
+maintained by the methods by stamping on their data attributes.  Note that
+clients may add data attributes of their own to an instance object without
+affecting the validity of the methods, as long as name conflicts are avoided —
+again, a naming convention can save a lot of headaches here.</p>
+<p>There is no shorthand for referencing data attributes (or other methods!) from
+within methods.  I find that this actually increases the readability of methods:
+there is no chance of confusing local variables and instance variables when
+glancing through a method.</p>
+<p>Often, the first argument of a method is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>.  This is nothing more
+than a convention: the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> has absolutely no special meaning to
+Python.  Note, however, that by not following the convention your code may be
+less readable to other Python programmers, and it is also conceivable that a
+<em>class browser</em> program might be written that relies upon such a convention.</p>
+<p>Any function object that is a class attribute defines a method for instances of
+that class.  It is not necessary that the function definition is textually
+enclosed in the class definition: assigning a function object to a local
+variable in the class is also ok.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Function defined outside the class</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">min</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f1</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello world&#39;</span>
+
+    <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">g</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code> are all attributes of class <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> that refer to
+function objects, and consequently they are all methods of instances of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> — <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h</span></code> being exactly equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g</span></code>.  Note that this practice
+usually only serves to confuse the reader of a program.</p>
+<p>Methods may call other methods by using method attributes of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>
+argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bag</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">addtwice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Methods may reference global names in the same way as ordinary functions.  The
+global scope associated with a method is the module containing its
+definition.  (A class is never used as a global scope.)  While one
+rarely encounters a good reason for using global data in a method, there are
+many legitimate uses of the global scope: for one thing, functions and modules
+imported into the global scope can be used by methods, as well as functions and
+classes defined in it.  Usually, the class containing the method is itself
+defined in this global scope, and in the next section we’ll find some good
+reasons why a method would want to reference its own class.</p>
+<p>Each value is an object, and therefore has a <em>class</em> (also called its <em>type</em>).
+It is stored as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__class__</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inheritance">
+<span id="tut-inheritance"></span><h2>9.5. Inheritance<a class="headerlink" href="#inheritance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Of course, a language feature would not be worthy of the name “class” without
+supporting inheritance.  The syntax for a derived class definition looks like
+this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DerivedClassName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BaseClassName</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">statement</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">statement</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The name <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseClassName</span></code> must be defined in a scope containing the
+derived class definition.  In place of a base class name, other arbitrary
+expressions are also allowed.  This can be useful, for example, when the base
+class is defined in another module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DerivedClassName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">modname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BaseClassName</span><span class="p">):</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Execution of a derived class definition proceeds the same as for a base class.
+When the class object is constructed, the base class is remembered.  This is
+used for resolving attribute references: if a requested attribute is not found
+in the class, the search proceeds to look in the base class.  This rule is
+applied recursively if the base class itself is derived from some other class.</p>
+<p>There’s nothing special about instantiation of derived classes:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DerivedClassName()</span></code> creates a new instance of the class.  Method references
+are resolved as follows: the corresponding class attribute is searched,
+descending down the chain of base classes if necessary, and the method reference
+is valid if this yields a function object.</p>
+<p>Derived classes may override methods of their base classes.  Because methods
+have no special privileges when calling other methods of the same object, a
+method of a base class that calls another method defined in the same base class
+may end up calling a method of a derived class that overrides it.  (For C++
+programmers: all methods in Python are effectively <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">virtual</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>An overriding method in a derived class may in fact want to extend rather than
+simply replace the base class method of the same name. There is a simple way to
+call the base class method directly: just call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseClassName.methodname(self,</span>
+<span class="pre">arguments)</span></code>.  This is occasionally useful to clients as well.  (Note that this
+only works if the base class is accessible as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseClassName</span></code> in the global
+scope.)</p>
+<p>Python has two built-in functions that work with inheritance:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> to check an instance’s type: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">int)</span></code>
+will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> only if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.__class__</span></code> is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> or some class
+derived from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> to check class inheritance: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass(bool,</span> <span class="pre">int)</span></code>
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> since <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  However,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass(float,</span> <span class="pre">int)</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> since <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> is not a
+subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="multiple-inheritance">
+<span id="tut-multiple"></span><h3>9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance<a class="headerlink" href="#multiple-inheritance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python supports a form of multiple inheritance as well.  A class definition with
+multiple base classes looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DerivedClassName</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Base1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Base2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Base3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">statement</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">statement</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For most purposes, in the simplest cases, you can think of the search for
+attributes inherited from a parent class as depth-first, left-to-right, not
+searching twice in the same class where there is an overlap in the hierarchy.
+Thus, if an attribute is not found in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DerivedClassName</span></code>, it is searched
+for in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base1</span></code>, then (recursively) in the base classes of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base1</span></code>,
+and if it was not found there, it was searched for in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base2</span></code>, and so on.</p>
+<p>In fact, it is slightly more complex than that; the method resolution order
+changes dynamically to support cooperative calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>.  This
+approach is known in some other multiple-inheritance languages as
+call-next-method and is more powerful than the super call found in
+single-inheritance languages.</p>
+<p>Dynamic ordering is necessary because all cases of multiple inheritance exhibit
+one or more diamond relationships (where at least one of the parent classes
+can be accessed through multiple paths from the bottommost class).  For example,
+all classes inherit from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, so any case of multiple inheritance
+provides more than one path to reach <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.  To keep the base classes
+from being accessed more than once, the dynamic algorithm linearizes the search
+order in a way that preserves the left-to-right ordering specified in each
+class, that calls each parent only once, and that is monotonic (meaning that a
+class can be subclassed without affecting the precedence order of its parents).
+Taken together, these properties make it possible to design reliable and
+extensible classes with multiple inheritance.  For more detail, see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/">https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="private-variables">
+<span id="tut-private"></span><h2>9.6. Private Variables<a class="headerlink" href="#private-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>“Private” instance variables that cannot be accessed except from inside an
+object don’t exist in Python.  However, there is a convention that is followed
+by most Python code: a name prefixed with an underscore (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_spam</span></code>) should
+be treated as a non-public part of the API (whether it is a function, a method
+or a data member).  It should be considered an implementation detail and subject
+to change without notice.</p>
+<p id="index-1">Since there is a valid use-case for class-private members (namely to avoid name
+clashes of names with names defined by subclasses), there is limited support for
+such a mechanism, called <em class="dfn">name mangling</em>.  Any identifier of the form
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spam</span></code> (at least two leading underscores, at most one trailing underscore)
+is textually replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_classname__spam</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classname</span></code> is the
+current class name with leading underscore(s) stripped.  This mangling is done
+without regard to the syntactic position of the identifier, as long as it
+occurs within the definition of a class.</p>
+<p>Name mangling is helpful for letting subclasses override methods without
+breaking intraclass method calls.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Mapping</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items_list</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items_list</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">__update</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">update</span>   <span class="c1"># private copy of original update() method</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MappingSubclass</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Mapping</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># provides new signature for update()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># but does not break __init__()</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items_list</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above example would work even if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MappingSubclass</span></code> were to introduce a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__update</span></code> identifier since it is replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Mapping__update</span></code> in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code> class  and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_MappingSubclass__update</span></code> in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MappingSubclass</span></code>
+class respectively.</p>
+<p>Note that the mangling rules are designed mostly to avoid accidents; it still is
+possible to access or modify a variable that is considered private.  This can
+even be useful in special circumstances, such as in the debugger.</p>
+<p>Notice that code passed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code> does not consider the
+classname of the invoking class to be the current class; this is similar to the
+effect of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> statement, the effect of which is likewise restricted
+to code that is byte-compiled together.  The same restriction applies to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setattr()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delattr()</span></code>, as well as when referencing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code> directly.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="odds-and-ends">
+<span id="tut-odds"></span><h2>9.7. Odds and Ends<a class="headerlink" href="#odds-and-ends" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sometimes it is useful to have a data type similar to the Pascal “record” or C
+“struct”, bundling together a few named data items.  An empty class definition
+will do nicely:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Employee</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">john</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Employee</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># Create an empty employee record</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Fill the fields of the record</span>
+<span class="n">john</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;John Doe&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">john</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dept</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;computer lab&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">john</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">salary</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1000</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A piece of Python code that expects a particular abstract data type can often be
+passed a class that emulates the methods of that data type instead.  For
+instance, if you have a function that formats some data from a file object, you
+can define a class with methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code> that get the
+data from a string buffer instead, and pass it as an argument.</p>
+<p>Instance method objects have attributes, too: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__self__</span></code> is the instance
+object with the method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m()</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m.__func__</span></code> is the function object
+corresponding to the method.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="iterators">
+<span id="tut-iterators"></span><h2>9.8. Iterators<a class="headerlink" href="#iterators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>By now you have probably noticed that most container objects can be looped over
+using a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">element</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">element</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">}:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">char</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s2">&quot;123&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">char</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This style of access is clear, concise, and convenient.  The use of iterators
+pervades and unifies Python.  Behind the scenes, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement
+calls <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> on the container object.  The function returns an iterator
+object that defines the method <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> which accesses
+elements in the container one at a time.  When there are no more elements,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception which tells the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> loop to terminate.  You can call the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> built-in function; this example shows how it all works:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;iterator object at 0x00A1DB50&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;a&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;b&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Having seen the mechanics behind the iterator protocol, it is easy to add
+iterator behavior to your classes.  Define an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method which
+returns an object with a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method.  If the class
+defines <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code>, then <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> can just return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Reverse</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__next__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">StopIteration</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">rev</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Reverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rev</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">char</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">rev</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">char</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">m</span>
+<span class="go">a</span>
+<span class="go">p</span>
+<span class="go">s</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generators">
+<span id="tut-generators"></span><h2>9.9. Generators<a class="headerlink" href="#generators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">Generator</span></a>s are a simple and powerful tool for creating iterators.  They
+are written like regular functions but use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement
+whenever they want to return data.  Each time <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> is called on it, the
+generator resumes where it left off (it remembers all the data values and which
+statement was last executed).  An example shows that generators can be trivially
+easy to create:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">index</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">char</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;golf&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">char</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">f</span>
+<span class="go">l</span>
+<span class="go">o</span>
+<span class="go">g</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Anything that can be done with generators can also be done with class-based
+iterators as described in the previous section.  What makes generators so
+compact is that the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> methods
+are created automatically.</p>
+<p>Another key feature is that the local variables and execution state are
+automatically saved between calls.  This made the function easier to write and
+much more clear than an approach using instance variables like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.index</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.data</span></code>.</p>
+<p>In addition to automatic method creation and saving program state, when
+generators terminate, they automatically raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>. In
+combination, these features make it easy to create iterators with no more effort
+than writing a regular function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generator-expressions">
+<span id="tut-genexps"></span><h2>9.10. Generator Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#generator-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some simple generators can be coded succinctly as expressions using a syntax
+similar to list comprehensions but with parentheses instead of square brackets.
+These expressions are designed for situations where the generator is used right
+away by an enclosing function.  Generator expressions are more compact but less
+versatile than full generator definitions and tend to be more memory friendly
+than equivalent list comprehensions.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>                 <span class="c1"># sum of squares</span>
+<span class="go">285</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">xvec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">yvec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xvec</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">yvec</span><span class="p">))</span>         <span class="c1"># dot product</span>
+<span class="go">260</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sin</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sine_table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">sin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">180</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">91</span><span class="p">)}</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unique_words</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">word</span>  <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">page</span>  <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">word</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">valedictorian</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">student</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gpa</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">student</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">student</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">graduates</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;golf&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;f&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;g&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Except for one thing.  Module objects have a secret read-only attribute called
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> which returns the dictionary used to implement the module’s
+namespace; the name <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> is an attribute but not a global name.
+Obviously, using this violates the abstraction of namespace implementation, and
+should be restricted to things like post-mortem debuggers.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">9. Classes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-word-about-names-and-objects">9.1. A Word About Names and Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-scopes-and-namespaces">9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#scopes-and-namespaces-example">9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-first-look-at-classes">9.3. A First Look at Classes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-definition-syntax">9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-objects">9.3.2. Class Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#instance-objects">9.3.3. Instance Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#method-objects">9.3.4. Method Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-and-instance-variables">9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#random-remarks">9.4. Random Remarks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inheritance">9.5. Inheritance</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiple-inheritance">9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#private-variables">9.6. Private Variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#odds-and-ends">9.7. Odds and Ends</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iterators">9.8. Iterators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generators">9.9. Generators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-expressions">9.10. Generator Expressions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="errors.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">8. Errors and Exceptions</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stdlib.html"
+                        title="next chapter">10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/classes.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/controlflow.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/controlflow.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a75c073
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/controlflow.html
@@ -0,0 +1,855 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>4. More Control Flow Tools &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="more-control-flow-tools">
+<span id="tut-morecontrol"></span><h1>4. More Control Flow Tools<a class="headerlink" href="#more-control-flow-tools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Besides the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> statement just introduced, Python knows the usual
+control flow statements known from other languages, with some twists.</p>
+<div class="section" id="if-statements">
+<span id="tut-if"></span><h2>4.1. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> Statements<a class="headerlink" href="#if-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Perhaps the most well-known statement type is the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Please enter an integer: &quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Please enter an integer: 42</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Negative changed to zero&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Zero&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Single&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;More&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">More</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There can be zero or more <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#elif"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elif</span></code></a> parts, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#else"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code></a> part is
+optional.  The keyword ‘<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elif</span></code>’ is short for ‘else if’, and is useful
+to avoid excessive indentation.  An  <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> … <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elif</span></code> …
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elif</span></code> … sequence is a substitute for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">switch</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">case</span></code> statements found in other languages.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="for-statements">
+<span id="tut-for"></span><h2>4.2. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> Statements<a class="headerlink" href="#for-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-0">The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement in Python differs a bit from what you may be used
+to in C or Pascal.  Rather than always iterating over an arithmetic progression
+of numbers (like in Pascal), or giving the user the ability to define both the
+iteration step and halting condition (as C), Python’s <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> statement
+iterates over the items of any sequence (a list or a string), in the order that
+they appear in the sequence.  For example (no pun intended):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Measure some strings:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">words</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;cat&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;window&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;defenestrate&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">words</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">cat 3</span>
+<span class="go">window 6</span>
+<span class="go">defenestrate 12</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you need to modify the sequence you are iterating over while inside the loop
+(for example to duplicate selected items), it is recommended that you first
+make a copy.  Iterating over a sequence does not implicitly make a copy.  The
+slice notation makes this especially convenient:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">words</span><span class="p">[:]:</span>  <span class="c1"># Loop over a slice copy of the entire list.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">words</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">insert</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">words</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;defenestrate&#39;, &#39;cat&#39;, &#39;window&#39;, &#39;defenestrate&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">w</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">words:</span></code>, the example would attempt to create an infinite list,
+inserting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defenestrate</span></code> over and over again.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-range-function">
+<span id="tut-range"></span><h2>4.3. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> Function<a class="headerlink" href="#the-range-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you do need to iterate over a sequence of numbers, the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> comes in handy.  It generates arithmetic progressions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The given end point is never part of the generated sequence; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(10)</span></code> generates
+10 values, the legal indices for items of a sequence of length 10.  It
+is possible to let the range start at another number, or to specify a different
+increment (even negative; sometimes this is called the ‘step’):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+   <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+
+<span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+   <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+
+<span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">70</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To iterate over the indices of a sequence, you can combine <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Mary&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;had&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;little&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lamb&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">0 Mary</span>
+<span class="go">1 had</span>
+<span class="go">2 a</span>
+<span class="go">3 little</span>
+<span class="go">4 lamb</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In most such cases, however, it is convenient to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a>
+function, see <a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#tut-loopidioms"><span class="std std-ref">Looping Techniques</span></a>.</p>
+<p>A strange thing happens if you just print a range:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">range(0, 10)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In many ways the object returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> behaves as if it is a list,
+but in fact it isn’t. It is an object which returns the successive items of
+the desired sequence when you iterate over it, but it doesn’t really make
+the list, thus saving space.</p>
+<p>We say such an object is <em>iterable</em>, that is, suitable as a target for
+functions and constructs that expect something from which they can
+obtain successive items until the supply is exhausted. We have seen that
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement is such an <em>iterator</em>. The function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a>
+is another; it creates lists from iterables:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as argument.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops">
+<span id="tut-break"></span><h2>4.4. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> Statements, and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> Clauses on Loops<a class="headerlink" href="#break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> statement, like in C, breaks out of the innermost enclosing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> loop.</p>
+<p>Loop statements may have an <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause; it is executed when the loop
+terminates through exhaustion of the list (with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a>) or when the
+condition becomes false (with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a>), but not when the loop is
+terminated by a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a> statement.  This is exemplified by the
+following loop, which searches for prime numbers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;equals&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">//</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">break</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="c1"># loop fell through without finding a factor</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;is a prime number&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">2 is a prime number</span>
+<span class="go">3 is a prime number</span>
+<span class="go">4 equals 2 * 2</span>
+<span class="go">5 is a prime number</span>
+<span class="go">6 equals 2 * 3</span>
+<span class="go">7 is a prime number</span>
+<span class="go">8 equals 2 * 4</span>
+<span class="go">9 equals 3 * 3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Yes, this is the correct code.  Look closely: the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause belongs to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop, <strong>not</strong> the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement.)</p>
+<p>When used with a loop, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause has more in common with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause of a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement than it does that of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statements: a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause runs
+when no exception occurs, and a loop’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause runs when no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code>
+occurs. For more on the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement and exceptions, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#tut-handling"><span class="std std-ref">Handling Exceptions</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> statement, also borrowed from C, continues with the next
+iteration of the loop:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Found an even number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">continue</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Found a number&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">num</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Found an even number 2</span>
+<span class="go">Found a number 3</span>
+<span class="go">Found an even number 4</span>
+<span class="go">Found a number 5</span>
+<span class="go">Found an even number 6</span>
+<span class="go">Found a number 7</span>
+<span class="go">Found an even number 8</span>
+<span class="go">Found a number 9</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pass-statements">
+<span id="tut-pass"></span><h2>4.5. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> Statements<a class="headerlink" href="#pass-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#pass"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code></a> statement does nothing. It can be used when a statement is
+required syntactically but the program requires no action. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>  <span class="c1"># Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is commonly used for creating minimal classes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyEmptyClass</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another place <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#pass"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code></a> can be used is as a place-holder for a function or
+conditional body when you are working on new code, allowing you to keep thinking
+at a more abstract level.  The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> is silently ignored:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">initlog</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>   <span class="c1"># Remember to implement this!</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="defining-functions">
+<span id="tut-functions"></span><h2>4.6. Defining Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>We can create a function that writes the Fibonacci series to an arbitrary
+boundary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>    <span class="c1"># write Fibonacci series up to n</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Print a Fibonacci series up to n.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Now call the function we just defined:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-1">The keyword <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a> introduces a function <em>definition</em>.  It must be
+followed by the function name and the parenthesized list of formal parameters.
+The statements that form the body of the function start at the next line, and
+must be indented.</p>
+<p>The first statement of the function body can optionally be a string literal;
+this string literal is the function’s documentation string, or <em class="dfn">docstring</em>.
+(More about docstrings can be found in the section <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-docstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Documentation Strings</span></a>.)
+There are tools which use docstrings to automatically produce online or printed
+documentation, or to let the user interactively browse through code; it’s good
+practice to include docstrings in code that you write, so make a habit of it.</p>
+<p>The <em>execution</em> of a function introduces a new symbol table used for the local
+variables of the function.  More precisely, all variable assignments in a
+function store the value in the local symbol table; whereas variable references
+first look in the local symbol table, then in the local symbol tables of
+enclosing functions, then in the global symbol table, and finally in the table
+of built-in names. Thus, global variables and variables of enclosing functions
+cannot be directly assigned a value within a function (unless, for global
+variables, named in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement, or, for variables of enclosing
+functions, named in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement), although they may be
+referenced.</p>
+<p>The actual parameters (arguments) to a function call are introduced in the local
+symbol table of the called function when it is called; thus, arguments are
+passed using <em>call by value</em> (where the <em>value</em> is always an object <em>reference</em>,
+not the value of the object). <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a> When a function calls another function, a new
+local symbol table is created for that call.</p>
+<p>A function definition introduces the function name in the current symbol table.
+The value of the function name has a type that is recognized by the interpreter
+as a user-defined function.  This value can be assigned to another name which
+can then also be used as a function.  This serves as a general renaming
+mechanism:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function fib at 10042ed0&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Coming from other languages, you might object that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fib</span></code> is not a function but
+a procedure since it doesn’t return a value.  In fact, even functions without a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement do return a value, albeit a rather boring one.  This
+value is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (it’s a built-in name).  Writing the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is
+normally suppressed by the interpreter if it would be the only value written.
+You can see it if you really want to using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is simple to write a function that returns a list of the numbers of the
+Fibonacci series, instead of printing it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>  <span class="c1"># return Fibonacci series up to n</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># see below</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f100</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># call it</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f100</span>                <span class="c1"># write the result</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example, as usual, demonstrates some new Python features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement returns with a value from a function.
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> without an expression argument returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. Falling off
+the end of a function also returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">result.append(a)</span></code> calls a <em>method</em> of the list object
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">result</span></code>.  A method is a function that ‘belongs’ to an object and is named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.methodname</span></code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code> is some object (this may be an expression),
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methodname</span></code> is the name of a method that is defined by the object’s type.
+Different types define different methods.  Methods of different types may have
+the same name without causing ambiguity.  (It is possible to define your own
+object types and methods, using <em>classes</em>, see <a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#tut-classes"><span class="std std-ref">Classes</span></a>)
+The method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> shown in the example is defined for list objects; it
+adds a new element at the end of the list.  In this example it is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">result</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">result</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">[a]</span></code>, but more efficient.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="more-on-defining-functions">
+<span id="tut-defining"></span><h2>4.7. More on Defining Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#more-on-defining-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is also possible to define functions with a variable number of arguments.
+There are three forms, which can be combined.</p>
+<div class="section" id="default-argument-values">
+<span id="tut-defaultargs"></span><h3>4.7.1. Default Argument Values<a class="headerlink" href="#default-argument-values" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The most useful form is to specify a default value for one or more arguments.
+This creates a function that can be called with fewer arguments than it is
+defined to allow.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">ask_ok</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">retries</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reminder</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Please try again!&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">ok</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prompt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">ok</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ye&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;yes&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">ok</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;n&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;no&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nop&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nope&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+        <span class="n">retries</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">retries</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">retries</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;invalid user response&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">reminder</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This function can be called in several ways:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>giving only the mandatory argument:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ask_ok('Do</span> <span class="pre">you</span> <span class="pre">really</span> <span class="pre">want</span> <span class="pre">to</span> <span class="pre">quit?')</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>giving one of the optional arguments:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ask_ok('OK</span> <span class="pre">to</span> <span class="pre">overwrite</span> <span class="pre">the</span> <span class="pre">file?',</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>or even giving all arguments:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ask_ok('OK</span> <span class="pre">to</span> <span class="pre">overwrite</span> <span class="pre">the</span> <span class="pre">file?',</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">'Come</span> <span class="pre">on,</span> <span class="pre">only</span> <span class="pre">yes</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">no!')</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This example also introduces the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> keyword. This tests whether or
+not a sequence contains a certain value.</p>
+<p>The default values are evaluated at the point of function definition in the
+<em>defining</em> scope, so that</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will print <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>.</p>
+<p><strong>Important warning:</strong>  The default value is evaluated only once. This makes a
+difference when the default is a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or
+instances of most classes.  For example, the following function accumulates the
+arguments passed to it on subsequent calls:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[]):</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">L</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will print</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you don’t want the default to be shared between subsequent calls, you can
+write the function like this instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">L</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">L</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="keyword-arguments">
+<span id="tut-keywordargs"></span><h3>4.7.2. Keyword Arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#keyword-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Functions can also be called using <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-keyword-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">keyword arguments</span></a>
+of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwarg=value</span></code>.  For instance, the following function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">voltage</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;a stiff&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;voom&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Norwegian Blue&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-- This parrot wouldn&#39;t&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;if you put&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">voltage</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;volts through it.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-- Lovely plumage, the&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-- It&#39;s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>accepts one required argument (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">voltage</span></code>) and three optional arguments
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">state</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">action</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code>).  This function can be called in any
+of the following ways:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>                                          <span class="c1"># 1 positional argument</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">voltage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>                                  <span class="c1"># 1 keyword argument</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">voltage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1000000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;VOOOOOM&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>             <span class="c1"># 2 keyword arguments</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;VOOOOOM&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">voltage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1000000</span><span class="p">)</span>             <span class="c1"># 2 keyword arguments</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a million&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bereft of life&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;jump&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>         <span class="c1"># 3 positional arguments</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a thousand&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;pushing up the daisies&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># 1 positional, 1 keyword</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>but all the following calls would be invalid:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">()</span>                     <span class="c1"># required argument missing</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">voltage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">5.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dead&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># non-keyword argument after a keyword argument</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">110</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">voltage</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">220</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># duplicate value for the same argument</span>
+<span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">actor</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;John Cleese&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># unknown keyword argument</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In a function call, keyword arguments must follow positional arguments.
+All the keyword arguments passed must match one of the arguments
+accepted by the function (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">actor</span></code> is not a valid argument for the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parrot</span></code> function), and their order is not important.  This also includes
+non-optional arguments (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parrot(voltage=1000)</span></code> is valid too).
+No argument may receive a value more than once.
+Here’s an example that fails due to this restriction:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">function() got multiple values for keyword argument &#39;a&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When a final formal parameter of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**name</span></code> is present, it receives a
+dictionary (see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesmapping"><span class="std std-ref">Mapping Types — dict</span></a>) containing all keyword arguments except for
+those corresponding to a formal parameter.  This may be combined with a formal
+parameter of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*name</span></code> (described in the next subsection) which
+receives a <a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#tut-tuples"><span class="std std-ref">tuple</span></a> containing the positional
+arguments beyond the formal parameter list.  (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*name</span></code> must occur
+before <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**name</span></code>.) For example, if we define a function like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cheeseshop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kind</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arguments</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">keywords</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-- Do you have any&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kind</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;?&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-- I&#39;m sorry, we&#39;re all out of&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kind</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">arguments</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-&quot;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">kw</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It could be called like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">cheeseshop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Limburger&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;It&#39;s very runny, sir.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="s2">&quot;It&#39;s really very, VERY runny, sir.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="n">shopkeeper</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Michael Palin&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="n">client</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;John Cleese&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+           <span class="n">sketch</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;Cheese Shop Sketch&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and of course it would print:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>-- Do you have any Limburger ?
+-- I&#39;m sorry, we&#39;re all out of Limburger
+It&#39;s very runny, sir.
+It&#39;s really very, VERY runny, sir.
+----------------------------------------
+shopkeeper : Michael Palin
+client : John Cleese
+sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that the order in which the keyword arguments are printed is guaranteed
+to match the order in which they were provided in the function call.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="arbitrary-argument-lists">
+<span id="tut-arbitraryargs"></span><h3>4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#arbitrary-argument-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-2">Finally, the least frequently used option is to specify that a function can be
+called with an arbitrary number of arguments.  These arguments will be wrapped
+up in a tuple (see <a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#tut-tuples"><span class="std std-ref">Tuples and Sequences</span></a>).  Before the variable number of arguments,
+zero or more normal arguments may occur.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">write_multiple_items</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">separator</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">separator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Normally, these <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">variadic</span></code> arguments will be last in the list of formal
+parameters, because they scoop up all remaining input arguments that are
+passed to the function. Any formal parameters which occur after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code>
+parameter are ‘keyword-only’ arguments, meaning that they can only be used as
+keywords rather than positional arguments.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">concat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;/&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">sep</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">concat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;earth&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;mars&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;venus&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;earth/mars/venus&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">concat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;earth&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;mars&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;venus&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;earth.mars.venus&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unpacking-argument-lists">
+<span id="tut-unpacking-arguments"></span><h3>4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#unpacking-argument-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The reverse situation occurs when the arguments are already in a list or tuple
+but need to be unpacked for a function call requiring separate positional
+arguments.  For instance, the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> function expects separate
+<em>start</em> and <em>stop</em> arguments.  If they are not available separately, write the
+function call with the  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> operator to unpack the arguments out of a list
+or tuple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">))</span>            <span class="c1"># normal call with separate arguments</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 4, 5]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">))</span>            <span class="c1"># call with arguments unpacked from a list</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 4, 5]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p id="index-3">In the same fashion, dictionaries can deliver keyword arguments with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> operator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">voltage</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;a stiff&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;voom&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;-- This parrot wouldn&#39;t&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;if you put&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">voltage</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;volts through it.&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;E&#39;s&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;voltage&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;four million&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;state&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bleedin&#39; demised&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;action&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;VOOM&quot;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parrot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-- This parrot wouldn&#39;t VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E&#39;s bleedin&#39; demised !</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lambda-expressions">
+<span id="tut-lambda"></span><h3>4.7.5. Lambda Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#lambda-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Small anonymous functions can be created with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> keyword.
+This function returns the sum of its two arguments: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span> <span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b:</span> <span class="pre">a+b</span></code>.
+Lambda functions can be used wherever function objects are required.  They are
+syntactically restricted to a single expression.  Semantically, they are just
+syntactic sugar for a normal function definition.  Like nested function
+definitions, lambda functions can reference variables from the containing
+scope:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">make_incrementor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">n</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">make_incrementor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">42</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">43</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function.  Another use
+is to pass a small function as an argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pairs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;one&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;three&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;four&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pairs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">pair</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">pair</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pairs</span>
+<span class="go">[(4, &#39;four&#39;), (1, &#39;one&#39;), (3, &#39;three&#39;), (2, &#39;two&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="documentation-strings">
+<span id="tut-docstrings"></span><h3>4.7.6. Documentation Strings<a class="headerlink" href="#documentation-strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-4">Here are some conventions about the content and formatting of documentation
+strings.</p>
+<p>The first line should always be a short, concise summary of the object’s
+purpose.  For brevity, it should not explicitly state the object’s name or type,
+since these are available by other means (except if the name happens to be a
+verb describing a function’s operation).  This line should begin with a capital
+letter and end with a period.</p>
+<p>If there are more lines in the documentation string, the second line should be
+blank, visually separating the summary from the rest of the description.  The
+following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing the object’s calling
+conventions, its side effects, etc.</p>
+<p>The Python parser does not strip indentation from multi-line string literals in
+Python, so tools that process documentation have to strip indentation if
+desired.  This is done using the following convention. The first non-blank line
+<em>after</em> the first line of the string determines the amount of indentation for
+the entire documentation string.  (We can’t use the first line since it is
+generally adjacent to the string’s opening quotes so its indentation is not
+apparent in the string literal.)  Whitespace “equivalent” to this indentation is
+then stripped from the start of all lines of the string.  Lines that are
+indented less should not occur, but if they occur all their leading whitespace
+should be stripped.  Equivalence of whitespace should be tested after expansion
+of tabs (to 8 spaces, normally).</p>
+<p>Here is an example of a multi-line docstring:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_function</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Do nothing, but document it.</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="sd"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="sd">    No, really, it doesn&#39;t do anything.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">my_function</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Do nothing, but document it.</span>
+
+<span class="go">    No, really, it doesn&#39;t do anything.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="function-annotations">
+<span id="tut-annotations"></span><h3>4.7.7. Function Annotations<a class="headerlink" href="#function-annotations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-5"><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><span class="std std-ref">Function annotations</span></a> are completely optional metadata
+information about the types used by user-defined functions (see <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107"><strong>PEP 3107</strong></a> and
+<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> for more information).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-function-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">Annotations</span></a> are stored in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code>
+attribute of the function as a dictionary and have no effect on any other part of the
+function.  Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the parameter name, followed
+by an expression evaluating to the value of the annotation.  Return annotations are
+defined by a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-&gt;</span></code>, followed by an expression, between the parameter
+list and the colon denoting the end of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a> statement.  The
+following example has a positional argument, a keyword argument, and the return
+value annotated:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ham</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">eggs</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Annotations:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__annotations__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Arguments:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ham</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">eggs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">ham</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39; and &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">eggs</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Annotations: {&#39;ham&#39;: &lt;class &#39;str&#39;&gt;, &#39;return&#39;: &lt;class &#39;str&#39;&gt;, &#39;eggs&#39;: &lt;class &#39;str&#39;&gt;}</span>
+<span class="go">Arguments: spam eggs</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;spam and eggs&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="intermezzo-coding-style">
+<span id="tut-codingstyle"></span><h2>4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style<a class="headerlink" href="#intermezzo-coding-style" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-8">Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a
+good time to talk about <em>coding style</em>.  Most languages can be written (or more
+concise, <em>formatted</em>) in different styles; some are more readable than others.
+Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting
+a nice coding style helps tremendously for that.</p>
+<p>For Python, <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008"><strong>PEP 8</strong></a> has emerged as the style guide that most projects adhere to;
+it promotes a very readable and eye-pleasing coding style.  Every Python
+developer should read it at some point; here are the most important points
+extracted for you:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Use 4-space indentation, and no tabs.</p>
+<p>4 spaces are a good compromise between small indentation (allows greater
+nesting depth) and large indentation (easier to read).  Tabs introduce
+confusion, and are best left out.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Wrap lines so that they don’t exceed 79 characters.</p>
+<p>This helps users with small displays and makes it possible to have several
+code files side-by-side on larger displays.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Use blank lines to separate functions and classes, and larger blocks of
+code inside functions.</p></li>
+<li><p>When possible, put comments on a line of their own.</p></li>
+<li><p>Use docstrings.</p></li>
+<li><p>Use spaces around operators and after commas, but not directly inside
+bracketing constructs: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">f(1,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">g(3,</span> <span class="pre">4)</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Name your classes and functions consistently; the convention is to use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UpperCamelCase</span></code> for classes and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lowercase_with_underscores</span></code> for functions
+and methods.  Always use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> as the name for the first method argument
+(see <a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#tut-firstclasses"><span class="std std-ref">A First Look at Classes</span></a> for more on classes and methods).</p></li>
+<li><p>Don’t use fancy encodings if your code is meant to be used in international
+environments.  Python’s default, UTF-8, or even plain ASCII work best in any
+case.</p></li>
+<li><p>Likewise, don’t use non-ASCII characters in identifiers if there is only the
+slightest chance people speaking a different language will read or maintain
+the code.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Actually, <em>call by object reference</em> would be a better description,
+since if a mutable object is passed, the caller will see any changes the
+callee makes to it (items inserted into a list).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">4. More Control Flow Tools</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#if-statements">4.1. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#for-statements">4.2. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-range-function">4.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code> Function</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops">4.4. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> Statements, and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> Clauses on Loops</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pass-statements">4.5. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defining-functions">4.6. Defining Functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-on-defining-functions">4.7. More on Defining Functions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default-argument-values">4.7.1. Default Argument Values</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#keyword-arguments">4.7.2. Keyword Arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#arbitrary-argument-lists">4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unpacking-argument-lists">4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lambda-expressions">4.7.5. Lambda Expressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documentation-strings">4.7.6. Documentation Strings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#function-annotations">4.7.7. Function Annotations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#intermezzo-coding-style">4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="introduction.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">3. An Informal Introduction to Python</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="datastructures.html"
+                        title="next chapter">5. Data Structures</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/datastructures.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/datastructures.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,844 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="data-structures">
+<span id="tut-structures"></span><h1>5. Data Structures<a class="headerlink" href="#data-structures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This chapter describes some things you’ve learned about already in more detail,
+and adds some new things as well.</p>
+<div class="section" id="more-on-lists">
+<span id="tut-morelists"></span><h2>5.1. More on Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#more-on-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The list data type has some more methods.  Here are all of the methods of list
+objects:</p>
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Add an item to the end of the list.  Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[len(a):]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">[x]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">extend</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>iterable</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable.  Equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[len(a):]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iterable</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">insert</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>i</em>, <em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Insert an item at a given position.  The first argument is the index of the
+element before which to insert, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.insert(0,</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> inserts at the front of
+the list, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.insert(len(a),</span> <span class="pre">x)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.append(x)</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">remove</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the first item from the list whose value is equal to <em>x</em>.  It raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if there is no such item.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">pop</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>i</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove the item at the given position in the list, and return it.  If no index
+is specified, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.pop()</span></code> removes and returns the last item in the list.  (The
+square brackets around the <em>i</em> in the method signature denote that the parameter
+is optional, not that you should type square brackets at that position.  You
+will see this notation frequently in the Python Library Reference.)</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">clear</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove all items from the list.  Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">a[:]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">index</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>start</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>end</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return zero-based index in the list of the first item whose value is equal to <em>x</em>.
+Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if there is no such item.</p>
+<p>The optional arguments <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> are interpreted as in the slice
+notation and are used to limit the search to a particular subsequence of
+the list.  The returned index is computed relative to the beginning of the full
+sequence rather than the <em>start</em> argument.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">count</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>x</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return the number of times <em>x</em> appears in the list.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">sort</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>key=None</em>, <em>reverse=False</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Sort the items of the list in place (the arguments can be used for sort
+customization, see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> for their explanation).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">reverse</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Reverse the elements of the list in place.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="method">
+<dt>
+<code class="descclassname">list.</code><code class="descname">copy</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span></dt>
+<dd><p>Return a shallow copy of the list.  Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[:]</span></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>An example that uses most of the list methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pear&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;kiwi&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tangerine&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Find next banana starting a position 4</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;banana&#39;, &#39;apple&#39;, &#39;kiwi&#39;, &#39;banana&#39;, &#39;pear&#39;, &#39;apple&#39;, &#39;orange&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;grape&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;banana&#39;, &#39;apple&#39;, &#39;kiwi&#39;, &#39;banana&#39;, &#39;pear&#39;, &#39;apple&#39;, &#39;orange&#39;, &#39;grape&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;apple&#39;, &#39;apple&#39;, &#39;banana&#39;, &#39;banana&#39;, &#39;grape&#39;, &#39;kiwi&#39;, &#39;orange&#39;, &#39;pear&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fruits</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;pear&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You might have noticed that methods like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insert</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort</span></code> that
+only modify the list have no return value printed – they return the default
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>  This is a design principle for all mutable data structures in
+Python.</p>
+<div class="section" id="using-lists-as-stacks">
+<span id="tut-lists-as-stacks"></span><h3>5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks<a class="headerlink" href="#using-lists-as-stacks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The list methods make it very easy to use a list as a stack, where the last
+element added is the first element retrieved (“last-in, first-out”).  To add an
+item to the top of the stack, use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code>.  To retrieve an item from the
+top of the stack, use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop()</span></code> without an explicit index.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 4, 5, 6, 7]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">7</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 4, 5, 6]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">stack</span>
+<span class="go">[3, 4]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-lists-as-queues">
+<span id="tut-lists-as-queues"></span><h3>5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues<a class="headerlink" href="#using-lists-as-queues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is also possible to use a list as a queue, where the first element added is
+the first element retrieved (“first-in, first-out”); however, lists are not
+efficient for this purpose.  While appends and pops from the end of list are
+fast, doing inserts or pops from the beginning of a list is slow (because all
+of the other elements have to be shifted by one).</p>
+<p>To implement a queue, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a> which was designed to
+have fast appends and pops from both ends.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deque</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;Eric&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;John&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Michael&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Terry&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>           <span class="c1"># Terry arrives</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Graham&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>          <span class="c1"># Graham arrives</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>                 <span class="c1"># The first to arrive now leaves</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Eric&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>                 <span class="c1"># The second to arrive now leaves</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;John&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">queue</span>                           <span class="c1"># Remaining queue in order of arrival</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;Michael&#39;, &#39;Terry&#39;, &#39;Graham&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="list-comprehensions">
+<span id="tut-listcomps"></span><h3>5.1.3. List Comprehensions<a class="headerlink" href="#list-comprehensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>List comprehensions provide a concise way to create lists.
+Common applications are to make new lists where each element is the result of
+some operations applied to each member of another sequence or iterable, or to
+create a subsequence of those elements that satisfy a certain condition.</p>
+<p>For example, assume we want to create a list of squares, like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">squares</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that this creates (or overwrites) a variable named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> that still exists
+after the loop completes.  We can calculate the list of squares without any
+side effects using:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">squares</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or, equivalently:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">squares</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which is more concise and readable.</p>
+<p>A list comprehension consists of brackets containing an expression followed
+by a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause, then zero or more <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> or <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code>
+clauses.  The result will be a new list resulting from evaluating the expression
+in the context of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> clauses which follow it.
+For example, this listcomp combines the elements of two lists if they are not
+equal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and it’s equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">combs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">combs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">combs</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note how the order of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statements is the
+same in both these snippets.</p>
+<p>If the expression is a tuple (e.g. the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> in the previous example),
+it must be parenthesized.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">vec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create a new list with the values doubled</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">vec</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># filter the list to exclude negative numbers</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">vec</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2, 4]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># apply a function to all the elements</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">abs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">vec</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[4, 2, 0, 2, 4]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># call a method on each element</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">freshfruit</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;  banana&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;  loganberry &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;passion fruit  &#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">weapon</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">weapon</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">freshfruit</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;banana&#39;, &#39;loganberry&#39;, &#39;passion fruit&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">    [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]</span>
+<span class="go">               ^</span>
+<span class="go">SyntaxError: invalid syntax</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># flatten a list using a listcomp with two &#39;for&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">vec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">num</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">elem</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">vec</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">num</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">elem</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>List comprehensions can contain complex expressions and nested functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">pi</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;3.1&#39;, &#39;3.14&#39;, &#39;3.142&#39;, &#39;3.1416&#39;, &#39;3.14159&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nested-list-comprehensions">
+<h3>5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions<a class="headerlink" href="#nested-list-comprehensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The initial expression in a list comprehension can be any arbitrary expression,
+including another list comprehension.</p>
+<p>Consider the following example of a 3x4 matrix implemented as a list of
+3 lists of length 4:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">matrix</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">],</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">],</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following list comprehension will transpose rows and columns:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[[</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As we saw in the previous section, the nested listcomp is evaluated in
+the context of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> that follows it, so this example is
+equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">transposed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">transposed</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">transposed</span>
+<span class="go">[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which, in turn, is the same as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">transposed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="c1"># the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">transposed_row</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">transposed_row</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">transposed</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">transposed_row</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">transposed</span>
+<span class="go">[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the real world, you should prefer built-in functions to complex flow statements.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> function would do a great job for this use case:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#tut-unpacking-arguments"><span class="std std-ref">Unpacking Argument Lists</span></a> for details on the asterisk in this line.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-del-statement">
+<span id="tut-del"></span><h2>5.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement<a class="headerlink" href="#the-del-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There is a way to remove an item from a list given its index instead of its
+value: the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statement.  This differs from the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop()</span></code> method
+which returns a value.  The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement can also be used to remove
+slices from a list or clear the entire list (which we did earlier by assignment
+of an empty list to the slice).  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">66.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">333</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">333</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1234.5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 66.25, 1234.5]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[:]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> can also be used to delete entire variables:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">a</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Referencing the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> hereafter is an error (at least until another value
+is assigned to it).  We’ll find other uses for <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> later.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tuples-and-sequences">
+<span id="tut-tuples"></span><h2>5.3. Tuples and Sequences<a class="headerlink" href="#tuples-and-sequences" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>We saw that lists and strings have many common properties, such as indexing and
+slicing operations.  They are two examples of <em>sequence</em> data types (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesseq"><span class="std std-ref">Sequence Types — list, tuple, range</span></a>).  Since Python is an evolving language, other sequence data
+types may be added.  There is also another standard sequence data type: the
+<em>tuple</em>.</p>
+<p>A tuple consists of a number of values separated by commas, for instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">12345</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">54321</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello!&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">12345</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span>
+<span class="go">(12345, 54321, &#39;hello!&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Tuples may be nested:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span>
+<span class="go">((12345, 54321, &#39;hello!&#39;), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Tuples are immutable:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">88888</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;tuple&#39; object does not support item assignment</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># but they can contain mutable objects:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v</span>
+<span class="go">([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you see, on output tuples are always enclosed in parentheses, so that nested
+tuples are interpreted correctly; they may be input with or without surrounding
+parentheses, although often parentheses are necessary anyway (if the tuple is
+part of a larger expression).  It is not possible to assign to the individual
+items of a tuple, however it is possible to create tuples which contain mutable
+objects, such as lists.</p>
+<p>Though tuples may seem similar to lists, they are often used in different
+situations and for different purposes.
+Tuples are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-immutable"><span class="xref std std-term">immutable</span></a>, and usually contain a heterogeneous sequence of
+elements that are accessed via unpacking (see later in this section) or indexing
+(or even by attribute in the case of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuples</span></code></a>).
+Lists are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mutable"><span class="xref std std-term">mutable</span></a>, and their elements are usually homogeneous and are
+accessed by iterating over the list.</p>
+<p>A special problem is the construction of tuples containing 0 or 1 items: the
+syntax has some extra quirks to accommodate these.  Empty tuples are constructed
+by an empty pair of parentheses; a tuple with one item is constructed by
+following a value with a comma (it is not sufficient to enclose a single value
+in parentheses). Ugly, but effective.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">empty</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">singleton</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>    <span class="c1"># &lt;-- note trailing comma</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">singleton</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">singleton</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;hello&#39;,)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">12345,</span> <span class="pre">54321,</span> <span class="pre">'hello!'</span></code> is an example of <em>tuple packing</em>:
+the values <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">12345</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">54321</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'hello!'</span></code> are packed together in a tuple.
+The reverse operation is also possible:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">t</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is called, appropriately enough, <em>sequence unpacking</em> and works for any
+sequence on the right-hand side.  Sequence unpacking requires that there are as
+many variables on the left side of the equals sign as there are elements in the
+sequence.  Note that multiple assignment is really just a combination of tuple
+packing and sequence unpacking.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sets">
+<span id="tut-sets"></span><h2>5.4. Sets<a class="headerlink" href="#sets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python also includes a data type for <em>sets</em>.  A set is an unordered collection
+with no duplicate elements.  Basic uses include membership testing and
+eliminating duplicate entries.  Set objects also support mathematical operations
+like union, intersection, difference, and symmetric difference.</p>
+<p>Curly braces or the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> function can be used to create sets.  Note: to
+create an empty set you have to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code>, not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>; the latter creates an
+empty dictionary, a data structure that we discuss in the next section.</p>
+<p>Here is a brief demonstration:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pear&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">basket</span><span class="p">)</span>                      <span class="c1"># show that duplicates have been removed</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;orange&#39;, &#39;banana&#39;, &#39;pear&#39;, &#39;apple&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">basket</span>                 <span class="c1"># fast membership testing</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;crabgrass&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">basket</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;alacazam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>                                  <span class="c1"># unique letters in a</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">b</span>                              <span class="c1"># letters in a but not in b</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;b&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">b</span>                              <span class="c1"># letters in a or b or both</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;m&#39;, &#39;z&#39;, &#39;l&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">b</span>                              <span class="c1"># letters in both a and b</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;, &#39;c&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">^</span> <span class="n">b</span>                              <span class="c1"># letters in a or b but not both</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;m&#39;, &#39;z&#39;, &#39;l&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Similarly to <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-listcomps"><span class="std std-ref">list comprehensions</span></a>, set comprehensions
+are also supported:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dictionaries">
+<span id="tut-dictionaries"></span><h2>5.5. Dictionaries<a class="headerlink" href="#dictionaries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Another useful data type built into Python is the <em>dictionary</em> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesmapping"><span class="std std-ref">Mapping Types — dict</span></a>). Dictionaries are sometimes found in other languages as
+“associative memories” or “associative arrays”.  Unlike sequences, which are
+indexed by a range of numbers, dictionaries are indexed by <em>keys</em>, which can be
+any immutable type; strings and numbers can always be keys.  Tuples can be used
+as keys if they contain only strings, numbers, or tuples; if a tuple contains
+any mutable object either directly or indirectly, it cannot be used as a key.
+You can’t use lists as keys, since lists can be modified in place using index
+assignments, slice assignments, or methods like <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>It is best to think of a dictionary as a set of <em>key: value</em> pairs,
+with the requirement that the keys are unique (within one dictionary). A pair of
+braces creates an empty dictionary: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code>. Placing a comma-separated list of
+key:value pairs within the braces adds initial key:value pairs to the
+dictionary; this is also the way dictionaries are written on output.</p>
+<p>The main operations on a dictionary are storing a value with some key and
+extracting the value given the key.  It is also possible to delete a key:value
+pair with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code>. If you store using a key that is already in use, the old
+value associated with that key is forgotten.  It is an error to extract a value
+using a non-existent key.</p>
+<p>Performing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(d)</span></code> on a dictionary returns a list of all the keys
+used in the dictionary, in insertion order (if you want it sorted, just use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(d)</span></code> instead). To check whether a single key is in the
+dictionary, use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> keyword.</p>
+<p>Here is a small example using a dictionary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tel</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;jack&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4098</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;sape&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4139</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tel</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;guido&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4127</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tel</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;jack&#39;: 4098, &#39;sape&#39;: 4139, &#39;guido&#39;: 4127}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tel</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;jack&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">4098</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">tel</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;sape&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tel</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;irv&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4127</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tel</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;jack&#39;: 4098, &#39;guido&#39;: 4127, &#39;irv&#39;: 4127}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tel</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;jack&#39;, &#39;guido&#39;, &#39;irv&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tel</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;guido&#39;, &#39;irv&#39;, &#39;jack&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;guido&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tel</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;jack&#39;</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tel</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict()</span></code></a> constructor builds dictionaries directly from sequences of
+key-value pairs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sape&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4139</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;guido&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4127</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;jack&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4098</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;sape&#39;: 4139, &#39;guido&#39;: 4127, &#39;jack&#39;: 4098}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition, dict comprehensions can be used to create dictionaries from
+arbitrary key and value expressions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)}</span>
+<span class="go">{2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When the keys are simple strings, it is sometimes easier to specify pairs using
+keyword arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sape</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4139</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">guido</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4127</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">jack</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4098</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;sape&#39;: 4139, &#39;guido&#39;: 4127, &#39;jack&#39;: 4098}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="looping-techniques">
+<span id="tut-loopidioms"></span><h2>5.6. Looping Techniques<a class="headerlink" href="#looping-techniques" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can be
+retrieved at the same time using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">knights</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;gallahad&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;the pure&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;robin&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;the brave&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">knights</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">gallahad the pure</span>
+<span class="go">robin the brave</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When looping through a sequence, the position index and corresponding value can
+be retrieved at the same time using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;tic&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;tac&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;toe&#39;</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">0 tic</span>
+<span class="go">1 tac</span>
+<span class="go">2 toe</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To loop over two or more sequences at the same time, the entries can be paired
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">questions</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;quest&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;favorite color&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">answers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;lancelot&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;the holy grail&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">questions</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">answers</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;What is your </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1">?  It is </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">What is your name?  It is lancelot.</span>
+<span class="go">What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.</span>
+<span class="go">What is your favorite color?  It is blue.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To loop over a sequence in reverse, first specify the sequence in a forward
+direction and then call the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">9</span>
+<span class="go">7</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To loop over a sequence in sorted order, use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> function which
+returns a new sorted list while leaving the source unaltered.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pear&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;orange&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">basket</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">apple</span>
+<span class="go">banana</span>
+<span class="go">orange</span>
+<span class="go">pear</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is sometimes tempting to change a list while you are looping over it;
+however, it is often simpler and safer to create a new list instead.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">raw_data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">56.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NaN&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mf">51.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">55.3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">52.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;NaN&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mf">47.8</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">filtered_data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">raw_data</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isnan</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">filtered_data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">filtered_data</span>
+<span class="go">[56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="more-on-conditions">
+<span id="tut-conditions"></span><h2>5.7. More on Conditions<a class="headerlink" href="#more-on-conditions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The conditions used in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statements can contain any
+operators, not just comparisons.</p>
+<p>The comparison operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">in</span></code> check whether a value occurs
+(does not occur) in a sequence.  The operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span></code> compare
+whether two objects are really the same object; this only matters for mutable
+objects like lists.  All comparison operators have the same priority, which is
+lower than that of all numerical operators.</p>
+<p>Comparisons can be chained.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">c</span></code> tests whether <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> is
+less than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> and moreover <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> equals <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Comparisons may be combined using the Boolean operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code>, and
+the outcome of a comparison (or of any other Boolean expression) may be negated
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code>.  These have lower priorities than comparison operators; between
+them, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">not</span></code> has the highest priority and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code> the lowest, so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">and</span>
+<span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">C</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(A</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">(not</span> <span class="pre">B))</span> <span class="pre">or</span> <span class="pre">C</span></code>. As always, parentheses
+can be used to express the desired composition.</p>
+<p>The Boolean operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">and</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">or</span></code> are so-called <em>short-circuit</em>
+operators: their arguments are evaluated from left to right, and evaluation
+stops as soon as the outcome is determined.  For example, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> are
+true but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> is false, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">B</span> <span class="pre">and</span> <span class="pre">C</span></code> does not evaluate the expression
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>.  When used as a general value and not as a Boolean, the return value of a
+short-circuit operator is the last evaluated argument.</p>
+<p>It is possible to assign the result of a comparison or other Boolean expression
+to a variable.  For example,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">string3</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Trondheim&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Hammer Dance&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">non_null</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string1</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">string2</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">string3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">non_null</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Trondheim&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that in Python, unlike C, assignment cannot occur inside expressions. C
+programmers may grumble about this, but it avoids a common class of problems
+encountered in C programs: typing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code> in an expression when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> was
+intended.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="comparing-sequences-and-other-types">
+<span id="tut-comparing"></span><h2>5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types<a class="headerlink" href="#comparing-sequences-and-other-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Sequence objects may be compared to other objects with the same sequence type.
+The comparison uses <em>lexicographical</em> ordering: first the first two items are
+compared, and if they differ this determines the outcome of the comparison; if
+they are equal, the next two items are compared, and so on, until either
+sequence is exhausted. If two items to be compared are themselves sequences of
+the same type, the lexicographical comparison is carried out recursively.  If
+all items of two sequences compare equal, the sequences are considered equal.
+If one sequence is an initial sub-sequence of the other, the shorter sequence is
+the smaller (lesser) one.  Lexicographical ordering for strings uses the Unicode
+code point number to order individual characters.  Some examples of comparisons
+between sequences of the same type:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>              <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>              <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;ABC&#39;</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;C&#39;</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Pascal&#39;</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>           <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>                 <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>             <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;aa&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ab&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>   <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that comparing objects of different types with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> is legal
+provided that the objects have appropriate comparison methods.  For example,
+mixed numeric types are compared according to their numeric value, so 0 equals
+0.0, etc.  Otherwise, rather than providing an arbitrary ordering, the
+interpreter will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Other languages may return the mutated object, which allows method
+chaining, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d-&gt;insert(&quot;a&quot;)-&gt;remove(&quot;b&quot;)-&gt;sort();</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">5. Data Structures</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-on-lists">5.1. More on Lists</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-lists-as-stacks">5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-lists-as-queues">5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#list-comprehensions">5.1.3. List Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nested-list-comprehensions">5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-del-statement">5.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tuples-and-sequences">5.3. Tuples and Sequences</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sets">5.4. Sets</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dictionaries">5.5. Dictionaries</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#looping-techniques">5.6. Looping Techniques</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-on-conditions">5.7. More on Conditions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparing-sequences-and-other-types">5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="controlflow.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">4. More Control Flow Tools</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="modules.html"
+                        title="next chapter">6. Modules</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/errors.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/errors.html
new file mode 100644
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+
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+
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="errors-and-exceptions">
+<span id="tut-errors"></span><h1>8. Errors and Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#errors-and-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Until now error messages haven’t been more than mentioned, but if you have tried
+out the examples you have probably seen some.  There are (at least) two
+distinguishable kinds of errors: <em>syntax errors</em> and <em>exceptions</em>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="syntax-errors">
+<span id="tut-syntaxerrors"></span><h2>8.1. Syntax Errors<a class="headerlink" href="#syntax-errors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Syntax errors, also known as parsing errors, are perhaps the most common kind of
+complaint you get while you are still learning Python:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello world&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+                   <span class="o">^</span>
+<span class="gr">SyntaxError</span>: <span class="n">invalid syntax</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The parser repeats the offending line and displays a little ‘arrow’ pointing at
+the earliest point in the line where the error was detected.  The error is
+caused by (or at least detected at) the token <em>preceding</em> the arrow: in the
+example, the error is detected at the function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a>, since a colon
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code>) is missing before it.  File name and line number are printed so you
+know where to look in case the input came from a script.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="exceptions">
+<span id="tut-exceptions"></span><h2>8.2. Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Even if a statement or expression is syntactically correct, it may cause an
+error when an attempt is made to execute it. Errors detected during execution
+are called <em>exceptions</em> and are not unconditionally fatal: you will soon learn
+how to handle them in Python programs.  Most exceptions are not handled by
+programs, however, and result in error messages as shown here:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">10</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ZeroDivisionError</span>: <span class="n">division by zero</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">4</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">spam</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">NameError</span>: <span class="n">name &#39;spam&#39; is not defined</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;2&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">Can&#39;t convert &#39;int&#39; object to str implicitly</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The last line of the error message indicates what happened. Exceptions come in
+different types, and the type is printed as part of the message: the types in
+the example are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ZeroDivisionError" title="ZeroDivisionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.
+The string printed as the exception type is the name of the built-in exception
+that occurred.  This is true for all built-in exceptions, but need not be true
+for user-defined exceptions (although it is a useful convention). Standard
+exception names are built-in identifiers (not reserved keywords).</p>
+<p>The rest of the line provides detail based on the type of exception and what
+caused it.</p>
+<p>The preceding part of the error message shows the context where the exception
+happened, in the form of a stack traceback. In general it contains a stack
+traceback listing source lines; however, it will not display lines read from
+standard input.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#bltin-exceptions"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Exceptions</span></a> lists the built-in exceptions and their meanings.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="handling-exceptions">
+<span id="tut-handling"></span><h2>8.3. Handling Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#handling-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>It is possible to write programs that handle selected exceptions. Look at the
+following example, which asks the user for input until a valid integer has been
+entered, but allows the user to interrupt the program (using <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> or
+whatever the operating system supports); note that a user-generated interruption
+is signalled by raising the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Please enter a number: &quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">break</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement works as follows.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>First, the <em>try clause</em> (the statement(s) between the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> keywords) is executed.</p></li>
+<li><p>If no exception occurs, the <em>except clause</em> is skipped and execution of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement is finished.</p></li>
+<li><p>If an exception occurs during execution of the try clause, the rest of the
+clause is skipped.  Then if its type matches the exception named after the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> keyword, the except clause is executed, and then execution
+continues after the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement.</p></li>
+<li><p>If an exception occurs which does not match the exception named in the except
+clause, it is passed on to outer <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statements; if no handler is
+found, it is an <em>unhandled exception</em> and execution stops with a message as
+shown above.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement may have more than one except clause, to specify
+handlers for different exceptions.  At most one handler will be executed.
+Handlers only handle exceptions that occur in the corresponding try clause, not
+in other handlers of the same <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement.  An except clause may
+name multiple exceptions as a parenthesized tuple, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">except</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">RuntimeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>     <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A class in an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause is compatible with an exception if it is
+the same class or a base class thereof (but not the other way around — an
+except clause listing a derived class is not compatible with a base class).  For
+example, the following code will print B, C, D in that order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">B</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">B</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="bp">cls</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">B</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;D&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;C&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;B&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that if the except clauses were reversed (with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">B</span></code> first), it
+would have printed B, B, B — the first matching except clause is triggered.</p>
+<p>The last except clause may omit the exception name(s), to serve as a wildcard.
+Use this with extreme caution, since it is easy to mask a real programming error
+in this way!  It can also be used to print an error message and then re-raise
+the exception (allowing a caller to handle the exception as well):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myfile.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;OS error: </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">err</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Could not convert data to an integer.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Unexpected error:&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exc_info</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> … <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> statement has an optional <em>else
+clause</em>, which, when present, must follow all except clauses.  It is useful for
+code that must be executed if the try clause does not raise an exception.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">arg</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:]:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">OSError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;cannot open&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;has&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readlines</span><span class="p">()),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lines&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The use of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause is better than adding additional code to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> clause because it avoids accidentally catching an exception
+that wasn’t raised by the code being protected by the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> …
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p>When an exception occurs, it may have an associated value, also known as the
+exception’s <em>argument</em>. The presence and type of the argument depend on the
+exception type.</p>
+<p>The except clause may specify a variable after the exception name.  The
+variable is bound to an exception instance with the arguments stored in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance.args</span></code>.  For convenience, the exception instance defines
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a> so the arguments can be printed directly without having to
+reference <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.args</span></code>.  One may also instantiate an exception first before
+raising it and add any attributes to it as desired.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">inst</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inst</span><span class="p">))</span>    <span class="c1"># the exception instance</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inst</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># arguments stored in .args</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inst</span><span class="p">)</span>          <span class="c1"># __str__ allows args to be printed directly,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                         <span class="c1"># but may be overridden in exception subclasses</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">inst</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span>     <span class="c1"># unpack args</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;y =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;class &#39;Exception&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;spam&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;spam&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">x = spam</span>
+<span class="go">y = eggs</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If an exception has arguments, they are printed as the last part (‘detail’) of
+the message for unhandled exceptions.</p>
+<p>Exception handlers don’t just handle exceptions if they occur immediately in the
+try clause, but also if they occur inside functions that are called (even
+indirectly) in the try clause. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">this_fails</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">this_fails</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Handling run-time error:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Handling run-time error: division by zero</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="raising-exceptions">
+<span id="tut-raising"></span><h2>8.4. Raising Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#raising-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> statement allows the programmer to force a specified
+exception to occur. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;HiThere&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">NameError</span>: <span class="n">HiThere</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The sole argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> indicates the exception to be raised.
+This must be either an exception instance or an exception class (a class that
+derives from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>).  If an exception class is passed, it will
+be implicitly instantiated by calling its constructor with no arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span>  <span class="c1"># shorthand for &#39;raise ValueError()&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you need to determine whether an exception was raised but don’t intend to
+handle it, a simpler form of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> statement allows you to
+re-raise the exception:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;HiThere&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">NameError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;An exception flew by!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">raise</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">An exception flew by!</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">NameError</span>: <span class="n">HiThere</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="user-defined-exceptions">
+<span id="tut-userexceptions"></span><h2>8.5. User-defined Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#user-defined-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Programs may name their own exceptions by creating a new exception class (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#tut-classes"><span class="std std-ref">Classes</span></a> for more about Python classes).  Exceptions should typically
+be derived from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> class, either directly or indirectly.</p>
+<p>Exception classes can be defined which do anything any other class can do, but
+are usually kept simple, often only offering a number of attributes that allow
+information about the error to be extracted by handlers for the exception.  When
+creating a module that can raise several distinct errors, a common practice is
+to create a base class for exceptions defined by that module, and subclass that
+to create specific exception classes for different error conditions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">Exception</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Base class for exceptions in this module.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">InputError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Error</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Exception raised for errors in the input.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Attributes:</span>
+<span class="sd">        expression -- input expression in which the error occurred</span>
+<span class="sd">        message -- explanation of the error</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">expression</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expression</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">expression</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TransitionError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Error</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Raised when an operation attempts a state transition that&#39;s not</span>
+<span class="sd">    allowed.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    Attributes:</span>
+<span class="sd">        previous -- state at beginning of transition</span>
+<span class="sd">        next -- attempted new state</span>
+<span class="sd">        message -- explanation of why the specific transition is not allowed</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">previous</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">previous</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">previous</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">next</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Most exceptions are defined with names that end in “Error”, similar to the
+naming of the standard exceptions.</p>
+<p>Many standard modules define their own exceptions to report errors that may
+occur in functions they define.  More information on classes is presented in
+chapter <a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#tut-classes"><span class="std std-ref">Classes</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="defining-clean-up-actions">
+<span id="tut-cleanup"></span><h2>8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-clean-up-actions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement has another optional clause which is intended to
+define clean-up actions that must be executed under all circumstances.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">KeyboardInterrupt</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Goodbye, world!&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Goodbye, world!</span>
+<span class="nc">KeyboardInterrupt</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A <em>finally clause</em> is always executed before leaving the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>
+statement, whether an exception has occurred or not. When an exception has
+occurred in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> clause and has not been handled by an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause (or it has occurred in an <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code> or
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> clause), it is re-raised after the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause has
+been executed.  The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> clause is also executed “on the way out”
+when any other clause of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> statement is left via a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#continue"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement.  A more
+complicated example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">divide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">y</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;division by zero!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;result is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;executing finally clause&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">divide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">result is 2.0</span>
+<span class="go">executing finally clause</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">divide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">division by zero!</span>
+<span class="go">executing finally clause</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">divide</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;2&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">executing finally clause</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">3</span>, in <span class="n">divide</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">unsupported operand type(s) for /: &#39;str&#39; and &#39;str&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As you can see, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause is executed in any event.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> raised by dividing two strings is not handled by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause and therefore re-raised after the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code>
+clause has been executed.</p>
+<p>In real world applications, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause is useful for
+releasing external resources (such as files or network connections), regardless
+of whether the use of the resource was successful.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="predefined-clean-up-actions">
+<span id="tut-cleanup-with"></span><h2>8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions<a class="headerlink" href="#predefined-clean-up-actions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some objects define standard clean-up actions to be undertaken when the object
+is no longer needed, regardless of whether or not the operation using the object
+succeeded or failed. Look at the following example, which tries to open a file
+and print its contents to the screen.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The problem with this code is that it leaves the file open for an indeterminate
+amount of time after this part of the code has finished executing.
+This is not an issue in simple scripts, but can be a problem for larger
+applications. The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement allows objects like files to be
+used in a way that ensures they are always cleaned up promptly and correctly.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;myfile.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After the statement is executed, the file <em>f</em> is always closed, even if a
+problem was encountered while processing the lines. Objects which, like files,
+provide predefined clean-up actions will indicate this in their documentation.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">8. Errors and Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#syntax-errors">8.1. Syntax Errors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">8.2. Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#handling-exceptions">8.3. Handling Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#raising-exceptions">8.4. Raising Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#user-defined-exceptions">8.5. User-defined Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#defining-clean-up-actions">8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#predefined-clean-up-actions">8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="inputoutput.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">7. Input and Output</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="classes.html"
+                        title="next chapter">9. Classes</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/errors.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
+        <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px">
+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
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+        <li class="right" >
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+  <div class="section" id="floating-point-arithmetic-issues-and-limitations">
+<span id="tut-fp-issues"></span><h1>15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations<a class="headerlink" href="#floating-point-arithmetic-issues-and-limitations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Floating-point numbers are represented in computer hardware as base 2 (binary)
+fractions.  For example, the decimal fraction</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">0.125</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>has value 1/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000, and in the same way the binary fraction</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">0.001</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>has value 0/2 + 0/4 + 1/8.  These two fractions have identical values, the only
+real difference being that the first is written in base 10 fractional notation,
+and the second in base 2.</p>
+<p>Unfortunately, most decimal fractions cannot be represented exactly as binary
+fractions.  A consequence is that, in general, the decimal floating-point
+numbers you enter are only approximated by the binary floating-point numbers
+actually stored in the machine.</p>
+<p>The problem is easier to understand at first in base 10.  Consider the fraction
+1/3.  You can approximate that as a base 10 fraction:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">0.3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or, better,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">0.33</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>or, better,</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">0.333</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and so on.  No matter how many digits you’re willing to write down, the result
+will never be exactly 1/3, but will be an increasingly better approximation of
+1/3.</p>
+<p>In the same way, no matter how many base 2 digits you’re willing to use, the
+decimal value 0.1 cannot be represented exactly as a base 2 fraction.  In base
+2, 1/10 is the infinitely repeating fraction</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mf">0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011</span><span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Stop at any finite number of bits, and you get an approximation.  On most
+machines today, floats are approximated using a binary fraction with
+the numerator using the first 53 bits starting with the most significant bit and
+with the denominator as a power of two.  In the case of 1/10, the binary fraction
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3602879701896397</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">55</span></code> which is close to but not exactly
+equal to the true value of 1/10.</p>
+<p>Many users are not aware of the approximation because of the way values are
+displayed.  Python only prints a decimal approximation to the true decimal
+value of the binary approximation stored by the machine.  On most machines, if
+Python were to print the true decimal value of the binary approximation stored
+for 0.1, it would have to display</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mf">0.1</span>
+<span class="go">0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That is more digits than most people find useful, so Python keeps the number
+of digits manageable by displaying a rounded value instead</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="go">0.1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Just remember, even though the printed result looks like the exact value
+of 1/10, the actual stored value is the nearest representable binary fraction.</p>
+<p>Interestingly, there are many different decimal numbers that share the same
+nearest approximate binary fraction.  For example, the numbers <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.1</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.10000000000000001</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625</span></code> are all
+approximated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3602879701896397</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">55</span></code>.  Since all of these decimal
+values share the same approximation, any one of them could be displayed
+while still preserving the invariant <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval(repr(x))</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Historically, the Python prompt and built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function would choose
+the one with 17 significant digits, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.10000000000000001</span></code>.   Starting with
+Python 3.1, Python (on most systems) is now able to choose the shortest of
+these and simply display <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0.1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that this is in the very nature of binary floating-point: this is not a bug
+in Python, and it is not a bug in your code either.  You’ll see the same kind of
+thing in all languages that support your hardware’s floating-point arithmetic
+(although some languages may not <em>display</em> the difference by default, or in all
+output modes).</p>
+<p>For more pleasant output, you may wish to use string formatting to produce a limited number of significant digits:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.12g&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># give 12 significant digits</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.14159265359&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.2f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># give 2 digits after the point</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.14&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.141592653589793&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s important to realize that this is, in a real sense, an illusion: you’re
+simply rounding the <em>display</em> of the true machine value.</p>
+<p>One illusion may beget another.  For example, since 0.1 is not exactly 1/10,
+summing three values of 0.1 may not yield exactly 0.3, either:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Also, since the 0.1 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 1/10 and
+0.3 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 3/10, then pre-rounding with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> function cannot help:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Though the numbers cannot be made closer to their intended exact values,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> function can be useful for post-rounding so that results
+with inexact values become comparable to one another:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Binary floating-point arithmetic holds many surprises like this.  The problem
+with “0.1” is explained in precise detail below, in the “Representation Error”
+section.  See <a class="reference external" href="http://www.lahey.com/float.htm">The Perils of Floating Point</a>
+for a more complete account of other common surprises.</p>
+<p>As that says near the end, “there are no easy answers.”  Still, don’t be unduly
+wary of floating-point!  The errors in Python float operations are inherited
+from the floating-point hardware, and on most machines are on the order of no
+more than 1 part in 2**53 per operation.  That’s more than adequate for most
+tasks, but you do need to keep in mind that it’s not decimal arithmetic and
+that every float operation can suffer a new rounding error.</p>
+<p>While pathological cases do exist, for most casual use of floating-point
+arithmetic you’ll see the result you expect in the end if you simply round the
+display of your final results to the number of decimal digits you expect.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> usually suffices, and for finer control see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>
+method’s format specifiers in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a>.</p>
+<p>For use cases which require exact decimal representation, try using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module which implements decimal arithmetic suitable for
+accounting applications and high-precision applications.</p>
+<p>Another form of exact arithmetic is supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> module
+which implements arithmetic based on rational numbers (so the numbers like
+1/3 can be represented exactly).</p>
+<p>If you are a heavy user of floating point operations you should take a look
+at the Numerical Python package and many other packages for mathematical and
+statistical operations supplied by the SciPy project. See &lt;<a class="reference external" href="https://scipy.org">https://scipy.org</a>&gt;.</p>
+<p>Python provides tools that may help on those rare occasions when you really
+<em>do</em> want to know the exact value of a float.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#float.as_integer_ratio" title="float.as_integer_ratio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.as_integer_ratio()</span></code></a> method expresses the value of a float as a
+fraction:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">3.14159</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since the ratio is exact, it can be used to losslessly recreate the
+original value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">3537115888337719</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">1125899906842624</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#float.hex" title="float.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.hex()</span></code></a> method expresses a float in hexadecimal (base
+16), again giving the exact value stored by your computer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This precise hexadecimal representation can be used to reconstruct
+the float value exactly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromhex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since the representation is exact, it is useful for reliably porting values
+across different versions of Python (platform independence) and exchanging
+data with other languages that support the same format (such as Java and C99).</p>
+<p>Another helpful tool is the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.fsum" title="math.fsum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.fsum()</span></code></a> function which helps mitigate
+loss-of-precision during summation.  It tracks “lost digits” as values are
+added onto a running total.  That can make a difference in overall accuracy
+so that the errors do not accumulate to the point where they affect the
+final total:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fsum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="representation-error">
+<span id="tut-fp-error"></span><h2>15.1. Representation Error<a class="headerlink" href="#representation-error" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section explains the “0.1” example in detail, and shows how you can perform
+an exact analysis of cases like this yourself.  Basic familiarity with binary
+floating-point representation is assumed.</p>
+<p><em class="dfn">Representation error</em> refers to the fact that some (most, actually)
+decimal fractions cannot be represented exactly as binary (base 2) fractions.
+This is the chief reason why Python (or Perl, C, C++, Java, Fortran, and many
+others) often won’t display the exact decimal number you expect.</p>
+<p>Why is that?  1/10 is not exactly representable as a binary fraction. Almost all
+machines today (November 2000) use IEEE-754 floating point arithmetic, and
+almost all platforms map Python floats to IEEE-754 “double precision”.  754
+doubles contain 53 bits of precision, so on input the computer strives to
+convert 0.1 to the closest fraction it can of the form <em>J</em>/2**<em>N</em> where <em>J</em> is
+an integer containing exactly 53 bits.  Rewriting</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="o">~=</span> <span class="n">J</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>as</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">J</span> <span class="o">~=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">N</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and recalling that <em>J</em> has exactly 53 bits (is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span> <span class="pre">2**52</span></code> but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">2**53</span></code>),
+the best value for <em>N</em> is 56:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">52</span> <span class="o">&lt;=</span>  <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">56</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">10</span>  <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">53</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That is, 56 is the only value for <em>N</em> that leaves <em>J</em> with exactly 53 bits.  The
+best possible value for <em>J</em> is then that quotient rounded:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">divmod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since the remainder is more than half of 10, the best approximation is obtained
+by rounding up:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="go">7205759403792794</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Therefore the best possible approximation to 1/10 in 754 double precision is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">7205759403792794</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">56</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Dividing both the numerator and denominator by two reduces the fraction to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">3602879701896397</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">55</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that since we rounded up, this is actually a little bit larger than 1/10;
+if we had not rounded up, the quotient would have been a little bit smaller than
+1/10.  But in no case can it be <em>exactly</em> 1/10!</p>
+<p>So the computer never “sees” 1/10:  what it sees is the exact fraction given
+above, the best 754 double approximation it can get:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mf">0.1</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">55</span>
+<span class="go">3602879701896397.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If we multiply that fraction by 10**55, we can see the value out to
+55 decimal digits:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">3602879701896397</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">55</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">55</span>
+<span class="go">1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>meaning that the exact number stored in the computer is equal to
+the decimal value 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.
+Instead of displaying the full decimal value, many languages (including
+older versions of Python), round the result to 17 significant digits:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.17f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0.10000000000000001&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> modules make these calculations
+easy:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.17&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0.10000000000000001&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#representation-error">15.1. Representation Error</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="interactive.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+  <div class="section" id="the-python-tutorial">
+<span id="tutorial-index"></span><h1>The Python Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#the-python-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient
+high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to
+object-oriented programming. Python’s elegant syntax and dynamic typing,
+together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting
+and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.</p>
+<p>The Python interpreter and the extensive standard library are freely available
+in source or binary form for all major platforms from the Python Web site,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/">https://www.python.org/</a>, and may be freely distributed. The same site also
+contains distributions of and pointers to many free third party Python modules,
+programs and tools, and additional documentation.</p>
+<p>The Python interpreter is easily extended with new functions and data types
+implemented in C or C++ (or other languages callable from C). Python is also
+suitable as an extension language for customizable applications.</p>
+<p>This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and
+features of the Python language and system. It helps to have a Python
+interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all examples are self-contained,
+so the tutorial can be read off-line as well.</p>
+<p>For a description of standard objects and modules, see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/index.html#reference-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Language Reference</span></a> gives a more formal definition of the language.  To write
+extensions in C or C++, read <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/index.html#extending-index"><span class="std std-ref">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/index.html#c-api-index"><span class="std std-ref">Python/C API Reference Manual</span></a>. There are also several books covering Python in depth.</p>
+<p>This tutorial does not attempt to be comprehensive and cover every single
+feature, or even every commonly used feature. Instead, it introduces many of
+Python’s most noteworthy features, and will give you a good idea of the
+language’s flavor and style. After reading it, you will be able to read and
+write Python modules and programs, and you will be ready to learn more about the
+various Python library modules described in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#glossary"><span class="std std-ref">Glossary</span></a> is also worth going through.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="appetite.html">1. Whetting Your Appetite</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html">2. Using the Python Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#invoking-the-interpreter">2.1. Invoking the Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#argument-passing">2.1.1. Argument Passing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#interactive-mode">2.1.2. Interactive Mode</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#the-interpreter-and-its-environment">2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="interpreter.html#source-code-encoding">2.2.1. Source Code Encoding</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html">3. An Informal Introduction to Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#using-python-as-a-calculator">3.1. Using Python as a Calculator</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#numbers">3.1.1. Numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#strings">3.1.2. Strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#lists">3.1.3. Lists</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="introduction.html#first-steps-towards-programming">3.2. First Steps Towards Programming</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html">4. More Control Flow Tools</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#if-statements">4.1. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#for-statements">4.2. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#the-range-function">4.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code> Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops">4.4. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> Statements, and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> Clauses on Loops</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#pass-statements">4.5. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pass</span></code> Statements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#defining-functions">4.6. Defining Functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#more-on-defining-functions">4.7. More on Defining Functions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#default-argument-values">4.7.1. Default Argument Values</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#keyword-arguments">4.7.2. Keyword Arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#arbitrary-argument-lists">4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#unpacking-argument-lists">4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#lambda-expressions">4.7.5. Lambda Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#documentation-strings">4.7.6. Documentation Strings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#function-annotations">4.7.7. Function Annotations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="controlflow.html#intermezzo-coding-style">4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html">5. Data Structures</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#more-on-lists">5.1. More on Lists</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#using-lists-as-stacks">5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#using-lists-as-queues">5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#list-comprehensions">5.1.3. List Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#nested-list-comprehensions">5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#the-del-statement">5.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#tuples-and-sequences">5.3. Tuples and Sequences</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#sets">5.4. Sets</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#dictionaries">5.5. Dictionaries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#looping-techniques">5.6. Looping Techniques</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#more-on-conditions">5.7. More on Conditions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="datastructures.html#comparing-sequences-and-other-types">5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html">6. Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#more-on-modules">6.1. More on Modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#executing-modules-as-scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#the-module-search-path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#compiled-python-files">6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#standard-modules">6.2. Standard Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#the-dir-function">6.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code> Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#packages">6.4. Packages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#importing-from-a-package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#intra-package-references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="modules.html#packages-in-multiple-directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html">7. Input and Output</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#fancier-output-formatting">7.1. Fancier Output Formatting</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#formatted-string-literals">7.1.1. Formatted String Literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#the-string-format-method">7.1.2. The String format() Method</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#manual-string-formatting">7.1.3. Manual String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#old-string-formatting">7.1.4. Old string formatting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#reading-and-writing-files">7.2. Reading and Writing Files</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#methods-of-file-objects">7.2.1. Methods of File Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="inputoutput.html#saving-structured-data-with-json">7.2.2. Saving structured data with <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html">8. Errors and Exceptions</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#syntax-errors">8.1. Syntax Errors</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#exceptions">8.2. Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#handling-exceptions">8.3. Handling Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#raising-exceptions">8.4. Raising Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#user-defined-exceptions">8.5. User-defined Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#defining-clean-up-actions">8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="errors.html#predefined-clean-up-actions">8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html">9. Classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#a-word-about-names-and-objects">9.1. A Word About Names and Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#python-scopes-and-namespaces">9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#scopes-and-namespaces-example">9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#a-first-look-at-classes">9.3. A First Look at Classes</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#class-definition-syntax">9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#class-objects">9.3.2. Class Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#instance-objects">9.3.3. Instance Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#method-objects">9.3.4. Method Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#class-and-instance-variables">9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#random-remarks">9.4. Random Remarks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#inheritance">9.5. Inheritance</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#multiple-inheritance">9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#private-variables">9.6. Private Variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#odds-and-ends">9.7. Odds and Ends</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#iterators">9.8. Iterators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#generators">9.9. Generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#generator-expressions">9.10. Generator Expressions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html">10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#operating-system-interface">10.1. Operating System Interface</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#file-wildcards">10.2. File Wildcards</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#command-line-arguments">10.3. Command Line Arguments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#error-output-redirection-and-program-termination">10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#string-pattern-matching">10.5. String Pattern Matching</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#mathematics">10.6. Mathematics</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#internet-access">10.7. Internet Access</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#dates-and-times">10.8. Dates and Times</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#data-compression">10.9. Data Compression</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#performance-measurement">10.10. Performance Measurement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#quality-control">10.11. Quality Control</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib.html#batteries-included">10.12. Batteries Included</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html">11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#output-formatting">11.1. Output Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#templating">11.2. Templating</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#working-with-binary-data-record-layouts">11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#multi-threading">11.4. Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#logging">11.5. Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#weak-references">11.6. Weak References</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#tools-for-working-with-lists">11.7. Tools for Working with Lists</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="stdlib2.html#decimal-floating-point-arithmetic">11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html">12. Virtual Environments and Packages</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#introduction">12.1. Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#creating-virtual-environments">12.2. Creating Virtual Environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="venv.html#managing-packages-with-pip">12.3. Managing Packages with pip</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="whatnow.html">13. What Now?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="interactive.html">14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interactive.html#tab-completion-and-history-editing">14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="interactive.html#alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreter">14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="floatingpoint.html">15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="floatingpoint.html#representation-error">15.1. Representation Error</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html">16. Appendix</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#interactive-mode">16.1. Interactive Mode</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#error-handling">16.1.1. Error Handling</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#executable-python-scripts">16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#the-interactive-startup-file">16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#the-customization-modules">16.1.4. The Customization Modules</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/inputoutput.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/inputoutput.html
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/inputoutput.html
@@ -0,0 +1,639 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>7. Input and Output &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+  <div class="section" id="input-and-output">
+<span id="tut-io"></span><h1>7. Input and Output<a class="headerlink" href="#input-and-output" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>There are several ways to present the output of a program; data can be printed
+in a human-readable form, or written to a file for future use. This chapter will
+discuss some of the possibilities.</p>
+<div class="section" id="fancier-output-formatting">
+<span id="tut-formatting"></span><h2>7.1. Fancier Output Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#fancier-output-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>So far we’ve encountered two ways of writing values: <em>expression statements</em> and
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function.  (A third way is using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method
+of file objects; the standard output file can be referenced as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code>.
+See the Library Reference for more information on this.)</p>
+<p>Often you’ll want more control over the formatting of your output than simply
+printing space-separated values. There are several ways to format output.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>To use <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literals</span></a>, begin a string
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F</span></code> before the opening quotation mark or triple quotation mark.
+Inside this string, you can write a Python expression between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">}</span></code>
+characters that can refer to variables or literal values.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">year</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2016</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">event</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Referendum&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;Results of the </span><span class="si">{year}</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">{event}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Results of the 2016 Referendum&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method of strings requires more manual
+effort.  You’ll still use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">}</span></code> to mark where a variable
+will be substituted and can provide detailed formatting directives,
+but you’ll also need to provide the information to be formatted.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">yes_votes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42_572_654</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">no_votes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">43_132_495</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">percentage</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">yes_votes</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">yes_votes</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">no_votes</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:-9}</span><span class="s1"> YES votes  </span><span class="si">{:2.2%}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">yes_votes</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">percentage</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39; 42572654 YES votes  49.67%&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Finally, you can do all the string handling yourself by using string slicing and
+concatenation operations to create any layout you can imagine.  The
+string type has some methods that perform useful operations for padding
+strings to a given column width.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>When you don’t need fancy output but just want a quick display of some
+variables for debugging purposes, you can convert any value to a string with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> function is meant to return representations of values which are
+fairly human-readable, while <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> is meant to generate representations
+which can be read by the interpreter (or will force a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> if
+there is no equivalent syntax).  For objects which don’t have a particular
+representation for human consumption, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> will return the same value as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>.  Many values, such as numbers or structures like lists and
+dictionaries, have the same representation using either function.  Strings, in
+particular, have two distinct representations.</p>
+<p>Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Hello, world.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello, world.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;&#39;Hello, world.&#39;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0.14285714285714285&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mf">3.25</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">200</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">200</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;The value of x is &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;, and y is &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;...&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">hello</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hello, world</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">hellos</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hello</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">hellos</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;hello, world\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># The argument to repr() may be any Python object:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;(32.5, 40000, (&#39;spam&#39;, &#39;eggs&#39;))&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module contains a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Template</span></code></a> class that offers
+yet another way to substitute values into strings, using placeholders like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$x</span></code> and replacing them with values from a dictionary, but offers much less
+control of the formatting.</p>
+<div class="section" id="formatted-string-literals">
+<span id="tut-f-strings"></span><h3>7.1.1. Formatted String Literals<a class="headerlink" href="#formatted-string-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Formatted string literals</span></a> (also called f-strings for
+short) let you include the value of Python expressions inside a string by
+prefixing the string with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F</span></code> and writing expressions as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{expression}</span></code>.</p>
+<p>An optional format specifier can follow the expression. This allows greater
+control over how the value is formatted. The following example rounds pi to
+three places after the decimal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;The value of pi is approximately </span><span class="si">{math.pi:.3f}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">The value of pi is approximately 3.142.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Passing an integer after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">':'</span></code> will cause that field to be a minimum
+number of characters wide.  This is useful for making columns line up.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;Sjoerd&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4127</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Jack&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4098</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Dcab&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">7678</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">phone</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">table</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{name:10}</span><span class="s1"> ==&gt; </span><span class="si">{phone:10d}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Sjoerd     ==&gt;       4127</span>
+<span class="go">Jack       ==&gt;       4098</span>
+<span class="go">Dcab       ==&gt;       7678</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Other modifiers can be used to convert the value before it is formatted.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!a'</span></code> applies <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!s'</span></code> applies <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'!r'</span></code>
+applies <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">animals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eels&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;My hovercraft is full of </span><span class="si">{animals}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">My hovercraft is full of eels.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;My hovercraft is full of </span><span class="si">{animals!r}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">My hovercraft is full of &#39;eels&#39;.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a reference on these format specifications, see
+the reference guide for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatspec"><span class="std std-ref">Format Specification Mini-Language</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-string-format-method">
+<span id="tut-string-format"></span><h3>7.1.2. The String format() Method<a class="headerlink" href="#the-string-format-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Basic usage of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;We are the </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1"> who say &quot;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">!&quot;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;knights&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Ni&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">We are the knights who say &quot;Ni!&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The brackets and characters within them (called format fields) are replaced with
+the objects passed into the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method.  A number in the
+brackets can be used to refer to the position of the object passed into the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1"> and </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">spam and eggs</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1"> and </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;eggs&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">eggs and spam</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If keyword arguments are used in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method, their values
+are referred to by using the name of the argument.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This </span><span class="si">{food}</span><span class="s1"> is </span><span class="si">{adjective}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>      <span class="n">food</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">adjective</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;absolutely horrible&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">This spam is absolutely horrible.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Positional and keyword arguments can be arbitrarily combined:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The story of </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1">, </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">, and </span><span class="si">{other}</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Bill&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Manfred&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="go">                                                       other=&#39;Georg&#39;))</span>
+<span class="go">The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have a really long format string that you don’t want to split up, it
+would be nice if you could reference the variables to be formatted by name
+instead of by position.  This can be done by simply passing the dict and using
+square brackets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'[]'</span></code> to access the keys</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;Sjoerd&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4127</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Jack&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4098</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Dcab&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">8637678</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jack: </span><span class="si">{0[Jack]:d}</span><span class="s1">; Sjoerd: </span><span class="si">{0[Sjoerd]:d}</span><span class="s1">; &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>      <span class="s1">&#39;Dcab: </span><span class="si">{0[Dcab]:d}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">table</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This could also be done by passing the table as keyword arguments with the ‘**’
+notation.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">table</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;Sjoerd&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4127</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Jack&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4098</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Dcab&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">8637678</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jack: </span><span class="si">{Jack:d}</span><span class="s1">; Sjoerd: </span><span class="si">{Sjoerd:d}</span><span class="s1">; Dcab: </span><span class="si">{Dcab:d}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">table</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is particularly useful in combination with the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#vars" title="vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vars()</span></code></a>, which returns a dictionary containing all local variables.</p>
+<p>As an example, the following lines produce a tidily-aligned
+set of columns giving integers and their squares and cubes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0:2d}</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">{1:3d}</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">{2:4d}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go"> 1   1    1</span>
+<span class="go"> 2   4    8</span>
+<span class="go"> 3   9   27</span>
+<span class="go"> 4  16   64</span>
+<span class="go"> 5  25  125</span>
+<span class="go"> 6  36  216</span>
+<span class="go"> 7  49  343</span>
+<span class="go"> 8  64  512</span>
+<span class="go"> 9  81  729</span>
+<span class="go">10 100 1000</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a complete overview of string formatting with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="manual-string-formatting">
+<h3>7.1.3. Manual String Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#manual-string-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Here’s the same table of squares and cubes, formatted manually:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rjust</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rjust</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="c1"># Note use of &#39;end&#39; on previous line</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rjust</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go"> 1   1    1</span>
+<span class="go"> 2   4    8</span>
+<span class="go"> 3   9   27</span>
+<span class="go"> 4  16   64</span>
+<span class="go"> 5  25  125</span>
+<span class="go"> 6  36  216</span>
+<span class="go"> 7  49  343</span>
+<span class="go"> 8  64  512</span>
+<span class="go"> 9  81  729</span>
+<span class="go">10 100 1000</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Note that the one space between each column was added by the
+way <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> works: it always adds spaces between its arguments.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.rjust" title="str.rjust"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.rjust()</span></code></a> method of string objects right-justifies a string in a
+field of a given width by padding it with spaces on the left. There are
+similar methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.ljust" title="str.ljust"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.ljust()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.center" title="str.center"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.center()</span></code></a>. These methods do
+not write anything, they just return a new string. If the input string is too
+long, they don’t truncate it, but return it unchanged; this will mess up your
+column lay-out but that’s usually better than the alternative, which would be
+lying about a value. (If you really want truncation you can always add a
+slice operation, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.ljust(n)[:n]</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>There is another method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.zfill" title="str.zfill"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.zfill()</span></code></a>, which pads a numeric string on the
+left with zeros.  It understands about plus and minus signs:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;12&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;00012&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;-3.14&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;-003.14&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;3.14159265359&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.14159265359&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="old-string-formatting">
+<h3>7.1.4. Old string formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#old-string-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator can also be used for string formatting. It interprets the
+left argument much like a <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sprintf()</span></code>-style format string to be applied
+to the right argument, and returns the string resulting from this formatting
+operation. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The value of pi is approximately </span><span class="si">%5.3f</span><span class="s1">.&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">The value of pi is approximately 3.142.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>More information can be found in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#old-string-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">printf-style String Formatting</span></a> section.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reading-and-writing-files">
+<span id="tut-files"></span><h2>7.2. Reading and Writing Files<a class="headerlink" href="#reading-and-writing-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-0"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a>, and is most commonly used with
+two arguments: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open(filename,</span> <span class="pre">mode)</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;workfile&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first argument is a string containing the filename.  The second argument is
+another string containing a few characters describing the way in which the file
+will be used.  <em>mode</em> can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> when the file will only be read, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>
+for only writing (an existing file with the same name will be erased), and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> opens the file for appending; any data written to the file is
+automatically added to the end.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r+'</span></code> opens the file for both reading and
+writing. The <em>mode</em> argument is optional; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> will be assumed if it’s
+omitted.</p>
+<p>Normally, files are opened in <em class="dfn">text mode</em>, that means, you read and write
+strings from and to the file, which are encoded in a specific encoding. If
+encoding is not specified, the default is platform dependent (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>). <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> appended to the mode opens the file in
+<em class="dfn">binary mode</em>: now the data is read and written in the form of bytes
+objects.  This mode should be used for all files that don’t contain text.</p>
+<p>In text mode, the default when reading is to convert platform-specific line
+endings (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> on Unix, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code> on Windows) to just <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>.  When writing in
+text mode, the default is to convert occurrences of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> back to
+platform-specific line endings.  This behind-the-scenes modification
+to file data is fine for text files, but will corrupt binary data like that in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JPEG</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXE</span></code> files.  Be very careful to use binary mode when
+reading and writing such files.</p>
+<p>It is good practice to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> keyword when dealing
+with file objects.  The advantage is that the file is properly closed
+after its suite finishes, even if an exception is raised at some
+point.  Using <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> is also much shorter than writing
+equivalent <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>-<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> blocks:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;workfile&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">read_data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">closed</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you’re not using the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> keyword, then you should call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.close()</span></code> to close the file and immediately free up any system
+resources used by it. If you don’t explicitly close a file, Python’s
+garbage collector will eventually destroy the object and close the
+open file for you, but the file may stay open for a while.  Another
+risk is that different Python implementations will do this clean-up at
+different times.</p>
+<p>After a file object is closed, either by a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement
+or by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.close()</span></code>, attempts to use the file object will
+automatically fail.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">I/O operation on closed file.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="methods-of-file-objects">
+<span id="tut-filemethods"></span><h3>7.2.1. Methods of File Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-of-file-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The rest of the examples in this section will assume that a file object called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> has already been created.</p>
+<p>To read a file’s contents, call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.read(size)</span></code>, which reads some quantity of
+data and returns it as a string (in text mode) or bytes object (in binary mode).
+<em>size</em> is an optional numeric argument.  When <em>size</em> is omitted or negative, the
+entire contents of the file will be read and returned; it’s your problem if the
+file is twice as large as your machine’s memory. Otherwise, at most <em>size</em> bytes
+are read and returned.
+If the end of the file has been reached, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.read()</span></code> will return an empty
+string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;This is the entire file.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.readline()</span></code> reads a single line from the file; a newline character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>)
+is left at the end of the string, and is only omitted on the last line of the
+file if the file doesn’t end in a newline.  This makes the return value
+unambiguous; if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.readline()</span></code> returns an empty string, the end of the file
+has been reached, while a blank line is represented by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code>, a string
+containing only a single newline.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;This is the first line of the file.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Second line of the file\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readline</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For reading lines from a file, you can loop over the file object. This is memory
+efficient, fast, and leads to simple code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">This is the first line of the file.</span>
+<span class="go">Second line of the file</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to read all the lines of a file in a list you can also use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(f)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.readlines()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.write(string)</span></code> writes the contents of <em>string</em> to the file, returning
+the number of characters written.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;This is a test</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">15</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Other types of objects need to be converted – either to a string (in text mode)
+or a bytes object (in binary mode) – before writing them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;the answer&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># convert the tuple to string</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">18</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.tell()</span></code> returns an integer giving the file object’s current position in the file
+represented as number of bytes from the beginning of the file when in binary mode and
+an opaque number when in text mode.</p>
+<p>To change the file object’s position, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.seek(offset,</span> <span class="pre">from_what)</span></code>.  The position is computed
+from adding <em>offset</em> to a reference point; the reference point is selected by
+the <em>from_what</em> argument.  A <em>from_what</em> value of 0 measures from the beginning
+of the file, 1 uses the current file position, and 2 uses the end of the file as
+the reference point.  <em>from_what</em> can be omitted and defaults to 0, using the
+beginning of the file as the reference point.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;workfile&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb+&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;0123456789abcdef&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">16</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># Go to the 6th byte in the file</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;5&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">seek</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Go to the 3rd byte before the end</span>
+<span class="go">13</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;d&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In text files (those opened without a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> in the mode string), only seeks
+relative to the beginning of the file are allowed (the exception being seeking
+to the very file end with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek(0,</span> <span class="pre">2)</span></code>) and the only valid <em>offset</em> values are
+those returned from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.tell()</span></code>, or zero. Any other <em>offset</em> value produces
+undefined behaviour.</p>
+<p>File objects have some additional methods, such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isatty()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code> which are less frequently used; consult the Library
+Reference for a complete guide to file objects.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="saving-structured-data-with-json">
+<span id="tut-json"></span><h3>7.2.2. Saving structured data with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#saving-structured-data-with-json" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-1">Strings can easily be written to and read from a file.  Numbers take a bit more
+effort, since the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> method only returns strings, which will have to
+be passed to a function like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a>, which takes a string like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'123'</span></code>
+and returns its numeric value 123.  When you want to save more complex data
+types like nested lists and dictionaries, parsing and serializing by hand
+becomes complicated.</p>
+<p>Rather than having users constantly writing and debugging code to save
+complicated data types to files, Python allows you to use the popular data
+interchange format called <a class="reference external" href="http://json.org">JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)</a>.  The standard module called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> can take Python
+data hierarchies, and convert them to string representations; this process is
+called <em class="dfn">serializing</em>.  Reconstructing the data from the string representation
+is called <em class="dfn">deserializing</em>.  Between serializing and deserializing, the
+string representing the object may have been stored in a file or data, or
+sent over a network connection to some distant machine.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The JSON format is commonly used by modern applications to allow for data
+exchange.  Many programmers are already familiar with it, which makes
+it a good choice for interoperability.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If you have an object <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, you can view its JSON string representation with a
+simple line of code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;simple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;list&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;[1, &quot;simple&quot;, &quot;list&quot;]&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another variant of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.dumps" title="json.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a> function, called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.dump" title="json.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>,
+simply serializes the object to a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text file</span></a>.  So if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text file</span></a> object opened for writing, we can do this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dump</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To decode the object again, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-text-file"><span class="xref std std-term">text file</span></a> object which has
+been opened for reading:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This simple serialization technique can handle lists and dictionaries, but
+serializing arbitrary class instances in JSON requires a bit of extra effort.
+The reference for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module contains an explanation of this.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> - the pickle module</p>
+<p>Contrary to <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-json"><span class="std std-ref">JSON</span></a>, <em>pickle</em> is a protocol which allows
+the serialization of arbitrarily complex Python objects.  As such, it is
+specific to Python and cannot be used to communicate with applications
+written in other languages.  It is also insecure by default:
+deserializing pickle data coming from an untrusted source can execute
+arbitrary code, if the data was crafted by a skilled attacker.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">7. Input and Output</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fancier-output-formatting">7.1. Fancier Output Formatting</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#formatted-string-literals">7.1.1. Formatted String Literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-string-format-method">7.1.2. The String format() Method</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#manual-string-formatting">7.1.3. Manual String Formatting</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#old-string-formatting">7.1.4. Old string formatting</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reading-and-writing-files">7.2. Reading and Writing Files</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-of-file-objects">7.2.1. Methods of File Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#saving-structured-data-with-json">7.2.2. Saving structured data with <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="modules.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">6. Modules</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="errors.html"
+                        title="next chapter">8. Errors and Exceptions</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/inputoutput.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/interactive.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/interactive.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ecafbed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/interactive.html
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
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+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
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+         |
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="interactive-input-editing-and-history-substitution">
+<span id="tut-interacting"></span><h1>14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-input-editing-and-history-substitution" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Some versions of the Python interpreter support editing of the current input
+line and history substitution, similar to facilities found in the Korn shell and
+the GNU Bash shell.  This is implemented using the <a class="reference external" href="https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html">GNU Readline</a> library,
+which supports various styles of editing.  This library has its own
+documentation which we won’t duplicate here.</p>
+<div class="section" id="tab-completion-and-history-editing">
+<span id="tut-keybindings"></span><h2>14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing<a class="headerlink" href="#tab-completion-and-history-editing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Completion of variable and module names is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#rlcompleter-config"><span class="std std-ref">automatically enabled</span></a> at interpreter startup so
+that the <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Tab</kbd> key invokes the completion function; it looks at
+Python statement names, the current local variables, and the available
+module names.  For dotted expressions such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.a</span></code>, it will evaluate
+the expression up to the final <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> and then suggest completions from
+the attributes of the resulting object.  Note that this may execute
+application-defined code if an object with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> method
+is part of the expression.  The default configuration also saves your
+history into a file named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.python_history</span></code> in your user directory.
+The history will be available again during the next interactive interpreter
+session.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreter">
+<span id="tut-commentary"></span><h2>14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter<a class="headerlink" href="#alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This facility is an enormous step forward compared to earlier versions of the
+interpreter; however, some wishes are left: It would be nice if the proper
+indentation were suggested on continuation lines (the parser knows if an indent
+token is required next).  The completion mechanism might use the interpreter’s
+symbol table.  A command to check (or even suggest) matching parentheses,
+quotes, etc., would also be useful.</p>
+<p>One alternative enhanced interactive interpreter that has been around for quite
+some time is <a class="reference external" href="https://ipython.org/">IPython</a>, which features tab completion, object exploration and
+advanced history management.  It can also be thoroughly customized and embedded
+into other applications.  Another similar enhanced interactive environment is
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.bpython-interpreter.org/">bpython</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tab-completion-and-history-editing">14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreter">14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="whatnow.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">13. What Now?</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="floatingpoint.html"
+                        title="next chapter">15. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/interactive.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+    <br />
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/interpreter.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/interpreter.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8da415f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/interpreter.html
@@ -0,0 +1,320 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>2. Using the Python Interpreter &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+             accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="using-the-python-interpreter">
+<span id="tut-using"></span><h1>2. Using the Python Interpreter<a class="headerlink" href="#using-the-python-interpreter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="invoking-the-interpreter">
+<span id="tut-invoking"></span><h2>2.1. Invoking the Interpreter<a class="headerlink" href="#invoking-the-interpreter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Python interpreter is usually installed as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/bin/python3.7</span></code>
+on those machines where it is available; putting <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/bin</span></code> in your
+Unix shell’s search path makes it possible to start it by typing the command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python3.7
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>to the shell. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a> Since the choice of the directory where the interpreter lives
+is an installation option, other places are possible; check with your local
+Python guru or system administrator.  (E.g., <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/python</span></code> is a
+popular alternative location.)</p>
+<p>On Windows machines where you have installed from the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#windows-store"><span class="std std-ref">Microsoft Store</span></a>, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.7</span></code> command will be available. If you have
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">py.exe launcher</span></a> installed, you can use the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code>
+command. See <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#setting-envvars"><span class="std std-ref">Excursus: Setting environment variables</span></a> for other ways to launch Python.</p>
+<p>Typing an end-of-file character (<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-D</kbd> on Unix, <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-Z</kbd> on
+Windows) at the primary prompt causes the interpreter to exit with a zero exit
+status.  If that doesn’t work, you can exit the interpreter by typing the
+following command: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The interpreter’s line-editing features include interactive editing, history
+substitution and code completion on systems that support readline.  Perhaps the
+quickest check to see whether command line editing is supported is typing
+<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-P</kbd> to the first Python prompt you get.  If it beeps, you have command
+line editing; see Appendix <a class="reference internal" href="interactive.html#tut-interacting"><span class="std std-ref">Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution</span></a> for an introduction to the
+keys.  If nothing appears to happen, or if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^P</span></code> is echoed, command line
+editing isn’t available; you’ll only be able to use backspace to remove
+characters from the current line.</p>
+<p>The interpreter operates somewhat like the Unix shell: when called with standard
+input connected to a tty device, it reads and executes commands interactively;
+when called with a file name argument or with a file as standard input, it reads
+and executes a <em>script</em> from that file.</p>
+<p>A second way of starting the interpreter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-c</span> <span class="pre">command</span> <span class="pre">[arg]</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>,
+which executes the statement(s) in <em>command</em>, analogous to the shell’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> option.  Since Python statements often contain spaces or other
+characters that are special to the shell, it is usually advised to quote
+<em>command</em> in its entirety with single quotes.</p>
+<p>Some Python modules are also useful as scripts.  These can be invoked using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">[arg]</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>, which executes the source file for <em>module</em> as
+if you had spelled out its full name on the command line.</p>
+<p>When a script file is used, it is sometimes useful to be able to run the script
+and enter interactive mode afterwards.  This can be done by passing <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a>
+before the script.</p>
+<p>All command line options are described in <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-general"><span class="std std-ref">Command line and environment</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="argument-passing">
+<span id="tut-argpassing"></span><h3>2.1.1. Argument Passing<a class="headerlink" href="#argument-passing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When known to the interpreter, the script name and additional arguments
+thereafter are turned into a list of strings and assigned to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argv</span></code>
+variable in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code> module.  You can access this list by executing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span>
+<span class="pre">sys</span></code>.  The length of the list is at least one; when no script and no arguments
+are given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is an empty string.  When the script name is given as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> (meaning  standard input), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>.  When
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> <em>command</em> is used, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-c'</span></code>.  When
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> <em>module</em> is used, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code>  is set to the full name of the
+located module.  Options found after  <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> <em>command</em> or <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a>
+<em>module</em> are not consumed  by the Python interpreter’s option processing but
+left in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code> for  the command or module to handle.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interactive-mode">
+<span id="tut-interactive"></span><h3>2.1.2. Interactive Mode<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-mode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When commands are read from a tty, the interpreter is said to be in <em>interactive
+mode</em>.  In this mode it prompts for the next command with the <em>primary prompt</em>,
+usually three greater-than signs (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code>); for continuation lines it prompts
+with the <em>secondary prompt</em>, by default three dots (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>). The interpreter
+prints a welcome message stating its version number and a copyright notice
+before printing the first prompt:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python3.7
+<span class="go">Python 3.7 (default, Sep 16 2015, 09:25:04)</span>
+<span class="go">[GCC 4.8.2] on linux</span>
+<span class="go">Type &quot;help&quot;, &quot;copyright&quot;, &quot;credits&quot; or &quot;license&quot; for more information.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Continuation lines are needed when entering a multi-line construct. As an
+example, take a look at this <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">the_world_is_flat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">the_world_is_flat</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Be careful not to fall off!&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Be careful not to fall off!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more on interactive mode, see <a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#tut-interac"><span class="std std-ref">Interactive Mode</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-interpreter-and-its-environment">
+<span id="tut-interp"></span><h2>2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment<a class="headerlink" href="#the-interpreter-and-its-environment" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="source-code-encoding">
+<span id="tut-source-encoding"></span><h3>2.2.1. Source Code Encoding<a class="headerlink" href="#source-code-encoding" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>By default, Python source files are treated as encoded in UTF-8.  In that
+encoding, characters of most languages in the world can be used simultaneously
+in string literals, identifiers and comments — although the standard library
+only uses ASCII characters for identifiers, a convention that any portable code
+should follow.  To display all these characters properly, your editor must
+recognize that the file is UTF-8, and it must use a font that supports all the
+characters in the file.</p>
+<p>To declare an encoding other than the default one, a special comment line
+should be added as the <em>first</em> line of the file.  The syntax is as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># -*- coding: encoding -*-</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>where <em>encoding</em> is one of the valid <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> supported by Python.</p>
+<p>For example, to declare that Windows-1252 encoding is to be used, the first
+line of your source code file should be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># -*- coding: cp1252 -*-</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One exception to the <em>first line</em> rule is when the source code starts with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="appendix.html#tut-scripts"><span class="std std-ref">UNIX “shebang” line</span></a>.  In this case, the encoding
+declaration should be added as the second line of the file.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python3</span>
+<span class="c1"># -*- coding: cp1252 -*-</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>On Unix, the Python 3.x interpreter is by default not installed with the
+executable named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code>, so that it does not conflict with a
+simultaneously installed Python 2.x executable.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">2. Using the Python Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#invoking-the-interpreter">2.1. Invoking the Interpreter</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argument-passing">2.1.1. Argument Passing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interactive-mode">2.1.2. Interactive Mode</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-interpreter-and-its-environment">2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#source-code-encoding">2.2.1. Source Code Encoding</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="appetite.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">1. Whetting Your Appetite</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="introduction.html"
+                        title="next chapter">3. An Informal Introduction to Python</a></p>
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+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/introduction.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/introduction.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26a7984
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/introduction.html
@@ -0,0 +1,706 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>3. An Informal Introduction to Python &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="an-informal-introduction-to-python">
+<span id="tut-informal"></span><h1>3. An Informal Introduction to Python<a class="headerlink" href="#an-informal-introduction-to-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>In the following examples, input and output are distinguished by the presence or
+absence of prompts (<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term"><span class="xref std std-term">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-1"><span class="xref std std-term">…</span></a>): to repeat the example, you must type
+everything after the prompt, when the prompt appears; lines that do not begin
+with a prompt are output from the interpreter. Note that a secondary prompt on a
+line by itself in an example means you must type a blank line; this is used to
+end a multi-line command.</p>
+<p id="index-0">Many of the examples in this manual, even those entered at the interactive
+prompt, include comments.  Comments in Python start with the hash character,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code>, and extend to the end of the physical line.  A comment may appear at the
+start of a line or following whitespace or code, but not within a string
+literal.  A hash character within a string literal is just a hash character.
+Since comments are to clarify code and are not interpreted by Python, they may
+be omitted when typing in examples.</p>
+<p>Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># this is the first comment</span>
+<span class="n">spam</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>  <span class="c1"># and this is the second comment</span>
+          <span class="c1"># ... and now a third!</span>
+<span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;# This is not a comment because it&#39;s inside quotes.&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-python-as-a-calculator">
+<span id="tut-calculator"></span><h2>3.1. Using Python as a Calculator<a class="headerlink" href="#using-python-as-a-calculator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Let’s try some simple Python commands.  Start the interpreter and wait for the
+primary prompt, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span></code>.  (It shouldn’t take long.)</p>
+<div class="section" id="numbers">
+<span id="tut-numbers"></span><h3>3.1.1. Numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#numbers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression at it
+and it will write the value.  Expression syntax is straightforward: the
+operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> work just like in most other languages
+(for example, Pascal or C); parentheses (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">()</span></code>) can be used for grouping.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">50</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="go">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">50</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="go">5.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">8</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">5</span>  <span class="c1"># division always returns a floating point number</span>
+<span class="go">1.6</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The integer numbers (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">20</span></code>) have type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>,
+the ones with a fractional part (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5.0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.6</span></code>) have type
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.  We will see more about numeric types later in the tutorial.</p>
+<p>Division (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>) always returns a float.  To do <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-floor-division"><span class="xref std std-term">floor division</span></a> and
+get an integer result (discarding any fractional result) you can use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code>
+operator; to calculate the remainder you can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">17</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">3</span>  <span class="c1"># classic division returns a float</span>
+<span class="go">5.666666666666667</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">17</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">3</span>  <span class="c1"># floor division discards the fractional part</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">17</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">3</span>  <span class="c1"># the % operator returns the remainder of the division</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">5</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">2</span>  <span class="c1"># result * divisor + remainder</span>
+<span class="go">17</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With Python, it is possible to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> operator to calculate powers <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">5</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">2</span>  <span class="c1"># 5 squared</span>
+<span class="go">25</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">7</span>  <span class="c1"># 2 to the power of 7</span>
+<span class="go">128</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The equal sign (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">=</span></code>) is used to assign a value to a variable. Afterwards, no
+result is displayed before the next interactive prompt:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">height</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">height</span>
+<span class="go">900</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a variable is not “defined” (assigned a value), trying to use it will
+give you an error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span>  <span class="c1"># try to access an undefined variable</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">NameError</span>: <span class="n">name &#39;n&#39; is not defined</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There is full support for floating point; operators with mixed type operands
+convert the integer operand to floating point:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">4</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mf">3.75</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="go">14.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In interactive mode, the last printed expression is assigned to the variable
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code>.  This means that when you are using Python as a desk calculator, it is
+somewhat easier to continue calculations, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tax</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">12.5</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">100</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">price</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">100.50</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">price</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">tax</span>
+<span class="go">12.5625</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">price</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">_</span>
+<span class="go">113.0625</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">113.06</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This variable should be treated as read-only by the user.  Don’t explicitly
+assign a value to it — you would create an independent local variable with the
+same name masking the built-in variable with its magic behavior.</p>
+<p>In addition to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, Python supports other types of
+numbers, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a>.
+Python also has built-in support for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesnumeric"><span class="std std-ref">complex numbers</span></a>,
+and uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">j</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">J</span></code> suffix to indicate the imaginary part
+(e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3+5j</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="strings">
+<span id="tut-strings"></span><h3>3.1.2. Strings<a class="headerlink" href="#strings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Besides numbers, Python can also manipulate strings, which can be expressed
+in several ways.  They can be enclosed in single quotes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'...'</span></code>) or
+double quotes (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;...&quot;</span></code>) with the same result <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id4" id="id2">2</a>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code> can be used
+to escape quotes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;spam eggs&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># single quotes</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;spam eggs&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;doesn</span><span class="se">\&#39;</span><span class="s1">t&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># use \&#39; to escape the single quote...</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;doesn&#39;t&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;doesn&#39;t&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># ...or use double quotes instead</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;doesn&#39;t&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;Yes,&quot; they said.&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&quot;Yes,&quot; they said.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s2">Yes,</span><span class="se">\&quot;</span><span class="s2"> they said.&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&quot;Yes,&quot; they said.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;Isn</span><span class="se">\&#39;</span><span class="s1">t,&quot; they said.&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&quot;Isn\&#39;t,&quot; they said.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the interactive interpreter, the output string is enclosed in quotes and
+special characters are escaped with backslashes.  While this might sometimes
+look different from the input (the enclosing quotes could change), the two
+strings are equivalent.  The string is enclosed in double quotes if
+the string contains a single quote and no double quotes, otherwise it is
+enclosed in single quotes.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function produces a more
+readable output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped
+and special characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;Isn</span><span class="se">\&#39;</span><span class="s1">t,&quot; they said.&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&quot;Isn\&#39;t,&quot; they said.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;Isn</span><span class="se">\&#39;</span><span class="s1">t,&quot; they said.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;Isn&#39;t,&quot; they said.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;First line.</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">Second line.&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># \n means newline</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span>  <span class="c1"># without print(), \n is included in the output</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;First line.\nSecond line.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># with print(), \n produces a new line</span>
+<span class="go">First line.</span>
+<span class="go">Second line.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you don’t want characters prefaced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code> to be interpreted as
+special characters, you can use <em>raw strings</em> by adding an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> before
+the first quote:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;C:\some</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">ame&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># here \n means newline!</span>
+<span class="go">C:\some</span>
+<span class="go">ame</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;C:\some\name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># note the r before the quote</span>
+<span class="go">C:\some\name</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>String literals can span multiple lines.  One way is using triple-quotes:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;&quot;...&quot;&quot;&quot;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'''...'''</span></code>.  End of lines are automatically
+included in the string, but it’s possible to prevent this by adding a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code> at
+the end of the line.  The following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="se">\</span>
+<span class="s2">Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]</span>
+<span class="s2">     -h                        Display this usage message</span>
+<span class="s2">     -H hostname               Hostname to connect to</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>produces the following output (note that the initial newline is not included):</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
+     -h                        Display this usage message
+     -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Strings can be concatenated (glued together) with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> operator, and
+repeated with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># 3 times &#39;un&#39;, followed by &#39;ium&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">3</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="s1">&#39;un&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ium&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;unununium&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Two or more <em>string literals</em> (i.e. the ones enclosed between quotes) next
+to each other are automatically concatenated.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Py&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;thon&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This feature is particularly useful when you want to break long strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Put several strings within parentheses &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="s1">&#39;to have them joined together.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">text</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This only works with two literals though, not with variables or expressions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">prefix</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">prefix</span> <span class="s1">&#39;thon&#39;</span>  <span class="c1"># can&#39;t concatenate a variable and a string literal</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>
+    <span class="n">prefix</span> <span class="s1">&#39;thon&#39;</span>
+                <span class="o">^</span>
+<span class="gr">SyntaxError</span>: <span class="n">invalid syntax</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;un&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ium&#39;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>
+    <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;un&#39;</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ium&#39;</span>
+                   <span class="o">^</span>
+<span class="gr">SyntaxError</span>: <span class="n">invalid syntax</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want to concatenate variables or a variable and a literal, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">prefix</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;thon&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Strings can be <em>indexed</em> (subscripted), with the first character having index 0.
+There is no separate character type; a character is simply a string of size
+one:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># character in position 0</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;P&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># character in position 5</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Indices may also be negative numbers, to start counting from the right:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># last character</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># second-last character</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;o&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;P&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that since -0 is the same as 0, negative indices start from -1.</p>
+<p>In addition to indexing, <em>slicing</em> is also supported.  While indexing is used
+to obtain individual characters, <em>slicing</em> allows you to obtain substring:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;tho&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note how the start is always included, and the end always excluded.  This
+makes sure that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[:i]</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">s[i:]</span></code> is always equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Python&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Slice indices have useful defaults; an omitted first index defaults to zero, an
+omitted second index defaults to the size of the string being sliced.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>   <span class="c1"># character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:]</span>   <span class="c1"># characters from position 4 (included) to the end</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;on&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:]</span>  <span class="c1"># characters from the second-last (included) to the end</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;on&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One way to remember how slices work is to think of the indices as pointing
+<em>between</em> characters, with the left edge of the first character numbered 0.
+Then the right edge of the last character of a string of <em>n</em> characters has
+index <em>n</em>, for example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span> <span class="o">+---+---+---+---+---+---+</span>
+ <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">P</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">|</span>
+ <span class="o">+---+---+---+---+---+---+</span>
+ <span class="mi">0</span>   <span class="mi">1</span>   <span class="mi">2</span>   <span class="mi">3</span>   <span class="mi">4</span>   <span class="mi">5</span>   <span class="mi">6</span>
+<span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">6</span>  <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span>  <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">4</span>  <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span>  <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span>  <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first row of numbers gives the position of the indices 0…6 in the string;
+the second row gives the corresponding negative indices. The slice from <em>i</em> to
+<em>j</em> consists of all characters between the edges labeled <em>i</em> and <em>j</em>,
+respectively.</p>
+<p>For non-negative indices, the length of a slice is the difference of the
+indices, if both are within bounds.  For example, the length of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">word[1:3]</span></code> is
+2.</p>
+<p>Attempting to use an index that is too large will result in an error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># the word only has 6 characters</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">IndexError</span>: <span class="n">string index out of range</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, out of range slice indexes are handled gracefully when used for
+slicing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;on&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python strings cannot be changed — they are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-immutable"><span class="xref std std-term">immutable</span></a>.
+Therefore, assigning to an indexed position in the string results in an error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;J&#39;</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;str&#39; object does not support item assignment</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;str&#39; object does not support item assignment</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you need a different string, you should create a new one:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;J&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Jython&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;py&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Pypy&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> returns the length of a string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;supercalifragilisticexpialidocious&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">34</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#textseq"><span class="std std-ref">Text Sequence Type — str</span></a></dt><dd><p>Strings are examples of <em>sequence types</em>, and support the common
+operations supported by such types.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#string-methods"><span class="std std-ref">String Methods</span></a></dt><dd><p>Strings support a large number of methods for
+basic transformations and searching.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Formatted string literals</span></a></dt><dd><p>String literals that have embedded expressions.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a></dt><dd><p>Information about string formatting with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#old-string-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">printf-style String Formatting</span></a></dt><dd><p>The old formatting operations invoked when strings are
+the left operand of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator are described in more detail here.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lists">
+<span id="tut-lists"></span><h3>3.1.3. Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python knows a number of <em>compound</em> data types, used to group together other
+values.  The most versatile is the <em>list</em>, which can be written as a list of
+comma-separated values (items) between square brackets.  Lists might contain
+items of different types, but usually the items all have the same type.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Like strings (and all other built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">sequence</span></a> types), lists can be
+indexed and sliced:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># indexing returns the item</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">25</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:]</span>  <span class="c1"># slicing returns a new list</span>
+<span class="go">[9, 16, 25]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>All slice operations return a new list containing the requested elements.  This
+means that the following slice returns a new (shallow) copy of the list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span><span class="p">[:]</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Lists also support operations like concatenation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">squares</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">36</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">49</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">64</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">81</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unlike strings, which are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-immutable"><span class="xref std std-term">immutable</span></a>, lists are a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mutable"><span class="xref std std-term">mutable</span></a>
+type, i.e. it is possible to change their content:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cubes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">27</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">65</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">125</span><span class="p">]</span>  <span class="c1"># something&#39;s wrong here</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">4</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">3</span>  <span class="c1"># the cube of 4 is 64, not 65!</span>
+<span class="go">64</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cubes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">64</span>  <span class="c1"># replace the wrong value</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cubes</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 8, 27, 64, 125]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> <em>method</em> (we will see more about methods later):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cubes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">216</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># add the cube of 6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cubes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># and the cube of 7</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cubes</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Assignment to slices is also possible, and this can even change the size of the
+list or clear it entirely:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;g&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># replace some values</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;C&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;D&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;E&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;C&#39;, &#39;D&#39;, &#39;E&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># now remove them</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">[:]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> also applies to lists:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is possible to nest lists (create lists containing other lists), for
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="go">[[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;], [1, 2, 3]]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;b&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="first-steps-towards-programming">
+<span id="tut-firststeps"></span><h2>3.2. First Steps Towards Programming<a class="headerlink" href="#first-steps-towards-programming" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Of course, we can use Python for more complicated tasks than adding two and two
+together.  For instance, we can write an initial sub-sequence of the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number">Fibonacci series</a>
+as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Fibonacci series:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="c1"># the sum of two elements defines the next</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example introduces several new features.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The first line contains a <em>multiple assignment</em>: the variables <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code>
+simultaneously get the new values 0 and 1.  On the last line this is used again,
+demonstrating that the expressions on the right-hand side are all evaluated
+first before any of the assignments take place.  The right-hand side expressions
+are evaluated  from the left to the right.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">while</span></code></a> loop executes as long as the condition (here: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">10</span></code>)
+remains true.  In Python, like in C, any non-zero integer value is true; zero is
+false.  The condition may also be a string or list value, in fact any sequence;
+anything with a non-zero length is true, empty sequences are false.  The test
+used in the example is a simple comparison.  The standard comparison operators
+are written the same as in C: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code> (less than), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code> (greater than), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>
+(equal to), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code> (less than or equal to), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code> (greater than or equal to)
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code> (not equal to).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>body</em> of the loop is <em>indented</em>: indentation is Python’s way of grouping
+statements.  At the interactive prompt, you have to type a tab or space(s) for
+each indented line.  In practice you will prepare more complicated input
+for Python with a text editor; all decent text editors have an auto-indent
+facility.  When a compound statement is entered interactively, it must be
+followed by a blank line to indicate completion (since the parser cannot
+guess when you have typed the last line).  Note that each line within a basic
+block must be indented by the same amount.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function writes the value of the argument(s) it is given.
+It differs from just writing the expression you want to write (as we did
+earlier in the calculator examples) in the way it handles multiple arguments,
+floating point quantities, and strings.  Strings are printed without quotes,
+and a space is inserted between items, so you can format things nicely, like
+this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">256</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">256</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The value of i is&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">The value of i is 65536</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The keyword argument <em>end</em> can be used to avoid the newline after the output,
+or end the output with a different string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;,&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> has higher precedence than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3**2</span></code> will be
+interpreted as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-(3**2)</span></code> and thus result in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-9</span></code>.  To avoid this
+and get <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9</span></code>, you can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-3)**2</span></code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="label" id="id4"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>Unlike other languages, special characters such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> have the
+same meaning with both single (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'...'</span></code>) and double (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;...&quot;</span></code>) quotes.
+The only difference between the two is that within single quotes you don’t
+need to escape <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code> (but you have to escape <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\'</span></code>) and vice versa.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">3. An Informal Introduction to Python</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-python-as-a-calculator">3.1. Using Python as a Calculator</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numbers">3.1.1. Numbers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#strings">3.1.2. Strings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lists">3.1.3. Lists</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#first-steps-towards-programming">3.2. First Steps Towards Programming</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="interpreter.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">2. Using the Python Interpreter</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="controlflow.html"
+                        title="next chapter">4. More Control Flow Tools</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/modules.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/modules.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91504da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/modules.html
@@ -0,0 +1,697 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>6. Modules &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="modules">
+<span id="tut-modules"></span><h1>6. Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>If you quit from the Python interpreter and enter it again, the definitions you
+have made (functions and variables) are lost. Therefore, if you want to write a
+somewhat longer program, you are better off using a text editor to prepare the
+input for the interpreter and running it with that file as input instead.  This
+is known as creating a <em>script</em>.  As your program gets longer, you may want to
+split it into several files for easier maintenance.  You may also want to use a
+handy function that you’ve written in several programs without copying its
+definition into each program.</p>
+<p>To support this, Python has a way to put definitions in a file and use them in a
+script or in an interactive instance of the interpreter. Such a file is called a
+<em>module</em>; definitions from a module can be <em>imported</em> into other modules or into
+the <em>main</em> module (the collection of variables that you have access to in a
+script executed at the top level and in calculator mode).</p>
+<p>A module is a file containing Python definitions and statements.  The file name
+is the module name with the suffix <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> appended.  Within a module, the
+module’s name (as a string) is available as the value of the global variable
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>.  For instance, use your favorite text editor to create a file
+called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo.py</span></code> in the current directory with the following contents:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Fibonacci numbers module</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>    <span class="c1"># write Fibonacci series up to n</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>   <span class="c1"># return Fibonacci series up to n</span>
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now enter the Python interpreter and import this module with the following
+command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This does not enter the names of the functions defined in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code>  directly in
+the current symbol table; it only enters the module name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> there. Using
+the module name you can access the functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;fibo&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you intend to use a function often you can assign it to a local name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="more-on-modules">
+<span id="tut-moremodules"></span><h2>6.1. More on Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#more-on-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A module can contain executable statements as well as function definitions.
+These statements are intended to initialize the module. They are executed only
+the <em>first</em> time the module name is encountered in an import statement. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>
+(They are also run if the file is executed as a script.)</p>
+<p>Each module has its own private symbol table, which is used as the global symbol
+table by all functions defined in the module. Thus, the author of a module can
+use global variables in the module without worrying about accidental clashes
+with a user’s global variables. On the other hand, if you know what you are
+doing you can touch a module’s global variables with the same notation used to
+refer to its functions, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modname.itemname</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Modules can import other modules.  It is customary but not required to place all
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements at the beginning of a module (or script, for that
+matter).  The imported module names are placed in the importing module’s global
+symbol table.</p>
+<p>There is a variant of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement that imports names from a
+module directly into the importing module’s symbol table.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fib2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This does not introduce the module name from which the imports are taken in the
+local symbol table (so in the example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> is not defined).</p>
+<p>There is even a variant to import all names that a module defines:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This imports all names except those beginning with an underscore (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code>).
+In most cases Python programmers do not use this facility since it introduces
+an unknown set of names into the interpreter, possibly hiding some things
+you have already defined.</p>
+<p>Note that in general the practice of importing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> from a module or package is
+frowned upon, since it often causes poorly readable code. However, it is okay to
+use it to save typing in interactive sessions.</p>
+<p>If the module name is followed by <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code>, then the name
+following <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> is bound directly to the imported module.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">fib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is effectively importing the module in the same way that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">fibo</span></code>
+will do, with the only difference of it being available as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fib</span></code>.</p>
+<p>It can also be used when utilising <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> with similar effects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">fib</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fibonacci</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fibonacci</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>For efficiency reasons, each module is only imported once per interpreter
+session.  Therefore, if you change your modules, you must restart the
+interpreter – or, if it’s just one module you want to test interactively,
+use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a>, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">importlib;</span>
+<span class="pre">importlib.reload(modulename)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="executing-modules-as-scripts">
+<span id="tut-modulesasscripts"></span><h3>6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#executing-modules-as-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When you run a Python module with</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">arguments</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>the code in the module will be executed, just as if you imported it, but with
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;__main__&quot;</span></code>.  That means that by adding this code at
+the end of your module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;__main__&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+    <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>you can make the file usable as a script as well as an importable module,
+because the code that parses the command line only runs if the module is
+executed as the “main” file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python fibo.py <span class="m">50</span>
+<span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the module is imported, the code is not run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is often used either to provide a convenient user interface to a module, or
+for testing purposes (running the module as a script executes a test suite).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-module-search-path">
+<span id="tut-searchpath"></span><h3>6.1.2. The Module Search Path<a class="headerlink" href="#the-module-search-path" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-0">When a module named <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> is imported, the interpreter first searches for
+a built-in module with that name. If not found, it then searches for a file
+named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.py</span></code> in a list of directories given by the variable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is initialized from these locations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The directory containing the input script (or the current directory when no
+file is specified).</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> (a list of directory names, with the same syntax as the
+shell variable <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The installation-dependent default.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>On file systems which support symlinks, the directory containing the input
+script is calculated after the symlink is followed. In other words the
+directory containing the symlink is <strong>not</strong> added to the module search path.</p>
+</div>
+<p>After initialization, Python programs can modify <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.  The
+directory containing the script being run is placed at the beginning of the
+search path, ahead of the standard library path. This means that scripts in that
+directory will be loaded instead of modules of the same name in the library
+directory. This is an error unless the replacement is intended.  See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#tut-standardmodules"><span class="std std-ref">Standard Modules</span></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compiled-python-files">
+<h3>6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files<a class="headerlink" href="#compiled-python-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To speed up loading modules, Python caches the compiled version of each module
+in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code> directory under the name <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>,
+where the version encodes the format of the compiled file; it generally contains
+the Python version number.  For example, in CPython release 3.3 the compiled
+version of spam.py would be cached as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc</span></code>.  This
+naming convention allows compiled modules from different releases and different
+versions of Python to coexist.</p>
+<p>Python checks the modification date of the source against the compiled version
+to see if it’s out of date and needs to be recompiled.  This is a completely
+automatic process.  Also, the compiled modules are platform-independent, so the
+same library can be shared among systems with different architectures.</p>
+<p>Python does not check the cache in two circumstances.  First, it always
+recompiles and does not store the result for the module that’s loaded directly
+from the command line.  Second, it does not check the cache if there is no
+source module.  To support a non-source (compiled only) distribution, the
+compiled module must be in the source directory, and there must not be a source
+module.</p>
+<p>Some tips for experts:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>You can use the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a> switches on the Python command
+to reduce the size of a compiled module.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code> switch removes assert
+statements, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code> switch removes both assert statements and __doc__
+strings.  Since some programs may rely on having these available, you should
+only use this option if you know what you’re doing.  “Optimized” modules have
+an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt-</span></code> tag and are usually smaller.  Future releases may
+change the effects of optimization.</p></li>
+<li><p>A program doesn’t run any faster when it is read from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
+file than when it is read from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> file; the only thing that’s faster
+about <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files is the speed with which they are loaded.</p></li>
+<li><p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> can create .pyc files for all modules in a
+directory.</p></li>
+<li><p>There is more detail on this process, including a flow chart of the
+decisions, in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="standard-modules">
+<span id="tut-standardmodules"></span><h2>6.2. Standard Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p id="index-4">Python comes with a library of standard modules, described in a separate
+document, the Python Library Reference (“Library Reference” hereafter).  Some
+modules are built into the interpreter; these provide access to operations that
+are not part of the core of the language but are nevertheless built in, either
+for efficiency or to provide access to operating system primitives such as
+system calls.  The set of such modules is a configuration option which also
+depends on the underlying platform.  For example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/winreg.html#module-winreg" title="winreg: Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code></a> module is only
+provided on Windows systems. One particular module deserves some attention:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>, which is built into every Python interpreter.  The variables
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code> define the strings used as primary and secondary
+prompts:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps1</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps2</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;... &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;C&gt; &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">C&gt; print(&#39;Yuck!&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">Yuck!</span>
+<span class="go">C&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These two variables are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.</p>
+<p>The variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> is a list of strings that determines the interpreter’s
+search path for modules. It is initialized to a default path taken from the
+environment variable <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>, or from a built-in default if
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> is not set.  You can modify it using standard list
+operations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/ufs/guido/lib/python&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-dir-function">
+<span id="tut-dir"></span><h2>6.3. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> Function<a class="headerlink" href="#the-dir-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> is used to find out which names a module
+defines.  It returns a sorted list of strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;__name__&#39;, &#39;fib&#39;, &#39;fib2&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">[&#39;__displayhook__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__excepthook__&#39;, &#39;__loader__&#39;, &#39;__name__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;__package__&#39;, &#39;__stderr__&#39;, &#39;__stdin__&#39;, &#39;__stdout__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;_clear_type_cache&#39;, &#39;_current_frames&#39;, &#39;_debugmallocstats&#39;, &#39;_getframe&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;_home&#39;, &#39;_mercurial&#39;, &#39;_xoptions&#39;, &#39;abiflags&#39;, &#39;api_version&#39;, &#39;argv&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;base_exec_prefix&#39;, &#39;base_prefix&#39;, &#39;builtin_module_names&#39;, &#39;byteorder&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;call_tracing&#39;, &#39;callstats&#39;, &#39;copyright&#39;, &#39;displayhook&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;dont_write_bytecode&#39;, &#39;exc_info&#39;, &#39;excepthook&#39;, &#39;exec_prefix&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;executable&#39;, &#39;exit&#39;, &#39;flags&#39;, &#39;float_info&#39;, &#39;float_repr_style&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;getcheckinterval&#39;, &#39;getdefaultencoding&#39;, &#39;getdlopenflags&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;getfilesystemencoding&#39;, &#39;getobjects&#39;, &#39;getprofile&#39;, &#39;getrecursionlimit&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;getrefcount&#39;, &#39;getsizeof&#39;, &#39;getswitchinterval&#39;, &#39;gettotalrefcount&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;gettrace&#39;, &#39;hash_info&#39;, &#39;hexversion&#39;, &#39;implementation&#39;, &#39;int_info&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;intern&#39;, &#39;maxsize&#39;, &#39;maxunicode&#39;, &#39;meta_path&#39;, &#39;modules&#39;, &#39;path&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;path_hooks&#39;, &#39;path_importer_cache&#39;, &#39;platform&#39;, &#39;prefix&#39;, &#39;ps1&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;setcheckinterval&#39;, &#39;setdlopenflags&#39;, &#39;setprofile&#39;, &#39;setrecursionlimit&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;setswitchinterval&#39;, &#39;settrace&#39;, &#39;stderr&#39;, &#39;stdin&#39;, &#39;stdout&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;thread_info&#39;, &#39;version&#39;, &#39;version_info&#39;, &#39;warnoptions&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without arguments, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> lists the names you have defined currently:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;__builtins__&#39;, &#39;__name__&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;fib&#39;, &#39;fibo&#39;, &#39;sys&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that it lists all types of names: variables, modules, functions, etc.</p>
+<p id="index-7"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> does not list the names of built-in functions and variables.  If you
+want a list of those, they are defined in the standard module
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">builtins</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">builtins</span><span class="p">)</span>  
+<span class="go">[&#39;ArithmeticError&#39;, &#39;AssertionError&#39;, &#39;AttributeError&#39;, &#39;BaseException&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;BlockingIOError&#39;, &#39;BrokenPipeError&#39;, &#39;BufferError&#39;, &#39;BytesWarning&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;ChildProcessError&#39;, &#39;ConnectionAbortedError&#39;, &#39;ConnectionError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;ConnectionRefusedError&#39;, &#39;ConnectionResetError&#39;, &#39;DeprecationWarning&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;EOFError&#39;, &#39;Ellipsis&#39;, &#39;EnvironmentError&#39;, &#39;Exception&#39;, &#39;False&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;FileExistsError&#39;, &#39;FileNotFoundError&#39;, &#39;FloatingPointError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;FutureWarning&#39;, &#39;GeneratorExit&#39;, &#39;IOError&#39;, &#39;ImportError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;ImportWarning&#39;, &#39;IndentationError&#39;, &#39;IndexError&#39;, &#39;InterruptedError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;IsADirectoryError&#39;, &#39;KeyError&#39;, &#39;KeyboardInterrupt&#39;, &#39;LookupError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;MemoryError&#39;, &#39;NameError&#39;, &#39;None&#39;, &#39;NotADirectoryError&#39;, &#39;NotImplemented&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;NotImplementedError&#39;, &#39;OSError&#39;, &#39;OverflowError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;PendingDeprecationWarning&#39;, &#39;PermissionError&#39;, &#39;ProcessLookupError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;ReferenceError&#39;, &#39;ResourceWarning&#39;, &#39;RuntimeError&#39;, &#39;RuntimeWarning&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;StopIteration&#39;, &#39;SyntaxError&#39;, &#39;SyntaxWarning&#39;, &#39;SystemError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;SystemExit&#39;, &#39;TabError&#39;, &#39;TimeoutError&#39;, &#39;True&#39;, &#39;TypeError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;UnboundLocalError&#39;, &#39;UnicodeDecodeError&#39;, &#39;UnicodeEncodeError&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;UnicodeError&#39;, &#39;UnicodeTranslateError&#39;, &#39;UnicodeWarning&#39;, &#39;UserWarning&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;ValueError&#39;, &#39;Warning&#39;, &#39;ZeroDivisionError&#39;, &#39;_&#39;, &#39;__build_class__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;__debug__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__import__&#39;, &#39;__name__&#39;, &#39;__package__&#39;, &#39;abs&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;all&#39;, &#39;any&#39;, &#39;ascii&#39;, &#39;bin&#39;, &#39;bool&#39;, &#39;bytearray&#39;, &#39;bytes&#39;, &#39;callable&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;chr&#39;, &#39;classmethod&#39;, &#39;compile&#39;, &#39;complex&#39;, &#39;copyright&#39;, &#39;credits&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;delattr&#39;, &#39;dict&#39;, &#39;dir&#39;, &#39;divmod&#39;, &#39;enumerate&#39;, &#39;eval&#39;, &#39;exec&#39;, &#39;exit&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;filter&#39;, &#39;float&#39;, &#39;format&#39;, &#39;frozenset&#39;, &#39;getattr&#39;, &#39;globals&#39;, &#39;hasattr&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;hash&#39;, &#39;help&#39;, &#39;hex&#39;, &#39;id&#39;, &#39;input&#39;, &#39;int&#39;, &#39;isinstance&#39;, &#39;issubclass&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;iter&#39;, &#39;len&#39;, &#39;license&#39;, &#39;list&#39;, &#39;locals&#39;, &#39;map&#39;, &#39;max&#39;, &#39;memoryview&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;min&#39;, &#39;next&#39;, &#39;object&#39;, &#39;oct&#39;, &#39;open&#39;, &#39;ord&#39;, &#39;pow&#39;, &#39;print&#39;, &#39;property&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;quit&#39;, &#39;range&#39;, &#39;repr&#39;, &#39;reversed&#39;, &#39;round&#39;, &#39;set&#39;, &#39;setattr&#39;, &#39;slice&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;sorted&#39;, &#39;staticmethod&#39;, &#39;str&#39;, &#39;sum&#39;, &#39;super&#39;, &#39;tuple&#39;, &#39;type&#39;, &#39;vars&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;zip&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="packages">
+<span id="tut-packages"></span><h2>6.4. Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Packages are a way of structuring Python’s module namespace by using “dotted
+module names”.  For example, the module name <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.B</span></code> designates a submodule
+named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> in a package named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>.  Just like the use of modules saves the
+authors of different modules from having to worry about each other’s global
+variable names, the use of dotted module names saves the authors of multi-module
+packages like NumPy or Pillow from having to worry about
+each other’s module names.</p>
+<p>Suppose you want to design a collection of modules (a “package”) for the uniform
+handling of sound files and sound data.  There are many different sound file
+formats (usually recognized by their extension, for example: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.wav</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.aiff</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.au</span></code>), so you may need to create and maintain a growing
+collection of modules for the conversion between the various file formats.
+There are also many different operations you might want to perform on sound data
+(such as mixing, adding echo, applying an equalizer function, creating an
+artificial stereo effect), so in addition you will be writing a never-ending
+stream of modules to perform these operations.  Here’s a possible structure for
+your package (expressed in terms of a hierarchical filesystem):</p>
+<div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>sound/                          Top-level package
+      __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
+      formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
+              __init__.py
+              wavread.py
+              wavwrite.py
+              aiffread.py
+              aiffwrite.py
+              auread.py
+              auwrite.py
+              ...
+      effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
+              __init__.py
+              echo.py
+              surround.py
+              reverse.py
+              ...
+      filters/                  Subpackage for filters
+              __init__.py
+              equalizer.py
+              vocoder.py
+              karaoke.py
+              ...
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When importing the package, Python searches through the directories on
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> looking for the package subdirectory.</p>
+<p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> files are required to make Python treat directories
+containing the file as packages.  This prevents directories with a common name,
+such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code>, unintentionally hiding valid modules that occur later
+on the module search path. In the simplest case, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> can just be
+an empty file, but it can also execute initialization code for the package or
+set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> variable, described later.</p>
+<p>Users of the package can import individual modules from the package, for
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects.echo</span></code>.  It must be referenced with
+its full name.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sound</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">effects</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An alternative way of importing the submodule is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">echo</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This also loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>, and makes it available without its
+package prefix, so it can be used as follows:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Yet another variation is to import the desired function or variable directly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">echofilter</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Again, this loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>, but this makes its function
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echofilter()</span></code> directly available:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that when using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">item</span></code>, the item can be either a
+submodule (or subpackage) of the package, or some  other name defined in the
+package, like a function, class or variable.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement first
+tests whether the item is defined in the package; if not, it assumes it is a
+module and attempts to load it.  If it fails to find it, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>
+exception is raised.</p>
+<p>Contrarily, when using syntax like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">item.subitem.subsubitem</span></code>, each item
+except for the last must be a package; the last item can be a module or a
+package but can’t be a class or function or variable defined in the previous
+item.</p>
+<div class="section" id="importing-from-a-package">
+<span id="tut-pkg-import-star"></span><h3>6.4.1. Importing * From a Package<a class="headerlink" href="#importing-from-a-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="index-8">Now what happens when the user writes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>?  Ideally,
+one would hope that this somehow goes out to the filesystem, finds which
+submodules are present in the package, and imports them all.  This could take a
+long time and importing sub-modules might have unwanted side-effects that should
+only happen when the sub-module is explicitly imported.</p>
+<p>The only solution is for the package author to provide an explicit index of the
+package.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement uses the following convention: if a package’s
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> code defines a list named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code>, it is taken to be the
+list of module names that should be imported when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> is
+encountered.  It is up to the package author to keep this list up-to-date when a
+new version of the package is released.  Package authors may also decide not to
+support it, if they don’t see a use for importing * from their package.  For
+example, the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound/effects/__init__.py</span></code> could contain the following
+code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">__all__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;echo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;surround&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;reverse&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This would mean that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> would import the three
+named submodules of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound</span></code> package.</p>
+<p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> is not defined, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>
+does <em>not</em> import all submodules from the package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> into the
+current namespace; it only ensures that the package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> has
+been imported (possibly running any initialization code in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>)
+and then imports whatever names are defined in the package.  This includes any
+names defined (and submodules explicitly loaded) by <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>.  It
+also includes any submodules of the package that were explicitly loaded by
+previous <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements.  Consider this code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.surround</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code> modules are imported in the
+current namespace because they are defined in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> package
+when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from...import</span></code> statement is executed.  (This also works when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> is defined.)</p>
+<p>Although certain modules are designed to export only names that follow certain
+patterns when you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>, it is still considered bad practice in
+production code.</p>
+<p>Remember, there is nothing wrong with using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span>
+<span class="pre">specific_submodule</span></code>!  In fact, this is the recommended notation unless the
+importing module needs to use submodules with the same name from different
+packages.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="intra-package-references">
+<h3>6.4.2. Intra-package References<a class="headerlink" href="#intra-package-references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When packages are structured into subpackages (as with the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound</span></code> package
+in the example), you can use absolute imports to refer to submodules of siblings
+packages.  For example, if the module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.filters.vocoder</span></code> needs to use
+the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> module in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> package, it can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">echo</span></code>.</p>
+<p>You can also write relative imports, with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code> form
+of import statement.  These imports use leading dots to indicate the current and
+parent packages involved in the relative import.  From the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code>
+module for example, you might use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">echo</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">formats</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..filters</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">equalizer</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that relative imports are based on the name of the current module.  Since
+the name of the main module is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;__main__&quot;</span></code>, modules intended for use
+as the main module of a Python application must always use absolute imports.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="packages-in-multiple-directories">
+<h3>6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories<a class="headerlink" href="#packages-in-multiple-directories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Packages support one more special attribute, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a>.  This is
+initialized to be a list containing the name of the directory holding the
+package’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> before the code in that file is executed.  This
+variable can be modified; doing so affects future searches for modules and
+subpackages contained in the package.</p>
+<p>While this feature is not often needed, it can be used to extend the set of
+modules found in a package.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>In fact function definitions are also ‘statements’ that are ‘executed’; the
+execution of a module-level function definition enters the function name in
+the module’s global symbol table.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">6. Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-on-modules">6.1. More on Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#executing-modules-as-scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-module-search-path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compiled-python-files">6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-modules">6.2. Standard Modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-dir-function">6.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code> Function</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages">6.4. Packages</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importing-from-a-package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#intra-package-references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages-in-multiple-directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="datastructures.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">5. Data Structures</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="inputoutput.html"
+                        title="next chapter">7. Input and Output</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/modules.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
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+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/stdlib.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/stdlib.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf1396a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/stdlib.html
@@ -0,0 +1,486 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+        table.full-width-table {
+            width: 100%;
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+  </head><body>
+  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+             accesskey="I">index</a></li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index"
+             >modules</a> |</li>
+        <li class="right" >
+          <a href="stdlib2.html" title="11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II"
+             accesskey="N">next</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
+        <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> &#187;</li>
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+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="brief-tour-of-the-standard-library">
+<span id="tut-brieftour"></span><h1>10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library<a class="headerlink" href="#brief-tour-of-the-standard-library" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="operating-system-interface">
+<span id="tut-os-interface"></span><h2>10.1. Operating System Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#operating-system-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module provides dozens of functions for interacting with the
+operating system:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getcwd</span><span class="p">()</span>      <span class="c1"># Return the current working directory</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C:\\Python37&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/server/accesslogs&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Change current working directory</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">system</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mkdir today&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Run the command mkdir in the system shell</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Be sure to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">os</span></code> style instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">os</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.  This
+will keep <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> from shadowing the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function which
+operates much differently.</p>
+<p id="index-0">The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> functions are useful as interactive
+aids for working with large modules like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;returns a list of all module functions&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;returns an extensive manual page created from the module&#39;s docstrings&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For daily file and directory management tasks, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module provides
+a higher level interface that is easier to use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copyfile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;data.db&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;archive.db&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;archive.db&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">move</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/build/executables&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;installdir&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;installdir&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="file-wildcards">
+<span id="tut-file-wildcards"></span><h2>10.2. File Wildcards<a class="headerlink" href="#file-wildcards" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> module provides a function for making file lists from directory
+wildcard searches:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">glob</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;primes.py&#39;, &#39;random.py&#39;, &#39;quote.py&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-arguments">
+<span id="tut-command-line-arguments"></span><h2>10.3. Command Line Arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-arguments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Common utility scripts often need to process command line arguments. These
+arguments are stored in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module’s <em>argv</em> attribute as a list.  For
+instance the following output results from running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">demo.py</span> <span class="pre">one</span> <span class="pre">two</span>
+<span class="pre">three</span></code> at the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;demo.py&#39;, &#39;one&#39;, &#39;two&#39;, &#39;three&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> module processes <em>sys.argv</em> using the conventions of the Unix
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a> function.  More powerful and flexible command line processing is
+provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="error-output-redirection-and-program-termination">
+<span id="tut-stderr"></span><h2>10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination<a class="headerlink" href="#error-output-redirection-and-program-termination" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module also has attributes for <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em>, and <em>stderr</em>.
+The latter is useful for emitting warnings and error messages to make them
+visible even when <em>stdout</em> has been redirected:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Warning, log file not found starting a new one</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Warning, log file not found starting a new one</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The most direct way to terminate a script is to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="string-pattern-matching">
+<span id="tut-string-pattern-matching"></span><h2>10.5. String Pattern Matching<a class="headerlink" href="#string-pattern-matching" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module provides regular expression tools for advanced string
+processing. For complex matching and manipulation, regular expressions offer
+succinct, optimized solutions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">findall</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\bf[a-z]*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;which foot or hand fell fastest&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;foot&#39;, &#39;fell&#39;, &#39;fastest&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sub</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(\b[a-z]+) \1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;\1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cat in the the hat&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;cat in the hat&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When only simple capabilities are needed, string methods are preferred because
+they are easier to read and debug:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;tea for too&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;too&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;two&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;tea for two&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mathematics">
+<span id="tut-mathematics"></span><h2>10.6. Mathematics<a class="headerlink" href="#mathematics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module gives access to the underlying C library functions for
+floating point math:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.70710678118654757</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1024</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">10.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module provides tools for making random selections:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;apple&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;pear&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;banana&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;apple&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># sampling without replacement</span>
+<span class="go">[30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="p">()</span>    <span class="c1"># random float</span>
+<span class="go">0.17970987693706186</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">randrange</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># random integer chosen from range(6)</span>
+<span class="go">4</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/statistics.html#module-statistics" title="statistics: mathematical statistics functions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code></a> module calculates basic statistical properties
+(the mean, median, variance, etc.) of numeric data:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">statistics</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">2.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1.25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">statistics</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mean</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.6071428571428572</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">statistics</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">median</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.25</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">statistics</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">variance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1.3720238095238095</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The SciPy project &lt;<a class="reference external" href="https://scipy.org">https://scipy.org</a>&gt; has many other modules for numerical
+computations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="internet-access">
+<span id="tut-internet-access"></span><h2>10.7. Internet Access<a class="headerlink" href="#internet-access" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are a number of modules for accessing the internet and processing internet
+protocols. Two of the simplest are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> for retrieving data
+from URLs and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> for sending mail:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/cgi-bin/timer.pl&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">response</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">line</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Decoding the binary data to text.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;EST&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="s1">&#39;EDT&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># look for Eastern Time</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="go">&lt;BR&gt;Nov. 25, 09:43:32 PM EST</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">smtplib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">server</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">smtplib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;localhost&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sendmail</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;soothsayer@example.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;jcaesar@example.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;To: jcaesar@example.org</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="sd">From: soothsayer@example.org</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="sd"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="sd">Beware the Ides of March.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">quit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Note that the second example needs a mailserver running on localhost.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dates-and-times">
+<span id="tut-dates-and-times"></span><h2>10.8. Dates and Times<a class="headerlink" href="#dates-and-times" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times in
+both simple and complex ways. While date and time arithmetic is supported, the
+focus of the implementation is on efficient member extraction for output
+formatting and manipulation.  The module also supports objects that are timezone
+aware.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># dates are easily constructed and formatted</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">date</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">now</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">today</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">now</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">now</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;%m-</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">-%y. </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> %b %Y is a %A on the </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2"> day of %B.&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># dates support calendar arithmetic</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">birthday</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">date</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1964</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">31</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">age</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">now</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">birthday</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">age</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">days</span>
+<span class="go">14368</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="data-compression">
+<span id="tut-data-compression"></span><h2>10.9. Data Compression<a class="headerlink" href="#data-compression" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Common data archiving and compression formats are directly supported by modules
+including: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">zlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;witch which has which witches wrist watch&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">41</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">37</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decompress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;witch which has which witches wrist watch&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">zlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">crc32</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">226805979</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="performance-measurement">
+<span id="tut-performance-measurement"></span><h2>10.10. Performance Measurement<a class="headerlink" href="#performance-measurement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some Python users develop a deep interest in knowing the relative performance of
+different approaches to the same problem. Python provides a measurement tool
+that answers those questions immediately.</p>
+<p>For example, it may be tempting to use the tuple packing and unpacking feature
+instead of the traditional approach to swapping arguments. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a>
+module quickly demonstrates a modest performance advantage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Timer</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;t=a; a=b; b=t&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a=1; b=2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.57535828626024577</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a,b = b,a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a=1; b=2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">timeit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0.54962537085770791</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In contrast to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a>’s fine level of granularity, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-pstats" title="pstats: Statistics object for use with the profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstats</span></code></a> modules provide tools for identifying time critical sections in
+larger blocks of code.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="quality-control">
+<span id="tut-quality-control"></span><h2>10.11. Quality Control<a class="headerlink" href="#quality-control" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>One approach for developing high quality software is to write tests for each
+function as it is developed and to run those tests frequently during the
+development process.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module provides a tool for scanning a module and validating
+tests embedded in a program’s docstrings.  Test construction is as simple as
+cutting-and-pasting a typical call along with its results into the docstring.
+This improves the documentation by providing the user with an example and it
+allows the doctest module to make sure the code remains true to the
+documentation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">average</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Computes the arithmetic mean of a list of numbers.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; print(average([20, 30, 70]))</span>
+<span class="sd">    40.0</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">values</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">doctest</span>
+<span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testmod</span><span class="p">()</span>   <span class="c1"># automatically validate the embedded tests</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module is not as effortless as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module,
+but it allows a more comprehensive set of tests to be maintained in a separate
+file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TestStatisticalFunctions</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_average</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">average</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">70</span><span class="p">]),</span> <span class="mf">40.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">average</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">]),</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mf">4.3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaises</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">average</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+        <span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaises</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">average</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">70</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># Calling from the command line invokes all tests</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="batteries-included">
+<span id="tut-batteries-included"></span><h2>10.12. Batteries Included<a class="headerlink" href="#batteries-included" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has a “batteries included” philosophy.  This is best seen through the
+sophisticated and robust capabilities of its larger packages. For example:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.server.html#module-xmlrpc.server" title="xmlrpc.server: Basic XML-RPC server implementations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code></a> modules make implementing
+remote procedure calls into an almost trivial task.  Despite the modules
+names, no direct knowledge or handling of XML is needed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package is a library for managing email messages, including
+MIME and other <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-based message documents. Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a> which actually send and receive messages, the email package has
+a complete toolset for building or decoding complex message structures
+(including attachments) and for implementing internet encoding and header
+protocols.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> package provides robust support for parsing this
+popular data interchange format.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module supports
+direct reading and writing of files in Comma-Separated Value format,
+commonly supported by databases and spreadsheets.  XML processing is
+supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.dom.html#module-xml.dom" title="xml.dom: Document Object Model API for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> packages. Together, these modules and packages
+greatly simplify data interchange between Python applications and
+other tools.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module is a wrapper for the SQLite database
+library, providing a persistent database that can be updated and
+accessed using slightly nonstandard SQL syntax.</p></li>
+<li><p>Internationalization is supported by a number of modules including
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gettext.html#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a>, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> package.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operating-system-interface">10.1. Operating System Interface</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-wildcards">10.2. File Wildcards</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-arguments">10.3. Command Line Arguments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#error-output-redirection-and-program-termination">10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-pattern-matching">10.5. String Pattern Matching</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mathematics">10.6. Mathematics</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#internet-access">10.7. Internet Access</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dates-and-times">10.8. Dates and Times</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#data-compression">10.9. Data Compression</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#performance-measurement">10.10. Performance Measurement</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#quality-control">10.11. Quality Control</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#batteries-included">10.12. Batteries Included</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="classes.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">9. Classes</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stdlib2.html"
+                        title="next chapter">11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II</a></p>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="brief-tour-of-the-standard-library-part-ii">
+<span id="tut-brieftourtwo"></span><h1>11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II<a class="headerlink" href="#brief-tour-of-the-standard-library-part-ii" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This second tour covers more advanced modules that support professional
+programming needs.  These modules rarely occur in small scripts.</p>
+<div class="section" id="output-formatting">
+<span id="tut-output-formatting"></span><h2>11.1. Output Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#output-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/reprlib.html#module-reprlib" title="reprlib: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code></a> module provides a version of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> customized for
+abbreviated displays of large or deeply nested containers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">reprlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">reprlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;supercalifragilisticexpialidocious&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;{&#39;a&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;, ...}&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pprint.html#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code></a> module offers more sophisticated control over printing both
+built-in and user defined objects in a way that is readable by the interpreter.
+When the result is longer than one line, the “pretty printer” adds line breaks
+and indentation to more clearly reveal data structure:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[[[[</span><span class="s1">&#39;black&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cyan&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;white&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;green&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">]],</span> <span class="p">[[</span><span class="s1">&#39;magenta&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="s1">&#39;yellow&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">]]]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[[[[&#39;black&#39;, &#39;cyan&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">   &#39;white&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">   [&#39;green&#39;, &#39;red&#39;]],</span>
+<span class="go">  [[&#39;magenta&#39;, &#39;yellow&#39;],</span>
+<span class="go">   &#39;blue&#39;]]]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#module-textwrap" title="textwrap: Text wrapping and filling"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code></a> module formats paragraphs of text to fit a given screen
+width:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">textwrap</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">the wrapped lines.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">doc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">The wrap() method is just like fill()</span>
+<span class="go">except that it returns a list of strings</span>
+<span class="go">instead of one big string with newlines</span>
+<span class="go">to separate the wrapped lines.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module accesses a database of culture specific data formats.
+The grouping attribute of locale’s format function provides a direct way of
+formatting numbers with group separators:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">locale</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_ALL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;English_United States.1252&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;English_United States.1252&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">localeconv</span><span class="p">()</span>          <span class="c1"># get a mapping of conventions</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">1234567.8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">grouping</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1,234,567&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%s%.*f</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;currency_symbol&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                     <span class="n">conv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;frac_digits&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">grouping</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;$1,234,567.80&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="templating">
+<span id="tut-templating"></span><h2>11.2. Templating<a class="headerlink" href="#templating" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module includes a versatile <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Template</span></code></a> class
+with a simplified syntax suitable for editing by end-users.  This allows users
+to customize their applications without having to alter the application.</p>
+<p>The format uses placeholder names formed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> with valid Python identifiers
+(alphanumeric characters and underscores).  Surrounding the placeholder with
+braces allows it to be followed by more alphanumeric letters with no intervening
+spaces.  Writing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$$</span></code> creates a single escaped <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">string</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Template</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;$</span><span class="si">{village}</span><span class="s1">folk send $$10 to $cause.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">village</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Nottingham&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cause</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;the ditch fund&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template.substitute" title="string.Template.substitute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">substitute()</span></code></a> method raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> when a
+placeholder is not supplied in a dictionary or a keyword argument.  For
+mail-merge style applications, user supplied data may be incomplete and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template.safe_substitute" title="string.Template.safe_substitute"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">safe_substitute()</span></code></a> method may be more appropriate —
+it will leave placeholders unchanged if data is missing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Return the $item to $owner.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;unladen swallow&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;owner&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">safe_substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Return the unladen swallow to $owner.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Template subclasses can specify a custom delimiter.  For example, a batch
+renaming utility for a photo browser may elect to use percent signs for
+placeholders such as the current date, image sequence number, or file format:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">os.path</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">photofiles</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;img_1074.jpg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;img_1076.jpg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;img_1077.jpg&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">BatchRename</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">delimiter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;%&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Enter rename style (</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">-date %n-seqnum </span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s1">-format):  &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BatchRename</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">date</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">%b%y&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">photofiles</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">base</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ext</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">newname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">date</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ext</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s1"> --&gt; </span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">newname</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="go">img_1074.jpg --&gt; Ashley_0.jpg</span>
+<span class="go">img_1076.jpg --&gt; Ashley_1.jpg</span>
+<span class="go">img_1077.jpg --&gt; Ashley_2.jpg</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another application for templating is separating program logic from the details
+of multiple output formats.  This makes it possible to substitute custom
+templates for XML files, plain text reports, and HTML web reports.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="working-with-binary-data-record-layouts">
+<span id="tut-binary-formats"></span><h2>11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts<a class="headerlink" href="#working-with-binary-data-record-layouts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module provides <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.unpack" title="struct.unpack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack()</span></code></a> functions for working with variable length binary
+record formats.  The following example shows
+how to loop through header information in a ZIP file without using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module.  Pack codes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;H&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;I&quot;</span></code> represent two and four
+byte unsigned numbers respectively.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;&quot;</span></code> indicates that they are
+standard size and in little-endian byte order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;myfile.zip&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>                      <span class="c1"># show the first 3 file headers</span>
+    <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">14</span>
+    <span class="n">fields</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;IIIHH&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">])</span>
+    <span class="n">crc32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">comp_size</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">uncomp_size</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">filenamesize</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fields</span>
+
+    <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">16</span>
+    <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">filenamesize</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">filenamesize</span>
+    <span class="n">extra</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">extra_size</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">crc32</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">comp_size</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">uncomp_size</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">extra_size</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">comp_size</span>     <span class="c1"># skip to the next header</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multi-threading">
+<span id="tut-multi-threading"></span><h2>11.4. Multi-threading<a class="headerlink" href="#multi-threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Threading is a technique for decoupling tasks which are not sequentially
+dependent.  Threads can be used to improve the responsiveness of applications
+that accept user input while other tasks run in the background.  A related use
+case is running I/O in parallel with computations in another thread.</p>
+<p>The following code shows how the high level <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module can run
+tasks in background while the main program continues to run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">zipfile</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">AsyncZip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">infile</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">infile</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">outfile</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">outfile</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zipfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ZipFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">outfile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">zipfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ZIP_DEFLATED</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Finished background zip of:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">background</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">AsyncZip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mydata.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;myarchive.zip&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">background</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;The main program continues to run in foreground.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">background</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>    <span class="c1"># Wait for the background task to finish</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Main program waited until background was done.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The principal challenge of multi-threaded applications is coordinating threads
+that share data or other resources.  To that end, the threading module provides
+a number of synchronization primitives including locks, events, condition
+variables, and semaphores.</p>
+<p>While those tools are powerful, minor design errors can result in problems that
+are difficult to reproduce.  So, the preferred approach to task coordination is
+to concentrate all access to a resource in a single thread and then use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> module to feed that thread with requests from other threads.
+Applications using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> objects for inter-thread communication and
+coordination are easier to design, more readable, and more reliable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<span id="tut-logging"></span><h2>11.5. Logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module offers a full featured and flexible logging system.
+At its simplest, log messages are sent to a file or to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Debugging information&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Informational message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Warning:config file </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> not found&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;server.conf&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error occurred&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Critical error -- shutting down&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This produces the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
+ERROR:root:Error occurred
+CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>By default, informational and debugging messages are suppressed and the output
+is sent to standard error.  Other output options include routing messages
+through email, datagrams, sockets, or to an HTTP Server.  New filters can select
+different routing based on message priority: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEBUG</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRITICAL</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The logging system can be configured directly from Python or can be loaded from
+a user editable configuration file for customized logging without altering the
+application.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="weak-references">
+<span id="tut-weak-references"></span><h2>11.6. Weak References<a class="headerlink" href="#weak-references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python does automatic memory management (reference counting for most objects and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><span class="xref std std-term">garbage collection</span></a> to eliminate cycles).  The memory is freed shortly
+after the last reference to it has been eliminated.</p>
+<p>This approach works fine for most applications but occasionally there is a need
+to track objects only as long as they are being used by something else.
+Unfortunately, just tracking them creates a reference that makes them permanent.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module provides tools for tracking objects without creating a
+reference.  When the object is no longer needed, it is automatically removed
+from a weakref table and a callback is triggered for weakref objects.  Typical
+applications include caching objects that are expensive to create:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">weakref</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">gc</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>                   <span class="c1"># create a reference</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">WeakValueDictionary</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;primary&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">a</span>            <span class="c1"># does not create a reference</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;primary&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>                <span class="c1"># fetch the object if it is still alive</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">a</span>                       <span class="c1"># remove the one reference</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">collect</span><span class="p">()</span>                <span class="c1"># run garbage collection right away</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;primary&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>                <span class="c1"># entry was automatically removed</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;primary&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>                <span class="c1"># entry was automatically removed</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;C:/python37/lib/weakref.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">46</span>, in <span class="n">__getitem__</span>
+    <span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]()</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;primary&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tools-for-working-with-lists">
+<span id="tut-list-tools"></span><h2>11.7. Tools for Working with Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#tools-for-working-with-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Many data structure needs can be met with the built-in list type. However,
+sometimes there is a need for alternative implementations with different
+performance trade-offs.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module provides an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array()</span></code></a> object that is like
+a list that stores only homogeneous data and stores it more compactly.  The
+following example shows an array of numbers stored as two byte unsigned binary
+numbers (typecode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;H&quot;</span></code>) rather than the usual 16 bytes per entry for regular
+lists of Python int objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">array</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">array</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">array</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;H&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">700</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">22222</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">26932</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">array(&#39;H&#39;, [10, 700])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module provides a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque()</span></code></a> object
+that is like a list with faster appends and pops from the left side but slower
+lookups in the middle. These objects are well suited for implementing queues
+and breadth first tree searches:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deque</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;task1&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;task2&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;task3&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;task4&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Handling&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">Handling task1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">unsearched</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">starting_node</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">breadth_first_search</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unsearched</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">node</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">unsearched</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">m</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">gen_moves</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">node</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">is_goal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span>
+        <span class="n">unsearched</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to alternative list implementations, the library also offers other
+tools such as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bisect.html#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code></a> module with functions for manipulating sorted
+lists:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">bisect</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">scores</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;perl&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;tcl&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">400</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;lua&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bisect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">insort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">scores</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">300</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ruby&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">scores</span>
+<span class="go">[(100, &#39;perl&#39;), (200, &#39;tcl&#39;), (300, &#39;ruby&#39;), (400, &#39;lua&#39;), (500, &#39;python&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> module provides functions for implementing heaps based on
+regular lists.  The lowest valued entry is always kept at position zero.  This
+is useful for applications which repeatedly access the smallest element but do
+not want to run a full list sort:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">heapq</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">heapify</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">heappop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">heappush</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heapify</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>                      <span class="c1"># rearrange the list into heap order</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>                 <span class="c1"># add a new entry</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">heappop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)]</span>  <span class="c1"># fetch the three smallest entries</span>
+<span class="go">[-5, 0, 1]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="decimal-floating-point-arithmetic">
+<span id="tut-decimal-fp"></span><h2>11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal-floating-point-arithmetic" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module offers a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> datatype for
+decimal floating point arithmetic.  Compared to the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>
+implementation of binary floating point, the class is especially helpful for</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>financial applications and other uses which require exact decimal
+representation,</p></li>
+<li><p>control over precision,</p></li>
+<li><p>control over rounding to meet legal or regulatory requirements,</p></li>
+<li><p>tracking of significant decimal places, or</p></li>
+<li><p>applications where the user expects the results to match calculations done by
+hand.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example, calculating a 5% tax on a 70 cent phone charge gives different
+results in decimal floating point and binary floating point. The difference
+becomes significant if the results are rounded to the nearest cent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0.70&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.05&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.74&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">70</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mf">1.05</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">0.73</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> result keeps a trailing zero, automatically
+inferring four place significance from multiplicands with two place
+significance.  Decimal reproduces mathematics as done by hand and avoids
+issues that can arise when binary floating point cannot exactly represent
+decimal quantities.</p>
+<p>Exact representation enables the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> class to perform
+modulo calculations and equality tests that are unsuitable for binary floating
+point:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.00&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.10&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.00&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mf">1.00</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mf">0.10</span>
+<span class="go">0.09999999999999995</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mf">1.0</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module provides arithmetic with as much precision as needed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">36</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;0.142857142857142857142857142857142857&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
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+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#output-formatting">11.1. Output Formatting</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#templating">11.2. Templating</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-binary-data-record-layouts">11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multi-threading">11.4. Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">11.5. Logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#weak-references">11.6. Weak References</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tools-for-working-with-lists">11.7. Tools for Working with Lists</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal-floating-point-arithmetic">11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stdlib.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
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+                        title="next chapter">12. Virtual Environments and Packages</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="virtual-environments-and-packages">
+<span id="tut-venv"></span><h1>12. Virtual Environments and Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#virtual-environments-and-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>12.1. Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python applications will often use packages and modules that don’t
+come as part of the standard library.  Applications will sometimes
+need a specific version of a library, because the application may
+require that a particular bug has been fixed or the application may be
+written using an obsolete version of the library’s interface.</p>
+<p>This means it may not be possible for one Python installation to meet
+the requirements of every application.  If application A needs version
+1.0 of a particular module but application B needs version 2.0, then
+the requirements are in conflict and installing either version 1.0 or 2.0
+will leave one application unable to run.</p>
+<p>The solution for this problem is to create a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-virtual-environment"><span class="xref std std-term">virtual environment</span></a>, a
+self-contained directory tree that contains a Python installation for a
+particular version of Python, plus a number of additional packages.</p>
+<p>Different applications can then use different virtual environments.
+To resolve the earlier example of conflicting requirements,
+application A can have its own virtual environment with version 1.0
+installed while application B has another virtual environment with version 2.0.
+If application B requires a library be upgraded to version 3.0, this will
+not affect application A’s environment.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="creating-virtual-environments">
+<h2>12.2. Creating Virtual Environments<a class="headerlink" href="#creating-virtual-environments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The module used to create and manage virtual environments is called
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> will usually install the most recent version of
+Python that you have available. If you have multiple versions of Python on your
+system, you can select a specific Python version by running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span></code> or
+whichever version you want.</p>
+<p>To create a virtual environment, decide upon a directory where you want to
+place it, and run the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> module as a script with the directory path:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python3</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">venv</span> <span class="n">tutorial</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">env</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will create the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tutorial-env</span></code> directory if it doesn’t exist,
+and also create directories inside it containing a copy of the Python
+interpreter, the standard library, and various supporting files.</p>
+<p>Once you’ve created a virtual environment, you may activate it.</p>
+<p>On Windows, run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">tutorial</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">env</span>\<span class="n">Scripts</span>\<span class="n">activate</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bat</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>On Unix or MacOS, run:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">source</span> <span class="n">tutorial</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">env</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">activate</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(This script is written for the bash shell.  If you use the
+<strong class="program">csh</strong> or <strong class="program">fish</strong> shells, there are alternate
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">activate.csh</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">activate.fish</span></code> scripts you should use
+instead.)</p>
+<p>Activating the virtual environment will change your shell’s prompt to show what
+virtual environment you’re using, and modify the environment so that running
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> will get you that particular version and installation of Python.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>$ <span class="nb">source</span> ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
+<span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ python
+Python <span class="m">3</span>.5.1 <span class="o">(</span>default, May  <span class="m">6</span> <span class="m">2016</span>, <span class="m">10</span>:59:36<span class="o">)</span>
+  ...
+&gt;&gt;&gt; import sys
+&gt;&gt;&gt; sys.path
+<span class="o">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>, <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local/lib/python35.zip&#39;</span>, ...,
+<span class="s1">&#39;~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages&#39;</span><span class="o">]</span>
+&gt;&gt;&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="managing-packages-with-pip">
+<h2>12.3. Managing Packages with pip<a class="headerlink" href="#managing-packages-with-pip" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>You can install, upgrade, and remove packages using a program called
+<strong class="program">pip</strong>.  By default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> will install packages from the Python
+Package Index, &lt;<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">https://pypi.org</a>&gt;.  You can browse the Python
+Package Index by going to it in your web browser, or you can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>’s
+limited search feature:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip search astronomy
+skyfield               - Elegant astronomy <span class="k">for</span> Python
+gary                   - Galactic astronomy and gravitational dynamics.
+novas                  - The United States Naval Observatory NOVAS astronomy library
+astroobs               - Provides astronomy ephemeris to plan telescope observations
+PyAstronomy            - A collection of astronomy related tools <span class="k">for</span> Python.
+...
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> has a number of subcommands: “search”, “install”, “uninstall”,
+“freeze”, etc.  (Consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules</span></a> guide for
+complete documentation for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>You can install the latest version of a package by specifying a package’s name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip install novas
+Collecting novas
+  Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz <span class="o">(</span>136kB<span class="o">)</span>
+Installing collected packages: novas
+  Running setup.py install <span class="k">for</span> novas
+Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also install a specific version of a package by giving the
+package name  followed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> and the version number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip install <span class="nv">requests</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">2</span>.6.0
+Collecting <span class="nv">requests</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">2</span>.6.0
+  Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
+Installing collected packages: requests
+Successfully installed requests-2.6.0
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you re-run this command, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> will notice that the requested
+version is already installed and do nothing.  You can supply a
+different version number to get that version, or you can run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span>
+<span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">--upgrade</span></code> to upgrade the package to the latest version:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip install --upgrade requests
+Collecting requests
+Installing collected packages: requests
+  Found existing installation: requests <span class="m">2</span>.6.0
+    Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
+      Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
+Successfully installed requests-2.7.0
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">uninstall</span></code> followed by one or more package names will remove the
+packages from the virtual environment.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">show</span></code> will display information about a particular package:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip show requests
+---
+Metadata-Version: <span class="m">2</span>.0
+Name: requests
+Version: <span class="m">2</span>.7.0
+Summary: Python HTTP <span class="k">for</span> Humans.
+Home-page: http://python-requests.org
+Author: Kenneth Reitz
+Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
+License: Apache <span class="m">2</span>.0
+Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
+Requires:
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">list</span></code> will display all of the packages installed in the virtual
+environment:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip list
+novas <span class="o">(</span><span class="m">3</span>.1.1.3<span class="o">)</span>
+numpy <span class="o">(</span><span class="m">1</span>.9.2<span class="o">)</span>
+pip <span class="o">(</span><span class="m">7</span>.0.3<span class="o">)</span>
+requests <span class="o">(</span><span class="m">2</span>.7.0<span class="o">)</span>
+setuptools <span class="o">(</span><span class="m">16</span>.0<span class="o">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">freeze</span></code> will produce a similar list of the installed packages,
+but the output uses the format that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> expects.
+A common convention is to put this list in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">requirements.txt</span></code> file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip freeze &gt; requirements.txt
+<span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ cat requirements.txt
+<span class="nv">novas</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">3</span>.1.1.3
+<span class="nv">numpy</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">1</span>.9.2
+<span class="nv">requests</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">2</span>.7.0
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">requirements.txt</span></code> can then be committed to version control and
+shipped as part of an application.  Users can then install all the
+necessary packages with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">-r</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-bash notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">(</span>tutorial-env<span class="o">)</span> $ pip install -r requirements.txt
+Collecting <span class="nv">novas</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">3</span>.1.1.3 <span class="o">(</span>from -r requirements.txt <span class="o">(</span>line <span class="m">1</span><span class="o">))</span>
+  ...
+Collecting <span class="nv">numpy</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">1</span>.9.2 <span class="o">(</span>from -r requirements.txt <span class="o">(</span>line <span class="m">2</span><span class="o">))</span>
+  ...
+Collecting <span class="nv">requests</span><span class="o">==</span><span class="m">2</span>.7.0 <span class="o">(</span>from -r requirements.txt <span class="o">(</span>line <span class="m">3</span><span class="o">))</span>
+  ...
+Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
+  Running setup.py install <span class="k">for</span> novas
+Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> has many more options.  Consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules</span></a>
+guide for complete documentation for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>.  When you’ve written
+a package and want to make it available on the Python Package Index,
+consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../distributing/index.html#distributing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules</span></a> guide.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">12. Virtual Environments and Packages</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">12.1. Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-virtual-environments">12.2. Creating Virtual Environments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#managing-packages-with-pip">12.3. Managing Packages with pip</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="stdlib2.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="whatnow.html"
+                        title="next chapter">13. What Now?</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/tutorial/venv.rst"
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+    <br />
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/whatnow.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/whatnow.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/tutorial/whatnow.html
@@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>13. What Now? &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-now">
+<span id="tut-whatnow"></span><h1>13. What Now?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-now" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>Reading this tutorial has probably reinforced your interest in using Python —
+you should be eager to apply Python to solving your real-world problems. Where
+should you go to learn more?</p>
+<p>This tutorial is part of Python’s documentation set.   Some other documents in
+the set are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>:</p>
+<p>You should browse through this manual, which gives complete (though terse)
+reference material about types, functions, and the modules in the standard
+library.  The standard Python distribution includes a <em>lot</em> of additional code.
+There are modules to read Unix mailboxes, retrieve documents via HTTP, generate
+random numbers, parse command-line options, write CGI programs, compress data,
+and many other tasks. Skimming through the Library Reference will give you an
+idea of what’s available.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules</span></a> explains how to install additional modules written
+by other Python users.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/index.html#reference-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Language Reference</span></a>: A detailed explanation of Python’s syntax and
+semantics.  It’s heavy reading, but is useful as a complete guide to the
+language itself.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>More Python resources:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org">https://www.python.org</a>:  The major Python Web site.  It contains code,
+documentation, and pointers to Python-related pages around the Web.  This Web
+site is mirrored in various places around the world, such as Europe, Japan, and
+Australia; a mirror may be faster than the main site, depending on your
+geographical location.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org">https://docs.python.org</a>:  Fast access to Python’s  documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">https://pypi.org</a>: The Python Package Index, previously also nicknamed
+the Cheese Shop <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id2" id="id1">1</a>, is an index of user-created Python modules that are available
+for download.  Once you begin releasing code, you can register it here so that
+others can find it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/">https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/</a>: The Python Cookbook is a
+sizable collection of code examples, larger modules, and useful scripts.
+Particularly notable contributions are collected in a book also titled Python
+Cookbook (O’Reilly &amp; Associates, ISBN 0-596-00797-3.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.pyvideo.org">http://www.pyvideo.org</a> collects links to Python-related videos from
+conferences and user-group meetings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://scipy.org">https://scipy.org</a>: The Scientific Python project includes modules for fast
+array computations and manipulations plus a host of packages for such
+things as linear algebra, Fourier transforms, non-linear solvers,
+random number distributions, statistical analysis and the like.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For Python-related questions and problem reports, you can post to the newsgroup
+<em class="newsgroup">comp.lang.python</em>, or send them to the mailing list at
+<a class="reference external" href="mailto:python-list&#37;&#52;&#48;python&#46;org">python-list<span>&#64;</span>python<span>&#46;</span>org</a>.  The newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed, so
+messages posted to one will automatically be forwarded to the other.  There are
+hundreds of postings a day, asking (and
+answering) questions, suggesting new features, and announcing new modules.
+Mailing list archives are available at <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/">https://mail.python.org/pipermail/</a>.</p>
+<p>Before posting, be sure to check the list of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../faq/index.html#faq-index"><span class="std std-ref">Frequently Asked Questions</span></a> (also called the FAQ).  The
+FAQ answers many of the questions that come up again and again, and may
+already contain the solution for your problem.</p>
+<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
+<dl class="footnote brackets">
+<dt class="label" id="id2"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
+<dd><p>“Cheese Shop” is a Monty Python’s sketch: a customer enters a cheese shop,
+but whatever cheese he asks for, the clerk says it’s missing.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="venv.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">12. Virtual Environments and Packages</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="interactive.html"
+                        title="next chapter">14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+    <br />
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/using/cmdline.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/using/cmdline.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,1124 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>1. Command line and environment &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="command-line-and-environment">
+<span id="using-on-general"></span><h1>1. Command line and environment<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-and-environment" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The CPython interpreter scans the command line and the environment for various
+settings.</p>
+<div class="impl-detail compound">
+<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Other implementations’ command line schemes may differ.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/introduction.html#implementations"><span class="std std-ref">Alternate Implementations</span></a> for further resources.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line">
+<span id="using-on-cmdline"></span><h2>1.1. Command line<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When invoking Python, you may specify any of these options:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python <span class="o">[</span>-bBdEhiIOqsSuvVWx?<span class="o">]</span> <span class="o">[</span>-c <span class="nb">command</span> <span class="p">|</span> -m module-name <span class="p">|</span> script <span class="p">|</span> - <span class="o">]</span> <span class="o">[</span>args<span class="o">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The most common use case is, of course, a simple invocation of a script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python myscript.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interface-options">
+<span id="using-on-interface-options"></span><h3>1.1.1. Interface options<a class="headerlink" href="#interface-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The interpreter interface resembles that of the UNIX shell, but provides some
+additional methods of invocation:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When called with standard input connected to a tty device, it prompts for
+commands and executes them until an EOF (an end-of-file character, you can
+produce that with <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl-D</kbd> on UNIX or <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl-Z, Enter</kbd> on Windows) is read.</p></li>
+<li><p>When called with a file name argument or with a file as standard input, it
+reads and executes a script from that file.</p></li>
+<li><p>When called with a directory name argument, it reads and executes an
+appropriately named script from that directory.</p></li>
+<li><p>When called with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span> <span class="pre">command</span></code>, it executes the Python statement(s) given as
+<em>command</em>.  Here <em>command</em> may contain multiple statements separated by
+newlines. Leading whitespace is significant in Python statements!</p></li>
+<li><p>When called with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">module-name</span></code>, the given module is located on the
+Python module path and executed as a script.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In non-interactive mode, the entire input is parsed before it is executed.</p>
+<p>An interface option terminates the list of options consumed by the interpreter,
+all consecutive arguments will end up in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> – note that the first
+element, subscript zero (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code>), is a string reflecting the program’s
+source.</p>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-c">
+<code class="descname">-c</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;command&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-c" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the Python code in <em>command</em>.  <em>command</em> can be one or more
+statements separated by newlines, with significant leading whitespace as in
+normal module code.</p>
+<p>If this option is given, the first element of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;-c&quot;</span></code> and the current directory will be added to the start of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> (allowing modules in that directory to be imported as top
+level modules).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-m">
+<code class="descname">-m</code><code class="descclassname"> &lt;module-name&gt;</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-m" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Search <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> for the named module and execute its contents as
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>Since the argument is a <em>module</em> name, you must not give a file extension
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code>).  The module name should be a valid absolute Python module name, but
+the implementation may not always enforce this (e.g. it may allow you to
+use a name that includes a hyphen).</p>
+<p>Package names (including namespace packages) are also permitted. When a
+package name is supplied instead
+of a normal module, the interpreter will execute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;pkg&gt;.__main__</span></code> as
+the main module. This behaviour is deliberately similar to the handling
+of directories and zipfiles that are passed to the interpreter as the
+script argument.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>This option cannot be used with built-in modules and extension modules
+written in C, since they do not have Python module files. However, it
+can still be used for precompiled modules, even if the original source
+file is not available.</p>
+</div>
+<p>If this option is given, the first element of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> will be the
+full path to the module file (while the module file is being located, the
+first element will be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;-m&quot;</span></code>). As with the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> option,
+the current directory will be added to the start of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Many standard library modules contain code that is invoked on their execution
+as a script.  An example is the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python -mtimeit -s <span class="s1">&#39;setup here&#39;</span> <span class="s1">&#39;benchmarked code here&#39;</span>
+python -mtimeit -h <span class="c1"># for details</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#runpy.run_module" title="runpy.run_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy.run_module()</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0338"><strong>PEP 338</strong></a> – Executing modules as scripts</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.1: </span>Supply the package name to run a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> submodule.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>namespace packages are also supported</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">-</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Read commands from standard input (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>).  If standard input is
+a terminal, <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a> is implied.</p>
+<p>If this option is given, the first element of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> will be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;-&quot;</span></code> and the current directory will be added to the start of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="describe">
+<dt>
+<code class="descname">&lt;script&gt;</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Execute the Python code contained in <em>script</em>, which must be a filesystem
+path (absolute or relative) referring to either a Python file, a directory
+containing a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file, or a zipfile containing a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file.</p>
+<p>If this option is given, the first element of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> will be the
+script name as given on the command line.</p>
+<p>If the script name refers directly to a Python file, the directory
+containing that file is added to the start of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, and the
+file is executed as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>If the script name refers to a directory or zipfile, the script name is
+added to the start of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file in
+that location is executed as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#runpy.run_path" title="runpy.run_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy.run_path()</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<p>If no interface option is given, <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a> is implied, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> is
+an empty string (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code>) and the current directory will be added to the
+start of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.  Also, tab-completion and history editing is
+automatically enabled, if available on your platform (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#rlcompleter-config"><span class="std std-ref">Readline configuration</span></a>).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/interpreter.html#tut-invoking"><span class="std std-ref">Invoking the Interpreter</span></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>Automatic enabling of tab-completion and history editing.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="generic-options">
+<h3>1.1.2. Generic options<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption">
+<code class="descname">-?</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-h">
+<code class="descname">-h</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-h" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-help">
+<code class="descname">--help</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a short description of all command line options.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-v">
+<code class="descname">-V</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-v" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dt id="cmdoption-version">
+<code class="descname">--version</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-version" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print the Python version number and exit.  Example output could be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Python 3.7.0b2+
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When given twice, print more information about the build, like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>Python 3.7.0b2+ (3.7:0c076caaa8, Sep 22 2018, 12:04:24)
+[GCC 6.2.0 20161005]
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-VV</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="miscellaneous-options">
+<span id="using-on-misc-options"></span><h3>1.1.3. Miscellaneous options<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-b">
+<code class="descname">-b</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-b" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Issue a warning when comparing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  Issue an error when the
+option is given twice (<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-bb</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Affects comparisons of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="id1">
+<code class="descname">-B</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If given, Python won’t try to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files on the
+import of source modules.  See also <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs">
+<code class="descname">--check-hash-based-pycs</code><code class="descclassname"> default|always|never</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Control the validation behavior of hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#pyc-invalidation"><span class="std std-ref">Cached bytecode invalidation</span></a>. When set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>, checked and unchecked
+hash-based bytecode cache files are validated according to their default
+semantics. When set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">always</span></code>, all hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files, whether
+checked or unchecked, are validated against their corresponding source
+file. When set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">never</span></code>, hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files are not validated
+against their corresponding source files.</p>
+<p>The semantics of timestamp-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files are unaffected by this
+option.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-d">
+<code class="descname">-d</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-d" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
+options).  See also <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONDEBUG"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDEBUG</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-e">
+<code class="descname">-E</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-e" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Ignore all <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON*</span></code> environment variables, e.g.
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> and <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a>, that might be set.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-i">
+<code class="descname">-i</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-i" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>When a script is passed as first argument or the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> option is used,
+enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> does not appear to be a terminal.  The
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a> file is not read.</p>
+<p>This can be useful to inspect global variables or a stack trace when a script
+raises an exception.  See also <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONINSPECT"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONINSPECT</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="id2">
+<code class="descname">-I</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Run Python in isolated mode. This also implies -E and -s.
+In isolated mode <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> contains neither the script’s directory nor
+the user’s site-packages directory. All <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON*</span></code> environment
+variables are ignored, too. Further restrictions may be imposed to prevent
+the user from injecting malicious code.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-o">
+<code class="descname">-O</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-o" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Remove assert statements and any code conditional on the value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#__debug__" title="__debug__"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code></a>.  Augment the filename for compiled
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a>) files by adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.opt-1</span></code> before the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
+extension (see <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a>).  See also <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONOPTIMIZE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONOPTIMIZE</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Modify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> filenames according to <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-oo">
+<code class="descname">-OO</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-oo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Do <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> and also discard docstrings.  Augment the filename
+for compiled (<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a>) files by adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.opt-2</span></code> before the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> extension (see <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a>).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5: </span>Modify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> filenames according to <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-q">
+<code class="descname">-q</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-q" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t display the copyright and version messages even in interactive mode.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-r">
+<code class="descname">-R</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-r" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Turn on hash randomization. This option only has an effect if the
+<span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a> environment variable is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, since hash
+randomization is enabled by default.</p>
+<p>On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash randomization,
+so that the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> values of str, bytes and datetime
+are “salted” with an unpredictable random value.  Although they remain
+constant within an individual Python process, they are not predictable
+between repeated invocations of Python.</p>
+<p>Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a
+denial-of-service caused by carefully-chosen inputs that exploit the worst
+case performance of a dict construction, O(n^2) complexity.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html">http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html</a> for details.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a> allows you to set a fixed value for the hash
+seed secret.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The option is no longer ignored.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-s">
+<code class="descname">-s</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-s" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Don’t add the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.USER_SITE" title="site.USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span> <span class="pre">site-packages</span> <span class="pre">directory</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0370"><strong>PEP 370</strong></a> – Per user site-packages directory</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="id3">
+<code class="descname">-S</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Disable the import of the module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> and the site-dependent
+manipulations of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> that it entails.  Also disable these
+manipulations if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> is explicitly imported later (call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.main" title="site.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.main()</span></code></a> if you want them to be triggered).</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-u">
+<code class="descname">-u</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-u" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.  This option has no
+effect on the stdin stream.</p>
+<p>See also <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONUNBUFFERED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUNBUFFERED</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>The text layer of the stdout and stderr streams now is unbuffered.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="id4">
+<code class="descname">-v</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#id4" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the place
+(filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  When given twice
+(<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-vv</span></code>), print a message for each file that is checked for when
+searching for a module.  Also provides information on module cleanup at exit.
+See also <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONVERBOSE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONVERBOSE</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<span class="target" id="using-on-warnings"></span><dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-w">
+<code class="descname">-W</code><code class="descclassname"> arg</code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-w" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Warning control.  Python’s warning machinery by default prints warning
+messages to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a>.  A typical warning message has the following
+form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>file:line: category: message
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>By default, each warning is printed once for each source line where it
+occurs.  This option controls how often warnings are printed.</p>
+<p>Multiple <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> options may be given; when a warning matches more than
+one option, the action for the last matching option is performed.  Invalid
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> options are ignored (though, a warning message is printed about
+invalid options when the first warning is issued).</p>
+<p>Warnings can also be controlled using the <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a>
+environment variable and from within a Python program using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to all
+warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise ignored by
+default):</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>-Wdefault  <span class="c1"># Warn once per call location</span>
+-Werror    <span class="c1"># Convert to exceptions</span>
+-Walways   <span class="c1"># Warn every time</span>
+-Wmodule   <span class="c1"># Warn once per calling module</span>
+-Wonce     <span class="c1"># Warn once per Python process</span>
+-Wignore   <span class="c1"># Never warn</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The action names can be abbreviated as desired (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wi</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wd</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wa</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-We</span></code>) and the interpreter will resolve them to the appropriate
+action name.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warning-filter"><span class="std std-ref">The Warnings Filter</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#describing-warning-filters"><span class="std std-ref">Describing Warning Filters</span></a> for more
+details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-x">
+<code class="descname">-x</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-x" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Skip the first line of the source, allowing use of non-Unix forms of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!cmd</span></code>.  This is intended for a DOS specific hack only.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="id5">
+<code class="descname">-X</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#id5" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reserved for various implementation-specific options.  CPython currently
+defines the following possible values:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> to enable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">showrefcount</span></code> to output the total reference count and number of used
+memory blocks when the program finishes or after each statement in the
+interactive interpreter. This only works on debug builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> to start tracing Python memory allocations using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module. By default, only the most recent frame is
+stored in a traceback of a trace. Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">tracemalloc=NFRAME</span></code> to start
+tracing with a traceback limit of <em>NFRAME</em> frames. See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc.start()</span></code></a> for more information.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">showalloccount</span></code> to output the total count of allocated objects for
+each type when the program finishes. This only works when Python was built with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COUNT_ALLOCS</span></code> defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">importtime</span></code> to show how long each import takes. It shows module
+name, cumulative time (including nested imports) and self time (excluding
+nested imports).  Note that its output may be broken in multi-threaded
+application.  Typical usage is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span> <span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">importtime</span> <span class="pre">-c</span> <span class="pre">'import</span>
+<span class="pre">asyncio'</span></code>.  See also <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">dev</span></code>: enable CPython’s “development mode”, introducing additional
+runtime checks which are too expensive to be enabled by default. It should
+not be more verbose than the default if the code is correct: new warnings
+are only emitted when an issue is detected. Effect of the developer mode:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> warning filter, as <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Install debug hooks on memory allocators: see the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a> C function.</p></li>
+<li><p>Enable the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> module to dump the Python traceback
+on a crash.</p></li>
+<li><p>Enable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-debug-mode"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio debug mode</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev_mode</span></code> attribute of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.flags" title="sys.flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags</span></code></a> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">utf8</span></code> enables UTF-8 mode for operating system interfaces, overriding
+the default locale-aware mode. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">utf8=0</span></code> explicitly disables UTF-8
+mode (even when it would otherwise activate automatically).
+See <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONUTF8"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUTF8</span></code></a> for more details.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>It also allows passing arbitrary values and retrieving them through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._xoptions" title="sys._xoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._xoptions</span></code></a> dictionary.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.2: </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> option was added.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">showrefcount</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code> options.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">showalloccount</span></code> option.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">importtime</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">dev</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">utf8</span></code> options.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="options-you-shouldn-t-use">
+<h3>1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use<a class="headerlink" href="#options-you-shouldn-t-use" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="cmdoption">
+<dt id="cmdoption-j">
+<code class="descname">-J</code><code class="descclassname"></code><a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-j" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Reserved for use by <a class="reference external" href="http://www.jython.org/">Jython</a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="environment-variables">
+<span id="using-on-envvars"></span><h2>1.2. Environment variables<a class="headerlink" href="#environment-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These environment variables influence Python’s behavior, they are processed
+before the command-line switches other than -E or -I.  It is customary that
+command-line switches override environmental variables where there is a
+conflict.</p>
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONHOME">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONHOME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONHOME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Change the location of the standard Python libraries.  By default, the
+libraries are searched in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code>, where <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em></code> are installation-dependent directories, both defaulting
+to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local</span></code>.</p>
+<p>When <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> is set to a single directory, its value replaces
+both <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em></code>.  To specify different values
+for these, set <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> to <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">:</span><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em></code>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONPATH">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONPATH</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONPATH" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Augment the default search path for module files.  The format is the same as
+the shell’s <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>: one or more directory pathnames separated by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pathsep" title="os.pathsep"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pathsep</span></code></a> (e.g. colons on Unix or semicolons on Windows).
+Non-existent directories are silently ignored.</p>
+<p>In addition to normal directories, individual <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> entries
+may refer to zipfiles containing pure Python modules (in either source or
+compiled form). Extension modules cannot be imported from zipfiles.</p>
+<p>The default search path is installation dependent, but generally begins with
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code> (see <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> above).  It
+is <em>always</em> appended to <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>An additional directory will be inserted in the search path in front of
+<span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> as described above under
+<a class="reference internal" href="#using-on-interface-options"><span class="std std-ref">Interface options</span></a>. The search path can be manipulated from
+within a Python program as the variable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONSTARTUP</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is the name of a readable file, the Python commands in that file are
+executed before the first prompt is displayed in interactive mode.  The file
+is executed in the same namespace where interactive commands are executed so
+that objects defined or imported in it can be used without qualification in
+the interactive session.  You can also change the prompts <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.ps1" title="sys.ps1"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.ps2" title="sys.ps2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code></a> and the hook <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.__interactivehook__" title="sys.__interactivehook__"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__interactivehook__</span></code></a> in this file.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONOPTIMIZE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONOPTIMIZE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONOPTIMIZE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent to specifying
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> multiple times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set, it names a callable using dotted-path notation.  The module
+containing the callable will be imported and then the callable will be run
+by the default implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.breakpointhook" title="sys.breakpointhook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code></a> which itself is
+called by built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a>.  If not set, or set to the empty
+string, it is equivalent to the value “pdb.set_trace”.  Setting this to the
+string “0” causes the default implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.breakpointhook" title="sys.breakpointhook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code></a>
+to do nothing but return immediately.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONDEBUG">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONDEBUG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONDEBUG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-d"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-d</span></code></a> option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent to specifying
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-d"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-d</span></code></a> multiple times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONINSPECT">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONINSPECT</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONINSPECT" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a> option.</p>
+<p>This variable can also be modified by Python code using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code></a>
+to force inspect mode on program termination.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONUNBUFFERED">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONUNBUFFERED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONUNBUFFERED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-u"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-u</span></code></a> option.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONVERBOSE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONVERBOSE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONVERBOSE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#id4"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code></a> option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent to specifying
+<a class="reference internal" href="#id4"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code></a> multiple times.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONCASEOK">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONCASEOK</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONCASEOK" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set, Python ignores case in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements.  This
+only works on Windows and OS X.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set to a non-empty string, Python won’t try to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
+files on the import of source modules.  This is equivalent to
+specifying the <a class="reference internal" href="#id1"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-B</span></code></a> option.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONHASHSEED</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this variable is not set or set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code>, a random value is used
+to seed the hashes of str, bytes and datetime objects.</p>
+<p>If <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a> is set to an integer value, it is used as a fixed
+seed for generating the hash() of the types covered by the hash
+randomization.</p>
+<p>Its purpose is to allow repeatable hashing, such as for selftests for the
+interpreter itself, or to allow a cluster of python processes to share hash
+values.</p>
+<p>The integer must be a decimal number in the range [0,4294967295].  Specifying
+the value 0 will disable hash randomization.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.2.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONIOENCODING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set before running the interpreter, it overrides the encoding used
+for stdin/stdout/stderr, in the syntax <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodingname:errorhandler</span></code>.  Both
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodingname</span></code> and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:errorhandler</span></code> parts are optional and have
+the same meaning as in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For stderr, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:errorhandler</span></code> part is ignored; the handler will always be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'backslashreplace'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.4: </span>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodingname</span></code> part is now optional.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>On Windows, the encoding specified by this variable is ignored for interactive
+console buffers unless <span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</span></code></a> is also specified.
+Files and pipes redirected through the standard streams are not affected.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONNOUSERSITE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this is set, Python won’t add the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.USER_SITE" title="site.USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span> <span class="pre">site-packages</span> <span class="pre">directory</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0370"><strong>PEP 370</strong></a> – Per user site-packages directory</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONUSERBASE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Defines the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.USER_BASE" title="site.USER_BASE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span> <span class="pre">base</span> <span class="pre">directory</span></code></a>, which is used to
+compute the path of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.USER_SITE" title="site.USER_SITE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">user</span> <span class="pre">site-packages</span> <span class="pre">directory</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../install/index.html#inst-alt-install-user"><span class="std std-ref">Distutils installation paths</span></a> for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">install</span> <span class="pre">--user</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0370"><strong>PEP 370</strong></a> – Per user site-packages directory</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONEXECUTABLE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONEXECUTABLE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONEXECUTABLE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this environment variable is set, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> will be set to its
+value instead of the value got through the C runtime.  Only works on
+Mac OS X.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONWARNINGS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>This is equivalent to the <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> option. If set to a comma
+separated string, it is equivalent to specifying <a class="reference internal" href="#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> multiple
+times, with filters later in the list taking precedence over those earlier
+in the list.</p>
+<p>The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to all
+warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise ignored by
+default):</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span>default  <span class="c1"># Warn once per call location</span>
+<span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span>error    <span class="c1"># Convert to exceptions</span>
+<span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span>always   <span class="c1"># Warn every time</span>
+<span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span>module   <span class="c1"># Warn once per calling module</span>
+<span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span>once     <span class="c1"># Warn once per Python process</span>
+<span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span>ignore   <span class="c1"># Never warn</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warning-filter"><span class="std std-ref">The Warnings Filter</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#describing-warning-filters"><span class="std std-ref">Describing Warning Filters</span></a> for more
+details.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONFAULTHANDLER">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONFAULTHANDLER</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONFAULTHANDLER" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler.enable()</span></code></a> is called at startup: install a handler for
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGSEGV</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGFPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGABRT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGBUS</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGILL</span></code> signals to dump the Python traceback.  This is equivalent to
+<a class="reference internal" href="#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> option.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, start tracing
+Python memory allocations using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module. The value of
+the variable is the maximum number of frames stored in a traceback of a
+trace. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1</span></code> stores only the most recent
+frame. See the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.start" title="tracemalloc.start"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc.start()</span></code></a> for more information.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, Python will
+show how long each import takes.  This is exactly equivalent to setting
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">importtime</span></code> on the command line.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-dev.html#asyncio-debug-mode"><span class="std std-ref">debug mode</span></a> of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONMALLOC">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONMALLOC</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>Set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.</p>
+<p>Set the family of memory allocators used by Python:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code>: use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">default memory allocators</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code>: use the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> function of the C library
+for all domains (<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code>: use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc allocator</span></a> for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</span></code></a> domains and use
+the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> function for the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW</span></code></a> domain.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Install debug hooks:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug</span></code>: install debug hooks on top of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">default memory
+allocators</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc_debug</span></code>: same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code> but also install debug hooks</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc_debug</span></code>: same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code> but also install debug hooks</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#default-memory-allocators"><span class="std std-ref">default memory allocators</span></a> and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a> function (install debug hooks on Python
+memory allocators).</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.7: </span>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;default&quot;</span></code> allocator.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONMALLOCSTATS">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONMALLOCSTATS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONMALLOCSTATS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to a non-empty string, Python will print statistics of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc memory allocator</span></a> every time a new pymalloc object
+arena is created, and on shutdown.</p>
+<p>This variable is ignored if the <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable
+is used to force the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> allocator of the C library, or if
+Python is configured without <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pymalloc</span></code> support.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>This variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.
+It now has no effect if set to an empty string.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to a non-empty string, the default filesystem encoding and errors mode
+will revert to their pre-3.6 values of ‘mbcs’ and ‘replace’, respectively.
+Otherwise, the new defaults ‘utf-8’ and ‘surrogatepass’ are used.</p>
+<p>This may also be enabled at runtime with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding" title="sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0529"><strong>PEP 529</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to a non-empty string, does not use the new console reader and
+writer. This means that Unicode characters will be encoded according to
+the active console code page, rather than using utf-8.</p>
+<p>This variable is ignored if the standard streams are redirected (to files
+or pipes) rather than referring to console buffers.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: Windows.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, causes the main Python command line application
+to skip coercing the legacy ASCII-based C and POSIX locales to a more
+capable UTF-8 based alternative.</p>
+<p>If this variable is <em>not</em> set (or is set to a value other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>), the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_ALL</span></code> locale override environment variable is also not set, and the
+current locale reported for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> category is either the default
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> locale, or else the explicitly ASCII-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX</span></code> locale, then the
+Python CLI will attempt to configure the following locales for the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> category in the order listed before loading the interpreter
+runtime:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.UTF-8</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.utf8</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If setting one of these locale categories succeeds, then the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code>
+environment variable will also be set accordingly in the current process
+environment before the Python runtime is initialized. This ensures that in
+addition to being seen by both the interpreter itself and other locale-aware
+components running in the same process (such as the GNU <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code>
+library), the updated setting is also seen in subprocesses (regardless of
+whether or not those processes are running a Python interpreter), as well as
+in operations that query the environment rather than the current C locale
+(such as Python’s own <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.getdefaultlocale" title="locale.getdefaultlocale"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getdefaultlocale()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Configuring one of these locales (either explicitly or via the above
+implicit locale coercion) automatically enables the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">error handler</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> continues to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backslashreplace</span></code>
+as it does in any other locale). This stream handling behavior can be
+overridden using <span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONIOENCODING</span></code></a> as usual.</p>
+<p>For debugging purposes, setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn</span></code> will cause
+Python to emit warning messages on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> if either the locale coercion
+activates, or else if a locale that <em>would</em> have triggered coercion is
+still active when the Python runtime is initialized.</p>
+<p>Also note that even when locale coercion is disabled, or when it fails to
+find a suitable target locale, <span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONUTF8"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUTF8</span></code></a> will still activate by
+default in legacy ASCII-based locales. Both features must be disabled in
+order to force the interpreter to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> for
+system interfaces.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: *nix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-37"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0538"><strong>PEP 538</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONDEVMODE">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONDEVMODE</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONDEVMODE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable the
+CPython “development mode”. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev</span></code> option.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.</span></p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONUTF8">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONUTF8</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONUTF8" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>, enables the interpreter’s UTF-8 mode, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> is
+used as the text encoding for system interfaces, regardless of the
+current locale setting.</p>
+<p>This means that:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'UTF-8'</span></code> (the locale
+encoding is ignored).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code></a> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'UTF-8'</span></code> (the locale
+encoding is ignored, and the function’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">do_setlocale</span></code> parameter has no
+effect).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> all use
+UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#error-handlers"><span class="std std-ref">error handler</span></a> being enabled for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> continues to use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backslashreplace</span></code> as it does in the default locale-aware mode)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>As a consequence of the changes in those lower level APIs, other higher
+level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Command line arguments, environment variables and filenames are decoded
+to text using the UTF-8 encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a> use the UTF-8 encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.open" title="codecs.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.open()</span></code></a> use the UTF-8
+encoding by default. However, they still use the strict error handler by
+default so that attempting to open a binary file in text mode is likely
+to raise an exception rather than producing nonsense data.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Note that the standard stream settings in UTF-8 mode can be overridden by
+<span class="target" id="index-38"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONIOENCODING</span></code></a> (just as they can be in the default locale-aware
+mode).</p>
+<p>If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, the interpreter runs in its default locale-aware mode.</p>
+<p>Setting any other non-empty string causes an error during interpreter
+initialisation.</p>
+<p>If this environment variable is not set at all, then the interpreter defaults
+to using the current locale settings, <em>unless</em> the current locale is
+identified as a legacy ASCII-based locale
+(as described for <span class="target" id="index-39"></span><a class="reference internal" href="#envvar-PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE</span></code></a>), and locale coercion is
+either disabled or fails. In such legacy locales, the interpreter will
+default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless explicitly instructed not to do so.</p>
+<p>Also available as the <a class="reference internal" href="#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> option.</p>
+<p class="availability"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/intro.html#availability"><span class="std std-ref">Availability</span></a>: *nix.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>See <span class="target" id="index-40"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0540"><strong>PEP 540</strong></a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<div class="section" id="debug-mode-variables">
+<h3>1.2.1. Debug-mode variables<a class="headerlink" href="#debug-mode-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Setting these variables only has an effect in a debug build of Python, that is,
+if Python was configured with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pydebug</span></code> build option.</p>
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONTHREADDEBUG">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONTHREADDEBUG</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONTHREADDEBUG" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set, Python will print threading debug info.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+<dl class="envvar">
+<dt id="envvar-PYTHONDUMPREFS">
+<code class="descname">PYTHONDUMPREFS</code><a class="headerlink" href="#envvar-PYTHONDUMPREFS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
+<dd><p>If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive after
+shutting down the interpreter.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">1. Command line and environment</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line">1.1. Command line</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interface-options">1.1.1. Interface options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generic-options">1.1.2. Generic options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#miscellaneous-options">1.1.3. Miscellaneous options</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#options-you-shouldn-t-use">1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#environment-variables">1.2. Environment variables</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debug-mode-variables">1.2.1. Debug-mode variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="index.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">Python Setup and Usage</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unix.html"
+                        title="next chapter">2. Using Python on Unix platforms</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/using/cmdline.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/using/index.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/using/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..846cce6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/using/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Python Setup and Usage &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="python-setup-and-usage">
+<span id="using-index"></span><h1>Python Setup and Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#python-setup-and-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This part of the documentation is devoted to general information on the setup
+of the Python environment on different platforms, the invocation of the
+interpreter and things that make working with Python easier.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html">1. Command line and environment</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#command-line">1.1. Command line</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#interface-options">1.1.1. Interface options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#generic-options">1.1.2. Generic options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#miscellaneous-options">1.1.3. Miscellaneous options</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#options-you-shouldn-t-use">1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#environment-variables">1.2. Environment variables</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#debug-mode-variables">1.2.1. Debug-mode variables</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html">2. Using Python on Unix platforms</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#getting-and-installing-the-latest-version-of-python">2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#on-linux">2.1.1. On Linux</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#on-freebsd-and-openbsd">2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#on-opensolaris">2.1.3. On OpenSolaris</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#building-python">2.2. Building Python</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#python-related-paths-and-files">2.3. Python-related paths and files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#miscellaneous">2.4. Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unix.html#editors-and-ides">2.5. Editors and IDEs</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html">3. Using Python on Windows</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#the-full-installer">3.1. The full installer</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#installation-steps">3.1.1. Installation steps</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#removing-the-max-path-limitation">3.1.2. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#installing-without-ui">3.1.3. Installing Without UI</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#installing-without-downloading">3.1.4. Installing Without Downloading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#modifying-an-install">3.1.5. Modifying an install</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#the-microsoft-store-package">3.2. The Microsoft Store package</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#known-issues">3.2.1. Known Issues</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#the-nuget-org-packages">3.3. The nuget.org packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#the-embeddable-package">3.4. The embeddable package</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#python-application">3.4.1. Python Application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#embedding-python">3.4.2. Embedding Python</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#alternative-bundles">3.5. Alternative bundles</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#configuring-python">3.6. Configuring Python</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#excursus-setting-environment-variables">3.6.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#finding-the-python-executable">3.6.2. Finding the Python executable</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#python-launcher-for-windows">3.7. Python Launcher for Windows</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#getting-started">3.7.1. Getting started</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#from-the-command-line">3.7.1.1. From the command-line</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#virtual-environments">3.7.1.2. Virtual environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#from-a-script">3.7.1.3. From a script</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#from-file-associations">3.7.1.4. From file associations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#shebang-lines">3.7.2. Shebang Lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#arguments-in-shebang-lines">3.7.3. Arguments in shebang lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#customization">3.7.4. Customization</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#customization-via-ini-files">3.7.4.1. Customization via INI files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#customizing-default-python-versions">3.7.4.2. Customizing default Python versions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#diagnostics">3.7.5. Diagnostics</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#finding-modules">3.8. Finding modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#additional-modules">3.9. Additional modules</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#pywin32">3.9.1. PyWin32</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#cx-freeze">3.9.2. cx_Freeze</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#wconio">3.9.3. WConio</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#compiling-python-on-windows">3.10. Compiling Python on Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="windows.html#other-platforms">3.11. Other Platforms</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html">4. Using Python on a Macintosh</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#getting-and-installing-macpython">4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#how-to-run-a-python-script">4.1.1. How to run a Python script</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#running-scripts-with-a-gui">4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#configuration">4.1.3. Configuration</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#the-ide">4.2. The IDE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#installing-additional-python-packages">4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#gui-programming-on-the-mac">4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#distributing-python-applications-on-the-mac">4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="mac.html#other-resources">4.6. Other Resources</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="using-python-on-a-macintosh">
+<span id="using-on-mac"></span><h1>4. Using Python on a Macintosh<a class="headerlink" href="#using-python-on-a-macintosh" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Bob Savage &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:bobsavage&#37;&#52;&#48;mac&#46;com">bobsavage<span>&#64;</span>mac<span>&#46;</span>com</a>&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Python on a Macintosh running Mac OS X is in principle very similar to Python on
+any other Unix platform, but there are a number of additional features such as
+the IDE and the Package Manager that are worth pointing out.</p>
+<div class="section" id="getting-and-installing-macpython">
+<span id="getting-osx"></span><h2>4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython<a class="headerlink" href="#getting-and-installing-macpython" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Mac OS X 10.8 comes with Python 2.7 pre-installed by Apple.  If you wish, you
+are invited to install the most recent version of Python 3 from the Python
+website (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org">https://www.python.org</a>).  A current “universal binary” build of Python,
+which runs natively on the Mac’s new Intel and legacy PPC CPU’s, is available
+there.</p>
+<p>What you get after installing is a number of things:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python</span> <span class="pre">3.7</span></code> folder in your <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Applications</span></code> folder. In here
+you find IDLE, the development environment that is a standard part of official
+Python distributions; PythonLauncher, which handles double-clicking Python
+scripts from the Finder; and the “Build Applet” tool, which allows you to
+package Python scripts as standalone applications on your system.</p></li>
+<li><p>A framework <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework</span></code>, which includes the
+Python executable and libraries. The installer adds this location to your shell
+path. To uninstall MacPython, you can simply remove these three things. A
+symlink to the Python executable is placed in /usr/local/bin/.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The Apple-provided build of Python is installed in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/System/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/python</span></code>,
+respectively. You should never modify or delete these, as they are
+Apple-controlled and are used by Apple- or third-party software.  Remember that
+if you choose to install a newer Python version from python.org, you will have
+two different but functional Python installations on your computer, so it will
+be important that your paths and usages are consistent with what you want to do.</p>
+<p>IDLE includes a help menu that allows you to access Python documentation. If you
+are completely new to Python you should start reading the tutorial introduction
+in that document.</p>
+<p>If you are familiar with Python on other Unix platforms you should read the
+section on running Python scripts from the Unix shell.</p>
+<div class="section" id="how-to-run-a-python-script">
+<h3>4.1.1. How to run a Python script<a class="headerlink" href="#how-to-run-a-python-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Your best way to get started with Python on Mac OS X is through the IDLE
+integrated development environment, see section <a class="reference internal" href="#ide"><span class="std std-ref">The IDE</span></a> and use the Help menu
+when the IDE is running.</p>
+<p>If you want to run Python scripts from the Terminal window command line or from
+the Finder you first need an editor to create your script. Mac OS X comes with a
+number of standard Unix command line editors, <strong class="program">vim</strong> and
+<strong class="program">emacs</strong> among them. If you want a more Mac-like editor,
+<strong class="program">BBEdit</strong> or <strong class="program">TextWrangler</strong> from Bare Bones Software (see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.barebones.com/products/bbedit/index.html">http://www.barebones.com/products/bbedit/index.html</a>) are good choices, as is
+<strong class="program">TextMate</strong> (see <a class="reference external" href="https://macromates.com/">https://macromates.com/</a>). Other editors include
+<strong class="program">Gvim</strong> (<a class="reference external" href="http://macvim-dev.github.io/macvim/">http://macvim-dev.github.io/macvim/</a>) and <strong class="program">Aquamacs</strong>
+(<a class="reference external" href="http://aquamacs.org/">http://aquamacs.org/</a>).</p>
+<p>To run your script from the Terminal window you must make sure that
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/bin</span></code> is in your shell search path.</p>
+<p>To run your script from the Finder you have two options:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Drag it to <strong class="program">PythonLauncher</strong></p></li>
+<li><p>Select <strong class="program">PythonLauncher</strong> as the default application to open your
+script (or any .py script) through the finder Info window and double-click it.
+<strong class="program">PythonLauncher</strong> has various preferences to control how your script is
+launched. Option-dragging allows you to change these for one invocation, or use
+its Preferences menu to change things globally.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="running-scripts-with-a-gui">
+<span id="osx-gui-scripts"></span><h3>4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI<a class="headerlink" href="#running-scripts-with-a-gui" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>With older versions of Python, there is one Mac OS X quirk that you need to be
+aware of: programs that talk to the Aqua window manager (in other words,
+anything that has a GUI) need to be run in a special way. Use <strong class="program">pythonw</strong>
+instead of <strong class="program">python</strong> to start such scripts.</p>
+<p>With Python 3.7, you can use either <strong class="program">python</strong> or <strong class="program">pythonw</strong>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuration">
+<h3>4.1.3. Configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#configuration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python on OS X honors all standard Unix environment variables such as
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>, but setting these variables for programs started from the
+Finder is non-standard as the Finder does not read your <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.profile</span></code> or
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.cshrc</span></code> at startup. You need to create a file
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.MacOSX/environment.plist</span></code>. See Apple’s Technical Document QA1067 for
+details.</p>
+<p>For more information on installation Python packages in MacPython, see section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#mac-package-manager"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Additional Python Packages</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-ide">
+<span id="ide"></span><h2>4.2. The IDE<a class="headerlink" href="#the-ide" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>MacPython ships with the standard IDLE development environment. A good
+introduction to using IDLE can be found at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.hashcollision.org/hkn/python/idle_intro/index.html">http://www.hashcollision.org/hkn/python/idle_intro/index.html</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-additional-python-packages">
+<span id="mac-package-manager"></span><h2>4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-additional-python-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are several methods to install additional Python packages:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Packages can be installed via the standard Python distutils mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span>
+<span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Many packages can also be installed via the <strong class="program">setuptools</strong> extension
+or <strong class="program">pip</strong> wrapper, see <a class="reference external" href="https://pip.pypa.io/">https://pip.pypa.io/</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gui-programming-on-the-mac">
+<h2>4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac<a class="headerlink" href="#gui-programming-on-the-mac" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are several options for building GUI applications on the Mac with Python.</p>
+<p><em>PyObjC</em> is a Python binding to Apple’s Objective-C/Cocoa framework, which is
+the foundation of most modern Mac development. Information on PyObjC is
+available from <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/">https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/</a>.</p>
+<p>The standard Python GUI toolkit is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>, based on the cross-platform
+Tk toolkit (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.tcl.tk">https://www.tcl.tk</a>). An Aqua-native version of Tk is bundled with OS
+X by Apple, and the latest version can be downloaded and installed from
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.activestate.com">https://www.activestate.com</a>; it can also be built from source.</p>
+<p><em>wxPython</em> is another popular cross-platform GUI toolkit that runs natively on
+Mac OS X. Packages and documentation are available from <a class="reference external" href="https://www.wxpython.org">https://www.wxpython.org</a>.</p>
+<p><em>PyQt</em> is another popular cross-platform GUI toolkit that runs natively on Mac
+OS X. More information can be found at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro">https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distributing-python-applications-on-the-mac">
+<h2>4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac<a class="headerlink" href="#distributing-python-applications-on-the-mac" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The “Build Applet” tool that is placed in the MacPython 3.6 folder is fine for
+packaging small Python scripts on your own machine to run as a standard Mac
+application. This tool, however, is not robust enough to distribute Python
+applications to other users.</p>
+<p>The standard tool for deploying standalone Python applications on the Mac is
+<strong class="program">py2app</strong>. More information on installing and using py2app can be found
+at <a class="reference external" href="http://undefined.org/python/#py2app">http://undefined.org/python/#py2app</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-resources">
+<h2>4.6. Other Resources<a class="headerlink" href="#other-resources" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The MacPython mailing list is an excellent support resource for Python users and
+developers on the Mac:</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/">https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/</a></p>
+<p>Another useful resource is the MacPython wiki:</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/MacPython">https://wiki.python.org/moin/MacPython</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">4. Using Python on a Macintosh</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-and-installing-macpython">4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-to-run-a-python-script">4.1.1. How to run a Python script</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#running-scripts-with-a-gui">4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuration">4.1.3. Configuration</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-ide">4.2. The IDE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-additional-python-packages">4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gui-programming-on-the-mac">4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distributing-python-applications-on-the-mac">4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-resources">4.6. Other Resources</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="windows.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">3. Using Python on Windows</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="../reference/index.html"
+                        title="next chapter">The Python Language Reference</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>2. Using Python on Unix platforms &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="using-python-on-unix-platforms">
+<span id="using-on-unix"></span><h1>2. Using Python on Unix platforms<a class="headerlink" href="#using-python-on-unix-platforms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="getting-and-installing-the-latest-version-of-python">
+<h2>2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python<a class="headerlink" href="#getting-and-installing-the-latest-version-of-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="on-linux">
+<h3>2.1.1. On Linux<a class="headerlink" href="#on-linux" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python comes preinstalled on most Linux distributions, and is available as a
+package on all others.  However there are certain features you might want to use
+that are not available on your distro’s package.  You can easily compile the
+latest version of Python from source.</p>
+<p>In the event that Python doesn’t come preinstalled and isn’t in the repositories as
+well, you can easily make packages for your own distro.  Have a look at the
+following links:</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html">https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html</a></dt><dd><p>for Debian users</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging">https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging</a></dt><dd><p>for OpenSuse users</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://docs-old.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora_Draft_Documentation/0.1/html/RPM_Guide/ch-creating-rpms.html">https://docs-old.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora_Draft_Documentation/0.1/html/RPM_Guide/ch-creating-rpms.html</a></dt><dd><p>for Fedora users</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html">http://www.slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html</a></dt><dd><p>for Slackware users</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="on-freebsd-and-openbsd">
+<h3>2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD<a class="headerlink" href="#on-freebsd-and-openbsd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>FreeBSD users, to add the package use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>pkg install python3
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>OpenBSD users, to add the package use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>pkg_add -r python
+
+pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/&lt;insert your architecture here&gt;/python-&lt;version&gt;.tgz
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For example i386 users get the 2.5.1 version of Python using:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="on-opensolaris">
+<h3>2.1.3. On OpenSolaris<a class="headerlink" href="#on-opensolaris" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>You can get Python from <a class="reference external" href="https://www.opencsw.org/">OpenCSW</a>.  Various versions
+of Python are available and can be installed with e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span> <span class="pre">-i</span> <span class="pre">python27</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="building-python">
+<span id="building-python-on-unix"></span><h2>2.2. Building Python<a class="headerlink" href="#building-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is get the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/source/">source</a>. You can download either the
+latest release’s source or just grab a fresh <a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/setup/#getting-the-source-code">clone</a>.  (If you want
+to contribute patches, you will need a clone.)</p>
+<p>The build process consists in the usual</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>./configure
+make
+make install
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>invocations. Configuration options and caveats for specific Unix platforms are
+extensively documented in the <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/README.rst">README.rst</a> file in the root of the Python
+source tree.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> can overwrite or masquerade the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span></code> binary.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">altinstall</span></code> is therefore recommended instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code>
+since it only installs <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/bin/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-related-paths-and-files">
+<h2>2.3. Python-related paths and files<a class="headerlink" href="#python-related-paths-and-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>These are subject to difference depending on local installation conventions;
+<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prefix</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">${prefix}</span></code>) and <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">${exec_prefix}</span></code>)
+are installation-dependent and should be interpreted as for GNU software; they
+may be the same.</p>
+<p>For example, on most Linux systems, the default for both is <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr</span></code>.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 53%" />
+<col style="width: 47%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>File/directory</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Meaning</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/bin/python3</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Recommended location of the interpreter.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/lib/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Recommended locations of the directories
+containing the standard modules.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/include/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">exec_prefix</span></em><span class="pre">/include/python</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Recommended locations of the directories
+containing the include files needed for
+developing Python extensions and
+embedding the interpreter.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="miscellaneous">
+<h2>2.4. Miscellaneous<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To easily use Python scripts on Unix, you need to make them executable,
+e.g. with</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> chmod +x script
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and put an appropriate Shebang line at the top of the script.  A good choice is
+usually</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which searches for the Python interpreter in the whole <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>.  However,
+some Unices may not have the <strong class="program">env</strong> command, so you may need to hardcode
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/python3</span></code> as the interpreter path.</p>
+<p>To use shell commands in your Python scripts, look at the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="editors-and-ides">
+<h2>2.5. Editors and IDEs<a class="headerlink" href="#editors-and-ides" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There are a number of IDEs that support Python programming language.
+Many editors and IDEs provide syntax highlighting, debugging tools, and <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008"><strong>PEP 8</strong></a> checks.</p>
+<p>Please go to <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors">Python Editors</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments">Integrated Development Environments</a>
+for a comprehensive list.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">2. Using Python on Unix platforms</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-and-installing-the-latest-version-of-python">2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#on-linux">2.1.1. On Linux</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#on-freebsd-and-openbsd">2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#on-opensolaris">2.1.3. On OpenSolaris</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#building-python">2.2. Building Python</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-related-paths-and-files">2.3. Python-related paths and files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#miscellaneous">2.4. Miscellaneous</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#editors-and-ides">2.5. Editors and IDEs</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="cmdline.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">1. Command line and environment</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="windows.html"
+                        title="next chapter">3. Using Python on Windows</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/using/unix.rst"
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="using-python-on-windows">
+<span id="using-on-windows"></span><h1>3. Using Python on Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#using-python-on-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This document aims to give an overview of Windows-specific behaviour you should
+know about when using Python on Microsoft Windows.</p>
+<p>Unlike most Unix systems and services, Windows does not include a system
+supported installation of Python. To make Python available, the CPython team
+has compiled Windows installers (MSI packages) with every <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/download/releases/">release</a> for many years. These installers
+are primarily intended to add a per-user installation of Python, with the
+core interpreter and library being used by a single user. The installer is also
+able to install for all users of a single machine, and a separate ZIP file is
+available for application-local distributions.</p>
+<p>As specified in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0011"><strong>PEP 11</strong></a>, a Python release only supports a Windows platform
+while Microsoft considers the platform under extended support. This means that
+Python 3.7 supports Windows Vista and newer. If you require Windows XP
+support then please install Python 3.4.</p>
+<p>There are a number of different installers available for Windows, each with
+certain benefits and downsides.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-full"><span class="std std-ref">The full installer</span></a> contains all components and is the best option for
+developers using Python for any kind of project.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-store"><span class="std std-ref">The Microsoft Store package</span></a> is a simple installation of Python that is suitable for
+running scripts and packages, and using IDLE or other development environments.
+It requires Windows 10, but can be safely installed without corrupting other
+programs. It also provides many convenient commands for launching Python and
+its tools.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-nuget"><span class="std std-ref">The nuget.org packages</span></a> are lightweight installations intended for continuous
+integration systems. It can be used to build Python packages or run scripts,
+but is not updateable and has no user interface tools.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-embeddable"><span class="std std-ref">The embeddable package</span></a> is a minimal package of Python suitable for
+embedding into a larger application.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-full-installer">
+<span id="windows-full"></span><h2>3.1. The full installer<a class="headerlink" href="#the-full-installer" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="installation-steps">
+<h3>3.1.1. Installation steps<a class="headerlink" href="#installation-steps" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Four Python 3.7 installers are available for download - two each for the
+32-bit and 64-bit versions of the interpreter. The <em>web installer</em> is a small
+initial download, and it will automatically download the required components as
+necessary. The <em>offline installer</em> includes the components necessary for a
+default installation and only requires an internet connection for optional
+features. See <a class="reference internal" href="#install-layout-option"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Without Downloading</span></a> for other ways to avoid downloading
+during installation.</p>
+<p>After starting the installer, one of two options may be selected:</p>
+<img alt="../_images/win_installer.png" src="../_images/win_installer.png" />
+<p>If you select “Install Now”:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>You will <em>not</em> need to be an administrator (unless a system update for the
+C Runtime Library is required or you install the <a class="reference internal" href="#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a> for all
+users)</p></li>
+<li><p>Python will be installed into your user directory</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a> will be installed according to the option at the bottom
+of the first page</p></li>
+<li><p>The standard library, test suite, launcher and pip will be installed</p></li>
+<li><p>If selected, the install directory will be added to your <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Shortcuts will only be visible for the current user</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Selecting “Customize installation” will allow you to select the features to
+install, the installation location and other options or post-install actions.
+To install debugging symbols or binaries, you will need to use this option.</p>
+<p>To perform an all-users installation, you should select “Customize
+installation”. In this case:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>You may be required to provide administrative credentials or approval</p></li>
+<li><p>Python will be installed into the Program Files directory</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a> will be installed into the Windows directory</p></li>
+<li><p>Optional features may be selected during installation</p></li>
+<li><p>The standard library can be pre-compiled to bytecode</p></li>
+<li><p>If selected, the install directory will be added to the system <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Shortcuts are available for all users</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removing-the-max-path-limitation">
+<span id="max-path"></span><h3>3.1.2. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation<a class="headerlink" href="#removing-the-max-path-limitation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Windows historically has limited path lengths to 260 characters. This meant that
+paths longer than this would not resolve and errors would result.</p>
+<p>In the latest versions of Windows, this limitation can be expanded to
+approximately 32,000 characters. Your administrator will need to activate the
+“Enable Win32 long paths” group policy, or set the registry value
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem&#64;LongPathsEnabled</span></code>
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This allows the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module and most other
+path functionality to accept and return paths longer than 260 characters when
+using strings. (Use of bytes as paths is deprecated on Windows, and this feature
+is not available when using bytes.)</p>
+<p>After changing the above option, no further configuration is required.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span>Support for long paths was enabled in Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-without-ui">
+<span id="install-quiet-option"></span><h3>3.1.3. Installing Without UI<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-without-ui" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All of the options available in the installer UI can also be specified from the
+command line, allowing scripted installers to replicate an installation on many
+machines without user interaction.  These options may also be set without
+suppressing the UI in order to change some of the defaults.</p>
+<p>To completely hide the installer UI and install Python silently, pass the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/quiet</span></code> option. To skip past the user interaction but still display
+progress and errors, pass the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/passive</span></code> option. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/uninstall</span></code>
+option may be passed to immediately begin removing Python - no prompt will be
+displayed.</p>
+<p>All other options are passed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name=value</span></code>, where the value is usually
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to disable a feature, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> to enable a feature, or a path. The full list
+of available options is shown below.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 42%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Default</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>InstallAllUsers</p></td>
+<td><p>Perform a system-wide installation.</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>TargetDir</p></td>
+<td><p>The installation directory</p></td>
+<td><p>Selected based on
+InstallAllUsers</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>DefaultAllUsersTargetDir</p></td>
+<td><p>The default installation directory
+for all-user installs</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%ProgramFiles%\Python</span> <span class="pre">X.Y</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%ProgramFiles(x86)%\Python</span> <span class="pre">X.Y</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>DefaultJustForMeTargetDir</p></td>
+<td><p>The default install directory for
+just-for-me installs</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%LocalAppData%\Programs\PythonXY</span></code> or
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%LocalAppData%\Programs\PythonXY-32</span></code> or
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%LocalAppData%\Programs\PythonXY-64</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>DefaultCustomTargetDir</p></td>
+<td><p>The default custom install directory
+displayed in the UI</p></td>
+<td><p>(empty)</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>AssociateFiles</p></td>
+<td><p>Create file associations if the
+launcher is also installed.</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>CompileAll</p></td>
+<td><p>Compile all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>.</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>PrependPath</p></td>
+<td><p>Add install and Scripts directories
+to <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.PY</span></code> to
+<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATHEXT</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Shortcuts</p></td>
+<td><p>Create shortcuts for the interpreter,
+documentation and IDLE if installed.</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Include_doc</p></td>
+<td><p>Install Python manual</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Include_debug</p></td>
+<td><p>Install debug binaries</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Include_dev</p></td>
+<td><p>Install developer headers and
+libraries</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Include_exe</p></td>
+<td><p>Install <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> and
+related files</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Include_launcher</p></td>
+<td><p>Install <a class="reference internal" href="#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a>.</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>InstallLauncherAllUsers</p></td>
+<td><p>Installs <a class="reference internal" href="#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a> for all
+users.</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Include_lib</p></td>
+<td><p>Install standard library and
+extension modules</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Include_pip</p></td>
+<td><p>Install bundled pip and setuptools</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Include_symbols</p></td>
+<td><p>Install debugging symbols (<cite>*</cite>.pdb)</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Include_tcltk</p></td>
+<td><p>Install Tcl/Tk support and IDLE</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Include_test</p></td>
+<td><p>Install standard library test suite</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>Include_tools</p></td>
+<td><p>Install utility scripts</p></td>
+<td><p>1</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>LauncherOnly</p></td>
+<td><p>Only installs the launcher. This
+will override most other options.</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>SimpleInstall</p></td>
+<td><p>Disable most install UI</p></td>
+<td><p>0</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>SimpleInstallDescription</p></td>
+<td><p>A custom message to display when the
+simplified install UI is used.</p></td>
+<td><p>(empty)</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>For example, to silently install a default, system-wide Python installation,
+you could use the following command (from an elevated command prompt):</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python-3.7.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To allow users to easily install a personal copy of Python without the test
+suite, you could provide a shortcut with the following command. This will
+display a simplified initial page and disallow customization:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python-3.7.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
+    SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription=&quot;Just for me, no test suite.&quot;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Note that omitting the launcher also omits file associations, and is only
+recommended for per-user installs when there is also a system-wide installation
+that included the launcher.)</p>
+<p>The options listed above can also be provided in a file named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unattend.xml</span></code>
+alongside the executable. This file specifies a list of options and values.
+When a value is provided as an attribute, it will be converted to a number if
+possible. Values provided as element text are always left as strings. This
+example file sets the same options as the previous example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-xml notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nt">&lt;Options&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;Option</span> <span class="na">Name=</span><span class="s">&quot;InstallAllUsers&quot;</span> <span class="na">Value=</span><span class="s">&quot;no&quot;</span> <span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;Option</span> <span class="na">Name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Include_launcher&quot;</span> <span class="na">Value=</span><span class="s">&quot;0&quot;</span> <span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;Option</span> <span class="na">Name=</span><span class="s">&quot;Include_test&quot;</span> <span class="na">Value=</span><span class="s">&quot;no&quot;</span> <span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;Option</span> <span class="na">Name=</span><span class="s">&quot;SimpleInstall&quot;</span> <span class="na">Value=</span><span class="s">&quot;yes&quot;</span> <span class="nt">/&gt;</span>
+    <span class="nt">&lt;Option</span> <span class="na">Name=</span><span class="s">&quot;SimpleInstallDescription&quot;</span><span class="nt">&gt;</span>Just for me, no test suite<span class="nt">&lt;/Option&gt;</span>
+<span class="nt">&lt;/Options&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="installing-without-downloading">
+<span id="install-layout-option"></span><h3>3.1.4. Installing Without Downloading<a class="headerlink" href="#installing-without-downloading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As some features of Python are not included in the initial installer download,
+selecting those features may require an internet connection.  To avoid this
+need, all possible components may be downloaded on-demand to create a complete
+<em>layout</em> that will no longer require an internet connection regardless of the
+selected features. Note that this download may be bigger than required, but
+where a large number of installations are going to be performed it is very
+useful to have a locally cached copy.</p>
+<p>Execute the following command from Command Prompt to download all possible
+required files.  Remember to substitute <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python-3.7.0.exe</span></code> for the actual
+name of your installer, and to create layouts in their own directories to
+avoid collisions between files with the same name.</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>python-3.7.0.exe /layout [optional target directory]
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You may also specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/quiet</span></code> option to hide the progress display.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="modifying-an-install">
+<h3>3.1.5. Modifying an install<a class="headerlink" href="#modifying-an-install" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Once Python has been installed, you can add or remove features through the
+Programs and Features tool that is part of Windows. Select the Python entry and
+choose “Uninstall/Change” to open the installer in maintenance mode.</p>
+<p>“Modify” allows you to add or remove features by modifying the checkboxes -
+unchanged checkboxes will not install or remove anything. Some options cannot be
+changed in this mode, such as the install directory; to modify these, you will
+need to remove and then reinstall Python completely.</p>
+<p>“Repair” will verify all the files that should be installed using the current
+settings and replace any that have been removed or modified.</p>
+<p>“Uninstall” will remove Python entirely, with the exception of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a>, which has its own entry in Programs and Features.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-microsoft-store-package">
+<span id="windows-store"></span><h2>3.2. The Microsoft Store package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-microsoft-store-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The Microsoft Store package is currently considered unstable while its
+interactions with other tools and other copies of Python are evaluated.
+While Python itself is stable, this installation method may change its
+behavior and capabilities during Python 3.7 releases.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The Microsoft Store package is an easily installable Python interpreter that
+is intended mainly for interactive use, for example, by students.</p>
+<p>To install the package, ensure you have the latest Windows 10 updates and
+search the Microsoft Store app for “Python 3.7”. Ensure that the app
+you select is published by the Python Software Foundation, and install it.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Python will always be available for free on the Microsoft Store. If you
+are asked to pay for it, you have not selected the correct package.</p>
+</div>
+<p>After installation, Python may be launched by finding it in Start.
+Alternatively, it will be available from any Command Prompt or PowerShell
+session by typing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code>. Further, pip and IDLE may be used by typing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idle</span></code>. IDLE can also be found in Start.</p>
+<p>All three commands are also available with version number suffixes, for
+example, as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.exe</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.x.exe</span></code> as well as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> (where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3.x</span></code> is the specific version you want to launch,
+such as 3.7).</p>
+<p>Virtual environments can be created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">venv</span></code> and activated
+and used as normal.</p>
+<p>If you have installed another version of Python and added it to your
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> variable, it will be available as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> rather than the
+one from the Microsoft Store. To access the new installation, use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.exe</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.x.exe</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To remove Python, open Settings and use Apps and Features, or else find
+Python in Start and right-click to select Uninstall. Uninstalling will
+remove all packages you installed directly into this Python installation, but
+will not remove any virtual environments</p>
+<div class="section" id="known-issues">
+<h3>3.2.1. Known Issues<a class="headerlink" href="#known-issues" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Currently, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py.exe</span></code> launcher cannot be used to start Python when it
+has been installed from the Microsoft Store.</p>
+<p>Because of restrictions on Microsoft Store apps, Python scripts may not have
+full write access to shared locations such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TEMP</span></code> and the registry.
+Instead, it will write to a private copy. If your scripts must modify the
+shared locations, you will need to install the full installer.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-nuget-org-packages">
+<span id="windows-nuget"></span><h2>3.3. The nuget.org packages<a class="headerlink" href="#the-nuget-org-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The nuget.org package is a reduced size Python environment intended for use on
+continuous integration and build systems that do not have a system-wide
+install of Python. While nuget is “the package manager for .NET”, it also works
+perfectly fine for packages containing build-time tools.</p>
+<p>Visit <a class="reference external" href="https://www.nuget.org/">nuget.org</a> for the most up-to-date information
+on using nuget. What follows is a summary that is sufficient for Python
+developers.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nuget.exe</span></code> command line tool may be downloaded directly from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">https://aka.ms/nugetclidl</span></code>, for example, using curl or PowerShell. With the
+tool, the latest version of Python for 64-bit or 32-bit machines is installed
+using:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
+nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To select a particular version, add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Version</span> <span class="pre">3.x.y</span></code>. The output directory
+may be changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code>, and the package will be installed into a
+subdirectory. By default, the subdirectory is named the same as the package,
+and without the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-ExcludeVersion</span></code> option this name will include the specific
+version installed. Inside the subdirectory is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tools</span></code> directory that
+contains the Python installation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span># Without -ExcludeVersion
+&gt; .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
+Python 3.5.2
+
+# With -ExcludeVersion
+&gt; .\python\tools\python.exe -V
+Python 3.5.2
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In general, nuget packages are not upgradeable, and newer versions should be
+installed side-by-side and referenced using the full path. Alternatively,
+delete the package directory manually and install it again. Many CI systems
+will do this automatically if they do not preserve files between builds.</p>
+<p>Alongside the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tools</span></code> directory is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build\native</span></code> directory. This
+contains a MSBuild properties file <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.props</span></code> that can be used in a
+C++ project to reference the Python install. Including the settings will
+automatically use the headers and import libraries in your build.</p>
+<p>The package information pages on nuget.org are
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.nuget.org/packages/python">www.nuget.org/packages/python</a>
+for the 64-bit version and <a class="reference external" href="https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86">www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86</a> for the 32-bit version.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-embeddable-package">
+<span id="windows-embeddable"></span><h2>3.4. The embeddable package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-embeddable-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The embedded distribution is a ZIP file containing a minimal Python environment.
+It is intended for acting as part of another application, rather than being
+directly accessed by end-users.</p>
+<p>When extracted, the embedded distribution is (almost) fully isolated from the
+user’s system, including environment variables, system registry settings, and
+installed packages. The standard library is included as pre-compiled and
+optimized <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files in a ZIP, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.dll</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python37.dll</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonw.exe</span></code> are all provided. Tcl/tk (including all
+dependants, such as Idle), pip and the Python documentation are not included.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The embedded distribution does not include the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=48145">Microsoft C Runtime</a> and it is
+the responsibility of the application installer to provide this. The
+runtime may have already been installed on a user’s system previously or
+automatically via Windows Update, and can be detected by finding
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ucrtbase.dll</span></code> in the system directory.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Third-party packages should be installed by the application installer alongside
+the embedded distribution. Using pip to manage dependencies as for a regular
+Python installation is not supported with this distribution, though with some
+care it may be possible to include and use pip for automatic updates. In
+general, third-party packages should be treated as part of the application
+(“vendoring”) so that the developer can ensure compatibility with newer
+versions before providing updates to users.</p>
+<p>The two recommended use cases for this distribution are described below.</p>
+<div class="section" id="python-application">
+<h3>3.4.1. Python Application<a class="headerlink" href="#python-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An application written in Python does not necessarily require users to be aware
+of that fact. The embedded distribution may be used in this case to include a
+private version of Python in an install package. Depending on how transparent it
+should be (or conversely, how professional it should appear), there are two
+options.</p>
+<p>Using a specialized executable as a launcher requires some coding, but provides
+the most transparent experience for users. With a customized launcher, there are
+no obvious indications that the program is running on Python: icons can be
+customized, company and version information can be specified, and file
+associations behave properly. In most cases, a custom launcher should simply be
+able to call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Main</span></code> with a hard-coded command line.</p>
+<p>The simpler approach is to provide a batch file or generated shortcut that
+directly calls the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonw.exe</span></code> with the required
+command-line arguments. In this case, the application will appear to be Python
+and not its actual name, and users may have trouble distinguishing it from other
+running Python processes or file associations.</p>
+<p>With the latter approach, packages should be installed as directories alongside
+the Python executable to ensure they are available on the path. With the
+specialized launcher, packages can be located in other locations as there is an
+opportunity to specify the search path before launching the application.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="embedding-python">
+<h3>3.4.2. Embedding Python<a class="headerlink" href="#embedding-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Applications written in native code often require some form of scripting
+language, and the embedded Python distribution can be used for this purpose. In
+general, the majority of the application is in native code, and some part will
+either invoke <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> or directly use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.dll</span></code>. For either case,
+extracting the embedded distribution to a subdirectory of the application
+installation is sufficient to provide a loadable Python interpreter.</p>
+<p>As with the application use, packages can be installed to any location as there
+is an opportunity to specify search paths before initializing the interpreter.
+Otherwise, there is no fundamental differences between using the embedded
+distribution and a regular installation.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="alternative-bundles">
+<h2>3.5. Alternative bundles<a class="headerlink" href="#alternative-bundles" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Besides the standard CPython distribution, there are modified packages including
+additional functionality.  The following is a list of popular versions and their
+key features:</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.activestate.com/activepython/">ActivePython</a></dt><dd><p>Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation, PyWin32</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.anaconda.com/download/">Anaconda</a></dt><dd><p>Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy and pandas) and the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conda</span></code> package manager.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.enthought.com/product/canopy/">Canopy</a></dt><dd><p>A “comprehensive Python analysis environment” with editors and other
+development tools.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://winpython.github.io/">WinPython</a></dt><dd><p>Windows-specific distribution with prebuilt scientific packages and
+tools for building packages.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Note that these packages may not include the latest versions of Python or
+other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core Python team.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configuring-python">
+<h2>3.6. Configuring Python<a class="headerlink" href="#configuring-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To run Python conveniently from a command prompt, you might consider changing
+some default environment variables in Windows.  While the installer provides an
+option to configure the PATH and PATHEXT variables for you, this is only
+reliable for a single, system-wide installation.  If you regularly use multiple
+versions of Python, consider using the <a class="reference internal" href="#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="excursus-setting-environment-variables">
+<span id="setting-envvars"></span><h3>3.6.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables<a class="headerlink" href="#excursus-setting-environment-variables" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Windows allows environment variables to be configured permanently at both the
+User level and the System level, or temporarily in a command prompt.</p>
+<p>To temporarily set environment variables, open Command Prompt and use the
+<strong class="command">set</strong> command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-doscon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">C:\&gt;</span><span class="k">set</span> <span class="nv">PATH</span><span class="p">=</span>C:\Program Files\Python 3.7;<span class="nv">%PATH%</span>
+<span class="gp">C:\&gt;</span><span class="k">set</span> <span class="nv">PYTHONPATH</span><span class="p">=</span><span class="nv">%PYTHONPATH%</span>;C:\My_python_lib
+<span class="gp">C:\&gt;</span>python
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>These changes will apply to any further commands executed in that console, and
+will be inherited by any applications started from the console.</p>
+<p>Including the variable name within percent signs will expand to the existing
+value, allowing you to add your new value at either the start or the end.
+Modifying <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> by adding the directory containing
+<strong class="program">python.exe</strong> to the start is a common way to ensure the correct version
+of Python is launched.</p>
+<p>To permanently modify the default environment variables, click Start and search
+for ‘edit environment variables’, or open System properties, <span class="guilabel">Advanced
+system settings</span> and click the <span class="guilabel">Environment Variables</span> button.
+In this dialog, you can add or modify User and System variables. To change
+System variables, you need non-restricted access to your machine
+(i.e. Administrator rights).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>Windows will concatenate User variables <em>after</em> System variables, which may
+cause unexpected results when modifying <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> variable is used by all versions of Python 2 and
+Python 3, so you should not permanently configure this variable unless it
+only includes code that is compatible with all of your installed Python
+versions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/wdsi/help/folder-variables">https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/wdsi/help/folder-variables</a></dt><dd><p>Environment variables in Windows NT</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754250.aspx">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754250.aspx</a></dt><dd><p>The SET command, for temporarily modifying environment variables</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc755104.aspx">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc755104.aspx</a></dt><dd><p>The SETX command, for permanently modifying environment variables</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/310519/how-to-manage-environment-variables-in-windows-xp">https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/310519/how-to-manage-environment-variables-in-windows-xp</a></dt><dd><p>How To Manage Environment Variables in Windows XP</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/~louis/software/faq/q1.html">https://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/~louis/software/faq/q1.html</a></dt><dd><p>Setting Environment variables, Louis J. Farrugia</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finding-the-python-executable">
+<span id="windows-path-mod"></span><h3>3.6.2. Finding the Python executable<a class="headerlink" href="#finding-the-python-executable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>Besides using the automatically created start menu entry for the Python
+interpreter, you might want to start Python in the command prompt. The
+installer has an option to set that up for you.</p>
+<p>On the first page of the installer, an option labelled “Add Python to PATH”
+may be selected to have the installer add the install location into the
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>.  The location of the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scripts\</span></code> folder is also added.
+This allows you to type <strong class="command">python</strong> to run the interpreter, and
+<strong class="command">pip</strong> for the package installer. Thus, you can also execute your
+scripts with command line options, see <a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#using-on-cmdline"><span class="std std-ref">Command line</span></a> documentation.</p>
+<p>If you don’t enable this option at install time, you can always re-run the
+installer, select Modify, and enable it.  Alternatively, you can manually
+modify the <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> using the directions in <a class="reference internal" href="#setting-envvars"><span class="std std-ref">Excursus: Setting environment variables</span></a>.  You
+need to set your <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable to include the directory
+of your Python installation, delimited by a semicolon from other entries.  An
+example variable could look like this (assuming the first two entries already
+existed):</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Program Files\Python 3.7
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-launcher-for-windows">
+<span id="launcher"></span><h2>3.7. Python Launcher for Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#python-launcher-for-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.3.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The Python launcher for Windows is a utility which aids in locating and
+executing of different Python versions.  It allows scripts (or the
+command-line) to indicate a preference for a specific Python version, and
+will locate and execute that version.</p>
+<p>Unlike the <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> variable, the launcher will correctly select the most
+appropriate version of Python. It will prefer per-user installations over
+system-wide ones, and orders by language version rather than using the most
+recently installed version.</p>
+<p>The launcher was originally specified in <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0397"><strong>PEP 397</strong></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="getting-started">
+<h3>3.7.1. Getting started<a class="headerlink" href="#getting-started" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="from-the-command-line">
+<h4>3.7.1.1. From the command-line<a class="headerlink" href="#from-the-command-line" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>System-wide installations of Python 3.3 and later will put the launcher on your
+<span class="target" id="index-13"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>. The launcher is compatible with all available versions of
+Python, so it does not matter which version is installed. To check that the
+launcher is available, execute the following command in Command Prompt:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You should find that the latest version of Python you have installed is
+started - it can be exited as normal, and any additional command-line
+arguments specified will be sent directly to Python.</p>
+<p>If you have multiple versions of Python installed (e.g., 2.7 and 3.7) you
+will have noticed that Python 3.7 was started - to launch Python 2.7, try
+the command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>py -2.7
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you want the latest version of Python 2.x you have installed, try the
+command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>py -2
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You should find the latest version of Python 2.x starts.</p>
+<p>If you see the following error, you do not have the launcher installed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>&#39;py&#39; is not recognized as an internal or external command,
+operable program or batch file.
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Per-user installations of Python do not add the launcher to <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>
+unless the option was selected on installation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="virtual-environments">
+<h4>3.7.1.2. Virtual environments<a class="headerlink" href="#virtual-environments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>If the launcher is run with no explicit Python version specification, and a
+virtual environment (created with the standard library <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> module or
+the external <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">virtualenv</span></code> tool) active, the launcher will run the virtual
+environment’s interpreter rather than the global one.  To run the global
+interpreter, either deactivate the virtual environment, or explicitly specify
+the global Python version.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="from-a-script">
+<h4>3.7.1.3. From a script<a class="headerlink" href="#from-a-script" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Let’s create a test Python script - create a file called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hello.py</span></code> with the
+following contents</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#! python</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello from Python </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>From the directory in which hello.py lives, execute the command:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>py hello.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You should notice the version number of your latest Python 2.x installation
+is printed.  Now try changing the first line to be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#! python3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Re-executing the command should now print the latest Python 3.x information.
+As with the above command-line examples, you can specify a more explicit
+version qualifier.  Assuming you have Python 2.6 installed, try changing the
+first line to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span> <span class="pre">python2.6</span></code> and you should find the 2.6 version
+information printed.</p>
+<p>Note that unlike interactive use, a bare “python” will use the latest
+version of Python 2.x that you have installed.  This is for backward
+compatibility and for compatibility with Unix, where the command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code>
+typically refers to Python 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="from-file-associations">
+<h4>3.7.1.4. From file associations<a class="headerlink" href="#from-file-associations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The launcher should have been associated with Python files (i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyw</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files) when it was installed.  This means that
+when you double-click on one of these files from Windows explorer the launcher
+will be used, and therefore you can use the same facilities described above to
+have the script specify the version which should be used.</p>
+<p>The key benefit of this is that a single launcher can support multiple Python
+versions at the same time depending on the contents of the first line.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shebang-lines">
+<h3>3.7.2. Shebang Lines<a class="headerlink" href="#shebang-lines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If the first line of a script file starts with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code>, it is known as a
+“shebang” line.  Linux and other Unix like operating systems have native
+support for such lines and they are commonly used on such systems to indicate
+how a script should be executed.  This launcher allows the same facilities to
+be used with Python scripts on Windows and the examples above demonstrate their
+use.</p>
+<p>To allow shebang lines in Python scripts to be portable between Unix and
+Windows, this launcher supports a number of ‘virtual’ commands to specify
+which interpreter to use.  The supported virtual commands are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/env</span> <span class="pre">python</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/python</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/local/bin/python</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example, if the first line of your script starts with</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#! /usr/bin/python</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The default Python will be located and used.  As many Python scripts written
+to work on Unix will already have this line, you should find these scripts can
+be used by the launcher without modification.  If you are writing a new script
+on Windows which you hope will be useful on Unix, you should use one of the
+shebang lines starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Any of the above virtual commands can be suffixed with an explicit version
+(either just the major version, or the major and minor version).
+Furthermore the 32-bit version can be requested by adding “-32” after the
+minor version. I.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/python2.7-32</span></code> will request usage of the
+32-bit python 2.7.</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.7: </span>Beginning with python launcher 3.7 it is possible to request 64-bit version
+by the “-64” suffix. Furthermore it is possible to specify a major and
+architecture without minor (i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/python3-64</span></code>).</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/usr/bin/env</span></code> form of shebang line has one further special property.
+Before looking for installed Python interpreters, this form will search the
+executable <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> for a Python executable. This corresponds to the
+behaviour of the Unix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">env</span></code> program, which performs a <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> search.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="arguments-in-shebang-lines">
+<h3>3.7.3. Arguments in shebang lines<a class="headerlink" href="#arguments-in-shebang-lines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The shebang lines can also specify additional options to be passed to the
+Python interpreter.  For example, if you have a shebang line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-sh notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#! /usr/bin/python -v</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Then Python will be started with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code> option</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customization">
+<h3>3.7.4. Customization<a class="headerlink" href="#customization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="customization-via-ini-files">
+<h4>3.7.4.1. Customization via INI files<a class="headerlink" href="#customization-via-ini-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Two .ini files will be searched by the launcher - <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py.ini</span></code> in the current
+user’s “application data” directory (i.e. the directory returned by calling the
+Windows function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHGetFolderPath</span></code> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CSIDL_LOCAL_APPDATA</span></code>) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py.ini</span></code> in the
+same directory as the launcher. The same .ini files are used for both the
+‘console’ version of the launcher (i.e. py.exe) and for the ‘windows’ version
+(i.e. pyw.exe).</p>
+<p>Customization specified in the “application directory” will have precedence over
+the one next to the executable, so a user, who may not have write access to the
+.ini file next to the launcher, can override commands in that global .ini file.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="customizing-default-python-versions">
+<h4>3.7.4.2. Customizing default Python versions<a class="headerlink" href="#customizing-default-python-versions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>In some cases, a version qualifier can be included in a command to dictate
+which version of Python will be used by the command. A version qualifier
+starts with a major version number and can optionally be followed by a period
+(‘.’) and a minor version specifier. Furthermore it is possible to specifiy
+if a 32 or 64 bit implementation shall be requested by adding “-32” or “-64”.</p>
+<p>For example, a shebang line of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!python</span></code> has no version qualifier, while
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!python3</span></code> has a version qualifier which specifies only a major version.</p>
+<p>If no version qualifiers are found in a command, the environment
+variable <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON</span></code> can be set to specify the default version
+qualifier. If it is not set, the default is “3”. The variable can
+specify any value that may be passed on the command line, such as “3”,
+“3.7”, “3.7-32” or “3.7-64”. (Note that the “-64” option is only
+available with the launcher included with Python 3.7 or newer.)</p>
+<p>If no minor version qualifiers are found, the environment variable
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON{major}</span></code> (where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{major}</span></code> is the current major version qualifier
+as determined above) can be set to specify the full version. If no such option
+is found, the launcher will enumerate the installed Python versions and use
+the latest minor release found for the major version, which is likely,
+although not guaranteed, to be the most recently installed version in that
+family.</p>
+<p>On 64-bit Windows with both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the same
+(major.minor) Python version installed, the 64-bit version will always be
+preferred. This will be true for both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the
+launcher - a 32-bit launcher will prefer to execute a 64-bit Python installation
+of the specified version if available. This is so the behavior of the launcher
+can be predicted knowing only what versions are installed on the PC and
+without regard to the order in which they were installed (i.e., without knowing
+whether a 32 or 64-bit version of Python and corresponding launcher was
+installed last). As noted above, an optional “-32” or “-64” suffix can be
+used on a version specifier to change this behaviour.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If no relevant options are set, the commands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python2</span></code> will use the latest Python 2.x version installed and
+the command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span></code> will use the latest Python 3.x installed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The commands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python2.7</span></code> will not consult any
+options at all as the versions are fully specified.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON=3</span></code>, the commands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span></code> will both use
+the latest installed Python 3 version.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON=3.1-32</span></code>, the command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> will use the 32-bit
+implementation of 3.1 whereas the command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span></code> will use the latest
+installed Python (PY_PYTHON was not considered at all as a major
+version was specified.)</p></li>
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON=3</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON3=3.1</span></code>, the commands
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span></code> will both use specifically 3.1</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In addition to environment variables, the same settings can be configured
+in the .INI file used by the launcher.  The section in the INI file is
+called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[defaults]</span></code> and the key name will be the same as the
+environment variables without the leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_</span></code> prefix (and note that
+the key names in the INI file are case insensitive.)  The contents of
+an environment variable will override things specified in the INI file.</p>
+<p>For example:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON=3.1</span></code> is equivalent to the INI file containing:</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[defaults]</span>
+<span class="na">python</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">3.1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON=3</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_PYTHON3=3.1</span></code> is equivalent to the INI file
+containing:</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[defaults]</span>
+<span class="na">python</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">3</span>
+<span class="na">python3</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">3.1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="diagnostics">
+<h3>3.7.5. Diagnostics<a class="headerlink" href="#diagnostics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If an environment variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYLAUNCH_DEBUG</span></code> is set (to any value), the
+launcher will print diagnostic information to stderr (i.e. to the console).
+While this information manages to be simultaneously verbose <em>and</em> terse, it
+should allow you to see what versions of Python were located, why a
+particular version was chosen and the exact command-line used to execute the
+target Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="finding-modules">
+<span id="id1"></span><h2>3.8. Finding modules<a class="headerlink" href="#finding-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python usually stores its library (and thereby your site-packages folder) in the
+installation directory.  So, if you had installed Python to
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Python\</span></code>, the default library would reside in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Python\Lib\</span></code> and third-party modules should be stored in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\Python\Lib\site-packages\</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To completely override <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, create a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">._pth</span></code> file with the same
+name as the DLL (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python37._pth</span></code>) or the executable (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python._pth</span></code>) and
+specify one line for each path to add to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>. The file based on the
+DLL name overrides the one based on the executable, which allows paths to be
+restricted for any program loading the runtime if desired.</p>
+<p>When the file exists, all registry and environment variables are ignored,
+isolated mode is enabled, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> is not imported unless one line in the
+file specifies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">site</span></code>. Blank paths and lines starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#</span></code> are
+ignored. Each path may be absolute or relative to the location of the file.
+Import statements other than to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> are not permitted, and arbitrary code
+cannot be specified.</p>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pth</span></code> files (without leading underscore) will be processed normally
+by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">site</span></code> has been specified.</p>
+<p>When no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">._pth</span></code> file is found, this is how <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is populated on
+Windows:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>An empty entry is added at the start, which corresponds to the current
+directory.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> exists, as described in
+<a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#using-on-envvars"><span class="std std-ref">Environment variables</span></a>, its entries are added next.  Note that on Windows,
+paths in this variable must be separated by semicolons, to distinguish them
+from the colon used in drive identifiers (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C:\</span></code> etc.).</p></li>
+<li><p>Additional “application paths” can be added in the registry as subkeys of
+<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\SOFTWARE\Python\PythonCore{version}\PythonPath</span></code> under both the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HKEY_CURRENT_USER</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE</span></code> hives.  Subkeys which have
+semicolon-delimited path strings as their default value will cause each path
+to be added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>.  (Note that all known installers only use
+HKLM, so HKCU is typically empty.)</p></li>
+<li><p>If the environment variable <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> is set, it is assumed as
+“Python Home”.  Otherwise, the path of the main Python executable is used to
+locate a “landmark file” (either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib\os.py</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonXY.zip</span></code>) to deduce
+the “Python Home”.  If a Python home is found, the relevant sub-directories
+added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plat-win</span></code>, etc) are based on that
+folder.  Otherwise, the core Python path is constructed from the PythonPath
+stored in the registry.</p></li>
+<li><p>If the Python Home cannot be located, no <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> is specified in
+the environment, and no registry entries can be found, a default path with
+relative entries is used (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.\Lib;.\plat-win</span></code>, etc).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>If a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv.cfg</span></code> file is found alongside the main executable or in the
+directory one level above the executable, the following variations apply:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">home</span></code> is an absolute path and <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a> is not set, this
+path is used instead of the path to the main executable when deducing the
+home location.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The end result of all this is:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When running <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code>, or any other .exe in the main Python
+directory (either an installed version, or directly from the PCbuild
+directory), the core path is deduced, and the core paths in the registry are
+ignored.  Other “application paths” in the registry are always read.</p></li>
+<li><p>When Python is hosted in another .exe (different directory, embedded via COM,
+etc), the “Python Home” will not be deduced, so the core path from the
+registry is used.  Other “application paths” in the registry are always read.</p></li>
+<li><p>If Python can’t find its home and there are no registry value (frozen .exe,
+some very strange installation setup) you get a path with some default, but
+relative, paths.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For those who want to bundle Python into their application or distribution, the
+following advice will prevent conflicts with other installations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Include a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">._pth</span></code> file alongside your executable containing the
+directories to include. This will ignore paths listed in the registry and
+environment variables, and also ignore <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> unless <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">site</span></code> is
+listed.</p></li>
+<li><p>If you are loading <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.dll</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python37.dll</span></code> in your own
+executable, explicitly call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetPath" title="Py_SetPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetPath()</span></code></a> or (at least)
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a> before <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Clear and/or overwrite <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> and set <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="reference internal" href="cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a>
+before launching <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> from your application.</p></li>
+<li><p>If you cannot use the previous suggestions (for example, you are a
+distribution that allows people to run <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> directly), ensure
+that the landmark file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib\os.py</span></code>) exists in your install directory.
+(Note that it will not be detected inside a ZIP file, but a correctly named
+ZIP file will be detected instead.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>These will ensure that the files in a system-wide installation will not take
+precedence over the copy of the standard library bundled with your application.
+Otherwise, your users may experience problems using your application. Note that
+the first suggestion is the best, as the others may still be susceptible to
+non-standard paths in the registry and user site-packages.</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<blockquote>
+<div><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6: </span><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Adds <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">._pth</span></code> file support and removes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">applocal</span></code> option from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv.cfg</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Adds <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonXX.zip</span></code> as a potential landmark when directly adjacent
+to the executable.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="deprecated">
+<blockquote>
+<div><span class="versionmodified deprecated">Deprecated since version 3.6: </span><p>Modules specified in the registry under <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules</span></code> (not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PythonPath</span></code>)
+may be imported by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder" title="importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder</span></code></a>.
+This finder is enabled on Windows in 3.6.0 and earlier, but may need to
+be explicitly added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> in the future.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="additional-modules">
+<h2>3.9. Additional modules<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Even though Python aims to be portable among all platforms, there are features
+that are unique to Windows.  A couple of modules, both in the standard library
+and external, and snippets exist to use these features.</p>
+<p>The Windows-specific standard modules are documented in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/windows.html#mswin-specific-services"><span class="std std-ref">MS Windows Specific Services</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="pywin32">
+<h3>3.9.1. PyWin32<a class="headerlink" href="#pywin32" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/pywin32">PyWin32</a> module by Mark Hammond
+is a collection of modules for advanced Windows-specific support.  This includes
+utilities for:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/desktop/com/component-object-model--com--portal">Component Object Model</a>
+(COM)</p></li>
+<li><p>Win32 API calls</p></li>
+<li><p>Registry</p></li>
+<li><p>Event log</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/fe1cf721%28VS.80%29.aspx">Microsoft Foundation Classes</a> (MFC)
+user interfaces</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/https://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/">PythonWin</a> is a sample MFC application
+shipped with PyWin32.  It is an embeddable IDE with a built-in debugger.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html">Win32 How Do I…?</a></dt><dd><p>by Tim Golden</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html">Python and COM</a></dt><dd><p>by David and Paul Boddie</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cx-freeze">
+<h3>3.9.2. cx_Freeze<a class="headerlink" href="#cx-freeze" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://anthony-tuininga.github.io/cx_Freeze/">cx_Freeze</a> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>
+extension (see <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/extending.html#extending-distutils"><span class="std std-ref">Extending Distutils</span></a>) which wraps Python scripts into
+executable Windows programs (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><em><span class="pre">*</span></em><span class="pre">.exe</span></code> files).  When you have done this,
+you can distribute your application without requiring your users to install
+Python.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wconio">
+<h3>3.9.3. WConio<a class="headerlink" href="#wconio" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since Python’s advanced terminal handling layer, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a>, is restricted to
+Unix-like systems, there is a library exclusive to Windows as well: Windows
+Console I/O for Python.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://newcenturycomputers.net/projects/wconio.html">WConio</a> is a wrapper for
+Turbo-C’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONIO.H</span></code>, used to create text user interfaces.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compiling-python-on-windows">
+<h2>3.10. Compiling Python on Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#compiling-python-on-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is get the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/source/">source</a>. You can download either the
+latest release’s source or just grab a fresh <a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/setup/#getting-the-source-code">checkout</a>.</p>
+<p>The source tree contains a build solution and project files for Microsoft
+Visual Studio 2015, which is the compiler used to build the official Python
+releases. These files are in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild</span></code> directory.</p>
+<p>Check <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild/readme.txt</span></code> for general information on the build process.</p>
+<p>For extension modules, consult <a class="reference internal" href="../extending/windows.html#building-on-windows"><span class="std std-ref">Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://sebsauvage.net/python/mingw.html">Python + Windows + distutils + SWIG + gcc MinGW</a></dt><dd><p>or “Creating Python extensions in C/C++ with SWIG and compiling them with
+MinGW gcc under Windows” or “Installing Python extension with distutils
+and without Microsoft Visual C++” by Sébastien Sauvage, 2003</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.mingw.org/wiki/FAQ#toc14">MingW – Python extensions</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-platforms">
+<h2>3.11. Other Platforms<a class="headerlink" href="#other-platforms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>With ongoing development of Python, some platforms that used to be supported
+earlier are no longer supported (due to the lack of users or developers).
+Check <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0011"><strong>PEP 11</strong></a> for details on all unsupported platforms.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="http://pythonce.sourceforge.net/">Windows CE</a> is still supported.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://cygwin.com/">Cygwin</a> installer offers to install the Python
+interpreter as well (cf. <a class="reference external" href="ftp://ftp.uni-erlangen.de/pub/pc/gnuwin32/cygwin/mirrors/cygnus/release/python">Cygwin package source</a>, <a class="reference external" href="http://www.tishler.net/jason/software/python/">Maintainer releases</a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/">Python for Windows</a>
+for detailed information about platforms with pre-compiled installers.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">3. Using Python on Windows</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-full-installer">3.1. The full installer</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installation-steps">3.1.1. Installation steps</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removing-the-max-path-limitation">3.1.2. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-without-ui">3.1.3. Installing Without UI</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#installing-without-downloading">3.1.4. Installing Without Downloading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modifying-an-install">3.1.5. Modifying an install</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-microsoft-store-package">3.2. The Microsoft Store package</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#known-issues">3.2.1. Known Issues</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-nuget-org-packages">3.3. The nuget.org packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-embeddable-package">3.4. The embeddable package</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-application">3.4.1. Python Application</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#embedding-python">3.4.2. Embedding Python</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#alternative-bundles">3.5. Alternative bundles</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuring-python">3.6. Configuring Python</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#excursus-setting-environment-variables">3.6.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finding-the-python-executable">3.6.2. Finding the Python executable</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-launcher-for-windows">3.7. Python Launcher for Windows</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-started">3.7.1. Getting started</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#from-the-command-line">3.7.1.1. From the command-line</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#virtual-environments">3.7.1.2. Virtual environments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#from-a-script">3.7.1.3. From a script</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#from-file-associations">3.7.1.4. From file associations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shebang-lines">3.7.2. Shebang Lines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#arguments-in-shebang-lines">3.7.3. Arguments in shebang lines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customization">3.7.4. Customization</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customization-via-ini-files">3.7.4.1. Customization via INI files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#customizing-default-python-versions">3.7.4.2. Customizing default Python versions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#diagnostics">3.7.5. Diagnostics</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#finding-modules">3.8. Finding modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-modules">3.9. Additional modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pywin32">3.9.1. PyWin32</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cx-freeze">3.9.2. cx_Freeze</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wconio">3.9.3. WConio</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compiling-python-on-windows">3.10. Compiling Python on Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-platforms">3.11. Other Platforms</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="unix.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">2. Using Python on Unix platforms</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="mac.html"
+                        title="next chapter">4. Using Python on a Macintosh</a></p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,1224 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>What’s New in Python 2.0 &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-0">
+<h1>What’s New in Python 2.0<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling and Moshe Zadka</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new release of Python, version 2.0, was released on October 16, 2000. This
+article covers the exciting new features in 2.0, highlights some other useful
+changes, and points out a few incompatible changes that may require rewriting
+code.</p>
+<p>Python’s development never completely stops between releases, and a steady flow
+of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted. A host of minor fixes,
+a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and better error messages went into
+2.0; to list them all would be impossible, but they’re certainly significant.
+Consult the publicly-available CVS logs if you want to see the full list.  This
+progress is due to the five developers working for  PythonLabs are now getting
+paid to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved communication
+resulting  from moving to SourceForge.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="what-about-python-1-6">
+<h2>What About Python 1.6?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-about-python-1-6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 1.6 can be thought of as the Contractual Obligations Python release.
+After the core development team left CNRI in May 2000, CNRI requested that a 1.6
+release be created, containing all the work on Python that had been performed at
+CNRI.  Python 1.6 therefore represents the state of the CVS tree as of May 2000,
+with the most significant new feature being Unicode support.  Development
+continued after May, of course, so the 1.6 tree received a few fixes to ensure
+that it’s forward-compatible with Python 2.0.  1.6 is therefore part of Python’s
+evolution, and not a side branch.</p>
+<p>So, should you take much interest in Python 1.6?  Probably not.  The 1.6final
+and 2.0beta1 releases were made on the same day (September 5, 2000), the plan
+being to finalize Python 2.0 within a month or so.  If you have applications to
+maintain, there seems little point in breaking things by moving to 1.6, fixing
+them, and then having another round of breakage within a month by moving to 2.0;
+you’re better off just going straight to 2.0.  Most of the really interesting
+features described in this document are only in 2.0, because a lot of work was
+done between May and September.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-development-process">
+<h2>New Development Process<a class="headerlink" href="#new-development-process" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The most important change in Python 2.0 may not be to the code at all, but to
+how Python is developed: in May 2000 the Python developers began using the tools
+made available by SourceForge for storing  source code, tracking bug reports,
+and managing the queue of patch submissions.  To report bugs or submit patches
+for Python 2.0, use the bug tracking and patch manager tools available from
+Python’s project page, located at <a class="reference external" href="https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/">https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/</a>.</p>
+<p>The most important of the services now hosted at SourceForge is the Python CVS
+tree, the version-controlled repository containing the source code for Python.
+Previously, there were roughly 7 or so people who had write access to the CVS
+tree, and all patches had to be inspected and checked in by one of the people on
+this short list. Obviously, this wasn’t very scalable.  By moving the CVS tree
+to SourceForge, it became possible to grant write access to more people; as of
+September 2000 there were 27 people able to check in changes, a fourfold
+increase.  This makes possible large-scale changes that wouldn’t be attempted if
+they’d have to be filtered through the small group of core developers.  For
+example, one day Peter Schneider-Kamp took it into his head to drop K&amp;R C
+compatibility and convert the C source for Python to ANSI C. After getting
+approval on the python-dev mailing list, he launched into a flurry of checkins
+that lasted about a week, other developers joined in to help, and the job was
+done.  If there were only 5 people with write access, probably that task would
+have been viewed as “nice, but not worth the time and effort needed” and it
+would never have gotten done.</p>
+<p>The shift to using SourceForge’s services has resulted in a remarkable increase
+in the speed of development.  Patches now get submitted, commented on, revised
+by people other than the original submitter, and bounced back and forth between
+people until the patch is deemed worth checking in.  Bugs are tracked in one
+central location and can be assigned to a specific person for fixing, and we can
+count the number of open bugs to measure progress.  This didn’t come without a
+cost: developers now have more e-mail to deal with, more mailing lists to
+follow, and special tools had to be written for the new environment. For
+example, SourceForge sends default patch and bug notification e-mail messages
+that are completely unhelpful, so Ka-Ping Yee wrote an HTML screen-scraper that
+sends more useful messages.</p>
+<p>The ease of adding code caused a few initial growing pains, such as code was
+checked in before it was ready or without getting clear agreement from the
+developer group.  The approval process that has emerged is somewhat similar to
+that used by the Apache group. Developers can vote +1, +0, -0, or -1 on a patch;
++1 and -1 denote acceptance or rejection, while +0 and -0 mean the developer is
+mostly indifferent to the change, though with a slight positive or negative
+slant.  The most significant change from the Apache model is that the voting is
+essentially advisory, letting Guido van Rossum, who has Benevolent Dictator For
+Life status, know what the general opinion is. He can still ignore the result of
+a vote, and approve or reject a change even if the community disagrees with him.</p>
+<p>Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and is
+usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good design.
+Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy mailing list threads,
+making the discussion hard to follow, and no one can read every posting to
+python-dev.  Therefore, a relatively formal process has been set up to write
+Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs), modelled on the Internet RFC process.  PEPs
+are draft documents that describe a proposed new feature, and are continually
+revised until the community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting
+the proposal.  Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1, “PEP Purpose and
+Guidelines”:</p>
+<blockquote class="epigraph">
+<div><p>PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.  A PEP is a design document
+providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for
+Python.  The PEP should provide a concise technical specification of the feature
+and a rationale for the feature.</p>
+<p>We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing new features, for
+collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions
+that have gone into Python.  The PEP author is responsible for building
+consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Read the rest of PEP 1 for the details of the PEP editorial process, style, and
+format.  PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge, though they’re not
+part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also available in HTML form from
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/">https://www.python.org/dev/peps/</a>.  As of September 2000, there are 25 PEPS, ranging
+from PEP 201, “Lockstep Iteration”, to PEP 225, “Elementwise/Objectwise
+Operators”.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode">
+<h2>Unicode<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The largest new feature in Python 2.0 is a new fundamental data type: Unicode
+strings.  Unicode uses 16-bit numbers to represent characters instead of the
+8-bit number used by ASCII, meaning that 65,536 distinct characters can be
+supported.</p>
+<p>The final interface for Unicode support was arrived at through countless
+often-stormy discussions on the python-dev mailing list, and mostly implemented by
+Marc-André Lemburg, based on a Unicode string type implementation by Fredrik
+Lundh.  A detailed explanation of the interface was written up as <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0100"><strong>PEP 100</strong></a>,
+“Python Unicode Integration”. This article will simply cover the most
+significant points about the Unicode interfaces.</p>
+<p>In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u&quot;string&quot;</span></code>.  Arbitrary
+Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\uHHHH</span></code>, where
+<em>HHHH</em> is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to FFFF.  The existing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\xHHHH</span></code> escape sequence can also be used, and octal escapes can be used for
+characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\777</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Unicode strings, just like regular strings, are an immutable sequence type.
+They can be indexed and sliced, but not modified in place. Unicode strings have
+an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode(</span> <span class="pre">[encoding]</span> <span class="pre">)</span></code> method that returns an 8-bit string in the desired
+encoding.  Encodings are named by strings, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ascii'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'iso-8859-1'</span></code>, or whatever.  A codec API is defined for implementing and
+registering new encodings that are then available throughout a Python program.
+If an encoding isn’t specified, the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII,
+though it can be changed for your Python installation by calling the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)</span></code> function in a customized version of
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the default
+ASCII encoding; the result of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">u'bc'</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u'abc'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>New built-in functions have been added, and existing built-ins modified to
+support Unicode:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unichr(ch)</span></code> returns a Unicode string 1 character long, containing the
+character <em>ch</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ord(u)</span></code>, where <em>u</em> is a 1-character regular or Unicode string, returns the
+number of the character as an integer.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode(string</span> <span class="pre">[,</span> <span class="pre">encoding]</span>&#160; <span class="pre">[,</span> <span class="pre">errors]</span> <span class="pre">)</span></code> creates a Unicode string
+from an 8-bit string.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> is a string naming the encoding to use. The
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code> parameter specifies the treatment of characters that are invalid for
+the current encoding; passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> as the value causes an exception to
+be raised on any encoding error, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> causes errors to be silently
+ignored and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> uses U+FFFD, the official replacement character, in
+case of any problems.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> statement, and various built-ins such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setattr()</span></code> will also accept Unicode strings as well as
+regular strings.  (It’s possible that the process of fixing this missed some
+built-ins; if you find a built-in function that accepts strings but doesn’t
+accept Unicode strings at all, please report it as a bug.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>A new module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a>, provides an interface to Unicode character
+properties.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.category(u'A')</span></code> returns the 2-character
+string ‘Lu’, the ‘L’ denoting it’s a letter, and ‘u’ meaning that it’s
+uppercase. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')</span></code> returns ‘AN’, meaning that
+U+0660 is an Arabic number.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module contains functions to look up existing encodings and
+register new ones.  Unless you want to implement a new encoding, you’ll most
+often use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.lookup(encoding)</span></code> function, which returns a
+4-element tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(encode_func,</span> <span class="pre">decode_func,</span> <span class="pre">stream_reader,</span> <span class="pre">stream_writer)</span></code>.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>encode_func</em> is a function that takes a Unicode string, and returns a 2-tuple
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(string,</span> <span class="pre">length)</span></code>.  <em>string</em> is an 8-bit string containing a portion (perhaps
+all) of the Unicode string converted into the given encoding, and <em>length</em> tells
+you how much of the Unicode string was converted.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>decode_func</em> is the opposite of <em>encode_func</em>, taking an 8-bit string and
+returning a 2-tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(ustring,</span> <span class="pre">length)</span></code>, consisting of the resulting Unicode
+string <em>ustring</em> and the integer <em>length</em> telling how much of the 8-bit string
+was consumed.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>stream_reader</em> is a class that supports decoding input from a stream.
+<em>stream_reader(file_obj)</em> returns an object that supports the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code> methods.  These methods will all
+translate from the given encoding and return Unicode strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>stream_writer</em>, similarly, is a class that supports encoding output to a
+stream.  <em>stream_writer(file_obj)</em> returns an object that supports the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writelines()</span></code> methods.  These methods expect Unicode
+strings, translating them to the given encoding on output.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example, the following code writes a Unicode string into a file,  encoding
+it as UTF-8:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">codecs</span>
+
+<span class="n">unistr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">u</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u0660\u2000</span><span class="s1">ab ...&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="n">UTF8_encode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">UTF8_decode</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="n">UTF8_streamreader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">UTF8_streamwriter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lookup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;UTF-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">UTF8_streamwriter</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/output&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;wb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">output</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">unistr</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">output</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The following code would then read UTF-8 input from the file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">input</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">UTF8_streamreader</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/output&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="nb">input</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unicode-aware regular expressions are available through the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module,
+which has a new underlying implementation called SRE written by Fredrik Lundh of
+Secret Labs AB.</p>
+<p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-U</span></code> command line option was added which causes the Python compiler to
+interpret all string literals as Unicode string literals. This is intended to be
+used in testing and future-proofing your Python code, since some future version
+of Python may drop support for 8-bit strings and provide only Unicode strings.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="list-comprehensions">
+<h2>List Comprehensions<a class="headerlink" href="#list-comprehensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Lists are a workhorse data type in Python, and many programs manipulate a list
+at some point.  Two common operations on lists are to loop over them, and either
+pick out the elements that meet a certain criterion, or apply some function to
+each element.  For example, given a list of strings, you might want to pull out
+all the strings containing a given substring, or strip off trailing whitespace
+from each line.</p>
+<p>The existing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> functions can be used for this
+purpose, but they require a function as one of their arguments.  This is fine if
+there’s an existing built-in function that can be passed directly, but if there
+isn’t, you have to create a little function to do the required work, and
+Python’s scoping rules make the result ugly if the little function needs
+additional information.  Take the first example in the previous paragraph,
+finding all the strings in the list containing a given substring.  You could
+write the following to do it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Given the list L, make a list of all strings</span>
+<span class="c1"># containing the substring S.</span>
+<span class="n">sublist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">substring</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">S</span><span class="p">:</span>
+                     <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">substring</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                  <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Because of Python’s scoping rules, a default argument is used so that the
+anonymous function created by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expression knows what
+substring is being searched for.  List comprehensions make this cleaner:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sublist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">s</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">L</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">S</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>List comprehensions have the form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">[</span> <span class="n">expression</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence1</span>
+             <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr2</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence2</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+             <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">exprN</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequenceN</span>
+             <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">condition</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code>…<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> clauses contain the sequences to be
+iterated over.  The sequences do not have to be the same length, because they
+are <em>not</em> iterated over in parallel, but from left to right; this is explained
+more clearly in the following paragraphs.  The elements of the generated list
+will be the successive values of <em>expression</em>.  The final <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> clause
+is optional; if present, <em>expression</em> is only evaluated and added to the result
+if <em>condition</em> is true.</p>
+<p>To make the semantics very clear, a list comprehension is equivalent to the
+following Python code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr1</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">expr2</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequence2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">exprN</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sequenceN</span><span class="p">:</span>
+             <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                  <span class="c1"># Append the value of</span>
+                  <span class="c1"># the expression to the</span>
+                  <span class="c1"># resulting list.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This means that when there are multiple <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code>…<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code>
+clauses, the resulting list will be equal to the product of the lengths of all
+the sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9 elements
+long:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">seq2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="p">[</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if <em>expression</em> is
+creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first list
+comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is correct:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Syntax error</span>
+<span class="p">[</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="c1"># Correct</span>
+<span class="p">[</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">seq2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional programming
+language Haskell (<a class="reference external" href="https://www.haskell.org">https://www.haskell.org</a>).  Greg Ewing argued most effectively
+for adding them to Python and wrote the initial list comprehension patch, which
+was then discussed for a seemingly endless time on the python-dev mailing list
+and kept up-to-date by Skip Montanaro.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="augmented-assignment">
+<h2>Augmented Assignment<a class="headerlink" href="#augmented-assignment" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Augmented assignment operators, another long-requested feature, have been added
+to Python 2.0.  Augmented assignment operators include <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*=</span></code>,
+and so forth.  For example, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code> increments the value of the
+variable  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> by 2, equivalent to the slightly lengthier <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The full list of supported assignment operators is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*=</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;=</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&lt;=</span></code>.  Python
+classes can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods
+named <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iadd__" title="object.__iadd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__isub__" title="object.__isub__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__isub__()</span></code></a>, etc.  For example, the following
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Number</span></code> class stores a number and supports using += to create a new
+instance with an incremented value.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Number</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__iadd__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Number</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Number</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iadd__" title="object.__iadd__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iadd__()</span></code></a> special method is called with the value of the increment,
+and should return a new instance with an appropriately modified value; this
+return value is bound as the new value of the variable on the left-hand side.</p>
+<p>Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C programming
+language, and most C-derived languages, such as <strong class="program">awk</strong>, C++, Java, Perl,
+and PHP also support them.  The augmented assignment patch was implemented by
+Thomas Wouters.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="string-methods">
+<h2>String Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#string-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module,
+which was usually a front-end for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strop</span></code> module written in C.  The
+addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strop</span></code> module, because the
+functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept either 8-bit or
+Unicode strings.  For functions such as <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.replace()</span></code>, which takes 3
+string arguments, that means eight possible permutations, and correspondingly
+complicated code.</p>
+<p>Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making string
+manipulation functionality available through methods on both 8-bit strings and
+Unicode strings.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;andrew&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">capitalize</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Andrew&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;hostname&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;os&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;linux&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;hlinuxtname&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;moshe&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;sh&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One thing that hasn’t changed, a noteworthy April Fools’ joke notwithstanding,
+is that Python strings are immutable. Thus, the string methods return new
+strings, and do not modify the string on which they operate.</p>
+<p>The old <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module is still around for backwards compatibility, but it
+mostly acts as a front-end to the new string methods.</p>
+<p>Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they did exist
+in JPython for quite some time, are <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startswith()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endswith()</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.startswith(t)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[:len(t)]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">t</span></code>, while
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.endswith(t)</span></code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s[-len(t):]</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">t</span></code>.</p>
+<p>One other method which deserves special mention is <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code>.  The
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code> method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of strings,
+and is equivalent to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.join()</span></code> function from the old <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a>
+module, with the arguments reversed. In other words, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s.join(seq)</span></code> is
+equivalent to the old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.join(seq,</span> <span class="pre">s)</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="garbage-collection-of-cycles">
+<h2>Garbage Collection of Cycles<a class="headerlink" href="#garbage-collection-of-cycles" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement garbage
+collection.  Every Python object maintains a count of the number of references
+pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references are created or
+destroyed.  Once the reference count reaches zero, the object is no longer
+accessible, since you need to have a reference to an object to access it, and if
+the count is zero, no references exist any longer.</p>
+<p>Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it’s easy to understand and
+implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly fast, and reacts
+well with other libraries that implement their own memory handling schemes.  The
+major problem with reference counting is that it sometimes doesn’t realise that
+objects are no longer accessible, resulting in a memory leak.  This happens when
+there are cycles of references.</p>
+<p>Consider the simplest possible cycle,  a class instance which has a reference to
+itself:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SomeClass</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">instance</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">myself</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">instance</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference count of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code> is 2; one reference is from the variable named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'instance'</span></code>, and
+the other is from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myself</span></code> attribute of the instance.</p>
+<p>If the next line of code is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">instance</span></code>, what happens?  The reference count
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">instance</span></code> is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1; the
+reference in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myself</span></code> attribute still exists.  Yet the instance is no
+longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted.  Several objects
+can participate in a cycle if they have references to each other, causing all of
+the objects to be leaked.</p>
+<p>Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle detection
+algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the objects involved.
+A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module provides functions to perform a garbage collection,
+obtain debugging statistics, and tuning the collector’s parameters.</p>
+<p>Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore will result
+in some additional overhead.  It is hoped that after we’ve gotten experience
+with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1 will be able to minimize
+the overhead with careful tuning.  It’s not yet obvious how much performance is
+lost, because benchmarking this is tricky and depends crucially on how often the
+program creates and destroys objects.  The detection of cycles can be disabled
+when Python is compiled, if you can’t afford even a tiny speed penalty or
+suspect that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-cycle-gc</span></code> switch when running the <strong class="program">configure</strong>
+script.</p>
+<p>Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution.  An early
+implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby Kelsey.  The
+current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a visit to CNRI, and
+Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two different implementations, which
+were later integrated by Neil.  Lots of other people offered suggestions along
+the way; the March 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list contain most of
+the relevant discussion, especially in the threads titled “Reference cycle
+collection for Python” and “Finalization again”.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-core-changes">
+<h2>Other Core Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-core-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Various minor changes have been made to Python’s syntax and built-in functions.
+None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they’re handy conveniences.</p>
+<div class="section" id="minor-language-changes">
+<h3>Minor Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#minor-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a tuple of
+arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments. In Python 1.5 and earlier,
+you’d use the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply()</span></code> built-in function: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply(f,</span> <span class="pre">args,</span> <span class="pre">kw)</span></code> calls the
+function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code> with the argument tuple <em>args</em> and the keyword arguments in
+the dictionary <em>kw</em>.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply()</span></code>  is the same in 2.0, but thanks to a patch
+from Greg Ewing, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kw)</span></code> is a shorter and clearer way to achieve the
+same effect.  This syntax is symmetrical with the syntax for defining
+functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># args is a tuple of positional args,</span>
+    <span class="c1"># kw is a dictionary of keyword args</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement can now have its output directed to a file-like
+object by following the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> with  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="pre">file</span></code>, similar to the
+redirection operator in Unix shells. Previously you’d either have to use the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method of the file-like object, which lacks the convenience and
+simplicity of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code>, or you could assign a new value to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> and then restore the old value.  For sending output to standard
+error, it’s much easier to write this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Warning: action field not supplied&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">module</span>
+<span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">name</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">othername</span></code>.  The patch was submitted
+by Thomas Wouters.</p>
+<p>A new format style is available when using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator; ‘%r’ will insert
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> of its argument.  This was also added from symmetry
+considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing ‘%s’ format style,
+which inserts the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of its argument.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%r</span> <span class="pre">%s'</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">('abc',</span>
+<span class="pre">'abc')</span></code> returns a string containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abc'</span> <span class="pre">abc</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python’s built-in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator and implemented a custom version.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">seq</span></code> returns
+true if <em>obj</em> is present in the sequence <em>seq</em>; Python computes this by simply
+trying every index of the sequence until either <em>obj</em> is found or an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code></a> is encountered.  Moshe Zadka contributed a patch which adds a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a> magic method for providing a custom implementation for
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code>. Additionally, new built-in objects written in C can define what
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code> means for them via a new slot in the sequence protocol.</p>
+<p>Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting objects.
+Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to fill up the C stack
+and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion logic to fix this problem.  On
+a related note, comparing recursive objects recursed infinitely and crashed;
+Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code to no longer crash, producing a useful result
+instead.  For example, after this code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The comparison <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a==b</span></code> returns true, because the two recursive data structures
+are isomorphic. See the thread “trashcan and PR#7” in the April 2000 archives of
+the python-dev mailing list for the discussion leading up to this
+implementation, and some useful relevant links.    Note that comparisons can now
+also raise exceptions. In earlier versions of Python, a comparison operation
+such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp(a,b)</span></code> would always produce an answer, even if a user-defined
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cmp__()</span></code> method encountered an error, since the resulting exception would
+simply be silently swallowed.</p>
+<p>Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium processor,
+mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState.  (Confusingly, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.platform</span></code> is still
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'win32'</span></code> on Win64 because it seems that for ease of porting, MS Visual C++
+treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.) PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the
+Python CE page at <a class="reference external" href="http://pythonce.sourceforge.net/">http://pythonce.sourceforge.net/</a> for more information.</p>
+<p>Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in Python 2.0.
+Dynamic loading works, if you specify “configure –with-dyld –with-suffix=.x”.
+Consult the README in the Python source distribution for more instructions.</p>
+<p>An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python’s warts, the often-confusing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exception when code refers to a local variable before the
+variable has been assigned a value.  For example, the following code raises an
+exception on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exception is raised, while 2.0 raises a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError" title="UnboundLocalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnboundLocalError</span></code></a> exception. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError" title="UnboundLocalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnboundLocalError</span></code></a> is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>, so any existing code that expects <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> to be
+raised should still work.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s2">&quot;i=&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">i</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Two new exceptions, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TabError" title="TabError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TabError</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IndentationError" title="IndentationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndentationError</span></code></a>, have been
+introduced.  They’re both subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>, and are raised when
+Python code is found to be improperly indented.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-to-built-in-functions">
+<h3>Changes to Built-in Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-to-built-in-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new built-in, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip(seq1,</span> <span class="pre">seq2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>, has been added.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a>
+returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element from each of
+the argument sequences.  The difference between <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(None,</span>
+<span class="pre">seq1,</span> <span class="pre">seq2)</span></code> is that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> pads the sequences with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the
+sequences aren’t all of the same length, while <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> truncates the
+returned list to the length of the shortest argument sequence.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long()</span></code> functions now accept an optional “base”
+parameter when the first argument is a string. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('123',</span> <span class="pre">10)</span></code> returns 123,
+while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int('123',</span> <span class="pre">16)</span></code> returns 291.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(123,</span> <span class="pre">16)</span></code> raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception with the message “can’t convert non-string with
+explicit base”.</p>
+<p>A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code> is a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(major,</span> <span class="pre">minor,</span> <span class="pre">micro,</span>
+<span class="pre">level,</span> <span class="pre">serial)</span></code> For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code>
+would be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(2,</span> <span class="pre">0,</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">'beta',</span> <span class="pre">1)</span></code>. <em>level</em> is a string such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;alpha&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;beta&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;final&quot;</span></code> for a final release.</p>
+<p>Dictionaries have an odd new method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault(key,</span> <span class="pre">default)</span></code>, which
+behaves similarly to the existing <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> method.  However, if the key is
+missing, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault()</span></code> both returns the value of <em>default</em> as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code>
+would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value for <em>key</em>.  Thus,
+the following lines of code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_key</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>can be reduced to a single <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">dict.setdefault(key,</span> <span class="pre">[])</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p>The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway
+recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF..
+Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the maximum
+recursion depth can be read and modified using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getrecursionlimit" title="sys.getrecursionlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getrecursionlimit()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setrecursionlimit" title="sys.setrecursionlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setrecursionlimit()</span></code></a>. The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum
+value for a given platform can be found by running a new script,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/find_recursionlimit.py</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-2-0">
+<h2>Porting to 2.0<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-2-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases, and the
+record has been pretty good.  However, some changes are considered useful
+enough, usually because they fix initial design decisions that turned out to be
+actively mistaken, that breaking backward compatibility can’t always be avoided.
+This section lists the changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to
+break.</p>
+<p>The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
+arguments accepted by some methods.  Some methods would take multiple arguments
+and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insert()</span></code>. In earlier versions of Python, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code> is
+a list, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L.append(</span> <span class="pre">1,2</span> <span class="pre">)</span></code> appends the tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,2)</span></code> to the list.  In Python
+2.0 this causes a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception to be raised, with the message:
+‘append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given’.  The fix is to simply add an
+extra set of parentheses to pass both values as a tuple:  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L.append(</span> <span class="pre">(1,2)</span> <span class="pre">)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they used an
+old function in Python’s C interface to parse their arguments; 2.0 modernizes
+them to use <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code>, the current argument parsing function,
+which provides more helpful error messages and treats multi-argument calls as
+errors.  If you absolutely must use 2.0 but can’t fix your code, you can edit
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/listobject.c</span></code> and define the preprocessor symbol
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND</span></code> to preserve the old behaviour; this isn’t recommended.</p>
+<p>Some of the functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module are still forgiving in this
+way.  For example, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.connect(</span> <span class="pre">('hostname',</span> <span class="pre">25)</span> <span class="pre">)()</span></code> is the correct
+form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.connect(</span>
+<span class="pre">'hostname',</span> <span class="pre">25</span> <span class="pre">)()</span></code> also works. <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.connect_ex()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.bind()</span></code>
+are similarly easy-going.  2.0alpha1 tightened these functions up, but because
+the documentation actually used the erroneous multiple argument form, many
+people wrote code which would break with the stricter checking.  GvR backed out
+the changes in the face of public reaction, so for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module, the
+documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked as
+deprecated; it <em>will</em> be tightened up again in a future Python version.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x</span></code> escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits.  Previously
+it would consume all the hex digits following the ‘x’ and take the lowest 8 bits
+of the result, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x123456</span></code> was equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x56</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exceptions have a more friendly
+error message, whose text will be something like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Spam'</span> <span class="pre">instance</span> <span class="pre">has</span> <span class="pre">no</span>
+<span class="pre">attribute</span> <span class="pre">'eggs'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span> <span class="pre">'eggs'</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">defined</span></code>.  Previously the error
+message was just the missing attribute name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eggs</span></code>, and code written to take
+advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.</p>
+<p>Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more
+interchangeable.  In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to allow
+reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code> method of file
+objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer.  Some code would
+subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to multiply a sequence
+or slice a string, but this raised a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  In 2.0, long integers
+can be used to multiply or slice a sequence, and it’ll behave as you’d
+intuitively expect it to; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3L</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">'abc'</span></code> produces ‘abcabcabc’, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]</span></code> produces (2,3). Long integers can also be used in various
+contexts where previously only integers were accepted, such as in the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code> method of file objects, and in the formats supported by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>
+operator (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%d</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%i</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%x</span></code>, etc.).  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;%d&quot;</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">2L**64</span></code> will
+produce the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">18446744073709551616</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The subtlest long integer change of all is that the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of a long
+integer no longer has a trailing ‘L’ character, though <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> still
+includes it.  The ‘L’ annoyed many people who wanted to print long integers that
+looked just like regular integers, since they had to go out of their way to chop
+off the character.  This is no longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(longval)[:-1]</span></code> and assumes the ‘L’ is there, will now lose the final
+digit.</p>
+<p>Taking the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> of a float now uses a different formatting precision
+than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%.17g</span></code> format string for C’s
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sprintf()</span></code>, while <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%.12g</span></code> as before.  The effect is that
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> may occasionally show more decimal places than  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>, for
+certain numbers.  For example, the number 8.1 can’t be represented exactly in
+binary, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(8.1)</span></code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'8.0999999999999996'</span></code>, while str(8.1) is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'8.1'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code> command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into
+strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions will now
+always be classes.  The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exceptions</span></code> module containing the standard
+exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module, written by Barry
+Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="extending-embedding-changes">
+<h2>Extending/Embedding Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#extending-embedding-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to people
+writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in a larger
+application.  If you aren’t dealing with Python’s C API, you can safely skip
+this section.</p>
+<p>The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions compiled
+for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0.  On Windows, it’s not
+possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party extension built for Python 1.5.x
+due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python will raise an exception and the import
+will fail.</p>
+<p>Users of Jim Fulton’s ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out that
+hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a>. This means you no longer have to
+remember to write code such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">type(obj)</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">myExtensionClass</span></code>, but can use
+the more natural <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">myExtensionClass)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python/importdl.c</span></code> file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support
+dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and reorganised by
+Greg Stein.  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importdl.c</span></code> is now quite small, and platform-specific code
+has been moved into a bunch of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python/dynload_*.c</span></code> files.  Another
+cleanup: there were also a number of <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">my*.h</span></code> files in the Include/
+directory that held various portability hacks; they’ve been merged into a single
+file, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/pyport.h</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Vladimir Marangozov’s long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed, to make
+it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator instead of C’s
+standard <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>.  For documentation, read the comments in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/pymem.h</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/objimpl.h</span></code>.  For the lengthy
+discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the Web archives of
+the ‘patches’ and ‘python-dev’ lists at python.org.</p>
+<p>Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support POSIX
+threads.  Therefore, Python’s POSIX threading support now works on the
+Macintosh.  Threading support using the user-space GNU <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pth</span></code> library was also
+contributed.</p>
+<p>Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too.  Windows supports thread locks
+that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common case when
+there’s no contention, they use simpler functions which are an order of
+magnitude faster.  A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is twice as slow as
+an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the difference is only 10%.  These
+improvements were contributed by Yakov Markovitch.</p>
+<p>Python 2.0’s source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python now
+requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a compiler that
+only supports K&amp;R C.</p>
+<p>Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its bytecode,
+limiting the size of source files.  In particular, this affected the maximum
+size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python source; occasionally people who
+are generating Python code would run into this limit.  A patch by Charles G.
+Waldman raises the limit from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2^16</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2^{32}</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a module’s
+dictionary at module initialization time were added: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_AddObject()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_AddIntConstant()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_AddStringConstant()</span></code>.  Each
+of these functions takes a module object, a null-terminated C string containing
+the name to be added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the
+name.  This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C
+string.</p>
+<p>A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers. <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_getsig()</span></code> gets
+a signal handler and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_setsig()</span></code> will set a new handler.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distutils-making-modules-easy-to-install">
+<h2>Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install<a class="headerlink" href="#distutils-making-modules-easy-to-install" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair – there was no way
+to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what compiler options
+to use for extension modules.  Software authors had to go through an arduous
+ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration files, which only really work on
+Unix and leave Windows and MacOS unsupported.  Python users faced wildly
+differing installation instructions which varied between different extension
+packages, which made administering a Python installation something of  a chore.</p>
+<p>The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created the
+Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier.  They form the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> package, a new part of Python’s standard library. In the best
+case, installing a Python module from source will require the same steps: first
+you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive, and the run “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span>
+<span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code>”.  The platform will be automatically detected, the compiler
+will be recognized, C extension modules will be compiled, and the distribution
+installed into the proper directory.  Optional command-line arguments provide
+more control over the installation process, the distutils package offers many
+places to override defaults – separating the build from the install, building
+or installing in non-default directories, and more.</p>
+<p>In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script.  For
+the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a minimal
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> can be just a few lines long:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;1.0&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">py_modules</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;module1&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;module2&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file isn’t much more complicated if the software consists
+of a few packages:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;1.0&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">packages</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;package&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;package.subpackage&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A C extension can be the most complicated case; here’s an example taken from
+the PyXML package:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
+
+<span class="n">expat_extension</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;xml.parsers.pyexpat&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+     <span class="n">define_macros</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;XML_NS&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+     <span class="n">include_dirs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span> <span class="s1">&#39;extensions/expat/xmltok&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                      <span class="s1">&#39;extensions/expat/xmlparse&#39;</span> <span class="p">],</span>
+     <span class="n">sources</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span> <span class="s1">&#39;extensions/pyexpat.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="s1">&#39;extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                 <span class="s1">&#39;extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">]</span>
+       <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;PyXML&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;0.5.4&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+       <span class="n">ext_modules</span> <span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span> <span class="n">expat_extension</span> <span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary distributions.
+The “sdist” command, run by “<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">sdist</span></code>’, builds a source
+distribution such as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo-1.0.tar.gz</span></code>. Adding new commands isn’t
+difficult, “bdist_rpm” and “bdist_wininst” commands have already been
+contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows installer for the
+software, respectively.  Commands to create other distribution formats such as
+Debian packages and Solaris <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pkg</span></code> files are in various stages of
+development.</p>
+<p>All this is documented in a new manual, <em>Distributing Python Modules</em>, that
+joins the basic set of Python documentation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xml-modules">
+<h2>XML Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmllib</span></code>
+module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender.  Since 1.5.2’s release, two different
+interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2 (version 2 of the Simple
+API for XML) provides an event-driven interface with some similarities to
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmllib</span></code>, and the DOM (Document Object Model) provides a tree-based
+interface, transforming an XML document into a tree of nodes that can be
+traversed and modified.  Python 2.0 includes a SAX2 interface and a stripped-down
+DOM interface as part of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.html#module-xml" title="xml: Package containing XML processing modules"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code></a> package. Here we will give a brief
+overview of these new interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source
+code for complete details. The Python XML SIG is also working on improved
+documentation.</p>
+<div class="section" id="sax2-support">
+<h3>SAX2 Support<a class="headerlink" href="#sax2-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML.  To use SAX, you must
+write a SAX handler class.  Handler classes inherit from various classes
+provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be called by the
+XML parser.  For example, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startElement()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endElement()</span></code>
+methods are called for every starting and end tag encountered by the parser, the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">characters()</span></code> method is called for every chunk of character data, and so
+forth.</p>
+<p>The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document doesn’t
+have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if you are
+processing really huge documents.  However, writing the SAX handler class can
+get very complicated if you’re trying to modify the document structure in some
+elaborate way.</p>
+<p>For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a message
+for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hamlet.xml</span></code>
+using it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">sax</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">SimpleHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sax</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ContentHandler</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">startElement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Start of element:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attrs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">endElement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s1">&#39;End of element:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create a parser object</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sax</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">make_parser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Tell it what handler to use</span>
+<span class="n">handler</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SimpleHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setContentHandler</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">handler</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Parse a file!</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="s1">&#39;hamlet.xml&#39;</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html">http://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dom-support">
+<h3>DOM Support<a class="headerlink" href="#dom-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML document.  A
+top-level <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> instance is the root of the tree, and has a single
+child which is the top-level <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> instance. This <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code>
+has children nodes representing character data and any sub-elements, which may
+have further children of their own, and so forth.  Using the DOM you can
+traverse the resulting tree any way you like, access element and attribute
+values, insert and delete nodes, and convert the tree back into XML.</p>
+<p>The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a DOM
+tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and then produce a
+new XML document as output.  You can also construct a DOM tree manually and
+convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of producing XML output than
+simply writing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;tag1&gt;</span></code>…<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;/tag1&gt;</span></code> to a file.</p>
+<p>The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a>
+module.  It’s a lightweight implementation of the Level 1 DOM with support for
+XML namespaces.  The  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parseString()</span></code> convenience
+functions are provided for generating a DOM tree:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.dom</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">minidom</span>
+<span class="n">doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">minidom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hamlet.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc</span></code> is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code> instance.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code>, like all the other
+DOM classes such as <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Text</span></code>, is a subclass of the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> base class.  All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain
+common methods, such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">toxml()</span></code> which returns a string containing the XML
+representation of the node and its children.  Each class also has special
+methods of its own; for example, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Document</span></code>
+instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag name.
+Continuing from the previous 2-line example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">perslist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">doc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getElementsByTagName</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="s1">&#39;PERSONA&#39;</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">perslist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">toxml</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">perslist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">toxml</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For the <em>Hamlet</em> XML file, the above few lines output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">PERSONA</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="n">CLAUDIUS</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">king</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">Denmark</span><span class="o">.</span> <span class="o">&lt;/</span><span class="n">PERSONA</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+<span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">PERSONA</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="n">HAMLET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">son</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">late</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">nephew</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">present</span> <span class="n">king</span><span class="o">.&lt;/</span><span class="n">PERSONA</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The root element of the document is available as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc.documentElement</span></code>, and
+its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing nodes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">root</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">doc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">documentElement</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Remove the first child</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">removeChild</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Move the new first child to the end</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">appendChild</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Insert the new first child (originally,</span>
+<span class="c1"># the third child) before the 20th child.</span>
+<span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">insertBefore</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">root</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">childNodes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete listing of
+the different <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Node</span></code> classes and their various methods.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="relationship-to-pyxml">
+<h3>Relationship to PyXML<a class="headerlink" href="#relationship-to-pyxml" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python code for a
+while.  Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available from the SIG’s Web
+pages at <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig">https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig</a>. The PyXML distribution also used
+the package name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code>.  If you’ve written programs that used PyXML, you’re
+probably wondering about its compatibility with the 2.0 <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.html#module-xml" title="xml: Package containing XML processing modules"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code></a> package.</p>
+<p>The answer is that Python 2.0’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.html#module-xml" title="xml: Package containing XML processing modules"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code></a> package isn’t compatible with PyXML,
+but can be made compatible by installing a recent version PyXML.  Many
+applications can get by with the XML support that is included with Python 2.0,
+but more complicated applications will require that the full PyXML package will
+be installed.  When installed, PyXML versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.html#module-xml" title="xml: Package containing XML processing modules"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code></a> package shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the
+standard package, adding a bunch of additional features.  Some of the additional
+features in PyXML include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.</p></li>
+<li><p>The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sgmlop</span></code> parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-changes">
+<h2>Module changes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python’s extensive standard
+library; some of the affected modules include <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cgi.html#module-cgi" title="cgi: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/calendar.html#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/posix.html#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmllib</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#module-aifc" title="aifc: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chunk,</span> <span class="pre">wave</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a>.  Consult the CVS logs for the exact patch-by-patch details.</p>
+<p>Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module.  OpenSSL
+is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which encrypts the data being
+sent over a socket.  When compiling Python, you can edit <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code>
+to include SSL support, which adds an additional function to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>
+module: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.ssl(socket,</span> <span class="pre">keyfile,</span> <span class="pre">certfile)</span></code>, which takes a socket
+object and returns an SSL socket.  The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> modules
+were also changed to support <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">https://</span></code> URLs, though no one has implemented
+FTP or SMTP over SSL.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to support HTTP/1.1.
+Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> is provided,
+though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting code to
+use a different set of interfaces.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code> module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and
+support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped.  The Tkinter module now
+supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets. Also, Fredrik Lundh
+contributed an optimization which makes operations like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_line</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_polygon</span></code> much faster, especially when using lots of coordinates.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module has been greatly extended, starting from Oliver
+Andrich’s enhanced version, to provide many additional functions from ncurses
+and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set support, pads, and
+mouse support.  This means the module is no longer compatible with operating
+systems that only have BSD curses, but there don’t seem to be any currently
+maintained OSes that fall into this category.</p>
+<p>As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0’s Unicode support, the underlying
+implementation of the regular expressions provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module has
+been changed.  SRE, a new regular expression engine written by Fredrik Lundh and
+partially funded by Hewlett Packard, supports matching against both 8-bit
+strings and Unicode strings.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-modules">
+<h2>New modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A number of new modules were added.  We’ll simply list them with brief
+descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a particular
+module.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a>:  For registering functions to be called before the Python
+interpreter exits. Code that currently sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exitfunc</span></code> directly should be
+changed to  use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> module instead, importing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> and
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#atexit.register" title="atexit.register"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit.register()</span></code></a> with  the function to be called on exit.
+(Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encodings</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a>:  Added as part of the new
+Unicode support.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/filecmp.html#module-filecmp" title="filecmp: Compare files efficiently."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code></a>: Supersedes the old <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmpcache</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code> modules, which have now become deprecated. (Contributed by Gordon
+MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/gettext.html#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a>: This module provides internationalization (I18N) and
+localization (L10N) support for Python programs by providing an interface to the
+GNU gettext message catalog library. (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate
+contributions by Martin  von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linuxaudiodev</span></code>: Support for the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/audio</span></code> device on Linux, a
+twin to the existing <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunaudiodev</span></code> module. (Contributed by Peter Bosch,
+with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#module-mmap" title="mmap: Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a>: An interface to memory-mapped files on both Windows and Unix.  A
+file’s contents can be mapped directly into memory, at which point it behaves
+like a mutable string, so its contents can be read and modified.  They can even
+be passed to functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>
+module. (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M. Kuchling.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code>: An interface to the Expat XML parser. (Contributed by Paul
+Prescod.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robotparser</span></code>: Parse a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> file, which is used for writing
+Web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a Web site.  The parser accepts
+the contents of a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robots.txt</span></code> file, builds a set of rules from it, and
+can then answer questions about the fetchability of a given URL.  (Contributed
+by Skip Montanaro.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tabnanny.html#module-tabnanny" title="tabnanny: Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tabnanny</span></code></a>: A module/script to  check Python source code for ambiguous
+indentation. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code>: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave like
+strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/webbrowser.html#module-webbrowser" title="webbrowser: Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code></a>: A module that provides a platform independent way to launch
+a web browser on a specific URL. For each platform, various browsers are tried
+in a specific order. The user can alter which browser is launched by setting the
+<em>BROWSER</em> environment variable.  (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond’s patch
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> which added similar functionality, but the final module comes
+from code originally  implemented by Fred Drake as
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py</span></code>, and adapted for the standard library by
+Fred.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_winreg</span></code>: An interface to the Windows registry.  <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_winreg</span></code> is an
+adaptation of functions that have been part of PythonWin since 1995, but has now
+been added to the core  distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode.
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_winreg</span></code> was written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a>: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format archives.  These
+are archives produced by <strong class="program">PKZIP</strong> on DOS/Windows or <strong class="program">zip</strong> on
+Unix, not to be confused with <strong class="program">gzip</strong>-format files (which are
+supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module) (Contributed by James C. Ahlstrom.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imputil</span></code>: A module that provides a simpler way for writing customized
+import hooks, in comparison to the existing <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ihooks</span></code> module.  (Implemented
+by Greg Stein, with much discussion on python-dev along the way.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idle-improvements">
+<h2>IDLE Improvements<a class="headerlink" href="#idle-improvements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter. Python
+2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and improvements.  A
+partial list:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax
+highlighting and auto-indentation.</p></li>
+<li><p>The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level functions
+in a module.</p></li>
+<li><p>Tab width is now a user settable option. When opening an existing Python file,
+IDLE automatically detects the indentation conventions, and adapts.</p></li>
+<li><p>There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms, used to open
+the Python documentation in a browser.</p></li>
+<li><p>IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to  the vanilla Python
+interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p>Call tips were added in many places.</p></li>
+<li><p>IDLE can now be installed as a package.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.</p></li>
+<li><p>Three new keystroke commands: Check module (<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Alt-F5</kbd>), Import module (<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">F5</kbd>) and
+Run script (<kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl-F5</kbd>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deleted-and-deprecated-modules">
+<h2>Deleted and Deprecated Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#deleted-and-deprecated-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A few modules have been dropped because they’re obsolete, or because there are
+now better ways to do the same thing.  The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdwin</span></code> module is gone; it was
+for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that’s no longer developed.</p>
+<p>A number of modules have been moved to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib-old</span></code> subdirectory:
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmpcache</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump</span></code>,  <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grep</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">packmail</span></code>,  <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poly</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">util</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whatsound</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zmod</span></code>.  If you have code which relies on a module  that’s been moved to
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib-old</span></code>, you can simply add that directory to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>   to get them
+back, but you’re encouraged to update any code that uses these modules.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The authors would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on
+various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy
+Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert, Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir
+Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.0</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-about-python-1-6">What About Python 1.6?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-development-process">New Development Process</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode">Unicode</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#list-comprehensions">List Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#augmented-assignment">Augmented Assignment</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-methods">String Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#garbage-collection-of-cycles">Garbage Collection of Cycles</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-core-changes">Other Core Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#minor-language-changes">Minor Language Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-to-built-in-functions">Changes to Built-in Functions</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-2-0">Porting to 2.0</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extending-embedding-changes">Extending/Embedding Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils-making-modules-easy-to-install">Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-modules">XML Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sax2-support">SAX2 Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dom-support">DOM Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#relationship-to-pyxml">Relationship to PyXML</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-changes">Module changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-modules">New modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idle-improvements">IDLE Improvements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deleted-and-deprecated-modules">Deleted and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.1.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.1</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="changelog.html"
+                        title="next chapter">Changelog</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
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+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst"
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+        </a>
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+    </ul>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.1.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.1.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.1.html
@@ -0,0 +1,913 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>What’s New in Python 2.1 &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+        <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get">
+          <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" />
+          <input type="submit" value="Go" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" />
+          <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" />
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-1">
+<h1>What’s New in Python 2.1<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 2.1.  While there aren’t as
+many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are still some pleasant
+surprises in store.  2.1 is the first release to be steered through the use of
+Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so most of the sizable changes have
+accompanying PEPs that provide more complete documentation and a design
+rationale for the change.  This article doesn’t attempt to document the new
+features completely, but simply provides an overview of the new features for
+Python programmers. Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific
+PEP, for more details about any new feature that particularly interests you.</p>
+<p>One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate the pace
+of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months. 2.1 is the first
+release to come out at this faster pace, with the first alpha appearing in
+January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was released.</p>
+<p>The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-227-nested-scopes">
+<h2>PEP 227: Nested Scopes<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-227-nested-scopes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python’s scoping rules.  In Python 2.0,
+at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to look up variable
+names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace.  This often surprised
+people because it didn’t match their intuitive expectations.  For example, a
+nested recursive function definition doesn’t work:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g()</span></code> will always raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exception, because
+the binding of the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g</span></code> isn’t in either its local namespace or in the
+module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in practice (how often do
+you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.
+In code which uses <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> you can often find local variables being
+copied by passing them as the default values of arguments.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Return list of any entries equal to &#39;name&#39;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span>
+               <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list_attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">L</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers
+greatly as a result.</p>
+<p>The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has been added
+to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name=name</span></code>
+default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.  Put simply, when a
+given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment,
+or the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements),
+references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the
+enclosing scope.  A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of
+the implementation, can be found in the PEP.</p>
+<p>This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same
+variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a
+function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely
+though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first
+place.</p>
+<p>One side effect of the change is that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
+certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython
+interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the implementation of
+nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to
+generate different code to access variables in a containing scope.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> make it impossible for the compiler to
+figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are
+unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function
+definitions or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expressions with free variables, the compiler
+will flag this by raising a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The next line is a syntax error</span>
+    <span class="n">exec</span> <span class="s1">&#39;x=2&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Line 4 containing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> statement is a syntax error, since
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> would define a new local variable named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> whose value should
+be accessed by <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> is rarely used in
+most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor design
+anyway).</p>
+<p>Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced gradually; in
+Python 2.1, they aren’t enabled by default, but can be turned on within a module
+by using a future statement as described in PEP 236.  (See the following section
+for further discussion of PEP 236.)  In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become
+the default and there will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had
+all of 2.1’s lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0227"><strong>PEP 227</strong></a> - Statically Nested Scopes</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-236-future-directives">
+<h2>PEP 236: __future__ Directives<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-236-future-directives" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers of
+breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make the
+Pythoneers take a more conservative approach.  This approach consists of
+introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality in release N that
+will become compulsory in release N+1.</p>
+<p>The syntax uses a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from...import</span></code> statement using the reserved module name
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a>.  Nested scopes can be enabled by the following statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">nested_scopes</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>While it looks like a normal <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement, it’s not; there are
+strict rules on where such a future statement can be put. They can only be at
+the top of a module, and must precede any Python code or regular
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statements.  This is because such statements can affect how
+the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates bytecode, so they must
+precede any statement that will result in bytecodes being produced.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0236"><strong>PEP 236</strong></a> - Back to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a></dt><dd><p>Written by Tim Peters, and primarily implemented by Jeremy Hylton.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-207-rich-comparisons">
+<h2>PEP 207: Rich Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-207-rich-comparisons" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In earlier versions, Python’s support for implementing comparisons on user-defined
+classes and extension types was quite simple. Classes could implement a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cmp__()</span></code> method that was given two instances of a class, and could only
+return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they weren’t; the method couldn’t
+raise an exception or return anything other than a Boolean value.  Users of
+Numeric Python often found this model too weak and restrictive, because in the
+number-crunching programs that numeric Python is used for, it would be more
+useful to be able to perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning
+a matrix containing the results of a given comparison for each element.  If the
+two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to raise an
+exception to signal the error.</p>
+<p>In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this need.
+Python classes can now individually overload each of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code> operations.  The new magic method names are:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Method name</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ne__" title="object.__ne__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ne__()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.LT.</span></code>.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.LE.</span></code>, &amp;c.  Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite familiar with
+these names and will find them easy to remember.)</p>
+<p>Each of these magic methods is of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method(self,</span> <span class="pre">other)</span></code>, where
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">other</span></code> will be the object on the right-hand side.  For example, the
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">B</span></code> will cause <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.__lt__(B)</span></code> to be called.</p>
+<p>Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a matrix, a
+list, or any other Python object.  Alternatively they can raise an exception if
+the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or otherwise meaningless.</p>
+<p>The built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp(A,B)</span></code> function can use the rich comparison machinery,
+and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison operation to
+use; this is given as one of the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;=&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&gt;&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&gt;=&quot;</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;==&quot;</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;!=&quot;</span></code>.  If called without the optional third argument,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp()</span></code> will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions of Python;
+otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return any Python object.</p>
+<p>There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers; there’s a new
+slot <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_richcmp</span></code> in type objects and an API for performing a given rich
+comparison.  I won’t cover the C API here, but will refer you to PEP 207, or to
+2.1’s C API documentation, for the full list of related functions.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0207"><strong>PEP 207</strong></a> - Rich Comparisons</dt><dd><p>Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David Ascher, and
+implemented by Guido van Rossum.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-230-warning-framework">
+<h2>PEP 230: Warning Framework<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-230-warning-framework" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number of
+obsolete modules and features along the way.  It’s difficult to know when a
+feature is safe to remove, since there’s no way of knowing how much code uses it
+— perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or perhaps many do.  To enable
+removing old features in a more structured way, a warning framework was added.
+When the Python developers want to get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a
+warning in the next version of Python.  The following Python version can then
+drop the feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of
+the old feature.</p>
+<p>Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme.  It adds a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module that provide functions to issue warnings, and to filter
+out warnings that you don’t want to be displayed. Third-party modules can also
+use this framework to deprecate old features that they no longer wish to
+support.</p>
+<p>For example, in Python 2.1 the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regex</span></code> module is deprecated, so importing
+it causes a warning to be printed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">regex</span>
+<span class="go">__main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module</span>
+<span class="go">         is deprecated; please use the re module</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Warnings can be issued by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.warn" title="warnings.warn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.warn()</span></code></a> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;feature X no longer supported&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional parameters
+can be used to specify a particular warning category.</p>
+<p>Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression pattern
+can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to suppress a
+warning.  For example, you may have a program that uses the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regex</span></code> module
+and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module right
+now.  The warning can be suppressed by calling</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+<span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">filterwarnings</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">action</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ignore&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">message</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;.*regex module is deprecated&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">category</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                        <span class="n">module</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> triggered in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module, and applies
+a regular expression to only match the message about the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regex</span></code> module
+being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored.  Warnings can also
+be printed only once, printed every time the offending code is executed, or
+turned into exceptions that will cause the program to stop (unless the
+exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).</p>
+<p>Functions were also added to Python’s C API for issuing warnings; refer to PEP
+230 or to Python’s API documentation for the details.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0005"><strong>PEP 5</strong></a> - Guidelines for Language Evolution</dt><dd><p>Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when removing old
+features from Python.  The policy described in this PEP hasn’t been officially
+adopted, but the eventual policy probably won’t be too different from Prescod’s
+proposal.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0230"><strong>PEP 230</strong></a> - Warning Framework</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-229-new-build-system">
+<h2>PEP 229: New Build System<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-229-new-build-system" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code>
+file in order to enable various additional modules; the default set is
+relatively small and limited to modules that compile on most Unix platforms.
+This means that on Unix platforms with many more features, most notably Linux,
+Python installations often don’t contain all useful modules they could.</p>
+<p>Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and installing
+extensions.  In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile much of the
+standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which ones are supported on
+the current machine.  It’s hoped that this will make Python installations easier
+and more featureful.</p>
+<p>Instead of having to edit the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code> file in order to enable
+modules, a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script in the top directory of the Python source
+distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which modules can be
+enabled by examining the modules and header files on the system.  If a module is
+configured in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code>, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> script won’t attempt
+to compile that module and will defer to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code> file’s
+contents.  This provides a way to specific any strange command-line flags or
+libraries that are required for a specific platform.</p>
+<p>In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer
+restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn’t recursive,
+instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python/</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser/</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/</span></code>, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/</span></code> subdirectories.  This
+makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles clearer and
+simpler.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0229"><strong>PEP 229</strong></a> - Using Distutils to Build Python</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-205-weak-references">
+<h2>PEP 205: Weak References<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-205-weak-references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Weak references, available through the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module, are a minor but
+useful new data type in the Python programmer’s toolbox.</p>
+<p>Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has the side
+effect of keeping that object alive forever.  There are a few specific cases
+where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being the most common one,
+and another being circular references in data structures such as trees.</p>
+<p>For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of another
+function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(x)</span></code> by storing the function’s argument and its result in a
+dictionary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">_cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">memoize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+    <span class="n">retval</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Cache the returned object</span>
+    <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">retval</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">retval</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side effect;
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_cache</span></code> dictionary holds a reference to the return values, so they’ll
+never be deallocated until the Python process exits and cleans up. This isn’t
+very noticeable for integers, but if <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code> returns an object, or a data
+structure that takes up a lot of memory, this can be a problem.</p>
+<p>Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won’t keep objects alive
+beyond their time.  If an object is only accessible through weak references, the
+object will be deallocated and the weak references will now indicate that the
+object it referred to no longer exists.  A weak reference to an object <em>obj</em> is
+created by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wr</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">weakref.ref(obj)</span></code>.  The object being referred to is
+returned by calling the weak reference as if it were a function: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wr()</span></code>.  It
+will return the referenced object, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the object no longer exists.</p>
+<p>This makes it possible to write a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoize()</span></code> function whose cache doesn’t
+keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">_cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">memoize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">has_key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># If weak reference object still exists,</span>
+        <span class="c1"># return it</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+
+    <span class="n">retval</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Cache a weak reference</span>
+    <span class="n">_cache</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ref</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">retval</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">retval</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module also allows creating proxy objects which behave like
+weak references — an object referenced only by proxy objects is deallocated –
+but instead of requiring an explicit call to retrieve the object, the proxy
+transparently forwards all operations to the object as long as the object still
+exists.  If the object is deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#weakref.ReferenceError" title="weakref.ReferenceError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref.ReferenceError</span></code></a> exception to be raised.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">proxy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">weakref</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">proxy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attr</span>   <span class="c1"># Equivalent to obj.attr</span>
+<span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># Equivalent to obj.meth()</span>
+<span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">obj</span>
+<span class="n">proxy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attr</span>   <span class="c1"># raises weakref.ReferenceError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0205"><strong>PEP 205</strong></a> - Weak References</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Fred L. Drake, Jr.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-232-function-attributes">
+<h2>PEP 232: Function Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-232-function-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to them.
+People were often using docstrings to hold information about functions and
+methods, because the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> attribute was the only way of attaching any
+information to a function.  For example, in the Zope Web application server,
+functions are marked as safe for public access by having a docstring, and in
+John Aycock’s SPARK parsing framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar
+to be parsed.  This overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really
+intended to hold a function’s documentation; for example, it means you can’t
+properly document functions intended for private use in Zope.</p>
+<p>Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the regular
+Python syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">publish</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">secure</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">grammar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;A ::= B (C D)*&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>. Unlike the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute of class instances, in
+functions you can actually assign a new dictionary to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>, though
+the new value is restricted to a regular Python dictionary; you <em>can’t</em> be
+tricky and set it to a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code> instance, or any other random object
+that behaves like a mapping.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0232"><strong>PEP 232</strong></a> - Function Attributes</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-235-importing-modules-on-case-insensitive-platforms">
+<h2>PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-235-importing-modules-on-case-insensitive-platforms" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS and
+Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it’s impossible to
+distinguish the filenames <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE.PY</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.py</span></code>, even though they do store
+the file’s name  in its original case (they’re case-preserving, too).</p>
+<p>In Python 2.1, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement will work to simulate case-sensitivity
+on case-insensitive platforms.  Python will now search for the first
+case-sensitive match by default, raising an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> if no such file
+is found, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">file</span></code> will not import a module named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE.PY</span></code>.
+Case-insensitive matching can be requested by setting the <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONCASEOK"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONCASEOK</span></code></a>
+environment variable before starting the Python interpreter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-217-interactive-display-hook">
+<h2>PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-217-interactive-display-hook" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands is
+displayed using the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> function. In Python 2.1, the variable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.displayhook" title="sys.displayhook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.displayhook()</span></code></a> can be set to a callable object which will be called
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>. For example, you can set it to a special
+pretty-printing function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Create a recursive data structure</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="c1"># Show Python&#39;s default output</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, [...]]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Use pprint.pprint() as the display function</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">displayhook</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3,  &lt;Recursion on list with id=135143996&gt;]</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0217"><strong>PEP 217</strong></a> - Display Hook for Interactive Use</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-208-new-coercion-model">
+<h2>PEP 208: New Coercion Model<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-208-new-coercion-model" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified.  This
+will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing them more
+flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric operations.</p>
+<p>Extension types can now set the type flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES</span></code> in their
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code> structure to indicate that they support the new coercion model.
+In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can no longer assume that
+they’ll be passed two arguments of the same type; instead they may be passed two
+arguments of differing types, and can then perform their own internal coercion.
+If the slot function is passed a type it can’t handle, it can indicate the
+failure by returning a reference to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code> singleton value.
+The numeric functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can
+handle the operation; if the other type also returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code>, then
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> will be raised.  Numeric methods written in Python can also
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_NotImplemented</span></code>, causing the interpreter to act as if the method
+did not exist (perhaps raising a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>, perhaps trying another
+object’s numeric methods).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0208"><strong>PEP 208</strong></a> - Reworking the Coercion Model</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon earlier work by
+Marc-André Lemburg.  Read this to understand the fine points of how numeric
+operations will now be processed at the C level.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-241-metadata-in-python-packages">
+<h2>PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-241-metadata-in-python-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A common complaint from Python users is that there’s no single catalog of all
+the Python modules in existence.  T. Middleton’s Vaults of Parnassus at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.vex.net/parnassus/">http://www.vex.net/parnassus/</a> are the largest catalog of Python modules, but
+registering software at the Vaults is optional, and many people don’t bother.</p>
+<p>As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software packaged using
+the Distutils <strong class="command">sdist</strong> command will include a file named
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code> containing information about the package such as its name,
+version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology).  PEP 241 contains
+the full list of fields that can be present in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code> file.  As
+people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more and more packages
+will include metadata, making it possible to build automated cataloguing systems
+and experiment with them.  With the result experience, perhaps it’ll be possible
+to design a really good catalog and then build support for it into Python 2.2.
+For example, the Distutils <strong class="command">sdist</strong> and <strong class="command">bdist_*</strong> commands
+could support an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">upload</span></code> option that would automatically upload your
+package to a catalog server.</p>
+<p>You can start creating packages containing <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code> even if you’re not
+using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for users of
+earlier Python versions.  Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils includes the changes
+described in PEP 241, as well as various bugfixes and enhancements.  It will be
+available from the Distutils SIG at <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/">https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/</a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0241"><strong>PEP 241</strong></a> - Metadata for Python Software Packages</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0243"><strong>PEP 243</strong></a> - Module Repository Upload Mechanism</dt><dd><p>Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed mechanism for
+uploading  Python packages to a central server.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-and-improved-modules">
+<h2>New and Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-and-improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.py</span></code>, a module for
+getting information about live Python code, and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc.py</span></code>, a module for
+interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text.  As a bonus,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/pydoc</span></code>, which is now automatically installed, uses
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc.py</span></code> to display documentation given a Python module, package, or
+class name.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span> <span class="pre">xml.dom</span></code> displays the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Python</span> <span class="n">Library</span> <span class="n">Documentation</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">package</span> <span class="n">xml</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dom</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">xml</span>
+
+<span class="n">NAME</span>
+    <span class="n">xml</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dom</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">W3C</span> <span class="n">Document</span> <span class="n">Object</span> <span class="n">Model</span> <span class="n">implementation</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">Python</span><span class="o">.</span>
+
+<span class="n">FILE</span>
+    <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">local</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">lib</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">python2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">xml</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">dom</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pyc</span>
+
+<span class="n">DESCRIPTION</span>
+    <span class="n">The</span> <span class="n">Python</span> <span class="n">mapping</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">Document</span> <span class="n">Object</span> <span class="n">Model</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">documented</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">the</span>
+    <span class="n">Python</span> <span class="n">Library</span> <span class="n">Reference</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">section</span> <span class="n">on</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">xml</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dom</span> <span class="n">package</span><span class="o">.</span>
+
+    <span class="n">This</span> <span class="n">package</span> <span class="n">contains</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">following</span> <span class="n">modules</span><span class="p">:</span>
+      <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code> also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser.   <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code>
+quickly becomes addictive; try it out!</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard library.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module, contributed by Tim Peters, provides a testing
+framework based on running embedded examples in docstrings and comparing the
+results against the expected output.  PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a
+unit testing framework inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of
+Kent Beck’s Smalltalk testing framework.  See <a class="reference external" href="http://pyunit.sourceforge.net/">http://pyunit.sourceforge.net/</a> for
+more information about PyUnit.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a> module contains a class, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code>, which
+compares two sequences and computes the changes required to transform one
+sequence into the other.  For example, this module can be used to write a tool
+similar to the Unix <strong class="program">diff</strong> program, and in fact the sample program
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/ndiff.py</span></code> demonstrates how to write such a script.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.panel.html#module-curses.panel" title="curses.panel: A panel stack extension that adds depth to  curses windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.panel</span></code></a>, a wrapper for the panel library, part of ncurses and of
+SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum.  The panel library provides
+windows with the additional feature of depth. Windows can be moved higher or
+lower in the depth ordering, and the panel library figures out where panels
+overlap and which sections are visible.</p></li>
+<li><p>The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0, and Python
+2.1 includes an updated version of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.html#module-xml" title="xml: Package containing XML processing modules"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml</span></code></a> package.  Some of the
+noteworthy changes include support for Expat 1.2 and later versions, the ability
+for Expat parsers to handle files in any encoding supported by Python, and
+various bugfixes for SAX, DOM, and the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minidom</span></code> module.</p></li>
+<li><p>Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught exceptions.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.excepthook" title="sys.excepthook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.excepthook()</span></code></a> can be set to a callable object.  When an exception isn’t
+caught by any <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> blocks, the exception will be
+passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.excepthook" title="sys.excepthook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.excepthook()</span></code></a>, which can then do whatever it likes.  At the
+Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application for this hook:
+printing an extended traceback that not only lists the stack frames, but also
+lists the function arguments and the local variables for each frame.</p></li>
+<li><p>Various functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module, such as <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asctime()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code>, require a floating point argument containing the time in
+seconds since the epoch.  The most common use of these functions is to work with
+the current time, so the floating point argument has been made optional; when a
+value isn’t provided, the current time will be used.  For example, log file
+entries usually need a string containing the current time; in Python 2.1,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.asctime()</span></code> can be used, instead of the lengthier
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))</span></code> that was previously required.</p>
+<p>This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> module now defaults to retrieving files in passive mode,
+because passive mode is more likely to work from behind a firewall.  This
+request came from the Debian bug tracking system, since other Debian packages
+use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> to retrieve files and then don’t work from behind a firewall.
+It’s deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because Netscape
+defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if passive mode is
+unsuitable for your application or network setup, call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_pasv(0)</span></code> on
+FTP objects to disable passive mode.</p></li>
+<li><p>Support for raw socket access has been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module,
+contributed by Grant Edwards.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-pstats" title="pstats: Statistics object for use with the profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstats</span></code></a> module now contains a simple interactive statistics browser
+for displaying timing profiles for Python programs, invoked when the module is
+run as a script.  Contributed by  Eric S. Raymond.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new implementation-dependent function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._getframe([depth])</span></code>, has
+been added to return a given frame object from the current call stack.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._getframe" title="sys._getframe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._getframe()</span></code></a> returns the frame at the top of the call stack;  if the
+optional integer argument <em>depth</em> is supplied, the function returns the frame
+that is <em>depth</em> calls below the top of the stack.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._getframe(1)</span></code> returns the caller’s frame object.</p>
+<p>This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET
+implementation.  Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to put it into
+production code.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-changes-and-fixes">
+<h2>Other Changes and Fixes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-changes-and-fixes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the shorter
+release cycle.  A search through the CVS change logs turns up 117 patches
+applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be underestimates.  Some
+of the more notable changes are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that should be
+faster than the system <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and have less memory overhead.  The
+allocator uses C’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> function to get large pools of memory, and
+then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools.  It can be enabled by
+providing the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pymalloc</span></code> option to the <strong class="program">configure</strong>
+script; see <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/obmalloc.c</span></code> for the implementation details.</p>
+<p>Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the object allocator
+enabled, because some incorrect code may break, causing core dumps at runtime.
+There are a bunch of memory allocation functions in Python’s C API that have
+previously been just aliases for the C library’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the
+error wouldn’t be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled, these
+functions aren’t aliases of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> any more, and
+calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core dump.  For
+example, if memory was allocated using <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_New()</span></code>, it has to be freed
+using <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Del()</span></code>, not <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.  A few modules included with Python
+fell afoul of this and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party
+modules that will have the same problem.</p>
+<p>The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because people often
+complain about its lack of speed, and because it’s often been used as a naïve
+benchmark.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> method of file objects has therefore been
+rewritten to be much faster.  The exact amount of the speedup will vary from
+platform to platform depending on how slow the C library’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getc()</span></code> was, but
+is around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular operating systems.
+Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and coding for this change, motivated by
+a discussion in comp.lang.python.</p>
+<p>A new module and method for file objects was also added, contributed by Jeff
+Epler. The new method, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xreadlines()</span></code>, is similar to the existing
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xrange()</span></code> built-in.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xreadlines()</span></code> returns an opaque sequence object
+that only supports being iterated over, reading a line on every iteration but
+not reading the entire file into memory as the existing <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code> method
+does. You’d use it like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">xreadlines</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... do something for each line ...</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev summary for
+January 1–15, 2001 at <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/">https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/</a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new method, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code>, was added to dictionaries to enable
+destructively iterating through the contents of a dictionary; this can be faster
+for large dictionaries because there’s no need to construct a list containing
+all the keys or values. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D.popitem()</span></code> removes a random <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(key,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> pair
+from the dictionary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code> and returns it as a 2-tuple.  This was implemented
+mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a suggestion and preliminary
+patch by Moshe Zadka.</p></li>
+<li><p>Modules can now control which names are imported when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>
+is used, by defining an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> attribute containing a list of names that
+will be imported.  One common complaint is that if the module imports other
+modules such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> will add
+them to the importing module’s namespace.  To fix this, simply list the public
+names in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># List public names</span>
+<span class="n">__all__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Database&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;open&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and implemented by Ben
+Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a weaker final version was
+checked in.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Applying <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> to strings previously used octal escapes for
+non-printable characters; for example, a newline was <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\012'</span></code>.  This was a
+vestigial trace of Python’s C ancestry, but today octal is of very little
+practical use.  Ka-Ping Yee suggested using hex escapes instead of octal ones,
+and using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\t</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code> escapes for the appropriate characters,
+and implemented this new formatting.</p></li>
+<li><p>Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions containing the
+filename and line number of the error, a pleasant side effect of the compiler
+reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.</p></li>
+<li><p>C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code>, which means that they will use any import hooks
+that have been installed.  This is also encouraged for third-party extensions
+that need to import some other module from C code.</p></li>
+<li><p>The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another 340K thanks
+to Fredrik Lundh.</p></li>
+<li><p>Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski), Cygwin (by
+Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger); Unixware 7  (by Billy G.
+Allie).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>And there’s the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks, docstring
+edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing; see the CVS logs for
+the full details if you want them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on
+various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael
+Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh, Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-227-nested-scopes">PEP 227: Nested Scopes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-236-future-directives">PEP 236: __future__ Directives</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-207-rich-comparisons">PEP 207: Rich Comparisons</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-230-warning-framework">PEP 230: Warning Framework</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-229-new-build-system">PEP 229: New Build System</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-205-weak-references">PEP 205: Weak References</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-232-function-attributes">PEP 232: Function Attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-235-importing-modules-on-case-insensitive-platforms">PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-217-interactive-display-hook">PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-208-new-coercion-model">PEP 208: New Coercion Model</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-241-metadata-in-python-packages">PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.2.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.2</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.2.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.2.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20129bf
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,1303 @@
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+
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+        </form>
+    </div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script>
+         |
+    </li>
+
+      </ul>
+    </div>    
+
+    <div class="document">
+      <div class="documentwrapper">
+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-2">
+<h1>What’s New in Python 2.2<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<div class="section" id="introduction">
+<h2>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on October 14,
+2002.  Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2, originally released on
+December 21, 2001.</p>
+<p>Python 2.2 can be thought of as the “cleanup release”.  There are some features
+such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but most of the
+changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be, are aimed at cleaning
+up irregularities and dark corners of the language design.</p>
+<p>This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the new
+features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full details, you
+should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as the <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html">Python Library
+Reference</a> and the <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html">Python
+Reference Manual</a>.  If you want to
+understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer
+to the PEP for a particular new feature.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="peps-252-and-253-type-and-class-changes">
+<h2>PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#peps-252-and-253-type-and-class-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python’s model of
+objects and classes.  The changes should be backward compatible, so it’s likely
+that your code will continue to run unchanged, but the changes provide some
+amazing new capabilities. Before beginning this, the longest and most
+complicated section of this article, I’ll provide an overview of the changes and
+offer some comments.</p>
+<p>A long time ago I wrote a Web page listing flaws in Python’s design.  One of the
+most significant flaws was that it’s impossible to subclass Python types
+implemented in C.  In particular, it’s not possible to subclass built-in types,
+so you can’t just subclass, say, lists in order to add a single useful method to
+them. The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code> module provides a class that supports all of the
+methods of lists and that can be subclassed further, but there’s lots of C code
+that expects a regular Python list and won’t accept a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserList</span></code>
+instance.</p>
+<p>Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new capabilities.
+A brief summary:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers, and your
+subclasses should work in every place that requires the original type.</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s now possible to define static and class methods, in addition to the
+instance methods available in previous versions of Python.</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or setting an
+instance attribute by using a new mechanism called <em class="dfn">properties</em>.  Many uses
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> can be rewritten to use properties instead, making the
+resulting code simpler and faster.  As a small side benefit, attributes can now
+have docstrings, too.</p></li>
+<li><p>The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a particular
+set using <em class="dfn">slots</em>, making it possible to safeguard against typos and
+perhaps make more optimizations possible in future versions of Python.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Some users have voiced concern about all these changes.  Sure, they say, the new
+features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks that weren’t
+possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make the language more
+complicated.  Some people have said that they’ve always recommended Python for
+its simplicity, and feel that its simplicity is being lost.</p>
+<p>Personally, I think there’s no need to worry.  Many of the new features are
+quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever needed to be
+aware of them.  Writing a simple class is no more difficult than it ever was, so
+you don’t need to bother learning or teaching them unless they’re actually
+needed.  Some very complicated tasks that were previously only possible from C
+will now be possible in pure Python, and to my mind that’s all for the better.</p>
+<p>I’m not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small change that
+were required to make the new features work.  Instead this section will paint
+only the broad strokes.  See section <a class="reference internal" href="#sect-rellinks"><span class="std std-ref">Related Links</span></a>, “Related Links”, for
+further sources of information about Python 2.2’s new object model.</p>
+<div class="section" id="old-and-new-classes">
+<h3>Old and New Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#old-and-new-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes: classic
+or old-style classes, and new-style classes.  The old-style class model is
+exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions of Python.  All the new
+features described in this section apply only to new-style classes. This
+divergence isn’t intended to last forever; eventually old-style classes will be
+dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.</p>
+<p>So how do you define a new-style class?  You do it by subclassing an existing
+new-style class.  Most of Python’s built-in types, such as integers, lists,
+dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes now.  A new-style class
+named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, the base class for all built-in types, has also been
+added so if no built-in type is suitable, you can just subclass
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This means that <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a> statements that don’t have any base classes are
+always classic classes in Python 2.2.  (Actually you can also change this by
+setting a module-level variable named <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__metaclass__</span></code> — see <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0253"><strong>PEP 253</strong></a>
+for the details — but it’s easier to just subclass <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<p>The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins, named using
+a clever trick.  Python has always had built-in functions named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>.  In 2.2, they aren’t functions any more, but
+type objects that behave as factories when called.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;type &#39;int&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;123&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">123</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file()</span></code> have been added.  Here’s a more interesting example, adding a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lock()</span></code> method to file objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LockableFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">lock</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">operation</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">length</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">whence</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fcntl</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">fcntl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lockf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fileno</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">operation</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                           <span class="n">length</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">whence</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The now-obsolete <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixfile</span></code> module contained a class that emulated all of
+a file object’s methods and also added a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lock()</span></code> method, but this class
+couldn’t be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in file,
+something which is possible with our new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LockableFile</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="descriptors">
+<h3>Descriptors<a class="headerlink" href="#descriptors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover what
+attributes and methods were supported by an object. There were some informal
+conventions, such as defining <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__members__</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__methods__</span></code>
+attributes that were lists of names, but often the author of an extension type
+or a class wouldn’t bother to define them.  You could fall back on inspecting
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> of an object, but when class inheritance or an arbitrary
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> hook were in use this could still be inaccurate.</p>
+<p>The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for describing
+the attributes of an object using <em class="dfn">descriptors</em> has been formalized.
+Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating whether it’s a method or
+a field.  With the descriptor API, static methods and class methods become
+possible, as well as more exotic constructs.</p>
+<p>Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and have a few
+attributes of their own:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> is the attribute’s name.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> is the attribute’s docstring.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__get__(object)</span></code> is a method that retrieves the attribute value from
+<em>object</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set__(object,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> sets the attribute on <em>object</em> to <em>value</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delete__(object,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> deletes the <em>value</em>  attribute of <em>object</em>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example, when you write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.x</span></code>, the steps that Python actually performs
+are:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">descriptor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="n">descriptor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For methods, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">descriptor.__get__()</span></code> returns a temporary object that’s
+callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called on it. This is
+also why static methods and class methods are now possible; they have
+descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the method and the class.  As a
+brief explanation of these new kinds of methods, static methods aren’t passed
+the instance, and therefore resemble regular functions.  Class methods are
+passed the class of the object, but not the object itself.  Static and class
+methods are defined like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">classmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> function takes the function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f()</span></code>, and returns it
+wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class object.  You might
+expect there to be special syntax for creating such methods (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">static</span> <span class="pre">f</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defstatic</span> <span class="pre">f()</span></code>, or something like that) but no such syntax has been defined
+yet; that’s been left for future versions of Python.</p>
+<p>More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as new
+kinds of descriptors, and it’s not difficult to write a descriptor class that
+does something novel.  For example, it would be possible to write a descriptor
+class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style preconditions and
+postconditions for a method.  A class that used this feature might be defined
+like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">eiffel</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">eiffelmethod</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># The actual function</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">pre_f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Check preconditions</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">post_f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Check postconditions</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">eiffelmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pre_f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">post_f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that a person using the new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eiffelmethod()</span></code> doesn’t have to understand
+anything about descriptors.  This is why I think the new features don’t increase
+the basic complexity of the language. There will be a few wizards who need to
+know about it in order to write <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eiffelmethod()</span></code> or the ZODB or whatever,
+but most users will just write code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore
+the implementation details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multiple-inheritance-the-diamond-rule">
+<h3>Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule<a class="headerlink" href="#multiple-inheritance-the-diamond-rule" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the rules
+under which names are resolved.  Consider this set of classes (diagram taken
+from <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0253"><strong>PEP 253</strong></a> by Guido van Rossum):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>      <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="o">^</span> <span class="o">^</span>  <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">save</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+       <span class="o">/</span>   \
+      <span class="o">/</span>     \
+     <span class="o">/</span>       \
+    <span class="o">/</span>         \
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">B</span>     <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">^</span>         <span class="o">^</span>  <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">save</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+     \       <span class="o">/</span>
+      \     <span class="o">/</span>
+       \   <span class="o">/</span>
+        \ <span class="o">/</span>
+      <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the base
+classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right.  A reference to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D.save()</span></code> will search the classes <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>, and then
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>, where <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">save()</span></code> would be found and returned.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.save()</span></code>
+would never be found at all.  This is bad, because if <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">save()</span></code>
+method is saving some internal state specific to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>, not calling it will
+result in that state never getting saved.</p>
+<p>New-style classes follow a different algorithm that’s a bit more complicated to
+explain, but does the right thing in this situation. (Note that Python 2.3
+changes this algorithm to one that produces the same results in most cases, but
+produces more useful results for really complicated inheritance graphs.)</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and include a
+class multiple times if it’s visited repeatedly.  In the above example, the list
+of visited classes is [<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>].</p></li>
+<li><p>Scan the list for duplicated classes.  If any are found, remove all but one
+occurrence, leaving the <em>last</em> one in the list.  In the above example, the list
+becomes [<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>] after dropping
+duplicates.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>Following this rule, referring to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D.save()</span></code> will return <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.save()</span></code>,
+which is the behaviour we’re after.  This lookup rule is the same as the one
+followed by Common Lisp.  A new built-in function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>, provides a way
+to get at a class’s superclasses without having to reimplement Python’s
+algorithm. The most commonly used form will be  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super(class,</span> <span class="pre">obj)</span></code>, which
+returns  a bound superclass object (not the actual class object).  This form
+will be used in methods to call a method in the superclass; for example,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">D</span></code>’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">save()</span></code> method would look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">B</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">save</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Call superclass .save()</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">save</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Save D&#39;s private information here</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> can also return unbound superclass objects when called as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super(class)</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super(class1,</span> <span class="pre">class2)</span></code>, but this probably won’t
+often be useful.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="attribute-access">
+<h3>Attribute Access<a class="headerlink" href="#attribute-access" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute access
+using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a>; most commonly this is done for convenience, to make
+code more readable by automatically mapping an attribute access such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.parent</span></code> into a method call such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.get_parent</span></code>.  Python 2.2 adds
+some new ways of controlling attribute access.</p>
+<p>First, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__(attr_name)</span></code> is still supported by new-style classes,
+and nothing about it has changed.  As before, it will be called when an attempt
+is made to access <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.foo</span></code> and no attribute named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> is found in the
+instance’s dictionary.</p>
+<p>New-style classes also support a new method,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__(attr_name)</span></code>.  The difference between the two methods is
+that <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> is <em>always</em> called whenever any attribute is
+accessed, while the old <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> is only called if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo</span></code> isn’t
+found in the instance’s dictionary.</p>
+<p>However, Python 2.2’s support for <em class="dfn">properties</em> will often be a simpler way
+to trap attribute references.  Writing a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> method is
+complicated because to avoid recursion you can’t use regular attribute accesses
+inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> methods also end up being called by Python
+when it checks for other methods such as <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__coerce__()</span></code>,
+and so have to be written with this in mind. Finally, calling a function on
+every attribute access results in a sizable performance loss.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a> is a new built-in type that packages up three functions that
+get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring.  For example, if you want to
+define a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code> attribute that’s computed, but also settable, you could
+write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_size</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">computation</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">set_size</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">size</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">compute</span> <span class="n">something</span> <span class="n">based</span> <span class="n">on</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">size</span>
+        <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">set</span> <span class="n">internal</span> <span class="n">state</span> <span class="n">appropriately</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Define a property.  The &#39;delete this attribute&#39;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># method is defined as None, so the attribute</span>
+    <span class="c1"># can&#39;t be deleted.</span>
+    <span class="n">size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">property</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">get_size</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">set_size</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="s2">&quot;Storage size of this instance&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setattr__()</span></code></a> methods that check for the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code>
+attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes from the
+instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>.  Accesses to <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code> are also the only ones
+which have to perform the work of calling a function, so references to other
+attributes run at their usual speed.</p>
+<p>Finally, it’s possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be
+referenced on an object using the new <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__" title="object.__slots__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code></a> class attribute. Python
+objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it’s possible to define a new
+attribute on an instance by just doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj.new_attr=1</span></code>.   A new-style class
+can define a class attribute named <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__" title="object.__slots__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code></a> to limit the legal
+attributes  to a particular set of names.  An example will make this clear:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="vm">__slots__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;template&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">template</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">template</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Test&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">template</span>
+<span class="go">Test</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">newattr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;C&#39; object has no attribute &#39;newattr&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note how you get an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> on the attempt to assign to an
+attribute not listed in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__slots__" title="object.__slots__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="related-links">
+<span id="sect-rellinks"></span><h3>Related Links<a class="headerlink" href="#related-links" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving enough
+of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have been
+simplified or ignored.  Where should you go to get a more complete picture?</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/dev/howto/descriptor.html">https://docs.python.org/dev/howto/descriptor.html</a> is a lengthy tutorial introduction to
+the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum. If my description has
+whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes into much
+more detail about the new features while still remaining quite easy to read.</p>
+<p>Next, there are two relevant PEPs, <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0252"><strong>PEP 252</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0253"><strong>PEP 253</strong></a>.  <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0252"><strong>PEP 252</strong></a> is
+titled “Making Types Look More Like Classes”, and covers the descriptor API.
+<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0253"><strong>PEP 253</strong></a> is titled “Subtyping Built-in Types”, and describes the changes to
+type objects that make it possible to subtype built-in objects.  <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0253"><strong>PEP 253</strong></a> is
+the more complicated PEP of the two, and at a few points the necessary
+explanations of types and meta-types may cause your head to explode.  Both PEPs
+were written and implemented by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance
+from the rest of the Zope Corp. team.</p>
+<p>Finally, there’s the ultimate authority: the source code.  Most of the machinery
+for the type handling is in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/typeobject.c</span></code>, but you should only
+resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted, including posting a
+question to python-list or python-dev.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-234-iterators">
+<h2>PEP 234: Iterators<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-234-iterators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both the C and
+Python levels.  Objects can define how they can be looped over by callers.</p>
+<p>In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">item</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">obj</span></code> work is
+to define a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method that looks something like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">index</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="nb">next</span> <span class="n">item</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> is more properly used to define an indexing operation on an
+object so that you can write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[5]</span></code> to retrieve the sixth element.  It’s a
+bit misleading when you’re using this only to support <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loops.
+Consider some file-like object that wants to be looped over; the <em>index</em>
+parameter is essentially meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a
+series of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> calls will be made with <em>index</em> incrementing by
+one each time.  In other words, the presence of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> method
+doesn’t mean that using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file[5]</span></code>  to randomly access the sixth element will
+work, though it really should.</p>
+<p>In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>
+methods can be limited to classes that really do support random access.  The
+basic idea of iterators is  simple.  A new built-in function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(obj)</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(C,</span> <span class="pre">sentinel)</span></code>, is used to get an iterator. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(obj)</span></code> returns
+an iterator for the object <em>obj</em>, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter(C,</span> <span class="pre">sentinel)</span></code> returns an
+iterator that will invoke the callable object <em>C</em> until it returns <em>sentinel</em> to
+signal that the iterator is done.</p>
+<p>Python classes can define an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> method, which should create and
+return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own iterator, this
+method can just return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code>.  In particular, iterators will usually be their
+own iterators.  Extension types implemented in C can implement a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a>
+function in order to return an iterator, and extension types that want to behave
+as iterators can define a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iternext</span></code></a> function.</p>
+<p>So, after all this, what do iterators actually do?  They have one required
+method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a>, which takes no arguments and returns the next value.  When
+there are no more values to be returned, calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> should raise the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;iterator object at 0x8116870&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In 2.2, Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement no longer expects a sequence; it
+expects something for which <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> will return an iterator. For backward
+compatibility and convenience, an iterator is automatically constructed for
+sequences that don’t implement <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_iter</span></code></a> slot, so
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">[1,2,3]</span></code> will still work.  Wherever the Python interpreter loops
+over a sequence, it’s been changed to use the iterator protocol.  This means you
+can do things like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">c</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 2, 3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Iterator support has been added to some of Python’s basic types.   Calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> on a dictionary will return an iterator which loops over its keys:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;Jan&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Feb&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Mar&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Apr&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;May&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Jun&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>     <span class="s1">&#39;Jul&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Aug&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Sep&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Oct&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Nov&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Dec&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">Mar 3</span>
+<span class="go">Feb 2</span>
+<span class="go">Aug 8</span>
+<span class="go">Sep 9</span>
+<span class="go">May 5</span>
+<span class="go">Jun 6</span>
+<span class="go">Jul 7</span>
+<span class="go">Jan 1</span>
+<span class="go">Apr 4</span>
+<span class="go">Nov 11</span>
+<span class="go">Dec 12</span>
+<span class="go">Oct 10</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>That’s just the default behaviour.  If you want to iterate over keys, values, or
+key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterkeys()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itervalues()</span></code>, or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iteritems()</span></code> methods to get an appropriate iterator.
+In a minor related change, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator now works on dictionaries,
+so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">dict</span></code> is now equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.has_key(key)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Files also provide an iterator, which calls the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> method until
+there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can now read each line of a
+file using code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># do something for each line</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get the
+previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it. An iterator object
+could provide such additional capabilities, but the iterator protocol only
+requires a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0234"><strong>PEP 234</strong></a> - Iterators</dt><dd><p>Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented  by the Python Labs crew, mostly by
+GvR and Tim Peters.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-255-simple-generators">
+<h2>PEP 255: Simple Generators<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-255-simple-generators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the introduction of
+iterators.</p>
+<p>You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.  When you
+call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are
+created.  When the function reaches a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement, the local
+variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller.  A
+later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables.
+But, what if the local variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?
+What if you could later resume the function where it left off?  This is what
+generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.</p>
+<p>Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">generate_ints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A new keyword, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a>, was introduced for generators.  Any function
+containing a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement is a generator function; this is
+detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as
+a result.  Because a new keyword was introduced, generators must be explicitly
+enabled in a module by including a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">generators</span></code>
+statement near the top of the module’s source code.  In Python 2.3 this
+statement will become unnecessary.</p>
+<p>When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value; instead it
+returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol.  On executing
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement, the generator outputs the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code>,
+similar to a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement.  The big difference between
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement is that on reaching a
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> the generator’s state of execution is suspended and local
+variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code> method,
+the function will resume executing immediately after the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code>
+statement.  (For complicated reasons, the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement isn’t
+allowed inside the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code> block of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a>…<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> statement; read <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255"><strong>PEP 255</strong></a> for a full
+explanation of the interaction between <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and exceptions.)</p>
+<p>Here’s a sample usage of the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generate_ints()</span></code> generator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">generate_ints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;generator object at 0x8117f90&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">generate_ints</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You could equally write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">generate_ints(5)</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a,b,c</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">generate_ints(3)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Inside a generator function, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement can only be used
+without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the
+generator cannot return any further values. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> with a value, such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">5</span></code>, is a syntax error inside a generator function.  The end of the
+generator’s results can also be indicated by raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>
+manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the
+function.</p>
+<p>You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class
+and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables.  For
+example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.count</span></code> to
+0, and having the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> method increment <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.count</span></code> and return it.
+However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class
+would be much messier. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_generators.py</span></code> contains a number of
+more interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of
+a tree using generators recursively.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">label</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">right</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Two other examples in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_generators.py</span></code> produce solutions for
+the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no
+queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that takes a knight to
+every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice).</p>
+<p>The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/">https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/</a>), where the idea of generators is central.  In
+Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator.  One example
+from “An Overview of the Icon Programming Language” at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm">https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm</a> gives an idea of what this looks
+like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sentence</span> <span class="p">:</span><span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Store it in the neighboring harbor&quot;</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="p">:</span><span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;or&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentence</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">5</span> <span class="n">then</span> <span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Icon the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code> function returns the indexes at which the substring
+“or” is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> is first
+assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon
+retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5, so the comparison
+now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen.</p>
+<p>Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central
+concept.  Generators are considered a new part of the core Python language, but
+learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they don’t solve any problems that
+you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python’s interface as
+compared to Icon’s is that a generator’s state is represented as a concrete
+object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in
+a data structure.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255"><strong>PEP 255</strong></a> - Simple Generators</dt><dd><p>Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.  Implemented mostly
+by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">
+<h2>PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are 32-bit
+values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of arbitrary size, was
+becoming an annoyance.  For example, on platforms that support files larger than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**32</span></code> bytes, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code> method of file objects has to return a long
+integer. However, there were various bits of Python that expected plain integers
+and would raise an error if a long integer was provided instead.  For example,
+in Python 1.5, only regular integers could be used as a slice index, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'abc'[1L:]</span></code> would raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception with the message ‘slice
+index must be int’.</p>
+<p>Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required. The ‘L’
+suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal, as now the
+compiler will choose the appropriate type.  (Using the ‘L’ suffix will be
+discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering a warning in Python
+2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.)  Many operations that used to raise an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> will now return a long integer as their result.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1234567890123</span>
+<span class="go">1234567890123L</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">64</span>
+<span class="go">18446744073709551616L</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated identically.  You
+can still distinguish them with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type()</span></code></a> built-in function, but that’s
+rarely needed.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0237"><strong>PEP 237</strong></a> - Unifying Long Integers and Integers</dt><dd><p>Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented mostly by Guido van
+Rossum.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-238-changing-the-division-operator">
+<h2>PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-238-changing-the-division-operator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an effort to
+fix an old design flaw that’s been in Python from the beginning. Currently
+Python’s division operator, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>, behaves like C’s division operator when
+presented with two integer arguments: it returns an integer result that’s
+truncated down when there would be a fractional part.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3/2</span></code> is
+1, not 1.5, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(-1)/2</span></code> is -1, not -0.5.  This means that the results of
+division can vary unexpectedly depending on the type of the two operands and
+because Python is dynamically typed, it can be difficult to determine the
+possible types of the operands.</p>
+<p>(The controversy is over whether this is <em>really</em> a design flaw, and whether
+it’s worth breaking existing code to fix this.  It’s caused endless discussions
+on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm of acidly sarcastic
+postings on <em class="newsgroup">comp.lang.python</em>. I won’t argue for either side here
+and will stick to describing what’s  implemented in 2.2.  Read <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238"><strong>PEP 238</strong></a> for a
+summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)</p>
+<p>Because this change might break code, it’s being introduced very gradually.
+Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won’t be complete until Python
+3.0.</p>
+<p>First, I’ll borrow some terminology from <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238"><strong>PEP 238</strong></a>.  “True division” is the
+division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5, 1/4 is 0.25,
+and so forth.  “Floor division” is what Python’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> operator currently does
+when given integer operands; the result is the floor of the value returned by
+true division.  “Classic division” is the current mixed behaviour of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>; it
+returns the result of floor division when the operands are integers, and returns
+the result of true division when one of the operands is a floating-point number.</p>
+<p>Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>A new operator, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code>, is the floor division operator. (Yes, we know it looks
+like C++’s comment symbol.)  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> <em>always</em> performs floor division no matter
+what the types of its operands are, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">2</span></code> is 0 and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">2.0</span></code> is
+also 0.0.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">//</span></code> is always available in Python 2.2; you don’t need to enable it using a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> statement.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>By including a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">division</span></code> in a module, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code>
+operator will be changed to return the result of true division, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1/2</span></code> is
+0.5.  Without the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> statement, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> still means classic division.
+The default meaning of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/</span></code> will not change until Python 3.0.</p></li>
+<li><p>Classes can define methods called <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__truediv__" title="object.__truediv__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__truediv__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__floordiv__" title="object.__floordiv__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__floordiv__()</span></code></a>
+to overload the two division operators.  At the C level, there are also slots in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyNumberMethods" title="PyNumberMethods"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumberMethods</span></code></a> structure so extension types can define the two
+operators.</p></li>
+<li><p>Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether code will
+work with the changed division semantics.  Running python with <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Q</span>
+<span class="pre">warn</span></code> will cause a warning to be issued whenever division is applied to two
+integers.  You can use this to find code that’s affected by the change and fix
+it.  By default, Python 2.2 will simply perform classic division without a
+warning; the warning will be turned on by default in Python 2.3.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238"><strong>PEP 238</strong></a> - Changing the Division Operator</dt><dd><p>Written by Moshe Zadka and  Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Guido van Rossum..</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode-changes">
+<h2>Unicode Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python’s Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2.  Unicode strings are
+usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers. Python 2.2 can also be
+compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers, as its internal encoding by
+supplying <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-unicode=ucs4</span></code> to the configure script.   (It’s also
+possible to specify <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--disable-unicode</span></code> to completely disable Unicode
+support.)</p>
+<p>When built to use UCS-4 (a “wide Python”), the interpreter can natively handle
+Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of legal values for
+the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unichr()</span></code> function is expanded accordingly.  Using an interpreter
+compiled to use UCS-2 (a “narrow Python”), values greater than 65535 will still
+cause <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unichr()</span></code> to raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception. This is all
+described in <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0261"><strong>PEP 261</strong></a>, “Support for ‘wide’ Unicode characters”; consult it for
+further details.</p>
+<p>Another change is simpler to explain. Since their introduction, Unicode strings
+have supported an <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code> method to convert the string to a selected
+encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1.  A symmetric <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode([*encoding*])</span></code>
+method has been added to 8-bit strings (though not to Unicode strings) in 2.2.
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code> assumes that the string is in the specified encoding and decodes
+it, returning whatever is returned by the codec.</p>
+<p>Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly related to
+Unicode.  For example, codecs have been added for uu-encoding, MIME’s base64
+encoding, and compression with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">and repetitive text.</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;zlib&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;zlib&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;uu&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">begin 666 &lt;data&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">M2&amp;5R92!I&lt;R!A(&amp;QE;F=T:&#39;D@&lt;&amp;EE8V4@;V8@&lt;F5D=6YD86YT+&quot;!O=F5R;&#39;D@</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(&#39;)E&lt;&amp;5T:71I=F4@=&amp;5X=&quot;X*</span>
+
+<span class="go">end</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;sheesh&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;rot-13&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;furrfu&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To convert a class instance to Unicode, a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__unicode__()</span></code> method can be
+defined by a class, analogous to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__unicode__()</span></code> were implemented by
+Marc-André Lemburg.  The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were
+implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0261"><strong>PEP 261</strong></a> - Support for ‘wide’ Unicode characters</dt><dd><p>Written by Paul Prescod.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-227-nested-scopes">
+<h2>PEP 227: Nested Scopes<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-227-nested-scopes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional feature, to be
+enabled by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">nested_scopes</span></code> directive.  In 2.2 nested
+scopes no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always present.  The
+rest of this section is a copy of the description of nested scopes from my
+“What’s New in Python 2.1” document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can
+skip the rest of this section.</p>
+<p>The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2, is to
+Python’s scoping rules.  In Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most
+three namespaces used to look up variable names: local, module-level, and the
+built-in namespace.  This often surprised people because it didn’t match their
+intuitive expectations.  For example, a nested recursive function definition
+doesn’t work:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g()</span></code> will always raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exception, because
+the binding of the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g</span></code> isn’t in either its local namespace or in the
+module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in practice (how often do
+you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.
+In code which uses <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code> you can often find local variables being
+copied by passing them as the default values of arguments.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Return list of any entries equal to &#39;name&#39;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span>
+               <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list_attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">L</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers
+greatly as a result.</p>
+<p>The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has been added
+to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name=name</span></code>
+default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.  Put simply, when a
+given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment,
+or the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements),
+references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the
+enclosing scope.  A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of
+the implementation, can be found in the PEP.</p>
+<p>This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same
+variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a
+function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely
+though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first
+place.</p>
+<p>One side effect of the change is that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
+certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython
+interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the implementation of
+nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to
+generate different code to access variables in a containing scope.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> make it impossible for the compiler to
+figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are
+unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function
+definitions or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expressions with free variables, the compiler
+will flag this by raising a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The next line is a syntax error</span>
+    <span class="n">exec</span> <span class="s1">&#39;x=2&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Line 4 containing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> statement is a syntax error, since
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> would define a new local variable named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> whose value should
+be accessed by <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> is rarely used in
+most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor design
+anyway).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0227"><strong>PEP 227</strong></a> - Statically Nested Scopes</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-and-improved-modules">
+<h2>New and Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-and-improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> module was contributed to the standard library by Fredrik
+Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC clients.  XML-RPC is a simple
+remote procedure call protocol built on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the
+following snippet retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O’Reilly Network,
+and then  lists the recent headlines for one channel:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">xmlrpclib</span>
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">xmlrpclib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Server</span><span class="p">(</span>
+      <span class="s1">&#39;http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">channels</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meerkat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getChannels</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="c1"># channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:</span>
+<span class="c1"># [{&#39;id&#39;: 4, &#39;title&#39;: &#39;Freshmeat Daily News&#39;}</span>
+<span class="c1">#  {&#39;id&#39;: 190, &#39;title&#39;: &#39;32Bits Online&#39;},</span>
+<span class="c1">#  {&#39;id&#39;: 4549, &#39;title&#39;: &#39;3DGamers&#39;}, ... ]</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Get the items for one channel</span>
+<span class="n">items</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meerkat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getItems</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;channel&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># &#39;items&#39; is another list of dictionaries, like this:</span>
+<span class="c1"># [{&#39;link&#39;: &#39;http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="c1">#   &#39;description&#39;: &#39;A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.&#39;,</span>
+<span class="c1">#   &#39;title&#39;: &#39;html2fo 0.3 (Default)&#39;}, ... ]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code> module makes it easy to create straightforward
+XML-RPC servers.  See <a class="reference external" href="http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/">http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/</a> for more information about XML-RPC.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> module implements the HMAC algorithm described by
+<span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2104.html"><strong>RFC 2104</strong></a>. (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now return
+pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have mnemonic attributes such
+as memberst_mtime or <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_year</span></code>. The enhanced functions include
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstat()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statvfs()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstatvfs()</span></code> in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>For example, to obtain a file’s size using the old tuples, you’d end up writing
+something like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file_size</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]</span></code>, but now this can
+be written more clearly as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file_size</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">os.stat(filename).st_size</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick Mathewson.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various errors in its
+output have been corrected.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr. and Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module can be compiled to support IPv6; specify the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-ipv6</span></code> option to Python’s configure script.  (Contributed by
+Jun-ichiro “itojun” Hagino.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new format characters were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module for 64-bit
+integers on platforms that support the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> type.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">q</span></code> is for
+a signed 64-bit integer, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Q</span></code> is for an unsigned one.  The value is
+returned in Python’s long integer type.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>In the interpreter’s interactive mode, there’s a new built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> that uses the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module introduced in Python 2.1 to
+provide interactive help. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help(object)</span></code> displays any available help text
+about <em>object</em>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> with no argument puts you in an online help
+utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or modules to read
+their help text. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, using Ka-Ping Yee’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the SRE engine
+underlying the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module.  For example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a> functions have been rewritten in C.  Another contributed patch
+speeds up certain Unicode character ranges by a factor of two, and a new
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finditer()</span></code>  method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping
+matches in  a given string.  (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh.  The
+BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> module now supports <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2487.html"><strong>RFC 2487</strong></a>, “Secure SMTP over TLS”, so
+it’s now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic between a Python program and the
+mail transport agent being handed a message.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> also supports SMTP
+authentication.  (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has support for several
+new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined in <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2342.html"><strong>RFC 2342</strong></a>, SORT, GETACL and
+SETACL.  (Contributed by Anthony Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc822</span></code> module’s parsing of email addresses is now compliant with
+<span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>, an update to <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a>.  (The module’s name is <em>not</em> going to be
+changed to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc2822</span></code>.)  A new package, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a>, has also been added for
+parsing and generating e-mail messages.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and
+arising out of his work on Mailman.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a> module now contains a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Differ</span></code> class for
+producing human-readable lists of changes (a “delta”) between two sequences of
+lines of text.  There are also two generator functions, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ndiff()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restore()</span></code>, which respectively return a delta from two sequences, or one of
+the original sequences from a delta. (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger,
+from ndiff.py code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New constants <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii_letters</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii_lowercase</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii_uppercase</span></code> were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module.  There were
+several modules in the standard library that used <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.letters</span></code> to
+mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is incorrect when locales are in
+use, because <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.letters</span></code> varies depending on the set of legal
+characters defined by the current locale.  The buggy modules have all been fixed
+to use <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii_letters</span></code> instead. (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by
+Fred L. Drake, Jr.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mimetypes.html#module-mimetypes" title="mimetypes: Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code></a> module now makes it easier to use alternative MIME-type
+databases by the addition of a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MimeTypes</span></code> class, which takes a list of
+filenames to be parsed.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer</span></code> class was added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module that allows
+scheduling an activity to happen at some future time.  (Contributed by Itamar
+Shtull-Trauring.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interpreter-changes-and-fixes">
+<h2>Interpreter Changes and Fixes<a class="headerlink" href="#interpreter-changes-and-fixes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python interpreter at
+the C level because they’re writing Python extension modules, embedding the
+interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter itself. If you only write Python
+code, none of the changes described here will affect you very much.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which can operate
+at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and should reduce the overhead
+of profiling and tracing.  This  will be of interest to authors of development
+environments for Python.  Two new C functions were added to Python’s API,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SetProfile" title="PyEval_SetProfile"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SetProfile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SetTrace" title="PyEval_SetTrace"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SetTrace()</span></code></a>. The existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setprofile" title="sys.setprofile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setprofile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.settrace" title="sys.settrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.settrace()</span></code></a> functions still exist, and have
+simply been changed to use the new C-level interface.  (Contributed by Fred L.
+Drake, Jr.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementors of Python
+debuggers and development tools, was added. <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Head" title="PyInterpreterState_Head"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState_Head()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_Next" title="PyInterpreterState_Next"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState_Next()</span></code></a> let a caller walk through all the existing
+interpreter objects; <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead" title="PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_Next" title="PyThreadState_Next"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState_Next()</span></code></a> allow looping over all the thread states for a given
+interpreter.  (Contributed by David Beazley.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to make it
+easier to write extension types that support garbage collection and to debug
+misuses of the functions. Various functions have slightly different semantics,
+so a bunch of functions had to be renamed.  Extensions that use the old API will
+still compile but will <em>not</em> participate in garbage collection, so updating them
+for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.</p>
+<p>To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the following steps:</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Rename <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_GC()</span></code> to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTPFLAGS_HAVE_GC()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>Use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_New" title="PyObject_GC_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_New()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_NewVar" title="PyObject_GC_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_NewVar()</span></code></a> to allocate</dt><dd><p>objects, and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Del" title="PyObject_GC_Del"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Del()</span></code></a> to deallocate them.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>Rename <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Init()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Track" title="PyObject_GC_Track"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Track()</span></code></a> and</dt><dd><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Fini()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="PyObject_GC_UnTrack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><p>Remove <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGC_HEAD_SIZE()</span></code> from object size calculations.</p></li>
+<li><p>Remove calls to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_AS_GC()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_FROM_GC()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">et</span></code> format sequence was added to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">et</span></code>
+takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and converts the parameter to the
+given encoding if the parameter turns out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it
+alone if it’s an 8-bit string, assuming it to already be in the desired
+encoding.  This differs from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">es</span></code> format character, which assumes that
+8-bit strings are in Python’s default ASCII encoding and converts them to the
+specified new encoding. (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and used for the MBCS
+support on Windows described in the following section.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A different argument parsing function, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_UnpackTuple" title="PyArg_UnpackTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_UnpackTuple()</span></code></a>, has been
+added that’s simpler and presumably faster.  Instead of specifying a format
+string, the caller simply gives the minimum and maximum number of arguments
+expected, and a set of pointers to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a> variables that will be
+filled in with argument values.</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new flags <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_NOARGS" title="METH_NOARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_NOARGS</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_O" title="METH_O"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_O</span></code></a> are available in method
+definition tables to simplify implementation of methods with no arguments or a
+single untyped argument. Calling such methods is more efficient than calling a
+corresponding method that uses <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_VARARGS" title="METH_VARARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_VARARGS</span></code></a>.  Also, the old
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_OLDARGS</span></code> style of writing C methods is  now officially deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new wrapper functions, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_snprintf" title="PyOS_snprintf"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_snprintf()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_vsnprintf" title="PyOS_vsnprintf"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_vsnprintf()</span></code></a>
+were added to provide  cross-platform implementations for the relatively new
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">snprintf()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vsnprintf()</span></code> C lib APIs. In contrast to the standard
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sprintf()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vsprintf()</span></code> functions, the Python versions check the
+bounds of the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns. (Contributed by
+M.-A. Lemburg.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c._PyTuple_Resize" title="_PyTuple_Resize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyTuple_Resize()</span></code></a> function has lost an unused parameter, so now it
+takes 2 parameters instead of 3.  The third argument was never used, and can
+simply be discarded when porting code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-changes-and-fixes">
+<h2>Other Changes and Fixes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-changes-and-fixes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
+throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds there
+were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and 2.2; 2.2.1
+applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106 patches and fixed 82
+bugs.  These figures are likely to be underestimates.</p>
+<p>Some of the more notable changes are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen, is now kept
+in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been made to support MacOS X.</p>
+<p>The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a framework,
+enabled by supplying the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-framework</span></code> option to the configure
+script when compiling Python.  According to Jack Jansen, “This installs a
+self-contained Python installation plus the OS X framework “glue” into
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework</span></code> (or another location of choice).
+For now there is little immediate added benefit to this (actually, there is the
+disadvantage that you have to change your PATH to be able to find Python), but
+it is the basis for creating a full-blown Python application, porting the
+MacPython IDE, possibly using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and
+much more.”</p>
+<p>Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS APIs such as
+windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc. have been ported to OS X, but they’ve been
+left commented out in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>.  People who want to experiment with
+these modules can uncomment them manually.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don’t take them now cause a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception to be raised, with the message “<em>function</em> takes no
+keyword arguments”.</p></li>
+<li><p>Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are now part of
+the core because they’re used in the implementation of new-style classes.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ReferenceError" title="ReferenceError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReferenceError</span></code></a> exception has therefore moved from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a>
+module to become a built-in exception.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new script, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py</span></code> by Tim Peters,
+automatically removes obsolete <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> statements from Python source
+code.</p></li>
+<li><p>An additional <em>flags</em> argument has been added to the built-in function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a>, so the behaviour of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> statements can now be
+correctly observed in simulated shells, such as those presented by IDLE and
+other development environments.  This is described in <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0264"><strong>PEP 264</strong></a>. (Contributed
+by Michael Hudson.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn’t GPL-compatible.  This is
+fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so it’s now legal to
+embed Python inside a GPLed program again.  Note that Python itself is not
+GPLed, but instead is under a license that’s essentially equivalent to the BSD
+license, same as it always was.  The license changes were also applied to the
+Python 2.0.1 and 2.1.1 releases.</p></li>
+<li><p>When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now convert it
+to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file APIs.  As MBCS is
+explicitly used by the file APIs, Python’s choice of ASCII as the default
+encoding turns out to be an annoyance.  On Unix, the locale’s character set is
+used if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)</span></code> is available.  (Windows support was
+contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André Lemburg. Unix
+support was added by Martin von Löwis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Large file support is now enabled on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py</span></code> script now parses a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.netrc</span></code>
+file, if you have one. (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Some features of the object returned by the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xrange()</span></code> function are now
+deprecated, and trigger warnings when they’re accessed; they’ll disappear in
+Python 2.3. <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xrange</span></code> objects tried to pretend they were full sequence
+types by supporting slicing, sequence multiplication, and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a>
+operator, but these features were rarely used and therefore buggy.  The
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tolist()</span></code> method and the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">step</span></code>
+attributes are also being deprecated.  At the C level, the fourth argument to
+the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRange_New()</span></code> function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repeat</span></code>, has also been deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p>There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation, mostly to fix
+potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects that sneakily changed
+their hash value, or mutated the dictionary they were contained in. For a while
+python-dev fell into a gentle rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that
+dumped core, Tim Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round
+and round it went.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a number of
+patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result isn’t fully functional
+yet.  (But this <em>is</em> progress…)</p></li>
+<li><p>Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered PythonLabs use
+of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system.  Earlier PythonLabs Windows installers used
+Wise 5.0a, which was beginning to show its age.  (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Files ending in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyw</span></code> can now be imported on Windows. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyw</span></code> is a
+Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run using
+PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS console from popping
+up to display the output.  This patch makes it possible to import such scripts,
+in case they’re also usable as modules.  (Implemented by David Bolen.)</p></li>
+<li><p>On platforms where Python uses the C <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dlopen()</span></code> function  to load
+extension modules, it’s now possible to set the flags used  by <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dlopen()</span></code>
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getdlopenflags" title="sys.getdlopenflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getdlopenflags()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setdlopenflags" title="sys.setdlopenflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setdlopenflags()</span></code></a> functions.
+(Contributed by Bram Stolk.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow()</span></code></a> built-in function no longer supports 3 arguments when
+floating-point numbers are supplied. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(x,</span> <span class="pre">y,</span> <span class="pre">z)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(x**y)</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">z</span></code>,
+but this is never useful for floating point numbers, and the final result varies
+unpredictably depending on the platform.  A call such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pow(2.0,</span> <span class="pre">8.0,</span> <span class="pre">7.0)</span></code>
+will now raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Fred Bremmer,
+Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr., Carel Fellinger, David Goodger,
+Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg,
+Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore,
+Gustavo Niemeyer, Don O’Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom
+Reinhardt, Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#peps-252-and-253-type-and-class-changes">PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#old-and-new-classes">Old and New Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#descriptors">Descriptors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiple-inheritance-the-diamond-rule">Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#attribute-access">Attribute Access</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#related-links">Related Links</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-234-iterators">PEP 234: Iterators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-255-simple-generators">PEP 255: Simple Generators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-238-changing-the-division-operator">PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode-changes">Unicode Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-227-nested-scopes">PEP 227: Nested Scopes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interpreter-changes-and-fixes">Interpreter Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.3.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.3</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.3.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.3.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..998f7f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.3.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2038 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>What’s New in Python 2.3 &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-3">
+<h1>What’s New in Python 2.3<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 2.3.  Python 2.3 was released
+on July 29, 2003.</p>
+<p>The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added in 2.2,
+adding various small but useful enhancements to the core language, and expanding
+the standard library.  The new object model introduced in the previous version
+has benefited from 18 months of bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have
+improved the performance of new-style classes.  A few new built-in functions
+have been added such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a>
+operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ab&quot;</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">&quot;abc&quot;</span></code> returns
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and date/time
+data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format archives, metadata
+support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an updated version of IDLE, and
+modules for logging messages, wrapping text, parsing CSV files, processing
+command-line options, using BerkeleyDB databases…  the list of new and
+enhanced modules is lengthy.</p>
+<p>This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the new
+features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full details, you
+should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as the Python Library
+Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  If you want to understand the
+complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular
+new feature.</p>
+<div class="section" id="pep-218-a-standard-set-datatype">
+<h2>PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-218-a-standard-set-datatype" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The new <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sets</span></code> module contains an implementation of a set datatype.  The
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code> class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and
+removed.  The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImmutableSet</span></code> class is for sets that can’t be modified,
+and instances of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImmutableSet</span></code> can therefore be used as dictionary keys.
+Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a set must be
+hashable.</p>
+<p>Here’s a simple example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sets</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sets</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S</span>
+<span class="go">Set([1, 2, 3])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">S</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">0</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">S</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S</span>
+<span class="go">Set([1, 2, 5])</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">union()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intersection()</span></code> methods; an alternative notation uses the bitwise operators
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>. Mutable sets also have in-place versions of these methods,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">union_update()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intersection_update()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sets</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sets</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">union</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">S2</span>                  <span class="c1"># Alternative notation</span>
+<span class="go">Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">intersection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Set([])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">S2</span>                  <span class="c1"># Alternative notation</span>
+<span class="go">Set([])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">union_update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span>
+<span class="go">Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets.  This is the
+set of all elements in the union that aren’t in the intersection.  Another way
+of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all elements that are in
+exactly one set.  Again, there’s an alternative notation (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">^</span></code>), and an
+in-place version with the ungainly name <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symmetric_difference_update()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sets</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sets</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">symmetric_difference</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Set([1, 2, 5, 6])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span> <span class="o">^</span> <span class="n">S2</span>
+<span class="go">Set([1, 2, 5, 6])</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are also <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubset()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issuperset()</span></code> methods for checking
+whether one set is a subset or superset of another:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sets</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sets</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Set</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">issubset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">issubset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">issuperset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0218"><strong>PEP 218</strong></a> - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Greg V. Wilson. Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex Martelli, and
+GvR.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-255-simple-generators">
+<span id="section-generators"></span><h2>PEP 255: Simple Generators<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-255-simple-generators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be enabled by a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">generators</span></code> directive.  In 2.3 generators no longer
+need to be specially enabled, and are now always present; this means that
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> is now always a keyword.  The rest of this section is a copy of
+the description of generators from the “What’s New in Python 2.2” document; if
+you read it back when Python 2.2 came out, you can skip the rest of this
+section.</p>
+<p>You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C. When you
+call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are
+created.  When the function reaches a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement, the local
+variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller.  A
+later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables.
+But, what if the local variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?
+What if you could later resume the function where it left off?  This is what
+generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.</p>
+<p>Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">generate_ints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A new keyword, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a>, was introduced for generators.  Any function
+containing a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement is a generator function; this is
+detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as
+a result.</p>
+<p>When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value; instead it
+returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol.  On executing
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement, the generator outputs the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code>,
+similar to a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement.  The big difference between
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> statement is that on reaching a
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> the generator’s state of execution is suspended and local
+variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.next()</span></code>
+method, the function will resume executing immediately after the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement.  (For complicated reasons, the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code>
+statement isn’t allowed inside the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> block of a
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code>…<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> statement; read <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255"><strong>PEP 255</strong></a> for a full
+explanation of the interaction between <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and exceptions.)</p>
+<p>Here’s a sample usage of the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generate_ints()</span></code> generator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">generate_ints</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;generator object at 0x8117f90&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;stdin&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;stdin&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">generate_ints</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You could equally write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">generate_ints(5)</span></code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a,b,c</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">generate_ints(3)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Inside a generator function, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement can only be used
+without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the
+generator cannot return any further values. <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code> with a value, such
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">5</span></code>, is a syntax error inside a generator function.  The end of the
+generator’s results can also be indicated by raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>
+manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the
+function.</p>
+<p>You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class
+and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables.  For
+example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.count</span></code> to
+0, and having the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> method increment <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self.count</span></code> and return it.
+However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class
+would be much messier. <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_generators.py</span></code> contains a number of
+more interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of
+a tree using generators recursively.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">label</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">inorder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">right</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Two other examples in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_generators.py</span></code> produce solutions for
+the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no
+queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that takes a knight to
+every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice).</p>
+<p>The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/">https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/</a>), where the idea of generators is central.  In
+Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator.  One example
+from “An Overview of the Icon Programming Language” at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm">https://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm</a> gives an idea of what this looks
+like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sentence</span> <span class="p">:</span><span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Store it in the neighboring harbor&quot;</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="p">:</span><span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;or&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sentence</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="mi">5</span> <span class="n">then</span> <span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Icon the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code> function returns the indexes at which the substring
+“or” is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> is first
+assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon
+retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5, so the comparison
+now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen.</p>
+<p>Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central
+concept.  Generators are considered part of the core Python language, but
+learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they don’t solve any problems that
+you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python’s interface as
+compared to Icon’s is that a generator’s state is represented as a concrete
+object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in
+a data structure.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255"><strong>PEP 255</strong></a> - Simple Generators</dt><dd><p>Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.  Implemented mostly
+by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-263-source-code-encodings">
+<span id="section-encodings"></span><h2>PEP 263: Source Code Encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-263-source-code-encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python source files can now be declared as being in different character set
+encodings.  Encodings are declared by including a specially formatted comment in
+the first or second line of the source file.  For example, a UTF-8 file can be
+declared with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ch">#!/usr/bin/env python</span>
+<span class="c1"># -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit ASCII.
+Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with 8-bit
+characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will be a
+syntax error.</p>
+<p>The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which will be
+converted to Unicode using the specified encoding.  Note that Python identifiers
+are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you can’t have variable names that
+use characters outside of the usual alphanumerics.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0263"><strong>PEP 263</strong></a> - Defining Python Source Code Encodings</dt><dd><p>Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by Suzuki Hisao
+and Martin von Löwis.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives">
+<h2>PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipimport.html#module-zipimport" title="zipimport: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code></a> module adds support for importing modules from a
+ZIP-format archive.  You don’t need to import the module explicitly; it will be
+automatically imported if a ZIP archive’s filename is added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">amk@nyman:~/src/python$</span> unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
+<span class="go">Archive:  /tmp/example.zip</span>
+<span class="go">  Length     Date   Time    Name</span>
+<span class="go"> --------    ----   ----    ----</span>
+<span class="go">     8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py</span>
+<span class="go"> --------                   -------</span>
+<span class="go">     8467                   1 file</span>
+<span class="gp">amk@nyman:~/src/python$</span> ./python
+<span class="go">Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; import sys
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; sys.path.insert<span class="o">(</span><span class="m">0</span>, <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/example.zip&#39;</span><span class="o">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Add .zip file to front of path</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; import jwzthreading
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; jwzthreading.__file__
+<span class="go">&#39;/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt;
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An entry in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> can now be the filename of a ZIP archive. The ZIP
+archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.py</span></code>,
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code>, or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyo</span></code> can be imported.  If an archive only contains
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.py</span></code> files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
+corresponding <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code> file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t contain
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code> files, importing may be rather slow.</p>
+<p>A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a
+subdirectory; for example, the path <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/tmp/example.zip/lib/</span></code> would only
+import from the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/</span></code> subdirectory within the archive.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0273"><strong>PEP 273</strong></a> - Import Modules from Zip Archives</dt><dd><p>Written by James C. Ahlstrom,  who also provided an implementation. Python 2.3
+follows the specification in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0273"><strong>PEP 273</strong></a>,  but uses an implementation written by
+Just van Rossum  that uses the import hooks described in <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>. See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#section-pep302"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 302: New Import Hooks</span></a> for a description of the new import hooks.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt">
+<h2>PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode strings.
+Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte strings, which is
+inadequate because it renders some file names inaccessible.</p>
+<p>Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the limitations of the
+file system) for all functions that expect file names, most notably the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> built-in function. If a Unicode string is passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a>, Python now returns a list of Unicode strings.  A new
+function, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwdu()</span></code>, returns the current directory as a Unicode string.</p>
+<p>Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will transparently
+convert them to Unicode using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbcs</span></code> encoding.</p>
+<p>Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them to byte
+strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>
+to be raised. Applications can test whether arbitrary Unicode strings are
+supported as file names by checking <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.supports_unicode_filenames" title="os.path.supports_unicode_filenames"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.supports_unicode_filenames</span></code></a>,
+a Boolean value.</p>
+<p>Under MacOS, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> may now return Unicode filenames.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0277"><strong>PEP 277</strong></a> - Unicode file name support for Windows NT</dt><dd><p>Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von Löwis, and Mark
+Hammond.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-278-universal-newline-support">
+<span id="index-8"></span><h2>PEP 278: Universal Newline Support<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-278-universal-newline-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows, Apple’s
+Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives.  A minor irritation of
+cross-platform work  is that these three platforms all use different characters to
+mark the ends of lines in text files.  Unix uses the linefeed (ASCII character
+10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII character 13), and Windows uses a
+two-character sequence of a carriage return plus a newline.</p>
+<p>Python’s file objects can now support end of line conventions other than the
+one followed by the platform on which Python is running. Opening a file with
+the mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rU'</span></code> will open a file for reading in <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal
+newlines</span></a> mode.  All three line ending conventions will be translated to a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> in the strings returned by the various file methods such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when executing
+a file with the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execfile()</span></code> function.  This means that Python modules can
+be shared between all three operating systems without needing to convert the
+line-endings.</p>
+<p>This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-universal-newlines</span></code> switch when running Python’s
+<strong class="program">configure</strong> script.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0278"><strong>PEP 278</strong></a> - Universal Newline Support</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-279-enumerate">
+<span id="section-enumerate"></span><h2>PEP 279: enumerate()<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-279-enumerate" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new built-in function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a>, will make certain loops a bit
+clearer.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate(thing)</span></code>, where <em>thing</em> is either an iterator or a
+sequence, returns an iterator that will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(0,</span> <span class="pre">thing[0])</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(1,</span>
+<span class="pre">thing[1])</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(2,</span> <span class="pre">thing[2])</span></code>, and so forth.</p>
+<p>A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+    <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... compute some result based on item ...</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This can be rewritten using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a> as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">enumerate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... compute some result based on item ...</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0279"><strong>PEP 279</strong></a> - The enumerate() built-in function</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-282-the-logging-package">
+<h2>PEP 282: The logging Package<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-282-the-logging-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A standard package for writing logs, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a>, has been added to Python
+2.3.  It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for generating logging
+output which can then be filtered and processed in various ways.  A
+configuration file written in a standard format can be used to control the
+logging behavior of a program.  Python includes handlers that will write log
+records to standard error or to a file or socket, send them to the system log,
+or even e-mail them to a particular address; of course, it’s also possible to
+write your own handler classes.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> class is the primary class. Most application code will deal
+with one or more <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> objects, each one used by a particular
+subsystem of the application. Each <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> is identified by a name, and
+names are organized into a hierarchy using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code>  as the component separator.
+For example, you might have <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> instances named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server.auth</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server.network</span></code>.  The latter two instances are below
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server</span></code> in the hierarchy.  This means that if you turn up the verbosity for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server</span></code> or direct <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server</span></code> messages to a different handler, the changes
+will also apply to records logged to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server.auth</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server.network</span></code>.
+There’s also a root <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> that’s the parent of all other loggers.</p>
+<p>For simple uses, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package contains some convenience functions
+that always use the root log:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">debug</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Debugging information&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Informational message&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Warning:config file </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1"> not found&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;server.conf&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Error occurred&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Critical error -- shutting down&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This produces the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">WARNING</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="ne">Warning</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="n">file</span> <span class="n">server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">conf</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">found</span>
+<span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">Error</span> <span class="n">occurred</span>
+<span class="n">CRITICAL</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">Critical</span> <span class="n">error</span> <span class="o">--</span> <span class="n">shutting</span> <span class="n">down</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are
+suppressed and the output is sent to standard error.  You can enable the display
+of informational and debugging messages by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setLevel()</span></code> method
+on the root logger.</p>
+<p>Notice the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning()</span></code> call’s use of string formatting operators; all of the
+functions for logging messages take the arguments <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(msg,</span> <span class="pre">arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code> and
+log the string resulting from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">(arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There’s also an <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exception()</span></code> function that records the most recent
+traceback.  Any of the other functions will also record the traceback if you
+specify a true value for the keyword argument <em>exc_info</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>    <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exception</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Problem recorded&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This produces the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ERROR</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">root</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="n">Problem</span> <span class="n">recorded</span>
+<span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;t.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span>
+    <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">integer</span> <span class="n">division</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">modulo</span> <span class="n">by</span> <span class="n">zero</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root logger.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogger(name)</span></code> function is used to get a particular log, creating
+it if it doesn’t exist yet. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogger(None)</span></code> returns the root logger.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">log</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;server&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+ <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">log</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Listening on port </span><span class="si">%i</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">)</span>
+ <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">log</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Disk full&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+ <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server.auth</span></code> is also seen by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">root</span></code>, but a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code>
+can prevent this by setting its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">propagate</span></code> attribute to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>There are more classes provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package that can be
+customized.  When a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code> instance is told to log a message, it
+creates a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code> instance that is sent to any number of different
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handler</span></code> instances.  Loggers and handlers can also have an attached list
+of filters, and each filter can cause the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code> to be ignored or
+can modify the record before passing it along.  When they’re finally output,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code> instances are converted to text by a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Formatter</span></code>
+class.  All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially-written
+classes.</p>
+<p>With all of these features the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package should provide enough
+flexibility for even the most complicated applications.  This is only an
+incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package’s reference
+documentation for all of the details.  Reading <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0282"><strong>PEP 282</strong></a> will also be helpful.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0282"><strong>PEP 282</strong></a> - A Logging System</dt><dd><p>Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-285-a-boolean-type">
+<span id="section-bool"></span><h2>PEP 285: A Boolean Type<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-285-a-boolean-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3.  Two new constants were added to the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtin__</span></code> module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.  (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> constants were added to the built-ins in Python 2.2.1, but the
+2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values of 1 and 0 and aren’t a
+different type.)</p>
+<p>The type object for this new type is named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a>; the constructor for it
+takes any Python value and converts it to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,)</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been changed to
+return Booleans.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">obj</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;append&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python’s Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code clearer.  For
+example, if you’re reading a function and encounter the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>,
+you might wonder whether the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> represents a Boolean truth value, an index,
+or a coefficient that multiplies some other quantity.  If the statement is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">True</span></code>, however, the meaning of the return value is quite clear.</p>
+<p>Python’s Booleans were <em>not</em> added for the sake of strict type-checking.  A very
+strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing arithmetic with
+Booleans, and would require that the expression in an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement
+always evaluate to a Boolean result.  Python is not this strict and never will
+be, as <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0285"><strong>PEP 285</strong></a> explicitly says.  This means you can still use any expression
+in an <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> statement, even ones that evaluate to a list or tuple or
+some random object.  The Boolean type is a subclass of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> class so
+that arithmetic using a Boolean still works.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kc">True</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kc">False</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kc">False</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">75</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kc">True</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">75</span>
+<span class="go">75</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To sum up <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> in a sentence: they’re alternative
+ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single difference that
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> return the strings <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'True'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'False'</span></code>
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'0'</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0285"><strong>PEP 285</strong></a> - Adding a bool type</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by GvR.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks">
+<h2>PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable characters may be
+encountered.  So far, Python has allowed specifying the error processing as
+either “strict” (raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>), “ignore” (skipping the
+character), or “replace” (using a question mark in the output string), with
+“strict” being the default behavior. It may be desirable to specify alternative
+processing of such errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML
+entity reference into the converted string.</p>
+<p>Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing strategies.  New
+error handlers can be added with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.register_error()</span></code></a>, and codecs then
+can access the error handler with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.lookup_error" title="codecs.lookup_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.lookup_error()</span></code></a>. An equivalent C
+API has been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary
+state information such as the string being converted, the position in the string
+where the error was detected, and the target encoding.  The handler can then
+either raise an exception or return a replacement string.</p>
+<p>Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this framework:
+“backslashreplace” uses Python backslash quoting to represent unencodable
+characters and “xmlcharrefreplace” emits XML character references.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0293"><strong>PEP 293</strong></a> - Codec Error Handling Callbacks</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-301-package-index-and-metadata-for-distutils">
+<span id="section-pep301"></span><h2>PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-301-package-index-and-metadata-for-distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance in 2.3.</p>
+<p>The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils <strong class="command">register</strong> command.
+Running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">register</span></code> will collect the metadata describing a
+package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &amp;c., and send it to
+a central catalog server.  The resulting catalog is available from
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">https://pypi.org</a>.</p>
+<p>To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional <em>classifiers</em> keyword
+argument has been added to the Distutils <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code> function.  A list of
+<a class="reference external" href="http://catb.org/~esr/trove/">Trove</a>-style strings can be supplied to help
+classify the software.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> with classifiers, written to be compatible
+with older versions of the Distutils:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">core</span>
+<span class="n">kw</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Quixote&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;0.5.1&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="s1">&#39;description&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;A highly Pythonic Web application framework&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="c1"># ...</span>
+      <span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">core</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;setup_keywords&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span>
+    <span class="s1">&#39;classifiers&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">core</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setup_keywords</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;classifiers&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> \
+        <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+         <span class="s1">&#39;Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+         <span class="s1">&#39;Intended Audience :: Developers&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+
+<span class="n">core</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">setup.py</span>
+<span class="pre">register</span> <span class="pre">--list-classifiers</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0301"><strong>PEP 301</strong></a> - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Richard Jones.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-302-new-import-hooks">
+<span id="section-pep302"></span><h2>PEP 302: New Import Hooks<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-302-new-import-hooks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>While it’s been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ihooks</span></code> module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been really
+happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and messy.  There
+have been various proposed alternatives such as the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imputil</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iu</span></code>
+modules, but none of them has ever gained much acceptance, and none of them were
+easily usable from C code.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon
+McMillan’s <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iu</span></code> module.  Three new items  are added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>
+module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code> is a list of callable objects; most  often they’ll be
+classes.  Each callable takes a string containing a path and either returns an
+importer object that will handle imports from this path or raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> exception if it can’t handle this path.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code> caches importer objects for each path, so
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code> will only need to be traversed once for each path.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code> is a list of importer objects that will be traversed before
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> is checked.  This list is initially empty, but user code can add
+objects to it.  Additional built-in and frozen modules can be imported by an
+object added to this list.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Importer objects must have a single method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module(fullname,</span>
+<span class="pre">path=None)</span></code>.  <em>fullname</em> will be a module or package name, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.core</span></code>.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code> must return a loader object that has a
+single method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module(fullname)</span></code>, that creates and returns the
+corresponding module object.</p>
+<p>Pseudo-code for Python’s new import logic, therefore, looks something like this
+(simplified a bit; see <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> for the full details):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">mp</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meta_path</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fullname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">loader</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fullname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">path</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">hook</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path_hooks</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">importer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hook</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># ImportError, so try the other path hooks</span>
+            <span class="k">pass</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">loader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">importer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fullname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+            <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">loader</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fullname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Not found!</span>
+<span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> - New Import Hooks</dt><dd><p>Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore. Implemented by Just van Rossum.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-305-comma-separated-files">
+<span id="section-pep305"></span><h2>PEP 305: Comma-separated Files<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-305-comma-separated-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data from
+databases and spreadsheets.  Python 2.3 adds a parser for comma-separated files.</p>
+<p>Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Costs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">150</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">3.95</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Read a line and call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line.split(',')</span></code>: what could be simpler? But toss in
+string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="s2">&quot;Costs&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">150</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">200</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">3.95</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s2">&quot;Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a>
+package is much simpler:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span>
+
+<span class="nb">input</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;datafile&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;rb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">reader</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader()</span></code> function takes a number of different options. The field
+separator isn’t limited to the comma and can be changed to any character, and so
+can the quoting and line-ending characters.</p>
+<p>Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and registered;
+currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft Excel. A separate
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.writer" title="csv.writer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv.writer</span></code></a> class will generate comma-separated files from a succession
+of tuples or lists, quoting strings that contain the delimiter.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0305"><strong>PEP 305</strong></a> - CSV File API</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented  by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip
+Montanaro, Cliff Wells.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-307-pickle-enhancements">
+<span id="section-pep307"></span><h2>PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-307-pickle-enhancements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cPickle</span></code> modules received some attention during the
+2.3 development cycle.  In 2.2, new-style classes could be pickled without
+difficulty, but they weren’t pickled very compactly; <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0307"><strong>PEP 307</strong></a> quotes a trivial
+example where a new-style class results in a pickled string three times longer
+than that for a classic class.</p>
+<p>The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.dumps" title="pickle.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.dumps()</span></code></a>
+function has supported a text-or-binary flag  for a long time.  In 2.3, this
+flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer: 0 is the old text-mode pickle
+format, 1 is the old binary format, and now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format.  A
+new constant, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</span></code></a>, can be used to select the
+fanciest protocol available.</p>
+<p>Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation.  2.2’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a>
+provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from being unpickled
+(specifically, a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__safe_for_unpickling__</span></code> attribute), but none of this
+code was ever audited and therefore it’s all been ripped out in 2.3.  You should
+not unpickle untrusted data in any version of Python.</p>
+<p>To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface for
+customizing pickling was added using three special methods:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getstate__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__()</span></code></a>.  Consult
+<span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0307"><strong>PEP 307</strong></a> for the full semantics  of these methods.</p>
+<p>As a way to compress pickles yet further, it’s now possible to use integer codes
+instead of long strings to identify pickled classes. The Python Software
+Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes; there’s also a range of
+codes for private use.  Currently no codes have been specified.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0307"><strong>PEP 307</strong></a> - Extensions to the pickle protocol</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented  by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="extended-slices">
+<span id="section-slices"></span><h2>Extended Slices<a class="headerlink" href="#extended-slices" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional third “step”
+or “stride” argument.  For example, these are all legal Python syntax:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L[1:10:2]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L[:-1:1]</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L[::-1]</span></code>.  This was added to Python at the
+request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses the third argument
+extensively.  However, Python’s built-in list, tuple, and string sequence types
+have never supported this feature, raising a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if you tried it.
+Michael Hudson contributed a patch to fix this shortcoming.</p>
+<p>For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have even
+indexes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse order:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcd&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;ac&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;dcba&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign to or
+delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between assignment to
+extended and regular slices.  Assignment to a regular slice can be used to
+change the length of the sequence:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 2]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 4, 5, 6]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Extended slices aren’t this flexible.  When assigning to an extended slice, the
+list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the same number of
+items as the slice it is replacing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 2, 3]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, -1, 3]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Deletion is more straightforward:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 2, 3]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 3]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>One can also now pass slice objects to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a> methods of the
+built-in sequences:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2, 4]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 2, 4]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice objects
+now have a method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">indices(length)</span></code> which, given the length of a sequence,
+returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop,</span> <span class="pre">step)</span></code> tuple that can be passed directly to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a>. <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">indices()</span></code> handles omitted and out-of-bounds indices in a
+manner consistent with regular slices (and this innocuous phrase hides a welter
+of confusing details!).  The method is intended to be used like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">FakeSeq</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">calc_item</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">item</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="n">indices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">item</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">FakeSeq</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">calc_item</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">indices</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">calc_item</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>From this example you can also see that the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#slice" title="slice"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice</span></code></a> object is
+now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a function.  This is
+consistent with Python 2.2, where <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, etc., underwent
+the same change.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement is now always a keyword, as described in
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#section-generators"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 255: Simple Generators</span></a> of this document.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enumerate()</span></code></a> was added, as described in section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#section-enumerate"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 279: enumerate()</span></a> of this document.</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new constants, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> were added along with the
+built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a> type, as described in section <a class="reference internal" href="#section-bool"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 285: A Boolean Type</span></a> of this
+document.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> type constructor will now return a long integer instead of
+raising an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> when a string or floating-point number is too
+large to fit into an integer.  This can lead to the paradoxical result that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(int(expression),</span> <span class="pre">int)</span></code> is false, but that seems unlikely to cause
+problems in practice.</p></li>
+<li><p>Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as described in
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#section-slices"><span class="std std-ref">Extended Slices</span></a> of this document.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new built-in function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">start=0)</span></code>,  adds up the numeric
+items in the iterable object and returns their sum.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sum()</span></code></a> only accepts
+numbers, meaning that you can’t use it to concatenate a bunch of strings.
+(Contributed by Alex Martelli.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.insert(pos,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code> used to  insert <em>value</em> at the front of the list
+when <em>pos</em> was negative.  The behaviour has now been changed to be consistent
+with slice indexing, so when <em>pos</em> is -1 the value will be inserted before the
+last element, and so forth.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.index(value)</span></code>, which searches for <em>value</em>  within the list and returns
+its index, now takes optional  <em>start</em> and <em>stop</em> arguments to limit the search
+to  only part of the list.</p></li>
+<li><p>Dictionaries have a new method, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop(key[,</span> <span class="pre">*default*])</span></code>, that returns
+the value corresponding to <em>key</em> and removes that key/value pair from the
+dictionary.  If the requested key isn’t present in the dictionary, <em>default</em> is
+returned if it’s specified and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> raised if it isn’t.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">{1: 2}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;stdin&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;stdin&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;pop(): dictionary is empty&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">{}</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s also a new class method,  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.fromkeys(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code>, that
+creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied iterator <em>iterable</em> and
+all values set to <em>value</em>, defaulting to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+<p>Also, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict()</span></code></a> constructor now accepts keyword arguments to simplify
+creating small dictionaries:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">red</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">green</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">black</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;blue&#39;: 2, &#39;black&#39;: 4, &#39;green&#39;: 3, &#39;red&#39;: 1}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Just van Rossum.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#assert"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert</span></code></a> statement no longer checks the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code> flag, so
+you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code>. Running
+Python with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> switch will still generate code that doesn’t
+execute any assertions.</p></li>
+<li><p>Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create new objects
+such as functions, classes, and modules.  (This means that the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> module
+can be deprecated in a future Python version, because you can now use the type
+objects available in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#module-types" title="types: Names for built-in types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types</span></code></a> module.) For example, you can create a new
+module object with the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">types</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">types</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ModuleType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s1">&#39;docstring&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;module &#39;abc&#39; (built-in)&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;docstring&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new warning, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a> was added to indicate features
+which are in the process of being deprecated.  The warning will <em>not</em> be printed
+by default.  To check for use of features that will be deprecated in the future,
+supply <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Walways::PendingDeprecationWarning::</span></code></a> on the command line or
+use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.filterwarnings" title="warnings.filterwarnings"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.filterwarnings()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">&quot;Error</span>
+<span class="pre">occurred&quot;</span></code>, has begun.  Raising a string will now trigger
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as a variable name will now result in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxWarning" title="SyntaxWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxWarning</span></code></a>
+warning.  In a future version of Python, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> may finally become a keyword.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xreadlines()</span></code> method of file objects, introduced in Python 2.1, is no
+longer necessary because files now behave as their own iterator.
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xreadlines()</span></code> was originally introduced as a faster way to loop over all
+the lines in a file, but now you can simply write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">line</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">file_obj</span></code>.
+File objects also have a new read-only <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> attribute that gives the
+encoding used by the file; Unicode strings written to the file will be
+automatically  converted to bytes using the given encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p>The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed, though
+you’ll only notice the difference if you have a really complicated inheritance
+hierarchy.  Classic classes are unaffected by this change.  Python 2.2
+originally used a topological sort of a class’s ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the
+C3 algorithm as described in the paper <a class="reference external" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910">“A Monotonic Superclass Linearization
+for Dylan”</a>. To
+understand the motivation for this change,  read Michele Simionato’s article
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/mro.html">“Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order”</a>, or
+read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html">https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html</a>. Samuele
+Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented the fix by coding the
+C3 algorithm.</p></li>
+<li><p>Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads after
+executing N bytecodes.  The default value for N has been increased from 10 to
+100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded applications by reducing the
+switching overhead.  Some multithreaded applications may suffer slower response
+time, but that’s easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setcheckinterval(N)</span></code>. The limit can be retrieved with the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getcheckinterval" title="sys.getcheckinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getcheckinterval()</span></code></a> function.</p></li>
+<li><p>One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension types defined
+by the modules included with Python now contain the module and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> in
+front of the type name.  For example, in Python 2.2, if you created a socket and
+printed its <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code>, you’d get this output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;type &#39;socket&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In 2.3, you get this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__class__</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;type &#39;_socket.socket&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style classes has been
+removed: you can now assign to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code></a>
+attributes of new-style classes.  There are some restrictions on what can be
+assigned to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code></a> along the lines of those relating to assigning to
+an instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#instance.__class__" title="instance.__class__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code></a> attribute.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="string-changes">
+<h3>String Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#string-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator now works differently for strings. Previously, when
+evaluating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Y</span></code> where <em>X</em> and <em>Y</em> are strings, <em>X</em> could only be a single
+character. That’s now changed; <em>X</em> can be a string of any length, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Y</span></code>
+will return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> if <em>X</em> is a substring of <em>Y</em>.  If <em>X</em> is the empty
+string, the result is always <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;ab&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abcd&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;ad&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abcd&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abcd&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that this doesn’t tell you where the substring starts; if you need that
+information, use the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code> string method.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strip()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstrip()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rstrip()</span></code> string methods now have
+an optional argument for specifying the characters to strip.  The default is
+still to remove all whitespace characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;   abc &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;abc&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;abc&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abc&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;\n&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">u</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u4000\u4001</span><span class="s1">abc</span><span class="se">\u4000</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">u</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u4000</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">u&#39;\u4001abc&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startswith()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endswith()</span></code> string methods now accept negative
+numbers for the <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> parameters.</p></li>
+<li><p>Another new string method is <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zfill()</span></code>, originally a function in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zfill()</span></code> pads a numeric string with zeros on the
+left until it’s the specified width. Note that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator is still more
+flexible and powerful than <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zfill()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;45&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0045&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;12345&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12345&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;goofy&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">zfill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0goofy&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Walter Dörwald.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new type object, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basestring</span></code>, has been added. Both 8-bit strings and
+Unicode strings inherit from this type, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">basestring)</span></code> will
+return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> for either kind of string.  It’s a completely abstract
+type, so you can’t create <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basestring</span></code> instances.</p></li>
+<li><p>Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be garbage-collected in
+the usual way when the only reference to them is from the internal dictionary of
+interned strings.  (Implemented by Oren Tirosh.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h3>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The creation of new-style class instances has been made much faster; they’re
+now faster than classic classes!</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code> method of list objects has been extensively rewritten by Tim
+Peters, and the implementation is significantly faster.</p></li>
+<li><p>Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to an
+implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that scales better than
+the O(n*n) required for the grade-school multiplication algorithm.  (Original
+patch by Christopher A. Craig, and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SET_LINENO</span></code> opcode is now gone.  This may provide a small speed
+increase, depending on your compiler’s idiosyncrasies. See section
+<a class="reference internal" href="#section-other"><span class="std std-ref">Other Changes and Fixes</span></a> for a longer explanation. (Removed by Michael Hudson.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xrange()</span></code> objects now have their own iterator, making <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">xrange(n)</span></code> slightly faster than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">range(n)</span></code>.  (Patch by Raymond
+Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots to improve
+performance, such as inlining a function or removing some code.  (Implemented
+mostly by GvR, but lots of people have contributed single changes.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the  pystone
+benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">
+<h2>New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements and bug
+fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically
+by module name. Consult the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/NEWS</span></code> file in the source tree for a more
+complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module now supports arrays of Unicode characters using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> format character.  Arrays also now support using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code> assignment
+operator to add another array’s contents, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*=</span></code> assignment operator to
+repeat an array. (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code> module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the <a class="reference external" href="http://pybsddb.sourceforge.net">PyBSDDB</a> package, providing a more complete interface
+to the transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.</p>
+<p>The old version of the module has been renamed to  <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb185</span></code> and is no
+longer built automatically; you’ll  have to edit <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code> to enable
+it.  Note that the new <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code> package is intended to be compatible with
+the  old module, so be sure to file bugs if you discover any incompatibilities.
+When upgrading to Python 2.3, if the new interpreter is compiled with a new
+version of  the underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to
+convert your database files to the new version.  You can do this fairly easily
+with the new scripts <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">db2pickle.py</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle2db.py</span></code> which you
+will find in the distribution’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts</span></code> directory.  If you’ve
+already been using the PyBSDDB package and importing it as <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb3</span></code>, you
+will have to change your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statements to import it as <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module is an interface to the bz2 data compression library.
+bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than  corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a>-compressed data. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+module.  See the following section for more details.</p></li>
+<li><p>The Distutils <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code> class now supports an extra constructor
+argument named <em>depends</em> for listing additional source files that an extension
+depends on.  This lets Distutils recompile the module if any of the dependency
+files are modified.  For example, if <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sampmodule.c</span></code> includes the header
+file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample.h</span></code>, you would create the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Extension</span></code> object like
+this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">ext</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;samp&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="n">sources</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;sampmodule.c&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+                <span class="n">depends</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;sample.h&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Modifying <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample.h</span></code> would then cause the module to be recompiled.
+(Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CC</span></code>,
+<span class="target" id="index-25"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS</span></code>, <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CPP</span></code>, <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LDFLAGS</span></code>, and <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CPPFLAGS</span></code>
+environment variables, using them to override the settings in Python’s
+configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).</p></li>
+<li><p>Previously the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module would only search the docstrings of
+public methods and functions for test cases, but it now also examines private
+ones as well.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestSuite()</span></code> function creates a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> object from a set of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> tests.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.get_referents(object)</span></code> function returns a list of all the
+objects referenced by <em>object</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> module gained a new function, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gnu_getopt()</span></code>, that
+supports the same arguments as the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a> function but uses
+GNU-style scanning mode. The existing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code></a> stops processing options as
+soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style mode processing
+continues, meaning that options and arguments can be mixed.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getopt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getopt</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;output&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-v&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;f:v&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">([(&#39;-f&#39;, &#39;filename&#39;)], [&#39;output&#39;, &#39;-v&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getopt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gnu_getopt</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;-f&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;output&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-v&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;f:v&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">([(&#39;-f&#39;, &#39;filename&#39;), (&#39;-v&#39;, &#39;&#39;)], [&#39;output&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Peter Åstrand.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/grp.html#module-grp" title="grp: The group database (getgrnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pwd.html#module-pwd" title="pwd: The password database (getpwnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#module-resource" title="resource: An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource</span></code></a> modules now return enhanced
+tuples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">grp</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">grp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getgrnam</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;amk&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">g</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gr_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">g</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gr_gid</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;amk&#39;, 500)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> module contains an implementation of a heap queue
+algorithm.  A heap is an array-like data structure that keeps items in a
+partially sorted order such that, for every index <em>k</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap[k]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span>
+<span class="pre">heap[2*k+1]</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heap[k]</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">heap[2*k+2]</span></code>.  This makes it quick to remove the
+smallest item, and inserting a new item while maintaining the heap property is
+O(lg n).  (See <a class="reference external" href="https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html">https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html</a> for more
+information about the priority queue data structure.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> module provides <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappush()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappop()</span></code> functions
+for adding and removing items while maintaining the heap property on top of some
+other mutable Python sequence type.  Here’s an example that uses a Python list:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">heapq</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heap</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heappush</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heap</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">item</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heap</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 3, 5, 11, 7]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heappop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heap</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">heappop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heap</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heap</span>
+<span class="go">[5, 7, 11]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Kevin O’Connor.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using the code
+from the IDLEfork project (<a class="reference external" href="http://idlefork.sourceforge.net">http://idlefork.sourceforge.net</a>).  The most notable feature is
+that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess, meaning that
+there’s no longer any need for manual <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code> operations. IDLE’s core code
+has been incorporated into the standard library as the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idlelib</span></code> package.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> module now supports IMAP over SSL. (Contributed by Piers
+Lauder and Tino Lange.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> contains a number of useful functions for use with
+iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the ML and Haskell
+languages.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.ifilter(predicate,</span> <span class="pre">iterator)</span></code> returns all
+elements in the iterator for which the function <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">predicate()</span></code> returns
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.repeat(obj,</span> <span class="pre">N)</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code> <em>N</em> times.
+There are a number of other functions in the module; see the package’s reference
+documentation for details.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">degrees(rads)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">radians(degs)</span></code>, convert between radians and degrees.  Other functions in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.sin" title="math.sin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.sin()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.cos" title="math.cos"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.cos()</span></code></a> have always
+required input values measured in radians.  Also, an optional <em>base</em> argument
+was added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.log" title="math.log"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.log()</span></code></a> to make it easier to compute logarithms for bases
+other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">10</span></code>.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Several new POSIX functions (<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpgid()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">killpg()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lchown()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadavg()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">major()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makedev()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minor()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mknod()</span></code>) were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/posix.html#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a> module that underlies the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and Denis S.
+Otkidach.)</p></li>
+<li><p>In the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module, the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*stat()</span></code> family of functions can now report
+fractions of a second in a timestamp.  Such time stamps are represented as
+floats, similar to the value returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>During testing, it was found that some applications will break if time stamps
+are floats.  For compatibility, when using the tuple interface of the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result</span></code> time stamps will be represented as integers. When using
+named fields (a feature first introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still
+represented as integers, unless <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat_float_times()</span></code> is invoked to enable
+float return values:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;/tmp&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_mtime</span>
+<span class="go">1034791200</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat_float_times</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;/tmp&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">st_mtime</span>
+<span class="go">1034791200.6335014</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.</p>
+<p>Application developers should enable this feature only if all their libraries
+work properly when confronted with floating point time stamps, or if they use
+the tuple API. If used, the feature should be activated on an application level
+instead of trying to enable it on a per-use basis.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> module contains a new parser for command-line arguments
+that can convert option values to a particular Python type  and will
+automatically generate a usage message.  See the following section for  more
+details.</p></li>
+<li><p>The old and never-documented <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linuxaudiodev</span></code> module has been deprecated,
+and a new version named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ossaudiodev.html#module-ossaudiodev" title="ossaudiodev: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (Linux, FreeBSD)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code></a> has been added.  The module was
+renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be used on platforms other than Linux,
+and the interface has also been tidied and brought up to date in various ways.
+(Contributed by Greg Ward and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#module-platform" title="platform: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code></a> module contains a number of functions that try to
+determine various properties of the platform you’re running on.  There are
+functions for getting the architecture, CPU type, the Windows OS version, and
+even the Linux distribution version. (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The parser objects provided by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module can now optionally
+buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to your character data handler
+and therefore faster performance.  Setting the parser object’s
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer_text</span></code> attribute to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> will enable buffering.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample(population,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span></code> function was added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a>
+module.  <em>population</em> is a sequence or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xrange</span></code> object containing the
+elements of a population, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample()</span></code> chooses <em>k</em> elements from the
+population without replacing chosen elements.  <em>k</em> can be any value up to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(population)</span></code>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">days</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Mo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Tu&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;We&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Th&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Fr&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;St&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Sn&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">days</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># Choose 3 elements</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;St&#39;, &#39;Sn&#39;, &#39;Th&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">days</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># Choose 7 elements</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;Tu&#39;, &#39;Th&#39;, &#39;Mo&#39;, &#39;We&#39;, &#39;St&#39;, &#39;Fr&#39;, &#39;Sn&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">days</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># Choose 7 again</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;We&#39;, &#39;Mo&#39;, &#39;Sn&#39;, &#39;Fr&#39;, &#39;Tu&#39;, &#39;St&#39;, &#39;Th&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">days</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># Can&#39;t choose eight</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;random.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">414</span>, in <span class="n">sample</span>
+      <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sample larger than population&quot;</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">sample larger than population</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xrange</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">10000</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Choose ten odd nos. under 10000</span>
+<span class="go">[3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne Twister,
+implemented in C.  It’s faster and more extensively studied than the previous
+algorithm.</p>
+<p>(All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module also gained a number of new functions:
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_history_item()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_current_history_length()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">redisplay()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rexec</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bastion</span></code> modules have been declared dead, and
+attempts to import them will fail with a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>.  New-style classes
+provide new ways to break out of the restricted execution environment provided
+by <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rexec</span></code>, and no one has interest in fixing them or time to do so.  If
+you have applications using <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rexec</span></code>, rewrite them to use something else.</p>
+<p>(Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications any safer
+because there are known bugs in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rexec</span></code> module in those versions.  To
+repeat: if you’re using <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rexec</span></code>, stop using it immediately.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotor</span></code> module has been deprecated because the  algorithm it uses for
+encryption is not believed to be secure.  If you need encryption, use one of the
+several AES Python modules that are available separately.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module gained a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move(src,</span> <span class="pre">dest)</span></code> function that
+recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.</p></li>
+<li><p>Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a>
+but then removed again as it proved impossible to make it work reliably across
+platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module now supports timeouts.  You can call the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">settimeout(t)</span></code> method on a socket object to set a timeout of <em>t</em> seconds.
+Subsequent socket operations that take longer than <em>t</em> seconds to complete will
+abort and raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.timeout" title="socket.timeout"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.timeout</span></code></a> exception.</p>
+<p>The original timeout implementation was by Tim O’Malley.  Michael Gilfix
+integrated it into the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module and shepherded it through a
+lengthy review.  After the code was checked in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts
+of it.  (This is a good example of a collaborative development process in
+action.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>On Windows, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module now ships with Secure  Sockets Layer
+(SSL) support.</p></li>
+<li><p>The value of the C <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON_API_VERSION</span></code> macro is now exposed at the
+Python level as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.api_version</span></code>.  The current exception can be cleared by
+calling the new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_clear()</span></code> function.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module  allows reading from and writing to
+<strong class="program">tar</strong>-format archive files. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#module-textwrap" title="textwrap: Text wrapping and filling"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code></a> module contains functions for wrapping strings
+containing paragraphs of text.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap(text,</span> <span class="pre">width)</span></code> function takes a
+string and returns a list containing the text split into lines of no more than
+the chosen width.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill(text,</span> <span class="pre">width)</span></code> function returns a single
+string, reformatted to fit into lines no longer than the chosen width. (As you
+can guess, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code> is built on top of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap()</span></code>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">textwrap</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">paragraph</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ...&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">paragraph</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&quot;Not a whit, we defy augury: there&#39;s a special providence in&quot;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &quot;the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, &#39;tis not to come; if it&quot;,</span>
+<span class="go"> ...]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">paragraph</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">35</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Not a whit, we defy augury: there&#39;s</span>
+<span class="go">a special providence in the fall of</span>
+<span class="go">a sparrow. If it be now, &#39;tis not</span>
+<span class="go">to come; if it be not to come, it</span>
+<span class="go">will be now; if it be not now, yet</span>
+<span class="go">it will come: the readiness is all.</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module also contains a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code> class that actually implements
+the text wrapping strategy.   Both the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code> class and the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill()</span></code> functions support a number of additional keyword
+arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module’s documentation
+for details. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> modules now have companion modules,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_thread</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dummy_threading.html#module-dummy_threading" title="dummy_threading: Drop-in replacement for the threading module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code></a>, that provide a do-nothing
+implementation of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread</span></code> module’s interface for platforms where
+threads are not supported.  The intention is to simplify thread-aware modules
+(ones that <em>don’t</em> rely on threads to run) by putting the following code at the
+top:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">_threading</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ImportError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">dummy_threading</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">_threading</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_threading</span></code> is used as the module name to make it clear
+that the module being used is not necessarily the actual <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a>
+module. Code can call functions and use classes in <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_threading</span></code> whether or
+not threads are supported, avoiding an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code></a> statement and making the
+code slightly clearer.  This module will not magically make multithreaded code
+run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return or to do
+something will simply hang forever.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> function has long been an annoyance
+because it uses the platform C library’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime()</span></code> implementation, and
+different platforms sometimes have odd bugs.  Brett Cannon contributed a
+portable implementation that’s written in pure Python and should behave
+identically on all platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> module helps measure how long snippets of Python code
+take to execute.  The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit.py</span></code> file can be run directly from the
+command line, or the module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer</span></code> class can be imported and used
+directly.  Here’s a short example that figures out whether it’s faster to
+convert an 8-bit string to Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or
+by using the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode()</span></code> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">timeit</span>
+
+<span class="n">timer1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;unicode(&quot;abc&quot;)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">timer2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">timeit</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Timer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;abc&quot; + u&quot;&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Run three trials</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">timer1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">100000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">timer2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">100000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># On my laptop this outputs:</span>
+<span class="c1"># [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]</span>
+<span class="c1"># [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tix</span></code> module has received various bug fixes and updates for the
+current version of the Tix package.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code> module now works with a thread-enabled  version of Tcl.
+Tcl’s threading model requires that widgets only be accessed from the thread in
+which they’re created; accesses from another thread can cause Tcl to panic.  For
+certain Tcl interfaces, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code> will now automatically avoid this  when a
+widget is accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing it
+to the correct thread, and waiting for the results.  Other interfaces can’t be
+handled automatically but <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code> will now raise an exception on such an
+access so that you can at least find out about the problem.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html">https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html</a> for a more
+detailed explanation of this change.  (Implemented by Martin von Löwis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling Tcl methods through <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code> no longer  returns only strings.
+Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their
+Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter.Tcl_Obj</span></code>
+object if no Python equivalent exists. This behavior can be controlled through
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wantobjects()</span></code> method of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkapp</span></code> objects.</p>
+<p>When using <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code> through the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code> module (as most Tkinter
+applications will), this feature is always activated. It should not cause
+compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always convert string results to
+Python types where possible.</p>
+<p>If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be restored by setting
+the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wantobjects</span></code> variable in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code> module to false before
+creating the first <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkapp</span></code> object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">Tkinter</span>
+<span class="n">Tkinter</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wantobjects</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserDict</span></code> module has a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictMixin</span></code> class which defines
+all dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping
+interface.  This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be
+substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in  the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shelve</span></code></a>
+module.</p>
+<p>Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary interface
+whenever the class defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__" title="object.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">UserDict</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">SeqDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">UserDict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DictMixin</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keylist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">valuelist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keylist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">valuelist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__setitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keylist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">valuelist</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keylist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">valuelist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__delitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keylist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keylist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">valuelist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">keys</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">keylist</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SeqDict</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># See that other dictionary methods are implemented</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;__cmp__&#39;, &#39;__contains__&#39;, &#39;__delitem__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__getitem__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;__init__&#39;, &#39;__iter__&#39;, &#39;__len__&#39;, &#39;__module__&#39;, &#39;__repr__&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;__setitem__&#39;, &#39;clear&#39;, &#39;get&#39;, &#39;has_key&#39;, &#39;items&#39;, &#39;iteritems&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;iterkeys&#39;, &#39;itervalues&#39;, &#39;keylist&#39;, &#39;keys&#39;, &#39;pop&#39;, &#39;popitem&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;setdefault&#39;, &#39;update&#39;, &#39;valuelist&#39;, &#39;values&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The DOM implementation in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> can now generate XML output
+in a particular encoding by providing an optional encoding argument to the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">toxml()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">toprettyxml()</span></code> methods of DOM nodes.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> module now supports an XML-RPC extension for handling nil
+data values such as Python’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  Nil values are always supported on
+unmarshalling an XML-RPC response.  To generate requests containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>,
+you must supply a true value for the <em>allow_none</em> parameter when creating a
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Marshaller</span></code> instance.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code> module allows writing self-documenting XML-RPC
+servers. Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in action.   Pointing the
+Web browser to the RPC server produces pydoc-style documentation; pointing
+xmlrpclib to the server allows invoking the actual methods. (Contributed by
+Brian Quinlan.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491, and 3492)
+has been added. The “idna” encoding can be used to convert between a Unicode
+domain name and the ASCII-compatible encoding (ACE) of that name.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">{}</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">{}</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="sa">u</span><span class="s2">&quot;www.Alliancefrançaise.nu&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;idna&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="s1">&#39;www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module has also been extended to transparently convert
+Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before passing them to the C library.
+Modules that deal with hostnames such as <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a>)
+also support Unicode host names; <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> also sends HTTP <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Host</span></code>
+headers using the ACE version of the domain name.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> supports
+Unicode URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> part of the URL
+is ASCII only.</p>
+<p>To implement this change, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stringprep.html#module-stringprep" title="stringprep: String preparation, as per RFC 3453"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stringprep</span></code></a> module, the  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkstringprep</span></code>
+tool and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">punycode</span></code> encoding have been added.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="date-time-type">
+<h3>Date/Time Type<a class="headerlink" href="#date-time-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module.  The types don’t support different calendars or many
+fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing time.</p>
+<p>The three primary types are: <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code>, representing a day, month, and year;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>,
+which contains all the attributes of both <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>.
+There’s also a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code> class representing differences between two
+points in time, and time zone logic is implemented by classes inheriting from
+the abstract <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code> class.</p>
+<p>You can create instances of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> by either supplying
+keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date(year=1972,</span> <span class="pre">month=10,</span> <span class="pre">day=15)</span></code>, or by using one of a number of
+class methods.  For example, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.today()</span></code> class method returns the
+current local date.</p>
+<p>Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable. There are a
+number of methods for producing formatted strings from objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">now</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">now</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isoformat</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">now</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ctime</span><span class="p">()</span>  <span class="c1"># Only available on date, datetime</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">now</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strftime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;%Y </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> %b&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2002 30 Dec&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code> method allows modifying one or more fields  of a
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance, returning a new instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">year</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2001</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">hour</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result is the
+same as that of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isoformat()</span></code>).  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+instances can be subtracted from each other, and added to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code>
+instances.  The largest missing feature is that there’s no standard library
+support for parsing strings and getting back a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For more information, refer to the module’s reference documentation.
+(Contributed by Tim Peters.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-optparse-module">
+<h3>The optparse Module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-optparse-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> module provides simple parsing of command-line arguments.  The
+new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> module (originally named Optik) provides more elaborate
+command-line parsing that follows the Unix conventions, automatically creates
+the output for <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code>, and can perform different actions for different
+options.</p>
+<p>You start by creating an instance of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code> and telling it what
+your program’s options are.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">optparse</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span>
+
+<span class="n">op</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OptionParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">op</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--input&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;string&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;input&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;set input filename&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">op</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_option</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-l&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--length&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;int&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;length&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+              <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;set maximum length of output&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Parsing a command line is then done by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_args()</span></code> method.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">options</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">op</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:])</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">options</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">args</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list of
+strings containing the remaining arguments.</p>
+<p>Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you’d expect it to.
+Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an integer.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> ./python opt.py -i data arg1
+<span class="go">&lt;Values at 0x400cad4c: {&#39;input&#39;: &#39;data&#39;, &#39;length&#39;: None}&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;arg1&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ./python opt.py --input<span class="o">=</span>data --length<span class="o">=</span><span class="m">4</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Values at 0x400cad2c: {&#39;input&#39;: &#39;data&#39;, &#39;length&#39;: 4}&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The help message is automatically generated for you:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> ./python opt.py --help
+<span class="go">usage: opt.py [options]</span>
+
+<span class="go">options:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help            show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  -iINPUT, --input=INPUT</span>
+<span class="go">                        set input filename</span>
+<span class="go">  -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH</span>
+<span class="go">                        set maximum length of output</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>See the module’s documentation for more details.</p>
+<p>Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the Getopt
+SIG.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pymalloc-a-specialized-object-allocator">
+<span id="section-pymalloc"></span><h2>Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator<a class="headerlink" href="#pymalloc-a-specialized-object-allocator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov, was a
+feature added to Python 2.1.  Pymalloc is intended to be faster than the system
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and to have less memory overhead for allocation patterns typical
+of Python programs. The allocator uses C’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> function to get large
+pools of memory and then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools.</p>
+<p>In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn’t enabled by
+default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by providing the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pymalloc</span></code> option to the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script.  In 2.3,
+pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by default; you’ll have
+to supply <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-pymalloc</span></code> to disable it.</p>
+<p>This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc may
+expose bugs in C extensions.  Authors of C extension modules should test their
+code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may cause core dumps at
+runtime.</p>
+<p>There’s one particularly common error that causes problems.  There are a number
+of memory allocation functions in Python’s C API that have previously just been
+aliases for the C library’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>, meaning that if
+you accidentally called mismatched functions the error wouldn’t be noticeable.
+When the object allocator is enabled, these functions aren’t aliases of
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> any more, and calling the wrong function to
+free memory may get you a core dump.  For example, if memory was allocated using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>, it has to be freed using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Free" title="PyObject_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free()</span></code></a>, not
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.  A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to
+be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same
+problem.</p>
+<p>As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating memory
+have been consolidated down into two API families. Memory allocated with one
+family must not be manipulated with functions from the other family.  There is
+one family for allocating chunks of memory and another family of functions
+specifically for allocating Python objects.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the “raw memory”
+family: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The “object memory” family is the interface to the pymalloc facility described
+above and is biased towards a large number of “small” allocations:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Realloc" title="PyObject_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Realloc()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Free" title="PyObject_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>To allocate and free Python objects, use the “object” family
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_New" title="PyObject_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_New()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_NewVar" title="PyObject_NewVar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_NewVar()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/allocation.html#c.PyObject_Del" title="PyObject_Del"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Del()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides debugging
+features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both extension modules
+and in the interpreter itself.  To enable this support, compile a debugging
+version of the Python interpreter by running <strong class="program">configure</strong> with
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pydebug</span></code>.</p>
+<p>To aid extension writers, a header file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/pymemcompat.h</span></code> is
+distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions to use
+the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against any version of
+Python since 1.5.2.  You would copy the file from Python’s source distribution
+and bundle it with the source of your extension.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c">https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c</a></dt><dd><p>For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the comments at
+the top of the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/obmalloc.c</span></code> in the Python source code.
+The above link points to the file within the python.org SVN browser.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection has proven
+to be stable, so it’s now been made mandatory.  You can no longer compile Python
+without it, and the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-cycle-gc</span></code> switch to <strong class="program">configure</strong> has
+been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>Python can now optionally be built as a shared library
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libpython2.3.so</span></code>) by supplying <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-shared</span></code> when running
+Python’s <strong class="program">configure</strong> script.  (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DL_EXPORT</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DL_IMPORT</span></code> macros are now deprecated.
+Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be declared
+using the new macro <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span></code>, while the Python core will
+generally use the <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyAPI_FUNC</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyAPI_DATA</span></code> macros.</p></li>
+<li><p>The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the built-in
+functions and modules by supplying <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-doc-strings</span></code> to the
+<strong class="program">configure</strong> script. This makes the Python executable about 10% smaller,
+but will also mean that you can’t get help for Python’s built-ins.  (Contributed
+by Gustavo Niemeyer.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_NoArgs()</span></code> macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it
+should be changed.  For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition table can
+specify the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_NOARGS" title="METH_NOARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_NOARGS</span></code></a> flag, signalling that there are no arguments,
+and the argument checking can then be removed.  If compatibility with pre-2.2
+versions of Python is important, the code could use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple(args,</span>
+<span class="pre">&quot;&quot;)</span></code> instead, but this will be slower than using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_NOARGS" title="METH_NOARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_NOARGS</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> accepts new format characters for various sizes of
+unsigned integers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">char</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">H</span></code> for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span>
+<span class="pre">short</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>,  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">I</span></code> for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">int</span></code>,  and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">K</span></code> for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span>
+<span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelItemString(mapping,</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*key)</span></code> was added
+as shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_DelItem(mapping,</span> <span class="pre">PyString_New(key))</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently, increasing
+it exponentially when needed.  This results in the benchmark tests in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_bufio.py</span></code> speeding up considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7
+seconds, according to one measurement).</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s now possible to define class and static methods for a C extension type by
+setting either the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_CLASS" title="METH_CLASS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_CLASS</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_STATIC" title="METH_STATIC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_STATIC</span></code></a> flags in a
+method’s <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMethodDef" title="PyMethodDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMethodDef</span></code></a> structure.</p></li>
+<li><p>Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser’s source code, removing any
+dependence on a system version or local installation of Expat.</p></li>
+<li><p>If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you should be
+aware of a change in the rules relating to the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> attributes.  In summary, you will want to ensure the type’s
+dictionary contains a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'__module__'</span></code> key; making the module name the part of
+the type name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
+effect.  For more detail, read the API reference documentation or the  source.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Support for a port to IBM’s OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was merged
+into the main Python source tree.  EMX is a POSIX emulation layer over the OS/2
+system APIs.  The Python port for EMX tries to support all the POSIX-like
+capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly succeeds; <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/fcntl.html#module-fcntl" title="fcntl: The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code></a> are restricted by the limitations of the underlying emulation
+layer.  The standard OS/2 port, which uses IBM’s Visual Age compiler, also
+gained support for case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of
+the EMX port into CVS.  (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)</p>
+<p>On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward
+compatibility.  This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a single
+routine is missing on the current OS version. Instead calling the missing
+routine will raise an exception. (Contributed by Jack Jansen.)</p>
+<p>The RPM spec files, found in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/RPM/</span></code> directory in the Python
+source distribution, were updated for 2.3.  (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)</p>
+<p>Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
+(<a class="reference external" href="http://www.atheos.cx/">http://www.atheos.cx/</a>), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-changes-and-fixes">
+<span id="section-other"></span><h2>Other Changes and Fixes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-changes-and-fixes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
+throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds there
+were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between Python 2.2 and 2.3.  Both
+figures are likely to be underestimates.</p>
+<p>Some of the more notable changes are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>If the <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONINSPECT"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONINSPECT</span></code></a> environment variable is set, the Python
+interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running a Python program, as
+if Python had been invoked with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-i"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code></a> option. The environment
+variable can be set before running the Python interpreter, or it can be set by
+the Python program as part of its execution.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regrtest.py</span></code> script now provides a way to allow “all resources
+except <em>foo</em>.”  A resource name passed to the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-u</span></code> option can now be
+prefixed with a hyphen (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code>) to mean “remove this resource.”  For example,
+the option ‘<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-uall,-bsddb</span></code>’ could be used to enable the use of all resources
+except <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as well as
+Unix.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SET_LINENO</span></code> opcode has been removed.  Back in the mists of time, this
+opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks and support trace
+functions (for, e.g., <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a>). Since Python 1.5, the line numbers in
+tracebacks have been computed using a different mechanism that works with
+“python -O”.  For Python 2.3 Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to
+determine when to call the trace function, removing the need for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SET_LINENO</span></code>
+entirely.</p>
+<p>It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from Python code, apart
+from a slight speed up when Python is run without <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>C extensions that access the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_lineno</span></code> field of frame objects should
+instead call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCode_Addr2Line(f-&gt;f_code,</span> <span class="pre">f-&gt;f_lasti)</span></code>. This will have the
+added effect of making the code work as desired under “python -O” in earlier
+versions of Python.</p>
+<p>A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_lineno</span></code> attribute of frame objects, changing the line that will be
+executed next.  A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">jump</span></code> command has been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> debugger
+taking advantage of this new feature. (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-2-3">
+<h2>Porting to Python 2.3<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-2-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your
+code:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> is now always a keyword; if it’s used as a variable name in
+your code, a different name must be chosen.</p></li>
+<li><p>For strings <em>X</em> and <em>Y</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Y</span></code> now works if <em>X</em> is more than one
+character long.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> type constructor will now return a long integer instead of
+raising an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> when a string or floating-point number is too
+large to fit into an integer.</p></li>
+<li><p>If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must declare
+the file’s encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding a comment to the top
+of the file.  See section <a class="reference internal" href="#section-encodings"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 263: Source Code Encodings</span></a> for more information.</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling Tcl methods through <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code> no longer  returns only strings.
+Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their
+Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter.Tcl_Obj</span></code>
+object if no Python equivalent exists.</p></li>
+<li><p>Large octal and hex literals such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xffffffff</span></code> now trigger a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a>. Currently they’re stored as 32-bit numbers and result in a
+negative value, but in Python 2.4 they’ll become positive long integers.</p>
+<p>There are a few ways to fix this warning.  If you really need a positive number,
+just add an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code> to the end of the literal.  If you’re trying to get a 32-bit
+integer with low bits set and have previously used an expression such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~(1</span>
+<span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="pre">31)</span></code>, it’s probably clearest to start with all bits set and clear the
+desired upper bits. For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could
+write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xffffffffL</span> <span class="pre">&amp;~(1L&lt;&lt;31)</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The Distutils <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code> function has gained various new keyword arguments
+such as <em>depends</em>.  Old versions of the Distutils will abort if passed unknown
+keywords.  A solution is to check for the presence of the new
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_distutil_options()</span></code> function in your <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> and only uses the
+new keywords with a version of the Distutils that supports them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">core</span>
+
+<span class="n">kw</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;sources&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;foo.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">core</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;get_distutil_options&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;depends&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo.h&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">ext</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as a variable name will now result in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxWarning" title="SyntaxWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxWarning</span></code></a>
+warning.</p></li>
+<li><p>Names of extension types defined by the modules included with Python now
+contain the module and a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code> in front of the type name.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<span id="acks"></span><h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Jeff Bauer,
+Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside, Andrew Dalke, Scott David
+Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser,  Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger,
+Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew
+MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer, Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans
+Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman
+Suzi, Jason Tishler, Just van Rossum.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-218-a-standard-set-datatype">PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-255-simple-generators">PEP 255: Simple Generators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-263-source-code-encodings">PEP 263: Source Code Encodings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives">PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt">PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-278-universal-newline-support">PEP 278: Universal Newline Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-279-enumerate">PEP 279: enumerate()</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-282-the-logging-package">PEP 282: The logging Package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-285-a-boolean-type">PEP 285: A Boolean Type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks">PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-301-package-index-and-metadata-for-distutils">PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-302-new-import-hooks">PEP 302: New Import Hooks</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-305-comma-separated-files">PEP 305: Comma-separated Files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-307-pickle-enhancements">PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#extended-slices">Extended Slices</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-changes">String Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#date-time-type">Date/Time Type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-optparse-module">The optparse Module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pymalloc-a-specialized-object-allocator">Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes">Port-Specific Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-2-3">Porting to Python 2.3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.4.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.4</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.2.html"
+                        title="next chapter">What’s New in Python 2.2</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.4.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.4.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d167c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/2.4.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1570 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>What’s New in Python 2.4 &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
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+        <li class="right" >
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+                 style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-4">
+<h1>What’s New in Python 2.4<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on March 30,
+2005.</p>
+<p>Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release.  It doesn’t introduce as many changes as
+the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the conservative 2.3
+release.  The most significant new language features are function decorators and
+generator expressions; most other changes are to the standard library.</p>
+<p>According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502 bugs
+fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4.  Both figures are likely to be underestimates.</p>
+<p>This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of every single
+new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to each feature.  For
+full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.4, such as the
+Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  Often you will be
+referred to the PEP for a particular new feature for explanations of the
+implementation and design rationale.</p>
+<div class="section" id="pep-218-built-in-set-objects">
+<h2>PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-218-built-in-set-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 2.3 introduced the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sets</span></code> module.  C implementations of set data
+types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set(iterable)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset(iterable)</span></code>.  They provide high speed
+operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from sequences,
+and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections, differences, and
+symmetric differences.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>              <span class="c1"># form a set from a string</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">a</span>                            <span class="c1"># fast membership testing</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>                                   <span class="c1"># unique letters in a</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;a&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>                          <span class="c1"># convert back into a string</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;arbcd&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;alacazam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                 <span class="c1"># form a second set</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">b</span>                               <span class="c1"># letters in a but not in b</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;b&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">b</span>                               <span class="c1"># letters in either a or b</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;a&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;m&#39;, &#39;z&#39;, &#39;l&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">b</span>                               <span class="c1"># letters in both a and b</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;a&#39;, &#39;c&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">^</span> <span class="n">b</span>                               <span class="c1"># letters in a or b but not both</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;r&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;m&#39;, &#39;z&#39;, &#39;l&#39;])</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                          <span class="c1"># add a new element</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;wxy&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                     <span class="c1"># add multiple new elements</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;a&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;w&#39;, &#39;y&#39;, &#39;x&#39;, &#39;z&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                       <span class="c1"># take one element out</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;a&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;w&#39;, &#39;y&#39;, &#39;z&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset()</span></code></a> type is an immutable version of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a>. Since it is
+immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary key or as a member of
+another set.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sets</span></code> module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if you
+wish to subclass the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Set</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImmutableSet</span></code> classes.  There are
+currently no plans to deprecate the module.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0218"><strong>PEP 218</strong></a> - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type</dt><dd><p>Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by Raymond
+Hettinger.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">
+<h2>PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes another
+step forward in Python 2.4.  In 2.3, certain integer operations that would
+behave differently after int/long unification triggered <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a>
+warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64 bits (depending on your
+platform).  In 2.4, these expressions no longer produce a warning and instead
+produce a different result that’s usually a long integer.</p>
+<p>The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy hexadecimal
+and octal constants.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="pre">32</span></code> results in a warning in 2.3,
+evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms.  In Python 2.4, this expression now returns
+the correct answer, 8589934592.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0237"><strong>PEP 237</strong></a> - Unifying Long Integers and Integers</dt><dd><p>Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR.  The changes for 2.4 were
+implemented by  Kalle Svensson.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-289-generator-expressions">
+<h2>PEP 289: Generator Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-289-generator-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module
+make it easier to write programs that loop through large data sets without
+having the entire data set in memory at one time.  List comprehensions don’t fit
+into this picture very well because they produce a Python list object containing
+all of the items.  This unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which
+can be a problem if your data set is very large.  When trying to write a
+functionally-styled program, it would be natural to write something like:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">links</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">link</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">link</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">get_all_links</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">link</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">followed</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">link</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">links</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>instead of</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">link</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">get_all_links</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">link</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">followed</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you’re dealing
+with a large number of link objects you’d have to write the second form to avoid
+having all link objects in memory at the same time.</p>
+<p>Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don’t
+materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will return
+elements one by one.  The above example could be written as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">links</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">link</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">link</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">get_all_links</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">link</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">followed</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">link</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">links</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as in the
+above example.  The parentheses signalling a function call also count, so if you
+want to create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you
+could write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">obj</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">list_all_objects</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small ways.
+Most notably, the loop variable (<em>obj</em> in the above example) is not accessible
+outside of the generator expression.  List comprehensions leave the variable
+assigned to its last value; future versions of Python will change this, making
+list comprehensions match generator expressions in this respect.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0289"><strong>PEP 289</strong></a> - Generator Expressions</dt><dd><p>Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with early efforts
+steered by Hye-Shik Chang.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-292-simpler-string-substitutions">
+<h2>PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-292-simpler-string-substitutions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative mechanism for
+substituting variables into strings; this style of substitution may be better
+for applications where untrained users need to edit templates.</p>
+<p>The usual way of substituting variables by name is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(page)i</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">%(title)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;page&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;title&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;The Best of Times&#39;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2: The Best of Times&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code>
+after the closing parenthesis.  This isn’t a big problem if the template is in a
+Python module, because you run the code, get an “Unsupported format character”
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>, and fix the problem.  However, consider an application such
+as Mailman where template strings or translations are being edited by users who
+aren’t aware of the Python language.  The format string’s syntax is complicated
+to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it’s difficult to provide
+helpful feedback to them.</p>
+<p>PEP 292 adds a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Template</span></code> class to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module that uses
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> to indicate a substitution:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">string</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;$page: $title&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">substitute</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;page&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;title&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;The Best of Times&#39;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2: The Best of Times&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a key is missing from the dictionary, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">substitute()</span></code> method will
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>.  There’s also a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">safe_substitute()</span></code> method that
+ignores missing keys:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Template</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;$page: $title&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">safe_substitute</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;page&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3: $title&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0292"><strong>PEP 292</strong></a> - Simpler String Substitutions</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented  by Barry Warsaw.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-318-decorators-for-functions-and-methods">
+<h2>PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-318-decorators-for-functions-and-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 2.2 extended Python’s object model by adding static methods and class
+methods, but it didn’t extend Python’s syntax to provide any new way of defining
+static or class methods.  Instead, you had to write a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span></code></a> statement
+in the usual way, and pass the resulting method to a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> function that would wrap up the function as a method of the
+new type. Your code would look like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+       <span class="o">...</span>
+
+   <span class="n">meth</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">classmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Rebind name to wrapped-up class method</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> invocation after the function body.</p>
+<p>The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions more
+readable, but at the time of 2.2’s release a good syntax was not obvious.  Today
+a good syntax <em>still</em> isn’t obvious but users are asking for easier access to
+the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added to meet this need.</p>
+<p>The new feature is called “function decorators”.  The name comes from the idea
+that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a>, and friends are storing
+additional information on a function object; they’re <em>decorating</em> functions with
+more details.</p>
+<p>The notation borrows from Java and uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&#64;'</span></code> character as an indicator.
+Using the new syntax, the example above would be written:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+
+   <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+   <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">):</span>
+       <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;classmethod</span></code> is shorthand for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">meth=classmethod(meth)</span></code> assignment.
+More generally, if you have the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@A</span>
+<span class="nd">@B</span>
+<span class="nd">@C</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span> <span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s equivalent to the following pre-decorator code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">B</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one decorator per
+line, and can’t be on the same line as the def statement, meaning that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;A</span> <span class="pre">def</span>
+<span class="pre">f():</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> is illegal.  You can only decorate function definitions, either at
+the module level or inside a class; you can’t decorate class definitions.</p>
+<p>A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated as an
+argument and returns either the same function or some new object.  The return
+value of the decorator need not be callable (though it typically is), unless
+further decorators will be applied to the result.  It’s easy to write your own
+decorators.  The following simple example just sets an attribute on the function
+object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">deco</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;decorated&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">func</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@deco</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;function f at 0x402ef0d4&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attr</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;decorated&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks that the
+supplied argument is an integer:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">require_int</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wrapper</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">wrapper</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@require_int</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">p1</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">arg</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@require_int</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">p2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An example in <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0318"><strong>PEP 318</strong></a> contains a fancier version of this idea that lets you
+both specify the required type and check the returned type.</p>
+<p>Decorator functions can take arguments.  If arguments are supplied, your
+decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a new
+decorator function; this function must take a single function and return a
+function, as previously described.  In other words, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;A</span> <span class="pre">&#64;B</span> <span class="pre">&#64;C(args)</span></code> becomes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">_deco</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">B</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_deco</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it’s not too difficult.</p>
+<p>A small related change makes the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_name</span></code> attribute of functions
+writable.  This attribute is used to display function names in tracebacks, so
+decorators should change the name of any new function that’s constructed and
+returned.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0318"><strong>PEP 318</strong></a> - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes</dt><dd><p>Written  by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro.  Several people
+wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one that was actually
+checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark Russell.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary">https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary</a></dt><dd><p>This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-322-reverse-iteration">
+<h2>PEP 322: Reverse Iteration<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-322-reverse-iteration" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new built-in function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed(seq)</span></code>, takes a sequence and returns an
+iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence  in reverse order.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xrange</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Compared to extended slicing, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range(1,4)[::-1]</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> is
+easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially less memory.</p>
+<p>Note that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> only accepts sequences, not arbitrary iterators.  If
+you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to  a list with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">input</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh</span>
+<span class="go">  ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0322"><strong>PEP 322</strong></a> - Reverse Iteration</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-324-new-subprocess-module">
+<h2>PEP 324: New subprocess Module<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-324-new-subprocess-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess, offering
+different features and different levels of complexity.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system(command)</span></code> is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process
+which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about escaping
+the shell’s metacharacters).  The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2</span></code> module offers classes that can
+capture standard output and standard error from the subprocess, but the naming
+is confusing.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module cleans  this up, providing a unified
+interface that offers all the features you might need.</p>
+<p>Instead of <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2</span></code>’s collection of classes, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> contains a
+single class called <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code>  whose constructor supports a number of
+different keyword arguments.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Popen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">bufsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">executable</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stderr</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="n">preexec_fn</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">close_fds</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="n">cwd</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">env</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">universal_newlines</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="n">startupinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">creationflags</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><em>args</em> is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to the
+program executed as the subprocess.  (If the <em>shell</em> argument is true, <em>args</em>
+can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell for interpretation,
+just as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a> does.)</p>
+<p><em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em>, and <em>stderr</em> specify what the subprocess’s input, output, and
+error streams will be.  You can provide a file object or a file descriptor, or
+you can use the constant <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.PIPE</span></code> to create a pipe between the
+subprocess and the parent.</p>
+<p id="index-7">The constructor has a number of handy options:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>close_fds</em> requests that all file descriptors be closed before running the
+subprocess.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>cwd</em> specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will be executed
+(defaulting to whatever the parent’s working directory is).</p></li>
+<li><p><em>env</em> is a dictionary specifying environment variables.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>preexec_fn</em> is a function that gets called before the child is started.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>universal_newlines</em> opens the child’s input and output using Python’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> feature.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Once you’ve created the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code> instance,  you can call its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code>
+method to pause until the subprocess has exited, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code> to check if it’s
+exited without pausing,  or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate(data)</span></code> to send the string <em>data</em>
+to the subprocess’s standard input.   <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">communicate(data)</span></code>  then reads any
+data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output  or standard error,
+returning a tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(stdout_data,</span> <span class="pre">stderr_data)</span></code>.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">call()</span></code> is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code>
+constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status code of
+the subprocess.  It can serve as a safer analog to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.system" title="os.system"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.system()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;dpkg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/new-package.deb&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Success</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># dpkg returned an error</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The command is invoked without use of the shell.  If you really do want to  use
+the shell, you can add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shell=True</span></code> as a keyword argument and provide a string
+instead of a sequence:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how they’d be
+translated into Python code that uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a>.  Reading this section
+of the PEP is highly recommended.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0324"><strong>PEP 324</strong></a> - subprocess - New process module</dt><dd><p>Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from Fredrik Lundh and
+others.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-327-decimal-data-type">
+<h2>PEP 327: Decimal Data Type<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-327-decimal-data-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the underlying
+C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> type, as a data type.  However, while most programming
+languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even programmers) are
+unaware that floating-point numbers don’t represent certain decimal fractions
+accurately.  The new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> type can represent these fractions
+accurately, up to a user-specified precision limit.</p>
+<div class="section" id="why-is-decimal-needed">
+<h3>Why is Decimal needed?<a class="headerlink" href="#why-is-decimal-needed" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point numbers.
+FP numbers are made up of three components:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The sign, which is positive or negative.</p></li>
+<li><p>The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number   followed by a fractional
+part.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.01</span></code> in base-2 notation is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">0/2</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">1/4</span></code>, or 1.25 in
+decimal notation.</p></li>
+<li><p>The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the number
+represented.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01 (in
+binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn’t need to be shifted).
+The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent is 2 because the
+mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals
+5.</p>
+<p>Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a
+standard called IEEE 754.  C’s <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> type is usually implemented as a
+64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa.  This
+means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision.  If you’re
+trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly, the expansion is
+cut off after 52 bits. Unfortunately, most software needs to produce output in
+base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are often repeating decimals in binary.
+For example, 1.1 decimal is binary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0001100110011</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 +
+1/256 plus an infinite number of additional terms.  IEEE 754 has to chop off
+that infinitely repeated decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is
+slightly inaccurate.</p>
+<p>Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mf">1.1</span>
+<span class="go">1.1000000000000001</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The inaccuracy isn’t always visible when you print the number because the
+FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and most C libraries try
+to produce sensible output.  Even if it’s not displayed, however, the inaccuracy
+is still there and subsequent operations can magnify the error.</p>
+<p>For many applications this doesn’t matter.  If I’m plotting points and
+displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and 1.1000000000000001
+is too small to be visible.  Reports often limit output to a certain number of
+decimal places, and if you round the number to two or three or even eight
+decimal places, the error is never apparent.  However, for applications where it
+does matter,  it’s a lot of work to implement your own custom arithmetic
+routines.</p>
+<p>Hence, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> type was created.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-decimal-type">
+<h3>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> type<a class="headerlink" href="#the-decimal-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a>, was added to Python’s standard library.  It
+contains two classes, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code>.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code>
+instances represent numbers, and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code> instances are used to wrap up
+various settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
+numbers; once it’s been created, you can’t change the value an instance
+represents.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> instances can be created from integers or
+strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1972</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;1972&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;1.1&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;1.1&quot;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa represented  as a
+tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;-14.75&quot;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1 is
+negative.</p>
+<p>Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should the FP
+number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly 1.1, or for 1.1
+plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced? The decision was to dodge the issue
+and leave such a conversion out of the API.  Instead, you should convert the
+floating-point number into a string using the desired precision and pass the
+string to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> constructor:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">1.1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;1.1&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%.12f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;1.100000000000&quot;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once you have <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> instances, you can perform the usual mathematical
+operations on them.  One limitation: exponentiation requires an integer
+exponent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;35.72&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.73&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;37.45&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;33.99&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;61.7956&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;20.64739884393063583815028902&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">**</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;1275.9184&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">decimal.InvalidOperation</span>: <span class="n">x ** (non-integer)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can combine <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> instances with integers, but not with
+floating-point numbers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;39.72&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mf">4.5</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> numbers can be used with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a>
+modules, but note that they’ll be immediately converted to  floating-point
+numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a possible loss of
+precision and accuracy.  You’ll also get back a regular floating-point number
+and not a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">cmath</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;123456789012.345&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">351364.18288201344</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cmath</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">351364.18288201344j</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> instances have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqrt()</span></code> method that returns a
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code>, but if you need other things such as trigonometric functions
+you’ll have to implement them.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;351364.1828820134592177245001&quot;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-context-type">
+<h3>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code> type<a class="headerlink" href="#the-context-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Instances of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code> class encapsulate several settings for
+decimal operations:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prec</span></code> is the precision, the number of decimal places.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rounding</span></code> specifies the rounding mode.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module has
+constants for the various possibilities: <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_DOWN</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_CEILING</span></code>,  <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ROUND_HALF_EVEN</span></code>, and various others.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traps</span></code> is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering certain
+error conditions: either  an exception is raised or  a value is returned.  Some
+examples of error conditions are division by zero, loss of precision, and
+overflow.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There’s a thread-local default context available by calling <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcontext()</span></code>;
+you can change the properties of this context to alter the default precision,
+rounding, or trap handling.  The following example shows the effect of changing
+the precision of the default context:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span>
+<span class="go">28</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;0.1428571428571428571428571429&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">prec</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">9</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;0.142857143&quot;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can either
+return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or exceptions can be
+raised:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">decimal.DivisionByZero</span>: <span class="n">x / 0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getcontext</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">traps</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DivisionByZero</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;Infinity&quot;)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code> instance also has various methods for formatting  numbers
+such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">to_eng_string()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">to_sci_string()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>For more information, see the documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module, which
+includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0327"><strong>PEP 327</strong></a> - Decimal Data Type</dt><dd><p>Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric Price,
+Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.lahey.com/float.htm">http://www.lahey.com/float.htm</a></dt><dd><p>The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems that
+floating-point inaccuracy can cause.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://speleotrove.com/decimal/">http://speleotrove.com/decimal/</a></dt><dd><p>A description of a decimal-based representation.  This representation is being
+proposed as a standard, and underlies the new Python decimal type.  Much of this
+material was written by Mike Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-328-multi-line-imports">
+<h2>PEP 328: Multi-line Imports<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-328-multi-line-imports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier to
+import many names from a module.  In a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">names</span></code> statement,
+<em>names</em> is a sequence of names separated by commas.  If the sequence is  very
+long, you can either write multiple imports from the same module, or you can use
+backslashes to escape the line endings like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">,</span>\
+            <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span><span class="p">,</span>\
+            <span class="n">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span><span class="p">,</span>\
+            <span class="n">resolve_dotted_attribute</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names within
+parentheses.  Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized expression, so the
+backslashes are no longer needed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                <span class="n">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                <span class="n">CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                <span class="n">resolve_dotted_attribute</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The PEP also proposes that all <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements be absolute imports,
+with a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> character to indicate a relative import.  This part of the
+PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was completed for Python 2.5.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a> - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative</dt><dd><p>Written by Aahz.  Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima Dorfman.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-331-locale-independent-float-string-conversions">
+<h2>PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-331-locale-independent-float-string-conversions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> modules lets Python software select various conversions and
+display conventions that are localized to a particular country or language.
+However, the module was careful to not change the numeric locale because various
+functions in Python’s implementation required that the numeric locale remain set
+to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'C'</span></code> locale.  Often this was because the code was using the C
+library’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atof()</span></code> function.</p>
+<p>Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used third-party
+C libraries, however, because they wouldn’t have the correct locale set.
+The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface widgets weren’t displaying
+numbers in the current locale.</p>
+<p>The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the Python
+API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale setting:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_strtod(str,</span> <span class="pre">ptr)</span></code>  and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_atof(str,</span> <span class="pre">ptr)</span></code>
+both convert a string to a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer,</span> <span class="pre">buf_len,</span> <span class="pre">format,</span> <span class="pre">d)</span></code> converts a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">double</span></code> to an ASCII string.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The code for these functions came from the GLib library
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://developer.gnome.org/glib/stable/">https://developer.gnome.org/glib/stable/</a>), whose developers kindly
+relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python Software
+Foundation.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module  can now change the numeric locale,
+letting extensions such as GTK+  produce the correct results.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0331"><strong>PEP 331</strong></a> - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions</dt><dd><p>Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python language.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Decorators for functions and methods were added (<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0318"><strong>PEP 318</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset()</span></code></a> types were  added (<span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0218"><strong>PEP 218</strong></a>).
+Other new built-ins include the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed(seq)</span></code> function (<span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0322"><strong>PEP 322</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Generator expressions were added (<span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0289"><strong>PEP 289</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to 32 or 64
+bits (<span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0237"><strong>PEP 237</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span>
+<span class="pre">names</span></code> statement (<span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.update()</span></code></a> method now accepts the same argument forms as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> constructor.  This includes any mapping, any iterable of key/value
+pairs, and keyword arguments. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The string methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ljust()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rjust()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">center()</span></code> now take
+an optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a space.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Strings also gained an <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code> method that works like the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code>
+method but splits from the end of the string.   (Contributed by Sean
+Reifschneider.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;www&#39;, &#39;python.org&#39;]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;www.python.org&#39;.rsplit(&#39;.&#39;, 1)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;www.python&#39;, &#39;org&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Three keyword parameters, <em>cmp</em>, <em>key</em>, and <em>reverse</em>, were added to the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code> method of lists. These parameters make some common usages of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code> simpler. All of these parameters are optional.</p>
+<p>For the <em>cmp</em> parameter, the value should be a comparison function that takes
+two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how the parameters compare.
+This function will then be used to sort the list.  Previously this was the only
+parameter that could be provided to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><em>key</em> should be a single-parameter function that takes a list element and
+returns a comparison key for the element.  The list is then sorted using the
+comparison keys.  The following example sorts a list case-insensitively:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;A&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;D&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">()</span>                 <span class="c1"># Case-sensitive sort</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;A&#39;, &#39;D&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Using &#39;key&#39; parameter to sort list</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;A&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;D&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Old-fashioned way</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">cmp</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">cmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;A&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;D&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The last example, which uses the <em>cmp</em> parameter, is the old way to perform a
+case-insensitive sort.  It works but is slower than using a <em>key</em> parameter.
+Using <em>key</em> calls <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lower()</span></code> method once for each element in the list while
+using <em>cmp</em> will call it twice for each comparison, so using <em>key</em> saves on
+invocations of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lower()</span></code> method.</p>
+<p>For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often possible to avoid
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a> expression by using an unbound method instead.  For example,
+the above case-insensitive sort is best written as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;A&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;D&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, the <em>reverse</em> parameter takes a Boolean value.  If the value is true,
+the list will be sorted into reverse order. Instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L.sort();</span>
+<span class="pre">L.reverse()</span></code>, you can now write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L.sort(reverse=True)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable.  This means that two
+entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order as they were input.
+For example, you can sort a list of people by name, and then sort the list by
+age, resulting in a list sorted by age where people with the same age are in
+name-sorted order.</p>
+<p>(All changes to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code> contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>There is a new built-in function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted(iterable)</span></code> that works like the
+in-place <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> method but can be used in expressions.  The
+differences are:</p></li>
+<li><p>the input may be any iterable;</p></li>
+<li><p>a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and</p></li>
+<li><p>the expression returns the new sorted copy</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)]</span>       <span class="c1"># usable in a list comprehension</span>
+<span class="go">[11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span>                               <span class="c1"># original is left unchanged</span>
+<span class="go">[9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Monty Python&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>          <span class="c1"># any iterable may be an input</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39; &#39;, &#39;M&#39;, &#39;P&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;n&#39;, &#39;n&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;t&#39;, &#39;t&#39;, &#39;y&#39;, &#39;y&#39;]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># List the contents of a dict sorted by key values</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">colormap</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">red</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">blue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">green</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">black</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">yellow</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">colormap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iteritems</span><span class="p">()):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">black 4</span>
+<span class="go">blue 2</span>
+<span class="go">green 3</span>
+<span class="go">red 1</span>
+<span class="go">yellow 5</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Integer operations will no longer trigger an <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowWarning</span></code>. The
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowWarning</span></code> warning will disappear in Python 2.5.</p></li>
+<li><p>The interpreter gained a new switch, <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a>, that takes a name, searches
+for the corresponding  module on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, and runs the module as a script.
+For example,  you can now run the Python profiler with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">profile</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval(expr,</span> <span class="pre">globals,</span> <span class="pre">locals)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execfile(filename,</span> <span class="pre">globals,</span>
+<span class="pre">locals)</span></code> functions and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec</span></code> statement now accept any mapping type
+for the <em>locals</em> parameter.  Previously this had to be a regular Python
+dictionary.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> built-in function and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.izip()</span></code> now return an
+empty list if called with no arguments. Previously they raised a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception.  This makes them more suitable for use with variable
+length argument lists:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">transpose</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">zip</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">transpose</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">transpose</span><span class="p">([])</span>
+<span class="go">[]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a partially-initialized
+module object in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>.  The incomplete module object left
+behind would fool further imports of the same module into succeeding, leading to
+confusing errors.   (Fixed by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> is now a constant; code that binds a new value to  the name
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is now a syntax error. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h3>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now run about
+one-third faster.  The inner loops for dictionaries were also optimized,
+resulting in performance boosts for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterkeys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itervalues()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iteritems()</span></code>. (Contributed by
+Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for speed and for
+space efficiency.  Appending and popping from lists now runs faster due to more
+efficient code paths and less frequent use of the underlying system
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">realloc()</span></code>.  List comprehensions also benefit.   <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.extend()</span></code> was
+also optimized and no longer converts its argument into a temporary list before
+extending the base list.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> now
+run several times faster with non-sequence arguments that supply a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></code></a> method.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.__getitem__()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.__getitem__()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.__contains__()</span></code> are now implemented as <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method_descriptor</span></code>
+objects rather than <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapper_descriptor</span></code> objects.  This form of  access
+doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for use as arguments to
+functionals: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(mydict.__getitem__,</span> <span class="pre">keylist)</span></code>. (Contributed by Raymond
+Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Added a new opcode, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIST_APPEND</span></code>, that simplifies the generated bytecode
+for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a third.  (Contributed by
+Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to  produce shorter, faster
+bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is  more readable.  (Enhanced by
+Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>String concatenations in statements of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">&quot;abc&quot;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">+=</span>
+<span class="pre">&quot;abc&quot;</span></code> are now performed more efficiently in certain circumstances.  This
+optimization won’t be present in other Python implementations such as Jython, so
+you shouldn’t rely on it; using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code> method of strings is still
+recommended when you want to efficiently glue a large number of strings
+together. (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the pystone
+benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than Python 2.2.
+(pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it’s the most commonly used
+measurement of Python’s performance.  Your own applications may show greater or
+smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">
+<h2>New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements and bug
+fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically
+by module name. Consult the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/NEWS</span></code> file in the source tree for a more
+complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop()</span></code> function now has a <em>count</em> parameter
+that lets you perform a limited number of passes through the polling loop.  The
+default is still to loop forever.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a> module now has more complete <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3548.html"><strong>RFC 3548</strong></a> support for Base64,
+Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding, including optional case folding and
+optional alternative alphabets. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bisect.html#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code></a> module now has an underlying C implementation for improved
+performance. (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by Hye-Shik Chang,
+was integrated into 2.4.   The new encodings are:</p></li>
+<li><p>Chinese (PRC): gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz</p></li>
+<li><p>Chinese (ROC): big5, cp950</p></li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt>Japanese: cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp,</dt><dd><p>iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-2004,
+shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><p>Korean: cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr</p></li>
+<li><p>Some other new encodings were added: HP Roman8,  ISO_8859-11, ISO_8859-16,
+PCTP-154, and TIS-620.</p></li>
+<li><p>The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial input.
+Previously the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader</span></code> class would try to read more data, making
+it impossible to resume decoding from the stream.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> method will
+now return as much data as it can and future calls will resume decoding where
+previous ones left off.  (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)</p></li>
+<li><p>There is a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module for  various specialized collection
+datatypes.  Currently it contains just one type, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code>, a double-ended
+queue that supports efficiently adding and removing elements from either
+end:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deque</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ghi&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>        <span class="c1"># make a new deque with three items</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;j&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>           <span class="c1"># add a new entry to the right side</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">appendleft</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># add a new entry to the left side</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>                       <span class="c1"># show the representation of the deque</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;j&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">()</span>                 <span class="c1"># return and remove the rightmost item</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;j&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popleft</span><span class="p">()</span>             <span class="c1"># return and remove the leftmost item</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;f&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>                 <span class="c1"># list the contents of the deque</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;g&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;i&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;h&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">d</span>                <span class="c1"># search the deque</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Several modules, such as the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> modules, now take
+advantage of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a> for improved performance.  (Contributed
+by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> classes have been enhanced slightly. The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>
+method now returns a list of the files that were successfully parsed, and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> method raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if passed a <em>value</em> argument that
+isn’t a string.   (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module now supports the ncurses extension
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">use_default_colors()</span></code>.  On platforms where the terminal supports
+transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent background.
+(Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a> module now includes an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HtmlDiff</span></code> class that creates
+an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two versions of a text.
+(Contributed by Dan Gass.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package was updated to version 3.0,  which dropped various
+deprecated APIs and removes support for Python versions earlier than 2.3.  The
+3.0 version of the package uses a new incremental parser for MIME messages,
+available in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.FeedParser</span></code> module.  The new parser doesn’t require
+reading the entire message into memory, and doesn’t raise exceptions if a
+message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the  <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defect</span></code>
+attribute of the message.  (Developed by Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Thomas
+Wouters, and others.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> module has been converted to C.  The resulting tenfold
+improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling high volumes of
+data.  In addition, the module has two new functions <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nlargest()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nsmallest()</span></code> that use heaps to find the N largest or smallest values in a
+dataset without the expense of a full sort.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> module now contains constants for HTTP status codes defined
+in various HTTP-related RFC documents.  Constants have names such as
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OK</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CREATED</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CONTINUE</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MOVED_PERMANENTLY</span></code>; use pydoc to get a full list.  (Contributed by
+Andrew Eland.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> module now supports IMAP’s THREAD command (contributed by
+Yves Dionne) and new <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deleteacl()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myrights()</span></code> methods (contributed
+by Arnaud Mazin).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module gained a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby(iterable[,</span> <span class="pre">*func*])</span></code>
+function. <em>iterable</em> is something that can be iterated over to return a stream
+of elements, and the optional <em>func</em> parameter is a function that takes an
+element and returns a key value; if omitted, the key is simply the element
+itself.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code> then groups the elements into subsequences which have
+matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples containing the key
+value and an iterator over the subsequence.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example to make this clearer.  The <em>key</em> function simply returns
+whether a number is even or odd, so the result of <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code> is to return
+consecutive runs of odd or even numbers.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">itertools</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">key_val</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">key_val</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">it</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">0 [2, 4, 6]</span>
+<span class="go">1 [7]</span>
+<span class="go">0 [8]</span>
+<span class="go">1 [9, 11]</span>
+<span class="go">0 [12, 14]</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code> is typically used with sorted input.  The logic for
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groupby()</span></code> is similar to the Unix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uniq</span></code> filter which makes it handy for
+eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">word</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abracadabra&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">word</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Turn string into a sorted list of letters</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">letters</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;r&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">g</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">a [&#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;]</span>
+<span class="go">b [&#39;b&#39;, &#39;b&#39;]</span>
+<span class="go">c [&#39;c&#39;]</span>
+<span class="go">d [&#39;d&#39;]</span>
+<span class="go">r [&#39;r&#39;, &#39;r&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># List unique letters</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">g</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;r&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Count letter occurrences</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">g</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">groupby</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;a&#39;, 5), (&#39;b&#39;, 2), (&#39;c&#39;, 1), (&#39;d&#39;, 1), (&#39;r&#39;, 2)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Hye-Shik Chang.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> also gained a function named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tee(iterator,</span> <span class="pre">N)</span></code> that
+returns <em>N</em> independent iterators that replicate <em>iterator</em>.  If <em>N</em> is omitted,
+the default is 2.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tee</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">i1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">i2</span>
+<span class="go">(&lt;itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080&gt;, &lt;itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090&gt;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i1</span><span class="p">)</span>               <span class="c1"># Run the first iterator to exhaustion</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i2</span><span class="p">)</span>               <span class="c1"># Run the second iterator to exhaustion</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tee()</span></code> has to keep copies of the values returned  by the
+iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them.   This should
+therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run far ahead of the
+trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs. If the separation is large, then
+you might as well use  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a> instead.  When the iterators track closely
+with one another, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tee()</span></code> is ideal.  Possible applications include
+bookmarking, windowing, or lookahead iterators. (Contributed by Raymond
+Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A number of functions were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a>  module, such as
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bind_textdomain_codeset()</span></code> to specify a particular encoding and a family of
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l*gettext()</span></code> functions that return messages in the chosen encoding.
+(Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Some keyword arguments were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package’s
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code> function to simplify log configuration.  The default
+behavior is to log messages to standard error, but various keyword arguments can
+be specified to log to a particular file, change the logging format, or set the
+logging level. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;/var/log/application.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+    <span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>  <span class="c1"># Log all messages</span>
+    <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Other additions to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package include a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log(level,</span> <span class="pre">msg)</span></code>
+convenience method, as well as a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code> class that
+rotates its log files at a timed interval.  The module already had
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code>, which rotated logs once the file exceeded a
+certain size.  Both classes derive from a new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseRotatingHandler</span></code> class
+that can be used to implement other rotating handlers.</p>
+<p>(Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> module now shares interned strings on unpacking a  data
+structure.  This may shrink the size of certain pickle strings, but the primary
+effect is to make <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files significantly smaller. (Contributed by
+Martin von Löwis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NNTP</span></code> class gained <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">description()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">descriptions()</span></code> methods to retrieve  newsgroup descriptions for a single
+group or for a range of groups. (Contributed by Jürgen A. Erhard.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new functions were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attrgetter(attr)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemgetter(index)</span></code>. Both functions return
+callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding attribute or
+item; these callables make excellent data extractors when used with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[2, 1, 4, 3]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># Sort list by second tuple item</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;d&#39;, 1), (&#39;c&#39;, 2), (&#39;b&#39;, 3), (&#39;a&#39;, 4)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> module was updated in various ways.  The module now passes
+its messages through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gettext.html#gettext.gettext" title="gettext.gettext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext.gettext()</span></code></a>, making it possible to
+internationalize Optik’s help and error messages.  Help messages for options can
+now include the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'%default'</span></code>, which will be replaced by the option’s
+default value.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The long-term plan is to deprecate the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc822</span></code> module in some future
+Python release in favor of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package. To this end, the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.Utils.formatdate()</span></code> function has been changed to make it usable as a
+replacement for <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfc822.formatdate()</span></code>.  You may want to write new e-mail
+processing code with this in mind.  (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urandom(n)</span></code> function was added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module, returning
+a string containing <em>n</em> bytes of random data.  This function provides access to
+platform-specific sources of randomness such as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> on Linux or
+the Windows CryptoAPI.  (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Another new function: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.lexists(path)</span></code>  returns true if the file
+specified by <em>path</em> exists, whether or not it’s a symbolic link.  This differs
+from the existing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.exists(path)</span></code> function, which returns false if
+<em>path</em> is a symlink that points to a destination that doesn’t exist.
+(Contributed by Beni Cherniavsky.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsid()</span></code> function was added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/posix.html#module-posix" title="posix: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix</span></code></a> module that
+underlies the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module. (Contributed by J. Raynor.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a> module now supports POP over SSL.  (Contributed by Hector
+Urtubia.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> module can now profile C extension functions. (Contributed
+by Nick Bastin.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module has a new method called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandbits(N)</span></code> that
+returns a long integer <em>N</em> bits in length.  The existing <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange()</span></code>
+method now uses <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandbits()</span></code> where appropriate, making generation of
+arbitrarily large random numbers more efficient.  (Contributed by Raymond
+Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The regular expression language accepted by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module was extended
+with simple conditional expressions, written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?(group)A|B)</span></code>.  <em>group</em> is
+either a numeric group ID or a group name defined with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?P&lt;group&gt;...)</span></code>
+earlier in the expression.  If the specified group matched, the regular
+expression pattern <em>A</em> will be tested against the string; if the group didn’t
+match, the pattern <em>B</em> will be used instead. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a massive amount
+of work by Gustavo Niemeyer.  In a recursive regular expression engine, certain
+patterns result in a large amount of C stack space being consumed, and it was
+possible to overflow the stack. For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> characters against the expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a|b)+</span></code>, one stack frame was
+consumed per character.  Python 2.3 tried to check for stack overflow and raise
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> exception, but certain patterns could sidestep the
+checking and if you were unlucky Python could segfault. Python 2.4’s regular
+expression engine can match this pattern without problems.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module now performs tighter error-checking on the parameters
+to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.signal" title="signal.signal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.signal()</span></code></a> function.  For example, you can’t set a handler on
+the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGKILL</span></code> signal; previous versions of Python would quietly accept
+this, but 2.4 will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> exception.</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new functions were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module. <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketpair()</span></code>
+returns a pair of connected sockets and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getservbyport(port)</span></code> looks up the
+service name for a given port number. (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry
+Warsaw.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exitfunc()</span></code> function has been deprecated.  Code should be using
+the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> module, which correctly handles calling multiple exit
+functions.  Eventually <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exitfunc()</span></code> will become a purely internal
+interface, accessed only by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module now generates GNU-format tar files by default.
+(Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module now has an elegantly simple way to support
+thread-local data.  The module contains a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local</span></code> class whose attribute
+values are local to different threads.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">threading</span>
+
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">local</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
+<span class="n">data</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">number</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">url</span></code> attributes.  You can subclass <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local</span></code> to initialize
+attributes or to add methods. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> module now automatically disables periodic garbage
+collection during the timing loop.  This change makes consecutive timings more
+comparable.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module now supports a wider variety of objects including
+Python functions, class instances, sets, frozensets, deques, arrays, files,
+sockets, and regular expression pattern objects. (Contributed by Raymond
+Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> module now supports a multi-call extension for
+transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP operation. (Contributed by
+Brian Quinlan.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mpz</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rotor</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xreadlines</span></code> modules have  been
+removed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="cookielib">
+<h3>cookielib<a class="headerlink" href="#cookielib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cookielib</span></code> library supports client-side handling for HTTP cookies,
+mirroring the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code> module’s server-side cookie support. Cookies are
+stored in cookie jars; the library transparently stores cookies offered by the
+web server in the cookie jar, and fetches the cookie from the jar when
+connecting to the server. As in web browsers, policy objects control whether
+cookies are accepted or not.</p>
+<p>In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie jars
+are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so applications can
+use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that stores cookies in the same
+format as the Perl libwww library.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib2</span></code> has been changed to interact with <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cookielib</span></code>:
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPCookieProcessor</span></code> manages a cookie jar that is used when accessing
+URLs.</p>
+<p>This module was contributed by John J. Lee.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doctest">
+<h3>doctest<a class="headerlink" href="#doctest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module underwent considerable refactoring thanks to Edward
+Loper and Tim Peters.  Testing can still be as simple as running
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.testmod" title="doctest.testmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.testmod()</span></code></a>, but the refactorings allow customizing the module’s
+operation in various ways</p>
+<p>The new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestFinder</span></code> class extracts the tests from a given  object’s
+docstrings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;&gt;&gt;&gt; f(2,2)</span>
+<span class="sd">4</span>
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt; f(3,2)</span>
+<span class="sd">6</span>
+<span class="sd">    &quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">y</span>
+
+<span class="n">finder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DocTestFinder</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Get list of DocTest instances</span>
+<span class="n">tests</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">finder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code> class then runs individual tests and can produce
+a summary of the results:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">runner</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DocTestRunner</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">t</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">tests</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">tried</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">failed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">runner</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">runner</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">summarize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">verbose</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The above example produces the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="n">items</span> <span class="n">passed</span> <span class="nb">all</span> <span class="n">tests</span><span class="p">:</span>
+   <span class="mi">2</span> <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="mi">2</span> <span class="n">tests</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="o">.</span>
+<span class="mi">2</span> <span class="n">passed</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="n">failed</span><span class="o">.</span>
+<span class="n">Test</span> <span class="n">passed</span><span class="o">.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestRunner</span></code> uses an instance of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code> class to
+compare the expected output with the actual output.  This class takes a number
+of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can also write
+a completely new subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OutputChecker</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The default output checker provides a number of handy features. For example,
+with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.ELLIPSIS" title="doctest.ELLIPSIS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.ELLIPSIS</span></code></a> option flag, an ellipsis (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>) in the
+expected output matches any substring,  making it easier to accommodate outputs
+that vary in minor ways:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">o</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;&gt;&gt;&gt; o(1)</span>
+<span class="sd">&lt;__main__.C instance at 0x...&gt;</span>
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another special string, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;BLANKLINE&gt;</span></code>, matches a blank line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">p</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;&gt;&gt;&gt; p(1)</span>
+<span class="sd">&lt;BLANKLINE&gt;</span>
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+<span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output by
+specifying the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_UDIFF" title="doctest.REPORT_UDIFF"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.REPORT_UDIFF</span></code></a> (unified diffs),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_CDIFF" title="doctest.REPORT_CDIFF"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.REPORT_CDIFF</span></code></a> (context diffs), or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_NDIFF" title="doctest.REPORT_NDIFF"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.REPORT_NDIFF</span></code></a>
+(delta-style) option flags.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;&gt;&gt;&gt; g(4)</span>
+<span class="sd">here</span>
+<span class="sd">is</span>
+<span class="sd">a</span>
+<span class="sd">lengthy</span>
+<span class="sd">&gt;&gt;&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;here is a rather lengthy list of words&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">word</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">[:</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">word</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Running the above function’s tests with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.REPORT_UDIFF" title="doctest.REPORT_UDIFF"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest.REPORT_UDIFF</span></code></a> specified,
+you get the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>**********************************************************************
+File &quot;t.py&quot;, line 15, in g
+Failed example:
+    g(4)
+Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
+    @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
+     is
+     a
+    -lengthy
+    +rather
+**********************************************************************
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some of the changes to Python’s build process and to the C API are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Three new convenience macros were added for common return values from
+extension functions: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/none.html#c.Py_RETURN_NONE" title="Py_RETURN_NONE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_RETURN_NONE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bool.html#c.Py_RETURN_TRUE" title="Py_RETURN_TRUE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_RETURN_TRUE</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bool.html#c.Py_RETURN_FALSE" title="Py_RETURN_FALSE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_RETURN_FALSE</span></code></a>. (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Another new macro, <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR(obj)</span></code>,  decreases the reference count of
+<em>obj</em> and sets <em>obj</em> to the null pointer.  (Contributed by Jim Fulton.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTuple_Pack(N,</span> <span class="pre">obj1,</span> <span class="pre">obj2,</span> <span class="pre">...,</span> <span class="pre">objN)</span></code>, constructs
+tuples from a variable length argument list of Python objects.  (Contributed by
+Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDict_Contains(d,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span></code>, implements fast dictionary
+lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up process.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_IS_NAN(X)</span></code> macro returns 1 if  its float or double argument
+<em>X</em> is a NaN.   (Contributed by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ThreadsInitialized" title="PyEval_ThreadsInitialized"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()</span></code></a> function to tell  if any thread operations
+have been performed.  If this function  returns false, no lock operations are
+needed. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a>, is the same as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> but takes a  <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">va_list</span></code> instead of a
+number of arguments. (Contributed by Greg Chapman.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new method flag, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_COEXISTS</span></code>, allows a function defined in slots
+to co-exist with a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyCFunction" title="PyCFunction"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCFunction</span></code></a> having the same name.  This can halve
+the access time for a method such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set.__contains__()</span></code>.  (Contributed by
+Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Python can now be built with additional profiling for the interpreter itself,
+intended as an aid to people developing the Python core.  Providing
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-profiling</span></code> to the <strong class="program">configure</strong> script will let you
+profile the interpreter with <strong class="program">gprof</strong>, and providing the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-tsc</span></code> switch enables profiling using the Pentium’s
+Time-Stamp-Counter register.  Note that the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-tsc</span></code> switch is slightly
+misnamed, because the profiling feature also works on the PowerPC platform,
+though that processor architecture doesn’t call that register “the TSC
+register”.  (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracebackobject</span></code> type has been renamed to
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTracebackObject</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6.
+(Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-2-4">
+<h2>Porting to Python 2.4<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-2-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your
+code:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too  large no longer
+trigger a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a> and return  a value limited to 32 or 64 bits;
+instead they return a long integer.</p></li>
+<li><p>Integer operations will no longer trigger an <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowWarning</span></code>. The
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowWarning</span></code> warning will disappear in Python 2.5.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> built-in function and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.izip()</span></code> now return  an
+empty list instead of raising a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception if called with no
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>You can no longer compare the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instances
+provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module.  Two  instances of different classes
+will now always be unequal, and  relative comparisons (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>) will raise
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircache.listdir()</span></code> now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
+returning empty lists.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LexicalHandler.startDTD()</span></code> used to receive the public and system IDs in
+the wrong order.  This has been corrected; applications relying on the wrong
+order need to be fixed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/fcntl.html#fcntl.ioctl" title="fcntl.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl.ioctl()</span></code></a> now warns if the <em>mutate</em>  argument is omitted and
+relevant.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module now generates GNU-format tar files by default.</p></li>
+<li><p>Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
+partially-initialized module object in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> is now a constant; code that binds a new value to  the name
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is now a syntax error.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signals.signal()</span></code> function now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> exception
+for certain illegal values; previously these errors would pass silently.  For
+example, you can no longer set a handler on the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGKILL</span></code> signal.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<span id="acks"></span><h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Koray Can,
+Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger, Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson,
+Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin Rejeb.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-218-built-in-set-objects">PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-289-generator-expressions">PEP 289: Generator Expressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-292-simpler-string-substitutions">PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-318-decorators-for-functions-and-methods">PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-322-reverse-iteration">PEP 322: Reverse Iteration</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-324-new-subprocess-module">PEP 324: New subprocess Module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-327-decimal-data-type">PEP 327: Decimal Data Type</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#why-is-decimal-needed">Why is Decimal needed?</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-decimal-type">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-context-type">The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code> type</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-328-multi-line-imports">PEP 328: Multi-line Imports</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-331-locale-independent-float-string-conversions">PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cookielib">cookielib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest">doctest</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes">Port-Specific Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-2-4">Porting to Python 2.4</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.5.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.5</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-5">
+<h1>What’s New in Python 2.5<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 2.5.  The final release of
+Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0356"><strong>PEP 356</strong></a> describes the planned
+release schedule.</p>
+<p>The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
+improvements. The library enhancements will be more important to Python’s user
+community, I think, because several widely-useful packages were added.  New
+modules include ElementTree for XML processing (<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree</span></code>),
+the SQLite database module (<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite</span></code>), and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>
+module for calling C functions.</p>
+<p>The language changes are of middling significance.  Some pleasant new features
+were added, but most of them aren’t features that you’ll use every day.
+Conditional expressions were finally added to the language using a novel syntax;
+see section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-308"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 308: Conditional Expressions</span></a>.  The new ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement will make
+writing cleanup code easier (section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-343"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</span></a>).  Values can now be passed
+into generators (section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-342"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 342: New Generator Features</span></a>).  Imports are now visible as either
+absolute or relative (section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-328"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports</span></a>).  Some corner cases of exception
+handling are handled better (section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-341"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally</span></a>).  All these improvements
+are worthwhile, but they’re improvements to one specific language feature or
+another; none of them are broad modifications to Python’s semantics.</p>
+<p>As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and bugfixes
+were made throughout the source tree.  A search through the SVN change logs
+finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed between Python 2.4 and
+2.5.  (Both figures are likely to be underestimates.)</p>
+<p>This article doesn’t try to be a complete specification of the new features;
+instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples.  For full
+details, you should always refer to the documentation for Python 2.5 at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org">https://docs.python.org</a>. If you want to understand the complete implementation
+and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.</p>
+<p>Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome; please
+e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug tracker.</p>
+<div class="section" id="pep-308-conditional-expressions">
+<span id="pep-308"></span><h2>PEP 308: Conditional Expressions<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-308-conditional-expressions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional
+expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B depending on
+whether a Boolean value is true or false.  A conditional expression lets you
+write a single assignment statement that has the same effect as the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">true_value</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">false_value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev and
+comp.lang.python.  A vote was even held that found the majority of voters wanted
+conditional expressions in some form, but there was no syntax that was preferred
+by a clear majority. Candidates included C’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cond</span> <span class="pre">?</span> <span class="pre">true_v</span> <span class="pre">:</span> <span class="pre">false_v</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span>
+<span class="pre">cond</span> <span class="pre">then</span> <span class="pre">true_v</span> <span class="pre">else</span> <span class="pre">false_v</span></code>, and 16 other variations.</p>
+<p>Guido van Rossum eventually chose a surprising syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">true_value</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">condition</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="n">false_value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the order of
+evaluation jumps around a bit.  The <em>condition</em> expression in the middle is
+evaluated first, and the <em>true_value</em> expression is evaluated only if the
+condition was true.  Similarly, the <em>false_value</em> expression is only evaluated
+when the condition is false.</p>
+<p>This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in the
+<em>middle</em> of the expression, and not in the front as in C’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">?</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">:</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>?  The
+decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules in the standard
+library and seeing how the resulting code read.  In many cases where a
+conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the ‘common case’ and one
+value is an ‘exceptional case’, used only on rarer occasions when the condition
+isn’t met.  The conditional syntax makes this pattern a bit more obvious:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">contents</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="n">doc</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">doc</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>I read the above statement as meaning “here <em>contents</em> is  usually assigned a
+value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc+'\n'</span></code>; sometimes  <em>doc</em> is empty, in which special case an empty
+string is returned.”   I doubt I will use conditional expressions very often
+where there  isn’t a clear common and uncommon case.</p>
+<p>There was some discussion of whether the language should require surrounding
+conditional expressions with parentheses.  The decision was made to <em>not</em>
+require parentheses in the Python language’s grammar, but as a matter of style I
+think you should always use them. Consider these two statements:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># First version -- no parens</span>
+<span class="n">level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">logging</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Second version -- with parens</span>
+<span class="n">level</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">logging</span> <span class="k">else</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the first version, I think a reader’s eye might group the statement into
+‘level = 1’, ‘if logging’, ‘else 0’, and think that the condition decides
+whether the assignment to <em>level</em> is performed.  The second version reads
+better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the assignment is always
+performed and the choice is being made between two values.</p>
+<p>Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of list
+comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional expressions.
+See <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0308"><strong>PEP 308</strong></a> for some examples.  If you put parentheses around your
+conditional expressions, you won’t run into this case.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0308"><strong>PEP 308</strong></a> - Conditional Expressions</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Raymond D. Hettinger; implemented by Thomas
+Wouters.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-309-partial-function-application">
+<span id="pep-309"></span><h2>PEP 309: Partial Function Application<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-309-partial-function-application" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module is intended to contain tools for functional-style
+programming.</p>
+<p>One useful tool in this module is the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code> function. For programs
+written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to construct variants of
+existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in.  Consider a
+Python function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code>; you could create a new function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g(b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code> that
+was equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(1,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c)</span></code>.  This is called “partial function
+application”.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code> takes the arguments <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(function,</span> <span class="pre">arg1,</span> <span class="pre">arg2,</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">kwarg1=value1,</span>
+<span class="pre">kwarg2=value2)</span></code>.  The resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to
+invoke <em>function</em> with the filled-in arguments.</p>
+<p>Here’s a small but realistic example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">log</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">subsystem</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Write the contents of &#39;message&#39; to the specified subsystem.&quot;</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">subsystem</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">server_log</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">subsystem</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;server&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">server_log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Unable to open socket&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Here’s another example, from a program that uses PyGTK.  Here a context-sensitive
+pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically.  The callback provided
+for the menu option is a partially applied version of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_item()</span></code>
+method, where the first argument has been provided.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Application</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">open_item</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">path</span><span class="p">):</span>
+       <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">init</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">open_func</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_item</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">item_path</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">popup_menu</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Open&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">open_func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another function in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module is the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update_wrapper(wrapper,</span> <span class="pre">wrapped)</span></code> function that helps you write
+well-behaved decorators.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update_wrapper()</span></code> copies the name, module, and
+docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside the wrapped
+function are easier to understand.  For example, you might write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_decorator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Calling decorated function&#39;</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">update_wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wrapper</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">wrapper</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wraps()</span></code> is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to copy
+the wrapped function’s information.  An alternate  version of the previous
+example would be:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">my_decorator</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wraps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">wrapper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Calling decorated function&#39;</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">wrapper</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0309"><strong>PEP 309</strong></a> - Partial Function Application</dt><dd><p>PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik Chang and Nick
+Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-314-metadata-for-python-software-packages-v1-1">
+<span id="pep-314"></span><h2>PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-314-metadata-for-python-software-packages-v1-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code>
+function now has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">requires</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">provides</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obsoletes</span></code> keyword
+parameters.  When you build a source distribution using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sdist</span></code> command,
+the dependency information will be recorded in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PKG-INFO</span></code> file.</p>
+<p>Another new keyword parameter is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">download_url</span></code>, which should be set to a URL
+for the package’s source code.  This means it’s now possible to look up an entry
+in the package index, determine the dependencies for a package, and download the
+required packages.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">VERSION</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;1.0&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;PyPackage&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">VERSION</span><span class="p">,</span>
+      <span class="n">requires</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;numarray&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;zlib (&gt;=1.1.4)&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+      <span class="n">obsoletes</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;OldPackage&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+      <span class="n">download_url</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">.tar.gz&#39;</span>
+                    <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">VERSION</span><span class="p">),</span>
+     <span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another new enhancement to the Python package index at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org">https://pypi.org</a> is storing source and binary archives for a
+package.  The new <strong class="command">upload</strong> Distutils command will upload a package to
+the repository.</p>
+<p>Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a distribution using
+the <strong class="command">sdist</strong> Distutils command.  Once that works, you can run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span>
+<span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">upload</span></code> to add your package to the PyPI archive.  Optionally you can
+GPG-sign the package by supplying the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--sign</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--identity</span></code>
+options.</p>
+<p>Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0314"><strong>PEP 314</strong></a> - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1</dt><dd><p>PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred Drake;
+implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-328-absolute-and-relative-imports">
+<span id="pep-328"></span><h2>PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-328-absolute-and-relative-imports" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The simpler part of PEP 328 was implemented in Python 2.4: parentheses could now
+be used to enclose the names imported from a module using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span>
+<span class="pre">...</span></code> statement, making it easier to import many different names.</p>
+<p>The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing a module
+can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports.  The plan is to
+move toward making absolute imports the default in future versions of Python.</p>
+<p>Let’s say you have a package directory like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">pkg</span><span class="o">/</span>
+<span class="n">pkg</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="fm">__init__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+<span class="n">pkg</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">main</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+<span class="n">pkg</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This defines a package named <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg</span></code> containing the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.main</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.string</span></code> submodules.</p>
+<p>Consider the code in the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main.py</span></code> module.  What happens if it executes
+the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">string</span></code>?  In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first look
+in the package’s directory to perform a relative import, finds
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg/string.py</span></code>, imports the contents of that file as the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.string</span></code> module, and that module is bound to the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code> in the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.main</span></code> module’s namespace.</p>
+<p>That’s fine if <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.string</span></code> was what you wanted.  But what if you wanted
+Python’s standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module?  There’s no clean way to ignore
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.string</span></code> and look for the standard module; generally you had to look at
+the contents of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code>, which is slightly unclean.    Holger Krekel’s
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py.std</span></code> package provides a tidier way to perform imports from the standard
+library, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">py;</span> <span class="pre">py.std.string.join()</span></code>, but that package isn’t available
+on all Python installations.</p>
+<p>Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear, because a
+reader may be confused about which module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> or <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.string</span></code>,
+is intended to be used.  Python users soon learned not to duplicate the names of
+standard library modules in the names of their packages’ submodules, but you
+can’t protect against having your submodule’s name being used for a new module
+added in a future version of Python.</p>
+<p>In Python 2.5, you can switch <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a>’s behaviour to  absolute imports
+using a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">absolute_import</span></code> directive.  This absolute-import
+behaviour will become the default in a future version (probably Python
+2.7).  Once absolute imports  are the default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">string</span></code> will always
+find the standard library’s version. It’s suggested that users should begin
+using absolute imports as much as possible, so it’s preferable to begin writing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">pkg</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">string</span></code> in your code.</p>
+<p>Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period  to the module
+name when using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span></code> form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Import names from pkg.string</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.string</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">name1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name2</span>
+<span class="c1"># Import pkg.string</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">string</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This imports the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module relative to the current package, so in
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.main</span></code> this will import <em>name1</em> and <em>name2</em> from <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkg.string</span></code>.
+Additional leading periods perform the relative import starting from the parent
+of the current package.  For example, code in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.B.C</span></code> module can do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">D</span>                 <span class="c1"># Imports A.B.D</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">E</span>                <span class="c1"># Imports A.E</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..F</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">G</span>               <span class="c1"># Imports A.F.G</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Leading periods cannot be used with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">modname</span></code>  form of the import
+statement, only the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span></code> form.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a> - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://pylib.readthedocs.io/">https://pylib.readthedocs.io/</a></dt><dd><p>The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py.std</span></code> package.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts">
+<span id="pep-338"></span><h2>PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a script
+gained a few more abilities.  Instead of being implemented in C code inside the
+Python interpreter, the switch now uses an implementation in a new module,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> module implements a more sophisticated import mechanism so that
+it’s now possible to run modules in a package such as <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pychecker.checker</span></code>.
+The module also supports alternative import mechanisms such as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipimport.html#module-zipimport" title="zipimport: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code></a> module.  This means you can add a .zip archive’s path to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> and then use the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> switch to execute code from the
+archive.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0338"><strong>PEP 338</strong></a> - Executing modules as scripts</dt><dd><p>PEP written and  implemented by Nick Coghlan.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-341-unified-try-except-finally">
+<span id="pep-341"></span><h2>PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-341-unified-try-except-finally" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Until Python 2.5, the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement came in two flavours. You could
+use a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> block to ensure that code is always executed, or one or
+more <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> blocks to catch  specific exceptions.  You couldn’t
+combine both <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code> blocks and a <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code> block, because
+generating the right bytecode for the combined version was complicated and it
+wasn’t clear what the semantics of the combined statement should be.</p>
+<p>Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support the
+equivalent of combining <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> blocks and a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> block,
+and this clarified what the statement should mean.  In Python 2.5, you can now
+write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">block</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">Exception1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">Exception2</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">handler</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">block</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">final</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">block</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The code in <em>block-1</em> is executed.  If the code raises an exception, the various
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> blocks are tested: if the exception is of class
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception1</span></code>, <em>handler-1</em> is executed; otherwise if it’s of class
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception2</span></code>, <em>handler-2</em> is executed, and so forth.  If no exception is
+raised, the <em>else-block</em> is executed.</p>
+<p>No matter what happened previously, the <em>final-block</em> is executed once the code
+block is complete and any raised exceptions handled. Even if there’s an error in
+an exception handler or the <em>else-block</em> and a new exception is raised, the code
+in the <em>final-block</em> is still run.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0341"><strong>PEP 341</strong></a> - Unifying try-except and try-finally</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Georg Brandl;  implementation by Thomas Lee.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-342-new-generator-features">
+<span id="pep-342"></span><h2>PEP 342: New Generator Features<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-342-new-generator-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values <em>into</em> a generator. As introduced in
+Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a generator’s code was invoked
+to create an iterator, there was no way to pass any new information into the
+function when its execution is resumed.  Sometimes the ability to pass in some
+information would be useful.  Hackish solutions to this include making the
+generator’s code look at a global variable and then changing the global
+variable’s value, or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.</p>
+<p>To refresh your memory of basic generators, here’s a simple example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">counter</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maximum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">maximum</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+        <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When you call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">counter(10)</span></code>, the result is an iterator that returns the values
+from 0 up to 9.  On encountering the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statement, the iterator
+returns the provided value and suspends the function’s execution, preserving the
+local variables. Execution resumes on the following call to the iterator’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> method, picking up after the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p>In Python 2.3, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> was a statement; it didn’t return any value.  In
+2.5, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> is now an expression, returning a value that can be
+assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>I recommend that you always put parentheses around a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> expression
+when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in the above example.
+The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s easier to always add them
+instead of having to remember when they’re needed.</p>
+<p>(<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0342"><strong>PEP 342</strong></a> explains the exact rules, which are that a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a>-expression must always be parenthesized except when it
+occurs at the top-level
+expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This means you can write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">i</span></code> but have to use parentheses when there’s an operation, as in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">val</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">(yield</span> <span class="pre">i)</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">12</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>Values are sent into a generator by calling its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send(value)</span></code> method.  The
+generator’s code is then resumed and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> expression returns the
+specified <em>value</em>.  If the regular <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> method is called, the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> returns <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Here’s the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the
+internal counter.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">counter</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maximum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">maximum</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">val</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="c1"># If value provided, change counter</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">val</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">val</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And here’s an example of changing the counter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">it</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">9</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;t.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">15</span>, in <span class="n">?</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> will usually return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>, so you should always check
+for this case.  Don’t just use its value in expressions unless you’re sure that
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code> method will be the only method used to resume your generator
+function.</p>
+<p>In addition to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code>, there are two other new methods on generators:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw(type,</span> <span class="pre">value=None,</span> <span class="pre">traceback=None)</span></code> is used to raise an exception
+inside the generator; the exception is raised by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> expression
+where the generator’s execution is paused.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> raises a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> exception inside the generator
+to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this exception, the generator’s code
+must either raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a>.  Catching the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> exception and returning a value is illegal and will trigger
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>; if the function raises some other exception, that
+exception is propagated to the caller.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> will also be called by
+Python’s garbage collector when the generator is garbage-collected.</p>
+<p>If you need to run cleanup code when a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> occurs, I suggest
+using a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try:</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">finally:</span></code> suite instead of  catching <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a>.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from one-way
+producers of information into both producers and consumers.</p>
+<p>Generators also become <em>coroutines</em>, a more generalized form of subroutines.
+Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point (the top of the
+function, and a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement), but coroutines can be entered,
+exited, and resumed at many different points (the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> statements).
+We’ll have to figure out patterns for using coroutines effectively in Python.</p>
+<p>The addition of the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method has one side effect that isn’t obvious.
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so this means the
+generator’s code gets one last chance to run before the generator is destroyed.
+This last chance means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try...finally</span></code> statements in generators can now
+be guaranteed to work; the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clause will now always get a
+chance to run.  The syntactic restriction that you couldn’t mix <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a>
+statements with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try...finally</span></code> suite has therefore been removed.  This
+seems like a minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try...finally</span></code> is actually necessary in order to implement the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement described by PEP 343.  I’ll look at this new statement
+in the following  section.</p>
+<p>Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gi_frame</span></code> attribute of a generator was always a frame object. It’s now
+possible for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gi_frame</span></code> to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> once the generator has been
+exhausted.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0342"><strong>PEP 342</strong></a> - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators</dt><dd><p>PEP written by  Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by Phillip J.
+Eby.  Includes examples of  some fancier uses of generators as coroutines.</p>
+<p>Earlier versions of these features were proposed in  <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0288"><strong>PEP 288</strong></a> by Raymond
+Hettinger and <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0325"><strong>PEP 325</strong></a> by Samuele Pedroni.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine</a></dt><dd><p>The Wikipedia entry for  coroutines.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html">http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html</a></dt><dd><p>An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by Dan Sugalski.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-343-the-with-statement">
+<span id="pep-343"></span><h2>PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-343-the-with-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement clarifies code that previously would use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try...finally</span></code> blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In this
+section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.  In the next
+section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects
+for use with this statement.</p>
+<p>The ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement is a new control-flow structure whose basic
+structure is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">expression</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">block</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the
+context management protocol (that is, has <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>
+methods.</p>
+<p>The object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> is called before <em>with-block</em> is executed and
+therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the
+name <em>variable</em>, if given.  (Note carefully that <em>variable</em> is <em>not</em> assigned
+the result of <em>expression</em>.)</p>
+<p>After execution of the <em>with-block</em> is finished, the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>
+method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run
+clean-up code.</p>
+<p>To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following directive
+to your module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">with_statement</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.</p>
+<p>Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can
+be used with the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement. File objects are one example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">more</span> <span class="n">processing</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After this statement has executed, the file object in <em>f</em> will have been
+automatically closed, even if the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop raised an exception
+part-way through the block.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In this case, <em>f</em> is the same object created by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, because
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.__enter__()</span></code> returns <em>self</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module’s locks and condition variables  also support the
+‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Critical section of code</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once  the
+block is complete.</p>
+<p>The new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localcontext()</span></code> function in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module makes it easy
+to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired
+precision and rounding characteristics for computations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">localcontext</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Displays with default precision of 28 digits</span>
+<span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;578&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">localcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The original context is restored on exiting the block.</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-context-managers">
+<span id="new-25-context-managers"></span><h3>Writing Context Managers<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Under the hood, the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement is fairly complicated. Most
+people will only use ‘<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>’ in company with existing objects and
+don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if
+you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the
+underlying implementation and should keep reading.</p>
+<p>A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a “context
+manager”.  The context manager must have <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>
+methods.</p></li>
+<li><p>The context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method is called.  The value returned
+is assigned to <em>VAR</em>.  If no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'as</span> <span class="pre">VAR'</span></code> clause is present, the value is simply
+discarded.</p></li>
+<li><p>The code in <em>BLOCK</em> is executed.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>BLOCK</em> raises an exception, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__(type,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span> <span class="pre">traceback)</span></code>
+is called with the exception details, the same values returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>.  The method’s return value controls whether the exception
+is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> will result
+in suppressing it.  You’ll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because
+if you do the author of the code containing the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement will
+never realize anything went wrong.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>BLOCK</em> didn’t raise an exception,  the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method is still
+called, but <em>type</em>, <em>value</em>, and <em>traceback</em> are all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will only
+sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions.</p>
+<p>(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the
+database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either committed,
+meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back,
+meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged.  See
+any database textbook for more information.)</p>
+<p>Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection. Our goal will
+be to let the user write code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">db_connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">db_connection</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;insert into ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;delete from ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... more operations ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or
+rolled back if there’s an exception. Here’s the basic interface for
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatabaseConnection</span></code> that I’ll assume:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Database interface</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cursor</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">commit</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Commits current transaction&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">rollback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Rolls back current transaction&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method is pretty easy, having only to start a new
+transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful
+result, so the method will return it.  The user can then add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">cursor</span></code> to
+their ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement to bind the cursor to a variable name.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__enter__</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Code to start a new transaction</span>
+        <span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">cursor</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method is the most complicated because it’s where most of
+the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an exception occurred.  If
+there was no exception, the transaction is committed.  The transaction is rolled
+back if there was an exception.</p>
+<p>In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
+returning the default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is false, so the exception
+will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be more explicit and
+add a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement at the marked location.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__exit__</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tb</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">tb</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># No exception, so commit</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Exception occurred, so rollback.</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rollback</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="c1"># return False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-contextlib-module">
+<span id="contextlibmod"></span><h3>The contextlib module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-contextlib-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module provides some functions and a decorator that
+are useful for writing objects for use with the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement.</p>
+<p>The decorator is called <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code>, and lets you write a single
+generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator should yield
+exactly one value.  The code up to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> will be executed as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method, and the value yielded will be the method’s return
+value that will get bound to the variable in the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement’s
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> clause, if any.  The code after the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> will be
+executed in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method.  Any exception raised in the block will
+be raised by the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p>Our database example from the previous section could be written  using this
+decorator as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@contextmanager</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">db_transaction</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">cursor</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rollback</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">db</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">db_transaction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">db</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module also has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nested(mgr1,</span> <span class="pre">mgr2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code> function
+that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to write nested
+‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statements.  In this example, the single ‘<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>’
+statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">nested</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">db_transaction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">db</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">locked</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closing(object)</span></code> function returns <em>object</em> so that it can be
+bound to a variable, and calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.close</span></code> at the end of the block.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">closing</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">closing</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.yahoo.com&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a> - The “with” statement</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland,
+Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the code generated for a
+‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement
+works.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The documentation  for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-352-exceptions-as-new-style-classes">
+<span id="pep-352"></span><h2>PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-352-exceptions-as-new-style-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic classes, and
+the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> class and all the standard built-in exceptions
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>, etc.) are now new-style classes.</p>
+<p>The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit. In 2.5, the
+inheritance relationships are:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="ne">BaseException</span>       <span class="c1"># New in Python 2.5</span>
+<span class="o">|-</span> <span class="ne">KeyboardInterrupt</span>
+<span class="o">|-</span> <span class="ne">SystemExit</span>
+<span class="o">|-</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span>
+   <span class="o">|-</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">all</span> <span class="n">other</span> <span class="n">current</span> <span class="n">built</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">exceptions</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all exceptions
+that indicate program errors.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a>
+aren’t errors, though, and usually represent an explicit action such as the user
+hitting <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> or code calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a>.  A bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except:</span></code> will
+catch all exceptions, so you commonly need to list <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> in order to re-raise them.  The usual pattern is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">KeyboardInterrupt</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">SystemExit</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">raise</span>
+<span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Log error...</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Continue running program...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Python 2.5, you can now write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">Exception</span></code> to achieve the same
+result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors  but leaving
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> alone.  As in previous versions,
+a bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except:</span></code> still catches all exceptions.</p>
+<p>The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception to derive
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> or some descendant of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a>, and future
+releases in the Python 2.x series may begin to enforce this constraint.
+Therefore, I suggest you begin making all your exception classes derive from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> now.  It’s been suggested that the bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except:</span></code> form should
+be removed in Python 3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn’t decided whether to do this
+or not.</p>
+<p>Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">&quot;Error</span>
+<span class="pre">occurred&quot;</span></code>, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning.  The aim is
+to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few releases.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0352"><strong>PEP 352</strong></a> - Required Superclass for Exceptions</dt><dd><p>PEP written by  Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by Brett Cannon.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-353-using-ssize-t-as-the-index-type">
+<span id="pep-353"></span><h2>PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-353-using-ssize-t-as-the-index-type" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A wide-ranging change to Python’s C API, using a new  <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> type
+definition instead of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>,  will permit the interpreter to handle more
+data on 64-bit platforms. This change doesn’t affect Python’s capacity on 32-bit
+platforms.</p>
+<p>Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C’s <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> type to store
+sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple were stored
+in an <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.  The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still define
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**31</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> = 2147483647 items. (There are actually a few different
+programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use – see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html">http://www.unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html</a> for a discussion – but the
+most commonly available model leaves <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> as 32 bits.)</p>
+<p>A limit of 2147483647 items doesn’t really matter on a 32-bit platform because
+you’ll run out of memory before hitting the length limit. Each list item
+requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> representing the item.  2147483647*4 is already more bytes
+than a 32-bit address space can contain.</p>
+<p>It’s possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however.  The
+pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so it’s not
+unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that large.
+Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some type other than
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms.  The change
+will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was deemed worth making
+the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users is still relatively small.
+(In 5 or 10 years, we may <em>all</em> be on 64-bit machines, and the transition would
+be more painful then.)</p>
+<p>This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules.   Python
+strings and container types such as lists and tuples  now use
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> to store their size.   Functions such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Size" title="PyList_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_Size()</span></code></a>  now return <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>.  Code in extension modules
+may therefore need to have some variables changed to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BuildValue()</span></code></a> functions have a new
+conversion code, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code>, for <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>.   <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s#</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">t#</span></code> still output <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> by default, but you can define the
+macro  <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span></code> before including <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python.h</span></code>  to make
+them return <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0353"><strong>PEP 353</strong></a> has a section on conversion guidelines that  extension authors should
+read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0353"><strong>PEP 353</strong></a> - Using ssize_t as the index type</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-357-the-index-method">
+<span id="pep-357"></span><h2>PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-357-the-index-method" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a new
+special method, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a>.  When using slice notation, as in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[start:stop:step]</span></code>, the values of the <em>start</em>, <em>stop</em>, and <em>step</em> indexes
+must all be either integers or long integers.  NumPy defines a variety of
+specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and signed integers of 8,
+16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to signal that these types could be
+used as slice indexes.</p>
+<p>Slicing can’t just use the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> method because that method
+is also used to implement coercion to integers.  If slicing used
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a>, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice indexes
+and that’s clearly an undesirable behaviour.</p>
+<p>Instead, a new special method called <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> was added.  It takes no
+arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__index__</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">value</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer. The
+interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if this requirement isn’t met.</p>
+<p>A corresponding <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_index</span></code> slot was added to the C-level
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyNumberMethods" title="PyNumberMethods"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumberMethods</span></code></a> structure to let C extensions implement this protocol.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Index(obj)</span></code> can be used in extension code to call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> function and retrieve its result.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0357"><strong>PEP 357</strong></a> - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing</dt><dd><p>PEP written  and implemented by Travis Oliphant.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<span id="other-lang"></span><h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> type has a new hook for letting subclasses provide a default
+value when a key isn’t contained in the dictionary. When a key isn’t found, the
+dictionary’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__(key)</span></code> method will be called.  This hook is used
+to implement the new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a>
+module.  The following example defines a dictionary  that returns zero for any
+missing key:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">zerodict</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__missing__</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zerodict</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>   <span class="c1"># Prints 1, 2</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>   <span class="c1"># Prints 0, 0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partition(sep)</span></code>  and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpartition(sep)</span></code> methods that simplify a common use case.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find(S)</span></code> method is often used to get an index which is then used to
+slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and after the separator.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partition(sep)</span></code> condenses this pattern into a single method call that
+returns a 3-tuple containing the substring before the separator, the separator
+itself, and the substring after the separator.  If the separator isn’t found,
+the first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two elements
+are empty.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpartition(sep)</span></code> also returns a 3-tuple but starts searching
+from the end of the string; the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r</span></code> stands for ‘reverse’.</p>
+<p>Some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;://&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;http&#39;, &#39;://&#39;, &#39;www.python.org&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;file:/usr/share/doc/index.html&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;://&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;file:/usr/share/doc/index.html&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">u</span><span class="s1">&#39;Subject: a quick question&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">partition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(u&#39;Subject&#39;, u&#39;:&#39;, u&#39; a quick question&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rpartition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;www.python&#39;, &#39;.&#39;, &#39;org&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rpartition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;:&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;www.python.org&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startswith()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endswith()</span></code> methods of string types now accept
+tuples of strings to check for.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">is_image_file</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">endswith</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;.gif&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.jpg&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.tiff&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> built-in functions gained a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code> keyword
+parameter analogous to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code> argument for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code>.  This parameter
+supplies a function that takes a single argument and is called for every value
+in the list; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> will return the element with the
+smallest/largest return value from this function. For example, to find the
+longest string in a list, you can do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;medium&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;longest&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;short&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="c1"># Prints &#39;longest&#39;</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="c1"># Prints &#39;short&#39;, because lexicographically &#39;short&#39; has the largest value</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Two new built-in functions, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#any" title="any"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">any()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#all" title="all"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all()</span></code></a>, evaluate whether an
+iterator contains any true or false values.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#any" title="any"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">any()</span></code></a> returns <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>
+if any value returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#all" title="all"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all()</span></code></a> returns <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a> only if all of the values
+returned by the iterator evaluate as true. (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and
+implemented by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The result of a class’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method can now be either a long
+integer or a regular integer.  If a long integer is returned, the hash of that
+value is taken.  In earlier versions the hash value was required to be a
+regular integer, but in 2.5 the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id()</span></code></a> built-in was changed to always
+return non-negative numbers, and users often seem to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id(self)</span></code> in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> methods (though this is discouraged).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now  a syntax error if a
+module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn’t have an
+encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax
+error.  See <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0263"><strong>PEP 263</strong></a>  for how to declare a module’s encoding; for example, you
+might add  a line like this near the top of the source file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># -*- coding: latin1 -*-</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new warning, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeWarning" title="UnicodeWarning"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeWarning</span></code></a>, is triggered when  you attempt to
+compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string  that can’t be converted to Unicode
+using the default ASCII encoding.   The result of the comparison is false:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">128</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">unichr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">128</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Can&#39;t convert chr(128) to Unicode</span>
+<span class="go">__main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed</span>
+<span class="go">  to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them</span>
+<span class="go">  as being unequal</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">127</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">unichr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">127</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># chr(127) can be converted</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Previously this would raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> exception, but in 2.5
+this could result in puzzling problems when accessing a dictionary.  If you
+looked up <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unichr(128)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chr(128)</span></code> was being used as a key, you’d get a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> exception.  Other changes in 2.5 resulted in this
+exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictobject.c</span></code>
+that implements dictionaries.</p>
+<p>Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but the change
+might have broken code, so instead  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeWarning" title="UnicodeWarning"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeWarning</span></code></a> was introduced.</p>
+<p>(Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to include an
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> module in a package directory. Debugging this mistake can be
+confusing, and usually requires running Python with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id4"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-v</span></code></a> switch to
+log all the paths searched. In Python 2.5, a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportWarning" title="ImportWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportWarning</span></code></a> warning is
+triggered when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> was found.  This warning is silently ignored by default;
+provide the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wd</span></code></a> option when running the Python executable to display
+the warning message. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty.   As an
+example, this is now legal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Implemented by Brett Cannon.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="interactive-interpreter-changes">
+<span id="interactive"></span><h3>Interactive Interpreter Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-interpreter-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In the interactive interpreter, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit</span></code>  have long been strings so
+that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">quit</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Python 2.5, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit</span></code> are now objects that still produce string
+representations of themselves, but are also callable. Newbies who try <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit()</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit()</span></code> will now exit the interpreter as they expect.  (Implemented by
+Georg Brandl.)</p>
+<p>The Python executable now accepts the standard long options  <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-help"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-version"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--version</span></code></a>; on Windows,  it also accepts the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/?</span></code></a> option
+for displaying a help message. (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<span id="opts"></span><h3>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint, an event
+held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21–28 2006. The sprint focused on speed
+enhancements to the CPython implementation and was funded by EWT LLC with local
+support from CCP Games.  Those optimizations added at this sprint are specially
+marked in the following list.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When they were introduced  in Python 2.4, the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> types were built on top of Python’s dictionary type.   In 2.5
+the internal data structure has been customized for implementing sets, and as a
+result sets will use a third less memory and are somewhat faster. (Implemented
+by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings, string
+splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been improved.
+(Substring search and splitting improvements were added by Fredrik Lundh and
+Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint. Character maps were improved by Walter
+Dörwald and Martin von Löwis.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long(str,</span> <span class="pre">base)</span></code> function is now faster on long digit strings
+because fewer intermediate results are calculated.  The peak is for strings of
+around 800–1000 digits where  the function is 6 times faster. (Contributed by
+Alan McIntyre and committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>It’s now illegal to mix iterating over a file  with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">line</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">file</span></code> and
+calling  the file object’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>/<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>/<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines()</span></code>
+methods.  Iteration uses an internal buffer and the  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read*()</span></code> methods
+don’t use that buffer.   Instead they would return the data following the
+buffer, causing the data to appear out of order.  Mixing iteration and these
+methods will now trigger a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> from the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read*()</span></code> method.
+(Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module now compiles structure format  strings into an
+internal representation and caches this representation, yielding a 20% speedup.
+(Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to  Python’s allocator
+functions instead of the system’s  <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The code generator’s peephole optimizer now performs simple constant folding
+in expressions.  If you write something like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">2+3</span></code>, the code generator
+will do the arithmetic and produce code corresponding to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">5</span></code>.  (Proposed
+and implemented  by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep  the most recently
+finished frame (a “zombie frame”) in an internal field of the code object,
+reusing it the next time the code object is invoked.  (Original patch by Michael
+Hudson, modified by Armin Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed
+sprint.)  Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache
+locality and reduce memory usage a bit.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Python’s built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change that speeds
+up instantiation considerably.  Exception handling in Python 2.5 is therefore
+about 30% faster than in 2.4. (Contributed by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and
+Sean Reifschneider at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether  they exist or not so
+that the interpreter makes fewer  <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code> calls on
+startup. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg Brandl.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-improved-and-removed-modules">
+<span id="modules"></span><h2>New, Improved, and Removed Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-improved-and-removed-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python 2.5.
+Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by
+module name. Consult the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/NEWS</span></code> file in the source tree for a more
+complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/audioop.html#module-audioop" title="audioop: Manipulate raw audio data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code></a> module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and the code for
+u-LAW encoding has been improved.  (Contributed by Lars Immisch.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module gained support for incremental codecs.  The
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codec.lookup()</span></code> function now returns a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CodecInfo</span></code> instance instead
+of a tuple. <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CodecInfo</span></code> instances behave like a 4-tuple to preserve
+backward compatibility but also have the attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">incrementalencoder</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">incrementaldecoder</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">streamwriter</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">streamreader</span></code>.  Incremental codecs  can receive
+input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same as if the
+entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec. See the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module
+documentation for details. (Designed and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module gained a new type, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code>, that
+subclasses the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> type.  The new type mostly behaves like a
+dictionary but constructs a default value when a key isn’t present,
+automatically adding it to the dictionary for the requested key value.</p>
+<p>The first argument to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code>’s constructor is a factory function
+that gets called whenever a key is requested but not found. This factory
+function receives no arguments, so you can use built-in type constructors such
+as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a>.  For example,  you can make an index of words
+based on their initial letter like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">words</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita</span>
+<span class="s2">mi ritrovai per una selva oscura</span>
+<span class="s2">che la diritta via era smarrita&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">index</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">defaultdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">w</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">words</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">init_letter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">w</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+    <span class="n">index</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">init_letter</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">w</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Printing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index</span></code> results in the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">defaultdict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="nb">type</span> <span class="s1">&#39;list&#39;</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;cammin&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;che&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;era&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;del&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;di&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;diritta&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;m&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;mezzo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;mi&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;l&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;la&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;o&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;oscura&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;n&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;nel&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;nostra&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;p&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;per&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;s&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;selva&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;smarrita&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>
+        <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;ritrovai&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;u&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;una&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="s1">&#39;v&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;vita&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;via&#39;</span><span class="p">]}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Guido van Rossum.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> double-ended queue type supplied by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a>
+module now has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove(value)</span></code> method that removes the first occurrence
+of <em>value</em> in the queue, raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the value isn’t found.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New module: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module contains helper functions for use
+with the new ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement.  See section <a class="reference internal" href="#contextlibmod"><span class="std std-ref">The contextlib module</span></a>
+for more about this module.</p></li>
+<li><p>New module: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> module is a C implementation of  the existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> module that has much lower overhead. The module’s interface is
+the same as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a>: you run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile.run('main()')</span></code> to profile a
+function, can save profile data to a file, etc.  It’s not yet known if the
+Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn’t match the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> module’s interface, will continue to be maintained in future
+versions of Python.  (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)</p>
+<p>Also, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-pstats" title="pstats: Statistics object for use with the profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pstats</span></code></a> module for analyzing the data measured by the profiler
+now supports directing the output to any file object by supplying a <em>stream</em>
+argument to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Stats</span></code> constructor. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module, which parses files in comma-separated value format,
+received several enhancements and a number of bugfixes.  You can now set the
+maximum size in bytes of a field by calling the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)</span></code> function; omitting the <em>new_limit</em>
+argument will return the currently-set limit.  The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reader</span></code> class now has
+a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line_num</span></code> attribute that counts the number of physical lines read from
+the source; records can span multiple physical lines, so <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line_num</span></code> is not
+the same as the number of records read.</p>
+<p>The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields. Previously, if a
+line ended within a quoted field without a terminating newline character, a
+newline would be inserted into the returned field. This behavior caused problems
+when reading files that contained carriage return characters within fields, so
+the code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines. As a
+consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important, the input should
+be split into lines in a manner that preserves the newline characters.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>  module now has a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strptime(string,</span> <span class="pre">format)</span></code>  method for parsing date strings, contributed
+by Josh Spoerri. It uses the same format characters as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.strptime" title="time.strptime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strptime()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="n">ts</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strptime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;10:13:15 2006-03-07&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                       <span class="s1">&#39;%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()</span></code> method in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a>
+module now guarantees to return a minimal list of blocks describing matching
+subsequences.  Previously, the algorithm would occasionally break a block of
+matching elements into two list entries. (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module gained a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SKIP</span></code> option that keeps an example from
+being executed at all.  This is intended for code snippets that are usage
+examples intended for the reader and aren’t actually test cases.</p>
+<p>An <em>encoding</em> parameter was added to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">testfile()</span></code> function and the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocFileSuite</span></code> class to specify the file’s encoding.  This makes it
+easier to use non-ASCII characters in  tests contained within a docstring.
+(Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package has been updated to version 4.0. (Contributed by
+Barry Warsaw.)</p>
+</li>
+<li id="index-18"><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fileinput.html#module-fileinput" title="fileinput: Loop over standard input or a list of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code></a> module was made more flexible. Unicode filenames are now
+supported, and a <em>mode</em> parameter that defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;r&quot;</span></code> was added to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a> function to allow opening files in binary or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal
+newlines</span></a> mode.  Another new parameter, <em>openhook</em>, lets you use a function
+other than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>  to open the input files.  Once you’re iterating over
+the set of files, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileInput</span></code> object’s new <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code> returns
+the file descriptor for the currently opened file. (Contributed by Georg
+Brandl.)</p></li>
+<li><p>In the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module, the new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_count()</span></code> function returns a 3-tuple
+containing the current collection counts for the three GC generations.  This is
+accounting information for the garbage collector; when these counts reach a
+specified threshold, a garbage collection sweep will be made.  The existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.collect" title="gc.collect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.collect()</span></code></a> function now takes an optional <em>generation</em> argument of 0, 1,
+or 2 to specify which generation to collect. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nsmallest()</span></code> and  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nlargest()</span></code> functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a>
+module  now support a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code> keyword parameter similar to the one provided by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> functions and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code> methods.  For
+example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">heapq</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">L</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;short&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;medium&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;longest&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;longer still&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nsmallest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Return two lowest elements, lexicographically</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;longer still&#39;, &#39;longest&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">nsmallest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">L</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># Return two shortest elements</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;short&#39;, &#39;medium&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.islice()</span></code></a> function now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for the start and
+step arguments.  This makes it more compatible with the attributes of slice
+objects, so that you can now write the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="c1"># Create slice object</span>
+<span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">step</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> function in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module has been modified and
+two new functions were added, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_string()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">currency()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> function’s <em>val</em> parameter could previously be a string as
+long as no more than one %char specifier appeared; now the parameter must be
+exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.  An optional <em>monetary</em>
+parameter was also added which, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, will use the locale’s rules for
+formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three digits.</p>
+<p>To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_string()</span></code> function that works like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> but also supports
+mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.</p>
+<p>A new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">currency()</span></code> function was also added that formats a number according
+to the current locale’s settings.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> module underwent a massive rewrite to add the capability to
+modify mailboxes in addition to reading them.  A new set of classes that include
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbox</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MH</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code> are used to read mailboxes, and
+have an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add(message)</span></code> method to add messages, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove(key)</span></code> to
+remove messages, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lock()</span></code>/<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlock()</span></code> to lock/unlock the mailbox.
+The following example converts a maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format
+one:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mailbox</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># &#39;factory=None&#39; uses email.Message.Message as the class representing</span>
+<span class="c1"># individual messages.</span>
+<span class="n">src</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Maildir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;maildir&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">factory</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">dest</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mailbox</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">mbox</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/mbox&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">msg</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">src</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson.  Funding was provided by Google’s 2005
+Summer of Code.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New module: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#module-msilib" title="msilib: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code></a> module allows creating Microsoft Installer
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.msi</span></code> files and CAB files.  Some support for reading the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.msi</span></code>
+database is also included. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nis.html#module-nis" title="nis: Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis</span></code></a> module now supports accessing domains other than the system
+default domain by supplying a <em>domain</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nis.html#nis.match" title="nis.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis.match()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/nis.html#nis.maps" title="nis.maps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nis.maps()</span></code></a> functions. (Contributed by Ben Bell.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemgetter()</span></code>  and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attrgetter()</span></code>
+functions now support multiple fields.   A call such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.attrgetter('a',</span> <span class="pre">'b')</span></code> will return a function  that retrieves the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> attributes.  Combining  this new feature with the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort()</span></code> method’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code> parameter  lets you easily sort lists using
+multiple fields. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the Optik library.
+The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionParser</span></code> class gained an <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epilog</span></code> attribute, a string
+that will be printed after the help message, and a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">destroy()</span></code> method to
+break reference cycles created by the object. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module underwent several changes.  The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_float_times</span></code>
+variable now defaults to true, meaning that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> will now return time
+values as floats.  (This doesn’t necessarily mean that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> will
+return times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems support
+such precision.)</p>
+<p>Constants named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.SEEK_SET" title="os.SEEK_SET"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_SET</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.SEEK_CUR" title="os.SEEK_CUR"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_CUR</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.SEEK_END" title="os.SEEK_END"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_END</span></code></a> have been added; these are the parameters to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.lseek" title="os.lseek"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lseek()</span></code></a> function.  Two new constants for locking are
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_SHLOCK" title="os.O_SHLOCK"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_SHLOCK</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_EXLOCK" title="os.O_EXLOCK"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_EXLOCK</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Two new functions, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait3()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait4()</span></code>, were added.  They’re similar
+the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code> function which waits for a child process to exit and returns
+a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait3()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait4()</span></code> return additional information.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait3()</span></code> doesn’t take a
+process ID as input, so it waits for any child process to exit and returns a
+3-tuple of <em>process-id</em>, <em>exit-status</em>, <em>resource-usage</em> as returned from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.getrusage" title="resource.getrusage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">resource.getrusage()</span></code></a> function. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait4(pid)</span></code> does take a process ID.
+(Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)</p>
+<p>On FreeBSD, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> function now returns  times with nanosecond
+resolution, and the returned object now has <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_gen</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_birthtime</span></code>. The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_flags</span></code> attribute is also available, if the
+platform supports it. (Contributed by Antti Louko and  Diego Pettenò.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The Python debugger provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> module can now store lists of
+commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and execution stops.  Once
+breakpoint #1 has been created, enter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">commands</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> and enter a series of
+commands to be executed, finishing the list with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end</span></code>.  The command list can
+include commands that resume execution, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cPickle</span></code> modules no longer accept a return value
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a> method; the method must return a tuple
+of arguments instead.  The ability to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> was deprecated in Python
+2.4, so this completes the removal of the feature.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#module-pkgutil" title="pkgutil: Utilities for the import system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code></a> module, containing various utility functions for finding
+packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302’s import hooks and now also works for
+packages stored in ZIP-format archives. (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/pybench</span></code> directory.  The pybench suite is an improvement on the
+commonly used <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pystone.py</span></code> program because pybench provides a more
+detailed measurement of the interpreter’s speed.  It times particular operations
+such as function calls, tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations,
+instead of performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
+single number as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pystone.py</span></code> does.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
+(Contributed by Trent Mick.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> class provided by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code> module gained two new
+methods.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code> blocks until all items in the queue have been retrieved
+and all processing work on the items  have been completed.  Worker threads call
+the other new method,  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">task_done()</span></code>, to signal that processing for an item
+has been completed.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The old <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regex</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regsub</span></code> modules, which have been  deprecated
+ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted.   Other deleted modules:
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statcache</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzparse</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whrandom</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Also deleted: the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib-old</span></code> directory, which includes ancient modules
+such as <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ni</span></code>, was removed.  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib-old</span></code> wasn’t on the
+default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, so unless your programs explicitly added the directory to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, this removal shouldn’t affect your code.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> module is no longer  dependent on importing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a> module and therefore now works on non-Unix platforms. (Patch
+from Robert Kiendl.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code>  classes now have a
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpc_paths</span></code> attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set
+of URL paths; the default is to allow only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/RPC2'</span></code>.  Setting
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpc_paths</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or an empty tuple disables  this path checking.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module now supports <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_NETLINK</span></code> sockets on Linux,
+thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi.   Netlink sockets are a Linux-specific
+mechanism for communications between a user-space process and kernel code; an
+introductory  article about them is at <a class="reference external" href="https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356">https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356</a>.
+In Python code, netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(pid,</span> <span class="pre">group_mask)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Two new methods on socket objects, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv_into(buffer)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvfrom_into(buffer)</span></code>, store the received data in an object  that
+supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a string.  This
+means you can put the data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.</p>
+<p>Socket objects also gained <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfamily()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettype()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getproto()</span></code> accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and protocol
+values for the socket.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New module: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/spwd.html#module-spwd" title="spwd: The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends). (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd</span></code></a> module provides functions for accessing the shadow
+password database on systems that support  shadow passwords.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> is now faster because it  compiles format strings into
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct</span></code> objects with <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack()</span></code> methods.  This is
+similar to how the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module lets you create compiled regular expression
+objects.  You can still use the module-level  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack()</span></code>
+functions; they’ll create  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct</span></code> objects and cache them.  Or you can
+use  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct</span></code> instances directly:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Struct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ih3s&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1972</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">187</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">year</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects directly using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack_into(buffer,</span> <span class="pre">offset,</span> <span class="pre">v1,</span> <span class="pre">v2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_from(buffer,</span>
+<span class="pre">offset)</span></code> methods.  This lets you store data directly into an array or a
+memory-mapped file.</p>
+<p>(<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct</span></code> objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed
+sprint.  Support for buffer objects was added by Martin Blais, also at the
+NeedForSpeed sprint.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the 2.5
+development process.  Information about the exact build version is available as
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.subversion</span></code> variable, a 3-tuple of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(interpreter-name,</span> <span class="pre">branch-name,</span>
+<span class="pre">revision-range)</span></code>.  For example, at the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was
+reporting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('CPython',</span> <span class="pre">'trunk',</span> <span class="pre">'45313:45315')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>This information is also available to C extensions via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetBuildInfo" title="Py_GetBuildInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetBuildInfo()</span></code></a> function that returns a  string of build information
+like this: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;trunk:45355:45356M,</span> <span class="pre">Apr</span> <span class="pre">13</span> <span class="pre">2006,</span> <span class="pre">07:42:19&quot;</span></code>.   (Contributed by
+Barry Warsaw.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Another new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._current_frames" title="sys._current_frames"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._current_frames()</span></code></a>, returns the current stack
+frames for all running threads as a dictionary mapping thread identifiers to the
+topmost stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the function is
+called.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module now has an
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extractall()</span></code> method that extracts all members from the archive into the
+current working directory.  It’s also possible to set a different directory as
+the extraction target, and to unpack only a subset of the archive’s members.</p>
+<p>The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be autodetected
+using the mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r|*'</span></code>. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module now lets you set the stack size used when new
+threads are created. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stack_size([*size*])</span></code> function returns the
+currently configured stack size, and supplying the optional <em>size</em> parameter
+sets a new value.  Not all platforms support changing the stack size, but
+Windows, POSIX threading, and OS/2 all do. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module has been updated to use version 4.1.0 of the
+Unicode character database.  Version 3.2.0 is required  by some specifications,
+so it’s still available as  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0" title="unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>New module: the  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/uuid.html#module-uuid" title="uuid: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid</span></code></a> module generates  universally unique identifiers
+(UUIDs) according to <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a>.  The RFC defines several different UUID
+versions that are generated from a starting string, from system properties, or
+purely randomly.  This module contains a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UUID</span></code> class and  functions
+named <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid1()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid3()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid4()</span></code>,  and  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid5()</span></code> to
+generate different versions of UUID.  (Version 2 UUIDs  are not specified in
+<span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4122.html"><strong>RFC 4122</strong></a> and are not supported by this module.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">uuid</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID based on the host ID and current time</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid1</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NAMESPACE_DNS</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a random UUID</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid4</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uuid5</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">uuid</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NAMESPACE_DNS</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">UUID(&#39;886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code> types gained new methods for iterating over the
+weak references contained in the dictionary.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterkeyrefs()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyrefs()</span></code> methods were added to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakKeyDictionary</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itervaluerefs()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">valuerefs()</span></code> were added to
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakValueDictionary</span></code>.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/webbrowser.html#module-webbrowser" title="webbrowser: Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code></a> module received a number of enhancements. It’s now
+usable as a script with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code>, taking a URL as the argument;
+there are a number of switches  to control the behaviour (<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> for a new
+browser window,  <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-t</span></code> for a new tab).  New module-level functions,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_new()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open_new_tab()</span></code>, were added  to support this.  The
+module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function supports an additional feature, an <em>autoraise</em>
+parameter that signals whether to raise the open window when possible. A number
+of additional browsers were added to the supported list such as Firefox, Opera,
+Konqueror, and elinks.  (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> module now supports returning  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> objects
+for the XML-RPC date type.  Supply  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">use_datetime=True</span></code> to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code>
+function or the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unmarshaller</span></code> class to enable this feature. (Contributed
+by Skip Montanaro.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module now supports the ZIP64 version of the  format,
+meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4 GiB and can contain
+individual files larger than 4 GiB.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#module-zlib" title="zlib: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compress</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decompress</span></code> objects now
+support a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> method that makes a copy of the  object’s internal state
+and returns a new  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compress</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decompress</span></code> object.
+(Contributed by Chris AtLee.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="the-ctypes-package">
+<span id="module-ctypes"></span><h3>The ctypes package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-ctypes-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added  to the
+standard library.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> lets you call arbitrary functions  in shared
+libraries or DLLs.  Long-time users may remember the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dl</span></code> module, which
+provides functions for loading shared libraries and calling functions in them.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> package is much fancier.</p>
+<p>To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDLL</span></code> class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
+Once that’s done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
+attributes of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDLL</span></code> object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span>
+
+<span class="n">libc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CDLL</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;libc.so.6&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Line of output</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Type constructors for the various C types are provided: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_int()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_float()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_double()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char_p()</span></code> (equivalent to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span>
+<span class="pre">*</span></code>), and so forth.  Unlike Python’s types, the C versions are all mutable; you
+can assign to their <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> attribute to change the wrapped value.  Python
+integers and strings will be automatically converted to the corresponding C
+types, but for other types you  must call the correct type constructor.  (And I
+mean <em>must</em>;  getting it wrong will often result in the interpreter crashing
+with a segmentation fault.)</p>
+<p>You shouldn’t use <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_char_p()</span></code> with a Python string when the C function will
+be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are  supposed to be
+immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs.  When you need a
+modifiable memory area, use <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_string_buffer()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;this is a string&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">buf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_string_buffer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strfry</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">restype</span></code>
+attribute of the function object to  change this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">atof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2.71828&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">-1783957616</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">atof</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">restype</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">c_double</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">libc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">atof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2.71828&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2.71828</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> also provides a wrapper for Python’s C API  as the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.pythonapi</span></code> object.  This object does <em>not</em>  release the global
+interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be held when
+calling into the interpreter’s code.   There’s a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_object()</span></code> type
+constructor that will create a  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code></a> pointer.  A simple usage:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ctypes</span>
+
+<span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pythonapi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PyObject_SetItem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py_object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">),</span>
+          <span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py_object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;abc&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span>  <span class="n">ctypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py_object</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="c1"># d is now {&#39;abc&#39;, 1}.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Don’t forget to use <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_object()</span></code>; if it’s omitted you end  up with a
+segmentation fault.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> has been around for a while, but people still write  and
+distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can’t rely on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> being present. Perhaps developers will begin to write  Python
+wrappers atop a library accessed through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> instead of extension
+modules, now that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> is included with core Python.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/">http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/</a></dt><dd><p>The ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and FAQ.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The documentation  for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-elementtree-package">
+<span id="module-etree"></span><h3>The ElementTree package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-elementtree-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A subset of Fredrik Lundh’s ElementTree library for processing XML has been
+added to the standard library as <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree</span></code>.  The available modules are
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementPath</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementInclude</span></code> from
+ElementTree 1.2.6.    The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cElementTree</span></code> accelerator module is also
+included.</p>
+<p>The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using ElementTree.
+Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm">http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm</a>.</p>
+<p>ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes. The text
+content of the document is stored as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">text</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tail</span></code>
+attributes of  (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree and
+the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types of node,
+including <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextNode</span></code>.)</p>
+<p>The most commonly used parsing function is <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code>, that takes either a
+string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and returns an
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code> instance:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.etree</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ElementTree</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ET</span>
+
+<span class="n">tree</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ex-1.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">feed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tree</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">feed</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once you have an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code> instance, you can call its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getroot()</span></code>
+method to get the root <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> node.</p>
+<p>There’s also an <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML()</span></code> function that takes a string literal and returns an
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> node (not an <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code>).   This function provides a
+tidy way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
+literal:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">svg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">XML</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;svg width=&quot;10px&quot; version=&quot;1.0&quot;&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">             &lt;/svg&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">svg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;height&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;320px&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">svg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">elem1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access
+methods.  Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute values, and
+list-like operations are used to access child nodes.</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 41%" />
+<col style="width: 59%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Operation</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Result</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem[n]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns n’th child element.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem[m:n]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns list of m’th through n’th child
+elements.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(elem)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns number of child elements.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(elem)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns list of child elements.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem.append(elem2)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Adds <em>elem2</em> as a child.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem.insert(index,</span> <span class="pre">elem2)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Inserts <em>elem2</em> at the specified location.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">elem[n]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Deletes n’th child element.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem.keys()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns list of attribute names.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem.get(name)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Returns value of attribute <em>name</em>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem.set(name,</span> <span class="pre">value)</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Sets new value for attribute <em>name</em>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem.attrib</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Retrieves the dictionary containing
+attributes.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">elem.attrib[name]</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Deletes attribute <em>name</em>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Comments and processing instructions are also represented as <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code>
+nodes.  To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">elem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tag</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Comment</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">elem</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tag</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ProcessingInstruction</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To generate XML output, you should call the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree.write()</span></code> method.
+Like <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code>, it can take either a string or a file-like object:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Encoding is US-ASCII</span>
+<span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;output.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Encoding is UTF-8</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;output.xml&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">tree</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII.  For general XML work,
+where an element’s name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters, ASCII isn’t a
+very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if an element’s name
+contains any characters with values greater than 127.  Therefore, it’s best to
+specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that can handle any Unicode
+character.)</p>
+<p>This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree interfaces. Please
+read the package’s official documentation for more details.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm">http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm</a></dt><dd><p>Official documentation for ElementTree.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-hashlib-package">
+<span id="module-hashlib"></span><h3>The hashlib package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-hashlib-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module, written by Gregory P. Smith,  has been added to
+replace the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">md5</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha</span></code> modules.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> adds support for
+additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512). When
+available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform optimized implementations
+of algorithms.</p>
+<p>The old <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">md5</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha</span></code> modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib
+to preserve backwards compatibility.  The new module’s interface is very close
+to that of the old modules, but not identical. The most significant difference
+is that the constructor functions for creating new hashing objects are named
+differently.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Old versions</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">md5</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">md5</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">md5</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># New version</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">md5</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Old versions</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sha</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sha</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># New version</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha1</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Hash that weren&#39;t previously available</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha224</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha256</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha384</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sha512</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Alternative form</span>
+<span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;md5&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>          <span class="c1"># Provide algorithm as a string</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update(string)</span></code> hashes the specified string into the  current digest
+state, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexdigest()</span></code> return the digest value as a binary
+string or a string of hex digits, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> returns a new hashing object
+with the same digest state.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The documentation  for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-sqlite3-package">
+<span id="module-sqlite"></span><h3>The sqlite3 package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-sqlite3-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The pysqlite module (<a class="reference external" href="http://www.pysqlite.org">http://www.pysqlite.org</a>), a wrapper for the SQLite embedded
+database, has been added to the standard library under the package name
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database that
+doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the database
+using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language. Some applications can use
+SQLite for internal data storage.  It’s also possible to prototype an
+application using SQLite and then port the code to a larger database such as
+PostgreSQL or Oracle.</p>
+<p>pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface compliant
+with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0249"><strong>PEP 249</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>If you’re compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source tree
+doesn’t include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module. You’ll need to have
+the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling Python, and the
+build process will compile the module when the necessary headers are available.</p>
+<p>To use the module, you must first create a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code> object that
+represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/tmp/example</span></code> file:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqlite3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/example&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also supply the special name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:memory:</span></code> to create a database in RAM.</p>
+<p>Once you have a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Connection</span></code>, you can create a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code>  object
+and call its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code> method to perform SQL commands:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create table</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;&#39;create table stocks</span>
+<span class="s1">(date text, trans text, symbol text,</span>
+<span class="s1"> qty real, price real)&#39;&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Insert a row of data</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;insert into stocks</span>
+<span class="s2">          values (&#39;2006-01-05&#39;,&#39;BUY&#39;,&#39;RHAT&#39;,100,35.14)&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python variables.  You
+shouldn’t assemble your query using Python’s string operations because doing so
+is insecure; it makes your program vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.</p>
+<p>Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  Put <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">?</span></code> as a placeholder
+wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple of values as the
+second argument to the cursor’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execute()</span></code> method.  (Other database modules
+may use a different placeholder, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:1</span></code>.) For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Never do this -- insecure!</span>
+<span class="n">symbol</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;IBM&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;... where symbol = &#39;</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">&#39;&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">symbol</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Do this instead</span>
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">symbol</span><span class="p">,)</span>
+<span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;select * from stocks where symbol=?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Larger example</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">t</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;2006-03-28&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BUY&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;IBM&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">45.00</span><span class="p">),</span>
+          <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2006-04-05&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;BUY&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;MSOFT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">72.00</span><span class="p">),</span>
+          <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;2006-04-06&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;SELL&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;IBM&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">53.00</span><span class="p">),</span>
+         <span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either  treat the
+cursor as an iterator, call the cursor’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fetchone()</span></code> method to retrieve a
+single matching row,  or call <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fetchall()</span></code> to get a list of the matching
+rows.</p>
+<p>This example uses the iterator form:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;select * from stocks order by price&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">row</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">(u&#39;2006-01-05&#39;, u&#39;BUY&#39;, u&#39;RHAT&#39;, 100, 35.140000000000001)</span>
+<span class="go">(u&#39;2006-03-28&#39;, u&#39;BUY&#39;, u&#39;IBM&#39;, 1000, 45.0)</span>
+<span class="go">(u&#39;2006-04-06&#39;, u&#39;SELL&#39;, u&#39;IBM&#39;, 500, 53.0)</span>
+<span class="go">(u&#39;2006-04-05&#39;, u&#39;BUY&#39;, u&#39;MSOFT&#39;, 1000, 72.0)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.sqlite.org">https://www.sqlite.org</a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.pysqlite.org">http://www.pysqlite.org</a></dt><dd><p>The pysqlite web page.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://www.sqlite.org">https://www.sqlite.org</a></dt><dd><p>The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the available
+data types for the supported SQL dialect.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The documentation  for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0249"><strong>PEP 249</strong></a> - Database API Specification 2.0</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-wsgiref-package">
+<span id="module-wsgiref"></span><h3>The wsgiref package<a class="headerlink" href="#the-wsgiref-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard interface
+between web servers and Python web applications and is described in <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0333"><strong>PEP 333</strong></a>.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref" title="wsgiref: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code></a> package is a reference implementation of the WSGI
+specification.</p>
+<p>The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI application; this
+server is useful for debugging but isn’t intended for  production use.  Setting
+up a server takes only a few lines of code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">wsgiref</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">simple_server</span>
+
+<span class="n">wsgi_app</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">host</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">port</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">8000</span>
+<span class="n">httpd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">simple_server</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">make_server</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">host</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">port</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">wsgi_app</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">httpd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">serve_forever</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.wsgi.org">http://www.wsgi.org</a></dt><dd><p>A central web site for WSGI-related resources.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0333"><strong>PEP 333</strong></a> - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Phillip J. Eby.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<span id="build-api"></span><h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion,  in a complex
+migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly carried out by Martin von
+Löwis.  The procedure was developed as <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0347"><strong>PEP 347</strong></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called Prevent,
+provided the results of their examination of the Python source code.  The
+analysis found about 60 bugs that  were quickly fixed.  Many of the bugs were
+refcounting problems, often occurring in error-handling code.  See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://scan.coverity.com">https://scan.coverity.com</a> for the statistics.</p></li>
+<li><p>The largest change to the C API came from <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0353"><strong>PEP 353</strong></a>, which modifies the
+interpreter to use a <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code> type definition instead of
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.  See the earlier section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-353"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type</span></a> for a discussion of this
+change.</p></li>
+<li><p>The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal,  no longer
+generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree.  Instead the parse tree is
+converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST), and it is  the abstract syntax
+tree that’s traversed to produce the bytecode.</p>
+<p>It’s possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> built-in and specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST</span></code> as the value of
+the  <em>flags</em> parameter:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">_ast</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">PyCF_ONLY_AST</span>
+<span class="n">ast</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;a=0</span>
+<span class="s2">for i in range(10):</span>
+<span class="s2">    a += i</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&lt;string&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;exec&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyCF_ONLY_AST</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">assignment</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">body</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="n">for_loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">body</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet, but <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0339"><strong>PEP 339</strong></a>
+discusses the design.  To start learning about the code, read the definition of
+the various AST nodes in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser/Python.asdl</span></code>.  A Python script reads this
+file and generates a set of C structure definitions in
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/Python-ast.h</span></code>.  The <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyParser_ASTFromString()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyParser_ASTFromFile()</span></code>, defined in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/pythonrun.h</span></code>, take
+Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing the contents.
+This AST can then be turned into a code object by <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyAST_Compile()</span></code>.  For
+more information, read the source code, and then ask questions on python-dev.</p>
+<p>The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton’s management, and implemented by
+(in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan, Grant Edwards, John
+Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil
+Schemenauer, plus the participants in a number of AST sprints at conferences
+such as PyCon.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Evan Jones’s patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon DC 2005,
+was applied.  Python 2.4 allocated small objects in 256K-sized arenas, but never
+freed arenas.  With this patch, Python will free arenas when they’re empty.  The
+net effect is that on some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python’s
+memory usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be
+returned to the operating system.  (Implemented by Evan Jones, and reworked by
+Tim Peters.)</p>
+<p>Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful when
+allocating memory.  Python’s API has many different functions for allocating
+memory that are grouped into families.  For example, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Free" title="PyMem_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Free()</span></code></a> are one family that allocates
+raw memory, while <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Realloc" title="PyObject_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Realloc()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Free" title="PyObject_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free()</span></code></a> are another family that’s supposed to be used for
+creating Python objects.</p>
+<p>Previously these different families all reduced to the platform’s
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code> functions.  This meant  it didn’t matter if
+you got things wrong and allocated memory with the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem()</span></code> function but
+freed it with the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject()</span></code></a> function.  With 2.5’s changes to obmalloc,
+these families now do different things and mismatches will probably result in a
+segfault.  You should carefully test your C extension modules with Python 2.5.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The built-in set types now have an official C API.  Call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/set.html#c.PySet_New" title="PySet_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySet_New()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/set.html#c.PyFrozenSet_New" title="PyFrozenSet_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFrozenSet_New()</span></code></a> to create a new set, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Add" title="PySet_Add"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySet_Add()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Discard" title="PySet_Discard"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySet_Discard()</span></code></a> to add and remove elements, and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Contains" title="PySet_Contains"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySet_Contains()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/set.html#c.PySet_Size" title="PySet_Size"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySet_Size()</span></code></a> to examine the set’s state. (Contributed by Raymond
+Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the Python
+interpreter by calling the  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_GetBuildInfo" title="Py_GetBuildInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_GetBuildInfo()</span></code></a> function that returns a
+string of build information like this: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;trunk:45355:45356M,</span> <span class="pre">Apr</span> <span class="pre">13</span> <span class="pre">2006,</span>
+<span class="pre">07:42:19&quot;</span></code>.   (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local to the
+current file so that a faster calling convention can be used.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LOCAL(type)</span></code> declares the function as returning a value of the
+specified <em>type</em> and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)</span></code> does the same thing and also requests the
+function be inlined.  If <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE()</span></code> is defined before
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.h</span></code> is included, a set of more aggressive optimizations are enabled
+for the module; you should benchmark the results to find out if these
+optimizations actually make the code faster.  (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at
+the NeedForSpeed sprint.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewException(name,</span> <span class="pre">base,</span> <span class="pre">dict)</span></code> can now accept a tuple of base
+classes as its <em>base</em> argument.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Warn()</span></code> function for issuing warnings is now deprecated in
+favour of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WarnEx(category,</span> <span class="pre">message,</span> <span class="pre">stacklevel)</span></code> which lets you
+specify the number of stack frames separating this function and the caller.  A
+<em>stacklevel</em> of 1 is the function calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WarnEx" title="PyErr_WarnEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WarnEx()</span></code></a>, 2 is the
+function above that, and so forth.  (Added by Neal Norwitz.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but  the code can now be
+compiled with a C++ compiler without errors.   (Implemented by Anthony Baxter,
+Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRange_New()</span></code> function was removed.  It was never documented, never
+used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error checking.  In the unlikely
+case that your extensions were using it, you can replace it by something like
+the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">range</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyObject_CallFunction</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">PyRange_Type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;lll&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                              <span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">stop</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">step</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes">
+<span id="ports"></span><h3>Port-Specific Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dlopen()</span></code> function instead of MacOS-specific functions.</p></li>
+<li><p>MacOS X: an <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-universalsdk</span></code> switch was added to the
+<strong class="program">configure</strong> script that compiles the interpreter as a universal binary
+able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors. (Contributed by Ronald
+Oussoren; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2573">bpo-2573</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Windows: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dll</span></code> is no longer supported as a filename extension for
+extension modules.  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyd</span></code> is now the only filename extension that will be
+searched for.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-2-5">
+<span id="porting"></span><h2>Porting to Python 2.5<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-2-5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your
+code:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now  a syntax error if a
+module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn’t have an
+encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax
+error.</p></li>
+<li><p>Previously, the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gi_frame</span></code> attribute of a generator was always a frame
+object.  Because of the <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0342"><strong>PEP 342</strong></a> changes described in section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-342"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 342: New Generator Features</span></a>,
+it’s now possible for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gi_frame</span></code> to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new warning, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeWarning" title="UnicodeWarning"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeWarning</span></code></a>, is triggered when  you attempt to
+compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t be converted to Unicode
+using the default ASCII encoding.  Previously such comparisons would raise a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> exception.</p></li>
+<li><p>Library: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields.
+If your files contain newlines embedded within fields, the input should be split
+into lines in a manner which preserves the newline characters.</p></li>
+<li><p>Library: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module’s  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> function’s would
+previously  accept any string as long as no more than one %char specifier
+appeared.  In Python 2.5, the argument must be exactly one %char specifier with
+no surrounding text.</p></li>
+<li><p>Library: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cPickle</span></code> modules no longer accept a
+return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reduce__()</span></code></a> method; the method must
+return a tuple of arguments instead.  The modules also no longer accept the
+deprecated <em>bin</em> keyword parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p>Library: The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code>  classes now
+have a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpc_paths</span></code> attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a
+limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'/RPC2'</span></code>.
+Setting  <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpc_paths</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or an empty tuple disables  this path
+checking.</p></li>
+<li><p>C API: Many functions now use <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t</span></code>  instead of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> to
+allow processing more data on 64-bit machines.  Extension code may need to make
+the same change to avoid warnings and to support 64-bit machines.  See the
+earlier section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-353"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type</span></a> for a discussion of this change.</p></li>
+<li><p>C API:  The obmalloc changes mean that  you must be careful to not mix usage
+of the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_*()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_*()</span></code> families of functions. Memory
+allocated with  one family’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*_Malloc()</span></code> must be  freed with the
+corresponding family’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*_Free()</span></code> function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions,
+corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Georg Brandl,
+Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel, Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W.
+Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew
+McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike
+Rovner, Scott Weikart, Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.5</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-308-conditional-expressions">PEP 308: Conditional Expressions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-309-partial-function-application">PEP 309: Partial Function Application</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-314-metadata-for-python-software-packages-v1-1">PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-328-absolute-and-relative-imports">PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts">PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-341-unified-try-except-finally">PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-342-new-generator-features">PEP 342: New Generator Features</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-343-the-with-statement">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-context-managers">Writing Context Managers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-contextlib-module">The contextlib module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-352-exceptions-as-new-style-classes">PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-353-using-ssize-t-as-the-index-type">PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-357-the-index-method">PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interactive-interpreter-changes">Interactive Interpreter Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-improved-and-removed-modules">New, Improved, and Removed Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-ctypes-package">The ctypes package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-elementtree-package">The ElementTree package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-hashlib-package">The hashlib package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-sqlite3-package">The sqlite3 package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-wsgiref-package">The wsgiref package</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes">Port-Specific Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-2-5">Porting to Python 2.5</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.6.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.6</a></p>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-6">
+<span id="whats-new-in-2-6"></span><h1>What’s New in Python 2.6<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on October 1
+2008.  The release schedule is described in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0361"><strong>PEP 361</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to
+Python 3.0, a major redesign of the language.  Whenever possible,
+Python 2.6 incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while
+remaining compatible with existing code by not removing older features
+or syntax.  When it’s not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do
+what it can, adding compatibility functions in a
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">future_builtins</span></code> module and a <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code> switch to warn about
+usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.</p>
+<p>Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
+such as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> modules, but
+there aren’t many new features that aren’t related to Python 3.0 in
+some way.</p>
+<p>Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout
+the source.  A search through the change logs finds there were 259
+patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6.  Both
+figures are likely to be underestimates.</p>
+<p>This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of
+the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For
+full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6. If
+you want to understand the rationale for the design and
+implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.
+Whenever possible, “What’s New in Python” links to the bug/patch item
+for each change.</p>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-0">
+<h2>Python 3.0<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was
+synchronized, with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being
+made on the same days.  The development of 3.0 has influenced many
+features in 2.6.</p>
+<p>Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks
+compatibility with the 2.x series.  This means that existing Python
+code will need some conversion in order to run on
+Python 3.0.  However, not all the changes in 3.0 necessarily break
+compatibility.  In cases where new features won’t cause existing code
+to break, they’ve been backported to 2.6 and are described in this
+document in the appropriate place.  Some of the 3.0-derived features
+are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__complex__" title="object.__complex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__()</span></code></a> method for converting objects to a complex number.</p></li>
+<li><p>Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">TypeError</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">exc</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The addition of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a> as a synonym for the built-in
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reduce()</span></code> function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the
+semantics of some existing builtins.  Functions that are new in 3.0
+such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bin" title="bin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin()</span></code></a> have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing
+builtins haven’t been changed; instead, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">future_builtins</span></code>
+module has versions with the new 3.0 semantics.  Code written to be
+compatible with 3.0 can do <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">future_builtins</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">hex,</span> <span class="pre">map</span></code> as
+necessary.</p>
+<p>A new command-line switch, <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code>, enables warnings
+about features that will be removed in Python 3.0.  You can run code
+with this switch to see how much work will be necessary to port
+code to 3.0.  The value of this switch is available
+to Python code as the boolean variable <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.py3kwarning</span></code>,
+and to C extension code as <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Py3kWarningFlag</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The 3xxx series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0.
+<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3000"><strong>PEP 3000</strong></a> describes the development process for Python 3.0.
+Start with <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3100"><strong>PEP 3100</strong></a> that describes the general goals for Python
+3.0, and then explore the higher-numbered PEPS that propose
+specific features.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-to-the-development-process">
+<h2>Changes to the Development Process<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-to-the-development-process" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process
+underwent two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge’s
+issue tracker to a customized Roundup installation, and the
+documentation was converted from LaTeX to reStructuredText.</p>
+<div class="section" id="new-issue-tracker-roundup">
+<h3>New Issue Tracker: Roundup<a class="headerlink" href="#new-issue-tracker-roundup" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly
+annoyed by SourceForge’s bug tracker.  SourceForge’s hosted solution
+doesn’t permit much customization; for example, it wasn’t possible to
+customize the life cycle of issues.</p>
+<p>The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation
+therefore posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set
+up different products and import some of the bugs and patches from
+SourceForge.  Four different trackers were examined: <a class="reference external" href="https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/">Jira</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://launchpad.net/">Launchpad</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="http://roundup.sourceforge.net/">Roundup</a>, and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://trac.edgewall.org/">Trac</a>.
+The committee eventually settled on Jira
+and Roundup as the two candidates.  Jira is a commercial product that
+offers no-cost hosted instances to free-software projects; Roundup
+is an open-source project that requires volunteers
+to administer it and a server to host it.</p>
+<p>After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was
+set up at <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org">https://bugs.python.org</a>.  One installation of Roundup can
+host multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers
+for Jython and for the Python web site.  It will surely find
+other uses in the future.  Where possible,
+this edition of “What’s New in Python” links to the bug/patch
+item for each change.</p>
+<p>Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.upfrontsoftware.co.za">Upfront Systems</a>
+of Stellenbosch, South Africa.  Martin von Löwis put a
+lot of effort into importing existing bugs and patches from
+SourceForge; his scripts for this import operation are at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/">http://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/</a> and may be useful to
+other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org">https://bugs.python.org</a></dt><dd><p>The Python bug tracker.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://bugs.jython.org">http://bugs.jython.org</a>:</dt><dd><p>The Jython bug tracker.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://roundup.sourceforge.net/">http://roundup.sourceforge.net/</a></dt><dd><p>Roundup downloads and documentation.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/">http://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/</a></dt><dd><p>Martin von Löwis’s conversion scripts.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-documentation-format-restructuredtext-using-sphinx">
+<h3>New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx<a class="headerlink" href="#new-documentation-format-restructuredtext-using-sphinx" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project
+started around 1989.  In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation
+was printed out for later study, not viewed online. LaTeX was widely
+used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining
+straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were
+learned.</p>
+<p>Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for
+printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted.  We no
+longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it
+online and HTML has become the most important format to support.
+Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred
+L. Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot
+of time maintaining the conversion process.  Occasionally people would
+suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but
+performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed
+the time required to finish the job.</p>
+<p>During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort
+into building a new toolchain for processing the documentation.  The
+resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
+<a class="reference external" href="http://sphinx-doc.org/">http://sphinx-doc.org/</a>.</p>
+<p>Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
+modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
+LaTeX.  The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax
+supporting custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in
+the Python community.</p>
+<p>Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and
+almost two dozen other projects
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html">listed on the Sphinx web site</a>)
+have adopted Sphinx as their documentation tool.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/documenting/">Documenting Python</a></dt><dd><p>Describes how to write for Python’s documentation.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://sphinx-doc.org/">Sphinx</a></dt><dd><p>Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://docutils.sourceforge.net">Docutils</a></dt><dd><p>The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-343-the-with-statement">
+<span id="pep-0343"></span><h2>PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-343-the-with-statement" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The previous version, Python 2.5, added the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’
+statement as an optional feature, to be enabled by a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span>
+<span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">with_statement</span></code> directive.  In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to
+be specially enabled; this means that <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> is now always a
+keyword.  The rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding
+section from the “What’s New in Python 2.5” document; if you’re
+familiar with the ‘<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>’ statement
+from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.</p>
+<p>The ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement clarifies code that previously would use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try...finally</span></code> blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In this
+section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.  In the next
+section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects
+for use with this statement.</p>
+<p>The ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement is a control-flow structure whose basic
+structure is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">expression</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">]:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">block</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the
+context management protocol (that is, has <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>
+methods).</p>
+<p>The object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> is called before <em>with-block</em> is executed and
+therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the
+name <em>variable</em>, if given.  (Note carefully that <em>variable</em> is <em>not</em> assigned
+the result of <em>expression</em>.)</p>
+<p>After execution of the <em>with-block</em> is finished, the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>
+method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run
+clean-up code.</p>
+<p>Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can
+be used with the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement. File objects are one example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/passwd&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">line</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">more</span> <span class="n">processing</span> <span class="n">code</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>After this statement has executed, the file object in <em>f</em> will have been
+automatically closed, even if the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop raised an exception
+part-way through the block.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>In this case, <em>f</em> is the same object created by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, because
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file.__enter__()</span></code> returns <em>self</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module’s locks and condition variables  also support the
+‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Critical section of code</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once  the
+block is complete.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localcontext()</span></code> function in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module makes it easy
+to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired
+precision and rounding characteristics for computations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">localcontext</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Displays with default precision of 28 digits</span>
+<span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;578&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">localcontext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)):</span>
+    <span class="c1"># All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.</span>
+    <span class="c1"># The original context is restored on exiting the block.</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="writing-context-managers">
+<span id="new-26-context-managers"></span><h3>Writing Context Managers<a class="headerlink" href="#writing-context-managers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Under the hood, the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement is fairly complicated. Most
+people will only use ‘<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>’ in company with existing objects and
+don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if
+you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the
+underlying implementation and should keep reading.</p>
+<p>A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a “context
+manager”.  The context manager must have <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a>
+methods.</p></li>
+<li><p>The context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method is called.  The value returned
+is assigned to <em>VAR</em>.  If no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">VAR</span></code> clause is present, the value is simply
+discarded.</p></li>
+<li><p>The code in <em>BLOCK</em> is executed.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>BLOCK</em> raises an exception, the context manager’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method
+is called with three arguments, the exception details (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type,</span> <span class="pre">value,</span> <span class="pre">traceback</span></code>,
+the same values returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>, which can also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+if no exception occurred).  The method’s return value controls whether an exception
+is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> will result
+in suppressing it.  You’ll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because
+if you do the author of the code containing the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement will
+never realize anything went wrong.</p></li>
+<li><p>If <em>BLOCK</em> didn’t raise an exception,  the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method is still
+called, but <em>type</em>, <em>value</em>, and <em>traceback</em> are all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will only
+sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions.</p>
+<p>(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the
+database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either committed,
+meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back,
+meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged.  See
+any database textbook for more information.)</p>
+<p>Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection. Our goal will
+be to let the user write code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">db_connection</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">db_connection</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;insert into ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;delete from ...&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... more operations ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or
+rolled back if there’s an exception. Here’s the basic interface for
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatabaseConnection</span></code> that I’ll assume:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Database interface</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">cursor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">commit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Commits current transaction&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">rollback</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="s2">&quot;Rolls back current transaction&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method is pretty easy, having only to start a new
+transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful
+result, so the method will return it.  The user can then add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">cursor</span></code> to
+their ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement to bind the cursor to a variable name.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__enter__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="c1"># Code to start a new transaction</span>
+        <span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">cursor</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method is the most complicated because it’s where most of
+the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an exception occurred.  If
+there was no exception, the transaction is committed.  The transaction is rolled
+back if there was an exception.</p>
+<p>In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
+returning the default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is false, so the exception
+will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be more explicit and
+add a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span></code></a> statement at the marked location.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__exit__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tb</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">tb</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># No exception, so commit</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="c1"># Exception occurred, so rollback.</span>
+            <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rollback</span><span class="p">()</span>
+            <span class="c1"># return False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-contextlib-module">
+<span id="new-module-contextlib"></span><h3>The contextlib module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-contextlib-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module provides some functions and a decorator that
+are useful when writing objects for use with the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement.</p>
+<p>The decorator is called <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code>, and lets you write a single
+generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator should yield
+exactly one value.  The code up to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> will be executed as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> method, and the value yielded will be the method’s return
+value that will get bound to the variable in the ‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement’s
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> clause, if any.  The code after the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> will be
+executed in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method.  Any exception raised in the block will
+be raised by the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> statement.</p>
+<p>Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
+could be written as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@contextmanager</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">db_transaction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connection</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">cursor</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">cursor</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rollback</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">connection</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commit</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">db</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">DatabaseConnection</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">db_transaction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">db</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module also has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nested(mgr1,</span> <span class="pre">mgr2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code> function
+that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to write nested
+‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statements.  In this example, the single ‘<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code>’
+statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">nested</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">db_transaction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">db</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">locked</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closing()</span></code> function returns its argument so that it can be
+bound to a variable, and calls the argument’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.close()</span></code> method at the end
+of the block.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">closing</span>
+
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">closing</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.yahoo.com&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a> - The “with” statement</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland,
+Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the code generated for a
+‘<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>’ statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement
+works.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The documentation  for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-366-explicit-relative-imports-from-a-main-module">
+<span id="pep-0366"></span><h2>PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-366-explicit-relative-imports-from-a-main-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> switch allows running a module as a script.
+When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
+imports didn’t work correctly.</p>
+<p>The fix for Python 2.6 adds a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a> attribute to
+modules.  When this attribute is present, relative imports will be
+relative to the value of this attribute instead of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__name__" title="__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>PEP 302-style importers can then set <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a> as necessary.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> module that implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> switch now
+does this, so relative imports will now work correctly in scripts
+running from inside a package.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-370-per-user-site-packages-directory">
+<span id="pep-0370"></span><h2>PEP 370: Per-user <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site-packages</span></code> Directory<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-370-per-user-site-packages-directory" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>When you run Python, the module search path <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> usually
+includes a directory whose path ends in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;site-packages&quot;</span></code>.  This
+directory is intended to hold locally-installed packages available to
+all users using a machine or a particular site installation.</p>
+<p>Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories.
+The directory varies depending on the platform:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Unix and Mac OS X: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.local/</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Windows: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%APPDATA%/Python</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories,
+such as <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib/python2.6/site-packages</span></code> on Unix/Mac OS and
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Python26/site-packages</span></code> on Windows.</p>
+<p>If you don’t like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
+environment variable.  <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUSERBASE</span></code></a> sets the root
+directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature.  On
+Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
+setting the <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">APPDATA</span></code> environment variable.  You can also
+modify the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site.py</span></code> file for your Python installation.</p>
+<p>The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a> option or setting the <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONNOUSERSITE</span></code></a>
+environment variable.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0370"><strong>PEP 370</strong></a> - Per-user <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site-packages</span></code> Directory</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-371-the-multiprocessing-package">
+<span id="pep-0371"></span><h2>PEP 371: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> Package<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-371-the-multiprocessing-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> package lets Python programs create new
+processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the
+parent.  The parent and child processes can communicate using queues
+and pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores,
+and can share simple arrays of data.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module started out as an exact emulation of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module using processes instead of threads.  That
+goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
+approach of the module is still similar.  The fundamental class
+is the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code>, which is passed a callable object and
+a collection of arguments.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start()</span></code> method
+sets the callable running in a subprocess, after which you can call
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_alive()</span></code> method to check whether the subprocess is still running
+and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">join()</span></code> method to wait for the process to exit.</p>
+<p>Here’s a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a
+factorial.  The function doing the calculation is written strangely so
+that it takes significantly longer when the input argument is a
+multiple of 4.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Queue</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Compute a factorial.&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">05</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Calculate the result</span>
+    <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="n">L</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Put the result on the queue</span>
+    <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fact</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">N</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Factorial&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;=&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">result</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> is used to communicate the result of the factorial.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a> object is stored in a global variable.
+The child process will use the value of the variable when the child
+was created; because it’s a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code></a>, parent and child can use
+the object to communicate.  (If the parent were to change the value of
+the global variable, the child’s value would be unaffected, and vice
+versa.)</p>
+<p>Two other classes, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Manager</span></code>, provide
+higher-level interfaces.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code> will create a fixed number of
+worker processes, and requests can then be distributed to the workers
+by calling <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply_async()</span></code> to add a single request,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map_async()</span></code> to add a number of
+requests.  The following code uses a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code> to spread requests
+across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list of results:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Pool</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dictionary</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Compute a factorial.&quot;</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">result</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">v</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This produces the following output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="mi">39916800</span>
+<span class="mi">51090942171709440000</span>
+<span class="mi">8222838654177922817725562880000000</span>
+<span class="mi">33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The other high-level interface, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Manager</span></code> class, creates a
+separate server process that can hold master copies of Python data
+structures.  Other processes can then access and modify these data
+structures using proxy objects.  The following example creates a
+shared dictionary by calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict()</span></code></a> method; the worker
+processes then insert values into the dictionary.  (Locking is not
+done for you automatically, which doesn’t matter in this example.
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Manager</span></code>’s methods also include <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Semaphore()</span></code> to create shared locks.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">multiprocessing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Manager</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dictionary</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="s2">&quot;Compute a factorial.&quot;</span>
+    <span class="c1"># Calculate the result</span>
+    <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="n">L</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fact</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Store result in dictionary</span>
+    <span class="n">dictionary</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fact</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s1">&#39;__main__&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Pool</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">mgr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Manager</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">mgr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dict</span><span class="p">()</span>         <span class="c1"># Create shared dictionary</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Run tasks using the pool</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">N</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_async</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">N</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Wait for tasks to exit</span>
+    <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># Output results</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">k</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">v</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This will produce the output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="mi">11</span> <span class="mi">39916800</span>
+<span class="mi">21</span> <span class="mi">51090942171709440000</span>
+<span class="mi">31</span> <span class="mi">8222838654177922817725562880000000</span>
+<span class="mi">41</span> <span class="mi">33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000</span>
+<span class="mi">51</span> <span class="mf">15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000.</span><span class="o">..</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0371"><strong>PEP 371</strong></a> - Addition of the multiprocessing package</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk;
+implemented by Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3101-advanced-string-formatting">
+<span id="pep-3101"></span><h2>PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3101-advanced-string-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In Python 3.0, the <cite>%</cite> operator is supplemented by a more powerful string
+formatting method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a>.  Support for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method
+has been backported to Python 2.6.</p>
+<p>In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a <cite>.format()</cite> method that
+treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted.
+The formatting template uses curly brackets (<cite>{</cite>, <cite>}</cite>) as special characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;User ID: </span><span class="si">{0}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;root&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;User ID: root&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Use the named keyword arguments</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;User ID: </span><span class="si">{uid}</span><span class="s2">   Last seen: </span><span class="si">{last_login}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">uid</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;root&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="n">last_login</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;5 Mar 2008 07:20&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;Empty dict: {{}}&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;Empty dict: {}&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{0}</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{1}</span></code>, etc. or names of keyword arguments.  You can also
+supply compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Platform: </span><span class="si">{0.platform}</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">Python version: </span><span class="si">{0.version}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Platform: darwin</span>
+<span class="go">Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)</span>
+<span class="go">[GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">mimetypes</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Content-type: </span><span class="si">{0[.mp4]}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mimetypes</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">types_map</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Content-type: video/mp4&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[.mp4]</span></code>, you
+don’t need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look
+up the value using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mp4</span></code> as the key.  Strings beginning with a
+number will be converted to an integer.  You can’t write more
+complicated expressions inside a format string.</p>
+<p>So far we’ve shown how to specify which field to substitute into the
+resulting string.  The precise formatting used is also controllable by
+adding a colon followed by a format specifier.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0:15}</span><span class="s1"> $</span><span class="si">{1:&gt;6}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Registration&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">35</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Registration    $    35&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Tutorial&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Tutorial        $    50&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Banquet&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">125</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Banquet         $   125&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;{0:</span><span class="si">{1}</span><span class="s1">}&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">15</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Invoice #1234&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Invoice #1234  &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">35</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fmt</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Invoice #1234&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Invoice #1234                      &#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+<col style="width: 73%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Character</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Effect</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>&lt; (default)</p></td>
+<td><p>Left-align</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>&gt;</p></td>
+<td><p>Right-align</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>^</p></td>
+<td><p>Center</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>=</p></td>
+<td><p>(For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which
+controls how the value is formatted.  For example, floating-point numbers
+can be formatted as a general number or in exponential notation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0:g}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.75</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.75&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{0:e}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.75</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.750000e+00&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A variety of presentation types are available.  Consult the 2.6
+documentation for a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">complete list</span></a>; here’s a sample:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 6%" />
+<col style="width: 94%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Binary. Outputs the number in base 2.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Character. Converts the integer to the corresponding Unicode character
+before printing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">d</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Decimal Integer. Outputs the number in base 10.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">o</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Octal format. Outputs the number in base 8.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case letters for
+the digits above 9.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific notation using the
+letter ‘e’ to indicate the exponent.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">g</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>General format. This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless
+the number is too large, in which case it switches to ‘e’ exponent
+notation.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Number. This is the same as ‘g’ (for floats) or ‘d’ (for integers),
+except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
+number separator characters.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p>Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed (‘f’)
+format, followed by a percent sign.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>Classes and types can define a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a> method to control how they’re
+formatted.  It receives a single argument, the format specifier:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__format__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">format_spec</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">format_spec</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">unicode</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">unicode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s also a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> builtin that will format a single
+value.  It calls the type’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a> method with the
+provided specifier:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">75.6564</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.2f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;75.66&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatstrings"><span class="std std-ref">Format String Syntax</span></a></dt><dd><p>The reference documentation for format fields.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101"><strong>PEP 3101</strong></a> - Advanced String Formatting</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Talin. Implemented by Eric Smith.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3105-print-as-a-function">
+<span id="pep-3105"></span><h2>PEP 3105: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> As a Function<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3105-print-as-a-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement becomes the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function in Python 3.0.
+Making <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> a function makes it possible to replace the function
+by doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">print(...)</span></code> or importing a new function from somewhere else.</p>
+<p>Python 2.6 has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> import that removes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> as language
+syntax, letting you use the functional form instead.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">print_function</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;# of entries&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dictionary</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The signature of the new function is:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The parameters are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>args</em>: positional arguments whose values will be printed out.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>sep</em>: the separator, which will be printed between arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>end</em>: the ending text, which will be printed after all of the
+arguments have been output.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>file</em>: the file object to which the output will be sent.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3105"><strong>PEP 3105</strong></a> - Make print a function</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Georg Brandl.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3110-exception-handling-changes">
+<span id="pep-3110"></span><h2>PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3110-exception-handling-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>One error that Python programmers occasionally make
+is writing the following code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">:</span>  <span class="c1"># Wrong!</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The author is probably trying to catch both <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exceptions, but this code actually does something
+different: it will catch <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> and bind the resulting
+exception object to the local name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ValueError&quot;</span></code>.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> exception will not be caught at all.  The correct
+code specifies a tuple of exceptions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous:
+does it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single
+node that’s a tuple?</p>
+<p>Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word
+“as”.  To catch an exception and store the exception object in the
+variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc</span></code>, you must write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">TypeError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python 3.0 will only support the use of “as”, and therefore interprets
+the first example as catching two different exceptions.  Python 2.6
+supports both the comma and “as”, so existing code will continue to
+work.  We therefore suggest using “as” when writing new Python code
+that will only be executed with 2.6.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3110"><strong>PEP 3110</strong></a> - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3112-byte-literals">
+<span id="pep-3112"></span><h2>PEP 3112: Byte Literals<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3112-byte-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language’s fundamental string type and
+denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'string'</span></code>
+or using a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> constructor.  For future compatibility,
+Python 2.6 adds <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> as a synonym for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type,
+and it also supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b''</span></code> notation.</p>
+<p>The 2.6 <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> differs from 3.0’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> type in various
+ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different.  In 3.0,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes([65,</span> <span class="pre">66,</span> <span class="pre">67])</span></code> is 3 elements long, containing the bytes
+representing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code>; in 2.6, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes([65,</span> <span class="pre">66,</span> <span class="pre">67])</span></code> returns the
+12-byte string representing the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of the list.</p>
+<p>The primary use of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> in 2.6 will be to write tests of
+object type such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">bytes)</span></code>.  This will help the 2to3
+converter, which can’t tell whether 2.x code intends strings to
+contain either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now
+use either <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> to represent your intention
+exactly, and the resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0.</p>
+<p>There’s also a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> import that causes all string literals
+to become Unicode strings.  This means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u</span></code> escape sequences
+can be used to include Unicode characters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">unicode_literals</span>
+
+<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+     <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>               <span class="c1"># 12 Unicode characters</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit
+string type, called <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStringObject</span></code> in Python 2.x,
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytesObject" title="PyBytesObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytesObject</span></code></a>.  Python 2.6 uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#define</span></code>
+to support using the names <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytesObject" title="PyBytesObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytesObject()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_Check" title="PyBytes_Check"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_Check()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromStringAndSize" title="PyBytes_FromStringAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_FromStringAndSize()</span></code></a>,
+and all the other functions and macros used with strings.</p>
+<p>Instances of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> type are immutable just
+as strings are.  A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> type stores a mutable
+sequence of bytes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">65</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">66</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">67</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;ABC&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">u</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u21ef\u3244</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\xe3</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">unicode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">u&#39;\u31ef \u3244&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startswith()</span></code>/<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endswith()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code>/<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code>,
+and some of the methods of lists, such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pop()</span></code>,  and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABC&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">ord</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;ABCde&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There’s also a corresponding C API, with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_FromObject" title="PyByteArray_FromObject"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyByteArray_FromObject()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytearray.html#c.PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize" title="PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize()</span></code></a>,
+and various other functions.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3112"><strong>PEP 3112</strong></a> - Bytes literals in Python 3000</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian Heimes.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3116-new-i-o-library">
+<span id="pep-3116"></span><h2>PEP 3116: New I/O Library<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3116-new-i-o-library" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python’s built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
+file-like objects don’t necessarily support all of them.  Objects that
+imitate files usually support <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>, but they
+may not support <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a>, for example.  Python 3.0 introduces
+a layered I/O library in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module that separates buffering
+and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write
+operations.</p>
+<p>There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code> defines raw I/O operations: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code>.
+Most of the methods of this class will often map to a single system call.
+There are also <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readable()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writable()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seekable()</span></code>
+methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.</p>
+<p>Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
+sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn’t restructured its file and socket objects
+in this way.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase</span></code> is an abstract base class that
+buffers data in memory to reduce the number of
+system calls used, making I/O processing more efficient.
+It supports all of the methods of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase</span></code>,
+and adds a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw</span></code> attribute holding the underlying raw object.</p>
+<p>There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC.
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedWriter</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedReader</span></code> are for objects
+that support write-only or read-only usage that have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code>
+method for random access.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRandom</span></code> objects support
+read and write access upon the same underlying stream, and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedRWPair</span></code> is for objects such as TTYs that have both
+read and write operations acting upon unconnected streams of data.
+The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesIO</span></code> class supports reading, writing, and seeking
+over an in-memory buffer.</p>
+</li>
+<li id="index-13"><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code>: Provides functions for reading and writing
+strings (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0),
+and supporting <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a>.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOBase</span></code> defines
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code></a> method and supports iteration upon
+objects.</p>
+<p>There are two concrete implementations.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code>
+wraps a buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for
+text I/O and adding a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer</span></code> attribute for access
+to the underlying object.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code> simply buffers
+everything in memory without ever writing anything to disk.</p>
+<p>(In Python 2.6, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> is implemented in
+pure Python, so it’s pretty slow.   You should therefore stick with the
+existing <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code> module or <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cStringIO</span></code> for now.  At some
+point Python 3.0’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module will be rewritten into C for speed,
+and perhaps the C implementation will be  backported to the 2.x releases.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven’t been
+restructured to build on top of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module’s classes.  The
+module is being provided to make it easier to write code that’s
+forward-compatible with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing
+their own implementations of buffering and text I/O.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3116"><strong>PEP 3116</strong></a> - New I/O</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van Rossum.
+Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald,
+Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol">
+<span id="pep-3118"></span><h2>PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types
+exchange pointers into their internal representations.  A
+memory-mapped file can be viewed as a buffer of characters, for
+example, and this lets another module such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>
+treat memory-mapped files as a string of characters to be searched.</p>
+<p>The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing
+packages such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation
+of arrays so that callers can write data directly into an array instead
+of going through a slower API.  This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of experience
+from NumPy development, adding a number of new features
+such as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.</p>
+<p>The most important new C API function is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*obj,</span> <span class="pre">Py_buffer</span> <span class="pre">*view,</span> <span class="pre">int</span> <span class="pre">flags)</span></code>, which
+takes an object and a set of flags, and fills in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code> structure with information
+about the object’s memory representation.  Objects
+can use this operation to lock memory in place
+while an external caller could be modifying the contents,
+so there’s a corresponding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer</span> <span class="pre">*view)</span></code> to
+indicate that the external caller is done.</p>
+<p>The <em>flags</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a> specifies
+constraints upon the memory returned.  Some examples are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_WRITABLE</span></code> indicates that the memory must be writable.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_LOCK</span></code> requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS</span></code>
+requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
+Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array layout.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Two new argument codes for <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple()</span></code></a>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z*</span></code>, return locked buffer objects for a parameter.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3118"><strong>PEP 3118</strong></a> - Revising the buffer protocol</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by
+Travis Oliphant.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3119-abstract-base-classes">
+<span id="pep-3119"></span><h2>PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3119-abstract-base-classes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
+declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
+access protocol.  Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
+feature for Python. The ABC support consists of an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module
+containing a metaclass called <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code>, special handling of
+this metaclass by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a>
+builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
+think will be widely useful.  Future versions of Python will probably
+add more ABCs.</p>
+<p>Let’s say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it supports
+dictionary-style access.  The phrase “dictionary-style” is vague, however.
+It probably means that accessing items with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[1]</span></code> works.
+Does it imply that setting items with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj[2]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">value</span></code> works?
+Or that the object will have <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code>
+methods?  What about the iterative variants  such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iterkeys()</span></code>?  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code>?  Iterating over the object with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a>?</p>
+<p>The Python 2.6 <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module includes a number of
+different ABCs that represent these distinctions.  <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Iterable</span></code>
+indicates that a class defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a>, and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Container</span></code> means the class defines a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></code></a>
+method and therefore supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code> expressions.  The basic
+dictionary interface of getting items, setting items, and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code>, is defined by the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code> ABC.</p>
+<p>You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC
+to indicate they support that ABC’s interface:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">collections</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Storage</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MutableMapping</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from
+the desired ABC and instead register the class by
+calling the ABC’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code> method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">collections</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Storage</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MutableMapping</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Storage</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
+The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code>  method is useful when you’ve written a new
+ABC that can describe an existing type or class, or if you want
+to declare that some third-party class implements an ABC.
+For example, if you defined a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrintableType</span></code> ABC,
+it’s legal to do:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Register Python&#39;s types</span>
+<span class="n">PrintableType</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">PrintableType</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">PrintableType</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but
+Python can’t check this; it’s up to the class author to
+understand the ABC’s requirements and to implement the code accordingly.</p>
+<p>To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can
+now write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">MutableMapping</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Mapping object expected, not </span><span class="si">%r</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Don’t feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the
+above example.  Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where
+explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on
+an object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an
+exception if they aren’t.  Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only
+do it where it’s absolutely necessary.</p>
+<p>You can write your own ABCs by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.ABCMeta</span></code> as the
+metaclass in a class definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">abc</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ABCMeta</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abstractmethod</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Drawable</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="n">__metaclass__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ABCMeta</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@abstractmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">draw</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">scale</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">draw_doubled</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">draw</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">scale</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Square</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Drawable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">draw</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">scale</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Drawable</span></code> ABC above, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">draw_doubled()</span></code> method
+renders the object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms
+of other methods described in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Drawable</span></code>.  Classes implementing
+this ABC therefore don’t need to provide their own implementation
+of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">draw_doubled()</span></code>, though they can do so.  An implementation
+of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">draw()</span></code> is necessary, though; the ABC can’t provide
+a useful generic implementation.</p>
+<p>You can apply the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;abstractmethod</span></code> decorator to methods such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">draw()</span></code> that must be implemented; Python will then raise an
+exception for classes that don’t define the method.
+Note that the exception is only raised when you actually
+try to create an instance of a subclass lacking the method:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Circle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Drawable</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Circle</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">Can&#39;t instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Abstract data attributes can be declared using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;abstractproperty</span></code> decorator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">abc</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">abstractproperty</span>
+<span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@abstractproperty</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">readonly</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+   <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Subclasses must then define a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readonly()</span></code> property.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3119"><strong>PEP 3119</strong></a> - Introducing Abstract Base Classes</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin.
+Implemented by Guido van Rossum.
+Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex Martelli.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3127-integer-literal-support-and-syntax">
+<span id="pep-3127"></span><h2>PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3127-integer-literal-support-and-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals,
+prefixing them with “0o” or “0O” instead of a leading zero, and adds
+support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a “0b” or
+“0B” prefix.</p>
+<p>Python 2.6 doesn’t drop support for a leading 0 signalling
+an octal number, but it does add support for “0o” and “0b”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mo">0o21</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">8</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="go">(17, 17)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mb">0b101111</span>
+<span class="go">47</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">oct()</span></code></a> builtin still returns numbers
+prefixed with a leading zero, and a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bin" title="bin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin()</span></code></a>
+builtin returns the binary representation for a number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">oct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;052&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">future_builtins</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">oct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0o52&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">173</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0b10101101&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long()</span></code> builtins will now accept the “0o”
+and “0b” prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the
+<em>base</em> argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be
+determined from the string):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0o52&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">42</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1101&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">13</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0b1101&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">13</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0b1101&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">13</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3127"><strong>PEP 3127</strong></a> - Integer Literal Support and Syntax</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by
+Eric Smith.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3129-class-decorators">
+<span id="pep-3129"></span><h2>PEP 3129: Class Decorators<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3129-class-decorators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Decorators have been extended from functions to classes.  It’s now legal to
+write:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@foo</span>
+<span class="nd">@bar</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="n">A</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">A</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3129"><strong>PEP 3129</strong></a> - Class Decorators</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Collin Winter.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3141-a-type-hierarchy-for-numbers">
+<span id="pep-3141"></span><h2>PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3141-a-type-hierarchy-for-numbers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types
+inspired by Scheme’s numeric tower.  These classes were backported to
+2.6 as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The most general ABC is <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Number</span></code>.  It defines no operations at
+all, and only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by
+doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(obj,</span> <span class="pre">Number)</span></code>.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code> is a subclass of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Number</span></code>.  Complex numbers
+can undergo the basic operations of addition, subtraction,
+multiplication, division, and exponentiation, and you can retrieve the
+real and imaginary parts and obtain a number’s conjugate.  Python’s built-in
+complex type is an implementation of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code>.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Real</span></code> further derives from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Complex</span></code>, and adds
+operations that only work on real numbers: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">floor()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trunc()</span></code>,
+rounding, taking the remainder mod N, floor division,
+and comparisons.</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rational</span></code> numbers derive from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Real</span></code>, have
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numerator</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">denominator</span></code> properties, and can be
+converted to floats.  Python 2.6 adds a simple rational-number class,
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code>, in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> module.  (It’s called
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code> instead of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rational</span></code> to avoid
+a name clash with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational" title="numbers.Rational"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Rational</span></code></a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code> numbers derive from <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Rational</span></code>, and
+can be shifted left and right with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&lt;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;&gt;</span></code>,
+combined using bitwise operations such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>,
+and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.</p>
+<p>In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.floor()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.ceil()</span></code></a>, and adds a new
+one, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.trunc" title="math.trunc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.trunc()</span></code></a>, that’s been backported to Python 2.6.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.trunc" title="math.trunc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.trunc()</span></code></a> rounds toward zero, returning the closest
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code> that’s between the function’s argument and zero.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3141"><strong>PEP 3141</strong></a> - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower">Scheme’s numerical tower</a>, from the Guile manual.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2">Scheme’s number datatypes</a> from the R5RS Scheme specification.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-fractions-module">
+<h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> Module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-fractions-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a>
+module provides a rational-number class.  Rational numbers store their
+values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
+exactly represent numbers such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2/3</span></code> that floating-point numbers
+can only approximate.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code> constructor takes two <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code> values
+that will be the numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(16, 15)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(5, 3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For converting floating-point numbers to rationals,
+the float type now has an <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_integer_ratio()</span></code> method that returns
+the numerator and denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same
+floating-point value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(5, 2)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3.1415</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point
+numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being
+approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value
+<strong>exactly</strong>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> module is based upon an implementation by Sjoerd
+Mullender that was in Python’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Demo/classes/</span></code> directory for a
+long time.  This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey
+Yasskin.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Directories and zip archives containing a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file
+can now be executed directly by passing their name to the
+interpreter. The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted
+as the first entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by
+Andy Chu, subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1739468">bpo-1739468</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> function was catching and ignoring all errors,
+under the assumption that they meant a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> method
+was failing somehow and the return value of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> would
+therefore be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  This logic shouldn’t be applied to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a>, however; Python 2.6
+will no longer discard such exceptions when <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a>
+encounters them.  (Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2196">bpo-2196</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When calling a function using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> syntax to provide keyword
+arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary;
+any mapping will now work:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>   <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ud</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">UserDict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">UserDict</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ud</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ud</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;string&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">ud</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1686487">bpo-1686487</a>.)</p>
+<p>It’s also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> argument
+to a function call.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kw</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">keyword</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {&#39;keyword&#39;: 13}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Previously this would have been a syntax error.
+(Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3473">bpo-3473</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new builtin, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next(iterator,</span> <span class="pre">[default])</span></code> returns the next item
+from the specified iterator.  If the <em>default</em> argument is supplied,
+it will be returned if <em>iterator</em> has been exhausted; otherwise,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception will be raised.  (Backported
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2719">bpo-2719</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Tuples now have <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code> methods matching the
+list type’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code> methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing syntax,
+accepting various combinations of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop,</span> <span class="pre">step)</span></code>.
+Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases wouldn’t work.
+(Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Properties now have three attributes, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getter</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setter</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deleter</span></code>, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts
+for adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
+property. You would use them like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">object</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setter</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">deleter</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">del</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getter</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setter</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">x</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">2</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple iterables:
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intersection()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intersection_update()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">union()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difference()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difference_update()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1234567890&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">intersection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc123&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cdf246&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Intersection between all inputs</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;2&#39;])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">difference</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;246&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;789&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;1&#39;, &#39;0&#39;, &#39;3&#39;, &#39;5&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Many floating-point features were added.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a> function
+will now turn the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nan</span></code> into an
+IEEE 754 Not A Number value, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+inf</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-inf</span></code> into
+positive or negative infinity.  This works on any platform with
+IEEE 754 semantics.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1635">bpo-1635</a>.)</p>
+<p>Other functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinf()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isnan()</span></code>, return true if their floating-point argument is
+infinite or Not A Number.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1640">bpo-1640</a>)</p>
+<p>Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
+into hexadecimal strings (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3008">bpo-3008</a>).  These functions
+convert floats to and from a string representation without
+introducing rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and
+binary.  Floats have a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hex()</span></code></a> method that returns a string
+representation, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.fromhex()</span></code> method converts a string
+back into a number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">3.75</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x1.e000000000000p+1&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromhex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;0x1.e000000000000p+1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3.75</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1.</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0x1.5555555555555p-2&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats
+on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a> constructor will now preserve the sign
+of the zero.  (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1507">bpo-1507</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Classes that inherit a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method from a parent class
+can set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> to indicate that the class isn’t
+hashable.  This will make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash(obj)</span></code> raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+and the class will not be indicated as implementing the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Hashable</span></code> ABC.</p>
+<p>You should do this when you’ve defined a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cmp__()</span></code> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method that compares objects by their value rather
+than by identity.  All objects have a default hash method that uses
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">id(obj)</span></code> as the hash value.  There’s no tidy way to remove the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> method inherited from a parent class, so
+assigning <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> was implemented as an override.  At the
+C level, extensions can set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented" title="PyObject_HashNotImplemented"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HashNotImplemented()</span></code></a>.
+(Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2235">bpo-2235</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a> exception now subclasses
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.  This means
+that an exception handler that does <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <span class="pre">Exception:</span></code>
+will not inadvertently catch <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#GeneratorExit" title="GeneratorExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GeneratorExit</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Chad Austin; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1537">bpo-1537</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Generator objects now have a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gi_code</span></code> attribute that refers to
+the original code object backing the generator.
+(Contributed by Collin Winter; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1473257">bpo-1473257</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> built-in function now accepts keyword arguments
+as well as positional parameters.  (Contributed by Thomas Wouters;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1444529">bpo-1444529</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex()</span></code></a> constructor now accepts strings containing
+parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex(repr(cplx))</span></code>
+will now round-trip values.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex('(3+4j)')</span></code>
+now returns the value (3+4j).  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1491866">bpo-1491866</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>The string <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">translate()</span></code> method now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as the
+translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
+transformation.   This makes it easier to carry out operations
+that only delete characters.  (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
+implemented by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1193128">bpo-1193128</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> function now checks for a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__" title="object.__dir__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__()</span></code></a>
+method on the objects it receives.  This method must return a list
+of strings containing the names of valid attributes for the object,
+and lets the object control the value that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> produces.
+Objects that have <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a>
+methods can use this to advertise pseudo-attributes they will honor.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1591665">bpo-1591665</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and function
+comprising the method; the new synonym for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">im_self</span></code> is
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__self__</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">im_func</span></code> is also available as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code>.
+The old names are still supported in Python 2.6, but are gone in 3.0.</p></li>
+<li><p>An obscure change: when you use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> function inside a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a> statement, the resulting dictionary no longer returns free
+variables.  (Free variables, in this case, are variables referenced in the
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code> statement  that aren’t attributes of the class.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h3>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module has been rewritten in C.  This makes
+it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also
+make the interpreter’s startup faster.
+(Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Brett Cannon; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1631171">bpo-1631171</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce
+the work required to find the correct method implementation
+for a particular class; once cached, the interpreter doesn’t need to
+traverse base classes to figure out the right method to call.
+The cache is cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified,
+so the cache should remain correct even in the face of Python’s dynamic
+nature.
+(Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated for
+Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1700288">bpo-1700288</a>.)</p>
+<p>By default, this change is only applied to types that are included with
+the Python core.  Extension modules may not necessarily be compatible with
+this cache,
+so they must explicitly add <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG</span></code>
+to the module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_flags</span></code> field to enable the method cache.
+(To be compatible with the method cache, the extension module’s code
+must not directly access and modify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dict</span></code> member of
+any of the types it implements.  Most modules don’t do this,
+but it’s impossible for the Python interpreter to determine that.
+See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1878">bpo-1878</a> for some discussion.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster
+by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a
+full string comparison.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after an
+initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1819">bpo-1819</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>All of the functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module have been rewritten in
+C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type
+objects.  This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass of
+one of these types.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting
+whitespace and line breaks; this speeds up the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code> method
+by about 25% and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitlines()</span></code> by 35%.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)  Memory usage is reduced
+by using pymalloc for the Unicode string’s data.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement now stores the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> method on the stack,
+producing a small speedup.  (Implemented by Jeffrey Yasskin.)</p></li>
+<li><p>To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear internal
+free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation of objects.
+This may return memory to the operating system sooner.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="interpreter-changes">
+<span id="new-26-interpreter"></span><h3>Interpreter Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#interpreter-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
+implementations.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-j"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-J</span></code></a> switch has been reserved for use by
+Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed to
+the underlying JVM.  <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> has been reserved for options
+specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython,
+Jython, or IronPython.  If either option is used with Python 2.6, the
+interpreter will report that the option isn’t currently used.</p>
+<p>Python can now be prevented from writing <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code>
+files by supplying the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id1"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-B</span></code></a> switch to the Python interpreter,
+or by setting the <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</span></code></a> environment
+variable before running the interpreter.  This setting is available to
+Python programs as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.dont_write_bytecode</span></code> variable, and
+Python code can change the value to modify the interpreter’s
+behaviour.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)</p>
+<p>The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can
+be specified by setting the <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONIOENCODING</span></code></a> environment
+variable before running the interpreter.  The value should be a string
+in the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;encoding&gt;</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;encoding&gt;:&lt;errorhandler&gt;</span></code>.
+The <em>encoding</em> part specifies the encoding’s name, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">latin-1</span></code>; the optional <em>errorhandler</em> part specifies
+what to do with characters that can’t be handled by the encoding,
+and  should be one of “error”, “ignore”, or “replace”.   (Contributed
+by Martin von Löwis.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-and-improved-modules">
+<h2>New and Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-and-improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
+enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
+changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/NEWS</span></code> file in the source tree for a more complete list of
+changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asynchat.html#module-asynchat" title="asynchat: Support for asynchronous command/response protocols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code></a> modules are
+being actively maintained again, and a number of patches and bugfixes
+were applied.  (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1736190">bpo-1736190</a> for
+one patch.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code> module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and the package
+is now available as a standalone package.  The web page for the package is
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm">www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm</a>.
+The plan is to remove the package from the standard library
+in Python 3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
+Python’s.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb.dbshelve</span></code> module now uses the highest pickling protocol
+available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
+(Contributed by W. Barnes.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cgi.html#module-cgi" title="cgi: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code></a> module will now read variables from the query string
+of an HTTP POST request.  This makes it possible to use form actions
+with URLs that include query strings such as
+“/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1”.  (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
+Nubis; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1817">bpo-1817</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_qs()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_qsl()</span></code> functions have been
+relocated from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cgi.html#module-cgi" title="cgi: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code></a> module to the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse</span></code> module.
+The versions still available in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cgi.html#module-cgi" title="cgi: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code></a> module will
+trigger <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a> messages in 2.6
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue600362">bpo-600362</a>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> module underwent extensive revision,
+contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.
+Five new functions were added:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">polar()</span></code> converts a complex number to polar form, returning
+the modulus and argument of the complex number.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rect()</span></code> does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
+back into the corresponding complex number.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">phase()</span></code> returns the argument (also called the angle) of a complex
+number.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isnan()</span></code> returns True if either
+the real or imaginary part of its argument is a NaN.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinf()</span></code> returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
+its argument is infinite.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> module.  For all functions, the real and imaginary
+parts of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
+precision (ulps) whenever possible.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1381">bpo-1381</a> for the
+details.  The branch cuts for <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asinh()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atanh()</span></code>: and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atan()</span></code> have also been corrected.</p>
+<p>The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000 new
+test cases exercise the algebraic functions.</p>
+<p>On IEEE 754 platforms, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> module now handles IEEE 754
+special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner consistent
+with Annex ‘G’ of the C99 standard.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new data type in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module: <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple(typename,</span>
+<span class="pre">fieldnames)</span></code> is a factory function that creates subclasses of the standard tuple
+whose fields are accessible by name as well as index.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">var_type</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;variable&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="s1">&#39;id name type size&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Names are separated by spaces or commas.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># &#39;id, name, type, size&#39; would also work.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">var_type</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;id&#39;, &#39;name&#39;, &#39;type&#39;, &#39;size&#39;)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">var_type</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;frequency&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;int&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">var</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">id</span>    <span class="c1"># Equivalent</span>
+<span class="go">1 1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">var</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">type</span>  <span class="c1"># Equivalent</span>
+<span class="go">int int</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_asdict</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;size&#39;: 4, &#39;type&#39;: &#39;int&#39;, &#39;id&#39;: 1, &#39;name&#39;: &#39;frequency&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">var</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_replace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;amplitude&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">v2</span>
+<span class="go">variable(id=1, name=&#39;amplitude&#39;, type=&#39;int&#39;, size=4)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
+been modified to return <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple</span></code> instances.  For example,
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal.as_tuple()</span></code> method now returns a named tuple with
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sign</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digits</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exponent</span></code> fields.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Another change to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module is that the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code> type now supports an optional <em>maxlen</em> parameter;
+if supplied, the deque’s size will be restricted to no more
+than <em>maxlen</em> items.  Adding more items to a full deque causes
+old items to be discarded.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deque</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dq</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxlen</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dq</span>
+<span class="go">deque([], maxlen=3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="n">dq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="n">dq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dq</span>
+<span class="go">deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dq</span>
+<span class="go">deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Morsel</span></code> objects now support an
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httponly</span></code> attribute.  In some browsers. cookies with this attribute
+set cannot be accessed or manipulated by JavaScript code.
+(Contributed by Arvin Schnell; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1638033">bpo-1638033</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new window method in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chgat()</span></code>, changes the display attributes for a certain number of
+characters on a single line.  (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21</span>
+<span class="c1"># and affecting the rest of the line.</span>
+<span class="n">stdscr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chgat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">21</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">curses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">A_BOLD</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Textbox</span></code> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses.textpad" title="curses.textpad: Emacs-like input editing in a curses window."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.textpad</span></code></a> module
+now supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.
+Insert mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the <em>insert_mode</em>
+parameter when creating the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Textbox</span></code> instance.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strftime()</span></code> methods now support a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%f</span></code> format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
+object, zero-padded on
+the left to six places.  (Contributed by Skip Montanaro; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1158">bpo-1158</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module was updated to version 1.66 of
+<a class="reference external" href="http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html">the General Decimal Specification</a>.  New features
+include some methods for some basic mathematical functions such as
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exp()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log10()</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;2.718281828459045235360287471&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;2.7182818&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ln</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;0.9999999895305022877376682436&quot;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">log10</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&quot;3&quot;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_tuple()</span></code> method of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> objects now returns a
+named tuple with <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sign</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digits</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exponent</span></code> fields.</p>
+<p>(Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson.  Named tuple
+support added by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code> class
+now returns named tuples representing matches,
+with <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code> attributes.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>An optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code> parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
+seconds, was added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP</span></code></a> class constructor as
+well as the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code> method.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
+Also, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP</span></code> class’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">storbinary()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">storlines()</span></code> now take an optional <em>callback</em> parameter that
+will be called with each block of data after the data has been sent.
+(Contributed by Phil Schwartz; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1221598">bpo-1221598</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reduce()</span></code> built-in function is also available in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module.  In Python 3.0, the builtin has been
+dropped and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reduce()</span></code> is only available from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a>;
+currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.
+(Patched by Christian Heimes; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1739906">bpo-1739906</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When possible, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getpass.html#module-getpass" title="getpass: Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpass</span></code></a> module will now use
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/tty</span></code> to print a prompt message and read the password,
+falling back to standard error and standard input.  If the
+password may be echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before
+the prompt is displayed.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#glob.glob" title="glob.glob"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob.glob()</span></code></a> function can now return Unicode filenames if
+a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are matched within the
+directory.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1001604">bpo-1001604</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new function in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">merge(iter1,</span> <span class="pre">iter2,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>,
+takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted
+order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all
+the iterators, also in sorted order.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">merge</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another new function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappushpop(heap,</span> <span class="pre">item)</span></code>,
+pushes <em>item</em> onto <em>heap</em>, then pops off and returns the smallest item.
+This is more efficient than making a call to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappush()</span></code> and then
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heappop()</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a> is now implemented to only use less-than comparison,
+instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it previously used.
+This makes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#module-heapq" title="heapq: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">heapq</span></code></a>’s usage of a type match the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> method.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>An optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code> parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
+seconds, was added to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib.HTTPConnection</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code> class constructors.  (Added by Facundo
+Batista.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Most of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module’s functions, such as
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getmoduleinfo()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getargs()</span></code>, now return named tuples.
+In addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the  return value
+can also be accessed as attributes.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+<p>Some new functions in the module include
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isgenerator()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isgeneratorfunction()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isabstract()</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module gained several new functions.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">izip_longest(iter1,</span> <span class="pre">iter2,</span> <span class="pre">...[,</span> <span class="pre">fillvalue])</span></code> makes tuples from
+each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than
+others, the missing values are set to <em>fillvalue</em>.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">izip_longest</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product(iter1,</span> <span class="pre">iter2,</span> <span class="pre">...,</span> <span class="pre">[repeat=N])</span></code> returns the Cartesian product
+of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing
+every possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">product</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),</span>
+<span class="go"> (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),</span>
+<span class="go"> (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The optional <em>repeat</em> keyword argument is used for taking the
+product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves,
+repeated <em>N</em> times.  With a single iterable argument, <em>N</em>-tuples
+are returned:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">product</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),</span>
+<span class="go"> (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With two iterables, <em>2N</em>-tuples are returned.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">product</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">repeat</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),</span>
+<span class="go"> (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),</span>
+<span class="go"> (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),</span>
+<span class="go"> (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations(iterable,</span> <span class="pre">r)</span></code> returns sub-sequences of length <em>r</em> from
+the elements of <em>iterable</em>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combinations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;123&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;), (&#39;1&#39;, &#39;3&#39;), (&#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combinations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;123&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combinations</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1234&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;), (&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;4&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;1&#39;, &#39;3&#39;, &#39;4&#39;), (&#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;, &#39;4&#39;)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">permutations(iter[,</span> <span class="pre">r])</span></code> returns all the permutations of length <em>r</em> of
+the iterable’s elements.  If <em>r</em> is not specified, it will default to the
+number of elements produced by the iterable.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">permutations</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),</span>
+<span class="go"> (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),</span>
+<span class="go"> (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),</span>
+<span class="go"> (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.chain(*iterables)</span></code> is an existing function in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)</span></code> takes a single
+iterable that should return other iterables.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chain()</span></code> will
+then return all the elements of the first iterable, then
+all the elements of the second, and so on.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chain</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_iterable</span><span class="p">([[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">]]))</span>
+<span class="go">[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileHandler</span></code> class
+and its subclasses <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WatchedFileHandler</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RotatingFileHandler</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code> now
+have an optional <em>delay</em> parameter to their constructors.  If <em>delay</em>
+is true, opening of the log file is deferred until the first
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">emit()</span></code> call is made.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code> also has a <em>utc</em> constructor
+parameter.  If the argument is true, UTC time will be used
+in determining when midnight occurs and in generating filenames;
+otherwise local time will be used.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Several new functions were added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.isinf" title="math.isinf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinf()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.isnan" title="math.isnan"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isnan()</span></code></a> determine whether a given float
+is a (positive or negative) infinity or a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.copysign" title="math.copysign"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copysign()</span></code></a> copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754 number,
+returning the absolute value of <em>x</em> combined with the sign bit of
+<em>y</em>.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.copysign(1,</span> <span class="pre">-0.0)</span></code> returns -1.0.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.factorial" title="math.factorial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">factorial()</span></code></a> computes the factorial of a number.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2138">bpo-2138</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.fsum" title="math.fsum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsum()</span></code></a> adds up the stream of numbers from an iterable,
+and is careful to avoid loss of precision through using partial sums.
+(Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2819">bpo-2819</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.acosh" title="math.acosh"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acosh()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.asinh" title="math.asinh"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asinh()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.atanh" title="math.atanh"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atanh()</span></code></a> compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.log1p" title="math.log1p"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log1p()</span></code></a> returns the natural logarithm of <em>1+x</em>
+(base <em>e</em>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trunc()</span></code> rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Integral</span></code> that’s between the function’s argument and zero.
+Added as part of the backport of
+<a class="reference external" href="#pep-3141">PEP 3141’s type hierarchy for numbers</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module has been improved to give more consistent
+behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to handling of
+floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.</p>
+<p>Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the C99
+standard about 754’s special values.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqrt(-1.)</span></code>
+should now give a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> across almost all platforms,
+while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqrt(float('NaN'))</span></code> should return a NaN on all IEEE 754
+platforms.  Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends signaling
+‘divide-by-zero’ or ‘invalid’, Python will raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.
+Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends signaling ‘overflow’,
+Python will raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.  (See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue711019">bpo-711019</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1640">bpo-1640</a>.)</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a> objects now have a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code> method that searches for a
+substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
+backwards.  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code> method also gained an <em>end</em> parameter
+giving an index at which to stop searching.
+(Contributed by John Lenton.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module gained a
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methodcaller()</span></code> function that takes a name and an optional
+set of arguments, returning a callable that will call
+the named function on any arguments passed to it.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace(&#39;old&#39;, &#39;new&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">replacer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">methodcaller</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;replace&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;old&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;new&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">replacer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;old wine in old bottles&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;new wine in new bottles&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory Petrosyan.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attrgetter()</span></code> function now accepts dotted names and performs
+the corresponding attribute lookups:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">inst_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">operator</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attrgetter</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>       <span class="s1">&#39;__class__.__name__&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">inst_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;str&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">inst_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">help</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;_Helper&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module now wraps several new system calls.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fchmod(fd,</span> <span class="pre">mode)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fchown(fd,</span> <span class="pre">uid,</span> <span class="pre">gid)</span></code> change the mode
+and ownership of an opened file, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lchmod(path,</span> <span class="pre">mode)</span></code> changes
+the mode of a symlink.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
+Heimes.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chflags()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lchflags()</span></code> are wrappers for the
+corresponding system calls (where they’re available), changing the
+flags set on a file.  Constants for the flag values are defined in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module; some possible values include
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UF_IMMUTABLE</span></code> to signal the file may not be changed and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UF_APPEND</span></code> to indicate that data can only be appended to the
+file.  (Contributed by M. Levinson.)</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.closerange(low,</span> <span class="pre">high)</span></code> efficiently closes all file descriptors
+from <em>low</em> to <em>high</em>, ignoring any errors and not including <em>high</em> itself.
+This function is now used by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module to make starting
+processes faster.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1663329">bpo-1663329</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code> object’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code> method will now unset the
+environment variables using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.unsetenv" title="os.unsetenv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.unsetenv()</span></code></a> in addition to clearing
+the object’s keys.  (Contributed by Martin Horcicka; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1181">bpo-1181</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.walk()</span></code></a> function now has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">followlinks</span></code> parameter. If
+set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to directories and
+visit the directory’s contents.  For backward compatibility, the
+parameter’s default value is false.  Note that the function can fall
+into an infinite recursion if there’s a symlink that points to a
+parent directory.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1273829">bpo-1273829</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>In the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> module, the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitext()</span></code> function
+has been changed to not split on leading period characters.
+This produces better results when operating on Unix’s dot-files.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.splitext('.ipython')</span></code>
+now returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('.ipython',</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('',</span> <span class="pre">'.ipython')</span></code>.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1115886">bpo-1115886</a>)</p>
+<p>A new function, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.relpath(path,</span> <span class="pre">start='.')</span></code>, returns a relative path
+from the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start</span></code> path, if it’s supplied, or from the current
+working directory to the destination <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code>.  (Contributed by
+Richard Barran; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1339796">bpo-1339796</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Windows, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.expandvars" title="os.path.expandvars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expandvars()</span></code></a> will now expand environment variables
+given in the form “%var%”, and “~user” will be expanded into the
+user’s home directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue957650">bpo-957650</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The Python debugger provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> module
+gained a new command: “run” restarts the Python program being debugged
+and can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program.
+(Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1393667">bpo-1393667</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#pdb.post_mortem" title="pdb.post_mortem"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.post_mortem()</span></code></a> function, used to begin debugging a
+traceback, will now use the traceback returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a>
+if no traceback is supplied.   (Contributed by Facundo Batista;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1106316">bpo-1106316</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickletools.html#module-pickletools" title="pickletools: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools</span></code></a> module now has an <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optimize()</span></code> function
+that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
+opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data structure.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_data()</span></code> function was added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#module-pkgutil" title="pkgutil: Utilities for the import system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code></a>
+module that returns the contents of resource files included
+with an installed Python package.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pkgutil</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">pkgutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_data</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;test&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;exception_hierarchy.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">BaseException</span>
+<span class="go"> +-- SystemExit</span>
+<span class="go"> +-- KeyboardInterrupt</span>
+<span class="go"> +-- GeneratorExit</span>
+<span class="go"> +-- Exception</span>
+<span class="go">      +-- StopIteration</span>
+<span class="go">      +-- StandardError</span>
+<span class="go"> ...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Paul Moore; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2439">bpo-2439</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parser</span></code> objects now allow setting
+their <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer_size</span></code> attribute to change the size of the buffer
+used to hold character data.
+(Contributed by Achim Gaedke; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1137">bpo-1137</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue</span></code> module now provides queue variants that retrieve entries
+in different orders.  The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PriorityQueue</span></code> class stores
+queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order,
+and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LifoQueue</span></code> retrieves the most recently added entries first,
+meaning that it behaves like a stack.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Random</span></code> objects can
+now be pickled on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit
+system, and vice versa.  Unfortunately, this change also means
+that Python 2.6’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Random</span></code> objects can’t be unpickled correctly
+on earlier versions of Python.
+(Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1727780">bpo-1727780</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">triangular(low,</span> <span class="pre">high,</span> <span class="pre">mode)</span></code> function returns random
+numbers following a triangular distribution.   The returned values
+are between <em>low</em> and <em>high</em>, not including <em>high</em> itself, and
+with <em>mode</em> as the most frequently occurring value
+in the distribution.  (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and
+Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1681432">bpo-1681432</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Long regular expression searches carried out by the  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>
+module will check for signals being delivered, so
+time-consuming searches can now be interrupted.
+(Contributed by Josh Hoyt and Ralf Schmitt; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue846388">bpo-846388</a>.)</p>
+<p>The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes
+for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine.  Untrusted code
+could create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes,
+so Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode.
+(Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3487">bpo-3487</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/rlcompleter.html#module-rlcompleter" title="rlcompleter: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rlcompleter</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Completer.complete()</span></code> method
+will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
+(Fixed by Lorenz Quack; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2250">bpo-2250</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#module-sched" title="sched: General purpose event scheduler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheduler</span></code> instances now
+have a read-only <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#module-queue" title="queue: A synchronized queue class."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue</span></code></a> attribute that returns the
+contents of the scheduler’s queue, represented as a list of
+named tuples with the fields <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(time,</span> <span class="pre">priority,</span> <span class="pre">action,</span> <span class="pre">argument)</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1861">bpo-1861</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module now has wrapper functions
+for the Linux <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epoll()</span></code> and BSD <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kqueue()</span></code> system calls.
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modify()</span></code> method was added to the existing <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll</span></code>
+objects; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pollobj.modify(fd,</span> <span class="pre">eventmask)</span></code> takes a file descriptor
+or file object and an event mask, modifying the recorded event mask
+for that file.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1657">bpo-1657</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copytree()</span></code></a> function now has an optional <em>ignore</em> argument
+that takes a callable object.  This callable will receive each directory path
+and a list of the directory’s contents, and returns a list of names that
+will be ignored, not copied.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module also provides an <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore_patterns()</span></code>
+function for use with this new parameter.  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore_patterns()</span></code>
+takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
+callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
+of these patterns.  The following example copies a directory tree,
+but skips both <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.svn</span></code> directories and Emacs backup files,
+which have names ending with ‘~’:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copytree</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Doc/library&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/library&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                <span class="n">ignore</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ignore_patterns</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*~&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.svn&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2663">bpo-2663</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops
+like those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most
+software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to check
+if any GUI events have occurred.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module can now make this more efficient.
+Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)</span></code> sets a file descriptor
+to be used; when a signal is received, a byte is written to that
+file descriptor.  There’s also a C-level function,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PySignal_SetWakeupFd" title="PySignal_SetWakeupFd"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySignal_SetWakeupFd()</span></code></a>, for setting the descriptor.</p>
+<p>Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two descriptors,
+one for reading and one for writing.  The writable descriptor
+will be passed to <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_wakeup_fd()</span></code>, and the readable descriptor
+will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by the event loop via
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll()</span></code>.
+On receiving a signal, a byte will be written and the main event loop
+will be woken up, avoiding the need to poll.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Adam Olsen; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1583">bpo-1583</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">siginterrupt()</span></code> function is now available from Python code,
+and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or not.
+(Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setitimer()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getitimer()</span></code> functions have also been
+added (where they’re available).  <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setitimer()</span></code>
+allows setting interval timers that will cause a signal to be
+delivered to the process after a specified time, measured in
+wall-clock time, consumed process time, or combined process+system
+time.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2240">bpo-2240</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to the
+addition of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP_SSL</span></code> class. This class supports an
+interface identical to the existing <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code> class.
+(Contributed by Monty Taylor.)  Both class constructors also have an
+optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code> parameter that specifies a timeout for the
+initial connection attempt, measured in seconds.  (Contributed by
+Facundo Batista.)</p>
+<p>An implementation of the LMTP protocol (<span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2033.html"><strong>RFC 2033</strong></a>) was also added
+to the module.  LMTP is used in place of SMTP when transferring
+e-mail between agents that don’t manage a mail queue.  (LMTP
+implemented by Leif Hedstrom; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue957003">bpo-957003</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.starttls()</span></code> now complies with <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3207.html"><strong>RFC 3207</strong></a> and forgets any
+knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
+negotiation itself.  (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue829951">bpo-829951</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module now supports TIPC (<a class="reference external" href="http://tipc.sourceforge.net/">http://tipc.sourceforge.net/</a>),
+a high-performance non-IP-based protocol designed for use in clustered
+environments.  TIPC addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.
+(Contributed by Alberto Bertogli; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1646">bpo-1646</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new function, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_connection()</span></code>, takes an address and
+connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
+connected socket object.  This function also looks up the address’s
+type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate.  Changing
+your code to use <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_connection()</span></code> instead of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket(socket.AF_INET,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code> may be all that’s required to make
+your code work with IPv6.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The base classes in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketServer</span></code> module now support
+calling a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_timeout()</span></code> method after a span of inactivity
+specified by the server’s <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code> attribute.  (Contributed
+by Michael Pomraning.)  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever()</span></code> method
+now takes an optional poll interval measured in seconds,
+controlling how often the server will check for a shutdown request.
+(Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey Yasskin;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue742598">bpo-742598</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1193577">bpo-1193577</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module, maintained by Gerhard Häring,
+has been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to
+version 2.4.1.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module now supports the C99 <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Bool</span></code> type,
+using the format character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>.
+(Contributed by David Remahl.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code> objects provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module
+now have <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminate()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kill()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_signal()</span></code> methods.
+On Windows, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_signal()</span></code> only supports the <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGTERM</span></code>
+signal, and all these methods are aliases for the Win32 API function
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TerminateProcess()</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new variable in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float_info</span></code>, is an
+object containing information derived from the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.h</span></code> file
+about the platform’s floating-point support.  Attributes of this
+object include <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mant_dig</span></code> (number of digits in the mantissa),
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epsilon</span></code> (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next
+largest value representable), and several others.  (Contributed by
+Christian Heimes; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1534">bpo-1534</a>.)</p>
+<p>Another new variable, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dont_write_bytecode</span></code>, controls whether Python
+writes any <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files on importing a module.
+If this variable is true, the compiled files are not written.  The
+variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id1"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-B</span></code></a>
+switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the
+<span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE</span></code></a> environment variable before
+running the interpreter.  Python code can subsequently
+change the value of this variable to control whether bytecode files
+are written or not.
+(Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)</p>
+<p>Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
+interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named
+tuple available as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags</span></code>.  For example, the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verbose</span></code>
+attribute is true if Python
+was executed in verbose mode, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug</span></code> is true in debugging mode, etc.
+These attributes are all read-only.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes.)</p>
+<p>A new function, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsizeof()</span></code>, takes a Python object and returns
+the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes.  Built-in
+objects return correct results; third-party extensions may not,
+but can define a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__sizeof__()</span></code> method to return the
+object’s size.
+(Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2898">bpo-2898</a>.)</p>
+<p>It’s now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer functions
+by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getprofile" title="sys.getprofile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getprofile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.gettrace" title="sys.gettrace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.gettrace()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Georg Brandl; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1648">bpo-1648</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax) tarfiles in
+addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar formats that were
+already supported.  The default format is GNU tar; specify the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code> parameter to open a file using a different format:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">tar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;output.tar&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;w&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PAX_FORMAT</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code> parameters specify an encoding and
+an error handling scheme for character conversions.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> are the three standard ways Python can
+handle errors,;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> is a special value that replaces bad characters with
+their UTF-8 representation.  (Character conversions occur because the
+PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting to UTF-8 encoding.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.add()</span></code> method now accepts an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exclude</span></code> argument that’s
+a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from
+an archive.
+The function must take a filename and return true if the file
+should be excluded or false if it should be archived.
+The function is applied to both the name initially passed to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code>
+and to the names of files in recursively-added directories.</p>
+<p>(All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>An optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code> parameter was added to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet" title="telnetlib.Telnet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">telnetlib.Telnet</span></code></a> class constructor, specifying a timeout
+measured in seconds.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile" title="tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile</span></code></a> class usually deletes
+the temporary file it created when the file is closed.  This
+behaviour can now be changed by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delete=False</span></code> to the
+constructor.  (Contributed by Damien Miller; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1537850">bpo-1537850</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new class, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SpooledTemporaryFile</span></code>, behaves like
+a temporary file but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is
+exceeded.  On reaching that limit, the contents will be written to
+an on-disk temporary file.  (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedTemporaryFile</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SpooledTemporaryFile</span></code> classes
+both work as context managers, so you can write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile()</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">tmp:</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2021">bpo-2021</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.test_support</span></code> module gained a number
+of context managers useful for writing tests.
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvironmentVarGuard()</span></code> is a
+context manager that temporarily changes environment variables and
+automatically restores them to their old values.</p>
+<p>Another context manager, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TransientResource</span></code>, can surround calls
+to resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
+ignore a specified list of exceptions.  For example,
+a network test may ignore certain failures when connecting to an
+external web site:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">test_support</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TransientResource</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">IOError</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                                <span class="n">errno</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">errno</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ETIMEDOUT</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;https://sf.net&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_warnings()</span></code> resets the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warning</span></code> module’s
+warning filters and returns an object that will record all warning
+messages triggered (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3781">bpo-3781</a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">test_support</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_warnings</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">wrec</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">simplefilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;always&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="c1"># ... code that triggers a warning ...</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wrec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">message</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">&quot;function is outdated&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">wrec</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warnings</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Multiple warnings raised&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Brett Cannon.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#module-textwrap" title="textwrap: Text wrapping and filling"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code></a> module can now preserve existing whitespace
+at the beginnings and ends of the newly-created lines
+by specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">drop_whitespace=False</span></code>
+as an argument:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">S</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;This  sentence  has a bunch   of</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  extra   whitespace.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">This  sentence</span>
+<span class="go">has a bunch</span>
+<span class="go">of    extra</span>
+<span class="go">whitespace.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">textwrap</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fill</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">drop_whitespace</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">width</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">This  sentence</span>
+<span class="go">  has a bunch</span>
+<span class="go">   of    extra</span>
+<span class="go">   whitespace.</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1581073">bpo-1581073</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module API is being changed to use properties
+such as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code> instead of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setDaemon()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isDaemon()</span></code> methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
+underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">activeCount()</span></code> method is renamed to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">active_count()</span></code>.  Both
+the 2.6 and 3.0 versions of the module support the same properties
+and renamed methods, but don’t remove the old methods.  No date has been set
+for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs won’t
+be removed in any 2.x version.
+(Carried out by several people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code> objects
+gained an <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ident</span></code> property that returns the thread’s
+identifier, a nonzero integer.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2871">bpo-2871</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> module now accepts callables as well as strings
+for the statement being timed and for the setup code.
+Two convenience functions were added for creating
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer</span></code> instances:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repeat(stmt,</span> <span class="pre">setup,</span> <span class="pre">time,</span> <span class="pre">repeat,</span> <span class="pre">number)</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit(stmt,</span> <span class="pre">setup,</span> <span class="pre">time,</span> <span class="pre">number)</span></code> create an instance and call
+the corresponding method. (Contributed by Erik Demaine;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1533909">bpo-1533909</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code> module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
+separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting value to
+Tcl/Tk.
+(Contributed by Guilherme Polo; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2906">bpo-2906</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> module for turtle graphics was greatly enhanced by
+Gregor Lingl.  New features in the module include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.</p></li>
+<li><p>Control over turtle movement using the new <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delay()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracer()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">speed()</span></code> methods.</p></li>
+<li><p>The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to
+define a new coordinate system.</p></li>
+<li><p>Turtles now have an <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undo()</span></code> method that can roll back actions.</p></li>
+<li><p>Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and keyboard
+activity, making it possible to write simple games.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle.cfg</span></code> file can be used to customize the starting appearance
+of the turtle’s screen.</p></li>
+<li><p>The module’s docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that have been
+translated into another language.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1513695">bpo-1513695</a>)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>An optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code> parameter was added to the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.urlopen()</span></code> function and the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.ftpwrapper</span></code> class constructor, as well as the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib2.urlopen()</span></code> function.  The parameter specifies a timeout
+measured in seconds.   For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;http://slow.example.com&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="go">                        timeout=3)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">urllib2.URLError</span>: <span class="n">&lt;urlopen error timed out&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Added by Facundo Batista.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The Unicode database provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module
+has been updated to version 5.1.0.  (Updated by
+Martin von Löwis; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3811">bpo-3811</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatwarning()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">showwarning()</span></code>
+gained an optional <em>line</em> argument that can be used to supply the
+line of source code.  (Added as part of <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1631171">bpo-1631171</a>, which re-implemented
+part of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module in C code.)</p>
+<p>A new function, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">catch_warnings()</span></code>, is a context manager
+intended for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the
+warning filters and then restore their original values (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3781">bpo-3781</a>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The XML-RPC <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code>
+classes can now be prevented from immediately opening and binding to
+their socket by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> as the <em>bind_and_activate</em>
+constructor parameter.  This can be used to modify the instance’s
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">allow_reuse_address</span></code> attribute before calling the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_bind()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">server_activate()</span></code> methods to
+open the socket and begin listening for connections.
+(Contributed by Peter Parente; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1599845">bpo-1599845</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code> also has a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_send_traceback_header</span></code>
+attribute; if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned
+as HTTP headers “X-Exception” and “X-Traceback”.  This feature is
+for debugging purposes only and should not be used on production servers
+because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other sensitive
+information.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of his
+project for Google’s Summer of Code 2007.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> module no longer automatically converts
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time</span></code></a> to the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib.DateTime</span></code> type; the conversion semantics were
+not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> should convert <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>
+instances. (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1330538">bpo-1330538</a>)  The code can also handle
+dates before 1900 (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2014">bpo-2014</a>)
+and 64-bit integers represented by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;i8&gt;</span></code> in XML-RPC responses
+(contributed by Riku Lindblad; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2985">bpo-2985</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code> class now has
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extractall()</span></code> methods that will unpack
+a single file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
+to a specified directory:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">zipfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ZipFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;python-251.zip&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Unpack a single file, writing it relative</span>
+<span class="c1"># to the /tmp directory.</span>
+<span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extract</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Python/sysmodule.c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Unpack all the files in the archive.</span>
+<span class="n">z</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extractall</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Alan McIntyre; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue467924">bpo-467924</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extract()</span></code> methods can now
+take either a filename or a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code> object.  This is useful when an
+archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
+(Contributed by Graham Horler; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1775025">bpo-1775025</a>.)</p>
+<p>Finally, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> now supports using Unicode filenames
+for archived files.  (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1734346">bpo-1734346</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="the-ast-module">
+<h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-ast-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree
+representation of Python code, and Armin Ronacher
+contributed a set of helper functions that perform a variety of
+common tasks.  These will be useful for HTML templating
+packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
+Python code.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse()</span></code> function takes an expression and returns an AST.
+The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code> function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable
+for debugging:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ast</span>
+
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="s2">d = </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="s2">for i in &#39;abcdefghijklm&#39;:</span>
+<span class="s2">    d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord(&#39;a&#39;) + 1</span>
+<span class="s2">print d</span>
+<span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dump</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This outputs a deeply nested tree:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">body</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+  <span class="n">Assign</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">targets</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+    <span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Store</span><span class="p">())</span>
+   <span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">keys</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[],</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[]))</span>
+  <span class="n">For</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Store</span><span class="p">()),</span>
+      <span class="nb">iter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcdefghijklm&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">body</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+    <span class="n">Assign</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">targets</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+      <span class="n">Subscript</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span>
+        <span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">()),</span>
+          <span class="nb">slice</span><span class="o">=</span>
+          <span class="n">Index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span>
+            <span class="n">BinOp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">()),</span> <span class="n">op</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Add</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+             <span class="n">right</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">()))),</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Store</span><span class="p">())</span>
+     <span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span>
+     <span class="n">BinOp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="o">=</span>
+      <span class="n">BinOp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">left</span><span class="o">=</span>
+       <span class="n">Call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">=</span>
+        <span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ord&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">()),</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+          <span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;i&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">())</span>
+         <span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[],</span> <span class="n">starargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">),</span>
+       <span class="n">op</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Sub</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">right</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Call</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">=</span>
+        <span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ord&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">()),</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+          <span class="n">Str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+         <span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[],</span> <span class="n">starargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)),</span>
+       <span class="n">op</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Add</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">right</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Num</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+    <span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">orelse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[])</span>
+   <span class="n">Print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">values</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
+     <span class="n">Name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">id</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">ctx</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Load</span><span class="p">())</span>
+   <span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">nl</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+ <span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">literal_eval()</span></code> method takes a string or an AST
+representing a literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and
+returns the resulting value.  A literal expression is a Python
+expression containing only strings, numbers, dictionaries,
+etc. but no statements or function calls.  If you need to
+evaluate an expression but cannot accept the security risk of using an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> call, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">literal_eval()</span></code> will handle it safely:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">literal</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;(&quot;a&quot;, &quot;b&quot;, {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">literal_eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">literal</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">ast</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">literal_eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&quot;a&quot; + &quot;b&quot;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">malformed string</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module also includes <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeVisitor</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NodeTransformer</span></code> classes for traversing and modifying an AST,
+and functions for common transformations such as changing line
+numbers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-future-builtins-module">
+<h3>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">future_builtins</span></code> module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-future-builtins-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in
+functions, and most of the changes can’t be introduced in the Python
+2.x series because they would break compatibility.
+The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">future_builtins</span></code> module provides versions
+of these built-in functions that can be imported when writing
+3.0-compatible code.</p>
+<p>The functions in this module currently include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii(obj)</span></code>: equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>.  In Python 3.0,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> will return a Unicode string, while <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ascii()</span></code></a> will
+return a pure ASCII bytestring.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter(predicate,</span> <span class="pre">iterable)</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(func,</span> <span class="pre">iterable1,</span> <span class="pre">...)</span></code>: the 3.0 versions
+return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return lists.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hex(value)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">oct(value)</span></code>: instead of calling the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hex__()</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__oct__()</span></code> methods, these versions will
+call the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> method and convert the result to hexadecimal
+or octal.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">oct()</span></code></a> will use the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o</span></code> notation for its
+result.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-json-module-javascript-object-notation">
+<h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module: JavaScript Object Notation<a class="headerlink" href="#the-json-module-javascript-object-notation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module supports the encoding and decoding of Python types in
+JSON (Javascript Object Notation). JSON is a lightweight interchange format
+often used in web applications. For more information about JSON, see
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.json.org">http://www.json.org</a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> comes with support for decoding and encoding most built-in Python
+types. The following example encodes and decodes a dictionary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;spam&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;parrot&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">in_json</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># Encode the data</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">in_json</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;{&quot;parrot&quot;: 42, &quot;spam&quot;: &quot;foo&quot;}&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">loads</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">in_json</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># Decode into a Python object</span>
+<span class="go">{&quot;spam&quot;: &quot;foo&quot;, &quot;parrot&quot;: 42}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It’s also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support
+more types. Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob
+Ippolito.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="the-plistlib-module-a-property-list-parser">
+<h3>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib" title="plistlib: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code></a> module: A Property-List Parser<a class="headerlink" href="#the-plistlib-module-a-property-list-parser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.plist</span></code> format is commonly used on Mac OS X to
+store basic data types (numbers, strings, lists,
+and dictionaries) by serializing them into an XML-based format.
+It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of data types.</p>
+<p>Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format
+has nothing Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works
+on any platform that Python supports, so the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib" title="plistlib: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code></a> module
+has been promoted to the standard library.</p>
+<p>Using the module is simple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">plistlib</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create data structure</span>
+<span class="n">data_struct</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lastAccessed</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">(),</span>
+                   <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="n">categories</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Personal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s1">&#39;Shared&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="s1">&#39;Private&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Create string containing XML.</span>
+<span class="n">plist_str</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">plistlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writePlistToString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data_struct</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">new_struct</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">plistlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readPlistFromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">plist_str</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">data_struct</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">new_struct</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Write data structure to a file and read it back.</span>
+<span class="n">plistlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writePlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data_struct</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/customizations.plist&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">new_struct</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">plistlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readPlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/customizations.plist&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.</span>
+<span class="n">plistlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writePlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data_struct</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ctypes-enhancements">
+<h3>ctypes Enhancements<a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes-enhancements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> now supports a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c_bool</span></code> datatype
+that represents the C99 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code> type.  (Contributed by David Remahl;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1649190">bpo-1649190</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> string, buffer and array types have improved
+support for extended slicing syntax,
+where various combinations of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop,</span> <span class="pre">step)</span></code> are supplied.
+(Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)</p>
+<p>All <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> data types now support
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_buffer()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_buffer_copy()</span></code>
+methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
+provided buffer object.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_buffer_copy()</span></code> copies
+the contents of the object,
+while <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_buffer()</span></code> will share the same memory area.</p>
+<p>A new calling convention tells <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> to clear the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> or
+Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
+(Implemented by Thomas Heller; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1798">bpo-1798</a>.)</p>
+<p>You can now retrieve the Unix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> variable after a function
+call.  When creating a wrapped function, you can supply
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">use_errno=True</span></code> as a keyword parameter to the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DLL()</span></code> function
+and then call the module-level methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_errno()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_errno()</span></code> to set and retrieve the error value.</p>
+<p>The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by
+the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DLL()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OleDLL()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WinDLL()</span></code> functions.
+You supply <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">use_last_error=True</span></code> as a keyword parameter
+and then call the module-level methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_last_error()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_last_error()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byref()</span></code> function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes
+instance, now has an optional <em>offset</em> parameter that is a byte
+count that will be added to the returned pointer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improved-ssl-support">
+<h3>Improved SSL Support<a class="headerlink" href="#improved-ssl-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6’s support for
+the Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a>, that’s
+built atop the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/">OpenSSL</a> library.
+This new module provides more control over the protocol negotiated,
+the X.509 certificates used, and has better support for writing SSL
+servers (as opposed to clients) in Python.  The existing SSL support
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module hasn’t been removed and continues to work,
+though it will be removed in Python 3.0.</p>
+<p>To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
+usual way and then pass it to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> function.
+It’s possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to
+obtain certificate info by calling the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpeercert()</span></code> method.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p>The documentation for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecations-and-removals">
+<h2>Deprecations and Removals<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecations-and-removals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> interface
+as dictated by <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0352"><strong>PEP 352</strong></a> continue to be made.  For 2.6,
+the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message</span></code> attribute is being deprecated in favor of the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p>(3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard
+library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others.
+Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these modules
+when they are imported.</p>
+<p>The list of deprecated modules is:
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audiodev</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bgenlocations</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buildtools</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bundlebuilder</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Canvas</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compiler</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircache</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dl</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fpformat</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gensuitemodule</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ihooks</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imageop</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imgfile</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linuxaudiodev</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mhlib</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetools</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multifile</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pure</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statvfs</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunaudiodev</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.testall</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">toaiff</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gopherlib</span></code> module has been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MimeWriter</span></code> module and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimify</span></code> module
+have been deprecated; use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a>
+package instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">md5</span></code> module has been deprecated; use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module
+instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixfile</span></code> module has been deprecated; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fcntl.html#fcntl.lockf" title="fcntl.lockf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl.lockf()</span></code></a>
+provides better locking.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popen2</span></code> module has been deprecated; use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a>
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rgbimg</span></code> module has been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sets</span></code> module has been deprecated; it’s better to
+use the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> types.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha</span></code> module has been deprecated; use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module
+instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19
+years!).  This means that the Python source tree has dropped its
+own implementations of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memmove()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strerror()</span></code>, which
+are in the C89 standard library.</p></li>
+<li><p>Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version
+9.0), and this is the new default compiler.  See the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild</span></code> directory for the build files.  (Implemented by
+Christian Heimes.)</p></li>
+<li><p>On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build.
+The <strong class="program">configure</strong> script
+can take a <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]</span></code>
+switch, controlling whether the binaries are built for 32-bit
+architectures (x86, PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both.
+(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb.db.api</span></code>.   This object can be used by other C extensions
+that wish to use the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code> module for their own purposes.
+(Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new buffer interface, previously described in
+<a class="reference external" href="#pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol">the PEP 3118 section</a>,
+adds <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#c.PyObject_GetBuffer" title="PyObject_GetBuffer"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GetBuffer()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#c.PyBuffer_Release" title="PyBuffer_Release"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBuffer_Release()</span></code></a>,
+as well as a few other functions.</p></li>
+<li><p>Python’s use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least
+as thread-safe as the underlying library is.  A long-standing potential
+bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while another thread
+was reading from or writing to the object.  In 2.6 file objects
+have a reference count, manipulated by the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFile_IncUseCount()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFile_DecUseCount()</span></code>
+functions.  File objects can’t be closed unless the reference count
+is zero.  <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFile_IncUseCount()</span></code> should be called while the GIL
+is still held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> pointer, and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFile_DecUseCount()</span></code> should be called
+immediately after the GIL is re-acquired.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Gregory P. Smith.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer
+deadlocks; it will now raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.  A new API
+function, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock" title="PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()</span></code></a>, will look for a
+module in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> first, then try to import it after
+acquiring an import lock.  If the import lock is held by another
+thread, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is raised.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Several functions return information about the platform’s
+floating-point support.  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetMax" title="PyFloat_GetMax"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloat_GetMax()</span></code></a> returns
+the maximum representable floating point value,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetMin" title="PyFloat_GetMin"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloat_GetMin()</span></code></a> returns the minimum
+positive value.  <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/float.html#c.PyFloat_GetInfo" title="PyFloat_GetInfo"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFloat_GetInfo()</span></code></a> returns an object
+containing more information from the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.h</span></code> file, such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;mant_dig&quot;</span></code> (number of digits in the mantissa), <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;epsilon&quot;</span></code>
+(smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value
+representable), and several others.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1534">bpo-1534</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>C functions and methods that use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/complex.html#c.PyComplex_AsCComplex" title="PyComplex_AsCComplex"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyComplex_AsCComplex()</span></code></a> will now accept arguments that
+have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__complex__" title="object.__complex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__()</span></code></a> method.  In particular, the functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> module will now accept objects with this method.
+This is a backport of a Python 3.0 change.
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1675423">bpo-1675423</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Python’s C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive string
+comparisons, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_stricmp(char*,</span> <span class="pre">char*)</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_strnicmp(char*,</span> <span class="pre">char*,</span> <span class="pre">Py_ssize_t)</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1635">bpo-1635</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding
+integers and strings to the module’s dictionary in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">init*</span></code> function.  Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros
+for adding values to a module, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_AddStringMacro" title="PyModule_AddStringMacro"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_AddStringMacro</span></code></a>
+and <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_AddIntMacro()</span></code>.  (Contributed by
+Christian Heimes.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer that
+they are macros,
+not functions.  <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Size()</span></code> became <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SIZE()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Type()</span></code> became <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TYPE()</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Refcnt()</span></code> became <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_REFCNT()</span></code>.
+The mixed-case macros are still available
+in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1629">bpo-1629</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a
+different directory when running on a debug version of Python.
+(Contributed by Collin Winter; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1530959">bpo-1530959</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain
+internal free lists of objects that can be re-used.  The data
+structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the
+variable is always named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free_list</span></code>, the counter is always named
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numfree</span></code>, and a macro <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py&lt;typename&gt;_MAXFREELIST</span></code> is
+always defined.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new Makefile target, “make patchcheck”, prepares the Python source tree
+for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all modified
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> files, checks whether the documentation has been changed,
+and reports whether the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/ACKS</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/NEWS</span></code> files
+have been updated.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon.)</p>
+<p>Another new target, “make profile-opt”, compiles a Python binary
+using GCC’s profile-guided optimization.  It compiles Python with
+profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling
+results, and then compiles using these results for optimization.
+(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes-windows">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes: Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
+Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version
+9.0). The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1) and
+2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory. The new
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild</span></code> directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug
+builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are roughly
+10% faster than normal builds.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
+with help from Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Martin von Löwis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msvcrt.html#module-msvcrt" title="msvcrt: Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code></a> module now supports
+both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O
+API.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getwch()</span></code> function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode
+value, as does the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getwche()</span></code> function.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">putwch()</span></code> function
+takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.expandvars" title="os.path.expandvars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expandvars()</span></code></a> will now expand environment variables in
+the form “%var%”, and “~user” will be expanded into the user’s home
+directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue957650">bpo-957650</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module’s socket objects now have an
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code> method that provides a limited interface to the
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSAIoctl()</span></code> system interface.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_winreg</span></code> module now has a function,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExpandEnvironmentStrings()</span></code>,
+that expands environment variable references such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%NAME%</span></code>
+in an input string.  The handle objects provided by this
+module now support the context protocol, so they can be used
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_winreg</span></code> also has better support for x64 systems,
+exposing the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DisableReflectionKey()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnableReflectionKey()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueryReflectionKey()</span></code> functions, which enable and disable
+registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on 64-bit systems.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1753245">bpo-1753245</a>)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#module-msilib" title="msilib: Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB files. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Record</span></code> object
+gained <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetInteger()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetString()</span></code> methods that
+return field values as an integer or a string.
+(Contributed by Floris Bruynooghe; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2125">bpo-2125</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes-mac-os-x">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes-mac-os-x" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
+framework name to be used by providing the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-framework-name=</span></code> option to the
+<strong class="program">configure</strong> script.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macfs</span></code> module has been removed.  This in turn required the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macostools.touched()</span></code> function to be removed because it depended on the
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macfs</span></code> module.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1490190">bpo-1490190</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed in
+Python 3.0:
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_builtinSuites</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aepack</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aetools</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aetypes</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">applesingle</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">appletrawmain</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">appletrunner</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argvemulator</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Audio_mac</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">autoGIL</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Carbon</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cfmfile</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CodeWarrior</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ColorPicker</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EasyDialogs</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Explorer</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Finder</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameWork</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findertools</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ic</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">icglue</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">icopen</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macerrors</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MacOS</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macfs</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macostools</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macresource</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MiniAEFrame</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Nav</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Netscape</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSATerminology</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pimp</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PixMapWrapper</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StdSuites</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemEvents</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Terminal</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">terminalcommand</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes-irix">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes: IRIX<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes-irix" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will
+be removed in Python 3.0:
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">al</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AL</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cd</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cddb</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cdplayer</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CL</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cl</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVICE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERRNO</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FILE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FL</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fl</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flp</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fm</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GET</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GLWS</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GL</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gl</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IN</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOCTL</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">jpeg</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">panelparser</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readcd</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SV</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sv</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">torgb</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">videoreader</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WAIT</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-2-6">
+<h2>Porting to Python 2.6<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-2-6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Classes that aren’t supposed to be hashable should
+set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> in their definitions to indicate
+the fact.</p></li>
+<li><p>String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a>
+now clears any existing contents of the deque
+before adding elements from the iterable.  This change makes the
+behavior match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.__init__()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__init__()</span></code></a> previously accepted arbitrary arguments and
+keyword arguments, ignoring them.  In Python 2.6, this is no longer
+allowed and will result in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  This will affect
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> methods that end up calling the corresponding
+method on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> (perhaps through using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>).
+See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1683368">bpo-1683368</a> for discussion.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> constructor now accepts leading and trailing
+whitespace when passed a string.  Previously it would raise an
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code> exception.  On the other hand, the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_decimal()</span></code> method of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code> objects now
+explicitly disallows extra whitespace, raising a
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConversionSyntax</span></code> exception.</p></li>
+<li><p>Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to
+the built-in  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function, it would actually import
+the specified file.  This was never intended to work, however, and
+the implementation now explicitly checks for this case and raises
+an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>C API: the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_Import" title="PyImport_Import"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_Import()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="PyImport_ImportModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code></a>
+functions now default to absolute imports, not relative imports.
+This will affect C extensions that import other modules.</p></li>
+<li><p>C API: extension data types that shouldn’t be hashable
+should define their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_hash</span></code> slot to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_HashNotImplemented" title="PyObject_HashNotImplemented"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HashNotImplemented()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module exception <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a> now inherits
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>.  Previously it wasn’t a subclass of
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StandardError</span></code> but now it is, through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>.
+(Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1706815">bpo-1706815</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> module no longer automatically converts
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time</span></code></a> to the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib.DateTime</span></code> type; the conversion semantics were
+not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> should convert <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>
+instances. (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1330538">bpo-1330538</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>(3.0-warning mode) The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> class now warns
+when accessed using slicing or index access; having
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a> behave like a tuple is being phased out.</p></li>
+<li><p>(3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries
+or two objects that don’t implement comparison methods are reported
+as warnings.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict1</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">dict2</span></code> still works, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">dict2</span></code>
+is being phased out.</p>
+<p>Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of Python’s
+scoping rules, also cause warnings because such comparisons are forbidden
+entirely in 3.0.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<span id="acks"></span><h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering
+suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
+article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy,
+Jim Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher,  Martin Michlmayr,
+Antoine Pitrou, Brian Warner.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.6</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-0">Python 3.0</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-to-the-development-process">Changes to the Development Process</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-issue-tracker-roundup">New Issue Tracker: Roundup</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-documentation-format-restructuredtext-using-sphinx">New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-343-the-with-statement">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#writing-context-managers">Writing Context Managers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-contextlib-module">The contextlib module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-366-explicit-relative-imports-from-a-main-module">PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-370-per-user-site-packages-directory">PEP 370: Per-user <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site-packages</span></code> Directory</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-371-the-multiprocessing-package">PEP 371: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> Package</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3101-advanced-string-formatting">PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3105-print-as-a-function">PEP 3105: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> As a Function</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3110-exception-handling-changes">PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3112-byte-literals">PEP 3112: Byte Literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3116-new-i-o-library">PEP 3116: New I/O Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol">PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3119-abstract-base-classes">PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3127-integer-literal-support-and-syntax">PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3129-class-decorators">PEP 3129: Class Decorators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3141-a-type-hierarchy-for-numbers">PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-fractions-module">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code> Module</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interpreter-changes">Interpreter Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-ast-module">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-future-builtins-module">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">future_builtins</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-json-module-javascript-object-notation">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code> module: JavaScript Object Notation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-plistlib-module-a-property-list-parser">The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code> module: A Property-List Parser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes-enhancements">ctypes Enhancements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improved-ssl-support">Improved SSL Support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecations-and-removals">Deprecations and Removals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes-windows">Port-Specific Changes: Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes-mac-os-x">Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes-irix">Port-Specific Changes: IRIX</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-2-6">Porting to Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.7.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.7</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.5.html"
+                        title="next chapter">What’s New in Python 2.5</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
+      <li>
+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/whatsnew/2.6.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="clearer"></div>
+    </div>  
+    <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation">
+      <h3>Navigation</h3>
+      <ul>
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+          <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index"
+             >index</a></li>
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new file mode 100644
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-2-7">
+<h1>What’s New in Python 2.7<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-2-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 2.7.  Python 2.7 was released
+on July 3, 2010.</p>
+<p>Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both
+floating-point numbers and for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> class.
+There are some useful additions to the standard library, such as a
+greatly enhanced <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module
+for parsing command-line options, convenient <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> classes in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module,
+and many other improvements.</p>
+<p>Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked
+on making it a good release for the long term.  To help with porting
+to Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been
+included in 2.7.</p>
+<p>This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of
+the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For
+full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org">https://docs.python.org</a>. If you want to understand the rationale for
+the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new
+feature or the issue on <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org">https://bugs.python.org</a> in which a change was
+discussed.  Whenever possible, “What’s New in Python” links to the
+bug/patch item for each change.</p>
+<div class="section" id="the-future-for-python-2-x">
+<span id="whatsnew27-python31"></span><h2>The Future for Python 2.x<a class="headerlink" href="#the-future-for-python-2-x" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python
+maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development efforts
+to the Python 3.x series. This means that while Python 2 continues to
+receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on new hardware and
+versions of supported operated systems, there will be no new full feature
+releases for the language or standard library.</p>
+<p>However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and Python
+3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common subset, or
+directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other changes (notably
+those associated with Unicode handling) may require careful consideration,
+and preferably robust automated regression test suites, to migrate
+effectively.</p>
+<p>This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time, providing a
+stable and supported base platform for production systems that have not yet
+been ported to Python 3. The full expected lifecycle of the Python 2.7
+series is detailed in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373"><strong>PEP 373</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of maintenance
+when compared to earlier 2.x versions. Python 2.7 is currently expected to
+remain supported by the core development team (receiving security updates
+and other bug fixes) until at least 2020 (10 years after its initial
+release, compared to the more typical support period of 18–24 months).</p></li>
+<li><p>As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of the
+Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor) becomes
+more important for Python 2 users. In addition to a wide variety of third
+party packages for various tasks, the available packages include backports
+of new modules and features from the Python 3 standard library that are
+compatible with Python 2, as well as various tools and libraries that can
+make it easier to migrate to Python 3. The <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org">Python Packaging User Guide</a> provides guidance on downloading and
+installing software from the Python Package Index.</p></li>
+<li><p>While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the publication
+of new packages on the Python Package Index, this approach doesn’t
+necessarily work in all cases, especially those related to network
+security. In exceptional cases that cannot be handled adequately by
+publishing new or updated packages on PyPI, the Python Enhancement
+Proposal process may be used to make the case for adding new features
+directly to the Python 2 standard library. Any such additions, and the
+maintenance releases where they were added, will be noted in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#py27-maintenance-enhancements"><span class="std std-ref">New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases</span></a> section below.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for library
+and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python 2 and
+Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to help decide
+on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical details involved.
+The recommended starting point is the <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/pyporting.html#pyporting-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3</span></a> HOWTO guide.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-to-the-handling-of-deprecation-warnings">
+<h2>Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-to-the-handling-of-deprecation-warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of
+interest to developers by default.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and its
+descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing
+users from seeing warnings triggered by an application.  This change
+was also made in the branch that became Python 3.2. (Discussed
+on stdlib-sig and carried out in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7319">bpo-7319</a>.)</p>
+<p>In previous releases, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> messages were
+enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear
+indication of where their code may break in a future major version
+of Python.</p>
+<p>However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based
+applications who are not directly involved in the development of
+those applications.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> messages are
+irrelevant to such users, making them worry about an application
+that’s actually working correctly and burdening application developers
+with responding to these concerns.</p>
+<p>You can re-enable display of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> messages by
+running Python with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wdefault</span></code></a> (short form:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wd</span></code></a>) switch, or by setting the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a>
+environment variable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;default&quot;</span></code> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;d&quot;</span></code>) before running
+Python.  Python code can also re-enable them
+by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.simplefilter('default')</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code> module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings
+when running tests.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-1-features">
+<h2>Python 3.1 Features<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-1-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0,
+version 2.7 incorporates some of the new features
+in Python 3.1.  The 2.x series continues to provide tools
+for migrating to the 3.x series.</p>
+<p>A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The syntax for set literals (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{1,2,3}</span></code> is a mutable set).</p></li>
+<li><p>Dictionary and set comprehensions (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{i:</span> <span class="pre">i*2</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">i</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">range(3)}</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Multiple context managers in a single <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new version of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> library, rewritten in C for performance.</p></li>
+<li><p>The ordered-dictionary type described in <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-0372"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;,&quot;</span></code> format specifier described in <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-0378"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> object.</p></li>
+<li><p>A small subset of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> module,
+<a class="reference external" href="#importlib-section">described below</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> of a float <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is shorter in many cases: it’s now
+based on the shortest decimal string that’s guaranteed to round back
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>.  As in previous versions of Python, it’s guaranteed that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(repr(x))</span></code> recovers <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly rounded.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> function is also now correctly rounded.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule" title="PyCapsule"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule</span></code></a> type, used to provide a C API for extension modules.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow" title="PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow()</span></code></a> C API function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Other new Python3-mode warnings include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.isCallable()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.sequenceIncludes()</span></code>,
+which are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code> switch now automatically
+enables the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Qwarn</span></code> switch that causes warnings
+about using classic division with integers and long integers.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-372-adding-an-ordered-dictionary-to-collections">
+<span id="pep-0372"></span><h2>PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-372-adding-an-ordered-dictionary-to-collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order.
+Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations
+that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted.  Based on
+the experiences from those implementations, 2.7 introduces a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> API provides the same interface as regular
+dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order
+depending on when a key was first inserted:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="s1">&#39;first&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                 <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;second&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                 <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;third&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;first&#39;, 1), (&#39;second&#39;, 2), (&#39;third&#39;, 3)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion
+position is left unchanged:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;second&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;first&#39;, 1), (&#39;second&#39;, 4), (&#39;third&#39;, 3)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;second&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;second&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;first&#39;, 1), (&#39;third&#39;, 3), (&#39;second&#39;, 5)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict.popitem" title="collections.OrderedDict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">popitem()</span></code></a> method has an optional <em>last</em>
+argument that defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  If <em>last</em> is true, the most recently
+added key is returned and removed; if it’s false, the
+oldest key is selected:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popitem</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(19, 0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popitem</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(18, 0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popitem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 0)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">popitem</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(1, 0)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values,
+and requires that the insertion order was the same:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="s1">&#39;first&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                   <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;second&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                   <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;third&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="s1">&#39;third&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                   <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;first&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                   <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;second&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od1</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">od2</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Move &#39;third&#39; key to the end</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">od2</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;third&#39;</span><span class="p">];</span> <span class="n">od2</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;third&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">od1</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">od2</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Comparing an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> with a regular dictionary
+ignores the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.</p>
+<p>How does the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> work?  It maintains a
+doubly-linked list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they’re inserted.
+A secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so
+deletion doesn’t have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore
+remains O(1).</p>
+<p>The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
+modules.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> module uses them by default, meaning that
+configuration files can now be read, modified, and then written back
+in their original order.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.somenamedtuple._asdict" title="collections.somenamedtuple._asdict"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_asdict()</span></code></a> method for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> now returns an ordered dictionary with the
+values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder" title="json.JSONDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecoder</span></code></a> class
+constructor was extended with an <em>object_pairs_hook</em> parameter to
+allow <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> instances to be built by the decoder.
+Support was also added for third-party tools like
+<a class="reference external" href="http://pyyaml.org/">PyYAML</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0372"><strong>PEP 372</strong></a> - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger;
+implemented by Raymond Hettinger.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">
+<span id="pep-0378"></span><h2>PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add
+separators to large numbers, rendering them as
+18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead of 18446744073709551616.</p>
+<p>The fully general solution for doing this is the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> module,
+which can use different separators (“,” in North America, “.” in
+Europe) and different grouping sizes, but <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> is complicated
+to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where different
+threads are producing output for different locales.</p>
+<p>Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the
+mini-language used by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method.  When
+formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the
+width and the precision:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:20,.2f}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">18446744073709551616.0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{:20,d}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">18446744073709551616</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;18,446,744,073,709,551,616&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the
+separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups.  The
+comma-formatting mechanism isn’t as general as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a>
+module, but it’s easier to use.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0378"><strong>PEP 378</strong></a> - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-389-the-argparse-module-for-parsing-command-lines">
+<h2>PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-389-the-argparse-module-for-parsing-command-lines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module for parsing command-line arguments was
+added as a more powerful replacement for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing
+command-line arguments: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/getopt.html#module-getopt" title="getopt: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt</span></code></a> module closely resembles the C
+library’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getopt()</span></code> function, so it remains useful if you’re writing a
+Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it
+because there are many scripts still using it, and there’s no
+automated way to update these scripts.  (Making the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>
+API consistent with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>’s interface was discussed but
+rejected as too messy and difficult.)</p>
+<p>In short, if you’re writing a new script and don’t need to worry
+about compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Here’s an example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Command-line example.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Add optional switches</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-v&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;is_verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;produce verbose output&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-o&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;output&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;FILE&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;direct output to FILE instead of stdout&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-C&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;context&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">metavar</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;NUM&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;display NUM lines of added context&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Allow any number of additional arguments.</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">nargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">dest</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;inputs&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                    <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;input filenames (default is stdin)&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">args</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unless you override it, <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-h</span></code> and <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--help</span></code> switches
+are automatically added, and produce neatly formatted output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="o">./</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exe</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">help</span>
+<span class="n">usage</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="n">FILE</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="n">NUM</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">inputs</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">inputs</span> <span class="o">...</span><span class="p">]]</span>
+
+<span class="n">Command</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">line</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span>
+
+<span class="n">positional</span> <span class="n">arguments</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="n">inputs</span>      <span class="nb">input</span> <span class="n">filenames</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">default</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="n">stdin</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">optional</span> <span class="n">arguments</span><span class="p">:</span>
+  <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">help</span>  <span class="n">show</span> <span class="n">this</span> <span class="n">help</span> <span class="n">message</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">exit</span>
+  <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span>          <span class="n">produce</span> <span class="n">verbose</span> <span class="n">output</span>
+  <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="n">FILE</span>     <span class="n">direct</span> <span class="n">output</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">FILE</span> <span class="n">instead</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">stdout</span>
+  <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="n">NUM</span>      <span class="n">display</span> <span class="n">NUM</span> <span class="n">lines</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">added</span> <span class="n">context</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>, the command-line switches and arguments
+are returned as an object with attributes named by the <em>dest</em> parameters:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="o">./</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exe</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span>
+<span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;output&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;is_verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;context&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;inputs&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[]}</span>
+
+<span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="o">./</span><span class="n">python</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">exe</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">v</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">o</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">C</span> <span class="mi">4</span> <span class="n">file1</span> <span class="n">file2</span>
+<span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;output&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/tmp/output&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;is_verbose&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;context&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;inputs&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;file1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;file2&#39;</span><span class="p">]}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> has much fancier validation than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>; you
+can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more
+arguments by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'*'</span></code>, 1 or more by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>, or an
+optional argument with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'?'</span></code>.  A top-level parser can contain
+sub-parsers to define subcommands that have different sets of
+switches, as in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span> <span class="pre">commit</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">svn</span> <span class="pre">checkout</span></code>, etc.  You can
+specify an argument’s type as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#argparse.FileType" title="argparse.FileType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileType</span></code></a>, which will
+automatically open files for you and understands that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> means
+standard input or output.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> documentation</dt><dd><p>The documentation page of the argparse module.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code"><span class="std std-ref">Upgrading optparse code</span></a></dt><dd><p>Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert
+code that uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0389"><strong>PEP 389</strong></a> - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">
+<h2>PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module is very flexible; applications can define
+a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter
+out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to
+a varying number of handlers.</p>
+<p>All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration.  You can
+write Python statements to create objects and set their properties,
+but a complex set-up requires verbose but boring code.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> also supports a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code>
+function that parses a file, but the file format doesn’t support
+configuring filters, and it’s messier to generate programmatically.</p>
+<p>Python 2.7 adds a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dictConfig()</span></code> function that
+uses a dictionary to configure logging.  There are many ways to
+produce a dictionary from different sources: construct one with code;
+parse a file containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is
+installed.  For more information see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging-config-api"><span class="std std-ref">Configuration functions</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a
+logger named “network”.  Messages sent to the root logger will be
+sent to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages
+to the “network” logger will be written to a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">network.log</span></code> file
+that will be rotated once the log reaches 1MB.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+
+<span class="n">configdict</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;version&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>    <span class="c1"># Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;formatters&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+     <span class="s1">&#39;standard&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+         <span class="s1">&#39;format&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s1"> &#39;</span>
+                    <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)}},</span>
+
+ <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;netlog&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;backupCount&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                     <span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                     <span class="s1">&#39;filename&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/logs/network.log&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                     <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;standard&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                     <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;INFO&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                     <span class="s1">&#39;maxBytes&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1000000</span><span class="p">},</span>
+              <span class="s1">&#39;syslog&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;class&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logging.handlers.SysLogHandler&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                         <span class="s1">&#39;formatter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;standard&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                         <span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ERROR&#39;</span><span class="p">}},</span>
+
+ <span class="c1"># Specify all the subordinate loggers</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;loggers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+             <span class="s1">&#39;network&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                         <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;netlog&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+             <span class="p">}</span>
+ <span class="p">},</span>
+ <span class="c1"># Specify properties of the root logger</span>
+ <span class="s1">&#39;root&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+          <span class="s1">&#39;handlers&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;syslog&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+ <span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Set up configuration</span>
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">configdict</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># As an example, log two error messages</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">logger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Database not found&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">netlogger</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;network&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">netlogger</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Connection failed&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Three smaller enhancements to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module, all
+implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> class now supports
+syslogging over TCP.  The constructor has a <em>socktype</em> parameter
+giving the type of socket to use, either <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_DGRAM" title="socket.SOCK_DGRAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_DGRAM</span></code></a>
+for UDP or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_STREAM" title="socket.SOCK_STREAM"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_STREAM</span></code></a> for TCP.  The default
+protocol remains UDP.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> instances gained a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.getChild" title="logging.Logger.getChild"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getChild()</span></code></a>
+method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path.
+For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">getLogger('app')</span></code>,
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log.getChild('network.listen')</span></code> is equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getLogger('app.network.listen')</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LoggerAdapter" title="logging.LoggerAdapter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LoggerAdapter</span></code></a> class gained an
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isEnabledFor()</span></code> method that takes a
+<em>level</em> and returns whether the underlying logger would
+process a message of that level of importance.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0391"><strong>PEP 391</strong></a> - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3106-dictionary-views">
+<h2>PEP 3106: Dictionary Views<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3106-dictionary-views" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The dictionary methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code></a> are different in Python 3.x.  They return an object
+called a <em class="dfn">view</em> instead of a fully materialized list.</p>
+<p>It’s not possible to change the return values of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code></a> in Python 2.7 because
+too much code would break.  Instead the 3.x versions were added
+under the new names <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">viewkeys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">viewvalues()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">viewitems()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">65</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">26</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">{0: &#39;A&#39;, 130: &#39;N&#39;, 10: &#39;B&#39;, 140: &#39;O&#39;, 20: ..., 250: &#39;Z&#39;}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">viewkeys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave
+like sets.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;</span></code> operator performs intersection, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>
+performs a union:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">chr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">65</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">26</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">**.</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">viewkeys</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">d2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">viewkeys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">viewkeys</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the
+dictionary is modified:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">vk</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">viewkeys</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">vk</span>
+<span class="go">dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">260</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&amp;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">vk</span>
+<span class="go">dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, note that you can’t add or remove keys while you’re iterating
+over the view:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">k</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">vk</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">k</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">k</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">RuntimeError</span>: <span class="n">dictionary changed size during iteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3
+converter will change them to the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keys()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3106"><strong>PEP 3106</strong></a> - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum.
+Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre Vassalotti; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1967">bpo-1967</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3137-the-memoryview-object">
+<h2>PEP 3137: The memoryview Object<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3137-the-memoryview-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> object provides a view of another object’s
+memory content that matches the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> type’s interface.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">string</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;memory at 0x37f850&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>           <span class="c1"># Returns length of underlying object</span>
+<span class="go">52</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">26</span><span class="p">]</span>   <span class="c1"># Indexing returns one byte</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;a&#39;, &#39;z&#39;, &#39;A&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">26</span><span class="p">]</span>         <span class="c1"># Slicing returns another memoryview</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;memory at 0x37f080&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or
+a list of integers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tobytes</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> objects allow modifying the underlying object if
+it’s a mutable object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">75</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">cannot modify read-only memory</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">bytearray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">letters</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Creating a mutable object</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mb</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">mb</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;*&#39;</span>         <span class="c1"># Assign to view, changing the bytearray.</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>              <span class="c1"># The bytearray has been changed.</span>
+<span class="go">bytearray(b&#39;*bcde&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3137"><strong>PEP 3137</strong></a> - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum.
+Implemented by Travis Oliphant, Antoine Pitrou and others.
+Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2396">bpo-2396</a>.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x.
+Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting
+mutable set; set literals are
+distinguished from dictionaries by not containing colons and values.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code> continues to represent an empty dictionary; use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code> for an empty set.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="go">set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">set</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># empty set</span>
+<span class="go">set([])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">{}</span>    <span class="c1"># empty dict</span>
+<span class="go">{}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2335">bpo-2335</a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported from
+3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use
+the literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)}</span>
+<span class="go">{0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">{(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)}</span>
+<span class="go">set([&#39;&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;aa&#39;, &#39;aaa&#39;, &#39;aaaa&#39;, &#39;aaaaa&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2333">bpo-2333</a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement can now use multiple context managers
+in one statement.  Context managers are processed from left to right
+and each one is treated as beginning a new <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement.
+This means that:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">suite</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">statements</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>is equivalent to:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">suite</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">statements</span> <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.nested()</span></code> function provides a very similar
+function, so it’s no longer necessary and has been deprecated.</p>
+<p>(Proposed in <a class="reference external" href="https://codereview.appspot.com/53094">https://codereview.appspot.com/53094</a>; implemented by
+Georg Brandl.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are
+now correctly rounded on most platforms.  These conversions occur
+in many different places: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> on
+floats and complex numbers; the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>
+constructors;
+numeric formatting; serializing and
+deserializing floats and complex numbers using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> modules;
+parsing of float and imaginary literals in Python code;
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>-to-float conversion.</p>
+<p>Related to this, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> of a floating-point number <em>x</em>
+now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string that’s
+guaranteed to round back to <em>x</em> under correct rounding (with
+round-half-to-even rounding mode).  Previously it gave a string
+based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.</p>
+<p>The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on
+Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc
+compilers.  There may be a small number of platforms where correct
+operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not
+used on such systems.  You can find out which code is being used
+by checking <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.float_repr_style" title="sys.float_repr_style"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.float_repr_style</span></code></a>,  which will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">short</span></code>
+if the new code is in use and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">legacy</span></code> if it isn’t.</p>
+<p>Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay’s
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dtoa.c</span></code> library; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7117">bpo-7117</a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating
+point now round differently, returning the floating-point number
+closest to the number.  This doesn’t matter for small integers that
+can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will
+unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more
+closely.  For example, Python 2.6 computed the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">295147905179352891391</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2.9514790517935283e+20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">long</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">65535L</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python 2.7’s floating-point result is larger, but much closer to the
+true value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">295147905179352891391</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2.9514790517935289e+20</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">long</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">-1L</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Implemented by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3166">bpo-3166</a>.)</p>
+<p>Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours.  (Also
+implemented by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1811">bpo-1811</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the interpreter
+will no longer ever attempt to call a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__coerce__()</span></code> method on complex
+objects.  (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5211">bpo-5211</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method now supports automatic numbering of the replacement
+fields.  This makes using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> more closely resemble using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> formatting:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">:</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">:</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2009</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">04</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Sunday&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2009:4:Sunday&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">:</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">:</span><span class="si">{day}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2009</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">day</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Sunday&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;2009:4:Sunday&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the first <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{...}</span></code>
+specifier will use the first argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>, the next
+specifier will use the next argument, and so on.  You can’t mix auto-numbering
+and explicit numbering – either number all of your specifier fields or none
+of them – but you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second
+example above.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5237">bpo-5237</a>.)</p>
+<p>Complex numbers now correctly support usage with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a>,
+and default to being right-aligned.
+Specifying a precision or comma-separation applies to both the real
+and imaginary parts of the number, but a specified field width and
+alignment is applied to the whole of the resulting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.5+3j</span></code>
+output.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1588">bpo-1588</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7988">bpo-7988</a>.)</p>
+<p>The ‘F’ format code now always formats its output using uppercase characters,
+so it will now produce ‘INF’ and ‘NAN’.
+(Contributed by Eric Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3382">bpo-3382</a>.)</p>
+<p>A low-level change: the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__format__()</span></code></a> method now triggers
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a> if it’s passed a format string,
+because the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__format__()</span></code></a> method for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> converts
+the object to a string representation and formats that.  Previously
+the method silently applied the format string to the string
+representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python code.  If
+you’re supplying formatting information such as an alignment or
+precision, presumably you’re expecting the formatting to be applied
+in some object-specific way.  (Fixed by Eric Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7994">bpo-7994</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long()</span></code> types gained a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bit_length</span></code>
+method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent
+its argument in binary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">37</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0b100101&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">123</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">123</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">124</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3439">bpo-3439</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement will no longer try an absolute import
+if a relative import (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">.os</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">sep</span></code>) fails.  This
+fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code>
+statements that were only working by accident.  (Fixed by Meador Inge;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7902">bpo-7902</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s now possible for a subclass of the built-in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code> type
+to override the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__unicode__()</span></code> method.  (Implemented by
+Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1583863">bpo-1583863</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> type’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.translate" title="bytearray.translate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">translate()</span></code></a> method now accepts
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> as its first argument.  (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4759">bpo-4759</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>When using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;classmethod</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;staticmethod</span></code> to wrap
+methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
+exposes the wrapped function as their <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__func__</span></code> attribute.
+(Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, after a suggestion by
+George Sakkis; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5982">bpo-5982</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When a restricted set of attributes were set using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code>,
+deleting an unset attribute would not raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>
+as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7604">bpo-7604</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Two new encodings are now supported: “cp720”, used primarily for
+Arabic text; and “cp858”, a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro
+symbol.  (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury
+Forgeot d’Arc in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1616979">bpo-1616979</a>; CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8016">bpo-8016</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> object will now set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filename</span></code> attribute
+on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a> exception when trying to open a directory
+on POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4764">bpo-4764</a>), and
+now explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects
+instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error
+(fixed by Stefan Krah; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5677">bpo-5677</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> built-in function now accepts code using any
+line-ending convention.  Additionally, it no longer requires that the
+code end in a newline.</p></li>
+<li><p>Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python 3.x,
+meaning that you get a syntax error from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">f((x)):</span> <span class="pre">pass</span></code>.  In
+Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd usage.
+(Noted by James Lingard; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7362">bpo-7362</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>It’s now possible to create weak references to old-style class
+objects.  New-style classes were always weak-referenceable.  (Fixed
+by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8268">bpo-8268</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When a module object is garbage-collected, the module’s dictionary is
+now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the
+dictionary (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7140">bpo-7140</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="interpreter-changes">
+<span id="new-27-interpreter"></span><h3>Interpreter Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#interpreter-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new environment variable, <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a>,
+allows controlling warnings.  It should be set to a string
+containing warning settings, equivalent to those
+used with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> switch, separated by commas.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7301">bpo-7301</a>.)</p>
+<p>For example, the following setting will print warnings every time
+they occur, but turn warnings from the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code> module into an
+error.  (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies
+across operating systems and shells.)</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">export</span> <span class="n">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">all</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">:::</span><span class="n">Cookie</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h3>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Several performance enhancements have been added:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements, looking up the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> methods.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage
+pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating
+any of them.  This would previously take quadratic
+time for garbage collection, but now the number of full garbage collections
+is reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows.
+The new logic only performs a full garbage collection pass when
+the middle generation has been collected 10 times and when the
+number of survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of
+the number of objects in the oldest generation.  (Suggested by Martin
+von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4074">bpo-4074</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
+which can’t be part of a cycle. In Python 2.7, this is now true for
+tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints, strings,
+etc.). Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic types won’t
+be tracked either. This helps reduce the cost of each
+garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
+considered and traversed by the collector.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4688">bpo-4688</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Long integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base
+2**30, the base being determined at build time.  Previously, they
+were always stored in base 2**15.  Using base 2**30 gives
+significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
+benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
+the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15
+on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new configure option
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-big-digits</span></code> that can be used to override this default.</p>
+<p>Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
+invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
+debugging purposes there’s a new structseq <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.long_info</span></code> that
+provides information about the internal format, giving the number of
+bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
+each digit:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">long_info</span>
+<span class="go">sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4258">bpo-4258</a>.)</p>
+<p>Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2 bytes
+smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5260">bpo-5260</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster
+by tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
+and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.
+Various benchmarks show speedups of between 50% and 150% for long
+integer divisions and modulo operations.
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5512">bpo-5512</a>.)
+Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by
+Gregory Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1087418">bpo-1087418</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The implementation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> checks for the left-side operand being
+a Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1–3%
+performance increase for applications that frequently use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>
+with strings, such as templating libraries.
+(Implemented by Collin Winter; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5176">bpo-5176</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>List comprehensions with an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span></code> condition are compiled into
+faster bytecode.  (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7
+by Jeffrey Yasskin; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4715">bpo-4715</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made
+faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized
+conversion function that supports arbitrary bases.
+(Patch by Gawain Bolton; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6713">bpo-6713</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rindex()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpartition()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code> methods of string-like types
+(strings, Unicode strings, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects) now use a
+fast reverse-search algorithm instead of a character-by-character
+scan.  This is sometimes faster by a factor of 10.  (Added by
+Florent Xicluna; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7462">bpo-7462</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7622">bpo-7622</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cPickle</span></code> modules now automatically
+intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage
+of the objects resulting from unpickling.  (Contributed by Jake
+McGuire; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5084">bpo-5084</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cPickle</span></code> module now special-cases dictionaries,
+nearly halving the time required to pickle them.
+(Contributed by Collin Winter; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5670">bpo-5670</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-and-improved-modules">
+<h2>New and Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-and-improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
+enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
+changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/NEWS</span></code> file in the source tree for a more complete list of
+changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bdb.html#module-bdb" title="bdb: Debugger framework."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdb</span></code></a> module’s base debugging class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bdb.html#bdb.Bdb" title="bdb.Bdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bdb</span></code></a>
+gained a feature for skipping modules.  The constructor
+now takes an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">django.*</span></code>; the debugger will not step into stack frames
+from a module that matches one of these patterns.
+(Contributed by Maru Newby after a suggestion by
+Senthil Kumaran; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5142">bpo-5142</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/binascii.html#module-binascii" title="binascii: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii</span></code></a> module now supports the buffer API, so it can be
+used with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> instances and other similar buffer objects.
+(Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7703">bpo-7703</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Updated module: the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb</span></code> module has been updated from 4.7.2devel9
+to version 4.8.4 of
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm">the pybsddb package</a>.
+The new version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug fixes,
+and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.
+(Updated by Jesús Cea Avión; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8156">bpo-8156</a>.  The pybsddb
+changelog can be read at <a class="reference external" href="http://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog">http://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2File</span></code></a> now supports the context
+management protocol, so you can write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File(...)</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">f:</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3860">bpo-3860</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New class: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a>
+module is useful for tallying data.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> instances
+behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for missing keys instead of
+raising a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Counter</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">letter</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;here is a sample of english text&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>  <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">letter</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> 
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39; &#39;: 6, &#39;e&#39;: 5, &#39;s&#39;: 3, &#39;a&#39;: 2, &#39;i&#39;: 2, &#39;h&#39;: 2,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;l&#39;: 2, &#39;t&#39;: 2, &#39;g&#39;: 1, &#39;f&#39;: 1, &#39;m&#39;: 1, &#39;o&#39;: 1, &#39;n&#39;: 1,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;p&#39;: 1, &#39;r&#39;: 1, &#39;x&#39;: 1})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;z&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>There are three additional <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> methods.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter.most_common" title="collections.Counter.most_common"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">most_common()</span></code></a> returns the N most common
+elements and their counts.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter.elements" title="collections.Counter.elements"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elements()</span></code></a>
+returns an iterator over the contained elements, repeating each
+element as many times as its count.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter.subtract" title="collections.Counter.subtract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subtract()</span></code></a> takes an iterable and
+subtracts one for each element instead of adding; if the argument is
+a dictionary or another <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code>, the counts are
+subtracted.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">most_common</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39; &#39;, 6), (&#39;e&#39;, 5), (&#39;s&#39;, 3), (&#39;a&#39;, 2), (&#39;i&#39;, 2)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">elements</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">   &#39;a&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39; &#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">   &#39;e&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;g&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;i&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">   &#39;h&#39;, &#39;h&#39;, &#39;m&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;o&#39;, &#39;n&#39;, &#39;p&#39;, &#39;s&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">   &#39;s&#39;, &#39;s&#39;, &#39;r&#39;, &#39;t&#39;, &#39;t&#39;, &#39;x&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subtract</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;very heavy on the letter e&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>    <span class="c1"># Count is now lower</span>
+<span class="go">-1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1696199">bpo-1696199</a>.</p>
+<p>New class: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> is described in the earlier
+section <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-0372"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections</span></a>.</p>
+<p>New method: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a> data type now has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.count" title="collections.deque.count"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code></a> method that returns the number of
+contained elements equal to the supplied argument <em>x</em>, and a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.reverse" title="collections.deque.reverse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse()</span></code></a> method that reverses the elements
+of the deque in-place.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a> also exposes its maximum
+length as the read-only <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.maxlen" title="collections.deque.maxlen"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxlen</span></code></a> attribute.
+(Both features added by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple</span></code></a> class now has an optional <em>rename</em> parameter.
+If <em>rename</em> is true, field names that are invalid because they’ve
+been repeated or aren’t legal Python identifiers will be
+renamed to legal names that are derived from the field’s
+position within the list of fields:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;T&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;field1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;$illegal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;for&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;field2&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">rename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_fields</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;field1&#39;, &#39;_1&#39;, &#39;_2&#39;, &#39;field2&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Added by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1818">bpo-1818</a>.)</p>
+<p>Finally, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code> abstract base class now
+returns <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a> if a mapping is compared to
+another type that isn’t a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mapping</span></code>.
+(Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8729">bpo-8729</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Constructors for the parsing classes in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> module now
+take an <em>allow_no_value</em> parameter, defaulting to false; if true,
+options without values will be allowed.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ConfigParser</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">StringIO</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sample_config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[mysqld]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">user = mysql</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">skip-bdb</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RawConfigParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">allow_no_value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readfp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sample_config</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mysqld&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;user&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;mysql&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mysqld&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;skip-bdb&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">None</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mysqld&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;unknown&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">NoOptionError</span>: <span class="n">No option &#39;unknown&#39; in section: &#39;mysqld&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Mats Kindahl; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7005">bpo-7005</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Deprecated function: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.nested()</span></code>, which allows
+handling more than one context manager with a single <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a>
+statement, has been deprecated, because the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement
+now supports multiple context managers.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cookielib</span></code> module now ignores cookies that have an invalid
+version field, one that doesn’t contain an integer value.  (Fixed by
+John J. Lee; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3924">bpo-3924</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deepcopy()</span></code></a> function will now
+correctly copy bound instance methods.  (Implemented by
+Robert Collins; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1515">bpo-1515</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> module now always converts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to a C NULL
+pointer for arguments declared as pointers.  (Changed by Thomas
+Heller; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4606">bpo-4606</a>.)  The underlying <a class="reference external" href="https://sourceware.org/libffi/">libffi library</a> has been updated to version
+3.0.9, containing various fixes for different platforms.  (Updated
+by Matthias Klose; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8142">bpo-8142</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New method: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> class
+gained a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta.total_seconds" title="datetime.timedelta.total_seconds"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">total_seconds()</span></code></a> method that returns the
+number of seconds in the duration.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5788">bpo-5788</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New method: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> class gained a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.from_float" title="decimal.Decimal.from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_float()</span></code></a> class method that performs an exact
+conversion of a floating-point number to a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>.
+This exact conversion strives for the
+closest decimal approximation to the floating-point representation’s value;
+the resulting decimal value will therefore still include the inaccuracy,
+if any.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal.from_float(0.1)</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')</span></code>.
+(Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4796">bpo-4796</a>.)</p>
+<p>Comparing instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> with floating-point
+numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values
+of the operands.  Previously such comparisons would fall back to
+Python’s default rules for comparing objects, which produced arbitrary
+results based on their type.  Note that you still cannot combine
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code> and floating-point in other operations such as addition,
+since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert between float and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a>.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2531">bpo-2531</a>.)</p>
+<p>The constructor for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> now accepts
+floating-point numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8257">bpo-8257</a>)
+and non-European Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits
+(contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6595">bpo-6595</a>).</p>
+<p>Most of the methods of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> class now accept integers
+as well as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instances; the only exceptions are the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.canonical" title="decimal.Context.canonical"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">canonical()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.is_canonical" title="decimal.Context.is_canonical"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_canonical()</span></code></a>
+methods.  (Patch by Juan José Conti; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7633">bpo-7633</a>.)</p>
+<p>When using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instances with a string’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method, the default alignment was previously
+left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which is
+more sensible for numeric types.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6857">bpo-6857</a>.)</p>
+<p>Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sNAN</span></code>) now signal
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code> instead of silently returning a true or
+false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN values
+(or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7279">bpo-7279</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#module-difflib" title="difflib: Helpers for computing differences between objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib</span></code></a> module now produces output that is more
+compatible with modern <strong class="command">diff</strong>/<strong class="command">patch</strong> tools
+through one small change, using a tab character instead of spaces as
+a separator in the header giving the filename.  (Fixed by Anatoly
+Techtonik; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7585">bpo-7585</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The Distutils <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sdist</span></code> command now always regenerates the
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST</span></code> file, since even if the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANIFEST.in</span></code> or
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> files haven’t been modified, the user might have
+created some new files that should be included.
+(Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8688">bpo-8688</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL</span></code> flag
+will now ignore the name of the module containing the exception
+being tested.  (Patch by Lennart Regebro; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7490">bpo-7490</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> class will
+now accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the
+payload to the encoding specified by <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">output_charset</span></code>.
+(Added by R. David Murray; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1368247">bpo-1368247</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a> class now accepts a single float or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance, or two rational numbers, as
+arguments to its constructor.  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson;
+rationals added in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5812">bpo-5812</a>, and float/decimal in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8294">bpo-8294</a>.)</p>
+<p>Ordering comparisons (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>) between
+fractions and complex numbers now raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.
+This fixes an oversight, making the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code></a>
+match the other numeric types.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New class: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP_TLS</span></code></a> in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> module provides secure FTP
+connections using TLS encapsulation of authentication as well as
+subsequent control and data transfers.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2054">bpo-2054</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.storbinary" title="ftplib.FTP.storbinary"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">storbinary()</span></code></a> method for binary uploads can now restart
+uploads thanks to an added <em>rest</em> parameter (patch by Pablo Mouzo;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6845">bpo-6845</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New class decorator: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">total_ordering()</span></code></a> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a>
+module takes a class that defines an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> method and one of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__le__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__gt__()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__ge__()</span></code></a>,
+and generates the missing comparison methods.  Since the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cmp__()</span></code> method is being deprecated in Python 3.x,
+this decorator makes it easier to define ordered classes.
+(Added by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5479">bpo-5479</a>.)</p>
+<p>New function: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp_to_key()</span></code></a> will take an old-style comparison
+function that expects two arguments and return a new callable that
+can be used as the <em>key</em> parameter to functions such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a>, etc.  The primary
+intended use is to help with making code compatible with Python 3.x.
+(Added by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New function: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#module-gc" title="gc: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.is_tracked" title="gc.is_tracked"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_tracked()</span></code></a> returns
+true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage collector, false
+otherwise. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4688">bpo-4688</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> now supports the context
+management protocol, so you can write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">gzip.GzipFile(...)</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">f:</span></code>
+(contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3860">bpo-3860</a>), and it now implements
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> ABC, so you can wrap it with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedReader</span></code></a> for faster processing
+(contributed by Nir Aides; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7471">bpo-7471</a>).
+It’s also now possible to override the modification time
+recorded in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to
+the constructor.  (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4272">bpo-4272</a>.)</p>
+<p>Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module will now consume these trailing bytes.  (Fixed by
+Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2846">bpo-2846</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New attribute: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module now has an <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">algorithms</span></code>
+attribute containing a tuple naming the supported algorithms.
+In Python 2.7, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.algorithms</span></code> contains
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">('md5',</span> <span class="pre">'sha1',</span> <span class="pre">'sha224',</span> <span class="pre">'sha256',</span> <span class="pre">'sha384',</span> <span class="pre">'sha512')</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Carl Chenet; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7418">bpo-7418</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The default <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPResponse</span></code> class used by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> module now
+supports buffering, resulting in much faster reading of HTTP responses.
+(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4879">bpo-4879</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code> classes
+now support a <em>source_address</em> parameter, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> 2-tuple
+giving the source address that will be used for the connection.
+(Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3972">bpo-3972</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ihooks</span></code> module now supports relative imports.  Note that
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ihooks</span></code> is an older module for customizing imports,
+superseded by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imputil</span></code> module added in Python 2.0.
+(Relative import support added by Neil Schemenauer.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> module now supports IPv6 addresses.
+(Contributed by Derek Morr; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1655">bpo-1655</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getcallargs" title="inspect.getcallargs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcallargs()</span></code></a>
+takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments,
+and figures out which of the callable’s parameters will receive each argument,
+returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their values.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">inspect</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">getcallargs</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">named</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcallargs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;: 1, &#39;b&#39;: 2, &#39;pos&#39;: (3,), &#39;named&#39;: {}}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcallargs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;a&#39;: 2, &#39;b&#39;: 1, &#39;pos&#39;: (), &#39;named&#39;: {&#39;x&#39;: 4}}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getcallargs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+<span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Contributed by George Sakkis; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3135">bpo-3135</a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Updated module: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> library has been upgraded to the version shipped with
+Python 3.1.  For 3.1, the I/O library was entirely rewritten in C
+and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task being performed.  The
+original Python version was renamed to the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pyio</span></code> module.</p>
+<p>One minor resulting change: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOBase</span></code></a> class now
+has an <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code> attribute giving the error setting
+used for encoding and decoding errors (one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code>).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.FileIO" title="io.FileIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.FileIO</span></code></a> class now raises an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> when passed
+an invalid file descriptor.  (Implemented by Benjamin Peterson;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4991">bpo-4991</a>.)  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.IOBase.truncate" title="io.IOBase.truncate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code></a> method now preserves the
+file position; previously it would change the file position to the
+end of the new file.  (Fixed by Pascal Chambon; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6939">bpo-6939</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New function: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.compress(data,</span> <span class="pre">selectors)</span></code> takes two
+iterators.  Elements of <em>data</em> are returned if the corresponding
+value in <em>selectors</em> is true:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ABCDEF&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">E</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">F</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>New function: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter,</span> <span class="pre">r)</span></code>
+returns all the possible <em>r</em>-length combinations of elements from the
+iterable <em>iter</em>.  Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations" title="itertools.combinations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">combinations()</span></code></a>, individual elements
+can be repeated in the generated combinations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">combinations_with_replacement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=&gt;</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+  <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their position
+in the input, not their actual values.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.count()</span></code></a> function now has a <em>step</em> argument that
+allows incrementing by values other than 1.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code></a> also
+now allows keyword arguments, and using non-integer values such as
+floats or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instances.  (Implemented by Raymond
+Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5032">bpo-5032</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations" title="itertools.combinations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.combinations()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.product" title="itertools.product"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.product()</span></code></a>
+previously raised <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> for values of <em>r</em> larger than
+the input iterable.  This was deemed a specification error, so they
+now return an empty iterator.  (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4816">bpo-4816</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Updated module: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module was upgraded to version 2.0.9 of the
+simplejson package, which includes a C extension that makes
+encoding and decoding faster.
+(Contributed by Bob Ippolito; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4136">bpo-4136</a>.)</p>
+<p>To support the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a> type, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.load" title="json.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.load()</span></code></a>
+now has an optional <em>object_pairs_hook</em> parameter that will be called
+with any object literal that decodes to a list of pairs.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5381">bpo-5381</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Maildir" title="mailbox.Maildir"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Maildir</span></code></a> class now records the
+timestamp on the directories it reads, and only re-reads them if the
+modification time has subsequently changed.  This improves
+performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans.  (Fixed by
+A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1607951">bpo-1607951</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6896">bpo-6896</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New functions: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module gained
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erf" title="math.erf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erf()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erfc" title="math.erfc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erfc()</span></code></a> for the error function and the complementary error function,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.expm1" title="math.expm1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expm1()</span></code></a> which computes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e**x</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code> with more precision than
+using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.exp" title="math.exp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exp()</span></code></a> and subtracting 1,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.gamma" title="math.gamma"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gamma()</span></code></a> for the Gamma function, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.lgamma" title="math.lgamma"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgamma()</span></code></a> for the natural log of the Gamma function.
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3366">bpo-3366</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Manager*</span></code> classes
+can now be passed a callable that will be called whenever
+a subprocess is started, along with a set of arguments that will be
+passed to the callable.
+(Contributed by lekma; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5585">bpo-5585</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code> class, which controls a pool of worker processes,
+now has an optional <em>maxtasksperchild</em> parameter.  Worker processes
+will perform the specified number of tasks and then exit, causing the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code> to start a new worker.  This is useful if tasks may leak
+memory or other resources, or if some tasks will cause the worker to
+become very large.
+(Contributed by Charles Cazabon; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6963">bpo-6963</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module now supports IPv6 addresses.
+(Contributed by Derek Morr; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1664">bpo-1664</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New functions: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module wraps the following POSIX system
+calls: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getresgid" title="os.getresgid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getresgid()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getresuid" title="os.getresuid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getresuid()</span></code></a>, which return the
+real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.setresgid" title="os.setresgid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setresgid()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.setresuid" title="os.setresuid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setresuid()</span></code></a>, which set
+real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.initgroups" title="os.initgroups"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">initgroups()</span></code></a>, which initialize the group access list
+for the current process.  (GID/UID functions
+contributed by Travis H.; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6508">bpo-6508</a>.  Support for initgroups added
+by Jean-Paul Calderone; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7333">bpo-7333</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a> function now re-initializes the import lock in
+the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a>
+is called from a thread.  (Fixed by Zsolt Cserna; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7242">bpo-7242</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>In the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> module, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.normpath" title="os.path.normpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normpath()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.abspath" title="os.path.abspath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abspath()</span></code></a> functions now preserve Unicode; if their input path
+is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode string.
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.normpath" title="os.path.normpath"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normpath()</span></code></a> fixed by Matt Giuca in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5827">bpo-5827</a>;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.abspath" title="os.path.abspath"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abspath()</span></code></a> fixed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3426">bpo-3426</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module now has help for the various symbols that Python
+uses.  You can now do <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help('&lt;&lt;')</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help('&#64;')</span></code>, for example.
+(Contributed by David Laban; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4739">bpo-4739</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.subn" title="re.subn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subn()</span></code></a>
+now accept an optional <em>flags</em> argument, for consistency with the
+other functions in the module.  (Added by Gregory P. Smith.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#runpy.run_path" title="runpy.run_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_path()</span></code></a> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> module
+will execute the code at a provided <em>path</em> argument.  <em>path</em> can be
+the path of a Python source file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.py</span></code>), a compiled
+bytecode file (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.pyc</span></code>), a directory
+(<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">./package/</span></code>), or a zip archive (<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.zip</span></code>).  If a
+directory or zip path is provided, it will be added to the front of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> and the module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> will be imported.  It’s
+expected that the directory or zip contains a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code>;
+if it doesn’t, some other <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> might be imported from
+a location later in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>.  This makes more of the machinery
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> available to scripts that want to mimic the way
+Python’s command line processes an explicit path name.
+(Added by Nick Coghlan; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6816">bpo-6816</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.make_archive" title="shutil.make_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_archive()</span></code></a>
+takes a filename, archive type (zip or tar-format), and a directory
+path, and creates an archive containing the directory’s contents.
+(Added by Tarek Ziadé.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a>’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfile" title="shutil.copyfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyfile()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copytree()</span></code></a>
+functions now raise a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SpecialFileError</span></code> exception when
+asked to copy a named pipe.  Previously the code would treat
+named pipes like a regular file by opening them for reading, and
+this would block indefinitely.  (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3002">bpo-3002</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module no longer re-installs the signal handler
+unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that could make it
+impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly.  (Fixed by
+Charles-Francois Natali; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8354">bpo-8354</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New functions: in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module, three new functions
+return various site- and user-specific paths.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getsitepackages" title="site.getsitepackages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsitepackages()</span></code></a> returns a list containing all
+global site-packages directories,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getusersitepackages" title="site.getusersitepackages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getusersitepackages()</span></code></a> returns the path of the user’s
+site-packages directory, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getuserbase" title="site.getuserbase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getuserbase()</span></code></a> returns the value of the <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">USER_BASE</span></code>
+environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can be used
+to store data.
+(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6693">bpo-6693</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module now reports exceptions occurring
+when the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code> module is imported, and will no longer
+catch and swallow the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> exception.  (Fixed by
+Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3137">bpo-3137</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.create_connection" title="socket.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_connection()</span></code></a> function
+gained a <em>source_address</em> parameter, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> 2-tuple
+giving the source address that will be used for the connection.
+(Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3972">bpo-3972</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.recv_into" title="socket.socket.recv_into"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv_into()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvfrom_into" title="socket.socket.recvfrom_into"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvfrom_into()</span></code></a>
+methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API, most usefully
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> objects.  (Implemented by
+Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8104">bpo-8104</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketServer</span></code> module’s <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCPServer</span></code> class now
+supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm.
+The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disable_nagle_algorithm</span></code> class attribute
+defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>; if overridden to be true,
+new request connections will have the TCP_NODELAY option set to
+prevent buffering many small sends into a single TCP packet.
+The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeout</span></code> class attribute can hold
+a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request socket; if
+no request is received within that time, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_timeout()</span></code>
+will be called and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_request()</span></code> will return.
+(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6192">bpo-6192</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6267">bpo-6267</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Updated module: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module has been updated to
+version 2.6.0 of the <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite">pysqlite package</a>. Version 2.6.0 includes a number of bugfixes, and adds
+the ability to load SQLite extensions from shared libraries.
+Call the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable_load_extension(True)</span></code> method to enable extensions,
+and then call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.load_extension" title="sqlite3.Connection.load_extension"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_extension()</span></code></a> to load a particular shared library.
+(Updated by Gerhard Häring.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> objects now support the
+buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by Antoine Pitrou;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7133">bpo-7133</a>) and automatically set
+OpenSSL’s <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY</span></code>, which will prevent an error
+code being returned from <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code> operations that trigger an SSL
+renegotiation (fix by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8222">bpo-8222</a>).</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> constructor function now takes a
+<em>ciphers</em> argument that’s a string listing the encryption algorithms
+to be allowed; the format of the string is described
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT">in the OpenSSL documentation</a>.
+(Added by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8322">bpo-8322</a>.)</p>
+<p>Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL’s ciphers and
+digest algorithms so that they’re all available.  Some SSL
+certificates couldn’t be verified, reporting an “unknown algorithm”
+error.  (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8484">bpo-8484</a>.)</p>
+<p>The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module
+attributes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION</span></code></a> (a string),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO</span></code></a> (a 5-tuple), and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER</span></code></a> (an integer).  (Added by Antoine
+Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8321">bpo-8321</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module will no longer silently ignore overflow
+errors when a value is too large for a particular integer format
+code (one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bBhHiIlLqQ</span></code>); it now always raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.error" title="struct.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.error</span></code></a> exception.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1523">bpo-1523</a>.)  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pack()</span></code></a> function will also
+attempt to use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> to convert and pack non-integers
+before trying the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> method or reporting an error.
+(Changed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8300">bpo-8300</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.check_output" title="subprocess.check_output"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a> runs a command with a specified set of arguments
+and returns the command’s output as a string when the command runs without
+error, or raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CalledProcessError" title="subprocess.CalledProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CalledProcessError</span></code></a> exception otherwise.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_output</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;df&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-h&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n</span>
+<span class="go">/dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">check_output</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;df&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;-h&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/bogus&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">  ...</span>
+<span class="go">subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command &#39;[&#39;df&#39;, &#39;-h&#39;, &#39;/bogus&#39;]&#39; returned non-zero exit status 1</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module will now retry its internal system calls
+on receiving an <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINTR</span></code> signal.  (Reported by several people; final
+patch by Gregory P. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1068268">bpo-1068268</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New function: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/symtable.html#symtable.Symbol.is_declared_global" title="symtable.Symbol.is_declared_global"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_declared_global()</span></code></a> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/symtable.html#module-symtable" title="symtable: Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symtable</span></code></a> module
+returns true for variables that are explicitly declared to be global,
+false for ones that are implicitly global.
+(Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/syslog.html#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code></a> module will now use the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> as the
+identifier instead of the previous default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'python'</span></code>.
+(Changed by Sean Reifschneider; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8451">bpo-8451</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code> value is now a named tuple, with attributes
+named <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">major</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minor</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">micro</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">releaselevel</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serial</span></code>.  (Contributed by Ross
+Light; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4285">bpo-4285</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getwindowsversion" title="sys.getwindowsversion"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getwindowsversion()</span></code></a> also returns a named tuple,
+with attributes named <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">major</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">minor</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#module-platform" title="platform: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible."><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">service_pack</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">service_pack_major</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">service_pack_minor</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suite_mask</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">product_type</span></code>.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7766">bpo-7766</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module’s default error handling has changed, to
+no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was previously 0,
+which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the
+debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default,
+these errors go unnoticed.  The default error level is now 1,
+which raises an exception if there’s an error.
+(Changed by Lars Gustäbel; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7357">bpo-7357</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> now supports filtering the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a>
+objects being added to a tar file.  When you call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.add" title="tarfile.TarFile.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a>,
+you may supply an optional <em>filter</em> argument
+that’s a callable.  The <em>filter</em> callable will be passed the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> for every file being added, and can modify and return it.
+If the callable returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the file will be excluded from the
+resulting archive.  This is more powerful than the existing
+<em>exclude</em> argument, which has therefore been deprecated.
+(Added by Lars Gustäbel; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6856">bpo-6856</a>.)
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> class also now supports the context management protocol.
+(Added by Lars Gustäbel; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7232">bpo-7232</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Event.wait" title="threading.Event.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Event" title="threading.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Event</span></code></a> class
+now returns the internal flag on exit.  This means the method will usually
+return true because <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Event.wait" title="threading.Event.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> is supposed to block until the
+internal flag becomes true.  The return value will only be false if
+a timeout was provided and the operation timed out.
+(Contributed by Tim Lesher; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1674032">bpo-1674032</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The Unicode database provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module is
+now used internally to determine which characters are numeric,
+whitespace, or represent line breaks.  The database also
+includes information from the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Unihan.txt</span></code> data file (patch
+by Anders Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1571184">bpo-1571184</a>)
+and has been updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by
+Florent Xicluna; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8024">bpo-8024</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse</span></code> module’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code> now handles
+unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a>: if the
+URL is of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;something&gt;://...&quot;</span></code>, the text before the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">://</span></code> is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up scheme that
+the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break code that
+worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5
+will return the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urlparse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlsplit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;invented://host/filename?query&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;invented&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;//host/filename?query&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urlparse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlsplit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;invented://host/filename?query&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;invented&#39;, &#39;host&#39;, &#39;/filename?query&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
+returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse</span></code> module also supports IPv6 literal addresses as defined by
+<span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2732.html"><strong>RFC 2732</strong></a> (contributed by Senthil Kumaran; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2987">bpo-2987</a>).</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">ParseResult(scheme=&#39;http&#39;, netloc=&#39;[1080::8:800:200C:417A]&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            path=&#39;/foo&#39;, params=&#39;&#39;, query=&#39;&#39;, fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>New class: the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakSet" title="weakref.WeakSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakSet</span></code></a> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a>
+module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements; elements
+will be removed once there are no references pointing to them.
+(Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger, and backported
+to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The ElementTree library, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree</span></code>, no longer escapes
+ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
+instruction (which looks like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;?xml-stylesheet</span> <span class="pre">href=&quot;#style1&quot;?&gt;</span></code>)
+or comment (which looks like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;!--</span> <span class="pre">comment</span> <span class="pre">--&gt;</span></code>).
+(Patch by Neil Muller; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2746">bpo-2746</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code> modules, have improved performance by
+supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally using gzip encoding
+to compress the XML being exchanged.  The gzip compression is
+controlled by the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encode_threshold</span></code> attribute of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler</span></code>, which contains a size in bytes;
+responses larger than this will be compressed.
+(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6267">bpo-6267</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> now supports the context
+management protocol, so you can write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">zipfile.ZipFile(...)</span> <span class="pre">as</span> <span class="pre">f:</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5511">bpo-5511</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a> now also supports archiving empty directories and
+extracts them correctly.  (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4710">bpo-4710</a>.)
+Reading files out of an archive is faster, and interleaving
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.read" title="zipfile.ZipFile.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code> now works correctly.
+(Contributed by Nir Aides; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7610">bpo-7610</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.is_zipfile" title="zipfile.is_zipfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_zipfile()</span></code></a> function now
+accepts a file object, in addition to the path names accepted in earlier
+versions.  (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4756">bpo-4756</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.writestr" title="zipfile.ZipFile.writestr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writestr()</span></code></a> method now has an optional <em>compress_type</em> parameter
+that lets you override the default compression method specified in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> constructor.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6003">bpo-6003</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="new-module-importlib">
+<span id="importlib-section"></span><h3>New module: importlib<a class="headerlink" href="#new-module-importlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3.1 includes the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> package, a re-implementation
+of the logic underlying Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> is useful for implementors of Python interpreters and
+to users who wish to write new importers that can participate in the
+import process.  Python 2.7 doesn’t contain the complete
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> package, but instead has a tiny subset that contains
+a single function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module(name,</span> <span class="pre">package=None)</span></code> imports a module.  <em>name</em> is
+a string containing the module or package’s name.  It’s possible to do
+relative imports by providing a string that begins with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code>
+character, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">..utils.errors</span></code>.  For relative imports, the
+<em>package</em> argument must be provided and is the name of the package that
+will be used as the anchor for
+the relative import.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import_module()</span></code></a> both inserts the imported
+module into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> and returns the module object.</p>
+<p>Here are some examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">importlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">import_module</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">anydbm</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">import_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;anydbm&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Standard absolute import</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">anydbm</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;module &#39;anydbm&#39; from &#39;/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Relative import</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">file_util</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">import_module</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;..file_util&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;distutils.command&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">file_util</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;module &#39;distutils.file_util&#39; from &#39;/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in
+Python 3.1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-module-sysconfig">
+<h3>New module: sysconfig<a class="headerlink" href="#new-module-sysconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> module has been pulled out of the Distutils
+package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> provides functions for getting information about
+Python’s build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the
+platform name, and whether Python is running from its source
+directory.</p>
+<p>Some of the functions in the module are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_var" title="sysconfig.get_config_var"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_var()</span></code></a> returns variables from Python’s
+Makefile and the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyconfig.h</span></code> file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars()</span></code></a> returns a dictionary containing
+all of the configuration variables.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_path" title="sysconfig.get_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_path()</span></code></a> returns the configured path for
+a particular type of module: the standard library,
+site-specific modules, platform-specific modules, etc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.is_python_build" title="sysconfig.is_python_build"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_python_build()</span></code></a> returns true if you’re running a
+binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> documentation for more details and for
+a complete list of functions.</p>
+<p>The Distutils package and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> are now maintained by Tarek
+Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source repository at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://hg.python.org/distutils2/">https://hg.python.org/distutils2/</a>) for developing a next-generation
+version of Distutils.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ttk-themed-widgets-for-tk">
+<h3>ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk<a class="headerlink" href="#ttk-themed-widgets-for-tk" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk
+widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more
+closely resemble the native platform’s widgets.  This widget
+set was originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for “themed Tk”)
+on being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.</p>
+<p>To learn more, read the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk</span></code> module documentation.  You may also
+wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the
+Ttk theme engine, available at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.htm">https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.htm</a>. Some
+screenshots of the Python/Ttk code in use are at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki">https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki</a>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk</span></code> module was written by Guilherme Polo and added in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2983">bpo-2983</a>.  An alternate version called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tile.py</span></code>, written by
+Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for
+inclusion in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2618">bpo-2618</a>, but the authors argued that Guilherme
+Polo’s work was more comprehensive.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="updated-module-unittest">
+<span id="unittest-section"></span><h3>Updated module: unittest<a class="headerlink" href="#updated-module-unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module was greatly enhanced; many
+new features were added.  Most of these features were implemented
+by Michael Foord, unless otherwise noted.  The enhanced version of
+the module is downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6,
+packaged as the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest2</span></code> package, from
+<a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/unittest2">https://pypi.org/project/unittest2</a>.</p>
+<p>When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover
+tests.  It’s not as fancy as <a class="reference external" href="http://pytest.org">py.test</a> or
+<a class="reference external" href="https://nose.readthedocs.io/">nose</a>, but provides a
+simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories.  For example,
+the following command will search the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test/</span></code> subdirectory for
+any importable test files named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test*.py</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="n">unittest</span> <span class="n">discover</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="n">test</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Consult the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module documentation for more details.
+(Developed in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6001">bpo-6001</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code></a> function supports some other new options:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--buffer</span></code> will buffer the standard output
+and standard error streams during each test.  If the test passes,
+any resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered
+output will be displayed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--catch</span></code> will cause the control-C interrupt
+to be handled more gracefully.  Instead of interrupting the test
+process immediately, the currently running test will be completed
+and then the partial results up to the interruption will be reported.
+If you’re impatient, a second press of control-C will cause an immediate
+interruption.</p>
+<p>This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the code
+being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal handler of
+their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already set and
+calling it.  If this doesn’t work for you, there’s a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.removeHandler" title="unittest.removeHandler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">removeHandler()</span></code></a> decorator that can be used to mark tests that
+should have the control-C handling disabled.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#cmdoption-unittest-f"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code></a> or <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--failfast</span></code> makes
+test execution stop immediately when a test fails instead of
+continuing to execute further tests.  (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and
+implemented by Michael Foord; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8074">bpo-8074</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The progress messages now show ‘x’ for expected failures
+and ‘u’ for unexpected successes when run in verbose mode.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)</p>
+<p>Test cases can raise the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a> exception to skip a
+test (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1034053">bpo-1034053</a>).</p>
+<p>The error messages for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertFalse" title="unittest.TestCase.assertFalse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertFalse()</span></code></a>
+failures now provide more information.  If you set the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.longMessage" title="unittest.TestCase.longMessage"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">longMessage</span></code></a> attribute of your <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> classes to
+true, both the standard error message and any additional message you
+provide will be printed for failures.  (Added by Michael Foord; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5663">bpo-5663</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a> method now
+returns a context handler when called without providing a callable
+object to run.  For example, you can write this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaises</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="p">{}[</span><span class="s1">&#39;foo&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4444">bpo-4444</a>.)</p>
+<p>Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported.
+Modules can contain <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpModule()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownModule()</span></code>
+functions.  Classes can have <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.setUpClass" title="unittest.TestCase.setUpClass"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUpClass()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDownClass()</span></code></a> methods that must be defined as class methods
+(using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;classmethod</span></code> or equivalent).  These functions and
+methods are invoked when the test runner switches to a test case in a
+different module or class.</p>
+<p>The methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup" title="unittest.TestCase.addCleanup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addCleanup()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.doCleanups" title="unittest.TestCase.doCleanups"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doCleanups()</span></code></a> were added.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addCleanup" title="unittest.TestCase.addCleanup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addCleanup()</span></code></a> lets you add cleanup functions that
+will be called unconditionally (after <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> if
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.setUp" title="unittest.TestCase.setUp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setUp()</span></code></a> fails, otherwise after <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.tearDown" title="unittest.TestCase.tearDown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tearDown()</span></code></a>). This allows
+for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during tests
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5679">bpo-5679</a>).</p>
+<p>A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized
+tests.  Many of these methods were written by Google engineers
+for use in their test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and
+GvR worked on merging them into Python’s version of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a>.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNone()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNotNone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNotNone()</span></code></a> take one
+expression and verify that the result is or is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIs" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIs()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsNot"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNot()</span></code></a>
+take two values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object or not.
+(Added by Michael Foord; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2578">bpo-2578</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIsInstance"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsInstance()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotIsInstance"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotIsInstance()</span></code></a> check whether
+the resulting object is an instance of a particular class, or of
+one of a tuple of classes.  (Added by Georg Brandl; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7031">bpo-7031</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertGreater" title="unittest.TestCase.assertGreater"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertGreater()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertGreaterEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertGreaterEqual()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLess" title="unittest.TestCase.assertLess"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertLess()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertLessEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertLessEqual()</span></code></a> compare
+two quantities.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertMultiLineEqual()</span></code></a> compares two strings, and if they’re
+not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights the
+differences in the two strings.  This comparison is now used by
+default when Unicode strings are compared with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegexpMatches()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotRegexpMatches()</span></code> checks whether the
+first argument is a string matching or not matching the regular
+expression provided as the second argument (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8038">bpo-8038</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegexp()</span></code> checks whether a particular exception
+is raised, and then also checks that the string representation of
+the exception matches the provided regular expression.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertIn" title="unittest.TestCase.assertIn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIn()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotIn"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotIn()</span></code></a>
+tests whether <em>first</em> is or is not in  <em>second</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertItemsEqual()</span></code> tests whether two provided sequences
+contain the same elements.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertSetEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertSetEqual()</span></code></a> compares whether two sets are equal, and
+only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.</p></li>
+<li><p>Similarly, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertListEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertListEqual()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTupleEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTupleEqual()</span></code></a>
+compare the specified types and explain any differences without necessarily
+printing their full values; these methods are now used by default
+when comparing lists and tuples using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>.
+More generally, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertSequenceEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertSequenceEqual()</span></code></a> compares two sequences
+and can optionally check whether both sequences are of a
+particular type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertDictEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictEqual()</span></code></a> compares two dictionaries and reports the
+differences; it’s now used by default when you compare two dictionaries
+using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a>.  <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictContainsSubset()</span></code> checks whether
+all of the key/value pairs in <em>first</em> are found in <em>second</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual()</span></code></a> test
+whether <em>first</em> and <em>second</em> are approximately equal.  This method
+can either round their difference to an optionally-specified number
+of <em>places</em> (the default is 7) and compare it to zero, or require
+the difference to be smaller than a supplied <em>delta</em> value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName" title="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromName"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loadTestsFromName()</span></code></a> properly honors the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.suiteClass" title="unittest.TestLoader.suiteClass"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">suiteClass</span></code></a> attribute of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a>. (Fixed by Mark Roddy; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6866">bpo-6866</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new hook lets you extend the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a> method to handle
+new data types.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc" title="unittest.TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addTypeEqualityFunc()</span></code></a> method takes a type
+object and a function. The function will be used when both of the
+objects being compared are of the specified type.  This function
+should compare the two objects and raise an exception if they don’t
+match; it’s a good idea for the function to provide additional
+information about why the two objects aren’t matching, much as the new
+sequence comparison methods do.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.main()</span></code></a> now takes an optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exit</span></code> argument.  If
+false, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code></a> doesn’t call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exit" title="sys.exit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exit()</span></code></a>, allowing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main()</span></code></a> to be used from the interactive interpreter.
+(Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3379">bpo-3379</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a> has new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.startTestRun" title="unittest.TestResult.startTestRun"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">startTestRun()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult.stopTestRun" title="unittest.TestResult.stopTestRun"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stopTestRun()</span></code></a> methods that are called immediately before
+and after a test run.  (Contributed by Robert Collins; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5728">bpo-5728</a>.)</p>
+<p>With all these changes, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.py</span></code> was becoming awkwardly
+large, so the module was turned into a package and the code split into
+several files (by Benjamin Peterson).  This doesn’t affect how the
+module is imported or used.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml">http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml</a></dt><dd><p>Describes the new features, how to use them, and the
+rationale for various design decisions.  (By Michael Foord.)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="updated-module-elementtree-1-3">
+<span id="elementtree-section"></span><h3>Updated module: ElementTree 1.3<a class="headerlink" href="#updated-module-elementtree-1-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated to
+version 1.3.  Some of the new features are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The various parsing functions now take a <em>parser</em> keyword argument
+giving an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code></a> instance that will
+be used.  This makes it possible to override the file’s internal encoding:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">XMLParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;utf-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">XML</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;root/&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Errors in parsing XML now raise a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParseError</span></code> exception, whose
+instances have a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">position</span></code> attribute
+containing a (<em>line</em>, <em>column</em>) tuple giving the location of the problem.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>ElementTree’s code for converting trees to a string has been
+significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many
+cases.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree.write()</span></code></a>
+and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.write()</span></code> methods now have a <em>method</em> parameter that can be
+“xml” (the default), “html”, or “text”.  HTML mode will output empty
+elements as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;empty&gt;&lt;/empty&gt;</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;empty/&gt;</span></code>, and text
+mode will skip over elements and only output the text chunks.  If
+you set the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tag</span></code> attribute of an element to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> but
+leave its children in place, the element will be omitted when the
+tree is written out, so you don’t need to do more extensive rearrangement
+to remove a single element.</p>
+<p>Namespace handling has also been improved.  All <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlns:&lt;whatever&gt;</span></code>
+declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered throughout
+the resulting XML.  You can set the default namespace for a tree
+by setting the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_namespace</span></code> attribute and can
+register new prefixes with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_namespace()</span></code></a>.  In XML mode,
+you can use the true/false <em>xml_declaration</em> parameter to suppress the
+XML declaration.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> method:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extend()</span></code></a> appends the items from a
+sequence to the element’s children.  Elements themselves behave like
+sequences, so it’s easy to move children from one element to
+another:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">xml.etree</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ElementTree</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ET</span>
+
+<span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">XML</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;list&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">  &lt;item&gt;1&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;2&lt;/item&gt;  &lt;item&gt;3&lt;/item&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;/list&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">XML</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&lt;root/&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">new</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Outputs &lt;root&gt;&lt;item&gt;1&lt;/item&gt;...&lt;/root&gt;</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tostring</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">new</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>New <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> method:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter()</span></code></a> yields the children of the
+element as a generator.  It’s also possible to write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">child</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
+<span class="pre">elem:</span></code> to loop over an element’s children.  The existing method
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getiterator()</span></code> is now deprecated, as is <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getchildren()</span></code>
+which constructs and returns a list of children.</p></li>
+<li><p>New <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> method:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertext()</span></code></a> yields all chunks of
+text that are descendants of the element.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ET</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">XML</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;list&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">  &lt;item&gt;1&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;2&lt;/item&gt;  &lt;item&gt;3&lt;/item&gt;</span>
+<span class="s2">&lt;/list&gt;&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Outputs [&#39;\n  &#39;, &#39;1&#39;, &#39; &#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;  &#39;, &#39;3&#39;, &#39;\n&#39;]</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">itertext</span><span class="p">())</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">elem:</span></code>) would
+return true if the element had any children, or false if there were
+no children.  This behaviour is confusing – <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is false, but
+so is a childless element? – so it will now trigger a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a>.  In your code, you should be explicit: write
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(elem)</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code> if you’re interested in the number of children,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">elem</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version;
+you can read his article describing 1.3 at
+<a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm">http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm</a>.
+Florent Xicluna updated the version included with
+Python, after discussions on python-dev and in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6472">bpo-6472</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be <a class="reference external" href="https://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html">scripted
+using Python</a>.
+When you begin debugging an executable program P, GDB will look for
+a file named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">P-gdb.py</span></code> and automatically read it.  Dave Malcolm
+contributed a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python-gdb.py</span></code> that adds a number of
+commands useful when debugging Python itself.  For example,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py-up</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py-down</span></code> go up or down one Python stack frame,
+which usually corresponds to several C stack frames.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py-print</span></code>
+prints the value of a Python variable, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py-bt</span></code> prints the
+Python stack trace.  (Added as a result of <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8032">bpo-8032</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>If you use the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.gdbinit</span></code> file provided with Python,
+the “pyo” macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being
+debugged doesn’t hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before printing.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3632">bpo-3632</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_AddPendingCall" title="Py_AddPendingCall"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_AddPendingCall()</span></code></a> is now thread-safe, letting any
+worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread.  This
+is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
+(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4293">bpo-4293</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_NewEmpty" title="PyCode_NewEmpty"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCode_NewEmpty()</span></code></a> creates an empty code object;
+only the filename, function name, and first line number are required.
+This is useful for extension modules that are attempting to
+construct a more useful traceback stack.  Previously such
+extensions needed to call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/code.html#c.PyCode_New" title="PyCode_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCode_New()</span></code></a>, which had many
+more arguments.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc" title="PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc()</span></code></a> creates a new
+exception class, just as the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewException" title="PyErr_NewException"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewException()</span></code></a> does,
+but takes an extra <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> argument containing the docstring for the
+new exception class.  (Added by ‘lekma’ on the Python bug tracker;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7033">bpo-7033</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/reflection.html#c.PyFrame_GetLineNumber" title="PyFrame_GetLineNumber"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFrame_GetLineNumber()</span></code></a> takes a frame object
+and returns the line number that the frame is currently executing.
+Previously code would need to get the index of the bytecode
+instruction currently executing, and then look up the line number
+corresponding to that address.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New functions: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow" title="PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow" title="PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow()</span></code></a>  approximates a Python long
+integer as a C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>.
+If the number is too large to fit into
+the output type, an <em>overflow</em> flag is set and returned to the caller.
+(Contributed by Case Van Horsen; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7528">bpo-7528</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7767">bpo-7767</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float conversion,
+a new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_string_to_double" title="PyOS_string_to_double"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_string_to_double()</span></code></a> function was added.  The old
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_strtod()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_atof()</span></code> functions
+are now deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p>New function: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a> sets the value of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code> and can optionally update <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> to include the
+directory containing the script named by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> depending
+on the value of an <em>updatepath</em> parameter.</p>
+<p>This function was added to close a security hole for applications
+that embed Python.  The old function, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgv" title="PySys_SetArgv"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgv()</span></code></a>, would
+always update <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, and sometimes it would add the current
+directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
+Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
+put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.py</span></code>) that your application would then import and run.</p>
+<p>If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
+whether you’re calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgv" title="PySys_SetArgv"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgv()</span></code></a> and carefully consider
+whether the application should be using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a>
+with <em>updatepath</em> set to false.</p>
+<p>Security issue reported as <a class="reference external" href="https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2008-5983">CVE-2008-5983</a>;
+discussed in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5753">bpo-5753</a>, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>New macros: the Python header files now define the following macros:
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ISALNUM</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ISALPHA</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ISDIGIT</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ISLOWER</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ISSPACE</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ISUPPER</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ISXDIGIT</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TOLOWER</span></code>, and <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TOUPPER</span></code>.
+All of these functions are analogous to the C
+standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current
+locale setting, because in
+several places Python needs to analyze characters in a
+locale-independent way.  (Added by Eric Smith;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5793">bpo-5793</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Removed function: <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_CallObject</span></code> is now only available
+as a macro.  A function version was being kept around to preserve
+ABI linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
+deleted by now.  (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8276">bpo-8276</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New format codes: the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFormat_FromString()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFormat_FromStringV()</span></code>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Format" title="PyErr_Format"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Format()</span></code></a> functions now
+accept <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%lld</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%llu</span></code> format codes for displaying
+C’s <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> types.
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7228">bpo-7228</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has
+been changed.  Previously, the child process created by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a> might fail because the child is created with only a
+single thread running, the thread performing the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a>.
+If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python’s import lock,
+when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked as
+“held” in the new process.  But in the child process nothing would
+ever release the lock, since the other threads weren’t replicated,
+and the child process would no longer be able to perform imports.</p>
+<p>Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fork()</span></code></a>, and will also clean up any locks created using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module.  C extension modules that have internal
+locks, or that call <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> themselves, will not benefit
+from this clean-up.</p>
+<p>(Fixed by Thomas Wouters; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1590864">bpo-1590864</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Finalize" title="Py_Finalize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Finalize()</span></code></a> function now calls the internal
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading._shutdown()</span></code> function; this prevents some exceptions from
+being raised when an interpreter shuts down.
+(Patch by Adam Olsen; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1722344">bpo-1722344</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When using the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemberDef</span></code></a> structure to define attributes
+of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete or set a
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">T_STRING_INPLACE</span></code> attribute.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Global symbols defined by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> module are now prefixed
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py</span></code>, or with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ctypes</span></code>.  (Implemented by Thomas
+Heller; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3102">bpo-3102</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New configure option: the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-system-expat</span></code> switch allows
+building the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> module to use the system Expat library.
+(Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7609">bpo-7609</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New configure option: the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-valgrind</span></code> option will now disable the pymalloc
+allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind memory-error detector
+to analyze correctly.
+Valgrind will therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and
+overruns. (Contributed by James Henstridge; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2422">bpo-2422</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-dbmliborder=</span></code> in order to disable all of the various
+DBM modules.  (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6491">bpo-6491</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <strong class="program">configure</strong> script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
+on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING</span></code>
+preprocessor definition.  No code currently uses this definition,
+but it’s available if anyone wishes to use it.
+(Added by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2937">bpo-2937</a>.)</p>
+<p><strong class="program">configure</strong> also now sets a <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LDCXXSHARED</span></code> Makefile
+variable for supporting C++ linking.  (Contributed by Arfrever
+Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1222585">bpo-1222585</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config
+support.  (Contributed by Clinton Roy; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3585">bpo-3585</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The build process now supports Subversion 1.7.  (Contributed by
+Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6094">bpo-6094</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="section" id="capsules">
+<span id="whatsnew27-capsules"></span><h3>Capsules<a class="headerlink" href="#capsules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule" title="PyCapsule"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule</span></code></a>, for providing a
+C API to an extension module.  A capsule is essentially the holder of
+a C <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for
+example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module’s API is exposed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.CAPI</span></code>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> exposes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ucnhash_CAPI</span></code>.  Other extensions
+can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule
+object, and then get the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">void</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> pointer, which will usually point
+to an array of pointers to the module’s various API functions.</p>
+<p>There is an existing data type already used for this,
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject</span></code>, but it doesn’t provide type safety.  Evil code
+written in pure Python could cause a segmentation fault by taking a
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject</span></code> from module A and somehow substituting it for the
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject</span></code> in module B.   Capsules know their own name,
+and getting the pointer requires providing the name:</p>
+<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">vtable</span><span class="p">;</span>
+
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyCapsule_IsValid</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">capsule</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;mymodule.CAPI&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+        <span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_ValueError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;argument type invalid&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
+<span class="p">}</span>
+
+<span class="n">vtable</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyCapsule_GetPointer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">capsule</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">&quot;mymodule.CAPI&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You are assured that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">vtable</span></code> points to whatever you’re expecting.
+If a different capsule was passed in, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule_IsValid" title="PyCapsule_IsValid"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule_IsValid()</span></code></a> would
+detect the mismatched name and return false.  Refer to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../extending/extending.html#using-capsules"><span class="std std-ref">Providing a C API for an Extension Module</span></a> for more information on using these objects.</p>
+<p>Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various
+extension-module APIs, but the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()</span></code> was
+modified to handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility
+with the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CObject</span></code> interface.  Use of
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()</span></code> will signal a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>, which is silent by default.</p>
+<p>Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings;
+discussed in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5630">bpo-5630</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes-windows">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes: Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msvcrt.html#module-msvcrt" title="msvcrt: Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msvcrt</span></code></a> module now contains some constants from
+the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crtassem.h</span></code> header file:
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX</span></code>.
+(Contributed by David Cournapeau; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4365">bpo-4365</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_winreg</span></code> module for accessing the registry now implements
+the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CreateKeyEx()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeleteKeyEx()</span></code>
+functions, extended versions of previously-supported functions that
+take several extra arguments.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DisableReflectionKey()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnableReflectionKey()</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueryReflectionKey()</span></code>
+were also tested and documented.
+(Implemented by Brian Curtin: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7347">bpo-7347</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_beginthreadex()</span></code> API is used to start threads, and
+the native thread-local storage functions are now used.
+(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3582">bpo-3582</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.kill" title="os.kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.kill()</span></code></a> function now works on Windows.  The signal value
+can be the constants <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CTRL_C_EVENT</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CTRL_BREAK_EVENT</span></code>, or any integer.  The first two constants
+will send <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-C</kbd> and <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Control-Break</kbd> keystroke events to
+subprocesses; any other value will use the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TerminateProcess()</span></code>
+API.  (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1220212">bpo-1220212</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> function now correctly fails
+for an empty path.  (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5913">bpo-5913</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimelib</span></code> module will now read the MIME database from
+the Windows registry when initializing.
+(Patch by Gabriel Genellina; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4969">bpo-4969</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes-mac-os-x">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes-mac-os-x" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The path <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages</span></code> is now appended to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, in order to share added packages between the system
+installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
+(Changed by Ronald Oussoren; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4865">bpo-4865</a>.)</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 2.7.13: </span>As of 2.7.13, this change was removed.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages</span></code>, the site-packages directory
+used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> for user-installed Pythons such as from the python.org
+installers.  As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the system
+site-packages directory is configured, which could cause installation
+of pip components, like setuptools, to fail.  Packages installed for
+the system Python will no longer be shared with user-installed
+Pythons. (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28440">bpo-28440</a>)</p>
+</div>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="port-specific-changes-freebsd">
+<h3>Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD<a class="headerlink" href="#port-specific-changes-freebsd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>FreeBSD 7.1’s <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_SETFIB</span></code> constant, used with
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsockopt()</span></code>/<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setsockopt()</span></code> to select an
+alternate routing table, is now available in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>
+module.  (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8235">bpo-8235</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-changes-and-fixes">
+<h2>Other Changes and Fixes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-changes-and-fixes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Two benchmark scripts, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iobench</span></code> and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ccbench</span></code>, were
+added to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools</span></code> directory.  <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iobench</span></code> measures the
+speed of the built-in file I/O objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>
+while performing various operations, and <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ccbench</span></code> is a
+concurrency benchmark that tries to measure computing throughput,
+thread switching latency, and IO processing bandwidth when
+performing several tasks using a varying number of threads.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py</span></code> script now understands plural
+forms in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.po</span></code> files.  (Fixed by Martin von Löwis;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5464">bpo-5464</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When importing a module from a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> or <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> file
+with an existing <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> counterpart, the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_filename</span></code>
+attributes of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the
+original filename is obsolete.  This can happen if the file has been
+renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths.  (Patch by
+Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1180193">bpo-1180193</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regrtest.py</span></code> script now takes a <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--randseed=</span></code>
+switch that takes an integer that will be used as the random seed
+for the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-r</span></code> option that executes tests in random order.
+The <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-r</span></code> option also reports the seed that was used
+(Added by Collin Winter.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Another <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regrtest.py</span></code> switch is <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-j</span></code>, which
+takes an integer specifying how many tests run in parallel. This
+allows reducing the total runtime on multi-core machines.
+This option is compatible with several other options, including the
+<code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-R</span></code> switch which is known to produce long runtimes.
+(Added by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6152">bpo-6152</a>.)  This can also be used
+with a new <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-F</span></code> switch that runs selected tests in a loop
+until they fail.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7312">bpo-7312</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When executed as a script, the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile.py</span></code> module now
+accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-'</span></code> as an argument, which will read standard input for
+the list of filenames to be compiled.  (Contributed by Piotr
+Ożarowski; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8233">bpo-8233</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-2-7">
+<h2>Porting to Python 2.7<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-2-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> function processes its arguments more
+consistently; it will now call <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__int__()</span></code></a> on non-float,
+non-integer arguments that are supplied to it.  (Fixed by Alexander
+Belopolsky; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1533">bpo-1533</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The string <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method changed the default precision used
+for floating-point and complex numbers from 6 decimal
+places to 12, which matches the precision used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a>.
+(Changed by Eric Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5920">bpo-5920</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Because of an optimization for the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, the special
+methods <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__" title="object.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> must belong to the object’s
+type, and cannot be directly attached to the object’s instance.  This
+affects new-style classes (derived from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>) and C extension
+types.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6101">bpo-6101</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the <em>exc_value</em> parameter to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></code></a> methods was often the string representation of the
+exception, not an instance.  This was fixed in 2.7, so <em>exc_value</em>
+will be an instance as expected.  (Fixed by Florent Xicluna;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7853">bpo-7853</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When a restricted set of attributes were set using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></code>,
+deleting an unset attribute would not raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>
+as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7604">bpo-7604</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>In the standard library:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Operations with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instances that resulted in a year
+falling outside the supported range didn’t always raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.  Such errors are now checked more carefully
+and will now raise the exception. (Reported by Mark Leander, patch
+by Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7150">bpo-7150</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instances with a string’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method, the default alignment was previously
+left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which might
+change the output of your programs.
+(Changed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6857">bpo-6857</a>.)</p>
+<p>Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sNAN</span></code>) now signal
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a> instead of silently returning a true or
+false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN values
+(or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NaN</span></code>) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7279">bpo-7279</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The ElementTree library, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree</span></code>, no longer escapes
+ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
+instruction (which looks like <cite>&lt;?xml-stylesheet href=”#style1”?&gt;</cite>)
+or comment (which looks like <cite>&lt;!– comment –&gt;</cite>).
+(Patch by Neil Muller; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2746">bpo-2746</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline()</span></code> method of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code> objects now does
+nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like
+objects do.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7348">bpo-7348</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/syslog.html#module-syslog" title="syslog: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">syslog</span></code></a> module will now use the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv[0]</span></code> as the
+identifier instead of the previous default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'python'</span></code>.
+(Changed by Sean Reifschneider; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8451">bpo-8451</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module’s default error handling has changed, to
+no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was previously 0,
+which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the
+debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default,
+these errors go unnoticed.  The default error level is now 1,
+which raises an exception if there’s an error.
+(Changed by Lars Gustäbel; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7357">bpo-7357</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse</span></code> module’s <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlsplit()</span></code> now handles
+unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a>: if the
+URL is of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&lt;something&gt;://...&quot;</span></code>, the text before the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">://</span></code> is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up scheme that
+the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break code that
+worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5
+will return the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urlparse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlsplit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;invented://host/filename?query&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;invented&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;//host/filename?query&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urlparse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlsplit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;invented://host/filename?query&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;invented&#39;, &#39;host&#39;, &#39;/filename?query&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
+returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>For C extensions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>C extensions that use integer format codes with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse*</span></code>
+family of functions will now raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> exception
+instead of triggering a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5080">bpo-5080</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Use the new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_string_to_double" title="PyOS_string_to_double"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_string_to_double()</span></code></a> function instead of the old
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_strtod()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_atof()</span></code> functions,
+which are now deprecated.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For applications that embed Python:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a> function was added, letting
+applications close a security hole when the existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgv" title="PySys_SetArgv"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgv()</span></code></a> function was used.  Check whether you’re
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgv" title="PySys_SetArgv"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgv()</span></code></a> and carefully consider whether the
+application should be using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a> with
+<em>updatepath</em> set to false.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-features-added-to-python-2-7-maintenance-releases">
+<span id="py27-maintenance-enhancements"></span><h2>New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases<a class="headerlink" href="#new-features-added-to-python-2-7-maintenance-releases" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the
+situation genuinely calls for it. Any such additions must go through
+the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for why
+they can’t be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature solely to
+Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package Index.</p>
+<p>In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general
+exemption allowing new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code> warnings to be added in any Python 2.7
+maintenance release.</p>
+<div class="section" id="two-new-environment-variables-for-debug-mode">
+<h3>Two new environment variables for debug mode<a class="headerlink" href="#two-new-environment-variables-for-debug-mode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In debug mode, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[xxx</span> <span class="pre">refs]</span></code> statistic is not written by default, the
+<span class="target" id="index-14"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT</span></code> environment variable now must also be set.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31733">bpo-31733</a>.)</p>
+<p>When Python is compiled with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COUNT_ALLOC</span></code> defined, allocation counts are no
+longer dumped by default anymore: the <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT</span></code> environment
+variable must now also be set. Moreover, allocation counts are now dumped into
+stderr, rather than stdout. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31692">bpo-31692</a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 2.7.15.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-434-idle-enhancement-exception-for-all-branches">
+<h3>PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-434-idle-enhancement-exception-for-all-branches" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0434"><strong>PEP 434</strong></a> describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE
+development environment shipped along with Python. This exemption makes it
+possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user
+experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.</p>
+<p>For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific
+release.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-466-network-security-enhancements-for-python-2-7">
+<h3>PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-466-network-security-enhancements-for-python-2-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466"><strong>PEP 466</strong></a> describes a number of network security enhancement proposals
+that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance releases,
+with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7 release.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466"><strong>PEP 466</strong></a> related features added in Python 2.7.7:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.compare_digest" title="hmac.compare_digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.compare_digest()</span></code></a> was backported from Python 3 to make a timing
+attack resistant comparison operation available to Python 2 applications.
+(Contributed by Alex Gaynor; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21306">bpo-21306</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers published on
+python.org. (Contributed by Zachary Ware; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21462">bpo-21462</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466"><strong>PEP 466</strong></a> related features added in Python 2.7.8:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac" title="hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac()</span></code></a> was backported from Python 3 to make a hashing
+algorithm suitable for secure password storage broadly available to Python
+2 applications. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21304">bpo-21304</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers published on
+python.org. (contributed by Zachary Ware in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21671">bpo-21671</a> for CVE-2014-0224)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466"><strong>PEP 466</strong></a> related features added in Python 2.7.9:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Most of Python 3.4’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module was backported. This means <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a>
+now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x settings, access to the platform
+certificate store, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> class, and other
+features. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor and David Reid; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21308">bpo-21308</a>.)</p>
+<p>Refer to the “Version added: 2.7.9” notes in the module documentation for
+specific details.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> was changed to cache a file descriptor to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code>
+instead of reopening <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> on every call. (Contributed by Alex
+Gaynor; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21305">bpo-21305</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed" title="hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.algorithms_available" title="hashlib.algorithms_available"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.algorithms_available</span></code></a> were backported from Python 3 to make
+it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest available hash
+algorithm. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21307">bpo-21307</a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-477-backport-ensurepip-pep-453-to-python-2-7">
+<h3>PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-477-backport-ensurepip-pep-453-to-python-2-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0477"><strong>PEP 477</strong></a> approves the inclusion of the <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a> ensurepip module and the
+improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7 maintenance
+releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.</p>
+<div class="section" id="bootstrapping-pip-by-default">
+<h4>Bootstrapping pip By Default<a class="headerlink" href="#bootstrapping-pip-by-default" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> module (defined in <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a>) provides a standard
+cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python
+installations. The version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> included with Python 2.7.9 is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>
+1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the bundled version to
+the latest version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> that is available at the time of creating the
+release candidate.</p>
+<p>By default, the commands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX.Y</span></code> will be installed on
+all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
+along with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> Python package and its dependencies.</p>
+<p>For CPython <a class="reference internal" href="../using/unix.html#building-python-on-unix"><span class="std std-ref">source builds on POSIX systems</span></a>,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">altinstall</span></code> commands do not bootstrap <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>
+by default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
+overridden through Makefile options.</p>
+<p>On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it
+during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the
+automatic <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> modifications to have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> available from the command
+line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python
+launcher for Windows as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">pip</span></code>.</p>
+<p>As <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors">discussed in the PEP</a>, platform packagers may choose not to install
+these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and
+simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using
+the system package manager).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="documentation-changes">
+<h4>Documentation Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#documentation-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>As part of this change, the <a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../distributing/index.html#distributing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules</span></a> sections of the documentation have been
+completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most
+packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging
+Authority maintained <a class="reference external" href="http://packaging.python.org">Python Packaging User Guide</a> and the documentation of the individual
+projects.</p>
+<p>However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
+versions of those guides remaining available as <a class="reference internal" href="../install/index.html#install-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/index.html#distutils-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a> – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
+Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients">
+<h3>PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0476"><strong>PEP 476</strong></a> updated <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code> and modules which use it, such as
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib2</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code>, to now verify that the server
+presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority in the
+platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being requested
+by default, significantly improving security for many applications. This
+change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.</p>
+<p>For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an
+alternate context:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib2</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This disables all verification</span>
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_create_unverified_context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn&#39;t need</span>
+<span class="c1"># to be in the trust store</span>
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cafile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;/path/to/file.crt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">urllib2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;https://invalid-cert&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-493-https-verification-migration-tools-for-python-2-7">
+<h3>PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-493-https-verification-migration-tools-for-python-2-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0493"><strong>PEP 493</strong></a> provides additional migration tools to support a more incremental
+infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing applications and
+services relying on the historically permissive processing of server
+certificates when establishing client HTTPS connections.  These additions were
+made in the Python 2.7.12 release.</p>
+<p>These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications and
+services can’t be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL context
+when establishing the connection.</p>
+<p>For applications and services which can’t be modified at all, the new
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY</span></code> environment variable may be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to revert an
+entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python 2.7.8
+and earlier.</p>
+<p>For cases where the connection establishment code can’t be modified, but the
+overall application can be, the new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl._https_verify_certificates()</span></code>
+function can be used to adjust the default behaviour at runtime.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-make-regen-all-build-target">
+<h3>New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target<a class="headerlink" href="#new-make-regen-all-build-target" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be
+compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be
+available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly
+recompile generated files based on file modification times.</p>
+<p>Instead, a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> command has been added to force regeneration
+of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has
+already been built based on the pregenerated versions).</p>
+<p>More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Makefile.pre.in">Makefile.pre.in</a> for details.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 2.7.14.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removal-of-make-touch-build-target">
+<h3>Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target<a class="headerlink" href="#removal-of-make-touch-build-target" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target previously used to request implicit regeneration
+of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.</p>
+<p>It has been replaced by the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> target.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 2.7.14.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="acknowledgements">
+<span id="acks27"></span><h2>Acknowledgements<a class="headerlink" href="#acknowledgements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The author would like to thank the following people for offering
+suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
+article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray,
+Hugh Secker-Walker.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New in Python 2.7</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-future-for-python-2-x">The Future for Python 2.x</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-to-the-handling-of-deprecation-warnings">Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-1-features">Python 3.1 Features</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-372-adding-an-ordered-dictionary-to-collections">PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-389-the-argparse-module-for-parsing-command-lines">PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3106-dictionary-views">PEP 3106: Dictionary Views</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3137-the-memoryview-object">PEP 3137: The memoryview Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interpreter-changes">Interpreter Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-module-importlib">New module: importlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-module-sysconfig">New module: sysconfig</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ttk-themed-widgets-for-tk">ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#updated-module-unittest">Updated module: unittest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#updated-module-elementtree-1-3">Updated module: ElementTree 1.3</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#capsules">Capsules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes-windows">Port-Specific Changes: Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes-mac-os-x">Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#port-specific-changes-freebsd">Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-2-7">Porting to Python 2.7</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-features-added-to-python-2-7-maintenance-releases">New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#two-new-environment-variables-for-debug-mode">Two new environment variables for debug mode</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-434-idle-enhancement-exception-for-all-branches">PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-466-network-security-enhancements-for-python-2-7">PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-477-backport-ensurepip-pep-453-to-python-2-7">PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bootstrapping-pip-by-default">Bootstrapping pip By Default</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documentation-changes">Documentation Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients">PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-493-https-verification-migration-tools-for-python-2-7">PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-make-regen-all-build-target">New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removal-of-make-touch-build-target">Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.0.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.0</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.0.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.0.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8590b00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.0.html
@@ -0,0 +1,975 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <title>What’s New In Python 3.0 &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-0">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.0<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Guido van Rossum</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6.
+Python 3.0, also known as “Python 3000” or “Py3K”, is the first ever
+<em>intentionally backwards incompatible</em> Python release.  There are more
+changes than in a typical release, and more that are important for all
+Python users.  Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you’ll find
+that Python really hasn’t changed all that much – by and large, we’re
+mostly fixing well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of
+old cruft.</p>
+<p>This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of
+all new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview.
+For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python
+3.0, and/or the many PEPs referenced in the text. If you want to
+understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a
+particular feature, PEPs usually have more details than the regular
+documentation; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once
+a feature has been fully implemented.</p>
+<p>Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should
+have been.  As always for a new release, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/NEWS</span></code> file in the
+source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about
+every small thing that was changed.</p>
+<div class="section" id="common-stumbling-blocks">
+<h2>Common Stumbling Blocks<a class="headerlink" href="#common-stumbling-blocks" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you
+up if you’re used to Python 2.5.</p>
+<div class="section" id="print-is-a-function">
+<h3>Print Is A Function<a class="headerlink" href="#print-is-a-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement has been replaced with a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a>
+function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax
+of the old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement (<span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3105"><strong>PEP 3105</strong></a>).  Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Old</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="s2">&quot;The answer is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span>
+<span class="n">New</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;The answer is&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">Old</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span>           <span class="c1"># Trailing comma suppresses newline</span>
+<span class="n">New</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot; &quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Appends a space instead of a newline</span>
+
+<span class="n">Old</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span>              <span class="c1"># Prints a newline</span>
+<span class="n">New</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>            <span class="c1"># You must call the function!</span>
+
+<span class="n">Old</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;fatal error&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">New</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;fatal error&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">file</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stderr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">Old</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># prints repr((x, y))</span>
+<span class="n">New</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">))</span>      <span class="c1"># Not the same as print(x, y)!</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;There are &lt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;&gt; possibilities!&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>which produces:</p>
+<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>There are &lt;4294967296&gt; possibilities!
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function doesn’t support the “softspace” feature of
+the old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement.  For example, in Python 2.x,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span> <span class="pre">&quot;A\n&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;B&quot;</span></code> would write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;A\nB\n&quot;</span></code>; but in Python 3.0,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print(&quot;A\n&quot;,</span> <span class="pre">&quot;B&quot;)</span></code> writes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;A\n</span> <span class="pre">B\n&quot;</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Initially, you’ll be finding yourself typing the old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code>
+a lot in interactive mode.  Time to retrain your fingers to type
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print(x)</span></code> instead!</p></li>
+<li><p>When using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2to3</span></code> source-to-source conversion tool, all
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statements are automatically converted to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for
+larger projects.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="views-and-iterators-instead-of-lists">
+<h3>Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#views-and-iterators-instead-of-lists" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.keys()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.items()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.values()</span></code></a> return “views” instead of lists.  For example,
+this no longer works: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">d.keys();</span> <span class="pre">k.sort()</span></code>.  Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">k</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">sorted(d)</span></code> instead (this works in Python 2.5 too and is just
+as efficient).</p></li>
+<li><p>Also, the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.iterkeys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.iteritems()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.itervalues()</span></code> methods are no longer supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filter()</span></code></a> return iterators.  If you really need
+a list and the input sequences are all of equal length, a quick
+fix is to wrap <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a>, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(map(...))</span></code>,
+but a better fix is
+often to use a list comprehension (especially when the original code
+uses <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#lambda"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lambda</span></code></a>), or rewriting the code so it doesn’t need a
+list at all.  Particularly tricky is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> invoked for the
+side effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a
+regular <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop (since creating a list would just be
+wasteful).</p>
+<p>If the input sequences are not of equal length, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> will
+stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences. For full
+compatibility with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> from Python 2.x, also wrap the sequences in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.zip_longest" title="itertools.zip_longest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.zip_longest()</span></code></a>, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map(func,</span> <span class="pre">*sequences)</span></code> becomes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(map(func,</span> <span class="pre">itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> now behaves like <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xrange()</span></code> used to behave, except
+it works with values of arbitrary size.  The latter no longer
+exists.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zip()</span></code></a> now returns an iterator.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ordering-comparisons">
+<h3>Ordering Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#ordering-comparisons" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The ordering comparison operators (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&gt;</span></code>)
+raise a TypeError exception when the operands don’t have a
+meaningful natural ordering.  Thus, expressions like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">''</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span>
+<span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">len</span></code> are no longer valid, and e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span>
+<span class="pre">None</span></code> raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> instead of returning
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  A corollary is that sorting a heterogeneous list
+no longer makes sense – all the elements must be comparable to each
+other.  Note that this does not apply to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code>
+operators: objects of different incomparable types always compare
+unequal to each other.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtin.sorted()</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> no longer accept the
+<em>cmp</em> argument providing a comparison function.  Use the <em>key</em>
+argument instead. N.B. the <em>key</em> and <em>reverse</em> arguments are now
+“keyword-only”.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp()</span></code> function should be treated as gone, and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cmp__()</span></code>
+special method is no longer supported.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__lt__()</span></code></a> for sorting,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a>, and other rich comparisons as needed.
+(If you really need the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp()</span></code> functionality, you could use the
+expression <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(a</span> <span class="pre">&gt;</span> <span class="pre">b)</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">(a</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code> as the equivalent for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmp(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></code>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="integers">
+<h3>Integers<a class="headerlink" href="#integers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0237"><strong>PEP 237</strong></a>: Essentially, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> renamed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.
+That is, there is only one built-in integral type, named
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>; but it behaves mostly like the old <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> type.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0238"><strong>PEP 238</strong></a>: An expression like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1/2</span></code> returns a float.  Use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1//2</span></code> to get the truncating behavior.  (The latter syntax has
+existed for years, at least since Python 2.2.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxint</span></code> constant was removed, since there is no
+longer a limit to the value of integers.  However, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a>
+can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
+index.  It conforms to the implementation’s “natural” integer size
+and is typically the same as <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxint</span></code> in previous releases
+on the same platform (assuming the same build options).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> of a long integer doesn’t include the trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code>
+anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that character will
+chop off the last digit instead.  (Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> instead.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Octal literals are no longer of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0720</span></code>; use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o720</span></code>
+instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="text-vs-data-instead-of-unicode-vs-8-bit">
+<h3>Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit<a class="headerlink" href="#text-vs-data-instead-of-unicode-vs-8-bit" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has
+changed.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Python 3.0 uses the concepts of <em>text</em> and (binary) <em>data</em> instead
+of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings.  All text is Unicode; however
+<em>encoded</em> Unicode is represented as binary data.  The type used to
+hold text is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, the type used to hold data is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is
+that any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit
+strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened to
+contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> if it contained non-ASCII values.  This
+value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the
+years.</p></li>
+<li><p>As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code
+that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
+change.  The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
+were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
+text.  To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode</span></code>
+for all unencoded text, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> for binary or encoded data
+only.  Then the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2to3</span></code> tool will do most of the work for you.</p></li>
+<li><p>You can no longer use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u&quot;...&quot;</span></code> literals for Unicode text.
+However, you must use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;...&quot;</span></code> literals for binary data.</p></li>
+<li><p>As the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> types cannot be mixed, you
+must always explicitly convert between them.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.encode" title="str.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.encode()</span></code></a>
+to go from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.decode()</span></code></a>
+to go from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.  You can also use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(s,</span> <span class="pre">encoding=...)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(b,</span> <span class="pre">encoding=...)</span></code>,
+respectively.</p></li>
+<li><p>Like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> type is immutable.  There is a
+separate <em>mutable</em> type to hold buffered binary data,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.  Nearly all APIs that accept <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> also
+accept <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.  The mutable API is based on
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.MutableSequence</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
+This means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\U'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\u'</span></code> escapes in raw strings are not
+treated specially.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\u20ac'</span></code> is a string of 6
+characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ur'\u20ac'</span></code> was the
+single “euro” character.  (Of course, this change only affects raw
+string literals; the euro character is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\u20ac'</span></code> in Python 3.0.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The built-in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basestring</span></code> abstract type was removed.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instead.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> types
+don’t have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base
+class.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2to3</span></code> tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basestring</span></code> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Files opened as text files (still the default mode for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>)
+always use an encoding to map between strings (in memory) and bytes
+(on disk).  Binary files (opened with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> in the mode argument)
+always use bytes in memory.  This means that if a file is opened
+using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will likely fail loudly,
+instead of silently producing incorrect data.  It also means that
+even Unix users will have to specify the correct mode (text or
+binary) when opening a file.  There is a platform-dependent default
+encoding, which on Unixy platforms can be set with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code>
+environment variable (and sometimes also with some other
+platform-specific locale-related environment variables).  In many
+cases, but not all, the system default is UTF-8; you should never
+count on this default.  Any application reading or writing more than
+pure ASCII text should probably have a way to override the encoding.
+There is no longer any need for using the encoding-aware streams
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module.</p></li>
+<li><p>The initial values of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> are now unicode-only text files (i.e., they are
+instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOBase" title="io.TextIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOBase</span></code></a>).  To read and write bytes data
+with these streams, you need to use their <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOBase.buffer" title="io.TextIOBase.buffer"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOBase.buffer</span></code></a>
+attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p>Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode) strings.
+This can present platform-specific problems because on some
+platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings.  (On the other hand,
+on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.)  As a
+work-around, most APIs (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> and many functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module) that take filenames accept <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects
+as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way to ask for a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> return value.  Thus, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> returns a
+list of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> instances if the argument is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+instance, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getcwdb" title="os.getcwdb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwdb()</span></code></a> returns the current working
+directory as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> instance.  Note that when
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir()</span></code></a> returns a list of strings, filenames that
+cannot be decoded properly are omitted rather than raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Some system APIs like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> can
+also present problems when the bytes made available by the system is
+not interpretable using the default encoding.  Setting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LANG</span></code>
+variable and rerunning the program is probably the best approach.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3138"><strong>PEP 3138</strong></a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> of a string no longer escapes
+non-ASCII characters.  It still escapes control characters and code
+points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3120"><strong>PEP 3120</strong></a>: The default source encoding is now UTF-8.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3131"><strong>PEP 3131</strong></a>: Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers.
+(However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the exception
+of contributor names in comments.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cStringIO</span></code> modules are gone.  Instead,
+import the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module and use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> for text and data respectively.</p></li>
+<li><p>See also the <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/unicode.html#unicode-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Unicode HOWTO</span></a>, which was updated for Python 3.0.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="overview-of-syntax-changes">
+<h2>Overview Of Syntax Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#overview-of-syntax-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section gives a brief overview of every <em>syntactic</em> change in
+Python 3.0.</p>
+<div class="section" id="new-syntax">
+<h3>New Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#new-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107"><strong>PEP 3107</strong></a>: Function argument and return value annotations.  This
+provides a standardized way of annotating a function’s parameters
+and return value.  There are no semantics attached to such
+annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
+the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> attribute.  The intent is to encourage
+experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3102"><strong>PEP 3102</strong></a>: Keyword-only arguments.  Named parameters occurring
+after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> in the parameter list <em>must</em> be specified using
+keyword syntax in the call.  You can also use a bare <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> in the
+parameter list to indicate that you don’t accept a variable-length
+argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a
+class definition.  This is used by the new convention for specifying
+a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for other purposes
+as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3104"><strong>PEP 3104</strong></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement.  Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span> <span class="pre">x</span></code>
+you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but
+non-global) scope.  <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> is a new reserved word.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3132"><strong>PEP 3132</strong></a>: Extended Iterable Unpacking.  You can now write things
+like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a,</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">*rest</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">some_sequence</span></code>.  And even <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*rest,</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span>
+<span class="pre">stuff</span></code>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rest</span></code> object is always a (possibly empty) list; the
+right-hand side may be any iterable.  Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">rest</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This sets <em>a</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>, <em>b</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">4</span></code>, and <em>rest</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3]</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Dictionary comprehensions: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{k:</span> <span class="pre">v</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">k,</span> <span class="pre">v</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">stuff}</span></code> means the
+same thing as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict(stuff)</span></code> but is more flexible.  (This is
+<span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0274"><strong>PEP 274</strong></a> vindicated. :-)</p></li>
+<li><p>Set literals, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{1,</span> <span class="pre">2}</span></code>.  Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{}</span></code> is an empty
+dictionary; use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code> for an empty set.  Set comprehensions are
+also supported; e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">stuff}</span></code> means the same thing as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set(stuff)</span></code> but is more flexible.</p></li>
+<li><p>New octal literals, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0o720</span></code> (already in 2.6).  The old octal
+literals (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0720</span></code>) are gone.</p></li>
+<li><p>New binary literals, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0b1010</span></code> (already in 2.6), and
+there is a new corresponding built-in function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bin" title="bin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bin()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Bytes literals are introduced with a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code>, and
+there is a new corresponding built-in function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changed-syntax">
+<h3>Changed Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#changed-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3109"><strong>PEP 3109</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3134"><strong>PEP 3134</strong></a>: new <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> statement syntax:
+<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <span class="pre">[</span><em><span class="pre">expr</span></em> <span class="pre">[from</span> <em><span class="pre">expr</span></em><span class="pre">]]</span></code>.  See below.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> are now reserved words.  (Since
+2.6, actually.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> are reserved words.  (2.6 partially enforced
+the restrictions on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> already.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Change from <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> <em>exc</em>, <em>var</em> to
+<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code> <em>exc</em> <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> <em>var</em>.  See <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3110"><strong>PEP 3110</strong></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3115"><strong>PEP 3115</strong></a>: New Metaclass Syntax.  Instead of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">__metaclass__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">M</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>you must now use:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">metaclass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">M</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module-global <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__metaclass__</span></code> variable is no longer
+supported.  (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to
+new-style classes without deriving every class from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form
+<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[...</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <em><span class="pre">var</span></em> <span class="pre">in</span> <em><span class="pre">item1</span></em><span class="pre">,</span> <em><span class="pre">item2</span></em><span class="pre">,</span> <span class="pre">...]</span></code>.  Use
+<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[...</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <em><span class="pre">var</span></em> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">(</span><em><span class="pre">item1</span></em><span class="pre">,</span> <em><span class="pre">item2</span></em><span class="pre">,</span> <span class="pre">...)]</span></code> instead.
+Also note that list comprehensions have different semantics: they
+are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator expression inside a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a> constructor, and in particular the loop control
+variables are no longer leaked into the surrounding scope.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>ellipsis</em> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>) can be used as an atomic expression
+anywhere.  (Previously it was only allowed in slices.)  Also, it
+<em>must</em> now be spelled as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>.  (Previously it could also be
+spelled as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span> <span class="pre">.</span> <span class="pre">.</span></code>, by a mere accident of the grammar.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removed-syntax">
+<h3>Removed Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#removed-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3113"><strong>PEP 3113</strong></a>: Tuple parameter unpacking removed.  You can no longer
+write <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">foo(a,</span> <span class="pre">(b,</span> <span class="pre">c)):</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>.
+Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">foo(a,</span> <span class="pre">b_c):</span> <span class="pre">b,</span> <span class="pre">c</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">b_c</span></code> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed backticks (use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> instead).</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;&gt;</span></code> (use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code> instead).</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed keyword: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> is no longer a keyword; it remains as
+a function.  (Fortunately the function syntax was also accepted in
+2.x.)  Also note that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> no longer takes a stream argument;
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec(f)</span></code> you can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec(f.read())</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Integer literals no longer support a trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">L</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>String literals no longer support a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> <em>module</em> <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> syntax is only
+allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.</p></li>
+<li><p>The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">.[</span><em><span class="pre">module</span></em><span class="pre">]</span>
+<span class="pre">import</span> <em><span class="pre">name</span></em></code>.  All <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> forms not starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code> are
+interpreted as absolute imports.  (<span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>Classic classes are gone.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-already-present-in-python-2-6">
+<h2>Changes Already Present In Python 2.6<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-already-present-in-python-2-6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to
+Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were
+originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python
+2.6.  The corresponding sections in <a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#whats-new-in-2-6"><span class="std std-ref">What’s New in Python 2.6</span></a> should be
+consulted for longer descriptions.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-0343"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</span></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement is now a standard
+feature and no longer needs to be imported from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a>.
+Also check out <a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#new-26-context-managers"><span class="std std-ref">Writing Context Managers</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#new-module-contextlib"><span class="std std-ref">The contextlib module</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-0366"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module</span></a>.  This enhances the usefulness of the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a>
+option when the referenced module lives in a package.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-0370"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-0371"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3101"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting</span></a>.  Note: the 2.6 description mentions the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method for both 8-bit and Unicode strings.  In 3.0,
+only the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type (text strings with Unicode support)
+supports this method; the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> type does not.  The plan is
+to eventually make this the only API for string formatting, and to
+start deprecating the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> operator in Python 3.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3105"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3105: print As a Function</span></a>.  This is now a standard feature and no longer needs
+to be imported from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a>.  More details were given above.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3110"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes</span></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> <em>exc</em> <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> <em>var</em>
+syntax is now standard and <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code> <em>exc</em>, <em>var</em> is no
+longer supported.  (Of course, the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> <em>var</em> part is still
+optional.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3112"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3112: Byte Literals</span></a>.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;...&quot;</span></code> string literal notation (and its
+variants like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'...'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b&quot;&quot;&quot;...&quot;&quot;&quot;</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">br&quot;...&quot;</span></code>) now
+produces a literal of type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3116"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3116: New I/O Library</span></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module is now the standard way of
+doing file I/O.  The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function is now an
+alias for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a> and has additional keyword arguments
+<em>encoding</em>, <em>errors</em>, <em>newline</em> and <em>closefd</em>.  Also note that an
+invalid <em>mode</em> argument now raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>, not
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>.  The binary file object underlying a text file
+object can be accessed as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f.buffer</span></code> (but beware that the
+text object maintains a buffer of itself in order to speed up
+the encoding and decoding operations).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3118"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol</span></a>.  The old builtin <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">buffer()</span></code> is now really gone;
+the new builtin <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview()</span></code></a> provides (mostly) similar
+functionality.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3119"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes</span></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module and the ABCs defined in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module plays a somewhat more prominent role in
+the language now, and built-in collection types like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> conform to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.MutableMapping</span></code>
+and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.MutableSequence</span></code> ABCs, respectively.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3127"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax</span></a>.  As mentioned above, the new octal literal
+notation is the only one supported, and binary literals have been
+added.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3129"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3129: Class Decorators</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3141"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers</span></a>.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#module-numbers" title="numbers: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers</span></code></a> module is another new use of
+ABCs, defining Python’s “numeric tower”.  Also note the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#module-fractions" title="fractions: Rational numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions</span></code></a> module which implements <a class="reference internal" href="../library/numbers.html#numbers.Rational" title="numbers.Rational"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numbers.Rational</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="library-changes">
+<h2>Library Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#library-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the
+very extensive changes to the standard library.  <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3108"><strong>PEP 3108</strong></a> is the
+reference for the major changes to the library.  Here’s a capsule
+review:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Many old modules were removed.  Some, like <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gopherlib</span></code> (no
+longer used) and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">md5</span></code> (replaced by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a>), were
+already deprecated by <span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0004"><strong>PEP 4</strong></a>.  Others were removed as a result
+of the removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS
+and Mac OS 9 (see <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0011"><strong>PEP 11</strong></a>).  Some modules were also selected for
+removal in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better
+replacement exists.  See <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3108"><strong>PEP 3108</strong></a> for an exhaustive list.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bsddb3</span></code> package was removed because its presence in the
+core standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden
+for the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB’s
+release schedule.  However, the package is alive and well,
+externally maintained at <a class="reference external" href="https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm">https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed
+<span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008"><strong>PEP 8</strong></a>, or for various other reasons.  Here’s the list:</p>
+<table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+<col style="width: 50%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Old Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>New Name</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>_winreg</p></td>
+<td><p>winreg</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>ConfigParser</p></td>
+<td><p>configparser</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>copy_reg</p></td>
+<td><p>copyreg</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>Queue</p></td>
+<td><p>queue</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>SocketServer</p></td>
+<td><p>socketserver</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>markupbase</p></td>
+<td><p>_markupbase</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>repr</p></td>
+<td><p>reprlib</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>test.test_support</p></td>
+<td><p>test.support</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</li>
+<li><p>A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module
+implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version
+implemented as a C extension; for example, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cPickle</span></code>.  This places the burden of importing the accelerated
+version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of
+these modules.  In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are
+considered implementation details of the pure Python versions.
+Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to
+import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python
+version.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> / <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cPickle</span></code> pair received this
+treatment.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> module is on the list for 3.1.  The
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code> module has been turned into a class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a>
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p>Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually
+the submodule names have been simplified.  The resulting new
+packages are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a> (<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">anydbm</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbhash</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumbdbm</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gdbm</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whichdb</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.html#module-html" title="html: Helpers for manipulating HTML."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code></a> (<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">htmlentitydefs</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.html#module-http" title="http: HTTP status codes and messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http</span></code></a> (<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">httplib</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPServer</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CGIHTTPServer</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHTTPServer</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cookie</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cookielib</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> (all <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tkinter</span></code>-related modules except
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a>).  The target audience of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> doesn’t
+really care about <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>.  Also note that as of Python
+2.6, the functionality of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> has been greatly enhanced.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.html#module-urllib" title="urllib"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib2</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">robotparse</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc</span></code> (<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpclib</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocXMLRPCServer</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCServer</span></code>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by
+<span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3108"><strong>PEP 3108</strong></a>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Killed <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sets</span></code>.  Use the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> class.</p></li>
+<li><p>Cleanup of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module: removed <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exitfunc()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_clear()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_type</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_value</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_traceback</span></code>.  (Note that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.last_type" title="sys.last_type"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.last_type</span></code></a>
+etc. remain.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Cleanup of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a> type: the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> methods are gone; use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fromfile()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tofile()</span></code> instead.  Also, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'c'</span></code> typecode for array is
+gone – use either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code> for bytes or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> for Unicode
+characters.</p></li>
+<li><p>Cleanup of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module: removed
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sequenceIncludes()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isCallable()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Cleanup of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread</span></code> module: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire_lock()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release_lock()</span></code> are gone; use <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>Cleanup of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module: removed the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">jumpahead()</span></code> API.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new</span></code> module is gone.</p></li>
+<li><p>The functions <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.tmpnam()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.tempnam()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.tmpfile()</span></code> have been removed in favor of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a>
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tokenize.html#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> module has been changed to work with bytes.  The
+main entry point is now <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tokenize.html#tokenize.tokenize" title="tokenize.tokenize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize.tokenize()</span></code></a>, instead of
+generate_tokens.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.letters</span></code> and its friends (<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.lowercase</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.uppercase</span></code>) are gone.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.ascii_letters" title="string.ascii_letters"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.ascii_letters</span></code></a> etc. instead.  (The reason for the
+removal is that <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.letters</span></code> and friends had
+locale-specific behavior, which is a bad idea for such
+attractively-named global “constants”.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Renamed module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtin__</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> (removing the
+underscores, adding an ‘s’).  The <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> variable
+found in most global namespaces is unchanged.  To modify a builtin,
+you should use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>, not <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code>!</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3101-a-new-approach-to-string-formatting">
+<h2><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101"><strong>PEP 3101</strong></a>: A New Approach To String Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3101-a-new-approach-to-string-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A new system for  built-in string formatting operations replaces the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> string  formatting operator.   (However, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>  operator is
+still supported;  it will  be deprecated in  Python 3.1  and removed
+from the language at some later time.)  Read <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3101"><strong>PEP 3101</strong></a> for the full
+scoop.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-to-exceptions">
+<h2>Changes To Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-to-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and
+new powerful features added:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0352"><strong>PEP 352</strong></a>: All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly)
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a>.  This is the root of the exception
+hierarchy.  This is not new as a recommendation, but the
+<em>requirement</em> to inherit from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> is new.  (Python
+2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed no
+restriction on what you can catch.)  As a consequence, string
+exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.</p></li>
+<li><p>Almost all exceptions should actually derive from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> should only be used as a base class for
+exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a>.  The recommended
+idiom for handling all exceptions except for this latter category is
+to use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StandardError</span></code> was removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>Exceptions no longer behave as sequences.  Use the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code>
+attribute instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3109"><strong>PEP 3109</strong></a>: Raising exceptions.  You must now use <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span>
+<em><span class="pre">Exception</span></em><span class="pre">(</span><em><span class="pre">args</span></em><span class="pre">)</span></code> instead of <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span> <em><span class="pre">Exception</span></em><span class="pre">,</span> <em><span class="pre">args</span></em></code>.
+Additionally, you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback;
+instead, if you <em>have</em> to do this, you can assign directly to the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__traceback__</span></code> attribute (see below).</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3110"><strong>PEP 3110</strong></a>: Catching exceptions.  You must now use
+<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <em><span class="pre">SomeException</span></em> <span class="pre">as</span> <em><span class="pre">variable</span></em></code> instead
+of <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span> <em><span class="pre">SomeException</span></em><span class="pre">,</span> <em><span class="pre">variable</span></em></code>.  Moreover, the
+<em>variable</em> is explicitly deleted when the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> block
+is left.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3134"><strong>PEP 3134</strong></a>: Exception chaining.  There are two cases: implicit
+chaining and explicit chaining.  Implicit chaining happens when an
+exception is raised in an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a>
+handler block.  This usually happens due to a bug in the handler
+block; we call this a <em>secondary</em> exception.  In this case, the
+original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> attribute of the secondary exception.
+Explicit chaining is invoked with this syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">raise</span> <span class="n">SecondaryException</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">primary_exception</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(where <em>primary_exception</em> is any expression that produces an
+exception object, probably an exception that was previously caught).
+In this case, the primary exception is stored on the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> attribute of the secondary exception.  The
+traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the chain
+of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cause__</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__context__</span></code> attributes and prints a
+separate traceback for each component of the chain, with the primary
+exception at the top.  (Java users may recognize this behavior.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3134"><strong>PEP 3134</strong></a>: Exception objects now store their traceback as the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__traceback__</span></code> attribute.  This means that an exception
+object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception,
+and there are fewer reasons to use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.exc_info" title="sys.exc_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.exc_info()</span></code></a> (though the
+latter is not removed).</p></li>
+<li><p>A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an
+extension module.  For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error</span> <span class="pre">code</span> <span class="pre">193</span></code> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%1</span> <span class="pre">is</span>
+<span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">valid</span> <span class="pre">Win32</span> <span class="pre">application</span></code>.  Strings now deal with non-English
+locales.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="miscellaneous-other-changes">
+<h2>Miscellaneous Other Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#miscellaneous-other-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="operators-and-special-methods">
+<h3>Operators And Special Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#operators-and-special-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">!=</span></code> now returns the opposite of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code>, unless <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">==</span></code> returns
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The concept of “unbound methods” has been removed from the language.
+When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now get a plain
+function object.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getslice__()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setslice__()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delslice__()</span></code>
+were killed.  The syntax <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a[i:j]</span></code> now translates to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a.__getitem__(slice(i,</span> <span class="pre">j))</span></code> (or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setitem__()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delitem__" title="object.__delitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__delitem__()</span></code></a>, when used as an assignment or deletion target,
+respectively).</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3114"><strong>PEP 3114</strong></a>: the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> method has been renamed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__oct__()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hex__()</span></code> special methods are removed
+– <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">oct()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hex()</span></code></a> use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code></a> now to convert
+the argument to an integer.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed support for <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__members__</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__methods__</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The function attributes named <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_X</span></code> have been renamed to
+use the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__X__</span></code> form, freeing up these names in the function
+attribute namespace for user-defined attributes.  To wit,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_closure</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_code</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_defaults</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_dict</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_doc</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_globals</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func_name</span></code> were renamed to <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__closure__</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__code__</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__defaults__</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__globals__</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code></a>,
+respectively.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__nonzero__()</span></code> is now <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bool__()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="builtins">
+<h3>Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#builtins" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3135"><strong>PEP 3135</strong></a>: New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>.  You can now invoke <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a>
+without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular instance method
+defined inside a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">class</span></code></a> statement) the right class and
+instance will automatically be chosen.  With arguments, the behavior
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> is unchanged.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3111"><strong>PEP 3111</strong></a>: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raw_input()</span></code> was renamed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a>.  That
+is, the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a> function reads a line from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> and returns it with the trailing newline stripped.
+It raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EOFError" title="EOFError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EOFError</span></code></a> if the input is terminated prematurely.
+To get the old behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input()</span></code></a>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval(input())</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> was added to call the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></code></a> method on an object.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round()</span></code></a> function rounding strategy and return type have
+changed.  Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest even
+result instead of away from zero.  (For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(2.5)</span></code> now
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2</span></code> rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code>.)  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(x[,</span> <span class="pre">n])</span></code> now
+delegates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x.__round__([n])</span></code> instead of always returning a
+float.  It generally returns an integer when called with a single
+argument and a value of the same type as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> when called with two
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p>Moved <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">intern()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.intern" title="sys.intern"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.intern()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply()</span></code>.  Instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">apply(f,</span> <span class="pre">args)</span></code> use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(*args)</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#callable" title="callable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable()</span></code></a>.  Instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable(f)</span></code> you can use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(f,</span> <span class="pre">collections.Callable)</span></code>.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.isCallable()</span></code>
+function is also gone.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coerce()</span></code>.  This function no longer serves a purpose
+now that classic classes are gone.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execfile()</span></code>.  Instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execfile(fn)</span></code> use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec(open(fn).read())</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> type.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.  There are now several
+different kinds of streams that open can return in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reduce()</span></code>.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.reduce" title="functools.reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.reduce()</span></code></a> if you really
+need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a>
+loop is more readable.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code>.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.reload" title="imp.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.reload()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed. <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.has_key()</span></code> – use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> operator
+instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Due to time constraints, here is a <em>very</em> incomplete list of changes
+to the C API.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not limited
+to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3118"><strong>PEP 3118</strong></a>: New Buffer API.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3121"><strong>PEP 3121</strong></a>: Extension Module Initialization &amp; Finalization.</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3123"><strong>PEP 3123</strong></a>: Making <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD" title="PyObject_HEAD"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code></a> conform to standard C.</p></li>
+<li><p>No more C API support for restricted execution.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Coerce()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_CoerceEx()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMember_Get()</span></code>, and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMember_Set()</span></code> C APIs are removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>New C API <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock" title="PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()</span></code></a>, works like
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModule" title="PyImport_ImportModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModule()</span></code></a> but won’t block on the import lock
+(returning an error instead).</p></li>
+<li><p>Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_nonzero</span></code> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nb_bool</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_OLDARGS</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WITH_CYCLE_GC</span></code> from the C API.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="performance">
+<h2>Performance<a class="headerlink" href="#performance" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the
+pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5.  Most likely the
+biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers.
+There’s room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is
+released!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-0">
+<h2>Porting To Python 3.0<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-0" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the
+best strategy is the following:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple" start="0">
+<li><p>(Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.</p></li>
+<li><p>Port to Python 2.6.  This should be no more work than the average
+port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1).  Make sure all your tests
+pass.</p></li>
+<li><p>(Still using 2.6:) Turn on the <code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code> command line switch.
+This enables warnings about features that will be removed (or
+change) in 3.0.  Run your test suite again, and fix code that you
+get warnings about until there are no warnings left, and all your
+tests still pass.</p></li>
+<li><p>Run the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2to3</span></code> source-to-source translator over your source code
+tree.  (See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/2to3.html#to3-reference"><span class="std std-ref">2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation</span></a> for more on this tool.)  Run the
+result of the translation under Python 3.0.  Manually fix up any
+remaining issues, fixing problems until all tests pass again.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged
+under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you’d have to use a very contorted
+coding style, e.g. avoiding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statements, metaclasses,
+and much more.  If you are maintaining a library that needs to support
+both Python 2.6 and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3
+above by editing the 2.6 version of the source code and running the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2to3</span></code> translator again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the
+source code.</p>
+<p>For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/cporting.html#cporting-howto"><span class="std std-ref">Porting Extension Modules to Python 3</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.0</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-stumbling-blocks">Common Stumbling Blocks</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#print-is-a-function">Print Is A Function</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#views-and-iterators-instead-of-lists">Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ordering-comparisons">Ordering Comparisons</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#integers">Integers</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-vs-data-instead-of-unicode-vs-8-bit">Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#overview-of-syntax-changes">Overview Of Syntax Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-syntax">New Syntax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changed-syntax">Changed Syntax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removed-syntax">Removed Syntax</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-already-present-in-python-2-6">Changes Already Present In Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#library-changes">Library Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3101-a-new-approach-to-string-formatting"><strong>PEP 3101</strong>: A New Approach To String Formatting</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-to-exceptions">Changes To Exceptions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#miscellaneous-other-changes">Miscellaneous Other Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operators-and-special-methods">Operators And Special Methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#builtins">Builtins</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-0">Porting To Python 3.0</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.1.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.1</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.7.html"
+                        title="next chapter">What’s New in Python 2.7</a></p>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst"
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.1.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.1.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fd83ec
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+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.1.html
@@ -0,0 +1,678 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>What’s New In Python 3.1 &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-1">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.1<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Raymond Hettinger</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.</p>
+<div class="section" id="pep-372-ordered-dictionaries">
+<h2>PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-372-ordered-dictionaries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order.
+Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations
+that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted.  Based on
+the experiences from those implementations, a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a> class has been introduced.</p>
+<p>The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
+but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
+when a key was first inserted.  If a new entry overwrites an existing entry,
+the original insertion position is left unchanged.  Deleting an entry and
+reinserting it will move it to the end.</p>
+<p>The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
+modules.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> module uses them by default.  This lets
+configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in their original
+order.  The <em>_asdict()</em> method for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> now
+returns an ordered dictionary with the values appearing in the same order as
+the underlying tuple indices.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module is being built-out with
+an <em>object_pairs_hook</em> to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
+Support was also added for third-party tools like <a class="reference external" href="http://pyyaml.org/">PyYAML</a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0372"><strong>PEP 372</strong></a> - Ordered Dictionaries</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger.  Implementation
+written by Raymond Hettinger.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">
+<h2>PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> function and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method use
+a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale aware way to format
+a number with a thousands separator.  That provides a way to humanize a
+program’s output, improving its professional appearance and readability:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1234567</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;,d&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1,234,567&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1234567.89</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;,.2f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1,234,567.89&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">12345.6</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mf">8901234.12</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;,f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1234567.89&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;,f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1,234,567.89&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The supported types are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
+like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores.  Locale-aware applications
+should use the existing <em>n</em> format specifier which already has some support
+for thousands separators.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0378"><strong>PEP 378</strong></a> - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
+Mark Dickinson.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Directories and zip archives containing a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code>
+file can now be executed directly by passing their name to the
+interpreter. The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the
+first entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu;
+revised patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1739468">bpo-1739468</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> type gained a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bit_length</span></code> method that returns the
+number of bits necessary to represent its argument in binary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">37</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">bin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">37</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0b100101&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">6</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="mi">123</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">123</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bit_length</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">124</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond Hettinger,
+and Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3439">bpo-3439</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The fields in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> strings can now be automatically
+numbered:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Sir </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1"> of </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Gallahad&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Camelot&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Sir Gallahad of Camelot&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Sir</span> <span class="pre">{0}</span> <span class="pre">of</span> <span class="pre">{1}'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Eric Smith; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5237">bpo-5237</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.maketrans()</span></code> function is deprecated and is replaced by new
+static methods, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.maketrans" title="bytes.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.maketrans()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.maketrans" title="bytearray.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.maketrans()</span></code></a>.
+This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module. Now, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> each have their own <strong>maketrans</strong> and <strong>translate</strong>
+methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5675">bpo-5675</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The syntax of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement now allows multiple context
+managers in a single statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mylog.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a.out&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;critical&gt;&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With the new syntax, the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.nested()</span></code> function is no longer
+needed and is now deprecated.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://codereview.appspot.com/53094">appspot issue 53094</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round(x,</span> <span class="pre">n)</span></code> now returns an integer if <em>x</em> is an integer.
+Previously it returned a float:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">round</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1123</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1100</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4707">bpo-4707</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Python now uses David Gay’s algorithm for finding the shortest floating
+point representation that doesn’t change its value.  This should help
+mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary floating point
+numbers.</p>
+<p>The significance is easily seen with a number like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.1</span></code> which does not
+have an exact equivalent in binary floating point.  Since there is no exact
+equivalent, an expression like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float('1.1')</span></code> evaluates to the nearest
+representable value which is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x1.199999999999ap+0</span></code> in hex or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625</span></code> in decimal. That
+nearest value was and still is used in subsequent floating point
+calculations.</p>
+<p>What is new is how the number gets displayed.  Formerly, Python used a
+simple approach.  The value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(1.1)</span></code> was computed as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format(1.1,</span>
+<span class="pre">'.17g')</span></code> which evaluated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1.1000000000000001'</span></code>. The advantage of
+using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754 guarantees to assure that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval(repr(1.1))</span></code> would round-trip exactly to its original value.  The
+disadvantage is that many people found the output to be confusing (mistaking
+intrinsic limitations of binary floating point representation as being a
+problem with Python itself).</p>
+<p>The new algorithm for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(1.1)</span></code> is smarter and returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'1.1'</span></code>.
+Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations (ones that
+get stored with the same underlying float value) and returns the shortest
+representation.</p>
+<p>The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when possible, but
+it does not change the underlying values.  So, it is still the case that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">2.2</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">3.3</span></code> even though the representations may suggest otherwise.</p>
+<p>The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying floating
+point implementation.  If the required features are not found, the old
+algorithm will continue to be used.  Also, the text pickle protocols
+assure cross-platform portability by using the old algorithm.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1580">bpo-1580</a>)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">
+<h2>New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Added a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Counter</span></code></a> class to support convenient
+counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;red&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;green&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;blue&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;blue&#39;: 3, &#39;red&#39;: 2, &#39;green&#39;: 1})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1696199">bpo-1696199</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Added a new module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> for access to the Tk themed widget set.
+The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the extent possible, the code
+implementing a widget’s behavior from the code implementing its appearance.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Guilherme Polo; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2983">bpo-2983</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip.GzipFile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File</span></code></a> classes now support
+the context management protocol:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># Automatically close file after writing</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">GzipFile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;wb&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;xxx&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module now supports methods for creating a
+decimal object from a binary <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>.  The conversion is
+exact but can sometimes be surprising:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">from_float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
+stored for <em>1.1</em>.  The fraction has many digits because <em>1.1</em> cannot
+be exactly represented in binary.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module grew two new functions.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.combinations_with_replacement" title="itertools.combinations_with_replacement"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.combinations_with_replacement()</span></code></a> function is one of
+four for generating combinatorics including permutations and Cartesian
+products.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.compress" title="itertools.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.compress()</span></code></a> function mimics its namesake
+from APL.  Also, the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.count()</span></code></a> function now has
+an optional <em>step</em> argument and can accept any type of counting
+sequence including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">q</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">q</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">combinations_with_replacement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;LOVE&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;LL&#39;, &#39;LO&#39;, &#39;LV&#39;, &#39;LE&#39;, &#39;OO&#39;, &#39;OV&#39;, &#39;OE&#39;, &#39;VV&#39;, &#39;VE&#39;, &#39;EE&#39;]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">selectors</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">[2, 3, 5, 7]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">step</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="go">[Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> now supports a keyword argument
+<em>rename</em> which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically converted to
+positional names in the form _0, _1, etc.  This is useful when
+the field names are being created by an external source such as a
+CSV header, SQL field list, or user input:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">query</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">query</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">query_fields</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">desc</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">desc</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">description</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">UserQuery</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;UserQuery&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">query_fields</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">UserQuery</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">row</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">row</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">[UserQuery(region=&#39;South&#39;, dept=&#39;Shipping&#39;, _2=185),</span>
+<span class="go"> UserQuery(region=&#39;North&#39;, dept=&#39;Accounting&#39;, _2=37),</span>
+<span class="go"> UserQuery(region=&#39;West&#39;, dept=&#39;Sales&#39;, _2=419)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1818">bpo-1818</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.subn" title="re.subn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.subn()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a> functions now
+accept a flags parameter.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Gregory Smith.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module now implements a simple <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.NullHandler" title="logging.NullHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.NullHandler</span></code></a>
+class for applications that are not using logging but are calling
+library code that does.  Setting-up a null handler will suppress
+spurious warnings such as “No handlers could be found for logger foo”:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">NullHandler</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getLogger</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addHandler</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">h</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Vinay Sajip; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4384">bpo-4384</a>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> module which supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> command line switch
+now supports the execution of packages by looking for and executing
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> submodule when a package name is supplied.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Andi Vajda; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4195">bpo-4195</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> module can now access and display source code loaded via
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipimport.html#module-zipimport" title="zipimport: support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport</span></code></a> (or any other conformant <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> loader).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4201">bpo-4201</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial</span></code></a> objects can now be pickled.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>(Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller.  Implemented by
+Jack Diederich; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5228">bpo-5228</a>.)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Add <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> help topics for symbols so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help('&#64;')</span></code>
+works as expected in the interactive environment.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by David Laban; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4739">bpo-4739</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module now supports skipping individual tests or classes
+of tests. And it supports marking a test as an expected failure, a test that
+is known to be broken, but shouldn’t be counted as a failure on a
+TestResult:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">TestGizmo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">skipUnless</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">platform</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;win&quot;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s2">&quot;requires Windows&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_gizmo_on_windows</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="nd">@unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expectedFailure</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_gimzo_without_required_library</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context managers
+using the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_division_by_zero</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertRaises</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">/</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertSetEqual()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictEqual()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictContainsSubset()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertListEqual()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTupleEqual()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertSequenceEqual()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegexp()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNone()</span></code>,
+and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertIsNotNone()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson and Antoine Pitrou.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#module-io" title="io: Core tools for working with streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io</span></code></a> module has three new constants for the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seek()</span></code>
+method <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_SET</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_CUR</span></code>, and <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SEEK_END</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a> tuple is now a named tuple:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span>
+<span class="go">sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel=&#39;alpha&#39;, serial=2)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Ross Light; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4285">bpo-4285</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> modules now support IPv6.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Derek Morr; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1655">bpo-1655</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1664">bpo-1664</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module has been adapted for better interoperability with
+Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or lower.  The reorganization of the
+standard library changed the formal reference for many objects.  For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtin__.set</span></code> in Python 2 is called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins.set</span></code> in Python
+3. This change confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
+Python.  But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler will
+automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and dumping. This
+remapping is turned-on by default but can be disabled with the <em>fix_imports</em>
+option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pickle</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dumps</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">protocol</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fix_imports</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">False</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that protocol 2
+pickles produced by Python 3.1 won’t be readable with Python 3.0. The latest
+pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used when migrating data between
+Python 3.x implementations, as it doesn’t attempt to remain compatible with
+Python 2.x.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti and Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6137">bpo-6137</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new module, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> was added.  It provides a complete, portable,
+pure Python reference implementation of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement and its
+counterpart, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function.  It represents a substantial
+step forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place during
+imports.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Brett Cannon.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h2>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Major performance enhancements have been added:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The new I/O library (as defined in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3116"><strong>PEP 3116</strong></a>) was mostly written in
+Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in Python 3.0.
+In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely rewritten in C and is
+2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at hand. The pure Python
+version is still available for experimentation purposes through
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pyio</span></code> module.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Antoine Pitrou.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only untrackable objects
+are not tracked by the garbage collector. This can reduce the size of
+collections and therefore the garbage collection overhead on long-running
+programs, depending on their particular use of datatypes.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4688">bpo-4688</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Enabling a configure option named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-computed-gotos</span></code>
+on compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
+evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which gives
+speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler, and
+the benchmark.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou along with a number of other participants,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4753">bpo-4753</a>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
+faster.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4868">bpo-4868</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module now has a C extension to substantially improve
+its performance.  In addition, the API was modified so that json works
+only with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, not with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.  That change makes the
+module closely match the <a class="reference external" href="http://json.org/">JSON specification</a>
+which is defined in terms of Unicode.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine Pitrou
+and Benjamin Peterson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4136">bpo-4136</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects.  This saves
+memory and allows pickles to be smaller.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Jake McGuire and Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5084">bpo-5084</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idle">
+<h2>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>IDLE’s format menu now provides an option to strip trailing whitespace
+from a source file.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Roger D. Serwy; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5150">bpo-5150</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base
+2**30, the base being determined at build time.  Previously, they
+were always stored in base 2**15.  Using base 2**30 gives
+significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
+benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
+the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15
+on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new configure option
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-big-digits</span></code> that can be used to override this default.</p>
+<p>Apart from the performance improvements this change should be invisible to
+end users, with one exception: for testing and debugging purposes there’s a
+new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.int_info" title="sys.int_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.int_info</span></code></a> that provides information about the
+internal format, giving the number of bits per digit and the size in bytes
+of the C type used to store each digit:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">int_info</span>
+<span class="go">sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4258">bpo-4258</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong" title="PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong()</span></code></a> function now handles a negative
+<em>pylong</em> by raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Lisandro Dalcrin; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5175">bpo-5175</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Deprecated <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Int()</span></code>.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_Long" title="PyNumber_Long"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_Long()</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4910">bpo-4910</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Added a new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/conversion.html#c.PyOS_string_to_double" title="PyOS_string_to_double"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_string_to_double()</span></code></a> function to replace the
+deprecated functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_strtod()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ascii_atof()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5914">bpo-5914</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Added <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule" title="PyCapsule"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule</span></code></a> as a replacement for the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject</span></code> API.
+The principal difference is that the new type has a well defined interface
+for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature
+for calling a destructor.  The old type had a problematic API and is now
+deprecated.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Larry Hastings; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5630">bpo-5630</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-1">
+<h2>Porting to Python 3.1<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The new floating point string representations can break existing doctests.
+For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">e</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="sd">&#39;&#39;&#39;Compute the base of natural logarithms.</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &gt;&gt;&gt; e()</span>
+<span class="sd">    2.7182818284590451</span>
+
+<span class="sd">    &#39;&#39;&#39;</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">)))</span>
+
+<span class="n">doctest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">testmod</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="o">**********************************************************************</span>
+<span class="n">Failed</span> <span class="n">example</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">Expected</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="mf">2.7182818284590451</span>
+<span class="n">Got</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="mf">2.718281828459045</span>
+<span class="o">**********************************************************************</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or lower can
+make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0.  One solution is to use
+protocol 3.  Another solution is to set the <em>fix_imports</em> option to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.
+See the discussion above for more details.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-372-ordered-dictionaries">PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-1">Porting to Python 3.1</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.2.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.2</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.0.html"
+                        title="next chapter">What’s New In Python 3.0</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
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new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,2724 @@
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-2">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.2<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Raymond Hettinger</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1.  It
+focuses on a few highlights and gives a few examples.  For full details, see the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS">Misc/NEWS</a>
+file.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0392"><strong>PEP 392</strong></a> - Python 3.2 Release Schedule</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi">
+<h2>PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often
+not usable with other Python versions. Particularly on Windows, every
+feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that
+one wanted to use. This requirement was the result of the free access to
+Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.</p>
+<p>With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension
+modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining
+Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained
+to a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several
+releases. As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that
+mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on. Extension modules that
+make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will
+need to be recompiled for every feature release.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0384"><strong>PEP 384</strong></a> - Defining a Stable ABI</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Martin von Löwis.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module">
+<h2>PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new module for command line parsing, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>, was introduced to
+overcome the limitations of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> which did not provide support for
+positional arguments (not just options), subcommands, required options and other
+common patterns of specifying and validating options.</p>
+<p>This module has already had widespread success in the community as a
+third-party module.  Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module is now the preferred module for command-line processing.
+The older module is still being kept available because of the substantial amount
+of legacy code that depends on it.</p>
+<p>Here’s an annotated example parser showing features like limiting results to a
+set of choices, specifying a <em>metavar</em> in the help screen, validating that one
+or more positional arguments is present, and making a required option:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span>
+            <span class="n">description</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Manage servers&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>         <span class="c1"># main description for help</span>
+            <span class="n">epilog</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Tested on Solaris and Linux&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># displayed after help</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;action&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>                       <span class="c1"># argument name</span>
+            <span class="n">choices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;deploy&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;start&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;stop&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span>  <span class="c1"># three allowed values</span>
+            <span class="n">help</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;action on each target&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>         <span class="c1"># help msg</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;targets&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+            <span class="n">metavar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;HOSTNAME&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>                   <span class="c1"># var name used in help msg</span>
+            <span class="n">nargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;+&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>                            <span class="c1"># require one or more targets</span>
+            <span class="n">help</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;url for target machines&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># help msg explanation</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-u&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--user&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>                 <span class="c1"># -u or --user option</span>
+            <span class="n">required</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span>                        <span class="c1"># make it a required argument</span>
+            <span class="n">help</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;login as user&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of calling the parser on a command string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cmd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">action</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;deploy&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">targets</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;sneezy.example.com&#39;, &#39;sleepy.example.com&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">user</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;skycaptain&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example of the parser’s automatically generated help:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-h&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span>
+
+<span class="go">usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER</span>
+<span class="go">                       {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]</span>
+
+<span class="go">Manage servers</span>
+
+<span class="go">positional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target</span>
+<span class="go">  HOSTNAME              url for target machines</span>
+
+<span class="go">optional arguments:</span>
+<span class="go">  -h, --help            show this help message and exit</span>
+<span class="go">  -u USER, --user USER  login as user</span>
+
+<span class="go">Tested on Solaris and Linux</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An especially nice <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> feature is the ability to define subparsers,
+each with their own argument patterns and help displays:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span>
+<span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;HELM&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">subparsers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_subparsers</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser_l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;launch&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Launch Control&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># first subgroup</span>
+<span class="n">parser_l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-m&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--missiles&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser_l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-t&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--torpedos&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;store_true&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">parser_m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;move&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;Move Vessel&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>        <span class="c1"># second subgroup</span>
+                                 <span class="n">aliases</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;steer&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;turn&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>         <span class="c1"># equivalent names</span>
+<span class="n">parser_m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-c&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--course&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">required</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">parser_m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-s&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;--speed&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py --help                         <span class="c1"># top level help (launch and move)</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py launch --help                  <span class="c1"># help for launch options</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py launch --missiles              <span class="c1"># set missiles=True and torpedos=False</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py steer --course <span class="m">180</span> --speed <span class="m">5</span>   <span class="c1"># set movement parameters</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0389"><strong>PEP 389</strong></a> - New Command Line Parsing Module</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Steven Bethard.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code"><span class="std std-ref">Upgrading optparse code</span></a> for details on the differences from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">
+<h2>PEP 391:  Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module provided two kinds of configuration, one style with
+function calls for each option or another style driven by an external file saved
+in a <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> format.  Those options did not provide the flexibility
+to create configurations from JSON or YAML files, nor did they support
+incremental configuration, which is needed for specifying logger options from a
+command line.</p>
+<p>To support a more flexible style, the module now offers
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config.dictConfig()</span></code></a> for specifying logging configuration with
+plain Python dictionaries.  The configuration options include formatters,
+handlers, filters, and loggers.  Here’s a working example of a configuration
+dictionary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;version&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
+ <span class="s2">&quot;formatters&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;brief&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;format&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+                <span class="s2">&quot;full&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;format&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+                <span class="p">},</span>
+ <span class="s2">&quot;handlers&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;console&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;class&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;logging.StreamHandler&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;formatter&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;brief&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;level&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;INFO&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;stream&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;ext://sys.stdout&quot;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+              <span class="s2">&quot;console_priority&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;class&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;logging.StreamHandler&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;formatter&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;full&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;level&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;ERROR&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+                   <span class="s2">&quot;stream&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;ext://sys.stderr&quot;</span><span class="p">}</span>
+              <span class="p">},</span>
+ <span class="s2">&quot;root&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">&quot;level&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;DEBUG&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;handlers&quot;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">&quot;console&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;console_priority&quot;</span><span class="p">]}}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If that dictionary is stored in a file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conf.json</span></code>, it can be
+loaded and called with code like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;conf.json&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">conf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conf</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Transaction completed normally&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Abnormal termination&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0391"><strong>PEP 391</strong></a> - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Vinay Sajip.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module">
+<h2>PEP 3148:  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> module<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new top-level
+namespace, <em>concurrent</em>.  Its first member is a <em>futures</em> package which provides
+a uniform high-level interface for managing threads and processes.</p>
+<p>The design for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> was inspired by the
+<em>java.util.concurrent</em> package.  In that model, a running call and its result
+are represented by a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> object that abstracts
+features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls.  That object
+supports status checks (running or done), timeouts, cancellations, adding
+callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.</p>
+<p>The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for
+launching and managing calls.  The goal of the executors is to make it easier to
+use existing tools for making parallel calls. They save the effort needed to
+setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a results queue, add
+time-out handling, and limit the total number of threads, processes, or remote
+procedure calls.</p>
+<p>Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple
+components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed.  This
+solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its own
+competing strategy for resource management.</p>
+<p>Both classes share a common interface with three methods:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.submit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">submit()</span></code></a> for scheduling a callable and
+returning a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> object;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.map" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> for scheduling many asynchronous calls
+at a time, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a> for freeing
+resources.  The class is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> and can be used in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement to assure that resources are automatically released
+when currently pending futures are done executing.</p>
+<p>A simple of example of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> is a
+launch of four parallel threads for copying files:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">concurrent.futures</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span>
+<span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">concurrent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">futures</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_workers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src1.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest1.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src2.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest2.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src3.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest3.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;src3.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dest4.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3148"><strong>PEP 3148</strong></a> - Futures – Execute Computations Asynchronously</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Brian Quinlan.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#threadpoolexecutor-example"><span class="std std-ref">Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads</span></a>, an
+example using threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#processpoolexecutor-example"><span class="std std-ref">Code for computing prime numbers in
+parallel</span></a>, an example demonstrating
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories">
+<h2>PEP 3147:  PYC Repository Directories<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python’s scheme for caching bytecode in <em>.pyc</em> files did not work well in
+environments with multiple Python interpreters.  If one interpreter encountered
+a cached file created by another interpreter, it would recompile the source and
+overwrite the cached file, thus losing the benefits of caching.</p>
+<p>The issue of “pyc fights” has become more pronounced as it has become
+commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of Python.
+These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as Unladen Swallow.</p>
+<p>To solve this problem, Python’s import machinery has been extended to use
+distinct filenames for each interpreter.  Instead of Python 3.2 and Python 3.3 and
+Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called “mymodule.pyc”, they will now
+look for “mymodule.cpython-32.pyc”, “mymodule.cpython-33.pyc”, and
+“mymodule.unladen10.pyc”.  And to prevent all of these new files from
+cluttering source directories, the <em>pyc</em> files are now collected in a
+“__pycache__” directory stored under the package directory.</p>
+<p>Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a few
+aspects that are visible to the programmer:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Imported modules now have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__cached__" title="__cached__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code></a> attribute which stores the name
+of the actual file that was imported:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">collections</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__cached__</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a>
+module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">imp</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_tag</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;cpython-32&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file now need to
+be smarter.  It is no longer sufficient to simply strip the “c” from a “.pyc”
+filename.  Instead, use the new functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">source_from_cache</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:/py32/lib/collections.py&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_from_source</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;c:/py32/lib/collections.py&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> modules have been updated to
+reflect the new naming convention and target directory.  The command-line
+invocation of <em>compileall</em> has new options: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code> for
+specifying a list of files and directories to compile and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> which causes
+bytecode files to be written to their legacy location rather than
+<em>__pycache__</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc" title="importlib.abc: Abstract base classes related to import"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code></a> module has been updated with new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base
+classes</span></a> for loading bytecode files.  The obsolete
+ABCs, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLoader</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyPycLoader</span></code>, have been deprecated (instructions on how
+to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included with the documentation).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> - PYC Repository Directories</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Barry Warsaw.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files">
+<h2>PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be
+co-located.  This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object files by
+giving them a common directory and distinct names for each version.</p>
+<p>The common directory is “pyshared” and the file names are made distinct by
+identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython, etc.), the
+major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags (such as “d” for
+debug, “m” for pymalloc, “u” for wide-unicode).  For an arbitrary package “foo”,
+you may see these files when the distribution package is installed:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">share</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">pyshared</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cpython</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">so</span>
+<span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">share</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">pyshared</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cpython</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">33</span><span class="n">md</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">so</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a>
+module:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sysconfig</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SOABI&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>       <span class="c1"># find the version tag</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;cpython-32mu&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;EXT_SUFFIX&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># find the full filename extension</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;.cpython-32mu.so&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3149"><strong>PEP 3149</strong></a> - ABI Version Tagged .so Files</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Barry Warsaw.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1">
+<h2>PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled by the
+WSGI protocol.  The challenge is that string handling in Python 3 is most
+conveniently handled with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type even though the HTTP protocol
+is itself bytes oriented.</p>
+<p>The PEP differentiates so-called <em>native strings</em> that are used for
+request/response headers and metadata versus <em>byte strings</em> which are used for
+the bodies of requests and responses.</p>
+<p>The <em>native strings</em> are always of type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> but are restricted to code
+points between <em>U+0000</em> through <em>U+00FF</em> which are translatable to bytes using
+<em>Latin-1</em> encoding.  These strings are used for the keys and values in the
+environment dictionary and for response headers and statuses in the
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_response()</span></code> function.  They must follow <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a> with respect to
+encoding. That is, they must either be <em>ISO-8859-1</em> characters or use
+<span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> MIME encoding.</p>
+<p>For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the salient
+points:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change is needed.</p></li>
+<li><p>If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input headers, then the
+headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1.  For example, an output header
+encoded in utf-8 was using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h.encode('utf-8')</span></code> now needs to convert from
+bytes to native strings using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Values yielded by an application or sent using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method
+must be byte strings.  The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_response()</span></code> function and environ
+must use native strings.  The two cannot be mixed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style
+protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native strings
+even though the underlying platform may have a different convention.  To bridge
+this gap, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref" title="wsgiref: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code></a> module has a new function,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.read_environ" title="wsgiref.handlers.read_environ"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers.read_environ()</span></code></a> for transcoding CGI variables from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code></a> into native strings and returning a new dictionary.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a> - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Phillip Eby.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>String formatting for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> gained new
+capabilities for the format character <strong>#</strong>.  Previously, for integers in
+binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it caused the output to be prefixed with ‘0b’,
+‘0o’, or ‘0x’ respectively.  Now it can also handle floats, complex, and
+Decimal, causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no digits
+follow it.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;#o&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;0o24&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">12.34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;#5.0f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;  12.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7094">bpo-7094</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>There is also a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format_map" title="str.format_map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format_map()</span></code></a> method that extends the
+capabilities of the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method by accepting arbitrary
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a> objects.  This new method makes it possible to use string
+formatting with any of Python’s many dictionary-like objects such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a>.  It is also useful with
+custom <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> subclasses that normalize keys before look-up or that
+supply a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__" title="object.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a> method for unknown keys:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shelve</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shelve</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tmp.shl&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;The </span><span class="si">{project_name}</span><span class="s1"> status is </span><span class="si">{status}</span><span class="s1"> as of </span><span class="si">{date}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LowerCasedDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lcd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">LowerCasedDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;widgets&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quantity</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;There are </span><span class="si">{QUANTITY}</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">{Part}</span><span class="s1"> in stock&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lcd</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;There are 10 widgets in stock&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">PlaceholderDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__missing__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">&gt;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello </span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s1">, welcome to </span><span class="si">{location}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PlaceholderDict</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Hello &lt;name&gt;, welcome to &lt;location&gt;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6081">bpo-6081</a>.)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code>, to prevent
+the copyright and version information from being displayed in the interactive
+mode.  The option can be introspected using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.flags" title="sys.flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags</span></code></a> attribute:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -q
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; sys.flags
+<span class="go">sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,</span>
+<span class="go">optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,</span>
+<span class="go">ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Marcin Wojdyr in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1772833">bpo-1772833</a>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> function works by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> and detecting
+whether an exception is raised.  This technique allows it to detect methods
+created dynamically by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> which
+would otherwise be absent from the class dictionary.  Formerly, <em>hasattr</em>
+would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors.  Now, <em>hasattr</em>
+has been tightened to only catch <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> and let other
+exceptions pass through:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ZeroDivisionError</span>: <span class="n">integer division or modulo by zero</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9666">bpo-9666</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of a float or complex number is now the same as its
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>. Previously, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> form was shorter but that just
+caused confusion and is no longer needed now that the shortest possible
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> is displayed by default:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.141592653589793&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;3.141592653589793&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9337">bpo-9337</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> objects now have a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.release" title="memoryview.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> method
+and they also now support the context management protocol.  This allows timely
+release of any resources that were acquired when requesting a buffer from the
+original object.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;abcdefgh&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">[97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Added by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9757">bpo-9757</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it
+occurs as a free variable in a nested block:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">outer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">inner</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+    <span class="n">inner</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This is now allowed.  Remember that the target of an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause
+is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python 2.6, raised a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> with Python 3.1 and now works again:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_error</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">something</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">print_error</span><span class="p">()</span>
+        <span class="c1"># implicit &quot;del e&quot; here</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4617">bpo-4617</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The internal <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">structsequence</span></code> tool now creates subclasses of tuple.
+This means that C structures like those returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a> now work like a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> and now work with functions and methods that
+expect a tuple as an argument.  This is a big step forward in making the C
+structures as flexible as their pure Python counterparts:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;Version </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">.</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">.</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">(</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Version 3.2.0 final(0)&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented
+by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8413">bpo-8413</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Warnings are now easier to control using the <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a>
+environment variable as an alternative to using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code> at the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> <span class="nb">export</span> <span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7301">bpo-7301</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new warning category, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>, has been added.  It is
+emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or cleanup
+are detected.  It is silenced by default in normal release builds but
+can be enabled through the means provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a>
+module, or on the command line.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> is issued at interpreter shutdown if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.garbage</span></code></a> list isn’t empty, and if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE" title="gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE</span></code></a> is
+set, all uncollectable objects are printed.  This is meant to make the
+programmer aware that their code contains object finalization issues.</p>
+<p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> is also issued when a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> is destroyed
+without having been explicitly closed.  While the deallocator for such
+object ensures it closes the underlying operating system resource
+(usually, a file descriptor), the delay in deallocating the object could
+produce various issues, especially under Windows.  Here is an example
+of enabling the warning from the command line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -q -Wdefault
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; <span class="nv">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> open<span class="o">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo&quot;</span>, <span class="s2">&quot;wb&quot;</span><span class="o">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; del f
+<span class="go">__main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file &lt;_io.BufferedWriter name=&#39;foo&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10093">bpo-10093</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue477863">bpo-477863</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> objects now support <em>index</em> and <em>count</em> methods. This is part
+of an effort to make more objects fully implement the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Sequence</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a>.  As a result, the
+language will have a more uniform API.  In addition, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> objects
+now support slicing and negative indices, even with values larger than
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a>.  This makes <em>range</em> more interoperable with lists:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">5</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">range(0, 10, 2)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9213">bpo-9213</a>, by Alexander Belopolsky
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2690">bpo-2690</a>, and by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10889">bpo-10889</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#callable" title="callable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable()</span></code></a> builtin function from Py2.x was resurrected.  It provides
+a concise, readable alternative to using an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> in an
+expression like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">collections.Callable)</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">callable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">callable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10518">bpo-10518</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Python’s import mechanism can now load modules installed in directories with
+non-ASCII characters in the path name.  This solved an aggravating problem
+with home directories for users with non-ASCII characters in their usernames.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>(Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9425">bpo-9425</a>.)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">
+<h2>New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python’s standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts and
+quality improvements.</p>
+<p>The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a>
+module, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> modules now work correctly with the bytes/text model
+in Python 3.  For the first time, there is correct handling of messages with
+mixed encodings.</p>
+<p>Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention to
+encodings and text versus bytes issues.  In particular, interactions with the
+operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data using the
+Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.</p>
+<p>Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support for
+<em>SSL</em> connections and security certificates.</p>
+<p>In addition, more classes now implement a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> to support
+convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p>
+<div class="section" id="email">
+<h3>email<a class="headerlink" href="#email" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The usability of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package in Python 3 has been mostly fixed by
+the extensive efforts of R. David Murray.  The problem was that emails are
+typically read and stored in the form of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> rather than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+text, and they may contain multiple encodings within a single email.  So, the
+email package had to be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes
+format.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>New functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_bytes" title="email.message_from_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_from_bytes()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_binary_file" title="email.message_from_binary_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_from_binary_file()</span></code></a>, and new classes
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a>
+allow binary message data to be parsed into model objects.</p></li>
+<li><p>Given bytes input to the model, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="email.message.Message.get_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_payload()</span></code></a>
+will by default decode a message body that has a
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of <em>8bit</em> using the charset
+specified in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.</p></li>
+<li><p>Given bytes input to the model, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> will
+convert message bodies that have a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of
+<em>8bit</em> to instead have a <em>7bit</em> <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>.</p>
+<p>Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>-encoded
+using the <em>unknown-8bit</em> character set.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> produces bytes as output,
+preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the input used to
+build the model, including message bodies with a
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of <em>8bit</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> class now accepts a byte string
+for the <em>msg</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a> method,
+and a new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.send_message" title="smtplib.SMTP.send_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_message()</span></code></a> accepts a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object and can optionally obtain the
+<em>from_addr</em> and <em>to_addrs</em> addresses directly from the object.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4661">bpo-4661</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10321">bpo-10321</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="elementtree">
+<h3>elementtree<a class="headerlink" href="#elementtree" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> package and its <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.cElementTree</span></code>
+counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.</p>
+<p>Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist()</span></code></a> which builds an XML document
+from a sequence of fragments</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace()</span></code></a> for registering a global
+namespace prefix</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist()</span></code></a> for string representation
+including all sublists</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend()</span></code></a> for appending a sequence of zero
+or more elements</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind()</span></code></a> searches an element and
+subelements</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext()</span></code></a> creates a text iterator over
+an element and its subelements</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end()</span></code></a> closes the current element</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype()</span></code></a> handles a doctype
+declaration</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Two methods have been deprecated:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()</span></code> use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(elem)</span></code> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()</span></code> use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.iter</span></code> instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>For details of the update, see <a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm">Introducing ElementTree</a> on Fredrik Lundh’s website.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Florent Xicluna and Fredrik Lundh, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6472">bpo-6472</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functools">
+<h3>functools<a class="headerlink" href="#functools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module includes a new decorator for caching function
+calls.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache" title="functools.lru_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.lru_cache()</span></code></a> can save repeated queries to an external
+resource whenever the results are expected to be the same.</p>
+<p>For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query function can save
+database accesses for popular searches:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nd">@functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lru_cache</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">300</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_phone_number</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">user_requests</span><span class="p">:</span>        <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>        <span class="c1"># cached lookup</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function is
+instrumented for tracking cache statistics:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_info</span><span class="p">()</span>     <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the cache can be
+cleared with:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_clear</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas from Jim
+Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245">recipe 498245</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479">recipe 577479</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10586">bpo-10586</a>, and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10593">bpo-10593</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.wraps" title="functools.wraps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.wraps()</span></code></a> decorator now adds a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute
+pointing to the original callable function.  This allows wrapped functions to
+be introspected.  It also copies <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> if defined.  And now
+it also gracefully skips over missing attributes such as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> which
+might not be defined for the wrapped callable.</p>
+<p>In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the original
+function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">get_phone_number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__wrapped__</span>    <span class="c1"># uncached function</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9567">bpo-9567</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3445">bpo-3445</a>, and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8814">bpo-8814</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.total_ordering()</span></code></a> will use existing equality and inequality
+methods to fill in the remaining methods.</p>
+<p>For example, supplying <em>__eq__</em> and <em>__lt__</em> will enable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">total_ordering()</span></code></a> to fill-in <em>__le__</em>, <em>__gt__</em> and <em>__ge__</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@total_ordering</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Student</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__eq__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">==</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__lt__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span>
+                <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>With the <em>total_ordering</em> decorator, the remaining comparison methods
+are filled in automatically.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.cmp_to_key()</span></code></a>
+function converts an old-style comparison function to
+modern <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-key-function"><span class="xref std std-term">key function</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="c1"># locale-aware sort order</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">cmp_to_key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strcoll</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/">Sorting HowTo</a> tutorial.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="itertools">
+<h3>itertools<a class="headerlink" href="#itertools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate()</span></code></a> function
+modeled on APL’s <em>scan</em> operator and Numpy’s <em>accumulate</em> function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">itertools</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">accumulate</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">]))</span>
+<span class="go">[8, 10, 60]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">prob_dist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.3</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prob_dist</span><span class="p">))</span>      <span class="c1"># cumulative probability distribution</span>
+<span class="go">[0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>For an example using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate()</span></code></a>, see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random-examples"><span class="std std-ref">examples for
+the random module</span></a>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design suggestions
+from Mark Dickinson.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="collections">
+<h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Counter</span></code></a> class now has two forms of in-place
+subtraction, the existing <em>-=</em> operator for <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic">saturating subtraction</a> and the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter.subtract" title="collections.Counter.subtract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subtract()</span></code></a> method for regular subtraction.  The
+former is suitable for <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset">multisets</a>
+which only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use cases
+that allow negative counts:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Counter</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>    <span class="c1"># saturating subtraction</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tally</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;dogs&#39;: 3})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tally</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subtract</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># regular subtraction</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tally</span>
+<span class="go">Counter({&#39;dogs&#39;: 3, &#39;cats&#39;: -5})</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a> class has a new method
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end" title="collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move_to_end()</span></code></a> which takes an existing key and
+moves it to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.</p>
+<p>The default is to move an item to the last position.  This is equivalent of
+renewing an entry with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">od[k]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">od.pop(k)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries.  For example,
+an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of access by aging entries
+from the oldest to the most recently accessed.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromkeys</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;e&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;X&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;e&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">move_to_end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;X&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;X&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a> class grew two new methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.count" title="collections.deque.count"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.reverse" title="collections.deque.reverse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse()</span></code></a> that
+make them more substitutable for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deque</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;simsalabim&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;s&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">2</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">d</span>
+<span class="go">deque([&#39;m&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;l&#39;, &#39;a&#39;, &#39;s&#39;, &#39;m&#39;, &#39;i&#39;, &#39;s&#39;])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="threading">
+<h3>threading<a class="headerlink" href="#threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Barrier" title="threading.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Barrier</span></code></a>
+synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them have
+reached a common barrier point.  Barriers are useful for making sure that a task
+with multiple preconditions does not run until all of the predecessor tasks are
+complete.</p>
+<p>Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads.  This is a generalization
+of a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous">Rendezvous</a> which
+is defined for only two threads.</p>
+<p>Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Barrier" title="threading.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Barrier</span></code></a> objects
+are suitable for use in loops.  The separate <em>filling</em> and <em>draining</em> phases
+assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of them can loop
+back and re-enter the barrier.  The barrier fully resets after each cycle.</p>
+<p>Example of using barriers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">threading</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Barrier</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Thread</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_votes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">ballots</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conduct_election</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">all_polls_closed</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span>        <span class="c1"># do not count until all polls are closed</span>
+    <span class="n">totals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">summarize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ballots</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">publish</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">totals</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">all_polls_closed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Barrier</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sites</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">site</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sites</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">get_votes</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">,))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be counted at any
+polling site until all polls are closed.  Notice how a solution with a barrier
+is similar to one with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread.join()</span></code></a>, but the threads stay alive
+and continue to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is
+crossed.</p>
+<p>If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be created
+with an optional <em>timeout</em> parameter.  Then if the timeout period elapses before
+all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point, all waiting threads are
+released and a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.BrokenBarrierError" title="threading.BrokenBarrierError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenBarrierError</span></code></a> exception is raised:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_votes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">ballots</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conduct_election</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">all_polls_closed</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">midnight</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">())</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">BrokenBarrierError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">lockbox</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">seal_ballots</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ballots</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lockbox</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">totals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">summarize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ballots</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">publish</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">totals</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule.  If some election
+sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and the ballots are
+sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference external" href="http://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf">Barrier Synchronization Patterns</a>
+for more examples of how barriers can be used in parallel computing.  Also, there is
+a simple but thorough explanation of barriers in <a class="reference external" href="https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf">The Little Book of Semaphores</a>, <em>section 3.6</em>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey Yasskin in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8777">bpo-8777</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datetime-and-time">
+<h3>datetime and time<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime-and-time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module has a new type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> that
+implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> interface by returning a fixed UTC
+offset and timezone name. This makes it easier to create timezone-aware
+datetime objects:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timezone</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strptime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;01/01/2000 12:00 +0000&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;%m/</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">/%Y %H:%M %z&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li><p>Also, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects can now be multiplied by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and divided by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> objects.
+And <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects can now divide one another.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date.strftime" title="datetime.date.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date.strftime()</span></code></a> method is no longer restricted to years
+after 1900.  The new supported year range is from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.</p></li>
+<li><p>Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the interpretation has been
+governed by <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.accept2dyear</span></code>.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> which means that
+for a two-digit year, the century is guessed according to the POSIX rules
+governing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%y</span></code> strptime format.</p>
+<p>Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will emit a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.  Instead, it is recommended that
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.accept2dyear</span></code> be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> so that large date ranges
+can be used without guesswork:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resetwarnings</span><span class="p">()</span>      <span class="c1"># remove the default warning filters</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept2dyear</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span>      <span class="c1"># guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">asctime</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">Warning (from warnings module):</span>
+<span class="go">  ...</span>
+<span class="go">DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept2dyear</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span>     <span class="c1"># use the full range of allowable dates</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">asctime</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges.  When
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.accept2dyear</span></code> is false, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.asctime" title="time.asctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.asctime()</span></code></a> function will
+accept any year that fits in a C int, while the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.mktime" title="time.mktime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.mktime()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> functions will accept the full range supported by the
+corresponding operating system functions.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1289118">bpo-1289118</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5094">bpo-5094</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6641">bpo-6641</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2706">bpo-2706</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1777412">bpo-1777412</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8013">bpo-8013</a>,
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10827">bpo-10827</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="math">
+<h3>math<a class="headerlink" href="#math" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module has been updated with six new functions inspired by the
+C99 standard.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.isfinite" title="math.isfinite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfinite()</span></code></a> function provides a reliable and fast way to detect
+special values.  It returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for regular numbers and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for <em>Nan</em> or
+<em>Infinity</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">isfinite</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">isfinite</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">123</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">4.56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Nan&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Inf&#39;</span><span class="p">))]</span>
+<span class="go">[True, True, False, False]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.expm1" title="math.expm1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expm1()</span></code></a> function computes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e**x-1</span></code> for small values of <em>x</em>
+without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the subtraction
+of nearly equal quantities:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">expm1</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">expm1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.013671875</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x</span>
+<span class="go">0.013765762467652909</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erf" title="math.erf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erf()</span></code></a> function computes a probability integral or <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function">Gaussian
+error function</a>.  The
+complementary error function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erfc" title="math.erfc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erfc()</span></code></a>, is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">erf(x)</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-pycon3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">erf</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">erfc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sqrt</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">erf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span>   <span class="c1"># portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation</span>
+<span class="go">0.682689492137086</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">erfc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span>  <span class="c1"># portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation</span>
+<span class="go">0.31731050786291404</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">erf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">erfc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">1.0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.gamma" title="math.gamma"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gamma()</span></code></a> function is a continuous extension of the factorial
+function.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function</a> for details.  Because
+the function is related to factorials, it grows large even for small values of
+<em>x</em>, so there is also a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.lgamma" title="math.lgamma"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgamma()</span></code></a> function for computing the natural
+logarithm of the gamma function:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">gamma</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lgamma</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gamma</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">7.0</span><span class="p">)</span>           <span class="c1"># six factorial</span>
+<span class="go">720.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">lgamma</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">801.0</span><span class="p">)</span>        <span class="c1"># log(800 factorial)</span>
+<span class="go">4551.950730698041</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="abc">
+<h3>abc<a class="headerlink" href="#abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractclassmethod" title="abc.abstractclassmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractclassmethod()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractstaticmethod" title="abc.abstractstaticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractstaticmethod()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>These tools make it possible to define an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> that
+requires a particular <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> to be
+implemented:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Temperature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">metaclass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ABCMeta</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abstractclassmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">from_fahrenheit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+    <span class="nd">@abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abstractclassmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">from_celsius</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5867">bpo-5867</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="io">
+<h3>io<a class="headerlink" href="#io" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> has a new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BytesIO.getbuffer" title="io.BytesIO.getbuffer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getbuffer()</span></code></a>, which
+provides functionality similar to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview()</span></code></a>.  It creates an editable
+view of the data without making a copy.  The buffer’s random access and support
+for slice notation are well-suited to in-place editing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">REC_LEN</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">LOC_START</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">LOC_LEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">change_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record_number</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">location</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">record_number</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">REC_LEN</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">LOC_START</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">LOC_LEN</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">location</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">byte_stream</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">(</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">byte_stream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getbuffer</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">change_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;warehouse  &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">change_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;showroom   &#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">byte_stream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;G3805  showroom   Main chassis    &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     &#39;</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5506">bpo-5506</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="reprlib">
+<h3>reprlib<a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When writing a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> method for a custom container, it is easy to
+forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the container itself.
+Python’s builtin objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> handle
+self-reference by displaying “…” in the recursive part of the representation
+string.</p>
+<p>To help write such <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> methods, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/reprlib.html#module-reprlib" title="reprlib: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code></a> module has a new
+decorator, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/reprlib.html#reprlib.recursive_repr" title="reprlib.recursive_repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recursive_repr()</span></code></a>, for detecting recursive calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> and substituting a placeholder string instead:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@recursive_repr</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;|&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;abc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;&#39;a&#39;|&#39;b&#39;|&#39;c&#39;|...|&#39;x&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9826">bpo-9826</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9840">bpo-9840</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<h3>logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package has many other improvements.</p>
+<p>The logging documentation has been augmented by a <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-basic-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">basic tutorial</span></a>, an <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-advanced-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">advanced tutorial</span></a>, and a <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-cookbook"><span class="std std-ref">cookbook</span></a> of
+logging recipes.  These documents are the fastest way to learn about logging.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.basicConfig()</span></code></a> set-up function gained a <em>style</em> argument to
+support three different types of string formatting.  It defaults to “%” for
+traditional %-formatting, can be set to “{” for the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> style, or
+can be set to “$” for the shell-style formatting provided by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>.  The following three configurations are equivalent:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">logging</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">basicConfig</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;%&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s2"> -&gt; </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;{&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s2"> -&gt; </span><span class="si">{levelname}</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">{message}</span><span class="s2">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;$&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;$name -&gt; $levelname: $message&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is now a
+default configuration using a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> directed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> for events of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code> level or higher.  Formerly, an
+event occurring before a configuration was set-up would either raise an
+exception or silently drop the event depending on the value of
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.raiseExceptions</span></code>.  The new default handler is stored in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.lastResort" title="logging.lastResort"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.lastResort</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The use of filters has been simplified.  Instead of creating a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> object, the predicate can be any Python callable that
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p>
+<p>There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and simplify
+configuration.  See the module documentation for a full listing of changes in
+Python 3.2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="csv">
+<h3>csv<a class="headerlink" href="#csv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module now supports a new dialect, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.unix_dialect" title="csv.unix_dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unix_dialect</span></code></a>,
+which applies quoting for all fields and a traditional Unix style with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> as
+the line terminator.  The registered dialect name is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unix</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter" title="csv.DictWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv.DictWriter</span></code></a> has a new method,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter.writeheader" title="csv.DictWriter.writeheader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeheader()</span></code></a> for writing-out an initial row to document
+the field names:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DictWriter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dept&#39;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">dialect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;unix&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writeheader</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;name&quot;,&quot;dept&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerows</span><span class="p">([</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;tom&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dept&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;accounting&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;susan&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;dept&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Salesl&#39;</span><span class="p">}])</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;tom&quot;,&quot;accounting&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;susan&quot;,&quot;sales&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5975">bpo-5975</a>, and the new method
+suggested by Ed Abraham in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1537721">bpo-1537721</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contextlib">
+<h3>contextlib<a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ContextDecorator" title="contextlib.ContextDecorator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code></a> that is helpful for creating a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> that does double duty as a function decorator.</p>
+<p>As a convenience, this new functionality is used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a> so that no extra effort is needed to support
+both roles.</p>
+<p>The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can be used
+for pre-action and post-action wrappers.  Context managers wrap a group of
+statements using a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, and function decorators wrap a
+group of statements enclosed in a function.  So, occasionally there is a need to
+write a pre-action or post-action wrapper that can be used in either role.</p>
+<p>For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements
+with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit.  Rather than
+writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a> provides both capabilities in a single
+definition:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+
+<span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="nd">@contextmanager</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Entering: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">yield</span>
+    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Exiting: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;widget loader&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Some time consuming activity goes here&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">load_widget</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;widget loader&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">activity</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Some time consuming activity goes here&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="n">load_widget</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the technique.
+Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an argument usable by
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, but there is no parallel for function decorators.</p>
+<p>In the above example, there is not a clean way for the <em>track_entry_and_exit</em>
+context manager to return a logging instance for use in the body of enclosed
+statements.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Michael Foord in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9110">bpo-9110</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="decimal-and-fractions">
+<h3>decimal and fractions<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal-and-fractions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that
+different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their actual
+values are equal (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8188">bpo-8188</a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> \
+       <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;1.5&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.hash_info" title="sys.hash_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hash_info</span></code></a>, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the
+prime modulus, the hash values for <em>infinity</em> and <em>nan</em>, and the multiplier
+used for the imaginary part of a number:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>An early decision to limit the inter-operability of various numeric types has
+been relaxed.  It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have implicit
+mixing in arithmetic expressions such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('1.1')</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">float('1.1')</span></code>
+because the latter loses information in the process of constructing the binary
+float.  However, since existing floating point value can be converted losslessly
+to either a decimal or rational representation, it makes sense to add them to
+the constructor and to support mixed-type comparisons.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> constructor now accepts <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> objects
+directly so there in no longer a need to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.from_float" title="decimal.Decimal.from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_float()</span></code></a>
+method (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8257">bpo-8257</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> objects can be directly compared with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2531">bpo-2531</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8188">bpo-8188</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Similar changes were made to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> so that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_float" title="fractions.Fraction.from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_float()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_decimal" title="fractions.Fraction.from_decimal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_decimal()</span></code></a>
+methods are no longer needed (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8294">bpo-8294</a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Decimal(&#39;1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Another useful change for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module is that the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context.clamp</span></code> attribute is now public.  This is useful in creating
+contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE
+754 (see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8540">bpo-8540</a>).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ftp">
+<h3>ftp<a class="headerlink" href="#ftp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP</span></code></a> class now supports the context management protocol to
+unconditionally consume <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a> exceptions and to close the FTP
+connection when done:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ftplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">FTP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">FTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;ftp1.at.proftpd.org&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ftp</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="go">        ftp.login()</span>
+<span class="go">        ftp.dir()</span>
+
+<span class="go">&#39;230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS</span>
+<span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Other file-like objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.mmap</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fileinput.html#fileinput.input" title="fileinput.input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput.input()</span></code></a>
+also grew auto-closing context managers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">fileinput</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">files</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;log1.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;log2.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4972">bpo-4972</a>, and
+by Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8046">bpo-8046</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1286">bpo-1286</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP_TLS</span></code></a> class now accepts a <em>context</em> parameter, which is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object allowing bundling SSL configuration options,
+certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8806">bpo-8806</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="popen">
+<h3>popen<a class="headerlink" href="#popen" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen()</span></code></a> functions now support
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements for auto-closing of the file descriptors.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7461">bpo-7461</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10554">bpo-10554</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="select">
+<h3>select<a class="headerlink" href="#select" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module now exposes a new, constant attribute,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.PIPE_BUF" title="select.PIPE_BUF"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE_BUF</span></code></a>, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are
+guaranteed not to block when <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a> says a pipe is ready
+for writing.</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">select</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PIPE_BUF</span>  <span class="c1"># doctest: +SKIP</span>
+<span class="go">512</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Available on Unix systems. Patch by Sébastien Sablé in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9862">bpo-9862</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gzip-and-zipfile">
+<h3>gzip and zipfile<a class="headerlink" href="#gzip-and-zipfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip.GzipFile</span></code></a> now implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> (except for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code>).  It also has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile.peek" title="gzip.GzipFile.peek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">peek()</span></code></a> method and supports unseekable as well as
+zero-padded file objects.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module also gains the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.compress" title="gzip.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.decompress" title="gzip.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> functions for easier in-memory compression and
+decompression.  Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+before compressing and decompressing:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gzip</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Three shall be the number thou shalt count, &#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;and the number of the counting shall be three&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">()</span>                        <span class="c1"># convert to utf-8</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">89</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">77</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decompress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">()[:</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">]</span>      <span class="c1"># decompress and convert to text</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Three shall be the number thou shalt count&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3488">bpo-3488</a>; and by Antoine Pitrou, Nir
+Aides and Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9962">bpo-9962</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1675951">bpo-1675951</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7471">bpo-7471</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2846">bpo-2846</a>.)</p>
+<p>Also, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile.ZipExtFile</span></code> class was reworked internally to represent
+files stored inside an archive.  The new implementation is significantly faster
+and can be wrapped in an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedReader</span></code></a> object for more speedups.  It
+also solves an issue where interleaved calls to <em>read</em> and <em>readline</em> gave the
+wrong results.</p>
+<p>(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7610">bpo-7610</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tarfile">
+<h3>tarfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> class can now be used as a context manager.  In
+addition, its <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.add" title="tarfile.TarFile.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> method has a new option, <em>filter</em>,
+that controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file metadata
+to be edited.</p>
+<p>The new <em>filter</em> option replaces the older, less flexible <em>exclude</em> parameter
+which is now deprecated.  If specified, the optional <em>filter</em> parameter needs to
+be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-keyword-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">keyword argument</span></a>.  The user-supplied filter function accepts a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object and returns an updated
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object, or if it wants the file to be excluded, the
+function can return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">glob</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">myfilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isfile</span><span class="p">():</span>             <span class="c1"># only save real files</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;monty&#39;</span>      <span class="c1"># redact the user name</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;myarchive.tar.gz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;w:gz&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tf</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;*.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">tf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">myfilter</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">tf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt</span>
+<span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6856">bpo-6856</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hashlib">
+<h3>hashlib<a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module has two new constant attributes listing the hashing
+algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations and those available
+on the current implementation:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">algorithms_guaranteed</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;sha1&#39;, &#39;sha224&#39;, &#39;sha384&#39;, &#39;sha256&#39;, &#39;sha512&#39;, &#39;md5&#39;}</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">algorithms_available</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;md2&#39;, &#39;SHA256&#39;, &#39;SHA512&#39;, &#39;dsaWithSHA&#39;, &#39;mdc2&#39;, &#39;SHA224&#39;, &#39;MD4&#39;, &#39;sha256&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;sha512&#39;, &#39;ripemd160&#39;, &#39;SHA1&#39;, &#39;MDC2&#39;, &#39;SHA&#39;, &#39;SHA384&#39;, &#39;MD2&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;ecdsa-with-SHA1&#39;,&#39;md4&#39;, &#39;md5&#39;, &#39;sha1&#39;, &#39;DSA-SHA&#39;, &#39;sha224&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;dsaEncryption&#39;, &#39;DSA&#39;, &#39;RIPEMD160&#39;, &#39;sha&#39;, &#39;MD5&#39;, &#39;sha384&#39;}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Suggested by Carl Chenet in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7418">bpo-7418</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ast">
+<h3>ast<a class="headerlink" href="#ast" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for safely
+evaluating expression strings using the Python literal
+syntax.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#ast.literal_eval" title="ast.literal_eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.literal_eval()</span></code></a> function serves as a secure alternative to
+the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> function which is easily abused.  Python 3.2 adds
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> literals to the list of supported types:
+strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ast</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">literal_eval</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">request</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;{&#39;req&#39;: 3, &#39;func&#39;: &#39;pow&#39;, &#39;args&#39;: (2, 0.5)}&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">literal_eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;args&#39;: (2, 0.5), &#39;req&#39;: 3, &#39;func&#39;: &#39;pow&#39;}</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">request</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;os.system(&#39;do something harmful&#39;)&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">literal_eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">malformed node or string: &lt;_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="os">
+<h3>os<a class="headerlink" href="#os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and environment
+variables.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module provides two new functions,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsencode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsdecode()</span></code></a>, for encoding and decoding
+filenames:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Sehenswürdigkeiten&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fsencode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the
+environment.  If so, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.supports_bytes_environ" title="os.supports_bytes_environ"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_bytes_environ</span></code></a> constant will be
+true.</p>
+<p>For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available),
+use the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getenvb" title="os.getenvb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getenvb()</span></code></a> function or use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environb" title="os.environb"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environb</span></code></a>
+which is a bytes version of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shutil">
+<h3>shutil<a class="headerlink" href="#shutil" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copytree()</span></code></a> function has two new options:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><em>ignore_dangling_symlinks</em>: when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symlinks=False</span></code> so that the function
+copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink itself. This option
+will silence the error raised if the file doesn’t exist.</p></li>
+<li><p><em>copy_function</em>: is a callable that will be used to copy files.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy2()</span></code></a> is used by default.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)</p>
+<p>In addition, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#archiving-operations"><span class="std std-ref">archiving operations</span></a> for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles,
+and bzipped tarfiles.  And there are functions for registering additional
+archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or custom formats).</p>
+<p>The principal functions are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.make_archive" title="shutil.make_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_archive()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.unpack_archive" title="shutil.unpack_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_archive()</span></code></a>.  By default, both operate on the current
+directory (which can be set by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chdir" title="os.chdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chdir()</span></code></a>) and on any sub-directories.
+The archive filename needs to be specified with a full pathname.  The archiving
+step is non-destructive (the original files are left unchanged).</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mydata&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># change to the source directory</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">make_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/var/backup/mydata&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                        <span class="s1">&#39;zip&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>      <span class="c1"># archive the current directory</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span>                                   <span class="c1"># show the name of archive</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/var/backup/mydata.zip&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;tmp&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>                     <span class="c1"># change to an unpacking</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/var/backup/mydata.zip&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># recover the data</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_archive_formats</span><span class="p">())</span>  <span class="c1"># display known formats</span>
+<span class="go">[(&#39;bztar&#39;, &quot;bzip2&#39;ed tar-file&quot;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;gztar&#39;, &quot;gzip&#39;ed tar-file&quot;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;tar&#39;, &#39;uncompressed tar file&#39;),</span>
+<span class="go"> (&#39;zip&#39;, &#39;ZIP file&#39;)]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_archive_format</span><span class="p">(</span>     <span class="c1"># register a new archive format</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;xz&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">function</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">xz</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">,</span>           <span class="c1"># callable archiving function</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">extra_args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">&#39;level&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)],</span>      <span class="c1"># arguments to the function</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;xz compression&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sqlite3">
+<h3>sqlite3<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0.  It has two new capabilities.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.in_transit</span></code> attribute is true if there is an
+active transaction for uncommitted changes.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension" title="sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.load_extension" title="sqlite3.Connection.load_extension"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.load_extension()</span></code></a> methods allows you to load SQLite
+extensions from “.so” files.  One well-known extension is the fulltext-search
+extension distributed with SQLite.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8845">bpo-8845</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="html">
+<h3>html<a class="headerlink" href="#html" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.html#module-html" title="html: Helpers for manipulating HTML."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code></a> module was introduced with only a single function,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.html#html.escape" title="html.escape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escape()</span></code></a>, which is used for escaping reserved characters from HTML
+markup:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">html</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">html</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">escape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;x &amp;gt; 2 &amp;amp;&amp;amp; x &amp;lt; 7&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket">
+<h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module has two new improvements.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Socket objects now have a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.detach" title="socket.socket.detach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code></a> method which puts
+the socket into closed state without actually closing the underlying file
+descriptor.  The latter can then be reused for other purposes.
+(Added by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8524">bpo-8524</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.create_connection" title="socket.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.create_connection()</span></code></a> now supports the context management protocol
+to unconditionally consume <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a> exceptions and to close the
+socket when done.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9794">bpo-9794</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl">
+<h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module added a number of features to satisfy common requirements
+for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A new class, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>, serves as a container for persistent
+SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates, private keys, and various
+other options. It includes a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a> for creating
+an SSL socket from an SSL context.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.match_hostname()</span></code></a>, supports server identity
+verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules of HTTPS
+(from <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2818.html"><strong>RFC 2818</strong></a>) which are also suitable for other protocols.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> constructor function now takes a <em>ciphers</em>
+argument.  The <em>ciphers</em> string lists the allowed encryption algorithms using
+the format described in the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT">OpenSSL documentation</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module now
+supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS protocol, allowing
+multiple “virtual hosts” using different certificates on a single IP port.
+This extension is only supported in client mode, and is activated by passing
+the <em>server_hostname</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Various options have been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv2</span></code></a> which disables the insecure and obsolete SSLv2
+protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p>The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest algorithms.  If
+some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are reported as an “unknown
+algorithm” error.</p></li>
+<li><p>The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the module
+attributes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION</span></code></a> (a string),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO</span></code></a> (a 5-tuple), and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER</span></code></a> (an integer).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8850">bpo-8850</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1589">bpo-1589</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8322">bpo-8322</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5639">bpo-5639</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4870">bpo-4870</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8484">bpo-8484</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8321">bpo-8321</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nntp">
+<h3>nntp<a class="headerlink" href="#nntp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and
+text semantics as well as more practical APIs.  These improvements break
+compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly
+dysfunctional in itself.</p>
+<p>Support for secure connections through both implicit (using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP_SSL" title="nntplib.NNTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib.NNTP_SSL</span></code></a>) and explicit (using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.starttls" title="nntplib.NNTP.starttls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib.NNTP.starttls()</span></code></a>)
+TLS has also been added.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9360">bpo-9360</a> and Andrew Vant in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1926">bpo-1926</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="certificates">
+<h3>certificates<a class="headerlink" href="#certificates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPSHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.HTTPSHandler</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.urlopen()</span></code></a> now take optional arguments to allow for
+server certificate checking against a set of Certificate Authorities,
+as recommended in public uses of HTTPS.</p>
+<p>(Added by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9003">bpo-9003</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="imaplib">
+<h3>imaplib<a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added through
+the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.starttls" title="imaplib.IMAP4.starttls"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib.IMAP4.starttls</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Lorenzo M. Catucci and Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4471">bpo-4471</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http-client">
+<h3>http.client<a class="headerlink" href="#http-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There were a number of small API improvements in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> module.
+The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer supported and the <em>strict</em>
+parameter is deprecated in all classes.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a> classes now have a <em>source_address</em>
+parameter for a (host, port) tuple indicating where the HTTP connection is made
+from.</p>
+<p>Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.request" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request()</span></code></a> method on connection objects
+allowed an optional <em>body</em> argument so that a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> could be used
+to supply the content of the request.  Conveniently, the <em>body</em> argument now
+also accepts an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> object so long as it includes an explicit
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length</span></code> header.  This extended interface is much more flexible than
+before.</p>
+<p>To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_tunnel()</span></code></a> method that sets the host and
+port for HTTP Connect tunneling.</p>
+<p>To match the behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>, the HTTP client library now also
+encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding.  It was already doing that
+for incoming headers, so now the behavior is consistent for both incoming and
+outgoing traffic. (See work by Armin Ronacher in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10980">bpo-10980</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest">
+<h3>unittest<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test discovery for
+packages, easier experimentation at the interactive prompt, new testcase
+methods, improved diagnostic messages for test failures, and better method
+names.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The command-line call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">unittest</span></code> can now accept file paths
+instead of module names for running specific tests (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10620">bpo-10620</a>).  The new
+test discovery can find tests within packages, locating any test importable
+from the top-level directory.  The top-level directory can be specified with
+the <cite>-t</cite> option, a pattern for matching files with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-p</span></code>, and a directory to
+start discovery with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Michael Foord.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.case.TestCase</span></code> class can now be instantiated without
+arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TestCase</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Michael Foord.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module has two new methods,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarnsRegex()</span></code></a> to verify that a given warning type
+is triggered by the code under test:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertWarns</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">legacy_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;XYZ&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9754">bpo-9754</a>.)</p>
+<p>Another new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertCountEqual()</span></code></a> is used to
+compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are equal (whether
+the same elements are present with the same number of occurrences regardless
+of order):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_anagram</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertCountEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;algorithm&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;logarithm&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce meaningful
+diagnostics when a test fails.  When possible, the failure is recorded along
+with a diff of the output.  This is especially helpful for analyzing log files
+of failed test runs. However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is
+a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.maxDiff" title="unittest.TestCase.maxDiff"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxDiff</span></code></a> attribute that sets maximum length of
+diffs displayed.</p></li>
+<li><p>In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number of clean-ups.</p>
+<p>For example, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegex()</span></code></a> is the new name for
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegexpMatches()</span></code> which was misnamed because the
+test uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a>, not <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.match()</span></code></a>.  Other methods using
+regular expressions are now named using short form “Regex” in preference to
+“Regexp” – this matches the names used in other unittest implementations,
+matches Python’s old name for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module, and it has unambiguous
+camel-casing.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being
+deprecated in favor of the preferred names:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 51%" />
+<col style="width: 49%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>Old Name</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>Preferred Name</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEquals()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEquals()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEquals()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEquals()</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual()</span></code></a></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>Likewise, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase.fail*</span></code> methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are expected
+to be removed in Python 3.3.  Also see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#deprecated-aliases"><span class="std std-ref">Deprecated aliases</span></a> section in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> documentation.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Ezio Melotti; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9424">bpo-9424</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictContainsSubset()</span></code> method was deprecated
+because it was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order.  This
+created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1,</span> <span class="pre">'b':2},</span> <span class="pre">{'a':1})</span></code> would fail.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="random">
+<h3>random<a class="headerlink" href="#random" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The integer methods in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module now do a better job of producing
+uniform distributions.  Previously, they computed selections with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(n*random())</span></code> which had a slight bias whenever <em>n</em> was not a power of two.
+Now, multiple selections are made from a range up to the next power of two and a
+selection is kept only when it falls within the range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre">&lt;=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code>.  The
+functions and methods affected are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.randrange" title="random.randrange"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.randint" title="random.randint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randint()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.choice" title="random.choice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choice()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.shuffle" title="random.shuffle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shuffle()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.sample" title="random.sample"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9025">bpo-9025</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="poplib">
+<h3>poplib<a class="headerlink" href="#poplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3_SSL" title="poplib.POP3_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3_SSL</span></code></a> class now accepts a <em>context</em> parameter, which is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object allowing bundling SSL configuration options,
+certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived)
+structure.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8807">bpo-8807</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asyncore">
+<h3>asyncore<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a> now provides a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted" title="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_accepted()</span></code></a> method
+returning a <cite>(sock, addr)</cite> pair which is called when a connection has actually
+been established with a new remote endpoint. This is supposed to be used as a
+replacement for old <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept" title="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_accept()</span></code></a> and avoids
+the user  to call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.accept" title="asyncore.dispatcher.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a> directly.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6706">bpo-6706</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tempfile">
+<h3>tempfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a> module has a new context manager,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#tempfile.TemporaryDirectory" title="tempfile.TemporaryDirectory"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryDirectory</span></code></a> which provides easy deterministic
+cleanup of temporary directories:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TemporaryDirectory</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tmpdirname</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;created temporary dir:&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tmpdirname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Nick Coghlan; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5178">bpo-5178</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inspect">
+<h3>inspect<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module has a new function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getgeneratorstate" title="inspect.getgeneratorstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgeneratorstate()</span></code></a> to easily identify the current state of a
+generator-iterator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">inspect</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="s1">&#39;demo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;GEN_CREATED&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;demo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;GEN_SUSPENDED&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;GEN_CLOSED&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Rodolpho Eckhardt and Nick Coghlan, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10220">bpo-10220</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic attribute,
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module has a new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getattr_static" title="inspect.getattr_static"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr_static()</span></code></a>.
+Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a>, this is a true read-only search, guaranteed not to
+change state while it is searching:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nd">@property</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Running&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Running</span>
+<span class="go">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getattr_static</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;f&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;property object at 0x1022bd788&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p>(Contributed by Michael Foord.)</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pydoc">
+<h3>pydoc<a class="headerlink" href="#pydoc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module now provides a much-improved Web server interface, as
+well as a new command-line option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> to automatically open a browser window
+to display that server:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> pydoc3.2 -b
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Ron Adam; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2001">bpo-2001</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dis">
+<h3>dis<a class="headerlink" href="#dis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> module gained two new functions for inspecting code,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.code_info" title="dis.code_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code_info()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.show_code" title="dis.show_code"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">show_code()</span></code></a>.  Both provide detailed code
+object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code
+object.  The former returns a string and the latter prints it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">dis</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">random</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dis</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">show_code</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">Name:              choice</span>
+<span class="go">Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py</span>
+<span class="go">Argument count:    2</span>
+<span class="go">Kw-only arguments: 0</span>
+<span class="go">Number of locals:  3</span>
+<span class="go">Stack size:        11</span>
+<span class="go">Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE</span>
+<span class="go">Constants:</span>
+<span class="go">   0: &#39;Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">   1: &#39;Cannot choose from an empty sequence&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">Names:</span>
+<span class="go">   0: _randbelow</span>
+<span class="go">   1: len</span>
+<span class="go">   2: ValueError</span>
+<span class="go">   3: IndexError</span>
+<span class="go">Variable names:</span>
+<span class="go">   0: self</span>
+<span class="go">   1: seq</span>
+<span class="go">   2: i</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In addition, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.dis" title="dis.dis"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis()</span></code></a> function now accepts string arguments
+so that the common idiom <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis(compile(s,</span> <span class="pre">'',</span> <span class="pre">'eval'))</span></code> can be shortened
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis(s)</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">dis</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">  1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)</span>
+<span class="go">              3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)</span>
+<span class="go">              6 BINARY_MODULO</span>
+<span class="go">              7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)</span>
+<span class="go">             10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)</span>
+<span class="go">             13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28</span>
+<span class="go">             16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)</span>
+<span class="go">             19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)</span>
+<span class="go">             22 BINARY_MULTIPLY</span>
+<span class="go">             23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)</span>
+<span class="go">             26 BINARY_ADD</span>
+<span class="go">             27 RETURN_VALUE</span>
+<span class="go">        &gt;&gt;   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)</span>
+<span class="go">             31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)</span>
+<span class="go">             34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE</span>
+<span class="go">             35 RETURN_VALUE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython is
+implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does
+under-the-hood.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9147">bpo-9147</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dbm">
+<h3>dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#dbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All database modules now support the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault()</span></code> methods.</p>
+<p>(Suggested by Ray Allen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9523">bpo-9523</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ctypes">
+<h3>ctypes<a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new type, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ssize_t" title="ctypes.c_ssize_t"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.c_ssize_t</span></code></a> represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code> datatype.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="site">
+<h3>site<a class="headerlink" href="#site" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module has three new functions useful for reporting on the
+details of a given Python installation.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getsitepackages" title="site.getsitepackages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsitepackages()</span></code></a> lists all global site-packages directories.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getuserbase" title="site.getuserbase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getuserbase()</span></code></a> reports on the user’s base directory where data can
+be stored.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getusersitepackages" title="site.getusersitepackages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getusersitepackages()</span></code></a> reveals the user-specific site-packages
+directory path.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">site</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">site</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getsitepackages</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">site</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getuserbase</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">site</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getusersitepackages</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Conveniently, some of site’s functionality is accessible directly from the
+command-line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m site --user-base
+<span class="go">/Users/raymondhettinger/.local</span>
+<span class="gp">$</span> python -m site --user-site
+<span class="go">/Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6693">bpo-6693</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sysconfig">
+<h3>sysconfig<a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> module makes it straightforward to discover
+installation paths and configuration variables that vary across platforms and
+installations.</p>
+<p>The module offers access simple access functions for platform and version
+information:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_platform" title="sysconfig.get_platform"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_platform()</span></code></a> returning values like <em>linux-i586</em> or
+<em>macosx-10.6-ppc</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_python_version" title="sysconfig.get_python_version"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_python_version()</span></code></a> returns a Python version string
+such as “3.2”.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one of
+seven named schemes used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>.  Those include <em>posix_prefix</em>,
+<em>posix_home</em>, <em>posix_user</em>, <em>nt</em>, <em>nt_user</em>, <em>os2</em>, <em>os2_home</em>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_paths" title="sysconfig.get_paths"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_paths()</span></code></a> makes a dictionary containing installation paths
+for the current installation scheme.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars()</span></code></a> returns a dictionary of platform specific
+variables.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There is also a convenient command-line interface:</p>
+<div class="highlight-doscon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">C:\Python32&gt;</span>python -m sysconfig
+<span class="go">Platform: &quot;win32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">Python version: &quot;3.2&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">Current installation scheme: &quot;nt&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="go">Paths:</span>
+<span class="go">        data = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        include = &quot;C:\Python32\Include&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        platinclude = &quot;C:\Python32\Include&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        platlib = &quot;C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        platstdlib = &quot;C:\Python32\Lib&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        purelib = &quot;C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        scripts = &quot;C:\Python32\Scripts&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        stdlib = &quot;C:\Python32\Lib&quot;</span>
+
+<span class="go">Variables:</span>
+<span class="go">        BINDIR = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        BINLIBDEST = &quot;C:\Python32\Lib&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        EXE = &quot;.exe&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        INCLUDEPY = &quot;C:\Python32\Include&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        LIBDEST = &quot;C:\Python32\Lib&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        SO = &quot;.pyd&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        VERSION = &quot;32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        abiflags = &quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        base = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        exec_prefix = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        platbase = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        prefix = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        projectbase = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        py_version = &quot;3.2&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        py_version_nodot = &quot;32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        py_version_short = &quot;3.2&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        srcdir = &quot;C:\Python32&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">        userbase = &quot;C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pdb">
+<h3>pdb<a class="headerlink" href="#pdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> debugger module gained a number of usability improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.py</span></code> now has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code> option that executes commands as given in a
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> script file.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> script file can contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code> commands
+that continue debugging.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pdb</span></code> class constructor now accepts a <em>nosigint</em> argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>New commands: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l(list)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ll(long</span> <span class="pre">list)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source</span></code> for
+listing source code.</p></li>
+<li><p>New commands: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">display</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undisplay</span></code> for showing or hiding
+the value of an expression if it has changed.</p></li>
+<li><p>New command: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interact</span></code> for starting an interactive interpreter containing
+the global and local  names found in the current scope.</p></li>
+<li><p>Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configparser">
+<h3>configparser<a class="headerlink" href="#configparser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> module was modified to improve usability and
+predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax.  The old
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> class was removed in favor of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SafeConfigParser</span></code>
+which has in turn been renamed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>. Support
+for inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option
+duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.</p>
+<p>Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[DEFAULT]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">location = upper left</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">visible = yes</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">editable = no</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">color = blue</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[main]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">title = Main Menu</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">color = green</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[options]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">title = Options</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;main&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;color&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;green&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;main&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;editable&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;no&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">section</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;options&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">section</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;title&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Options&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">section</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;title&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Options (editable: </span><span class="si">%(editable)s</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">section</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;title&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Options (editable: no)&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser
+subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.</p>
+<p>The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized. Users
+can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment prefixes, change the
+name of the <em>DEFAULT</em> section or switch the interpolation syntax.</p>
+<p>There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional interpolation
+handler <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ExtendedInterpolation" title="configparser.ExtendedInterpolation"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExtendedInterpolation</span></code></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">interpolation</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ExtendedInterpolation</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_dict</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">&#39;buildout&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;directory&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/home/ambv/zope9&#39;</span><span class="p">},</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                  <span class="s1">&#39;custom&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;prefix&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local&#39;</span><span class="p">}})</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[buildout]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">parts =</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  zope9</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  instance</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">find-links =</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">  ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[zope9]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">location = /opt/zope</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[instance]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">zope9-location = ${zope9:location}</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;buildout&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;find-links&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;instance&#39;</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">&#39;zope-conf&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/local/etc/zope.conf&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;instance&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;zope-conf&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/local/etc/zope.conf&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;zope9-location&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/opt/zope&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for specifying
+encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for get-functions, or
+reading directly from dictionaries and strings.</p>
+<p>(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib-parse">
+<h3>urllib.parse<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib-parse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A number of usability improvements were made for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a> function now supports <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6">IPv6</a> addresses as described in <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2732.html"><strong>RFC 2732</strong></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">ParseResult(scheme=&#39;http&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            netloc=&#39;[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            path=&#39;/foo/&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            params=&#39;&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            query=&#39;&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">            fragment=&#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urldefrag" title="urllib.parse.urldefrag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urldefrag()</span></code></a> function now returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urldefrag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://python.org/about/#target&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span>
+<span class="go">DefragResult(url=&#39;http://python.org/about/&#39;, fragment=&#39;target&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;http://python.org/about/&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fragment</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;target&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>And, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlencode()</span></code></a> function is now much more flexible,
+accepting either a string or bytes type for the <em>query</em> argument.  If it is a
+string, then the <em>safe</em>, <em>encoding</em>, and <em>error</em> parameters are sent to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote_plus" title="urllib.parse.quote_plus"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote_plus()</span></code></a> for encoding:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">([</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>     <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;type&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;telenovela&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>     <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;name&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;¿Dónde Está Elisa?&#39;</span><span class="p">)],</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>     <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;latin-1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;type=telenovela&amp;name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>As detailed in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes"><span class="std std-ref">Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes</span></a>, all the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a>
+functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as input, so long as they are
+not mixed with regular strings.  If ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as
+parameters, the return types will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:</p>
+<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;http://www.python.org:80/about/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE</span>
+<span class="go">ParseResultBytes(scheme=b&#39;http&#39;, netloc=b&#39;www.python.org:80&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go">                 path=b&#39;/about/&#39;, params=b&#39;&#39;, query=b&#39;&#39;, fragment=b&#39;&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2987">bpo-2987</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5468">bpo-5468</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9873">bpo-9873</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mailbox">
+<h3>mailbox<a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> module has
+been fixed for Python 3.2.  The challenge was that mailbox had been originally
+designed with a text interface, but email messages are best represented with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> because various parts of a message may have different encodings.</p>
+<p>The solution harnessed the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package’s binary support for parsing
+arbitrary email messages.  In addition, the solution required a number of API
+changes.</p>
+<p>As expected, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.add" title="mailbox.Mailbox.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> method for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox.Mailbox</span></code></a> objects now accepts binary input.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a> and text file input are deprecated.  Also, string input
+will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used.  Previously it would fail when
+the email was processed in a later step.</p>
+<p>There is also support for binary output.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_file" title="mailbox.Mailbox.get_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_file()</span></code></a>
+method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to incorrectly set
+the file to text-mode).  There is also a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes" title="mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_bytes()</span></code></a>
+method that returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> representation of a message corresponding
+to a given <em>key</em>.</p>
+<p>It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_string" title="mailbox.Mailbox.get_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_string()</span></code></a> method, but that approach
+is not very useful.  Instead, it is best to extract messages from
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object or to load them from binary input.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode Nurpmeso and an
+initial patch by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9124">bpo-9124</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="turtledemo">
+<h3>turtledemo<a class="headerlink" href="#turtledemo" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The demonstration code for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> module was moved from the <em>Demo</em>
+directory to main library.  It includes over a dozen sample scripts with
+lively displays.  Being on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, it can now be run directly
+from the command-line:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m turtledemo
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10199">bpo-10199</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multi-threading">
+<h2>Multi-threading<a class="headerlink" href="#multi-threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running Python threads
+(generally known as the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">Global Interpreter Lock</span></a>) has
+been rewritten.  Among the objectives were more predictable switching
+intervals and reduced overhead due to lock contention and the number of
+ensuing system calls.  The notion of a “check interval” to allow thread
+switches has been abandoned and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in
+seconds.  This parameter is tunable through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setswitchinterval" title="sys.setswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setswitchinterval()</span></code></a>.
+It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.</p>
+<p>Additional details about the implementation can be read from a <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html">python-dev
+mailing-list message</a>
+(however, “priority requests” as exposed in this message have not been kept
+for inclusion).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional <em>timeout</em> argument to their
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> method.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7316">bpo-7316</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Similarly, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="threading.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Semaphore.acquire()</span></code></a> also gained a <em>timeout</em>
+argument.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue850728">bpo-850728</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by signals on
+platforms using Pthreads.  This means that Python programs that deadlock while
+acquiring locks can be successfully killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the
+process (by pressing <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl+C</kbd> in most shells).
+(Contributed by Reid Kleckner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8844">bpo-8844</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h2>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A number of small performance enhancements have been added:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Python’s peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">{1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3}</span></code> as
+being a test for membership in a set of constants.  The optimizer recasts the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> and stores the pre-built constant.</p>
+<p>Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start writing
+membership tests using set-notation.  This style is both semantically clear
+and operationally fast:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">extension</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rpartition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">extension</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;xml&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;html&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;xhtml&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;css&#39;</span><span class="p">}:</span>
+    <span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6690">bpo-6690</a>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Serializing and unserializing data using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module is now
+several times faster.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou
+and the Unladen Swallow team in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9410">bpo-9410</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3873">bpo-3873</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort">Timsort algorithm</a> used in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> now runs faster and uses less memory
+when called with a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-key-function"><span class="xref std std-term">key function</span></a>.  Previously, every element of
+a list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key value
+associated with each element.  Now, two arrays of keys and values are
+sorted in parallel.  This saves the memory consumed by the sort wrappers,
+and it saves time lost to delegating comparisons.</p>
+<p>(Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9915">bpo-9915</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is reduced
+whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys.  Also, JSON encoding
+now uses the C speedups when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_keys</span></code> argument is true.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7451">bpo-7451</a> and by Raymond Hettinger and
+Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10314">bpo-10314</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Recursive locks (created with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock()</span></code></a> API) now benefit
+from a C implementation which makes them as fast as regular locks, and between
+10x and 15x faster than their previous pure Python implementation.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3001">bpo-3001</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitlines()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code> methods on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects. Likewise, the
+algorithm is also used by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rindex()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpartition()</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Patch by Florent Xicluna in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7622">bpo-7622</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7462">bpo-7462</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Integer to string conversions now work two “digits” at a time, reducing the
+number of division and modulo operations.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6713">bpo-6713</a> by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor Stinner.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>There were several other minor optimizations. Set differencing now runs faster
+when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress Bennetts in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8685">bpo-8685</a>).  The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.repeat()</span></code> method has a faster implementation
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1569291">bpo-1569291</a> by Alexander Belopolsky). The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code>
+has more efficient buffering (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3709">bpo-3709</a> by Andrew Schaaf).  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter" title="operator.attrgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.attrgetter()</span></code></a> function has been sped-up (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10160">bpo-10160</a> by
+Christos Georgiou).  And <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> loads multi-line arguments a bit
+faster (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7113">bpo-7113</a> by Łukasz Langa).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicode">
+<h2>Unicode<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Python has been updated to <a class="reference external" href="http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/">Unicode 6.0.0</a>.  The update to the standard adds
+over 2,000 new characters including <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji">emoji</a>
+symbols which are important for mobile phones.</p>
+<p>In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties for two
+Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric character
+(U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers while disqualifying
+the latter.  For more information, see <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes">Unicode Character Database Changes</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="codecs">
+<h2>Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Support was added for <em>cp720</em> Arabic DOS encoding (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1616979">bpo-1616979</a>).</p>
+<p>MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument. In the default
+strict mode, it raises an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> when it encounters an
+undecodable byte sequence and an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a> for an unencodable
+character.</p>
+<p>The MBCS codec supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> error handlers for
+decoding, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> for encoding.</p>
+<p>To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> handler for decoding
+and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> handler for encoding.</p>
+<p>On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> rather than
+the locale encoding.</p>
+<p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> encoding on Windows (instead of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mbcs'</span></code>) and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler on all operating
+systems.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="documentation">
+<h2>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#documentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The documentation continues to be improved.</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy sections such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#built-in-funcs"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Functions</span></a>.  In the case of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a>, the links are
+accompanied by tables of cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and
+memory jog without having to read all of the docs.</p></li>
+<li><p>In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct to the
+documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links to the latest
+version of the source code.  For example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module
+documentation has a quick link at the top labeled:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><p><strong>Source code</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/functools.py">Lib/functools.py</a>.</p>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/">rationale</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The docs now contain more examples and recipes.  In particular, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>
+module has an extensive section, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Regular Expression Examples</span></a>.  Likewise, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module continues to be updated with new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools-recipes"><span class="std std-ref">Itertools Recipes</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module now has an auxiliary implementation in pure Python.
+No functionality was changed.  This just provides an easier-to-read alternate
+implementation.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9528">bpo-9528</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The unmaintained <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Demo</span></code> directory has been removed.  Some demos were
+integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/demo</span></code>
+directory, and others were removed altogether.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7962">bpo-7962</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idle">
+<h2>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The format menu now has an option to clean source files by stripping
+trailing whitespace.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5150">bpo-5150</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa AquaTk.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6075">bpo-6075</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="code-repository">
+<h2>Code Repository<a class="headerlink" href="#code-repository" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at <a class="reference external" href="http://svn.python.org">http://svn.python.org</a>
+there is now a <a class="reference external" href="https://www.mercurial-scm.org/">Mercurial</a> repository at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://hg.python.org/">https://hg.python.org/</a>.</p>
+<p>After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the primary
+repository.  This distributed version control system should make it easier for
+members of the community to create and share external changesets.  See
+<span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0385"><strong>PEP 385</strong></a> for details.</p>
+<p>To learn to use the new version control system, see the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart">Quick Start</a> or the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide">Guide to
+Mercurial Workflows</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <em>idle</em>, <em>pydoc</em> and <em>2to3</em> scripts are now installed with a
+version-specific suffix on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">altinstall</span></code> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10679">bpo-10679</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and return
+characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow unicode builds
+(Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and others).  A visible difference
+in Python is that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.numeric" title="unicodedata.numeric"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.numeric()</span></code></a> now returns the correct value
+for large code points, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> may consider more characters as
+printable.</p>
+<p>(Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5127">bpo-5127</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers (which are
+detected by the configure script).  They can still be disabled selectively by
+specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-computed-gotos</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9203">bpo-9203</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-wctype-functions</span></code> was removed.  The built-in unicode
+database is now used for all functions.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9210">bpo-9210</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Hash values are now values of a new type, <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_hash_t</span></code>, which is
+defined to be the same size as a pointer.  Previously they were of type long,
+which on some 64-bit operating systems is still only 32 bits long.  As a
+result of this fix, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> can now hold more than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**32</span></code> entries on builds with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow
+to that size but their performance degraded catastrophically).</p>
+<p>(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin Peterson;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9778">bpo-9778</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>A new macro <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VA_COPY</span></code> copies the state of the variable argument
+list.  It is equivalent to C99 <em>va_copy</em> but available on all Python platforms
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2443">bpo-2443</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>A new C API function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a> allows an embedded interpreter
+to set <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> without also modifying <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5753">bpo-5753</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_CallObject</span></code> is now only available in macro form.  The
+function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility reasons, is
+now removed – the macro was introduced in 1997 (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8276">bpo-8276</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>There is a new function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow" title="PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow()</span></code></a> which
+is analogous to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow" title="PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow()</span></code></a>.  They both serve to
+convert Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> into a native fixed-width type while providing
+detection of cases where the conversion won’t fit (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7767">bpo-7767</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString" title="PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString()</span></code></a> function now returns <em>not
+equal</em> if the Python string is <em>NUL</em> terminated.</p></li>
+<li><p>There is a new function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc" title="PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc()</span></code></a> that is
+like <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewException" title="PyErr_NewException"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewException()</span></code></a> but allows a docstring to be specified.
+This lets C exceptions have the same self-documenting capabilities as
+their pure Python counterparts (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7033">bpo-7033</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>When compiled with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-valgrind</span></code> option, the pymalloc
+allocator will be automatically disabled when running under Valgrind.  This
+gives improved memory leak detection when running under Valgrind, while taking
+advantage of pymalloc at other times (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2422">bpo-2422</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O?</span></code> format from the <em>PyArg_Parse</em> functions.  The format is no
+longer used and it had never been documented (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8837">bpo-8837</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>There were a number of other small changes to the C-API.  See the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Misc/NEWS">Misc/NEWS</a> file for a complete list.</p>
+<p>Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt">Mac/BuildScript/README.txt</a> for details.  For users running a 32/64-bit
+build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac OS X 10.6.
+Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative such as
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads">ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9</a>.
+See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/">https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/</a> for additional details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-2">
+<h2>Porting to Python 3.2<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may
+require changes to your code:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> module has a number of clean-ups.  The major change is
+to replace the old <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> class with long-standing preferred
+alternative <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SafeConfigParser</span></code>.  In addition there are a number of
+smaller incompatibilities:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The interpolation syntax is now validated on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.get" title="configparser.ConfigParser.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.set" title="configparser.ConfigParser.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> operations. In the default
+interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are valid: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(name)s</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%%</span></code>, the latter being an escaped percent sign.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.set" title="configparser.ConfigParser.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.add_section" title="configparser.ConfigParser.add_section"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_section()</span></code></a> methods now verify that
+values are actual strings.  Formerly, unsupported types could be introduced
+unintentionally.</p></li>
+<li><p>Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise either
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateSectionError" title="configparser.DuplicateSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateSectionError</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateOptionError" title="configparser.DuplicateOptionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateOptionError</span></code></a>.  Formerly, duplicates would
+silently overwrite a previous entry.</p></li>
+<li><p>Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the <strong>;</strong> character
+can be safely used in values.</p></li>
+<li><p>Comments now can be indented.  Consequently, for <strong>;</strong> or <strong>#</strong> to appear at
+the start of a line in multiline values, it has to be interpolated.  This
+keeps comment prefix characters in values from being mistaken as comments.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&quot;</span></code> is now a valid value and is no longer automatically converted to an
+empty string. For empty strings, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;option</span> <span class="pre">=&quot;</span></code> in a line.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module was reworked extensively, meaning that its APIs
+are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects can no longer be used as filenames; instead,
+they should be converted to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.tostring()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.fromstring()</span></code> have been renamed to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.tobytes()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.frombytes()</span></code> for clarity.  The old names
+have been deprecated. (See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8990">bpo-8990</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse*()</span></code> functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>“t#” format has been removed: use “s#” or “s*” instead</p></li>
+<li><p>“w” and “w#” formats has been removed: use “w*” instead</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject</span></code> type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed.  To wrap
+opaque C pointers in Python objects, the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule" title="PyCapsule"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule</span></code></a> API should be used
+instead; the new type has a well-defined interface for passing typing safety
+information and a less complicated signature for calling a destructor.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setfilesystemencoding()</span></code> function was removed because
+it had a flawed design.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.seed" title="random.seed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.seed()</span></code></a> function and method now salt string seeds with an
+sha512 hash function.  To access the previous version of <em>seed</em> in order to
+reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the <em>version</em> argument to <em>1</em>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.seed(s,</span> <span class="pre">version=1)</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The previously deprecated <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.maketrans()</span></code> function has been removed
+in favor of the static methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.maketrans" title="bytes.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.maketrans()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.maketrans" title="bytearray.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.maketrans()</span></code></a>.  This change solves the confusion around which
+types were supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module.  Now, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> each have their own <strong>maketrans</strong> and
+<strong>translate</strong> methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate
+type.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5675">bpo-5675</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The previously deprecated <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.nested()</span></code> function has been removed
+in favor of a plain <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement which can accept multiple
+context managers.  The latter technique is faster (because it is built-in),
+and it does a better job finalizing multiple context managers when one of them
+raises an exception:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;mylog.txt&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;a.out&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;w&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&lt;critical&gt;&#39;</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span>
+            <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström;
+<a class="reference external" href="https://codereview.appspot.com/53094">appspot issue 53094</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack()</span></code></a> now only allows bytes for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> string pack code.
+Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly encode them to bytes
+using UTF-8.  This was problematic because it made assumptions about the
+correct encoding and because a variable-length encoding can fail when writing
+to fixed length segment of a structure.</p>
+<p>Code such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack('&lt;6sHHBBB',</span> <span class="pre">'GIF87a',</span> <span class="pre">x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> should be rewritten
+with to use bytes instead of text, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack('&lt;6sHHBBB',</span> <span class="pre">b'GIF87a',</span> <span class="pre">x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10783">bpo-10783</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> class now raises an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError</span></code></a> when a parse fails. Previously it
+raised an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError" title="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new, longer <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> value on floats may break doctests which rely on
+the old output format.</p></li>
+<li><p>In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>, the default value for <em>close_fds</em> is now
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> under Unix; under Windows, it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the three standard
+streams are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.  Previously, <em>close_fds</em>
+was always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> by default, which produced difficult to solve bugs
+or race conditions when open file descriptors would leak into the child
+process.</p></li>
+<li><p>Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a>.  Such support is still present on the server side
+(in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10711">bpo-10711</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.timeout" title="socket.timeout"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.timeout</span></code></a> when a timeout
+occurs, rather than a generic <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10272">bpo-10272</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The misleading functions <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_AcquireLock" title="PyEval_AcquireLock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_AcquireLock()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReleaseLock" title="PyEval_ReleaseLock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_ReleaseLock()</span></code></a> have been officially deprecated.  The
+thread-state aware APIs (such as <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SaveThread" title="PyEval_SaveThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SaveThread()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_RestoreThread" title="PyEval_RestoreThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_RestoreThread()</span></code></a>) should be used instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>Due to security risks, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.handle_accept()</span></code> has been deprecated, and
+a new function, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.handle_accepted()</span></code>, was added to replace it.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6706">bpo-6706</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Due to the new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> implementation, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_InitThreads" title="PyEval_InitThreads"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_InitThreads()</span></code></a>
+cannot be called before <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> anymore.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi">PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module">PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">PEP 391:  Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module">PEP 3148:  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories">PEP 3147:  PYC Repository Directories</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files">PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1">PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#email">email</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree">elementtree</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools">itertools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime-and-time">datetime and time</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#math">math</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abc">abc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#io">io</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib">reprlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#csv">csv</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal-and-fractions">decimal and fractions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ftp">ftp</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#popen">popen</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#select">select</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gzip-and-zipfile">gzip and zipfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib">hashlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ast">ast</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#os">os</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#html">html</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nntp">nntp</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#certificates">certificates</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib">imaplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http-client">http.client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#random">random</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#poplib">poplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore">asyncore</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile">tempfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dis">dis</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes">ctypes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#site">site</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig">sysconfig</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configparser">configparser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib-parse">urllib.parse</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox">mailbox</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#turtledemo">turtledemo</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode">Unicode</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#codecs">Codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documentation">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#code-repository">Code Repository</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-2">Porting to Python 3.2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.3.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.3</a></p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,2527 @@
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-3">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.3<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2.
+Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012.  For full details,
+see the <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html">changelog</a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0398"><strong>PEP 398</strong></a> - Python 3.3 Release Schedule</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="summary-release-highlights">
+<h2>Summary – Release highlights<a class="headerlink" href="#summary-release-highlights" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New syntax features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> expression for <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-380"><span class="std std-ref">generator delegation</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u'unicode'</span></code> syntax is accepted again for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New library modules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> (helps debugging low-level crashes)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> (high-level objects representing IP addresses and masks)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#module-unittest.mock" title="unittest.mock: Mock object library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code></a> (replace parts of your system under test with mock objects)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> (Python <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-405"><span class="std std-ref">virtual environments</span></a>, as in the
+popular <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">virtualenv</span></code> package)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New built-in features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Reworked <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3151"><span class="std std-ref">I/O exception hierarchy</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Implementation improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Rewritten <a class="reference internal" href="#importlib"><span class="std std-ref">import machinery</span></a> based on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>More compact <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-393"><span class="std std-ref">unicode strings</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>More compact <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-412"><span class="std std-ref">attribute dictionaries</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Significantly Improved Library Modules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>C Accelerator for the <a class="reference internal" href="#new-decimal"><span class="std std-ref">decimal</span></a> module.</p></li>
+<li><p>Better unicode handling in the <a class="reference internal" href="#new-email"><span class="std std-ref">email</span></a> module
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional</span></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Security improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Hash randomization is switched on by default.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-405-virtual-environments">
+<span id="pep-405"></span><h2>PEP 405: Virtual Environments<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-405-virtual-environments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
+system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance.  Virtual environments
+have their own set of private site packages (i.e. locally-installed
+libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
+packages.  Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">virtualenv</span></code> third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
+with the interpreter core.</p>
+<p>This PEP adds the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> module for programmatic access, and the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> script for command-line access and
+administration.  The Python interpreter checks for a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv.cfg</span></code>,
+file whose existence signals the base of a virtual environment’s directory
+tree.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0405"><strong>PEP 405</strong></a> - Python Virtual Environments</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay Sajip</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-420-implicit-namespace-packages">
+<h2>PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-420-implicit-namespace-packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Native support for package directories that don’t require <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>
+marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired by
+various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a>)</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0420"><strong>PEP 420</strong></a> - Implicit Namespace Packages</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith
+and Barry Warsaw</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation">
+<span id="pep-3118-update"></span><h2>PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The implementation of <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3118"><strong>PEP 3118</strong></a> has been significantly improved.</p>
+<p>The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership and
+lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer struct
+that led to multiple crash reports. Additionally, several functions that
+crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous or multi-dimensional
+input have been fixed.</p>
+<p>The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc()
+that checks the consumer’s request type. Many new features have been
+added, most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays
+and arrays with suboffsets.</p>
+<p>The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out responsibilities
+for both exporters and consumers. Buffer request flags are grouped into
+basic and compound flags. The memory layout of non-contiguous and
+multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.</p>
+<div class="section" id="features">
+<h3>Features<a class="headerlink" href="#features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>All native single character format specifiers in struct module syntax
+(optionally prefixed with ‘&#64;’) are now supported.</p></li>
+<li><p>With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format and
+shape of C-contiguous arrays.</p></li>
+<li><p>Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array type.</p></li>
+<li><p>Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.</p></li>
+<li><p>One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats B,
+b or c are now hashable.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13411">bpo-13411</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported. For example, it
+is now possible to reverse a memoryview in O(1) by using a negative step.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="api-changes">
+<h3>API changes<a class="headerlink" href="#api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.</p></li>
+<li><p>The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now
+an empty tuple instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Accessing a memoryview element with format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes)
+now returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax).
+For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to ‘c’ first.</p></li>
+<li><p>memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the operands
+and compare all array elements by value. All format strings in struct
+module syntax are supported. Views with unrecognised format strings
+are still permitted, but will always compare as unequal, regardless
+of view contents.</p></li>
+<li><p>For further changes see <a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#porting-c-code">Porting C code</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Stefan Krah in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10181">bpo-10181</a>.)</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3118"><strong>PEP 3118</strong></a> - Revising the Buffer Protocol</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-393-flexible-string-representation">
+<span id="pep-393"></span><h2>PEP 393: Flexible String Representation<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-393-flexible-string-representation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal
+representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode ordinal
+(1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string.  This allows a space-efficient
+representation in common cases, but gives access to full UCS-4 on all
+systems.  For compatibility with existing APIs, several representations may
+exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility should be phased out.</p>
+<p>On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.</p>
+<p>On the C API side, PEP 393 is fully backward compatible.  The legacy API
+should remain available at least five years.  Applications using the legacy
+API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse - may use
+a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two versions of each
+string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient storage).</p>
+<div class="section" id="functionality">
+<h3>Functionality<a class="headerlink" href="#functionality" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Changes introduced by <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a> are the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points, including
+non-BMP ones (i.e. from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+0000</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+10FFFF</span></code>).  The distinction between
+narrow and wide builds no longer exists and Python now behaves like a wide
+build, even under Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p>With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow builds have
+also been fixed, for example:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len()</span></code></a> now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
+so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len('\U0010FFFF')</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">1</span></code>;</p></li>
+<li><p>surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals,
+so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\uDBFF\uDFFF'</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">'\U0010FFFF'</span></code>;</p></li>
+<li><p>indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected value,
+so <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\U0010FFFF'[0]</span></code> now returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\U0010FFFF'</span></code> and not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\uDBFF'</span></code>;</p></li>
+<li><p>all other functions in the standard library now correctly handle
+non-BMP code points.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>The value of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.maxunicode" title="sys.maxunicode"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxunicode</span></code></a> is now always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1114111</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x10FFFF</span></code>
+in hexadecimal).  The <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GetMax()</span></code> function still returns
+either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFFFF</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x10FFFF</span></code> for backward compatibility, and it should
+not be used with the new Unicode API (see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13054">bpo-13054</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">./configure</span></code> flag <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-wide-unicode</span></code> has been removed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="performance-and-resource-usage">
+<h3>Performance and resource usage<a class="headerlink" href="#performance-and-resource-usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in the string:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+0000-U+00FF</span></code>) use 1 byte per code point;</p></li>
+<li><p>BMP strings (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+0000-U+FFFF</span></code>) use 2 bytes per code point;</p></li>
+<li><p>non-BMP strings (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U+10000-U+10FFFF</span></code>) use 4 bytes per code point.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string
+storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former
+wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII
+even in international contexts (because many strings store non-human
+language data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data,
+etc.).  We also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU
+cache efficiency on non-trivial applications. The memory usage of
+Python 3.3 is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little
+bit better than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for
+details).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a> - Flexible String Representation</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker
+and Martin von Löwis.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-397-python-launcher-for-windows">
+<span id="pep-397"></span><h2>PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-397-python-launcher-for-windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> launcher application
+that can be used to launch Python applications in a version independent
+fashion.</p>
+<p>This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.py</span></code> files.
+If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
+will be used to run the file. If multiple versions are installed, the most
+recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by including
+a Unix-style “shebang line” in the Python script.</p>
+<p>The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code>
+application. Running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> follows the same version selection rules as
+implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be selected
+by passing appropriate arguments (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-3</span></code> to request Python 3 when
+Python 2 is also installed, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-2.6</span></code> to specifically request an earlier
+Python version when a more recent version is installed).</p>
+<p>In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an
+option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH.  (Contributed
+by Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3561">bpo-3561</a>.)</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0397"><strong>PEP 397</strong></a> - Python Launcher for Windows</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v. Löwis; implementation by
+Vinay Sajip.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Launcher documentation: <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#launcher"><span class="std std-ref">Python Launcher for Windows</span></a></p>
+<p>Installer PATH modification: <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#windows-path-mod"><span class="std std-ref">Finding the Python executable</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3151-reworking-the-os-and-io-exception-hierarchy">
+<span id="pep-3151"></span><h2>PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3151-reworking-the-os-and-io-exception-hierarchy" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now both
+simplified and finer-grained.</p>
+<p>You don’t have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
+type between <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IOError</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#EnvironmentError" title="EnvironmentError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvironmentError</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#WindowsError" title="WindowsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsError</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.error</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.error" title="select.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.error</span></code></a>.  All these exception types are now only one:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>.  The other names are kept as aliases for compatibility
+reasons.</p>
+<p>Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition.  Instead of
+inspecting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> attribute (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args[0]</span></code>) for a particular
+constant from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> module, you can catch the adequate
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> subclass.  The available subclasses are the following:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BlockingIOError" title="BlockingIOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BlockingIOError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ChildProcessError" title="ChildProcessError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChildProcessError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#IsADirectoryError" title="IsADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IsADirectoryError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NotADirectoryError" title="NotADirectoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotADirectoryError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ProcessLookupError" title="ProcessLookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessLookupError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TimeoutError" title="TimeoutError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeoutError</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>And the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a> itself has finer-grained subclasses:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BrokenPipeError" title="BrokenPipeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenPipeError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionAbortedError" title="ConnectionAbortedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionAbortedError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionRefusedError" title="ConnectionRefusedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionRefusedError</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionResetError" title="ConnectionResetError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionResetError</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> can now be
+avoided.  For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">errno</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">ENOENT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">EACCES</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">EPERM</span>
+
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;document.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">content</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">IOError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">errno</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">ENOENT</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;document.txt file is missing&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">errno</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">EACCES</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">EPERM</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;You are not allowed to read document.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+    <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">raise</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>can now be written without the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/errno.html#module-errno" title="errno: Standard errno system symbols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code></a> import and without manual
+inspection of exception attributes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;document.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">content</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">FileNotFoundError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;document.txt file is missing&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">PermissionError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;You are not allowed to read document.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3151"><strong>PEP 3151</strong></a> - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-380-syntax-for-delegating-to-a-subgenerator">
+<span id="pep-380"></span><span id="index-10"></span><h2>PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-380-syntax-for-delegating-to-a-subgenerator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>PEP 380 adds the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> expression, allowing a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> to
+delegate
+part of its operations to another generator. This allows a section of code
+containing <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a> to be factored out and placed in another generator.
+Additionally, the subgenerator is allowed to return with a value, and the
+value is made available to the delegating generator.</p>
+<p>While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span>
+<span class="pre">from</span></code> expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary subiterators.</p>
+<p>For simple iterators, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">iterable</span></code> is essentially just a shortened
+form of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">item</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">iterable:</span> <span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">item</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">yield from</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">yield from</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>However, unlike an ordinary loop, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> allows subgenerators to
+receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
+return a final value to the outer generator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">accumulate</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="nb">next</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">yield</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">next</span> <span class="ow">is</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">tally</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="nb">next</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gather_tallies</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tallies</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">while</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">yield from</span> <span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="n">tallies</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tally</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tallies</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">acc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gather_tallies</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tallies</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">acc</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Finish the first tally</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span>  <span class="c1"># Finish the second tally</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">tallies</span>
+<span class="go">[6, 10]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that are
+designed to be used with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">throw</span></code> methods to be split into
+multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be split into
+multiple subfunctions.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0380"><strong>PEP 380</strong></a> - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated into
+3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan; documentation by
+Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-409-suppressing-exception-context">
+<h2>PEP 409: Suppressing exception context<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-409-suppressing-exception-context" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained
+exception context to be disabled. This allows cleaner error messages in
+applications that convert between exception types:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_extra_attributes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">extra</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getattr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_extra_attributes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">None</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">({})</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">8</span>, in <span class="n">__getattr__</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> suffix to suppress the cause, the original
+exception would be displayed by default:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">extra</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_extra_attributes</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">extra</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getattr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">return</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_extra_attributes</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">KeyError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">attr</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="p">({})</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">6</span>, in <span class="n">__getattr__</span>
+<span class="gr">KeyError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;x&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="go">During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:</span>
+
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">8</span>, in <span class="n">__getattr__</span>
+<span class="gr">AttributeError</span>: <span class="n">x</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context remains
+available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has incorrectly
+suppressed valuable underlying details):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">D</span><span class="p">({})</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">AttributeError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">exc</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">exc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__context__</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">KeyError(&#39;x&#39;,)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0409"><strong>PEP 409</strong></a> - Suppressing exception context</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick
+Coghlan.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-414-explicit-unicode-literals">
+<h2>PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-414-explicit-unicode-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python applications
+that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once again supports the
+“<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">u</span></code>” prefix for string literals. This prefix has no semantic significance
+in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the number of purely mechanical
+changes in migrating to Python 3, making it easier for developers to focus on
+the more significant semantic changes (such as the stricter default
+separation of binary and text data).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0414"><strong>PEP 414</strong></a> - Explicit Unicode literals</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Armin Ronacher.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-3155-qualified-name-for-classes-and-functions">
+<h2>PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3155-qualified-name-for-classes-and-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Functions and class objects have a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code> attribute representing
+the “path” from the module top-level to their definition.  For global functions
+and classes, this is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>.  For other functions and classes,
+it provides better information about where they were actually defined, and
+how they might be accessible from the global scope.</p>
+<p>Example with (non-bound) methods:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;meth&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C.meth&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example with nested classes:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">D</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">meth</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>            <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;D&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C.D&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;meth&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;C.D.meth&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Example with nested functions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">outer</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">inner</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>        <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">inner</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">outer</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;inner&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">outer</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__qualname__</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;outer.&lt;locals&gt;.inner&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The string representation of those objects is also changed to include the
+new, more precise information:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&quot;&lt;class &#39;__main__.C.D&#39;&gt;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">C</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">meth</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;&lt;function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0&gt;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3155"><strong>PEP 3155</strong></a> - Qualified name for classes and functions</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-412-key-sharing-dictionary">
+<span id="pep-412"></span><h2>PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-412-key-sharing-dictionary" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Dictionaries used for the storage of objects’ attributes are now able to
+share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the part
+which stores the keys and their respective hashes).  This reduces the memory
+consumption of programs creating many instances of non-builtin types.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0412"><strong>PEP 412</strong></a> - Key-Sharing Dictionary</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-362-function-signature-object">
+<h2>PEP 362: Function Signature Object<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-362-function-signature-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code></a> makes introspection of python
+callables easy and straightforward.  A broad range of callables is supported:
+python functions, decorated or not, classes, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a>
+objects.  New classes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.Signature</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.Parameter</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.BoundArguments</span></code></a> hold information about the call signatures,
+such as, annotations, default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments,
+which considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
+or amends calling signatures or arguments.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0362"><strong>PEP 362</strong></a>: -  Function Signature Object</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon Seo;
+implemented by Yury Selivanov.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-421-adding-sys-implementation">
+<h2>PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-421-adding-sys-implementation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new attribute on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module exposes details specific to the
+implementation of the currently running interpreter.  The initial set of
+attributes on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.implementation" title="sys.implementation"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation</span></code></a> are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">version</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexversion</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cache_tag</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The intention of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation</span></code> is to consolidate into one namespace
+the implementation-specific data used by the standard library.  This allows
+different Python implementations to share a single standard library code base
+much more easily.  In its initial state, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation</span></code> holds only a
+small portion of the implementation-specific data.  Over time that ratio will
+shift in order to make the standard library more portable.</p>
+<p>One example of improved standard library portability is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cache_tag</span></code>.  As of
+Python 3.3, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation.cache_tag</span></code> is used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> to
+support <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> compliance.  Any Python implementation that uses
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code> for its built-in import system may use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cache_tag</span></code> to control
+the caching behavior for modules.</p>
+<div class="section" id="simplenamespace">
+<h3>SimpleNamespace<a class="headerlink" href="#simplenamespace" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The implementation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.implementation</span></code> also introduces a new type to
+Python: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.SimpleNamespace" title="types.SimpleNamespace"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.SimpleNamespace</span></code></a>.  In contrast to a mapping-based
+namespace, like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleNamespace</span></code> is attribute-based, like
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>.  However, unlike <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleNamespace</span></code> instances
+are writable.  This means that you can add, remove, and modify the namespace
+through normal attribute access.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0421"><strong>PEP 421</strong></a> - Adding sys.implementation</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="using-importlib-as-the-implementation-of-import">
+<span id="importlib"></span><h2>Using importlib as the Implementation of Import<a class="headerlink" href="#using-importlib-as-the-implementation-of-import" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2377">bpo-2377</a> - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13959">bpo-13959</a> - Re-implement parts of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> in pure Python
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14605">bpo-14605</a> - Make import machinery explicit
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14646">bpo-14646</a> - Require loaders set __loader__ and __package__</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> function is now powered by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.__import__" title="importlib.__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.__import__()</span></code></a>.
+This work leads to the completion of “phase 2” of <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a>. There are
+multiple benefits to this change. First, it has allowed for more of the
+machinery powering import to be exposed instead of being implicit and hidden
+within the C code. It also provides a single implementation for all Python VMs
+supporting Python 3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in
+import semantics. And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
+future growth to occur.</p>
+<p>For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics.  For
+those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import
+programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are covered
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="#porting-python-code">Porting Python code</a> section of this document.</p>
+<div class="section" id="new-apis">
+<h3>New APIs<a class="headerlink" href="#new-apis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
+making the import statement work. That means the various importers that were
+once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> package.</p>
+<p>The abstract base classes defined in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc" title="importlib.abc: Abstract base classes related to import"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code></a> have been expanded
+to properly delineate between <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-meta-path-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">meta path finders</span></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finders</span></a> by introducing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder</span></code></a>, respectively. The old ABC of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Finder" title="importlib.abc.Finder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Finder</span></code></a> is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
+and does not enforce any method requirements.</p>
+<p>In terms of finders, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder" title="importlib.machinery.FileFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.FileFinder</span></code></a> exposes the
+mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module. Previously
+this class was an implicit member of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>For loaders, the new abstract base class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader" title="importlib.abc.FileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.FileLoader</span></code></a> helps
+write a loader that uses the file system as the storage mechanism for a module’s
+code. The loader for source files
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader" title="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader</span></code></a>), sourceless bytecode files
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader" title="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader</span></code></a>), and extension modules
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader" title="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader</span></code></a>) are now available for
+direct use.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> now has <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">path</span></code> attributes which are set when
+there is relevant data to provide. The message for failed imports will also
+provide the full name of the module now instead of just the tail end of the
+module’s name.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.invalidate_caches()</span></code></a> function will now call the method with
+the same name on all finders cached in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> to help
+clean up any stored state as necessary.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="visible-changes">
+<h3>Visible Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#visible-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>For potential required changes to code, see the <a class="reference internal" href="#porting-python-code">Porting Python code</a>
+section.</p>
+<p>Beyond the expanse of what <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> now exposes, there are other
+visible changes to import. The biggest is that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> now store all of the meta path finders and path entry
+hooks used by import.  Previously the finders were implicit and hidden within
+the C code of import instead of being directly exposed. This means that one can
+now easily remove or change the order of the various finders to fit one’s needs.</p>
+<p>Another change is that all modules have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> attribute, storing the
+loader used to create the module. <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> has been updated to make this
+attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in the future once 3rd-party
+loaders have been updated people will be able to rely on the existence of the
+attribute. Until such time, though, import is setting the module post-load.</p>
+<p>Loaders are also now expected to set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> attribute from
+<span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0366"><strong>PEP 366</strong></a>. Once again, import itself is already setting this on all loaders
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> and import itself is setting the attribute post-load.</p>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is now inserted into <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> when no finder
+can be found on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a>. Since <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.NullImporter" title="imp.NullImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.NullImporter</span></code></a> is not
+directly exposed on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> it could no longer be relied upon to
+always be available to use as a value representing no finder found.</p>
+<p>All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into
+consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read about
+in the <a class="reference internal" href="#porting-python-code">Porting Python code</a> section of this document.</p>
+<p>(Implementation by Brett Cannon)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.
+Both <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.lookup" title="unicodedata.lookup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.lookup()</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\N{...}'</span></code> now resolve name aliases,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.lookup" title="unicodedata.lookup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.lookup()</span></code></a> resolves named sequences too.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12753">bpo-12753</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0</p></li>
+<li><p>Equality comparisons on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range()</span></code></a> objects now return a result reflecting
+the equality of the underlying sequences generated by those range objects.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13201">bpo-13201</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rindex()</span></code>
+methods of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects now accept an
+integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12170">bpo-12170</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rjust()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ljust()</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">center()</span></code> methods of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> now accept a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fill</span></code>
+argument.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12380">bpo-12380</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New methods have been added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10516">bpo-10516</a>).  Consequently,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableSequence</span></code></a> now also defines a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code> method (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11388">bpo-11388</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Raw bytes literals can now be written <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rb&quot;...&quot;</span></code> as well as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">br&quot;...&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13748">bpo-13748</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.setdefault" title="dict.setdefault"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.setdefault()</span></code></a> now does only one lookup for the given key, making
+it atomic when used with built-in types.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13521">bpo-13521</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The error messages produced when a function call does not match the function
+signature have been significantly improved.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="a-finer-grained-import-lock">
+<h2>A Finer-Grained Import Lock<a class="headerlink" href="#a-finer-grained-import-lock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
+This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a module
+would trigger code execution in a different thread as a side-effect.
+Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock" title="PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()</span></code></a> C API function.</p>
+<p>In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock.  This correctly
+serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads (preventing
+the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while eliminating the
+aforementioned annoyances.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9260">bpo-9260</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="builtin-functions-and-types">
+<h2>Builtin functions and types<a class="headerlink" href="#builtin-functions-and-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> gets a new <em>opener</em> parameter: the underlying file descriptor
+for the file object is then obtained by calling <em>opener</em> with (<em>file</em>,
+<em>flags</em>). It can be used to use custom flags like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_CLOEXEC" title="os.O_CLOEXEC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.O_CLOEXEC</span></code></a> for
+example. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> mode was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if
+the file already exists.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a>: added the <em>flush</em> keyword argument. If the <em>flush</em> keyword
+argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hash()</span></code></a>: hash randomization is enabled by default, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__hash__()</span></code></a> and <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type gets a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.casefold" title="str.casefold"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">casefold()</span></code></a> method: return a
+casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be used for caseless
+matching. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ß'.casefold()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ss'</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to better
+explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide specific
+documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence types
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4966">bpo-4966</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-modules">
+<h2>New Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="faulthandler">
+<h3>faulthandler<a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>This new debug module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly,
+on a fault (a crash like a segmentation fault), after a timeout, or on a user
+signal. Call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler.enable()</span></code></a> to install fault handlers for the
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGSEGV</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGFPE</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGABRT</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGBUS</span></code>, and
+<code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGILL</span></code> signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the
+<span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONFAULTHANDLER"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONFAULTHANDLER</span></code></a> environment variable or by using <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code> command line option.</p>
+<p>Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -q -X faulthandler
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; import ctypes
+<span class="gp">&gt;</span>&gt;&gt; ctypes.string_at<span class="o">(</span><span class="m">0</span><span class="o">)</span>
+<span class="go">Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault</span>
+
+<span class="go">Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py&quot;, line 486 in string_at</span>
+<span class="go">  File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1 in &lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">Segmentation fault</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ipaddress">
+<h3>ipaddress<a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> module provides tools for creating and manipulating
+objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and interfaces (i.e.
+an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Google and Peter Moody in <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3144"><strong>PEP 3144</strong></a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lzma">
+<h3>lzma<a class="headerlink" href="#lzma" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The newly-added <a class="reference internal" href="../library/lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> module provides data compression and decompression
+using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.xz</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.lzma</span></code>
+file formats.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6715">bpo-6715</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improved-modules">
+<h2>Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="abc">
+<h3>abc<a class="headerlink" href="#abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors composed with
+abstract methods. The recommended approach to declaring abstract descriptors is
+now to provide <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__isabstractmethod__</span></code> as a dynamically updated
+property. The built-in descriptors have been updated accordingly.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractproperty" title="abc.abstractproperty"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractproperty</span></code></a> has been deprecated, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a>
+with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractmethod()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractclassmethod" title="abc.abstractclassmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractclassmethod</span></code></a> has been deprecated, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractmethod()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractstaticmethod" title="abc.abstractstaticmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractstaticmethod</span></code></a> has been deprecated, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractmethod()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>(Contributed by Darren Dale in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11610">bpo-11610</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta.register" title="abc.ABCMeta.register"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.ABCMeta.register()</span></code></a> now returns the registered subclass, which means
+it can now be used as a class decorator (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10868">bpo-10868</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="array">
+<h3>array<a class="headerlink" href="#array" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module supports the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> type using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">q</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Q</span></code> type codes.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1172711">bpo-1172711</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="base64">
+<h3>base64<a class="headerlink" href="#base64" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a> modern interface. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64.b64decode('YWJj')</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'abc'</span></code>.  (Contributed by Catalin Iacob in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13641">bpo-13641</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binascii">
+<h3>binascii<a class="headerlink" href="#binascii" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a2b_</span></code> functions
+now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input.  (Contributed by Antoine
+Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13637">bpo-13637</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bz2">
+<h3>bz2<a class="headerlink" href="#bz2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a> module has been rewritten from scratch. In the process, several
+new features have been added:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.open" title="bz2.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.open()</span></code></a> function: open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or
+text mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File</span></code></a> can now read from and write to arbitrary file-like
+objects, by means of its constructor’s <em>fileobj</em> argument.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5863">bpo-5863</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.decompress" title="bz2.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.decompress()</span></code></a> can now decompress
+multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the <strong class="program">pbzip2</strong> tool).
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File</span></code></a> can now also be used to create this type of file, using
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> (append) mode.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Nir Aides in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1625">bpo-1625</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File</span></code></a> now implements all of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> API,
+except for the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code> methods.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="codecs">
+<h3>codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-encodings.mbcs" title="encodings.mbcs: Windows ANSI codepage"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbcs</span></code></a> codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore</span></code> error handlers on all Windows versions.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-encodings.mbcs" title="encodings.mbcs: Windows ANSI codepage"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mbcs</span></code></a> codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> to encode and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore</span></code> to decode.</p>
+<p>A new Windows-only codec has been added: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp65001</span></code> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13216">bpo-13216</a>). It is the
+Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CP_UTF8</span></code>).  For example, it is used
+by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> if the console output code page is set to cp65001 (e.g., using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chcp</span> <span class="pre">65001</span></code> command).</p>
+<p>Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster.  They only ignore the first
+byte of an invalid byte sequence. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312',</span>
+<span class="pre">'replace')</span></code> now returns a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> after the replacement character.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12016">bpo-12016</a>)</p>
+<p>Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their
+encode() methods. For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">codecs</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">encoder</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getincrementalencoder</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;hz&#39;</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="s1">&#39;strict&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">encoder</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002</span><span class="s1"> Bye.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This example gives <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~}</span> <span class="pre">Bye.'</span></code> with older Python
+versions.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12100">bpo-12100</a>)</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode_internal</span></code> codec has been deprecated.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="collections">
+<h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Addition of a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code></a> class to allow treating a
+number of mappings as a single unit.  (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11089">bpo-11089</a>, made public in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11297">bpo-11297</a>.)</p>
+<p>The abstract base classes have been moved in a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a>
+module, to better differentiate between the abstract and the concrete
+collections classes.  Aliases for ABCs are still present in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module to preserve existing imports.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11085">bpo-11085</a>)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Counter</span></code></a> class now supports the unary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-</span></code>
+operators, as well as the in-place operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-=</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|=</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;=</span></code>.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13121">bpo-13121</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contextlib">
+<h3>contextlib<a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a> now provides a solid foundation for
+programmatic manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup
+functionality. Unlike the previous <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.nested</span></code> API (which was
+deprecated and removed), the new API is designed to work correctly
+regardless of whether context managers acquire their resources in
+their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> method (for example, file objects) or in their
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__enter__</span></code> method (for example, synchronisation objects from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module).</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13585">bpo-13585</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="crypt">
+<h3>crypt<a class="headerlink" href="#crypt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/crypt.html#crypt.mksalt" title="crypt.mksalt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mksalt()</span></code></a>
+function to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/crypt.html#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10924">bpo-10924</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="curses">
+<h3>curses<a class="headerlink" href="#curses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module is linked to the ncursesw library, use Unicode
+functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed (e.g.
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waddwstr()</span></code>), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g. <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waddstr()</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Use the locale encoding instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> to encode Unicode strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.window</span></code> has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.encoding" title="curses.window.encoding"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.window.encoding</span></code></a> attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses.window</span></code> class has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.get_wch" title="curses.window.get_wch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_wch()</span></code></a>
+method to get a wide character</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#module-curses" title="curses: An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">curses</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.unget_wch" title="curses.unget_wch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unget_wch()</span></code></a> function to
+push a wide character so the next <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.window.get_wch" title="curses.window.get_wch"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_wch()</span></code></a> will return
+it</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>(Contributed by Iñigo Serna in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6755">bpo-6755</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datetime">
+<h3>datetime<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Equality comparisons between naive and aware <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>
+instances now return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> instead of raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15006">bpo-15006</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.timestamp" title="datetime.datetime.timestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime.timestamp()</span></code></a> method: Return POSIX timestamp
+corresponding to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> instance.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.strftime" title="datetime.datetime.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime.strftime()</span></code></a> method supports formatting years
+older than 1000.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.astimezone" title="datetime.datetime.astimezone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime.astimezone()</span></code></a> method can now be
+called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system
+timezone.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="decimal">
+<span id="new-decimal"></span><h3>decimal<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7652">bpo-7652</a> - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.</dt><dd><p>C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed libmpdec
+library for arbitrary precision correctly-rounded decimal floating point
+arithmetic. libmpdec conforms to IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.</p>
+<p>Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for
+numerically intensive applications. These numbers are expected gains
+for standard precisions used in decimal floating point arithmetic. Since
+the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary. For example,
+in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be significantly higher.</p>
+<p>The following table is meant as an illustration. Benchmarks are available
+at <a class="reference external" href="http://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html">http://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html</a>.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 18%" />
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+<col style="width: 29%" />
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"></th>
+<th class="head"><p>decimal.py</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>_decimal</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>speedup</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>pi</p></td>
+<td><p>42.02s</p></td>
+<td><p>0.345s</p></td>
+<td><p>120x</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>telco</p></td>
+<td><p>172.19s</p></td>
+<td><p>5.68s</p></td>
+<td><p>30x</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>psycopg</p></td>
+<td><p>3.57s</p></td>
+<td><p>0.29s</p></td>
+<td><p>12x</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<div class="section" id="id1">
+<h4>Features<a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.FloatOperation" title="decimal.FloatOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FloatOperation</span></code></a> signal optionally enables stricter
+semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.</p></li>
+<li><p>If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically
+disables the expensive thread local context machinery. In this case,
+the variable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.HAVE_THREADS" title="decimal.HAVE_THREADS"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAVE_THREADS</span></code></a> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id2">
+<h4>API changes<a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The C module has the following context limits, depending on the machine
+architecture:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 27%" />
+<col style="width: 30%" />
+<col style="width: 43%" />
+</colgroup>
+<thead>
+<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"></th>
+<th class="head"><p>32-bit</p></th>
+<th class="head"><p>64-bit</p></th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAX_PREC</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">425000000</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">999999999999999999</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAX_EMAX</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">425000000</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">999999999999999999</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIN_EMIN</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-425000000</span></code></p></td>
+<td><p><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-999999999999999999</span></code></p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+<li><p>In the context templates (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.DefaultContext" title="decimal.DefaultContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DefaultContext</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.BasicContext" title="decimal.BasicContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BasicContext</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.ExtendedContext" title="decimal.ExtendedContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExtendedContext</span></code></a>)
+the magnitude of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emax</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Emin</span></code> has changed to <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">999999</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> constructor in decimal.py does not observe
+the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or precision
+exactly. Since the C version has internal limits, the following scheme is
+used: If possible, values are converted exactly, otherwise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.InvalidOperation" title="decimal.InvalidOperation"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InvalidOperation</span></code></a> is raised and the result is NaN. In the
+latter case it is always possible to use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Context.create_decimal" title="decimal.Context.create_decimal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_decimal()</span></code></a>
+in order to obtain a rounded or inexact value.</p></li>
+<li><p>The power function in decimal.py is always correctly-rounded. In the
+C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly-rounded
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.exp" title="decimal.Decimal.exp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exp()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.ln" title="decimal.Decimal.ln"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ln()</span></code></a> functions,
+but the final result is only “almost always correctly rounded”.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code></a>.  For speed reasons,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flags</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traps</span></code> always
+refer to the same <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableMapping</span></code></a> that the context
+was initialized with. If a new signal dictionary is assigned,
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flags</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traps</span></code>
+are updated with the new values, but they do not reference the RHS
+dictionary.</p></li>
+<li><p>Pickling a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> produces a different output in order
+to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions.</p></li>
+<li><p>The order of arguments in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Context" title="decimal.Context"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context</span></code></a> constructor has been
+changed to match the order displayed by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">watchexp</span></code> parameter in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.quantize" title="decimal.Decimal.quantize"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quantize()</span></code></a> method
+is deprecated.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="email">
+<span id="new-email"></span><h3>email<a class="headerlink" href="#email" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="policy-framework">
+<h4>Policy Framework<a class="headerlink" href="#policy-framework" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The email package now has a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> framework.  A
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy" title="email.policy.Policy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy</span></code></a> is an object with several methods and properties
+that control how the email package behaves.  The primary policy for Python 3.3
+is the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Compat32" title="email.policy.Compat32"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Compat32</span></code></a> policy, which provides backward
+compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2.  A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code> can be
+specified when an email message is parsed by a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a>, or when a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object is created, or when an email is
+serialized using a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a>.  Unless overridden, a policy passed
+to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> is inherited by all the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> object and sub-objects
+created by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code>.  By default a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code> will use the policy of
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> object it is serializing.  The default policy is
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The minimum set of controls implemented by all <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code> objects are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 79%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>max_line_length</p></td>
+<td><p>The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s),
+individual lines may have when a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> is
+serialized.  Defaults to 78.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>linesep</p></td>
+<td><p>The character used to separate individual lines when a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> is serialized.  Defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>cte_type</p></td>
+<td><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">7bit</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8bit</span></code> applies only to a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytes</span></code> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code>, and means that non-ASCII may
+be used where allowed by the protocol (or where it
+exists in the original input).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>raise_on_defect</p></td>
+<td><p>Causes a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> to raise error when defects are
+encountered instead of adding them to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code>
+object’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defects</span></code> list.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.clone" title="email.policy.Policy.clone"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clone()</span></code></a> method of policy objects.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clone</span></code> takes
+any of the above controls as keyword arguments.  Any control not specified in
+the call retains its default value.  Thus you can create a policy that uses
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r\n</span></code> linesep characters like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">mypolicy</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">compat32</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">linesep</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format needed by
+your application simpler.  Instead of having to remember to specify
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linesep='\r\n'</span></code> in all the places you call a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code>, you can specify
+it once, when you set the policy used by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code> or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code>,
+whichever your program uses to create <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> objects.  On the other hand,
+if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you can still specify the
+parameters in the appropriate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code> call.  Or you can have custom
+policy instances for your different cases, and pass those in when you create
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="provisional-policy-with-new-header-api">
+<h4>Provisional Policy with New Header API<a class="headerlink" href="#provisional-policy-with-new-header-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main motivation for
+introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies that implement new
+features for the email package in a way that maintains backward compatibility
+for those who do not use the new policies.  Because the new policies introduce a
+new API, we are releasing them in Python 3.3 as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-package"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional policy</span></a>.  Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including
+removal of the code) may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.</p>
+<p>The new policies are instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy</span></code></a>,
+and add the following additional controls:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><table class="docutils align-center">
+<colgroup>
+<col style="width: 21%" />
+<col style="width: 79%" />
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>refold_source</p></td>
+<td><p>Controls whether or not headers parsed by a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> are refolded by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a>.  It can be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">none</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all</span></code>.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code>, which means that
+source headers with a line longer than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_line_length</span></code> get refolded.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">none</span></code> means no
+line get refolded, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">all</span></code> means that all lines
+get refolded.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="row-even"><td><p>header_factory</p></td>
+<td><p>A callable that take a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code> and
+produces a custom header object.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div></blockquote>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code> is the key to the new features provided by the new
+policies.  When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved from
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> object is an object produced by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code>, and any
+time you set a header on a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code> it becomes an object produced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header_factory</span></code>.  All such header objects have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> attribute equal
+to the header name.  Address and Date headers have additional attributes
+that give you access to the parsed data of the header.  This means you can now
+do things like this:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Message</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">policy</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">SMTP</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;To&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Éric &lt;foo@example.com&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Éric &lt;foo@example.com&gt;&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addresses</span>
+<span class="go">(Address(display_name=&#39;Éric&#39;, username=&#39;foo&#39;, domain=&#39;example.com&#39;),)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addresses</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">username</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;foo&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addresses</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">display_name</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Éric&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Date&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">email</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utils</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">localtime</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Date&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">datetime</span>
+<span class="go">datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), &#39;EDT&#39;))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;Date&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= &lt;foo@example.com&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> when the message is serialized, but that when the header is accessed
+directly, you get the unicode version.  This eliminates any need to deal with
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.header.html#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.header.html#email.header.decode_header" title="email.header.decode_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_header()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.header.html#email.header.make_header" title="email.header.make_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_header()</span></code></a> functions.</p>
+<p>You can also create addresses from parts:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;cc&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;pals&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Bob&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;bob&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;example.com&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>                          <span class="n">Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Sally&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;sally&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;example.com&#39;</span><span class="p">)]),</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>           <span class="n">Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Bonzo&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">addr_spec</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;bonz@laugh.com&#39;</span><span class="p">)]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= &lt;foo@example.com&gt;</span>
+<span class="go">Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400</span>
+<span class="go">cc: pals: Bob &lt;bob@example.com&gt;, Sally &lt;sally@example.com&gt;;, Bonzo &lt;bonz@laugh.com&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Decoding to unicode is done automatically:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">message_from_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;to&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;Éric &lt;foo@example.com&gt;&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>When you parse a message, you can use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">addresses</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groups</span></code>
+attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
+addresses:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;cc&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">addresses</span>
+<span class="go">(Address(display_name=&#39;Bob&#39;, username=&#39;bob&#39;, domain=&#39;example.com&#39;), Address(display_name=&#39;Sally&#39;, username=&#39;sally&#39;, domain=&#39;example.com&#39;), Address(display_name=&#39;Bonzo&#39;, username=&#39;bonz&#39;, domain=&#39;laugh.com&#39;))</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m2</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;cc&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">groups</span>
+<span class="go">(Group(display_name=&#39;pals&#39;, addresses=(Address(display_name=&#39;Bob&#39;, username=&#39;bob&#39;, domain=&#39;example.com&#39;), Address(display_name=&#39;Sally&#39;, username=&#39;sally&#39;, domain=&#39;example.com&#39;)), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name=&#39;Bonzo&#39;, username=&#39;bonz&#39;, domain=&#39;laugh.com&#39;),))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation works the
+way it ought to:  your application works with unicode strings, and the email
+package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to and from the RFC
+standard Content Transfer Encodings.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-api-changes">
+<h4>Other API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesHeaderParser" title="email.parser.BytesHeaderParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesHeaderParser</span></code></a>, added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#module-email.parser" title="email.parser: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a>
+module to complement <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.parser.HeaderParser" title="email.parser.HeaderParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HeaderParser</span></code></a> and complete the Bytes
+API.</p>
+<p>New utility functions:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.utils.html#email.utils.format_datetime" title="email.utils.format_datetime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_datetime()</span></code></a>: given a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>,
+produce a string formatted for use in an email header.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.utils.html#email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime" title="email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parsedate_to_datetime()</span></code></a>: given a date string from
+an email header, convert it into an aware <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>,
+or a naive <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> if the offset is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-0000</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.utils.html#email.utils.localtime" title="email.utils.localtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code></a>: With no argument, returns the
+current local time as an aware <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> using the local
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a>.  Given an aware <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>,
+converts it into an aware <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> using the
+local <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ftplib">
+<h3>ftplib<a class="headerlink" href="#ftplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP</span></code></a> now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source_address</span></code> keyword argument to
+specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> to use as the source address in the bind call
+when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8594">bpo-8594</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP_TLS</span></code></a> class now provides a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ccc()</span></code></a> function to revert control channel back to
+plaintext.  This can be useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how
+to handle NAT with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.  (Contributed
+by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12139">bpo-12139</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Added <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.mlsd" title="ftplib.FTP.mlsd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP.mlsd()</span></code></a> method which provides a parsable directory
+listing format and deprecates <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.nlst" title="ftplib.FTP.nlst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP.nlst()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.dir" title="ftplib.FTP.dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP.dir()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11072">bpo-11072</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functools">
+<h3>functools<a class="headerlink" href="#functools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache" title="functools.lru_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.lru_cache()</span></code></a> decorator now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typed</span></code> keyword
+argument (that defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> to ensure that it caches values of
+different types that compare equal in separate cache slots.  (Contributed
+by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13227">bpo-13227</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gc">
+<h3>gc<a class="headerlink" href="#gc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage collector
+before and after collection using the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.callbacks" title="gc.callbacks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callbacks</span></code></a> list.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hmac">
+<h3>hmac<a class="headerlink" href="#hmac" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.compare_digest" title="hmac.compare_digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compare_digest()</span></code></a> function has been added to prevent side
+channel attacks on digests through timing analysis.  (Contributed by Nick
+Coghlan and Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15061">bpo-15061</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http">
+<h3>http<a class="headerlink" href="#http" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> now buffers the headers and writes
+them all at once when <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">end_headers()</span></code></a> is
+called.  A new method <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flush_headers()</span></code></a>
+can be used to directly manage when the accumulated headers are sent.
+(Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3709">bpo-3709</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> now produces valid <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTML</span> <span class="pre">4.01</span> <span class="pre">strict</span></code> output.
+(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13295">bpo-13295</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse" title="http.client.HTTPResponse"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPResponse</span></code></a> now has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPResponse.readinto" title="http.client.HTTPResponse.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readinto()</span></code></a> method, which means it can be used
+as an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.RawIOBase" title="io.RawIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.RawIOBase</span></code></a> class.  (Contributed by John Kuhn in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13464">bpo-13464</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="html">
+<h3>html<a class="headerlink" href="#html" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.parser.HTMLParser</span></code></a> is now able to parse broken markup without
+raising errors, therefore the <em>strict</em> argument of the constructor and the
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParseError</span></code> exception are now deprecated.
+The ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes that
+are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python 2.7/3.2.
+(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15114">bpo-15114</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14538">bpo-14538</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13993">bpo-13993</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13960">bpo-13960</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13358">bpo-13358</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1745761">bpo-1745761</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue755670">bpo-755670</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13357">bpo-13357</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12629">bpo-12629</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1200313">bpo-1200313</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue670664">bpo-670664</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13273">bpo-13273</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12888">bpo-12888</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7311">bpo-7311</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.entities.html#html.entities.html5" title="html.entities.html5"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html5</span></code></a> dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
+references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html5['gt;']</span> <span class="pre">==</span>
+<span class="pre">'&gt;'</span></code>) has been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.entities.html#module-html.entities" title="html.entities: Definitions of HTML general entities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.entities</span></code></a> module.  The dictionary is
+now also used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Ezio
+Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11113">bpo-11113</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15156">bpo-15156</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="imaplib">
+<h3>imaplib<a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4_SSL" title="imaplib.IMAP4_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4_SSL</span></code></a> constructor now accepts an SSLContext
+parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Sijin Joseph in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8808">bpo-8808</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inspect">
+<h3>inspect<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getclosurevars" title="inspect.getclosurevars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getclosurevars()</span></code></a> function has been added. This function
+reports the current binding of all names referenced from the function body and
+where those names were resolved, making it easier to verify correct internal
+state when testing code that relies on stateful closures.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13062">bpo-13062</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getgeneratorlocals" title="inspect.getgeneratorlocals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgeneratorlocals()</span></code></a> function has been added. This
+function reports the current binding of local variables in the generator’s
+stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing
+generators.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Meador Inge in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15153">bpo-15153</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="io">
+<h3>io<a class="headerlink" href="#io" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function has a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code> mode that can be used to
+exclusively create a new file, and raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> if the file
+already exists. It is based on the C11 ‘x’ mode to fopen().</p>
+<p>(Contributed by David Townshend in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12760">bpo-12760</a>.)</p>
+<p>The constructor of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> class has a new
+<em>write_through</em> optional argument. If <em>write_through</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, calls to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data
+written on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> object is immediately handled to its
+underlying binary buffer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="itertools">
+<h3>itertools<a class="headerlink" href="#itertools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate()</span></code></a> now takes an optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func</span></code> argument for
+providing a user-supplied binary function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<h3>logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basicConfig()</span></code></a> function now supports an optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers</span></code>
+argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the root logger.</p>
+<p>A class level attribute <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append_nul</span></code> has
+been added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SysLogHandler" title="logging.handlers.SysLogHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SysLogHandler</span></code></a> to allow control of the
+appending of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NUL</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\000</span></code>) byte to syslog records, since for some
+daemons it is required while for others it is passed through to the log.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="math">
+<h3>math<a class="headerlink" href="#math" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module has a new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.log2" title="math.log2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log2()</span></code></a>,  which returns
+the base-2 logarithm of <em>x</em>.</p>
+<p>(Written by Mark Dickinson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11888">bpo-11888</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mmap">
+<h3>mmap<a class="headerlink" href="#mmap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap.read" title="mmap.mmap.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a> method is now more compatible with other file-like
+objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, it returns the
+bytes from the current file position to the end of the mapping.  (Contributed
+by Petri Lehtinen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12021">bpo-12021</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multiprocessing">
+<h3>multiprocessing<a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.connection.wait" title="multiprocessing.connection.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.connection.wait()</span></code></a> function allows polling
+multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a timeout.
+(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12328">bpo-12328</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Connection</span></code> objects can now be transferred over
+multiprocessing connections.
+(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4892">bpo-4892</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Process</span></code></a> now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code> keyword argument
+to override the default behavior of inheriting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code> flag from
+the parent process (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6064">bpo-6064</a>).</p>
+<p>New attribute <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.sentinel" title="multiprocessing.Process.sentinel"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Process.sentinel</span></code></a> allows a
+program to wait on multiple <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> objects at one
+time using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> on
+posix systems).</p>
+<p>New methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap_async" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap_async"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starmap_async()</span></code></a> provide
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.starmap" title="itertools.starmap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.starmap()</span></code></a> equivalents to the existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map_async()</span></code></a> functions.  (Contributed by Hynek
+Schlawack in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12708">bpo-12708</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="nntplib">
+<h3>nntplib<a class="headerlink" href="#nntplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP" title="nntplib.NNTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib.NNTP</span></code></a> class now supports the context management protocol to
+unconditionally consume <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a> exceptions and to close the NNTP
+connection when done:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">nntplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">NNTP</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">NNTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;news.gmane.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">group</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;gmane.comp.python.committers&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers&#39;, 1755, 1, 1755, &#39;gmane.comp.python.committers&#39;)</span>
+<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9795">bpo-9795</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="os">
+<h3>os<a class="headerlink" href="#os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pipe2" title="os.pipe2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipe2()</span></code></a> function that makes it
+possible to create a pipe with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_CLOEXEC" title="os.O_CLOEXEC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_CLOEXEC</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_NONBLOCK" title="os.O_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> flags set atomically. This is especially useful to
+avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code></a> function which provides
+an efficient “zero-copy” way for copying data from one file (or socket)
+descriptor to another. The phrase “zero-copy” refers to the fact that all of
+the copying of data between the two descriptors is done entirely by the
+kernel, with no copying of data into userspace buffers. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code></a>
+can be used to efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket,
+e.g. for downloading a file.</p>
+<p>(Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10882">bpo-10882</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with temporary
+files and directories, it is more reliable (and also faster) to manipulate
+file descriptors instead of file names. Python 3.3 enhances existing functions
+and introduces new functions to work on file descriptors (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4761">bpo-4761</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10755">bpo-10755</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14626">bpo-14626</a>).</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fwalk" title="os.fwalk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fwalk()</span></code></a> function similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk()</span></code></a> except that it also yields file descriptors referring to the
+directories visited. This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.</p></li>
+<li><p>The following functions get new optional <em>dir_fd</em> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#dir-fd"><span class="std std-ref">paths relative to
+directory descriptors</span></a>) and/or <em>follow_symlinks</em> (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#follow-symlinks"><span class="std std-ref">not
+following symlinks</span></a>):
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">access()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chflags" title="os.chflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chflags()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chown" title="os.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chown()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.link" title="os.link"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">link()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstat()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.mkdir" title="os.mkdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdir()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.mkfifo" title="os.mkfifo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkfifo()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.mknod" title="os.mknod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mknod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.readlink" title="os.readlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlink()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.remove" title="os.remove"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rename()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.replace" title="os.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.rmdir" title="os.rmdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmdir()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.symlink" title="os.symlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symlink()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unlink()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.utime" title="os.utime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utime()</span></code></a>.  Platform
+support for using these parameters can be checked via the sets
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.supports_dir_fd" title="os.supports_dir_fd"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_dir_fd</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_follows_symlinks</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The following functions now support a file descriptor for their path argument:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chdir" title="os.chdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chdir()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chmod" title="os.chmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chown" title="os.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chown()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.execve" title="os.execve"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execve()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listdir" title="os.listdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listdir()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pathconf" title="os.pathconf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathconf()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.exists" title="os.path.exists"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exists()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.statvfs" title="os.statvfs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statvfs()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.utime" title="os.utime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utime()</span></code></a>.  Platform support
+for this can be checked via the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.supports_fd" title="os.supports_fd"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_fd</span></code></a> set.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.access" title="os.access"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">access()</span></code></a> accepts an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">effective_ids</span></code> keyword argument to turn on
+using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid in the access check.
+Platform support for this can be checked via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.supports_effective_ids" title="os.supports_effective_ids"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supports_effective_ids</span></code></a> set.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module has two new functions: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getpriority" title="os.getpriority"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpriority()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.setpriority" title="os.setpriority"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setpriority()</span></code></a>. They can be used to get or set process
+niceness/priority in a fashion similar to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.nice" title="os.nice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.nice()</span></code></a> but extended to all
+processes instead of just the current one.</p>
+<p>(Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10784">bpo-10784</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.replace" title="os.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.replace()</span></code></a> function allows cross-platform renaming of a
+file with overwriting the destination.  With <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.rename" title="os.rename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.rename()</span></code></a>, an existing
+destination file is overwritten under POSIX, but raises an error under
+Windows.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8828">bpo-8828</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The stat family of functions (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstat()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.lstat" title="os.lstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lstat()</span></code></a>) now support reading a file’s timestamps
+with nanosecond precision.  Symmetrically, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.utime" title="os.utime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utime()</span></code></a>
+can now write file timestamps with nanosecond precision.  (Contributed by
+Larry Hastings in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14127">bpo-14127</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.get_terminal_size" title="os.get_terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.get_terminal_size()</span></code></a> function queries the size of the
+terminal attached to a file descriptor. See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.get_terminal_size" title="shutil.get_terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.get_terminal_size()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13609">bpo-13609</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>New functions to support Linux extended attributes (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12720">bpo-12720</a>):
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getxattr" title="os.getxattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getxattr()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.listxattr" title="os.listxattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">listxattr()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.removexattr" title="os.removexattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">removexattr()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.setxattr" title="os.setxattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setxattr()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>New interface to the scheduler. These functions
+control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating system. New
+functions:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_get_priority_max" title="os.sched_get_priority_max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_get_priority_max()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_get_priority_min" title="os.sched_get_priority_min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_get_priority_min()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_getaffinity" title="os.sched_getaffinity"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_getaffinity()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_getparam" title="os.sched_getparam"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_getparam()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_getscheduler" title="os.sched_getscheduler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_getscheduler()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_rr_get_interval" title="os.sched_rr_get_interval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_rr_get_interval()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_setaffinity" title="os.sched_setaffinity"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_setaffinity()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_setparam" title="os.sched_setparam"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_setparam()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_setscheduler" title="os.sched_setscheduler"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_setscheduler()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_yield" title="os.sched_yield"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sched_yield()</span></code></a>,</p></li>
+<li><p>New functions to control the file system:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.posix_fadvise" title="os.posix_fadvise"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix_fadvise()</span></code></a>: Announces an intention to access data in a
+specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make optimizations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.posix_fallocate" title="os.posix_fallocate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix_fallocate()</span></code></a>: Ensures that enough disk space is allocated
+for a file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sync" title="os.sync"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sync()</span></code></a>: Force write of everything to disk.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>Additional new  posix functions:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.lockf" title="os.lockf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lockf()</span></code></a>: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pread" title="os.pread"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pread()</span></code></a>: Read from a file descriptor at an offset, the file
+offset remains unchanged.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pwrite" title="os.pwrite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwrite()</span></code></a>: Write to a file descriptor from an offset, leaving
+the file offset unchanged.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.readv" title="os.readv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readv()</span></code></a>: Read from a file descriptor into a number of writable buffers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.truncate" title="os.truncate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code></a>: Truncate the file corresponding to <em>path</em>, so that
+it is at most <em>length</em> bytes in size.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.waitid" title="os.waitid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitid()</span></code></a>: Wait for the completion of one or more child processes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.writev" title="os.writev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writev()</span></code></a>: Write the contents of <em>buffers</em> to a file descriptor,
+where <em>buffers</em> is an arbitrary sequence of buffers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getgrouplist" title="os.getgrouplist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgrouplist()</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9344">bpo-9344</a>): Return list of group ids that
+specified user belongs to.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.times" title="os.times"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">times()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.uname" title="os.uname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uname()</span></code></a>: Return type changed from a tuple to
+a tuple-like object with named attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p>Some platforms now support additional constants for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.lseek" title="os.lseek"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lseek()</span></code></a>
+function, such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_HOLE</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.SEEK_DATA</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>New constants <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.RTLD_LAZY" title="os.RTLD_LAZY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_LAZY</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.RTLD_NOW" title="os.RTLD_NOW"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_NOW</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.RTLD_GLOBAL" title="os.RTLD_GLOBAL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_GLOBAL</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.RTLD_LOCAL" title="os.RTLD_LOCAL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_LOCAL</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.RTLD_NODELETE" title="os.RTLD_NODELETE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_NODELETE</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.RTLD_NOLOAD" title="os.RTLD_NOLOAD"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_NOLOAD</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.RTLD_DEEPBIND" title="os.RTLD_DEEPBIND"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RTLD_DEEPBIND</span></code></a> are available on
+platforms that support them.   These are for use with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setdlopenflags" title="sys.setdlopenflags"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setdlopenflags()</span></code></a> function, and supersede the similar constants
+defined in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DLFCN</span></code>.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13226">bpo-13226</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.symlink" title="os.symlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.symlink()</span></code></a> now accepts (and ignores) the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">target_is_directory</span></code>
+keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to ease cross-platform support.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pdb">
+<h3>pdb<a class="headerlink" href="#pdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also their
+arguments.  For example, for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> command, function and file names
+are completed.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14210">bpo-14210</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pickle">
+<h3>pickle<a class="headerlink" href="#pickle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.Pickler</span></code></a> objects now have an optional
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table" title="pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dispatch_table</span></code></a> attribute allowing per-pickler
+reduction functions to be set.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14166">bpo-14166</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pydoc">
+<h3>pydoc<a class="headerlink" href="#pydoc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The Tk GUI and the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve()</span></code> function have been removed from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span> <span class="pre">-g</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve()</span></code> have been deprecated
+in Python 3.2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="re">
+<h3>re<a class="headerlink" href="#re" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> regular expressions now support <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\u</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\U</span></code> escapes.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3665">bpo-3665</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sched">
+<h3>sched<a class="headerlink" href="#sched" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.run" title="sched.scheduler.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> now accepts a <em>blocking</em> parameter which when
+set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to expire
+soonest (if any) and then return immediately.
+This is useful in case you want to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler" title="sched.scheduler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheduler</span></code></a> in
+non-blocking applications.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13449">bpo-13449</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler" title="sched.scheduler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheduler</span></code></a> class can now be safely used in multi-threaded
+environments.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and Giampaolo Rodolà in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8684">bpo-8684</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><em>timefunc</em> and <em>delayfunct</em> parameters of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler" title="sched.scheduler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scheduler</span></code></a> class
+constructor are now optional and defaults to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.sleep()</span></code></a> respectively.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13245">bpo-13245</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enter" title="sched.scheduler.enter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enter()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enterabs" title="sched.scheduler.enterabs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enterabs()</span></code></a>
+<em>argument</em> parameter is now optional.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13245">bpo-13245</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enter" title="sched.scheduler.enter"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enter()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sched.html#sched.scheduler.enterabs" title="sched.scheduler.enterabs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enterabs()</span></code></a>
+now accept a <em>kwargs</em> parameter.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13245">bpo-13245</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="select">
+<h3>select<a class="headerlink" href="#select" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.devpoll" title="select.devpoll"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.devpoll</span></code></a>
+for high performance asynchronous sockets via <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6397">bpo-6397</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shlex">
+<h3>shlex<a class="headerlink" href="#shlex" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The previously undocumented helper function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote</span></code> from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pipes.html#module-pipes" title="pipes: A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipes</span></code></a> modules has been moved to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shlex.html#module-shlex" title="shlex: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> module and
+documented.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shlex.html#shlex.quote" title="shlex.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote()</span></code></a> properly escapes all characters in a string
+that might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shutil">
+<h3>shutil<a class="headerlink" href="#shutil" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>New functions:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.disk_usage" title="shutil.disk_usage"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disk_usage()</span></code></a>: provides total, used and free disk space
+statistics.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12442">bpo-12442</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.chown" title="shutil.chown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chown()</span></code></a>: allows one to change user and/or group of the given
+path also specifying the user/group names and not only their numeric
+ids.  (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12191">bpo-12191</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.get_terminal_size" title="shutil.get_terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.get_terminal_size()</span></code></a>: returns the size of the terminal window
+to which the interpreter is attached.  (Contributed by Zbigniew
+Jędrzejewski-Szmek in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13609">bpo-13609</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copystat()</span></code></a> now preserve file
+timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
+They also preserve file “extended attributes” on Linux.  (Contributed
+by Larry Hastings in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14127">bpo-14127</a> and  <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15238">bpo-15238</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Several functions now take an optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symlinks</span></code> argument: when that
+parameter is true, symlinks aren’t dereferenced and the operation instead
+acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if relevant).
+(Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12715">bpo-12715</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When copying files to a different file system, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.move" title="shutil.move"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move()</span></code></a> now
+handles symlinks the way the posix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mv</span></code> command does, recreating the
+symlink rather than copying the target file contents.  (Contributed by
+Jonathan Niehof in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9993">bpo-9993</a>.)  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.move" title="shutil.move"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move()</span></code></a> now also returns
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dst</span></code> argument as its result.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rmtree()</span></code></a> is now resistant to symlink attacks on platforms
+which support the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir_fd</span></code> parameter in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.unlink" title="os.unlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.unlink()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4489">bpo-4489</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="signal">
+<h3>signal<a class="headerlink" href="#signal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module has new functions:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.pthread_sigmask" title="signal.pthread_sigmask"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_sigmask()</span></code></a>: fetch and/or change the signal mask of the
+calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8407">bpo-8407</a>);</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.pthread_kill" title="signal.pthread_kill"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pthread_kill()</span></code></a>: send a signal to a thread;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigpending" title="signal.sigpending"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigpending()</span></code></a>: examine pending functions;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigwait" title="signal.sigwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwait()</span></code></a>: wait a signal;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a>: wait for a signal, returning detailed
+information about it;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigtimedwait" title="signal.sigtimedwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigtimedwait()</span></code></a>: like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a> but with a
+timeout.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte instead of
+a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor. So it is possible to wait more
+than one signal and know which signals were raised.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.signal" title="signal.signal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.signal()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.siginterrupt" title="signal.siginterrupt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.siginterrupt()</span></code></a> raise an OSError,
+instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno attribute.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtpd">
+<h3>smtpd<a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#module-smtpd" title="smtpd: A SMTP server implementation in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code></a> module now supports <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5321.html"><strong>RFC 5321</strong></a> (extended SMTP) and <span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1870.html"><strong>RFC 1870</strong></a>
+(size extension).  Per the standard, these extensions are enabled if and only
+if the client initiates the session with an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EHLO</span></code> command.</p>
+<p>(Initial <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ELHO</span></code> support by Alberto Trevino.  Size extension by Juhana
+Jauhiainen.  Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by Michele
+Orrù and Dan Boswell.  <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8739">bpo-8739</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtplib">
+<h3>smtplib<a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP_SSL" title="smtplib.SMTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP_SSL</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.LMTP" title="smtplib.LMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LMTP</span></code></a> classes now accept a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source_address</span></code> keyword argument
+to specify the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(host,</span> <span class="pre">port)</span></code> to use as the source address in the bind call
+when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11281">bpo-11281</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> now supports the context management protocol, allowing an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code> instance to be used in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> statement.  (Contributed
+by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11289">bpo-11289</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP_SSL" title="smtplib.SMTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP_SSL</span></code></a> constructor and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.starttls" title="smtplib.SMTP.starttls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">starttls()</span></code></a>
+method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure
+channel.  (Contributed by Kasun Herath in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8809">bpo-8809</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket">
+<h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> class now exposes additional methods to process
+ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendmsg" title="socket.socket.sendmsg"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmsg()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvmsg_into" title="socket.socket.recvmsg_into"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg_into()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by David Watson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6560">bpo-6560</a>, based on an earlier patch by
+Heiko Wundram)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> class now supports the PF_CAN protocol family
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan</a>), on Linux
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://lwn.net/Articles/253425">https://lwn.net/Articles/253425</a>).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10141">bpo-10141</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> class now supports the PF_RDS protocol family
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/">https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> class now supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PF_SYSTEM</span></code> protocol
+family on OS X.  (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13777">bpo-13777</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.sethostname" title="socket.sethostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sethostname()</span></code></a> allows the hostname to be set
+on unix systems if the calling process has sufficient privileges.
+(Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10866">bpo-10866</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socketserver">
+<h3>socketserver<a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer" title="socketserver.BaseServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseServer</span></code></a> now has an overridable method
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions" title="socketserver.BaseServer.service_actions"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">service_actions()</span></code></a> that is called by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever" title="socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">serve_forever()</span></code></a> method in the service loop.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> now uses this to clean up zombie
+child processes.  (Contributed by Justin Warkentin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11109">bpo-11109</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sqlite3">
+<h3>sqlite3<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection</span></code></a> method
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback" title="sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_trace_callback()</span></code></a> can be used to capture a trace of
+all sql commands processed by sqlite.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11688">bpo-11688</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl">
+<h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module has two new random generation functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_bytes" title="ssl.RAND_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RAND_bytes()</span></code></a>: generate cryptographically strong
+pseudo-random bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes" title="ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RAND_pseudo_bytes()</span></code></a>: generate pseudo-random bytes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12049">bpo-12049</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module now exposes a finer-grained exception hierarchy
+in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds of errors.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11183">bpo-11183</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_cert_chain()</span></code></a> now accepts a <em>password</em> argument
+to be used if the private key is encrypted.
+(Contributed by Adam Simpkins in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12803">bpo-12803</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based, is
+now supported through the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_dh_params()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_ecdh_curve()</span></code></a> methods.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13626">bpo-13626</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13627">bpo-13627</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>SSL sockets have a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding" title="ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_channel_binding()</span></code></a> method
+allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms such as
+SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS.  (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12551">bpo-12551</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket, thanks
+to its new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.compression" title="ssl.SSLSocket.compression"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compression()</span></code></a> method.  The new attribute
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION" title="ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_COMPRESSION</span></code></a> can be used to disable compression.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13634">bpo-13634</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension using
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols()</span></code></a> method.
+(Contributed by Colin Marc in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14204">bpo-14204</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError.library" title="ssl.SSLError.library"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">library</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError.reason" title="ssl.SSLError.reason"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reason</span></code></a> attributes.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14837">bpo-14837</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.get_server_certificate" title="ssl.get_server_certificate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_server_certificate()</span></code></a> function now supports IPv6.
+(Contributed by Charles-François Natali in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11811">bpo-11811</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New attribute <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE" title="ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE</span></code></a> allows setting
+SSLv3 server sockets to use the server’s cipher ordering preference rather
+than the client’s (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13635">bpo-13635</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="stat">
+<h3>stat<a class="headerlink" href="#stat" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#stat.filemode" title="stat.filemode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat.filemode()</span></code></a>. It can be used to convert a file’s mode to a string of
+the form ‘-rwxrwxrwx’.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14807">bpo-14807</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="struct">
+<h3>struct<a class="headerlink" href="#struct" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> module now supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size_t</span></code> via the
+new codes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">N</span></code>, respectively.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3163">bpo-3163</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess">
+<h3>subprocess<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms.  (Contributed by
+Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8513">bpo-8513</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new constant <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.DEVNULL" title="subprocess.DEVNULL"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEVNULL</span></code></a> allows suppressing output in a
+platform-independent fashion.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5870">bpo-5870</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sys">
+<h3>sys<a class="headerlink" href="#sys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.thread_info" title="sys.thread_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thread_info</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-struct-sequence"><span class="xref std std-term">struct
+sequence</span></a> holding information about the thread implementation
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11223">bpo-11223</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tarfile">
+<h3>tarfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> now supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code> encoding via the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a> module.
+(Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5689">bpo-5689</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tempfile">
+<h3>tempfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile" title="tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile</span></code></a>’s
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code> method now accepts
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">size</span></code> parameter.  (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9957">bpo-9957</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="textwrap">
+<h3>textwrap<a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#module-textwrap" title="textwrap: Text wrapping and filling"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">textwrap</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#textwrap.indent" title="textwrap.indent"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">indent()</span></code></a> that makes
+it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
+of text  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13857">bpo-13857</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="threading">
+<h3>threading<a class="headerlink" href="#threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Condition" title="threading.Condition"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Condition</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore" title="threading.Semaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Semaphore</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.BoundedSemaphore" title="threading.BoundedSemaphore"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.BoundedSemaphore</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Event" title="threading.Event"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Event</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Timer" title="threading.Timer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Timer</span></code></a>, all of which used to be factory functions returning a
+class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed.  (Contributed by Éric
+Araujo in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10968">bpo-10968</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread</span></code></a> constructor now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code> keyword
+argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">daemon</span></code> flag
+value from the parent thread (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6064">bpo-6064</a>).</p>
+<p>The formerly private function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread.get_ident</span></code> is now available as the
+public function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.get_ident" title="threading.get_ident"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.get_ident()</span></code></a>.  This eliminates several cases of
+direct access to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread</span></code> module in the stdlib.  Third party code that
+used <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread.get_ident</span></code> should likewise be changed to use the new public
+interface.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="time">
+<h3>time<a class="headerlink" href="#time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0418"><strong>PEP 418</strong></a> added new functions to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.get_clock_info" title="time.get_clock_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_clock_info()</span></code></a>: Get information on a clock.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.monotonic" title="time.monotonic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">monotonic()</span></code></a>: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not affected
+by system clock updates.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">perf_counter()</span></code></a>: Performance counter with the highest available
+resolution to measure a short duration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.process_time" title="time.process_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_time()</span></code></a>: Sum of the system and user CPU time of the
+current process.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Other new functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_getres" title="time.clock_getres"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_getres()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_gettime" title="time.clock_gettime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_gettime()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_settime" title="time.clock_settime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_settime()</span></code></a> functions with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_xxx</span></code> constants.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10278">bpo-10278</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>To improve cross platform consistency, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sleep()</span></code></a> now raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> when passed a negative sleep value.  Previously this was an
+error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="types">
+<h3>types<a class="headerlink" href="#types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Add a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.MappingProxyType</span></code></a> class: Read-only proxy of a mapping.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14386">bpo-14386</a>)</p>
+<p>The new functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.new_class" title="types.new_class"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.new_class()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.prepare_class" title="types.prepare_class"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.prepare_class()</span></code></a> provide support
+for PEP 3115 compliant dynamic type creation. (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14588">bpo-14588</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest">
+<h3>unittest<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaises" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaises"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaises()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRaisesRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegex()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarnsRegex()</span></code></a> now accept a keyword argument <em>msg</em> when used as
+context managers.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10775">bpo-10775</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.run" title="unittest.TestCase.run"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase.run()</span></code></a> now returns the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestResult" title="unittest.TestResult"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestResult</span></code></a>
+object.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib">
+<h3>urllib<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> class, now accepts a <em>method</em> argument
+used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.get_method" title="urllib.request.Request.get_method"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_method()</span></code></a> to determine what HTTP method
+should be used.  For example, this will send a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'HEAD'</span></code> request:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;https://www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">method</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;HEAD&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1673007">bpo-1673007</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="webbrowser">
+<h3>webbrowser<a class="headerlink" href="#webbrowser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/webbrowser.html#module-webbrowser" title="webbrowser: Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code></a> module supports more “browsers”: Google Chrome (named
+<strong class="program">chrome</strong>, <strong class="program">chromium</strong>, <strong class="program">chrome-browser</strong> or
+<strong class="program">chromium-browser</strong> depending on the version and operating system),
+and the generic launchers <strong class="program">xdg-open</strong>, from the FreeDesktop.org
+project, and <strong class="program">gvfs-open</strong>, which is the default URI handler for GNOME
+3.  (The former contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13620">bpo-13620</a>, the latter
+by Matthias Klose in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14493">bpo-14493</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xml-etree-elementtree">
+<h3>xml.etree.ElementTree<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-etree-elementtree" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> module now imports its C accelerator by
+default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.cElementTree</span></code> (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
+but is now deprecated).  In addition,  the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter</span></code> family of methods of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code></a> has been optimized (rewritten in C).
+The module’s documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples
+and a more detailed reference.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zlib">
+<h3>zlib<a class="headerlink" href="#zlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New attribute <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#zlib.Decompress.eof" title="zlib.Decompress.eof"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib.Decompress.eof</span></code></a> makes it possible to distinguish
+between a properly-formed compressed stream and an incomplete or truncated one.
+(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12646">bpo-12646</a>.)</p>
+<p>New attribute <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION" title="zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION</span></code></a> reports the version string of
+the underlying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib</span></code> library that is loaded at runtime.  (Contributed by
+Torsten Landschoff in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12306">bpo-12306</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h2>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Major performance enhancements have been added:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Thanks to <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a>, some operations on Unicode strings have been optimized:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the text</p></li>
+<li><p>encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn’t need to encode characters anymore,
+the UTF-8 representation is shared with the ASCII representation</p></li>
+<li><p>the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized</p></li>
+<li><p>repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an ASCII string
+is 4 times faster</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster.  UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x faster.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14624">bpo-14624</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14738">bpo-14738</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15026">bpo-15026</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>New <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3118"><strong>PEP 3118</strong></a> related function:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memoryview.html#c.PyMemoryView_FromMemory" title="PyMemoryView_FromMemory"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemoryView_FromMemory()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a> added new Unicode types, macros and functions:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>High-level API:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CopyCharacters" title="PyUnicode_CopyCharacters"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FindChar" title="PyUnicode_FindChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FindChar()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetLength" title="PyUnicode_GetLength"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GetLength()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH" title="PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_New" title="PyUnicode_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_New()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Substring" title="PyUnicode_Substring"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Substring()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_ReadChar" title="PyUnicode_ReadChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_ReadChar()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WriteChar" title="PyUnicode_WriteChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_WriteChar()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>Low-level API:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS1" title="Py_UCS1"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UCS1</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS2" title="Py_UCS2"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UCS2</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UCS4" title="Py_UCS4"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UCS4</span></code></a> types</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyASCIIObject" title="PyASCIIObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyASCIIObject</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyCompactUnicodeObject" title="PyCompactUnicodeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCompactUnicodeObject</span></code></a> structures</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READY" title="PyUnicode_READY"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READY</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromKindAndData" title="PyUnicode_FromKindAndData"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromKindAndData()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4" title="PyUnicode_AsUCS4"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUCS4()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy" title="PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DATA" title="PyUnicode_DATA"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DATA</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA" title="PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA" title="PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA" title="PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_KIND" title="PyUnicode_KIND"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_KIND</span></code></a> with <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Kind</span></code> enum:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND" title="PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND" title="PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND" title="PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND" title="PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READ" title="PyUnicode_READ"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READ</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READ_CHAR" title="PyUnicode_READ_CHAR"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READ_CHAR</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WRITE" title="PyUnicode_WRITE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_WRITE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE" title="PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTuple" title="PyArg_ParseTuple"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTuple</span></code></a> now accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c</span></code>
+format (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12380">bpo-12380</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated">
+<h2>Deprecated<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="unsupported-operating-systems">
+<h3>Unsupported Operating Systems<a class="headerlink" href="#unsupported-operating-systems" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.</p>
+<p>Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMSPEC</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command.com</span></code>
+are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.</p>
+<p>OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">
+<h3>Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Passing a non-empty string to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__format__()</span></code> is deprecated, and
+will produce a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> in Python 3.4 (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9856">bpo-9856</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode_internal</span></code> codec has been deprecated because of the
+<span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a>, use UTF-8, UTF-16 (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-16-le</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-16-be</span></code>), or UTF-32
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-32-le</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-32-be</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.nlst" title="ftplib.FTP.nlst"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP.nlst()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.dir" title="ftplib.FTP.dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP.dir()</span></code></a>: use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP.mlsd" title="ftplib.FTP.mlsd"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP.mlsd()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#platform.popen" title="platform.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform.popen()</span></code></a>: use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module. Check especially
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess-replacements"><span class="std std-ref">Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module</span></a> section (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11377">bpo-11377</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13374">bpo-13374</a>: The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a>
+module. Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes filenames, to not depend on
+the ANSI code page anymore and to support any filename.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13988">bpo-13988</a>: The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.cElementTree</span></code> module is deprecated.  The
+accelerator is used automatically whenever available.</p></li>
+<li><p>The behaviour of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock" title="time.clock"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.clock()</span></code></a> depends on the platform: use the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.process_time" title="time.process_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.process_time()</span></code></a> function instead,
+depending on your requirements, to have a well defined behaviour.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat_float_times()</span></code> function is deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractproperty" title="abc.abstractproperty"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractproperty</span></code></a> has been deprecated, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property</span></code></a>
+with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractmethod()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractclassmethod" title="abc.abstractclassmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractclassmethod</span></code></a> has been deprecated, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractmethod()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractstaticmethod" title="abc.abstractstaticmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractstaticmethod</span></code></a> has been deprecated, use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractmethod" title="abc.abstractmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.abstractmethod()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> package:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime()</span></code></a> is now deprecated in favour of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats()</span></code></a> as bytecode files now store
+both the modification time and size of the source file the bytecode file was
+compiled from.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">
+<h3>Deprecated functions and types of the C API<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> has been deprecated by <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0393"><strong>PEP 393</strong></a> and will be
+removed in Python 4. All functions using this type are deprecated:</p>
+<p>Unicode functions and methods using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE*</span></code></a> types:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromUnicode" title="PyUnicode_FromUnicode"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromUnicode</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromWideChar" title="PyUnicode_FromWideChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromWideChar()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromKindAndData" title="PyUnicode_FromKindAndData"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromKindAndData()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE" title="PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicode" title="PyUnicode_AsUnicode"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUnicode()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize" title="PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="PyUnicode_AsWideCharString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AS_DATA" title="PyUnicode_AS_DATA"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AS_DATA</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DATA" title="PyUnicode_DATA"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DATA</span></code></a> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_READ" title="PyUnicode_READ"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_READ</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_WRITE" title="PyUnicode_WRITE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_WRITE</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_SIZE" title="PyUnicode_GET_SIZE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_SIZE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetSize" title="PyUnicode_GetSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GetSize()</span></code></a>: use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH" title="PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetLength" title="PyUnicode_GetLength"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GetLength()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE" title="PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE</span></code></a>: use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str)</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">PyUnicode_KIND(str)</span></code> (only work on ready
+strings)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy" title="PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy" title="PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="PyUnicode_AsWideCharString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GetMax()</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strlen</span></code>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GetLength" title="PyUnicode_GetLength"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GetLength()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH" title="PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strcat</span></code>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CopyCharacters" title="PyUnicode_CopyCharacters"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strcpy</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strncpy</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_COPY</span></code>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CopyCharacters" title="PyUnicode_CopyCharacters"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Substring" title="PyUnicode_Substring"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Substring()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strcmp</span></code>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Compare" title="PyUnicode_Compare"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Compare()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strncmp</span></code>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Tailmatch" title="PyUnicode_Tailmatch"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Tailmatch()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strchr</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_strrchr</span></code>: use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FindChar" title="PyUnicode_FindChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FindChar()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_FILL</span></code>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Fill" title="PyUnicode_Fill"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Fill()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE_MATCH</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Encoders:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Encode" title="PyUnicode_Encode"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Encode()</span></code></a>: use <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7" title="PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8" title="PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF8"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF8()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8String" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF8String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF8String()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32" title="PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16" title="PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape:()</span></code> use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString" title="PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape:()</span></code> use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString" title="PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1" title="PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsLatin1String" title="PyUnicode_AsLatin1String"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsLatin1String()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeASCII" title="PyUnicode_EncodeASCII"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsASCIIString" title="PyUnicode_AsASCIIString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsASCIIString()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap" title="PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap" title="PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS" title="PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()</span></code></a>: use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsMBCSString" title="PyUnicode_AsMBCSString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsMBCSString()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage" title="PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage()</span></code></a> (with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CP_ACP</span></code> code_page)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()</span></code>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII" title="PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-features">
+<h3>Deprecated features<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array</span></code></a> module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'u'</span></code> format code is now deprecated and will be
+removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a>) API.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-3">
+<h2>Porting to Python 3.3<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.</p>
+<div class="section" id="porting-python-code">
+<span id="portingpythoncode"></span><h3>Porting Python code<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-python-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Hash randomization is enabled by default. Set the <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a>
+environment variable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to disable hash randomization. See also the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__hash__()</span></code></a> method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12326">bpo-12326</a>: On Linux, sys.platform doesn’t contain the major version
+anymore. It is now always ‘linux’, instead of ‘linux2’ or ‘linux3’ depending
+on the Linux version used to build Python. Replace sys.platform == ‘linux2’
+with sys.platform.startswith(‘linux’), or directly sys.platform == ‘linux’ if
+you don’t need to support older Python versions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13847">bpo-13847</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14180">bpo-14180</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> is now raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if a
+timestamp is out of range. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> is now raised if C functions
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gmtime()</span></code> or <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">localtime()</span></code> failed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is contained
+within a specific directory. If you create a Python source file or sourceless
+bytecode file, make sure to call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.invalidate_caches()</span></code></a> to clear
+out the cache for the finders to notice the new file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> now uses the full name of the module that was attempted to
+be imported. Doctests that check ImportErrors’ message will need to be
+updated to use the full name of the module instead of just the tail of the
+name.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>index</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> now defaults to 0 instead of -1
+and no longer support negative values. It was an oversight when <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0328"><strong>PEP 328</strong></a> was
+implemented that the default value remained -1. If you need to continue to
+perform a relative import followed by an absolute import, then perform the
+relative import using an index of 1, followed by another import using an
+index of 0. It is preferred, though, that you use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.import_module()</span></code></a> rather than call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> directly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> no longer allows one to use an index value other than 0
+for top-level modules. E.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__('sys',</span> <span class="pre">level=1)</span></code> is now an error.</p></li>
+<li><p>Because <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> now have finders on
+them by default, you will most likely want to use <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.insert()</span></code> instead
+of <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.append()</span></code> to add to those lists.</p></li>
+<li><p>Because <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is now inserted into <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>, if you
+are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths that do not have a
+finder, you will need to remove keys paired with values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> <strong>and</strong>
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.NullImporter" title="imp.NullImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.NullImporter</span></code></a> to be backwards-compatible. This will lead to extra
+overhead on older versions of Python that re-insert <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> into
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> where it represents the use of implicit
+finders, but semantically it should not change anything.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Finder" title="importlib.abc.Finder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Finder</span></code></a> no longer specifies a <cite>find_module()</cite> abstract
+method that must be implemented. If you were relying on subclasses to
+implement that method, make sure to check for the method’s existence first.
+You will probably want to check for <cite>find_loader()</cite> first, though, in the
+case of working with <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-entry-finder"><span class="xref std std-term">path entry finders</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#module-pkgutil" title="pkgutil: Utilities for the import system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil</span></code></a> has been converted to use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> internally. This
+eliminates many edge cases where the old behaviour of the PEP 302 import
+emulation failed to match the behaviour of the real import system. The
+import emulation itself is still present, but is now deprecated. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.iter_importers" title="pkgutil.iter_importers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil.iter_importers()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.walk_packages" title="pkgutil.walk_packages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil.walk_packages()</span></code></a> functions
+special case the standard import hooks so they are still supported even
+though they do not provide the non-standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_modules()</span></code> method.</p></li>
+<li><p>A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1079">bpo-1079</a>) in the parsing done by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.header.html#email.header.decode_header" title="email.header.decode_header"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header.decode_header()</span></code></a> has been fixed.  Code that uses the
+standard idiom to convert encoded headers into unicode
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(make_header(decode_header(h))</span></code>) will see no change, but code that
+looks at the individual tuples returned by decode_header will see that
+whitespace that precedes or follows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> sections is now included in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> section.  Code that builds headers using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_header</span></code> should
+also continue to work without change, since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_header</span></code> continues to add
+whitespace between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> and non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> sections if it is not already
+present in the input strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.utils.html#email.utils.formataddr" title="email.utils.formataddr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils.formataddr()</span></code></a> now does the correct content transfer
+encoding when passed non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> display names.  Any code that depended on
+the previous buggy behavior that preserved the non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code> unicode in the
+formatted output string will need to be changed (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1690608">bpo-1690608</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.quit" title="poplib.POP3.quit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib.POP3.quit()</span></code></a> may now raise protocol errors like all other
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code> methods.  Code that assumes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit</span></code> does not raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#poplib.error_proto" title="poplib.error_proto"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib.error_proto</span></code></a> errors may need to be changed if errors on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quit</span></code>
+are encountered by a particular application (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11291">bpo-11291</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict</span></code> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.parser.Parser" title="email.parser.Parser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.parser.Parser</span></code></a>, deprecated since
+Python 2.4, has finally been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The deprecated method <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements</span></code> has been
+removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The deprecated variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.accept2dyear</span></code> has been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The deprecated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context._clamp</span></code> attribute has been removed from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module.  It was previously replaced by the public attribute
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clamp</span></code>.  (See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8540">bpo-8540</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The undocumented internal helper class <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLFakeFile</span></code> has been removed
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a>, since its functionality has long been provided directly
+by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.makefile" title="socket.socket.makefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.makefile()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Passing a negative value to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.sleep()</span></code></a> on Windows now raises an
+error instead of sleeping forever.  It has always raised an error on posix.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.__version__</span></code> constant has been removed.  If you need to
+make decisions affected by the AST version, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a>
+to make the decision.</p></li>
+<li><p>Code that used to work around the fact that the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module used
+factory functions by subclassing the private classes will need to change to
+subclass the now-public classes.</p></li>
+<li><p>The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has been
+removed, simplifying the code.  This should have no effect on production
+code, but is mentioned here in case any application debug frameworks were
+interacting with it (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13550">bpo-13550</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-c-code">
+<h3>Porting C code<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-c-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
+<code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smalltable</span></code> member of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#c.Py_buffer" title="Py_buffer"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_buffer</span></code></a> structure has been removed and the
+layout of the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemoryViewObject</span></code> has changed.</p>
+<p>All extensions relying on the relevant parts in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryobject.h</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.h</span></code> must be rebuilt.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Due to <a class="reference internal" href="#pep-393"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 393</span></a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.Py_UNICODE" title="Py_UNICODE"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code></a> type and all
+functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available for
+at least five years).  If you were using low-level Unicode APIs to
+construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of the
+memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393, you have to convert
+your code to the new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html"><span class="doc">Unicode API</span></a>.</p>
+<p>However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Concat" title="PyUnicode_Concat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Concat()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_Join" title="PyUnicode_Join"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_Join()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a>, your code will automatically take
+advantage of the new unicode representations.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetMagicNumber" title="PyImport_GetMagicNumber"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_GetMagicNumber()</span></code></a> now returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> upon failure.</p></li>
+<li><p>As a negative value for the <em>level</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> is no
+longer valid, the same now holds for <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleLevel" title="PyImport_ImportModuleLevel"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleLevel()</span></code></a>.
+This also means that the value of <em>level</em> used by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_ImportModuleEx" title="PyImport_ImportModuleEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_ImportModuleEx()</span></code></a> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="building-c-extensions">
+<h3>Building C extensions<a class="headerlink" href="#building-c-extensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The range of possible file names for C extensions has been narrowed.
+Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under POSIX, files
+named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xxxmodule.so</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xxxmodule.abi3.so</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xxxmodule.cpython-*.so</span></code> are no longer recognized as implementing
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xxx</span></code> module.  If you had been generating such files, you have
+to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module</span></code> string
+from the file names).</p>
+<p>(implemented in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14040">bpo-14040</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="command-line-switch-changes">
+<h3>Command Line Switch Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-switch-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed.  Code
+checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10998">bpo-10998</a>, contributed by Éric Araujo.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>When <strong class="program">python</strong> is started with <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id3"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-S</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">site</span></code>
+will no longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths.  In
+previous versions, it did.</p>
+<p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11591">bpo-11591</a>, contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric Araujo.)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-405-virtual-environments">PEP 405: Virtual Environments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-420-implicit-namespace-packages">PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation">PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#features">Features</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api-changes">API changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-393-flexible-string-representation">PEP 393: Flexible String Representation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functionality">Functionality</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#performance-and-resource-usage">Performance and resource usage</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-397-python-launcher-for-windows">PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3151-reworking-the-os-and-io-exception-hierarchy">PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-380-syntax-for-delegating-to-a-subgenerator">PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-409-suppressing-exception-context">PEP 409: Suppressing exception context</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-414-explicit-unicode-literals">PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3155-qualified-name-for-classes-and-functions">PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-412-key-sharing-dictionary">PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-362-function-signature-object">PEP 362: Function Signature Object</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-421-adding-sys-implementation">PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#simplenamespace">SimpleNamespace</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-importlib-as-the-implementation-of-import">Using importlib as the Implementation of Import</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-apis">New APIs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#visible-changes">Visible Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-finer-grained-import-lock">A Finer-Grained Import Lock</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#builtin-functions-and-types">Builtin functions and types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler">faulthandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress">ipaddress</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lzma">lzma</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abc">abc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#array">array</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#base64">base64</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binascii">binascii</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bz2">bz2</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#codecs">codecs</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#crypt">crypt</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#curses">curses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime">datetime</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal">decimal</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id1">Features</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2">API changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#email">email</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#policy-framework">Policy Framework</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#provisional-policy-with-new-header-api">Provisional Policy with New Header API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-api-changes">Other API Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ftplib">ftplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gc">gc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hmac">hmac</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http">http</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#html">html</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib">imaplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#io">io</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools">itertools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#math">math</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mmap">mmap</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#nntplib">nntplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#os">os</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#re">re</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sched">sched</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#select">select</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shlex">shlex</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#signal">signal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd">smtpd</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib">smtplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver">socketserver</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#stat">stat</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#struct">struct</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile">tempfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap">textwrap</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#time">time</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types">types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib">urllib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#webbrowser">webbrowser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-etree-elementtree">xml.etree.ElementTree</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zlib">zlib</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unsupported-operating-systems">Unsupported Operating Systems</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">Deprecated functions and types of the C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-features">Deprecated features</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-3">Porting to Python 3.3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-python-code">Porting Python code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-c-code">Porting C code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#building-c-extensions">Building C extensions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-switch-changes">Command Line Switch Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.4.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.4</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.2.html"
+                        title="next chapter">What’s New In Python 3.2</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.4.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.4.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a129ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.4.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2332 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>What’s New In Python 3.4 &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" />
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+    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
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+             >modules</a> |</li>
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+        <div class="bodywrapper">
+          <div class="body" role="main">
+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-4">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.4<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Author</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>R. David Murray &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:rdmurray&#37;&#52;&#48;bitdance&#46;com">rdmurray<span>&#64;</span>bitdance<span>&#46;</span>com</a>&gt; (Editor)</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3.
+Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014.  For full details, see the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html">changelog</a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0429"><strong>PEP 429</strong></a> – Python 3.4 Release Schedule</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="summary-release-highlights">
+<h2>Summary – Release Highlights<a class="headerlink" href="#summary-release-highlights" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New syntax features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Other new features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-453"><span class="std std-ref">pip should always be available</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-446"><span class="std std-ref">Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable</span></a>
+(<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0446"><strong>PEP 446</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>command line option for <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-isolated-mode"><span class="std std-ref">isolated mode</span></a>
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16499">bpo-16499</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#codec-handling-improvements"><span class="std std-ref">improvements in the handling of codecs</span></a>
+that are not text encodings (multiple issues).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-451"><span class="std std-ref">A ModuleSpec Type</span></a> for the Import System
+(<span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a>).  (Affects importer authors.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> format has been made <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-marshal-3"><span class="std std-ref">more compact and efficient</span></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16475">bpo-16475</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New library modules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-asyncio"><span class="std std-ref">New provisional API for asynchronous IO</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3156"><strong>PEP 3156</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-ensurepip"><span class="std std-ref">Bootstrapping the pip installer</span></a>
+(<span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-enum"><span class="std std-ref">Support for enumeration types</span></a>
+(<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0435"><strong>PEP 435</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pathlib"><span class="std std-ref">Object-oriented filesystem paths</span></a>
+(<span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0428"><strong>PEP 428</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-selectors"><span class="std std-ref">High-level and efficient I/O multiplexing</span></a>, built upon the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module primitives (part
+of <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3156"><strong>PEP 3156</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/statistics.html#module-statistics" title="statistics: mathematical statistics functions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code></a>: A basic <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-statistics"><span class="std std-ref">numerically stable statistics library</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0450"><strong>PEP 450</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-tracemalloc"><span class="std std-ref">Trace Python memory allocations</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0454"><strong>PEP 454</strong></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Significantly improved library modules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-singledispatch"><span class="std std-ref">Single-dispatch generic functions</span></a> in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> (<span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0443"><strong>PEP 443</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-protocol-4"><span class="std std-ref">protocol 4</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3154"><strong>PEP 3154</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> now has <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-multiprocessing-no-fork"><span class="std std-ref">an option to avoid using os.fork
+on Unix</span></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8713">bpo-8713</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> has a new submodule, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager" title="email.contentmanager: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contentmanager</span></code></a>, and
+a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> subclass
+(<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code>) that <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-email-contentmanager"><span class="std std-ref">simplify MIME
+handling</span></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18891">bpo-18891</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> modules are now capable of
+correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable objects,
+which improves the output of the Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> system.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> module API has been declared stable</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Security improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-456"><span class="std std-ref">Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm</span></a>
+(<span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0456"><strong>PEP 456</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-446"><span class="std std-ref">Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable</span></a>
+(<span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0446"><strong>PEP 446</strong></a>) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.</p></li>
+<li><p>New command line option for <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-isolated-mode"><span class="std std-ref">isolated mode</span></a>,
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16499">bpo-16499</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> now has <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-multiprocessing-no-fork"><span class="std std-ref">an option to avoid using os.fork
+on Unix</span></a>.  <em>spawn</em> and <em>forkserver</em> are
+more secure because they avoid sharing data with child processes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> child processes on Windows no longer inherit
+all of the parent’s inheritable handles, only the necessary ones.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac" title="hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac()</span></code></a> function provides
+the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2">PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-tls-11-12"><span class="std std-ref">TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew34-win-cert-store"><span class="std std-ref">Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store support</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew34-sni"><span class="std std-ref">Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support</span></a> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> class has a <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew34-sslcontext"><span class="std std-ref">lot of improvements</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support server
+certificate verification, including hostname matching
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.match_hostname()</span></code></a>) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists, see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations()</span></code></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>CPython implementation improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-442"><span class="std std-ref">Safe object finalization</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0442"><strong>PEP 442</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Leveraging <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0442"><strong>PEP 442</strong></a>, in most cases <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-442"><span class="std std-ref">module globals are no longer set
+to None during finalization</span></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18214">bpo-18214</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-445"><span class="std std-ref">Configurable memory allocators</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0445"><strong>PEP 445</strong></a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-436"><span class="std std-ref">Argument Clinic</span></a> (<span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0436"><strong>PEP 436</strong></a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many
+other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential
+porting issues.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-features">
+<h2>New Features<a class="headerlink" href="#new-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="pep-453-explicit-bootstrapping-of-pip-in-python-installations">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-453"></span><h3>PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-453-explicit-bootstrapping-of-pip-in-python-installations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="bootstrapping-pip-by-default">
+<h4>Bootstrapping pip By Default<a class="headerlink" href="#bootstrapping-pip-by-default" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> module (defined in <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a>) provides a standard
+cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python
+installations and virtual environments. The version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> included
+with Python 3.4.0 is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance releases
+will update the bundled version to the latest version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> that is
+available at the time of creating the release candidate.</p>
+<p>By default, the commands <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pipX.Y</span></code> will be installed on all
+platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
+along with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> Python package and its dependencies. On Windows and
+in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> command
+will also be installed. On other platforms, the system wide unversioned
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> command typically refers to the separately installed Python 2
+version.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> command line utility and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a>
+module make use of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> module to make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> readily
+available in virtual environments. When using the command line utility,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is installed by default, while when using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> module
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#venv-api"><span class="std std-ref">API</span></a> installation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> must be requested explicitly.</p>
+<p>For CPython <a class="reference internal" href="../using/unix.html#building-python-on-unix"><span class="std std-ref">source builds on POSIX systems</span></a>,
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">altinstall</span></code> commands bootstrap <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> by
+default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
+overridden through Makefile options.</p>
+<p>On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it
+during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the
+automatic <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> modifications to have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> available from the command
+line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python
+launcher for Windows as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">pip</span></code>.</p>
+<p>As <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors">discussed in the PEP</a>, platform packagers may choose not to install
+these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and
+simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using
+the system package manager).</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3 installations,
+only the versioned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip3</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip3.4</span></code> commands are bootstrapped by
+default when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code> is invoked directly - the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--default-pip</span></code>
+option is needed to also request the unversioned <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> command.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> and the Windows installer ensure that the unqualified <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>
+command is made available in those environments, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> can always be
+invoked via the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> switch rather than directly to avoid ambiguity on
+systems with multiple Python installations.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="documentation-changes">
+<h4>Documentation Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#documentation-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>As part of this change, the <a class="reference internal" href="../installing/index.html#installing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../distributing/index.html#distributing-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules</span></a> sections of the documentation have been
+completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most
+packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging
+Authority maintained <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org">Python Packaging User Guide</a> and the documentation of the individual
+projects.</p>
+<p>However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
+versions of those guides remaining available as <a class="reference internal" href="../install/index.html#install-index"><span class="std std-ref">Installing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/index.html#distutils-index"><span class="std std-ref">Distributing Python Modules (Legacy version)</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a> – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
+Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-446-newly-created-file-descriptors-are-non-inheritable">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-446"></span><h3>PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-446-newly-created-file-descriptors-are-non-inheritable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0446"><strong>PEP 446</strong></a> makes newly created file descriptors <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">non-inheritable</span></a>.  In general, this is the behavior an application will
+want: when launching a new process, having currently open files also
+open in the new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs,
+and potentially to security issues.</p>
+<p>However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired.  To support
+these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.get_inheritable" title="os.get_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.get_inheritable()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.set_inheritable" title="os.set_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.set_inheritable()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.get_handle_inheritable" title="os.get_handle_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.get_handle_inheritable()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.set_handle_inheritable" title="os.set_handle_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.set_handle_inheritable()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.get_inheritable" title="socket.socket.get_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.get_inheritable()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.set_inheritable" title="socket.socket.set_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.set_inheritable()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0446"><strong>PEP 446</strong></a> – Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improvements-to-codec-handling">
+<span id="codec-handling-improvements"></span><h3>Improvements to Codec Handling<a class="headerlink" href="#improvements-to-codec-handling" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since it was first introduced, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> module has always been
+intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding
+system. However, its close coupling with the Python text model, especially
+the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> types, has historically obscured that
+fact.</p>
+<p>As a key step in clarifying the situation, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.encode" title="codecs.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.encode()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.decode" title="codecs.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.decode()</span></code></a> convenience functions are now properly documented in
+Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4. These functions have existed in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a>
+module (and have been covered by the regression test suite) since Python 2.4,
+but were previously only discoverable through runtime introspection.</p>
+<p>Unlike the convenience methods on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> convenience functions support arbitrary
+codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than being limited to Unicode text
+encodings (in Python 3) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basestring</span></code> &lt;-&gt; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">basestring</span></code> conversions (in
+Python 2).</p>
+<p>In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text
+encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards these
+general purpose convenience functions when appropriate:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdef&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hex&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">LookupError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;hex&#39; is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s2">&quot;hello&quot;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;rot13&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">LookupError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;rot13&#39; is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;foo.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;hex&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">LookupError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;hex&#39; is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards
+compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations
+are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the
+name of the codec responsible for producing the error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">codecs</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;abcdefgh&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hex&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">20</span>, in <span class="n">hex_decode</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">binascii</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">a2b_hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="gr">binascii.Error</span>: <span class="n">Non-hexadecimal digit found</span>
+
+<span class="go">The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:</span>
+
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">binascii.Error</span>: <span class="n">decoding with &#39;hex&#39; codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">codecs</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;bz2&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">17</span>, in <span class="n">bz2_encode</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">bz2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">))</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">498</span>, in <span class="n">compress</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">comp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">comp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">flush</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">&#39;str&#39; does not support the buffer interface</span>
+
+<span class="go">The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:</span>
+
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">encoding with &#39;bz2&#39; codec failed (TypeError: &#39;str&#39; does not support the buffer interface)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted
+the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs that
+were themselves restored in Python 3.2. This means that encoding binary data
+to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can now be written
+as:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">codecs</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">decode</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;hello&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hex&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;68656c6c6f&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s2">&quot;68656c6c6f&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;hex&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;hello&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are detailed
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#binary-transforms"><span class="std std-ref">Binary Transforms</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#text-transforms"><span class="std std-ref">Text Transforms</span></a>.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7475">bpo-7475</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17827">bpo-17827</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17828">bpo-17828</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19619">bpo-19619</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-451-a-modulespec-type-for-the-import-system">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-451"></span><h3>PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-451-a-modulespec-type-for-the-import-system" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a> provides an encapsulation of the information about a module that the
+import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module specification).  This
+helps simplify both the import implementation and several import-related APIs.
+The change is also a stepping stone for <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html">several future import-related
+improvements</a>.</p>
+<p>The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible.
+Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer authors.  Key
+finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they will continue working.
+New importers should use the new methods described in the PEP.  Existing
+importers should be updated to implement the new methods.  See the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-3-4"><span class="std std-ref">Deprecated</span></a> section for a list of methods that should be replaced and
+their replacements.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h3>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max()</span></code></a> now accept a <em>default</em> keyword-only argument that
+can be used to specify the value they return if the iterable they are
+evaluating has no elements.  (Contributed by Julian Berman in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18111">bpo-18111</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Module objects are now <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a>’able.</p></li>
+<li><p>Module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> attributes (and related values) should now always
+contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.__file__</span></code> when a script has been executed directly using
+a relative path.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18416">bpo-18416</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during both
+encoding and decoding unless the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogatepass</span></code> error handler is used,
+with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts valid surrogate pairs)
+and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them while encoding non-BMP characters).
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12892">bpo-12892</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New German EBCDIC <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#standard-encodings"><span class="std std-ref">codec</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp273</span></code>.  (Contributed
+by Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1097797">bpo-1097797</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New Ukrainian <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#standard-encodings"><span class="std std-ref">codec</span></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cp1125</span></code>.  (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19668">bpo-19668</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.join() and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.join() now accept arbitrary
+buffer objects as arguments.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15958">bpo-15958</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> constructor now accepts any object that has an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__</span></code>
+method for its <em>base</em> argument.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16772">bpo-16772</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Frame objects now have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#frame.clear" title="frame.clear"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear()</span></code></a> method that clears all
+references to local variables from the frame.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17934">bpo-17934</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> is now registered as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence</span></code></a>,
+and supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> builtin.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan
+and Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18690">bpo-18690</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19078">bpo-19078</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Signatures reported by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> have been modified and improved in
+several cases as a result of the introduction of Argument Clinic and other
+changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__length_hint__" title="object.__length_hint__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__length_hint__()</span></code></a> is now part of the formal language
+specification (see <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0424"><strong>PEP 424</strong></a>).  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16148">bpo-16148</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-modules">
+<h2>New Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="asyncio">
+<span id="whatsnew-asyncio"></span><h3>asyncio<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module (defined in <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3156"><strong>PEP 3156</strong></a>) provides a standard
+pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid asynchronous IO
+support in the standard library, and making it easier for other event loop
+implementations to interoperate with the standard library and each other.</p>
+<p>For Python 3.4, this module is considered a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional API</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3156"><strong>PEP 3156</strong></a> – Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ensurepip">
+<span id="whatsnew-ensurepip"></span><h3>ensurepip<a class="headerlink" href="#ensurepip" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> module is the primary infrastructure for the
+<span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a> implementation.  In the normal course of events end users will not
+need to interact with this module, but it can be used to manually bootstrap
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> if the automated bootstrapping into an installation or virtual
+environment was declined.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ensurepip.html#module-ensurepip" title="ensurepip: Bootstrapping the &quot;pip&quot; installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code></a> includes a bundled copy of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code>, up-to-date as of the first
+release candidate of the release of CPython with which it ships (this applies
+to both maintenance releases and feature releases).  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code> does not
+access the internet.  If the installation has Internet access, after
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensurepip</span></code> is run the bundled <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> can be used to upgrade <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> to a
+more recent release than the bundled one.  (Note that such an upgraded version
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is considered to be a separately installed package and will not be
+removed if Python is uninstalled.)</p>
+<p>The module is named <em>ensure</em>pip because if called when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is already
+installed, it does nothing.  It also has an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--upgrade</span></code> option that will
+cause it to install the bundled copy of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> if the existing installed
+version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is older than the bundled copy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enum">
+<span id="whatsnew-enum"></span><h3>enum<a class="headerlink" href="#enum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a> module (defined in <span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0435"><strong>PEP 435</strong></a>) provides a standard
+implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules (such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>) to provide more informative error messages and better
+debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with backwards
+compatible enumeration values.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0435"><strong>PEP 435</strong></a> – Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman,
+implemented by Ethan Furman.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pathlib">
+<span id="whatsnew-pathlib"></span><h3>pathlib<a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> module offers classes representing filesystem paths
+with semantics appropriate for different operating systems.  Path classes are
+divided between <em>pure paths</em>, which provide purely computational operations
+without I/O, and <em>concrete paths</em>, which inherit from pure paths but also
+provide I/O operations.</p>
+<p>For Python 3.4, this module is considered a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional API</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0428"><strong>PEP 428</strong></a> – The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="selectors">
+<span id="whatsnew-selectors"></span><h3>selectors<a class="headerlink" href="#selectors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> module (created as part of implementing <span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3156"><strong>PEP 3156</strong></a>)
+allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module primitives.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="statistics">
+<span id="whatsnew-statistics"></span><h3>statistics<a class="headerlink" href="#statistics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/statistics.html#module-statistics" title="statistics: mathematical statistics functions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statistics</span></code></a> module (defined in <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0450"><strong>PEP 450</strong></a>) offers some core
+statistics functionality directly in the standard library. This module
+supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and standard
+deviation of a data series.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0450"><strong>PEP 450</strong></a> – Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tracemalloc">
+<span id="whatsnew-tracemalloc"></span><h3>tracemalloc<a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module (defined in <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0454"><strong>PEP 454</strong></a>) is a debug tool to
+trace memory blocks allocated by Python. It provides the following information:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Trace where an object was allocated</p></li>
+<li><p>Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number:
+total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks</p></li>
+<li><p>Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0454"><strong>PEP 454</strong></a> – Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improved-modules">
+<h2>Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="abc">
+<h3>abc<a class="headerlink" href="#abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.get_cache_token" title="abc.get_cache_token"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.get_cache_token()</span></code></a> can be used to know when to invalidate
+caches that are affected by changes in the object graph.  (Contributed
+by Łukasz Langa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16832">bpo-16832</a>.)</p>
+<p>New class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.ABC" title="abc.ABC"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code></a> has <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.ABCMeta" title="abc.ABCMeta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABCMeta</span></code></a> as its meta class.
+Using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code> as a base class has essentially the same effect as specifying
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass=abc.ABCMeta</span></code>, but is simpler to type and easier to read.
+(Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16049">bpo-16049</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="aifc">
+<h3>aifc<a class="headerlink" href="#aifc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.getparams" title="aifc.aifc.getparams"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getparams()</span></code></a> method now returns a namedtuple rather than a
+plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17818">bpo-17818</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#aifc.open" title="aifc.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc.open()</span></code></a> now supports the context management protocol: when used in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> block, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.close" title="aifc.aifc.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method of the returned
+object will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchacha in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16486">bpo-16486</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.writeframesraw" title="aifc.aifc.writeframesraw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#aifc.aifc.writeframes" title="aifc.aifc.writeframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code></a>
+methods now accept any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.  (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8311">bpo-8311</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="argparse">
+<h3>argparse<a class="headerlink" href="#argparse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#argparse.FileType" title="argparse.FileType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileType</span></code></a> class now accepts <em>encoding</em> and
+<em>errors</em> arguments, which are passed through to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed
+by Lucas Maystre in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11175">bpo-11175</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="audioop">
+<h3>audioop<a class="headerlink" href="#audioop" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/audioop.html#module-audioop" title="audioop: Manipulate raw audio data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code></a> now supports 24-bit samples.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12866">bpo-12866</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/audioop.html#audioop.byteswap" title="audioop.byteswap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">byteswap()</span></code></a> function converts big-endian samples to
+little-endian and vice versa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19641">bpo-19641</a>.)</p>
+<p>All <a class="reference internal" href="../library/audioop.html#module-audioop" title="audioop: Manipulate raw audio data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code></a> functions now accept any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.  Strings
+are not accepted: they didn’t work before, now they raise an error right away.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16685">bpo-16685</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="base64">
+<h3>base64<a class="headerlink" href="#base64" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The encoding and decoding functions in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#module-base64" title="base64: RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64</span></code></a> now accept any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> in cases where it previously required a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> instance.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17839">bpo-17839</a>.)</p>
+<p>New functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#base64.a85encode" title="base64.a85encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a85encode()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#base64.a85decode" title="base64.a85decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a85decode()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#base64.b85encode" title="base64.b85encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b85encode()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#base64.b85decode" title="base64.b85decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b85decode()</span></code></a> provide the ability to
+encode and decode binary data from and to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ascii85</span></code> and the git/mercurial
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Base85</span></code> formats, respectively.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a85</span></code> functions have options that can
+be used to make them compatible with the variants of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Ascii85</span></code> encoding,
+including the Adobe variant.  (Contributed by Martin Morrison, the Mercurial
+project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17618">bpo-17618</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="collections">
+<h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap.new_child" title="collections.ChainMap.new_child"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap.new_child()</span></code></a> method now accepts an <em>m</em> argument specifying
+the child map to add to the chain.  This allows an existing mapping and/or a
+custom mapping type to be used for the child.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16613">bpo-16613</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="colorsys">
+<h3>colorsys<a class="headerlink" href="#colorsys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB — YIQ conversions have
+been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions.  The change in
+results should be less than 1% and may better match results found elsewhere.
+(Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14323">bpo-14323</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contextlib">
+<h3>contextlib<a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.suppress" title="contextlib.suppress"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.suppress</span></code></a> context manager helps to clarify the
+intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single
+statement.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15806">bpo-15806</a> and
+Zero Piraeus in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19266">bpo-19266</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.redirect_stdout" title="contextlib.redirect_stdout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.redirect_stdout()</span></code></a> context manager makes it easier
+for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> and don’t provide any options to redirect it.  Using the
+context manager, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> output can be redirected to any
+other stream or, in conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.StringIO</span></code></a>, to a string.
+The latter can be especially useful, for example, to capture output
+from a function that was written to implement a command line interface.
+It is recommended only for utility scripts because it affects the
+global state of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15805">bpo-15805</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib</span></code></a> documentation has also been updated to include a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms"><span class="std std-ref">discussion</span></a> of the
+differences between single use, reusable and reentrant context managers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dbm">
+<h3>dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#dbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#dbm.open" title="dbm.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.open()</span></code></a> objects now support the context management protocol.  When
+used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> method of the database
+object will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
+Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19282">bpo-19282</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dis">
+<h3>dis<a class="headerlink" href="#dis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.show_code" title="dis.show_code"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">show_code()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.dis" title="dis.dis"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.distb" title="dis.distb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distb()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.disassemble" title="dis.disassemble"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disassemble()</span></code></a> now accept a keyword-only <em>file</em> argument that
+controls where they write their output.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> module is now built around an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.Instruction" title="dis.Instruction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Instruction</span></code></a> class
+that provides object oriented access to the details of each individual bytecode
+operation.</p>
+<p>A new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.get_instructions" title="dis.get_instructions"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_instructions()</span></code></a>, provides an iterator that emits
+the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code.  Thus it is now
+possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a bytecode
+object in ways different from those provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> module
+itself.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">dis</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">instr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">dis</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_instructions</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">instr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">opname</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">LOAD_FAST</span>
+<span class="go">LOAD_CONST</span>
+<span class="go">BINARY_ADD</span>
+<span class="go">RETURN_VALUE</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The various display tools in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> module have been rewritten to use
+these new components.</p>
+<p>In addition, a new application-friendly class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode" title="dis.Bytecode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytecode</span></code></a> provides
+an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in human-readable form
+and for iterating over instructions.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode" title="dis.Bytecode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytecode</span></code></a> constructor
+takes the same arguments that <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_instruction()</span></code> does (plus an
+optional <em>current_offset</em>), and the resulting object can be iterated to produce
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.Instruction" title="dis.Instruction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Instruction</span></code></a> objects.  But it also has a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.dis" title="dis.Bytecode.dis"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a>
+method, equivalent to calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.dis" title="dis.dis"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> on the constructor argument, but
+returned as a multi-line string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bytecode</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dis</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Bytecode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">current_offset</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">instr</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">bytecode</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1"> (</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">)&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">instr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">opname</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">instr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">opcode</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">LOAD_FAST (124)</span>
+<span class="go">LOAD_CONST (100)</span>
+<span class="go">BINARY_ADD (23)</span>
+<span class="go">RETURN_VALUE (83)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">bytecode</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dis</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitlines</span><span class="p">()</span>       
+<span class="go">[&#39;  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;      --&gt;     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;              6 BINARY_ADD&#39;,</span>
+<span class="go"> &#39;              7 RETURN_VALUE&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode" title="dis.Bytecode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Bytecode</span></code></a> also has a class method,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.Bytecode.from_traceback" title="dis.Bytecode.from_traceback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_traceback()</span></code></a>, that provides the ability to manipulate a
+traceback (that is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())</span></code> is equivalent
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distb(tb)</span></code>).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11816">bpo-11816</a>
+and Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17916">bpo-17916</a>.)</p>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.stack_effect" title="dis.stack_effect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stack_effect()</span></code></a> computes the effect on the Python stack
+of a given opcode and argument, information that is not otherwise available.
+(Contributed by Larry Hastings in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19722">bpo-19722</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doctest">
+<h3>doctest<a class="headerlink" href="#doctest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">option flag</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.FAIL_FAST" title="doctest.FAIL_FAST"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FAIL_FAST</span></code></a>, halts
+test running as soon as the first failure is detected.  (Contributed by R.
+David Murray and Daniel Urban in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16522">bpo-16522</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> command line interface now uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>, and has two
+new options, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code>.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span></code> allows <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest-options"><span class="std std-ref">doctest options</span></a> to be specified on the command line, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-f</span></code> is a
+shorthand for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-o</span> <span class="pre">FAIL_FAST</span></code> (to parallel the similar option supported by the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> CLI).  (Contributed by R. David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11390">bpo-11390</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> will now find doctests in extension module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> strings.
+(Contributed by Zachary Ware in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3158">bpo-3158</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="email">
+<h3>email<a class="headerlink" href="#email" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.as_string" title="email.message.Message.as_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_string()</span></code></a> now accepts a <em>policy</em> argument to
+override the default policy of the message when generating a string
+representation of it.  This means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_string</span></code> can now be used in more
+circumstances, instead of having to create and use a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#module-email.generator" title="email.generator: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator</span></code></a> in
+order to pass formatting parameters to its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flatten</span></code> method.  (Contributed by
+R. David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18600">bpo-18600</a>.)</p>
+<p>New method <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.as_bytes" title="email.message.Message.as_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_bytes()</span></code></a> added to produce a bytes
+representation of the message in a fashion similar to how <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_string</span></code>
+produces a string representation.  It does not accept the <em>maxheaderlen</em>
+argument, but does accept the <em>unixfrom</em> and <em>policy</em> arguments. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.__bytes__" title="email.message.Message.__bytes__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bytes__()</span></code></a> method
+calls it, meaning that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(mymsg)</span></code> will now produce the intuitive
+result:  a bytes object containing the fully formatted message.  (Contributed
+by R. David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18600">bpo-18600</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.set_param" title="email.message.Message.set_param"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.set_param()</span></code></a> message now accepts a <em>replace</em> keyword argument.
+When specified, the associated header will be updated without changing
+its location in the list of headers.  For backward compatibility, the default
+is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18891">bpo-18891</a>.)</p>
+<p id="whatsnew-email-contentmanager">A pair of new subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> have been added
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.message.html#email.message.MIMEPart" title="email.message.MIMEPart"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MIMEPart</span></code></a>), along with a new sub-module,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager" title="email.contentmanager: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contentmanager</span></code></a> and a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> attribute
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.content_manager"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">content_manager</span></code></a>.  All documentation is
+currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email’s new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional API</span></a>.  These classes provide a number of new methods that
+make extracting content from and inserting content into email messages much
+easier.  For details, see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.contentmanager.html#module-email.contentmanager" title="email.contentmanager: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contentmanager</span></code></a> documentation and
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.examples.html#email-examples"><span class="std std-ref">email: Examples</span></a>.  These API additions complete the
+bulk of the work that was planned as part of the email6 project.  The currently
+provisional API is scheduled to become final in Python 3.5 (possibly with a few
+minor additions in the area of error handling).  (Contributed by R. David
+Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18891">bpo-18891</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="filecmp">
+<h3>filecmp<a class="headerlink" href="#filecmp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/filecmp.html#filecmp.clear_cache" title="filecmp.clear_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clear_cache()</span></code></a> function provides the ability to clear the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/filecmp.html#module-filecmp" title="filecmp: Compare files efficiently."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">filecmp</span></code></a> comparison cache, which uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> information to
+determine if the file has changed since the last compare.  This can be used,
+for example, if the file might have been changed and re-checked in less time
+than the resolution of a particular filesystem’s file modification time field.
+(Contributed by Mark Levitt in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18149">bpo-18149</a>.)</p>
+<p>New module attribute <a class="reference internal" href="../library/filecmp.html#filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES" title="filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEFAULT_IGNORES</span></code></a> provides the list of
+directories that are used as the default value for the <em>ignore</em> parameter of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/filecmp.html#filecmp.dircmp" title="filecmp.dircmp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dircmp()</span></code></a> function.  (Contributed by Eli Bendersky in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15442">bpo-15442</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functools">
+<h3>functools<a class="headerlink" href="#functools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partialmethod" title="functools.partialmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partialmethod()</span></code></a> descriptor brings partial argument
+application to descriptors, just as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code></a> provides
+for normal callables. The new descriptor also makes it easier to get
+arbitrary callables (including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code></a> instances)
+to behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition.
+(Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4331">bpo-4331</a>.)</p>
+<p id="whatsnew-singledispatch">The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.singledispatch" title="functools.singledispatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">singledispatch()</span></code></a> decorator brings support for
+single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library. Where
+object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a
+common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping
+multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with
+<em>different</em> kinds of data.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0443"><strong>PEP 443</strong></a> – Single-dispatch generic functions</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">total_ordering()</span></code></a> now supports a return value of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplemented</span></code></a> from the underlying comparison function.  (Contributed
+by Katie Miller in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10042">bpo-10042</a>.)</p>
+<p>A pure-python version of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partial()</span></code></a> function is now in the
+stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version, but it is
+available for other implementations to use.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12428">bpo-12428</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gc">
+<h3>gc<a class="headerlink" href="#gc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.get_stats" title="gc.get_stats"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_stats()</span></code></a> returns a list of three per-generation
+dictionaries containing the collections statistics since interpreter startup.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16351">bpo-16351</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="glob">
+<h3>glob<a class="headerlink" href="#glob" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#glob.escape" title="glob.escape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escape()</span></code></a> provides a way to escape special characters
+in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing expansion but are
+instead matched literally.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8402">bpo-8402</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hashlib">
+<h3>hashlib<a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac" title="hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac()</span></code></a> function provides
+the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2">PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2</a>.  (Contributed by Christian
+Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18582">bpo-18582</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.name" title="hashlib.hash.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a> attribute of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> hash objects is now
+a formally supported interface.  It has always existed in CPython’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> (although it did not return lower case names for all supported
+hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other Python
+implementations have not previously supported it.  (Contributed by Jason R.
+Coombs in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18532">bpo-18532</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hmac">
+<h3>hmac<a class="headerlink" href="#hmac" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code> as well as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> for the <em>key</em>
+argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.new" title="hmac.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new()</span></code></a> function, and the <em>msg</em> parameter to both the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.new" title="hmac.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">new()</span></code></a> function and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.update" title="hmac.HMAC.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a> method now
+accepts any type supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module.  (Contributed
+by Jonas Borgström in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18240">bpo-18240</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>digestmod</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.new" title="hmac.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.new()</span></code></a> function may now be any hash
+digest name recognized by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a>.  In addition, the current behavior in
+which the value of <em>digestmod</em> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MD5</span></code> is deprecated: in a
+future version of Python there will be no default value.  (Contributed by
+Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17276">bpo-17276</a>.)</p>
+<p>With the addition of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.block_size" title="hmac.HMAC.block_size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block_size</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.name" title="hmac.HMAC.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code></a>
+attributes (and the formal documentation of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.HMAC.digest_size" title="hmac.HMAC.digest_size"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest_size</span></code></a>
+attribute), the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> module now conforms fully to the <span class="target" id="index-37"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0247"><strong>PEP 247</strong></a> API.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18775">bpo-18775</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="html">
+<h3>html<a class="headerlink" href="#html" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.html#html.unescape" title="html.unescape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unescape()</span></code></a> function converts HTML5 character references to
+the corresponding Unicode characters.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2927">bpo-2927</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> accepts a new keyword argument
+<em>convert_charrefs</em> that, when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, automatically converts all character
+references.  For backward-compatibility, its value defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, but
+it will change to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> in a future version of Python, so you are invited to
+set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature.  (Contributed
+by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13633">bpo-13633</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>strict</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> is now deprecated.
+(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15114">bpo-15114</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http">
+<h3>http<a class="headerlink" href="#http" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error" title="http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_error()</span></code></a> now accepts an
+optional additional <em>explain</em> parameter which can be used to provide an
+extended error description, overriding the hardcoded default if there is one.
+This extended error description will be formatted using the
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error_message_format</span></code> attribute and sent as the body
+of the error response.  (Contributed by Karl Cow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12921">bpo-12921</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http-server-cli"><span class="std std-ref">command line interface</span></a> now has
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b/--bind</span></code> option that causes the server to listen on a specific address.
+(Contributed by Malte Swart in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17764">bpo-17764</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idlelib-and-idle">
+<h3>idlelib and IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idlelib-and-idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for
+import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release. See
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt</span></code> for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0,
+as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases. This file is also available
+from the IDLE <span class="menuselection">Help ‣ About IDLE</span> dialog.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="importlib">
+<h3>importlib<a class="headerlink" href="#importlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader</span></code></a> ABC defines a new method,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source_to_code()</span></code></a> that accepts source
+data and a path and returns a code object.  The default implementation
+is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile(data,</span> <span class="pre">path,</span> <span class="pre">'exec',</span> <span class="pre">dont_inherit=True)</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15627">bpo-15627</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader</span></code></a> also now has a default implementation
+for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_code"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_code()</span></code></a> method.  However,
+it will normally be desirable to override the default implementation
+for performance reasons.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18072">bpo-18072</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload()</span></code></a> function has been moved from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> as part of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module deprecation.  (Contributed by
+Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18193">bpo-18193</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.util" title="importlib.util: Utility code for importers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util</span></code></a> now has a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER" title="importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAGIC_NUMBER</span></code></a> attribute
+providing access to the bytecode version number.  This replaces the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.get_magic" title="imp.get_magic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_magic()</span></code></a> function in the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18192">bpo-18192</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.util" title="importlib.util: Utility code for importers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util</span></code></a> functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.cache_from_source" title="importlib.util.cache_from_source"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cache_from_source()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.source_from_cache" title="importlib.util.source_from_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source_from_cache()</span></code></a> replace the same-named functions
+in the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18194">bpo-18194</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> bootstrap <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamespaceLoader</span></code> now conforms to
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader</span></code></a> ABC, which means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span></code> can now be used with namespace packages.  (Contributed
+by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18058">bpo-18058</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.util" title="importlib.util: Utility code for importers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util</span></code></a> has a new function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.decode_source" title="importlib.util.decode_source"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_source()</span></code></a>
+that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing.  This is
+useful for implementing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InspectLoader.get_source()</span></code></a> methods.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader" title="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader</span></code></a> now has a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_filename" title="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.get_filename"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_filename()</span></code></a> method.  This was
+inadvertently omitted in the original implementation.  (Contributed by Eric
+Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19152">bpo-19152</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inspect">
+<h3>inspect<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module now offers a basic <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect-module-cli"><span class="std std-ref">command line interface</span></a> to quickly display source code and other
+information for modules, classes and functions.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa
+and Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18626">bpo-18626</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.unwrap" title="inspect.unwrap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unwrap()</span></code></a> makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains
+created by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.wraps" title="functools.wraps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.wraps()</span></code></a> (and any other API that sets the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute on a wrapper function).  (Contributed by
+Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13266">bpo-13266</a>.)</p>
+<p>As part of the implementation of the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a> module, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module now has substantially better support for custom
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code> methods and dynamic class attributes provided through
+metaclasses.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18929">bpo-18929</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19030">bpo-19030</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfullargspec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getargspec" title="inspect.getargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getargspec()</span></code></a>
+now use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> API. This allows them to
+support a much broader range of callables, including those with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__signature__</span></code> attributes, those with metadata provided by argument
+clinic, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> objects and more. Note that, unlike
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a>, these functions still ignore <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code>
+attributes, and report the already bound first argument for bound methods,
+so it is still necessary to update your code to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> directly if those features are desired.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17481">bpo-17481</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> now supports duck types of CPython functions,
+which adds support for functions compiled with Cython.  (Contributed
+by Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17159">bpo-17159</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ipaddress">
+<h3>ipaddress<a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional API</span></a>. With the release of Python 3.4, this qualification
+has been removed: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> is now considered a stable API, covered
+by the normal standard library requirements to maintain backwards
+compatibility.</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global" title="ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_global</span></code></a> property is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if
+an address is globally routeable.  (Contributed by Peter Moody in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17400">bpo-17400</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<h3>logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler" title="logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimedRotatingFileHandler</span></code></a> has a new <em>atTime</em>
+parameter that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should
+happen.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9556">bpo-9556</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.SocketHandler" title="logging.handlers.SocketHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SocketHandler</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.DatagramHandler" title="logging.handlers.DatagramHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DatagramHandler</span></code></a> now support Unix domain sockets (by
+setting <em>port</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in commit
+ce46195b56a9.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a> now accepts a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.RawConfigParser" title="configparser.RawConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser.RawConfigParser</span></code></a> subclass instance for the <em>fname</em>
+parameter.  This facilitates using a configuration file when logging
+configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration, or where
+the application modifies the configuration before passing it to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileConfig()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16110">bpo-16110</a>.)</p>
+<p>Logging configuration data received from a socket via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.listen" title="logging.config.listen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config.listen()</span></code></a> function can now be validated before being
+processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the new
+<em>verify</em> keyword argument.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15452">bpo-15452</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="marshal">
+<span id="whatsnew-marshal-3"></span><h3>marshal<a class="headerlink" href="#marshal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The default <a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a> version has been bumped to 3.  The code implementing
+the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording only one copy of
+interned strings and preserving the interning on deserialization, and extends
+this “one copy” ability to any object type (including handling recursive
+references).  This reduces both the size of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files and the amount of
+memory a module occupies in memory when it is loaded from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> (or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code>) file.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16475">bpo-16475</a>,
+with additional speedups by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19219">bpo-19219</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mmap">
+<h3>mmap<a class="headerlink" href="#mmap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>mmap objects can now be <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a>ed.  (Contributed by Valerie Lambert in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4885">bpo-4885</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multiprocessing">
+<h3>multiprocessing<a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="whatsnew-multiprocessing-no-fork">On Unix two new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing-start-methods"><span class="std std-ref">start methods</span></a>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">forkserver</span></code>, have been added for starting processes using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a>.  These make the mixing of processes with threads more
+robust, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn</span></code> method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has
+always used on Windows.  New function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods" title="multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_all_start_methods()</span></code></a> reports all start methods
+available on the platform, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_start_method" title="multiprocessing.get_start_method"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_start_method()</span></code></a> reports
+the current start method, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.set_start_method" title="multiprocessing.set_start_method"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_start_method()</span></code></a> sets
+the start method.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8713">bpo-8713</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> also now has the concept of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code>, which
+determines how child processes are created.  New function
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.get_context" title="multiprocessing.get_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_context()</span></code></a> returns a context that uses a specified
+start method.  It has the same API as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module itself,
+so you can use it to create <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.pool.Pool" title="multiprocessing.pool.Pool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pool</span></code></a>s and other
+objects that will operate within that context.  This allows a framework and an
+application or different parts of the same application to use multiprocessing
+without interfering with each other.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18999">bpo-18999</a>.)</p>
+<p>Except when using the old <em>fork</em> start method, child processes no longer
+inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8713">bpo-8713</a>).</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> now relies on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/runpy.html#module-runpy" title="runpy: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">runpy</span></code></a> (which implements the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> switch) to initialise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> appropriately in child processes
+when using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spawn</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">forkserver</span></code> start methods. This resolves some
+edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> command line switch,
+and explicit relative imports could cause obscure failures in child
+processes.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19946">bpo-19946</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="operator">
+<h3>operator<a class="headerlink" href="#operator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.length_hint" title="operator.length_hint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">length_hint()</span></code></a> provides an implementation of the
+specification for how the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__length_hint__" title="object.__length_hint__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__length_hint__()</span></code></a> special method should
+be used, as part of the <span class="target" id="index-38"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0424"><strong>PEP 424</strong></a> formal specification of this language
+feature.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16148">bpo-16148</a>.)</p>
+<p>There is now a pure-python version of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#module-operator" title="operator: Functions corresponding to the standard operators."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator</span></code></a> module available for
+reference and for use by alternate implementations of Python.  (Contributed by
+Zachary Ware in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16694">bpo-16694</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="os">
+<h3>os<a class="headerlink" href="#os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are new functions to get and set the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">inheritable flag</span></a> of a file descriptor (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.get_inheritable" title="os.get_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.get_inheritable()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.set_inheritable" title="os.set_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.set_inheritable()</span></code></a>) or a Windows handle
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.get_handle_inheritable" title="os.get_handle_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.get_handle_inheritable()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.set_handle_inheritable" title="os.set_handle_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.set_handle_inheritable()</span></code></a>).</p>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.cpu_count" title="os.cpu_count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cpu_count()</span></code></a> reports the number of CPUs available on the
+platform on which Python is running (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> if the count can’t be
+determined).  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.cpu_count" title="multiprocessing.cpu_count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.cpu_count()</span></code></a> function is now implemented
+in terms of this function).  (Contributed by Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari,
+Victor Stinner, and Charles-François Natali in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17914">bpo-17914</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.samestat" title="os.path.samestat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.samestat()</span></code></a> is now available on the Windows platform (and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.samefile" title="os.path.samefile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.samefile()</span></code></a> implementation is now shared between Unix and
+Windows).  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11939">bpo-11939</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.ismount" title="os.path.ismount"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.ismount()</span></code></a> now recognizes volumes mounted below a drive
+root on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Golden in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9035">bpo-9035</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></code></a> supports two new flags on platforms that provide them,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_PATH" title="os.O_PATH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_PATH</span></code></a> (un-opened file descriptor), and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_TMPFILE" title="os.O_TMPFILE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_TMPFILE</span></code></a>
+(unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available only on Linux systems
+with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have uapi headers).  (Contributed
+by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18673">bpo-18673</a> and Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pdb">
+<h3>pdb<a class="headerlink" href="#pdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> has been enhanced to handle generators, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> in a more useful fashion.  This is especially helpful when
+debugging <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> based programs.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov and
+Xavier de Gaye in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16596">bpo-16596</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> command has been removed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a>, restoring access to the
+Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print()</span></code></a> function from the pdb command line.  Python2’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code> did
+not have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> command; instead, entering <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> executed the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> statement.  In Python3 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> was mistakenly made an alias for the
+pdb <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#pdbcommand-p"><code class="xref std std-pdbcmd docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code></a> command.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">p</span></code>, however, prints the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code> of its argument,
+not the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> like the Python2 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> command did.  Worse, the Python3
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span> <span class="pre">print</span></code> command shadowed the Python3 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> function, making it
+inaccessible at the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code> prompt.  (Contributed by Connor Osborn in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18764">bpo-18764</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pickle">
+<span id="whatsnew-protocol-4"></span><h3>pickle<a class="headerlink" href="#pickle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> now supports (but does not use by default) a new pickle protocol,
+protocol 4.  This new protocol addresses a number of issues that were present
+in previous protocols, such as the serialization of nested classes, very large
+strings and containers, and classes whose <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method takes
+keyword-only arguments.  It also provides some efficiency improvements.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-39"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3154"><strong>PEP 3154</strong></a> – Pickle protocol 4</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre Vassalotti.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="plistlib">
+<h3>plistlib<a class="headerlink" href="#plistlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib" title="plistlib: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code></a> now has an API that is similar to the standard pattern for
+stdlib serialization protocols, with new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dump" title="plistlib.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.loads" title="plistlib.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dumps" title="plistlib.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a>
+functions.  (The older API is now deprecated.)  In addition to the already
+supported XML plist format (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.FMT_XML" title="plistlib.FMT_XML"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FMT_XML</span></code></a>), it also now supports
+the binary plist format (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.FMT_BINARY" title="plistlib.FMT_BINARY"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FMT_BINARY</span></code></a>).  (Contributed by Ronald
+Oussoren and others in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14455">bpo-14455</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="poplib">
+<h3>poplib<a class="headerlink" href="#poplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Two new methods have been added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.capa" title="poplib.POP3.capa"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capa()</span></code></a>,
+which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.stls" title="poplib.POP3.stls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stls()</span></code></a>, which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an
+encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it.  (Contributed by Lorenzo
+Catucci in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4473">bpo-4473</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pprint">
+<h3>pprint<a class="headerlink" href="#pprint" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pprint.html#module-pprint" title="pprint: Data pretty printer."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint</span></code></a> module’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pprint.html#pprint.PrettyPrinter" title="pprint.PrettyPrinter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrettyPrinter</span></code></a> class and its
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pprint.html#pprint.pformat" title="pprint.pformat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pformat()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pprint.html#pprint.pprint" title="pprint.pprint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pprint()</span></code></a> functions have a new
+option, <em>compact</em>, that controls how the output is formatted.  Currently
+setting <em>compact</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> means that sequences will be printed with as many
+sequence elements as will fit within <em>width</em> on each (indented) line.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19132">bpo-19132</a>.)</p>
+<p>Long strings are now wrapped using Python’s normal line continuation
+syntax.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17150">bpo-17150</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pty">
+<h3>pty<a class="headerlink" href="#pty" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pty.html#pty.spawn" title="pty.spawn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty.spawn()</span></code></a> now returns the status value from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.waitpid()</span></code></a> on
+the child process, instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pydoc">
+<h3>pydoc<a class="headerlink" href="#pydoc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module is now based directly on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code></a>
+introspection API, allowing it to provide signature information for a wider
+variety of callable objects. This change also means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code>
+attributes are now taken into account when displaying help information.
+(Contributed by Larry Hastings in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19674">bpo-19674</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module no longer displays the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> parameter for
+already bound methods. Instead, it aims to always display the exact current
+signature of the supplied callable.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20710">bpo-20710</a>.)</p>
+<p>In addition to the changes that have been made to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> directly,
+its handling of custom <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code> methods and various descriptor
+behaviours has also been improved substantially by the underlying changes in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module.</p>
+<p>As the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> builtin is based on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a>, the above changes also
+affect the behaviour of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="re">
+<h3>re<a class="headerlink" href="#re" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.fullmatch" title="re.fullmatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fullmatch()</span></code></a> function and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regex.fullmatch()</span></code> method anchor
+the pattern at both ends of the string to match.  This provides a way to be
+explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of subtle bugs where
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code> characters get lost during code changes or the addition of alternatives
+to an existing regular expression.  (Contributed by Matthew Barnett in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16203">bpo-16203</a>.)</p>
+<p>The repr of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re-objects"><span class="std std-ref">regex objects</span></a> now includes the pattern
+and the flags; the repr of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#match-objects"><span class="std std-ref">match objects</span></a> now
+includes the start, end, and the part of the string that matched.  (Contributed
+by Hugo Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13592">bpo-13592</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17087">bpo-17087</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="resource">
+<h3>resource<a class="headerlink" href="#resource" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.prlimit" title="resource.prlimit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">prlimit()</span></code></a> function, available on Linux platforms with a
+kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides the
+ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than the one
+making the call.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16595">bpo-16595</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new
+Linux specific constants: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE" title="resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NICE" title="resource.RLIMIT_NICE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_NICE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO" title="resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_RTPRIO</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME" title="resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_RTTIME</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING" title="resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_SIGPENDING</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19324">bpo-19324</a>.)</p>
+<p>On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific constants:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE" title="resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_SBSIZE</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_SWAP" title="resource.RLIMIT_SWAP"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_SWAP</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/resource.html#resource.RLIMIT_NPTS" title="resource.RLIMIT_NPTS"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLIMIT_NPTS</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19343">bpo-19343</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="select">
+<h3>select<a class="headerlink" href="#select" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.epoll" title="select.epoll"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epoll</span></code></a> objects now support the context management protocol.
+When used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.epoll.close" title="select.epoll.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a>
+method will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed
+by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16488">bpo-16488</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.devpoll" title="select.devpoll"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">devpoll</span></code></a> objects now have <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.devpoll.fileno" title="select.devpoll.fileno"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileno()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.devpoll.close" title="select.devpoll.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> methods, as well as a new attribute
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.devpoll.closed" title="select.devpoll.closed"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closed</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18794">bpo-18794</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shelve">
+<h3>shelve<a class="headerlink" href="#shelve" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a> instances may now be used in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements,
+and will be automatically closed at the end of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code> block.
+(Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13896">bpo-13896</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shutil">
+<h3>shutil<a class="headerlink" href="#shutil" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copyfile" title="shutil.copyfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyfile()</span></code></a> now raises a specific <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.Error" title="shutil.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Error</span></code></a> subclass,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.SameFileError" title="shutil.SameFileError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SameFileError</span></code></a>, when the source and destination are the same
+file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this specific
+error.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1492704">bpo-1492704</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtpd">
+<h3>smtpd<a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPChannel</span></code></a> classes now
+accept a <em>map</em> keyword argument which, if specified, is passed in to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asynchat.html#asynchat.async_chat" title="asynchat.async_chat"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat.async_chat</span></code></a> as its <em>map</em> argument.  This allows an application
+to avoid affecting the global socket map.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11959">bpo-11959</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtplib">
+<h3>smtplib<a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTPException" title="smtplib.SMTPException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPException</span></code></a> is now a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a>, which allows
+both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be caught in one
+try/except statement by code that only cares whether or not an error occurred.
+(Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2118">bpo-2118</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket">
+<h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The socket module now supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.CAN_BCM" title="socket.CAN_BCM"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_BCM</span></code></a> protocol on
+platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15359">bpo-15359</a>.)</p>
+<p>Socket objects have new methods to get or set their <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#fd-inheritance"><span class="std std-ref">inheritable flag</span></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.get_inheritable" title="socket.socket.get_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_inheritable()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.set_inheritable" title="socket.socket.set_inheritable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_inheritable()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.AF_*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_*</span></code> constants are now enumeration values
+using the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a> module.  This allows meaningful names to be printed
+during debugging, instead of integer “magic numbers”.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.AF_LINK" title="socket.AF_LINK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_LINK</span></code></a> constant is now available on BSD and OSX.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.inet_pton" title="socket.inet_pton"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_pton()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.inet_ntop" title="socket.inet_ntop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inet_ntop()</span></code></a> are now supported
+on Windows.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7171">bpo-7171</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sqlite3">
+<h3>sqlite3<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new boolean parameter to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.connect" title="sqlite3.connect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> function, <em>uri</em>, can be
+used to indicate that the <em>database</em> parameter is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uri</span></code> (see the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html">SQLite
+URI documentation</a>).  (Contributed by poq in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13773">bpo-13773</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl">
+<h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="whatsnew-tls-11-12"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2" title="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2</span></code></a> (TLSv1.1 and
+TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is only available if
+Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later.  (Contributed by Michele Orrù and
+Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16692">bpo-16692</a>.)</p>
+<p id="whatsnew34-sslcontext">New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a> provides a standard way to
+obtain an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> whose settings are intended to be a
+reasonable balance between compatibility and security.  These settings are
+more stringent than the defaults provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>
+constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior deprecation, if
+best-practice security requirements change.  The new recommended best
+practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.create_default_context" title="ssl.create_default_context"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_default_context()</span></code></a> to obtain an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>
+object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the <em>context</em> argument
+of the appropriate stdlib API.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19689">bpo-19689</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> method <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_verify_locations()</span></code></a>
+accepts a new optional argument <em>cadata</em>, which can be used to provide PEM or
+DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes, respectively.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18138">bpo-18138</a>.)</p>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.get_default_verify_paths" title="ssl.get_default_verify_paths"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_default_verify_paths()</span></code></a> returns
+a named tuple of the paths and environment variables that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_default_verify_paths()</span></code></a> method uses to set
+OpenSSL’s default <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cafile</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capath</span></code>.  This can be an aid in
+debugging default verification issues.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18143">bpo-18143</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> has a new method,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats" title="ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cert_store_stats()</span></code></a>, that reports the number of loaded
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X.509</span></code> certs, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X.509</span> <span class="pre">CA</span></code> certs, and certificate revocation lists
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crl</span></code>s), as well as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs" title="ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_ca_certs()</span></code></a> method that
+returns a list of the loaded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CA</span></code> certificates.  (Contributed by Christian
+Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18147">bpo-18147</a>.)</p>
+<p>If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> has a new
+attribute <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags" title="ssl.SSLContext.verify_flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">verify_flags</span></code></a> that can be used to control the
+certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of the new
+constants <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT" title="ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VERIFY_DEFAULT</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF" title="ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN" title="ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT" title="ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VERIFY_X509_STRICT</span></code></a>.
+OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by default.  (Contributed by
+Christien Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8813">bpo-8813</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> method <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs" title="ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_default_certs()</span></code></a>
+loads a set of default “certificate authority” (CA) certificates from default
+locations, which vary according to the platform.  It can be used to load both
+TLS web server authentication certificates
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">purpose=</span></code><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH" title="ssl.Purpose.SERVER_AUTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SERVER_AUTH</span></code></a>) for a client to use to verify a
+server, and certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">purpose=</span></code><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH" title="ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLIENT_AUTH</span></code></a>).  (Contributed by Christian
+Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19292">bpo-19292</a>.)</p>
+<p id="whatsnew34-win-cert-store">Two new windows-only functions, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.enum_certificates" title="ssl.enum_certificates"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum_certificates()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.enum_crls" title="ssl.enum_crls"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum_crls()</span></code></a> provide the ability to retrieve certificates,
+certificate information, and CRLs from the Windows cert store.  (Contributed
+by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17134">bpo-17134</a>.)</p>
+<p id="whatsnew34-sni">Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) using the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback()</span></code></a> method.
+(Contributed by Daniel Black in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8109">bpo-8109</a>.)</p>
+<p>The dictionary returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a> contains additional
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">X509v3</span></code> extension items: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crlDistributionPoints</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calIssuers</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OCSP</span></code> URIs.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18379">bpo-18379</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="stat">
+<h3>stat<a class="headerlink" href="#stat" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module is now backed by a C implementation in <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_stat</span></code>. A C
+implementation is required as most of the values aren’t standardized and
+are platform-dependent.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11016">bpo-11016</a>.)</p>
+<p>The module supports new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#stat.ST_MODE" title="stat.ST_MODE"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ST_MODE</span></code></a> flags, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#stat.S_IFDOOR" title="stat.S_IFDOOR"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFDOOR</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#stat.S_IFPORT" title="stat.S_IFPORT"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFPORT</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#stat.S_IFWHT" title="stat.S_IFWHT"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">S_IFWHT</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by
+Christian Hiemes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11016">bpo-11016</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="struct">
+<h3>struct<a class="headerlink" href="#struct" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.iter_unpack" title="struct.iter_unpack"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iter_unpack</span></code></a> and a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.Struct.iter_unpack" title="struct.Struct.iter_unpack"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.Struct.iter_unpack()</span></code></a> method on compiled formats provide streamed
+unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given format of data.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17804">bpo-17804</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess">
+<h3>subprocess<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.check_output" title="subprocess.check_output"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_output()</span></code></a> now accepts an <em>input</em> argument that can
+be used to provide the contents of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code> for the command that is run.
+(Contributed by Zack Weinberg in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16624">bpo-16624</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstatus()</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.getstatusoutput" title="subprocess.getstatusoutput"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getstatusoutput()</span></code></a> now
+work on Windows.  This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4.
+(Contributed by Tim Golden in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10197">bpo-10197</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sunau">
+<h3>sunau<a class="headerlink" href="#sunau" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getparams()</span></code> method now returns a namedtuple rather than a
+plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18901">bpo-18901</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sunau.html#sunau.open" title="sunau.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau.open()</span></code></a> now supports the context management protocol: when used in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> block, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close</span></code> method of the returned object will be
+called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18878">bpo-18878</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.setsampwidth" title="sunau.AU_write.setsampwidth"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AU_write.setsampwidth()</span></code></a> now supports 24 bit samples, thus adding
+support for writing 24 sample using the module.  (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19261">bpo-19261</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.writeframesraw" title="sunau.AU_write.writeframesraw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sunau.html#sunau.AU_write.writeframes" title="sunau.AU_write.writeframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code></a> methods now accept any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+object</span></a>.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8311">bpo-8311</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sys">
+<h3>sys<a class="headerlink" href="#sys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getallocatedblocks" title="sys.getallocatedblocks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getallocatedblocks()</span></code></a> returns the current number of
+blocks allocated by the interpreter.  (In CPython with the default
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pymalloc</span></code> setting, this is allocations made through the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a> API.)  This can be useful for tracking memory leaks,
+especially if automated via a test suite.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13390">bpo-13390</a>.)</p>
+<p>When the Python interpreter starts in <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/interpreter.html#tut-interactive"><span class="std std-ref">interactive mode</span></a>, it checks for an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.__interactivehook__" title="sys.__interactivehook__"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__interactivehook__</span></code></a> attribute
+on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> module.  If the attribute exists, its value is called with no
+arguments just before interactive mode is started.  The check is made after the
+<span class="target" id="index-40"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a> file is read, so it can be set there.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a>
+module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#rlcompleter-config"><span class="std std-ref">sets it</span></a> to a function that enables tab
+completion and history saving (in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.python-history</span></code>) if the platform
+supports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>.  If you do not want this (new) behavior, you can
+override it in <span class="target" id="index-41"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sitecustomize</span></code>, or
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usercustomize</span></code> by deleting this attribute from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> (or setting it
+to some other callable).  (Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5845">bpo-5845</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tarfile">
+<h3>tarfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module now supports a simple <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile-commandline"><span class="std std-ref">Command-Line Interface</span></a> when
+called as a script directly or via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code>.  This can be used to create and
+extract tarfile archives.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13477">bpo-13477</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="textwrap">
+<h3>textwrap<a class="headerlink" href="#textwrap" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper" title="textwrap.TextWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextWrapper</span></code></a> class has two new attributes/constructor
+arguments: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.max_lines" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.max_lines"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_lines</span></code></a>, which limits the number of
+lines in the output, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#textwrap.TextWrapper.placeholder" title="textwrap.TextWrapper.placeholder"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">placeholder</span></code></a>, which is a
+string that will appear at the end of the output if it has been truncated
+because of <em>max_lines</em>.  Building on these capabilities, a new convenience
+function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/textwrap.html#textwrap.shorten" title="textwrap.shorten"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shorten()</span></code></a> collapses all of the whitespace in the input
+to single spaces and produces a single line of a given <em>width</em> that ends with
+the <em>placeholder</em> (by default, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[...]</span></code>).  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and
+Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18585">bpo-18585</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18725">bpo-18725</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="threading">
+<h3>threading<a class="headerlink" href="#threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Thread" title="threading.Thread"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Thread</span></code></a> object representing the main thread can be
+obtained from the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.main_thread" title="threading.main_thread"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">main_thread()</span></code></a> function.  In normal
+conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was
+started.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18882">bpo-18882</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="traceback">
+<h3>traceback<a class="headerlink" href="#traceback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.clear_frames" title="traceback.clear_frames"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.clear_frames()</span></code></a> function takes a traceback object
+and clears the local variables in all of the frames it references,
+reducing the amount of memory consumed.  (Contributed by Andrew Kuchling in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1565525">bpo-1565525</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="types">
+<h3>types<a class="headerlink" href="#types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.DynamicClassAttribute" title="types.DynamicClassAttribute"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DynamicClassAttribute()</span></code></a> descriptor provides a way to define
+an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an instance object, but
+which is routed to the <em>class</em> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> when looked up through the
+class.  This allows one to have properties active on a class, and have virtual
+attributes on the class with the same name (see <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> for an example).
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19030">bpo-19030</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib">
+<h3>urllib<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> now supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data:</span></code> URLs via the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.DataHandler" title="urllib.request.DataHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DataHandler</span></code></a> class.  (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16423">bpo-16423</a>.)</p>
+<p>The http method that will be used by a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> class
+can now be specified by setting a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.method" title="urllib.request.Request.method"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method</span></code></a>
+class attribute on the subclass.  (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18978">bpo-18978</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> objects are now reusable: if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.full_url" title="urllib.request.Request.full_url"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">full_url</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.data" title="urllib.request.Request.data"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">data</span></code></a>
+attributes are modified, all relevant internal properties are updated.  This
+means, for example, that it is now possible to use the same
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a> object in more than one
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open" title="urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OpenerDirector.open()</span></code></a> call with different <em>data</em> arguments, or to
+modify a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a>’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">url</span></code> rather than recomputing it
+from scratch.  There is also a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request.remove_header" title="urllib.request.Request.remove_header"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove_header()</span></code></a> method that can be used to remove
+headers from a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Alexey
+Kachayev in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16464">bpo-16464</a>, Daniel Wozniak in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17485">bpo-17485</a>, and Damien Brecht
+and Senthil Kumaran in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17272">bpo-17272</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError" title="urllib.error.HTTPError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPError</span></code></a> objects now have a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.error.html#urllib.error.HTTPError.headers" title="urllib.error.HTTPError.headers"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">headers</span></code></a> attribute that provides access to the
+HTTP response headers associated with the error.  (Contributed by
+Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15701">bpo-15701</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest">
+<h3>unittest<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase" title="unittest.TestCase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase</span></code></a> class has a new method,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.subTest" title="unittest.TestCase.subTest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subTest()</span></code></a>, that produces a context manager whose
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> block becomes a “sub-test”.  This context manager allows a test
+method to dynamically generate subtests  by, say, calling the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subTest</span></code>
+context manager inside a loop.  A single test method can thereby produce an
+indefinite number of separately-identified and separately-counted tests, all of
+which will run even if one or more of them fail.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">NumbersTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">unittest</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_even</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subTest</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">):</span>
+                <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose output
+with a label consisting of the variable name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i</span></code> and a particular value for
+that variable (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i=0</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i=1</span></code>, etc).  See <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#subtests"><span class="std std-ref">Distinguishing test iterations using subtests</span></a> for the full
+version of this example.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16997">bpo-16997</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.main" title="unittest.main"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.main()</span></code></a> now accepts an iterable of test names for
+<em>defaultTest</em>, where previously it only accepted a single test name as a
+string.  (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15132">bpo-15132</a>.)</p>
+<p>If <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.SkipTest" title="unittest.SkipTest"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SkipTest</span></code></a> is raised during test discovery (that is, at the
+module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of an
+error.  (Contributed by Zach Ware in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16935">bpo-16935</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.discover" title="unittest.TestLoader.discover"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">discover()</span></code></a> now sorts the discovered files to provide
+consistent test ordering.  (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16709">bpo-16709</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> now drops references to tests as soon as the test
+has been run, if the test is successful.  On Python interpreters that do
+garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if nothing
+else is holding a reference to the test.  It is possible to override this
+behavior by creating a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> subclass that defines a
+custom <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_removeTestAtIndex</span></code> method.  (Contributed by Tom Wardill, Matt
+McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11798">bpo-11798</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new test assertion context-manager, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertLogs" title="unittest.TestCase.assertLogs"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertLogs()</span></code></a>,
+will ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module.  By default the message can come from any logger and
+have a priority of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">INFO</span></code> or higher, but both the logger name and an
+alternative minimum logging level may be specified.  The object returned by the
+context manager can be queried for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.LogRecord" title="logging.LogRecord"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code></a>s and/or
+formatted messages that were logged.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18937">bpo-18937</a>.)</p>
+<p>Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu Popa
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17457">bpo-17457</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#module-unittest.mock" title="unittest.mock: Mock object library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code></a> objects now inspect their specification signatures when
+matching calls, which means an argument can now be matched by either position
+or name, instead of only by position.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17015">bpo-17015</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_open()</span></code> objects now have <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readlines</span></code>
+methods.  (Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17467">bpo-17467</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="venv">
+<h3>venv<a class="headerlink" href="#venv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> now includes activation scripts for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csh</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fish</span></code>
+shells.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15417">bpo-15417</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder" title="venv.EnvBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a> and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#venv.create" title="venv.create"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create()</span></code></a> convenience function
+take a new keyword argument <em>with_pip</em>, which defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, that
+controls whether or not <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#venv.EnvBuilder" title="venv.EnvBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EnvBuilder</span></code></a> ensures that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pip</span></code> is
+installed in the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19552">bpo-19552</a> as part of the <span class="target" id="index-42"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a> implementation.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wave">
+<h3>wave<a class="headerlink" href="#wave" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getparams()</span></code> method now returns a namedtuple rather than a
+plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17487">bpo-17487</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#wave.open" title="wave.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave.open()</span></code></a> now supports the context management protocol.  (Contributed
+by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17616">bpo-17616</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a> can now <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#wave-write-objects"><span class="std std-ref">write output to unseekable files</span></a>.  (Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy
+Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5202">bpo-5202</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw" title="wave.Wave_write.writeframesraw"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframesraw()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#wave.Wave_write.writeframes" title="wave.Wave_write.writeframes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeframes()</span></code></a> methods now accept any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like
+object</span></a>.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8311">bpo-8311</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="weakref">
+<h3>weakref<a class="headerlink" href="#weakref" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#weakref.WeakMethod" title="weakref.WeakMethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WeakMethod</span></code></a> class simulates weak references to bound
+methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14631">bpo-14631</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#weakref.finalize" title="weakref.finalize"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finalize</span></code></a> class makes it possible to register a callback
+to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to
+carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself.  (Contributed by
+Richard Oudkerk in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15528">bpo-15528</a>.)</p>
+<p>The callback, if any, associated with a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#weakref.ref" title="weakref.ref"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ref</span></code></a> is now
+exposed via the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#weakref.ref.__callback__" title="weakref.ref.__callback__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__callback__</span></code></a> attribute.  (Contributed
+by Mark Dickinson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17643">bpo-17643</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xml-etree">
+<h3>xml.etree<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-etree" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new parser, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLPullParser</span></code></a>, allows a
+non-blocking applications to parse XML documents.  An example can be
+seen at <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#elementtree-pull-parsing"><span class="std std-ref">Pull API for non-blocking parsing</span></a>.  (Contributed by Antoine
+Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17741">bpo-17741</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tostring()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tostringlist()</span></code></a> functions, and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method, now have a
+<em>short_empty_elements</em> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only parameter</span></a>
+providing control over whether elements with no content are written in
+abbreviated (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;tag</span> <span class="pre">/&gt;</span></code>) or expanded (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;tag&gt;&lt;/tag&gt;</span></code>) form.  (Contributed by
+Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14377">bpo-14377</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipfile">
+<h3>zipfile<a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy" title="zipfile.PyZipFile.writepy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writepy()</span></code></a> method of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.PyZipFile" title="zipfile.PyZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyZipFile</span></code></a> class has a new <em>filterfunc</em> option that can be
+used to control which directories and files are added to the archive.  For
+example, this could be used to exclude test files from the archive.
+(Contributed by Christian Tismer in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19274">bpo-19274</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>allowZip64</em> parameter to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyZipfile</span></code> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> by default.  (Contributed by
+William Mallard in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17201">bpo-17201</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cpython-implementation-changes">
+<h2>CPython Implementation Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#cpython-implementation-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="pep-445-customization-of-cpython-memory-allocators">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-445"></span><h3>PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-445-customization-of-cpython-memory-allocators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-43"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0445"><strong>PEP 445</strong></a> adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in
+the CPython interpreter.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-44"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0445"><strong>PEP 445</strong></a> – Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-442-safe-object-finalization">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-442"></span><h3>PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-442-safe-object-finalization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-45"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0442"><strong>PEP 442</strong></a> removes the current limitations and quirks of object finalization
+in CPython. With it, objects with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__" title="object.__del__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code></a> methods, as well as
+generators with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a> clauses, can be finalized when they are
+part of a reference cycle.</p>
+<p>As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead relying
+on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector.  This avoids a
+whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually involving
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__</span></code> methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic GC
+was first introduced.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-46"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0442"><strong>PEP 442</strong></a> – Safe object finalization</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-456-secure-and-interchangeable-hash-algorithm">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-456"></span><h3>PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-456-secure-and-interchangeable-hash-algorithm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-47"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0456"><strong>PEP 456</strong></a> follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python’s hash
+algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs backed by
+dictionary lookups may be subject.  (See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14621">bpo-14621</a> for the start of the
+current round of improvements.)  The PEP unifies CPython’s hash code to make it
+easier for a packager to substitute a different hash algorithm, and switches
+Python’s default implementation to a SipHash implementation on platforms that
+have a 64 bit data type.  Any performance differences in comparison with the
+older FNV algorithm are trivial.</p>
+<p>The PEP adds additional fields to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.hash_info" title="sys.hash_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hash_info</span></code></a> struct sequence to
+describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing binary.  Otherwise,
+the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-436-argument-clinic">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-436"></span><h3>PEP 436: Argument Clinic<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-436-argument-clinic" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>“Argument Clinic” (<span class="target" id="index-48"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0436"><strong>PEP 436</strong></a>) is now part of the CPython build process
+and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining
+accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules
+implemented in C.</p>
+<p>Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use Argument
+Clinic in Python 3.4, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> have been updated
+accordingly.</p>
+<p>It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection will
+be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python 3.4
+maintenance releases.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the state of the
+implementation. This has been deemed acceptable by the release manager
+and core development team in this case, as Argument Clinic will not
+be made available as a public API for third party use in Python 3.4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-49"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0436"><strong>PEP 436</strong></a> – The Argument Clinic DSL</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h3>Other Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GetSlot" title="PyType_GetSlot"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GetSlot()</span></code></a> function has been added to the stable ABI,
+allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type slots when using
+the limited API.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17162">bpo-17162</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding" title="Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()</span></code></a> pre-initialization API
+allows applications embedding the CPython interpreter to reliably force
+a particular encoding and error handler for the standard streams.
+(Contributed by Bastien Montagne and Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16129">bpo-16129</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Most Python C APIs that don’t mutate string arguments are now correctly
+marked as accepting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.  (Contributed
+by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1772673">bpo-1772673</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new shell version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python-config</span></code> can be used even when a python
+interpreter is not available (for example, in cross compilation scenarios).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a> now supports width and precision
+specifications for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%A</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%U</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%S</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%R</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7330">bpo-7330</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_InitType2" title="PyStructSequence_InitType2"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_InitType2()</span></code></a> supplements the
+existing <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_InitType" title="PyStructSequence_InitType"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_InitType()</span></code></a> function.  The difference
+is that it returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on failure.</p></li>
+<li><p>The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity checking
+features of recent versions of GCC and clang:  the false alarms in the small
+object allocator have been silenced.  (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18596">bpo-18596</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The Windows build now uses <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization">Address Space Layout Randomization</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention">Data Execution Prevention</a>.  (Contributed by
+Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16632">bpo-16632</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_LengthHint" title="PyObject_LengthHint"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_LengthHint()</span></code></a> is the C API equivalent
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.length_hint" title="operator.length_hint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.length_hint()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16148">bpo-16148</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-improvements">
+<span id="other-improvements-3-4"></span><h3>Other Improvements<a class="headerlink" href="#other-improvements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple" id="whatsnew-isolated-mode">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-cmdline"><span class="std std-ref">python</span></a> command has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#using-on-misc-options"><span class="std std-ref">option</span></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code>, which causes it to run in “isolated mode”,
+which means that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> contains neither the script’s directory nor
+the user’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site-packages</span></code> directory, and all <span class="target" id="index-50"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHON*</span></code> environment
+variables are ignored (it implies both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-E</span></code>).  Other
+restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being to
+isolate the execution of a script from the user’s environment.  This is
+appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a system script.  On
+most POSIX systems it can and should be used in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#!</span></code> line of system
+scripts.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16499">bpo-16499</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive interpreter
+on systems that support <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>.  History is also enabled by default,
+and is written to (and read from) the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.python-history</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric Araujo in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5845">bpo-5845</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Invoking the Python interpreter with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--version</span></code> now outputs the version to
+standard output instead of standard error (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18338">bpo-18338</a>). Similar changes
+were made to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18920">bpo-18920</a>) and other modules that have
+script-like invocation capabilities (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18922">bpo-18922</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The CPython Windows installer now adds <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> to the <span class="target" id="index-51"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATHEXT</span></code>
+variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a python
+script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name without the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> extension.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18569">bpo-18569</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span></code> target <a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov">coverage-report</a>
+will build python, run the test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report
+for the C codebase using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcov</span></code> and <a class="reference external" href="http://ltp.sourceforge.net/coverage/lcov.php">lcov</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-R</span></code> option to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/test.html#regrtest"><span class="std std-ref">python regression test suite</span></a> now
+also checks for memory allocation leaks, using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getallocatedblocks" title="sys.getallocatedblocks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getallocatedblocks()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13390">bpo-13390</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span></code> now works with namespace packages.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> module is now implemented in C, which means it gets the
+values for its constants from the C header files, instead of having the
+values hard-coded in the python module as was previously the case.</p></li>
+<li><p>Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.so</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.dll</span></code>)
+now works correctly (previously it silently returned the first python
+module in the file).  (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16421">bpo-16421</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new opcode, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_CLASSDEREF"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOAD_CLASSDEREF</span></code></a>, has been added to fix a bug in the
+loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered by certain
+uses of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#prepare"><span class="std std-ref">__prepare__</span></a>.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17853">bpo-17853</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed by Victor
+Stinner using his <span class="target" id="index-52"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0445"><strong>PEP 445</strong></a>-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyfailmalloc</span></code> tool (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18408">bpo-18408</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18520">bpo-18520</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> command now accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--copies</span></code> option
+to use copies rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the
+default.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18807">bpo-18807</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> command also accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-pip</span></code>
+option to suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into
+the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19552">bpo-19552</a>
+as part of the <span class="target" id="index-53"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0453"><strong>PEP 453</strong></a> implementation.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the
+<span class="target" id="index-54"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONIOENCODING</span></code></a> environment variable.  This makes it possible to
+set just the error handler, without changing the default encoding.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18818">bpo-18818</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#module-bz2" title="bz2: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/lzma.html#module-lzma" title="lzma: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open</span></code> functions now
+support <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> (exclusive creation) mode.  (Contributed by Tim Heaney and
+Vajrasky Kok in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19201">bpo-19201</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19222">bpo-19222</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19223">bpo-19223</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="significant-optimizations">
+<h3>Significant Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#significant-optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14625">bpo-14625</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced.  Each hash table
+probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash pairs before
+continuing to make random probes through the hash table.  This exploits
+cache locality to make collision resolution less expensive.
+The collision resolution scheme can be described as a hybrid of linear
+probing and open addressing.  The number of additional linear probes
+defaults to nine.  This can be changed at compile-time by defining
+LINEAR_PROBES to be any value.  Set LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off
+linear probing entirely.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18771">bpo-18771</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The interpreter starts about 30% faster. A couple of measures lead to the
+speedup. The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup, e.g. the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#module-locale" title="locale: Internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale</span></code></a> modules and their dependencies are no
+longer imported by default. The marshal module has been improved to load
+compiled Python code faster.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian
+Heimes and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19219">bpo-19219</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19218">bpo-19218</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19209">bpo-19209</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19205">bpo-19205</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9548">bpo-9548</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2File" title="bz2.BZ2File"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bz2.BZ2File</span></code></a> is now as fast or faster than the Python2 version for
+most cases.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMAFile" title="lzma.LZMAFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lzma.LZMAFile</span></code></a> has also been optimized.  (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16034">bpo-16034</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.getrandbits" title="random.getrandbits"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.getrandbits()</span></code></a> is 20%-40% faster for small integers (the most
+common use case).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16674">bpo-16674</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling of
+strings is now significantly faster.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and
+Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15596">bpo-15596</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A performance issue in <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.FileIO.readall()</span></code> has been solved.  This
+particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case of piping
+significant amounts of data through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a>.  (Contributed
+by Richard Oudkerk in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15758">bpo-15758</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.html#html.escape" title="html.escape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html.escape()</span></code></a> is now 10x faster.  (Contributed by Matt Bryant in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18020">bpo-18020</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>On Windows, the native <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VirtualAlloc</span></code> is now used instead of the CRT
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obmalloc</span></code>.  Artificial benchmarks show about a 3% memory
+savings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> now uses a lazily-opened persistent file descriptor
+so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in parallel from
+multiple threads.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18756">bpo-18756</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated">
+<span id="deprecated-3-4"></span><h2>Deprecated<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section covers various APIs and other features that have been deprecated
+in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later.  In most (but not
+all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>
+when the interpreter is run with deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by
+using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wd</span></code>).</p>
+<div class="section" id="deprecations-in-the-python-api">
+<h3>Deprecations in the Python API<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecations-in-the-python-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>As mentioned in <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-451"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System</span></a>, a number of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>
+methods and functions are deprecated: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.find_loader" title="importlib.find_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.find_loader()</span></code></a> is
+replaced by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.find_spec" title="importlib.util.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.find_spec()</span></code></a>;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()</span></code></a> is replaced by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec()</span></code></a>;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()</span></code></a> is replaced by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec()</span></code></a>;
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></code></a> are replaced by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec()</span></code></a>; all of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xxxLoader</span></code> ABC
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_module</span></code> methods (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module()</span></code></a>) should no longer be
+implemented, instead loaders should implement an
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_module</span></code> method
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module()</span></code></a>
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module()</span></code></a>) and let the import system
+take care of the rest; and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr" title="importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.module_for_loader" title="importlib.util.module_for_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_for_loader()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.set_loader" title="importlib.util.set_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.set_loader()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.set_package" title="importlib.util.set_package"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.set_package()</span></code></a> are no longer needed because their
+functions are now handled automatically by the import system.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module is pending deprecation. To keep compatibility with
+Python 2/3 code bases, the module’s removal is currently not scheduled.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/formatter.html#module-formatter" title="formatter: Generic output formatter and device interface. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code></a> module is pending deprecation and is slated for removal
+in Python 3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MD5</span></code> as the default <em>digestmod</em> for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.new" title="hmac.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.new()</span></code></a> function is
+deprecated.  Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest name or constructor as
+<em>digestmod</em> argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>The internal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Netrc</span></code> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> module has been documented
+as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time.  It now emits a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and will be removed completely in Python 3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p>The undocumented <em>endtime</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.wait" title="subprocess.Popen.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen.wait()</span></code></a> should
+not have been exposed and is hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and
+will mostly likely be removed in Python 3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>strict</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> is deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib" title="plistlib: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlist" title="plistlib.readPlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readPlist()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.writePlist" title="plistlib.writePlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writePlist()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlistFromBytes" title="plistlib.readPlistFromBytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readPlistFromBytes()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.writePlistToBytes" title="plistlib.writePlistToBytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writePlistToBytes()</span></code></a> functions are deprecated in favor of the
+corresponding new functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.load" title="plistlib.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dump" title="plistlib.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.loads" title="plistlib.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.dumps" title="plistlib.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.Data" title="plistlib.Data"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Data()</span></code></a>
+is deprecated in favor of just using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> constructor.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> key <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO</span></code> is deprecated, it has been replaced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXT_SUFFIX</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U</span></code> mode accepted by various <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open</span></code> functions is deprecated.
+In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced by
+appropriate uses of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> (if needed) and its <em>newline</em>
+argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>parser</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse()</span></code></a> has
+been deprecated, as has the <em>html</em> argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser()</span></code></a>.  To prepare for the removal of the
+latter, all arguments to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XMLParser</span></code> should be passed by keyword.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-features">
+<h3>Deprecated Features<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Running <a class="reference internal" href="../library/idle.html#idle"><span class="std std-ref">IDLE</span></a> with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> flag (no subprocess) is deprecated.
+However, the feature will not be removed until <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18823">bpo-18823</a> is resolved.</p></li>
+<li><p>The site module adding a “site-python” directory to sys.path, if it
+exists, is deprecated (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19375">bpo-19375</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removed">
+<h2>Removed<a class="headerlink" href="#removed" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="operating-systems-no-longer-supported">
+<h3>Operating Systems No Longer Supported<a class="headerlink" href="#operating-systems-no-longer-supported" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the source
+and build tools:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>OS/2 (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16135">bpo-16135</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).</p></li>
+<li><p>Windows systems where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMSPEC</span></code> points to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">command.com</span></code> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14470">bpo-14470</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>VMS (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16136">bpo-16136</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="api-and-feature-removals">
+<h3>API and Feature Removals<a class="headerlink" href="#api-and-feature-removals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been
+removed:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The unmaintained <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/TextMate</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Misc/vim</span></code> directories have been
+removed (see the <a class="reference external" href="https://devguide.python.org">devguide</a>
+for suggestions on what to use instead).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO</span></code> makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHLIB_SUFFIX</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXT_SUFFIX</span></code> macros) (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16754">bpo-16754</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState.tick_counter</span></code> field has been removed; its value has
+been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the “new GIL” was introduced
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19199">bpo-19199</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLoader</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyPycLoader</span></code> have been removed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Taras Lyapun in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15641">bpo-15641</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>strict</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a> has been removed.  HTTP 0.9-style
+“Simple Responses” are no longer supported.</p></li>
+<li><p>The deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.Request" title="urllib.request.Request"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.Request</span></code></a> getter and setter methods
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_data</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">has_data</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_data</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_type</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_host</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_selector</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_proxy</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_origin_req_host</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_unverifiable</span></code> have been removed (use direct attribute access instead).</p></li>
+<li><p>Support for loading the deprecated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPE_INT64</span></code> has been removed from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Dan Riti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15480">bpo-15480</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.Signature</span></code></a>: positional-only parameters are now required
+to have a valid name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__format__" title="object.__format__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__format__()</span></code></a> no longer accepts non-empty format strings, it now
+raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> instead.  Using a non-empty string has been
+deprecated since Python 3.2.  This change has been made to prevent a
+situation where previously working (but incorrect) code would start failing
+if an object gained a __format__ method, which means that your code may now
+raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if you are using an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'s'</span></code> format code with objects
+that do not have a __format__ method that handles it.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7994">bpo-7994</a> for
+background.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular()</span></code> were deprecated in 3.2, and have
+now been removed: use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">sm.bjunk</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">sm.bpopular</span></code>, where <em>sm</em> is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#difflib.SequenceMatcher" title="difflib.SequenceMatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SequenceMatcher</span></code></a> object
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13248">bpo-13248</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="code-cleanups">
+<h3>Code Cleanups<a class="headerlink" href="#code-cleanups" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The unused and undocumented internal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Scanner</span></code> class has been removed from
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module.</p></li>
+<li><p>The private and effectively unused <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_gestalt</span></code> module has been removed,
+along with the private <a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#module-platform" title="platform: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform</span></code></a> functions <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_mac_ver_lookup</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_mac_ver_gstalt</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_bcd2str</span></code>, which would only have ever been called
+on badly broken OSX systems (see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18393">bpo-18393</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The hardcoded copies of certain <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stat.html#module-stat" title="stat: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat()."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat</span></code></a> constants that were included in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> module namespace have been removed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-4">
+<h2>Porting to Python 3.4<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.</p>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-python-command-behavior">
+<h3>Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-python-command-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>In a posix shell, setting the <span class="target" id="index-55"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable to
+an empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all.  However, setting
+<span class="target" id="index-56"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> to an empty value was <em>not</em> equivalent to not setting it
+at all: setting <span class="target" id="index-57"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> to an empty value was equivalent to
+setting it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.</span></code>, which leads to confusion when reasoning by analogy to
+how <span class="target" id="index-58"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> works.  The behavior now conforms to the posix convention
+for <span class="target" id="index-59"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pydebug</span></code>) build of the
+CPython interpreter is now off by default.  It can be re-enabled using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">showrefcount</span></code> option.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17323">bpo-17323</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>) now
+output <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--version</span></code> information to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> (for
+issue list see <a class="reference internal" href="#other-improvements-3-4"><span class="std std-ref">Other Improvements</span></a> above).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-python-api">
+<h3>Changes in the Python API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-python-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The ABCs defined in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc" title="importlib.abc: Abstract base classes related to import"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code></a> now either raise the appropriate
+exception or return a default value instead of raising
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> blindly. This will only affect code calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> and falling through all the way to the ABCs. For compatibility,
+catch both <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> or the appropriate exception as needed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The module type now initializes the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__package__" title="__package__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__loader__" title="__loader__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code></a>
+attributes to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> by default. To determine if these attributes were set
+in a backwards-compatible fashion, use e.g.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr(module,</span> <span class="pre">'__loader__',</span> <span class="pre">None)</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code>.  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17115">bpo-17115</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.module_for_loader" title="importlib.util.module_for_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_for_loader()</span></code></a> now sets <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> unconditionally to properly support reloading. If this is not
+desired then you will need to set these attributes manually. You can use
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.module_to_load()</span></code> for module management.</p></li>
+<li><p>Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code>) unconditionally when reloading.
+Note that this restores a pre-3.3 behavior in that it means a module is
+re-found when re-loaded (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19413">bpo-19413</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Frozen packages no longer set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> to a list containing the package
+name, they now set it to an empty list.  The previous behavior could cause
+the import system to do the wrong thing on submodule imports if there was
+also a directory with the same name as the frozen package.  The correct way
+to determine if a module is a package or not is to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr(module,</span>
+<span class="pre">'__path__')</span></code> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18065">bpo-18065</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Frozen modules no longer define a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> attribute. It’s semantically
+incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as they are not loaded from
+any explicit location. If you must know that a module comes from frozen code
+then you can see if the module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.location</span></code> is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'frozen'</span></code>,
+check if the loader is a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter" title="importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter</span></code></a>,
+or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.is_frozen()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#py_compile.compile" title="py_compile.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile.compile()</span></code></a> now raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileExistsError" title="FileExistsError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileExistsError</span></code></a> if the file path
+it would write to is a symlink or a non-regular file. This is to act as a
+warning that import will overwrite those files with a regular file regardless
+of what type of file path they were originally.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source" title="importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source()</span></code></a> no longer raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> when the source code being loaded triggers a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a>. As <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> is
+meant to be raised only when source code cannot be found but it should, it was
+felt to be over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is
+found but improperly structured. If you were catching ImportError before and
+wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues, catch all three
+exceptions now.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.update_wrapper" title="functools.update_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.update_wrapper()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.wraps" title="functools.wraps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.wraps()</span></code></a> now correctly
+set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute to the function being wrapped, even if
+that function also had its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute set. This means
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attributes now correctly link a stack of decorated
+functions rather than every <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute in the chain
+referring to the innermost function. Introspection libraries that
+assumed the previous behaviour was intentional can use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.unwrap" title="inspect.unwrap"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.unwrap()</span></code></a> to access the first function in the chain that has
+no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec()</span></code></a> has been reimplemented on top of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code></a> and hence handles a much wider variety of callable
+objects than it did in the past. It is expected that additional builtin and
+extension module callables will gain signature metadata over the course of
+the Python 3.4 series. Code that assumes that
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec()</span></code></a> will fail on non-Python callables may need
+to be adjusted accordingly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.PathFinder</span></code></a> now passes on the current working
+directory to objects in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_hooks" title="sys.path_hooks"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_hooks</span></code></a> for the empty string. This
+results in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> never containing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>, thus
+iterating through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> based on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>
+will not find all keys. A module’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> when imported in the current
+working directory will also now have an absolute path, including when using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> with the interpreter (except for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.__file__</span></code> when a script
+has been executed directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett
+Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18416">bpo-18416</a>).  is specified on the command-line)
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18416">bpo-18416</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The removal of the <em>strict</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a> changes the meaning of the
+remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather than by
+keyword.  If you’ve been paying attention to deprecation warnings your code
+should already be specifying any additional arguments via keywords.</p></li>
+<li><p>Strings between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">__future__</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> statements now <em>always</em> raise
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.  Previously if there was no leading docstring, an
+interstitial string would sometimes be ignored.  This brings CPython into
+compliance with the language spec; Jython and PyPy already were.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17434">bpo-17434</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></code></a>
+now raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENOTCONN</span></code> when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code> is not
+connected, instead of the previous behavior of raising an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.  In addition, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getpeercert()</span></code></a>
+will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the handshake has not yet been done.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#base64.b32decode" title="base64.b32decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64.b32decode()</span></code></a> now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/binascii.html#binascii.Error" title="binascii.Error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">binascii.Error</span></code></a> when the
+input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters, instead of a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.  This particular <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> was missed when the other
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>s were converted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18011">bpo-18011</a>.)  Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python
+3.3.3.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code> attribute is now automatically closed when
+the creating <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.FieldStorage</span></code> instance is garbage collected. If you
+were pulling the file object out separately from the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.FieldStorage</span></code>
+instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either store the
+entire <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.FieldStorage</span></code> instance or read the contents of the file
+before the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.FieldStorage</span></code> instance is garbage collected.</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write</span></code> on a closed SSL socket now raises an
+informative <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> rather than the previous more mysterious
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9177">bpo-9177</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#slice.indices" title="slice.indices"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice.indices()</span></code></a> no longer produces an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a> for huge
+values.  As a consequence of this fix, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#slice.indices" title="slice.indices"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">slice.indices()</span></code></a> now raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense
+values (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14794">bpo-14794</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a> constructor, unlike the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a> functions, was
+incorrectly accepting <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> values if an object’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__</span></code>
+special method returned one.  This now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16290">bpo-16290</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>
+values for the <em>base</em> parameter.  It is unlikely anyone was doing this, but
+if so, it will now raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16772">bpo-16772</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated <em>after</em> defaults for
+regular keyword arguments, instead of before.  Hopefully no one wrote any
+code that depends on the previous buggy behavior (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16967">bpo-16967</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Stale thread states are now cleared after <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fork" title="os.fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code></a>.  This may cause
+some system resources to be released that previously were incorrectly kept
+perpetually alive (for example, database connections kept in thread-local
+storage).  (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17094">bpo-17094</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Parameter names in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> dicts are now mangled properly,
+similarly to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__kwdefaults__</span></code>.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20625">bpo-20625</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.hash.name" title="hashlib.hash.name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib.hash.name</span></code></a> now always returns the identifier in lower case.
+Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names, but now that it is a
+formal public interface the naming has been made consistent (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18532">bpo-18532</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Because <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> now drops references to tests after they
+are run, test harnesses that re-use a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> to re-run
+a set of tests may fail.   Test suites should not be re-used in this fashion
+since it means state is retained between test runs, breaking the test
+isolation that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> is designed to provide.  However, if the lack
+of isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be restored by
+creating a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite</span></code></a> subclass that defines a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_removeTestAtIndex</span></code> method that does nothing (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite.__iter__" title="unittest.TestSuite.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestSuite.__iter__()</span></code></a>) (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11798">bpo-11798</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> now uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> for command line parsing.  There are
+certain invalid command forms that used to work that are no longer allowed;
+in theory this should not cause backward compatibility issues since the
+disallowed command forms didn’t make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.findall" title="re.findall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.findall()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> functions, and
+the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">groups()</span></code> methods of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match</span></code> objects now always return a <em>bytes</em> object when the string
+to be matched is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a>.  Previously the return type
+matched the input type, so if your code was depending on the return value
+being, say, a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code>, you will need to change your code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/audioop.html#module-audioop" title="audioop: Manipulate raw audio data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">audioop</span></code></a> functions now raise an error immediately if passed string
+input, instead of failing randomly later on (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16685">bpo-16685</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <em>convert_charrefs</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a>
+currently defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for backward compatibility, but will
+eventually be changed to default to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  It is recommended that you add
+this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> calls in your code (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13633">bpo-13633</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Since the <em>digestmod</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.new" title="hmac.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.new()</span></code></a> function will in the
+future have no default, all calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.new" title="hmac.new"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.new()</span></code></a> should be changed to
+explicitly specify a <em>digestmod</em> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17276">bpo-17276</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_var" title="sysconfig.get_config_var"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig.get_config_var()</span></code></a> with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO</span></code> key, or looking
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO</span></code> up in the results of a call to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig.get_config_vars()</span></code></a>
+is deprecated.  This key should be replaced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EXT_SUFFIX</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHLIB_SUFFIX</span></code>, depending on the context (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19555">bpo-19555</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Any calls to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open</span></code> functions that specify <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U</span></code> should be modified.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">U</span></code> is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if used.
+Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2 behavior can be
+achieved using either a <em>newline</em> argument, or if necessary by wrapping the
+stream in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> to use its <em>newline</em> argument
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15204">bpo-15204</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>If you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> in a script and desire that pip
+<em>not</em> be installed, you must add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-pip</span></code> to your command
+invocation.</p></li>
+<li><p>The default behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.dump" title="json.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.dump()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.dumps" title="json.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.dumps()</span></code></a> when
+an indent is specified has changed: it no longer produces trailing
+spaces after the item separating commas at the ends of lines.  This
+will matter only if you have tests that are doing white-space-sensitive
+comparisons of such output (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16333">bpo-16333</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doctest</span></code></a> now looks for doctests in extension module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code>
+strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes extension modules that
+have things that look like doctests in them you may see test failures you’ve
+never seen before when running your tests (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3158">bpo-3158</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> module has been slightly refactored as
+part of the Python startup improvements.  As a consequence of this, it is no
+longer the case that importing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> automatically imports
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a>.  If your program depended on the (undocumented)
+implicit import, you will need to add an explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code>
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20784">bpo-20784</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-c-api">
+<h3>Changes in the C API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyEval_EvalFrameEx" title="PyEval_EvalFrameEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_EvalFrameEx()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Repr" title="PyObject_Repr"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Repr()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Str" title="PyObject_Str"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Str()</span></code></a>, along with some other internal C APIs, now include
+a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in situations where
+they may silently discard a currently active exception. In cases where
+discarding the active exception is expected and desired (for example,
+because it has already been saved locally with <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Fetch" title="PyErr_Fetch"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Fetch()</span></code></a> or
+is being deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Clear" title="PyErr_Clear"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Clear()</span></code></a> call will be needed to avoid triggering the
+assertion when invoking these operations (directly or indirectly) and
+running against a version of Python that is compiled with assertions
+enabled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetImportError" title="PyErr_SetImportError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetImportError()</span></code></a> now sets <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> when its <strong>msg</strong>
+argument is not set. Previously only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> was returned with no exception
+set.</p></li>
+<li><p>The result of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer" title="PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer</span></code></a> callback must
+now be a string allocated by <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_RawMalloc" title="PyMem_RawMalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawMalloc()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_RawRealloc" title="PyMem_RawRealloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawRealloc()</span></code></a>, or <em>NULL</em> if an error occurred, instead of a
+string allocated by <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Realloc" title="PyMem_Realloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Realloc()</span></code></a>
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16742">bpo-16742</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyThread_set_key_value" title="PyThread_set_key_value"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_set_key_value()</span></code></a> now always set the value. In Python
+3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if the current
+value is a non-NULL pointer).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_tstate</span></code> (thread state) field of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyFrameObject" title="PyFrameObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFrameObject</span></code></a>
+structure has been removed to fix a bug: see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14432">bpo-14432</a> for the
+rationale.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changed-in-3-4-3">
+<h2>Changed in 3.4.3<a class="headerlink" href="#changed-in-3-4-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients">
+<span id="pep-476"></span><h3>PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> and modules which use it, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a>, will now verify that the server presents a certificate
+which is signed by a CA in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches
+the hostname being requested by default, significantly improving security for
+many applications.</p>
+<p>For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an
+alternate context:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.request</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This disables all verification</span>
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">_create_unverified_context</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn&#39;t need</span>
+<span class="c1"># to be in the trust store</span>
+<span class="n">context</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_default_context</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cafile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">&quot;/path/to/file.crt&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlopen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;https://invalid-cert&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">context</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">context</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release Highlights</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-453-explicit-bootstrapping-of-pip-in-python-installations">PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bootstrapping-pip-by-default">Bootstrapping pip By Default</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documentation-changes">Documentation Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-446-newly-created-file-descriptors-are-non-inheritable">PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improvements-to-codec-handling">Improvements to Codec Handling</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-451-a-modulespec-type-for-the-import-system">PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio">asyncio</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ensurepip">ensurepip</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum">enum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib">pathlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#selectors">selectors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics">statistics</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc">tracemalloc</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abc">abc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#aifc">aifc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse">argparse</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#audioop">audioop</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#base64">base64</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#colorsys">colorsys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dis">dis</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest">doctest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#email">email</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#filecmp">filecmp</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gc">gc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#glob">glob</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib">hashlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hmac">hmac</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#html">html</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http">http</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idlelib-and-idle">idlelib and IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib">importlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress">ipaddress</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#marshal">marshal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mmap">mmap</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operator">operator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#os">os</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#plistlib">plistlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#poplib">poplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pprint">pprint</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pty">pty</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#re">re</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#resource">resource</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#select">select</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shelve">shelve</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd">smtpd</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib">smtplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#stat">stat</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#struct">struct</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sunau">sunau</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#textwrap">textwrap</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback">traceback</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types">types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib">urllib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#venv">venv</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wave">wave</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#weakref">weakref</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-etree">xml.etree</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cpython-implementation-changes">CPython Implementation Changes</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-445-customization-of-cpython-memory-allocators">PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-442-safe-object-finalization">PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-456-secure-and-interchangeable-hash-algorithm">PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-436-argument-clinic">PEP 436: Argument Clinic</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-build-and-c-api-changes">Other Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-improvements">Other Improvements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#significant-optimizations">Significant Optimizations</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecations-in-the-python-api">Deprecations in the Python API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-features">Deprecated Features</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removed">Removed</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operating-systems-no-longer-supported">Operating Systems No Longer Supported</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#code-cleanups">Code Cleanups</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-4">Porting to Python 3.4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-python-command-behavior">Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changed-in-3-4-3">Changed in 3.4.3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients">PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.5.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.5</a></p>
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+                        title="next chapter">What’s New In Python 3.3</a></p>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.5.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.5.html
new file mode 100644
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@@ -0,0 +1,2421 @@
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-5">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.5<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Editors</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Elvis Pranskevichus &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:elvis&#37;&#52;&#48;magic&#46;io">elvis<span>&#64;</span>magic<span>&#46;</span>io</a>&gt;, Yury Selivanov &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:yury&#37;&#52;&#48;magic&#46;io">yury<span>&#64;</span>magic<span>&#46;</span>io</a>&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4.
+Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015.  See the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html">changelog</a> for a full
+list of changes.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0478"><strong>PEP 478</strong></a> - Python 3.5 Release Schedule</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="summary-release-highlights">
+<h2>Summary – Release highlights<a class="headerlink" href="#summary-release-highlights" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New syntax features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-492"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 492</span></a>, coroutines with async and await syntax.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-465"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 465</span></a>, a new matrix multiplication operator: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&#64;</span> <span class="pre">b</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-448"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 448</span></a>, additional unpacking generalizations.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New library modules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-484"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 484 – Type Hints</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipapp.html#module-zipapp" title="zipapp: Manage executable Python zip archives"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-zipapp"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New built-in features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">args</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">args</span></code>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-461"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 461</span></a> –
+Adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code> formatting to bytes and bytearray.</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.hex" title="bytes.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.hex()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.hex" title="bytearray.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.hex()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.hex" title="memoryview.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview.hex()</span></code></a>
+methods. (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9951">bpo-9951</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> now supports tuple indexing (including multi-dimensional).
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23632">bpo-23632</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Generators have a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gi_yieldfrom</span></code> attribute, which returns the
+object being iterated by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> expressions. (Contributed
+by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24450">bpo-24450</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RecursionError" title="RecursionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code></a> exception is now raised when maximum
+recursion depth is reached.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19235">bpo-19235</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>CPython implementation improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>When the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_TYPE</span></code> locale is the POSIX locale (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> locale),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> now use the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler, instead of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict</span></code> error handler.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19977">bpo-19977</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more flexible
+scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> name.
+(See <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-488"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 488 overview</span></a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase process,
+which is similar to how Python modules are loaded.
+(See <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-489"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 489 overview</span></a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Significant improvements in the standard library:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a> is now
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-ordereddict"><span class="std std-ref">implemented in C</span></a>, which makes it
+4 to 100 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module gained
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-sslmemorybio"><span class="std std-ref">support for Memory BIO</span></a>, which decouples SSL
+protocol handling from network IO.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a> function provides a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-471"><span class="std std-ref">better and significantly faster way</span></a>
+of directory traversal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache" title="functools.lru_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.lru_cache()</span></code></a> has been mostly
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-lrucache"><span class="std std-ref">reimplemented in C</span></a>, yielding much better
+performance.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.run()</span></code></a> function provides a
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-subprocess"><span class="std std-ref">streamlined way to run subprocesses</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#module-traceback" title="traceback: Print or retrieve a stack traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code></a> module has been significantly
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-traceback"><span class="std std-ref">enhanced</span></a> for improved
+performance and developer convenience.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Security improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library.
+It can still be enabled by instantiating a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a>
+manually.  (See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22638">bpo-22638</a> for more details; this change was
+backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.)</p></li>
+<li><p>HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect
+against potential injection attacks. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22796">bpo-22796</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Windows improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#using-on-windows"><span class="std std-ref">Using Python on Windows</span></a> for more information.</p></li>
+<li><p>Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension modules
+should use the same.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many
+other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential
+porting issues.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-features">
+<h2>New Features<a class="headerlink" href="#new-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="pep-492-coroutines-with-async-and-await-syntax">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-492"></span><h3>PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-492-coroutines-with-async-and-await-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in Python
+by adding <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable objects</span></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine-function"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine functions</span></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iteration</span></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous context managers</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Coroutine functions are declared using the new <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">coro</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Inside a coroutine function, the new <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> expression can be used
+to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available.  Any object
+can be <em>awaited</em>, as long as it implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> protocol by
+defining the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__await__" title="object.__await__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__await__()</span></code></a> method.</p>
+<p>PEP 492 also adds <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> statement for convenient iteration
+over asynchronous iterables.</p>
+<p>An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">http_get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">domain</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">writer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open_connection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">domain</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="se">\r\n</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">([</span>
+        <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;GET / HTTP/1.1&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Host: %b&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">domain</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;latin-1&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span>
+        <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Connection: close&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span>
+    <span class="p">]))</span>
+
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">reader</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;&gt;&gt;&gt;&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+    <span class="n">writer</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+
+<span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_event_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_until_complete</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">http_get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.com&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for asynchronous
+context managers.  The following script:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">asyncio</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">coro</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;coro </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">: waiting for lock&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+    <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;coro </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">: holding the lock&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;coro </span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">: releasing the lock&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">))</span>
+
+<span class="n">loop</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_event_loop</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">lock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">coros</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">gather</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">coro</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lock</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run_until_complete</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">coros</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>will output:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">coro</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">waiting</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">lock</span>
+<span class="n">coro</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">holding</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">lock</span>
+<span class="n">coro</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">waiting</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">lock</span>
+<span class="n">coro</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">releasing</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">lock</span>
+<span class="n">coro</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">holding</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">lock</span>
+<span class="n">coro</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">releasing</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">lock</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that both <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code></a> can only
+be used inside a coroutine function declared with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event loop,
+such as the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio-event-loop"><span class="std std-ref">asyncio loop</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.2: </span>Starting with CPython 3.5.2, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__</span></code> can directly return
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">asynchronous iterators</span></a>.  Returning
+an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable</span></a> object will result in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See more details in the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#async-iterators"><span class="std std-ref">Asynchronous Iterators</span></a> documentation
+section.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> – Coroutines with async and await syntax</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-465-a-dedicated-infix-operator-for-matrix-multiplication">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-465"></span><h3>PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-465-a-dedicated-infix-operator-for-matrix-multiplication" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0465"><strong>PEP 465</strong></a> adds the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code> infix operator for matrix multiplication.
+Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however, it
+can be implemented by defining <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__matmul__" title="object.__matmul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__matmul__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmatmul__" title="object.__rmatmul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rmatmul__()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__imatmul__" title="object.__imatmul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__imatmul__()</span></code></a> for regular, reflected, and in-place matrix
+multiplication.  The semantics of these methods is similar to that of
+methods defining other infix arithmetic operators.</p>
+<p>Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of
+mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;</span></code> allows writing
+cleaner code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">S</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">H</span> <span class="o">@</span> <span class="n">beta</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">@</span> <span class="n">inv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">H</span> <span class="o">@</span> <span class="n">V</span> <span class="o">@</span> <span class="n">H</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">@</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">H</span> <span class="o">@</span> <span class="n">beta</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>instead of:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">S</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">H</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">beta</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">,</span>
+        <span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inv</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">H</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">V</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">H</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">)),</span> <span class="n">dot</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">H</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">beta</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">r</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">numpy</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">numpy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ones</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span>
+<span class="go">array([ 1., 1., 1.])</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">numpy</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">eye</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">m</span>
+<span class="go">array([[ 1., 0., 0.],</span>
+<span class="go">       [ 0., 1., 0.],</span>
+<span class="go">       [ 0., 0., 1.]])</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">@</span> <span class="n">m</span>
+<span class="go">array([ 1., 1., 1.])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0465"><strong>PEP 465</strong></a> – A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Nathaniel J. Smith; implemented by Benjamin Peterson.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-448-additional-unpacking-generalizations">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-448"></span><h3>PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-448-additional-unpacking-generalizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0448"><strong>PEP 448</strong></a> extends the allowed uses of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> iterable unpacking
+operator and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> dictionary unpacking operator.  It is now possible
+to use an arbitrary number of unpackings in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#calls"><span class="std std-ref">function calls</span></a>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">1 2 3 4 5</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">fn</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;a&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;c&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;b&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;d&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">})</span>
+<span class="go">1 2 3 4</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple
+unpackings (see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#exprlists"><span class="std std-ref">Expression lists</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#dict"><span class="std std-ref">Dictionary displays</span></a>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="go">(0, 1, 2, 3, 4)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="go">[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)}</span>
+<span class="go">{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">}}</span>
+<span class="go">{&#39;x&#39;: 1, &#39;y&#39;: 2}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0448"><strong>PEP 448</strong></a> – Additional Unpacking Generalizations</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar,
+Thomas Wouters, and Joshua Landau.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-461-percent-formatting-support-for-bytes-and-bytearray">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-461"></span><h3>PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-461-percent-formatting-support-for-bytes-and-bytearray" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0461"><strong>PEP 461</strong></a> adds support for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%</span></code>
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes-formatting"><span class="std std-ref">interpolation operator</span></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there are
+cases where interpolation on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearrays</span></code> makes sense, and the
+work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts from the
+overall readability of the code.  This issue is particularly important when
+dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a mixture of binary
+and ASCII compatible text.</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello %b!&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;World&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;Hello World!&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;x=</span><span class="si">%i</span><span class="s1"> y=</span><span class="si">%f</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">b&#39;x=1 y=2.500000&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Unicode is not allowed for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%b</span></code>, but it is accepted by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%a</span></code> (equivalent of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(obj).encode('ascii',</span> <span class="pre">'backslashreplace')</span></code>):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;Hello %b!&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="s1">&#39;World&#39;</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">%b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not &#39;str&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">&#39;price: </span><span class="si">%a</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="s1">&#39;10€&#39;</span>
+<span class="go">b&quot;price: &#39;10\\u20ac&#39;&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%r</span></code> conversion types, although supported, should
+only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0461"><strong>PEP 461</strong></a> – Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and
+Ethan Furman.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-484-type-hints">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-484"></span><h3>PEP 484 - Type Hints<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-484-type-hints" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0
+(<span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107"><strong>PEP 3107</strong></a>), however the semantics of annotations has been left undefined.</p>
+<p>Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation
+uses were to provide type hints to function parameters and return values.  It
+became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the
+standard library included the base definitions and tools for type annotations.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> introduces a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional module</span></a> to
+provide these standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions
+for situations where annotations are not available.</p>
+<p>For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type
+are declared in the annotations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">greeting</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">&#39;Hello &#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> attribute, <em>no automatic type checking happens at
+runtime</em>.  Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker
+(e.g. <a class="reference external" href="http://mypy-lang.org">mypy</a>) will be used for on-demand
+source code analysis.</p>
+<p>The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type
+named <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.Any" title="typing.Any"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Any</span></code></a> which is consistent with (i.e. assignable to
+and from) all types.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module documentation</p></li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> – Type Hints</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz Langa;
+implemented by Guido van Rossum.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+<li><dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0483"><strong>PEP 483</strong></a> – The Theory of Type Hints</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Guido van Rossum</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-471-os-scandir-function-a-better-and-faster-directory-iterator">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-471"></span><h3>PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-471-os-scandir-function-a-better-and-faster-directory-iterator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0471"><strong>PEP 471</strong></a> adds a new directory iteration function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a>,
+to the standard library.  Additionally, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.walk()</span></code></a> is now
+implemented using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir</span></code>, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster
+on POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems.  This is
+largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>
+required to walk a directory tree.</p>
+<p>Additionally, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir</span></code> returns an iterator, as opposed to returning
+a list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating
+over very large directories.</p>
+<p>The following example shows a simple use of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a> to display all
+the files (excluding directories) in the given <em>path</em> that don’t start with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'.'</span></code>. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.DirEntry.is_file" title="os.DirEntry.is_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">entry.is_file()</span></code></a> call will generally
+not make an additional system call:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">entry</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">scandir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">entry</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">startswith</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;.&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="n">entry</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">is_file</span><span class="p">():</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">entry</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0471"><strong>PEP 471</strong></a> – os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-475"></span><h3>PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An <a class="reference internal" href="../library/errno.html#errno.EINTR" title="errno.EINTR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EINTR</span></code></a> error code is returned whenever a system call, that
+is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal.  Previously, Python would
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> in such cases.  This meant that, when writing a
+Python application, the developer had two choices:</p>
+<ol class="arabic simple">
+<li><p>Ignore the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Handle the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code> and attempt to restart the interrupted
+system call at every call site.</p></li>
+</ol>
+<p>The first option makes an application fail intermittently.
+The second option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the
+code nearly unreadable.  Compare:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello World&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>and:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;Hello World&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="k">break</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">InterruptedError</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">continue</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> implements automatic retry of system calls on
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINTR</span></code>.  This removes the burden of dealing with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINTR</span></code>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> in user code in most situations and makes
+Python programs, including the standard library, more robust.  Note that
+the system call is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an
+exception.</p>
+<p>Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted
+by a signal:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>functions of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> module;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> functions: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fchdir" title="os.fchdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fchdir()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fchmod" title="os.fchmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fchmod()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fchown" title="os.fchown"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fchown()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fdatasync" title="os.fdatasync"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fdatasync()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fstat" title="os.fstat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fstatvfs" title="os.fstatvfs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstatvfs()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsync" title="os.fsync"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsync()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.ftruncate" title="os.ftruncate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftruncate()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.mkfifo" title="os.mkfifo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkfifo()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.mknod" title="os.mknod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mknod()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.open" title="os.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.posix_fadvise" title="os.posix_fadvise"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix_fadvise()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.posix_fallocate" title="os.posix_fallocate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posix_fallocate()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pread" title="os.pread"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pread()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pwrite" title="os.pwrite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwrite()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.read" title="os.read"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.readv" title="os.readv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readv()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendfile()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.wait3" title="os.wait3"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait3()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.wait4" title="os.wait4"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait4()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.wait" title="os.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.waitid" title="os.waitid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitid()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.waitpid" title="os.waitpid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">waitpid()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.write" title="os.write"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.writev" title="os.writev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writev()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>special cases: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.close" title="os.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.close()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.dup2" title="os.dup2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup2()</span></code></a> now ignore
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/errno.html#errno.EINTR" title="errno.EINTR"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EINTR</span></code></a> errors; the syscall is not retried (see the PEP
+for the rationale);</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> functions: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.devpoll.poll" title="select.devpoll.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">devpoll.poll()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.epoll.poll" title="select.epoll.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">epoll.poll()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.kqueue.control" title="select.kqueue.control"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kqueue.control()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.poll.poll" title="select.poll.poll"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll.poll()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p>methods of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket" title="socket.socket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> class: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.accept" title="socket.socket.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">connect()</span></code></a> (except for non-blocking sockets),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.recv" title="socket.socket.recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recv()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvfrom" title="socket.socket.recvfrom"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvfrom()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.recvmsg" title="socket.socket.recvmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recvmsg()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendall" title="socket.socket.sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendall()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendmsg" title="socket.socket.sendmsg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmsg()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendto" title="socket.socket.sendto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendto()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigtimedwait" title="signal.sigtimedwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.sigtimedwait()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a>;</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.sleep" title="time.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.sleep()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a> – Retry system calls failing with EINTR</dt><dd><p>PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and
+Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French connection).</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-479"></span><h3>PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The interaction of generators and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> in Python 3.4 and
+earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure bugs.  Previously,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code> raised accidentally inside a generator function was
+interpreted as the end of the iteration by the loop construct driving the
+generator.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479"><strong>PEP 479</strong></a> changes the behavior of generators: when a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code>
+exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> before it exits the generator frame.  The main goal of
+this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> call raises <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code> and causes the iteration controlled
+by the generator to terminate silently. This is particularly pernicious in
+combination with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> construct.</p>
+<p>This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior,
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-future"><span class="xref std std-term">__future__</span></a> import is necessary:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">generator_stop</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen</span><span class="p">():</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">iter</span><span class="p">([]))</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="k">yield</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">())</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">2</span>, in <span class="n">gen</span>
+<span class="gr">StopIteration</span>
+
+<span class="go">The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:</span>
+
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+<span class="gr">RuntimeError</span>: <span class="n">generator raised StopIteration</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Without a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code> import, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a> will be
+raised whenever a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception is raised inside a generator.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479"><strong>PEP 479</strong></a> – Change StopIteration handling inside generators</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by
+Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-485-a-function-for-testing-approximate-equality">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-485"></span><h3>PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-485-a-function-for-testing-approximate-equality" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0485"><strong>PEP 485</strong></a> adds the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.isclose" title="math.isclose"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.isclose()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#cmath.isclose" title="cmath.isclose"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.isclose()</span></code></a>
+functions which tell whether two values are approximately equal or
+“close” to each other.  Whether or not two values are considered
+close is determined according to given absolute and relative tolerances.
+Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed difference between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isclose</span></code>
+arguments, relative to the larger absolute value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">5.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">4.99998</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isclose</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rel_tol</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1e-5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isclose</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">rel_tol</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1e-6</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance, which
+must be a non-negative value:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">5.0</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">4.99998</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isclose</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abs_tol</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.00003</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isclose</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">abs_tol</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.00001</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">False</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0485"><strong>PEP 485</strong></a> – A function for testing approximate equality</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and
+Tal Einat.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-486-make-the-python-launcher-aware-of-virtual-environments">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-486"></span><h3>PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-486-make-the-python-launcher-aware-of-virtual-environments" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0486"><strong>PEP 486</strong></a> makes the Windows launcher (see <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0397"><strong>PEP 397</strong></a>) aware of an active
+virtual environment. When the default interpreter would be used and the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VIRTUAL_ENV</span></code> environment variable is set, the interpreter in the virtual
+environment will be used.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0486"><strong>PEP 486</strong></a> – Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Paul Moore.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-488-elimination-of-pyo-files">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-488"></span><h3>PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-488-elimination-of-pyo-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a> does away with the concept of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files. This means that
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode. To prevent the
+need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files now have an
+optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt-</span></code> tag in their name when the bytecode is optimized. This has the
+side-effect of no more bytecode file name clashes when running under either
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a>. Consequently, bytecode files generated from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-o"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-oo"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a> may now exist simultaneously.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.cache_from_source" title="importlib.util.cache_from_source"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.cache_from_source()</span></code></a> has an updated API to help with
+this change.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a> – Elimination of PYO files</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Brett Cannon.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization">
+<span id="whatsnew-pep-489"></span><h3>PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a> updates extension module initialization to take advantage of the
+two step module loading mechanism introduced by <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0451"><strong>PEP 451</strong></a> in Python 3.4.</p>
+<p>This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in to
+using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and bytecode
+modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a module name,
+rather than being restricted to ASCII.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a> – Multi-phase extension module initialization</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan;
+implemented by Petr Viktorin.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;namereplace&quot;</span></code> error handlers.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;backslashreplace&quot;</span></code>
+error handlers now work with decoding and translating.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19676">bpo-19676</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22286">bpo-22286</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a> option now affects comparisons of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23681">bpo-23681</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New Kazakh <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kz1048</span></code> and Tajik <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">koi8_t</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#standard-encodings"><span class="std std-ref">codecs</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22682">bpo-22682</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22681">bpo-22681</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Property docstrings are now writable. This is especially useful for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> docstrings.
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24064">bpo-24064</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17636">bpo-17636</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-modules">
+<h2>New Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="typing">
+<h3>typing<a class="headerlink" href="#typing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional</span></a> module
+provides standard definitions and tools for function type annotations.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-484"><span class="std std-ref">Type Hints</span></a> for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipapp">
+<span id="whatsnew-zipapp"></span><h3>zipapp<a class="headerlink" href="#zipapp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipapp.html#module-zipapp" title="zipapp: Manage executable Python zip archives"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code></a> module (specified in <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0441"><strong>PEP 441</strong></a>) provides an API and
+command line tool for creating executable Python Zip Applications, which
+were introduced in Python 2.6 in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1739468">bpo-1739468</a>, but which were not well
+publicized, either at the time or since.</p>
+<p>With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting all
+the files, including a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__.py</span></code> file, into a directory <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">myapp</span></code>
+and running:</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m zipapp myapp
+<span class="gp">$</span> python myapp.pyz
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23491">bpo-23491</a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0441"><strong>PEP 441</strong></a> – Improving Python ZIP Application Support</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improved-modules">
+<h2>Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="argparse">
+<h3>argparse<a class="headerlink" href="#argparse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser" title="argparse.ArgumentParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser</span></code></a> class now allows disabling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#prefix-matching"><span class="std std-ref">abbreviated usage</span></a> of long options by setting
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#allow-abbrev"><span class="std std-ref">allow_abbrev</span></a> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.  (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh,
+Steven Bethard, paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14910">bpo-14910</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asyncio">
+<h3>asyncio<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional</span></a>,
+all changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python 3.4.x.</p>
+<p>Notable changes in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module since Python 3.4.0:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>New debugging APIs: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_debug" title="asyncio.loop.set_debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.set_debug()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_debug" title="asyncio.loop.get_debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.get_debug()</span></code></a> methods.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The proactor event loop now supports SSL.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22560">bpo-22560</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.is_closed" title="asyncio.loop.is_closed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.is_closed()</span></code></a> method to
+check if the event loop is closed.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21326">bpo-21326</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="asyncio.loop.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_task()</span></code></a>
+to conveniently create and schedule a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>
+for a coroutine.  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_task</span></code> method is also used by all
+asyncio functions that wrap coroutines into tasks, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait" title="asyncio.wait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.wait()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.gather" title="asyncio.gather"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.gather()</span></code></a>, etc.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits" title="asyncio.WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">transport.get_write_buffer_limits()</span></code></a>
+method to inquire for <em>high-</em> and <em>low-</em> water limits of the flow
+control.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async()</span></code> function is deprecated in favor of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future" title="asyncio.ensure_future"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_future()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.set_task_factory" title="asyncio.loop.set_task_factory"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.set_task_factory()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_task_factory" title="asyncio.loop.get_task_factory"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.get_task_factory()</span></code></a>
+methods to customize the task factory that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_task" title="asyncio.loop.create_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_task()</span></code></a> method uses.  (Contributed by Yury
+Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.join" title="asyncio.Queue.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue.join()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue.task_done" title="asyncio.Queue.task_done"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Queue.task_done()</span></code></a> queue methods.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JoinableQueue</span></code> class was removed, in favor of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-queue.html#asyncio.Queue" title="asyncio.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Queue</span></code></a> class.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Updates in 3.5.1:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future" title="asyncio.ensure_future"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_future()</span></code></a> function and all functions that
+use it, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_until_complete" title="asyncio.loop.run_until_complete"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_until_complete()</span></code></a>,
+now accept all kinds of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable objects</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe" title="asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_coroutine_threadsafe()</span></code></a> function to submit
+coroutines to event loops from other threads.
+(Contributed by Vincent Michel.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Transport.is_closing()</span></code></a>
+method to check if the transport is closing or closed.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>
+method can now accept a list of hosts.
+(Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Updates in 3.5.2:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_future" title="asyncio.loop.create_future"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_future()</span></code></a>
+method to create Future objects.  This allows alternative event
+loop implementations, such as
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop">uvloop</a>, to provide a faster
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> implementation.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.get_exception_handler()</span></code></a>
+method to get the current exception handler.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil" title="asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader.readuntil()</span></code></a>
+method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes
+sequence appears.
+(Contributed by Mark Korenberg.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>
+methods are optimized to avoid calling the system <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo</span></code>
+function if the address is already resolved.
+(Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_connect" title="asyncio.loop.sock_connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_connect(sock,</span> <span class="pre">address)</span></code></a>
+no longer requires the <em>address</em> to be resolved prior to the call.
+(Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="bz2">
+<h3>bz2<a class="headerlink" href="#bz2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bz2.html#bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress" title="bz2.BZ2Decompressor.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BZ2Decompressor.decompress</span></code></a>
+method now accepts an optional <em>max_length</em> argument to limit the maximum
+size of decompressed data. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15955">bpo-15955</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cgi">
+<h3>cgi<a class="headerlink" href="#cgi" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code> class now supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a>
+protocol.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20289">bpo-20289</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cmath">
+<h3>cmath<a class="headerlink" href="#cmath" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#cmath.isclose" title="cmath.isclose"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isclose()</span></code></a> provides a way to test for approximate
+equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24270">bpo-24270</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="code">
+<h3>code<a class="headerlink" href="#code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/code.html#code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback" title="code.InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback()</span></code></a>
+method now prints the full chained traceback, just like the interactive
+interpreter.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17442">bpo-17442</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="collections">
+<h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="whatsnew-ordereddict">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a> class is now implemented in C, which
+makes it 4 to 100 times faster.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16991">bpo-16991</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict.items()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict.keys()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict.values()</span></code> views now support
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> iteration.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19505">bpo-19505</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">deque</span></code></a> class now defines
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.index" title="collections.deque.index"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.insert" title="collections.deque.insert"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">insert()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.copy" title="collections.deque.copy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a>, and supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> operators.
+This allows deques to be recognized as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MutableSequence</span></code></a>
+and improves their substitutability for lists.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23704">bpo-23704</a>.)</p>
+<p>Docstrings produced by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> can now be updated:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Point</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">namedtuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Point&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;x&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;y&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">Point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;: Cartesian coodinate&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">Point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;abscissa&#39;</span>
+<span class="n">Point</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__doc__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ordinate&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24064">bpo-24064</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.UserString" title="collections.UserString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UserString</span></code></a> class now implements the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getnewargs__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__rmod__" title="object.__rmod__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__rmod__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.casefold" title="str.casefold"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">casefold()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format_map" title="str.format_map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format_map()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.isprintable" title="str.isprintable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isprintable()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.maketrans" title="str.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maketrans()</span></code></a>
+methods to match the corresponding methods of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22189">bpo-22189</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="collections-abc">
+<h3>collections.abc<a class="headerlink" href="#collections-abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Sequence.index()</span></code> method now
+accepts <em>start</em> and <em>stop</em> arguments to match the corresponding methods
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a>, etc.
+(Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23086">bpo-23086</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Generator" title="collections.abc.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> abstract base class. (Contributed
+by Stefan Behnel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24018">bpo-24018</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Awaitable" title="collections.abc.Awaitable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Awaitable</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Coroutine" title="collections.abc.Coroutine"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Coroutine</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterator" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterator</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterable" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncIterable</span></code></a> abstract base classes.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24184">bpo-24184</a>.)</p>
+<p>For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in an
+external <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc">PyPI package</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compileall">
+<h3>compileall<a class="headerlink" href="#compileall" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> option, <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-j</span> <em><span class="pre">N</span></em></code>, allows running <em>N</em> workers
+simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_dir" title="compileall.compile_dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_dir()</span></code></a> function has a corresponding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">workers</span></code>
+parameter.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16104">bpo-16104</a>.)</p>
+<p>Another new option, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-r</span></code>, allows controlling the maximum recursion
+level for subdirectories.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19628">bpo-19628</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code> command line option can now be specified more than once, in
+which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed.  The corresponding
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quiet</span></code> parameter in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_dir" title="compileall.compile_dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_dir()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_file" title="compileall.compile_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_file()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_path" title="compileall.compile_path"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile_path()</span></code></a> can now
+accept an integer value indicating the level of output suppression.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21338">bpo-21338</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="concurrent-futures">
+<h3>concurrent.futures<a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent-futures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.map" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.map()</span></code></a> method now accepts a
+<em>chunksize</em> argument to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor()</span></code></a> is used.
+(Contributed by Dan O’Reilly in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11271">bpo-11271</a>.)</p>
+<p>The number of workers in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>
+constructor is optional now.  The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21527">bpo-21527</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="configparser">
+<h3>configparser<a class="headerlink" href="#configparser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> now provides a way to customize the conversion
+of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a> constructor, or by defining them
+as methods in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> subclasses.  Converters defined in
+a parser instance are inherited by its section proxies.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">configparser</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">conv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;list&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">lambda</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cfg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">configparser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">converters</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">conv</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[s]</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">list = a b c d e f g</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;s&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;list&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;a b c d e f g&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">cfg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;s&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;list&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">section</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">cfg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;s&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">section</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;list&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;a&#39;, &#39;b&#39;, &#39;c&#39;, &#39;d&#39;, &#39;e&#39;, &#39;f&#39;, &#39;g&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18159">bpo-18159</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contextlib">
+<h3>contextlib<a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.redirect_stderr" title="contextlib.redirect_stderr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">redirect_stderr()</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> (similar to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.redirect_stdout" title="contextlib.redirect_stdout"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">redirect_stdout()</span></code></a>) makes it easier for utility scripts to
+handle inflexible APIs that write their output to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> and
+don’t provide any options to redirect it:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">io</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">StringIO</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">contextlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">redirect_stderr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">warning</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;warning&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;WARNING:root:warning\n&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22389">bpo-22389</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="csv">
+<h3>csv<a class="headerlink" href="#csv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.csvwriter.writerow" title="csv.csvwriter.writerow"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writerow()</span></code></a> method now supports arbitrary iterables,
+not just sequences.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23171">bpo-23171</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="curses">
+<h3>curses<a class="headerlink" href="#curses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/curses.html#curses.update_lines_cols" title="curses.update_lines_cols"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update_lines_cols()</span></code></a> function updates the <span class="target" id="index-31"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINES</span></code>
+and <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COLS</span></code> environment variables.  This is useful for detecting
+manual screen resizing.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4254">bpo-4254</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dbm">
+<h3>dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#dbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#dbm.dumb.open" title="dbm.dumb.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumb.open</span></code></a> always creates a new database when the flag
+has the value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;n&quot;</span></code>.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18039">bpo-18039</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="difflib">
+<h3>difflib<a class="headerlink" href="#difflib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The charset of HTML documents generated by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file" title="difflib.HtmlDiff.make_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HtmlDiff.make_file()</span></code></a>
+can now be customized by using a new <em>charset</em> keyword-only argument.
+The default charset of HTML document changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;ISO-8859-1&quot;</span></code>
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2052">bpo-2052</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/difflib.html#difflib.diff_bytes" title="difflib.diff_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">diff_bytes()</span></code></a> function can now compare lists of byte
+strings.  This fixes a regression from Python 2.
+(Contributed by Terry J. Reedy and Greg Ward in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17445">bpo-17445</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distutils">
+<h3>distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">build_ext</span></code> commands now accept a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-j</span></code> option to
+enable parallel building of extension modules.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5309">bpo-5309</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> module now supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xz</span></code> compression, and can be
+enabled by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xztar</span></code> as an argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdist</span> <span class="pre">--format</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16314">bpo-16314</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="doctest">
+<h3>doctest<a class="headerlink" href="#doctest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/doctest.html#doctest.DocTestSuite" title="doctest.DocTestSuite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DocTestSuite()</span></code></a> function returns an empty
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestSuite" title="unittest.TestSuite"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestSuite</span></code></a> if <em>module</em> contains no docstrings, instead of
+raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Glenn Jones in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15916">bpo-15916</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="email">
+<h3>email<a class="headerlink" href="#email" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new policy option <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_" title="email.policy.Policy.mangle_from_"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Policy.mangle_from_</span></code></a>
+controls whether or not lines that start with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;From</span> <span class="pre">&quot;</span></code> in email bodies are
+prefixed with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;&gt;&quot;</span></code> character by generators.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compat32</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for all other policies.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20098">bpo-20098</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_content_disposition" title="email.message.Message.get_content_disposition"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message.get_content_disposition()</span></code></a>
+method provides easy access to a canonical value for the
+<em class="mailheader">Content-Disposition</em> header.
+(Contributed by Abhilash Raj in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21083">bpo-21083</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new policy option <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8" title="email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailPolicy.utf8</span></code></a>
+can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> to encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead
+of using encoded words.  This allows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Messages</span></code> to be formatted according to
+<span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6532.html"><strong>RFC 6532</strong></a> and used with an SMTP server that supports the <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> extension.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24211">bpo-24211</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.mime.html#email.mime.text.MIMEText" title="email.mime.text.MIMEText"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mime.text.MIMEText</span></code></a> constructor now
+accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">charset.Charset</span></code></a> instance.
+(Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16324">bpo-16324</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enum">
+<h3>enum<a class="headerlink" href="#enum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> callable has a new parameter <em>start</em> to
+specify the initial number of enum values if only <em>names</em> are provided:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">enum</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Animal&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;cat dog&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cat</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Animal.cat: 10&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Animal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dog</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;Animal.dog: 11&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Ethan Furman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21706">bpo-21706</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="faulthandler">
+<h3>faulthandler<a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enable()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.register" title="faulthandler.register"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.dump_traceback" title="faulthandler.dump_traceback"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump_traceback()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.dump_traceback_later" title="faulthandler.dump_traceback_later"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump_traceback_later()</span></code></a> functions now accept file
+descriptors in addition to file-like objects.
+(Contributed by Wei Wu in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23566">bpo-23566</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functools">
+<h3>functools<a class="headerlink" href="#functools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p id="whatsnew-lrucache">Most of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache" title="functools.lru_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lru_cache()</span></code></a> machinery is now implemented in C, making
+it significantly faster.  (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey Kachayev, and
+Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14373">bpo-14373</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="glob">
+<h3>glob<a class="headerlink" href="#glob" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#glob.iglob" title="glob.iglob"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iglob()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#glob.glob" title="glob.glob"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob()</span></code></a> functions now support recursive
+search in subdirectories, using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;**&quot;</span></code> pattern.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13968">bpo-13968</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gzip">
+<h3>gzip<a class="headerlink" href="#gzip" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GzipFile</span></code></a> constructor now
+accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;</span></code> to request exclusive creation.
+(Contributed by Tim Heaney in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19222">bpo-19222</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="heapq">
+<h3>heapq<a class="headerlink" href="#heapq" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Element comparison in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/heapq.html#heapq.merge" title="heapq.merge"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">merge()</span></code></a> can now be customized by
+passing a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-key-function"><span class="xref std std-term">key function</span></a> in a new optional <em>key</em> keyword argument,
+and a new optional <em>reverse</em> keyword argument can be used to reverse element
+comparison:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">heapq</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;9&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;777&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;55555&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">&#39;88&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;6666&#39;</span><span class="p">]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">merge</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;9&#39;, &#39;88&#39;, &#39;777&#39;, &#39;6666&#39;, &#39;55555&#39;]</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heapq</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">merge</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">reversed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">reverse</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">[&#39;55555&#39;, &#39;6666&#39;, &#39;777&#39;, &#39;88&#39;, &#39;9&#39;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13742">bpo-13742</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http">
+<h3>http<a class="headerlink" href="#http" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.html#http.HTTPStatus" title="http.HTTPStatus"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPStatus</span></code></a> enum that defines a set of
+HTTP status codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21793">bpo-21793</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http-client">
+<h3>http.client<a class="headerlink" href="#http-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.getresponse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection.getresponse()</span></code></a>
+now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.RemoteDisconnected" title="http.client.RemoteDisconnected"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RemoteDisconnected</span></code></a> exception when a
+remote server connection is closed unexpectedly.  Additionally, if a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ConnectionError" title="ConnectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConnectionError</span></code></a> (of which <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RemoteDisconnected</span></code>
+is a subclass) is raised, the client socket is now closed automatically,
+and will reconnect on the next request:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">http.client</span>
+<span class="n">conn</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">HTTPConnection</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;www.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">retries</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;GET&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">resp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getresponse</span><span class="p">()</span>
+    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">http</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">client</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">RemoteDisconnected</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Martin Panter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3566">bpo-3566</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idlelib-and-idle">
+<h3>idlelib and IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idlelib-and-idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for
+import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.  See
+<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt</span></code> for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0,
+as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases. This file is also available
+from the IDLE <span class="menuselection">Help ‣ About IDLE</span> dialog.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="imaplib">
+<h3>imaplib<a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code></a> class now supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol.
+When used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, the IMAP4 <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOGOUT</span></code>
+command will be called automatically at the end of the block.
+(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4972">bpo-4972</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> module now supports <span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5161.html"><strong>RFC 5161</strong></a> (ENABLE Extension)
+and <span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html"><strong>RFC 6855</strong></a> (UTF-8 Support) via the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.enable" title="imaplib.IMAP4.enable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.enable()</span></code></a>
+method.  A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.utf8_enabled" title="imaplib.IMAP4.utf8_enabled"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.utf8_enabled</span></code></a>
+attribute tracks whether or not <span class="target" id="index-37"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html"><strong>RFC 6855</strong></a> support is enabled.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21800">bpo-21800</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a> module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string usernames
+and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs.  (Contributed by Milan
+Oberkirch in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21800">bpo-21800</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="imghdr">
+<h3>imghdr<a class="headerlink" href="#imghdr" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imghdr.html#imghdr.what" title="imghdr.what"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">what()</span></code></a> function now recognizes the
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.openexr.com">OpenEXR</a> format
+(contributed by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20295">bpo-20295</a>),
+and the <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP">WebP</a> format
+(contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20197">bpo-20197</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="importlib">
+<h3>importlib<a class="headerlink" href="#importlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.LazyLoader" title="importlib.util.LazyLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">util.LazyLoader</span></code></a> class allows for
+lazy loading of modules in applications where startup time is important.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17621">bpo-17621</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code" title="importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code()</span></code></a>
+method is now a static method.  This makes it easier to initialize a module
+object with code compiled from a string by running
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec(code,</span> <span class="pre">module.__dict__)</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21156">bpo-21156</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.module_from_spec" title="importlib.util.module_from_spec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">util.module_from_spec()</span></code></a>
+function is now the preferred way to create a new module.  As opposed to
+creating a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.ModuleType" title="types.ModuleType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.ModuleType</span></code></a> instance directly, this new function
+will set the various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in
+spec object.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20383">bpo-20383</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inspect">
+<h3>inspect<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Parameter</span></code></a> classes are
+now picklable and hashable.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20726">bpo-20726</a>
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20334">bpo-20334</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults" title="inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BoundArguments.apply_defaults()</span></code></a>
+method provides a way to set default values for missing arguments:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;ham&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ba</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">signature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;spam&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ba</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">apply_defaults</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ba</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">arguments</span>
+<span class="go">OrderedDict([(&#39;a&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;), (&#39;b&#39;, &#39;ham&#39;), (&#39;args&#39;, ())])</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24190">bpo-24190</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new class method
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.from_callable" title="inspect.Signature.from_callable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.from_callable()</span></code></a> makes
+subclassing of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature</span></code></a> easier.  (Contributed
+by Yury Selivanov and Eric Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17373">bpo-17373</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signature()</span></code></a> function now accepts a <em>follow_wrapped</em>
+optional keyword argument, which, when set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, disables automatic
+following of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> links.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20691">bpo-20691</a>.)</p>
+<p>A set of new functions to inspect
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine-function"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine functions</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine objects</span></a> has been added:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutine" title="inspect.iscoroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iscoroutine()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.iscoroutinefunction" title="inspect.iscoroutinefunction"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iscoroutinefunction()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.isawaitable" title="inspect.isawaitable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isawaitable()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getcoroutinelocals" title="inspect.getcoroutinelocals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcoroutinelocals()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getcoroutinestate" title="inspect.getcoroutinestate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcoroutinestate()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24017">bpo-24017</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24400">bpo-24400</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.stack" title="inspect.stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stack()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.trace" title="inspect.trace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getouterframes" title="inspect.getouterframes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getouterframes()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getinnerframes" title="inspect.getinnerframes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getinnerframes()</span></code></a>
+functions now return a list of named tuples.
+(Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16808">bpo-16808</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="io">
+<h3>io<a class="headerlink" href="#io" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.readinto1" title="io.BufferedIOBase.readinto1"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedIOBase.readinto1()</span></code></a>
+method, that uses at most one call to the underlying raw stream’s
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.read" title="io.RawIOBase.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase.read()</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.RawIOBase.readinto" title="io.RawIOBase.readinto"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RawIOBase.readinto()</span></code></a> methods.
+(Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20578">bpo-20578</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ipaddress">
+<h3>ipaddress<a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> classes
+now accept an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(address,</span> <span class="pre">netmask)</span></code> tuple argument, so as to easily construct
+network objects from existing addresses:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ipaddress</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;127.0.0.0/8&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Network</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.0&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;255.0.0.0&#39;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">IPv4Network(&#39;127.0.0.0/8&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16531">bpo-16531</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse_pointer</span></code> attribute for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> classes
+returns the name of the reverse DNS PTR record:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ipaddress</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv4Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;127.0.0.1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse_pointer</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr6</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ipaddress</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">IPv6Address</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;::1&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">addr6</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse_pointer</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Leon Weber in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20480">bpo-20480</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="json">
+<h3>json<a class="headerlink" href="#json" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json.tool" title="json.tool: A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.tool</span></code></a> command line interface now preserves the order of keys in
+JSON objects passed in input.  The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--sort-keys</span></code> option can be used
+to sort the keys alphabetically. (Contributed by Berker Peksag
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21650">bpo-21650</a>.)</p>
+<p>JSON decoder now raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.JSONDecodeError" title="json.JSONDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecodeError</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> to provide better context information about the error.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19361">bpo-19361</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="linecache">
+<h3>linecache<a class="headerlink" href="#linecache" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/linecache.html#linecache.lazycache" title="linecache.lazycache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lazycache()</span></code></a> function can be used to capture information
+about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines later via
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/linecache.html#linecache.getline" title="linecache.getline"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getline()</span></code></a>. This avoids doing I/O until a line is actually
+needed, without having to carry the module globals around indefinitely.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17911">bpo-17911</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="locale">
+<h3>locale<a class="headerlink" href="#locale" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.delocalize" title="locale.delocalize"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">delocalize()</span></code></a> function can be used to convert a string into
+a normalized number string, taking the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> settings into account:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">locale</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_NUMERIC</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;de_DE.UTF-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;de_DE.UTF-8&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">delocalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1.234,56&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1234.56&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">setlocale</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">LC_NUMERIC</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;en_US.UTF-8&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;en_US.UTF-8&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">delocalize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;1,234.56&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1234.56&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Cédric Krier in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13918">bpo-13918</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<h3>logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>All logging methods (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.log" title="logging.Logger.log"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.exception" title="logging.Logger.exception"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exception()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.critical" title="logging.Logger.critical"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">critical()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger.debug" title="logging.Logger.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug()</span></code></a>, etc.), now accept exception instances
+as an <em>exc_info</em> argument, in addition to boolean values and exception
+tuples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ex</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;exception&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">exc_info</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ex</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">ERROR:root:exception</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20537">bpo-20537</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.HTTPHandler" title="logging.handlers.HTTPHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers.HTTPHandler</span></code></a> class now
+accepts an optional <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> instance to configure SSL
+settings used in an HTTP connection.
+(Contributed by Alex Gaynor in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22788">bpo-22788</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handlers.QueueListener</span></code></a> class now
+takes a <em>respect_handler_level</em> keyword argument which, if set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>,
+will pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="lzma">
+<h3>lzma<a class="headerlink" href="#lzma" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/lzma.html#lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress" title="lzma.LZMADecompressor.decompress"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LZMADecompressor.decompress()</span></code></a>
+method now accepts an optional <em>max_length</em> argument to limit the maximum
+size of decompressed data.
+(Contributed by Martin Panter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15955">bpo-15955</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="math">
+<h3>math<a class="headerlink" href="#math" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Two new constants have been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.inf" title="math.inf"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inf</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.nan" title="math.nan"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nan</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23185">bpo-23185</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.isclose" title="math.isclose"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isclose()</span></code></a> provides a way to test for approximate
+equality. (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24270">bpo-24270</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.gcd" title="math.gcd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gcd()</span></code></a> function has been added.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.gcd" title="fractions.gcd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.gcd()</span></code></a>
+function is now deprecated. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy
+Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22486">bpo-22486</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multiprocessing">
+<h3>multiprocessing<a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized" title="multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sharedctypes.synchronized()</span></code></a>
+objects now support the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol.
+(Contributed by Charles-François Natali in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21565">bpo-21565</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="operator">
+<h3>operator<a class="headerlink" href="#operator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter" title="operator.attrgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attrgetter()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.itemgetter" title="operator.itemgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itemgetter()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.methodcaller" title="operator.methodcaller"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">methodcaller()</span></code></a> objects now support pickling.
+(Contributed by Josh Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22955">bpo-22955</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.matmul" title="operator.matmul"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">matmul()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.imatmul" title="operator.imatmul"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imatmul()</span></code></a> functions
+to perform matrix multiplication.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21176">bpo-21176</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="os">
+<h3>os<a class="headerlink" href="#os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> function returning an iterator of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.DirEntry" title="os.DirEntry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DirEntry</span></code></a> objects has been added.  If possible, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a>
+extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the need to
+perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or attributes, which may
+significantly improve performance.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with the help
+of Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22524">bpo-22524</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Windows, a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_file_attributes" title="os.stat_result.st_file_attributes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stat_result.st_file_attributes</span></code></a>
+attribute is now available.  It corresponds to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dwFileAttributes</span></code> member
+of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION</span></code> structure returned by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GetFileInformationByHandle()</span></code>.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21719">bpo-21719</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urandom()</span></code></a> function now uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> syscall on Linux 3.17
+or newer, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getentropy()</span></code> on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, removing the need to
+use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> and avoiding failures due to potential file descriptor
+exhaustion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22181">bpo-22181</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.get_blocking" title="os.get_blocking"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_blocking()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.set_blocking" title="os.set_blocking"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_blocking()</span></code></a> functions allow
+getting and setting a file descriptor’s blocking mode (<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.O_NONBLOCK" title="os.O_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O_NONBLOCK</span></code></a>.)
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22054">bpo-22054</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.truncate" title="os.truncate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.ftruncate" title="os.ftruncate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftruncate()</span></code></a> functions are now supported
+on Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23668">bpo-23668</a>.)</p>
+<p>There is a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.commonpath" title="os.path.commonpath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.commonpath()</span></code></a> function returning the longest
+common sub-path of each passed pathname.  Unlike the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.commonprefix" title="os.path.commonprefix"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.commonprefix()</span></code></a> function, it always returns a valid
+path:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commonprefix</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr/l&#39;</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">commonpath</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;/usr/local/lib&#39;</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/usr&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10395">bpo-10395</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pathlib">
+<h3>pathlib<a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.samefile" title="pathlib.Path.samefile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.samefile()</span></code></a> method can be used
+to check whether the path points to the same file as another path, which can
+be either another <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> object, or a string:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pathlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/hosts&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/etc/../etc/hosts&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">samefile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p2</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">True</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19775">bpo-19775</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.mkdir" title="pathlib.Path.mkdir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.mkdir()</span></code></a> method now accepts a new optional
+<em>exist_ok</em> argument to match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdir</span> <span class="pre">-p</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.makedirs" title="os.makedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.makedirs()</span></code></a>
+functionality.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21539">bpo-21539</a>.)</p>
+<p>There is a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.expanduser" title="pathlib.Path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.expanduser()</span></code></a> method to
+expand <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~user</span></code> prefixes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and
+Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19776">bpo-19776</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.home" title="pathlib.Path.home"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.home()</span></code></a> class method can be used to get
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path</span></code></a> instance representing the user’s home
+directory.
+(Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19777">bpo-19777</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.write_text" title="pathlib.Path.write_text"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.write_text()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.read_text" title="pathlib.Path.read_text"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.read_text()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.write_bytes" title="pathlib.Path.write_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.write_bytes()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.read_bytes" title="pathlib.Path.read_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.read_bytes()</span></code></a> methods to simplify
+read/write operations on files.</p>
+<p>The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/spam42</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pathlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;~/spam42&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">expanduser</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write_text</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;ham&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">3</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Christopher Welborn in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20218">bpo-20218</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pickle">
+<h3>pickle<a class="headerlink" href="#pickle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be pickled
+using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle-protocols"><span class="std std-ref">pickle protocols</span></a> older than protocol version 4.
+Protocol version 4 already supports these cases.  (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23611">bpo-23611</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="poplib">
+<h3>poplib<a class="headerlink" href="#poplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3.utf8" title="poplib.POP3.utf8"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3.utf8()</span></code></a> command enables <span class="target" id="index-38"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6856.html"><strong>RFC 6856</strong></a>
+(Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it.
+(Contributed by Milan OberKirch in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21804">bpo-21804</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="re">
+<h3>re<a class="headerlink" href="#re" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are now
+allowed in lookbehind assertions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">re</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pat</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">r</span><span class="s1">&#39;(a|b).(?&lt;=\1)c&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;aac&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match=&#39;aac&#39;&gt;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">pat</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">match</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;bbc&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&lt;_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match=&#39;bbc&#39;&gt;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9179">bpo-9179</a>.)</p>
+<p>The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer limited to
+100.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22437">bpo-22437</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sub()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.subn" title="re.subn"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subn()</span></code></a> functions now replace unmatched
+groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1519638">bpo-1519638</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.error" title="re.error"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.error</span></code></a> exceptions have new attributes,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.error.msg" title="re.error.msg"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msg</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.error.pattern" title="re.error.pattern"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pattern</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.error.pos" title="re.error.pos"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pos</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.error.lineno" title="re.error.lineno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.error.colno" title="re.error.colno"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">colno</span></code></a>, that provide better context
+information about the error:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">re</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compile</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    (?x)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">    .++</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+   <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">sre_constants.error</span>: <span class="n">multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22578">bpo-22578</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="readline">
+<h3>readline<a class="headerlink" href="#readline" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#readline.append_history_file" title="readline.append_history_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append_history_file()</span></code></a> function can be used to append
+the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file.
+(Contributed by Bruno Cauet in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22940">bpo-22940</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="selectors">
+<h3>selectors<a class="headerlink" href="#selectors" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#selectors.DevpollSelector" title="selectors.DevpollSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DevpollSelector</span></code></a> supports efficient
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/poll</span></code> polling on Solaris.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18931">bpo-18931</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shutil">
+<h3>shutil<a class="headerlink" href="#shutil" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.move" title="shutil.move"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move()</span></code></a> function now accepts a <em>copy_function</em> argument,
+allowing, for example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copy" title="shutil.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> function to be used instead of
+the default <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy2()</span></code></a> if there is a need to ignore file metadata
+when moving.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19840">bpo-19840</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.make_archive" title="shutil.make_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_archive()</span></code></a> function now supports the <em>xztar</em> format.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5411">bpo-5411</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="signal">
+<h3>signal<a class="headerlink" href="#signal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On Windows, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.set_wakeup_fd" title="signal.set_wakeup_fd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_wakeup_fd()</span></code></a> function now also supports
+socket handles.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22018">bpo-22018</a>.)</p>
+<p>Various <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIG*</span></code> constants in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#module-signal" title="signal: Set handlers for asynchronous events."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal</span></code></a> module have been converted into
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enums</span></code></a>.  This allows meaningful names to be printed
+during debugging, instead of integer “magic numbers”.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21076">bpo-21076</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtpd">
+<h3>smtpd<a class="headerlink" href="#smtpd" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPChannel</span></code></a> classes now
+accept a <em>decode_data</em> keyword argument to determine if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DATA</span></code> portion of
+the SMTP transaction is decoded using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;utf-8&quot;</span></code> codec or is instead
+provided to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer.process_message()</span></code></a>
+method as a byte string.  The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for backward compatibility
+reasons, but will change to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> in Python 3.6.  If <em>decode_data</em> is set
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message</span></code> method must be prepared to accept keyword
+arguments.
+(Contributed by Maciej Szulik in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19662">bpo-19662</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a> class now advertises the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">8BITMIME</span></code> extension
+(<span class="target" id="index-39"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6152.html"><strong>RFC 6152</strong></a>) if <em>decode_data</em> has been set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>.  If the client
+specifies <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BODY=8BITMIME</span></code> on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAIL</span></code> command, it is passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer.process_message()</span></code></a>
+via the <em>mail_options</em> keyword.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R.  David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21795">bpo-21795</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a> class now also supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code>
+extension (<span class="target" id="index-40"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a>: Internationalized Email).  If the client specified
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span> <span class="pre">BODY=8BITMIME</span></code> on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAIL</span></code> command, they are passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer.process_message()</span></code></a>
+via the <em>mail_options</em> keyword.  It is the responsibility of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message</span></code> method to correctly handle the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8</span></code> data.
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21725">bpo-21725</a>.)</p>
+<p>It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6
+addresses in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a> constructor, and have it
+successfully connect.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14758">bpo-14758</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="smtplib">
+<h3>smtplib<a class="headerlink" href="#smtplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.auth" title="smtplib.SMTP.auth"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.auth()</span></code></a> method provides a convenient way to
+implement custom authentication mechanisms. (Contributed by Milan
+Oberkirch in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15014">bpo-15014</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.set_debuglevel" title="smtplib.SMTP.set_debuglevel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.set_debuglevel()</span></code></a> method now
+accepts an additional debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug
+messages. (Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16914">bpo-16914</a>.)</p>
+<p>Both the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.sendmail()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.send_message" title="smtplib.SMTP.send_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP.send_message()</span></code></a> methods now
+support <span class="target" id="index-41"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6531.html"><strong>RFC 6531</strong></a> (SMTPUTF8).
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22027">bpo-22027</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sndhdr">
+<h3>sndhdr<a class="headerlink" href="#sndhdr" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sndhdr.html#sndhdr.what" title="sndhdr.what"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">what()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sndhdr.html#sndhdr.whathdr" title="sndhdr.whathdr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">whathdr()</span></code></a> functions  now return
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18615">bpo-18615</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket">
+<h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system clock.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22043">bpo-22043</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendfile" title="socket.socket.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.sendfile()</span></code></a> method allows
+sending a file over a socket by using the high-performance <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile()</span></code></a>
+function on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when
+using plain <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.send" title="socket.socket.send"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.send()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17552">bpo-17552</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendall" title="socket.socket.sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.sendall()</span></code></a> method no longer resets the
+socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is
+now the maximum total duration to send all data.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23853">bpo-23853</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>backlog</em> argument of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.listen" title="socket.socket.listen"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.listen()</span></code></a>
+method is now optional.  By default it is set to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.SOMAXCONN" title="socket.SOMAXCONN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOMAXCONN</span></code></a> or to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">128</span></code>, whichever is less.
+(Contributed by Charles-François Natali in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21455">bpo-21455</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl">
+<h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="memory-bio-support">
+<span id="whatsnew-sslmemorybio"></span><h4>Memory BIO Support<a class="headerlink" href="#memory-bio-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>(Contributed by Geert Jansen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21965">bpo-21965</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> class has been added to provide SSL protocol
+support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>
+are not necessary or are suboptimal.  <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code> represents
+an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network I/O methods, and
+instead provides a memory buffer interface.  The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.MemoryBIO" title="ssl.MemoryBIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryBIO</span></code></a>
+class can be used to pass data between Python and an SSL protocol instance.</p>
+<p>The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in frameworks
+implementing asynchronous I/O for which <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>’s readiness
+model (“select/poll”) is inefficient.</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.wrap_bio()</span></code></a> method can be used
+to create a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code> instance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="application-layer-protocol-negotiation-support">
+<h4>Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support<a class="headerlink" href="#application-layer-protocol-negotiation-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20188">bpo-20188</a>.)</p>
+<p>Where OpenSSL support is present, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module now implements
+the <em>Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation</em> TLS extension as described
+in <span class="target" id="index-42"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7301.html"><strong>RFC 7301</strong></a>.</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols" title="ssl.SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols()</span></code></a>
+can be used to specify which protocols a socket should advertise during
+the TLS handshake.</p>
+<p>The new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol" title="ssl.SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol()</span></code></a>
+returns the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_ALPN" title="ssl.HAS_ALPN"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAS_ALPN</span></code></a> flag indicates whether ALPN support is present.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-changes">
+<h4>Other Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>There is a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.version" title="ssl.SSLSocket.version"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.version()</span></code></a> method to
+query the actual protocol version in use.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20421">bpo-20421</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> class now implements
+a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.sendfile()</span></code> method.
+(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17552">bpo-17552</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.send()</span></code> method now raises either
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a> exception on a
+non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20951">bpo-20951</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.cert_time_to_seconds" title="ssl.cert_time_to_seconds"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cert_time_to_seconds()</span></code></a> function now interprets the input time
+as UTC and not as local time, per <span class="target" id="index-43"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5280.html"><strong>RFC 5280</strong></a>.  Additionally, the return
+value is always an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>. (Contributed by Akira Li in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19940">bpo-19940</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject.shared_ciphers()</span></code> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.shared_ciphers()</span></code></a> methods return
+the list of ciphers sent by the client during the handshake.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23186">bpo-23186</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="ssl.SSLSocket.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.read()</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.shutdown()</span></code>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.write" title="ssl.SSLSocket.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.write()</span></code></a> methods of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a>
+class no longer reset the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent.
+The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the method.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23853">bpo-23853</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> function now supports matching of IP addresses.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23239">bpo-23239</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sqlite3">
+<h3>sqlite3<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Row" title="sqlite3.Row"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Row</span></code></a> class now fully supports the sequence protocol,
+in particular <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reversed()</span></code></a> iteration and slice indexing.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10203">bpo-10203</a>; by Lucas Sinclair,
+Jessica McKellar, and  Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13583">bpo-13583</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess">
+<span id="whatsnew-subprocess"></span><h3>subprocess<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run()</span></code></a> function has been added.
+It runs the specified command and returns a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.CompletedProcess" title="subprocess.CompletedProcess"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CompletedProcess</span></code></a> object, which describes a finished
+process.  The new API is more consistent and is the recommended approach
+to invoking subprocesses in Python code that does not need to maintain
+compatibility with earlier Python versions.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23342">bpo-23342</a>.)</p>
+<p>Examples:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;ls&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;-l&quot;</span><span class="p">])</span>  <span class="c1"># doesn&#39;t capture output</span>
+<span class="go">CompletedProcess(args=[&#39;ls&#39;, &#39;-l&#39;], returncode=0)</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;exit 1&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">shell</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">check</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  <span class="c">...</span>
+<span class="gr">subprocess.CalledProcessError</span>: <span class="n">Command &#39;exit 1&#39; returned non-zero exit status 1</span>
+
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">run</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s2">&quot;ls&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;-l&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">&quot;/dev/null&quot;</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">stdout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">subprocess</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PIPE</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">CompletedProcess(args=[&#39;ls&#39;, &#39;-l&#39;, &#39;/dev/null&#39;], returncode=0,</span>
+<span class="go">stdout=b&#39;crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n&#39;)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sys">
+<h3>sys<a class="headerlink" href="#sys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_wrapper" title="sys.set_coroutine_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_coroutine_wrapper()</span></code></a> function allows setting a global
+hook that will be called whenever a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine object</span></a>
+is created by an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> function.  A corresponding
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.get_coroutine_wrapper" title="sys.get_coroutine_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_coroutine_wrapper()</span></code></a> can be used to obtain a currently set
+wrapper.  Both functions are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional</span></a>,
+and are intended for debugging purposes only.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24017">bpo-24017</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.is_finalizing" title="sys.is_finalizing"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_finalizing()</span></code></a> function can be used to check if the Python
+interpreter is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-interpreter-shutdown"><span class="xref std std-term">shutting down</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22696">bpo-22696</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sysconfig">
+<h3>sysconfig<a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first
+two components of the Python version. (Contributed by Paul Moore
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23437">bpo-23437</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tarfile">
+<h3>tarfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.open" title="tarfile.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;</span></code>
+to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21717">bpo-21717</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extractall" title="tarfile.TarFile.extractall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.extractall()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.extract" title="tarfile.TarFile.extract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.extract()</span></code></a> methods now take a keyword
+argument <em>numeric_owner</em>.  If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, the extracted files and
+directories will be owned by the numeric <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uid</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gid</span></code> from the tarfile.
+If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> (the default, and the behavior in versions prior to 3.5),
+they will be owned by the named user and group in the tarfile.
+(Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23193">bpo-23193</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.list" title="tarfile.TarFile.list"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.list()</span></code></a> now accepts an optional
+<em>members</em> keyword argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned
+by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.getmembers" title="tarfile.TarFile.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile.getmembers()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21549">bpo-21549</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="threading">
+<h3>threading<a class="headerlink" href="#threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lock.acquire()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.RLock.acquire" title="threading.RLock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RLock.acquire()</span></code></a> methods
+now use a monotonic clock for timeout management.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22043">bpo-22043</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="time">
+<h3>time<a class="headerlink" href="#time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.monotonic" title="time.monotonic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">monotonic()</span></code></a> function is now always available.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22043">bpo-22043</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timeit">
+<h3>timeit<a class="headerlink" href="#timeit" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new command line option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-u</span></code> or <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--unit=</span><em><span class="pre">U</span></em></code> can be used to specify the time
+unit for the timer output.  Supported options are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">usec</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msec</span></code>,
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sec</span></code>.  (Contributed by Julian Gindi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18983">bpo-18983</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#timeit.timeit" title="timeit.timeit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit()</span></code></a> function has a new <em>globals</em> parameter for
+specifying the namespace in which the code will be running.
+(Contributed by Ben Roberts in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2527">bpo-2527</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tkinter">
+<h3>tkinter<a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter._fix</span></code> module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment
+on Windows has been replaced by a private function in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code>
+module which makes no permanent changes to environment variables.
+(Contributed by Zachary Ware in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20035">bpo-20035</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="traceback">
+<span id="whatsnew-traceback"></span><h3>traceback<a class="headerlink" href="#traceback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.walk_stack" title="traceback.walk_stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk_stack()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.walk_tb" title="traceback.walk_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">walk_tb()</span></code></a>
+functions to conveniently traverse frame and traceback objects.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17911">bpo-17911</a>.)</p>
+<p>New lightweight classes: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.TracebackException" title="traceback.TracebackException"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TracebackException</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.StackSummary" title="traceback.StackSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StackSummary</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.FrameSummary" title="traceback.FrameSummary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FrameSummary</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17911">bpo-17911</a>.)</p>
+<p>Both the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.print_tb" title="traceback.print_tb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_tb()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#traceback.print_stack" title="traceback.print_stack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print_stack()</span></code></a> functions
+now support negative values for the <em>limit</em> argument.
+(Contributed by Dmitry Kazakov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22619">bpo-22619</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="types">
+<h3>types<a class="headerlink" href="#types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.coroutine" title="types.coroutine"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coroutine()</span></code></a> function to transform
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Generator" title="collections.abc.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">generator-like</span></code></a> objects into
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitables</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24017">bpo-24017</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new type called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.CoroutineType" title="types.CoroutineType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CoroutineType</span></code></a>, which is used for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine"><span class="xref std std-term">coroutine</span></a> objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">def</span></code></a> functions.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24400">bpo-24400</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicodedata">
+<h3>unicodedata<a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module now uses data from <a class="reference external" href="http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/">Unicode 8.0.0</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest">
+<h3>unittest<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule" title="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()</span></code></a>
+method now accepts a keyword-only argument <em>pattern</em> which is passed to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> as the third argument.  Found packages are now checked for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_tests</span></code> regardless of whether their path matches <em>pattern</em>, because it
+is impossible for a package name to match the default pattern.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16662">bpo-16662</a>.)</p>
+<p>Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.errors" title="unittest.TestLoader.errors"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader.errors</span></code></a> attribute of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader" title="unittest.TestLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestLoader</span></code></a> instance.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19746">bpo-19746</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new command line option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--locals</span></code> to show local variables in
+tracebacks.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22936">bpo-22936</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest-mock">
+<h3>unittest.mock<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest-mock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> class has the following improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The class constructor has a new <em>unsafe</em> parameter, which causes mock
+objects to raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> on attribute names starting
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;assert&quot;</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Kushal Das in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21238">bpo-21238</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_not_called" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_not_called"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.assert_not_called()</span></code></a>
+method to check if the mock object was called.
+(Contributed by Kushal Das in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21262">bpo-21262</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.MagicMock" title="unittest.mock.MagicMock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MagicMock</span></code></a> class now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__truediv__" title="object.__truediv__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__truediv__()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__divmod__" title="object.__divmod__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__divmod__()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__matmul__" title="object.__matmul__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__matmul__()</span></code></a> operators.
+(Contributed by Johannes Baiter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20968">bpo-20968</a>, and Håkan Lövdahl
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23581">bpo-23581</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23568">bpo-23568</a>.)</p>
+<p>It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create=True</span></code> to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch" title="unittest.mock.patch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">patch()</span></code></a> function when patching builtin names.
+(Contributed by Kushal Das in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17660">bpo-17660</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib">
+<h3>urllib<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth" title="urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth</span></code></a>
+class allows HTTP Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to
+eliminate unnecessary <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">401</span></code> response handling, or to unconditionally send
+credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers that
+return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">404</span></code> response instead of a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">401</span></code> if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Authorization</span></code> header
+is not sent. (Contributed by Matej Cepl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19494">bpo-19494</a> and Akshit Khurana in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7159">bpo-7159</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <em>quote_via</em> argument for the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse.urlencode()</span></code></a>
+function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if needed.
+(Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13866">bpo-13866</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request.urlopen()</span></code></a> function accepts an
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object as a <em>context</em> argument, which will be used for
+the HTTPS connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22366">bpo-22366</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urljoin" title="urllib.parse.urljoin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse.urljoin()</span></code></a> was updated to use the
+<span class="target" id="index-44"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a> semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than
+<span class="target" id="index-45"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1808.html"><strong>RFC 1808</strong></a> and <span class="target" id="index-46"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2396.html"><strong>RFC 2396</strong></a>.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22118">bpo-22118</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wsgiref">
+<h3>wsgiref<a class="headerlink" href="#wsgiref" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <em>headers</em> argument of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.headers.Headers" title="wsgiref.headers.Headers"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">headers.Headers</span></code></a>
+class constructor is now optional.
+(Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5800">bpo-5800</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xmlrpc">
+<h3>xmlrpc<a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">client.ServerProxy</span></code></a> class now supports
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol.
+(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20627">bpo-20627</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.client.html#xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy" title="xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">client.ServerProxy</span></code></a> constructor now accepts
+an optional <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> instance.
+(Contributed by Alex Gaynor in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22960">bpo-22960</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xml-sax">
+<h3>xml.sax<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-sax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>SAX parsers now support a character stream of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.sax.reader.html#xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource" title="xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlreader.InputSource</span></code></a> object.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2175">bpo-2175</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.sax.html#xml.sax.parseString" title="xml.sax.parseString"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parseString()</span></code></a> now accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instance.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10590">bpo-10590</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipfile">
+<h3>zipfile<a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23252">bpo-23252</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>mode</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.open" title="zipfile.ZipFile.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile.open()</span></code></a> method now
+accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x&quot;</span></code> to request exclusive creation.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21717">bpo-21717</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-module-level-changes">
+<h2>Other module-level changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-module-level-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Many functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#module-mmap" title="mmap: Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ossaudiodev.html#module-ossaudiodev" title="ossaudiodev: Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (Linux, FreeBSD)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ossaudiodev</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs</span></code></a> modules now accept writable
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23001">bpo-23001</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h2>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.walk" title="os.walk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.walk()</span></code></a> function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on POSIX systems,
+and by 7 to 20 times on Windows.  This was done using the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a>
+function, which exposes file information from the underlying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readdir</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FindFirstFile</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FindNextFile</span></code> system calls.  (Contributed by
+Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23605">bpo-23605</a>.)</p>
+<p>Construction of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes(int)</span></code> (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses less
+memory for large objects. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc()</span></code> is used instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> to
+allocate memory for these objects.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21233">bpo-21233</a>.)</p>
+<p>Some operations on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Network</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Network</span></code></a> have been massively sped up, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnets" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network.subnets"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subnets()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network.supernet"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supernet()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.summarize_address_range" title="ipaddress.summarize_address_range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">summarize_address_range()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.collapse_addresses" title="ipaddress.collapse_addresses"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collapse_addresses()</span></code></a>.
+The speed up can range from 3 to 15 times.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21486">bpo-21486</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21487">bpo-21487</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20826">bpo-20826</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23266">bpo-23266</a>.)</p>
+<p>Pickling of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> objects was optimized to produce significantly
+smaller output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23133">bpo-23133</a>.)</p>
+<p>Many operations on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> are now 50% to 100% faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15381">bpo-15381</a> and David Wilson in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22003">bpo-22003</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#marshal.dumps" title="marshal.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal.dumps()</span></code></a> function is now faster: 65–85% with versions 3
+and 4, 20–25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to 5 times in
+best cases.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20416">bpo-20416</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23344">bpo-23344</a>.)</p>
+<p>The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15027">bpo-15027</a>.)</p>
+<p>Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19380">bpo-19380</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.dumps" title="json.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.dumps()</span></code></a> function was optimized to run with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_ascii=False</span></code> as fast as with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_ascii=True</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Naoki Inada in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23206">bpo-23206</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsInstance" title="PyObject_IsInstance"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsInstance()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_IsSubclass" title="PyObject_IsSubclass"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsSubclass()</span></code></a>
+functions have been sped up in the common case that the second argument
+has <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> as its metaclass.
+(Contributed Georg Brandl by in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22540">bpo-22540</a>.)</p>
+<p>Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance
+improvement in some benchmarks.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22847">bpo-22847</a>.)</p>
+<p>Objects from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module now use 50% less memory on 64-bit
+builds.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23488">bpo-23488</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">property()</span></code></a> getter calls are up to 25% faster.
+(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23910">bpo-23910</a>.)</p>
+<p>Instantiation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> is now up to 30% faster.
+(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22464">bpo-22464</a>.)</p>
+<p>String methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.find" title="str.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.rfind" title="str.rfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.partition" title="str.partition"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">partition()</span></code></a> and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">in</span></code></a> string operator are now significantly
+faster for searching 1-character substrings.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23573">bpo-23573</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc</span></code> functions were added:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_RawCalloc" title="PyMem_RawCalloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_RawCalloc()</span></code></a>,</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Calloc" title="PyMem_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Calloc()</span></code></a>,</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Calloc" title="PyObject_Calloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Calloc()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21233">bpo-21233</a>.)</p>
+<p>New encoding/decoding helper functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a> (replaced <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_char2wchar()</span></code>),</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a> (replaced <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_wchar2char()</span></code>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18395">bpo-18395</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/codec.html#c.PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors" title="PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors()</span></code></a> function to replace the unicode
+encode error with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\N{...}</span></code> escapes.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19676">bpo-19676</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_FormatV" title="PyErr_FormatV"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_FormatV()</span></code></a> function similar to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Format" title="PyErr_Format"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Format()</span></code></a>,
+but accepts a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">va_list</span></code> argument.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18711">bpo-18711</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RecursionError</span></code> exception.
+(Contributed by Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19235">bpo-19235</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec" title="PyModule_FromDefAndSpec"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2" title="PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2()</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModule_ExecDef" title="PyModule_ExecDef"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModule_ExecDef()</span></code></a> functions introduced by <span class="target" id="index-47"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489"><strong>PEP 489</strong></a> –
+multi-phase extension module initialization.
+(Contributed by Petr Viktorin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24268">bpo-24268</a>.)</p>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_MatrixMultiply" title="PyNumber_MatrixMultiply"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_MatrixMultiply()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/number.html#c.PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply" title="PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply()</span></code></a> functions to perform matrix
+multiplication.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21176">bpo-21176</a>.  See also <span class="target" id="index-48"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0465"><strong>PEP 465</strong></a>
+for details.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_finalize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_finalize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject.tp_finalize</span></code></a> slot is now part of the stable ABI.</p>
+<p>Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which
+is available as part of <a class="reference external" href="https://www.visualstudio.com/">Visual Studio 2015</a>.</p>
+<p>Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their filename on
+some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import extensions without
+it, although if the tag is present and mismatched, the extension won’t be
+loaded):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>On Linux, extension module filenames end with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.cpython-&lt;major&gt;&lt;minor&gt;m-&lt;architecture&gt;-&lt;os&gt;.pyd</span></code>:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;major&gt;</span></code> is the major number of the Python version;
+for Python 3.5 this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;minor&gt;</span></code> is the minor number of the Python version;
+for Python 3.5 this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;architecture&gt;</span></code> is the hardware architecture the extension module
+was built to run on. It’s most commonly either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">i386</span></code> for 32-bit Intel
+platforms or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x86_64</span></code> for 64-bit Intel (and AMD) platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;os&gt;</span></code> is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linux-gnu</span></code>, except for extensions built to
+talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linux-gnu32</span></code> (and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;architecture&gt;</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x86_64</span></code>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>On Windows, extension module filenames end with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;debug&gt;.cp&lt;major&gt;&lt;minor&gt;-&lt;platform&gt;.pyd</span></code>:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;major&gt;</span></code> is the major number of the Python version;
+for Python 3.5 this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">3</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;minor&gt;</span></code> is the minor number of the Python version;
+for Python 3.5 this is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">5</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;platform&gt;</span></code> is the platform the extension module was built for,
+either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win32</span></code> for Win32, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win_amd64</span></code> for Win64, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win_ia64</span></code> for
+Windows Itanium 64, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">win_arm</span></code> for Windows on ARM.</p></li>
+<li><p>If built in debug mode, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;debug&gt;</span></code> will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_d</span></code>,
+otherwise it will be blank.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p>On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-darwin.so</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as they were
+with Python 3.4.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated">
+<h2>Deprecated<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="new-keywords">
+<h3>New Keywords<a class="headerlink" href="#new-keywords" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
+function or module names.  Introduced by <span class="target" id="index-49"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> in Python 3.5, they will
+become proper keywords in Python 3.7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-python-behavior">
+<h3>Deprecated Python Behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-python-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Raising the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception inside a generator will now generate a silent
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>, which will become a non-silent deprecation
+warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> in Python 3.7.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew-pep-479"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators</span></a>
+for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unsupported-operating-systems">
+<h3>Unsupported Operating Systems<a class="headerlink" href="#unsupported-operating-systems" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per <span class="target" id="index-50"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0011"><strong>PEP 11</strong></a>, CPython
+3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">
+<h3>Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/formatter.html#module-formatter" title="formatter: Generic output formatter and device interface. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatter</span></code></a> module has now graduated to full deprecation and is still
+slated for removal in Python 3.6.</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.async()</span></code> function is deprecated in favor of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future" title="asyncio.ensure_future"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_future()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#module-smtpd" title="smtpd: A SMTP server implementation in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code></a> module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of
+email messages using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code> codec.  This can now be controlled by the
+new <em>decode_data</em> keyword to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPServer</span></code></a>.  The default value is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>, but this default is deprecated.  Specify the <em>decode_data</em> keyword
+with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning.</p>
+<p>Directly assigning values to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.key" title="http.cookies.Morsel.key"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coded_value</span></code></a> of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies.Morsel</span></code></a>
+objects is deprecated.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.set" title="http.cookies.Morsel.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> method
+instead.  In addition, the undocumented <em>LegalChars</em> parameter of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.set" title="http.cookies.Morsel.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> is deprecated, and is now ignored.</p>
+<p>Passing a format string as keyword argument <em>format_string</em> to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Formatter.format" title="string.Formatter.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> method of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Formatter" title="string.Formatter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Formatter</span></code></a>
+class has been deprecated.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23671">bpo-23671</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#platform.dist" title="platform.dist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform.dist()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#platform.linux_distribution" title="platform.linux_distribution"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform.linux_distribution()</span></code></a> functions
+are now deprecated.  Linux distributions use too many different ways of
+describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package.
+(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1322">bpo-1322</a>.)</p>
+<p>The previously undocumented <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_function</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_builtin</span></code> methods of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.Signature</span></code></a> are deprecated.  Use the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.Signature.from_callable" title="inspect.Signature.from_callable"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Signature.from_callable()</span></code></a>
+method instead. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24248">bpo-24248</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getargspec" title="inspect.getargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getargspec()</span></code></a> function is deprecated and scheduled to be
+removed in Python 3.6.  (See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20438">bpo-20438</a> for details.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfullargspec()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getcallargs" title="inspect.getcallargs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getcallargs()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.formatargspec" title="inspect.formatargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatargspec()</span></code></a> functions are
+deprecated in favor of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code></a> API. (Contributed by Yury
+Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20438">bpo-20438</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getargvalues" title="inspect.getargvalues"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getargvalues()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.formatargvalues" title="inspect.formatargvalues"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formatargvalues()</span></code></a> functions
+were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python 3.5.0.</p>
+<p>Use of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code></a> flag with str patterns or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.ASCII</span></code></a> is now
+deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22407">bpo-22407</a>.)</p>
+<p>Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter
+in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now raises a
+deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23622">bpo-23622</a>.)</p>
+<p>The undocumented and unofficial <em>use_load_tests</em> default argument of the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule" title="unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()</span></code></a> method now is
+deprecated and ignored.
+(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16662">bpo-16662</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removed">
+<h2>Removed<a class="headerlink" href="#removed" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="api-and-feature-removals">
+<h3>API and Feature Removals<a class="headerlink" href="#api-and-feature-removals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been
+removed:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__version__</span></code> attribute has been dropped from the email package.  The
+email code hasn’t been shipped separately from the stdlib for a long time,
+and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__version__</span></code> string was not updated in the last few releases.</p></li>
+<li><p>The internal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Netrc</span></code> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a> module was deprecated in
+3.4, and has now been removed.
+(Contributed by Matt Chaput in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6623">bpo-6623</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The concept of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files has been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p>The JoinableQueue class in the provisional <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module was
+deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed.
+(Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23464">bpo-23464</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-5">
+<h2>Porting to Python 3.5<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.</p>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-python-behavior">
+<h3>Changes in Python behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-python-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the
+following syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python 3.5 now correctly raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>, as generator
+expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole argument to a function.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-python-api">
+<h3>Changes in the Python API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-python-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-51"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a>: System calls are now retried when interrupted by a signal instead
+of raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> if the Python signal handler does not
+raise an exception.</p></li>
+<li><p>Before Python 3.5, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time</span></code></a> object was considered to be false
+if it represented midnight in UTC.  This behavior was considered obscure and
+error-prone and has been removed in Python 3.5.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13936">bpo-13936</a> for full
+details.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket.send()</span></code> method now raises either
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantReadError" title="ssl.SSLWantReadError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLWantReadError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLWantWriteError" title="ssl.SSLWantWriteError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLWantWriteError</span></code></a>
+on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.  Previously,
+it would return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20951">bpo-20951</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> attribute of generators is now set from the function name,
+instead of being set from the code name. Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gen.gi_code.co_name</span></code> to
+retrieve the code name. Generators also have a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code>
+attribute, the qualified name, which is now used for the representation
+of a generator (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(gen)</span></code>).
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21205">bpo-21205</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The deprecated “strict” mode and argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser.error()</span></code>, and the <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParserError</span></code> exception have been
+removed.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15114">bpo-15114</a>.)
+The <em>convert_charrefs</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.parser.html#html.parser.HTMLParser" title="html.parser.HTMLParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLParser</span></code></a> is
+now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> by default.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21047">bpo-21047</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for porting
+purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were previously of the
+form “‘sometype’ does not support the buffer protocol” are now of the form “a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like object</span></a> is required, not ‘sometype’”.
+(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16518">bpo-16518</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer exists then
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> will no longer be raised and instead
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find_spec()</span></code></a> will return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+<strong>without</strong> caching <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>, which is
+different than the typical case (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22834">bpo-22834</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>HTTP status code and messages from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>
+were refactored into a common <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.html#http.HTTPStatus" title="http.HTTPStatus"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPStatus</span></code></a> enum.  The values in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a> remain available for backwards
+compatibility.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21793">bpo-21793</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When an import loader defines <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.Loader.exec_module()</span></code>
+it is now expected to also define
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code> (raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> now, will be an error in Python 3.6). If the loader
+inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader" title="importlib.abc.Loader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader</span></code></a> then there is nothing to do, else
+simply define <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code> to return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23014">bpo-23014</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a> function always ignored empty pattern matches, so the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x*&quot;</span></code> pattern worked the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x+&quot;</span></code>, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\b&quot;</span></code> pattern never
+worked.  Now <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a> raises a warning if the pattern could match
+an empty string.  For compatibility, use patterns that never match an empty
+string (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x+&quot;</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;x*&quot;</span></code>).  Patterns that could only match
+an empty string (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\b&quot;</span></code>) now raise an error.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22818">bpo-22818</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies.Morsel</span></code></a> dict-like interface has been made self
+consistent:  morsel comparison now takes the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.key" title="http.cookies.Morsel.key"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code></a> into account,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.copy" title="http.cookies.Morsel.copy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy()</span></code></a> now results in a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Morsel</span></code></a> instance rather than a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.update" title="http.cookies.Morsel.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">update()</span></code></a> will now raise an exception if any of the
+keys in the update dictionary are invalid.  In addition, the undocumented
+<em>LegalChars</em> parameter of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.set" title="http.cookies.Morsel.set"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> is deprecated and
+is now ignored.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2211">bpo-2211</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-52"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488"><strong>PEP 488</strong></a> has removed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></code> files from Python and introduced the optional
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt-</span></code> tag in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> file names. The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.cache_from_source" title="importlib.util.cache_from_source"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.cache_from_source()</span></code></a> has gained an <em>optimization</em>
+parameter to help control the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt-</span></code> tag. Because of this, the
+<em>debug_override</em> parameter of the function is now deprecated. <cite>.pyo</cite> files
+are also no longer supported as a file argument to the Python interpreter and
+thus serve no purpose when distributed on their own (i.e. sourceless code
+distribution). Due to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed
+in Python 3.5, all old <cite>.pyo</cite> files from previous versions of Python are
+invalid regardless of this PEP.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module now exports the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES" title="socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES</span></code></a>
+constant on linux 3.6 and greater.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.cert_time_to_seconds" title="ssl.cert_time_to_seconds"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.cert_time_to_seconds()</span></code></a> function now interprets the input time
+as UTC and not as local time, per <span class="target" id="index-53"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5280.html"><strong>RFC 5280</strong></a>.  Additionally, the return
+value is always an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>. (Contributed by Akira Li in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19940">bpo-19940</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pygettext.py</span></code> Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for timezones in
+the POT-Creation-Date header.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> module now uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> instead of the previous
+module-level <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> variable for debug output.  If your (test)
+program depends on patching the module-level variable to capture the debug
+output, you will need to update it to capture sys.stderr instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.startswith" title="str.startswith"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.startswith()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.endswith" title="str.endswith"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.endswith()</span></code></a> methods no longer return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when finding the empty string and the indexes are completely out of
+range.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24284">bpo-24284</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getdoc" title="inspect.getdoc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getdoc()</span></code></a> function now returns documentation strings
+inherited from base classes.  Documentation strings no longer need to be
+duplicated if the inherited documentation is appropriate.  To suppress an
+inherited string, an empty string must be specified (or the documentation
+may be filled in).  This change affects the output of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a>
+module and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> function.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15582">bpo-15582</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Nested <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> calls are now flattened.  If you were
+relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add an attribute to a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a> object or you can create a subclass of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7830">bpo-7830</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-c-api">
+<h3>Changes in the C API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The undocumented <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format</span></code> member of the
+(non-public) <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemoryViewObject</span></code> structure has been removed.
+All extensions relying on the relevant parts in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryobject.h</span></code>
+must be rebuilt.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemAllocator</span></code> structure was renamed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMemAllocatorEx" title="PyMemAllocatorEx"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemAllocatorEx</span></code></a> and a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc</span></code> field was added.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed non-documented macro <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_REPR</span></code> which leaked references.
+Use format character <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%R</span></code> in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a>-like functions
+to format the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> of the object.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22453">bpo-22453</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Because the lack of the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute breaks pickling and
+introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types without
+the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute.  This would be an AttributeError in
+the future.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20204">bpo-20204</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>As part of the <span class="target" id="index-54"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> implementation, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_reserved</span></code> slot of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> was replaced with a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.tp_as_async" title="tp_as_async"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_as_async</span></code></a> slot.  Refer to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/coro.html#coro-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Coroutine Objects</span></a> for
+new types, structures and functions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-changes-in-python-3-5-4">
+<h2>Notable changes in Python 3.5.4<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-5-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="new-make-regen-all-build-target">
+<h3>New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target<a class="headerlink" href="#new-make-regen-all-build-target" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be
+compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be
+available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly
+recompile generated files based on file modification times.</p>
+<p>Instead, a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> command has been added to force regeneration
+of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has
+already been built based on the pregenerated versions).</p>
+<p>More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Makefile.pre.in">Makefile.pre.in</a> for details.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removal-of-make-touch-build-target">
+<h3>Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target<a class="headerlink" href="#removal-of-make-touch-build-target" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target previously used to request implicit regeneration
+of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.</p>
+<p>It has been replaced by the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> target.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.5.4.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.5</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-492-coroutines-with-async-and-await-syntax">PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-465-a-dedicated-infix-operator-for-matrix-multiplication">PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-448-additional-unpacking-generalizations">PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-461-percent-formatting-support-for-bytes-and-bytearray">PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-484-type-hints">PEP 484 - Type Hints</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-471-os-scandir-function-a-better-and-faster-directory-iterator">PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr">PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators">PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-485-a-function-for-testing-approximate-equality">PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-486-make-the-python-launcher-aware-of-virtual-environments">PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-488-elimination-of-pyo-files">PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization">PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#typing">typing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp">zipapp</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse">argparse</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio">asyncio</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bz2">bz2</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cgi">cgi</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cmath">cmath</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#code">code</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections-abc">collections.abc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compileall">compileall</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent-futures">concurrent.futures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configparser">configparser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#csv">csv</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#curses">curses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#difflib">difflib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils">distutils</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#doctest">doctest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#email">email</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum">enum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler">faulthandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#glob">glob</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gzip">gzip</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#heapq">heapq</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http">http</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http-client">http.client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idlelib-and-idle">idlelib and IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib">imaplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#imghdr">imghdr</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib">importlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#io">io</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress">ipaddress</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#json">json</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#linecache">linecache</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#locale">locale</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lzma">lzma</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#math">math</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operator">operator</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#os">os</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib">pathlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#poplib">poplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#re">re</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#readline">readline</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#selectors">selectors</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shutil">shutil</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#signal">signal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtpd">smtpd</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#smtplib">smtplib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sndhdr">sndhdr</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl">ssl</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#memory-bio-support">Memory BIO Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#application-layer-protocol-negotiation-support">Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-changes">Other Changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig">sysconfig</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile">tarfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#time">time</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timeit">timeit</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter">tkinter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback">traceback</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types">types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicodedata">unicodedata</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest-mock">unittest.mock</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib">urllib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wsgiref">wsgiref</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc">xmlrpc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-sax">xml.sax</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-module-level-changes">Other module-level changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-keywords">New Keywords</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-python-behavior">Deprecated Python Behavior</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unsupported-operating-systems">Unsupported Operating Systems</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removed">Removed</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-5">Porting to Python 3.5</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-python-behavior">Changes in Python behavior</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-5-4">Notable changes in Python 3.5.4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-make-regen-all-build-target">New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removal-of-make-touch-build-target">Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.6.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.6</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.4.html"
+                        title="next chapter">What’s New In Python 3.4</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/whatsnew/3.5.rst"
+            rel="nofollow">Show Source
+        </a>
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+      <div class="clearer"></div>
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.6.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.6.html
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/3.6.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2265 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-6">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.6<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Editors</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Elvis Pranskevichus &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:elvis&#37;&#52;&#48;magic&#46;io">elvis<span>&#64;</span>magic<span>&#46;</span>io</a>&gt;, Yury Selivanov &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:yury&#37;&#52;&#48;magic&#46;io">yury<span>&#64;</span>magic<span>&#46;</span>io</a>&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5.
+Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016.  See the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html">changelog</a> for a full
+list of changes.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0494"><strong>PEP 494</strong></a> - Python 3.6 Release Schedule</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="summary-release-highlights">
+<h2>Summary – Release highlights<a class="headerlink" href="#summary-release-highlights" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New syntax features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep498"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 498</span></a>, formatted string literals.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep515"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 515</span></a>, underscores in numeric literals.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep526"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 526</span></a>, syntax for variable annotations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep525"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 525</span></a>, asynchronous generators.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep530"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 530</span></a>: asynchronous comprehensions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New library modules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/secrets.html#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep506"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 506 – Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>CPython implementation improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesmapping"><span class="std std-ref">dict</span></a> type has been reimplemented to use
+a <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-compactdict"><span class="std std-ref">more compact representation</span></a>
+based on <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html">a proposal by Raymond Hettinger</a>
+and similar to the <a class="reference external" href="https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html">PyPy dict implementation</a>.  This resulted in dictionaries
+using 20% to 25% less memory when compared to Python 3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p>Customization of class creation has been simplified with the
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep487"><span class="std std-ref">new protocol</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The class attribute definition order is
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep520"><span class="std std-ref">now preserved</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The order of elements in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> now
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep468"><span class="std std-ref">corresponds to the order</span></a> in which keyword
+arguments were passed to the function.</p></li>
+<li><p>DTrace and SystemTap <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-tracing"><span class="std std-ref">probing support</span></a> has
+been added.</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pythonmalloc"><span class="std std-ref">PYTHONMALLOC</span></a> environment variable
+can now be used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access
+errors.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Significant improvements in the standard library:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module has received new features, significant
+usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug fixes.
+Starting with Python 3.6 the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> module is no longer provisional
+and its API is considered stable.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep519"><span class="std std-ref">file system path protocol</span></a> has been
+implemented to support <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like objects</span></a>.
+All standard library functions operating on paths have been updated to
+work with the new protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module has gained support for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep495"><span class="std std-ref">Local Time Disambiguation</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module received a number of
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-typing"><span class="std std-ref">improvements</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module has been significantly reworked
+and is now used to provide better output for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>
+as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation errors.
+See the <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pythonmalloc"><span class="std std-ref">PYTHONMALLOC section</span></a> for more
+information.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Security improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/secrets.html#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module has been added to simplify the generation of
+cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers suitable for
+managing secrets such as account authentication, tokens, and similar.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> now blocks until the system urandom entropy
+pool is initialized to increase the security. See the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0524"><strong>PEP 524</strong></a> for the
+rationale.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> modules now support OpenSSL 1.1.0.</p></li>
+<li><p>The default settings and feature set of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module have been
+improved.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module received support for the BLAKE2, SHA-3 and SHAKE
+hash algorithms and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.scrypt" title="hashlib.scrypt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scrypt()</span></code></a> key derivation function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Windows improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep528"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 528</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep529"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 529</span></a>,
+Windows filesystem and console encoding changed to UTF-8.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py.exe</span></code> launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers
+Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn’t specify a version (via
+command line arguments or a config file).  Handling of shebang lines
+remains unchanged - “python” refers to Python 2 in that case.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonw.exe</span></code> have been marked as long-path aware,
+which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#max-path"><span class="std std-ref">removing the MAX_PATH limitation</span></a> for details.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">._pth</span></code> file can be added to force isolated mode and fully specify
+all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup. See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#finding-modules"><span class="std std-ref">the documentation</span></a> for more information.</p></li>
+<li><p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python36.zip</span></code> file now works as a landmark to infer
+<span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHOME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHOME</span></code></a>. See <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#finding-modules"><span class="std std-ref">the documentation</span></a> for
+more information.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-features">
+<h2>New Features<a class="headerlink" href="#new-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="pep-498-formatted-string-literals">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep498"></span><h3>PEP 498: Formatted string literals<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-498-formatted-string-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498"><strong>PEP 498</strong></a> introduces a new kind of string literals: <em>f-strings</em>, or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literals</span></a>.</p>
+<p>Formatted string literals are prefixed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'f'</span></code> and are similar to
+the format strings accepted by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>.  They contain replacement
+fields surrounded by curly braces.  The replacement fields are expressions,
+which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> protocol:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Fred&quot;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;He said his name is </span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s2">.&quot;</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;He said his name is Fred.&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">width</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">precision</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">decimal</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;12.34567&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s2">&quot;result: {value:</span><span class="si">{width}</span><span class="s2">.</span><span class="si">{precision}</span><span class="s2">}&quot;</span>  <span class="c1"># nested fields</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;result:      12.35&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498"><strong>PEP 498</strong></a> – Literal String Interpolation.</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings"><span class="std std-ref">Feature documentation</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-526-syntax-for-variable-annotations">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep526"></span><h3>PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-526-syntax-for-variable-annotations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> introduced the standard for type annotations of function
+parameters, a.k.a. type hints. This PEP adds syntax to Python for annotating
+the types of variables including class variables and instance variables:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">primes</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">List</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+
+<span class="n">captain</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span>  <span class="c1"># Note: no initial value!</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Starship</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">stats</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Dict</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach any
+particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> attribute of a class or module.</p>
+<p>In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages,
+the goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify structured
+type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the abstract syntax tree
+and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> attribute.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a> – Syntax for variable annotations.</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach,
+and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>Tools that use or will use the new syntax:
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.mypy-lang.org/">mypy</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/google/pytype">pytype</a>, PyCharm, etc.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-515-underscores-in-numeric-literals">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep515"></span><h3>PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-515-underscores-in-numeric-literals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0515"><strong>PEP 515</strong></a> adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for
+improved readability.  For example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mi">1_000_000_000_000_000</span>
+<span class="go">1000000000000000</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="mh">0x_FF_FF_FF_FF</span>
+<span class="go">4294967295</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base
+specifier.  Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not
+allowed.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatspec"><span class="std std-ref">string formatting</span></a> language also now has support
+for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code> option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands
+separator for floating point presentation types and for integer
+presentation type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'d'</span></code>.  For integer presentation types <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'b'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'o'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'x'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'X'</span></code>, underscores will be inserted every 4
+digits:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;{:_}&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000000</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;1_000_000&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="s1">&#39;{:_x}&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mh">0xFFFFFFFF</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;ffff_ffff&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0515"><strong>PEP 515</strong></a> – Underscores in Numeric Literals</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Georg Brandl and Serhiy Storchaka.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-525-asynchronous-generators">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep525"></span><h3>PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-525-asynchronous-generators" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> introduced support for native coroutines and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> / <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code>
+syntax to Python 3.5.  A notable limitation of the Python 3.5 implementation
+is that it was not possible to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> in the same
+function body.  In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted, making it
+possible to define <em>asynchronous generators</em>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">ticker</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">to</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="sd">&quot;&quot;&quot;Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds.&quot;&quot;&quot;</span>
+    <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">to</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">i</span>
+        <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">asyncio</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">delay</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525"><strong>PEP 525</strong></a> – Asynchronous Generators</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-530-asynchronous-comprehensions">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep530"></span><h3>PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-530-asynchronous-comprehensions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0530"><strong>PEP 530</strong></a> adds support for using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> in list, set, dict
+comprehensions and generator expressions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">aiter</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Additionally, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> expressions are supported in all kinds
+of comprehensions:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">fun</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">funcs</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">()]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0530"><strong>PEP 530</strong></a> – Asynchronous Comprehensions</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-487-simpler-customization-of-class-creation">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep487"></span><h3>PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-487-simpler-customization-of-class-creation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a metaclass.
+The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__</span></code> classmethod will be called on the base class
+whenever a new subclass is created:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">PluginBase</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">subclasses</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__init_subclass__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="nb">super</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__init_subclass__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kwargs</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="bp">cls</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subclasses</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Plugin1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PluginBase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Plugin2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PluginBase</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>In order to allow zero-argument <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> calls to work correctly from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init_subclass__" title="object.__init_subclass__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__()</span></code></a> implementations, custom metaclasses must
+ensure that the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__classcell__</span></code> namespace entry is propagated to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> (as described in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#class-object-creation"><span class="std std-ref">Creating the class object</span></a>).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0487"><strong>PEP 487</strong></a> – Simpler customization of class creation</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#class-customization"><span class="std std-ref">Feature documentation</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-487-descriptor-protocol-enhancements">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep487-descriptors"></span><h3>PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-487-descriptor-protocol-enhancements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0487"><strong>PEP 487</strong></a> extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set_name__" title="object.__set_name__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__set_name__()</span></code></a> method.  Whenever a new class is defined, the new
+method will be called on all descriptors included in the definition, providing
+them with a reference to the class being defined and the name given to the
+descriptor within the class namespace.  In other words, instances of
+descriptors can now know the attribute name of the descriptor in the
+owner class:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">IntField</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__get__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">owner</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">instance</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__set__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">):</span>
+            <span class="k">raise</span> <span class="ne">ValueError</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="s1">&#39;expecting integer in </span><span class="si">{self.name}</span><span class="s1">&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+        <span class="n">instance</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__dict__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span>
+
+    <span class="c1"># this is the new initializer:</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__set_name__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">owner</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Model</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">int_field</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">IntField</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0487"><strong>PEP 487</strong></a> – Simpler customization of class creation</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#descriptors"><span class="std std-ref">Feature documentation</span></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-519-adding-a-file-system-path-protocol">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep519"></span><h3>PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-519-adding-a-file-system-path-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>File system paths have historically been represented as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> objects. This has led to people who write code which
+operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only one
+of those two types (an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> representing a file descriptor
+does not count as that is not a file path). Unfortunately that
+assumption prevents alternative object representations of file system
+paths like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> from working with pre-existing code,
+including Python’s standard library.</p>
+<p>To fix this situation, a new interface represented by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> has been defined. By implementing the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike.__fspath__" title="os.PathLike.__fspath__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__fspath__()</span></code></a> method, an object signals that it
+represents a path. An object can then provide a low-level
+representation of a file system path as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object. This means an object is considered
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like</span></a> if it implements
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> or is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> object
+which represents a file system path. Code can use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fspath" title="os.fspath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fspath()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a> to explicitly get a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> and/or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> representation of a path-like
+object.</p>
+<p>The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> function has been updated to accept
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a> objects, as have all relevant functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> modules, and most other functions and
+classes in the standard library.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.DirEntry" title="os.DirEntry"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.DirEntry</span></code></a> class
+and relevant classes in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> have also been updated to
+implement <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.PathLike</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating
+on file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly
+support all <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like objects</span></a> without any
+code changes, or at least very minimal ones (e.g. calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fspath" title="os.fspath"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fspath()</span></code></a> at the beginning of code before operating on a
+path-like object).</p>
+<p>Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path" title="pathlib.Path"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.Path</span></code></a> to be used more easily and transparently with
+pre-existing code:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">pathlib</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;README&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">contents</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os.path</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">splitext</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;some_file.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">(&#39;some_file&#39;, &#39;.txt&#39;)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;/a/b&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;c&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;/a/b/c&#39;</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fspath</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pathlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Path</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;some_file.txt&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="go">&#39;some_file.txt&#39;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle Zijlstra.)</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0519"><strong>PEP 519</strong></a> – Adding a file system path protocol</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Brett Cannon and Koos Zevenhoven.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-495-local-time-disambiguation">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep495"></span><h3>PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-495-local-time-disambiguation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local clocks
+are moved back.  In those times, intervals are introduced in which local
+clocks show the same time twice in the same day. In these situations, the
+information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a Python datetime
+instance) is insufficient to identify a particular moment in time.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0495"><strong>PEP 495</strong></a> adds the new <em>fold</em> attribute to instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time</span></code></a> classes to differentiate
+between two moments in time for which local times are the same:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">u0</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2016</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tzinfo</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">u</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">u0</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">HOUR</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">t</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">astimezone</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Eastern</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">u</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;UTC =&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tzname</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fold</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="go">04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0</span>
+<span class="go">05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0</span>
+<span class="go">06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1</span>
+<span class="go">07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The values of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fold" title="datetime.datetime.fold"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code></a> attribute have the
+value <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> for all instances except those that represent the second
+(chronologically) moment in time in an ambiguous case.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0495"><strong>PEP 495</strong></a> – Local Time Disambiguation</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation
+by Alexander Belopolsky.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-529-change-windows-filesystem-encoding-to-utf-8">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep529"></span><h3>PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-529-change-windows-filesystem-encoding-to-utf-8" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode) rather than
+bytes. However, there are some situations where using bytes is sufficient and
+correct.</p>
+<p>Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on Windows.
+With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now supported on Windows,
+provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencoding" title="sys.getfilesystemencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getfilesystemencoding()</span></code></a>, which now defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsencode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fsdecode()</span></code></a> to ensure their bytes are
+correctly encoded. To revert to the previous behaviour, set
+<span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING</span></code></a> or call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding" title="sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>See <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0529"><strong>PEP 529</strong></a> for more information and discussion of code modifications that
+may be required.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-528-change-windows-console-encoding-to-utf-8">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep528"></span><h3>PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-528-change-windows-console-encoding-to-utf-8" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters and
+provide correctly read str objects to Python code. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code> now default to utf-8 encoding.</p>
+<p>This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when
+redirecting files or pipes. To revert to the previous behaviour for interactive
+console use, set <span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0528"><strong>PEP 528</strong></a> – Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Steve Dower.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-520-preserving-class-attribute-definition-order">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep520"></span><h3>PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-520-preserving-class-attribute-definition-order" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same
+order in which the names appear in the source.  This order is now
+preserved in the new class’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code></a> attribute.</p>
+<p>Also, the effective default class <em>execution</em> namespace (returned from
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#prepare"><span class="std std-ref">type.__prepare__()</span></a>) is now an insertion-order-preserving
+mapping.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0520"><strong>PEP 520</strong></a> – Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-468-preserving-keyword-argument-order">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep468"></span><h3>PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-468-preserving-keyword-argument-order" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an
+insertion-order-preserving mapping.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0468"><strong>PEP 468</strong></a> – Preserving Keyword Argument Order</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-dict-implementation">
+<span id="whatsnew36-compactdict"></span><h3>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesmapping"><span class="std std-ref">dict</span></a> implementation<a class="headerlink" href="#new-dict-implementation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesmapping"><span class="std std-ref">dict</span></a> type now uses a “compact” representation
+based on <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html">a proposal by Raymond Hettinger</a>
+which was <a class="reference external" href="https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html">first implemented by PyPy</a>.
+The memory usage of the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict()</span></code></a> is between 20% and 25% smaller
+compared to Python 3.5.</p>
+<p>The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an
+implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in
+the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in
+the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to mandate
+order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python
+implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility
+with older versions of the language where random iteration order is
+still in effect, e.g. Python 3.5).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27350">bpo-27350</a>. Idea
+<a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html">originally suggested by Raymond Hettinger</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-523-adding-a-frame-evaluation-api-to-cpython">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep523"></span><h3>PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-523-adding-a-frame-evaluation-api-to-cpython" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>While Python provides extensive support to customize how code
+executes, one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame
+objects.  If you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in
+Python there really wasn’t any way without directly manipulating
+function pointers for defined functions.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0523"><strong>PEP 523</strong></a> changes this by providing an API to make frame
+evaluation pluggable at the C level. This will allow for tools such
+as debuggers and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the
+execution of Python code begins. This enables the use of alternative
+evaluation implementations for Python code, tracking frame
+evaluation, etc.</p>
+<p>This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to
+signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only
+applicable to very select, low-level use-cases. Semantics of the
+API will change with Python as necessary.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0523"><strong>PEP 523</strong></a> – Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Brett Cannon and Dino Viehland.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pythonmalloc-environment-variable">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pythonmalloc"></span><h3>PYTHONMALLOC environment variable<a class="headerlink" href="#pythonmalloc-environment-variable" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable allows setting the Python
+memory allocators and installing debug hooks.</p>
+<p>It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on Python
+compiled in release mode using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC=debug</span></code>. Effects of debug hooks:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xCB</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Freed memory is filled with the byte <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xDB</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p>Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Free" title="PyObject_Free"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free()</span></code></a> called on a memory block allocated by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows)</p></li>
+<li><p>Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows)</p></li>
+<li><p>Check that the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> is held when allocator
+functions of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</span></code></a> (ex: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>) and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a> (ex: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>) domains are called.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6.</p>
+<p>See the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a> function for debug hooks on Python
+memory allocators.</p>
+<p>It is now also possible to force the usage of the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> allocator of
+the C library for all Python memory allocations using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC=malloc</span></code>.
+This is helpful when using external memory debuggers like Valgrind on
+a Python compiled in release mode.</p>
+<p>On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module to get the traceback where a memory block was
+allocated.</p>
+<p>Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.6</span> <span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">tracemalloc=5</span></code> (store 5 frames in traces):</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Debug</span> <span class="n">memory</span> <span class="n">block</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">address</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mh">0x7fbcd41666f8</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">API</span> <span class="s1">&#39;o&#39;</span>
+    <span class="mi">4</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span> <span class="n">originally</span> <span class="n">requested</span>
+    <span class="n">The</span> <span class="mi">7</span> <span class="n">pad</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">7</span> <span class="n">are</span> <span class="n">FORBIDDENBYTE</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">expected</span><span class="o">.</span>
+    <span class="n">The</span> <span class="mi">8</span> <span class="n">pad</span> <span class="nb">bytes</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mh">0x7fbcd41666fc</span> <span class="n">are</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="nb">all</span> <span class="n">FORBIDDENBYTE</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mh">0xfb</span><span class="p">):</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0x02</span> <span class="o">***</span> <span class="n">OUCH</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0xfb</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0xfb</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0xfb</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0xfb</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0xfb</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0xfb</span>
+        <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">tail</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mh">0xfb</span>
+    <span class="n">The</span> <span class="n">block</span> <span class="n">was</span> <span class="n">made</span> <span class="n">by</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="c1">#1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.</span>
+    <span class="n">Data</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="mi">30</span> <span class="mi">00</span>
+
+<span class="n">Memory</span> <span class="n">block</span> <span class="n">allocated</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;test/test_bytes.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">323</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/case.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">600</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/case.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">648</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/suite.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">122</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/suite.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">84</span>
+
+<span class="n">Fatal</span> <span class="n">Python</span> <span class="n">error</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">bad</span> <span class="n">trailing</span> <span class="n">pad</span> <span class="n">byte</span>
+
+<span class="n">Current</span> <span class="n">thread</span> <span class="mh">0x00007fbcdbd32700</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;test/test_bytes.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">323</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">test_hex</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/case.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">600</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">run</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/case.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">648</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="fm">__call__</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/suite.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">122</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">run</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/suite.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">84</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="fm">__call__</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/suite.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">122</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">run</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;unittest/suite.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">84</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="fm">__call__</span>
+  <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26516">bpo-26516</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26564">bpo-26564</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dtrace-and-systemtap-probing-support">
+<span id="whatsnew36-tracing"></span><h3>DTrace and SystemTap probing support<a class="headerlink" href="#dtrace-and-systemtap-probing-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python can now be built <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-dtrace</span></code> which enables static markers
+for the following events in the interpreter:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>function call/return</p></li>
+<li><p>garbage collection started/finished</p></li>
+<li><p>line of code executed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production,
+without the need to recompile specific debug builds or providing
+application-specific profiling/debugging code.</p>
+<p>More details in <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/instrumentation.html#instrumentation"><span class="std std-ref">Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS.  Additional
+markers may be added in the future.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21590">bpo-21590</a>, based on patches by
+Jesús Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>A <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> statement must now textually appear
+before the first use of the affected name in the same scope.
+Previously this was a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxWarning" title="SyntaxWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxWarning</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>It is now possible to set a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#specialnames"><span class="std std-ref">special method</span></a> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> to indicate that the corresponding operation is not available.
+For example, if a class sets <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__" title="object.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></code></a> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the class
+is not iterable.
+(Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25958">bpo-25958</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;[Previous</span> <span class="pre">line</span> <span class="pre">repeated</span> <span class="pre">{count}</span> <span class="pre">more</span> <span class="pre">times]&quot;</span></code> (see
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-traceback"><span class="std std-ref">traceback</span></a> for an example).
+(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26823">bpo-26823</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Import now raises the new exception <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a>
+(subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>) when it cannot find a module.  Code
+that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will still work.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15767">bpo-15767</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Class methods relying on zero-argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code> will now work correctly
+when called from metaclass methods during class creation.
+(Contributed by Martin Teichmann in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23722">bpo-23722</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-modules">
+<h2>New Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="secrets">
+<span id="whatsnew36-pep506"></span><h3>secrets<a class="headerlink" href="#secrets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The main purpose of the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/secrets.html#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module is to provide an obvious way
+to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random values suitable
+for managing secrets, such as account authentication, tokens, and similar.</p>
+<div class="admonition warning">
+<p class="admonition-title">Warning</p>
+<p>Note that the pseudo-random generators in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module
+should <em>NOT</em> be used for security purposes.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/secrets.html#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a>
+on Python 3.6+ and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> on Python 3.5 and earlier.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0506"><strong>PEP 506</strong></a> – Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improved-modules">
+<h2>Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="array">
+<h3>array<a class="headerlink" href="#array" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Exhausted iterators of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a> will now stay exhausted even
+if the iterated array is extended.  This is consistent with the behavior
+of other mutable sequences.</p>
+<p>Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26492">bpo-26492</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ast">
+<h3>ast<a class="headerlink" href="#ast" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.Constant</span></code> AST node has been added.  It can be used
+by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding.</p>
+<p>Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26146">bpo-26146</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asyncio">
+<h3>asyncio<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Starting with Python 3.6 the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> module is no longer provisional and its
+API is considered stable.</p>
+<p>Notable changes in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module since Python 3.5.0
+(all backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status):</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_event_loop()</span></code></a> function has been changed to
+always return the currently running loop when called from coroutines
+and callbacks.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28613">bpo-28613</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.ensure_future" title="asyncio.ensure_future"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_future()</span></code></a> function and all functions that
+use it, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.run_until_complete" title="asyncio.loop.run_until_complete"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.run_until_complete()</span></code></a>,
+now accept all kinds of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-awaitable"><span class="xref std std-term">awaitable objects</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe" title="asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">run_coroutine_threadsafe()</span></code></a> function to submit
+coroutines to event loops from other threads.
+(Contributed by Vincent Michel.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing" title="asyncio.BaseTransport.is_closing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Transport.is_closing()</span></code></a>
+method to check if the transport is closing or closed.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>
+method can now accept a list of hosts.
+(Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_future" title="asyncio.loop.create_future"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_future()</span></code></a>
+method to create Future objects.  This allows alternative event
+loop implementations, such as
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop">uvloop</a>, to provide a faster
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> implementation.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27041">bpo-27041</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler" title="asyncio.loop.get_exception_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.get_exception_handler()</span></code></a>
+method to get the current exception handler.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27040">bpo-27040</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil" title="asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader.readuntil()</span></code></a>
+method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes
+sequence appears.
+(Contributed by Mark Korenberg.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The performance of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly" title="asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamReader.readexactly()</span></code></a>
+has been improved.
+(Contributed by Mark Korenberg in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28370">bpo-28370</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.getaddrinfo()</span></code></a>
+method is optimized to avoid calling the system <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getaddrinfo</span></code>
+function if the address is already resolved.
+(Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.stop" title="asyncio.loop.stop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.stop()</span></code></a>
+method has been changed to stop the loop immediately after
+the current iteration.  Any new callbacks scheduled as a result
+of the last iteration will be discarded.
+(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25593">bpo-25593</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.set_exception</span></code>
+will now raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> when passed an instance of
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception.
+(Contributed by Chris Angelico in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26221">bpo-26221</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket" title="asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.connect_accepted_socket()</span></code></a>
+method to be used by servers that accept connections outside of asyncio,
+but that use asyncio to handle them.
+(Contributed by Jim Fulton in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27392">bpo-27392</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_NODELAY</span></code> flag is now set for all TCP transports by default.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27456">bpo-27456</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens" title="asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.shutdown_asyncgens()</span></code></a>
+to properly close pending asynchronous generators before closing the
+loop.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28003">bpo-28003</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a>
+classes now have an optimized C implementation which makes asyncio
+code up to 30% faster.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26081">bpo-26081</a>
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28544">bpo-28544</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binascii">
+<h3>binascii<a class="headerlink" href="#binascii" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_base64" title="binascii.b2a_base64"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b2a_base64()</span></code></a> function now accepts an optional <em>newline</em>
+keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to the
+return value.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25357">bpo-25357</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cmath">
+<h3>cmath<a class="headerlink" href="#cmath" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#cmath.tau" title="cmath.tau"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.tau</span></code></a> (<em>τ</em>) constant has been added.
+(Contributed by Lisa Roach in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12345">bpo-12345</a>, see <span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0628"><strong>PEP 628</strong></a> for details.)</p>
+<p>New constants: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#cmath.inf" title="cmath.inf"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.inf</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#cmath.nan" title="cmath.nan"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.nan</span></code></a> to
+match <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.inf" title="math.inf"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.inf</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.nan" title="math.nan"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.nan</span></code></a>, and also <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#cmath.infj" title="cmath.infj"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.infj</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#cmath.nanj" title="cmath.nanj"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.nanj</span></code></a> to match the format used by complex repr.
+(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23229">bpo-23229</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="collections">
+<h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Collection</span></code></a> abstract base class has been
+added to represent sized iterable container classes.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27598">bpo-27598</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Reversible" title="collections.abc.Reversible"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Reversible</span></code></a> abstract base class represents
+iterable classes that also provide the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__reversed__" title="object.__reversed__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__reversed__()</span></code></a> method.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25987">bpo-25987</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncGenerator" title="collections.abc.AsyncGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncGenerator</span></code></a> abstract base class represents
+asynchronous generators.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28720">bpo-28720</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> function now accepts an optional
+keyword argument <em>module</em>, which, when specified, is used for
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute of the returned named tuple class.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17941">bpo-17941</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>verbose</em> and <em>rename</em> arguments for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> are now keyword-only.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25628">bpo-25628</a>.)</p>
+<p>Recursive <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a> instances can now be pickled.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26482">bpo-26482</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="concurrent-futures">
+<h3>concurrent.futures<a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent-futures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>
+class constructor now accepts an optional <em>thread_name_prefix</em> argument
+to make it possible to customize the names of the threads created by the
+pool.
+(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27664">bpo-27664</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contextlib">
+<h3>contextlib<a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractContextManager" title="contextlib.AbstractContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.AbstractContextManager</span></code></a> class has been added to
+provide an abstract base class for context managers.  It provides a
+sensible default implementation for <cite>__enter__()</cite> which returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">self</span></code> and leaves <cite>__exit__()</cite> an abstract method.  A matching
+class has been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.ContextManager" title="typing.ContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.ContextManager</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25609">bpo-25609</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datetime">
+<h3>datetime<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> classes have
+the new <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fold</span></code> attribute used to disambiguate local time
+when necessary.  Many functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> have been
+updated to support local time disambiguation.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep495"><span class="std std-ref">Local Time Disambiguation</span></a> section for more
+information.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24773">bpo-24773</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.strftime" title="datetime.datetime.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.strftime()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date.strftime" title="datetime.date.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.strftime()</span></code></a> methods now support
+ISO 8601 date directives <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%G</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%u</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Ashley Anderson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12006">bpo-12006</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isoformat" title="datetime.datetime.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.isoformat()</span></code></a> function
+now accepts an optional <em>timespec</em> argument that specifies the number
+of additional components of the time value to include.
+(Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19475">bpo-19475</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.combine" title="datetime.datetime.combine"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.combine()</span></code></a> now
+accepts an optional <em>tzinfo</em> argument.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27661">bpo-27661</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="decimal">
+<h3>decimal<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.as_integer_ratio" title="decimal.Decimal.as_integer_ratio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal.as_integer_ratio()</span></code></a>
+method that returns a pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(n,</span> <span class="pre">d)</span></code> of integers that represent the given
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and
+with a positive denominator:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;-3.14&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_integer_ratio</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="go">(-157, 50)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25928">bpo-25928</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distutils">
+<h3>distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_format</span></code> attribute has been removed from
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.sdist.sdist</span></code> and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">formats</span></code>
+attribute defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">['gztar']</span></code>. Although not anticipated,
+any code relying on the presence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_format</span></code> may
+need to be adapted. See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27819">bpo-27819</a> for more details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="email">
+<h3>email<a class="headerlink" href="#email" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new email API, enabled via the <em>policy</em> keyword to various constructors, is
+no longer provisional.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> documentation has been reorganized and
+rewritten to focus on the new API, while retaining the old documentation for
+the legacy API.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24277">bpo-24277</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.mime.html#module-email.mime" title="email.mime: Build MIME messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code></a> classes now all accept an optional <em>policy</em> keyword.
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27331">bpo-27331</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#email.generator.DecodedGenerator" title="email.generator.DecodedGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DecodedGenerator</span></code></a> now supports the <em>policy</em>
+keyword.</p>
+<p>There is a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#module-email.policy" title="email.policy: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">policy</span></code></a> attribute,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.Policy.message_factory" title="email.policy.Policy.message_factory"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_factory</span></code></a>, that controls what class is used
+by default when the parser creates new message objects.  For the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.policy.html#email.policy.compat32" title="email.policy.compat32"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.policy.compat32</span></code></a> policy this is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a>,
+for the new policies it is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.message.html#email.message.EmailMessage" title="email.message.EmailMessage"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EmailMessage</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by R. David Murray in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20476">bpo-20476</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="encodings">
+<h3>encodings<a class="headerlink" href="#encodings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On Windows, added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'oem'</span></code> encoding to use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CP_OEMCP</span></code>, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ansi'</span></code>
+alias for the existing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mbcs'</span></code> encoding, which uses the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CP_ACP</span></code> code page.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27959">bpo-27959</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enum">
+<h3>enum<a class="headerlink" href="#enum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a> module:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#enum.Flag" title="enum.Flag"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlags</span></code>.  Both are used to define
+constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23591">bpo-23591</a>.)</p>
+<p>Many standard library modules have been updated to use the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlags</span></code> class for their constants.</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#enum.auto" title="enum.auto"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum.auto</span></code></a> value can be used to assign values to enum
+members automatically:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">enum</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">auto</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Color</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Enum</span><span class="p">):</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">red</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">blue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">... </span>    <span class="n">green</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">auto</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Color</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="go">[&lt;Color.red: 1&gt;, &lt;Color.blue: 2&gt;, &lt;Color.green: 3&gt;]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="faulthandler">
+<h3>faulthandler<a class="headerlink" href="#faulthandler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>On Windows, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#module-faulthandler" title="faulthandler: Dump the Python traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler</span></code></a> module now installs a handler for Windows
+exceptions: see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/faulthandler.html#faulthandler.enable" title="faulthandler.enable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler.enable()</span></code></a>. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23848">bpo-23848</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="fileinput">
+<h3>fileinput<a class="headerlink" href="#fileinput" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/fileinput.html#fileinput.hook_encoded" title="fileinput.hook_encoded"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hook_encoded()</span></code></a> now supports the <em>errors</em> argument.
+(Contributed by Joseph Hackman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25788">bpo-25788</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hashlib">
+<h3>hashlib<a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26470">bpo-26470</a>.)</p>
+<p>BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2b" title="hashlib.blake2b"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2b()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.blake2s" title="hashlib.blake2s"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">blake2s()</span></code></a> are always available and support the full
+feature set of BLAKE2.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26798">bpo-26798</a> based on code by
+Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves. Documentation written by Dmitry Chestnykh.)</p>
+<p>The SHA-3 hash functions <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_224()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_256()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_384()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sha3_512()</span></code>, and SHAKE hash functions
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_128()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shake_256()</span></code> were added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16113">bpo-16113</a>. Keccak Code Package
+by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and
+Ronny Van Keer.)</p>
+<p>The password-based key derivation function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.scrypt" title="hashlib.scrypt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scrypt()</span></code></a> is now
+available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27928">bpo-27928</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http-client">
+<h3>http.client<a class="headerlink" href="#http-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.request" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection.request()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.endheaders"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">endheaders()</span></code></a> both now support
+chunked encoding request bodies.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12319">bpo-12319</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idlelib-and-idle">
+<h3>idlelib and IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idlelib-and-idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look and
+work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and improve. Part
+of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac, is using ttk widgets,
+mostly in the dialogs.  As a result, IDLE no longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4.  It
+now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6.  We recommend running the latest release of
+either.</p>
+<p>‘Modernizing’ includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules. The
+renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the renaming of,
+for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and tkinter.font in 3.0.  As a
+result, imports of idlelib files that worked in 3.5 will usually not work in
+3.6.  At least a module name change will be needed (see idlelib/README.txt),
+sometimes more.  (Name changes contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24225">bpo-24225</a>.  Most idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the
+process.)</p>
+<p>In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes will be
+easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them.  Additional
+useful information will be added to idlelib when available.</p>
+<p>New in 3.6.2:</p>
+<p>Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15786">bpo-15786</a>.)</p>
+<p>New in 3.6.3:</p>
+<p>Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser),
+now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level
+functions and classes.
+(Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1612262">bpo-1612262</a>.)</p>
+<p>The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented
+as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab
+to other dialog tabs.
+(Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27099">bpo-27099</a>.)</p>
+<p>The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
+to improve both appearance and function.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)</p>
+<p>New in 3.6.4:</p>
+<p>The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
+users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13802">bpo-13802</a>.)
+The sample can be edited to include other characters.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31860">bpo-31860</a>.)</p>
+<p>New in 3.6.6:</p>
+<p>Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up to
+maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.  Context
+colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33642">bpo-33642</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33768">bpo-33768</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33679">bpo-33679</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows
+8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary
+unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should
+make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33656">bpo-33656</a>.)</p>
+<p>New in 3.6.7:</p>
+<p>Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.
+N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the
+Settings dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by
+right clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place
+by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window
+by right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1529353">bpo-1529353</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="importlib">
+<h3>importlib<a class="headerlink" href="#importlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Import now raises the new exception <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a>
+(subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>) when it cannot find a module.  Code
+that current checks for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code> (in try-except) will still work.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15767">bpo-15767</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.LazyLoader" title="importlib.util.LazyLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.LazyLoader</span></code></a> now calls
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_module()</span></code></a> on the wrapped loader, removing the
+restriction that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter" title="importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader" title="importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader</span></code></a> couldn’t be used with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.LazyLoader" title="importlib.util.LazyLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.LazyLoader</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.cache_from_source" title="importlib.util.cache_from_source"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.cache_from_source()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.source_from_cache" title="importlib.util.source_from_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.source_from_cache()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.util.spec_from_file_location" title="importlib.util.spec_from_file_location"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.util.spec_from_file_location()</span></code></a> now accept a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="inspect">
+<h3>inspect<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code></a> function now reports the
+implicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.0</span></code> parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
+generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">implicit0</span></code>. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19611">bpo-19611</a>.)</p>
+<p>To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getargspec" title="inspect.getargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getargspec()</span></code></a> API, the previously documented deprecation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec()</span></code></a> has been reversed. While this function is
+convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the richer
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature()</span></code></a> interface remains the recommended approach for new
+code. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27172">bpo-27172</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="json">
+<h3>json<a class="headerlink" href="#json" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.load" title="json.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.load()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.loads" title="json.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.loads()</span></code></a> now support binary input.  Encoded
+JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-32.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17909">bpo-17909</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<h3>logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded" title="logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded()</span></code></a>
+method has been added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to
+be reopened.
+(Contributed by Marian Horban in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24884">bpo-24884</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="math">
+<h3>math<a class="headerlink" href="#math" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The tau (<em>τ</em>) constant has been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code></a>
+modules.
+(Contributed by Lisa Roach in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12345">bpo-12345</a>, see <span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0628"><strong>PEP 628</strong></a> for details.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multiprocessing">
+<h3>multiprocessing<a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing-proxy-objects"><span class="std std-ref">Proxy Objects</span></a> returned by
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Manager()</span></code> can now be nested.
+(Contributed by Davin Potts in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6766">bpo-6766</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="os">
+<h3>os<a class="headerlink" href="#os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>See the summary of <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep519"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 519</span></a> for details on how the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path</span></code></a> modules now support
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like objects</span></a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> paths on Windows.</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir.close" title="os.scandir.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code></a> method allows explicitly closing a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> iterator.  The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code></a> iterator now
+supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> protocol.  If a <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">scandir()</span></code>
+iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>
+will be emitted in its destructor.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25994">bpo-25994</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool
+is initialized to increase the security. See the <span class="target" id="index-31"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0524"><strong>PEP 524</strong></a> for the rationale.</p>
+<p>The Linux <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getrandom" title="os.getrandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getrandom()</span></code></a> function.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner, part of the <span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0524"><strong>PEP 524</strong></a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pathlib">
+<h3>pathlib<a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like objects</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>.)</p>
+<p>See the summary of <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep519"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 519</span></a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pdb">
+<h3>pdb<a class="headerlink" href="#pdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#pdb.Pdb" title="pdb.Pdb"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pdb</span></code></a> class constructor has a new optional <em>readrc</em> argument
+to control whether <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> files should be read.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pickle">
+<h3>pickle<a class="headerlink" href="#pickle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Objects that need <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code> called with keyword arguments can now be pickled
+using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle-protocols"><span class="std std-ref">pickle protocols</span></a> older than protocol version 4.
+Protocol version 4 already supports this case.  (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24164">bpo-24164</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pickletools">
+<h3>pickletools<a class="headerlink" href="#pickletools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickletools.html#pickletools.dis" title="pickletools.dis"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickletools.dis()</span></code></a> now outputs the implicit memo index for the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MEMOIZE</span></code> opcode.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25382">bpo-25382</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pydoc">
+<h3>pydoc<a class="headerlink" href="#pydoc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module has learned to respect the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MANPAGER</span></code>
+environment variable.
+(Contributed by Matthias Klose in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8637">bpo-8637</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">help()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> can now list named tuple fields in the
+order they were defined rather than alphabetically.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24879">bpo-24879</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="random">
+<h3>random<a class="headerlink" href="#random" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.choices" title="random.choices"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choices()</span></code></a> function returns a list of elements of
+specified size from the given population with optional weights.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18844">bpo-18844</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="re">
+<h3>re<a class="headerlink" href="#re" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.  Examples:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(?i:p)ython'</span></code> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'python'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Python'</span></code>, but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'PYTHON'</span></code>;
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'</span></code> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'GvR'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'gvr'</span></code>, but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'GVR'</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue433028">bpo-433028</a>.)</p>
+<p>Match object groups can be accessed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getitem__</span></code>, which is
+equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">group()</span></code>.  So <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mo['name']</span></code> is now equivalent to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mo.group('name')</span></code>.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24454">bpo-24454</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Match</span></code> objects now support
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">index-like</span> <span class="pre">objects</span></code></a> as group
+indices.
+(Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27177">bpo-27177</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="readline">
+<h3>readline<a class="headerlink" href="#readline" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Added <a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#readline.set_auto_history" title="readline.set_auto_history"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_auto_history()</span></code></a> to enable or disable
+automatic addition of input to the history list.  (Contributed by
+Tyler Crompton in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26870">bpo-26870</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="rlcompleter">
+<h3>rlcompleter<a class="headerlink" href="#rlcompleter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix starts
+with underscores.  A space or a colon is added after some completed keywords.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25011">bpo-25011</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25209">bpo-25209</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="shlex">
+<h3>shlex<a class="headerlink" href="#shlex" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shlex.html#shlex.shlex" title="shlex.shlex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shlex</span></code></a> has much
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shlex.html#improved-shell-compatibility"><span class="std std-ref">improved shell compatibility</span></a>
+through the new <em>punctuation_chars</em> argument to control which characters
+are treated as punctuation.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1521950">bpo-1521950</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="site">
+<h3>site<a class="headerlink" href="#site" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>When specifying paths to add to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> in a <cite>.pth</cite> file,
+you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g. zip files).
+(Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26587">bpo-26587</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sqlite3">
+<h3>sqlite3<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid" title="sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid</span></code></a> now supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REPLACE</span></code> statement.
+(Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16864">bpo-16864</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket">
+<h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.ioctl" title="socket.socket.ioctl"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl()</span></code></a> function now supports the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH" title="socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH</span></code></a> control code.
+(Contributed by Daniel Stokes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26536">bpo-26536</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.getsockopt" title="socket.socket.getsockopt"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsockopt()</span></code></a> constants <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_DOMAIN</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_PROTOCOL</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_PEERSEC</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SO_PASSSEC</span></code> are now supported.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26907">bpo-26907</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.setsockopt" title="socket.socket.setsockopt"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setsockopt()</span></code></a> now supports the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setsockopt(level,</span> <span class="pre">optname,</span> <span class="pre">None,</span> <span class="pre">optlen:</span> <span class="pre">int)</span></code> form.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27744">bpo-27744</a>.)</p>
+<p>The socket module now supports the address family
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.AF_ALG" title="socket.AF_ALG"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_ALG</span></code></a> to interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ALG_*</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOL_ALG</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendmsg_afalg" title="socket.socket.sendmsg_afalg"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmsg_afalg()</span></code></a> were added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27744">bpo-27744</a> with support from
+Victor Stinner.)</p>
+<p>New Linux constants <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_USER_TIMEOUT</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_CONGESTION</span></code> were added.
+(Contributed by Omar Sandoval, issue:<cite>26273</cite>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socketserver">
+<h3>socketserver<a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Servers based on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a> module, including those
+defined in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.server.html#module-xmlrpc.server" title="xmlrpc.server: Basic XML-RPC server implementations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.simple_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code></a>, now support the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a>
+protocol.
+(Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26404">bpo-26404</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wfile</span></code> attribute of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.StreamRequestHandler" title="socketserver.StreamRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamRequestHandler</span></code></a> classes now implements
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> writable interface.  In particular,
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase.write" title="io.BufferedIOBase.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> is now guaranteed to send the
+data in full.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26721">bpo-26721</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl">
+<h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26470">bpo-26470</a>.)</p>
+<p>3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20 Poly1305
+cipher suites have been added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27850">bpo-27850</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27766">bpo-27766</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> has better default configuration for options
+and ciphers.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28043">bpo-28043</a>.)</p>
+<p>SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another
+with the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSession" title="ssl.SSLSession"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSession</span></code></a> class.  TLS session resumption can
+speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19500">bpo-19500</a> based on a draft by
+Alex Warhawk.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers" title="ssl.SSLContext.get_ciphers"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_ciphers()</span></code></a> method can be used to
+get a list of enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority.</p>
+<p>All constants and flags have been converted to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#enum.IntEnum" title="enum.IntEnum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntEnum</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IntFlags</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28025">bpo-28025</a>.)</p>
+<p>Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>
+were added.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28085">bpo-28085</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="statistics">
+<h3>statistics<a class="headerlink" href="#statistics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/statistics.html#statistics.harmonic_mean" title="statistics.harmonic_mean"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">harmonic_mean()</span></code></a> function has been added.
+(Contributed by Steven D’Aprano in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27181">bpo-27181</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="struct">
+<h3>struct<a class="headerlink" href="#struct" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct</span></code></a> now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'e'</span></code>
+format specifier.
+(Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11734">bpo-11734</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess">
+<h3>subprocess<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> destructor now emits a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> warning
+if the child process is still running. Use the context manager protocol (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span>
+<span class="pre">proc:</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>) or explicitly call the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen.wait" title="subprocess.Popen.wait"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wait()</span></code></a> method to
+read the exit status of the child process. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26741">bpo-26741</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> constructor and all functions that pass arguments
+through to it now accept <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em> arguments. Specifying either
+of these will enable text mode for the <em>stdin</em>, <em>stdout</em> and <em>stderr</em> streams.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6135">bpo-6135</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sys">
+<h3>sys<a class="headerlink" href="#sys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors" title="sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getfilesystemencodeerrors()</span></code></a> function returns the name of
+the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27781">bpo-27781</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Windows the return value of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getwindowsversion" title="sys.getwindowsversion"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getwindowsversion()</span></code></a> function
+now includes the <em>platform_version</em> field which contains the accurate major
+version, minor version and build number of the current operating system,
+rather than the version that is being emulated for the process
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27932">bpo-27932</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="telnetlib">
+<h3>telnetlib<a class="headerlink" href="#telnetlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/telnetlib.html#telnetlib.Telnet" title="telnetlib.Telnet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Telnet</span></code></a> is now a context manager (contributed by
+Stéphane Wirtel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25485">bpo-25485</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="time">
+<h3>time<a class="headerlink" href="#time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.struct_time" title="time.struct_time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct_time</span></code></a> attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_gmtoff</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tm_zone</span></code> are now available on all platforms.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="timeit">
+<h3>timeit<a class="headerlink" href="#timeit" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.autorange" title="timeit.Timer.autorange"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer.autorange()</span></code></a> convenience
+method has been added to call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#timeit.Timer.timeit" title="timeit.Timer.timeit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Timer.timeit()</span></code></a>
+repeatedly so that the total run time is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds.
+(Contributed by Steven D’Aprano in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6422">bpo-6422</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/timeit.html#module-timeit" title="timeit: Measure the execution time of small code snippets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timeit</span></code></a> now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance
+between best and worst times.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23552">bpo-23552</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tkinter">
+<h3>tkinter<a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Added methods <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_add()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_remove()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_info()</span></code>
+in the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Variable</span></code> class.  They replace old methods
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_variable()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_vdelete()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace_vinfo()</span></code> that use obsolete Tcl commands and might
+not work in future versions of Tcl.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22115">bpo-22115</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="traceback">
+<span id="whatsnew36-traceback"></span><h3>traceback<a class="headerlink" href="#traceback" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Both the traceback module and the interpreter’s builtin exception display now
+abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as shown in the
+following example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gp">...</span>
+<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">&lt;module&gt;</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">f</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">f</span>
+  File <span class="nb">&quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n">f</span>
+<span class="gr">  [Previous line repeated 995 more times]</span>
+<span class="gr">RecursionError</span>: <span class="n">maximum recursion depth exceeded</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26823">bpo-26823</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tracemalloc">
+<h3>tracemalloc<a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module now supports tracing memory allocations in
+multiple different address spaces.</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.DomainFilter" title="tracemalloc.DomainFilter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DomainFilter</span></code></a> filter class has been added
+to filter block traces by their address space (domain).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26588">bpo-26588</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="typing">
+<span id="whatsnew36-typing"></span><h3>typing<a class="headerlink" href="#typing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Since the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional</span></a>,
+all changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been
+backported to Python 3.5.x.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module has a much improved support for generic type
+aliases.  For example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dict[str,</span> <span class="pre">Tuple[S,</span> <span class="pre">T]]</span></code> is now a valid
+type annotation.
+(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195">Github #195</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.ContextManager" title="typing.ContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.ContextManager</span></code></a> class has been added for
+representing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractContextManager" title="contextlib.AbstractContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.AbstractContextManager</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25609">bpo-25609</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.Collection" title="typing.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.Collection</span></code></a> class has been added for
+representing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc.Collection</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27598">bpo-27598</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.ClassVar" title="typing.ClassVar"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.ClassVar</span></code></a> type construct has been added to
+mark class variables.  As introduced in <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a>, a variable annotation
+wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as
+a class variable and should not be set on instances of that class.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280">Github #280</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.TYPE_CHECKING" title="typing.TYPE_CHECKING"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPE_CHECKING</span></code></a> constant that is assumed to be
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> by the static type checkers, but is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> at runtime.
+(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230">Github #230</a>.)</p>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.NewType" title="typing.NewType"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NewType()</span></code></a> helper function has been added to create
+lightweight distinct types for annotations:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">typing</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">NewType</span>
+
+<span class="n">UserId</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">NewType</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;UserId&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">some_id</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">UserId</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">524313</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
+of the original type.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189">Github #189</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicodedata">
+<h3>unicodedata<a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> module now uses data from <a class="reference external" href="http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/">Unicode 9.0.0</a>.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest-mock">
+<h3>unittest.mock<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest-mock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> class has the following improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Two new methods, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.assert_called()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once" title="unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_once"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.assert_called_once()</span></code></a> to check if the mock object
+was called.
+(Contributed by Amit Saha in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26323">bpo-26323</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock.reset_mock()</span></code></a> method
+now has two optional keyword only arguments: <em>return_value</em> and
+<em>side_effect</em>.
+(Contributed by Kushal Das in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21271">bpo-21271</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib-request">
+<h3>urllib.request<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib-request" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a
+bytes object) but no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length</span></code> header, rather than
+throwing an error, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractHTTPHandler</span></code> now
+falls back to use chunked transfer encoding.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12319">bpo-12319</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib-robotparser">
+<h3>urllib.robotparser<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib-robotparser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser" title="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RobotFileParser</span></code></a> now supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Crawl-delay</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Request-rate</span></code> extensions.
+(Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16099">bpo-16099</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="venv">
+<h3>venv<a class="headerlink" href="#venv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> accepts a new parameter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--prompt</span></code>. This parameter provides an
+alternative prefix for the virtual environment. (Proposed by Łukasz Balcerzak
+and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22829">bpo-22829</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="warnings">
+<h3>warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new optional <em>source</em> parameter has been added to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.warn_explicit" title="warnings.warn_explicit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.warn_explicit()</span></code></a> function: the destroyed object which emitted a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>. A <em>source</em> attribute has also been added to
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.WarningMessage</span></code> (contributed by Victor Stinner in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26568">bpo-26568</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26567">bpo-26567</a>).</p>
+<p>When a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> warning is logged, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module is now
+used to try to retrieve the traceback where the destroyed object was allocated.</p>
+<p>Example with the script <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">example.py</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span>
+
+<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">():</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">()</span>
+<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Output of the command <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3.6</span> <span class="pre">-Wd</span> <span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">tracemalloc=5</span> <span class="pre">example.py</span></code>:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">example</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="ne">ResourceWarning</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">unclosed</span> <span class="n">file</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">_io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TextIOWrapper</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;example.py&#39;</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;r&#39;</span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">&#39;UTF-8&#39;</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
+  <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">None</span>
+<span class="n">Object</span> <span class="n">allocated</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">):</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;example.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lineno</span> <span class="mi">4</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="vm">__file__</span><span class="p">)</span>
+  <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s2">&quot;example.py&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lineno</span> <span class="mi">6</span>
+    <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">()</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>The “Object allocated at” traceback is new and is only displayed if
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> is tracing Python memory allocations and if the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module was already imported.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="winreg">
+<h3>winreg<a class="headerlink" href="#winreg" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Added the 64-bit integer type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/winreg.html#winreg.REG_QWORD" title="winreg.REG_QWORD"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REG_QWORD</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Clement Rouault in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23026">bpo-23026</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="winsound">
+<h3>winsound<a class="headerlink" href="#winsound" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/winsound.html#winsound.Beep" title="winsound.Beep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Beep</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/winsound.html#winsound.MessageBeep" title="winsound.MessageBeep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MessageBeep</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/winsound.html#winsound.PlaySound" title="winsound.PlaySound"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PlaySound</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27982">bpo-27982</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xmlrpc-client">
+<h3>xmlrpc.client<a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client" title="xmlrpc.client: XML-RPC client access."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.client</span></code></a> module now supports unmarshalling
+additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation
+for numerics and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26885">bpo-26885</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipfile">
+<h3>zipfile<a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file" title="zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo.from_file()</span></code></a> class method
+allows making a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance from a filesystem file.
+A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo.is_dir" title="zipfile.ZipInfo.is_dir"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo.is_dir()</span></code></a> method can be used
+to check if the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipInfo" title="zipfile.ZipInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipInfo</span></code></a> instance represents a directory.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26039">bpo-26039</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.open" title="zipfile.ZipFile.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile.open()</span></code></a> method can now be used to
+write data into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.
+(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26039">bpo-26039</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zlib">
+<h3>zlib<a class="headerlink" href="#zlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#zlib.compress" title="zlib.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> functions now accept
+keyword arguments.
+(Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26243">bpo-26243</a> and
+Xiang Zhang in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16764">bpo-16764</a> respectively.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<h2>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode which
+made a number of opcode optimizations possible.
+(Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
+Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26647">bpo-26647</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28050">bpo-28050</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> class now has an optimized C implementation.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26081">bpo-26081</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task</span></code></a> class now has an optimized
+C implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28544">bpo-28544</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Various implementation improvements in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module
+(such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times performance
+improvements and reduced memory footprint.</p></li>
+<li><p>The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> (Contributed
+by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24870">bpo-24870</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for the
+error handler <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25227">bpo-25227</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogatepass</span></code> (Contributed
+by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25267">bpo-25267</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> (Contributed
+by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25301">bpo-25301</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">args</span></code> is now up to 2 times faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25349">bpo-25349</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">args</span></code> is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster. (Contributed by
+Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25399">bpo-25399</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Optimize <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.fromhex" title="bytes.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.fromhex()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.fromhex" title="bytearray.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.fromhex()</span></code></a>: they are now
+between 2x and 3.5x faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25401">bpo-25401</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Optimize <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.replace(b'',</span> <span class="pre">b'.')</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.replace(b'',</span> <span class="pre">b'.')</span></code>:
+up to 80% faster. (Contributed by Josh Snider in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26574">bpo-26574</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Allocator functions of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> domain
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a>) now use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc memory allocator</span></a> instead of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> function of the C library. The
+pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to 512 bytes
+with a short lifetime, and use <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> for larger memory blocks.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26249">bpo-26249</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.load" title="pickle.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.load()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.loads" title="pickle.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.loads()</span></code></a> are now up to 10% faster when
+deserializing many small objects (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27056">bpo-27056</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Passing <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-keyword-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">keyword arguments</span></a> to a function has an
+overhead in comparison with passing <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-positional-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">positional arguments</span></a>.  Now in extension functions implemented with using
+Argument Clinic this overhead is significantly decreased.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27574">bpo-27574</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Optimized <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#glob.glob" title="glob.glob"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#glob.iglob" title="glob.iglob"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">iglob()</span></code></a> functions in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/glob.html#module-glob" title="glob: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">glob</span></code></a> module; they are now about 3–6 times faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25596">bpo-25596</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p>Optimized globbing in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#module-pathlib" title="pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code></a> by using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a>;
+it is now about 1.5–4 times faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26032">bpo-26032</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> parsing, iteration and deepcopy performance
+has been significantly improved.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25638">bpo-25638</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25873">bpo-25873</a>,
+and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25869">bpo-25869</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Creation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> instances from floats and
+decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25971">bpo-25971</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes">
+<h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build.
+Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in
+place of custom macros like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PY_LONG_LONG</span></code>.
+For more information, see <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0007"><strong>PEP 7</strong></a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17884">bpo-17884</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API level set to
+21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs successfully. While Android is not
+yet a supported platform, the Python test suite runs on the Android emulator
+with only about 16 tests failures. See the Android meta-issue <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26865">bpo-26865</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-optimizations</span></code> configure flag has been added. Turning it on
+will activate expensive optimizations like PGO.
+(Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26359">bpo-26359</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> must now be held when allocator
+functions of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ</span></code></a> (ex: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a>) and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a> (ex: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a>) domains are called.</p></li>
+<li><p>New <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> API which indicates if flushing buffered data
+failed.
+(Contributed by Martin Panter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5319">bpo-5319</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#positional-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">positional-only
+parameters</span></a>.  Positional-only parameters are
+defined by empty names.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26282">bpo-26282</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTraceback_Print</span></code> method now abbreviates long sequences of repeated lines
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;[Previous</span> <span class="pre">line</span> <span class="pre">repeated</span> <span class="pre">{count}</span> <span class="pre">more</span> <span class="pre">times]&quot;</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26823">bpo-26823</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass" title="PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass()</span></code></a> function allows for
+specifying a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> to raise.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15767">bpo-15767</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_ResourceWarning" title="PyErr_ResourceWarning"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_ResourceWarning()</span></code></a> function can be used to generate
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> providing the source of the resource allocation.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26567">bpo-26567</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_FSPath" title="PyOS_FSPath"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_FSPath()</span></code></a> function returns the file system
+representation of a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FSConverter" title="PyUnicode_FSConverter"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FSConverter()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FSDecoder" title="PyUnicode_FSDecoder"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FSDecoder()</span></code></a>
+functions will now accept <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like objects</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-improvements">
+<h2>Other Improvements<a class="headerlink" href="#other-improvements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>When <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-version"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--version</span></code></a> (short form: <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-v"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-V</span></code></a>) is supplied twice,
+Python prints <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version" title="sys.version"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code></a> for detailed information.</p>
+<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> ./python -VV
+<span class="go">Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)</span>
+<span class="go">[GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated">
+<h2>Deprecated<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="new-keywords">
+<h3>New Keywords<a class="headerlink" href="#new-keywords" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
+function or module names.  Introduced by <span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492"><strong>PEP 492</strong></a> in Python 3.5, they will
+become proper keywords in Python 3.7.  Starting in Python 3.6, the use of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> as names will generate a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-python-behavior">
+<h3>Deprecated Python behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-python-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Raising the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exception inside a generator will now
+generate a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>, and will trigger a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>
+in Python 3.7.  See <a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#whatsnew-pep-479"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators</span></a> for details.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aiter__" title="object.__aiter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aiter__()</span></code></a> method is now expected to return an asynchronous
+iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as previously.
+Doing the former will trigger a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.  Backward
+compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27243">bpo-27243</a>.)</p>
+<p>A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.  Although this will eventually become a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>, that will not be for several Python releases.
+(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27364">bpo-27364</a>.)</p>
+<p>When performing a relative import, falling back on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> from the calling module when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> are not defined now raises an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportWarning" title="ImportWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportWarning</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Rose Ames in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25791">bpo-25791</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">
+<h3>Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<div class="section" id="asynchat">
+<h4>asynchat<a class="headerlink" href="#asynchat" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asynchat.html#module-asynchat" title="asynchat: Support for asynchronous command/response protocols."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat</span></code></a> has been deprecated in favor of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Mariatta in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25002">bpo-25002</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asyncore">
+<h4>asyncore<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#module-asyncore" title="asyncore: A base class for developing asynchronous socket handling services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore</span></code></a> has been deprecated in favor of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Mariatta in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25002">bpo-25002</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dbm">
+<h4>dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#dbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Unlike other <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix &quot;database&quot; formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a> implementations, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> module
+creates databases with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rw'</span></code> mode and allows modifying the database
+opened with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> mode.  This behavior is now deprecated and will
+be removed in 3.8.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21708">bpo-21708</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id2">
+<h4>distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The undocumented <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extra_path</span></code> argument to the
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Distribution</span></code> constructor is now considered deprecated
+and will raise a warning if set.   Support for this parameter will be
+removed in a future Python release.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27919">bpo-27919</a> for details.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="grp">
+<h4>grp<a class="headerlink" href="#grp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The support of non-integer arguments in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/grp.html#grp.getgrgid" title="grp.getgrgid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgrgid()</span></code></a> has been
+deprecated.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26129">bpo-26129</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id3">
+<h4>importlib<a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module" title="importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module" title="importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module()</span></code></a> methods
+are now deprecated. They were the only remaining implementations of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.load_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.load_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()</span></code></a> in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> that had not
+been deprecated in previous versions of Python in favour of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder" title="importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder</span></code></a> class is now
+deprecated. As of 3.6.0, it is still added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.meta_path" title="sys.meta_path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.meta_path</span></code></a> by
+default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id4">
+<h4>os<a class="headerlink" href="#id4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Undocumented support of general <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">bytes-like objects</span></a>
+as paths in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> functions, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compile()</span></code></a> and similar functions is
+now deprecated.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25791">bpo-25791</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26754">bpo-26754</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id5">
+<h4>re<a class="headerlink" href="#id5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>Support for inline flags <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?letters)</span></code> in the middle of the regular
+expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python
+version.  Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22493">bpo-22493</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id6">
+<h4>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#id6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
+In the future the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module will require at least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or
+1.1.0.</p>
+<p>SSL-related arguments like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">certfile</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keyfile</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_hostname</span></code>
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#module-imaplib" title="imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#module-poplib" title="poplib: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poplib</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> have been deprecated in favor of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">context</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28022">bpo-28022</a>.)</p>
+<p>A couple of protocols and functions of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module are now
+deprecated. Some features will no longer be available in future versions
+of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a different API.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28022">bpo-28022</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26470">bpo-26470</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id7">
+<h4>tkinter<a class="headerlink" href="#id7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.tix.html#module-tkinter.tix" title="tkinter.tix: Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.tix</span></code></a> module is now deprecated.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> users
+should use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id8">
+<h4>venv<a class="headerlink" href="#id8" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> script has been deprecated in favour of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">venv</span></code>.
+This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code> is
+connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the virtual
+environment.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25154">bpo-25154</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">
+<h3>Deprecated functions and types of the C API<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Undocumented functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()</span></code>,
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()</span></code>, <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()</span></code>
+and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()</span></code> are deprecated now.
+Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/codec.html#codec-registry"><span class="std std-ref">generic codec based API</span></a> instead.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-build-options">
+<h3>Deprecated Build Options<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-build-options" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-system-ffi</span></code> configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS
+UNIX platforms.  It may be disabled by using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-system-ffi</span></code>, but
+using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7.
+macOS is unaffected by this change.  Note that many OS distributors already
+use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-system-ffi</span></code> flag when building their system Python.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removed">
+<h2>Removed<a class="headerlink" href="#removed" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="api-and-feature-removals">
+<h3>API and Feature Removals<a class="headerlink" href="#api-and-feature-removals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Unknown escapes consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter in
+regular expressions will now cause an error.  In replacement templates for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> they are still allowed, but deprecated.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code></a> flag can now only be used with binary patterns.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getmoduleinfo()</span></code> was removed (was deprecated since CPython 3.3).
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getmodulename" title="inspect.getmodulename"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getmodulename()</span></code></a> should be used for obtaining the module
+name for a given path.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13248">bpo-13248</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.Ignore</span></code> class and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.usage</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.modname</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.fullmodname</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.find_lines_from_code</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.find_lines</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.find_strings</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback.find_executable_lines</span></code> methods were removed from the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#module-traceback" title="traceback: Print or retrieve a stack traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code></a> module. They were undocumented methods deprecated since
+Python 3.2 and equivalent functionality is available from private methods.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tk_menuBar()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tk_bindForTraversal()</span></code> dummy methods in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a> widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk commands
+were obsolete since Tk 4.0).</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.open" title="zipfile.ZipFile.open"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> method of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile.ZipFile</span></code></a>
+class no longer supports the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code> mode (was deprecated since Python 3.4).
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a> for reading compressed text files in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines"><span class="xref std std-term">universal newlines</span></a> mode.</p></li>
+<li><p>The undocumented <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDROM</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DLFCN</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TYPES</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CDIO</span></code>, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STROPTS</span></code> modules have been removed.  They had been available in the
+platform specific <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/plat-*/</span></code> directories, but were chronically out of
+date, inconsistently available across platforms, and unmaintained.  The
+script that created these modules is still available in the source
+distribution at <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Tools/scripts/h2py.py">Tools/scripts/h2py.py</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The deprecated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynchat.fifo</span></code> class has been removed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-6">
+<h2>Porting to Python 3.6<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.</p>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-python-command-behavior">
+<h3>Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-python-command-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The output of a special Python build with defined <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COUNT_ALLOCS</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SHOW_TRACK_COUNT</span></code> macros is now off by
+default.  It can be re-enabled using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">showalloccount</span></code> option.
+It now outputs to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23034">bpo-23034</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-python-api">
+<h3>Changes in the Python API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-python-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code></a> will no longer allow combining the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'U'</span></code> mode flag
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'+'</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O’Connor in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2091">bpo-2091</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> no longer implicitly commits an open transaction before DDL
+statements.</p></li>
+<li><p>On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool
+is initialized to increase the security.</p></li>
+<li><p>When <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module()</span></code></a> is defined,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader.create_module" title="importlib.abc.Loader.create_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader.create_module()</span></code></a> must also be defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_SetImportError" title="PyErr_SetImportError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_SetImportError()</span></code></a> now sets <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> when its <strong>msg</strong>
+argument is not set. Previously only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> was returned.</p></li>
+<li><p>The format of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code> attribute of code objects changed to support
+a negative line number delta. By default, Python does not emit bytecode with
+a negative line number delta. Functions using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frame.f_lineno</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyFrame_GetLineNumber()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCode_Addr2Line()</span></code> are not affected.
+Functions directly decoding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code> should be updated to use a signed
+8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is only required to
+support applications using a negative line number delta. See
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Objects/lnotab_notes.txt</span></code> for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code> format and how to decode
+it, and see the <span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0511"><strong>PEP 511</strong></a> for the rationale.</p></li>
+<li><p>The functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> module now return booleans instead
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> to represent success or failure, respectively. Thanks to
+booleans being a subclass of integers, this should only be an issue if you
+were doing identity checks for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>. See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25768">bpo-25768</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Reading the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">port</span></code> attribute of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlsplit()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a> results
+now raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> for out-of-range values, rather than
+returning <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a>.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20059">bpo-20059</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The following modules have had missing APIs added to their <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code>
+attributes to match the documented APIs:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/calendar.html#module-calendar" title="calendar: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calendar</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/cgi.html#module-cgi" title="cgi: Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common Gateway Interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ElementTree</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#module-enum" title="enum: Implementation of an enumeration class."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enum</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/fileinput.html#module-fileinput" title="fileinput: Loop over standard input or a list of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#module-ftplib" title="ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/mimetypes.html#module-mimetypes" title="mimetypes: Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mimetypes</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib" title="plistlib: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#module-smtpd" title="smtpd: A SMTP server implementation in Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a>.  This means they will export new symbols when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>
+is used.
+(Contributed by Joel Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23883">bpo-23883</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When performing a relative import, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__package__</span></code> does not compare equal
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.parent</span></code> then <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportWarning" title="ImportWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportWarning</span></code></a> is raised.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25791">bpo-25791</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known, then
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> will be raised. Previously, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> could be
+raised. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18018">bpo-18018</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Servers based on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a> module, including those
+defined in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xmlrpc.server.html#module-xmlrpc.server" title="xmlrpc.server: Basic XML-RPC server implementations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xmlrpc.server</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref.simple_server" title="wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.simple_server</span></code></a>, now only catch exceptions derived
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#Exception" title="Exception"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Exception</span></code></a>. Therefore if a request handler raises
+an exception like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error" title="socketserver.BaseServer.handle_error"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_error()</span></code></a> is no longer called, and
+the exception will stop a single-threaded server. (Contributed by
+Martin Panter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23430">bpo-23430</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/spwd.html#spwd.getspnam" title="spwd.getspnam"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spwd.getspnam()</span></code></a> now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PermissionError" title="PermissionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PermissionError</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> if the user doesn’t have privileges.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.close" title="socket.socket.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.close()</span></code></a> method now raises an exception if
+an error (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">EBADF</span></code>) was reported by the underlying system call.
+(Contributed by Martin Panter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26685">bpo-26685</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>decode_data</em> argument for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPChannel" title="smtpd.SMTPChannel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd.SMTPChannel</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer" title="smtpd.SMTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtpd.SMTPServer</span></code></a> constructors is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> by default.
+This means that the argument passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtpd.html#smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message" title="smtpd.SMTPServer.process_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message()</span></code></a> is now a bytes object by
+default, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_message()</span></code> will be passed keyword arguments.
+Code that has already been updated in accordance with the deprecation
+warning generated by 3.5 will not be affected.</p></li>
+<li><p>All optional arguments of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.dump" title="json.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dump()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.dumps" title="json.dumps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dumps()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.load" title="json.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.loads" title="json.loads"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loads()</span></code></a> functions and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.JSONEncoder" title="json.JSONEncoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONEncoder</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#json.JSONDecoder" title="json.JSONDecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">JSONDecoder</span></code></a> class
+constructors in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a> module are now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">keyword-only</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18726">bpo-18726</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Subclasses of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> which don’t override <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> may no
+longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object.</p></li>
+<li><p>As part of <span class="target" id="index-37"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0487"><strong>PEP 487</strong></a>, the handling of keyword arguments passed to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> (other than the metaclass hint, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">metaclass</span></code>) is now
+consistently delegated to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init_subclass__" title="object.__init_subclass__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__init_subclass__()</span></code></a>. This means that
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__init__()</span></code> both now accept arbitrary
+keyword arguments, but <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init_subclass__" title="object.__init_subclass__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__init_subclass__()</span></code></a> (which is called from
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__()</span></code>) will reject them by default. Custom metaclasses
+accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their calls to
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__()</span></code> (whether direct or via <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super</span></code></a>) accordingly.</p></li>
+<li><p>In <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.command.sdist.sdist</span></code>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default_format</span></code>
+attribute has been removed and is no longer honored. Instead, the
+gzipped tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no
+platform-specific selection is made.
+In environments where distributions are
+built on Windows and zip distributions are required, configure
+the project with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.cfg</span></code> file containing the following:</p>
+<div class="highlight-ini notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">[sdist]</span>
+<span class="na">formats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">zip</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions
+by Setuptools 26.0.0.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>In the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> module and the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.request" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPConnection.request()</span></code></a> method, if no Content-Length
+header field has been specified and the request body is a file object,
+it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding. If a file object has to
+be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the Content-Length value now has to be
+specified by the caller.
+(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from
+Martin Panter in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12319">bpo-12319</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.DictReader" title="csv.DictReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DictReader</span></code></a> now returns rows of type
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Steve Holden in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27842">bpo-27842</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/crypt.html#crypt.METHOD_CRYPT" title="crypt.METHOD_CRYPT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt.METHOD_CRYPT</span></code></a> will no longer be added to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt.methods</span></code>
+if unsupported by the platform.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25287">bpo-25287</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>verbose</em> and <em>rename</em> arguments for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">namedtuple()</span></code></a> are now keyword-only.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25628">bpo-25628</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes.util.find_library" title="ctypes.util.find_library"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.util.find_library()</span></code></a> now looks in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LD_LIBRARY_PATH</span></code> for shared libraries.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9998">bpo-9998</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib.IMAP4</span></code></a> class now handles flags containing the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">']'</span></code> character in messages sent from the server to improve
+real-world compatibility.
+(Contributed by Lita Cho in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21815">bpo-21815</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.write()</span></code> function now returns the number
+of bytes written like other write methods.
+(Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26335">bpo-26335</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.iter_modules" title="pkgutil.iter_modules"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil.iter_modules()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.walk_packages" title="pkgutil.walk_packages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil.walk_packages()</span></code></a>
+functions now return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.ModuleInfo" title="pkgutil.ModuleInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleInfo</span></code></a> named tuples.
+(Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17211">bpo-17211</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> now raises an error for invalid numerical group
+references in replacement templates even if the pattern is not
+found in the string.  The error message for invalid group references
+now includes the group index and the position of the reference.
+(Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25953">bpo-25953</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile.ZipFile</span></code></a> will now raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NotImplementedError" title="NotImplementedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code></a> for
+unrecognized compression values.  Previously a plain <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>
+was raised.  Additionally, calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> methods
+on a closed ZipFile or calling the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile.write" title="zipfile.ZipFile.write"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code></a> method
+on a ZipFile created with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a>.
+Previously, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> was raised in those scenarios.</p></li>
+<li><p>when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code></a> or
+direct references from methods to the implicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class__</span></code> closure
+variable, the implicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__classcell__</span></code> namespace entry must now be passed
+up to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> for initialisation. Failing to do so will result in
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> in Python 3.6 and a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> in
+Python 3.8.</p></li>
+<li><p>With the introduction of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a>, import system consumers
+may start expecting import system replacements to raise that more specific
+exception when appropriate, rather than the less-specific <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>.
+To provide future compatibility with such consumers, implementors of
+alternative import systems that completely replace <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> will
+need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass when a module
+can’t be found at all. Implementors of compliant plugins to the default
+import system shouldn’t need to make any changes, as the default import
+system will raise the new subclass when appropriate.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-c-api">
+<h3>Changes in the C API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> allocator family now uses the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc allocator</span></a> rather than the system <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>. Applications calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> without holding the GIL can now crash. Set the
+<span class="target" id="index-38"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug</span></code> to validate the
+usage of memory allocators in your application. See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26249">bpo-26249</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.Py_Exit" title="Py_Exit"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Exit()</span></code></a> (and the main interpreter) now override the exit status
+with 120 if flushing buffered data failed.  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5319">bpo-5319</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cpython-bytecode-changes">
+<h3>CPython bytecode changes<a class="headerlink" href="#cpython-bytecode-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There have been several major changes to the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode"><span class="xref std std-term">bytecode</span></a> in Python 3.6.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode.
+(Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
+Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26647">bpo-26647</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28050">bpo-28050</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-FORMAT_VALUE"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORMAT_VALUE</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_STRING"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_STRING</span></code></a> opcodes as part
+of the  <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew36-pep498"><span class="std std-ref">formatted string literal</span></a> implementation.
+(Contributed by Eric Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25483">bpo-25483</a> and
+Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27078">bpo-27078</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP</span></code></a> opcode to optimize the creation
+of dictionaries with constant keys.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27140">bpo-27140</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better performance
+and simpler implementation.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-MAKE_FUNCTION"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAKE_FUNCTION</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_KW"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION_KW</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL</span></code></a> opcodes
+have been modified, the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_EX"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION_EX</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL</span></code></a> have been added, and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION_VAR</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MAKE_CLOSURE</span></code> opcodes
+have been removed.
+(Contributed by Demur Rumed in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27095">bpo-27095</a>, and Serhiy Storchaka in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27213">bpo-27213</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28257">bpo-28257</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-SETUP_ANNOTATIONS"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SETUP_ANNOTATIONS</span></code></a> and <code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_ANNOTATION</span></code> opcodes
+have been added to support the new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-variable-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">variable annotation</span></a> syntax.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27985">bpo-27985</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-changes-in-python-3-6-2">
+<h2>Notable changes in Python 3.6.2<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="new-make-regen-all-build-target">
+<h3>New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target<a class="headerlink" href="#new-make-regen-all-build-target" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be
+compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be
+available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly
+recompile generated files based on file modification times.</p>
+<p>Instead, a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> command has been added to force regeneration
+of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has
+already been built based on the pregenerated versions).</p>
+<p>More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Makefile.pre.in">Makefile.pre.in</a> for details.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionadded">
+<p><span class="versionmodified added">New in version 3.6.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="removal-of-make-touch-build-target">
+<h3>Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target<a class="headerlink" href="#removal-of-make-touch-build-target" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target previously used to request implicit regeneration
+of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.</p>
+<p>It has been replaced by the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> target.</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>.)</p>
+<div class="versionchanged">
+<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.6.2.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-changes-in-python-3-6-4">
+<h2>Notable changes in Python 3.6.4<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RecursionErrorInst</span></code> singleton that was part of the public API
+has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
+during finalization of the interpreter.
+(Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22898">bpo-22898</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30697">bpo-30697</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-changes-in-python-3-6-5">
+<h2>Notable changes in Python 3.6.5<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.localeconv" title="locale.localeconv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.localeconv()</span></code></a> function now sets temporarily the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code>
+locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale in some cases.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31900">bpo-31900</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-changes-in-python-3-6-7">
+<h2>Notable changes in Python 3.6.7<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In 3.6.7 the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tokenize.html#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> module now implicitly emits a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NEWLINE</span></code> token
+when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This behavior
+now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
+(Contributed by Ammar Askar in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33899">bpo-33899</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.6</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-498-formatted-string-literals">PEP 498: Formatted string literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-526-syntax-for-variable-annotations">PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-515-underscores-in-numeric-literals">PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-525-asynchronous-generators">PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-530-asynchronous-comprehensions">PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-487-simpler-customization-of-class-creation">PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-487-descriptor-protocol-enhancements">PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-519-adding-a-file-system-path-protocol">PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-495-local-time-disambiguation">PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-529-change-windows-filesystem-encoding-to-utf-8">PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-528-change-windows-console-encoding-to-utf-8">PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-520-preserving-class-attribute-definition-order">PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-468-preserving-keyword-argument-order">PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-dict-implementation">New <span class="xref std std-ref">dict</span> implementation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-523-adding-a-frame-evaluation-api-to-cpython">PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pythonmalloc-environment-variable">PYTHONMALLOC environment variable</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dtrace-and-systemtap-probing-support">DTrace and SystemTap probing support</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#secrets">secrets</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#array">array</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ast">ast</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio">asyncio</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binascii">binascii</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cmath">cmath</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent-futures">concurrent.futures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime">datetime</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal">decimal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils">distutils</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#email">email</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#encodings">encodings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum">enum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#faulthandler">faulthandler</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fileinput">fileinput</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib">hashlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http-client">http.client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idlelib-and-idle">idlelib and IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib">importlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect">inspect</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#json">json</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#math">math</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#os">os</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib">pathlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickle">pickle</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickletools">pickletools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#random">random</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#re">re</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#readline">readline</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#rlcompleter">rlcompleter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#shlex">shlex</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#site">site</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver">socketserver</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#statistics">statistics</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#struct">struct</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#telnetlib">telnetlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#time">time</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#timeit">timeit</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter">tkinter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#traceback">traceback</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc">tracemalloc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#typing">typing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicodedata">unicodedata</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest-mock">unittest.mock</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib-request">urllib.request</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib-robotparser">urllib.robotparser</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#venv">venv</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#warnings">warnings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#winreg">winreg</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#winsound">winsound</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc-client">xmlrpc.client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zlib">zlib</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-improvements">Other Improvements</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated">Deprecated</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-keywords">New Keywords</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-python-behavior">Deprecated Python behavior</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asynchat">asynchat</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore">asyncore</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2">distutils</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#grp">grp</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3">importlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id4">os</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id5">re</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id6">ssl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id7">tkinter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id8">venv</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">Deprecated functions and types of the C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-build-options">Deprecated Build Options</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removed">Removed</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-6">Porting to Python 3.6</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-python-command-behavior">Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cpython-bytecode-changes">CPython bytecode changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-2">Notable changes in Python 3.6.2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-make-regen-all-build-target">New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> build target</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#removal-of-make-touch-build-target">Removal of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> build target</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-4">Notable changes in Python 3.6.4</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-5">Notable changes in Python 3.6.5</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-7">Notable changes in Python 3.6.7</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.7.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.7</a></p>
+  <h4>Next topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="3.5.html"
+                        title="next chapter">What’s New In Python 3.5</a></p>
+  <div role="note" aria-label="source link">
+    <h3>This Page</h3>
+    <ul class="this-page-menu">
+      <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li>
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+        <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.7/Doc/whatsnew/3.6.rst"
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+        </a>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-7">
+<h1>What’s New In Python 3.7<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<dl class="field-list simple">
+<dt class="field-odd">Editor</dt>
+<dd class="field-odd"><p>Elvis Pranskevichus &lt;<a class="reference external" href="mailto:elvis&#37;&#52;&#48;magic&#46;io">elvis<span>&#64;</span>magic<span>&#46;</span>io</a>&gt;</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+<p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6.
+Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018.
+For full details, see the <a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#changelog"><span class="std std-ref">changelog</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="section" id="summary-release-highlights">
+<h2>Summary – Release Highlights<a class="headerlink" href="#summary-release-highlights" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>New syntax features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep563"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 563</span></a>, postponed evaluation of type annotations.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Backwards incompatible syntax changes:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> are now reserved keywords.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New library modules:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep567"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 567 – Context Variables</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dataclasses.html#module-dataclasses" title="dataclasses: Generate special methods on user-defined classes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses</span></code></a>: <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep557"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 557 – Data Classes</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-importlib-resources"><span class="std std-ref">importlib.resources</span></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New built-in features:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep553"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 553</span></a>, the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a> function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Python data model improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep562"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 562</span></a>, customization of access to
+module attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep560"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 560</span></a>, core support for typing module and
+generic types.</p></li>
+<li><p>the insertion-order preservation nature of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#typesmapping"><span class="std std-ref">dict</span></a>
+objects <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html">has been declared</a> to be an official
+part of the Python language spec.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Significant improvements in the standard library:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module has received new features, significant
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-asyncio"><span class="std std-ref">usability and performance improvements</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module gained support for
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep564"><span class="std std-ref">functions with nanosecond resolution</span></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>CPython implementation improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep538"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 538</span></a>, legacy C locale coercion</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep540"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 540</span></a>, forced UTF-8 runtime mode</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep552"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 552</span></a>, deterministic .pycs</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-devmode"><span class="std std-ref">the new development runtime mode</span></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep565"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 565</span></a>, improved <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>
+handling</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>C API improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep539"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 539</span></a>, new C API for thread-local storage</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Documentation improvements:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep545"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 545</span></a>, Python documentation translations</p></li>
+<li><p>New documentation translations: <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/ja/">Japanese</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/fr/">French</a>, and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/ko/">Korean</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>This release features notable performance improvements in many areas.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-perf"><span class="std std-ref">Optimizations</span></a> section lists them in detail.</p>
+<p>For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python
+releases please refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-37"><span class="std std-ref">Porting to Python 3.7</span></a> section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-features">
+<h2>New Features<a class="headerlink" href="#new-features" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="pep-563-postponed-evaluation-of-annotations">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep563"></span><h3>PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-563-postponed-evaluation-of-annotations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability issues
+with the functionality of annotations added in <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107"><strong>PEP 3107</strong></a> and refined
+further in <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526"><strong>PEP 526</strong></a>:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>annotations could only use names which were already available in the
+current scope, in other words they didn’t support forward references
+of any kind; and</p></li>
+<li><p>annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of Python
+programs.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of
+annotations.  Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in
+annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation
+in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question.
+If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.get_type_hints" title="typing.get_type_hints"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.get_type_hints()</span></code></a>.  In the common case where this is not
+required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings
+are interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster.</p>
+<p>Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the
+following syntax valid:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="nd">@classmethod</span>
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">from_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">source</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="n">C</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+    <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">validate_b</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">B</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">-&gt;</span> <span class="nb">bool</span><span class="p">:</span>
+        <span class="o">...</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">B</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="o">...</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be enabled
+on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__future__</span></code></a> import:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">annotations</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>It will become the default in Python 4.0.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0563"><strong>PEP 563</strong></a> – Postponed evaluation of annotations</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-538-legacy-c-locale-coercion">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep538"></span><h3>PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-538-legacy-c-locale-coercion" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a sensible
+default strategy for handling the “7-bit ASCII” text encoding assumption
+currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale on non-Windows
+platforms.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0538"><strong>PEP 538</strong></a> updates the default interpreter command line interface to
+automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as
+described in the documentation of the new <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE</span></code></a>
+environment variable. Automatically setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> this way means that
+both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code></a>) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding,
+rather than ASCII.</p>
+<p>The platform support definition in <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0011"><strong>PEP 11</strong></a> has also been updated to limit
+full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based locales.</p>
+<p>As part of this change, the default error handler for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code></a> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> (rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict</span></code>) when
+using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.UTF-8</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.utf8</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code>).  The default error handler for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code></a>
+continues to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backslashreplace</span></code>, regardless of locale.</p>
+<p>Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging potentially
+locale related integration problems, explicit warnings (emitted directly on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code></a>) can be requested by setting <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn</span></code>.
+This setting will also cause the Python runtime to emit a warning if the
+legacy C locale remains active when the core interpreter is initialized.</p>
+<p>While <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0538"><strong>PEP 538</strong></a>’s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting extension
+modules (such as GNU <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code>), as well as child processes (including those
+running non-Python applications and older versions of Python), it has the
+downside of requiring that a suitable target locale be present on the running
+system. To better handle the case where no suitable target locale is available
+(as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for example), Python 3.7 also implements
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep540"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode</span></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0538"><strong>PEP 538</strong></a> – Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-540-forced-utf-8-runtime-mode">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep540"></span><h3>PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-540-forced-utf-8-runtime-mode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf8</span></code> command line option and <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONUTF8"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONUTF8</span></code></a>
+environment variable can be used to enable the CPython <em>UTF-8 mode</em>.</p>
+<p>When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the
+UTF-8 encoding by default.  The error handlers for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> streams are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior in
+an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings of
+an embedding application.</p>
+<p>While <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0540"><strong>PEP 540</strong></a>’s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of which
+locales are available on the running system, it has the downside of having no
+effect on extension modules (such as GNU <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readline</span></code>), child processes running
+non-Python applications, and child processes running older versions of Python.
+To reduce the risk of corrupting text data when communicating with such
+components, Python 3.7 also implements <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep540"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode</span></a>).</p>
+<p>The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POSIX</span></code>, and
+the <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0538"><strong>PEP 538</strong></a> locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8 based
+alternative (whether that failure is due to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0</span></code> being set,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_ALL</span></code> being set, or the lack of a suitable target locale).</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0540"><strong>PEP 540</strong></a> – Add a new UTF-8 mode</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-553-built-in-breakpoint">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep553"></span><h3>PEP 553: Built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#pep-553-built-in-breakpoint" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3.7 includes the new built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a> function as
+an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger.</p>
+<p>Built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code> calls <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.breakpointhook" title="sys.breakpointhook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code></a>.  By default, the
+latter imports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> and then calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code>, but by binding
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code> to the function of your choosing, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code> can
+enter any debugger. Additionally, the environment variable
+<span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONBREAKPOINT</span></code></a> can be set to the callable of your debugger of
+choice.  Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0</span></code> to completely disable built-in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0553"><strong>PEP 553</strong></a> – Built-in breakpoint()</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Barry Warsaw</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-539-new-c-api-for-thread-local-storage">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep539"></span><h3>PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-539-new-c-api-for-thread-local-storage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the existing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#thread-local-storage-api"><span class="std std-ref">Thread Local Storage (TLS) API</span></a> has used
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> to represent TLS keys across all platforms.  This has not
+generally been a problem for officially-support platforms, but that is neither
+POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0539"><strong>PEP 539</strong></a> changes this by providing a new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#thread-specific-storage-api"><span class="std std-ref">Thread Specific Storage (TSS)
+API</span></a> to CPython which supersedes use of the
+existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing
+API.  The TSS API uses a new type <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_tss_t" title="Py_tss_t"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_tss_t</span></code></a> instead of <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>
+to represent TSS keys–an opaque type the definition of which may depend on
+the underlying TLS implementation.  Therefore, this will allow to build CPython
+on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely
+cast to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot
+be safely cast to <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>, all functions of the existing TLS API will be
+no-op and immediately return failure. This indicates clearly that the old API
+is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used reliably, and that no
+effort will be made to add such support.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0539"><strong>PEP 539</strong></a> – A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython</dt><dd><p>PEP written by Erik M. Bray; implementation by Masayuki Yamamoto.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-562-customization-of-access-to-module-attributes">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep562"></span><h3>PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-562-customization-of-access-to-module-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python 3.7 allows defining <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> on modules and will call
+it whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found.  Defining
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__dir__" title="object.__dir__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__()</span></code></a> on modules is now also allowed.</p>
+<p>A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute deprecation
+and lazy loading.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0562"><strong>PEP 562</strong></a> – Module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code></dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-564-new-time-functions-with-nanosecond-resolution">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep564"></span><h3>PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-564-new-time-functions-with-nanosecond-resolution" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited precision
+of a floating point number returned by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> function
+and its variants.  To avoid loss of precision, <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0564"><strong>PEP 564</strong></a> adds six new
+“nanosecond” variants of the existing timer functions to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a>
+module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_gettime_ns" title="time.clock_gettime_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.clock_gettime_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_settime_ns" title="time.clock_settime_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.clock_settime_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.monotonic_ns" title="time.monotonic_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.monotonic_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.perf_counter_ns" title="time.perf_counter_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.process_time_ns" title="time.process_time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.process_time_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time_ns" title="time.time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value.</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python">Measurements</a>
+show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time_ns" title="time.time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time_ns()</span></code></a> is
+approximately 3 times better than that of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0564"><strong>PEP 564</strong></a> – Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-565-show-deprecationwarning-in-main">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep565"></span><h3>PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code><a class="headerlink" href="#pep-565-show-deprecationwarning-in-main" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The default handling of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> has been changed such that
+these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when the code
+triggering them is running directly in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module.  As a result,
+developers of single file scripts and those using Python interactively should
+once again start seeing deprecation warnings for the APIs they use, but
+deprecation warnings triggered by imported application, library and framework
+modules will continue to be hidden by default.</p>
+<p>As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers to choose
+between three different deprecation warning behaviours:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a>: always displayed by default, recommended for warnings
+intended to be seen by application end users (e.g. for deprecated application
+configuration settings).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>: displayed by default only in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> and when
+running tests, recommended for warnings intended to be seen by other Python
+developers where a version upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an
+error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>: displayed by default only when running
+tests, intended for cases where a future version upgrade will change the
+warning category to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Previously both <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a>
+were only visible when running tests, which meant that developers primarily
+writing single file scripts or using Python interactively could be surprised
+by breaking changes in the APIs they used.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0565"><strong>PEP 565</strong></a> – Show DeprecationWarning in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-560-core-support-for-typing-module-and-generic-types">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep560"></span><h3>PEP 560: Core Support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module and Generic Types<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-560-core-support-for-typing-module-and-generic-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Initially <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484"><strong>PEP 484</strong></a> was designed in such way that it would not introduce <em>any</em>
+changes to the core CPython interpreter. Now type hints and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a>
+module are extensively used by the community, so this restriction is removed.
+The PEP introduces two special methods <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__class_getitem__" title="object.__class_getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class_getitem__()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro_entries__</span></code>, these methods are now used by most classes and special
+constructs in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a>. As a result, the speed of various operations
+with types increased up to 7 times, the generic types can be used without
+metaclass conflicts, and several long standing bugs in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> module are
+fixed.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560"><strong>PEP 560</strong></a> – Core support for typing module and generic types</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-552-hash-based-pyc-files">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep552"></span><h3>PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-552-hash-based-pyc-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache files
+(i.e., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files) by comparing the source metadata (last-modified timestamp
+and size) with source metadata saved in the cache file header when it was
+generated. While effective, this invalidation method has its drawbacks.  When
+filesystem timestamps are too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to
+user confusion. Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is
+problematic for <a class="reference external" href="https://reproducible-builds.org/">build reproducibility</a> and
+content-based build systems.</p>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0552"><strong>PEP 552</strong></a> extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file to be
+used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp. Such <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files are
+called “hash-based”. By default, Python still uses timestamp-based invalidation
+and does not generate hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files at runtime. Hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
+files may be generated with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>Hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files come in two variants: checked and unchecked. Python
+validates checked hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files against the corresponding source
+files at runtime but doesn’t do so for unchecked hash-based pycs. Unchecked
+hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files are a useful performance optimization for environments
+where a system external to Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for
+keeping <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files up-to-date.</p>
+<p>See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#pyc-invalidation"><span class="std std-ref">Cached bytecode invalidation</span></a> for more information.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0552"><strong>PEP 552</strong></a> – Deterministic pycs</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Benjamin Peterson</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pep-545-python-documentation-translations">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep545"></span><h3>PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-545-python-documentation-translations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0545"><strong>PEP 545</strong></a> describes the process of creating and maintaining Python
+documentation translations.</p>
+<p>Three new translations have been added:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Japanese: <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/ja/">https://docs.python.org/ja/</a></p></li>
+<li><p>French: <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/fr/">https://docs.python.org/fr/</a></p></li>
+<li><p>Korean: <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/ko/">https://docs.python.org/ko/</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0545"><strong>PEP 545</strong></a> – Python Documentation Translations</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, and
+Victor Stinner.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="development-runtime-mode-x-dev">
+<span id="whatsnew37-devmode"></span><h3>Development Runtime Mode: -X dev<a class="headerlink" href="#development-runtime-mode-x-dev" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev</span></code> command line option or the new
+<span class="target" id="index-26"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDEVMODE"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONDEVMODE</span></code></a> environment variable can be used to enable
+CPython’s <em>development mode</em>.  When in development mode, CPython performs
+additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev</span></code> documentation for the full description of the effects
+of this mode.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-language-changes">
+<h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a function can
+now have more than 255 parameters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12844">bpo-12844</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18896">bpo-18896</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.fromhex" title="bytes.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.fromhex()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.fromhex" title="bytearray.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.fromhex()</span></code></a> now ignore all ASCII
+whitespace, not only spaces. (Contributed by Robert Xiao in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28927">bpo-28927</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> gained support for
+the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.isascii" title="str.isascii"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isascii()</span></code></a> method, which can be used to
+test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters.
+(Contributed by INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32677">bpo-32677</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a> now displays module name and module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> path when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> fails. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29546">bpo-29546</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a submodule to
+a name are now supported.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30024">bpo-30024</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__format__(x,</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code> is now equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(x)</span></code> rather than
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format(str(self),</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28974">bpo-28974</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.TracebackType" title="types.TracebackType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.TracebackType</span></code></a> can now be instantiated from Python code, and
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tb_next</span></code> attribute on <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#traceback-objects"><span class="std std-ref">tracebacks</span></a> is now
+writable.
+(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30579">bpo-30579</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>When using the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> switch, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path[0]</span></code> is now eagerly expanded
+to the full starting directory path, rather than being left as the empty
+directory (which allows imports from the <em>current</em> working directory at the
+time when an import occurs)
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33053">bpo-33053</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importtime</span></code> option or the
+<span class="target" id="index-27"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</span></code></a> environment variable can be used to show
+the timing of each module import.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31415">bpo-31415</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="new-modules">
+<h2>New Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="contextvars">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep567"></span><h3>contextvars<a class="headerlink" href="#contextvars" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a> module and a set of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/contextvars.html#contextvarsobjects"><span class="std std-ref">new C APIs</span></a> introduce
+support for <em>context variables</em>.  Context variables are conceptually
+similar to thread-local variables.  Unlike TLS, context variables
+support asynchronous code correctly.</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> modules have been updated to use
+and support context variables out of the box.  Particularly the active
+decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows
+decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous code.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-28"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a> – Context Variables</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dataclasses">
+<span id="whatsnew37-pep557"></span><h3>dataclasses<a class="headerlink" href="#dataclasses" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.dataclass" title="dataclasses.dataclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclass()</span></code></a> decorator provides a way to declare
+<em>data classes</em>.  A data class describes its attributes using class variable
+annotations.  Its constructor and other magic methods, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></code></a> are generated automatically.</p>
+<p>Example:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@dataclass</span>
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Point</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span>
+    <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span>
+    <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">float</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">0.0</span>
+
+<span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Point</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">)</span>   <span class="c1"># produces &quot;Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)&quot;</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<dl class="simple">
+<dt><span class="target" id="index-29"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0557"><strong>PEP 557</strong></a> – Data Classes</dt><dd><p>PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="importlib-resources">
+<span id="whatsnew37-importlib-resources"></span><h3>importlib.resources<a class="headerlink" href="#importlib-resources" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.resources" title="importlib.resources: Package resource reading, opening, and access"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.resources</span></code></a> module provides several new APIs and one
+new ABC for access to, opening, and reading <em>resources</em> inside packages.
+Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but they needn’t
+be actual files on the physical file system.  Module loaders can provide a
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_resource_reader()</span></code> function which returns
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a> instance to support this
+new API.  Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this.</p>
+<p>Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32248">bpo-32248</a>.</p>
+<div class="admonition seealso">
+<p class="admonition-title">See also</p>
+<p><a class="reference external" href="http://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/">importlib_resources</a>
+– a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="improved-modules">
+<h2>Improved Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#improved-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="argparse">
+<h3>argparse<a class="headerlink" href="#argparse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args" title="argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args()</span></code></a>
+method allows intermixing options and positional arguments.
+(Contributed by paul.j3 in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14191">bpo-14191</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="asyncio">
+<span id="whatsnew37-asyncio"></span><h3>asyncio<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncio" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module has received many new features, usability and
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-asyncio-perf"><span class="std std-ref">performance improvements</span></a>.  Notable changes
+include:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-provisional-api"><span class="xref std std-term">provisional</span></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.run" title="asyncio.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.run()</span></code></a> function can
+be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by automatically creating and
+destroying the event loop.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32314">bpo-32314</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>asyncio gained support for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextvars.html#module-contextvars" title="contextvars: Context Variables"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextvars</span></code></a>.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe" title="asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_soon_threadsafe()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="asyncio.loop.call_later"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_later()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_at" title="asyncio.loop.call_at"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_at()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.add_done_callback" title="asyncio.Future.add_done_callback"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.add_done_callback()</span></code></a>
+have a new optional keyword-only <em>context</em> parameter.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tasks</span></code></a> now track their context automatically.
+See <span class="target" id="index-30"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a> for more details.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32436">bpo-32436</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.create_task" title="asyncio.create_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.create_task()</span></code></a> function has been added as a shortcut
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32311">bpo-32311</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.start_tls" title="asyncio.loop.start_tls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.start_tls()</span></code></a>
+method can be used to upgrade an existing connection to TLS.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23749">bpo-23749</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into" title="asyncio.loop.sock_recv_into"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_recv_into()</span></code></a>
+method allows reading data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making
+it possible to reduce data copies.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31819">bpo-31819</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.current_task" title="asyncio.current_task"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.current_task()</span></code></a> function returns the currently running
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task" title="asyncio.Task"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code></a> instance, and the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.all_tasks" title="asyncio.all_tasks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.all_tasks()</span></code></a>
+function returns a set of all existing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task</span></code> instances in a given loop.
+The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.current_task" title="asyncio.Task.current_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.current_task()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.all_tasks" title="asyncio.Task.all_tasks"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.all_tasks()</span></code></a> methods have been deprecated.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32250">bpo-32250</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <em>provisional</em> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.BufferedProtocol" title="asyncio.BufferedProtocol"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BufferedProtocol</span></code></a> class allows
+implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the receive buffer.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32251">bpo-32251</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_running_loop" title="asyncio.get_running_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_running_loop()</span></code></a> function returns the currently
+running loop, and raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> if no loop is running.
+This is in contrast with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_event_loop()</span></code></a>, which will <em>create</em>
+a new event loop if none is running.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32269">bpo-32269</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter.wait_closed()</span></code></a>
+coroutine method allows waiting until the stream writer is closed.  The new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamWriter.is_closing()</span></code></a> method
+can be used to determine if the writer is closing.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32391">bpo-32391</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile" title="asyncio.loop.sock_sendfile"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_sendfile()</span></code></a>
+coroutine method allows sending files using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile</span></code></a> when possible.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32410">bpo-32410</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future.get_loop" title="asyncio.Future.get_loop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future.get_loop()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.get_loop()</span></code> methods return the instance of the loop on which a task or
+a future were created.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.get_loop" title="asyncio.Server.get_loop"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.get_loop()</span></code></a> allows doing the same for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server" title="asyncio.Server"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Server</span></code></a> objects.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32415">bpo-32415</a> and
+Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32418">bpo-32418</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>It is now possible to control how instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server" title="asyncio.Server"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Server</span></code></a> begin
+serving.  Previously, the server would start serving immediately when created.
+The new <em>start_serving</em> keyword argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_unix_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_unix_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_unix_server()</span></code></a>,
+as well as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.start_serving" title="asyncio.Server.start_serving"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.start_serving()</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.serve_forever" title="asyncio.Server.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.serve_forever()</span></code></a>
+can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving.  The new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.is_serving" title="asyncio.Server.is_serving"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server.is_serving()</span></code></a> method returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code>
+if the server is serving.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server" title="asyncio.Server"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Server</span></code></a> objects are now
+asynchronous context managers:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">srv</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">await</span> <span class="n">loop</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create_server</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">async</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">srv</span><span class="p">:</span>
+    <span class="c1"># some code</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32662">bpo-32662</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Callback objects returned by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.call_later" title="asyncio.loop.call_later"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.call_later()</span></code></a>
+gained the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.TimerHandle.when" title="asyncio.TimerHandle.when"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">when()</span></code></a> method which
+returns an absolute scheduled callback timestamp.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32741">bpo-32741</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint" title="asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span> </code></a> method
+gained support for Unix sockets.
+(Contributed by Quentin Dawans in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31245">bpo-31245</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.open_connection()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.start_server()</span></code></a> functions,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_connection" title="asyncio.loop.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_connection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.create_server" title="asyncio.loop.create_server"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_server()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket" title="asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.create_accepted_socket()</span></code></a>
+methods and their corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the
+<em>ssl_handshake_timeout</em> keyword argument.
+(Contributed by Neil Aspinall in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29970">bpo-29970</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle.cancelled" title="asyncio.Handle.cancelled"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Handle.cancelled()</span></code></a> method returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the callback was cancelled.
+(Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31943">bpo-31943</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The asyncio source has been converted to use the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> syntax.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32193">bpo-32193</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading" title="asyncio.ReadTransport.is_reading"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadTransport.is_reading()</span></code></a>
+method can be used to determine the reading state of the transport.
+Additionally, calls to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading" title="asyncio.ReadTransport.resume_reading"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadTransport.resume_reading()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-protocol.html#asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading" title="asyncio.ReadTransport.pause_reading"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadTransport.pause_reading()</span></code></a>
+are now idempotent.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32356">bpo-32356</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like objects</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32066">bpo-32066</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> TCP sockets on Linux are now created with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TCP_NODELAY</span></code>
+flag set by default.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27456">bpo-27456</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30508">bpo-30508</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>New <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy</span></code> classes.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33792">bpo-33792</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Several <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> APIs have been
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated"><span class="std std-ref">deprecated</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="binascii">
+<h3>binascii<a class="headerlink" href="#binascii" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/binascii.html#binascii.b2a_uu" title="binascii.b2a_uu"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">b2a_uu()</span></code></a> function now accepts an optional <em>backtick</em>
+keyword argument.  When it’s true, zeros are represented by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'`'</span></code>
+instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30103">bpo-30103</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="calendar">
+<h3>calendar<a class="headerlink" href="#calendar" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/calendar.html#calendar.HTMLCalendar" title="calendar.HTMLCalendar"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTMLCalendar</span></code></a> class has new class attributes which ease
+the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar.
+(Contributed by Oz Tiram in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30095">bpo-30095</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="collections">
+<h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code> now supports default values.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32320">bpo-32320</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="compileall">
+<h3>compileall<a class="headerlink" href="#compileall" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#compileall.compile_dir" title="compileall.compile_dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall.compile_dir()</span></code></a> learned the new <em>invalidation_mode</em> parameter,
+which can be used to enable
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep552"><span class="std std-ref">hash-based .pyc invalidation</span></a>.  The invalidation
+mode can also be specified on the command line using the new
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--invalidation-mode</span></code> argument.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31650">bpo-31650</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="concurrent-futures">
+<h3>concurrent.futures<a class="headerlink" href="#concurrent-futures" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> now
+support the new <em>initializer</em> and <em>initargs</em> constructor arguments.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21423">bpo-21423</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a>
+can now take the multiprocessing context via the new <em>mp_context</em> argument.
+(Contributed by Thomas Moreau in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31540">bpo-31540</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="contextlib">
+<h3>contextlib<a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.nullcontext" title="contextlib.nullcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nullcontext()</span></code></a> is a simpler and faster no-op
+context manager than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ExitStack" title="contextlib.ExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExitStack</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10049">bpo-10049</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.asynccontextmanager" title="contextlib.asynccontextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asynccontextmanager()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager" title="contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AbstractAsyncContextManager</span></code></a>, and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.AsyncExitStack" title="contextlib.AsyncExitStack"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AsyncExitStack</span></code></a> have been added to
+complement their synchronous counterparts.  (Contributed
+by Jelle Zijlstra in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29679">bpo-29679</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30241">bpo-30241</a>,
+and by Alexander Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29302">bpo-29302</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cprofile">
+<h3>cProfile<a class="headerlink" href="#cprofile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> command line now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">module_name</span></code> as an
+alternative to script path.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21862">bpo-21862</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="crypt">
+<h3>crypt<a class="headerlink" href="#crypt" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/crypt.html#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> module now supports the Blowfish hashing method.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31664">bpo-31664</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/crypt.html#crypt.mksalt" title="crypt.mksalt"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mksalt()</span></code></a> function now allows specifying the number of rounds
+for hashing.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31702">bpo-31702</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="datetime">
+<h3>datetime<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromisoformat" title="datetime.datetime.fromisoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.fromisoformat()</span></code></a>
+method constructs a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> object from a string
+in one of the formats output by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.isoformat" title="datetime.datetime.isoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.isoformat()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Paul Ganssle in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15873">bpo-15873</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> class now supports sub-minute offsets.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5288">bpo-5288</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dbm">
+<h3>dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#dbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the
+index file when it is not changed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="decimal">
+<h3>decimal<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic  Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module now uses <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep567"><span class="std std-ref">context variables</span></a>
+to store the decimal context.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32630">bpo-32630</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="dis">
+<h3>dis<a class="headerlink" href="#dis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.dis" title="dis.dis"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis()</span></code></a> function is now able to
+disassemble nested code objects (the code of comprehensions, generator
+expressions and nested functions, and the code used for building nested
+classes).  The maximum depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by
+the new <em>depth</em> parameter.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11822">bpo-11822</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="distutils">
+<h3>distutils<a class="headerlink" href="#distutils" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">README.rst</span></code> is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs and
+therefore included in source distributions.
+(Contributed by Ryan Gonzalez in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11913">bpo-11913</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="enum">
+<h3>enum<a class="headerlink" href="#enum" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/enum.html#enum.Enum" title="enum.Enum"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code></a> learned the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ignore_</span></code> class property,
+which allows listing the names of properties which should not become
+enum members.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31801">bpo-31801</a>.)</p>
+<p>In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code>
+classes will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Color</span></code>); similarly,
+attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code> member will
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Perm.RW</span></code>); currently, both operations
+return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> instead and are deprecated.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33217">bpo-33217</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="functools">
+<h3>functools<a class="headerlink" href="#functools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.singledispatch" title="functools.singledispatch"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.singledispatch()</span></code></a> now supports registering implementations
+using type annotations.
+(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32227">bpo-32227</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gc">
+<h3>gc<a class="headerlink" href="#gc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.freeze" title="gc.freeze"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.freeze()</span></code></a> function allows freezing all objects tracked
+by the garbage collector and excluding them from future collections.
+This can be used before a POSIX <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fork()</span></code> call to make the GC copy-on-write
+friendly or to speed up collection.  The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.unfreeze" title="gc.unfreeze"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.unfreeze()</span></code></a> functions
+reverses this operation.  Additionally, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.get_freeze_count" title="gc.get_freeze_count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.get_freeze_count()</span></code></a> can
+be used to obtain the number of frozen objects.
+(Contributed by Li Zekun in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31558">bpo-31558</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="hmac">
+<h3>hmac<a class="headerlink" href="#hmac" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#module-hmac" title="hmac: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code></a> module now has an optimized one-shot <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hmac.html#hmac.digest" title="hmac.digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code></a>
+function, which is up to three times faster than <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HMAC()</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32433">bpo-32433</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http-client">
+<h3>http.client<a class="headerlink" href="#http-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>
+now support the new <em>blocksize</em> argument for improved upload throughput.
+(Contributed by Nir Soffer in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31945">bpo-31945</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="http-server">
+<h3>http.server<a class="headerlink" href="#http-server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> now supports the HTTP
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">If-Modified-Since</span></code> header.  The server returns the 304 response status if
+the target file was not modified after the time specified in the header.
+(Contributed by Pierre Quentel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29654">bpo-29654</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler" title="http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleHTTPRequestHandler</span></code></a> accepts the new <em>directory</em>
+argument, in addition to the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--directory</span></code> command line argument.
+With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by default it
+uses the current working directory.
+(Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel and Julien Palard in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28707">bpo-28707</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer" title="http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingHTTPServer</span></code></a> class
+uses threads to handle requests using <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixin</span></code>.
+It is used when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code> is run with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Julien Palard in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31639">bpo-31639</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idlelib-and-idle">
+<h3>idlelib and IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idlelib-and-idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15786">bpo-15786</a>.)</p>
+<p>Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser),
+now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level
+functions and classes.
+(Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1612262">bpo-1612262</a>.)</p>
+<p>The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
+to improve both appearance and function.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)</p>
+<p>The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
+users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13802">bpo-13802</a>.)
+The sample can be edited to include other characters.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31860">bpo-31860</a>.)</p>
+<p>The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented
+as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab
+to other dialog tabs.
+(Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27099">bpo-27099</a>.)</p>
+<p>Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up to
+maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.  Context
+colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog.
+(Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33642">bpo-33642</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33768">bpo-33768</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33679">bpo-33679</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows
+8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary
+unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should
+make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
+(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33656">bpo-33656</a>.)</p>
+<p>New in 3.7.1:</p>
+<p>Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.
+N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the
+Settings dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by
+right clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place
+by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window
+by right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1529353">bpo-1529353</a>.)</p>
+<p>The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="importlib">
+<h3>importlib<a class="headerlink" href="#importlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a> ABC was introduced to
+support the loading of resources from packages.  See also
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-importlib-resources"><span class="std std-ref">importlib.resources</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32248">bpo-32248</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a> now raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> if the module
+lacks a spec.
+(Contributed by Garvit Khatri in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29851">bpo-29851</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.find_spec()</span></code> now raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ModuleNotFoundError" title="ModuleNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ModuleNotFoundError</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> if the specified parent module is not a package (i.e.
+lacks a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute).
+(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30436">bpo-30436</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.source_hash()</span></code> can be used to compute the hash of
+the passed source.  A <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep552"><span class="std std-ref">hash-based .pyc file</span></a>
+embeds the value returned by this function.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="io">
+<h3>io<a class="headerlink" href="#io" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure" title="io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()</span></code></a>
+method can be used to reconfigure the text stream with the new settings.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30526">bpo-30526</a> and
+INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15216">bpo-15216</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ipaddress">
+<h3>ipaddress<a class="headerlink" href="#ipaddress" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subnet_of()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">supernet_of()</span></code> methods of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress.IPv6Network</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress.IPv4Network</span></code></a> can
+be used for network containment tests.
+(Contributed by Michel Albert and Cheryl Sabella in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20825">bpo-20825</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="itertools">
+<h3>itertools<a class="headerlink" href="#itertools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.islice()</span></code></a> now accepts
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">integer-like</span> <span class="pre">objects</span></code></a> as start, stop,
+and slice arguments.
+(Contributed by Will Roberts in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30537">bpo-30537</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="locale">
+<h3>locale<a class="headerlink" href="#locale" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <em>monetary</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.format_string" title="locale.format_string"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.format_string()</span></code></a> can be used
+to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and
+grouping strings.  (Contributed by Garvit in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10379">bpo-10379</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.getpreferredencoding" title="locale.getpreferredencoding"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code></a> function now always returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'UTF-8'</span></code>
+on Android or when in the <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep540"><span class="std std-ref">forced UTF-8 mode</span></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="logging">
+<h3>logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Logger" title="logging.Logger"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Logger</span></code></a> instances can now be pickled.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30520">bpo-30520</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler.setStream" title="logging.StreamHandler.setStream"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler.setStream()</span></code></a>
+method can be used to replace the logger stream after handler creation.
+(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30522">bpo-30522</a>.)</p>
+<p>It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors in
+configuration passed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config.fileConfig()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Preston Landers in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31080">bpo-31080</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="math">
+<h3>math<a class="headerlink" href="#math" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.remainder" title="math.remainder"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.remainder()</span></code></a> function implements the IEEE 754-style remainder
+operation.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29962">bpo-29962</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="mimetypes">
+<h3>mimetypes<a class="headerlink" href="#mimetypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'image/x-ms-bmp'</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'image/bmp'</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Nitish Chandra in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22589">bpo-22589</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="msilib">
+<h3>msilib<a class="headerlink" href="#msilib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#msilib.Database.Close" title="msilib.Database.Close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Database.Close()</span></code></a> method can be used
+to close the <abbr title="last-in, first-out">MSI</abbr> database.
+(Contributed by Berker Peksag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20486">bpo-20486</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="multiprocessing">
+<h3>multiprocessing<a class="headerlink" href="#multiprocessing" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.close" title="multiprocessing.Process.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.close()</span></code></a> method
+explicitly closes the process object and releases all resources associated
+with it.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> is raised if the underlying process is still
+running.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30596">bpo-30596</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process.kill" title="multiprocessing.Process.kill"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process.kill()</span></code></a> method can
+be used to terminate the process using the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGKILL</span></code> signal on Unix.
+(Contributed by Vitor Pereira in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30794">bpo-30794</a>.)</p>
+<p>Non-daemonic threads created by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#multiprocessing.Process" title="multiprocessing.Process"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Process</span></code></a> are now
+joined on process exit.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18966">bpo-18966</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="os">
+<h3>os<a class="headerlink" href="#os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fwalk" title="os.fwalk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fwalk()</span></code></a> now accepts the <em>path</em> argument as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28682">bpo-28682</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a> gained support for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#path-fd"><span class="std std-ref">file descriptors</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25996">bpo-25996</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.register_at_fork" title="os.register_at_fork"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">register_at_fork()</span></code></a> function allows registering Python
+callbacks to be executed at process fork.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16500">bpo-16500</a>.)</p>
+<p>Added <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.preadv" title="os.preadv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.preadv()</span></code></a> (combine the functionality of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.readv" title="os.readv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.readv()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pread" title="os.pread"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pread()</span></code></a>) and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pwritev" title="os.pwritev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pwritev()</span></code></a> functions (combine the functionality
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.writev" title="os.writev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.writev()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pwrite" title="os.pwrite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pwrite()</span></code></a>). (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31368">bpo-31368</a>.)</p>
+<p>The mode argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.makedirs" title="os.makedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.makedirs()</span></code></a> no longer affects the file
+permission bits of newly-created intermediate-level directories.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19930">bpo-19930</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.dup2" title="os.dup2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup2()</span></code></a> now returns the new file descriptor.  Previously, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+was always returned.
+(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32441">bpo-32441</a>.)</p>
+<p>The structure returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a> now contains the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat_result.st_fstype" title="os.stat_result.st_fstype"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_fstype</span></code></a> attribute on Solaris and its derivatives.
+(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32659">bpo-32659</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pathlib">
+<h3>pathlib<a class="headerlink" href="#pathlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.Path.is_mount" title="pathlib.Path.is_mount"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Path.is_mount()</span></code></a> method is now available
+on POSIX systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point.
+(Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30897">bpo-30897</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pdb">
+<h3>pdb<a class="headerlink" href="#pdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#pdb.set_trace" title="pdb.set_trace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code></a> now takes an optional <em>header</em> keyword-only
+argument.  If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging
+begins.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31389">bpo-31389</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> command line now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">module_name</span></code> as an alternative to
+script file.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32206">bpo-32206</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="py-compile">
+<h3>py_compile<a class="headerlink" href="#py-compile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#py_compile.compile" title="py_compile.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile.compile()</span></code></a> – and by extension, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> – now
+respects the <span class="target" id="index-31"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code> environment variable by
+unconditionally creating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files for hash-based validation.
+This allows for guaranteeing
+<a class="reference external" href="https://reproducible-builds.org/">reproducible builds</a> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
+files when they are created eagerly. (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29708">bpo-29708</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="pydoc">
+<h3>pydoc<a class="headerlink" href="#pydoc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the
+new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> command-line argument.
+(Contributed by Feanil Patel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31128">bpo-31128</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="queue">
+<h3>queue<a class="headerlink" href="#queue" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue" title="queue.SimpleQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleQueue</span></code></a> class is an unbounded <abbr title="last-in, first-out">FIFO</abbr> queue.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14976">bpo-14976</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="re">
+<h3>re<a class="headerlink" href="#re" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The flags <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.ASCII" title="re.ASCII"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.ASCII</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.UNICODE</span></code>
+can be set within the scope of a group.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31690">bpo-31690</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.split" title="re.split"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.split()</span></code></a> now supports splitting on a pattern like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\b'</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'^$'</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(?=-)</span></code> that matches an empty string.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25054">bpo-25054</a>.)</p>
+<p>Regular expressions compiled with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.LOCALE" title="re.LOCALE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code></a> flag no longer
+depend on the locale at compile time.  Locale settings are applied only
+when the compiled regular expression is used.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30215">bpo-30215</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a> is now emitted if a regular expression contains
+character set constructs that will change semantically in the future,
+such as nested sets and set operations.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30349">bpo-30349</a>.)</p>
+<p>Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied
+using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#copy.copy" title="copy.copy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.copy()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#copy.deepcopy" title="copy.deepcopy"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copy.deepcopy()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10076">bpo-10076</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="signal">
+<h3>signal<a class="headerlink" href="#signal" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <em>warn_on_full_buffer</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.set_wakeup_fd" title="signal.set_wakeup_fd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.set_wakeup_fd()</span></code></a>
+function makes it possible to specify whether Python prints a warning on
+stderr when the wakeup buffer overflows.
+(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30050">bpo-30050</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socket">
+<h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.getblocking" title="socket.socket.getblocking"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.getblocking()</span></code></a> method
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the socket is in blocking mode and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32373">bpo-32373</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.close" title="socket.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.close()</span></code></a> function closes the passed socket file descriptor.
+This function should be used instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.close" title="os.close"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.close()</span></code></a> for better
+compatibility across platforms.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32454">bpo-32454</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module now exposes the <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_CONGESTION</span></code>
+(Linux 2.6.13), <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT</span></code> (Linux 2.6.37), and
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT</span></code> (Linux 3.12) constants.
+(Contributed by Omar Sandoval in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26273">bpo-26273</a> and
+Nathaniel J. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29728">bpo-29728</a>.)</p>
+<p>Support for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.AF_VSOCK" title="socket.AF_VSOCK"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.AF_VSOCK</span></code></a> sockets has been added to allow
+communication between virtual machines and their hosts.
+(Contributed by Cathy Avery in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27584">bpo-27584</a>.)</p>
+<p>Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor
+by default.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28134">bpo-28134</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="socketserver">
+<h3>socketserver<a class="headerlink" href="#socketserver" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> now waits until all non-daemon
+threads complete. <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> now waits
+until all child processes complete.</p>
+<p>Add a new <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close</span></code> class attribute to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ForkingMixIn" title="socketserver.ForkingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.ThreadingMixIn" title="socketserver.ThreadingMixIn"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ThreadingMixIn</span></code></a>
+classes. Set the class attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sqlite3">
+<h3>sqlite3<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection</span></code></a> now exposes the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.backup" title="sqlite3.Connection.backup"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backup()</span></code></a>
+method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or higher.
+(Contributed by Lele Gaifax in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27645">bpo-27645</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>database</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.connect" title="sqlite3.connect"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.connect()</span></code></a> now accepts any
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>, instead of just a string.
+(Contributed by Anders Lorentsen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31843">bpo-31843</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="ssl">
+<h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module now uses OpenSSL’s builtin API instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> to check a host name or an IP address.  Values
+are validated during TLS handshake.  Any certificate validation error
+including failing the host name check now raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLCertVerificationError" title="ssl.SSLCertVerificationError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLCertVerificationError</span></code></a> and aborts the handshake with a proper
+TLS Alert message.  The new exception contains additional information.
+Host name validation can be customized with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name" title="ssl.SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31399">bpo-31399</a>.)</p>
+<div class="admonition note">
+<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
+<p>The improved host name check requires a <em>libssl</em> implementation compatible
+with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.  Consequently, OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no
+longer supported (see <a class="reference internal" href="#platform-support-removals"><span class="std std-ref">Platform Support Removals</span></a> for more details).
+The ssl module is mostly compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer.</p>
+</div>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32185">bpo-32185</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">match_hostname()</span></code></a> no longer supports partial wildcards like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">www*.example.org</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Mandeep Singh in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23033">bpo-23033</a> and Christian Heimes in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31399">bpo-31399</a>.)</p>
+<p>The default cipher suite selection of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> module now uses a blacklist
+approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.  Python no longer re-enables
+ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates.  Default cipher
+suite selection can be configured at compile time.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31429">bpo-31429</a>.)</p>
+<p>Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain names
+(IDNs) is now supported.  As part of this change, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname" title="ssl.SSLSocket.server_hostname"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.server_hostname</span></code></a> attribute
+now stores the expected hostname in A-label form (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;xn--pythn-mua.org&quot;</span></code>),
+rather than the U-label form (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;pythön.org&quot;</span></code>).  (Contributed by
+Nathaniel J. Smith and Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28414">bpo-28414</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code> module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3 and
+OpenSSL 1.1.1.  At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1 is still
+under development and TLS 1.3 hasn’t been finalized yet.  The TLS 1.3
+handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2 and earlier,
+see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl-tlsv1-3"><span class="std std-ref">TLS 1.3</span></a>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32947">bpo-32947</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20995">bpo-20995</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29136">bpo-29136</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30622">bpo-30622</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33618">bpo-33618</a>)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLSocket</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLObject</span></code></a> no longer have a public
+constructor.  Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported
+feature.  Instances must be created with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a> methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_bio"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_bio()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32951">bpo-32951</a>)</p>
+<p>OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol version are
+available as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.minimum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.minimum_version</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version" title="ssl.SSLContext.maximum_version"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.maximum_version</span></code></a>.
+Supported protocols are indicated by several new flags, such as
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1" title="ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAS_TLSv1_1</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32609">bpo-32609</a>.)</p>
+<p>Added <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext.post_handshake_auth</span></code> to enable and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake" title="ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake()</span></code></a> to initiate TLS 1.3
+post-handshake authentication.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34670">bpo-34670</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="string">
+<h3>string<a class="headerlink" href="#string" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a> now lets you to optionally modify the regular
+expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced placeholders
+separately.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1198569">bpo-1198569</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="subprocess">
+<h3>subprocess<a class="headerlink" href="#subprocess" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.run()</span></code></a> function accepts the new <em>capture_output</em>
+keyword argument.  When true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
+This is equivalent to passing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.PIPE" title="subprocess.PIPE"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.PIPE</span></code></a> as <em>stdout</em> and
+<em>stderr</em> arguments.
+(Contributed by Bo Bayles in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32102">bpo-32102</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.run</span></code> function and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> constructor
+now accept the <em>text</em> keyword argument as an alias
+to <em>universal_newlines</em>.
+(Contributed by Andrew Clegg in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31756">bpo-31756</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Windows the default for <em>close_fds</em> was changed from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> when redirecting the standard handles.  It’s now possible to set
+<em>close_fds</em> to true when redirecting the standard handles.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>.  This means that <em>close_fds</em> now defaults to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> on all supported platforms.
+(Contributed by Segev Finer in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19764">bpo-19764</a>.)</p>
+<p>The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a> during <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.call" title="subprocess.call"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.call()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.run()</span></code></a>, or in a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code></a>
+context manager.  It now waits a short amount of time for the child
+to exit, before continuing the handling of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code>
+exception.
+(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25942">bpo-25942</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sys">
+<h3>sys<a class="headerlink" href="#sys" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.breakpointhook" title="sys.breakpointhook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code></a> hook function is called by the
+built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#breakpoint" title="breakpoint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31353">bpo-31353</a>.)</p>
+<p>On Android, the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.getandroidapilevel" title="sys.getandroidapilevel"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.getandroidapilevel()</span></code></a> returns the build-time
+Android API version.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28740">bpo-28740</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth" title="sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()</span></code></a> function returns
+the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by
+the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth" title="sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()</span></code></a>.  <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>
+has been converted to use this new API instead of
+the deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_wrapper" title="sys.set_coroutine_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32591">bpo-32591</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="time">
+<h3>time<a class="headerlink" href="#time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><span class="target" id="index-32"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0564"><strong>PEP 564</strong></a> adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_gettime_ns" title="time.clock_gettime_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.clock_gettime_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_settime_ns" title="time.clock_settime_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.clock_settime_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.monotonic_ns" title="time.monotonic_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.monotonic_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.perf_counter_ns" title="time.perf_counter_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.process_time_ns" title="time.process_time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.process_time_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time_ns" title="time.time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time_ns()</span></code></a></p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>New clock identifiers have been added:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME" title="time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME</span></code></a> (Linux): Identical to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC" title="time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC</span></code></a>, except it also includes any time that the
+system is suspended.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.CLOCK_PROF" title="time.CLOCK_PROF"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.CLOCK_PROF</span></code></a> (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD): High-resolution
+per-process CPU timer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.CLOCK_UPTIME" title="time.CLOCK_UPTIME"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.CLOCK_UPTIME</span></code></a> (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose absolute value is
+the time the system has been running and not suspended, providing accurate
+uptime measurement.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.thread_time" title="time.thread_time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.thread_time()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.thread_time_ns" title="time.thread_time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.thread_time_ns()</span></code></a> functions
+can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32025">bpo-32025</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.pthread_getcpuclockid" title="time.pthread_getcpuclockid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.pthread_getcpuclockid()</span></code></a> function returns the clock ID
+of the thread-specific CPU-time clock.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tkinter">
+<h3>tkinter<a class="headerlink" href="#tkinter" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.ttk.html#tkinter.ttk.Spinbox" title="tkinter.ttk.Spinbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk.Spinbox</span></code></a> class is now available.
+(Contributed by Alan Moore in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32585">bpo-32585</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tracemalloc">
+<h3>tracemalloc<a class="headerlink" href="#tracemalloc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc.Traceback</span></code></a> behaves more like regular tracebacks,
+sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Traceback.format" title="tracemalloc.Traceback.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback.format()</span></code></a>
+now accepts negative <em>limit</em>, truncating the result to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(limit)</span></code> oldest frames.  To get the old behaviour, use
+the new <em>most_recent_first</em> argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback.format()</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Jesse Bakker in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32121">bpo-32121</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="types">
+<h3>types<a class="headerlink" href="#types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.WrapperDescriptorType" title="types.WrapperDescriptorType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WrapperDescriptorType</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.MethodWrapperType" title="types.MethodWrapperType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MethodWrapperType</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.MethodDescriptorType" title="types.MethodDescriptorType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MethodDescriptorType</span></code></a>,
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.ClassMethodDescriptorType" title="types.ClassMethodDescriptorType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ClassMethodDescriptorType</span></code></a> classes are now available.
+(Contributed by Manuel Krebber and Guido van Rossum in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29377">bpo-29377</a>,
+and Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32265">bpo-32265</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/types.html#types.resolve_bases" title="types.resolve_bases"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">types.resolve_bases()</span></code></a> function resolves MRO entries
+dynamically as specified by <span class="target" id="index-33"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560"><strong>PEP 560</strong></a>.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32717">bpo-32717</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unicodedata">
+<h3>unicodedata<a class="headerlink" href="#unicodedata" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The internal <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code></a> database has been upgraded to use <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/">Unicode 11</a>. (Contributed by Benjamin
+Peterson.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest">
+<h3>unittest<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-k</span></code> command-line option allows filtering tests by a name
+substring or a Unix shell-like pattern.
+For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">unittest</span> <span class="pre">-k</span> <span class="pre">foo</span></code> runs
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo</span></code>,
+but not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bar_tests.FooTest.test_something</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Jonas Haag in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32071">bpo-32071</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="unittest-mock">
+<h3>unittest.mock<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest-mock" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.sentinel" title="unittest.mock.sentinel"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sentinel</span></code></a> attributes now preserve their identity
+when they are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copied</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickled</span></code></a>. (Contributed by
+Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20804">bpo-20804</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.seal" title="unittest.mock.seal"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">seal()</span></code></a> function allows sealing
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code></a> instances, which will disallow further creation
+of attribute mocks.  The seal is applied recursively to all attributes that
+are themselves mocks.
+(Contributed by Mario Corchero in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30541">bpo-30541</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="urllib-parse">
+<h3>urllib.parse<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib-parse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote" title="urllib.parse.quote"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.quote()</span></code></a> has been updated from <span class="target" id="index-34"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2396.html"><strong>RFC 2396</strong></a> to <span class="target" id="index-35"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3986.html"><strong>RFC 3986</strong></a>,
+adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> to the set of characters that are never quoted by default.
+(Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16285">bpo-16285</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="uu">
+<h3>uu<a class="headerlink" href="#uu" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/uu.html#uu.encode" title="uu.encode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu.encode()</span></code></a> function now accepts an optional <em>backtick</em>
+keyword argument.  When it’s true, zeros are represented by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'`'</span></code>
+instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30103">bpo-30103</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="uuid">
+<h3>uuid<a class="headerlink" href="#uuid" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/uuid.html#uuid.UUID.is_safe" title="uuid.UUID.is_safe"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UUID.is_safe</span></code></a> attribute relays information
+from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a
+multiprocessing-safe method.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22807">bpo-22807</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/uuid.html#uuid.getnode" title="uuid.getnode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid.getnode()</span></code></a> now prefers universally administered
+MAC addresses over locally administered MAC addresses.
+This makes a better guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid1" title="uuid.uuid1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid.uuid1()</span></code></a>.  If only locally administered MAC addresses are
+available, the first such one found is returned.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32107">bpo-32107</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="warnings">
+<h3>warnings<a class="headerlink" href="#warnings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as follows:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>warnings enabled via command line options (including those for <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a>
+and the new CPython-specific <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id5"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dev</span></code> option) are always passed
+to the warnings machinery via the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.warnoptions" title="sys.warnoptions"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code></a> attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p>warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment now have the
+following order of precedence:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<div><ul class="simple">
+<li><p>the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesWarning</span></code> filter for <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code></a> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-bb</span></code>)</p></li>
+<li><p>any filters specified with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-w"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code></a> option</p></li>
+<li><p>any filters specified with the <span class="target" id="index-36"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a> environment
+variable</p></li>
+<li><p>any other CPython specific filters (e.g. the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">default</span></code> filter added
+for the new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">dev</span></code> mode)</p></li>
+<li><p>any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings machinery</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div></blockquote>
+</li>
+<li><p>in CPython debug builds, all warnings are now displayed by default (the
+implicit filter list is empty)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20361">bpo-20361</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32043">bpo-32043</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32230">bpo-32230</a>.)</p>
+<p>Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and
+at the interactive prompt.  See <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep565"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in __main__</span></a> for details.
+(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31975">bpo-31975</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xml">
+<h3>xml<a class="headerlink" href="#xml" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> modules no longer process
+external entities by default.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17239">bpo-17239</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xml-etree">
+<h3>xml.etree<a class="headerlink" href="#xml-etree" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#elementtree-xpath"><span class="std std-ref">ElementPath</span></a> predicates in the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code>
+methods can now compare text of the current node with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">[.</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">&quot;text&quot;]</span></code>,
+not only text in children.  Predicates also allow adding spaces for
+better readability.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31648">bpo-31648</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="xmlrpc-server">
+<h3>xmlrpc.server<a class="headerlink" href="#xmlrpc-server" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function</span></code>
+can now be used as a decorator.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7769">bpo-7769</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipapp">
+<h3>zipapp<a class="headerlink" href="#zipapp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipapp.html#zipapp.create_archive" title="zipapp.create_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_archive()</span></code></a> now accepts an optional <em>filter</em>
+argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in the
+archive.  (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31072">bpo-31072</a>.)</p>
+<p>Function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipapp.html#zipapp.create_archive" title="zipapp.create_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_archive()</span></code></a> now accepts an optional <em>compressed</em>
+argument to generate a compressed archive.  A command line option
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--compress</span></code> has also been added to support compression.
+(Contributed by Zhiming Wang in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31638">bpo-31638</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="zipfile">
+<h3>zipfile<a class="headerlink" href="#zipfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#zipfile.ZipFile" title="zipfile.ZipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code></a> now accepts the new <em>compresslevel</em> parameter to
+control the compression level.
+(Contributed by Bo Bayles in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21417">bpo-21417</a>.)</p>
+<p>Subdirectories in archives created by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ZipFile</span></code> are now stored in
+alphabetical order.
+(Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30693">bpo-30693</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="c-api-changes">
+<h2>C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented.  See
+<a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep539"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage</span></a> for an overview and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#thread-specific-storage-api"><span class="std std-ref">Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API</span></a> for a complete reference.
+(Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25658">bpo-25658</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep567"><span class="std std-ref">context variables</span></a> functionality
+exposes a number of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/contextvars.html#contextvarsobjects"><span class="std std-ref">new C APIs</span></a>.</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/import.html#c.PyImport_GetModule" title="PyImport_GetModule"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_GetModule()</span></code></a> function returns the previously
+imported module with the given name.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28411">bpo-28411</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE" title="Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE</span></code></a> macro eases writing rich
+comparison functions.
+(Contributed by Petr Victorin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23699">bpo-23699</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/intro.html#c.Py_UNREACHABLE" title="Py_UNREACHABLE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNREACHABLE</span></code></a> macro can be used to mark unreachable
+code paths.
+(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31338">bpo-31338</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> now exposes a C API through the new
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTraceMalloc_Track()</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTraceMalloc_Untrack()</span></code>
+functions.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30054">bpo-30054</a>.)</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/instrumentation.html#c.import__find__load__start" title="import__find__load__start"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import__find__load__start()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../howto/instrumentation.html#c.import__find__load__done" title="import__find__load__done"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import__find__load__done()</span></code></a> static markers can be used to trace
+module imports.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31574">bpo-31574</a>.)</p>
+<p>The fields <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> and <code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">doc</span></code> of structures
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMemberDef</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_Field" title="PyStructSequence_Field"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_Field</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/tuple.html#c.PyStructSequence_Desc" title="PyStructSequence_Desc"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyStructSequence_Desc</span></code></a>,
+and <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapperbase</span></code> are now of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> rather of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28761">bpo-28761</a>.)</p>
+<p>The result of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsUTF8" title="PyUnicode_AsUTF8"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsUTF8()</span></code></a>
+is now of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> rather of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>. (Contributed by Serhiy
+Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28769">bpo-28769</a>.)</p>
+<p>The result of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Keys" title="PyMapping_Keys"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Keys()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Values" title="PyMapping_Values"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Values()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/mapping.html#c.PyMapping_Items" title="PyMapping_Items"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Items()</span></code></a> is now always a list, rather than a list or a
+tuple. (Contributed by Oren Milman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28280">bpo-28280</a>.)</p>
+<p>Added functions <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Unpack" title="PySlice_Unpack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_Unpack()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_AdjustIndices" title="PySlice_AdjustIndices"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_AdjustIndices()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27867">bpo-27867</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork" title="PyOS_AfterFork"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork()</span></code></a> is deprecated in favour of the new functions
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_BeforeFork" title="PyOS_BeforeFork"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_BeforeFork()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Parent"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Child"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Child()</span></code></a>.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16500">bpo-16500</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RecursionErrorInst</span></code> singleton that was part of the public API
+has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
+during finalization of the interpreter. Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22898">bpo-22898</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30697">bpo-30697</a>.</p>
+<p>Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffset" title="PyTimeZone_FromOffset"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTimeZone_FromOffset()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/datetime.html#c.PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName" title="PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName()</span></code></a>,
+and access to the UTC singleton with <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/datetime.html#c.PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC" title="PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC</span></code></a>.
+Contributed by Paul Ganssle in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10381">bpo-10381</a>.</p>
+<p>The type of results of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_start_new_thread()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_get_thread_ident()</span></code>, and the <em>id</em> parameter of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc" title="PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc()</span></code></a> changed from <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span></code> to
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsigned</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6532">bpo-6532</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_AsWideCharString" title="PyUnicode_AsWideCharString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()</span></code></a> now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if the
+second argument is <em>NULL</em> and the <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t*</span></code> string contains null
+characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30708">bpo-30708</a>.)</p>
+<p>Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory
+allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> before calling most C API functions is now
+relied on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in
+embedding applications. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-37"><span class="std std-ref">Porting to Python 3.7</span></a> section in this
+document and the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#pre-init-safe"><span class="std std-ref">Before Python Initialization</span></a> section in the C API documentation
+for more details.</p>
+<p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyInterpreterState_GetID" title="PyInterpreterState_GetID"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState_GetID()</span></code></a> returns the unique ID for a
+given interpreter.
+(Contributed by Eric Snow in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29102">bpo-29102</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a> now use the UTF-8
+encoding when the <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep540"><span class="std std-ref">UTF-8 mode</span></a> is enabled.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29240">bpo-29240</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize" title="PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale" title="PyUnicode_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a>
+now use the current locale encoding for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29240">bpo-29240</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> parameters of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FindChar" title="PyUnicode_FindChar"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FindChar()</span></code></a> are
+now adjusted to behave like string slices.
+(Contributed by Xiang Zhang in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28822">bpo-28822</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build-changes">
+<h2>Build Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Support for building <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-threads</span></code> has been removed.  The
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module is now always available.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31370">bpo-31370</a>.).</p>
+<p>A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ctypes</span></code></a> module on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
+of libffi is now required when building <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ctypes</span></code> on such platforms.
+(Contributed by Zachary Ware in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27979">bpo-27979</a>.)</p>
+<p>The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in external
+sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from GitHub instead.
+If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-3.6</span></code>), NuGet is used to
+download a copy of 32-bit Python for this purpose.  (Contributed by Zachary
+Ware in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30450">bpo-30450</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible libssl.
+OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is no longer
+supported. LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well. LibreSSL releases
+up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2 APIs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="optimizations">
+<span id="whatsnew37-perf"></span><h2>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes
+implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code
+to use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_FASTCALL</span></code> convention.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29300">bpo-29300</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29507">bpo-29507</a>,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29452">bpo-29452</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29286">bpo-29286</a>.)</p>
+<p>Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux and
+up to 30% on macOS.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29585">bpo-29585</a>, and
+Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31333">bpo-31333</a>.)</p>
+<p>Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which
+avoid creating bound method instances.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26110">bpo-26110</a>.)</p>
+<p id="whatsnew37-asyncio-perf">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> module received a number of notable optimizations for
+commonly used functions:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.get_event_loop" title="asyncio.get_event_loop"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.get_event_loop()</span></code></a> function has been reimplemented in C to
+make it up to 15 times faster.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32296">bpo-32296</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a> callback management has been optimized.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32348">bpo-32348</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.gather" title="asyncio.gather"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.gather()</span></code></a> is now up to 15% faster.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32355">bpo-32355</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.sleep" title="asyncio.sleep"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.sleep()</span></code></a> is now up to 2 times faster when the <em>delay</em>
+argument is zero or negative.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32351">bpo-32351</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31970">bpo-31970</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>As a result of <a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-pep560"><span class="std std-ref">PEP 560 work</span></a>, the import time
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#module-typing" title="typing: Support for type hints (see PEP 484)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code></a> has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations
+are now faster.
+(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32226">bpo-32226</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> have been optimized for common cases
+to be up to 40-75% faster.
+(Contributed by Elliot Gorokhovsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28685">bpo-28685</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict.copy" title="dict.copy"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict.copy()</span></code></a> is now up to 5.5 times faster.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31179">bpo-31179</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> are now about 4 times faster when
+<em>name</em> is not found and <em>obj</em> does not override <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattr__()</span></code></a>
+or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__getattribute__()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32544">bpo-32544</a>.)</p>
+<p>Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital “Є”)
+in a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters.
+It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24821">bpo-24821</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> factory has been reimplemented to
+make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster.
+(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki,
+Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28638">bpo-28638</a>.)</p>
+<p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.fromordinal()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date.fromtimestamp()</span></code> are now up to
+30% faster in the common case.
+(Contributed by Paul Ganssle in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32403">bpo-32403</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fwalk" title="os.fwalk"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.fwalk()</span></code></a> function is now up to 2 times faster thanks to
+the use of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25996">bpo-25996</a>.)</p>
+<p>The speed of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.rmtree()</span></code></a> function has been improved by
+20–40% thanks to the use of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a> function.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28564">bpo-28564</a>.)</p>
+<p>Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regular</span>
+<span class="pre">expressions</span></code></a>.  Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times faster.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30285">bpo-30285</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.compile" title="re.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code></a> now converts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">flags</span></code> parameter to int object if
+it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RegexFlag</span></code>.  It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than
+Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern.
+(Contributed by INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31671">bpo-31671</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#selectors.BaseSelector.modify" title="selectors.BaseSelector.modify"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modify()</span></code></a> methods of classes
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#selectors.EpollSelector" title="selectors.EpollSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors.EpollSelector</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#selectors.PollSelector" title="selectors.PollSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors.PollSelector</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#selectors.DevpollSelector" title="selectors.DevpollSelector"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors.DevpollSelector</span></code></a> may be around 10% faster under
+heavy loads.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30014">bpo-30014</a>)</p>
+<p>Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new AST
+optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently.
+(Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29469">bpo-29469</a> and
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11549">bpo-11549</a>.)</p>
+<p>Most functions and methods in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> have been rewritten in C.
+This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a> on them 1.5x faster.  This also reduces Python
+start-up time by up to 10%. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31333">bpo-31333</a>)</p>
+<p>Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> by using fast-path
+constructors when not constructing subclasses. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32403">bpo-32403</a>)</p>
+<p>The speed of comparison of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a> instances has been
+improved considerably in certain cases.  It is now from 10x to 70x faster
+when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.
+(Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24700">bpo-24700</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erf" title="math.erf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.erf()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erfc" title="math.erfc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.erfc()</span></code></a> functions now use the (faster)
+C library implementation on most platforms.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26121">bpo-26121</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="other-cpython-implementation-changes">
+<h2>Other CPython Implementation Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-cpython-implementation-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line</span></code> and opt into receiving
+the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opcode</span></code> events from the interpreter by setting the corresponding new
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_lines</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_opcodes</span></code> attributes on the
+frame being traced. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31344">bpo-31344</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module attributes.
+Namespace module objects now have an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> that is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+(previously unset), and their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.origin</span></code> is also set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>
+(previously the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;namespace&quot;</span></code>).  See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32305">bpo-32305</a>.  Also, the
+namespace module object’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.loader</span></code> is set to the same value as
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> (previously, the former was set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).  See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32303">bpo-32303</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locals()</span></code></a> dictionary now displays in the lexical order that
+variables were defined.  Previously, the order was undefined.
+(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32690">bpo-32690</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">upload</span></code> command no longer tries to change CR
+end-of-line characters to CRLF.  This fixes a corruption issue with sdists
+that ended with a byte equivalent to CR.
+(Contributed by Bo Bayles in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32304">bpo-32304</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-python-behavior">
+<h2>Deprecated Python Behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-python-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Yield expressions (both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> clauses) are now deprecated
+in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the iterable expression
+in the leftmost <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code> clause). This ensures that comprehensions
+always immediately return a container of the appropriate type (rather than
+potentially returning a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">generator iterator</span></a> object), while generator
+expressions won’t attempt to interleave their implicit output with the output
+from any explicit yield expressions.  In Python 3.7, such expressions emit
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> when compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10544">bpo-10544</a>.)</p>
+<p>Returning a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex</span></code></a> from <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__complex__" title="object.__complex__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__complex__()</span></code></a> is
+deprecated and will be an error in future Python versions.  This makes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__complex__()</span></code> consistent with <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__int__" title="object.__int__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__int__()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__float__" title="object.__float__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__float__()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28894">bpo-28894</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">
+<h2>Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<div class="section" id="aifc">
+<h3>aifc<a class="headerlink" href="#aifc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc.openfp()</span></code> has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#aifc.open" title="aifc.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc.open()</span></code></a> instead.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31985">bpo-31985</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated">
+<span id="id2"></span><h3>asyncio<a class="headerlink" href="#whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Support for directly <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code>-ing instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Lock" title="asyncio.Lock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Lock</span></code></a> and
+other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated.  An
+asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and release
+the synchronization resource.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32253">bpo-32253</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.current_task" title="asyncio.Task.current_task"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task.current_task()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.Task.all_tasks" title="asyncio.Task.all_tasks"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task.all_tasks()</span></code></a>
+methods have been deprecated.
+(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32250">bpo-32250</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id3">
+<h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a> will no
+longer be exposed in the regular <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> module.  This will help
+create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes and the abstract
+base classes.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25988">bpo-25988</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id4">
+<h3>dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#id4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.dumb" title="dbm.dumb: Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.dumb</span></code></a> now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the
+index file when it is not changed.  A deprecation warning is now emitted
+if the index file is missing and recreated in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'r'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'w'</span></code>
+modes (this will be an error in future Python releases).
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28847">bpo-28847</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id5">
+<h3>enum<a class="headerlink" href="#id5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code>
+classes will raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Color</span></code>); similarly,
+attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Flag</span></code> member will
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">Perm.RW</span></code>); currently, both operations
+return <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> instead.
+(Contributed by Ethan Furman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33217">bpo-33217</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="gettext">
+<h3>gettext<a class="headerlink" href="#gettext" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gettext.html#module-gettext" title="gettext: Multilingual internationalization services."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gettext</span></code></a> is
+now deprecated.  It never correctly worked. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
+in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28692">bpo-28692</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id6">
+<h3>importlib<a class="headerlink" href="#id6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Methods
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MetaPathFinder.find_module()</span></code></a>
+(replaced by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MetaPathFinder.find_spec()</span></code></a>)
+and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathEntryFinder.find_loader()</span></code></a>
+(replaced by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec" title="importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathEntryFinder.find_spec()</span></code></a>)
+both deprecated in Python 3.4 now emit <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29576">bpo-29576</a>)</p>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceLoader</span></code></a> ABC has been deprecated in
+favour of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id7">
+<h3>locale<a class="headerlink" href="#id7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.format" title="locale.format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.format()</span></code></a> has been deprecated, use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.format_string" title="locale.format_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.format_string()</span></code></a>
+instead.  (Contributed by Garvit in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10379">bpo-10379</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="macpath">
+<h3>macpath<a class="headerlink" href="#macpath" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/macpath.html#module-macpath" title="macpath: Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macpath</span></code></a> is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8.
+(Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9850">bpo-9850</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="threading">
+<h3>threading<a class="headerlink" href="#threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/dummy_threading.html#module-dummy_threading" title="dummy_threading: Drop-in replacement for the threading module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dummy_threading</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/_dummy_thread.html#module-_dummy_thread" title="_dummy_thread: Drop-in replacement for the _thread module."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dummy_thread</span></code></a> have been deprecated.  It is
+no longer possible to build Python with threading disabled.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> instead.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31370">bpo-31370</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id8">
+<h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#id8" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The silent argument value truncation in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.htons" title="socket.htons"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.htons()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.ntohs" title="socket.ntohs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.ntohs()</span></code></a> has been deprecated.  In future versions of Python,
+if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will be raised.
+(Contributed by Oren Milman in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28332">bpo-28332</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id9">
+<h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#id9" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> is deprecated.  Use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> instead.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28124">bpo-28124</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="sunau">
+<h3>sunau<a class="headerlink" href="#sunau" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sunau.html#sunau.openfp" title="sunau.openfp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau.openfp()</span></code></a> has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sunau.html#sunau.open" title="sunau.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau.open()</span></code></a> instead.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31985">bpo-31985</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id10">
+<h3>sys<a class="headerlink" href="#id10" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>Deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_wrapper" title="sys.set_coroutine_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.get_coroutine_wrapper" title="sys.get_coroutine_wrapper"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>The undocumented <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.callstats()</span></code> function has been deprecated and
+will be removed in a future Python version.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28799">bpo-28799</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="wave">
+<h3>wave<a class="headerlink" href="#wave" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#wave.openfp" title="wave.openfp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave.openfp()</span></code></a> has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
+Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#wave.open" title="wave.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave.open()</span></code></a> instead.
+(Contributed by Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31985">bpo-31985</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">
+<h2>Deprecated functions and types of the C API<a class="headerlink" href="#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_GetIndicesEx" title="PySlice_GetIndicesEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_GetIndicesEx()</span></code></a> is deprecated and replaced with
+a macro if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_LIMITED_API</span></code> is not set or set to a value in the range
+between <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03050400</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03060000</span></code> (not inclusive), or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0x03060100</span></code>
+or higher.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27867">bpo-27867</a>.)</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork" title="PyOS_AfterFork"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork()</span></code></a> has been deprecated.  Use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_BeforeFork" title="PyOS_BeforeFork"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_BeforeFork()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Parent" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Parent"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PyOS_AfterFork_Child" title="PyOS_AfterFork_Child"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyOS_AfterFork_Child()</span></code></a> instead.
+(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16500">bpo-16500</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="platform-support-removals">
+<span id="id11"></span><h2>Platform Support Removals<a class="headerlink" href="#platform-support-removals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<ul>
+<li><p>FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported.</p></li>
+<li><p>For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, *nix platforms
+are now expected to provide at least one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.UTF-8</span></code> (full locale),
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C.utf8</span></code> (full locale) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UTF-8</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code>-only locale) as an
+alternative to the legacy <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ASCII</span></code>-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> locale.</p></li>
+<li><p>OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means building CPython
+3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still using these versions
+requires custom build options that link to a more recent version of OpenSSL.</p>
+<p>Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka “jessie”) and Ubuntu 14.04
+(aka “Trusty”) LTS Linux distributions, as they still use OpenSSL 1.0.1 by
+default.</p>
+<p>Debian 9 (“stretch”) and Ubuntu 16.04 (“xenial”), as well as recent releases
+of other LTS Linux releases (e.g. RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES 12-SP3), use OpenSSL
+1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the default build configuration.</p>
+<p>CPython’s own <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/.travis.yml">CI configuration file</a> provides an
+example of using the SSL
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py">compatibility testing infrastructure</a> in
+CPython’s test suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an
+outdated system provided OpenSSL.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="api-and-feature-removals">
+<h2>API and Feature Removals<a class="headerlink" href="#api-and-feature-removals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat_float_times()</span></code> function has been removed. It was introduced in
+Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python 2.2, and was deprecated
+since Python 3.1.</p></li>
+<li><p>Unknown escapes consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter in replacement
+templates for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> were deprecated in Python 3.5, and will now
+cause an error.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed support of the <em>exclude</em> argument in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.add" title="tarfile.TarFile.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile.TarFile.add()</span></code></a>.
+It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and 3.2.  Use the <em>filter</em> argument instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitunc()</span></code> function in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntpath</span></code> module was deprecated in
+Python 3.1, and has now been removed.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.splitdrive" title="os.path.splitdrive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitdrive()</span></code></a>
+function instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> no longer supports the <em>verbose</em> parameter
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_source</span></code> attribute which showed the generated source code for the
+named tuple class.  This was part of an optimization designed to speed-up
+class creation.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements
+by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28638">bpo-28638</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple()</span></code></a> no
+longer take keyword arguments.  The first argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int()</span></code></a> can now
+be passed only as positional argument.</p></li>
+<li><p>Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Plist</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Dict</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_InternalDict</span></code> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#module-plistlib" title="plistlib: Generate and parse Mac OS X plist files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">plistlib</span></code></a> module.  Dict values in the result
+of functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlist" title="plistlib.readPlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readPlist()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/plistlib.html#plistlib.readPlistFromBytes" title="plistlib.readPlistFromBytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">readPlistFromBytes()</span></code></a> are now normal dicts.  You no longer
+can use attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()</span></code> function has been
+removed.  Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socketpair" title="socket.socketpair"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socketpair()</span></code></a> function instead,
+it is available on all platforms since Python 3.5.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair</span></code> was just an alias to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socketpair</span></code> on Python 3.5 and newer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> no longer exports the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/selectors.html#module-selectors" title="selectors: High-level I/O multiplexing."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">selectors</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_overlapped</span></code> modules as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.selectors</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio._overlapped</span></code>. Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">asyncio</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">selectors</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">selectors</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p>Direct instantiation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLSocket" title="ssl.SSLSocket"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLObject" title="ssl.SSLObject"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLObject</span></code></a>
+objects is now prohibited. The constructors were never documented, tested,
+or designed as public constructors.  Users were supposed to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Christian Heimes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32951">bpo-32951</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The unused <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">install_misc</span></code> command has been removed.
+(Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29218">bpo-29218</a>.)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="module-removals">
+<h2>Module Removals<a class="headerlink" href="#module-removals" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fpectl</span></code> module has been removed.  It was never enabled by
+default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python
+ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.
+(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29137">bpo-29137</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="windows-only-changes">
+<h2>Windows-only Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#windows-only-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 &amp; 64 bit specifiers <strong>without</strong>
+having to specify a minor version as well. So <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-3-32</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-3-64</span></code>
+become valid as well as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-3.7-32</span></code>, also the -<em>m</em>-64 and -<em>m.n</em>-64 forms
+are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit would have otherwise
+been used. If the specified version is not available py.exe will error exit.
+(Contributed by Steve Barnes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30291">bpo-30291</a>.)</p>
+<p>The launcher can be run as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-0</span></code> to produce a list of the installed pythons,
+<em>with default marked with an asterisk</em>. Running <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-0p</span></code> will include the paths.
+If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be matched it will also print
+the <em>short form</em> list of available specifiers.
+(Contributed by Steve Barnes in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30362">bpo-30362</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-7">
+<span id="porting-to-python-37"></span><h2>Porting to Python 3.7<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
+that may require changes to your code.</p>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-python-behavior">
+<h3>Changes in Python Behavior<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-python-behavior" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a> names are now reserved keywords.
+Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30406">bpo-30406</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><span class="target" id="index-37"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479"><strong>PEP 479</strong></a> is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></code></a> exceptions raised directly or indirectly in
+coroutines and generators are transformed into <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a>
+exceptions.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32670">bpo-32670</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__aiter__" title="object.__aiter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__aiter__()</span></code></a> methods can no longer be declared as
+asynchronous.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31709">bpo-31709</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the
+following syntax:</p>
+<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">],)</span>
+
+<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">C</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]):</span>
+    <span class="k">pass</span>
+</pre></div>
+</div>
+<p>Python 3.7 now correctly raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a>, as a generator
+expression always needs to be directly inside a set of parentheses
+and cannot have a comma on either side, and the duplication of the
+parentheses can be omitted only on calls.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32012">bpo-32012</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32023">bpo-32023</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>When using the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> switch, the initial working directory is now added
+to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, rather than an empty string (which dynamically denoted
+the current working directory at the time of each import). Any programs that
+are checking for the empty string, or otherwise relying on the previous
+behaviour, will need to be updated accordingly (e.g. by also checking for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwd()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)</span></code>, depending on why
+the code was checking for the empty string in the first place).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-python-api">
+<h3>Changes in the Python API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-python-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> now waits until all
+non-daemon threads complete.  Set the new
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close</span></code> class attribute to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31233">bpo-31233</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33540">bpo-33540</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()</span></code> now waits until all
+child processes complete. Set the new
+<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close</span></code> class attribute to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>
+to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31151">bpo-31151</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33540">bpo-33540</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.localeconv" title="locale.localeconv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.localeconv()</span></code></a> function now temporarily sets the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code>
+locale to the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> in some cases.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31900">bpo-31900</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/pkgutil.html#pkgutil.walk_packages" title="pkgutil.walk_packages"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pkgutil.walk_packages()</span></code></a> now raises a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if <em>path</em> is
+a string.  Previously an empty list was returned.
+(Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24744">bpo-24744</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>A format string argument for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Formatter.format" title="string.Formatter.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Formatter.format()</span></code></a>
+is now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#positional-only-parameter"><span class="std std-ref">positional-only</span></a>.
+Passing it as a keyword argument was deprecated in Python 3.5. (Contributed
+by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29193">bpo-29193</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Attributes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.key" title="http.cookies.Morsel.key"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">key</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">value</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value" title="http.cookies.Morsel.coded_value"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">coded_value</span></code></a> of class
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel" title="http.cookies.Morsel"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies.Morsel</span></code></a> are now read-only.
+Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5.
+Use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.Morsel.set" title="http.cookies.Morsel.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> method for setting them.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29192">bpo-29192</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <em>mode</em> argument of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.makedirs" title="os.makedirs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.makedirs()</span></code></a> no longer affects the file
+permission bits of newly-created intermediate-level directories.
+To set their file permission bits you can set the umask before invoking
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">makedirs()</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19930">bpo-19930</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.Struct.format" title="struct.Struct.format"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.Struct.format</span></code></a> type is now <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21071">bpo-21071</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/cgi.html#cgi.parse_multipart" title="cgi.parse_multipart"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parse_multipart()</span></code></a> now accepts the <em>encoding</em> and <em>errors</em>
+arguments and returns the same results as
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code>: for non-file fields, the value associated to a key
+is a list of strings, not bytes.
+(Contributed by Pierre Quentel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29979">bpo-29979</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Due to internal changes in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>, calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.fromshare" title="socket.fromshare"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.fromshare()</span></code></a>
+on a socket created by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.share" title="socket.socket.share"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.share</span></code></a> in older
+Python versions is not supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BaseException" title="BaseException"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseException</span></code></a> has changed to not include the trailing
+comma.  Most exceptions are affected by this change.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30399">bpo-30399</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code> for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timedelta</span></code></a> has changed to include the keyword
+arguments in the output. (Contributed by Utkarsh Upadhyay in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30302">bpo-30302</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Because <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.rmtree" title="shutil.rmtree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.rmtree()</span></code></a> is now implemented using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.scandir" title="os.scandir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir()</span></code></a>
+function, the user specified handler <em>onerror</em> is now called with the first
+argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.scandir</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.listdir</span></code> when listing the directory
+is failed.</p></li>
+<li><p>Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions as in
+<a class="reference external" href="https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/">Unicode Technical Standard #18</a> might be added in the future.  This would
+change the syntax.  To facilitate this future change a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a>
+will be raised in ambiguous cases for the time being.
+That include sets starting with a literal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'['</span></code> or containing literal
+character sequences <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'--'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'&amp;&amp;'</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'~~'</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'||'</span></code>.  To
+avoid a warning, escape them with a backslash.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30349">bpo-30349</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>The result of splitting a string on a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regular</span> <span class="pre">expression</span></code></a>
+that could match an empty string has been changed.  For example
+splitting on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\s*'</span></code> will now split not only on whitespaces as it
+did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace
+characters and just before the end of the string.
+The previous behavior can be restored by changing the pattern
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'\s+'</span></code>.  A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FutureWarning" title="FutureWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FutureWarning</span></code></a> was emitted for such patterns since
+Python 3.5.</p>
+<p>For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the result of
+searching for all matches may also be changed in other cases.  For example
+in the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a\n\n'</span></code>, the pattern <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'(?m)^\s*?$'</span></code> will not only
+match empty strings at positions 2 and 3, but also the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> at
+positions 2–3.  To match only blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten
+as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'</span></code>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> now replaces empty matches adjacent to a previous
+non-empty match.  For example <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub('x*',</span> <span class="pre">'-',</span> <span class="pre">'abxd')</span></code> returns now
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-a-b--d-'</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'-a-b-d-'</span></code> (the first minus between ‘b’ and
+‘d’ replaces ‘x’, and the second minus replaces an empty string between
+‘x’ and ‘d’).</p>
+<p>(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25054">bpo-25054</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32308">bpo-32308</a>.)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p>Change <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.escape" title="re.escape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.escape()</span></code></a> to only escape regex special characters instead
+of escaping all characters other than ASCII letters, numbers, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'_'</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29995">bpo-29995</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.Traceback" title="tracemalloc.Traceback"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc.Traceback</span></code></a> frames are now sorted from oldest to most
+recent to be more consistent with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/traceback.html#module-traceback" title="traceback: Print or retrieve a stack traceback."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">traceback</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Jesse Bakker in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32121">bpo-32121</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>On OSes that support <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK" title="socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK</span></code></a> or
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC" title="socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC</span></code></a> bit flags, the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.type" title="socket.socket.type"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.type</span></code></a> no longer has them applied.
+Therefore, checks like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">sock.type</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">socket.SOCK_STREAM</span></code>
+work as expected on all platforms.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32331">bpo-32331</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>On Windows the default for the <em>close_fds</em> argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> was changed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code></a>
+when redirecting the standard handles. If you previously depended on handles
+being inherited when using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a> with standard io
+redirection, you will have to pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close_fds=False</span></code> to preserve the
+previous behaviour, or use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList" title="subprocess.STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches()</span></code></a> – which implicitly
+affects <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.invalidate_caches" title="importlib.invalidate_caches"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.invalidate_caches()</span></code></a> – now deletes entries
+in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a> which are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.
+(Contributed by Brett Cannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33169">bpo-33169</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_recv" title="asyncio.loop.sock_recv"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_recv()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_sendall" title="asyncio.loop.sock_sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_sendall()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.sock_accept" title="asyncio.loop.sock_accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_accept()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getaddrinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.getaddrinfo()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.loop.getnameinfo" title="asyncio.loop.getnameinfo"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.getnameinfo()</span></code></a>
+have been changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their
+documentation.  Previously, these methods returned <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-future.html#asyncio.Future" title="asyncio.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Future</span></code></a>
+instances.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32327">bpo-32327</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Server.sockets" title="asyncio.Server.sockets"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Server.sockets</span></code></a> now returns a copy of the internal list
+of server sockets, instead of returning it directly.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32662">bpo-32662</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.Struct.format" title="struct.Struct.format"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Struct.format</span></code></a> is now a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instance
+instead of a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> instance.
+(Contributed by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21071">bpo-21071</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#ast.literal_eval" title="ast.literal_eval"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.literal_eval()</span></code></a> is now stricter.  Addition and subtraction of
+arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31778">bpo-31778</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates" title="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdates"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Calendar.itermonthdates</span></code></a>
+will now consistently raise an exception when a date falls outside of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0001-01-01</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">9999-12-31</span></code> range.  To support applications that
+cannot tolerate such exceptions, the new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays3" title="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays3"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Calendar.itermonthdays3</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/calendar.html#calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays4" title="calendar.Calendar.itermonthdays4"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Calendar.itermonthdays4</span></code></a> can be used.
+The new methods return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28292">bpo-28292</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.ChainMap</span></code></a> now preserves the order of the underlying
+mappings.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32792">bpo-32792</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">submit()</span></code> method of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> now raises
+a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> if called during interpreter shutdown.
+(Contributed by Mark Nemec in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33097">bpo-33097</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser.ConfigParser</span></code></a> constructor now uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_dict()</span></code>
+to process the default values, making its behavior consistent with the
+rest of the parser.  Non-string keys and values in the defaults
+dictionary are now being implicitly converted to strings.
+(Contributed by James Tocknell in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23835">bpo-23835</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Several undocumented internal imports were removed.
+One example is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.errno</span></code> is no longer available; use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">errno</span></code>
+directly instead.
+Note that such undocumented internal imports may be removed any time without
+notice, even in micro version releases.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="changes-in-the-c-api">
+<h3>Changes in the C API<a class="headerlink" href="#changes-in-the-c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_GetIndicesEx" title="PySlice_GetIndicesEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_GetIndicesEx()</span></code></a> is considered unsafe for
+resizable sequences.  If the slice indices are not instances of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>,
+but objects that implement the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__index__()</span></code> method, the sequence can be
+resized after passing its length to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_GetIndicesEx()</span></code>.  This
+can lead to returning indices out of the length of the sequence.  For
+avoiding possible problems use new functions <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_Unpack" title="PySlice_Unpack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_Unpack()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/slice.html#c.PySlice_AdjustIndices" title="PySlice_AdjustIndices"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySlice_AdjustIndices()</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27867">bpo-27867</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="cpython-bytecode-changes">
+<h3>CPython bytecode changes<a class="headerlink" href="#cpython-bytecode-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>There are two new opcodes: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-LOAD_METHOD"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOAD_METHOD</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#opcode-CALL_METHOD"><code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_METHOD</span></code></a>.
+(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26110">bpo-26110</a>.)</p>
+<p>The <code class="xref std std-opcode docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STORE_ANNOTATION</span></code> opcode has been removed.
+(Contributed by Mark Shannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32550">bpo-32550</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id12">
+<h3>Windows-only Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#id12" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>The file used to override <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is now called
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;python-executable&gt;._pth</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'sys.path'</span></code>.
+See <a class="reference internal" href="../using/windows.html#finding-modules"><span class="std std-ref">Finding modules</span></a> for more information.
+(Contributed by Steve Dower in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28137">bpo-28137</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id13">
+<h3>Other CPython implementation changes<a class="headerlink" href="#id13" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<p>In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython runtime
+initialization API (see <span class="target" id="index-38"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0432"><strong>PEP 432</strong></a> for an initial, but somewhat outdated,
+draft), CPython’s internal startup
+and configuration management logic has been significantly refactored. While
+these updates are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding
+applications and users of the regular CPython CLI, they’re being mentioned
+here as the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations
+during interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects,
+either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself.
+(Initially contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22257">bpo-22257</a>, and further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a
+number of other issues). Some known details affected:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode" title="PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()</span></code></a> is not currently usable by embedding
+applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode object prior to
+calling <cite>Py_Initialize</cite>. Use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOption" title="PySys_AddWarnOption"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_AddWarnOption()</span></code></a> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p>warnings filters added by an embedding application with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.PySys_AddWarnOption" title="PySys_AddWarnOption"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_AddWarnOption()</span></code></a> should now more consistently take precedence
+over the default filters set by the interpreter</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured,
+setting <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_BytesWarningFlag" title="Py_BytesWarningFlag"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_BytesWarningFlag</span></code></a> to a value greater than one is no longer
+sufficient to both emit <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#BytesWarning" title="BytesWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesWarning</span></code></a> messages and have them converted
+to exceptions.  Instead, the flag must be set (to cause the warnings to be
+emitted in the first place), and an explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error::BytesWarning</span></code>
+warnings filter added to convert them to exceptions.</p>
+<p>Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the
+implicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">None</span></code> in a function body consisting solely of a docstring
+is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring, not on the
+function’s header line.</p>
+<p>The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the co-routine.
+This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of obscure bugs caused by
+having swap exception state when entering or exiting a generator.
+(Contributed by Mark Shannon in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25612">bpo-25612</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-changes-in-python-3-7-1">
+<h2>Notable changes in Python 3.7.1<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>Starting in 3.7.1, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> now consistently reads and respects
+all of the same environment settings as <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.Py_Main" title="Py_Main"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Main()</span></code></a> (in earlier Python
+versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of those environment variables,
+while in Python 3.7.0 it didn’t read any of them due to <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34247">bpo-34247</a>). If
+this behavior is unwanted, set <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag" title="Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag</span></code></a> to 1 before
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a>.</p>
+<p>In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/contextvars.html#contextvarsobjects-pointertype-change"><span class="std std-ref">was updated</span></a> to use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> pointers.  See also <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34762">bpo-34762</a>.</p>
+<p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.dom.minidom.html#module-xml.dom.minidom" title="xml.dom.minidom: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.dom.minidom</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.sax.html#module-xml.sax" title="xml.sax: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.sax</span></code></a> modules no longer process
+external entities by default. See also <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17239">bpo-17239</a>.</p>
+<p>In 3.7.1 the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tokenize.html#module-tokenize" title="tokenize: Lexical scanner for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tokenize</span></code></a> module now implicitly emits a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NEWLINE</span></code> token
+when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This behavior
+now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
+(Contributed by Ammar Askar in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33899">bpo-33899</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="notable-changes-in-python-3-7-2">
+<h2>Notable changes in Python 3.7.2<a class="headerlink" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p>In 3.7.2, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/venv.html#module-venv" title="venv: Creation of virtual environments."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">venv</span></code></a> on Windows no longer copies the original binaries, but
+creates redirector scripts named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python.exe</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pythonw.exe</span></code> instead.
+This resolves a long standing issue where all virtual environments would have
+to be upgraded or recreated with each Python update. However, note that this
+release will still require recreation of virtual environments in order to get
+the new scripts.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.7</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release Highlights</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-features">New Features</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-563-postponed-evaluation-of-annotations">PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-538-legacy-c-locale-coercion">PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-540-forced-utf-8-runtime-mode">PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-553-built-in-breakpoint">PEP 553: Built-in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-539-new-c-api-for-thread-local-storage">PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-562-customization-of-access-to-module-attributes">PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-564-new-time-functions-with-nanosecond-resolution">PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-565-show-deprecationwarning-in-main">PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-560-core-support-for-typing-module-and-generic-types">PEP 560: Core Support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module and Generic Types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-552-hash-based-pyc-files">PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-545-python-documentation-translations">PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#development-runtime-mode-x-dev">Development Runtime Mode: -X dev</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-modules">New Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextvars">contextvars</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dataclasses">dataclasses</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib-resources">importlib.resources</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#argparse">argparse</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncio">asyncio</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binascii">binascii</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#calendar">calendar</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections">collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compileall">compileall</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#concurrent-futures">concurrent.futures</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib">contextlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cprofile">cProfile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#crypt">crypt</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime">datetime</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dbm">dbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal">decimal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dis">dis</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#distutils">distutils</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#enum">enum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functools">functools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gc">gc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hmac">hmac</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http-client">http.client</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#http-server">http.server</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idlelib-and-idle">idlelib and IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#importlib">importlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#io">io</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ipaddress">ipaddress</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools">itertools</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#locale">locale</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">logging</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#math">math</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mimetypes">mimetypes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#msilib">msilib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#os">os</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pathlib">pathlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pdb">pdb</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#py-compile">py_compile</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#pydoc">pydoc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#queue">queue</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#re">re</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#signal">signal</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket">socket</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#socketserver">socketserver</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl">ssl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string">string</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subprocess">subprocess</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sys">sys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#time">time</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tkinter">tkinter</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tracemalloc">tracemalloc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types">types</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicodedata">unicodedata</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest">unittest</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest-mock">unittest.mock</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib-parse">urllib.parse</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#uu">uu</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#uuid">uuid</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#warnings">warnings</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml">xml</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xml-etree">xml.etree</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#xmlrpc-server">xmlrpc.server</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipapp">zipapp</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#zipfile">zipfile</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#c-api-changes">C API Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-changes">Build Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-cpython-implementation-changes">Other CPython Implementation Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-python-behavior">Deprecated Python Behavior</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#aifc">aifc</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated">asyncio</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3">collections</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id4">dbm</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id5">enum</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#gettext">gettext</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id6">importlib</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id7">locale</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#macpath">macpath</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#threading">threading</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id8">socket</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id9">ssl</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sunau">sunau</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id10">sys</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#wave">wave</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">Deprecated functions and types of the C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#platform-support-removals">Platform Support Removals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-removals">Module Removals</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#windows-only-changes">Windows-only Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-7">Porting to Python 3.7</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-python-behavior">Changes in Python Behavior</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-python-api">Changes in the Python API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#changes-in-the-c-api">Changes in the C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#cpython-bytecode-changes">CPython bytecode changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id12">Windows-only Changes</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id13">Other CPython implementation changes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-1">Notable changes in Python 3.7.1</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-2">Notable changes in Python 3.7.2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
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diff --git a/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/changelog.html b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/changelog.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7db11f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/python-3.7.4-docs-html/whatsnew/changelog.html
@@ -0,0 +1,14343 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>Changelog &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+                  return; // not a valid regex (yet)
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+              // find headers for the versions (What's new in Python X.Y.Z?)
+              $('#changelog h2').each(function(index1, h2) {
+                  var h2_parent = $(h2).parent();
+                  var sections_found = 0;
+                  // find headers for the sections (Core, Library, etc.)
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+                          var li = $(li);
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+                      if (entries_found > 0) {
+                          h3_parent.show();
+                          sections_found++;
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+                      else {
+                          h3_parent.hide();
+                      }
+                  });
+                  if (sections_found > 0)
+                      h2_parent.show();
+                  else
+                      h2_parent.hide();
+              });
+          }
+          $('#searchbox').keyup(dofilter);
+          $('#searchbox-submit').click(dofilter);
+      });
+    </script>
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+    
+    
+    <style>
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+        table.full-width-table {
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="changelog">
+<span id="id1"></span><h1>Changelog<a class="headerlink" href="#changelog" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<div class="section" id="python-next">
+<h2>Python next<a class="headerlink" href="#python-next" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: XXXX-XX-XX</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="core-and-builtins">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#core-and-builtins" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37467">bpo-37467</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.excepthook" title="sys.excepthook"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.excepthook()</span></code></a> and <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Display()</span></code> if a
+filename is a bytes string. For example, for a SyntaxError exception where
+the filename attribute is a bytes string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37417">bpo-37417</a>: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.extend()</span></code> now correctly handles errors that
+arise during iteration. Patch by Brandt Bucher.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="library">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#library" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37421">bpo-37421</a>: Fix <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()</span></code> finalizer: clear
+also the ‘tempdir’ configuration of the current process, so next call to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_temp_dir()</span></code> will create a new temporary directory, rather than
+reusing the removed temporary directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37420">bpo-37420</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sched_setaffinity" title="os.sched_setaffinity"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sched_setaffinity()</span></code></a> now correctly handles errors that
+arise during iteration over its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mask</span></code> argument. Patch by Brandt Bucher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29412">bpo-29412</a>: Fix IndexError in parsing a header value ending unexpectedly.
+Patch by Abhilash Raj.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27860">bpo-27860</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv4Interface</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IPv6Interface</span></code> didn’t accept
+string mask when the argument is tuple.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33972">bpo-33972</a>: Email with single part but content-type set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multipart/*</span></code>
+doesn’t raise AttributeError anymore.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37163">bpo-37163</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.replace" title="dataclasses.replace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses.replace()</span></code></a> now supports the field named “obj”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4963">bpo-4963</a>: Fixed non-deterministic behavior related to mimetypes extension
+mapping and module reinitialization.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="documentation">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#documentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37487">bpo-37487</a>: Fix PyList_GetItem index description to include 0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37478">bpo-37478</a>: Added possible exceptions to the description of os.chdir().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tests">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#tests" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37335">bpo-37335</a>: Improve locale coercion tests by using codec lookup instead of
+more fragile replace().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37411">bpo-37411</a>: Fix test_wsgiref.testEnviron() to no longer depend on the
+environment variables (don’t fail if “X” variable is set).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37400">bpo-37400</a>: Fix test_os.test_chown(): use os.getgroups() rather than
+grp.getgrall() to get groups. Rename also the test to test_chown_gid().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37359">bpo-37359</a>: Add –cleanup option to python3 -m test to remove
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_python_*</span></code> directories of previous failed jobs. Add “make
+cleantest” to run <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">test</span> <span class="pre">--cleanup</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37362">bpo-37362</a>: test_gdb no longer fails if it gets an “unexpected” message on
+stderr: it now ignores stderr. The purpose of test_gdb is to test that
+python-gdb.py commands work as expected, not to test gdb.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34347">bpo-34347</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_utf8_mode.test_cmd_line</span></code> for AIX.  Patch by M. Felt</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="windows">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#windows" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10945">bpo-10945</a>: Officially drop support for creating bdist_wininst installers
+on non-Windows systems.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="idle">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37325">bpo-37325</a>: Fix tab focus traversal order for help source and custom run
+dialogs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26806">bpo-26806</a>: To compensate for stack frames added by IDLE and avoid possible
+problems with low recursion limits, add 30 to limits in the user code
+execution process.  Subtract 30 when reporting recursion limits to make
+this addition mostly transparent.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-4-final">
+<h2>Python 3.7.4 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-4-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2019-07-08</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id2">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37500">bpo-37500</a>: Due to unintended side effects, revert the change introduced by
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1875">bpo-1875</a> in 3.7.4rc1 to check for syntax errors in dead conditional
+code blocks.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id3">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37149">bpo-37149</a>: Replace the dead link to the Tkinter 8.5 reference by John
+Shipman, New Mexico Tech, with a link to the archive.org copy.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-4-release-candidate-2">
+<h2>Python 3.7.4 release candidate 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-4-release-candidate-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2019-07-02</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="security">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#security" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37463">bpo-37463</a>: ssl.match_hostname() no longer accepts IPv4 addresses with
+additional text after the address and only quad-dotted notation without
+trailing whitespaces. Some inet_aton() implementations ignore whitespace
+and all data after whitespace, e.g. ‘127.0.0.1 whatever’.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id4">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24214">bpo-24214</a>: Improved support of the surrogatepass error handler in the
+UTF-8 and UTF-16 incremental decoders.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id5">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37440">bpo-37440</a>: http.client now enables TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication
+for default context or if a cert_file is passed to HTTPSConnection.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37437">bpo-37437</a>: Update vendorized expat version to 2.2.7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37428">bpo-37428</a>: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth = True no longer sets
+SSL_VERIFY_POST_HANDSHAKE verify flag for client connections. Although the
+option is documented as ignored for clients, OpenSSL implicitly enables
+cert chain validation when the flag is set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32627">bpo-32627</a>: Fix compile error when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_uuid</span></code> headers conflicting included.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id6">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id6" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37369">bpo-37369</a>: Fixes path for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.executable" title="sys.executable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code></a> when running from the
+Microsoft Store.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35360">bpo-35360</a>: Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.28.0.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="macos">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#macos" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34602">bpo-34602</a>: Avoid test suite failures on macOS by no longer calling
+resource.setrlimit to increase the process stack size limit at runtime.
+The runtime change is no longer needed since the interpreter is being
+built with a larger default stack size.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-4-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.7.4 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-4-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2019-06-18</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id7">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id7" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35907">bpo-35907</a>: CVE-2019-9948: Avoid file reading by disallowing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local-file://</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">local_file://</span></code> URL schemes in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener().open()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">URLopener().retrieve()</span></code> of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36742">bpo-36742</a>: Fixes mishandling of pre-normalization characters in
+urlsplit().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30458">bpo-30458</a>: Address CVE-2019-9740 by disallowing URL paths with embedded
+whitespace or control characters through into the underlying http client
+request.  Such potentially malicious header injection URLs now cause an
+http.client.InvalidURL exception to be raised.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33529">bpo-33529</a>: Prevent fold function used in email header encoding from
+entering infinite loop when there are too many non-ASCII characters in a
+header.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35755">bpo-35755</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.which" title="shutil.which"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.which()</span></code></a> now uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.confstr(&quot;CS_PATH&quot;)</span></code> if
+available and if the <span class="target" id="index-0"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable is not set.
+Remove also the current directory from <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixpath.defpath</span></code>. On Unix,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.which" title="shutil.which"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.which()</span></code></a> and the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> module no longer search the
+executable in the current directory if the <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment
+variable is not set.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id8">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id8" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37269">bpo-37269</a>: Fix a bug in the peephole optimizer that was not treating
+correctly constant conditions with binary operators. Patch by Pablo
+Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37219">bpo-37219</a>: Remove errorneous optimization for empty set differences.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26423">bpo-26423</a>: Fix possible overflow in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_lenfunc()</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sizeof(long)</span>
+<span class="pre">&lt;</span> <span class="pre">sizeof(Py_ssize_t)</span></code> (e.g., 64-bit Windows).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36829">bpo-36829</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WriteUnraisable" title="PyErr_WriteUnraisable"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WriteUnraisable()</span></code></a> now displays the exception even
+if displaying the traceback failed. Moreover, hold a strong reference to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> while using it. Document that an exception must be set
+when calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_WriteUnraisable" title="PyErr_WriteUnraisable"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WriteUnraisable()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36907">bpo-36907</a>: Fix a crash when calling a C function with a keyword dict
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f(**kwargs)</span></code>) and changing the dict <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">kwargs</span></code> while that function is
+running.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36946">bpo-36946</a>: Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling slices.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27987">bpo-27987</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGC_Head</span></code> structure is aligned to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">double</span></code>.  This is
+needed to ensure GC-ed objects are aligned properly.  Patch by Inada
+Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1875">bpo-1875</a>: A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> is now raised if a code blocks that will be
+optimized away (e.g. if conditions that are always false) contains syntax
+errors. Patch by Pablo Galindo. (Reverted in 3.7.4 final by
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37500">bpo-37500</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28866">bpo-28866</a>: Avoid caching attributes of classes which type defines mro() to
+avoid a hard cache invalidation problem.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27639">bpo-27639</a>: Correct return type for UserList slicing operations. Patch by
+Michael Blahay, Erick Cervantes, and vaultah</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32849">bpo-32849</a>: Fix Python Initialization code on FreeBSD to detect properly
+when stdin file descriptor (fd 0) is invalid.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27987">bpo-27987</a>: pymalloc returns memory blocks aligned by 16 bytes, instead of
+8 bytes, on 64-bit platforms to conform x86-64 ABI. Recent compilers
+assume this alignment more often. Patch by Inada Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36504">bpo-36504</a>: Fix signed integer overflow in _ctypes.c’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCArrayType_new()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20844">bpo-20844</a>: Fix running script with encoding cookie and LF line ending may
+fail on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24214">bpo-24214</a>: Fixed support of the surrogatepass error handler in the UTF-8
+incremental decoder.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36459">bpo-36459</a>: Fix a possible double <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_FREE()</span></code> due to tokenizer.c’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tok_nextc()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36433">bpo-36433</a>: Fixed TypeError message in classmethoddescr_call.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36430">bpo-36430</a>: Fix a possible reference leak in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.count()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36440">bpo-36440</a>: Include node names in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ParserError</span></code> messages, instead of
+numeric IDs. Patch by A. Skrobov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36421">bpo-36421</a>: Fix a possible double decref in _ctypes.c’s
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCArrayType_new()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36256">bpo-36256</a>: Fix bug in parsermodule when parsing a state in a DFA that has
+two or more arcs with labels of the same type. Patch by Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36236">bpo-36236</a>: At Python initialization, the current directory is no longer
+prepended to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> if it has been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36262">bpo-36262</a>: Fix an unlikely memory leak on conversion from string to float
+in the function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_dg_strtod()</span></code> used by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float(str)</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex(str)</span></code>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.load" title="pickle.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.load()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/marshal.html#marshal.load" title="marshal.load"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">marshal.load()</span></code></a>, etc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36218">bpo-36218</a>: Fix a segfault occuring when sorting a list of heterogeneous
+values. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre and Elliot Gorokhovsky.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36035">bpo-36035</a>: Added fix for broken symlinks in combination with pathlib</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18372">bpo-18372</a>: Add missing <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_Track" title="PyObject_GC_Track"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_Track()</span></code></a> calls in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module. Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34408">bpo-34408</a>: Prevent a null pointer dereference and resource leakage in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState_New()</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id9">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id9" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37280">bpo-37280</a>: Use threadpool for reading from file for sendfile fallback
+mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37279">bpo-37279</a>: Fix asyncio sendfile support when sendfile sends extra data in
+fallback mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19865">bpo-19865</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes.create_unicode_buffer" title="ctypes.create_unicode_buffer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.create_unicode_buffer()</span></code></a> now also supports
+non-BMP characters on platforms with 16-bit <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar_t</span></code> (for
+example, Windows and AIX).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35922">bpo-35922</a>: Fix <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RobotFileParser.crawl_delay()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RobotFileParser.request_rate()</span></code> to return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> rather than raise
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> when no relevant rule is defined in the robots.txt
+file.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36607">bpo-36607</a>: Eliminate <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RuntimeError</span></code></a> raised by
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.all_tasks" title="asyncio.all_tasks"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.all_tasks()</span></code></a> if internal tasks weak set is changed by
+another thread during iteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36402">bpo-36402</a>: Fix a race condition at Python shutdown when waiting for
+threads. Wait until the Python thread state of all non-daemon threads get
+deleted (join all non-daemon threads), rather than just wait until
+non-daemon Python threads complete.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34886">bpo-34886</a>: Fix an unintended ValueError from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.run" title="subprocess.run"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.run()</span></code></a> when
+checking for conflicting <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">input</span></code></a> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capture_output</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdout</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stderr</span></code> args when they were explicitly provided but with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/constants.html#None" title="None"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code></a> values within a passed in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> dict rather than as passed
+directly by name. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37173">bpo-37173</a>: The exception message for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfile()</span></code> now correctly
+reports the passed class rather than the builtins module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12639">bpo-12639</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#msilib.Directory.start_component" title="msilib.Directory.start_component"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.Directory.start_component()</span></code></a> no longer fails if
+<em>keyfile</em> is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36520">bpo-36520</a>: Lengthy email headers with UTF-8 characters are now properly
+encoded when they are folded. Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37054">bpo-37054</a>: Fix destructor <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pyio.BytesIO</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_pyio.TextIOWrapper</span></code>: initialize their <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_buffer</span></code> attribute as
+soon as possible (in the class body), because it’s used by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__()</span></code>
+which calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30835">bpo-30835</a>: Fixed a bug in email parsing where a message with invalid bytes
+in content-transfer-encoding of a multipart message can cause an
+AttributeError. Patch by Andrew Donnellan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37035">bpo-37035</a>: Don’t log OSError based exceptions if a fatal error has
+occurred in asyncio transport. Peer can generate almost any OSError, user
+cannot avoid these exceptions by fixing own code. Errors are still
+propagated to user code, it’s just logging them is pointless and pollute
+asyncio logs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37008">bpo-37008</a>: Add support for calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next()</span></code></a> with the mock resulting
+from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.mock_open" title="unittest.mock.mock_open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.mock_open()</span></code></a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27737">bpo-27737</a>: Allow whitespace only header encoding in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code> - by
+Batuhan Taskaya</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36969">bpo-36969</a>: PDB command <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">args</span></code> now  display keyword only arguments. Patch
+contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36983">bpo-36983</a>: Add missing names to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.__all__</span></code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ChainMap</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForwardRef</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OrderedDict</span></code> - by Anthony Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21315">bpo-21315</a>: Email headers containing RFC2047 encoded words are parsed
+despite the missing whitespace, and a defect registered. Also missing
+trailing whitespace after encoded words is now registered as a defect.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33524">bpo-33524</a>: Fix the folding of email header when the max_line_length is 0
+or None and the header contains non-ascii characters.  Contributed by
+Licht Takeuchi (&#64;Licht-T).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24564">bpo-24564</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copystat()</span></code></a> now ignores <a class="reference internal" href="../library/errno.html#errno.EINVAL" title="errno.EINVAL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.EINVAL</span></code></a> on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.setxattr" title="os.setxattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.setxattr()</span></code></a> which may occur when copying files on filesystems
+without extended attributes support.</p>
+<p>Original patch by Giampaolo Rodola, updated by Ying Wang.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36845">bpo-36845</a>: Added validation of integer prefixes to the construction of IP
+networks and interfaces in the ipaddress module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35545">bpo-35545</a>: Fix asyncio discarding IPv6 scopes when ensuring hostname
+resolutions internally</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35070">bpo-35070</a>: posix.getgrouplist() now works correctly when the user belongs
+to NGROUPS_MAX supplemental groups. Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24538">bpo-24538</a>: In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copystat" title="shutil.copystat"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copystat()</span></code></a>, first copy extended file attributes and
+then file permissions, since extended attributes can only be set on the
+destination while it is still writeable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33110">bpo-33110</a>: Handle exceptions raised by functions added by
+concurrent.futures add_done_callback correctly when the Future has already
+completed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26903">bpo-26903</a>: Limit <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_workers</span></code> in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code> to 61 to work
+around a WaitForMultipleObjects limitation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36813">bpo-36813</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.handlers.QueueListener" title="logging.handlers.QueueListener"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueListener</span></code></a> to call
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">queue.task_done()</span></code> upon stopping. Patch by Bar Harel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36734">bpo-36734</a>: Fix compilation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">faulthandler.c</span></code> on HP-UX. Initialize
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stack_t</span> <span class="pre">current_stack</span></code> to zero using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memset()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29183">bpo-29183</a>: Fix double exceptions in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler</span></code></a>
+by calling its <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method only
+when no exception is raised.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36650">bpo-36650</a>: The C version of functools.lru_cache() was treating calls with
+an empty <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> dictionary as being distinct from calls with no
+keywords at all. This did not result in an incorrect answer, but it did
+trigger an unexpected cache miss.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28552">bpo-28552</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../distutils/apiref.html#module-distutils.sysconfig" title="distutils.sysconfig: Low-level access to configuration information of the Python interpreter."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.executable" title="sys.executable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code></a> is
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or an empty string: use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getcwd" title="os.getcwd"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwd()</span></code></a> to initialize
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">project_base</span></code>.  Fix also the distutils build command: don’t use
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.executable" title="sys.executable"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code></a> if it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or an empty string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35755">bpo-35755</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.which" title="shutil.which"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.which()</span></code></a> and
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.spawn.find_executable()</span></code> now use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.confstr(&quot;CS_PATH&quot;)</span></code>
+if available instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.defpath" title="os.defpath"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.defpath</span></code></a>, if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment
+variable is not set. Moreover, don’t use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.confstr(&quot;CS_PATH&quot;)</span></code> nor
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.defpath" title="os.defpath"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.defpath</span></code></a> if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable is set to an empty
+string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36613">bpo-36613</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> wait() not removing callback if exception</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36598">bpo-36598</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance</span></code> check for Mock objects with spec when the
+code is executed under tracing. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36533">bpo-36533</a>: Reinitialize logging.Handler locks in forked child processes
+instead of attempting to acquire them all in the parent before forking
+only to be released in the child process.  The acquire/release pattern was
+leading to deadlocks in code that has implemented any form of chained
+logging handlers that depend upon one another as the lock acquision order
+cannot be guaranteed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36522">bpo-36522</a>: If <em>debuglevel</em> is set to &gt;0 in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a>, print all
+values for headers with multiple values for the same header name. Patch by
+Matt Houglum.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36492">bpo-36492</a>: Arbitrary keyword arguments (even with names “self” and “func”)
+can now be passed to some functions which should accept arbitrary keyword
+arguments and pass them to other function (for example partialmethod(),
+TestCase.addCleanup() and Profile.runcall()) if the required arguments are
+passed as positional arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36434">bpo-36434</a>: Errors during writing to a ZIP file no longer prevent to
+properly close it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34745">bpo-34745</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a> ssl memory issues caused by circular
+references</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36321">bpo-36321</a>: collections.namedtuple() misspelled the name of an attribute.
+To be consistent with typing.NamedTuple, the attribute name should have
+been “_field_defaults” instead of “_fields_defaults”.  For backwards
+compatibility, both spellings are now created.  The misspelled version may
+be removed in the future.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36272">bpo-36272</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> does not silently ignore RecursionError anymore.
+Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36235">bpo-36235</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">customize_compiler()</span></code> of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.sysconfig</span></code>: when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS</span></code> environment variable is
+defined, don’t override <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS</span></code> variable with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OPT</span></code> variable
+anymore. Initial patch written by David Malcolm.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35125">bpo-35125</a>: Asyncio: Remove inner callback on outer cancellation in shield</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35802">bpo-35802</a>: Clean up code which checked presence of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat</span></code> /
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lstat</span></code> / <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod</span></code> which are always present.  Patch by Anthony
+Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23078">bpo-23078</a>: Add support for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.create_autospec()</span></code></a>.  Initial patch by Felipe Ochoa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35721">bpo-35721</a>: Fix <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.SelectorEventLoop.subprocess_exec()</span></code> leaks
+file descriptors if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Popen</span></code> fails and called with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stdin=subprocess.PIPE</span></code>. Patch by Niklas Fiekas.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35726">bpo-35726</a>: QueueHandler.prepare() now makes a copy of the record before
+modifying and enqueueing it, to avoid affecting other handlers in the
+chain.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31855">bpo-31855</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.mock_open" title="unittest.mock.mock_open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.mock_open()</span></code></a> results now respects the
+argument of read([size]). Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35082">bpo-35082</a>: Don’t return deleted attributes when calling dir on a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.Mock</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34547">bpo-34547</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler" title="wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler</span></code></a> now handles abrupt client
+connection terminations gracefully. Patch by Petter Strandmark.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34424">bpo-34424</a>: Fix serialization of messages containing encoded strings when
+the policy.linesep is set to a multi-character string. Patch by Jens
+Troeger.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33361">bpo-33361</a>: Fix a bug in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/codecs.html#codecs.StreamRecoder" title="codecs.StreamRecoder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.StreamRecoder</span></code></a> where seeking might
+leave old data in a buffer and break subsequent read calls. Patch by Ammar
+Askar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31922">bpo-31922</a>: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.create_datagram_endpoint()</span></code>: Do
+not connect UDP socket when broadcast is allowed. This allows to receive
+replies after a UDP broadcast.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22102">bpo-22102</a>: Added support for ZIP files with disks set to 0. Such files are
+commonly created by builtin tools on Windows when use ZIP64 extension.
+Patch by Francisco Facioni.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27141">bpo-27141</a>: Added a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__copy__()</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.UserList</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.UserDict</span></code> in order to correctly implement shallow copying
+of the objects. Patch by Bar Harel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31829">bpo-31829</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\0</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x1a</span></code> (end-of-file on Windows) are now
+escaped in protocol 0 pickles of Unicode strings. This allows to load them
+without loss from files open in text mode in Python 2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31292">bpo-31292</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span> <span class="pre">check</span> <span class="pre">--restructuredtext</span></code> for files containing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">include</span></code> directives.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23395">bpo-23395</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_thread.interrupt_main()</span></code> now avoids setting the Python
+error status if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SIGINT</span></code> signal is ignored or not handled by Python.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id10">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id10" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34903">bpo-34903</a>: Documented that in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.strptime" title="datetime.datetime.strptime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime.strptime()</span></code></a>, the
+leading zero in some two-digit formats is optional. Patch by Mike Gleen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36984">bpo-36984</a>: Improve version added references in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module - by
+Anthony Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36868">bpo-36868</a>: What’s new now mentions SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name
+instead of SSLContext.host_flags.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36783">bpo-36783</a>: Added C API Documentation for Time_FromTimeAndFold and
+PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold as per PEP 495. Patch by Edison
+Abahurire.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30840">bpo-30840</a>: Document relative imports</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36523">bpo-36523</a>: Add docstring for io.IOBase.writelines().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36425">bpo-36425</a>: New documentation translation: <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/zh-cn/">Simplified Chinese</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36157">bpo-36157</a>: Added Documention for  PyInterpreterState_Main().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36138">bpo-36138</a>: Improve documentation about converting datetime.timedelta to
+scalars.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22865">bpo-22865</a>: Add detail to the documentation on the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pty.html#pty.spawn" title="pty.spawn"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pty.spawn</span></code></a> function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35581">bpo-35581</a>: &#64;typing.type_check_only now allows type stubs to mark functions
+and classes not available during runtime.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35564">bpo-35564</a>: Explicitly set master_doc variable in conf.py for compliance
+with Sphinx 2.0</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10536">bpo-10536</a>: Enhance the gettext docs. Patch by Éric Araujo</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32995">bpo-32995</a>: Added the context variable in glossary.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33832">bpo-33832</a>: Add glossary entry for ‘magic method’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33482">bpo-33482</a>: Make <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.StreamRecoder.writelines</span></code> take a list of bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25735">bpo-25735</a>: Added documentation for func factorial to indicate that returns
+integer values</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id11">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id11" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35998">bpo-35998</a>: Avoid TimeoutError in test_asyncio: test_start_tls_server_1()</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37153">bpo-37153</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_venv.test_mutiprocessing()</span></code> now explicitly calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pool.terminate()</span></code> to wait until the pool completes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37081">bpo-37081</a>: Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1c</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36915">bpo-36915</a>: The main regrtest process now always removes all temporary
+directories of worker processes even if they crash or if they are killed
+on KeyboardInterrupt (CTRL+c).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36719">bpo-36719</a>: “python3 -m test -jN …” now continues the execution of next
+tests when a worker process crash (CHILD_ERROR state). Previously, the
+test suite stopped immediately. Use –failfast to stop at the first error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36816">bpo-36816</a>: Update Lib/test/selfsigned_pythontestdotnet.pem to match
+self-signed.pythontest.net’s new TLS certificate.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35925">bpo-35925</a>: Skip httplib and nntplib networking tests when they would
+otherwise fail due to a modern OS or distro with a default OpenSSL policy
+of rejecting connections to servers with weak certificates.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36719">bpo-36719</a>: regrtest now always detects uncollectable objects. Previously,
+the check was only enabled by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--findleaks</span></code>. The check now also works
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-jN/--multiprocess</span> <span class="pre">N</span></code>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--findleaks</span></code> becomes a deprecated alias
+to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--fail-env-changed</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36725">bpo-36725</a>: When using mulitprocessing mode (-jN), regrtest now better
+reports errors if a worker process fails, and it exits immediately on a
+worker thread failure or when interrupted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36454">bpo-36454</a>: Change test_time.test_monotonic() to test only the lower bound
+of elapsed time after a sleep command rather than the upper bound. This
+prevents unnecessary test failures on slow buildbots. Patch by Victor
+Stinner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36629">bpo-36629</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_imap4_host_default_value()</span></code> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_imaplib</span></code>:
+catch also <a class="reference internal" href="../library/errno.html#errno.ENETUNREACH" title="errno.ENETUNREACH"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno.ENETUNREACH</span></code></a> error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36611">bpo-36611</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_sys.test_getallocatedblocks()</span></code> when
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> is enabled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36560">bpo-36560</a>: Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest: compute also deltas (of
+reference count, allocated memory blocks, file descriptor count) during
+warmup, to ensure that everything is initialized before starting to hunt
+reference leaks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36565">bpo-36565</a>: Fix reference hunting (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">test</span> <span class="pre">-R</span> <span class="pre">3:3</span></code>) when Python
+has no built-in abc module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36436">bpo-36436</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_testcapi.pymem_buffer_overflow()</span></code>: handle memory
+allocation failure.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="build">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#build" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36605">bpo-36605</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">tags</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">TAGS</span></code> now also parse
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/_io/*.c</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/_io/*.h</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36508">bpo-36508</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python-config</span> <span class="pre">--ldflags</span></code> no longer includes flags of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINKFORSHARED</span></code> variable. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LINKFORSHARED</span></code> variable must only be
+used to build executables.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id12">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id12" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34631">bpo-34631</a>: Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in Windows installer</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37267">bpo-37267</a>: On Windows, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.dup" title="os.dup"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup()</span></code></a> no longer creates an inheritable fd
+when handling a character file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36779">bpo-36779</a>: Ensure <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.tzname</span></code> is correct on Windows when the active
+code page is set to CP_UTF7 or CP_UTF8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36965">bpo-36965</a>: include of STATUS_CONTROL_C_EXIT without depending on MSC
+compiler</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36649">bpo-36649</a>: Remove trailing spaces for registry keys when installed via the
+Store.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34144">bpo-34144</a>: Fixed activate.bat to correctly update codepage when chcp.com
+returns dots in output. Patch by Lorenz Mende.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35941">bpo-35941</a>: enum_certificates function of the ssl module now returns
+certificates from all available certificate stores inside windows in a
+query instead of returning only certificates from the system wide
+certificate store. This includes certificates from these certificate
+stores: local machine, local machine enterprise, local machine group
+policy, current user, current user group policy, services, users.
+ssl.enum_crls() function is changed in the same way to return all
+certificate revocation lists inside the windows certificate revocation
+list stores.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36441">bpo-36441</a>: Fixes creating a venv when debug binaries are installed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36312">bpo-36312</a>: Fixed decoders for the following code pages: 50220, 50221,
+50222, 50225, 50227, 50229, 57002 through 57011, 65000 and 42.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36010">bpo-36010</a>: Add the venv standard library module to the nuget distribution
+for Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34060">bpo-34060</a>: Report system load when running test suite on Windows. Patch by
+Ammar Askar. Based on prior work by Jeremy Kloth.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id13">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id13" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35360">bpo-35360</a>: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.28.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34631">bpo-34631</a>: Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in macOS installer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36231">bpo-36231</a>: Support building Python on macOS without /usr/include
+installed. As of macOS 10.14, system header files are only available
+within an SDK provided by either the Command Line Tools or the Xcode app.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34602">bpo-34602</a>: Avoid failures setting macOS stack resource limit with
+resource.setrlimit. This reverts an earlier fix for <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18075">bpo-18075</a> which forced
+a non-default stack size when building the interpreter executable on
+macOS.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id14">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id14" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37321">bpo-37321</a>: Both subprocess connection error messages now refer to the
+‘Startup failure’ section of the IDLE doc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37177">bpo-37177</a>: Properly ‘attach’ search dialogs to their main window so that
+they behave like other dialogs and do not get hidden behind their main
+window.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37039">bpo-37039</a>: Adjust “Zoom Height” to individual screens by momemtarily
+maximizing the window on first use with a particular screen.  Changing
+screen settings may invalidate the saved height.  While a window is
+maximized, “Zoom Height” has no effect.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35763">bpo-35763</a>: Make calltip reminder about ‘/’ meaning positional-only less
+obtrusive by only adding it when there is room on the first line.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5680">bpo-5680</a>: Add ‘Run… Customized’ to the Run menu to run a module with
+customized settings.  Any ‘command line arguments’ entered are added to
+sys.argv. One can suppress the normal Shell main module restart.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35610">bpo-35610</a>: Replace now redundant .context_use_ps1 with .prompt_last_line.
+This finishes change started in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31858">bpo-31858</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37038">bpo-37038</a>: Make idlelib.run runnable; add test clause.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36958">bpo-36958</a>: Print any argument other than None or int passed to SystemExit
+or sys.exit().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13102">bpo-13102</a>: When saving a file, call os.fsync() so bits are flushed to e.g.
+USB drive.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36429">bpo-36429</a>: Fix starting IDLE with pyshell. Add idlelib.pyshell alias at
+top; remove pyshell alias at bottom. Remove obsolete __name__==’__main__’
+command.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36405">bpo-36405</a>: Use dict unpacking in idlelib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36396">bpo-36396</a>: Remove fgBg param of idlelib.config.GetHighlight(). This param
+was only used twice and changed the return type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23205">bpo-23205</a>: For the grep module, add tests for findfiles, refactor
+findfiles to be a module-level function, and refactor findfiles to use
+os.walk.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23216">bpo-23216</a>: Add docstrings to IDLE search modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30348">bpo-30348</a>: Increase test coverage of idlelib.autocomplete by 30%.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32411">bpo-32411</a>: In browser.py, remove extraneous sorting by line number since
+dictionary was created in line number order.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="tools-demos">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#tools-demos" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14546">bpo-14546</a>: Fix the argument handling in Tools/scripts/lll.py.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32217">bpo-32217</a>: Fix freeze script on Windows.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="c-api">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#c-api" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28805">bpo-28805</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_FASTCALL" title="METH_FASTCALL"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_FASTCALL</span></code></a> calling convention has been
+documented.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue37170">bpo-37170</a>: Fix the cast on error in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask" title="PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36389">bpo-36389</a>: Change the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLEANBYTE</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DEADDYTE</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FORBIDDENBYTE</span></code> internal constants used by debug hooks on Python memory
+allocators (<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a> function). Byte patterns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xCB</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xDB</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFB</span></code> have been replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xCD</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xDD</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0xFD</span></code> to use the same values than Windows CRT debug <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">free()</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-3-final">
+<h2>Python 3.7.3 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-3-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2019-03-25</em></p>
+<p>There were no new changes in version 3.7.3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-3-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.7.3 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-3-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2019-03-12</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id15">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id15" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36216">bpo-36216</a>: Changes urlsplit() to raise ValueError when the URL contains
+characters that decompose under IDNA encoding (NFKC-normalization) into
+characters that affect how the URL is parsed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35746">bpo-35746</a>: [CVE-2019-5010] Fix a NULL pointer deref in ssl module. The
+cert parser did not handle CRL distribution points with empty DP or URI
+correctly. A malicious or buggy certificate can result into segfault.
+Vulnerability (TALOS-2018-0758) reported by Colin Read and Nicolas Edet of
+Cisco.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35121">bpo-35121</a>: Don’t send cookies of domain A without Domain attribute to
+domain B when domain A is a suffix match of domain B while using a
+cookiejar with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookiejar.html#http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy" title="http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy</span></code></a> policy. Patch
+by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id16">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id16" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35942">bpo-35942</a>: The error message emitted when returning invalid types from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__fspath__</span></code> in interfaces that allow passing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PathLike</span></code></a>
+objects has been improved and now it does explain the origin of the error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35992">bpo-35992</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class_getitem__()</span></code> not being called on a class with a
+custom non-subscriptable metaclass.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35991">bpo-35991</a>: Fix a potential double free in Modules/_randommodule.c.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35961">bpo-35961</a>: Fix a crash in slice_richcompare(): use strong references
+rather than stolen references for the two temporary internal tuples.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31506">bpo-31506</a>: Clarify the errors reported when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__new__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__init__</span></code> receive more than one argument. Contributed by Sanyam
+Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35720">bpo-35720</a>: Fixed a minor memory leak in pymain_parse_cmdline_impl function
+in Modules/main.c</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35623">bpo-35623</a>: Fix a crash when sorting very long lists. Patch by Stephan
+Hohe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35214">bpo-35214</a>: clang Memory Sanitizer build instrumentation was added to work
+around false positives from posix, socket, time, test_io, and
+test_faulthandler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35560">bpo-35560</a>: Fix an assertion error in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> in debug build for
+floating point formatting with “n” format, zero padding and small width.
+Release build is not impacted. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35552">bpo-35552</a>: Format characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%V</span></code> in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_FromFormat" title="PyUnicode_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_FromFormat()</span></code></a> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%s</span></code> in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c.PyBytes_FromFormat" title="PyBytes_FromFormat"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyBytes_FromFormat()</span></code></a>
+no longer read memory past the limit if <em>precision</em> is specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35504">bpo-35504</a>: Fix segfaults and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a>s when deleting certain
+attributes. Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33989">bpo-33989</a>: Fix a possible crash in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> when sorting objects
+with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type-&gt;tp_richcompare</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id17">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id17" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35931">bpo-35931</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">debug</span></code> command now gracefully handles all
+exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36251">bpo-36251</a>: Fix format strings used for stderrprinter and re.Match reprs.
+Patch by Stephan Hohe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35807">bpo-35807</a>: Update ensurepip to install pip 19.0.3 and setuptools 40.8.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36179">bpo-36179</a>: Fix two unlikely reference leaks in _hashopenssl. The leaks
+only occur in out-of-memory cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35178">bpo-35178</a>: Ensure custom <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.formatwarning" title="warnings.formatwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.formatwarning()</span></code></a> function can
+receive <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line</span></code> as positional argument. Based on patch by Tashrif Billah.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36106">bpo-36106</a>: Resolve potential name clash with libm’s sinpi(). Patch by
+Dmitrii Pasechnik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35512">bpo-35512</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.patch.dict" title="unittest.mock.patch.dict"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.patch.dict()</span></code></a> used as a decorator with
+string target resolves the target during function call instead of during
+decorator construction. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36091">bpo-36091</a>: Clean up reference to async generator in Lib/types. Patch by
+Henry Chen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35899">bpo-35899</a>: Enum has been fixed to correctly handle empty strings and
+strings with non-Latin characters (ie. ‘α’, ‘א’) without crashing.
+Original patch contributed by Maxwell. Assisted by Stéphane Wirtel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35918">bpo-35918</a>: Removed broken <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">has_key</span></code> method from
+multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict. Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35960">bpo-35960</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dataclasses.html#dataclasses.field" title="dataclasses.field"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dataclasses.field()</span></code></a> throwing away empty mapping
+objects passed as metadata.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35847">bpo-35847</a>: RISC-V needed the CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK.  Fixes ctypes
+Structure test_pass_by_value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35780">bpo-35780</a>: Fix lru_cache() errors arising in recursive, reentrant, or
+multi-threaded code. These errors could result in orphan links and in the
+cache being trapped in a state with fewer than the specified maximum
+number of links. Fix handling of negative maxsize which should have been
+treated as zero. Fix errors in toggling the “full” status flag. Fix
+misordering of links when errors are encountered.  Sync-up the C code and
+pure Python code for the space saving path in functions with a single
+positional argument. In this common case, the space overhead of an lru
+cache entry is reduced by almost half.  Fix counting of cache misses. In
+error cases, the miss count was out of sync with the actual number of
+times the underlying user function was called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23846">bpo-23846</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.ProactorEventLoop" title="asyncio.ProactorEventLoop"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.ProactorEventLoop</span></code></a> now catches and logs send
+errors when the self-pipe is full.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34323">bpo-34323</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio.html#module-asyncio" title="asyncio: Asynchronous I/O."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio</span></code></a>: Enhance <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IocpProactor.close()</span></code> log: wait 1
+second before the first log, then log every second. Log also the number of
+seconds since <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> was called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34294">bpo-34294</a>: re module, fix wrong capturing groups in rare cases.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.findall" title="re.findall"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.findall()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> and other functions
+that scan through string looking for a match, should reset capturing
+groups between two match attempts. Patch by Ma Lin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35717">bpo-35717</a>: Fix KeyError exception raised when using enums and compile.
+Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35699">bpo-35699</a>: Fixed detection of Visual Studio Build Tools 2017 in distutils</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32710">bpo-32710</a>: Fix memory leaks in asyncio ProactorEventLoop on overlapped
+operation failure.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32710">bpo-32710</a>: Fix a memory leak in asyncio in the ProactorEventLoop when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadFile()</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WSASend()</span></code> overlapped operation fail immediately:
+release the internal buffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35682">bpo-35682</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.ProactorEventLoop.sendfile()</span></code>: don’t attempt to
+set the result of an internal future if it’s already done.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35283">bpo-35283</a>: Add a pending deprecated warning for the
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread.isAlive()</span></code> method. Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35643">bpo-35643</a>: Fixed a SyntaxWarning: invalid escape sequence in
+Modules/_sha3/cleanup.py. Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35615">bpo-35615</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/weakref.html#module-weakref" title="weakref: Support for weak references and weak dictionaries."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">weakref</span></code></a>: Fix a RuntimeError when copying a
+WeakKeyDictionary or a WeakValueDictionary, due to some keys or values
+disappearing while iterating.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28503">bpo-28503</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/crypt.html#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt</span></code></a> module now internally uses the <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt_r()</span></code> library
+function instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/crypt.html#module-crypt" title="crypt: The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crypt()</span></code></a> when available.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35121">bpo-35121</a>: Don’t set cookie for a request when the request path is a
+prefix match of the cookie’s path attribute but doesn’t end with “/”.
+Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35585">bpo-35585</a>: Speed-up building enums by value, e.g. http.HTTPStatus(200).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21478">bpo-21478</a>: Calls to a child function created with
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.create_autospec" title="unittest.mock.create_autospec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.create_autospec()</span></code></a> should propagate to the parent.
+Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35513">bpo-35513</a>: <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextTestRunner</span></code> of
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.runner</span></code> now uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a> rather than
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> to measure the execution time of a test:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> can go backwards, whereas <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.perf_counter" title="time.perf_counter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.perf_counter()</span></code></a> is
+monotonic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35502">bpo-35502</a>: Fixed reference leaks in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder</span></code></a> in case of unfinished building
+of the tree (in particular when an error was raised during parsing XML).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31446">bpo-31446</a>: Copy command line that was passed to CreateProcessW since this
+function can change the content of the input buffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20239">bpo-20239</a>: Allow repeated assignment deletion of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.Mock</span></code></a> attributes. Patch by Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17185">bpo-17185</a>: Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__signature__</span></code> on mock for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> to get
+signature. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10496">bpo-10496</a>: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_environ()</span></code> of
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.utils</span></code> now catches <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyError</span></code></a> on calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwuid" title="pwd.getpwuid"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd.getpwuid()</span></code></a>: don’t create the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOME</span></code> environment variable in
+this case.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35066">bpo-35066</a>: Previously, calling the strftime() method on a datetime object
+with a trailing ‘%’ in the format string would result in an exception.
+However, this only occured when the datetime C module was being used; the
+python implementation did not match this behavior. Datetime is now PEP-399
+compliant, and will not throw an exception on a trailing ‘%’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24746">bpo-24746</a>: Avoid stripping trailing whitespace in doctest fancy diff.
+Orignial patch by R. David Murray &amp; Jairo Trad. Enhanced by Sanyam
+Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35198">bpo-35198</a>: Fix C++ extension compilation on AIX</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28441">bpo-28441</a>: On Cygwin and MinGW, ensure that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.executable</span></code> always
+includes the full filename in the path, including the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.exe</span></code> suffix
+(unless it is a symbolic link).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34572">bpo-34572</a>: Fix C implementation of pickle.loads to use importlib’s locking
+mechanisms, and thereby avoid using partially-loaded modules. Patch by Tim
+Burgess.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33687">bpo-33687</a>: Fix the call to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chmod()</span></code> for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uu.decode()</span></code> if a mode is
+given or decoded. Patch by Timo Furrer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32146">bpo-32146</a>: Document the interaction between frozen executables and the
+spawn and forkserver start methods in multiprocessing.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id18">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id18" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36083">bpo-36083</a>: Fix formatting of –check-hash-based-pycs options in the
+manpage Synopsis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34764">bpo-34764</a>: Improve example of iter() with 2nd sentinel argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21314">bpo-21314</a>: A new entry was added to the Core Language Section of the
+Programming FAQ, which explaines the usage of slash(/) in the signature of
+a function. Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22062">bpo-22062</a>: Update documentation and docstrings for pathlib. Original patch
+by Mike Short.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id19">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id19" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36234">bpo-36234</a>: test_posix.PosixUidGidTests: add tests for invalid uid/gid type
+(str). Initial patch written by David Malcolm.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29571">bpo-29571</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_re.test_locale_flag()</span></code>:  use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code> rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getlocale()</span></code> to
+get the locale encoding. With some locales, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getlocale()</span></code> returns
+the wrong encoding. On Windows, set temporarily the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale to
+the user preferred encoding to ensure that it uses the ANSI code page, to
+be consistent with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36123">bpo-36123</a>: Fix race condition in test_socket.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27313">bpo-27313</a>: Avoid test_ttk_guionly ComboboxTest failure with macOS Cocoa
+Tk.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36019">bpo-36019</a>: Add test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL and replace references of
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.example.com">http://www.example.com</a> by this new constant. Contributed by Stéphane
+Wirtel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36037">bpo-36037</a>: Fix test_ssl for strict OpenSSL configuration like RHEL8 strict
+crypto policy. Use older TLS version for minimum TLS version of the server
+SSL context if needed, to test TLS version older than default minimum TLS
+version.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35505">bpo-35505</a>: Make test_imap4_host_default_value independent on whether the
+local IMAP server is running.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35917">bpo-35917</a>: multiprocessing: provide unit tests for SyncManager and
+SharedMemoryManager classes + all the shareable types which are supposed
+to be supported by them.  (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35772">bpo-35772</a>: Fix sparse file tests of test_tarfile on ppc64 with the tmpfs
+filesystem. Fix the function testing if the filesystem supports sparse
+files: create a file which contains data and “holes”, instead of creating
+a file which contains no data. tmpfs effective block size is a page size
+(tmpfs lives in the page cache). RHEL uses 64 KiB pages on aarch64, ppc64,
+ppc64le, only s390x and x86_64 use 4 KiB pages, whereas the test punch
+holes of 4 KiB.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35045">bpo-35045</a>: Make ssl tests less strict and also accept TLSv1 as system
+default. The changes unbreaks test_min_max_version on Fedora 29.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31731">bpo-31731</a>: Fix a race condition in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">check_interrupted_write()</span></code> of
+test_io: create directly the thread with SIGALRM signal blocked, rather
+than blocking the signal later from the thread. Previously, it was
+possible that the thread gets the signal before the signal is blocked.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35424">bpo-35424</a>: Fix test_multiprocessing_main_handling: use
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Pool</span></code> with a context manager and then explicitly
+join the pool.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35519">bpo-35519</a>: Rename <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.bisect</span></code> module to <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.bisect_cmd</span></code> to
+avoid conflict with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/bisect.html#module-bisect" title="bisect: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bisect</span></code></a> module when running directly a test like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">./python</span> <span class="pre">Lib/test/test_xmlrpc.py</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35513">bpo-35513</a>: Replace <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.monotonic" title="time.monotonic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.monotonic()</span></code></a> in tests
+to measure time delta.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34279">bpo-34279</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/test.html#test.support.run_unittest" title="test.support.run_unittest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support.run_unittest()</span></code></a> no longer raise
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestDidNotRun</span></code> if the test result contains skipped tests. The
+exception is now only raised if no test have been run and no test have
+been skipped.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35412">bpo-35412</a>: Add testcase to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_future4</span></code>: check unicode literal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26704">bpo-26704</a>: Added test demonstrating double-patching of an instance method.
+Patch by Anthony Sottile.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id20">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id20" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34691">bpo-34691</a>: The _contextvars module is now built into the core Python
+library on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35683">bpo-35683</a>: Improved Azure Pipelines build steps and now verifying layouts
+correctly</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35642">bpo-35642</a>: Remove asynciomodule.c from pythoncore.vcxproj</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35550">bpo-35550</a>: Fix incorrect Solaris #ifdef checks to look for __sun &amp;&amp; __SVR4
+instead of sun when compiling.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id21">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id21" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24643">bpo-24643</a>: Fix name collisions due to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#define</span> <span class="pre">timezone</span> <span class="pre">_timezone</span></code> in
+PC/pyconfig.h.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35692">bpo-35692</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib</span></code> no longer raises when checking file and directory
+existence on drives that are not ready</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35872">bpo-35872</a>: Uses the base Python executable when invoking venv in a virtual
+environment</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35873">bpo-35873</a>: Prevents venv paths being inherited by child processes</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35299">bpo-35299</a>: Fix sysconfig detection of the source directory and distutils
+handling of pyconfig.h during PGO profiling</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32560">bpo-32560</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span></code> launcher now forwards its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO</span></code> structure
+to child processes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35854">bpo-35854</a>: Fix EnvBuilder and –symlinks in venv on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35811">bpo-35811</a>: Avoid propagating venv settings when launching via py.exe</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35797">bpo-35797</a>: Fix default executable used by the multiprocessing module</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29734">bpo-29734</a>: Fix handle leaks in os.stat on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35596">bpo-35596</a>: Use unchecked PYCs for the embeddable distro to avoid zipimport
+restrictions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35596">bpo-35596</a>: Fix vcruntime140.dll being added to embeddable distro multiple
+times.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35402">bpo-35402</a>: Update Windows build to use Tcl and Tk 8.6.9</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33316">bpo-33316</a>: PyThread_release_lock always fails</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1104">bpo-1104</a>: Correctly handle string length in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.SummaryInfo.GetProperty()</span></code> to prevent it from truncating the
+last character.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id22">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id22" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36176">bpo-36176</a>: Fix IDLE autocomplete &amp; calltip popup colors. Prevent conflicts
+with Linux dark themes (and slightly darken calltip background).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36152">bpo-36152</a>: Remove colorizer.ColorDelegator.close_when_done and the
+corresponding argument of .close().  In IDLE, both have always been None
+or False since 2007.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32129">bpo-32129</a>: Avoid blurry IDLE application icon on macOS with Tk 8.6. Patch
+by Kevin Walzer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24310">bpo-24310</a>: IDLE – Document settings dialog font tab sample.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue36096">bpo-36096</a>: Refactor class variables to instance variables in colorizer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35833">bpo-35833</a>: Revise IDLE doc for control codes sent to Shell. Add a code
+example block.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35770">bpo-35770</a>: IDLE macosx deletes Options =&gt; Configure IDLE. It previously
+deleted Window =&gt; Zoom Height by mistake. (Zoom Height is now on the
+Options menu).  On Mac, the settings dialog is accessed via Preferences on
+the IDLE menu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35769">bpo-35769</a>: Change IDLE’s new file name from ‘Untitled’ to ‘untitled’</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35689">bpo-35689</a>: Add docstrings and unittests for colorizer.py.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35660">bpo-35660</a>: Fix imports in idlelib.window.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35641">bpo-35641</a>: Proper format <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calltip</span></code> when the function has no docstring.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33987">bpo-33987</a>: Use ttk Frame for ttk widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34055">bpo-34055</a>: Fix erroneous ‘smart’ indents and newlines in IDLE Shell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35591">bpo-35591</a>: Find Selection now works when selection not found.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35196">bpo-35196</a>: Speed up squeezer line counting.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35598">bpo-35598</a>: Update config_key: use PEP 8 names and ttk widgets, make some
+objects global, and add tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28097">bpo-28097</a>: Add Previous/Next History entries to Shell menu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35208">bpo-35208</a>: Squeezer now properly counts wrapped lines before newlines.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35555">bpo-35555</a>: Gray out Code Context menu entry when it’s not applicable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35521">bpo-35521</a>: Document the IDLE editor code context feature. Add some
+internal references within the IDLE doc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22703">bpo-22703</a>: The Code Context menu label now toggles between Show/Hide Code
+Context. The Zoom Height menu now toggles between Zoom/Restore Height.
+Zoom Height has moved from the Window menu to the Options menu.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id23">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id23" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35132">bpo-35132</a>: Fix py-list and py-bt commands of python-gdb.py on gdb7.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id24">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id24" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33817">bpo-33817</a>: Fixed <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/bytes.html#c._PyBytes_Resize" title="_PyBytes_Resize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyBytes_Resize()</span></code></a> for empty bytes objects.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-2-final">
+<h2>Python 3.7.2 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-2-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-12-23</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id25">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id25" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31715">bpo-31715</a>: Associate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.mjs</span></code> file extension with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">application/javascript</span></code> MIME Type.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id26">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id26" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35499">bpo-35499</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">profile-opt</span></code> no longer replaces <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS_NODIST</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS</span></code>. It now adds profile-guided optimization (PGO) flags to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS_NODIST</span></code>: existing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS_NODIST</span></code> flags are kept.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35257">bpo-35257</a>: Avoid leaking the linker flags from Link Time Optimizations
+(LTO) into distutils when compiling C extensions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id27">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id27" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35259">bpo-35259</a>: Conditionally declare <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_FinalizeEx" title="Py_FinalizeEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_FinalizeEx()</span></code></a> (new in 3.6)
+based on Py_LIMITED_API. Patch by Arthur Neufeld.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-2-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.7.2 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-2-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-12-11</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id28">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id28" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34812">bpo-34812</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a> command line option (run Python in isolated
+mode) is now also copied by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> modules when spawning child processes. Previously, only
+<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-e"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-E</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-s"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code></a> options (enabled by <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#id2"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-I</span></code></a>) were
+copied.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34791">bpo-34791</a>: The xml.sax and xml.dom.domreg no longer use environment
+variables to override parser implementations when
+sys.flags.ignore_environment is set by -E or -I arguments.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id29">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id29" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35444">bpo-35444</a>: Fixed error handling in pickling methods when fail to look up
+builtin “getattr”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35436">bpo-35436</a>: Fix various issues with memory allocation error handling.
+Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35357">bpo-35357</a>: Internal attributes’ names of unittest.mock._Call and
+unittest.mock.MagicProxy (name, parent &amp; from_kall) are now prefixed with
+_mock_ in order to prevent clashes with widely used object attributes.
+Fixed minor typo in test function name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35372">bpo-35372</a>: Fixed the code page decoder for input longer than 2 GiB
+containing undecodable bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35336">bpo-35336</a>: Fix PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=1 environment variable: only coerce the
+C locale if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33954">bpo-33954</a>: For <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float.__format__()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex.__format__()</span></code> methods for non-ASCII decimal point when using
+the “n” formatter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35269">bpo-35269</a>: Fix a possible segfault involving a newly-created coroutine.
+Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35214">bpo-35214</a>: Fixed an out of bounds memory access when parsing a truncated
+unicode escape sequence at the end of a string such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\N'</span></code>.  It would
+read one byte beyond the end of the memory allocation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35214">bpo-35214</a>: The interpreter and extension modules have had annotations
+added so that they work properly under clang’s Memory Sanitizer.  A new
+configure flag –with-memory-sanitizer has been added to make test builds
+of this nature easier to perform.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35193">bpo-35193</a>: Fix an off by one error in the bytecode peephole optimizer
+where it could read bytes beyond the end of bounds of an array when
+removing unreachable code. This bug was present in every release of Python
+3.6 and 3.7 until now.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29341">bpo-29341</a>: Clarify in the docstrings of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> methods that path-like
+objects are also accepted as input parameters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35050">bpo-35050</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a>: Fix off-by-one bug in length check for
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_ALG</span></code> name and type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34974">bpo-34974</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> constructors no longer
+convert unexpected exceptions (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#MemoryError" title="MemoryError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MemoryError</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#KeyboardInterrupt" title="KeyboardInterrupt"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KeyboardInterrupt</span></code></a>) to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34973">bpo-34973</a>: Fixed crash in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code></a> when the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> argument is
+mutated while it is iterated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34824">bpo-34824</a>: Fix a possible null pointer dereference in Modules/_ssl.c.
+Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1621">bpo-1621</a>: Do not assume signed integer overflow behavior (C undefined
+behavior) when performing set hash table resizing.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id30">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id30" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35052">bpo-35052</a>: Fix xml.dom.minidom cloneNode() on a document with an entity:
+pass the correct arguments to the user data handler of an entity.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35330">bpo-35330</a>: When a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Mock</span></code> instance was used to wrap an object, if
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">side_effect</span></code> is used in one of the mocks of it methods, don’t call the
+original implementation and return the result of using the side effect the
+same way that it is done with return_value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34172">bpo-34172</a>: Revert the fix for this issue previously released in 3.7.1
+pending further investigation: Fix a reference issue inside
+multiprocessing.Pool that caused the pool to remain alive if it was
+deleted without being closed or terminated explicitly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10496">bpo-10496</a>: <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixpath.expanduser()</span></code> now returns the input <em>path</em>
+unchanged if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HOME</span></code> environment variable is not set and the current
+user has no home directory (if the current user identifier doesn’t exist
+in the password database). This change fix the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module if the
+current user doesn’t exist in the password database (if the user has no
+home directory).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35310">bpo-35310</a>: Fix a bug in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a> where, in some cases, the
+file descriptor sequences were returned unmodified after a signal
+interruption, even though the file descriptors might not be ready yet.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a> will now always return empty lists if a timeout has
+occurred.  Patch by Oran Avraham.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35380">bpo-35380</a>: Enable TCP_NODELAY on Windows for proactor asyncio event loop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35341">bpo-35341</a>: Add generic version of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code> to the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module. Patch by Ismo Toijala.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35371">bpo-35371</a>: Fixed possible crash in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.utime()</span></code> on Windows when pass
+incorrect arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27903">bpo-27903</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code> in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#platform.dist" title="platform.dist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform.dist()</span></code></a> on SuSE and
+Caldera OpenLinux. Patch by Ville Skyttä.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35308">bpo-35308</a>: Fix regression in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code> where default browsers may be
+preferred over browsers in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BROWSER</span></code> environment variable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28604">bpo-28604</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.localeconv" title="locale.localeconv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.localeconv()</span></code></a> now sets temporarily the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code>
+locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_MONETARY</span></code> locale if the two locales are different and
+monetary strings are non-ASCII. This temporary change affects other
+threads.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35277">bpo-35277</a>: Update ensurepip to install pip 18.1 and setuptools 40.6.2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35226">bpo-35226</a>: Recursively check arguments when testing for equality of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.call" title="unittest.mock.call"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.call</span></code></a> objects and add note that tracking of
+parameters used to create ancestors of mocks in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mock_calls</span></code> is not
+possible.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29564">bpo-29564</a>: The warnings module now suggests to enable tracemalloc if the
+source is specified, the tracemalloc module is available, but tracemalloc
+is not tracing memory allocations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35189">bpo-35189</a>: Modify the following fnctl function to retry if interrupted by
+a signal (EINTR): flock, lockf, fnctl</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35062">bpo-35062</a>: Fix incorrect parsing of
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder</span></code>’s <em>translate</em> argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35079">bpo-35079</a>: Improve difflib.SequenceManager.get_matching_blocks doc by
+adding ‘non-overlapping’ and changing ‘!=’ to ‘&lt;’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35017">bpo-35017</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever" title="socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever()</span></code></a> now exits
+immediately if it’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown" title="socketserver.BaseServer.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a> method is
+called while it is polling for new events.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31047">bpo-31047</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntpath.abspath</span></code> regression where it didn’t remove a
+trailing separator on Windows. Patch by Tim Graham.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34794">bpo-34794</a>: Fixed a leak in Tkinter when pass the Python wrapper around
+Tcl_Obj back to Tcl/Tk.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35008">bpo-35008</a>: Fixed references leaks when call the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code> method
+of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.Element</span></code></a> in the C implementation for
+already initialized element.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23420">bpo-23420</a>: Verify the value for the parameter ‘-s’ of the cProfile CLI.
+Patch by Robert Kuska</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33947">bpo-33947</a>: dataclasses now handle recursive reprs without raising
+RecursionError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16965">bpo-16965</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-2to3"><span class="xref std std-term">2to3</span></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-execfile"><code class="xref std std-2to3fixer docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">execfile</span></code></a> fixer now opens the file
+with mode <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'rb'</span></code>.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34966">bpo-34966</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> now supports aliases not only to methods defined
+in the end class, but also to inherited methods.  The docstring is not
+duplicated for aliases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34941">bpo-34941</a>: Methods <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">find()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findtext()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">findall()</span></code> of the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> class in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> module are now able
+to find children which are instances of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element</span></code> subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34936">bpo-34936</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TclError</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.Spinbox.selection_element()</span></code>.
+Patch by Juliette Monsel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34866">bpo-34866</a>: Adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_num_fields</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgi.FieldStorage</span></code> to make DOS
+attacks harder by limiting the number of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MiniFieldStorage</span></code> objects
+created by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FieldStorage</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34022">bpo-34022</a>: The <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code> environment variable no longer
+overrides the value of the <em>invalidation_mode</em> argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#py_compile.compile" title="py_compile.compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile.compile()</span></code></a>, and determines its default value instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34738">bpo-34738</a>: ZIP files created by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> will now include entries
+for directories.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31177">bpo-31177</a>: Fix bug that prevented using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock" title="unittest.mock.Mock.reset_mock"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reset_mock</span></code></a> on mock instances with deleted attributes</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34536">bpo-34536</a>: <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum._missing_</span></code>:  raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> if None returned and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if non-member is returned.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34604">bpo-34604</a>: Fix possible mojibake in the error message of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwnam" title="pwd.getpwnam"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd.getpwnam</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/grp.html#grp.getgrnam" title="grp.getgrnam"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp.getgrnam</span></code></a> using string representation because of invisible
+characters or trailing whitespaces. Patch by William Grzybowski.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34574">bpo-34574</a>: OrderedDict iterators are not exhausted during pickling
+anymore. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34052">bpo-34052</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate" title="sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.create_function" title="sqlite3.Connection.create_function"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.create_function()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer" title="sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler" title="sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler()</span></code></a> methods raises TypeError
+when unhashable objects are passed as callable. These methods now don’t
+pass such objects to SQLite API. Previous behavior could lead to
+segfaults. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29877">bpo-29877</a>: compileall: import ProcessPoolExecutor only when needed,
+preventing hangs on low resource platforms</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22005">bpo-22005</a>: Implemented unpickling instances of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">date</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time" title="datetime.time"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> pickled by Python 2. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoding='latin1'</span></code> should
+be used for successful decoding.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id31">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id31" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35089">bpo-35089</a>: Remove mention of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.io</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.re</span></code>. Their types
+should be imported from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> directly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35038">bpo-35038</a>: Fix the documentation about an unexisting <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_restricted</span></code>
+attribute in the frame object. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35044">bpo-35044</a>: Fix the documentation with the role <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc</span></code> for the
+appropriated exception. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35035">bpo-35035</a>: Rename documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.utils.html#module-email.utils" title="email.utils: Miscellaneous email package utilities."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils</span></code></a> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.utils.rst</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34967">bpo-34967</a>: Use app.add_object_type() instead of the deprecated Sphinx
+function app.description_unit()</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11233">bpo-11233</a>: Create availability directive for documentation.  Original
+patch by Georg Brandl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33594">bpo-33594</a>: Document <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getargspec</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_function</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_builtin</span></code>
+as deprecated in their respective docstring, and include version since
+deprecation in DeprecationWarning message.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32613">bpo-32613</a>: Update the faq/windows.html to use the py command from PEP 397
+instead of python.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id32">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id32" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33725">bpo-33725</a>: test_multiprocessing_fork may crash on recent versions of
+macOS.  Until the issue is resolved, skip the test on macOS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35352">bpo-35352</a>: Modify test_asyncio to use the certificate set from the test
+directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35317">bpo-35317</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mktime()</span></code> overflow error in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_email</span></code>: run
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_localtime_daylight_true_dst_true()</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_localtime_daylight_false_dst_true()</span></code> with a specific timezone.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21263">bpo-21263</a>: After several reports that test_gdb does not work properly on
+macOS and since gdb is not shipped by default anymore, test_gdb is now
+skipped on macOS when LLVM Clang has been used to compile Python. Patch by
+Lysandros Nikolaou</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34279">bpo-34279</a>: regrtest issue a warning when no tests have been executed in a
+particular test file. Also, a new final result state is issued if no test
+have been executed across all test files. Patch by Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id33">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id33" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35296">bpo-35296</a>: The Windows installer (MSI) now also install internal header
+files (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/internal/</span></code> subdirectory).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35351">bpo-35351</a>: When building Python with clang and LTO, LTO flags are no
+longer passed into CFLAGS to build third-party C extensions through
+distutils.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35139">bpo-35139</a>: Fix a compiler error when statically linking <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyexpat</span></code> in
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35011">bpo-35011</a>: Restores the use of pyexpatns.h to isolate our embedded copy of
+the expat C library so that its symbols do not conflict at link or dynamic
+loading time with an embedding application or other extension modules with
+their own version of libexpat.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28015">bpo-28015</a>: Have –with-lto works correctly with clang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33015">bpo-33015</a>: Fix an undefined behaviour in the pthread implementation of
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyThread_start_new_thread()</span></code>: add a function wrapper to always
+return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id34">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id34" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35401">bpo-35401</a>: Updates Windows build to OpenSSL 1.1.0j</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34977">bpo-34977</a>: venv on Windows will now use a python.exe redirector rather
+than copying the actual binaries from the base environment.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34977">bpo-34977</a>: Adds support for building a Windows App Store package</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35067">bpo-35067</a>: Remove _distutils_findvs module and use vswhere.exe instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34532">bpo-34532</a>: Fixes exit code of list version arguments for py.exe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32890">bpo-32890</a>: Fix usage of GetLastError() instead of errno in os.execve() and
+os.truncate().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id35">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id35" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35402">bpo-35402</a>: Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.9.1.  [NOTE: This
+change was reverted for the released python.org 3.7.2 macOS installers due
+to regressions found in Tk 8.6.9.1.  For now, the installers provide
+Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.]</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35401">bpo-35401</a>: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0j.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35025">bpo-35025</a>: Properly guard the use of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CLOCK_GETTIME</span></code> et al. macros
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timemodule</span></code> on macOS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24658">bpo-24658</a>: On macOS, fix reading from and writing into a file with a size
+larger than 2 GiB.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id36">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id36" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35213">bpo-35213</a>: Where appropriate, use ‘macOS’ in idlelib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34864">bpo-34864</a>: On macOS, warn if the system preference “Prefer tabs when
+opening documents” is set to “Always”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34864">bpo-34864</a>: Document two IDLE on MacOS issues. The System Preferences Dock
+“prefer tabs always” setting disables some IDLE features.  Menus are a bit
+different than as described for Windows and Linux.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35202">bpo-35202</a>: Remove unused imports from lib/idlelib</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33000">bpo-33000</a>: Document that IDLE’s shell has no line limit. A program that
+runs indefinitely can overfill memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23220">bpo-23220</a>: Explain how IDLE’s Shell displays output.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35099">bpo-35099</a>: Improve the doc about IDLE running user code.   The section is
+renamed from “IDLE – console differences” is renamed “Running user code”.
+It mostly covers the implications of using custom sys.stdxxx objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35097">bpo-35097</a>: Add IDLE doc subsection explaining editor windows. Topics
+include opening, title and status bar, .py* extension, and running.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35093">bpo-35093</a>: Document the IDLE document viewer in the IDLE doc. Add a
+paragraph in “Help and preferences”, “Help sources” subsection.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35088">bpo-35088</a>: Update idlelib.help.copy_string docstring. We now use git and
+backporting instead of hg and forward merging.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35087">bpo-35087</a>: Update idlelib help files for the current doc build. The main
+change is the elimination of chapter-section numbers.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id37">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id37" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34989">bpo-34989</a>: python-gdb.py now handles errors on computing the line number
+of a Python frame.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id38">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id38" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35322">bpo-35322</a>: Fix memory leak in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeLocale" title="PyUnicode_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault" title="PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault()</span></code></a> on error handling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue35296">bpo-35296</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> now also installs the internal API:
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Include/internal/*.h</span></code> header files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34725">bpo-34725</a>: Adds _Py_SetProgramFullPath so embedders may override
+sys.executable</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-1-final">
+<h2>Python 3.7.1 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-1-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-10-20</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id39">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id39" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34970">bpo-34970</a>: Protect tasks weak set manipulation in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.all_tasks()</span></code></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-1-release-candidate-2">
+<h2>Python 3.7.1 release candidate 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-1-release-candidate-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-10-13</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id40">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id40" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34879">bpo-34879</a>: Fix a possible null pointer dereference in bytesobject.c.
+Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34854">bpo-34854</a>: Fixed a crash in compiling string annotations containing a
+lambda with a keyword-only argument that doesn’t have a default value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34320">bpo-34320</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict(od)</span></code> didn’t copy iteration order of OrderedDict.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id41">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id41" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34769">bpo-34769</a>: Fix for async generators not finalizing when event loop is in
+debug mode and garbage collector runs in another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34922">bpo-34922</a>: Fixed integer overflow in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.shake.digest" title="hashlib.shake.digest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">digest()</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#hashlib.shake.hexdigest" title="hashlib.shake.hexdigest"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hexdigest()</span></code></a> methods for the SHAKE algorithm in
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34909">bpo-34909</a>: Enum: fix grandchildren subclassing when parent mixed with
+concrete data types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34900">bpo-34900</a>: Fixed <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.debug" title="unittest.TestCase.debug"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.TestCase.debug()</span></code></a> when used to call test
+methods with subtests.  Patch by Bruno Oliveira.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34871">bpo-34871</a>: Fix inspect module polluted <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.modules</span></code> when parsing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__text_signature__</span></code> of callable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34872">bpo-34872</a>: Fix self-cancellation in C implementation of asyncio.Task</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34819">bpo-34819</a>: Use a monotonic clock to compute timeouts in
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Executor.map()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_completed()</span></code>, in order to prevent
+timeouts from deviating when the system clock is adjusted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34521">bpo-34521</a>: Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.CMSG_SPACE" title="socket.CMSG_SPACE"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.CMSG_SPACE()</span></code></a> to calculate ancillary data size
+instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.CMSG_LEN" title="socket.CMSG_LEN"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.CMSG_LEN()</span></code></a> in
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.reduction.recvfds()</span></code> as <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3542.html"><strong>RFC 3542</strong></a> requires the use
+of the former for portable applications.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34334">bpo-34334</a>: In <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">QueueHandler</span></code>, clear <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exc_text</span></code> from
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LogRecord</span></code> to prevent traceback from being written twice.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6721">bpo-6721</a>: Acquire the logging module’s commonly used internal locks while
+fork()ing to avoid deadlocks in the child process.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34172">bpo-34172</a>: Fix a reference issue inside multiprocessing.Pool that caused
+the pool to remain alive if it was deleted without being closed or
+terminated explicitly.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id42">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id42" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32174">bpo-32174</a>: chm document displays non-ASCII charaters properly on some MBCS
+Windows systems.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id43">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id43" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32962">bpo-32962</a>: Fixed test_gdb when Python is compiled with flags -mcet
+-fcf-protection -O0.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id44">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id44" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34370">bpo-34370</a>: Revert to using the released Tk 8.6.8 with macOS installers
+instead of the Tk 8.6.x development snapshot used with 3.7.1rc1 and
+3.6.7rc1. The snapshot introduced at least one significant regression
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34927">bpo-34927</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id45">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id45" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34910">bpo-34910</a>: Ensure that <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/object.html#c.PyObject_Print" title="PyObject_Print"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Print()</span></code></a> always returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on
+error.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-1-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.7.1 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-1-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-09-26</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id46">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id46" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17239">bpo-17239</a>: The xml.sax and xml.dom.minidom parsers no longer processes
+external entities by default. External DTD and ENTITY declarations no
+longer load files or create network connections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34623">bpo-34623</a>: CVE-2018-14647: The C accelerated _elementtree module now
+initializes hash randomization salt from _Py_HashSecret instead of
+libexpat’s default CSPRNG.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34405">bpo-34405</a>: Updated to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for Windows builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33871">bpo-33871</a>: Fixed sending the part of the file in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile()</span></code></a> on
+macOS.  Using the <em>trailers</em> argument could cause sending more bytes from
+the input file than was specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32533">bpo-32533</a>: Fixed thread-safety of error handling in _ssl.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id47">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id47" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34783">bpo-34783</a>: Fix a crash with musl libc (on Alpine Linux) when the script
+filename specified on the command line doesn’t exist.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34762">bpo-34762</a>: Fix contextvars C API to use PyObject* pointer types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34735">bpo-34735</a>: Fix a memory leak in Modules/timemodule.c.  Patch by Zackery
+Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34588">bpo-34588</a>: Fix an off-by-one in the recursive call pruning feature of
+traceback formatting.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34485">bpo-34485</a>: Standard streams like sys.stdout now use the “surrogateescape”
+error handler, instead of “strict”, on the POSIX locale (when the C locale
+is not coerced and the UTF-8 Mode is disabled).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34485">bpo-34485</a>: Fix the error handler of standard streams like sys.stdout:
+PYTHONIOENCODING=”:” is now ignored instead of setting the error handler
+to “strict”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34527">bpo-34527</a>: On FreeBSD, Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now also
+forces the ASCII encoding if the LC_CTYPE locale is “POSIX”, not only if
+the LC_CTYPE locale is “C”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34527">bpo-34527</a>: The UTF-8 Mode is now also enabled by the “POSIX” locale, not
+only by the “C” locale.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34400">bpo-34400</a>: Fix undefined behavior in parsetok.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34377">bpo-34377</a>: Update valgrind suppression list to use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyObject_Free</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyObject_Realloc</span></code> instead of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Free</span></code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Realloc</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34170">bpo-34170</a>: -X dev: it is now possible to override the memory allocator
+using PYTHONMALLOC even if the developer mode is enabled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34126">bpo-34126</a>: Fix crashes when profiling certain invalid calls of unbound
+methods. Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24618">bpo-24618</a>: Fixed reading invalid memory when create the code object with
+too small varnames tuple or too large argument counts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34068">bpo-34068</a>: In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.IOBase.close" title="io.IOBase.close"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.IOBase.close()</span></code></a>, ensure that the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.IOBase.closed" title="io.IOBase.closed"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">closed</span></code></a> attribute is not set with a live exception.
+Patch by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34087">bpo-34087</a>: Fix buffer overflow while converting unicode to numeric values.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34080">bpo-34080</a>: Fixed a memory leak in the compiler when it raised some
+uncommon errors during tokenizing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34066">bpo-34066</a>: Disabled interruption by Ctrl-C between calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">open()</span></code> and
+entering a <strong>with</strong> block in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">open()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34042">bpo-34042</a>: Fix dict.copy() to maintain correct total refcount (as reported
+by sys.gettotalrefcount()).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33985">bpo-33985</a>: Implement contextvars.ContextVar.name attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33956">bpo-33956</a>: Update vendored Expat library copy to version 2.2.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24596">bpo-24596</a>: Decref the module object in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/veryhigh.html#c.PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags" title="PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()</span></code></a>
+before calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_Print" title="PyErr_Print"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Print()</span></code></a>.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33451">bpo-33451</a>: Close directly executed pyc files before calling
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_EvalCode()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33824">bpo-33824</a>: Fix “LC_ALL=C python3.7 -V”: reset properly the command line
+parser when the encoding changes after reading the Python configuration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25750">bpo-25750</a>: Fix rare Python crash due to bad refcounting in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type_getattro()</span></code> if a descriptor deletes itself from the class. Patch
+by Jeroen Demeyer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31902">bpo-31902</a>: Fix the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code> attribute for ast nodes
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.AsyncFor</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.AsyncFunctionDef</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.AsyncWith</span></code>.
+Previously, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code> pointed to the keyword after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25862">bpo-25862</a>: Fix assertion failures in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code> method of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code>. Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31577">bpo-31577</a>: Fix a crash in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.utime" title="os.utime"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.utime()</span></code></a> in case of a bad ns argument. Patch
+by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id48">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id48" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29577">bpo-29577</a>: Support multiple mixin classes when creating Enums.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34670">bpo-34670</a>: Add SSLContext.post_handshake_auth and
+SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake for TLS 1.3’s post handshake
+authentication feature.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34658">bpo-34658</a>: Fix a rare interpreter unhandled exception state SystemError
+only seen when using subprocess with a preexec_fn while an after_parent
+handler has been registered with os.register_at_fork and the fork system
+call fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34652">bpo-34652</a>: Ensure <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.lchmod" title="os.lchmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.lchmod()</span></code></a> is never defined on Linux.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34363">bpo-34363</a>: dataclasses.asdict() and .astuple() now handle namedtuples
+correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34625">bpo-34625</a>: Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34621">bpo-34621</a>: Fix un/pickling compatbility of uuid.UUID objects with older
+versions of Python (&lt;3.7).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32270">bpo-32270</a>: The subprocess module no longer mistakenly closes redirected
+fds even when they were in pass_fds when outside of the default {0, 1, 2}
+set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34610">bpo-34610</a>: Fixed iterator of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34421">bpo-34421</a>: Fix distutils logging for non-ASCII strings.  This caused
+installation issues on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34604">bpo-34604</a>: Fix possible mojibake in the error message of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pwd.html#pwd.getpwnam" title="pwd.getpwnam"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pwd.getpwnam</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/grp.html#grp.getgrnam" title="grp.getgrnam"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">grp.getgrnam</span></code></a>. Patch by William Grzybowski.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34530">bpo-34530</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.spawn.find_executable()</span></code> now falls back on
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.defpath" title="os.defpath"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.defpath</span></code></a> if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code> environment variable is not set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34282">bpo-34282</a>: Fix enum members getting shadowed by parent attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34563">bpo-34563</a>: On Windows, fix multiprocessing.Connection for very large read:
+fix _winapi.PeekNamedPipe() and _winapi.ReadFile() for read larger than
+INT_MAX (usually 2^31-1).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34558">bpo-34558</a>: Correct typo in Lib/ctypes/_aix.py</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34515">bpo-34515</a>: Fix parsing non-ASCII identifiers in
+<code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lib2to3.pgen2.tokenize</span></code> (PEP 3131).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13312">bpo-13312</a>: Avoids a possible integer underflow (undefined behavior) in the
+time module’s year handling code when passed a very low negative year
+value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34472">bpo-34472</a>: Improved compatibility for streamed files in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipfile.html#module-zipfile" title="zipfile: Read and write ZIP-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile</span></code></a>.
+Previously an optional signature was not being written and certain ZIP
+applications were not supported. Patch by Silas Sewell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34454">bpo-34454</a>: Fix the .fromisoformat() methods of datetime types crashing
+when given unicode with non-UTF-8-encodable code points.  Specifically,
+datetime.fromisoformat() now accepts surrogate unicode code points used as
+the separator. Report and tests by Alexey Izbyshev, patch by Paul Ganssle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6700">bpo-6700</a>: Fix inspect.getsourcelines for module level frames/tracebacks.
+Patch by Vladimir Matveev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34171">bpo-34171</a>: Running the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/trace.html#module-trace" title="trace: Trace or track Python statement execution."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code></a> module no longer creates the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace.cover</span></code> file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34441">bpo-34441</a>: Fix crash when an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC</span></code>-derived class with invalid
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__subclasses__</span></code> is passed as the second argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code></a>. Patch by Alexey Izbyshev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34341">bpo-34341</a>: Appending to the ZIP archive with the ZIP64 extension no longer
+grows the size of extra fields of existing entries.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34333">bpo-34333</a>: Fix %-formatting in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix" title="pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix()</span></code></a> when
+formatting an error message.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18540">bpo-18540</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4" title="imaplib.IMAP4"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib.IMAP4</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4_SSL" title="imaplib.IMAP4_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib.IMAP4_SSL</span></code></a>
+classes now resolve to the local host IP correctly when the default value
+of <em>host</em> parameter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">''</span></code>) is used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34246">bpo-34246</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.send_message" title="smtplib.SMTP.send_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib.SMTP.send_message()</span></code></a> no longer modifies the
+content of the <em>mail_options</em> argument. Patch by Pablo S. Blum de Aguiar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31047">bpo-31047</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntpath.abspath</span></code> for invalid paths on windows. Patch by
+Franz Woellert.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34263">bpo-34263</a>: asyncio’s event loop will not pass timeouts longer than one day
+to epoll/select etc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34035">bpo-34035</a>: Fix several AttributeError in zipfile seek() methods. Patch by
+Mickaël Schoentgen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32215">bpo-32215</a>: Fix performance regression in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> when a DML
+statement appeared in a different line than the rest of the SQL query.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34251">bpo-34251</a>: Restore <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.Win64</span></code> to preserve backwards compatibility
+since it’s already used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>’ <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bdist_msi</span></code> command.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19891">bpo-19891</a>: Ignore errors caused by missing / non-writable homedir while
+writing history during exit of an interactive session.  Patch by Anthony
+Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34213">bpo-34213</a>: Allow frozen dataclasses to have a field named “object”.
+Previously this conflicted with an internal use of “object”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21446">bpo-21446</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/2to3.html#2to3fixer-reload"><code class="xref std std-2to3fixer docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reload</span></code></a> fixer now uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a>
+instead of deprecated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#imp.reload" title="imp.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.reload()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue940286">bpo-940286</a>: pydoc’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Helper.showtopic()</span></code> method now prints the cross
+references of a topic correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34164">bpo-34164</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/base64.html#base64.b32decode" title="base64.b32decode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64.b32decode()</span></code></a> could raise UnboundLocalError or
+OverflowError for incorrect padding.  Now it always raises
+<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">base64.Error</span></code> in these cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33729">bpo-33729</a>: Fixed issues with arguments parsing in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34108">bpo-34108</a>: Remove extraneous CR in 2to3 refactor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27494">bpo-27494</a>: Reverted <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27494">bpo-27494</a>. 2to3 rejects now a trailing comma in
+generator expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33967">bpo-33967</a>: functools.singledispatch now raises TypeError instead of
+IndexError when no positional arguments are passed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34056">bpo-34056</a>: Ensure the loader shim created by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.load_module</span></code> always
+returns bytes from its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_data()</span></code> function. This fixes using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.load_module</span></code> with <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0552"><strong>PEP 552</strong></a> hash-based pycs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34054">bpo-34054</a>: The multiprocessing module now uses the monotonic clock
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.monotonic" title="time.monotonic"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.monotonic()</span></code></a> instead of the system clock <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time" title="time.time"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.time()</span></code></a> to
+implement timeout.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34044">bpo-34044</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code> now copies the <em>startupinfo</em> argument to
+leave it unchanged: it will modify the copy, so that the same
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">STARTUPINFO</span></code> object can be used multiple times.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34010">bpo-34010</a>: Fixed a performance regression for reading streams with
+tarfile. The buffered read should use a list, instead of appending to a
+bytes object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34019">bpo-34019</a>: webbrowser: Correct the arguments passed to Opera Browser when
+opening a new URL using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code> module. Patch by Bumsik Kim.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33978">bpo-33978</a>: Closed existing logging handlers before reconfiguration via
+fileConfig and dictConfig. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14117">bpo-14117</a>: Make minor tweaks to turtledemo. The ‘wikipedia’ example is now
+‘rosette’, decribing what it draws.  The ‘penrose’ print output is
+reduced. The‘1024’ output of ‘tree’ is eliminated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33974">bpo-33974</a>: Fixed passing lists and tuples of strings containing special
+characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">{</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">}</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> as options to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk</span></code></a> widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27500">bpo-27500</a>: Fix getaddrinfo to resolve IPv6 addresses correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24567">bpo-24567</a>: Improve random.choices() to handle subnormal input weights that
+could occasionally trigger an IndexError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33871">bpo-33871</a>: Fixed integer overflow in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.readv" title="os.readv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.readv()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.writev" title="os.writev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.writev()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.preadv" title="os.preadv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.preadv()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.pwritev" title="os.pwritev"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.pwritev()</span></code></a> and in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.sendfile" title="os.sendfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.sendfile()</span></code></a> with
+<em>headers</em> or <em>trailers</em> arguments (on BSD-based OSes and macOS).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33899">bpo-33899</a>: Tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE when provided
+with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This behavior now
+matches what the C tokenizer does internally.  Contributed by Ammar Askar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33916">bpo-33916</a>: bz2 and lzma: When Decompressor.__init__() is called twice,
+free the old lock to not leak memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32568">bpo-32568</a>: Make select.epoll() and its documentation consistent regarding
+<em>sizehint</em> and <em>flags</em>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33833">bpo-33833</a>: Fixed bug in asyncio where ProactorSocketTransport logs
+AssertionError if force closed during write.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33663">bpo-33663</a>: Convert content length to string before putting to header.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26544">bpo-26544</a>: Fixed implementation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/platform.html#platform.libc_ver" title="platform.libc_ver"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform.libc_ver()</span></code></a>. It almost
+always returned version ‘2.9’ for glibc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33805">bpo-33805</a>: Improve error message of dataclasses.replace() when an InitVar
+is not specified</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27397">bpo-27397</a>: Make email module properly handle invalid-length base64
+strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33476">bpo-33476</a>: Fix _header_value_parser.py when address group is missing final
+‘;’. Contributed by Enrique Perez-Terron</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31014">bpo-31014</a>: Fixed creating a controller for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/webbrowser.html#module-webbrowser" title="webbrowser: Easy-to-use controller for Web browsers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">webbrowser</span></code></a> when a user
+specifies a path to an entry in the BROWSER environment variable.  Based
+on patch by John Still.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33365">bpo-33365</a>: Print the header values besides the header keys instead just
+the header keys if <em>debuglevel</em> is set to &gt;0 in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a>. Patch
+by Marco Strigl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32933">bpo-32933</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.mock.html#unittest.mock.mock_open" title="unittest.mock.mock_open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock.mock_open()</span></code></a> now supports iteration over the
+file contents. Patch by Tony Flury.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33336">bpo-33336</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib</span></code> now allows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MOVE</span></code> command in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4.uid()</span></code> (RFC
+6851: IMAP MOVE Extension) and potentially as a name of supported method
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IMAP4</span></code> object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31608">bpo-31608</a>: Raise a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code> instead of crashing if a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code> subclass returns a non-deque from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code>. Patch
+by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29456">bpo-29456</a>: Fix bugs in hangul normalization: u1176, u11a7 and u11c3</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id49">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id49" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34790">bpo-34790</a>: Document how passing coroutines to asyncio.wait() can be
+confusing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28617">bpo-28617</a>: Fixed info in the stdtypes docs concerning the types that
+support membership tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34065">bpo-34065</a>: Fix wrongly written basicConfig documentation markup syntax</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33460">bpo-33460</a>: replaced ellipsis with correct error codes in tutorial chapter
+3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33847">bpo-33847</a>: Add ‘&#64;’ operator entry to index.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25041">bpo-25041</a>: Document <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_PACKET</span></code> in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id50">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id50" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34537">bpo-34537</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_gdb.test_strings()</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_ALL=C</span></code> and GDB was
+compiled with Python 3.6 or earlier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34587">bpo-34587</a>: test_socket: Remove RDSTest.testCongestion(). The test tries to
+fill the receiver’s socket buffer and expects an error. But the RDS
+protocol doesn’t require that. Moreover, the Linux implementation of RDS
+expects that the producer of the messages reduces its rate, it’s not the
+role of the receiver to trigger an error. The test fails on Fedora 28 by
+design, so just remove it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34661">bpo-34661</a>: Fix test_shutil if unzip doesn’t support -t.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34200">bpo-34200</a>: Fixed non-deterministic flakiness of test_pkg by not using the
+scary test.support.module_cleanup() logic to save and restore sys.modules
+contents between test cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34594">bpo-34594</a>: Fix usage of hardcoded <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errno</span></code> values in the tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34542">bpo-34542</a>: Use 3072 RSA keys and SHA-256 signature for test certs and
+keys.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11193">bpo-11193</a>: Remove special condition for AIX in
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_subprocess.test_undecodable_env</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34490">bpo-34490</a>: On AIX with AF_UNIX family sockets getsockname() does not
+provide ‘sockname’, so skip calls to transport.get_extra_info(‘sockname’)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34391">bpo-34391</a>: Fix ftplib test for TLS 1.3 by reading from data socket.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34399">bpo-34399</a>: Update all RSA keys and DH params to use at least 2048 bits.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33746">bpo-33746</a>: Fix test_unittest when run in verbose mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33901">bpo-33901</a>: Fix test_dbm_gnu on macOS with gdbm 1.15: add a larger value to
+make sure that the file size changes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33873">bpo-33873</a>: Fix a bug in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">regrtest</span></code> that caused an extra test to run if
+–huntrleaks/-R was used. Exit with error in case that invalid parameters
+are specified to –huntrleaks/-R (at least one warmup run and one
+repetition must be used).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32663">bpo-32663</a>: Making sure the <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTPUTF8SimTests</span></code> class of tests gets run in
+test_smtplib.py.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id51">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id51" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34710">bpo-34710</a>: Fixed SSL module build with OpenSSL &amp; pedantic CFLAGS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34582">bpo-34582</a>: Add JUnit XML output for regression tests and update Azure
+DevOps builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34555">bpo-34555</a>: Fix for case where it was not possible to have both
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAVE_LINUX_VM_SOCKETS_H</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HAVE_SOCKADDR_ALG</span></code> be undefined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34121">bpo-34121</a>: Fix detection of C11 atomic support on clang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30345">bpo-30345</a>: Add -g to LDFLAGS when compiling with LTO to get debug symbols.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33648">bpo-33648</a>: The –with-c-locale-warning configuration flag has been
+removed. It has had no effect for about a year.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id52">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id52" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34770">bpo-34770</a>: Fix a possible null pointer dereference in pyshellext.cpp.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34603">bpo-34603</a>: Fix returning structs from functions produced by MSVC</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34581">bpo-34581</a>: Guard MSVC-specific code in socketmodule.c with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">#ifdef</span>
+<span class="pre">_MSC_VER</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34062">bpo-34062</a>: Fixed the ‘–list’ and ‘–list-paths’ arguments for the py.exe
+launcher</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34225">bpo-34225</a>: Ensure INCLUDE and LIB directories do not end with a backslash.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34006">bpo-34006</a>: Revert line length limit for Windows help docs. The line-length
+limit is not needed because the pages appear in a separate app rather than
+on a browser tab.  It can also interact badly with the DPI setting.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31546">bpo-31546</a>: Restore running PyOS_InputHook while waiting for user input at
+the prompt. The restores integration of interactive GUI windows (such as
+Matplotlib figures) with the prompt on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30237">bpo-30237</a>: Output error when ReadConsole is canceled by
+CancelSynchronousIo instead of crashing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29097">bpo-29097</a>: Fix bug where <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.fromtimestamp()</span></code> erronously throws
+an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OSError</span></code></a> on Windows for values between 0 and 86400. Patch by
+Ammar Askar.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id53">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id53" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34370">bpo-34370</a>: Have macOS 10.9+ installer builds for 3.7.1rc and 3.6.7rc use a
+development snapshot of Tk 8.6 (post-8.6.8) to mitigate certain scroller
+issues seen with IDLE and tkinter apps.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34405">bpo-34405</a>: Update to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for macOS installer builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33635">bpo-33635</a>: In macOS stat on some file descriptors (/dev/fd/3 f.e) will
+result in bad file descriptor OSError. Guard against this exception was
+added in is_dir, is_file and similar methods. DirEntry.is_dir can also
+throw this exception so _RecursiveWildcardSelector._iterate_directories
+was also extended with the same error ignoring pattern.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31903">bpo-31903</a>: In <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_scproxy</span></code>, drop the GIL when calling into
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemConfiguration</span></code> to avoid deadlocks.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id54">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id54" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34548">bpo-34548</a>: Use configured color theme for read-only text views.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1529353">bpo-1529353</a>: Enable “squeezing” of long outputs in the shell, to avoid
+performance degradation and to clean up the history without losing it.
+Squeezed outputs may be copied, viewed in a separate window, and
+“unsqueezed”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34047">bpo-34047</a>: Fixed mousewheel scrolling direction on macOS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34275">bpo-34275</a>: Make IDLE calltips always visible on Mac. Some MacOS-tk
+combinations need .update_idletasks(). Patch by Kevin Walzer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34120">bpo-34120</a>: Fix unresponsiveness after closing certain windows and dialogs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33975">bpo-33975</a>: Avoid small type when running htests. Since part of the purpose
+of human-viewed tests is to determine that widgets look right, it is
+important that they look the same for testing as when running IDLE.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33905">bpo-33905</a>: Add test for idlelib.stackview.StackBrowser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33924">bpo-33924</a>: Change mainmenu.menudefs key ‘windows’ to ‘window’. Every other
+menudef key is lowercase version of main menu entry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33906">bpo-33906</a>: Rename idlelib.windows as window Match Window on the main menu
+and remove last plural module name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33917">bpo-33917</a>: Fix and document idlelib/idle_test/template.py. The revised
+file compiles, runs, and tests OK.  idle_test/README.txt explains how to
+use it to create new IDLE test files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33904">bpo-33904</a>: IDLE: In rstrip, rename class RstripExtension as Rstrip</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33907">bpo-33907</a>: For consistency and clarity, rename an IDLE module and classes.
+Module calltips and its class CallTips are now calltip and Calltip. In
+module calltip_w, class CallTip is now CalltipWindow.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33856">bpo-33856</a>: Add “help” in the welcome message of IDLE</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33839">bpo-33839</a>: IDLE: refactor ToolTip and CallTip and add documentation and
+tests</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33855">bpo-33855</a>: Minimally test all IDLE modules. Add missing files, import
+module, instantiate classes, and check coverage. Check existing files.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id55">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id55" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32962">bpo-32962</a>: python-gdb now catches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code> exceptions when
+calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32962">bpo-32962</a>: python-gdb now catches ValueError on read_var(): when Python
+has no debug symbols for example.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id56">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id56" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34247">bpo-34247</a>: Fix Py_Initialize() regression introduced in 3.7.0: read
+environment variables like PYTHONOPTIMIZE.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23927">bpo-23927</a>: Fixed <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/arg.html#c.PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords" title="PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()</span></code></a> when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">w*</span></code> format unit is used
+for optional parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue34008">bpo-34008</a>: Py_Main() can again be called after Py_Initialize(), as in
+Python 3.6.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-final">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-06-27</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id57">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id57" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33851">bpo-33851</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#ast.get_docstring" title="ast.get_docstring"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.get_docstring()</span></code></a> for a node that lacks a
+docstring.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id58">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id58" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33932">bpo-33932</a>: Calling Py_Initialize() twice does nothing, instead of failing
+with a fatal error: restore the Python 3.6 behaviour.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-06-12</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id59">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id59" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33803">bpo-33803</a>: Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking for an
+object that hadn’t all of its fields set to NULL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33706">bpo-33706</a>: Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the command
+line options. Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report and the fix!</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30654">bpo-30654</a>: Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on interpreter
+shutdown even when there was a custom handler set previously. Patch by
+Philipp Kerling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31849">bpo-31849</a>: Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id60">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id60" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30167">bpo-30167</a>: Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is set. Patch by
+Steve Weber.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33812">bpo-33812</a>: Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
+d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
+astimezone() method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30805">bpo-30805</a>: Avoid race condition with debug logging</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33694">bpo-33694</a>: asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
+pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32493">bpo-32493</a>: Correct test for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid_enc_be</span></code> availability in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure.ac</span></code>. Patch by Michael Felt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33792">bpo-33792</a>: Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
+asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33778">bpo-33778</a>: Update <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata</span></code>’s database to Unicode version 11.0.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33770">bpo-33770</a>: improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs of invalid
+length</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33769">bpo-33769</a>: asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel callbacks in case
+of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as closed if it is aborted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33767">bpo-33767</a>: The concatenation (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>) and repetition (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>) sequence
+operations now raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> when
+performed on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.mmap</span></code></a> objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33734">bpo-33734</a>: asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default handshake
+timeout</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11874">bpo-11874</a>: Use a better regex when breaking usage into wrappable parts.
+Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33582">bpo-33582</a>: Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id61">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id61" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33409">bpo-33409</a>: Clarified the relationship between PEP 538’s
+PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540’s PYTHONUTF8 mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33736">bpo-33736</a>: Improve the documentation of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.open_connection" title="asyncio.open_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.open_connection()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.start_server" title="asyncio.start_server"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.start_server()</span></code></a> and their UNIX socket counterparts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31432">bpo-31432</a>: Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and CERT_REQUIRED
+flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id62">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id62" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5755">bpo-5755</a>: Move <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wstrict-prototypes</span></code> option to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS_NODIST</span></code> from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OPT</span></code>. This option emitted annoying warnings when building extension
+modules written in C++.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id63">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id63" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33720">bpo-33720</a>: Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release builds.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id64">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id64" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33656">bpo-33656</a>: On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for DPI. On
+Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary
+unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make
+text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33768">bpo-33768</a>: Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top of the
+editor window.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33763">bpo-33763</a>: IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context instead of
+label widget.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33664">bpo-33664</a>: Scroll IDLE editor text by lines. Previously, the mouse wheel
+and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of pixels, resulting in
+partial lines at the top of the editor box.  The change also applies to
+the shell and grep output windows, but not to read-only text views.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33679">bpo-33679</a>: Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code Context. Use
+the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in themes or add settings
+to custom themes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33642">bpo-33642</a>: Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code Context. If
+there is no current context, show a single blank line.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-beta-5">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 beta 5<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-5" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-05-30</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id65">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id65" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33622">bpo-33622</a>: Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add an object
+with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__</span></code> method or referenced by it into the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.garbage</span></code></a> list. <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGC_Collect()</span></code> can now be called when an
+exception is set and preserves it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33509">bpo-33509</a>: Fix module_globals parameter of warnings.warn_explicit(): don’t
+crash if module_globals is not a dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20104">bpo-20104</a>: The new <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.posix_spawn</span></code> added in 3.7.0b1 was removed as we are
+still working on what the API should look like.  Expect this in 3.8
+instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33475">bpo-33475</a>: Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to strings
+and optimized parentheses in the string representation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33391">bpo-33391</a>: Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28055">bpo-28055</a>: Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24(). Patch by Rolf Eike Beer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32911">bpo-32911</a>: Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered during
+downstream beta testing, reverted <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29463">bpo-29463</a>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docstring</span></code> field is
+removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes
+which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring expression is restored as a first
+statement in their body. Based on patch by Inada Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21983">bpo-21983</a>: Fix a crash in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes.cast" title="ctypes.cast"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.cast()</span></code></a> in case the type argument is a
+ctypes structured data type. Patch by Eryk Sun and Oren Milman.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id66">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id66" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32751">bpo-32751</a>: When cancelling the task due to a timeout,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait_for" title="asyncio.wait_for"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.wait_for()</span></code></a> will now wait until the cancellation is complete.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32684">bpo-32684</a>: Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even with
+return_exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33654">bpo-33654</a>: Support protocol type switching in SSLTransport.set_protocol().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33674">bpo-33674</a>: Pause the transport as early as possible to further reduce the
+risk of data_received() being called before connection_made().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33674">bpo-33674</a>: Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made() of
+asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of using
+call_soon(). Previously, data_received() could be called before the
+handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31647">bpo-31647</a>: Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
+_SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises AttributeError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32610">bpo-32610</a>: Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32410">bpo-32410</a>: Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33469">bpo-33469</a>: Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used run_in_executor</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33672">bpo-33672</a>: Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus coroutines</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33654">bpo-33654</a>: Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching between
+asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix loop.start_tls() to
+work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33652">bpo-33652</a>: Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics are now
+future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32493">bpo-32493</a>: Fixed <a class="reference internal" href="../library/uuid.html#uuid.uuid1" title="uuid.uuid1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid.uuid1()</span></code></a> on FreeBSD.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33618">bpo-33618</a>: Finalize and document preliminary and experimental TLS 1.3
+support with OpenSSL 1.1.1</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33623">bpo-33623</a>: Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created in __del__</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30877">bpo-30877</a>: Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON decoder
+that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing after finishing
+the decoding. Based on patch by c-fos.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33570">bpo-33570</a>: Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for compatibility with
+OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer. OpenSSL 1.1.1 will have TLS 1.3 ciphers
+enabled by default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Do not simplify arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.Union" title="typing.Union"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.Union</span></code></a>. Now
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Union[Manager,</span> <span class="pre">Employee]</span></code> is not simplified to <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Employee</span></code> at runtime.
+Such simplification previously caused several bugs and limited
+possibilities for introspection.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33540">bpo-33540</a>: Add a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">block_on_close</span></code> class attribute to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ForkingMixIn</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadingMixIn</span></code> classes of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socketserver.html#module-socketserver" title="socketserver: A framework for network servers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socketserver</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33548">bpo-33548</a>: tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider common TEMP
+locations</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33109">bpo-33109</a>: argparse subparsers are once again not required by default,
+reverting the change in behavior introduced by <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26510">bpo-26510</a> in 3.7.0a2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33536">bpo-33536</a>: dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid field names
+and duplicate fields. Also, added a check for invalid field
+specifications.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33542">bpo-33542</a>: Prevent <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid.get_node</span></code> from using a DUID instead of a MAC on
+Windows. Patch by Zvi Effron</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26819">bpo-26819</a>: Fix race condition with <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadTransport.resume_reading</span></code> in
+Windows proactor event loop.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/typing.html#typing.get_type_hints" title="typing.get_type_hints"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.get_type_hints()</span></code></a> when ClassVar was provided as a
+string forward reference.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33505">bpo-33505</a>: Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if checks: 1.17x
+faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33497">bpo-33497</a>: Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an encoding in
+FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).  Patch by Amber
+Brown.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33495">bpo-33495</a>: Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of each of its
+members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what each field
+actually represents.  This is especially true for the ‘type’ member.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33453">bpo-33453</a>: Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type
+annotations or if using PEP 563 “Postponed Evaluation of Annotations”.
+Only specific string prefixes are detected for both ClassVar (“ClassVar”
+and “typing.ClassVar”) and InitVar (“InitVar” and “dataclasses.InitVar”).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedTuple.__new__</span></code>, pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwds</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic.__new__</span></code>.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad Dombrova.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20087">bpo-20087</a>: Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported locales.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33422">bpo-33422</a>: Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when looking up
+byte/string literals on pydoc. Patch by Andrés Delfino.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28167">bpo-28167</a>: The function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform.linux_distribution</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platform.dist</span></code> now trigger a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code> and have been
+marked for removal in Python 3.8</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33197">bpo-33197</a>: Update error message when constructing invalid
+inspect.Parameters Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33263">bpo-33263</a>: Fix FD leak in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_SelectorSocketTransport</span></code>  Patch by Vlad
+Starostin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32861">bpo-32861</a>: The urllib.robotparser’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__</span></code> representation now
+includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and “Request-rate” fields.
+Patch by Michael Lazar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32257">bpo-32257</a>: The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION constant,
+available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16865">bpo-16865</a>: Support arrays &gt;=2GiB in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>.  Patch by Segev Finer.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id67">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id67" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23859">bpo-23859</a>: Document that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-task.html#asyncio.wait" title="asyncio.wait"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.wait()</span></code></a> does not cancel its futures on
+timeout.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32436">bpo-32436</a>: Document PEP 567 changes to asyncio.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33604">bpo-33604</a>: Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump removal
+to 3.8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33503">bpo-33503</a>: Fix broken pypi link</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33421">bpo-33421</a>: Add missing documentation for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.AsyncContextManager</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id68">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id68" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33655">bpo-33655</a>: Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms that
+might be due to running on ZFS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32604">bpo-32604</a>: Remove the _xxsubinterpreters module (meant for testing) and
+associated helpers.  This module was originally added recently in 3.7b1.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id69">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id69" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33614">bpo-33614</a>: Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on Windows
+are correctly regenerated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33522">bpo-33522</a>: Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython">https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33012">bpo-33012</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wno-cast-function-type</span></code> for gcc 8 for silencing
+warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
+definition lists.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id70">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id70" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13631">bpo-13631</a>: The .editrc file in user’s home directory is now processed
+correctly during the readline initialization through editline emulation on
+macOS.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id71">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id71" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33628">bpo-33628</a>: IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33564">bpo-33564</a>: IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block opener.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32831">bpo-32831</a>: Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-beta-4">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 beta 4<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-05-02</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id72">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id72" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33363">bpo-33363</a>: Raise a SyntaxError for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">with</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code>
+statements outside of async functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33128">bpo-33128</a>: Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
+sys.meta_path. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33312">bpo-33312</a>: Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer) warnings in
+dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct _dictkeysobject shared
+keys structure is declared.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33231">bpo-33231</a>: Fix potential memory leak in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalizestring()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33205">bpo-33205</a>: Change dict growth function from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">round_up_to_power_2(used*3)</span></code>.  Previously, dict is shrinked only when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">used</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0</span></code>. Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29922">bpo-29922</a>: Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__()</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__()</span></code> return non-awaitable object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33199">bpo-33199</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ma_version_tag</span></code> in dict implementation is uninitialized
+when copying from key-sharing dict.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id73">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id73" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33281">bpo-33281</a>: Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33383">bpo-33383</a>: Fixed crash in the get() method of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> database
+object when it is called with a single argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33329">bpo-33329</a>: Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue991266">bpo-991266</a>: Fix quoting of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Comment</span></code> attribute of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.SimpleCookie" title="http.cookies.SimpleCookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies.SimpleCookie</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33131">bpo-33131</a>: Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33308">bpo-33308</a>: Fixed a crash in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/parser.html#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module when converting an ST
+object to a tree of tuples or lists with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line_info=False</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_info=True</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33266">bpo-33266</a>: lib2to3 now recognizes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rf'...'</span></code> strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11594">bpo-11594</a>: Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33254">bpo-33254</a>: Have <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.resources.contents" title="importlib.resources.contents"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.resources.contents()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents()</span></code></a> return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a>
+instead of an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator"><span class="xref std std-term">iterator</span></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33256">bpo-33256</a>: Fix display of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;module&gt;</span></code> call in the html produced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb.html()</span></code>. Patch by Stéphane Blondon.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33185">bpo-33185</a>: Fixed regression when running pydoc with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a>
+switch. (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the resolution of
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33053">bpo-33053</a>)</p>
+<p>This fix also changed pydoc to add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getcwd()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>
+when necessary, rather than adding <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;.&quot;</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33169">bpo-33169</a>: Delete entries of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path_importer_cache" title="sys.path_importer_cache"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path_importer_cache</span></code></a>
+when <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()</span></code> is called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33217">bpo-33217</a>: Deprecate looking up non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum
+members (will raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> in 3.8+).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33203">bpo-33203</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.Random.choice()</span></code> now raises <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code> for empty
+sequences consistently even when called from subclasses without a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandbits()</span></code> implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33224">bpo-33224</a>: Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479.  Convert an uncaught
+StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33209">bpo-33209</a>: End framing at the end of C implementation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dump" title="pickle.Pickler.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.Pickler.dump()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20104">bpo-20104</a>: Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak in
+<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.posix_spawn()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33175">bpo-33175</a>: In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
+__set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the default
+value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33097">bpo-33097</a>: Raise RuntimeError when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">executor.submit</span></code> is called during
+interpreter shutdown.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31908">bpo-31908</a>: Fix output of cover files for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code> module command-line
+tool. Previously emitted cover files only when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--missing</span></code> option was
+used. Patch by Michael Selik.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id74">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id74" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33378">bpo-33378</a>: Add Korean language switcher for <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3/">https://docs.python.org/3/</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33276">bpo-33276</a>: Clarify that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute on modules cannot be
+just any value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33201">bpo-33201</a>: Modernize documentation for writing C extension types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33195">bpo-33195</a>: Deprecate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code> usage in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c-api/arg</span></code> document.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code> related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it is
+missed in the document.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8243">bpo-8243</a>: Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr exception
+behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32337">bpo-32337</a>: Update documentation related with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code> order.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id75">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id75" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33358">bpo-33358</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()</span></code> when
+the interpreter is built with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-shared</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id76">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id76" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33394">bpo-33394</a>: Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when GNU make
+is passed macros on the command line.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33393">bpo-33393</a>: Update config.guess and config.sub files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33377">bpo-33377</a>: Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used in
+extension suffixes).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32232">bpo-32232</a>: By default, modules configured in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Modules/Setup</span></code> are no longer
+built with <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-DPy_BUILD_CORE</span></code>. Instead, modules that specifically need that
+preprocessor definition include it in their individual entries.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33182">bpo-33182</a>: The embedding tests can once again be built with clang 6.0</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id77">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id77" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33184">bpo-33184</a>: Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id78">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id78" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33184">bpo-33184</a>: Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id79">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id79" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21474">bpo-21474</a>: Update word/identifier definition from ascii to unicode. In
+text and entry boxes, this affects selection by double-click, movement
+left/right by control-left/right, and deletion left/right by
+control-BACKSPACE/DEL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33204">bpo-33204</a>: IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes. A ‘u’ string
+prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’. Consistently color as much
+of the prefix, starting at the right, as is valid. Revise and extend
+colorizer test.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id80">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id80" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33189">bpo-33189</a>: <strong class="program">pygettext.py</strong> now recognizes only literal strings as
+docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
+f-string expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31920">bpo-31920</a>: Fixed handling directories as arguments in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pygettext</span></code>
+script. Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29673">bpo-29673</a>: Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31583">bpo-31583</a>: Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but without
+–output-dir option for relative path to files in current directory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-beta-3">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 beta 3<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-03-29</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id81">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id81" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33136">bpo-33136</a>: Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE-2018-8970.
+X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen. A new
+test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33001">bpo-33001</a>: Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32981">bpo-32981</a>: Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to catastrophic
+backtracking. These regexes formed potential DOS vectors (REDOS). They
+have been refactored. This resolves CVE-2018-1060 and CVE-2018-1061. Patch
+by Jamie Davis.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id82">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id82" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33053">bpo-33053</a>: When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now explicitly
+expanded as the <em>starting</em> working directory, rather than being left as
+the empty path (which allows imports from the current working directory at
+the time of the import)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33018">bpo-33018</a>: Improve consistency of errors raised by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass()</span></code> when
+called with a non-class and an abstract base class as the first and second
+arguments, respectively. Patch by Josh Bronson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33041">bpo-33041</a>: Fixed jumping when the function contains an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> loop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33026">bpo-33026</a>: Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting f_lineno.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33005">bpo-33005</a>: Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory allocator (ex:
+using PYTHONMALLOC env var). _PyGILState_Reinit() and
+_PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory allocator to
+allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17288">bpo-17288</a>: Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace events.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32836">bpo-32836</a>: Don’t use temporary variables in cases of list/dict/set
+comprehensions</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id83">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id83" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33141">bpo-33141</a>: Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their default
+values, if they have their own __set_name__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33096">bpo-33096</a>: Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a false
+boolean value. Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same. Patch by Garvit
+Khatri.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32873">bpo-32873</a>: Treat type variables and special typing forms as immutable by
+copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and inconsistencies, and
+improves backwards compatibility with Python 3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33134">bpo-33134</a>: When computing dataclass’s __hash__, use the lookup table to
+contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.  This is an
+improvement over looking up a string, and then testing that string to see
+what to do.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33127">bpo-33127</a>: The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32505">bpo-32505</a>: Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass is of type
+Field, but doesn’t have a type annotation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33078">bpo-33078</a>: Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on
+sem_getvalue</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33116">bpo-33116</a>: Add ‘Field’ to dataclasses.__all__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32896">bpo-32896</a>: Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a field that
+uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect class.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33100">bpo-33100</a>: Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that’s a
+MemberDescriptorType, then it’s from that field being in __slots__, not an
+actual default value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32953">bpo-32953</a>: If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass, allow
+attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only attributes from the
+frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.  Require all dataclasses in a
+hierarchy to be either all frozen or all non-frozen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33061">bpo-33061</a>: Add missing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NoReturn</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> in typing.py</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33078">bpo-33078</a>: Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when a pickling
+error occurs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33064">bpo-33064</a>: lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> in function signatures.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33056">bpo-33056</a>: FIX properly close leaking fds in
+concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33021">bpo-33021</a>: Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang of all
+threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and random.seed().  Patch
+by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31804">bpo-31804</a>: Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the standard
+streams are closed or None at exit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33037">bpo-33037</a>: Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport closing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27683">bpo-27683</a>: Fix a regression in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> that result of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hosts()</span></code> is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
+containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32999">bpo-32999</a>: Fix C implementation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,</span>
+<span class="pre">subclass)</span></code> crashed when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subclass</span></code> is not a type object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33009">bpo-33009</a>: Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter partialmethods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32969">bpo-32969</a>: Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix corresponding
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32056">bpo-32056</a>: Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of channels and
+sample width when read an audio file in modules <a class="reference internal" href="../library/aifc.html#module-aifc" title="aifc: Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">aifc</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wave.html#module-wave" title="wave: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wave</span></code></a>
+and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sunau.html#module-sunau" title="sunau: Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sunau</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32844">bpo-32844</a>: Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1) to stderr in
+subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32857">bpo-32857</a>: In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">after_cancel(None)</span></code> now raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> instead of canceling the first scheduled function.
+Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31639">bpo-31639</a>: http.server now exposes a ThreadedHTTPServer class and uses it
+when the module is run with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code> to cope with web browsers pre-opening
+sockets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27645">bpo-27645</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection" title="sqlite3.Connection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection</span></code></a> now exposes a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.backup" title="sqlite3.Connection.backup"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">backup</span></code></a> method, if the underlying SQLite
+library is at version 3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id84">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id84" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33126">bpo-33126</a>: Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27212">bpo-27212</a>: Modify documentation for the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islice()</span></code> recipe to consume
+initial values up to the start index.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28247">bpo-28247</a>: Update <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipapp.html#module-zipapp" title="zipapp: Manage executable Python zip archives"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code></a> documentation to describe how to make
+standalone applications.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18802">bpo-18802</a>: Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon Foster and
+Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27428">bpo-27428</a>: Update documentation to clarify that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsRegistryFinder</span></code>
+implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MetaPathFinder</span></code>. (Patch by Himanshu Lakhara)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id85">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id85" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32872">bpo-32872</a>: Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32517">bpo-32517</a>: Fix failing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_asyncio</span></code> on macOS 10.12.2+ due to transport
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KqueueSelector</span></code> loop was not being closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19417">bpo-19417</a>: Add test_bdb.py.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id86">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id86" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33163">bpo-33163</a>: Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id87">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id87" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33016">bpo-33016</a>: Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
+nt._getfinalpathname</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32903">bpo-32903</a>: Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the current
+directory is set to a UNC path.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id88">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id88" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32726">bpo-32726</a>: Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for the macOS
+10.6+ installer. The 10.9+ installer variant already does this.  This
+means that the Python 3.7 provided by the python.org macOS installers no
+longer need or use any external versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided
+or user-installed, such as ActiveTcl.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id89">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id89" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32984">bpo-32984</a>: Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> while running a startup file.  Like Python,
+IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window before
+presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code> runs a
+file named in environmental variable  <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IDLESTARTUP</span></code> or
+<span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a>; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-r</span> <span class="pre">file</span></code> runs <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>.  Python sets
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> to the startup file name before running the file and unsets
+it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run normally,
+without the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> option.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32940">bpo-32940</a>: Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in pyparse.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id90">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id90" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32885">bpo-32885</a>: Add an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> flag for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/pathfix.py</span></code> to disable
+automatic backup creation (files with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> suffix).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id91">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id91" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33042">bpo-33042</a>: Embedding applications may once again call
+PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption prior to
+calling Py_Initialize.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32374">bpo-32374</a>: Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized modules
+can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-beta-2">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 beta 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-02-27</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id92">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id92" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28414">bpo-28414</a>: The ssl module now allows users to perform their own IDN
+en/decoding when using SNI.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id93">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id93" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32889">bpo-32889</a>: Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the rename of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">address_in_range</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31356">bpo-31356</a>: Remove the new API added in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31356">bpo-31356</a> (gc.ensure_disabled()
+context manager).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32305">bpo-32305</a>: For namespace packages, ensure that both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.origin</span></code> are set to None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32303">bpo-32303</a>: Make sure <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__spec__.loader</span></code> matches <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__loader__</span></code> for
+namespace packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32711">bpo-32711</a>: Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c. Patch by
+Stéphane Wirtel</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32583">bpo-32583</a>: Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders caused by
+write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode error handlers.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id94">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id94" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32960">bpo-32960</a>: For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from non-frozen
+classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from frozen classes. This
+restriction will be relaxed at a future date.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32713">bpo-32713</a>: Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float values. Patch
+by Joffrey Fuhrer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32951">bpo-32951</a>: Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject objects is now
+prohibited. The constructors were never documented, tested, or designed as
+public constructors. Users were suppose to use ssl.wrap_socket() or
+SSLContext.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32929">bpo-32929</a>: Remove the tri-state parameter “hash”, and add the boolean
+“unsafe_hash”. If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__ function, but if a
+__hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__
+based on the values of eq= and frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is
+the same as the old hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default,
+just as hash=None used to be.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32947">bpo-32947</a>: Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround for TLSv1.3
+for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30622">bpo-30622</a>: The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in LibreSSL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32922">bpo-32922</a>: dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem encoding
+rather than default encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32859">bpo-32859</a>: In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup2</span></code>, don’t check every call whether the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dup3</span></code>
+syscall exists or not.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32556">bpo-32556</a>: nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
+nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25988">bpo-25988</a>: Emit a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> when using or importing an ABC
+directly from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections</span></code></a> rather than from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.abc.html#module-collections.abc" title="collections.abc: Abstract base classes for containers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.abc</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21060">bpo-21060</a>: Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from “No dist
+file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must create and
+upload files in one command”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32852">bpo-32852</a>: Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running trace.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31333">bpo-31333</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_abc</span></code> module is added.  It is a speedup module with C
+implementations for various functions and methods in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code>.  Creating an
+ABC subclass and calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">issubclass</span></code> with an ABC
+subclass are up to 1.5x faster. In addition, this makes Python start-up up
+to 10% faster.</p>
+<p>Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and caches,
+previously accessible via private attributes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_abc_registry</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_abc_cache</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_abc_negative_cache</span></code>.  There are three debugging
+helper methods that can be used instead <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_dump_registry</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_abc_registry_clear</span></code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_abc_caches_clear</span></code>.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32841">bpo-32841</a>: Fixed <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition" title="asyncio.Condition"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Condition</span></code></a> issue which silently ignored
+cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional lock. Patch by
+Bar Harel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32819">bpo-32819</a>: ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no longer depends
+on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP addresses. Error reporting
+for invalid wildcards has been improved.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32394">bpo-32394</a>: socket: Remove
+TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older version
+Windows during run-time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31787">bpo-31787</a>: Fixed refleaks of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code> methods in various modules.
+(Contributed by Oren Milman)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30157">bpo-30157</a>: Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in csv.Sniffer.sniff() when
+only the last field is quoted.  Patch by Jake Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32792">bpo-32792</a>: collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the underlying
+mappings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32775">bpo-32775</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fnmatch.html#fnmatch.translate" title="fnmatch.translate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fnmatch.translate()</span></code></a> no longer produces patterns which
+contain set operations. Sets starting with ‘[‘ or containing ‘–’, ‘&amp;&amp;’,
+‘~~’ or ‘||’ will be interpreted differently in regular expressions in
+future versions. Currently they emit warnings. fnmatch.translate() now
+avoids producing patterns containing such sets by accident.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32622">bpo-32622</a>: Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor event loop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32777">bpo-32777</a>: Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process deadlock in
+subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file descriptors inheritable on
+exec in the child process.  This bug appears to have been introduced in
+3.4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32647">bpo-32647</a>: The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking for
+dlopen. The shared extension is now explicitly linked against libdl on
+platforms with dl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32741">bpo-32741</a>: Implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.TimerHandle.when()</span></code> method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32691">bpo-32691</a>: Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32734">bpo-32734</a>: Fixed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Lock()</span></code> safety issue which allowed acquiring
+and locking the same lock multiple times, without it being free. Patch by
+Bar Harel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32727">bpo-32727</a>: Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from address. Patch
+by Stéphane Wirtel</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31453">bpo-31453</a>: Add TLSVersion constants and SSLContext.maximum_version /
+minimum_version attributes. The new API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
+<a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html">https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html</a>
+feature.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24334">bpo-24334</a>: Internal implementation details of ssl module were cleaned up.
+The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection. Owner and session
+information are now handled by the SSLSocket and SSLObject constructor.
+Channel binding implementation has been simplified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31848">bpo-31848</a>: Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when the SSND
+chunk is not found. Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32585">bpo-32585</a>: Add Ttk spinbox widget to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.ttk.html#module-tkinter.ttk" title="tkinter.ttk: Tk themed widget set"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter.ttk</span></code></a>.  Patch by Alan D
+Moore.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32221">bpo-32221</a>: Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6 addresses now
+omit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%scope</span></code> part since the same information is already encoded in
+<em>scopeid</em> tuple item. Especially this speeds up <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.recvfrom()</span></code>
+when it receives multicast packet since useless resolving of network
+interface name is omitted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30693">bpo-30693</a>: The TarFile class now recurses directories in a reproducible
+way.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30693">bpo-30693</a>: The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a reproducible
+way.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id95">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id95" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28124">bpo-28124</a>: The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
+de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and efficient
+SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17232">bpo-17232</a>: Clarify docs for -O and -OO.  Patch by Terry Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32436">bpo-32436</a>: Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP 567).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32800">bpo-32800</a>: Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11015">bpo-11015</a>: Update <a class="reference internal" href="../library/test.html#module-test.support" title="test.support: Support for Python's regression test suite."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test.support</span></code></a> documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8722">bpo-8722</a>: Document <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> behavior when property <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code>
+method raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32614">bpo-32614</a>: Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw strings to
+prevent <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and add text to REGEX HOWTO to highlight
+the deprecation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31972">bpo-31972</a>: Improve docstrings for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.PurePath</span></code></a> subclasses.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id96">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id96" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31809">bpo-31809</a>: Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id97">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id97" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32898">bpo-32898</a>: Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id98">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id98" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32901">bpo-32901</a>: Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31966">bpo-31966</a>: Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32409">bpo-32409</a>: Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32457">bpo-32457</a>: Improves handling of denormalized executable path when
+launching Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32370">bpo-32370</a>: Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the uuid
+module. Patch by Segev Finer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29248">bpo-29248</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.readlink" title="os.readlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.readlink()</span></code></a> on Windows, which was mistakenly
+treating the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrintNameOffset</span></code> field of the reparse data buffer as a
+number of characters instead of bytes. Patch by Craig Holmquist and SSE4.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id99">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id99" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32901">bpo-32901</a>: Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id100">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id100" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32916">bpo-32916</a>: Change <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code> in pyparse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32905">bpo-32905</a>: Remove unused code in pyparse module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32874">bpo-32874</a>: Add tests for pyparse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32837">bpo-32837</a>: Using the system and place-dependent default encoding for
+open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32826">bpo-32826</a>: Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s test_help_about. GUI
+test test_file_buttons() only looks at initial ascii-only lines, but
+failed on systems where open() defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline()
+internally reads and decodes far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii
+character in CREDITS.txt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32765">bpo-32765</a>: Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new widgets to
+the widget list.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id101">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id101" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32222">bpo-32222</a>: Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions with type
+annotated arguments. Patch by Toby Harradine.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-beta-1">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 beta 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-01-30</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id102">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id102" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32703">bpo-32703</a>: Fix coroutine’s ResourceWarning when there’s an active error
+set when it’s being finalized.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32650">bpo-32650</a>: Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will correctly step
+over (next command) native coroutines. Patch by Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28685">bpo-28685</a>: Optimize list.sort() and sorted() by using type specialized
+comparisons when possible.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32685">bpo-32685</a>: Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print statement is
+either present on the same line as the header of a compound statement or
+else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a newline. Patch by Nitish
+Chandra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32697">bpo-32697</a>: Python now explicitly preserves the definition order of
+keyword-only parameters.  It’s always preserved their order, but this
+behavior was never guaranteed before; this behavior is now guaranteed and
+tested.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32690">bpo-32690</a>: The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical order that
+variables were defined.  Previously, the order was reversed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32677">bpo-32677</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.isascii()</span></code> method to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code>. It can be used to test that string contains only ASCII
+characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32670">bpo-32670</a>: Enforce <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479"><strong>PEP 479</strong></a> for all code.</p>
+<p>This means that manually raising a StopIteration exception from a
+generator is prohibited for all code, regardless of whether ‘from
+__future__ import generator_stop’ was used or not.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32591">bpo-32591</a>: Added built-in support for tracking the origin of coroutine
+objects; see sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth and
+CoroutineType.cr_origin. This replaces the asyncio debug mode’s use of
+coroutine wrapping for native coroutine objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31368">bpo-31368</a>: Expose preadv and pwritev system calls in the os module. Patch
+by Pablo Galindo</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32544">bpo-32544</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr(obj,</span> <span class="pre">name)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr(obj,</span> <span class="pre">name,</span> <span class="pre">default)</span></code> are
+about 4 times faster than before when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is not found and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">obj</span></code>
+doesn’t override <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26163">bpo-26163</a>: Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct hash values
+when faced with datasets containing many similar values.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32550">bpo-32550</a>: Remove the STORE_ANNOTATION bytecode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20104">bpo-20104</a>: Expose posix_spawn as a low level API in the os module.
+(removed before 3.7.0rc1)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24340">bpo-24340</a>: Fixed estimation of the code stack size.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32436">bpo-32436</a>: Implement <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567"><strong>PEP 567</strong></a> Context Variables.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18533">bpo-18533</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> on a dict containing its own <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> no longer raises <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code>; OrderedDict similarly.
+Instead, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by Ben
+North.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20891">bpo-20891</a>: Py_Initialize() now creates the GIL. The GIL is no longer
+created “on demand” to fix a race condition when PyGILState_Ensure() is
+called in a non-Python thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32028">bpo-32028</a>: Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when generating
+suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3 builtin print
+function calls. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31179">bpo-31179</a>: Make dict.copy() up to 5.5 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31113">bpo-31113</a>: Get rid of recursion in the compiler for normal control flow.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id103">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id103" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25988">bpo-25988</a>: Deprecate exposing the contents of collections.abc in the
+regular collections module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31429">bpo-31429</a>: The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module now uses a
+blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist. Python no longer
+re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security update.
+Default cipher suite selection can be configured on compile time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30306">bpo-30306</a>: contextlib.contextmanager now releases the arguments passed to
+the underlying generator as soon as the context manager is entered.
+Previously it would keep them alive for as long as the context manager was
+alive, even when not being used as a function decorator. Patch by Martin
+Teichmann.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21417">bpo-21417</a>: Added support for setting the compression level for
+zipfile.ZipFile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32251">bpo-32251</a>: Implement asyncio.BufferedProtocol (provisional API).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32513">bpo-32513</a>: In dataclasses, allow easier overriding of dunder methods
+without specifying decorator parameters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32660">bpo-32660</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/termios.html#module-termios" title="termios: POSIX style tty control. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">termios</span></code></a> makes available <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIONREAD</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIONCLEX</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIOCLEX</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIOASYNC</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FIONBIO</span></code> also under Solaris/derivatives.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27931">bpo-27931</a>: Fix email address header parsing error when the username is an
+empty quoted string. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32659">bpo-32659</a>: Under Solaris and derivatives, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat_result" title="os.stat_result"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat_result</span></code></a> provides
+a st_fstype attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32662">bpo-32662</a>: Implement Server.start_serving(), Server.serve_forever(), and
+Server.is_serving() methods.  Add ‘start_serving’ keyword parameter to
+loop.create_server() and loop.create_unix_server().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32391">bpo-32391</a>: Implement <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-stream.html#asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing" title="asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing()</span></code></a> methods</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32643">bpo-32643</a>: Make Task._step, Task._wakeup and Future._schedule_callbacks
+methods private.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32630">bpo-32630</a>: Refactor decimal module to use contextvars to store decimal
+context.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32622">bpo-32622</a>: Add <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sendfile()</span></code> method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32304">bpo-32304</a>: distutils’ upload command no longer corrupts tar files ending
+with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to CRLF in any of the
+upload text fields.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32502">bpo-32502</a>: uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit hardware
+address is encountered.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32596">bpo-32596</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> imports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code> lazily (using <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0562"><strong>PEP 562</strong></a>). It makes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span>
+<span class="pre">asyncio</span></code> about 15% faster because asyncio uses only
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code> by default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31801">bpo-31801</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_ignore_</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Enum</span></code> so temporary variables can be used
+during class construction without being turned into members.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32576">bpo-32576</a>: Use queue.SimpleQueue() in places where it can be invoked from
+a weakref callback.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32574">bpo-32574</a>: Fix memory leak in asyncio.Queue, when the queue has limited
+size and it is full, the cancelation of queue.put() can cause a memory
+leak. Patch by: José Melero.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32521">bpo-32521</a>: The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and headers
+location.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32467">bpo-32467</a>: collections.abc.ValuesView now inherits from
+collections.abc.Collection.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32473">bpo-32473</a>: Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32102">bpo-32102</a>: New argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">capture_output</span></code> for subprocess.run</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32521">bpo-32521</a>: glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc headers and
+library in nis module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32493">bpo-32493</a>: UUID module fixes build for FreeBSD/OpenBSD</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32503">bpo-32503</a>: Pickling with protocol 4 no longer creates too small frames.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29237">bpo-29237</a>: Create enum for pstats sorting options</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32454">bpo-32454</a>: Add close(fd) function to the socket module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25942">bpo-25942</a>: The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling a
+Ctrl-C KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call, subprocess.run, or a
+Popen context manager.  It now waits a short amount of time for the child
+(presumed to have also gotten the SIGINT) to exit, before continuing the
+KeyboardInterrupt exception handling.  This still includes a SIGKILL in
+the call() and run() APIs, but at least the child had a chance first.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32433">bpo-32433</a>: The hmac module now has hmac.digest(), which provides an
+optimized HMAC digest.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28134">bpo-28134</a>: Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file
+descriptor by default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32404">bpo-32404</a>: Fix bug where <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp" title="datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp()</span></code></a> did not
+call __new__ in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32403">bpo-32403</a>: Improved speed of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date" title="datetime.date"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime" title="datetime.datetime"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime</span></code></a> alternate constructors.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32228">bpo-32228</a>: Ensure that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code> preserves the file position (as
+reported by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code>) after writes longer than the buffer size.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32410">bpo-32410</a>: Implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">loop.sock_sendfile</span></code> for asyncio event loop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22908">bpo-22908</a>: Added seek and tell to the ZipExtFile class. This only works if
+the file object used to open the zipfile is seekable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32373">bpo-32373</a>: Add socket.getblocking() method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32248">bpo-32248</a>: Add <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.resources" title="importlib.resources: Package resource reading, opening, and access"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.resources</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a> as the unified API for reading
+resources contained within packages.  Loaders wishing to support resource
+reading must implement the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_resource_reader()</span></code> method.
+File-based and zipimport-based loaders both implement these APIs.
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceLoader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceLoader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceLoader</span></code></a> is deprecated in favor of these new
+APIs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32320">bpo-32320</a>: collections.namedtuple() now supports default values.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29302">bpo-29302</a>: Add contextlib.AsyncExitStack. Patch by Alexander Mohr and Ilya
+Kulakov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31961">bpo-31961</a>: <em>Removed in Python 3.7.0b2.</em> The <em>args</em> argument of
+subprocess.Popen can now be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>. If <em>args</em> is given
+as a sequence, it’s first element can now be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a> as
+well.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31900">bpo-31900</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.localeconv" title="locale.localeconv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.localeconv()</span></code></a> function now sets temporarily the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale to decode
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal_point</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thousands_sep</span></code> byte strings if they are non-ASCII
+or longer than 1 byte, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale is different than the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale. This temporary change affects other threads.</p>
+<p>Same change for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method when formatting a number
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and subclasses) with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> type (ex: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{:n}'.format(1234)</span></code>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31853">bpo-31853</a>: Use super().method instead of socket.method in SSLSocket.  They
+were there most likely for legacy reasons.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31399">bpo-31399</a>: The ssl module now uses OpenSSL’s X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host()
+and X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_ip() API to verify hostname and IP addresses.
+Subject common name fallback can be disabled with
+SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14976">bpo-14976</a>: Add a queue.SimpleQueue class, an unbounded FIFO queue with a
+reentrant C implementation of put().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id104">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id104" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32724">bpo-32724</a>: Add references to some commands in the documentation of Pdb.
+Patch by Stéphane Wirtel</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32649">bpo-32649</a>: Complete the C API documentation, profiling and tracing part
+with the newly added per-opcode events.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17799">bpo-17799</a>: Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and sys.setprofile and
+their C-API counterparts regarding which type of events are received in
+each function. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id105">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id105" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32721">bpo-32721</a>: Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is not built.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28414">bpo-28414</a>: Add test cases for IDNA 2003 and 2008 host names. IDNA 2003
+internationalized host names are working since <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31399">bpo-31399</a> has landed. IDNA
+2008 are still broken.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32604">bpo-32604</a>: Add a new “_xxsubinterpreters” extension module that exposes
+the existing subinterpreter C-API and a new cross-interpreter data sharing
+mechanism. The module is primarily intended for more thorough testing of
+the existing subinterpreter support.</p>
+<p>Note that the _xxsubinterpreters module has been removed in 3.7.0rc1.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32602">bpo-32602</a>: Add test certs and test for ECDSA cert and EC/RSA dual mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32549">bpo-32549</a>: On Travis CI, Python now Compiles and uses a local copy of
+OpenSSL 1.1.0g for testing.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id106">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id106" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32635">bpo-32635</a>: Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is provided
+instead of libcrypt at the system.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32598">bpo-32598</a>: Use autoconf to detect OpenSSL libs, headers and supported
+features. The ax_check_openssl M4 macro uses pkg-config to locate OpenSSL
+and falls back to manual search.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32593">bpo-32593</a>: Drop support of FreeBSD 9 and older.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29708">bpo-29708</a>: If the <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH</span></code> environment variable is set,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> will always create hash-based <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id107">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id107" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32588">bpo-32588</a>: Create standalone _distutils_findvs module and add missing
+_queue module to installer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29911">bpo-29911</a>: Ensure separate Modify and Uninstall buttons are displayed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32507">bpo-32507</a>: Use app-local UCRT install rather than the proper update for
+old versions of Windows.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id108">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id108" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32726">bpo-32726</a>: Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer variant that
+supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.  Upgrade the supplied
+third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.1.0g and to SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+
+installer now links with and supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28440">bpo-28440</a>: No longer add /Library/Python/3.x/site-packages to sys.path for
+macOS framework builds to avoid future conflicts.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id109">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id109" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32681">bpo-32681</a>: Fix uninitialized variable ‘res’ in the C implementation of
+os.dup2. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10381">bpo-10381</a>: Add C API access to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timezone</span></code> constructor and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timzone.UTC</span></code> singleton.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-alpha-4">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 alpha 4<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-01-08</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id110">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id110" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31975">bpo-31975</a>: The default warning filter list now starts with a
+“default::DeprecationWarning:__main__” entry, so deprecation warnings are
+once again shown by default in single-file scripts and at the interactive
+prompt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32226">bpo-32226</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class_getitem__</span></code> is now an automatic class method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32399">bpo-32399</a>: Add AIX uuid library support for RFC4122 using uuid_create() in
+libc.a</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32390">bpo-32390</a>: Fix the compilation failure on AIX after the f_fsid field has
+been added to the object returned by os.statvfs() (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32143">bpo-32143</a>). Original
+patch by Michael Felt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32379">bpo-32379</a>: Make MRO computation faster when a class inherits from a single
+base.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32259">bpo-32259</a>: The error message of a TypeError raised when unpack
+non-iterable is now more specific.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27169">bpo-27169</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code> constant is now optimized out at compile
+time. This fixes also <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22091">bpo-22091</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32329">bpo-32329</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-r"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-R</span></code></a> option now turns on hash randomization when
+the <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED</span></code></a> environment variable is set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code>.
+Previously, the option was ignored. Moreover,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags.hash_randomization</span></code> is now properly set to 0 when hash
+randomization is turned off by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED=0</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30416">bpo-30416</a>: The optimizer is now protected from spending much time doing
+complex calculations and consuming much memory for creating large
+constants in constant folding. Increased limits for constants that can be
+produced in constant folding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32282">bpo-32282</a>: Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of VersionHelpers.h in
+socketmodule on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30579">bpo-30579</a>: Implement TracebackType.__new__ to allow Python-level creation
+of traceback objects, and make TracebackType.tb_next mutable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32260">bpo-32260</a>: Don’t byte swap the input keys to the SipHash algorithm on
+big-endian platforms. This should ensure siphash gives consistent results
+across platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31506">bpo-31506</a>: Improve the error message logic for object.__new__ and
+object.__init__. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20361">bpo-20361</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-bb</span></code> now inject <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'default::BytesWarning'</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">error::BytesWarning</span></code> entries into <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.warnoptions</span></code>, ensuring that
+they take precedence over any other warning filters configured via the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code> option or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code> environment variable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32230">bpo-32230</a>: <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">dev</span></code> now injects a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'default'</span></code> entry into
+sys.warnoptions, ensuring that it behaves identically to actually passing
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wdefault</span></code> at the command line.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29240">bpo-29240</a>: Add a new UTF-8 mode: implementation of the <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0540"><strong>PEP 540</strong></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32226">bpo-32226</a>: <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560"><strong>PEP 560</strong></a>: Add support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__mro_entries__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__class_getitem__</span></code>. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32225">bpo-32225</a>: <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0562"><strong>PEP 562</strong></a>: Add support for module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dir__</span></code>. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31901">bpo-31901</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/atexit.html#module-atexit" title="atexit: Register and execute cleanup functions."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">atexit</span></code></a> module now has its callback stored per
+interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31650">bpo-31650</a>: Implement <span class="target" id="index-15"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0552"><strong>PEP 552</strong></a> (Deterministic pycs). Python now supports
+invalidating bytecode cache files bashed on a source content hash rather
+than source last-modified time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29469">bpo-29469</a>: Move constant folding from bytecode layer to AST layer.
+Original patch by Eugene Toder.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id111">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id111" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32506">bpo-32506</a>: Now that dict is defined as keeping insertion order, drop
+OrderedDict and just use plain dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32279">bpo-32279</a>: Add params to dataclasses.make_dataclasses(): init, repr, eq,
+order, hash, and frozen.  Pass them through to dataclass().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32278">bpo-32278</a>: Make type information optional on dataclasses.make_dataclass().
+If omitted, the string ‘typing.Any’ is used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32499">bpo-32499</a>: Add dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj), which returns True if obj is
+a dataclass or an instance of one.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32468">bpo-32468</a>: Improve frame repr() to mention filename, code name and current
+line number.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23749">bpo-23749</a>: asyncio: Implement loop.start_tls()</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32441">bpo-32441</a>: Return the new file descriptor (i.e., the second argument) from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup2</span></code>. Previously, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> was always returned.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32422">bpo-32422</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.lru_cache</span></code> uses less memory (3 words for each
+cached key) and takes about 1/3 time for cyclic GC.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31721">bpo-31721</a>: Prevent Python crash from happening when Future._log_traceback
+is set to True manually.  Now it can only be set to False, or a ValueError
+is raised.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32415">bpo-32415</a>: asyncio: Add Task.get_loop() and Future.get_loop()</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26133">bpo-26133</a>: Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop on
+interpreter shutdown.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32363">bpo-32363</a>: Make asyncio.Task.set_exception() and set_result() raise
+NotImplementedError. Task._step() and Future.__await__() raise proper
+exceptions when they are in an invalid state, instead of raising an
+AssertionError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32357">bpo-32357</a>: Optimize asyncio.iscoroutine() and loop.create_task() for
+non-native coroutines (e.g. async/await compiled with Cython).</p>
+<p>‘loop.create_task(python_coroutine)’ used to be 20% faster than
+‘loop.create_task(cython_coroutine)’.  Now, the latter is as fast.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32356">bpo-32356</a>: asyncio.transport.resume_reading() and pause_reading() are now
+idempotent. New transport.is_reading() method is added.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32355">bpo-32355</a>: Optimize asyncio.gather(); now up to 15% faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32351">bpo-32351</a>: Use fastpath in asyncio.sleep if delay&lt;0 (2x boost)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32348">bpo-32348</a>: Optimize asyncio.Future schedule/add/remove callback.  The
+optimization shows 3-6% performance improvements of async/await code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32331">bpo-32331</a>: Fix socket.settimeout() and socket.setblocking() to keep
+socket.type as is. Fix socket.socket() constructor to reset any bit flags
+applied to socket’s type.  This change only affects OSes that have
+SOCK_NONBLOCK and/or SOCK_CLOEXEC.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32248">bpo-32248</a>: Add <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.ResourceReader" title="importlib.abc.ResourceReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.ResourceReader</span></code></a> as an ABC for loaders
+to provide a unified API for reading resources contained within packages.
+Also add <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.resources" title="importlib.resources: Package resource reading, opening, and access"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.resources</span></code></a> as the port of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib_resources</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32311">bpo-32311</a>: Implement asyncio.create_task(coro) shortcut</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32327">bpo-32327</a>: Convert asyncio functions that were documented as coroutines to
+coroutines. Affected functions: loop.sock_sendall, loop.sock_recv,
+loop.sock_accept, loop.getaddrinfo, loop.getnameinfo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32323">bpo-32323</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlsplit()</span></code></a> does not convert zone-id
+(scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in hostnames now.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32302">bpo-32302</a>: Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it binary
+compatible with CRT v140.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29711">bpo-29711</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stop_serving</span></code> in asyncio proactor loop kill all
+listening servers</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32308">bpo-32308</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.sub" title="re.sub"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.sub()</span></code></a> now replaces empty matches adjacent to a
+previous non-empty match.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29970">bpo-29970</a>: Abort asyncio SSLProtocol connection if handshake not complete
+within 10s</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32314">bpo-32314</a>: Implement asyncio.run().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17852">bpo-17852</a>: Revert incorrect fix based on misunderstanding of
+_Py_PyAtExit() semantics.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32296">bpo-32296</a>: Implement asyncio._get_running_loop() and get_event_loop() in
+C. This makes them 4x faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32250">bpo-32250</a>: Implement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.current_task()</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.all_tasks()</span></code>. Add helpers intended to be used by alternative
+task implementations: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio._register_task</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio._enter_task</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio._leave_task</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio._unregister_task</span></code>. Deprecate
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task.current_task()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Task.all_tasks()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32255">bpo-32255</a>: A single empty field is now always quoted when written into a
+CSV file. This allows to distinguish an empty row from a row consisting of
+a single empty field. Patch by Licht Takeuchi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32277">bpo-32277</a>: Raise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code> on
+platforms where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod(...,</span> <span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False)</span></code> is not supported.
+Patch by Anthony Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30050">bpo-30050</a>: New argument warn_on_full_buffer to signal.set_wakeup_fd lets
+you control whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup fd
+buffer overflows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29137">bpo-29137</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fpectl</span></code> library has been removed. It was never enabled
+by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python
+ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32273">bpo-32273</a>: Move asyncio.test_utils to test.test_asyncio.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32272">bpo-32272</a>: Remove asyncio.async() function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32269">bpo-32269</a>: Add asyncio.get_running_loop() function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32265">bpo-32265</a>: All class and static methods of builtin types now are correctly
+classified by inspect.classify_class_attrs() and grouped in pydoc ouput.
+Added types.ClassMethodDescriptorType for unbound class methods of builtin
+types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32253">bpo-32253</a>: Deprecate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">lock</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">lock</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">(yield</span>
+<span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">lock)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span> <span class="pre">await</span> <span class="pre">lock</span></code> for asyncio synchronization
+primitives.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22589">bpo-22589</a>: Changed MIME type of .bmp from ‘image/x-ms-bmp’ to ‘image/bmp’</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32193">bpo-32193</a>: Convert asyncio to use <em>async/await</em> syntax. Old styled <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span>
+<span class="pre">from</span></code> is still supported too.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32206">bpo-32206</a>: Add support to run modules with pdb</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32227">bpo-32227</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.singledispatch</span></code> now supports registering
+implementations using type annotations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15873">bpo-15873</a>: Added new alternate constructors
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.datetime.fromisoformat" title="datetime.datetime.fromisoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.datetime.fromisoformat()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.time.fromisoformat" title="datetime.time.fromisoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.time.fromisoformat()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date.fromisoformat" title="datetime.date.fromisoformat"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date.fromisoformat()</span></code></a> as the inverse operation of each
+classes’s respective <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isoformat</span></code> methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32199">bpo-32199</a>: The getnode() ip getter now uses ‘ip link’ instead of ‘ip link
+list’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32143">bpo-32143</a>: os.statvfs() includes the f_fsid field from statvfs(2)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26439">bpo-26439</a>: Fix ctypes.util.find_library() for AIX by implementing
+ctypes._aix.find_library() Patch by: Michael Felt</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31993">bpo-31993</a>: The pickler now uses less memory when serializing large bytes
+and str objects into a file.  Pickles created with protocol 4 will require
+less memory for unpickling large bytes and str objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27456">bpo-27456</a>: Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux. Tests by Victor Stinner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31778">bpo-31778</a>: ast.literal_eval() is now more strict. Addition and subtraction
+of arbitrary numbers no longer allowed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31802">bpo-31802</a>: Importing native path module (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixpath</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntpath</span></code>) now
+works even if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> module still is not imported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30241">bpo-30241</a>: Add contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager. Patch by Jelle
+Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31699">bpo-31699</a>: Fix deadlocks in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> when task arguments or
+results cause pickling or unpickling errors. This should make sure that
+calls to the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code> API always eventually return.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15216">bpo-15216</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()</span></code> supports changing <em>encoding</em>,
+<em>errors</em>, and <em>newline</em>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id112">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id112" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32418">bpo-32418</a>: Add get_loop() method to Server and AbstractServer classes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id113">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id113" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32252">bpo-32252</a>: Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to prevent core
+dump files when testing crashes. getrlimit() returns zero on success.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32002">bpo-32002</a>: Adjust C locale coercion testing for the empty locale and POSIX
+locale cases to more readily adjust to platform dependent behaviour.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id114">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id114" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19764">bpo-19764</a>: Implement support for <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen(close_fds=True)</span></code> on
+Windows. Patch by Segev Finer.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id115">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id115" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24960">bpo-24960</a>: 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files using
+pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem. This lets 2to3 and
+lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id116">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id116" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32030">bpo-32030</a>: Py_Initialize() doesn’t reset the memory allocators to default
+if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code> environment variable is not set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29084">bpo-29084</a>: Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded from the
+limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never worked in the
+limited C API.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32264">bpo-32264</a>: Moved the pygetopt.h header into internal/, since it has no
+public APIs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32241">bpo-32241</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetProgramName" title="Py_SetProgramName"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetProgramName()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_SetPythonHome" title="Py_SetPythonHome"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SetPythonHome()</span></code></a> now
+take the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">wchar</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> arguments instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wchar</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-alpha-3">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 alpha 3<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-12-05</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id117">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id117" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32176">bpo-32176</a>: co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the code
+object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than needing to
+be set correctly by the caller. This ensures it will be cleared
+automatically when additional cell references are injected into a modified
+code object and function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10544">bpo-10544</a>: Yield expressions are now deprecated in comprehensions and
+generator expressions. They are still permitted in the definition of the
+outermost iterable, as that is evaluated directly in the enclosing scope.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32137">bpo-32137</a>: The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a RecursionError
+instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32096">bpo-32096</a>: Revert memory allocator changes in the C API: move structures
+back from _PyRuntime to Objects/obmalloc.c. The memory allocators are once
+again initialized statically, and so PyMem_RawMalloc() and
+Py_DecodeLocale() can be called before _PyRuntime_Initialize().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32043">bpo-32043</a>: Add a new “developer mode”: new “-X dev” command line option to
+enable debug checks at runtime.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32023">bpo-32023</a>: SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator expression
+without parenthesis is used instead of an inheritance list in a class
+definition. The duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on
+calls.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32012">bpo-32012</a>: SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator expression
+without parenthesis is passed as an argument, but followed by a trailing
+comma. A generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of
+parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28180">bpo-28180</a>: A new internal <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_SetLocaleFromEnv(category)</span></code> helper
+function has been added in order to improve the consistency of behaviour
+across different <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">libc</span></code> implementations (e.g. Android doesn’t support
+setting the locale from the environment by default).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31949">bpo-31949</a>: Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
+(PyTraceBack_Print()).</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now suppresses printing tracebacks.</p></li>
+<li><p>Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None now causes using the default limit.</p></li>
+<li><p>Setting sys.tracebacklimit to an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using
+the limit LONG_MAX rather than the default limit.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fixed integer overflows in the case of more than 2**31 traceback items on
+Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fixed output errors handling.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30696">bpo-30696</a>: Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly when no
+memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20047">bpo-20047</a>: Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now accept only
+bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In particular they now
+raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus result when an integer is
+passed as a separator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21720">bpo-21720</a>: BytesWarning no longer emitted when the <em>fromlist</em> argument of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code> or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> attribute of the module contain bytes
+instances.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31845">bpo-31845</a>: Environment variables are once more read correctly at
+interpreter startup.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28936">bpo-28936</a>: Ensure that lexically first syntax error involving a parameter
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> is detected first at a given scope. Patch
+by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31825">bpo-31825</a>: Fixed OverflowError in the ‘unicode-escape’ codec and in
+codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31618">bpo-31618</a>: The per-frame tracing logic added in 3.7a1 has been altered so
+that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frame-&gt;f_lineno</span></code> is updated before either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;line&quot;</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;opcode&quot;</span></code> events are emitted. Previously, opcode events were emitted
+first, and therefore would occasionally see stale line numbers on the
+frame. The behavior of this feature has changed slightly as a result: when
+both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_lines</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_opcodes</span></code> are enabled, line events
+now occur first.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28603">bpo-28603</a>: Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on interpreter
+exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable or compares equal to
+later ones. Patch by Zane Bitter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31786">bpo-31786</a>: Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round correctly
+negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting
+for events as expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking.
+Patch by Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31781">bpo-31781</a>: Prevent crashes when calling methods of an uninitialized
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport.zipimporter</span></code> object. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30399">bpo-30399</a>: Standard repr() of BaseException with a single argument no
+longer contains redundant trailing comma.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31626">bpo-31626</a>: Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a write to
+freed memory after shrinking a memory block.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30817">bpo-30817</a>: <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_PrintEx()</span></code> clears now the ignored exception that may be
+raised by <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PySys_SetObjectId()</span></code>, for example when no memory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id118">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id118" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Two minor fixes for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module: allow shallow copying
+instances of generic classes, improve interaction of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__</span></code>
+with generics. Original PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32214">bpo-32214</a>: PEP 557, Data Classes. Provides a decorator which adds
+boilerplate methods to classes which use type annotations so specify
+fields.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27240">bpo-27240</a>: The header folding algorithm for the new email policies has
+been rewritten, which also fixes <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30788">bpo-30788</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31831">bpo-31831</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32182">bpo-32182</a>.  In
+particular, RFC2231 folding is now done correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32186">bpo-32186</a>: io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release the GIL
+when getting the file size. Fixed hang of all threads with inaccessible
+NFS server. Patch by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue321010">bpo-321010</a>: Add <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags.dev_mode</span></code> flag</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32154">bpo-32154</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()</span></code> function has been
+removed: use directly <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socketpair" title="socket.socketpair"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socketpair()</span></code></a> which is available on all
+platforms since Python 3.5 (before, it wasn’t available on Windows).
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()</span></code> was just an alias to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socketpair</span></code> on Python 3.5 and newer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32089">bpo-32089</a>: warnings: In development (-X dev) and debug mode (pydebug
+build), use the “default” action for ResourceWarning, rather than the
+“always” action, in the default warnings filters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32107">bpo-32107</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid.getnode()</span></code> now preferentially returns universally
+administered MAC addresses if available, over locally administered MAC
+addresses.  This makes a better guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs
+returned from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid.uuid1()</span></code>.  If only locally administered MAC
+addresses are available, the first such one found is returned.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23033">bpo-23033</a>: Wildcard is now supported in hostname when it is one and only
+character in the left most segment of hostname in second argument of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.match_hostname()</span></code></a>.  Patch by Mandeep Singh.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12239">bpo-12239</a>: Make <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty" title="msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()</span></code></a> return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when the value of property is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VT_EMPTY</span></code>.  Initial patch by
+Mark Mc Mahon.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28334">bpo-28334</a>: Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.expanduser" title="os.path.expanduser"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.expanduser()</span></code></a> to find the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~/.netrc</span></code> file in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/netrc.html#netrc.netrc" title="netrc.netrc"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">netrc.netrc</span></code></a>.  If it does not exist, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#FileNotFoundError" title="FileNotFoundError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FileNotFoundError</span></code></a> is
+raised.  Patch by Dimitri Merejkowsky.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32121">bpo-32121</a>: Made <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc.Traceback</span></code> behave more like the traceback
+module, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback.format()</span></code> now accepts negative <em>limit</em>, truncating the result
+to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abs(limit)</span></code> oldest frames. To get the old behaviour, one can use
+the new <em>most_recent_first</em> argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Traceback.format()</span></code>. (Patch by
+Jesse Bakker.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31325">bpo-31325</a>: Fix wrong usage of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse" title="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RobotFileParser.parse()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<p>Initial patch by Robin Wellner.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12382">bpo-12382</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#msilib.OpenDatabase" title="msilib.OpenDatabase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.OpenDatabase()</span></code></a> now raises a better exception
+message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI file.  Initial patch by
+William Tisäter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19610">bpo-19610</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup()</span></code> now warns about invalid types for some fields.</p>
+<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils.dist.Distribution</span></code> class now warns when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classifiers</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">keywords</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">platforms</span></code> fields are not specified as a list or a
+string.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32071">bpo-32071</a>: Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-k</span></code> command-line option to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">unittest</span></code>
+to run only tests that match the given pattern(s).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10049">bpo-10049</a>: Added <em>nullcontext</em> no-op context manager to contextlib. This
+provides a simpler and faster alternative to ExitStack() when handling
+optional context managers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28684">bpo-28684</a>: The new test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() decorator
+is used here to skip asyncio tests that fail because the platform lacks a
+functional bind() function for unix domain sockets (as it is the case for
+non root users on the recent Android versions that run now SELinux in
+enforcing mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32110">bpo-32110</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.StreamReader.read(n)</span></code> now returns not more than <em>n</em>
+characters/bytes for non-negative <em>n</em>. This makes it compatible with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> methods of other file-like objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27535">bpo-27535</a>: The warnings module doesn’t leak memory anymore in the hidden
+warnings registry for the “ignore” action of warnings filters.
+warn_explicit() function doesn’t add the warning key to the registry
+anymore for the “ignore” action.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32088">bpo-32088</a>: warnings:  When Python is build is debug mode (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DEBUG</span></code>),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#PendingDeprecationWarning" title="PendingDeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PendingDeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportWarning" title="ImportWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportWarning</span></code></a> warnings are now displayed by default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1647489">bpo-1647489</a>: Fixed searching regular expression patterns that could match
+an empty string. Non-empty string can now be correctly found after
+matching an empty string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25054">bpo-25054</a>: Added support of splitting on a pattern that could match an
+empty string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32072">bpo-32072</a>: Fixed issues with binary plists:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Fixed saving bytearrays.</p></li>
+<li><p>Identical objects will be saved only once.</p></li>
+<li><p>Equal references will be load as identical objects.</p></li>
+<li><p>Added support for saving and loading recursive data structures.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32069">bpo-32069</a>: Drop legacy SSL transport from asyncio, ssl.MemoryBIO is always
+used anyway.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32066">bpo-32066</a>: asyncio: Support pathlib.Path in create_unix_connection; sock
+arg should be optional</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32046">bpo-32046</a>: Updates 2to3 to convert from operator.isCallable(obj) to
+callable(obj). Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32018">bpo-32018</a>: inspect.signature should follow PEP 8, if the parameter has an
+annotation and a default value. Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32025">bpo-32025</a>: Add time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns()</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32037">bpo-32037</a>: Integers that fit in a signed 32-bit integer will be now
+pickled with protocol 0 using the INT opcode.  This will decrease the size
+of a pickle, speed up pickling and unpickling, and make these integers be
+unpickled as int instances in Python 2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32034">bpo-32034</a>: Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and LimitOverrunError
+pickleable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32015">bpo-32015</a>: Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of reconnection the
+socket during waiting async read/write from/to the socket.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32011">bpo-32011</a>: Restored support of loading marshal files with the TYPE_INT64
+code. These files can be produced in Python 2.7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28369">bpo-28369</a>: Enhance add_reader/writer check that socket is not used by some
+transport. Before, only cases when add_reader/writer were called with an
+int FD were supported.  Now the check is implemented correctly for all
+file-like objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31976">bpo-31976</a>: Fix race condition when flushing a file is slow, which can
+cause a segfault if closing the file from another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31985">bpo-31985</a>: Formally deprecated aifc.openfp, sunau.openfp, and wave.openfp.
+Since change 7bc817d5ba917528e8bd07ec461c635291e7b06a in 1993, openfp in
+each of the three modules had been pointing to that module’s open function
+as a matter of backwards compatibility, though it had been both untested
+and undocumented.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21862">bpo-21862</a>: cProfile command line now accepts <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">module_name</span></code> as an
+alternative to script path. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31970">bpo-31970</a>: Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31843">bpo-31843</a>: <em>database</em> argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-path-like-object"><span class="xref std std-term">path-like object</span></a>, instead of just a string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31945">bpo-31945</a>: Add Configurable <em>blocksize</em> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code> for improved upload throughput.  Patch by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31943">bpo-31943</a>: Add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cancelled()</span></code> method to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-eventloop.html#asyncio.Handle" title="asyncio.Handle"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Handle</span></code></a>.  Patch
+by Marat Sharafutdinov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9678">bpo-9678</a>: Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD.</p></li>
+<li><p>Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30057">bpo-30057</a>: Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31933">bpo-31933</a>: Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big endian
+platforms. Patch by Jack O’Connor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21423">bpo-21423</a>: Add an initializer argument to {Process,Thread}PoolExecutor</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31927">bpo-31927</a>: Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.  Fixed
+assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a AF_BLUETOOTH
+address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27666">bpo-27666</a>: Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and curses.ungetmouse()
+when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is less than the size of C long.
+curses.box() now accepts characters as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve
+Fink.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31917">bpo-31917</a>: Add 3 new clock identifiers: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME" title="time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.CLOCK_PROF" title="time.CLOCK_PROF"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.CLOCK_PROF</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.CLOCK_UPTIME" title="time.CLOCK_UPTIME"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.CLOCK_UPTIME</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31897">bpo-31897</a>: plistlib now catches more errors when read binary plists and
+raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25720">bpo-25720</a>: Fix the method for checking pad state of curses WINDOW. Patch
+by Masayuki Yamamoto.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31893">bpo-31893</a>: Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on OpenBSD and
+NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31891">bpo-31891</a>: Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31884">bpo-31884</a>: added required constants to subprocess module for setting
+priority on windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28281">bpo-28281</a>: Remove year (1-9999) limits on the Calendar.weekday() function.</p>
+<p>Patch by Mark Gollahon.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31702">bpo-31702</a>: crypt.mksalt() now allows to specify the number of rounds for
+SHA-256 and SHA-512 hashing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30639">bpo-30639</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfile" title="inspect.getfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfile()</span></code></a> no longer computes the repr of unknown
+objects to display in an error message, to protect against badly behaved
+custom reprs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30768">bpo-30768</a>: Fix the pthread+semaphore implementation of
+PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() when called with timeout &gt; 0 and
+intr_flag=0: recompute the timeout if sem_timedwait() is interrupted by a
+signal (EINTR). See also the <span class="target" id="index-16"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475"><strong>PEP 475</strong></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31854">bpo-31854</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.ACCESS_DEFAULT</span></code> constant.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31834">bpo-31834</a>: Use optimized code for BLAKE2 only with SSSE3+. The pure SSE2
+implementation is slower than the pure C reference implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28292">bpo-28292</a>: Calendar.itermonthdates() will now consistently raise an
+exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01 through 9999-12-31
+range.  To support applications that cannot tolerate such exceptions, the
+new methods itermonthdays3() and itermonthdays4() are added.  The new
+methods return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by
+datetime.date.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28564">bpo-28564</a>: The shutil.rmtree() function has been sped up to 20–40%. This
+was done using the os.scandir() function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28416">bpo-28416</a>: Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the persistent_id()
+method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the persistent_load() method no
+longer create reference cycles.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31653">bpo-31653</a>: Don’t release the GIL if we can acquire a multiprocessing
+semaphore immediately.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28326">bpo-28326</a>: Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or stderr is closed
+or None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20825">bpo-20825</a>: Add <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subnet_of</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">superset_of</span></code> containment tests to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv6Network" title="ipaddress.IPv6Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress.IPv6Network</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#ipaddress.IPv4Network" title="ipaddress.IPv4Network"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress.IPv4Network</span></code></a>. Patch
+by Michel Albert and Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31827">bpo-31827</a>: Remove the os.stat_float_times() function. It was introduced in
+Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python 2.2, and was deprecated
+since Python 3.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31756">bpo-31756</a>: Add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen(text=False)</span></code> keyword argument to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#module-subprocess" title="subprocess: Subprocess management."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess</span></code></a> functions to be more explicit about when the library should
+attempt to decode outputs into text. Patch by Andrew Clegg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31819">bpo-31819</a>: Add AbstractEventLoop.sock_recv_into().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31457">bpo-31457</a>: If nested log adapters are used, the inner <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process()</span></code>
+methods are no longer omitted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31457">bpo-31457</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">manager</span></code> property on LoggerAdapter objects is now
+properly settable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31806">bpo-31806</a>: Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(), threading.Lock.acquire()
+and socket.socket.settimeout() to round correctly negative timeouts
+between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting for events as
+expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking. Patch by
+Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31803">bpo-31803</a>: time.clock() and time.get_clock_info(‘clock’) now emit a
+DeprecationWarning warning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31800">bpo-31800</a>: Extended support for parsing UTC offsets. strptime ‘%z’ can now
+parse the output generated by datetime.isoformat, including seconds and
+microseconds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28603">bpo-28603</a>: traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during printing of
+exception tracebacks when either the current exception or an exception in
+its context/cause chain is unhashable. Patch by Zane Bitter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30541">bpo-30541</a>: Add new function to seal a mock and prevent the automatically
+creation of child mocks. Patch by Mario Corchero.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31784">bpo-31784</a>: Implement the <span class="target" id="index-17"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0564"><strong>PEP 564</strong></a>, add new 6 new functions with
+nanosecond resolution to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#module-time" title="time: Time access and conversions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time</span></code></a> module:
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_gettime_ns" title="time.clock_gettime_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_gettime_ns()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.clock_settime_ns" title="time.clock_settime_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">clock_settime_ns()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.monotonic_ns" title="time.monotonic_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">monotonic_ns()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.perf_counter_ns" title="time.perf_counter_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">perf_counter_ns()</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.process_time_ns" title="time.process_time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process_time_ns()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.time_ns" title="time.time_ns"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time_ns()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30143">bpo-30143</a>: 2to3 now generates a code that uses abstract collection classes
+from collections.abc rather than collections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31770">bpo-31770</a>: Prevent a crash when calling the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code> method of a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Cursor</span></code> object more than once. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31764">bpo-31764</a>: Prevent a crash in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Cursor.close()</span></code> in case the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code> object is uninitialized. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31752">bpo-31752</a>: Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called with custom
+integers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31620">bpo-31620</a>: an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when queue.get
+pollers timeout</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31690">bpo-31690</a>: Allow the flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE, and re.UNICODE to be used
+as group flags for regular expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30349">bpo-30349</a>: FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression contains
+character set constructs that will change semantically in the future
+(nested sets and set operations).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31664">bpo-31664</a>: Added support for the Blowfish hashing in the crypt module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31632">bpo-31632</a>: Fix method set_protocol() of class _SSLProtocolTransport in
+asyncio module. This method was previously modifying a wrong reference to
+the protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15037">bpo-15037</a>: Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for ncurses 5.7 and
+earlier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31307">bpo-31307</a>: Allow use of bytes objects for arguments to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.read" title="configparser.ConfigParser.read"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser.ConfigParser.read()</span></code></a>. Patch by Vincent Michel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31334">bpo-31334</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll.poll([timeout])</span></code> in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> module for
+arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
+non-negative integer or -1. Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31310">bpo-31310</a>: multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be launched again if
+crashed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31308">bpo-31308</a>: Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to Ctrl-C and
+other user interruptions. If it crashes, restart it when necessary.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31245">bpo-31245</a>: Added support for AF_UNIX socket in asyncio
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">create_datagram_endpoint</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30553">bpo-30553</a>: Add HTTP/2 status code 421 (Misdirected Request) to
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.html#http.HTTPStatus" title="http.HTTPStatus"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.HTTPStatus</span></code></a>. Patch by Vitor Pereira.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id119">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id119" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32105">bpo-32105</a>: Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
+versionadded marker.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id120">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id120" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31380">bpo-31380</a>: Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS: fails on
+APFS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31705">bpo-31705</a>: Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older than 4.5.
+The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le). A fix was merged
+into the kernel 4.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32138">bpo-32138</a>: Skip on Android test_faulthandler tests that raise SIGSEGV and
+remove the test.support.requires_android_level decorator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32136">bpo-32136</a>: The runtime embedding tests have been split out from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_capi.py</span></code> into a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/test/test_embed.py</span></code> file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28668">bpo-28668</a>: test.support.requires_multiprocessing_queue is removed. Skip
+tests with test.support.import_module(‘multiprocessing.synchronize’)
+instead when the semaphore implementation is broken or missing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32126">bpo-32126</a>: Skip test_get_event_loop_new_process in
+test.test_asyncio.test_events when sem_open() is not functional.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31174">bpo-31174</a>: Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now stores the
+names sample to always test the same files. It prevents false alarms when
+hunting reference leaks.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id121">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id121" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28538">bpo-28538</a>: Revert the previous changes, the if_nameindex structure is
+defined by Unified Headers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28762">bpo-28762</a>: Revert the last commit, the F_LOCK macro is defined by Android
+Unified Headers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29040">bpo-29040</a>: Support building Android with Unified Headers. The first NDK
+release to support Unified Headers is android-ndk-r14.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32059">bpo-32059</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detect_modules()</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> now also searches the
+sysroot paths when cross-compiling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31957">bpo-31957</a>: Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31609">bpo-31609</a>: Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31934">bpo-31934</a>: Abort the build when building out of a not clean source tree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31926">bpo-31926</a>: Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation errors when
+there was more than one function and/or method in a .c file with the same
+name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28791">bpo-28791</a>: Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28791">bpo-28791</a>: Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28643">bpo-28643</a>: Record profile-opt build progress with stamp files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31866">bpo-31866</a>: Finish removing support for AtheOS.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id122">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id122" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1102">bpo-1102</a>: Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">View.Fetch()</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS</span></code> instead of raising <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIError</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Initial patch by Anthony Tuininga.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31944">bpo-31944</a>: Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20486">bpo-20486</a>: Implement the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Database.Close()</span></code> method to help closing MSI
+database objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31857">bpo-31857</a>: Make the behavior of USE_STACKCHECK deterministic in a
+multi-threaded environment.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id123">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id123" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31392">bpo-31392</a>: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id124">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id124" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32207">bpo-32207</a>: Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When tk event
+handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and distracting
+queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk event exception
+tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when event handling is
+driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32164">bpo-32164</a>: Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py. Use of TabbedPageSet
+in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32100">bpo-32100</a>: IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve tests. Patch
+mostly by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31858">bpo-31858</a>: IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the shell. Editor
+and output windows only see an empty last prompt line.  This simplifies
+the code and fixes a minor bug when newline is inserted. Sys.ps1, if
+present, is read on Shell start-up, but is not set or changed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31860">bpo-31860</a>: The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is now
+editable. Changes persist while IDLE remains open</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31836">bpo-31836</a>: Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle, which sets
+ps1.</p>
+<p>The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it to ‘&gt;&gt;&gt; ‘ if not.
+Test_code_module now properly tests both behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28603">bpo-28603</a>: Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when printing a
+traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable. Patch by Zane
+Bitter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13802">bpo-13802</a>: Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings sample.
+Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset of the unicode
+Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other fonts that define a
+character. The expanded example give users of non-Latin characters a
+better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s shell and editors.</p>
+<p>To make room for the expanded sample, frames on the Font tab are
+re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit about the additions.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id125">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id125" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32159">bpo-32159</a>: Remove CVS and Subversion tools: remove svneol.py and
+treesync.py scripts. CPython migrated from CVS to Subversion, to
+Mercurial, and then to Git. CVS and Subversion are no longer used to
+develop CPython.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30722">bpo-30722</a>: Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.</p>
+<p>Also, remove the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code> option since it doesn’t work with string
+patterns in Python 3.</p>
+<p>Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id126">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id126" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20891">bpo-20891</a>: Fix PyGILState_Ensure(). When PyGILState_Ensure() is called in
+a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only call
+PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix a crash.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32125">bpo-32125</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UseClassExceptionsFlag</span></code> flag has been removed. It was
+deprecated and wasn’t used anymore since Python 2.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25612">bpo-25612</a>: Move the current exception state from the frame object to the
+co-routine. This simplifies the interpreter and fixes a couple of obscure
+bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or exiting a
+generator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23699">bpo-23699</a>: Add Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro to reduce boilerplate code in
+rich comparison functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30697">bpo-30697</a>: The <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RecursionErrorInst</span></code> singleton is removed and
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NormalizeException()</span></code> does not use it anymore. This singleton is
+persistent and its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during
+finalization of the interpreter. See also <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22898">bpo-22898</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-alpha-2">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 alpha 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-10-16</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id127">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id127" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31558">bpo-31558</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.freeze()</span></code> is a new API that allows for moving all objects
+currently tracked by the garbage collector to a permanent generation,
+effectively removing them from future collection events. This can be used
+to protect those objects from having their PyGC_Head mutated. In effect,
+this enables great copy-on-write stability at fork().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31642">bpo-31642</a>: Restored blocking “from package import module” by setting
+sys.modules[“package.module”] to None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31708">bpo-31708</a>: Allow use of asynchronous generator expressions in synchronous
+functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31709">bpo-31709</a>: Drop support of asynchronous __aiter__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30404">bpo-30404</a>: The -u option now makes the stdout and stderr streams
+unbuffered rather than line-buffered.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31619">bpo-31619</a>: Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large number of
+underscores to integer with binary base.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31602">bpo-31602</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimporter.get_source()</span></code> in case
+of a bad <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zlib.html#zlib.decompress" title="zlib.decompress"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zlib.decompress()</span></code></a>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31592">bpo-31592</a>: Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case of a bad
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.normalize" title="unicodedata.normalize"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.normalize()</span></code></a>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31588">bpo-31588</a>: Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> with a helpful error message when class
+creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__()</span></code> method.
+Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31574">bpo-31574</a>: Importlib was instrumented with two dtrace probes to profile
+import timing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31566">bpo-31566</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_warnings.warn()</span></code> in case of a bad
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> global. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31506">bpo-31506</a>: Improved the error message logic for object.__new__ and
+object.__init__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31505">bpo-31505</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a>, in case
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_json.make_encoder()</span></code> received a bad <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoder()</span></code> argument. Patch by Oren
+Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31492">bpo-31492</a>: Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import from a
+module with a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> attribute, and in case of failing to access
+an attribute of such a module. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31478">bpo-31478</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_random.Random.seed()</span></code> in case the
+argument has a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__abs__()</span></code> method. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31336">bpo-31336</a>: Speed up class creation by 10-20% by reducing the overhead in
+the necessary special method lookups.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31415">bpo-31415</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-X</span> <span class="pre">importtime</span></code> option to show how long each import
+takes. It can be used to optimize application’s startup time.  Support the
+<span class="target" id="index-18"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME</span></code></a> as an equivalent way to enable this.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31410">bpo-31410</a>: Optimized calling wrapper and classmethod descriptors.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31353">bpo-31353</a>: <span class="target" id="index-19"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0553"><strong>PEP 553</strong></a> - Add a new built-in called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">breakpoint()</span></code> which
+calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code>.  By default this imports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code> and calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code>, but users may override <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.breakpointhook()</span></code> to
+call whatever debugger they want.  The original value of the hook is saved
+in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.__breakpointhook__</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17852">bpo-17852</a>: Maintain a list of open buffered files, flush them before
+exiting the interpreter.  Based on a patch from Armin Rigo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31315">bpo-31315</a>: Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(), when
+spec.name is not a string. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31311">bpo-31311</a>: Fix a crash in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code> method of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData" title="ctypes._CData"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes._CData</span></code></a>, in case of a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31293">bpo-31293</a>: Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a timedelta
+object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method. Patch by Oren
+Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31285">bpo-31285</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.warn_explicit" title="warnings.warn_explicit"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.warn_explicit</span></code></a>, when the
+return value of the received loader’s get_source() has a bad splitlines()
+method. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30406">bpo-30406</a>: Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code> proper keywords, as specified in
+PEP 492.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id128">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id128" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30058">bpo-30058</a>: Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31672">bpo-31672</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idpattern</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code> matched some non-ASCII
+characters. Now it uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code> regular expression local flag to avoid
+non-ASCII characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31701">bpo-31701</a>: On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and COM
+exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31728">bpo-31728</a>: Prevent crashes in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_elementtree</span></code> due to unsafe cleanup of
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.text</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.tail</span></code>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31671">bpo-31671</a>: Now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.compile()</span></code> converts passed RegexFlag to normal int
+object before compiling. bm_regex_compile benchmark shows 14% performance
+improvements.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30397">bpo-30397</a>: The types of compiled regular objects and match objects are now
+exposed as <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.Pattern</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.Match</span></code>.  This adds information in pydoc
+output for the re module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31675">bpo-31675</a>: Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist() and split()
+when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31673">bpo-31673</a>: Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method adderrorinfo().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31648">bpo-31648</a>: Improvements to path predicates in ElementTree:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Allow whitespace around predicate parts, i.e. “[a = ‘text’]” instead of requiring the less readable “[a=’text’]”.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add support for text comparison of the current node, like “[.=’text’]”.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Patch by Stefan Behnel.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30806">bpo-30806</a>: Fix the string representation of a netrc object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31638">bpo-31638</a>: Add optional argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compressed</span></code> to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp.create_archive</span></code>, and add option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--compress</span></code> to the command
+line interface of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25351">bpo-25351</a>: Avoid venv activate failures with undefined variables</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20519">bpo-20519</a>: Avoid ctypes use (if possible) and improve import time for
+uuid.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28293">bpo-28293</a>: The regular expression cache is no longer completely dumped
+when it is full.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31596">bpo-31596</a>: Added pthread_getcpuclockid() to the time module</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27494">bpo-27494</a>: Make 2to3 accept a trailing comma in generator expressions. For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set(x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">[],)</span></code> is now allowed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30347">bpo-30347</a>: Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over itertools.groupby()
+iterators.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30346">bpo-30346</a>: An iterator produced by itertools.groupby() iterator now
+becomes exhausted after advancing the groupby iterator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31556">bpo-31556</a>: Cancel asyncio.wait_for future faster if timeout &lt;= 0</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31540">bpo-31540</a>: Allow passing a context object in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> constructor. Also, free
+job resources in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a> earlier
+to improve memory usage when a worker waits for new jobs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31516">bpo-31516</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.current_thread()</span></code> should not return a dummy thread
+at shutdown.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31525">bpo-31525</a>: In the sqlite module, require the sqlite3_prepare_v2 API. Thus,
+the sqlite module now requires sqlite version at least 3.3.9.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26510">bpo-26510</a>: argparse subparsers are now required by default.  This matches
+behaviour in Python 2. For optional subparsers, use the new parameter
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_subparsers(required=False)</span></code>. Patch by Anthony Sottile. (As of
+3.7.0rc1, the default was changed to not required as had been the case
+since Python 3.3.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27541">bpo-27541</a>: Reprs of subclasses of some collection and iterator classes
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.array</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a>,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.defaultdict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.count" title="itertools.count"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.count</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.repeat" title="itertools.repeat"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools.repeat</span></code></a>) now
+contain actual type name insteads of hardcoded name of the base class.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31351">bpo-31351</a>: python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit code if pip
+bootstrapping has failed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31389">bpo-31389</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.set_trace()</span></code> now takes an optional keyword-only argument
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">header</span></code>. If given, this is printed to the console just before debugging
+begins.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id129">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id129" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31537">bpo-31537</a>: Fix incorrect usage of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_history_length</span></code> in readline
+documentation example code. Patch by Brad Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30085">bpo-30085</a>: The operator functions without double underscores are preferred
+for clarity. The one with underscores are only kept for
+back-compatibility.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id130">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id130" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31696">bpo-31696</a>: Improve compiler version information in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version" title="sys.version"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version</span></code></a>
+when Python is built with Clang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31625">bpo-31625</a>: Stop using ranlib on static libraries. Instead, we assume ar
+supports the ‘s’ flag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31624">bpo-31624</a>: Remove support for BSD/OS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22140">bpo-22140</a>: Prevent double substitution of prefix in python-config.sh.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31569">bpo-31569</a>: Correct PCBuild/ case to PCbuild/ in build scripts and
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31536">bpo-31536</a>: Avoid wholesale rebuild after <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> if nothing
+changed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id131">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id131" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31460">bpo-31460</a>: Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.</p>
+<p>Passing a widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option
+of creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a full
+file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file opens the
+possibility of browsing python files that do not end in .py.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31649">bpo-31649</a>: IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31559">bpo-31559</a>: Remove test order dependence in idle_test.test_browser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31459">bpo-31459</a>: Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to Module
+Browser. The original module-level class and method browser became a
+module browser, with the addition of module-level functions, years ago.
+Nested classes and functions were added yesterday.  For
+back-compatibility, the virtual event &lt;&lt;open-class-browser&gt;&gt;, which
+appears on the Keys tab of the Settings dialog, is not changed. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31500">bpo-31500</a>: Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1612262">bpo-1612262</a>: IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and functions.
+Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo and Cheryl Sabella,
+respectively.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id132">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id132" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28280">bpo-28280</a>: Make <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Keys()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Values()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMapping_Items()</span></code> always return a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> (rather than a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> or a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tuple</span></code></a>). Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31532">bpo-31532</a>: Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in getpath.c between
+Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25658">bpo-25658</a>: Implement PEP 539 for Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: it is
+a new Thread Local Storage (TLS) API to CPython which would supersede use
+of the existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating
+the existing API. PEP written by Erik M. Bray, patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-7-0-alpha-1">
+<h2>Python 3.7.0 alpha 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-09-19</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id133">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id133" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29781">bpo-29781</a>: SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when handshake
+over BIO has not been performed yet.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29505">bpo-29505</a>: Add fuzz tests for float(str), int(str), unicode(str); for
+oss-fuzz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30947">bpo-30947</a>: Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to 2.2.3 to
+get security fixes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30730">bpo-30730</a>: Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess on
+Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and command
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30694">bpo-30694</a>: Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes of multiple
+security vulnerabilities including: CVE-2017-9233 (External entity
+infinite loop DoS), CVE-2016-9063 (Integer overflow, re-fix),
+CVE-2016-0718 (Fix regression bugs from 2.2.0’s fix to CVE-2016-0718) and
+CVE-2012-0876 (Counter hash flooding with SipHash). Note: the
+CVE-2016-5300 (Use os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t
+impact Python, since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the
+expat secret using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_SetHashSalt()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30500">bpo-30500</a>: Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse fragments. For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splithost('//127.0.0.1#&#64;evil.com/')</span></code> now correctly returns the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">127.0.0.1</span></code> host, instead of treating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;evil.com</span></code> as the host in an
+authentication (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">login&#64;host</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29591">bpo-29591</a>: Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
+CVE-2016-0718 and CVE-2016-4472. See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/">https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/</a> for more information.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id134">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id134" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31490">bpo-31490</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> class definition, in case
+the class has an attribute whose name is specified in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_anonymous_</span></code> but
+not in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31471">bpo-31471</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen()</span></code></a> on Windows, in
+case the env argument has a bad keys() method. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31418">bpo-31418</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WriteUnraisable()</span></code> in case
+of an exception with a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31416">bpo-31416</a>: Fix assertion failures in case of a bad warnings.filters or
+warnings.defaultaction. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28411">bpo-28411</a>: Change direct usage of PyInterpreterState.modules to
+PyImport_GetModuleDict(). Also introduce more uniformity in other code
+that deals with sys.modules. This helps reduce complications when working
+on sys.modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28411">bpo-28411</a>: Switch to the abstract API when dealing with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInterpreterState.modules</span></code>. This allows later support for all dict
+subclasses and other Mapping implementations.  Also add a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyImport_GetModule()</span></code> function to reduce a bunch of duplicated code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31411">bpo-31411</a>: Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
+warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31344">bpo-31344</a>: For finer control of tracing behaviour when testing the
+interpreter, two new frame attributes have been added to control the
+emission of particular trace events: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_lines</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> by
+default) to turn off per-line trace events; and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f_trace_opcodes</span></code>
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> by default) to turn on per-opcode trace events.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31373">bpo-31373</a>: Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior due to
+floating-point demotions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30465">bpo-30465</a>: Location information (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code>) in
+f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8 from
+showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line of the file).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30860">bpo-30860</a>: Consolidate CPython’s global runtime state under a single
+struct.  This improves discoverability of the runtime state.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31347">bpo-31347</a>: Fix possible undefined behavior in _PyObject_FastCall_Prepend.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31343">bpo-31343</a>: Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and makedev().
+GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from sys/types.h.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31291">bpo-31291</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_data" title="zipimport.zipimporter.get_data"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport.zipimporter.get_data</span></code></a> on
+Windows, when the return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathname.replace('/','\\')</span></code> isn’t a
+string. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31271">bpo-31271</a>: Fix an assertion failure in the write() method of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object. Patch
+by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31243">bpo-31243</a>: Fix a crash in some methods of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>, when the
+decoder’s state is invalid. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30721">bpo-30721</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> now shows correct usage hint for using Python 2
+redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31070">bpo-31070</a>: Fix a race condition in importlib _get_module_lock().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30747">bpo-30747</a>: Add a non-dummy implementation of _Py_atomic_store and
+_Py_atomic_load on MSVC.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31095">bpo-31095</a>: Fix potential crash during GC caused by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code> which
+doesn’t call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31071">bpo-31071</a>: Avoid masking original TypeError in call with * unpacking when
+other arguments are passed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30978">bpo-30978</a>: str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions through.
+Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30808">bpo-30808</a>: Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal state.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30876">bpo-30876</a>: Relative import from unloaded package now reimports the package
+instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import from non-package now
+fails with ImportError rather than SystemError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30703">bpo-30703</a>: Improve signal delivery.</p>
+<p>Avoid using Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
+signal-unsafe functions. The tests I’m adding here fail without the rest
+of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal delivery logic had
+defects (some signals could be lost).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30765">bpo-30765</a>: Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
+PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31161">bpo-31161</a>: Make sure the ‘Missing parentheses’ syntax error message is
+only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses. Patch by Martijn Pieters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30814">bpo-30814</a>: Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from a package.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30736">bpo-30736</a>: The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded to Unicode
+10.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30604">bpo-30604</a>: Move co_extra_freefuncs from per-thread to per-interpreter to
+avoid crashes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30597">bpo-30597</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> now shows expected input in custom error message when
+used as a Python 2 statement. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30682">bpo-30682</a>: Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for certain
+f-strings, such as eval(“f’\n’”) and eval(“f’\r’”).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30501">bpo-30501</a>: The compiler now produces more optimal code for complex
+condition expressions in the “if”, “while” and “assert” statement, the
+“if” expression, and generator expressions and comprehensions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28180">bpo-28180</a>: Implement PEP 538 (legacy C locale coercion). This means that
+when a suitable coercion target locale is available, both the core
+interpreter and locale-aware C extensions will assume the use of UTF-8 as
+the default text encoding, rather than ASCII.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30486">bpo-30486</a>: Allows setting cell values for __closure__. Patch by Lisa
+Roach.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30537">bpo-30537</a>: itertools.islice now accepts integer-like objects (having an
+__index__ method) as start, stop, and slice arguments</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25324">bpo-25324</a>: Tokens needed for parsing in Python moved to C. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">COMMENT</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NL</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ENCODING</span></code>. This way the tokens and tok_names in the token
+module don’t get changed when you import the tokenize module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29104">bpo-29104</a>: Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27945">bpo-27945</a>: Fixed various segfaults with dict when input collections are
+mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.  Based on patches by
+Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25794">bpo-25794</a>: Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
+non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30039">bpo-30039</a>: If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter is in the
+middle of resuming a chain of nested ‘yield from’ or ‘await’ calls, it’s
+now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28974">bpo-28974</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.__format__(x,</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code> is now equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(x)</span></code>
+rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format(str(self),</span> <span class="pre">'')</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30024">bpo-30024</a>: Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a
+submodule to a name are now supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12414">bpo-12414</a>: sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the sizes which
+includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it references. Patch
+by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29839">bpo-29839</a>: len() now raises ValueError rather than OverflowError if
+__len__() returned a large negative integer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11913">bpo-11913</a>: README.rst is now included in the list of distutils standard
+READMEs and therefore included in source distributions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29914">bpo-29914</a>: Fixed default implementations of __reduce__ and
+__reduce_ex__(). object.__reduce__() no longer takes arguments,
+object.__reduce_ex__() now requires one argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29949">bpo-29949</a>: Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29935">bpo-29935</a>: Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple, list and
+deque when pass indices of wrong type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29816">bpo-29816</a>: Shift operation now has less opportunity to raise
+OverflowError. ValueError always is raised rather than OverflowError for
+negative counts. Shifting zero with non-negative count always returns
+zero.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24821">bpo-24821</a>: Fixed the slowing down to 25 times in the searching of some
+unlucky Unicode characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29102">bpo-29102</a>: Add a unique ID to PyInterpreterState.  This makes it easier to
+identify each subinterpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29894">bpo-29894</a>: The deprecation warning is emitted if __complex__ returns an
+instance of a strict subclass of complex.  In a future versions of Python
+this can be an error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29859">bpo-29859</a>: Show correct error messages when any of the pthread_* calls in
+thread_pthread.h fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29849">bpo-29849</a>: Fix a memory leak when an ImportError is raised during from
+import.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28856">bpo-28856</a>: Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should support
+objects follow the buffer protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29723">bpo-29723</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path[0]</span></code> initialization change for <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29139">bpo-29139</a> caused
+a regression by revealing an inconsistency in how sys.path is initialized
+when executing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> from a zipfile, directory, or other import
+location. The interpreter now consistently avoids ever adding the import
+location’s parent directory to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, and ensures no other
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> entries are inadvertently modified when inserting the import
+location named on the command line.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29568">bpo-29568</a>: Escaped percent “%%” in the format string for classic string
+formatting no longer allows any characters between two percents.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29714">bpo-29714</a>: Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when containing
+zero bytes inside.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29695">bpo-29695</a>: bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take keyword
+arguments. The first argument of int() can now be passes only as
+positional argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28893">bpo-28893</a>: Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid awaitables
+returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28876">bpo-28876</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool(range)</span></code> works even if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(range)</span></code> raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29683">bpo-29683</a>: Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.  Patch by Brian
+Coleman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29684">bpo-29684</a>: Fix minor regression of PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords. It
+should raise TypeError when kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv
+when args=NULL and kwargs is not a dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28598">bpo-28598</a>: Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called before
+str.__mod__. Patch by Martijn Pieters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29607">bpo-29607</a>: Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX. Patch by
+Matthieu Dartiailh.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29602">bpo-29602</a>: Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex constructor
+for complex subclasses and for inputs having a __complex__ method. Patch
+by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29347">bpo-29347</a>: Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when creating
+weakref objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29463">bpo-29463</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">docstring</span></code> field to Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and
+AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes.  docstring is not first stmt in their body
+anymore.  It affects <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_firstlineno</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code> of code object
+for module and class. (Reverted in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32911">bpo-32911</a>.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29438">bpo-29438</a>: Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29546">bpo-29546</a>: Set the ‘path’ and ‘name’ attribute on ImportError for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
+<span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29546">bpo-29546</a>: Improve from-import error message with location</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29478">bpo-29478</a>: If max_line_length=None is specified while using the Compat32
+policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29319">bpo-29319</a>: Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29337">bpo-29337</a>: Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code objects.
+Warnings could be emitted at compile time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29327">bpo-29327</a>: Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword argument to
+sorted().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29034">bpo-29034</a>: Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
+(path_converter).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29159">bpo-29159</a>: Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises Exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29049">bpo-29049</a>: Call _PyObject_GC_TRACK() lazily when calling Python function.
+Calling function is up to 5% faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28927">bpo-28927</a>: bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore all ASCII
+whitespace, not only spaces.  Patch by Robert Xiao.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28932">bpo-28932</a>: Do not include &lt;sys/random.h&gt; if it does not exist.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25677">bpo-25677</a>: Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for indented
+blocks. Based on patch by Michael Layzell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29000">bpo-29000</a>: Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in alternate
+form.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18896">bpo-18896</a>: Python function can now have more than 255 parameters.
+collections.namedtuple() now supports tuples with more than 255 elements.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28596">bpo-28596</a>: The preferred encoding is UTF-8 on Android. Patch written by
+Chi Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22257">bpo-22257</a>: Clean up interpreter startup (see PEP 432).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26919">bpo-26919</a>: On Android, operating system data is now always encoded/decoded
+to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to avoid inconsistencies
+with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which are already using UTF-8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28991">bpo-28991</a>: functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure reentrancy
+bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28147">bpo-28147</a>: Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries: setattr() must
+not convert combined table into split table. Patch written by INADA Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28739">bpo-28739</a>: f-string expressions are no longer accepted as docstrings and
+by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28512">bpo-28512</a>: Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
+PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28918">bpo-28918</a>: Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python has been
+built with Py_DEBUG defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23722">bpo-23722</a>: Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t support
+zero-argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code> in methods, failing to pass the new
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__classcell__</span></code> namespace entry up to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> now results in a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code> and a class that supports zero-argument
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28797">bpo-28797</a>: Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__ method of
+a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer prevents calling the
+__set_name__ method of other descriptors.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28799">bpo-28799</a>: Remove the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_GetCallStats()</span></code> function and deprecate the
+untested and undocumented <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.callstats()</span></code> function. Remove the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CALL_PROFILE</span></code> special build: use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setprofile" title="sys.setprofile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setprofile()</span></code></a> function,
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-cProfile" title="cProfile"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cProfile</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/profile.html#module-profile" title="profile: Python source profiler."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">profile</span></code></a> to profile function calls.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12844">bpo-12844</a>: More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28782">bpo-28782</a>: Fix a bug in the implementation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> when checking if
+the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression introduced by WORDCODE
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26647">bpo-26647</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28774">bpo-28774</a>: Fix error position of the unicode error in ASCII and Latin1
+encoders when a string returned by the error handler contains multiple
+non-encodable characters (non-ASCII for the ASCII codec, characters out of
+the U+0000-U+00FF range for Latin1).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28731">bpo-28731</a>: Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct size dict.
+Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to 30%.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28532">bpo-28532</a>: Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27100">bpo-27100</a>: The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it checks
+for __exit__. This gives less confusing error messages when both methods
+are missing. Patch by Jonathan Ellington.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28746">bpo-28746</a>: Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on platforms
+that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26920">bpo-26920</a>: Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon initializing the
+interpreter, on platforms that do not have langinfo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28648">bpo-28648</a>: Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on Mac OS X
+when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28665">bpo-28665</a>: Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19398">bpo-19398</a>: Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in case of
+empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28621">bpo-28621</a>: Sped up converting int to float by reusing faster bits counting
+implementation.  Patch by Adrian Wielgosik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28580">bpo-28580</a>: Optimize iterating split table values. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28583">bpo-28583</a>: PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when needed. Patch
+by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28128">bpo-28128</a>: Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape sequences
+now prints better information about where the error occurs. Patch by
+Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28509">bpo-28509</a>: dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28426">bpo-28426</a>: Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug
+build.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28517">bpo-28517</a>: Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that caused
+keeping unreachable code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28214">bpo-28214</a>: Improved exception reporting for problematic __set_name__
+attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23782">bpo-23782</a>: Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and exception
+loss in PyTraceBack_Here().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28183">bpo-28183</a>: Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26081">bpo-26081</a>: Added C implementation of asyncio.Future. Original patch by
+Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28379">bpo-28379</a>: Added sanity checks and tests for PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().
+Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28376">bpo-28376</a>: The type of long range iterator is now registered as Iterator.
+Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28376">bpo-28376</a>: Creating instances of range_iterator by calling range_iterator
+type now is disallowed.  Calling iter() on range instance is the only way.
+Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26906">bpo-26906</a>: Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now causes
+implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18287">bpo-18287</a>: PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL. Original
+patch by Niklas Koep.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24098">bpo-24098</a>: Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process of
+compiling it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28201">bpo-28201</a>: Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash table when
+hashes have same lower bits.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28350">bpo-28350</a>: String constants with null character no longer interned.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26617">bpo-26617</a>: Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27942">bpo-27942</a>: String constants now interned recursively in tuples and
+frozensets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28289">bpo-28289</a>: ImportError.__init__ now resets not specified attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21578">bpo-21578</a>: Fixed misleading error message when ImportError called with
+invalid keyword args.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28203">bpo-28203</a>: Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error message. Patch
+by Soumya Sharma.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28086">bpo-28086</a>: Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was passed
+unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to exact tuple.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28214">bpo-28214</a>: Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead of the
+instance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27955">bpo-27955</a>: Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the getrandom()
+syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by SECCOMP.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28192">bpo-28192</a>: Don’t import readline in isolated mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27441">bpo-27441</a>: Remove some redundant assignments to ob_size in longobject.c.
+Thanks Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27222">bpo-27222</a>: Clean up redundant code in long_rshift function. Thanks Oren
+Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p>Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28131">bpo-28131</a>: Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().  zipimport
+should use the same optimization level as the interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28126">bpo-28126</a>: Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy(). Visual Studio can properly
+optimize memcpy().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28120">bpo-28120</a>: Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying to remove a
+“pending key” (Not yet inserted in split-table). Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26182">bpo-26182</a>: Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await keywords are used
+as variable/attribute/class/function name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26182">bpo-26182</a>: Fix a refleak in code that raises DeprecationWarning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28721">bpo-28721</a>: Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to handle
+StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26110">bpo-26110</a>: Speed-up method calls: add LOAD_METHOD and CALL_METHOD opcodes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id135">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id135" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31499">bpo-31499</a>: xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a reference
+cycle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31482">bpo-31482</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.seed()</span></code> now works with bytes in version=1</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns for classes
+and modules by default (when no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globalns</span></code> was specified by the caller).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Speed improvements to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module.  Original PRs by
+Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31544">bpo-31544</a>: The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored exceptions
+raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in XMLParser().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31234">bpo-31234</a>: socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a reference
+cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on success.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31457">bpo-31457</a>: LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31431">bpo-31431</a>: SSLContext.check_hostname now automatically sets
+SSLContext.verify_mode to ssl.CERT_REQUIRED instead of failing with a
+ValueError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31233">bpo-31233</a>: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn now keeps a list of non-daemonic
+threads to wait until all these threads complete in server_close().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28638">bpo-28638</a>: Changed the implementation strategy for
+collections.namedtuple() to substantially reduce the use of exec() in
+favor of precomputed methods. As a result, the <em>verbose</em> parameter and
+<em>_source</em> attribute are no longer supported.  The benefits include 1)
+having a smaller memory footprint for applications using multiple named
+tuples, 2) faster creation of the named tuple class (approx 4x to 6x
+depending on how it is measured), and 3) minor speed-ups for instance
+creation using __new__, _make, and _replace.  (The primary patch
+contributor is Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki,
+Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31400">bpo-31400</a>: Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error numbers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27629">bpo-27629</a>: Make return types of SSLContext.wrap_bio() and
+SSLContext.wrap_socket() customizable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28958">bpo-28958</a>: ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information when a
+context cannot be instantiated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28182">bpo-28182</a>: The SSL module now raises SSLCertVerificationError when OpenSSL
+fails to verify the peer’s certificate. The exception contains more
+information about the error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27340">bpo-27340</a>: SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create slices of
+data. This fixes support for all bytes-like object. It is also more
+efficient and avoids costly copies.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14191">bpo-14191</a>: A new function
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args</span></code> provides the ability to
+parse command lines where there user intermixes options and positional
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31178">bpo-31178</a>: Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in the
+subprocess module</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31350">bpo-31350</a>: Micro-optimize <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio._get_running_loop()</span></code> to become up
+to 10% faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31170">bpo-31170</a>: expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4. Fix copying of
+partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115">https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29136">bpo-29136</a>: Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1198569">bpo-1198569</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code> subclasses can optionally define
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">braceidpattern</span></code> if they want to specify different placeholder patterns
+inside and outside the braces.  If None (the default) it falls back to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idpattern</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31326">bpo-31326</a>: concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.shutdown() now
+explicitly closes the call queue. Moreover, shutdown(wait=True) now also
+join the call queue thread, to prevent leaking a dangling thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27144">bpo-27144</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_completed()</span></code> iterators in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> now avoid keeping a reference to yielded objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31281">bpo-31281</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput.FileInput(files,</span> <span class="pre">inplace=True)</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">files</span></code>
+contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.Path</span></code> objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10746">bpo-10746</a>: Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118 type codes for integer
+types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27584">bpo-27584</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AF_VSOCK</span></code> has been added to the socket interface which
+allows communication between virtual machines and their host.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22536">bpo-22536</a>: The subprocess module now sets the filename when
+FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable or cwd
+not being found.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29741">bpo-29741</a>: Update some methods in the _pyio module to also accept integer
+types. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31249">bpo-31249</a>: concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by ThreadPoolExecutor
+now breaks a reference cycle between an exception object and the WorkItem
+object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31247">bpo-31247</a>: xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles when using
+sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23835">bpo-23835</a>: configparser: reading defaults in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser()</span></code>
+constructor is now using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read_dict()</span></code>, making its behavior consistent
+with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys and values in the defaults
+dictionary are now being implicitly converted to strings.  Patch by James
+Tocknell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31238">bpo-31238</a>: pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread class now
+waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and then explicitly
+sets its docserver attribute to None to break a reference cycle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5001">bpo-5001</a>: Many asserts in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> are now more informative, and
+some error types have been changed to more specific ones.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31109">bpo-31109</a>: Convert zipimport to use Argument Clinic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30102">bpo-30102</a>: The ssl and hashlib modules now call
+OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL &lt; 1.1.0. The function
+detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU architectures
+such as POWER8. Patch is based on research from Gustavo Serra Scalet.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18966">bpo-18966</a>: Non-daemonic threads created by a multiprocessing.Process are
+now joined on child exit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31183">bpo-31183</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> now works with asynchronous generator and coroutine
+objects. Patch by George Collins based on diagnosis by Luciano Ramalho.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5001">bpo-5001</a>: There are a number of uninformative asserts in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/multiprocessing.html#module-multiprocessing" title="multiprocessing: Process-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code></a> module, as noted in issue 5001. This change fixes two of
+the most potentially problematic ones, since they are in error-reporting
+code, in the <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.managers.convert_to_error</span></code> function. (It
+also makes more informative a ValueError message.) The only potentially
+problematic change is that the AssertionError is now a TypeError; however,
+this should also help distinguish it from an AssertionError being
+<em>reported</em> by the function/its caller (such as in issue 31169). - Patch by
+Allen W. Smith (drallensmith on github).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31185">bpo-31185</a>: Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31151">bpo-31151</a>: socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close() now waits until all
+child processes completed to prevent leaking zombie processes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31072">bpo-31072</a>: Add an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">include_file</span></code> parameter to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp.create_archive()</span></code></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24700">bpo-24700</a>: Optimize array.array comparison. It is now from 10x up to 70x
+faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31135">bpo-31135</a>: ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and OptionMenu
+classes. Call the parent destroy() method even if the used attribute
+doesn’t exist. The LabeledScale.destroy() method now also explicitly
+clears label and scale attributes to help the garbage collector to destroy
+all widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31107">bpo-31107</a>: Fix <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg._slotnames()</span></code> mangled attribute calculation for
+classes whose name begins with an underscore. Patch by Shane Harvey.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31080">bpo-31080</a>: Allow <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.fileConfig" title="logging.config.fileConfig"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config.fileConfig</span></code></a> to accept kwargs and/or args.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30897">bpo-30897</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.Path</span></code> objects now include an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_mount()</span></code> method
+(only implemented on POSIX).  This is similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.path.ismount(p)</span></code>.
+Patch by Cooper Ry Lees.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31061">bpo-31061</a>: Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30987">bpo-30987</a>: Added support for CAN ISO-TP protocol in the socket module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30522">bpo-30522</a>: Added a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setStream</span></code> method to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.StreamHandler</span></code> to
+allow the stream to be set after creation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30502">bpo-30502</a>: Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by Christian
+Heimes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5288">bpo-5288</a>: Support tzinfo objects with sub-minute offsets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30919">bpo-30919</a>: Fix shared memory performance regression in multiprocessing in
+3.x.</p>
+<p>Shared memory used anonymous memory mappings in 2.x, while 3.x mmaps
+actual files. Try to be careful to do as little disk I/O as possible.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26732">bpo-26732</a>: Fix too many fds in processes started with the “forkserver”
+method.</p>
+<p>A child process would inherit as many fds as the number of still-running
+children.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29403">bpo-29403</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code>’s autospec to not fail on method-bound
+builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30961">bpo-30961</a>: Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19896">bpo-19896</a>: Fix multiprocessing.sharedctypes to recognize typecodes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'q'</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'Q'</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30946">bpo-30946</a>: Remove obsolete code in readline module for platforms where GNU
+readline is older than 2.1 or where select() is not available.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25684">bpo-25684</a>: Change <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.OptionMenu</span></code> radiobuttons to be unique across
+instances of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionMenu</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30886">bpo-30886</a>: Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits until the
+thread completes, even if the thread was started by the same process which
+created the queue.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29854">bpo-29854</a>: Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s history-size
+option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30794">bpo-30794</a>: Added multiprocessing.Process.kill method to terminate using
+the SIGKILL signal on Unix.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30319">bpo-30319</a>: socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30828">bpo-30828</a>: Fix out of bounds write in
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30302">bpo-30302</a>: Use keywords in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr</span></code> of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.timedelta</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30807">bpo-30807</a>: signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed a tiny
+value.</p>
+<p>Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values for setitimer(),
+which is specified as taking microsecond-resolution intervals. However, on
+some platform, our conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero
+interval, therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30441">bpo-30441</a>: Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating over it</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29585">bpo-29585</a>: Avoid importing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code> from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code> to improve startup
+speed. Python startup is about 5% faster on Linux and 30% faster on macOS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29293">bpo-29293</a>: Add missing parameter “n” on
+multiprocessing.Condition.notify().</p>
+<p>The doc claims multiprocessing.Condition behaves like threading.Condition,
+but its notify() method lacked the optional “n” argument (to specify the
+number of sleepers to wake up) that threading.Condition.notify() accepts.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30532">bpo-30532</a>: Fix email header value parser dropping folding white space in
+certain cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30596">bpo-30596</a>: Add a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">close()</span></code> method to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing.Process</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9146">bpo-9146</a>: Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when standard hash
+functions such as md5 are not available in the linked OpenSSL library.  As
+in some special FIPS-140 build environments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29169">bpo-29169</a>: Update zlib to 1.2.11.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30119">bpo-30119</a>: ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on commands that
+contains CR or LF. Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30879">bpo-30879</a>: os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names when called
+with bytes-like argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30746">bpo-30746</a>: Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable names in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.putenv()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.spawn*()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30664">bpo-30664</a>: The description of a unittest subtest now preserves the order
+of keyword arguments of TestCase.subTest().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21071">bpo-21071</a>: struct.Struct.format type is now <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29212">bpo-29212</a>: Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor threads to
+have a non repr() based thread name by default when no thread_name_prefix
+is supplied. They will now identify themselves as
+“ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29755">bpo-29755</a>: Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the gettext module.
+They now always return bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30616">bpo-30616</a>: Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums. Patched by
+Dong-hee Na</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30038">bpo-30038</a>: Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup file
+descriptor. Patch by Nathaniel Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23894">bpo-23894</a>: lib2to3 now recognizes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rb'...'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f'...'</span></code> strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24744">bpo-24744</a>: pkgutil.walk_packages function now raises ValueError if <em>path</em>
+is a string. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24484">bpo-24484</a>: Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30589">bpo-30589</a>: Fix multiprocessing.Process.exitcode to return the opposite of
+the signal number when the process is killed by a signal (instead of 255)
+when using the “forkserver” method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28994">bpo-28994</a>: The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit raised in a
+callback registered by atexit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30508">bpo-30508</a>: Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()” method was
+called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30645">bpo-30645</a>: Fix path calculation in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp.load_package()</span></code>, fixing it for
+cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes. Patch by Alexandru
+Ardelean.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11822">bpo-11822</a>: The dis.dis() function now is able to disassemble nested code
+objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30624">bpo-30624</a>: selectors does not take KeyboardInterrupt and SystemExit into
+account, leaving a fd in a bad state in case of error. Patch by Giampaolo
+Rodola’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30595">bpo-30595</a>: multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls its reader
+in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock but the acquire
+took longer than the timeout.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Updates to typing module: Add generic AsyncContextManager, add
+support for ContextManager on all versions. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra
+and Ivan Levkivskyi</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30605">bpo-30605</a>: re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when compiling a
+bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch by Roy Williams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29870">bpo-29870</a>: Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in asyncio/ssl
+implementation. Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29743">bpo-29743</a>: Closing transport during handshake process leaks open socket.
+Patch by Nikolay Kim</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27585">bpo-27585</a>: Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock. Patch by Mathieu
+Sornay.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30014">bpo-30014</a>: modify() method of poll(), epoll() and devpoll() based classes
+of selectors module is around 10% faster.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30418">bpo-30418</a>: On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also ignore
+EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still running but closed
+the pipe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30463">bpo-30463</a>: Addded empty __slots__ to abc.ABC.  This allows subclassers to
+deny __dict__ and __weakref__ creation.  Patch by Aaron Hall.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30520">bpo-30520</a>: Loggers are now pickleable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30557">bpo-30557</a>: faulthandler now correctly filters and displays exception codes
+on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30526">bpo-30526</a>: Add TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() and a
+TextIOWrapper.write_through attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30245">bpo-30245</a>: Fix possible overflow when organize struct.pack_into error
+message.  Patch by Yuan Liu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30378">bpo-30378</a>: Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler cannot
+handle IPv6 addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16500">bpo-16500</a>: Allow registering at-fork handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30470">bpo-30470</a>: Deprecate invalid ctypes call protection on Windows.  Patch by
+Mariatta Wijaya.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30414">bpo-30414</a>: multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running thread do not
+break from main loop on exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30003">bpo-30003</a>: Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based on patch by
+Ma Lin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30149">bpo-30149</a>: inspect.signature() now supports callables with
+variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod. Patch by Dong-hee
+Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30436">bpo-30436</a>: importlib.find_spec() raises ModuleNotFoundError instead of
+AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a package (i.e. lacks
+a __path__ attribute).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30301">bpo-30301</a>: Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty() under <em>spawn</em>
+and <em>forkserver</em> start methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30375">bpo-30375</a>: Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression now always
+point to the line in the user code.  Previously they could point into
+inners of the re module if emitted from inside of groups or conditionals.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30329">bpo-30329</a>: imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket WSAEINVAL error
+(code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid operation was attempted.
+This error occurs sometimes on SSL connections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29196">bpo-29196</a>: Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes Plist, Dict
+and _InternalDict in the plistlib module.  Dict values in the result of
+functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are now normal dicts.  You
+no longer can use attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9850">bpo-9850</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/macpath.html#module-macpath" title="macpath: Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">macpath</span></code></a> is now deprecated and will be removed in
+Python 3.8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30299">bpo-30299</a>: Compiling regular expression in debug mode on CPython now
+displays the compiled bytecode in human readable form.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30048">bpo-30048</a>: Fixed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.cancel()</span></code> can be ignored when the task is running
+coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30266">bpo-30266</a>: contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
+anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
+following the pattern introduced in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25958">bpo-25958</a>. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30340">bpo-30340</a>: Enhanced regular expressions optimization. This increased the
+performance of matching some patterns up to 25 times.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30298">bpo-30298</a>: Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for inline
+modifiers. Now allowed several subsequential inline modifiers at the start
+of the pattern (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(?i)(?s)...'</span></code>).  In verbose mode whitespaces and
+comments now are allowed before and between inline modifiers (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(?x)</span>
+<span class="pre">(?i)</span> <span class="pre">(?s)...'</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30285">bpo-30285</a>: Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of regular
+expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29990">bpo-29990</a>: Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original patch by Ma
+Lin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29979">bpo-29979</a>: rewrite cgi.parse_multipart, reusing the FieldStorage class and
+making its results consistent with those of FieldStorage for
+multipart/form-data requests. Patch by Pierre Quentel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30243">bpo-30243</a>: Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and encoder.
+Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now scanner and
+encoder objects are completely initialized in the __new__ methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30215">bpo-30215</a>: Compiled regular expression objects with the re.LOCALE flag no
+longer depend on the locale at compile time.  Only the locale at matching
+time affects the result of matching.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30185">bpo-30185</a>: Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver helper process
+when Ctrl-C is received.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30103">bpo-30103</a>: binascii.b2a_uu() and uu.encode() now support using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'`'</span></code> as
+zero instead of space.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Various updates to typing module: add typing.NoReturn type, use
+WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.  Original PRs by Jim
+Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30205">bpo-30205</a>: Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on Linux.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30228">bpo-30228</a>: The seek() and tell() methods of io.FileIO now set the internal
+seekable attribute to avoid one syscall on open() (in buffered or text
+mode).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30190">bpo-30190</a>: unittest’s assertAlmostEqual and assertNotAlmostEqual provide a
+better message in case of failure which includes the difference between
+left and right arguments.  (patch by Giampaolo Rodola’)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30101">bpo-30101</a>: Add support for curses.A_ITALIC.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29822">bpo-29822</a>: inspect.isabstract() now works during __init_subclass__.  Patch
+by Nate Soares.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29960">bpo-29960</a>: Preserve generator state when _random.Random.setstate() raises
+an exception. Patch by Bryan Olson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30070">bpo-30070</a>: Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the parser
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22352">bpo-22352</a>: Column widths in the output of dis.dis() are now adjusted for
+large line numbers and instruction offsets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30061">bpo-30061</a>: Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and readlines() when
+readline() or __next__() respectively return non-sizeable object. Fixed
+possible other errors caused by not checking results of PyObject_Size(),
+PySequence_Size(), or PyMapping_Size().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30218">bpo-30218</a>: Fix PathLike support for shutil.unpack_archive. Patch by Jelle
+Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10076">bpo-10076</a>: Compiled regular expression and match objects in the re module
+now support copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() (they are considered atomic).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30068">bpo-30068</a>: _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed first when hint
+is present.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29694">bpo-29694</a>: Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags parents=True.
+Patch by Armin Rigo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29692">bpo-29692</a>: Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError exceptions in
+contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth Velankar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26187">bpo-26187</a>: Test that sqlite3 trace callback is not called multiple times
+when schema is changing.  Indirectly fixed by switching to use
+sqlite3_prepare_v2() in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9303">bpo-9303</a>.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30017">bpo-30017</a>: Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry writer
+object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now always produces a
+ValueError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29998">bpo-29998</a>: Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name and path
+attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29995">bpo-29995</a>: re.escape() now escapes only regex special characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29962">bpo-29962</a>: Add math.remainder operation, implementing remainder as
+specified in IEEE 754.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29649">bpo-29649</a>: Improve struct.pack_into() exception messages for problems with
+the buffer size and offset.  Patch by Andrew Nester.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29654">bpo-29654</a>: Support If-Modified-Since HTTP header (browser cache).  Patch
+by Pierre Quentel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29931">bpo-29931</a>: Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface objects.
+Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29953">bpo-29953</a>: Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of datetime and time
+objects when pass out of bound fold argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29942">bpo-29942</a>: Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when encountering
+long runs of empty iterables.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10030">bpo-10030</a>: Sped up reading encrypted ZIP files by 2 times.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29204">bpo-29204</a>: Element.getiterator() and the html parameter of XMLParser()
+were deprecated only in the documentation (since Python 3.2 and 3.4
+correspondintly). Now using them emits a deprecation warning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27863">bpo-27863</a>: Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race conditions
+and wrong types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25996">bpo-25996</a>: Added support of file descriptors in os.scandir() on Unix.
+os.fwalk() is sped up by 2 times by using os.scandir().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28699">bpo-28699</a>: Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that raising an
+exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow the exception or
+make the program hang. Patch by Davin Potts and Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23890">bpo-23890</a>: unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks a
+reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29901">bpo-29901</a>: The zipapp module now supports general path-like objects, not
+just pathlib.Path.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25803">bpo-25803</a>: Avoid incorrect errors raised by Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when
+the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29861">bpo-29861</a>: Release references to tasks, their arguments and their results
+as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19930">bpo-19930</a>: The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer affects the file
+permission bits of newly-created intermediate-level directories.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29884">bpo-29884</a>: faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during teardown.
+Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25455">bpo-25455</a>: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered file-like objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29800">bpo-29800</a>: Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of partial.keywords
+are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8256">bpo-8256</a>: Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if attributes
+“encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are not set or are not
+strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28692">bpo-28692</a>: Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in gettext
+is now deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26121">bpo-26121</a>: Use C library implementation for math functions erf() and
+erfc().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29619">bpo-29619</a>: os.stat() and os.DirEntry.inode() now convert inode (st_ino)
+using unsigned integers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28298">bpo-28298</a>: Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’ from accepting
+big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29645">bpo-29645</a>: Speed up importing the webbrowser module.
+webbrowser.register() is now thread-safe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28231">bpo-28231</a>: The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for external
+paths.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26915">bpo-26915</a>: index() and count() methods of collections.abc.Sequence now
+check identity before checking equality when do comparisons.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28682">bpo-28682</a>: Added support for bytes paths in os.fwalk().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29728">bpo-29728</a>: Add new <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT</span></code> (Linux 3.12) constant.
+Patch by Nathaniel J. Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29623">bpo-29623</a>: Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in
+ConfigParser.read(). Patch by David Ellis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9303">bpo-9303</a>: Migrate sqlite3 module to _v2 API.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28963">bpo-28963</a>: Fix out of bound iteration in
+asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29704">bpo-29704</a>: asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer closes
+before all pipes are closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29271">bpo-29271</a>: Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented in C to
+accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29703">bpo-29703</a>: Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event loops in
+child processes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29615">bpo-29615</a>: SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or any other
+exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched methods. Patch by Petr
+Motejlek.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7769">bpo-7769</a>: Method register_function() of
+xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher and its subclasses can now be used as
+a decorator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29376">bpo-29376</a>: Fix assertion error in threading._DummyThread.is_alive().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28624">bpo-28624</a>: Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen() accepts
+PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28518">bpo-28518</a>: Start a transaction implicitly before a DML statement. Patch by
+Aviv Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29742">bpo-29742</a>: get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on closed ssl
+transport. Patch by Nikolay Kim.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16285">bpo-16285</a>: urllib.parse.quote is now based on RFC 3986 and hence includes
+‘~’ in the set of characters that is not quoted by default. Patch by
+Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29532">bpo-29532</a>: Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to functools.partial() no
+longer affects a partial object after creation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29110">bpo-29110</a>: Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is given as a
+filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format. Patch by Anthony Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22807">bpo-22807</a>: Add uuid.SafeUUID and uuid.UUID.is_safe to relay information
+from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a
+multiprocessing safe method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29576">bpo-29576</a>: Improve some deprecations in importlib. Some deprecated methods
+now emit DeprecationWarnings and have better descriptive messages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29534">bpo-29534</a>: Fixed different behaviour of Decimal.from_float() for _decimal
+and _pydecimal. Thanks Andrew Nester.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10379">bpo-10379</a>: locale.format_string now supports the ‘monetary’ keyword
+argument, and locale.format is deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29851">bpo-29851</a>: importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError if the module
+lacks a spec.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
+typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc. Original PRs by Jelle
+Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29100">bpo-29100</a>: Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced in Python
+3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29416">bpo-29416</a>: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29444">bpo-29444</a>: Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group() method of the
+match object. Based on patch by WGH.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29377">bpo-29377</a>: Add WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, and
+MethodDescriptorType built-in types to types module. Original patch by
+Manuel Krebber.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29218">bpo-29218</a>: Unused install_misc command is now removed.  It has been
+documented as unused since 2000.  Patch by Eric N. Vander Weele.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29368">bpo-29368</a>: The extend() method is now called instead of the append()
+method when unpickle collections.deque and other list-like objects. This
+can speed up unpickling to 2 times.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29338">bpo-29338</a>: The help of a builtin or extension class now includes the
+constructor signature if __text_signature__ is provided for the class.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29335">bpo-29335</a>: Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process has exited
+to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under ptrace).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29290">bpo-29290</a>: Fix a regression in argparse that help messages would wrap at
+non-breaking spaces.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28735">bpo-28735</a>: Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with mock.ANY.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29197">bpo-29197</a>: Removed deprecated function ntpath.splitunc().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29210">bpo-29210</a>: Removed support of deprecated argument “exclude” in
+tarfile.TarFile.add().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29219">bpo-29219</a>: Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of uninitialized
+ctypes.CDLL instances.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29192">bpo-29192</a>: Removed deprecated features in the http.cookies module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29193">bpo-29193</a>: A format string argument for string.Formatter.format() is now
+positional-only.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29195">bpo-29195</a>: Removed support of deprecated undocumented keyword arguments in
+methods of regular expression objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28969">bpo-28969</a>: Fixed race condition in C implementation of
+functools.lru_cache. KeyError could be raised when cached function with
+full cache was simultaneously called from differen threads with the same
+uncached arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20804">bpo-20804</a>: The unittest.mock.sentinel attributes now preserve their
+identity when they are copied or pickled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29142">bpo-29142</a>: In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment variable
+with leading dots could match related hostnames again (e.g. .b.c matches
+a.b.c). Patch by Milan Oberkirch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28961">bpo-28961</a>: Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the name parameter
+anymore. Patch written by Jiajun Huang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15812">bpo-15812</a>: inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first line of a
+context. Patch by Sam Breese.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28985">bpo-28985</a>: Update authorizer constants in sqlite3 module. Patch by
+Dingyuan Wang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29079">bpo-29079</a>: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13051">bpo-13051</a>: Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
+curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9770">bpo-9770</a>: curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with negative
+integers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28427">bpo-28427</a>: old keys should not remove new values from WeakValueDictionary
+when collecting from another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28923">bpo-28923</a>: Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28871">bpo-28871</a>: Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19542">bpo-19542</a>: Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
+WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20191">bpo-20191</a>: Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a sequence
+that doesn’t own its elements as limits.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16255">bpo-16255</a>: subprocess.Popen uses /system/bin/sh on Android as the shell,
+instead of /bin/sh.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28779">bpo-28779</a>: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash the
+forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some multiprocessing
+objects such as locks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26937">bpo-26937</a>: The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does not fail
+now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example on Android
+platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28847">bpo-28847</a>: dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer
+writes the index file when it is not changed.  A deprecation warning is
+now emitted if the index file is missed and recreated in the ‘r’ and ‘w’
+modes (will be an error in future Python releases).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27030">bpo-27030</a>: Unknown escapes consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter in
+re.sub() replacement templates regular expressions now are errors.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28835">bpo-28835</a>: Fix a regression introduced in warnings.catch_warnings(): call
+warnings.showwarning() if it was overridden inside the context manager.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27172">bpo-27172</a>: To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously documented
+deprecation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec()</span></code> has been reversed. This
+decision may be revisited again after the Python 2.7 branch is no longer
+officially supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28740">bpo-28740</a>: Add sys.getandroidapilevel(): return the build time API version
+of Android as an integer. Function only available on Android.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26273">bpo-26273</a>: Add new <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_CONGESTION</span></code> (Linux 2.6.13) and
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT</span></code> (Linux 2.6.37) constants. Patch written by
+Omar Sandoval.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28752">bpo-28752</a>: Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28727">bpo-28727</a>: Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects created
+by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y operators). This
+change should fix the <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18383">bpo-18383</a>: don’t duplicate warning filters when
+the warnings module is reloaded (thing usually only done in unit tests).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20572">bpo-20572</a>: Remove the subprocess.Popen.wait endtime parameter.  It was
+deprecated in 3.4 and undocumented prior to that.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25659">bpo-25659</a>: In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer() and
+from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28548">bpo-28548</a>: In the “http.server” module, parse the protocol version if
+possible, to avoid using HTTP 0.9 in some error responses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19717">bpo-19717</a>: Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not exist. Patch
+by Vajrasky Kok</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28563">bpo-28563</a>: Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when handle
+plural form selections in the gettext module.  The expression parser now
+supports exact syntax supported by GNU gettext.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28387">bpo-28387</a>: Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator when the
+garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on patch by Sebastian
+Cufre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27517">bpo-27517</a>: LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise exceptions if
+given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28549">bpo-28549</a>: Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28449">bpo-28449</a>: tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to open a tar
+file with compression before trying to open it without compression.
+Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with ignore_zeros=True.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23262">bpo-23262</a>: The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and derived
+browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24241">bpo-24241</a>: The webbrowser in an X environment now prefers using the
+default browser directly. Also, the webbrowser register() function now has
+a documented ‘preferred’ argument, to specify browsers to be returned by
+get() with no arguments. Patch by David Steele</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27939">bpo-27939</a>: Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and tkinter.Scale caused
+by representing the scale as float value internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar
+now works if float value is set to underlying Tk variable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28255">bpo-28255</a>: calendar.TextCalendar.prweek() no longer prints a space after a
+weeks’s calendar.  calendar.TextCalendar.pryear() no longer prints
+redundant newline after a year’s calendar.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28255">bpo-28255</a>: calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth() no longer prints a space at the
+start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.  Patch by Xiang
+Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20491">bpo-20491</a>: The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors non-breaking spaces.
+Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28353">bpo-28353</a>: os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28430">bpo-28430</a>: Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn’t accept
+non-None value is passed to it.send(val).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27025">bpo-27025</a>: Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the “!” prefix
+for readability.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25464">bpo-25464</a>: Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by addin a
+workaround to Tix library bug.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28488">bpo-28488</a>: shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry “./” to ZIP archive.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25953">bpo-25953</a>: re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical group
+reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not found in the
+string.  Error message for invalid group reference now includes the group
+index and the position of the reference. Based on patch by SilentGhost.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28469">bpo-28469</a>: timeit now uses the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,… instead of
+1, 10, 100,… for autoranging.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28115">bpo-28115</a>: Command-line interface of the zipfile module now uses argparse.
+Added support of long options.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18219">bpo-18219</a>: Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns. Patch by
+Mariatta Wijaya.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28448">bpo-28448</a>: Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23214">bpo-23214</a>: In the “io” module, the argument to BufferedReader and
+BytesIO’s read1() methods is now optional and can be -1, matching the
+BufferedIOBase specification.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28480">bpo-28480</a>: Fix error building socket module when multithreading is
+disabled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28240">bpo-28240</a>: timeit: remove <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c/--clock</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-t/--time</span></code> command line
+options which were deprecated since Python 3.3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28240">bpo-28240</a>: timeit now repeats the benchmarks 5 times instead of only 3 to
+make benchmarks more reliable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28240">bpo-28240</a>: timeit autorange now uses a single loop iteration if the
+benchmark takes less than 10 seconds, instead of 10 iterations. “python3
+-m timeit -s ‘import time’ ‘time.sleep(1)’” now takes 4 seconds instead of
+40 seconds.</p></li>
+<li><p>Distutils.sdist now looks for README and setup.py files with case
+sensitivity. This behavior matches that found in Setuptools 6.0 and later.
+See <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/pypa/setuptools/issues/100">setuptools 100</a> for
+rationale.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24452">bpo-24452</a>: Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X. Patch by Ned
+Batchelder.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20766">bpo-20766</a>: Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of SIGINT
+handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27998">bpo-27998</a>: Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows. Patch by
+Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28317">bpo-28317</a>: The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28380">bpo-28380</a>: unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly support
+assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28229">bpo-28229</a>: lzma module now supports pathlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28321">bpo-28321</a>: Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format in
+plistlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28225">bpo-28225</a>: bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by Ethan
+Furman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28227">bpo-28227</a>: gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28332">bpo-28332</a>: Deprecated silent truncations in socket.htons and socket.ntohs.
+Original patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27358">bpo-27358</a>: Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved error
+message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28257">bpo-28257</a>: Improved error message when passing a non-iterable as a
+var-positional argument.  Added opcode BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28322">bpo-28322</a>: Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools objects from
+incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28228">bpo-28228</a>: imghdr now supports pathlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28226">bpo-28226</a>: compileall now supports pathlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28314">bpo-28314</a>: Fix function declaration (C flags) for the getiterator() method
+of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28148">bpo-28148</a>: Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time module.</p>
+<p>Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that is similar to
+POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.  Patch by Ed Schouten.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28253">bpo-28253</a>: Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01 and
+9999-12.</p>
+<p>Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are reimplemented so that
+they don’t call itermonthdates() which can cause datetime.date
+under/overflow.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28275">bpo-28275</a>: Fixed possible use after free in the decompress() methods of
+the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes. Original patch by John
+Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27897">bpo-27897</a>: Fixed possible crash in sqlite3.Connection.create_collation()
+if pass invalid string-like object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18844">bpo-18844</a>: random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only argument to
+improve the readability of common cases and come into line with the
+signature used in other languages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18893">bpo-18893</a>: Fix invalid exception handling in Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.
+Patch by Madison May.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27611">bpo-27611</a>: Fixed support of default root window in the tkinter.tix module.
+Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle constructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27348">bpo-27348</a>: In the traceback module, restore the formatting of exception
+messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression introduced in
+3.5a2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25651">bpo-25651</a>: Allow falsy values to be used for msg parameter of subTest().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27778">bpo-27778</a>: Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the getrandom() is
+interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises a Python exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28200">bpo-28200</a>: Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
+path_converter() function).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25400">bpo-25400</a>: RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values for
+crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27932">bpo-27932</a>: Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28075">bpo-28075</a>: Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows implementation of
+os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22493">bpo-22493</a>: Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the middle of
+regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex pattern. Patch by Tim
+Graham.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25270">bpo-25270</a>: Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising SystemError when an
+empty bytestring is passed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28181">bpo-28181</a>: Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic Sivaraam.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25895">bpo-25895</a>: Enable WebSocket URL schemes in urllib.parse.urljoin. Patch by
+Gergely Imreh and Markus Holtermann.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28114">bpo-28114</a>: Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains byte strings.
+Patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27599">bpo-27599</a>: Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
+binascii.a2b_qp().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27906">bpo-27906</a>: Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP traffic. Patch by
+Kevin Conway.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28174">bpo-28174</a>: Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported. Patch by
+Seth Michael Larson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26654">bpo-26654</a>: Inspect functools.partial in asyncio.Handle.__repr__. Patch by
+iceboy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26909">bpo-26909</a>: Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio. Patch by INADA Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28176">bpo-28176</a>: Fix callbacks race in asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27759">bpo-27759</a>: Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file descriptors.
+Patch by Mark Williams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28325">bpo-28325</a>: Remove vestigial MacOS 9 macurl2path module and its tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28368">bpo-28368</a>: Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has no loop
+attached. Patch by Vincent Michel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28369">bpo-28369</a>: Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with add_reader,
+add_writer, etc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28370">bpo-28370</a>: Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly. Patch by Коренберг
+Марк.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28371">bpo-28371</a>: Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to run_in_executor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28372">bpo-28372</a>: Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python coroutines.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28399">bpo-28399</a>: Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding. Patch by Коренберг
+Марк.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27972">bpo-27972</a>: Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24142">bpo-24142</a>: Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an invalid
+state. Original patch by Florian Höch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29581">bpo-29581</a>: ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>, allowing abstract
+base classes to use keyword parameters in __init_subclass__. Patch by Nate
+Soares.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25532">bpo-25532</a>: inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an object
+sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects which create a
+new object on every attribute access.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30177">bpo-30177</a>: path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path after the
+first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by Antoine Pietri.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id136">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id136" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31294">bpo-31294</a>: Fix incomplete code snippet in the ZeroMQSocketListener and
+ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt them to Python 3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21649">bpo-21649</a>: Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31128">bpo-31128</a>: Allow the pydoc server to bind to arbitrary hostnames.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30803">bpo-30803</a>: Clarify doc on truth value testing. Original patch by Peter
+Thomassen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30176">bpo-30176</a>: Add missing attribute related constants in curses
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30052">bpo-30052</a>: the link targets for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray()</span></code></a> are
+now their respective type definitions, rather than the corresponding
+builtin function entries. Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#func-bytes"><span class="std std-ref">bytes</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#func-bytearray"><span class="std std-ref">bytearray</span></a> to reference the latter.</p>
+<p>In order to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
+automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the default
+output caching features in Sphinx.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26985">bpo-26985</a>: Add missing info of code object in inspect documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19824">bpo-19824</a>: Improve the documentation for, and links to, template strings
+by emphasizing their utility for internationalization, and by clarifying
+some usage constraints. (See also: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20314">bpo-20314</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12518">bpo-12518</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28929">bpo-28929</a>: Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25008">bpo-25008</a>: Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a pointer
+to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26355">bpo-26355</a>: Add canonical header link on each page to corresponding major
+version of the documentation. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29349">bpo-29349</a>: Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23722">bpo-23722</a>: The data model reference and the porting section in the 3.6
+What’s New guide now cover the additional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__classcell__</span></code> handling
+needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487 and zero-argument
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28513">bpo-28513</a>: Documented command-line interface of zipfile.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id137">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id137" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29639">bpo-29639</a>: test.support.HOST is now “localhost”, a new HOSTv4 constant has
+been added for your <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">127.0.0.1</span></code> needs, similar to the existing HOSTv6
+constant.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31320">bpo-31320</a>: Silence traceback in test_ssl</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31346">bpo-31346</a>: Prefer PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER protocols
+for SSLContext.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25674">bpo-25674</a>: Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30715">bpo-30715</a>: Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f. The latest
+version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts handshake.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30822">bpo-30822</a>: regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all. When running the
+test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata since it makes
+test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots) which then times out
+on some buildbots. Fix also regrtest command line parser to allow passing
+-u extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30695">bpo-30695</a>: Add the <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_nomemory(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop)</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove_mem_hooks()</span></code>
+functions to the _testcapi module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30357">bpo-30357</a>: test_thread: setUp() now uses support.threading_setup() and
+support.threading_cleanup() to wait until threads complete to avoid random
+side effects on following tests. Initial patch written by Grzegorz
+Grzywacz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30197">bpo-30197</a>: Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
+test.support module. They now work when delete replaced attribute or item
+inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute or item (or
+None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the target of the “as”
+clause, if there is one.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24932">bpo-24932</a>: Use proper command line parsing in _testembed</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28950">bpo-28950</a>: Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest command line
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28683">bpo-28683</a>: Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
+PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26936">bpo-26936</a>: Fix the test_socket failures on Android - getservbyname(),
+getservbyport() and getaddrinfo() are broken on some Android API levels.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28666">bpo-28666</a>: Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable or
+unreadable directories.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23839">bpo-23839</a>: Various caches now are cleared before running every test file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26944">bpo-26944</a>: Fix test_posix for Android where ‘id -G’ is entirely wrong or
+missing the effective gid.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28409">bpo-28409</a>: regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28217">bpo-28217</a>: Adds _testconsole module to test console input.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26939">bpo-26939</a>: Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
+test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id138">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id138" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31354">bpo-31354</a>: Allow –with-lto to be used on all builds, not just <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span>
+<span class="pre">profile-opt</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31370">bpo-31370</a>: Remove support for building –without-threads.</p>
+<p>This option is not really useful anymore in the 21st century. Removing
+lots of conditional paths allows us to simplify the code base, including
+in difficult to maintain low-level internal code.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31341">bpo-31341</a>: Per PEP 11, support for the IRIX operating system was removed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30854">bpo-30854</a>: Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads. Patch by
+Masayuki Yamamoto.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30687">bpo-30687</a>: Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather than
+vcvarsall.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20210">bpo-20210</a>: Support the <em>disabled</em> marker in Setup files. Extension modules
+listed after this marker are not built at all, neither by the Makefile nor
+by setup.py.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29941">bpo-29941</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-assertions</span></code> configure flag to explicitly enable C
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert()</span></code> checks. Defaults to off. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pydebug</span></code> implies
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-assertions</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28787">bpo-28787</a>: Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with--dtrace</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29243">bpo-29243</a>: Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">test</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> and some other make targets when configured with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-optimizations</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>: Don’t regenerate generated files based on file modification
+time anymore: the action is now explicit. Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29643">bpo-29643</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-optimization</span></code> didn’t work.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27593">bpo-27593</a>: sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
+python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git information
+rather than hg when building from a repo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29572">bpo-29572</a>: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2k.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27659">bpo-27659</a>: Prohibit implicit C function declarations: use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Werror=implicit-function-declaration</span></code> when possible (GCC and Clang,
+but it depends on the compiler version). Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29384">bpo-29384</a>: Remove old Be OS helper scripts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26851">bpo-26851</a>: Set Android compilation and link flags.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28768">bpo-28768</a>: Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode. Patch by
+Masayuki Yamamoto</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29080">bpo-29080</a>: Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from PCBuild/build.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23903">bpo-23903</a>: Added missed names to PC/python3.def.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28762">bpo-28762</a>: lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the F_LOCK
+macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28538">bpo-28538</a>: Fix the compilation error that occurs because if_nameindex() is
+available on Android API level 24, but the if_nameindex structure is not
+defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20211">bpo-20211</a>: Do not add the directory for installing C header files and the
+directory for installing object code libraries to the cross compilation
+search paths. Original patch by Thomas Petazzoni.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28849">bpo-28849</a>: Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on Android.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10656">bpo-10656</a>: Fix out-of-tree building on AIX.  Patch by Tristan Carel and
+Michael Haubenwallner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26359">bpo-26359</a>: Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28444">bpo-28444</a>: Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28208">bpo-28208</a>: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use SQLite 3.14.2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28248">bpo-28248</a>: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2j.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21124">bpo-21124</a>: Fix building the _struct module on Cygwin by passing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>
+instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&amp;PyType_Type</span></code> to PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT.  Patch by Masayuki
+Yamamoto.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13756">bpo-13756</a>: Fix building extensions modules on Cygwin.  Patch by Roumen
+Petrov, based on original patch by Jason Tishler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21085">bpo-21085</a>: Add configure check for siginfo_t.si_band, which Cygwin does
+not provide. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto with review and rebase by Erik
+Bray.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28258">bpo-28258</a>: Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and distclean
+targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26661">bpo-26661</a>: setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch wrapper.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27979">bpo-27979</a>: A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when
+building _ctypes on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy of libffi
+is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15819">bpo-15819</a>: Remove redundant include search directory option for building
+outside the source tree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28676">bpo-28676</a>: Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on macOS.
+Patch by Gareth Rees.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id139">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id139" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31392">bpo-31392</a>: Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0f</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30389">bpo-30389</a>: Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31358">bpo-31358</a>: zlib is no longer bundled in the CPython source, instead it is
+downloaded on demand just like bz2, lzma, OpenSSL, Tcl/Tk, and SQLite.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31340">bpo-31340</a>: Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with Visual Studio
+2017)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30581">bpo-30581</a>: os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of processors on
+Windows when the number of logical processors is greater than 64.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30916">bpo-30916</a>: Pre-build OpenSSL, Tcl and Tk and include the binaries in the
+build.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30731">bpo-30731</a>: Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it matches the
+schema.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30291">bpo-30291</a>: Allow requiring 64-bit interpreters from py.exe using -64
+suffix. Contributed by Steve (Gadget) Barnes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30362">bpo-30362</a>: Adds list options (-0, -0p) to py.exe launcher. Contributed by
+Steve Barnes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23451">bpo-23451</a>: Fix socket deprecation warnings in socketmodule.c. Patch by
+Segev Finer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30450">bpo-30450</a>: The build process on Windows no longer depends on Subversion,
+instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python script.  If Python
+3.6 is not found on the system (via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-3.6</span></code>), NuGet is used to
+download a copy of 32-bit Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29579">bpo-29579</a>: Removes readme.txt from the installer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25778">bpo-25778</a>: winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by Eryk Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28896">bpo-28896</a>: Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by default</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28522">bpo-28522</a>: Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28402">bpo-28402</a>: Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28333">bpo-28333</a>: Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts. (Patch by Eryk
+Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28251">bpo-28251</a>: Improvements to help manuals on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28110">bpo-28110</a>: launcher.msi has different product codes between 32-bit and
+64-bit</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28161">bpo-28161</a>: Opening CON for write access fails</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28162">bpo-28162</a>: WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts with
+Ctrl+Z</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28163">bpo-28163</a>: WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to _open_osfhandle</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28164">bpo-28164</a>: _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28137">bpo-28137</a>: Renames Windows path file to ._pth</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28138">bpo-28138</a>: Windows ._pth file should allow import site</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id140">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id140" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31493">bpo-31493</a>: IDLE code context – fix code update and font update timers.</p>
+<p>Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle completes.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31488">bpo-31488</a>: IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension classes. When
+applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each feature class. Change
+ParenMatch so updated options affect existing instances attached to
+existing editor windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31477">bpo-31477</a>: IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc. Strip trailing whitespace
+strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string literals are not skipped.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31480">bpo-31480</a>: IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension disabled by
+default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31421">bpo-31421</a>: Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs. IDLE calls tcl/tk
+update in the background in order to make live</p>
+<p>interaction and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31414">bpo-31414</a>: IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first. Adding to an
+int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting because int(‘’) will
+fail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31051">bpo-31051</a>: Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window, Editor, and
+Help sections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30617">bpo-30617</a>: IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass of editor.</p>
+<p>Move some data and functions from the class to module level. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31287">bpo-31287</a>: IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in test_configdialog.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27099">bpo-27099</a>: Convert IDLE’s built-in ‘extensions’ to regular features.</p>
+<p>About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly optional extensions.
+Their different behavior could be confusing or worse for users and not
+good for maintenance.  Hence the conversion.</p>
+<p>The main difference for users is that user configurable key bindings for
+builtin features are now handled uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a
+keyset only affects its value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined
+together in the system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.
+All custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All take
+effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.</p>
+<p>The affected events are ‘&lt;&lt;force-open-completions&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;expand-word&gt;&gt;’,
+‘&lt;&lt;force-open-calltip&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;flash-paren&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;format-paragraph&gt;&gt;’,
+‘&lt;&lt;run-module&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;check-module&gt;&gt;’, and ‘&lt;&lt;zoom-height&gt;&gt;’.  Any (global)
+customizations made before 3.6.3 will not affect their keyset-specific
+customization after 3.6.3. and vice versa.</p>
+<p>Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31206">bpo-31206</a>: IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31001">bpo-31001</a>: Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by Cheryl
+Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31205">bpo-31205</a>: IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
+slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31130">bpo-31130</a>: IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog. Initial patch by
+Victor Stinner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31002">bpo-31002</a>: Add tests for configdialog keys tab. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19903">bpo-19903</a>: IDLE: Calltips use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec</span></code></a>. This improves calltips for builtins converted to
+use Argument Clinic. Patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31083">bpo-31083</a>: IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in configdialog.
+Update existing classes to match outline. Initial patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31050">bpo-31050</a>: Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. The slightly
+modified tests continue to pass. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31004">bpo-31004</a>: IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.</p>
+<p>Slightly modified tests continue to pass. Fix General tests. Patch mostly
+by Cheryl Sabella.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30781">bpo-30781</a>: IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog. Patches by Terry Jan
+Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31060">bpo-31060</a>: IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog Grouping
+methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid writing tests and
+improving the tabs and will enable splitting the groups into classes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30853">bpo-30853</a>: IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.</p>
+<p>Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a callback
+function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable calls the
+function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31003">bpo-31003</a>: IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30993">bpo-30993</a>: IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.</p>
+<p>In configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab docstring.
+Simplify some attribute names. Move set_samples calls to var_changed_font
+(idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related functions to positions after the
+create widgets function.</p>
+<p>In test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
+renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
+movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put all font
+tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.  Except for two lines,
+these tests completely cover the related functions.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30981">bpo-30981</a>: IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28523">bpo-28523</a>: IDLE: replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’ in configdialog.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30917">bpo-30917</a>: Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf. Increase coverage from
+46% to 96%. Patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30934">bpo-30934</a>: Document coverage details for idlelib tests.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Add section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.</p></li>
+<li><p>Include check that branches are taken both ways.</p></li>
+<li><p>Exclude IDLE-specific code that does not run during unit tests.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30913">bpo-30913</a>: IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and widgets in
+docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and splitting up the
+class. Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30899">bpo-30899</a>: IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in config. Patch by
+Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30881">bpo-30881</a>: IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30851">bpo-30851</a>: IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One is a
+duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users. Patch by Cheryl
+Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30870">bpo-30870</a>: IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down keys as
+well as mouse. Initial patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8231">bpo-8231</a>: IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30779">bpo-30779</a>: IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog, put in
+config; test. * In config, put dump test code in a function; run it and
+unittest in   ‘if __name__ == ‘__main__’. * Add class config.ConfigChanges
+based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo issue. * Add class
+test_config.ChangesTest, partly using configdialog_tests_v1.py. * Revise
+configdialog to use ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804. * Revise
+test_configdialog to match configdialog changes. * Remove configdialog
+functions unused or moved to ConfigChanges. Cheryl Sabella contributed
+parts of the patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30777">bpo-30777</a>: IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix comments. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30495">bpo-30495</a>: IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names, and more
+tests. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30723">bpo-30723</a>: IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch. Add ‘parens’
+style to highlight both opener and closer. Make ‘default’ style, which is
+not default, a synonym for ‘opener’. Make time-delay work the same with
+all styles. Add help for config dialog extensions tab, including help for
+parenmatch. Add new tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30674">bpo-30674</a>: IDLE: add docstrings to grep module. Patch by Cheryl Sabella</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21519">bpo-21519</a>: IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects duplicates
+properly. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29910">bpo-29910</a>: IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting out a
+region by a key shortcut.  Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">'break'</span></code> for this and other
+potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30728">bpo-30728</a>: Review and change idlelib.configdialog names. Lowercase method
+and attribute names. Replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’, expand overly cryptic
+names, delete unneeded underscores. Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> with specific
+imports. Patches by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6739">bpo-6739</a>: IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to bind them
+with tk. Add tests for all 3 validation functions. Original patch by G
+Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15786">bpo-15786</a>: Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box. The
+following should now work: clicking on selection box items; using the
+scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return. Hangs on MacOSX should no
+longer happen. Patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25514">bpo-25514</a>: Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start. Popup
+no-connection message directs users to this section.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30642">bpo-30642</a>: Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests. Patches by Louie Lu and
+Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30495">bpo-30495</a>: Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names. Patches by
+Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30290">bpo-30290</a>: Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests. Increase coverage to
+100%. Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30303">bpo-30303</a>: Add _utest option to textview; add new tests. Increase coverage
+to 100%. Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29071">bpo-29071</a>: IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur prefixes).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28572">bpo-28572</a>: Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog. Update and
+augment description of the configuration system.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id141">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id141" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30983">bpo-30983</a>: gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.) work on optimized shared
+builds now, too.  PEP 523 introduced _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which
+inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on non-debug shared builds.  This broke the
+ability to use py-bt, py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb
+integrations. The problem is fixed by only looking for
+_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno
+“Polaco” Penteado.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29748">bpo-29748</a>: Added the slice index converter in Argument Clinic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24037">bpo-24037</a>: Argument Clinic now uses the converter <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool(accept={int})</span></code>
+rather than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> for semantical booleans.  This avoids repeating the
+default value for Python and C and will help in converting to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code></a> in
+future.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29367">bpo-29367</a>: python-gdb.py now supports also <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method-wrapper</span></code>
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapperobject</span></code>) objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28023">bpo-28023</a>: Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15369">bpo-15369</a>: The pybench and pystone microbenchmark have been removed from
+Tools. Please use the new Python benchmark suite
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/performance">https://github.com/python/performance</a> which is more reliable and includes
+a portable version of pybench working on Python 2 and Python 3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28102">bpo-28102</a>: The zipfile module CLI now prints usage to stderr. Patch by
+Stephen J. Turnbull.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id142">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id142" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31338">bpo-31338</a>: Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNREACHABLE()</span></code> macro for code paths which are
+never expected to be reached.  This and a few other useful macros are now
+documented in the C API manual.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30832">bpo-30832</a>: Remove own implementation for thread-local storage.</p>
+<p>CPython has provided the own implementation for thread-local storage (TLS)
+on Python/thread.c, it’s used in the case which a platform has not
+supplied native TLS.  However, currently all supported platforms (Windows
+and pthreads) have provided native TLS and defined the Py_HAVE_NATIVE_TLS
+macro with unconditional in any case.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30708">bpo-30708</a>: PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError if the
+second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16500">bpo-16500</a>: Deprecate PyOS_AfterFork() and add PyOS_BeforeFork(),
+PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6532">bpo-6532</a>: The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and
+PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of
+PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from “long” to “unsigned long”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27867">bpo-27867</a>: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and replaced with
+a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between
+0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.  Added
+functions PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29083">bpo-29083</a>: Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
+PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not available in
+limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(), PyArg_UnpackTuple() and
+Py_BuildValue() were not available in limited API of version &lt; 3.3 when
+PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28769">bpo-28769</a>: The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and PyUnicode_AsUTF8()
+is now of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> rather of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29058">bpo-29058</a>: All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are now
+available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX value of
+the minimum Python version supporting this API.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28822">bpo-28822</a>: The index parameters <em>start</em> and <em>end</em> of PyUnicode_FindChar()
+are now adjusted to behave like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str[start:end]</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28808">bpo-28808</a>: PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28761">bpo-28761</a>: The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef, PyGetSetDef,
+PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and wrapperbase are now of
+type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> rather of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28748">bpo-28748</a>: Private variable _Py_PackageContext is now of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">const</span> <span class="pre">char</span>
+<span class="pre">*</span></code> rather of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">char</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19569">bpo-19569</a>: Compiler warnings are now emitted if use most of deprecated
+functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28426">bpo-28426</a>: Deprecated undocumented functions PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(),
+PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and
+PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-6-final">
+<h2>Python 3.6.6 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-6-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-06-27</em></p>
+<p>There were no new changes in version 3.6.6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-6-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-6-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-06-11</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id143">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id143" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33786">bpo-33786</a>: Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit in athrow()
+correctly</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30654">bpo-30654</a>: Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on interpreter
+shutdown even when there was a custom handler set previously. Patch by
+Philipp Kerling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33622">bpo-33622</a>: Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add an object
+with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__del__</span></code> method or referenced by it into the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.garbage</span></code></a> list. <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGC_Collect()</span></code> can now be called when an
+exception is set and preserves it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31849">bpo-31849</a>: Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33391">bpo-33391</a>: Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28055">bpo-28055</a>: Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24(). Patch by Rolf Eike Beer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33231">bpo-33231</a>: Fix potential memory leak in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">normalizestring()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29922">bpo-29922</a>: Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aenter__()</span></code>
+or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__aexit__()</span></code> return non-awaitable object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33199">bpo-33199</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ma_version_tag</span></code> in dict implementation is uninitialized
+when copying from key-sharing dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33041">bpo-33041</a>: Fixed jumping when the function contains an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">async</span> <span class="pre">for</span></code> loop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32282">bpo-32282</a>: Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of VersionHelpers.h in
+socketmodule on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21983">bpo-21983</a>: Fix a crash in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes.cast" title="ctypes.cast"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.cast()</span></code></a> in case the type argument is a
+ctypes structured data type. Patch by Eryk Sun and Oren Milman.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id144">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id144" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30167">bpo-30167</a>: Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is set. Patch by
+Steve Weber.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33812">bpo-33812</a>: Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
+d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
+astimezone() method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30805">bpo-30805</a>: Avoid race condition with debug logging</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33767">bpo-33767</a>: The concatenation (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>) and repetition (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>) sequence
+operations now raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemError" title="SystemError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code></a> when
+performed on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.mmap</span></code></a> objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32684">bpo-32684</a>: Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even with
+return_exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33674">bpo-33674</a>: Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made() of
+asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of using
+call_soon(). Previously, data_received() could be called before the
+handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31647">bpo-31647</a>: Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
+_SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises AttributeError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33672">bpo-33672</a>: Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus coroutines</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33469">bpo-33469</a>: Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used run_in_executor</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11874">bpo-11874</a>: Use a better regex when breaking usage into wrappable parts.
+Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30877">bpo-30877</a>: Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON decoder
+that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing after finishing
+the decoding. Based on patch by c-fos.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33548">bpo-33548</a>: tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider common TEMP
+locations</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33542">bpo-33542</a>: Prevent <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uuid.get_node</span></code> from using a DUID instead of a MAC on
+Windows. Patch by Zvi Effron</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26819">bpo-26819</a>: Fix race condition with <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ReadTransport.resume_reading</span></code> in
+Windows proactor event loop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NamedTuple.__new__</span></code>, pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwds</span></code> in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generic.__new__</span></code>.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad Dombrova.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20087">bpo-20087</a>: Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported locales.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33422">bpo-33422</a>: Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when looking up
+byte/string literals on pydoc. Patch by Andrés Delfino.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33197">bpo-33197</a>: Update error message when constructing invalid
+inspect.Parameters Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33383">bpo-33383</a>: Fixed crash in the get() method of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm.ndbm" title="dbm.ndbm: The standard &quot;database&quot; interface, based on ndbm. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm.ndbm</span></code></a> database
+object when it is called with a single argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33329">bpo-33329</a>: Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue991266">bpo-991266</a>: Fix quoting of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Comment</span></code> attribute of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.cookies.html#http.cookies.SimpleCookie" title="http.cookies.SimpleCookie"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.cookies.SimpleCookie</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33131">bpo-33131</a>: Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33308">bpo-33308</a>: Fixed a crash in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/parser.html#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">parser</span></code></a> module when converting an ST
+object to a tree of tuples or lists with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">line_info=False</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_info=True</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33263">bpo-33263</a>: Fix FD leak in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_SelectorSocketTransport</span></code>  Patch by Vlad
+Starostin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33256">bpo-33256</a>: Fix display of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;module&gt;</span></code> call in the html produced by
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cgitb.html()</span></code>. Patch by Stéphane Blondon.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33203">bpo-33203</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.Random.choice()</span></code> now raises <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IndexError</span></code> for empty
+sequences consistently even when called from subclasses without a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandbits()</span></code> implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33224">bpo-33224</a>: Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479.  Convert an uncaught
+StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33209">bpo-33209</a>: End framing at the end of C implementation of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#pickle.Pickler.dump" title="pickle.Pickler.dump"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle.Pickler.dump()</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32861">bpo-32861</a>: The urllib.robotparser’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__str__</span></code> representation now
+includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and “Request-rate” fields.
+Patch by Michael Lazar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33096">bpo-33096</a>: Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a false
+boolean value. Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same. Patch by Garvit
+Khatri.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33127">bpo-33127</a>: The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33021">bpo-33021</a>: Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang of all
+threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and random.seed().  Patch
+by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27683">bpo-27683</a>: Fix a regression in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ipaddress.html#module-ipaddress" title="ipaddress: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ipaddress</span></code></a> that result of
+<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hosts()</span></code> is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
+containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32844">bpo-32844</a>: Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1) to stderr in
+subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31908">bpo-31908</a>: Fix output of cover files for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">trace</span></code> module command-line
+tool. Previously emitted cover files only when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--missing</span></code> option was
+used. Patch by Michael Selik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31457">bpo-31457</a>: If nested log adapters are used, the inner <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process()</span></code>
+methods are no longer omitted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16865">bpo-16865</a>: Support arrays &gt;=2GiB in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a>.  Patch by Segev Finer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31238">bpo-31238</a>: pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread class now
+waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and then explicitly
+sets its docserver attribute to None to break a reference cycle.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id145">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id145" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33503">bpo-33503</a>: Fix broken pypi link</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33421">bpo-33421</a>: Add missing documentation for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing.AsyncContextManager</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33378">bpo-33378</a>: Add Korean language switcher for <a class="reference external" href="https://docs.python.org/3/">https://docs.python.org/3/</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33276">bpo-33276</a>: Clarify that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code> attribute on modules cannot be
+just any value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33201">bpo-33201</a>: Modernize documentation for writing C extension types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33195">bpo-33195</a>: Deprecate <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code> usage in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">c-api/arg</span></code> document.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_UNICODE</span></code> related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it is
+missed in the document.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33126">bpo-33126</a>: Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27212">bpo-27212</a>: Modify documentation for the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">islice()</span></code> recipe to consume
+initial values up to the start index.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28247">bpo-28247</a>: Update <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipapp.html#module-zipapp" title="zipapp: Manage executable Python zip archives"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipapp</span></code></a> documentation to describe how to make
+standalone applications.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18802">bpo-18802</a>: Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon Foster and
+Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27428">bpo-27428</a>: Update documentation to clarify that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WindowsRegistryFinder</span></code>
+implements <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MetaPathFinder</span></code>. (Patch by Himanshu Lakhara)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8243">bpo-8243</a>: Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr exception
+behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31432">bpo-31432</a>: Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and CERT_REQUIRED
+flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id146">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id146" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33655">bpo-33655</a>: Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms that
+might be due to running on ZFS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19417">bpo-19417</a>: Add test_bdb.py.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id147">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id147" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5755">bpo-5755</a>: Move <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wstrict-prototypes</span></code> option to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CFLAGS_NODIST</span></code> from
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OPT</span></code>. This option emitted annoying warnings when building extension
+modules written in C++.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33614">bpo-33614</a>: Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on Windows
+are correctly regenerated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33522">bpo-33522</a>: Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
+<a class="reference external" href="https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython">https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33012">bpo-33012</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-Wno-cast-function-type</span></code> for gcc 8 for silencing
+warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
+definition lists.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33394">bpo-33394</a>: Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when GNU make
+is passed macros on the command line.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id148">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id148" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33184">bpo-33184</a>: Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.0.2o.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id149">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id149" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33184">bpo-33184</a>: Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2o.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id150">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id150" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33656">bpo-33656</a>: On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for DPI. On
+Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary
+unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make
+text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33768">bpo-33768</a>: Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top of the
+editor window.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33763">bpo-33763</a>: IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context instead of
+label widget.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33664">bpo-33664</a>: Scroll IDLE editor text by lines. Previously, the mouse wheel
+and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of pixels, resulting in
+partial lines at the top of the editor box.  The change also applies to
+the shell and grep output windows, but not to read-only text views.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33679">bpo-33679</a>: Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code Context. Use
+the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in themes or add settings
+to custom themes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33642">bpo-33642</a>: Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code Context. If
+there is no current context, show a single blank line.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33628">bpo-33628</a>: IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33564">bpo-33564</a>: IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block opener.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29706">bpo-29706</a>: IDLE now colors async and await as keywords in 3.6. They become
+full keywords in 3.7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21474">bpo-21474</a>: Update word/identifier definition from ascii to unicode. In
+text and entry boxes, this affects selection by double-click, movement
+left/right by control-left/right, and deletion left/right by
+control-BACKSPACE/DEL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33204">bpo-33204</a>: IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes. A ‘u’ string
+prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’. Consistently color as much
+of the prefix, starting at the right, as is valid. Revise and extend
+colorizer test.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32831">bpo-32831</a>: Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id151">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id151" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33189">bpo-33189</a>: <strong class="program">pygettext.py</strong> now recognizes only literal strings as
+docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
+f-string expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31920">bpo-31920</a>: Fixed handling directories as arguments in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pygettext</span></code>
+script. Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29673">bpo-29673</a>: Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32885">bpo-32885</a>: Add an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> flag for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/pathfix.py</span></code> to disable
+automatic backup creation (files with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">~</span></code> suffix).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31583">bpo-31583</a>: Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but without
+–output-dir option for relative path to files in current directory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id152">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id152" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32374">bpo-32374</a>: Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized modules
+can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-5-final">
+<h2>Python 3.6.5 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-5-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-03-28</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id153">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id153" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32872">bpo-32872</a>: Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace packages.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id154">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id154" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33163">bpo-33163</a>: Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-5-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-5-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-03-13</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id155">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id155" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33001">bpo-33001</a>: Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32981">bpo-32981</a>: Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to catastrophic
+backtracking. These regexes formed potential DOS vectors (REDOS). They
+have been refactored. This resolves CVE-2018-1060 and CVE-2018-1061. Patch
+by Jamie Davis.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id156">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id156" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33026">bpo-33026</a>: Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting f_lineno.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17288">bpo-17288</a>: Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace events.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32889">bpo-32889</a>: Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the rename of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">address_in_range</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32650">bpo-32650</a>: Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will correctly step
+over (next command) native coroutines. Patch by Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32685">bpo-32685</a>: Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print statement is
+either present on the same line as the header of a compound statement or
+else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a newline. Patch by Nitish
+Chandra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32583">bpo-32583</a>: Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders caused by
+write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode error handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26163">bpo-26163</a>: Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct hash values
+when faced with datasets containing many similar values.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27169">bpo-27169</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__debug__</span></code> constant is now optimized out at compile
+time. This fixes also <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22091">bpo-22091</a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32329">bpo-32329</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags.hash_randomization</span></code> is now properly set to 0 when
+hash randomization is turned off by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONHASHSEED=0</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30416">bpo-30416</a>: The optimizer is now protected from spending much time doing
+complex calculations and consuming much memory for creating large
+constants in constant folding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18533">bpo-18533</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code> on a dict containing its own <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">values()</span></code> or
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">items()</span></code> no longer raises <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RecursionError</span></code>; OrderedDict similarly.
+Instead, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">...</span></code>, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by Ben
+North.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32028">bpo-32028</a>: Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when generating
+suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3 builtin print
+function calls. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32137">bpo-32137</a>: The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a RecursionError
+instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id157">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id157" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33064">bpo-33064</a>: lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*args</span></code>
+and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code> in function signatures.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31804">bpo-31804</a>: Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the standard
+streams are closed or None at exit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33037">bpo-33037</a>: Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport closing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30353">bpo-30353</a>: Fix ctypes pass-by-value for structs on 64-bit Cygwin/MinGW.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33009">bpo-33009</a>: Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter partialmethods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32969">bpo-32969</a>: Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix corresponding
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32713">bpo-32713</a>: Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float values. Patch
+by Joffrey Fuhrer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30622">bpo-30622</a>: The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in LibreSSL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32922">bpo-32922</a>: dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem encoding
+rather than default encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32859">bpo-32859</a>: In <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.dup2</span></code>, don’t check every call whether the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dup3</span></code>
+syscall exists or not.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21060">bpo-21060</a>: Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from “No dist
+file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must create and
+upload files in one command”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32857">bpo-32857</a>: In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tkinter.html#module-tkinter" title="tkinter: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">after_cancel(None)</span></code> now raises a
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code></a> instead of canceling the first scheduled function.
+Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32852">bpo-32852</a>: Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running trace.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32841">bpo-32841</a>: Fixed <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncio-sync.html#asyncio.Condition" title="asyncio.Condition"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Condition</span></code></a> issue which silently ignored
+cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional lock. Patch by
+Bar Harel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31787">bpo-31787</a>: Fixed refleaks of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code> methods in various modules.
+(Contributed by Oren Milman)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30157">bpo-30157</a>: Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in csv.Sniffer.sniff() when
+only the last field is quoted.  Patch by Jake Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32394">bpo-32394</a>: socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT flags on older version
+Windows during run-time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32777">bpo-32777</a>: Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process deadlock in
+subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file descriptors inheritable on
+exec in the child process.  This bug appears to have been introduced in
+3.4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32647">bpo-32647</a>: The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking for
+dlopen. The shared extension is now explicitly linked against libdl on
+platforms with dl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32734">bpo-32734</a>: Fixed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.Lock()</span></code> safety issue which allowed acquiring
+and locking the same lock multiple times, without it being free. Patch by
+Bar Harel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32727">bpo-32727</a>: Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from address. Patch
+by Stéphane Wirtel</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27931">bpo-27931</a>: Fix email address header parsing error when the username is an
+empty quoted string. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32304">bpo-32304</a>: distutils’ upload command no longer corrupts tar files ending
+with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to CRLF in any of the
+upload text fields.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32502">bpo-32502</a>: uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit hardware
+address is encountered.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31848">bpo-31848</a>: Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when the SSND
+chunk is not found. Patch by Zackery Spytz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32555">bpo-32555</a>: On FreeBSD and Solaris, os.strerror() now always decode the
+byte string from the current locale encoding, rather than using
+ASCII/surrogateescape in some cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32521">bpo-32521</a>: The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and headers
+location.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32473">bpo-32473</a>: Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32521">bpo-32521</a>: glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc headers and
+library in nis module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32228">bpo-32228</a>: Ensure that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code> preserves the file position (as
+reported by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tell()</span></code>) after writes longer than the buffer size.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26133">bpo-26133</a>: Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop on
+interpreter shutdown.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32185">bpo-32185</a>: The SSL module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS
+extension on platforms with OpenSSL 1.0.2+ or inet_pton.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32323">bpo-32323</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlsplit" title="urllib.parse.urlsplit"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse.urlsplit()</span></code></a> does not convert zone-id
+(scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in hostnames now.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32302">bpo-32302</a>: Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it binary
+compatible with CRT v140.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32255">bpo-32255</a>: A single empty field is now always quoted when written into a
+CSV file. This allows to distinguish an empty row from a row consisting of
+a single empty field. Patch by Licht Takeuchi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32277">bpo-32277</a>: Raise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NotImplementedError</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemError</span></code> on
+platforms where <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">chmod(...,</span> <span class="pre">follow_symlinks=False)</span></code> is not supported.
+Patch by Anthony Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32199">bpo-32199</a>: The getnode() ip getter now uses ‘ip link’ instead of ‘ip link
+list’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27456">bpo-27456</a>: Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux. Tests by Victor Stinner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31900">bpo-31900</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/locale.html#locale.localeconv" title="locale.localeconv"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.localeconv()</span></code></a> function now sets temporarily the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale to decode
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal_point</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">thousands_sep</span></code> byte strings if they are non-ASCII
+or longer than 1 byte, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_NUMERIC</span></code> locale is different than the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_CTYPE</span></code> locale. This temporary change affects other threads.</p>
+<p>Same change for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method when formatting a number
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and subclasses) with the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">n</span></code> type (ex: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'{:n}'.format(1234)</span></code>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31802">bpo-31802</a>: Importing native path module (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">posixpath</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ntpath</span></code>) now
+works even if the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code> module still is not imported.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id158">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id158" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17232">bpo-17232</a>: Clarify docs for -O and -OO.  Patch by Terry Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32800">bpo-32800</a>: Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8722">bpo-8722</a>: Document <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> behavior when property <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code>
+method raises <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32614">bpo-32614</a>: Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw strings to
+prevent <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a> and add text to REGEX HOWTO to highlight
+the deprecation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31972">bpo-31972</a>: Improve docstrings for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pathlib.html#pathlib.PurePath" title="pathlib.PurePath"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathlib.PurePath</span></code></a> subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17799">bpo-17799</a>: Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and sys.setprofile and
+their C-API counterparts regarding which type of events are received in
+each function. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id159">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id159" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32517">bpo-32517</a>: Fix failing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">test_asyncio</span></code> on macOS 10.12.2+ due to transport
+of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">KqueueSelector</span></code> loop was not being closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32721">bpo-32721</a>: Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is not built.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32252">bpo-32252</a>: Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to prevent core
+dump files when testing crashes. getrlimit() returns zero on success.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31518">bpo-31518</a>: Debian Unstable has disabled TLS 1.0 and 1.1 for
+SSLv23_METHOD(). Change TLS/SSL protocol of some tests to PROTOCOL_TLS or
+PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 to make them pass on Debian.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id160">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id160" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32635">bpo-32635</a>: Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is provided
+instead of libcrypt at the system.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id161">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id161" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue33016">bpo-33016</a>: Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
+nt._getfinalpathname</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32903">bpo-32903</a>: Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the current
+directory is set to a UNC path.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31966">bpo-31966</a>: Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32409">bpo-32409</a>: Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32457">bpo-32457</a>: Improves handling of denormalized executable path when
+launching Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32370">bpo-32370</a>: Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the uuid
+module. Patch by Segev Finer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29248">bpo-29248</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.readlink" title="os.readlink"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.readlink()</span></code></a> on Windows, which was mistakenly
+treating the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PrintNameOffset</span></code> field of the reparse data buffer as a
+number of characters instead of bytes. Patch by Craig Holmquist and SSE4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32588">bpo-32588</a>: Create standalone _distutils_findvs module.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id162">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id162" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32726">bpo-32726</a>: Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer variant that
+supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only. Upgrade the supplied
+third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.0.2n, XZ 5.2.3, and SQLite 3.22.0. The
+10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id163">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id163" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32984">bpo-32984</a>: Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> while running a startup file.  Like Python,
+IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window before
+presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code> runs a
+file named in environmental variable  <span class="target" id="index-20"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">IDLESTARTUP</span></code> or
+<span class="target" id="index-21"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONSTARTUP</span></code></a>; <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-r</span> <span class="pre">file</span></code> runs <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">file</span></code>.  Python sets
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__file__</span></code> to the startup file name before running the file and unsets
+it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run normally,
+without the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-n</span></code> option.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32940">bpo-32940</a>: Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in pyparse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32916">bpo-32916</a>: Change <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code</span></code> in pyparse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32905">bpo-32905</a>: Remove unused code in pyparse module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32874">bpo-32874</a>: Add tests for pyparse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32837">bpo-32837</a>: Using the system and place-dependent default encoding for
+open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32826">bpo-32826</a>: Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s test_help_about. GUI
+test test_file_buttons() only looks at initial ascii-only lines, but
+failed on systems where open() defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline()
+internally reads and decodes far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii
+character in CREDITS.txt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32765">bpo-32765</a>: Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new widgets to
+the widget list.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id164">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id164" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24960">bpo-24960</a>: 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files using
+pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem. This lets 2to3 and
+lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32222">bpo-32222</a>: Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions with type
+annotated arguments. Patch by Toby Harradine.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id165">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id165" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29084">bpo-29084</a>: Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded from the
+limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never worked in the
+limited C API.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-4-final">
+<h2>Python 3.6.4 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-4-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-12-18</em></p>
+<p>There were no new code changes in version 3.6.4 since v3.6.4rc1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-4-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-4-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-12-05</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id166">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id166" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32176">bpo-32176</a>: co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the code
+object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than needing to
+be set correctly by the caller. This ensures it will be cleared
+automatically when additional cell references are injected into a modified
+code object and function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31949">bpo-31949</a>: Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
+(PyTraceBack_Print()).</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now suppresses printing tracebacks.</p></li>
+<li><p>Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None now causes using the default limit.</p></li>
+<li><p>Setting sys.tracebacklimit to an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using
+the limit LONG_MAX rather than the default limit.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fixed integer overflows in the case of more than 2**31 traceback items on
+Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fixed output errors handling.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30696">bpo-30696</a>: Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly when no
+memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20047">bpo-20047</a>: Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now accept only
+bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In particular they now
+raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus result when an integer is
+passed as a separator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31852">bpo-31852</a>: Fix a segmentation fault caused by a combination of the async
+soft keyword and continuation lines.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21720">bpo-21720</a>: BytesWarning no longer emitted when the <em>fromlist</em> argument of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code> or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> attribute of the module contain bytes
+instances.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31825">bpo-31825</a>: Fixed OverflowError in the ‘unicode-escape’ codec and in
+codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28603">bpo-28603</a>: Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on interpreter
+exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable or compares equal to
+later ones. Patch by Zane Bitter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31786">bpo-31786</a>: Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round correctly
+negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting
+for events as expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking.
+Patch by Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31642">bpo-31642</a>: Restored blocking “from package import module” by setting
+sys.modules[“package.module”] to None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31626">bpo-31626</a>: Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a write to
+freed memory after shrinking a memory block.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31619">bpo-31619</a>: Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large number of
+underscores to integer with binary base.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31592">bpo-31592</a>: Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case of a bad
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.normalize" title="unicodedata.normalize"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.normalize()</span></code></a>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31588">bpo-31588</a>: Raise a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> with a helpful error message when class
+creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__prepare__()</span></code> method.
+Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31566">bpo-31566</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_warnings.warn()</span></code> in case of a bad
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> global. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31505">bpo-31505</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/json.html#module-json" title="json: Encode and decode the JSON format."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a>, in case
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_json.make_encoder()</span></code> received a bad <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">encoder()</span></code> argument. Patch by Oren
+Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31492">bpo-31492</a>: Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import from a
+module with a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> attribute, and in case of failing to access
+an attribute of such a module. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31490">bpo-31490</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes" title="ctypes: A foreign function library for Python."><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes</span></code></a> class definition, in case
+the class has an attribute whose name is specified in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_anonymous_</span></code> but
+not in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_fields_</span></code>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31478">bpo-31478</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_random.Random.seed()</span></code> in case the
+argument has a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__abs__()</span></code> method. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31315">bpo-31315</a>: Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(), when
+spec.name is not a string. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31311">bpo-31311</a>: Fix a crash in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__setstate__()</span></code> method of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes._CData" title="ctypes._CData"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes._CData</span></code></a>, in case of a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></code>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31293">bpo-31293</a>: Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a timedelta
+object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method. Patch by Oren
+Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31285">bpo-31285</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.warn_explicit" title="warnings.warn_explicit"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.warn_explicit</span></code></a>, when the
+return value of the received loader’s get_source() has a bad splitlines()
+method. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30817">bpo-30817</a>: <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_PrintEx()</span></code> clears now the ignored exception that may be
+raised by <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PySys_SetObjectId()</span></code>, for example when no memory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id167">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id167" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Two minor fixes for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module: allow shallow copying
+instances of generic classes, improve interaction of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init_subclass__</span></code>
+with generics. Original PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27240">bpo-27240</a>: The header folding algorithm for the new email policies has
+been rewritten, which also fixes <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30788">bpo-30788</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31831">bpo-31831</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32182">bpo-32182</a>.  In
+particular, RFC2231 folding is now done correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32186">bpo-32186</a>: io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release the GIL
+when getting the file size. Fixed hang of all threads with inaccessible
+NFS server. Patch by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12239">bpo-12239</a>: Make <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty" title="msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()</span></code></a> return
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when the value of property is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">VT_EMPTY</span></code>.  Initial patch by
+Mark Mc Mahon.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31325">bpo-31325</a>: Fix wrong usage of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></code></a> in the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.robotparser.html#urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse" title="urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.parse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">RobotFileParser.parse()</span></code></a>
+method.</p>
+<p>Initial patch by Robin Wellner.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12382">bpo-12382</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/msilib.html#msilib.OpenDatabase" title="msilib.OpenDatabase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">msilib.OpenDatabase()</span></code></a> now raises a better exception
+message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI file.  Initial patch by
+William Tisäter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32110">bpo-32110</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">codecs.StreamReader.read(n)</span></code> now returns not more than <em>n</em>
+characters/bytes for non-negative <em>n</em>. This makes it compatible with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">read()</span></code> methods of other file-like objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32072">bpo-32072</a>: Fixed issues with binary plists:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Fixed saving bytearrays.</p></li>
+<li><p>Identical objects will be saved only once.</p></li>
+<li><p>Equal references will be load as identical objects.</p></li>
+<li><p>Added support for saving and loading recursive data structures.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32034">bpo-32034</a>: Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and LimitOverrunError
+pickleable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32015">bpo-32015</a>: Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of reconnection the
+socket during waiting async read/write from/to the socket.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32011">bpo-32011</a>: Restored support of loading marshal files with the TYPE_INT64
+code. These files can be produced in Python 2.7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31970">bpo-31970</a>: Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9678">bpo-9678</a>: Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD.</p></li>
+<li><p>Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p>Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30057">bpo-30057</a>: Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31933">bpo-31933</a>: Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big endian
+platforms. Patch by Jack O’Connor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31927">bpo-31927</a>: Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.  Fixed
+assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a AF_BLUETOOTH
+address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27666">bpo-27666</a>: Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and curses.ungetmouse()
+when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is less than the size of C long.
+curses.box() now accepts characters as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve
+Fink.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31897">bpo-31897</a>: plistlib now catches more errors when read binary plists and
+raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25720">bpo-25720</a>: Fix the method for checking pad state of curses WINDOW. Patch
+by Masayuki Yamamoto.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31893">bpo-31893</a>: Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on OpenBSD and
+NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31891">bpo-31891</a>: Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28416">bpo-28416</a>: Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the persistent_id()
+method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the persistent_load() method no
+longer create reference cycles.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28326">bpo-28326</a>: Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or stderr is closed
+or None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31457">bpo-31457</a>: If nested log adapters are used, the inner <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">process()</span></code>
+methods are no longer omitted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31457">bpo-31457</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">manager</span></code> property on LoggerAdapter objects is now
+properly settable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31806">bpo-31806</a>: Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(), threading.Lock.acquire()
+and socket.socket.settimeout() to round correctly negative timeouts
+between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting for events as
+expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking. Patch by
+Pablo Galindo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28603">bpo-28603</a>: traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during printing of
+exception tracebacks when either the current exception or an exception in
+its context/cause chain is unhashable. Patch by Zane Bitter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30058">bpo-30058</a>: Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31770">bpo-31770</a>: Prevent a crash when calling the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code> method of a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Cursor</span></code> object more than once. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31672">bpo-31672</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idpattern</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code> matched some non-ASCII
+characters. Now it uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code> regular expression local flag to avoid
+non-ASCII characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31764">bpo-31764</a>: Prevent a crash in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Cursor.close()</span></code> in case the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Cursor</span></code> object is uninitialized. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31752">bpo-31752</a>: Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called with custom
+integers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31701">bpo-31701</a>: On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and COM
+exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31728">bpo-31728</a>: Prevent crashes in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_elementtree</span></code> due to unsafe cleanup of
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.text</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.tail</span></code>. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31620">bpo-31620</a>: an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when queue.get
+pollers timeout</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31632">bpo-31632</a>: Fix method set_protocol() of class _SSLProtocolTransport in
+asyncio module. This method was previously modifying a wrong reference to
+the protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31675">bpo-31675</a>: Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist() and split()
+when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31673">bpo-31673</a>: Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method adderrorinfo().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30806">bpo-30806</a>: Fix the string representation of a netrc object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15037">bpo-15037</a>: Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for ncurses 5.7 and
+earlier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25351">bpo-25351</a>: Avoid venv activate failures with undefined variables</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25532">bpo-25532</a>: inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an object
+sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects which create a
+new object on every attribute access.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30347">bpo-30347</a>: Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over itertools.groupby()
+iterators.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31516">bpo-31516</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.current_thread()</span></code> should not return a dummy thread
+at shutdown.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31351">bpo-31351</a>: python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit code if pip
+bootstrapping has failed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31482">bpo-31482</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.seed()</span></code> now works with bytes in version=1</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31334">bpo-31334</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">poll.poll([timeout])</span></code> in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code> module for
+arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
+non-negative integer or -1. Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31310">bpo-31310</a>: multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be launched again if
+crashed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31308">bpo-31308</a>: Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to Ctrl-C and
+other user interruptions. If it crashes, restart it when necessary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id168">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id168" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32105">bpo-32105</a>: Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
+versionadded marker.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31537">bpo-31537</a>: Fix incorrect usage of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_history_length</span></code> in readline
+documentation example code. Patch by Brad Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30085">bpo-30085</a>: The operator functions without double underscores are preferred
+for clarity. The one with underscores are only kept for
+back-compatibility.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id169">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id169" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31380">bpo-31380</a>: Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS: fails on
+APFS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31705">bpo-31705</a>: Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older than 4.5.
+The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le). A fix was merged
+into the kernel 4.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31174">bpo-31174</a>: Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now stores the
+names sample to always test the same files. It prevents false alarms when
+hunting reference leaks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30695">bpo-30695</a>: Add the <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_nomemory(start,</span> <span class="pre">stop)</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">remove_mem_hooks()</span></code>
+functions to the _testcapi module.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id170">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id170" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32059">bpo-32059</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detect_modules()</span></code> in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> now also searches the
+sysroot paths when cross-compiling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31957">bpo-31957</a>: Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31609">bpo-31609</a>: Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31934">bpo-31934</a>: Abort the build when building out of a not clean source tree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31926">bpo-31926</a>: Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation errors when
+there was more than one function and/or method in a .c file with the same
+name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28791">bpo-28791</a>: Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28791">bpo-28791</a>: Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22140">bpo-22140</a>: Prevent double substitution of prefix in python-config.sh.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31536">bpo-31536</a>: Avoid wholesale rebuild after <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code> if nothing
+changed.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id171">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id171" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1102">bpo-1102</a>: Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">View.Fetch()</span></code> returns
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS</span></code> instead of raising <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">MSIError</span></code>.</p>
+<p>Initial patch by Anthony Tuininga.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31944">bpo-31944</a>: Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id172">
+<h3>macOS<a class="headerlink" href="#id172" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31392">bpo-31392</a>: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id173">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id173" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32207">bpo-32207</a>: Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When tk event
+handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and distracting
+queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk event exception
+tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when event handling is
+driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32164">bpo-32164</a>: Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py. Use of TabbedPageSet
+in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32100">bpo-32100</a>: IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve tests. Patch
+mostly by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31858">bpo-31858</a>: IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the shell. Editor
+and output windows only see an empty last prompt line.  This simplifies
+the code and fixes a minor bug when newline is inserted. Sys.ps1, if
+present, is read on Shell start-up, but is not set or changed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31860">bpo-31860</a>: The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is now
+editable. Changes persist while IDLE remains open</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31836">bpo-31836</a>: Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle, which sets
+ps1.</p>
+<p>The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it to ‘&gt;&gt;&gt; ‘ if not.
+Test_code_module now properly tests both behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28603">bpo-28603</a>: Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when printing a
+traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable. Patch by Zane
+Bitter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13802">bpo-13802</a>: Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings sample.
+Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset of the unicode
+Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other fonts that define a
+character. The expanded example give users of non-Latin characters a
+better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s shell and editors. To make
+room for the expanded sample, frames on the Font tab are re-arranged. The
+Font/Tabs help explains a bit about the additions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31460">bpo-31460</a>: Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.</p>
+<p>Passing a widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option
+of creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a full
+file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file opens the
+possibility of browsing python files that do not end in .py.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31649">bpo-31649</a>: IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31559">bpo-31559</a>: Remove test order dependence in idle_test.test_browser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31459">bpo-31459</a>: Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to Module
+Browser. The original module-level class and method browser became a
+module browser, with the addition of module-level functions, years ago.
+Nested classes and functions were added yesterday.  For
+back-compatibility, the virtual event &lt;&lt;open-class-browser&gt;&gt;, which
+appears on the Keys tab of the Settings dialog, is not changed. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31500">bpo-31500</a>: Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1612262">bpo-1612262</a>: IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and functions.
+Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo and Cheryl Sabella,
+respectively.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id174">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id174" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30722">bpo-30722</a>: Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.</p>
+<p>Also, remove the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LOCALE</span></code> option since it doesn’t work with string
+patterns in Python 3.</p>
+<p>Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id175">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id175" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20891">bpo-20891</a>: Fix PyGILState_Ensure(). When PyGILState_Ensure() is called in
+a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only call
+PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix a crash.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31532">bpo-31532</a>: Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in getpath.c between
+Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30697">bpo-30697</a>: The <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyExc_RecursionErrorInst</span></code> singleton is removed and
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NormalizeException()</span></code> does not use it anymore. This singleton is
+persistent and its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during
+finalization of the interpreter. See also <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22898">bpo-22898</a>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-3-final">
+<h2>Python 3.6.3 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-3-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-10-03</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id176">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id176" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31641">bpo-31641</a>: Re-allow arbitrary iterables in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.as_completed" title="concurrent.futures.as_completed"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures.as_completed()</span></code></a>. Fixes regression in 3.6.3rc1.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id177">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id177" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31662">bpo-31662</a>: Fix typos in Windows <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">uploadrelease.bat</span></code> script. Fix Windows
+Doc build issues in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Doc/make.bat</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31423">bpo-31423</a>: Fix building the PDF documentation with newer versions of
+Sphinx.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-3-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-3-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-09-18</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id178">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id178" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29781">bpo-29781</a>: SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when handshake
+over BIO has not been performed yet.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30947">bpo-30947</a>: Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to 2.2.3 to
+get security fixes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id179">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id179" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31471">bpo-31471</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen()</span></code></a> on Windows, in
+case the env argument has a bad keys() method. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31418">bpo-31418</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_WriteUnraisable()</span></code> in case
+of an exception with a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__module__</span></code> attribute. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31416">bpo-31416</a>: Fix assertion failures in case of a bad warnings.filters or
+warnings.defaultaction. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31411">bpo-31411</a>: Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
+warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31373">bpo-31373</a>: Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior due to
+floating-point demotions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30465">bpo-30465</a>: Location information (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lineno</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">col_offset</span></code>) in
+f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8 from
+showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line of the file).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31343">bpo-31343</a>: Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and makedev().
+GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from sys/types.h.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31291">bpo-31291</a>: Fix an assertion failure in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/zipimport.html#zipimport.zipimporter.get_data" title="zipimport.zipimporter.get_data"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipimport.zipimporter.get_data</span></code></a> on
+Windows, when the return value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pathname.replace('/','\\')</span></code> isn’t a
+string. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31271">bpo-31271</a>: Fix an assertion failure in the write() method of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object. Patch
+by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31243">bpo-31243</a>: Fix a crash in some methods of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.TextIOWrapper" title="io.TextIOWrapper"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.TextIOWrapper</span></code></a>, when the
+decoder’s state is invalid. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30721">bpo-30721</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> now shows correct usage hint for using Python 2
+redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31070">bpo-31070</a>: Fix a race condition in importlib _get_module_lock().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31095">bpo-31095</a>: Fix potential crash during GC caused by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code> which
+doesn’t call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31071">bpo-31071</a>: Avoid masking original TypeError in call with * unpacking when
+other arguments are passed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30978">bpo-30978</a>: str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions through.
+Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30808">bpo-30808</a>: Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal state.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30876">bpo-30876</a>: Relative import from unloaded package now reimports the package
+instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import from non-package now
+fails with ImportError rather than SystemError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30703">bpo-30703</a>: Improve signal delivery.</p>
+<p>Avoid using Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
+signal-unsafe functions. The tests I’m adding here fail without the rest
+of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal delivery logic had
+defects (some signals could be lost).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30765">bpo-30765</a>: Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
+PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31161">bpo-31161</a>: Make sure the ‘Missing parentheses’ syntax error message is
+only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses. Patch by Martijn Pieters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30814">bpo-30814</a>: Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from a package.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30597">bpo-30597</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> now shows expected input in custom error message when
+used as a Python 2 statement. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id180">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id180" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31499">bpo-31499</a>: xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a reference
+cycle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns for classes
+and modules by default (when no <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">globalns</span></code> was specified by the caller).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Speed improvements to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">typing</span></code> module.  Original PRs by
+Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31544">bpo-31544</a>: The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored exceptions
+raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in XMLParser().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31234">bpo-31234</a>: socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a reference
+cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on success.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31457">bpo-31457</a>: LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31400">bpo-31400</a>: Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error numbers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28958">bpo-28958</a>: ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information when a
+context cannot be instantiated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27340">bpo-27340</a>: SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create slices of
+data. This fixes support for all bytes-like object. It is also more
+efficient and avoids costly copies.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31178">bpo-31178</a>: Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in the
+subprocess module</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31350">bpo-31350</a>: Micro-optimize <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio._get_running_loop()</span></code> to become up
+to 10% faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31170">bpo-31170</a>: expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4. Fix copying of
+partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115">https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115</a></p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29136">bpo-29136</a>: Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29212">bpo-29212</a>: Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor threads to
+have a non repr() based thread name by default when no thread_name_prefix
+is supplied. They will now identify themselves as
+“ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9146">bpo-9146</a>: Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when standard hash
+functions such as md5 are not available in the linked OpenSSL library.  As
+in some special FIPS-140 build environments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27144">bpo-27144</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as_completed()</span></code> iterators in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> now avoid keeping a reference to yielded objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10746">bpo-10746</a>: Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118 type codes for integer
+types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22536">bpo-22536</a>: The subprocess module now sets the filename when
+FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable or cwd
+not being found.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31249">bpo-31249</a>: concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by ThreadPoolExecutor
+now breaks a reference cycle between an exception object and the WorkItem
+object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31247">bpo-31247</a>: xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles when using
+sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30102">bpo-30102</a>: The ssl and hashlib modules now call
+OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL &lt; 1.1.0. The function
+detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU architectures
+such as POWER8. Patch is based on research from Gustavo Serra Scalet.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31185">bpo-31185</a>: Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31135">bpo-31135</a>: ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and OptionMenu
+classes. Call the parent destroy() method even if the used attribute
+doesn’t exist. The LabeledScale.destroy() method now also explicitly
+clears label and scale attributes to help the garbage collector to destroy
+all widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31107">bpo-31107</a>: Fix <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">copyreg._slotnames()</span></code> mangled attribute calculation for
+classes whose name begins with an underscore. Patch by Shane Harvey.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31061">bpo-31061</a>: Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30502">bpo-30502</a>: Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by Christian
+Heimes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30119">bpo-30119</a>: ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on commands that
+contains CR or LF. Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30595">bpo-30595</a>: multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls its reader
+in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock but the acquire
+took longer than the timeout.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29403">bpo-29403</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code>’s autospec to not fail on method-bound
+builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30961">bpo-30961</a>: Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25684">bpo-25684</a>: Change <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ttk.OptionMenu</span></code> radiobuttons to be unique across
+instances of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OptionMenu</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30886">bpo-30886</a>: Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits until the
+thread completes, even if the thread was started by the same process which
+created the queue.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29854">bpo-29854</a>: Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s history-size
+option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30319">bpo-30319</a>: socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30828">bpo-30828</a>: Fix out of bounds write in
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30807">bpo-30807</a>: signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed a tiny
+value.</p>
+<p>Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values for setitimer(),
+which is specified as taking microsecond-resolution intervals. However, on
+some platform, our conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero
+interval, therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30441">bpo-30441</a>: Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating over it</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30532">bpo-30532</a>: Fix email header value parser dropping folding white space in
+certain cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30879">bpo-30879</a>: os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names when called
+with bytes-like argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30746">bpo-30746</a>: Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable names in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.putenv()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.spawn*()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29755">bpo-29755</a>: Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the gettext module.
+They now always return bytes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id181">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id181" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31294">bpo-31294</a>: Fix incomplete code snippet in the ZeroMQSocketListener and
+ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt them to Python 3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21649">bpo-21649</a>: Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30803">bpo-30803</a>: Clarify doc on truth value testing. Original patch by Peter
+Thomassen.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id182">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id182" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31320">bpo-31320</a>: Silence traceback in test_ssl</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25674">bpo-25674</a>: Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30715">bpo-30715</a>: Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f. The latest
+version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts handshake.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30822">bpo-30822</a>: regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all. When running the
+test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata since it makes
+test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots) which then times out
+on some buildbots. Fix also regrtest command line parser to allow passing
+-u extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id183">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id183" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30854">bpo-30854</a>: Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads. Patch by
+Masayuki Yamamoto.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id184">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id184" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30389">bpo-30389</a>: Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31340">bpo-31340</a>: Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with Visual Studio
+2017)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30581">bpo-30581</a>: os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of processors on
+Windows when the number of logical processors is greater than 64.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30731">bpo-30731</a>: Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it matches the
+schema.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id185">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id185" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31493">bpo-31493</a>: IDLE code context – fix code update and font update timers.</p>
+<p>Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle completes.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31488">bpo-31488</a>: IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension classes. When
+applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each feature class. Change
+ParenMatch so updated options affect existing instances attached to
+existing editor windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31477">bpo-31477</a>: IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc. Strip trailing whitespace
+strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string literals are not skipped.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31480">bpo-31480</a>: IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension disabled by
+default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31421">bpo-31421</a>: Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs. IDLE calls tcl/tk
+update in the background in order to make live</p>
+<p>interaction and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31414">bpo-31414</a>: IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first. Adding to an
+int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting because int(‘’) will
+fail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31051">bpo-31051</a>: Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window, Editor, and
+Help sections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30617">bpo-30617</a>: IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass of editor.</p>
+<p>Move some data and functions from the class to module level. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31287">bpo-31287</a>: IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in test_configdialog.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27099">bpo-27099</a>: Convert IDLE’s built-in ‘extensions’ to regular features.</p>
+<p>About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly optional extensions.
+Their different behavior could be confusing or worse for users and not
+good for maintenance.  Hence the conversion.</p>
+<p>The main difference for users is that user configurable key bindings for
+builtin features are now handled uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a
+keyset only affects its value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined
+together in the system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.
+All custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All take
+effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.</p>
+<p>The affected events are ‘&lt;&lt;force-open-completions&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;expand-word&gt;&gt;’,
+‘&lt;&lt;force-open-calltip&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;flash-paren&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;format-paragraph&gt;&gt;’,
+‘&lt;&lt;run-module&gt;&gt;’, ‘&lt;&lt;check-module&gt;&gt;’, and ‘&lt;&lt;zoom-height&gt;&gt;’.  Any (global)
+customizations made before 3.6.3 will not affect their keyset-specific
+customization after 3.6.3. and vice versa.</p>
+<p>Inital patch by Charles Wohlganger.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31206">bpo-31206</a>: IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31001">bpo-31001</a>: Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by Cheryl
+Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31205">bpo-31205</a>: IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
+slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31130">bpo-31130</a>: IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog. Initial patch by
+Victor Stinner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31002">bpo-31002</a>: Add tests for configdialog keys tab. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19903">bpo-19903</a>: IDLE: Calltips use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.signature</span></code></a> instead of
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec</span></code></a>. This improves calltips for builtins converted to
+use Argument Clinic. Patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31083">bpo-31083</a>: IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in configdialog.
+Update existing classes to match outline. Initial patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31050">bpo-31050</a>: Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. The slightly
+modified tests continue to pass. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31004">bpo-31004</a>: IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.</p>
+<p>Slightly modified tests continue to pass. Fix General tests. Patch mostly
+by Cheryl Sabella.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30781">bpo-30781</a>: IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog. Patches by Terry Jan
+Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31060">bpo-31060</a>: IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog Grouping
+methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid writing tests and
+improving the tabs and will enable splitting the groups into classes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30853">bpo-30853</a>: IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.</p>
+<p>Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a callback
+function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable calls the
+function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31003">bpo-31003</a>: IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30993">bpo-30993</a>: IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.</p>
+<p>In configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab docstring.
+Simplify some attribute names. Move set_samples calls to var_changed_font
+(idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related functions to positions after the
+create widgets function.</p>
+<p>In test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
+renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
+movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put all font
+tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.  Except for two lines,
+these tests completely cover the related functions.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30981">bpo-30981</a>: IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28523">bpo-28523</a>: IDLE: replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’ in configdialog.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30917">bpo-30917</a>: Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf. Increase coverage from
+46% to 96%. Patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30934">bpo-30934</a>: Document coverage details for idlelib tests.</p>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Add section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.</p></li>
+<li><p>Include check that branches are taken both ways.</p></li>
+<li><p>Exclude IDLE-specific code that does not run during unit tests.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30913">bpo-30913</a>: IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and widgets in
+docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and splitting up the
+class. Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30899">bpo-30899</a>: IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in config. Patch by
+Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30881">bpo-30881</a>: IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30851">bpo-30851</a>: IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One is a
+duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users. Patch by Cheryl
+Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30870">bpo-30870</a>: IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down keys as
+well as mouse. Initial patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8231">bpo-8231</a>: IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30779">bpo-30779</a>: IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog, put in
+config; test. * In config, put dump test code in a function; run it and
+unittest in   ‘if __name__ == ‘__main__’. * Add class config.ConfigChanges
+based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo issue. * Add class
+test_config.ChangesTest, partly using configdialog_tests_v1.py. * Revise
+configdialog to use ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804. * Revise
+test_configdialog to match configdialog changes. * Remove configdialog
+functions unused or moved to ConfigChanges. Cheryl Sabella contributed
+parts of the patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30777">bpo-30777</a>: IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix comments. Patch by
+Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30495">bpo-30495</a>: IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names, and more
+tests. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30723">bpo-30723</a>: IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch. Add ‘parens’
+style to highlight both opener and closer. Make ‘default’ style, which is
+not default, a synonym for ‘opener’. Make time-delay work the same with
+all styles. Add help for config dialog extensions tab, including help for
+parenmatch. Add new tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30674">bpo-30674</a>: IDLE: add docstrings to grep module. Patch by Cheryl Sabella</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21519">bpo-21519</a>: IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects duplicates
+properly. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29910">bpo-29910</a>: IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting out a
+region by a key shortcut.  Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">'break'</span></code> for this and other
+potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30728">bpo-30728</a>: Review and change idlelib.configdialog names. Lowercase method
+and attribute names. Replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’, expand overly cryptic
+names, delete unneeded underscores. Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> with specific
+imports. Patches by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6739">bpo-6739</a>: IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to bind them
+with tk. Add tests for all 3 validation functions. Original patch by G
+Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id186">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id186" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30983">bpo-30983</a>: gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.) work on optimized shared
+builds now, too.  PEP 523 introduced _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which
+inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on non-debug shared builds.  This broke the
+ability to use py-bt, py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb
+integrations. The problem is fixed by only looking for
+_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno
+“Polaco” Penteado.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-2-final">
+<h2>Python 3.6.2 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-2-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-07-17</em></p>
+<p>No changes since release candidate 2</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-2-release-candidate-2">
+<h2>Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-07-07</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id187">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id187" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30730">bpo-30730</a>: Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess on
+Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and command
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30694">bpo-30694</a>: Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes of multiple
+security vulnerabilities including: CVE-2017-9233 (External entity
+infinite loop DoS), CVE-2016-9063 (Integer overflow, re-fix),
+CVE-2016-0718 (Fix regression bugs from 2.2.0’s fix to CVE-2016-0718) and
+CVE-2012-0876 (Counter hash flooding with SipHash). Note: the
+CVE-2016-5300 (Use os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t
+impact Python, since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the
+expat secret using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_SetHashSalt()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30500">bpo-30500</a>: Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse fragments. For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splithost('//127.0.0.1#&#64;evil.com/')</span></code> now correctly returns the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">127.0.0.1</span></code> host, instead of treating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;evil.com</span></code> as the host in an
+authentication (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">login&#64;host</span></code>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-2-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-06-17</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id188">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id188" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30682">bpo-30682</a>: Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for certain
+f-strings, such as eval(“f’\n’”) and eval(“f’\r’”).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30604">bpo-30604</a>: Move co_extra_freefuncs to not be per-thread to avoid crashes</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29104">bpo-29104</a>: Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27945">bpo-27945</a>: Fixed various segfaults with dict when input collections are
+mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.  Based on patches by
+Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25794">bpo-25794</a>: Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
+non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30039">bpo-30039</a>: If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter is in the
+middle of resuming a chain of nested ‘yield from’ or ‘await’ calls, it’s
+now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12414">bpo-12414</a>: sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the sizes which
+includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it references. Patch
+by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29949">bpo-29949</a>: Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29935">bpo-29935</a>: Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple, list and
+deque when pass indices of wrong type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29859">bpo-29859</a>: Show correct error messages when any of the pthread_* calls in
+thread_pthread.h fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28876">bpo-28876</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool(range)</span></code> works even if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(range)</span></code> raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29600">bpo-29600</a>: Fix wrapping coroutine return values in StopIteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28856">bpo-28856</a>: Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should support
+objects follow the buffer protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29714">bpo-29714</a>: Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when containing
+zero bytes inside.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29478">bpo-29478</a>: If max_line_length=None is specified while using the Compat32
+policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id189">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id189" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30616">bpo-30616</a>: Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums. Patched by
+Dong-hee Na</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30038">bpo-30038</a>: Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup file
+descriptor. Patch by Nathaniel Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23894">bpo-23894</a>: lib2to3 now recognizes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rb'...'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f'...'</span></code> strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23890">bpo-23890</a>: unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks a
+reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30149">bpo-30149</a>: inspect.signature() now supports callables with
+variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod. Patch by Dong-hee
+Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30645">bpo-30645</a>: Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it for cases
+when a package is only shipped with bytecodes. Patch by Alexandru
+Ardelean.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29931">bpo-29931</a>: Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface objects.
+Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30605">bpo-30605</a>: re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when compiling a
+bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch by Roy Williams.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id190">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id190" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29591">bpo-29591</a>: Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
+CVE-2016-0718 and CVE-2016-4472. See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/">https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/</a> for more information.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id191">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id191" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24484">bpo-24484</a>: Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup (#2159)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28994">bpo-28994</a>: The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit raised in a
+callback registered by atexit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30508">bpo-30508</a>: Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()” method was
+called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Updates to typing module: Add generic AsyncContextManager, add
+support for ContextManager on all versions. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra
+and Ivan Levkivskyi</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29870">bpo-29870</a>: Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in asyncio/ssl
+implementation. Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29743">bpo-29743</a>: Closing transport during handshake process leaks open socket.
+Patch by Nikolay Kim</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27585">bpo-27585</a>: Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock. Patch by Mathieu
+Sornay.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30418">bpo-30418</a>: On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also ignore
+EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still running but closed
+the pipe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29822">bpo-29822</a>: inspect.isabstract() now works during __init_subclass__.  Patch
+by Nate Soares.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29581">bpo-29581</a>: ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**kwargs</span></code>, allowing abstract
+base classes to use keyword parameters in __init_subclass__. Patch by Nate
+Soares.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30557">bpo-30557</a>: faulthandler now correctly filters and displays exception codes
+on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30378">bpo-30378</a>: Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler cannot
+handle IPv6 addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29960">bpo-29960</a>: Preserve generator state when _random.Random.setstate() raises
+an exception. Patch by Bryan Olson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30414">bpo-30414</a>: multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running thread do not
+break from main loop on exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30003">bpo-30003</a>: Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based on patch by
+Ma Lin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30301">bpo-30301</a>: Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty() under <em>spawn</em>
+and <em>forkserver</em> start methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30329">bpo-30329</a>: imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket WSAEINVAL error
+(code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid operation was attempted.
+This error occurs sometimes on SSL connections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30375">bpo-30375</a>: Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression now always
+point to the line in the user code.  Previously they could point into
+inners of the re module if emitted from inside of groups or conditionals.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30048">bpo-30048</a>: Fixed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.cancel()</span></code> can be ignored when the task is running
+coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30266">bpo-30266</a>: contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
+anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
+following the pattern introduced in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25958">bpo-25958</a>. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30298">bpo-30298</a>: Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for inline
+modifiers. Now allowed several subsequential inline modifiers at the start
+of the pattern (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(?i)(?s)...'</span></code>).  In verbose mode whitespaces and
+comments now are allowed before and between inline modifiers (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'(?x)</span>
+<span class="pre">(?i)</span> <span class="pre">(?s)...'</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29990">bpo-29990</a>: Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original patch by Ma
+Lin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26293">bpo-26293</a>: Change resulted because of zipfile breakage. (See also:
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29094">bpo-29094</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30243">bpo-30243</a>: Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and encoder.
+Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now scanner and
+encoder objects are completely initialized in the __new__ methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30185">bpo-30185</a>: Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver helper process
+when Ctrl-C is received.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Various updates to typing module: add typing.NoReturn type, use
+WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.  Original PRs by Jim
+Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30205">bpo-30205</a>: Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on Linux.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30070">bpo-30070</a>: Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the parser
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30061">bpo-30061</a>: Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and readlines() when
+readline() or __next__() respectively return non-sizeable object. Fixed
+possible other errors caused by not checking results of PyObject_Size(),
+PySequence_Size(), or PyMapping_Size().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30017">bpo-30017</a>: Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry writer
+object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now always produces a
+ValueError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30068">bpo-30068</a>: _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed first when hint
+is present.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29694">bpo-29694</a>: Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags parents=True.
+Patch by Armin Rigo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29692">bpo-29692</a>: Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError exceptions in
+contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth Velankar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29998">bpo-29998</a>: Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name and path
+attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29953">bpo-29953</a>: Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of datetime and time
+objects when pass out of bound fold argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29942">bpo-29942</a>: Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when encountering
+long runs of empty iterables.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27863">bpo-27863</a>: Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race conditions
+and wrong types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28699">bpo-28699</a>: Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that raising an
+exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow the exception or
+make the program hang. Patch by Davin Potts and Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25803">bpo-25803</a>: Avoid incorrect errors raised by Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when
+the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29861">bpo-29861</a>: Release references to tasks, their arguments and their results
+as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29884">bpo-29884</a>: faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during teardown.
+Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25455">bpo-25455</a>: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered file-like objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29800">bpo-29800</a>: Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of partial.keywords
+are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29742">bpo-29742</a>: get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on closed ssl
+transport. Patch by Nikolay Kim.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8256">bpo-8256</a>: Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if attributes
+“encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are not set or are not
+strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28298">bpo-28298</a>: Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’ from accepting
+big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.  Patch by Oren
+Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28231">bpo-28231</a>: The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for external
+paths.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26915">bpo-26915</a>: index() and count() methods of collections.abc.Sequence now
+check identity before checking equality when do comparisons.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29615">bpo-29615</a>: SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or any other
+exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched methods. Patch by Petr
+Motejlek.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30177">bpo-30177</a>: path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path after the
+first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by Antoine Pietri.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id192">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id192" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15786">bpo-15786</a>: Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box. The
+following should now work: clicking on selection box items; using the
+scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return. Hangs on MacOSX should no
+longer happen. Patch by Louie Lu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25514">bpo-25514</a>: Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start. Popup
+no-connection message directs users to this section.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30642">bpo-30642</a>: Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests. Patches by Louie Lu and
+Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30495">bpo-30495</a>: Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names. Patches by
+Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30290">bpo-30290</a>: Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests. Increase coverage to
+100%. Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30303">bpo-30303</a>: Add _utest option to textview; add new tests. Increase coverage
+to 100%. Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id193">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id193" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27867">bpo-27867</a>: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() no longer replaced with a macro
+if Py_LIMITED_API is not set.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id194">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id194" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29941">bpo-29941</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-assertions</span></code> configure flag to explicitly enable C
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert()</span></code> checks. Defaults to off. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-pydebug</span></code> implies
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-assertions</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28787">bpo-28787</a>: Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with--dtrace</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29243">bpo-29243</a>: Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">test</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> and some other make targets when configured with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-optimizations</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>: Don’t regenerate generated files based on file modification
+time anymore: the action is now explicit. Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29643">bpo-29643</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-optimization</span></code> didn’t work.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id195">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id195" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30176">bpo-30176</a>: Add missing attribute related constants in curses
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30052">bpo-30052</a>: the link targets for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray()</span></code></a> are
+now their respective type definitions, rather than the corresponding
+builtin function entries. Use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#func-bytes"><span class="std std-ref">bytes</span></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#func-bytearray"><span class="std std-ref">bytearray</span></a> to reference the latter.</p>
+<p>In order to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
+automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the default
+output caching features in Sphinx.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26985">bpo-26985</a>: Add missing info of code object in inspect documentation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id196">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id196" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29367">bpo-29367</a>: python-gdb.py now supports also <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">method-wrapper</span></code>
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrapperobject</span></code>) objects.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id197">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id197" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30357">bpo-30357</a>: test_thread: setUp() now uses support.threading_setup() and
+support.threading_cleanup() to wait until threads complete to avoid random
+side effects on following tests. Initial patch written by Grzegorz
+Grzywacz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30197">bpo-30197</a>: Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
+test.support module. They now work when delete replaced attribute or item
+inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute or item (or
+None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the target of the “as”
+clause, if there is one.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id198">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id198" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30687">bpo-30687</a>: Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather than
+vcvarsall.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30450">bpo-30450</a>: The build process on Windows no longer depends on Subversion,
+instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python script.  If Python
+3.6 is not found on the system (via <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py</span> <span class="pre">-3.6</span></code>), NuGet is used to
+download a copy of 32-bit Python.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-1-final">
+<h2>Python 3.6.1 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-1-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-03-21</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id199">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id199" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29723">bpo-29723</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path[0]</span></code> initialization change for <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29139">bpo-29139</a> caused
+a regression by revealing an inconsistency in how sys.path is initialized
+when executing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> from a zipfile, directory, or other import
+location. The interpreter now consistently avoids ever adding the import
+location’s parent directory to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, and ensures no other
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> entries are inadvertently modified when inserting the import
+location named on the command line.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id200">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id200" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27593">bpo-27593</a>: fix format of git information used in sys.version</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix incompatible comment in python.h</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-1-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-1-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-03-04</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id201">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id201" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28893">bpo-28893</a>: Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid awaitables
+returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29683">bpo-29683</a>: Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.  Patch by Brian
+Coleman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29684">bpo-29684</a>: Fix minor regression of PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords. It
+should raise TypeError when kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv
+when args=NULL and kwargs is not a dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28598">bpo-28598</a>: Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called before
+str.__mod__. Patch by Martijn Pieters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29607">bpo-29607</a>: Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX. Patch by
+Matthieu Dartiailh.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29602">bpo-29602</a>: Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex constructor
+for complex subclasses and for inputs having a __complex__ method. Patch
+by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29347">bpo-29347</a>: Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when creating
+weakref objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29438">bpo-29438</a>: Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29319">bpo-29319</a>: Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29337">bpo-29337</a>: Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code objects.
+Warnings could be emitted at compile time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29327">bpo-29327</a>: Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword argument to
+sorted().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29034">bpo-29034</a>: Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
+(path_converter).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29159">bpo-29159</a>: Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises Exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28932">bpo-28932</a>: Do not include &lt;sys/random.h&gt; if it does not exist.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25677">bpo-25677</a>: Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for indented
+blocks. Based on patch by Michael Layzell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29000">bpo-29000</a>: Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in alternate
+form.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26919">bpo-26919</a>: On Android, operating system data is now always encoded/decoded
+to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to avoid inconsistencies
+with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which are already using UTF-8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28991">bpo-28991</a>: functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure reentrancy
+bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28739">bpo-28739</a>: f-string expressions are no longer accepted as docstrings and
+by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28512">bpo-28512</a>: Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
+PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28918">bpo-28918</a>: Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python has been
+built with Py_DEBUG defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28731">bpo-28731</a>: Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct size dict.
+Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to 30%.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id202">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id202" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29169">bpo-29169</a>: Update zlib to 1.2.11.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29623">bpo-29623</a>: Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in
+ConfigParser.read(). Patch by David Ellis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28963">bpo-28963</a>: Fix out of bound iteration in
+asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29704">bpo-29704</a>: asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer closes
+before all pipes are closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29271">bpo-29271</a>: Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented in C to
+accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29703">bpo-29703</a>: Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event loops in
+child processes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29376">bpo-29376</a>: Fix assertion error in threading._DummyThread.is_alive().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28624">bpo-28624</a>: Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen() accepts
+PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28518">bpo-28518</a>: Start a transaction implicitly before a DML statement. Patch by
+Aviv Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29532">bpo-29532</a>: Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to functools.partial() no
+longer affects a partial object after creation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29110">bpo-29110</a>: Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is given as a
+filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format. Patch by Anthony Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
+typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc. Original PRs by Jelle
+Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29100">bpo-29100</a>: Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced in Python
+3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29519">bpo-29519</a>: Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter shutdown when
+used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and custom codecs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29416">bpo-29416</a>: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29444">bpo-29444</a>: Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group() method of the
+match object. Based on patch by WGH.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29335">bpo-29335</a>: Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process has exited
+to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under ptrace).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29290">bpo-29290</a>: Fix a regression in argparse that help messages would wrap at
+non-breaking spaces.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28735">bpo-28735</a>: Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with mock.ANY.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29316">bpo-29316</a>: Restore the provisional status of typing module, add
+corresponding note to documentation. Patch by Ivan L.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29219">bpo-29219</a>: Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of uninitialized
+ctypes.CDLL instances.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29011">bpo-29011</a>: Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the typing module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28969">bpo-28969</a>: Fixed race condition in C implementation of
+functools.lru_cache. KeyError could be raised when cached function with
+full cache was simultaneously called from differen threads with the same
+uncached arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29142">bpo-29142</a>: In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment variable
+with leading dots could match related hostnames again (e.g. .b.c matches
+a.b.c). Patch by Milan Oberkirch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28961">bpo-28961</a>: Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the name parameter
+anymore. Patch written by Jiajun Huang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29203">bpo-29203</a>: functools.lru_cache() now respects PEP 468 and preserves the
+order of keyword arguments.  f(a=1, b=2) is now cached separately from
+f(b=2, a=1) since both calls could potentially give different results.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15812">bpo-15812</a>: inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first line of a
+context. Patch by Sam Breese.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29094">bpo-29094</a>: Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object and modes
+“w” and “x” now are relative to the start of the file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29085">bpo-29085</a>: Allow random.Random.seed() to use high quality OS randomness
+rather than the pid and time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29061">bpo-29061</a>: Fixed bug in secrets.randbelow() which would hang when given a
+negative input.  Patch by Brendan Donegan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29079">bpo-29079</a>: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13051">bpo-13051</a>: Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
+curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29119">bpo-29119</a>: Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
+collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method. Contributed by Andra
+Bogildea.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9770">bpo-9770</a>: curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with negative
+integers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28427">bpo-28427</a>: old keys should not remove new values from WeakValueDictionary
+when collecting from another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28923">bpo-28923</a>: Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29055">bpo-29055</a>: Neaten-up empty population error on random.choice() by
+suppressing the upstream exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28871">bpo-28871</a>: Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19542">bpo-19542</a>: Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
+WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20191">bpo-20191</a>: Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a sequence
+that doesn’t own its elements as limits.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28779">bpo-28779</a>: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash the
+forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some multiprocessing
+objects such as locks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28847">bpo-28847</a>: dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer
+writes the index file when it is not changed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26937">bpo-26937</a>: The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does not fail
+now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example on Android
+platforms.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id203">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id203" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29071">bpo-29071</a>: IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur prefixes).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28572">bpo-28572</a>: Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog. Update and
+augment description of the configuration system.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id204">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id204" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29579">bpo-29579</a>: Removes readme.txt from the installer</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29326">bpo-29326</a>: Ignores blank lines in ._pth files (Patch by Alexey Izbyshev)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28164">bpo-28164</a>: Correctly handle special console filenames (patch by Eryk Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29409">bpo-29409</a>: Implement PEP 529 for io.FileIO (Patch by Eryk Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29392">bpo-29392</a>: Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into msvcrt
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25778">bpo-25778</a>: winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by Eryk Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28896">bpo-28896</a>: Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by default.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id205">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id205" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27867">bpo-27867</a>: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a macro if
+Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between 0x03050400 and
+0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29083">bpo-29083</a>: Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
+PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not available in
+limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(), PyArg_UnpackTuple() and
+Py_BuildValue() were not available in limited API of version &lt; 3.3 when
+PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29058">bpo-29058</a>: All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are now
+available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX value of
+the minimum Python version supporting this API.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id206">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id206" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28929">bpo-28929</a>: Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25008">bpo-25008</a>: Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a pointer
+to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26355">bpo-26355</a>: Add canonical header link on each page to corresponding major
+version of the documentation. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29349">bpo-29349</a>: Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the documentation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id207">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id207" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28087">bpo-28087</a>: Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on macOS. Skip
+some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to unresolved issues
+with the underlying system poll function on some macOS versions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29571">bpo-29571</a>: to match the behaviour of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code> flag,
+test_re.test_locale_flag now uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding(False)</span></code>
+to determine the candidate encoding for the test regex (allowing it to
+correctly skip the test when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte
+encoding)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28950">bpo-28950</a>: Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest command line
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28683">bpo-28683</a>: Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
+PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26939">bpo-26939</a>: Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
+test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id208">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id208" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27593">bpo-27593</a>: sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
+python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git information
+rather than hg when building from a repo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29572">bpo-29572</a>: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2k.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26851">bpo-26851</a>: Set Android compilation and link flags.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28768">bpo-28768</a>: Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode. Patch by
+Masayuki Yamamoto</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29080">bpo-29080</a>: Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from PCBuild/build.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23903">bpo-23903</a>: Added missed names to PC/python3.def.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28762">bpo-28762</a>: lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the F_LOCK
+macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28538">bpo-28538</a>: Fix the compilation error that occurs because if_nameindex() is
+available on Android API level 24, but the if_nameindex structure is not
+defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20211">bpo-20211</a>: Do not add the directory for installing C header files and the
+directory for installing object code libraries to the cross compilation
+search paths. Original patch by Thomas Petazzoni.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28849">bpo-28849</a>: Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on Android.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-final">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-12-23</em></p>
+<p>No changes since release candidate 2</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-release-candidate-2">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-12-16</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id209">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id209" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28147">bpo-28147</a>: Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries: setattr() must
+not convert combined table into split table. Patch written by INADA Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28990">bpo-28990</a>: Fix asyncio SSL hanging if connection is closed before
+handshake is completed. (Patch by HoHo-Ho)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id210">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id210" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28770">bpo-28770</a>: Fix python-gdb.py for fastcalls.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id211">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id211" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28896">bpo-28896</a>: Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id212">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id212" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28898">bpo-28898</a>: Prevent gdb build errors due to HAVE_LONG_LONG redefinition.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-12-06</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id213">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id213" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23722">bpo-23722</a>: Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t support
+zero-argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code> in methods, failing to pass the new
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__classcell__</span></code> namespace entry up to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type.__new__</span></code> now results in a
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code> and a class that supports zero-argument
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28797">bpo-28797</a>: Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__ method of
+a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer prevents calling the
+__set_name__ method of other descriptors.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28782">bpo-28782</a>: Fix a bug in the implementation <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> when checking if
+the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression introduced by WORDCODE
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26647">bpo-26647</a>).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id214">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id214" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27030">bpo-27030</a>: Unknown escapes in re.sub() replacement template are allowed
+again.  But they still are deprecated and will be disabled in 3.7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28835">bpo-28835</a>: Fix a regression introduced in warnings.catch_warnings(): call
+warnings.showwarning() if it was overriden inside the context manager.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27172">bpo-27172</a>: To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously documented
+deprecation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getfullargspec()</span></code> has been reversed. This
+decision may be revisited again after the Python 2.7 branch is no longer
+officially supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26273">bpo-26273</a>: Add new <code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_CONGESTION</span></code> (Linux 2.6.13) and
+<code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT</span></code> (Linux 2.6.37) constants. Patch written by
+Omar Sandoval.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24142">bpo-24142</a>: Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an invalid
+state. Original patch by Florian Höch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28843">bpo-28843</a>: Fix asyncio C Task to handle exceptions __traceback__.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id215">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id215" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28808">bpo-28808</a>: PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises exceptions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id216">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id216" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23722">bpo-23722</a>: The data model reference and the porting section in the What’s
+New guide now cover the additional <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__classcell__</span></code> handling needed for
+custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487 and zero-argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">super()</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id217">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id217" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28023">bpo-28023</a>: Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict implementation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-beta-4">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 beta 4<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-11-21</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id218">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id218" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28532">bpo-28532</a>: Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27100">bpo-27100</a>: The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it checks
+for __exit__. This gives less confusing error messages when both methods
+are missing. Patch by Jonathan Ellington.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28746">bpo-28746</a>: Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on platforms
+that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26920">bpo-26920</a>: Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon initializing the
+interpreter, on platforms that do not have langinfo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28648">bpo-28648</a>: Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on Mac OS X
+when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19398">bpo-19398</a>: Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in case of
+empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28665">bpo-28665</a>: Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28583">bpo-28583</a>: PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when needed. Patch
+by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27243">bpo-27243</a>: Change PendingDeprecationWarning -&gt; DeprecationWarning. As it
+was agreed in the issue, __aiter__ returning an awaitable should result in
+PendingDeprecationWarning in 3.5 and in DeprecationWarning in 3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26182">bpo-26182</a>: Fix a refleak in code that raises DeprecationWarning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28721">bpo-28721</a>: Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to handle
+StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id219">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id219" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28752">bpo-28752</a>: Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28727">bpo-28727</a>: Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects created
+by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y operators). This
+change should fix the <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18383">bpo-18383</a>: don’t duplicate warning filters when
+the warnings module is reloaded (thing usually only done in unit tests).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20572">bpo-20572</a>: The subprocess.Popen.wait method’s undocumented endtime
+parameter now raises a DeprecationWarning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25659">bpo-25659</a>: In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer() and
+from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19717">bpo-19717</a>: Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not exist. Patch
+by Vajrasky Kok</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28563">bpo-28563</a>: Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when handle
+plural form selections in the gettext module.  The expression parser now
+supports exact syntax supported by GNU gettext.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28387">bpo-28387</a>: Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator when the
+garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on patch by Sebastian
+Cufre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28600">bpo-28600</a>: Optimize loop.call_soon.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28613">bpo-28613</a>: Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if called from
+coroutines/callbacks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28634">bpo-28634</a>: Fix asyncio.isfuture() to support unittest.Mock.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26081">bpo-26081</a>: Fix refleak in _asyncio.Future.__iter__().throw.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28639">bpo-28639</a>: Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch by Justin
+Mayfield.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28652">bpo-28652</a>: Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not support.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28653">bpo-28653</a>: Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28703">bpo-28703</a>: Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28704">bpo-28704</a>: Fix create_unix_server to support Path-like objects (PEP 519).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28720">bpo-28720</a>: Add collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id220">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id220" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28513">bpo-28513</a>: Documented command-line interface of zipfile.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id221">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id221" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28666">bpo-28666</a>: Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable or
+unreadable directories.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23839">bpo-23839</a>: Various caches now are cleared before running every test file.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id222">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id222" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10656">bpo-10656</a>: Fix out-of-tree building on AIX.  Patch by Tristan Carel and
+Michael Haubenwallner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26359">bpo-26359</a>: Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28676">bpo-28676</a>: Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on macOS.
+Patch by Gareth Rees.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-beta-3">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 beta 3<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-10-31</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id223">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id223" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28128">bpo-28128</a>: Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape sequences
+now prints better information about where the error occurs. Patch by
+Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28509">bpo-28509</a>: dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28426">bpo-28426</a>: Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug
+build.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28517">bpo-28517</a>: Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that caused
+keeping unreachable code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28214">bpo-28214</a>: Improved exception reporting for problematic __set_name__
+attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23782">bpo-23782</a>: Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and exception
+loss in PyTraceBack_Here().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28471">bpo-28471</a>: Fix “Python memory allocator called without holding the GIL”
+crash in socket.setblocking.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id224">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id224" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27517">bpo-27517</a>: LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise exceptions if
+given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28549">bpo-28549</a>: Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28449">bpo-28449</a>: tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to open a tar
+file with compression before trying to open it without compression.
+Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with ignore_zeros=True.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23262">bpo-23262</a>: The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and derived
+browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27939">bpo-27939</a>: Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and tkinter.Scale caused
+by representing the scale as float value internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar
+now works if float value is set to underlying Tk variable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18844">bpo-18844</a>: The various ways of specifying weights for random.choices() now
+produce the same result sequences.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28255">bpo-28255</a>: calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a space at
+the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.  Patch by Xiang
+Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20491">bpo-20491</a>: The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors non-breaking spaces.
+Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28353">bpo-28353</a>: os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28430">bpo-28430</a>: Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn’t accept
+non-None value is passed to it.send(val).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27025">bpo-27025</a>: Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the “!” prefix
+for readability.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25464">bpo-25464</a>: Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by addin a
+workaround to Tix library bug.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28488">bpo-28488</a>: shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry “./” to ZIP archive.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25953">bpo-25953</a>: re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical group
+reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not found in the
+string.  Error message for invalid group reference now includes the group
+index and the position of the reference. Based on patch by SilentGhost.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18219">bpo-18219</a>: Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns. Patch by
+Mariatta Wijaya.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28448">bpo-28448</a>: Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28480">bpo-28480</a>: Fix error building socket module when multithreading is
+disabled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24452">bpo-24452</a>: Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20766">bpo-20766</a>: Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of SIGINT
+handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28492">bpo-28492</a>: Fix how StopIteration exception is raised in _asyncio.Future.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28500">bpo-28500</a>: Fix asyncio to handle async gens GC from another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26923">bpo-26923</a>: Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once all children
+are done. Patch by Johannes Ebke.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26796">bpo-26796</a>: Don’t configure the number of workers for default threadpool
+executor. Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28544">bpo-28544</a>: Implement asyncio.Task in C.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id225">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id225" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28522">bpo-28522</a>: Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id226">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id226" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28444">bpo-28444</a>: Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28208">bpo-28208</a>: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use SQLite 3.14.2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28248">bpo-28248</a>: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2j.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id227">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id227" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26944">bpo-26944</a>: Fix test_posix for Android where ‘id -G’ is entirely wrong or
+missing the effective gid.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28409">bpo-28409</a>: regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-beta-2">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 beta 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-10-10</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id228">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id228" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28183">bpo-28183</a>: Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26081">bpo-26081</a>: Added C implementation of asyncio.Future. Original patch by
+Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28379">bpo-28379</a>: Added sanity checks and tests for PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().
+Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28376">bpo-28376</a>: The type of long range iterator is now registered as Iterator.
+Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28376">bpo-28376</a>: Creating instances of range_iterator by calling range_iterator
+type now is deprecated.  Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28376">bpo-28376</a>: The constructor of range_iterator now checks that step is not
+0. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26906">bpo-26906</a>: Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now causes
+implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18287">bpo-18287</a>: PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL. Original
+patch by Niklas Koep.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24098">bpo-24098</a>: Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process of
+compiling it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28201">bpo-28201</a>: Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash table when
+hashes have same lower bits.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28350">bpo-28350</a>: String constants with null character no longer interned.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26617">bpo-26617</a>: Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27942">bpo-27942</a>: String constants now interned recursively in tuples and
+frozensets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21578">bpo-21578</a>: Fixed misleading error message when ImportError called with
+invalid keyword args.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28203">bpo-28203</a>: Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error message. Patch
+by Soumya Sharma.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28086">bpo-28086</a>: Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was passed
+unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to exact tuple.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28214">bpo-28214</a>: Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead of the
+instance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27955">bpo-27955</a>: Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the getrandom()
+syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by SECCOMP.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28192">bpo-28192</a>: Don’t import readline in isolated mode.</p></li>
+<li><p>Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28131">bpo-28131</a>: Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().  zipimport
+should use the same optimization level as the interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28126">bpo-28126</a>: Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy(). Visual Studio can properly
+optimize memcpy().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28120">bpo-28120</a>: Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying to remove a
+“pending key” (Not yet inserted in split-table). Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26182">bpo-26182</a>: Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await keywords are used
+as variable/attribute/class/function name.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id229">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id229" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27998">bpo-27998</a>: Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows. Patch by
+Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28317">bpo-28317</a>: The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26293">bpo-26293</a>: Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the start of the
+file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the start of the archive in
+conforming to the specification.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28380">bpo-28380</a>: unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly support
+assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27181">bpo-27181</a>: remove statistics.geometric_mean and defer until 3.7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28229">bpo-28229</a>: lzma module now supports pathlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28321">bpo-28321</a>: Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format in
+plistlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28225">bpo-28225</a>: bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by Ethan
+Furman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28227">bpo-28227</a>: gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27358">bpo-27358</a>: Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved error
+message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28257">bpo-28257</a>: Improved error message when passing a non-iterable as a
+var-positional argument.  Added opcode BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28322">bpo-28322</a>: Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools objects from
+incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28228">bpo-28228</a>: imghdr now supports pathlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28226">bpo-28226</a>: compileall now supports pathlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28314">bpo-28314</a>: Fix function declaration (C flags) for the getiterator() method
+of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28148">bpo-28148</a>: Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time module.</p>
+<p>Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that is similar to
+POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.  Patch by Ed Schouten.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28253">bpo-28253</a>: Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01 and
+9999-12.</p>
+<p>Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are reimplemented so that
+they don’t call itermonthdates() which can cause datetime.date
+under/overflow.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28275">bpo-28275</a>: Fixed possible use after free in the decompress() methods of
+the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes. Original patch by John
+Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27897">bpo-27897</a>: Fixed possible crash in sqlite3.Connection.create_collation()
+if pass invalid string-like object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18844">bpo-18844</a>: random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only argument to
+improve the readability of common cases and come into line with the
+signature used in other languages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18893">bpo-18893</a>: Fix invalid exception handling in Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.
+Patch by Madison May.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27611">bpo-27611</a>: Fixed support of default root window in the tkinter.tix module.
+Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle constructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27348">bpo-27348</a>: In the traceback module, restore the formatting of exception
+messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression introduced in
+3.5a2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25651">bpo-25651</a>: Allow falsy values to be used for msg parameter of subTest().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27778">bpo-27778</a>: Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the getrandom() is
+interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises a Python exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28200">bpo-28200</a>: Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
+path_converter() function).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25400">bpo-25400</a>: RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values for
+crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27932">bpo-27932</a>: Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28075">bpo-28075</a>: Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows implementation of
+os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22493">bpo-22493</a>: Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the middle of
+regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex pattern. Patch by Tim
+Graham.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25270">bpo-25270</a>: Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising SystemError when an
+empty bytestring is passed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28181">bpo-28181</a>: Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic Sivaraam.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25895">bpo-25895</a>: Enable WebSocket URL schemes in urllib.parse.urljoin. Patch by
+Gergely Imreh and Markus Holtermann.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28114">bpo-28114</a>: Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains byte strings.
+Patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27599">bpo-27599</a>: Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
+binascii.a2b_qp().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27906">bpo-27906</a>: Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP traffic. Patch by
+Kevin Conway.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28174">bpo-28174</a>: Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported. Patch by
+Seth Michael Larson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26654">bpo-26654</a>: Inspect functools.partial in asyncio.Handle.__repr__. Patch by
+iceboy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26909">bpo-26909</a>: Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio. Patch by INADA Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28176">bpo-28176</a>: Fix callbacks race in asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27759">bpo-27759</a>: Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file descriptors.
+Patch by Mark Williams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28368">bpo-28368</a>: Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has no loop
+attached. Patch by Vincent Michel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28369">bpo-28369</a>: Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with add_reader,
+add_writer, etc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28370">bpo-28370</a>: Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly. Patch by Коренберг
+Марк.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28371">bpo-28371</a>: Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to run_in_executor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28372">bpo-28372</a>: Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python coroutines.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28399">bpo-28399</a>: Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding. Patch by Коренберг
+Марк.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27972">bpo-27972</a>: Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id230">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id230" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28402">bpo-28402</a>: Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28333">bpo-28333</a>: Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts. (Patch by Eryk
+Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28251">bpo-28251</a>: Improvements to help manuals on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28110">bpo-28110</a>: launcher.msi has different product codes between 32-bit and
+64-bit</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28161">bpo-28161</a>: Opening CON for write access fails</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28162">bpo-28162</a>: WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts with
+Ctrl+Z</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28163">bpo-28163</a>: WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to _open_osfhandle</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28164">bpo-28164</a>: _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28137">bpo-28137</a>: Renames Windows path file to ._pth</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28138">bpo-28138</a>: Windows ._pth file should allow import site</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id231">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id231" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28426">bpo-28426</a>: Deprecated undocumented functions PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(),
+PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and
+PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id232">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id232" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28258">bpo-28258</a>: Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and distclean
+targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26661">bpo-26661</a>: setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch wrapper.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15819">bpo-15819</a>: Remove redundant include search directory option for building
+outside the source tree.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id233">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id233" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28217">bpo-28217</a>: Adds _testconsole module to test console input.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-beta-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 beta 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-09-12</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id234">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id234" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23722">bpo-23722</a>: The __class__ cell used by zero-argument super() is now
+initialized from type.__new__ rather than __build_class__, so class
+methods relying on that will now work correctly when called from metaclass
+methods during class creation. Patch by Martin Teichmann.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25221">bpo-25221</a>: Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when Python is
+compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27080">bpo-27080</a>: Implement formatting support for PEP 515.  Initial patch by
+Chris Angelico.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27199">bpo-27199</a>: In tarfile, expose copyfileobj bufsize to improve throughput.
+Patch by Jason Fried.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27948">bpo-27948</a>: In f-strings, only allow backslashes inside the braces (where
+the expressions are).  This is a breaking change from the 3.6 alpha
+releases, where backslashes are allowed anywhere in an f-string.  Also,
+require that expressions inside f-strings be enclosed within literal
+braces, and not escapes like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f'\x7b&quot;hi&quot;\x7d'</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28046">bpo-28046</a>: Remove platform-specific directories from sys.path.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28071">bpo-28071</a>: Add early-out for differencing from an empty set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25758">bpo-25758</a>: Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a filename
+(patch by Eryk Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25856">bpo-25856</a>: The __module__ attribute of extension classes and functions now
+is interned. This leads to more compact pickle data with protocol 4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27213">bpo-27213</a>: Rework CALL_FUNCTION* opcodes to produce shorter and more
+efficient bytecode. Patch by Demur Rumed, design by Serhiy Storchaka,
+reviewed by Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26331">bpo-26331</a>: Implement tokenizing support for PEP 515. Patch by Georg
+Brandl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27999">bpo-27999</a>: Make “global after use” a SyntaxError, and ditto for nonlocal.
+Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28003">bpo-28003</a>: Implement PEP 525 – Asynchronous Generators.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27985">bpo-27985</a>: Implement PEP 526 – Syntax for Variable Annotations. Patch by
+Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26058">bpo-26058</a>: Add a new private version to the builtin dict type, incremented
+at each dictionary creation and at each dictionary change. Implementation
+of the PEP 509.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27364">bpo-27364</a>: A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence
+now generates a DeprecationWarning.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27350">bpo-27350</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> implementation is changed like PyPy. It is more compact
+and preserves insertion order. (Concept developed by Raymond Hettinger and
+patch by Inada Naoki.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27911">bpo-27911</a>: Remove unnecessary error checks in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec_builtin_or_dynamic()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27078">bpo-27078</a>: Added BUILD_STRING opcode.  Optimized f-strings evaluation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17884">bpo-17884</a>: Python now requires systems with inttypes.h and stdint.h</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27961">bpo-27961</a>: Require platforms to support <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code>. Python hasn’t
+compiled without <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">long</span> <span class="pre">long</span></code> for years, so this is basically a
+formality.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27355">bpo-27355</a>: Removed support for Windows CE.  It was never finished, and
+Windows CE is no longer a relevant platform for Python.</p></li>
+<li><p>Implement PEP 523.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27870">bpo-27870</a>: A left shift of zero by a large integer no longer attempts to
+allocate large amounts of memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25402">bpo-25402</a>: In int-to-decimal-string conversion, improve the estimate of
+the intermediate memory required, and remove an unnecessarily strict
+overflow check. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27214">bpo-27214</a>: In long_invert, be more careful about modifying object returned
+by long_add, and remove an unnecessary check for small longs. Thanks Oren
+Milman for analysis and patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27506">bpo-27506</a>: Support passing the bytes/bytearray.translate() “delete”
+argument by keyword.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27812">bpo-27812</a>: Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s backreference to the
+generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27811">bpo-27811</a>: Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been awaited is
+finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27587">bpo-27587</a>: Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer check after
+use of ‘def’ in _PyState_AddModule(). Initial patch by Christian Heimes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27792">bpo-27792</a>: The modulo operation applied to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool</span></code> and other <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>
+subclasses now always returns an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>. Previously the return type
+depended on the input values. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26984">bpo-26984</a>: int() now always returns an instance of exact int.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25604">bpo-25604</a>: Fix a minor bug in integer true division; this bug could
+potentially have caused off-by-one-ulp results on platforms with
+unreliable ldexp implementations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24254">bpo-24254</a>: Make class definition namespace ordered by default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27662">bpo-27662</a>: Fix an overflow check in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">List_New</span></code>: the original code was
+checking against <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SIZE_MAX</span></code> instead of the correct upper bound of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_SSIZE_T_MAX</span></code>. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27782">bpo-27782</a>: Multi-phase extension module import now correctly allows the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_methods</span></code> field to be used to add module level functions to instances
+of non-module types returned from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_create_mod</span></code>. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27936">bpo-27936</a>: The round() function accepted a second None argument for some
+types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by accepting None for
+all numeric types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27487">bpo-27487</a>: Warn if a submodule argument to “python -m” or
+runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages are
+imported, but before the submodule is executed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27157">bpo-27157</a>: Make only type() itself accept the one-argument form. Patch by
+Eryk Sun and Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27558">bpo-27558</a>: Fix a SystemError in the implementation of “raise” statement.
+In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there is no active
+exception to reraise. Patch written by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28008">bpo-28008</a>: Implement PEP 530 – asynchronous comprehensions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27942">bpo-27942</a>: Fix memory leak in codeobject.c</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id235">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id235" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28732">bpo-28732</a>: Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28485">bpo-28485</a>: Always raise ValueError for negative
+compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when multithreading is
+unavailable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28037">bpo-28037</a>: Use sqlite3_get_autocommit() instead of setting
+Connection-&gt;inTransaction manually.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25283">bpo-25283</a>: Attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on all
+platforms in the return values of time.localtime() and time.gmtime().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24454">bpo-24454</a>: Regular expression match object groups are now accessible using
+__getitem__. “mo[x]” is equivalent to “mo.group(x)”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10740">bpo-10740</a>: sqlite3 no longer implicitly commit an open transaction before
+DDL statements.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17941">bpo-17941</a>: Add a <em>module</em> parameter to collections.namedtuple().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22493">bpo-22493</a>: Inline flags now should be used only at the start of the
+regular expression. Deprecation warning is emitted if uses them in the
+middle of the regular expression.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26885">bpo-26885</a>: xmlrpc now supports unmarshalling additional data types used by
+Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28070">bpo-28070</a>: Fixed parsing inline verbose flag in regular expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19500">bpo-19500</a>: Add client-side SSL session resumption to the ssl module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28022">bpo-28022</a>: Deprecate ssl-related arguments in favor of SSLContext. The
+deprecation include manual creation of SSLSocket and certfile/keyfile (or
+similar) in ftplib, httplib, imaplib, smtplib, poplib and urllib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28043">bpo-28043</a>: SSLContext has improved default settings: OP_NO_SSLv2,
+OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_COMPRESSION, OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE,
+OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE and HIGH ciphers without MD5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24693">bpo-24693</a>: Changed some RuntimeError’s in the zipfile module to more
+appropriate types. Improved some error messages and debugging output.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17909">bpo-17909</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.load</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.loads</span></code> now support binary input
+encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27137">bpo-27137</a>: the pure Python fallback implementation of
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.partial</span></code> now matches the behaviour of its accelerated C
+counterpart for subclassing, pickling and text representation purposes.
+Patch by Emanuel Barry and Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with unusual
+usage patterns.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1703178">bpo-1703178</a>: Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option to the
+distutils build_ext command.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28019">bpo-28019</a>: itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step in range
+between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18401">bpo-18401</a>: Pdb now supports the ‘readrc’ keyword argument to control
+whether .pdbrc files should be read.  Patch by Martin Matusiak and Sam
+Kimbrel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25969">bpo-25969</a>: Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
+generalizations added in 3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14977">bpo-14977</a>: mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the mailcap
+files (“first match”), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by Michael Lazar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28082">bpo-28082</a>: Convert re flag constants to IntFlag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28025">bpo-28025</a>: Convert all ssl module constants to IntEnum and IntFlags.
+SSLContext properties now return flags and enums.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23591">bpo-23591</a>: Add Flag, IntFlag, and auto() to enum module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue433028">bpo-433028</a>: Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24594">bpo-24594</a>: Validates persist parameter when opening MSI database</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17582">bpo-17582</a>: xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in attributes
+(Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by Stefan Behnel.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28047">bpo-28047</a>: Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64 CTE in the
+new email policies.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27576">bpo-27576</a>: Fix call order in OrderedDict.__init__().</p></li>
+<li><p>email.generator.DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28027">bpo-28027</a>: Remove undocumented modules from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Lib/plat-*</span></code>: IN, CDROM,
+DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27445">bpo-27445</a>: Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload(). Patch by
+Claude Paroz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24277">bpo-24277</a>: The new email API is no longer provisional, and the docs have
+been reorganized and rewritten to emphasize the new API.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22450">bpo-22450</a>: urllib now includes an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Accept:</span> <span class="pre">*/*</span></code> header among the default
+headers. This makes the results of REST API requests more consistent and
+predictable especially when proxy servers are involved.</p></li>
+<li><p>lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
+between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the hash
+randomization setting.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28005">bpo-28005</a>: Allow ImportErrors in encoding implementation to propagate.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26667">bpo-26667</a>: Support path-like objects in importlib.util.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27570">bpo-27570</a>: Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null source pointers
+in the “ctypes” and “array” modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22233">bpo-22233</a>: Break email header lines <em>only</em> on the RFC specified CR and LF
+characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This also fixes a bug
+in HTTP header parsing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27331">bpo-27331</a>: The email.mime classes now all accept an optional policy
+keyword.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27988">bpo-27988</a>: Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of payload list.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16113">bpo-16113</a>: Add SHA-3 and SHAKE support to hashlib module.</p></li>
+<li><p>Eliminate a tautological-pointer-compare warning in _scproxy.c.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27776">bpo-27776</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> function does now block on Linux 3.17
+and newer until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase
+the security. This change is part of the <span class="target" id="index-22"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0524"><strong>PEP 524</strong></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27778">bpo-27778</a>: Expose the Linux <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> syscall as a new
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getrandom" title="os.getrandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getrandom()</span></code></a> function. This change is part of the <span class="target" id="index-23"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0524"><strong>PEP 524</strong></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27691">bpo-27691</a>: Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject alternative name
+fields in X.509 certs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18844">bpo-18844</a>: Add random.choices().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25761">bpo-25761</a>: Improved error reporting about truncated pickle data in C
+implementation of unpickler.  UnpicklingError is now raised instead of
+AttributeError and ValueError in some cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26798">bpo-26798</a>: Add BLAKE2 (blake2b and blake2s) to hashlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26032">bpo-26032</a>: Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir(); it is now
+about 1.5–4 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25596">bpo-25596</a>: Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob module; they
+are now about 3–6 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27928">bpo-27928</a>: Add scrypt (password-based key derivation function) to hashlib
+module (requires OpenSSL 1.1.0).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27850">bpo-27850</a>: Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to counter
+measure sweet32 attack (CVE-2016-2183).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27766">bpo-27766</a>: Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher list.
+(Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25387">bpo-25387</a>: Check return value of winsound.MessageBeep.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27866">bpo-27866</a>: Add SSLContext.get_ciphers() method to get a list of all
+enabled ciphers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27744">bpo-27744</a>: Add AF_ALG (Linux Kernel crypto) to socket module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26470">bpo-26470</a>: Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11620">bpo-11620</a>: Fix support for SND_MEMORY in winsound.PlaySound.  Based on a
+patch by Tim Lesher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11734">bpo-11734</a>: Add support for IEEE 754 half-precision floats to the struct
+module. Based on a patch by Eli Stevens.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27919">bpo-27919</a>: Deprecated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">extra_path</span></code> distribution option in distutils
+packaging.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23229">bpo-23229</a>: Add new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath</span></code> constants: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.inf</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.nan</span></code> to
+match <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.inf</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math.nan</span></code>, and also <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.infj</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">cmath.nanj</span></code> to match the format used by complex repr.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27842">bpo-27842</a>: The csv.DictReader now returns rows of type OrderedDict.
+(Contributed by Steve Holden.)</p></li>
+<li><p>Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access. It never worked
+but previously didn’t raise.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12885">bpo-12885</a>: Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27881">bpo-27881</a>: Fixed possible bugs when setting
+sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27861">bpo-27861</a>: Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a factory
+creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19884">bpo-19884</a>: Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27706">bpo-27706</a>: Restore deterministic behavior of random.Random().seed() for
+string seeds using seeding version 1.  Allows sequences of calls to
+random() to exactly match those obtained in Python 2. Patch by Nofar
+Schnider.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10513">bpo-10513</a>: Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements should not
+be reset after a commit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12319">bpo-12319</a>: Chunked transfer encoding support added to
+http.client.HTTPConnection requests.  The
+urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler class does not enforce a Content-Length
+header any more.  If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body, but no
+Content-Length header, the library now falls back to use chunked
+transfer-encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new version of typing.py from <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/typing">https://github.com/python/typing</a>: -
+Collection (only for 3.6) (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27598">bpo-27598</a>) - Add FrozenSet to __all__
+(upstream #261) - fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream #259) - Remove
+the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type (upstream #252)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27832">bpo-27832</a>: Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_normalize</span></code> parameter to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction</span></code> constuctor
+keyword-only, so that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction(2,</span> <span class="pre">3,</span> <span class="pre">4)</span></code> now raises <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27539">bpo-27539</a>: Fix unnormalised <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction.__pow__</span></code> result in the case of
+negative exponent and negative base.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21718">bpo-21718</a>: cursor.description is now available for queries using CTEs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27819">bpo-27819</a>: In distutils sdists, simply produce the “gztar” (gzipped tar
+format) distributions on all platforms unless “formats” is supplied.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2466">bpo-2466</a>: posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount points which
+the user does not have permission to access.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9998">bpo-9998</a>: On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library now looks in LD_LIBRARY_PATH
+for shared libraries.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27573">bpo-27573</a>: exit message for code.interact is now configurable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27930">bpo-27930</a>: Improved behaviour of logging.handlers.QueueListener. Thanks to
+Paulo Andrade and Petr Viktorin for the analysis and patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6766">bpo-6766</a>: Distributed reference counting added to multiprocessing to
+support nesting of shared values / proxy objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21201">bpo-21201</a>: Improves readability of multiprocessing error message.  Thanks
+to Wojciech Walczak for patch.</p></li>
+<li><p>asyncio: Add set_protocol / get_protocol to Transports.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27456">bpo-27456</a>: asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id236">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id236" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15308">bpo-15308</a>: Add ‘interrupt execution’ (^C) to Shell menu. Patch by Roger
+Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27922">bpo-27922</a>: Stop IDLE tests from ‘flashing’ gui widgets on the screen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27891">bpo-27891</a>: Consistently group and sort imports within idlelib modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17642">bpo-17642</a>: add larger font sizes for classroom projection.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add version to title of IDLE help window.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25564">bpo-25564</a>: In section on IDLE – console differences, mention that using
+exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each statement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27821">bpo-27821</a>: Fix 3.6.0a3 regression that prevented custom key sets from
+being selected when no custom theme was defined.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id237">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id237" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26900">bpo-26900</a>: Excluded underscored names and other private API from limited
+API.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26027">bpo-26027</a>: Add support for path-like objects in PyUnicode_FSConverter() &amp;
+PyUnicode_FSDecoder().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id238">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id238" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27427">bpo-27427</a>: Additional tests for the math module. Patch by Francisco Couzo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27953">bpo-27953</a>: Skip math and cmath tests that fail on OS X 10.4 due to a poor
+libm implementation of tan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26040">bpo-26040</a>: Improve test_math and test_cmath coverage and rigour. Patch by
+Jeff Allen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27787">bpo-27787</a>: Call gc.collect() before checking each test for “dangling
+threads”, since the dangling threads are weak references.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id239">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id239" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27566">bpo-27566</a>: Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa Roach)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27705">bpo-27705</a>: Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27976">bpo-27976</a>: Deprecate building _ctypes with the bundled copy of libffi on
+non-OSX UNIX platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27983">bpo-27983</a>: Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as required
+for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than make time when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-optimizations</span></code> is enabled.  Also improve our ability to find the
+llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21590">bpo-21590</a>: Support for DTrace and SystemTap probes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26307">bpo-26307</a>: The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26359">bpo-26359</a>: Add the –with-optimizations flag to turn on LTO and PGO build
+support when available.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27917">bpo-27917</a>: Set platform triplets for Android builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25825">bpo-25825</a>: Update references to the $(LIBPL) installation path on AIX.
+This path was changed in 3.2a4.</p></li>
+<li><p>Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.14.1 and XZ 5.2.2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21122">bpo-21122</a>: Fix LTO builds on OS X.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17128">bpo-17128</a>: Build OS X installer with a private copy of OpenSSL. Also
+provide a sample Install Certificates command script to install a set of
+root certificates from the third-party certifi module.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id240">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id240" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27952">bpo-27952</a>: Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and the
+current “re” module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes, and fix a bug
+parsing escaped C quote signs.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id241">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id241" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28065">bpo-28065</a>: Update xz dependency to 5.2.2 and build it from source.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25144">bpo-25144</a>: Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with custom install.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1602">bpo-1602</a>: Windows console doesn’t input or print Unicode (PEP 528)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27781">bpo-27781</a>: Change file system encoding on Windows to UTF-8 (PEP 529)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27731">bpo-27731</a>: Opt-out of MAX_PATH on Windows 10</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6135">bpo-6135</a>: Adds encoding and errors parameters to subprocess.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27959">bpo-27959</a>: Adds oem encoding, alias ansi to mbcs, move aliasmbcs to codec
+lookup.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27982">bpo-27982</a>: The functions of the winsound module now accept keyword
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20366">bpo-20366</a>: Build full text search support into SQLite on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27756">bpo-27756</a>: Adds new icons for Python files and processes on Windows.
+Designs by Cherry Wang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27883">bpo-27883</a>: Update sqlite to 3.14.1.0 on Windows.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-alpha-4">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 alpha 4<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-08-15</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id242">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id242" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27704">bpo-27704</a>: Optimized creating bytes and bytearray from byte-like objects
+and iterables. Speed up to 3 times for short objects.  Original patch by
+Naoki Inada.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26823">bpo-26823</a>: Large sections of repeated lines in tracebacks are now
+abbreviated as “[Previous line repeated {count} more times]” by the
+builtin traceback rendering. Patch by Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27574">bpo-27574</a>: Decreased an overhead of parsing keyword arguments in functions
+implemented with using Argument Clinic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22557">bpo-22557</a>: Now importing already imported modules is up to 2.5 times
+faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17596">bpo-17596</a>: Include &lt;wincrypt.h&gt; to help with Min GW building.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17599">bpo-17599</a>: On Windows, rename the privately defined REPARSE_DATA_BUFFER
+structure to avoid conflicting with the definition from Min GW.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27507">bpo-27507</a>: Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().  Patch by
+Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27581">bpo-27581</a>: Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
+PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1621">bpo-1621</a>: Avoid signed integer overflow in list and tuple operations.
+Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27419">bpo-27419</a>: Standard __import__() no longer look up “__import__” in globals
+or builtins for importing submodules or “from import”.  Fixed a crash if
+raise a warning about unabling to resolve package from __spec__ or
+__package__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27083">bpo-27083</a>: Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27514">bpo-27514</a>: Make having too many statically nested blocks a SyntaxError
+instead of SystemError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27366">bpo-27366</a>: Implemented PEP 487 (Simpler customization of class creation).
+Upon subclassing, the __init_subclass__ classmethod is called on the base
+class. Descriptors are initialized with __set_name__ after class creation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id243">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id243" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26027">bpo-26027</a>: Add PEP 519/__fspath__() support to the os and os.path modules.
+Includes code from Jelle Zijlstra. (See also: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27524">bpo-27524</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27598">bpo-27598</a>: Add Collections to collections.abc. Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi,
+docs by Neil Girdhar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25958">bpo-25958</a>: Support “anti-registration” of special methods from various
+ABCs, like __hash__, __iter__ or __len__.  All these (and several more)
+can be set to None in an implementation class and the behavior will be as
+if the method is not defined at all. (Previously, this mechanism existed
+only for __hash__, to make mutable classes unhashable.)  Code contributed
+by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16764">bpo-16764</a>: Support keyword arguments to zlib.decompress().  Patch by Xiang
+Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27736">bpo-27736</a>: Prevent segfault after interpreter re-initialization due to ref
+count problem introduced in code for <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27038">bpo-27038</a> in 3.6.0a3. Patch by
+Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25628">bpo-25628</a>: The <em>verbose</em> and <em>rename</em> parameters for
+collections.namedtuple are now keyword-only.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12345">bpo-12345</a>: Add mathematical constant tau to math and cmath. See also PEP
+628.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26823">bpo-26823</a>: traceback.StackSummary.format now abbreviates large sections of
+repeated lines as “[Previous line repeated {count} more times]” (this
+change then further affects other traceback display operations in the
+module). Patch by Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27664">bpo-27664</a>: Add to concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor() the
+ability to specify a thread name prefix.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27181">bpo-27181</a>: Add geometric_mean and harmonic_mean to statistics module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27573">bpo-27573</a>: code.interact now prints an message when exiting.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6422">bpo-6422</a>: Add autorange method to timeit.Timer objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27773">bpo-27773</a>: Correct some memory management errors server_hostname in
+_ssl.wrap_socket().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26750">bpo-26750</a>: unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly for
+subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.  Removes the never
+publicly used, never documented unittest.mock.DescriptorTypes tuple.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26754">bpo-26754</a>: Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects as path in
+compile() and similar functions is now deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26800">bpo-26800</a>: Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects as paths in
+os functions is now deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26981">bpo-26981</a>: Add _order_ compatibility shim to enum.Enum for Python 2/3 code
+bases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27661">bpo-27661</a>: Added tzinfo keyword argument to datetime.combine.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or window.instr()
+is passed a negative value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27783">bpo-27783</a>: Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
+operator.methodcaller.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27774">bpo-27774</a>: Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27760">bpo-27760</a>: Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27758">bpo-27758</a>: Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for large
+record lengths.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27568">bpo-27568</a>: Prevent HTTPoxy attack (CVE-2016-1000110). Ignore the
+HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is set, which
+indicates that the script is in CGI mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7063">bpo-7063</a>: Remove dead code from the “array” module’s slice handling. Patch
+by Chuck.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27656">bpo-27656</a>: Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27130">bpo-27130</a>: In the “zlib” module, fix handling of large buffers (typically
+4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously, inputs were
+limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression operations did not
+properly handle results of 4 GiB.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24773">bpo-24773</a>: Implemented PEP 495 (Local Time Disambiguation).</p></li>
+<li><p>Expose the EPOLLEXCLUSIVE constant (when it is defined) in the select
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27567">bpo-27567</a>: Expose the EPOLLRDHUP and POLLRDHUP constants in the select
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1621">bpo-1621</a>: Avoid signed int negation overflow in the “audioop” module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27533">bpo-27533</a>: Release GIL in nt._isdir</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17711">bpo-17711</a>: Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol 0. Original
+patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27522">bpo-27522</a>: Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in email.feedparser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27512">bpo-27512</a>: Fix a segfault when os.fspath() called an __fspath__() method
+that raised an exception. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id244">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id244" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27714">bpo-27714</a>: text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when re-run in the
+same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when run with the -w
+option but without -jn.  Fix warning from test_config.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27621">bpo-27621</a>: Put query response validation error messages in the query box
+itself instead of in a separate messagebox.  Redo tests to match. Add Mac
+OSX refinements. Original patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27620">bpo-27620</a>: Escape key now closes Query box as cancelled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27609">bpo-27609</a>: IDLE: tab after initial whitespace should tab, not
+autocomplete. This fixes problem with writing docstrings at least twice
+indented.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27609">bpo-27609</a>: Explicitly return None when there are also non-None returns. In
+a few cases, reverse a condition and eliminate a return.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25507">bpo-25507</a>: IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter imports.
+Users must include the same imports required to run directly in Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27173">bpo-27173</a>: Add ‘IDLE Modern Unix’ to the built-in key sets. Make the
+default key set depend on the platform. Add tests for the changes to the
+config module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27452">bpo-27452</a>: add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test dump.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id245">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id245" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25805">bpo-25805</a>: Skip a test in test_pkgutil as needed that doesn’t work when
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">__main__</span></code>. Patch by SilentGhost.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27472">bpo-27472</a>: Add test.support.unix_shell as the path to the default shell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27369">bpo-27369</a>: In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message detail that
+changed in Expat 2.2.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27594">bpo-27594</a>: Prevent assertion error when running test_ast with coverage
+enabled: ensure code object has a valid first line number. Patch suggested
+by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id246">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id246" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27647">bpo-27647</a>: Update bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27610">bpo-27610</a>: Adds PEP 514 metadata to Windows installer</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27469">bpo-27469</a>: Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag and drop
+works correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27309">bpo-27309</a>: Enables proper Windows styles in python[w].exe manifest.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id247">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id247" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27713">bpo-27713</a>: Suppress spurious build warnings when updating importlib’s
+bootstrap files. Patch by Xiang Zhang</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25825">bpo-25825</a>: Correct the references to Modules/python.exp, which is required
+on AIX.  The references were accidentally changed in 3.5.0a1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27453">bpo-27453</a>: CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch by Chi
+Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27641">bpo-27641</a>: The configure script now inserts comments into the makefile to
+prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from being
+cross-compiled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26662">bpo-26662</a>: Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program to be
+used for file generation during the build.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10910">bpo-10910</a>: Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X. Also update
+FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8 workaround.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-alpha-3">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 alpha 3<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-07-11</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id248">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id248" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27473">bpo-27473</a>: Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and bytearray
+concatenations. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23034">bpo-23034</a>: The output of a special Python build with defined COUNT_ALLOCS,
+SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now off by  default.  It
+can be re-enabled using the “-X showalloccount” option.  It now outputs to
+stderr instead of stdout.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27443">bpo-27443</a>: __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer return a
+negative integer for a resized bytearray.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27007">bpo-27007</a>: The fromhex() class methods of bytes and bytearray subclasses
+now return an instance of corresponding subclass.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id249">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id249" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26844">bpo-26844</a>: Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to ‘path’
+instead of ‘name’. Patch by Lev Maximov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23804">bpo-23804</a>: Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not raise an
+error about unclean EOF.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27466">bpo-27466</a>: Change time format returned by http.cookie.time2netscape,
+confirming the netscape cookie format and making it consistent with
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21708">bpo-21708</a>: Deprecated dbm.dumb behavior that differs from common dbm
+behavior: creating a database in ‘r’ and ‘w’ modes and modifying a
+database in ‘r’ mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26721">bpo-26721</a>: Change the socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile attribute to
+implement BufferedIOBase. In particular, the write() method no longer does
+partial writes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22115">bpo-22115</a>: Added methods trace_add, trace_remove and trace_info in the
+tkinter.Variable class.  They replace old methods trace_variable, trace,
+trace_vdelete and trace_vinfo that use obsolete Tcl commands and might not
+work in future versions of Tcl.  Fixed old tracing methods:
+trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now
+always returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the “u” mode now
+works.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26243">bpo-26243</a>: Only the level argument to zlib.compress() is keyword argument
+now.  The first argument is positional-only.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27038">bpo-27038</a>: Expose the DirEntry type as os.DirEntry. Code patch by Jelle
+Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>: Update os.fspath()/PyOS_FSPath() to check the return value of
+__fspath__() to be either str or bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18726">bpo-18726</a>: All optional parameters of the dump(), dumps(), load() and
+loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class constructors in
+the json module are now keyword-only.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27319">bpo-27319</a>: Methods selection_set(), selection_add(), selection_remove()
+and selection_toggle() of ttk.TreeView now allow passing multiple items as
+multiple arguments instead of passing them as a tuple.  Deprecated
+undocumented ability of calling the selection() method with arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27079">bpo-27079</a>: Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl() and
+ispunct().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27294">bpo-27294</a>: Numerical state in the repr for Tkinter event objects is now
+represented as a combination of known flags.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27177">bpo-27177</a>: Match objects in the re module now support index-like objects
+as group indices.  Based on patches by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26754">bpo-26754</a>: Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename argument
+encoded as an iterable of integers. Now only strings and byte-like objects
+are accepted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26536">bpo-26536</a>: socket.ioctl now supports SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH. Patch by
+Daniel Stokes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27048">bpo-27048</a>: Prevents distutils failing on Windows when environment
+variables contain non-ASCII characters</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27330">bpo-27330</a>: Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27238">bpo-27238</a>: Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.  Original patch
+by Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27122">bpo-27122</a>: When an exception is raised within the context being managed by
+a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack generators catches and
+raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the original exception when exiting,
+let the new chained one through.  This avoids the PEP 479 bug described in
+issue25782.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id250">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id250" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27278">bpo-27278</a>: Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on Linux.
+Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough random bytes,
+instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id251">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id251" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16864">bpo-16864</a>: sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports REPLACE statement.
+Initial patch by Alex LordThorsen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26386">bpo-26386</a>: Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item id’s
+containing spaces.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8637">bpo-8637</a>: Honor a pager set by the env var MANPAGER (in preference to one
+set by the env var PAGER).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id252">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id252" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22636">bpo-22636</a>: Avoid shell injection problems with ctypes.util.find_library().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id253">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id253" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16182">bpo-16182</a>: Fix various functions in the “readline” module to use the
+locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to return code
+point indexes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27392">bpo-27392</a>: Add loop.connect_accepted_socket(). Patch by Jim Fulton.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id254">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id254" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27477">bpo-27477</a>: IDLE search dialogs now use ttk widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27173">bpo-27173</a>: Add ‘IDLE Modern Unix’ to the built-in key sets. Make the
+default key set depend on the platform. Add tests for the changes to the
+config module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27452">bpo-27452</a>: make command line “idle-test&gt; python test_help.py” work.
+__file__ is relative when python is started in the file’s directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27452">bpo-27452</a>: add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test dump.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27380">bpo-27380</a>: IDLE: add query.py with base Query dialog and ttk widgets.
+Module had subclasses SectionName, ModuleName, and HelpSource, which are
+used to get information from users by configdialog and file =&gt;Load Module.
+Each subclass has itw own validity checks.  Using ModuleName allows users
+to edit bad module names instead of starting over. Add tests and delete
+the two files combined into the new one.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27372">bpo-27372</a>: Test_idle no longer changes the locale.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27365">bpo-27365</a>: Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for contributor names.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27245">bpo-27245</a>: IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
+Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a cascade
+of warnings was emitted. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24137">bpo-24137</a>: Run IDLE, test_idle, and htest with tkinter default root
+disabled.  Fix code and tests that fail with this restriction.  Fix htests
+to not create a second and redundant root and mainloop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27310">bpo-27310</a>: Fix IDLE.app failure to launch on OS X due to vestigial import.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id255">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id255" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26754">bpo-26754</a>: PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument encoded as
+an iterable of integers. Now only strings and byte-like objects are
+accepted.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id256">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id256" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28066">bpo-28066</a>: Fix the logic that searches build directories for generated
+include files when building outside the source tree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27442">bpo-27442</a>: Expose the Android API level that python was built against, in
+sysconfig.get_config_vars() as ‘ANDROID_API_LEVEL’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27434">bpo-27434</a>: The interpreter that runs the cross-build, found in PATH, must
+now be of the same feature version (e.g. 3.6) as the source being built.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26930">bpo-26930</a>: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23968">bpo-23968</a>: Rename the platform directory from plat-$(MACHDEP) to
+plat-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Rename the config directory (LIBPL) from
+config-$(LDVERSION) to config-$(LDVERSION)-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Install
+the platform specific _sysconfigdata module into the platform directory
+and rename it to include the ABIFLAGS.</p></li>
+<li><p>Don’t use largefile support for GNU/Hurd.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id257">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id257" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27332">bpo-27332</a>: Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level functions
+generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27418">bpo-27418</a>: Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id258">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id258" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19489">bpo-19489</a>: Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header and footer
+of each page. Patch by Ammar Askar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27285">bpo-27285</a>: Update documentation to reflect the deprecation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyvenv</span></code>
+and normalize on the term “virtual environment”. Patch by Steve Piercy.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id259">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id259" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27027">bpo-27027</a>: Added test.support.is_android that is True when this is an
+Android build.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-alpha-2">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 alpha 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-06-13</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id260">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id260" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27095">bpo-27095</a>: Simplified MAKE_FUNCTION and removed MAKE_CLOSURE opcodes.
+Patch by Demur Rumed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27190">bpo-27190</a>: Raise NotSupportedError if sqlite3 is older than 3.3.1. Patch
+by Dave Sawyer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27286">bpo-27286</a>: Fixed compiling BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode.  Calling
+function with generalized unpacking (PEP 448) and conflicting keyword
+names could cause undefined behavior.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27140">bpo-27140</a>: Added BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>: Add support for os.PathLike objects to open() (part of PEP
+519).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27066">bpo-27066</a>: Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open()) returns a
+negative number without setting an exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26983">bpo-26983</a>: float() now always return an instance of exact float. The
+deprecation warning is emitted if __float__ returns an instance of a
+strict subclass of float.  In a future versions of Python this can be an
+error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27097">bpo-27097</a>: Python interpreter is now about 7% faster due to optimized
+instruction decoding.  Based on patch by Demur Rumed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26647">bpo-26647</a>: Python interpreter now uses 16-bit wordcode instead of
+bytecode. Patch by Demur Rumed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23275">bpo-23275</a>: Allow assigning to an empty target list in round brackets: () =
+iterable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27243">bpo-27243</a>: Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning an
+awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the asynchronous
+iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the former will trigger a
+PendingDeprecationWarning.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id261">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id261" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p>Comment out socket (SO_REUSEPORT) and posix (O_SHLOCK, O_EXLOCK) constants
+exposed on the API which are not implemented on GNU/Hurd. They would not
+work at runtime anyway.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27025">bpo-27025</a>: Generated names for Tkinter widgets are now more meaningful and
+recognizable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25455">bpo-25455</a>: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive ElementTree.Element and
+functools.partial objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27294">bpo-27294</a>: Improved repr for Tkinter event objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20508">bpo-20508</a>: Improve exception message of IPv{4,6}Network.__getitem__. Patch
+by Gareth Rees.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id262">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id262" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26556">bpo-26556</a>: Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE-2015-1283.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE-2016-0772. Reported by
+Team Oststrom.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id263">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id263" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21386">bpo-21386</a>: Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It was
+documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27029">bpo-27029</a>: Removed deprecated support of universal newlines mode from
+ZipFile.open().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27030">bpo-27030</a>: Unknown escapes consisting of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code> and an ASCII letter in
+regular expressions now are errors.  The re.LOCALE flag now can be used
+only with bytes patterns.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>: Add os.PathLike support to DirEntry (part of PEP 519). Initial
+patch by Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20900">bpo-20900</a>: distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses
+correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>: Add os.PathLike support to pathlib, removing its provisional
+status (part of PEP 519). Initial patch by Dusty Phillips.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>: Add support for os.PathLike objects to os.fsencode() and
+os.fsdecode() (part of PEP 519).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>: Introduce os.PathLike and os.fspath() (part of PEP 519).</p></li>
+<li><p>A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and features:
+&#64;overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text, ContextManager,
+Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug fixes (note that some
+of the new features are not yet implemented in mypy or other static
+analyzers). Also classes for PEP 492 (Awaitable, AsyncIterable,
+AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact they made it into 3.5.1 but were
+never mentioned).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25738">bpo-25738</a>: Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error() from
+sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t send Content
+header fields in responses that don’t have a body.  Patch by Susumu
+Koshiba.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21313">bpo-21313</a>: Fix the “platform” module to tolerate when sys.version contains
+truncated build information.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id264">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id264" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26839">bpo-26839</a>: On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> now calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GRND_NONBLOCK</span></code> to fall back on reading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> if the urandom
+entropy pool is not initialized yet. Patch written by Colm Buckley.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id265">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id265" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23883">bpo-23883</a>: Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the documented APIs for
+the following modules: cgi, mailbox, mimetypes, plistlib and smtpd.
+Patches by Jacek Kołodziej.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27164">bpo-27164</a>: In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate streams
+with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24291">bpo-24291</a>: Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to completely
+write data to the client.  Previously it could do partial writes and
+truncate data.  Also, wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout
+doing partial writes, but this is deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21272">bpo-21272</a>: Use _sysconfigdata.py to initialize distutils.sysconfig.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19611">bpo-19611</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> now reports the implicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.0</span></code> parameters
+generated by the compiler for comprehension and generator expression
+scopes as if they were positional-only parameters called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">implicit0</span></code>.
+Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26809">bpo-26809</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a>.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26373">bpo-26373</a>: subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
+BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate() is
+called in more/all circumstances.</p></li>
+<li><p>signal, socket, and ssl module IntEnum constant name lookups now return a
+consistent name for values having multiple names.  Ex: signal.Signals(6)
+now refers to itself as signal.SIGALRM rather than flipping between that
+and signal.SIGIOT based on the interpreter’s hash randomization seed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27167">bpo-27167</a>: Clarify the subprocess.CalledProcessError error message text
+when the child process died due to a signal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25931">bpo-25931</a>: Don’t define socketserver.Forking* names on platforms such as
+Windows that do not support os.fork().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21776">bpo-21776</a>: distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError. Initial patch
+by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26526">bpo-26526</a>: Replace custom parse tree validation in the parser module with
+a simple DFA validator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27114">bpo-27114</a>: Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
+PermissionError</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18383">bpo-18383</a>: Avoid creating duplicate filters when using filterwarnings and
+simplefilter. Based on patch by Alex Shkop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23026">bpo-23026</a>: winreg.QueryValueEx() now return an integer for REG_QWORD type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26741">bpo-26741</a>: subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a ResourceWarning warning
+if the child process is still running.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27056">bpo-27056</a>: Optimize pickle.load() and pickle.loads(), up to 10% faster to
+deserialize a lot of small objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21271">bpo-21271</a>: New keyword only parameters in reset_mock call.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id266">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id266" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5124">bpo-5124</a>: Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on X11. This
+matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern Linux apps, and ttk
+widgets. Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24750">bpo-24750</a>: Switch all scrollbars in IDLE to ttk versions. Where needed,
+minimal tests are added to cover changes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24759">bpo-24759</a>: IDLE requires tk 8.5 and availability ttk widgets. Delete now
+unneeded tk version tests and code for older versions. Add test for IDLE
+syntax colorizer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27239">bpo-27239</a>: idlelib.macosx.isXyzTk functions initialize as needed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27262">bpo-27262</a>: move Aqua unbinding code, which enable context menus, to
+macosx.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24759">bpo-24759</a>: Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the directory is
+a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool for maintainers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27196">bpo-27196</a>: Stop ‘ThemeChanged’ warnings when running IDLE tests. These
+persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567. Apply Serhiy
+Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test files. Record this
+additional advice in idle_test/README.txt</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20567">bpo-20567</a>: Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about avoiding tk
+warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several IDLE tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24225">bpo-24225</a>: Update idlelib/README.txt with new file names and event
+handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27156">bpo-27156</a>: Remove obsolete code not used by IDLE.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27117">bpo-27117</a>: Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark themes. Move
+code for configuring text widget colors to a new function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24225">bpo-24225</a>: Rename many <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idlelib/*.py</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">idle_test/test_*.py</span></code> files.
+Edit files to replace old names with new names when the old name referred
+to the module rather than the class it contained. See the issue and IDLE
+section in What’s New in 3.6 for more.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26673">bpo-26673</a>: When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10. Such fonts
+on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from opening.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21939">bpo-21939</a>: Add test for IDLE’s percolator. Original patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21676">bpo-21676</a>: Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog. Original patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18410">bpo-18410</a>: Add test for IDLE’s search dialog. Original patch by Westley
+Martínez.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21703">bpo-21703</a>: Add test for undo delegator.  Patch mostly by Saimadhav
+Heblikar .</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27044">bpo-27044</a>: Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory leaks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23977">bpo-23977</a>: Add more asserts to test_delegator.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id267">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id267" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16484">bpo-16484</a>: Change the default PYTHONDOCS URL to “https:”, and fix the
+resulting links to use lowercase.  Patch by Sean Rodman, test by Kaushik
+Nadikuditi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24136">bpo-24136</a>: Document the new PEP 448 unpacking syntax of 3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22558">bpo-22558</a>: Add remaining doc links to source code for Python-coded
+modules. Patch by Yoni Lavi.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id268">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id268" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25285">bpo-25285</a>: regrtest now uses subprocesses when the -j1 command line option
+is used: each test file runs in a fresh child process. Before, the -j1
+option was ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25285">bpo-25285</a>: Tools/buildbot/test.bat script now uses -j1 by default to run
+each test file in fresh child process.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id269">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id269" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27064">bpo-27064</a>: The py.exe launcher now defaults to Python 3. The Windows
+launcher <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py.exe</span></code> no longer prefers an installed Python 2 version over
+Python 3 by default when used interactively.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id270">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id270" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27229">bpo-27229</a>: Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.  Patch by
+Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26930">bpo-26930</a>: Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and link with
+OpenSSL 1.0.2h.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id271">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id271" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17500">bpo-17500</a>: Remove unused and outdated icons. (See also:
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945">https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945</a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id272">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id272" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27186">bpo-27186</a>: Add the PyOS_FSPath() function (part of PEP 519).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26282">bpo-26282</a>: PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports positional-only
+parameters.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id273">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id273" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26282">bpo-26282</a>: Argument Clinic now supports positional-only and keyword
+parameters in the same function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-6-0-alpha-1">
+<h2>Python 3.6.0 alpha 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-05-16</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id274">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id274" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20041">bpo-20041</a>: Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None. Patch by
+Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26168">bpo-26168</a>: Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue() with the “N”
+format unit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26991">bpo-26991</a>: Fix possible refleak when creating a function with annotations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27039">bpo-27039</a>: Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.  Based on
+patch by Joe Jevnik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23640">bpo-23640</a>: int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
+subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27005">bpo-27005</a>: Optimized the float.fromhex() class method for exact float. It
+is now 2 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18531">bpo-18531</a>: Single var-keyword argument of dict subtype was passed
+unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to exact dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26811">bpo-26811</a>: gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple with NULL
+pointer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20120">bpo-20120</a>: Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing support for
+interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python 3. Behavior no
+longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files, matching behavior in
+Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26249">bpo-26249</a>: Memory functions of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> domain
+(<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM" title="PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM"><code class="xref c c-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM</span></code></a>) now use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#pymalloc"><span class="std std-ref">pymalloc allocator</span></a> rather than system <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code>. Applications calling
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> without holding the GIL can now crash: use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC=debug</span></code> environment variable to validate the usage of
+memory allocators in your application.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26802">bpo-26802</a>: Optimize function calls only using unpacking like
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">func(*tuple)</span></code> (no other positional argument, no keyword): avoid copying
+the tuple. Patch written by Joe Jevnik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26659">bpo-26659</a>: Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26718">bpo-26718</a>: super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called multiple times.
+NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not endorsed!</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27138">bpo-27138</a>: Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27147">bpo-27147</a>: Mention PEP 420 in the importlib docs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25339">bpo-25339</a>: PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in setting the
+error handler for stdin and stdout.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26494">bpo-26494</a>: Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators. Affected classes
+are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str, bytes, bytearray, list,
+tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict, corresponding views and
+os.scandir() iterator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26574">bpo-26574</a>: Optimize <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.replace(b'',</span> <span class="pre">b'.')</span></code> and
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.replace(b'',</span> <span class="pre">b'.')</span></code>. Patch written by Josh Snider.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26581">bpo-26581</a>: If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a line in
+Python source code file, only the first one is taken to account.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19711">bpo-19711</a>: Add tests for reloading namespace packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21099">bpo-21099</a>: Switch applicable importlib tests to use PEP 451 API.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26563">bpo-26563</a>: Debug hooks on Python memory allocators now raise a fatal error
+if functions of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_Malloc" title="PyMem_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_Malloc()</span></code></a> family are called without
+holding the GIL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26564">bpo-26564</a>: On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use
+the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module to get the traceback where a memory block
+was allocated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26558">bpo-26558</a>: The debug hooks on Python memory allocator
+<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyObject_Malloc" title="PyObject_Malloc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_Malloc()</span></code></a> now detect when functions are called without
+holding the GIL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26516">bpo-26516</a>: Add <span class="target" id="index-24"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOC"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOC</span></code></a> environment variable to set the
+Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26516">bpo-26516</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/memory.html#c.PyMem_SetupDebugHooks" title="PyMem_SetupDebugHooks"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()</span></code></a> function can now also be
+used on Python compiled in release mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26516">bpo-26516</a>: The <span class="target" id="index-25"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONMALLOCSTATS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONMALLOCSTATS</span></code></a> environment variable can now
+also be used on Python compiled in release mode. It now has no effect if
+set to an empty string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26516">bpo-26516</a>: In debug mode, debug hooks are now also installed on Python
+memory allocators when Python is configured without pymalloc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26464">bpo-26464</a>: Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first replacements
+removes character, but next replacement uses a non-ASCII character or a
+string longer than 1 character. Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22836">bpo-22836</a>: Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
+PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them produces
+secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
+sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26302">bpo-26302</a>: Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal character for
+cookie names.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26136">bpo-26136</a>: Upgrade the warning when a generator raises StopIteration from
+PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning.  Patch by Anish Shah.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26204">bpo-26204</a>: The compiler now ignores all constant statements: bytes, str,
+int, float, complex, name constants (None, False, True), Ellipsis and
+ast.Constant; not only str and int. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> is now ignored in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">f():</span> <span class="pre">1.0</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4806">bpo-4806</a>: Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when using star
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by Hagen Fürstenau
+and Daniel Urban.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26146">bpo-26146</a>: Add a new kind of AST node: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.Constant</span></code>. It can be used by
+external AST optimizers, but the compiler does not emit directly such
+node.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23601">bpo-23601</a>: Sped-up allocation of dict key objects by using Python’s small
+object allocator.  (Contributed by Julian Taylor.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18018">bpo-18018</a>: Import raises ImportError instead of SystemError if a relative
+import is attempted without a known parent package.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25843">bpo-25843</a>: When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they are equal
+but have a different types. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f1,</span> <span class="pre">f2</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">lambda:</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">lambda:</span>
+<span class="pre">1.0</span></code> is now correctly compiled to two different functions: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f1()</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f2()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code>), even if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> are equal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26107">bpo-26107</a>: The format of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">co_lnotab</span></code> attribute of code objects
+changes to support negative line number delta.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26154">bpo-26154</a>: Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet() function to get
+the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a fatal error if it is
+NULL. This new function must be used instead of accessing directly the
+_PyThreadState_Current variable.  The variable is no more exposed since
+Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact implementation of atomic C types, to avoid
+compiler issues.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25791">bpo-25791</a>: If __package__ != __spec__.parent or if neither __package__ or
+__spec__ are defined then ImportWarning is raised.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22995">bpo-22995</a>: [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability tests in
+_PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in Cython-based projects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25961">bpo-25961</a>: Disallowed null characters in the type name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25973">bpo-25973</a>: Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement binds a name
+starting with two underscores.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22995">bpo-22995</a>: Instances of extension types with a state that aren’t
+subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any pickle-related
+methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__, __getnewargs_ex__, or
+__getstate__), can no longer be pickled.  Including memoryview.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20440">bpo-20440</a>: Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with special
+macro Py_SETREF.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25766">bpo-25766</a>: Special method __bytes__() now works in str subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25421">bpo-25421</a>: __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic basic size.
+This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their subclasses with
+__slots__ defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25709">bpo-25709</a>: Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and utf-8
+cache.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5319">bpo-5319</a>: New Py_FinalizeEx() API allowing Python to set an exit status of
+120 on failure to flush buffered streams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25485">bpo-25485</a>: telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24097">bpo-24097</a>: Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is freed inside
+__getattr__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24731">bpo-24731</a>: Fixed crash on converting objects with special methods
+__bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of subclasses of
+bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int, and float
+correspondingly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25630">bpo-25630</a>: Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in functions
+that accept filesystem paths.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23564">bpo-23564</a>: Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the _posixsubprocess
+internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to the child.  The bug had
+no actual impact as subprocess.py already avoided it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25388">bpo-25388</a>: Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable source code
+with a null byte.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25462">bpo-25462</a>: The hash of the key now is calculated only once in most
+operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22995">bpo-22995</a>: Default implementation of __reduce__ and __reduce_ex__ now
+rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24802">bpo-24802</a>: Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(), compile(), exec()
+and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These objects are not
+necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the functions assumed they
+were.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25555">bpo-25555</a>: Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of “arg” node
+when compiling AST from Python objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24726">bpo-24726</a>: Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of OrderedDict that
+was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25449">bpo-25449</a>: Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash now raises
+KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25395">bpo-25395</a>: Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict structures were
+garbage collected.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25401">bpo-25401</a>: Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex(): they are now
+between 2x and 3.5x faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25399">bpo-25399</a>: Optimize bytearray % args using the new private _PyBytesWriter
+API. Formatting is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25274">bpo-25274</a>: sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError if the new
+recursion limit is too low depending at the current recursion depth.
+Modify also the “lower-water mark” formula to make it monotonic. This mark
+is used to decide when the overflowed flag of the thread state is reset.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24402">bpo-24402</a>: Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
+sys.stdout.fileno() fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25349">bpo-25349</a>: Optimize bytes % args using the new private _PyBytesWriter API.
+Formatting is now up to 2 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24806">bpo-24806</a>: Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be subclassed
+from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25301">bpo-25301</a>: The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error
+handlers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24848">bpo-24848</a>: Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of misformed data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25267">bpo-25267</a>: The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error
+handlers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ignore</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogatepass</span></code>.
+Patch co-written with Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25280">bpo-25280</a>: Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode are no
+longer formatted twice.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25227">bpo-25227</a>: Optimize ASCII and latin1 encoders with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code>
+error handler: the encoders are now up to 3 times as fast. Initial patch
+written by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25003">bpo-25003</a>: On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the getrandom()
+function instead of the getentropy() function. The getentropy() function
+is blocking to generate very good quality entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t
+need such high-quality entropy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9232">bpo-9232</a>: Modify Python’s grammar to allow trailing commas in the argument
+list of a function declaration.  For example, “def f(*, a = 3,): pass” is
+now legal. Patch from Mark Dickinson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24965">bpo-24965</a>: Implement PEP 498 “Literal String Interpolation”. This allows
+you to embed expressions inside f-strings, which are converted to normal
+strings at run time. Given x=3, then f’value={x}’ == ‘value=3’. Patch by
+Eric V. Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26478">bpo-26478</a>: Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with dictionary
+views and tuples.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26171">bpo-26171</a>: Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
+zipimporter.get_data().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25660">bpo-25660</a>: Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26288">bpo-26288</a>: Optimize PyLong_AsDouble.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26289">bpo-26289</a>: Optimize floor and modulo division for single-digit longs.
+Microbenchmarks show 2-2.5x improvement.  Built-in ‘divmod’ function is
+now also ~10% faster. (See also: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26315">bpo-26315</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25887">bpo-25887</a>: Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is awaited more
+than once.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id275">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id275" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27057">bpo-27057</a>: Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is blocked by
+SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls back to fcntl().
+Patch written by Michał Bednarski.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27014">bpo-27014</a>: Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to Kalle Tuure!</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27031">bpo-27031</a>: Removed dummy methods in Tkinter widget classes: tk_menuBar()
+and tk_bindForTraversal().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14132">bpo-14132</a>: Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target only has a
+query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17214">bpo-17214</a>: The “urllib.request” module now percent-encodes non-ASCII bytes
+found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send Location header fields
+with non-ASCII bytes, but “http.client” requires the request target to be
+ASCII-encodable, otherwise a UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch
+by Christian Heimes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27033">bpo-27033</a>: The default value of the decode_data parameter for
+smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is changed to False.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27034">bpo-27034</a>: Removed deprecated class asynchat.fifo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26870">bpo-26870</a>: Added readline.set_auto_history(), which can stop entries being
+automatically added to the history list.  Based on patch by Tyler
+Crompton.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26039">bpo-26039</a>: zipfile.ZipFile.open() can now be used to write data into a ZIP
+file, as well as for extracting data.  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26892">bpo-26892</a>: Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler. Patch
+contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22274">bpo-22274</a>: In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be redirected to
+stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by Akira Li.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26807">bpo-26807</a>: mock_open ‘files’ no longer error on readline at end of file.
+Patch from Yolanda Robla.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25745">bpo-25745</a>: Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26977">bpo-26977</a>: Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of squares helper
+in statistics.pvariance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26002">bpo-26002</a>: Use bisect in statistics.median instead of a linear search.
+Patch by Upendra Kuma.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25974">bpo-25974</a>: Make use of new Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method in statistics
+module. Patch by Stefan Krah.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26996">bpo-26996</a>: Add secrets module as described in PEP 506.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26881">bpo-26881</a>: The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23815">bpo-23815</a>: Fixed crashes related to directly created instances of types in
+_tkinter and curses.panel modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17765">bpo-17765</a>: weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword arguments.
+Patch by Georg Brandl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26873">bpo-26873</a>: xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type tags
+instead of silently return incorrect result.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26915">bpo-26915</a>: The __contains__ methods in the collections ABCs now check for
+identity before checking equality.  This better matches the behavior of
+the concrete classes, allows sensible handling of NaNs, and makes it
+easier to reason about container invariants.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26711">bpo-26711</a>: Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24114">bpo-24114</a>: Fix an uninitialized variable in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.util</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches for
+the <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crle</span></code> program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by Kees Bos.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26864">bpo-26864</a>: In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host checking
+against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match unrelated host
+names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a suffix.  Patch by Xiang
+Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24902">bpo-24902</a>: Print server URL on http.server startup.  Initial patch by
+Felix Kaiser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25788">bpo-25788</a>: fileinput.hook_encoded() now supports an “errors” argument for
+passing to open.  Original patch by Joseph Hackman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26634">bpo-26634</a>: recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.  Patch by
+Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26804">bpo-26804</a>: urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy environment
+variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones. Patch contributed by
+Hans-Peter Jansen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26837">bpo-26837</a>: assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs non-stringified
+differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This affects
+assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26041">bpo-26041</a>: Remove “will be removed in Python 3.7” from deprecation
+messages of platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution(). Patch by
+Kumaripaba Miyurusara Athukorala.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26822">bpo-26822</a>: itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no longer
+silently ignore keyword arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26733">bpo-26733</a>: Disassembling a class now disassembles class and static
+methods. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26801">bpo-26801</a>: Fix error handling in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.get_terminal_size" title="shutil.get_terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.get_terminal_size()</span></code></a>, catch
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>. Patch written by
+Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24838">bpo-24838</a>: tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly calculate name
+and link field limits for multibyte character encodings like utf-8.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id276">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id276" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26657">bpo-26657</a>: Fix directory traversal vulnerability with http.server on
+Windows.  This fixes a regression that was introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and
+3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp Hagemeister.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id277">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id277" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26717">bpo-26717</a>: Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.  Patch by
+Anthony Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26782">bpo-26782</a>: Add STARTUPINFO to subprocess.__all__ on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26404">bpo-26404</a>: Add context manager to socketserver.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26735">bpo-26735</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> on Solaris 11.3 and newer when reading
+more than 1,024 bytes: call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> multiple times with a limit of
+1024 bytes per call.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26585">bpo-26585</a>: Eliminate http.server._quote_html() and use
+html.escape(quote=False).  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26685">bpo-26685</a>: Raise OSError if closing a socket fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16329">bpo-16329</a>: Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13952">bpo-13952</a>: Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff Wilson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26587">bpo-26587</a>: the site module now allows .pth files to specify files to be
+added to sys.path (e.g. zip files).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25609">bpo-25609</a>: Introduce contextlib.AbstractContextManager and
+typing.ContextManager.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26709">bpo-26709</a>: Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23735">bpo-23735</a>: Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by installing our
+own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25951">bpo-25951</a>: Change SSLSocket.sendall() to return None, as explicitly
+documented for plain socket objects.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26586">bpo-26586</a>: In http.server, respond with “413 Request header fields too
+large” if there are too many header fields to parse, rather than killing
+the connection and raising an unhandled exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26676">bpo-26676</a>: Added missing XMLPullParser to ElementTree.__all__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22854">bpo-22854</a>: Change BufferedReader.writable() and BufferedWriter.readable()
+to always return False.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26492">bpo-26492</a>: Exhausted iterator of array.array now conforms with the
+behavior of iterators of other mutable sequences: it lefts exhausted even
+if iterated array is extended.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26641">bpo-26641</a>: doctest.DocFileTest and doctest.testfile() now support packages
+(module splitted into multiple directories) for the package parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25195">bpo-25195</a>: Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock. _Call is a subclass of
+tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes) so we need to
+implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26644">bpo-26644</a>: Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a negative length
+is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23804">bpo-23804</a>: Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero bytes
+instead of up to 1024.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26616">bpo-26616</a>: Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26637">bpo-26637</a>: The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib</span></code></a> module now emits an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>
+rather than a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a> if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#__import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__import__()</span></code></a> is tried during the
+Python shutdown process but <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is already cleared (set to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21925">bpo-21925</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.formatwarning" title="warnings.formatwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.formatwarning()</span></code></a> now catches exceptions when
+calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/linecache.html#linecache.getline" title="linecache.getline"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache.getline()</span></code></a> and
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#tracemalloc.get_object_traceback" title="tracemalloc.get_object_traceback"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc.get_object_traceback()</span></code></a> to be able to log
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> emitted late during the Python shutdown process.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23848">bpo-23848</a>: On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now also installs an
+exception handler to dump the traceback of all Python threads on any
+Windows exception, not only on UNIX signals (SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26530">bpo-26530</a>: Add C functions <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyTraceMalloc_Track()</span></code> and
+<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyTraceMalloc_Untrack()</span></code> to track memory blocks using the
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tracemalloc.html#module-tracemalloc" title="tracemalloc: Trace memory allocations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tracemalloc</span></code></a> module. Add <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback()</span></code> to
+get the traceback of an object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26588">bpo-26588</a>: The _tracemalloc now supports tracing memory allocations of
+multiple address spaces (domains).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24266">bpo-24266</a>: Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels the search
+mode when compiled with Readline 7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26590">bpo-26590</a>: Implement a safe finalizer for the _socket.socket type. It now
+releases the GIL to close the socket.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18787">bpo-18787</a>: spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError if the user
+doesn’t have privileges.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26560">bpo-26560</a>: Avoid potential ValueError in BaseHandler.start_response.
+Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26567">bpo-26567</a>: Add a new function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_ResourceWarning" title="PyErr_ResourceWarning"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_ResourceWarning()</span></code></a> function to
+pass the destroyed object. Add a <em>source</em> attribute to
+<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.WarningMessage</span></code>. Add warnings._showwarnmsg() which uses
+tracemalloc to get the traceback where source object was allocated.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id278">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id278" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26313">bpo-26313</a>: ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows cert store is
+empty. Patch by Baji.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id279">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id279" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26569">bpo-26569</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule" title="pyclbr.readmodule"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr.readmodule()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule_ex" title="pyclbr.readmodule_ex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr.readmodule_ex()</span></code></a>
+to support importing packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26499">bpo-26499</a>: Account for remaining Content-Length in HTTPResponse.readline()
+and read1(). Based on patch by Silent Ghost. Also document that
+HTTPResponse now supports these methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25320">bpo-25320</a>: Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is scanning.
+Patch from Victor van den Elzen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16181">bpo-16181</a>: cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is higher than
+datetime.MAXYEAR.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26513">bpo-26513</a>: Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23718">bpo-23718</a>: Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original patch by
+Tamás Bence Gedai.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26323">bpo-26323</a>: Add Mock.assert_called() and Mock.assert_called_once() methods
+to unittest.mock. Patch written by Amit Saha.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20589">bpo-20589</a>: Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows now raise
+NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26177">bpo-26177</a>: Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15068">bpo-15068</a>: Got rid of excessive buffering in fileinput. The bufsize
+parameter is now deprecated and ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19475">bpo-19475</a>: Added an optional argument timespec to the datetime isoformat()
+method to choose the precision of the time component.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2202">bpo-2202</a>: Fix UnboundLocalError in
+AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls. Initial patch by Mathieu
+Dupuy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26167">bpo-26167</a>: Minimized overhead in copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy().
+Optimized copying and deepcopying bytearrays, NotImplemented, slices,
+short lists, tuples, dicts, sets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25718">bpo-25718</a>: Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator with total
+is None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26475">bpo-26475</a>: Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with the (?x)
+flag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26482">bpo-26482</a>: Allowed pickling recursive dequeues.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26335">bpo-26335</a>: Make mmap.write() return the number of bytes written like other
+write methods.  Patch by Jakub Stasiak.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26457">bpo-26457</a>: Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes for the case
+when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal prefix length. Based on
+patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26385">bpo-26385</a>: Remove the file if the internal open() call in
+NamedTemporaryFile() fails. Patch by Silent Ghost.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26402">bpo-26402</a>: Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts down a
+persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the new
+http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25913">bpo-25913</a>: Leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;~</span></code> is optional now in base64.a85decode() with
+adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26186">bpo-26186</a>: Remove an invalid type check in importlib.util.LazyLoader.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26367">bpo-26367</a>: importlib.__import__() raises ImportError like
+builtins.__import__() when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> is specified but without an
+accompanying package specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26309">bpo-26309</a>: In the “socketserver” module, shut down the request (closing
+the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.  Patch by Aviv
+Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23430">bpo-23430</a>: Change the socketserver module to only catch exceptions raised
+from a request handler that are derived from Exception (instead of
+BaseException). Therefore SystemExit and KeyboardInterrupt no longer
+trigger the handle_error() method, and will now to stop a single-threaded
+server.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id280">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id280" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25939">bpo-25939</a>: On Windows open the cert store readonly in
+ssl.enum_certificates.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id281">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id281" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25995">bpo-25995</a>: os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the tree depth.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25994">bpo-25994</a>: Added the close() method and the support of the context manager
+protocol for the os.scandir() iterator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23992">bpo-23992</a>: multiprocessing: make MapResult not fail-fast upon exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26243">bpo-26243</a>: Support keyword arguments to zlib.compress().  Patch by Aviv
+Palivoda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26117">bpo-26117</a>: The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor not only
+when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed with error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25949">bpo-25949</a>: __dict__ for an OrderedDict instance is now created only when
+needed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25911">bpo-25911</a>: Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26045">bpo-26045</a>: Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a
+non-Latin-1 string with http.client.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26039">bpo-26039</a>: Added zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file() and zipinfo.ZipInfo.is_dir().
+Patch by Thomas Kluyver.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12923">bpo-12923</a>: Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if there is an
+exception. Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel Rocco.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25945">bpo-25945</a>: Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial object with
+wrong state. Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial constructor. “args”
+and “keywords” attributes of functools.partial have now always types tuple
+and dict correspondingly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26202">bpo-26202</a>: copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects with
+non-atomic attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23076">bpo-23076</a>: Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called with an
+invalid pattern. Patch by Thomas Nyberg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19883">bpo-19883</a>: Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26227">bpo-26227</a>: On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
+gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the hostname
+from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26099">bpo-26099</a>: The site module now writes an error into stderr if
+sitecustomize module can be imported but executing the module raise an
+ImportError. Same change for usercustomize.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26147">bpo-26147</a>: xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with used non-UTF-8
+encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25935">bpo-25935</a>: Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with OrderedDict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16620">bpo-16620</a>: Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26013">bpo-26013</a>: Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles created in
+old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26129">bpo-26129</a>: Deprecated accepting non-integers in grp.getgrgid().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25850">bpo-25850</a>: Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25822">bpo-25822</a>: Add docstrings to the fields of urllib.parse results. Patch
+contributed by Swati Jaiswal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22642">bpo-22642</a>: Convert trace module option parsing mechanism to argparse.
+Patch contributed by SilentGhost.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24705">bpo-24705</a>: Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars appearing
+before $() vars.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26069">bpo-26069</a>: Remove the deprecated apis in the trace module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22138">bpo-22138</a>: Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors. Restore
+original values after patching. Patch contributed by Sean McCully.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25672">bpo-25672</a>: In the ssl module, enable the SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode
+option if it is safe to do so.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26012">bpo-26012</a>: Don’t traverse into symlinks for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> pattern in
+pathlib.Path.[r]glob().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24120">bpo-24120</a>: Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
+pathlib.Path.[r]glob(). Patch by Ulrich Petri.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21815">bpo-21815</a>: Accept ] characters in the data portion of imap responses, in
+order to handle the flags with square brackets accepted and produced by
+servers such as gmail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25447">bpo-25447</a>: fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not have a buffer
+attribute (restores backward compatibility).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25971">bpo-25971</a>: Optimized creating Fractions from floats by 2 times and from
+Decimals by 3 times.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25802">bpo-25802</a>: Document as deprecated the remaining implementations of
+importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25928">bpo-25928</a>: Add Decimal.as_integer_ratio().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25447">bpo-25447</a>: Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always works,
+independently from the type of the wrapped object (by returning the
+original object unchanged).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25768">bpo-25768</a>: Have the functions in compileall return booleans instead of
+ints and add proper documentation and tests for the return values.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24103">bpo-24103</a>: Fixed possible use after free in ElementTree.XMLPullParser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25860">bpo-25860</a>: os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories when error
+occurs. Original patch by Samson Lee.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25914">bpo-25914</a>: Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25869">bpo-25869</a>: Optimized deepcopying ElementTree; it is now 20 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25873">bpo-25873</a>: Optimized iterating ElementTree.  Iterating elements
+Element.iter() is now 40% faster, iterating text Element.itertext() is now
+up to 2.5 times faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25902">bpo-25902</a>: Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree iteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22227">bpo-22227</a>: The TarFile iterator is reimplemented using generator. This
+implementation is simpler that using class.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25638">bpo-25638</a>: Optimized ElementTree.iterparse(); it is now 2x faster.
+Optimized ElementTree parsing; it is now 10% faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25761">bpo-25761</a>: Improved detecting errors in broken pickle data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25717">bpo-25717</a>: Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most fstat()
+errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1, and stopped
+anonymous temporary files from working in special cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24903">bpo-24903</a>: Fix regression in number of arguments compileall accepts when
+‘-d’ is specified.  The check on the number of arguments has been dropped
+completely as it never worked correctly anyway.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25764">bpo-25764</a>: In the subprocess module, preserve any exception caused by
+fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25771">bpo-25771</a>: Tweak the exception message for importlib.util.resolve_name()
+when ‘package’ isn’t specified but necessary.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6478">bpo-6478</a>: _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing timezone
+with time.tzset().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14285">bpo-14285</a>: When executing a package with the “python -m package” option,
+and package initialization fails, a proper traceback is now reported.  The
+“runpy” module now lets exceptions from package initialization pass back
+to the caller, rather than raising ImportError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19771">bpo-19771</a>: Also in runpy and the “-m” option, omit the irrelevant message
+“… is a package and cannot be directly executed” if the package could
+not even be initialized (e.g. due to a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code> file).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25177">bpo-25177</a>: Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very large
+numbers. As a side effect, statistics.mean and statistics.variance should
+be significantly faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25718">bpo-25718</a>: Fixed copying object with state with boolean value is false.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10131">bpo-10131</a>: Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on patch by
+Marian Ganisin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7990">bpo-7990</a>: dir() on ElementTree.Element now lists properties: “tag”,
+“text”, “tail” and “attrib”.  Original patch by Santoso Wijaya.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25725">bpo-25725</a>: Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when unpickling
+invalid data including tuple instructions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25663">bpo-25663</a>: In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate global
+names, and search the global namespace before searching builtins.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25688">bpo-25688</a>: Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising an error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23914">bpo-23914</a>: Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken pickle data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25691">bpo-25691</a>: Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25624">bpo-25624</a>: ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for directory
+entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25626">bpo-25626</a>: Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit in
+Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX.  This resolves a
+regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read chunks larger than
+2 or 4 GiB.  The change affects the zlib.Decompress.decompress()
+max_length parameter, the zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
+zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25583">bpo-25583</a>: Avoid incorrect errors raised by os.makedirs(exist_ok=True)
+when the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25593">bpo-25593</a>: Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6973">bpo-6973</a>: When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do not allow
+the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do anything as they
+could potentially signal a different process.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23883">bpo-23883</a>: Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the documented APIs for
+the following modules: calendar, csv, enum, fileinput, ftplib, logging,
+optparse, tarfile, threading and wave.  Also added a
+test.support.check__all__() helper. Patches by Jacek Kołodziej, Mauro S.
+M. Rodrigues and Joel Taddei.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25590">bpo-25590</a>: In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once per
+attribute.  Also complete names of attributes such as properties and slots
+which are listed by dir() but not yet created on an instance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25498">bpo-25498</a>: Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects created by
+wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in 3.5a1.  Based on
+patch by Eryksun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25584">bpo-25584</a>: Added “escape” to the __all__ list in the glob module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25584">bpo-25584</a>: Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25446">bpo-25446</a>: Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18010">bpo-18010</a>: Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function to handle
+exceptions from importing packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25554">bpo-25554</a>: Got rid of circular references in regular expression parsing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18973">bpo-18973</a>: Command-line interface of the calendar module now uses argparse
+instead of optparse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25510">bpo-25510</a>: fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b’’ instead of ‘’ at
+the end if the FileInput was opened with binary mode. Patch by Ryosuke
+Ito.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25503">bpo-25503</a>: Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of properties.
+Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25515">bpo-25515</a>: Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in uuid.uuid4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21827">bpo-21827</a>: Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest common
+whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace. Based on patch
+by Robert Li.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25447">bpo-25447</a>: The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied and pickled
+(by returning the original object unchanged).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25390">bpo-25390</a>: typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25441">bpo-25441</a>: asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25410">bpo-25410</a>: Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation of
+OrderedDict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25411">bpo-25411</a>: Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through better use of
+the email package. Thanks to user simon04 for the patch.</p></li>
+<li><p>Move the imp module from a PendingDeprecationWarning to
+DeprecationWarning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25407">bpo-25407</a>: Remove mentions of the formatter module being removed in Python
+3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25406">bpo-25406</a>: Fixed a bug in C implementation of OrderedDict.move_to_end()
+that caused segmentation fault or hang in iterating after moving several
+items to the start of ordered dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25382">bpo-25382</a>: pickletools.dis() now outputs implicit memo index for the
+MEMOIZE opcode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25357">bpo-25357</a>: Add an optional newline parameter to binascii.b2a_base64().
+base64.b64encode() uses it to avoid a memory copy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24164">bpo-24164</a>: Objects that need calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__</span></code> with keyword arguments,
+can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than protocol version 4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25364">bpo-25364</a>: zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25328">bpo-25328</a>: smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a ValueError if both
+decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16099">bpo-16099</a>: RobotFileParser now supports Crawl-delay and Request-rate
+extensions.  Patch by Nikolay Bogoychev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25316">bpo-25316</a>: distutils raises OSError instead of DistutilsPlatformError when
+MSVC is not installed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25380">bpo-25380</a>: Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
+pickletools.opcodes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23972">bpo-23972</a>: Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing reuseport and
+reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding the socket. Mirroring
+the existing asyncio create_server method the reuseaddr option for
+datagram sockets defaults to True if the O/S is ‘posix’ (except if the
+platform is Cygwin). Patch by Chris Laws.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25304">bpo-25304</a>: Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets you submit a
+coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
+concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25232">bpo-25232</a>: Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the URL at the
+first question mark (?) rather than the last. Patch from Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24657">bpo-24657</a>: Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in the query
+part of the URL as if it were a path. Patch from Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25287">bpo-25287</a>: Don’t add crypt.METHOD_CRYPT to crypt.methods if it’s not
+supported. Check if it is supported, it may not be supported on OpenBSD
+for example.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23600">bpo-23600</a>: Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was returning wrong
+results in some cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25203">bpo-25203</a>: Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer left the
+module in inconsistent state.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25011">bpo-25011</a>: rlcompleter now omits private and special attribute names
+unless the prefix starts with underscores.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25209">bpo-25209</a>: rlcompleter now can add a space or a colon after completed
+keyword.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22241">bpo-22241</a>: timezone.utc name is now plain ‘UTC’, not ‘UTC-00:00’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23517">bpo-23517</a>: fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of
+datetime.datetime now round microseconds to nearest with ties going to
+nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), as round(float), instead of
+rounding towards -Infinity (ROUND_FLOOR).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23552">bpo-23552</a>: Timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance
+between best and worst times. Patch from Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24633">bpo-24633</a>: site-packages/README -&gt; README.txt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24879">bpo-24879</a>: help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in the order
+they were defined rather than alphabetically.  The ordering is determined
+by the _fields attribute if present.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24874">bpo-24874</a>: Improve speed of itertools.cycle() and make its pickle more
+compact.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix crash in itertools.cycle.__setstate__() when the first argument wasn’t
+a list.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20059">bpo-20059</a>: urllib.parse raises ValueError on all invalid ports. Patch by
+Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24360">bpo-24360</a>: Improve __repr__ of argparse.Namespace() for invalid
+identifiers.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23426">bpo-23426</a>: run_setup was broken in distutils. Patch from Alexander
+Belopolsky.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13938">bpo-13938</a>: 2to3 converts StringTypes to a tuple. Patch from Mark Hammond.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2091">bpo-2091</a>: open() accepted a ‘U’ mode string containing ‘+’, but ‘U’ can
+only be used with ‘r’. Patch from Jeff Balogh and John O’Connor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8585">bpo-8585</a>: improved tests for zipimporter2. Patch from Mark Lawrence.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18622">bpo-18622</a>: unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse infinitely.
+Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24426">bpo-24426</a>: Fast searching optimization in regular expressions now works
+for patterns that starts with capturing groups.  Fast searching
+optimization now can’t be disabled at compile time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23661">bpo-23661</a>: unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions again. This
+was a regression vs Python 3.4. Patch from Ignacio Rossi</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13248">bpo-13248</a>: Remove deprecated inspect.getmoduleinfo function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25578">bpo-25578</a>: Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25530">bpo-25530</a>: Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default when creating
+ssl.SSLContext.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25569">bpo-25569</a>: Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25471">bpo-25471</a>: Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to be
+nonblocking.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25319">bpo-25319</a>: When threading.Event is reinitialized, the underlying condition
+should use a regular lock rather than a recursive lock.</p></li>
+<li><p>Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved. Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu
+Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26050">bpo-26050</a>: Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method. Patch by Марк
+Коренберг.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25924">bpo-25924</a>: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on OS X
+versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26406">bpo-26406</a>: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on
+current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD.  Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26848">bpo-26848</a>: Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle empty input.
+Patch by Jack O’Connor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27040">bpo-27040</a>: Add loop.get_exception_handler method</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27041">bpo-27041</a>: asyncio: Add loop.create_future method</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id282">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id282" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20640">bpo-20640</a>: Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit. Patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the ‘IDLE-console differences’ section of the IDLE doc, clarify how
+running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25507">bpo-25507</a>: fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented printing.
+Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25905">bpo-25905</a>: Revert unwanted conversion of ‘ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION
+MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with ‘ascii’. Re-encode
+CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with ‘utf-8’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15348">bpo-15348</a>: Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process) before
+closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process). This prevents
+the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24455">bpo-24455</a>: Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell while the
+debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with the [X] button
+(15348); and c) activating the debugger when already active (24455). The
+patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two changes. 1. Suspend and
+resume the gui.interaction method with the tcl vwait mechanism intended
+for this purpose (instead of root.mainloop &amp; .quit). 2. In gui.run, allow
+any existing interaction to terminate first.</p></li>
+<li><p>Change ‘The program’ to ‘Your program’ in an IDLE ‘kill program?’ message
+to make it clearer that the program referred to is the currently running
+user program, not IDLE itself.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24750">bpo-24750</a>: Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window status bar.
+Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25313">bpo-25313</a>: Change the handling of new built-in text color themes to better
+address the compatibility problem introduced by the addition of IDLE Dark.
+Consistently use the revised idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24782">bpo-24782</a>: Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE Preferences
+dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs are now a sorted
+list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22726">bpo-22726</a>: Re-activate the config dialog help button with some content
+about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24820">bpo-24820</a>: IDLE now has an ‘IDLE Dark’ built-in text color theme. It is
+more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt blue background.
+Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green, red, orange, … . To
+use it with IDLEs released before November 2015, hit the ‘Save as New
+Custom Theme’ button and enter a new name, such as ‘Custom Dark’.  The
+custom theme will work with any IDLE release, and can be modified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25224">bpo-25224</a>: README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE developers and
+curious users. The previous user content is now in the IDLE doc chapter.
+‘IDLE’ now means ‘Integrated Development and Learning Environment’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24820">bpo-24820</a>: Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings -&gt; Custom
+Highlighting. Original patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24972">bpo-24972</a>: Inactive selection background now matches active selection
+background, as configured by users, on all systems.  Found items are now
+always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24570">bpo-24570</a>: Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on Macs affected
+by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24988">bpo-24988</a>: Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger) now work on
+Mac Aqua. Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24801">bpo-24801</a>: Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua. Patch by
+Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25173">bpo-25173</a>: Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific widget. For Mac
+OSX, make them a ‘sheet’.  Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25198">bpo-25198</a>: Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle Help.
+Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman). Give code
+snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background. Re-use initial
+width and height set by users for shell and editor. When the Table of
+Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section header at the top of the
+screen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25225">bpo-25225</a>: Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text colors.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21995">bpo-21995</a>: Explain some differences between IDLE and console Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22820">bpo-22820</a>: Explain need for <em>print</em> when running file from Idle editor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25224">bpo-25224</a>: Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess section.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25219">bpo-25219</a>: Update doc for Idle command line options. Some were missing and
+notes were not correct.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24861">bpo-24861</a>: Most of idlelib is private and subject to change. Use
+idleib.idle.* to start Idle. See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25199">bpo-25199</a>: Idle: add synchronization comments for future maintainers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16893">bpo-16893</a>: Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc display. The new
+idlelib/help.html is rstripped Doc/build/html/library/idle.html. It looks
+better than help.txt and will better document Idle as released. The
+tkinter html viewer that works for this file was written by Rose Roseman.
+The now unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
+deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24199">bpo-24199</a>: Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible removal in 3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24790">bpo-24790</a>: Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 &amp; 3 conflicts).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id283">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id283" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26736">bpo-26736</a>: Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if possible.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6953">bpo-6953</a>: Rework the Readline module documentation to group related
+functions together, and add more details such as what underlying Readline
+functions and variables are accessed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23606">bpo-23606</a>: Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding cdll.msvcrt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24952">bpo-24952</a>: Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in the
+“threading” and “_thread” modules. Patch from Mattip.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26014">bpo-26014</a>: Update 3.x packaging documentation: * “See also” links to the
+new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links to setuptools
+documentation have been updated</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id284">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id284" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21916">bpo-21916</a>: Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid, Gregory
+Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26295">bpo-26295</a>: When using “python3 -m test –testdir=TESTDIR”, regrtest
+doesn’t add “test.” prefix to test module names.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26523">bpo-26523</a>: The multiprocessing thread pool (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool)
+was untested.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26015">bpo-26015</a>: Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable sequences.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26325">bpo-26325</a>: Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to check that no
+ResourceWarning is emitted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25940">bpo-25940</a>: Changed test_ssl to use its internal local server more.  This
+avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root certificate.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25616">bpo-25616</a>: Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from test_collections into
+separate file test_ordered_dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25449">bpo-25449</a>: Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25188">bpo-25188</a>: Add -P/–pgo to test.regrtest to suppress error output when
+running the test suite for the purposes of a PGO build. Initial patch by
+Alecsandru Patrascu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22806">bpo-22806</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">test</span> <span class="pre">--list-tests</span></code> command to list tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18174">bpo-18174</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">test</span> <span class="pre">--huntrleaks</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> now also checks for leak of
+file descriptors. Patch written by Richard Oudkerk.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25260">bpo-25260</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">test</span> <span class="pre">--coverage</span></code> on Windows. Remove the list
+of ignored directories.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\rt.bat</span></code> now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to pass
+along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26583">bpo-26583</a>: Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if bytecode files
+cannot be written.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id285">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id285" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21277">bpo-21277</a>: Don’t try to link _ctypes with a ffi_convenience library.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26884">bpo-26884</a>: Fix linking extension modules for cross builds. Patch by Xavier
+de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26932">bpo-26932</a>: Fixed support of RTLD_* constants defined as enum values, not
+via macros (in particular on Android).  Patch by Chi Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22359">bpo-22359</a>: Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and pgen when
+cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is normally saved with the
+source code anyway, and is still regenerated when doing a native build.
+Patch by Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21668">bpo-21668</a>: Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to libm, except
+on Mac OS X. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25702">bpo-25702</a>: A –with-lto configure option has been added that will enable
+link time optimizations at build time during a make profile-opt. Some
+compilers and toolchains are known to not produce stable code when using
+LTO, be sure to test things thoroughly before relying on it. It can
+provide a few % speed up over profile-opt alone.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26624">bpo-26624</a>: Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with warning for old
+versions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17603">bpo-17603</a>: Avoid error about nonexistant fileblocks.o file by using a
+lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26079">bpo-26079</a>: Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6. Patch by Bjoern
+Thiel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26465">bpo-26465</a>: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25348">bpo-25348</a>: Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--pgo</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--pgo-job</span></code> arguments to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\build.bat</span></code> for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.  The
+old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\build_pgo.bat</span></code> script is removed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25827">bpo-25827</a>: Add support for building with ICC to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure</span></code>, including a
+new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-icc</span></code> flag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25696">bpo-25696</a>: Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24986">bpo-24986</a>: It is now possible to build Python on Windows without errors
+when external libraries are not available.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24421">bpo-24421</a>: Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building extensions.
+Previously it could fail to compile properly if the math and cmath builds
+were concurrent.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26465">bpo-26465</a>: Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and link with
+OpenSSL 1.0.2g.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26268">bpo-26268</a>: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25136">bpo-25136</a>: Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub libraries.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24324">bpo-24324</a>: Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using gcc as the
+option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc and has been
+silently removed as of gcc-4.5.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id286">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id286" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27053">bpo-27053</a>: Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26268">bpo-26268</a>: Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL releases
+that don’t include the contents of the include directory (that is, 1.0.2e
+and later).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26071">bpo-26071</a>: bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find 32bit
+Python</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26073">bpo-26073</a>: Update the list of magic numbers in launcher</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26065">bpo-26065</a>: Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable distro.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25022">bpo-25022</a>: Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id287">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id287" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26799">bpo-26799</a>: Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the Python code
+is loaded, but get C types on demand. The C types can change if
+python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable. Patch written by
+Thomas Ilsche.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26271">bpo-26271</a>: Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed through
+configure. Patch by Daniel Shaulov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26489">bpo-26489</a>: Add dictionary unpacking support to Tools/parser/unparse.py.
+Patch by Guo Ci Teo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26316">bpo-26316</a>: Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25440">bpo-25440</a>: Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25154">bpo-25154</a>: The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python3</span> <span class="pre">-m</span>
+<span class="pre">venv</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id288">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id288" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26312">bpo-26312</a>: SystemError is now raised in all programming bugs with using
+PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().  RuntimeError did raised before in some
+programming bugs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26198">bpo-26198</a>: ValueError is now raised instead of TypeError on buffer
+overflow in parsing “es#” and “et#” format units.  SystemError is now
+raised instead of TypeError on programmatical error in parsing format
+string.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-5-final">
+<h2>Python 3.5.5 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-5-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-02-04</em></p>
+<p>There were no new changes in version 3.5.5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-5-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-5-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2018-01-23</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id289">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id289" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32551">bpo-32551</a>: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path[0]</span></code> initialization change for <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29139">bpo-29139</a> caused
+a regression by revealing an inconsistency in how sys.path is initialized
+when executing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code> from a zipfile, directory, or other import
+location. This is considered a potential security issue, as it may lead to
+privileged processes unexpectedly loading code from user controlled
+directories in situations where that was not previously the case.</p>
+<p>The interpreter now consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s
+parent directory to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>, and ensures no other <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code>
+entries are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location
+named on the command line. (Originally reported as <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29723">bpo-29723</a> against
+Python 3.6rc1, but it was missed at the time that the then upcoming Python
+3.5.4 release would also be affected)</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30657">bpo-30657</a>: Fixed possible integer overflow in PyBytes_DecodeEscape,
+CVE-2017-1000158. Original patch by Jay Bosamiya; rebased to Python 3 by
+Miro Hrončok.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30947">bpo-30947</a>: Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to 2.2.3 to
+get security fixes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id290">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id290" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31095">bpo-31095</a>: Fix potential crash during GC caused by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code> which
+doesn’t call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code>.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id291">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id291" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue32072">bpo-32072</a>: Fixed issues with binary plists:</p>
+<ul>
+<li><p>Fixed saving bytearrays.</p></li>
+<li><p>Identical objects will be saved only once.</p></li>
+<li><p>Equal references will be load as identical objects.</p></li>
+<li><p>Added support for saving and loading recursive data structures.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue31170">bpo-31170</a>: expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4. Fix copying of
+partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115">https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115</a></p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-4-final">
+<h2>Python 3.5.4 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-4-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-08-07</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id292">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id292" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30119">bpo-30119</a>: ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on commands that
+contains CR or LF. Patch by Dong-hee Na.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-4-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-4-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-07-23</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id293">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id293" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30730">bpo-30730</a>: Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess on
+Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and command
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30694">bpo-30694</a>: Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes of multiple
+security vulnerabilities including: CVE-2017-9233 (External entity
+infinite loop DoS), CVE-2016-9063 (Integer overflow, re-fix),
+CVE-2016-0718 (Fix regression bugs from 2.2.0’s fix to CVE-2016-0718) and
+CVE-2012-0876 (Counter hash flooding with SipHash). Note: the
+CVE-2016-5300 (Use os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t
+impact Python, since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the
+expat secret using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">XML_SetHashSalt()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30500">bpo-30500</a>: Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse fragments. For
+example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splithost('//127.0.0.1#&#64;evil.com/')</span></code> now correctly returns the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">127.0.0.1</span></code> host, instead of treating <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&#64;evil.com</span></code> as the host in an
+authentication (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">login&#64;host</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29591">bpo-29591</a>: Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
+CVE-2016-0718 and CVE-2016-4472. See
+<a class="reference external" href="https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/">https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/</a> for more information.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id294">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id294" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30876">bpo-30876</a>: Relative import from unloaded package now reimports the package
+instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import from non-package now
+fails with ImportError rather than SystemError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30765">bpo-30765</a>: Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
+PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27945">bpo-27945</a>: Fixed various segfaults with dict when input collections are
+mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.  Based on patches by
+Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25794">bpo-25794</a>: Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
+non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29935">bpo-29935</a>: Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple, list and
+deque when pass indices of wrong type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28876">bpo-28876</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bool(range)</span></code> works even if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">len(range)</span></code> raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OverflowError</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29600">bpo-29600</a>: Fix wrapping coroutine return values in StopIteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29537">bpo-29537</a>: Restore runtime compatibility with bytecode files generated by
+CPython 3.5.0 to 3.5.2, and adjust the eval loop to avoid the problems
+that could be caused by the malformed variant of the
+BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode that they may contain. Patch by Petr
+Viktorin, Serhiy Storchaka, and Nick Coghlan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28598">bpo-28598</a>: Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called before
+str.__mod__. Patch by Martijn Pieters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29602">bpo-29602</a>: Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex constructor
+for complex subclasses and for inputs having a __complex__ method. Patch
+by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29347">bpo-29347</a>: Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when creating
+weakref objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29438">bpo-29438</a>: Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29319">bpo-29319</a>: Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29337">bpo-29337</a>: Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code objects.
+Warnings could be emitted at compile time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29478">bpo-29478</a>: If max_line_length=None is specified while using the Compat32
+policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id295">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id295" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29403">bpo-29403</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.mock</span></code>’s autospec to not fail on method-bound
+builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30961">bpo-30961</a>: Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30886">bpo-30886</a>: Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits until the
+thread completes, even if the thread was started by the same process which
+created the queue.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29854">bpo-29854</a>: Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s history-size
+option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30807">bpo-30807</a>: signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed a tiny
+value.</p>
+<p>Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values for setitimer(),
+which is specified as taking microsecond-resolution intervals. However, on
+some platform, our conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero
+interval, therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30441">bpo-30441</a>: Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating over it</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30532">bpo-30532</a>: Fix email header value parser dropping folding white space in
+certain cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29169">bpo-29169</a>: Update zlib to 1.2.11.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30879">bpo-30879</a>: os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names when called
+with bytes-like argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30746">bpo-30746</a>: Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable names in
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.putenv()</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.spawn*()</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29755">bpo-29755</a>: Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the gettext module.
+They now always return bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30645">bpo-30645</a>: Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it for cases
+when a package is only shipped with bytecodes. Patch by Alexandru
+Ardelean.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23890">bpo-23890</a>: unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks a
+reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30149">bpo-30149</a>: inspect.signature() now supports callables with
+variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod. Patch by Dong-hee
+Na.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29931">bpo-29931</a>: Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface objects.
+Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24484">bpo-24484</a>: Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28994">bpo-28994</a>: The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit raised in a
+callback registered by atexit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30508">bpo-30508</a>: Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()” method was
+called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Updates to typing module: Add generic AsyncContextManager, add
+support for ContextManager on all versions. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra
+and Ivan Levkivskyi</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29870">bpo-29870</a>: Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in asyncio/ssl
+implementation. Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29743">bpo-29743</a>: Closing transport during handshake process leaks open socket.
+Patch by Nikolay Kim</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27585">bpo-27585</a>: Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock. Patch by Mathieu
+Sornay.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30418">bpo-30418</a>: On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also ignore
+EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still running but closed
+the pipe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30378">bpo-30378</a>: Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler cannot
+handle IPv6 addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29960">bpo-29960</a>: Preserve generator state when _random.Random.setstate() raises
+an exception. Patch by Bryan Olson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30414">bpo-30414</a>: multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running thread do not
+break from main loop on exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30003">bpo-30003</a>: Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based on patch by
+Ma Lin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30301">bpo-30301</a>: Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty() under <em>spawn</em>
+and <em>forkserver</em> start methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30329">bpo-30329</a>: imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket WSAEINVAL error
+(code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid operation was attempted.
+This error occurs sometimes on SSL connections.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30375">bpo-30375</a>: Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression now always
+point to the line in the user code.  Previously they could point into
+inners of the re module if emitted from inside of groups or conditionals.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30048">bpo-30048</a>: Fixed <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Task.cancel()</span></code> can be ignored when the task is running
+coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29990">bpo-29990</a>: Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original patch by Ma
+Lin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26293">bpo-26293</a>: Change resulted because of zipfile breakage. (See also:
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29094">bpo-29094</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30243">bpo-30243</a>: Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and encoder.
+Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now scanner and
+encoder objects are completely initialized in the __new__ methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30185">bpo-30185</a>: Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver helper process
+when Ctrl-C is received.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Various updates to typing module: add typing.NoReturn type, use
+WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.  Original PRs by Jim
+Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30205">bpo-30205</a>: Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on Linux.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30070">bpo-30070</a>: Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the parser
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30061">bpo-30061</a>: Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and readlines() when
+readline() or __next__() respectively return non-sizeable object. Fixed
+possible other errors caused by not checking results of PyObject_Size(),
+PySequence_Size(), or PyMapping_Size().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30068">bpo-30068</a>: _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed first when hint
+is present.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29694">bpo-29694</a>: Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags parents=True.
+Patch by Armin Rigo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29692">bpo-29692</a>: Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError exceptions in
+contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth Velankar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29998">bpo-29998</a>: Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name and path
+attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29942">bpo-29942</a>: Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when encountering
+long runs of empty iterables.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27863">bpo-27863</a>: Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race conditions
+and wrong types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28699">bpo-28699</a>: Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that raising an
+exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow the exception or
+make the program hang. Patch by Davin Potts and Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25803">bpo-25803</a>: Avoid incorrect errors raised by Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when
+the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29861">bpo-29861</a>: Release references to tasks, their arguments and their results
+as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29884">bpo-29884</a>: faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during teardown.
+Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25455">bpo-25455</a>: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered file-like objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29800">bpo-29800</a>: Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of partial.keywords
+are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29742">bpo-29742</a>: get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on closed ssl
+transport. Patch by Nikolay Kim.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8256">bpo-8256</a>: Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if attributes
+“encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are not set or are not
+strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28298">bpo-28298</a>: Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’ from accepting
+big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.  Patch by Oren
+Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29615">bpo-29615</a>: SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or any other
+exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched methods. Patch by Petr
+Motejlek.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29704">bpo-29704</a>: asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer closes
+before all pipes are closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29703">bpo-29703</a>: Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event loops in
+child processes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29376">bpo-29376</a>: Fix assertion error in threading._DummyThread.is_alive().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29110">bpo-29110</a>: Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is given as a
+filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format. Patch by Anthony Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28961">bpo-28961</a>: Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the name parameter
+anymore. Patch written by Jiajun Huang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29532">bpo-29532</a>: Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to functools.partial() no
+longer affects a partial object after creation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28556">bpo-28556</a>: Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
+typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc. Original PRs by Jelle
+Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29100">bpo-29100</a>: Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced in Python
+3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29519">bpo-29519</a>: Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter shutdown when
+used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and custom codecs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29416">bpo-29416</a>: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29444">bpo-29444</a>: Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group() method of the
+match object. Based on patch by WGH.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29335">bpo-29335</a>: Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process has exited
+to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under ptrace).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29290">bpo-29290</a>: Fix a regression in argparse that help messages would wrap at
+non-breaking spaces.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28735">bpo-28735</a>: Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with mock.ANY.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29011">bpo-29011</a>: Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the typing module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29219">bpo-29219</a>: Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of uninitialized
+ctypes.CDLL instances.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28969">bpo-28969</a>: Fixed race condition in C implementation of
+functools.lru_cache. KeyError could be raised when cached function with
+full cache was simultaneously called from differen threads with the same
+uncached arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29142">bpo-29142</a>: In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment variable
+with leading dots could match related hostnames again (e.g. .b.c matches
+a.b.c). Patch by Milan Oberkirch.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id296">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id296" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30176">bpo-30176</a>: Add missing attribute related constants in curses
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26985">bpo-26985</a>: Add missing info of code object in inspect documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28929">bpo-28929</a>: Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25008">bpo-25008</a>: Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a pointer
+to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26355">bpo-26355</a>: Add canonical header link on each page to corresponding major
+version of the documentation. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29349">bpo-29349</a>: Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the documentation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id297">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id297" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30822">bpo-30822</a>: Fix regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u
+extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30383">bpo-30383</a>: regrtest: Enhance regrtest and backport features from the
+master branch.</p>
+<p>Add options: –coverage, –testdir, –list-tests (list test files, don’t
+run them), –list-cases (list test identifiers, don’t run them,
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30523">bpo-30523</a>), –matchfile (load a list of test filters from a text
+file, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30540">bpo-30540</a>), –slowest (alias to –slow).</p>
+<p>Enhance output: add timestamp, test result, currently running tests,
+“Tests result: xxx” summary with total duration, etc.</p>
+<p>Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest, –huntrleaks: regrtest now warms
+up caches, create explicitly all internal singletons which are created on
+demand to prevent false positives when checking for reference leaks.
+(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30675">bpo-30675</a>).</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30357">bpo-30357</a>: test_thread: setUp() now uses support.threading_setup() and
+support.threading_cleanup() to wait until threads complete to avoid random
+side effects on following tests. Initial patch written by Grzegorz
+Grzywacz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28087">bpo-28087</a>: Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on macOS. Skip
+some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to unresolved issues
+with the underlying system poll function on some macOS versions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30197">bpo-30197</a>: Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
+test.support module. They now work when delete replaced attribute or item
+inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute or item (or
+None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the target of the “as”
+clause, if there is one.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29571">bpo-29571</a>: to match the behaviour of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.LOCALE</span></code> flag,
+test_re.test_locale_flag now uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">locale.getpreferredencoding(False)</span></code>
+to determine the candidate encoding for the test regex (allowing it to
+correctly skip the test when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte
+encoding)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id298">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id298" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29243">bpo-29243</a>: Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">test</span></code>,
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">install</span></code> and some other make targets when configured with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-optimizations</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23404">bpo-23404</a>: Don’t regenerate generated files based on file modification
+time anymore: the action is now explicit. Replace <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">touch</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">regen-all</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29643">bpo-29643</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--enable-optimization</span></code> didn’t work.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id299">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id299" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue30687">bpo-30687</a>: Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather than
+vcvarsall.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29392">bpo-29392</a>: Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into msvcrt
+module.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id300">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id300" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27867">bpo-27867</a>: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a macro if
+Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not
+including) or 0x03060100 or higher.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29083">bpo-29083</a>: Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
+PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not available in
+limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(), PyArg_UnpackTuple() and
+Py_BuildValue() were not available in limited API of version &lt; 3.3 when
+PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-3-final">
+<h2>Python 3.5.3 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-3-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-01-17</em></p>
+<p>There were no code changes between 3.5.3rc1 and 3.5.3 final.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-3-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-3-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2017-01-02</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id301">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id301" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29073">bpo-29073</a>: bytearray formatting no longer truncates on first null byte.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28932">bpo-28932</a>: Do not include &lt;sys/random.h&gt; if it does not exist.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28147">bpo-28147</a>: Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries: setattr() must
+not convert combined table into split table.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25677">bpo-25677</a>: Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for indented
+blocks. Based on patch by Michael Layzell.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29000">bpo-29000</a>: Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in alternate
+form.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28512">bpo-28512</a>: Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
+PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28991">bpo-28991</a>: functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure reentrancy
+bug caused by a monkey-patched len() function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28648">bpo-28648</a>: Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on Mac OS X
+when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19398">bpo-19398</a>: Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in case of
+empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28426">bpo-28426</a>: Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug
+build.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23782">bpo-23782</a>: Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and exception
+loss in PyTraceBack_Here().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28379">bpo-28379</a>: Added sanity checks and tests for PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().
+Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28376">bpo-28376</a>: The type of long range iterator is now registered as Iterator.
+Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28376">bpo-28376</a>: The constructor of range_iterator now checks that step is not
+0. Patch by Oren Milman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26906">bpo-26906</a>: Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now causes
+implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18287">bpo-18287</a>: PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL. Original
+patch by Niklas Koep.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24098">bpo-24098</a>: Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process of
+compiling it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28350">bpo-28350</a>: String constants with null character no longer interned.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26617">bpo-26617</a>: Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27942">bpo-27942</a>: String constants now interned recursively in tuples and
+frozensets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21578">bpo-21578</a>: Fixed misleading error message when ImportError called with
+invalid keyword args.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28203">bpo-28203</a>: Fix incorrect type in error message from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">complex(1.0,</span>
+<span class="pre">{2:3})</span></code>. Patch by Soumya Sharma.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27955">bpo-27955</a>: Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the getrandom()
+syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by SECCOMP.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28131">bpo-28131</a>: Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().  zipimport
+should use the same optimization level as the interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25221">bpo-25221</a>: Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when Python is
+compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25758">bpo-25758</a>: Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a filename
+(patch by Eryk Sun)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28189">bpo-28189</a>: dictitems_contains no longer swallows compare errors. (Patch by
+Xiang Zhang)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27812">bpo-27812</a>: Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s backreference to the
+generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27811">bpo-27811</a>: Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been awaited is
+finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27587">bpo-27587</a>: Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer check after
+use of ‘def’ in _PyState_AddModule(). Initial patch by Christian Heimes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26020">bpo-26020</a>: set literal evaluation order did not match documented
+behaviour.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27782">bpo-27782</a>: Multi-phase extension module import now correctly allows the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">m_methods</span></code> field to be used to add module level functions to instances
+of non-module types returned from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_create_mod</span></code>. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27936">bpo-27936</a>: The round() function accepted a second None argument for some
+types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by accepting None for
+all numeric types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27487">bpo-27487</a>: Warn if a submodule argument to “python -m” or
+runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages are
+imported, but before the submodule is executed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27558">bpo-27558</a>: Fix a SystemError in the implementation of “raise” statement.
+In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there is no active
+exception to reraise. Patch written by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27419">bpo-27419</a>: Standard __import__() no longer look up “__import__” in globals
+or builtins for importing submodules or “from import”.  Fixed handling an
+error of non-string package name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27083">bpo-27083</a>: Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27514">bpo-27514</a>: Make having too many statically nested blocks a SyntaxError
+instead of SystemError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27473">bpo-27473</a>: Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and bytearray
+concatenations. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27507">bpo-27507</a>: Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().  Patch by
+Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27581">bpo-27581</a>: Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
+PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27443">bpo-27443</a>: __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer return a
+negative integer for a resized bytearray.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27942">bpo-27942</a>: Fix memory leak in codeobject.c</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id302">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id302" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15812">bpo-15812</a>: inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first line of a
+context. Patch by Sam Breese.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29094">bpo-29094</a>: Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object and modes
+“w” and “x” now are relative to the start of the file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13051">bpo-13051</a>: Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
+curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29119">bpo-29119</a>: Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
+collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method. Contributed by Andra
+Bogildea.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9770">bpo-9770</a>: curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with negative
+integers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28427">bpo-28427</a>: old keys should not remove new values from WeakValueDictionary
+when collecting from another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28923">bpo-28923</a>: Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28871">bpo-28871</a>: Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19542">bpo-19542</a>: Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
+WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another thread.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20191">bpo-20191</a>: Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when pass a sequence that
+doesn’t own its elements as limits.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28779">bpo-28779</a>: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash the
+forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some multiprocessing
+objects such as locks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28847">bpo-28847</a>: dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer
+writes the index file when it is not changed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25659">bpo-25659</a>: In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer() and
+from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28732">bpo-28732</a>: Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28485">bpo-28485</a>: Always raise ValueError for negative
+compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when multithreading is
+unavailable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28387">bpo-28387</a>: Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator when the
+garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on patch by Sebastian
+Cufre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27517">bpo-27517</a>: LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise exceptions if
+given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28549">bpo-28549</a>: Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28449">bpo-28449</a>: tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to open a tar
+file with compression before trying to open it without compression.
+Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with ignore_zeros=True.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23262">bpo-23262</a>: The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and derived
+browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27939">bpo-27939</a>: Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and tkinter.Scale caused
+by representing the scale as float value internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar
+now works if float value is set to underlying Tk variable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28255">bpo-28255</a>: calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a space at
+the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.  Patch by Xiang
+Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20491">bpo-20491</a>: The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors non-breaking spaces.
+Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28353">bpo-28353</a>: os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25464">bpo-25464</a>: Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by addin a
+workaround to Tix library bug.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28488">bpo-28488</a>: shutil.make_archive() no longer add entry “./” to ZIP archive.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24452">bpo-24452</a>: Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20766">bpo-20766</a>: Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of SIGINT
+handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26293">bpo-26293</a>: Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the start of the
+file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the start of the archive in
+conforming to the specification.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28321">bpo-28321</a>: Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format in
+plistlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28322">bpo-28322</a>: Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools objects from
+incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with unusual
+usage patterns.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1703178">bpo-1703178</a>: Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option to the
+distutils build_ext command.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28253">bpo-28253</a>: Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01 and
+9999-12.</p>
+<p>Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are reimplemented so that
+they don’t call itermonthdates() which can cause datetime.date
+under/overflow.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28275">bpo-28275</a>: Fixed possible use after free in the decompress() methods of
+the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes. Original patch by John
+Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27897">bpo-27897</a>: Fixed possible crash in sqlite3.Connection.create_collation()
+if pass invalid string-like object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18893">bpo-18893</a>: Fix invalid exception handling in Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.
+Patch by Madison May.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27611">bpo-27611</a>: Fixed support of default root window in the tkinter.tix module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27348">bpo-27348</a>: In the traceback module, restore the formatting of exception
+messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression introduced in
+3.5a2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25651">bpo-25651</a>: Allow falsy values to be used for msg parameter of subTest().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27932">bpo-27932</a>: Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28075">bpo-28075</a>: Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows implementation of
+os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25270">bpo-25270</a>: Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising SystemError when an
+empty bytestring is passed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28181">bpo-28181</a>: Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic Sivaraam.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25895">bpo-25895</a>: Enable WebSocket URL schemes in urllib.parse.urljoin. Patch by
+Gergely Imreh and Markus Holtermann.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27599">bpo-27599</a>: Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
+binascii.a2b_qp().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19003">bpo-19003</a>: m email.generator now replaces only <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\r</span></code> and/or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\n</span></code> line
+endings, per the RFC, instead of all unicode line endings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28019">bpo-28019</a>: itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step in range
+between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25969">bpo-25969</a>: Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
+generalizations added in 3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14977">bpo-14977</a>: mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the mailcap
+files (“first match”), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by Michael Lazar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24594">bpo-24594</a>: Validates persist parameter when opening MSI database</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17582">bpo-17582</a>: xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in attributes
+(Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by Stefan Behnel.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28047">bpo-28047</a>: Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64 CTE in the
+new email policies.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27445">bpo-27445</a>: Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload(). Patch by
+Claude Paroz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22450">bpo-22450</a>: urllib now includes an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Accept:</span> <span class="pre">*/*</span></code> header among the default
+headers. This makes the results of REST API requests more consistent and
+predictable especially when proxy servers are involved.</p></li>
+<li><p>lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
+between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the hash
+randomization setting.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27570">bpo-27570</a>: Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null source pointers
+in the “ctypes” and “array” modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22233">bpo-22233</a>: Break email header lines <em>only</em> on the RFC specified CR and LF
+characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This also fixes a bug
+in HTTP header parsing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27988">bpo-27988</a>: Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of payload list.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27691">bpo-27691</a>: Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject alternative name
+fields in X.509 certs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27850">bpo-27850</a>: Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to counter
+measure sweet32 attack (CVE-2016-2183).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27766">bpo-27766</a>: Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher list.
+(Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26470">bpo-26470</a>: Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.</p></li>
+<li><p>Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access. It never worked
+but previously didn’t raise.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12885">bpo-12885</a>: Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27881">bpo-27881</a>: Fixed possible bugs when setting
+sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27861">bpo-27861</a>: Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a factory
+creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19884">bpo-19884</a>: Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27706">bpo-27706</a>: Restore deterministic behavior of random.Random().seed() for
+string seeds using seeding version 1.  Allows sequences of calls to
+random() to exactly match those obtained in Python 2. Patch by Nofar
+Schnider.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10513">bpo-10513</a>: Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements should not
+be reset after a commit.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new version of typing.py from <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/typing">https://github.com/python/typing</a>:
+Collection (only for 3.6) (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27598">bpo-27598</a>). Add FrozenSet to __all__
+(upstream #261). Fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream #259). Remove the
+dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type (upstream #252).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27539">bpo-27539</a>: Fix unnormalised <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Fraction.__pow__</span></code> result in the case of
+negative exponent and negative base.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21718">bpo-21718</a>: cursor.description is now available for queries using CTEs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2466">bpo-2466</a>: posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount points which
+the user does not have permission to access.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27773">bpo-27773</a>: Correct some memory management errors server_hostname in
+_ssl.wrap_socket().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26750">bpo-26750</a>: unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly for
+subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or window.instr()
+is passed a negative value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27783">bpo-27783</a>: Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
+operator.methodcaller.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27774">bpo-27774</a>: Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27760">bpo-27760</a>: Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27758">bpo-27758</a>: Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for large
+record lengths.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27568">bpo-27568</a>: Prevent HTTPoxy attack (CVE-2016-1000110). Ignore the
+HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is set, which
+indicates that the script is in CGI mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27656">bpo-27656</a>: Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27130">bpo-27130</a>: In the “zlib” module, fix handling of large buffers (typically
+4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously, inputs were
+limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression operations did not
+properly handle results of 4 GiB.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27533">bpo-27533</a>: Release GIL in nt._isdir</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17711">bpo-17711</a>: Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol 0. Original
+patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27522">bpo-27522</a>: Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in email.feedparser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26844">bpo-26844</a>: Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to ‘path’
+instead of ‘name’. Patch by Lev Maximov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23804">bpo-23804</a>: Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not raise an
+error about unclean EOF.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27466">bpo-27466</a>: Change time format returned by http.cookie.time2netscape,
+confirming the netscape cookie format and making it consistent with
+documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26664">bpo-26664</a>: Fix activate.fish by removing mis-use of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">$</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22115">bpo-22115</a>: Fixed tracing Tkinter variables: trace_vdelete() with wrong
+mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of
+pairs of strings, tracing in the “u” mode now works.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix a scoping issue in importlib.util.LazyLoader which triggered an
+UnboundLocalError when lazy-loading a module that was already put into
+sys.modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27079">bpo-27079</a>: Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl() and
+ispunct().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26754">bpo-26754</a>: Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename argument
+encoded as an iterable of integers. Now only strings and byte-like objects
+are accepted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27048">bpo-27048</a>: Prevents distutils failing on Windows when environment
+variables contain non-ASCII characters</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27330">bpo-27330</a>: Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27238">bpo-27238</a>: Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.  Original patch
+by Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27122">bpo-27122</a>: When an exception is raised within the context being managed by
+a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack generators catches and
+raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the original exception when exiting,
+let the new chained one through.  This avoids the PEP 479 bug described in
+issue25782.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id303">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id303" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27278">bpo-27278</a>: Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on Linux.
+Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough random bytes,
+instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id304">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id304" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26386">bpo-26386</a>: Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item id’s
+containing spaces.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id305">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id305" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22636">bpo-22636</a>: Avoid shell injection problems with ctypes.util.find_library().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id306">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id306" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16182">bpo-16182</a>: Fix various functions in the “readline” module to use the
+locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to return code
+point indexes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27392">bpo-27392</a>: Add loop.connect_accepted_socket(). Patch by Jim Fulton.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27930">bpo-27930</a>: Improved behaviour of logging.handlers.QueueListener. Thanks to
+Paulo Andrade and Petr Viktorin for the analysis and patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21201">bpo-21201</a>: Improves readability of multiprocessing error message.  Thanks
+to Wojciech Walczak for patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27456">bpo-27456</a>: asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27906">bpo-27906</a>: Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP traffic. Patch by
+Kevin Conway.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28174">bpo-28174</a>: Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported. Patch by
+Seth Michael Larson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26654">bpo-26654</a>: Inspect functools.partial in asyncio.Handle.__repr__. Patch by
+iceboy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26909">bpo-26909</a>: Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio. Patch by INADA Naoki.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28176">bpo-28176</a>: Fix callbacks race in asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27759">bpo-27759</a>: Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file descriptors.
+Patch by Mark Williams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28368">bpo-28368</a>: Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has no loop
+attached. Patch by Vincent Michel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28369">bpo-28369</a>: Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with add_reader,
+add_writer, etc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28370">bpo-28370</a>: Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly. Patch by Коренберг
+Марк.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28371">bpo-28371</a>: Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to run_in_executor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28372">bpo-28372</a>: Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python coroutines.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28399">bpo-28399</a>: Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding. Patch by Коренберг
+Марк.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27972">bpo-27972</a>: Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26923">bpo-26923</a>: Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once all children
+are done. Patch by Johannes Ebke.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26796">bpo-26796</a>: Don’t configure the number of workers for default threadpool
+executor. Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28600">bpo-28600</a>: Optimize loop.call_soon().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28613">bpo-28613</a>: Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if called from
+coroutines/callbacks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28639">bpo-28639</a>: Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch by Justin
+Mayfield.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28652">bpo-28652</a>: Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not support.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28653">bpo-28653</a>: Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28703">bpo-28703</a>: Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24142">bpo-24142</a>: Reading a corrupt config file left the parser in an invalid
+state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28990">bpo-28990</a>: Fix SSL hanging if connection is closed before handshake
+completed. (Patch by HoHo-Ho)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id307">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id307" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15308">bpo-15308</a>: Add ‘interrupt execution’ (^C) to Shell menu. Patch by Roger
+Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27922">bpo-27922</a>: Stop IDLE tests from ‘flashing’ gui widgets on the screen.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add version to title of IDLE help window.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25564">bpo-25564</a>: In section on IDLE – console differences, mention that using
+exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each statement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27714">bpo-27714</a>: text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when re-run in the
+same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when run with the -w
+option but without -jn.  Fix warning from test_config.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25507">bpo-25507</a>: IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter imports.
+Users must include the same imports required to run directly in Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27452">bpo-27452</a>: add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test dump.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27365">bpo-27365</a>: Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for contributor names.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27245">bpo-27245</a>: IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
+Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a cascade
+of warnings was emitted. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id308">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id308" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28808">bpo-28808</a>: PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26754">bpo-26754</a>: PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument encoded as
+an iterable of integers. Now only strings and bytes-like objects are
+accepted.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id309">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id309" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28513">bpo-28513</a>: Documented command-line interface of zipfile.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id310">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id310" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28950">bpo-28950</a>: Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l/-M in regrtest command
+line arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28666">bpo-28666</a>: Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable or
+unreadable directories.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23839">bpo-23839</a>: Various caches now are cleared before running every test file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28409">bpo-28409</a>: regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27787">bpo-27787</a>: Call gc.collect() before checking each test for “dangling
+threads”, since the dangling threads are weak references.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27369">bpo-27369</a>: In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message detail that
+changed in Expat 2.2.0.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id311">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id311" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27952">bpo-27952</a>: Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and the
+current “re” module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes, and fix a bug
+parsing escaped C quote signs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27332">bpo-27332</a>: Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level functions
+generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27418">bpo-27418</a>: Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id312">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id312" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28251">bpo-28251</a>: Improvements to help manuals on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28110">bpo-28110</a>: launcher.msi has different product codes between 32-bit and
+64-bit</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25144">bpo-25144</a>: Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with custom install.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27469">bpo-27469</a>: Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag and drop
+works correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27309">bpo-27309</a>: Enabled proper Windows styles in python[w].exe manifest.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id313">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id313" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue29080">bpo-29080</a>: Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from PCBuild/build.bat</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23903">bpo-23903</a>: Added missed names to PC/python3.def.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10656">bpo-10656</a>: Fix out-of-tree building on AIX.  Patch by Tristan Carel and
+Michael Haubenwallner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26359">bpo-26359</a>: Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28444">bpo-28444</a>: Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28248">bpo-28248</a>: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2j.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28258">bpo-28258</a>: Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and distclean
+targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26661">bpo-26661</a>: setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch wrapper.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28066">bpo-28066</a>: Fix the logic that searches build directories for generated
+include files when building outside the source tree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15819">bpo-15819</a>: Remove redundant include search directory option for building
+outside the source tree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27566">bpo-27566</a>: Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa Roach)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27705">bpo-27705</a>: Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27983">bpo-27983</a>: Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as required
+for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than make time when
+–with-optimizations is enabled.  Also improve our ability to find the
+llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26307">bpo-26307</a>: The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26359">bpo-26359</a>: Add the –with-optimizations configure flag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27713">bpo-27713</a>: Suppress spurious build warnings when updating importlib’s
+bootstrap files. Patch by Xiang Zhang</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25825">bpo-25825</a>: Correct the references to Modules/python.exp and ld_so_aix,
+which are required on AIX.  This updates references to an installation
+path that was changed in 3.2a4, and undoes changed references to the build
+tree that were made in 3.5.0a1.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27453">bpo-27453</a>: CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch by Chi
+Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27641">bpo-27641</a>: The configure script now inserts comments into the makefile to
+prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from being
+cross-compiled.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26662">bpo-26662</a>: Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program to be
+used for file generation during the build.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10910">bpo-10910</a>: Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X. Also update
+FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8 workaround.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue28676">bpo-28676</a>: Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on macOS.
+Patch by Gareth Rees.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-2-final">
+<h2>Python 3.5.2 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-2-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-06-26</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id314">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id314" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26930">bpo-26930</a>: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id315">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id315" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26867">bpo-26867</a>: Ubuntu’s openssl OP_NO_SSLv3 is forced on by default; fix test.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id316">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id316" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27365">bpo-27365</a>: Allow non-ascii in idlelib/NEWS.txt - minimal part for 3.5.2.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-2-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-2-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2016-06-12</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id317">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id317" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27066">bpo-27066</a>: Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open()) returns a
+negative number without setting an exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20041">bpo-20041</a>: Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None. Patch by
+Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26168">bpo-26168</a>: Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue() with the “N”
+format unit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26991">bpo-26991</a>: Fix possible refleak when creating a function with annotations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27039">bpo-27039</a>: Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.  Patch by
+Joe Jevnik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23640">bpo-23640</a>: int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
+subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26811">bpo-26811</a>: gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple with NULL
+pointer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20120">bpo-20120</a>: Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing support for
+interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python 3. Behavior no
+longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files, matching behavior in
+Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26659">bpo-26659</a>: Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26718">bpo-26718</a>: super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called multiple times.
+NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not endorsed!</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25339">bpo-25339</a>: PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in setting the
+error handler for stdin and stdout.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26494">bpo-26494</a>: Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators. Affected classes
+are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str, bytes, bytearray, list,
+tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict, corresponding views and
+os.scandir() iterator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26581">bpo-26581</a>: If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a line in
+Python source code file, only the first one is taken to account.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26464">bpo-26464</a>: Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first replacements
+removes character, but next replacement uses a non-ASCII character or a
+string longer than 1 character. Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22836">bpo-22836</a>: Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
+PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them produces
+secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
+sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26302">bpo-26302</a>: Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal character for
+cookie names.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4806">bpo-4806</a>: Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when using star
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by Hagen Fürstenau
+and Daniel Urban.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27138">bpo-27138</a>: Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26154">bpo-26154</a>: Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet() function to get
+the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a fatal error if it is
+NULL. This new function must be used instead of accessing directly the
+_PyThreadState_Current variable.  The variable is no more exposed since
+Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact implementation of atomic C types, to avoid
+compiler issues.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26194">bpo-26194</a>: Deque.insert() gave odd results for bounded deques that had
+reached their maximum size.  Now an IndexError will be raised when
+attempting to insert into a full deque.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25843">bpo-25843</a>: When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they are equal
+but have a different types. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f1,</span> <span class="pre">f2</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">lambda:</span> <span class="pre">1,</span> <span class="pre">lambda:</span>
+<span class="pre">1.0</span></code> is now correctly compiled to two different functions: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f1()</span></code>
+returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f2()</span></code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code>), even if
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1.0</span></code> are equal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22995">bpo-22995</a>: [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability tests in
+_PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in Cython-based projects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25961">bpo-25961</a>: Disallowed null characters in the type name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25973">bpo-25973</a>: Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement binds a name
+starting with two underscores.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22995">bpo-22995</a>: Instances of extension types with a state that aren’t
+subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any pickle-related
+methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__, __getnewargs_ex__, or
+__getstate__), can no longer be pickled.  Including memoryview.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20440">bpo-20440</a>: Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with special
+macro Py_SETREF.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25766">bpo-25766</a>: Special method __bytes__() now works in str subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25421">bpo-25421</a>: __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic basic size.
+This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their subclasses with
+__slots__ defined.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25709">bpo-25709</a>: Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and utf-8
+cache.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27147">bpo-27147</a>: Mention PEP 420 in the importlib docs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24097">bpo-24097</a>: Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is freed inside
+__getattr__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24731">bpo-24731</a>: Fixed crash on converting objects with special methods
+__bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of subclasses of
+bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int, and float
+correspondingly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26478">bpo-26478</a>: Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with dictionary
+views and tuples.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26171">bpo-26171</a>: Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
+zipimporter.get_data().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25660">bpo-25660</a>: Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25887">bpo-25887</a>: Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is awaited more
+than once.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27243">bpo-27243</a>: Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning an
+awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the asynchronous
+iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the former will trigger a
+PendingDeprecationWarning.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id318">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id318" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26556">bpo-26556</a>: Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE-2015-1283.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE-2016-0772. Reported by
+Team Oststrom</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id319">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id319" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21386">bpo-21386</a>: Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It was
+documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20900">bpo-20900</a>: distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses
+correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.</p></li>
+<li><p>A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and features:
+&#64;overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text, ContextManager,
+Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug fixes (note that some
+of the new features are not yet implemented in mypy or other static
+analyzers). Also classes for PEP 492 (Awaitable, AsyncIterable,
+AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact they made it into 3.5.1 but were
+never mentioned).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25738">bpo-25738</a>: Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error() from
+sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t send Content
+header fields in responses that don’t have a body.  Patch by Susumu
+Koshiba.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21313">bpo-21313</a>: Fix the “platform” module to tolerate when sys.version contains
+truncated build information.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id320">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id320" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26839">bpo-26839</a>: On Linux, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> now calls <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> with
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">GRND_NONBLOCK</span></code> to fall back on reading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">/dev/urandom</span></code> if the urandom
+entropy pool is not initialized yet. Patch written by Colm Buckley.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id321">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id321" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27164">bpo-27164</a>: In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate streams
+with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24291">bpo-24291</a>: Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to completely
+write data to the client.  Previously it could do partial writes and
+truncate data.  Also, wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout
+doing partial writes, but this is deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26809">bpo-26809</a>: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a>.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26373">bpo-26373</a>: subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
+BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate() is
+called in more/all circumstances.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21776">bpo-21776</a>: distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError. Initial patch
+by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27114">bpo-27114</a>: Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
+PermissionError</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18383">bpo-18383</a>: Avoid creating duplicate filters when using filterwarnings and
+simplefilter. Based on patch by Alex Shkop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27057">bpo-27057</a>: Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is blocked by
+SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls back to fcntl().
+Patch written by Michał Bednarski.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27014">bpo-27014</a>: Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to Kalle Tuure!</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14132">bpo-14132</a>: Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target only has a
+query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17214">bpo-17214</a>: The “urllib.request” module now percent-encodes non-ASCII bytes
+found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send Location header fields
+with non-ASCII bytes, but “http.client” requires the request target to be
+ASCII-encodable, otherwise a UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch
+by Christian Heimes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26892">bpo-26892</a>: Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler. Patch
+contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22274">bpo-22274</a>: In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be redirected to
+stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by Akira Li.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26807">bpo-26807</a>: mock_open ‘files’ no longer error on readline at end of file.
+Patch from Yolanda Robla.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25745">bpo-25745</a>: Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26977">bpo-26977</a>: Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of squares helper
+in statistics.pvariance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26881">bpo-26881</a>: The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23815">bpo-23815</a>: Fixed crashes related to directly created instances of types in
+_tkinter and curses.panel modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17765">bpo-17765</a>: weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword arguments.
+Patch by Georg Brandl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26873">bpo-26873</a>: xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type tags
+instead of silently return incorrect result.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26711">bpo-26711</a>: Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24114">bpo-24114</a>: Fix an uninitialized variable in <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.util</span></code>.</p>
+<p>The bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches for
+the <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">crle</span></code> program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by Kees Bos.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26864">bpo-26864</a>: In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host checking
+against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match unrelated host
+names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a suffix.  Patch by Xiang
+Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26634">bpo-26634</a>: recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.  Patch by
+Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26804">bpo-26804</a>: urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy environment
+variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones. Patch contributed by
+Hans-Peter Jansen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26837">bpo-26837</a>: assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs non-stringified
+differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This affects
+assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26041">bpo-26041</a>: Remove “will be removed in Python 3.7” from deprecation
+messages of platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution(). Patch by
+Kumaripaba Miyurusara Athukorala.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26822">bpo-26822</a>: itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no longer
+silently ignore keyword arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26733">bpo-26733</a>: Disassembling a class now disassembles class and static
+methods. Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26801">bpo-26801</a>: Fix error handling in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.get_terminal_size" title="shutil.get_terminal_size"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.get_terminal_size()</span></code></a>, catch
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>. Patch written by
+Emanuel Barry.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24838">bpo-24838</a>: tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly calculate name
+and link field limits for multibyte character encodings like utf-8.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id322">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id322" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26657">bpo-26657</a>: Fix directory traversal vulnerability with http.server on
+Windows.  This fixes a regression that was introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and
+3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp Hagemeister.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id323">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id323" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26717">bpo-26717</a>: Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.  Patch by
+Anthony Sottile.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26735">bpo-26735</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.urandom" title="os.urandom"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.urandom()</span></code></a> on Solaris 11.3 and newer when reading
+more than 1,024 bytes: call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getrandom()</span></code> multiple times with a limit of
+1024 bytes per call.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16329">bpo-16329</a>: Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13952">bpo-13952</a>: Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff Wilson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26709">bpo-26709</a>: Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23735">bpo-23735</a>: Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by installing our
+own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26586">bpo-26586</a>: In http.server, respond with “413 Request header fields too
+large” if there are too many header fields to parse, rather than killing
+the connection and raising an unhandled exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22854">bpo-22854</a>: Change BufferedReader.writable() and BufferedWriter.readable()
+to always return False.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25195">bpo-25195</a>: Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock. _Call is a subclass of
+tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes) so we need to
+implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26644">bpo-26644</a>: Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a negative length
+is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23804">bpo-23804</a>: Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero bytes
+instead of up to 1024.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26616">bpo-26616</a>: Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21925">bpo-21925</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#warnings.formatwarning" title="warnings.formatwarning"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings.formatwarning()</span></code></a> now catches exceptions on
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">linecache.getline(...)</span></code> to be able to log <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>
+emitted late during the Python shutdown process.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24266">bpo-24266</a>: Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels the search
+mode when compiled with Readline 7.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26560">bpo-26560</a>: Avoid potential ValueError in BaseHandler.start_response.
+Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id324">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id324" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26313">bpo-26313</a>: ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows cert store is
+empty. Patch by Baji.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id325">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id325" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26569">bpo-26569</a>: Fix <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule" title="pyclbr.readmodule"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr.readmodule()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pyclbr.html#pyclbr.readmodule_ex" title="pyclbr.readmodule_ex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pyclbr.readmodule_ex()</span></code></a>
+to support importing packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26499">bpo-26499</a>: Account for remaining Content-Length in HTTPResponse.readline()
+and read1(). Based on patch by Silent Ghost. Also document that
+HTTPResponse now supports these methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25320">bpo-25320</a>: Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is scanning.
+Patch from Victor van den Elzen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16181">bpo-16181</a>: cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is higher than
+datetime.MAXYEAR.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26513">bpo-26513</a>: Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23718">bpo-23718</a>: Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original patch by
+Tamás Bence Gedai.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20589">bpo-20589</a>: Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows now raise
+NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26177">bpo-26177</a>: Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15068">bpo-15068</a>: Got rid of excessive buffering in the fileinput module. The
+bufsize parameter is no longer used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2202">bpo-2202</a>: Fix UnboundLocalError in
+AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls. Initial patch by Mathieu
+Dupuy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25718">bpo-25718</a>: Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator with total
+is None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26475">bpo-26475</a>: Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with the (?x)
+flag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26457">bpo-26457</a>: Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes for the case
+when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal prefix length. Based on
+patch by Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26385">bpo-26385</a>: Remove the file if the internal open() call in
+NamedTemporaryFile() fails. Patch by Silent Ghost.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26402">bpo-26402</a>: Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts down a
+persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the new
+http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25913">bpo-25913</a>: Leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&lt;~</span></code> is optional now in base64.a85decode() with
+adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26186">bpo-26186</a>: Remove an invalid type check in importlib.util.LazyLoader.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26367">bpo-26367</a>: importlib.__import__() raises SystemError like
+builtins.__import__() when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">level</span></code> is specified but without an
+accompanying package specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26309">bpo-26309</a>: In the “socketserver” module, shut down the request (closing
+the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.  Patch by Aviv
+Palivoda.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id326">
+<h3>Security<a class="headerlink" href="#id326" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25939">bpo-25939</a>: On Windows open the cert store readonly in
+ssl.enum_certificates.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id327">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id327" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25995">bpo-25995</a>: os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the tree depth.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26117">bpo-26117</a>: The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor not only
+when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed with error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25911">bpo-25911</a>: Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26045">bpo-26045</a>: Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a
+non-Latin-1 string with http.client.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12923">bpo-12923</a>: Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if there is an
+exception. Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel Rocco.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25945">bpo-25945</a>: Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial object with
+wrong state. Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial constructor. “args”
+and “keywords” attributes of functools.partial have now always types tuple
+and dict correspondingly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26202">bpo-26202</a>: copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects with
+non-atomic attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23076">bpo-23076</a>: Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called with an
+invalid pattern. Patch by Thomas Nyberg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19883">bpo-19883</a>: Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26227">bpo-26227</a>: On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
+gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the hostname
+from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26147">bpo-26147</a>: xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with used non-UTF-8
+encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25935">bpo-25935</a>: Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with OrderedDict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16620">bpo-16620</a>: Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26013">bpo-26013</a>: Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles created in
+old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25850">bpo-25850</a>: Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17633">bpo-17633</a>: Improve zipimport’s support for namespace packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24705">bpo-24705</a>: Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars appearing
+before $() vars.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22138">bpo-22138</a>: Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors. Restore
+original values after patching. Patch contributed by Sean McCully.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25672">bpo-25672</a>: In the ssl module, enable the SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode
+option if it is safe to do so.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26012">bpo-26012</a>: Don’t traverse into symlinks for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> pattern in
+pathlib.Path.[r]glob().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24120">bpo-24120</a>: Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
+pathlib.Path.[r]glob(). Patch by Ulrich Petri.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25447">bpo-25447</a>: fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not have a buffer
+attribute (restores backward compatibility).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25447">bpo-25447</a>: Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always works,
+independently from the type of the wrapped object (by returning the
+original object unchanged).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24103">bpo-24103</a>: Fixed possible use after free in ElementTree.XMLPullParser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25860">bpo-25860</a>: os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories when error
+occurs. Original patch by Samson Lee.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25914">bpo-25914</a>: Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25902">bpo-25902</a>: Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree iteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25717">bpo-25717</a>: Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most fstat()
+errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1, and stopped
+anonymous temporary files from working in special cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24903">bpo-24903</a>: Fix regression in number of arguments compileall accepts when
+‘-d’ is specified.  The check on the number of arguments has been dropped
+completely as it never worked correctly anyway.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25764">bpo-25764</a>: In the subprocess module, preserve any exception caused by
+fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6478">bpo-6478</a>: _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing timezone
+with time.tzset().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14285">bpo-14285</a>: When executing a package with the “python -m package” option,
+and package initialization fails, a proper traceback is now reported.  The
+“runpy” module now lets exceptions from package initialization pass back
+to the caller, rather than raising ImportError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19771">bpo-19771</a>: Also in runpy and the “-m” option, omit the irrelevant message
+“… is a package and cannot be directly executed” if the package could
+not even be initialized (e.g. due to a bad <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*.pyc</span></code> file).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25177">bpo-25177</a>: Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very large
+numbers. As a side effect, statistics.mean and statistics.variance should
+be significantly faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25718">bpo-25718</a>: Fixed copying object with state with boolean value is false.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10131">bpo-10131</a>: Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on patch by
+Marian Ganisin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25725">bpo-25725</a>: Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when unpickling
+invalid data including tuple instructions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25663">bpo-25663</a>: In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate global
+names, and search the global namespace before searching builtins.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25688">bpo-25688</a>: Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising an error.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23914">bpo-23914</a>: Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken pickle data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25691">bpo-25691</a>: Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25624">bpo-25624</a>: ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for directory
+entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.</p></li>
+<li><p>Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved. Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu
+Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26050">bpo-26050</a>: Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method. Patch by Марк
+Коренберг.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25924">bpo-25924</a>: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on OS X
+versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26406">bpo-26406</a>: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on
+current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD.  Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26848">bpo-26848</a>: Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle empty input.
+Patch by Jack O’Connor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27040">bpo-27040</a>: Add loop.get_exception_handler method</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27041">bpo-27041</a>: asyncio: Add loop.create_future method</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27223">bpo-27223</a>: asyncio: Fix _read_ready and _write_ready to respect
+_conn_lost. Patch by Łukasz Langa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22970">bpo-22970</a>: asyncio: Fix inconsistency cancelling Condition.wait. Patch by
+David Coles.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id328">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id328" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5124">bpo-5124</a>: Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on X11. This
+matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern Linux apps, and ttk
+widgets. Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24759">bpo-24759</a>: Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the directory is
+a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool for maintainers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27196">bpo-27196</a>: Stop ‘ThemeChanged’ warnings when running IDLE tests. These
+persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567. Apply Serhiy
+Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test files. Record this
+additional advice in idle_test/README.txt</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20567">bpo-20567</a>: Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about avoiding tk
+warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several IDLE tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27117">bpo-27117</a>: Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark themes. Move
+code for configuring text widget colors to a new function.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26673">bpo-26673</a>: When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10. Such fonts
+on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from opening.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21939">bpo-21939</a>: Add test for IDLE’s percolator. Original patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21676">bpo-21676</a>: Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog. Original patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18410">bpo-18410</a>: Add test for IDLE’s search dialog. Original patch by Westley
+Martínez.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21703">bpo-21703</a>: Add test for IDLE’s undo delegator. Original patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar .</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27044">bpo-27044</a>: Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory leaks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23977">bpo-23977</a>: Add more asserts to test_delegator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20640">bpo-20640</a>: Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit. Patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p>In the ‘IDLE-console differences’ section of the IDLE doc, clarify how
+running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25507">bpo-25507</a>: fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented printing.
+Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25905">bpo-25905</a>: Revert unwanted conversion of ‘ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION
+MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with ‘ascii’. Re-encode
+CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with ‘utf-8’.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id329">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id329" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19489">bpo-19489</a>: Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header and footer
+of each page. Patch by Ammar Askar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24136">bpo-24136</a>: Document the new PEP 448 unpacking syntax of 3.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26736">bpo-26736</a>: Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if possible.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6953">bpo-6953</a>: Rework the Readline module documentation to group related
+functions together, and add more details such as what underlying Readline
+functions and variables are accessed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23606">bpo-23606</a>: Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding cdll.msvcrt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25500">bpo-25500</a>: Fix documentation to not claim that __import__ is searched for
+in the global scope.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26014">bpo-26014</a>: Update 3.x packaging documentation: * “See also” links to the
+new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links to setuptools
+documentation have been updated</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id330">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id330" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21916">bpo-21916</a>: Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid, Gregory
+Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26523">bpo-26523</a>: The multiprocessing thread pool (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool)
+was untested.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26015">bpo-26015</a>: Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable sequences.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26325">bpo-26325</a>: Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to check that no
+ResourceWarning is emitted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25940">bpo-25940</a>: Changed test_ssl to use self-signed.pythontest.net.  This
+avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root certificate.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25616">bpo-25616</a>: Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from test_collections into
+separate file test_ordered_dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26583">bpo-26583</a>: Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if bytecode files
+cannot be written.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id331">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id331" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26884">bpo-26884</a>: Fix linking extension modules for cross builds. Patch by Xavier
+de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22359">bpo-22359</a>: Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and pgen when
+cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is normally saved with the
+source code anyway, and is still regenerated when doing a native build.
+Patch by Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27229">bpo-27229</a>: Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.  Patch by
+Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21668">bpo-21668</a>: Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to libm, except
+on Mac OS X. Patch written by Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25702">bpo-25702</a>: A –with-lto configure option has been added that will enable
+link time optimizations at build time during a make profile-opt. Some
+compilers and toolchains are known to not produce stable code when using
+LTO, be sure to test things thoroughly before relying on it. It can
+provide a few % speed up over profile-opt alone.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26624">bpo-26624</a>: Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with warning for old
+versions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17603">bpo-17603</a>: Avoid error about nonexistant fileblocks.o file by using a
+lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26079">bpo-26079</a>: Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6. Patch by Bjoern
+Thiel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26465">bpo-26465</a>: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24421">bpo-24421</a>: Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building extensions.
+Previously it could fail to compile properly if the math and cmath builds
+were concurrent.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25348">bpo-25348</a>: Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--pgo</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--pgo-job</span></code> arguments to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\build.bat</span></code> for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.  The
+old <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\build_pgo.bat</span></code> script is now deprecated, and simply calls
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\build.bat</span> <span class="pre">--pgo</span> <span class="pre">%*</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25827">bpo-25827</a>: Add support for building with ICC to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configure</span></code>, including a
+new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-icc</span></code> flag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25696">bpo-25696</a>: Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26930">bpo-26930</a>: Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and link with
+OpenSSL 1.0.2h.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26268">bpo-26268</a>: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25136">bpo-25136</a>: Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub libraries.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24324">bpo-24324</a>: Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using gcc as the
+option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc and has been
+silently removed as of gcc-4.5.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id332">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id332" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue27053">bpo-27053</a>: Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26268">bpo-26268</a>: Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL releases
+that don’t include the contents of the include directory (that is, 1.0.2e
+and later).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26071">bpo-26071</a>: bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find 32bit
+Python</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26073">bpo-26073</a>: Update the list of magic numbers in launcher</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26065">bpo-26065</a>: Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable distro.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id333">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id333" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26799">bpo-26799</a>: Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the Python code
+is loaded, but get C types on demand. The C types can change if
+python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable. Patch written by
+Thomas Ilsche.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26271">bpo-26271</a>: Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed through
+configure. Patch by Daniel Shaulov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26489">bpo-26489</a>: Add dictionary unpacking support to Tools/parser/unparse.py.
+Patch by Guo Ci Teo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue26316">bpo-26316</a>: Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id334">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id334" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17500">bpo-17500</a>: Remove unused and outdated icons. (See also:
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945">https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945</a>)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-1-final">
+<h2>Python 3.5.1 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-1-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-12-06</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id335">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id335" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25709">bpo-25709</a>: Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and utf-8
+cache.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id336">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id336" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25715">bpo-25715</a>: Python 3.5.1 installer shows wrong upgrade path and incorrect
+logic for launcher detection.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-1-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-1-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-11-22</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id337">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id337" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25630">bpo-25630</a>: Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in functions
+that accept filesystem paths.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23564">bpo-23564</a>: Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the _posixsubprocess
+internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to the child.  The bug had
+no actual impact as subprocess.py already avoided it.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25388">bpo-25388</a>: Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable source code
+with a null byte.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25462">bpo-25462</a>: The hash of the key now is calculated only once in most
+operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22995">bpo-22995</a>: Default implementation of __reduce__ and __reduce_ex__ now
+rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25555">bpo-25555</a>: Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of “arg” node
+when compiling AST from Python objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24802">bpo-24802</a>: Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(), compile(), exec()
+and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These objects are not
+necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the functions assumed they
+were.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24726">bpo-24726</a>: Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of OrderedDict that
+was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25449">bpo-25449</a>: Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash now raises
+KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25395">bpo-25395</a>: Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict structures were
+garbage collected.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25274">bpo-25274</a>: sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError if the new
+recursion limit is too low depending at the current recursion depth.
+Modify also the “lower-water mark” formula to make it monotonic. This mark
+is used to decide when the overflowed flag of the thread state is reset.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24402">bpo-24402</a>: Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
+sys.stdout.fileno() fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24806">bpo-24806</a>: Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be subclassed
+from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24848">bpo-24848</a>: Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of misformed data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25280">bpo-25280</a>: Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode are no
+longer formatted twice.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25003">bpo-25003</a>: On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the getrandom()
+function instead of the getentropy() function. The getentropy() function
+is blocking to generate very good quality entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t
+need such high-quality entropy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25182">bpo-25182</a>: The stdprinter (used as sys.stderr before the io module is
+imported at startup) now uses the backslashreplace error handler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25131">bpo-25131</a>: Make the line number and column offset of set/dict literals and
+comprehensions correspond to the opening brace.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25150">bpo-25150</a>: Hide the private _Py_atomic_xxx symbols from the public
+Python.h header to fix a compilation error with OpenMP.
+PyThreadState_GET() becomes an alias to PyThreadState_Get() to avoid ABI
+incompatibilities.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id338">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id338" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25626">bpo-25626</a>: Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit in
+Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX.  This resolves a
+regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read chunks larger than
+2 or 4 GiB.  The change affects the zlib.Decompress.decompress()
+max_length parameter, the zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
+zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25583">bpo-25583</a>: Avoid incorrect errors raised by os.makedirs(exist_ok=True)
+when the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25593">bpo-25593</a>: Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6973">bpo-6973</a>: When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do not allow
+the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do anything as they
+could potentially signal a different process.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25590">bpo-25590</a>: In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once per
+attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25498">bpo-25498</a>: Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects created by
+wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in 3.5a1.  Based on
+patch by Eryksun.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25584">bpo-25584</a>: Added “escape” to the __all__ list in the glob module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25584">bpo-25584</a>: Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25446">bpo-25446</a>: Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18010">bpo-18010</a>: Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function to handle
+exceptions from importing packages.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25554">bpo-25554</a>: Got rid of circular references in regular expression parsing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25510">bpo-25510</a>: fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b’’ instead of ‘’ at
+the end if the FileInput was opened with binary mode. Patch by Ryosuke
+Ito.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25503">bpo-25503</a>: Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of properties.
+Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25515">bpo-25515</a>: Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in uuid.uuid4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21827">bpo-21827</a>: Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest common
+whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace. Based on patch
+by Robert Li.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25447">bpo-25447</a>: The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied and pickled
+(by returning the original object unchanged).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25390">bpo-25390</a>: typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25441">bpo-25441</a>: asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25410">bpo-25410</a>: Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation of
+OrderedDict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25411">bpo-25411</a>: Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through better use of
+the email package. Thanks to user simon04 for the patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25407">bpo-25407</a>: Remove mentions of the formatter module being removed in Python
+3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25406">bpo-25406</a>: Fixed a bug in C implementation of OrderedDict.move_to_end()
+that caused segmentation fault or hang in iterating after moving several
+items to the start of ordered dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25364">bpo-25364</a>: zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25328">bpo-25328</a>: smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a ValueError if both
+decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25316">bpo-25316</a>: distutils raises OSError instead of DistutilsPlatformError when
+MSVC is not installed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25380">bpo-25380</a>: Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
+pickletools.opcodes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23972">bpo-23972</a>: Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing reuseport and
+reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding the socket. Mirroring
+the existing asyncio create_server method the reuseaddr option for
+datagram sockets defaults to True if the O/S is ‘posix’ (except if the
+platform is Cygwin). Patch by Chris Laws.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25304">bpo-25304</a>: Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets you submit a
+coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
+concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25232">bpo-25232</a>: Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the URL at the
+first question mark (?) rather than the last. Patch from Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24657">bpo-24657</a>: Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in the query
+part of the URL as if it were a path. Patch from Xiang Zhang.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24483">bpo-24483</a>: C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now calculates key’s
+hash only once.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22958">bpo-22958</a>: Constructor and update method of weakref.WeakValueDictionary
+now accept the self and the dict keyword arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22609">bpo-22609</a>: Constructor of collections.UserDict now accepts the self
+keyword argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25111">bpo-25111</a>: Fixed comparison of traceback.FrameSummary.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25262">bpo-25262</a>: Added support for BINBYTES8 opcode in Python implementation of
+unpickler. Highest 32 bits of 64-bit size for BINUNICODE8 and BINBYTES8
+opcodes no longer silently ignored on 32-bit platforms in C
+implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25034">bpo-25034</a>: Fix string.Formatter problem with auto-numbering and nested
+format_specs. Patch by Anthon van der Neut.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25233">bpo-25233</a>: Rewrite the guts of asyncio.Queue and asyncio.Semaphore to be
+more understandable and correct.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25203">bpo-25203</a>: Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer left the
+module in inconsistent state.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23600">bpo-23600</a>: Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was returning wrong
+results in some cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23329">bpo-23329</a>: Allow the ssl module to be built with older versions of
+LibreSSL.</p></li>
+<li><p>Prevent overflow in _Unpickler_Read.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25047">bpo-25047</a>: The XML encoding declaration written by Element Tree now
+respects the letter case given by the user. This restores the ability to
+write encoding names in uppercase like “UTF-8”, which worked in Python 2.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25135">bpo-25135</a>: Make deque_clear() safer by emptying the deque before clearing.
+This helps avoid possible reentrancy issues.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19143">bpo-19143</a>: platform module now reads Windows version from kernel32.dll to
+avoid compatibility shims.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25092">bpo-25092</a>: Fix datetime.strftime() failure when errno was already set to
+EINVAL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23517">bpo-23517</a>: Fix rounding in fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods
+of datetime.datetime: microseconds are now rounded to nearest with ties
+going to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), instead of being rounding
+towards minus infinity (ROUND_FLOOR). It’s important that these methods
+use the same rounding mode than datetime.timedelta to keep the property:
+(datetime(1970,1,1) + timedelta(seconds=t)) ==
+datetime.utcfromtimestamp(t). It also the rounding mode used by
+round(float) for example.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25155">bpo-25155</a>: Fix datetime.datetime.now() and datetime.datetime.utcnow() on
+Windows to support date after year 2038. It was a regression introduced in
+Python 3.5.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25108">bpo-25108</a>: Omitted internal frames in traceback functions print_stack(),
+format_stack(), and extract_stack() called without arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25118">bpo-25118</a>: Fix a regression of Python 3.5.0 in os.waitpid() on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24684">bpo-24684</a>: socket.socket.getaddrinfo() now calls
+PyUnicode_AsEncodedString() instead of calling the encode() method of the
+host, to handle correctly custom string with an encode() method which
+doesn’t return a byte string. The encoder of the IDNA codec is now called
+directly instead of calling the encode() method of the string.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25060">bpo-25060</a>: Correctly compute stack usage of the BUILD_MAP opcode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24857">bpo-24857</a>: Comparing call_args to a long sequence now correctly returns a
+boolean result instead of raising an exception.  Patch by A Kaptur.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23144">bpo-23144</a>: Make sure that HTMLParser.feed() returns all the data, even
+when convert_charrefs is True.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24982">bpo-24982</a>: shutil.make_archive() with the “zip” format now adds entries
+for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25019">bpo-25019</a>: Fixed a crash caused by setting non-string key of expat parser.
+Based on patch by John Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16180">bpo-16180</a>: Exit pdb if file has syntax error, instead of trapping user in
+an infinite loop.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24891">bpo-24891</a>: Fix a race condition at Python startup if the file descriptor
+of stdin (0), stdout (1) or stderr (2) is closed while Python is creating
+sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr objects. These attributes are now set
+to None if the creation of the object failed, instead of raising an
+OSError exception. Initial patch written by Marco Paolini.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24992">bpo-24992</a>: Fix error handling and a race condition (related to garbage
+collection) in collections.OrderedDict constructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24881">bpo-24881</a>: Fixed setting binary mode in Python implementation of FileIO on
+Windows and Cygwin.  Patch from Akira Li.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25578">bpo-25578</a>: Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25530">bpo-25530</a>: Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default when creating
+ssl.SSLContext.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25569">bpo-25569</a>: Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25471">bpo-25471</a>: Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to be
+nonblocking.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25319">bpo-25319</a>: When threading.Event is reinitialized, the underlying condition
+should use a regular lock rather than a recursive lock.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21112">bpo-21112</a>: Fix regression in unittest.expectedFailure on subclasses. Patch
+from Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24764">bpo-24764</a>: cgi.FieldStorage.read_multi() now ignores the Content-Length
+header in part headers. Patch written by Peter Landry and reviewed by
+Pierre Quentel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24913">bpo-24913</a>: Fix overrun error in deque.index(). Found by John Leitch and
+Bryce Darling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24774">bpo-24774</a>: Fix docstring in http.server.test. Patch from Chiu-Hsiang Hsu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21159">bpo-21159</a>: Improve message in
+configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError. Patch from Łukasz Langa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20362">bpo-20362</a>: Honour TestCase.longMessage correctly in assertRegex. Patch
+from Ilia Kurenkov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23572">bpo-23572</a>: Fixed functools.singledispatch on classes with falsy
+metaclasses.  Patch by Ethan Furman.</p></li>
+<li><p>asyncio: ensure_future() now accepts awaitable objects.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id339">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id339" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15348">bpo-15348</a>: Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process) before
+closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process). This prevents
+the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24455">bpo-24455</a>: Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell while the
+debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with the [X] button
+(15348); and c) activating the debugger when already active (24455). The
+patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two changes. 1. Suspend and
+resume the gui.interaction method with the tcl vwait mechanism intended
+for this purpose (instead of root.mainloop &amp; .quit). 2. In gui.run, allow
+any existing interaction to terminate first.</p></li>
+<li><p>Change ‘The program’ to ‘Your program’ in an IDLE ‘kill program?’ message
+to make it clearer that the program referred to is the currently running
+user program, not IDLE itself.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24750">bpo-24750</a>: Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window status bar.
+Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25313">bpo-25313</a>: Change the handling of new built-in text color themes to better
+address the compatibility problem introduced by the addition of IDLE Dark.
+Consistently use the revised idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24782">bpo-24782</a>: Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE Preferences
+dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs are now a sorted
+list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22726">bpo-22726</a>: Re-activate the config dialog help button with some content
+about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24820">bpo-24820</a>: IDLE now has an ‘IDLE Dark’ built-in text color theme. It is
+more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt blue background.
+Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green, red, orange, … . To
+use it with IDLEs released before November 2015, hit the ‘Save as New
+Custom Theme’ button and enter a new name, such as ‘Custom Dark’.  The
+custom theme will work with any IDLE release, and can be modified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25224">bpo-25224</a>: README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE developers and
+curious users. The previous user content is now in the IDLE doc chapter.
+‘IDLE’ now means ‘Integrated Development and Learning Environment’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24820">bpo-24820</a>: Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings -&gt; Custom
+Highlighting. Original patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24972">bpo-24972</a>: Inactive selection background now matches active selection
+background, as configured by users, on all systems.  Found items are now
+always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24570">bpo-24570</a>: Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on Macs affected
+by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24988">bpo-24988</a>: Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger) now work on
+Mac Aqua. Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24801">bpo-24801</a>: Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua. Patch by
+Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25173">bpo-25173</a>: Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific widget. For Mac
+OSX, make them a ‘sheet’.  Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25198">bpo-25198</a>: Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle Help.
+Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman). Give code
+snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background. Re-use initial
+width and height set by users for shell and editor. When the Table of
+Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section header at the top of the
+screen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25225">bpo-25225</a>: Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text colors.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21995">bpo-21995</a>: Explain some differences between IDLE and console Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22820">bpo-22820</a>: Explain need for <em>print</em> when running file from Idle editor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25224">bpo-25224</a>: Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess section.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25219">bpo-25219</a>: Update doc for Idle command line options. Some were missing and
+notes were not correct.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24861">bpo-24861</a>: Most of idlelib is private and subject to change. Use
+idleib.idle.* to start Idle. See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25199">bpo-25199</a>: Idle: add synchronization comments for future maintainers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16893">bpo-16893</a>: Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc display. The new
+idlelib/help.html is rstripped Doc/build/html/library/idle.html. It looks
+better than help.txt and will better document Idle as released. The
+tkinter html viewer that works for this file was written by Mark Roseman.
+The now unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
+deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24199">bpo-24199</a>: Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible removal in 3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24790">bpo-24790</a>: Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 &amp; 3 conflicts).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id340">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id340" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22558">bpo-22558</a>: Add remaining doc links to source code for Python-coded
+modules. Patch by Yoni Lavi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12067">bpo-12067</a>: Rewrite Comparisons section in the Expressions chapter of the
+language reference. Some of the details of comparing mixed types were
+incorrect or ambiguous. NotImplemented is only relevant at a lower level
+than the Expressions chapter. Added details of comparing range() objects,
+and default behaviour and consistency suggestions for user-defined
+classes. Patch from Andy Maier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24952">bpo-24952</a>: Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in the
+“threading” and “_thread” modules. Patch from Mattip.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23725">bpo-23725</a>: Overhaul tempfile docs. Note deprecated status of mktemp. Patch
+from Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24808">bpo-24808</a>: Update the types of some PyTypeObject fields.  Patch by Joseph
+Weston.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22812">bpo-22812</a>: Fix unittest discovery examples. Patch from Pam McA’Nulty.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id341">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id341" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25449">bpo-25449</a>: Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25099">bpo-25099</a>: Make test_compileall not fail when an entry on sys.path cannot
+be written to (commonly seen in administrative installs on Windows).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23919">bpo-23919</a>: Prevents assert dialogs appearing in the test suite.</p></li>
+<li><p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\rt.bat</span></code> now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to pass
+along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id342">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id342" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24915">bpo-24915</a>: Add LLVM support for PGO builds and use the test suite to
+generate the profile data. Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24910">bpo-24910</a>: Windows MSIs now have unique display names.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24986">bpo-24986</a>: It is now possible to build Python on Windows without errors
+when external libraries are not available.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id343">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id343" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25450">bpo-25450</a>: Updates shortcuts to start Python in installation directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25164">bpo-25164</a>: Changes default all-users install directory to match per-user
+directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25143">bpo-25143</a>: Improves installer error messages for unsupported platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25163">bpo-25163</a>: Display correct directory in installer when using non-default
+settings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25361">bpo-25361</a>: Disables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit build</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25089">bpo-25089</a>: Adds logging to installer for case where launcher is not
+selected on upgrade.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25165">bpo-25165</a>: Windows uninstallation should not remove launcher if other
+versions remain</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25112">bpo-25112</a>: py.exe launcher is missing icons</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25102">bpo-25102</a>: Windows installer does not precompile for -O or -OO.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25081">bpo-25081</a>: Makes Back button in installer go back to upgrade page when
+upgrading.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25091">bpo-25091</a>: Increases font size of the installer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25126">bpo-25126</a>: Clarifies that the non-web installer will download some
+components.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25213">bpo-25213</a>: Restores requestedExecutionLevel to manifest to disable UAC
+virtualization.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25022">bpo-25022</a>: Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id344">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id344" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25440">bpo-25440</a>: Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-final">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 final<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-final" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-09-13</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id345">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id345" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25071">bpo-25071</a>: Windows installer should not require TargetDir parameter when
+installing quietly.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-release-candidate-4">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-09-09</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id346">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id346" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25029">bpo-25029</a>: Fixes MemoryError in test_strptime.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id347">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id347" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue25027">bpo-25027</a>: Reverts partial-static build options and adds vcruntime140.dll
+to Windows installation.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-release-candidate-3">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-09-07</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id348">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id348" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24305">bpo-24305</a>: Prevent import subsystem stack frames from being counted by the
+warnings.warn(stacklevel=) parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24912">bpo-24912</a>: Prevent __class__ assignment to immutable built-in objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24975">bpo-24975</a>: Fix AST compilation for PEP 448 syntax.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id349">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id349" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24917">bpo-24917</a>: time_strftime() buffer over-read.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24748">bpo-24748</a>: To resolve a compatibility problem found with py2exe and
+pywin32, imp.load_dynamic() once again ignores previously loaded modules
+to support Python modules replacing themselves with extension modules.
+Patch by Petr Viktorin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24635">bpo-24635</a>: Fixed a bug in typing.py where isinstance([], typing.Iterable)
+would return True once, then False on subsequent calls.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24989">bpo-24989</a>: Fixed buffer overread in BytesIO.readline() if a position is
+set beyond size.  Based on patch by John Leitch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24913">bpo-24913</a>: Fix overrun error in deque.index(). Found by John Leitch and
+Bryce Darling.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-release-candidate-2">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-08-25</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id350">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id350" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24769">bpo-24769</a>: Interpreter now starts properly when dynamic loading is
+disabled.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21167">bpo-21167</a>: NAN operations are now handled correctly when python is
+compiled with ICC even if -fp-model strict is not specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24492">bpo-24492</a>: A “package” lacking a __name__ attribute when trying to perform
+a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">..</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">...</span></code> statement will trigger an ImportError instead of
+an AttributeError.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id351">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id351" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24847">bpo-24847</a>: Removes vcruntime140.dll dependency from Tcl/Tk.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24839">bpo-24839</a>: platform._syscmd_ver raises DeprecationWarning</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24867">bpo-24867</a>: Fix Task.get_stack() for ‘async def’ coroutines</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-release-candidate-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-08-09</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id352">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id352" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24667">bpo-24667</a>: Resize odict in all cases that the underlying dict resizes.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id353">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id353" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24824">bpo-24824</a>: Signatures of codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() now are
+compatible with pydoc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24634">bpo-24634</a>: Importing uuid should not try to load libc on Windows</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24798">bpo-24798</a>: _msvccompiler.py doesn’t properly support manifests</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4395">bpo-4395</a>: Better testing and documentation of binary operators. Patch by
+Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23973">bpo-23973</a>: Update typing.py from GitHub repo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23004">bpo-23004</a>: mock_open() now reads binary data correctly when the type of
+read_data is bytes.  Initial patch by Aaron Hill.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23888">bpo-23888</a>: Handle fractional time in cookie expiry. Patch by ssh.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23652">bpo-23652</a>: Make it possible to compile the select module against the libc
+headers from the Linux Standard Base, which do not include some EPOLL
+macros.  Patch by Matt Frank.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22932">bpo-22932</a>: Fix timezones in email.utils.formatdate. Patch from Dmitry
+Shachnev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23779">bpo-23779</a>: imaplib raises TypeError if authenticator tries to abort. Patch
+from Craig Holmquist.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23319">bpo-23319</a>: Fix ctypes.BigEndianStructure, swap correctly bytes. Patch
+written by Matthieu Gautier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23254">bpo-23254</a>: Document how to close the TCPServer listening socket. Patch
+from Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19450">bpo-19450</a>: Update Windows and OS X installer builds to use SQLite 3.8.11.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17527">bpo-17527</a>: Add PATCH to wsgiref.validator. Patch from Luca Sbardella.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24791">bpo-24791</a>: Fix grammar regression for call syntax: ‘g(*a or b)’.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id354">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id354" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23672">bpo-23672</a>: Allow Idle to edit and run files with astral chars in name.
+Patch by Mohd Sanad Zaki Rizvi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24745">bpo-24745</a>: Idle editor default font. Switch from Courier to
+platform-sensitive TkFixedFont.  This should not affect current customized
+font selections.  If there is a problem, edit
+$HOME/.idlerc/config-main.cfg and remove ‘fontxxx’ entries from [Editor
+Window].  Patch by Mark Roseman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21192">bpo-21192</a>: Idle editor. When a file is run, put its name in the restart
+bar. Do not print false prompts. Original patch by Adnan Umer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13884">bpo-13884</a>: Idle menus. Remove tearoff lines. Patch by Roger Serwy.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id355">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id355" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24129">bpo-24129</a>: Clarify the reference documentation for name resolution. This
+includes removing the assumption that readers will be familiar with the
+name resolution scheme Python used prior to the introduction of lexical
+scoping for function namespaces. Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20769">bpo-20769</a>: Improve reload() docs. Patch by Dorian Pula.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23589">bpo-23589</a>: Remove duplicate sentence from the FAQ.  Patch by Yongzhi Pan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24729">bpo-24729</a>: Correct IO tutorial to match implementation regarding encoding
+parameter to open function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id356">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id356" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24751">bpo-24751</a>: When running regrtest with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-w</span></code> command line option, a
+test run is no longer marked as a failure if all tests succeed when
+re-run.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-beta-4">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 beta 4<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-07-26</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id357">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id357" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23573">bpo-23573</a>: Restored optimization of bytes.rfind() and bytearray.rfind()
+for single-byte argument on Linux.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24569">bpo-24569</a>: Make PEP 448 dictionary evaluation more consistent.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24583">bpo-24583</a>: Fix crash when set is mutated while being updated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24407">bpo-24407</a>: Fix crash when dict is mutated while being updated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24619">bpo-24619</a>: New approach for tokenizing async/await. As a consequence, it
+is now possible to have one-line ‘async def foo(): await ..’ functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24687">bpo-24687</a>: Plug refleak on SyntaxError in function parameters annotations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15944">bpo-15944</a>: memoryview: Allow arbitrary formats when casting to bytes.
+Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id358">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id358" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23441">bpo-23441</a>: rcompleter now prints a tab character instead of displaying
+possible completions for an empty word.  Initial patch by Martin Sekera.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24683">bpo-24683</a>: Fixed crashes in _json functions called with arguments of
+inappropriate type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21697">bpo-21697</a>: shutil.copytree() now correctly handles symbolic links that
+point to directories.  Patch by Eduardo Seabra and Thomas Kluyver.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14373">bpo-14373</a>: Fixed segmentation fault when gc.collect() is called during
+constructing lru_cache (C implementation).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24695">bpo-24695</a>: Fix a regression in traceback.print_exception().  If
+exc_traceback is None we shouldn’t print a traceback header like described
+in the documentation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24620">bpo-24620</a>: Random.setstate() now validates the value of state last
+element.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22485">bpo-22485</a>: Fixed an issue that caused <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getsource" title="inspect.getsource"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect.getsource</span></code></a> to return
+incorrect results on nested functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22153">bpo-22153</a>: Improve unittest docs. Patch from Martin Panter and evilzero.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24580">bpo-24580</a>: Symbolic group references to open group in re patterns now are
+explicitly forbidden as well as numeric group references.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24206">bpo-24206</a>: Fixed __eq__ and __ne__ methods of inspect classes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24631">bpo-24631</a>: Fixed regression in the timeit module with multiline setup.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18622">bpo-18622</a>: unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse infinitely.
+Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23661">bpo-23661</a>: unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions again. This
+was a regression vs Python 3.4. Patch from Ignacio Rossi</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24608">bpo-24608</a>: chunk.Chunk.read() now always returns bytes, not str.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18684">bpo-18684</a>: Fixed reading out of the buffer in the re module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24259">bpo-24259</a>: tarfile now raises a ReadError if an archive is truncated
+inside a data segment.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15014">bpo-15014</a>: SMTP.auth() and SMTP.login() now support RFC 4954’s optional
+initial-response argument to the SMTP AUTH command.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24669">bpo-24669</a>: Fix inspect.getsource() for ‘async def’ functions. Patch by Kai
+Groner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24688">bpo-24688</a>: ast.get_docstring() for ‘async def’ functions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id359">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id359" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24603">bpo-24603</a>: Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use OpenSSL
+1.0.2d.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-beta-3">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 beta 3<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-07-05</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id360">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id360" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24467">bpo-24467</a>: Fixed possible buffer over-read in bytearray. The bytearray
+object now always allocates place for trailing null byte and it’s buffer
+now is always null-terminated.</p></li>
+<li><p>Upgrade to Unicode 8.0.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24345">bpo-24345</a>: Add Py_tp_finalize slot for the stable ABI.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24400">bpo-24400</a>: Introduce a distinct type for PEP 492 coroutines; add
+types.CoroutineType, inspect.getcoroutinestate,
+inspect.getcoroutinelocals; coroutines no longer use CO_GENERATOR flag;
+sys.set_coroutine_wrapper works only for ‘async def’ coroutines;
+inspect.iscoroutine no longer uses collections.abc.Coroutine, it’s
+intended to test for pure ‘async def’ coroutines only; add new opcode:
+GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER; fix generators wrapper used in types.coroutine to be
+instance of collections.abc.Generator; collections.abc.Awaitable and
+collections.abc.Coroutine can no longer be used to detect generator-based
+coroutines–use inspect.isawaitable instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24450">bpo-24450</a>: Add gi_yieldfrom to generators and cr_await to coroutines.
+Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19235">bpo-19235</a>: Add new RecursionError exception. Patch by Georg Brandl.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id361">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id361" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21750">bpo-21750</a>: mock_open.read_data can now be read from each instance, as it
+could in Python 3.3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24552">bpo-24552</a>: Fix use after free in an error case of the _pickle module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24514">bpo-24514</a>: tarfile now tolerates number fields consisting of only
+whitespace.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19176">bpo-19176</a>: Fixed doctype() related bugs in C implementation of
+ElementTree. A deprecation warning no longer issued by XMLParser subclass
+with default doctype() method.  Direct call of doctype() now issues a
+warning.  Parser’s doctype() now is not called if target’s doctype() is
+called.  Based on patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20387">bpo-20387</a>: Restore semantic round-trip correctness in tokenize/untokenize
+for tab-indented blocks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24456">bpo-24456</a>: Fixed possible buffer over-read in adpcm2lin() and lin2adpcm()
+functions of the audioop module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24336">bpo-24336</a>: The contextmanager decorator now works with functions with
+keyword arguments called “func” and “self”.  Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24522">bpo-24522</a>: Fix possible integer overflow in json accelerator module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24489">bpo-24489</a>: ensure a previously set C errno doesn’t disturb cmath.polar().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24408">bpo-24408</a>: Fixed AttributeError in measure() and metrics() methods of
+tkinter.Font.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14373">bpo-14373</a>: C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now can be used with
+methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24347">bpo-24347</a>: Set KeyError if PyDict_GetItemWithError returns NULL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24348">bpo-24348</a>: Drop superfluous incref/decref.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24359">bpo-24359</a>: Check for changed OrderedDict size during iteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24368">bpo-24368</a>: Support keyword arguments in OrderedDict methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24362">bpo-24362</a>: Simplify the C OrderedDict fast nodes resize logic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24377">bpo-24377</a>: Fix a ref leak in OrderedDict.__repr__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24369">bpo-24369</a>: Defend against key-changes during iteration.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id362">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id362" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24373">bpo-24373</a>: _testmultiphase and xxlimited now use tp_traverse and
+tp_finalize to avoid reference leaks encountered when combining tp_dealloc
+with PyType_FromSpec (see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16690">bpo-16690</a> for details)</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id363">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id363" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24458">bpo-24458</a>: Update documentation to cover multi-phase initialization for
+extension modules (PEP 489). Patch by Petr Viktorin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24351">bpo-24351</a>: Clarify what is meant by “identifier” in the context of
+string.Template instances.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id364">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id364" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24432">bpo-24432</a>: Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use OpenSSL
+1.0.2c.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-beta-2">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 beta 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-05-31</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id365">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id365" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24284">bpo-24284</a>: The startswith and endswith methods of the str class no longer
+return True when finding the empty string and the indexes are completely
+out of range.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24115">bpo-24115</a>: Update uses of PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Not(),
+PyObject_IsInstance(), PyObject_RichCompareBool() and _PyDict_Contains()
+to check for and handle errors correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24328">bpo-24328</a>: Fix importing one character extension modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11205">bpo-11205</a>: In dictionary displays, evaluate the key before the value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24285">bpo-24285</a>: Fixed regression that prevented importing extension modules
+from inside packages. Patch by Petr Viktorin.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id366">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id366" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23247">bpo-23247</a>: Fix a crash in the StreamWriter.reset() of CJK codecs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24270">bpo-24270</a>: Add math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions as per PEP
+485. Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5633">bpo-5633</a>: Fixed timeit when the statement is a string and the setup is
+not.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24326">bpo-24326</a>: Fixed audioop.ratecv() with non-default weightB argument.
+Original patch by David Moore.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16991">bpo-16991</a>: Add a C implementation of OrderedDict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23934">bpo-23934</a>: Fix inspect.signature to fail correctly for builtin types
+lacking signature information.  Initial patch by James Powell.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-beta-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 beta 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-05-24</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id367">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id367" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24276">bpo-24276</a>: Fixed optimization of property descriptor getter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24268">bpo-24268</a>: PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization. Patch by
+Petr Viktorin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23955">bpo-23955</a>: Add pyvenv.cfg option to suppress registry/environment lookup
+for generating sys.path on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24257">bpo-24257</a>: Fixed system error in the comparison of faked
+types.SimpleNamespace.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22939">bpo-22939</a>: Fixed integer overflow in iterator object.  Patch by Clement
+Rouault.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23985">bpo-23985</a>: Fix a possible buffer overrun when deleting a slice from the
+front of a bytearray and then appending some other bytes data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24102">bpo-24102</a>: Fixed exception type checking in standard error handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15027">bpo-15027</a>: The UTF-32 encoder is now 3x to 7x faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23290">bpo-23290</a>: Optimize set_merge() for cases where the target is empty.
+(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2292">bpo-2292</a>: PEP 448: Additional Unpacking Generalizations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24096">bpo-24096</a>: Make warnings.warn_explicit more robust against mutation of the
+warnings.filters list.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23996">bpo-23996</a>: Avoid a crash when a delegated generator raises an unnormalized
+StopIteration exception.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23910">bpo-23910</a>: Optimize property() getter calls.  Patch by Joe Jevnik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23911">bpo-23911</a>: Move path-based importlib bootstrap code to a separate frozen
+module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24192">bpo-24192</a>: Fix namespace package imports.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24022">bpo-24022</a>: Fix tokenizer crash when processing undecodable source code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9951">bpo-9951</a>: Added a hex() method to bytes, bytearray, and memoryview.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22906">bpo-22906</a>: PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24017">bpo-24017</a>: PEP 492: Coroutines with async and await syntax.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id368">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id368" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14373">bpo-14373</a>: Added C implementation of functools.lru_cache().  Based on
+patches by Matt Joiner and Alexey Kachayev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24230">bpo-24230</a>: The tempfile module now accepts bytes for prefix, suffix and
+dir parameters and returns bytes in such situations (matching the os
+module APIs).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22189">bpo-22189</a>: collections.UserString now supports __getnewargs__(),
+__rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and maketrans().
+Patch by Joe Jevnik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24244">bpo-24244</a>: Prevents termination when an invalid format string is
+encountered on Windows in strftime.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23973">bpo-23973</a>: PEP 484: Add the typing module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23086">bpo-23086</a>: The collections.abc.Sequence() abstract base class added
+<em>start</em> and <em>stop</em> parameters to the index() mixin. Patch by Devin
+Jeanpierre.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20035">bpo-20035</a>: Replaced the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tkinter._fix</span></code> module used for setting up the
+Tcl/Tk environment on Windows with a private function in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_tkinter</span></code>
+module that makes no permanent changes to the environment.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24257">bpo-24257</a>: Fixed segmentation fault in sqlite3.Row constructor with faked
+cursor type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15836">bpo-15836</a>: assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns() and
+assertWarnsRegex() assertments now check the type of the first argument to
+prevent possible user error.  Based on patch by Daniel Wagner-Hall.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9858">bpo-9858</a>: Add missing method stubs to _io.RawIOBase.  Patch by Laura
+Rupprecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22955">bpo-22955</a>: attrgetter, itemgetter and methodcaller objects in the operator
+module now support pickling.  Added readable and evaluable repr for these
+objects. Based on patch by Josh Rosenberg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22107">bpo-22107</a>: tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.mkdtemp() now try again when
+a directory with the chosen name already exists on Windows as well as on
+Unix. tempfile.mkstemp() now fails early if parent directory is not valid
+(not exists or is a file) on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23780">bpo-23780</a>: Improved error message in os.path.join() with single argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6598">bpo-6598</a>: Increased time precision and random number range in
+email.utils.make_msgid() to strengthen the uniqueness of the message ID.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24091">bpo-24091</a>: Fixed various crashes in corner cases in C implementation of
+ElementTree.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21931">bpo-21931</a>: msilib.FCICreate() now raises TypeError in the case of a bad
+argument instead of a ValueError with a bogus FCI error number. Patch by
+Jeffrey Armstrong.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13866">bpo-13866</a>: <em>quote_via</em> argument added to urllib.parse.urlencode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20098">bpo-20098</a>: New mangle_from policy option for email, default True for
+compat32, but False for all other policies.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24211">bpo-24211</a>: The email library now supports RFC 6532: it can generate
+headers using utf-8 instead of encoded words.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16314">bpo-16314</a>: Added support for the LZMA compression in distutils.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21804">bpo-21804</a>: poplib now supports RFC 6856 (UTF8).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18682">bpo-18682</a>: Optimized pprint functions for builtin scalar types.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22027">bpo-22027</a>: smtplib now supports RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23488">bpo-23488</a>: Random generator objects now consume 2x less memory on 64-bit.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1322">bpo-1322</a>: platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution() functions are
+now deprecated.  Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22486">bpo-22486</a>: Added the math.gcd() function.  The fractions.gcd() function
+now is deprecated.  Based on patch by Mark Dickinson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24064">bpo-24064</a>: Property() docstrings are now writeable. (Patch by Berker
+Peksag.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22681">bpo-22681</a>: Added support for the koi8_t encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22682">bpo-22682</a>: Added support for the kz1048 encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23796">bpo-23796</a>: peek and read1 methods of BufferedReader now raise ValueError
+if they called on a closed object. Patch by John Hergenroeder.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21795">bpo-21795</a>: smtpd now supports the 8BITMIME extension whenever the new
+<em>decode_data</em> constructor argument is set to False.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24155">bpo-24155</a>: optimize heapq.heapify() for better cache performance when
+heapifying large lists.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21800">bpo-21800</a>: imaplib now supports RFC 5161 (enable), RFC 6855
+(utf8/internationalized email) and automatically encodes non-ASCII
+usernames and passwords to UTF8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20274">bpo-20274</a>: When calling a _sqlite.Connection, it now complains if passed
+any keyword arguments.  Previously it silently ignored them.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20274">bpo-20274</a>: Remove ignored and erroneous “kwargs” parameters from three
+METH_VARARGS methods on _sqlite.Connection.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24134">bpo-24134</a>: assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns() and
+assertWarnsRegex() checks now emits a deprecation warning when callable is
+None or keyword arguments except msg is passed in the context manager
+mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24018">bpo-24018</a>: Add a collections.abc.Generator abstract base class.
+Contributed by Stefan Behnel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23880">bpo-23880</a>: Tkinter’s getint() and getdouble() now support Tcl_Obj.
+Tkinter’s getdouble() now supports any numbers (in particular int).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22619">bpo-22619</a>: Added negative limit support in the traceback module. Based on
+patch by Dmitry Kazakov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24094">bpo-24094</a>: Fix possible crash in json.encode with poorly behaved dict
+subclasses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9246">bpo-9246</a>: On POSIX, os.getcwd() now supports paths longer than 1025 bytes.
+Patch written by William Orr.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17445">bpo-17445</a>: add difflib.diff_bytes() to support comparison of byte strings
+(fixes a regression from Python 2).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23917">bpo-23917</a>: Fall back to sequential compilation when ProcessPoolExecutor
+doesn’t exist. Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23008">bpo-23008</a>: Fixed resolving attributes with boolean value is False in
+pydoc.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix asyncio issue 235: LifoQueue and PriorityQueue’s put didn’t increment
+unfinished tasks (this bug was introduced when JoinableQueue was merged
+with Queue).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23908">bpo-23908</a>: os functions now reject paths with embedded null character on
+Windows instead of silently truncating them.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23728">bpo-23728</a>: binascii.crc_hqx() could return an integer outside of the range
+0-0xffff for empty data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23887">bpo-23887</a>: urllib.error.HTTPError now has a proper repr() representation.
+Patch by Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p>asyncio: New event loop APIs: set_task_factory() and get_task_factory().</p></li>
+<li><p>asyncio: async() function is deprecated in favour of ensure_future().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24178">bpo-24178</a>: asyncio.Lock, Condition, Semaphore, and BoundedSemaphore
+support new ‘async with’ syntax.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24179">bpo-24179</a>: Support ‘async for’ for asyncio.StreamReader. Contributed by
+Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24184">bpo-24184</a>: Add AsyncIterator and AsyncIterable ABCs to collections.abc.
+Contributed by Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22547">bpo-22547</a>: Implement informative __repr__ for inspect.BoundArguments.
+Contributed by Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24190">bpo-24190</a>: Implement inspect.BoundArgument.apply_defaults() method.
+Contributed by Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20691">bpo-20691</a>: Add ‘follow_wrapped’ argument to
+inspect.Signature.from_callable() and inspect.signature(). Contributed by
+Yury Selivanov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24248">bpo-24248</a>: Deprecate inspect.Signature.from_function() and
+inspect.Signature.from_builtin().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23898">bpo-23898</a>: Fix inspect.classify_class_attrs() to support attributes with
+overloaded __eq__ and __bool__.  Patch by Mike Bayer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24298">bpo-24298</a>: Fix inspect.signature() to correctly unwrap wrappers around
+bound methods.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id369">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id369" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23184">bpo-23184</a>: remove unused names and imports in idlelib. Initial patch by Al
+Sweigart.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id370">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id370" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21520">bpo-21520</a>: test_zipfile no longer fails if the word ‘bad’ appears anywhere
+in the name of the current directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9517">bpo-9517</a>: Move script_helper into the support package. Patch by Christie
+Wilson.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id371">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id371" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22155">bpo-22155</a>: Add File Handlers subsection with createfilehandler to tkinter
+doc.  Remove obsolete example from FAQ.  Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24029">bpo-24029</a>: Document the name binding behavior for submodule imports.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24077">bpo-24077</a>: Fix typo in man page for -I command option: -s, not -S</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id372">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id372" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24000">bpo-24000</a>: Improved Argument Clinic’s mapping of converters to legacy
+“format units”. Updated the documentation to match.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24001">bpo-24001</a>: Argument Clinic converters now use accept={type} instead of
+types={‘type’} to specify the types the converter accepts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23330">bpo-23330</a>: h2py now supports arbitrary filenames in #include.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24031">bpo-24031</a>: make patchcheck now supports git checkouts, too.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-alpha-4">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 alpha 4<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-4" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-04-19</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id373">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id373" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22980">bpo-22980</a>: Under Linux, GNU/KFreeBSD and the Hurd, C extensions now
+include the architecture triplet in the extension name, to make it easy to
+test builds for different ABIs in the same working tree.  Under OS X, the
+extension name now includes PEP 3149-style information.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22631">bpo-22631</a>: Added Linux-specific socket constant CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES. Patch
+courtesy of Joe Jevnik.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23731">bpo-23731</a>: Implement PEP 488: removal of .pyo files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23726">bpo-23726</a>: Don’t enable GC for user subclasses of non-GC types that don’t
+add any new fields.  Patch by Eugene Toder.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23309">bpo-23309</a>: Avoid a deadlock at shutdown if a daemon thread is aborted
+while it is holding a lock to a buffered I/O object, and the main thread
+tries to use the same I/O object (typically stdout or stderr).  A fatal
+error is emitted instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22977">bpo-22977</a>: Fixed formatting Windows error messages on Wine. Patch by
+Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23466">bpo-23466</a>: %c, %o, %x, and %X in bytes formatting now raise TypeError on
+non-integer input.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24044">bpo-24044</a>: Fix possible null pointer dereference in list.sort in out of
+memory conditions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21354">bpo-21354</a>: PyCFunction_New function is exposed by python DLL again.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id374">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id374" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23840">bpo-23840</a>: tokenize.open() now closes the temporary binary file on error
+to fix a resource warning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16914">bpo-16914</a>: new debuglevel 2 in smtplib adds timestamps to debug output.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7159">bpo-7159</a>: urllib.request now supports sending auth credentials
+automatically after the first 401.  This enhancement is a superset of the
+enhancement from <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19494">bpo-19494</a> and supersedes that change.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23703">bpo-23703</a>: Fix a regression in urljoin() introduced in 901e4e52b20a. Patch
+by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4254">bpo-4254</a>: Adds _curses.update_lines_cols().  Patch by Arnon Yaari</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19933">bpo-19933</a>: Provide default argument for ndigits in round. Patch by
+Vajrasky Kok.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23193">bpo-23193</a>: Add a numeric_owner parameter to tarfile.TarFile.extract and
+tarfile.TarFile.extractall. Patch by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23342">bpo-23342</a>: Add a subprocess.run() function than returns a CalledProcess
+instance for a more consistent API than the existing call* functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21217">bpo-21217</a>: inspect.getsourcelines() now tries to compute the start and end
+lines from the code object, fixing an issue when a lambda function is used
+as decorator argument. Patch by Thomas Ballinger and Allison Kaptur.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue24521">bpo-24521</a>: Fix possible integer overflows in the pickle module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22931">bpo-22931</a>: Allow ‘[‘ and ‘]’ in cookie values.</p></li>
+<li><p>The keywords attribute of functools.partial is now always a dictionary.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23811">bpo-23811</a>: Add missing newline to the PyCompileError error message. Patch
+by Alex Shkop.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21116">bpo-21116</a>: Avoid blowing memory when allocating a multiprocessing shared
+array that’s larger than 50% of the available RAM.  Patch by Médéric
+Boquien.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22982">bpo-22982</a>: Improve BOM handling when seeking to multiple positions of a
+writable text file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23464">bpo-23464</a>: Removed deprecated asyncio JoinableQueue.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23529">bpo-23529</a>: Limit the size of decompressed data when reading from GzipFile,
+BZ2File or LZMAFile.  This defeats denial of service attacks using
+compressed bombs (i.e. compressed payloads which decompress to a huge
+size).  Patch by Martin Panter and Nikolaus Rath.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21859">bpo-21859</a>: Added Python implementation of io.FileIO.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23865">bpo-23865</a>: close() methods in multiple modules now are idempotent and more
+robust at shutdown. If they need to release multiple resources, all are
+released even if errors occur.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23400">bpo-23400</a>: Raise same exception on both Python 2 and 3 if sem_open is not
+available. Patch by Davin Potts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10838">bpo-10838</a>: The subprocess now module includes SubprocessError and
+TimeoutError in its list of exported names for the users wild enough to
+use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">subprocess</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23411">bpo-23411</a>: Added DefragResult, ParseResult, SplitResult,
+DefragResultBytes, ParseResultBytes, and SplitResultBytes to
+urllib.parse.__all__. Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23881">bpo-23881</a>: urllib.request.ftpwrapper constructor now closes the socket if
+the FTP connection failed to fix a ResourceWarning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23853">bpo-23853</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.sendall" title="socket.socket.sendall"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.sendall()</span></code></a> does no more reset the socket
+timeout each time data is sent successfully. The socket timeout is now the
+maximum total duration to send all data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22721">bpo-22721</a>: An order of multiline pprint output of set or dict containing
+orderable and non-orderable elements no longer depends on iteration order
+of set or dict.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15133">bpo-15133</a>: _tkinter.tkapp.getboolean() now supports Tcl_Obj and always
+returns bool. tkinter.BooleanVar now validates input values (accepted
+bool, int, str, and Tcl_Obj).  tkinter.BooleanVar.get() now always returns
+bool.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10590">bpo-10590</a>: xml.sax.parseString() now supports string argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23338">bpo-23338</a>: Fixed formatting ctypes error messages on Cygwin. Patch by
+Makoto Kato.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15582">bpo-15582</a>: inspect.getdoc() now follows inheritance chains.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2175">bpo-2175</a>: SAX parsers now support a character stream of InputSource
+object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16840">bpo-16840</a>: Tkinter now supports 64-bit integers added in Tcl 8.4 and
+arbitrary precision integers added in Tcl 8.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23834">bpo-23834</a>: Fix socket.sendto(), use the C Py_ssize_t type to store the
+result of sendto() instead of the C int type.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23618">bpo-23618</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.connect()</span></code></a> now waits until the connection
+completes instead of raising <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> if the connection is
+interrupted by signals, signal handlers don’t raise an exception and the
+socket is blocking or has a timeout. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.connect" title="socket.socket.connect"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.socket.connect()</span></code></a> still
+raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#InterruptedError" title="InterruptedError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">InterruptedError</span></code></a> for non-blocking sockets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21526">bpo-21526</a>: Tkinter now supports new boolean type in Tcl 8.5.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23836">bpo-23836</a>: Fix the faulthandler module to handle reentrant calls to its
+signal handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23838">bpo-23838</a>: linecache now clears the cache and returns an empty result on
+MemoryError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10395">bpo-10395</a>: Added os.path.commonpath(). Implemented in posixpath and
+ntpath. Based on patch by Rafik Draoui.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23611">bpo-23611</a>: Serializing more “lookupable” objects (such as unbound methods
+or nested classes) now are supported with pickle protocols &lt; 4.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13583">bpo-13583</a>: sqlite3.Row now supports slice indexing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18473">bpo-18473</a>: Fixed 2to3 and 3to2 compatible pickle mappings.  Fixed
+ambiguous reverse mappings.  Added many new mappings.  Import mapping is
+no longer applied to modules already mapped with full name mapping.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23485">bpo-23485</a>: select.select() is now retried automatically with the
+recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal
+handler raises an exception. This change is part of the PEP 475.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23752">bpo-23752</a>: When built from an existing file descriptor, io.FileIO() now
+only calls fstat() once. Before fstat() was called twice, which was not
+necessary.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23704">bpo-23704</a>: collections.deque() objects now support __add__, __mul__, and
+__imul__().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23171">bpo-23171</a>: csv.Writer.writerow() now supports arbitrary iterables.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23745">bpo-23745</a>: The new email header parser now handles duplicate MIME
+parameter names without error, similar to how get_param behaves.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22117">bpo-22117</a>: Fix os.utime(), it now rounds the timestamp towards minus
+infinity (-inf) instead of rounding towards zero.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23310">bpo-23310</a>: Fix MagicMock’s initializer to work with __methods__, just like
+configure_mock().  Patch by Kasia Jachim.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id375">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id375" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23817">bpo-23817</a>: FreeBSD now uses “1.0” in the SOVERSION as other operating
+systems, instead of just “1”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23501">bpo-23501</a>: Argument Clinic now generates code into separate files by
+default.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id376">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id376" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23799">bpo-23799</a>: Added test.support.start_threads() for running and cleaning up
+multiple threads.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22390">bpo-22390</a>: test.regrtest now emits a warning if temporary files or
+directories are left after running a test.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id377">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id377" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18128">bpo-18128</a>: pygettext now uses standard +NNNN format in the
+POT-Creation-Date header.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23935">bpo-23935</a>: Argument Clinic’s understanding of format units accepting
+bytes, bytearrays, and buffers is now consistent with both the
+documentation and the implementation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23944">bpo-23944</a>: Argument Clinic now wraps long impl prototypes at column 78.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20586">bpo-20586</a>: Argument Clinic now ensures that functions without docstrings
+have signatures.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23492">bpo-23492</a>: Argument Clinic now generates argument parsing code with
+PyArg_Parse instead of PyArg_ParseTuple if possible.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23500">bpo-23500</a>: Argument Clinic is now smarter about generating the “#ifndef”
+(empty) definition of the methoddef macro: it’s only generated once, even
+if Argument Clinic processes the same symbol multiple times, and it’s
+emitted at the end of all processing rather than immediately after the
+first use.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id378">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id378" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23998">bpo-23998</a>: PyImport_ReInitLock() now checks for lock allocation error</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-alpha-3">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 alpha 3<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-03-28</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id379">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id379" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23573">bpo-23573</a>: Increased performance of string search operations (str.find,
+str.index, str.count, the in operator, str.split, str.partition) with
+arguments of different kinds (UCS1, UCS2, UCS4).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23753">bpo-23753</a>: Python doesn’t support anymore platforms without stat() or
+fstat(), these functions are always required.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23681">bpo-23681</a>: The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with int.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23632">bpo-23632</a>: Memoryviews now allow tuple indexing (including for
+multi-dimensional memoryviews).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23192">bpo-23192</a>: Fixed generator lambdas.  Patch by Bruno Cauet.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23629">bpo-23629</a>: Fix the default __sizeof__ implementation for variable-sized
+objects.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id380">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id380" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14260">bpo-14260</a>: The groupindex attribute of regular expression pattern object
+now is non-modifiable mapping.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23792">bpo-23792</a>: Ignore KeyboardInterrupt when the pydoc pager is active. This
+mimics the behavior of the standard unix pagers, and prevents pipepager
+from shutting down while the pager itself is still running.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23775">bpo-23775</a>: pprint() of OrderedDict now outputs the same representation as
+repr().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23765">bpo-23765</a>: Removed IsBadStringPtr calls in ctypes</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22364">bpo-22364</a>: Improved some re error messages using regex for hints.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23742">bpo-23742</a>: ntpath.expandvars() no longer loses unbalanced single quotes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21717">bpo-21717</a>: The zipfile.ZipFile.open function now supports ‘x’ (exclusive
+creation) mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21802">bpo-21802</a>: The reader in BufferedRWPair now is closed even when closing
+writer failed in BufferedRWPair.close().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23622">bpo-23622</a>: Unknown escapes in regular expressions that consist of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\'</span></code>
+and ASCII letter now raise a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in
+Python 3.6.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23671">bpo-23671</a>: string.Template now allows specifying the “self” parameter as a
+keyword argument.  string.Formatter now allows specifying the “self” and
+the “format_string” parameters as keyword arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23502">bpo-23502</a>: The pprint module now supports mapping proxies.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17530">bpo-17530</a>: pprint now wraps long bytes objects and bytearrays.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22687">bpo-22687</a>: Fixed some corner cases in breaking words in tetxtwrap. Got rid
+of quadratic complexity in breaking long words.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4727">bpo-4727</a>: The copy module now uses pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154) and
+supports copying of instances of classes whose __new__ method takes
+keyword-only arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23491">bpo-23491</a>: Added a zipapp module to support creating executable zip file
+archives of Python code. Registered “.pyz” and “.pyzw” extensions on
+Windows for these archives (PEP 441).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23657">bpo-23657</a>: Avoid explicit checks for str in zipapp, adding support for
+pathlib.Path objects as arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23688">bpo-23688</a>: Added support of arbitrary bytes-like objects and avoided
+unnecessary copying of memoryview in gzip.GzipFile.write(). Original patch
+by Wolfgang Maier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23252">bpo-23252</a>: Added support for writing ZIP files to unseekable streams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23647">bpo-23647</a>: Increase imaplib’s MAXLINE to accommodate modern mailbox sizes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23539">bpo-23539</a>: If body is None, http.client.HTTPConnection.request now sets
+Content-Length to 0 for PUT, POST, and PATCH headers to avoid 411 errors
+from some web servers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22351">bpo-22351</a>: The nntplib.NNTP constructor no longer leaves the connection
+and socket open until the garbage collector cleans them up.  Patch by
+Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23704">bpo-23704</a>: collections.deque() objects now support methods for index(),
+insert(), and copy().  This allows deques to be registered as a
+MutableSequence and it improves their substitutability for lists.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23715">bpo-23715</a>: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigwaitinfo" title="signal.sigwaitinfo"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.sigwaitinfo()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/signal.html#signal.sigtimedwait" title="signal.sigtimedwait"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">signal.sigtimedwait()</span></code></a> are
+now retried when interrupted by a signal not in the <em>sigset</em> parameter, if
+the signal handler does not raise an exception. signal.sigtimedwait()
+recomputes the timeout with a monotonic clock when it is retried.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23001">bpo-23001</a>: Few functions in modules mmap, ossaudiodev, socket, ssl, and
+codecs, that accepted only read-only bytes-like object now accept writable
+bytes-like object too.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23646">bpo-23646</a>: If time.sleep() is interrupted by a signal, the sleep is now
+retried with the recomputed delay, except if the signal handler raises an
+exception (PEP 475).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23136">bpo-23136</a>: _strptime now uniformly handles all days in week 0, including
+Dec 30 of previous year.  Based on patch by Jim Carroll.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23700">bpo-23700</a>: Iterator of NamedTemporaryFile now keeps a reference to
+NamedTemporaryFile instance.  Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22903">bpo-22903</a>: The fake test case created by unittest.loader when it fails
+importing a test module is now picklable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22181">bpo-22181</a>: On Linux, os.urandom() now uses the new getrandom() syscall if
+available, syscall introduced in the Linux kernel 3.17. It is more
+reliable and more secure, because it avoids the need of a file descriptor
+and waits until the kernel has enough entropy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2211">bpo-2211</a>: Updated the implementation of the http.cookies.Morsel class.
+Setting attributes key, value and coded_value directly now is deprecated.
+update() and setdefault() now transform and check keys.  Comparing for
+equality now takes into account attributes key, value and coded_value.
+copy() now returns a Morsel, not a dict.  repr() now contains all
+attributes. Optimized checking keys and quoting values.  Added new tests.
+Original patch by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18983">bpo-18983</a>: Allow selection of output units in timeit. Patch by Julian
+Gindi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23631">bpo-23631</a>: Fix traceback.format_list when a traceback has been mutated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23568">bpo-23568</a>: Add rdivmod support to MagicMock() objects. Patch by Håkan
+Lövdahl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2052">bpo-2052</a>: Add charset parameter to HtmlDiff.make_file().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23668">bpo-23668</a>: Support os.truncate and os.ftruncate on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23138">bpo-23138</a>: Fixed parsing cookies with absent keys or values in cookiejar.
+Patch by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23051">bpo-23051</a>: multiprocessing.Pool methods imap() and imap_unordered() now
+handle exceptions raised by an iterator.  Patch by Alon Diamant and Davin
+Potts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23581">bpo-23581</a>: Add matmul support to MagicMock. Patch by Håkan Lövdahl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23566">bpo-23566</a>: enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and
+dump_traceback_later() functions of faulthandler now accept file
+descriptors. Patch by Wei Wu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22928">bpo-22928</a>: Disabled HTTP header injections in http.client. Original patch
+by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23615">bpo-23615</a>: Modules bz2, tarfile and tokenize now can be reloaded with
+imp.reload(). Patch by Thomas Kluyver.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23605">bpo-23605</a>: os.walk() now calls os.scandir() instead of os.listdir(). The
+usage of os.scandir() reduces the number of calls to os.stat(). Initial
+patch written by Ben Hoyt.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id381">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id381" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23585">bpo-23585</a>: make patchcheck will ensure the interpreter is built.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id382">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id382" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23583">bpo-23583</a>: Added tests for standard IO streams in IDLE.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22289">bpo-22289</a>: Prevent test_urllib2net failures due to ftp connection timeout.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id383">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id383" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22826">bpo-22826</a>: The result of open() in Tools/freeze/bkfile.py is now better
+compatible with regular files (in particular it now supports the context
+management protocol).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-alpha-2">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 alpha 2<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-03-09</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id384">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id384" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23571">bpo-23571</a>: PyObject_Call() and PyCFunction_Call() now raise a SystemError
+if a function returns a result and raises an exception. The SystemError is
+chained to the previous exception.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id385">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id385" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22524">bpo-22524</a>: New os.scandir() function, part of the PEP 471: “os.scandir()
+function – a better and faster directory iterator”. Patch written by Ben
+Hoyt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23103">bpo-23103</a>: Reduced the memory consumption of IPv4Address and IPv6Address.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21793">bpo-21793</a>: BaseHTTPRequestHandler again logs response code as numeric, not
+as stringified enum.  Patch by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23476">bpo-23476</a>: In the ssl module, enable OpenSSL’s X509_V_FLAG_TRUSTED_FIRST
+flag on certificate stores when it is available.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23576">bpo-23576</a>: Avoid stalling in SSL reads when EOF has been reached in the
+SSL layer but the underlying connection hasn’t been closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23504">bpo-23504</a>: Added an __all__ to the types module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23563">bpo-23563</a>: Optimized utility functions in urllib.parse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7830">bpo-7830</a>: Flatten nested functools.partial.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20204">bpo-20204</a>: Added the __module__ attribute to _tkinter classes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19980">bpo-19980</a>: Improved help() for non-recognized strings.  help(‘’) now shows
+the help on str.  help(‘help’) now shows the help on help(). Original
+patch by Mark Lawrence.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23521">bpo-23521</a>: Corrected pure python implementation of timedelta division.</p>
+<p>Eliminated OverflowError from <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">float</span></code> for some floats;
+Corrected rounding in timedelta true division.</p>
+</li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21619">bpo-21619</a>: Popen objects no longer leave a zombie after exit in the with
+statement if the pipe was broken.  Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22936">bpo-22936</a>: Make it possible to show local variables in tracebacks for both
+the traceback module and unittest.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15955">bpo-15955</a>: Add an option to limit the output size in bz2.decompress().
+Patch by Nikolaus Rath.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6639">bpo-6639</a>: Module-level turtle functions no longer raise TclError after
+closing the window.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue814253">bpo-814253</a>: Group references and conditional group references now work in
+lookbehind assertions in regular expressions. (See also: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9179">bpo-9179</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23215">bpo-23215</a>: Multibyte codecs with custom error handlers that ignores errors
+consumed too much memory and raised SystemError or MemoryError. Original
+patch by Aleksi Torhamo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5700">bpo-5700</a>: io.FileIO() called flush() after closing the file. flush() was
+not called in close() if closefd=False.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23374">bpo-23374</a>: Fixed pydoc failure with non-ASCII files when stdout encoding
+differs from file system encoding (e.g. on Mac OS).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23481">bpo-23481</a>: Remove RC4 from the SSL module’s default cipher list.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21548">bpo-21548</a>: Fix pydoc.synopsis() and pydoc.apropos() on modules with empty
+docstrings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22885">bpo-22885</a>: Fixed arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the dbm.dumb
+module. Original patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23239">bpo-23239</a>: ssl.match_hostname() now supports matching of IP addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23146">bpo-23146</a>: Fix mishandling of absolute Windows paths with forward slashes
+in pathlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23096">bpo-23096</a>: Pickle representation of floats with protocol 0 now is the same
+for both Python and C implementations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19105">bpo-19105</a>: pprint now more efficiently uses free space at the right.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14910">bpo-14910</a>: Add allow_abbrev parameter to argparse.ArgumentParser. Patch by
+Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21717">bpo-21717</a>: tarfile.open() now supports ‘x’ (exclusive creation) mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23344">bpo-23344</a>: marshal.dumps() is now 20-25% faster on average.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20416">bpo-20416</a>: marshal.dumps() with protocols 3 and 4 is now 40-50% faster on
+average.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23421">bpo-23421</a>: Fixed compression in tarfile CLI.  Patch by wdv4758h.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23367">bpo-23367</a>: Fix possible overflows in the unicodedata module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23361">bpo-23361</a>: Fix possible overflow in Windows subprocess creation code.</p></li>
+<li><p>logging.handlers.QueueListener now takes a respect_handler_level keyword
+argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to handlers taking
+handler levels into account.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19705">bpo-19705</a>: turtledemo now has a visual sorting algorithm demo.  Original
+patch from Jason Yeo.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23801">bpo-23801</a>: Fix issue where cgi.FieldStorage did not always ignore the
+entire preamble to a multipart body.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id386">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id386" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23445">bpo-23445</a>: pydebug builds now use “gcc -Og” where possible, to make the
+resulting executable faster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23686">bpo-23686</a>: Update OS X 10.5 installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2a.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id387">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id387" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20204">bpo-20204</a>: Deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types without the
+__module__ attribute.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id388">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id388" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23465">bpo-23465</a>: Implement PEP 486 - Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual
+environments. Patch by Paul Moore.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23437">bpo-23437</a>: Make user scripts directory versioned on Windows. Patch by Paul
+Moore.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="python-3-5-0-alpha-1">
+<h2>Python 3.5.0 alpha 1<a class="headerlink" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
+<p><em>Release date: 2015-02-08</em></p>
+<div class="section" id="id389">
+<h3>Core and Builtins<a class="headerlink" href="#id389" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23285">bpo-23285</a>: PEP 475 - EINTR handling.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22735">bpo-22735</a>: Fix many edge cases (including crashes) involving custom mro()
+implementations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22896">bpo-22896</a>: Avoid using PyObject_AsCharBuffer(), PyObject_AsReadBuffer()
+and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21295">bpo-21295</a>: Revert some changes (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16795">bpo-16795</a>) to AST line numbers and
+column offsets that constituted a regression.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22986">bpo-22986</a>: Allow changing an object’s __class__ between a dynamic type and
+static type in some cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15859">bpo-15859</a>: PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS() and
+PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() now raise an exception if the object is not a
+Unicode object. For PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), it was already the case
+on platforms other than Windows. Patch written by Campbell Barton.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21408">bpo-21408</a>: The default __ne__() now returns NotImplemented if __eq__()
+returned NotImplemented.  Original patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23321">bpo-23321</a>: Fixed a crash in str.decode() when error handler returned
+replacement string longer than malformed input data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22286">bpo-22286</a>: The “backslashreplace” error handlers now works with decoding
+and translating.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23253">bpo-23253</a>: Delay-load ShellExecute[AW] in os.startfile for reduced startup
+overhead on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22038">bpo-22038</a>: pyatomic.h now uses stdatomic.h or GCC built-in functions for
+atomic memory access if available. Patch written by Vitor de Lima and
+Gustavo Temple.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20284">bpo-20284</a>: %-interpolation (aka printf) formatting added for bytes and
+bytearray.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23048">bpo-23048</a>: Fix jumping out of an infinite while loop in the pdb.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20335">bpo-20335</a>: bytes constructor now raises TypeError when encoding or errors
+is specified with non-string argument.  Based on patch by Renaud Blanch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22834">bpo-22834</a>: If the current working directory ends up being set to a
+non-existent directory then import will no longer raise FileNotFoundError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22869">bpo-22869</a>: Move the interpreter startup &amp; shutdown code to a new dedicated
+pylifecycle.c module</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22847">bpo-22847</a>: Improve method cache efficiency.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22335">bpo-22335</a>: Fix crash when trying to enlarge a bytearray to 0x7fffffff
+bytes on a 32-bit platform.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22653">bpo-22653</a>: Fix an assertion failure in debug mode when doing a reentrant
+dict insertion in debug mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22643">bpo-22643</a>: Fix integer overflow in Unicode case operations (upper, lower,
+title, swapcase, casefold).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17636">bpo-17636</a>: Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22604">bpo-22604</a>: Fix assertion error in debug mode when dividing a complex
+number by (nan+0j).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21052">bpo-21052</a>: Do not raise ImportWarning when sys.path_hooks or sys.meta_path
+are set to None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16518">bpo-16518</a>: Use ‘bytes-like object required’ in error messages that
+previously used the far more cryptic “‘x’ does not support the buffer
+protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22470">bpo-22470</a>: Fixed integer overflow issues in “backslashreplace”,
+“xmlcharrefreplace”, and “surrogatepass” error handlers.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22540">bpo-22540</a>: speed up <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsInstance</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_IsSubclass</span></code> in the
+common case that the second argument has metaclass <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18711">bpo-18711</a>: Add a new <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_FormatV</span></code> function, similar to <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_Format</span></code>
+but accepting a <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">va_list</span></code> argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22520">bpo-22520</a>: Fix overflow checking when generating the repr of a unicode
+object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22519">bpo-22519</a>: Fix overflow checking in PyBytes_Repr.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22518">bpo-22518</a>: Fix integer overflow issues in latin-1 encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16324">bpo-16324</a>: _charset parameter of MIMEText now also accepts
+email.charset.Charset instances. Initial patch by Claude Paroz.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1764286">bpo-1764286</a>: Fix inspect.getsource() to support decorated functions. Patch
+by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18554">bpo-18554</a>: os.__all__ includes posix functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21391">bpo-21391</a>: Use os.path.abspath in the shutil module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11471">bpo-11471</a>: avoid generating a JUMP_FORWARD instruction at the end of an
+if-block if there is no else-clause.  Original patch by Eugene Toder.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22215">bpo-22215</a>: Now ValueError is raised instead of TypeError when str or bytes
+argument contains not permitted null character or byte.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22258">bpo-22258</a>: Fix the internal function set_inheritable() on Illumos. This
+platform exposes the function <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ioctl(FIOCLEX)</span></code>, but calling it fails
+with errno is ENOTTY: “Inappropriate ioctl for device”. set_inheritable()
+now falls back to the slower <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fcntl()</span></code> (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F_GETFD</span></code> and then
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">F_SETFD</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21389">bpo-21389</a>: Displaying the __qualname__ of the underlying function in the
+repr of a bound method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22206">bpo-22206</a>: Using pthread, PyThread_create_key() now sets errno to ENOMEM
+and returns -1 (error) on integer overflow.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20184">bpo-20184</a>: Argument Clinic based signature introspection added for 30 of
+the builtin functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22116">bpo-22116</a>: C functions and methods (of the ‘builtin_function_or_method’
+type) can now be weakref’ed.  Patch by Wei Wu.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22077">bpo-22077</a>: Improve index error messages for bytearrays, bytes, lists, and
+tuples by adding ‘or slices’. Added ‘, not &lt;typename&gt;’ for bytearrays.
+Original patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20179">bpo-20179</a>: Apply Argument Clinic to bytes and bytearray. Patch by Tal
+Einat.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22082">bpo-22082</a>: Clear interned strings in slotdefs.</p></li>
+<li><p>Upgrade Unicode database to Unicode 7.0.0.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21897">bpo-21897</a>: Fix a crash with the f_locals attribute with closure variables
+when frame.clear() has been called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21205">bpo-21205</a>: Add a new <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code> attribute to generator, the
+qualified name, and use it in the representation of a generator
+(<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr(gen)</span></code>). The default name of the generator (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>
+attribute) is now get from the function instead of the code. Use
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gen.gi_code.co_name</span></code> to get the name of the code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21669">bpo-21669</a>: With the aid of heuristics in SyntaxError.__init__, the parser
+now attempts to generate more meaningful (or at least more search engine
+friendly) error messages when “exec” and “print” are used as statements.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21642">bpo-21642</a>: In the conditional if-else expression, allow an integer written
+with no space between itself and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> keyword (e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span> <span class="pre">if</span>
+<span class="pre">42else</span> <span class="pre">False</span></code>) to be valid syntax.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21523">bpo-21523</a>: Fix over-pessimistic computation of the stack effect of some
+opcodes in the compiler.  This also fixes a quadratic compilation time
+issue noticeable when compiling code with a large number of “and” and “or”
+operators.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21418">bpo-21418</a>: Fix a crash in the builtin function super() when called without
+argument and without current frame (ex: embedded Python).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21425">bpo-21425</a>: Fix flushing of standard streams in the interactive
+interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21435">bpo-21435</a>: In rare cases, when running finalizers on objects in cyclic
+trash a bad pointer dereference could occur due to a subtle flaw in
+internal iteration logic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21377">bpo-21377</a>: PyBytes_Concat() now tries to concatenate in-place when the
+first argument has a reference count of 1.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20355">bpo-20355</a>: -W command line options now have higher priority than the
+PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable.  Patch by Arfrever.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21274">bpo-21274</a>: Define PATH_MAX for GNU/Hurd in Python/pythonrun.c.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20904">bpo-20904</a>: Support setting FPU precision on m68k.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21209">bpo-21209</a>: Fix sending tuples to custom generator objects with the yield
+from syntax.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21193">bpo-21193</a>: pow(a, b, c) now raises ValueError rather than TypeError when b
+is negative. Patch by Josh Rosenberg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21176">bpo-21176</a>: PEP 465: Add the ‘&#64;’ operator for matrix multiplication.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21134">bpo-21134</a>: Fix segfault when str is called on an uninitialized
+UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError, or UnicodeTranslateError object.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19537">bpo-19537</a>: Fix PyUnicode_DATA() alignment under m68k.  Patch by Andreas
+Schwab.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20929">bpo-20929</a>: Add a type cast to avoid shifting a negative number.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20731">bpo-20731</a>: Properly position in source code files even if they are opened
+in text mode. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20637">bpo-20637</a>: Key-sharing now also works for instance dictionaries of
+subclasses.  Patch by Peter Ingebretson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8297">bpo-8297</a>: Attributes missing from modules now include the module name in
+the error text.  Original patch by ysj.ray.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19995">bpo-19995</a>: %c, %o, %x, and %X now raise TypeError on non-integer input.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19655">bpo-19655</a>: The ASDL parser - used by the build process to generate code
+for managing the Python AST in C - was rewritten. The new parser is self
+contained and does not require to carry long the spark.py parser-generator
+library; spark.py was removed from the source base.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12546">bpo-12546</a>: Allow <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">\x00</span></code> to be used as a fill character when using str,
+int, float, and complex __format__ methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20480">bpo-20480</a>: Add ipaddress.reverse_pointer. Patch by Leon Weber.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13598">bpo-13598</a>: Modify string.Formatter to support auto-numbering of
+replacement fields. It now matches the behavior of str.format() in this
+regard. Patches by Phil Elson and Ramchandra Apte.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8931">bpo-8931</a>: Make alternate formatting (‘#’) for type ‘c’ raise an exception.
+In versions prior to 3.5, ‘#’ with ‘c’ had no effect. Now specifying it is
+an error. Patch by Torsten Landschoff.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23165">bpo-23165</a>: Perform overflow checks before allocating memory in the
+_Py_char2wchar function.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id390">
+<h3>Library<a class="headerlink" href="#id390" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23399">bpo-23399</a>: pyvenv creates relative symlinks where possible.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20289">bpo-20289</a>: cgi.FieldStorage() now supports the context management
+protocol.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13128">bpo-13128</a>: Print response headers for CONNECT requests when debuglevel &gt;
+0. Patch by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15381">bpo-15381</a>: Optimized io.BytesIO to make less allocations and copyings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22818">bpo-22818</a>: Splitting on a pattern that could match an empty string now
+raises a warning.  Patterns that can only match empty strings are now
+rejected.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23099">bpo-23099</a>: Closing io.BytesIO with exported buffer is rejected now to
+prevent corrupting exported buffer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23326">bpo-23326</a>: Removed __ne__ implementations.  Since fixing default __ne__
+implementation in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21408">bpo-21408</a> they are redundant.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23363">bpo-23363</a>: Fix possible overflow in itertools.permutations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23364">bpo-23364</a>: Fix possible overflow in itertools.product.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23366">bpo-23366</a>: Fixed possible integer overflow in itertools.combinations.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23369">bpo-23369</a>: Fixed possible integer overflow in
+_json.encode_basestring_ascii.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23353">bpo-23353</a>: Fix the exception handling of generators in
+PyEval_EvalFrameEx(). At entry, save or swap the exception state even if
+PyEval_EvalFrameEx() is called with throwflag=0. At exit, the exception
+state is now always restored or swapped, not only if why is WHY_YIELD or
+WHY_RETURN. Patch co-written with Antoine Pitrou.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14099">bpo-14099</a>: Restored support of writing ZIP files to tellable but
+non-seekable streams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14099">bpo-14099</a>: Writing to ZipFile and reading multiple ZipExtFiles is
+threadsafe now.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19361">bpo-19361</a>: JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of ValueError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18518">bpo-18518</a>: timeit now rejects statements which can’t be compiled outside a
+function or a loop (e.g. “return” or “break”).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23094">bpo-23094</a>: Fixed readline with frames in Python implementation of pickle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23268">bpo-23268</a>: Fixed bugs in the comparison of ipaddress classes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21408">bpo-21408</a>: Removed incorrect implementations of __ne__() which didn’t
+returned NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented.  The default
+__ne__() now works correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19996">bpo-19996</a>: <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.feedparser.FeedParser</span></code> now handles (malformed)
+headers with no key rather than assuming the body has started.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20188">bpo-20188</a>: Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation (ALPN) in the
+ssl module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23133">bpo-23133</a>: Pickling of ipaddress objects now produces more compact and
+portable representation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23248">bpo-23248</a>: Update ssl error codes from latest OpenSSL git master.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23266">bpo-23266</a>: Much faster implementation of ipaddress.collapse_addresses()
+when there are many non-consecutive addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23098">bpo-23098</a>: 64-bit dev_t is now supported in the os module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21817">bpo-21817</a>: When an exception is raised in a task submitted to a
+ProcessPoolExecutor, the remote traceback is now displayed in the parent
+process.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15955">bpo-15955</a>: Add an option to limit output size when decompressing LZMA
+data.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath and Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23250">bpo-23250</a>: In the http.cookies module, capitalize “HttpOnly” and “Secure”
+as they are written in the standard.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23063">bpo-23063</a>: In the distutils’ check command, fix parsing of reST with code
+or code-block directives.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23209">bpo-23209</a>: selectors.BaseSelector.get_key() now raises a RuntimeError if
+the selector is closed. And selectors.BaseSelector.close() now clears its
+internal reference to the selector mapping to break a reference cycle.
+Initial patch written by Martin Richard. (See also: <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23225">bpo-23225</a>)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17911">bpo-17911</a>: Provide a way to seed the linecache for a PEP-302 module
+without actually loading the code.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17911">bpo-17911</a>: Provide a new object API for traceback, including the ability
+to not lookup lines at all until the traceback is actually rendered,
+without any trace of the original objects being kept alive.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19777">bpo-19777</a>: Provide a home() classmethod on Path objects.  Contributed by
+Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23206">bpo-23206</a>: Make <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json.dumps(...,</span> <span class="pre">ensure_ascii=False)</span></code> as fast as the
+default case of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ensure_ascii=True</span></code>.  Patch by Naoki Inada.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23185">bpo-23185</a>: Add math.inf and math.nan constants.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23186">bpo-23186</a>: Add ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and
+ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() to fetch the client’s list ciphers sent at
+handshake.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23143">bpo-23143</a>: Remove compatibility with OpenSSLs older than 0.9.8.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23132">bpo-23132</a>: Improve performance and introspection support of comparison
+methods created by functool.total_ordering.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19776">bpo-19776</a>: Add an expanduser() method on Path objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23112">bpo-23112</a>: Fix SimpleHTTPServer to correctly carry the query string and
+fragment when it redirects to add a trailing slash.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21793">bpo-21793</a>: Added http.HTTPStatus enums (i.e. HTTPStatus.OK,
+HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND). Patch by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23093">bpo-23093</a>: In the io, module allow more operations to work on detached
+streams.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23111">bpo-23111</a>: In the ftplib, make ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23 the default protocol
+version.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22585">bpo-22585</a>: On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, os.urandom() now calls getentropy(),
+instead of reading /dev/urandom, to get pseudo-random bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19104">bpo-19104</a>: pprint now produces evaluable output for wrapped strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23071">bpo-23071</a>: Added missing names to codecs.__all__.  Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22783">bpo-22783</a>: Pickling now uses the NEWOBJ opcode instead of the NEWOBJ_EX
+opcode if possible.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15513">bpo-15513</a>: Added a __sizeof__ implementation for pickle classes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19858">bpo-19858</a>: pickletools.optimize() now aware of the MEMOIZE opcode, can
+produce more compact result and no longer produces invalid output if input
+data contains MEMOIZE opcodes together with PUT or BINPUT opcodes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22095">bpo-22095</a>: Fixed HTTPConnection.set_tunnel with default port.  The port
+value in the host header was set to “None”.  Patch by Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23016">bpo-23016</a>: A warning no longer produces an AttributeError when the program
+is run with pythonw.exe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21775">bpo-21775</a>: shutil.copytree(): fix crash when copying to VFAT. An exception
+handler assumed that OSError objects always have a ‘winerror’ attribute.
+That is not the case, so the exception handler itself raised
+AttributeError when run on Linux (and, presumably, any other non-Windows
+OS). Patch by Greg Ward.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1218234">bpo-1218234</a>: Fix inspect.getsource() to load updated source of reloaded
+module. Initial patch by Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21740">bpo-21740</a>: Support wrapped callables in doctest. Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23009">bpo-23009</a>: Make sure selectors.EpollSelecrtor.select() works when no FD is
+registered.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22959">bpo-22959</a>: In the constructor of http.client.HTTPSConnection, prefer the
+context’s check_hostname attribute over the <em>check_hostname</em> parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22696">bpo-22696</a>: Add function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.is_finalizing" title="sys.is_finalizing"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.is_finalizing()</span></code></a> to know about
+interpreter shutdown.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16043">bpo-16043</a>: Add a default limit for the amount of data
+xmlrpclib.gzip_decode will return. This resolves CVE-2013-1753.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14099">bpo-14099</a>: ZipFile.open() no longer reopen the underlying file.  Objects
+returned by ZipFile.open() can now operate independently of the ZipFile
+even if the ZipFile was created by passing in a file-like object as the
+first argument to the constructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22966">bpo-22966</a>: Fix __pycache__ pyc file name clobber when pyc_compile is asked
+to compile a source file containing multiple dots in the source file name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21971">bpo-21971</a>: Update turtledemo doc and add module to the index.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21032">bpo-21032</a>: Fixed socket leak if HTTPConnection.getresponse() fails.
+Original patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22407">bpo-22407</a>: Deprecated the use of re.LOCALE flag with str patterns or
+re.ASCII. It was newer worked.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22902">bpo-22902</a>: The “ip” command is now used on Linux to determine MAC address
+in uuid.getnode().  Pach by Bruno Cauet.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22960">bpo-22960</a>: Add a context argument to xmlrpclib.ServerProxy constructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22389">bpo-22389</a>: Add contextlib.redirect_stderr().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21356">bpo-21356</a>: Make ssl.RAND_egd() optional to support LibreSSL. The
+availability of the function is checked during the compilation. Patch
+written by Bernard Spil.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22915">bpo-22915</a>: SAX parser now supports files opened with file descriptor or
+bytes path.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22609">bpo-22609</a>: Constructors and update methods of mapping classes in the
+collections module now accept the self keyword argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22940">bpo-22940</a>: Add readline.append_history_file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19676">bpo-19676</a>: Added the “namereplace” error handler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22788">bpo-22788</a>: Add <em>context</em> parameter to logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22921">bpo-22921</a>: Allow SSLContext to take the <em>hostname</em> parameter even if
+OpenSSL doesn’t support SNI.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22894">bpo-22894</a>: TestCase.subTest() would cause the test suite to be stopped
+when in failfast mode, even in the absence of failures.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22796">bpo-22796</a>: HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect
+against potential injection attacks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22370">bpo-22370</a>: Windows detection in pathlib is now more robust.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22841">bpo-22841</a>: Reject coroutines in asyncio add_signal_handler(). Patch by
+Ludovic.Gasc.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19494">bpo-19494</a>: Added urllib.request.HTTPBasicPriorAuthHandler. Patch by Matej
+Cepl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22578">bpo-22578</a>: Added attributes to the re.error class.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22849">bpo-22849</a>: Fix possible double free in the io.TextIOWrapper constructor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12728">bpo-12728</a>: Different Unicode characters having the same uppercase but
+different lowercase are now matched in case-insensitive regular
+expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22821">bpo-22821</a>: Fixed fcntl() with integer argument on 64-bit big-endian
+platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21650">bpo-21650</a>: Add an <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--sort-keys</span></code> option to json.tool CLI.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22824">bpo-22824</a>: Updated reprlib output format for sets to use set literals.
+Patch contributed by Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22824">bpo-22824</a>: Updated reprlib output format for arrays to display empty
+arrays without an unnecessary empty list.  Suggested by Serhiy Storchaka.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22406">bpo-22406</a>: Fixed the uu_codec codec incorrectly ported to 3.x. Based on
+patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17293">bpo-17293</a>: uuid.getnode() now determines MAC address on AIX using netstat.
+Based on patch by Aivars Kalvāns.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22769">bpo-22769</a>: Fixed ttk.Treeview.tag_has() when called without arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22417">bpo-22417</a>: Verify certificates by default in httplib (PEP 476).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22775">bpo-22775</a>: Fixed unpickling of http.cookies.SimpleCookie with protocol 2
+and above. Patch by Tim Graham.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22776">bpo-22776</a>: Brought excluded code into the scope of a try block in
+SysLogHandler.emit().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22665">bpo-22665</a>: Add missing get_terminal_size and SameFileError to
+shutil.__all__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6623">bpo-6623</a>: Remove deprecated Netrc class in the ftplib module. Patch by
+Matt Chaput.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17381">bpo-17381</a>: Fixed handling of case-insensitive ranges in regular
+expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22410">bpo-22410</a>: Module level functions in the re module now cache compiled
+locale-dependent regular expressions taking into account the locale.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22759">bpo-22759</a>: Query methods on pathlib.Path() (exists(), is_dir(), etc.) now
+return False when the underlying stat call raises NotADirectoryError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8876">bpo-8876</a>: distutils now falls back to copying files when hard linking
+doesn’t work. This allows use with special filesystems such as VirtualBox
+shared folders.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22217">bpo-22217</a>: Implemented reprs of classes in the zipfile module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22457">bpo-22457</a>: Honour load_tests in the start_dir of discovery.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18216">bpo-18216</a>: gettext now raises an error when a .mo file has an unsupported
+major version number.  Patch by Aaron Hill.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13918">bpo-13918</a>: Provide a locale.delocalize() function which can remove
+locale-specific number formatting from a string representing a number,
+without then converting it to a specific type.  Patch by Cédric Krier.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22676">bpo-22676</a>: Make the pickling of global objects which don’t have a
+__module__ attribute less slow.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18853">bpo-18853</a>: Fixed ResourceWarning in shlex.__nain__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9351">bpo-9351</a>: Defaults set with set_defaults on an argparse subparser are no
+longer ignored when also set on the parent parser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7559">bpo-7559</a>: unittest test loading ImportErrors are reported as import errors
+with their import exception rather than as attribute errors after the
+import has already failed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19746">bpo-19746</a>: Make it possible to examine the errors from unittest discovery
+without executing the test suite. The new <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">errors</span></code> attribute on TestLoader
+exposes these non-fatal errors encountered during discovery.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21991">bpo-21991</a>: Make email.headerregistry’s header ‘params’ attributes be
+read-only (MappingProxyType).  Previously the dictionary was modifiable
+but a new one was created on each access of the attribute.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22638">bpo-22638</a>: SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library. It can
+still be enabled by instantiating a SSLContext manually.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22641">bpo-22641</a>: In asyncio, the default SSL context for client connections is
+now created using ssl.create_default_context(), for stronger security.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17401">bpo-17401</a>: Include closefd in io.FileIO repr.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21338">bpo-21338</a>: Add silent mode for compileall. quiet parameters of
+compile_{dir, file, path} functions now have a multilevel value. Also, -q
+option of the CLI now have a multilevel value. Patch by Thomas Kluyver.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20152">bpo-20152</a>: Convert the array and cmath modules to Argument Clinic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18643">bpo-18643</a>: Add socket.socketpair() on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22435">bpo-22435</a>: Fix a file descriptor leak when socketserver bind fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13096">bpo-13096</a>: Fixed segfault in CTypes POINTER handling of large values.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11694">bpo-11694</a>: Raise ConversionError in xdrlib as documented.  Patch by Filip
+Gruszczyński and Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19380">bpo-19380</a>: Optimized parsing of regular expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1519638">bpo-1519638</a>: Now unmatched groups are replaced with empty strings in
+re.sub() and re.subn().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18615">bpo-18615</a>: sndhdr.what/whathdr now return a namedtuple.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22462">bpo-22462</a>: Fix pyexpat’s creation of a dummy frame to make it appear in
+exception tracebacks.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21965">bpo-21965</a>: Add support for in-memory SSL to the ssl module.  Patch by
+Geert Jansen.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21173">bpo-21173</a>: Fix len() on a WeakKeyDictionary when .clear() was called with
+an iterator alive.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11866">bpo-11866</a>: Eliminated race condition in the computation of names for new
+threads.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21905">bpo-21905</a>: Avoid RuntimeError in pickle.whichmodule() when sys.modules is
+mutated while iterating.  Patch by Olivier Grisel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11271">bpo-11271</a>: concurrent.futures.Executor.map() now takes a <em>chunksize</em>
+argument to allow batching of tasks in child processes and improve
+performance of ProcessPoolExecutor.  Patch by Dan O’Reilly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21883">bpo-21883</a>: os.path.join() and os.path.relpath() now raise a TypeError with
+more helpful error message for unsupported or mismatched types of
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22219">bpo-22219</a>: The zipfile module CLI now adds entries for directories
+(including empty directories) in ZIP file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22449">bpo-22449</a>: In the ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs, consult the
+environmental variables SSL_CERT_DIR and SSL_CERT_FILE on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22508">bpo-22508</a>: The email.__version__ variable has been removed; the email code
+is no longer shipped separately from the stdlib, and __version__ hasn’t
+been updated in several releases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20076">bpo-20076</a>: Added non derived UTF-8 aliases to locale aliases table.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20079">bpo-20079</a>: Added locales supported in glibc 2.18 to locale alias table.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20218">bpo-20218</a>: Added convenience methods read_text/write_text and read_bytes/
+write_bytes to pathlib.Path objects.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22396">bpo-22396</a>: On 32-bit AIX platform, don’t expose os.posix_fadvise() nor
+os.posix_fallocate() because their prototypes in system headers are wrong.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22517">bpo-22517</a>: When an io.BufferedRWPair object is deallocated, clear its
+weakrefs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22437">bpo-22437</a>: Number of capturing groups in regular expression is no longer
+limited by 100.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17442">bpo-17442</a>: InteractiveInterpreter now displays the full chained traceback
+in its showtraceback method, to match the built in interactive
+interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23392">bpo-23392</a>: Added tests for marshal C API that works with FILE*.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10510">bpo-10510</a>: distutils register and upload methods now use HTML standards
+compliant CRLF line endings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9850">bpo-9850</a>: Fixed macpath.join() for empty first component.  Patch by Oleg
+Oshmyan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5309">bpo-5309</a>: distutils’ build and build_ext commands now accept a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-j</span></code>
+option to enable parallel building of extension modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22448">bpo-22448</a>: Improve canceled timer handles cleanup to prevent unbound
+memory usage. Patch by Joshua Moore-Oliva.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22427">bpo-22427</a>: TemporaryDirectory no longer attempts to clean up twice when
+used in the with statement in generator.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22362">bpo-22362</a>: Forbidden ambiguous octal escapes out of range 0-0o377 in
+regular expressions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20912">bpo-20912</a>: Now directories added to ZIP file have correct Unix and MS-DOS
+directory attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21866">bpo-21866</a>: ZipFile.close() no longer writes ZIP64 central directory
+records if allowZip64 is false.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22278">bpo-22278</a>: Fix urljoin problem with relative urls, a regression observed
+after changes to issue22118 were submitted.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22415">bpo-22415</a>: Fixed debugging output of the GROUPREF_EXISTS opcode in the re
+module. Removed trailing spaces in debugging output.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22423">bpo-22423</a>: Unhandled exception in thread no longer causes unhandled
+AttributeError when sys.stderr is None.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21332">bpo-21332</a>: Ensure that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bufsize=1</span></code> in subprocess.Popen() selects line
+buffering, rather than block buffering.  Patch by Akira Li.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21091">bpo-21091</a>: Fix API bug: email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment is now a
+method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21079">bpo-21079</a>: Fix email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment to return the
+correct result when the header has parameters as well as a value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22247">bpo-22247</a>: Add NNTPError to nntplib.__all__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22366">bpo-22366</a>: urllib.request.urlopen will accept a context object
+(SSLContext) as an argument which will then be used for HTTPS connection.
+Patch by Alex Gaynor.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4180">bpo-4180</a>: The warnings registries are now reset when the filters are
+modified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22419">bpo-22419</a>: Limit the length of incoming HTTP request in wsgiref server to
+65536 bytes and send a 414 error code for higher lengths. Patch
+contributed by Devin Cook.</p></li>
+<li><p>Lax cookie parsing in http.cookies could be a security issue when combined
+with non-standard cookie handling in some Web browsers.  Reported by
+Sergey Bobrov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20537">bpo-20537</a>: logging methods now accept an exception instance as well as a
+Boolean value or exception tuple. Thanks to Yury Selivanov for the patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22384">bpo-22384</a>: An exception in Tkinter callback no longer crashes the program
+when it is run with pythonw.exe.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22168">bpo-22168</a>: Prevent turtle AttributeError with non-default Canvas on OS X.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21147">bpo-21147</a>: sqlite3 now raises an exception if the request contains a null
+character instead of truncating it.  Based on patch by Victor Stinner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13968">bpo-13968</a>: The glob module now supports recursive search in subdirectories
+using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">**</span></code> pattern.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21951">bpo-21951</a>: Fixed a crash in Tkinter on AIX when called Tcl command with
+empty string or tuple argument.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21951">bpo-21951</a>: Tkinter now most likely raises MemoryError instead of crash if
+the memory allocation fails.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22338">bpo-22338</a>: Fix a crash in the json module on memory allocation failure.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12410">bpo-12410</a>: imaplib.IMAP4 now supports the context management protocol.
+Original patch by Tarek Ziadé.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21270">bpo-21270</a>: We now override tuple methods in mock.call objects so that they
+can be used as normal call attributes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16662">bpo-16662</a>: load_tests() is now unconditionally run when it is present in a
+package’s __init__.py.  TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule() still accepts
+use_load_tests, but it is deprecated and ignored.  A new keyword-only
+attribute <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pattern</span></code> is added and documented.  Patch given by Robert
+Collins, tweaked by Barry Warsaw.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22226">bpo-22226</a>: First letter no longer is stripped from the “status” key in the
+result of Treeview.heading().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19524">bpo-19524</a>: Fixed resource leak in the HTTP connection when an invalid
+response is received.  Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20421">bpo-20421</a>: Add a .version() method to SSL sockets exposing the actual
+protocol version in use.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19546">bpo-19546</a>: configparser exceptions no longer expose implementation
+details. Chained KeyErrors are removed, which leads to cleaner tracebacks.
+Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22051">bpo-22051</a>: turtledemo no longer reloads examples to re-run them.
+Initialization of variables and gui setup should be done in main(), which
+is called each time a demo is run, but not on import.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21933">bpo-21933</a>: Turtledemo users can change the code font size with a menu
+selection or control(command) ‘-‘ or ‘+’ or control-mousewheel. Original
+patch by Lita Cho.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21597">bpo-21597</a>: The separator between the turtledemo text pane and the drawing
+canvas can now be grabbed and dragged with a mouse.  The code text pane
+can be widened to easily view or copy the full width of the text.  The
+canvas can be widened on small screens.  Original patches by Jan Kanis and
+Lita Cho.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18132">bpo-18132</a>: Turtledemo buttons no longer disappear when the window is
+shrunk.  Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22043">bpo-22043</a>: time.monotonic() is now always available.
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Lock.acquire()</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock.acquire()</span></code> and socket
+operations now use a monotonic clock, instead of the system clock, when a
+timeout is used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21527">bpo-21527</a>: Add a default number of workers to ThreadPoolExecutor equal to
+5 times the number of CPUs.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22216">bpo-22216</a>: smtplib now resets its state more completely after a quit.  The
+most obvious consequence of the previous behavior was a STARTTLS failure
+during a connect/starttls/quit/connect/starttls sequence.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22098">bpo-22098</a>: ctypes’ BigEndianStructure and LittleEndianStructure now define
+an empty __slots__ so that subclasses don’t always get an instance dict.
+Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22185">bpo-22185</a>: Fix an occasional RuntimeError in threading.Condition.wait()
+caused by mutation of the waiters queue without holding the lock.  Patch
+by Doug Zongker.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22287">bpo-22287</a>: On UNIX, _PyTime_gettimeofday() now uses
+clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available. As a side effect, Python now
+depends on the librt library on Solaris and on Linux (only with glibc
+older than 2.17).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22182">bpo-22182</a>: Use e.args to unpack exceptions correctly in
+distutils.file_util.move_file. Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p>The webbrowser module now uses subprocess’s start_new_session=True rather
+than a potentially risky preexec_fn=os.setsid call.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22042">bpo-22042</a>: signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) now raises an exception if the file
+descriptor is in blocking mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16808">bpo-16808</a>: inspect.stack() now returns a named tuple instead of a tuple.
+Patch by Daniel Shahaf.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22236">bpo-22236</a>: Fixed Tkinter images copying operations in NoDefaultRoot mode.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2527">bpo-2527</a>: Add a <em>globals</em> argument to timeit functions, in order to
+override the globals namespace in which the timed code is executed. Patch
+by Ben Roberts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22118">bpo-22118</a>: Switch urllib.parse to use RFC 3986 semantics for the
+resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFCs 1808 and 2396. Patch by
+Demian Brecht.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21549">bpo-21549</a>: Added the “members” parameter to TarFile.list().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19628">bpo-19628</a>: Allow compileall recursion depth to be specified with a -r
+option.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15696">bpo-15696</a>: Add a __sizeof__ implementation for mmap objects on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22068">bpo-22068</a>: Avoided reference loops with Variables and Fonts in Tkinter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22165">bpo-22165</a>: SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports undecodable file names.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15381">bpo-15381</a>: Optimized line reading in io.BytesIO.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8797">bpo-8797</a>: Raise HTTPError on failed Basic Authentication immediately.
+Initial patch by Sam Bull.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20729">bpo-20729</a>: Restored the use of lazy iterkeys()/itervalues()/iteritems() in
+the mailbox module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21448">bpo-21448</a>: Changed FeedParser feed() to avoid O(N**2) behavior when
+parsing long line. Original patch by Raymond Hettinger.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22184">bpo-22184</a>: The functools LRU Cache decorator factory now gives an earlier
+and clearer error message when the user forgets the required parameters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17923">bpo-17923</a>: glob() patterns ending with a slash no longer match non-dirs on
+AIX.  Based on patch by Delhallt.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21725">bpo-21725</a>: Added support for RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8) in smtpd.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22176">bpo-22176</a>: Update the ctypes module’s libffi to v3.1.  This release adds
+support for the Linux AArch64 and POWERPC ELF ABIv2 little endian
+architectures.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5411">bpo-5411</a>: Added support for the “xztar” format in the shutil module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21121">bpo-21121</a>: Don’t force 3rd party C extensions to be built with
+-Werror=declaration-after-statement.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21975">bpo-21975</a>: Fixed crash when using uninitialized sqlite3.Row (in particular
+when unpickling pickled sqlite3.Row).  sqlite3.Row is now initialized in
+the __new__() method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20170">bpo-20170</a>: Convert posixmodule to use Argument Clinic.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21539">bpo-21539</a>: Add an <em>exists_ok</em> argument to <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pathlib.mkdir()</span></code> to mimic
+<code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mkdir</span> <span class="pre">-p</span></code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.makedirs" title="os.makedirs"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.makedirs()</span></code></a> functionality.  When true, ignore
+FileExistsErrors.  Patch by Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22127">bpo-22127</a>: Bypass IDNA for pure-ASCII host names in the socket module (in
+particular for numeric IPs).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21047">bpo-21047</a>: set the default value for the <em>convert_charrefs</em> argument of
+HTMLParser to True.  Patch by Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add an __all__ to html.entities.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15114">bpo-15114</a>: the strict mode and argument of HTMLParser, HTMLParser.error,
+and the HTMLParserError exception have been removed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22085">bpo-22085</a>: Dropped support of Tk 8.3 in Tkinter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21580">bpo-21580</a>: Now Tkinter correctly handles bytes arguments passed to Tk. In
+particular this allows initializing images from binary data.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22003">bpo-22003</a>: When initialized from a bytes object, io.BytesIO() now defers
+making a copy until it is mutated, improving performance and memory use on
+some use cases. Patch by David Wilson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22018">bpo-22018</a>: On Windows, signal.set_wakeup_fd() now also supports sockets. A
+side effect is that Python depends to the WinSock library.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22054">bpo-22054</a>: Add os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking() functions to get
+and set the blocking mode of a file descriptor (False if the O_NONBLOCK
+flag is set, True otherwise). These functions are not available on
+Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17172">bpo-17172</a>: Make turtledemo start as active on OS X even when run with
+subprocess. Patch by Lita Cho.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21704">bpo-21704</a>: Fix build error for _multiprocessing when semaphores are not
+available. Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20173">bpo-20173</a>: Convert sha1, sha256, sha512 and md5 to ArgumentClinic. Patch
+by Vajrasky Kok.</p></li>
+<li><p>Fix repr(_socket.socket) on Windows 64-bit: don’t fail with OverflowError
+on closed socket. repr(socket.socket) already works fine.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22033">bpo-22033</a>: Reprs of most Python implemented classes now contain actual
+class name instead of hardcoded one.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21947">bpo-21947</a>: The dis module can now disassemble generator-iterator objects
+based on their gi_code attribute. Patch by Clement Rouault.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16133">bpo-16133</a>: The asynchat.async_chat.handle_read() method now ignores
+BlockingIOError exceptions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22044">bpo-22044</a>: Fixed premature DECREF in call_tzinfo_method. Patch by Tom
+Flanagan.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19884">bpo-19884</a>: readline: Disable the meta modifier key if stdout is not a
+terminal to not write the ANSI sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">&quot;\033[1034h&quot;</span></code> into stdout. This
+sequence is used on some terminal (ex: TERM=xterm-256color”) to enable
+support of 8 bit characters.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4350">bpo-4350</a>: Removed a number of out-of-dated and non-working for a long time
+Tkinter methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6167">bpo-6167</a>: Scrollbar.activate() now returns the name of active element if
+the argument is not specified.  Scrollbar.set() now always accepts only 2
+arguments.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15275">bpo-15275</a>: Clean up and speed up the ntpath module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21888">bpo-21888</a>: plistlib’s load() and loads() now work if the fmt parameter is
+specified.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22032">bpo-22032</a>: __qualname__ instead of __name__ is now always used to format
+fully qualified class names of Python implemented classes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22031">bpo-22031</a>: Reprs now always use hexadecimal format with the “0x” prefix
+when contain an id in form ” at 0x…”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22018">bpo-22018</a>: signal.set_wakeup_fd() now raises an OSError instead of a
+ValueError on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fstat()</span></code> failure.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21044">bpo-21044</a>: tarfile.open() now handles fileobj with an integer ‘name’
+attribute.  Based on patch by Antoine Pietri.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21966">bpo-21966</a>: Respect -q command-line option when code module is ran.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19076">bpo-19076</a>: Don’t pass the redundant ‘file’ argument to self.error().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16382">bpo-16382</a>: Improve exception message of warnings.warn() for bad category.
+Initial patch by Phil Elson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21932">bpo-21932</a>: os.read() now uses a <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_ssize_t()</span></code> type instead of
+<code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code> for the size to support reading more than 2 GB at once. On
+Windows, the size is truncated to INT_MAX. As any call to os.read(), the
+OS may read less bytes than the number of requested bytes.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21942">bpo-21942</a>: Fixed source file viewing in pydoc’s server mode on Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11259">bpo-11259</a>: asynchat.async_chat().set_terminator() now raises a ValueError
+if the number of received bytes is negative.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12523">bpo-12523</a>: asynchat.async_chat.push() now raises a TypeError if it doesn’t
+get a bytes string</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21707">bpo-21707</a>: Add missing kwonlyargcount argument to
+ModuleFinder.replace_paths_in_code().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20639">bpo-20639</a>: calling Path.with_suffix(‘’) allows removing the suffix again.
+Patch by July Tikhonov.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21714">bpo-21714</a>: Disallow the construction of invalid paths using
+Path.with_name().  Original patch by Antony Lee.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15014">bpo-15014</a>: Added ‘auth’ method to smtplib to make implementing auth
+mechanisms simpler, and used it internally in the login method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21151">bpo-21151</a>: Fixed a segfault in the winreg module when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> is passed
+as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">REG_BINARY</span></code> value to SetValueEx.  Patch by John Ehresman.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21090">bpo-21090</a>: io.FileIO.readall() does not ignore I/O errors anymore. Before,
+it ignored I/O errors if at least the first C call read() succeed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5800">bpo-5800</a>: headers parameter of wsgiref.headers.Headers is now optional.
+Initial patch by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21781">bpo-21781</a>: ssl.RAND_add() now supports strings longer than 2 GB.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21679">bpo-21679</a>: Prevent extraneous fstat() calls during open().  Patch by
+Bohuslav Kabrda.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21863">bpo-21863</a>: cProfile now displays the module name of C extension functions,
+in addition to their own name.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11453">bpo-11453</a>: asyncore: emit a ResourceWarning when an unclosed file_wrapper
+object is destroyed. The destructor now closes the file if needed. The
+close() method can now be called twice: the second call does nothing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21858">bpo-21858</a>: Better handling of Python exceptions in the sqlite3 module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21476">bpo-21476</a>: Make sure the email.parser.BytesParser TextIOWrapper is
+discarded after parsing, so the input file isn’t unexpectedly closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20295">bpo-20295</a>: imghdr now recognizes OpenEXR format images.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21729">bpo-21729</a>: Used the “with” statement in the dbm.dumb module to ensure
+files closing. Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21491">bpo-21491</a>: socketserver: Fix a race condition in child processes reaping.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21719">bpo-21719</a>: Added the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">st_file_attributes</span></code> field to os.stat_result on
+Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21832">bpo-21832</a>: Require named tuple inputs to be exact strings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21722">bpo-21722</a>: The distutils “upload” command now exits with a non-zero return
+code when uploading fails.  Patch by Martin Dengler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21723">bpo-21723</a>: asyncio.Queue: support any type of number (ex: float) for the
+maximum size. Patch written by Vajrasky Kok.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21711">bpo-21711</a>: support for “site-python” directories has now been removed from
+the site module (it was deprecated in 3.4).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17552">bpo-17552</a>: new socket.sendfile() method allowing a file to be sent over a
+socket by using high-performance os.sendfile() on UNIX. Patch by Giampaolo
+Rodola’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18039">bpo-18039</a>: dbm.dump.open() now always creates a new database when the flag
+has the value ‘n’.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21326">bpo-21326</a>: Add a new is_closed() method to asyncio.BaseEventLoop.
+run_forever() and run_until_complete() methods of asyncio.BaseEventLoop
+now raise an exception if the event loop was closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21766">bpo-21766</a>: Prevent a security hole in CGIHTTPServer by URL unquoting paths
+before checking for a CGI script at that path.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21310">bpo-21310</a>: Fixed possible resource leak in failed open().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21256">bpo-21256</a>: Printout of keyword args should be in deterministic order in a
+mock function call. This will help to write better doctests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21677">bpo-21677</a>: Fixed chaining nonnormalized exceptions in io close() methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11709">bpo-11709</a>: Fix the pydoc.help function to not fail when sys.stdin is not a
+valid file.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21515">bpo-21515</a>: tempfile.TemporaryFile now uses os.O_TMPFILE flag is available.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13223">bpo-13223</a>: Fix pydoc.writedoc so that the HTML documentation for methods
+that use ‘self’ in the example code is generated correctly.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21463">bpo-21463</a>: In urllib.request, fix pruning of the FTP cache.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21618">bpo-21618</a>: The subprocess module could fail to close open fds that were
+inherited by the calling process and already higher than POSIX resource
+limits would otherwise allow.  On systems with a functioning /proc/self/fd
+or /dev/fd interface the max is now ignored and all fds are closed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20383">bpo-20383</a>: Introduce importlib.util.module_from_spec() as the preferred
+way to create a new module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21552">bpo-21552</a>: Fixed possible integer overflow of too long string lengths in
+the tkinter module on 64-bit platforms.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14315">bpo-14315</a>: The zipfile module now ignores extra fields in the central
+directory that are too short to be parsed instead of letting a
+struct.unpack error bubble up as this “bad data” appears in many real
+world zip files in the wild and is ignored by other zip tools.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13742">bpo-13742</a>: Added “key” and “reverse” parameters to heapq.merge(). (First
+draft of patch contributed by Simon Sapin.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21402">bpo-21402</a>: tkinter.ttk now works when default root window is not set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3015">bpo-3015</a>: _tkinter.create() now creates tkapp object with wantobject=1 by
+default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10203">bpo-10203</a>: sqlite3.Row now truly supports sequence protocol.  In
+particular it supports reverse() and negative indices.  Original patch by
+Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18807">bpo-18807</a>: If copying (no symlinks) specified for a venv, then the python
+interpreter aliases (python, python3) are now created by copying rather
+than symlinking.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20197">bpo-20197</a>: Added support for the WebP image type in the imghdr module.
+Patch by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21513">bpo-21513</a>: Speedup some properties of IP addresses (IPv4Address,
+IPv6Address) such as .is_private or .is_multicast.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21137">bpo-21137</a>: Improve the repr for threading.Lock() and its variants by
+showing the “locked” or “unlocked” status.  Patch by Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21538">bpo-21538</a>: The plistlib module now supports loading of binary plist files
+when reference or offset size is not a power of two.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21455">bpo-21455</a>: Add a default backlog to socket.listen().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21525">bpo-21525</a>: Most Tkinter methods which accepted tuples now accept lists
+too.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22166">bpo-22166</a>: With the assistance of a new internal _codecs._forget_codec
+helping function, test_codecs now clears the encoding caches to avoid the
+appearance of a reference leak</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22236">bpo-22236</a>: Tkinter tests now don’t reuse default root window.  New root
+window is created for every test class.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10744">bpo-10744</a>: Fix PEP 3118 format strings on ctypes objects with a nontrivial
+shape.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20826">bpo-20826</a>: Optimize ipaddress.collapse_addresses().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21487">bpo-21487</a>: Optimize ipaddress.summarize_address_range() and
+ipaddress.{IPv4Network,IPv6Network}.subnets().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21486">bpo-21486</a>: Optimize parsing of netmasks in ipaddress.IPv4Network and
+ipaddress.IPv6Network.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13916">bpo-13916</a>: Disallowed the surrogatepass error handler for non UTF-*
+encodings.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20998">bpo-20998</a>: Fixed re.fullmatch() of repeated single character pattern with
+ignore case. Original patch by Matthew Barnett.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21075">bpo-21075</a>: fileinput.FileInput now reads bytes from standard stream if
+binary mode is specified.  Patch by Sam Kimbrel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19775">bpo-19775</a>: Add a samefile() method to pathlib Path objects.  Initial patch
+by Vajrasky Kok.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21226">bpo-21226</a>: Set up modules properly in PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (and
+friends).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21398">bpo-21398</a>: Fix a unicode error in the pydoc pager when the documentation
+contains characters not encodable to the stdout encoding.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16531">bpo-16531</a>: ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network now accept an
+(address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily construct network
+objects from existing addresses.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21156">bpo-21156</a>: importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() is now a
+staticmethod.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21424">bpo-21424</a>: Simplified and optimized heaqp.nlargest() and nmsmallest() to
+make fewer tuple comparisons.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21396">bpo-21396</a>: Fix TextIOWrapper(…, write_through=True) to not force a
+flush() on the underlying binary stream.  Patch by akira.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18314">bpo-18314</a>: Unlink now removes junctions on Windows. Patch by Kim Gräsman</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21088">bpo-21088</a>: Bugfix for curses.window.addch() regression in 3.4.0. In
+porting to Argument Clinic, the first two arguments were reversed.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21407">bpo-21407</a>: _decimal: The module now supports function signatures.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10650">bpo-10650</a>: Remove the non-standard ‘watchexp’ parameter from the
+Decimal.quantize() method in the Python version.  It had never been
+present in the C version.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21469">bpo-21469</a>: Reduced the risk of false positives in robotparser by checking
+to make sure that robots.txt has been read or does not exist prior to
+returning True in can_fetch().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19414">bpo-19414</a>: Have the OrderedDict mark deleted links as unusable. This gives
+an early failure if the link is deleted during iteration.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21421">bpo-21421</a>: Add __slots__ to the MappingViews ABC. Patch by Josh Rosenberg.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21101">bpo-21101</a>: Eliminate double hashing in the C speed-up code for
+collections.Counter().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21321">bpo-21321</a>: itertools.islice() now releases the reference to the source
+iterator when the slice is exhausted.  Patch by Anton Afanasyev.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21057">bpo-21057</a>: TextIOWrapper now allows the underlying binary stream’s read()
+or read1() method to return an arbitrary bytes-like object (such as a
+memoryview). Patch by Nikolaus Rath.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20951">bpo-20951</a>: SSLSocket.send() now raises either SSLWantReadError or
+SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.
+Previously, it would return 0.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13248">bpo-13248</a>: removed previously deprecated asyncore.dispatcher __getattr__
+cheap inheritance hack.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9815">bpo-9815</a>: assertRaises now tries to clear references to local variables in
+the exception’s traceback.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19940">bpo-19940</a>: ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() now interprets the given time string
+in the UTC timezone (as specified in RFC 5280), not the local timezone.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13204">bpo-13204</a>: Calling sys.flags.__new__ would crash the interpreter, now it
+raises a TypeError.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19385">bpo-19385</a>: Make operations on a closed dbm.dumb database always raise the
+same exception.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21207">bpo-21207</a>: Detect when the os.urandom cached fd has been closed or
+replaced, and open it anew.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21291">bpo-21291</a>: subprocess’s Popen.wait() is now thread safe so that multiple
+threads may be calling wait() or poll() on a Popen instance at the same
+time without losing the Popen.returncode value.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21127">bpo-21127</a>: Path objects can now be instantiated from str subclass
+instances (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">numpy.str_</span></code>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15002">bpo-15002</a>: urllib.response object to use _TemporaryFileWrapper (and
+_TemporaryFileCloser) facility. Provides a better way to handle file
+descriptor close. Patch contributed by Christian Theune.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12220">bpo-12220</a>: mindom now raises a custom ValueError indicating it doesn’t
+support spaces in URIs instead of letting a ‘split’ ValueError bubble up.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21068">bpo-21068</a>: The ssl.PROTOCOL* constants are now enum members.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21276">bpo-21276</a>: posixmodule: Don’t define USE_XATTRS on KFreeBSD and the Hurd.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21262">bpo-21262</a>: New method assert_not_called for Mock. It raises AssertionError
+if the mock has been called.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21238">bpo-21238</a>: New keyword argument <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsafe</span></code> to Mock. It raises
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> incase of an attribute startswith assert or assret.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20896">bpo-20896</a>: ssl.get_server_certificate() now uses PROTOCOL_SSLv23, not
+PROTOCOL_SSLv3, for maximum compatibility.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21239">bpo-21239</a>: patch.stopall() didn’t work deterministically when the same
+name was patched more than once.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21203">bpo-21203</a>: Updated fileConfig and dictConfig to remove inconsistencies.
+Thanks to Jure Koren for the patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21222">bpo-21222</a>: Passing name keyword argument to mock.create_autospec now
+works.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21197">bpo-21197</a>: Add lib64 -&gt; lib symlink in venvs on 64-bit non-OS X POSIX.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17498">bpo-17498</a>: Some SMTP servers disconnect after certain errors, violating
+strict RFC conformance.  Instead of losing the error code when we issue
+the subsequent RSET, smtplib now returns the error code and defers raising
+the SMTPServerDisconnected error until the next command is issued.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17826">bpo-17826</a>: setting an iterable side_effect on a mock function created by
+create_autospec now works. Patch by Kushal Das.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7776">bpo-7776</a>: Fix <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Host:</span></code> header and reconnection when using
+http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel(). Patch by Nikolaus Rath.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20968">bpo-20968</a>: unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports division. Patch by
+Johannes Baiter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21529">bpo-21529</a>: Fix arbitrary memory access in JSONDecoder.raw_decode with a
+negative second parameter. Bug reported by Guido Vranken. (See also:
+CVE-2014-4616)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21169">bpo-21169</a>: getpass now handles non-ascii characters that the input stream
+encoding cannot encode by re-encoding using the replace error handler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21171">bpo-21171</a>: Fixed undocumented filter API of the rot13 codec. Patch by
+Berker Peksag.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20539">bpo-20539</a>: Improved math.factorial error message for large positive inputs
+and changed exception type (OverflowError -&gt; ValueError) for large
+negative inputs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21172">bpo-21172</a>: isinstance check relaxed from dict to collections.Mapping.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21155">bpo-21155</a>: asyncio.EventLoop.create_unix_server() now raises a ValueError
+if path and sock are specified at the same time.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21136">bpo-21136</a>: Avoid unnecessary normalization of Fractions resulting from
+power and other operations.  Patch by Raymond Hettinger.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17621">bpo-17621</a>: Introduce importlib.util.LazyLoader.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21076">bpo-21076</a>: signal module constants were turned into enums. Patch by
+Giampaolo Rodola’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20636">bpo-20636</a>: Improved the repr of Tkinter widgets.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19505">bpo-19505</a>: The items, keys, and values views of OrderedDict now support
+reverse iteration using reversed().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21149">bpo-21149</a>: Improved thread-safety in logging cleanup during interpreter
+shutdown. Thanks to Devin Jeanpierre for the patch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21058">bpo-21058</a>: Fix a leak of file descriptor in
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile" title="tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile()</span></code></a>, close the file descriptor if
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.open" title="io.open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.open()</span></code></a> fails</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21200">bpo-21200</a>: Return None from pkgutil.get_loader() when __spec__ is missing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21013">bpo-21013</a>: Enhance ssl.create_default_context() when used for server side
+sockets to provide better security by default.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20145">bpo-20145</a>: <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRaisesRegex</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-obj docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarnsRegex</span></code> now raise a
+TypeError if the second argument is not a string or compiled regex.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20633">bpo-20633</a>: Replace relative import by absolute import.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20980">bpo-20980</a>: Stop wrapping exception when using ThreadPool.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21082">bpo-21082</a>: In os.makedirs, do not set the process-wide umask. Note this
+changes behavior of makedirs when exist_ok=True.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20990">bpo-20990</a>: Fix issues found by pyflakes for multiprocessing.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21015">bpo-21015</a>: SSL contexts will now automatically select an elliptic curve
+for ECDH key exchange on OpenSSL 1.0.2 and later, and otherwise default to
+“prime256v1”.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21000">bpo-21000</a>: Improve the command-line interface of json.tool.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20995">bpo-20995</a>: Enhance default ciphers used by the ssl module to enable better
+security and prioritize perfect forward secrecy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20884">bpo-20884</a>: Don’t assume that __file__ is defined on importlib.__init__.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21499">bpo-21499</a>: Ignore __builtins__ in several test_importlib.test_api tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20627">bpo-20627</a>: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy is now a context manager.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19165">bpo-19165</a>: The formatter module now raises DeprecationWarning instead of
+PendingDeprecationWarning.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue13936">bpo-13936</a>: Remove the ability of datetime.time instances to be considered
+false in boolean contexts.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18931">bpo-18931</a>: selectors module now supports /dev/poll on Solaris. Patch by
+Giampaolo Rodola’.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19977">bpo-19977</a>: When the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LC_TYPE</span></code> locale is the POSIX locale (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">C</span></code> locale),
+<a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdin" title="sys.stdin"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdin</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stdout</span></code></a> are now using the
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surrogateescape</span></code> error handler, instead of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">strict</span></code> error
+handler.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20574">bpo-20574</a>: Implement incremental decoder for cp65001 code (Windows code
+page 65001, Microsoft UTF-8).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20879">bpo-20879</a>: Delay the initialization of encoding and decoding tables for
+base32, ascii85 and base85 codecs in the base64 module, and delay the
+initialization of the unquote_to_bytes() table of the urllib.parse module,
+to not waste memory if these modules are not used.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19157">bpo-19157</a>: Include the broadcast address in the usuable hosts for IPv6 in
+ipaddress.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11599">bpo-11599</a>: When an external command (e.g. compiler) fails, distutils now
+prints out the whole command line (instead of just the command name) if
+the environment variable DISTUTILS_DEBUG is set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4931">bpo-4931</a>: distutils should not produce unhelpful “error: None” messages
+anymore. distutils.util.grok_environment_error is kept but doc-deprecated.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20875">bpo-20875</a>: Prevent possible gzip “‘read’ is not defined” NameError. Patch
+by Claudiu Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11558">bpo-11558</a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.message.Message.attach</span></code> now returns a more useful
+error message if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">attach</span></code> is called on a message for which
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">is_multipart</span></code> is False.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20283">bpo-20283</a>: RE pattern methods now accept the string keyword parameters as
+documented. The pattern and source keyword parameters are left as
+deprecated aliases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20778">bpo-20778</a>: Fix modulefinder to work with bytecode-only modules.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20791">bpo-20791</a>: copy.copy() now doesn’t make a copy when the input is a bytes
+object. Initial patch by Peter Otten.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19748">bpo-19748</a>: On AIX, time.mktime() now raises an OverflowError for year
+outsize range [1902; 2037].</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19573">bpo-19573</a>: inspect.signature: Use enum for parameter kind constants.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20726">bpo-20726</a>: inspect.signature: Make Signature and Parameter picklable.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17373">bpo-17373</a>: Add inspect.Signature.from_callable method.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20378">bpo-20378</a>: Improve repr of inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20816">bpo-20816</a>: Fix inspect.getcallargs() to raise correct TypeError for
+missing keyword-only arguments. Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20817">bpo-20817</a>: Fix inspect.getcallargs() to fail correctly if more than 3
+arguments are missing. Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6676">bpo-6676</a>: Ensure a meaningful exception is raised when attempting to parse
+more than one XML document per pyexpat xmlparser instance. (Original
+patches by Hirokazu Yamamoto and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, with suggested
+wording by David Gutteridge)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21117">bpo-21117</a>: Fix inspect.signature to better support functools.partial. Due
+to the specifics of functools.partial implementation,
+positional-or-keyword arguments passed as keyword arguments become
+keyword-only.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20334">bpo-20334</a>: inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter are now hashable.
+Thanks to Antony Lee for bug reports and suggestions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15916">bpo-15916</a>: doctest.DocTestSuite returns an empty unittest.TestSuite
+instead of raising ValueError if it finds no tests</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21209">bpo-21209</a>: Fix asyncio.tasks.CoroWrapper to workaround a bug in yield-from
+implementation in CPythons prior to 3.4.1.</p></li>
+<li><p>asyncio: Add gi_{frame,running,code} properties to CoroWrapper (upstream
+<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue163">bpo-163</a>).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21311">bpo-21311</a>: Avoid exception in _osx_support with non-standard compiler
+configurations. Patch by John Szakmeister.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11571">bpo-11571</a>: Ensure that the turtle window becomes the topmost window when
+launched on OS X.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21801">bpo-21801</a>: Validate that __signature__ is None or an instance of
+Signature.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21923">bpo-21923</a>: Prevent AttributeError in
+distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler due to possible uninitialized
+_config_vars.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21323">bpo-21323</a>: Fix http.server to again handle scripts in CGI subdirectories,
+broken by the fix for security <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19435">bpo-19435</a>.  Patch by Zach Byrne.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22733">bpo-22733</a>: Fix ffi_prep_args not zero-extending argument values correctly
+on 64-bit Windows.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23302">bpo-23302</a>: Default to TCP_NODELAY=1 upon establishing an HTTPConnection.
+Removed use of hard-coded MSS as it’s an optimization that’s no longer
+needed with Nagle disabled.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id391">
+<h3>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#id391" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20577">bpo-20577</a>: Configuration of the max line length for the FormatParagraph
+extension has been moved from the General tab of the Idle preferences
+dialog to the FormatParagraph tab of the Config Extensions dialog. Patch
+by Tal Einat.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16893">bpo-16893</a>: Update Idle doc chapter to match current Idle and add new
+information.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3068">bpo-3068</a>: Add Idle extension configuration dialog to Options menu. Changes
+are written to HOME/.idlerc/config-extensions.cfg. Original patch by Tal
+Einat.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16233">bpo-16233</a>: A module browser (File : Class Browser, Alt+C) requires an
+editor window with a filename.  When Class Browser is requested otherwise,
+from a shell, output window, or ‘Untitled’ editor, Idle no longer displays
+an error box. It now pops up an Open Module box (Alt+M). If a valid name
+is entered and a module is opened, a corresponding browser is also opened.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4832">bpo-4832</a>: Save As to type Python files automatically adds .py to the name
+you enter (even if your system does not display it).  Some systems
+automatically add .txt when type is Text files.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21986">bpo-21986</a>: Code objects are not normally pickled by the pickle module. To
+match this, they are no longer pickled when running under Idle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17390">bpo-17390</a>: Adjust Editor window title; remove ‘Python’, move version to
+end.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14105">bpo-14105</a>: Idle debugger breakpoints no longer disappear when inserting or
+deleting lines.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17172">bpo-17172</a>: Turtledemo can now be run from Idle. Currently, the entry is on
+the Help menu, but it may move to Run. Patch by Ramchandra Apt and Lita
+Cho.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21765">bpo-21765</a>: Add support for non-ascii identifiers to HyperParser.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21940">bpo-21940</a>: Add unittest for WidgetRedirector. Initial patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18592">bpo-18592</a>: Add unittest for SearchDialogBase. Patch by Phil Webster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21694">bpo-21694</a>: Add unittest for ParenMatch. Patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21686">bpo-21686</a>: add unittest for HyperParser. Original patch by Saimadhav
+Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12387">bpo-12387</a>: Add missing upper(lower)case versions of default Windows key
+bindings for Idle so Caps Lock does not disable them. Patch by Roger
+Serwy.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21695">bpo-21695</a>: Closing a Find-in-files output window while the search is still
+in progress no longer closes Idle.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18910">bpo-18910</a>: Add unittest for textView. Patch by Phil Webster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18292">bpo-18292</a>: Add unittest for AutoExpand. Patch by Saihadhav Heblikar.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18409">bpo-18409</a>: Add unittest for AutoComplete. Patch by Phil Webster.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21477">bpo-21477</a>: htest.py - Improve framework, complete set of tests. Patches by
+Saimadhav Heblikar</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18104">bpo-18104</a>: Add idlelib/idle_test/htest.py with a few sample tests to begin
+consolidating and improving human-validated tests of Idle. Change other
+files as needed to work with htest.  Running the module as __main__ runs
+all tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21139">bpo-21139</a>: Change default paragraph width to 72, the PEP 8 recommendation.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21284">bpo-21284</a>: Paragraph reformat test passes after user changes reformat
+width.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17654">bpo-17654</a>: Ensure IDLE menus are customized properly on OS X for
+non-framework builds and for all variants of Tk.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23180">bpo-23180</a>: Rename IDLE “Windows” menu item to “Window”. Patch by Al
+Sweigart.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id392">
+<h3>Build<a class="headerlink" href="#id392" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15506">bpo-15506</a>: Use standard PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG autoconf macro in the
+configure script.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22935">bpo-22935</a>: Allow the ssl module to be compiled if openssl doesn’t support
+SSL 3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22592">bpo-22592</a>: Drop support of the Borland C compiler to build Python. The
+distutils module still supports it to build extensions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22591">bpo-22591</a>: Drop support of MS-DOS, especially of the DJGPP compiler
+(MS-DOS port of GCC).</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16537">bpo-16537</a>: Check whether self.extensions is empty in setup.py. Patch by
+Jonathan Hosmer.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22359">bpo-22359</a>: Remove incorrect uses of recursive make.  Patch by Jonas
+Wagner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21958">bpo-21958</a>: Define HAVE_ROUND when building with Visual Studio 2013 and
+above.  Patch by Zachary Turner.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18093">bpo-18093</a>: the programs that embed the CPython runtime are now in a
+separate “Programs” directory, rather than being kept in the Modules
+directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15759">bpo-15759</a>: “make suspicious”, “make linkcheck” and “make doctest” in Doc/
+now display special message when and only when there are failures.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21141">bpo-21141</a>: The Windows build process no longer attempts to find Perl,
+instead relying on OpenSSL source being configured and ready to build.
+The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\build_ssl.py</span></code> script has been re-written and re-named to
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\prepare_ssl.py</span></code>, and takes care of configuring OpenSSL source
+for both 32 and 64 bit platforms.  OpenSSL sources obtained from
+svn.python.org will always be pre-configured and ready to build.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21037">bpo-21037</a>: Add a build option to enable AddressSanitizer support.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19962">bpo-19962</a>: The Windows build process now creates “python.bat” in the root
+of the source tree, which passes all arguments through to the most
+recently built interpreter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21285">bpo-21285</a>: Refactor and fix curses configure check to always search in a
+ncursesw directory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15234">bpo-15234</a>: For BerkelyDB and Sqlite, only add the found library and
+include directories if they aren’t already being searched. This avoids an
+explicit runtime library dependency.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17861">bpo-17861</a>: Tools/scripts/generate_opcode_h.py automatically regenerates
+Include/opcode.h from Lib/opcode.py if the latter gets any change.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20644">bpo-20644</a>: OS X installer build support for documentation build changes in
+3.4.1: assume externally supplied sphinx-build is available in /usr/bin.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20022">bpo-20022</a>: Eliminate use of deprecated bundlebuilder in OS X builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue15968">bpo-15968</a>: Incorporated Tcl, Tk, and Tix builds into the Windows build
+solution.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17095">bpo-17095</a>: Fix Modules/Setup <em>shared</em> support.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21811">bpo-21811</a>: Anticipated fixes to support OS X versions &gt; 10.9.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21166">bpo-21166</a>: Prevent possible segfaults and other random failures of python
+–generate-posix-vars in pybuilddir.txt build target.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18096">bpo-18096</a>: Fix library order returned by python-config.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17219">bpo-17219</a>: Add library build dir for Python extension cross-builds.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22919">bpo-22919</a>: Windows build updated to support VC 14.0 (Visual Studio 2015),
+which will be used for the official release.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21236">bpo-21236</a>: Build _msi.pyd with cabinet.lib instead of fci.lib</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17128">bpo-17128</a>: Use private version of OpenSSL for OS X 10.5+ installer.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id393">
+<h3>C API<a class="headerlink" href="#id393" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue14203">bpo-14203</a>: Remove obsolete support for view==NULL in PyBuffer_FillInfo(),
+bytearray_getbuffer(), bytesiobuf_getbuffer() and array_buffer_getbuf().
+All functions now raise BufferError in that case.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22445">bpo-22445</a>: PyBuffer_IsContiguous() now implements precise contiguity
+tests, compatible with NumPy’s NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING compilation
+flag.  Previously the function reported false negatives for corner cases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22079">bpo-22079</a>: PyType_Ready() now checks that statically allocated type has no
+dynamically allocated bases.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22453">bpo-22453</a>: Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18395">bpo-18395</a>: Rename <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_char2wchar()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.Py_DecodeLocale" title="Py_DecodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DecodeLocale()</span></code></a>,
+rename <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_Py_wchar2char()</span></code> to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/sys.html#c.Py_EncodeLocale" title="Py_EncodeLocale"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_EncodeLocale()</span></code></a>, and document
+these functions.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21233">bpo-21233</a>: Add new C functions: PyMem_RawCalloc(), PyMem_Calloc(),
+PyObject_Calloc(), _PyObject_GC_Calloc(). bytes(int) is now using
+<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">calloc()</span></code> instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">malloc()</span></code> for large objects which is faster and
+use less memory.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20942">bpo-20942</a>: PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject() no longer sets __file__ to
+match what importlib does; this affects _frozen_importlib as well as any
+module loaded using imp.init_frozen().</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id394">
+<h3>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#id394" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19548">bpo-19548</a>: Update the codecs module documentation to better cover the
+distinction between text encodings and other codecs, together with other
+clarifications. Patch by Martin Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22394">bpo-22394</a>: Doc/Makefile now supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">venv</span> <span class="pre">PYTHON=../python</span></code> to
+create a venv for generating the documentation, e.g., <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">html</span>
+<span class="pre">PYTHON=venv/bin/python3</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21514">bpo-21514</a>: The documentation of the json module now refers to new JSON RFC
+7159 instead of obsoleted RFC 4627.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21777">bpo-21777</a>: The binary sequence methods on bytes and bytearray are now
+documented explicitly, rather than assuming users will be able to derive
+the expected behaviour from the behaviour of the corresponding str
+methods.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6916">bpo-6916</a>: undocument deprecated asynchat.fifo class.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17386">bpo-17386</a>: Expanded functionality of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Doc/make.bat</span></code> script to make
+it much more comparable to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Doc/Makefile</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21312">bpo-21312</a>: Update the thread_foobar.h template file to include newer
+threading APIs. Patch by Jack McCracken.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21043">bpo-21043</a>: Remove the recommendation for specific CA organizations and to
+mention the ability to load the OS certificates.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20765">bpo-20765</a>: Add missing documentation for PurePath.with_name() and
+PurePath.with_suffix().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19407">bpo-19407</a>: New package installation and distribution guides based on the
+Python Packaging Authority tools. Existing guides have been retained as
+legacy links from the distutils docs, as they still contain some required
+reference material for tool developers that isn’t recorded anywhere else.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19697">bpo-19697</a>: Document cases where __main__.__spec__ is None.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id395">
+<h3>Tests<a class="headerlink" href="#id395" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18982">bpo-18982</a>: Add tests for CLI of the calendar module.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19548">bpo-19548</a>: Added some additional checks to test_codecs to ensure that
+statements in the updated documentation remain accurate. Patch by Martin
+Panter.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22838">bpo-22838</a>: All test_re tests now work with unittest test discovery.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22173">bpo-22173</a>: Update lib2to3 tests to use unittest test discovery.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16000">bpo-16000</a>: Convert test_curses to use unittest.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21456">bpo-21456</a>: Skip two tests in test_urllib2net.py if _ssl module not
+present. Patch by Remi Pointel.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20746">bpo-20746</a>: Fix test_pdb to run in refleak mode (-R).  Patch by Xavier de
+Gaye.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22060">bpo-22060</a>: test_ctypes has been somewhat cleaned up and simplified; it now
+uses unittest test discovery to find its tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22104">bpo-22104</a>: regrtest.py no longer holds a reference to the suite of tests
+loaded from test modules that don’t define test_main().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22111">bpo-22111</a>: Assorted cleanups in test_imaplib.  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22002">bpo-22002</a>: Added <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">load_package_tests</span></code> function to test.support and used
+it to implement/augment test discovery in test_asyncio, test_email,
+test_importlib, test_json, and test_tools.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21976">bpo-21976</a>: Fix test_ssl to accept LibreSSL version strings.  Thanks to
+William Orr.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21918">bpo-21918</a>: Converted test_tools from a module to a package containing
+separate test files for each tested script.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9554">bpo-9554</a>: Use modern unittest features in test_argparse. Initial patch by
+Denver Coneybeare and Radu Voicilas.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20155">bpo-20155</a>: Changed HTTP method names in failing tests in test_httpservers
+so that packet filtering software (specifically Windows Base Filtering
+Engine) does not interfere with the transaction semantics expected by the
+tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19493">bpo-19493</a>: Refactored the ctypes test package to skip tests explicitly
+rather than silently.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18492">bpo-18492</a>: All resources are now allowed when tests are not run by
+regrtest.py.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21634">bpo-21634</a>: Fix pystone micro-benchmark: use floor division instead of true
+division to benchmark integers instead of floating point numbers. Set
+pystone version to 1.2. Patch written by Lennart Regebro.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21605">bpo-21605</a>: Added tests for Tkinter images.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21493">bpo-21493</a>: Added test for ntpath.expanduser().  Original patch by Claudiu
+Popa.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue19925">bpo-19925</a>: Added tests for the spwd module. Original patch by Vajrasky
+Kok.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21522">bpo-21522</a>: Added Tkinter tests for Listbox.itemconfigure(),
+PanedWindow.paneconfigure(), and Menu.entryconfigure().</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17756">bpo-17756</a>: Fix test_code test when run from the installed location.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17752">bpo-17752</a>: Fix distutils tests when run from the installed location.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18604">bpo-18604</a>: Consolidated checks for GUI availability.  All platforms now at
+least check whether Tk can be instantiated when the GUI resource is
+requested.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21275">bpo-21275</a>: Fix a socket test on KFreeBSD.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21223">bpo-21223</a>: Pass test_site/test_startup_imports when some of the extensions
+are built as builtins.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20635">bpo-20635</a>: Added tests for Tk geometry managers.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add test case for freeze.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20743">bpo-20743</a>: Fix a reference leak in test_tcl.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21097">bpo-21097</a>: Move test_namespace_pkgs into test_importlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21503">bpo-21503</a>: Use test_both() consistently in test_importlib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20939">bpo-20939</a>: Avoid various network test failures due to new redirect of
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/">http://www.python.org/</a> to <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org">https://www.python.org</a>: use
+<a class="reference external" href="http://www.example.com">http://www.example.com</a> instead.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20668">bpo-20668</a>: asyncio tests no longer rely on tests.txt file. (Patch by
+Vajrasky Kok)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21093">bpo-21093</a>: Prevent failures of ctypes test_macholib on OS X if a copy of
+libz exists in $HOME/lib or /usr/local/lib.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22770">bpo-22770</a>: Prevent some Tk segfaults on OS X when running gui tests.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23211">bpo-23211</a>: Workaround test_logging failure on some OS X 10.6 systems.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23345">bpo-23345</a>: Prevent test_ssl failures with large OpenSSL patch level values
+(like 0.9.8zc).</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id396">
+<h3>Tools/Demos<a class="headerlink" href="#id396" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22314">bpo-22314</a>: pydoc now works when the LINES environment variable is set.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22615">bpo-22615</a>: Argument Clinic now supports the “type” argument for the int
+converter. This permits using the int converter with enums and typedefs.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20076">bpo-20076</a>: The makelocalealias.py script no longer ignores UTF-8 mapping.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20079">bpo-20079</a>: The makelocalealias.py script now can parse the SUPPORTED file
+from glibc sources and supports command line options for source paths.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22201">bpo-22201</a>: Command-line interface of the zipfile module now correctly
+extracts ZIP files with directory entries.  Patch by Ryan Wilson.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22120">bpo-22120</a>: For functions using an unsigned integer return converter,
+Argument Clinic now generates a cast to that type for the comparison to -1
+in the generated code.  (This suppresses a compilation warning.)</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue18974">bpo-18974</a>: Tools/scripts/diff.py now uses argparse instead of optparse.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21906">bpo-21906</a>: Make Tools/scripts/md5sum.py work in Python 3. Patch by Zachary
+Ware.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21629">bpo-21629</a>: Fix Argument Clinic’s “–converters” feature.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add support for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code> to 2to3.</p></li>
+<li><p>Add support for the PEP 465 matrix multiplication operator to 2to3.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue16047">bpo-16047</a>: Fix module exception list and __file__ handling in freeze.
+Patch by Meador Inge.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue11824">bpo-11824</a>: Consider ABI tags in freeze. Patch by Meador Inge.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue20535">bpo-20535</a>: PYTHONWARNING no longer affects the run_tests.py script. Patch
+by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="section" id="id397">
+<h3>Windows<a class="headerlink" href="#id397" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
+<ul class="simple">
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue23260">bpo-23260</a>: Update Windows installer</p></li>
+<li><p>The bundled version of Tcl/Tk has been updated to 8.6.3.  The most visible
+result of this change is the addition of new native file dialogs when
+running on Windows Vista or newer.  See Tcl/Tk’s TIP 432 for more
+information.  Also, this version of Tcl/Tk includes support for Windows
+10.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17896">bpo-17896</a>: The Windows build scripts now expect external library sources
+to be in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\..\externals</span></code> rather than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PCbuild\..\..</span></code>.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue17717">bpo-17717</a>: The Windows build scripts now use a copy of NASM pulled from
+svn.python.org to build OpenSSL.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue21907">bpo-21907</a>: Improved the batch scripts provided for building Python.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22644">bpo-22644</a>: The bundled version of OpenSSL has been updated to 1.0.1j.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10747">bpo-10747</a>: Use versioned labels in the Windows start menu. Patch by Olive
+Kilburn.</p></li>
+<li><p><a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue22980">bpo-22980</a>: .pyd files with a version and platform tag (for example,
+“.cp35-win32.pyd”) will now be loaded in preference to those without tags.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p><strong>(For information about older versions, consult the HISTORY file.)</strong></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
+        <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
+  <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+  <ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Changelog</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-next">Python next</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#core-and-builtins">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#library">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#documentation">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tests">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#windows">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-4-final">Python 3.7.4 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3">Documentation</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-4-release-candidate-2">Python 3.7.4 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#security">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id4">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id5">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id6">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#macos">macOS</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.4 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id7">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id8">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id9">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id10">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id11">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#build">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id12">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id13">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id14">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tools-demos">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#c-api">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-3-final">Python 3.7.3 final</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.3 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id15">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id16">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id17">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id18">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id19">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id20">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id21">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id22">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id23">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id24">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-2-final">Python 3.7.2 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id25">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id26">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id27">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.2 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id28">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id29">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id30">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id31">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id32">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id33">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id34">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id35">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id36">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id37">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id38">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-1-final">Python 3.7.1 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id39">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-1-release-candidate-2">Python 3.7.1 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id40">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id41">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id42">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id43">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id44">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id45">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.1 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id46">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id47">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id48">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id49">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id50">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id51">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id52">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id53">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id54">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id55">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id56">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-final">Python 3.7.0 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id57">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id58">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id59">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id60">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id61">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id62">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id63">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id64">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-5">Python 3.7.0 beta 5</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id65">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id66">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id67">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id68">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id69">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id70">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id71">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-4">Python 3.7.0 beta 4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id72">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id73">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id74">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id75">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id76">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id77">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id78">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id79">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id80">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-3">Python 3.7.0 beta 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id81">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id82">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id83">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id84">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id85">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id86">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id87">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id88">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id89">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id90">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id91">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-2">Python 3.7.0 beta 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id92">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id93">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id94">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id95">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id96">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id97">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id98">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id99">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id100">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id101">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-beta-1">Python 3.7.0 beta 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id102">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id103">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id104">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id105">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id106">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id107">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id108">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id109">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-4">Python 3.7.0 alpha 4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id110">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id111">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id112">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id113">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id114">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id115">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id116">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-3">Python 3.7.0 alpha 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id117">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id118">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id119">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id120">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id121">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id122">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id123">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id124">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id125">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id126">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-2">Python 3.7.0 alpha 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id127">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id128">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id129">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id130">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id131">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id132">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-7-0-alpha-1">Python 3.7.0 alpha 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id133">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id134">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id135">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id136">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id137">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id138">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id139">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id140">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id141">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id142">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-6-final">Python 3.6.6 final</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-6-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id143">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id144">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id145">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id146">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id147">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id148">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id149">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id150">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id151">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id152">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-5-final">Python 3.6.5 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id153">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id154">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-5-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id155">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id156">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id157">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id158">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id159">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id160">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id161">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id162">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id163">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id164">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id165">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-4-final">Python 3.6.4 final</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id166">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id167">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id168">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id169">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id170">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id171">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id172">macOS</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id173">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id174">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id175">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-3-final">Python 3.6.3 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id176">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id177">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id178">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id179">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id180">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id181">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id182">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id183">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id184">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id185">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id186">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-2-final">Python 3.6.2 final</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-2">Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id187">Security</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id188">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id189">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id190">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id191">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id192">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id193">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id194">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id195">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id196">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id197">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id198">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-1-final">Python 3.6.1 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id199">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id200">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id201">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id202">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id203">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id204">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id205">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id206">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id207">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id208">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-final">Python 3.6.0 final</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-2">Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id209">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id210">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id211">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id212">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id213">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id214">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id215">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id216">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id217">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-4">Python 3.6.0 beta 4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id218">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id219">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id220">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id221">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id222">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-3">Python 3.6.0 beta 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id223">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id224">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id225">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id226">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id227">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-2">Python 3.6.0 beta 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id228">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id229">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id230">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id231">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id232">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id233">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-beta-1">Python 3.6.0 beta 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id234">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id235">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id236">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id237">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id238">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id239">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id240">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id241">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-4">Python 3.6.0 alpha 4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id242">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id243">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id244">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id245">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id246">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id247">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-3">Python 3.6.0 alpha 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id248">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id249">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id250">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id251">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id252">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id253">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id254">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id255">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id256">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id257">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id258">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id259">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-2">Python 3.6.0 alpha 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id260">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id261">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id262">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id263">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id264">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id265">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id266">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id267">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id268">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id269">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id270">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id271">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id272">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id273">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-6-0-alpha-1">Python 3.6.0 alpha 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id274">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id275">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id276">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id277">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id278">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id279">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id280">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id281">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id282">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id283">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id284">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id285">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id286">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id287">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id288">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-5-final">Python 3.5.5 final</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-5-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id289">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id290">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id291">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-4-final">Python 3.5.4 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id292">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id293">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id294">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id295">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id296">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id297">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id298">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id299">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id300">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-3-final">Python 3.5.3 final</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id301">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id302">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id303">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id304">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id305">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id306">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id307">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id308">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id309">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id310">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id311">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id312">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id313">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-2-final">Python 3.5.2 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id314">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id315">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id316">IDLE</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id317">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id318">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id319">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id320">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id321">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id322">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id323">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id324">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id325">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id326">Security</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id327">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id328">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id329">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id330">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id331">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id332">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id333">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id334">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-1-final">Python 3.5.1 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id335">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id336">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id337">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id338">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id339">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id340">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id341">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id342">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id343">Windows</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id344">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-final">Python 3.5.0 final</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id345">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-4">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id346">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id347">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-3">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id348">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id349">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-2">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id350">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id351">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id352">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id353">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id354">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id355">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id356">Tests</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-4">Python 3.5.0 beta 4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id357">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id358">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id359">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-3">Python 3.5.0 beta 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id360">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id361">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id362">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id363">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id364">Build</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-2">Python 3.5.0 beta 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id365">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id366">Library</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-beta-1">Python 3.5.0 beta 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id367">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id368">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id369">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id370">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id371">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id372">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-4">Python 3.5.0 alpha 4</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id373">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id374">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id375">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id376">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id377">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id378">C API</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-3">Python 3.5.0 alpha 3</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id379">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id380">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id381">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id382">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id383">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-2">Python 3.5.0 alpha 2</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id384">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id385">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id386">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id387">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id388">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-3-5-0-alpha-1">Python 3.5.0 alpha 1</a><ul>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id389">Core and Builtins</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id390">Library</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id391">IDLE</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id392">Build</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id393">C API</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id394">Documentation</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id395">Tests</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id396">Tools/Demos</a></li>
+<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id397">Windows</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+  <h4>Previous topic</h4>
+  <p class="topless"><a href="2.0.html"
+                        title="previous chapter">What’s New in Python 2.0</a></p>
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new file mode 100644
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+
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+    <title>What’s New in Python &#8212; Python 3.7.4 documentation</title>
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+            
+  <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python">
+<span id="whatsnew-index"></span><h1>What’s New in Python<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
+<p>The “What’s New in Python” series of essays takes tours through the most
+important changes between major Python versions.  They are a “must read” for
+anyone wishing to stay up-to-date after a new release.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
+<ul>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html">What’s New In Python 3.7</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release Highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#new-features">New Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#new-modules">New Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#c-api-changes">C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#build-changes">Build Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#other-cpython-implementation-changes">Other CPython Implementation Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#deprecated-python-behavior">Deprecated Python Behavior</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods">Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api">Deprecated functions and types of the C API</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#platform-support-removals">Platform Support Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#api-and-feature-removals">API and Feature Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#module-removals">Module Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#windows-only-changes">Windows-only Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#porting-to-python-3-7">Porting to Python 3.7</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-1">Notable changes in Python 3.7.1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.7.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-7-2">Notable changes in Python 3.7.2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html">What’s New In Python 3.6</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#new-features">New Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#new-modules">New Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#other-improvements">Other Improvements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#removed">Removed</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#porting-to-python-3-6">Porting to Python 3.6</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-2">Notable changes in Python 3.6.2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-4">Notable changes in Python 3.6.4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-5">Notable changes in Python 3.6.5</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.6.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-6-7">Notable changes in Python 3.6.7</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html">What’s New In Python 3.5</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#new-features">New Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#new-modules">New Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#other-module-level-changes">Other module-level changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#removed">Removed</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#porting-to-python-3-5">Porting to Python 3.5</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.5.html#notable-changes-in-python-3-5-4">Notable changes in Python 3.5.4</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html">What’s New In Python 3.4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release Highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#new-features">New Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#new-modules">New Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#cpython-implementation-changes">CPython Implementation Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#removed">Removed</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#porting-to-python-3-4">Porting to Python 3.4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.4.html#changed-in-3-4-3">Changed in 3.4.3</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html">What’s New In Python 3.3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#summary-release-highlights">Summary – Release highlights</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-405-virtual-environments">PEP 405: Virtual Environments</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-420-implicit-namespace-packages">PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation">PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-393-flexible-string-representation">PEP 393: Flexible String Representation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-397-python-launcher-for-windows">PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-3151-reworking-the-os-and-io-exception-hierarchy">PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-380-syntax-for-delegating-to-a-subgenerator">PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-409-suppressing-exception-context">PEP 409: Suppressing exception context</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-414-explicit-unicode-literals">PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-3155-qualified-name-for-classes-and-functions">PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-412-key-sharing-dictionary">PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-362-function-signature-object">PEP 362: Function Signature Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#pep-421-adding-sys-implementation">PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#using-importlib-as-the-implementation-of-import">Using importlib as the Implementation of Import</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#a-finer-grained-import-lock">A Finer-Grained Import Lock</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#builtin-functions-and-types">Builtin functions and types</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#new-modules">New Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#improved-modules">Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#deprecated">Deprecated</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.3.html#porting-to-python-3-3">Porting to Python 3.3</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html">What’s New In Python 3.2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi">PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module">PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">PEP 391:  Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module">PEP 3148:  The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories">PEP 3147:  PYC Repository Directories</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files">PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1">PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#unicode">Unicode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#codecs">Codecs</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#documentation">Documentation</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#code-repository">Code Repository</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.2.html#porting-to-python-3-2">Porting to Python 3.2</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html">What’s New In Python 3.1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#pep-372-ordered-dictionaries">PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#idle">IDLE</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.1.html#porting-to-python-3-1">Porting to Python 3.1</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html">What’s New In Python 3.0</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#common-stumbling-blocks">Common Stumbling Blocks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#overview-of-syntax-changes">Overview Of Syntax Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#changes-already-present-in-python-2-6">Changes Already Present In Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#library-changes">Library Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#pep-3101-a-new-approach-to-string-formatting"><strong>PEP 3101</strong>: A New Approach To String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#changes-to-exceptions">Changes To Exceptions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#miscellaneous-other-changes">Miscellaneous Other Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#performance">Performance</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="3.0.html#porting-to-python-3-0">Porting To Python 3.0</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html">What’s New in Python 2.7</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#the-future-for-python-2-x">The Future for Python 2.x</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#changes-to-the-handling-of-deprecation-warnings">Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#python-3-1-features">Python 3.1 Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#pep-372-adding-an-ordered-dictionary-to-collections">PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator">PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#pep-389-the-argparse-module-for-parsing-command-lines">PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#pep-3106-dictionary-views">PEP 3106: Dictionary Views</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#pep-3137-the-memoryview-object">PEP 3137: The memoryview Object</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#porting-to-python-2-7">Porting to Python 2.7</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#new-features-added-to-python-2-7-maintenance-releases">New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.7.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html">What’s New in Python 2.6</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#python-3-0">Python 3.0</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#changes-to-the-development-process">Changes to the Development Process</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-343-the-with-statement">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-366-explicit-relative-imports-from-a-main-module">PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-370-per-user-site-packages-directory">PEP 370: Per-user <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site-packages</span></code> Directory</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-371-the-multiprocessing-package">PEP 371: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">multiprocessing</span></code> Package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3101-advanced-string-formatting">PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3105-print-as-a-function">PEP 3105: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">print</span></code> As a Function</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3110-exception-handling-changes">PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3112-byte-literals">PEP 3112: Byte Literals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3116-new-i-o-library">PEP 3116: New I/O Library</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol">PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3119-abstract-base-classes">PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3127-integer-literal-support-and-syntax">PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3129-class-decorators">PEP 3129: Class Decorators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#pep-3141-a-type-hierarchy-for-numbers">PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#deprecations-and-removals">Deprecations and Removals</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#porting-to-python-2-6">Porting to Python 2.6</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.6.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html">What’s New in Python 2.5</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-308-conditional-expressions">PEP 308: Conditional Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-309-partial-function-application">PEP 309: Partial Function Application</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-314-metadata-for-python-software-packages-v1-1">PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-328-absolute-and-relative-imports">PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts">PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-341-unified-try-except-finally">PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-342-new-generator-features">PEP 342: New Generator Features</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-343-the-with-statement">PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-352-exceptions-as-new-style-classes">PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-353-using-ssize-t-as-the-index-type">PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#pep-357-the-index-method">PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#new-improved-and-removed-modules">New, Improved, and Removed Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#porting-to-python-2-5">Porting to Python 2.5</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.5.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html">What’s New in Python 2.4</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-218-built-in-set-objects">PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-289-generator-expressions">PEP 289: Generator Expressions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-292-simpler-string-substitutions">PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-318-decorators-for-functions-and-methods">PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-322-reverse-iteration">PEP 322: Reverse Iteration</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-324-new-subprocess-module">PEP 324: New subprocess Module</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-327-decimal-data-type">PEP 327: Decimal Data Type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-328-multi-line-imports">PEP 328: Multi-line Imports</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#pep-331-locale-independent-float-string-conversions">PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#porting-to-python-2-4">Porting to Python 2.4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.4.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html">What’s New in Python 2.3</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-218-a-standard-set-datatype">PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-255-simple-generators">PEP 255: Simple Generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-263-source-code-encodings">PEP 263: Source Code Encodings</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives">PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt">PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-278-universal-newline-support">PEP 278: Universal Newline Support</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-279-enumerate">PEP 279: enumerate()</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-282-the-logging-package">PEP 282: The logging Package</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-285-a-boolean-type">PEP 285: A Boolean Type</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks">PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-301-package-index-and-metadata-for-distutils">PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-302-new-import-hooks">PEP 302: New Import Hooks</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-305-comma-separated-files">PEP 305: Comma-separated Files</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pep-307-pickle-enhancements">PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#extended-slices">Extended Slices</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#pymalloc-a-specialized-object-allocator">Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#porting-to-python-2-3">Porting to Python 2.3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.3.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html">What’s New in Python 2.2</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#peps-252-and-253-type-and-class-changes">PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#pep-234-iterators">PEP 234: Iterators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#pep-255-simple-generators">PEP 255: Simple Generators</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers">PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#pep-238-changing-the-division-operator">PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#unicode-changes">Unicode Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#pep-227-nested-scopes">PEP 227: Nested Scopes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#interpreter-changes-and-fixes">Interpreter Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.2.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html">What’s New in Python 2.1</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-227-nested-scopes">PEP 227: Nested Scopes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-236-future-directives">PEP 236: __future__ Directives</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-207-rich-comparisons">PEP 207: Rich Comparisons</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-230-warning-framework">PEP 230: Warning Framework</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-229-new-build-system">PEP 229: New Build System</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-205-weak-references">PEP 205: Weak References</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-232-function-attributes">PEP 232: Function Attributes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-235-importing-modules-on-case-insensitive-platforms">PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-217-interactive-display-hook">PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-208-new-coercion-model">PEP 208: New Coercion Model</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#pep-241-metadata-in-python-packages">PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#new-and-improved-modules">New and Improved Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#other-changes-and-fixes">Other Changes and Fixes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.1.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html">What’s New in Python 2.0</a><ul>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#what-about-python-1-6">What About Python 1.6?</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#new-development-process">New Development Process</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#unicode">Unicode</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#list-comprehensions">List Comprehensions</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#augmented-assignment">Augmented Assignment</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#string-methods">String Methods</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#garbage-collection-of-cycles">Garbage Collection of Cycles</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#other-core-changes">Other Core Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#porting-to-2-0">Porting to 2.0</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#extending-embedding-changes">Extending/Embedding Changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#distutils-making-modules-easy-to-install">Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#xml-modules">XML Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#module-changes">Module changes</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#new-modules">New modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#idle-improvements">IDLE Improvements</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#deleted-and-deprecated-modules">Deleted and Deprecated Modules</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="2.0.html#acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<p>The “Changelog” is an HTML version of the <a class="reference external" href="https://pypi.org/project/blurb">file built</a> from the contents of the
+<a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Misc/NEWS.d">Misc/NEWS.d</a> directory tree, which contains <em>all</em> nontrivial changes
+to Python for the current version.</p>
+<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-4-release-candidate-2">Python 3.7.4 release candidate 2</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-3-final">Python 3.7.3 final</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-1-final">Python 3.7.1 final</a></li>
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+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-final">Python 3.7.0 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-5">Python 3.7.0 beta 5</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-4">Python 3.7.0 beta 4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-3">Python 3.7.0 beta 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-2">Python 3.7.0 beta 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-beta-1">Python 3.7.0 beta 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-4">Python 3.7.0 alpha 4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-3">Python 3.7.0 alpha 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-2">Python 3.7.0 alpha 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-7-0-alpha-1">Python 3.7.0 alpha 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-6-final">Python 3.6.6 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-6-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-5-final">Python 3.6.5 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-5-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-4-final">Python 3.6.4 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-3-final">Python 3.6.3 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-2-final">Python 3.6.2 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-2">Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-1-final">Python 3.6.1 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-final">Python 3.6.0 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-2">Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-4">Python 3.6.0 beta 4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-3">Python 3.6.0 beta 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-2">Python 3.6.0 beta 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-beta-1">Python 3.6.0 beta 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-4">Python 3.6.0 alpha 4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-3">Python 3.6.0 alpha 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-2">Python 3.6.0 alpha 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-6-0-alpha-1">Python 3.6.0 alpha 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-5-final">Python 3.5.5 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-5-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-4-final">Python 3.5.4 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-4-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-3-final">Python 3.5.3 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-3-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-2-final">Python 3.5.2 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-2-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-1-final">Python 3.5.1 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-1-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-final">Python 3.5.0 final</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-4">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-3">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-2">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-release-candidate-1">Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-4">Python 3.5.0 beta 4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-3">Python 3.5.0 beta 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-2">Python 3.5.0 beta 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-beta-1">Python 3.5.0 beta 1</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-4">Python 3.5.0 alpha 4</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-3">Python 3.5.0 alpha 3</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-2">Python 3.5.0 alpha 2</a></li>
+<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="changelog.html#python-3-5-0-alpha-1">Python 3.5.0 alpha 1</a></li>
+</ul>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/stories.txt b/stories.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0947df7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/stories.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+<Three Little Pigs>
+Once upon a time, there were three <adjective> pigs. One day, their mother said, "You are all grown up and must <verb> on your own." So they left to <verb> their houses. The first little pig wanted only to <verb> all day and quickly built his house out of <plural noun>. The second little pig wanted to <verb> and <verb> all day so he <past tense verb> his house with <plural noun>. The third <adjective> pig knew the wolf lived nearby and worked hard to <verb> his house out of <plural noun>. One day, the wolf knocked on the first pig's <noun>. "Let me in or I'll <verb> your house down!" The pig didn't, so the wolf <past tense verb> down the <noun>. The wolf knocked on the second pig's <noun>. "Let me in or I'll blow your <noun> down!" The pig didn't, so the wolf <past tense verb> down the house. Then the wolf knocked on the third <adjective> pig's door. "Let me in or I'll blow your house down!" The little pig didn't, so the wolf <past tense verb> and <past tense verb>.He could not blow the house down. All the pigs went to live in the <noun> house and they all <past tense verb> happily ever after.
diff --git a/storyCount.txt b/storyCount.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56a6051
--- /dev/null
+++ b/storyCount.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+1
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/test.py b/test.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c5afe8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test.py
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+# imports libraries we will use
+import time
+import random
+# sets values we will use later
+number = 0
+phrase = "The quick, brown, fox jumped over the lazy dog"
+
+# calculates amount of letters in phrase (including spaces)
+amount = len(phrase)
+print("The current phrase has", amount, "letters")
+# prints phrase
+print("the phrase is", phrase)
+print('begin loop')
+time.sleep(1)
+
+# prints phrase letters
+for number in range(amount):
+	print(number, phrase[number])
+	time.sleep(0.1)
+
+# prints phrase letters in random order
+print('\n')
+print("Now, in random order!")
+time.sleep(1)
+for number in range(amount):
+	exec('iteration = random.randint(0,amount - 1)')	
+	print(number, phrase[iteration], '\n' "iteration", iteration)
+	time.sleep(0.1)